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at|http: //books  .google  .com/I 


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I 


CYCLOPEDIA 

or 

BIBLICAL, 

THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 
LITERATURE. 


PRKPASED  BT 


THE  REV.  JOHN   M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 
JAMES  STRONG,  S.T.D. 

Vol.  X.— SU-Z. 


D,„u„ab,GoOgIc 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881,  by 

HARPER  &   BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DigmzedbyGoOglc 


UST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  W  VOL  X 


ft^Miniam P*ga 

rfmiHlM  nn  Ihe  SncdncUiriiiin.. 
Wubln;:  belbra  or  4lt«  ■  Heal... 

A  PuiT  (t  Dinner  or  Sapper 

Alur 

Anliltnut 

AntiqH  BapnMDtadoos  of  Sdsu- 

Ftoin  nf  SnnlSTlt 

TbeSirift 

?irpl*  Oilllnale 

Culm    ttrock    lo    Commemornta 

Praa 

Idnccr  Cbnrch. - 

Aatient  Sg/Mlui  F\s('. 

Aodail  PenliD  Swi>nla  and  Dig- 

Aarfflbl  BgTprlHD  Dfi^nrB.. , 

Aqdent  Affl^'luj  8wdi^ .,,. 

Cludeal  Sirordi  aud  Dsggen 

Modgrn  OrieoUl  Swords  aDd  DiU(- 

BbAMnllwn^-iJH 

Bktt  MaHnny  Fnill,  Le^  and 

SKiaara  DMT  A^hkelrai 

^imora  Fig  and  Leaf 

PnAiUo  BtpnwnuUan  oT  an  An- 

deot  Srnafogne  , ,....,... 

FUn  otRilonTsyongogae  at  Ttll 

J*wMi  STDagDgae  In  AmMerdani . 
niBafSjTKUe  and  llaEnTiroDa. 

Osla  oT  SVncDM. 

XiporSjrla. 

wulo-ntl  of  TabetnaclaCoarl. 
Ciri1b-«i]I  of  Bntrann  10  Tabar- 

Fln  oCTibcriucle  aad  Court . 

BbAMi  of  tiM  "hbcrnacla  CDDrt. . 
BotUn  of  Ihc  ConHt'Plaaka  of 

Tibanude 

RuktoD  Ibelr  Bawt. 

FuiCDlna  f>r  Tii|>  of  Boardi  of 

TalHraade. 

Contr  Buaid  of  Taberoacle  <»0- 

conhnaLo  Bl^zaabacli).- 

Con^loardtucordliig  lo  Har- 

pkj) - 

Tub  ind  Bottom  Paru  of  Coniar 

BwdL 

View  of  lb*  Wooden  Walla  of  Uia 

Tabernacle - 

Tibcnaclo  a*  reauncd  bj  Fergna- 

^bcrnaclv  Ha  nfltond  hj  Palue . . 

Bbu  ot  Uie  Tabernacle 

I^mr  Tacbe  In  Ibe  Tatwmacle 

laaei  Carulni. 

ha  iDd  Section  of  Boards 

Ctmr  Bmitl  and  SuckatS 

Coner  Board  shoirlnE  una  Bln^.. 
Cuddibrim  of  the  Tabamada. . . 

SuHH  nbemacle  at  Kiuloie 

XodetB  Orleatal  Table  and  Traf.. 

Anlal  EfTpilan  Table 

AndcBl  AaijrUn  Table. 

TaUaotSbew-bread 

MsanlTaboc 

Modem  OiienUI  InairamaDla 

Tsmboorlne  Plarera 

Tabula  Pacta. 

KalnralTrpeof  ttio"Taebe" 

Umiliu  oriba  l^bemacla 

rm  oriba  Bain*  of  Palmrra 

TIev  of  the  Baina  of  Palmyra..... 

^■ati  at  Pihajra 

tjyare^of  mmal 


at  nrTaraDB...Paga  tIO|Ti 


irch  or  TllD>  at  Bnnit 


Klevattoo  ol ,._. 

BoekMiim  of  8al»m<iu'a  Teintila.. . 
Qroond-plan  of  Solumun'eTemiile 

"■rnctores  of  Solomoii-B  Temple... 
ewa  of  Bolomon-i  Temple 

"ineoflheWnliorUiBHariim'ai 

M'AngleofTempiBWa'a.V;!'.!!!!!;.' 
itealonillDa  ot  Herud'a  'ntmule.... 
■-itlal  City 


lit  Soman  Coffin,  York. 

Tomb  In  WBlerperry , 

Altar-tomb  In  St.  Marv-f,  Thain 
InGreatHllIoii.... 

InBradnii 

Tombalone  In  ItnndtHirongh... 


Andant  Itoman 

Modem  Orleuul  Tunhet . . 


ix^pinfpet 


Assjrlim  Tenti 


it-^  and  Mallet.... 


n  Aaayrlsn  Terupblm. 

It  Flpnres 

1  .If  Terablnib 


tr  of  Broiiklhiirpe... _  _ 

EfofBrlfllDgtou ew 


.  tSUTnttnn'sOolnmnlnBome Bl 

.  SHlColn  of  Trajan bl 

.  tS4'It*pbael'i  Uepreseiilallim  of  Iha 

.  SMI    T™u»Ognr»ilon N 

L  niiTmpplatlloukniKlITan H 

.  sns  Ancient  Aeryriiina  CuttliiK  duwii 


areiilUfillalKnrnnk... 
TbeMeinnoiilomntThe 
CalnofTbeudaalnal.... 

orTtaeualnulalV.' 


iiA»irlnQ  TaTlaii u 

ISpnulahTrlnltnrlBuUaok. N 

■  rrintiarinn  Snii « 

'Coins  of  Tiipulle bf 

Triptych " 

"-' — iphal  Proceialoa  of  Riinie>eg 


Ztigphiul 


It  ThewolonlcB..  BB4 


nclent  Asi<>rlnn  Klnj;  Id  Pri>cae. 
fiiiuanerVicIorleB 

AMyrlan  Kii>i:  PUclnglhe  Foot  iii 
■••-  Nock  iif  0.1  Knemy 


!"RnlDsnrtbeOymiiadnmatTtanB.  SOI 


Palliint 

Batcbar's 


..  SSllPlDnorTrogylllani 

.  *8i|AnclenlBayp1a"TrnnipeH..., 
..  K8.i;Vnrioa>FotniaorTtnnip«le..., 


THbuluiUrratrii. 

Tba  ATiibbor  Dhir. 
FlcurecifThiilb  .. 


.  883. Coin  otTrypbon 

.  SMTndor^fe 

.  tS4  MapofnirkeT  In  Bnrona... 

.  BS6\P(iiai^  UriUtakiiM 

It  Beckley.Oitird  ■ 


Oriental  Plain Tbrcahlog-aledge.. 

Wheeled  Thrablns.elsdi;ea. 

Awyrlnn  Chair  of  Biaw7 

Audeiit  Bcyptlan  Thruna. 

Bcclealnatlcal  Tlirooa 


BSOTnTTBt  of  8t.  Mary^  Beverley ., . 

BKllTarlur  .£eiWt«ic«t 

ttllCblum&alWtnr. 


id  Lake  ofTlberlag 


.  BM.KarlyCnfnorTyn 

,  BHB'ModeniTyrB. 

..  S«  Greek  Ci,(n  of  Tyi 
,  MTiRnliisofTynjom 
..  SW'Planreof  Kill.... 
.  BBSOreek Uncials.... 

.  SsnlLalln  Uncials 

.  «ll.  Wild  Ball 


Aeay^nn  Clay  Tablet. 

Pan-tllea 

EooMllea 

Boman  Tiles  in  Whentley < 

Tile  In  Weatlelgh 

THelnCuDterbaryCntbedmi 

Tile   Pnrement   of  St.  Piiiil'*   In 

TIlea  In  i^aine  Cbordt,  OiS>rd- 


>«  Plnn  of  Mngtieir  Itnli.s. G70 

«  Ruins  ot  Temple  nt  Mngbelr «l 

W  Ancient  KEyptInn   Sinndhiit  Flg- 

nrta  of  tbe  Ooddeas  orTroib  mid 

w    Jnallce «S 


ISIe  In  Woodpcnr. 

Ancient  Oriental  Tambnarlna 

Mudem  Kayptlnii  Tnmbonrtne,... 
^□pendBge  to  Modern  Egyptian 

ColnofTlina. '..... 


10  Plgnrea  on  Egyptian  Breaslplali 

lOSt.Tjrfnla 

UraullDeofTroURlTl^ree,  Canada  » 


■h^^r^fc 


LIST  OF  WOOD-OUTS  IN  VOL.  X. 


CotocrVaUntlnluiII Fi«  nei&i 

CalnarValeiitlDluilU aaal 

Cola  of  Teleri»a 

Vane  al  BUD  ton  HnrcoDit. 

Plan  of  Vailcan  Pntncfl  at  Rame,. 
Bpeclmaii  of  ctaa  Ooia  Vaticanut. 

Cylindrical  Tialt 

Qnilned  Vault 

VhoIi  Id  WettmlnsterAblMr..... 
Vanltlne-Rhan,  NsllcT  Abbij ... 

OTleDtolOat-door  Vdia 

OrieiiUIIn-doorVella. 

All  EgTptlnn  WotDKn  Veiled 

A  flT^an  Veiled  Wumaii 

»  urihe  Atayrlan  Venoi... 


it  Sgrpttan  Vlnejrard,  IrlU 
ICs  unit  nr  water Pagi 


IFIliDrenrVlabDU 

I  Habit  oflha  Order  at  llie  ^atUllon 
I     otSLUm. 8M 


i  Voneuin 

I  Anliooa  Bead  nTVnlciii .... 

r,Spedineiu  oriISS,  oftbe  Vn 

)  BTsTpiian  Taltnra 

lOffifon  Vulture 

^Auclanl  A*>yrl*u  Wison.... 
l,TarlilBb  Arabah 


rein  ule  or  ttae  PaphUa  Veiii 

it.VBronlcn 

Portrait  ofChrlat  on  SLVeroi 

Handkerebler 

Vefica  Placla.  Ely  CWbtdt*).. 

Cola  of  Vetpiuun 

Flpira  of  Veala 

Veilllnm -, 

AutlqaeFlgnnofVleloiT. TIB     Walking  wilb  Blldu. 

WlniKMp.7. :....  "•'" — ' !-•*--■-.-■ 

Vigneltg TSIJA  WnUred  Oardan 

""'""°"     ~" "    ,.  T80  Pcileajn?? t'.'.'."".'."'.'"-'. 

it        ADdent  KETpUiu  Woimn  WaST- 

-.  ™o    Inj "... 

iljAn  EgTpliui  Looni 


.^.-k'HlklDK-eUdnlODadatTbabeL..  SOS 
mPrlaala  and  olbar  Peraoo*  ot  Rank 

—     ~-  - 1 a 

Walla S 


fbomai  orvnieDeUTe 

Da  VIncl'e  Flrat  Sketcb  ot  Bi 


Vine  otPaleitba , ,.,,. 

Watcb-towerlB  Vlna^rd,.,.,^^  ttJjModflm  K 


EcxptlnoVinerardnndWlDB-preaa  TW  AndaatEnullan 

nJniiatiTe Hieroglyphic SIsnlgduK        Anajrlao  wi^iihla, 

Vlncrard IMl  Ancient  Kgypilaa 


yptian  8bBW|.ii>aarer  . .  8M 


Well  atBeerataeba.. 

'adenl   EerptlHa   laacQTue    lor 

Railing  Water 

..'eatmliuterAbiM*. 

KgjptlanWbeU 

'-icTeDtBKTpilan  Chariot •« bed. 

-jciartlCgyptUD  Wblpf. 

Wblp  Bnapended  fnim  Ihe  WrUI. 

SaU»  .^gupUoM 

Weeping  WlllniT 

Branch  at  tbe  Weeping  1 
Oriental  On  t-doDT  Veltl  b 
Orianlal  In-doot  Veile  fa 

EKTpilanWolt _.  _ 

Speciuan  of  Iba  Caii  Qudphir- 

Cinnnian  Woraiirood .  ■ . 


Rnlni  at  8nrnhDd.. . 


wTorlcCllTl; 

liBTiibe  of  Zebnian 

aaotHnU 

laed  Toarn  ofSabalU .... 

•demZldon 

Hk  Coin  of  Sldon 

ID  of  tbe  EnTlrDDaorZldo 

iwatHonntZlon 

ip  of  the  Original  Sarhce 


Kerf  lino  Kabt&Mk Ml'Zovi(ao<*San)--< 


.dbyGooglc 


CYCLOPEDIA 


BIBLICAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATUBE, 


Biud&  the  Reaan  pcnoniflaUioD  of  pttmaiioit ; 
tbc  Umk  Ptitlie. 

BnadtlK,  thcdimiautiveof  SuAPA  (q.  v.). 

aa'ill(H(ti.  n»a  SK'aeh,tirrepiiig  [GMen.],or  rich- 
H  [Flint];  ^|M.  Suvi).  6m  named  of  ihc  eleven  "  nna" 
•>(  Z^phih  u  A9lietiu(IChroii,vji,3GJ.     EC  ippit- 

Siuria  (»r  Snares),  J<whfh  Marif.,  a  French 
pnbu  and  ■iriiqaariaih  was  born  July  5,  L6S9,  at  Avi- 
iniaa,  and  edueat«il  at  hii  native  place.  Having  em- 
tnnd  Ike  ecdeaasiieal  alaie,  he  became  Che  coiJJii- 
tnr  at  hi*  nnde  Frandacn  Snarea  (q.  v.)  as  proToM  of 
■be  mbedral,  and  afterward*  went  tn  Bonie,  where  car- 
iliiul  Barberini  gars  hin  chatjce  oT  hii  library.  Hav- 
ing ncrired  apreral  adiliiinnal  hnnon,  he  waa  at  lengih 
(■HMal  by  Urbaa  V[|[,  in  1633,  to  the  biahapric  nf 
VaiHn.ia  which  capacity  he  altaeked  Calrinigm;  but 
he  Inally  iai)[ned  in  r>rar  at  his  brother  Chirfe%  and 
ntind  (■  B*ne,  when  be  died,  Dec  7, 1677.  His  an- 
■i^aaiiaa  wrilings  are  eaunetated  la   Haefer,  iVow. 

Hii  bralhu'  CHARLin  Joanrn,  bom  at  Avignnn  in 
ICIK.  becaiae  pri«t  in  IGII,  iMceeded  to  the  bialiopric 
^VaiMn  in  166S,aad  died  there  Nov.  7,  IS70. 

A  aephcw  of  both  the  preceding,  Louis  Alfhombic, 
bWB  Jaae  «.  IMS,  at  Avifnon,  auiilied  thenli^  at  the 
SMiaary  of  St.  Sulpacc,  raoeeedtd  hia  nnde  aa  biahnp 
of  Vaeoa  in  1671,  beU  a  tf  nod  there  in  167S,  and  died 
Han.-h  II,  ISU.  nerar  Sa^Kue^  in  VanduBC 

A  BFpliew  uf  the  laat  preceding,  Looia  Mahti^  Waa 
biAop  •<  Abu  (now  I>ax)  bi  17SS,  and  dbd  Anil  ]7, 
irsi.  ' 

Saatex.  FKA^tciKo^  a  Spanish  Jeaolc,  boni  it  Qra- 
aada,  Ja^  i,  IMS,  waa  a  pn>fe«or  of  repulaci->ri  at  At- 
cila,  ai  Salaiaanca,  and  at  Kama.     He  waa  allerwi 
iiTiial  !■  Oiabfia,  Portagal,  where  he  became 
tnadpal  pn,re*M>T  of  diviiiuy.     He  died   nt   Usbon, 
>*»L  U,  1617.     He  waa  an  aathor  uf  the 
Biaaaa  kind,  aad  the  Jeulls  cnnaider  him  the  grealeet 

Vt  hia  writiriKa  in  HoeTer.  A'nac.  Biag.  SMnifr,  b.v. 
He  i<  the  principal  auLhor  ut  the  avMem  nf  congnium, 
■hick  it  ai  bottom  imly  that  »r  Molina.  Kather  Nnbl, 
a  riiiih  JeviU,  maila  an  abrid|rinetit  of  Ihe  wnrka 
•(  Ibb  cowiBeMator  (Geneva,  1732.  fid.).  There  is  a 
£tf(  </  turn  bf  Anlnny  Uenrhampa  ( Per|>>t(nan,  1671, 
to). 
SnaTamblm,  in  HindS  (nviholngy,  was  the  son  of 

In  l>eva^ilhi  waa  mamed  in  Kaitama,  one  at  the  great 
(■vgeniliirx,  and  bore  nine  dau|;1it(ni,  who  became  the 
■<tH<,rilieiiinr  rrraaiiiiDgprugtnitun.  By  Saianipa, 
il>a  daugliier  of  Uramah,  liusyambhu  became  Che  fa- 

Mwanla  (he  exlcoaiun  uf  the  bumau  familr. — Vullmer, 
Vilni.rt.dVfrM.a.r. 


I  Sa'ba  (Idu^Uc  ▼■  r.  lapi!i\  a  name  given  onljr  In 
the  Apocrypha  (1  Eadr.  v,  M)  amoni;  the  anna  of  ^lo- 
mnn'a  aerranls  who  relumed  with  Zerubliabel  from  the 
I  Capiiviiyi  but  not  found  in  the  parallel  Hebrew  liata 
(liiraii,3a-37;  Neb. vii, S7-«9). 
i  au'bai  (Sp^n(),aGi«cized  forni  (I  E*dr.v,80)of 
the  SiiALMAi  (q.  V.)  uf  the  Hebrew  lists  (Eira  ii,46| 
Neh.  vii,  48). 

Bubairtutlon,  a  term  denoting  the  delivery  bj 
the  bridegroam  lo  (he  bride  of  the  ring  and  other  gilit 
at  the  time,  and  during  the  act,  of  marriage. 

Snbcanoo,  an  inrerior  or  minoi  canon  (q.  v.). 
SnbchBnceHor,  or  Soribe.  The  nutary  of  Ital- 
ian cathedrals  is  the  chancellor's  vicBr,  called  also  reg- 
istrar ur  matricular,  and  at  St.  I'aul'i,  in  12S0,  designated 
as  irriplor  libranm.  He  acted  as  asustant  secretary, 
librarian,  lecturer  iu  theology  and  law,  and  teacher  of 
reading. 
Snbcbaater,  or  Snocantor,  the  deputy  of  (he 

precen(ar,  the  principal  among  ihe  vicars  in  choir. 
The  precentor  sit  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  choir, 
and  the  succenlor  on  the  left.  Hia  office  was  usually 
the  gift  of  the  chapter;  occasionally,  however,  be  waa 
notninalect  by  the  precentor.  There  were  two  kinds  of 
subchantere;  1.  The  auccenlor  of  canons,  or  succentor- 
major  (Brat  mentioned  in  (be  llth  century),  at  York, 
Bayeax,  Paria,  Amiens,  Glaagow,  CbUons,  Girgenti, 
Well^  and  Salisbury,  acteil  aa  precentor'B  deputy  with 
regaril  to  Ihe  canons;  he  ranks  alier  the  subdean,  and 
the  olHce  was  given  by  the  diocesan.  At  Amiens  4e  in- 
stalls canons  in  the  lower  sulls;  at  Kouen  he  holds  a 
prebend  and  regulates  proceasiona ;  he  is  often  called 
prickunire  in  distinction  from  (he  ffrand  chanirt,  2. 
A  vicar,  deputy,  and  aasiatant  precentor.  At  Seville 
and  I'Ucenlia  an.l  in  England  be  tabled  the  minisura 
far  service:  at  Chicheater  and  Hereford  he  chaatiaed 
the  boys,  and  nrdiuarily  his  du(iea  were  conlinol  (o  or- 
dering ptoceseiona,  delating  offenders,  and  general  au- 
petvision  nf  the  luwer  choir;  he  cotdd  not  correct  B 
canon.  His  olHce  appears  at  Chichester  and  St.  Da- 
vid's in  the  13th  cpnturj-;  he  corresponds  lo  the  pre- 
centor of  the  new  rounds tiiiMs.  At  Lichlield  and  St. 
David's  Ihe  subchaoler  is  beail  of  the  Vicar's  0)l- 
legf. 

SubdAaooo.  The  ancient  Christian  Church  had 
but  two  classes  ofolficera,  (he /irrndrnft,  wpnvmifittw, 
mijunt,  iiyninivoi,  also  iiriaicawai,  upta^vrtpm,  and 
the  Mtrvan/i,  fiocoi'rii ;  the  former  being  charged  with 
functions  within  the  Held  of  ivorship,  while  the  Istler 
were  employed  iu  administering  the  charities  of  the 
Church.  In  lime,  the  episcopacy  waa  developed  out  of 
the  preshylerate,  and  the  aubdiscoiisle  from  the  diac- 
onate.  The  latter  una  always  regarded  by  the  Church 
aa  of  human  invention,  and  as  having  been  introduced 
"  utiliutis  cauaa"  (aee  Mnrinus,  Comm.  de  S.  Eecltt.  Or- 
dinal.  Kitrrilal.  xi,  1 ).     Ita  introduction  was,  more- 


SnBDEAN  I 

ovtr,  gradual,  and  not  nnirunn  thnMighoot  tbc  Choich. 
ISnine  churcbes  were  withnut  wibdeaconi  ■•  liu  ■*  tbe 
■nbldle  of  the  9lh  cenliii)';  and,  bcFnre  the  hierarchy 
anumed  a  riifid  and  uiicliaii)^l>le  fiirm,  the  subdUcu- 
nat«  wu  not  re(;an.l«l  an  iiiili>]Knuble  preliminary  lo 
the  itiacuiime.  Tlie  exisieim  oC  *ubilric»ii>  in  the 
Church  of  Kome  as  earlv  as  A.D.  350  i>  ihnwii  in  a  let- 
ter or  pope  Cornelius  M  bii>hi>[>  Faliiis  of  Antioch  (Eu- 
■eb.  //iff.  £cr/fJ.vi,13;  colap.  USi,  Itrgtit.  FotUif.  So. 
N I ;  in  Spain  an  early  as  A.U.  iWa,  in  cb.  30  of  the 
SyiHxl  oT  Elvira;  in  'Africa  about  the  middle  iif  the 
3j  centuiv,  in  different  letlera  or  Cyprian  (i,  8,  29, 30, 
etc) ;  and'  in  the  East  by  the  niiddl*  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury, aa  appeals  rrooi  deterniinaliona  of  Ihe  Svnod  of 
Laoilicea  in  3«1  (Diat.  xxiii,  31-28},  aud  a  letter  of 
ALhanaiiiu(^d5aiir(ir.A.D.B30). 

The  subdeacona  were  reckoned  among  tbe  ela»  of 
Ordintt  Mvmrtt,  and  their  functiona  mere  of  inferior 
dignity.  They  were  permitted  lo  loueb  the  aacredvea- 
•ela  if  empty,  in  thi*  baring  t  pre-eminence  over  oth- 
er J/mora;  but,  in  general,  their  duties  vereaimply  the 
receiving  of  obUtiona  (hence  (NUulioaurii),  the  care  of 
the  tombs  of  martyred  taints  tbe  guarding  uf  church- 
doon  during  the  idminialniion  of  the  lacrament,  etc 
In  course  of  time  the  reading  uf  tbe  Iragon  from  the 
epistles  waa  added  and  became  tbeir  leading  function. 

The  Importi  nccoftheanbdiaaanalewiaen  hanced  when 
Cregor}'  the  (ireatincluded  it  under  the  operation  of  the 

merobera  were  made  eligible  lo  the  episcopal  office  by 
the  Council  of  Benerenio  in  the  ponlilicate  of  Urban  II, 
I09[.  The  ijueiLiDn  now  arose  whether  the  Hibdiaco- 
naie  must  uiit  be  counted  among  Ihe  Ordiiitt  Miijorti, 
which  waa  Snally  determined  by  Innocent  III  in  favor 
nf  inch  promotion.  Subdeacona  thereby  acquired  tlie 
ri|{hiB  of  Ihe  superior  orders  as  respects  personal  in- 
dependence, etc     They  aaaume  a  lille  at  ordination, 


'efuibi 


r,  pecuh 


in  that  the  candldalea 

crating  Uahop  by  tba  aichdeacnn,  Ihe  Uying-i 

bands  and  queaiiunlng  of  tbe  people  are  not  usen,  a 
the  coiiMcralion  is  performed  tnatead  by  "iraditiu  i 
sirumenlorum  et  Teatium."    The  beginning  ol  the  I  wi 
ty-second  year  was  fined  by  the  Council  of  Trent(Sea«. 
xxiii,  IS,  De  Rrfarm.)  as  the  proper  age  for  entering 


is  office, 


y  folluwi 


le  befur 

ahnp^  h. 


ever,  may  depart  from  this  rule  ubeii  needful  (Sess. 
Xi[iii,lli  Richter, /ffrrjItniwA',  §  113).  At  the  pres- 
ent lime,  the  subJiaconale  exists  aim]i]y  aa  a  aiage  oi 
the  way  lo  higher  atationa,  and  ita  functions  are  gen 
erally  performed  by  Uymen  and  presbyten.  The  lem 
ie  aumelitoea  used  in  I'roteaunt  churcbea,  but  withou 
denoting  any  diatin^lion  of  order. 

See  MoriiiDB,/Jc  Sacrit  OrxlinatiomlKii.  pt.  iii,exercil 
I!,  Tham<ssinu^Fef.  ff  A'or.  £aii>ucipl.xa,  30  b(|. 
^\a,RK>UdetI'fnrramta,\\,\,i\btn.;  Richter, JjTir 
dtmrrckt,  %  91, 103, 11S|  Coleman,  .4tic<nil  CkriMl.  Ex- 
n»/i/i>nt,Tiii,ll|  KeTmg,Iitat-IiiK^Jop.».\.\  Wal- 
Ooit,  Sarred  AnliaoLa.T, 

Subdean.     Tber«  were  three  kind*  oranbdeaniT 
1.  The  vice-dean.    2.  The  dean's  vicar,  hia  suboOlcer, 
asvislant  when  present,  and  deputy  when  abacni ,  vice- 
gerent in  choir,  aa  at  Lichfield :  both  bad  a  similar  of- 
fice, that  of  supplying  the  duties  of  the  dean  in  his  ab- 
aenee,    S.  Tbe  eapilolar  aubdeani  tbe  perpetual  an 
clean,  who  is  said  to  hold  a  place  whicb  la  a  t|uasi-di| 
nily  in  Ihe  lilft  of  a  bishop.     He  has  a  stall,  anil  co 
rcKponda  to  Ihe  foreign  archpnest  having  parochi 
charge  of  ihe  cfcwe.    The  olTice  waa  founded  in  Salis- 
bury in  102).     For  a  full  hccount  of  his  dulie*  in  the 
icveral  cathedrals,  see  Walcolt,  Siiertd  AreAirol.»,v, 

Subdiaconiiaa,  ■  term  applied,  in  tbe  early 
Church,  In  the  wife  of  a  aubilcacnn. 

0iiU|lU,  a  Roman  divinity,  Ihe  god  of  the  wed- 


SUBLAPSARIANS 


StlblDtrodnotn  (awiitacrai)  was  a  term  apfJirA 
femalea  kept  by  penona  of  clerical  rank.  Celibacy 
id  chastity  were  regarded  aa  idenbcal  fiom  an  earij 
period  in  the  Church,  and  in  consequence  aaeelics  in- 
vented Ihe  plan  of  remaining  unmarried  and  ukiiiK  inm 
apiritual  uuiun  with  Ihemwlve*  young  virgins  (i^ti^s 
alrradv  hinted  ■■  in 
nt  in  the  Sd  cenlary, 
when  Cyprian  rondemns  iL  Ita  spiritual  characirrwas 
ipeedily  lost,  and  it  auim  became  aecesaaTy  to  legidaie 


rial  ol 


'aulD 


ach,in  269  (see  Eusebiua). 
beris  furbade  tlie  clergy  to  have  "aisten'  living  wiib 
Ihem:  and  ihaiofAncyni  in  314,  *Rd  uf  Nice  in  WO. 
prohibited  associalion  with  all  femalea  whose  relation 
lo  the  clergyman  did  not  obviate  all  nnpicion  (mnther, 
aiater,  etc).  Subsequent  tegislalion  on  llie  pannf  boih 
Cburcb  and  Sute  was  in  Ihe  aame  direciiuu ;  e.  g.  of 
Ihe  third  Couucil  of  Carthage  in  397  (On.  17,17)  and 
Cod.  de  KptK.  n  Cterieii  i,  S,  19  of  Hun.irius  and  Tbeo- 
•lueiiis.  4£0;  Novella  cxiiii,29;  ciiiTii,  1,  n  Jan, at 

'I'he  practice  of  keeping  m6iB(njArf«.  or  »-frai«e*,de. 
veloped  iuto  omiplele  concubinage,  ami  became  w  gen- 
enl  Ihat  Gonsiantly  repeated  pmhtliitioiis  became  Hecve- 
Bar>',  under  penally  of  degradation.  Upon  the  whole 
subject,  see  Btuns,  Cfnwnei  J/ioftoi.,  etc  In  tbe  1  lih 
century  the  term /ufltriiB  began  to  be  applied  Lotbisdta- 
reputnble  diss  (**  meielrice*  (bco  ■aaitlenles"),  and  tha 
pricata  were  tcroKd/ocarulw,  i.  e.cniinitnii>'ti,^rnrB- 
lora.  See  Uu  Fresne,  G^DHitr.s.  v.;  (iieseler,  ifi'rrirw- 
gnd.  lih  eiL  vol.  i-iii,pauimi  6'irA.  Mugui  (d.  ISM> 
Stmo  dt  Foearulu  tt  NatoHu  f  orwuf.  (Ureed.  ISfiO); 
Trident.  Cone.  Sesa,  xav,  14,  Dt  Rr/vrm^lltwiug,  Stat' 
£uci/kiaiht,v.    See  AaM'KTM. 

SnbJectlTlamlsthedoclrineofKantthat  aD  hs- 
man  hnowleilge  la  merely  relative,  or,  rather,  thai  we 
cannot  prove  it  to  be  abtiiliile,  Accnnling  In  him,  we 
cannot  oAjecfi/y  fhe  gtibjfelire;  that  ia,  we  eannAt  prove 
ibat  what  appears  true  to  na  must  appear  Inie  in  all 
liiielhgent  bringai  or  that,  wilh  different  faculties,  what 
now  appeals  true  to  ua  might  not  appear  nntrae.  Hntltf 
call  our  knowledge  relative  ia  merely  calling  it  hanan, 
or  proportioned  to  the  faculliea  of  a  man;  Juat  as  the 
knowledge  of  ancels  may  be  called  angelic  Our  knowl- 
edge may  lie  ailmilled  lo  be  relative  lo  oar  faculties  of 
apiirebending  it;  but  Ibat  does  nul  make  it  leas  cer- 
tain.    See  Fleming,  Voeai.ofPMIotopA.SeinHr,t.r. 

SnblapBariaiis,  or  Infrauipbakians,  is  the  name 
given  by  the  orihudox  Keformed  Iheotngiaus  to  ihsse 
who  consider  the  divine  decree  of  eleclion  as  dependent 
upon  that  which  permitted  the  intmductinii  of  evU. 
Tbe  npralapiaTiiat,  on  Ihe  contrary,  consider  Ihe  de- 
cree  t^election,orof  predealination  to  eternal  salvalioa 
ordamnaliim,as  the  original  decree  upon  which  alt  otb- 
ers,  including  that  permitting  tbe  introdnction  of  evil, 
depend.  The  qneslion  consequently  refers  to  tbe  order 
in  which  these  two  decreea  were  promulgated,  or,  which 
amounis  to  Iho  aame,  lo  a  nearer  appreciation  of  the  •'!>■ 
Ject  of  predestination,  i.  e.whether  Uod  in  iesuiiig  Lu 
decree  of  election  considered  man  (and  Ihe  an|^ls).a> 
fallen,  or  simply  aa  aubjecia  whose  eternal  fale  was  to 
be  decided  apart  from  the  consideralion  of  sin,  althaoj^  I 
of  course,  knowing  what  wouhl  be  Iheir  condurl.  Both  ! 
opinions  have  been  permitted  to  exist  aide  by  siile  id  . 
ihe  Church  even  in  times  uf  Ihe  greatest  inlaterance. 
as.  in  reality,  the  quealion  dnea  in  no  way  affect  Ihe 
dofpna  of  predestination.  UoUi  systenu  hold  to  tbe  fun 
damenlal  principle*  that  eleclion  ia  otwlBfe,  nol  rooti 
rated  by  any  cause  outside  of  Gntl's  will,  unrkitnffmblf 
Killed  since  Ihe  beginning  of  Ihe  worid,  and  inJiiUibli 
in  ita  Mtiou.     Yet  the  Synod  of  DoI^  in  16ie-lk,  cs- 


SUBLAPSARIANS 

doflcd  Iht  Bri>l>(nuUa  lh«atj,  Uam«nu  alone  uphold- 
ing ■BpnUpHruuiUm,  wUbout,  howerer,  eewdng  to  be 
TDHjCTvd  orthodox.  The  ajand  hid  recognuni  that 
both  aMema  pnanxcd  the  aame  ruudameDlal  <k>ccrine, 
and  i«It  prerTiwl  aubUiiuriinuiD  la  preaeatiug  lh>t 
■Wuiiaf  in  ■  fufia  leas  Dbjectionable  la  otber  churches 
Tbia  qMMiwn  had  rw  conDrciiao  whaUrer  with  Armin- 
uaimi,  liir  not  tvta  the  aliithteM  ippcmnoe  ut  ■  con- 
fgajun  In  Ihoae  viem  wiHild  lUTe  been  lolented.  la 
ItiS,  at  Iht  dn«iiig-U[>  of  the  ferwuila  ConMUUl, 
ilM  Swim  refBKd  rxpmaiy  Ui  endorae  iubUp«arianism 

iralapaanaa*.  The  moat  eminent  theolngians,  auch  at 
Hcu,  Piacauir,  Vuetiot,  Uomaru^  etc,  a[iheld  the  Btrict- 
«  (TiteH.  It  ia  only  in  modem  limea  that  aulilipaa- 
ruaiMB  haa  ennae  u  be  eiinndered  aa  a  real  diminiahing 
■J  the  JiAcaliJca  of  Iht  oithodax  Reformed  dourinn; 
bal  Che  aBcienu,  who  appreciated  it  more  eorrectly, 
ilid  sot  luok  apon  it  ai  auch,  and  conaequenily  did  nut 
'fipi«  it.  The  general  prindpiea  of  the  system  were 
B  Mian:  The  world,  and  man  at  Ant,  anawered  ex- 
«Uy  to  tbe  dirjae  plan :  man  waa  created  in  primilira 
;4iiiy,  fell  by  bia  own  volunlary  act,  lud  thua  becsjue 
'■hfeet  (a  iMributiaD,and  thia  infallibly:  and  although 


It  tbe  I 


^med,  aud~ 


I  SUBSCRIPTION 

ered  in  the  plan  of  creation  at  having  occiiTred,  or  even 

'cuired  in  a  different  manner  than  in  that  which  tioil 
freely  appointed  in  hii  scheme  iif  creation.  See  llaeen- 
bach,  y*5meiyBseA,  ad  eeLp,W*B!  Schweiier,  *'/. /Ay- 
isalii,  ii,  12a  aq.i  the  sanie,  deici.  d.  rf/'.  CnilruUliaa- 
mm,ii,43,55.l(ll. 

SableyiMB,  Pibhrc,  a  French  painter  and  enfrrav- 
er.oasbom  at  Uctn  in  1839,  and  was  I  l>e  son  of  Mat- 
thieu  SubJeyrB«,a  painter  of  cDniiderable  merit.  Pierre, 
St  the  age  of  fourteen,  went  to  'rouloime  in  order  lo 
receive  leeaona  from  Antoine  Biralx,  In  1724  he  went 
ID  faria,  took  the  courae  in  the  Academy,  and  in  1736 
gained  the  first  priie.  He  went  In  Bnme  in  I7S8  aa 
n.yal  penaioner,  and  dieit  there.  May  28,  1748.  Hs 
painted  several  aacred  and  eccleaiaslical  scenes  which 
have  been  greatly  admired.  See  Hoeler,  Ncm.  Mig. 
Gtnirak,  a.  v. 

SabmlkBlon,  Act 
Henry  Till,  in  1631, « 
sary  lo  the  yalidity  of  certain  acta  of  convocation. 

SUBMISSION  TO  God  implies  an  e 


m  act  passed  in  the  reign  of 


.UI  Uiis  bappem  eitaly  as 

(be  •rginiiatim  of  the  wono.  an<i  oecsuse  11  was  tnus 
decadoL  Tbe  decrees  were  all  equallr  pnimulgated  bv 
■   •  •  "  ■  •  e  havini 


or.  as  Dr.  Owen  obBe^^■e^  it 
?Aconce  in  his  rif^ht  and  soi 
edftment  iif  his  righlenniHiei 


um  ibc  Ubet-.     Yet  we  a 
•bMmml  decrees  nixaniiag 

wbtcb  its  object  is  to  be  attained;  and  theas  decrees 

en  precede  the  decree  on  the  Hi 


tfaeir  relatiiKi  to  each  oth- 
,«by 


^  the  aeir- 
i  two  ere«  actri- 
n  tlKne  he  sai-ea, 


B  of  Uod,  anl  ibat  in  I 
bales  tl  necey  and  jm 


fieal  ebject  iif  the  a 


dnee  id  eiedioD  (ii>d  loolied  on  man  merely  1 
DM  aa  aaa  fallen ;  bence.  also,  Uomanis  names  as 
*f  the  decree  of  predeatinaliiin  the  "creatnra  1 
I,  danuabilea,  ereabilea,  labiles,  et 


■frmined  properties.  The  anblapaariana  arranged  (he 
pka  of  creation  in  such  a  manner  that  God,  fnim  mu- 
arn  of  his  own.  decreed  to  create  man,  and  to  allow 
kka  (o  aio.  knowing  that  he  wouU  infaUibly  do  ao;  and 


>bele  diKraice.    The  tw 
Acuine  of  abautate  predeai 


<aI  (be  otigioalor  of  ei 


■ening  the  guilt  of  man  or  making 
method  is 

FF4eriiiuit°n  as  lirmlr,  and  the  guilt  of  man  in  the 
Fall:  (nr  what  liod  allixred  in  hit  [dan  is  not  permitted 
Iceaitse  Uod  foreaees  what  will  happen,  but  only  he- 
'Mse  he  vilb  it.  The  snpralainsrians,  indeed,  sav  that 
tte  Fan  itartf  was  piedeMlneJ,  but  mean  oidy  that  it 
^  iafaHiUy  lo  come;  while,  nn  tlie  other  side,  tbe 
■iHapMriwii  do  not  in  any  way  mean  that  the  Fall 
■^t  not  Un  bappenad,  Ibat  it  cnoid  only  be  cuiisid- 


i.  Keeping  our  anuls, 
bit  wilL    See  Kitaio- 


Bnbpr«benclar7,  a  prebendary  in  inferior  orders. 

Subprecentor,  an  attistant  to  and  substitute  for 
the  precentor  of  a  church  or  cathedral,  whose  diitv  it  is 
to  attend  to  and  guide  tbe  singing  in  the  absence  of  tbe 

Snbpriar,  an  official  in  a  priory,  who  i)  the  prior's 
deputy,  and  is  ordinarily  second  in  rank  ro  the  prior* 

Bubramauya  Mahabena,  in  Hiadfl  myihnlo^, 
meuiing  lit grtal  Uadrr  "/armia,  it  a  surname  of /fiif- 
liiryii,  the  son  of  Siva  and  tbe  sisters  Gonys  and  L'ma. 

Bubrunclnator,  a  Rorruin  divinity  who  presided 
over  tbe  weeding  and  grubbing  of  gardens. 

Snbaactlst,  an  aasU 
diiiary  sacrist  or  sacrist 
keeper*  of  the  vestry  and  sacristy,  church -deanen, 
bell-rinRer^  etc.  At  Lincoln  they  were  called  stall- 
keepers;  at  York,  clerks  of  the  vestibule;  and  at  Can- 
terbury, vestuTeia. 

Snbuoiirtan.    See  Sl-bsacrist. 

Bubacrlptioa,  Ci-ericai.  Subscription  to  arti- 
cles of  religion  is  required  of  the  clergy  of  every  cstab- 
lisheil  Church,  and  nf  some  churches  not  established. 

ably  ever  enforced,"  says  Dr.  Stanle;-,  ■'  was  that  in  the 
of  Brunswick,  when  duke  Julius  reijuired  from 


dergy, f 


slip 


subscription  to  all  and  everything  conlaiiied  in  the 
CoufesHon  of  Augsburg,  in  the  Apuli^  fur  the  Confes- 
sion, in  the  Smalcaldic  Article^  in  all  the  works  of 
Luther,  and  in  all  the  works  of  Chemnitz''  (/>f(<r  on 
^fole  0/  Subtcriptim,  p.  87).  The  Church  of  F.ngland 
only  requires  this  kind  of  assent  lo  the  Thirly-nine  Ar- 
ticles and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  But  it  has 
been  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  it  answers  any  valu- 
able purpoee  as  to  religion,  however  necessary  as  a  test 
to  loyalty.  All  language  is  more  or  less  ambignous,  so 
that  it  is  difficult  slwiys  10  uudeiiund  the  exact  sense, 
or  the  imjiniu  iH/nncnfu,  especially  when  creeds  have 
been  long  rUablished.  It  is  said  that  the  clergy  nf  the 
churches  of  ICngland  and  Scotland  seldom  considerthem- 
selves  as  fettered  by  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  or  the  i::on- 
fession  nf  Faith,  when  cnmpnsing  instructions  fit  their 
parishes  or  the  public  at  large.    It  is  lo  be  fetnd,  in- 


SUBSELLIUM 

ty  snbecribe  merely  for  tbe  uke  of  emol- 
hoii({h  it  be  pmreswdlj'  tx  onimo,  it  ia 
■t  it  ia  nut  so  in  reality ;  for  when  any 


■  thing  of  no  conwqueiiM',  b 


e  part  Id  (he  Mringency  of 
present  aulMCTiptions,  oil  the  pin  of  tboughiriiJ  yuung 
men,  to  enter  tbe  miniury  uT  the  Churclk  i.  TheTC  is 
some  recent  evidence,  opeciilly  at  the  univerutiet,  thil 
the  ibalition  of  wbecriptiun  hiu  not  lenJed  to  the 
ry  of  the  Churdi  or  t<>  any  incr«ued  disbelief  of  lier 
lioctriiie*  3.  But,  more  especially,  there  b  a  growing 
ilispnsilioii  to  inter|iret  ariheaioii  to  furmuUriea  more 
narrowly  than  in  former  tinie&  See  Paley,  i/ur.  PkH. 
i,  St8;'Dyer,  On  Sabicriplim ;  Duddridge,  Led.  lecl. 
70 :  Conybeare,  Sfrta/m  on  S«btcripliitn  ;  Frte  und  Cim- 
dill  Du^uialiimirrlutiag  la  iIh  Church  o/KnyUinJ;  The 
Cmfttiumal;  Duncan  and  Miller,  Oa  CrtrJt;  S(ai  ' 
A  Ulltr  lo  tht  lani  /tiihop  of  London  m  Ihe  S'al  , 
SiAtcripiioa  m  Ihe  Church  »/  England  and  in  Ihe  Utti- 
Ttrtily  nf  OrfoTd. 

SubaelUnm,  a  term  given  in  the  early  Church  U 
the  fooiatool  provided  for  peraons  of  diaiinciian.  Upoi 
Christian  monuments  lioil  ia  represeated  as  iiiting  the 
Bubaellium  while  receiving  the  ofTeringa  of  Cain  aiid 
Abel;  oiir  Lord,  when  teaching  bis  di»ciplea;  and  the 
Holy  Virgin,  in  the  adoration  of  the.  magi.  Tbe  epis- 
copal ehairawere  also  provideil  with  them,  and,  to  show 
ibeir  aubmiuion  to  Inthopa,  persons  were  accustomed  tu 
seat  themselves  thereupnii.  They  were  also  called  <ni- 
belium,  nthpon/oriarn,  aiippfdiineum. 

presbyters,  in  the  ancient  Church,  on  each  siile  of  the 
iMshop's  throne,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  chancel,  called 
Ihe  a/Hi'i.     Alio  the  two  lower  steps  in  a  aedilia, 
thnse  for  tbe  deacon  and  lubdeacua. 


ing,w 


SUBSTANCE 

r  ftnt  idea  of  nArtonce  is  probably  de. 

tions,  tbonghts,  and  puT|Hi*es  arc  rbai^- 
Wesec  bodiet^  alsv,  retnaHH 


loquan 


SuDselllum. 

Subaexton.     Sec  SoBaAcsiSTAH. 

Substanctt  (IjL  ««*,  under,  no  m  Mam,  to  stand) 
is  literally  that  which  subsists  by  itself.  In  Greek, 
substance  is  denoleil  by  ovaia;  hence,  Ihal  thich  Imly 
«,  or  r$tmcr,  seems  to  be  the  proper  meaning  of  sub- 
stance. It  is  opposed  lo  acddtni!  of  wjiich  Aristotle 
luu  Mid  that  you  can  scarcely  predicate  of  ■'  ""'  ''■  " 


md  figure,  th«r  state  of  motion  or  of  rest,  may  Be 
changed.  Substaneea  are  either  primnrjr,  ibii  n,  sin- 
gular, individual  suhstanm;  or  trnmdary,  that  is,  gn- 
era  and  species  nf  laAffaiwr.  RubMancei  haie  alao  keen 
diviiled  into  eompklr  aiut  htcvaplelt.faiilt  and  infaiif. 
But  these  are  rather  divisions  of  bang.  SiilManec  oar, 
however,  be  properly  divided  into  matter  and  apinl,ot 

stance  is  given  by  Aristotle  as  one  of  the  faui  pvinoples 
common  tci  all  spheres  of  reality -,  the  other  three  beiug 
form  or  essence,  moving  or  efficient  c«uae,and  end.  lie 
says,  farther,  that  the  imlividual  alone  has  ja&rmfiof 
existence,  and  defines  ouoin,  in  the  sense  of  the  individ- 
iial  substance,  as  that  which  cannot  be  pTvdkaled  of 
anything  else,  but  of  which  anything  else  may  be  pted- 
icated.  Johannes  Philoponiis  of  Alexandria,  by  ex- 
lemling  the  Aristotelian  dodrhie,  that  substantial  exig- 
ence is  to  be  predicated  in  Ihe  fuUe«t  sense  ooly  of  ia- 
dividual*,  to  the  dogma  of  the  Trinitv,  theicbv  in- 
curred  the  accusation  of  tritheism.  John  ScDtna  re- 
garded the  Deity  as  tbe  substance  of  all  ihingit,  and 
could  not,  therefiire,  regard  indiv' '  ' 
as  Bul)stances,of  ^vhicb  the  gene: 
and  in  which  the  accidentid  is  i 
all  things,  rather,  as  contained  in 
Berengarius  nf  Tours  (Of  Sam 
theory  of  a  change  ul  nbtttnr*,  cUimed  by  the  adm- 


There  ■■  caily 
la  suhsiance  haa 
9  cogiiixaiile  by 


whatever  is  a  substance  is,  as  such,  not  a  pari;  and  the 
part  is,  as  such,  not  a  suiietance,  but  the  result  of  thai 
snbjective  separation  of  tbe  substance  into  paita  which 
we  make  in  [thouKhtand  in]  discourse.  Gilbenus  ihw 
speaks:  The  intellect  collects  The  universal,  whtfb  et- 
isiB,  but  not  as  a  substance  {nl,  W  son  mibi.a ).  fnoi 
the  particular  things  which  nut  merely  are  (na'),  but 
also  (as  Bubjecta  of  accidents)  have  substantial  exist- 
ence, by  considering  only  their  substantial  similarity 
or  confamiity.  Descartes  delines  inIvdaiR  aafolhnrs: 
'*  By  aabgloRce  we  can  only  understand  that  which  so 
exists  that  it  needs  nothing  else  in  onler  to  its  exist- 
encei"  and  adds  that,  "  indeed,  oidy  one  substance  can 
be  conceived  as  plainly  needing  nothing  else  in  order  to 
its  existence,  namely,  God;  for  we  plainly  pefcrive 

Spinoza  undeislands  tuliariiaor  t( 
itself,  and  is  to  be  conceived  by  ilself. 

two  fundamental  qualities  or  altributei 
us,  namel}',  thought  and  e> 
ed  substance  as  distinct  from  thinking  aubsianof." 
"There  arc  not  two  substances  equal  to  each  other, 
since  such  substance)  would  limit  each  other.  One 
substance  cannot  produce  or  be  produced  by  anotber 
substance.  Every  substance  which  ia  in  Goil's  infinite 
unilersunding  is  also  really  in  nature.  In  nnture  there 
arc  not  different  substances;  nature  is  one  in  eaaeiiee, 
and  identical  with  Uot."  Locke  says,  "The  tnind,  be- 
ing furnished  with  a  great  number  of  simple  ideaa,  c«i- 

cerlaln  number  of  them  always  go  together;  and  aitic« 
we  cannot  imagine  that  which  is  represented  by  than 
as  subaisting  by  itself,  we  accustom  ourselves  to  sappos 
a  substratum  in  which  it  subsists,  and  from  which  tt 
arises;  this  subetratiim  we  call  a  midmicr.  The  Htm 
of  (ula/ancc  contains  nothing  but  Ihe  suppoution  of  an 
unknown  aamething  aerving  as  a  support  for  iiualitaea.** 
Leibnitz  gives  the  name  mouad  to  simple,  unexlendeil 
lubtlaaa;  that  ia,  a  substance  which  has  the  power  of 
action;  active  force  (like  the  force  of  Ihe  strained  bow) 
is  the  essence  of  substance.     He  held  that  tba  diTiaHjil' 


SUBSTANCE  ) 

nj  *f  Btfter  proved  that  it  wm  ui  s^ingale  of  sub- 
Maaoa:  tbcrc  cui  Iw  m  tnullcM  imUrixible  bodiH  or 
ilian  becawae  thrt  muM  Mill  be  extended,  and  would 
ihmlunbeafigTFgatnorubUuica:  ttau  the  ml  aub- 

M  grkcrUeil,  uid  arc  iadntnicliUe,  aiid  in  a  certain 
ttnc  •iiBiUr  la  •ouli,  which  be  likewiwconHdenai  iu- 
iliTiiltial  lubiiUDcea.  The  indtrtdual,  unextended  «!!>- 
wanew  wm  termed  liy  Leibnitz  mo 


•yfti^ 


tg  qui« 


It  per. 


lOKledge  of  a  lub- 
■UDca.  The  qoeMian  whether  perceptions  inhere  in  a 
mM«ial  or  immateiial  «ibitanc«  cannot  be  answered, 
beeaiua  it  hn  no  intelligible  aenH."  Juhn  Stuart  Mill 
•fiaiaguulw*  wlMlancea  aa  ludily  and  mental,  and  aara, 
-  Of  lb«  fitM,  all  m  luww  ii,  the  ■eiwatioiu  wbicb  tbcy 
gire  uo,  and  the  order  of  tlic  occutrence  oTlheae  aenu- 
iiMai  L  e.  ibe  liiddea  cause  o(  uur  aenutiDni.  OT  the 
wDoad,  that  it  ii  the  unknown  recipient  of  them."  See 
hlanig,  Voa<Ki'/PAilotoplLSaniBa,a.v.i  Ueberweg, 
JfiMry  o/  Pkitairh  (w<  Index). 

SrBSTAKCE,  a  Uxm  lued  in  technical  divlnit*  to 
4iaciibe  nearly  tbe  aame  idea  a>  ttimce  or  narurt. 
Tkaa  tbe  Sod  i>  aaid  to  be  the  aame  aubuance  with  the 
Paiiwr,  that  ia,  tnily  and  easentially  Gud,  aa  Ibe  Fa- 
iker  it.     See  CHxiSTouiaT. 

Snbatantialllta.      The    Lutheran    heresiolngint 


StitMtJmtl  (i.  e.  pnttralon)  were  penitenia  nf  the 
tWd  order.  m>  calleil  Tnim  tbe  custom  of  prostrating 
sa  beliire  the  bbhop  or  priest  aa  eoon  aa  (he 


I  of  bauds,  and  be 
pnicn  which  the  eonftrr^li 
livd  fijT  tbetn  \  after  which  1 
diiSriT  to  depart,  befim 
taai  Butil  Ihii  put  of  tbe  acrvice  iu  the  lum  of  tbe 
einrcb.  b^ind  tbe  antAo.  Thia  sort  of  peniteuls  are 
Bentiiiaed  iu  the  Council  ••(  Ktce,  tbuugh  no  particular 
Uta  a  aaoigned  them;  hut  we  may  collect  irom  Ter- 
(laftiaB  and  Sozninen  thai  their  atalion  was  in  thia  part 
rt  the  chaieh ;  for  Tertullian  (th  radkif.  c.  13),  ^^k- 
icggf  tbe  Banian  diBcipliiie,  aara  pope  Zephrrin  bmuftbt 

imuaied  Iheoi  in  (he  midst  before  the  widinvs  and 
^Hwliiteia.  to  implore  their  commiaeraiion  and  excite 
ihav'tean.  Tber  were  al«  called  Kneelers,  or  C«<H- 
fcyn^M.  See  »n)-ham,  CiriiT.  A«iig.  bk.  viii,  ch.  t, 
tl:bk.xvUi,ch.i,  S6. 

Babtraamrer,  the  deputy -receiver  of  certain 
tmi  ia  a  eatbedral  of  tbe  new  fijuudatjoni  a  deputy- 
mmmtu ;  the  aaoial;  a  miiKU  caooD  who  had  charge 
of  the  church  goods,  acted  aa  parish  priest  in  I  be  pre- 
naet,  pruriiled  neceasariea  fur  dirlne  acirice,  and  was 
libeariaB.     Tbe  oAce  is  still  partially  preserved  as  an 

.UH«Rli«d  iw  ranked  after  tbe  auccentor,  and  sang  the 
Fu-Bdei'a  Maia.  He  i*  meiititMinl  in  1290  at  York, 
•ad  at  Chichester  in  the  Mth  century,  being  the 
"••■■rtr'a  ticai,  where  he  made  Ibe  cbrisin  of  oil  and 


SBbucUa  (wo^wntt),  >  caaaock,  like  a  i 


Erlbcal 


cbet,wi 


SabBTUcaiiBii,  an  epithet  applied  to  thnae  prov- 
mam  of  Italj  which  composed  tbe  ancient  diocese  of 
biBK.  Cooceming  thia  two  qoeaiinna  arise;  I.  What 
•BthecxtcDtofcbisdisttict?  2.  Whether  it  was  the 
iait  cd  the  BetTopMitical  or  patriarchal  power?  Or. 
Care  mtd  ctheia  think  that  tba  notion  of  aubiirbicary 
rfcthM  aavht  not  In  be  astcoded  bejond  the  lim- 


SUCCESSION 

its  of  the  prtrfrrlHi  uriii.  vii.  a  hundred  miles  about 
Rome;  or,  at  most,  not  beyond  (he  limits  of  those  ten 
piDvincea  which  wore  immediately  subject  to  the  civil 

Campania,  Titacia  and  Umbria,  I*icenum  Suburbicarium, 
Valeria,  liamnium,  Apulia  and  Calabria,  Lucania  and 
Brutii,  Sicilia,  Sardinia  and  Corsica— which  Dr.  Cave 
suppoaes  to  have  been  tbe  exact  and  proper  limits  of 
the  pope's  patriarchal  power,  as  he  (hinks  the  others 
were  the  bounds  nf  bis  metropolitan  jurisdiction. — See 
Dingham,  Chritt.  A  Miq.  bk.  ix,  cb.  i,  g  347. 

BuburbB  ia  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V.,  regulariy 
of  C^«,  THigraih,  ptoperly  a  pailurt  (1  Chron.  v,  16; 
Eiek.  xlviii.  15);  hence  the  open  country  around  a 
city  used  for  graiing  (Numb,  xixv,  2;  Josh,  xxi,  II; 
1  Chron.  \\,  40;  xiii,  2,  ele.\  or  for  any  other  purpose 
(Exek.  xxvu,  28;  xlv,  3;  xlviii,  17).  Once  (2  Kings 
xxiii,  II)  it  sUnda  fur  ^I^B, purror,  which  is  but  a 
MS.  vatialion  of  Pakdah  (q.  v.). 

SUBURBS,  in  an  eccleuastical  sense,  meant,  in  the 
early  Church,  all  the  (owns  and  villages  within  tbe  re- 
gion or  diatrict  to  which  the  city  magiatnte  extended 
bia  jurisdiction,  whoae  bounds,  for  the  must  part,  were 
the  bounds  of  the  bishop's  diocese.  See  Bingham, 
CItritt.  A  Hiiq.  bk.  ix,  ch.  ii,  J  3. 

Snocat  ia  said  to  have  been  tbe  proper  name  of 
St,  Patkick  {q.  v.). 

Saooonaum,  an  old  term  for  a  onnr.   SeeTuuni- 


Sncoentor, 

eulleijiale  cbuic 


lerm  used  to  deiio(e— 1.  A  preccn- 
calheilral  church;  i.  A  eiager  in  a 
T  chapel;  B.  A  auhprecenlor;  4.  A 


Sncoeasion,  A 

prelatiats  and  High-Churchmen  to  designate  what  is 
vlaimed  to  be  an  unbrokm  line  of  clerical  ordination 
from  tbe  apoatles  to  the  preaenl  time.  In  the  Kciman 
Church  thia  claim  in  put  forth  in  tbe  moat  abaolule  and 
dogmatic  manner  through  theTrideiiline  canunp,  which 

(he  Christian  Church  oa  heretics jnd  schismalio.  In 
the  (ireek,  Syriac,  l^iplic,  ^rmeiiiani  and  Oriental 
churches  generally,  the  aame  eXdnsit^  principle  ia 
maintained,  although  not  avowed  in  so  pogiiive  and 
fiTroal  a  inanner.  A  ainiilar  pretence  is  ael  up  by  many 
frolestanta.  audi  as  (ho  eetablirhed  churches  of  Enro- 
(lean  countries,  particularly  of  tiieat  Britain  and  ire- 
land,  and  so  likewise  by  the  Vaudoia,  tbe  Mo^Bvian^ 
and  other^  who  aeaert  that  they  can  trace  llieir  clerical 
pedigree  in  a  direct  line  to  tbe  apostles;  and  in  like 
manner  tbe  Frotesianl  Episcopal  Chucch  of  the  United 
offahofits  of  the  English  Church,  pride 


aupoi 


theii 


Btical  lii 


the  "regular  succeasion."  On  the  other  band,  the  de- 
nominations "unchurched"  by  thia  claim  Justly  Uke 
exception  tn  the  clerical  genealogy  thus  arrogated,  on 
the  followtng  grounds : 

I.  The  phriuf  apotli^ic  tuccatkm' tM  nmHaUy  ab-'^ 
Murd  and  Ky-amlradictmy.  Stiictir  construed,  it  can 
only  mean  that  the  apostles  have  bad  a  continuous  line, 
of  aueccuora  to  the  present  time.  But  the  apostolic 
olBce  was  Mui  gmertM,  and  by  its  very  constitution  con- 
fined to  the  flrst  incumbents.  Thi>  ia  clear  from  two 
inherent  qualiflcationt  of  the  order  itself,  not  to  naenlion 


pervinolly 

received  bis  instnictiona,  and 


y  that  on  apostle  thou 


ihem 


imediatciv  accepted  the 
:iii,  U;  AMsi,2l,22). 
lis  ground  Pant  bases  his  claim  to  the  apnstolale 
*.  ix,  I),  by  virtue  of  the  revelation  of  the  (>i>a|icl 

Hence  the  office  was  in  its  very  nature  inirans- 
ile  and  incapable  uf  succenioii,  as  aoon,  at  leas^ 


SUCCESSION        '  ( 

w  ill  ibe  "  original  eje-witiKCM*  ud  miniHera  of  the 

W.ifil"  bad  decBMed.     Sm  Aro«nJE. 

b.  The  "sign"  of  »n  apoHle  wks  the  power  .if  coofer- 

lion  of  haiida.  Thia  ia  oCtea  icferred  to  in  Che  Acis  Hid 
Kpistlei  at  a  disdnguuliing  muk  belween  them  aud 
unlitury  Chriuiant.  All  tielievere  during  ihe  primi- 
liva  period  of  the  Church  enjoyed  thsM  preternatunl 
t'ina,  which  were  lint  iinparted  on  Ibe  day  of  Fente- 


C  (Acu  ii,  4)  1 


ered  w  camaiuiiii 


It  the  apuetlea  alone  were  empow' 


(vi 


.    Hence  when  the  i 


been  renewed.  The  KomaD  Catholic  Church  elutna, 
indeed,  a  lilie  power  uf  roiracle-wuikiug  Tur  emiiKnt 
aainta  oT  lai«r  limes,  but  it  baa  tkever  had  the  hirdi- 
liood  In  aver  that  tta  "apostolical  auccewion"  is  invari- 
ably accompanied  with  this  peculiar  gift.  How  pre- 
pOBteMUi,  then,  fiir  sober  ChriMiana  lo  «el  up  a  preien- 
HLun  that  legitimately  luvolveH  such  InipvaubilitieB ! 
IJee  UiPTB,  Spikituai. 

2.  Evm  (At  claim  n/  an  tmmlrmipltd  cUrical  iiK- 
cfMtion  it  iaenpabU  af  proof.     All  the  modem  churcbea 

;  of  Europe  and  tbis  country,  which  ael  up  this  claim, 
■race  their  lineage  ultimately  through  the  Roman  pan- 
'i  litTi,  Ihit  lliB  records  of  the  early  popes  are  iirecover- 
I  ably  loit.  It  is  not  certaia  that  feter  (q.  v.)  ever  was 
'  in  Koine,  much  less  that  he  ever  acteil  a*  bisliop  there. 
All  efforts  to  make  out  the  asserted  siicccaai'iii  thus  ful 
at  this  initial  point.  Many  other  links  iu  Ihe  chain 
are  historically  wanting^  i'he  lineage  ia  a  myth,  or  at 
best  a  mere  eking-out  of  probaUliiies  by  vague  and 
late  trailitions.  This  is  now  candidly  aiimilteil  by  the 
best  and  most  careful  Protestant  Bchdan.  The  title  it 
indefeasible.  See  Porn.  "I  am  fully  salisHeil,"  says 
bishop  Hoailiy,  "  that  till  a  consumrnste  stupidity  can 
be  happily  eatablisheil,  aud  universally  Bprea<l  over  the 
land,  there  U  nothing  that  tends  so  much  to  destroy  all 
due  respect  totliedergy  asthe  demand  of  more  titan  can 
be  due  to  them ;  anil  nothing  has  so  effectually  tbrown 
conwmpt  upon  a  regular  succession  of  the  ministry  as 
the  calling  no  siiocession  regular  but  wlial  was  niiui- 
lerrupted;  and  the  making  the  eternal  salvatiim  of 
Christians  to  depend  upim  tbat  uniulemipteil  succes- 
sion, of  which  tlie  most  learned  mutt  have  the  least 
atsurai>ce,  and  the  unlearned  can  have  no  noiion  but 
through  ignorance  anil  credulity."     (See  below.) 

3.  The  daim  it  a/~tt«  and  frwb  lo  bigotry  and  tx- 
cUuieeatti.  In  the  Koman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  An- 
glican churches,  this  teiulency  and  result  are  notorious, 
ami  in  Ihe  High-Church  party  of  Ihe  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  they  are  almost  equally  obvious.  In  fact, 
•-a  good  churchman,"  as  he  is  styled,  it  compelled  by 
this  fact  to  huki  Jiimtelf  slouf  rrom  other  communions, 

Ihe  canons  and  regiila 


of  all  Ihe  bodi 

So  priiicipli 
stun  lack  of  h 


itherlv  kind- 
iH's^     .See  CiiARirv. 

*.  The  oMienhm  ii  mmerrnary,  aawitr,  ami  bated 
tti/Mta  u  wroag  vieto  of  weltiiailical  potttf.  The  true 
evidences  of  an  evangelical  Church  are  the  conversion, 
t-ancLilication,  and  Mlvation  of  aoulsi  the  propagation 
•if  a  spiritual  Gospel,  and  the  amelinratinii  of  the  stale 
of  society.  But  the  "cburcbly"  claim  referred  to  luma 
the  attention  of  its  adherents  too  eameally  upon  tl>eir 
t'wh  organiiation  and  technical  order,  and  thus  leailt 
I  away  from  a  broad  and  catholic  spirit, 


IS  well  a 


the 


liighest  forma  of  individual  and  cnllecti 
'rhe  question  with  them  habituslly  inclines  lo  be,  not 
what  will  best  promote  the  welfare  of  Christendom  at 
lat^,  and  most  effectually  proinote  personal  holiness ; 
but  what  must  be  done  to  subserve  party  purposes,  and 
keep  up  the  pretensions  of  a  select  circle.  The  Church 
is  loo  often  put  in  the  place  both  of  Cbriat  *nd  man. 


SUCCESSION 

Tbit,alaa,is  no  ideal  picture  j  it  is  butlhc  reosfdoftad, 
solemn  fact.  Ecclosiaaucism  and  iu  feUow  fiiiiiislmii 
have  ever  been  the  greatest  banes  to  ganuina  piHr, 
aud  the  direst  foes  to  the  real  kingdom  of  Uod.     Big- 

which  the  fable  of  "apiiMolical  tueceasiun"  bas.bcea 
the  mutt  fruitful  aource,  is  a  crime  Dndo'  Christianity. 
It  is  both  a  libel  on  its  name  (John  xvii,  iS)  aixl  tiea- 
son  to  its  first  la»  (1  John  ii,  7 ;  iii,  II).  Wbetcrer 
this  assumption  has  been  prevalent  and  active,  religWB 
bodies  have  lield  points  of  onler  and  rt^rif  da  cditii 
among  their  members  in  higher  esteem  than  histutical 
trulh  in  profession  or  vital  godliness  in  practice.  IVr- 
secution  has  been  more  liercely  wageii  against  tcirssiiwi 
than  even  against  heresy.  Zealots  Sir  onboduxr  have 
gathered  many  a  fagot  for  the  martyr,  but  sticklert  fiir 
legitimacy  have  been  foremost  in  kindling  tha  pyre. 
Even  nonconformity  has  st  times  caught  the  pa  won 
for  its  own  established  system,  aud  Puritans  kave  >n- 
ually  maltreated  others — if  not  burned  them  at  the 
stake  — iur  refusing  Ihe  nnlinances  of  the  su-calM 
Church.  The  prelatisc  tmiks  at  such  peeado-«ccleai- 
asticitm,  and  the  liomtnist  looks  with  equal  contempt 
upon  the  Anglican  mimicry  of  "the  nkother  Church;" 
while  [he  (ireat  Head  of  all  weeps  at  this  petty  livaby 
as  to  who  shall  be  esteemed  first  and  greateat.  iu  ibe 

more  valuable  in  religion  has  tieen  lust  tight  of.  Lax- 
ity of  morals  has  been  winked  aL  while  ati  infringement 
of  canonical  rules  has  been  severely  punished.  It  ia 
the  old  sluty  over  again ;  making  void  the  la*  nf  God 
by  the  tradition  of  men,  tithing  herbs  and  neglecting 
judgment,  mercy,  and  faith.  We  need  ever  Ui  reicn 
from  the  trmbols  of  Christianity  in  iu  estentiab^o*  we 
shall  ftnd  ourselves  holding  its  form,  hut  denying  iu 
power.    See  Publacv. 

LUtraliiTt This  may  well  be  exhibited  in  brief  by 

the  following  extract  fmm  Eadie's  A'cria.  Cychp^  wliicii 
ihows  how  writers  in  the  Episcopal  Church  are  dis- 
agreed on  the  main  olcments  of  Ibe  question: 


tlrnitd  by  Slltlhigltoel, /rmlnnH.  II.  ilS:  Biisuhiilm,  (>. 
TKuf.  i.  41ia:  In  Aytiiu,  t^malir.  »/  IA<  Ou  p.  lit;  Hsui- 
motid,  mn-lu.  W,  Iii.  wbo  niHkcs  them  dascnns;  Bi«<. 
ZHniH  HtplH  Kjriin^  lecl.  ill),  p.  IT.  i.  This  ■>  Innlra- 
dlcted.  Slid  the  apunles  made  bkibops  dnring  ths  anm* 
lime,  by  Tiiylur  I'sreinT],  KjiIibv-  i-trna-.  Id.  ir«nt>. 
•ll,T,eic.,wb»  eontrsdhu  iilin.elr  in  AM.  lUI,  la  >^; 
Ncutt,  In  PhrlMian  LUt.  \\\,t!K;  Himr",  Inmir^i  MU  Ikt 
Xtv  Oiit«*m»,  V. M:  jthlnd,  Aimt.  p.  10,  tic:  WIIIbi,  Sir- 
ni^ltii  /'ni6>n£n.!M;  archblsiinp  of  Spfllatis  In  Aytrni, 


pinilllTe  In  afllnnlng .—  -.. 

mnde  them  blsbnjis  over  the  preabyters  If. JC.  and  Kpimm. 
p.  IWI.  Slid  lilsbop  B««crldi-e  is  as  eonadrnl  tbat  Ckrlil 

<ir«-jb<,  II.  II™.    Annln.  Land  SMefls  lerj  ■■■."■flj'^r 


.  ..      .         inl  n>»d  hi  Mark  1- 
{Ul.  and  KpiiBUf.  II.  IMi.    Sn- 


erEdge.  on  Ihe  cnuinry.di'ClarvstbniChrl-t  did  uol  ordain 
any  «f  them  duriiH;  bis  life,  sod  addaces  In  proof  tire  nan 
of  this  very  lenn  Iwtuvt  MAiia  (ITar^  11.  Ili).  S-XXhrr*. 
■       -        ■    ttheapo^' ..        .   ..1 

tilibr.  v<Hi 


.^ ipomlss  wei«  not  oninlssbined  illl 

atitr  Cbrl't'H  resnriiKllon.  Snge.  quoted  In  Aylixi.  Cbu- 
iHl.  Iff  Ihr.  Oi.  tup.  p.  11.  Si  fsrsvln's  piitaUioftl,  Smu- 
belm,  Op.  TImt.  l,4Mi  Stlllhi gleet,  Irtninvt,  I,  III.  lis. 
Hiid  II,  «1S|  Wblibr.  viHnot  Lnke  i,l:  Uannionil.  In 
fbitL;  Bellnrnliis,  Ob /«»>(>/.  lib.  Iv.clilli  Bebar  [Bp.l,lu 
L*fi  afJerttnti  Tafflor,  IVorc^  1.  IStk 

II.  nr  at/onlltt  tart  MtnuEirdfRary  sften.  and  cmM 
AuDt  IH  sfMrsHiira,  1,  Tbia  Is  nttiineiriiy  Peiinou,  Om 
•■-  fV«ri,ji.l *,"—■-     —     '—■ '  ■  ■ '-  '-    -■--'- 


"•llj 


IBji.},  W-rbi.  fill.  II,  SKx  Korniw,  In  WVte,  hil.  I,  I 
H'lileT.  In  H-mapttt  f^pimi.  a.  IH,  IW;  Pell  fBp.L 
IMt:  V, » :  Hooker,  tM.  l-iJ.  vuL  ill,  bk.  vll.  I  tv.  t>. 
Kcble'a  sdltlun;  Cblllbigwonh :  Hlmtsv  HiM«v  IT  ■ 
■  fnniTt-  nf  CIitM.  iC  Ill-SI ;  "     ■      '  —  " 

ItflKll,    W'-^     -'" ■ 

■<Hkt:  f 

Anier.  eJ.  i  Sceele.  J'hU.  if  tin 
IM,  101 ;  Dodwell.  Pare..r>.,  sd 

ai,BpndATioii|;I>iive««nt(Bi,.„ .- , 

Z>i(. /.'firAI</£i>iswp.lect.x1l,p.M,npad  Aytuu;  Sdlllus- 


SUCCINCTORIUM 


ay-ci 


!■  Olf.  nllL  ]SI)I,  pauiio)  -.  N 

ih*  ■uoaUe*.  buth  lu  iiarat  nii 

Wm  Cswvfiic;,  Id  TAf  ^jek 
tt]igr.  In  r.rK  II,  8S.  ia,  IW,  U7,  Itf.  HI  «8  ;  U,w,  lu 
ki>  jltmaj  Lrtltr  (■  UU  atiibw  i^  Bamr  Su,  In  Ox/.  TV. 
>t.  1H-  SillllaKflnrt  [Hp.1,  III  irc^jlt,t,  SIl.  lunrl.  "Blfb- 

HCll'li  U.mlniiii  [Bu.), 
Id  ATlua;  Uaii  lUp.' 
|iliilauadiiraruawji(«l 


Snccinctorinm,  or  SaoolnctOiT,  an  ornameiii 
pfcaliar  la  the  pope,  rettmUiiig  a  nuaiiple  (i|.  v.),  uiil 
'     '  leml  wiih  the  bolf  Umb  {Agimi  Dtij.    It  ii 
■  tbe  left  aide,  being  tuumd  bf  a  ciiielun,  and 


aoardintc  ta  oihen  it  wai  only  a  reaeniblance  of  tha 
r*te  of  a  ribbon.  Kirmerir  worn  bj'  ninM,  bitbopa  aa  a 
oDrbm  DTer  (he  alb,  and  which  waa  cnlkd  Antfran 
•r  ••belt  of  modeacy."  In  the  Eaat  luabopa 
ituilaKt,  of  a  loicnKC  lunii,  laaelled,  and  with 


Soccinfitfi  {Kndmugiiig),  a  tenn  uaed  to  deimbe 
a  aidile  nt  aiopiiK  in  cnmmiHi  unr  in  lh«  earlv  age  n( 
Ik*  Chareh.  A  precentor  began  the  t-ene,  and  the  pco- 
fit  jcaHit  him  in  the  eli<*e.  It  waa  nDen  uaed  fen  the 
rake  of  varielv  in  the  nine  wtrioe,  with  alternate  pnal- 
nadT.  E«leiiaUical  histiiriana  n?lale  thai  Athanaiiua 
tibatd  hia  eaeape  tnm  the  church  in  which  he  waa 
hraic  b*  tbe  Arian  aoldiery  by  aettina  the  people  to 
■bit  kiivl  of  paalmndy:  be  commaniled  the  deacnn  to 
nad  Ihe  paahn,  and  the  people  (vroieovKf,  renpnmJere 
«  mccinrrr)  lo  re|>ea(  thia  dauae  after  him  :  "  For  hia 
merej  endunth  forever."  See  Bingham,  Clirul.  Anliq. 
I*.  »ir.  eh.  i.  §  li     See  AcRmtTicB. 

Snc'Otnb  (Heb.  SuklMh;  rSae  or  [in  Gen.  :txnii, 
17:  EinLxii.97:  xiii.OT;  Niimb.\xiiiii,  6,  6]  TSO, 
biMla  [  aa  often  ]  ;  Sept.  Zor^  r.  r.  Sttx'^^r  !*■' 
•x^mi  in  c;en.  and  Ph.  ;  Vutg.  Socelh  or  Soctolk),  [he 
rane  of  at  leaat  two  Bllilical  place*  of  early  fnention, 
Ike  exact  pnniiun  -if  neither  oT  which,  huwever,  haa 
l«a  clearly  idenliOed  by  modera  reaearchei.     See  al» 

SciXDTH-»eSOTH. 

L  A  town  of  anctenl  date  in  the  Holy  Land,  being 
W  heard  of  in  the  account  of  tbe  hnmewaril  journey 
<r  Jacob  from  Padan-anm  (Den.  xxxiii,  17).  The 
oaBe  it  deriTrd  from  the  fact  of  Jacob's  liaring  there 
;«  ap  •-  biioiha''  for  hi*  cattle,  aa  well  aa  a  honae  for  him- 


tf  the  wandering  life,  indicate  that 
a  Inetbeited  stay  tberr— a  fact  n(i 
uv  rrarellen  frequently  tee  auct 
■■*  tbe  BMawiB  of  the  Jordan  ralli 
beta  of  lecda.  lametimH  coreml  wi 


STJCCOTH 

would  teem  that  after  hia  iDterview  with 

:  Bouth  bank,  he  turned  back  lo  avoid  fui^ 
dangerous  bratber;  and  in- 
.doiD,  he  recroaaed  the  Jabbok 
y  of  Lhe  Jordan,  where  he  re- 


.t  for  I 


!uc.;  Kitu 


ley  of  th 


(lee,  howeve 
447). 

The  next  notice  of  Succoth  ia  in  Joahua'a  deecriplion 
of  (he  lerrirory  of  (iad.  To  th'ia  tribe  the  middle  aec- 
tioii  eaat  of  the  Jurdao  waa  allotted,  including  Ihv'ral- 
III  up  [o  the  aea  of  Galilee.  See  CaI>. 
■IB  ill  the  valley  ia  Suemlh  (Joah.  xiii, 
27).  Mulhing  more  can  be  inferred  from  thia  than  lliat 
it  lay  oil  the  eant  bank  nftbe  river. 

In  the  narrative  of  UiJeon'a  pnnuit  of  Zeba  and  Zal- 
muDiia  it  ia  laid,  "And  (jidenn  canw  to  Jordan, ;iuMnI 
octr , . ,  and  aaid  unto  the  men  of  Succoth,"  etc  {JiHig. 
vtii,  6).  Hia  course  »aa  eastward— the  reverse  of  Ja' 
cob's— and  he  came  Hrst  to  Succoth,  anil  then  to  Penucl, 


^  (ver. 


hough  tl 


ring  in  the  Bible.  At  that  period  Succoth 
■ecu  a  place  of  importance,  when  it  ventured 
e  mgueat  of  Gideon.  Its  ••  princes  and  el- 
re  said  to  have  numbered  "ibreescore  and 


u  well  known. 


(be  Patriarch  m 


'Ufa 


aacil  by  a  aeroi-nomad  people.  Thia  fertile  spot  mi 
kara  reminded  Jacob  of  the  banks  of  the  Euphra 
tWB  which  be  had  recently  come.  The  aituatinn 
^VtoximaUly  indicated  by  the  fact  that  Jacob  waa 
Mawav  fraiD  Peniel  to  Sbechcra.  Peniel  was  app. 
ally  on  tks  nortb  bank  of  Ihc  Jabbok  C^eu.  xxiii, 


plaaper,! 
The  ««md  hi 

of  the  Temple  were  caal  "  In  the  cireuii  (^{Sf)  of  the 
Jordan,  in  the  day  ground,  between  Suecolh  and  Zar- 
tlian"(I  Kings  vii, 46;  S  Chron.ir,  17).  Succoth  gate 
ita  name  lo  "a  vaUey"  (p^V),  probably  a  lower  aeclioii 
of  "the  eironii,"  or  great  plain  of  the  Jordan  (comp. 
"the  Tiitr  of  Siddim,"  which  waa  also  called  an  i'nirk 
in  "the  circuit  of  the  Jordan,"  Pao.  Ix,  G). 

Jerome  observes,  in  his  notes  on  Genesis :  "  There  ia 
lo  this  day  a  city  of  this  name  (Suecolh)  bejniid  Jor- 
dan in  the  region  of  Scythopolia"  (Optra,  ii,  989,  cd. 
Higne);  but  in  the  Ononatlieon  both  Jerome  and  Eu< 
seliiua  merely  atate  that  it  ia  the  place  where  Jacok 
dwelt  on  hia  return  from  Heaopolamia,  without  iiuli- 
catind  ita  aile  or  appearing  to  know  of  its  eKislencc 
(a.v."Scen»"). 

BuTckhardt.on  hia  way  from  Beisan  loea-SBlt,(<ircte<t 
the  Jonlan  two  hours  (about  HX  miles)  belnw  the  for- 
mer, and  obsei\'es  in  a  note  (TrarrU  tn  Syria,  p.  S16), 
"  Near  where  we  crossed,  to  tbe  south,  are  the  ruins  of 
Suital."  The  ruins  seem  to  have  been  on  tbe  east 
hank  of  the  river,  though  he  does  not  expressly  say  so, 
ai  later  travellers  <lo  (see  Schwarz,  Falal.  p.233).  This 
may  possibly  be  tbe  Siiecoth  of  Jerome;  but  it  seems 
loo  far  north  to  suit  the  TeifuiremcnU  of  the  narrative 
in  Genesiii.  Jacob's  direct  niad  from  the  Wady  Zerka 
U)  Shechem  wouhl  have  ted  him  by  the  Wady  Femh, 
on  the  one  hand,  nr  through  Yanflii,  on  the  other.  If 
he  went  north  as  fat  aa  .Snkkol,  he  must  have  ascended 
by  the  Wfldy  Haleh  to  Teyastr,  and  so  through  Tubas 
and  tbe  Wady  BUIAn.  Perhaps  hia  going  north  was  a 
ruse  to  escape  the  dangerous  proximity  of  Ksau;  and 
if  he  made  a  lonp  stay  at  Siiceolh,  as  suggested  in  the 

ahechem  would  be  of  liiile  importance  to  him  (see  the 
Hiitioikmi  Siura,  Oct.  1876.  p.  74!  aq.). 

wvered  another  ruin. called  Sniil  (which 
'  is  radically  as  well  aa  lopncrsphtcally  different  from 
I  Ihe  Suihil  of  Butckhanltl,  ni'lualed  on  the  vest  bank  of 
milea  south  of  Reisan.  "Near 
and  Ihe  plun  amund  it  is  cov- 

,es"  (BibL  Ra.  iii.  309;  comp.  Van  de  Velde. 
Tracfli,  ii,  343).     lu  position  on  tbe  n-cit  bank  pie- 


SUCCOTH-BENOTH  f 

(J  being  HlenliOeil  with  the  Siiccoth  of  the  Bilil«, 
is  juM  pouible  that  the  name  may  have  been 
rted  10  ■  apoC  on  tbe  uthcr  tiile  (>«  Kiiur,  ul 
lap.  ii,  446),  or  it  miv  hive  been  a  cnuaden'  >ite  (aec 
CuiKler,  T<«t  Wm-h  m  PaitH.  ii,  62). 

Until  the  pnsUinn  of  Succoih  x»  morB  tiacLly  agoei- 
tained,  it  ia  impiM«ble  to  lay  what  wu  the  valley  of 
Suceoth  mentioneil  in  raa.lx,G  anil  cviii,T.  The  aame 
vroid  ia  emplayed  (Joth.  \\\\,  37)  in  apediying  the  po 
Htinn  of  the  group  of  tnwiit  among  which  Suceoth  oc- 
cur*, in  describing  the  allotment  of  Gad ;  ao  thai  it  evi- 
dently denulea  annie  marked  feature  oT  the  caunlr}'.  It 
i<  nut  probable,  however,  that  the  main  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  the  Gli6r,  it  intended,  that  being  alwaya  dewg- 
nated  in  the  Bible  by  the  name  of  "Che  Arabah." 

2,  The  tint  campiiifj-place  of  the  laraelilea  when 
thry  left  Egypt  (Kind,  xii,  37;  xiii,20i  Numb.xxKiii, 
fi,  G|.  This  place  wa*  ap|iarenlly  reached  at  the  cluie 
onhefiEatday^A  march.  Hameacs,  the  atartiiig-place,  we 
have  ahuwn  waa  probably  near  the  weatern  end  of  the 
Wady  et-TumeyUl.  We  have  auppoaed  the  dialance 
traveraed  in  each  dayV  Journey  lu  have  been  about 
thirty  milea;  and  >a  ^iuccnth  was  not  in  the  Arabian 
desert,  the  next  atatiun,  Etham,  beint;  "in  the  e<1ge  or 
tbewildeme»''<Exi>d.Kii!,W:Kumb.xxxiii,G),itiDust 
have  been  along  the  present  pilgrim  route  called  Dub 
eUBan,  about  half-way  lietween  the  euteramust  branch 
of  the  Nile  and  [he  castle  uF  AjrQ<1.  It  was  probably, 
to  judge  from  iu  name,  ■  reating-place  uf  caravana,  or 
a  military  atation,  or  a  town  named  fnim  one  of  the 
two.  We  fliiJ  similar  names  in  Scenn  Mandno  (//in. 
Ant.),  Scenm  Mandrorum  {Sol,  Dign,),  or  'Stqvli  Mav- 
Spiuv  (jVof.  Grae.  t'pUe«piiluBm).  Scenn  Veietannrum 
(/'IB.  Ani.  Noi.  D^.\  and  Scenn  extra  Genua  (fie: 
fitil.  tHipt.y,  Hee,  fur  all  theae  placet,  Pirthey,  Zar  Enl- 
liande  itt  allm  A'sypleia,  p.  536.  It  ia,  however,  evi- 
dent that  auch  a  name  would  be  easily  lost,  and,  even  if 
preserved,  hanl  to  reco^jnise.aa  it  mi(;hl  be  concealed  un- 
der a  correapunding  name  of  similar  aignilicaliiHi,  though 
very  different  in  sound,  like  that  of  the  settlement  of 
Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries,  called  rd  Xrporun^a 
(Herod,  ii,  164).    See  Exode;  Kti>  Sea,  Pahbaok  of. 

Sno'OOtll-Be'llOtll  (  Heb.  SuiiolA'-Bemlh', 
niia-niS^,  booOt  •>/  dnughtrrt ;  Sept.  Swex'^  Bc- 
nii  v.  r.  £dicxw3  [and  even  'Pox;^]  BtnSti;  Tulg. 
SotliolK-benolJi)  occurs  only  in  2  Kings  xvii,  SO,  at  the 
name  of  some  deity  whose  worship  the  Babylonian  set- 
tlers in  Samaria  are  taid  to  have  set  up  on  their  arrival 
in  that  country.  It  has  generally  been  auppoaed  that 
this  term  ia  pure  Hebrew,  and  aa  auch  most  inlerprelers 
explain  it  to  mean  "  the  booths  in  which  the  daughters 
oT  the  Babyluniana  pruaiitulsd  themselves  in  honor  of 
■  their  idufO.e.Mylii la.  aee  HemU.  i,  199;  Strabo,  xvi, 
7-15)1  others  "small  Ubemocles  in  which  were  con- 
tained imaget  of  female  deities''  (comp.  Calmetf  Com- 
mmluire  Liltenit,  ii,  t<97).  It  is  in  objection  to  both 
theie  explanatiuoa  that  Succulb-benoth,  which  in  the 
passage  in  Kinga  occurs  in  the  tame  cunatrudion  with 
Kcrgal  and  various  other  gods,  is  thus  not  a  deity 
at  all,  nor,  ttrictlj  speaking,  an  object  of  worship.  It 
shoulil  be  noted,  however,  that  the  expresaion  "  made" 
(4iC7)  ili-ea  not  nccvaaartly  require  such  an  interpreta- 
tion. Sir  II.  Kawlinson  thinks  that  Suceoth  -  benoth 
represents  the  Chaldaian  goddess ZiiJiatuI, the  wife  of 
Merudach.  who  was  especially  worshipped  at  Babylon, 
in  conjunction  with  her  husband,  and  who  is  called  the 
"  queen"  of  the  place.  Succotk  he  aupposea  to  be  ei titer 
"  a  Hamilic  term  equivalent  to  Zir,"  or  possibly  a  She- 
mitic  mistraoslation  ufthe  term— Ziiar,"  supreme,"  be- 
ing confounded  with  Zaral,  "  tents"  (see  the  £uiijr  of 
Sir  H.  RawUnaon  in  Rawlinson's  llrrodoliu,  i,  GilO). 
Geaenius  arbitrarily  alters  the  reading  to  pi'03  r'iSD. 
btxaii  of  the  iigh-piieti  {Thfinur.  s.  v.);  and'Moven 
(PAflnir,  i,  596)  underatandt  "iatraliicra  or  trcrria  mu- 
iicmm'  having  reference  to  phallut-woiship  (so  Nork, 


SUDAILI 

JfyAo/.  i,  124).  Th!  rabbins  (see  KimdiiawlJiRU 
ad  lot.)  fable  that  it  xaaa  goddess  under  the  bmrnd 
tim  and  rtietna ;  wbicli  Kircher  ((Ed.  jE^i.  i,  Sit}  ie- 
girda  aa  an  nstronnmical  emblem  of  tbe  fltbtloniuK 
See  Selden,  IJt  IHu  S-fi.':  ii,  7,  808  sq. ;  Vois  TW 
(1ml.  il,  22 ;  Crenaiut,  Oe  SaccolA  Book,  in  Ugdio^ 
rSesaur.xxiii. 

Sa'oliatliite  (Heb.  oidy  in  the  plur.  Sdoiiia', 
C^r^9t),  a  patronymic  of  unknown  origin;  SepLlr 
EoSuifi  j  Vulg. »  tabmuicutit  connonnitFs),  a  daNK"*- 
tion  of  the  last-named  of  the  three  families  of  "milH 
which  dwelt  at  Jabez''(l  Cbron.  ii,  55) ;  apptRinly  dt- 
acendanta  uf  aome  person  named  Sucbah,  a  Judihtu  sf 
the  family  of  Caleb. 

Saokow,  Carl  Atioi.p,  a  German  ihtotnpan,  im 
bom  in  I8U2  at  Mllnstcrburji,  in  Sileaia.  He  Mwlinl 
theology  and  philosophy  at  Ureslau,  was  appnlainl  'm 
1884  profeasoc  of  theology  and  director  of  the  bnfDilri- 
ical  seminary  at  BrenUin.  and  died  there  in  1%S.  He 
wrote,  Dt  Pi-olrrangrlio  JaciM,  Part  I,  Dt  .4  ryima^ 
w  ludide  Prolmmgrlii  (Vratislavin,  1^1) :— Cofrnfauji 
da  driill.  Kirchmjaiira  in  nnrr  RtiAt  ton  FrrAfn 
(Ikwlau,  IH38)  —A.  H.  C.  nrngdudifr  Kirrit<mrhi- 
tiag  (ibiil  1846).  .See  Ktgraibiin/rr  Omtntaiiim^hi- 
>£u»,8.v.;  Zuchuld,WhLnr»i:ii,  l292Bq.     (ftP.) 

Sud  {"Snl'i  V.  r.  [  in  No.  2  ]  Xairfo,  SoiwiS,  «lc.).  ita 


Igbbortuiod  of  Hibv- 
mn,  on  ine  uanHs  or  wnicn  jewisn  exiles  liveil  (Hx.  i. 
4),  No  auch  river  is  known  to  geographeis;  boiifwc 
OHsume  that  the  Htat  part  of  the  book  of  Binicb  (S 
written  in  Hebrew,  tbe  original  text  may  bave  tmu 
SuT,  the  final  *^  having  been  changed  into  1.  In  tin 
case  the  name  wwdd  represent,  not  the  town  of  San,u 
suggested  by  Bnchart  (Phalrg,  i,  8),  but  the  rii«  t»- 
phratrs  itself,  which  is  alwaya  naiDed  by  Arab  Eff*' 
phert  "ihe  river  of  Sura,"  a  corruption  probably  of  iIk 
"Sippara"  uf  Ihe  iusctipliuns  (Kawlinaon,  JfenHLi,6ll, 
note  4). 

2,  A  comipl  Crscism  ( I  Eadr.  v,  29)  of  Ihe  ntm  Si  i 
or  SiAHA  (q.  V.)  in  Ihe  Hebrew  lists  (Ein  ii,  44;  S(l>. 
vii,47). 

SndaiU,  Stepiiem  Bah,  a  Monnph3^e  nu»ll.'b>^ 
aceording  to  the  Cimdebibriim  SitudoTim  of  AbuUmj 
(q.  v.),  in  Asaemani,  Dibl.  Oriml.  ii,  891,  lirnl  !>••' 
A.D.  500,  at  lirst  in  Edessa  and  afterwarils  in.lFnnlm. 
He  iscrediled  with  the  authorship  ofa  work  wliitli  cir- 
culated under  Ihe  name  of  Hierotheua,  the  teaclKii»l 
predecessor  of  Pseudo-Dionj'sius,  in  which  a  limimi™ 
of  the  duTBlion  of  bell  ia  laughl  on  tbe  authority  Wt 
pantheiilic  interpretation  of  I  Cor.  xv,  2&  NesnWi 
regarded  the  ascription  nf  this  work  to  SuriaiU  as  i»- 
ing  upon  a  mete  aaaumption  on  Ihe  port  of  Abul-liit) 
(6V>rA.  d.  (hriUl.  IM.  a.  A'l'mlr.  i,  7:27),  bat  ■ill"'' 
having  suRicient  warrant  for  hia  view. 

Particulars  respecting  the  myaricihpanlheialic  Ibr'l' 
ogy  of  Sudaili  are  furnished  by  Xenajaa  or  Pbikiinun 
(q.  v.)  of  Habiig  in  a  letter  addreseed  to  the  pmbii"! 
Abraham  and  Orentea  of  Edetsa.  which  cameatly  wit)' 
them  against  tbe  influence  uf  that  learned  an<l  )i>l><^ 
monk  who  formerly  s»juumed  in  their  city  (see  eiu*« 
in  Assemani,  at  tap.  p.  80-83).  Aa  there  repnstnUt 
Suilaili  taught  the  essential  unily  of  the  Falbrr.  ^ 
and  Spirit,  of  the  divine  ami  human  nature  of  L'hii' 
and  also  of  God  and  all  created  existences,  baNnit  k 
viewB  on  I  Cor.  xv,  28,  ii-n  g  u  (fete  rd  KaiTa  !r  n 
atf.  He  had  inscribed  un  the  wall  of  hia  cell  the  "" 
"Omnia  nalura  Divinitati  conanbatantialis  e>>I,'aitd  1 
conlinueil  to  elalHirate  the  same  idea  in  his  Kniis) 
after  public  opinion  had  compelled  the  erasure  "f  tl 
tnacripiiiHi  in  his  cell.  It  ia  also  char^^ed  by  Thila 
rniia  that  Sudaili  taught  Ihat  hBpti!<m  and  th*  riidj 
rist  are  tuperHmmt,  that  he  denieil  Ihe  intlii-iionl 
punishment  for  tin  at  the  Inst  Judgmdii.  and  ibul 
l>romised  to  pagans  and  Jens  tha  same  heavciity  iJ 


SUDARIUM  I 

tin  a  u  CbnKiuu,  to  Jodw  ind  Simoo  tUgiu  equal 

iHKh  gfUiae  uaeriioiu  u  dicUUd  bj  malice  uid  is 
(lailf  mwrpreMtiUd.  The  Mine  nrnuk  applies  la 
ib«  CbUiutie  viem  of  Suilaili,  who  wu  «  eoiueqaen- 
dil  ■ribooiE  of  Origeniillc  doctrinei,  mnd  m\M  be  re- 
(imM  ■  holding  a  apiriualixed,  idealisdc  view  of  the 
vsriii  lit  uugbi  [hrae  world -perioda — the  preKni, 
nnapuidiiig  Co  the  tilth  Uay  of  the  week;  [he  millen- 
ciiug,  iht  grtv  Sabbath  or  reat-dar  of  Che  week ;  and 
ttr  Htmiij  of  couaummaiiun  or  of  the 


of  the  : 


im  appcan  to  hare  Micceeded  w  far  u  tu  c*uM  him 
la  Ik  ntnidxl  br  all  Uonnphyaites  u  a  dBngemiit  her- 
lEic  The  Janbile^  of  Syria,  e.  p^  ailmiited  *  special 
iniIRM  afoHHlHiinalioD  againU  hi<n  inlo  Iheir  forinu- 
kndxdiDUion.  See  Ai8emani,£iUl  Oiioi/.  voLi  and 
ii.-  Uaieg,  Ra^EncsUnp.  e.  v, 

8aJailmii,ot  Sudaiy  (laeai-doih):  1.  The  pu- 
•ijtidmiim  ((|.v.)  for  wiping  the  chalice;  2.  The 
■-Vb  (<^  T.);  3.  The  KTBBca  (q.  t.)  (the  bltwing 
Jiht  priert's  eyea  with  the  wdarium  was  forbiilden 
u  1^91;  1.  The  banmei  of  a  luabop'a  alaS;  called  alau 
™&-(q.T.). 

Sodbwy,  SiMoH.     See  SiHOH  ov  Si'dbcbv. 

Snddath,  Wttuxu  W^  a  PresbTteiian  minister, 
■w  bun  ia  Fairfax  Countr,  Va„  J"iy  81,  '826.     He 

tr  <^  Lniapoa  freabrurr  itf  Che'Cumberland  Pn^ 
inniaa  Chaich  ai  a  camlidate  Tor  the  ministry,  and 

oanl  Oiapel  HiJl  College,  in  Lafayette  G.untT,  Ho.; 
tlaliBl  Ik«ijot>y  in  the  Cumberland  UiiiTerutyat  Leb- 
uB.TaB.1  tat  before  graduating  he  waa  induced, 
b<  dit  tnu  iueteet  he  took  in  (be  aucceaa  of  Chapel 
Hil  dOrge,  Is  ntunt  U>  Hisaouri  and  accept  the  pro- 
^Hnliip  of  language*  in  that  cull^e.  He  wa>  i  ' 
■Mit^iUd  [naidenC,  which  poution  he  lllled 
l>lil.>h«  hcaeeepted  a  call  to  the  chair  of  lanjcnagea 
ia  Ikt  Miiaak  College  at  Lexington,  Mo.  In  1858  he 
kOM  eoliilerf  br  the  St.  Louis  minion,  and  his  far- 
NaEhiag  aiod  and  tkoUe,  benevolent  heart  ooneeired 
I  plia  to  Rli(Te  it  of  its  embarranmenlfl.     But  his  la- 

<V  Ui  tHUtaa  in  the  euHenf  to  engaf^  in  the  work  of 
lii'dne:  heanepted  ■  call  from  the  Church  in  St. 
i»jb,  bat  died  AuR.  I,  I860,  before  assuming  (he  dn- 
im  i<  Ihc  Dew  positian.  Mr.  Suddnth  was  an  eloqoent 
KWtar,  s  tcbolar,  and  a  Chiistian  gent  * 
VUu,  Prai.  Biit.  Atnaaac,  1861,  p.  286. 

BadboftCAaL,a  doctor  of  divinity,  and  prominent 

rhmli>gUB  of  the  Calviniatic  Church  of  Germany,  who 

<«d  ia  Ibe  year  1866  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maii 

"m-^Wrikatamitn  (4tb  ed.  Hamm.  1866):— iJer 

HriMrryer  KalaAmau  irrglitden  {3d  ed.  Kreuznach, 

'  l^l^JHtCnmiiaVu  JB«  m/er  a/rwinylie  Gratia  la- 

"nmaiiim.  rrrtvK  Dei,  el  Sneramrttlam  inttreedal,  etc. 

{Ud.  IHSi)^./.  der  StUU  (Ffankfort,  ISM.  S  pta.)  :— 

f'tnCmiekrilUduT  l^lire,m  HU/timch  £Um  Hri- 

U-r^ir  Kuhekinai,  (ibid.  iSbT) :  —  GeidiiehU  der 

UnttKinit  (Jd  ed.  ibid.  1861. 8  vnln)  ;-C"m>iuim<m- 

\^'i  i_iA  «I.ibi(L  \ii^):  —  Ckritttickt  Rrligianlthre 

\f'*'^\m\:~TknJngiirIiet  Hiaidbiifh  lur  Auilrgung 

>  ll'il'lUryrr  Kairckitmta  <ihiri.  1863).     Besides  a 

ntef  nC  anicln  fur  Herzog's  .Reiit-Enrj/Hoii.,  be  aleo 

"*  ibe  Eth  of  C.  Okvianus  and  Z.  l;rnnu^  pub- 

W  in  ibe  8lb  pan  of  /.rim  md  outgnraUft  Sehrif- 

I  Ar  I'iin-  avl  Hfgrandtr  der  rrfoTminrn  Kirthe. 

■iachold.  Kit  r*n>i.ii,  1298  «q.     (a  P.) 

Sn'Olu  Itmiliai),  ■  ootiupl  Urwk  form  (1  Esdr. 

*)  of  iht  urns  HoDAVTAH  or  Hoi>bvah  {q.  v.)  of 

tael«wB«.(En«iii.«iNeh.vti,*3). 

X— 1* 


SUFFRAGAN 

Sndic«B,  the  PaUs  of  the  Baheiiii«D»  and  Uon> 

vians,  suppoMd  to  reeemhle  the  Roman  Partxe. 

SudxB,  in  Hinduism,  is  the  lowest  of  the  four  caalea 
nong  the  Hindlls,  sprung  from  Brahma's  feet  and  ap- 
linted  to  serve  Ibeotheicaslea.  It  includea  all  inferior 
laborers  and  servanle. 

Sndil,  one  of  the  four  powerful  dwarfs  of  (he  Norse 
lylhology,  who  support  the  arch  of  the  aky  at  the  four 
regions  frorii  which  they  derive  their  names.  The  oth- 
er dwarft  are  Nntdri,  Westci,  and  Anatri.— Vollmer, 
WdTltrli.  d.  MgUiol.  s.  v. 

Baehre,  in  Pertian  mythology,  ia  (he  name  of 
Che  pUnet  Venus  before  it  wsa  placed  in  the  akf. 
It  is  identical  with  the  Arabic  Anakid.  Suehra 
waa  an  exi'eedingly  charming  maiden,  of  whom 
two  angels  became  enamniued,  and  who  resisted 
their  atiraiices  with  the  result  that  she  wss  re- 
moved to  the  akiea,  while  they  were  banished  to 
the  abysi.  In  her  new  abode  she  ia  aerv^  by  thoa- 
sands  of  celestial  ipiriu,  who  adore  her  for  her  viitoa 
and  beauty. 

Snammar  O  AI.A,  in  I^maiam,  ia  a  moDDtain  of  vast 
elevation,  which  ia  surrounded  hy  three  others,  upon 
whose  circle  nos  a  second  circle  of  four  mountains,  all 
of  tbetn  being  of  gold,  with  Ibe  exception  of  (he  central 
one,  which  ia  cumpoaed  of  a  single  green  stone.  These 
mountains  are  the  place  of  aboile  of  the  free  apirita, 
Erike  Bariksan.  The  wicked  spirits  dwell  in  the  cav- 
erna  of  the  mountains,  and  their  chief  there  bolds  a  pow- 
erfid  castle. 

SneDBB.  a  Cbristian  nobleman  in  Persia,  wbo,  re- 
fusing to  deny  Christ,  bad  hia  wife  taken  from  him,  and 
given  to  one  of  the  smperor'a  meanest  slaves;  and  what 
added  to  his  mortification  waa  that  he  was  ordered  tn 
wait  upon  hia  wife  and  tbe  slave,  which  at  length  hiuke 

SnenT.  Eustachk  Lb,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  French  painters,  wan  bom  in  ICIT,  and  after  studying 
with  hia  father,  a  sculptor,  was  placed  in  (he  school  of 
Simon  Vouet  at  Paris.  He  soon  excelled  his  maaier, 
and  adopted  a  style  which  is  nuteil  for  its  simplicity 
and  severity.     He  baa  been  termed  by  his  sdmiren  the 

ler  in  every  respecu  He  died  in  J656.  He  painted  the 
celebrated  series  of  SI.  Brunn.  iwenly-two  large  piclutes 
on  wood,  in  the  cloister  of  (he  Carthusiana  at  Pari^  be- 
fore hia  thirtieth  year:— 5^/'aHI  7*rr<irfin30l /Jpii-W).- 
—  The  GntiUt  Burmag  thrir  PnKnbai  Book  (1649), 
engraved  hy  Picart  and  Hasaard:— Aiuj  Healitig  Ikt 
Side ! -^  Marlgrdona  of  Si.  LuMrriKt  and  Bt.  ProUat, 
both  engraved  by  Gerard  Audran.  He  painted  many 
other  celebTaled  pictures,  as,  Chri^  Scourged: — Chriit 
aith  Martha  and  Mary ;  —  The  Prrttnlalim  in  Ikt 
Tempit:  —  Tkt  Binoriet  of  SI.  Martin  and  SL  £(•- 
tdia. 

Suss.    See  Red  Ska. 

auffarlug-day.     See  Gooi>-FRinAT. 

Btiflering-pialm,  tl 
"  Deus,  DeuB  meus ;"  used 
on  tjood -Friday. 

SuBeiing-iraelE.    See  Pabbiox-weik. 

Solleriiiga  or  Chbiht.    See  Vicariolb  Surnw- 

BulTetnni,  Coitncil  op  ((Tanci/iiini  Sufftbrmim ).  viaa 
heknn&3e.atwhich»LFulKentiuswaBpreae9iL  iliai.. 
np  Quod- vol t-Deus  (who  had  dispured  the  point  m  im- 
cedency  with  him  at  tbe  Council  of  Jooga.  iu  Aim* ,. 
at  his  request,  presid(^. 

Snfiragan  {mffrosaneai)  is  (he  lidr  arrplm'  i.  — - 
cry  ecclesiastic  who  has  to  assist  hia  wp""".  1'  ■  '■ 
way  Alcuin  nxplaina  the 
msgne:  "  Suflraganena  eat  nan 
ideo  nesdmua  quale  flxum  ei 
t^tsbyterorum,  aut  abbatum, . 


a  the  services  of  the  Cbaivta 


SUFFRAGE 


men,  qui  iliqnmdo  vntra  civitati  subj«cti  erani,  iilde- 
re  deiimus"  {Optra,  p.  1160).  The  term  is  also  lued 
M  synoiiymout  with  rieuriui  (we  Du  Frone,  GloMtaii' 
um,  L  v.).  It  it  given  more  especUUy  to  Inahops,  how- 
ever,  uul  in  respect  tii  them  wiih  >  tworuld  rererence. 
A  m^ragan  baliop  u  an  tpiicopat  iaparlAut  inJuMiam 
eiiiplnyed  u  the  vicar  and  a«i^'tallt  or  a  regular  dia- 
cesaii  bishiipi  but  the  name  ii  given  lo  tlie  latter  abo 
ill  view  of  the  relatiiui  he  M'Uiiis,  if  iwi  exempt  {^see 
RXEHPTIO!!].  to  Ilia  metnipiililan.  'i'he  rrUliiiii  uu- 
taioed  by  alJ  the  aulTragarM  »f  a  province  (camprorinri- 
ala)  tngether  with  their  metrupulilan,  and  the  righti 
bclnns^ng  Vi  the  latter  in  hia  relation  to  the  sutfragane 
■ml  tJieir  aubordinatea,  have  been  exactly  determined, 
and  are  ataled  in  (iralian,  Cauta  Hi,  qu.  6,  and  Caaui 
\x,  qu.  S.  Varioug  deciaiont  occur  also  in  the  decretal*, 
which  ordain  that  the  cnnsecralinn  of  a  metropnlitan 
ahatl  be  perromted  by  all  Ills  aulTraitaiia.  The  righte 
at  metnipnlitana  over  their  suffragaiia  are  limited.  See 
Innocent  III  in  c,  11,  lit  Officio  Jaduii  Onlimirii,  i, 
HI llenng,  Rral'  Knej/ktup.  e.  v.     See  Aiu^ilHiaiiop; 


ll  Chua  apfwara  thai  anciently  wtSVagan  bishopg  were 
all  the  city  biihnpi  of  any  province  under  a  melm- 
(lolilan,  who  were  called  hi*  suffragann  liecaiiM  they 
■net  at  liii  command  lo  give  tlieir  giilfragp,  cnunnel,  or 
nrlvice  in  a  provincial  synod.  In  this  sense  the  word 
was  uaeil  in  England  at  the  lime  when  l.inwond  wrote 
his  ProrvKiale  (in  1430):  "They  were  called  auffra- 
gaiis  because  they  were  bound  lo  ^ve  their  suffrs)^ 
aiul  assistance  to  the  archbishop,  beiiiR  tummoned  lo 
lake  part  in  bis  care,  though  not  in  the  )>lenitnde  of  hii 
IHxver."  The  auffragans  were  not  the  aame  as  Chobk- 
iTsvoFl  (q.  v.),  or  rural  tnahops.  Thus  it  was  also  in 
other  cburehes.  The  seventy  binhopa  who  were  imme- 
ilialelv  subject  Ki  the  bishop  of  Home,  a.«  their  primate 
•>r  melropolilan,  were  callei)  hia  sufftagaim,  because  tliey 
weio  frequently  called  to  his  synods.  I'hvoe  bishops 
were  called  by  the  peculiar  technical  Ictm  libra,  which 
stuMl  for  seventy.  Their  ekdioiia  were  regulated  by 
the  meltopolitan,  who  either  ordained  Ihem  binuelf,  or 
authorized  their  ordination.  They  were  summoned  by 
him  to  attend  the  provincial  synods,  and  could  nol  dis- 
obey such  summons  under  pain  of  suaiiensioii,  or  siime 
such  canonical  censure,  which  was  leli  to  the  discretion 
iifthemetnipoliUiiand  the  council.  From  the  I3lli  lo 
Ihe  16th  century  there  were  in  the  English  Church  a 
class  of  biihops  (1)  holding  nominal  sees,  titulars  or 
HI  pariUiia  iafidtliuia,  in  Hungary,  Greece,  and  Aaia; 
{i)  exiles,  temporary  or  pemuneni,  from  bishoprics  in 
Ireland  or  Scoiland.  who  were  called  airffVagans. 

Bishop*  who  had  no  meiropnlilan  power  lint  began 
til  have  suffragans  under  them  in  the  lOth  century. 
These  were  styled  vicar-KeneraU,  vicegerents,  ciet-tpu- 
f'tpi,  etc  SufTnigan  bishops  were  appointed  in  lierma- 
iiy  f.ir  the  ordination  of  inferior  officcia  and  the  conse- 
craiiiHi  and  benediction  of  churches,  altars,  baptismal 
wniers,  etc  Some  attempt  was  inaite  in  England,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Keformation,  to  restore  Ihe  ehor- 
e|ilMopi,  under  Ihe  name  of  suffragan  bishops.  Act  'iS, 
Henry  Vill,  1634,  appointed  several  towns  for  sulTra- 
gansees.  One  suffragan  biihopwan  consecrated  for  Not- 
lingliam,  and  another  as  bishop  of  Dover  in  1870.  A 
(lermissi  ve  act  for  bishops  suBragan  in  Irebind  was  passed 
ill  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  and  ot bets  have 
recently  been  consecrated  in  the  colonies.  See  Bing- 
ham, ChrUl.  A  ntij.  bk.  ii.  ch.  xv,  §  13-16 :  ch.  xvl,  §  Vi, 
17;  Coleman.  .4n«en(  CAruli'n%,p.  139. 

Suffrage.  In  the  eariy  Church,  one  of  the  ways 
of  designating  persons  to  the  ministry  was  In-  Ihe  orili- 
nary  courw  ol luffriigt  and  election  of  the  Church,  it 
was  also  customary  for  the  clergy  or  presbytery  (or  Ihe 
retiring  bishop  or  presbvler)  to  nominate  a  person  lo  fill 
the  vacant  office,  which  nomination  wasfollownl  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  people — sutTrages  not  merely  lotimonial, 
but  judicial  and  eleclive.  See  Riddle,  Chrisl,  A  «iiq.  f.H", 


)  SUFISM 

The  term  was  also  used  to  detignate — I.  Tbe  pohlic 
worship— the  iiniled  voice  and  consent  of  ihe  pe»p4e  in 
Ihe  petitions  nffeml.  "See  now.  then,  both  learned  and 
unlearned,  how  prayers  and  all  otheriD^u^  are  iji  ana- 
mon  to  this  spiriliial  Church"  (/.mrrra  of  high.  A.D. 
1400).  2.  A  Khon  form  of  petition,  as  in  tbe  Ulanr. 
Thus,  in  the  Onler  for  the  Consecration  of  Biabops  we 
read  that  in  the  Litany  as  then  useil,  afler  the  »«nb 
'-ihat  it  may  please  ihee  to  illuminale  all  bisbopa.* 
ciCt  "ibe  proper  la^ragt  shall  be,"  etc  t.  Tbe 
rersicle*  after  lbs  Creed  in  Homing  and  Evening 
Prayer. 


SflfiB,a 

as  founded  ii 


■lofro 


I  be  9th  o 


hilosiiphers  in  rersia,wi 
cnliiry  by  Abul  Kliair. 


thisM 


:.  and  III  have  givei 


I  char- 


acter, directing  it  especially  agaiiiS' 
the  Riisaiaw.  They  ant  to  be  found  in  eveiy  fun  oTthe 
empire;  have  their  ackmiwleiiged  head  *l  Sbiraz.  and 
their  chief  men  in  all  Ibe  principal  cities.  Hr.  MaRin, 
miseionarv  to  Ihat  oouiilrv,  calls  them  **  myatic  latitu- 
diuariana;"    Fur  Ihe  lenels,see  SOftoM. 

Suflim,  or  Soofiam  (Arabic  ni/  purt,  rit/).  a 
certain  mystic  system  of  philosophical  Iheolngv  wiiLiin 
Islam.    !u  lenets  are,  that  nothing;  exists  abwlulrly 


and.  thongh  divided  for  a 
will  be  linally  reunited  wi 
ble  hapjiinos  will  arise  fi 
chief  good  of  mankind  en 
the  Eiemal  Spirit  as  tlie 
will  allow;  ihal,  fin- this 


le  higlie 


tncumbniiKvsitfa  mortal  frame 
piirpoae,  they  shuuld  break  sU 
:  objects,  and  pass  thm^  life 
wiilioiit  attachmenls.  as  a  swimmer  in  the  ocean  airikn 
freely  without  Ihe  impedimeiitsof  clothes;  thalif  naw 
earthly  charms  have  power  lo  iiiHuence  Ihe  soul,  ih* 
iilea  of  celestial  beauty  must  overwhelm  ii  in  ccstalic 

exiiress  ihe  divine  perfection  and  the  ardor  ot  our  lie- 

the  nearest  to  our  ideas,  and  speak  of  beauty  aud  kn-r 
in  a  transcendent  and  mystical  sense;  that,  like  a  rnd 
torn  fconi  its  native  bank — like  wax  separated  from  in 
delicious  honey— Ihe  soul  of  man  bewail*  it*  di*uaii« 
with  melanclioly  music,  and  sheds  butniug  leal 
Ihe  lighted  ta|ier,  wailing  passionalrly  fiir  the  n 
ofilB  extinction,  OS  a  disengagement  fmm  earthli 
meK  and  Ihe  means  of  reliitning  to  lis  only  beloiTil 
SUGsm  teaches  (bur  principal  degree*  of  human 

mcilanism  —  such  as  prayer,  fasting,  pilgrimagv.  alnn 
giving,  ablutions,  etc — atui  the  ethical  precepts  <  '  ' 
esty,  love  of  tnith,  ami  Ibe  like.    i.  TariknI.    This  dn 
grec  it  attainable  by  those  who,  while  strictly  adheriE) 
III  the  outward  or  ceremonial  injunctions  of  religvm.  ' 
to  an  inward  perception  of  Ihe  menial  power  and  vii 
i>ec«esary  for  ihe  nearer  approach  to  the  Divinity, 
necemily  of  and  the  yearning  for  which  they  ferl, 
Hatiial  (imlh)  is  the  degree  of  those  who,  by  con 
uouB  contemplation  and  inner  devotion,  have  risen  ' 
the  true  perception  of  the  nature  of  the  visible  and  b 
vinble — who,  in  fact,  have  recognised  Ihe  (indliead. : 
Ihrough  Ibis  knowledge  of  it  have  succeedeil  in  ei-t 

degree  in  which  man  communicates  directly  with 
Deity,  and  is  ailmilted  Into  a  mymerioiis  union  wu 
him.'  Thus  it  will  be  seen  ihat  llie  highest  aim  oft) 
^Mi  is  lo  attain  self-annilitlaiinii  hy  losing  his  linms 
ly  in  Deity.  This  is  to  be  ai-conipli»lied  liy  alwiroRi 
his  mind  fmm  all  worldly  objeria,  anit  ilevoijiiff  bim> 
ID  divine  coiilemplalion.  Arcin^iliiigly  ■heSQHsTiei.-t 
an  1  despise  all  outward  ivoreliip  aa  useless  anil  uniMv 


K  high  an 


aijajau 


ig  fnini 


wilb 


IM.  All  SAIblk  potti?  and  pulutce 
IrgiviaUf  ■nd  ■jmbolicalli'.  Tbey  rrprcaeni  (he higfa- 
nc  (hiii|rs  Inr  humui  embleRM  and  human  pawiont; 
aud  Rlifi^  being  witb  lb«m  iiltntical  with  love,  erotic 
icnbiDulu)^  ia  chiefly  lued  to  iiluvtnt^  the  rcUition  of 
maa  la  God.  Thiu  the  beloTed  aiie'ii  curia  indicate  the 
ranlniea  oT  Ibe  Deity;  MiuHioua  pleuuret.  and  chiefly 
inluiicaiion,  indicate  the  highest  de|[rre  of  Jivine  inv«, 
iiteoUlk  cuHtempUtiun.  Ita  principal  reliKioua  enter 
B  Jalalnktin  Uumi,  and  ila  Ibeoloicy  prcTsJIa  amung 


Soger,  abbot  at  3c  Deni^  and  ■  leading  dignituy 
nflhe  Church  and  Katesnan  nf  France  in  the  I2tb  cen- 
torr.  wat  bora  probably  in  the  vear  108:,  and  in  the 
neiJcbborbaiMl  tf  St.  (taier,  and  wai  educated  in  the 
MiiiiHiiij  of  St.  Denis,  where  the  crown-prince,  I^ouia 
iht  Fat,  vaa  hia  ctxnpaniun.  After  completing  hii 
Nadirs  in  1103,  be  was  esi|ilayed  by  abbot  Adam  of  St. 

ntii-mt,  and  in  their  defe 
pn^oty  kaighta.  On  the  accoHon  of  IjHiis  VI  to 
rbe  thniH  (1108),  Suger  became  hitcountelUiriand  con- 
Iribaled  gremlly  (o  Ibe  Mbjufcacion  of  the  baniim,  who 
had  thnnrn  off  all  raponaibility,  and  lo  the  establiih- 
iac  of  the  royal  ■uihoriiy.  by  which  the  reign  of  Louis 
VC  became  noted  in  the  hiMniy  nf  France,     lie  was 

line  (see  the  anicle),  whtcli  at  (hat  lime  agilaled  both 
HuDcbaul  btaie,  taking  aiilee  wilb  the  pope,  u  the  pol- 
icy «f  Foncc  dHiiaiided.  He  waa  pmeent  al  the  l.at- 
ma  CnHKil  in  1 1 12,  which  annulled  the  oniiccMions 
■aadebi  pope  I'aachal  II  la  Henry  V.  lii  1118  he  met 
■he  faKiti<'e  inpe  (ietasiua  II,  and,  in  Ibe  name  of  bis 
kinc.  placed  all  tbe  n*Durcei  of  France  sL  hia  dixpoaal 
Sfninai  hii  Italian  advenariea.  He  subsequently  ne- 
paialtd  a  teulenwnt  of  the  question  <if  iuvestituie,  in 
1111,  which  pmTed  salisfactorv  lo  both  Fnoce  and  the 
V»!»".  [n  IIW  he  became  the  snccessor  of  the  de- 
rtMrd  Adam  i»  the  alibKy  of  Si.  Denis,  and  in  1 134  be 
Tiiiial  Rsfue  to  aitend  the  great  Laleran  Council,  and 
while  tbcn  *a  iugratialcd  himseirwilh  Ibe  popr,Calix- 
|B>  IL  that  [he  Uller  proposnl  to  create  him  cardinal,  a 
pn^Kt  which  failed  by  reasnnof  tlie  decease  of  the  pope. 
lU  aornnipanied  the  aimy  in  a  campiifin  agaiiiM  ibe 


n  the 


About  II?;  Hugo  renounce*!  the  habits  of  his  pre- 
•inaa  worldly  life  ami  became  an  aacetic;  ami,  after 
ksTinc  lefctrmd  binuelf,  be  undertook  to  enfurce  the 
Hnmhrtiiw  mie  in  aU  its  strictness  in  the  ahbev  of  St. 
IteaK  lie  fulAUed  his  spiritual  funclinna  conscirn- 
tiHi4i-,  and  built  *  magniBcent  church  while  himself 
liriiMtin  a  little  celL  Hia  principal  merit  mnaiata,  how - 
nar,  in  an  esnllmt  adminiMraiinn  uf  the  onnvent,  in 

of  ehuFclMa.  and  in  the  diaseminstion  of  the  influencea 
Mtmkuir  throoicbout  Ibe  MirTounding  wtsiea.  Hia  di- 
i*<n>i«  of  Ibe  albira  of  tbe  State  still  eontiniKd,  and, 
when  LoaiaVII  ascended  the  throne  (in  1I3T),  became 
em  more  pcnnounced  than  before.  He  was  ueoeiated 
with  UstiapJaacelinarSoiiaoniin  the  rrgencr,  and  ad- 
wmisieTed  the  gorenimrnt  on  tbe  plan  of  tbe  late  king. 
His  UiMiKM  apfwan  in  his  nsisting  tbe  papal  inier- 
dM  (in  1141)  by  which  Innocent  II  Kiught  lu  force  ( 
prrlaie  into  the  archbidioprie  of  Boitrges  against  ibe 
**|*TMed  win  «f  the  king.  His  endearnr  to  restrain 
tkt  bine  (tom  embarking  in  hia  crusade  failed ;  but  he 


STIGIN 

appointed  regent  of  the  cmintry  during  tbe  king's 
nee,  in  conjunclion  with  the  archbishop  omheinia 
count  Vetmenduis.  Aiiled  by  the  pope,  he  subdued 
rebelliouB  notulity,  and  so  wisely  *ilniiiii>leteil  the 
ices  that  be  was  able  to  honor  Ibe  incessant  drslla 
mis,  and  also  to  erect  many  edillcea,  and  still  save 
large  sums  of  money  to  the  public  treasury,  llie 
height  of  his  career  was  reached  when  he  succeeded  in 
neutralizing  the  endeavors  of  Kobert  of  Drtux,  tbe 
brother  of  LouU  VI,  who  hid  returned  from  the  Holy 
Land  in  1 148,  in  seize  upon  the  supreme  auihnrily.  At 
tbe  same  time,  he  succeeded  in  reBJating  the  deaires  for 
radical  reform  fostered  by  Abelard  and  Pierre  de  Uruya, 
while  lealoualy  endeavoring  to  correct  Ihe  abuses  from 
which  those  desires  had  sprung.  He  was  funber  auc- 
cesaful  in  a  conHict  with  the  canons  of  Sl.  Genevij.ve,in 
Paris,  whose  convent  pope  Eugene  HI  had  directol 
him  to  reform  in  accordance  with  ihe  Benedictine  rule, 
Louia  Vn.on  bis  return,  in  114V,  publicly  thanketl  ihe 
regent  and  called  him  the  father  of  his  country;  and 
Bernard  of  Gairvaux  and  a  number  of  foreign  prince* 
wroie  to  him  in  token  of  their  admiraiinn  and  respect. 
He  enjnvcd  his  fame,  however,  during  a  brief  season 
only,  and  died  Jan.  1!,  1161.  His  liierary  remsins  in- 
clude only  sixty  misceUaneouB  letten  (in  Duvbesiie, 
ftcriplnra,  roL  ir),  a  report  nf  his  sdmiiiisiratioii  of 
St.  IJenis,  and  a  biography  of  Louia  TI  which  ranks 
among  (he  superior  historii^  productions  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (bnih  in  Duchesne, Kt  <«/<.). 

See  llil.  Lil.  de  la  Framfe,  xii,  SSI ;  Bernardi,  Euai 
Hial.  mr  FA  «*  Suger,  in  A  rvhirrt  Lil.  dr  FKsropt  (Par. 
1807),  vol.  xiv  and  xv;  C^mv,  Eludn  mr  In  Fimdalnin 
de  rUnili  S'al.m  Fnma  (ilnd.  1B48),  ^-ol.  i;  Combes, 
/.■Abbe  Super  (ibid.  ISM);  monk  Wilbclro"s  (a  contem- 
porary) biography  of  Suger,  in  Guizol,  CoU.  del  Mi- 
moirei,  vd.  viii. — Herzog,  Rtid-Emrsklop,  s.  v. 

Sngseatum,  or  Stiggestlo  <u  dttk),  a  name 
frequently  given  to  Ihe  jmu,  or  sanctuan-,  uf  a 
chufLh. 

SL'GRESTCM   Lkctoruh,  one   of  several   namea 

Sngin  Cr^'D,  from  3tD),  or  pnirt,  is  a  Masorelic 
term  lo  denote  groups  of  words  which  occur  in  one  sec- 
tion several  times,  once  in  this  connection  and  once  in 

ticeil  by  the  Hasoriles,  they  arranged  them  into  ','J1S, 
or  pain.  Thus  tbe  Mauora  Fimitit  gives  under  the 
letter //e (p. !16,coLl)"eleven  pairs, each  aneofwhich 
pair  alternately  occurs  wiib  an  audible  //e  ( =  Mappik) 
and  wilh  a  quiescent  He  (  =  Raphe);"  e.  g.  H"'TO 
(Prov,  Kxxi,  10)  and  n^:o  (Gen.  xxv,  81);  T\^ZZ1 
(Lev.  xiii,90)  and  ntSV^  (ver.  4).  Or  Ibe  Mawirites 
tell  usof"  twenty-two  wonis  beginning  and  ending  with 

with  Car  cnnjanclire,  and  once  IHUrl,  or  wilh  Vok  con- 
versivc,"  as  liar*!  (Gen.  ili,  36)  and  l-ias-l  (Exod. 


ii,10);  ■!031'^(XJI 


'1  (X. 


«.2I). 


ey  tell 

us  tba 

"there 

are 

our  gn-upe  of  words,  each 

which 

Ibe 

book;  01 

ce  with  a 

donci 

wilb  a 

vord  more 

d  a  lelb 

riess. 

Tbe  llrM  of  sucb 

a  pair U 

'Jehovah. 

(Deuu  vi,  13);  the  second,  "Jehovah,  thy  liod,  thou 
sbalt  frar,  him  ihou  shalt  aerve,  and  to  him"  (x,  20), 
which  will  be  boE  illustrated  by  the  Hebrew,  vix.; 

i3rr  irwi  st-iT  T-nis  nin"  rx  iDeuu  vi,  is). 
131  najn  iTK  K^-ri  ^-nbs  nm^  rst  (Dent,  i,  K). 

They  enumerate  instances  in  which  four  words  occur 

particle  S^  and  once  without  it,  as  ^SIM  xb  (<ien. 
ixiii,  II)  and  "•ri!*  (ver.  16),or  IBH  »i  (Lev.  xiii,4) 
and  ^En  (ver.  20),    They  ntcniiuii  Ave  pain  of  words 


SUICEK 


12 


SULLIVAN 


Hhkb  reipacdiral;  occur  once  with  tb«  Vav  eoi^Dne- 
live  aad  once  wilboat  it,  w  V^''  T'  CJ«h.  xii,  7) 
and  ■JlO''  V^  ("■•  *2)  1  1^^^'  131D01  (Exod.  i,  8) 
■ml  -liiain  -lacnni  (Oiin.  xxxv,  23).  without  in- 
creujng  the  numbei  the  reader  ii  referred  t«  Fteiudorff 
(Miutom  Magna,  p.  339  sq.).  where,  under  the  heading 
yilJ,  Ibese  pain  are  given  in  alphalieticBl  order.  A 
comiriele  Hal  of  the  above-quoled  initance«  ia  given  by 
Frensilorir  in  his  OcAla-it-Ofila,  p.  14,  fi2,  $  42 ;  p.  14,  &2 
H|.,g4a;  p.  133,  §232;  p.  188,5260;  p.  ISS,S  £61;  and 
in  LevitA,  Maiioreth  ttamnaiortii  (ed.  Giiislh),  p.  ITS, 
2(l7,212,223,22fl.     {R  P.) 

Saioer,  JoHAiTK  Cabpar,  the  author  of  the  Tie- 
laanit  EtxUtiiuliaa,  waa  boni  June  26, 16Sa  He  was 
educated  in  Zurich,  Bfanlauban,  and  Saiimut.  in  1643 
he  returned  (o  Zurich,  and  hecune  pastor  in  the  Thur- 
giu,  but  was  recalled  in  IG44  to  tbe  Khool*  of  the  rur- 
mer  city.  In  1646  he,  became  inspector  of  the  atuniiute 
and  profefleor  of  Hebrew,  teu  years  ■ftenvarda  professor 
of  Ureek  and  Latin  in  the  Coti^iinn  Ifmmoiilalu,  and  in 

lege  (Cai-oivtum).  He  remained  in  this  position  until 
1683,  and  died  Dec.  29, 1684.      ' 

Snioer  rendered  valuable  service  to  tbeology  by  hi* 
thorough  phlluloglcal  lalH>Tii.  His  earliest  works  were 
text-lwoks  for  atudenu :  Sylloge  Vocum  A'on  rear.  (Tig. 
1648,  and  1653  with  appended  eotopend  or  Greek  pros- 
ody; republished  in  1741  by  Hagenboeh)  i— 5j>nliizau 
Crocie,  etc  (1661): — 'EftimfWv/inm  Eiai0iiat,gi'o  daa 
CArgioitomi  tl  daa  BiuUii  M.  Homila  ConlmmWr,  etc 
(1658  and  1681)  :  — Joh.  Frisii  Tiguriiii  Dirt.  Lalmo- 
Gtrm.et  Germ.- Lai.  (i^i  sq. )  t-Cumnniu  VeHihuL 
SiAolarum  Umi/tlkvu  Accommodatum,  etc  (1605)  :— 
finaUy,  the  celebrated  Thaaurat  Eixkt.  (Ainst.  1GM2.  2 
vol).fDt.:  two  enlarged  edo.  1728  and  1821,  with  supple- 
ments) :—LfXictm  Graco-LaUflljiU-Gracim (1683):— 
and,  after  Suicer's  death,  the  S^inAoJ^  Skaitri-Coiut.rla 
A  nkjuUate  Ecda.  Iliartrtatm  (Traj.  ad  Rh.  17 18. 4lo). 
Various  other  writings  were  left  in  manuscript,  snd  the 
Laicoo  Grac.  Sfnjtu  and  Ezpotitio  SymboL  ei  Apotl.  el 
AtAanatiani  are  lost,  Suicer's  kaming  in  these  works, 
particularly  the  Thtiaunu,  is  so  evident  that  Charies 
Faiiii,  in  his  TrattU,  observes  that  Suicer  uodentood 
more  Greek  than  sll  the  Greeka  taken  together. 

Suicer  took  but  tittle  part  in  the  doctrinal  contro- 
veniies  of  his  day.  He  regretted  tbeir  existence,  and 
aaaiated  hia  frieiid  Heidegger  in  securing  a  modiOca- 
tion  of  the  f'onaala  C'uniBaui. — Hetiog,  Real-Knct/ttop. 
B,  v.    See  Hklvktic  CoNSBNSua. 

SnlcldA  (Lat.  nt,  one's  self,  snd  cadert,  to  kill)  is 
deHned  as  the  killing  of  one's  self  with  malice  afuie- 
thougbt,  and  while  in  the  poBseaaion  of  a  sound  mind. 

felony.  In  the  early  Church  suicid^  were  culled  ^o- 
Siii/HTOi  ( itolAawift ),  fiom  oflcring  violence  to  them- 
selves. Because  suicide  waa  a  crime  that  cmdd  have 
no  gienance  imposed  upon  it,  the  Churcli  denied  the  eui- 
cide  the  honor  and  soleninily  of  a  Christian  burial,  snd 
alhiwed  him  to  lie  excommunicated  and  deprived  uf  all 
memorial  iu  her  prayers  after  death.  In  England  Ibis 
crime  was  puniabed  not  only  with  forfeiture  of  goods 
and  chattels,  like  other  felonies,  but  the  boily  of  the  sni- 
ctde  waa  buried  in  the  night  at  the  cmnings  of  two 
highwayawiih  a  Slake  driven  through  tbe  body.  This 
ancient  rule  waa  repealed  by  Statute  4  George  IV,  c  61, 
snd  now  the  burials  take  place  in  a  churchyard,  iHit  be- 
between  9  and  12  P.M. 

Suicide  ia  now  generally  considered  a  aymptom  of 
some  form  of  insanity,  permanent  or  temporary,  in  which 
the  entolions  and  passions  aie  excited  or  pervrncd. 
Tbe  following  statistics  : 
CAamAcrsV  Encyciopadiaf 
Sweden  there  ia  calculated  to 
92,376  inhabitants;  in  Saxony, 
to  84,246 ;  in  tbe  United  Stales, 


to  2700;  in  St  Feienburg  and  Loodoo,  1  to  21,000.    la 

all  England  the  proportion  of  aiuddea  i*  7.J  to  evoy 
100,000  people."  See  Winslow,  ^iHVomy  of  StneUt: 
Briferre  de  Boiamont,  Dti  Suicide  tide  la  Folie  Sncvfc  i 
Bertrand,  TraiU  du  Suicide:  Kadolitle,  EngliiJi  SaiiHi 
FitUi;  Mtdiail  Critic,  18S2. 

ankkab.    See  Talmud. 

SoklEllin  (Heb.  SuUdgim',  D'^B,  booA-^vOtn 
[Gesen.]  or  inluAitintU  nfS6k  [FUrst]  ;  Sept.  TpwyXo- 
ivTOi;  XtHfi-Troglodgta;  A.  Y. '■Sukkiims'^,a  nation 
mentioned  (S  Chron.  xii,  3)  with  tbe  Lubim  anl 
Cushim  as  supplying  part  of  the  army  which  came 
with  Sbishak  out  of  Egypt  when  he  invaded  Judah. 
If  the  name  be  Hebrew,  it  may  perhaps  be  better  M 
suppose  them  la  have  been  an  Arab  tribe  like  tbe 
ScenitJB  than  Ethiopians.  If  it  ia  borne  in  mind  that 
Zerah  was  apparently  allied  with  the  Araba  south  of 
Palestine  [see  Zerah], whom  we  know  Sbishak  to 
have  subdued  [see  SmauAKl.our  oanjeciore  does  not 
seem  to  be  impmbable.  The  Sukkiim  may  curesficnd 
to  some  one  of  the  shepherd  or  wsndering  races  men- 
tioned un  tbe  Egyptian  monuments,  but  we  have  not 
round  any  name  ill  hieroglyphics  resembling  tbdrname 
in  the  Bible,  and  this  somewhat  favors  the  opinioo  thai 
it  ia  a  Shemilic  appeUaUon,— Smith.  The  Sept.  and 
Vulg.  render  Trogtodgla,  apparently  meaning  the  Elbl- 
opiaiis  by  thst  name,  who  lived  on  the  western  ibote  of 
the  Arabian  Gulf  (Siraho,  xvii,  7S6),who  might  have 
been  emplovcd  ss  fleet  and  light-armed  auxiliaries  of 
the  Egyptiins  {Heliod.  Jitk.  viii,  16).  Pliny  (vi,  S4) 
menliona  a  Tn^lodytic  city  in  this  dirediun  caUed 
Sttche  (see  Bochsrt,  Phairs,  iv,  29).     See  Ethiopia. 

BnlevlZB,  ■  kind  of  wood-godd eases  among  the  nt- 
cient  Gaula,  who  are  known  to  ua  only  from  an  inscrip- 
tion in  baa -relief  found  nesr  l^uuune.  which  in- 
clude* three  female  figures  whose  hands  ate  filled  irilib 
fruit. 

Solllvan,  Daniel  N.  V.,  a  minister  of  tbe  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  licensed  as  a  local 
preacher  in  Alabama  in  1833.  In  1838  he  removed  l» 
Texas,  and  engageil  in  leaching.  In  1840  be  waa  re- 
ceived on  trial  into  the  Texas  Conference,  and  semi 
the  Church  as  paslnrsnd  pre«ding  elder  until  his  death, 
at  HouBton,Keb.2n,  1847.  llewaaa  mlniairrirfa  high 
order  of  talents,  and  especially  eminent  for  his  ability  in 
defining  and  defending  the  dodiioes  of  the  Bible.  See 
MihUla  nfAaauul  Cm/ertaca  ofHu  if,  A".  Civrvk, 
South,  1847,  p.  96. 

SalliTan,  Lott  BompiiB.  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Wareham.  Mass.,  June  27,  1790.  and 
waa  a  graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the  claaa  of 
1814.  For  some  time  after  leaving  college  bn  had 
charge  of  the  Academy  in  Wrenlbara,  Maaik,  at  the 
aame  lime  reading  theology  with  the  Ker.  Olie  Tbomp- 
sun  of  Rehoboih,  Mass.  Having  completed  hia  tlteoki^- 
ical  studies,  he  went  to  Ohio,  and  was  ordained  pastur 
of  the  Congregational  Chutcli  in  the  town  of  Lyme  in 
■bat  sute.  Here  he  remained  about  six  yeata.  8ab- 
sequently  he  resided  for  ten  yeaia  and  more  in  WeM- 
em  New  York  as  a  missionary  in  tbe  service  of  the 
American  Home  Missionary  Suoely,  and  perfonoed  a 
most  acceptable  work  in  preaching  lo  several  cbun;bca 
in  thst  newly  settled  region.  He  did  a  like  aarvice  in 
sparsely  seitled  sections  of  New  Hampshire  and  Ver- 
mont. For  several  years  he  reaided  at  Sbutfobarr, 
Mass.,  preaching  as  opportunitv  presented.  He  died 
at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  March  1,~  1861.  See  the  Comg. 
Quailerif,  I8CI,  p.  216.     (J.  C.  S.) 

SulllTan,  Samael  B.,  a  miniater  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  waa  bum  Jan.  27. 1826.  and  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  eleven.  In  1816  he  waa  licpiiaed 
to  preach,  and  It  the  next  session  of  the  Erie  Conferpnoe 
was  received  on  uial.  His  ministry,  though  marked 
with  many  conversions,  waa  short,  for  be  died  April  it, 
1853.    He  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinarj'  poircn  of 


SULLY  1 

■isd— Gnnit,  fofcible,  tablime,  uid  geunallj-  powerful 
IB  bii  piwhing.  See  MimUt*  of  Atmaid  Coitfemioa, 
l(l«3,p.»«. 

SaUy,  MBUilca  de,  >  Freoeh  prelMe,  wu  bom 
H  SuUi'-wr-LoiRi,  abouL  the  midillf  of  the  13th  een- 
tiay.arabMun  pventage.  Having  Kqoired  in  educa- 
(ka  (btoi^h  cbiritT,  be  uught  letter*  and  theotoK]'  in 
Plrii,WHl  wu  at  length  made  canon  of  the  Cathedral 
«r  Dam  Rill,  and  CTentually  of  that  of  Paris,  to  the  bUh- 
ofric  of  irhich  tie  Bnallv  aiuined  by  aome  mean*.  He 
(iatlj  «iilaifEed  ilie  niitlcea,  honors,  and  emolumenia 
nftbaiaee,  and  died  Sept.  11, 11911,  leaving  L<am,S<t- 
■BH,  and  a  Knocb  tranalation  of  tbe  New  Teglameot 
(Ljooe,  IS1 1,  Stu).     See  Horfer,  A'obb.  Biog.  Gin.  a.  v. 

Bully,  Odon  (or  i.'aiiv)  de,  a  French  prelate,  waa 
hon  abuut  I  IGo  at  U  Chapelle  J'Angillon  (Bern),  be- 
hig  the  aon  of  Eudea  Archambaud,  lord  of  Suliy.  He 
wiirdatated  at  Pari*,  and  in  1181  became  linger  at  the 
Cubedral  ef  Boorgn.  In  1187  he  Tinted  Rome,  and  in 
IIM  neceeded  bia  brother  Maurice  ai  bithop  of  Farie,  a 
e  which  be  ia  laid  by  Pierre  I  ■ 


lend  with  greM  b 


■Mnaer.  Ue  loolt  the  pope'a  part  in  the  eecletiaalical 
■loamb  of  hia  oountrj'  at  the  time,  and  waa  cumpelled 
la  Ok,  leariog  hia  property  to  be  conSacated  by  tbe 
cmwo,  but  waa  erentually  restored  with  additional  hon- 
m.  A  owDcil  of  Tarii  waa  held  under  him  by  the  pa- 
pal  legate  in  1  JOl ;  he  laid  the  foondatloD  of  Pomna,  of- 
lefvantatfaniona  aa  Pon-Royal;  and  be  preached  a  cru- 
•ade  agaiuA  the  Albigenaes.  He  died  at  Parii,  July 
13,1-JOH.     Se«  Hoefer,A'oBc.flio3.C*j<rai,«.v. 

BolphtU  ii  dewgnated  in  Heb.  aa  r^''~it\,gophrilh 
fA.V.-bnBaCoae~>.  and  in  Greek  »tiav'(^>i"^l>, 
Jij^nn.ir.  g,3).  In  Clie  Scriptoree  it  ia  very  frequent- 
!t  aagociaisd  with  *■  fire :"  "  Tbe  Lord  rained  upon  Sod- 
vm  and  t^onHcnh  brimMone  and  flie  out  of  heaven" 
(UetL  xix,  21;  aee  alao  Paa.  li,  6;  Eick.  unvlii,  22). 
Ia  J<ib  iTiia,  16  and  laa.  xu,  3S  "  brimuone''  occuri 
•Imw.  baa  no  doubt  in  a  Muae  aimUar  to  that  in  the  fore- 
rlx.  aa  a  ■yaoaymoua  expresaion  with 
»  haa  been  oheerred  by  Le  Ctere  {DiitrrL  <k 
Stiomm  /tatrtniimr, Commenlario  FnUUBiek  Ailjecia, 
$iT>.inebadui,Roaeninllller.aDd  otbera.  There  ie  a 
peoiliaraidptaatTnia  odor  which  is  occasionally  perceived 
isaanBpany  athunder-slorni.  The  ancieiita  draw  par- 
tiralar  alMntioa  (o  it:  see  Pliny  (Hill.  A'uf.  xxxv,  lb), 
'FiiliBtn  ae  fulgara  qooqne  aulphuriaodonimhabenl;" 
StOMa  <  Q.  Sat.  ii.  68 ),  and  Pentua  {  SnU  ii,  'U,  ib ). 
UCBCB  the  cxpnaaiun  in  the  aacrtd  writings  "Are  and 
bnaMCaae'  to  denote  a  stonn  of  thunder  and  lightning. 
Tbeatreaaw  of  bfimatone  in  Isl  xxk,  8S  is,  no  doubt,  as 
Lee  (//(*.  I,rx.  p.  t2B)  haa  well  exproaed  it,  >•  a  rushing 
■  ofligtiuiing.'   From  Deut.xxii,SS,<>  The  whole 


L  would  appear  that  native  sulphur  itaelfia  al- 
aee  alao  Isa.  xxxiv,  9).  Sulphur  is  found  at 
«nt  parts  of  Palestine,  but  in 
e  gRateat  atnndance  on  the  hordera  of  [he  Dead  Sea. 
*  We  picked  up  pieci«,"  says  Dr.  Kobinson  {BM.  Ra.  ii, 
ttl),''as  large  a*  a  walnut  near  the  northern  shore,  and 
tbt  Arabs  miA  it  was  found  in  the  sea  near  'Ain  el- 
Pvbhhab  in  lumps  as  large  as  a  man's  est:  they  find 
it  ia  ailEcient  quantities  to  make  from  it  their  own  gun- 
pBWdeT."  See  Irby  and  Uangles  (  rrow/i,  p.  463 ), 
Bnekhaiill  {Tratili.  p.  394),  who  obserFet  that  the 
Aiaba  wse  aulpbar  in  dixeases  of  their  camels,  and  Shaw 
iTmtU,  ii,  US).  There  are  hat  sulphurous  springs  on 
th*  casttm  cuaat  of  the  ancient  Callirrhoe  (Iriiy  snd 
Hanglf^  TratriM,  p.  467 ;  Kobinson,  BOL  Rn.  ii,  223). 
'n*  pieeaa  ufsalphDrirariing  In  aic  from  a  natmegto 
a  saHll  ben'a  egg,  which  traTellert  pick  up  on  the  shore 
•4  tiM  PmiI  Se«,  bavr,  in  all  prebaUlity,  been  disinle- 
I  tbt  adjacent  limestone  or  rolcanic  rocks 
ittnshortes.  Sulphur  was  much  used 
■d  Booun*  in  tbnr  leligious  puriAca- 
f]  PUnr,  XIX*,  \b);  hence  the  Greek 


»  SULZER 

word  iiiav,  lit.  "the  divine  thing,''was  employed  la 
express  this  substsnce.  Sulphur  is  found  nearly  pure 
in  dlRctent  parts  of  the  world,  and  generally  in  i-ulcanie 
districts.  It  eiiats  in  combination  with  metals  and  in 
various  sulphates:  it  is  very  combustible,  and  is  used 
in  tbe  manufaclure  of  gunpowder,  matches,  etc  Pliny 
{tot.vii.)  uys  one  hind  or  sulphur  was  employed  "ad 
cllychnia  eooBcienda."     See  Ubhutohb. 

Snlploioua,  or  Pbik»t«  of  tkk  Sociktt  or  St. 
Sulpick.  This  society  was  founded  in  the  parish  of 
St.  Sulpiee,  Paris,  in  1M5,  by  Jean  Jacques  Olier  deVet- 
neuiL  The  act  founding  the  society  was  dated  Sep).  6, 
1646,  and  was  immediately  sanctioned  by  the  aiilhoii- 
ties.  The  society  is  epecially  devoted  In  the  training 
of  candidates  for  tbe  priesthood,  and  is  funned  into  two 
bands,  one  devoted  to  parish  work  and  the  other  to  teach- 
ing. Being  warmly  befriended  by  SL  Vincent  de  Paul, 
the  Sulpiclans  soon  estshlished  themselves  in  nearly  all 
the  dioceses  of  France,  and  look  the  chief  part  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  French  clergy  down  to  the  Revolution  of 
17S9.  Thev  weie  supiireased  bv  Kapoleon  in  ]HIZ,but 
were  restored  by  Louis  XVllI. '  In  1636  Olier  formed  a 
companv  fur  ciilcmiiingthe  island  of  Montreal,  who  pur- 
chased it  in  1640,  sent  out  Sieur  de  Haisonneiive  with 
priesla  and  nuns  in  1641,  aitd  translefred  their  proprie- 
torship to  the  Sulpicians  in  1660.  In  1667  the  Sul- 
picians  De  Queylus,  Snuard,  and  Ualiniet  look  posses- 
sion of  the  island,  but  their  claims  were  resisted,  and  a 
conflict  or  jurisdiction  arose  which  had  not  been  settled 
as  late  as  the  early  pan  of  1876.  In  I66H  the  Sulpi- 
cions  Franfoia  de  K^nelon  snd  Claude  Trouve  Tounded 
the  Drat  Iroquois  mission  at  the  western  extremity  of 
l^ke  Ontario,  but  their  Ishon  were  confined  principally 
to  the  Indians  near  Montreal.  In  Montreal,  in  addition 
to  the  seminary  attached  to  the  Church  or  Koire  Dame, 
founded  in  lGo7,  they  possess  (he  Theological  Seminar?-, 
the  Preparatory  Seminatj',  or  "  College  of  Montteal," 
founded  in  1773,  and  several  other  suecnrsal  churches 
with  their  residences.  Invited  by  bishop  Carroll  in 
April,  1791.  a  band  of  four  Sulpicians  and  three  Semina- 
rians, beaded  by  Ftanfois  Charles  Nsgot,  ssiled  for  Bal- 
timore, Md^  where  they  formed  for  a  time  the  clergy  of 
the  catbedraL  Some  of  their  number  went  to  teach  in 
the  Georgetown  College,  and  founded  the  St.  Mary's 
Theological  Seminary,  lioltimore,  with  a  college  or  pre- 
paratory school  Pope  Gregorj-  XVI  raised  the  semi- 
nary to  the  rank  of  s  univeisity.  The  collegiate  tchoni 
waa  removed  to  EUicottaty.Howaid  Co.,  in  181B,and 
suppressed  in  1862. 

Bnlpioltis  Skvuiub.    See  Skvbiii.'b.  Suuicids. 

Btilter,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  tbe  knife  of  the 
wicked  Uela.     The  word  sigoities  drrouring  hajtgtr, 

Bnlser,  Simon,  an  avowed  adherent  and  adrocala 
of  the  Lutheran  view  of  the  Lord's  supper  in  Switzer- 
land during  the  period  of  the  Reformation.  He  was 
bom  Sept. 22. 1608— the  iUrgilimaie  child  of  a  provost 
of  Inter^schen.  After  previous  viciseiiudes,  he  was  rec- 
ommended by  Benhold  Haller  (q.  v.)  to  the  Council  of 
Berne,  and  vras  thus  enabled  to  punue  his  studies  at 
the  expense  of  the  public  tresaury,  which  he  did  at 
Basle  and  .Strasburg.  He  aubaeqnently  became  a  teach- 
er of  ancient  languagea,  and  was  employed  in  establish- 
ing schools  throughout  the  canton  of  Berne.  When 
Holler  died  he  waa  deputed  to  Strasburg  to  negotiate 
the  call  of  a  successor.    He  look  lealous  part  wiilt  tha 

snd  even  (in  15BH)  visited  Saxony  and  had  an  interview 
with  Luther.  Having  been  won  over  to  the  poNtion 
of  Luther,  Sulier  steadily  persevered  in  defending  the 
Lutheran  view  of  the  sacrament;  at  lirst  in  Berne,  aa 
professor  of  dialectics  and  rhetoric  and  subsequently  of 
theology,  as  well  as  in  the  pulpit;  and  anerwsrds,  be- 
ginning in  1M8,  at  Basle,  where  he  became  pastor  of 
St.  Pater's,  and  in  1563  professor  of  Hebrew.  In  I65S 
he  became  the  successor  of  Myconius  in  the  cathedral, 
and  chief  pastor  of  Basle,  and  with  these  dignities  be 


SUMERU 


U 


SUMMER-HOUSE  SILVEl 


united  in  16S1  a  profeSBonhip  nT  theology.  In  1S63  he 
■cquireil  Ihe  theological  doctorate ;  nnd  he  filled,  in  ad- 
dition, th»  position  or  Mperinteodent  of  Rtiteln  uuder 
Ibe  margrave  Charles  of  Usdon. 

Sulier  entertained  ilie  bold  project  of  inducing  the 
Church  of  Banle  to  iuhacribe  to  the  Form  n/  Coneord, 
and  tu  refuae  the  acceptance  of  the  second  Helvetic 
Canfeuion  of  1666.  See  Helvetic  CosPiuaiON.  Ke 
succeeded  in  cauNnK  the  omiHon  uf  explanatory  not«s 
fconi  future  puUicacions  of  the  dm  Helvetic  (Juiifession 
(of  1&31I,  and  in  limiting  its  infiuence.  Sulzer's  views 
on  the  Biciamenl  aie  given  in  the  conreHiun  which  he 
inaligated  the  hurgomaiter  or  Brunn  to  i»ue  in  IGT8 
itteHtseobac\i,GeMeJi.>Ler1tnBiukrCim/fttiofi).  He 
waa  also  anceeMrul  in  perauadiiig  Ihe  authoritiea  tu  per- 
mit the  use  at  the  nrKan  in  the  churches  and  on  hnli- 
daja,  aiwl  the  ringing  of  the  an-called  "pope's  bell"  (a  gill 
from  Felix  V).  He  died  June  22,  lUtfi.  The  archives 
of  Ihe  Chnrch  of  Uaile  and  Sulzer's  family  papers  fell 
into  the  handa  of  his  heira,  and  were  partially  lost.  Hia 
auoceaanr,  J.  J.  GryntBus,  promoted  Ihe  Heformeil  the- 
dogy,  but  Sulzer's  arrangements  with  regard  to  o^an  i 
and  bell  slUl  continue  in  force.  i 

See  Henng,  A  Ihea.  Raur.  p.  26,  where  a  catalogue  of 
Sulzer's  writings  may  be  found  \  Humleshajcen.  Cimftibt 
da  ZwiaglitnUmia,  LutUrtkum  u.  CalciKtiauu  (Ikme, 
1S4'2), p. I05sq.:  Kirchliofer, Btrth. llvlUr (Ba»le.  1B27), 
Hagenbach.  IHe  iheolog.  SckuU  HokTu,  eir.  (l)MO)i 
I'holuck,  in  GtMh.  d.  alaidrm.  JM)eiu  tin  lllea  Jahrh. 
p.  921  sq.— HerzoR,  Reat-EnyUap.  s.  r. 

Sujii«m  (or  MeT1l).the  north  pole,  ■  monnlain  of 
gold  ami  pi«cioua  stones  on  which  dwell  Ihe  genii  and 

SummSnns,  an  Etruscan  and  Roman  divinity,  the 

god  of  the  nightly  sky,  the  lightning-darter  of  the  night, 
as  .lupiler  was  uf  the  day.  His  temple  stood  neat  the  ; 
Circus  Haximua,  and  a  repteaentatinn  of  him  in  clay  ] 
was  given  in  the  pediment  of  the  Capiloline  temple. ' 
"Whenever  ■  tree  waa  atruck  by  lightning  in  the  night, 
the  A  rc'i/  bmlAtri  would  olTer  a  blach  ram  to  Summa-  I 
nuB  (I'liiiv,  //.  A",  ii,  53j  Aupisl.  Dr.  Cii.  DH,  iv,  2S; 
Varro,A'7,u^.ti((.v.T4;  Uvy,xiEiii,£9;  Qvii,Fa$l.' 
vi,73li  Cicero,  Z>(!  Mi>.  i,  10,  etc.). 

Bmnmei'  is  the  invariable  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  | 
of  Iho  Heb.  y:^,  Ugiu  (Chald.  S7^,  kdyil,  Dan.  ii,  95 ; ' 
New  Test.  SffMc,  ht<U},  which  properly  signifies  iarreil 
of  fniils  (not  iif  grain,  which  is  ^^S]?),  strictly  thecu/- 
fv^/orthefQiit(laa.xvi,9;  Jer.viii,!0:  xlviii,82); 
specially  jfjp-AaiTfitf,  which  in  Palestine  takes  place  in 
-August,  although  the  early  figs  (D'''1<I3B)  ripeti  al  Ihe 
summer  solstice  (Isa.  iiiviii.4:  Micvii,!);  hence  the 
.harvest-time  of  flgs,  i.  e.  summer,  espediUly  nirfjHnuner, 
the  hottest  season  (I'sa.  xxxii,  4;  the  droughts  uf  sum- 
.mer,  I'mv.  vi,  S;  x,o:  sxvi,  1,  xxx.SSi  the  sumoter- 
ihuuae,  Amns  iii,  16);  also  fruit,  specially  jtjw,  as  harvest- 
ed (viii,  1,  i;  ciimp.  Jer.  xxiv,  I  sq.).  See  AOBICUUT- 
lUBS;  FlO;  Karvkst;  Palhstenk;  Season. 

Bunuoeififtld,  .To>in,  a  distinguished  divine  and 
minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born 
at  Preston,  England,  Jan.  Bl,  ITSB.  tlis  father  was 
a  local  pieachei  in  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  connec- 
tion in  England,  and  he  educated  his  son  in  those  re- 
ligious principles  which  govemeil  bis  own  heart  and 
life.    At  a  suitable  S)^  he  was  put  under  Ihe  tuition  of 


where  he  gave  early  indications  of 
ius  for  which  he  was  afterwards  sn  eminently  distin- 
guished. In  1810  he  taught  a  uight-schnul  in  order  tu 
aid  his  father,  who  had  become  cmbarrasscl.     Before 

Liverpool,  conducting  Ihe  French  cDtreepondence.  He 
now,  through  moral  weakness,  fell  into  evil  habits  and 
company,  and  had  also  an  intense  passion  for  listening 
to  eloquent  speaker^  whether  in  the  pulpit,  the  senate- 
huuse,  at  Ihe  bar,  or  on  (he  stage.     He  would  at  times 


■hut  himself  up  in  bia  mom  and  study  inlenll 
teen  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  with  iosutHci 
iihment.  This,  together  wiih  Ihe  terrible  re 
lutTered,  seriously  and  permanently  tnjuveil  b 
tutiuii.  Established  in  the  coal  trade  by  hi*  I 
was  so  discontented  and  neglectful  tkit  he 
poverty  and  distress  upun  his  father'a  fainilv, 
himself  thrown  into  the  Matshalsea  of  Dnb'li 
he  empluyed  himself  in  drawing  up  the  necei 

Ihat  he  continued  in  this  busineaa  fix  aonie  ti 
his  release.  In  1817,  in  great  distress  and  al 
spair,  he  waa  led  by  a  plain  Methodist  mechan 
vices,  and  the  same  night  found  peace.  He  be 
principal  of  a  "praying  aMocialiun"  which  c» 
public,  and  in  April,  1818,  look  bia  place  among 
preachers.  He  waa  received  on  trial  in  the  > 
Conference  of  Ireland  in  1819,  emignted  tu  Ai 

Conference.    His  first  appearance  in  public 

arrival  in  New  York  was  al  the  anniversar 

Bible  Society,  and  liis  speech  on  tl 

produced  a  wonderful  effect,  and  was  reg 

one  of  the  very  highest  efforts  of  plathinn  el 

ferenoe.  He  entered  on  his  labors  in  New  Y 
where  the  churches  could  not  contain  the  ■ 
that  desired  to  hear  him.  i'eisnns  oT  all  pi 
and  classes  of  socielf  were  attracted  by  the  bi 
eloquence,  and  expressed  their  admiration  uf  i 
er  wiUi  which  he  enchained  them  to  Ihe  wi 
dropped  from  his  lips.  He  continued  to  preai'l 
audiences  until  early  in  June,  1822,  when  hi>  i 
tions  were  STinpended  by  the  failurt  of  his  beali 
airing  a  mililer  climale,  he  was  appointed  dele^ 
the  American  Bible  .Society  to  ihe  I'Totenant  1 
ciely  in  France.  He  retunteil  to  America,  . 
1824,  but  was  unable  to  perform  regular  m' 
waa  appmnted  by  Ibe  Mis^unaiy  Itoanl  of  th 
delpbia  Cunferenos  to  travel  in  Pennsylvania  . 
Jeney  and  to  lake  up  cnllectinns.  He  uniieil  w 
islets  of  crtbet  denominations  in  forming  the  i 
Tiact  Society,  and  his  last  public  act  was  an 
aildreas  at  its  organ'izatinn.  He  died  June 
Mr.  Summerfleld  was  veiy  famous  as  a  pulpi 
naturally  ekiquenl,  deeply  devoted  to  the  rama 
possessed  of  great  command  of  language  ami 
stock  of  the  most  useful  knowledge,  whenever 
ill  the  nanK  of  Uod  he  poureil  forth  fnini 
overflowing  with  the  kindliest  feelings  a  si 
evangelical  truth  which  melted  his  audiencrs. 
ly  sincerity"  was  evidently  the  pervading  prii 
his  heart,  and  a  tone  of  simplicity  eharactei 
style  of  preaching.  Jamas  Montgomery,  the  ] 
of  his  discourses  that  "the  sermons  are  less  c 
fur  inatanlaneouB  effect  than  fur  alnding  usi 

a™  For*  /ntri/aliim  Jiir  tke  lntfnaioii  »f  I 
and  Dtinh  (1822).  Afler  his  death  appeare>], 
nod  aktlrifi  of  SmiHmi,  bs  Ittr.  Jolm  Sarwm 
M^  mlh  m  MrodHdinn  bg  Rer.  Thamat  E.  Ho 
(N.¥.l842,Rvn).  SeeHulUml.'Venotrn^.Svin 
Life  atid  MMIrs  (IR29,  8vo;  Sd  cd.  I83U,  He 
Hvo;  reviewed  by  L.  Bacon  in  Ihe  Amrr.  Quiir 
141;  C*r»«(,aH<jr,«p«.ii,118);  his  Li/V  by  R 
iam  M.  Willett  (l>hila.evo);  .Spragoe,  jImhi 
.4ner.  Putpil,  vli,  fiB9-654;  Fish,  Palpit  I 
(IRB7),ii.689:  Waterburv,  AilWohw o/A'% H--fli 
ni  (18G4,  lamo) ;  AlUbon'e,  IHcl.  ofhril.  ami  A 
Ikon,  s.  V, ;  Jiangs,  IIUl.  of  Ikr  if.  f.  Ckurel,, 
329:  *>BU*«  n/  Amual  CoH/errnta,  i,  608;  : 
Cgchp.  of  Unlmliiin.  s.  v.     (J.  L  S.) 

Summer-IUKue  BllT«r,  a  pa:'n]ent  mat 
mediiBval  agm  by  certain  tenants  of  abbeys  li 
hot  or  prior,  in  lieu  of  providing  a  temporary 
habitation  fur  him  when  he  came  from  a  dii 
inspect  the  proi>iTly.— Lee,  G/oai.o/'tiyiiry.  Ti 


SUMMERS  1 

SnihiiierB,  William,  ■  nnniUei  of  Iha  Mclbodist 
KpiKopil  Cburch,  nu  bom  in  PurTix  Counly,  Vi., 
ill  Seirtcnbfr,  1796.  He  joined  Ihe  Cburch  in  Lees- 
biincK  Ow  aod  ill  183^  wu  admiited  nn  trill  in  the 
I'iuiburgh  Cunrenim.     la  1884  he  wat  ordaineil  de>- 

Lk  hraUh  improving,  be  w«  made  effective  at  the 
nut  amfemtet.  In  Itt&S  he  wu  igain  placed  on  Ihe 
•upMnaDKrar;  list,  and  that  relatiun  cnniiniied  until 
unniiiued  by  dealb,  which  came  to  him  in  Martiaville, 
I),  Match  39, 1855.  He  waa  kind,  coun«uiB,  and  bon- 
cnUe  in  bit  depottnHnt,  calm  and  firm  in  hia  purpose, 
■uadlui  in  fab  friendship,  and  liithful  and  ucc^aTuI 
■  a  Diaister.    See  MimKIa  of  A  mual  Co^eratat,  IBM, 


Sttinmervllle,  Joii^f,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
iMtr.  was  bom  jn  the  County  nfrrroQe,  Ireland,  Match 
1. 1(82.  He  enjove*!  earlv  rrli^pous  training,  was  re- 
rrived  on  trial  iii  the  Bdiimore  Conference  in  1812, 
and  filled  the  fulluwiiig  appointments:  Trumbull,  Tu>- 
caawai,  Hinkuunc,  Uxlurd,  Ijhenango,  Letarc  Falls, 
MsiBOrld.  Chtiitiuqua,  Ridgewa.v,  Paint  Creek,  Erie, 
Yaant;iint>  It.  Deerdrld,  Lisbon,  (^iifm,  Harlfonl,  Butler, 
Mercer.  Ceniitevi  lie,  Kitunning,  EliiabHh,  Waynesburg, 
aiid  EUnniiigbam.  In  183C  he  was  made  a  siiperaiiiiii- 
an.  U*  died  OcL  S,  1860.  Sec  Mi-mta  n/ Animal 
L'«/r><WH,ir.602. 

Saminia  DAalderantes  AFrEcrtBt's  is  ibe  title 
cf  ibt  bull  issued  by  (»|>e  Innocent  VIII  wher«n  he 
informed  the  Uermans  {bat  tbeir  couiilry  ws>  overrun 
by  wucbeii,  and  appruiitinK  two  itiqiiisiinre,  Henry 
Kr4BH«  and  Jacob  fignenger,  Tiir  their  deitniclion.  S^ 
KiMO,  CiutcM  »iiLi,i  115,!. 

SnmmlBta,  or  Summlalae.  a  name  given  to 
(bnse  sctKilaaic  divines  of  the  Middle  Agea  who  pro- 
ponaded  tbtir  tkignas  in  works  called  Samma  Thto~ 
lnjia.  This  name  was  first  afkipled  from  the  Samna 
('■iViDv  Thtobigia  of  Alexander  Halea,  whoH  renown 
was  nlipMd  by  that  af  Albenos  Magtma.  He  was,  in 
lam,  unrpaaHd  hy  hti  disdi^e  Thnmaa  Aquinas,  who 
inUnbe'l  his  fainuna  work  on  divinity  under  Ibe  title 
nfA'niwi  T-iHm  Throhgur,  mnA  thereby  greatly  low. 
end  the  eMimaiion  in  which  tbe  Book  of  SrHlmrt, 
written  by  Peter  Uimbard,  waa  held.  See  Van  Ousur- 
Ke,  CkriH.  Dogmal.  i,  31. 

SmniDtia  Saoardoa  <Lat.  for  chief  priest),  a  name 
ciren  to  bishops  when  it  had  heoHne  the  fashion,  in  the   —1   '^"{T-' 
M  renratj,  in  deduce  Ibe  inxtitution  of  the  tccleais>ti-    "f  ^"'-  <"•'_' 
tal  hieranhj  fmn  the  priesta  and  services  of  tbe  Ti 
pk  sf -Irtunlem.     Rumiih  writers  apply  the  title 


S  SUMPTUARY  LAWS 

bam,  but  his  views  would  not  allow  him  to  retain 
rectory  of  Maple-Durham.  While  Dr.  Sumaer  held 
bishopric  of  Chester,  the  OxfunI  movement  commei 
and  came  to  a  he^l.  From  Ihe  lime  that  the  war 
of  Angk>.CalholiciBm  waa  first  sounded  in  I^S  da» 
hia  death,  biihop  Sumner  has  ever  been  among  the 
and  tbe  furenMiit  lo  denounce  the  dishonegty  of 
Tractarian  school  of  theology.  In  his  charf^ea,  in 
dresses,  in  sermons,  he  ever  and  again  denounced 


ritual.     In 


Somner.  John  Bird,  an  Kngliih  prelate,  waa  the 
eUnt  N  of  the  Kev.  R.  Sumner,  A.M..  many  years 
rirar  of  Kenilwimh  and  Sioneley,  in  the  COunly  of 
Warwick,  and  was  bnm  at  his  father's  paisonage  hnuse 
11  Kniilworth  in  1 700.  He  waa  sent  at  in  early  age  to 
Einn,  where  be  was  nomitisted  lo  a  king's  scholarship, 
nut.  having  spent  several  years  on  that  royal  founda- 
lion.  be  paased  in  the  usual  coufM  ID  King's  College, 
CaaibriilKc,  of  which  he  became  successirely  scholar 
Uil  felkiw.  Not  long  afler  having  compleled  hia  aca- 
flrfnicsl  course,  Mr.  Sumner  was  invited  to  return  aa 

al  years.  During  this  time  he  waa  oniained  deacon 
and  priest.  He  waa  preferred,  about  1830,  to  the  rH> 
•tr}*i<f  MiplF-ihirliam,  a  pleaunt  and  retired  village  on 
the  banks  uf  the  Thames,  ■  few  miles  above  Reading. 
U  itm  Mr.  .Suraoer  was  promntsd  by  the  minisuy  of 
the  earl  of  Liverpool  la  a  eanonry  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Dirfaam,  which  ba  held  fi>r  many  years,  together  with 
his  rMlary  uf  Mapi«-Durham.    In  18!S  the  see  of  Chea- 


ingjiis 


nived  his  U.U.  from  Cambridge,  was  a 

op  in  <liK  iBtm.     Tbe  bithoptic  being  then  but  poorl; 

rialuwiKl,  he  was  allowed  to  retain  the  canoniy  of  Oui 


IS48  h>ril  John  Kussell,  wbo  held  Ihe  post  u 
at  the  time,  offered  the  arcIitHshopric  of  Canlerbiirj-  ti> 
Dr.  Siimuer.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and.  miK'h  l»  lliu 
■atisfactinu  of  the  evangelical  portion  of  the  listablisli- 
ed  Church,  he  was  translaied  from  Chester  lo  Canter- 
bury. In  I8S0  occurred  Ibe  mernnrablc  event  called 
Ihe  "Papal  AKgression."  To  ihai  measure  of  the  pope, 
by  which  Rngbind  was  portioned  out  inin  Roman  Caih- 
olic  dioceses  with  preblet  set  over  each,  archbi^tliop 
Sumner  offered  that  oppowlion  which  was  to  hive  been 
expected,  and  he  denounced  the  measure  in  terms  of 
more  than  usati  energy.  Hia  grace,  as  we  lesm  Irom 
the  "  Peerage,"  was  "  primate  of  all  England  and  met- 
ropolitan, one  of  the  limls  of  liet  majcsly's  privy  coun- 
cil, a  goveniar  nf  the  Charterhouse,  and  visitor  of  Met- 
Iini  and  All-Souls'  colleges  at  Oxfiml,  as  well  is  of 
King's  CoUege,  London,  of  Dulwich  College,  ind  of  Sl 
.\ugustine'g  College,  CmterbuTy,''  and  he  enjoyed  the 
patronage  of  no  lew  ilian  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
livings.  He  was  slso  moat  discreet  and  blameless  in 
the  distribution  of  bis  clerical  patronage,  bestowing  his 
best  livings  on  the  most  exempUrv  and  painstaking  of 
hiadergy.  HerijedSerit.6,186i.  His  works  are,  £».iy 
OH  rit  PropArcvi,  etc.  (Lond.  1802,  Svo)  —Ajioilelkit 
Ittackins  (1815,  Svo;  9lh  ed.  Lond.  1850,  Svo):— A^ 
ordt  «f  Cffatinn,  etc  (I8I«;,  1817, 1818, 1826, 1833. 1838, 
■i  rola.Svo:  7th  ed.  1850,  8ro):— frufmcri  of  Chi-it- 
limilg  Drrirrd /rom  tfj  A'a/Kre,elc.-(Lond.  1824,  Svo; 
N.  V.  18S5,  ISmo)  -.—^cnnDns  and  LttluiT  (1827-59). 

Bomner,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  divine, 
wu  bnm  at  Pumfret,  Conn.,  Jan.  IE>,  1740.     He  gradu- 
ated nt  Yale  College  in  1769,  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Church  al  Slirewibury,  Mass.,  June  23,  1763,  and 
died  Dec9,t824.     During  a  period  of  nxty-two  years, 
he  was  never  absent  from  the  stated  communion  of  hia 
Church.     He  published,^  SfrmoH  al  lie  Ordinaliim  of 
S>tt<mdSnmtur{\t^\)-.—AThniiia^ringSermimlXiWi): 
™w.y  -SrrTuon  (18ia).     See  Allibone,  Did. 
A  ulion,  B.  V. ;  Spngue,  A  rmals  of 
'.  Pvlpil.  \\;  630,  nolei  Corg.  Quarlerly,  1869, 


CumptiOD,  Thomas,  a  minii 


Melhudist 
Cecil  Counlv,  Md.,  Dec. 
5, 1802.  He  was  convened  in  1819,  licensed  as  a  local 
preacher  in  1828,  and  in  1838  was  received  on  trial  into 
Che  Philadelphia  Conference.  He  received  a  superan- 
nuated relation  in  1874,  and  died  in  Halifax,  Dauphin 
Co„  Pa.,  Miv  9, 1874.  Stt~  Uimla  of  Amiual  Caxftj-- 
r7icr.,1875,p.«. 

Bumptnary  Iiaira.  At  an  early  period  Chris- 
tianity controlled  domealic  habits  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways  both  in  food  and  dress.  Excesses  were  condemn- 
ed. I'hus  Clement  of  Alexandria  says,  "Other  men, 
like  the  unreasoning  animals,  may  live  to  eat;  we  have 


ir  pursuit,  but  rather 


life,  III 


in  lux 


le  ai'oided.  AnIiphane^  the 
ician,  consiuera  variety  and  research  in 
t  a  main  cause  of  disease ;  yet  many  have 

It  (heir  chief  anxiety  to  have  cbtrice  fish- 


SUN  I 

u  rrom  bejroDd  ■&■."  They  might  "ou  a  little  vine 
for  the  Momich'i  uke,"*!  tbs  apoatle  exhorted  Tim- 
i>thy-,  "for  U  is  |[ood  to  bring  the  help  oT  ui  aUrin- 
l^n't  U>  ■  laiiguiil  conatilution  I  biit  in  utaU  quantity, 
leM,  inatead  of  benefiting,  it  ttaoulil  b«  found  lo  produce 
■  fulness  whivh  would  reader  other  remediea  netdrul; 
*iiic«  Ibe  natural  drink  oTa  tbinty  man  ii  water,  and 
this  aimple  beverage  alotie  was  aupplied  froni  the  cleft 
mch  by  the  Lord-W  the  um  of  the  Helrew*  oT  old. . . . 
Water  ii  the  me.licine  of  a  wise  temperance.  Young 
men  and  tnaidenii  should,  for  the  moat  part,  forego  wine 
altogether;  Tor  to  drink  wine  during  the  boiling  season 
of  youth  is  adding  Hre  lo  Hre. . . .  Those  who  require  a 
mid-day  meal  may  est  bread  allngecber  without  wine, 
and,  if  thirsty,  let  them  utisfy  themselves  with  water 
only.  In  the  evening  at  supper,  when  out  studies  are 
over  and  the  «r  is  cooler,  wine  may  be  used  without 
baim  perhaps,  lot  it  will  but  restore  the  lost  warmth ; 
but  even  then  it  should  be  taken  very  sparingly,  until 
the  chills  of  age  have  made  it  a  useful  medicine ;  and 
it  is  for  the  moat  part  best  to  mix  it  with  water,  in 

vases,  rare  to  be  acquired  and  difficult  to  be  kept,  are 
ta  be  put  away  rrom  among  oa,"  says  the  same  writer 
that  we  h*ve  been  quoting.  "Silver  sofas,  silver  ba- 
sins aad  saiicem,  plates  and  dishes;  beds  of  choice 
woods  decorated  with  tortoise-shell  and  gold,  with  cnv- 
crlels  of  purple  and  costly  stuffs,  are  lo  be  relinquished 
in  like  msnner.    The  Lord  ate  from  a  humble  dish,  and 

their  feel,  girded  with  a  lowcL  Our  food,  our  utensils, 
and  whatever  else  belongs  to  our  domestic  economy 

"  It  is  proper  that  boih  the  woman  and  the  man  should 
come  into  the  church  decently  dressed,  with  no  eluilied 
ateps,  in  silence,  and  with  a  mind  trained  to  real  benev- 
olence; chaste  in  body,  chaste  in  heart,  Btled  to  pray 
to  tiod.  FurthemHire,  it  is  tight  that  the  woman 
should  he  veiled,  save  when  she  is  at  home;  Ibr  this  is 
respectable  and  svoiils  offence."  "  It  is  enough  to  have 
the  dispoution  which  becomes  Christian  women,"  aays 
Tertullian.  '■  God  lotdis  on  the  heart.  The  outward  ap- 
pearance is  nothing.  Why  make  a  display  of  the  change 
that  has  been  wrought  in  us?  Kathct  are  we  hound 
to  fumiBli  the  heathen  no  occasion  of  blaspheming  the 
Christian  nsme,  and  accusing  Christianity  of  being  ir- 
reconcilable with  national  customs."  Vet  he  adds, 
"What  reasons  can  you  have  for  going  about  in  gay 
apiwrel  when  you  are  removed  from  all  with  whom 
this  is  required?  You  do  not  go  the  round  of  the  tem- 
ples I  you  ask  for  no  puhhc  shows;  you  hare  nothing 
to  do  with  pagan  festivals.  You  hare  no  other  than 
serious  reasons  fur  appearing  abroail.  It  is  to  visit  a 
sick  brother,  to  be  present  st  the  communion  or  a  sei- 
tnon ;  and  if  offices  of  courtesy  or  friendship  call  yon 
among  the  pagans,  why  not  appear  in  your  own  pecul- 
iar armor,  that  so  the  diRtrence  may  be  seen  between 
the  servants  of  (ind  and  of  Satan?"  Sumptuaiy  laws 
have  been  passed  by  the  Stale  and  Church,  generally, 
however,  tu  be  disregarded.  Roman  laws  prohibited 
■  "    "  "  It  they  were  all 


habitually  transgressed  in  the  Uler  Umes  of  (be  Repub- 
lic; Such  laws  were  in  great  favor  in  the  legislation 
of  England  from  the  time  of  Edward  III  down  to  the 
Reformation  (aee  statute  10  Edward  III,  c  3,  act  37 
Edward  III).  In  France  they  were  as  old  as  Charle- 
magne, but  the  Hrst  attempt  to  restrict  extravagance  in 
dress  was  under  Philip  IV.  Scollsud  had  aim  a  simi- 
lar class  of  statutes  In  all  these  coimtries,  however, 
tliese  laws  seem  lo  have  never  been  practically  oh- 
eerved.  Most  of  the  English  sumptuary  laws  were  re- 
pealed by  1  Jamea  I,  c.  25,  but  a  few  remained  on  the 
BUtatc-book  as  late  as  lBa«. 

Sim  (prop.  Ci;l?,  thimtth:  ^Xioc).  In  the  his- 
tory of  the  creation  the  sun  is  described  as  the  "great- 
er light,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  noon,  or  "Icaaer 


S  SUN 

light,'  in  conjunction  with  which  it  waa  la  aeirc  "far 

while  ita  qiecial  office  waa  "  to  rule  the  day"  (tin.  i. 
14-IS).  The  "signs"  referred  lo  were  pcobaUy  aoeh 
extraordinary  phenomena  as  eclipses,  which  wete  re- 
garded aa  conveying  premonilioos  of  coming  eventa 
(Jer.  X,  ii  Hatl.  xxiv,  29,  with  Luke  xxi,  ^).  The 
joint  itiSuence  aesigned  to  the  sun  and  moon  in  de- 
ciding the  "seasons,"  both  for  agricultural  operaliooa 
and  fur  religious  festivals,  and  aLso  in  regulating  the 
length  and  subdivisions  of  the  "yean,'  coneclJy  de- 
scribes the  combination  of  the  lunar  and  solar  year, 
which  prevailed,  at  all  events,  subaequently  to  the  Uo- 
ssic  period— the  moon  being  the  sHanrer  {tat  >£■>- 
Xnf)  of  the  lapse  of  time  by  the  siibdiviBinns  of  nwatba 
and  weeka,  while  the  sun  waa  the  ultimate  njirlaUir 
of  the  length  of  the  year  by  means  of  the  recurrence 
of  I  he  feaat  of  Fentecoet  at  a  fixed  agricultunl  acaaon, 
viz.  when  the  com  became  ripe.  The  sun  "nikd  the 
day"  alone,  sharing  the  dominion  of  tbe  skies  with  Ifae 
moon,  the  tnilliancy  and  utility  of  which  bir  joumeya 

tries.  It  "ruled  the  day,"  not  ady  in  reference  to  its 
powerful  inllucnces,  but  also  as  deckliLig  the  length  of 
the  day  and  supplying  the  means  of  colcnlolHig  rta 
progreas.  Sunrise  and  suuset  are  tbe  only  ilefined 
points  of  lime,  in  tbe  abaence  of  artiOcial  conlrivancea 
for  telling  the  hour  of  the  day;  and,  as  these  points  are 
less  variahle  in  the  latitude  of  Palealiite  than  in  iDaiiy 

mencemeiil  and  conclnrion  of  the  working-ilsv.  Be- 
tween Iheae  two  points  the  Jews  recn^ised  tfanv  pe- 
riods, viz.  when  llie  Bnn  became  hot,  about  £>  AM.  (I 
.Sam.xi,S.  Neh.vii,B);  Ihe  double  light,  or  noon  (neit. 
xliii.  Iti;  2  Sam.  iv,&);  and  "Ihe  cool  of  Ibe  dav,~  short- 
ly before  sunset  <t)en.  iii,  8).  Tbe  BUB  ako  aerTnl  M 
Hx  Ihe  quarters  of  the  bemispheiv — east,  wiM,  mnb, 
ai>d  south — which  were  repreaenled  respectively  trr  ibe 
rising  sun,  the  selling  sun  (Isa.  xlv,  6;  Psa.  I,  I),  the 
dark  quarter  (Gen.  xiii,  14;  Joel  ii,W),aDd  the  brill- 
ianl  quarter  (Dent.  xxxiii,23;  Job  uxvu,  IT;  Ezek. 
xl,24);  or  olherwise  by  their  poaitKHi  lelaiive  to  a  per- 
son facing  the  riung  snn— before,  bebind,  on  the  left 
hand,  and  on  the  right  hanti  (Job  xxiii.  B,  9).  Tbe 
apparent  motion  of  the  sun  is  frequently  referred  to  ia 
terms  that  would  imply  its  realitv  (Josb.  x.  IS;  2  Kings 
XX,  11;  Poo.  xix,  6;  Eccles.  1,6;  Ilab.  iii,  II).  Tbe 
ordinary  name  fur  the  aaa,Mmtih,a  supposed  to  refer 
lo  the  extreme  brilliancy  of  its  rays,  prodacnig  jAipor 
or  attimiilmtnl  in  Ihe  mind  nf  the  beholder ;  the  poeti- 
cal names  nnn.  eiiimmii  (Job  xxx,  28;  Cant,  vi,  10; 
Isa.  xxx,  26),'  and  O^^n,  ciira  (Judg.  xiv,  18 ;  Job  ix, 
T)  have  reference  to  its  heat,  the  beneficial  effect*  of 
which  are  duly  commemoraled  (Dent,  xxxiii,  14 ;  PM. 

<Psa.  cxxi,  6;  Isa.  xlix,  10;  Jonah  iv,  8;  Ecdus.  xliii, 
8,  4).  The  vigor  with  which  Ihe  sun  traverses  the 
heavens  is  compared  lo  that  of  a  "bridegroom  ooiiiing 
out  of  his  cbamber,"  and  of  a  "giant  rejiHcing  (o  mn 
his  course"  (Psa.  xix,  6).    The  speed  with  which  the 


The  worship  of  the  sun  as  the  most  prominent  and 
powerful  agent  in  tbe  kingdom  of  nature  was  widely 
diRiised  throughout  the  coiui tries  adjacent  to  Palestine. 
The  Arabians  appear  to  have  paid  direct  worship  to  ii 
without  Ihe  intervention  of  any  statue  or  symbol  (Job 
xxxi,26,27;  Strabo,  xvi.  784),  and  this  simple  style  of 

Jews  in  Gialdea  and  Mesopotamia.  In  P.gypt  the  eon 
was  worshipped  under  Ihe  title  of  KS  or  Ro,  and  not,  u 
was  supposed  by  andeiit  writers,  under  the  form  of  On- 
ri>(Diod.Sic.  >,  II;  see  Wilkinson,  .tiic.fjgipf.iv.SSS). 
The  name  came  conspicuously  forward  as  the  title  of 
tlie  kings— Pharaoh,  or  rather  Phra,  meaning  "the  aoD" 


SUN  1 

(WiUiiDm,  A  IK.  Eggpl.  iv,  387).  The  Hebrewe  mait 
hin  bMii  wfU  Bcquuntfll  Mrlth  the  idolitrous  wonfatp 
i!(  tbr  ami  during  Ihe  cafitiTilj  in  Egypt  both  from  the 
(Htignitr  of  On,  tbe  cbirC  tax  of  the  iTonhi[i  o(  the 
■n  B  iaplifd  in  [be  nuDs  iuelf  (On  — the  Hebrew 
BKbaiiffnib,  "bouse  of  tbe  aun,"  Jer.  xliii,  IS),  uid 
■bo  rnia  the  connection  between  Jo«eph  Utd  Poli-phe- 
rtb  rhe  who  btloags  to  Ri"),  the  prieec  of  On  (Uen. 
xli.(G).  Atier  iheir  removal  to  Ciiiun.  the  Hebrews 
oBif  in  cootacE  with  ririoiu  ronns  oT  idalalry  which 
fj^nunl  in  the  worship  af  tbe  sun— such  is  the  Bui 
>ribe  Fbotiidani  (Morer^PAdii.),  ISO),  the  Molecb  or 
'  ■     '        Hiiiea,  and  the  Usdad  of  ibe  " 


-(PK»y. 


ii,  71). 


liM,  intiodnced  into  tbe  Hebrew 
aouvtslth  SI  tsrious  peiioda  (Judg.  ii,  II;  1  Kirgi 
li.  Si :  but  it  does  not  fuUow  thit  the  object  Bymfool- 
iHil  In-  ibem  wss  known  to  the  Jews  tbeinselves.  If 
n  bire  in;  onliee  at  all  of  conscinus  lun-wonihip  in 
Ibccailj  HJgeaoftlMir  history,  it  exists  in  the  douht- 
tdtma  D'lan,  otoHKumfn  (Lev.xsri.SO;  Iia.xvii, 
A.  etc),  which  was  itwlf  signiBcant  of  the  sun,  and 
pnUdy  dcKiibed  tbe  stone  pillats  or  ■tatue*  under 
wbirh  tbe  solu  Baal  (Bsal-Haman  of  the  Punic  in- 
irri|iiiiies,Geseniu>,  Thriaiir.  i.  489)  was  worshipped  at 
But-UuDoD  (Cant,  viii,  11)  and  other  places.  Pure 
m-wonhip  appears  to  haye  been  introduced  by  the 
AaTiiios,  and  to  have  become  formillj  established  by 
Huaeli  (1  Kings  xxi,  3.  b),  in  contraTention  of  the 
inkibit«DiD(Uuse*  (DeuLir,  19;  xvii,3).  Whetb- 
a  tbe  praaice  was  borrowed  from  the  Sepharvites  o( 
Hoiirii  (I  Kings  xvii,3l),  whose  gods  Adrammelech 
uA  ABiBiiDdKb  are  supposed  to  represent  the  male 
ai  rciBatc  sun,  and  whose  original  residence  (the  He- 
Iv^iiUs  ot  Benaus)  waa  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
of  iW  nn  in  Dabjloiils  (Rawlinson,  Htrod.  i,  61  \\  or 
■bHbtr  the  kinei  of  Jodah  drew  their  model  of  wor- 
ibifimeimnediBiely  rroniiheEast,i8unceruin.  The 
ilnkaiim  af  chariots  and  honies  to  the  sun  (2  Kings 
iiiii,  11)  was  perhaps  bommed  from  tbe  Persians  (»«- 
i«Li.l«);airt.iii,8,  II;  Xenoph.  Cyrop.  viii.3,  24), 
rti  bnortd  the  sun  nnder  the  form  of  Hitbias  (Stiabo, 
iv.TJj).  At  tbe  same  time  it  should  be  obsen'cd  that 
ibr  bene  wss  omnected  with  tbe  worship  of  the  sun  in 
vin  eoaMries,  aa  amonjc  the  Masaagetn  (Herod,  i, 
lit)  sndibe  Armenians  (Xenopb.  ^noi.iv,  6,35),  both 
^■bna  used  ii  as  a  sacrifice.  To  judge  from  the  few 
SMins  we  bare  on  tbe  subiect  in  the  ffiUe,  wc  should 
mrWe  line  Ibe  Jews  derived  Ibeir  mode  of  worship- 
lii^ibe  SOD  from  several  quarters.  The  practice  of 
kosiim  incense  on  the  house-lops  (2  Kings  xxiii,  6. 
It;  Jb.  iii.13;  Zeph.  i,fi)  might  have  been  Inrrowed 
f™  [be  Arabians  (Strabo,  xvi,784),  as  also  the  umple 
•n  of  sdjBatiDo  directed  towards  the  rising  sun  (Eiek. 
'iii16:eo«p.Job  xixi,2T).  On  tbe  other  haod,  the 
•»<f  Ibe  chariots  and  hones  in  the  processions  on  fen- 
i><il  dsti  time,  as  we  have  observed,  from  Persia ; 
■1  ■  ibii  the  cusinni  of  "  potting  the  branch  lo  the 
■«''  (Ei»k.  viii,  17)  according  to  the  jtenerally  re- 
*™i  expUrmioD  which  identifies  it  with  tha  Per- 
•a  prsoiM  of  boldintc  in  tbe  left  hand  a  bundle  of 
'^calM  Etenam  while  wonhipping  the  son  (Slrabo, 
^.  33;  Hjde,  ReL  Prrt.  p.  S45).  Thi^  however,  is 
"7  ilsubtful,  the  eipmaion  being  nlherwise  nnder- 
**t  «<"  putting  [he  knife  lo  the  nose,"  i.  e.  producing 
"X^nolilalion  (Hitiig,  O*  Eztt.).  Ad  objection  lies 
from  the  fact  that  the  Per- 
d  to  have  held  the  branch  lo  tho  nose. 
.  aiucbed  to  the  worship  of  the  sun  by 
w  Jfliiih  Uagi  may  be  inferred  ftom  the  fact  that 
<bs  bsTMa  were  stalled  within  the  pftdneta  of  the 
■(■pie  (the  unu  ~i^^^^,parTir,  meaning  not  "saburb," 
■  >a  Ibe  A,T.,  but  either  a  portico  or  an  outbuilding 
''ibeTimilt).  They  were  removed  thence  by  Joaiah 
<>Eiii|pixiii,Il).  Sec  Sea,  WaBSHip  OF. 
1*  ^  •Mapborical  lanj^gv  of  Scripture,  the  Mm 


>  Ibe  fancer 


7  SUNDANESE  VERSION 

is  emblematic  of  the  bw  of  God  (Psa.  xix,  7),  of  th« 
cheering  presence  of  (lOd  ( Ixixiv.  1 1 ),  uf  the  persua 
iif  the  .Savlonr  (John  1,9;  MsL  it,  !),  and  <.f  ihe 
gloiy  and  purity  of  heavenly  beings  (Kev.  i,  16;  x,  li 

See  Meiner,  GrtA  der  Pdig.  i,  387  aq. ;  Norh,  Uii.  d. 
Srnimmllut  d.  all.  yelirr  (Heilbronn,  1840);  Pocncke, 
Sptc  Hill.  A  rnb.  p.  B,  150 ;  Jabtontki,  Opuic.  i,  1 87  sq. ; 
Doaeb^m  ArwUel.  i,  189j  Hvde,  £rL  Vrlt.  Pm-iamm, 
p.  206  sq.;  Eichhom,  /h  SoU  ImielB  Milkra,  in  the 
Commml.  SiK.  GolliBg.  iii.  153  sq.;  Creuzer,  Symbid. 
i,  73esq.;  iv,  4()9aq.!  Bach  art,  ffieroi.  i,  141  sq.;  Ho- 
senmuller,  MorpnL  iii,  S49  sq.;  Bose,  Dt  Jotia  Quad- 
iv/ai  Solit  Rfmocmlr  (Lip*.  1741);  Pocarns,  Dt  Sitnii- 
lacrit  Solarib-it  Itrarlilarum  (Jen.  1725);  Gesenius, 
lHommm.  J'/utaie.  ii,  849. 

Btui,ChlldTenof(Anncn..4rm(rvfu),an  Armenian 
sect  which  originated  with  Sembal,  a  Paulician,  They 
were  also  called  Tirnntrakiinii  (nr  rAroHrfracww),  from 
the  village  of  Throntrake  (Throndiac),  where  their 
Church  was  formed.  Seml»t,  who  ori^nated  in  the 
province  of  Arsrsi,  having  entered  into  some  conneclioa 
with  a  certain  Medschusic,  a  Pernan  physician  and  as- 
tronomer, was  led,  under  his  influence,  lo  attempt  a  new 
combination  of  Parseeism  and  Christianity.  This  sect, 
though  it  met  with  no  mercy  from  the  bishops,  contin- 
ually revived,  and  spread  widely  in  Armenia.  About 
lOO!  it  made  the  most  alarminf;  progress,  when  it  ie  said 
10  have  been  joined  by  Jacob  of  Harkh.  He  gave  a 
more  distinctively  Christian  cast  lo  its  tenets;  jour- 
neyed through  the  country,  preaching  repentance  tad 


inveigning  against  worK-ngnieousnes. 

in  masses,  obln- 

lions,  alm^  and  chorch-pravera  for  the 

Finally,  tbe  Catholics  of  the  Armenia 

Church,hBv>n|r 

secural  bis  person,  caused  him  to  be 

heretical  mark  (a  fox  on  the  forehe 

ad),carric,l  from 

ophice 


.   oclaii 
z.CAarcA 


hima  heretic,  and  finally  killed  him.   SeeKun 
tfij'ory,  i,  71,2;  Neander,  CAarM  0utory,iii,  om. 

Bun.  Worship  of  (/WWrrtfy).  Tha  worship  of 
the  great  orb  which  insures  lo  us  light,  warmth,  and 
life  is  as  ancient  as  history.  It  existed  in  the  eailiest 
ages  among  the  Fhtenicians,  Egi-ptians,  Persians,  and 
Hindis,  and  later  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  of  tho 
West,  venerating  its  object  under  Ibe  different  names 
of  Helios  or  Sol,  or  of  Baal,  Osiris,  or  Milhras.  Vatiniis 
furms  of  sacrifice  and  prayer  cbaracteriied  this  worship 
among  the  different  nations,  but  they  agreed  in  regard- 
ing the  sun  as  a  mighty  and  superior  deily  who  ruled 
the  world  with  an  independent  authority  more  or  less 
complete.  The  Greeks  alone  did  not  render  higher 
honors  to  the  tnn  than  to  the  other  goils  regarded  as 
uf  superior  rank.  All  Eastern  nations  considered  it  as 
practically  tha  supreme  divinity.  The  Romans,  loo, 
maintained  the  worship  of  the  sun  after  Heliogabalus 
had  introduced  it  and  had  built  a  temple  lo  SoL    Sea 

SCH. 

BtUlBdi  was  a  Hindfl  divinity,  the  wife  of  Utann- 
baden  and  mother  of  Ihe  famous  Dniva,  a  saint  who 
ruled  Ihe  kingdom  of  his  father  during  26,000  yean, 
and  was  then  translated  by  Vishnu  lo  ihe  pole-star. 

BunduieasVenloi].  Sunda  is  a  dialect  spoken 
in  tbe  west  of  the  island  of  Java,  near  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  and  prevails  over  tbe  third  of  Ihe  island.  The 
dialect  belongs  lo  the  great  Potyne^an  stock  of  lan- 
guages, and  the  difficulties  in  mastering  the  same  are 
best  described  by  the  Kev.  G.  J.  Grashius,  who  studied 
tbe  language  with  a  view  of  rendering  [he  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  as  idiomatic  as  possible.  Mr.  Grasbius 
writes  thus  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
(60tkSepoTl,lS6i,p.S0)' 

IS  yet 


SUNDAY  1 

cuiloncd  bj  tbe  fotrn  In  wblcta  tb«  mitlBr  ptcHnta  IIkIF. 
Fr-'luM  lo  yoDCHir  lu  leiirn  ■  Imngiingc  which  n|>meDU 
lucir  ti>  Tnu  iif  n  un  In  mlnUtnra.  wltb  nil  eoncel "  '~'~ 
innilniiB  i>rawalllng  siiri  fliulliiK  nbjKit.  Al  ime  nin 
jun  KB  b-indiblDE,  Ihe  next  ll  diwpMnra  iiKala:  moua 
iiKinwiil  yoii  italiili  rnii  faiivs  lOt  hiild  nriinnelbliiE,  aDd 
r.itmid  ariithi  cuiiceiJtluu  utli,aadlli«  iwitTun  perceive 

"  The  atDdi;  of  ihe  Siindincea  la,  tor  ttie  moleit  pnrt, 

Inntl'reelTiiii  nDDrti  maklUE  xdqniliiUim  wITti  I'l— nm- 

IbHt'chlldleV  r.inn  ot  ihliikiiii:  ai"I  opeekiiia.    The  l^i 
irbich  at  ibii  piiliu  I  enierinhieiL  lipgliiK  irradDiiIlT  ii>  von. 

SniiUniKM  wall,  If  Chid  will  bat  bieeaaitd  uriieper  dit  ou- 
d«r<akliif[. 

"By-aiid-hjrl  aball  mamer  the  voenhiilnrji  bnl  In  thli 
1  by  un  means  bDirr  ni^1(  bacann  oibaralH  I  Tnlgbi 
eaeil*  take  thlnaa  Bic  aninied  whlcfa,  br  a  cbwer  lueliihl 
l<>li>  iDniien  nndelenlltailliine,  I  fh.iiild  be  olillKed  !.>  nn. 
lenni.  Tn  niilaani  takea  ilmc.  and  t'  very  niiptiilllKlile 
Hit  Ihe  fre»hiie««of  mind  wbich  leaflrei  reqnielle  fur  ihe 
etDdj  ol  rhe  Siiurianue  iHiiBDiiKe." 
In  lf(70  Ihe  Britieh  and  Foreifcn  Bible  Societr'n  Rfporl 
ehowa  the  piibltcalion  or  ibe  Ucspel  oT  Su  Luke  i 
Sundanne,  and  Ihie  aeems  lo  be  [he  nnlr  pan  priiired 
bv  the  Brii'nh  and  ForeiKii  Bible  Societv,  while  the 
Dutch  Bible  Society  hu  printed  the  New  TcxL.t 
tawd  by  Mr.  Coolima,  whu  ha>  also  translated  thi 
Teal.  From  the  74/A  (1878)  Annual  Rfporl  of  the 
Briiiah  and  Foreign  Bible  Sucietf  we  see  that  the 
Neiherlanda  Misaionary  Union  hare  requeslnl  the  t>in- 
don  committee  lo  undertake  the  publicalinn  of  Hr. 
Coolsma'a  tnnaiation  of  the  OldTe«t^and  ibat  ibe 

nn  rtveiTing  utiafactory  leporu  aa  to  the  reccptiou  of 
Ur.  Coolama'a  New-Test,  translation.     (B.  f.) 

Simday.  I.  Ifamr  and  Change  q/*/)iTy.— Sunday  Is 
the  name  of  the  flrst  day  or  the  week,  adopted  by  ibc 
tint  Christians  from  the  Roman  calendar  (Lat.  Din 
Solii),  Oag  nf  tkf  Sun,  ao  called  because  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  Ibe  wnnhip  of  the  sun.  Tbe  Christians  rein- 
terpreted the  heathen  name  a«  implying  the  Sim  of 
liighteoiisnesa  with  reference  to  his  "atininR"  (Mai.  iv, 
-2).     It  was  also  called  Dia  />«*»  (Dag  o/SmiJ),  be- 

ilay.  U  is  called,  also,  the  Locd'a  day,  its  sacml  obsei 
aiices  being  especially  in  bis  honor.  'I'he  apoellea  ihei 
sekea  iniruiluccd  Ihe  rfliKinus  observance  nf  Sundav, 
meeting  for  divine  service  (Acts  xx,T;  I  Cor.  xvi,  2), 
ami  the  opposition  in  the  Christian  Chnrch  to  Jiulaisni 
earlrled  to  Ihe  Bubatitution  of  Sunday  fur  the  Sabbath; 
and  in  Ihe  epistle  of  Ignatius  lo  the  Magneaians  it  is 
presnppnsed  thai  even  the  Jews  who  had  come  over  tv 
Christiaiiily  adopted  Ibe  same  custom.     See  Svna- 


!S  (S  P.M.)  o 
■"4  parisl 


In 


<n  Sat- 


nl'a  ilay  was  reckoned  from  even- 
ing to  evening,  bnt  in  958  firim  Satonlay  nnnes  till 
light  oik  Monday  momiiig.  [slip's  Ctmtfirutioitt  and 
llie  Councils  of  Aix  (7H9),.FreJus  (791),  an.l  Frankfort 
(791)  BBsigii  as  the  cause  that  vespers  are  Ihe  drat  of- 

uur  Lord  was  burn  on  Sunday,  baptized  an  Tuesday, 
and  began  his  fast  on  Wedncnlay. 

II.  tMt>iarlicalObten!Un<xojriirDag.—l\\econae- 
craiion  of  Sunday  in  a  special  manner  to  religions  em- 
pli-vments  and  tbe  abstaining  from  all  vroildlv  buai- 
iiex*'  was  eslahliabeil  by  a  synodal  law  (oannn  'ia.  Coun- 
cil of  Laodicea)  with  this  realtiction,  ihat  all  Christians 
shoulil  abstain  frooi  worldly  business  if  they  were  nljle. 
In  the  relieious  services  of  Sunday  we  note  the  fiilk>w- 
ing:  all  faaiing  was  prohibited  nn  that  day,  even  In 
Lent!  Tertullian  {l)e  Coron.  MU.  c.  3)  declaring  Ihat 
it  was  accounted  a  crime  to  fast  on  tlie  Loril'i  day,  aiul 
other  authorities  were  equally  severe  in  their  denunci- 
aliiiai.     Tbe  reason  fw  ihii  observance  was  that  the 


SUNDAY 

day  was  con 

idered  one  of  jnyfulness  because  of  car 

Lord's  resum 

■ctiur.    Yet  this  rule 

■as  not  au  atrioly 

binding  b..t 

bat  when  a  neceasory 

and  there  wa 

!8,  ad  LiloH 

a  might  fast  upon  tlii 
Hia  Baiiatm'). 

day  (Jerome,  Ep. 

It  may  be 

re  be  remarked  thai  another  cosUm  was 

to  pray  Stan 

ing  on  the  Lord's  day 

Lord's  lesun. 

Kiion.     The  great  ca 

the  prmltiv 

Chritiiaiu  for  the  re 

igious  obaerx-a-oe 

of  SuiHlay  is 

seen  in  tbsii  ready  an 

d  con-unt  attend- 

anc«  upon  all  the  offices  and  soleini 

ties  of  public  WOT 

ship,  and  thia,  too,  even  in  times  o 

persecution;  ftoa 

their  studious  observance  of  the  vigils,  or  nociumal  aa- 
sembliea  preceding  the  Lord's  day;  from  Iheir  attend- 
ance, in  many  [daces,  upon  sermons  twice  a  day,and  at 
evening  prayers;  and  from  the  cenauna  inflicted  upou 
those  who  violated  tbe  laws  concerning  the  rvligioua 
observance  nf  the  day.  The  celebration  of  ibe  eocba- 
rist  was  a  standing  part  of  divine  service  every  Idrd's 
day.  and  every  communicant  was  expected  to  putake 
'  ^renf.    See  Bingham, C«i'iX..4nfij.  bk.  xx,cb.ii,$  »- 


Vi;  b: 


t.sa. 


The  mode  in  wbich  the  early  Christians  sp 

Lord's  day  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  .Tamieson 

-Vunnerv  and  I'lHali  y'rhe  fi-iiuiiet  Ckritiiaia. 

"VlewluE  Ihe  Lord's  ilsy  aa  a  pplrltnnl  (Bsllvlly^a 


tbe 


Lord  B 

ihey  intmdured  il 


iplrlia  lo  rejolc 


IS  day 


o  mn  "If.  ^ 
Ibell  SaTloor. 


which  was  Ibllowed  b>  Hclect  portions  of  the  pnipbeo, 
iliegor]>els,and  lbs  cpldlea,  Ibe  lutervali  beiwten  obkb 
ware  (iccnpled  by  the  Ibllbfnl  Id  prlTal*  denitlona.    The 


plan  of  ■ervh'*.  Id  abon, 
Ihat  of  the  (iiHli^  Ib-Higb  It 
IVrencef,  which  we  shnTi  no 
with  ihelrheadabari,  audi 

deemed  Ihe  ai's 

their  bands 


Ki,  Doin  standing,  p^il.m 
ud  sailed  to  tbalr  eialied  n.- 
iltj— with  their  eyes  llfied  np 


■.the 


Ih  had  opened  ap  the  v 
ic«.  The  rendluic  of  tbi 
nod  lnd(a|ienai 


ended  in  Ihs  f.wi 


.  .  .  .,    ,. lie  pan  ofthe  otherv- 

aiid,  rSBrtaally  to  Inineiw  It  on  the  tnamoric  of 
■diaiice,  the  hiarons  mum  alwiiys  short  and  "'  r—. 
reCDrreiici).    BesMe*  the  Scrlptaren,  they  tv 


"     '  A    Thi 

bleat  a 

flrai  by  ibe 


....  nBictt  appointed  tut  that  ohierl,  wh-i, 

ling  III  the  diachnrcg  nf  hie  dniy,  If  It  nIniM 

any  pan  »f  the  hhU'iry  of  Jenns,  eulninied  aluod  ii> 


rieesdiiig  I 
Ibe  people. 


tben  ntways  commenced  wlih'Thns  i 
Bwnmed  this  attltnde.iiiit  only  IToi 

was  tbe  itnat  resiHCinil  p-iatBraln 

coausele  of  ihe  KIih;  of  Itlngii,  bat  wlih 


■-  the  Lnrd.'- 


ler  atoiiplngin  the 
leuvliig  Uie  iienple 
founded  fur  the  luos 


Bcrlpinnil  qniMnllou  and 

M  ■niek  It  alond.   Tne  dirconrsn, 

iHirt  nn  Ihe  laM  pnnlon  ufSctipinre 

. .  jftiirt,  plain,  and  ezlemponiiy  eih-x- 

ehkiAy  to  etir  up  Ihe  ml>ds  of  Itic  l>r*th- 


tlr  up  Ihe  ml 

.^  —  .,- . __,ai>d  alwaya  prefiiced  by  the    I 

, '  I'ence  be  unto  Jim.'   Aa  Ihry  wers  very  Hlinn, 
•onieiinief  not  extending  to  more  than  eluht  ur  ten  mln-    1 
niea'  dnrallon,  serenl  of  Ihem  were  dellvemt  at  n  did,    ' 
and  the  preiicher  was  nsnally  tbe  hkiut  ■>(  tbu  plntr. 

gur,  or  one  nf  hi*  brethren  known  In  pnsiwaa  ihr  tnleio 
uf  public  epeaking,  to  addrasa  lbs  asi«aibly.  The  clioe 
of  the  Fermun  tiy  binissll.  which  was  alwayi-  tbe  Inxt  .it 
Ihe  rerler,  was  tin  signal  tit  Ihs  pnUlc  prnycrN  ui  c«m- 
ineiice.  PrsvlOBaln  ihlsanlemn  pnrt  nf  ihe'eiilo-.  h-n- 
eter.  a  crier  commanded  InMslsiir  any  descrlpilim  thnt 
niii.'htbenrcseiillowllhdmw,nnd,(bed<HirsbFlng<-K~'d 
and  guarded,  Ihe  iiastiirprnceMedloprnaunnce  n  iiriiie- 
the  iHirden  iiTwhlch  wa-  made  i.i  bear  a  apeclnl  ref^rron- 

prlmblTS  ChnicJi,  were  not  ndmliteil  to  *  mil  niu-iicltui- 
llnn  In  the  privi?e<.-«' of  ihe  (hlthfill.    Fli*t  c.f  nil,  he 

'  "  "' '  "'■ "■"    ■"  B»E  i-etsi.n-.ur  tticeut  couvcii- 


STTNDAY 

fron  bmtbnilna  *hn  irera  pUBlng  tbnio;^  n  prcpam- 
L^ir  rtMttm  of  liiplmptliin  ill  li»  d«iclrlDet  jiud  dutitfB  nf 
IglilbstiilJiAI- 
llora  oT  It,  mid 


Clrlillaal^— Uiiil  Ibelr  i 
««J,ilii.irb««rt»n.teH 
ihii  ttey  nlglii  be  1«1 


c  B,  makea  SuadiTa,  with  Chriatmiu  and  Eiilcr,  hcily- 
days,  but  permila  work  in  birrot  and  in  ciks  of  n«- 
ccoity.  TbeMitulel  E1izibeth,c2,puiiu1ie*  by  fine 
ig  theiii»elve»fro[n  cl 


ihii  ttey  nlzbi  be  1«1  l>i  cnlltTUe  UKire  bul*  bnlilM  'if  penoni  ■bsenliiiR  ihemselve*  tram  cburch  withuuC  «x- 

bawl  lud  liSi  l.»  Bblch  lliBjr  mlfht  »4lorn  lie  di«iiliio  jub*.    JiroCTl.iu  1618,  Ueutd  his  Bbo*  o/Awrtjfq.O, 

ijixsizi  .s-JiiyKK.'sa'z';  i»  -"i*  »•  i«u,J'««in ,.»«,  iff  .A.- 

IMimiKbl  rtcciTc  deepud  Mritmueiii  lii>prei«luaa  iif  ful  on  SuTidaya  aflei  divine  wrvice.     Thia  book  wu 

IM  ti<n<ll«K  aiBrolmwa  ..f  »in,  Ibai  iheji  mlghi  b»  ml-  niaannl  by  Charles  I  in  168*.     The  sUlule  39  Cbark« 


r  prol 


„ _.       ._[r  daMiipllou*  iif  persiiin, 

<if  irbMii  lefl  the  cbDrch  when  tbe  claai  li>  wblch  b 
Igand  bud  b«u  commended  In  Ihu  Go! 
iDd  ibeii  tbe  brvibren.  redneed  by  Ibe  mt 
arte  la  no  ■ppnircd  companf  or  the  bill 


Ire  fkparlj 
■ring  aUNidance,  auch  as  reruaing  in 


jec 


-     ■'"fiill'u    ".c-^.«nKl«a"tlialn<. , 

roar),    laborer,  or  other  pei»a  whatsoever  aball  do  or  exer- 
cise any  vorldly  labor,  Uiaiueas,  or  work  of  their  ordi- 
nary calling*  upon  the  Lord's  ilay,  or  iiiy  part  thereof 
'.    (worka  ot  ueceiaity  and  charily  nniy  excepted);"  inrl 
'    "that  no  person  or  peiaoni  whalsoever  shall  publicly 
cry,  show  forth,  or  expose  to  sale  any  w■re^  merchan- 
dise, fruit,  herbs.  good%  or  chaltela  whi(lec>e>er  upon  ilie 
Sun-    I^>nl's  day  or  any  pact  thereof."    This,  somewhat  moil- 
cicommuniGation.     Ir-    illed  by  suliseqiienc  laws,  ia  the  present  Snnday  law  of 
laiiil,  and  is  the  fuuodalion  of  the  laws  on  the  auU- 
in  the  United  Stales, 

I  America  the  Puritan  coloniata  eatabliahed,  rn  the 
full  extenc  of  theii  power,  the  observance  of  Sundav 
as  the  Christian  Sabbath.  Tbe  early  lawa  oT  Massa'- 
b^puerisy.  or  mere  extcmal  attendance  at  church,  chiiaelts,  Connecticut,  Ueorgia,  South  Carolina,  and  Vir- 
1574  appninied  "searchers,"  or  giaia  compelled  attendance  at  church,  the  Uaasachu- 
aetts  law  (1782}  providing  that  such  attendance  was 
not  oliligUnry  where  there  was  no  place  of  warship 
which  the  peraun  could  oonacienliaualy  attend.  When 
the  Fcileral  gavernment  was  formed  and  the  aepara- 
tion  of  Church  and  State  waa  fully  recogniiied,.the 
earlier  Sunday  laua  were  modified  in  confurmity  with 
.  this  principle.  The  courts  have  been  careful  to  dia- 
of  Sunday.  The  '  tingnish  between  Sunday  observance  as  a  religious  and 
'  w  (A.D.  331)  10 '  as  a  civil  inatitution,  ami  to  enforce  only  the  latter. 
The  following  are  the  grounda  upon  which  our  Sunday 
lawa  rest:  The  right  of  all  claasea,ao  far  as  practicable, 
to  rest  one  day  in  aenn;  to  woraliip  iimliiturbed  on 
the  day  set  apart  by  the  m^ority  ol'  the  people;  the 
decent  reepect  which  should  be  paid  to  ilie  rrli|;ions 
inatitutinns  of  the  people;  the  value  to  the  Stale  of 
Sunday  observance,  as  oonlributing  to  popular  intelli- 
gence tnA  mnrnlily.  With  the  partial  exception  of 
Louisiana,  Sunday  laws  exist  in  every  atste  in  Ihe 
Union.  These  laws  differ  somewhat  in  detail  and 
stiictneta,  but  the  following  general  characteTialJcs  may 
be  noted:  Sunday  ia  everywhere  held  as  a  difi  nan: 
public  sfloira  are  suspended;  legislatures  do  niit  sit; 
courts  are  not  held,  except  city  police-courts  fur  an 

of  the  states  common  labor  and  traffic  are  forbidden ; 
contracts  made  for  service  on  Sunday  are  invalid;  pub- 
lic amuaementa  are  prubibited  or  reftricied.  In  aome 
states  exception  ia  made  in  favor  uf  thoae  who  ob«er>*e 


•otia  of  Hch  ai  were  "  raging  abroad."  The  atrang 
mcike  laited  for  nigh  a  century  and  a  half.  Som 
•f  Ihe  records  of  the  period  are  cnrimia.  See  Walcoti 
SarrrJ  A  rdiieM.  s.  r.     See  Loitn's  Dat. 

[II.  Lr^  ObtreaiKt  of  ikt  D-ig As  aoon  as  th 

ChiiMian  religion  came  to  be  recognised  by  the  SCati 


ffapenr  Cooslantinc  mad 

exewpt  the  day  fron  being  juridical,  as  wi 

cf).    By  this  law  and  others  he  soapendea  all  actions 

sad  pmceedings  of  the  law  on  this  day,  whether  ai^ 

itati,  pleadings,  exactions,  aentencea  of  judges,  execu- 

tnoi,  excepting  only  such  as  wets  of  absolute  neces- 

■ty  ac  of  eminent  charity,  as   the   manumiauon   of 

■laroi,  the  appointing  of  curators  and  guantiana  to  or- 

ami  damage,  legacies  and  Iniats,  exhibiting  of  willa, 
an-l  all  easea  where  great  damage  might  be  auffered 
eiiker  by  delay  or  by  death,  Valeniinian  prohibited 
sU  aneits  of  men  for  debt,  whether  public  or  private, 
Ml  tbhi  day,  and  Valeiitinian  jirnior,  with  Theodosiua 
tbe  lireat,  appointed  all  Sundaya  in  the  year  to  be 
dies  of  TBcation  from  all  buaineaa  of  Ihe  law  wbatsn- 


t*  were  forbidden,  except  only  such  as 
■tn  eallert  to  hy  necesuty  or  some  great  charity, : 
at  harresling.  By  a  law  nf  Honoriiis  the  judges  ' 
n^oiiied  to  visit  the  prisons  every  Sunday  [ii  exai 


keepers  of  Ihe 
psper  guard,  ahould 


denied  them  any  office  uf  bumar 
orders  that  the  prisoner*,  ondt 


«  allowed 
Later  lawa  forbade  all  huabandry 
«  tbe  Lonl's  day.  ailowing  only  such  work  as  was  nec- 
naary  lo  secure  food  abwdutely  reqaired.  The  Chris- 
tan  Uw(  took  care  to  secure  the  honor  and  dignity  of 
(be  Lord's  dav  by  forbidding  puUie  games,  shows,  ni 
bdierous  recreations  {Cod.  JitUvt.  lib.  8,  tit.  12,  De  Feriii, 
Int.  U).  and  the  Church  was  no  Ins  careful  to  guard 
tbs  tervice  nf  ttiis  day  from  the  endoachment  of  all 
•lia  pastimes  and  needless  reaeallons.  The  Fourth 
ronril  of  Carthage  made  a  decree  {catu  88)  excommu- 
sieatlng  any  person  who  ahould  forsake  the  servioea  of 
IbeOhatchioaiUnd  a  public  show. 

In  Knt^aad  Sunday  laws  wen  of  early  dale.  The 
«de  of  Ina.  king  of  the  Wast  Saxons  (about  C93),  pun- 
nWd  servile  wotk  by  One.  Alfred  the  Uteat  <8;6)  for- 
bad) work,  traffic,  anil  legal  proceedings  1  while  the  Stat- 
ue IT  Iteny  IV,  a  6,  enaeta  that  all  fain  and  markets 
g«  Sundayi^  except  in  harreat,  shall  ceine  on  pain  of 
bit^uia  «f  gonlL     Tbe  sutoie  6  and  6  Edward  V(, 


Sunday  law  is  that  which  makes  it  (with  Chrialmas, 
New-year's-day,  etc)  a  puUic  rest-day,  and  provide* 
that  citations  shall  tMI  iasiie,  nor  proceedings  be  had, 
nor  auita  inaiiiutcd  on  that  day,  and  that  it  shall  not 
be  reckoned  in  compnling  interest  and  in  protests,  etc 
The  Conalilution  of  the  Uuited  States  provides  that 
Sunday  shall  not  be  reckoned  in  the  ten  days  within 
which  the  preddeni  msy  return  any  bill;  the  Federal 
courts  and  offices  of  the  departmenta  are  cluaed;  the 
posl-olBee  service  is  restricted;  no  sesiion  of  Cungreaa 
is  held,  or,  if  held  on  that  day,  it  is  considered  aa  beiug 
part  uf  the  preceding  Saturday;  and  proviaion  is  made 
by  an  act  of  Congress  for  the  observance  of  Sunday 
by  the  array  and  navy.  Federal  legislation  lespecling 
Sunday  proceeda  no  further.  The  consiilutionallty  of 
Sunday  laws  haa  been  decided  ftequently  by  the  high- 
eat  courts  of  the  several  stales.  Some  of  our  statutes 
define  Ihe  extent  of  the  Lord's  day.  In  Connecticut 
the  OHirta  have  defined  it  aa  extending  only  from  day- 
break ID  the  closing  of  daylight  on  Sunday.  General- 
ly, in  Dew  England,  it  is  from  sunset  on  Saturday  to 
sunset  ou  Sunday;  but  for  many  purposes,  and  proba- 
bly in  most  of  the  stales  for  all  purposes,  i'  begins  only 


SUNDAY  2 

■I  midnight  between  Sitanlay  tai  Sgoday  and  end< 
with  the  DGiC  midnight. 

In  France,  during  the  ReTolutioa,  when  the  Cbria- 
titn  ciiendu  wu  abollBhed  and  the  decade  Nibnituled 
fnr  the  week,  erery  tenth  day  wai  made  a  reM-daj', 
and  ita  observance  wu  enlbrceid  by  a  law  (IT  Thenni- 
dor,  an.  vi)  whicli  required  the  public  offlcea,  achools, 
•rorkahopa,  Uores,  ete^  (o  be  dneed,  and  prohibited  aalea 
except  of  eacahlea  and  medicine*,  and  public  labor  ex- 
cept in  the  country  during  seed-time  and  harreat. 
When  the  Gregorian  calendar  wai  mtored,  Sunday  wa> 
recogniKd  in  the  Codi  NapoUrm  (art.  2a,  S60).  The 
law  of  Nnr.  18, 1814,  prohibiting  ordinary  labor,  tnffic, 
etc,  and  declared  by  the  oaurta  in  183H  and  I84fi  to  be 
still  in  force,  ia,  practically,  a  dead  letter. 

In  Switzerland  recent  Ir^slation  haa  granted  to  rail- 
wiy  employ^  nnd  all  government  offlce-holden  at  least 
one  Sunday  in  every  three;  and  slill  Turther  realriction 
of  Sunday  labor  is  being  aought  in  some  of  the  cantona. 
The  question  ia  agitated  in  Delgium  and  Gennany  of 
better  protection  by  law  of  Sunda*  reel  for  operatirea. 
Sea  Cox,  Weralure  of  3ab.  Qualum  (Edinb.  1866); 
A  mtr.  Lam  Rie,  voL  ii ;  Pro'.  Epiieapol  Qvar,  Ret.  voL 
vii ;  Hopkins,  SoNnilli  aid  Free  Imlitulimt,  in  doc.  39 
of  N.Y.  Sabbath  Commitlee;  Judge  W.  Allen,  opinion 
in  LMamUlUr  vs.  The  Prnplr,  S3  Barl»ur,  M8;  He*- 
■ey,  Bamplon  f,eclara  (LttCO);  Schaff,  An^-Amrr. 
Sabbath  (1868).    See  Saudatk. 

Snnday,  John,  or  Sbali-Wiui-Dalm,  waa  a  na- 
aveliidUn,bomiii  New  Y'>rk  State  in  I7:i.'>-i;.  Hebe- 
longed  tn  the  Missisaiiga  aectlan  of  tbe  Ojibway  na- 
tion, and  when  a  yoiing  man  he  aerved  in  the  Britiah 
army  against  the  United  States.  He  wnn  converted  in 
1S26,  and  shortly  after  was  appuinted  a  leader  among 
the  converted  Belleville  Indiana.  He  uaa  Uie  earlieat 
evangelical  pioneer  to  the  tribes  on  the  north  water* 
uf  Lakes  Huron  anil  Superior,  In  tS33  he  was  received 
into  the  Conference  and  waa  nrdained  in  1B96,  and  the 
same  year  accompanied  Rev.  William  Lord  to  England 
to  plead  the  cause  nfoiiasiiins,  and  n      '      ' 

and  he  hid  charge  of  Alderville,  Rice  and  Mud  Ldke, 
and  Muncietown  circuits.  He  died  Dec.  14.  lt<7S.  See 
Mimfa  a/lif  Onlai-io  Cvnfii*im.  l»7(i,  |i.  H. 

SnDday-aobooL  Among  the  modem  deveic 
menu  of  Christianity,  Sunday-schucls,  and  what 
known  as  the  Sunday-school  enterprise,  are  prominenL 
To  peranns  familiar  with  their  iihjecte  and  the  script- 
ural precepta  hy  which  they  arc  aanctlone-l,  it  aeemi 
strange  that  so  long  a  period  elapsed  belbre  they  camt 
into  actual  existence.  That  a  lesdiiig  duty  of  the  Church 
waa  to  teach  all  nations  wat  made  plain  in  the  great 
commiiaion  of  our  Lord  to  hia  disciples.  That  little 
children  were  included  in  the  scope  of  that  commisaion 

"suffer  little  children  too>meunta  him  and  forbid  them 
not,"  aa  well  as  ftnm  his  impressive  charge  to  Peter, 
"Feed  my  lambs."  While  evidence  ia  not  lacking  to 
indicate  that  the  Cbristians  of  the  apostolic  age  both 
comprehended  the  duty  enjoined  by  our  Lord  and  illua- 
trated  it  in  adaptation  to 
are  too  many  proofs  that 
fnllowing,  that  duty  fell  into  abuse  and  neglect  ami 
the  rapidly  growing  corruptions  of  the  Church.  Th 
ceremonioua  catechetical  ayttem  of  the  4th  and  fithcei 
tutiea  was  a  labored  but  poor  apology  for  that  neglect, 

general  efTuiton  the  port  of  the  Church  for  the  religiout 
instruction  of  children.  Following  the  Keformstian  ot 
the  16th  century  catechizatinn  in  the  elementa  of  Script- 
ure docCriiK  was  gradunlly  introduced  into  most  of  tht 
I'rotestant  cbuicbei,  but  it  waa  rarely  extended  to  any 
beyond  the  recognised  children  of  the  Church. 

1.  Oriyia  and  Earlj/  Hiilorg  n/  ikt  Sundog-Kkoot 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL 

Sa$lim^\t  waa  not  till  near  tlie  cloae  of  the  ISth  e^ 
tuty  that  the  modem  system  of  Sunday-school  inacme- 
n  took  it*  rise.  Although  in  nuntcmiu  instance*  pft- 
iiuly  catechizatinn  had  been  practiced  on  the  Lonf  ■ 
day,  and  in  aeveral  cases  individuabi  remote  from  each 
other  in  time  and  locality  had  aasembled  children  K« 
instruction  on  that  day,  yet  nothing  like  a  general  aya- 
lem  of  teaching  the  yonngon  Snitdiy*,  whether  in  ice- 
uUr  or  religious  leaming,  was  known  prior  to  178I)L 
The  system  that  then  arose  was  purely  phiUnthro|ue 
itemplated  only  local 


Froi 


irly  pene 


e  I7lh  c( 


making  bad  been  an  important  indusi 

of  Gloucester,  England.     This  manufacture  emptoyed 

the  place,  but  gathereil  in  from  siirroimding  retonni. 
Vast  numbers  of  these  children  were  wholly  uneducated, 
and,  being  without  parental  restraint  or  moral  aupervia- 
ion,  they  naturally  fell  into  groaa  disorder  and  imnxml- 
ity,  especially  on  Sundays,  when  the  factorin  were  not 
in  operation.  Tbe  Arat  peraou  who  nndexaok  to  resD* 
edy  thia  distreaainii  state  lA  things  waa  Hr.  Robnt 
Raikes  (q.  v.),  a  printer  residing  in  Gbinceater.  and  ■ 
member  nfihe  Church  of  England,  He  found  four  per- 
sons who  had  been  accustomed  to  instruct  children  in 
readiiifT,  and  engaged  their  aervices  to  leceive  and  in- 
struct such  citildreu  aa  he  should  aend  to  tbem  evvry 
Sunday.    The  children  were  to  go  aoon  after  ten  in  the 

home,  and  return  at  one;  and  after  reading  a  lesson, 
they  were  to  be  conducted  to  Church.  After  (^imh 
they  were  to  be  employed  in  repeating  the  cateduam 
till  half  after  live,  and  then  to  be  diamisaed  with  an  ii»> 
junction  to  go  home  without  making  a  noise,  and  bj 

outline  of  the  regulations  as  stated  bt-  Mr.  Raiks,  ia 
his  celebrated  letter  of  June  b,  1784,  which  condnsir^ 
idendAes  him  aa  the  originator  of  the  Sunday-ochool 


A*  has  often  happened  in  other  cases  of  great  RSDhn 
from  small  beginningi,  there  have  been  varioaa  en- 
deavors to  fix  tbe  origin  of  Sitnday-achools  at  earlier 
periods  than  that  named  above.  Although  it  ia  not 
difficult  to  eatabliah  priority  In  aeveral  cases,  yet  there 
is  no  other  instance  of  an  actiul  .Sunday-acbocd  from 
which  continuity  ot  serial  connection  can  ha  traced 
down  to  the  present  time.  If,  therefore,  men  pricritv 
were  in  question,  it  would  be  neceaaary  to  go  back  to 
the  period  of  Moaea,  under  wlinm  the  catechetical  aya- 
<em  of  the  .lews  was  appointed,  culminating  in  the  grand 
sabbatical  year  (Denuxxxi,  10-13).  But  aa  it  i*  not  th« 
origin  ofcatecbizatioD  (i}.v.)  which  is  under  conwdera- 
lion,  but  rather  of  that  form  of  catecbbation  which,  tn 
modem  timea,  ia  kitown  aa  the  Sunday-achool  ayalem,  it 
is  safe  to  accept  tbe  geitenl  verdict  of  history,  accofd- 
ing  to  which  Robert  Raikea  is  recognised  as  ila  founder. 
When  once  the  idea  of  Sunday  instruction  for  the  i^ 
norant  children  of  Great  Britain  waa  fairly  developed, 

perfect  ailaptatic 
of  Hr.  Raikes  soon  negan  lo  a 
tiona,  with  reaulls  of  the  most  encouraging  character. 
A  Sunday-achool  Society  waa  formed  in  London,  and,  in 
various  ways,  *a  gcner^  an  intereac  was  awakened  on 
the  subject  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  yean  Snnday- 
schoola  were  commenced  in  nearly  every  part  of  En^ 
land.  They  did  not,  however,  become  universal,  nor  in 
the  largest  d^ree  nseful,  uniiL  a  higher  idea  than  that 
of  mere  philanthropy  became  emboilied  in  tbem.  Th« 
plan  of  employing  hired  teachers  not  only  made  it  nee- 
esaaty  to  raise  large  amounts  of  money,  but  neceasarily 
placed  a  limit  upon  their  eitenaion  and  permanence. 
Besides,  it  was  not  poaaible  to  secure  tbe  best  qualltv 
of  leaching  by  any  appeal  to  mercenary  molivea.  In 
discuBsing  this  subject  at  a  comparatively  early  perioii 
of  the  history  of  Snnday-schoola,  the  Rev.  John  Angell 
James  said:  "Hireling  teachers  can  scarcely  be  expect- 


SCNDAT-SCHOOL 


21 


StJNDAT-SCHOOL 


rf  t*  poacn  either  tht  eoI  oi  the  lUUtfofthoM  who 
M*  tugigt  io  the  vrork  fioni  motirci  of  pure  benevo- 
Itora.  UnlniUHU  iiutruclioii  win  mn  utoniihiDg  im- 
jnmmiil  of  the  ByUem,  and  which  do«  not  ippeir  to 
ban  altered  into  the  views  of  it*  benevolent  author. 
'Ifve  wen  uked,'  uje  >  writer  in  the  Sandos-tckmil 
AfniUry, '  who«  name  Moud  next  to  that  of  Robert 
Buks  ID  the  annals  of  Suuday-acboaU,  we  tbould  uj, 
the  penDo  who  fint  came  forward  and  volantaiUy  prof- 
fared  bii  cxertiont,  hii  time,  and  his  talenu  to  the  in- 
UiwEtiiia  of  Ibe  young  and  the  pwr;  unce  an  imita- 
lia  of  bi>  ezampk  has  been  the  great  cauM  of  the 
pnient  Smmahing  lUtc  of  then  inslitationi.  and  of  all 
tlat  htore  additional  intreaK  which  may  be  reasonablj 
aptieipatccL' " 

While  il  may  not  be  ponible  la  Sx  upon  any  one  per- 
m  at  haring  been  the  fint  u>  commence  ipatuilaus  ef- 
fc(l  IB  the  teaching  of  Sanday-acbooLa,  it  is  not  difficult 
u  drtennine,  from  the  hiitory  of  the  times,  who  was 
pnbably  more  iiiMrumentat  than  any  other  man  in 
oulihihing  and  dilTuinng  the  syMem  of  gratuitous  and 
CbiMisn  instroctian  in  those  echools.  It  was  the  Rev. 
Jobs  Woky,  who,  fat  more  than  thirty  years  prior  to 
the  fas  Sunday-achool  of  Kaikea,  taxt  been  in  the  halnt 
of  SMeobling  childnn  in  various  parts  of  England  for 
ilu  poipoae  of  religious  instruction.  It  was  he  wbo, 
havi^  recorded  iu  his  Journal,  July  18,  1784,  that  he 
tKmd  Soaday-^cbaols  sprinting  up  wherever  he  went, 
■ho  Rcmtled  these  meiaarable,  if  not  prophetic,  words: 
'hrtiapsdod  may  have  a  deeper  end  therein  than  men 
are  awaie  oL  Who  knows  hut  tome  of  these  schools 
DsybcconMnuneties  for  Christians  V  From  that  time 
lunsid  notices  of  Sunday-schools  were  frequent  in  bis 
jovniBla.  The  fiilkrwing  is  a  brief  specimen.  "JulyS?, 
IT8;,-We  went  on  to  BoltoD.  Here  are  eigbt  hundred 
poor  cbildim  taught  in  our  Sunday-schools,  by  about 
□glity  mBBiem,  who  receive  no  pay  but  what  they  are 
<«  receive  fram  their  great  Matter."  This  record  cor- 
rcapeodi  lo  the  statement  made  in  Myles's  Buloty  nfiht 
PttfUcaBid .VnluMiitU  (Lond.  1803).  Having  referred 
la  fuday-achoois  as  sn  excellent  institution  begun  by 
Mr^Raikn,  the  author  says,  "Mr.  Wesley  no  soonsr 
luari  d  it  than  he  approved  of  it.     He  published  sn 

i;M,aiKlexbonc(l  his  societies  lu  imitate  this  laudable 
(UBpla.  They  UKik  his  advice-  Laboring,  hsrd-work- 
iac  lani  and  women  began  to  instruct  their  neighbort' 
dutdim,  and  to  go  with  them  to  the  house  of  God  on 
ttt  Lord's  day."  Whatever  was  done  by  others,  the 
MdhaiUaa,  from  tfae  beginning,  practiced  only  grata- 
iiEW  iatfmctioD  in  their  Sunday-schools.  By  t'hem  the 
OBI  iaatitutjon  Bud  Eoodes  of  instmction  were  simulta- 
mn)*  inmdnced  into  the  United  Btsles  of  Am 


adopdon  of  organized  Sunday -school  eObtt  by  tha 
Church  referred  to  grew  out  of  the  fact  ibat  persecn* 
tion  arose  on  account  of  its  endeavors  to  itutmct  the 
colored  children  of  the  South.  In  Cbarleslon,  S.  C,  the 
Rev.  George  Daughaday  "was  severely  beaten  on  the 
head,  and  subsequently  had  water  pumped  oa  him  from 
a  public  cistern,  for  the  crioM  of  conducting  a  Sabbath- 
school  for  the  benefit  of  the  African  children  in  that  vi- 
cinity." Nevenbeteta,  the  Methodist  Conference,  which 
in  Charleston  in  February,  1790,  resolved  to  con- 


lethew 


"Quel  What  can  be  dune  to  losl 


lUbllah  Suuday-scbuals  lo  or  nesr  ibe  pisce  of  pob- 

'orship.    Let  persons  be  appolnwd  by  Iha  bishop, 

elders,  deacons,  iir  preschen,  to  lescb  tmlw  n\\  ihHl  will 

alLend,  and  bnvescnpsclty  lo  lesm .  TtieCriDiicllfhsll 

cDiDplle  a  proper  (Chuol-book  to  leach  them  leatnlng  and 
piety." 

At  the  period  of  the  origin  of  Snnday-schools  the  Meth- 
dist  Kpiscopsi  Church  found  one  of  ils  principal  fields 
f  action  in  the  Southern  Stales,  being  drawn  tbither 
y  the  great  spiritual  detlilulion  of  the  iiibabitautt. 
kit  it  is  easy  lo  understand  that,  owing  lo  the  spane- 
iras  of  the  population  and  to  other  reasons,  Ibe  condi* 
ion  of  tbal  region  wsi  not  favorable  to  the  rapid  de- 
elopment  and  permanent  esiablishment  of  Sunday- 
schools.  The  same  thing  was,  to  some  extent,  true 
of  the  entire  United  Slates,  owing  to  the  general  ei- 
haaslion  of  the  country  following  Ibe  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution and  the  unsettled  condition  of  affairs  in  a  newly 
organized  government.  Hence  nearly  or  quite  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  passed  hy  before  Surday-schools  be- 
came common  ineilbertheBoulhemnrNDnhrmSutes. 
Meantime  they  had  beenmsking  steady  snd  success- 
ful progress  in  liieat  Brilain,  •  here  they  were  promoted 
by  two  classes  of  agencies,  the  philanlbroptc  and  the 
leligioDS.  Owing  lo  the  low  state  of  public  educalioa 
in  that  conntiy,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  children  were 
wholly  dependent  upon  Sunday-schools  for  the  Antele- 


VHbsdisc  aodetiea  a  similar  relation  lo  that  ol 
Wnlry  iu  England. 

As  early  as  Iba  year  17S4  the  follawtng  paragraph 
Vis  incDrparatvd  iu  the  Diteipline  oftke  Mtthodut  Kpii- 
oral  dan*. ■ 

-nslihall  wpdofor  IberlsltiRKensratlonr  Wh' 


■xltafiBi 


1.  Where  I  here  are  lei^  child  re 

'hMi  BT«r»  lime  jr. .n  si'e  I'll 
Hi  ri>r  ihem.    «.  iflllpeiilly  li 


t  poor  chUdm, 


Is  of  insti 


la  •cqupiK*  of  this  mandatory  rule, 
ntj  to  miiiisten.  but  involving  Ibe  co-operation  nf 
1^,  Stnday-acboola  were  estahlished  in  many  ptai 
Of  one  of  tboae  scbocd*  a  very  deSnite  and  ssliirsctoiy 
mmt  wM  made.  It  waa  taught  in  1T86,  In  Hanover 
Omaly,  To.,  at  ihe  bntiae  of  Mr.  Thomas  Crenshaw,  who, 
m  1W7,  facly-oiM  years  later,  was  a  living  witness  of 
1^  fact,  as  was  also  the  Bev.  John  Charleston,  a  minis- 
UT  of  thlrty-oitw  yeart^  service  in  the  Cfanrch,who  had 
t>a*  ooavntrd  in  that  aehool  (Bangs,  ffiU.  •>/  Ihe  M. 
L.  Ctarrft).     Further  historic  cridence  of  Oie  early 


nnivenially  taught  in  the  Sunday-schools— the  former 
as  essential  to  ibe  perusal  of  the  Word  of  God  oi  the 
Catechism,  which  from  the  first  were  Ibe  text-bol^ 
for  all  pnpils  able  lo  use  Ihem. 

Although  much  and  well-rewarded  effort  waa  pnt 
forth  in  behalf  of  Sunday-schools  from  purely  philan- 
thropic motives,  yet  the  greatest  progress  made  by  Ihero 
and  the  highest  results  secured  Ihmogh  them  were  in 

When,  at  length,  this  species  of  effort  beciniB  general, 
Sunday-schoohi  assumed  a  position  of  importance  and 
of  promise  not  before  realised.  About  Ihe  same  period 
they  began  lo  develop  what  may  be  called  Iheir  cumii- 
laiive  power.  This  was  seen  when  the  first  generation 
nf  Sunday-school  scholars  had  grown  up  lo  become 
teachers,  and  felt  themselves  moved  to  do  for  others 
what  bod  been  done  fur  them.  In  this  manner  Ihe 
leaching  force  in  Sunday-schools  became  gteally  aug- 
mented. Besides,  cases  were  not  rare  in  which  the 
grown-up  scholars  of  Sunday-schools  became  ministera 
of  the  Ouspel,  while  others,  continuing  in  secular  life, 
became  prominent  men  in  business  and  in  society.  The 
strong  snd  HTecIive  support  rendered  by  such  penona, 
as  well  as  by  many  others  of  less  prominence,  gave  a 
new  impetus  to  the  Sunday-school  enterprise,  which  has 
been  enlarging  and  repeating  itself  ever  since. 

The  enlistment  of  the  press  as  an  auxiliary  to  Sun- 
day-schools was  an  event  of  great  importance.  For  a 
consideTable  period  Sunday-schnol  work  waa  done  at  a 
great  disadvantage  for  lack  of  suitable  books  of  all  kinds, 
not  excepting  copies  of  the  Scriptures.  The  orgoniia- 
'  "' "  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1804, 


..I..,.. 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  2 

prk«i  adapted  to  eilenMvs  luc  in  Sundiy-*chO(J«.     Be- 


BLblM,  and  el 


books,  ilie  first  jiublicaciona  introduced  extai 
SunJay-8olii»la  «en  called  reward-boolu,  dd  acaiiiiit 
or  tlieir  being  pmented  lo  childFcn  m  in  enpourigc- 
ment  fi>r  puiictiul  and  regular  attendance  and  for  the 
memiirization  of  leasona.  At  Srw  they  were  tracts  attd 
Hury-booka,  in  paper  cove™,  of  very  inferior  quality,  no 
others  being  attainable.  About  1810  the  Keliginm  Tract 
Society  uf  London  began  iwuiiig  children'a  booki,  pre- 
pared and  printed  specially  with  reference  lo  Sunday- 
■chool  pattansge.  The  demand  for  auch  booka  incrtaaed 
in  the  ratio  of  their  production,  >o  that  other  religioDa 
aooieties,  and  even  miacellaneoua  publiihera,  found  it  to 
tbeir  interest  to  prorida  them.  Ac  lenglh  the  idea  of 
iiitrodudng  drculaiing- libraries  into  Sunrlay-schoola 
came  into  vogue,  and  with  it  a  atill  greater  publication 
of  books  deaigned  fur  jurenile  reading,  aod  also  fur  the 


There  are  no  data  fur  accurately  tracing  the  ounver- 
ical  growth  of  Sunday-achoob  in  the  earlier  perioila  of 
their  history.  Nevenheleaa,  it  ia  pleasing  to  know  that 
some  of  the  workers  of  those  days  were  not  inattentive 
tu  the  broader  aspects  of  the  enterprise  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  It  waa  estimated  by  the  Sunday-school 
Society  of  London,  in  17S6,  that  within  five  yean  after 
tbe  opening  of  lUikes's  flrsl  school  250.000  scholars  had 


fiirly  y 


later  (1827)  the 
aied  that  the  ag| 
lie  Smiday-schoo 


lished. 


2  SUNDAY-SCHOOL 

bat  throDgbout  the  Protestant  world,  whether  in  btoM 
ormission  lletds.  They  have  also  beeti  adopted  b]rK» 
man  Catholics  and  Jews  in  Protestant  countriea.  Nst 
to  speak  of  the  influence  of  Ijunday-schnola  in  the  laib 
named  bodies,  it  is  safe  to  say  thai  tbe  great  majorilT 
of  all  the  ministers,  missionaries,  and  commuDicanutf 
all  the  I'roteatant  cburches  of  tbe  world  are  at  this  line 
the  d'amri  of  Sunday-scbDuls,  and,  as  such,  their  acliie 
friends  and  supporters.  I'he  recognised  necessitiei  of 
these  schools  have  given  rise  lo  important  changes  ir. 
church  architecture,  by  which  nearly  every  church  is 
provided  with  accommodations  fur  the  iiistructian  «f 
the  young  in  graded  dasscs,  ranging  from  inCancy  up^ 
wards.  Thoy  have  called  into  existence  not  oidy  « 
exicnnive  literature,  but  also  a  varied  pealmoily,  cua- 
t«mplBting  the  special  tastes  and  wants  of  the  yooiig. 
While  in  England  they  have  been  chiefly  limited  lo  the 
poorer  and  tniddls  classes  of  the  people,  in  the  Uniltd 
Sulea  they  have  claimed,  and  in  fnct  assumed,  a  rela- 
tion to  public  fweek.day)  schools  cDrre^wnding  to  that 
which  the  Sabbath  holds  to  the  secular  days  of  tbe 
week.  In  this  relation  the/  seek  to  supplement  puMic 
and  general  education  w'"'   "'  ,,.-■■ 


moral  and  reli 
ences  of  Christianity.    Iti  this  view,  they  se 
>  of  scholars  from  the  higher  as  well 


re  the 


of  cSTort  whkh 


enrolled  iu 
1,260,000. 

II.  The  Srmnd  Petiod  of  Ihe  Savtag-tchaot  EiUrr 
priie. — This  euterprise,  at  the  present  writing,  has  hsi 
■  rec^niseii  existence  of  about  one  hundred  yean.  Ii 
consideriugits  history,  it  seems  proper  lo  divide  its  lira 
century  into  two  pctuids  of  tUly  years  each.  Tbe  flrnl 
which  has  been  summarily  sketched  above,  may  be  de 
nominated  its  initial  and  futmalive  period.  The  sec 
and,  now  closing,  constitules  its  period  of  i 


Wem 


reforib 


Owing  to  causes  noticed  above,  it  was  not  earlier  than 
ihm  18J5  to  l(t30  that  Che  Sunday-school  cause  came 
generally  and  prominently  befure  Che  .American  public 
Between  the  years  named  two  leading  Snnday-scbool 
unions  (q.  v.)  were  organised — one  in  Philadelpliia  and 

liahing  societies  were  established  that  have  given  much 
auxiliary  aid  Co  Sunday-scbuol  eflurcs.  Tlie  idea  of  rs- 
llgions  instruction  as  the  one  great  businne  of  Snnday- 
Mbools  had  then  found  uiiivenal  acceptance.  The  de- 
velopment of  public  secular  instruction  had  by  that  time 
become  so  general,  ai  least  in  the  Northern  and  Central 
States  of  die  American  Union^thaC  .Sundsy-schoob  had 
little  occasion  to  go  out  of  ctieit  proper  sphere.  The 
ntovement  in  behalf  of-general  education  in  England 
had  begun,  having  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  re- 
nllsor.Sunday-achooK  The  purchase  and  use  of  Sun- 
day-school libraries  had  become  common  in  both  eoun- 

bouks  were  improving.  In  short,  the  Sunday-echoui 
enterprise  was  fairly  Uuncheil,  but  no  more  than  that. 
All  the  general  improremenc  and  progreas  of  the  inter- 
vening lilty  yean,  togetlier  wUh  the  united  and  consec- 
utive etTnrts  of  the  multiplied  workers  in  Sunday-schuols, 
have  been  needed  to  bring  those  schools  to  tbe  position 
they  at  present  occupy. 

There  are  two  methods  of  indicating  Ihe  progressive 
advance  and  the  actual  resultsof  Sunday-schools.  The 
one  is  by  general  statements,  and  the  other  by  the  com- 
parative showing  of  such  uumericnl  sisiistics  as  may  be 
found  trustworthy.  As  neither  of  these  mcKles  is  fully 
adeifuate,  both  will  here  be  empWeil  to  a  limited  extent, 
in  order  Ihac  they  may  aa  far  as  piisaible  8iip|ilenient 
each  otiier.  Within  the  last  IHly  years  Sunday-echoals 
have  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential  bnnch  ol 
Churcli  action,  not  merely  in  England  and  America, 


lion  a  quality  of  talent  and 
money  could  never  hire. 

In  passing  from  general  though  signilicaDt  st 
ments  like  iheee  to  such  showings  as  rosy  be  mad 
dgures,  it  seems  necessary  to  explain  that  Sum 
Bchoiil  statistics,  as  mlimte  and  cumpreheiinve  as 
nuw  seen  to  be  deeirable,  are  very  dilSculi  to  obtsii 
a  large  scale.  Oidy  in  rare  inetaitces  have  gov 
ments  been  interealed  to  collect  them,  and  comp 
tively  few  i 


uniformity  of  method 
isary  to  making  up 
and  resulta.     The 


comprehensive  exhibita  of  numbers 
moec,  therefore,  that  has  beeu  up  u 
in  the  way  of  such  exhibits  has  been  lu  lorm  esumairs 
based  upon  accurate  statistics  taken  within  cenaiu  dis- 
tricts or  churches,  and  exiendiug  Cbe^nu  rata  nuiKanL 
About  the  middle  of  the  19tb  century  an  eRurt  was 

tain  the  number  and  attendance  of  the  Suuday-achoiils 
of  that  oountrv.  On  a  given  Sundav  (March '3(1. 1H51) 
the  Sunday-schools  of  Kn^land  and  Wales  vierc  simul- 
taiieoiisly  inspected;  and  there  were  found  in  £3,514 
schools,  30-2,000  teachers  and  2,;!S0,000  scholarH.  The 
number  of  children  enrolled  as  scholars  was  2.407,409. 
or  about  three  fifths  of  Ihe  number  of  children  beiween 
the  ages  of  Ave  and  flileen  enumerated  by  Ihe  census 

children  in  American  Sunday-schools  at  the  «anie  pe- 
riod would  hare  reached  the  number  of  3.000,000.  tf 
Co  those  aggregaiea  the  probable  number  of  Sundav- 
schools  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  other  countries  at  the 
same  date  be  added,  it  seems  safe  to  brliere  that  there 
were  in , Sunday-schools  Ihrougbnut  tbe  world,  at  the 
enil  of  IBoO,  not  less  than  6,000,000  scbolan.  Siniibr 
estimates  made  at  the  end  of  anidher  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury indicate  that  at  the  end  of  1876  there  were  in  oper- 
a^on  in  all  cxiiiirieB  110,000  Sunday-schot.ln,  ecobrK- 
ing  1,500,000  Icacliers  and  10,000,000  sch.dara.  Une 
statistician  of  some  promineuce  haa  since  estimated 
Ibat  there  are  In  Ihe  United  Stales  alone  ixit  lots  than 
98,303  Sunrlay-schouU  and  7,«>t<Ji33  scholars.  *Mi  that 
basis  the  alK>ve  aggregate  for  all  countries  nii>;ht  l<e 
enlaced.     To  tllu»irale  the  iln.ronghness  wiili 


tbe  American 
such  static  icf 
subjoin  the  o 
pal  Church  fu 


id  alw  the  inac 


of 


SCKD  AY.  SCHOOL 

.Stmtaj-wbaol  nliioen  anil  tochrni,  2S6.768 

tUH.OT?:  Kholin  over  Alteei 

•HmUn  under  HflHii,  irul  not  in  infant  cla»e^44&,602; 

■dK>lin  in  infint  cUmc*,  491,419:  BveragE  ittcndaiKW, 

],4MjejI :  volunm  in  Sunclay-ichonI  liljrarin,  1,871, 1S3; 

uDul  ri|ciiMs  at  llie  Khiioli,  •I,6aH,!40:  oinlribu- 

iIdw  to  (he  SamUr-Khani  tlnii 

■nd  liilinz  (not  kIhwIi.  f Xi,SM.i 

■ba  nrv  coiniDuiiianM  in  llieChiirch.357.9D!l;  Khol- 

ui  wbn  wtn  ciiniiBimirintfi,GII>.8<ll;  oinrenions  in 

amataiva  with  Ihc  Sunday-Khai^  I  !9,6s4.    The  loul 

1117,316,  w  49,000 


leSund 


Kbwld. 


iptaivi  conpariacia  of  i> 
unit  Chnruh  fmai  yeir  to  year  ihowt  ■  Mriking  cor 
ropuiHtriKe  (n  [he  numbn  nf  nporied  cohveninni  iii 
ibt  SuMbx-aOwoU.  I'o  the  exient  that  the  abovt 
•uuidc*  may  be  cuniidervd  npreMnlative  a(  the  con- 
'hinKi  and  work  of  tHiiirUy  •  Khoula  in  the  Americai 

pnn  the  nuiEaitude  M  that  work  and  i 
lavti  (at  (tw  pminotion  nf  Chriilian  iiifluc 

1i  unotbibe  auppnaHl  that  reuiltaorib*  importance 
hii<Mal«l  in  the  Tur^oinK  aketch  have  naturally  ariaen 
Inn  Ihc  uponuaeou*  grawih  of  Sunday-arhonla.  On 
Ike  Mbcr  hand  they  are  iniiy  ID  be  allribuled  u  [he 
Ht'uit  Umaaic  upon  the  fyucmai^c  *ihI  well-directed 
ttmt  vf  iDielli|;enl  Suinlay-acbuul  worken 


lioB  iiC  the  Kound  half  cc 


ill  fact,  t 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL 

antinue  in  Kuion  from  one  to  three  weeks  at 
a  time.  In  connection  with  Ihe  growing  American  hab- 
it of  taking  summer  vacalion*  and  of  gaihering  in  musee 
at  populai  reaorls,  SunJay-achool  a»embli«,  under  iriM 
and  energetic  managcraent,  have  Hpeetliiy  grown  lo  b4 
influentiiU  of  great  good  and  promiuary  of  long  con- 
linuance.  The  Cbauiauqua  Sundiy-Kliool  Aaaemhiy, 
held  on  the  borden  of  ■  beautiful  lake  in  Western  New 
York,  under  the  premdeney  of  Dr.  John  H.  Vincent,  may 

olabliahed  fur  regular  annual  aeuiuui  in  diflcieiit  parta 
of  [he  United  Stalet;  e.  t;.  at  Clear  Lake,  la.;  Lake 
Bluff,  IlL;  Loveland  and  Lakeaide,  U.i  ihe  Tlinnaand 
laland  Park  in  the  Si.  Lawrence  Kiver;  and  ai  Round 
Lake,  near  Saratoga,  N.  \.  Thtae  axemllici  are  de- 
Hgned  to  do,  ii>r  vut  and  widely  aeparaled  leclioiia  of 
America,  what  wai  ciHitemplaleil  by  ihe  London  liun- 
dav-«t:hi>ol  Union  in  the  ereclion  of  a  building  at  66 
Old  Bailey,  in  Ihe  heart  of  London.  In  that  building 
ii  a  Sunday -ichool  muwum  and  a  large  hall  in  which 
CDUTset  of  lectum  are  given,  while  in  uihrr  rooma  traiu- 
ing-clawes  are  lauglil  and  competitive  examinaliona 
held.  While  the  centre  of  a  million-peopled  cily  af- 
ford* aome  peculiar  advantage*  fur  the  objecta  above 
indicated,  aiHl  epecially  in  being  aeceiiible  al  all  seaaona 
of  the  year,  yet  the  ample  ^>acea  ai 


ibjecta  of  the  aiarmbly  ind  during  Ih 
1.  llany  of  (he  iimairucliona  are 
Ihe  appcnntmenia  are  in  excellen 


grove  adapted  (< 
■       ■  w  of  Ihi 


[uiy  of  Sunilay-achooU  had    t 
ilil  be  said  that  thae  acboob   1 
■m  ihomughly  popular  with  even  the  Chrialian  pub-    i         .        . 

lie  aT  America:  nor  did  ihey  become  ao  wi[hout  great  I  Mrvient  to  Ihe  grand  idea  of  inlelkctnal  and  s|Hrilu«l 
Bid  nuiiiDDoin  exertioii*  on  the  part  of  enthimiaMic  !  improvemenl,  with  apecific  refrrpnce  to  Ihe  prumolion 
tneadt  uf  the  cause.  As  one  great  agency  for  accom-  |  ofCbrist'i  kingdom  upon  eanh  through  the  agency  of 
pfahing  thai  reauli,  Sunday-ichool  conveniioua  were  Christian  instruction.  No  one  can  properly  ippreriale 
i(ifiiiiDial  and  held  in  various  places  and  in  a  great  the  iroportaiM^e  and  future  bearing  uf  [he  agenciea  now 
I  srieiT  of  circnmataDcea.  There  were  eonrentiou  for  under  notice  without  considering  Ihat  each  coming 
[nwiia.  for  onunlies,  for  diatricts,  for  confer-  generation  will  require,  in  its  turn,  to  be  trained  and 
for  Males.  Niiine  uf  them  were  manigeil  by  fitted  fur  the  ever-expanding  work  of  teaching  all  na- 
'f  all  de-    tiona  [he  truths  of  Ihe  (i<w|>et. 

Il  may  here  be  nmsTknl  that  Sundny-scbocd  con- 


:ntions.  prominent  Si 

laiini;  lesL     .Such  galhrriiiRs  gave  an  opportunity  <<>r 
iht  diacuuioa  of  iiew   meihods,  and   became  i 
■(TscT  fur  the  promotion  uf  all  real  improvein 
ikf  DTgiuaaiiau  and  condnct  of  Sunday-schools  even 

ihe  ijundST-scbool  Idea  became  popular,  and  agitation 
ia  it*  behalf  became  unnecisaary,  cujivenlions  of  Suii- 
^-arhoul  frienila  and  worken  began  to  lake  the  form 
^  ia<ilHic*  adrr  the  analogy  of  teachers'  iiMitutea  de- 

I'ut  a  long  period  the  most  thai  was  thought  poBsible 
<o  br  done  Air  Ihe  higher  training  and  special  iiwtruc- 
lion  of  SoKtay-Bchool  Icachen,  was  sought  to  he  ac- 

tiawti  But  at  length  it  was  found  practicable,  with 
Borinign  of  aupnaediiiK  the  Dlble-claases  referred  In, 
inierure  many  of  tbeir  tfenefiu 


faci,  they  have  been  expanded  so  as  to  i 
ly  <<>r   and  even  international  rtprese  ills  lion.    A 

Its  in    lierman  National  Sunday-school  Cunveii 
In  Ihe  L'nileil  Stale^  in 


'nliH 


es;  in 


W*  "f  nnmheri  of  people  ii 
llmcB  SI  Sonday-achnol  ooi 

mpnrtant  lopics,  ■pparalui  anil  new 
:hibiie<l  and  explaineil,  and  mndcl 
:l  claMea  were  taught  and  iraineil  by  skilled 
Bv  these  public  pnjceedingi,  imt  only  was  the 
II  and  inainiction  of  Sunday-«hool» 
["•outod.  but  an  f^rH  da  eorpi  was 


inday-achool  ci 


one  of  a  national  and  one  of  an  iniemalional  character. 
The  meeting  of  leading  and  delegated  Sunday-Ecbooi 
worken  from  different  churrhes  and  nalioni  has  hsd 
a  happy  tendency  lowards  Ihe  promotion  of  practical 
Christian  union  on  tbe  largest  scale.  One  of  Ihe  best 
evidences  nf  this  may  be  inalanctd  in  Ihe  general  adop- 

Btble  atady.  Uniform  scUemu  of  simnliRneiiua  aludy 
had  been  previously  adopted  lo  a  conaidersble  extent, 
especially  in  (Iresl  Britain,  where  ihey  had  long  been 
pmmoled  by  the  I^^ndnii  Sunday  -  school  Union,  but 
never  oAlcially  acce|ited  tbroughnut  Ihe  kingdom.  Aa 
early  as  1860~Mt.  Orange  Judil.tililor  of  Ihe  ^ncri«(?a 
Agricallurul.  otigiiisleil  a  scheme  of  lessons  having  all 

—namely,  a  lelecliun  of  about  seven  consecutive  verses 
fur  each  week,  in  hisloricsl  onler.  from  Ihe  several  poi- 

drtw  up  such  a  scheme,  which  was  primed  in  tabular 
fomi  in  Ihe  Agrieulfaivl  fur  Kebruar}',  I86i.  and  hun- 
d  amonc'  dreds  of  I honsands  uf  copies  irf  it  were  dislribuled  and 
larrmenis ,  iiseil  in  the  Sunday -schools  of  vsrious  denmninalians 
nd  quali-  ^  ihmugboni  the  United  Stales.    A  similar  plan  was  pub- 
teabon  of  leaehtti.  lisheil  in  Ihe  same  manner  Ihe  Ibllowing  year,  and  in 

The  sill  1 1  n  of  Sunday-school  institutes  and  noimal  j  Itl62  the  drst  of  four  consecutive  qimt ion-books,  enii- 
rtaiat*  naMeil  upon  tbc  conTentinnsI  idea  and  caused  I  tied  Lnumfir  Eiviy  Simdeaiin  lit  Yrar,  was  prepared 
ft  la  (xpBMl  bito  that  uT  Sundgy-schonl  aiaembliea,  de-  I  under  the  same  auspices,  ami  published  in  New  York. 


SDNDAY-SCHOOL  SOCIETIES     M     SUNDAY-SCHOOL  SOCIETIES 


Id  1866  the  London  rrUem,  with  some  modiBotioni,  wu 
brought  CO  the  ntuntion  of  the  Ameiuui  public  by  Rfv, 
J.  H.  Vincent,  then  editing  >  Sundiy-Khuol  periodical 
in  Chiugn.  The  question  wu  Mon  afler  propoeod  by 
him  in  a  Sundiy'«hoal  inicitule,  "  Ib  it  practicable  lo 
introduce  a  unirorm  syUcm  or  Icbkhu  inlo  all  our 
achoula?"  Tbia  quealiun  waa  earnestly  and  hopefully 
dtacuMed  in  vaiioiu  wivs  for  aevenl  years  fulluiriiig: 
imtil,BtibeNationalC(>iiTentiDnatIndianapoliaiiil872, 

When  the  project  wu  agreed  lo  by  repreientaLiv-ea  or 
tiie  leading  d«iominalion>  in  America,  it  wu  through 
frienillv  currespoadence  endoned  by  the  Londoii  Sun- 
day-Mhixd  Union,  and  hu  uncc  been  in  actual  and  ex- 
tensive  use  on  both  Hdea  or  the  Atlantic  The  intei^ 
national  use  of  ayaLdms  of  lesaonsr  prepared  by  Joint 
committeee,  bu  had  a  happy  tendency  to  promote  in- 
creased inteceat  in  scriplunl  study  throughout  the 
world.  Tbia  mode  of  simultaneous  study  lias  been 
greatly  popularized  by  the  publi 


nifomi 


[■of  pi 


«dicala  in  variou. 

countries  a 

nd  in  different 

lang 

ages. 

At  the  preaenc  ti 

me,  the  sysu 

ta  of  internal 

vor  throughou 

tthe 

I'rot- 

eetanc  world,  and 

u>  have  th 

ong. 

f  not 

In  closing  this 

article,  it  s. 

*""  P"!*'-  "> 

aay 

hat  it 

U  in  the  United  Statu  th. 

k  has 

been  done  in  th 

on  of  -Sun- 

dar-schoal  liten 

ture.  iltho 

gh   not  witho 

great 

re  «r»t  adopted  a< 

MOlial  auxiliarv 

of  Sunday 

-Khool  effiir 

By  thi. 

means,  the  inHue 

ncea  of  thp 

Sundav-achoo 

pro- 

Jectad  through  l 

e  secular  d 

y»  of  the  wee 

1.     1 

n  this 

enuntry  also,  San 

daynichool 

ic]^ 

cheapneea,  hai 

ebee 

puh- 

lisheil  in  the  grealeat  profuMOii 

numeniua  and  important  u  to  have  chalicngeil  and  ae- 
cared  a  partial  enumeration  in  the  official  census  of  the 
governmeiil.  The  ccnaua  of  1870  reported  S3,&H0  libra- 
riHsaudB,846,153  volumu  in  those  Ubrariea.  This  ag- 
gregate, large  u  it  ia,  does  not  include  the  Slate  of  Con- 
necticut, and  for  other  reasons  is  eviclenlly  far  below 
the  facLB  in  the  case  at  tlie  present  time.  No  other 
librariu  ire  so  widely  diffused  u  those  of  Sunday- 
aehoolsi  they  are  not  only  foumi  in  cities,  where  moat 
great  libiariea  are  eaiabliahed,  but  in  the  remoleal  sec- 
timia  and  neighhorhnoda  of  the  land,  and  everywhere 
tfaey  are  (lee  to  all  who  by  attendance  on  t^nday- 
•choola  tiecome  entitled  to  draw  their  hooka  for  them- 
eelvea  or  their  friends.  In  sii  vast  an  aggregate  of  vol- 
untes,  it  would  not  be  siraniie  if  tbere  were  some  of  an 
iDdiSerent  or  even  of  a  very  objeclionahle  character. 
But  such  wouhl  be  only  enceptiona  to  the  general  rule 
that  Sunday-echool  libraries  furnish  vrholeaume  and  at- 
Inctive  reading  la  millions  of  youths  and  children, 
many  of  whom,  without  them,  would  hai-e  no  reading, 
X  only  that  which  is  bad. 


The 


of  the  1 


IS  agenc 


in  active  operation  u  parts  of  the  Sunday-achnnl  enter- 
prise can  hardly  fail  tc  impress  any  thoughtful  mind 
with  the  moral  grandeur  of  that  enterprise  as  a  whole. 
Especially  will  any  true  Christian  that  cnntemplBtcs 
the  feeUe  beginning  of  1780,  in  comparison  with  the 
VUt  array  of  Sundir-school  aciivicies  and  ageiiia  at 
work  in  I8KU.  be  led  to  exclum.  What  haih  God  wrought 
through  the  inatrumenlality  of  thoae  who  have  en- 
deavored lo  obey  the  command  "Feed   my  lambs!" 

the  Sunday-school  efforts  of  the  past  hundred  yean. 


in  the  centuries  lo  come,  he  will  see  l> 
lem  of  the  world's  conversion  is  in  procc 
(D.  y.  K-) 
SUSDAV-SCIEOOL  SociETiia,  Umio 


■DciMed  Christian  effort  may  be  desrignaled  at  the  ge- 
neric agency  by  which,  under  the  divine  bletaing,  itw 
great  multa  of  the  Sunday-w:bool  enterprise  have  been 
accomplished.  Such  cfliirt  bat  assumed  two  fonn— 
1,  locali  2,  general — each  correspondent  and  Hppie- 
mentaiy  l«  the  other.  Local  associations,  whether  in 
neighborhoods  or  churches,  have  from  the  Snt  ben 
neceasary  as  a  meana  of  rainng  the  tnonev  to  fiond. 
and  of  enlisting  the  teachers  to  instruct,  Suoday-tcbooli. 
General  associations  were  also,  from  an  early  day,  ann 
to  be  important  for  the  purpose  rif  awakening  pvblir 
interest  and  of  diflVialng  informalinn  boih  as  to  I  be 
necmuty  and  the  best  means  of  insiniciing  in  religiout 
truth.  They  have  likewise  bad  an  important  functim  id 
perform  in  prompting  and  guiding  individual  aud  local 
effort  in  the  work  of  organizing  and  maintaining  Hun- 
day-schools,  hecfiming  at  ihe  same  lime  an  important 
bond  of  union  between  great  numben  of  schools  not  lo- 
cally connected.  Genera]  associations  for  Ibtse  ohjetfi 
have  aieumeil,  somewhat  interchangeably,  the  title  of 
societies  and  unions,  the  latter  predominaling,  appar- 
ently, on  account  of  its  expressiveness  of  their  cbanc- 
ter  and  objects.  The  most  important  of  those  rstab- 
lidhed  in  England  and  America  will  now  be  enumerstcd 

1.  enslM.—l.  In  1785  "The  Society  for  ITomotiOf; 
Sunday-schoola  in  the  British  Dominions' was  oi^niasd 
in  London.  It  was  nnder  the  leadenhip  of  Willian  Foi. 
who  in  various  ways  proved  himseirtobea  tmephilao- 
Ihropist,  but  specially  in  his  zeal,  liberality,  and  peooaal 
eflbrls  Ibr  Ihe  education  and  moral  elevation  of  Ihe  lov- 
er classes  of  his  cnanlrymen.  This  aocieiy,  during  tlie 
flrat  aiileen  years  of  ita  exialence,  paid  out  £40IW  for 
thcaerriceaof  hired  teachers  in  Sunday-schools.  When, 
however,  the  plan  of  gratuitous  leaching  came  lobe  nni- 
reraally  adopted,  and  Chriatiana  and  churchea  became 
generally  enliated  in  promoting  Sunday-schools  fmn 
purely  religious  molives,  the  importance  and  inHuetm 
of  this  society  declined  until  it  became  en linct. 

2.  In  1H03  ''  Tlie  Loudon  Suiiday-schnol  Lnion'  ■» 
organiaed.  It  was  composed  of  lay  Sunday  -  acbool 
workeni  of  different  denominaliona  of  Christians  rtsid- 
ing  within  a  radius  of  dve  miles  from  the  ciiy  pm- 
office.     This  limitation  wu  adopted  u  a  measure  vt 


limiting  the  inHu 
scribed.  This  ui 
ous  career  from  i 


Lnd  unity  of  v 


iigns,  ai 


idily  . 


Ihe  circle  thus  de- 

a  origin  lo  the  present  lime.  It  has 
la^te  amount  of  funds,  nor  been  able 
in  any  scale  of  great  importance;  but 
consistenlly  pursued  its  speciSc  de- 


doing  hi 


)le,  froi 


eiilral 


Linn,  to  influence  favorably  the  Sunday-schi^ 
not  only  throughout  Great  Britain,  hot  tbroughoul  ihe 
world.  The  folhiwing  have  been  its  more  imponani 
funclioos:  1.  The  publication  of  Sunday -schoi^  requi- 
sites, lessnn-papera,  and  periodicals.  Of  the  latter,  Ttr 
Smiditg-Kkiiut  TrticArit'  Miii/mioe tnd  several  jiiTtnile 
monthlies  hare  huig  held  a  high  rank.  i.  The  promn- 
lion  of  activity  anil  improvement  in  the  work  of  Son- 
day-school  instruction.  For  this  object  the  position  of 
Ihe  union,  in  the  practical  centre  not  only  of  London,  but 
of  England,  has  been  eminently  favorable.  This  ai<- 
vantage  ha*  been  diligently  and  wisely  improved  by  a 
succession  of  intelligent  and  faithful  workers,  who.  by 
peisonal  and  co-o|>eraiive  eBbns,  have  kept  the  sund- 
ard  of  Sunday-school  instruction  continually  advancina. 
As  a  permanent  means  to  tbia  important  end.  they 
have  secured  the  erection  of  a  Sne  building  in  a  central 
location,  in  which  they  maintain  couraea  of  leclnm. 
training  and  miulel  claaaes,  together  with  competilivr 
Gxamiuations  for  teachers. 

S.  In  IBIO '■The  IteliginuB  Tract  Sodely"  of  London 
wu  founded.  This  society,  although  not  hearing  ■)«■ 
name  Sunday-echool  in  its  title,  or  speciflcally  iiamini: 
Sunday-school  objects  in  its  cnnslitullon.  has  nevenhr- 
lesa  been,  from  ils  origin  to  ihc  present  time,  one  uf  th( 


SCXDAY-SCHOOL  SOCIETIES     2s     SUNDAY-SCHOOL  SOCIETIES 
mt  )CTTuxab)e  auxilUrits  to 


D  Ibe  Sundif-Khool  enter-  ' 
pmc.  lU  puniiaiioni  nave  been  unriTiUed  for  rbeip- 
uak.  ()t£iiK«,  [tligioui  cbuacler,  uid  adipUtion  u> 
Siuid«y-iichooI  kiou.  As  such  they  hove  challenged 
ud  atnuol  Ibe  patrons^  of  alt  Sunday-school  workern 
ibinigboul  the  Ihilish  dominioiu.  Vant  numbere  of 
Ibca  have  been  nfiiinled  in  the  United  States. 

Of  KVeral  ocher  general  amwiations  we  are  not  abte 
m  anign  ibe  exact  date  of  origin.     I'he  order  of  their 

ntjKt  of  each  is  auflicienily  eipresaHl  by  its  (iile. 
Tbcr  an  ai  fulluwi:  "The  Church  of  England  Sun- 
diT^bnol  Iniiiiuie ;"  "llie  Ragged  Sunilav-icho<)l  In- 
^iiuur  "The  Wesleyan  Methodist  SunJay- school 
I'Bun.*  The  Wfslevan  Methodist  Church  has  loug  had 
ilunDordeDoaiinauoiialactioiiiii  behalf  oTbcith  wwk- 
diy  iud  Sandaj  achoot  education.  It  hu,  moreorer, 
ihmigh  its  pablicalimi-olfice,  isaueil  many  buoka  for 
Sunday -aebouls,  as  well  as  requitntu  and  juvenile  peri- 
cdicalL  Between  the  years  1B60  and  1870  it  thought 
proper  to  adopt  mora  specillG  nteaaurea  in  behalf  of  its 
Sundiy-Khuol  work.  Hence  the  inatituiion  of  the 
union  last  named,  and  the  appointment  of  a  connection- 
il  Suadar-ichaul  Kcrctan'.  In  general,  it  may  be  re- 
Diarhed  Ifaal  the  greater  part  of  the  churchea  through- 
<at  (inai  Britain  maiiiUin  tbcir  Sunday-Khnnls  by  ii>- 
iliriiluil  Churcli  cITiirt,  often  aided  by  the  cooperative 
indiirneeoflual  unimni. 

IL  Amfriam.—l.  Not  euunting  the  Church  action 
alladed  ui  in  the  piecediiig  anide.  the  first  general 
Saoday-acbool  orgaiiiiaiiou  established  in  the  United 
Stila dated  from  Jul.  II,  1791.  li.  was  funned  in  i'hil- 
idtlphla,  under  the  title  of  "The  Fint-day  or  Sunday 
Scbo.ll  Society."  It  was  composed  of  members  repre- 
■ming  diHisnit  deoomi nations  of  Christians,  among 
wbum  were  seveTal  memberg  of  tfae  Society  of  Friends. 
-Tbe  firM  article  of  the  constitution  of  this  society  re- 
qnind  that  tbe  inuractkm  given  in  the  schools  eslab- 
Ibbed  nndef  its  aus|Hcea  or  receiving  its  beneficence 
ikHild  'be  cnnflned  to  reading  and  writing  from  the 
Ubte  and  nch  other  moral  and  religious  books  aa  the 


Like  it 


did  n' 


tcty  long  or  iiiflueniial  career.  Kdther  did  the  New 
Vsrk  Sunday -Kbnol  Union,  formed  in  1816,  nor  the  Pbil- 
sMphia  .Silndav  Bud  Adult  School  Uaion  tomted  in 
ruiaddpltia  in  '1817. 

i.  la  Iti34  tbc  Usl-nanied  association  was  merged 
n  '  the  Aneriean  Sunday-school  Dninn."  This  union, 
Ue  that  of  London,  is  composed  of  laymeii  belonging 
udifemit  denominalions  of  Christians ;  but  nrom  tbe 
fns  il  has  assumed  and  maintained  a  far  more  promi- 
•aH  puaiuDn  and  more  aggressive  modes  »f  action  than 
in  Eagliab  prototype.  It  has  undertaken  the  double 
nrkof  the  publication  of  Sunday-Bcboo]  litenturo  and 

tW  frantier  and  in  all  destitute  portions  of  tbe  United 
.■Mtea.  For  ihcae  objects,  it  has  appealed  to  its  sup- 
(Hting  cbiitches  for  funds.  Those  sppeala  have  been 
kanml  in  largr  amounts  from  year  to  year;  sod  thus, 
duinc  more  than  half  a  century,  it  has  carried  forward 
■  pmd  aiid  expanding  work  in  many  placca  where  dt^ 
•miasiional  effort  could  not  hsve  commanded  success, 
lisn  indication  of  ibe  work  it  isatkd  has  been  accom- 
plisbing,  we  aubjuto  its  principal  items  of  statistics  for 
ite  vcar  fading  March  1.  IKUO:  Sunday-Khn-ls  orgaii- 
inli  1*M3,  conlaiiiiiig  l^iH  teachen  ami  69,433  schol- 
sih  Srhnnls  aided,  IHo2,  containing  12,788  teachen 
sad  130,794  scholara.  Miles  trsvtiterl  by  its  agenis  and 
■winarin,  463.243.  Addre«es  delivered,  l-J.Om  lli- 
b4ei  dtsuibuiol,  6779.  Testaments  distribnleil,  9387. 
Familin  visited.  41,332.  It  has  expeiideil  in  miuion- 
■y  optratioDs  an  agK^gste  i.f  «3,47I.G^  while  llie 
•sin*  of  bnnks  aiiil  fapers  it  has  put  in  circolaiiun  ia 
nc  k«  (^  (7,000,00(1.  k  is  easy  to  perceive  that 
mA  a  sfMB  of  ei'aogelicsl  iffu''  -—'•'''-  -•••>  tutt- 


It  of  til 


When  to  ll 
ence  of  a  rich  ai 


dant  l^nday-schaal  literature,  diffused  oi 
ciples  and  through  business  agencies  among  the  vari- 
ous Sunday-scboiils  of  the  land,  the  minit  strives  in  vain 
to  comprebend  the  full  extent  of  the  significance  and 
hopefulness  of  this  system  of  efluru  From  the  natura 
of  its  work,  Ibe  American  Sunday-school  Union  is  una- 
ble to  lake  what  may  be  called  permsnent  siitistics,  or 

quent  changes  anil  developments.  Its  office  is  usually 
that  of  n  pioneer,  making  preliminary  organizations 
which,  in  tbe  courae  of  years — and  often  ofa  very  few 
subdivide,  and  become  merged  in  the 
permanent  work  of  the  various  churches. 

3.  In  1827  "The  Sunday-K:hnul  Union  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church"  was  organized  in  New  York,  in 
a  form  which  also  contemplated  the  publication  and  dif- 
fusion of  religious  (tacts  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Al- 
though all  Iheie  objects  had  been  previously  contem- 
plated and  promoted  by  regular  Cbuich  acliun  as  taken 
in  1734  and  subsequeiilly,  it  was  thought  proper,  in 
1827,  10  make  spedal  eSbru  iu  their  behalf  by  tbe 
joint  and  special  organiiation  referred  to.  In  1840  the 
Sunday-school  Union  under  notice  was  reorganized  as 
a  wparale  inatituiion,  and  in  1844  its  interests  and 
functions  were  brought  into  greater  prominence  by  the 
appointment  of  aii  official  Sunday-school  editor,  who 
was  also  made  corresponding  secretary  of  the  iiuinn. 
These  movements  were  in  harmony  with  tbe  original 
policy  of  the  Church  that  iostiluled  them,  namely,  to 
promote  Sunday-school  inslroction  as  a  branch  of  reg- 
ular Church  action.  For  such  action  on  a  large  scale 
dtcumslances  st  the  last-named  period  were  highly 
favorable.  Tbe  Church  bad  then  beconw  exieiiileil 
throughout  the  whole  counlT}',  so  that  it  could  reach 
alnMst  any  inhabited  place  by  its  regular  agencies, 
lis  plan,  therefore,  was  to  stimnlate  its  ministen  and 
members  to  universal  acticity,  in  accordance  with  iia 
rules,  adopted  in  1784  and  1T90.  This  plan  saved  the 
great  expense  of  sending  out  and  maintaining  special 
SuLtday-sohool  missionaries,  while  it  made  sure  of  re- 
Bponsiblc  and  resident  agents  wherever  the  work  was 
undertaken.  By  similar  agencies  it  was  sought  every- 
where  to  promote  n  higher  grade  of  Sunday-school  ac- 
tivity and  improved  methods  of  inatmction.  For  the 
production  of  an  extenuve  and  varied  Sundsy-scbnol 
literature,  provided  under  official  editoiship,  the  union 
was  able  to  avijl  itself  of  an  organ iieil  and  most  effect- 
ive publishing  establishment,  owned  by  the  Church, 
with  the  best  of  facilities  for  diffusing  its  prinleil  mat- 
ter. In  these  drcumstonces,  all  collections  for  the  lois- 
siunary  department  of  Sunday-school  effort  were  ap- 
plied directly  ami  exclusively  to  the  disiribution  of 
books.  St  cost  price,  to  be  lined  by  persons  engsiied  in 
founding  new  or  maintaining  poor  schools.  I'rnbably 
DO  more  thorough  and  efficient  system  of  Church  effort 
in  behalf  of  Sumlay -schools  wis  ever  organized,  inclu- 
Bive  of  the  Hvitem  of  statistics  by  which  its  workings 
are  thown  from  year  to  year.  Some  of  the  results  of 
the  aciiiHi  of  thai  system,  running  on  in  regular  course, 
may  be  iuferreil  from  the  statistical  summaries  given  in 

4.  "The  I'mtestant  Episcopal  Sunday-school  Union" 
was  orgsiiixed  in  New  York,  M  about  the  period  when 
the  two  unions  last  named  had  their  origin;  but,  fur 
some  reason,  it  never  secured  a  strong  support  from  the 
Church  in  whose  interest  it  was  founded  and  whose 
name  it  bore.  It  acted  for  a  time  as  a  publication  soci- 
ety, being  often  aided  by  individual  congregatinns  in 
the  issue  of  particular  books.  Afler  some  yean  of  a 
rather  languid  existence,  its  interests  were  sold  out  to  a 
private  bookseller.  A  similar  result  occurred  lo  tbe 
Evangelical  Knowledge  Society,  an  organiiallon  also 
projected,  about  IBSO,  by  ministers  and  members  of  tbt 


SUNDAY  SERVICE 

ProlcMuit  Episcopal  Church,  in  the  idea  uf  wci 
and  diffusing  a  more  evangelical  literalure  than 
Aimiihed  by  the  union  lut  named. 

6.  It  is  proper  Co  «ay  here  th»t  neither  the  Pre«liyie- 
Tian  nor  Uaptut  chuicheB  of  the  <]iii(«tl  Stalo  ba 
organised  Simday-aehool  unions.  They  have  avuil 
Ittemselvea  to  a  targg  extent  uf  the  iiublicatioiis  of  t 
Americiii  Sunday-achool  Uuion,  and  olao,  in  part,  of  I 
Juvenile  literature  issued  by  their  reiqieclive  boards 
publication,  aa  well  aa  that  of  the  Amerieau  Tract  80- 

&  In  1832  "  The  Uassarhusetta  Sabbath-Kfaool  Soci- 
ety" was  founded  in  Ituaiun,  by  repreaenlativeii  of  the 
(^■Eregational  churches  of  New  Engiand.  Its  n 
of  action  were  denomtnatinnai,  and  its  publications 
numerous  andgnoil,but  after  same  yean  of  independent 
existence  the  interests  nf  the  suciety  were  blended  with 
Ihoae  of  the  Cuii;;regBiinnal  Publishing  Society  and  the 
American  Home  Mi»iaiiary  Society.  Neither  of  Ihoae 
■ucietiea  publish  Sunday-school  statistics. 

7.  "The  (Dutch)   Reformed  Sunday-echool  Unii 
was  orgaoiEed  in  New  York  about  lS6U,aiid  fur  seve 
years  prooeeded  quite  actively  to  pmmote  the  Sundi 
achiHil  intereau  of  the  Church  it  represented.    It  pub- 
lished a  small  catalogue  of  Sunday-schiwl  boolu  and 
requisites,  but  did  ii»t  long  maintain  a  separate  1 
ance,  ila  intcreats  having  been  merged  inthoaeof  apub- 
tiahing  sodety  oTa  more  general  character. 

8.  It  la  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to  r 
(henatnemuslocalSuDday-achoidamuciatiaaathat 
aprung  up  in  the  cities,  towns,  counties,  or  even  state* 
of  the  American  Union.  Kany  i>f  them  have  had  but 
brief  existence.    Others  have  been  mainuined  for  oon 

Chrifltiau  union,  but  rarely  engaging  in  the  enterpriJi 
ol  publication.  Some  of  them  have  collected  statistics, 
but  ususllr  within  limited  spheres. 

9.  The  Foreign  Sunday-«haol  Association  of  New 
York  and  vicinity  had  a  germinal  exiateniw  aa  far  back 
■a  ISM,  but  did  not  aecure  an  inoorporatinn  till  1878. 
h  is  eom]nsed  of  practical  Snnday-echool  WDTker^who, 
by  meana  of  correspondence,  co-operation  with  mitsiim 
aries,  and  judicious  donations,  seek  to  promote  the  01 
ganization  aod  maintenance  nf  Siinday-ichoals  in  tnun 
tries  foreign  to  the  United  Stales  and  ouiiude  of  the 
British  possessions.  It  claims  In  have  "been  the  means 
of  planting  1»;7  Sunday-Mhouls  in  Germaiiv,  1130  in 
France,  150  in  Italy,  30  in  Portugal,  40  in  Japan,  403  in 
<>ernian  Switzerland,  besidea  some  schools  iu  China, 
(ireece,  Hungary,  Holland,  anil  other  countries."  lu 
published  report'  for  1379  cnntaina  numerous  interesting 
facta,  and  authorizes  the  hope  that  iu  years  to  come 

Hrst  necenarily  feeble,  so  fat  as  human  agency  is  in- 
i-olved. 

The  fact  that  the  Sunday-schnal  enterptise,  during  the 
first  centuiyofiis  history,  has,  with  the  divine  bleasing, 
come  so  fully  (0  pervaile  Knglish-speaking  countries, 
and  has  made  a  hopeful  cumniencemeut  in  many  and 
remote  foreign  nations,  dewrvee  10  be  laken  aa  a  prom- 

ble  extent  and  value.     (D.  P.  K.) 

Sunday  Svrvice  or  the  Metiiodtst  Episcopal 
CitL'ltCK  was  an  abridgment  of  the  Pnyer-book  of  the 
Church  of  Kngland,  prepared  by  Mr.  Wesley.  It  was 
arranged  forlhe  use  uf  the  Methodists  in  America,  when 
he  recommended  their  organization  into  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  It  was  entitled  The  Sunday  ^Frricr 
o/Ht  MrlkndUU  nf  Hortk  A  merira,  mlh  olhtr  Smiat, 
aiul  was  adopted  liy  the  General  Conference  of  1784.  It 
wu  published  in  conneclion  with  the  IHifiiiUnt  (Phila. 
1786;  Loud.  IT86).  This  appears  to  have  been  the 
last  time  the  Buttday  Strviet  was  published  in  connec- 
tion with  the  DitcipliKf,  and  at  the  General  Conference 
of  I7D2  all  reference  to  the  use  of  a  Sunday  Service  wa» 
alricken  out.  [t  gradually  dropped  out  of  use.  The 
IL  E.  Church,  South,  in  1866,  ordered  that  the  Prayer- 


i  SUNIAS 

book  as  printed  by  Mr.  Wesley  in  1736  should  be  n 
printed  for  the  use  of  their  Church,  and  the  same  la 
vice  is  used  in  many  Wealeyau  churches  in  EnglaM 
■hough  generally  the  churehes  using  a  tetrice  pitfa 
the  regular  English  Prayer-book.  See  Simpson,  Cf^if. 
ofMflhiidini,t.T. 


happeumg  upon  or  near  tl 


give  below  a  claaiili^  lii 
AnT.BT(q.v.).  TheSnnd 
«r>ek  iJiturch  by  a  rerti 


SitJiteiiaiHttq.v.),  in  tbe  Greek  Church  "SuudnyofApn- 
cre»s,''l>ecnHKmeBtl*nr>trs[eu  tMymidlt.  Il  wnsaW 
tatwi  "SillldaruftheS'mor," 

uln>  Ksfo  MM  (Pm-'iizI,  *),  ttnm  ihe  Intnil' ;  In  Oer^ 
many  ■'I'rlEsrs  F-irlnlght,"  ncclerlsiitica  comracDcioe 
ihelr  fasl  on  ibis  day ;  mid  hi  tbe  Greek  Ctiorcb  Tyn- 
ph^juA,  bccsu^a  cheese  is  uo  longer  euieu. 
In  La  NT  (q.  v.). 
I.  tiuaiiragerimalq.Y.l,  called  hiBMorti  (P«i.  ml,  IS): 
In  Ihe  Bust  "Orthodoxy  Suudnj"  In  Biiglsnd  (Ml) 
"H.il/Dsy.- 
1.  RemlnliTere,  rmm  Ihe  IiilMll  <P<a.  xx*.  Ii>:  and  la 
"  I,"  (rum  the  Gospel  Iu  Ux 


a.  Oculi,  from  Ihe  Inrr-dt  (P-o.  iiv,  in ;  1 


CaniiD,"  ISmi  a  spedal  hTmn.  In  Uuglaiid  11  v<i> 
kui>wna>"CHre4unday"((rar,ap«iiiU|/):  ■'M<'iBc'> 
ili«-9andHy"{aal.  T],SI),  when  nil  utn.mt  msde  llieii 
ollbriaK*  fn  the  eiiiliadriil  or  nioiher-churdi;  "Sim- 
i»r  or  "Carllng  gniiday."  tniui  oiithit;  Sue  wb«t- 
cakn  nr  banii*  mi  ihls  dnv. 
e.  JDdka  (Ph.  xliO,  1).  -  PasKlou  Siiiidny  :"'•  Dhoanclit 
Reuma,"  Ihmi  valllu::  ilie  Imiiirea:  "Sundiir  o(  ilie 
Qnmlahi"  In  Pnnice,  fn.m  Ilie  sp.irl»  i.f  ih*  ria.,- 
■^Black  Snudny"  In  GemiBiiT,  fnini  Ihe  Telllnz  ol  ihr 
enisses  when  the  w.irds  "Jesiia  hid  hlniself"  were 

l>*i.«-SuMi.*i(q,  v.),  also  "Sunday  of  the  Willcw-bonglK.' 
a. STUB  (q.  v,). 

1.  Flr»i  Sniidnv  after  Ka-ier.  or  Octnve.  has  nirlnas  S|>- 
iwllatloiis;  Dnmlnira  <n  JI'iu,  pemiini  wh-i  were  ba|>- 
ilzed  at  Edsrer  liiylin-  inside  ihe  nhhe  robea  then  re- 
ceived; Diet  .V«njfAr/f0nim.  Ihe  oewJy  bapilaed  be1i>u 
then  recopilred  ua  HCinHl  memliers  of  itie  Cbnreb: 
QiituTHofisirfsu  (q.  v.) ;  Pmcha  Claiwi'iH,  close  of  Ba^ 
ter:  (Msm  lufnHlinvi,  In  stinsliin  to  ibe  newly  luip- 
ilzed:  (ImlmoiloiKntti,  In  allusion  to  miiu'a  renuin- 
tloii  by  ib«  Itesurredhiu. 

S.  The  second  Sunday  was  known  nr  that  of  Ihe  "  Tbrer 
Oiutment-bearera,"  tnim  the  O-spel:  "8'.Thoi.i«," 
or  "Reuewrtl  Sniidny*' IJi^fan  xx,S7>;  Jtfw/^n'rdiv 
Dmiat,  tram  the  Iniroll  (Psa.  iztll,  K ;  "  Sniiday  •■•I 
Whli*  Ctmhs"  or  "after  die  exhibition  of  relloi.' 

S."0fthnPnra1ylle->1nlhearrekCbatch:  lutlieUI- 
I11,  JobOalt,  tmm  the  lutroli  (Pan.  Ixil,  I). 

«.  Mid-Pentecoal:  hi  theOrwk  Church  "Of  tbe  Snmsr. 
Iran :"  In  Ihe  Lailn  from  the  Intrxltr.  Cantatt  <Pi« 
icvill,  1) ;  Roffolt  (Song  of  Sol.  11, 11) ;  JftautH  ll'ra. 


6.  K.ieinl.m 

Wui'^DHl.tl 

TaiKiTV  Sun  I 

day:"  Iu  Fi 


(q.  v.):  In  Uie  Greek  Church  "Of  Ibe  1 


(q.v.):  In  the  Bast  "All  Saints'  Sim- 
e  "Kliieof  SondBys,"or"Ble«edS'l^■ 
clA*  til  Ihe  rich  mnu  and  [dxaros'^  wst 
:o  ddi^niiie  the  first  Sunday  after  Trlii- 
liy.  ID.  "SnodHvof  Ihe  I.I1<ee"ls  ilie  mime  by  wblcli 
the  Mficeiiih  Sinidny  after  Trliiiiy  !«  known. 
Arier  AMBasliHi;  In  the  Basl"!JlliidaT  oriheSIS,-  in  ak 
Inslon  to  the  Nlrene  tatheni  ai  Itome  "Sundav  oF 
Roses.-  sn  calleil  by  lonoceut  111  In  1180.  nHs  halni: 
thrown  from  ilie  r.Hir..f  Sania  Maria  Rnmiida,  stmh'^- 
ical  of  the  gifts  ..ftheSplrlL  Sunday*  afler  Penteci-'. 
Sniidnyn  tromWhli-Sundaylo  AdTetiii  but  In  Bni.'lauit, 
aucMiitIr  as  now.  Suudajr  after  Trinity.  | 

SnnloB,  an  e|Hlhet  of  the  Grecian  iflaerva,  tna    I 


SUNISACTANISM  2 

Snniaactwoimi  (swiJcrorroc,  iii<r«/iic«<  with),  ■ 
DOM  gi'tB  U>  the  practice  by  which  muy  ufLhe  cler- 
gy tvadsl  tbe  ii)[nrauB  Im  retp«cting  celibacy.  It  j> 
HOMiiM*  called  doifiticiim,  uid  caoninni  in  keeping 
bmilr  innHtcs  in  thdr  dwellings,  with  whom  they  pro- 

UL  be  eo«nibtne&     JeiDme  and  ChryioUom  nverely 
nprehended 


w  uT  vhici 


tbe  highest  purity. 


J  SUP 

miliar  poinu,  yet  are  acknowledged  by  each  other  to 
belong  to  the  faithful  and  lo  be  capable  of  ailvilion, 
and  they  each  have  a  epedal  aralary  at  Uecca.  The 
fint  of  IlieH  nects  are  (he  Hane6tea^  founded  by  AbEl 
Hanifa,whD  died  l&O  years  after  the  Hegira.  They 
are  etnphalically  called  "  the  roliawen  of  reason,"  while 
the  other  three  are  guided  eiclurii'ely  by  tradition. 
>n  to  have  a  principal  share  in  their 
■    r  puinti       "■      ■■ 


Smma,  one  of  tbe  Norse  isu,  the  daughter  of  Muu- 
diUsn,  Ibt  nar-god.  Her  brother  and  henielr  were 
Iis««atd  of  extraordinary  beauty,  which  induced  their 
pannu  to  name  tbem  the  sun  and  moon  (Sol, or  Sunna, 
•ad  Uaani);  but  tbe  gods  considered  the  bestowal  of 
foch  uatoe^  a  crimei  and  accordingly  kidnapped  the 
children,  arierward*  placing  then  iu  charge  of  the  sun 
ad  ibE  muon  wagon*  which  were  formed  out  of  aparks 
oTbe  which  flew  froni  Huspelheim  into  the  kingdom 
uf  the  aua.  The  horaea  which  drew  the  wagons  were 
outtA  Alswidur  and  Amtkar  (the"unit-erBal  ecorcher" 
sad  tbe  "early  wake").  They  speeded  rapidly  nn  iheir 
cvaiies  becauae  Skoll  and  Hate,  two  roighly  giants  in 
ibe  lunn  of  wolves,  fullmved  awilkly  on  their  heel]  Ui 


acoordaiice  with  the  Koran,  the  meaning  of  which, 
bonnr,  is  itself  explained  by  the  Sunna.  The  term 
is  therefore  {though  inconvctly)  used  for  the  collections 
d  Boral  and  legal  trtditiona  traced  lo  the  Prophet, 
which  sopplemenl  the  Koran,  somewhat  like  the  Miih- 
na  (if  r.),  which  aoppleinenla  Ihe  laws  of  Ihe  Penta- 
wich.  Tbe  Sunna  not  only  coDipriaea  religiout  doc- 
triiaa  and  practice,  but  also  civil  and  criminal  laws 
lad  tbe  usages  of  common  life — the  way  to  eat  and  lo 
drink,  snd  to  dress,  and  Ihe  like.  This  tradition  is 
tini  bnni  of  during  the  civil  wars  among  the  adher- 
out  of  Ihe  new  faith,  about  half  a  century  after  tbe 
Fliftbi.  Tbe  single  traditions,  as  we  now  pi-ssess  them, 
rsnlt  exceed  aix  lines.  The  diction  is  carefully  wrought, 
ladtbc  form  ia  that  of  a  dialogue.  For  tbe  credibility 
lad  canonicity  of  ■  indilion  it  was  ariginilly  necessary 
thuiiibauld  have  been  Afurd  hy  one  truthful  witness; 
bat  this  law  was  much  relaxed  in  after-time.  At  the 
tnlaf  the  Sdeeutury  (H.),a  countless  number  of  indi- 
■idaal  coUcction*  (.Vomad),  mostly  of  an  apocryphal 
rhirscier.  had  been  produced  by  diflVrtnt  tbeolugiana, 

fird  In  any  special  theological  system,  was  Bochary 
iiLiK  H.).  His  collection  contains  'i7b  tingle  Ira- 
.btioos,  «nU  of  which,  however,  occur  twice  in  the 
ndt.  Uualim,  bis  pupil,  supplemented  Sochary  with 
■Hber  collreiion,  onituiiiag  12,000,  again  including 
WW  irprliiion*.  Besides  these,  there  are  four  more 
-«ii«iical''cDUcctinna  — by  AbCl  DaivDd  (d.  275  H.), 
Tuwi.fr»  (d.  t79).  Kuiy  (d.  803),  and  Hgga  (d.  278). 
Tin  Sauna,  as  we  have  it  in  these  colleclions,  contains, 
lodly  speaking,  more  truth  than  it  is  generally  sup- 

Konn.  the  ninsi  authentic  source  of  Islan:).  A  selec- 
lise  fnini  the  different  cnlleclinni  (both  canonical  and 
•>brrwise\ called  Jtitiml  A l~MaiabUi,hn  been  Iran*- 
IhhI  inia  Knglith  by  Capu  Slailhewt  (Calcutta,  1SU9). 
I'nCDients  from   Dorhary  are  fuund  in  the  (jennan 

I'rintt.    BraSomiA. 

Sannltsa.  iraditioniata,  or  briieven  in  the  Sunna 
If.*.);  Ihe  name  nf  the  "onhudox"  Moslem*,  as  op- 
piaad  to  iha  Shilies  <q.  v.).  They  are  subdivided  into 
Imi  pruMSfil  aacta,  wbov  tboogh  at  issue  ou  iUff">ni 


it  Uedini 


3  H. 


proofs  of  his  real  piely  and  humility,  it  is  recorded  thai 
when  Baked  fur  his  decixion  on  forty-tight  questions,  he 
would  only  decide  on  sixteen,  freely  confessing  hi*  Ig- 
norance about  the  others.  In  Barbary  and  other  paru 
of  Africa,  the  greatest  part  of  hi*  adherenu  are  fuund. 
Mohammed  AI-ShRfel,  bom  in  Palestine.  160  H.,  but 
educated  iu  Mecca,  is  the  founder  of  tbe  tbird  seel,  the 
Shirelte*.  He  was  a  great  enemy  of  Ihe  scholaalic 
divines,  and  seems  altogeiher  to  have  been  of  an  orig- 
inal cast  of  mind.    He  never  swore  by  Gwl,  and  atwaya 

any  given  question  or  bold  his  peace.  The  most  ehar- 
acteriilie  saying  recorded  of  him  is, "  Whoaoever  pre- 

time  ia  a  liar."  He  is  accounted  of  such  importance 
that,  according  to  hiseonl«mporaries,"hewassslhesun 
to  the  world,  and  as  health  to  the  body;"  and  all  Ihe 
relations  uf  the  traditions  oF  Mohamnied  were  said  lo 
have  been  ssleep  until  he  came  and  woke  them.  He 
appears  to  have  been  the  Hist  who  reduced  Moslem  ju- 
risprudence into  a  method,  and  thus  made  il,  fmni  a 
number  of  vague  sayings,  a  acience.  His  fbllnwers  are 
now  chiellv  fouml  in  Arabia  and  Persia.  Ahmed  Ibn- 
Hanbal  founded  the  fuurlh  sect,  the  Hanbaliies.  He 
was  bom  IG4  H.,  and  was  a  most  inlimale  friend  uf 
ShSfeT.  His  knowledge  of  the  tmlilion*  (of  which  he 
could  repeat  uoi  fewer  than  a  million)  was  no  less  famed 
than  was  his  piety.  He  taught  ibat  ihe  Koran  was 
not  created,  but  everlastingly  subsisted  in  the  essence 
of  God— a  doctrine  for  which  he  was  aeveiely  prniinhed 
by  the  caliph  Al-Hotaaem.  On  the  day  of  his  death, 
no  less  than  W^  unbelievers  (Jew^  Christians,  and 
Magiant)  ate  said  lo  bare  embraced  Ihe  Mohammedan 
faith.  Once  veiy  numerous,  tbe  Hanbaliies  now  are 
bnl  very  rarely  met  without  of  Arabia.  On  the  dilig- 
ences between  tbe  Sunnilea  and  Shfites,  aee  ShiItm. 
See  SoHHii'KS. 

SonyKbadiB,  a  sect  of  RindQ  Atheists,  or  rath- 
er Nihilisis,  who  hehl  that  all  notions  of  U'kI  and 
man  are  fallacies,  and  thst  nolliing  eii>ts.  What- 
ever we  look  upon  is  reganled  as  vacuity.  Theism 
and  Alhebm,  Maya  and   Ilmhni,  all  is  false,  all  ia 

SaovetBUillla,  peculiar  sacrifieea  among  the  aa< 
cient  Komans,  ao  named  because  they  consisted  of  a  pig, 
a  sheep,  and  an  ox.  These  were  offered  ct  Ihe  gen- 
eral lustration  of  the  Roman  people,  which  look  place 
every  five  yean.  The  Suovetaurilia,  indeed,  formed  a 
pan  of  every  lustration,  and  Ihe  victima  were  carried 
around  the  thing  lo  be  puriHed,  whether  it  was  a  city, 
a  people,  or  a  piece  of  land.  The  same  sacrilice*  existed 
among  the  aiKient  Creeks,  under  the  name  of  Tritlya. 
A  representation  uf  the  celebration  of  these  sacriHces  ia 
(bund  on  the  'I'riumpbal  Arch  of  Cunitauline  at  Kome. 
See  Sacbitick. 

Bap  (itiirrtm).  Our  informalion  on  this  subject  i* 
but  KMiitj.  The  early  Hebrews  do  not  seem  to  have 
given  special  names  to  theii  several  meals,  fur  Ihe  terms 
rendered  "dine"  and  "dinner"  in  ihe  A.  V.  (Uen.  xliii, 
[6;  Prov.  XV,  17)  are  in  reality  general  expreniooa, 
which  might  more  correctly  be  rendered  "eat"  and 
"portion  of  food."  In  the  New  Teal,  we  have  the 
Greek  terms  apuirof  and  lilwvor,  which  the  A.  T. 
•vnrian  napectively  "dinner"  and  "aupper"  (Luke  siv, 


SUP  ! 

Ill  John  xxi,  12),  bul  which  ire  more  property  " break- 
rut"  and  "dinner."  'I'here  is  xiine  uncertainty  aa  lo 
the  boura  at  which  the  maia  were  taken.  The  Bgvp- 
tiaoa  undoubtedly  look  their  principal  meal  at  noon 
((;en.  xiiii,  llj);  laborent  looli  alight  meal  at  that  lime 
(Ruth  ii,  14 :  comp.  ver.  IT) ;  and  occaaionally  that  early 
hour  wai  deval«d  to  txce»  aod  revelling  (1  RIngi  xx, 
IB).  It  has  been  inreired  (ram  thoae  pawajpii  (aonK- 
wliat  too  hailily.  ««  think)  that  the  principal  meal 
generally  took  place  at  ncion.  The  Egyptians  du,  in- 
deed, «till  make  a  subataiitial  tneal  at  that  time  (Lane, 
jVwJ.  t'^spl.  i,  189),  biit  there  are  indicatioaa  ibat  the 
.Teirg  rai  her  TuUowed  the  cuetom  that  prevails  among 
the  Bedawin,  and  made  their  principal  meal  after  ■un- 
set, and  a  lighter  meal  at  about  9  or  10  A.M.  (Buruk- 
hardi,  Mitef,  i,  64).  For  instance,  Lot  prepared  a  feast 
Tortile  two  angel*  "at  even"  (Gen.xii,  1-8);  Iloaz  ev- 
idently took  hia  meal  late  ia  the  evening  (Kuth  iii,  T) ; 
Ibe  Israelite*  ti\eJUii  in  the  eveniug,  and  brtad  imly, 
or  manna,  in  the  morning  (Exed.  xt-i,  12);  the  con- 
text seems  to  imply  that  Jethro'sreast  was  in  the  even- 
ing (iviii,  12, 14).  Biit,  above  all.  the  institution  of 
the  Paschal  feast  in  the  evening  seema  to  imply  that 
the  principal  meal  vas  nsually  taken  tlien:  It  appears 
highly  improbaWe  that  the  Jewi  would  have  been  r>r- 
dered  lo  eat  meal  at  an  unusual  lime.  In  the  later  Bib- 
lical period  we  have  clearer  notices  to  the  same  efli-ci. 
Breakfait  look  place  in  the  morning  (John  ixi,  1, 12),  on 
ordinary  days  not  before  9  a'clack,wbivh  was  the  first 
hour  of  prayer  (Acta  ii,  lb),  and  on  the  Sabbath  not  be- 
fore Vi,  when  the  service  of  the  aynagogue  wa*  com- 
pleted (Josephus,  Li/r,  §  M);  the  more  prolonged  and 
subslanHi)  meal  took  place  in  the  evening  (^d,  §  44 ; 
War.  i,  17. 4).  The  general  tenor  of  the  iiaiible  of  the 
great  supper  cerlaiiilv  inipliea  thai  the  feast  took  place 
in  ibe  workiug-boun'oftbe  day  (Luke  xiv,  I&-24)  ;  but 
we  may  regard  this,  perhaps,  as  part  of  the  imagery  of 
the  parable  rather  than  as  a  picture  of  real  life.     See 

Thepoatureitmealavariedatditrerentperiods.  There 
is  sufficient  evidence  that  the  old  Hebrews  were  in  the 
habit  of  lUliiur  (Gen.  xxvii,  19;  .ludg.  xix,  G;  1  Sam. 
KX,  6,  24;  1  Kinga  xili,  20),  but  it  doe*  not  hence  fol- 
low that  they  sat  on  chain;  tbey  may  bare  squatted 
on  the  ground,  as  was  the  occannnal,  though  nut  per- 
haps the  generaLcuatora  of  the  ancient  Kgyptian*  (Wll- 
kin*on,  .lac.  Egypl.  i,  68,  181).  The  table  was  in  this 
casa  but  slighliy  elevated  above  the  ground,  a*  ia  still 
tba  case  in  Egypt.  At  the  same  time,  the  chait  was 
not  unknown  lo  the  Hebrawa,  but  seema  to  have  been 
i^arded  as  ■  loken  of  dignity.  I'he  Hebrew  term  is 
Uai  (X05).  There  i*  only  orw  inslaitce  of  iis  being 
mentioned  ai  an  article  of  ordinary  furniture,  viz.  in  2 
Kings  iv,  10,  where  the  A.  V.  ininrreclly  r«ideis  it 
"stooL"  Even  there  it  seems  pmbable  that  it  was 
placed  more  as  a 


I  of  thia . 


k  of  special  honor  lo  I  he  prophet 

As  luxury  increased,  the  prac- 

ling.    The 


It  of  re 


who  reprobates  tbose  *^  that  lie  upon  beds  of  iror}',  and 
8tret<-h  themselves  upon  their  couches"  (vi.  4);  and  it 
appears  that  the  couches  themselves  were  of  a  costly 
characlft—the  "corners"  or  rilgri  (iii,  12;  the  word 
is  pceh,  nXD,  which  will  apply  to  the  edgr  a*  well  as  to 
the  angle  of  a  couch.  That  the  seals  and  couches  of 
the  Aiayrians  were  handsomely  omamenled  appear* 
from  the  specimens  given  by  Layard  [.Vinrrrk,  il,  300- 
302]),  being  finiahetl  with  ivory,  and  the  seat  covered 
with  «lk  or  damask  coverlels.  (The  A.  V.  has  *■  in  Da- 
mascus in  a  couch;"  hut  there  can  banodoubt  that  the 
name  of  tha  town  was  tnnaftmdtn  the  silk  aluA  man- 
ufactured there,  which  are  still  known  by  the  name  of 
"damask.")  Eiekiel, again,  inveighs  against  one  who 
sat  "on  a  stalely  bed  with  a  table  prepared  before  it" 
(xxili,  41).  The  custom  may  have  been  borrowed,  in 
the  Hrst  instance,  from  the  Babylonians  and  Syriana, 


among  whom  it 

6;  vii,H).     A  a! 
of  the  Greeks,  w 


SUP 

prevailed  at  an  early  period  <^*tb.  i. 
nilar  change  took  place  in  the  babil* 
lO  are  represented  in  the  Ueniic  Age  as 
Od.i,lib),bui  wbo  alleTwuda  attopt- 
ed  the  habit  of  reclining,  women  and  cbiklim  excepud. 
Sitting  appeara  to  have  been  the  poslure  usual  UBonf 
the  Assyrians  on  the  occa«ion  of  great  feetivale.  A  bas- 
relief  on  the  walls  of  Kborsabad  represents  the  Riwsts 
seated  on  high  cbairs  (Layard,  Xin/ffh.  ii,  41 1).  In 
the  time  of  our  Saviour  reclining  was  tbe  uniyeraal  ens- 
torn,  as  is  implied  in  tbe  terms  (dnuuiaS-cu,  Kuraai- 
(rSai.  di-acXiftrrSiii.  mrocXiviadni)  used  for  •'it/tins  at 
meat."  a*  the  A.  V.  iuconectly  has  it.  'I'he  cot>eh  it- 
self (eXi'm)  is  only  once  mentioned  (Mark  vii,4;  A- V. 
"  lables'),  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Koman 
Iriciimiim  had  been  introduced,  and  that  tbe  arrange- 
ments of  the  table  resembled  those  described  br  clas- 
sical writers.  Generally  speaking,  only  three  peraont 
recLned  on  each  couch,  but  occasionally-  four,  or  even 
five.  The  couches  were  provided  with  cuahiona,  on 
which  the  leR  elbow  rested  in  support  of  the  upper 
pan  of  the  body,  while  the  right  arm  remuned  fiv*. 
A  room  provided  wiih  these  was  described  as  itirpatfif 
vov,  lit,  "spread"  (xiv,  16;  A.  V.  "furnished-).  A. 
several  guests  reclined  on  the  aame  couch,  each  over- 
lapped his  neighbor,  as  il  were,  and  realed  his  head  oti 
or  near  the  breaat  of  the  one  who  lay  iiehind  him ;  hv 
was  then  said  to  "  lean  on  the  bosom"  of  bis  neighbor 
(dnutia^aitfT^cuAnViJahn  xili, 23;  xxl,20;  Cfmp. 
Pliny,  Epi^.  iv,  32).  The  close  proximily  into  wbkb 
penons  were  thus  brought  rendered  it  more  than  usti- 
atly  agreeable  that  fHetirl  should  be  next  to  friend,  and 
it  gave  tbe  opportunity  of  making  coiifldeuiial  commn- 
nicalions  (John  xiii,26).  The  onlinary  arrangeioeal  <>f 
the  couches  was  in  three  sides  of  a  square,  tbe  foartli 
being  left  open  Tor  tbe  servants  to  bring  up  the  dishes. 
The  couches  were  denominated  respeeiively  tbe  bi^b- 
esi,  the  middle,  and  the  lowest  couch :  the  Ibiee  KoeUa 
on  each  conch  were  also  denominated  highest,  inidilip. 
and  lowest — the  terms  being  suggested  by  tbe  circum- 
stance of  the  guest  vtho  reolined  on  another's  baeom 
always  appearing  to  be  btbnB  him.  The  protaUiaUt 
{irpumtkutia.  Matt,  jtxiii,  6),  which  the  Ptaariseea  so 
much  coveted,  was  not,  as  the  A.  V.  represents  it,  "  the 
uppermost  ivom,"  but  the  highest  seat  in  the  bigbeM 
couch— the  seat  numbered  1  in  the  annexed  diagrmm. 
See  Acci-BATioM. 


^■■f 

^Si 

? 

■ummos 

Imas 

medlns 

s              i 

medio* 

t              1 

Some  doubt  attenda  the  quealion  whether  the  females 
tnok  their  meals  along  with  the  males.  The  pteaeiit. 
stale  of  sodety  in  the  East  throws  no  light  upon  this 
ibjecl,  a*  tbe  customs  of  the  harem  dale  from  the  lime 

Mohammed.  'I'he  cases  of  Kuth  amid  the  reapers 
(Ruth  ii,  H),  of  Etkanah  with  hia  wives  (I  Shd.  i,  41. 
of  Job's  sons  and  daughters  (Job  i,4),and  the  general 
iniermixiure  of  the  sexes  in  daily  life,  make  it  nx>f« 
than  probable  that  they  did  so  join ;  at  Ibe  same  tin*-, 
as  the  duty  of  attending  upon  the  guests  devolved  upon 
them  (Luke  x.  40),  they  probably  look  a  somewhat  ir- 
regular and  briefer  repast.    See  Dine. 

Uefore  commencing  tbe  meal,  Ihe  gueUa  washed  Iheir 
hands.  This  custom  was  fonnded  on  natural  decotura  ; 
not  only  was  the  hand  Ihe  aubstitule  for  our  knife  and 
fork,  but  the  handa  of  all  the  guesta  were  dipped  into 

would  be  intolerable.     Hence  not  only  Ihe  Je«^  but 


1  ;iUi,  K;  Une  i,  IM).     In  (II 
mctbod  nr  eitiog,  Snlomon  makea  it 
ilupgard  tl 


will  n< 


nucli  ■: 


ThUi;  bafoi^or  arier  *  Menl.    <Prnm  Lnn«''  JTDittni 

ih(  Gmki  (Od.  i,  136),  the  rnndem  F.fCTptians  (Lane, 
i.  IWI.ind  many  other  niiioni  have  been  distinguiahed 
b<  ito  panic* ;  <be  Bedauiii,  in  particular,  are  carerul 
lowdti  i1i«r hands  6rforr,bai  are indifl^nnt  about  do- 
mf  »  after  Ihrir  meala  (BurckhardE,  Xala,  i,  68).  The 
l%iriiMi  tramfurmed  thia  conrentiunai  u»ge  into  a 
nsal  DfaHmnce,  and  overlaid  it  vith  bunlenaome  reg- 
iltiioos— a  wilful  perversicin  which  our  Lord  reprobate* 
ii  ikt  MiDBi^l  tenns  IMark  vii,  I-I3).  Another  pie- 
tmiuTT  Mpp  waA  the  grace  or  blesaing.  of  which  we 
kicf  li^toiK  inwance  in  the  Old  Test.  (I  Sam.iK,  13), 
ul  aon  than  nne  proniiunced  bv  nur  Lord  himoeir  in 
lit  NfwTMi.  (Matt,  sv,36;  Luke  ix,  16;  Johnvi,!!)] 
•'  onnuil  a>  Tar  as  we  may  jmlge  rrom  Ihe  war>l>  ap- 
iM  u  it,  pullr  of  ■  blewiiig  ripnn  Ihe  frjoci,  partly  of 
iLubio  the  (lirer of  it.  The  Ribbinical  writen  have, 
u  mul,  laid  down  lumt  miniile  regulationa  respecting 
iL  vkich  mav  be  foand  in  the  Ireatiie  of  the  Miahna 
aiiiln!  Smjafc.f*,  ch.  vi-viii.     See  Wash, 

TV  londe  of  ukin);  the  food  differed  in  no  material 
|«K  Ima  Ibe  modem  usages  of  Ihe  Easti  generally 
i»Bt  sai  a  lingle  diah,  into  which  each  giieai  dipped 
ka  kml  (HalL  Kxvi,  23);  occarinnally  aeparate  por- 
uwxre  tened  oal  to  eKh  (Gen.  xliii,  34;  Ruth  ii. 
Hi  i  Sam.  i,  4).  A  piece  of  bread  waa  held  between 
ik(  iturnb  and  two  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  was 
iftri  eiiher  into  ■  bowl  of  melted  greaae  (in  which 
IK  it  ■»  termed  J-w/iiov,  "a  aop,"  John  xiii,  !6)  or 
lU  Ike  diib  of  meat,  whence  a  piece  was  conreyed  to 
ikt  rnmh  between  the  layers  of  bread  (Lane,'],  193, 
IW:  B«ckh*nli,  \->ir^  i.  US).     It  is  esteemed  an  act 


([■rot.  xix,  34;  xxti,  16).  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
meal  grace  was  again  said,  in  conformity  with  Deui. 
iii,  to,  ani)  the  hands  were  again  washed,  twe  Meal. 
Thus  far  we  have  described  the  ordinary  meal.  On 
Ule  occasiona  more  ceremony  was  used,  and  Ihe  meal 
ras  enlivened  in  various  ways.  Such  occasions  were 
lumemus,  in  connection  partly  with  public,  partly  wilh 
irivaM  evenla.  In  the  fliat  class  we  may  place  ihe 
great  festivals  of  the  Jews  (DenLivi;  Tob.'it,  1);  pub- 
ic saerificea  (Deut.xU,  7;  xivii,  7;  I  Sara,  ix,  13,!^; 
Ktngsi,9;iii.ie;  Zeph.i,7);  Ihe  raliOcalion  oftrea- 
iea  (Gen.xxvi,30;  xxxi.M);  the  offering  oflbe  tithes 
(Deut.  xiv,  26),  particularly  at  the  end  of  each  third 
' ',  23).  In  the  second  rlasa,  mairiages  (Uen. 
;  Judg.  niv,  10;  Eath.  ii,  18;  Tob.  viii,  19; 
HatLxxii,!;  John  ii,  1) ;  birthdays  (Uen.xl,SOi  Job 
'  1 1  Hate,  xiv,  6,  9) ;  buiiala  (S  Sam.  iii,  8S ;  Jer.  xvi, 
7;  UiAix,4:Tnb.iT.lT);>hecp-sbearinK{I8am.sxT, 
2,S6;  S  aann.  xiii,  23) ;  the  vintage  (Judg.  is,  87) ;  lay- 
ing the  foundation-aloae  of  a  house  (Frov.  ix,  N6);  the 
nceplion  of  visiton  (tietb  xviii,U-8:  xix,S;  !  Sam. 
iii,  20,  xii,l:  :  Kings  vi,!3;  Tob.  vii,  9;  IMacc.xvi, 
lA;  2  Uaec  ii,  27;  Luke  v,  29;  xv,  23;  John  iii,  2)  ; 
r  any  event  connected  wilh  the  sovereign  (Hoo.  vii.  A). 
The  day  of  the  king,"  in  this  passage,  has  been  vari-  . 
usly  Tindeialood  as  hia  biithday  or  his  coronalioni  it 
may,  however,  be  equally  applied  lo  any  other  event  of 
similar  importance.  On  each  of  the  above-men  I  ioned 
lions  a  aumpluous  repast  waa  prepared;  ihe  i-neals 
previoualy  invited  (Kath.v,  gj  Matt.  xxii.3),and 
le  day  of  the  feast  a  second  invilaiion  waa  imun\  to 
:  that  were  bidden  (Eaih.  vi,  14 ;  I'rov.  ix,3i  Bfall. 
3).  The  visiton  were  received  wilh  a  kiss  (Tub. 
>;  Luke  vii,  45);  water  waa  produced  for  Ihrin  to 
I  their  feet  wilh  (Luke  vii, 44) ;  the  head,  the  beanl. 
the  feet,  and  aomelimes  the  clothea  were  perfumed  with 
>intment(rBa.xxiii,5!  Amos  vi,6;  Lukevii,3ei  John 
iii,  8)  ;  on  special  occasiona  robes  were  provided  {Malt, 
cxii,  11;  comp.  Trench,  On /'oruilH,  p.  iHO) ;  and  ihe 
lead  was  decorated  with  wreaths  (taa.  xxviii,  I ;  Wisd. 
i,  7, 8 1  Josephus,  Am.  xix,9, 1).  This  custom  prevailed 
:xtenNvely  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Kot  only 
■ere  chaplela  worn  on  the  head,  but  restoonsof  Sowera 
vere  hung  over  Ihe  neck  and  breast  (rti>larch,£jia^  iii, 
t,3;  Martial,  x,  IS;  Ovi.l, /~usr.  ii,  739).  They  were 
generally  introduced  alier  Ihe  first  part  of  the  entertain- 
ment was  completed.  They  are  noticed  in  several  fa- 
~  ''"  pasaages  of  Ihel^lin  poets  (Horace,  Com.  ii,  7, 
.  al.  ii,  8,  256;  Juven.  v,  36).  The  regulation  of 
the  feast  waa  umler  Ihe  superintendence  of  a  apccial  olB- 
cer,  named  lipi^irpicXii^  {John  ii,S;  A.  V.  "governor 
'  he  feast"),  whose  huaineas  it  was  to  lasle  the  food 
the  liquors  before  they  were  placed  on  the  table, 

generally  one  of  Ihe  gueaia  (Ecclus.  xxxii,  I,  2),  ami 
might  therefore  take  part  in  the  conveisatioii.  The 
leaignation  of  thia  officer  among  the  Greeks 
was  ctiii-waainfix"!:'  among  Ihe  Romans  maguter  or 
rn  coneiriL  He  was  chosen  by  lot  out  of  ihe  guests 
(Smith,  Diet,  nf  Auliq.  y.  926;.  See  AitCHiTRiCLiNDa. 
The  places  of  tlie  guests  were  Ntded  according  to  Iheir 
respective  rank  (Gen.xl>ii,3S:  I  Sam.  ix,22;  Mark  xii, 
39;  Luke  xiv.g;  John  xiii,23);  portions  of  food  were 
il  before  each  (1  Sam.  1,4;  2  Sam.  vi,  19;  1  Chioo. 

,"  *  'liii.34;  comp.  Herml.  vi,  67)  or  more  choice  (1 
Sam.  ix,  24;  comp.  IL  vii,  321)  portions  than  the  reat. 
The  importance  of  tlie  feaat  was  marked  bv  Ihe  num- 
ber of  the  guesls(Geii.xxix,22;  lSaui.ix,22;  I  Kings 
i,  9,26;  Luke  V,  29;  xiv,  16),  by  the  splendor  of  the 
vessels  (Eslh.  i,  7).  and  by  the  profiiMon  or  the  excel- 
lence of  the  viands  (Gen.  xviii,  6;  xxvii,  9;  Judg.  vi, 
19;  1  Sam.ix,24:  laa.  xxT,  6 ;  Amol  vi,  4).     The  meal 


eUPER-ALTAR  S 

TaaoiUrentd  with  muuc,  nngiag,  wid  dinning  (iSam. 
xix,  3d;  Pw.  Iiix,  IS;  Isi.  v,  12;  Amu*  vi,  b;  Ecctua. 
xxxii,3-6;  HMU  xir.G;  Luke  kv,!6),  or  oiLh  riddle* 
(Judg.  xiv,  ]jC)i  uhI  uniJ  thew  enlerUmnKnli  Ibe 
rettlval  waa  pnilongcd  fur  WTerd  dtyt  (Eilh.  i,  3,  4), 
■inMrUinmeiiU  designed  ■Imoet  eicluuvely  for  drink- 
ing were  known  by  the  ipeciil  name  of  mitklik  (Tine's). 
Thii  reaembled  the  mmUialio  of  the  Komuis,  whith 
toiik  pUo«  alter  the  aupper,  and  wu  a  mere  drinking 
revel,  with  only  m  much  food  aa  aerved  Ut  wbec  ihe 
palate  for  wine  (Smitfa,i)ic<.  o/<1nfif.p.1f71>— SmiLh. 
Ijee  Bamqiiet.  Instances  of  auch  drinking-bouts  are 
nncicedin  I  Sam.  kxv,36j  2  Sam.  xiii,  38;  Eatb.i,7; 
Uan.  V,  1 ;  they  are  reprubiled  by  the  propheta  (laa.  v, 
11;  AmusviiS).  Samewbatakiii  to  the  mwbti  oftbe 
Hebrewa  waa  alao  the  ittmOM  (lu^ioc)  of  ibe  apoalolic 
•ge,  in  which  gruaa  licen  tiouaneu  waa  added  to  drinking, 
and  which  ia  Irequenllv  made  the  subject  of  warning  in 
the  Epistlea  (Kom.  xi'ii,  13;  Gil.  v,  21;  Epb.  r,  18;  1 
l-el.  if,8).    SeeltHlMC 

Bnper-altv,  a  term  glren— I.  To  a  ponable  altar. 
placed  un  the  altar  itwlf  at  the  time  of  the  celebration  of 
the  Christian  euchariat,  or  set  up  acpantely.  Hincmar 
(867)  alloweil  Ibe  use  of  a  coaucraied  alate,  marUe,  ut 
a  black  alone  alib,  probably  owing  lo  [lie  necdaof  the 
Uruuden  aiid  the  deficiency  uf  churches.  It  waa  la^fc 
enough  to  contain  the  chalice  and  host.  See  Altar, 
roHTABLK.  !.  Ordinarily  and  commonly  Ibis  term  is 
applied  to  the  ledge  behind  the  allar,  on  which  relics, 
Uowen,  caiidleuicka,  and  the  alur^nna  atand.  It  ia 
very  frequently  so  applied  ill  the  ancient  Church  of 
KnglaniL 

Sup«niDnuatatl  ronApititiu  are  miiiittera  in  the 
MeihiHliat  churches  who,  by  reaaim  i.(  age,  inHimity, 
or  aMiclinna,  are  disabled  frani  preaching,  but  nflDain 
membeta  of  the  Annual  CunferenceK.  In  the  Amer- 
icin  ehuichea  they  relain  all  the  rl^hla  and  privileges 
of  a«ii-e  miiiiatera  excel*  being  eligible  to  appoint- 
loeiila.  In  the  Knglish  Wesleyan  Church,  If  members 
iif  the  Legal  Hundred  i>r  Omatitutional  Confennce, 
they  cease  to  be  nienbersorthxt  body.  Their  rcaturi- 
liun  to  the  efleclive  relaiion  dependa  upon  the  vote  of 
the  Cntiletence. 

I.  Sip^lt,  Mc— When  a  superannuated  preacher  lives 
out  of  the  bounda  of  his  Conference.,  he  is  entitled  lo  a 
seat  in  the  Qusnerly  Conference,  and  Ihe  privileges  of 
membenhip  in  ihe  Church  where  he  resides.  He  ia  en- 
tilled,  if  needy,  lo  receive  a  ahare  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
collection  uVen  In  the  churches  fur  Conference  claim- 
■nt^  and  o(  the  chartered  fund.  Each  Quarterly  Con- 
ference is  directed  M  estimate  the  amoniil  needed  for 
thesiippiwtollhesepreacbergor  their  widows,  and  for- 
ward a  eertificsle  lo  the  Annual  Conference.  The  case 
is  conaidered  by  the  Conference  stewards,  and  on  their 
report  the  ammnu  to  be  distributed  is  deciiled  by  the 
vote  of  Ihe  Ounlerence. 

II.  Otttiri,  tic — It  ia  the  duly  of  the  superannuated 
preacher  to  forward  annually  lulhe  Conference  of  which 
he  IS  a  member  a  cettiHcale  of  bis  Christian  and  minis- 
terial character,  sigiieil  bi-  the  preaiding  elder  of  the 
district  or  tlie  preacher  jn  charge  of  Ibe  worii  wlierc  he 
TCsides.  Without  such  certificate  he  has  no  claims  on 
the  Omfereiice  for  support. 

In  lt«T6  tliere  were  in  the  Melhodist  Episcopal  Churth 
1103  superannuated  preachers.  The  MethtKliH  Episco- 
pal Church,Soulh,in  1875, reported 259.  SveDuciptiae 
•>f  the  M.  E.  CkuriA ;  Simpson,  Cytiy.  o/  MrlAodum, 

SnpsrattendsnB.  The  Greek  word  Mvtotnt, 
tpua)pii4,  ha*  always  been  retained  in  the  Church  to 
denote  tbe  chief  minisler  in  sacred  things.  It  waa 
•nmelimes  translated  by  Lilin  writers  into  (ofirnti'/ni- 
dnu,  L  e.  super! nlendenl.    See  Disiiop. 

Superbla,  tbe  Roman  person i fled /n-ii/f,  a  daughter 
of  £thei  and  Esnh. 


SUPEREROGATION 


Supererogation  («rw<  nper 


regat 


«>      11- 


between  pracrpla  and  o 

or  between  the  posiiive  duties  enjoined  by  the  law  and 
the  muralrequiremeiilsofche  Gospel,  which  the  faithful 
are  at  liberty  to  comply  with  or  not,  releiring  chitfiy  la 
1  Cor.  vil,  6,  and  treated  in  the  Curectunt.  Aoww.  iii, 
3, 24,  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  Scholastic  theology  In- 
listed  most  particularly  on  that  distinction,  and  estab- 
lished it  in  Ibe  form  in  which  it  has  unce  been  held 
by  all  orthodox  Knraan  Catbolico.  If  the  observapce 
of  the  obligatory  commandments  consliluie*  all  tbe  du- 
ties of  man,  then  his  luiderlaking  to  accomplish  tbe 
non-obligatnry  eoiuUiii  may  be  looked  upon  a*  a  snit  of 
IralHc,  Ihe  object  of  which  ia  lo  gain  by  this  acciimplish- 
ment  a  certain  degree  otvtrrii.  We  octiuireby  it  a  son 
of  surplus,  and  this  is  what  is  dewgiialed  as  apui  nr/rr- 
ernffationviM  This  doctriLte  of  supererof^atory  merits  u 
not  symbolical,  for  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  does  not  ciprns 
itself  on  that  poinL  On  Ihe  olher  hand,  Ibe  principle  Ibal 
the  righleuusmoyfuUy  satisfy  the  divine  law  ;iniii>rj*j 
eila  ilala  by  works  doDS  in  (iud  i*  fully  aMblisbed 
by  Cont^  Trid.  Sea*,  vi,  cait.  16.  This  ia  tlto  the  case 
with  tbe  other  principle,"  M  i]uisdixerit,bomtiii*JHS(i- 

licatibonaoperaiu  * '     - 

ipsius  JustiBcaii  n 


operiti 


ri  augmenlum  graltss,  vil  am 
nteniam  et  ipsius  virie  BteruB  . . .  consecutbHicm  Uifne 
etiam  aloria  augmentum ;  anaihema  sit"  (Seas,  vi,  can. 

otic  Church  rcc^^ise  also  the  vohnilary  aauimplion  of 

can,  I),  of  which  Bellarmine.(/)f  Monariii,  c.  viii)  lays 
Ibey  are  "  nee  pnecepta  nee  indlRerenlia,  se<l  Deo  ina<a 
et  ab  illo  commendala."  If  a  satisfactory  fulSlment  of 
the  law  u  possible,  if  good  works  constitute  a  deseit, 
then  Ihe  achobsltc  notion  of  the  »pera  npermiffiiiitn 
becomes  a  natural  cnnse*|uence.  Thin  doctrine,  in  sboft, 
is  the  result  of  the  system.  It  is  Ihe  natural  ouue- 
quence  of  that  concrplioii  of  Ihe  law  in  rcUiion  lo  the 
ju«iflcati»n  of  man.  It  ia  siipportel  by  tradition  fmni 
the  lima  of  Alexander  of  Hales  {Sanniui,  pt.  iv,  qn.  23, 
a.2,  n).S;  Albertus  MauiiusSmr.  iv,  disLJO,  a.  16,17; 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Snppl.  ten.  part  aamma  ThroL  qu.  13. 
a.  1),  and  has  not  only  never  been  denied,  but  always 
aaaened  and  defended  against  all  attacks  by  tbe  ■»■ 
eminent  Ibeolngiana  of  ihe  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  assertion  "iil  unus  poaset  pro  ollem  sarufacere," 
in  the  C-iltdi.  Rnm  


Ifw. 


further 


setlnence^  as  attempted  bv  more  modern  thenlogians. 
Mcihler,  fur  instance  (Ntae  UVtrMfArngm,  2d  ed.  p.  B05 
sq.).  we  find  an  inextricable  confuskii^  in  the  coneeplioD 
of  the  law.  MQbler  starts  from  the  admissiofi  that  Ibe 
moral  law,  as  Ihe  absolute  will  of  God,  and  the  unity  of 
the  human  will  with  the  divine  by  love,  wbtch  il  re- 
quires, cannot  be  surpassetL  Yet  his  conception  of  Ibe 
law  is  erroneous  and  a  mere  abalrsction,  for,  on  iIm  one 
hand,  he  considers  it  aa  without  limila,  infinite:  and,  on 
the  other,  as  resolving  itself  inio  a  number  of  separate 
commandDients,each  of  which  conslituIesaduCy.  Thus 
considered,  no  one  can  do  more  than  the  law  reqiures, 
though  any  one  can  da  mote  ihan  is  required  by  tbe 
separate  commandments  taken  individually.  From  tbe 
moment  ilut  by  his  entering  into  commnnion  with 
Christ  love  becnmcs  Ihe  ruling  principle  of  a  man's  life, 
he  bas  absolutely  fulHlled  the  moral  law,  Ref^eneralioD 
being  presupposed,  there  are  yet  diSerent  tiegreea  in  Ihe 
elfecu  of  love,  anil  these  degrees  are  not  regulated  by 

tics  OS  if  Ibey  were  rut  duties  for  him,  thus  ovenlqi- 
ping  Ihe  common  limits  of  duly  and  attaining  lo  a  high- 
er degree  of  perfection.  According  to  this  arguments- 
lion,  the  moral  law  would  constitute,  so  to  apeak,  an 
imaginary  quantity,  consisting,  on  the  oae  hand,  iti  the 
complete  body  of  the  divine  commandments, and,  on  the 
other,  in  a  number  of  imputations  separata  ftom  then 
lenls,  and  vtiy  dilBcult  lo  define  particular- 


SUPEREROGATION 


ij.    Tlui,UNn,bringi)iubickf4^in  ' 


™p™«P"'  ■' 


«  dUtinctior 


I  buit  or  ihe  07 


_u'iru.  I'nileKaiiiMm,  od 
i^aa  (he  diriuc  lair  u  uiie  iodiviutile.  ami  being  iu  this 
hita  tin  rule  uf  all  huniB!!  life  and  aciiaD.  Olijeciivirly, 
iiiilbcdpmgion  of  tilt  idea  orcbac  wbich  ia  good  in 
iikU,  iibik  MilqccUvcly  it  Hnd*  iu  aeeumpliahmtnt  in 
line,  but  iu  otdei  10  aati^fy  the  manirold  nigencio 
i>r  life,  il  preaenia  iuelf  aim  in  tbe  rorm  of  a  iiiuralily 

■iilfnd  B  Hjiarate  Truni  each  u[)ier,  nar,  when  taken  to- 
iRibv,  a>  formine 


.very 


It  whic 


iMiobe  Umhd 
tfmat  tktKBlnJ'lit  eomplfit  moral  idni,iu  Iht  vtlott 
Mrim  tow  ia  ill  rtUiiioa  la  lie  arevmtlimet  under  ttm- 
i^-arim.  Aa  to  which  of  the  many  eommanUiwnla 
iait  iu  applicsiion  in  a  i^ivcn  case,  this  ia  a  queation 
toothy  riirtiiKl  rruro  thai  which  ia  obJ«ctiidy  to  be  de- 
SwiL  The  pcrcepliun  of  it  ia  given  to  the  regenerate 
\i!  the  Boly  8|>iiic  through  ■  cnnadmca  Hlled  with 
Lire.  It  ia  tvideut  that  in  thia  ayMem  there  is  no  poe- 
^bitilr  ft  suppoaing  a  huntan  power  in  thoa«  regener- 
uot  in  ChiiW  by  Tirlue  of  which  the)'  could,  unilei 
uy  aRaaHtancCt  do  more  than  ia  required  of  them,  Le. 
DDRihaiilhaCwhichisabsDliiielyganlinitHlf.    Thua, 

•toaa  wbu  derulea  her  life  lo  Caking  care  of  the  aick, 
w  ike  miMioaan,  does  not  thntby  attain  ■  higher  de- 
i.'nt  1^ monl  perfection  than  othen who  contribute  but 
iinteiuHardaiheadranceiDent  orihekingdumofliDd. 
AIJ  depeuda  in  ihia  reapect  on  the  individual,  and  on 
iiie  p«iii«ii  ill  whifh  Uod  hai  placed  him.  Thua,  a 
i"uag  wnman  whn.  having  an  aged  mother  dependent 
uilierarr.iihiiuld  enter  an  order— such,  fur  inilance,  a> 
ib(  TMtn  of  Mercy. 


ir  Lord  u 


aelf,"i 


Uib  done  what  abe  cnulJ"  (Mark  xiv,  8).  In  Lake 
Mii.  R  he  tays,  "  When  ye  aball  ban  done  all  those 
ihiagiohidi  are  cumniatided  you,  say.  We  aieunproHl- 
■Me  arranra."  Of  Iha  Uewarila,  it  is  required  thai 
Dwy  ahimU  be  found  faithful,  and  nothing  elae.  Of 
("kriit  bimielf  it  ia  aaid  that  be  was  "obedient  onto 
Kuh,  eren  the  death  of  the  cnm"  (PhiL  ii,  8),  snd  to 
(•  anr*  ttiaa  obedient  is  imponible,  while  lo  be  leaa  ia 
I1  be  dianbedient.  The  contrary  doctrine,  which  aa- 
rrita  mtrits  lo  man  afide  from  [be  grace  of  God,  is  not 
imlj  isiBotal,  but  poniiively  irreligious.  It  i>  even  il- 
Ineical  when  lonked  at  fmm  the  Rnioan  Catholic  aland- 
r->M,<inse  (Mdfaler,  p.  300)  no  living  man  everaccom- 
plubta  tbe  whole  law.  Sec  Janor,  Dt  R^uUi;  Catf. 
<>j.vt.»vii;^j»Z.n.lW,  163, 187,269;  Ari.Smule. 
u'.KStt:  Cat/.  A wgL  xiv. 

We  iboidd  neglect  one  of  the  ptindpal  conaequencta 
'f  the  itieerv  of  the  ofva  nftrtragatictm  if  we  forgot 
'«  aaiMn  \a  relation  to  indulgancea  (q.  v.).  While 
iSe  •rranmt  of  penance  and  Ihe  absolution  connect- 
•  liiith  it  grant  exemptioa  from  Bin  and  fmm  elemal 
r«<B>hiatin,  the  Church  ponessei  a  meana  of  leaaening 
•rerrn  iraiitling  the  temporal  pimiahmenta  required 
■^A'iBfjntica  by  meana  of  indulgences.  These  Um- 
[•nl  pmitbiDeDta  arc  otherwise  to  ha  undergone  partly 
•1  Ibis  esnh,  as  peoancea  and  scclesiaatical  expiations 
I  r*a>  ranbufuw),  partly  afterwarda  in  purgaIoi}-(Per- 
'•■t.il.1).  RuC  wbence  does  the  Church  poasesa  the 
l«««T  thos  to  set  np  Bs  the  "reprenenjative  of  God's 
BOCT  sod  Juaticc  in  oor  time,"  and  aa  auch  to  exercise 
ndi  a  right  of  grace  aa  is  so  far  from  being  eccleMisli- 
isl  ia  ita  ehsracter  that  it  extends  (under  some  restrii> 
nr>)nen  beyond  this  life?  How  can  it  defend  the  as- 
■otptim  of  a  potttitu  eow/rmdi  Mvlgnliiit  a  Ciriito 
'waM.aeaiionfd  inG-mc.rrid.Sess.ixv?  On  thU 
twn  ther  ralcT,  as  was  already  done  by  Alexander  of 
HslB,  10  lb*  dtnautiiM  tajurtivgatimt  po-fedorum 
F>uiiM  by  ihe  anpercmgalofy  merits  of  Chnat  and  of 
i^ialnu':  "Eat  iiidulgentia  lemiuio  poems  temporalis 
1  aaenipsntalein  peceatia  tiebi- 


I  SUPEREROGATION 

tie,  in  fora  inlemn  cnrain  Deo  vslids,  fana  per  applica- 
tioncm  thesauri  Eccleaiieaauperiore  legitimo"  (Perrune, 

ing  for  all  the  ains  of  humanity,  of  aoy  kind,  the  basis 
and  roundation  of  which  are  the  iiiSnite  meriia  of  tbe 
Son  of  God  as  man,  and  of  Christ  in  hia  saints  (Klee, 
Doffm.  ii,  335),  ia  considered  at  fiJri  jiroximan.  Aside 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  imgiUcitIv  establiahed  by  I  tie  sanc- 
tion of  induiijcencea  (Cone.  Trid.  Sess.  xxv,  can.  31),  it  is 
condrmeit  by  the  express  declarations  of  popea  Clement 
Vl(Co«f.  fn^mi/w),LeoX,PiuiV,GreeoryXIll,Kiu 
VI,  and  Benedict  XIV.  See  also  Alex.  Ales.  pi.  iv.  qn. 
23,a.l,m.l;  AtbertuaMsgi)us.Smr.ir,diBU!0,s.  17,18; 
ThomaBAquhiaa,|)I.i>i,qu.36,B.l;^flif.iv,dist.!0,qii.I, 
s.3;£HmiH.a(fe.6'nir.iii,  156;  Bona  Ventura,  .<Iflif.iv,diat. 
20,  pL  ii,  qn.  1 ;  Dellarmine,  De  ladulg.  e.  ii,  iii ;  Veroiii- 
m,Rrgitla  /i<(n',ii,4;  Boasuet,  frpufAtuo,  §  8 ;  Dalleri- 
ni  [Peter],  dunlin.  ThraL  Pral.  iii.  Still  ther^  may  re- 
main some  doubt  aa  lo  whether  the  mtrita  on  whicli 
the  system  of  indulgences  reals  ia  to  be  consldeml  ss 
active  performances  in  the  strict  sense  of  Ihe  npui  tu- 
ptTfTngaliimit,  or  aa  unmerited  suS^iingii,  such  as  I  hose 
undergone  by  the  uinia,  and  which  were  not  In  be  con- 
aidered  ss  punishments,  but  which  thus  served  lo  atone 
befnrebaiid  for  Ihe  fanlla  alterwards  committed  by  tho 

the  doctrine  of  the  opus  iiip<rcn>^rioinr  forms  the  baais 
of  the  ayitem  of  indulgencea,  or  the  notion  of  ihenpNs 
Bipertrogolitnun  must  also  embrace  the  superHnous  suf- 
ferings of  the  perfect  \  and  on  this  Ihe  orthodox  »riiers 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  do  not  agree.  In  Ilicir 
polemical  defences  of  the  doctrine  of  a  fund  of  merit*, 
they  mostly  base  themselves  on  tbe  seconil  cniiHiiiera- 
tioH.  If  we  leave  these,  we  find  in  their  other  works  sn 
much  that  is  obscure  and  indefinite  on  Ihia  aa  well  as 
on  moat  other  points  that  it  is  impossible  for  I'rotes- 
lant  expoHlora  to  attempt  to  define  the  iloclrine  of  the 
Church  without  being  at  once  accused  by  Roman  Cath- 
olics of  misunderstanding  Iheiraiithnra,  The  same  Miib- 
ler  who  in  Stvr  L'utfniichatigni,  1 68,dertve«  the  ti'mir. 
rut  from  the  excessive  suf^ringa  of  some,  in  §  69,  p. 
411,  conaidera  good  works  aa  efficient  aa  undeserveil 
sufferiuga  in  freeing  the  yet  enansred  members  of  the 
bodv  of  Christ.  Thia  ia  still  more  expressly  ssserted  In- 
Klee  (Oi^.ii,  334)  and  Bellarmine  (i)<  JfmocA.c  vi'i, 
viii).  And  it  could  not  be  otherwise,  fiT  Ihe  lirmBiti; 
that  bsMS  of  indulgences,  Ihe  product  of  the  "merits 

impetratoriaiffsafiir'uMoriii."  Thus  tbe o^i^ia  aupm-ni- 
gntica  contribute  unquestionably  to  making  up  the  fund 
of  merits  imparted  to  those  who  need  it  in  the  form  of 
,  indulgences.  "Les  bonnes  esuvres  de  lous  los  homme^ 
,  le  sang  des  martyrs,  les  sacriflcea  et  let  larmcs  de  Tin. 
'  noeence  a'accnmulent  sans  relache  pour  faire  equilibre 
au  mal.  L'action  de  (trices,  la  pritre,  lea  satinfaciiona, 
les  secours,  les  insjMrations,  la  foi,  I'espersncB  et  I'smour 
drculent  de  I'un  it  I'autre  cumme  des  flenves  bienfaisans" 
(De  Maiatre,  Soiria  de  Sl.-PiltrAoarg). 

This  doctrine  of  llie  opui  laptrtrvgalitmii  wsB  at- 
tacked by  WydiOe  {Di^  p.  S87),  and  sharply  crilicise<l 
in  Job.  von  Wesel'a  Adv.Induls.  Diipal.  The  poaiiiim 
of  the  ReformeiB  on  that  question  may  be  acen  in  Me- 
lancthon  (fon',  De  Salii/itclioitr)  and  Calvin  (hil.  iii, 
G).  It  was  aflerwards  treatetl  by  Chemnitz  (i,  Dr  Bo- 
mtOpp.qii.i:  ii,  Ae  /n(fti^.>,Chamier(Anu(r<irtu  Co- 
IhoL  iii,  lib.  S4,  De  Satitfadioiiiliai  AUnit),  and  Jo.  Uer^ 
hard  {Lor.xv,  9,  ed.  Colta).  The  Synod  i^  Piatoja 
(Pro/xu.  .rZ,/),  in  1876,  took  the  same  views  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  If  ProleslanI  polemists  have 
occaaionally  failed  lo  observe  that  tbe  vicarious  aalls- 
fsction  of  ihe  ssinta  does  not  refer  to  sin  itself,  but  10 
Ihe  temporal  consequences  of  Bin  pardoned,  this  has, 
nevertheless,  made  no  practical  diCference.  V/e  may  also 
notice  here  Ihe  evident  Incongruity  between  Ihe  Roman 
Catholic  essays  on  thia  aubject  and  the  fundsmentsl 
truth  of  Chriit'a     "      ~        - 


SUPERFRONTALE 


;  of  Chris 


ilill  tl 


pic  of  the  aapererogsiory  nieriu  of  the  lainta,  the  l«tier 
cannot  increase  the  viUoe  of  the  merils  of  Clirisl,  lull 
only  the  qauntiii/  ur  nunhr.  ''  Per  modum  cumuli  ad. 
Jkiuntur  satisfaction ibua  Chrini,  quiu  iitis  ulla  ratione 
deroKetur."  Th*  meriu  of  others,  con»equ«nlly,  are  re- 
versible merely  ai  uitiaractory  service*,  not  as  personal 
moral  actions,  and  tbiis  are  looked  apon  only  as  means 
of  appllcalion  of  Ihe  meriU  of  Christ  ■■  manirested  in 
«il>erero(^live  works.  "  Non  habent  nisi  ratiunem  me- 
dii,  i)uo  Chrisli  pretiuni  nobis  applicilur"  (Bellarmine, 

}>t  liidalg.x,*,^.*) Ueraog,  Acu/-£'Bcyil%>. H.  V,     bee 

Hekit. 

Superfrontild,  a  term  applied  W—  I.  Tbe  back 
wall  of  the  altar,  which  received  either  Blone-retiefa  or 
a  melal  covering  with  embossed  designs  and  enamel- 
work.  8.  Tbe  modem  name  for  a  covering  for  Ibe  top 
at  Iba  altar,  which  commonly  hangs  down  about  six 
iuchea  all  round  and  is  fringed.  It  is  antinirily  made 
of  wlk  velvet,  satin,  ur  damask,  and  is  placeil  over  the 
three  vhile  linen  cloths  wliicb  customarily  cover  and 
preserve  tbe  altar  slab. 


I  SUPERNUMERARY  | 

vote  with  the  leaden'  or  quarterly  meetings.     All  tbt 

circuit  are  iti  his  hands.  S.  An  ecclesiastical  aufieriui 
in  several  Reformed  churches  where  episcopacy  it  imi 
admitted,  particularly  among  the  Luiheransin  Uennany 
and  the  Calviniatd  in  some  olber  plaeea.  The  superiii- 
tendeiiC  ia  similar  to  a  biihop,  ouiy  hia  power  is  sumo 
what  more  restrained  than  that  of  our  dtucesan  Usbofa. 
Ue  is  Ibe  chief  paawr,  and  has  the  direction  of  all  Ihi 
inferior  pastors  within  his  district  or  dioceae. 

Superior,  an  official  exercising  juriwiiclinn ;  Ihc 
chief  i^a  cunfratemity,  brotherhood,  sisterbooil,  moiu]- 
teiy,  or  convent.  In  most  orders  the  •'  superior"  or  oihri 
bead  of  a  convent  ia  elecleil  by  the  members  of  the  coir- 
vent,and  the  auperiura  in  a  province  elect  the  pro vinciiL 

Bvperiorea*,  a  female  superior  of  ■  convent  « 

Svperoatural.    This  is  a  word  which  is  popolu- 

which  are  not  within  the  onlinary  concrete  experimw 
and  knowledge  of  mankind  being  looked  upon  as  funn- 
ing part  of  a  separate  system  of  Ihingii  and  events. 
"That  ia  aupematnral,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  tithft 
luii  ill  thu  i-hAiii  nf  natural  cause  and  etTect.or  which 
r  cause  and  elli^t  in  nature  from 
(Bushnell,  IValart  and  (tr  ^Kpa- 
{0»  the  SapematHral,  p.  146,  141) 
1  "We  may  speak  of  whatever  i« 
dthenaturiiasprFfn-aadraL    TV 
It  only  to  the  divine  action,  bat  to 


[he  phrase  aapemafurat  to  tbe  Sii- 
,  lo  the  works  peifonned  by  him. 
created  by  him  beyond  the  natural 

wuni  Bitrflcfc  to  those  events  whitH 

nur  world  as  a  sign  or  proof  iif  liml 

itural  interporilion  or  a  revelali-Hi 

to  man.    We.  mutt  not  look  ugm 

creariiMi  as  tHprnutluTal,  bau  ki- 

do  look  upon  it  as  roiraculiHi!.' 

'    So  far  as  out  investigation  pmh- 


il  into  the  w 


d  of  nail 


SupeTbnmeral  Clotli,  a  term  used  to  deaignate 
the  <,mc  (.,.  v.). 
SnparhnmarSld,  a  term  for  tbe  arch  (episcopal 

p«U  (q.  v.). 

SupeiindlotB  were  taxes  Imposed  by  the  Roman 
emperuni,  beyond  the  ordinary  canonical  taxes,  upon 
great  exigencies  anil  exiraonlinary  occasions.  The  or- 
dinary taxes  were  called  indiciions,  s<i  those  extraorili- 
nary  were  called  snperindictions.  From  these  the  clergy 
were  universally  excm[>ted  by  several  laws  of  the  Chris- 
tian emperors.— Bingham,  Chi-iil.  Atiliq.  bk.v,  ch.  iii,  §8. 

Superinspector,  a  word  by  which  Latin  writers 
have  traiislaiol  rfiiH'xptu  (iirinion'oc),  or  bithop  (q.  v.). 

Saperinatltiitiou  is.  in  the  Anglican  Church,  the 
institution  ID  a  bcncHce  over  the  head  of  a  benetlciary 
supposed  to  be  dead  after  prolonged  absence. 

Superintendent.  1.  The  ofRcer  of  the  early 
Church  who  was  also  called  nefrinr.nt  bithop  ((jrrBKo- 
iroc)-  2-  The  officer  in  the  English  Wesleyan  Church 
who  has  charge  of  a  circuit;  he  is  responsible  to  the 
Conference  for  the  maintenance  of  discipline  and  order 
in  all  the  societies  of  the  circuit,  and  presides  as  chief 
pastor  in  all  circuit  courts.    The  aupcrinlendent  or  one 

the  quarterly  viailaliun  of  the  classes,  change  or  re-elect 
tbe  Blewardt— the  nomination  being  ivilb  himself,  Ibe 


law  and  order  ei 
and  ever)'  increase  of  knowledge 
Net.  reveals  to  us  furlhet  illustralions 

of  the  assertion  that  "order  is 
Heaven's  Ant  law."  Belief  in  the  supemalnml  don- 
not,  therefore,  require  iia  to  believe  in  any  violation  of 
law,  since  all  raas-ining  which  starts  from  what  we  know 
leatls  to  the  conclusion  that  "supernatural  phenomena 
are  as  much  the  result  nf  law  as  phenomena  which  are 

SapeisataroliBt.  a  name  commonly  given   in 

(■erminy  at  the  end  of  the  last  and  the  beginning  vixhv 
present  century  to  all  who  believed  in  supeniainnl 
agency  sa  cterled  in  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriplun^ 
Ibe  performance  uf  the  miracles  therein  recorded,  etc. 
Their  opponents  are  called  AtOiitipentaltiTatili. 

Bapemnmerary  pREArHEK.  1.  In  tbe  Heihodis 
Episcopal  Church  I  a  "supernumerary  preacher  is  nnu 
who,  because  of  impaircil  health,  is  temporarily  unalil<^ 
lo  perform  effective  work.  Me  may  receive  an  appninc- 
ment  or  be  left  without  one,  according  to  tbe  judi;ineiii 
of  the  Annual  Conference  of  which  he  is  a  laember; 
but  he  shall  hare  no  claim  upon  the  heneAciary  funds 
of  tbe  Church  except  by  vote  of  tbe  Conferencr,'arid  he 
shall  be  subject  in  all  the  limitations  of  the  IHtripiinr 
in  respect  In  reappointment  and  continuance  ill  tin? 
same  charge  that  apply  to  effective  preachers.  In  caiv 
he  be  left  without  an  appoiutmeni,  he  shall  have  >  seat. 
in  Ihe  Quarterly  Conference,  and  all  the  pririleiiTa  of 
membership  in  the  place  where  he  may  reside"  {Itiri- 
;iIiRf,  xviiii  I),     tn  I8U0,  on  motion  of  Dr.  Cke.aupnw 


SCPEBPELLICE  3 

UKftfrprocbcn,  tlHir  widnwB  and  orphaiia,  were  to 
tin  [k(  WW  upport  wbich  vM  ihtn  sccordtd  to  ef- 
Mininictat.  ThcrundinTtheCunfenncesiiiCKas- 
>;,«hI1m[Ik  *dvuitagt>  or  memberahtp  miiltiplv- 
nepHt  dificulties  ■iok,  and  in  I8d0  Clie  General 
MlmH  ibolUbtd  the  nUtiou  si>  fir  an  the  Annuiil 
iWrhhi  tm  coDMDicd.  In  1)M>4  the  reUiion  wu 
m:ni  iiiih  tb«  dcfiuitioti  «[  present  given,  with  the 

ckin  g^  IhF  bnitliciuy  funcla  uf  the  Chiirvfa  without 
1  ntt  d(  (lie  Annutl  Coiirercncc.  In  tSTG  ihe  number 
<J '■limiiiHuj  pmKhem  was  reported  ■(  701. 

t.  Sm^  tht  BnRiiBh  Wealeyuis.  in  order  lo  secure 
Or  nMita  of  tuptmuinenirv  [  he  'consent  muM  be  nb- 
mHd  (t  iht  Hiy  District  Ueelinit-  They  receive  « 
BHUMM  Kcnrding  to  the  number  of  years  they 
liT>  bm  in  the  actiie  work.  'I'liis  ia  ilerired  Trom 
Ik-  .iDDHiUM  Soctrty,  wbich  ia  in  reality  their  own 
)i-tHiiim  fand.  and  provides,  to  a  ceruiia  extent, 
y  tie  nppart  and  ediKaiion  nt  tbeir  children.  Upon 
nirtbf  iiilabijiiiike«(hev4re  reckoned  aa  Local  preach- 

'Jibtlottl  hundred,  are  siinerseiletL  They  are  nnder 
iSa  iqiMriiHi  of  llw  UiMiict  Meeting:  and  if  their 
iMH  iiT  OD  the  minutes,  the;  art  tiKmben  of  the 
Vwudi.ljicdPctachen'.audDiurictUeeting*.  See 
!Wi>«,('jiiiip.  Bf  i/Hkodirot,  s.  t. 
flopeipellice  (or  SuperprUictum), 


Sqterpoaltlo,  a  word  used  in  the  anciont  CI 
■  ■taqnalea  fift, which  lasted  mit  mily  Iliroiigl 
*t.i«  tin  the  mcwuinc  of  ihe  fullowini;  day,  i 
>-inl^n[^;nheT,aa«aa  usual  in  thePasaitui' 
Tk  uiiHiv  bits  iin  Hatinnsry  llay^  lerminated  at 
i»tt(l«k  in  the  afteitHMin.     See  Kastinc;  Sta- 

SopaipatfaUoD,  purgaiion  or  cleaning  beyond 

SQp«r-«Ubk«(  Sunw-TAHUC    Sec  Altab,  Post- 

SiipeiltitioB(lfiatiaipi>i^a,iIirniiHt^fmir).  Fes- 
tai(»inKiri/Jnlea,iiiromied  A^rippB  [hat  Paul  had 
*WM  ■ilk  thr  nther  Jews  omceminK  matters  of 
Omhi  >i|«ntiti»a  (Ads  xxv,  l»),  in  which  he 
■«b  ike  a  ODt  pSKao,  equally  ignorant  of  the  Chrii 
l^anttmiad  uf  Die  Jewish.  Paul,  wriiin);  (o  the 
^'J'sai  (ii.  B\  lemininends  t«  them  not  to  retard 
'falaekm.wba  wonM  persuade  them  lo  a  eo 
■■•ia  Imswi  Hiadoni  in  an  alTecleid  humility  and 

IptaiK  (hat  in  all  Ihiiigs  ve  are  tim  superalii 
UaiiTii.n).  The  heathen  idea  of  religion  hi 
'OnkHKiDeofUTrM'.  A  supentitions  man  loc 
]M«ajne»ai^  rigid  loasier, and  obeys  with  fear 
jMnaUiii^  Vam)  says  the  pious  man  honors  and 
I  it*  HperMilioua  man  dreails  him,  er 
■1  Uaiitma  Tvrius  observes  that  a  man  truly 
f«i«ki  on  God  as  a  friend  full  of  goodness,  whereas 


SUPERSTITIOX 

traduction  to  a  discourse  which  proposed  to  describe 
e  only  proper  object  of  such  reverence.     See  Paul 
The  Hebrews  were  never  given  to  such  gross  super* 
Ition  aa  tbe  heathen  nations  of  anttquily ;  yet  there 
e  traces  of  Ihe  same  weakness  of  tbe  human  mind  in 

ews  of  possessed  persons  (t|.  r.).  A  special  instance 
IB  been  found  in  the  case  uf  Azazel  (q.v.);  also  in  Ihe 
satyr  (q.  v.)  and  tbe  night- monster  (q.  v.).     Sea  also 

are  given  to  siiperGtiliona. 
in  Lane's  Modrm  Kiiyp- 
SOS,  812.  In  Palestine 
leroua  superstitions;  they  be- 
charms,  in  divination  by  sand 
the  evil  eye,  their  children  be- 
ing left  purposely  diny,  or  even  besollcd,  in  order  to 
uenccsoTan  envious  look.  The  lielief 
general.  These  incli.de,  lirst,  the  Jan, 
or  powerful  demon,  good  or  bad,  tbe  latter  kind  having 

* illais  of  the  whirlwind,  so 

commonly  seen  in  summer;  secondly,  the  Afrit,  who  is 

igly  equivalent  to  a  gboal;  thirdly,lhe  ghoul  or 

hag  of  the  cemetery,  which  feeds  on  the  dead  (a  place 

'   unted  by  one  of  these  damans  is  carefully  avoided,  or 

least  never  approached  without  the  most  polite  salu- 

llona,  inlemled  to  appease  the  unseen  spirit);  finirth- 

,  there  are  Kernd,  or  goblins,  whose  name  is  akin  la 

n,  or  Salan,  a  name  often  applied  lo  human  beings  of 
an  evil  disposition  (Comler,  TrM  Work  ia  Faleit.  it, 
'.103).     See  Df  MON. 

On  the  general  subject,  see  Xavier,  De  SiipirtHiiont 
Judaor.  <Hamb.  VHi) :  Reinecciiis,  id.  (pref.  to  Cbria- 
llanl's  Wtrkt  [Ij^ips.  1705 j);  Spizelius,  iuaiiaiiuifia 
Ehnro-gentilU  (ibiiL  tGOB) ;  Manzel,  De  Voce  ^mitai- 
povif  (itost.  1758) ;  and  the  manographs  cited  by  Danz, 
Wo>1rrb.  s.  V. "  AbertfUube."  Sec  Witch. 
SUPEBSTETION  (Ul.  mpcr.*.',.)  hod  for  its  an- 


'■WJorith  religion,  aa  to  i 
>«:  u«  whea  Paul  at  Ath 


gion  Bupenti 
\thenB  tells  the  Areopagite 
■i^nirtino  Hpeniiiiinia,  he  uses  a  ward  no  duub 
"•^iii  of  a  good  as  well  as  of  a  bad  sense,  aa  i 
M  lure  beta  highly  indecorous,  nor  less  nntieces 
>,  I*  olanniaae  the  religiom  dispnaltinn  of  hi 
lp>  vhum  he  was  addipsatnt;.  If  we  take  (he  word 
^  case  of  mmhip  or  reverence,  Featua  mai 
W  lad  the  Jewa  dilfcr  in  respect  of  certain  o'  , 
^nad  itTumee:,"  and  Paul  may  say, "  I  perceive 
at  iteatly  uacbed  lo  ol^scta  of  spiritual  ■ 
t-'sM  oBlyviibout  offence,  bat  aa  ■  rerv  graceful 
X.-8 


was  appointed  by  proper  authority.  Hence  religious 
systems  not  recogniseil  by  the  Roman  State  were  called 
"Bupetstllions,"  Chrislianily  itself  being  for  some  cen- 
turies among  the  number.  The  word  has  been  used 
so  indeSnitely  that  it  IsdlfBcult  In  determine  its  precise 
meaning.  It  does  not  seem  always  lo  have  been  used 
in  a  bad  sense  in  old  English,  ai  Is  shown  by  Acts  xvii, 
22,  where  it  represents  ftiiri^ai/iDvia,  a  word  used  by 
Ihe  apoMie  as  indicating  that  tbe  Athenians  were  a 
Uod-fearing  peo)rie  who  would  not  refuse  to  listen  lo 
his  appeal  about  Ihe  "unknown  Gnd."     Superstition 


1  much  of  true  religion,  but 
irreligious  feeKng, manlfesteil  either 

t  is,  properly  speaking,  the  wor- 


worship  nfGod 


in  showing  religion 

ship  of  false  goda — or 
object  desen-ing  some  veneration,  oi 
through  the  medium  of  improper  ri 
(Whalely,  On  Bacon,  p.  IS&).  It  is  generally  defined  lo 
be  the  observance  of  unnecessary  and  uncommanded 
ricea  and  practices  in  religion ;  reverence  of  objecle  not 
fit  for  worship;  loo  great  nicety,  feara,  or  scrupulous- 
ness; or  extravagant  devotions;  or  religion  wrong  di- 
rected or  conducted.  The  word  may  be  applied  to  the 
idolatry  of  the  heathens,  Ihe  Iradiilons  of  the  Jews,  ihe 
uiiscriptural  rites  of  tbe  Calliolics;  to  the  dependence 
placed  by  many  on  baptism,  Ihe  Ixrd's  supper,  and  oth- 
er ceremonies.  It  may  be  exiendeil  to  those  who,  wilb- 
coit  any  evidence,  believe  that  prophecies  are  still  in- 
ured or  minclea  are  performed.  Some  forma  of  inlel- 
Ifclual  scepticism  involve  superstition  of  a  far  more 
dangerous  kind  than  that  involved  in  the  credulity  of 
rgnurant  piety,  as  belief  iu  witchcraft,  magic,  lable-tum- 
ing,  spirit-rapping,  etc 

Superstition,  says  Claude,  usually  aprings  either  (1) 
from  servile  fear,  which  makes  people  believe  that  Gud 


SUPEETOTUS 


SUPPER  OF  THE  LOR 


liave  lu  idolatiy,  which  niikci 

the  Divinity  in  cxtnordinaij 
creature*,  uid  on  Ihij  accouiil 

|>iicrii<y,  which  mikw  men  will- 
in);  111  iliachiTfte  their  obligiiinni 
to  Irod  by  ^mft»  And  by  z«J 
for  exienul  service*;  or  (4)  fnmi 
pmumptiun,  which  make*  men 

Sec  Clande,  Knag  om  tie  Compo- 
tiiion  of  a  .SfnKW,  ii,  49,  299; 
Saurin.  Strmau  (Eng. «!.),  v,  19 ; 
(ire^ry,  JEtMyf,  Esuy  II ;  Blunt, 
Did.  of  Hill.  TlifoL  i.  v.;  Buck, 
Did.  ».  v.;  Fleming,  locuiuiur) 
ojfkil  ScirtKf,  a,  v. 

Stipertfitna.  ■   long  gar- 
ment like  a  modem  greal-«oat, 
nsemliliiii;  a  etraighl-cut  cinak 
in  lonta  particular!,  wnm  over  the  i 
dioB  in  mediaval  times  as  a  pniteetion  againM  the 

Buperrllle,  D*!<iki.  oe,  a  Pmtwwnt  iheolnjfian, 
wan  bom  at  Saumur.in  AuKl»^  1657,  of  a  mpeeuble 
Dutch  family,  and,  being  early  deiignited  Tor  the  aacml 
miniurv.  Miidied  theology  at  Sauniur  and  Genera,  and 
in  1683  was  called  to  Uke  charge  of  the  Church  of  Lou- 
dun.  On  Ibe  Rerocatiim  of  the  Edict  ofNanlea.  he  1<»k 
refuge  in  Rutterdam,  whence  he  could  not  be  drawn  by 
■•Ifen  from  Berlin,  Londitn,and  Hamburg.  In  IG91  Ihe 
Buihoritiea  of  the  rily  created  for  him  an  exptna  pat- 
torale,which  he  occupied  till  hia  death.June  9,  17-iS. 
He  waa  of  a  sweet  diapoailion,  a  lively  imagination,  ami 
■  happy  delivery.  He  published  several  serronna  and 
ilerotional  works,  which  are  eniunersted  in  Huefer, 
A'aar.  Biag.  GMrati,  a.  v. 

SnperrlBor  CantAmin,  the  auster  of 

SnpaTvfsor  OpBris,  the  tuperintemlenc  of  works, 
also  called  laagiilrr  oprru. 

Snph(;|10,a  (Hi-K<ntl[KeFLjto],Jon.  ii,6)isthe 
characteristic  epithet  nl  the  Red  Sea  (q.v. ),  which 
abounila  in  sed|^  (  Exod.  x,  19,  and  often  ).  In  one 
passage  (Deiit.  i,  I)  it  hat  been  supposed  by  some  to 
de*ig]>Bt«  a  place,  but  no  locality  of  that  name  has  been 
discovered,  and  most  interprelers  (with  [he  !ie\n.  and 
Tulg.)  undenland  it  there  to  sund  for  the  Re<l  Sea  (by 
the  omission  of  Q^  sm).  So  in  Numb,  sxi,  14,  H^^S, 
mphSh  (Sept.  Z<^t^;  \uig.Atan  Auiran).  someiliink 
a  place  (perhaps  the  same)  U>  be  indicateil,  but  others 


»(a. 


i,  18,  ail 


ellon 


:8  special  meaning  being  the  prineipnl 

e:(Clii«vely  to  the  lale  meal— the  iop-nnv  of  the  Ho- 
meric age.  It  was  the  chief  meal  of  the  Jews,  and  also 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  being  taken  towards  or  at 
evening,  alter  the  labors  of  the  day  were  over  (Mstl. 
xxiil,  6:  Mark  xii.  Si;  Loke  xx,  iS).  In  the  New 
Test,  it  is  also  specially  spoken  of  the  pasclial  supper 
(John  xiii.S;  iv,  *JI,  '20),  and  nf  the  [.ord'e  supper  (1 
UoT.  xi,  aO):  ami  of  any  meal  (ver.  SI)-,  metaphori- 
cally of  a  marriago-feaat,  as  flgiiraiive  nf  the  Messish't 
kingdnn  (Kcv.  xiii,9);  and  nf  heap  of  the  slain  as  s 
feast  for  birds  of  pre}-  (vcr.  17).    See  Sup. 

A  modem  Oriental  supper-party  it  thus  dcaeribol  by 
I^martina  i  "  Our  apartments  consisted  of  a  pretty 


ArabBapasL 
court,  decorated  with  Anbic  pilaslem,  and  w 


g  foun 


nthe  . 


e  fallii>i 


o  •  Ur 


that  is  to  iay,a  chamber  lancer  than  the  olhc 
by  an  arcade,  which  opened  on  tbe  iimpr  i 
which  had  neither  door  mir  ahutlers  to  close 
a  place  nf  transition  between  Ihe  horn  aiHl  I 
serving  as  a  garden  to  the  laty  Miaauhnaiia.  ii 
ten  shade  supplying^  for  tlmn  that  of  the  in 

go  and  seek  where  natore  herself  cause*  Iheir 

sppeareil  ruinous  la  Ihe  poorest  hut  of  mir 
the  windows  hail  iio  glsu,  an  nnknnwu  liisii 
East,  notwithstanding  llie  rignr  nf  whiter 
mountains;  no  beds,  tables,  or  chairs;  nilhin 
nakeit  walln,  mntddering  and  riddled  with  n\  i 
holes;  and  as  a  Hnor,  the  beaten  clay,  uneTen,  a 
with  chnpi-ed  straw.  Slaves  bnmght  mala 
which  they  Mretched  npiin  this  Bnor,  ami  i 
carpets,  with  which  they  cuTerrd  tbe  mats;  IT 
wards  brought  a  small  table  uf  Bethlehem  mai 
made  of  wood,  encniBled  with  molher-of-peall 


labln 

they  resemble  Ihe  tt 
n<it  capaUe  of  huldin] 
Mohammedina  place 
pose  th«r  repasts, 
this  table,  eonsitted 


k  of  a  btnken  mlumt 

It  dinner,  which  wat  i 

certain  gourds  like  our  a 
plufTed  with  hashed  mutton  and  boiled  rioe.  \ 
fart,  tbe  nwsi  de«rable  and  savory  food  whitj 
eat  in  the  East.  No  knives,  •poons,  or  furkai 
with  Ihe  hands:  but  [he  repealed  sldutiont  it 
custom  less  revolting  for  the  Muswlmani."    | 

SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD  {K.«pintiv  !i 
called  by  Paul  in  hit  historical  reference  to  i 
over  supper  as  observed  bv  Jesos  on  the  nigbl 
he  was  betrayed  (I  Cor.  xi,  30;  Matt,  xxvi,  1 
I.  5cripriiraf  SruTFfnou'j;— SevenlconliDvsr 
may  perhaps  be  best  adjusted  by  a  connsctsd 
■  the  last  Passover  of  the  Lord,  conit™cl«d 
aiif^lic  narrative*  alluding  to  it,  but  lillii 
irious  omitted  circumstances  from  the  knowp 
«.     See  Pahsovkh. 

"Now,  when  it  waa  evening.  Join  isl  If 
e  twelve  (Mali.)  apostles"  {Maik).  Thei 
mnry  washing  and  puriHcationi  being  peifti 
easing  over  ttie  Jlrl  cup  of  wine,  which  l| 
ist,  would  be  pronounced,  probtMv  in  [he  a 
X  We  thank  thee,  O  God,  out  Htarnily  Ft 
haat  created  the  fruit  of  tlM  rine."    Conria 


SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD 


I  the  geniaa  of  the 

0  be  etublished  —  that  the 
cnu  Teacher  had  Miready  declared  the  eiiperiorilv  of 
vimfit  imM  to  the  involved  traditions  oC  [he  Jewish 
ilM>8i^  mnd  that  hii  rtuciplee  alone  were  preseni  on 

infEMatba  herbs,  the  recital  ot  the  liturgy  (or  iaga- 
4af)  tiyHliT'"~  of  [be  redenipLion  oT  their  ancestors 
(ma  tKftean  bondage  wnuld  be  aamewhat  simplified, 
nrifKhlpBaeeompanied  with  new  reflectinna. 

lim  tnbably  the  leamd  cap  of  wine  was  minftled, 
u4  iri&  (ha  AMh  «f  the  puchal  lamb,  featt-olTeiinga, 
•adotlm  Tlands,  placed  befun  the  I»rd.  "And  he 
'Bi  Mto  tbem.  With  desire  have  1  desired  to  eat  Ihix 
■"■ska  irilta  VOD  beTira  I  lulTrT;  for  I  uy  unto  vou,  I 
<»»U  10  more  cu  thenof  until  it  be  fulRlled  in  the' 
fcinK-loin  or  God.  And  he  look  the  [second]  cup,  and 
etrt  [hinka,  ard  aiid,  Take  this,  and  divide  anionj; 
'on.  Cor  I  MT  unto  yoa,  I  will  not  hencefurth  drink  of 
■Iw  frvit  of  the  viae  ontil  the  kingdoia  of  Uod  shall 
i.™'  (L»k«). 

Wkm  the  wine  distributed  to  each  wnuld  be  dniiik 
xfl^  one  fif  the  unleareaed  cakes  would  next  be  broken, 
I  te  UaaanK  said  over  it,  and  a  piece  iliMributed  to  each 
•tiiciplf,  probablv  witb  the  unial  fomiiila— "Thti  is  the 
■■ulDf  affliction  which  ynur  fathers  did  eat  in  the  land 
of  KsTfrt;"  L  e.  not  the  iileniical  breail,  transubstantia- 
inl,  but  a  Bemorial  or  ngu  of  iL  The  cunipany  would 
ik«i  pnteeed  with  the  proper  supper,  eating  of  the 
and,  after  a  benediction,  of  the  paschal 

Ation  of  the  phraae  iiirmu  ■Yivouivov 


>•  ikiiik  that  Juilas  waa  present  at  (be  Luril'a  supper. 
|>nipeily  »  called.  The  true  reading  pmhably  is  yivo- 
(uma  (not  jiroiiiror),  as  undetsiood  by  the  Arabic 
•ad  Tenic  translatora,  ill  (he  sense  "while  supper  waa 
•hiW,'  nr  'during  snpper-linie.' 

"And  aa  they  were  at  supper,  the  devil  having  now 
int  it  into  the  bean  of  Judas  to  betray  bim :  Jesus, 
kaawiag  that  the  Father  had  given  all  thinga  into  his 
hiaAt.  aibl  that  he  waa  conie  from  Uod,  and  waa  going 
u  Im4.  rinth  Snua  shipper;  and,''  after  due  prepara- 
'iaa^  "  beiiaH  to  wash  the  diiciplea'  feet"  (John).  Af- 
ts  this  scriklng  symbolic  exhorutinn  to  humility  and 
■uaal  serrice  (John  xiii,  6-20),  "Jesus  was  troubleil 
ia  tfirit,  and  bare  witness,  and  said.  Verily,  verily,  I 
iqr  aots  you,  that  one  of  you  will  betray  me.  Then 
tke  lUscipfes  looked  on  one  another,  doubting  of  whom 
kc  sfake'  (John).  "And  they  were  very  eorry,  and 
Imaa  sacb  oftbem  to  sav  onto  him.  Lord,  is  it  17" 
(Xau.).  "One  of  the  disciplw,  leaning  back  on  Je- 
■^  bnas^  saich  unto  him,  Lord,  ia  it  17  Jeaus  an- 
■enil,  Ma  it  is  to  whom  I  shall  give  a  sop,  when  I 
kare  dipped  it.  And  after  dipping  the  sop  he  gireth 
a  Id  Judas  iKuriot.  Then  Satan  entered  Into  him. 
J«n  aaith  onto  him.  What  thnu  doest,  da  quickly. 
Helben.en  taking  the  sop,  went  immediately  out;  and 
aiasnigbt'  (John). 

The  supper  would  then  proceed  until  each  had  eaten 
HUcDt  of  the  paschal  lamb  and  feasl-of&ring. 

'And  as  the*  were  eating,  Jesus  took  the  bread,"  the 
«ka'  mleavenBd  cake  left  unbroken,  "and  blessed" 
'•*  "and  bfake  it,  and  gare  k  to  rtie"  eleven  "disci- 
|lt^  and  said.  Take  eat;  this  is  my  body  (Hatt., 
Mmkif  which  ia  broken  for  rou:  this  do  in  remem- 
Wmb  of  mo'  (Luke,  Paid,  I  Cor.  xi,  M). 

The  tapper  being  concludeil.  the  hands  were  usually 
nriwd  the  secauil  time,  and  the  third  cup,  or  "cup  of 
tkaia^  (I  Cor.  x,  16)  prepared,  over  which  the  master 
BaOy  gare  Iha«ks  for  the  covenant  of  circumcision 
Bf  for  tbe  taw  p^"*  '<*  Hose*.  Jeans,  therefore,  at 
K>  jaDctnie  announced,  wiib  peculiar  appropriateneas, 
k»  Kew  CormanL 

'After  the  same  manner,  also,  Jesus  took  the  cup  af- 
to  Mfips.  iDd,  having  given  thuhi^  gave  it  to  them, 


6  SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD 

saying.  Drink  all  of  yon  ont  of  it;  for  this  is  my  blood 
of  the  new  covenant,  which  is  ahed  for  many  for  for- 
giveness of  aiua  (Matt.) :  this  do,  as  oft  aa  ye  drink, 
in  remembrance  of  me"  (1  Cot.  xi,  !t).  "But  1  say 
uHIo  you,  I  ahall  not  drink  henceforth  of  this  fruit  of 
the  vine,  until  that  day  when  1  drink  it  new  (Eaivov) 
with  you  in  my  Father's  kingdom"  (Mall.). 

"  And  when  they  bad  aung  a  hymn"  (Hstt.),  prob- 
ably the  Hallel,  our  Lord  discoursed  long  with  bis 
disciples  about  his  approaching  death  and  departure 
(John  xili,  81;  xtv,  SI);  and  when  he  had  Hniahed  he 

on  u,  the  Mount  of  Olivea"  (Matt.). 

II.  Kccletiatticat  Uiagt,  —  A  multitude  of  diapnles 
and  coniroveTBies  have  eziisted  in  the  Church,  from  tha 
eariieet  agea  of  Chriaiianily,  regarding  the  nature,  ob- 
servance,  and  elements  of  the  Lord's  supper.  On  these 
points  the  reader  may  conault  the  following  works: 
Pierce,  n'alerland,  Cudworth,  Hoadlev,  and  Bell,  On 
tifJiucharuti  Orme,  LohTm  Supptr  lltuHniM  {LonA. 
1832) ;  Goodman,  On  the  Eucharitt  (ibid.  I841)j  Cole- 
man, Chritl.  Aniiq.;  Halle>',  Onlit  SmTitmeBli  (ibid. 
1S4S):  De  Linde  and  Meams,  Priie  Eaayt  on  lit  Jev 
itk  /'oworer  and  Chriitim  Euchatia  (ibid.  1845). 

The  early  Church  appears,  from  a  vast  preponderance 
of  evidence,  to  have  practiced  communion  weekly,  on 
the  I»rd's  day. 

The  custom,  which  prevailed  daring  the  Unit  seven 
centuries,  of  mixing  the  wine  with  water,  and  in  the 
Greek  Church  with  hot  water,  appean  lo  have  origi- 
nated with  the  andent  Jews,  who  mingled  their  thick 
wine  with  water  (Miahna,  Ttntaoth,  xi).  Haimiui- 
ides  (in  Ckmtn,  vr-UaUah,  %  vii)  stales  ihat  the  pro- 
portion of  pure  wine  in  every  cup  must  not  be  less  than 
the  fourth  part  of  a  quarterof  a  hin,  besides  water  which 
must  needa  be  mingled,  that  the  drinking  of  it  may 
be  Iht  mitre  pleaumt.  The  rmisin-wine  often  employed 
bolh  by  the  ancient  and  mnlern  Jews  (Ai-bah  Turm, 
$  483,  dale  ISOO)  mnlaina  water  of  course.  Bemnanra 
of  this  caalom  are  aiill  traceable  in  the  East.  The  Nee- 
torian  Christians,  ai>  late  as  the  16lh  century,  as  we  find 
Irnm  the  old  travellers,  celebrated  the  eucbarist  in  such 
wine,  maile  by  ateeping  niaina  one  night  in  water,  the 
juice  being  pressed  forth  (Osorius,  Dt  Rri.  Emoiaitl. 
lib.  iii;  Boter,  R/L  ii,  S;  Odoard  Barboso,  ap.  Ka- 
mum.  i.  BIS;  Brerewood.  Oa  the  Dirtritliei  of  Lam- 
rfaaaa  [1622],  p.  147).  The  ChristUns  of  India  (aaid 
to  be  convened  by  St. Thomas)  used  raisin-wine,  as 
alan  do  some  of  the  Syrian  churches  at  the  preaeni  day 
(Roas.yirairinaneSS],  p.49!;  Ainsworth,  rraerbn 
.^nu  WiBur[l842J).  The  third  Council  of  Braga  would 
not  permit  the  use  of  the  pure  "  fruit  of  the  vine,"  for 
they  condemned  as  heretics  "those  who  used  no  olhrr 
tritm  but  what  they  pressed  outoflheclualen  of  grapes, 
which  were  then  presented  at  the  Lord's  table"  (Bing- 
ham, CArii/.  .4Mi}.  bh.v,ch.  ii).  The  wine  used  Inr  our 
Lord  waa  of  course  fermented,  as  no  other  could  have 
been  procured  at  that  season  of  the  year,  and  aa  it  seems 
ID  be  contrasted  with  the  fvu  wine  of  the  heavenly 
kingdom  (Malt  xxvi,  39),    See  Wink. 

As  regards  the  bread,  many  of  the  Esstem  churches 
use  unfermented  bread  in  the  communion.  « The 
Greek  Church  adopla  a  leavened  bread,  but  the  Koman 
Church  has  it  unleavened ;  and  this  difference  has  been 
Ihe  cause  of  much  controversy,  though  it  seems  easj-  to 
decide  which  kind  was  used  by  Jesus,  the  last  supper 
having  been  on  une  of  the  '  daya  of  unleavened  bread,' 
when  no  other  kind  could  be  eslen  in  Ihe  land  of  Ju- 
dea."  The  Pmlealanl  churches,  generally,  pay  little 
regard  to  the  nafure  of  the  elementa,  but  use  the  ordi- 
nary bread,  aa  well  as  wine,  of  Che  country.  It  waa 
probably  from  regarding  in  a  similar  way  the  bread  and 
wine  aa  mere  ordinary  beverage  Ihat  some  of  the  au- 
dent  sects  gave  up  the  wine  altogether,  and  aubstituiei] 
other  things.  Epiphaniua  {/farei.  49)  and  Augunine 
(ffarfM.  28)  mention  an  ancient  aect  of  Christians  in 
t'hrygia,  called  Arlotyrite",  because  they  used  bread 


SUPPLICATIO 


s  Sl'Pi 


of  breid  and  water  iml]'; 
;■  (A.D.  675)  condemiu 
1  braid  lod  milk.    Sm 


SnpplicatiO,  ■  solemn  thanhagiTing  or  aupplics- 
lion  lo  the  guds  among  Ihe  ancient  Komana,  on  which 
occaMun  the  temples  were  thrown  open,  uid  the  Matura 
i.r  Che  goda  carried  on  couchei  through  the  public 
BtreeM  that  Ibey  might  receive  ihe  ptayen  of  the  peo- 
ple, A  iupptie\ilio  waa  appointed  by  the  senate  when 
a  victory  had  been  gained,  or  in  timea  of  public  daiietr 

Snppliaation  of  Basgara  it  ■  book  which  ap- 
peared myslerioiuly  in  London  about  A.D.  1627,  setting 
"     ■     '.e  rapacity  and  licenliouineea  of  the  clergy.     '■ 


aaliy  c: 


laiHla  of  Hen 


VIll,  who, 


after  bearing  it  read,  said,  "  If  a  man  should  pull  down 
■n  old  alone-wall,  and  begin  at  the  lower  part,  Ihe  up- 
per part  might  chance  to  fail  upon  bis  bead," 
broBiUy  imimiiing  Chat  the  clergy  were  the  f 
tiona  of  Che  rotten  old  Church ;  and  should  an  a 
be  made  lo  refonn  them,  the  whole  structure 
tumble  down.     See  Burcbanl,  Uiil.  of  Congirgiilianat' 


SuppIlcBtion  of  Commona  la  a  nnubic  book 
published  in  IMH,  with  the  fidl  tiile  of  A 
«/  lit  Poor  Cumnwiu  (o  llus  Ki«g.  It  was  a  so 
counterpart  to  the  Suppliealtan  nf  Brggan,  and 
complainta  againat  the  cbaiacler  and  conduce  < 
clericy,  eapecially  Ihe  monks.  See  Sirype,  ifemt 
liOS-62t  i  Burch'ard,  Hill.  o/Coajp-rgaHonatum,  i, 

SnppIiCBUSndB  (Or.  Xtroniai'),  in  i«»  original 
signilicBtinn,  is  but  another  name  fur  prayin  in  general, 
iif  whatever  kind,  that  either  were  made  publicly  in  the 
church  or  by  any  private  person.  The  term  is  applied 
luth  la  litanies  and  short  prayera,  with  brief  pccitions 
and  responses.     See  Litast. 

SupralapsailfinB.  persons  who  hold  that  God, 
without  any  leganl  to  the  good  ot  evil  works  of  men, 
has  resotvtsl,  by  an  eternal  decree,  npra  liiptunt,  ante- 
cedently to  any  knowledge  of  Ihe  fall  uf  Adam,  and  in- 
dependent irTit.  to  reject  some  and  save  othen;  or,  in 
other  Konis,  that  God  intended  to  glorify  his  justice  in 
the  condemnation  of  some,  as  well  as  bin  mercy  in  the 
salvation  of  others;  and  for  that  purpose  decreed  that 
Adam  should  neceuarily  fall     See  Si/BLArsARiANS. 

BupramaQya,  a  HindA  deva,  aon  of  Siva,  am 
sprung  from  the  eye  in  the  forehead  nf  that  goil.  Hi 
fought  the  giant  Sura  Parpma,  end  with  the  most  pow 
erful  weapon  of  hii  father  split  him  in  two,  after  seven 
days  of  battle.    The  festival  Kandershasta  ia  celebrated 

Bnpremacy,  Papau  The  papists  claim  for  the 
See  of  Home,  reprewnted  in  the  person  of  the  pope.  "  s 
priocipalily  of  power  over  all  others,  as  the  mother  and 
r>f  all  Chrisiian  churches;"  and  all  other  patri- 


estj  haib  Ui>t  the  snnia 
''-at  Ihe  godly  kiDgs  hi 

rogiJ  BoprelBac)r 


Sutes,  of  course,  no  suptemacr  ot  iatn- 
ference  in  spiritual  aflain  on  the  pari  of  the  ciiil  u- 
thoritipt  is  recognised. 

Suir  (Heb.  Sir,  -.lO,  trmwtd,  as  in  Ua.  alii.Jl; 
Sept.  at  oioi ;  Vulg.  Sur),  the  name  of  one  of  the  {ila 
~  ipleatJeruBalem<2Kingsxiiii,6);  calUin 
ibe  parallel  passage  (2  Chron.  xxiii,  £•)  ~ihe  gaitodbe 
auadation,''  "liD^  yraM  (which  is  tbe  preti^iaUc  irtri- 
tg),  being  apparently  that  which  led  acroas  to  Zioii  b]' 
le  causeway  or  bridge.  See  Tehvue. 
Sor  (Soiip ;  Vulg.  omila),  one  of  the  plKS  cm  tie 
'S-coasl  of  Palestine,  which  are  nained  as  baring  bno 
disturbed  at  the  approacb  of  Holofcmes  with  tbcAi- 
army  (Judith  ii.  28).     It  cannot  be  Tjta,  ll» 


leRom 


ponltlT.     ThLi  doctrine  is  chiefly  built  on  the  supposed 
primacy  of  Peter,  of  whom  the  pope  is  the  pret 
successor;  a  primacy  so  far  fmin  being  counten 
by  Scripture  Chat  we  find  it  there  absolutely  forbidden 
(Luke  xxii,  34;  Mark  ix,  35).     The  authority  of  I 
Koman  See  was  Hnt  recognised  by  the  fourth  Latei 
Council,  A.D.  1215,  and  was  Hrst  protested  against 
the  authors  of  Ihe  Kefonnation.     The  title  of  "  moti 
of  churches,"  claimed  by  the  Church  of  Kome,  must 
certainty  belong  to  the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  and  wai 
given  to  that  Church  by  the  second  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, A.D.  381.    See  Piuiucy. 

SUPREMACY,  RoTAi.  In  the  Church  of  Kn^nd 
bU  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  is  annexed  to  the  crowni 
and  it  ia  ordained  that  no  foreign  potentate  shall  exer- 
cise any  power,  civil  or  religions,  wicbin  Che  limits  of 
that  kingdoED.  Canon  ii  of  the  Church  of  England 
aayi! 


fore.     Some  have  auggested  Dor,  otheia 

Sot(t,  mentioned  by  Siephanus  of  ByunoBiD  at  ui 

Phmiicia,  which    they  wmild   identify   with  AiiBd 

Dthen,agBin,  Sartifhid.     But  nooe  of  these  an  ■>>)- 

factory.     Tbe  apocryphal  cbaiadei  of  tbe  bonk  HhU 

makea  us  sutpictooa  of  the  accunuy  of  tbe  Bams.    Sr 

Judith. 

Snni  DeT«,  in  Hindtl  mrihology,  is  ib«  f>odiim 
wine,  who  sprang  out  of  the  milk-sea  when  the  ■ma- 
in Hamlv  waa  cast  into  it,  in  order  to  prtpan  ll< 
drink  amrita. 

Sara  Parpma,  in  HindO  mythology,  is  tbe  fiinl 
ith  whom  Supramanya  {q.  v.)  fought.  After  he  1*1 
en  cut  into  pieces  by  the  latter,  one  half  changed  ii- 
Hlfintoape<tenok,<indt)>eittberl.alf intoaCDck-  Siva 
used  the  Drat  as  an  animal  fur  riding,  ami  ilie  Mmd 
aerved  as  a  watcher  for  the  house  in  which  the  wspn 
of  Siva  stood. 

SuicloKle  is  a  band  of  black  ailk  or  ntnC  ftinH 
at  the  ends,  and  bound  round  tbe  waists  of  the  dofj 
so  as  to  conline  and  keep  the  cassock  in  place. 

Snireiiliaalna  {Sureaini),  Wiiaxm,  proieaar  nf 
Greek  artd  Hebrew  at  Amsterdam,  flourished  inihetni 
of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  tbe  ISch  centory.  l<( 
edited  a  beautifully  printed  ciliticm  of  the  Mutlma,  nrr 
loliui  fffbraorumJurii,  AifHUia,  Aiiiipiiai*m,fl  Ijvia 
Oraliuia  3gilema,ram  Claratmoram  Rnbbiimrwn  Hi"- 
TBOBUfi*  tt  Bnrlmonr  ContmtMiiriii  Inlrgru,  etc.  (Aiosl 


.|T0S,6 


s.  f.d.).  w 


edition  (see  Wolf,  BOl.  HAir.  ii,  B86).  He  pub- 
lished also  mci3  nlED,"'"  Bi^Xof  KnraXVar%> 
quo  (rcunJuni  Viil.  ThtoU.  HM.  /ormklai  aBrJiHidi  1 
landoi  inirrjirelaHdi  condlianlar  loca  rx  V.m  M,  T.ailr- 
gala  (ibid.  1713,  4to),  a  work  of  unsurpassed  value  <" 
the  subject  Co  which  it  relatea, 

Suretiea  is  a  name  given  Co  apansors  in  virtue  of 
Che  security  given  through  them  to  the  Church  Ibi' 
the  baptiied  shall  be  "  virtuously  brought  up  la  lead  i 
godly  and  a  Cbrislian  life."     See  Sfonbob. 

Swsty  (some  form  of  zns,  ardb,  to  barltr,  and  te 
pocially  lo  drpotit  a  pMgr,  either  in  monej',  good^  " 
in  part  payment,  aa  aecurity  for  a  bargain;  i)7ik>[! 
"Suretyship"  in  the  A.V.  ia  usually  the  rendering  W 
D'Spin.  toktim,  literally  in  marg.  "those  that  striki 
(hands),"  from  J^^.  '"  "'■*'  (Geseniua,  Tifanr.  r 
1617).  The  phraae  f;  rc^isri,  laimeli  gSd  (Scpi 
irapa^qici)),  "depositing  in  the  hand,"  L  e.  giving  ii 
pledge,  may  be  underalood  to  apply  to  the  act  of  picdg 
log,  uT  virtual,  Ihongh  not  personal,  surety ihip  (Lev.  r 
2  lHeb.r,  :i]).    In  the  eolin  absence  ofconimerct 


AcUwkid  dawn  no  nlM  on  the  mbjeet  af  BuretTthlp! 
luLii  u  cvidmt  th4t  in  the  lioc  of  SolwDon  mercuilih 
■ktliiigi  had  liwanw  so  muliiplicd  Chit  e< 


ixii,  36; 


».  (Pro- 


1.  li 


vli,  13).  But  ii 
II  becoming  ■  surety  fur  a 
Hrvin  lA  he  diseharged  by  anuthei  wu  in  full  Turce 
|KC  (ien.  iliv,  3j),  and  it  it  probable  that  Ihe  ume 
funa  of  undertaking  existeH,  viz.  the  giving  the  hand 
IS  (Rriking  hand!  with),  not.  B>  Htchaelia  reprcKnti, 
Ihe  penno  who  was  to  discharge  Ihe  service — in  [he 
cemBMcial  «ii»e  the  debtor— but  the  person  lo  whom 
it  «H  due,  Ihe  endilor  (Jubxvii,8i  frov.  vi,  1;  Mi- 
dueln.  Laia  of  Mot;  §  151,  ii,  322,  ed.  Smith).  The 
tnetv.  of  eaum,  became  liable  for  his  client's  debts  in 
ax  of  bis  failure.  In  later  Jewish  limes  the  svstem 
d  much  distress  in  taaay 
,  the  dutv  of  sureirship  in  certain  cases  is 
rmgninlas  Tilid  (Bcclus.  viii',  IB;  xxix,  U,  16, 16, 18, 
19).    Sw  Pledok. 

The  eariini  form  of  turelyship  mentioned  in  Script- 
vn  a  the  pleilginf;  of  person  for  penun,  as  when  Judah 
uadrnook  with  his  father  to  be  surety  for  Benjamin 
lQ2*i;X.  /  tntl  txchaage  for  Aim,  put  myself  in  place 
«f  hi>i,(ien.  xljii,  9);  aud  when  circumsUncea  emerged 
vbichimmed  locall  fo(  Ihe  fulfilment  of  [he  obligation, 
he  acluaUy  offered  himself  in  the  room  of  Benjamin.  In 
liit  K-Bse  the  psalmist  asks  (ind  to  be  surely  fur  him  for 
lIDDd  (Ph.  cxis,  132),  u  did  also,  in  his  great  distress, 
lleiekiah  (lia.  xsxviii,  14).  tbuugh  the  sense  here  is  a 
liuli  weakened  in  the  A.V.  by  Ihe  renderin);  "under- 
lake  far  me,""  More  communij-,  Loweier,  tiie  kind  of 
Hretyship  spoken  of  had  reference  to  pecuniary  obli- 
fstiMM  or  debts,  and  forms  the  subject  of  prudential 
a^ikea  and  wunine*  in  (he  book  of  Proverbs  {vi,  1 ; 
ii,lt:  Zfii,  18;  xx.  16).  In  theHiM  aftheae  passages, 
ibe  daugetmu  practice  nf  eoleriiiR  into  sureties  U  put 
b  iim  fiwrns — flnt, "  if  ihuu  be  surety  for  thy  friend," 
lk«  "if  Ibou  haat  stricken  thy  hand  with  a  siranger;" 
ihoe  beiag  no  funhef  diflerence  between  them  than 
that  the  «ac  has  respect  in  the  thing  ilsetf,  Ihe  other  to 
the  Bade  of  going  about  it:  the  person  agreeing  lo  he- 
ave SM«r  K"^  I"*  ^"^  '"  l>"  fncnd.  Hence,  alto, 
ia  Pme.  xvu,  18,  a  man  "  who  strikes  hands,"  that  is, 
Ra£ly  beDooiM  a  surely,  is  ileclareil  to  be  void  uf  im- 
ikManding.  In  the  higlicsi  sense  the  term  is  applied 
b>  Ckriu,  who,  in  his  chancier  as  mediator,  i>  itpn- 
wsud  as  "ibe  surety  (lyyuot}  Ota  better  covenant" 
iHrix  ril,  32),  hiving  made  himself  rcsponuble  fur  all 
ikal  in  (his  coveniiit  was  rrquireil  to  be  (ccumplished 
'« ihf  atlvation  of  (hoae  who  uere  to  share  in  its  pro- 
tiiiani,     See  MkdiatiOX 

RI'KETr.    In  Ihe  ancient  Church  the  clerpy 


SURNAME 

KegiD-Dutch,  is  the  Unguige  of  Ihe  Dutch  colony  of 

"  jrinam,  in  (iuiani,  and  is  current  among  a  populalion 
at  least  10O,UO0  people.  Ever  since  1738  there  has 
lilted  in  Surinam  a  mission  of  (he  United  Bn'lhren. 
he  language  is  ■  compound  of  Kiigliih  and  Duuh, 
ith  1  sprinkling  of  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  and 
frican  or  Indian  words.  Prior  to  ihe  year  1813,  the 
greater  part  of  the  New  Test,  was  translated  into  that 
lage.  In  1S2S  Moravian  missionaries  completed  a 
>n  of  the  entire  Kew  Test  The  MS.  was  sent  lo 
isny,  and  was  revised  by  Hans  W 


rshsdre 


n  Sutii 


ho  for 


j       lan'i  appearance  iu  a 
•wk  son  of  encumbd 


ihtO 


n  distrai 


Soiin.  JxAH  JoaEPH,  a  French  ascetic  writer,  was 
Inca  at  Bordeaux  in  1600,  entered  the  Order  of  the  Jes- 
■iis  SI  Hfteen  year*  of  age,  and  aoon  distinguished  him- 
nlf  by  hi*  profound  piety  and  knowledge  of  human 
aalan.  In  ISM  be  waa  sent  to  take  charge  of  *  " 
^iiae  Gunrent  In  London,  and  began  a  series  i 
oiBs  against  the  evil  spirits  supposed  to  prevail  there, 
kit  ereoiually  became  himself  the  victim  uf : ' 
stal  [  1  mtmi  im.  ami  waarequiredlo  return  to 
la  tor  he  again  went  to  London,  and  remained  there, 
rah  panial  seauna  of  lucidity,  far  many  years,  but  was 
<tln)tth  removed  from  place  to  place  in  hopes  nf  relief. 
He  racnvrml  bis  sanity  in  1668,  and  died  at  Bonleaux, 
ifiil  t1. 16S&,  leaving  several  worii*  on  pnrtiral  relig- 
ia,  which  lie  eBumcraled  in  Uoefer,  A'ouc.  Jliuy.  Gini- 

ir.Vfynr-Sa^fial)  Vanioo.    Negro-Eng- 
n%bi  be  dasigaatcd  with  equal  propriety. 


«sed  [he  opinion  that  the  traiiaUlioii  was  "ss  per- 
fect is  possible."  With  Ibe  aid  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  an  edition  of  1000  o^ies  was  printed 
in  London.  This  edition  was  soon  eihiusted,  and,  as 
a  result  of  these  publications,  more  than  12,000  con- 
verts were  added  to  the  Church.  Another  ediiion  of 
the  New  Test,  and  Psalms  mss  prepared  by  the  Mora- 
vian missionary  Treu,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Ihe  Neth- 
erlands and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  societies, 
2000  copies  were  printed  in  1846.  Whether  the  Obi 
Ten,  has  been  translated  and  prin[ed,  we  are  not  able 
to  say.    (RP.) 

SnrlUR.  Lacrbktiub,  a  Carthusian  monk,  was  the 
child  of  Luiherin,  or,  as  others  say,  of  Romish  parents. 
He  wisbomatLubei'kin  1522,aud  educated  at  Frank- 
furl-on-the-Oder  and  at  Cologne.  At  Ihe  latter  pUce 
he  became  acquninled  with  Cani«us  (q.  v.),  and  joined 
the  Koman  Catholic  Church.  In  1542  he  entered  Ihe 
Carthusian  Order  and  devoted  himself  to  monastic  as- 
ceticism and  literary  labor.  He  displayed  both  zeal  fur 
Komanism  and  hatred  for  Ihe  liefurraation,  whose  lead- 
ers he  chafed  with  having  bcirtowed  thdr  doclrinea 
fn)m  Mohammed.  Besides  iraimlaling  various  mvMical 
writings  by  Tauler,  Ruysbnieck,  Suso,  etc.,  Surius  com- 
pmcd  a  C'lmmetiliiriui  'Hivru  Hn-am  w  0-ie  Gelttrum 
ubAimo  1600  (Lov.  1666).  This  book  was  designed  to 
oppusc  the  famous  Pmlestant  work  by  Sleirian  (q.  v.), 
but  was  devoid  of  nnj'  itaiticular  value  i  but  itwas,nev- 
erlheless,  carried  forward  bv  Iswlt  and  others  lo  IG73. 
Additional  wurks  by  Surius' are,  /lomSia  the  Cimciona 
FraitanlimiHonim  EccL  Doctorum,  etc  {Col.  IS69-76). 
—  fJoaaUn  Oamia,  etc.  (iUd.  1667):— and  Vila  Sane- 
torum  ub  Aiogrio  lApwntnmo  oUm  Coiacripla  (ibid, 
I&70-76,  6  vols,  fol.),  which  was  repeatedly  reprinted, 
the  best  ediiion  being  that  of  Cologne,  1018.  A  seventh 
voL  was  added  after  the  death  of  Surius  b}' the  Carthu- 
sian Jacob  Mosander.  Surius  died  May  23, 1578.  See 
Biog.  Umrrr$tUr,  torn,  xliv  (Par.  1826)  j  and  aenag, 
RfaUEncykkp.  a  v. 

Snrlet  (d«  Chokler),  the  name  of  in  old  Fremih 
family,  which  dates  from  the  year  1170,  and  culminated 
in  Ihe  person  of  Fastre  Dare  de  Surlet,  who  died  about 
1473.  The  emperor  Ferdinand  II  ennobled  the  family 
of  Suriet  in  1680  with  the  title  <U  Chvkur.  Tbe  follow- 
ing members  draerve  tiwnliuii  here : 

1.  Jeah,  horn  at  Liege,  Jin.  14,  lfi7l,  studied  at  Lou- 
viin,anil  look  his  degrees  at  Orleans.  He  became  can- 
on of  St.  Lambert,  abbe  of  St.  Hadelin  of  Vise,  and  vicar, 
general  of  Ihe  diocese  of  Liege^  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  lealous  charity  and  erudition.  He  died 
about  16&5,  leaving  several  wortu  on  ecclesiastical  mat- 
utn,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  A'oao,  Hiog.  Giniruk,  s.  v. 

2.  Jban  Ebkicst,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  became 
canon  of  Liege  and  abb^  ofVts^.  He  founded  the  bouse 
of  the  Incurables  and  that  uf  the  Pilles  Kepenties  at 
Liege,  and  died  about  1683. 

3.  Juan  FRifi>riRic,  uncle  nf  Jean,  was  a  learned  can- 
on of  Liege,  who  wrote  AVAiriJimi  FrcecalioiaiBt  (Liege, 
1636),  and  died  March  16, 163E. 

Snriiatne.  Names  were  at  first  expresrive,  a> 
those  of  Scripture,  According  to  Du  Cange,  lurnamei 
were  originally  written,  not  ofier  the  Chrliitisn-iiime. 

The  Ant  or  ChriMiin  mm*  ia  usually  given  at  bap- 


SDRPLICE  a 

tim.  Merediuiy  turnaine*  diil  not  eiiat  in  England 
till  ifter  Che  Nornun  Conquest.  Tbey  uv  Ukeii  tram 
hicalicy,  4a  Field  ur  Foreu;  froni  ocxupuion,  u  Fiiber 
ur  MiUir,  I'ilgrim  or  I'aUnei;  (nun  peraan>l  qualitiei, 
M  Black  or  llrown ;  Tnini  naliiril  objecu,  i»  Lemon  or 
Ltinb,Pe«lorHng,St«el<irJev(el,«tc,  A> diuincl rroni 
[ha  lumame,  the  airname  or  tireVDame  ia  a  nauiral 
aildilion,  witb  aon.Macor  Fitz,0,  ap,wich.or  iky  (all 
aiKtiiryiiig  aon),  w  Uonaldaon  or  Uicdonald,  FiUgeiald, 
O'Cunnell,  Alexandtowich,  Petrouaky  —  ap  Howel  be- 
coming I'oweL  and  ap  Kicbard  becDming  I'ricbard. 

Snipllca  (LaL  luperprlliaam,  over  the  peline),  ■ 
long,  looae  linen  garment  worn  by  clergymen  of  tbe 
Church  of  En^and  during  tbe  perTonnanm  of  dirioe 
aervice.  8urp1ioea  are  iIh  worn  bj  the  feUowa  of  col- 
lq;ei  or  halli,  and  by  all  the  Mbolara  Bn<l  atiidenu  in 
tbe  uairenitiea  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  upon  Sun- 
days, holiilaya,  and  even  during  Ibeir  allendanoe  at  the 
college  chapeta  or  churches.  It  is  also  worn  for  the 
service  of  the  choir.  lu  use  ilaua  back  to  an  early 
day.  PaulinuB  aent  a  lamb's-wonl  coat  bi  Severua,  and 
Ambrose  compLaina  of  the  use  of  beavir  skins  and  nlk 
dreswa.  I'he  white  garment  of  the  clergy  is  mentioned 
br  Gregory  Nazianien,  Jerome,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, HDno'riu^  and  Ito  of  Charlra.  The  Council  of 
Baale  required  the  aurplice  to  reach  below  the  middle 
of  the  thigh.  The  Gilbeninea  wore  a  hooded  aurplice^ 
At  Burgoa,  in  auminer,  the  canons  wear,  instead  of  a 
oope  and  mouetta  (iheir  winter  babil),  a  sleeved  sur- 
plice raised  on  the  ihoulilera.  The  nan>e  is  first  toeii- 
tioned  bj'  (Xlo  of  Paris  anil  Stephen  of  Tournay,  in  the 
ISih  century.  The  urigin  of  the  surplice  ii  thua  given 
by  Durandi  "It  waa  ao  called  because  anciently  this 
garment  waa  put  upon  leathern  coats  made  of  the  akiiia 
of  dead  animals  (taptr  itutieai  ptUkm  de  ptUibai  •aor- 
taonoH  luUmaliiim  /iicUu),  eymbnlically  to  represent 
that  the  «n  of  our  fint  parenia,  which  brought  man 
under  the  neceaaitj'  of  wearing  gatmenta  of  akin,  waa 
DOW  hid  and  covered  by  the  robe  of  Christ's  iiuiuoence 
and  grace."  The  name  and  color  (white)  signify  holi- 
nesB  of  life  joined  (o  penitence.  The  uaeof  tbe  aurplice 
waa  alrongly  objected  la  by  the  CalviaiMie  and  Zwin- 
glian  reformera  on  the  Continent,  and  by  the  Puiiuna 
in  England,  who  regattled  it  aa  a  relic  of  popery.  The 
argument  against  it  is  to  be  found  in  Beia,  Tradal. 
Tlltotog.ii\,29;  and  ils  defence  in  Hooker,  Ecdei.  Pol- 
ill/,  r,  39.  Much  cnntruveray  has  been  held  of  late 
years  as  (n  the  propriety  of  the  aurplice  being  worn  hy 
the  prelcber  in  the  pulpil,  which  ia  contrary  to  the 
more  general  practice  of  the  Anglican  Church.  The 
aurplice  and  alb  (q.  v.)  are  riight  variationa  of  what 
was  originally  one  veatuKut.  Foreign  aiirplicea  are 
much  shorter  than  those  used  in  England.  In  Italy 
the  short  aurplice  ia  called  a  coUu.    Hee  Or-jauents, 

ECCLIMIABTICAt. 

BnrpUce-f«e  is  a  fee  paid  to  the  clergy  for  occa- 


Thia 


It  Church ;  indeed,  several  laws  were  passed 
by  (lie  early  Church  commanding  tbe  gratuitous  per- 
r.irmaiice  of  all  religiona  officea. 

SurrogaW  is  a  name  (meaning  one  substiluteil,  or 
appiiiuied  in  the  place  of  another)  commonly  applied  in 
wKleniaatical  usage  to  an  officer  delegated  by  the  biahop 
to  grant  licenaas  for  marriagea,  pmbatea  of  wills,  etc, 
in  Urge  Uiwns.  A  surrogate  is,  properly  speaking,  the 
deputy  01  substitute  uf  an  ecclesiastical  Judge. 

Bnrsam  Corda.  In  the  ancient  Mrvice  of  ihe 
Church,  it  waa  the  duly  of  the  deacon  to  summon  each 
claw  of  worshippers  aeparalely  to  engage  in  prayer  by 
Haying,  "Let  ua  pray."  Other  forms  for  announcing 
[ha  lime  of  prayer  were  alao  used,  aa  "Give  audience," 
-  Lift  your  heart"  (Surtum  corda).  1'hia  rile  is  de- 
scribed in  detail  in  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apailoliaii 
Cuvttitulioiu,  where  it  ia  aaid  that  (he  high-priest  or 
celebrant  at  mass  says,  "  Lift  up  your  bean«,~  and  Ihe 
fiiithful  rtapocul, "  We  lift  them  up  unto  tbe  Lord."    lu 


3  SUSANNA 

its  Engliah  form  it  is  found  in  the  Ommiuiion  Serriae 
uf  tbe  Cburch  of  England. 

Bmtcr,  in  None  mylhnlogy,  is  the  mighty  ndcr 
of  Huspelheim,  the  implacable  enemy  of  the  (aw^vbI^ 
in  thecondagntionofthe  universe,  will  lead  tbe  srmics 
of  the  Bana»rMu«pel,J<nnbimaeirwiihthe  serpent  Hid- 
gard  and  the  wolf  Fenris,  assail  the  reaidencea  of  Ibe 
goda,  beside  all  the  aaaa  in  a  tremendous  banlr,  sod 
tlnally  bring  on  tbe  overthrow  of  tbe  world.  SeeKoas 
MrTHoujov. 

Surya,  in  HindO  mythology,  ia  the  sun  (not  lbs  sdd- 
god,  fur  that  ia  called  Indra),  which  in  [nilia  ia  an  li^ 
of  wonhip  as  the  celestial  geniua.    He  ri ' 


nby  . 


n  green 


le  leader 


genu  are  in  his  train,  who  adore  huo 
and  aing  bymns  to  him.  Surya  isufieu  removed  (ram  bii 
car,  and  has  impreaaed  the  earth  with  numeroua  legtudi 
ofhia  power.  He  haa  many  names,  among  which,  bow- 
ever,  the  following  twelve  ate  chief,  indicating  hii  ai- 
tribuiea  in  varioua  relations,  anil  also  mtasunhly  tbe 
montha :  Varuma,  Surja,  Vedang,  Bhanu,  Indra,  Baii, 
Gubasti,Yama,Svania  rata,  Divakai,  Ultra,  and  Visbou 

tions  we  Bnd  at  the  loweet  stages  the  powers  ol  nalarr, 
and  especiallv  the  heavenly  bodiee,  adored  aa  miebty 
dailies.     SeeUB-^soLATUV. 

Bn*.    SeeCBAHE;  Hobsk. 

Sn'aa(Esth.xi,S;  xvi,  18).    See  8hfsiia!i. 

Sn'aanobiU  (Chald.  only  in  ib«  emphat.  plm, 
Suimiasi',  S^^J'Sira-,  Sept.  iotvayaxtuot;  Vulg. 
Suumttkiti)  ia  found  once  only  (in  Kira  iv,  9,  where 
it  occura  among  the  liat  of  the  naliona  whom  tbe 
Aaai-rians  had  settled  in  Samaria,  and  wboae  rieseend- 
anta  atill  occupied  the  country  in  the  reign  of  tbe  I'seo- 
do-Smerdis).  There  can  be  no  diiubt  that  it  d«ig- 
natea  (As  Siiniiia,  either  Ihe  inbaliiianta  of  the  dty 
Suaa  or  those  of  llie  country  (Siisis  or  .Sosiana)  of 
which  Susa  was  the  capital.  Perhaps  aa  ihe  Elamites 
are  ntenUoneri  in  the  same  passage,  and  as  Daniel  (viii, 
i)  seems  to  call  the  country  Eimra  and  the  city  Shn- 
shan  (or  Suu),  the  former  explanation  ia  preferahlc 
See  Shush  AH. 

SusRIl'lUI  (£airvarMi  v.  r.  Siaadyva :  L  e.  rT^V=, 
Shotkwmih,  a  tUg  [q.  v.]),  die  lume  of  two  femalM  in 
the  Bible.  The  name  likewise  occun  in  Diod.  Sic  ss 
that  of  the  daughter  of  Ninus  (ii,6)i  and  Slkakim  (1 
64,  S5)  ia  of  the  same  origin  am]  meaniiig 


(Ge* 


.  7-A«. 


•  v.). 


1.  The  heroine  of  the  alory  of  the  Judgnwnt  of  Dan- 
iel in  the  Apocrypha,  otherwise  called 

SuBASSA,  Th'k  HisrOBV  OF,  teuig  one  of  the  appen- 
dices to  Ibe  canonical  book  aS  Daniel    See  Dahiki, 


I.  Ti)U  and  /'Milton.  — Thia  Apocri-phal  picCT  has 
different  titles.  Sometimea  it  ia  calleil  {Somana) 
SMsama,  sometimes  (ionqX)  Dimiil,  and  sometinHs 
(dincpiffie  AnnqX)  The  Judgmmt  of  DoiaeL  Equally 
uxcenain  is  ila  position.  Ibe  Vau  and  Alex.  MS». 
and  the  Vel.  Lai.  pisce  it  befutc  the  tlrst  chapter  of 
Daniel,  while  Ihe  Sept„  after  the  Oid.  Chiaiaous  and 
Theodolion,  ed.  Complu.,  put  it  after  vh.  xii 

3.  Detigii.—Tite  object  of  this  altnctive  storr  h  to 
celebrate  (he  triumph  of  womanly  virtue  over  tempta- 
tions and  dangers,  and  to  exalt  the  wisdom  of  Daniel 
in  saving  (he  life  of  ihe  pi<ius  hemine.  Chrrtnaiom 
rightly  sets  forth  the  beautiful  lesson  of  chastity  which 
this  story  aSbrds.  when  be  says,  "(iod  permitleal  thia 
■rial,  that  he  might  publish  Susanna's  virtue  and  Ibe 

emidary  conduct,  give  a  pattern  lo  (he  sex  of  the  like 
resolution  and  constancy  in  case  of  lemptatioD"  (Sem. 
lie  Suiaima).  The  alory  of  Susanna  is  therefore  read 
in  tbe  Roman  Church  on  the  vigil  of  (he  faartb  Sun- 
day in  Lent,  aud  in  Ibe  Anglican  Church  on  Nov.  22. 


SUSANNA  s 

3.  Ciiiracftr,  A  ulAor,  Dale,  a»d  Ongixal  Langaagt. 
— Tbuuicb  thr  rurm  uf  lliia  Rory,  u  we  now  bave  il, 
\tori  ihit  k  il  gRUir  embeUiahed.  yn  there  U  every 
mtos  tu  belirve  Ihat  it  u  out  wbully  ttclitioua,  but 
b«anl  upnn  fact.  The  panHiomauia  ia  Diniel'ii  exam- 
iuliuq  uf  ibe  d<ltn,when  he  is  repreaenteU  aa  uying 
t.1  the  not  wbo  ifflrmeil  be  saw  the  crime  commiired, 
iiii  f^j^Hv,  uufer  u  ■uuTiot-frve,  "  the  tugel  of  God 


ri  Kpivo 


a  holm-trrt,  "  tbe  angel 


h  the  ivrord,  ir, 


elalmmiiHi  of  an  old  Hebrew  Mory,  but  not  that  it 
iinjtiiialcil  with  the  AleiantlrtDe  tranllatur  oT  Daniel 
Tbe  ScMg  of  SuUmion  may  have  luggealed  maletiDl  to 
IM  auibti*.  The  opiuion  of  Euaebius,  AfMlliiiatius,  and 
Jinow,  tbat  the  prupbet  Habakkuk  la  the  author  of 
rb«  Huiuty  of  Suaaiiua  i«  eviileiitly  derived  rmm  the 
line*  iiacri|itiun  of  tbe  Hiatory  of  lie]  and  the  Dragon. 
B«  ArocRTrHA. 

2.  One  of  the  womeii  wbo  miniatured  to  nur  Lord's 
pRMul  ranu  Dui  uf  their  private  meana  {Luke  riij, 
i,^.    A.D.28. 

iCSANXA  was  held  by  the  ancienE  Church  to  be  a 
nBlwIufrewrrccibn,  and  also  a  type  of  the  penecuted 
(Ikurrti — the  twa  elden  reprfsentmg  the  pagans  aii<1 
Ik  JeiL    Beprexentiliuns  of  her  are  Trequently  fuund 

iintt  (taDdintc  belweeu  twu  old  meu,  sametimes  between 
1TA  urea  behind  which  tbe  men  are  hidinf^.  Some- 
(■■eft  ahe  ia  re|ireaented  aa  a  lamb  between  a  fox  and  a 
Impird.    In  France  she  Mill  appears  sa  the  representa- 

an.  liniht,  and  V'andal&— Msrtiguy,  Dicl.  del  Aalig. 


i  .suso 

ceired  holy  order*,  and  in  1S3T  vaa  appointed  profesaor 
U  Brtlon.    He  died  June  1, 1S68,  at  Byatric,  in  Moravia. 

poeia  of  Moravia.     Of  bis  worka,  which  are  all  written 

in  the  Czech  iaii  language,  we  mention  the  Workiafih' 
Apatlalic  Fulhrri  (1837.  and  oCtea) -.^EecUtiutHcat 
Hynm  (I84G;  2d  ed.  1859) :— and  a  Convimtmy  m  tJu 
Gotpeli  (ie64-G7),  4  vols.  See  LUeraritcher  Uani- 
aritrr  fir  ibti  fai(*o(uc*«  DtiUtdtltml,  18G8,  No.  G9, 

p.3o;«i.  (ai'.) 

6tlBQ,  Hkinbicii,  a  M\-stic,  was  bom  March  31, 
1300,atCunBlance.  Hia  real  iiame  was  V'(m  £rr/7.'  biil, 
baviuK  been  jireatly  iiiHueneed  by  (he  lender  pieiy  nf 
his  miither,  be  astuined  ber  name  when  her  death,  in 
bit  eighteenth  year,  caused  him  to  seek  aatisTacliun  for 
hia  soul  in  inward  peace.  He  had  been  a  student  at 
CuiiBiance  and  Cologne,  and  now  was  >troii|;]y  inRu- 
enced  by  Master  Eckart;  but  imaginiiion  and  feeling 
were  more  puwerfnl  with  him  than  ibe  speculative  fac- 
ulty. Hia  myaliciam  required  a  concrete  form  in  which 
lo  clothe  the  idea,  and  aucb  lie  (uund  in  Ibe  "  wisdum" 
uf  the  writing!  of  Snlomon.  MeniiryiiiK  llin  '^eterail 
wiadom"  now  with  Christ  and  afiaiii  with  the  Uleaaed 
Virgin,  he  expended  upon  it  bis  love  and  tbe  devotion 
life.    He  grave" 


penei 


Hav 


I.  the 


irCunstance,  he  gave  liimielf  tu 

wDite  his  (Uerman}  book  (M  lit  Elemat  Wiidom.  in 
1338,  which  was  designed  to  leach  pinua  souls  how  lo 
imitate  Christ  in  bis  suOerings.  Having  reached  the 
age  of  forty  yeara,  be  concluded  bis  penances  and  be- 
came a  preacher,  or,  aa  he  phrased  it,  "a  knight  of 
God,"  and  bis  tsbors  were  largely  beneficial  to  the  com- 
munily.  [le  entered  into  relations  with  other  myatical 
leachers,  eapedally  Tauler  and  Heinrich  viMi  Ntirdling- 
en.  He  induced  many  nuble  ladies  lo  ilevote  Ihem- 
selvea  to  a  quiet  and  charilable  life,  aided  in  tbe  forma- 
tion of  orgaiiiiatioiiB  uf  the  Friends  of  (iu<l  (q.  v.),  ami 
bunded  a  Brotherhooil  of  the  Eternal  WiMlom,  fur 
which  he  cumpuscd  a  rule  and  a  number  uf  prayers. 
These  labors  cxpused  him  to  critidsm  and  even  dan- 
gers, He  was  even  sccuseil  uf  disseminating  tbe  heret- 
ical leachinpa  of  the  Brolbera  of  the  Krei 


<f  bin  . 


•it  inn 

erand 

<.uler  life  to  bis  friend  llie  nun  Eliiabetl 

HtHgl 

n,  and 

slie  wrote  the  namlive  wiiboul  bis  know 

edge; 

but  it 

ban,!. 

atui  received  into  ibe  cidlection  of  hia 

™ks" 

«  liart 

firm.     Tart  second  wsa  the  book  of  Eltr 

fhrn; 

part  third,  his  book  of  Trert,  like  tbe  ..th 

r  in  d 

nhvuo 

form,  and  InUmled  to  satisfy  the  inqnirie 

of  a  disciple 

Imis- 

eDo- 

It  Ulm.     Hit 


His 


rally  I 


■wed,  and 


only  the  imaginative,  romantic  alyle  ix  prmlinr 
His  fundamental  idea  ia  that  of  Eckan.  tliat  irDifffiirma 
the  highest  conception,  and  that  bring  is  (inil.  All  cre- 
ated being  is  a  mimir  of  (>ud,  and  li>  revugnise  Guil  in 
this  mirror  it  to  tptcalalr.  No  name  can  exhaui4  iIm 
idea  of  God.  He  is  equally  "an  elenial  niHliing"  aiH) 
the  "moat  essential  ■umethinit;''  he  is  a  ''ring  whiiM 
centre  is  everywhere  anil'  whose  drcumfereiica  ia  iri'- 
where."  To  gaie  upon  (Jod  ia  the  highest  joy.  Crcai- 
ures  are  eternal  in  liod  aa  their  "  Exemplnr,"  and  tlicv 


iguiahing  qualities  until  sl^i 
il,  when  they  have  entered  in 


jtbeci 


their  original  and  restore  tbe  interrupted  unity 
lar  is  Suso's  representation  of  tbe  Trinity.  Tl 
the  Eternal  Word  which  proceeds  from  the  Fai 
love  which  reunites  them  ia  the  Huly  Spiril. 
stained  human  soul  can  Und  no  other  way  to  ( 
Christ,  and  more  particularly  than  the  imiiatii 
anfTcrini.'s.    The  disltnciion  between  Creator  si 


SUSPENSION  4 

ure  never  ceaM(,boiTcv(ti  ao  thil,  dnpile  his  mvMical 
•piril,  Su*o  don  not  earn  the  line  where  Ihe  panlheiBtic 
Ueiiding  of  the  created  tnd  the  Kurrul  Spiril  begins. 
Sum  wu,  in  biief,  tbe  npmentstire  of  poetic  mriticiBm 
;— B  real  poet,  who  i>  un^le  to  apprehend  an  idea  wiib- 
<riit  clnEliinj;  it  in  aymlfolic  fonn ;  and  he  wai»  in  no  true 
Kiiae  either  i  philnanpher  or  i  prsctical  man  of  af- 
fain.  SuHl'*  writings  appeared  at  AngnburK,  1  iSi  and 
lots,  M.  Dippenlnuck  publiahta  tlieni  in  18211  at  Bat- 
iilion  (il  ed.  IMSIt) ;  in  Latin,  by  Suriua  (q.  v.),  1535 
and  o^n.  Frnm  the  Latin  they  were  tendered  into 
French  and  Italian,  and  even  into  Gennan  again.  A 
book,  IW  dm  ntua  Frlrm  {Oftkt  lioK  Roda).  which 
was  long  attributed  to  Suio,  waa  written  in  1393  by  the 
ijtraaburger  Rulnuui  Merswin. — Ueixog,  Rtat-Eaeifklap. 

Bnsponaion.  an  ecclesiutical  act  nr  two  kinds:  1. 
One  ofthe  several  lorts  of  puniihmentinHictednponor- 
fending  ntcmbers  uf  Ihe  clergy.  This  relates  either  to 
iherevctiuetof  the  clergyman  or  to  bis  offlce,  and  hence 
is  called  Mutpattia  a  brvfiao  attd  ttup^nni  ab  ttficiOt  Sus- 
giensiuii  from  benefice  depriyea  tbe  oflender  ot' the  whole 
or  a  part  or  hie  revenue.  Su^iciisiun  from  office  ia  vari- 
ous: lift  onfinf,  where  a  clerk  cannot  exercise  his  minis- 
try at  all ;  ii6  offKio,  where  he  ia  Turbiilden  to  exercise  il 
in  bis  charge  or  cure.  In  all  these  cases  the  incumbent 
retains  bis  order,  rank,  and  benvflce  in  distinction  to  the 
IwiialtieH  of  solemn  depuaal  and  ilci^dation,  by  which 
he  furfeits  all  rights  of  his  order  and  benefice.  All  per- 
Hins  who  can  eiccaminuniaite  can  suspend.  Suspension 
iniiac  be  preceded  by  a  monition,  and  its  cauae  most  be 


liri 


|Hll 


d  to  have  committed  auch 
re  suspend  yon  from  the  i 
ordcra."  Kveiy  act  ofjurii 
ia  imll  anil  void  during  an: 


and  auch  things,  there- 
ipenuon,  if  it  has  been 


.  Suspension  is  removed  liy  abso- 
n  of  the  aelilencc,  by  expiration  of 
Knaalion.    2.  The  other  sort  of  nis- 

fhim  entering  a  consecrated  buildinj;.  church,  or  chap«l, 
or  from  hearing  divine  service, "  commonly  called  mass," 
anil  from  receiving  the  boly  sacrament;  which,  there- 
fore, may  be  called  a  temporary  excommunu'ation.  8fe 
Andrp,  On  DrvU  CawMtfw,  i,  »43 ;  ii.  1110;  Klaillane, 
Du  I >ivil  Cammif IK,  \-,Soii  mant,  I/icf.o/ Voctrimil 
■     Thfob>f/g,».v.;  Riddle,  CAruf.vJnrfg.  p. 343. 

Suaplolon  conaiau  in  imagining  evil  of  others 
without  proof.  It  la  aomelimea  opposed  to  charily, 
which  thinkeih  no  evil.  "  A  auapiciaua  Umper  checks 
in  the  bud  every  kind  afltoion;  it  hardens  tbe  hear), 
and  estranges  man  fiom  man.  What  friendship  can  we 
expect  from  him  who  views  all  our  conduct  with  dis- 
trustful eyes,  and  aacribea  ever}'  beiiettt  we  confer  to 
anillce  and  stratagem?   Acandiil  man  if  accustomed  to 

able  light,  and  is  like  one  who  dwells  amiil  I  boat  beauti- 
ful aceiiea  of  nature  on  which  the  eye  rests  with  pleaa- 

imajjiiuitian  filled  with  all  the  (backing  forma  of  human 
falsehooil,  deceit,  and  [reachery,  resemtiles  the  travelli-r 
in  the  wilderness  who  iliscerns  no  objects  aruutui  him 
but  what  are  either  dreary  or  terrible;  caverns  that 
open,  serpents  that  hiw,  and  beasts  of  prey  that  howl." 
Sec  Barrow,  A>r«ioM;<iisbome,Ji'ir™ioit»,-  Dwight,  I"jS«- 
clo^l  James,  Oh  Chtirilg. 

Sn»t«ntatloii  Ftmd.  I.  F.aglUh  H-'ni^im.— A 

fund  farmed  in  the  aeveiai  district!  which  hasfurita  oh- 1 
jecttlie  raising  tri"  such  an  amount  in  each  district  ns,  be- ' 
iiigdividedamoi>gtheponrercircuita,will  secure  In  their  j 
pnacben  a  much  larger  salary  than  could  be  paid  them 
without  sup|>1emenlary  aid.  The  whole  la  under  the 
aupeniaion  of  Conference.  2.  Frre  Churdi  o/Scinbind, ' 
— A  fund  provided  for  the  support  of  ministers  nf  thai 
Church.    The  idea  was  probably  derived  by  Dr.  Ciial-  ! 


0  SUTPHEN 

men  ftom  tbe  'Wesleyansi  and  a  acbeme  was  deriiri 
by  him  and  made  public  before  Ihe  Diampition,  and  ii 
now  carried  into  operation  ihrougbout  Scotland.  Tit 
amount  of  this  fund  for  1873  to  1(174  wai  X152,U£. 

SntClUTe  (or  SontcllSe),  Mattbaw.  an  Kiu- 
lish  divine,  was  alucated  at  Trinity  Gillege.Cambiidin. 
In  1586  be  was  installed  archdeacon  of  Taunton,  ami  m 
Oeu  n,  1588,  conhrmed  dean  of  Exeter.  Ke  died  in 
iei9.  He  ac(|uired  aume  celebrity  by  his  CuUrgr  iii 
Polemical  Divine*,  which  came  to  naught  shortly  sftri 
hia  death.  Among  hia  works  are,  A  Trtatitt  a/Lcri^ 
tiaUiait  DuciptiM  (Land.  1691,  4lo):— Dc  Praifi/ri-, 
rjiuqM  Xora  n  fj^daia  CiruftKaui  Fiiliuia  (ihid.  IWI. 
4to)  :—De  Ctillmlica  H  Oilhodara  Chiitli  Ettiriia  (iUL 
1692,3  voU.):  — /^  /W/ijtcu  /ajViT'i  DoiKiaaImm  i- 
Katfia,  cimfru  HrUarmmm  (ibid.  1599.  5  vi^) ;-/» 
Turfo-fapiiBu;  or  SnmMimct  betmm  Alidunmtlaium 
cml/^iy(ibi.l.  1599.41"):— /)e  A.  ;yntori>,eic.iibi.L 
1599,4to):— y)ie  Vtra  CAristi  A'crJribt  (ibid.  IG(IO,ll.>i: 
—t>e  .Vitia,  adnriHi  BMiinamm  (ibid.  IS03,4(o):- 
Oe/wfofiTNliiiel  JuMr)  (ibid.l606,3Tula.evo).  M« 
Allibone,  fH(«.  </ ifrif.  uiaJ  .4  NKT.  J  idAura,  a.  v. ;  Oul- 
mers,  tiiog.  Did.  s.  v. 

SntcllSe.  Robert  Barns,  a  mtnialer  of  tbe  IKtili- 
odut  Epiwipal  Church,  was  bom  in  Yorkahiie.  £»;:- 
land,  in  IHI6,  ami  came  to  America  in  1835,  wtiliiiK  m 
Trenton,  N.  J.  In  J8M  he  was  admitted  on  trial  iui" 
the  New  Jer«ey  Cniiference,  and  was  actively  empkiinl 
up  to  the  time  of  his  deaih,  which  occurred  at  Vion-ni- 
lowii,  Feb.  le,  ier4.  See  Miwlit  o/Amutd  Cmftr. 
rmxi,  1874,  p.  36. 

Suthdure  (Sax.  loiillk  dMr),  the  place  where  a- 
nonical  purgatian  was  perfumied.  When  a  fact  ehsix«l 
affainsE  a  person  was  unproved,  the  accnsed  was  hrutuht 
to  tbe  south  door  of  his  parish  church,  and  then,  in  ili? 
presence  of  the  faithful,  made  oath  of  his  innoctno. 
This  is  one  reason  why  large  south  porches  are  liiuiHl  m 

Snthreh  Shatiia,  a  division  of  the  Sikhs  in  Hin- 
dustan whose  priests  may  be  known  by  parlwulaiiDaik>. 
Tbns  they  make  a  pe^ieitdiciilar  black  wreak  down  ll>« 
forehead,  and  carry  two  small  black  sttcka,  each  abuii 
half  a  yard  in  length,  with  which  Ihey  make  a  ir<ft 
when  they  solicit  alma.  They  lead  a  wandering  liP, 
begging  ami  ainging  songs  in  the  Punjabi  and  oUki  d>- 
alecta,  mostly  of  a  moral  and  mystic  tendency.  Tl«i 
are  held  in  great  contempt,  and  are  froquciitlv  di>rF|i<i. 
table  in  chancier.  They  consoler  Tegh  bhader.  iIm 
father  of  Guru  (iovind,  as  their  father. 

Sutpben,  Joaoph  WalirOTth.  ■  Pnabvuiian 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Sweden,  N.  Y.,  in  1835.  He  Fil- 
tered Hamilton  Gillege.  and  giwluated  in  tM7 ;  slirr 
which  he  entered  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  iii 
IMM;  from  whence  be  graduated  in  1861.  He  waa  «- 
dained  with  a  view  of  his  entering  the  foreign  field  u 
miasionary.  and  on  Nov.  7, 1851,  departed  for  Harsuvan. 


loilic 


1  Ihe  Turki 


His 


Morris  Crater,  n.D.,  a  PnabvK 
bom   Dec.  I,  1837,  a 


Church  Aug.  IA.  1855.  He  gndM 
aled  fnim  Princeton  College  in  1856.  After  liachi^ 
in  a  private  family  in  Vit^nJa.  be  entered  PriuMi^ 
Theological  Seminary,  from  whence  he  graduaml  itc, 
a  three  }-e*ra'  coursed  In  both  oolkge  ami  aeniir 
gained  a  bij^h  pii9iTii>n  as  a  scholar.  He  was  Ii 
bv  the  Piesbvlerv  of  Elizabeth  town,  at  Rahwav 
alid  cm  May  1,  \>m,  was  ordained  by  the  I'resbyl 
Philadelphia,  and  installed  aa  collegiate  pastor 
Spring  tianlen  Church  in  that  citv,  lo  serve  as  co-i" 
Icir  with  the  vencnble  Jobn  HcUowell,  D.D.,  a 
death,  Feb.  13,  ISitH,  he  became  sale  paator. 
pastorate  of  great  ticleliiy  and  fmitfulneas.  in  w 
became  quite  popular,  lie  became  collegiate  put 


SUTRA 


41 


fbc  tnwnUc  J.  UcElmj,  D.D.,  of  the  Scotch  ChuTcb 
in  New  Tort,  >ad  WM  iiuuOled  April  !f8, 186e.  He  *u 
sUiged  (a  ttnga  in  18Tl,oa  lecount  araphoni>,wbicb 
tjomoKy  to  Europe  fuLed  to  remedy.  After  liLnretunt 
be  ipesl  ■  wjotet  in  t'lariiia,  uid  nude  an  eBbit  (o  sup- 
pir  tbc  polpit  of  the  Jackaonville  Church,  but  wh 
obliged  Ut  i^inqnuh  iu  Returning  lo  Ibe  Noitb,  hii 
bpmhb  ODOtinued  to  bil,  ind  he  died  it  HorriMown,  N. 
J,  Jn  18, 1875.  Dr.  Sutphen  wvt  a  tilenled,  popuUr, 
■ml  aaetal  pracbtr,  >  man  of  geuial  ipirit,  ■  Chrittiio 
genlenun,  a  UboriouB  p«alor,  and  ■  hard  iluilent,  inil 
HH  luccewful  in  all  departments  of  Chrialian  work. 
He  wn  oOered  ibe  preridenoy  of  i  tree  colleges, 
MW  time  a  profenorBbip  in  one  of  the  Iheulogical  aenii- 
uri»  of  Ibe  Church,  but  to  none  of  thew  did  he  cuii- 
wkt  bii  bealib  aclMiuate.  He  mai  engaged  during  the 
\tua  pan  of  hi*  Ufe  in  preparing  a  Uaiuiul  of  famOji 
WofTiip.     (W,  P.  S.) 

SntTk  is  Ibe  Kcond  diviuon  of  the  Mcred  irrilingB 
•fihe  bidtlhiiu,  addreaoctl  lo  the  laity.  The  following 
viu  ahow  bov  thpie  sacred  writinga  are  clauified :  The 
I'kaTMmHi.  divided  iutu  the  SuUiaii  and  A  MMamMoni; 
■(aia  difideil  into — 1.  ll'uwjiii,aT  discipline;  2.  Salia, 

TW  Ijiiira  1*1  taka  cnnlaios  Bcren  KCtiona, called  flon^; 
•nd,  includiiig  Liith  teit  and  cumoiKnIary, ' 
tuuui.     beeUanlj,  £a 

Sntri  (  near  Rame  ).  Cocncil 
••an),  waa  held   in  December,  1046,  b;  Ilenrv  the 
Bbek.  king  of  Germany.      Cregoij-  VI  wai  invited 
la  tkia  enuneil,  and  came,  hoping  to   be  recogniwd 
B  site  poniilT;  but,  finding  variooa  dllGcultiea  and 
sMKiea  in  ibe  wa.v,  he  renounced  the  papacy,  stripped 
kieiaclf  of  hii  omanienta,  and  gave  back  the  paMural    , 
nM,tlut  having  held  the  papal  chair  about  twen'  | , 
II  Boottu.      After  the  council,  Henry,  accompanied  i , 
b*  tba  pnlstea  whu  had  been  prrwnt,  went  in  Rome,  I , 

a^l  br  amimoD  eon«ni  of  the  R..ni>n>  and  Ger-  i  j,^,^  ^  ji,^  „„i^j  ,„j^  ■„  aubddi.rv  alliance  with 
,  elected  pope,  who  i.«k  the  name  the  government  oflndia,  and  the  prar.ibc  mav  be  con- 
— "•  —  -'^  "V,  '!""^.T  .,  ""  P'"*'!'"'^  aidered  in  be  practically  exlinct 
See  ItAD-.  CoMoL  IX,  9*S;  U,ma,U5,  Am«^  .  An  atteropl,ollal«yeara,ha.been  m.debyrajahRad- 
liankant  Deb  lo  ehow  that  in  a  text  belonging  In  a  par- 
Batt«e  (Sune.  mH,  Ttiiaoat,  Le.  wife),  the  name  |  licular  acboul  of  the  Blaei  Yiijur-Vfda  ibtn  ia  really  a 
[Ti^  IB  Hioduuau  to  a  woman  who  voluntarily  ucri-  paseage  which  wodIiI  jiistify  Ihe  praclice  of  suttee;  but 
kn  btn^  by  burning  upiiti  the  funeral  pyre  nf  her  the  text  ciied  by  him  is  of  doubtful  canouicilyi  and, 
e  practice  haa  nut    moreover,  there  ia  a  text  in  the  A^Vrcfa  which,  if 


ao  long  shall  she  not  be  exempted  from  springing  again 
tolifein  the  body  of  BomeremaleaiiimaL  Wheothrir 
Inrdu  have  departed  at  the  fated  time  of  attaining  beav- 

for  women  whose  vinuoua  conduct  and  whoia  thoughta 
hare  been  devoted  to  their  liuabasds,  and  who  fcai  the 
dangen  of  separation." 

The  mode  of  peiforming  luttee  varies  in  anme  unim- 
portant respects,  but  its  principal  features  are  the  same. 
BO  I  An  oblong  space,  seven  feet  by  eix  feel,  is  enclused  by 
nd  bamboo  aiskes  about  eight  feet  lung,  driven  into  the 
rk.  [  earth,  witbin  which  a  pile  is  built  of  Mraw,  baugha,  and 
at.  lugsofwDod.  Allercertaiii  prajenand  ililulionH  have 
'  been  gone  through  with,  the  boiiy  of  the  deceaaed  hus- 
band is  brought  from  the  house  and  place<l  upon  the 
pilej  sometimes  in  a  little  arbor  of  wreathed  bamboos, 
hung  with  flowers  within  and  without.  Then  the  wife 
appean,  and  is  unveiled  by  the  Urahmiiu^  herself  re- 
moving Ihe  ornamenta  hom  her  person,  distributing 
them  among  her  friends,  by  whom  they  are  highly 
prised.  She  reserves  only  one  jewel,  the  loli,  or  amu- 
let, phiced  round  ber  neck  by  her  deceased  hiuband  on 
the  nuptial  day.  Led  by  ihe  principal  Brahmin,  she 
walks  three  times  around  Ilie  pile,  and  then  asceuds  to 
the  side  of  her  husband.  Embracing  ihe  body,  she  lies 
or  ails  beude  it,  whereupon  the  nearest  relative  appliea 
the  torch.  The  shrieks  of  the  dying  woman,  if  she  ul- 
ten  any,  are  dnwneil  by  the  shouu  of  Ibe  spectalora 


Fort 

eloB 

ppress  thi«  ri 

c  were  made  as 

euJy 

as  the 

cei 

urv 

V  the  Mohan 

Akbar,  but 

out 

much 

effcLL     The 

practice  cunlio 

ued 

osncb 

t  tba 

D  and  Wii  tber 

nBengaUlo 

le.     In  1829  lord  Be 

nlinck. 

-gen 

ral,  enacted 

s  law  decUring 

all 

ud,  as- 

orjui 

ticipation  in 

nyactofs-tle 

tob 

nd 

punbhabk  as  such 

Inie47,duri 

glordHsr- 

■aaa,  Saiilger  was 


I.D.  IM6. 


Wa  eoateed  lo  India,  where  it  has  had  ellect  fur  many 

W  E— eiiM  nuR  than  300  yean  aC.  The  period  of 
■aengin  ia  India  is  unknown,  though  it  ia  certainly  (< 
fitm  sniiquiiy.  Although  the  practice  is  not  enjoined 
'T  thnr  saerHl  buol»,  yet  it  is  baaed  by  the  orthodox 
IndfiainUwinjUDciiiinof  tbetrShaatraa,andi ' 

inoe  the  belief  wb 

-hua  the  Bnikma- 

1  after  ijie  death  of  ber  husband;  the  separate 
tim  of  her  husband  would  be  luM  (to  all  religious 
■xials).  If  ber  lord  die  in  another  country,  let  the 
*  '  U  wile  place  hia  Baiidala  on  ber  breast,  and,  pure, 
■he  fire."  The  faithful  widow  is  pronounced  no 
IcbylherediedieitoftheA^lniu.  The  code 
</ Ttlaa  says,  ■"  Leartx  Ihe  power  of  ihat  wiilow  who, 
IrniaK  thai  her  husband  has  deceased  and  been  burned 

a  BUber  region,  speedily  casta  beraelf  into  the  fire."  "•  '™*-  "« translated  the  Scnpnirw  ni'o  unya,  eira- 
JU  the  code  of  Angira^  "That  woman  who,  on  the  I  P'l«l  ">  OnJ*  dictionary,  grammar,  and  lesson-b.-*, 
hak  af  lier  busbuid.  ascends  the  same  burning  pile "  b*«"le»  writing  The  Family  Chnphii  (Colciitia,  1881- 
■ilb  bin  is  exalted  to  heaven,  as  equal  in  virtue  lo  '  82,  2  vols.  8™):— flise  and  Piegrrf  «f  llu  Muaiou  al 
AiBdbMi  (the  wife  of  Vasi.htba),  She  follows  her  I  (^•'^  (Phila.  18mo):  — f?>wci  in.d  ilt  /Ctongrlltnlion 
Wiud  to  heann,  and  will  dwell  in  a  region  of  jov  !  (Oefby.  Eng.Svo;  Boatoti,  I850,»tv..)  ^-WsinB-ioot/o-- 
UwB  Bsoy  years  aa  there  are  hairs  on  a  human  b.-lv, ,  ■^f'"i<"  CoHjrnjotibM  .■— and  6'Bi.fc  lo  Ihi  Saviour. 
^Ktbinyjve  millions.  Aa  long  aa  a  woman  (in  her  i  Sutton,  CttBTlM  Mannera,  D.D.,  an  English 
liBa^vt  n%ntioDa)  shall  decline  burning  herself,  like  prelate,  waa  the  fourth  son  of  lord  <:e«r|:e  Mannen.  -Siii- 
l(  Inthful  wife.  Em  the  same  fire  willi  ber  deceased  lord,  |  ton,  and  was  bom  in  llliS.  He  was  cdncaled  at  Emmanuel 


properly  read,  directs  the  widow,  ofier  attending  lo  her 
husband's  fiineral  ceremniiics,  lo  return  home  and  at- 
tend to  her  domeMic  dutie&  See  WilNin.  On  Ihe  Hup- 
poted  VaidU  A  ulAoriig  far  fht  Bumiitg  nf  Hindi  Wiii- 
VBS  <Uind.  1862),  vol  ii. 

Snttotl.  AItrIi  a.,  a  minister  of  the  Melhndint 
Episcopal  Church,  waa  bom  in  Vrrmoni.  June  19,  I84G. 

ing  and  farming.  In  I8T3  be  I'.H.k  work  iiiKJerlhe  pre- 
siding elder,  and  supplied  l^mg  Prairie  I'barKe  fur  two 
years.     In  187&  be  was  ordained  d<aii»i.Hrlmiiied  into 

•lerd  Mission.  He  died  Feb.  15.  Ittlli.  See  Mnain  :f 
Aiauat  Con/trtHca,  1876, p.  ]»i. 

Snttoii,  Amoa,  an  English  missinnsrv,  was  bom 
at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  in  1798.  lie  was  ordainnl  f.ir  ihe 
mission  work  st  Derby  in  18S4,  and  sent  li.  Oriua,  In- 
dia. He  left  this  Held  once  for  a  vi>ii  la  Entrland  and 
death  took  place 


SUTTON  < 

Ca11eg«.  CunbridKe;  appointed  dein  of  Feterborongb, 
1791;  bishop  or  Norwich,  I792i  dean  oTWlndHr,  I794i 
■nil  archbuhap  of  Canurbury,  ISO&.  He  died  July  i\, 
1828.  He  published,  Fivt  Briluh  Sprdff  nfOni«mclu 
{Tramaaimu  of  the  Liiin.  Soc  1797,  iv,  118):— ^mwiu 
(1794,410;  1797,4to).'   See  AUibone, i>Kf.  o/ Arir. and 

Sntton,  CliriatOph«r,  ■  learned  English  divine, 
oas  a  nariie  nrUimpshire,  aitd  entered  Hart  Hall,  Ok- 
roul,  <n  lAfli,  aged  levtiireen  jean,  but  ns  socni  trans- 
ferred  to  Linodn  Cu]lei;e.  He  wa>  made  prebendary 
nf  Wuluiinster,  160G)  prebendary  of  Uncnln,  1618,  and 
died  in  1639.  He  published,  Dtict  Mori  (Lnnd.  1600, 
24mn,  with  seven!  Uler  edjiions,  K.  Y.  1845,  ISmo)  :_ 
DUft  Vittrt  (I^ond.  IC08,  IIidd;  1863,  IHmot  N.  ¥. 
Iflmo)  ■.—Godly  Utdilalioni  upon  Ike  Mail  Holy  Sacra- 
mntoflht  Jjirit  Supprr  (Und.  ICSa,  12mo;  late  edi. 
tii.iit,  1838,  1847,  1849:  Oxf.  1839.  1841,  ISmo;  N.  Y. 
1841,  IBmo).  See  AUihoiie,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amtr. 
A  iiliort,  s.  \: 

Snttou,  Henry,!  miiiiWer  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  bum  near  I'rincelun,  N.  J.,  .luiy  "" 


Leavii 


nTreii 


liiii,  K.  J.,  where  he  united  with  the  Church.  After 
|ireacliing  ■  year,  he  entered  the  Philadelphia  Omfi 
eiiee  on  trial  in  1835.  In  1858  be  was  msile  siipeni 
merary,  and  liter  Biistaiiiini;  that  relatinn  for  Mreral 
Venn,  was  placed  on  the  superannuated  list,  and  (here 
remained  •mtil  his  death,  in  PhiladelphU,  Pa.,  Mareh 
!3,  1870.  He  was  then  a  member  of  the  WilminRlnn 
Umference.     Sec  Mimaa  n/Ammut  Coitfirmcti,  1877, 

,Kl2. 

Sutton,  Rlohard,  the  co-founder  of  Braseinwe 
ColleBe,  Onfonl,  was  the  younger  son  of  Sir  William 
Sutton.  Ur  the  time  or  place  of  his  birth  we  have  nii 
•.-ertain  accovnl,  but  we  know  that  he  practiced  as  a  bar- 
rister of  the  Inner  Temple.  In  1490  he  purchased  some 
«tUi«  in  Leicealenhire,  and  afUrwards  increased  bis 
landed  property  in  different  eoualiea.  In  1498  he  was 
a  member  of  Henry  Vlll's  privy  council,  and  in  1606 
was  one  of  the  governors  of  Ihs  Inner  Temple.  We 
Uiid  him,  in  1513,  aclins  aa  Ueward  nf  the  Munasterv  of 
Sioo,  near  Brentford,  Middlesex.  He  died  about  1524. 
His  bequests  were  almuM  all  of  ■  religious  or  cliaritable 
kind.  His  benefactions  to  Bmsennse  College  were  ea- 
pecially  liberal,  he  having  completed  the  buildinft  and 
doubted  its  revenues,  besidea  leaving  to  it  several  valu- 
able cetMei.  He  bore  the  expense  of  publishing  the 
very  rare  book  The  Oi-dmrdt  ofUgoK. 

SnttOD,  Stepbon  B..  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Chureh,  was  bom  in  Clermont  County,  O., 
Veb.  14, 1819,  and  united  with  the  Church  in  Febriian-, 
1837.  He  WIS  licensed  to  preach  Uaich  IS,  1844,  and 
was  admitted  i>n  trial  into  the  Indiana  Conference  in 
October,  1851.  He  ilied  at  Martinaville,  December,  1863. 
Jlr.  Sutton  was  very  successful  in  his  work,  having  ad- 
mitted about  1373  persona  into  the  Church.  See  J/in- 
uUi  -/  A  miiat  Coufermctt,  1864,  p.  !201. 

SnttOH,  Thoma*  (l),  founder  of  the  Charter- 
house school  anil  hospitsJ,  was  bom  at  Koaith,  Lincolu- 
Hhire,  in  153S.  He  wis  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, but  at  what  colleEB  is  uncertun.  Afler  travel- 
ling abroad  for  some  lime,  be  returned  borne  in  1562; 
was  retained  by  the  duke  of  Norfutk.  and  afterwards 
became  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Warwick  and  his  broth- 

luincs  at  Berwick,  and  tbonh'  after  obtained  a  patent 
fur  the  office  of  maatet-general  uf  the  ordnance  of  the 
North,  which  he  reuined  until  1594.  He  entered  into 
iMisinem,  and  was  at  the  lime  of  his  death  (at  Hackney, 
Dec.  r^,  1611)  the  richest  untitled  subject  in  the  king- 
dom. He  endowed  the  Cbarteihoun  in  1611  with  the 
bulk  of  hi«  property.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  af  Bril.  pad 
A  Mtr.  A  alhori,  a.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog.  Ditt.  a.  v. 
Sntton,  Thomaa  (3),  D.D^  an  English  clergy- 


Z  SVAIXTIX 

man,  was  bom  at  Bampton,  WeMmoreland,  and  enleied 
Qiieen'a  College.  Oxford,  in  1603,  at  lh«  age  of  aiium. 
He  became  perpetual  fellow  in  1011,  lectnia  of  St. 
Helen's,  Abingtnn,  Berks,  and  minister  of  Calham,aiul 
afterwards  miniwet  uf  St.  Hary  Overiea,  Southwaifc. 
He  waa  drowned  at  sea  in  1638.  He  published  aepaiau 
Semoiu  (Lond.l6l5,8vo;  1616,  Svo;  1636,  4to;  1631, 
ilo^-.—I^tctum  on  Itanumi,  ck.  xi  (1633,  4iu)  :— and 
left  in  MS.  LtHHTti  en  Roauai,  ci.  zii,  and  Pialm  oil. 
See  AUlbune,  DiO.  of  Brit,  and  A  atrr.  A  Mlhon,  a.  v. 

Button,  WiUlttm,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Epincflpal  Chureh,  was  lorn  in  Virginia  about  1783,  and 
in  1810  was  licensed  U>  preach.  In  18^  he  was  or- 
dained deacon  by  bisliop  M'Kemlree,  aiul  in  1839  eldtf 
bv  bishop  Kobcn*,  and  after  this  gave  the  Cfantch 
faitbrul  service  Un  twentv-nine  rears.  He  died  at 
London,  Madiwm  Cu..  U.,  l>ec  iS,'lB58.,  Sec  Mim-afi 
nfAmuul  Ctmfirmca  of  the  M.  K.  Cliuitk,  SonH,  1859; 
p.  190. 

Suva,  in  Japanese  myihnlogr,  is  the  god  of  the 
cliaae  atnl  the  tutelary  patnm  of  all  lumtera.  l^rgt 
processiona  are  aimually  formed  in  his  honor. 

STfldiUnr.  in  Norse  my  tholngy.  was  a  famous  hnr» 
of  the  giant  who  built  the  castle  of  the  gods.  He  pro- 
jected a  great  fortress  for  the  asas  who  were  defending 
themselves  against  the  ice-gianis;  and  he  otTered  him- 
self as  an  architect  to  erect  it,  provided  they  would  give 
him  three  winters  to  Auish  it,  and  the  beautiful  Freia  at 
a  wife  and  the  sun  and  moon  as  servants.  Hy  the  a<I- 
vice  nf  Lake,  the  asas  accepted  the  offer,  on  the  condi- 
tion that  he  tbonhl  fulHI  it  in  one  winter,  and  wiibiut 
any  other  help  than  the  burse  Svadilfnr,  The  giant 
agreed  to  this,  sihI  his  home  exhibited  such  exlraonli- 
narytitcii);th  that  he  easily  lifted  stones  of  the  greatr< 
weight,  which  would  have  required  a  buiulred  hiune*  tit 
carry ;  and  the  building  was  already  completed,  except 
a  tingle  gale,  before  Ihe  asas  had  thought  it  pomblr. 
They  then  threatened  Loke  wiih  death  if  he  did  n"t 
break  up  the  contract.  Loke  thereupon  anuimed  Ibr 
form  of  a  beautiful  mare,  an.1  an  engaged  the  Malli.m 
Svadilfur  iliat  he  broke  the  rope  by  which  he  was  held 
and  folkiwed  Loke,  who  tuik  him  far  enough  airai. 
From  this  connection  sprang  Odin's  famous  eight-paiteil 
hnisc  Sleipner,  who  was  fleeter  than  the  wind  and  never 
tired.  The  archilect  saw  himself  dcwtted  by  his  hel|i, 
and  sought  to  assume  his  gigantic  form  in  nnler  ro  Au- 
ish the  work  with  all  hia  strength ;  but  in  the  dilemma 
of  the  goils  a-H  lo  wheiher  in  ihat  case  Ihey  ahnnhl 
abide   by   their   wonl,  or  whether   the  giant    aboiiUI 


liddenly  app'.ii 


his  hammer  and  slew  iIm 


Svaba,  in  HindO  mytbotogy,  was  the  spouse  of  the 
Are-god  AguL 

SvaluabaUBl,  or  Swaths'  Hii.i.,  in  None  mrlbol- 
ogy,  was  a  place  which  appears  lo  have  been  originally 
nidence  t-r  dwarfs,  inasmuch  as  the  Edda  mentions 
several  of  these  as  coming  thence  to  Orwanga  (anoir- 
fleld}  and  Jomwall  (iron  or  battle  Add). 

Svaixdunoka,  in  Slavic  mythology,  was  the  brill-    I 
iant  brideof  Ihe  stat-god.     She  wat  worshipped  by  the 
heathen  Prussians  as  a  friendly,  benign  goddess,  who 
kept  the  stars  in  their  courses  when  her  husband  dro|>> 

storm  and  cloud.  | 

Svalxtix,  in  Slavic  mythology,  was  the  gwl  t/lln 
stars  and  of  sunlight,  whom  the  ancient  Pnwsiini  re- 
vered iu  common  with  the  Wends  and  Slavs  in  Poaie- 
lania,  etc  He  was  represented  in  exceedingly  ricb 
clothing,  bad  tiames  and  ravs  abuut  his  bead,and'B  loft 
'  ir  on  the  miildle  of  his  crown,  which  rose  like  a 
flame  of  Are.  From  old  Ulielnean  works  of  art  we  infer, 
thstanding  the  inacripiion  which  calls  him  BtUog 
(L  e.  biali  bog,  a  good  deity,  in  oppontion  to  Cicnwbeg, 


SVAKONS 


SVIABTOVIT 


Ihc  evil  goil),  that  he  wu  ■  milioons  deity,  tince  lit 
ippun  H  Berce  uid  Ibibidding ;  but  ir«  miut  bear  in 
niiid  L)iu  Kulplim  mutt  Hm  to  ■  bigh  Rnit  bcfnra 
miit  ml  inTidog  fomu  can  be  repraented.  Tbii 
(IT  na  ai  IhU  time  ui  mcb  infancy  Ihit  ne  can  only 
Tuskr  tww  the  Ogtin*  are  ihapely  at  all.  SraiiElix 
VH  the  nwM  benevalent  deiiy;  lie  illumitialed  the 
ofbi  liT  ilie  Klimner  of  the  uan,  by  tba  aurora 
and  tbt  •iHtw-iighi,  and,  like  tbe  sua- god,  imparted 
ipwiib  lo  lecd*  and  warailh    -'  '-  '-''-- 


n  Lettitb  mytbulog;,  were  nothuyera 
*aa  MetoM  urtunea  from  flame  and  the  tmoiie  or  a 
U|hL 

SvalCOnl.  in  Letliab  mylhulogT,  were  pneMa  vbo 
■BidmUBd  nuptial  eerenianie)^  eiamined  bridegroomi 
and  bride*  who  were  abinil  to  many,  tied  the  conjugal 
luuil,  and  pranoaneed  tbe  biening  upon  (htm  in  the 

a  the  meat  n- 
ng  the  Wend*. 
At  Aifcena,  on  the  iiland  or  RUgen,  atuod  bia  gigantic 
ioMKi,  wbirb  wai  far  and  wide,  fur  the  whnle  KHjIhcm 
cma  of  the  Ballie  Sea,  the  central  point  of  wnnhip. 
SrBDlcTit  wai  an  eaamwos  eolosaui,  which  on  Tuur 
aedu  bon  four  headi  with  ■hom  hair  and  ahort  beanl. 
Hii  ckidiinic  waa  like  that  of  the  Wendi  in  genend :  ■ 
ean  eileuding  to  the  kneea,  made  of  doth  or  Tell,  with 
king  Hide  tleevea:  a  ginlle  bel<l  it  ii^theri  the  leg* 


I  Ihe  right  hand 


iiuigiiia,  hia  iiDiige,  whiet 
Blood  in  Khetra,  had  al»  i 
lung-bearded  human  heac 
on  the  breast.  Svantevii 
was  both  a  good  anil  an  evi 
ileicy,  as  the  comuco|nB  am 
the  bow  indicated — the  lat 
ter  for  war,  the  funuer  toi 
peace.  He  nvershadowei 
Ihe  whole  earth  with  lii 

Bel  was  highly  priieil  am 
hi*  oracles  were  tbe  mnw 
conipicuoua,  as  bla  cultui 
iuvolTcd  earthly  power  and 
authority.  He  was 
abipficd  with  dmnkpii 


but,  it   would   seem,  on 
wlien  be  was  angry,     [i 

one  high-iiTJest,  who,  on  t! 
day  of  the  great  harvest  fi 
lival,  peraonally  swept  1 1 
temple,  and  tliat  with  i 
offend  the  gud  with  t 
I  ml  into  hi*  great  enmiicopia ; 
.  remained  over  fmni  Ihe  pre- 
I  drawn  as  to  the  abundance 
oc  Mhowije  of  the  nut  yeer'i  cru|).     Tbe  temple 
sad  the  image  »f  the  gud  were  deainiyeil  by  Wal- 
iWatr  [,on  the  baptijMn  uf  the  pe"|de.      Tlie  public 
nnhip  uf  thii  god  thereafter  eeaseil,  although  it  pri- 

nfM  Ihe  spot  wltb  auperttilinun  awe.     The  iiilerprc- 
isiiw  uT  lb<  name  aa  Haig  Vol  (.Sanctua  Vilua)  ii 


Svaatldes,  in  Slavic  myihology,  was  the  god  nf 
mmer,  represented  by  the  warm  beans  of  apritig  that 
troduced  summer.     He  was  worshipped  by  tbe  Wenda 
and  Slavs  as  a  deity  of  the  second  rank. 

Svavm,  in  Norse  mytholi^cy,  was  a  beautiful  daugh- 
ter of  king  Eylimi,  who  became  famoua  through  Uelgi 
Haddingi,  the  »n  of  Hiorward,  king  of  Norway.  Tbe 
last  had  made  a  vow  to  call  hii  own  tbe  fairest  woman 
of  the  eanb;  and  Ibas  he  already  had  three  wivee — 
Alfhild,  the  molher  uf  Hedin;  Siiieid,  the  mother  of 
Humlung;  and  Sinrind,  Ihe  mother  nf  Hilming_when 
he  heard  that  Sigurlin  was  the  handsamest  of  wnmen. 
He  immediately  wooed  hei  through  the  Jarl  Atli,  but 
wu  rejecled  through  fear  of  other  suitors.  Thereupon 
he  made  war  upon  her  father,  and  at  length  seized  Si- 


gurlin.   She  w. 


rofa 


famous  Helgi,  who  remained  (] 
hearted  Svava  aroused  him,  gave  him  tbe  lume  of  Hel- 
gi, and  allied  herself  to  him  aa  a  godmother.  Defended 
by  Ihe  bad  and  charming  W'alkiir,  and  armed  with  a 
never- failing  sword,  Helgi  signaliaed  himself  by  deeds 
iif  llie  grealett  bemism;  but  he  was,  nererlheless,  stain 
hy  Alii,  the  son  of  Hrodmar.  No  sooner,  however, 
was  Helgi  reborn  as  the  son  of  king  Sigmund  and  the 
beaulifid  Uonchili  than  Svava  oIhi  reappeared  in  a  aec- 
aml  incarnation  as  Ihe  Sbiltl  virgin  Sigrnn.  Helgi  was 
but  one  day  old  when  he  stonil  in  armor  and  longed  fur 
Ihe  batlle  and  victory.  He  crepl.  in  female  attire,  iiitii 
the  house  of  Ihe  powerful  but  wjckeil  king  Hundingur, 
explored  it  as  a  waiting-maid, and  then  attacked  and 
■lew  him  in  a  dreadful  oouteM.  Helgi  next  wooed  the 
beauliful  and  formerly  Inved  Svava,  now  Sigrun;  hot 


and  was  approaching  the  goal  uf  his  wishes  when  a  new 
obstacle  arose  in  tbe  person  uf  his  own  brother  Hedin. 
Tbe  latter  was  reluming  bnme  in  Julaabend  when  he 
met  an  ugly  old  wilch,  out  oTihe  furest.  riding  on  a  wolf, 
which  she  drove  with  reius  nf  iwistetl  snakes,  and  she 
■ilTered  herself  as  a  Walkur  to  the  beauliful  youth  as  a 
pmiedreiwi  but  when  he  disdained  her,  she  angrily 
cried.  "Thou  shalt  pay  fur  Ibis  wiih  Uraga's  cup." 
When  Hedin  reaehnl  his  home,  he  wildly  awore  that 
be  wi«ild  possess  himself  of  Signm,  his  brother's  bride, 
and  be  accordingly  went  immnliately  to  seek  bia  broth- 
er for  that  purpoae.  The  latter  not  only  Irealed  him 
kinilly,  but,  having  been  already  monally  wounded  in 
balile,  surrendered  her  to  his  brother.  When  Helgi  ar- 
rived in  Walballa,  all  the  Joys  of  heaven  eouM  nnt  sup- 
lutiful  Sigrun;  he  therof<ite  re- 


turned to  hit  tomb,  and  reeled  there  all  night  by  tl 

UDunced  Iht  end  a(  hia  delight;  and,  mounting  his 
tieed,  be  relumed  to  the  halla  of  Walhalla.  Helgi 
was  a  ihird  time  bom  as  the  wamd  Haddinga,  while 
Svava,  likewise,  a  third  lime  appeared  as  Kara,  daugh- 
ter of  Halldan,  who  was  king  of  Denmark,  an<l, 
with  Ihe  apouae  of  bit  daughter,  ruled  orer  loiid  and 

6v«tga  Divi,in  Hindu  mytbnlogy,is  a  section  of 
genii  who  exeeale  the  immediate  commands  uf  Indra, 
the  Indian  aun-god.  They  seem  not  to  have  a  lai^ 
rorm,  since  they  otlen  ask  human  help  in  order  to  defend 
them  against  tbe  Aaaur^  or  evil  genii. 

SriartOTit  (SUvic,  Ao/y  vornor),  tbe  most  cele- 
brated deity  of  the  ancient  Baltic  SlBvol1iail^  whose 
temple  and  idol  were  at  Arkona,  the  capital  of  the 
island  of  KUgen.  This  last  stronghold  nfSlaniniL-idul- 
airy  was  taken  and  destroyed,  A. D.  1168,  by  Waldemor 
I,  king  of  Uenmark,    See  Si.avoiii*!)a. 


SVIDOR  4 

Svldoi  ind  Srlpall,  in  Mane  mylhologj,  an  mr- 

Svlpul,  in  None  mylholagr,  wu  one  of  the  beinli- 

ful  Wa]kun,or  fomale  spiriu  whounierthe  Inttle. 

Biraddle  (^rn,  U  hmtdage,  arapyavimx  but 
nB!^,  iu  L^m.  ii,  S3,  meuu  M  btar  upon  Iht  pain),  in 
■wathe  in  infant  with  clothi  in  order  U>  keep  its  tender 
limba  fnim  injuiy,  a  practice  comoion  in  the  Eaat  (Ezek. 
xvi,  4;  Luke  ii,  7}.    See  Blitrit. 

Swaddlers,  an  ahsurd  nickname  gii-en  by  the 
Iriili  Boman  Cathulica  to  the  early  HeLhudiaU.  It  ia 
«aiU  to  have  originated  from  John  Cennick  preaching  a 
■enaon  on  the  Babe  "wraj^ied  in  BMaddling-clothea," 
the  ignorant  Roman  Catholica  who  heard  it  or  heard  of 
it  aiippDaiiigthe"ewaddling-clatbe«"to  be  an  invention 
of  the  PmlestantB.  In  the  year  1738  a  baliad-iinger 
named  Butler  actually  raited  riuu  in  Dublin  and  else- 
where to  the  cry  of  "Five  pouiida  for  the  head  of  a 

"Anti»waddler»." 

Swahlll  TBralon.  The  Soahill,  which  wa*  for- 
merly deacribed  ai  KiiaahtH  (that  is,  "according  to 
Swahili"),  a  ipoken  at  Zanzibar  and  for  a  coniideralle 
diatance  dawu  the  East  Coast  of  Africa,  besides  being 
likely  to  become  an  important  means  of  communicatiiin 
with  inlanJ  Iribea.  The  language  Is  evidently  an  uff- 
shoot  of  the  Kaffir  family,  but  iB.Btrongly  impregnated 
with  Arabic  words,  being  a  connacling-link  between  the 
two  opposite  fiunilies  of  speech.  A  tentative  translation 
of  the  New  Test,  was  made  by  the  Rev.Dr.  Krapf  when 
iu  Eastern  Africa  a  few  years  ago,  hut  he  never  so  far 
perfected  his  work  as  to  render  it  prudent  Ut  propose  its 
publication.  Independi^utly  ofDr.  Krapfs  work,  the  at- 
tention of  others  had  been  drawn  to  this  important  sub- 
ject; andwhen  theRev.  Dr.Steere  returned  to  England 
in  lH69hebtiiU|;htwith  him  a  translation  ofSi.  Matthew 
and  the  book  of  Psalms,  which  he  had  himself  prepared 
during  a  ruiilence  of  several  years  at  Zaniibar.  In  the 
name  year  the  (iuspel  of  St.  Uatthew  was  printed ;  and 
S6  this  was  the  Hrst  time  any  part  of  tho  Scriptures  had 
been  puUished  in  that  language,  and  the  circulation 
must  of  necessity  be  li  mi  tad.  only  a  small  edition  was 
issued.  In  1871  the  book  of  Psalms  was  printed,  which 
was  followed  in  IB'S  by  the  publication  uf  St.  John's 
(iospcl,  and  in  IS77  by  that  uf  St.  Luke,  the  latter  as 
translated  by  the  lale  misunnary  Rebmann,  but  with 
the  orthography  made  to  conform  to  that  of  bishop 
Steere.  From  the  Rfport  for  the  year  1877,  we  see  that 
a  proposal  was  made  to  use  the  Arabic  characters  fur  this 
version,  but  the  committee  of  the  Driiinh  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  could  not  approve  of  it,  inasmuch  as  the 
weight  of  evidence  went  to  show  that  any  natives  who 
were  acquainted  with  the  Amine  characters  cnuld  read 
■he  pure  Arabic  version,  while  for  the  rest  the  Kisiiaheli 
II  Roman  characters  was  far  simpler.     Altogether  the 


.  about 


.  (i.. 


■he  puUicalioii  of  St.  Matthew  in  1B69 
187H)  4048  copies.  Thus  encouraged,  bishop  Steere  is 
prepsring  a  translation  of  the  other  books  of  the  Bible. 
(B.  I'.) 

Swaim,  John  Sanford,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  w SB  bom  at  Chatham,  N.J., 
May  1,  1806,  and  united  with  the  Church  at  the  age  of 
finrteeu.  He  waaadmiiud  on  trial  in  the  Philadelphia 
(Junfereiice  in  1834,  and  continued  actively  engaged  in 
■he  pastorate  until  18GS.  He  then  entered  the  Chiis- 
lian  Coram issioii,  and  was  appointed  to  Hilton  Head. 
In  1864  he  was  made  supernumerary,  and  appointed  : 
misHunary  to  Jacksonville,  Fla.  Finding  the  cUmaie  j 
conKeniai  to  his  health,  he  continued  to  resiile  there  nn-  I 
til  his  death,  Nov.  IS,  1875.  ISee  UiaiUfi  of  AmitiU 
Cmftrnett,  1876,  p.  42.  | 

Swalm,  Samnal  Bndd.  D.D.,  an  able  minisiei 
of  the  Baptist  denomination,  was  bom  at  Pembertun, 
N.  J.,  June  22, 1809,  and  was  a  graduate  of  Brown  Uni- 


1  SWALLOW 

versjty  in  tbedaMof  ISBOandaftheNewCooThadcigi- 
iCBl  Institution  in  the  class  of  1833.  He  WM  utdniwd 
at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Nov.  T,  1S3S.  For  aootc  tiine  he 
was  professor  in  Granville  College  (now  Densaou  Cat- 
venity).  In  18311  be  tank  charge  of  the  diH  Baptia 
Church  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  where  his  miniNiy  was  ao 
eicineutly  sucoeasful  one.  and  eoutiaued  aixleen  rears. 
From  ISM  to  1862  be  was  pastor  in  West  Camtoidge, 
and  then  became  an  agent  for  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Missionary  Society.  His  death  took  pUce  Feb. 
a,  1865.     <J.  C  S.) 

Swain,  Cbules  W.,  a  minister  of  the  Hetbodin 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bum  at  New  Bedford,  Maaa.,  Oct. 
22, 1793.  He  united  with  the  Church  in  Ricbmond, 
Clermont  Co„0.,  in  18l9,Bnd  in  1831  was  admiued  on 
trial  into  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  in  due  time  received 
deacon's  and  elder'a  orders.  Ue-wai  actively  engaged 
in  the  ministry  (excepting  one  year'a  service  aa  ageoi 
of  ibe  Ohio  Wesleysn  University)  until  the  fall  of  lSa&, 
In  18£6  he  look  a  superamiuated  relation,  and  maile  hi* 
home  in  Koston  until  his  death,  April  ib,  1870.  Mr. 
Swain  aaaisted  in  a^aniiiug  a  temperance  aociety  in 
New  Richmond,  O.,  as  earlv  as  Sept.  1, 1829,  the  tirBt  of 
the  kind  west  of  the  Alleghany  Uoonlains.  See  Mil- 
aitt  nfAmual  Con/rrtaca,  1870,  p.  166. 

Swain,  ITatttan,  a  Methodist  Episcr^ud  minialer, 

of  age.  In  1799  he  was  admitted  on  trial  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Conference,  in  1801  admitted  into  full  coonec- 
tion  and  ordained  deacon,  and  in  1803  ordained  elder. 
efTective,  with  the  exception  of  two  years. 


U 1816,  when 


relltiim 


he  sustained  until  1832,  when  he  became  euperanniiated, 
and  so  remained  until  his  death,  March  1, 1845.  See 
Miutttts  of  A  mtual  Corferencrtj  iv,  14. 

SwBln,  Richard,  a  Melbodiit  ETuacopal  roinister, 
was  a  native  of  New  Jersev.  in  1789  be  was  ailmilreil 
on  trial,  in  1791  into  full  connection,  and  filled  the  M- 
lowing  stations:  Trenlcn,  N.  J.,  in  1789;  Flaodcn,  in 
1790-91;  Middlelown  Circuit,  Conn.,  in  IT9S;  New 
Undon,  in  1798;  Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1794;  Buriingion,  in 
1785;  Freehold,  in  1796;  Trentnn,  in  1797;  Fteehnld. 
in  1798;  Salem,  hi  1799  and  1800;  Belhcl,  in  1801 ; 
CapeMav,in  1802;  Salem,in  18U3.  He  became  ouper- 
numerary  in  1804-7,  and  died  Jan.  17.  1808.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  usefulness  in  the  ministry.  See  JThi- 
ul«  ofAHmal  Confrrrncet,  i,  169;  Slei-eiio,  IlitKoftlm 
,V.£.(7AurcA,iv,280;  Bangs, //if. o/ fjle «.£. Ciarel, 
ii,262. 

S^ralloir  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  T.,*of  two 
Heb.  words,  and  posubly  the  true  meaning  of  a  third. 
None  uf  ihem.  however,  are  very  clearly  identifiable  ac- 

1.  -|i^^.*rtfr,prop./t4m'j  (as  often  rendcrtd),  L  e. 
•iriclly  siri^Hsi,  occurB  iu  two  passages  only  with  ref- 
erence to  a  bird;  Fsa.  Ixxxiv.S  (Heb.  4),  "The  neal- 
loK  [hath  found]  aneal:'  Prov.  xxvi.  2,  "as  the  svo^ 
low  by  flying.^  The  ancient  versions,  in  the  frwrner 
passage,  uwlerstand  a  larllf-doirt  (Sept.  rpuiyir ;  Vulg. 
luriur),  and  in  the  tatter  a  spunotj  (/iTpov^os,  ponrr). 
The  radical  signification  of  the  word  fat-ors  the  ideia 
that  it  may  include  the  swallow,  with  other  swilUy  fly- 
ing or  free  birdo.  The  nhl  commentators  (so  tbe  rab- 
bins), except  Bochait  (llirrta.  ii.  690  si).),  who  renders 
it  "culumttt  fera."  apply  it  to  the  swallow,  from  the  love 
of  freedom  ui  this  binl' anil  the  impossibility  of  retain- 
ing it  in  captivity  (De  Wette,  Cmhreii,  Ewald,  Geae- 
niu\  Thrtaar.  p.  355).  It  is  mure  likely  that  it  was  bo 
named  from  its  ragudity  of  flight.  It  pmbahly,  there- 
fore, is  nuire  properly  the  "  swift"  or  "  black  martin," 
probably  the  dururi,  mentioned  by  Fnrakll  as  mi- 
ing  to  Alexandria  from  Upper  Egypt  about  the  end 
of  October  (/)e»ni>>r.  .4ntm.p.l0>.  The  frequenting  «f 
"  buildings  bv  this  doss  of  birds  (Herod,  i,  IBS; 
V.  H.  V,  17)  is  proverbial  (Schultcos,  Momm. 


SWALLOW  46 

FfAArol.  Carm.  p.  1  i  Nicbufar,  Beiiai,  ii,  3T0).     Sec 


SWALLOW 


•"iy,  'agir,  tbi  twiOerer^  also  Damn  Hr 
riii,l4,"UheBiTun  [or]  aMDatbw,Mdi 
'  Jw.  Tui,  7,  "  Tbe  (unle  »nd  ttic  cni\t 
h»  otHcrre  (he  tinM."     Id  both  these  pi 


^(.. 


r.  x^>A 


■ii).  rHidociI  "crane,"  bu(  in  the  fnrmer  pwuge  the 

Js.  n»1«»  both  word*  by  the  si 
Vde-  paffu  tirvudtMu;  and  in  Ji 
imado  •(  rvvwl.-  thus  ij^THitig  wiLn  me  a.  >.  in  at- 
aaiif,ikit  uraUotc  Bnchirl,  huweveT(//KroE.  ii,  fiU 
■VV  maimuitis  that  'agir  a  the  proper  Hebrev  de«iK-  , 
taua*  of  tbe  crane.  He  oinipirei  tbe  wurd  with  the 
'IhM.  SCSI'.Z,  lartrfa,  tbe  Arab,  hirki,  the  Gr.  yipn- 
i«f.  the  Welsh  garan,  and  the  Germ,  trail,  all  iif  which 
■It,  like  it,  oDomatiipaeric.  Tbe  twittering  or  queru- 
Liu  BUDd  (C;XEX)  and  the  tnigratory  habit  are  both 
cdmctMisucs  which  meet  in  the  crane;  its  cry  ii  often 
(uiii|itn<t  by  the  poets  with  that  of  ■  person  in  distress 
n  xrirf,  sod  its  mi^^tnTj-  habits  are  frequcntlv  dwelt 
BinibTaiKientwriten(AristaLJ>Rin.viii,lS;  .Elian, 
.( ru.  "iii.  13.  23 1  Pliny,  x,  31 ;  Quint  Curl.  SFaym.  ti, 
in;;  xiii,  103  sq.).  This  view  has  been  fallowed  by 
KMWDllller,  Maurer,  and  Henderson  in  Ibeir  comments 
■B  iHiih.  Uewnius,  though  seeming  to  favor  this 
new  in  bis  minaieflUiy  '"'  isa'>b,  repudiates  it  in  his 
■  ■     ■        ■  verbal  adjective 


The  Swift  {CiiptcliH  Djiuii). 
are  known,  appear  all  to  be  the  name  as  those  of  Eu- 
rope. The  following  are  the  most  abundant:  I.  Cypte- 
Itti  ajna,  the  commnn  swift  or  black  martin,  distiii- 
Ituished  by  its  larger  Hie,  short  legs,  rerv  long  wings, 
forked  t»il,  anri  by  all  the  toes  of  the  feet  turning  for- 
ward ;  these,  armed  with  small,  croaked,  and  very  sharp 


.e  grouu 


of  Ih 


qwbM  uf  the  swallow  in  the  passage  in  Isaiah,  and 
o  a  <MgiiatiaB  of  tbe  swallow  in  that  in  Jeremiah. 
ThitiiUlowed  by  Knobel  {DerPngAHJfaiaerliarl). 
It  it  in  favor  of  this  that  in  the  former  tbe  copnlslive  is 
natiag  between  the  two  words;  but  this  may  be  ex- 
tlned  as  a  case  uf  aayndelon  (as  in  Koa.  vi,  S;  Hab. 

taH^e  Bceou  clearly  to  prove  that  'agir  and  sua  de- 
late difleieot  bird&  Hitiig,  indeed,  proposes  to  strike 
m  this  eopuU,  bM  without  sufficient  reason.  Matirer 
Mies  ^U3  finn  an  Arabic  root  signifying  lurbavit 
■[■■■,  sg  as  to  desgnate  an  aquatic  birdj  Knobel 
■uaU  trace  it  to  another  Arabic  root  meaning  to  mourn 
f^nrfji  Tbe  040.  ni,  if  distinct  from  the  14J3, 
'<jar,  is  probably  a  laise  species  of  iwallow,  and  the 
iuirr  lefra,  when  not  a  mere  epithet  of  the  former, 
tnhMy  signifies  a  peculiar  kind  of  heron.     Sii,  bow- 

il«  n^iow'i  voice  or  twitter;  and  in  Dr.  Kennicott's  re- 
■ark  thai  in  thineea  codices  of  Jeremiah  be  read /lu  fni 
«»  Sod  tbe  source  of  the  ancient  fable  of  the  Egyp- 
lua/wbeinjctraniformedintaBswallow.  See  Ckane. 
Whatever  be  the  precise  rendering,  the  characters 
nnibrd  in  ihe  several  passages  where  the  names  occur 
cr  Hrictly  applicaldr  to  the  swallow,  vil.  its  swiftness 
<i'fixh(,i'isn«*iinR  in  the  buildings  of  tbe  Temple,  its 
wonhl,  garrulous  note,  and  its  regular  migration, 
'tared,  indeed,  in  common  with  several  others.  We 
Mv  ohwrre  that  the  gamility  of  tbe  swallow  was  pro- 
niaal  among  the  ancients  (see  Nonn.  Diony^  ii,  133, 
Bj  Ariatniih.  Btitr.  93).  Hence  its  epithet  ruiriXat. 
-|>«twitierer,''»n'i>^aC^Jrdcx(^iJdv>Tc,Alben.623. 
"aAiiBcr.lM,andip}par<'-ii,Hesiod,C)p.6e6;  andVir- 
^Ciar;.iv.306.  Although  Aristotle,  in  hi*  A'd/urol 
IKAnjr.asd  PIinT,  following  him,  bave  given  currency 
tt  tin  faMt  that 'many  swallows  bury  themselves  dur- 
Bf  wioier,  yet  tbe  regnlariry  of  their  migrsiion,  alluded 
'■  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  was  familiarly  recognised 
tribe locienta.  See  Anacreon  (OAmiiii).  The  ditty 
sauted  by  Atben.  (.860)  from  Tbet^is  is  well  known— 


length  of  its  wings.     Tbe  Is 

larly  this  species,  wa  take  to  be  tbe  derHr,  on  account 
of  the  name  durari,  alresdy  mentioned;  which  was 
most  probably  applied  to  it  because  tbe  swift  martin 
prefers  lowers,  minarets,  and  ruins  to  build  in,  and  is, 
besides,  a  bird  to  which  Ihe  epithet  "  free"  ia  psrlicu- 
larly  applicable.  On  the  European  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean it  bears  the  name  of  iarbola,  and  in  several 
parts  of  France,  including  Paris,  is  known  by  Ihe  vul- 
gar name  of  "le  Juif,"  tbe  Jew;  and,  finally,  being  llie 
largest  and  most  conspicuous  bird  of  tbe  species  in  Pal- 
estine, it  is  tbe  type  of  the  heraldic  manlel,  origiiuilly 
applied  in  the  science  of  blaion  as  tbe  eepecisl  distine- 
tinn  of  Crusader  pilgrima,  being  borrowed  from  Oriental 
nations,  where  the  bird  is  likewise  honored  with  the 
(digrim,  to  designate  its  migratory  hab- 


letfcrdrl 


imply  B  greater  generalizi 


literal  se 


re  of  tbe  1 


be  taken  at  referring  to  tbe  w 

pie,  and  in  this  view  Ihe  swift  bears  that  character 

dilate  further  on  tbe  history  of  a  genus  of  birds  so  imi- 
versally  known.  S.  /iirundo  ruilka,  or  domalica  (var. 
Cahirica),  tbe  chimney  swallow,  with  a  forked  tail, 
marked  wilb  a  row  of  white  spots,  whereof  Hirimdo 
5yniica,irBI  all  diirerent,is  most  likely  only  a  variety. 
a,  CMidon  urbica,  Ihe  martin,  or  common  window 
■wallow.  4.  ColnU  riparia,  aand-mattin,  or  shore-bird, 
not  uncommon  in  Northern  Egypt,  near  the  months  of 
tbeDeltt,and  inSoulbem  Palestine, about  tiaai, where 
it  nestles  in  holes,  even  on  llie  sea-sbore.  Besides 
these,  tbe  Eastern  or  russet  swallow  (//iruixja  m/ula. 
Tern.),  which  neatks  generally  in  fissures  in  rocks,  and 
the  crag-martin  (fJotyk  rupfitrii,  Linn.),  which  is  con- 
fined to  mountain  gorges  and  desert  districts,  are  also 
common.  (See  Ilai,  i,  27;  ii,  386.)  The  crag-martin 
is  the  only  member  of  tbe  genus  which  does  not  migrate 
from  Palestine  in  winter.  Of  the  genua  Cypftliu  (swift), 
besides  the  one  Unit  noted  above,  Ihe  splendid  alpine 
swift  (Cypilai  mrlba,  Linu.)  may  be  seen  in  all  Builable 
localities.  A  third  species,  peculiar,  so  far  as  is  yet 
known,  to  Ihe  north-east  of  Palesline,  has  recently  been 
described  under  the  name  of  Cgptttiu  GiilUteatit,  See 
I'rislram,  Kvl.  Hat.  of  Ihe  BMr,  p.  iOi ;  Wood,  BOU 
AtiimaU,  p.  881  sq.;  Lewysohn,  Zoohgie  da  Talmudt, 
p.  206.    See  BtBa. 


SWAN  4 

Smui  IB  Ihs  rendering,  in  tbs  A.  v.,  of  T'tJICiri,  foi- 

MJnwrt,  in  two  of  the  three  pagaigei  where  thii  word 
occuri,  nuDelj,  Lev.  xi,  IS;  Deut.  xiv,  16,  where  it 
Hand*  in  the  liu  of  uaclevi  hirdH  (Sept.  iropfupiiMi', 
E/3iC;  Vulf^^  copyinglyf  porpAifrin,  ibU^  SunHrilAn  the 
*  ume).  Bochan  (^tlitroz.  ii,  290)  expUina  it  ntiedia 
(awt),  and  deiiTea  the  name  from  Q^^,  thamdm,  "  to 
aatnniih,"  beeauK  other  bird*  are  iiaitled  at  the  appa- 
rition of  tbe  owL  Geaeniua  suggest!  the  ptiiciiit,  rmm 
ad},  "  u>  breathe,  to  pufT,"  with  reference  to  the  infla- 
tion oTita  pouch.  Whatever  may  hive  been  the  bird 
intended  by  llcise*,  tliese  eonjecturea  cannot  be  admic- 

linctly  expreueil  eliewhere  in  the  catalogue,  (iiggeim 
wavered  between  these  Ivro;  ami  Dr.  Mason  Harria, 

American  red  specie)  with  the  white  one  of  Africa, 
guessed  that  purpAyrian  must  mean  the  Jtamiiigo, 
ParkhuTSt,  rteriving  tha  word  from  {3ir3,  naihdni,  "to 
breathe,"  was  inclined  to  render  lituhrmfth  by  "goose;" 
but  as  Ihii  hird  is  not  bv  the  present  Jews  deemed  un- 
clean, it  may  be  confldently  assumed  that  no  mistake  in 
this  mitter  can  haro  occurred  during  any  period,  and 

unclean  by  the  law  and  aflerwarda  admitted  among  the 
clean  birds  with  its  naniB  traiisTerreil  tu  another  >|«cies. 
The  Hebrew  Diaionary  by  Selig  Newman,  it  is  true, 
renders ftnSi(^<n«rA  "swan;'  but  the  Polyglots  show  the 
great  uncertainty  there  is  in  several  of  the  names  of 
both  the  chapleti  in  question.  The  swan,  for  which 
some  recent  scbolara  euuiend,  auening  thai  it  was  held 
aacredin  Egypt,  docs  not  occur,  an  far  as  has  beenascer- 
taineil,  in  any  Egyptian  ancient  picture,  aiul  is  not  a  bird 
which,  in  mignling  to  the  south,  even  during  the  cold- 
est seasons,  appears  to  proceed  farther  than  France  or 
Spain,  though,  no  doubt,  individuals  may  be  blown  on- 
ward in  hard  galea  to  the  African  shore.     Only  two 


I  SWAN 

blue,  the  upper  and  back  parta  of  a  dark  bnt  iinUissl 
indigo.  Tt  ia  allied  to  the  cnm-crake,  and  is  the  tsrged 
and  moat  beautiful  of  the  family  RtitUdif,  being  la^tr 
Chan  the  domestic  fowl.  From  iheext[sonUaiTylen«ib 
of  its  toes,itiBenabled.ligbliytrBa<lingo<i  the  flat  lain 
of  water-plants,  to  support  itself  without  imnieiwia,tDi] 
apparently  to  run  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  bt- 
quenta  manhea  and  the  sedge  by  the  banks  ortireaiD 

abimdant  in  Lower  Egi'pL  Athenieiia  baa  correcilr 
noted  ita  ainguUr  hahit  of  graapiiig  its  food  wllb  its 
verv  long  loea  and  thus  cunveving  it  to  iu  mnuih.  Il 
is  d'islingiiislied  frnm  all  the  other  speciea  of  An/Ma  br 
ita  abort,  powerful  mandibles,  with  which  ii  cmshM  in 
prey,  coniialing  often  of  reptiles  and  yoang  triidf.  It 
will  frequently  seiie  a  ynung  duck  with  its  lonf;  fni, 
and  at  once  crunch  the  head  of  ita  victim  with  ht  bmk. 
It  is  an  omnivomus  feeder,  and,  frnm  the  miaceUannat 
character  of  its  food,  might  reasonably  find  a  plaeeintbc 
catalogue  of  unclean  Inrds.  ItaHeah  is  rank,  coane.  sail 
very  dark-colored,  it  was  anciently  kept  tame  in  lbs 
precincts  of  pagan  t«lnple^  and  therefore,  perhaps,  vu 
marked  unclean,  as  most,  if  not  all,  the  saeml  auinub 
ft  the  heathens  were.    When,  in  the  decline  of  id<4aii}, 

other  dumeaiicated  omammts  of  Ihc  temples  had  diaap- 
peared,  Gciner's  researches  show  hnw  earlv  and  longiht 
writen  of  the  Uiddle  Ages  and  of  the  Kevival  of  Iji- 
erature  were  perplexed  tu  Hud  again  the  pnrphyrion  •* 
the  ancients,  although  modern  naturalists  have  nM  Ihs 
shadow  of  a  doubt  upon  the  subject,  the  specie*  being, 
moreover,  depicted  upon  Egyptian  monutnenls.  Thf 
Parphyrio  fiyacintknuM  is  the  npeciee  most  comnwa  irt 
Europe,  although  there  are  several  othera  in  Asia  ami 
Africa;  /'ojjjAyrio  tryAropiu,  abnndanl  on  the  BOoih- 
east  cniat  of  Africa,  appears  to  be  that  which  the  pagan 
prieata  moat  cherished. 


a  betw€ 


re  lieen  no)  iced  sr 


oast  of  Egypt. 


Hasaelqnist,  who  saw  one  on 
It  may  be  cuiijectuml  that 
swans,  particularly  as  the  last  mentioned  are  fresh.watpr 
turdSk  and  do  not  readily  take  tu  the  true  salt  sea.  Mr. 
Strickland,indeed,  savsofthe  mute  swsn  (Cgynui  olor), 
that  it  viiiu  Smyrni  Eny  in  winter;  and  Mr.  Varrell, 
on  the  authority  or  Mr.  Bennett,  Idls  ns  that  the  hooper 
(Cftraj)  som«imoB  g.ca  aa  far  south  aa  Egypt  and 
Barbaty.  He  adds  (hat  "they  visit  Corfu  and  Sicily  j^n 
very  severe  wintera;  and  Mr.  Drummund  aaw  a  few  on 

end  of  April,  18(5,"  Itiit  iheae  arc  very  rare  inatances. 
Nor,  if  it  had  been  hnovtn  to  the  Israelites,  is  it  easy  to 
understand  why  the  swan  should  have  been  clused 
among  the  unclean  hints.  The  remlerrng*  of  the  Sept., 
pnrphj/rui  and  ffiw,  are  either  of  them  more  probable. 
Neither  of  these  binis  occurs  elsewhere  in  die  catalogue. 
The  porphyrlon,  or  purple  gillinule,  cannot  have  been 
unknown  to  the  t^anldatllr^  as  it  wa^  no  douhl.  common 
in  the  Alexinrlrian  temples,  and  was  then,  as  il  is  now, 
seen  both  in  Egypt  and  l^lestine.  T\optvpiiav,  par- 
fhyrio  iinfijuoruni,  iip..  the  purple  water-hen,  is  men- 
tioned bv  Arialotle  {llUt.  Amm.  viii,  8),  Aristophanes 
{Ae,  707),  Pliny  (llitl.  .V-if.  x,  63).  and  is  more  fidly  de- 
scribed  by  AtheiueiM  (/)n/in.  Ix,  386).  The  circum- 
stance of  the  same  Deb.  name  being  given  to  the  cha- 
meleon (see  lielow)  may  have  arisen  from  both  having 
the  faculty  of  changing  colors,  or  being  iridesrenl ;  the 
first,  when  angry,  becoming  green,  blue,  and  purple — col- 
ors which  likewise  play  constantly  on  the  glossy  pans 
of  the  second's  plumage.    The  porphyrlon  is  superior  in 

crimson  shield  on  the  forehead,  and  desb-colored  legai 
ths  head,  neck,  and  sides  ■!«  of  a  beautiful  turquoise 


Purple  Oslllnula  (Porphyria  hioeiHlAiniH). 

The  same  HeU  word  limhimtlh  (rOS3n;  Se|" 
RtrirdXol  V.  r.  airiXai,  Vulg.  fitZ/in)  in  Lev.  si,  3> 
being  fuund  atoong  Ihe  unclean  "creeping  things  ihi 
creep  upon  the  earth,"  evidently  no  longer  standa  f<i 
the  name  of  t  bird,  and  is  rendered  "  mole"  by  the  A.V 
ado|iting  the  interpretation  of  the  Sept.,  Vulg.,  Onkcio 
and  some  of  Ihe  Jewish  d.eion.  Bochart  haa,  howevt 
abown  that  the  Heb.  tAoM  nl>H],  the  Arabic  kkald  i 
thUd,  denote*  the  "mole,"  and  has  argueil  with  mw 
force  in  behalf  of  the  "chameleon"  being  the  ftnaWawr 
The  Syriac  version  and  some  Arabic  MS8.  iindnstar 

athan  a  "salamander;"  aome  Arabic  versions  read  son 
.«rf4™.,  which  Golius  renders  "a  kind  of  lizard."  I 
Lev.  xi,  80,  the  "  chameleon"  is  given  by  tbe  A,  V. . 
tlie  translation  of  the  UekoUacA  (mn),  which  in  i 


SWAN  « 

pntiitatit;r  denatM  some  larger  kind  of  liurd.  S« ' 
t^nkLBKf.  Ttw  onlj  clue  to  an  idcnti  Beat  ion  uf  (m- 
(liMfi  i>  ID  be  round  in  lU  ttf  oxdog:}',  and  in  the  con- 
uil  in  Kbich  the  word  oecu?>.  Bocbatl  conjeclurea 
tluttberou  (D^l,  muAdin,  [a  breathe)  from  which  the 
Hrb.iuBM  of  thii  creature  a  derived  hu  referen«  to  a 
nilfu  (ifuuiou  among  the  ancienU  that  the  chsmeleoD 
iifld  DB  air  (nrnp.  OviA.Mt'.  KV.IU, "  Id  quoque  quod 


aathon 


ukI  k 


M\    The  iung  of 

vtml  flkd  with  ail  n  renai 

cDi:  bum  ihe  creatuTe'a  pot 


ait,  //«. 


ihameleun  ia  very  large, 
iden  the  body  temi-lianapar- 
r  abalineitce,  ao  doubt, 
r.  It  ia  probable  that 
itttiniiualt  iDruiioned  with  tbt  liniliimetk  (Lev.  xi,3a) 
ilBKUCilillerentkiadaofliiards;  perhaps,  therefore, since 
Mr  MtnolDgy  uf  aha  word  ia  ravoraUe  to  Ibat  view,  (he 
iHiaot^nin  nuy  be  the  animal  intended  by  liiuhiiarl/i  in 
IbeaUirepiiuge.  At  10  the  change  of  color  in  the  akin 
M  [til  animal,  numeioiu  iheoriea  bive  been  pn>pnTCd ; 
Int.  u  thii  Mibjecl  has  on  scriptural  bearing,  it  will  be 
(pau^h  tu  refer  lo  the  explanaiicm  given  by  Uilne-Eil- 
nidvohaae  paper  ii  translated  in  vnl.xvii  oflhefr/iH- 
i^  Xrw  PlutM«pii<aUuanuL  llie  chameleon  be- 
Jriil^tatkeliibe  /JrWnw(iiri>,onler  ^iiHi-a;  the  family 
mhibiti  Atia  and  Africa  and  the  south  of  Europe.  The 
aaxflrt  ndgiuit  ia  doubtless  Ihe  ipecies  nienlionetl  in 


SWAN  (myth,  and  axlron.),  a  beautiful  constellation 
v.  Ihc  Uilk'-way,  which  may  be  readily  known  from 
tliefiTt  bright  Mam,  arranged  in  the  rurni  of  a  cnHs,nr 
wtich  it  is  compnsed.  It  is  situated  between  Cepheus 
isil  Vul|ca,ts  the  oast  of  the  Ljre.  On  brigbtwintry 
ui^.  the  uktd  eye  may  count  a  hundred  and  lifty 
HSttiu  this  large  constellation.  The  Swan  coaimem- 
ima  III*  funn  chnsen  by  Jupiter  wbea  he  deceived 
Ntmnii  and  Leda,  at  pussiblr  the  singing  awan,  aacred 
la  Ap'illi.uiio  which  Orpheus  was,  at  death,  I ransfbraied. 

Swan,  RtMvrell  Randall,  a  Congregaliuiial 
niawo'.waabom  at  Stonington. Conn.,  June  16,  IT;»; 
n>  ititd  for  caUeg«  by  ttov.  Heaekiah  N.  Woodruff 
'(Staiigfilun.and  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1802. 
HtMUUd  with  the  CoUege  Church  Dec.  1, 1799.     His 

1  ahnrlly  after  be  combienced  the  study 

■Mcriif  Ibe  aBine  year,  aflera  severe  illness,  he  con- 
*m1  Us  itu.lia  with  l>r.  Perkins,  of  VVe>it  Hartford. 
Alulae  u  preach  was  granted  him  by  the  Hartford 
■MkAaseialian,  atNunhinKl.in,FBb.6,  180!).  Ow- 
l^fla  m-healih.  he  did  not  immediately  settle,  but  in 
Bltwkii  look  charge  of  an  academy  in  Stnnington, 
aal  applied  the  vacant  Chitrch  there.  He  was  or- 
Himi  fuua  of  the  Churtli  in  Norwalk  Jan.  14, 1807, 
■bn  he  nmiinueil  until  his  death,  Uarch  -tl.  ISIS. 
^fifngat.  Atmalt  of  Ikf  Amrr.  Puipit^W,  ^b. 

Swan,  Samuel,  a  Prenbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
•I  the  iiLsKd  of  Daminica,  N'ot.SO,  \1VS.  While  Sam- 
•1  ■B>  a  child  hia  father  relumed  lo  his  natiie  enun- 
i^iSoHland.  Here  the  aon  received  a  liberal  ediica- 
inL  (Duiiiteiine  his  course  at  the  Glasgow  Uiiiveraity. 
Ai  ibe  Bge  uf  nineteen  he  came  with  the  family  to  Phil- 
sMphia,from  whence  he  soon  vrent  to  Princeton  .Sem- 
nsiy.  He  was  licensed  lo  picsch  by  the  Philadelphia 
l^Bliyteiy  April  17,  1823,  and  received  aa  a  licentiate 
■  ifce  Protn-lety  of  Huntington,  Pa.  He  received  a 
oIKha  the  Sinking  Valley  Church,  which  he  declined 
*>  accept,  and  ■■*  dismissed  to  the  Redstone  Piesby- 
>TT.  His  next  call  was  lo  Ibe  churches  of  FsirHeld, 
loonier,  and  Donegal,  which  he  accepted,  and  wa»  in- 
<UIM  June  17. 18M.  He  proved  to  be  a  devoted,  self- 
'•nying,  and  noceaaful  pastor,  and  for  aeventeen  years 
xl  a  baM  retained  the  esteem  and  growing  confidence 
•t  hit  tbcet  diarehe*.     Beconing  seiiously  crippled  by 


I  SWAYZE 

a  shivered  limb,  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  ao  en- 
tenaive  a  charge,  and  he  accordingly  resigned,  and  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  Johnstown  Church,  I'a.,  where  he 
was  installed  in  1841.  Haifof  hia  time  was  occupied  1^ 
the  Church  at  Armagh.  Hen  he  continued  nniil  1866. 
In  18M>  he  removed  to  Leiand,  La  Salle  Co.,  111.,  where 
he  made  an  extennve  purchase  of  land ;  and  though  he 
had  no  pastoral  charge,  he  cunliiiued  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel aa  he  had  opportunity.  Fimn  1869  lo  1871  he  resided 
at  .\urora,  IIL  For  the  purpose  of  giving  his  children 
an  educalion,  he  returned  East,  and,  though  advanced 
in  veers,  continued  to  preach  until  the  end  of  bia  pil- 
grimage, Aug,  6,  1877.      (W.  P.  S.) 

Stranger,  Joii:*  P.,  a  minister  of  the  Urthndist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Mifflin  County,  Pa.,  FeU 
lb,  IS3S.  He  was  converted  and  united  with  iheChurch 
in  1854,  and  in  18qS  was  recrived  on  trial  iu  Ihe  East 
Baliiini.Te  Conference.  His  ministry-,  however,  wu  of 
short  duration,  aa  he  dial  June  29,  '1867,  in  Baltimore. 
See  Mmvla  <■/ Aimvat  Cmftramt,  18ee,  p.  37. 

Swann  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V.,  of  two  veir 
dijlerent  Hebrew  words. 

1.  n^S,  'edah  (uaoally  rendered  " rongregalion"  or 
"aKtembly"),  is  employed  lo  designate  the  swann  of 

(Jndg.  xiv,  8).'  The  lloi'i  which  Samwn  slew  had  been 
dead  some  little  time  before  Ihe  bees  had  taken  up  Ihdt 
abode  in  the  carcass,  for  it  ia  eKpreasly  alated  Ihat  "af- 
ter a  lime"  Samson  relumed  and  aaw  1  he  beea  and  honey 

observed,  "any  one  here  represents  to  himself  a  corrupt 
and  pulrid  carca!«,  Ihe  occurrence  cease*  to  have  ai 


in  Ihesi 


odor.  To  the  foregoing  tiuotaiion  we  may  add  that 
Ver)-  probably  ihe  an  la  would  help  lo  contiime  Ihe  car- 
cass, and  leave,  perhaps,  in  a  »hort  time,  little  else  than 
a  skeleton.  Herodotus  (v.  1 14)  apeaka  of  n  certain  Oner- 
ilua,whohad  beenlakenprieonerbytheAmathiiiianeand 
beheaded,  and  whose  head,  having  been  suspended  over 
the  g■le^  had  become  occupied  by  a  swarm  of  bees; 
comp.  also  Aldrovandus  (ZV  iBird.  i,  110).  Dr.  Thom- 
son {Land  aad  Book,  ii,  863}  mentions  Ibis  occurrence 

thing,  and  makes  an  unhappy  conjeclure  Ihat  perhaps 
"  hornets,"  dtbitbir  in  Arabic,  are  intended,  "  if  it  were 
knonn,"  nys  be,  "that  they  manufactured  honey  enough 
to  meet  ihe  demands  of  Ihe  story ."  It  is  known,  bow- 
ever,  that  hornets  do  not  make  honey,  nor  do  any  of  the 
family  r»pi'/ie,  with' tbe  exception,  so  far  as  has  been 

See  Bee. 

■i.  3S3,  'ar/A.  is  the  term  applied  lo  Ihe  fourth  of 
Ihe  plagues  (q.  v.)  of  Egypt  (Exod.  viii,  8-31 1  "  divers 
Boruoftlies,"Psi.Uxviii,  46;  cv.SI).  [t  ia  regarded 
by  most  interpreters  as  a  species  uf  St"IJIy,  or  tubaavt 
(Michaelis,  Supplrm.  p.  19G0).  such  as  it  aiill  very  troub- 
lesome to  animals  in  Egypt  (Foiakal,  Drier.  AniiH.  p. 
So;  KUppcll,  ^rui.  p.  TS).  See  Bocliart,  //rrroz.  til, 
473;  Werner,  in  the  ifuceU. /j>w.  Tfov.  iii,301  sq.  See 
Fly. 

BivBTstt,  Jolm  J.,  a  minister  uf  the  Helhodiit 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  30, 1813.  He  was  received  on  trial  in  the  Pitt»- 
bn^h  Conference  in  1829,  and  labored  with  great  accppt- 
ability,  filling  the  office  of  presiding  elder  nine  succes- 
sive years.  He  took  a  superannuated  relation  in  1863, 
and  died  Feb.  18. 18^.  See  ifimtu  o/Ammal  Cof/rr- 
encrt,  ISo3,  p.  343. 

Swayza,  William,  a  Methodist  Episcopsl  minix- 
ler,  was  bom  in  SuAex  Couniy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  18,  1784. 


SWEARING  4 

In  his  youlh  h«  vu  led  b;  ■  [4otu  AAicin  to  beu  > 
HethodUt  preKhtr  near  Btllimore,  wu  converted,  and 
Hwn  aDet  fell  impretaed  that  it  «u  bu  duty  to  preach 
the  (ioapel,  ami  liboftd  u  a  kwal  preacher  to  great  ad- 
ranuge  Tut  aeveral  years.  He  was  idmiltel  inlo  the 
New  York  Ciiuference  on  trial  in  May,  1S07,  and  for 
ei^lil  yean  labored  ■ucceurully  nilhin  the  bounde  of 
that  conference.  "He  became  eiaphatically  a  'son  of 
thunder,' alt racljng  great  crowds  of  people  to  hia  minia- 
try,  and  speaking  witb  a  power  and  paChna  that  few 
have  ever  equalled,  moving  and  exciting  many — Bome 
to  tear*,  otbera  to  err  for  merer,  while  others  would 
about  for  Jnr"  (liregg^  p.  177).  In  1S16  he  vaa  tran*- 
ferredto  the  Ohio  Conference ;  tn  1S17  appointed  loCo- 
lumlHit  Circuit:  >n  1818  to  Deer  Creek  Circuit,  includ- 
ing Chilicol.lie;  in  IRZOpresiding  elder  of  Ohio  District, 
where  "  bin  labors,  fi>r  almogi  four  yeara,  were  crowned 
with  imexampled  lucceaa."  In  1824,  by  the  '' 
made  by  tbe  lieneral  Coiifereiice,  he  felt  in  the  Piiu- 
butgh  Confereuee,  and  was  apiminted  lo  Erie  Dialricti 
in  18'^  lo  Canton  Distnct;  in  1830, conference  miamon- 
ary;  in  1832,  retraniferredla  Ohio  Conrerence;  in  1834 
to  l*ilt«biirgb  Conference;  alter  which,  be  was  super- 
annuated until  deaih.  March  39, 1841.  See  Maiula  of 
A  muial  C-on/VrmoH,  iit,  238 ;  Stevens,  Hitl.  oflht  M.  f. 
Chv'-ci,  iv,  S3S-84I.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Sweartag  (some  form  of  n^K  or  S^V^,  ofovfii), 
is  an  appeal  to  God  in  irlestation  of  the  truth  of  what 
one  says,  or  in  conflraia^on  of  what  one  promiaes  or  un- 
dertakes. The  Latin  term  >■  jaijumiidma  orjuranai- 
liim.  CiceiB  (Oe  Offidii,  iii,  29)  correctly  term*  an  oath 
a  religious  affirmation ;  Ibal  ia,  an  afflimation  with  a  re- 
ligious aanclion.  This  appears  from  the  wonia  which 
lie  proceeds  tn  employ:  "Quod  aiitem  affirmale,  quasi 
I>eo  teste,  pmmiseris,  ill  tenendum  esL  Jam  enim  non 
ail  iiam  deonim,  qua  nulla  est,  sed  a<l  justiliain  et  ad 
liilem  pertinet;"  whicb  in  eifect  means  thai  an  oath  is 
an  appeal  to  God,  as  the  source  and  tbe  vindicBloi  of 
justice  and  Ailelity.  Hence  it  appears  that  there  are 
tnro  essential  dements  in  an  oath — fint,  the  human,  ■ 
<leclared  inlenlion  of  speaking  ths  truth  or  performing 
the  action  in  a  given  case;  secondly,  the  divine,  an  ap- 
peal to  (iod,  as  a  being  who  knows  all  things  and  will 
punish  guilt.  According  to  usagp,  however,  there  is  a 
third  element  in  the  idea  which  "  oath'  commonly  con- 
veys, namely,  that  the  oath  is  taken  only  on  solemn,  or, 
more  speciOcally,  on  juridical  occasions.  Tbe  canon  law 
gives  all  three  elements  w1i#n  it  represent s^dKJHn,  rt- 
j-ila>,jiutUia  as  entering  into  the  constitution  of  an  oatb 
—juifin'uTn,  judgment  or  trial  on  tbe  part  ol  society; 
ttritaa,  truth  on  the  part  of  the  oatb-takef)  juitilia, 
Justice  on  the  part  of  God. 

Tbe  practice  of  uking  oaths  existed  before  the  time 
of  Noses.    It  is  found  as  early  aa  the  days  of  Abra. 


ct  for  I 


wifeo 


s  family  , 


Hl(<Iei 


is  here  observable  that  the  oath 
private,  not  a  judicial  one;  ouir  that  the  authority  of 
Aiiraham,  as  pslriatch,muiit  be  taken  into  account.  An 
nath  was  sometimes  a  public  and  general  bond,  obliging 
the  parties  who  tocdi  It  to  a  certain  course— a  case  in 
which  it  appears  to  have  been  spontaneous  and  volun- 
tary', as  when,  in  Judges  Kxi,  the  men  of  Israel  swore, 
saying,"There  shall  not  any  of  us  give  his  daughter  unto 
Benjamin  to  wife"  {cnmp.  ver.  S),    From  1  Kings  xriii, 

casions  of  great  concern,  a  public  oath,  embracing  even 
an  entire  "  kingdom  and  nation ;"  but  whether  Uken  in- 
dividually or  by  some  representative  we  hare  no  means 
of  ascertaining.  Snch  a  custom,  however,  implying  as 
It  does  a  doubt  of  the  public  failb  of  a  people,  would 
hardly  be  submitted  to,  unless  on  the  part  of  an  inferior. 
Oaths  did  not  tak«  thrir  origin  in  any  divine  com- 
mand. They  were  a  part  of  Ibal  consuetudinary  law 
whicb  Moses  found  prevalent,  snd  was  bound  lo  respect, 
since  no  amaJ  portion  of  tbe  force  of  law  Ues  in  eutlom, 


i  SWEARING 

and  a  legislator  can  neither  abrogate  nor  ioMitota  a 
binding  law  of  his  own  mere  wilL  Aocordii^y,  Uoaa 
made  use  of  the  sanction  which  an  oath  gave,  bat  in 
that  general  manner,  and  apart  from  minute  directioiis 
and  express  words  of  approval,  which  abowi  thai  be 


could  not  aaMr 
applied  in  the  case  uFIom 


ment  tbit  be  found  it 

dispense  with.     Examples 

where  an  oath  is  ordered  to 

property;  and  here  we  ftrsl 

ly  be  called  a  judicial  oath  (Lev.  ri,  S-6). 

Ad  oath,  making  an  appeal  lo  the  divine  jusai 
power,  is  a  recognition  of  the  divinity  of  the  bi 
whom  the  appeiJ  is  made.  Hence  to  swear  by  : 
is  to  be  convicted  of  idolatry, 
ly  given  In  Scripture  as  a  proof  of  idolatry  and  a 
for  condign  punishmenL  "  How  shall  1  paidon  tbee  (br 
this?  Thy  chiklren  hare  forsaken  me,  and  awoin  by 
them  that  are  no  gods"  (Jer.  v,  7 ;  xii,  16;  AmoB  viii. 
14:  Zeph.i,&). 

This  appeal  to  God  was  in  frequent  use  ammg  tbe 
Hebrews,  as  a  confirmalinn  of  both  staleraenta  ^ati. 
XKvi,  74)  and  promises  (1  Sam.  lix,  S;  xx,  17 ;  S  Sun. 
xix,33;  xr,!l;  1  Mace,  vii,  ^ol  For  CDveoant  o«ba, 
see  Gen.  ixxi,l>3  sq.;  Joah.  ix,  lb;  3  Kings  xi,  4;  1 
Macc.vii,15;  Jaeepbu^H»r.xiv,l,i.  For  oatha  of  al- 
legiance see  S  Sam.  xv,  21 ;  Jc*ephus,,4iir.  xr,  10,  4)  in 
both  public  and  private  life  (e.  g.  Judg.  xxi,5;  I  Kings 
xviii,  10iEirax,5;andC>en.ixiv,S7;l,aiMali.xiv, 
7),  as  also  before  the  Judges  (Exod.  xxii,  1 1 ;  l«T.  nX, 

use.  Perjury  is  forbidden  (xix,  12),  hut  on  religi»B* 
grounds,  as  a  profanation  of  Guil's  name.  Tbe  osiial 
oath  was  1^  Jehovah  (Deut.  vi,  18 ;  comp.  Gen.  xiv,  tt ; 
Judg.  xxi,  T ;  Rulh  i,  17 ;  I  Sam,  sir,  44 ;  2  Sam.  six. 
7;  1  Kings  i,  29;  ii,23;  lsa.xix,iei  Ixv,  IS;  Jer.  it. 
2;  xxxviii,  l6),.whilB  the  apoeutea  swore  by  sirwnge 
sods  (v,  7;  xii,  16;  Amos  viii,  14 ;  Zepb,i,&).  Sane- 
times  an  ostb  was  made  by  the  life  of  tbe  person  ad- 
dressed (2  Kings  il,S;  1  Sam.i,2fi;  xx,S;  eompt  Eurip- 
ides, HrL  835),  by  the  life  of  the  king  (1  aam.  xvii,  »,- 
xxv,26i  2  8am.  xi,  11), or  by  his  bead, even  wben  not 
in  his  presence  (a  common  oath  in  Egypl,Ueii.  xHi,  16, 
and  still  nsed  in  Persia, RasenmUlkr,;l/oryail^i, 9)0  sq.; 
Horier,  ^econJ  Joarneif ;  romp.  Attabo,  xii,  567 ;  Herod- 
otus, ir,68;  Cuniu^vi,  11,18;  Lucian,  CuTajiJ.  11;  Sue- 
tonius, Calig.  27 ;  Vegetius,  Dr  Re  MiL  ii,6;  Tertiillian, 
ApoL  fi2;  Znm,  BiUioik.  Atttiq.  i,  813  sq.  In  tbe  Got- 
pei  arttinlBig  lo  iVicoifrmiH,  ESIate  swears  by  (As  taftttf 
of  CoMtir;  comp.  Kein,  R6m.  Crimmalndil,  pL  6U). 
More  rarelv,  the  oath  was  by  the  bead  of  the  swearer 
<Matt.  r,  86 ;  comp.  Virgil, .«».  ix,  BOO ;  Grid,  rriif,  i  v, 
4,  4&;  Jurenal.  vi,  17),  by  aoAe  important  member  oT 
the  body,  as  the  eye*  (Ovid,  Amor,  iii,  8, 18;  Tibullm, 
iii, e, 47;  Plautus,  Jfmaw.  v,9, 1);  by  the  earth  (Uatl. 
r,35;  SiL  Ilal.  riii,  lOb ;  Euripide^  My-fw/f"".  1029); 
by  hearen  and  the  sun  (Matt,  v,  S4;  Talmud  Babyl. 
Ueroth.lA\  onmp.  Kor.  xci,  6;  liii,  1;  Ivi,  77;  Tirgil, 
^'n-xii,  176, 197;  ix,429)  Aristophanes, £f. 705;  Phi- 
larcb,  129;  Euripides,  Jfeilni,  746;  Paitsaniss,  riii,  18, 
1;  IMiilostratuH,  Hit.  u,  11;  and  Wettstnn,  i,  305); 
by  the  angels  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  16,  4).  It  waa  a 
part  of  tbe  punctiliousness  of  the  later  Jews  lo  pnffr 
rather  lo  swear  by  the  sun,  the  earth,  or  heaven  than 
by  God  himself  (Pbibwirslus-ii,  271).  Somesworaby 
liie  Temple  (Matt,  xxiii,  16;  comp.  Lightfool,  p.  380),  at 
partsof  it  (Matt.xxiii.16;  comp.  Wettstein  adUie,),at 
by  Jerusalem,  the  holy  city  (MiiLv,S6;Mishna,A:(tAK- 
bolk,  ii,  9 ;  Lighlfoot,  p.  ISO).  So  among  other  ancient 
nations,theBliarwaslouched  in  swearing  (oim p. DoOKb- 
Ifiis, /I  nalnV.  ii,26;  Lakemachei,  O&serr.  ix,  112  sq.  on 
.SiL  Hal.  iii,  82.  On  Iheoath  i:obiia)I  [q.  r.l.see  Joar- 
phus,^;i«i*,l,22,4&3). 

The  form  of  swearing  by  .lehorab,  always  Ihe  mnst 
usual  oath  (sec  above),  was  verv simple — "The  Lord  do 
Ibis  <ir  [bat  lo  me  if  I  swear  falsely"  (Ruth  i,  17;  2  Sara. 
iii,  9,85;  I  Kings  ii,  23;  3  Kings  vi,Sl),or  "Aa  Jeho- 


SWEARING 

T»h  Eieili"  (rnh"'  Ti,  or  DtA^  "^i  Buth 

;'!'s»m.  ii,  27;   Jer.  M.viii,  16); 


SWEARING 
IS ;  I  aq.    Some  <Mbe  they  dedired  invalid :  « ir  uijr  one 


,   awcar  bv  heavfn,  eanh.  the  h 


IpHUr  kogth,  "Jehovah  be  a  true  and  faitbrul  wlt- 

■•w  bnwftn  ua"  (.~CK  Iji  1:5  n;h^  'T}^,  Jer.  xlK,  |  ^' 
bj.   Furmulaa  of  (erriUe  impon  were  used  b.v  the  bter 


'ords  a  rererence  I( 


II  (ate  Joacphiu,  Z.i/r,  §  53 ;  1 


lop.  LysiaB,  Pro.  Con. '  Him  who  M 


nualli-  obnen-ed  tiy 


A  rilnpk.  Si).  Of  the  cetemoniet 
ihwe  who  Look  oath*  we  know  but  liide.  In  patri- 
archal antiquity  it  waa  usual  to  put  the  hand  under  the 
■high  (tieiLsxir.V;  xlvii,29).  On thia  practice Aben- 
Km  D^dR-Fea,  "it  appear*  probable  to  me  that  the 
ncaning  dC  thia  aiuuiB  waa  aaifthe  aaperiuT  aiid,  wiLh 
ihi  omnit  of  hia  slave, '  If  thon  ait  under  my  power, 
■od  tberefcn  piepaiBd  to  execute  my  commands,  put 
ihT  bud, at  a  token,  under  my  Ihigh.'"  Winer,  how- 
•'Ter,ihuiki  that,  u  it  was  usual  la  swear  by  the  more 
unpwtaat  pana  of  the  human  frame,  ao  th 
MOM  10  Ibe  (tenerative  powen  of  man. 
liib  iatcrpntuion,  u  well  as  on  tbe  general  question 
of  (waaring  by  parts  of  tbe  body.Ueiner,  Ge»di.der  St- 
Z>;.Ji,iS6aq.  It  ia,  however,  ^enain  that  it  wag  usual  to 
loacli  that  bT  which  ■  penon  swore.  Other  inalaoces 
nay  be  seen' in  Nicdek.  De  Poptiior.  Adoral.  p.  213  aq., 
and  p.  tlS,  wbkh  ^  immediately  to  oonflrm  tbe  idea 
alnaeti  by  Winer.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  (on 
Ohl  uit,  2)  iBppoaes  the  band  to  bsve  been  placed 
iin  ilie  sKtion  of  circaniciaian  (comp.  Jerome,  ad  bK.). 
linmbajc  (RtUgiamL  i,  433)  most  strangely  connects 
a  wotahip  of  Baal  and 


:  the  prophet  and  gave  the  houli,  11 


an  oath"  (Maimon.  Hoi  ShAat^k, 
c.  13).  So  the  Hiahna  {Slubuoth,  c  *):  "If  any  one 
■Inures  another  by  heaven  or  eaiib,  he  is  not  held 
bound  by  tbis."  It  is  easy  to  see  that  oaths  of  ihir 
naluK,  with  authorititdve  interpretations  and  glossn 
so  Ian,  could  hardly  fail  lo  looaen  moral  iibligatiDo,  and 
to  lead  to  much  praelical  peijury  and  impiely.  Ui- 
nute  caaoiiticol  distinctions  undermine  the  moral  sense. 

Dula  appear  to  bind  himself  and  yet  be  free. 


.    (For 


«  Dreye 


UiikA.  tteckti.  p.  116  sq.;  Hilhn,  in  Ber- 
Ontai  •  Jutrn.  vii,  1 18  tq.). 

The  more  usual  employment  of  the  hand  was  to  raise 
iL  cawsid)  hcaren ;  designed,  probably,  to  excite  atten- 
lioa,  10  point  out  tbe  oatb-laJier,  and  to  give  solemnity 
ID  the  act  (Gen.  xiv,  22,  23).  In  tbe  slmngly  anthro- 
poBorphitic  language  of  parts  uf  the  Scripture  even 
tM  is  uuroduced  saying,  "  t  lift 


e  released  hy  religious  authnriiiesi  the  basis 
of  private  virtue  and  the  grounds  of  public  coiiiidence 
ara  at  once  endangeied.  Besides,  the  practice  of  un- 
authorized and  spontaneous  oath-taking,  which  srema 
even  in  the  earlier  periods  of  Jewish  bision'  to  have 
been  too  cnmmuii,  became,  about  tbe  time  uf  our  Lord, 
of  great  frequency,  and  must  have  tended  lo  h>wer  ihe 
religious  as  well  as  weaken  the  moral  character.  J'c 
ter's  conduct  is  a  striking  case  in  point,  who  "  betnin  to 

xxvi,74).  An  open  falsehood  thus  asserted  and  main- 
lained  by  oaths  and  imprecations  shows  hnw  litlle  re- 
gard there  was  at  that  lime  paid  to  such  means  of  sub- 
stantiating truth.  Tbe  degtce  of  guill  implied  in  such 
lamentable  practices  is  heightened  by  the  emphsna 
with  which  the  Uossic  law  guarded  the  ssnctily  of  ihe 
divine  name  and  prohibited  the  crime  of  perjury  and 
ifanalion  (Exod.  xx,  7;  Lev.  xix,  12;  DeuU  v,  II ;    ' 


v,a3). 


say,  1  live 
Alaiigbly  is 


■"  (Dent 


imploycd  whenever  tbe 
repieaented  as  in  any  way  coming  under 
lae  UHigsiion  of  an  oath  (Gen.  xxii,  IS,  17 ;  Exod-  vi, 
1;  Eiek.xi,6;  HeUvi,!?}.  Instead  of  tbe  bead,  the 
pkylaociy  waa  aometiiDe*  touched  by  the  Jews  on 
ukii«  an  oath  (Haimon.  Sk^moOi,  c.  1 1).  Even  the 
Uniy  is  sometintes  iniroduced  as  swearing  by  phyUc- 
i»ri«  (rmnLfuL  vi,3;  Olho,  Z^.  p.  767).  "Giving 
tbe  haod'  (Eiek.  xviii,  12)  was  a  ceremuny  used  be- 
inea  equals;  tbe  violation  of  this  pledge  was  believed 
to  be  a  moat  atrocious  crime,  and  hence  tbe  prophet 
x^engeancfl  on  the  king  of  Babylon,  who 
nveiiant  after  having  "given  bis  hand." 
'  in  of  Ihe  pledge  given 
by  Ibe  joiniog  of  handa,  in  connection  with  some  relig- 
it  coins,  of  which  the 
KOHiipanjing  engravings  are  specimena.  They  are 
lalm  frnm  golden  coins  in  Ihe  British  Huaeum.  See 
Hum.    Swearing  by  dipping  the  bands  in  the  blood 


li,  40).    Some  sup-  {  p.  3&I ;  Philo,  ii,  194),  « 


■s  (Otho 


sT  1  vtetiin  was  tbe  n>oM  solemn  form  of  oath  among 
■he  andent  Gr(ek^  and  waa  chiefly  used  in' concluding 
disooea  uflenslve  and  defensive.    See  Covkmamt. 

Tb*  Rabbinical  wrilen  indulge  in  much  prolixity  on 
l>i*  iDt^  of  oat  ha,  entering  into  nice  distinction*,  and 
itoiring  ihcmselm  exqulsiu  casuists.  A  brief  view 
<(  tbiit  diaqaisUioD*  may  be  (hd  in  Otbo,  Ltx,  p.  M7 


I  entering  as  at 


ekment  into  popular  poetry  (Martial, 
lacrlbe  ihe  imputation  to  Ibt  known 
injuatice  of  heathen  writeis  towards  the  Israelites.  This 
national  vice,  doublless,  had  an  inBuence  with  Ihe  £s- 
scnea  (q.  v.)  in  placing  tbe  probilnlion  of  oath*  amonft 
the  rule*  of  their  rdbrmalory  order.  Modem  Oriental* 
hsintually  use  the  exdatnatinu  InthatUik  ("in  iha 
natne  of  God")  on  the  most  trivial  occanons. 

That  no  case  has  been  made  out  by  Christian  com- 
itKntaton  iu  favor  of  Judicial  Bweaiing  we  do  not  sf- 

is  a  very  weak  one,  wear*  a  casuistical  appearance,  and 
as  if  necessitated  in  order  10  excuse  existing  usages  ami 
guard  against  errors  imputed  to  unpopulst  sects,  such 
as  the  (juaker*  and  Mennonite*.  II  inferential  ami 
merely  probable  eoncluaioDS,  such  a*  Ibe  case  consist* 
of,  may  be  allowed  to  prevail  against  the  explicit  lan- 
guage of  Jesos  and  James,  Scripture  is  robbed  of  it* 
certainty,  and  prohibition*  the  most  express  lose  Ibeii 
force.  For  instance,  it  has  been  alleged  that  our  Lord 
himself  took  part  in  an  oath  when,  being  adjured  by 
tbe  high-priest,  he  answered  "Thou  bast  said"  (MalL 
ixvi,  63,  64).  But  what  has  this  lo  do  with  bis  own 
doctrine  on  the  point?  Placed  at  the  bar  ofjudgmeni, 
Jeaus  was  a  criminal,  not  a  teacher,  bound  by  Ihe  lawe 
of  his  country — which  it  was  a  part  of  his  plan  nevei 
unnecessarily  to  dinegaid — lo  give  an  answer  to  Iha 
quealion  judicially  put  to  him,  and  bound  equally  by  * 
regard  to  the  great  intereals  which  he  had  coine  into 
the  world  to  serve.  Jeeusdid  not  swear,  but  was  sworn. 
The  putting  the  oath  he  could  not  prevent.  Hi)  sole 
question  was.  Should  he  answer  the  interrogatoTy? — a 
question  which  depended  on  connderations  of  the  high- 
est moment,  and  wbich  he  who  alone  could  judge  de- 
cided in  tbe  affirmative.  That  question  in  eflM  was, 
"An  thou  the  Hesoah?"  His  reply  was  «  simple  a(- 
Srmativa.    The  employment  of  tbe  adjuration  was  tbe 


SWEARING  6 

act  af  the  migulnU,  to  hive  oLjMted  to  which  would 
hive  brought  on  Jeiua  the  charge  of  equirocMiun,  if 
not  of  evwon,  or  even  the  deniil  of  his  "  high  calling." 
The  general  tendency  oTthitanicle  i>  la  ahaw  how  de- 
nrable  it  isihacthe  pnctice  of  Mth-ukingufall  kinds, 
Judicial  u  welt  u  others,  ihould  at  least  ba  diminished 
till,  SI  the  prDpcr  lime,  icia  Cntally  abolished;  forwhal- 
aneier  is  more  than  a  siiaple  sfflrmation  cometh  fruin  the 
Evil  One.  ^(rofironipni-;  (»rati.v,87),  and  equally  leail- 
alhioevil.  SeeLydii  IHv.deJaianu^o;  Sicai*l,De 
Jvram,  Heimroram^tlnrcorom^  ftomititoramtaUontmqiit 
Populnramf  Seldeiii  l>iu.de  JarumtnliM:  Mulembecii 
De  Jantmrnla  pti-  Grmim  Priadpit ;  Speiioeri  i>uu.  de 
JvaunKlo  per  A  ikMuIum — all  of  which  may  be  Tuund 
in  voL  xivi  uf  Ugolino'a  Tittaunu  Anliq.  Sacr.  See 
alia  Hansen,  tM  Juramait.  Veil,  in  Gnevius,  TAfiaanu; 
Carpzov,  Appnr,  p.  65!  aq.:  Steiiiler,  i>e  Jiirejur,  Sec. 
Ditdp.  Hii.  (Lips.  1736);  Funoann,  Dt  Jarejtr.  tx 
Menlellrbr.tyniMAim:  Valckenaer, £«  Ai^ ui  Ju- 
rejar.a.Vel.HAr.rl  C'vrr.  OAMrn.  (Fraiiek.  17SG;  and 
in  Oelrkh's  CoOecl.  I,  ii.  175  sq.) :  especially  Baasek,  Dt 
Jvnjtr.  Vel.  inipr.  Rum.  (Tny.  *d  Kh.  1727);  Lasaulx, 
Uei.d.t:!diad.Givrh.(V/ttnb.l»U);  Uet.  d.  Kid  bri 
<f.  RSm.  (ibid.  1844);  Olho,  Lex.  Rabbin,  p.  347  M|.  A 
mora  recent  authority  may  he  foiitid  in  Siiiiulliu,  Ge- 
lAicUe  der  VartleU.  s.  v. "  Eide ;"  see  alao  Tyler,  Oalkt ; 
litir  OHj/in,  etc     See  Oath. 

SWEA.KIKG,  PROFA!iR,was  severely  condemned  in 
the  ancient  Church,  and  seems  in  have  been  a  common 
practice.  Swearing,  nr  rrioliah  or  wickeil  adjuralioiia 
by  any  creature  or  dmiion,  by  the  emperor's  genius,  hy 
■ngel  and  hy  saint,  were  repnibiied.  ferjured  penana 
were  placed  under  BficciBl  penance.  Profanily  is  also 
punishable  by  the  civil  Uw  of  Great  Briuin,  and  by 
the  laws  uf  some  aC  the  atat«s  of  the  United  States. 

SweBt(n:T,Gen.iii,19;  7T^, Eiek. xliv,  18;  ifpw(, 
Luke  Kxii,  44)  was  one  uf  the  phjrucal  phenomena  at- 
tending nur  Lord's  agony  in  Ihe  garden  nf  Gelhsem- 
niie  aa  dewiribed  by  Luke  (xxii,  44)  i  "  His  sweat  was 
as  it  were  great  drupa  (lileraUy  data,  3p  ifi^)  otbloml 
falling  down  to  the  ground."  The  Keiiuineneas  of  this 
veiK  and  of  the  preceding  has  been  doubled,  but  is  now 
(;enerilly  acknowledged.  Tbey  are  omitted  in  A  and 
B,  but  are  found  in  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  (X),  Codex 
Bene,  and  others,  and  in  the  Peshito,  Philoxenian.  and 
Curetonian  .Syriac  (see  Tr^gelles,  Grrrk  New  Ttrl.; 
Scrivener,  laii-od.  lo  Ike  Crit.  n/Ike  Srw  Ten.  p.  494), 
and  Tregelles  piiinu  lo  the  natation  of  the  section  ami 
canim  in  ver.  42  as  a  trace  of  the  existence  of  the  verse 
in  the  Codex  Alexaiidrinus. 

Of  this  malady,  known  in  medical  science  by  the  term 
lUiifiedfii'.  ihere  have  been  examples  recnnled  both  in 
ancient  and  modem  limea.  Ariaiolle  was  aware  of  it 
(lie  I'nn.  Anin.  iii,  b).  The  cause  assigned  ii  gener- 
ally violent  menial  emotion.  "Kaiincgiesser,"  quoted 
by  r>r.  Sirourt  (/'Aji.  CnMse  of  Ike  Ifntih  o/Chrul,  p. 
86 ),"reniarkB,'Violent  menial  exdlement,  whether  oc- 
icontrollahle  ange 


Id  I 


r.forct 


a  sweat,  accompanied  with  signi  either  uf  anxiety  or 
hilarity.'  Aller  ascribing  this  sweat  to  the  unei|iisl 
consiriclion  of  sume  vessels  aiul  dilalatioii  of  ntbers.  he 
further  observes:  '  If  the  mind  is  seized  with  a  sudden 
fear  of  death,  the  sweat,  owing  to  the  eiceasive  degree 
nf  cooalrictlon,  oflcn  becomes  bloody.' "  Dr.  Hillingcu 
( ViK-iotiiin  of  Medical  Exptrimct,  p.  489, 2d  ed.)  gives 
the  folluwing  explanation  of  the  phenomenon:  "It  is 
pruhible  that  this  atiange  disorder  arises  from  a  violent 

of  bluod  nut  of  Iheir  natural  counie,  and  furcing  the  red 
particles  into  Ibe  cutaneous  eicretaries.  A  mere  relax- 
ation of  the  fibres  could  not  produce  so  powerful  a  re- 
vulsion. It  may  also  arise  in  cases  of  extreme  debili- 
ty, in  connection  with  a  thinner  condition  of  the  blood." 
The  following  are  a  few  of  the  instances  on  recced 
which  have  been  collected  by  Calmei  (Diu.tarlaSutur 


0  SWEDEN 

ilu  .9ta^).'Hilluigen, Stroud,  Tmsen  {Die  Sirttm,  Giirim- 
<Ae  uad  KrwMtiUn  d.  aU.  Iltbr.  [Bteslsu,  ISaSJ),  iu 
addition  to  Ihoie  given  under  Bloodv  Sweat,  Sehet- 
hius(Oii.  jl/niiii,468)  says  that  in  the  plague  of  II iae- 
no  in  ibbi  a  woman  who  waa  seized  sweated  bU-ud  fur 
three  da>-s.  In  IbSi  Conrad  Lycoathenes  (/>r  Prad^ 
u,  p.62a,ed.  1&37)  reports,  a  woman  sick  of  Ihe  pligue 
sweated  blood  from  the  uppN  part  >if  her  bodv.  Ac~ 
cording  to  Do  Thou  (I,  li,  SiS,  ed.  IBafi),  liU  goy- 
emor  of  Hontemaro,  being  suieil  by  Mtatagem  and 
threatened  with  death,  was  ao  moved  thereat  that  he 
sweated  blood  and  water.  In  the  MUangrt  itHiilmrr, 
(iii,  179),  by  Dom  Bunavenlure  d'Argonne,  Ihe  ease  in 
given  of  a  woman  who  luffered  so  much  from  Ihi*  mal- 
ady that,  after  her  death,  no  bhxid  was  fmntil  in  her 
veins.  Another  case  of  a  girl  of  eighteen  wbn  suffenil 
in  the  tame  way  ia  reported  by  Mesaporiti,  a  physician 
at  Genoa,  accompanied  hy  the  observationi  of  Vdisneii. 
pmfeMor  uf  medicine  at  Padua.  It  occurml  iu  I7fl.t 
[/■Ait  r,nw.  No,B03,  p.  2144).  There  U  sCiU,  howerei. 
wanted  a  well-authenticated  instance  in  modem  times 
obeerveil  wilh  all  the  caiv  and  alteilert  by  all.ibe  ez- 
actnee*  of  later  medical  science.  That  pven  in  Cas- 
par's Wocknuehi-ift,  1848,  aa  having  beeii  obaerred  b; 
Dr.  Schneider,  appears  lo  be  Ibe  most  recent,  and  re- 
sembles Ihe  phenomenon  meniinued  by  Thenphrai- 
tua  (CiWofl  SIrd.  Gat.  1848, 11,553).  For  further  nf- 
erence  to  authottiies,  see  CupeLutd,  Viel.  it/  Mtdiane. 

Siredberg,  Jilspkr,  bishop  of  Skara,  in  Sweden. 
His  father's  name  was  .^^coAacin,  but,  according  to  a  fr^ 
quent  Swedish  custom,  the  »Hi,ou  taking  his  degree  a( 

bom  Aug.  28^1653,  in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia.  Hsv. 
ing  received  a  university  educalinn,  he  was  ordained  in 
IG85,  and  became  succesnrely  court  chaplain,  profesKit 
of  theohigy  in  the  Univen-ity  of  Upsala  (1693),  and 
provost  of  the  catheiiral  there.  He  was  a  pious,  elo- 
quent, and  active  man,  a  sumcwbat  vohiminniw  writer, 
chiefly  on  devotional  siihjecta.  He  slooil  high  in  hii 
native  country,  and  many  of  his  hymns  are  stilt  among 
the  favorite  ones  in  Ihe  Swedish  Lutlieran  service.  Ite 
was  the  father  of  Kminuel  Swedenbnrg.  He  was  mail'- 
bishop  of  Skara  in  1701,  about  the  time  that  he  visited 
England.  The  Swedish  Church  in  London  and  the 
Swedish  cnngregaiions  aeltled  on  the  banks  of  the  Dela- 
ware, in  America,  were  placed  hy  the  king  under  bin 
epiMopsI  supervision;  ami  bia  letter*  lo  the  latter  c»l- 
oiiy,slill  preserved  in  the  records  of  Ibe  Church  at  Wil- 
mington, show  a  warm  interest  in  their  alTalrs.  Fivm 
Ihe  information  which  he  had  obtained  from  ihia  mr- 
respondence  he  published  a  work  concerning  America. 
s  cupv  of  which  is  in  the  library  nf  Harvard  College. 
He  also  published  a  Pialm-Boot  (1694),  which  was  sup- 
pressed as  pietisiic ;  and  the  flrat  Sicrdith  GromiHiir 
(I722>  BishapS»edberediedJuly2G,rS5.  (W.&H.) 
Bweten,  ■  kingdom  in  the  nonhem  part  of  Eu- 
rope. In  conjunction  wilh  Norway  it  fomu  the  Scan- 
iliiuvian  peninsula,  occupying  itself  Ihe  larger  part  i>f 
thia  peninsula.  Its  geognphicsl  position  is  between 
U..  R.i=  2U'  and  69=  N.  and  long.  1 1"  10'  and  M"  10'  E.. 
and  it  extends  not  far  from  I(MM)  miles  from  north  lu 
wHilh,  and  iu  its  greatest  breadth  900  miles  from  eaM 
lowest.  It  is  bounded  on  Ihe  north  bv  Norwegian  Liip. 
land,  east  by  Russia,  soulh  by  the  Giilf  of  Finland  and 
ihe  Baltic,  and  west  by  the  Sound,  the  Cattegal,  an.) 
Norway.  The  country  has  Ihe  characleriaiic  featuro 
of  all  northern  regions.  Alany  parts  nf  it,  e^iecially  lu 
the  north,  are  barren  and  unproductive.  Its  immenir 
forests  are  a  source  of  great  revenue,  the  wooil  bfing 
used  not  only  for  fuel,  but  entering  qniie  generally  iiitn 

parts  of  all  buildings,  and  fumiriiiug  also  a  proSlable 
article  for  export.  All  the  grains  peculiar  lo  norilieni 
countries  are  raised  in  Sweden,  not  only  iu  sufficiciu 
quantity  fur  home  consumption,  but  also  fur  exiun. 


SWEDEN 


Td  toot  of  tbe  mttils  it  ia  Tetyrich.md  no  Noall  part 
at  ibt  wealth  <rf  (he  coontiy  comes  from  the  working 
nf  uian  of  goW,  tilver,  iron,  copper,  etc.  The  dencrip- 
liMi  which  ha*  been  given  of  Korway,  to  far  a*  the 

natunl  pmluctioni  of  the  country  are  concerned,  will 
apply  10  Sweden,  and  renden  any  mtnuLe  detail  in  thia 

Tb*  grt«t  political  divitions  of  Sweden  are  three— 
GMhlaud,  Sr^tland,  and  Norrland.  (iothlanil  has  thir- 
letn  lobdiviaioiu,  STBalatid  eight,  and  Notrland  StS" 
ihe  whrite  gifina  an  area  of  187,477  aquare  mtlea,  and 
haHng  a  pupulalimi  of  ■  Uule  more  than  four  millinna 
ami  a  •piarter.  The  lareeM  cilT  ia  Stockbolni,  haring 
■  population  in  1883  of  1»1,4«9.  The  only  other  ciij 
i-f  (ontulenbia  (ize  in  Sweilen  is  Gothenburg,  which 
lias  a  population  of  tt1.-in3;  but  ihere  is  quite  a  large 
floBher  of  cities  and  tuvrns  having  a  population  of  over 

L  Hiitirry The  eaHy  hialoty  of  Sweden  ia  involved 

in  gieat  ohacurity,  nor  do  we  find  much  in  that  history 
ikac  will  iotereM  the  general  reader  until  we  come 
ilowo  lo  the  lime  of  Gustaviu  Vasa,  who,  with  great 
herum.  made  an  attack  on  Christian  II,  and  succeeded 
is  oUaiuing  the  throne  in  ii'lS,  The  next  character 
thai  rtanda  oat  prominently  un  (he  pagea  of  Swediah 
hisnrr  is  liustavm  Adolphua,  the  (treat  champion  of 
ibe  iSncealant  faitli,  and  the  powerful  foe  with  whom 
.Imha  had  to  contend  during  the  important  period  of 
Ik*  Thirty  Year-i'  Wat.  Goauvus  was  moat  fortunate 
is  liii  cuanwllun  and  stateemen,  eipecially  in  hi*  chan- 
nllnr.  the  wise  and  pnd  Oxenstiem  (q.  v.),  who,  after  the 


61  SWEDEN 

forms.    Charles  died  in  I87S,  and  waa  aiicceeded  by  the 
present  king,  Oacar  II. 

II.  fl»/iffi«ifc— Christianity  was  first  introduced  Into 
9waien  in  the  year  830  by  Anschar,  a  monk  of  Coibey, 
Wpstphalia,  although  the  Swedish  historians  assert  that 
many  of  the  people  embraced  ths  (loepel  aiill  earlier, 
and  that  in  813  a  church  waa  erected  at  linkiiplng  bv 
Herbert,  a  Saxon  ecclesiastic.  The  Ubors  of  Anichar 
were  followed  up  by  his  successor,  Kembert,  who  found- 
several  chnrches,  but  ( 


It  the  bi 


of  Lilt. 


!d  with  the  management  of  affairs  during 
y  of  ChtiMina,  the  daughter  of  Goatavus, 
[o  the  throne.  Paawngovera  few  years, 
«■  come  to  the  period  during  which  the  celebrated 
CharlaXIIaat  on  the  throne,  whose  wonderful  martial 
eipluiij  form  one  of  the  moat  brilliant  pages  of  modem 
ki««T.     At  the  commencetnenl  of  hla  reign  the  king- 

ii>  glory.  When  he  cloMd  his  adminintraliun,  and,  by 
Ml  death,  Sweden  csme  under  the  domininn  of  bis  * 
i«,  CWca  Eleonora,  iti  prospects  were  far  from  Hal 
inc.  She  surtcnderad  herself  to  the  control  of  her  hus- 
tsnd,  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel,  whose  administrati 
<4tht  ilbits  of  Sweden  waa  nuMt  unfununate  and  I 
wbtiiqt  In  making  terms  of  peace  with  the  enem 
•iih  wbora  she  had  been  at  war  for  aa  long  a  tit 
(OBiun*  of  lai^  territories  which  were  once  within  t 
bnadarin  ol  the  kingdom  had  to  be  rasdeL  Ulrica 
(hnng  without  issue,  the  throne  passed  into  the  banda 
cf.Uolpbus  Frvdeiiek,  in  fulHItnent  of  one  ofthe  terms 
"l  pract  prescribed  by  (he  empress  of  Russia  in  the 
inBivoT  t7f3.  His  reign  of  twenty  yean  was  one  of 
DiajtaDI  comntotion  and  trooble.  At  hisdeath,in  I7'l, 
kii  aon  Gustavua  [II  suctx«iled  to  the  crown  and  reign- 
•d  twenty  years,  when  lie  was  assassinated,  and  hia  son 
(intanii  IV,  ■  minor  in  age,  came  lo  the  throne,  with 
Ui  slide,  the  duke  of  Siidcrraannland,  n  regent.  For 
ratioQs  rcuon*  the  yonng  king,  after  a  few  years,  waa 
Riis(itlled  to  abdicate,  and  his  uncle,  the  regent,  under 
ilK  title  of  Charles  XIII,  became  king.  Upon  his  de- 
o*>e.  Feb.  0, 1818,  the  French  nurshal  Bemaiioite  waa 
tinud  king,  taking  the  title  of  Charles  XIV.  Dnr- 
isf  his  reign  of  twenty-six  years,  Sweden  enjoyed  a 
fMd  degree  of  prosperity,  and  recovered,  in  contider- 
•Uc  iMasiiTe.  whai  she  had  lost  under  the  reigns  of  his 
tsnlesnors.  At  his  death,  in  1844,  his  son  Oscsr  I 
■eceedtd  him  an<l  perfected  the  plans  of  his  fsthet  fur 
■trvdiiping  the  nwiarcea  of  Ihe  country  and  adding  lo 
iu  raiterial  wealth.  Hia  reign  lasted  fifteen  years 
I  IH4-&9),  during  the  last  two  of  which,  on  account  of 
Ui  Hl-beatih,  his  son  and  suGcenor  had  acted  as  rc- 
int.  This  son,  Charles  XV,  waa  king  for  thirteen  yesrs 
(18a9-71).  During  his  admin iatraijon,  liberal  ideas 
oined  the  aacei>dmc;'i  and  the  reaull  waf  the  intru- 
laction  iu*  ibe  gOTcniiDcat  of  many  coBStitutional  re- 


of  Keir 


ailed  ti 


lanitv  became  almi 
iMt  until  1036  that  Sweden  became  a  Christian  state. 
The  Heformation  commenced  in  Sweden  in  16S4  under 
(iustavus  I,  who  secretly  encouraged  the  preaching  of 
Lutheran  dnctrines,  in  order,  when  he  had  formed  a 
party  of  sufRcient  strength,  to  seize  Ihe  revenues  of  the 
dominant  Church  and  abolish  lis  worahip.  One  of  the 
most  popular  and  able  minionariea  of  the  Reforniatiini 
was  Obif  Petri,  who  published  the  New  Test,  in  ihe 
Swedish  language.  The  bishops  called  upon  the  king 
lo  Buppresa  the  translation,  who  treated  their  proiniral 

Upsala  between  the  ttomish  and  Pnleslani  parlies. 


Thiai 


B  Romish  creed,  and  they  ' 
their  houses.  GuttaTus  seized  at  once 
two  thirds  of  Ihe  whole  eccleeiaalical  revenues,  and  ati- 
thoriied  Ihe  clergy  to  marry  and  mix  with  the  world. 
He  also  declared  himaelf  a  I.ulheran,  nominated  Luther- 

pariah  churches.     In  the  course  of  two  yearn  Ihe  Rom- 
ish worship  was  aulpninty  ami  universally  abolished. 


II  of  A 


reived  m 


both  ctiiircheis  and  e 


only  rule  of  faith,  John,  who  succeeded  In 
in  1669,  had  married  Catharine  of  1'oland,  a  Roman 
Catholii.'.  and  soon  displayed  a  decided  leaning  lowanis 
the  Dill  faith.  In  the  fervor  of  his  zeal  he  ]  rcpared  a 
new  lilurgv,  entitled  "Liturgy  of  Ihe  Swediili  Church, 
Confomialje  to  the  Catholic'  and  Orthodox  Church." 
ilurgy  was  rejected  by  the  mass  of  the  clergy  of 
*  '  -  ■  -  .  ifij  papal  aatiction  was  re- 
fused, snil,  the  king  wi  far  prevailed  as  lo  induce  the 
Swedish  Church  to  revise  its  liturgy,  and  to  declare  all 
opposed  lo  revision  guilty  of  schism.  On  his  deslh, 
his  brother  Charles  became  regent,  and  one  of  his  tiixt 
acts  was  to  induce  the  Syiioil  of  Upsala  (1698)  toaboliah 
the  liturgy  prepared  by  the  laic  king  snd  depose  Ihose 
ecclesiaatics  who  had  defended  it.  (ilgismuiid,  hearing 
of  these  proceedings,  came  to  Sweden  and  inauguroled 
violent  meaturea  in  behalf  of  the  Romish  faith,  which 
were  so  generally  opposed  by  clergy  and  people  that 
he  returned  in  disgust  to  pi-land.  Charles  rook  np  Ihe 
work  of  reform,  caused  a  decree  to  be  published  in  1600 
that  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  slmuld  be  the  only 
rule  of  faith  in  Sweden,  that  all  Knmish  priests  should 
leave  the  country  itt  siji  weeks,  and  prescribing  gen- 
eral conformity  uivder  penalty  of  banishment.  Under 
queen  Christina  lh»Church  sank  into  a  deplorable  con- 
dition of  spiritual  declension  and  decay.  There  waa  a 
religious  awakening,  however,  under  Ihe  preaching  of 
(JIalailiiiB,  who  eulTered  for  hta  zeal  by  a  lung  imprisnn- 
menl.  To  put  an  end  lo  what  was  called  in  ridicule 
Pietam,tn  act  was  pasted  in  1TIS,  and  a  still  more 
stringent  one  in  17!6,  prohibiting,  under  heavy  penal- 
ties, all  private  religious  meetings  or  con  vein  icles. 
These  hanh  neasures  and  the  desire  for  Irue  spiriluol- 
ity  led  a  number  of  the  penple  lo  seek  permission  l« 
have  the  old  booka  used  in  the  churches  of  their  par- 
ishes, or  lo  have  regularly  ordained  pastors  serve  them, 
pramistng  themselves  to  maintain  them,  in  addition  lo 
paying  all  dues,  as  fimnerly,  to  the  parish  priest.  This 
was  refused,  and  they  withdrew  from  the  worship  of 
the  naticmal  Church,  enduring  many  disabilities,  as  de* 
nial  of  marriage,  Unes,  and  penalties.  It  was  not  till 
I87S  that  dissenting  minisleis  were  allowed  Iv  marry. 
The  established  Church  of  Sweden  is  Lutheran,  all 


SWEDEN 


Q2 


SWEDENBORG 


NcM  of  Cbriatiina,  however,  being  lolented.  The  king 
nominates  the  uchbiibop  and  the  bilhops  Itdiii  ■  liu 
of  names  preaeiiMd  to  him  by  tlie  ecdeaiaMical  author- 
iti«a.  The  irchbiiitHip  of  Upaala  ia  the  bead  of  tbe 
Swedith  Church,  having  onder  him  eliven  bisho|w. 
All  eccle«iauical  matters  of  in)partatice  are  subject  to 
[he  decision  of  the  king.  A  revolution  in  religious 
matter*  is  now  going  on  in  Sweden  which  unnot  fail, 
in  time,  to  make  itself  felt  in  its  inSuence  on  the  future 
ilestiuy  of  the  national  Church.  Especially  pmspcTous 
have  been  tbe  missionary  operalious  of  the  Uaptiats 
under  the  labora  of  the  Hev.  Andreas  Wiberg  and  his 
feliow-labarem.  ThauBandsofconrertahavebeen  gath- 
ered into  Bap^M  eKarcbes,  and  the  work  of  evangeliza- 

In  1854  the  Rev.  O,  P.  Petersen  was  cammiauoned 
by  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 

arji  he  had,  as  an  assistant  misaionsry,  Peter  Ixrsaen, 
who  went  to  Sweden  and  viniled  s^eral  families  at 
Calmar.  A  mission  was  begun  in  1864  at  Wisby,  in 
the  island  of  Gothland,  and  from  that  lime  the  work 
has  been  verj-  prosperous.  The  General  Conference  of 
iS76  ordered  the  Sweilish  mission  to  be  organized  into 
an  Annual  Conference,  whicb  was  effected  under  the 
presidency  of  bishop  Andrews  at  Upsala,  Aug.  7,  1676. 
The  following  is  a  summiiyof  the  siatistia  of  the  mis- 
Ki<infi>rlB89:  Number  of  miniaters,G»;  local  preachers, 
117:  Sunday-Bcbonls,  !02!  leachers  and  officers,  1097  -, 
Sunday-Mhiwlscholara,  14,417;  membeis  and  probation- 
ers, 15.786;  churches,  84;  probalde  value  of  churches, 
«ia7.5S4. 

III.  EiIaailloa.—7o  the  credit  of  Sweden  it  ia  to  lie 
said  that  ahe  has  provided  most  liberally  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young.  There  is  a  common-school  syslem, 
instruction  being  uratuilous.  and  children  not  attending 
the  regular  government  schools  are  obliged  to  furnish 
ceriillcatee  that  thev  are  under  the  tuition  of  private 
teachers.  The  result  of  all  this  careful  and  systematic 
aiteiition  to  education  is  that  seldom  is  a  Swede  found 
whr>  cannot  read  and  write.  The  higher  aeau  of  learn- 
ing are  well  palroniied.  Tbe  Univeisity  of  UpaaU 
talies  high  rank  among  the  literary  insdtutions  of 
Northern  Europe.  Its  home  is  in  the  town  from  which 
it  takes  ita  name— Upsala,  forty-Hve  miles  north-west 
of  Slockhalm.a  place  of  some  -/lt,uO0  inhabitants.  The 
attendance  of  student*  is  large,  as  high  snmetimea  as 
1600,  who  gather  here  not  only  to  pursue  the  regular 
course  of  colle^te  study,  but  to  listen  to  lectures  frum 
the  proreaaors  of  theology,  Uw,  medicine,  and  philoso- 
phy. The  univeniiy  has  a  valuable  library  of  over 
16(1,110"  volumes,  several  museums  and  coUectionB,a  bo- 
tanical garden,  and  an  observatory.  Both  the  army 
and  the  navy  are  well  represented  by  schools,  the  for- 
mer having  two  well-conducted  institutions,  one  at 
Carlberg  and  another  at  Marieberg,  designed  especially 


Swedcnborg,  Ehanuki,  the  founder  of  tlie  Rnr 
Jerusalem  Church  (q.  v.),  was  boru  in  Stoekbolm,  9ire- 
den,  Jan.  29,  1688.  His  ancestry  were  not  noble,  bat 
of  high  respectability  among  the  miners  of  the  gnat 
Stora-Kopparberg,  in  tbe  province  of  Oalecarlia.  Hii 
father,  Jesper  Swedberg  (q.  v.)  or  .Svedberg.  mairitd 
Sarah,  daughter  of  AlbrechlBehm,  asaeaanroT the  Koyal 
ttoard  of  Mines.  Eminuelwaslheitsecond  annandthird 
child.  After  the  elevation  of  the  father  to  the  prelacy 
as  bishop  of  Skara,  the  name  was  changed  and  the 
family  ennobled  by  queen  Ulrica  Eleonnia  in  1719. 

Reared  amid  pinua  influences,  the  accounts  we  have 
of  his  earliest  years  seem  to  indicate  a  childhood  of  un- 
usual thougbtfulness  and  susceptibility  to  religiooa  im- 
presuons.  He  says  of  bimself, "  From  my  founh  to  my 
tenth  year  my  thoughts  were  constantly  engrosaed  Iw 
rejecting  on  God,  on  salvation,  and  on  the  spiritual  af- 
feedons  of  man.  I  often  revealed  things  in  my  disconn* 
which  fllled  my  parents  with  astonish ment,  simI  luade 
them  declare,  al  times,  that  certainly  the  angels  spake 


.rough  my  a. 


>wedoi 


fottli 


gofof 


mngar 


lery  departments,  and  the  Utter  hai 

naval  cadets  al  Stockholm.    There  are  to  be  fbund  in 

Sweden — as  there  are  in  all  countties  where  the  people 

are  welt  educaleit— in  all  towns  and  villages,  libraries, 
museums  of  art,  etc.,  societies  for  the  promotion  of  aci- 
ence  and  literature,  publications  in  tbe  form  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals  of  many  kinds,  sa  that  the  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge  is  wide-spread  and  healthy. 

IV.  LtWro/urft— See  Adlerfeldt.  tfis/oire  JfaaoiJ*  * 
ClvirlaXII  (I'atla,  1741,3  vola.  13mo)i  Brown,  Mrmovi 
of  Iht  Soeertign  <if  S<tfdea  imd  Denmark  (Lond.  1804, 
8  vols-Sro);  AnidI,  Erinnnnngm  aai  Schmtdtn  (Ber- 
lin, 1818, 8vo);  Dunham,  Hiiloiy  of  Dnmark,  Sardrx, 
and  Nona-y  (Lond.  1833-84. 3  vols,  llmo) ;  Gall.  Reit 
d<ir<A  SftiwJm  ta  IS36  (Bremen,  1888,  S  vols.  13mo); 
Uing,  Toar  ia  StBedtn  m  1838  (Lond.  1839, 8vo):  Syl- 
\-M,mis,RatiMniitS«)nimntidGolld<nd.Kilk  Elchiagihg 
t/it  Wayii^r.  (ibid.  1817. 8v»);  Tham,  Bnh-i/nm)  f.fm 
A-»rvHAiJ»(Stockh.  1849-66.7  vols.evo);  MarrvatI, 
Yaar  m  SietdtR  and  aolkUm-l  (Lond.  I8U2,  SvoJ. 


education,  which  was  actiuired  principally  at 
versity  of  Upaala,  where  lie  took  his  degree  of  VbJX  in 
1709,  in  his  twenty-second  year.    He  then  visited  Eng- 
land, spending  a  year  al  Oxford  and  ihne  more  on  the 
It  of  Europe.    Al  this  time  he  was  already  a 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  of  Upeala,ait^ 
it  while  abroad.     He  snughi  evoy- 
,y  of  the  learned,  and  commenced  pub- 
lishing works  almost  immediately  cm  his  reluin,  aome 
of  them  poetical,  othen  mathematicaL     His  nund  toot 
an  industrious  and  practical  turn,  anil  for  many  years 
he  was  almost  wholly  employed  in  scienlidc  puT3uil*,in 
mining,  engineering,  and  pbi-siological  studies.     His 
family  connections  were  influential — one  sister  married 
Eric  Bcnzelius,  afterwards  arcbbuhop  of  Upaala;  an- 
other was  tbe  wife  of  Ldia  Benzetstieina.  governor  of  a 
province,  whoee  son  became  a  blsha]!;  while  oihet  meo>- 
bers  of  the  family  rose  to  ecclesiastical  and  civil  digni- 

and  higher  classes,  and  eiijuyed  abundant  palionage  at 

Parliament,  and  about  1721  he  waa  appointed  by  Ch«ri« 
XII  assessor  of  the  Board  of  Mines,  which  made  him  also 
a  roember  uf  the  Cabinet.   In  1724  he  was  solicited  toac- 

of  Upsala,  but  preferred  the  position  he  already  occupied. 
Twelve  years  later  we  find  him  beginning  to  puldish 
his  philosophical  works:  fiist,  Optra  Pkitetopkica  el 
Minaalia  (Leipaic  and  Dresden,  3  voU  fuL),  tutder  the 
patronage  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick;  afterwards,  his 
Frincipia;  The  PriHcipla  of  Natural  TJiagi,  or  Krv 
Atlimpti  al  a  PkiloiopllkalJirpIiinarion  of  lit  Phammt- 
I  ma  xfihe  Eltrmntary  ICorUi— then  came  OnlSma  of  a 
'  Philosophical  A  ryumtnt  on  Ike  lujirdte  aitd  rAr  Fimi 
Cauie  of  Crfotioa,  and  on  lie  Inlrrcourte  brberrm  Uk 
Saul  and  the  Bet^.-— followed,  a  few  year*  later,  by  Iha 
Eeonoms  of  Ike  Animal  Kingdom  (Amsterdam,  2  voh 
4to);and  the  ,4«'nii/ArD$dDR>(vid.i,Bt  the  Hague;  voL 
ii,  Lond.  174fi).  There  were  many  other  tracia,  enaya, 
and  volumea  of  minor  importance,  his  last  work  of  this 
nature  being  tbe  IPorMp  a«d  Loce  of  God.  These 
works  are  generally  acknowledged  as  belonging  to  ibr 
highest  order  of  philosophical  thought.  His  declared 
object  in  all  his  investigaUons  was  to  behold  the  wbdom 
and  goodrkess  of  the  Creator  in  ail  his  works;  giving  his 
life  to  the  discovery  of  truths,  determined  to  rise  thmuKh 
their  diOerent  degrees  to  those  of  tbe  highest  order,  for 
the  sake  of  dinng  something  useful  to  mankind  and  ad- 


vancing ( 


have  been  at  this  period  a  mai 
virtue,  piety,  and  decorum.  These  are  the  ' 
life"  which  he  wrote  down  and  pteserved  for 
guidance: 


of  solid 


SWEDENBORG 

tlnr*  la  kMp  the  conMleDM  d< 

^  TO  dischun  with  fldvllty  lipv  luui^imitD  <ji  mj   vm- 

pd'TTDcni  and  lb*  dalla  or  ni;  oOce,  «nd  lo  raader  m]'- 
■tl/  In  »U  thtnca  mcftil  to  xiclctj, 

Ht«m  mcmbfT  of  tfar  principal  Kimtiflc  and  philo- 
H|ihie>1  aDcicucg  of  Northern  Euiopt. 

lo  irUs  al  Lbc  Ige  of  fifty-WTcn— in  the  full  maturity 
eT  hia  powfn,  in  (be  enjoymeot  orhonoraUe  Kation,  and 
■(  an  eoviaMe  itputaiion  at  horns  and  abroad  for  worlh, 

bboUiier  Ubor*  and  btgan  id  devote  himaelf  lu  ihwl- 
ogy,  to  Ibe  promulgation  of  the  docUiDei  of  the  New 
Jfnwlem  Church.  Having  been. u  h«  declared,caUed 
by  the  Lvd  to  be  the  meweiiger  of  a  New  DispeniatioQ 
«r  Heatvnly  and  Divine  Truth,  be  wai  no  longer  at  liber- 
ty ta  punue  faia  funner  counea  of  ocxupation  and  atudy^ 
tat  itWDcehward  applied  himself,  with  all  the  diligence 
if  bia  charafMr,  to  the  duliea  of  hii  new  office.  The 
Krllinrtng  are  same  of  hja  own  wurda  with  respect  tc  this 
-calT  and  minioii,  wrillea  to  Rct.  Dr.  Hartley,  rector 
efWinoick,  England, in  reply  to  inquiries  After  epeak- 
bv  of  the  circumttaiKM  b(  his  previooa  career,  he  con- 
iinan,-'B<it  Ingard  all  that  I  hare  mentioned  bb  mal- 
len  mpectirely  of  little  moment;  for,  what  far  eact«<< 
iksB,  I  bare  been  calM  to  a  holy  office  by  the  Lord 

*■  la  loe,  his  aerr lilt,  ill  the  year  174S,wheD  be  opened 
ajugbt  In  the  Tiewof  the  ifurilual  world,  and  granted 
Be  the  privilege  of  canvening  with  epiiitl  and  angela, 
vhkh  I  enjoy  to  this  day.  Vrom  that  lime  I  began  to 
1*ia>  and  lu  publixh  various  urcinH  that  have  been  wen 

the  aaie  of  man  after  death,  the  (rue  worship  of  (iod, 
ikc  ipiritaal  aenae  of  tfae  Wonl,  with  many  other  most 

ion.  The  mdj-  reuon  of  my  laler  journey*  lo  foreign 
of  being  usefnl,  by  making 
n  me."  At  another  lime, 
lee  is  life  be  wrilea,  to  the  landgrave  of  Hease-Darm- 
H^l.  "Tbe  Lord,  our  Saviour,  had  IbreUild  that  he 
■«aU  eotar  again  into  the  world,  and  Chat  he  would 
iMditifb  tbere  a  new  Church.  He  baa  iriveii  this  pre- 
iJirtHo  in  ibe  Apucalypae  (axi  and  xiii),  and  also  in 
wvenl  place*  io  the  evangeliMa.  But,  n  be  cannot 
emt  into  (be  world  again  in  person,  it  was  necesury 
ibM  be  ibauU  do  it  by  meani  of  a  man,  who  ahuuld  not 
mh  receive  the  doctrine  of  this  new  Church  in  his  un- 
taiua^iag,  but  alao  publish  it  by  printing:  and  »  the 
Ind  had  prepared  me  for  this  office  from  my  infancy  j 
kt  k«  ntanileMed  him«rtf  in  person  before  me,  his  ser- 
rm.and9mt  melofillit.  Thu  took  place  in  the  year 
I7ti.  lie  aAerwanls  opened  the  sight  uf  my  spirit,  and 
tt^B  intfudoccd  me  into  tfae  spiritual  world,  and  grant- 
el  Be  to  see  ibe  beavena  an4  many  of  their  wonders, 
■■I  also  the  bells,  and  to  speak  with  angels  and  spirits, 
■Hi  this  cmiiiniully  for  twenty-aeven  years.  I  declare, 
i*  all  imih.  that  such  is  tbe  fact.  Tfais  favor  of  the 
1«t  in  regard  to  me  baa  only  taken  place  for  tbe  sake 
^tbe  new  Cliur<;b  which  1  bave  mentioned  above,  the 
iatiiat  111  which  is  contained  in  toy  writing*."  £x- 
Kf*  IB  thia  cliief  abject  and  in  the  character  of  his 
■rttingi,  hii  babiia  of  life  underwent  no  change.  His 
^vard  demeanor  remained  the  same,  with  an  increase 
tf^arimal  piety  and  prayerfultieis,tbe  same  dignity  and 
fiH  Hrbiniiy  of  manner  marked  his  intercourse  with 
••Dm,  the  same  solid  sense  and  enlightened  intelligence 

<(  his  lime  was  uninterrupted.     He  retained  hit  seat  in 
Ita  Swertiab  Parliament,  and  became  more 
■.V  befon 


3  SWEET 

unfcilded  as  to  what  he  calls  it«  "i[nritual  mdm."  Hm 
deaigo  aeema  to  be  lo  diacover  a  Christian  meuing  and 
application  in  all  things  of  the  "law  and  tbe  prophets;'' 
tbe  method  pursued  does  not  appear  lo  be  much  unlike 
that  of  other  Christian  aimmeutaton,  except  in  tbe  ex- 
tent to  which  the  principles  of  symbolism  are  carried 
and  the  results  arrived  aU  He  maintains  that  such  ■ 
secondary  sense  runs  through  all  the  booka  given  by 
immediate  divine  dictation  —  Law,  Forrner  Prophets, 
Later  Fropbet«,  and  Psslmi — and  that  these  books  are 


Bvdingl 


.  unifon 


^eikaborg's  Srsl  tb  .,  , 
lantM  wvtk,  it  tbe  A  rcaaa  Cattitia,  or  Hmeab/  Mgi- 
"nt,  B  coimentBTy,  in  ugtat  quano  vdumes,  on  the 
>M*  af  Genmis,  with  >  large  part  orEiodua;  in  wbicb, 
liih  oiaBy  other  otMCivittMU  and  doetrinn,  the  Itxt  is 


the  law  of  universal  analogy  between 
spiritual  and  natural  things,  which  law  it  is  one  great 
object  of  bis  writings  to  unfold.  Hit  citations  and  com- 
parison of  Scripture  texts  are  remarkably  full  and  ex- 
haustive. 

From  the  time  of  his  alleged  "call,"  be  wrote  aitd 
publiabed  almost  constantly  until  his  death.     The  Ar- 

Ah  Acceuai  of  Iht  Loll  Jadgmml,  and  Iht  Dttlniclioa 
of  Ballon ;  ihmcing  thai  alt  Ike  Prrdielioni  m  IiU 
ApoTulj^ie  nrt  at  liii  Day  FuljilUd:  Bring  a  RrlatiOH 
of  Tkinffi  Heard  and  Srm  (Lond.  1758)  -.  —  Conctniiitg 
Ifravm  imd  ill  fVovkri,  and  eonceminy  Httl;  from 
Thingt  Htard  and  Sm  (ibid.  nmy-.—TSt  Fovr  Lead- 
ing Doelrina  nfthe  Xnn  Jtratalnn,  rii.  Concrmmg  tie 
I^rd,  Sacrrd  Striplarr,  Faith,  and  lift  (Anuter.  IT6S) : 
— A  ngrlic  Wiidom  rrmrrmiag  the  Dirint  Lutt  and  the 
Pitine  WiiJim  (ibid.  1769):— ^In.vrNc  IfuJom  (VHTra- 
ing  the  Ditint  Preridmct  (ibid.  1704) : — The  Apocah/pte 
Rrrealed,  rkerein  are  [Htdoeed  the  A  rcoui  Ikm  fort- 
lotd.ahieh  have  hUhtrlo  Rrmaimd  CanttnUd  (ibid.  )7GS) : 
— The  Ap'Xatypte  Explained  according  to  the  Spiritual 
Srnte  I  in  mhich  are  Ueuealed  lie  Arcana  which  an 
there  Predicted  and  hare  been  hilhrrto  Ikeply  Conctaled 
(publitbed  after  hit  dealb,  in  h  vols.  8vo),  a  much  la^er 
and  fuller  work  than  the  preceding:— TAe  DrUghll  of 
Wiidom  coneeming  Coujngal  Lore:  afier  lehick  fnllom 
the  PUamret  of  IntanUg  conremtHf  Srortalery  Ijitv 
(Amster.  1768).  Tht  True  Vhriilian  Beligiim,  eimlaiif 
tag  the  Uninertal  Theatogg  of  the  Ann  Church,  FortiM 
bglhe  iMrdin  Daniel  rii,  13, 14,  and  in  Rerebiliim  xxi,  I, 
2  (ibid.  1771),  contains  his  body  of  divinity,  and  is  di- 
vided into  fourteen  chapters,  under  appropriate  head*. 
There  art  also  a  number  of  minor  treatises  and  liacM. 


All  tl 


ilistribatcd  by  the  author  to  the  principal  univer- 
tilies  and  seals  of  learning. 

In  addition  to  his  philosophical  acquirements,  Swe- 
denburgwas  learned  also  as  a  Hebrew  and  (I reek  scholar. 
He  died  in  London,  March  39, 1773,  mainuining  lo  the 
last  tbe  truth  of  his  allied  disclosures.  He  did  not 
attempt  to  collect  cDng^egatiDn^  nor  organise  a  church. 
Kor  an  account  of  the  followers  of  his  doctrines,  see 
Nkw  Jerusalem  Church.    (W.  R  II.) 

Swast,  BUbIm,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  EfUf- 
copal  Cburch,  was  bom  at  Gotham,  Ontario  Co.,  N.  Y., 
in  IMIO.  Hewasadmitledinto  theGeneseeConference 
in  IB47,  in  which  conference  and  tlie  East  (icnesce  be 
spent  his  ministerial  life,  three  years  of  which  he  waa 
superannuated.  He  died  SepL  7,  IB69.  See  Miaula 
of  Annual  Conference;  1870,  p.  'iWl. 

Sireet,  John  Davts,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Kingatnn,  Mass.,  Oct  16,  tS3g.  Me  was  the  son  of  c 
clergyman.     From  his  early  life  he  devel- 


e  for  lite 


fparalory  studies  took  high  rank  as  a  scholar.  In 
tbe  fall  of  18a7  he  entered  Harvard  College,  one  year  in 
aitvance,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  application 
to  his  college  tasks.  Having  overworked  bitnself,  he 
sought  to  recrait  his  health  by  foreign  (ravel.  Betum- 
!,be  embarked  in  busineM;  but,  bis  friends  urg- 


doned  his  secular  pursuits, 
of  the  Baptist  Church  in  . 
1863,  where  be  remained  n 


to  tfae  I 


nistry,  fae  aban- 


SWEET  CANE  6 

■ecuring  in  ■  marked  degree  the  ■(Teclion  of  hi*  Cbarch 
uid  the  respect  of  the  j>«pple  of  the  village  in  which  he 
hid  hill  home.  He  wis  publicly  recogniied  u  puior 
of  Che  Fint  Baptiil  Church  in  Somerrille,  Mui^  May 
4, 1868.  He  had  commenced  his  work  in  the  new  tield 
nf  liis  labor,  and  waa  prosecuting  it  with  rare  aaccesi, 
when  he  waa  stricken  down  by  diaeaae.  One  of  tiie 
Uit  recnrda  which  he  made  in  hia  diaiy  ■  few  daya  lie- 
fnre  hii  death  waa  the  following:  "In  looking  over  my 
miniMry  of  nearly  aeven  years,  I  feel  1  ought  to  drop 
on  my  kneea  and  thank  Ciud  that  lie  ever  caLleil  me  to 
tbla  glorioui  work.  Some  are  alwaya  apeakiiig  of  the 
triala  of  the  minietij-;  but  I  can  aay,  on  reviewing 
mine,  that  it  haa  been  one  bright  day,  with  few  clouda 
la  dim  the  brighlnem.  I  luve  the  work."  He  died  in 
AuguM,1869.  See  Warren  [G.  I'.],  Jfanona/^eniioiL 
(J.  C  S.) 

8w«at  Cone.  See  Cjuo. 
Siraet  Slngan,  a  email  Scoltith  aect,  called  from 
their  fuuiider,  John  Gib.  the  Gibbitus  (q.  v.).  They 
foraook  all  worldly  buaineaa,  and  profeaaed  to  be  entirely 
devoted  to  fasting  and  prayer  in  the  open  Held).  The 
name  "Sweet  Singen"  was  gifen  lo  them  ftom  their 
habit  of  ■'wailing  ■  porliun"  of  the  more  mournful 
paalnuL  They  renounced  and  denounced  the  use  of 
metrical  psalina,  the  traiialatiun  of  the  Uible,  Longer 
and  Shorter  Calechiama,  the  Cunfeaunn  of  t'uch,  the 
Covenant,  namea  of  muiit  ha  and  daya,  the  uae  of  churches 
■ad  church-yardni  all  kinda  of  t4illa,  cualum,  and  trib- 
ute, all  aporta,  and.  indeed,  everything  and  everyhnly 
bat  themaelvea.  They  Anally  uudertook  a  pilgrimage 
lo  the  Fentland  HilU,  where  they  lemained  aome  day*, 
with  a  leaolution  In  ait  till  they  saw  the  amuke  of  the 
deaolatiun  of  Edinburgh,  which  Ihetr  leader  had  pre- 
dicleri.  They  were  committed  to  priaon  in  lulinburgh 
in  April,  1681,  but  were  Boon  releaae.1.  See  Bluni.^if. 
tif8tcU,».v.;  M-Ciie,  ScoUiih  ChuifMfitloiy,  ii,  t9o. 
SWEET  SINGERS,  the  English  Rastkrb  (q.  v.)  of 
the  ITth  century,  so  called  by  some  contemporary  writ- 
Sweat  Wine.  See  Wine. 
Swaatman,  Joski-ii,  ■  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Freehold.  Munmouth  Co.,  N.  J.,  March  9, 1774. 
Hia  tuother  waa  a  grandilaughter  of  Walter  Kerr,  who 
waa  baniahed  fmin  Scotland  for  his  unwavering  adher- 
ence M  Covenanter  principles  and  hia  opposition  lo  prel- 
acy. When  Joseph  was  about  three  months  old,  bis 
parents  removed  lo  Charlton,  Saratoga  Co.,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  al  Union  College  in  1797,  being  one  of  (he 
three  atudenls  that  compoied  the  graduating  clasa, 
and  receiving  its  first  honura.  He  studied  theology 
privately,  waa  urd«tied  by  Albany  Preabytery,  and 
installed  pastor  nf  Salem  Church,  Waahinglnn  Cu„ 
N.V.,  Sept.  17,  ima.     On  account  id' failing  health, ' 


1836 

and 

was  called 

to 

Gardii 

er,  Me„ 

when,  after 

hing 

wo  years,  h 

as  di»miased.  N 

w.8,18«8,» 

ihep 

teoflheCalvi 

istCh 

rch,Wo 

roester.Maia, 

wan 

>stal 

edDeclSo 

Ih 

vear,  and  remained  in 

thia 

ffice 

until  his  dea 

h. 

having 

had  a  c 

.lleague  after 

1874. 

Here  the  great 

ritofh 

IS  life  w 

as  done.     He 

B,  1817, 


{oin  installed  pastor  of  a  Church,  but  from 
II  his  death  devoted  himself  (o  aiding  you 


waa  a  trustee  of  Leicester  Academy  and  of  PhiOlpi 
Academy,  Andover,  from  1860,  and  president  of  the  Ut- 
ter board  from  1864.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  Worw- 
ter  Free  ludustrial  Institute  and  of  Won'estei  MeoMrial 
Hospital  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  council  ofibe 
American  Antiquarian  Society.  ■  corporate  member  of 
the  American  Roani  of  Commissioners  for  Ffireign  Ui^ 
sions  from  18M,  one  of  the  vioe-preridents  of  the  AoKf- 
ican  Home  Hiasion  Society  IVom  1864,  and  pmideni  of 
the  American  Eiiucation  Society.  From  1866  tn  1873 
he  was  overseer  of  Harvard  College,  during  which  tiiM 
he  publiahed  varioua  Repoiit,  Sermoiu^  and  Adttfotn; 
also  aeveral  articles  in  the  Bi&liolitat  SiKra.  He  died 
fromtheeDtetof  a  spinal  injury  and  pulmonary  diaeue 
combined  March  34, 1878.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Swell,  in  music,  a  set  of  pipes  in  an  organ  with  i 
separate  key-board,  and  forming  a  separate  departmrni, 
which  are  capable  of  being  increased  or  diminished  In 
intensity  of  sound  by  the  action  of  ■  pedal  on  a  series 
of  shades  or  shutters  overiapping  each  other  like  Venr- 


"  Sweelman  Scholarship"  in  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary, N.  J.  He  died  Dec  ID.  186a.  Mr.  Sweetman 
was  vigorous  in  intdlect  and  eloquent  ii\  manner.  He 
was  a  very  benevolent  man:  that  he  might  hare  to 
give,  he  waa  industrioua,  economical,  and  prudent.  See 
Wilson, /Vfjiv//ut.4/niaiiuc,  1863,  p.  o7;  also  1864,  p. 
198. 

Sireataer,  Ssth,  DJ>.,  a  Congregational  miniater, 
waa  boro  at  Newbuirpoit,  Maaa..  March  la,  1807.  He 
waa  prepared  for  college  in  Nevrburyport  Acoilemy,  un- 
der the  tuition  of  Leonard  Withington,  D.D.,  and'grad- 
uated  from  Harvard  College  tn  18-27.  He  then  taught 
Khool  for  two  years  (l»i7-29)  in  (;enesco,  N.  Y.,  after 
which  he  returned  to  Harvard  College  as  a  tutor,  re-  I 
maining  there  until  1831.  when  be  entered  Andover 
Theoli^cal  Seminary,  where,  ad er  a  full  cinirse  of  three 
—■"t,  be  graduated  in  1834.    He  was  ordained  Nov.  23, 1 


ndow-blinds,  within  which  the  pipes  In 
arc  enclosed.  On  a  weU-ccinsiruclwl  swfll  ■  practi«d 
performer  ran  imitate  nni  only  a  gradual  crttrtmln  and 
diminaenda,  but  also  a  ^brzinu/u,  a  very  small  o|ieniiig 
siiAicing  to  make  an  immediate  burst  upon  the  ear: 
while,  when  the  shutters  are  closed,  an  imitation  of  an 
echo  is  produced. 

Slv«lllnK(^ixl,9(iAt,  "eKcellency,"  "pride,"  eu.) 
or  JoRUAM  is  a  phrase  occurring  in  the  A.  V.  at  J«. 
xii,  6;  xlix,  19;  I,  44,  but  which  should  be  rendrrtd 
"pridt  of  Jordan,"  as  in  Zech.  xi,  8.  It  refers  lo  the 
verdure  and  thicketa  along  the  banka,  lined  with  wil- 
lows, tamarisks,  and  cane,  in  which  the  lions  once  made 
their  covert;  but  haa  no  allusion  In  overwhelniing  bil- 
lows from  a  rise  of  the  watera  (Reland,  PalaiU  p.  274). 
See  Jordan. 

Swart  (or  Swaerta),  Fbancib,  ■  Flemish  his- 
torian and  antiquary,  was  bom  in  Antwerp  in  I56T. 
He  devoted  much  of  hia  time  to  atudy,  and  published 
a  great  many  works  which  brought  him  convidenble 
reputation :  Narruliona  llatoriet  m  Dtorum  Vra- 
ramqite  Capita,  etc  (Antwerp,  1602, 4io)  ■.—Laervur  » 
FHHft  At.Oilrtu,aiii  Oi-lrtii  yila  (l60l,U'to):- Mtdi- 
laiiimft  J,  Can/innlii  de  Tvrrrcrtnala  ia  V'ilam  Ctrini, 
rum  FiraCuntetc(CDlogne,l607,  l^mo):— AVJrKir  Or. 
Ml  ChriMtiam*  Uttida  (ibid.  1608, 1625, 8vo).  He  died 
in  1629. 

Swift,  Ellaha  Papa,  D.D..  an  eminent  divine  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  was  bom  al  WiUlamstnwn. 
Mass..  Aug.  12, 1792.  His  patemal  grandfather  was  the 
Hon.  Hemau  Swift;  hia  father,  the  Rev.  Selh  Swift, 
pastor  at  one  time  nf  the  Congregational  Chorch  in 
Williamstown ;  and  hia  mother  was  a  descendant  nf 
Rev.John  Eliot,  well  known  in  the  annals  of  Amerinn 
history  as  the  "Apiwtle  lo  the  Indiana.'  He  Krodoated 
with  honor  at  Williams  College,  Sept.  I,  I8IS.  and  at 
the  Theological  Seminary.  Princeton,  N'.J.,in  1816:  was 
licensed  bv  New  Brunswick  l^resbyterv  al  Lawrvnee- 
viUe,  N.  J.',  April  24, 1816,  and  on  Sepl.'  19  of  the  aame 
year  he  met  the  American  Board  aTCommisHoner*  for 
Foreign  Missions  at  Hartfonl,  Conn.,  and  was  accepted 
as  a  foreign  missionary,  though  be  waa  informed  that 
he  could  not  be  sen!  abrnad  for  some  months.  Oit  , 
SepU  3,  1817,  he  waa  ordaineil  by  a  Congregatio 


angelist 


tltl  of  labor,  a  period  ol 


e  lale  I 


SWIFT 

flbd  np  *ilb  Ubariom 
pTueliIng   «]mi 


colled 


„K   fii-1'i^ 


titnwien  [o  Lhe  cUims  cif  ih»  great  enterprise.  At 
kngih  bt  wu  obliged,  on  account  of  the  winc  Of  Tunda 
wtbcpinof  the  board,  lo  rdiiiquUh  hii  loiig-cheriabai 
iloin  gf  being  a  fuKiftn  nJMionary.  InOctober,18l8,be 
lii«tae  paitDr  of  Ibc  Church  in  Dover,  where  he  UbomJ 
ikiliftnilT.bui uD<ier great  diKoungeraenu;  in  Noretn- 
btr.  1813,  he  waa  ioatalleil  by  a  commicue  of  the  KeH- 
itne  Freab*leir  aa  paator  of  lhe  Second  Preabyterian 
DiuirborPittntHirgh.l'a^uidiRiniedUtelyenleredupun 
liii  labcin  in  thac  camnoiiiiy,  which  he  inhMquenlly 
■lunitd  and  b)(a«il  until  he  became  aecrelary  niul  gen- 
ml  ifBit  for  the  Wetlem  Foreign  HiBUonary  Siiciely, 


fa  1.1 


I41IM  ii  abaukJ,  the  DoanI  of  KoreiKii  BIivir>ns  of  the 
lawn]  AMmhly  of  the  Preabylerian  Church"  (a  hia- 
Inn  of  vhich  ii  published  in  the  Fntb.  Hitt.  Almmne 
To  JWl),  He  wan  al»  deeply  inlereated  in  thenlngical 
rdKiiiici.  and  louk  an  active  part  in  the  establiahment 
I'Fibi.Ulegbeny  Theoloffical  Sieminarr,  Allegheny,  Ft. ; 
•ml  au  connected  with  it  from  iia  iiuxpiian  until  bia 
.kith,  a  perind  of  forty  jeara.  He  was  one  of  the  flrat 
andin.  •!»  an  agent  to  collect  fund),  and  the  lirM  in- 
incuir  in  theuhvy.  which  office  he  helil  for  about  two 
,'E«o  inl  lur  which  he  deciiiieil  to  reccii'c  any  remu- 
nuuiun.  tu  1836  he  teceived  a  unaiiiinoua  call  to 
l»o»t  IlK  paator  of  lhe  Firat  I'rfsbyieriin  Church 
II  AU()[baij,  and  alW  about  twelve  raoniha,  during 
•kick  tioie  be  made  such  arrancemcnta  as  to  secure 
ilx  ««iltniieil  efficiency  of  the  Uiwiunary  Society,  he 
avpttd  (be  intiutinn,  and  was  installed  in  this,  his 
[•■.bogeit,  and  mnat  inpnriant  pistorate.  He  died 
.tpriJliafiS.  Dr.  Swill  was  a  man  of  uncDiDRion  pow- 
B  of  inuOeet  and  unusual  tenderness  of  heart.  As  s 
tlnniui  he 


U  educ 


d«<™,y 

or  Cbrisiia 

enterprises,  a 

d  was  a  pa- 

Tj«  i.  the  tnieat  sense  of 

lhe  term.     H 

was  a  leader 

oiaiheTsn 

the  Church,  made  an  bv  the 

Insdih  of  bts  views,  tbe 

wisdom  of  his 

counsels,  the 

"•e^iv  and 

loveUun.  of 

and  his  man- 

I'f*  ln«don 

From    all  se 

mbiiion.      It 

a*  a  prtKh 

er  ih.[  he  shn 

ne  moat  con- 

^«mal.. 

Sea  Wil^iu. 

Frt^  liiA  Almanac,  1866 

SwUt,  Job,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
u  Ssvdwicfa,  Mass.,  June  IT  (O.  S.\  1743,  anri  removed 
n^adTimiih  to  Kent,  Conn.  He  graduated  from  Yale 
1^*^^  ia  1764,  having  made  a  profession  of  religion 
■bik  in  coU^e.  He  studied  theoloity  uniler  Dr.  Ikl- 
«T.  WIS  licensed  ta  preach  in  1766,  and  in  1767  be- 
"t  paaor  of  the  Church  in  Richmond,  Mass.  After 
<  iMirue  of  seven  years  he  left  Richmond,  ami,  hav- 
'H  pnscbed  in  different  places  fur  about  a  year,  be- 
■■ac  paoor  in  Ameuia,  N.  Y.  In  the  spring'  of  1783 
>•  naiDTed  to  Manchester,  Vl..  where  he  preached  be- 
inta  two  and  three  yean.  On  May  SI,  1784),  he  was 
iiW  uier  the  Church  in  Benniii(,-ton,  fmm  which  he 
■ticininy  miiuoiiary  tunia  into  the  western  and  norlti- 
>tgiKiiDnsof  the  state.     I.eaving  Bennington  June  7, 


>•  pORhasrd  a  (atm.     He  ealablish 


Hedi 


a  Church  there 


''■^.OcLjO,  I«H.  Ur.  Swift  acted  as  a  chapUiii  ii 
I'a  mBT  during  moat  of  the  Revolutiunarv  war.  Sei 
Vip«t,  A waU n/llit  Anwr.  Pvlpii,  i, 910.' 

Swift,  Jooathan,  l>.D.,a  prelate  and  satirist,  wai 
•wain  DabUa.  Nov. 30,  I6fi7,and  when  about  a  year  olf 
■■  carriBl  by  hia  nurse  to  Whitehaven,  Cumberland 
Wlsnd,  when  he  was  kept  for  three  yesrs.  His  fa 
■>«.wbe  iiti  tbree  moethi  before  he  was  boni,  lell 


5  SWIFT 

hia  family  in  great  poverty,  and  tbey  were  aupported 
by  relatives.    Swift,  when  six  yean  old,  was  sent  to 

moved  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  which  he  entered  as 
■  pensioner,  April  34, 1683.  He  received  his  deffree 
of  A.B.  Feb.  \h,  1680,  but  he  remained  in  the  college 
until  1688,  when  he  went  to  England  to  visit  his  moth- 
er, and  was  on  her  recommendation  admitted  into  the 
house  of  Sir  William  Temple.  In  1694  he  went  to  Ire- 
land, took  orders  iu  the  Church— that  of  deacon  Oct,  18, 
lt;»l.  of  |>riest  Jan.  13,  1695— and  obtained  a  small  liv- 
ing, which  he  threw  up  in  two  years  and  relumed  lo 
England.  He  lived  *«  a  friend  with  Temple  until  the 
death  of  the  latter,  Jan.  27,  1698,  and  in  1699  accom- 
panied lord  Berkeley  to  Ireland  as  his  chaplain  and 
private  secretary.  Being  deprived  of  this  office,  he  was 
given  the  rectory  of  Agher,  and  the  vicarages  of  Lara- 
curandRuthbeggan,wonhallogetberX330ayear.  Tbe 


prebend  of  l>u 

wards.    He  st 


I  upon  hi 


d  lo  reside  witli  lord  Berkeley 
until  rrw,  when  the  latter  returned  to  Kngland  and 
Swift  look  possession  of  Laracor.  He  performed  hia 
duties  as  a  countrv  vleri[vman  with  exemplarv  dili- 
gence. His  appointment  "to  the  deanerv  of  St.  Pat- 
rick's was  made  Feb.  98,  I71S,  and  early  in  June  be  left 
England  to  take  possevton.  He  soon  relumed  to  Eng- 
land nn  a  political  misaiun.  and  agdn  visited  England 
to  solicit  the  remission  of  the  "  liret-fruita."  In  1741 
Swift's  memory  failed,  bis  understanding  was  much  im> 
paired,  and  he  became  subject  to  violent  fits  uf  pas^on 
which  aooii  terminated  in  furious  lunacy.  In  1743  be 
sank  into  a  state  of  quiet  idiocy,  and  died  Oct.  19,  IT4G. 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (tires  oflht  Engtiih  Porli)  gives 
the  following  estimate  of  dean  Swift:  "He  was  a 
churchman  rationally  lealousi  he  desired  the  prosper- 
ity and  maintained  the  honor  of  the  clergy ;  of  the 
Dissenters  he  did  not  wish  to  iiiftinge  the  toleration, 
but  he  opposed  tli  '  '         -    -    —. 


in  he  w. 


y  attentive.    In  his  Chur 


>f  weekly  cammunion,  and  distributed  the 

manner  with  his  own  hand.  He  came  lo  Church  every 
ntoming,  preached  commonly  in  his  turn,  and  attended 
the  evening  anthem,  that  it  might  nut  be  negligently 
perTormed.  'lhe  suspicions  of  his  irreligion  proceeded 
.in  a  great  measure  from  his  dread  of  hypocrisy;  in- 
stead of  wishing  lo  seem  better,  he  delighted  in  seem- 
ing worse  than  lie  was.  In  London  he  went  to  early 
prayers  lest  he  should  be  seen  at  Church  i  he  read 
prayentohis  senams even-  morning  with  Buch  dexter- 
ous aecrecy  that  Dr.  Delany  was  six  months  in  his  house 
before  he  knew  it.  He  gave  great  attention  to  politi- 
cal nutter*,  am),  indeeil,  it  is  to  lii«  political  writings 
that  he  is  principally  indebted  for  his  fame.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  works,  some  poems,elc.,he  pulilishcd  sev- 
eral Sermout  and  Traai  upon  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical matten.     Of  his  works  several  editions  have  been 


SWIFT  6 

Bril.aiiiAmtT.Aiiiion,s,v.;  ChMimen, Biog. Dia.t.v.;  | 
Englith  Ci/clop.  >.  V. ;  Darling,  Cydop.  BiblHit/.  >.  v. 

SwlftSeth,  brother  of  Job  Swift,  w»>«Congr»({i-  i 
tioiial  miiiisier.  Hv  wia  bc>ni  in  Kent,  Conn.,  UcU  30,  | 
1749.  gta(]uii«d  It  Vale  in  1774,  atudied  tbwiogy  umler  i 
Dr.  Bellamy,  iikI  wu  onlaiiieil  ptMor  uT  the  Cliurch  in 
WUIiamMown,  Mihi.,  May  37,  1776,  which  charge  he  | 
retained  until  hia  ileith,  Feb.  IH,  1807.  He  wu  greatly 
beloved  by  lila  people,  mil  hoiiured  and  revereil  by  the 
whole  community.     See  Sprague,  Anmiti  of  Ike  Amer. 

Swift  Beut.    SeeCAHKU 

Bwinden,  Tobias,  an  English  clergyman,  woa  rec- 
tor  or  Cuxton,  Kent,  in  1688,  and  vicar  of  Slioine  iti  16S9. 
He  died  in  1719.  He  publUheil,  Sernm  m  Lutt  xi,  2 
(ma,6yo):—Aa  Enquiry  Mo  1*<  jVofure  <«<(  Plact  of 
//rU,vihichl>elocatedintheBun(Land.i;i4,8vo;  trana- 
Uled  into  French  by  Bion  [AmM.  1728,  8vo],  and  Uer- 
nun).     See  AUIbone,  Dia.  of  Bi-it.  and  A  mei'.  A  ulhort. 


m  of  the  defi 

t  cl 


foot«i  ruminant.  The  pig.  therefare,  though  it  d 
the  hoof,  but  du«  not  chew  the  cud,  waa  to  be  c 
ered  unclean  i  and  cunaequeotly,  ioasrouch  as,  ■ 
the  aas  ami  the  hone  in  the  time  of  the  Kinip^  i 
could  be  nude  of  the  animal  when  ilirc,  tbe  Jew 
not,  breed  iwine  (Lactant.  /mtH.  ir,  IT).  It  i«, 
ever,  probable  that  dietetical  coniidentioiu  may 
influenced  Mow*  in  hii  pmhibltinn  or  awine'*  flci'l' 

liable  to  Iepro«r  the  necauity  for  the  obaerranct 


n   Rawl' 


s  and  Mwilema"  (Sir  G.  Wilkii 


a  l/ai 


ii,  47).      Ham. 


Swina  <-i' 


1,  cAiizir;  Sept  U| 


C,  Bis;  New 


thne  animala,  both  in  their  ilomealic  and  in  their  wild 
UMe.  .See  TiiMram,  Ifal.  Hitt.  of  ike  BitI/.  p.  145; 
WwHl,  Bible  A  uifHoh.  p.  292. 

I.  The  Bcih  ol  awine  waa  forbidden  as  food  by  the 
I«viticallaw(Lev.xi,7:  D«iil.xiT,8}.  The abhnrreiice 
which  the  Jewa  aa  ■  naiiun  had  uf  it  may  be  inferred 
frum  lia.  Ixv,  4,  where  aoroe  of  the  idolatcnua  penple  are 
represented  ai"  eating  iwine't  flesh,"  and  as  having  the 
"broth  of  abominable  things  in  their  vesaela;"  see  also 
liTi,3, 17,  and  2  Mace,  vi,  IH,  1^,  in  which  puuRre  we 
read  that  Eleizar,  an  aged  scribe,  when  compelled  by 
Antiochua  to  receive  in  his  mouth  swine's  flesh,  "apit 
it  foith,  chaogiiig  rather  lo  die  gloriously  than  to  live 

tiesh  waa  faibiiklen  to  tbe  Egyptian  priests,  to  whom, 
says  Sir  U.  Wilkinson  {Ane.  HgypL  i,  8n),  "above  all 
meats  it  was  particularly  abnoniuus"  (see  llerodntus,  i>, 
47;  jCllan,  Dt  fi'al.  Atiim.  z,  16;  Josephus,  ApioK,  ii, 
14),  though  it  was  occasionally  eaten  by  the  people. 
'I'he  Arabians  also  wnt  diaalluwed  the  use  of  awine'a 
fleah  (aes  Pliny,  H.  iV.  viii,  62 1  Koran,  ii.  ITA),  aa  were 
also  the  PbcBnicians,  ^tbiopiaoa,  and  other 


I,  Cydup.  a.  v.),  maintains  that  Lhl 
liiw'a  flesh  has  breti  i 
exaggerated;  and  recently  a  writer  in  Colbum's 
Moathis  Magmiue  (July  1, 1862,  p.  £G6)  has  eiid< 
this  opinion.    Other  conjectures  for  the  reason  o: 

be  aaen  in  Bochan  {.Ham.  i,  80G  sq.).  Callisii 
(apud  Plutarch.  Sympvii.  \\;  6)  sus|>ectetl  that  the  . 
did  nut  use  swine's  flesh  Cot  the  same  reason  whici 
aaya,  iuSueiiced  the  Egyptians,  viz.  that  this  an 


the  art  of  ploughing 
ilisseitation  by  Caasel 
lisrwfnrtu  a  Porcina  . 


Rocfaart,  liieivt.  i.  H06,  am 
ritled  Vt  Jttditorum  Odia 
qat  Cuatii  [Magdeb,]:  also  Michaeli^  CommaU. 
Ijiwt  of  Motr;  art.  203,  iii,  '2S0,  Smith's  iranaL). 
though  the  Jews  did  not  treed  swiiw  during  the  , 
et  period  of  their  existence  as  a  nation,  there  c 
little  doubt  that  the  heathen  nations  of  Palestiiu 
the  flesh  as  food.     See  Pluioptre,  BU^  Edncalur, 


of  our  Lord's 


api 


leEast. 


n  for  I 


n  the  law  of  Mosea  beyon 


ilaied  1 1 
j  with  lespect  to  swine's  flesh.     Whether  "the  her< 

swine"  into  which  the  devils  were  allowed  to  « 
i  <HatL  viii,  82;  Mark  v,  13)  were  the  property  of 
,  Jewbh  or  Gentile  inhabilanu  of  (iadar*  dues  not 

pear  from  the  sacred  narrative;  but  that  the  prac 
I  of  keeping  swine  did  exist  among  some  of  the  .1' 
'  seems  clear  from  the  enactment  of  the  law  of  Hyrcai 

IrK.cit).     Allusion  ia  nisdi 
2  l-et.!!.  ;-- 


which  a 


e  have  for  "v 
lowing  ill  fbe  mire;"  thi! 
appears,  was  ■  proverbiit  < 

compared  the  "arnica  lutu  s 

of  Horace  (Ap.  1,2, 26).     !■ 

Oman's  comparison  of  a  "  j( 

^  et  of  gold  in  a  swine's  auci 


Ancient  KgypllsD  PlgS;  rarely  ae 


nswere.1  by  Trench  {Hir 
lr»,  p.  173),  who  observes  th 
a  man  is  of  more  lalue  thj 


cDlpnireB,andneveTben>reths1Sthilyiisaty.  I 


SWINERTOX  5 

AilMrLmltnC  Ihe  devUi  into  the  iwine.  He  mne- 
It  pmniueil  tbcm  lo  Kn,u  Aquiuu  uy>,'*quail  uiUm 
pni  in  mm  pmcipiuti  uinc  non  fuiL  operalio  diTint 
oimnili.  ml  operatio  diMnonuni  t  peraiiMioue  divina;" 
wd  if  ibae  Uadarene  viUagen  were  Jews  and  owned 
ibi  iwiu,  ibry  wen  righdy  pnniabed  by  tho  lou  of 
Ttm  abkb  tlwy  ought  not  to  have  bad  at  alL  See 
7^t.J/i^r,i;Jarta,Sul.xW,08i  Hacrob.  £<if.ii,4; 
J«q>biM,JiK.  iiii,e,  V;  m\o,  0pp.  ii,53l;  Uiahna, 
Bata  A'uMi.  viL,  7;  Talm.  Hierua.  SirtuL  Tol.  47,  Si 
'  Ligbcfooi,  //or.  /M.  p.  SI&  »).;    UUia,  i^er.  AuA.  p. 

i.  The  wild  Uht  of  the  wood  (Pia.  Izxx,  13)  is  the 
Kmnoo  3—  fcri/a  which  u  frequently  met  with  in 
•  ■UDily  pans  of  Pileitine,  capecially  in  Mount  Tubvr. 


-HkiII 


injur 


ineyardi  is  well  borne  out  by  fatL  "  It  ii 
Moniiliing  what  haroc  a  wild  twar  is  capable  of  effect- 
lofiluiiiig  a  aingle  night;  what  with  eating  and  trim- 
plu^  imleifonL,  he  will  deitmy  a  vast  quantity  of 
gnf"  (Hanky,  RatarcUti  w  Crteu,  Pl  3S1 ).     Sec 

Swioerton.  As\  V,  a  miniiter  oT  the  HetbodiU 
E|>iB^  Church,  waa  bom  at  Danvers,  Haaa^  in  IHW. 
lie  yiati  the  New  Englatvd  Conference  on  trial  in 
liBl.  When  the  Fnvidence  Conference  was  furmed 
m  IKll,  be  cDiiiiniwd  on  the  diMrict  ul  which  he  was 
pKnlim  elder,  and  ibua  became  a  member  oT  the  lat- 


tle  . 


h  the  e: 


(TfCiiia  of  ODe  year  (nipemumerary),  until  186S,  bin 
>aib  taking  place  at  Honument,  Maaa^  Ucl.  V2  of  that 
JT«.    !inMiiiatao/AiiiiudCintferairfi,iaM,p.&t. 

SwIdbt.  Sami-ei.  T.,  a  minister  of  the  Uethodist 
Fipimpal  Church.  South,  waa  boni  in  WeM  Feliciana 
l^riili.  U.  or  the  cimimslance*  of  conversion,  etc, 
■t  bare  no  particulars.  He  juineil,  prubably,  the  His- 
«|ipi  QMleniKe  in  1856,  and  after  a  number  of  years 
Wane  uiptmumerary,  and  died  Aug.  14,  1869.  See 
Jfoiin  -fAKuial  ConfatKca  of  the  M.  £.  Churcli, 
»iiiIilN69.p.34l. 

Swlnnock.  Geoiwr,  an  EngUah  clenu^man,  was 
nar  of  Ureal  Ky  mile,  Bucks,  fivm  which  he  was  eject- 
Hi  («  nDoconformity  in  166^.  He  aflerwar[l>  became 
(■tor  It  Maidstone,  where  he  died  iii  1673.  His  wril- 
npsie:  //mrr»  <Bid //rit  t'pttomiitd{lMi6A<iit'i,ftro; 
iia.*u,y.~Ckriiliam  Mm',  Caltmg  (in  S  pti  4to:  i, 
l«!;ii.lfi63i  iii,  ie6i):-'also.fowM>.  SeeAllibone, 
i'itrfariLaad  Aner.  A»liori,».v.i  Duling,  Cfrhp. 

Swluton.  JoiiK,  an  Enclisb  divine  and  aiiliqnaiy, 
n  bm  in  1703  at  Bextun,  Ch»hire.     He  was  edii- 
oM  B<  Wadham  College,  Uxfurd,  was  chaplain  to  the 
bOHT  at  Letthorn.  and  died  April  4, 1777,  keeper  of 
Ik  Burenily  renmlB  at  Oxford.     He  contrihited  vols. 
'I  ai  Tii  (the  Li/>  of  Mokarmfd  and  the  //ufory  u/ 
'1)  Jr^)  Id  the  Modern  Vmrmal  HuloTy.  and  wi 
^nr  learned  disaertalinns  on  ["hsnician  and  other 
ibooc,  Vkt  of  Br*,  imd  Aim:  . 
—    f.Ok*.«.y. 

SwltUi).  »T„  an  English  ecclesiastic  of  the  »th  i: 

bMsnIf.  in  whom  he  was  made  chancellor.     He  had 

iM.4iir|(e  It  the  education  of  king  Alfred,  wl 

■Mfiaiiinl  to  Knme.      In  853  he 

"tAiip  0/  Wine hestCT.     William  of  Ma 

rfbua  that  he  was  "a  rich  treasure  of  all  vinues,  and 

iiiH  ig  which  he  took  moM  delight  were  humility  and 

'kmiy  to  the  poor."     The  origin  of  the  tribute  called 

'pRtt's  pmee'*  (q.  v.)  has  often  been  asMgned 

ivicliia.  add  he  is  said  lo  have  procured  an  act  of  the 

"Moanemnw  enforcing,  for  the  first  limi 

"nsl  obligation  of  paying  tithe*.     Swithii 

1*0.    Hec  Hn.  Jameson,  tjtgmdioftht  itoaialic  Or- 

*Tl.p.l» 

BwitUn'a  Oay.    The  Ukwing  U  said  to  be  the 


SWITZERLAND 

origin  of  the  old  adage  "If  it  ratn  on  St.  Swithin'a 
Day,  there  will  be  rain  more  ur  lesa  for  forty  succeed- 
ing days."  In  the  year  865  SLSwiibin,  bishop  of  Wiii- 
chestcr^lo  which  rank  he  was  raised  by  king  Ethel- 
wolf  the  Dane— waa  canonized  by  the  ttieii  pipe.  He 
unguUt  for  his  desire  to  be  buried  in  the  open 
church-yard,  and  not  in  the  chancel  of  the  minster,  as 
bishops,  which  request  was  com- 

r  heads  that  it  was  disgraceful  for 
the  open  church-yard,  resolved  Ii 


e  his  body 


0  have 


solemn   procession  on  July  15.      It 

as  had  hardly  ever  been  known,  which 
made  them  set  aside  their  design  as  herclical  and  blas- 
phemous; and  instead  they  erected  a  chapel  over  his 
grave,  at  which  many  miracles  are  said  to  have  been 
wrought.  The  value  lo  be  placed  upon  the  popular 
notion  that  if  it  rain  on  July  lb  it  will  do  so  for 
forty  succeeding  days  may  be  teamed  from  the  follow- 
ing facts  from  the  Creenwicfa  obserraiions  fur  twenty 
years:  It  appeara  that  St.  Swithin's  Dsv  was  wet  in 
184l,aDd  there  were  at  rainy  days  up  to  Aug.  S4;  IMS, 
36rainvdBvB;  1861,  IS  rainy  davsi  I86S,  18  rainvdarg; 
IBM.  16  rainy  (Uys;  and  in  IBM,  14  rainv  davs.  lu 
1B42  and  following  vean  St.  Swilhin's  Dav  was  dn',  and 
the  result  waN  in  il»i,  I!  rainv  davsi  i»43,  is'rainy 
days;  1844,  SO  rainv  davsj  1846,  31  rainv  davs;  1847, 
17  rainv  days;  ISiM^Sl  rainv  davs;  1849, SO  rainv  dars; 
I8ii0, 17  rainy  lUvs;  1863,19  rainv  davs;  1856, 18  rainv 
days;  18f>7,  14  rainy  days;  I8J8,  14  rainy  days;  1869, 
la'rainy  days;  and  in  1860,29  rainy  daj-s.  These  fig- 
ures show  tbs  superstition  lo  be  foundr<l  on  a  fallacy, 
as  the  average  of  twenty  years  proves  rain  to  have 
fallen  upon  the  largest  number  of  days  when  St.  Switb- 

SwitSflrlaDd,  the  llehilia  of  the  Lsiin%  is  one 
of  the  atnallest  of  the  European  stales,  Iving  between 
46°  49'  and  47°  fiO'  N.  lal.,  and  Ifi  56'  and  10°  90'  E. 
long.,  its  evtreme  length  from  E.  to  W.  being  210  miles, 
and  its  extreme  breadth  not  far  fmm  140  miles.  It  has  an 
area  of  nearly  1 6,000  English  miles,  and  is  bounded  nonh 
by  Germany,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Khine  - 
and  Lake  CcHiatance ;  un  the  east  by  Austria,  the  valley 
of  the  Kbirte  and  the  Ilbietian  Alps  being  Ihe  dividing 
line  between  the  two  countries:  on  the  south  by  Italy 

out  its  entire  extent  by  the  Alps,  which  are  Krouped 
into  several  branches.  The  highest  and  besl-known 
peaks  of  Ihe  Alps  in  Swiiaerlaml  are  Matterhnm,  or 
Mont  Cervin,  Finster-Aarhom,  and  Jungllwi.    Uont 

land,  but  at  the  dose  of  the  Franco-Italian  war  it  was 
liansferred  to  France.  The  principal  lakes  of  Swilier- 
land  are  Lake  of  NeufchAlel.  Uke  of  lic>neva.  Uke 
Thiin,  Uke  Lucerne,  Uke  Zurich,  and  Uke  of  Con- 
stance.    Its  gieat  riven  are  the  Khine  and  the  Rhone, 

the  great  feeders  of  these  streams  and  rivers,  and  are 
in  themselves  objects  of  gnrat  interest  lo  Ihe  lover  of 
nature.  Tbe  climate  of  Switzerland  is  generally  cold, 
as  might  be  expected,  the  region  of  perpetual  snow  be- 
in  Europe.  In  the  lowlands  and  valleys  the  tempera- 
tare  is  warmer,  and  many  of  Ihe  productions  which 
grow  so  luxuriantly  in  Italy  are  raiseit  there.    Agricult- 


of  this  country. 

There  are 

some  kinds  of  manufactures 

carried  on  which 

are  prod 

dive,  such   a*  cotton,  em- 

broidery,  antl  silk  stulTs  of 

various  kinds.     The  Swiss 

abo  pay  great  at 

«nti.«  to 

the  annual  proilu 

lion,  in  n 

e.  of  Ihe  cuilons  being  not 

far  from  se\-en(e<: 

and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 

I.  t/i,tory,-0 

r  eariiest 

knowledge  of  Switietland 

carries  us  back  t 

Ihe  lime 

SWITZEKLASD  s 

■Uudal  to  in  Roman  hiatory  u  the  Helretii.  In  tboH 
eirly  days,  uot  far  from  a  century  befure  the  commence- 
mcnC  of  the  Cbtiatiui  era,  thvy  ■uccmrully  niitted  the 


gions  under  hia  cumowuitl  to  hiIkIuc  these  h*rdy  dwell- 
er* or  the  m.iunuiiu  and  villeya  of  Helveiia.  After 
many  year^  by  (iPgreH^  the  Homan  arms  brought  theae 
pniuil-S(H riled  Tuea  into  subjection,  and  Tor  aeveral  oeo- 
luriea  the  conqueron  held  dominion  over  the  country. 
Inraaiuiu  Crani  the  northeni  triba  of  Europe  laid  waite 
many  sectione  of  the  land.  These  barbariaiis  of  ibe 
North  were  at  laitall  brought  under  the  power  nflhe 
FranltJ,  and  Chrisiiauity  became  ihe  prevailing  r  ' 
Without  traciiifC  the  political  hieiory  of  Switzerland 
through  the  various  phases  through  which  it  p 

came  a  feileral  republic  iu  I  »18,  and  the  people  are 
living  uiuler  a  revised  cunsiitudon,  which  was  accepted 
by  them  in  the  ipring  of  1874.  This  cotiMitulUin  guar- 
antees to  the  inbabitanla  of  Ihe  twenty-dve  can 
into  which  SwiuerUnd  is  divided  Ihuse  rigliu  and 
■nunilies  which  are  found  in  all  properly  conHiti 
republics.  All  ciClsens  are  equal  in  the  eye  of  the 
IVivilages  nf  place  or  birth  have  ceased.  Absolute 
eriy  of  oonsdence  everywhere  prevails.     The  prei 


free.     The  right  of  ai 


exception  that  the  Jesuit*  and  organ iiatiui is  kindred 
them  are  forbidden.    The  capital  of  the  confederated 
alales  is  Benie, 

IL  Rttigioa. — Chriitianity  was  firti  introduced  ir 
Switaerlaod  about  A.D.  610  by  SuUall,  a  native  of  Ire- 
land and  pupil  oT  Columban.  He  was  one  of  twelve 
Irish  monks  who  labored  to  disaemhiate  Chriuianity 
throughout  Europe,  They  Hrst  tnuk  up  their  re^derict 
at  Ihe  head  of  Lake  Zurich,  and,  burning  with  iral,  set 
lire  to  the  pagan  temples,  casting  the  idols  into  the  lake. 
Driven  away  by  the  inhabitanis,  they  oettl&l  at  Bre- 
ICCUU,  but  at  the  end  of  two  years  were  banithed  from 
this  place  also,  and  all  left  fur  Italy  except  Sl  Gi 
was  too  ill  lu  be  removed.  He  repaired  to  a  sequescerod 
spot,  and  with  a  few  adherents  built  the  Honasterv  of 
SuUaU  in  Ihe  canton  of  the  same  name.  After  his 
death,  several  of  his  scholars  and  monka  from  Ireland 
oratinned  his  woili,  until  paganism  lost  iu  hold  and  Ko- 
nanism  was  substituted  in  its  place. 

With  reference  to  the  Reformation,  D'Aubign^  says: 
"From  I&I9  U>  1636  Zurich  was  the  centre  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, which  was  then  entirely  German,  and  was 
propagated  in  the  eaalem  and  nnnhrrn  parts  of  Ihe 
oonfederation.  Between  1&'J6  and  153-2  the  movement 
waa  communicated  from  Berne;  it  was  at  once  German 
and  French,  and  extended  to  the  centre  of  ijwitxerland, 
from  the  gorges  of  the  Jura  to  the  deepest  valleys  of  the 
Alps.  In  1532  Geneva  became  the  focus  of  the  light ; 
and  the  Reformation,  which  was  here  esHuitially  French, 
was  established  an  the  shores  of  the  Leman  Lake,  and 
gained  atrength  in  every  quarter."  The  main  inalru- 
meiii  in  cinnmencing  and  carrying  forward  the  work  at 
Reformation  in  SwiizeHand  was  U'lric  Zwingli  (i|.  v.). 
In  1513  he  commenceil  the  study  of  the  Creek  lan- 
guage; and  from  J6IG.  when  he  began  to  expound  the 
Word  of  t^id  as  preacher  in  the  Abbev  of  Einsiedeln, 
Zwingli  dates  the  Swiss  Reformation.  The  influence 
of  Ihe  jmre  faith  was  soon  eitensively  felt,  so  that,  by 
Ihe  year  1522, we  find  Erasmus  estimating  "those"  in 
the  cantons  "  who  abhoireil  the  see  of  Rome"  at  about 
300.000  peraons.  Gradually  changes  in  the  mode  of 
wiinihip  were  introduced.  In  l.'il23  we  find  Ihe  Council 
of  Zurich  requiring  that  "  tbe  pastors  of  Zurich  shoulil 

the  abolition  of  images  in  churches  soon  followed ;  mar- 
riage was  no  longer  prohibited  to  the  clergy;  and  in 
1525  the  mass  was  superseded  by  the  simple  ordinance 
of  Ihe  Lord's  supper.  In  Appenzelt  Ihe  Kefnrmation  be- 
gan about  1621,  in  SchafFhauaen  about  the  same  time. 
The  aactajnentaiian  coiittoveny  between  Luther  and 


B  SWITZERLAND 

Zwingli,  and  their  respective  followers,  was  detrinentsl 
to  the  cause  ofirulh  in  both  Germany  and  Swiuertaod; 
and  in  the  latur,  as  well  as  in  the  former,  the  rise  of  Ihs 
Anabaptist  body  was  both  a  source  of  injury  and  re- 
proach. In  the  year  1627  Berne  became  proliseedlvi 
Reformed  canton,  ami  for  mutual  secoritv  allied  ilselfiia 
1529,  wiih  tbe  canton  of  Zurich.  In  Vm,  at  tbe  DiH 
of  Augsburg,  when  the  Lutheran  Canfeasiun  was  pn- 
sented.  (he  Swiss  divines  presented  another  drawa  \if 
by  BiKcr,  known,  from  the  four  towns  it  represented— 
namely,  Constance,  Sirasbnrg,  tjndau,  and  Hejningen— 
as  the  Tetrapolitan  Confesaion.  Tbe  two  oonfeaiflis 
only  differed  as  to  Ihe  aenie  in  which  Christ  was  under- 
stood to  be  really  present  in  the  Lord's  supper.  At  this 
tinK,  also,  Zwingli  individually  presented  a  confesnon, 
to  which  we  And  Eck  replying.  The  five  Romish  cao- 
tons,  having  made  ample  preliminsri*  preparaiiont^  de- 
termined by  force  of  arms  to  check  ( he  furl  her  prugresof 
ReforirKd  (ainciples  in  the  confederation.  The  French 
sympathies  of  Zwingli,and  his  hosiilily  lo  Charles  Y, 
deprived  tbe  Protestant  cantons  of  liermvi  suppon 
iu  tbe  approaching  conHii.^  The  Froleataiit  cautans 
formed  a  coiifederiKy,  and  by  a  reaoluiion  adopted  at 
Aarau,  Hay  IZ,  1631,  instituted  a  strict  blockaile  of  ibe 
five  cantons.  Uoaded  on  by  the  oonsequent  faiDiue  aixl 
its  attendant  miseries,  these  last  determined  on  war. 
and  entere.1  the  lietd  on  Oct.  <i  of  the  same  year,  the  firi« 
engagement,  taking  place  at  Cappel,  proring  mtiM  diaai- 
trous  lo  Zurich  and  fsul  to  Zwingli.  The  Relutnaliau 
now  took  Ihe  direction  of  Licneva,  jt«  opiniun*  b«ni: 
first  proclaimed  by  William  Farel  about  I&S2.  IU  wai 
banished,  but  was  succeeded  by  Anthony  Frommeui. 
who  soon  shared  the  same  fate.  The  folh'wiiig  yesi 
they  were  recalled,  and  the  bishopa  fled.  In  liSC  liie 
Council  of  the  city  proclaimed  their  adherence  tu  ihe 
Reformed  faith.  The  folhiwing  vear  witneesed  the  arri- 
val of  John  Calvin,  and  on  JulV  30, 1539,  Ihe  cititen> 
pn]iery  and  professed  Protestantism.     Priia  lu 


iiiofih 


in  the  State  lotl  to  such  dissenriiniis  ami  opposition  that 
Calvin  and  Paicl  were  banished,  but,at  the  eanieal  en- 
treaty o!  the  ciiiiens,  the  former  returned  in  15)1. 
Whatever  difference  of  opinion  there  may  be  wilh  ref- 
erence to  the  theological  vieu-s  of  the  great  Genevan  Re- 
former, there  can  be  none  as  to  his  Intelleelual  atHtiiy, 
and  bis  wonderful  organizing  and  executive  power. 
His  legal  training  (in  early  life  he  had  studied  la«) 
quallHed  him  to  frame  a  civil  code  for  (Senera,  the  good 
effects  of  which  were  apparent  i 


"Thnmgh   \\ 


established,  govtfn- 
ed  by  an  oligarchy,  pervaded  by  an  ecdesiastical  spirit. 
and  renowned  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Thiiber  re- 
sorted all  who  during  that  age  were  persecuteil  f<»r  their 
faith,  and  it  became  Ihe  acknouledged  centre  »f  a  Re- 
formed Church."  .See  Cai.vim.  For  some  i-eara  aftrr 
the  death  of  Calvin  ( 1564 ),  tbe  religious  history  of 
SwitierUnd  is  closely  ideniifird  with  that  of  tbe  CtXlt- 
olic  reaction  from  Ihe  Reformation.  Hopes  which  bail 
been  cherished  with  reganl  u>  the  ra]iid  progreaa  of  a 


ofChri 


the  Roman  Catholic  power  ii 


the  1 


Toward*  tbe  close  of  the  ITth  century,  Ihe  strife  be- 
tween Ihe  two  great  religious  parlies,  the  papists  and 
Ihe  Protestants,  began  to  assume  a  more  open  character, 
and  in  1703  the  Catholic  and  the  ProlesUnt  cantons 

ried  on  for  several  years.  At  last,  in  1712,  a  Setue  bat- 
tle was  fought  St  Villmergen,  and  victory  was  on  the 
if  the  I'roteslanls.    The  Catholica  were  complete- 


SWORD  5 

KdoinUa!  gDT«rnm«ii(  ii  in  ■  ecrtun  KnK  under  the 
naiiol  iil(b«  ontonal  govemmuil.  The  pope  hu  at- 
uofifi  ui  do  anaiii  Chiiigi  in  Iha  KgulaiioD  of  tlis  af- 

hif>  of  time  o«r  whom  h*  claims  to  exercbn  jurisdic- 
1*41,  but  hii  icU  have  been  declared  illegal  by  the  civil 
■uikhtv*,  ind  Ihcy  are  null  and  vuhI.  'I'he  "  Old 
Uubolia''  hare  oblaiued  pCoienian  of  uveral  parish 
cbmthn  in  three  or  four  of  the  canuna.  The  pieseiic 
niaitiutiiio  of  Switzerland  gnnts  complete  and  abao- 

cgr  my  penaliia  whauoever  on  account  of  hia  leligious 
ifiiniBiiL  No  one  ii  bound  to  contribute  to  tbe  ex- 
[csnrfi  Church  to  which  he  doea  ni>t  belong.  Free 
•unhip  i>  guaranteed,  civil  marria^  is  compulaory, 
•ad  wbaequent  religiotia  service  ia  optionaL     The  caii- 

1,  petidun, 
I  guiranteedi  but  Jeiuita,  and  all  re- 
bjciAH  orders  and  asaooiations  which  art  affiliated  to 
ilHii.treprDhihited.  Of  late  yean  much  evangelizing 
•ok  lia>  been  dune  by  tbe  Presbyterians,  Baplists,  and 
Kitludiiu.  In  IM9  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
■pniiAl  the  "Germany  and  Switzerland   Mission," 

l!irsa',wilh  Switzerland  aaone  of  its  districts.  Thefol- 
k»in;  are  its  statistics  for  1889 :  Number  of  preachers, 
I';  bcsl  preachers,  5;  Church  members,  4SU;  proba- 
(mii.90$;  Sunday-schools,  186;  Sunday-school  schol- 
in, IltW: churches, 38;  value n^churche^«1.0l8,4^5. 
Ibm  H  abo  a  Methodist  bonk  establishmeni  at  tiremen 
tsd  B  tbwiiyical  school  at  Kraiikfort-on-the-Main. 

Ste  JfnsDiizi  H  Hotumenit  pabtUt  par  la  Sixiili 
illibmt  ^  fArrkiol"yU  df  Gaurt  (Gtmvt,  1841-47. 
i  igk.|:  Wilson,  //it/.  n/SmtitrloHd,  in  Lardner's  CiM- 
•X  r'jiVifci.-  Gailleur,  U  Saiae  (ibid.  \Si&-b6,  i 
'ikUo);  Iugli^5l^s'Er^blNJ(Land.lM0, 
ffufujo/SiFifttTfaitd  (N.Y.1876). 

Swoid,  in  the  A.  v.,  is  tbe  usual  randeriiig  of  a^n, 
r*«n4  (ffooi  Z^^T^,  lo  luy  moiie),  which  was  simply 
Istii  tajfr,  as  it  is  rendered  in  Josh.T,  i;  Ezak.  v,  I,  2. 
Isii  bsquent  words  are  nX^,  r^sruA,  Psa.  xlii,  10 
[ll],a  rrmikag  or  outbreak  ("slaughter,"  Eiek.  xxi, 
Si;  rf)t,iUladk  (Job  xxxHi,  18,  xxxri,  12;  Joel  ii, 
K  I  Airf,  as  elsewhere  reodcred;  N.  T.  fmit^ia,  a 
s^srViog  and  broad  sword  (Luke  ii,SSi  Her.  i,  IS; 
a  1*  K:  ri,  S;  xix,  Ifi,  21);  elsewhere  l'ax'"P'^  ■ 


icipal  offensire 


reap- 


» is  Bible  history 
a  Sbacbem.  wheu  "Simeon  and  Levi  tix>k  each 
hii  nnnl,  and  came  upon  tbe  city  boldly  and  slei 
lit  bslB'  (Gen.  iixiv,  So).  But  there  is  an  aUi 
u  It  itHinlT  before  in  a  paaaage  nndnubledly  of  the 

Ida  wiib  Jacob  (Uen.  xixi,  26).  After  this,  di 
ikt  mnnt  of  the  ennquest  and  of  the  monarchy,  the 
»sri=a  of  the  sword  is  frequent,  but  very  little  can  b( 
pitend  fmm  the  casual  ttotices  of  the  text  as  to  iti 
''^N  Bie,  material,  or  mode  of  use.  Perhaps  if  any- 
i^  is  to  be  infermi  it  is  that  (he  rAirrb  was  nul 
'■ktr  a  heavy  or  a  lung  weapon.  That  of  Ehud  wsi 
^  a  cubit,  L  e.  ei((hl*en  inches,  long,  so  as  tc  havi 

■•bsrilo  the  inr<rence  that  it  was  shorter  (ban  ususl 
.fthe      " 


SWORD 

the  modem  sword.     What  riigb(ful  wounds  one 

of  the  aword  of  tbe  Hebrews  could  inflict,  if  given 

with  the  led  hand  of  a  practiced  swordsmati,  may 

be  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  2  Sam.  xx,  8-12 

'   1  Kings  ii,  6.    A  ghastly  p' 


fortunate  A 


Durdert 


."sliuee"with  the  II 


spal(ered  from  his"g 
' '  *i  had  qiuuled  from  ma  victim  ; 

e  eAirfi  was  carried  iu  a  sheath  (^:F>,  1  Sam. 
61;  2  Sam.  ii,  8,  only;  yjl,  I  Chron.  xxi,  27, 
only)  slung  by  a  girdle  (I  Sam.'xxv,  IS)  and  resting 
upon  the  thigh  (Psa.  xlv,  8)  Judg.  iii,  16),  or  upon  the 
hips  (2  Ssm.  XX,  8).  "Girding  on  tbe  sword"  was  a 
symbolical  expression  for  commencing  war,  the  more 
fiircibie  because  in  limes  of  peace  even  the  king  in  state 
did  not  wear  a  aword  (1  Kings  iii.  24) ;  and  a  similar 
expression  occurs  to  denote  those  able  to  serve  (Judg. 
viii,10;  1  Cbron.  xxi,  6).  Other  phrases,  derived  from 
the  Mnb,  are,  "  to  smite   with  the  edge   (literally 


o  edges  are  occasionally  referred  ti 


(Judg.  iii,  16;  Pss. 

cxlix,  6) 

and  sllusiona  are 

found  to 

'whelUng"  ihesw 

ord  (l>eu 

.  ixxii,  41 ;  Psa. 

Ixiv,  3i 

Eiek.  xxi,  9).    There  is  no 

reference  lo  the 

material 

of  which  it  was  CD 

raposed( 

niess  it  be  Isa.  i 

4;  Joel 

ii,  10);  doubtless 

was  of  metal,  from  the  all 

u  brighiues.  and 

-glitteri 

B"  (see  the  two 

passsgea 

quoted  above,  and 

id  the  ordinary 

word  for 

blade,  viz.  =ni,"  a 

flame."   Fn.m  the  express! 

n(J«h. 

v,a,a)  "swords of 

ock,"A.\ 

.  "sharp  knives. 

perbai-  infer  that  in  early  ti 

nesttie  material  was  Qiut. 

-Smith.     SeeK-iiFK. 

2.  The  ERVptian  swonl  was  straight  and  short,  fmm 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  length,  having  generally 

used  fur  cut  and  thrust.  They  had  also  a  dagger,  the 
handle  nf  which,  hollowed  in  the  centre,  and  Kradiially 
increasing  in  thickness  at  either  extremity,  was  inlaid 
with  cnstly  stones,  precious  woods,  or  metals;  and  the 
pommel  of  that  worn  by  the  king  in  his  girdle  was  fre- 
"  ...     -    hawk,  the 


a  it  be  s  rendering  of  the  naxnipa  of  tl 
trren  assamiog  that  Ehud's  swuid  was  thor 

aL  yet  a  onsideimiion  of  the  narratives  in  2  Sam.  ii,  I  sword :  its  bladi 
iadix,g-10,and  also  of  the  ease  with  which  Dsvid    upering  grsdui 
i  the  finiid  of  ■  man  so  much  larger  than  himself    to  two  thirds  ■ 
aGnliaih  (I  Sam.  xvii,  fil ;  xil,  9,  tO).  goes  to  show    total  length,  with  (he  handle,  only  completed  a  foot  or 
KtbetiirdwaalKith  a  lighter  and  a  shorur  weapoti  |  uxieen  inches.    The  blade  was  bionie,  thicker  in  the 


the  Sun,  the  title  given  li 

It  was  much  smaller  than  tbe 
Mm  t  ten  or  seven  inches  In  length, 
jreadth,  from  one  inch  and  a  half 


SWORD-DANCE 


Ancient  Efypdan  Daggfri. 

Ill)  ■(  (tie  eilgn,  ind  slightly  gmoTeil  in  ihat 
1  H  «xqui>ile1y  iru  the  meul  warked  thst 
Hit  their  pliability  and  spring  after  a  perioil  of 
hODUnd  years,  iiid  Rimnst  leaemble  eteel  in 
.  Such  is  the  daKKer  »''  the  Berlin  onllc^inn, 
IS  dUco^'ered  in  a  Theban  tomb,  together  vriih 
rn  ahealh.    The  handle  ia  partly  cnvered  with 


1y  o(  bone,  iieilhet  eriiamented  nor 
covered  with  any  Toetal  caaing.  Other  instance  of 
thia  have  been  found;  and  a  dagger  in  Hr.  8«1t'«  col- 
lection, nnw  in  the  Britiah  Muwum,  measuring  eleven 
and  a  halfinchea  in  length,  had  th«  handle  formed  in 
«  amilar  manner.     There  was  also  ■  (alchinn  called 

Tie,  or  ckopptr,  of  the  Argives,  reputed  to  he  an  Egyp- 
tian colony.  It  was  mure  generally  used  than  the 
aword,  being  borne  by  lights  as  well  a>  heavy-armed 
troopa;  and  that  it  was  a  most  efficient  weapon  ia  evi- 
dent as  well  from  the  uie  and  foni]  of  the  blade  aa  from 
its  weight,  the  bacli  of  this  bmnie  or  icon  blade  being 
■ometimci  cased  with  brass  (Wilkinson,  Ak.  liggpt.  i, 
8S8). 

3.  Asayrian  swords,  lilie  the  sceptres,  as  seen  on  the 
monumentis  were  often  richly  decorated.  The  bilt  was 
geneially  iinjamenied  with  several  lions'  heads,  ar- 
ranged t«  form  both  handle  and  croia-bar.  The  scab- 
bard or  sheath  was  elaborately  embossed  or  engraved 
(Layard,  Xinneh,  ii,  231). 


iword  (gbdiui,  iifot. 


called  n 

rather  broad,  and  nearly  of  a 

poiai.    The  Ureeks  and  Roma 


side,  BO  aa  to  draw  ibem  out  of  the  shealh  (ngiaa.  n>- 
X(uc)  by  passiog  the  right  hand  in  front  of  the  body  ts 

The  early  Greeks  used  a  very  shun  sword.    Ipbicrarns 

400,  doubled  its  length.  The  Konian  sword  was  larpr. 
heavier,  and  more  formidable  than  the  Greek  (set 
Smith,  Did.  of  A  atiq.  s.  v.  "  GUdiiis"),    The  swords  rf 


the  most 


by  a. 


■nd  this  • 


G.  The  sword  is  the  > 


viiw  judgment  (Deut,XJtxii,4i ;  . 

13;  Kev.  1,16),  and  of  power  ami 

4).     The  Word  of  God  is  called  -  tne  swora,    i. 

weapon  or  instrument,  of  the  Spirit  (Eph.  vi,  17). 


,  |-.18),ofdt 
ii.lS;  Jer.iii 
ity  (Bom.  xiii 


called  Lironian  Brethren  of  the  Sword.  In  12S7  ihr 
Order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  amalgamated  with  them, 

BurmuiHling  the  Uulf  of  Kiga.  (See  illustnitioo  un  op- 
posiiopage.) 

Sword-dance,  in  Hindflism,  ia  a  religioua  dance 
performed  by  HindU  bayaderes  who  have  dedicated 
themselves  to  some  deity,  and  involving  the  diaplay  of 
great  skill  Swords  are  fastened,  edge  upward,  to  two 
long  poles,  which  are  indiived  against  a  wall  so  ■■  to 
form  two  half-ladders.    The  bayaderes  ascend  then  and 

and  displaying  inimiuble  skill  and  glace  of  bodily 

blades  may  be  exceedingly  difficult,  the  reward  of  the 
dancen  ia  correspondingly  great,  so  that  they  arc  nut 
unfrequently  enriched  by  the  receipts  from  a  ungle  per- 


SYCAMINE 


n  Cliriatmu 


Smvd  Bnithcr, 
Bwoidl  Uid  a  ducal  cap  are  Ucmed 
tTt, «  (b>  midaight  maaa,  by  (he  pap«,  in  order  to 
bt  nl  lo  farored  kinffa,  ai  Edward  IV,  !(;» ;  Henry 
TU.  1W6:  Henry  Vllt,  1617.  The  laxt  gift  of  this 
kinl  wu  aMde  l|j  Leo  XH  to  (he  due  d'Aiigoulf  me  in 

SwmmBtadt,  Lemot,  a  pmniinen(  minifter  of  the 
¥Rb«di«  EpiHKfial  Church,  waa  bom  in  Hirylanil 
Ua.l,i;9«:  When  eifrhtcen  veanDrafce  he  profeeHHl 
f^imon,  uid  wa*  licenied  to  preach  Jan.  !, 
Ha  torriDce  inro  the  itinerant  work  was  lbn)u){h  rhe 
i>t>io  Onremnce  in  AiiguM,  1R18.  He  wai  ordained 
'Wna  la  1810.  and  eliler  in  1822.  In  IBSO  he  was  ap- 
pealed prending  elder,  and  nccopied  tl  '" 
rimed  HinUiH  agen(  of  the  Western  Book  Concern. 
.Ua  Sling  thia  pmition  for  et);ht  yetn,  he  was  <*Iecled 
(iwi^  agent  in  1844,  and  conlinued  u 
I'M.  wboa  be  biuk  a  superannuated  relBlion.  After 
apidly  in  health,  and  died  Aut;.  27, 
in  of  vigi  ■      •  • 

punctual,  an  energetic  and   methodical 
["advr.  aad  a  ti|p<t  disciplinarian.     See  ifinuU 
immlOiiifrrmen,  1863,  p.  14^ 

Syagiiiu.  Sr..  a  French  prdate,  was  bom  at  Autnn 
I'OM  iKI,  of  a  (iallo-KoniDn  family,  and  was 

ing  onUined  by 


His  hnii 


a  kind  r 


''^■nLabeie  many  •liMinguished 
viLni;  and  he  fouaded  Ukewiae  a  liospirat.  am 
'»rtiurthe«  of  rhe  same  city.  He  deeply  sympathiied 
ni  [tic  conqaered  Franks.  He  waa  active  in  Ihe  ec- 
'iautial  iKiirs  af  hia  lime,  and  died  Aug.  37,  600. 
W  Bata,  S'otr.  Bitig.  Gtmralr,  s.  v. 

SjbArlfs  in  Grvek  mythology,  was  a  monster  who 
vi^iiRi  a  care  on  Pamaaaui  and  dcrisiated  the  land 
rmO.  By  the  command  of  the  oracle  a  youth  was  to 
I'ncriSnd  to  bim,  and  the  talk  fell  by  lot  upon  Alcy- 
"»«  «a  oT  Diomu*,  who,  adotned  with  ■  garland,  waa 
'rvtUtaibe  carei  but, charmed  with  the  beauty  and 
*'«ti  irf  the  victim,  Kuryhatui  took  the  garland,  went 
^^ibeene,  fuught  the  monster,  and  hurled  it  down  a 

Sreamliia  (ovciipivc ;  Vulg.  morug)  ii  menlion- 
«  we  oaly  in  the  BiUe,  lii.  in  Luke  xvii,  6, "  If  ye 
^d  bath  19  a  grain  of  muitard-aeed,  ye  might  lay  to 
Be  tboD  plucked  up,"  etc.  There  ii 
doobc  (hat  the  avmafjtpo^^  ii  distinct  from 
■a  of  the  same  erangeliit  (xix,  4),  al- 
froio  Diosnrides  (i,  180)  that  this 


Stcaxore.    The  si 


uf  the 


if  the 
»  for 
the  mnlberry  -  tree  in  (ircece  (see  Heldreich,  Kuli- 
p_fiaratH  C'vchfnl.iii,li  [Athens,  I8G2],  p.  19:  -Mo- 
rus  alba  L.  and  SI.  Nigra  L,  i}  Mop^,  Hoi^Tpd, 
and  Moi^iiid,  also  Xixnpijvpa ;  pelaag.  wura").  In 
his  learned  esiay  on  the  Tritt  and  ShnU  oflkt  Ati- 
dnli  (I86S).  Dr.  Daiibeny  adoprs  Ihe  dislinctiun  pnini- 
ed  out  by  UodiEus  and  confirmed  by  Fraas:  the  jyni- 
norus  uf  the  Komaiin,  ihe  (n<Kii/iopov  or  oi'ia/iivat  {if 
AlfBVTif)  of  Dioscorides,  (he  iri'id/iii'oe  Aiymrrio  of 

of  modem  bnuny.  On  ihe  other  hand,  Ihe  aincri/iivoi- 
of  the  Greeks,  used  simply  and  without  the  qualiAca- 
lion  *'  Egyptian,**  Ihe  tnrEaii^t4n  of  Dioscorides,  is  Ihe 
ROrus  of  the  Konuuii— our  niilberTy.  Dr.  Sibthorpe, 
who  travelled  as  a  botanist  in  Greece  for  the  expresa 
purpose  of  identifying  the  plants  known  to  the  Greeka, 
says  (ba(  in  Greece  (he  white  mulberrj'-tree  is  called 
fioupin  1  the  black  nmlberry  -  tree,  mni/itvio.  Not 
only  ta  i(  Ihe  species  whose  fruit  is  prized,  bu(  it  may 


Black  llDlber>7  Fruit,  Leaf,  and  Bloaiom. 


SYCAMORE 


«2 


STCHAR 


he  qiicatinncd  wbcther  tfae  Mona  alba  hid  (band  ill 
way  inui  Ihow  regioru  b«lura  the  inlroductiDii  at  the 
lilk-wnnn  had  midi  iu  ravoriM  Tood  m  object  of  cuUi- 
vition.  Believed  lo  be  a  native  of  Peraia,  the  mul- 
heny,  coRimanlj  w  cilled,  .Vurui  mifrii,  i>  now  iprud 
liver  [he  milder  regions  of  Eumpe,  iiid  it  continually 
mentioned  by  travellen  in  the  llnly  Land.  Ai  the 
mulberry-tree  ii  a«iim.in,  at  it  ii  lufty  ind  ifliinU 
■hids,  it  ii  well  calculated  fur  the  illiutrelion  uf  the 
above  puwge  oTLuke.  See  Trixrim,  A'ul.  Hiit.  oflht 
Bait,  p.  896 ;  Tbomun,  Lund  ,mil  Boat,  ii,  29«.     See 

MULBKBRT. 

SyoamOiO  is  the  invariable  rendering,  in  the  A.V., 
nf  the  Heb.  n^t>t,  thitmah'  (which,  however,  occun 
in  the  ring,  only  in  the  Talmud,  5jlriHfj,ix,!:  the  Bi- 
ble employe  indilTerenlly  the  maec  plnr.  O^C[^C,  lAife- 
mf>i,l  Kingeic,S7;  I  Chron.  iivii,2g;  2Chr^n.i,l&: 
ix,i7;  laa.  ix,  10;  Ainoi  vii,  U;  and  the  fem.  plur. 
riis;30,  ihUmStk  (Psa.  Ixuviii,  *7),  and  rf  the  (ireelt 
ffvKOfiwpaiR (Luke  xix,4).    'rheSept.ilwiyainnelate* 
the  Heb.  word  by  irwto/ui-ocfy™™"'!  meaning  doubt- 
leu  the  Egyptian  tree,  the  irtPito/nvoc  AiyiPirrin  of  The- 
ophraatus,  which  ia  reillv  the  svrimore  (Dinscoriden,  i, 
180),     See  Geaenius,  rhnimr.  Ilrh.  p.  1476  4;  Koaen-    ^f,"'"^  .""■  "■''  '"' 
mliller,  ^terrAuniitmiit,  iv,  Ml  aq.;  01liu^  IlifnAA,       '"   »»  «»''™"U» 
810>    The  »c.n>or,.  «,  Jis^ulh^rn  (frnm  ^.o,:fy.    V^^V^  ^''^ «l„m  m,...,u™  nor  nea 
an<l  aipor,  m«tlmfy),  ii  in  Efivpt  md  fiftaliiie  a  tree  i  '.'  '"'''"  M"her  from  miuiiure  nor  nea 
,    r-^,'-  3''         "h.  I      .       „     ,,  _,,  .        lan  mummv  coffin*,  which  are  made  of 

of  great  importance  and  verj-  extenaive  n.e.    It  attaiiu  ]  ^.-nd  ,fter  an  entombment  of  thoii 

the  «»  of  «  "'"."f-reo,  haa  «i"-f-^'"8^"-.^7-  [  Ir^i:.":!'!;::.  rZZ  i"ltS^Zn.„»™,  ., 

?^nZrypUMbvtle  wav.UeJ  I,r^^a;:  ^''':^'y'"'"l""'r  ^'^".h"""' """iiST^' 
h«rt..bipJ<l.  d,.»nv  on  the  underri.le,  and  fraRran.. ,  So  B^at  w^  the  va .»  of  the«  tree.  .h..  D« 
■l-he  fruit  graw.  dire^Llv  from  the  Inmk  it«lf  ..Tli.ile  ^  ,^ }"  '}'""'"  '"' "'If  •""  «  f««1  ""r- 
apriBMnd'indu-tera  like  the  grape.  To  -"ake  it  ea.J  ^ej-d^for  ^hej.ve,  (l^hrn^  .xv,.  MV  ... 
able,  each  fruit,  three  nr  four  day*  befurc  gaihering,  ""  ™  ,„"nl^,\,"„™ ,1,^ 
muM,  It  ia  aaiil,  be  punctured  with  a  itiarp  instrument  *  "  "''■■"'™"  *""  '  "" 
\<T  the  Hnger-iiail  (comp,  Tbeophnutua,  lit  C'i«:  I'liod. 
i,  17,9;  Iliil.lH.  iv,  i,  l;  Plinv,  //.  S.  xiii,  7:  Fi.r- 
■kil,  i>racr.  PLial.  p.  IM2).     Thia'  wia  the  original  em- 


etcamnre  t\g  and  Lf«t 
In  biwer  Kgrpt  it  buds  in  March,  and  ri 


4ting1y  do 


ends  of 


Egi-pt's  calai 
ner  Bycimorea  were  iie"iro*eii  by  hailalonrs 

riii,47).  The  mnteni  llaipha  waa  the  citv  ol 
lea  (Sscomimim,  KeUnd,  PnUal.  p.  ie2*),'ii> 
■inn  nf  iinnmve  ire  Mill  reeogiiiiable  (Staiilcv, 
Pal.  p.  lib).     ■  ■ 


gilherer,"  ciis,  Sept  avilmi'.  the  exact  te 


in  onter  lofiel  i 


^  of  Jericho  that  Zaccheuiclimbei 
Ptvy-  cfJeaua  paniugbv  (Luke  xix, 
Tbeophraitus).  HiaaelquiM  (Trar.  p.  260;  Lond. ',  aqueduct  of  Herod'.  Jericho  Mr.  TriMram  lately  i 
17(10)  lays,  "The  fruit  of  thi«  tree  tastes  pretty  well; '  "a  tine  old  sycamore  lig-liee,  perhapi  i  liiieil  Ar* 
when  quite  ripe  it  is  soft,  watery,  wmewhai.  sweet,  with  int,  and  nearly  the  last,  uf  thai  into  which  Zict 
1  very  little  pnrliun  of  in  iromillc  Hate."  It  appears,  ^  climbed"  (/.cnid  n/ZirneJ,  p.  509).  That  which  it 
however,  that  a  apeciea  of  gall  insect  (Cj/aipt  tyconori}  ed  sycamore  in  North  America,  the  Orcidrmial  pl,i 
often  spoila  much  of  the  fruii,  '-I'he  tree,"  ilasselqiiiii  \  bul'oa-icood  tree,  h»«  no  resemblance  whiievcr  t 
idds,  "  is  wnunrled  or  cut  by  the  inliabitanls  at  the  lime  sycamore  of  tbe  Bible.  The  name  is  also  ipptjec 
it  buds,  for  without  this  pteeiuiiim,  as  they  «iy,  it  will  |  apecies  of  maple  (the  .4co'  prndo-pliiimiii,  or 
not  beat  fruit"  (p.  26 1).  In  form  and  smell  and  inward  '  /itow),  which  ia  tnuch  used  by  turners  snd  millwri 
structure  it  resembles  the  flg,aiHl  hence  its  name.  The  ,  ^e  Mayer,  Me  fycanwm  (Lips.  1694);  Wameknw, 
tree  ia  ilwaya  venlanl,  and  beara  fruit  sei-eral  limea  in  '  Xal.  Sycomori,  in  the  Rrpfrt./ir  bibl.Lii.  x\,2H 
the  year  without  being  conlined  to  fixeil  seasons,  and  is  '  xii,  Bl  sq.;  TriMram,  .Vol.  Ilitl.  of  Iht  BiUr,  p. 
thus,  as  a  permanent  fuud-bearer,  invaluable  to  the  poor,  i  Thornton,  Land  and  Book,  i,  22  sq.     See  Fio. 

BjtMtm,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  oi 
the  Titana  whom,  when  jupiler  punned 
his  mother,  Earth,  received  into  bet  worn' 
Sy'obu-  (Xuxo^  in  K,  A,C,D;  but nc 
SiXap  with  B;  Tnlg.  Stehari  but  Codd. 
and  Fnld.  Sa^ar;  Syriic  Smut),  a 
nimed  only  in  John  iv.  5,  u  "icity  nf  S 
rii  called  Sychir,  near  the  ground  whici 


most  universillv  accepted.  In  the  won 
Dr.  Robinson  (BOt.  Rei.  ii.  290),  "In  o 
quence  of  the  hatred  which  existed  bet 
the  Jews  ami  the  SBma^Illl^  and  in  ilh 


A'htelon.    (From  a  phningrsph  ' 


SYCHAB  a 

el  ■kkuiM  (pcrfaaps  tnno  ''JiV,  liiitr,  "  filsehnod," 
ffiDtn  of  hIoIi  in  lUb.  ii,  ISi'or  from  '^iS1D,  lAOMr, 
•inakui,"  in  iIIbiioti  Io  In.  sxTiJi,  1, 7),  lucb  aa  Ihe 
Sfn  wtn  fund  of  impoainf;  upon  |>Ucea  they  tliilikecl ; 
■HJ  Mthing  riHilil  exceed  the  enmit)' which  eaiswd  Iw- 
nrm  thf m  incl  Ihe  SanMriuns,  who  pixsMMd  Shechem 
iMnir.^J.  Ittboulil  not  be  oveilooked  that  John  t]i- 
|ani)»}'9ta  um  Ihc  enprettinn  Xtyufuvoc,  "called," 
i"ilnwtea  wbiiqitet  or  title  bome  by  place  di  pereoii  in 
■Uiiivi  IO  the  name,  or  (o  attach  it  to  a  place  remote 
■ml  link  known.  Iiuiancei  of  the  fonner  practice  are 
nIS:ix.M;sis,  18,  IT;  aTlbelall^r,  xi,  &4.  The 
-n  ii(  Sinch  (peaka  of  "the  ruoluh  people  that  dwell 
inSiluna'(l,!8).  See  Lighiroot,<;|pn-a,  ii,&86;  lM\ge, 
li/f  »/C*™(,  ii,B3T;  Hengtlenbeig,  On  St.  J<i/mn,b. 
JHMMvin  speaking  of  Paula's  Juuniey,  Bays, "  She  pan- 
til  Sidim,  noi.  ai  many  erroneoutly  call  ii,  Sichur, 
whitli  ii  DOW  fi'eupolu''  (^t'piit.  ad  Eiiiloch.  in  0pp.  i. 


BUI  crmr;  be  ailila  that  it  waa  then  called  Ntopolii 
['>!f.  ^^  IMU,  ed.  Migne).  So  Adamnan  wntes  lu  Ar- 
niabvlratelM  in  the  ;ih  cenluiy :  "  He  viaiied  the 
Bin  oOtA  in  Hebrew  Sidintt,  but  by  the  (ireeka  and 
LMin  SieiMa.  and  now  more  iiaually  Sgrhir"  (Earlg 
TntA,  Ifchii,  ]».»).  rn  Ibe  t3th  century  Phucai  »ay«, 
-^wkar  was  Ihe  tnetropulia  of  the  Samaritan*,  and  wai 
■funirds  called  Neapulis"  (Relind,  fabal.  p.  1009). 
On  tht  contrary,  Euaebiua  {Ononuut,  •.  v.  £»%<«>  aod 
tirU)  urs  that  Sychar  was  in  front  of  Ihe  city  uf 
^etfriii:  tiKi,  again,  that  it  lay  by  the  tide  of  Luia, 
•liici  >ia  (hne  milea  from  Nespoljs.  Sycbem.  an  Ihe 
i^lHsd,  he  place*  in  the  tiibiitba  nf  Neapolis  bv  Ihe 
"qb  of  Jnepb.      The  Bordeaux  I'ilgrim  (A.D.'83S) 

°*iwinigJiMepb'a  i»onucaentamlp1otoft;rounil(riU^}. 
U'  lbs  imereds  to  lay  that  ■  Ihouaand  pace*  thence 
•••  the  place  eaUed  Secbar.  Moreover,  had  >u<h  a 
HcknuH  been  applied  to  Shechem  ao  habitually  ai  iU 
••rmatx  inJuhn  would  aeem  to  imply,  there  would  be 
<w  tnce  of  it  in  Ihune  passages  of  Ilie  Talmud  which 
■ff  (a  Ihe  Samarirana,  and  in  which  every  term  ofop- 
niMam  and  ridicule  that  can  be  qunied  or  invented  is 
kapel  HI  tbetn.  It  may  be  affirmed,  however,  with 
'BUi'l^  that  neither  in  Targum  nor  Talmud  ia  ihere 
■n  Bvniioa  of  soch  a  thing.     Lighlfoot  did  nnt  know 

aim  ibmtitiand  recent  close  aearch  has  failed  todis- 
»« it   S«*  Skeckem. 

ftiiJFronM'a  view  soon  became  (he  prevailing  one, 
■^  ba  RtniinuHl  to  be  so.    Robinson  adheres  strongly 

■  ibe  oihtr  Hide,  that  Jacob's  well,  which  stands  at  the 
nnaet  into  Ibe  valley  wbeie  Shechem  or  NablAs  is 
i.  b  about  a  mite  and  a  half  fruni  the  town,  so 
■Oman  would  hardly  have  gone  s»  far  to  draw 
BKc  ibcre  waa  [deiily  of  good  water  near  at 
hi  thinka  that  the  Uiwn  probably  had  exiensive 
*>^tfba  in  the  Uoapel  age  which  did  not  exist  in  the 
'lar  fif  EosebiiiL  and  might  have  appnncbed  quite 
'ttriaHu  irrll  of  Jacob—jnet  aa  Jerusalem  anciently 
'imW  much  farther  nurlh  and  south  than  al  the 
<«n>i  day  {Kamrrkn,  iii,  131).  Porter  Ukea  the 
V*  paeral  view,  and  says,  in  regard  to  the  distance 
■>  U(  tr\\  [hat  persons  "  who  use  aueb  aigumeiiis 
^H  lililr  or  Ibe  £■■(>.  The  mere  fact  of  the  well 
k"Bi(  bsm  Jacob's  would  have  brought  numbers  in  il 
Uiht  distance  been  twice  as  great.  Even  indepen- 
■f  its  hiaoiy,  some  litlk  superiority  in  the  quality 
t  water,  aoch  as  we  might  expect  in  a  dtrp  well, 
t  bare  aitraeted  the  OrientaU,  who  are,  and  have 
t  liMn,  epicures  in  this  element"  (Handtook  far 
[lU2).  Ii  may  be  added  that  there  is  no  neeil 
Iipwogthia  well  to  have  been  the  one  commonly 
tmA  by  Ibe  people  oC  NablAa.    The  visit  of  the 


roman  to  it  may  have  been  quite  a 
ir  some  apecihc  puipuse. 
3.  it  has  been  ihoui 


e  liii 


e  of  .4 


le  identified 


dechvityof  MoiiiilEbal(VandeVelJe,,l/™.i.V,  P.S60; 
Tbomson,  I-cmd  ami  Book,  ii,  206).  The  eiymology, 
hc.wever,  is  againat  it,  and  also  the  lopo^Taphy.  Our 
Lord  woe  on  his  way  to  (ialilee.  Tlje  great  tmA  runs 
|>ast  Ihe  month  of  Wady  NablAs.  Jacnb's  well  is  on 
ihe  southern  aide  of  Ibe  opening  \  and  Aakar  about  half 
a  mile  dietaiit  on  Ihe  northern  side.  The  main  road 
passes  quite  close  to  both.  Our  Lord  sat  down  by  the 
well  while  Ihe  disciples  turned  aside  into  the  city  to 
buy  bread.  Had  Askar  been  the  city,  this  would  have 
been  unnecessary;  for  by  cnnlinuing  their  route  fur  a 
short  diaunce  farther  Ihey  would  have  been  within  a 
few  paceaoTlhe  city.  There  ia,beiiidea,  a  cogHoiis  spring 
at  Askar.  In  the  QuaMo^  SUHmnl  of  the  "  I'aL  Ex- 
plor.  Fund,"  for  July,  1877,  p.  149  (q-  Lieiil.  Conder 
gives  a  funher  deacription  of  the  village  of  Ashar,  and 
some  additional  reasona  for  identifying  it  with  Sychar; 
but  they  are  not  conclusive. 

87'Cbein  (Acts  vii,  le).    See  Shbchem. 

Br'chamite  (Judith  V,  10).    See  Sheciiehitb. 

Sycltea,  in  Greek  mythalnj:^,  tvas  a  surname  of 
Bacchui  in  I,aced«n>on,  as  having  been  the  Hrat  to 
plant  Ihe  flg  (avKif). 

Sjdeainei)  (more  properly  Stpaidtmni)  are  Church 
officers,  ancienlly  appointed  to  assiet  the  church-war- 
ig  pceaentments  of  ecclesiasticBl  olTences 


shops 


n  Essttr  wecl 


yearly,  i 
by  the  parish  priest  and  parishioner!,  11  inese  cnn 
agree;  otherwiw  they  are  in  be  appointed  by  Iho 
ordinary  of  Ihe  diocese.  Of  laie  yeare  this  office  lisi 
devolved  on  the  church  -  wo rdens.      The  old  Engli-h 

Sye'lns  (ZuqXoc  v.  r.  'BairiXot  ami  ^  anveioi;), 
a  cnrnipi  Greek  form  (I  Esdr.  i,  fl)  for  Jfkitl  (q,  v.)  of 
Ibe  Heb.  (S  Chron.  xxxv,  8). 

Sye'nft  {Heb.  Snnih,  njjtj ;  Sept.  lu^wj ;  Vulg. 
3smf),a  town  of  Egypt  on  tliefronliet  of  Cush,nr  Ethi- 
opia. The  pmphel  Eiekiel  speaks  of  the  desulatinn  <if 
Egypt  "from  Sligilul  to  Seveneh,  even  iinln  llie  Uirder 
of  Cush"  (xiix,  10),  ami  of  its  people  being  slain  "  from 
MigdoliDSeveneh''(xxx,6).  Migdol  was  on  the  east- 
ern bonier  [see  Uioiioi.],  and  Seteneh  is  ihus  rif-hily 
ideniilied  with  the  lawn  i>f  Syeiie,  which  was  always 
the  lost  town  of  Egypt  on  the  south,  though  at  cn'ia 

tian  name  is  Sun  (Brugsch,  ffeo^.  Inickrift,  \,  166,  lab. 
i.  No.  56),  preserved  in  ihe  Coptic  Sovaa,  Sfmn,  and 
the  Arabic  ^lua'n.  The  modem  town  is  slightly  to 
the  north  af  the  old  aile,  which  is  marked  by  an  inler- 
esling  early  Arab  burial-g round,  covered  with  remark- 
able tombstones,  having  inacriptians  in  tb«  Cuflc  char- 
acter. Chanip<dlion  suggests  the  Coptic  derivalion  m 
"causative,"  and  o»>n  oroulit,  "to  open,"  ss  if  it  signi- 
fied Ihe  opening  or  key  of  Egypt  (VEggpIt,  i,  161- 
1116),  and  this  ia  ihe  meaning  of  ihe  hieroglyphic 
name.  It  i*  Ihe  natural  boundary  of  Egvpt  at  Ihe 
south  (Itolemy,  lx,6i  Pliny, //«(.' A'uJ,  v,"l0;  xii,B; 
Strabn,  |>.  7g7,'8l5),  being  'iiiiaied  at  the  foot  of  the 
ftrst  cataract  on  the  Nile  (Murrav,  //unrffcwti/or  Kggpl, 
p.  463).     Sec  Jour.  Sac.  Lil.  Gel.  1861,  p.  16.S.     See 

Syene  is  lepresenled  by  the  present  AiirSn  nr  Et- 
"    '       hich  exhibits  few  remains  of  the  ancient  city. 


cepi  s( 


date  a' 


I  the  *l 


e  colun 


ivety  bi 


has  been  supposed  by  late  travellers  to  haTe  cimlsined 
Ihe  famous  well  of  Strabo  (Gtng.  xvii,  p.  S17).  into 
which  the  rays  of  a  vertical  sun  were  reported  Io 
fall  al  the  Bummer  eolaCice^-a  circumstance,  says  the 


SYGN 

geographer,  that  provea  the  plicc  "  lo  li«  undc 
tropic,  the  f^omen  at  midday  caating  no  ahadov." 
altfauugh  excaraiiDiu  have  been  carried  on  codh 
bly  betiiw  the  pavement,  which  has  been  turned 
aearch  nf  [be  well  it  was  thought  la  rover,  no  other  re- 
aulu  have  been  obtained  than  that  thiathrine  traia  very 
improbable  aite  for  >uch  an  obanvatiMT,  even  if  it 
existed;  and  that  Strabn  waa  atrangely  miiinron 
nnce  the  EKvptiana  theoMelvea  coulil  never  in  hi»  i 
have  Intaginetl  this  city  u>  lie  under  the  tropic ;  for  t 

w■^  even  in  the  age  of  Hif^Mrchus  (B.C.  140,  when 

the  obliquil;  of  the  ecliptic  waa  i  '  

far  north  or  that  line.  Tho  belii 
tTOiHe  was,  huwever,  very  general  in  Ihe  linteof  the  Ro- 
many and  is  noticed  bv  Seneca,  Lucan,  Pliny,  and 
ere.  Bul,a>SrJ.G.Wilkin9onreinarkii."a»ell» 
have  been  a  bad  kind  of  observatory  if  the  aun  had  been 
really  vertical ;  and  if  (itraba  saw  the  meiiilian  sun  in  a 
well,  he  might  be  aure  he  waa  not  in  the  tropic"  (JUod. 
Eggpl  and  Tktba,  >i,  !86).    The  same  writer  adds, "  Un- 

ters  on  the  obliquity  of  ihe  ecliptic  are  n-it  so  satisTac- 
tory  as  might  be  wished;  nor  are  we  enahleci,  especially 
as  Id  Grange's  theory  of  the  annual  change  of  obliquity 
being  varisble  is  allowed  to  be  correct,  to  ascertain  the 
time  when  Aswan  might  have  been  within  the  tmpic, 
a  calculation  ot  traditional  fact  in  which,  perhaps,  orig- 
inated [he  eTrunenus  taaertion  of  Slrabo."  The  lalitnde 
uf  Aswan  is  Bxed  by  Wilkinson  at  W  &'  30",  and 
longitude  is  usually  given  al  32°  65'. 

87gn,  iu  Norse  mythology,  was  one  of  the  female 
aaas,  goddess  of  justice,  who  takes 
and  iirevents  anyone  denying  anything.    She  guarded 
the  doors  of  the  palace  of  Winguir,  so  that  foreigners 

Sykea,  AtthuT  AaUay,  an  English  divine,  wai 
born  in  (x>ndcin  about  1G84.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Pwd'a  Schwd,  and  was  admitted  lo  Corpus  Chrisli  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  1701,  taking  his  degree  of  A.B.  in 
IT04-SandA.M.inl708.  Alter leavingcollege he serveil 
U  aaaisUnt  in  St.  Paul's  School,  but  wa«  collated  lo  lh( 
vicarage  of  Godmersham,  Kent,  in  1712-  13,  by  arch- 
bishop Teniion.  In  April,  1714,  he  was  insciluted  to 
the  rectory  of  Dry-Drayton,  Cambridgeshire,  and  in  Ihe 
August  folluwiiig  rcNgned  the  vicarage  of  (iKdmershani. 
He  was  insliluled  lo  the  reclory  of  Rayk-igh,  Kssex, 
November,  171»,  and  resigned  Ihe  living  of  Dry-Dray- 
lon.  In  December  fulloiring  he  was  appoiiiled  aflet' 
noon  praacher  of  King  Street  Cliapel,  (iolden  Square,  a 
chapel  of  ense  to  St.  James's,  Wcstmiimcr.    The  mmn- 


.inled  U 


»-24.  hi 


pointed  lo  the  prebend  of  AUoii.B"re>li»,  Salisbury,  and 
three  years  after  became  precentnroflhe  same  cathedral. 

preacher  ai  St.  Jsme..'«,  Weslminsler,.\prit,  ITM;  dean 
or  St.  Burieu,  Cornwall,  February,  1739;  prebendary  of 
Winchester,  Ocl.l&,  1740.  He  dieil  Nov.  la.lT5«.  His 
imbliahcd  works  number  Hxly-lhrce,  of  which  we  no- 
tice, .4n  Etiiis  UfKm  Ikt  Tnith  o/lhe  Chritlian  Rtligioa 
(Knapuin,  l7:!.%8vo:  3d ed.  1775, Hvo] -.—Pnnnplfi and 
Ciammum->f.\nliiralaadRmaledlerli!i%an{\HD,%vo); 
—CrrdOilits  of  Miiwlrt  ami  RtrHalion  (1742,  flvo)  :— 
KHogm  Sacrifiivt  (l74H,8vo)  —Sciipliirf  VorlHfK  '■/ 
BflrmplinH  of  Man  by  Jaat  ChrtMl  (17o5,  «vo)  --Par- 
iiphnm  and  Sola  apoulht  EpUlU  to  Ike  Hrbrrim  (n6&, 
4to).  See  Allibnne,  D'kI.  of  Bril.  and  Amtr.  Author), 
a.  v.;  ChalmeT!!,  Biog.  Vict.  s.  v. 

S]rk«a,  Oliver,  n  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  bom  at  Suffield,Coun..  177H,  He  was 
ronverled  iu  his  twenty-Mcond  year,  and  in  1806  was 
received  on  trial  into  the  New  York  Conference.  In 
1810  he  became  supennnusted,  and  held  that  rc-lation 
through  most  of  his  life.  He  died  Feb.  1 1.  Ilt.i.t.  He 
leH  property,  about  %1!M,  to  tho  Miwionary  Society, 


4  SYLPHS 

for  (be  benefit  of  the  China  Hiiaion,    Sac  Mimta  o/ 
<t  iniiul  Conftnnca,  1853,  p.  21i 

Sylea,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  kin); 
Corinthus  and  wife  of  Polypemun.  to  whom  abc  bon 
Sinis,  the  pine-tree  bender,  a  notorious  robber. 

Sylena,  in  Greek  mythology,  waa  ■  lyrant  afAidis. 
who  compelled  all  foreigner!  who  entered  his  domiiiiinu 
to  labor  iu  his  garden.  Hercules  killed  him,  logMba 
with  hia  daughter  Xenodic*.  Another  daughter  wb 
educated  by  her  brother  Dlcnu;  she  fell  in  love  with 
Hertulea.  and  died  of  grief  because  she  could  not  be  hii. 
He  also  loved  her  so  deeply  that  he  waa  with  dilBctiliy 
restrained  from  casting  himself  upon  her  funeral  pyre. 
SyllSbSe  anthronlstlcs  (luUin^i  ivipovMm- 
irai)>c'<'>=<<lar  letters  written  by  bishops  recently  instalM 
to  foreign  bishops,  to  give  them  an  account  of  their  faith 
and  orthodoxy,  that  they  might  receive  letters  of  ]iea» 
and  communion  from  them.  See  Bingham,  CAi^.  ^  ■- 
tig.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xii,  S  ID. 

SyUKbna.  an  abetracl ;  a  compendiuni  cootaining 
the  heads  nf  ■  lecture  or  sermon. 

SYLLABUS  (Gr.  avWalOt,  a  mllftHm,  L  e.  nKo- 
logur),  PaPai.,  is  the  title  given  to  the  appendix  u  tbt 
enryclical  letter  issued  by  pope  Pius  IX,  Dec  B,  1861 
It  waa  "a  list  of  the  principal  emre  of  the  day  poinnd 
out  in  Ihe  consistorial  allocutions,  encyclical  ^nd  mhei 
apoMolical  letters  of  pope  E>iua  IX,"  and  pDtuneiating. 
under  ten  general  heads  or  aections,  eighty  of  ibesF  n- 
rors.  These  ten  sections  of  errors  are  entitled,  "L  Pan- 
theism, Natnialism,  and  Absolute  Rationalism:'  '11- 
Moderale  Rationalism;"  "til.  IndilTerEntiBni,  Tidera- 
lion;"  "IV.  Sodalism,  Cnmmaniam,  Secret  Societies, 
DiUe  Societies,  Clerico-liberal  Socieiie*;"  "V.  Etmts 
respecting  the  Church  and  her  Kighls;'  "VI,  Ermn 
of  Civil  Society,  as  much  in  Ihemselves  as  cunstdeml 
in  their  relations  in  the  Church;"  "VII.  Errofa  in  Nat- 
ural and  Christian  Murals;"  "VIIL  Errors  B9  to  Chris- 
tian Marriage;"  "IX.  Errota  regarding  the  Civil  Power 
of  the  Sovereign  PunlitT^  "  X.  Ermrs  refeiiiiig  tu  Mod- 
em Liberalism."  Some  of  the  speciAcations  under  Ibfsr 
general  heads  bava  respect  to  religions  freedom,  thesrii- 
aration  of  Church  and  Slale.  the  civil  cnninct  oT  mar- 
riage, education  oul«de  of  the  cnnind  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  Ihe  conHict  between  the  civil  law  and 
Ihe  spiritual  authority  of  ihe  Church,  the  immuniiies 
of  the  clci^,  the  cessation  of  Ihe  pope's  temporal  po*er. 
etc.  Much  excitement  was  created  by  the  appeaiance 
of  this  bull  and  syllabus,  eqieciallT  in  Frartoei  Jul» 
Uaroehe,  minister  of  public  worahip,  forbidding  the  bish- 
ops lo  publish  ihe  syllabus  and  the  doctrinal  pan  of  the 
bull.  Elsewhere  Ihecivil  governments  di<l  not  inlerfert. 
For  literatuie,  see  Schulte,  Tit  Putrtr  nf  ikt  Romau 
ortr  Priaeti.  Counf-iu,  elc  (1871):  Fesder,  7W«  and 
F<>l>r  lnf„Uihail<)  of  tht  Popr,  {Vienna,  ISTl ;  Lend. 
and  N.  Y.  ISTA) ;  Uladsloiie,  Tke  Voftan  Drcnrt  m  tbv 
£earii^aaCVri/>U>jnancr:(l874),wilhTepluabyNfw  | 

lan.  Manning,  and  othersL  ; 

Syllla,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  nymph  bdoved 

y  Apollo,  and  the  mother  by  him  of  Xeiixippus. 
SyUltargua  (XuXXtirovproc),  a  Greek  term 

esignaie  the  aasiaunc  during  Ibe  offering  of  the  Chris- 

■n  sacrilice. 
Sylphs,  in  the  fantastic  system  of  the  ParKeUsls, 

re  the  elemental  spirits  of  the  air,  who,  like  the 
elemental  spirits,  bold  an  iniermediale  place  btt 

■  ■  '  'beings.   Tbeyeat,diink,speat, 


hildrei 


other  hand, 

spirits  in  being  more  nimble  and  swift  in  their  motions, 
iiile  their  boilies  are  more  diaphanous  than  those  of 
lie  human  race.  They  also  surpass  the  latter  in  Itwir 
nowledge  both  of  the  present  and  the  future,  but  havn 
no  soul:  and  when  they  die,  noihins  is  left.  In  form 
r,  and  stnmger  than  men,  but  aiaml 
all  the  etemenlal  spirits,  and  a  a 


SYLVESTER 

ia»««qDrnet  bM  iDlercmirM  witb  bur 

Wbm  tb«y  b»TB  children  by  ni»ni«ge  with  mortals, 

■Jk  chiUim  hiTc  aouU,  uid  bclang  to  tt 

OtifuiUy  DMtcnlinc,  ibey  have  come,  probably  by  the 

4h(naltutioa  or  poets,  to  be  coruiilered  as  feminiiie. 

Bf  IvoaUt  GozzoLon.    See  STLVurrBlAMS. 

BylTASter  I,  pupa,  wu  barn  in  Borne  about  t! 
/ai  170,  and  was  tbe  son  of  Rufinna  and  St.  Jusl 
At  thirty  rcan  uT  a^  he  ia  aald  U>  bsTe  been  ordained 
by  bBhop  (pope)  Harcellinns,  and  on  Jan.  81,  811,  he 
«M  cbnen  to  ■tceeed  Helchidea  in  the  ponti  Scale.    His 
■dnmbtiatioii  ia  celebrated  Tor  the  Council  of  Mioea 
(q.  T.),  bdd  in  BX6,  which,  however,  Sylvester  did 
■Ueod,  «n  aeoMint  of  his  inflrai^es;  and  he  wu  rei 
•oted  by  two  priot^  called  (iuj  and  Viucent,  while 
Onus,  bishop  of  Omtovs,  presided  in  his  name.    He  is 
tfceautbor  of  several  rules  to  the  clerfy.    The  account 
givHi  of  the  dauatioD  to  him  or  the  dtyorRomeby  Cun- 
lUniiiM  is  wholly  apocryphsL     He  died  in  Uodw^  Dec 
Si,S5,  and  was  succeeded  by  Harcui. 

SflVBrtSr  H,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the 
BiediirTal  popes,  originally  called  Grrbtrt,  wii  bom  nt 
Aarilkc,  in  Auvergne,  early  in  the  lOlh  centur}'.  He 
was  educated  in  the  tnoiiaatery  uf  his  native  village, 
but  went  early  to  Spain,  when  he  learned  msthemat- 
io,  and  afterwards  to  Home,  He  was  appointed  abbot 
of  the  Honastery  of  Bobbio,  where  he  taught  with  much 
tbatinclion  and  ■■»«■>.  AC  a  Ister  period  he  went  tu 
tieimany  a*  preceptor  of  tbe  young  prince  Ulhn,  after- 
ward!  Otho  H,  and  ultimately  became  secretary  to  the 
aichbishop  of  Rheima,  and  director  of  the  cathedral 
idiool,  which  became  eminent  under  his  cate.  'I'be 
aicbbohop  having  been  deposed,  Sylvester  was  elected 
M  the  arehbiibopric  1  but  he  wu  illerwards  set  aside, 
the  depoaiiion  of  his  predecessor  having  been  declared 
iavahd.  In  tlie  year  99«,  however,  he  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Kavenna,  whence  he  was  called  to  the 
pcDtiOad  throne,  April  S,  999,  ss  the  successor  of  Greg- 
ory T.  He  imoimced  tbe  liberal  lendeneiee  of  his  ear- 
si  yma,  confirmed  the  judgment  of  John  XV  with 
nprd  to  the  Synod  of  Rheims,  and  established  Amulph 
in  his  archbishopric;  convened  a  «ynnd  in  1001  at  Rome, 
>hich  placed  the  Convent  of  (landtrsheim  under  the 
jotisdictiMi  of  tbe  bishop  of  Hildesheim ;  and  awarded 
tiili  and  crown  to  the  king  St.  Stephen  of  Hungary, 
t«ida  eodferringon  him  the  right  to  determine  in  fc- 
doiaitical  matl«i  in  his  kingdom.  While  considering 
I  fisn  lilt  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  died  in  Rume, 
Hay  11, 1003,  and  was  succeeded  by  -lolm  XVUI.  He 
■as  a  man  of  rare  acquirementa  for  his  age.  He  was 
aaadept  in  raalhematics  and  in  praclical  mechanics  and 
aiinnaniy.  in  which  drpartments  bis  attainments  ac- 
Hnindfiir  him,  among  bis  contemponriea,  the  evil  repu- 
isiiea  Ufa  magician.  He  is  slso  believed  to  hace  been 
soiuJoled  with  Greek,  and  perhaps  with  AiaLic  Of 
•H  bia  works,  which  were  nnmeroua,  his  letteis  (printed 
by  Da  Cbenie  in  tbe  llaloritau  ofFraaci)  have  attract- 
el  iDOSt  notice,  fioni  their  bearing  on  the  history  of  an 
sbscwa  period.  His  liieraiy  remains  have  been  pub- 
bihid  by  Haaon  and  others,  more  recently  by  Peru, 
ikugb  not  complete.  See  Richeri  t/iit,'  Lib,  to,  in 
Pari  JVmml  Gtrm.  IliMtoriea  Saipt.  (Hanov.  1888), 
Ub.  iii;  UabiUon,  Vrl.  A  rniltHa  (Paris,  1728).  p.  102  sq.; 
Hvk,  Grrhtrt  od.  Paptt  Syimlir  II  a.  tta  Jahrhunderl 
Olniis,  IS37>  See  alx)  Budinger  on  the  scienliRc  snd 
foblicsl  imponaocc  ofOerbert  (Cassel,18£l);  Henog, 
BMl-taa^dap.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Noav.  Ring.  GiHiraU,  s.  v, 
SrlVMter  III,  anCipope,  wu  born  in  Rome,  Msy 
I,1H4;  and  while  hnown  u  John,  tuBbopofSabina,  he 
•■  set  oa  the  pontifical  throne  through  the  influence 
if  tbe  consul  Plolenmua,  in  place  of  the  Juvenile  Bene- 
ta.  IX,  who  had  been  expelled  for  his  vices.  Sylvester 
mitMd  but  three  months,  when  the  counts  ofFrascaCi 
■sok  np  arms  ui  replace  Benedict.  The  latter,  seeing 
k  n  despised  by  (be  dergy,  sold  the  tiara  to  John 
GiNliD,  whoiB  be  aowned  as  Gregory  TI.  The  em- 
X.-8 


B  SYMBOLICAL  BOOKS 

peror  Heniy  HI  held,  in  December,  1046,  a  coundl  at 
Sutri,  when  the  three  popes  were  all  deposed,  and 
Qement  II  was  elected.    See  Pope. 

SylTsatrlana  is  the  name  of  an  order  of  monks 
founded  by  Sylvester  Gouoloni,  who  wu  bom  in  1170 
(or  1177)  at  Osimo,  in  the  Papal  States.  He  wu  edu- 
cated at  Padua  and  Bolngns,  and  received  a  canoniy  at 
Osimo,  which  he  renounced  about  1S17,  in  order  to  de- 
vote himself  in  solitude  to  a  contemplative  life  of  ascet- 
icism. Pupils  and  followers  gathered  about  him,  with 
whom  be  founded  a  monastery  in  1S81  on  Mount  Fano, 
in  which  the  Beucdictine  rule  wu  adopted,  coupled  with 
a  vow  of  rigid  poverty.  Innocent  IV  conflrmed  tin 
foundati'>n(IMT),and  the  order  spread,  panicalarly  in 
Umbria,Tuaciny,  and  Ancona.  It  was  united  witb  that 
of  Vallambroea  in  1662,  but  again  separated  fnUD  it  in 
1681,  and  was  endowed  witb  new  constitutions  hv  Alex- 
ander VIII  (1690),  which  provided  fur  the  cele'bralion 
of  matins  at  night,  for  reciprocal  and  also  self-inflicted 
flagellations  on  every  Wednesday  and  Friday  in  Advent 
and  Lent,  and  For  abstinence  from  the  use  of  flesh,  milk, 
and  eggs  on  every  Friday  and  every  Church  festival. 
A  considerable  number  of  convents,  of  nuns  as  well  as 
monks,  belonged  to  this  order  in  its  flourishing  period ; 
but  it  is  now  insignillcant.  Leo  XII  purposed  to  dis- 
solve the  order  and  incorporate  its  members  with  other 
organizations  i  but  it  has,  nevertheless,  been  preserved 
to  our  lime.  An  order  of  female  Sylvestrians  exists  in 
I'erugia.  The  direction  of  the  order  ia  placed  in  the 
hands  ofa  general  and  a  procurator-general,  the  former 
being  chosen  for  four  and  the  latter  for  three  years. 
Tbe  habit  is  compoeed  of  a  gown,  scapulary,  cowl,  and 
mantle;  its  color  is  dsrk  brown.  The  general  wean 
violet,  and  is  privileged  to  bear  the  poalfficaiia  (q.  v.). 
— Heraog,  Retd-Ettej/ldop.  s.  v. 

Symntbla,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  Trinacrian 
nymph,  goddess  of  tbe  river  of  the  like  name,  beloved 
of  Faunua,  to  whom  she  bore  Acis. 

Sjmbol  (from  aiv  and  /SoXXu,  lo  iKnu  togtHter,  i.e. 
by  comparison),  sn  abstract  or  compendium,  a  sign  or 
representation  ofsomctbinp  moral,  by  tlie  figures  or  prop- 
erties of  natural  things.     Hence  symbols  are  of  various 
kinds,  as  hien^lyphics,  types,  enigmas,  parables,  fables, 
etc.  (ij.  V.  severnlly).     See  Ijnculer,  Did.  o/Scriplurt 
Sifmboli;  Bicheno,  V^ymioficaJ  Foca^Inry,  in  his  Signi 
of  the  Timrt:  Fsber,  On  Ihi  Pivphtcui i  Jones  [W.], 
Worb;  vol  iv;  Wemysa,  C/urti  SymioKni,-  MilKSoc 
Sy7abol<igy  (Edinb.  1853);  Tairbilm,  Tspol.  o/ Script.  / 
Brir.  and  For.  Ecan.  Rev.  1848,  p.  896,   Sec  Syhboubh. 
8VMB0L  (Cr,  Sifi^aXny,  n>i.  iotrn\  a  title  an- 
ciently given    to   the  Apostles'  Creed  (Cyprian,  /^. 
76;  Ruflnns,  De  Symfofo;  Augustine,  De  f'idt  el  Sfm- 
boloi  ami  Hilary-,  De  Trm.  cap.  xii).     The  ecclesas- 
lical  origin  of  the  term  is  much  disputed,  hot  its  most 
probable  meaning  was  Ihst  of  a  contract,  or  bond  of 
'lith.     One  reason  fur  the  name  derivea  it  from  a 
Greek  word  signifying  a  throwing  or  cuting  together, 
and  alleges  that  the  apostles  each  contributed  an  article 
form  the  Creed,  putting  theirjoint  opinion  or  counsel 
an  abridged  shape.     The  other  is  the  opinion  that 
is  Creed  wu  used  in  times  of  persecution  u  a  walch- 
ird  or  mark  whereby  Christians  (like  soldiers  in  the 
army)  were  distinguished  from  all  others, 

e  term  tifmbol,  importing  an  emblem  or  sensible 
representation,  is  also  applied  in  the  holy  eucharist  to 
the  aacred  elements,  which  there  set  forth  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ. 

BjicboIic^Bl  Booka.  This  title  designates  the 
iblic  confeaaions  of  faith  of  tbe  different  Christian 
churches  or  den ominst ions ;  in  other  words,  the  writ- 
in  which  an  ecclesisstical  communion  publishes  lo 
the  world  the  tenets  that  bind  It^ther  its  members 
ind  ilistinguish  it  from  other  communions  of  believers 
or  unbelieven.    For  the  idea  of  a  symbol  we  refer  to 


SYMBOLICAL  BOOKS 

Tht  only  aymbol  which  find*  univeml  mcecpUnce 
the  Cliurch  is  the  Apoatles'  Creed.  Aa  the  Church  creed 
tar  i{ax'i>'>''  tBdistingiiuheil  fnjm  the  Scriptutetupou 
which  It  Lb  baaed,  but  alao,  on  Ihe  oltiei  hinrl,  from  the 
inivus  wrilinifa  ind  coiifeaiana  of  the  teaehtra  of  the 
Church,  howeTer  greatlv  the  litter  loe;  be  rateemed. 
1-he  Uter  aymboliol  W»  differ  from  the  briefer  B7D1- 
tmlieal^rnalfH,  which  alone  aervcd  the  purposeaof  the 
Cliiirch  before  Ihe  Reruimatioii,  in  being  more  vxtcnBire 
and  detailed,  and  in  conaliliiting  the  confehaiona  of  par- 
ticular churches  only  (jn/jabala  parliculoriti),  while  the 
;rrcBt  erceda  (Apoatica'.  Nieene,  Aihaninan)  hare  lecu- 
■iienical  value.  The  phraie  Libri  SgmbolKi  origiruted 
ill  Ihe  ijitheranChurch,  and  wBSfirM applied  to  ila  own 
riiiife«iniul  writing!  when  Chej  appeared  in  tbe  Book 
nj' Oiieord;  but  ita  uae  extaided,  and  haa  lung  been 
vurreiit  in  all  the  ehurchea  and  aecu  of  Chrislendi 

Onuiderable  dii'eraiiy  of  opininii  hoa  exialed 
Tvference  to  Ihe  imporianc^  and  value  of  aynil: 
wriiinga.  The  Church  of  Itome  regards  the  aymUol  aa 
the  imm'irable  and  unchangeable  rule  of  faiih,  and 
iherefure  aa  the  Unding  norm  of  doctrine,  'lliia  doea 
not.  according  to  Thomaa  Aquinaa  (Simuvi  Thr^.  a,  2, 
i,  9),  detract  from  [ho  aiipreme  -  .     ^    •  . 


'  understood  aadiffci 


impl;  an  expoailion  and  1 
iKiiial  creed.  Variationa  i 
nt  aapects  of  Ihe  truth,  asaumed 


competent  to  formulate  a 
II  of  the  truth,  though  not 
le  traditional  creed  (.''"hom. 


The  Church  ia  accordingly 
new  lymbol  for  the  expoiiii 

Aquina^  uttapX 

The  Church  uf  the  Reformalion  aawrted  Ihe  sole  1 
thorityuflJoiy  Scripture  in  matters  of  duclrine;  and 
though  it  reocived  the  cecumenical  tymbola,  it  deli 
mined  their  cliaracier  u  being  tnlimomafidri  simp 
1.  P.  teslinxiiiiea  ccriifying  the  underatanding  of  I 
Word  of  Goil  current  in  Ihe  Church  at  a  given  lin 
Thcinirth  ofcvufcHiions  i»  accordingly  made  to  depend 
■•u  liieir  agreement  wiih  Ihe  Script 
bealicred  ami  improved.  The  author  of  the  ilui/wM™ 
n^ieatedly  undertook  a  Ihorough  reviainn  of  liijt  work : 

the  evangelical  cilatca  not  only  approved  of  Mclane- 
thun'a  Variala.  but  in  1537  directed  tlieir  llioilojriaiu 
at  the  Convention  of  Smalcald  10  revise  Ihe  mnfi-uion. 
The  beginningi  of  an  obligalory  support  of  Ihe  confes- 
«iun  are,  however,  apparent  at  an  early  day.  tiubecrip- 
tlnn  10  Ihe  Aagiburg  Confiirien  waa  occa^onally  re- 
quired during  the  fourlh  decade  of  the  ISth  cenluri', 
and  in  !i33  the  Iheological  faculty  of  Wittenberg  wei 
required  byslatule  lo  teach  aunnd  doctrine  aa  containe 
in  the  ancient  creeds  and  the  A  ugjburg  Cotifeuioa. 
growing  diaposiliun  to  insist  on  uniformity  of  leachin,, 
became  manifesl,  and  it  was  this  which  gave  rlae  Ia  Ihe 
OslBiidrian  Controveraiea  {i[.  v.>  In  Ihe  middle  of  the 
lUIh  century  the  various  corpora  docTrina  began  lo  ap- 
pear; in  IStiO  the  Corput  Ikiefr.  PhOippKum;  in  1561 
theC.n./'om*r(HiicBm{  in  \Uii  tha  C.  D.  Pnlkmieam, 
etc.  The  conclnsiim  waa  maite  in  \bl6  with  ihe  For- 
mula  of  Concord  (q,  v.\  and  this  names  the  vrritingB 
(a  which  symbolical  authority  ia  given  by  reaaon  of  a 
unanimous  approval  of  Ibeir  teachings,  and  ia  itaelT  in- 

cil  ill  Ihe  coniilrica  where  theac  writings  were  received 
by  the  civil  govcmraent.  The  dispute  with  Calixlua 
(i|.  V.)  led  Ihe  Lutheran  Iheolngians  lo  poalulale  a  mc- 
iliole  inspiration,  and  fnnwi]ueiitly  a  divine  authority, 
for  the  aynibolical  Iwoks;  but  the  distinction  between  tlie 
canon  of  Scripture  and  auch  standarda  ia  nevertheless 
cimatanlly  preserved  in  word,  if  not  alwaya  in  facL  In 
reality,  the  symbolical  booka  were  regarded  aa  a  naviiv 
TiK  f'ortiuc  tbruughoul  the  17th  century  side  by  side 
with  the  Scriptures,  inaamuch  as  Ihe  faith  was  grounded 
directlyon  Ihe  pymbolralher  than  on  Ihe  Bible. 


i  SYMBOLICAL  BOOKS 

The  Reformed  churches  have  produced  no  wrilKn 
symbol  which  baa  formal  authority  over  them  all*,  but 
they  have  cherished  a  very  deflniie  conviction  of  cun- 
feasiooal  unity  amoag  ihem,  as  may  appear  frum  tbe 
fnci  that  the  different  Kefurmed  confession*,  and  panic- 
ularly  Ihe  more  important  of  Ihem,  Ihe  llrlcriitii.tiaHi- 
cnna,  Scotioi,  Htlyica,  elc„  are  received  in  alt  such 
churches  as  embodiments  of  the  pure  type  of  diicirine. 
and  from  Ihe  furt bet  fact  that  Ihe  memben  of  a  Cburcb 
holding  to  one  oftbeae  confeasiona  may  paaa  beyond  iIh 
territory  wilhin  which  auch  confcnion  haa  aitihnriiy, 

ing  a  Church  which  adheres  to  another  of  Ihe  RvturnHii 

membera  of  Ihe  Reformed  Church,  The  number  of  R«- 
foniKd  symbols  was  influential  also  in  directing  atteo- 
lion  upon  their  Hibilaiice  rather  than  upon  tbe  ionso- 
laled  letter,  it  being  conceded  that  wllh  reaped  lo  the 
latter  the  confesaion  ia  not  infallible  and  incarahk  of 
further  improvement.  Such  changea,  howe\'er,  are  not 
In  be  needlessly  undertaken,  nor  may  individuals  aub- 
ject  the  confessional  standards  at  will  to  eiperimenta  in 
Ihe  inleresta  of  novelty.  Great  care  haa  ever  been  ex- 
ercised 10  preserve  the  purity  of  the  confesaional  sym- 
bols, in  some  instances  carried  to  Ibceslent  of  requiring 
the  subscription  oflhe  clergy  and  the  officers  ofauie  to 
doctrinal  standards  settled  by  law.  (Baale  and  Geneva 
even  required  such  subscription  of  the  body  of  their  dli- 
zena.  The  Reformed  Church  of  Eaat  Friealand  aloii( 
never  required  subscription  lo  its  symbol.)  The  Kth 
century  produced  symbols  in  this  body  also,  e.  g.  the 
Canoni  of  DoH  and  Ihe  /Irlnlic  Cmunaan,  both  of 
which  go  beyond  even  Ihe  Formala  nf  Comconl  in 
acholaatic  rigidneas.  The  beginning  of  ilie  ISth  ren- 
liiry  saw  a  reaction,  however:  Sjiener  already  veuiured 
lo  doubt  the  neceauly  of  i^mbols,  since  Ihe  Church  had 
so  loiig  existed  wiilicnit  them,  and  expreaaed  hisdisaenl 
from  Ihe  doctrine  of  iheir  inapiralion  and  infallibility. 
A  century  ariMwards  it  was  conceded  thai  (^ligation  la 
adhere  10  the  aymbol  holds  only  with  reference  to  es- 
seniials:  and  ■  majority  of  critics  asserted  thnt  the  un- 
esaenlial,  not  directly  religioua  and  merely  iheohigical 
which  deserves  no  place  at  all  in  a  crecil,  was  greatly  in 
excesa  nver  that  which  is  really  ossenlial.  The  coiilUci 
with  rationalism  canaed  many  moiliHcaliona  in  Ihe  viewi 
orthochiirchea;  but  subscription  to  the  creed  waa  gen- 
erally insisleil  on,  though  the  obligation  Ihua  ■aeunied 
was  ofttn  but  lightly  felt.  In  the  preaeni  p«riod.  ihe 
reaction  against  rationalism  haa  occisiimcil  m  revival 
of  17lh.ceiiIUTy  confcasionalism  in  many  quarters:  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  liberal  tendency  requires  a  break- 
ing-away  from  Ihe  aulhoricy  of  symbols  aa  beioc 
simply  monuments  of  the  faith  of  our  fathers  and  evi* 
deuces  of  former  conquests,  and  also  aa  being  ailvene 
to  1I1C  geuiua  of  I'rolestantism.     See  Cunfesbioh  of 

F.*ITH. 

The  abstract  right  of  the  Church  to  require  aubmii- 
sion  to  its  standards  ia  evident,  but  it  is  ■  question 
which  must  bo  answered,  Uay  tbe  Prolalaia  Cburvh 
assert  ihal  riglil,  and,  if  it  may,  then  tu  what  eiient  ? 
It  ia  evident  that  Ihe  more  recent  symbols,  as  tieing 
more  icslriclive  and  separative  in  chaiacler  than  Ihe 
older  confessiona  and  creeiia,  are  of  inferic'r  authority. 
It  is  also  clear  that  Ihe  spirit  and  aubstaiice  of  ■  confes- 
sion have  greater  importance  than  attaches  to  Ihe  form 
or  letter.  Neither  the  Aiigthtirg  Canfeaion  not  the 
llrvlcUitrg  Caleckum  coiislilulea  the  I'ratestant  Conf»- 
aion  of  Faiih,  and  must  be  reganled  Htnply  as  enays 
towanta  formulating  Ihe  body  of  I'rotciitant  dncltine. 
which  may  be  lesleil  by  criticism  and  revised.  Doctri- 
nal purity  in  Ihe  concrete  ia,  after  all,  a  rela^ve  thing, 
and  Ihe  Church  ia  under  the  necessity  of  persistiiig  iu 
Ihe  n'ork  of  grounding  its  teachings  more  aolidly  on  ilie 
Word  of  (iod  and  of  devehiping  Ihem  further  towanli 
their  idlimale  consummarinn.  A  diatinclion  must  ac- 
igly  be  admitted  between  heterodoxy  of  a  more  or 
IcBi  serious  type,which  consisu  in  departing  in  some 


SYMBOLICS  e 

pMB  fmn  (he  icceplcd  Maadinb  of  ■  Church,  and 


b  lueir.    It  ii 


ie  fuun 


Luit  dT  chinctcT.  Kvvry  step  of  itB  progms  miiBt  be 
Id  iumanv  irUh  lift  funclAmentil  principl«Bf  which  are 
liid  ilmrn  in  tb«  0(mf«Mioni  furniiilaCeii  by  iu  fgundera. 
TiBK  ivmboli  ittoC  ■  Taich  which  belanga  equally  to 
«ir  faiai  inil  la  u).  The  libertr  of  ttackin;/,  mon- 
atrr,  Dtedd  ^o  Le  giuidedt  lest  it  degenerate  into  lic^iLBe 
•Bd  unnti)'  ooamry  to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  order 
of  Ok  Church.  PntESlantiBiD  certaialj'  hu  the  right 
to  pntfct  itd  tnjtb  ogainaL  neulogiziug  anlichriotianilj', 
3d1  ilv  ogaiiut  un-Froteslant  Komuiism— in  a  won), 
■gaini  miuifcU  perversion.  Tbe  aubscriplion  to  >viii- 
bUirtquiml  of  its  accredited  leichen  can  hardly,  how- 
ntr,  be  lilhout  candilioi]&     Perhaps  the  utmoN  ex- 

coidiil  Mciptance  of  principlea  upon  which  the  confe*- 
BUDS  in  bud,  leaving  particulars  to  be  determined  b; 
ibe  snicienDe  of  the  subscriber.  In  any  case,  the  lyin- 
bob  ve  (olilleil  to  reapect  so  far  u  to  make  them  the 
■ibject  of  earnest  anil  loving  study,  and  to  protect  them 
■giioii  sbnie  fniDi  proFeased  adherents. 

UmfiiT.— Early  rmintant  writers  hare  no  sepa- 
WtharUa  symbolicalbooks,  and  hilt  few  treat  oflhen 
(•ID  iiKidenially  (see  Hut,  Uutltrvt  Jtedietc.  p.  115, 
HDt  1 ).  Among  later  doctrinal  wiiten,  see  Tweaten 
(!«»),  i,  50  fq.;  Hase  (3d  e<l.  Iftij),  p.  438  sq.;  Mar- 
uun.  p.  74  aq.  Cniitrovenial  writings  are  partially 
eina  in  ilase.  ■(  np.  A  comprehensive  mooograph  is 
JokaMHn's  Wifoaclin/iL  u.  tut.  tfnltri,  iib,  d,  Rttht- 
miai^til  iL  yrrpjlichl.  tn/  tynb.  Bieirr,  etc.  (Allona, 
1103).  See  also  id.  Anjanffe  dn  Symbolxaang;  etc 
(Itipi.  IS47);  Ualtbrs.  Verglrifiimdt  Sgmbolik  (ibid. 
1»U|,  |h  2  sq. ;  Schenkel,  Vr/prmsl.  Virliailn.  d.  Kirehc 
urn  Siaai,  in  the  Stud.  u.  K>-il.  18£0,  ii,  4&4  sq. ;  HiiflinE, 
/»  ^jmi.  Salara,  KeetuUalr,  A  HctonlcUt,  tt  I'la  (Erl. 
llOi):  BrelBchneider,  Uninldtngitii  d.  SymhiUwimift, 
Mt  (Leipi  184 1 ) ;  Rudelbach,  EinU  md.A  ugib.  Confa- 
a*,Hc(Dtt*a.  1841);  Sartorius,  AoAbs.  u.  Vttiritdl 
i  iinU.  GlambnubfimaKiat  (Sluttg.  IMS) ;  Schleier- 
nacha,  ICigniL  WniA  .  . .  il.  lymb.  IHiclier,  in  Rrf,  A  In. 
fTrokr.  1819).  ,h  S3j  sq.  i  id.  Sa^ttAr.  on  v.  CUbt  u. 
.^f^^  in  ilie  .«'■!/.  ■.  Krii.  1831,  i,  S  aq.;  id.  Prakl. 
Vunh^.  p.  62i  *q, ;  I>c  Welie,  Ltkranhnl  d.  eran. 
A«if.  in  the  AVwi  ».  A.>i(,  1831,  ii,  ?2l  sq.;  UUmaiin, 
AUoA^hnkL  AfigrLtie^  in  lixt  Slud.  u.  KiH.  laiO.ii; 
Scbrncf,  liit  J'rmnp.  ». /,ih.  SlrUmg  d.  tcktBtiz-rrf. 
•.'inir.etc-inthe  VrTkimdLd.nktBrit.PrrdigergrflUdt. 
a  SI.  CaUn.  1844 ;  Dit  grgaiw.  Krwit  d.  larchL  Lrbna, 
nclti6it.l8MJ;  Vein,  Brbmckl.  d.  goU.  D*tiiackriJ}, 
Mc  (  Uasov.  1H54  ) ;  Hrkldrwig  der  Dnkickr.  (  GiiU. 
1«JI)-,  Kittseb,  Prakt.  ThnL  i. 

Aaweg  editions  of  Lutheran  aymboUcal  writings, 
ikw  of  Rrcbenberg.  CimeorJia,  etc.  (Lips.  1078,  Svo, 
■ndolteti;  lasted.  I75e),and  orHase,Z.iiri  £y»iA.  A'ccJ. 
£«.  etc  (ibid.  1837),  <l««*ne  menlion.  The  Keformed 
amfwsioin  have  not  been  gathered  into  a  ungle  collec- 
a°D.llw  best  amt  most  complete  collection  being  that 
'i  ^iemern.  CaUrd.  Crmf.  U  Ktd.  Rrf.  Pvhlkal.  (ibid. 
IMD),  mm  Append.  Other  collections  ate  by  Augusti 
'KlberWd,  ISff),  Ccnnan  by  Mas  (Neuwied,  1858, 
iaO.Ipt«.;  eomp.  Schweiier,  Ar/.  GlaubemLi,  123), 
ui  Hrpfe,BtiniiitiiititcAri/}nid.rr/.Kirctrn  DrvtidiL 
IQberMd,  ISeO).  The  LAri  SfmboSd  Eeet.  Komnno- 
faOtliim  wtn  edited  by  Dsnz  (Vimar.  IH36)  and 
Smitoolf  el  Rlener  (Gotl.  1SST  oq.);  the  Ltbri  Sytidi. 
EaLOnmlaKi  by  Kiromel  (Jena,  1843;  cum  Append. 
■M.  IftjO).  For  the  symbolical  books  and  writings  of 
Fanirnlat  cbHTchea  and  denominationa,  see  the  respec- 
lin  otiiclesk— Herw>|(,  Rrat-KarjUop.  s.  v. 

SrmboUc*.  The  meaning  of  this  term  will  vary 
*iib  ihat  aasigtied  to  the  original  word  from  wiiicli  it 
■  deriveil:  avfi/)«Xov  (from  miifiaXXiiv)  has  a  pri- 
•«T  irfrmKe  to  the  fitling-togethrr  of  two  seiiarate 
°l  jKts,  F.  g.  tbe  parts  of  a  I'lag  or  of  other  "  tenera  hos- 


J  SYMBOLICS 

pi  tali  talis."  SifiPokov  (related  to  nifia)  next  cacie  tt 
denote  every  mark  or  sign  by  which  the  connection  oi 
individuals  to  a  whole,  e.  g.  a  corporation  or  asiuciation, 
alight  be  indicated.  Soch  were  the  bulges  wbich  se- 
cured admission  to  a  banquet,  the  "ICMora  militans,' 
the  flag,  the  password,  etc.  In  time,  whatever  miglit 
be  employed  to  illustrate  aliMract  or  lupcrseiisual  ideoa 
to  the  senses  came  to  be  termed  a  symbol,  and  Ibis  may 
be  regarded  the  current  meaning  of  the  word  to-day. 
Aa  Christianity,  like  all  religions,  has  ita  symbols,  it  ia 
OS  proper  to  speak  of  CArufiun  tt/niMici  as  of  heal  hen 
(or  ancient).  A  rich  symbolism  runs  through  the  whole 
of  Christian  liturgies,  e.  g.  the  symbolism  of  the  eroea, 
etc.:  but  in  the  organism  of  theological  study  tlie  term 
n/niboiia  hoa  no  reference  to  such  symbols.  'Ilie  refer- 
ence is  rather  to  the  formulated  and  written  eov/eiiuBM 
of  the  Church,  which,  more  than  any  badge,  are  suiteil 
to  indicate  the  union  of  individuals  in  one  and  the  same 
eccleeiutical  organization.  Of  these  si-mbols  the  must 
ancient  are  baptismal  confesnons,  from  which  the  5yni- 
bolam  Apmtoiirtim  was  developed,  which  forms  the  ral- 
lying-point  of  all  who  are  adherents  of  Christianity. 
Heretical  tendencies  afterwards  compelled  the  Church 
to  formulate  the  great  creeds — the  Nicene,  tbe  Niceiio- 
Constaotinopolitan,  atvl  the  so-called  Altianasian  —  in 
which  the  marks  of  orthodoxy  were  determined  and 
made  prominent;  and,  in  addition  la  the  foregoing  so- 
called  aaimmicnt  tt/mboU,  other  minor  creeds  and  con- 
fessions were  called  into  being  by  the  force  of  events 

'ilie  rise  of  Protestant  ism  furnished  a  new  class  of 
symbols  which  were  intended  to  serve  as  marks  of  dis- 
tinction between  the  olil  papal  and  the  new  evangelical 
churches.  Of  these  the  flrst  was  the  A  ugAurr/  Confa- 
lion  (q.v.)  of  1530,  and  the  supplemenlsry  symboUral 
books  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  dosing  with  the  Book 
a/  Coneard  ia  1680.  The  Reformed  churches  (Vamed 
distinct  symbuls  of  their  own— the  Ztca^Um,  the  Tt- 
Impolilona,  etc  Of  this  class  the  Tkiiit/-niM  A  titebt 
of  tlie  Church  of  England,  the  Heidelbirg  Cu'feiitm, 
and  the  second  IMcaic  Con/tMnon  (see  the  respective 
articles)  acquired  especial  prominence.  The  Romish 
Church,  fur  its  part,  was  obliged,  by  tbe  rise  uf  I'roles- 
tantism,  to  formulate  its  faith  anew  with  a  view  lo 
marking  the  features  peculiar  lo  its  teachings,  which 
was  done  in  the  Pi-"/ruio  Fidd  Tridmtina  and  the  CVi'r- 
chitmua  Romanut  (see  the  corresponding  articles).  The 
occumulal  ion  of  this  wealth  of  material  has  D[>eraled 
decisively  upon  symbolics,  so  that  the  term  has  come  to 
denote  fk«  scvnoc  trrAicA  u  trnplnytd  upon  tbe  doettTnei 
tlml  diiiiitgaiik  Iht  mfal  toti/titiimi  of  Chriirendon. 
Its  melkod  may  be  historical,  statistical,  pnlemical,  or 
trenical ;  but  the  ground  upon  which  it  operates  can 
only  be  that  of  oomparisoo  of  dogmas. 

Like  tbe  history  of  doctrines,  to  whicti  it  stands  re- 
lated, symbolics  is  a  modem  branch  of  thsological  sci- 
ence, tnit  is  poeaessed  of  so  much  individuality  as  to 
necessitate  a  sepsrato  treatment.  The  foundation  for 
the  science  was  laid  in  the  preliminsiy  works  of  Walch, 
Semler,  Planck,  and  others  (see  be\o^,  Lilrrnlurt),  while 
its  actual  beginnings  date  lo  Winer  and  Marheineke. 
The  former  drew  up  tables  in  which  he  nmply  present- 
ed to  view,  side  by  side,  the  differences  existing  in  the 
various  confessions,  while  the  latter  sought  lo  exhibit 
the  internal  unity  of  each  separate  confession.  It  is 
evident  that  the  Irealment  of  symbolics  requires  the  u«e 
of  both  these  methods,  and  will  vary  according  as  the 
writer  occupies  the  ground  of  one  coitfcssinn  or  another, 
or  as  he  places  himstlf  ahoie  alt  con/rtnnnn.  It  was 
because  of  this  fact  that  Mahler's  SfnibolU,  from  the 
Roman  Otbollc  point  of  view,  drew  forlh  the  fitmoua 
work  of  Daur  from  the  Evangelical  position  (sec  below). 
The  science  speciiily  developed  the  necessity  fur  examiii- 


■mply  in 


igiUm 

■I  bol•k^  but  in  (he  spirit  of  the  ci 
:lail  has  accordingly  been  made  (he  sul 
udy;  and  the  ethical,  social,  political,  an 


SYMBOLISM  6 

t 

Bs  of  tbc  Ttrions  tymbols  )uit«  be«D 
Tbia  fict  givea  riw  to  tbe  qneation  whelb- 
a  avmbnlics  is  uleqiute  to  the  thing  it  is  in- 


»  win  Iheii  w 


.ubj™. 


■Bually  included  undflrdograitic  theology  {q.  v.). 

LiUralun^Wiicb,  htrod.  m  tiirai  Sywb.Ecd.  iMk. 
(Jen.  ITBJ);  Scmler,  A^kituI.  ad  I.ilrroi  Syab.  Eccltt. 
Lulh.  (H«lle,  1776);  Feuetlin,  BiU.  SjmWiiM  ((Jolt. 
1762, 1768);  Plnnck,  GtKh.  rf.  EatHtliaRg,  d.  Vtrdmk- 
naipai,u.d.  Bildmig  dapTOt-Lthrbrgriffi  (Leipa.  1791- 
1800) ;  id.  Hut.  u.  TtrglAclirmk  DartlrUang  d.  vrrtdlit- 
dmm  Dognu-Satemc,  etc.  (Gbtt.  1796;  8d  ed.  ISM); 
Wilier,  Compamlint  Dant.  d.  Lfkrbrgr.  d.  etrtchMdenm 
KirehHgmnnm,  etc.  (Uipi.  1824,  etc.  4to) ;  Mirhri- 
neke,  SsntboHk  (Heidelb.  1810,  etc) ;  id.  Intl.  Syabo/ica 
/^>K«rinaruni,elc.  (Berl.  1812,ete.))  Manh,  Conp.  Vit» 
nfihe  Churdia  "f  KngUmd  laid  Rome  (LonJ.  1841, 8vo) ; 
Hohler,  SgvAolit  (Miyence,6tb  ed.  1843) ;  Bsur,  Grgm- 
mle  d.  Katiolidimiii  u.  ProtrtUalumvi,  etc.  (TUb.  1834). 
See  in  connection  therewith  Sock,  KilzKh,  etc;  Koll- 
ner,  Sgmb.  aller  cki-itll  Cm/.  (Hamb.  1887;  1844,  2 
voli.) ;  Gueticke,  A  Bgem.  chi-iitL  St/mbol.  [Ljitheraii  ] 
(Leipa.lS39);  Kadttbtch,  Rr/ormaliofi,  iMlierthum  and 
Union  (ibid.  1839);  U»bel,  Lulitrudie  u.  rrf.  Ktrcht 
(Bonn,  183!);  Schneckenhurfer,  LuihiriicL  u.  rr/. 
Uhxiegriffe  (Stutt^.  1 866,  poathuaioiii>) ;  Thieisch,  Kii- 
IhoL  a.  Prol^amiimm  [lecture*]  (ErL  1848,  2a  ed.): 
Sehenkel,  Watn  d.  Ptvtalanliimai  (Schiffhiusen,  184t>- 
52,  etc.).  See  eapeciall]'  8ch»ff,  Crwdi  "/  Chralmdiim 
(N.  Y.  1877,  8  ToU  8to).— Herzog,  Rtal-EafyUiip.  s,  v. 
See  SiHBOLicAL  Books. 

Bjmbolism  it  that  system  which  reproents  moral 
or  intellectual  qiialiiiei  by  external  signu  or  sytnbnlt. 
It  ia  characteristic  of  the  earlier  and  nidei  iiiges  of  de- 
relopmenl,  when  the  mind  and  moral  nature  have  not 
yet  grown  to  the  age  which  tnkea  direct  cognizance  of 
mental  and  moral  qualiliea,  or  lakea  cognizance  of  ihem 
only  through  external  Mgne  that  bear  a  real  or  a  con- 
rentional  reaemhUnce  to  them.  The  Old  Teat,  ii  full 
of  Bymboliam ;  the  Jewiah  Temple,  like  the  Tabeinacle 
which  it  Bupeiseded,  though  no  image  nf  ibe  Deity  waa 
permitted  in  it,  was  itself  a  symbol  of  the  soul  of  i 
in  wbicb  God  abides,  if  It  be  holy  and  resily  la  re< 
him;  and  all  ita  utenaila, a*  well  aa  all  ita  aervicea, 
aymbolicaL  See  Typk,  and  the  various  articles  Oi 
Old-TeaL  ceremoniala  and  sacred  ohjecta.  Symboliam 
wa*  also  naturally  characteriatic  of  the  Church  of 
Middle  Agea,  which  undertook  to  cstta-  home  to 
eyea,  minds,  and  hearta  of  Ibe  people  spiritual  tni 
through  entemal  symbols.  The  origin  of  wime  of  Ihese 
it  ia  now  difficult  to  diacoTer.  Many  naturally  suggest 
the  correlative  truth  lu  the  mind;  others  make  the  sug- 
geation  through  hialoricaliitacriptural  aaaociation.  The 
following  is  a  partial  list  of  some  of  the  principal  sym- 
bols in  use  Inthe  Christian  churches,  for  a  fuller  accciunl 
of  which  the  reader  is  referred  to  Clements  [  Mrt.],  Hand- 
booho/LtgaidaTyand  Mi/iholnnical  Art.  The  glory,  au- 
reole, and  nimbus  all  represent  lightorlightneH,andare 
symbols  of  sanctity.  The  nimliia  aurrounds  the  head; 
Uie  aureole  the  body;  the  glnry  unites  the  two.  The 
nimbus  attache*  in  Konuui  Catholic  art  to  lUl  aaints; 
the  aureole  and  glory  only  to  the  peranna  of  the  God- 
head and  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  Ash  is  an  emblem 
ofChrist.  SeelcHTHYB.  Thecniaa,iniisrarionsr"mM, 
is  also  an  emblem  both  of  Christ  and  hia  passion.  See 
Cnoaa:  Ciiucipix;  Labarum.  The  lamb  ia  a  common 
nmbul  uf  Chrial.  It  denvea  its  signiHcance  from  the 
fact  that  It  waa  one  of  the  chief  sacrifices  nf  the  Jewish 
Temple,  and  from  the  worda  of  John  the  Baptist, "  Be- 
hold the  lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  theain  of  the 
world"  (John  i,  29).  The  lamb  is  often  represented  in 
art  bearing  a  cross.  The  lion  is  another  symbol  of 
Christ,  who  in  Scripture  is  called  "the  Lion  of  the  tribe 
ofrfuda"  (ReT.v.&l.  The  pelican,  which  it  said  to  bare 
open  her  breast  tu  feed  her  young  with  blood,  it  an  em- 


SYMMACHUS 

blem  ofredetDption.    TbedoTeiaaavmboloflbeHoly 

Spirit  (Hail,  iii,  16):  issuing  from  the  mouth  oft' 
dying,  it  is  an  emblem  ofihe  aoul.  The  olire-bniKk 
n  emblem  of  peace  (Gen.  viii,  11);  the  palm,  of  mi 
yrdom  (Rev.vii,  9).  The  lily  representa  chastity;  Iht 
imp,  piety  (Malt,  kkv,  1-12);  Are,  ical  ot  the  sbSk- 
nga  of  martytdum;  the  flaming  heart,  ferreut  pitty 
nd  sfriritual  lore ;  the  peacock,  imnkortality ;  tbectov, 
ictory:  on  women, itaignifleslhabiideofCbrisL  Tbe 
sword,  axe,  lance,  and  club  indicate  martyrdom ;  the 
skuU  and  scourge,  penance ;  the  chalice,  faith  ;  tbtthipt 
the  Christian  Church;  the  anchor,  faith  (HeKri,!^ 
Each  color  itso  haa  a  symbolic  meaning  in  artrforwlucli 
ace  article  Coi.oit.  In  Roman  Catholic  art,  also,  each 
apostle  haa  his  own  symbol,  as  followa:  Peter,  the  ken, 
or  a  fish ;  Andrew,  the  transierae  CToe*  which  bean  Ut 
name;  Jamea  the Ureaier. the  pilgrina's  staff;  Jofaii,lbc 
eagle,  or  the  chalice  with  the  serpent ;  Tbomsi,  a 
builder's  ruk ;  James  the  Less,  a  club ;  Philip,  a  eoill 


See  Jameson  and  East  lake,  llatory  of  Oar  Lordai  £r- 
tm^fitdia  iriirit(n//li^  (Und.  lB64,3v<.la.) ;  Didmn, 
Chriilian  Imvognipkf,  or  llitlory  nf  Chritliam  Artm 
the  A/iddlt  Agn  (ibid.  1861,  ed.  Bohn). 

B^rmbSlom  (S^^oXov),  a  Greek  term  for  (I)  tbc 
holy  Eucharist;  (i)acreed;  (3)  a  belL     See  SiHBOU 

BymA,  in  Greek  mythology,  waa  a  nymph,  dai^h- 
ter  of  lalymua  and  Dotia.  She  was  belovetl  of  thetra- 
god  Qtaucus,  who  carried  her  off  to  an  island  ntar 
Kbodea,on  the  coatt  of  Csria,  which  received  its  nanw 
from  ber  (Athennua,  vii,  296).  By  N'epltine  slie  bore 
ChthoniuB,  who  colonized  the  island  from  Lindua. 

Symeon  tub  STtUTK.    See  Simieox,  St. 

Symmachla,  in  Greek  mythology,  waa  ■  aumaux 
of  I'enui  at  Mantinca,  in  Arcadia. 

STininactliana.  The  term  designales  the  mris- 
bers  of  a  sect  mentioned  only  by  Philaster  (£/«r.  Ixiiit 
He  descriliea  them  aa  adherents  of  Palriciiia,  who  taught 
that  the  human  body  wat  not  created  by  God,  but  by 
the  dc*-il,  and  that  it  should  be  abused  in  every  possi- 
ble way,  suicide  even  being  regarded  as  allowable.    The 


it  then 


inibable, 


re  judgment  fur  the 


diaciples  of  Symmachua  (q.  v.)  of  Samaria,  a  Jew  who 
became  a  Christian,  eonanrled  with  ihg  Ebiooitca.  and 
fumishedaGreek  version  of  the  Old  Test.  H'hich  sumli 
before  that  of  Theodotion  in  the  Polygbx,  but  is  of 
ntore  recent  date  Iban  the  latter.  Pelariua  (in  Xaa 
on  Epiphaniiu,  ii,  400)  endesvuni  to  tnce  their  ori^n 

17)  aaya  that  a  Jewish-Chrisiian  aect  orif^nated  with 
the  Ebionile  Symmachua,  of  whom  Ambrose  states,  in 
a  commenur}-  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  that  tbry 
descended  from  the  Pharisees,  kept  the  whole  law,  call- 
ed Ihcmselves  Christians,  and  followed  Photinua  in  the 
belief  that  Christ  waa  merely  a  man.  The  Hanielwian 
Fauttus  (see  Augustine,  Contra  FouiL  xii,  14),  on  the 
other  band,  describes  the  Symmacbiana  as  NaxareoeK 
and  Augustine  adds  (Coitfra  CivMoniun,  i,  31}  that  they 
were  but  few  in  number  in  his  lime,  and  that  thea 
praciiceil  both  Jewish  drcumcision  and  Chrislian  hap- 
liam.  See  Fabticius  [Jaann.Alb.],  Phaalrii  dt  /trmi- 
bu3  Liber,  cum  Emnd.  H  Nolii  (Hamb.  1735),  |i-  125.— 
Heizog,  Reiil-ErKytlnjt.  a.  v. 

BTmmBcliiu.  pope  from  A.D.  498  to  514,  ia  notcc 
because  of  his  conflicts  with  the  civil  power,  ami  hi- 
enJeavon  to  heighten  the  importance  of  the  Romu 
see.  At  the  time  of  his  election  by  the  Roman  iMnj 
the  imperial  parly  bad  elected  the  archpresbyler  Lao 
rentius,  who  was  pledged  to  sign  the  llmoticon  (q.  v.) 


STMMACHCS  8 

TW  dctttBiuiUion  or  the  election  wu  left  wilh  Tbeod- 
tftc  bug  of  ttte  Gothi,  aod  resull«l  in  bvor  of  Sym- 
BKbo,  bcoiue  be  wu  ihe  firet  to  be  anointed  dt  wu 
MftfinKi  by  ■  nujorily  of  votei.  At  a  synod  held  it 
Uuiic  in  t^  it  wu  thereupon  enicled  (hit  nu  vote 
■tKoUlNcut  for  the  eleeliun  of  «  new  pupe  before  (be 
nifnog  (lopc  had  actually  died,  uid  that  that  candidate 
■kniU  be  [^;>rded  it  cleclnl  nho  was  tuppnrted  by  ail 
•r  I  rnijuriiy  of  the  votes  of  ih«  Koman  derny.  At  a 
iTiHd  u  Itiiaie  in  50-2  Symmschu*  revoked  the  enact- 

llxpapil  chair  from  Belling  any  portion  of  Ihe  property 
iifiliiChurch,>ndatihe  ume  lime  he  ordained  that  ail 
loltfftnDcc  in  ifaeafUis  of  IheChurcb  of  Rome  ihuuld 
Ik  briiMMn  to  the  Uity.  Thia  prorisian  contribuleil 
gnally  lo  the  ilevekipnient  of  the  papal  power,  iekI  has 
iloin  rcouipefl  a  canlinal  principle  in  the  adniini»- 
mnga  of  the  RDmisb  Church.  The  party  of  Lauren- 
tin  afUr  a  time,  brougbt  heavy  charge*  againU  Syni- 
mctwi,  and  Tbcodoric  deputed  blihop  Peter  of  Aiti- 
nua  to  JDvalieate  the  case;  but,  as  he  became  a  par- 
Ii!M  nf  Laarentiua,  the  liing  conroked  a  nevr  synod  at 
Km,  (be  Sywxfu  Palmarii,  in  503.  The  life  of  Sym- 
■ichiB  wa>  endangernl  by  tbc  macbinations  of  the 
UHToitiDea,  and  he  lubniiited  unconditionally  to 
teJHB  nf  the  nynod,  in  direct  contradiction  of  hi 
fliilT  pmnulgaled  ordinance  against  the  interference 
oflirEKD  in  ccclesiBsliail  maiteni.  He  was  acquitted 
■iilwat  a  IriaL  Biibop  Ennoiliua  of  TicinutD,  i 
nitun  (lefenee  of  thia  ayiiod,  wag  the  flnt  to  di 
ilai  God  has  reserved  the  judgment  of  the  incumlient 
rftke  Ronan  m  to  himself,  while  other  men  miit 
nmlinf!  in  hii  will,  be  judgal  by  their  feltowa.  At 
imat  btld  at  Rome  in  304,  Symmachus  promulgated 
I  af^ainst  all  who  shocdd  appropriate 


bpItc 


leChur 


he  synod*  held  under  his  ponlif- 
ote  aJdrmed  to  him,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  title 
Paja,  Ue  appointed  bishop  Canarius  of  Ariea  his  vicar 
ii  litiL  He  baniaheil  tbe  remaining  Hanichsans  from 
fa>ar  ini]  eanaed  their  books  to  be  burned,  but  was 
tanaijf  branded  as  a  ManichKan  by  the  empet 
Riin&  Tradition  attribules  to  him  the  introduction 
'/ihc  Gloria  a  Erc^m  into  thr  Sunday  and  feast-day 
•mina  of  the  Church.  He  ilied,  aa  is  reported,  July 
I9.SI1  See  Schriickb,  CArwr^ /fttciloitHrA.  xvii,  leo, 
IK-!II:  Gieaeler,  Kirdtasneh.  I,  Ii,  338-406.— Her- 
•Y-  KMf-';MTUDp.  a.  r. 

Brnimictaiu,  a  traiutsiot  of  the  Old  Test,  inic 
Gn<k,<ns  bom  in  Samaria  during  the  latter  halfof  the 
U  oaaaiy.  Ori^nally  a  Jew,  he  became  a  Christian. 
li«<B(inired  the  doctrine  of  the  Ebionites. 

la  ^iie  of  the  high  reputation  enjoyed  by  the  Alei' 
niriia  Tenion,  or  Sepiaagint  (q.  v.),  not  only  amonf 
lie  Hdksiita  outside  of  Palestine,  but  alu  within  Pal. 

fag  to  the  itriclet  Jews,  owing  lo  polemical  reasons, 
•>  1^  •gainit  the  Christians,  tbey  denied  ' 
am,  lad  set  up  atiotber  translation  in  oppc 
TW  iol  who  made  ■  version  for  tbe  lue  of  tbe  Jew* 
*a  Aqoila  (q.  v.)  ;  mt  much  later  than  Aquila,  Theo- 
faini  (q.  T.)  prepared  a  second,  and  very  soon  afler- 
*Bd>  inMba  Inuialalion  was  made  by  Symmachus. 
'"•a  Bpipbaniua,  De  "  '  " 
(vbpar  •ceunnl*,  bowc 


r.  Keek  p 


onounces  fabuloog), 
I  Samaritan,  Sffi- 


*i  kam  thai  Symioachi 

fitsc  nc  Xaitapt/riK  ^^^  ^"P  ""TOK  vn^v  .  .  . 
r«t»t  t>^'>Dx'a>'  -  ■  -  upoiniXiTT-cuii  cai  *tpiripwrai 
ttrntav.  Wiib  Epipbanius  agree  Atbanasiu*  (^jnop- 
■".Ibe  GkroBioDii  Auotnir,  and  Euthymius  Zigabtnus, 
n  CsrpiOT.  Critiat  Saera,  p.  hS7.  Euaetuus  (/litl. 
teiit.  t\,  IT :  and  Dnmmalr.  Erang.  vii,  I  )  calls  him 
'EJwnnot,  an  Ebionile,  which  is  also  the  opinion  of 
Jsme  aitd  modem  critics.  Font  and  Gnger  call  him 
•  Ml,  and  a  popil  of  R.  Heir  (q.  r.}. 

Aa  to  Ihe  time  io  which  he  lived,  Epipbanius  (loc  eif.) 
pttt  bin  in  tbe  ni{D  of  king  Sevenis.    With  this 


SYMMACHUS 

id   agree   the   fact  that   Iienaus  doe*  not  name 

wbile  be  mentions  AquiU  and  Tbeodolion,  and 

Origen  already  fuund  bis  traniialion  in  existence. 

k  says  Ibit  from  Eusebius  lloceiL)  we  may  infer 

It  tbe  translation  of  Symmachus  was  little  known 

before  Che  lime  ofOrlgen,  and  Ibat  Origen  had  obtained 

certain  woman  Juliane,to  whom  it  bad  come 

from  Symmachus  himself."    The  pasuge  in  Euiebius 

n*  thus:  Toiira  Ii  A  'Upijivtit  ficrd  tai  «\Xuv  ii'c 

tc  ypafdt  JpfiifVEiaiv  roii  ZvfifmvDU,  ajipaivii  mpi 

luXiavqc  Tims  i<Ki)^vai  flv  ihi  ^ai  nap'  ouroi 

Sv/iiiaxov  rdc  0i0\ovt  ItaSi^aeSai. 

As  to  Ihe  gfuitu  of  tbe  translation,  Epiphaniui  tells 
a  thai  he  translated  in  oppoaitioD  to  the  Samaritans, 
rpot  liaaTpo^riv  tmv  irapd  Sn/iofxiraic  ipn^vtiaat. 
But  this  suppflsil  ion  is  in  bad  taste,  for,  in  the  tint  place, 
Gen.  vSymmachutagrees  wilh  tbe  Samaritan  against 
the  Sept.;  in  tbe  second  place,  we  cannot  see  how  he 
his  translation  in  opposition  to  the 
miy  accept  tbe  PenUteoch,  while 
Symmachus'*  version  is  on  all  the  boohs  of  the  Old 
Teat. ;  and,  in  the  third  place,  npne  nf  the  other  Cbnrch 
fathers  knew  anything  of  his  opposition  to  the  Samari- 
The  probability  is  that  bis  whole  aim  was  di- 
rected towaidi  a  more  elegant  and  Sner  version ;  for 
Symmachus,  in  bis  vcrnon,  betrays  the  endeavor  to  sat- 
isfy tbe  genius  of  tbe  Greek  language  and  to  keep  aloof 
from  ever]-  influence  of  Eastern  ideas  and  Ihe  Hebrew 
originaL  Thus  he  form*  periods  where  Ihe  original 
has  umply  co-ordinate  sentences,  e.g.  !  Kings  i,  S,  ^=b 
1»T1,  ArAiovTte  ri^tT^i ;  Job  X3utiT,29,  aplC  Kim 
ti  riptpiar  iit6trrot  Ti^Karaipii'u; 
Psa.  ill,  4,  lins  la-iX  31B=,  avaTrpa^ivruv  nil- 
Ix^piy  fiov.  Where  the  Hebrew  circumscribea  an  ad- 
verbial idea  bv  a  verb,  Symmaelius  use*  an  adverb,  as 
vkh  Ejori,  Efli  raXiy  Iratv;  at  be  uses 
the  adjective  for  the  Hebrew  nomen  quaiUatu,  as  Psa. 
lir,  84,  nialSI  D^a-I  idK,  iHoi^ovot  K<u  SaXioi. 
the  Hebrew  tropes  lo  the  corresponding 
Greek,  e.  g.  1  Sam.  jti,  25,  0VB3  OSES,  Honp  Ji<:^»; 
XXV,  2S,  -Ob-pit  ••nx  B-'ID"'  »3-^»,  fi4  wpioxK. 
dCiuvi  non  rilO,  in  Uen.  ii,  17,  becomes  Sv^Af  iof. 
He  usca  additions  for  the  sake  of  elegancy:  thus,  Job 
xxi,  18,  irTl''  ilttB  7i-<Z\  tai  rixf-ic  Svaaiu  xat 
nfiaaaiaarot  (I'c  fStiv  car^ovriu;  Ezek.  xvi,  81, 
^jnst  03pb,  Jf  aiiaxiaTif  awaynvrra  fiiff^u/iaro. 
Hebrew  proper  noun*  are  often  translated  etymological- 
ly,  e.  g.  Deut.  ixxii,  49,  Din3;n  Ifl,  ri  tpot  Twv 
iiaffaatuv;  Isa.  xix,  18,  Oinn  1->S,  ToXii;  qXfou. 

Taken  all  in  all,  Symmachus  deserves  tbe  praise  which 
has  been  bestowed  on  hi>  translalion,  which  was  called 
Mrno  ptripicua,  mainfttla,  admiriMliM,  aperla.  Je- 
rome, /n  .4  nos  Hi,  Il,speakBOf  Symmacbus,"Nan  sotel 
verbonim  irojcoti|Xiav,  eed  intelligent  is  ordinem  sequi;" 
/»  lia.  r,  1,  "  Symmachus  more  suo  manifestius."  Eu- 
sebius, In  Pia.  Ttri,  31  sq.,  says,  aa^iaripav  6  Su/ifia- 
Xoc,  snd  of 'if pa  dnupioruc  o  Xviipax'^'  ^''  ^■o.zM, 
10,  ovTU^  ^pfsrjiftvot  iavpartTV^  I'l  ivpftaxa^.  Still 
we  cannot  characlerize  his  style  as  being  pure  Greek  or 
elpgant;  and  Symmachus  himself  seems  to  have  felt  it, 
for  he  made  a  second  eiUlion  of  his  transUtion,  in  which 
he  correcled  all  such  Hebraisms  and  harsh  ezpresaiona 
aa  had  crept  in.  Thus  Jeromo,  la  Jer.  xxxii,  says, 
"Symmachi  prima  ttUlio  et  LXX  et  Theodoiio  toloi 
(jiotioi)  inlerprelati  sunt;  tteunda  quippe  Symmachi 
vertit  iiiXoirf  and  In  Nakum  iii  be  writes,  "Symma- 
ebua  anrv/iioc  irXqpirc,  qnod  possum  usdicere  cmdeli- 
latt  vel  Hveritatt  pfaio;  lii  alltra  ejus  edilione  reperi 
/itXonMri'ac  a-X^pqc,  i.e.  secfiomhu  cuntiunt  tljrutlit 


ntnibra  eoneui*,"  Whether  his  secon 
braced  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Test,  cann 
with  certainty,  unce  only  a  few  fragmpnls 
edition  on  some  of  tbe  books  are  extaiil. 


editi 


Ecided 


SYMMACHUS  r 

Fur  philalngical  puqnm,  Sf  mmacbas  ia  jiut  m  uk- 
Till  ■>  the  other  Greek  tranaUiors.  Bililical  criliciam 
mar  iIm  derive  lonie  ulrantage  from  ibe  tnnslBlioii,  ot 
course,  by  exhibiting  the  b™*'*"'  ">"■  f'""  I'**- 
iix,  13,  SymmacbuB  reada  ru  our  lexl,  T133,  and  ta 
alao  the  Chatilce,  Jerome,  Syriac,  anil  Theodotion, 
againat  tUe  ■'^13^  of  the  Sept„VuIg.,  uiil  Arab.;  in 
Ixvi,  13,  our  lext  hii  n'^'l-lb,  but  Symmachui,  tha 
Sept.,  Syr^  and  Chald.  seem  to  have  read  nnni. 

The  fragmeiita  of  Svmmactiut'i  veraion  of  tbe  Old 
Test,  are  given  bv  Flwn.  Notiilii  in  Vel.  TaU  tte.  LXX 
IaU.  Kcddittim,  etc  (Rome,  1687);  Dnuia*,  Vilrrum 
Iiilfrprelum  Gracorum  in  Totura  V.  T.  FragmaUa  Col- 
d-rta,  eta  (Ambeim,  1622) ;  Boa,  V.  T.  tx  Veriion.  LXX 
Inltrp,  tic,  B«  noil  FTagmentU  Vtrrionmn  A  juite,  Sym- 
macjlj  ((  Thtodoliomi  (Franek.  1709};  Montfaucon, 
/laaphrum  Origmt  qua  Supfrnal,  etc  (Paris,  1713; 
in  M  later  edition  with  nates  by  K.  Bahrdt,  Leips. 
and  Lllbeck,  1769-70).  The  fragments  on  uagle  books 
were  edited  by  Trendelenburg,  C*ra(»iim(Ain  Hexaplaru 
(Lubeck and 'Leipa.  1794);  Spohn, Jerflntoi  ValaeVer- 
tioae  Judaornm,  etc.  (Ups.  1791, 1824);  Scgaar,  Danitl 
tK.  LXXft  Telraplit  Ongtnu,  eW,(Trier,  1775) ;  Schar- 
fenberj;,  ^ntDUv'ivm'ofKi  futhu  Fragmt'ila  l-VrnDniin 
V.  T.  Eiaend.pUvr  (Upa,  1776-81),  apcc  i  et  ii ;  Scbleua- 
ner,  OpUKola  Critica  ad  Vtraona  Umau  V.  T.  ( ibid. 
1812). 

A.iffm/Brf.  — Eichhora,  Eialtilmg  vi  dai  AUt  Ta- 
taiuntt  (4lh  «).),  i,  581  sq.;  Carpiov,  Crilica  Saera, 
p.  566  sq.;  Keil,  /lUrodactiOH  to  the  Old  Telamml,  ii, 
283  K|.:  Herbal,  Eiiddttmg,  i,  160;  Kaulen,  Kininlung 
M  dk  kntige  Schi-ift  (Freiburg,  IS76),  p.  79;  Field, 
Origmit  Ihiaploranqua  Suprr>uM,tU.(0%onu,l«3Vi, 
p.  xixiv  I  FUra^  Bibl.  Jud.  iii,  399  aq. ;  Thieme,  Mt- 
pulalio  de  Puriiait  Symmacit  (Lipi.  \7hb):  Geiger, 
JSduchi  ZtUickHfi  (Ureslau,  1SG2),  i,  89-64,  and  hia 
Sadigriaunt  Sehriftm  (BerL  1877).  iv,  8S  sq.  j  rAwto- 
giiclut  UiiTtnat-Lirilxn,  s.  v.;  Heiclcnbeim,  Vinitl- 
^rMCj(ri/l(18G;),  iii,  463sq.    See  Greek  Vemions. 

<ap.) 

STDHnaChaB,  Qui.TTca  AtrHKi.nrs,a  pnefecl,  pon- 
tilTi  anil  augur  of  Rome  in  its  declining  age,  remarliable 
far  bis  elixjueiit  appeal  against  tbe  ruin  threatened  by 
the  triumph  of  Christianity;  he  ia  the  author  of  fpullei 
still  ciianl.  His  zeal  fur  the  ancient  faith  of  Rome 
excrciseil  Ihniughout  life  a  marked  infiuence  upon  hia 
cliaracter.  He  was  chosen  by  the  senate  to  remonitrate 
with  Gratian  on  the  rGmoval  of  the  alur  of  victory  (A.D. 
382),  from  their  council-hall,  and  for  curtailing  the  an- 
nual aUowance  to  the  Vestal  Virgins.  The  emperor 
banished  him  from  Home,  but  In  384,  having  been  ap- 
pointed pncfect  of  the  city,  he  urged  in  an  Gpisile  to 
Valentinianua  tbe  restoration  of  pagan  deities.  In  Ibis 
he  was  unsucceasful,  hut  without  personal  loss,  bdng  ap- 
pointnl  consul  under  Theodosius  in  391. 

Bytnmea,  William,  D.D.,  a  Uniurian  clergy- 
man, was  bum  at  Cliarlestuwn,  Mass.,  in  1731,  and  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  College  in  1750,  where  he  was  a 
tutor  from  1755  to  1758.  He  began  to  preach  in  the 
North  I'ariab  in  Andover,  and  was  onlained  its  paalor 
Nov.  1,  I75S,  and  continueil  in  that  relation  until  hia 
death,  May,  1807.  Dr.  Symmes  waa  a  goo<1  achoUr,of 
exleniive  reading,  and  an  able  divine.  He  published, 
Tkanktsii-i«g  Seriam  (1768)  \—i>ita>artf  on  Ike  fjHlg 
and  AdButiliiga  of  Singing  I'raitet  to  God  (1779)  : — 
Stnaon  at  (Ae  Gavrol  Elrrlim  (1785).  See  Spiague, 
AmuJt  o/ihe  Aiutr.  Pulpil,  viii,  35. 

Symmea,  Zacharlab,  a  Congregational  preacher, 
was  bom  at  Canterbury-,  Kng land,  April  b,  1699.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  after  leaving  the  uni- 

familiea.  In  lSi\  he  was  ap|>n<iiied  lecturer  at  Atho- 
lines,  in  LoikIoii,  and  in  Sopiember,  1U25,  he  lipcame 
rector  of  Dunstable.  Kmbarrasscd  by  his  Noncnnl^irm- 
ity,  he  emigrated  li>  New  England,  where  he  arrived  in 


)  SYMPOSIA 

August,  1634.  He  was  admitted  lo  the  fellowship  ef 
the  Church  in  Charlestown,  Most,  Dec  6,  and  oo  tbe  Cd 
of  the  same  month  was  elected  and  ordained  teacbcf  cF 
tbe  same  Church,  Her.  Thomas  Jamei  being  potn. 
About  a  year  afterwards  he  succeeded  lo  the  rAce  of 
pastor,  wfaicb  he  ailed  until  his  death,  Feb.  4, 1671.  See 
Sprague,  AtoiaU  qflke  Amtr,  Pulpil,  i,47. 

Bympattiy  (ijupira3no,/*flww-/«/iiij)  ia  the  qual- 
ity of  being  affected  by  another's  affection.  Itwaaong- 
inolly  used,  like  pity  and  cooipassiDn.  to  signify  out  fel- 
low-feeling with  the  sorrows  of  other*,  but  now  it  ii 
used  to  denote  our  fellow-feeling  with  any  paasioD  what- 
ever. Sympathy  with  sorrow  ot  suffering  is  ctKopoBW. 
with  Joy  or  prosperity  ia  congratulation. 

Syinpbony  (ffvpfuwa)  origiiuilly  HgniSed  the 
uniou  of  several  voices  in  a  chant,  bul^by  inadem  mo- 
ucians  it  is  applied  to  an  inatniroental  compoailiao,  gn- 
erally  used  as  a  kind  of  inlroduclory  movement  to  an- 
Ihema  and  other  pieces.  Symphonies  are  inltoduad 
with  good  effect  in  the  interval  of  the  voicai,  aod  arc 
called  prefiidfj  when  played  before  the  psalmody,  itirr- 
Uida  when  they  mark  the  distinction  of  verses,  ami 
poil'lutla  when  introduced  at  Ibe  close  of  the  psalm. 

Syaphori&ntiB,  a  Gallic  martyr  at  Aulun  in  the 
reign  of  Aurelian.  He  was  cited  ttefure  the  pnefert 
Herocliua  because  he  had  refused  to  honor  Ibe  statue 
of  Derecyiithia,  and  rejected  the  influence  ot  apfieab 
and  scourgingi.  Hii  mother  supported  him  with  brr 
exhortations  to  fldeliiy.  He  was  beheaded  without  Ibe 
town  wall*  and  buried  in  a  cell  in  tbe  fields.  His  grave 
became  so  remarkable  for  cures  and  miracle*  that  it 

narrative  in  the  Ada  Brali  Synpk^  as  here  outlined, 
seems  to  involve  something  of  fact.  The  worship  of 
BerecynthiaamongtbB'EduiisahistoricalfBcl.  Greg- 
ory uf  Tours  mentiona  Symphorianua  and  tbe  mitKka 
wrought  by  his  relics  (Dt  tlioria  Mart,  c  52).  Uter 
tradition  says  that  a  cburch  was,  in  time,  built  over  bis 
grave.  Tbe  story  cannot,  bowever,  date  further  back 
than  the  days  ot  Gregory,  as  is  evident  fium  tbe  cbo- 
en  and  even  pompous  language  and  the  legendary  omi- 
clusion.  The  death  of  Svmphoiianua  i*  variouslv  Bxed 
in  A,D.  180  (the  reign  of  Aurelius),  270,or  280  (. Aurelian). 
He  i*  cammemuraled  on  Aug.22.  Sec  the  Ada  SS. 
0.  V. — Herzog,  Rral'FmyUop.  L  v. 

BymphOT&aa,  the  Christian  widow  of  ■  martyreil 
tribune.   Hadrian  had  built  a  temple  at  Tibur  (Ttv<di1, 


moned,  and  sought  by  persuasion  to  induce  her  to  olia 
sacrifices.  On  her  refusal,  the  empenir  threatened  bcr, 
and  had  her  carried  to  Ihe  Temple  of  Hercnle*  at  Tiroli, 
where  she  was  beaten  with  fists,  hung  up  by  the  hsir. 
and  afterwards  taken  down  and  drowned.  Her  broth- 
er Eugene,  a  counciUor  of  Tivoli,  recovered  Ihe  body 
and  buried  it  in  the  snburbs.  On  Ihe  tollowing  day 
her  sons  were  brought  before  the  same  temple  arid  im- 
paled in  various  mode*,  after  which  their  bodica  wen 
thrown  into  a  deep  pit,  which  subsequently  became 
known  as  the  pit  ad  seplen  bietAanatoi,  The  persecu- 
tion then  rested  for  a  year  aitd  a  half,  during  which  pe- 

Via  Tiburlina  and  honored  as  they  deaerred.  The  na- 
talitiei  of  Symphorosa  and  her  sona  are  observed  oo 
July  18  (see  Kninan,  Ada  Primnrma  iraiiyrwm,p. 
18).  The  legend  CKists  in  manuscript  form  among  the 
writings  falsely  ascribeil  to  Julius  Africanus,  and  may 
have  originaled  in  tbe  Ibird  century,  though  tbr  cun- 
tenlsdo  not  harmoniie  well  wiih  the  known  onlinary 
conduct  of  Hadrian.  Kuiuart  supposes  the  probable  pe- 
riod of  Ihe  occurrence  lo  have  been  A.D.  120.     Sm  aba 

ByntpoBla  (TOfiirimo,*intjBf'<)  is  a  woril  occo- 


mally 


Mical  » 
iiagap»(q.v.).    These  ijm 


re  beU  at  ibc 


SYMPSON 

crtra  oTibe  miityn;  tni  ibe  rotivil  ww  dcwgned 

b(,  nal  only  ■  memorial  or tbe  dcceued,  but,  according 

l>ntnt,''>ii<Klor  of  ■  sweet  unell 

(iif  ito  poiit  ind  needy. 

u^ihrr,  uid  were  lerrabed  by  the  cbarily  of  the  rich. 

SinnpMll.  Cltiibert,  a  layman  and  a  deacon  of 
ibt  CoOEttgttiana]  Church  at  lalingtun,  of  which  Ruft 
i,iK  UiMgb)  wan  piMor.  He  wu  arrested  Dec  13,  l£i57, 
unl  isnared,  being  racked  three  timet  lo  make  him 
dicnl^  ihe  members  of  the  Proieuant  Church  of  which 
be  wu  deacon.  He  was  ereiituallv  burned  at  Smith- 
bkL  Much  2S,  1  &a8.  See  Punchard,  Uiil.  of  Congn- 
SalimaSim,  ii,  326,  »47. 

BjjtMfopM  iavyayuyri  i  other  equivalent  teima 
tnipwwxqor  irfwmvrqpiai',Le.ciii/>c(,'  Heb.i;iI3 
iXoroBMii^o/ Corf;  Aramaic  !tP333  ■'3,  Xra33), 
IbcJcnb  place  oTwunihip  in  pml-Biblical  and  mnd- 
tntiiBH.  However  ubucure  the  origin  of  these  eilab- 
liihBenii,  the*  eventusliy  became  wi  impurUnt  and 
clancieriuic  as  to  fiiniiiih  ■  ilaignatinn  of  the  Jewish 
L-haiTh  itself  in  later  lilerstnre. 

It  iBB^  be  well  to  note  at  the  outset  the  points  of 
aauet  between  tbe  historv  and  ritual  of  the  ayna- 
^^if;sa  of  the  Jews,  and  the  facts  to  which  the  inquiries 
M  itw  BiUical  student  are  principally  directed.  I. 
Tbey  neet  ua  as  the  great  chsracteriBtic  iiiatitUTJnn  of 
ilK  Inn  phsse  of  Judaism.  More  even  ihsn  the  Ten- 
pit  ind  iu  ttniet^  in  the  lime  of  which  the  New  Test. 
IiHt^  thry  St  once  represented  and  determined  Ihe  re- 
liSvuB  lire  of  the  people.  2.  We  cannot  separate  them 
fiua  il»  most  intimate  connection  with  our  Lord's  life 


■sd  niuiarv.      In  them  he  w 

rshippcd 

in  his 

youth 

ml  in  bis  msnhuod.     Whstev 

learn  of  the 

riuisl  which  then  prevailed  letli 

oaofi 

orship 

which 

In  fW^ised  and  sanctioned; 

which  fo 

that 

If  r«  no  Mher.  though,  like  tho  Uatelier  services 

of  the 

loipie,  it  was  destined  to  pass 

awsy,  is 

of  our 

iwpm  sml  honor.     They  wet 

the  see 

ea,too. 

of  no 

nail  pfinion  of  bis  work.    In  t 

uf  hi.  iD^hliest  works  of  heal 

ngCMait 

itii,9 

Mark 

LSI;  Lake  liii,!!).     In  then 

were  «>oken  so 

me  of 

(iv.  16 

John 

rL  W;  many  more,  bevond  al 

1  reckoni 

«.  which  are 

wnconkd  (Matt.  iv. '23;  s 

ii.M;  J 

hn  XV 

ii,20. 

«t).   3.  There  are  tbe  queslu 

us,  leadiog  ua  back  u, 

■rpast,ll 

IWP"  oriBinsie?    What  type  was  it  intended  to  repro- 

*ncd  ss  the  starting -point  for  it?  i.  The  syns- 
Pfr.  with  all  that  belonged  to  it,  was  coiiiiected  with 
ite  fmufe  a*  well  aa  with  tbe  past.  It  was  tbe  order 
•lib  which  the  first  Christian  believers  were  most  fa- 
Buliii,  from  which  they  were  most  likely  to  take  the 
oidlKi.  or  even  the  details,  of  the  worship,  arganiza- 
>Mi.arKl  gnvemment  of  their  own  society.  Widely 
ilirai;eDl  as  Ihe  two  words  and  the  things  they  rep- 
rnninl  sfierwarda  became,  tbe  eccleua  bod  lis  slart- 
iiiK-I>«ntinibeayna«oBiie. 
L  .^  'imf  arid  i/t  Si^aifittitiou. — The  word  rrvvayvyij^ 

ciuici]  UrWk  (I'hucyd.  ii,  IH;  p'lato,  RrpubL  S2I>  D), 
^  bccaine  proauneiit  in  that  of  Ihe  Hellenists.  It 
sffitsn  in  the  Sept.  as  the  translation  of  not  leas  than 

tnne'ii  implied  (Ttomcu,  Cuaconiutf.  a.  v.).  But,  al- 
ibis);b  tbe  wgtd  is  (bete  used  to  denote  mq  land  "/ 
j^krisft  ktap,  maH,  or  (ftKmUojjr,  such  aa  a  galhrr- 
-i'/fiaiu  (flit  the  Heb.^OX,  q'D!(,£xad.  xiiii,  16; 
suJv.«!l,o/iro*fr<nipO,nipiS,G«n.i,9;  Lev.  xi, 
«;..«  imp  »/sfoii™  (bj.  Job  vili,  17),  a  iaml  nftingtri 
(3'r:^  Jer.  ixii.  4, 13),  u  mau  or  muliilade  o/  ptopU 
«  wLSm  ( nnOX,  >**n,  Us.  ixiv,  22 ;  Eiek.  xxxvii, 
mi.  o  'r*  or  family  (r^a.  I  Kings  xii,  2 1 ),  etc.,  yet 
Bs  prrdmiiiiint  aaage  in  ihii  version  is  to  denote  on 


1  SYNAGOGUE 

qjipootirf  ntttmg  ofptojit  athrr  for  eivU  or  r^igioat 
purpota,  thus  being  synonymoiis  with  JnXqvra.  'lliiH 
ia  evident  from  the  fact  tint  the  -Sept.  uses  aovayiuyif 
ISO  times  for  the  Hebrew  ITir,  and  Iwenly-Hve  limes 
for  in^,  which  in  seventy  instances  ia  rendered  in  the 
same  veinon  by  inXiicriii.  The  synonymous  usage  in 
the  Sept.  of  these  two  expressions  ia  alao  seen  in  Prov. 
V,  14,  where  laKtivia  and  nuvayuyq  stand  in  Juxta- 
poailion  for  the  Hebrew  VnjT  and  ni?.  In  the  books 
afthe  Apocrypha,  the  wonl,  as  in  those  of  the  Old  Test., 
retains  its  general  meaning,  and  ia  not  use<l  apeclAcallv 
for  any  Tecognised  place  of  worship.  For  ibis  the  re- 
ceived phrsse  seems  to  be  TiivoQ  jtpoeivxiit  ('  MaiT. 
iii,  16 ;  S  Mace  vii,  20).  [n  the  New  Test.,  however,  we 
find  ffirivyii/y^,  like  fnrXijffrcr,  used  mclonymiciilly,more 
especiallv  for  un  oppoiattd  onrf  recpgaiifd  JrKuh  place 
<!/'icQr>A.>i(Malt.iT,23;  vi,!,o;  ix,3o,elc.}.     Some- 

connecled  with  or  sat  in  the  synagogue  in  the  narrower 
aense  {Matt,  x,  17;  xxiii,34i  Markxiii,9;  Luke  xxi, 
12l  xii,  11).  Within  the  limita  of  the  Jewish  Church 
it  perhaps  kept  its  ground  as  denoting  the  phet  of 
meeting  ofthe  Chrialian  brethren  (James  ii,  2).  It  seems 
to  have  been  claimed  by  aome  of  Ihe  pseudo-Ju<<aiziiig, 
half-tinostic  sects  of  the  AmsIIc  churches  for  Ihcit 
meetings  (Rev.  ii,  9).  tt  was  not  altogether  obsolete, 
as  Bp|>lied  to  Christian  meetings,  in  the  time  of  Ig- 
natius (Kp.  ml  TraU.  e.  v ;  itd  Pol^.  c  iii).  Even  in 
Clement  ofAlexandria  the  two  nurds  appear  united  as 
(hey  hail  dune  in  the  Sept.  (iiri  rqi'  imi-nyiiryqv  iacXif- 
oinc^frnm.  vi,633).  Afiecwards,  when  the  chasm  be- 
tween Judaism  and  Cbrixlianiiy  became  wider, Chris- 
tian writers  were  fond  of  dwelling  on  the  meanings  of 
the  two  worda  which  practically  represented  them,  and 

ecclesia  {Augus^  Eaurr.  ia  I'm.  Ixxx;  Trench,  Sgno- 
«ymt  k/N.  T.  %  1).  Tbe  c<^nato  word,  howc\-er,  <nV 
□EiCi  was  formed  or  adopted  in  its  pUce,  and  applied  lo 
the  highest  act  of  worship  and  communion  for  which 
Christians  met  (Siiicer,  Tlu$aar.  a.  v.). 

More  definite  than  tho  (jreek  term  synsgogue  is  the 
ancient  Hebrew  name,  bilk  Irphillih  ( n^BH  r\-^, 
riiiroE  rpoiitvxnt.  or  simply  wpamvyi)')  =  home  of 
prtigrr  (Acta  xvi,  13,  for  which  the  Syriac  rightly  has 
XP-lbx  n'3:  Joaephns,  /.i/r,  64),  which  is  now  obso- 
lete, or  iff*  hak-kmimk  (^0331?  n'3)  =  *oi(K  n/ 
autmbly,  which  hsa  superseiled  it.  This  definite  local 
signification  of  the  term  synagogue  among  Ihe  Jens 
has  necessitated  the  use  of  another  expression  for  Ihe 


r  ^lax,  Ii 


lie  assembly,  v 
ir  secondary  si 


Hillary  of  tif  Oiv/ia  oHit  Derrlnprnenl  nf  Iht 

Sgaagngut 1.  According  to  tnidilion.  the  pMriarcha 

Alwahsm,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  instiiuteil  the  prayers  three 
timea  a  day  (Btyairui,  36  b),  and  had  places  of  worship 
(comp.  the  Chaldee  paraphrases  of  Onkeloa,  Jnnslhaii 
beii-t'zziel,  and  Ihe  Jerusalem  Targnm  nn  lien.  xxiv. 
62.  63 ;  XXV,  27).  Wc  are  inrurmcd  Ihot  there  were 
synagogues  in  the  time  <ir  Ihe  pinna  kinir  Hczekiah 
(saTihrdria.  94  b);  that  the  gt 


gogue ; 


if  Jerusalem  (B"'boi-i'"  Tia) 
umcd  (i  Kings  xKv.at  were  I 
oguea  that  existed  in  Jorusale 
1,1),  and  that  in  Babj-lon  Ihi 


Nnhiim,  ami  Ezra  (/rtwiorj,,  i, 

Ascher  [London,  1840]).    It  is         ,-.  . 

tradition  Ihu  Jama  decl«re*  ",        C  jOOQIC 


SYNAGOGUE 

in  ■verf  cilj  th«m  that  praacb  him,  being  Tod  in  the 
lynagognei  ever]'  SibbiCh  dmy"  (Acta  XT,  SI;  comp. 
Pbilrsii,  167, 030;  Joaephaa,  Apioit,a,  IS;  Baba  Kama, 
OT«!  Jetiisjem  jr(j>ttiA,iT,  1).  But  these  «i»  simply 
trmditions,  which  love  to  invMt  everything  wilh  t1 
halo  of  Che  remnteit  anliquity. 

2.  In  the  Old  Test  itself  we  find  no  trice  of  roee 
ings  for  wonbip  in  eyaigogun.    On  the  one  hind,  il 
probable  tlut  ifneir  mount  end  Sabbaths  were  obserred 
■t  all,  they  must  have  been  attended  by  some  cclebra- 
tioa  apart  ftom,  as  veil  as  at,  the  labemade  ot  th( 
Temple  (I  Sam.  xx,  5i  2  Kings  iv,  29),     On  ihe  other, 
M  far  aa  we  And  uaces  of  euch  local  worship,  it  seems 
U  bsve  fallen  too  readily  into  a  fetich  religion,  i 
does  to  ephods  and  leraphim  (Judg.  viii,  27 ;  svii,  5)  in 
lfioresandonhigh-placea,oSering  nothing  but  a  cot 
to  the  "  reaaonable  service,"  the  prayeia,  paalmi,  int 
tion  in  the  law,  of  the  later  synagogue.    The  special 
miaaiun  of  the  priesta  and  Levites  under  Jehoahaphal 
(2  Chmn.  zvii,  7-9)  shows  that  there  wai  no  regulai 
proviaion  for  reading  the  "book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord' 
to  the  people,  and  make*  it  probalile  that  even  the  rule 
which  preacribed  that  it  should  be  read  once  every 
seven  years  at  the  Featt  of  Tabernacles  had  fallen  into 
dimse  (Deul.  xxzi,  10),   With  the  rise  of  the  propbetii: 
ocder  we  trace  ■  more  distinct  though  still  a  partial  ap- 
proximativo.    Wherever  there  waa  a  aimpany  of 
prophets,  there  must  have  been  a  life  analogous  in  many 
of  its  features  to  that  of  the  later  Esienea  and  Thera- 
peutn,  to  that  nf  the  conotia  and  iDOnailetiea  of  Chris- 
tendom.    In  the  abnormal  stale  of  the  polity  of  1st 
under  Samuel,  they  appear  lo  have  aimed  at  purify 
the  worship  of  the  high-places  frotu  idolatrous  a»oc 
tioni,  and  met  on  fixed  days  for  sacrifice  and  psalnii 

<1  Sam.ix,  12;  x,5).    The  scene  in  I  Sam.  xix.20--/4 

pera  who  might  choose  to  come,  as  well  as  lo  "  the 
of  the  prophet,"  the  brothers  of  the  order  themselves. 
The  only  pre-exilian  insUnce  which  seems  to  ind 
that  the  devout  in  Israel  were  in  the  habit  of  resorting 
to  pious  leaden  for  blessings  and  instruction  on  slated 
occasions  u  to  be  found  in  2  Kings  iv,  23,  wher 
Shunammite'a  husband  asks,*  "  Wherefore  wilt  thou 
go  to  him  (Eliaha)  to-day?  It  it  neither  tKW  mooi 
nor  SabUth."  Yet  2  Kingn  xxii,8,etc.j  2  Chron 
xxxiv,  14,  elG„  testify  undoubtedly  against  the  exist- 
ence of  places  of  worship  uniler  the  monarchy.  Tbi 
data  of  Psa.  Ixxiv  is  loo  uncertain  far  us  to  draw  ant 
inference  as  lo  the  nature  of  the  "  synagogues  of  God' 
(^X  ^^is,  meeting-places  of  God),  which  the  invaders 
are  represented  as  deatroying  (ver.  S).  It  may  have 
belonged  to  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  or  Chalilean  in- 
vaaion  (Vitringa,  De  Sgitag.  p.  396-405).  It  has  been 
referred  to  that  of  Itn  Maccabees  (l>e  Wette,  /'laJmm, 
ad  loc.),  or  lo  an  intermediate  period  when  Jerusalem 
was  taken  and  the  land  laid  waste  by  the  army  of 
Bagoses,  under  Artaxerxea  II  (Ewald,  Pott.  liiirh.  ii, 
85»;.  The  "assembly  of  the  eldera,"  in  Paa.  ovii,  32, 
leaves  us  in  like  uncvrtainly. 

3.  During  the  Exile,  in  'the  abeyance  of  the  Temple 
worship,  the  meetings  of  devout  Jews  probably  became 
mote  ayatematic  (rurinfia,  Dt  Sya-ig.  p.  4l3-4-i9i  Jost, 
Judralhum,  i.  I6H;  Uomilius,  lie  iSyuiffos.  in  Ugolino, 
TAfiaur.  xxi),  and    mutt  have   helped   furwatd  the 

the  Reliim.  The  repeated  mentum  of  gatherings  of  the 
elders  of  Israel,  sitting  before  Ibe  pro|ihet  Elzeldel  and 
hearing  his  word  (Ezek.  viii,  1 ;  xiv.  I ;  xx,  1 ;  xxxiii, 
81),  implies  the  tranaf^  to  the  land  of  the  Captivity  of 
the  custom  Ihat  had  originated  in  the  schools  of  the 
prophets.  One  remarkable  passage  may  possibly  con- 
tain a  mote  distinct  refeience  to  them.  Those  who 
atill  remained  in  Jerusalem  taunted  the  prophet  and  hit 
companions  with  their  exile,  as  outcasts  from  the  bless- 
ings of  the  sanctuary,  "liet  ye  far  from  the  l-ord; 
onto  US  ia  Ihia  land  given  in  a  potaweiun."   The  pmph- 


SYNAGOGUE 


sr  it  that  it  i 


It  to.    Jeborab  w 


•  tnly 


in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  His  piesencv,  not  the 
outward  glory,  was  itself  the  sanctuary  (xi,  lb.  16). 
The  whole  tiistory  of  Ezra  presupposes  the  habit  of  sol- 
emn, probably  of  periodic,  meetings  (Eara  viii,  15;  Neb. 
viii,  3 1  ix.  1 1  Zech.  vii,  5).    To  that  peiiml,  aocord- 


,  if  not 


lion,  of  synagogues,  or  at  least  of  tbe  tystematic  totrt- 

ings  on  fasts  fur  devotion  and  instruction  (Zecfa.  viii, 
19).  Religions  meetings  were  also  held  on  Sahbalha 
and  fists  lo  instruct  the  exile*  in  the  divine  law,  and  to 
admonish  them  to  obey  tbe  divine  precepts  (Eara  x,  1- 
9;  Neb.  viii,  t,S;  ix,l-8;  liil,  1-B).  These  mevlings, 
held  near  tlie  Temple  and  in  other  localities,  wen  tbe 
origin  of  the  syaagi^[ue,  and  the  placu  in  wbicb  tbe 
people  assembled  was  denominated  nD9:n  n^S,  lit 
AoKte  of  luianbly!  hence,  alao,  (he  synagogue  in  the 
Temple  itself.  The  elders  of  (his  synagogue  haoded 
the  law  to  the  high-priett  (Hithna,  Yoma,  vii,  1 ;  Sobik, 
vii,  7,  6),  aided  in  Ihe  sacriOces  {Tamid,  v,  S),  took 
charge  of  Ihe  palms  used  at  the  Feast  of  Tabemaelea 
{Suldcah,  iv,  4),  accompanied  tbe  pilgrims  who  btmght 
their  nrat-fnnts  (Totipkia  Bitturim,  ii),  offlciat«d  at 
judges  (^Afatiarli,  iii,  12),  and  superintended  the  iufiuit- 
scbools  {Snbbiia.  i,  3).  As«iming  Ewald's  theory  as 
(o  Ihe  date  and  occasion  of  Psa.  Ixxiv,  Ihcre  must,  at 
some  subsequent  period,  have  been  a  great  deetruction 


Idings,  a 


>rihe 


striking  that  tb 
in  any  way  prominent  in  the  Bilaccahnao  hixory,  either 
as  objects  of  attack  or  rallying-pointa  of  defence,  unleaa 
we  are  to  see  in  the  gathering  of  tlie  persecuted  Jews 
St  Maspha  (Mizpali),  aa  at  a  "  place  where  they  pnved 
aforetime  in  larael"  (1  Mace  iii,  46),  not  only  a  remi- 
niscence of  its  old  glory  as  a  holy  place,  but  the  CDntio- 
uance  of  a  more  recent  custom.  When  that  slniggle 
was  over,  there  sppears  (o  have  been  a  freer  develop- 
ment of  what  may  be  called  the  lynagogue  parochial 
system  among  tbe  Jews  of  Palestine  and  other  mun- 
triea.  The  influence  of  John  Hyrcinui,  the  growing 
power  of  the  PhariBee^  (he  aulhority  of  the  Scribea,  the 
example,  prohably,or  the  Jews  of  the''difipeTHin"  (Vi- 
tringa, Dt  Syiag.  p.  426),  would  all  (end  in  the  saate  ili- 
reclion.  Well-nigh  every  town  or  village  bad  ita  one 
or  more  synagoguea.  Where  the  Jews  were  not  in  suf- 
ncient  numbers  to  be  able  lo  erect  and  fill  a  building, 
there  was  tbe  rpmnaxij,  or  place  of  prayer,  sometimes 
open,  totoelimea  covered  in,  commonly  by  a  tunning 
stream  or  on  Ihe  tea-shore,  in  which  devout  Jewt  and 
proselytes  met  to  worship,  and,  perhaps,  to  re«d  (Acta 
xvi,  13;  Joaephus,  Attl.  xiv,  10,  W;  Jareoal,  Sat.  iii, 
296).  Sometimes  Ihe  teiro  vponv^  (  =  r4BPI  n^a) 
was  applied  even  to  an  actual  synagogue  (Joaepbus, 
Life,  §  54).  Eventually  we  find  tbe  Jews  posseaaag 
synagogues  in  the  diSerent  cities  of  Syria,  A^  Uiuor, 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  wherever  they  leuded.  We  hear 
of  the  apostles  frequenting  the  lynagngues  in  Dama^ 
cua,  AnIioch,  Icuniutn,  Thetaalonica,  Berea,  Atbtm^ 
Girinth,  EpheBuB,elc(Aclsix,  9,  !<J;  xiii,l4;  xiv,!; 
ivii,  1, 10. 1.i  xvlii,  4, 19;  xix,  8).  There  were  nu- 
merous lynagoguea  in  Palesline:  in  Naiartlh  (Matt. 
xiii,  M,  Mark  vi,  2;  Luke  iv,  16),  Capernaum  (Matt. 
xii,9!  Mark  i,  21;  Luke  vii,  5;  John  vi.  59),  etc.;  and 
in  Jerusalem  alone  there  were  480  (Jerusalem  Mrgiliak, 
iii,  1 ;  Jerusalem  KethKbadt,  xiii)  In  accommodate  the 
Jcwa  fnim  foreign  lands  who  "visited  ihe  Temple. 
There  were  synagogues  of  tbe  Libertines,  Cyieniana, 
Alexandrians,  Cilicisns,  and  of  the  Asiatics  (Acts  vi,  S; 
comp.  TotiplUa  MrgilluA,ii:  Babylon  3ifgillal,K  a). 
When  it  Is  remembered  that  more  than  2,500,000  Jewa 
canve  together  lo  tbe  metrnpolis  from  all  couulriaa 
to  celebrate  Ihe  Passover  (Joaephus.  X  ■(.  vi,  9,  3 ;  W. 
lacAita,  64  a),  this  number  of  synagoguea  in  Jemsalem 
will  not  appear  at  all  exiggeraled.  An  idea  may  b« 
formed  of  tbe  large  number  of  Jewa  at  tb«  tima  of 


SYNAGOGUE 


Ckii«,>b«  it 
rnm  the  Hrdiu 

ntulM  nwlf  1 
ni,iL5!3):  aiv 
tnpulit,  Antio 


I  Jevl 


n  mind  tbil  in  Egrpt  kIdpf, 
I  the  bordvi  of  Ethiiipii.  tbere 
if  Jewi  (Philo.  Againil  Flac- 
Syris,  e«i«tially  in  ihe  mc- 
ilulfd  a  large  portion 


ofih^ponukiiiiii  (Uriiii[2dnL],  iii.SS-^). 

IIL  8iU,  Slradmn,  Inlcntal  ATTtngtmal,  Utt,  and 
Amtriiy  Bj'ikf  S)migogiie.—l.  Tskiiig  Ihe  Temple  u 
itw  firvioiype,  i»il  fulhiwing  the 
tieaoTthepuMgcnin  Prov.i,  Stand  Eira  ix,9,  which 
m  lakeo  lo  mean  chat  ihe  voice  of  prayer 
nivd  on  htighu  (X^pn  S!t^3},  and  that  the  uiiciu- 
■ry  ni  iherefure  ereclni  on  a  luminil  (HK  BISI'^^ 
C-nbx  n''3).  the  Jewish  canoni  decreed  that  nyiii- 
upoii  the  moM  elevated  gruuml 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  that 
no  houN  is  u>  be  allowed  lo  over- 
I  liiplhem(ronpiltu  J/i^uA,itij 
I  Maimonide*,  Ind  Ha-Cknaka 
I  Hachalh  Trpkilu,  xi, !).  So  es- 
Kfitial  was  this  law  rieemeii;  Slid 
wMrictlywisitobwrvnlin  Per- 
sia, even  alter  the  deslrvelion  of 
^3'^f  M''™?Mi  '^"  Temple,  thai  Rah  (A.D.  165- 


SSST" 


hile  rabbi  Ashi  de- 


■■  Tell  penoitled  i 
■ynsgogne, 
«tared  (bat  the  ptoteelion  of  Son  wa*  owing  to  the  ele- 
med  liie  oT  ita  lyoagogua  (^hMuTA,  II  a).  LJeut 
Kiuheoer.  bowtrtr,  uale*  (tjtiar.  SiulrmnU  ot  the  "  I'al. 
Eiplor.  Fund,"  July,  1878,  p.  123  sq.)  that  the  ruins  of 
the  fuuneen  ipedmens  of  ancieiil  gynsgogue*  extant  ill 
PilMine  (all  in  (ialilee)  do  not  correspond  to  these  Tal- 
nailical  nquirementa  ailo  location,  nor  yet  to  Ihoie  Le- 
In  as  to  poaiiioo  ;  for  they  am  frequently  in  rather  a  low 
Hie,  and  face  the  sonth  if  possible.  FailiDg  of  a  com- 
Dudiog  site,  a  tall  pole  rose  from  the  roof  to  render  it 
(npicBoui  (I^rcr,  in  llerxog's  Btal-EnryUop,  s.  v.). 

The  riverside  outside  the  city  was  alsn  deemed  a 
nitabie  spot  for  building  the  sj'nagogue,  becanse,  be- 
ioR  remored  Tram  the  tuntt  at  the  city,  the  people 
(snhl  vonbip  (iod  witboi  ~ 
liae,  hSTe  the  use  of  pure  vs 
alter  nligioua  eiereisea  (Acts 
or.  10, 23;  Jurenal,  Sai.  til  IS,  etc ;  see  also'tbe  Chal- 
dte  reiHans  on  Gen.  zxiv,  6i).     See  PBOsaL'ciiA. 

The  building  was  oommonly  erected  at  the  cost  of 
tfae  diAiict,  whether  by  a  church-rate  levied  for  the 
pir[i>M,Dr  by  free  gifts,  mnsC  remain  uncertain  (Vitrin- 
lia,  Dt  Sjmagog.  p.  3S9).  SometioMS  it  was  built  by  a 
licb  Jew,  ot  even,  as  in  Luke  vii,  5,  by  a  fnendly  prose- 
lyte   lu  the  later  siagea  of  EaaCem  Judaism  it  was 


■  a  o  ■  ■  ■  q 

■  ■  ■  D  ■  □  ■ 

■  D  ■  ■  □  ■  ■ 

□  B  ■  D  ■  ■  ■ 


Flan  ot  Bolned  SroaKogoa  at  Tall  HOm. 


SYNAGOGUE 


!.  The  size  of 
chapel,  varied  with  the  population,  We  hare  no  rea- 
son for  beUeving  that  there  were  any  fixed  laws  uf 
pioponion  for  its  dimensions,  like  ihoaa  which  an 
traced  in  the  tabernacle  and  the  Temple. 

The  building  itself  waa  generally  in  the  furm  of  a 
theatre;  the  door  was  usually  on  the  we«t,  so  that,  on 
entering,  the  worshippeii  might  at  once  face  the  front, 
which  was  turned  towanli  Jerusaleui,  since  the  law  is 
(hst  "all  the  worihippen  in  lorael  are  lo  have  their 
faces  turned  lo  that  part  of  [he  world  where  Jerusalem, 
the  Temple,  and  the  Holv  of  Holies  are"  (Btrahni, 
BO  a).  This  law,  which  is  deduced  from  1  Kings  viii, 
2!l;  Paa.xxviii,2,and  the  allegorical  inlerprelalion  at 
Sung  of  Sungs  ir,  4,  also  obtained  among  ihe  early 
Christiana  (Urigen,  Ifom.  r.  ia  f-'um.  in  0pp.  ii,  2Si)  and 
the  Mohammedans  (Koran,  cii).  SeeKuBLAH.  Hence 
all  the  windows  are  said  In  have  been  generally  in  Ihe 
eastern  wall,  *o  that  tlie  worBbip|>en  might  hx>k  towards 
the  holy  city,  in  accordance  with  Dsii.  vi,  10. 

Like  the  Temple,  the  synagogue  was  fiequenlly  with- 
out a  roof,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  fuUowing  remark  of 
Epiphaniuti  "There  were  anciently  places  nf  prayer 
without  the  city,  bolh  among  the  Jews  and  the  iiamar- 
itaos; . ,  .  there  was  a  place  of  prayer  at  Sichem,  now 
called  Neapolis,  without  the  city  in  the  fields,  ia  the 
lorm  of  a  theatre,  open  to  the  air,  and  wiihoul  cover- 
ing, built  by  the  Samaritans,  who  in  all  things  imitated 
Ihe  Jews"  ICmlr.  llara.  lib.  iii,  hnr.  80).  It  was  this, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  Jews  had  no  images, 
which  gave  rise  la  the  aatirical  remark  of  Juvenal — 
"  Nil  prKWr  nubes  el  tall  unmeii  adoraiii." 

iSaC  xlv,  98.1 
In  some  places  there  were  temporary  nmoifr  and 
wm/er  synagogues;  they  were  pulled  down  snd  re-erect- 
ed at  the  beginning  of  each  season,  so  liiat  Ihe  style 
of  building  might  be  according  to  the  perioil  of  the 
year  (Hain  BtUhia,  S  b). 

8.  Ill  the  inlemal  nrrangenient  of  Ihe  synagogue  we 
trace  an  obvious  analogy,  nulnlit  meliaulii,  to  ihe  type 
of  Ihe  labemacle.  At  the  wall  opposite  the  entrance, 
or  at  the  Jerusalem  end,  stood  lit  vooden  (hiil  or  mi 
(pavi)  containins  the  scrolls  of  the  law.  It  stood  on 
a  raised  bsse  with  several  attpa  (bQ33  =  (iiE>seUivni, 
KVy^.  Jerusalem  ifrgiUali,  iii,  1),  which  the  priesU 
mounted  when  they  pronounced  the  benediction  (Numb, 
ri.  U4-'i6)  upon  the  congregation.  Hence  the  phraso 
•p\-\\  nbs,  which  was  teluned  alter  the  destruction 
Temple  tu  describe  the  act  of  giving  tlie  bene- 
I  lo  the  people  by  the  priests  {Hodt  Ha-Shanah, 
S-ilAalK,  118  b).  It  is  neceaaary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  Ihe  ancient  name  for  this  ark  ia  HSR  (comp. 
Miibna.  £n'n:lofA,  V,  3.  4;  7nanifA,  ii.'l,  !;  Uf 
'/tl^j.it',  4,ctc.),the  name  afterwards  given  to  it 
("|i"ilj)  being  resert'ed  lor  the  ark-of-l he-covenant 
talile,  which  wss  wanting  in  the  second  Temple. 
'I'liere  waa  a  canopy  (ttS^B)  spread  over  the  ark, 
under  which  were  kept  the  vcalmenta  used  during 
Ihe  service  (Jemsalem  ArrgiOah,  iii).  In  some 
place*  the  ark  nrcheat  had  two  compartments,  the 


low 


ningth 


wall 

but  was  free,  so 

that  it  might  easily  be  uk- 

Uude  the  door 

rder 

that 

he  priests  show 

1  be  able  to  attend  the 

vire 

inio  the  BCreeta  when 

and 

aysofhumilis' 

on  were  kept  (Mishna, 

7Vi- 

nnir. 

«ss  was  made  i 

the  wall,  and  the  ark 

kep« 

ihere.     This  r« 

<ss  was  called  (i<  fioiKAiory 

(>r 

rt,Cip).    The 

mes 

SYNAGOGUE 


SYNAGOGUE 


read  (I'oDia,  68  b 
MrgiUah,  3G  b ;  Jeru 
ulem  MrsiOtJi,  in) 
•Thereniling-dCBk  ws 
cuvrred  wkh  a  clull 
(JtO'jn),  which    T« 

curding  (o  Ihc  cir 
cumalancea  or  thi 
con);rFt^tion  (^Mrgil 
fe*,26b).  Wbenth. 
Hiilice  was  large  thi: 


111  ihe  c 


II    III! 


■rm-chaira  (■r?'!'~i; 

;pai,1'i'iab[5  =  irX<i.- 
Tnpic).  or   iraU   of 


err.(Mari.xxiii,2.6^ 
llirit  xii,  S9:  Luke 


SynsKOt'ue  1 


derebipGd  atill  rurther  in  Iho  n 

ill  Ihi  veil  which  hung  bef.<™  il  (ViiriiiBa,  p.  181) '  On 
certain  aecaBJ'ins  the  ark  waa  renoveil  from  the  recen 
mil  plaeei)  on  Ihe  mgtrum  (riT3^3  —  ;3qf in)  in  the  mid- 
dle of  ilie  sviupigue  (ro«p*ta  Mrgitlai,\\ii  Mainion- 
i.lea,  Ind  Ifa.OirMhi  HUdalli  LubA,  rij,  SS).  See 
TABEitKACi.ES,  Frast  OP.  Withiii  the  ark.  ai  above 
stileit,  were  the  rolb  oT  the  ncred  booka.  The  nillera 
rcHiml  which  Ihey  were  wnnnd  were  often  el»bi>tately 
decnnleil,  the  caan  for  Ihrm  embRnilered  or  enamelled. 
acoi>n1ing  lo  their  miL«riiK  Such  casea  were  cualomary 
■ilTeringB  frnii)  Ihe  rich  when  they  broU);ht  their  inhnt 
chil<lren  on  the  Hnt  annirenaiy  uf  Iheir  birthday  lo  be 
bleased  by  Ihe  rabtn  of  the  aynagopue. 

In  front  of  the  ark  wa«  the  desk  of  the  leader  of 
the  lUvine  wonbip;  and  at  Ihe  place  of  the  ark 


ahipper  waa  invileil  (James  ii,  8, 8),  The>-  were  place.1 
ill  froiit  of  Ihe  ark  containing  Ihe  law,  or  at  ihe  Jcni- 
ulem  end,  in  the  upperiiHiat  part  of  Ihe  eyiiagngiie.  and 
theae  dialinguiahcd  penoiia  aal  with  their  faces  to 
the  people,  while  the  congregation  alooit  facing  Iwlh 
■hew  honnrnlle  onea  and  the  ark  {Toiipila  JUfffiU.,/,, 
iii).  In  Ihe  arnaicogue  at  Alexandria  there  ifere  rev- 
eniy-one  gohltii  chaira,  according  lo  Ihe  number  of  the 
memben  of  the  fireat  Sanhedrim  (_Si,ttai,  61  b).  See 
SANtmiKiM.  In  tbe  aj-nagogue  of  llagclad  "the  at- 
cent  10  Ihe  huW  ark  waa  conpoied  of  ten  natble  stepii, 
on  Ihe  uppermow  of  which  were  ihe  alalb  mi  apart  t'ur 
the  prince  of  the  Captivity  and  Ihe  other  princes  vl  ilie 
of  David"  (Itrnjamiu  of  Tudela,  ilmrraij.  i,  lOS, 


imphiil 


a  highe 


■1  of  tl 


Hence 


intCFchan^cahle  phrases  ^*Af  vho  daceitdtbefort  Iht  ork** 
(na^rn  ^:eV  ^^I'ri)  and  "hr  rho  mnw/i  bffiit  Ikt 
ml"  (nr-rn  ■'Jrb  irirn)  nae,I  to  designaie  the 
leiHlpr  rif  divine  worship  in  the  synagnciie  (Mishna, 
Tiumili.u.'i;  Berakolh.v.i:  Roih  lla-Slunuih,\v,T-, 
.Vrfl)-tf»A,iv,a,5,7,etc,). 

Tlip  next  important  piece  nf  fiimiliire  wax  the  ran- 
irnm  or  platform  (7?  i?5?,  rra-a  -li^/ia,  St'P^iII, 
cnpnLilc  of  caniainingaercrai  perwHtB  (Nch.  vMi.  4:  ix, 
i:  Jowphiia,  AM.  if,  a.  IS).     On  thia  pUlf.irm  Ihc  lea- 

ouFHs  doliverol,  etc  (Iklialina,  Saliii,  viri.  Hi  Uahvlm 
SuUah.blb-.ifrgaiah.'iSb).  ScellAniTAHAii.  'I'here 

law  while  reading,  and  the  one  upon  whom  il  devolved 
to  read  a  p-inion  of  tbe  pericope  bad  to  hnld  Ihe  roll  in 
hit  hand  till  the  second  one  came  up  In  read,  and  te- 
tievei)  him  of  il.  Alterwanla,  however,  there  waa  a 
reading-desk  (TJ'tsX^rijmXoydoi')  on  Ibis  plalfonn, 
and  the  roll  of  the  Inw  waa  liiit  ilown  during  pauses. 
or  when  lit  mritni-gnnun  i_y:i~^7^  =  inlejTirfln)  wsa 
reciting  in  the  Temaculai  of  Ihe  caunlt>'  the  portion 


eil.AKbei,  Lund.  1840). 

There  was,  moreover,  a  perpeinal  light  (T'Tin  ^";l, 
which  was  evideiitiv  in  imitation  of  the  IVmple  light 
M  lower  and  some-  j  (EsoiL  xxviii,  20). '  This  ucred  light  waa  n-liBiuusIy 
fed  by  the  pei^ile,  and  in  caae  of  any  special  mercy 
vouchsafed  to  an  individual,  or  of  threateniiig  dinger,  a 
ceriiinqiuuiityDruilwaa  vowed  for  the  perpeiBil  lamp. 
This  light  was  the  symbol  of  Ihe  human  soul  (rrov. 
XX.  27),  of  Ihe  ilirine  Uw  (vi,  28),  and  of  the  manifes- 
lalion  of  Cod  (Riek.  xliii.j).  U  musl,  howerer,  be  re- 
marked Ihal  thmigli  the  perpeinal  lamp  forms  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  synagogical  funiilure  to  the  present 
(lay,  anil  bos  obtained  among  ihe  Imliana,  Creeks  Ro- 
"  y(Ro.enmllBet,.I/nr- 


.?«i/.™-/,ii.l6fi),yettli 
the  Talmud,  (liher  Janips,  bmughl  by  devout  wunliip- 
|Kn^  were  lighleil  at  Ihe  beginniuK  of  the  Sabhaih,  i.  e. 
on  Friday  evening  (Vitriiica,  p.  ISIK), 

As  part  of  the  Bitinga,  we  have  tho  in  nnle  (I)  an- 
other cheat  ft>Tthey/H/)*/iiro/*,ii(  rolls  i.f  Ihe  pm|>PiPta; 
(!)  Alms-boxes  at  or  near  the  door,  nrier  the  paiiem  of 
those  at  the  Temple,  one  for  the  |— ir  of  Jenualem.  the 
other  for  local  chariiiea;   (3)  Notiee-bninls,  nn  which 

out  of  the  synsgngue  ;*  (41  A  chest  fiir  irumptts  and 
other  musical  insirumenls  useil  at  ihe  Kew-Yeuj,  Sab. 
baiha,  and  other  festivals  (Viiringa,  Leyrer,  Ine,  lii,). 
Tbe  congregation  was  divided, men  on  one  side,  won* 


SYNAGOGUE  7 

(■DD  tlM  otbet,  B  luir  fxnitiun,  tivo  or  lix  feet  hi^h, 
nuiDing  betwwn  ihera  (Philo,/)?  l-if-Cun/mpi  ii,476). 
TLnnwigemenW  of  modem «j-ii«gof;ue«,fur  miiiycen- 
Igris,  bai-e  maile  Ihe  wgtanlioD  more  complete  by 
fUtdng  itae  womeD  in  luw  iiiile-giilleriet,  Ksreeneil  oR  by 
liUin-wQfk  (I«o  oT  lliiclens,  in  I'iMrt,  Cirfm.  Retiy.  i). 
4.  Dnidn  mectinfpi  fur  wonhip,  the  synagi^iucs,  or, 
mm  [HD^Fcly,  the  ruoim  ci>nnect«l  villi  them,  wera 
tkn  uanl  M  courit  of  JuMice  titr  Ihe  local  Sinhe<lrini 
(Tarsm^Jonallitni  on  Anwa  t,  12,15;  Jerutaleni  Sant- 
MHM,i.l:JtnaiilemBiiiaUflna,ii,8:  Habvion  Kr- 
U*bfA.5  ■;  S,il*uih,l60  >),  Mid  in  it  the  heaUle  ot 
lit  irnigogue  mdminiiileml  Che  forty  tlripo  Mve  one 

jVaUsf;l.iii,IJ;eomp.M>lt.x,17i  xxiii,34).  Trarel- 
Im,  loo,  found  lu  uylum  in  ibe  synigogue ;  mealt  were 
HUB  in  it  {PaaeAim,  101;  ScthMU  AaMa,  c  xlv), 
•nd cbildirn  wen  inuructed  therein  (KiddHdlDi, 30  a; 
Bvta  Balkra,  21  a:  ruaair*,  U  b;  StraibofA,  17  i; 
rrfoHtfjl,  $&  b).  Thia,  howerei,  did  not  detract  rioni 
itiaiciily;  fticthe  lyuaicogue  once  oBetl  for  ibc  divine 
■unhip  vaa  onlv  allowed  to  be  aoU  an  ceriain  condi- 
iHu  iJtbhna.  UrgiUai,  iii,  i,  2>  Wlien  Ihe  building 
■B  finished,  it  wu  Bet  apart,  aa  Ihe  Temple  hod  been, 
bt  1  •prcia)  prayer  of  dedication.  From  that  time  it 
hill  1  euiuccnlMl  character.    The  common  acts  nf  life, 

oar  vat  lo  pata  throuftb  it  ai  a  ihort  cnt.  Even  if  it 
RBnltobe  medithe  building  waa  not  lo  be  applied  to 
UT  haK  purpoae  ^  night  nol  be  Uimcil,  e.  g.,  iiilo  a 
tBih.  a  laundrr,  or  a  tannery.  A  acraper  atuod  ouutde 
i\t  door  that  men  might  rid  themielvea,  before  they 
fumd,  of  anything  that  would  be  defiling  (Leyrer,  loe, 

n.  Tht  Ojfitii  and  GoTtmaaa  of  Ihe  Symgogur.— 
Tfct  lynigognei  of  the  rtspeelive  towns  were  governed 
bj  ibe  elilcn  (n:]3»,  irpeo.Jirfpoi,  Ijike  vii,  3),  who 
mniiiuled  the  local  tiauhedrim,conslBting  either  of  the 
twuuy-ihree  aeoalon  or  the  three  senatois  assisted  hy 
ia  principal  mcniben  of  Ihe  congregaliun  (l/rgiUoh, 
t;-.  ittpbut.  Ant.  iv,8,Ui  War,ii,iO,bi  Actavii,&i 
III.'*),  IS  this  depended  upon  the  aize  and  papulation 
of  Ihe  place  8«  SA.tiiKDnin.  Hence  theae  author- 
iitd  adDiniatraton  uf  ibc  law  were  alternately  denomi- 
MUi  dupierJt  lO^O^~i9  =  rotiiivic,ieni»»laa  Ptak, 
m.BibyteaCiasigijCeO;  JoUof t,  17 a ;  Acts u, 38 1 
Eph.  iv,  II).  rie  nirrt  aflht  ti/Kigogut,  and /Ac  ^irft 
(rO)W  'SX^  ~dpx">'>''ry"T'>''  4>X<"'"C<  Malt.  ix, 
IB,  a':  Uark  t,  n;  Luke  Tiii,4l;  Acts  xiii,  15)  and 
«w«!f>i[n"J1BT3=»;»niruii^C,Miahna,ra>nW,T,  1). 

The  pfoident  of  the  Sanhedrim  was  tx  offaa  the 
hod  or  chief  of  the  tynagogue,  and  wu  therefore,  cor' 
iiaCT^.tU-mfrrD^fie  jjr7Hiyojii«(Miihna,  fomo.vri,  [  j 
MeijI,  vii,?).  while  the  other  members  of  thia  body,  ao- 
oMing  to  their  Taiious  gifta,  discharged  the  different 
hnoJoiaiD  the  synagogue  (1  Tint.  T,  17),  as  will  be  seen 
fniB  the  fgllowinB  clawification.     See  Hioii-rnticST, 

1.  Tik  £a^  o/ (Ae  Synafji^ae  (ng:^!!  CXI  =  dpx'- 
tnifjiTft^  a*d  Itit  dco  A  ttotiattt. — Tlioogh  the  Bu- 
fnax  official,  like  tbe  two  other  members  of  the  local 
•■HI,  had  lo  be  duly  enamiiied  by  delegates  from  the 
UitM  Sanhedrim,  who  certilied  that  he  pasei-aBed  all 
tW  neusHry  qnaUHcalinns  for  his  office  (Usimonides, 
M  Ha-Ckaaka  UOduAlt  SioAtdivx,  ii,  8),  yet  his  elec- 
boa  mtircly  depended  upon  the  suffrages  of  the  mem- 
benoftbt  synagogue.  The  Talmud  distinctly  declares 
dm  "no  ruler  (01*^0  - woip^i)  ii  appointed  orer  a 
anp^aiion  nnleas  Ihe  congr^alion  is  consulted" 
(AndsrA,  &5  a).  But,  once  elected,  tbe  ruler  was  the 
tUrd  ia  ordrcof  prcerdeiiccin  the  Temple  synagogue— 
L  t  ftm  came  the  bigh-prieit,  Iheii  the  chief  of  the 
piitsi  C,^),  and  then  tbe  ruler  of  tho  synagogue 
(XMbo,  Icwi,  *ii,  I ;  5BruA,vii,7),  while  in' Ihe  priK 
nadai  ayuagisuea  the  respective  tulen  were  iupretne, 


S  SYNAGOGUE 

and  had  the  pritKipal  voice  in  tbe  deciaioti  and  di<- 
tribution  uf  the  other  olGceii.  Uis  two  Judicial  col- 
leagues aided  liim  in  the  admintatration  of  the  law. 
See  AncHi-aYKAOoouEa. 

2.  The  Thrrt  A  in/mtTi  (nflX  ■'KaS  =  itmivcA  i  PhiL 
i,l;  lTim.iii,8,l2;  iv,G).— The  ofHce  of  almoner  waa 
both  very  retpoiisible  and  difficult,  as  Ihe  pooi-taxea 
were  of  a  douUc  nature;  and  in  periodically  collecting 
aitd  distributing  the  alms  llie  almoner  had  to  cxereise 
great  dineretion  from  nhom  lo  demand  them  and  lo 
whom  to  gire  them.  There  were,  first,  tke  oUb»  c/lht 
ditk  (^^ni:^),  consisting  of  aniclea  of  food  which  hail 
to  be  collected  by  tlie  nfficiais  daily,  and  distribnleil 
eveiy  evening,  and  tn  which  ei-ery  one  hod  to  contrib- 
ute who  resided  thirty  days  in  one  idice;  and  there 
were,  secondlj-,  tAe  aim  afifa  box  (nj'p),  coDsiMing 
of  money  which  waa  collected  every  Friday,  was  di"- 
Iributed  weekly,  and  lo  which  every  one  had  to  con- 
tribute who  redded  ninety  days  in  one  place.  Two  au- 
thoriied  persons  had  to  collect  the  furtner  and  three  the 
latter.  They  were  obliged  lo  keep  logrlher.  and  were 
not  allowed  to  put  into  their  pocketa  any  money  thus 
received,  but  were  to  ihrow  it  into  the  poor-box.  The 
almoners  had  Ihe  power  of  exempting  from  these  poor- 
rates  Buch  people  as  Ihey  believed  lo  be  unable  lo  pay, 
and  lo  enforce  the  tax  on  such  as  pretended  not  to  be 
in  a  position  to  conlribiite.  They  had  also  Ihe  power 
to  refuse  alms  to  any  whom  they  deemed  unworthy  of 
them.  All  the  three  almoners  had  lo  be  present  at  the 
distribution  of  the  alms.  The  grealest  care  waa  taken 
by  the  mien  of  the  synagogue  and  the  congregation 
that  those  elected  lo  this  otBce  slionld  be  "men  of  hnn- 
eaty,  wisdum,  justice,  and  have  the  confidence  of  the 
people"  (Bofci  BalhTO,  8 ;  A  boda  Sara.  18 ;  Tnomth,  24 ; 
Maimonides,  lad  lla-Chttaia  I/ilcholh  Ma/Amalh  Ati- 
yi'm,  ix).  Brothers  were  ineligible  to  this  office;  the 
almonen  (ftpn!!  •'Sti  ^^Ol^D)  were  not  allowed  tn 
be  near  relations,  and  had  to  be  elected  by  the  unani- 
mous vcHCe  of  the  people  (Jeruaalem  /ViiA,  viii). 

3.  Tie  titgalt  nf  Ihr,  Congrtgalioa,  xr  lie  leader  •>/ 
Divint  Worik^  (IflaS  n-'ici  =  ayy.Xot  lacXtiaioc- 
atniiTroXoc). — To  giro  unity  and  harmony  to  Hie  wor- 
ohip,  aa  well  as  lo  enable  the  congregation  lo  lake  part 
ill  the  reaponsen,  it  waa  absolutely  nccesaary  to  have 
oue  who  should  lead  tile  wonhip.  Hence,  as  soon  aa 
the  legal  number  required  fur  public  worship  had  aa- 
■embled  (V'^),  'ii<  ">!"  of  I'"'  avnagogue  (93^B  = 
roi/i4>')>  or,  in  hia  absence,  Ihe  elders  (Q'lpi  — -  rpcv- 
Pvnpoi),  delegated  one  of  the  congregation  lo  go  up 
before  tbe  ark  to  conduct  lUvine  service.  The  function 
of  the  apostle  of  the  ecclesia  013X  mbtD)  was  not 
permanently  vested  in  any  Mngle  individual  ordained 
for  this  purpose,  but  waa  allenialely  conferred  upon  any 
lay  member  who  was  suppoocd  to  possess  Ihe  qualifica- 
tions necessary  for  offering  up  prayer  in  the  name  oT 
tbe  cangregalion.  This  ia  evident  from  the  reileraled 
declarations  both  in  Ihe  Hishna  and  Ihe  Talmud.  Thus 
we  art  told  that  any  one  who  is  not  iiiidrT  thineen 
veare  of  age,  and  whooF  garments  are  not  in  rags,  mav 
^ciate  before  the  ark  (Miahna,  Mfyiltiih,  iv,  6) ;  that 
"  if  one  is  before  Ihe  ark  j^  =  ministers  for  Ibe  congrrga- 
tion],  and  makea  a  misiake  [in  the  prayer],  ai     ' 


sages  have 


dheis 
occasion"  (Mishna,  Brrakoih,  v,  8). 


o  rteclin. 


condiic 


flTst.sayingthat 
is  unworthy  uf  it;  and  if  be  does  not  delay,  he  ia  like 
unto  a  dish  wherein  is  no  salt;  and  tf  be  delays  more 
than  is  necessary,  ha  is  like  tmto  a  dish  which  tbe  salt 
has  spoiled.  How  ia  he  lo  do  It?  The  flrst  time  he  ia 
ashed,  he  is  to  decline;  Ihe  second  lime,  he  ia  lo  alir; 
and  the  third  time,  he  is  to  move  his  legs  and  awend 
before  llie  ark"  (Brrakvlh,  84  b).  Even  on  the  ino>i 
aulemn  oecasion^  when  lir  ul"j!a  congregatton  parted 


SYNAGOGUE 


76 


SYNAGOGtJE 


A  with  tbe  pmident  and  vicv-pmident  or 
iha  Sanhedrim  fur  nilUiiiil  humiliition  ami  prayeT,  no 
Mated  mtnulei  i*  apoken  of;  but  it  ia  aaid  that  one  of 
the  aged  men  proeot  ii  lo  delitet  a  p«nilenliat  ad- 
dreas,  and  another  is  Co  offer  up  the  aulemn  pnyera 
(Hiahni,  roosifA,  ii,  1-4}.  See  Fast.  On  ordinarf 
occauona,  however,  the  rabbins,  who  weia  the  ruler*  of 
tbe  qroagogue,  aakeil  their  diaciplei  to  act  aa  officiating 
miniaten  before  the  ark  (Btratolh,  84  a).  But  aince 
the  aagea  declared  that  "  if  the  legale  of  the  eoogrega- 
tion  (liax  r-bs^arfAot  iaiAiitriaC,  aruimXot) 
cooiniila  a  mialake  while  officiating,  it  ia  ■  bad  omen 
for  the  congrogalion  who  delegated  him,  becauae  a 
man'a  deputy  >i  like  Che  man  hinuelf"  (Hiihna,  An-n- 
hol/i,  V,  b) ;  and.  moreover,  noee  it  waa  felt  that  he  who 
conducts  public  worship  ahould  both  be  able  to  ajnnpa- 
thiie  with  the  wania  of  the  people  and  poaaea  all  the 
moral  qualificaliona  befitdng  ao  holj  a  miwon,  It  waa 
afterwards  ordained  that  "even  if  an  elderdpl^irpio- 
^ur^oi')  or  aage  ia  preaent  in  tbe  congregation,  he  ia 
not  to  be  aiked  to  oSciate  before  the  ark ;  but  that  man 
ia  to  be  delegated  who  ia  apt  In  officiate,  who  hai  chil- 
dren, whose  family  are  free  from  vice,  who  haa  a  proper 
beard,  whoH  garmenta  are  decent,  who  ia  acceptable  to 
the  people,  who  haa  a  j{ood  and  amiable  voice,  who  an- 
demands  how  to  read  the  law,  the  prophet^  and  the 
Kagiographa,  who  ia  rened  in  the  homiletic,  legal,  and 
traditional  exegctis,  and  who  knowa  all  the  benedic- 
linna  of  the  service"  (Ui*hni>,  Taaial)i,  ii,  i;  Geraara, 
iU<tl6B,b;  iiaimaniiet, lad  ffa-CIUaaiamlciolATe. 
j]AiJa,viii,ll,13',  mmp.  irim.iii,l-7i  TiLi,l-9).  As 
the  legate  of  the  people,  the  most  aacred  porUons  of  the 
liturgy  (e.  g.  15W,  O^Sns  ro~3,  nOTip,  Clp). 
which  could  only  be  offered  up  in  the  preaence  of  the 
legal  number,  were  aasigned  to  him  {Brrakoth,  21  b, 
and  Baahi,  ad  loc,),  and  he  waa  not  only  Cbe  mouth- 
piece of  Chose  who  were  preaent  in  the  congregatioa  on 
Che  most  solemn  feasts,  aa  on  the  Gnat  Day  of  Atone- 
ment and  New  Year,  but  he  was  the  surrogate  of  those 
who,  by  illneas  or  otherwise,  were  prevented  from  at- 
tending the  place  of  worafaip  (AoiA  HaShanaii,  S5 ;  Hai- 
monidea,  lad  l/a-Chaaka  JlilcAoth  Tephilu,  viii,  10). 

4.  Tk»  InltrpitUr,  or  MeAurgtmSn  (yiVVlPi, 
llSl^^np). — After  Che  Babylonian  captivitv,  when  the 
Hebrew  language  was  rapidly  disappearing  from  among 
the  common  people,  it  t«came  the  custom  to  have  an 
iDlerprelet  at  the  readingnlesk  (na^3)  by  the  aide  of 
those  who  were  allematcly  called  up  to  read  the  aev- 
eral  aections  of  the  lessons  from  the  taw  and  the  proph- 
eca.  See  Hai-iitar*h.  This  mtthurgrfimn  had  to  in- 
terpret into  Chaldee  or  into  any  other  vernacular  of  the 
counWy  a  verse  at  a  lime  when  the  leason  from  the  bw 
waa  read,  as  the  reader  waa  obliged 


o  begin 


ling  of  a  verse  in  Ilebrei 


«  mtlhurgr- 
inteipreted 


BUM  bad  traiislated 
prophets  three  verses  were  read  an 
lime  (Mishna,  Mr,jiUah,i\;  A).  The  reaiier  ana  tne  in- 
terpreter had  to  rea'l  in  the  same  tone  of  voice,  and  Ihe 
one  was  nut  illovied  to  be  louder  than  Ihe  other  (Brra- 
liolA,i6  a).  The  interpreter  was  not  allowed  Co  look 
at  Ihe  law  while  interpreting,  lest  it  should  be  thought 
that  the  paraphrase  waa  wrilten  down.  The  ofGce  of 
interpreter,  like  that  of  conducting  public  worship,  waa 
not  permanently  vested  iu  any  single  individual.  Any 
one  of  tbe  congregation  who  was  capable  of  interpret- 
ing was  asked  to  do  so.  Even  a  minor,  L  e.  one  under 
thirteen  years  of  age,  or  one  whoae  garmenu  were  in 
■uch  a  ragged  oondition  that  he  waa  diaquslilicd  for 
reading  the  lesson  from  the  law,  or  a  blind  man.  could 
be  asked  to  gn  up  to  the  reading-desk  and  explain  the 
leason  (Mishiia,  MrgiUai,  iv,  b ;  Maimonides,  lad  lla- 
Chizalca  Hilfkotk  Tephila,  xii,  10-14). 

6.  TAe    ChmtoH,  or   AltrnJaal   on  tie  Sjfunijruriit 
(DCSsn  IJn  — unip(r^),  wu  th«  lowest  servant,  and 


nore  like  the  seiCon  or  the  beadle  in  our  ehurchtk 
ad  the  care  of  the  furniture,  to  open  Che  doon,  is 
clean  the  synagogue,  to  light  the  lamps,  to  get  tbe 
building  ready  for  aerrice,  to  aumtnon  the  people  Co 
worahip,  to  call  out  (11137'*)  the  naioes  of  tocb  penns 
as  were  selected  by  the  ruler  of  the  aynagogue  to  CM>e 
up  to  tbe  platform  to  read  a  aeccion  frvm  the  law  aad 
the  prophets,  to  hand  cbe  law  Co  ordinary  readers,  ot  to 
the  mler  of  Che  aynagogue  when  it  had  to  he  giroi  is 
the  high-priest,  in  which  case  the  apxunivtrfttytf  look 
the  law  from  llie  chaiaii,  gave  it  To  Ihe  chief  piieM, 
who  handed  it  to  the  high-prieat  (Uiahna,  I'dhui,  liii, 
1 ;  SolaA,  vii,  7) ;  he  had  to  uke  it  back  after  reading 
(Luke  iv,  17-20),  etc  Nothing,  thenfore,  can  be  mote 
clear  than  the  poaitioii  which  this  menial  servant  occd- 
pied  in  the  aynagogue  in  Ihe  time  of  Christ  and  a  few 
cenluriea  after.  The  Talmud  distinctly  dedana  that 
the  cAaioR  is  the  beadle  or  the  aeiton  of  the  congrtga- 
cion,  and  not  the  legate  or  the  angel  of  the  chudi 
(-iiax  mio  u^xi  snpn  ic  obo  ain  yn;  coop. 
Totiphla  Yoma,  68  b ;  and  Hiabna.  BeraiolJt,  vii,  I,  kr 
the  meaning  of  DSSJ).  The  notion  that  bis  office  le- 
aembled  ^lat  "of  Ihe  Christian  deacon,"  as  well  aa  tbe 
Bsaertion  that,  "like  the  Irgalat  and  the  rMrri,  he  wsi 
appointed  by  the  imposition  of  hamla,"  has  evidently 
arisen  from  a  cnnfuNon  of  Ibe  cAaioa  in  Che  days  tk 
Christ  with  Che  datan  five  centuries  after  Christ.  Br- 
aides,  not  only  waa  thia  menial  serviul  not  appointed 
by  the  imposition  of  hands,  but  the  Irgalut  hlmseir,  si 
we  have  seen,  had  no  laying-on  of  hands.  It  was  abooc 
A.D.  &20,  when  the  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language 
disappearetl  from  among  the  people  at  large,  that  alirr- 
ations  had  to  be  introduced  into  the  synagngical  serrice 
which  involved  a  change  in  the  oBice  of  the  cAoiin. 
As  the  ancient  practice  of  asking  any  member  to  step 
before  the  ark  and  conduct  the  divine  service  could  nvt 
be  continued,  it  waa  determined  that  the  ehautn,  wbo 
wasgtnerally  alao  the  schoolmaster  of  Cbe  infsnt  schDol. 
should  be  the  regular  reader  of  Che  liturg\-,  which  be 
had  to  recite  .with  intonation  {^Mattcktlh  Sopkrrim,  i. 
1;  ii,4;  iiv,9,l4i  GAa,Gm*.der  JaJm,y.i6y. 

6.  Tie  Ten  BaUanin,  or  Men  af  Lrimrt  (yAM). 
— No  place  waa  denominated  a  town,  and  henoc  no  syn- 
agogue could  legally  be  built  in  it,  which  had  not  ten  in- 
dependent men  who  could  be  peimarenlly  iu  the  syna- 
gogue to  constitute  the  legal  congregation  whenever 
required  (Mishna,A/ir^'ttaA.i,S  J  Uaimonidea,;<i<f /fn- 
CAeauta /fticAofA  TVpAiiu.  xi,  1).  These  men  of  leiun 
were  either  independent  of  business  because  ihey  bad 
private  meana,  or  were  atipeniiiaries  of  Ihe  congi^n- 
tion,  if  tbe  place  had  not  ten  men  who  could  enctrciy 
devote  themselves  to  this  purpose  (Uashi,  On  Mryiltali, 
S  a).  They  had  to  be  men  of  pieiv  and  iuipgrity  {Boba 
Balhra,  !8  a;  Jerusalem  MrpUui,),  4).  By  some  (Lighi- 
foot,  Hor.  Ileb.  h  Malt.  i>,  28,  anil,  in  part, Vii ringa.  (L 
632)  Ibey  have  been  identifled  wilh  ihe  above  o^ials, 
with  the  addition  of  tbe  alnuHnlleclon.  Kbenlod, 
however  (Ugolino,  Tieianr.  vol.  xii),  aeea  in  them  udi- 
ply  a  body  of  men,  permanently  on  duly,  making  np  a 
congregation  (len  being  Ibe  minimum  number),  so  dial 
there  might  be  no  deUy  in  beginning  Ihe  service  at  the 
proper  houra,  and  that  no  single  worshipper  might  go 
away  dissppoinled.  The  latCer  hypothesis  is  sopponed 
by  Che  fact  that  there  was  a  like  body  of  men,  tbe  S)s- 
tionarii  or  Viri  Stalioiiia  of  Jewish  archieologista.  ap- 
pointed to  act  as  permanent  representatives  of  the  con- 
gregation in  the  seri'ices  of  tbe  Temple  (.lost,  Gevk 
da  Jtidtnlh.  i,  168-172).  Ic  is  of  course  possible  that  in 
many  esses  the  same  persons  may  have  united  bnih 
characters,  and  been,  e.  g„  at  once  oHoti  and  alma-cnl- 
lecCors.  In  the  Middle  Ages  these  ten  Balhntin  ron- 
siered  of  thone  who  discharged  the  public  duties  of  che 
synagogue,  and  were  identical  with  Ihe  luleis  of  ihe 
synagogue  described  sbovp.  Thus  Benjamin  of  Tndela 
UUs  us  that  the  ten  presidents  of  Ihe  ten  coUtgn  at 


SYNAGOGUE  7 

B«(U  wtn  "  called  the  Ballamn,  lie  kiiurt  men,  be- 
otiM  ilwir  uccupitiun  coiisisied  in  the  dLacharge  or 
pUlif  iHuiiKH.     During  every  daf  at  [he  week  they 
ilk{m*c<l  jiuticc  lu  mil  the  Jewiah  inhtbilanls  of  [' 
dJUiiiiT,  txce)>t  on  Uonilav,  which  was  act  aude  fur  i 
■cuibliRi  uDiIfT  the  pmidency  of  K.  Samuel,  muter 
[h(  eoll^e  dtnoniinated  'Coimyacvi,' who  on  Ihitd 
diipciHeit  jiuiicc  to  eytry  applicant,  and  wbo.wis  i 
Hied  therein  by  the  aaid  ten  Ballanin,  preaidenta 
tbe  eoUtgra"  {llii-irarr,  i,  101,  ed.  Asclier,  Lond.  1840). 
Thit  K«nH  tu  favor  the  opinion  of  Henfeld  tha 
iiD  Bailmhi  are  tbe  aame  $a  the  ten  Judges  or  i 
dT  the  ■j'DaRngue  nKntianed  in  Aiolh,  iii,  10,  acco^!i^g 
ni  the  reading  of  Bartenota(//oruyufi,  3  b,fio,i  c 
GiK*.  dri  VoUtt  Itraet,  i,  392). 

V.  Wmthip^l.  lU  r.«».-As  the  Bible  prescribes 
at  ipecial  hour  fur  worship,  but  simply  leconls  that  the 
Pialnisi  praveO  three  limes  ■  day  (Psl  Iv,  18),  and 
that  Daniel  followed  the  aame  eumple  {Dan.  vii,  11), 
the  Den  of  the  Great  Syiiapneue  decteed  thai  tbe  wor- 
ihip  of  the  arnagii^e  should  correspond  to  that  of  tha 
Ti>  tbia  end  they  ordained  that  every  Iinel- 


SYNAGOGUE 


CrealM  at  ataleil 

■oming  <,n'<'^ns]  at  tbe  tbiidfaour— 9  A.M.,  being  tbe 
line  Hhen  the  daily  mominKsairifice  was  offered;  (b)  ' 
the  irienuoo  or  evening  {nnli:)  at  the  ninth  hour  ai 
a  hiir=3  SO  P.M.,  when  the  daily  evening  aacrifice  was 
(dined;  and  (c)  in  the  erening  (3'<'^713),  or  fram  tbe 
time  that  tbe  piecea  and  the  fat  of  tbe  sacriAces, 
Mood  was  sprinkled  before  sunset,  began  to  be  burned 
lit!  Ihit  proccaa  of  Iiuming  was  flniahed.  As  this  ptoc- 
«■  of  baminf,  however,  sornelimei  lasted  nearly  all 
nifbt,  the  third  prayer  eoulil  be  offered  at  any  time  be- 
tnen  dark  and  dawn  (Uishno,  Btraliolh,  iv,  1;  Ge- 
mirs,  ihiJ.  i&  b;  Ptiachim,  68  a;  Jerusalem  Beraholh, 
tr,  1:  JoKphua,  .4n/.  xiv,  4,  a>     It  is  tbia  fixeil 


ta  fur  the  diiciples'  as 


mhling 
logMher  at  the  third  hour  of  tbe  day  (i,  e,  9  A.M.)  for 
aiimiing  pTa;-eT  (fi'^nna)  on  the  Day  of  renlecoal 
lAcli  ii,  l-ia),and  for  PctCT  and  John's  going  up  to  the 
Tnnplt  at  the  ninth  hour  (L  e.  3  P.M.) for  (S^^SO)  even- 
'ag  pnrer  (Acta  iii,  I),  as  well  as  for  ComeliuB'a  prayer  at 
tbe  same  hour  (v,  30).  The  atatemcnt  in  Acta  t,  9, 
that  Feler  weot  up  npon  the  house-tup  to  prav  abiMit 
lbs  ilxlh  hour  (=12  M.),  has  led  some  of  ™r  ' 
•ipaitots  lo  believe  ihat  the  honr  mentioned  li 
II  sDd  x,SO  is  the  time  when  Ike  fhird  pnytT  vm 
kni.  Tbe  two  pasaagea,  however,  and  the  two 
ftnat  hours  refer  to  one  and  the  same  prarer,  as  may 
tt  seta  from  the  following  cannni  "We  have  already 
staled  that  the  liioe  fur  tbe  erening  prai'er  (hnsi:)  was 
liid  according  lo  (hat  of  the  daily  evening  sacrifice, 
sad  HDce  this  daily  cvenini;  sacriHee  was  uffi^red  at  tbe 
Bialh  hour  ami  a  half  (  =  3.30  P.M.),  the  lime  of  prayer 
■OS  also  fixed  for  the  ninth  hour  and  ■  half  (=3J0 
rJI.),  and  this  was  called  (he  U-tr  Uimliah  (nni13 
TCwp).  But  as  the  daily  evening  sacrifice  was  offered 
OS  the  burteenlh  of  Niun  (nOB  S.-iS)  al 
bm  and  a  half  (  =  U' JO  P.M.),  when  this  day  hap- 
pHKdtobeona'Fiiila)- (rSS  31?)  I»*e  Passo1-br], 
It  was  enacted  that  he  who  offers  his  evening  prayer  af- 
IB  tbe  sixth  hour  and  a  half  (  =  1330  P.M.)  discharges 
bis  duly  pn^wrly.  Ilcnce,  as  anon  as  tbia  hour  arrives 
■he  tinH  of  obligation  has  come,  and  it  is  called  th( 
';"alirnr*aA''(n^1-13  nrqTS;  Hainunides.  lad  lla- 
anaianildMkTtflulii,Vu,i,Brrahotli,i6b).  This 
■iualie  is  all  the  more  to  be  regretted,  since 
ran  ia  such  minute  matters  on  the  part  of  the  aacreil 
wiilen  shows  how  great  ii  the  tnntworlhincss  of  theii 
Nnml^  and  how  doaely  and  strictly  the  apostles  eon- 
tfutd  10  Ibe  Jewish  praetieea.  The  prayers  tbret 
limes  a  day  wets  not  abaolalely  required  la  be  offered 


.  le  week,  when 

le  villagers  brought  their  produce  into  the  neighbor- 
g  tuwn  and  their  matters  of  dispute  before  the  local 
Sanhedrim,  which  held  its  court  in  Ibe  synagogue 
(Jerusalem  MrgtUiik,  r,  1 ;  Baba  Kama,  33  a),  aiul  on 
Jewsrasled(Markii,18;  LukcT.SSi 
x,BO);  (b)  the  weekly  Sabbath;  and 
(c)  feasts  and  foals.     But  though  not  obligatoiv,  yet 
deemed  specially  accfpiable  if  the  prayers  were 
.  even  privately  in  the  synagogue,  since  it  was 
inferred  from  MaL  iii,  IS  that  theSbecbinahis  preacnt 
here  two  or  three  are  gathered  together. 
S.  Tie  Lfgal  Congrrgarion. — Though  it  was  the  duty 
everi'  Israelite  to  pray  privately  three  times  a  day, 
^t,  as  wfl  have  already  seen,  it  was  only  on  stated  oc- 
ainna  Ibat  the  people  assembled  fur  public  woiahip  in 
e  legally  eonalitiited  congregation,  and  recited  those 
portions  of  the  liturgy  which  could  not  be  uttered  in 
private  devotion.     Ten  men,  at  least,  who  had  passed 
the  thirteenth  year  of  their  age  (niXQ  'Z)  were  re- 
quired to  constitute  a  legitimate  congregaiion  (-,"•«) 
for  the  performance  of  public  worabip.     Tbia  number, 
wbicb  evidently  owes  its  origin  to  the  compteteness  of 
the  ten  digits,  is  deduced  from  the  e.ipression  h*T7  in 
Numb,  xiv,  37,  where  it  is  said  "  huw  long  shall  I  bear 
with  tbia  (inlS)  oo^^n^ltonf''  referring  to  the  ipiea, 
AaJoshus  and  Caleb  are  lo  be  deducted  from  tbe  twelve, 
hence  the  an>ellation  congregation  remains  for  tbe  ten, 
and  this  number  is  therefore  regarded  aa  forming  tbe 
legal  quorum  (Mishna,£iinj«jrim,i,6j  Haimonides, /ad 
Ua-Ckezaka  IJUcholk  TtjAila,  xi,  1).    "Tbe  Shtma 
(7113)  must  not  be  solemnly  recited,  nor  must  one  go 
before  the  arfc  to  conduct  public  warship,  nar  must  the 
priests  raise  tbeir  bands  to  pronounce  Ihe  benediction, 
nor  must  the  leaaona  from  the  law  or  the  prophets  be 
read  . . .  unless  there  are  ten  persons  present"  (Miahna, 
Mrsillah,  iv,  3). 

3.  fiidinL— The  moat  important  features  in  tbe  insti- 
tutions of  tbe  svnagngue  are  the  liitiy^,  Ihe  reading  of 
the  Uw  and  Che  prophcls,  and  the  homilies.  To  know 
the  exact  words  of  the  prayers  which  our  Saviour  and 
hia  apostles  recited  when  Ihey  frequented  Ihe  syna- 
gogue ia  lo  us  of  tbe  utnwst  inlerest.  Tliac  the  Jews 
in  the  time  ofChriit  had  a  liturgical  service  is  certain; 
but  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  present  liturgy  of  the 
synagogue  embodies  a  large  admixture  of  prayers  which 
were  compiled  afler  tbe  destruction  of  the  second  Tem- 
ple. Though  the  poetic  genius  of  the  psalmists  had 
vanished  and  Iba  Temple  music  was  bushed,  yet  nu- 
meroua  fervent  and  devout  spirits  were  slill  unquench- 
ed  in  Israel.  These  earnest  spirila  made  themselves 
audible  in  the  aynag<^ue  in  most  devout  and  touching 
prayers,  embodying  Ihe  new  anxieties,  tbe  novel  modes 
of  perscculion  and  oppr»«on  which  Ihe  Jewa  bad  to 
endure  from  the  children  of  Christiaiiily — Ihe  religion 
newly  bom  and  brougbitipin  Ihe  lap  of  Judaism— who 
deemed  it  their  sacred  duly  lo  heap  unparalleled  Buffer- 
ings upon  ibeir  elder  brothers.  These  pra)-ers,  farmed 
after  tbe  model  of  the  I'salma,  not  only  ask  Ibe  God  of 
Israel  to  pily  the  •u(Ierers,togive  them  patience  to  en- 
dure, and  in  his  own  time  to  confound  tbeir  enemies 
and  free  them  from  all  their  troubles,  but  embody  the 
teachings  of  the  sages  and  the  senlimeiils  propounded 
by  the  Haggadists  in  Ihe  Sabbatic  homilies.  Hence,  in 
describing  the  ritual  of  ihe  synagogue,  it  is  most  essen- 
tial 10  separate  the  later  element  from  tbe  eariier  por- 
tions. As  il  is  beyond  the  limits  of  this  article  to  trace 
the  rise,  progress,  and  development  of  all  the  component 
parts  of  the  liturgy  in  its  present  order,  we  shall  simply 
detail  ihnse  portions  which  are,  undoubtedly,  the  an- 
cient nucleus,  which,  beyond  a  question,  were  use<l  by 
our  Savionr  and  his  disciples,  and  amund  which  Ibe 
new  pieces  were  grouped  in  Ihe  course  of  lime. 


SYNAGOGUE  7 

(1.)  Tht  Hfimal  Group  (ni-i''«T  ipTOBj.^uW  u 
the  Temple  building  wu  the  pnttotyps  for  Ihe  ayiii. 
gugue  eilifioe,  so  the  Tem^Je  wn-ice  wm  the  model  fut 
the  ritual  of  [tie  ayiiagogue.  Henc«,jii«t  u  the  Temple 
■errice  conniued  uf  the  prieali'  reciting  the  te)i  com- 
Runtlmeiiu,  pmnuunciiig  the  beneJicUna  upon  the  peo- 
ple (Numb,  vi, 24-27),  the  ufTering  oT  the  iinWy  nwruiiig 
aod  evening  ucriAce,  I  he  Levi  tei' chanting  1'aa.cxv,  1- 
16 1  1  Chroa.  xvi,8-33  (>nvi)  during  the  morning  aao 
riflce,  and  I**!!,  cxvi ;  1  Chron.  xvi,  -23-36  (^"^^C)  dur- 
ing the  evening  snciilke,  ao  the  riliuil  of  the  aynagi^ue 
cuusiated  of  ibe  same  benediclkm,  the  chanting  of  the 
ucrilid*!  psalms — aa  the  lacriScCS  themselves  could 
niK  be  oSeced  except  in  the  Temple — and  aiindr}'  »ddi- 
tiona  made  by  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Syii*- 
gopie*  It  is  for  this  resaoD  that  the  ritual  began  with 
the  Temple  psahna.    These  were  fulluwed  by  the  gruup 

xxxui,  xcii],  Kciij,  cilv-ci — those  encloaed  in  bnckels 
lidng  omitted  on  (he  Sahbalh— 1  Chron.  xxix,  10-13; 
Neh.  a,  6-12i  Esod.  xiv,  SO-xt,  IB,  and  sundry  sen- 
lencea  not  found  in  the  Bible,  (lenuminateil  the  onlei  of 
the  ItjimaalSfelrtittmt^miiaealptriodiJ'  1'he  use  of 
ihia  hymnal  group  as  part  of  both  the  Temple  and  the 
aynigogue  service  ia  uf  great  antiquity,  as  is  attested 
by  the  Sfder  Olum,  xiv,  and  HaKrhtlk  Sophtrini  aee 
also  Siibbalh,  118  b,  where  we  are  l(dd  that  '.1in  was 
ordained   by  David,  and   I'XiD  by  the  Sophtrini,  or 

(2.)  Tie  Shema,  or  Ktriath  Siema  (I^d  PXi-lp). 
— This  celebrated  part  of  the  service  was  precedeil 
by  two  beneiliclions,  respectively  denominaled  "(Ar 
Creator  of  IJgUT  (11!*  iXli )  and  "Grral  Love" 
(pSI  nsnst),  ant!  rolloweil  by  oua  called  "  Tmlk" 
(tl'SX,  now  expanded  into  5->S">l  nsX).  The  two  io- 
Iroducloty  bcnedictioDi  were  fa  fullowg:  (a.)  "Blessed 
art  thou.  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who 
creamt  li^l't  and  formest  darkness,  who  makeat  peace 
and  crentest  all  tbings[  He  In  mercy  causes  the  light 
tn  shine  upon  ilie  eailh  and  the  inhabitants  thereof, 
and  ill  gnudneu  rciKwsereiy  day  (he  work  of  creation. 
Ulesscil  art  thou,  the  Crealorof  light  T'  (6.) "  With  great 
lix'e  bast  thou  luved  ua,  O  Lord  our  <iod;  thou  hast 
shown  IIS  great  and  abundant  mercy,  O  unr  Father  and 
King,  for  the  sake  i>(  our  forefathers  who  trusted  in 
thee!  Thou  who  didst  teach  them  the  love  of  Ule, 
have  mercy  upon  us,  and  teach  us  also ...  to  prstse 
and  to  acknowledge  thy  unity  in  love.  Blessed  art 
thou,  O  Lord,  who  in  love  hist  chosen  ihy  people!" 
(MiabiiB,  7'uNBiJ,  T,  I;  Btraimk,  II  b).  Thereupon 
■he  ten  commandmenls  were  recited,  which,  however, 
ceased  at  a  very  early  period,  because  the  Sidducees 
declared  that  this  was  done  lo  show  that  this  was  the 
must  essential  portion  of  the  revealed  law  (Mishna, 
Taimd,  V,  1,  with  Btrakolh,  U  b).  Then  cams  the 
Shrma  proper,  conaisliiig  of  Dent,  vi,  4-9;  xi,  IS-Sl ; 
Numb.  XV,  S7-41 :  which  wn>  concluded  with  henedic- 
lioii  (e),  entitled  '■  True  ami  tMiibHthed"  (3"r*1  nSS), 
as  fidlows:  "It  is  true  andlimily  establisheil  that  thou 
art  the  I^ird  our  Goil  and  the  (lixt  of  our  forefithers; 
then  is  no  God  besides  thee.  Blened  art  thou,  O  Lord, 
the  redeemer  of  Israel!"  (Mishiis,  Btralmlh,  i,  4;  (;e- 
mars,  sK'.  13  a;  Mishna,  Tanid,  v,  1 ;  tiemara,  ibid. 
32  b).  There  is  evidently  an  allusion  to  the  reading 
of  the  Skrma  in  the  reply  which  our  Saviour  ga 
the  lawyer  who  asked  him,  "Master,  what  must 
to  inherit  eternal  lifeT  when  the  lawyer  forthwit 
cited  the  Rest  sentence  of  the  Skemi  (Luke  i,  36). 

(3.)  The  third  portion  which  constituted  the  ancient 
liturgy  embraces  the  "Kighlm'  Benedidiimi  {TKVSO 

n-icr),c«iioi!,«oj-'i*5.K(„v,rie/'™yf.-  (nisnj.  ti 
ai«  asfullows :  a.  (~1-n)  "Blesseil  art  thou,  0  Lonl 


SYNAGOGUE 


Ood,  the  God  of  our  fathera  Al 
great,  ooinipotcnl,  fearful,  and  must  high  Uikd,  wl 
bountifully  showest  nsercy,  who  an  the  possessor  of  * 
things,  who  rememtMiest  the  pious  deeds  of  our  fathpi 
oiHt  sendest  the  Kedeemer  to  their  children's  childrp 
For  his  mercy's  sake  is  lore,  O  our  King,  Defender,  Sa ' 
iour,  and  Shield!  blcasecl  art  thou,  O  Lonl,  tbe  sbiel 
of  Abraliam !"  ft.  (-112S  nnx)  "  Thou  art  powerful,  ■ 
Uinl,  worlil  without  end;  thou  bringcst  the  dead  i 
life  in  great  compassiun,  thou  huldcsl  op  the  fallini 
healesi  the  sick,  loosest  the  chained,  and  showest  th 
riiihfulness  to  those  that  steep  in  the  dust.  Wbo 
like  unto  thee,  bird  of  migbl,  and  who  resemblea  ttif 
(a  Sovereign  killing  and  bringing  to  life  again,  an 
cau^iig  salvation  to  flourish)?  And  thou  an  sure  t 
raise  tlie dead.  lUesseil  art  than,  0  Lord, who  raisest  th 
dead!"  c.  (Cilip  Hrx)  "Thou  sit  holy, and  thy  nam 
is  holy,  and  the  holy  ones  praise  thee  everr  day  con 
linuolly.  Blessed  on  thou,  O  Lord,  the  holy  God  ! 
J.  (V^n  nnx)  "Thou  mercifully  bestowen  knowle<lt; 
upon  men  and  teachesl  the  mortal  prudence.  Hen.-j 
fully  bestow  upon  us,  from  thyself,  knowledge,  wtudinr 
and  understanding.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lonl,  wh 
mercifully  bestowcst  knowledge!"  e.  (^VZ^'^ST^)  "On 
Fsther,  lead  iis  bach  to  thy  law ;  bring  us  very  near.  ( 
our  King,  to  thy  service,  and  cause  us  to  return  in  sin 
cere  peiiitente  into  thy  presence!  Blessed  art  Ihou.  ( 
Ijord,  who  delightest  in  repentance!"  /.  (H^S)  "Ou 
Father,  forgive  us,  for  we  have  sinned;  our  King,  par 
don  us,  for  we  hive  transgressed;  for  thou  art  forgivini 
and  pardoning.  Blessed  art  tbou,  O  Lord,  merciful  aiii 
plenteous  in  forgiveness!"    g.  (riSO)"Look  at  onr  mi» 

name's  sake,  fur  thou  art  a  mighty  deliverer.  IUess«( 
art  thou,  O  Lord,  the  delii-erer  of  Israel!"  *.  (IIJtEi; 
"Heal  ua.OLord,  and  we  shall  be  healed;  save  us,  ant 
we  shall  be  saved;  for  thnu  art  onr  boast.  Grant  us  i 
perfect  Cure  for  all  our  wnumls;  for  thou,  O  Lord  oi>i 
King,  art  a  faithful  and  merciful  Thysician.  Blesivi 
art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  healest  the  sick  of  Ihy  people  Is- 
rael!" I  (irbs  1"3)  "  Dless  to  u^  O  Lord  our  God. 
fur  good  this  year,  and  all  its  kinds  of  produce;  sctkI 
Ihy  blesstiig  upon  the  face  nf  the  earth;  satisfy  ns  witli 
Ihy  goodnens,  and  hiess  this  year  as  the  years  bygnne. 
Blesscdart  thou,0  LnnI,  who  blesscst  the  seasons!"  j. 
(rp~)  "Csnse  the  great  trumpet  to  proclaim  onr  liberty  i 
raise  tbe  standard  for  the  gslheiiiig  of  our  captives,  ami 
bring  us  logelher  from  the  four  comers  of  the  eanh. 
Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  wlio  gslhcrest  ti^ther  the 
dispersed  of  Israel !"  *.  (na^on) "  Reiustate  our  judgca 
as  of  old,  and  our  councillors  as  of  yore;  remove  from  in 
sorrow  and  sighing;  and  du  thou  alone,  O  Lord,  reign 
over  us  in  mercy  and  love,  and  Judge  us  in  righienus- 
ness  and  justice.  Blessed  art  tbou,  O  Lord  the  King, 
who  Invest  righteousnessand  justice!"  /.  (0^:^C^i:Vl) 
"Let  the  apostates  hsve  no  hope,  and  let  those  who  per- 
petrslewickedness  speedily  perish;  let  them  all  be  siul- 
denly  cut  off:  let  the  proud  speedily  be  uprooleil,  broken, 
crushed,  and  humbled  speedily  in  our  days.  Bleswil 
art  thou,  O  Lonl,  who  breakest  down  the  enemy  ami 
humblest  the  prood!"  m.  (O^p^isn  br)  "On  ihe 
righteous,  on  the  pious,  on  the  elders  of  thy  people,  the 
house  of  Israel,  on  the  remnant  of  the  scribes,  on  the 
pious  proselytes,  and  on  ll^  bestow,  0  Lord  our  God. 
thy  ntercy;  give  ample  reward  io  all  who  trust  in  thy 
name  in  sincerity,  make  unr  portion  with  them  forever, 
attdlel  us  not  be  ashamed, fur  we  trust  in  thee!  Bless- 
ed an  thou,  O  Lord,  the  support  ami  lefuge  of  the  right- 
eous!" a.  (Cioil-il)  "To  JarussUm  thy  city  in  mer- 
cy return,  and  dwell  in  it  according  to  thy  promise; 
make  it  speedily  in  our  day  an  eveilasting  building, 
and  aoon  establish  therein  the  throne  of  David.    DIess- 


SYNAGOGUE 


(d(nihoa,OLo(d,  whobnitttnt  JMnulHiir  n'.  (PK 
m3)"Tht  branch  of  D«vicl,tliT»rTsn[,sp«dilyc«u»e 
u6uunih.  iiid  eiall  hii  hani  with  Ihy  help,  Tur  we 
loik  III  Ihv  help  ill  day.  Itlcncd  irt  iliuu,  O  L»nl, 
■iKuiantiallouriahchBhuiiiorDavidr  c  (;G'J 
i:ii''p]-U(ar  OUT  vc)icF,0  Lord  our  Uvdi  bare  piCy  and 
CMipiaiian  oa  lu,  and  receiie  with  mercy  «nd  ttccept- 
tKt  our  pn)-«n,  fur  Lhnu  art  a  tiud  hearing  pray CT  anil 
HppbcitiDDi.  Out  King,  do  not  send  lU  empty  away 
bm  ibT  pmence,  for  thou  hfareM  the  prayers  of  ttiy 
ptufik  IbhJ  id  mercy!  Blened  art  thou,0  Lord,  who 
iwimlpnyer!"  ji.  (rtXi)  "Be  favoraUcO  Lord  our 
iM,  to  itiy  ptople  Israil,  and  to  their  prayer;  restore 
i^  wsrsbip  to  thy  uncluary,  receive  luviiigly  [)ie 
bunil-Hcnrice  or  brael  anil  their  prayer,  and  let  the 
httIh  or  [arael  thy  people  be  alway*  well-pleastng  to 
diet  JI»y  out  eye*  «ee  thee  return  to  Zion  in  love. 
Ble«ed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  testoreat  thy  Shechinah 
uZiMir  y.  (D-'TO)  "We  tbankf.iUy  confeM  before 
ib«  tbat  tbou  art  the  Lord  our  tiod,  and  the  God  of 
•nr  Cuben,  worid  without  end,  and  that  thou  art  the 
itwplwid  of  oar  life  and  the  rock  ufour  aalvatiun  from 
gRwoiion  lo  generation;  we  Tender  tbankH  unto  thee 
•ad  crictnte  thy  praiees.  Blened  ait  thou,  O  Lord, 
whise  DUDe  ia  {(oodneea,  and  whom  it  becomea  to 
pniit''  r.  (Wi'S  B^3)  "Beatow  peace,  happi new, 
U(i>iii>f,  grace,  merer,  and  eompauion  upon  ui  ami 
opcui  lb*  whole  nflwael,  thy  people.  Out  Father,  Ucm 
u  aU  unitedly  with  the  liRht  of  thy  countenance,  fur 

I)  Laid  our  God,  tbe  lawnflife,  laving-kindneH,juMice, 
bloaiiig,  compaKiion,  life,  and  peace.  May  it  pleaw 
lit*  U  Men  thy  people  Israel  at  all  time*,  and  in  ev- 
ery nwraent,  witb  peace.     Bleated  art  thou,  O  Lord, 

■bo  bItscM  thy  people  Israel  with  peace '." 

Tboe  eighteen  (really  nineteen)  benedictions  are  mrn- 
liaDedinlbeMishna,/i^i//a-5A(uaA,iv:£(r<KtorA,ir, 
l-.Taiipila  BmitoH.iii:  IfnuMlfm  BrrahUh.ii;  He- 
f*!*.  17  a.  We  are  distinctly  told  that  they  were  or- 
dd  Bed  by  the  one  bund  red  and  twenty  elders  of  the  Great 
ixtagBgae  iUtgiliai,  n  b  i  AeniinrA,  33  a  i  SipAi-e  on 


SYNAGOGUE 


DhI.!, 


ii.2),a 


gf  tbe  people  fl«:;a  ^eSX)  recited  them  in  IheTem)^ 
riBT  day  (£aUarA,  24  b),  that  the  piieiti  ptoDOuneeil 
(bnt  of  them  upon  the  people  every  raofiiiiig  in  tbe 
BaatfSftartM  (rr<Mn  fiSOb)  iti  the  Tern ple-conrt, 
•nil  that  tbe  high-priest  prayed  the  tixteenlh  (nx'^) 
Bxltbe  iti-enteenlh  (C-nO)  eecliana  of  this  litany  on 
(H  Great  Day  of  Atunement  (roiaa,68  h).  There  can 
ibHtfon  be  iMi  doubt  thai  our  Saviour  and  his  apoatlea 
joonl  id  Lheae  prayen  when  they  retorted  lo  the  ayn- 
tVpf,  and  ihai  when  the  apostles  went  on  the  top  of 
iktbouae  to  pray  Bl  the  stated  hour  (Acts  i,  13;  x,9) 
ibeac  benedictions  formed  part  of  their  devotions.  It 
DDM,t»weTer,  be  remarked  tbst  the  Hnt  three  and  the 
1m  tbree  benedictions  are  tbe  oldest ;  that  benedictions 
^  to  w  were  compiled  during  the  Maccabnan  strugfiles 
ai  tbe  Koman  aacendeocy  in  Palealine;  and  benedjc- 
<)«  I  wu  most  probably  compiled  after  the  destrucliDn 
rftbesrcood  Temple. 

But  thouRb  these  three  gronpa  (  vii.  the  hymnal 
pmp,  Ihe  Sltrmui,  and  the  eighteen  benedictions)  con- 
miBled  tbe  Ulargy  of  the  Jews  when  engaged  in  pub- 
lic (T  private  deroiwo  during  the  period  cf  the  second 
TtBi^yet  there  were  other  prayers  which  cnu Id  only 
ta  miied  at  public  worship  when  tbe  legal  number 
(^ -)  wen  pmperiy  uafmbled. 

1  Tbe  ordrrof  the  public  worship  in  the  syoagogoe 
>«attJlawst 

(I.)  Jfomssjr  Strria. — The  oongr^ation  having 
■ssbcd  (heir  hand*  oatside  tbe  synagogue,  and  being 
popnly  aaacmbleil,  delegated  one  i>(  Ihcir  number  to 
p>  Wmt  ibt  ark  and  aNuluct  public  worahip.    Thia 


arm  [see  Fkixgk;  riivi.ACTEUT],  began  with  reciting 
the  Kailith  (t^^'^p),  the  people  responding  to  certain 
parts,  as  fullon-s-.  "  Eullnl  and  hallowed  be  his  great 
name  in  llie  world  which  lie  create<l  according  to  his 
will ;  let  his  kingdom  come  in  your  lifetime  and  in  the 
lifetime  of  (he  whole  house  of  Israel  very  speedily. 
[Legate  and  congregaliiin]  Amen.  BJesscrl  be  his  great 
name,  world  without  end.  [Legate  ilune]  Blesseil  and 
praised,  celebrated  and  exalted,  extolled  and  adnmed. 
magniried  and  worshipped,  be  Ihy  holy  name;  blessed 
be  he  far  above  all  benedictions,  hymns,  thanks,  praitef, 
and  consolations  which  have  been  ultereil  in  the  world. 
[Legale  and  congregation]  Amen.  [Lfgatcnlone]  Jlay 
the  prayers  and  supplicaltonsof  all  Israel  be  graciuusly 
teceiveil  before  their  Father  in  heaven.  [Legate  and 
congregaltouj  Amen.  [Legale  alone]  Itlay  perfect  peace 
descend  from  heaven,  anrl  life  npon  us  and  all  Israel, 
[Legate  and  congregation]  Amen.  [Legale  alone]  May 
he  who  makes  peace  in  his  heaven  confer  peace  upon  us 
and  all  Israel.  [Legate  and  congregation]  Amen."  The 
similarity  between  this  verj-  ancient  Kiuluh  and  the 
1.1'nl's  Prajer  neeils  hardly  lo  be  pointed  oiii.  After  this 
the  legate  recited  in  a  lund  voice  tbe  first  sentence  of  the 
Sitnii,  the  rest  being  reciled  qniclly  by  him  and  the  con- 
gregation. Then  f^dtowed  the  eighteen  benedictions,  fur 
Ihe  third  of  which  tie  Krduiiah  (notlp)  was  aubali- 
tuted  in  public  worahip.  It  is  ss  follows:  "Hallowed 
be  thy  name  >ni  eanh  as  il  ia  hallowed  in  heaven  above. 
as  it  is  wriden  by  Ihe  pmphel,  and  one  calls  to  tbe  oth- 
er and  saya  [Congregation],  Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the 
LoninodorSebsolh;  the  whole  earth  ia  tilled  with  hii 
glory!  [Legale]  Those  who  are  n|>posile  Ihem  re- 
spond: [Congregation]  Blessedbelheglory  of  the  Eter- 
nal, each  one  in  bis  aiation.  [Legate]  And  in  thy  Holy 
Word  it  ia  written,  thus  saying:  [Congregation]  The 
Lord  shall  rmgn  forei-er,  thy  (iod.  O  Zion,  from  gener- 
ation to  generation.  Halleluiah  !  [Legale]  Prom  gen- 
eration to  generation  we  will  discloM  ihy  greatnew, 
and  for  ever  and  ever  celebrate  thy  holinen;  and  thy 
praise  shall  not  cease  in  our  mouth,  world  wiibont  end, 
Tor  thou,  O  Lord,  art  a  great  and  holy  King.  Bleaseil 
artthou,hoIyUod  and  King!"  On  Monday, Th<ir»la.v, 
Sabbatb,  feasts  an  "       ' 


and  (will 


ofM 


Thiiraday)  discourses  delivered  by  the  n 
service  concluded  with  the  priests'  pronouncing  Ihe  ben- 
ediction (Nnmb.  vi,  34-27). 

(2.)  The  Afltmooa  und  Etnag  Piaytr.—9oim  of 
the  psalms  in  the  hymna)  group  were  omillcd,  other- 
wise the  service  was  similar  to  (hat  of  the  morning. 
Tbe  public  worship  of  the  feasts  and  fsats  is  deaeribeil 
in  the  anicles  on  the  respective  festivals,  and  in  the  ar- 
ticle Haphtarah.  The  oiher  piayera  which  precede 
and  follow  the  three  ancient  gniupa  in  the  present  lit- 
urgy of  the  synagogue  aie  noi  described  in  this  article 
because  they  ate  of  hiler  origin.    See  LlTUROv, 

VL./a(fH7(af.1urAartrr._l.  As  the  officers  of  (be  syn- 
agogue were  also  the  administrators  of  justice,  the  au- 
thority which  each  assembly  possessed  exlendecl  to  both 
civil  and  religioua  question*.  The  rabbins,  or  the  heads 
of  Ihe  synagogue,  as  it  is  to  the  present  day,  were  bolh 
tbe  leachers  of  religion  and  the  judges  of  ilieir  commu- 
nitie*.  Hence  Ihe  tribunals  were  helil  in  the  syna- 
gogue (Luke  xii,  11;  xxi.  12),  and  the  cAniioii,  or 'bea- 
dle, who  attended  lo  Ihe  divine  service  bad  also  lo  a<1- 
minitler  I  he  SI  ripeslo  offenders  (ir,  17^20;  camp. Mishna, 
ilakiolh.iW.U:  and  Mall.  :c,  IT;  xxiii.M;  Hark  xiii, 
9;  Acta  xxii,  19;  xxvi,  11).  Ihe  rahbins  whn  had 
d^Jomai  from. the  Sanhedrim,  aiHl,  aAer  the  Sanhedrim 
ceaseil,  from  the  Giionim  of  the  respective  colleges  at 
Son  and  Pumbaditha  (q.  r.),  and  who  were  chosen  by 
the  diflerent  congregations  to  be  their  apirilual  bead's 
witb  the  consent  uf  the  assembly,  selected  aueh  of  Ihe 


SYNAGOGUE  8 

members  u  vare  beat  qudified  to  aid  them  in  ths  sd- 
miniitradon  of  the  communal  affairs.  These  consti- 
tuted a  local  seir-goveniing  and  iudependent  colle^ ; 
they  issued  all  Ibe  legal  tnscniments,  such  u  msirisge 
contracts,  letters  of  divorce,  bills  of  exchange,  business 
conlracCs.  receipts,  etc  Tliey  bad  the  power  of  inflicting 
corporal  punishment  on  any  oCiendcr,  or  to  put  bim  out 
of  the  synogagueC  — excommunicate)  altogether  (Matt, 
xviii,  15-17;  John  ix,  W;  iii,42;  ivi,  2).  The  pun- 
ishment of  eicomraunication,  however,  was  very  seldom 
resorted  to,  as  may  be  seen  from  Che  fact  that  though 
Christ  and  his  apostles  oppoaed  and  coatradiclcd  the 
beads  of  the  synagogue,  yet  ihey  were  not  put  out  of 
the  synagogue.  In  some  cues  they  exerciMd  the  right, 
even  outside  the  limits  of  Palestine,  of  seizing  the  per- 
sons of  the  accused  and  sending  them  in  chains  to  take 
theii  trial  before  the  Supreme  Couuci!  at  Jerusalem 
(AclsiK,2;  iKii,S). 

S.  It  is  not  quite  so  easy,  however,  to  define  the  nat- 
ure of  the  tribunal  and  the  precise  limits  of  its  jurisdic- 
tion. In  two  of  the  passaj^  tefetred  to  (Matt,  x,  17; 
Mark  xlii,  9)  they  are  carefully  disiingiiished  from  the 
avtiipio,  or  councils,  yet  both  appear  as  instruments 
by  which  the  spirit  of  religious  perMciitiun  might  fast- 
en on  its  victims.  'i'Ue  explanation  commonly  gii-en 
that  the  council  ut  in  the  syiugogue,  aiul  was  thus 
identified  with  it,  is  hardly  satisfactory  (Leyrer,  in  Her- 
log's  Reai'Eacsktop.  s.  v. "  Synedrien").  It  seems  more 
probable  that  [be  council  was  the  larger  tribunal  of 
twenty-three,  which  sat  in  every  cily  [see  Council], 
identical  with  that  of  the  seven,  with  two  Leviles  as 
assessors  to  each,  which  Jusepbus  describes  as  acting  in 
the  smaller  provincial  towns  (vl  nl.  iv,  8, 14 ;  War,  ii,  20, 
5),  and  that  under  the  term  synagogue  we  are  !«  mider- 
staud  a  smaller  court,  probably  that  of  the  ten  judges 
mentioned  in  the/ralmud  (Gem.  Hicros.  Simhedr,  loc. 
cit.),  consisting  either  oflbeelilers,  thechazzan,aiid  the 
legale,  or  otherwise  (as  Herefeld  conjectures,  i,  S92)  of 

VII.  BtiaUoiu  oftht  Jewish  Synagogue  to  Iht  Ckri$- 
lian  Church.— U  is  hanlly  pouible  to  overestimate  the 
inlluence  of  the  system  thus  developed.  I'o  it  we  may 
ascribe  the  tenacity  with  which,  after  the  Maceabiean 
Btru^le,  the  Jews  adhered  to  the  religion  of  their  fa- 
thers, and  never  again  relapsed  into  idolatry.  The  peo- 
ple were  now  in  no  danger  of  forgetting  the  law,  and 
the  eitenial  otdinaneea  that  hedged  it  round.  If  pil- 
grimages were  still  made  to  Jerusalem  at  the  great 
feasts,  the  habitual  religion  of  Che  Jews  in,  and  yet  more 
out  of,  Palestine  was  connected  much  mote  intimately 
with  the  synagogue  than  with  Che  Temple.  Its  lumple, 
edifying  devotion,  in  which  mind  and  heart  could  alike 
enter,  attracted  the  heathen  proselytes  who  might  have 
been  repelled  by  the  bhwdy  sacrifices  of  the  Temple,  or 
would  certainly  hare  been  driven  from  it  unless  they 
could  make  up  their  minds  lo  submit  lo  circumcision 
[Am  xxi,  28).  See  pKoaKLxTi:.  Here,  too,  as  in  the 
cognate  order  of  Che  scribes,  Chen  was  an  influence 
lending  to  diminish  and  ultimately  almost  to  destroy 
the  authority  of  the  hereditary  priesthood.  The  set- 
vices  of  Che  synagogue  required  no  sons  of  Aaron ;  gave 
them  nothing  mure  than  a  complimentary  precedence. 
See  pBiesT ;  SuHinE,  The  way  was  silently  prepared 
for  a  new  and  higher  onler,  which  should  rise  in  "  the 
fulness  of  time"  out  of  the  decay  and  abolition  of  both 
the  priesthood  and  the  Temple.  In  another  way,  too, 
Che  syn«g'>gue»  everywhere  prepared  the  way  for  that 
order.  Not  -  Moses"  only,  but  "the  prophets"  were  read 
in  them  every  Sabbath  day;  and  thus  the  Messianic 
hopes  of  Israel,  the  expectation  of  o  kingdom  of  heaven, 
were  universally  diffused. 

1.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  how  closely  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  synagogue  was  reproduced  in  that  of  the 
Ecclesia.  Here  also  there  was  the  single  pcesbyler- 
bishop  [see  Itisiiop]  in  small  towns,  a  council  of  pres- 
byters under  one  head  in  large  cities.  The  Ugatui  i<( 
the   synagogue  appears  in  the    ayyiXoi;  (Kev.  i.  21); 


3  SYNAGOGUE 

ii,  1),  perhaps  also  ia  the  ArovTo\o(,  of  the  ChriMiu 
Chnrcb.  To  the  elders  as  such  is  given  the  name  nf 
Shepherds  (Eph.iv,  11;  1  PeLv.l).  They  are  knows 
also  as  jiyov/tivoi  (Heb.  xlii,  7).  Even  the  ttanslec  to 
the  Christian  proselytes  of  the  once  distinctively  ucer- 
dolal  name  of  itpci'c,  foreign  aa  it  was  to  the  feelings 
of  the  Christians  of  the  apostolic  age,  was  not  without 
iia  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  synagogue.  Seer*,  the 
exorcist  Jew  of  Epheaus,  was  probably  a  "  chief  prieal' 
in  this  sense  (Acts  lix,  H).  In  (be  edicts  of  the  later 
Roman  emperors,  the  terms  apxttpii^  and  itptiic  arc 
repeatedly  applied  lo  the  rule™  of  synagogues  (Cod. 
'I'heodos.  De  Jurf^  quoted  by  Viiiinga,  Ih  Dram  Otiottt, 
in  ITgolino,  Thtt.  x\i).  Possibly,  however,  this  may 
have  been,  in  part,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  scat- 
tered priests,  after  the  deslnKtii>n  of  the  Tem|de,  u  the 
rabbins  or  elden  of  what  was  now  left  to  them  as  tbeii 
only  sanctuary.  To  them,  at  any  rate,  a  certain  prece- 
dence was  given  in  the  synagogue  services.  They  were 
invited  first  to  read  the  leawns  for  the  day.  The  bene- 
diction of  Numb,  vi,  23  was  reserved  for  them  akme. 
i.  In  Che  viagiiterial /melimt  of  the  syiiagogiie  abo 

The  InXijo-ia,  either  by  tiself  or  by  appointed  dele- 
gales,  was  to  act  as  a  court  of  arbitration  in  all  dis- 
putes among  its  membera.  The  elden  of  the  Charrh 
were  not,  however,  to  descend  lo  the  trivial  disputes  of 
daily  life  (rci  ^curicd).  Fur  these  any  toen  of  com- 
mon-sense and  fairness,  however  destitute  of  official 
honor  and  position  (u)  i^ovhivTiiiivQi),  would  be  enough 
(I  Cor.  vi,  1-8).  For  the  elders,  a>  for  those  of  the  syna- 
gogue, were  reserved  the  graver  offence*  agaiosi  relig- 
ion and  morals.  In  such  cases  Ihey  had  power  lo  ex- 
communicate, to  "put  out  of"  the  Ecclesia,  which  bid 
taken  the  place  of  Ihe  syiugogue,  aometimes  by  ihelt 
own  authority,  sometimes  with  the  consent  of  the  whole 
society  (v,4).  It  is  worth  mentioning  that  Hammond 
and  other  commentators  have  seen  a  reference  to  ibess 
judicial  functions  in  Jamea  ii,2-4.  The  special  ain  of 
those  who  fawned  upon  the  rich  was,  on  this  view,  that 
they  were  "jadga  of  evil  thoughts,"  carr)-ing  respect  of 
petBons  into  their  administration  of  just  ice.  The  inter- 
prelatiun,  hon'e\'er,  though  ingenious,  is  hanlly  auffl- 
ciently  supported. 

S.  The  rilual  of  the  synagogue  was  to  a  large  exiert 
the  reproduction  (here  also,  as  with  the  fabric,  wilb 
many  inevitable  changes)  of  the  statelier  liturgy  of  the 
Temple.  It  will  be  enough,  in  this  place,  to  notice  in 
what  way  the  rilual,  no  less  than  the  organization,  was 
connected  with  the  facts  of  the  New-Test,  history,  and 
with  ttac  life  and  onter  of  the  Cliristian  Church.  Here. 
too,  we  meet  with  multiplied  coincidences.  It  woold 
hardly  be  an  exaggeration  lo  say  that  Ihe  worship  of 
the  Church  was  identical  with  that  of  the  synagi^tie, 
modified  {>i)  by  the  new  truths,  (b)  by  the  new  instiin- 
tion  of  the  supper  of  the  Lord,  (c)  by  Cheapirilua)  ctd- 

(1.)  From  the  synagogue  came  the  use  of  fixed  forms 
of  prayer.  To  that  the  first  disciples  had  been  accus- 
tomed from  their  youth.    Tbey  hod  asked  their  Ma.<lrr 

with  their  requesc  (Luke  xi,  l),aslhe  l)npli>C  had  done 
before  for  his  disciples,  as  every  rabbi  did  for  his.  The 
forms  might  be,  and  were,  abuse<1.  The  Pharisee  might 
ill  synagogues,  or,  when  the  synagogues  were  closed,  in 
the  open  street,  recite  aloud  the  devotions  appointed 
for  hours  of  praver,  might  gabble  through  the  Shnma 
(••  Hear.  O  Israel,"  etc.,  from  Deul.  vi,  4),  his  Kadiik. 
bis  Skem/iiifli  Ktrch,  the  eighteen  Beratoli,  or  bless- 
ings, with  the  "  vain  repelilion"  which  has  reappeaied 
in  ChrisCian  worship.  But  for  the  disdples  this  was, 
as  yet,  the  true  pattern  of  devniion,  and  their  Master 
To  their  minds  there  would  aeem  noih- 
true  heart-wonhip  in  the  recut- 
of  a  fixed  order  (cnrd  raSiv,  1  Cor.  xiv.40>,  of  the 
prayers,  hymns,  doxologies.  such  as  all  liturgkal 
leads  us  10  think  of  as  existing  in  the  apostolic 


SYNAGOGUE 

«  Bifu  of  utun 


luu  poicB]  of  Lhat  age  led  Tur  a  time  to  greater  freedum, 
ig  upreiDHliUletl  prayer,  ir  thai  wai  in  iu  turn  >uc- 
rndrd  lir  tbe  renewed  pTedomiaiiice  of  a  formal  fixed 
Dcdfr,  ib«  altematiun  and  the  Mruggle  which  have  le- 
■ppeand  in  »  Dunj  [icriwlaof  the  history  of  the  Church 
ven  DM  wiibouc  tbeir  parallel  in  that  of  Judaiam. 
There  aiu  wu  a  pnilot  againat  the  rigidity  of  au  un- 
bending fonn.  Eliezer  of  Lvdda,  a  cunleniporary  of 
tlK  Kinnd  tiimaliel  (dr.  A.I>'  HO-llfi),  taught  that  the 
kf^u  of  the  lynagogue  ahould  diacard  even  the  £A(nuS- 
•4  ijrii,  the  eighteen  fined  prayers  and  benedictioni 
of  the  daily  and  Sabbalh  aervices,  and  ahould  pray  aa  bia 
heart  prompted  him.  I'he  oReuee  againat  the  formal- 
bm  into  which  Judaiim  stiffened  wsb  apparently  too 
pot  to  be  forgiven.  He  wu  enoommunicated  (not, 
iDdced,aTawedlT  on  thia  graund),  and  died  at  Oaarea 
(JsA  GrtM.  drt  Jndr^k.  u.  36, 45). 

(!.)  The  large  admiature  of  a  didactic  element  in 
Onbiian  wotsbip,  that  by  which  it  waa  distinguiabed 
ftm  all  Gentile  rorou  of  adoration,  was  deKved  from 
the  olilet  onJer.  "  Hoaes"  waa  "  read  in  the  synagogues 
ertiT  Stbbalh  day"  [Acta  iv,  21),  the  whole  law  being 
fMd  eontautiTely,>o  aa  to  be  completed,  acconling  to 
UN  cycle,  ID  three  j'can,  according  to  that  which  uiti- 
Daldir  prevailed  and  detcnoined  the  existing  diviuona 
of  the  Hebrew  text  (Leyrer,  JmlciT.),  in  the  bfty-two 
*nk)  of  a  single  year.  tj«c  Ulble.  The  writinga  of  the 
[«nphe[i  were  read  as  second  leseons  in  a  cotreapondiDg 
mier.  They  were  fuUnwed  by  the  Drrath,  the  Xoyof 
npofXiiviitfC  (Acta  xiii,ICi),the  exposition,  the  sennon 
The  firM  Cbriatian  synajToguea,  we 
e,  fullowed  this  order  with  but  little  deiia- 
tiMi.  I[  remained  for  them  befiire  long  toadd"  the  other 
Scripturea"  which  they  hid  learned  to  recogniae  aa  more 
pnciom  enii  than  the  law  itself,  the  "  prophetic  word" 
of  the  New  Test.,  which,  not  leaa  truly  tban  that  of  the 
(Md.  came,  in  epiille  or  iu  namti(-e,  from  tbe  same 
Spirit     See  Scbipture. 

(X>  To  the  ritual  of  the  synagogue  we  may  prob- 
stdy  iracT  a  practice  which  hai  somelimea  been  ■  stum- 
bling-bloclt  to  tbe  student  of  Christian  antiquity,  the 
Bibject-matter  of  fierce  debate  among  Christian  contro- 
•asialirti.  Whatever  account  may  be  given  of  it,  it  is 
ndain  that  Prayers  fur  the  Dead  appear  in  the  Church's 
»mhip  «i  aooo  BB  we  have  any  trace  of  it  alter  the  im- 
mtdiite  rcconia  of  the  apostolic  age.  It  baa  been  well 
■trscribed  by  a  writer  whom  no  one  can  suspect  of  Rom- 
iih  tendencies  a*  an  "immemorial  practice."  Though 
'Seiiptare  isiilcnt,  yel  antiquity  plainly  apeaka."  The 
(mien  "hare  found  a  place  in  every  early  liturgy  of 
the  world."  (F.llieotI,  iJrs/wy  of  Ikr  CrraUrr,  aerro. 
li).  How,  indeeil,  we  may  ask.  could  it  have  been  oth- 
fit'!  Th*  strong  feeling  shown  in  tbe  time  of  tbe 
UanabecB,  that  it  was  not  "supeifluona  and  vain"  lu 
loy  fw  (be  dead  (2  Mace  xii,  44),  waa  aure,  under  the 
iollwiMe  of  the  dominant  Pbatiaaic  scribes,  to  show 
iisflf  ia  the  devations  of  tbe  synagogue.  So  far  as  we 
irtci  back  tbeae  devotiona,  we  may  say  that  there  also 
ibtpnetica  is  "immemorial,"  as  old,  at  least,  as  thelra- 
^liunof  the  Kabbinic  ratben{Buxlorr,J>e  SgHagog.  p. 
:i»,;iO:  M'Caul,  OUi'arjli,ch.ixxviii).  The  writer 
abeady  qmiinl  sees  ■  probable  reference  to  them  in  2 
Tiai.i,  18  (Ktlicnit./'fur.  f/wflu.adloc).    But  it  is  by 

desd.    See  Dcad.  I'havkiw  ron  thk. 
(i.)  The  mnfiHTnily  extends,  also,  to  the  times  of  ' 
In  the  buun  of  service  this  was  obviously  the 


I  SYNAGOGUE 

(Baxtorf,i>e,Syi(i^.p.230).  Theeamehonra,itiawall 
known,  were  recogniaed  in  the  Church  of  the  second, 
probably  alio  in  that  of  the  flnt, century  (Clem,  AL  Slrtim. 
loc  cit.;  TertuU,  De  Oral,  c  xxv).  The  sacred  daya 
belonging  to  the  two  ayatema  seem,  at  firat,  to  present  a 
contrast  lathei  than  a  reaemhlanec ;  but  here,  too,  theta 
is  a  aymraetry  which  ptrinti  to  an  original  connection. 
The  solemn  daya  of  the  synagogue  were  the  second,  the 
fifth,  and  tbe  seventh ;  the  last,  or  Sabbath,  being  the 
conclusion  of  the  whole.  In  whatever  way  the  change 
wan  brought  about,  the  transfer  of  the  sanctity  of  the 
Sabbath  lo  the  Lord's  day  involved  a  correaponding 
change  in  theorderof  the  week,  and  the  flral,  the  fourth, 
and  the  sixth  became  to  the  Chriatian  society  what  tbe 
other  daya  had  been  lo  the  Jewish. 

Tbe  following  auggcstion  as  to  the  mode  In  which 
thia  tranafer  waa  effected  involves,  it  ia  believed,  fewer 
atlntrary  aasnmptions  than  any  other  [see  Sabbath], 


I  iiaeif  w 


!img  c 


Tbe  t1 


r  Teat.  (Acta  iii.  1 ;  x,  3,  9),  and  hod 
ban,  probably,  for  aome  time  before  (Psa.  tv,  IT,;  Dan. 
•ill)),  thellxed  limca  of  devotion,  known  then, and  still 
toiwn,  reflectively  as  the  SAocAarjM,  tbe  .tft»cAaA,and 
ihe'.lroUfJl.-  Ibfy- had  not  only  the  prestige  of  an  au- 
iksriimve  trMlition,  but  were  connected  re»|icclively 
■itb  the  names  of  Abraham,  laaac,  and  Jacob,  to  whom, 
» lo  the  Im  originatof*,  their  ioMitutioo  was  ascribed 


common  to  the  Church  and  the  synagogue.  It  was  a 
Jewish  custom  toendthe  Sabbath  with  a  feast,  in  which 
they  did  honor  to  it  as  to  a  parting  king.  The  feast 
wu  held  in  the  aynagogne.  A  cup  of  wine,  over  which 
a  apedal  blessing  had  been  apokui,  iras  handed  round 
(Jost,  Gad.  da  Jadmlh.  i,  ISO).  It  is  obvious  that,  so 
long  aa  the  apostles  and  their  followers  conlinueil  to  use 
the  Jewish  mode  of  reckoning — ao  long,  L  e.,  ae  they  fra- 
ternized wilh  their  brethren  of  the  slock  of  Abraham — 
this  would  coincide  in  point  of  lime  with  their  iiiirrov 
on  the  j!rs(  day  of  the  week.  A  supper  on  what  we 
should  call  Sunday  evening  would  have  been  to  them  on 
the  ttcand.  By  degrees  [see  Lohd's  Sdppeb]  tbe  time 
became  later,  passed  on  to  midnight,  lo  tbe  early  dawn 
of  the  next  day.  So  the  Lord's  supper  cessed  to  be  a 
supper  really.  So,  as  the  Church  rose  out  of  Judaiam, 
the  supper  jrace  its  holiness  to  the  coming,  instead  of 
dfririnff  it  from  the  parting  day.  The  day  came  to  be 
Kepiatfi,  because  it  began  with  tbe  liiryBr  Kvpiatuf. 
Gradually  the  Sabbath  ceased  as  auch  to  be  observed  at 
all.  The  practice  of  observing  both,  as  in  the  Church 
of  Rome  up  to  the  fifth  cent  urv,  gives  ua  a  trace  of  the 
transition  period.     See  at;si)A'r. 

(5.)  From  the  synagogue,  Ually,  came  many  less  con- 
Bpicuous  practices,  which  meet  us  in  the  liturgical  life 
of  the  first  three  centuries.  Ablution,  entire  or  partial, 
before  entering  the  place  of  meeting  (Heb.x,S3;  John 
xiii,  1-16 )  TertuU.  De  Oral.  t.  xi) ;  standing  and  not 
kneeling,  asihe  attitude  of  prayer(Lukexviii,II;  Tcr- 
tulL  Hid.  c.  xxiii);  the  arma  stretched  out  (TertuU. 
JMi/.c.  xiti);  the  face  turned  towards  the  Kehhih  of  tbe 
east  (Clem.  Al.  Strom,  lot  cil.);  the  responsive  Amen 
of  the  congregation  to  the  prayers  and  benedictions  of 
the  elders  (1  Cor.  xiv,  IB).  In  one  strange  exceptional 
custom  of  tbe  Church  of  Alexandria  we  trace  tbe  wilder 
type  of  Jewish,  of  Oriental  devotion.  There,  in  ihe 
closing  responaive  chorus  of  the  prayer,  the  worshippers 
not  only  stretched  out  their  necka  and  lifted  up  their 
hands,  but  leaped  with  wild  gestnres  (roiic  n  ircifoc 
iictYiipoptr),  as  if  they  would  fain  rise  with  their  pray- 
ers to  heaven  itself  (Clem.  AL  Strom.\n,4(t).  This,  too, 
reproduced  a  custom  of  the  synagogue.  Three  times  did 
the  whole  body  of  worshippen  leap  up  simultaneously 
as  they  repeated  the  great  ler-nincfat  hymn  of  Isaiah 
vi(Viiringa,p.llOOeq.;  Biiitorf, cb. x). 

Till.  ^ifcrnMir,— Jerusalem  ilegiUaS,  c  iii;  Hai- 
monides.  lad  Ila-Cknaka  liUckolh  TfphUa ;  Vitrings, 
Dt  S-puigoga  Viten  (Wetseenfels.  1726);  Zuni,  !>« 
unllrtdiratllickni  VorlrSgt  der  Judtn  (Berlin,  1832),  p. 
366  sq.  1  id.  Die  Kilai  dri  typagogaltn  Oolladietalti 
(ibid.lHa!>);  Eilelmann, /yufoj'on  Leb  (Kimigsb.  1845) ; 
Henfeld,  Gacl^iclHe  da  Votkt*  Itratl  (Nordhansen,  IHM, 
I8&7),  i,  24-30, 127, 391-394  \  ii,  189-194. 188-223;  Jost, 
licKAicAlt  del  JudmhuHU  (Leipuc.  18&7-OH),  i,  38  ti)., 
ir.8  sq,,  262  si|.;  Duscliak,  lUuttriitt  MimalHehnfl ,fHr 
die  gnammlen  Inin-arrn  dfi  JudrHHanu  (Lond.  IWifi), 
i.  S3  sq.,  174  sq.,  409  sq.  See  also  Burmann,  Kmrill. 
Acod.  ii,  8  sq.;  Relaud,  Anlig.  StKT,  i,  10;  Cf»{iHiv. 


SYNAGOGUE  8 

jRpar.  p.  S07>q.;  UMitrntim,  Verbii\d.  de*  A.  T.mU^ 
Wfun,  p.  226  aq. :  Brorm,  A  ntiquilitt  a/lhe  JeiBi,i,  690 
Hl^[  AiieaiMofiemJudaum,ch.sijL;  the monognphs of 
Burnili,  Dt  Vtl.  Spagof/it  (Viiemb.  1660);  Leovsrdic, 
l>f  -Sj/niignga  tl  Eniata  (a.  1.  tc  *n.) ;  Hhenrerd,  Dt  Olio- 
(M^jFAivnsni  (Fnncc  IWIG};  lA.  ArMtyaagogai  Otimtu 
{ibi.l.  1688);  TeHWel,  De  l-roieaetu  Sumor.  (Vilenib, 
lli":!);  and  the  diiKrutiiiiia  cited  by  Diiiing,  Cgdop. 
BibOiig.  ixllSli.    Stt  Worseiip. 

SYNAGOCiUE,  the  Great  (poit- Biblical  Hebrew, 
nbiisn  np:3;  Anmitc,  Kna^  XnVSS:  lam  Greek 
«iid  Latin,  ouipoyciiyi)  luyakti,  Sgmiffoga  Magna),  iht 
drcal  A  itftaUg,  or  Iht  Grtat  Si/nod,  according  to  Jew- 
ish Iradilicin,  denotes  the  euiincil  liiiit  appinnled  alter 
the  return  of  the  Jews  rrain  the  Babylonian  captiviiy 
tc  reorganiie  tiie  religious  life,  iiiuilutiotii^  and  litera- 
ture o(  the  penplt.  Our  iufiirtuation  on  the  subject  if 
chiefly  frum  Kabbinical  aoarcea. 

I.  A'onK  and  iU  Sigti^iealion.  —  Though  the  verb 
O;;,  '0  galhtr,  to  utHiailr,  occurs  in  the  Old  TeM. 
(Balh.iv,IG;  lChron.iiiii,2;  Ezek.  xxii,  SI ;  xxxii, 
28;  Psa.  cxkii,  2),  yet  the  noiin  nplS,  OMttmily,  igna- 
goyat,  il»c>i  not  occur  in  Biblical  Hebrew.  In  the  He- 
brew Scripture)  the  terms  rt^np,  bnp,  and  n^^OEt 
are  iianl  fur  cfxtgrrgulvm,  atiti^y  [see  Ecci^ebiabtbh}, 
sn'l  there  can  be  but  liltle  doubt  that  (he  nou-Biblica] 
r033  is  doipiedly  pmplayedtodii^inguigh  thia  assem- 
bly from  all  other  gatheri■1g^  See  Stnaoooue.  Thi* 
\»  also  the  reason  why  the  article  is  prefixed  to  the  ad- 
jective alone,  and  nut  aim  to  the  noun  —  vi?,  npJS 
n^ilSn,  Ihe  Great  Sgrnigogvi — iiiasmiich  M  this  sin- 
gles it  out  from  the  other  lynagogaa,  provincial  or  lo- 
cal, both  great  and  aniall.  which  obtained  at  the  same 
time,  and  which  were  desit;ne<l  Tor  dlffereut  objectB. 
When  Ewald  auerts  that  "in  the  Miibnic  hnguage 
the  lubsCantive  and  Ibe  adjective  nrcer  have  tba  article 
together  (I^rhvdi,  §  293  a,  nnie>,  we  need  only 
tu  Sabbaih,  ;tvii,  1;  Yoma,  ir,  8;  Taamlh.  iii,  7^ 
Ikaboth,  vi,  7;  NtdiinnL,  iii,  11;  Nuzir.  viii,  I;  . 
Bulhra,  iv,  8;  and  Co  iiuiumerable  other  poMagi 
refutation  of  this  aiaertion.  According  to  Ihe  mut 
cient  trndition,  this  assembly  or  synagogue  was  styled 
gnat  because  or  the  great  work  it  effected  in  restoring 
the  divine  law  to  its  former  greatness,  and  because  of 
the  great  authoriiv  and  repuialion  which  it  enjoved 
(Jerusalem  MegMth,  iii,  7;  Babylon  3trgill;k,  13' b; 
romu,  69  b;  Enbia,  13  b;  Zi^baeAim,  m i  Stiuludnn, 
U  a).  The  enactments  of  the  Great  Synah-ogti 
olien  quoted  in  the  name  uf  n^ilin  nD33  ^^IN,  lit 
Hwn  of  Ihe  Great  AaenAlg,  or  those  who  •iiccessively 
constituted  its  members  duni)g  the  long  period  of 
existence.  The  abbrevialcd  furmi  of  these  two  nan 
to  be  met  with  in  Jewish  literature  are   n'=  =  rc 

nbnan  and  n  =x,  iK=x  =  nV-n>n  rton  -ir:x. 
Sumetimes  this  assembly  ia  aku>  designated  the  130  el- 
ders (O-'Jpi  B-'^Csn  n^-a,  MtgiUiih,  17  b,  18  b). 

II.  Origin,  Date,  aad  Drrrlopmal  o/tke  Gteal  £yH< 
gogut.  —  it  Is  supposeil  Ly  many  that  Krra  waa  tl 
(bunder  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  and  that  he,  in  fai 
was  its  president.  Griltz,  however,  haa  adduced  tl 
fuDowinf;  atgunwiits  to  pnive  that  Mehemiab  originali 
it  after  tlie  death  of  Ezra :  1 .  The  very  name  of  Ezra 
not  even  mentioned  in  the  Biblical  register  of  (he  re 
resen(atives  (Neh.  ix;  Eini  v),  and  it  is  incimceivalj 
to  suppose  that  the  ori^nator  would  have  been  omi 
ted;  and,  2.  Kehemtah,  as  is  well  known,  went  twi' 
from  Shushan  to  Jerusalem  lo  res(nre  onler— vix.  iii  tl 
twentieth  year  of  Artaxcrxes's  reign  (KC.  146),  ai 
eonsiiletably  after  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  rei( 
(Be.  cir.  410).  On  his  second  arrival  he  found  Jems 
lem  in  a  most  deplorable  condition:  the  chiefs  of  the 
famities  had  formed  alliances  with  Suiballat  the  Ho- 
nnite  and  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  enemies  nf  the  Jei 


SYNAGOGUE 

the  Sabbatb  waa  desecrated,  and  the  law  aS  God  md  of 
mctuaiyweredisregaided(Xeh.iiii,6-3i).    Now 
onvention  of  the  Ureal  Synagogue  was  held  ex- 
pressly for  the  removal  of  these  very  evils;  and  dace 
the  representatives  distinctly  bound  Ihemaelvps  by  a 
most  solemn  oath  lo  abatain  from  mixed  marriages,  to 
keep  the  Sabbath  holy,  and  to  attend  sacredly  to  Ibe 
sanctuai?  and  ita  lequirements,  there  can  be  no  dmbt 
that  the  synod  was  convened  by  Nehemiah  afirr  iii 
i  vitil  to  Jerasalem  to  devise  means  in  order  to 
these  perplexing  points,  and  that  becau«  these 
evils  disturbed  the  order  of  the  community,  (herpfore 
!y  were  made  the  principal  and  express  objects  of 
i  first  synod.     It  is  the  pnution  of  cb.  x  recording 
•  convention  of  the  Great  Synagogue  which  hsi 
iscd  this  error.    But  it  is  well  known  that  the  buk 
of  Nehemiah  is  not  put  together  in  chronological  order. 
GrStz  bos  bhown  a  porition  of  the  different  chap(en  in 
accordance  with  Ibe  above  view(Frankel,J/oi*af*snlri/?, 
vi,  62).    See  EiR.\.    It  is  obvious,  however,  that  St- 
bemiah  acted  in  perfect  concert  with  Ezra,  and  ham 
there  is  no  aubBtantial  error  in  attributing  the  Gnat 
Synagogue  tn  the  latter. 

As  to  i/t  dale,  the  convention  of  this  Great  Syna- 
gogue waa  moat  probably  one  of  Nebemiah'a  last  acC^ 
and  it  must  have  (akcn  place  alter  the  death  of  AitB> 
xerxes,  else  Nehemiah  could  not  have  remained  in  Je- 
rusalem, since  even  Ihe  second  penaisHon  to  virat  (bat 
city  was  graiitcil  to  him  on  condition  that  he  sb«iU 
return  to  Shushan.  It  could  not  therefore  have  taken 
place  before  B.C.  424.  The  Great  Synagogue  was  mou 
probably  held  a  few  years  after  the  above  date  of  Ne- 
hemiah's  second  visit.  Exra  was  doubtless  then  desit 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  his  name  does  not  occur  ir 
the  repBtcr  of  the  representatives.  The  wbole  perinl 
of  the  Great  Synagogue  embraces  abont  104  years  {HC 
404-300),  or  from  the  latter  days  of  Kehemtah  to  ilie 
death  of  Simon  the  Just  (q.  v.),  who  was  the  laM  link 
of  the  chain  constituting  Ihe  synod  {Aietk,  i,  2).  It 
then  passed  into  the  Sanhedrim,  when  (he  whole  uf  its 
constitution  waa  changed.     See  SANiienRiu- 

The  exisienee  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  which  is  at- 
tested by  the  unanimous  voice  (rf'  Jewish  trailition,  wai 
Arst  queslimifd  by  Richanl  Sim<in  (Ifitl.  Cii/.  Jit  i'im 
Tetl.  lib.  i,  cap.  viii).  Jacob  Alting,  with  more  botd- 
ness,  rejected  it  altogether  as  one  of  the  inventions  of 
tradition  ("Synagoga,  magna  enim  nee  uno  lempoct 
IKC  uno  loco  vixit,  eoque  lyuagoga  tion  fuit,  reiiun 
commentum  est  traditbinariorum,  qui  nullum  alicqaiu 
nexum  iraentimut  reperire  potuerunt,"  (^7>.t,  BBJl. 
He  was  followed  bv  Itau  (DHi'iits  dt  Sgaag.  Mafa 
[Ultrn).  1726],  p.  6f„  etc)  and  Aurivillius  (ZJe  Sjwj. 
t«lgo  diCa  Slatimi  [ed.  J.  D.  Michae1i^  Gbtling.  l79a]X 
De  Wette  {EbJtiiviig  in  tbu  A.T.§  14)  contemptu- 
ously dismisses  it  as  "a  Iradlliun  which  vuiishes  as 
soon  as  the  passages  are  looked  at  whereon  it  is  basnl 
and  as  nn(  even  being  a  subject  for  refutation."  Thnst 
who  condescend  to  argue  the  matter  reject  this  tnili- 
tion  because  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha,  Jo- 
sepbus,  Philo,  or  the  Stdtr  Olam.  and  because  the  ear- 
liest record  of  it  is  in  (he  tract  of  the  Mtshna  entitled 
.46o'A,  which  belongs  lo  the  1st  or  3d  century  of  our  m. 
but  probably  represents  an  earlier  age-  But  surely  this 
argument  from  the  silence  of  a  few  writers  cannot  sH 
aside  the  i-xpress  and  poutive  testimony  of  the  Uishna. 
tlie  Talmud,  and  the  earliest  Jewish  works.  In  likF 
manner,  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  in  its  catalogue  nf 
Jewish  heroes  (ch.  I),  does  not  mention  Eira :  Jri~ 
phua  never  alludeeto  the  tribunal  of  twenty-three  mrm- 
bers,  and  (he  eBrlies(  patristic  literature  of  (he  itn 
does  not  breathe  a  syllable  about  (he  " 
Would  it  be  fair  to  conclude  from  thi 
the  tribunal,  and  the  Maccabees  are 

the  Great  Synagogue,  the  following 

deuce  is  to  be  adduced:  The  errors  of  the  Samaritan 

became  ram  pai  II  after  the  death  ofNebemiah.  while  of 


SYNAGOGUE 


Ik 


a  Eliu 


>  I  ■< 


nn  in^nifieuil  men  ind  nihcn  were  repnitMtes.  Ju- 
dum.  Donurer,  hu  na  reccnl  tthiUvrr  of  any  diilin- 
(nuM  pcTKons  during  this  period.  We  should  tbere- 
hn  Ui(  upKled  (be  Teligion  ut  the  people  to  be  it 
Uv  bnMtbb.  "Biit  inileid  or  ileclining,  we  llnd  Ju- 
duio  nptdlf  [iun;;.  No  tree*  ia  to  be  foupd  in  the 
wbolc  of  Ibb  period  nf  the  duluibinces,  miscnnceptionB, 
ud  tmn  sbicb  preTiiled  in  (he  lime  of  Km,  Kehe- 
iat\  ud  ZenibbabrL  The  Uw  anil  the  pcceepu  w«rc 
in-«iiiMnt](  Rrereit.  The  ancient  cnlleclion  of  Iten- 
finei'i  Hvineii,  which  irllecti  the  spirit  of  the  people 
ill  ibe  piF^iiiDonic  tge,  breathes  ■  fvneni  enthutiaum 
[qc  Um  iixpind  law  (caDi|k  Eoclui.  ii,  16;  lii,  39;  ix, 
IS:  1,19;  XT,  I;  xin,  17;  xxi,  I1-,  ssiii,!7.  and  e»pe- 
□illr  eb.  xiIt).   Who,  Ibcn,  haa  kjiulleil  and  sustained 

till  liBilar  to  Ihat  convened  b?  KeheDsiab?"  (Grttlz,  in 
FiabTi  ilotaUTkrifl,  ri,  G3,  ctr.). 

ML  .Vuiikr  of  Mentat  iiwf  lirir  Clauifiealion.— 
Wi  lie  lold  that  Nehemiih  orfranized  the  Great  Syna- 
p^M  (tvmp.  Neh.  X,  1-10  with  tlidraih  SulA,  c  iii; 
JnuHlfm  SkttiHA,  v,  \\  and  that  it  coniisted  nf  120 
■cDtcn  (Jenmlcm  Brraknlh,  ii,  4 ;  Jerusalem  Megil- 
lA.\:B^]ooUtgiUali,llh).  Inloukingatihe  regia- 
III  if  ibe  Great  Aewmbly  reconleil  in  Nehcmiah  (_: 


will  bt  ■ 


ihat- 


.  ftily  >i 


of  lfa« 


nnfe-(am  dur/i  nf  Ih  priritt  (1  Chron,  xxiv,  7-lS) 
m  nammttd,  and  Ihil  for  the  eight  that  are  want- 
in;  (wr  private  penoDi  are  gii-en,riE.Zidkijah,  Daniel, 
Btfucti,  and  UrshuUam.  b.  Of  the  six  or  seven  tiirf 
Imirt— tit.  Jesbna,  Bani,  Kadmiel,  Hnitijah,  Sherehi- 
U,  Hnhabniah  — who  returned  with  Zerubhabel  and 
Fjii(Ntb.ii,4,5;  Eira  V,  18. 19,  24),  Bani  i.1  omitted, 

okobledl;  the  doeton  «/llu  lav  (B^3'=B  i  Neh.  viii, 
;:ii.)>  f.Ofther..ny-fii-erfif/»o/M«p«)pfcOa!tn 
:;ri)«ily  half  are  known  as  heails  orbmilica,  and  the 
nsm  again  dialinRUuhed  private  inUividuala.  Here 
'Iw  bmilin  of  David  and  Joah  (comp.  Ezra  riii.  2,  9) 
■iniMing.  A  Of  the  rrprrmlatirn  a/Tht  cilift  ttim 
nooly  taro  mentioned —  viz.  Anafhnlh  and  Nebo  — 
■UA  pliialF  ihowB  that  othen  are  omitted,  aince  tbeae 
In  places  did  not  at  all  dUtinguJsh  themselves  lo  be 
ibii  Bifikd  out.  Now.  in  looking  at  the  peculiar  pon- 
Cm  m  which  they  are  placed  among  the  heads  of  the 
intdt  in  Ibe  register  of  the  exiles,  it  will  be  seen  that 
lit  faiailT  of  Hariph  (Jnaeb)  stand  fiist;  ihen  follow 
lie  BHsea  of  thirteen  cities  <vii.  Gibeoii,  Iklhlehem, 
Niuphah,  Anitbolh,  Beib-azmaveth,  Klrjath -jearim, 
LVpdinfa.  Beeroih,  Itsmah,  Gaba,  tlicbmas.  Beth-el. 
■°4  Ai):  Neho  eoticludea  Ihe  catalogue  ol  the  cities, 
nl  tbe  Cuiilv  nf  Uagbish  follows  npoti  it  (Ezra  ii,  IS- 
X:  Keh.  lii,  24-38),  which  exactly  corresponds  with 
ibmiier  in  the  repisler  uf  the  Great  Synagogue;  Ha- 
■^  tiegiu,  then  come  cities,  i.  e.  Anathoih;  Nebai 
BOB  la«.and  then  again  Magbieh  (Neh.  x,  19,  W). 
1i  bai  ben  supfiuacd,  therefore,  that  the  above-named 
aoo  ire  to  be  inserted  between  Hariph  and  Anathoth. 
lln  add  to  thoe  fifteen  cities  the  other  live  apecifieil 
■0  tkc  TTgirier  (rix.  Lod,  Uadid,  Ono,  Jericho,  and  Te> 
bia-iii,  U,  Si),  which  were  represented  by  this  svn- 
'd.n  hare  in  all  twenty  cities.  Under  this  view, 
OiAidiTiaoni  of  the  prirals  are  wanting  — the  family 
•fBaoi  is  miiBng  from  the  Levitt*,  seven  families  of 
ikt  hcadi  of  the  people  have  disappeared— and  thir- 
ina  if  the  repmeniati vta  of  Ibe  cities  have  dropped 
'■t  Kiw.Uwe  supply  [hose  which  aeem  to  hare  been 
^>^ified,  and  add  them  up  with  the  private  individuals 
■mioDed  in  the  rFgiMer,we  obtain  the  following  rep- 
""■aiJTes  in  the  Great  Synagogue;  twenty-eight 
'ne«^  tmsiaiini;  of  the  twenty-four  diviaiona  and  the 
tepctrata  individuab;  nineteen  Leviies,  being  the 
■m  (amilies  and  the  twelve  privare  persona;  flfiy  la- 
'■'lita,  twenty -nine  being  chiefa  of  the  people  and 
inaty-(«c  prirale  pemma — making  i 


en,  with  Nehemiab  ninety-^ht,  white  the  Tenuuning 
twenty-two  are  the  deputations  of  the  cities.  We  may 
thus  obtain  the  130  members  of  the  Great  Synagogue 
mentioned  by  Ihe  unanimoua  voice  of  traditioiL  It  will 
also  be  seen  from  the  above  that  these  120  merobera 
represented  five  claMca,  via. :  I,  Tic  chif/t  o/lhtprid- 
Ij/  diriiioni  {ZX  r^2  ■'DStl);  2.  The  chir/i  of  lU  Lf 
ti/iail  famUif  (D^^lVn  -"SSil) ;  B.  Tit  hradi  of  lit 
IiratlUe  famUiti  (Osn  ■"ttl*-');  4,  RtprtKnlaiiBet  nf 
ririrt,  or  Ihi  tldtri  (CSpT ;  vpia^iTipot) ;  ft.  Tkt  doc- 
Ion  of  file  line  (a^S^3:a  B^'^DlOi  Tpa/i/ioT(?c).  from 
all  grades.  This  numlwr,  however,  if  thus  made  up, 
was  moat  probably  restricted  lo  the  lime  of  Nehemiah, 
IS  there  con  be  no  doubt  that  the  assemblies  which 
were  afterwards  held  conaieled  of  a  analler  number, 
since,  at  the  [ime  when  the  Great  Synagogue  is  held  to 
have  poued  over  into  the  (ireat  Sanhedrim,  the  repre- 
senlalireii  consisted  of  seventy,  which  became  the  tixeil 
rule  for  the  Sanhedrim  (q.  v.). 

IV.  The  Wort  of  the  Uirul  Syoojojur.—At  ila  Ant 
organiialiiin  under  Nehemiah,  if  the  above  be  its  true 
origin,  the  representatives  bound  themselves  by  n  most 
solemn  oath  (nsilO^I  n>Ma)  to  carry  out  the  fol- 
lowing six  decisiona,  which  were  deemed  most  essenliil 
for  the  ataliility  of  the  newly  reconatrucled  State:  I. 
Not  to  Intermarry  with  healhena;  3.  To  keep  the  Sab- 
bath holy;  S.  To  observe  the  aabbaiical  year;  4.  Ev- 
ery one  lo  pay  annually  ■  third  of  a  shekel  to  the 
Temple ;  6.  To  supply  wood  for  Ibe  allar ;  6.  Regularly 
to  pay  Ihc  priestly  dues  (Neh,  x,  28-39).  The  founrta- 
lion  for  the  reorganization  and  reconalniction  of  the 
State  and  the  Temple-service  bdng  thus  laid  al  the  first 
meeting  of  this  synod,  the  obtaining  of  the  necessary 
materials  fhr  Ihe  anccessful  rearing-up  of  the  super- 
structure and  the  completion  of  the  ediBce  demanded 
that  the  synod  should  occasionally  reassemble  to  devise 

plishment  of  the  plan  and  the  permanent  maintenance 
of  the  sanctuary.  To  this  end  the  members  of  the 
Great  Synagogue  are  believed  to  hare  collected  the  ca- 
nonical Scriptures.  This  WIS  called  fonh  by  Ihe  effecta 
nf  Ihe  first  decision,  which  involved  Ihe  expulsion  of 
Monasaeh,  son  of  the  bigh-priest  .loiada,  by  Nehemiah 
and  Ihe  aynod  fur  refunng  compliance  with  that  deci- 
sion—  i.  e.  to  l>e  separateil  from  his  heathen  wife,  the 
daughter  of  Sanballat  (xiii,  23-39).  In  consequence 
of  this  his  father-in-law,  Sanballat,  obtained  permission 
10  Imild  an  apposition  temple  on  Mount  Geriiim,  in 
which  Manasseh  bccijne  high-prieit,  and  whilher  he 
was  fulhiwed  tiy  man;  of  the  Jews  who  sympathiied 
with  him.  'I'his  proceeding,  however,  compelled  them 
to  deny  the  prophets,  because  their  repeated  declara- 
tions about  the  sanctity  of  Jeruaatem  did  not  favor  the 
erection  of  a  temple  out  of  the  ancient  metropolis.  To 
erect  *  will  of  panilion  between  the  Jews  and  these 
apostate^  and  to  show  lo  the  people  which  of  the  an- 
cient prophetical  books  were  sacred,  the  Snphrrim  ond 
the  tnen  of  llie  Great  Synagogue  compiled  Ihe  canon 
of  Ihe  prophets.  As  the  eailv  prophets  and  the  great 
prophets — i.  e.  Isaiah.  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel^ike  the 
Penlaleurh,  were  already  regarded  as  sacred,  it  only 
remained  for  the  Great  Synagogue  to  complete  Ihtpro- 
phftiait  canon  by  inserting  into  it  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  which  this  synml  accordingly  diil,  as  may  be 
seen  from  Baba  Balhra,  15;  Abotk  di  Sabbi  AWAim, 
c  i ;  3  Mace  xii,  13.  Although  some  of  these  authori- 
ties are  no  longer  clear  about  the  books  inserted  into 
the  canon,  yet  they  all  teatify  lo  the  fact  that  the 
memben  of  the  Great  Synagogue  irere  cngageil  in  col- 
lecting the  canonical  books  of  the  prophets.  The  Ha- 
giogiapha  were  not  as  yet  made  up,  as  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  the  younger  Sirach  diil  not  even  know  Ihe 
expreasion  CS^nS,  but  used  Ihe  general  term  ri  SX\a 
to  denote  Ihcm  {Pitfact  to  EaJut.),  and  that  in  Aiex- 


SYNALLAXIS  8 

guidria  Bdilitions  were  made  M  (he  book  of  Eather,  and 
Dtdfi  book>  were  inwitetl  in  what  we  now  all  Ihc  Ha- 

canonicily  of  aome  of  the  Hagiographa  cantiaaed  to  be 
■  poiut  of  differeoce  between  the  achooli  of  Shammii 
and  HlUel,  which  could  not  hive  been  the  cue  if  the 
einon  of  the  Ilagiagiiipha  bid  been  definitely  mide  up. 
They  ilw  Gompiled  the  ritual  for  privau  and  public 
worship  [«ee  Sysaooquk]  ;  and,  finall)-,  they  intro- 
duced schools  for  the  iludy  of  the  divine  Uw  ^1S^  TTS), 
Id  precepts  of  Holy  Writ.    The  whole  of 


this  is 


™  grand 
I  in  Che  laconic  style  or  Che  Mi«biia 


maxima  — be  cautious  in  judging,  get  many  diMipIes, 
•nd  make  a  hedge  about  the  law"  (Abolh,  i,  I).  The 
other  work  of  the  men  of  the  Greek  synagi^(ue  which 
hai  come  down  to  us  in  the  name  of  the  Sophti-iiu  is 
given  in  the  article  ScRIBK. 

V.  /.iUrature,  —  Wassermann,  in  Jest's  ttratliHteit 
Amalm  (Fraiikfott-on-Cbe-Main,  1840).  ii,  163  sq.; 
Sachs,  in  Frsnkel's  ZtUKkrifl  far  die  nU'/iSim  iMc 
nMrxcfc*  JuilcnlAu'iu  (Berlin,  lSt5),ii,30l  sq.;  Kruch- 
mal,  Afore  Keboche  Ua-Seman  (Leopoli,  1851 ),  p.  hi  sq., 
102  sq.,  166  sq.;  Henfeld,  Utichiclile  dn  Votta  Unul 
(Notdhausen,  IS6S-57),  i,  23  sq.,  S80  sq.;  ii,&3,244  sq., 
264  sq. ;  Joal,  (Jachidtle  da  Jud/alhuini.  i,  35  sq.,  95  sq., 
270  sq. ;  Low,  Btn  Cha«anja  (Siegedin,  1858),  i,  102  sq„ 
193  s<t.,  292  sq.,  338  sq.;  and  espcciallv  the  elaborate 
CMar  of  Gr)ltz,in  Fralikel's  UonalnchrijiJSr  Gackidlr 
VHdWiuemchaJl  da  JudailAunu  (Leipsic,  1867),  vl,  Bl 
sq.,61sq.;  a]soFUrsc,CucA.iiu£u>iaTU,p.22,nute.  See 

SYNAGOGUE  AKD  Church.  The  Jewish  Church 
is,  in  Ibe  catacombs,  represented  as  a  ironian  of  majes- 
tic presence  in  flowing  robes;  but  in  mediieval  exam- 
ples, as  on  the  doorway  at  Rochester  Cathe<lrai,  with 
her  eyes  bandaged,  the  tables  of  the  law  fBlling  (mm 
one  hand,  and  ■  broken  sUff  in  the  other  (Jer.  v,  IQ, 
17).  The  Church  is  crowned  and  sceptred,  and  holds  n 
church  and  a  cross. 

Byuallttsds,  in  Greek  mytholog}-,  wu  one  of  Ibe 
Ion  ids,  nvmphs  skilled  in  medicine,  living  on  Che  Cvthe- 
ruPiariverofElia. 

Byiiapt«(in'ra*T^)isaGrcek  term  for  Ihe  Greek 
Collect  in  the  Utiirgy  of  St.  Mark,  resembling  the  fc- 
line  in  that  of  fjc  James  and  of  St.  Chrysosiom.  It  is 
used,  also,  to  designate  the  holy  communion. 

Sjrnazarltim  (rrvmCnpioi')  is  a  term  fur  an 
abridgeil  form  of  the  Greek  nenoUigy  ( record  of 
months),  an  account  at  the  festivil  liein^  celehmed. 

Synaxla  (o-uva^ic),  an  Eastern  term  Bienifyins, 
rcspeciively,  1.  A  collect  or  short  prayer;  2.  The  hcijy 
eucharisc,  or  the  Christian  eacrilice;  3.  An  assembly  lur 
worship;  and,  4.  The  Joint  commemoration  uf  saints. 

SyncelliU  (from  aayaXkiu,  to  join}  was  an  ancient 
officer  attached  to  the  patriarchs  or  prelates  of  the  Ori- 
ental Church  as  witnesses  lu  their  conveisation  and 
conduct.  Others  acted  as  clerks  and  scewards.  It 
eventually  became  a  mere  title  of  honor. 

STncellna.  tiRonoii-s,  a  Byianiine  author  and  an 
ecclesiastical  dignitary  of  Constantinople,  who  lii'ed  at 
the  close  of  the  Sth  and  the  iieginning  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  He  haBlefla('4ra*^rtpAs,orchro- 
nolupcal  reconl  of  ercnls,  extending  fnirn  the  cmlion 
to  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Diocletian.  He  begsn 
with  Adam,  and  iniended  to  bring  down  Ins  compila- 
tion to  his  own  time,  but  death  anticipated  the  comple- 

I.  A'lim*.— Hciscalled  Georgius  AMus  anrlGeorgius 
Motiathyi,  and  has  sumetimes  been  erroneously  idenli- 
lled  with  Gcorgius  l/amarlolai,  whose  works  remain 
still,  for  the  most  part,  unpublished.  The  designation 
of  Sj/nctilui,  which  has  been  given  to  the  chrouogra- 


1  SYNCELLUS 

pber  as  a  distinctive  appellation,  is  no  penonal  latK 
but  a  title  at  dignity.     It  is  derived  from  his  ecclen-   I 
tical  office  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  metropolilan  Church 
of  the  Eastern  Empire.     The  synceilus  was  origiiiallT    i 
[he  ciimpanion.  room-mate,  occupant  of  the  same  (til 
with  the  patriarch— cuAuUaTvr,  etUuneiH,  amalUani. 
He  was  to  be  Ibe  constant  witness  i>f  the  purity  eflbt    i 
patriarch's  life  and  the  propriety  of  his  condiKt  sad   ' 
conversation,  on  the  same  princiiile  as  that  which  is- 
quires  membsn  ofthe  Jesuit  Order  lobe  alwirsaOFiim. 
|)aiiied  by  one  of  the  fraleniity.     ijometime^one  rrn- 
cellus  was  apjioinred,  sometimes  two,  and  sometinn 

honoraiy  and  honorable  title.  At  times  the  office  »« 
employed  as  a  mode  of  plachig  spies  around  tbe  pun- 
srch.  The|HipeaorKomehad  their  ^ncelii  donntatbt 
time  of  Gregory  the  Grear,  at  least,  as  has  lieen  pn\M 

usual  exuberant  learning  {Gloit.  MrJ.  r1  I'jiai.  Laliik 
s.  T.).  They  were  attached,  also,  to  other  prelate).  The 
relation  was  naturally  one  of  great  intimacy  and  catfr 
deuce,  and  consequently  became  one  of  infiuence  sdI 
high  distinction.     Hence  the  synceilus  seems  frcqnHii. 

have  heen  for  ■  long  time  regarded  as  in  the  legiiimaic 
line  at  Aucceaaion  to  the  patriarchate  The  praciin. 
howeier,  of  elevating  the  synceilus  to  the  jiairiBtctal 
throne  on  Che  death  of  the  metropolitan  af>i>e)n  to  Iistc 
never  been  habitual,  and  to  have  been  abandnneil  br- 
fure  the  eiul  of  the  9th  century  (Zffluiras,  XVI.iiii.i3; 
Gretser  et  Gear,  Comm.  in  CadtH.  p.  IDA).  Ihc  m- 
peror  Romanus  Lecajienus  mode  his  youngest  snfl,Tbf 
ophylact,  sjmcelluB,  evidently  wiUi  a  view  to  the  soi- 
cession  to  the  higheac  place  in  the  hierarchr  (Zonaiu 
XVI,  xviii).  The  special  functions  of  the  office  am 
to  have  been  gradually  abandoned,  lint  the  name  >iul 
dignity  were  still  retained  when  Cudinus  prepared  hi^ 
Coail-roUoflhe  Imptrial  QffidaU  (tee  Gori,  P<-oj:o6 
Sywtltiim,  ii,  60}. 

II.  /.i/e.— Gcarjie  Che  Chronographer  was  tyncellM 

bare  been  oiie  uf  ibose  imposed  on  that  eminent  faiir- 
lionary  by  the  emperor  Nicepbonis  as  a  spy.  We  knnw 
nothing  uf  him  except  from  his  name  and  his  title,  ai»l 
from  his  commemoration  by  bis  friend  and  coiitinnaiii. 
TlieophaneH.  The  cestinsony  of  Thenplianei  anKUBU 
to  very  little.  It  is  timply  that  George,  Ihc  abbot  snd 
^yncelll1^  was  a  disiingui»heii  and  very  learned  ini". 
who  faithfully  and  laboriously  chronicled  the  events  ii4 
the  world  from  Adam,  and  diligenily  recordeil  tbeit 
cbmnohigical  aucccsaion ;  that  life  failed  bim  when  be 
had  brought  his  chronicle  down  only  to  the  accrssHxi  c^ 
Diocletian;  that, on  the  approach  of  deatb,lie  r«|iic»t(d 
and  urRcil  his  friend  Theopbanes  to  complete  his  ^- 
Bign,  and  that  'I'heophanes  reluctantly  undertook  anil 
executed  this  commission.  Of  Geoi^  the  Chronotris- 
pher  nothing  more  is  reported.  After  this  brief  app«. 
tition  .on  the  stage  of  history  be  vanishes  into  thtfk 

III.  H'lirka,  —  The  only  work  of  George  SyntrlliB 
which  we  possess,  or  know  In  hare  been  written  by 
him,  ishi»CAnaiDjnvip*j(,or  ifiifreiKri  CArontcin,  whirh 
comus  down,  as  bos  been  sai<t,to  the  reipi  of  Diodeliaii. 
Hod  life  anrl  health  been  spand,  he  would  probaUy, 
like  his  conlinuator,  Theopbanes,  and  like  the  genital 
liibe  of  meilieeval  chroniclers,  have  been  fuller,  mote 
original,  and  more  instrnetlve  in  the  treatment  of  cwi- 
temporaneous  evenla.  T"hese  events  were,  in  all  likcli- 
hood,  well  known  to  him,  from  his  social  and  official  p- 


dfr.™  tbedi 


ilfui 


him  the  reputation  of  extraonlinary  knowledge  (i 
;ia3iiTrarD().     As  he  died  when  he  had  pnKceded  no 

exp™tcil  from  him  but  fidelity  of  compilation  and  diJ- 
cemmenl  in  the  wleclion  and  use  of  authorities.  Faith- 
fulncm  and  inilustry  may  he  readily  conceded  to  him. 
Discretion  and  sagacity  are  scarcely  among  his  charac 


SYNCELLUS  8 

iBixa.  Hi  a  exceedingly  cmt,  h*nh,  dr;,  jejune, 
mi]  lAta  (mfuKil.  Hii  temperament,  hu  rocatian, 
lid  ha  LUIK4  iDcUibHl  him  to  credulity  ftnd  luperttiiiun. 
UtlntmliicHhii  multitndinoua  extnctiin  ■  cniileind 
utj^sud  Ibnn,  uhI  accepts  wilhuut  betiution  whiit- 
ns  be  linll  iii  hil  lext&  Yet  hia  work  hu  ■  very 
Wfi  rdiie,  ud  largely  Trom  thii  total  absence  or  crit- 
>  iaj  ibmiiiiatibin.    It  ii  the  moM  extentire  of  the 

tUTptiuoFihe  Scilian,  Alexaaitrine,  or  PaKhal  chroii- 
vlt,  n*  Liliei  aiul  the  chronicle  at  Eiuebioa  are  the 
ia)r»D  important  chroDoli^ad  treatise!  tfaiU  preceded 
il  iitikb  hce  been  preaerred.  Euiebiui  waa  aidly  mu- 
tiliuduidrtaeiocntary,  and  wu  in  pan  reitoied  by  the 
udnriiriuzUui.  ScaliBer,tbere«toterufEuKbiui,con- 
uapUltil  Iba  ibandonmenC  of  his  undertaking  when 
k  ia^irei  of  obtaining  the  aasiilance  of  Srncdlus, 
vlkh  bf  deemed  indispensable.  The  reslorotion  was, 
inlnd,  inpnciicible  without  such  aid,  till  the  discov- 
(nrfibe  complete  work,  in  recent  yean,  in  an  Amte- 
iw  HS,.  ■Iiich  was  pohlished  at  Milan,  in  1SI8,  by 
Mii  uid  Z^nhrsb.  The  Chnmogrxipks  of  Syneellua  baa 
ihn  mderfd  important  serriee.  It  faa>  other  loureea 
^flnUiFO.  tt  is  througbont  a  compitaiion,  but  a  com- 
phtin]  sbich  usually  retains  the  iptiunna  reria  or  the 
uibin  fnim  whom  it  borrDWB,  and  which  recurds  its 
ob^fUion  Thus  have  been  preserved  remnsnls,  more 
<iliBtit««rt,of  many  writers  who  wmild  otherwise 
tan  piriibeil  otierly.  The  citatinns  from  Euscbius 
Ian  ibesdy  been  rerened  to.  We  owe,  beside^  lo 
WMdla  niaiiy  all  that  survives  or  Julius  Arricanns, 
BM  «(lb<  fragments  of  Manetho,  and  much  »f  the  lit- 
■hibsibleft  of  Derosas,  who  strangely  illustrates  the 
Boot  of  Genesis,  and  corroborates  the  remarkable  dis- 
B»ina  nfthe  late  George  Smith.  Amnnc  the  ihat- 
imd  lemnants  imbedded  in  the  chronicle  of  Syneellua 
-lite  broken  columns,  ruined  architraves,  dismembered 

uLto— Dit  be  fiwDd  passages  from  books  of  various 
iadt,  ioduding  many  from   partially  or  wholly  lo 
l|«tTpha.  There  are  emracta  from  the  I.ife  of  Adar 
ibcBoi*  of  Enoch,  the  History  of  Judith,  Heraiex,  Zo 
ma  Ibe  philosopher,  etc     Some  of  then  excerpts  s 
"ti  aainat,  and  perpettuile  the  memory  of  remarkable 
■^endtiom  snd  of  quaint  legends  of  the  ani 
h  vodd  be  misplaced  Labor  to  invtatitral 
rtneokigicsl  accuracy  of  Syncellus,  I 
bsAnnoia^cal  statements.    The  service  has  been  r 
■Itml  laboriously,  if  not  al  together  satisfactorily,  by  ' 
Ifcmoiesn  lioar,  who  added  a  CmuMi  CiroHOffmpAi 
'I  iW  abia  priacqu  of  the  work.     The  history  of 
]|\  (ltd  by  Goar  is  curious.     It  was  preserred  in 
^'t*Bj  tt  the  iMttiarcb  al  Constantinople.    It  reap- 
[and  in  Ibe  Royal  Library  of  France.     A  notice, ' 
''"rt.  appended  to  the  HS.  states  that  it  was  pi 
danJstConnlh.for  four  pieces  of  gold  (xputfoSc),  by 
Jiln  Ahniai  [n  Abrams),  ill  the  tnonth  of  November, 

P»'\  It  was  prolBihly  one  of  the  many  waifs  from  the 
Humin  csptore  of  Constantinople.  For  some  time  it 
IS  betiered  to  hate  been  lost  from  the  Royal  Library-. 
I>  imbed  ticaliger's  hands.  It  was,  in  time,  restored 
>"  Ibe  ruf  a]  re|MnlorT,  where  it  St" 
■*  pHish  in  the  fire*  of  the  Commune.  The  supposed 
tactfthisMS.is  lOSI.  It  i>  somewhat  mutilated.and 
«tl>Bfisl»t;but  it  is  the  most  complete  MS.  of  tli 
isihnt.  rHndarf  r^arda  as  of  much  higher  nutrlt  ai 
alcr  Pttiaaa  HS,  which  be  also  employed  in  his  r 
nin  of  tbe  text  for  the  Bonn  series  of  the  Bjia^ii 
Bmciriat,.  This  bas  loot  many  leaves  in  the  middl 
x^Uke  Catecidge'a  CAriiiaM,  has  neither  beginnir 


SYNCRETISM 

Dindorfii  (Banna,  1639,  3  vols,  8vo).  Dindorf  repub- 
lishes the  iijiparatat  liltnitiui  of  Uosr,  and  adds  a  re- 
print of  Bedovii  Diiinialio  de  Georgii  Sj/acrlii  Ckro- 
Hoyrapkia.     (C,  F,  H,) 

BynoretUm  (ai^cpiirio/ivc,  tOBoit).  This  term  ia 
iployed  in  Cburch  history  to  designate  Ibe  movement 
promote  union  smong  the  various  evangelical  parties 
of  Germany  in  the  ITib  century.  The  won)  occurs  in 
Plutarch  (ii,  490  It;  ed.  Reiske]  vii,  910)— perhaps  the 
lance  among  the  writeri  of  antiquity — and 
llustrated  by  the  idea  that  the  CYctans,  though 
frequently  at  wai  among  themselves,  were  accustomed 
lo  unite  their  powers  against  the  attacks  of  any  foreign 
foe  [tat  rovro  ijv  o  loXoviurot  irr'  aliruy  miytpif- 
•/lufl-  Kraamus  adopted  the  word  into  Ibe  Adagia 
(chiL  i,  cent.  1,  Xo.  It,  p.  SI),  and  defined  it  la  signify 
inion  of  parties  wlio  have  need  of  each  other  ot 
lesire  to  make  head  against  a  common  foe,  though 
may  not  be  influenced  to  form  such  union  because 
are  one  at  heart  Both  the  word  and  the  idea 
into  common  use  soon  afterwards,  Zwingli,  for 
iple,  in  a  letter  to  (EcoUmpadius  of  the  year  I6S5, 
imends  such  a  syncretism  {0pp.  ed.  8chiiter  et 
Schullhese,vii,S90}j  Bucer  employs  the  term  frequeut- 
connection  with  his  eflbrts  towanls  union  after 
lublicatiou  of  tbe  Augsburg  Confession  [Opp.  viii, 
as  does  also  Melancthon  with  reference  to  ihe 
buunesa  {Corp.Rr/.  ii,iSb  sq.;  i,9l7;  0pp.  lUtL 
ed.  Vilemb.  iv,  81S).  'I'be  apoalate  Slaphyhis  (q.v.) 
hargcB  Ibe  Keformers  with  being  simply  BabeMuild- 
Ts,aiid  in  selUng  forth  bis  proofa  represents  the  Lu- 
thenna  as  being  Sgnatttzanlri  (Calov.  Sftu:rff,  lliil.  i, 
a).    Zaeh.  UrHuuB  (q.  v.)  al 


unfavorable  se 

nse  (0pp.  Urn 

a.-[Ne 

ustadt,  158B 

,ii,a05. 

onIsa.iit,6). 

Syncretism  i 

thus 

shown  lo  h 

vebeen 

a  current  term  with  all  pen 

culture 

a  the  I6ih  o 

ntury,  snd  tc 

have  been  emplo 

vcd,  ac- 

cording  to  cin 

'onble  or  u 

iifavon- 

bio  meaning  1 

»  designate  an 

ilUance  of  dissent 

ngpar- 

ties  ill  de^ite 

ofalldinent. 

The 

twobld  use 

of  ayn- 

etm  of  comme 

ndatio 

con  tin- 

ilory 

but  with  a 

gradual 

of  the  latter 

Idea, 

the  in- 

lance  which  ca 

be  attached 

variation  of  doctrinal  beliefs,  lu  1603  the  Komish  the- 
ologian Windcck  wrote  against  the  Protestants  a  Prog- 
aoUictia  Fuiuri  Slului  Ecdttiir,  in  which  he  advised  tbe 
Bonwnista  to  culiivale  greater  harmony,  in  the  words 
Si  sapetcnc  Calholici,  et  ipsis  cara  esset  reipublics 


Christi 


sslus,  .J 


B  Hei- 


H>s  (q.  V.)  re  . 
<fc  Umou*  EeangtL  Cuticilianda,  wiih 
an  appeal  to  both  wings  of  tbe  Protestant  Church  for  an 
alliance  against  their  common  foe;  but  Leonhard  llut- 
ter  rejected  the  idea  of  such  an  alliance  ss  preposterous 

Adam  Contien,  followed  in  a  polemic  of  eight  hundred 
and  sixty-one  pages,  entitled  l)e  Paer  Gtrmania  Lihri 
II  (Hayence,  IStU,  Svd),  whose  principal  purpose  was 

tween  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  parlies  of  the  Prot- 
estant Church.  The  Undency,  scarcely  interrupted  by 
the  raging  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  of  Lutheran  and 
Romanist  zealots  tn  magnify  existing  diDerences  of 
opinion  and  intensify  their  influence  drew  forth  the 
proteatof  Callxtusfq.v.).  He  stigmatized  ittuehame- 
ful,  and  urged  the  making  nf  distinctions  between  doc- 
trines of  greater  and  inferior  importance,  and,  while  he 
wished  the  further  development  of  doctrinal  matien  to 
be  relegated  to  the  schools,  he  also  urged  that  a  practi- 
cal sympathy  and  fellowship  be  cultivated  between  the 
churches.  This  brought  on  him  a  storm  of  obloquy. 
The  Wittenberg  faculty  issueil  iwu  opinions,  warning 

and  deprecating  the  Sandomir  Consensus  (q.v.);  and  in 
Ibe  sane  year  (1(345)  a  Jesuit,  Veil  Erbeimann,  wrota 
a  work  entitled  Eipqvucuf  CWioJiciin,  etc„  that  de* 


SYNCRETISTIC  CONTUOVEBSIES  80  SYNCKETISTIC  CONTROVERSIES 


!»  uolice  as  being  the  pmlMble  xmr 


north 


.)n« 


i>in,  br  i 


a  ilrnnte,  nut,  as  afurctiiiir,  the  pnuMical  luociation  of 
religionisia  bolttirig  divergent  vietf)  upcin  some  ques- 

The  new  rendering  at  Che  won!  Cuniitlied  tlic  upponeDU 
of  CilixtiiswilhidililUHial  wea|wnn.<>r  which  the]' were 
Dot  alow  to  avail  tbenMClt-eii.  S«e  DiiiiiluiiiFr.  MgHr- 
riUHi  iSgHetrlanii,  mc  (Strmb.  tC48),  where  (he  idea  at 
•yncrelism  is  moile  to  iiidwie  every  rnrm  ii(  hurcTui  ■■- 
«oci»tion  or  iiiterraiiture,  e.  g,  of  Kve  with  the  wrpeiii, 
«r  tite  ehemiaU  or  mecbanjc*]  iiilrmiixdire  of  betero- 
genvnua  elementi  in  nature,  et«.  With  CaloTiui  (q.  v.) 
beicina  empbatically  tbe  u*e  of  the  tf  rni  si-ncretiam  ■■ 
denoting  ui  improper  and  iinallnwable  ipproximation 
of  Lutheran  and  Refurmed  Cbrialiaiii  lowanle  each  oth- 
er. This  view  undedie*  the  phrase  Sfocrrlulic  Con- 
Invtrtiri  (q.  v.)  as  used  in  ecc1e«aMical  history.  The 
more  benevulenc  meaning  was  (^adually  laid  aside,  and 
even  Calixtua  waa  conatraineil  lo  refuse  his  cniisent  lo 
tbe  application  of  the  term  to  hia  posiiioii.  The  per- 
vcrsiiin  bos  retiuned  its  bold  upon  the  popular  usatifc 


airiicipdvvviii.—ilmnii,  Hrut-Kneyliop.  e.  v. 
Synoretdstlc  Controveraies.   The  title  applies 

in  connection  with  efforts  made  in  [lie  sHend  half  of 
tbe  lith  century  lo  pramme  union  and  fellowsbip  be- 
tween the  Protestant  churches  i^tiprmany.  These  di»- 
putes  ro^i^d  le»  between  Kcfiirmeil  and  Lutheran  theo- 
tngians  than  between  the  strict  and  the  liberal  wing 
of  [he  Luiherau  Church  itself.  The  progress  of  con- 
lioveray,  moreover,  generally  resulted  in  (he  interweav- 
ing of  extraneous  and  foreign  matters  with  the  direct 

troversies  becnme  also  disputes  with  reference  to  [he 
dei^ree  of  freeilom  V  be  allowed  theological  achools  and 
theological  science,  the  disputinU  being  known  as  fiiie- 
ttalHlkenini  and  Moderiaioivi.  The  term  ij/acrrliim 
<q.  V.)  is  not  broad  enough  to  cover  all  tbese  several 
■lisputes,  but  is  in  practice  eu  employed  by  all  pariien. 
Everything  prior  to  the  iransactiooa  of  the  year  1645 
must  lie  regardeil  as  preliminary  lo  the  ayncreUslic 
oontroversjes  proper.  From  thai  date  we  may  diitin- 
guish  three  (leriods  to  the  death  of  Calovius'and  the 
practical  end  of  ihedispule. 

1,  /■ram  1*1!  C-Moqay  of  Thorn  lo  Ikt  Death  o/Gnrgt 
Caliilm  <1M5-,JO).-Calovius  had  succeeded  in  pre- 
vanting  the  selection  of  Calixlus  as  the  delegate  of 
Danuic  to  the  CoUmiuy  of  Thorn ;  and  when  the  latter 
waa  appointed  u>  serve  for  Kiinigoberg  instead,  Calovius 
caused  him  to  be  <teprired  of  all  opiurtunity  lo  co-op- 

;c  wiib  tbe  Lutheran  delegates.  Calixtui  thereupon 
■-'id  and  counselled  with  the  Reformed  thculogi- 
ous,  and  thereby  gave  opportunity  fur  his  opponents  \a 
Cuien  on  him  the  charge  of  an  unwirrantalile  com- 
bining of  diverse  religions — a  charge  persistently  urged, 
though  he  pnblii-ly  and  in  writing  rejected  the  Keform- 
ed  Confesniuu  of  Tliom.  The  next  measure  was  a  un- 
ion uf  all  the  Kaxoii  thealogians,  led  by  Weller,  the  au- 
perinleiident  of  Uniiiswich,  In  a  censure  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  llehnsliidl,  which  bvoral  Calixlus,  on  the  al- 
legeil  cround  that  it  hod  made  innovations  in  doctrine 
and  had  depanol  fiom  the  generallv  received  Costiavi 
fWrnala  el  Cnlnkiu  Rvdtoram.  To  this  Calixlus  re- 
Sfmudeil  with  a  denial  under  dal«  of  Feb.  26. 1647 ;  but 
with  no  other  result  than  that  of  increasing  the  eager- 
ttess  with  which  every  peculiarity  in  the  teaching  of  i 
Ilclrastiklt  was  scaiined  for  the  discover)-  of  error.  In 
l-riiK-ia,  the  appointment  of  the  Calixtines  Chr.  Dreier  ! 
and  Joliann  Latermann  to  the  faculty  of  Koni(;aberg  j 
excited  similar  disputes,  which  called  furili  numerous 
volumes  in  dpfcnce  of  either  side;  and  Calovius,  who  had! 
been  aupcrwle.!  Iiy  Dteier,  continued  to  fan  the  lUme  | 
fmm  a  distance,  even  after  Uvslenla,  its  originator,  had 
died  (in  l<!53>,  | 


The  increasing  prominence  of  Ihe  ekdors  paladn 
and  Brandenburg  was  in  this  period  regarded  with  am- 
iely  by  the  electoral  court  of  Saxony,  and  the  ref«e- 
sentatives  of  the  latter,  in  the  Peace  Congress  of  WeM- 

vent,  if  possible,  tbe  concession  of  rights  to  the  Kefunn- 
ed  churches  equal  to  those  enjoyed  hy  the  Lulhmn; 
but  [he  endeavor  failed  altogether.  The  claia  of  \ji-  ' 
tbetan  theologians  which  approveil  the  action  of  Ibc 
congress  in  tliis  regard  was  accordingly  not  in  fane  in 
elecloral  Saxony;  and  as  early  as  Jan.  2],  1618,  the  tbe- 
oli^ans  of  Wittenberg  and  Lei|>aic  were  oomtnanded  i« 
investigate  the  errors  of  the  HelmstydttheologiaiH.  anil 
s[at<  Ihem  "article  by  ■nicle."  In  ihe  following  yesi 
the  elector  addressed  to  Ibe  dukes  of  Bnniawick  a  papn 


gians  aganv 

[hat  the  lati 

dbefu 


objecl 


[cagaint 


of  hia 


hutch  a 


J  reqneHed 


In  November,  1650,  Calorius,  the  redoubtable  defeo-tn 
of  Lulheran  orthodoxy,  was  called  lo  the  raculty  ff 
Wittenberg.  An  immense  quanlity  of  conunveisiii 
wrilingK  preceded  and  followed  this  event.  Tbe  diikn 
of  llruiiswick  reftised  to  accede  In  the  request  to  silence 
their  theologians,  and  caused  a  defence  of  their  podtiuii 
to  be  written  by  Homeius.  and  a  reply  lo  the  cle<t« 
by  CalixtuB  himselfi  and  they  alsn  rejected  Ihe  pmpo- 
siiion  10  convene  a  diet  of  theologians,  as  tending  rath- 
ct  to  increase  than  diminish  the  uoublea  of  the  Churdu 
They  proposed  instead  a  eooveni  inn  of  "  political  <vua- 
cillors  who  love  peace  and  are  aaguainled  with  albin-.' 
but  this  was  rejected  by  Saxony.  On  Jan.  9.  I6&1,  Cwrn- 
ly-four  accredited  representatives  of  evangelical  powm 

in  dispute  U)  a  boily  of  peacefully  inclined  theolo^ans 
and  statesmen  for  discussion ;  but  the  eleclorof  Saiwiy. 
acting  under  the  advice  of  his  theologiaiu,  would  ni>L 
entertain  tbe  project.  The  Saxons  now  pursned  ihe 
|dan  of  dismissing  the  party  of  Ilclmstlidi  front  th*  Lu- 
lheran Church  more  Eealously  than  beliire,  and  in  il-e 
course  of  their  labors  pruduceil  a  work  which  was  ti- 
pecicd  to  serve  as  the  confession  of  failh  of  all  win 

Rrjirtifui  Fidei  etrr  Lufktrima,  To  secure  the  largest 
possible  number  of  supporters,  s  mass  of  writings  in 
harmony  with  ils  teachings  was  issued;  but  it  became 
speeilily  apparent  that  but  few  were  ready  to  adopt  the 
new  confession,  and  this  fact,  coupled  with  Ihe  death  of 
fieorge  Calixtua  in  the  spring  uf  1666,  caused  a  ceaat- 

Five  years  of  almost  total  quiet  ensued,  interropieil 
only  by  slight  agilBIions  in  Brandenburg,  where  [hi 
Lutheran  preacher  Samuel  Pomarius  (q.  v.)  was  auspeiid- 
ed  for  preaching  against  the  Keformeil  and  the  Kyncn- 
lists.     This  period  was  followed,  however,  by 

2.  Rmrtrrd  Confiidi  (1061-69),— The  iminedtale  oo 

the  landgrave  of  Hesse-C^ssel,  William  VI,  lo  secure  a 
religious  constitution  ri>r  his  land  which  shoultl  b«  ajf- 
liciently  broad  and  generous  V>  comprehend  both  Lu- 
therans and  Kefiinned  under  ita  operation,  liis  endeav- 
on  culminated  in  a  convention  which  met  at  Caseel. 
consisting  of  two  memheis  of  the  (Kefurmed)  University 
of  Marburg  and  two  theologians  lielonging  to  the  (Lu- 
lheran) faculty  of  Hinteln.  Adeclaration  was  drawn  op 
which  recognised  existing  divergencies  of  opinion  be- 
tween the  parties,  but  at  tbe  same  liirw  showed  an 
agreement  between  them  on  all  essential  matters,  and  , 
on  the  gruQiid  of  auch  consent  urged  Ihe  exeirise  of 
iHntheriy  love  and  tbe  recngnilion  of  both  panics  aa 
lielonging  to  one  Church,  aharing  in  a  common  faith 
and  looking  towanls  a  common  heaven.  1'he  appear 
once  of  this  ileclaratinn  mused  I  he  Wiltenbeigera  to  oc 
lion.  They  issued  a  circular  asking  the  support  of  al 
good  Lutherans  against  Ihe  Casiel  colloquy,  and  in 
iluced  the  facnltics  of  Jena  and  Leipsic  lo  unite  witi 
ibem  in  admonishing  Ihe  theologiona  of  Riiiielo  cou 


SVSCBETISTIC  CONTROVERSIES  87 


SYNEDRIANS 


nnim  lb*  Up«  of  which  Ihev  hu)  bftn  guilty.  A 
iMliite  of  pap«n  in  Latin  ami  Gcmaii,  limcJ  M  both 
ibt  lanwd  wurid  utd  the  public,  nis  nviw  iiepl  up  uii- 
lil  ifur  the  death  of  Williun  VI,  in  leGG,  vilieii  the 
ml  b)  Kinlcln  liecame  mucli  oukr  in  cvntcqucnce  of 
LtHfiu  cvnlerTal  on  the  lictunned  at  ibe  expeiiae  uf 
ibt  Ulhf ran  parly. 

Tbr  renewal  nt  ih?  dispute  in  Hewe  wwn  reacted 
■l>u  Bnnilmburg,  whuu  iluke  waa  brother-in-law  tu 
ihc  lindi^TBre,  aiHl  Ihiiruughlj  in  lympathy  with  his 
^lu.    The  goveninienl  iuued  a  nauiresla  deprecating 


pulpim 


jng  pomi 


augu rating  a 


of  Tril 


I  aftemranls 
.0  Berlin  Tor 


ir.'  TW  Lutbe^al1^  however,  proved  unyielding,  Ibe 
pHI  Paul  (^erhardt  (q-v.)  in  particular  being  fixed  in 
tiK  oiifasiiiau  to  any  oiiDprDmiw,  and  the  coltoquy 
(tkM  without  rawlt.  Varioua  onleis  now  followed  in 
i|UKk  ucGcsaion,  by  whicb  preacbers  were  (brbidden  tn 
■l<ply  oppcobrioiB  namea  tu  their  opponenta  in  the  pul- 
jii.  and  aba  to  attribute  to  them  doctrines  inferred 
tun  ibeir  principles,  but  not  avowed  b}'  Ibcm.  The 
Latbenna  refused  to  sign  a  pledge  of  obedience  to  theae 
Kliru,  ibii  being  in  their  eyes  tanUmount  to  s  formal 
'  'icir  poallioii,  Thegoreniment  event- 
npelled  them  to  yield,  though  many  chose  dep- 


II  I6fi4  w 


H  the 


A  Kw  phase  of  the  dispute  began 
r-iUiratiua  of  a  great  collection  of  CoiinJia  TkrolegUa 

ttiioH  Calixtiis  and  the  eyncrctiata,  and  also  the  Con- 
Kuw  Btprtiivi  f'idii  xtre  f.HlktrnBa.  The  excluaion 
'if  the  lyocrettMs  waa  now  less  aimed  at  than  lbs  rally- 
mt  of  an  strict  Lutherans  about  the  CmunttHt  aa  a  new 


The  u 


CIS.  impUciily  coDdemned  Calintus  and  his  adherenis 
b  JHU-Lutheran  and  heretical ;  anil  the  new  movement 
tOTirdiBgly  drew  out  the  aon  of  Calixtu8,Fredetieli  til- 
nr.  aba  frum  Ibis  lime  made  it  the  object  of  bi>  life  lo 
nxrt  ibe  penislent  attacks  of  Calovius  on  bia  father's 
ikuids  and  work.  Both  were  extremists,  snil  could 
am  HiUunliate  all  the  a«ertii>na  tbey  put  forth ;  but 
lilt  psny  of  Caloviu)  triumpbEil  over  Calixlua  fur  a 
uiw  through  the  cShu  of  a  new  combatant  wlium 
iIht  had  gained  lo  ibeiiaupiioTt — the  youthful  Ktrauch, 
\'-frmn  of  history  and  asscstor  in  Ibeology  at  Witten- 
Ini.  The  University  of  Helmstiidi,  on  the  otbci  hand, 
adotnl  the  servicta  of  Herman  Coming  (q.  v.),  a  schol- 
V  and  iiatesuan  of  Kuropean  fame,  and  be  gucceeded 
ra  u  pnsFuting  [o  view  the  danger  lo  tbo  peace  of  the 
ijktfcli  aod  to  tb«  liberty  of  teaching  which  grew  out 
li  lit  ituiupl  to  force  Ibe  Conteiwtt  upon  tbc  Church 
•■  a  CDnlcHion  of  faith,  that  universities  and  princes 
■fe  (lanned,  and  a  period  of  quiet  was  secured,  1669. 
I.  nsaJr«;(Hf.-Cslovius  reopened  the  war  in  16TB 
■  nk  icnutomed  energy;  and  although  the  temper  of 
ib<  liat  was  changing,  and  diegust  with  Ibe  intermiii- 
•Llt  ifgainl  hc^an  to  be  manifested,  be  was  able,  by 
ICJ,  lo  eoiopel  the  eniire  Vniveniily  of  Jena  to  di»- 

fmnl  [.I  lie  bis  laxi  vicinry.  His  aged  patron,  the  elec- 
tixJobanp  Georg  II  of  Saxony,  died  in  the  following 
JIB.  tui  [be  new  ruler  was  not  so  fond  of  controversy 
IF  ikt  vM  one  had  been.  In  16S2  the  JliHuria  Syicr., 
vbichCaluviua  bad  made  ■  etarehouse  of  the  detaila  of 
■i-iift-liingcDntesl.aiid  published  anonymously  to  evade 

•M  pncented  from  circulating  among  the  people  by 
'-*  memmmL  He  died  of  apoplexy  Feb.  21,  1CS6. 
S*  cmudenble  features  in  connection  with  the  syn- 
■imati:  amlrovenn.'  appear  after  the  death  of  Calovius. 
L'tersiu  and  members  of  the  Keformed  Church  in 
IrtTBaoy  neither  desired  nor  sought  fraternity   with 


the  fugitive  Protestants  from  France.  The  end  of  Ibe 
controversy — a  peaceful  aeparalion  between  theology 
and  religion,  [he  regulaiiun  of  the  boundaries  interven- 
ing between  Cburcb  and  school,  between  confession  aiul 
•cience,  between  that  which  it  and  that  which  ia  not, 
Btory  upon  all  Christians— was  not  attained.  Ca- 
i  held  pure  doctrine  to  be  the  oue  thing  needful, 
and  regarded  Ihul  aa  Hxcil  and  settled,  so  that  every 
(uiul  is  required  to  umply  accept  it  as  the  truth.  Ca- 
tixlus  did  not  believe  the  acceptance  of  doctrine  (o  be, 
upon  the  whole,  the  csseiilial  thing  in  Christianity,  nor 
that  all  dnclriue  bas  equal  importance;  and  he  held 
that  the  points  of  belief  which  a  Christian  absolutely 

look  minor  differences  and  desire  fraternity  among  all 
rroteslaut  Christians. 

I'he  literature  of  [he  eontmveray  is  vast.  See  enpe- 
cially  Cahivius,  Uttl.  Sgna-el. ;  Vfalth,  Slreiligifilfa  i 
liUh.  Kin'h',  pi.  i  and  iv ;  Tboluek,  ALad.  I.Am  d.  171m 
JiiArA.  (1854),  pt.il;  id.  LrbauitugHi  rf.  lulh.  Kircht 
( Beri. IS&9) ;  id. Kireil. /..Am d.llln  Jahrk. (ibid.  1861} ; 
Gass,  Gnrk.  if.  f«ol.  /i>igm,Uit  (ibid.  IS^T),  voL  ii ;  and 
tbc  works  mentioned  a.  v.  "CalixluS,Ueorge.''—llenog, 
Real-E«rykl>-p.  a.  v. 

ByncretlBta  ( n^cptirurrni,  ■muniuri),  persons 
who  advocate  a  ayeiem  of  union  and  harmony  whicb 
was  attempted  to  be  introduced  into  the  Lutbersn 
Church  in  the  I7lh  century.  It  originated  with  Ca- 
lixtne,  professor  of  ilivinity  at  Helmallidl,  who,  in  ex- 
amining the  doctrinea  profcsaed  by  the  difi^nt  bodies 
of  Chriatians,  discovered  that,  niitwithsUnding  tbera 
were  many  things  to  be  reprobated,  Itirre  waa  ao  much 
important  truth  held  by  them  in  common  that  they 
ought  to  baniah  their  animnsities,  and  live  together  aa 
diaciplea  of  one  common  Master.  Hia  object  was  to 
heal  the  divuiniia  and  terminate  the  eontesta  which 
prevailed.  Like  most  men  of  a  paciflc  spirit,  he  be- 
came the  butt  of  all  parties.  Me  waa  accused  of  Cal- 
vinism, Roman  Calhuliciam,  Arianiam,  Soeiniaiiiam,  J  u- 
daiam,  and  even  Atheism.  His  biltereet  oppoiMiil  waa 
Buscher,a  Hauoveiian  clergyman,  who  published  abook 
againat  him  entitled  Oypto-Papumiu  A'ora  Tirvlogia 
UdmtlaifitntU.  The  subject  was  taken  up  by  the  Con- 
ference held  at  Thorn  in  ihe  year  lOib,  to  which  Calix- 
tus  had  been  sent  by  the  elector  of  Bnndenburg;  and 
the  whole  force  of  the  Saxon  clergy  waa  turned  againat 
him,  aa  an  apostate  from  the  strict  and  pure  priiiciplea 


•ith  c 


Thisf 


end  his 


pel  the  attacks  of  his  enemies  lill  his  death,  in  I606. 
But  this  event  did  not  put  a  atop  to  the  controversy. 
It  continued  to  rage  with  greater  or  less  violence  till 
uear  the  close  of  the  century,  by  which  time  most  uf 
thoae  who  took  |iart  in  it  liad  died.     To  auch  a  length 

in  a  dramatic  piece  at  Wittenberg,  he  was  represented 

as  a  Send  with  boma  and  claws.  Those  who  sided  with 
him   were  called  Culalinti  or  St/acrtliili,     See  Syn- 

Byndloa  (vMibh),  or  DEFiiiSiiREa,  were  ofilcera 
whose  duty  it  was  lo  watch  over  the  rights  of  the  iioor 
and  oT  the  Church,  to  act  aa  superintendeiila  of  the 
Cnpiaia  (q.  v.),  and  to  see  that  all  clerks  attended  the 
celebraiion  of  moming  anil  evening  service  in  Iho 
church.     See  Bingbam,  CJiritl.  Antiq.  bk.  iii,  eh.  ii. 

Synecdttnt  {"vpitlripoij/rthtr-pilgrimiXA  name 
given  by  the  raulictana  in  the  9lb  century  10  their 
leschers,  becante  they  were  all  equal  in  rank,  snd  were 
distinguished  from  laymen  by  no  rights,  prerogatives, 

BynedrlMis  (fmm  tiiitpor,  <<  liiriiff  loi/ftitr),  a 
name  given  by  the  Sovalians  In  orthodox  Chriatiana, 
because  they  charitably  decreed  in  their  aynods  lo  re- 
ceive apostates  and  such  as  went  to  the  Capitol  to  sacri- 
lice  into  their  commnniou  again  upon  their  aiucetc  re< 
pentance. 


SYNERGISM  8 

SynergiBin  {•rvvipyliu,  lo  vork  logtlha)  it  the  doc- 
rrine  th«t  the  bumaa  will  co-operalM  wilh  divine  grace 
ill  the  work  of  conversion,  u  it  wu  iidvBnced  by  Eraii- 
mua  in  his  controvcrey  wilh  Lulfaer,  and  arwrwardi 
rcpiesented  by  M^lancthon  and  his  school.  Luther 
(aught  that  sin  had  absolutely 


jf  hia  wiU  a  slave,  h 
ontribQtc  in  any  wa; 


Loci  Co, 

roony  with  Luther's  view.  Such  a  view  nec«««»rily  re- 
plied in  the  doctrine  or  predestination,  and  both  Lu- 
ther and  Hclancthon  (raced  everj'tbing  back  M  tiud 
■s  the  first  cause,  the  sin  of  Judas  nu  leas  than  the  con- 
venion  of  I'auL  It  was,  however,  an  unnatural  view 
for  MeUncibon  lo  hold,  and  he  receded  from  it  into  the 
dualistic  idea  that  human  liberty  must  be  recognised 
as  a  factor  in  convenuon  by  the  Nde  of  the  divine  ne- 
cessity. In  the  third  edition  of  tlie  Loci  sin  is  derived 
from  the  irill  of  the  devil  and  of  man,  instead  of  that 
of  God;  not  everything,  cansequenlly.  is  h>  be  ascribed 
to  the  divine  causalitj,  and  there  is  a  realm  of  contin- 
genciea  by  the  aide  irf'  the  realm  of  necessity  which  is 
founded  on  Che  freedom  of  the  human  wilL  A  certain 
measure  of  volitional  freedom  to  perform  outward  works 
of  obedience  ic  the  divine  law  remains  lo  man  even  af- 
ter the  Fallj  but  be  cannot,  without  the  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  quaatttatively  and  qualitatively  fulfil  that 
law,  and  accordingly  in  every  eaai  action  three  causes 
work  together  (ouvfpyown) — the  Word  of  God,  the  Holy 
8|urit,  and  the  human  will,  which  does  not  resist  the 
Ward  of  God.and  is  at  limes  described  directly  as /u- 
cu&iu  me  appticandi  ad  gratiam.  The  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination fell,  of  course,  so  H»n  as  man  came  to  be 
regarded  as  other  than  a  volitionless  statue.  This  syn- 
ergistic theory  of  Uclancthon's  was  admitted  into  the 
Leifiaic  Interim  (q.  v.)  in  the  words  "God  docs  not  op- 
erate on  man  as  on  ■  block,  but  draws  him  in  such  a 
way  that  his  will  co-operalea."  It  wu  also  advocated 
in  a  polemical  address  by  Johann  Pfefiiiiger,  professor 
and  pastor  at  Leipsic  (ISM),  against  wbom  Amsdorlf 
(q.  v.)  contended,  in  1558,  that  "  it  is  presumptuous  to 
hold  that  man  could,  in  the  exercise  ofhisnaturnt  pow- 
ers, prepare  and  St  himself  to  receive  grace."  Ffeffing- 
«r  had  said,  however,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  must  first 
arouse  the  will,  after  which  the  latter  is  required  to  do 
itf  pan  in  conversion.  From  this  penonal  stage  the 
question  was  lifted  into  the  schools  by  Flacius  (q.  v.). 
He  denied  all  participation  of  the  will  in  the  work  of 

all  powera  for  good,  and  inclined  lo  evil  conslanlly. 
(iod,  therefore,  is  the  sole  agent  in  conversion,  and  man 
is  not  only  pasuvo,  but  also  unwilling.  To  the  defence 
of  such  postulates  Flacius  devoted  two  days  In  a  dia- 
putalion  at  Jena,  which  latter  university  now  became 
the  centre  of  strict  Lulheranism  as  against  Wittenberg, 

nre  of  this  Lutheran  champion  was  the  publicllion  of 
tbe  Weimar  Book  of  Confulaliom,  which  committed 
tbe  duke  of  Saxony  to  the  defence  of  ortbodiixy,  and 
served,  at  the  same  time,  lo  refute  atl  the  errors  of  the 
time.  It  likewise  occasioned  the  nvertbruw  of  Strigel 
(q.  v.),  who  had  been  forced  to  aid  in  making  a  first 
druft  of  the  book,  but  was  unwilling  lo  admit  into  it 
any  of  the  improvements  suggested  by  Flacius,  and 
wrote  against  it  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  ^veii  lo 
the  world.  He  was  seiied  and  imprisoned  on  Eittter- 
day,  1539,  but  was  soon  afterwards  liberated  in  defei- 


when 


JDtted  tl 


El  of  violenc 


ordered  lo  be  held  at  Wei 

nar  In  August,  15C0, 

view  to  scltling  the  dispuie 

On  this  occasion 

t  original  sin  is  not 

cidenl,bul  part  of  tbe  subs 

ly  refused  lo  relract  the  U 

court  now  bfgsn  in  wane,  a 

Id  ill  exactly  the  sa 

gree  did  the  Flacianisi  divi 

[1*8  rage  against  all  • 

colloquy  wa» 


8  SYNESIUS 

fused  W  sustain  tb«r  opinions.  Punishment  nsloidy 
followed,  and  reached  its  culmination  in  the  ditaiiail 
from  office  of  Flacius  and  his  clique,  Dec  10,  IXL 
Strigel,  on  the  other  hand,  was  induced  lo  drsw  up  ■ 
DtctaraHoH  of  hij)  views,  and  was  thereupon  rtiatfiltd, 
which  event  was  followed  by  an  explanatory  SuftTia- 
taration  from  the  hand  of  superintendent  Stooel,  de- 
signed CO  ctindliale  tbe  opposite  parly  (Catinrvii  sica- 
ifUi,  in  Salig,  iii,  891).  Strigel,  however,  nfuKil  H  t» 
cepc  Che  interpretstiun  of  his  views  given  by  Stiari, 
and  took  refuge  "from  tbe  machinaliuns  of  false  brelb- 
ren"  in  Ldpsic  The  Lutherans  who  rejected  Stcad'i 
compromise  were  banished,  to  tbe  number  of  ronr. 
The  accession  of  John  William  lo  the  throne  of  dial 
Saxony  (1667)  restored  the  Flacianiats,  Flacius  hinwir 
excepted,  Co  power-,  a  futile  colloqny  was  held  fur  tbe 
puTpose  of  giviug  peace  to  tbe  Church  at  AlleulN^ 
OcL  21, 1668;  and  tlie  duke  was  eventually  coDslisiiitil 
to  order  tbe  forming  of  the  Corpui  Dottriim  nsris- 
gicum  (Jena,  loil)  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  •»■ 
sailed  orthodoxy.  The  Fonnida  of  CanaiTd  gttt  ihc 
finishing  stroke  to  the  conflict,  and  leltled  it  mMio- 
tially  in  harmony  with  the  Flacisn  view.  See  Salij;, 
Hut.  d.  A  Offtb.  Couf.  i,  $48 1  Walch,  ReligioiMlrfilistinla, 
imtrha&d.lulh.Kire}if,i,&li  iv,8<>;  Planck,  CrJO-i 
;jror,i*Ar4^ni?>,iv,653;  SchlUwelberg.Co^oJcsiff*.  ! 
ref.v;  lialle,.Vdi(>icU«i,p.326;  Thamasius,£el>iMniii  \ 
(J.furjLKtVcAe,  elc,  p.119;  Diitlinger.  A^oniiftfKi>i,lli,  , 
437  ;  Schmici,  in  Zeilieh,:  f.  kia.  Tirol  1819,  p.  13;  I 
Preger,  M.  Flacivi  /ffyricus,  etc.,  ii,  104-W7.-ller»g.  | 
ReuUEncyldop.  a.  v.  I 

Syneslus,  bishop  of  Ftolemsis,  was  first  a  pagu.  , 
then  a  Christian,  and  always  a  rhetorician.  He  lived  at  | 
tbe  dose  of  the  4ch  and  the'beginning  of  Ihe  5th  centOTv  ' 
ofnuma.  Hewasalaterepresenlaiii'cof therhtioriol  ; 
declaimers  of  tbe  Hellenic  schools,  and  of  the  Neo-lla-  ' 
tonic  pbiloBophers.  He  wasalsnapagan  andaChtifliin 
poet,  an  elegant  gentleman  of  leisure,  and  a  bishop  ufilK 
African  Church.  ConlmBlB  were  combined  and  lecoociM 
in  Che  man  and  in  his  career.  He  lived  ill  an  age  nf 
transitions;  and  be  is,  in  his  writings  and  in  bis  <«i- 
unei,  typical  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Tie  bjoi!- 
raphy  and  the  literary  remains  of  Synesius  are  much 
more  interesting  and  instruclive  for  the  light  whirti 
they  shed  apon  Ihe  social,  intellectual,  and  religina 
condition  of  provincial  life  in  tbe  Roman  empire  daring 
the  first  period  of  its  manifest  dissolution  than  fur  >n> 
influence  exercised  by  him  on  the  liieraiuiT',  the  pbih*- 
ophy,  the  paganism,  or  tbe  Christianity  of  his  limo, 
or  on  the  sencimenla,  convictions,  occhnracier  of  nlise- 

"  the  sweetest  of  philosophers  and  the  delight  of  ibe 
pious  muses"  ("suuvistumuB  philosopbos  et  piamm4e- 
licium  musarum,"  Fraf.  Up.  Gng.  A^yWrt..) ;  Jtl  (to 
authors  have  excited  so  much  admiration  and  been  to 
seldom  read.  Few  have  been  so  ollen  quoted  by  tbt 
few  who  were  acquainteil  with  him,  and  been  so  iiuc- 
cessible  for  many  generations,  even  lo  pmfened  ecbsl- 
'  Syneaius  are  BO  special  in  ibni 


cd  class  of  Bl 


It  they  Bl 


The  pi 


that  only  the  frequentei 


e  illusinr 
ning,  and  so  little  cnosideie 
»s  of  hislarc  * 
™  than 


turies  inlervened  between  two  editions  of  his  worai. 
After  this  long  interval,  three  complete  editions  hate 
been  published  within  tbe  laac  twenty  yearat  Ok  ii 
only  a  Idlln  version,  another  is  a  French  translaljun. 
and  Ihe  third  is  no  more  than  a  reprint  of  tbe  tirrtk 
texl  and  Latin  rendering  from  the  edition  of  1640,  wiili 
some  slight  correclions.  I'he  writings  of  Synesiiis.  Lb 
prose  or  verse,  inspired  by  pagan  or  by  Christian  infiu- 
eiices,ate  much  less  nniable  for  literary  chsnn.fut  vigor- 
ous ihought,or  for  philosophical  reflection  than  ■SBprt*- 
entaiinn  of  the  feelings,  the  aspirations,  Ihe  alrufrglri. 
the  diflicnilies,  tbe  hajanls,  the  gratifications,  ihe  sn- 
noyancee,  the  occupalions,  and  Ihe  assodalionsof  acal- 


SYNESIUS 


umtiteaatrj  gentleaii 

(f  AntdiDi  uid  tJoooriiu,  wtacn  tU  p«rt>  oS  the  empire 
mt  riUofi  [0  piens.  They,accutdinKlr,  inlcrprctche 
[iaa  [uc  IB,  mil  require  ifl  be  iuUrpreied  by  them. 

L  naraatrand  Circum4iaitett  n/tta  Age. — The  life 
el.Sriiaiiil  ■>•  cut  in  ■  itarnir  peiini ;  Bild  tbe  Uonna 
■RF  DM  LmitRl  u>  hi<  own  province,  but  iwrpt  over  the 
■bolt  toipirr.  It  «u  the  (ge  of  geural  diuolutlon, 
pJilidl,  tnriil,  intellectual,  uiil  religioun;  an  iga  of 
mirpiiinu  and  civil  diMxrda;  of  crimes  in  the  palace 
■ulUtKberia  in  IheSlatej  of  barbarian  invasionii  of 
pmninnl  diunembermenli;  of  itrife  between  pagani 
lai  Cbristiam;  nf  OHitroTeniea,  bertsies,  and  Khiims 
in  ibcChrutiaD  Church;  of  social  depravation  aud  de^ 
nr^  14'univenal  di^integnition,  and  of  rapid  material 
6f±rn,  The  dale  of  the  birth  of  Syneaii  ' 
Kraincd.  If  he  wat  bom  iu  B70,  it  occurre 
rg  yrta  after  the  death  of  the  pagan  emperor  and  thr 
biiimof  bb  attempt  to  realore  paganiem.  When  Sy- 
DsiadiHl,  if  he  died  in  431,  Uensetjc  and  his  Vandils 
btJ  anied  a  large  part  of  AlHcai  Britain,  Gaul, 
^liwi  had  been  cut  off  from  the  Roman  domii 
DmiiK  hi]  lifetime  usnrpcr  had  apning  up  afier  lu 
H',  .Iaa  Minor  and  Greece  and  Ital;-  bad  been  ravaged 
bi  lit  Uoth);  ConManlinople  had  been  threatened  and 
EoH  thrice  captured  b;  tbem,  and  Alaric  hid  kd  hia 
*ild  Inu  from  the  Alpa  to  Scylla  and  Cbarybdia. 
milt  Sraniut  wag  HilJ  a  child  io  the  cradle,  Fi 
lidl  RTulied  in  Egypt,  and  the  innineetion  had  been 
mivfilifterthelapaeofa  few  year«,to  be  cnuhed  out 
ii  tk  GiUonic  war.  Strangely  enough,  id  none  of 
that  ponentoua  eTenti  is  any  diitincl  alluaion  made 
iiltHmiiaiBiDf  this  author,  except  to  the  Gothic  in- 
■mniMi  in  Phrygia.  There  ia  a  poiaible  reference  to 
ibtCUdonicwar  ( CVif (ufarir,  ii,  1).    In  theearly  nralior 

(uaiuiiiribe  fearful  perils  from  the  Northern  hordes  jm- 
fniiag  orer  the  empire  (I/e  Rrgnn,  c  xxi-xxiv).  Wli 
la  mini  ■>  engrosard  by  literary  Ubors,  by  philosoph- 
nl  rpcculations.  and  by  troubles  nearer  home  that  the 


nn  in  ia  candid 


Or  waa  b 


slobiafricnds?    Yet 

ic  chaim  between  the  birth  and  the  death  of  Sy 
■  irere  not  the  mnet  griiTOus  calamities  of  thoae 
I  Eren  more  grieroua  was  the  social 
i  iDTiied  the  inyasiona,  and  rendered 

There  was  no  coheaion  or  conccn 
lepiDi^ncea;  ito  devotion  to  empenH-orem| 
but  division,  iaolation,  misery  everywhers — as 
least,  of  imperial  rule  and  im- 
pn>]  ■■iDiniMratiuii.  The  organization  oftbegovem- 
•eai  va  iiDpitcnt  for  defence,  or  for  that  vigorous  at- 
ik*  'bich  is  often  the  best  means  of  defence.  It  waa 
Minvaily  devised  for  inflicting  needless  and  paialyi 
E(  nitratnl,  and  for  extorting  revenue  from  penury 
Kj  iridF-iiiread  diMreaa.  Ldndi  were  left  uncuUlvat«l 
■4  ibuist  without  inhabitaiita.  Wide  tracts  relapsed 
■C"!  ImM  or  maiah.  The  people  were  ground  by  taxes 
bA  the  luinooa  nwdc*  of  collecting  them.  Uovemenl 
^  BUetpriK  were  prevented  in  order  to  facilitate  Bscal 
•mafmaeata  Bridges  were  bn^en  down  by  time  and 
■riin.  Kosd»wereleliwithouliepair,andbecameim- 
^«Ue.  Gunmonieation  was  rendered  difficult.  Com- 
•"v.  oanulactures,  and  industry  of  all  kinds  were 

niTHve  repvna  banditti  luriied  in  the  woods,  infested 
U»  bil^wsys,  and 


h  ba.ldi 


a  pmbyter  nearly  cc 
•k  theii 


OneU 


■fOn  Ttfodimm  Codr,  whose  compilatioi 
lbs  ij-r,  a  DCBipied  with  defining  and  enforelng  tbe 
I  Wiliiiu  (a  municipal  and  other  puUic  burdens,  and 
I  mh  npiluiog  and  reMiicling  the  exeroplions  from 
'  IttiajWhiA  were  oflen  arbiinrily  and  eapriciouilj 


corded.     The  hard  struggle  for  bare  life  engrossed  near- 
ly all  thoughts;  and  irregular,  treacheroue,  and  violent 

ver  opporiuniliea  of  indulgence  pre- 

The  general   demoralization  and 

the  social  disinlegraliun  were  aggravated  by  divisions 

the  Christian  Cbuich,  wbich  weakened  the . 

the  new  religion,  and  by  the  great  contention 

ecn  Cliriaiianitv,  oflen  sadlv  coiruplrd,  and  the 

■lich  wascogniz  "      '■ 


itofitj 


■laofgov 


law,  morals,  and  religion  were  fearfully  enfee- 
bled,    tull  and  indisputable  infunoitlan  in  regard  to 

Cieiialt  Dti  nf  Augustine  and  the  IM  Guhtrnaliam 
Z>ri  of  Saivlan  ofManeille*.  Yet,  despite  all  interrup- 
tions and  apprehensions,  philosophy  and  literature  con- 
tinued to  be  cultivated.  Thiloiopby  tost  itself  in  Neo- 
Platonic  faplaaies  and  Oriental  mysticism.  Literature 
was,  in  large  part,  made  up  of  pedantic  epiailesaiid  rhe- 
torical affectatio         "  "- 


id  Symi 


No  a 


be  sought  than  is  contained  in  the  proiluctionsof  Syne- 
aius.  It  was,  however,  also  the  era  of  the  great  Chris- 
tian orators  and  fathers,  who  contended  earnestly  against 
vice  in  high  plaoes,oppressi»n  and  wrong  wherever  they 
were  found,  and  the  manifold  diBtretses  of  the  people. 
Ambrose,  Bawl,  Augustine,  John  Chrysostom,  Jerome, 
and  the  two  Gregvries  illustrated  tbe  Christian  Church 
in  that  age,  and  attracted  the  admiration  of  pagans  aa 
well  aa  of  the  followers  of  their  own  creed.  To  none 
of  them  does  Syneuua  mnke  any  reference.  These, 
■hen,  were  the  varied,  and  in  many  respects  alarming, 
aspects  of  the  yeaia  which  measured  the  career  of  8y- 
nesiuB,  aikd  by  them  its  anomalies  are  rendered  intel- 
ligible. 

II.  Lt/c.— Synesiuswas  probably  bom  about  the  year 
S70.  Some  authoiiliea  say  in  ST6.  His  birthplace  was 
Cyrene,  the  capital  of  Cyrensica,  the  tract  whichst  retch- 
es along  the  AfHcan  coast  westward  ftom  Egj'pt.  Cy- 
rene  was  a  Dorian  colony  of  the  mythical  ages;  and 
SynesiuB  claimed  for  himself  the  must  illustrioua  Laco- 
nian  descent.  In  his  denunciation  of  Andronicus,  he 
contrasts  tbe  splendoi  of  hia  own  lineage  Hilh  the  mean 
extraction  of  the  imperial  governor.  "  lu  default  of 
other  merit,"'  says  he,  "I  descend  from  Eurysthene! — 
from  anceaton  whose  names,  from  Euryslhenes,  who  led 
the  Dorians  into  Laconia,  down  to  my  father,  are  in- 
scribed in  the  public  registers"  (Epitl.  Ivii ;  comp.  Cala- 
ibuu,  ii,  b).  Thia  deduces  his  line  from  the  royal  house 
of  Sparta,  though  be  has  blundered  in  his  statement  of 
the  ancient  legend.  His  family  was  opulent  i,Epiil. 
cxaxiii).  He  had  a  city  house,  and  coootry  estates  in 
which  be  took  unceasing  delight.  Meverlbeles^  be  dil- 
igently soDgbt  exemption  from  civic  and  Hscal  burdens. 
His  love  of  letter*  and  philosophy  must  have  been  man' 
ifeateil  early,  for  his  tastes  were  already  decided  and 
much  accomplishment  attained  when  be  proceeded  to 
"  '    <SM)  to  attend  the  Neo-Platonic  a    '      ' 


n  that  ti 


IB  city.     Hen 


the  beautiful,  brilliant,  and  unfortunate 
Hypatia.  He  enrolled  himself  among  ber  disciples. 
He  secured  her  esteem  and  regard,  and  always  retained 
the  warmest  admiraliun  fur  her.  Seven  of  his  letlen 
■re  addressed  (o  her.  On  returning  from  Egypt,  be 
went  to  Athens,  to  complete  his  education  at  that  old 
centre  of  learning  and  refinement,  whence  had  issued, 
in  the  preceding  generation,  the  empctni  Julian  and 
many  of  his  distinguished  contemporaries,  psgan  and 
Cbristian.  He  was  utterly  disenchanted  by  his  visit, 
and  made  no  long  stay  (£;iur.liv,cxxxv).  After  desert- 
ing Athens,  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  Alexandria,  as  ii 
shown  by  a  graphic  and  humorous  letter  {Und.  iv),  de- 
scribing the  hazards  of  shipwreck  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed on  his  return.  (Dnion,  p.  A8T-fi89,  discuasea  the 
calculations  of  Petavius  and  TiUemont,  and  asngns  this 
voyage  to  897.}     Soon  after  bia  letnm,  be  waa  aeni  by 


SYNESIUS  - 


90 


SYNESIUS 


bit  rdlow-dtizem  lo  Constantinoplr,  to  prcMnt  tbcit 
pclitions  anil  >  golJen  cruvrn  lo  ihe  younc  emperor 
ArudiuB  (l>e  Bfffao,  e.  ii).  He  wis  a  youthrul  Kmbiis- 
Uilnr.  He  appein  In  have  diochirReil  liia  miaaicm  with 
abiliiy,  iccepunee,  anil  same  Jegree  of  succeai.  The 
emperor  wii  Hill  under  tulvlafie.  Everything  wai  in 
nniruiion.  The  eouct  wu  diilncted  by  liitlfc  rivalries. 
AUrU  hail  recently  ravaged  (ireece  and  threatened  Ath- 
ens. During  hia'atiy  the  iusurreclion  of  the  Golhe  in 
Phry([i«  oecurred.  It  woa  no  wonder  that  ho  npcri- 
enceil  frequent  inattenlicm  and  dwheanening  procrasti- 
iulion>,and  that  he  was  at  times  r&luccil  almoit  to  des- 
titution and  despair.  Ilehiii  the  honor  of  delivering  a 
public  harangue  before  the  emperor.  He  gainul  influ- 
eiiliil  friends,  establisheil  a  repnlalion  for  literary  tal- 
ent, and  acquired  elegant  correspondenlo,  who  would 
display  and  enlngize  his  epistles  at  Constant inople, 
while  he  would  pay  the  ume  compliment  to  theirs  at 
Cyreiie.  One  thing  he  accomplished  for  bimaeir— im- 
munity from  public  dues.  An  earthquake  hastened 
and  excused  bis  departure  from  the  capital  of  Ihe  East- 
ern Empire.  On  reaching  borne  he  found  his  cotintty 
desolated  by  baiharian  war,  an  affliction  froin  which  it 
had  selilom  been  entirely  free  for  five  centuries.  The 
nomads  from  the  ed|^  of  the  I  jbyan  dewrl  were  mak- 
ing rrighlful  irruptions,  plundering,  deslmying,  murdcr- 
int;,  and  meeting  with  liitle  and  only  inetTectual  resist- 
ance (Kpiil.  civ,  cjtiii,  cxxiv).  The  governor  and  offi- 
cials were  more  studious  of  pillowing  than  of  repelling 
other  |Hl1ap:rs.  Synesiiiis  calling  tn  mind  his  Laconian 
descent  and  the  example  of  Leonidos,  and  having  ap- 
parently had  lome  military  training 


1  bis  neighbors 


d  led  t 


t  the  spoilers.  This  war  with  the  noiriads, 
which  was  renewei)  from  time  to  time,  is  mentioned  in 
many  of  his  letters,  and  forms  the  subject  of  a  special 
tracr.  These  prmlnctions  exhibit  the  weakness  and 
wretciiedness  of  the  province— the  neglect,  imbecility, 
cowanlice,  and  rapacity  of  the  imperial  anthorilieSi  and 
the  disgust  of  Synesiut  at  the  conduct  of  both  the  peo- 

er,  in  tlie  intervals  of  partial  or  local  repose,  he  tnjoy- 
«!  an  elegant  and  learned  retreat  in  his  country  resi- 
dences, duding  occupation  iu  study,  literary  production, 
and  Tnral  pursuits,  and  relasatinu  iu  hunting,  mouly 
sports,  and  an  active  cntrcspnudence.  Two 
more  after  the  close  of  his  emliassy  he  revisit 
dria.  It  was  during  tliis  visit  that  he  marrieiL  tie 
received  his  wife  fmm  the  bands  of  the  patriarch ;  and 
lo  lier  and  lo  bis  children  he  remained  always  teudeily  at- 
tachol.  Hit  marriage  was  his  first  visible  contact  uith 
Christianity.  It  was,  perhaps,  decisive.  It  is  no  vio- 
lent presumption  to  suppose  that  liis  wife  was  Cliris- 
tiaii,  as  he  receiveil  her  from  the  Christian  bishop  of 
Ak'xamlria  (KpUI.  cv).  "The  unbelieving  husband 
VMS  barf  bten  saiKtilled  by  the  believing  wile;"  at  the 
wife  may  hare  been  cli<isen  with  a  prevenlent  dispoM- 
tion  to  believe.  There  is  no  evidence,  no  intimation 
of  Ibis.  Ttie  mm  was  wrilten  about  this  lime.  It  is 
pocan.  The  ireaiise  Oh  Drnimi  was  composed  after 
bis  niarrisce.  It  Is  mystical  and  Ken-llalonic,  and  ac- 
cords with  Christianity  as  little  as  Cicero's  diiloftiie  l>e 
Dirimiliuiif.  After  an  abmle  at  Alexandria  of  more 
Ibau  two  years,  and  the  birth  of  a  son,  he  came  back  to 
Cyrcne,  which  was  shortly  afterwards  4Ksieged  by  ibe 
barbarians.     Duringtiic  succeeding  years  lie  must  have 


incliiieil  inure  at 


a  pbikwophical  il 


na!<.    The  d 


reputed  a  Chrixtian,  or  "  almost  a  Christian,"  when  elect- 
ed Usbnp  oflHalemais  (409, 410).  The  episrop.ilG  was 
a  very  dilTerent  function  then  from  what  it  has  been  in 
iercner  and  more  settled  periods.  The  bishop  was  the 
guiile,  the  advocate,  the  pmlector,  the  HiippiTt.and  often 
the  judge  of  the  Christian  flock.  His  civil  ailribules 
were  of  the  utmost  impnrtnice  to  the  daily  life  of  his 
people.     Character  was  of  more  immcdiaie  concern  la 


them  than  doctrine.  Synenus  hod  gaitied  and  dnerrsd 
Ihe  esteem  and  conUdence  of  his  countrymen.  The  mn- 
ropolitan  Church  of  I'tolemais  demanded  him  fur  iii 
bishop.  He  was  unwilling  to  incur  the  solemn  res[iii-- 
sibililies  of  the  poMlion.  He  declined,  he  pnMMed.  ht 
urged  objections  which  might  be  deemeil  insupenli«<^ 
He  could  not  put  away  the  wife  to  whom  he  was  de- 
voted; he  was  unwilling  to  forego  the  pleasures  of  the 
chase,  Ihe  other  recreations  of  the  couniiy,  and  the  lit- 
erary and  philosophical  ease  which  had  been  the  ctuni 
ofhUILfe.  Hehndneitherrelish  nor  aptitude,  he  Ihougti, 

devolve  upon  him.  He  could  not  surrender  the  Neo- 
Flatonic  cnni-ictiniis  which  he  hid  approved,  expouinl- 
ed,and  still  believed:  yet  he  recognised  that  Ihev  nen 
at  variance  with  Christian  doctrine^  In  an  etabnnir 
letter  to  his  brother  he  preients  earnestly  the  gnwnlt 
of  his  hesitation  and  reluctance.  He  begs  him  to  Itr 
his  views  iKfore  Ihe  patriarch  Theophiliis,  whoae  deri- 
sion be  ij^rees  to  receive  as  the  decree  of  (iod  {Epal.cr\ 
The  patriarch  must  have  recommended  bis  acceplSBtt 
of  the  sacred  honor,  notwithstanding  his  A'uia  pfw:-- 
pnri.  He  was  consecrated  at  Alexandria  by  Tlieofih- 
ilns.  Seven  months  aflerwanls,  being  still  in  that  air, 
he  declared  that "  Ite  would  have  preferred  many  deiiii< 
to  the  ejHSCOpatc''  {EpiM.  xcv).  Did  he  separate  Imm 
hiswife?  Druonlhinkathatbedi'L  Ithasbeenmm 
frequently  supposed  that  the  separation  was  not  reqolrH 
of  him.  Did  he  yield  his  convictions  in  regard  to  Itir 
pr6-existence  of  souls,  the  non-resurrection  of  the  hodr, 
and  the  incompatilHlity  of  Christian  rioctriiie  with  rr- 
vealeil  truth?  M.  Druon  again  confidently  oonclDdn 
that  he  did.  Other  inquiren,  ancient  and  modem.  Ik- 
lieve,  with  more  probability,  that  he  continued  hj  en- 
tertain them,  for  some  lime  at  leasl,  after  bis  elentioiu 
He  may  have  acted  on  the  convenient  pritKiple  of  Se*- 
vola  and  Varro,  which  he  avowed  in  the  letter  to  lilt 
brother,  that  many  things  in  religion  ate  ollegotiesl, 
which  it  is  expedient  to  inculcate  upon  the  vulgar,  wbo 
are  unable  to  receive  tnitk  In  it*  purity.  At  any  ntr. 
be  discharged  with  enei^,  resoluiimi,  inlegrily.  ar-L 
skill  the  administrative  and  other  extentalofBceaoftbe 
episcopate.  He  boldly  assaileil  the  tyranny  and  rapaci- 
ty of  the  governor  of  the  province,  and  succeeded  in  re- 
lieving the  provincials  of  his  rule.  His  denunciation  eS 
I  Androuicussun'ives.  Another  incident  of  his  cpisropil 
\  aptitudes  is  preserved.  He  efiecled  an  amicable  *vA 
I  satisfactory  settlement  between  two  of  bis  sultragins  fi* 
I  Ibe  possession  of  a  dismantled  fortress  on  the  border  «f 
their  respective  dioceses.  There  was  ample  occasion  for 
the  display  of  his  sagacity  and  forlilude.  I'he  larifns 
of  the  nomads  weie  renewed.  The  Ansurians  besieged 
Plolemais.  The  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  was  hi*- 
tained  by  the  courage  of  their  bishop,  who  continue-l 
zealous  in  seeking  protection  (or  the  province,  and  hu 
transmitted  to  our  daj-s  Ihe  reciird  of  its  woes.  lie" 
much  longer  he  guided  bis  diocese  we  do  not  know. 
The  dale  usually  assigned  for  his  death  (430,  431)  it 
founded  on  a  dubious  conjecture.  InihiadaieH.DnH>n 
does  not  concur.  He  considers  a  letter  lo  Hypatia,  wril- 
ten from  a  sick-bed,  ind  ascribed  In  413,  to  be  hts  lales 
epistolary  or  other  production  (Epiit.  xvi)  (Dnion,  p 
551):  and  believes  that  be  escaped,  by  an  earlier  death, 
Ihe  affliction  of  knowing  Ihe  tragic  fate  of  "his  teacher 
mother,  sister,  friend."  It  would  be  stnngp,  hod  he 
known  ii,tbat  no  mention  of  her  murder  occuni  in  Irlln 
or  other  t  real  i*c.  A  fantastic  legend,  two  centuries  aflcr 
his  death,  aiiributed  lo  him  a  miracle  for  the  proof  of  the 
resurrection.  The  greatest  of  all  miracles,  in  hi>  can-, 
was  that,  being,  or  having  l>een,  a  Neo-Ilatonist,  be  be- 
came >  bishop  <>r  ibe  rbrislian  Church  without  the  full 
renunciation  of  his  views;  that,  being  a  provincial  of  sii 
African  province,  he  ocipdred  eminence  in  diplomacy, 
in  philosophy,  and  in  |>oeii3';  thai,  living  amid  the  tur- 
bulences, vices,  and  meannesses  of  Ihe  Gib  oentnrT.  lie 
maintained  the  reputation  of  an  innoccni,  uncfre,  aud 
gallant  man. 


SYNESIUS  e 

tit  Wtrit.— The  works  of  Synesiui,  tuiuUy  bHef— 
(m  ihe  Mm  ig  one  of  ilie  longeii— ftr«  numeroua  inii 
virifd.    ThfT  are  of  great  iuMmt.     We  may  concede 

litnHceaf  big  Taney  >iid  the  pmprieLy  of  hurefleclifina: 
■(  nay  ti'y-y  ii>e  frohnem  and  limplicity  ot  many  uf 
bu  iHtvni,  ami  [he  unallnyed  purity  of  his  lentimenta; 


anbippj  pe*™«.  wm" 
OHrial  aguny,  that  eivf  ■  value  lo  hii  remiiiu  far  tnn- 
■xwling  their  literary  ami  phiUiaophical  eiivUeiicea. 
Tliese  eicellencn  were,  indeed,  couitlerbalanced  by  very 
m%t  deffctib  The  style  oTSynetiua  ii  (oo  oHen  cbai- 
■ctniied  by  iffeclaliuns,  aUiiind  fanciei>  and  a  coii- 
tdoa  cnvini;  fur  (li(t|>Uy.  Hia  philoaophy  ia  ■ithout 
■■riKinaliiy.  Yet  even  hii  philoaophy  meriu  attention, 
w  Ulutuaiiog  the  tine  graiUtiona  by  which  pagan  apec- 
ulalien  mdied  into  tlie  aemblance  Df  Chriaiianily  wiih- 
lui  iliveMing  itaelf  of  its  paf^aii  phraM  and  tpirir. 

The  work*  of  Syriesiua  which  survive  (for  his  juve- 
nile poem,  the  CjHrjFrfKU, or,  Oh  I/nnling.hta  been  lost) 
an,an  ^  Jdrtu  lo  Pteotam,  KtT*  lir  Gi/I  of  an  A  tirelaht, 
uimied  or  irapruvcd  by  himself,  in  which  be  enconr- 
tffA  bis  friend  lo  proeeeuu  Ihe  sludy  of  astronomy : — 
■n  Oratim  on  Cmvrwimf,  delivered  at  Cnnitanlinapli 
Lefbn  ihe  eispcmr  Arcidiui;  it  is  somewhat  commoD' 
ptie^  bat  is  remarkable  for  the  boldnesa  anil  freedom 
^\a  Dtierancc  anil  fi>r  its  sound  aense :— fiion,  which 

■  so  olltd  in  honor  of  Dion  Chr>-Boitam,  his  exemplar 
u  Kyle  and  habit  of  thought.  This  treats  of  the 
iag  of  a  philoaopher,  nr,  rather,  of  what  had  been  the 
aaaail  I  be  result  of  hia  own  education  in  philoaophy. 
Ii  B.  ia  tatet  wrt,  a  aeiui-pagan  aaiicipation  of  the  Rt- 
iilio  Medici  ot  Sir  Thomas  Dniwne.  'I'he  treatise  is  at 
tmes  iruKendcntal,  but  abounds  in  high  fancies  and 
;:eBeniB  ■apiraitons.     The  Unanaiam  an  Biitdnru  is 

■  rheliirical  cxiravaftania,  a  counterpart  and  rei^v  lo 
Una  Cbr)'KiMoai'*  Kulagg  of  Unii:  The  specnlaliun 
0*  ttrrami  ia  umply  ■  specimen  of  suiierntition  and 
)>B>-nuanic  mysticism.     It  waa  taoncireit  or  loaded 

■  by  Nicephorua  Uiegoraa.  The 
r  the  production  consists  of 
m  diMinct  parts— is  chiefly  ■  mournful  reoiiaiion  of 
ibc  aiwrie*  of  Cyrenaica,  induced  by  chronie  ti>iagor- 
tmBHU  and  oppressic-n,  and  by  the  reiterated  inrasiona 
<t  the  DDoiad*.  It  iis  peihapa.  (he  auongest  testimo- 
gj  to  ibe  weakness,  impoverishment,  and  disorganiia- 
isaef  ibe  prm-incKt  ol  the  empire  that  he  sacribea  the 
cilsmiiies  which  he  specially  deplores  to  only  one  thou- 
•nd  Aiaurian^  and  says  that  they  were  defeated  and 
kaltend  by  forty  imperial  trooper^  Unuigirdie.  The 
mud  Otfatfufu  is  a  eulogy  of  Anysius,  the  leader  d~ 
iImo  L'oni«udie,  and  ihemilitary  chief  of  the  provinc 
rkae  Cnlailatn  resemble  the  o^-erwruuRht  declami 
tuu  of  the  prufeasional  rbetoricians.  In  the  som 
Mmn.  also,  is  (be  declamation  Ai/oiiat  AndroKKia,  , 
bUt.  «i[itled  Tilt  Egyplun,  or  On  PrVTidmer,  is  a  n 
(Rt  fur  Ibe  deposition  and  a  laud  for  the  restoration  o 


inrfM.     A  couple  of  brief  llemiiit,  are  entitled  to  no 

•fecial  t-Kio. 

The  DM  important  and  the  mint  iitiercolinK  of  the 

TMoins  of  SynesiiBi  ore  bia  tjUtr,.  1&7  or  lfi9  in  iium- 

dadtd  from  or  U  indu.Ird  in  the  series  of  Kpinb,,  and 

in  llpamt.    The  letters  are  of  diverse  style,  and  on  the 

■M  dissimilar  occasions.     Some  ore  formal  letters  of 

axoUe  ««   lilerary    flliK»w  than   for   Ibeir  contenl- 

OUm  iHMia  an   friendly  communicmtiuns  or  eyneot 

mtfacr  11  dinct  mad  oOcMioMte,  ind  i*  rendered  at 

I  SYNGE 

tractive  by  the  revelation  of  his  dispositioD,  (eelinn 
-  iJ  circumstances.  The  hmily  and  serious  lellera 
loke  a  farorable  contrast  to  the  redundant  epislolog- 
iphy  of  Libanius  and  Symmachns,  and  aRord  in  an 
equal  degree  pleasure  and  instruction. 

There  is  much  variance  of  opinion  in  regard  to  both 
the  character  and  Ihe  dates  of  Ihe  llgmm  of  Synesiua. 
Drunnhaseudeavoreilloflx  Iheif  chronolof-y, but  Itard- 
ly  secures  confidence  in  his  conctusioiu.  The  first  iwo 
were,  oimosl  certainlv,  the  earliest.  They  are  thorouch- 
1y  Neo-Pbionicand  probably  pagan.  The  rest  may  be 
Christian,  with  a  diminishing  Neo- Platonic  complexion. 
mly  one  entirely  free  from  this  philosophical  choi^ 
istic  is  the  short  one  numbered  the  tenth.  Druon 
aisigns  seven  of  the  hymns  lo  the  years  preceding  hia 

The  third  hymn  is  Neo-Platonie,  but  it  is  as  Christian 
as  the  ninth.  The  later  Neo-PUtouism  apes  so  closely 
and  sohabitually  the  languageandscntimenla  uf  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  Christianity  of  Alexandria  is  oflen  so 
deeply  imbued  with  Neo-Platnnism,  that  exact  discrim- 
ination between  pagan  and  Christian  utterances  is  not 
always  possible.  The  convicliuns  or  men  were  then  in 
a  tranution  alsge  in  ei'erylbine,  and  pagoiibm  and 
Christianity  freiguenlly  lapsed  into  each  other.  There 
is  a  passage  in  Ihe  third  hymn  (rer.  210-230)  which 
may  be  simply  Neo-Plalonic,  hut  it  bears  a  striking  re- 
semblance, in  thought  and  expression,  to  pans  of  the 
Alhanaxiaii  Creed.  Aa  the  conversion  of  Synesiun  can- 
not be  Axed  to  any  certain  dale,  anil  as  he  avoweil  his 
inability  to  renounce  his  philosophic  opinions  when 
chosen  bishop,  all  riie  hymns  may  bare  been  composed 
under  Christian  iulluences,  and  all  but  the  last  may  re- 
tain Net^Platonic  tendencies,  without  being  thereby 
rendered  pagan.  But  these  questions  cannot  be  di*- 
cussed  here.  The  hymns  of  Synesius  exhibit  no  emi- 
nent poetic  meriu  Their  attraction  lies  in  their  phihia- 
ophy,  iu  tbeir  ease  of  expression  and  facility  of  versifi- 
cation, tt  was  a  strange  ailaplalion  of  Anacreontic  me- 
tie  to  fit  it  to  philoaophical  and  Iheoli^csl  songs.  Yet 
it  may  well  be  asked  what  meaning  should  be  attached 
lo  Ihe  claim  of  Synesius,  in  the  opening;  of  the  seventh 
hvmn,  to  have  been  the  tint  lo  tune  his  lyre  iu  houor 
of  Jesus. 

IV.  Littraiurr, — £jme«V  Oi--i",  cd.  Tnmebi  (ed.  prin* 
cep^  Paris,  IMS,  fol.);  >./.  e.).  Klorell.  {ibid.  1SI2,  fd.; 
curr.  et  aucia,  tIMO.  llUiS) ;  id.  apud  fSirsum  falrolo- 
gia,  etc,  ed.  Uigoe  (Latin,  ibid.  IH.MI,  Svo;  Greek  and 
I^lin,  ibid.  I8U4,  tlvo);  I>ninn,  ItJucm  dt  Sjmrriiio, 
Iruit,  en  /'tuofuil  (iUd.  1KT8,  8va);  Sgiieiii  Uymni, 
ed.  Itoissonade.  apud  Porn.  Gr.  Ssll"gt  (ibid.  1824-82)  j 
Sgnfiii  l/^mni  Mtlrici,  eiL  Fhick  (Tub.  1876);  Sjm«- 
tii  Epiilola,  eil.  Heischer,  apud  Jipiiloloffr.  Gr.  (I'arii, 
1878);  Chladni,  Thmliigumma  Sytrtii  (Witienb.  1718, 
4lo);  Boyseii,/'Ai/oMpj|uiiinu.Vynrjni'(lIalte,17l4,4lo); 
Clausen,  Dr  Synetiii  Philovplio  (UaSa.  1)»1)(  Krauo^ 
Obi!.  Cril.  ia  Ajrt»"'i  Cyrm.  KptHolia  (Katisbon,  lfl63)( 
Rllies  Dupin,  A'ourenu  BitHoHii^ut  dfi  A  ultur*  EccUt^ 
ntliqun:  Tillemonl,  lliitime  Kcfliiiuiliqur,  xii,  499- 
o44;  Ceillier,  tlil.  At  Aulimt  Santi,  x,  I496-1B17; 
\'i[\i!main,L'£iiiiutnu€hrilit«iKaulVtSiirlt(Pi.ni). 
(O.  F.  11.) 

Bynge,  Edwam),  an  Irish  prelate,  was  boni  atlni>> 
honane,  April  G,  tdW),  and  was  the  second  son  of  Ed- 
wanl,  bishop  of  Cork.  He  was  eibicated  at  Ihe  gram- 
mar-school St  Cork,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  fin- 
ishing his  stmlies  in  the  Univrnity  oT  Dublin,     tlii 


ill  parish. 


in  the  tli 


of  Meath,  which  he  exchanged  for  the  vicarage  of 
Christ  Church,  Cork,  where  he  wr^eil  for  over  twenty 
yearn.  In  IG99  he  waa  offered  Ihe  deanery  of  Deny, 
but  declinid  it  for  his  mothetV  sake.  He  was  chosen 
proctor  for  Ihe  chapter  in  the  Convocalion  ofllOS,  and 
soon  after  was  presented  with  Ihe  crown's  title  to  the 
deanery  of  ISt.  Patrick  V.Dublin.  The  title  being  thought 
defective,  thcchancellorship  was  presented  loMr-Synge, 
which  gave  him  the  care  orst.n'erburgh's,  Dublin,    la 


SYNISACT^  9 

17 13  be  wu  choun  proctor  fur  the  chapter  of  SL  Patrick's, 
nnil  oil  Dr.  Sterne's  promotioD  to  the  ate  of  Dromore,  the 
■rcbbubop  of  Dublin  ippointed  Dr.  S.vnge  bia  ticu- 
generil,  in  wbicb  oCBca  he  conlinued  unlU  be  wu  ap- 
poiiited  biahop  orKapboe,  in  1714.  Hewu  niide  ircb- 
biahop  of  Tuam  in  17  IG,ov«  which  aee  he  preaided  un- 
til hia  death,  Jaly  21, 1741.  He  publiihed  manf  sei-: 
mon*  and  icligioiu  tract*,  of  labich  a  collective  edition, . 
iiiiilerthetitJeofH'orii<LoDd.l710,lvDKl!mo;  1744, 
17i9),  waa  iuued.  The  beM-known  ofbi*  works  is  Tht 
CmUman'i  Kdtgion.  Hii  Trtalit  m  Ike  Hots  C""'- 
mmioB  was  publiabed  at  PhiUdelphia  iii  1849,  32mo. 
See  AlliboDe,  Ihd.  of  Bril.  and  A  aer.  A  uMon,  •.  v. ; 
Chalmera,  Biog.  Did.  ■.  r. 

SjIllsaotSB  (vuMi'mcrai),  ■  Greek  term  for  priMtB* 


of  penitenla.  called  in  tbe  L^tin  Church  coniultnln. 
They  were  m  called  from  their  having  liberty  (after  the 
other  penilenta  were  dieiDiaaed)  to  stand  witb  the  faith- ' 
ful  at  the  altar,  and  Join  in  the  common  pray«n  and 
•ee  the  obUtion  ulTered.  Still  tbey  could  not  yet  make 
their  own  oblatiom,  nor  partake  <>f  ihe  eucbariit.  See 
Bingham,  CAruf,  Amliq.  hk.  xviii,  ch.  iL 

Synnadft,  Council  op  ( Concilium  Sgimadnut ), 
waa  held  about  230,  or,  according  to  *ome,  in  266,  upon 
the  subject  ofCalapbrygian  baptuun.  fiaptiam  received 
out  of  the  Church  waa  dedared  to  be  null  and  void. 
See  llanu,  ComdL  i,  760. 

Bynod  (fram  ti-votoc,  a  gadteriitg),  a  meeting  or 
aaaemlly  of  eccletiaatical  petHina  to  consult  on  matlen 
of  religion.  (See  the  monographB  cited  in  Vo1t>edin^, 
Imiri  Pngifwimmtm,  p.  1G&.)  Of  theee  there  are  four 
kindt,  via.— I .  General,  where  hishc^w,  etc.,  meet  from  all 
natiuii).  ThBw  were  flrat  called  by  (he  emperors;  af- 
terwards by  Chiiatian  princes;  tJU,  In  later  ages,  the 
pope  UHirped  to  himself  the  greatest  share  iu  thia  biisi- 
iiess.  and  by  hi*  legale*  prewded  in  them  when  called. 
See  CEct'MKKlcAi.  i.  Katiooal,  where  those  of  one  na- 
tion only  come  together  to  determine  any  point  of  doc- 
trine or  discipline.  Tbe  flrsl  of  this  sort  which  wc 
reail  of  in  England  waa  that  of  Hetudlord.  or  Hertford, 
in  OrS;  and  the  last  wu  held  by  cardinal  Pole  in 
I36&.  SeeCocNFiu  S.  Provinciid,  when  those  only 
of  one  province  meet,  now  called  tbe  nwrooarun  (q.  v.). 
4.  Dioccaan,  where  those  of  but  one  diocese  meet  tn  en- 
furce  canons  made  by  general  councils  or  national  and 
provincial  synods,  and  to  conaolt  and  agree  upon  rules 
of  discipline  for  ihemselvea.  These  were  not  wholly 
laid  aside  till,  by  the  act  of  aubmision  (25  Hen.  Vllj, 
art.  19),  it  was  made  uidawful  for  any  synod  to  meet 
but  by  royal  authority.     See  Synods. 

Synod  is  also  used  to  signify  a  Presbj-terian  Cbureb 
court,  composed  uf  minialers  attd  elders  from  the  differ- 
eiv  presbyteries  within  its  bounds,  and  is  only  subordi- 


'■  (4-  V 


SVNOD,  Asaoi-iATE,  the  blithest  ecclesiastical  court 
amonc  the  united  Preshylerian  Dixsenirrs  in  Scotland. 
the  poweN  of  which  an.  in  a  ereat  meawre.  analt^nMis 
lothiHeof  ihrtienpral  AseemUy  in  the  established  kirk. 


!  SYNODATICUM 

u-cre  at  first  appointed  by  the  king,  but  an  now  cbesea 
l>y  the  vlerg)-,  the  biahop  of  Attica  being  perpetual  pmi- 
deiit.  In  1860  it  was  furmally  recognised  by  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantioople,  throogh  the  mtdialicm  of  Ku«- 
sia,  but  on  the  condition  that  it  should  always  receirr 
the  holy  oil  from  tbe  molbcr  Church-  See  Uiekk 
Chubch. 

SYNOD.  I!BFVitiiBi>.    SeeCovENANTBBS;  Pkksbi- 

TSRIAN  ClIUKCtlKS. 

SYNOD,  Rkliip.    Sec  Scuti^akd,  Chukciies  is. 

SjOodAlea  Testkb  were  persona  anciently  lum- 
moned  out  of  every  pariah  in  order  lo  appear  at  tbe 
epiacopal  synods,  and  then  attest  or  make  prEfermetii 
of  the  disorden  of  the  clergy  and  people.  In  aftri- 
limes  ihey  were  ■  kind  of  empanelled  Jury,  cunaslrng 
of  two,  three,  or  mora  persona  in  every  parish,  whs 
were,  upon  oath,  to  present  all  heretic*  and  other  irtep- 
ular  person*.  These,  in  procea*  of  time,  became  slaixt- 
ing  officen  in  aeveral  places,  especially  in  great  cttio. 
and  henoe  were  called  STDEaKu  (q.  v.).  Thti 
were  also  called  QMatmm,  from  the  nature  of  their 


BjQodala  waa  a  term  applied  to  (1)  provincial 
constitutions  or  canons  read  after  the  synods  in  paii>li 
churches;  (2)  to  procurations,  so  called  because  the 
bishop  held  his  aynod  and  viaitation  togetheri  (3)  i" 
the  payments  made  a  bishop  by  his  clergy  in  virtue  uf 
his  holding  a  synod.    See  Stnoiiaticum. 

BTDodatlotim,  or  CATiiKiHtATTrvu,  is  the  annual 
tribute  paid  by  incumbenta  of  beneltces  in  the  Church 


It  is  K*""aUy  paid 


of  the  second  Svn 
1.  S,  in 


..qn-iii).- 


.,  A.D.  h-.l 


II.  Ciitm 

SVXOD,  Hm.v.  the  hiRhest  court  ol 
Umk  Chureh.  esublished  by  the  rzar  P 
■nd  meeting  now  at  Si.  Petentburg.  Each 
in  a  half-yearly  report  of  its  churches  and  \ 

many  lii»h«pi.  with  procurators,  aiiomey 
lay  DiBciala.    See  UfssiAX  Citt'Rcii. 

SYNOD,  Holy  Uor^>!(t.i<i.  is  the  hit; 
Ibe  Greek  i'hurrh.  eMaltlished  in  Gree» 
corerr  i^f  its  indcprixlence.  It  n>et  tinx 
■  8Kt.'and  in  IMU  was  nvut:nised  by  the 


on  ihe  part  of  Spaiiiah  bishops  are  (iiriii'l- 
den,  and  they  an  permitted  only  in  connection  with 
tbe  vinlalionsofthHr  districts  "bonoremcaihedne  sua) 
id  est  dun*  solido*  .  .  .  per  eccle«as  lollere."  l~bc  sanw 
synod  forbida  the  payment  at  an  impost  by  candidates 
for  ordination,  which  is  also  termed  niriednirimi,  boi 
muBL  no)  be  conrbunded  with  iTie  KpuAiilntm.  Tbe 
seventh  Council  of  Toledo,  A.D.  646.  conBmKd  tlw  ac- 
tion of  Braga ;  and  Charks  the  Bald,  in  »4t,  directed  tbe 
pavment  of  two  solidi,  or  an  equivalent  in  kind  (Peru, 
Manm.  GrTmamia.  ui.3T8),  aod  dewlvsd  this  collec- 
tion for  the  bishops  on  tbe  arebpnabyten  Vo^  Al- 
exander III  cooceded  to  bisbopB  who  aboukl  obtain  a 
cbureb  from  the  hands  of  the  laity  tbe  ri^i  to  impose 
on  it  the  mllifdnitiatm  (c  9,  X,  Zle  Tnuitu,  iii,39>: 
and  both  Innocent  III  (c.  W,  X,  Dt  Cmibv}  and 
llnnnrius  111   (c  16,  X,  Dr  Ofiria  JtuHtit  Or^timan. 

ilered.  Oiherreferenoesmavbe  roondinDu  FrTSDe.s.v. 
-Synodns;"  Benedict  XIT.  Di 
■,c.vi,l  and  2;  Richiet.  A'inAM- 

iT<-A((5lhed.).  Si33,D0te4.eu.i  Godenu*.  rn£  Z)qtb- 

mal.  i.  No.  93,  p.  260.     Tbe  Caancil  of  Tmt  diannuD. 

lied  the  payment  of  nuDy  beaw  imponiiintii  cnnDcrud 
,T^  with  visiuiiona  (sea*,  uiv,  cul  S,  i^  /trform.)  t  but 
n  J«-.v.  various  declarations  of  tbe  Cvmfiwyatio  prv^  fwtfrpm^ 
«*eiidf  C,»K..rri*i«f,  have  left  the  coOeAatMst  in  fence  (s« 
^  '"'  rerraris.fiW.riiwn.s.T.-CatlMdiatkani'Tboiiunn. 
and  as  (rf.oc -Vur.  An^Oisripi  III,ii,»i,M:  Bemdirt  XK, 
1  other    „  „p  6  ,,„,  ;,  /,r^,r,aiama  18-26  id  tbe  edition  oC 

Trent  by  Kichier  aod  Schnlte,  lot.  tH.}. 
oun  of        Thin  imf«»t  is  termed  calhrdratnm  "in  bomrvtt 
the  re-    mtheilne,"  and  tynodoHnm  as  being  coUected  durins 
'yra  in    itic  jiewton  uf  synod;  but  it  ba*  to  pnctice  been  pat-l 
itiiiriin.    Bl  orher  limrt  a»  welL  and  is  cxaclnl  even  when  no 

srooj  .  bida  iBencJict  XIV,  i 


mip.  etc.),     i  tax  cxrseaavc 


SYNODIC^ 


luiml  in  uiv  cue,  unonnting  gen. 
tnlljr  to  two  •olidi.  It  mnit  be  paid  by  all  churches 
iDd  boKScn  uid  tbeir  incutDbenU,  and  iIbo  by  Hmi- 
pmrf  with  which  bciieficcB  are  incorporated,  and  lay 
oaiia  hiriog  a  cbuitb  of  Iheir  own.  Bcgulan  are 
rumtitwiLh  lerermK  (a  canienu  and  convent  chiiich- 
B  IB  wbicb  tbcy  peiwnally  miuiiler.  The  Order  o( 
SlJoIu  flTJenualem  is  likcKite  exempt.  Id  pncltce, 
M«u,iihas  not  alwiyabeen  ponible  U>  collect  these 
luM.  Austria  ccaaed  to  pay  them  under  imperial  re- 
loipti  of  17^  and  1803,  and  in  many  other  dittricta  oC 
Gumuiv  they  were  quieUy  tliicoutinued.  Their  valid- 
ii;  an  deciHil  in  Bavaria,  on  the  other  hand,  ao  late 
u  IHl  (we  Pennanedei,  Jlaitdb.  d.  Kirrkmrtchli,  3d 

td,  p.  319.  note) Her»%,  Jital-t'iicjitlap.  a.  v. 

SyooSlcm  (stvocwaO  vera  lellen  wriuen  by  a 
im  biibop  infiimiing  other  biihopa  of  hia  proinotioa, 
lad  Lo  ualify  hia  deaire  tn  hnld  communinn  nith  [htm. 
i  D^hct  Id  write  such  iettera  waa  interpreted  aa  ■  re- 
taial  lo  bold  aoch  comcnunion  and  a  virtual  charge  or 
bcTHT  upon  hia  fellowa.  Circular  Iettera  autnmoning 
il*  liiibopt  10  a  provincial  aynud  were  alao  called  Sg- 


Srnodlta)  ( friHn  trimiiK,  a  tommnHti/ )  were 
amki  who  lived  in  communilin  or  coiivenia,  differing 
iailumpect  from  the  Amt^orttrt 

EhfDOda  (aim  a  noticeable  Tealuie  in  the  hiMory  of 
lilt  geatral  Churcb.  Paiticnlar  synods  have  served  to 
niditite  particular  atag^  in  the  pmgreta  or  retrogres- 
i>n  cJ  the  life  of  tbe  Church,  as  reapecta  the  develop- 
cni  tf  knowledge  and  leaching,  the  formation  of  the 
■onUp  and  the  conatiiiilion  of  the  Cburcli  itself;  and 
ill  STBDds  serre.  more  clearly  than  other  inatitulions, 
l»  lenal  the  ruling  spirit,  the  measure  of  strength,  or 
ibe  type  of  disease,  in  anyf^iven  period.  The  breadth 
d  ibe  fieU  covered  by  this  title  will  appear  from  the 
Ian  that  Hanii'a  (q.  v.)  colleclion  of  the  acts,  etc,  of 
macis,  tilending  only  into  the  I6lh  century,  em- 
bnns  II  volonee  fuliu. 

With  tnpect  lo  the  origin  of  synods  opinions  differ. 
Sum  isibon  hold  them  to  have  been  divinely  insli- 
iiMd  Ibrmgh  Ihe  agency  of  the  apostles  (Acts  xv,  ea- 
taaaOy  ver.  38.  Tl  seemed  good  to  Ihe  Holy  (ihosi, 
■ad  10  bT),  while  others  concede  lo  them  a  merely  ac- 
(ilaul  rise.    The  courtcit  in  Acts  xv  must  certainly 

Oa  the  other  haitd,  the  situation  of  the  Church  and  Ihe 
pn^rnt  of  events  funiirhed  the  providential  cundicions 
t?  akich  tcdeaiaatical  asaemhliea  became  necessary,  so 
diSl  ike  Ihtotj'  of  a  merely  human  origin  for  ibem  can- 
mi  be  tcnpled.  The  hislory  nf  our  sulijecl,  excluding 
lie  period  since  tbe  Keformation,  admits  of  being  di- 
TsM  into  Bve  periods. 

L  Til  Brgianmgi  of  ike  JnlUvlim  ofSyiodi  at  Fur- 
»Ati  b,  prortHdal  Sr^i  (to  A.D.  3-2&).— The  earliest 
•"well  ajnoda  of  which  mention  is  made  are  one  al- 
ireni  ID  have  been  held  in  Sicily  in  A.D.  lib  against 
lit  Ksatic  Ueracleon  (q.  v.),  and  one  at  Home  under 
Mop  Tctenphonia  (d.  139);  but  Ihcre  is  not  the 
dgkustFTideiKC  that  either  of  lliem  waa  held.  The 
adat  of  which  we  have  aulhentic  information  wen 
Md  ia  Asia  Minor  against  tbe  MontaniaU  (Eiisebius, 
m^.  EcrL  T,  16),  probably  not  before  A.D.  IW.  Soon 
ifimanls  rarioas  si'Rods  were  held  to  diacusa  the  cele- 
WiUoo  af  Waiter  (tfrid.r,  ffl)  and  other  questions;  so 
>b(  Tenollian  speaks  (ZV  Jrjmiu,  e.  13)  of  the  con- 
rcuag  of  Mcb  bodiea  at  a  custom  among  the  Greeks, 
nl  dtaeby  at  Ihe  same  lime  implies  (hat  such  aaaem- 
Hit>  were  not  known  in  his  oivn  (African)  Church. 
Sidi  eanleTCOcn  promatcd  Cbriatian  unity  and  laid  the 

*  were  regnlaiiy  held  in  each  year,  and  were  itlend- 
li  bj  Udotia  and  cidera,  so  that  Ihey  had  already  be- 
amt  a  bed  and  periodically  recurring  instttulion,  in 


SYNHSIAST^ 

which  the  different  cbnrches  shared  in  the  persons  of 
llieit  appropriate  rtpreaentalives  (see  Kirmllian's  letter 
lo  Cyprian,  i^pp.  No.  76).     The  earlifsl  synods  in  tho 
West  were  held  in  Africa  about  A.D.  31 S,  and  soon  such 
assemblies  became  frequent.    The  next  stage  in  the  de- 
velopment of  synods  appears  in  tbe  extension  of  their 
Jurisdiction  over  larger  areas  than  ■  single  district  or 
province,  by  which  the  inauguration  of  eecumenical 
councils  was  prepareil  for.     At  Iconium,  in  256,  repre- 
sentarivcs  were  present  from  fiaUtia,  Cilicia,  etc     Ev- 
ery part  of  Spain  was  represented  at  Elvira;  and  the 
Synod  of  Aries,  in  314.  was  alUndeil  by  bishops  from 
Gaul.  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  North  Africa,  and  Italy. 
II.  A.D,  aaa  to  869. — The  tecumenical  synods  of  the 
Greek  Ch  urch.  beginning  with  that  of  Nicsa  (q.  v.)  and 
closing  with  the  fourth  Council  of  Constantinople  (q.  v.). 
III.A.D,869tolSII.— Councils  oftbeWeateni  Church 
ider  the  direction  of  the  papacy,  including  a  great 
imber  of  provincial  and  national  synods  whuae  pro- 
ceedings indicated  both  tbe  otmoat  devotion  md  the 
most  decided  oppoution  tn  tbe  rule  of  Ihe  popes—end- 
g  with  the  general  Couodl  of  Tienne  in  Gaul  (q.  r. 
verally). 

IV.  A.D.  ISII  to  IS  17.— Councils  ostensibly  aiioing  la 
cure  reform  "  in  bead  and  members" — Pisa,  Constance, 
id  Basle  (q.  v.  severally). 

V.  A.D.  1517  to  1&6S.— Tbe  Reformation  and  tbe  te- 
itionary  Synod  of  Trent  (q.  v.). 

For  an  enumeration  and  characterization  of  the  more 
iportant  synods  see  tbe  article  Councils,  to  which  we 
also  refer  fur  a  list  of  sources. — Henog,  Rtal'Eiuyldop, 

SjnSdna  (crvcofoc),  a  term  applied  in  the  early 
Church  10  the  building  (church)  in  which  Ihe  synod 
waa  held.  It  was  simply  transfe^ed  from  tbe  assembl)' 
to  denote  the  place  of  assemkly,  aa  was  done  with  Iba 
word  ecc^nu. 

Syntbi&nnB  (iriv^ovoc),  a  Greek  term  to  signify 
the  seals  of  a  bishop  and  his  clergy  in  the  bema  of  an 
Oriental  Churcb. 

Syn'tyche  {^vvrvyiti,  uriik  Fait),  a  female  mem- 
ber of  the  Church  of  Philippi,  mentioned  (Phil,  ir,  3, 3) 
along  with  another  named  Euodias  (or  rather  EuoiUa). 
A.D.  67.  To  what  has  been  said  under  the  latter  head 
the  foUowing  may  be  added:  Tbe  apostle's  injunction 
10  these  two  women  is  that  they  should  live  in  hamiony 
with  each  olher,  fma)  which  we  infer  that  they  had, 
more  or  less,  failed  in  Ihia  respect.  Such  harmony  waa 
doubly  important  if  Ihey  held  olGee  as  deaconeaaes  in 
the  Church,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  this  waa  Ibe 
case.  They  had  afforded  to  Paul  active  co-operation 
under  difflciilt  circumstances  (fv  ry  tbayyt\i<f  in^vq- 
dMaAf  pm,  rer.  8),  and  perbapa  there  were  at  Philippi 
other  women  of  the  same  class  (ainvr;,  ibid.).  At  all 
evenl^thie  passage  is  an  illustralion  of  what  Ihe  Gospel 
did  for  women,  and  women  for  the  Gospel,  in  the  apoa- 
tulic  times;  and  it  is  the  more  interesting  as  having 
reference  lo  that  Church  which  was  Ihe  liist  founded 
by  Paul  in  Europe,  and  the  fint  member  of  which  waa 
Lydia.  Some  thoughts  on  this  subject  will  be  fiiund 
in  Billiet,  Comm.  lur  FipUn  mx  FkOipp.  p.  SIl- 
814. 

SyniiBiftBtfe  (mvovaiairriii)  were  those  who  held 
thai  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  was  effected  by  a  blend- 
ing or  commixture  of  the  Divine  suhslance  with  the 
substance  of  the  human  Uesb.  The  name  is  taken  from 
the  statement  of  Ihe  iloclrine  rrovoiHH'iuoif  ycycvqvSoi 
Toj  epoffic  Tns  9<drt|rof  (Theod.  flier.  Fab.  iv,  9). 
Theodorel  calls  this  sect  Poltmiam,  one  of  the  Apolli- 
nariat  sects;  and  Apollinaris  himself,  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  life,  added  to  his  distinguishing  heresy  regariling 
Ihe  soul  of  our  Lord  either  this  bere»y  or  one  closely 
■kin  lo  it.  At  the  Lateran  Coundl  in  A.D.  649  were 
quoted  two  extracts  from  Polemon'a  works,  fmm  which 
it  appears  that  the  Synusiasts  retained  the  heresy  re- 
garding Ihe  soul  of  our  Lord,  denying  him  a  huD'-  - 


SYRACUSE  s 

netting  that  be  was  tobimaetfaralionil  louL 

maiiiu^.  Al  the  outbreak  of  the  eonlrovei- 
ling  Ibc  iiicamiEiun,  ume  uaerted  the  con- 
vereiou  01  the  suhsL»nc«  of  the  Uodheail  iiim  the  eub- 
uance  of  flesh,  nthen  Ibat  the  Divine  nature  supplied 
ill  CbiiH  the  place  of  the  human  aouL  The  attempt  to 
bold  these  (wo  tenela  together  resulted  in  ■  denial  of  an 
tvai-ipiiiniBis  altogclber.  To  avoid  this  denial,  it  wu 
allowed  that  the  duh  of  man  was  oHumed,  but  ao  blend- 
ed Kith  the  Divine  substance  as  to  eliminate  that  Isn- 
dency  to  un  which  it  waa  alleged  could  not  but  be  resi- 
lient in  human  nature.  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  and  Theod- 
otus  ofAatiuch  irrota  against  this  heresy.  See  Cave, 
Uil.  Lil. ;  Blunl,  Met.  o/Sfcti,  etc, «.  v. 

Bjrr'aouaa  {Svpasovam ;  Lat.  S^raciaa),  a  cele- 
brated city  on  the  eontem  coast  of  Sicily,  wbither  Paul 
acrived  in  an  Alexandrian  ship  from  Helila,  on  bis  voy- 
age to  Rume  (Acts  xxf  iii,  IS}.  It  bad  a  Hiic  proaprct 
from  every  entrance  both  by  sea  and  Uuil.  Its  port, 
which  had  the  sea  on  both  sides  of  it,  was  almost  all  of 
it  environed  with  beautiful  buildings,  and  all  that  part 
of  it  which  wai  without  the  city  was  on  both  siiles 
banked  up  and  sustained  with  very  fair  walls  of  mar- 
ble. The  city  it«elf,  while  in  ita  splendor,  was  the 
largest  and  richest  that  the  Greeks  possessed  in  any 
part  of  the  worliL  For  (according  to  Strabo)  it  was 
twenty-two  miks  in  cireumrerence,  and  both  Plutarch 


t  SYRACUSE 

About  aC  210  this  city  was  uken  and  aackad  br 

Htrcellus,  the  Koman  general,  and,  in  storming  tbe 
place,  Archimedes,  the  great  matheoialician,  who  ii  (•■ 
teemed  the  lint  luventor  of  the  sphere  (and  who,  dar- 
ing tbe  siege,  had  surely  galled  tbe  Buinans  with  ■*- 
toiiisbing  military  engines  uf  his  own  iiirention),  wu  1 
slau)  by  a  common  sakliet  while  intent  upon  his  stud- 
ies. After  it  was  thus  deilmyeil  by  Marcellus,  Ai^ui-  , 
tus  rebuilt  that  part  of  it  which  stood  upon  tbe  islaud, 
and  in  titoe  it  so  far  recovered  as  to  have  ihree  walU 
three  caailes,  and  a  marble  gate,  and  to  be  able  to  Miid 
out  twelve  thousand  horse  soldien  snd  four  bnmlml 
ships.  In  A.D.  67&  the  Saracens  scii^  on  it,  bul  ia 
1090  it  was  taken  from  (hem  by  Roger,  duke  of  Apulia. 
It  yet  exists  under  its  original  name  (Ital,  Siraaua), 
■nd  is  still  much  frequented  on  account  of  its  cotnmudi. 
ous  harijor.  Paul  stayed  here  three  days  as  he  went 
prisoner  lo  Rome  (Acts  xxvii,  12) ;  here  also  Chrisiiait- 
itj  was  early  planted,  and  still,  at  least  in  nanie.  conliii- 
ues;  bat  tbe  city  has  lust  its  ancient  splendor,  though 


still  te 


The  magiiideei 


Sicily  had  been  exhausted  in  the  civil  wan  of  Cen 
and  INiinpey,  and  the  piratical  warfare  which  Seiti 
Pom|iciu«,  the  youngeat  son  of  the  latter,  subaeqiieniJ 
carried  on  against  tbe  triumvir  Octavius.     Augusii 


was 

qualfo 

lat 

of  C 

rthage. 

It 

was  the  olrtes 

of 

lhe<. 

.e^ 

beiuB 

founded 

by 

Corin 

hians,an 

din 

nerconsi 

offou 

cities  united 

and   0 

r   Ortycia. 

The  B 

rst  of  these 

conui 

>ed   the   fa- 

remple    of 

Jnpit.^ 

, the  second 

tbe  ' 

emple  of 

Fortune,  the  third 

a  large 

amphilhea- 

.  Coogic 


SYRACUSE  1 

mitnd  S.TnciiK,  ■>  abo  Ciltna  and  Ceotoripi,  which 
IM  hid  cuatribulcil  much  lo  [he  succeiiful  inue  of 
tia  itniggle  wiih  Seitiu  PompcLui.  yet  Che  iaiand 
()nTi(ii  ukI  ■  rrrv  imall  purtioii  of  Ihe  munland  ad- 
jnniug  vtlSotd  fur  ihe  new  coloniMs  and  th«  remnant 
1/  iht  lifnner  population,  liut  the  bile  of  Syracuoe 
imlrnri  it  a  c«iT«iieDt  place  for  the  African  com- 
ilii|4  lu  (uucb  11,  fur  the  hailnr  wai  an  excellent  one, 
ud  iIh  Aiuntiin  Aiethiua  in  the  iiUnd  furnished  an 
ubilmg  nipply  of  excellent  water.  The  prevalent 
tiikl  in  ibii  put  nf  the  Mediterranean  ii  Ihe  W.N.W. 
Tbia  would  canr  Ihe  vrssela  frum  the  com  r^on  ly- 
a«  dfiiud  of  Cape  Bon.rounii  the  aonthem  poiulof 
i«ilj,C«Iie  Pachynos,  10  the  eastem  ahore  of  the  isl- 
ud.  CiwiiinG  "P  under  the  ahelter  of  Ibis,  they  would 
In  (iibH-  iu  the  hartior  of  Meaaina  or  at  Rhegium,  un- 
Id  Lhe  Bind  changed  to  ■  southera  point  and  enabled 
'  :  Campanlui  harbor  Futeoli  or  Gaeia, 


uOsiia. 


Id  CI 


n  Aftic 


lo  Soly.  if  the  wind  waa  eiceasire,  or  varied 
Uim  poiiiu  to  the  northward,  tbey  would  naturally 
ttuupfur  Ualla;  and  thii  had  probably  lieen  the  OM 
nihltK-Twina,"  the  (hip  iu  which  Paul  round  a  pai- 
■n  >net  hu  nhipvreck  on  the  eoau  of  thai  island, 
.(mtnl  in  llalia,  they  walcbed  for  the  opportunity  of 
1  aUHl  III  tike  then)  weslwani,  and  with  auch  a  one 
Uni  naililr  nude  SyncuM.  To  proceed  farther  while 
iiiNuupofd  blowing  would  have  exposed  them  lo  the 
tinna  at  1  lee-shore,  and  acmrdingly  tliey  remained 
-ibnt  iliyi.''  They  Ihei),  the  wind  baring  prohahly 
lUW  into  A  westerly  quarter  so  ai  to  give  them 
mall  waa,  coasted  Ihe  shore  and  made  iiripuXSoV' 
T<f  uK^rrqffapiv  ii'c)  Rhefpum.    After  one  day  there, 

titr  iheielun  weighed,  and  arrived  at  I'uteuli  in  the 
OHM  ofibe  ucDnd  day  of  the  run  (Acts  xxriii,  IS-H). 

In  ibe  lim  of  Paul's  voyage,  Sicily  did  not  supply 
lb  Emaa  with  com  to  the  extent  it  had  done  in  Ihe 
liiiFof  king  Iliem,  and  in  a  leu  degree  as  late  as  Ihe 
"■tofCicera  It  i>«n  error,  however,  lo  suppose  that 
III  icil  WIS  exhausted ;  for  Slnbo  expressly  says  thai 
i^  'vn  ud  some  other  produclions,  Sicily  even  sur- 
I*«i  luly.  Out  the  country  had  become  dcpopu- 
lunl  br  ibe  lung  series  of  wars,  and  when  it  pasiied 
niodie  hanib  of  Rocne,  her  great  nobles  turned  vast 
incuiniopaMore,    In  Ihe  time  of  AuBustus  the  whole 

U  urnii;  ill  exports  (except  from  the  neighborhood 
■"  ibf  rolanic  F^on,  where  excellent  wine  was  pro- 
'■Jirf],(u  Slack,  hides,  and  wool  appear  lo  have  been 
\if  DnjuuTKui  irtidea.  These  grazing  and  horse-breed- 
i^&niawtrfkfpt  up  by  slave  labor;  and  this  was  Ihe 
"■«  Uui  the  wlmle  island  was  in  a  chronic  stale  of 
"^■artmw,  owing  to  the  slaves  continually  running 
■*>7  ud  forming;  bands  of  brigands.  Sometimes  these 
''nae  n  titraidable  as  la  require  the  aid  of  regular 
■iivT  opetiliooi  U)  put  them  down-,  a  circumstance 
('liiik  TiLerius  Cranhu*  made  use  aa  an  arf^ument 

'■''-i.SXwhich  would  have  reconverted  Ihe  spacious 
FOs-IOKb  into  small  anble  farms  cultiraled  bv  Ro- 

Is  iht  time  of  Paul  there  were  only  Ave  Ronun  col- 


onies in  Sidly,  of  which  Syracuse  wia  one.  The  oth- 
er* were  Caiani,  Tauramenium.Thernue,  and  Tyndaria. 
Heasana  too,  although  not  a  colony,  was  a  town  tilled 
with  a  Roman  populilion.  Probably  il)  iiihahitaiils  were 
merchants  connecio)  with  Ihe  wine-trade  of  Ihe  neigh- 
bnrhood,  of  which  Messaiia  was  the  shipping  port.  Syr- 
acuse and  Panormus  were  important  as  SI ralcRical  points, 
and  a  Roman  force  was  Itejl  up  at  each.  Sicilisns,  Sica- 
nian^  Horgelians,  and  Iberians  (aboriginal  inbabitanis 
' early  settlers),  si  ■ 


what  ei 


that  of  villeins.  Some 
few  towns  are  mentkined  by  Pliny  as  having  the  Latin 
franchise,  and  some  as  paying  afixed  tribulei  but,  with 
the  exception  of  Ihe  fire  colonies,  Ihe  owners  of  the  (oil 
of  the  island  were  mainly  great  absentee  proprietors, 
and  almost  all  ita  produce  came  to  Rome  (Slraho,  vi, 
!i  Appian,  fl.  C.  iv,  84  sq. ;  v,  lS-118;  Cicero,  Kerr,  iv, 
68  ;  Pliny,  H.  ff.  iii,  8).  For  a  full  account  of  ancient 
Syracuse,  see  Smith's  Diel.  of  Grog.  s.  v.,  and  the  liter- 
ature there  cited :  also  Uotler,  De  Siia  ft  Oriffint  S^ 
raauarum  (Lips.  1818) ;  for  the  mwlem  citv,  Ilkrleker, 
Sou/Ami //a/y,  p.  808  sq.     See  SiciLT. 

Bji'iM,  a  province  and  kingdom  of  Wealeni  Asia, 


h  have 


■ubjects  of  no  little  diScuIly  to  both  sacreil  1 

ical  geographeia.     As  including  Palestine,  it  ia  of  in 

tense  inleiest  in  Bible  geography. 


1.  Thew 


itfyi-i. 


n  He- 


brew; but  in  the  A.V.  it  is  Ihc  usual,  though  not  the 
uniform,  rendering  of  the  word  Aram  (p'ttt).  Thus 
in  Geo.  X,  S2,  A  ram,  the  youngest  son  uf  Sheni,  ia  men- 
tioned aa  the  founder  of  the  Anuniean  nation,  from 
whom  tbe  whole  counliy  coloniieil  by  his  deioendanis 
look  its  name.  The  country  is  therefore  rightly  called 
"Aram"  in  Kumb.xxiii,T;  but  Ihe  very  same  Hebrew 
word  is  rendered  iftiopoltoHia  in  Judg.  iii,  IO,and  Spin 
in  X,  6. 


Ilw 


0  Are  pi 


cipaliii 


:  I. 


A  raia-Bafomrut  (called  in  the  A.  V.  "  Syria  of  Damas- 
cus'T;  2.  Aram-MaachoA;  S.  Aram-Uith-Rickob  1  4, 
Aram-Zviak  ;  and  6.  ^ram-iVotaraiin  (Mesopotamia 
in  the  A.  V.).  These  have  already  been  described. 
See  Aram.  When  the  kingdom  of  Damascus  atlaincd 
to  great  power  under  the  warlike  line  of  Iladsd,  it  was 
cil&d  by  wayofdialioctinn^rnin,which  unfortunately 
ia  rendered  "Syria"  in  the  A.V.  (3  Sam.  viii,  6,  ISi  1 
Kings  x,!9;  xv,lS;  !  Kinga  v,  I ;  xxiv, !,  etc.).  This 
lax  method  of  Iranalalion  waa  Iwrmwed  from  the  Sept. 
and  Vulg.  versions.  The  Targums  retain  .<  rom ;  and 
it  would  tend  much  lo  geographical  accuracj-  and  dis- 
tinctness were  Ihe  Hebrew  proper  names  uniformly  re- 
tained in  the  A.V. 

The  region  comprehended  by  the  Hebrews  under 
Ihe  name  Aram  was  not  identical  wiib  that  which  the 
Ureck  writers  and  the  authoia  of  the  New  Test,  in- 
cluded under  Syria.     It  embraced  all  Mesopotamia  and 
Aseyrla,  while  it  excluded  Phcenicla  and  Ihe  whole  ter- 
ritory colnniieil  by  the  Canaaniles.    Sec  Canaan, 
In  the  Sew  Test.  Ihe  name  Syria  (Svpia)  is  not  em- 
ployed with  great  ilefinilenesi.    In  fact,  it 
ia  doublful  if  e\'er  Ibe  (iieek  geographeia 
were  agreed  as  lo  the  exact  boundaries  of 
the  country  eu  called.    Hallbew,  after  men- 
tioning the  mi(!hly  works  and  wondrous 
,  teachings  of  our  Lord  in  fisli  lee.  says:  "His 
fame  went  throughout  all  Syria,"  alluding 
I  apparently  lo  Ihe  country  ndjoining  Cialilee 
on  the  north  (iv,  24),     Luke  apjilica  Ihe 
name   to   the    Roman   province  of  which 

in'rliKlc  PalQsthTc  {ii,  2).    'in  tl"" 


XV,  23.     The  apoallcs 


vord    i 


!ed   i 


SYRIA  8 

"unto  the  brelhren  of  the  Genlites  in  Anlioch,  and 
Syrt*,  and  CilicU;"  Bntl  ifterward*  it  ia  aaid  that 
l^ul,  aettiii);  out  frotn  Anti«ch.  "  went  through  S^ria 
and  Cilicia"  (ver.  41 1  coinp.  Ual.  i,  SI).  A  widrr  sig- 
niJicalioD  H«mti  to  be  altacbed  to  the  name  in  other 
ptuages.  It  ii  wid  of  Paul,  when  going  to  Jenualeni, 
"  that  he  sailtd  thence  (from  Greece)  into  Syria"— giv- 
ing thii  general  name  to  Palestine  aa  well  te  the  coun- 
try north  of  it  (Acta  xviJi,  18 ;  nx,  B).  In  one  paiaage 
taken  fcom  tbe  Sept.  the  name  is  employed  an  an  equiv- 
alent of  the  Hebrew  .4  mm  (Luke  ir,  37;  com  p.  2  Kings 
v,50). 

3.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  not  quite  certain.  Some 
make  it  a  contraction  or  corruptinn  of  A  $tyria  (Scylax, 
PtripL  p.  80;  Dion.vs.  Perieg.  9;0-976;  Eiulalh.  Con- 
ntntf.  ad  loc,  etc.).  Herodotus  ^ay^  "The  people  whom 
the  Greeks  call  Sgriant  are  called  AMf/riiBU  by  tbe 
barbarians" ("'1,63);  and  theie  names  were  frequently 
confounded  by  the  later  Greek  writers  (Xenopb.  Ct/r. 
vi,  2,  19;  viii,  6,  24};  and  apparently  also  by  aonw 
of  the  Latius  (Pliny,  ff.  y.  v,  13).  A  mnch  ntore 
probable  etymology  ia  that  which  derivca  Sj/ria  from 
Ttur  C^IX),  <he  Hebrew  name  of  the  ancient  dty  of 
Tyre.  The  distinction  between  Syria  snd  Assyria  ia 
very  great  in  Hebrew.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name 
derived  from  Ttar  would  be  Tiaria ;  but  as  this  could 
not  be  expressed  by  Greek  letters,  it  was  Bofteued  down 
to  Zupia.  Aayria  is  in  Hebrew  *1^Q<'(t,  and  in  Greek 
'Aaavpia,  and  sometimes  'Arou^'a.  "A  still  greater 
distinction  between  the  names  is  found  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  where  Assyria  is  called  .4i-aur,  while  the 


»  STRIA 

Tyriana  arc  the  Tnr-ra-ya,  the  charaete^n  med  bs- 
ing  entirely  different"  (Rawlinaon,  Herod,  i,  63,  note). 
Tyre  was  the  most  important  city  along  the  Meiiit«- 
raneaa  ooast.  With  it  and  its  mterpnsing  merchanu 
the  Greeks  soon  became  {uDiliar;  and  they  pre  to  iht 
counlcy  around  it  the  general  name  Sgt-ia  —  thai  a, 
"region  of  Tyre." 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  connection  br- 
tween  Syria  and  Aram  is  noticed  by  Strabo  when  tnce 
menling  on  a  stanza  of  Pindar;  "Others  UDderuanl 
Syriam  by  the  A  rini,  who  are  now  cslliHl  A  roHrT 
(liii,  62«,  and  i[vl."86)[  and  again,  "Thoae  whoiB  n 
call  Syrians  (Xiipovc)  are  by  tbe  Syrians  tbemselTB 
called  Anneniaiu  and  A  rammaaiii"  (Apofiuaiovi ;  i. 
2,34), 

Tbe  name  Syria  was  thus  of  foreign  origin.  It  wa 
never  adopted  or  acknowledged  by  the  people  theis. 
•elves;  nor  was  it  ever  employed  by  native  authors  ex- 
cept when  writing  in  Greek  for  Greeks.  At  the  pm- 
ent  day  it  ia  unknown  in  the  country.     It  has  been 

cially  applied  to  Damaacus  and  its  kingdom.  Then  ii 
something  analogous  to  this  in  modem  usage.  EA- 
Sham  is  the  name  now  commonly  given  to  both  ciij 
and  country,  though  in  more  correct  language  tbe  liir- 
mer  is  styled  Dimahk  ti\-3iam. 

II.  Eximi  and  Somdarva.— I.  Ancient  g«ogtaphm 
do  not  agree  as  to  the  extent  of  Syria.  IlendutiH 
makes  it  reach  to  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north  (i,  6) ;  lo 
Paphlagonia  and  the  Uediterranean  on  the  west  (i.  7i: 
ii,  12,  116);  lo  Egvpt  on  the  south  (ii,  158,  IK«);  and 
lo  Media  and  Persia  on  the  east  (vii,  68>.      lie  coti- 


ml  b 


arose  ihe  error  inio  which  he  fell  rt^ 
garding  the  extent  of  the  fumter.  Tbe 
same  view  is  taken  bv  Xenupbon  (.4jni& 
i,  4, 11-19).  Even  Stiabo  states  in  one 
place  that  "(lie  name  Syria  seeips  tu 
extend  Ihjm  itabylonia  aa  faros  the  bay 
of  Is9UB,and  anciently  from  thia  bay  lu 
tbe  Euxine.  Bulb  tribes  of  the  Cap- 
padocians— those  near  tbe  Taum*.  and 
ilKiae  near  Ihe  Pontus — are  called  to 

however,  from  a  snbsequent  aentencr. 
that  he  in  this  ]^aco  fell  intA  tbe  emie 
of  Herodotus;  for  he  thus  rcmailis. 
"When  the  historians  of  the  Syrian 
empire  say  that  the  Medea  wn«  con- 
quered by  the  Persians,  and  the  Syrians 

ans  than  those  who  built  tbe  royal  pa). 
aces  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh  ;  and  Ni- 

one  of  these  Syrians"  (xvi,  73").  It  i! 
eviilent  that  for  Syrians  the  name  ^* 
(yi-imi  should  here  be  substituteil.  Tbi 
great  similarity  of  Ihe  namet^  no  iIodIk 
undcd  to  create  this  amfunion. 

When  writing  directly  of  the  connir 
of  Syria,  Strabo  ia  more  accurate.  Il' 
describes  its  extent,  boundarie*,  and  iti 
visions  with  great  minuleness.  "  Syri 
isboundedonthenonhbyCilicia[;coai{ 
AclBiv,2S]  and  Mount  AmaniiB;  on  th 
east  by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Arabia' 
ScenilKjwholiTeon  thbiide  [weat^  o 
tbe  Euphrates;  on  the  south  by  Arabi 
Felix  and  Egypt;  on  the  west  b;  Ih 
Egyptian  and  Syrian  seas,  aa  far  ■■  l- 
ius"  (xvi,  749).  Pliny  ei*e«  sulwtar 
tially  tbe  same  boundaries.  He  ^v 
however,  that  some  ceographerw  it 
vide  Ihe  country  inlo  four  provino^ 
Idumiea,  Judna,  Pbtcnicia,  and  Sjri 
(,ri.  .V.  V,  IS  i  comp.  Joaephu%  .4  itt.  i 
6,1). 


STRIA  g 

hilMBf  cmfina  Sjrit  within  the  (ainelimita  on  the 
Matt,  vnl,  tnd  cut ;  but  he  nurkiilswiitbpm  bound- 
tfT  bf  a  Uh  rnmtuig  from  Dor,  at  the  hase  of  Ciniielf 
hf  Snihnpfto  ind  Philadelphia,  to  Aludamua  Hon* 
(JtM' HauiiLn).  Kc  thna  includes  Phcenieii,  Galilpe, 
•Dd  a  pmion  ot  Pema,  but  exclude!  Judna  and  Idu- 
n>a«  (t,  IS). 

1  In  Ihii  article  the  name  Svria  ii  cnnflned  to  what 
■pptan  to  be  iu  mare  strict  New-Teac  liftnincatian. 
In  boandariM  aaj  be  given  as  foliowa:  Ftleatine  on 
itnamtli;  iheHoiiteiTaoeaii  on  the  west;  Cilicia  and 
Voont  Aaianiia  on  the  nonh;  and  the  Eupbratea  and 
daert  of  Palmvn  on  the  eatt.  Its  length,  fmiu  the 
nnaih  oT  the  Litinj  on  the  aoulb  lu  the  bay  of  lakan- 
ditfln  on  the  north,  is  £60  mile*,  and  its  breadth  aver- 
age! about  130  miles.  Ita  area  rnaj  tbua  be  eatiniaied 
K  RW  aquare  raitea.  It  lies  between  lat,  33°  19'  and 
Wtr  N..  and  long.  So°46'  and  S8°  E. 

Ill,  Fhifical  Gfograpkii. — Syria,  like  Palealine,  is  di- 
'  a  of  belts,  exiemliug  in  parallel  linea 
h.    (1.)  A  narrow  belt  of  plain  along 

1,  on  ibe  north,  extending  aa  far  as  the  bold 
7  of  RAa  el-Khanitr.  South  of  the  pmnion- 
UKj  it  the  Icnile  plain  uf  Seleueia,  now  Snweidty eh,  at 
ibe  DoMb  of  the  Oronto.  Then  fnllnwi  the  peak  of 
Cinaa,  which  dips  into  the  aea;  and  fmm  its  aoDthem 
tan  down  to  the  n»uth  of  the  LilAny  atrecchea  the 
;Ui  of  Phonicia,  varring  in  breadth  tram  ten  niilea 
it  Ladiklyeh  to  half  a  mile  at  Kdon.  It  ia  nearly  all 
Imik ;  aod  aDine  pnrliona  of  it  at  Sidon,  Beirfic,  and 
Tripoli  are  among  the  richest  and  moat  beaatiful  in 
Sriia.     (1.)  A  belt  of  mounlaina,  the  backbone  of  the 

ih(  Bivth;  then  foUowa  Bargylus  in  the  centre,  and 
LeUncB  an  the  soiiib.  (3.)  Tbe  great  valley  of  Cnle- 
STria,aDdilanottbein  estenaion  the  valley  of  the  Omn- 
Tn.i(rai  Ibe  next  belt,  and  omstitute  one  of  the  moatre- 
■artablt  TcMtireaoftbeFnuntry.  (4.)  Tbe  maunlain- 
cbna  <rf  Antilebanon,  though  broken  by  the  plain  of 
HHBih,flBdsa  natural  piolDngBIion  in  the  ridge  which 
TBia  in  tbe  parallel  of  ihe  city  of  Hamath  ami  ratia 
sanhward  beyond  Aleppo.  (6.)  Along  the  whale  eiat- 
wi  border  Ironj  north  to  aouth  extends  an  arid  plateau, 
ycak  and  deaolate,  the  borne  of  tbe  roving  Bedawin. 

L  ftakm. — The  plaint  of  Ph(£nida  have  already  been 
Mind  uadtr  that  head. 

By  Ikr  tbe  axial  important  part  of  Syria,  and,  on  the 
vMr,ita  most  striking  feature,  is  Ihe  great  valley  which 
nadwa  fimn  the  plain  of  Umk,  near  Anliocb,  to  the 
oatnnr  gorge  on  which  the  Lit&ny  enters  in  about  lat. 
WW,  Tbia  valley,  which  nina  nearly  parallel  with 
iW  Syrian  coaat,  extendi  the  length  of  S30  mllea,  and 
kaawkUbTaryingfivmeoratAlSorSOiniles.   The 


walhno 


lo  the  ai 


■•Cak-SyriB,aT  "the  Hollow  Syria,"  and  has  already 
bava  deacnbot    See  C<ELC-SvniA.    In  length  tbia  por- 
terminating  with  a 


tf  Hun 


tion  of  Ihe  valley  alao  ceaaea,  and 
a  ^ns  to  bend  to  the  north-west. 

Tbi  plain  of  Hamath  ia  very  extensive.  It  joina 
Otb-Syria  «ti  the  aouth,  and  eiumla  mrlhward  on  both 
■Jh  tt  the  Orontea  aa  far  aa  Apamea,  about  aeventy 
iriaa:  wbDc  its  breadth  from  tbe  base  of  Lebanon  to 
!>■  iKtn  b  nearly  thirty.  Ita  aariace  ia  almost  per- 
(vtly  lat,  ita  soil  gtnenlty  a  rich  black  mould;  water 
uibondanL  Upon  it  once  stood  the  large  cittea  of 
IIiliiah,l.aodiiieB  ad  Libanum,  Emesa,  Arethusa,  Larissa, 
Baaath,  and  Apamea;  all  of  which,  with  the  exception 
<i  Hamath  and  Knean  (now  Haroi).  are  either  in  ruin* 
« l«Tt  dwindlal  down  to  poor  viUagea. 

Tba  plain  of  Damaacus  and  its  oontinnnlion  towarda 
lUirtn  oa  tbe  aoath  are  exceedingly  fertile.    See  Da- 


7  SYRIA 

which  stands  Ihe  misetable  village  of  lakanderiin,  tha 
only  seaport  of  Antioch  and  Aleppo. 

The  plain  of  Suweidtyeh,  at  the  month  of  the  Oron- 
les,  is  still  a  lovely  spot,  in  part  covered  with  otcharda 
and  mulberry  plancationa.  On  its  northern  border  lie  ' 
Ihe  mina  of  Seleueia,  tbe  port  from  which  Paul  em- 
barked OD  his  Atst  miaaiahary  jouniey  (Acts  liii,  2-4), 
a!id  once  so  celebrated  for  ita  docks  and  foKiAcaliona 
(Polybius,  bfc.  v). 

2.  tfoMiraiiu.— (1.)  The  parallel  rangea  of  Lebanon 
and  Antilebanon  have  already  been  noticed  under  their 
own  titles.  At  the  soutbem  end  of  Ihe  former  is  the 
pass  called  in  Scripture  "  the  entrance  of  Hamath" 
(q.v.). 

(!.)  Be^-ond  this,  in  ■  line  with  Lebanon,  rises  the 
range  of  Bargylus,  which  extends  to  Antioch.  It  is  a 
rugged  limeaione  ridge,  rent  and  torn  by  wild  ravines, 
thinly  iieopled,  and  sparsely  covered  with  oaka.  lla 
elevation  ia  much  inferior  to  Lebanon,  and  doea  not  av- 
erage more  than  4000  feet.  In  Ihe  parallel  of  Antioch 
the  chain  meets  the  On)nteB,ind  there  sweeps  round  in 
a  ifaaip  angle  to  tbe  south-west,  and  terminates  in  tha 
lofty  peak  of  Casins  (now  Jebel  Akra),  which  rises  ab- 
ruptly from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  5700  feet,  forming 
one  of  the  moat  conapicnoiu  landmarks  aking  Ibe  coast 
of  Syria.  The  Bargylua  range  has  received  the  name 
Jebel  en-Nueairtych,  from  the  mysierious  and  watlika 
tribe  of  Nosairtyeh,  who  form  the  great  bulk  of  its  in- 

Al  the  nnrthetn  extremity  of  the  range,  on  Ihe  green 
bank  of  the  rapid  Orontts,  stand  the  erumUing  walla 
and  tcwers  of  Syria's  ancient  capital,  Antioch  (q.  v.), 
now  dwindled  down  to  t  poor  lawn  of  some  6000  inhab- 
itanta.  A  few  miles  west  of  it,  in  a  aedudcd  moniitain 
glen,  are  the  fountains  and  ruins  of  B«t  el-Ua,  which 
mark  tbe  ailc  of  the  once  celebrated  Diqihne  (Murray, 
aanOook/or  Syr.  and  PaU  p.  602). 

(3.)  Beyond  Ihe  valley  through  which  Ibe  Orontea 
breaks  nariDW  and  wild,  rises  steeply  another  mountain* 
range,  which  runs  northward  till  it  Joins  the  Tsurns, 
and  has  an  average  elevation  of  neariy  6000  feet.  The 
scenery  of  this  range  is  verj-  grand — deep  ravines  shut 
in  by  cliOa  of  naked  rock,  conical  peaks  clnlhed  with 
the  dark  fuliage  of  Ihe  prickly  oak,  and  foaming  tor- 
Tents  fringed  with  dense  copsea  of  myrtle  and  oleander. 
On  the  west  it  sends  out  the  lofty  promonlorv  of  RAt 
el-Rbanclr,  whicb  ahutt  in  the  plain  of  Suweidlyeb; 
and  farther  nonh  the  curve  of  tbe  bay  of  lakanderfin 
aweeps  so  dose  to  the  rocky  base  of  the  range  a>  to 
leave  a  paas  only  a  few  feet  broad  between  tbe  clitT  and 
the  sea.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  arch  mark- 
ing Ihe  site  of  the  celebrated  Syrian  Gates;  to  the 
north  of  it  is  the  battle-Held  of  lusui.  Tbe  suuihem 
section  of  thia  range  waa  anciently  caUed  Pieria,  and 
gave  ita  diatinguiahing  name  lo  Ihe  city  {Sttmda  Pie- 

nue.  The  whole  ridge  ia  now  usually  called  Jawat 
Dagh,  thoogh  the  anutbem  portion  ia  perhaps  more 
commonly  known  as  UAs  el-Kbanilr. 

(4.)  On  the  eastern  bank  of  tbe  Orontea,  near  the 
ruina  of  Apamea,  risea  another  but  moch  tower  range 
of  hills,  which  nms  notthwanl,  not  in  a  tegulsriy  form- 
ed ridge,  but  rather  in  detached  clumps,  to  the  parallel 
of  Aleppo.  The  hills  are  mainly  calcareous,  well  wood- 
ed in  places,  and  intersected  al  intervals  by  fertile  plaint 
and  vales.  They  are  interesling  to  the  traveller  and 
antiquarian  aa  containing  some  <if  Ihe  moat  remarhable 
ruins  in  Syria  (Murray,  Hm^mk,  p.  616  sq,).  The 
southern  section  is  called  Jebel  Rlha,  Ihe  central  Jebel 
el-'Ala,  and  Ihe  uortbem  Jebel  Sitniin,  from  its  having 
been  the  home  of  St.  Simeon  Slyliles. 

8.  The  Norlhen  tf^jKonrfi.— Northern  Syria,  espe- 
dalty  Ibe  district  calleil  Commagrne,  between  Taurus 
and  the  Euphritea,  ia  still  very  inaufflciently  explored, 
tt  seems  to  be  altogether  an  elevated  liacl,  consisting 
of  twisied  spurs  IVoni  1'annia  ami  Amanus,  with  natrow 
'^em,  which  open  out  into  bate  and 


SYRIA  S 

■tcrile  pUina.  The  ralleya  themMWei  ire  not  very 
lertile.  Tliej'  ire  wiiereti  by  boiiII  aneima,  pruducing 
uften  ■buiiduiC  flsh,  >iiil,fur  ihe  nmc  part,  Hawing  into 
tbe  OrDDiea  or  the  Euphritea.    A  ceruiin  number  at 

"  river  of  Aleppo,"  which,  unable  lo  rath  either  of  the 
oceanic  atieams,  forma  (as  we  have  wen)  a  lake  or 
manb,  wherein  iu  waters  evaporate.  Along  the  course 
of  the  Euphraten  there  are  rich  land  and  abundant  vege- 
tation ;  hat  the  character  of  the  country  Ihencc  to  the 
valley  of  the  Oi»iiie<  i>  bare  and  waodlesa,  except  iu 
the  vicinity  of  the  towns,  where  fruit-tteea  are  culti- 
vated, and  orchards  and  gardens  make  an  agreeable  ap- 
pearance. Most  at  (his  region  ia  a  mere  sheep-walk, 
which  grows  more  and  more  harsh  and  repulsive  aa  we 
approach  the  south,  where  it  gradually  mingles  with 
the  desert.  The  highest  elevation  vf  the  plateau  be- 
tween the  two  rivers  is  1500  feet;  and  this  height  ia 
reache.1  suon  sflerleaving  ihe  Euphrates,  whQe  toward! 

i.  Tht  KaUern  Dnerl—Eut  of  the  inner  roountaJD- 
chain,  and  south  of  the  culiivable  ground  about  Aleppo, 
is  the  great  Syrian  desert,  an  "elevated  dry  upl«id,  for 
the  moat  part  of  gypsum  and  marls,  producing  nothing 
but  a  few  spare  bushes  of  wormwood,  and  the  usual  art>- 
matic  piaiita  of  the  wihlemess."  Here  and  there  bare 
and  stony  ridges  of  no  great  height  cruss  this  arid  re- 
icinn,  but  fail  to  draw  water  from  the  sliy,  and  bare, 

wdls  supply  the  nomad  pnpulatiiii)  with  a  brackish 
tluiil.  'I'he  ret-ion  is  travemeil  with  didicully,  and  has 
never  been  accurately  aurveyed.  The  most  remarkable 
oasis  is  at  1'almi'ra,whete  there  are  several  small  elreams 
and  abundant  palm-trees.  See  Tadhok.  Towards  the 
mote  western  part  of  the  region  along  the  foot  of  the 
mauntain-range  which  there  bounds  il,  is  likewise  a 
gooil  deal  uf  tolerably  fertile  country,  watered  by  the 
■treania  which  tlnw  eastward  from  tlie  range,  and  sfler 

best-known  and  the  most  productive  of  these  tracts, 
which  seem  stolen  ftom  the  desert,  is  Ihe  famous  plain 
of  Damascus— the  el-UhiiUh  and  el-MeiJ  of  the  Anba 
—already  describe!)  in  the  account  given  of  that  city. 
See  Damascvb.  No  rival  to  this  "earthly  paradise"  is 
to  be  fuund  along  the  rest  of  the  chain,  aince  no  olher 
stream  Hows  duwn  froiD  it  at  all  comparable  to  the  Bs- 
rada;  but  wherever  the  eastern  wie  of  Ihe  chain  has 

been  fnund  at  its  foiil;  corn  ia  grown  in  places,  and 
olive-trees  are  abundant  (Burckhanll,  Trarrh  U  Sgiiii, 
p.  1^4-139:  P.iCK!ke,  Daeriplioa  of  tht  K:ul,  ii,  146). 
Fan  her  from  Ihe  hills,  all  is  bare  and  repulsive — a  dry, 
hard  desert  like  that  of  the  Siiiailic  peninsuln,  with  a 
soil  of  marl  and  gravel,  only  rarely  divemified  with 

b.  Bictri.—il.)  The  Otolites  is  the  largest  river  in 
Syria.  It  is  n.iw  called  el-'Aav  ("  The  Rebellious"),  and 
also  el-Makiab  ("The  Inverted"),  fnim  the  fact  of  its 
running,  as  ia  thought,  in  a  wrong  direclion.  Its  high- 
est source  ia  in  the  plain  of  Ihikn'a  (Caile-S\  ria),al  the 
base  ofAiitilebanun,  beside  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Lybo.  It  runs  nnrth-weat  acroM  the  plain  to  Ihe 
foot  of  Lebanon,  where  its  volume  ia  more  than  trebled 
by  the  greoi  fountain  of  Ain  el-'Aay.  Itence  it  winds 
along  ilie  plain  of  llamatb,  pasting  Uibtah, Huma,  Ha- 
inaih,  and  Apamea.  At  Antioch  it  sweeps  round  lo  the 
west  Ihmngh  a  magnillcent  pass,  and  falla  into  the  Med- 
iterranean at  Seleucia.  It.i  scenery  is  in  general  lame 
and  uninteresting.  Its  volume  abnve  Hamalh  is  less 
than  that  of  the  Jordan,  but  tower  down  it  receives 
several  tributaries  which  greatly  increase  it.  Its  total 
length  is  about  IM  miles. 

(2.)  The  Litdny  ia  the  next  river  in  magnitude.  lit 
principal  sources  are  in  the  vallev  of  Buka'a,  at  Baalbek, 
Zahleh,  and  Anjar  (tbe  ancient  Chalcis).  Afier  wind- 
ing down  the  BukA'a  to  ila  aouthem  end,  it  forces  its 
way  through  a  sublime  glen,  which  completely  inter-  I 


3  SYRIA 

aecta  Lelianon,  asd  falla  into  the  aea  ■  few  milea  north 
ofTyn. 

(4.)  The  rivers  Eleutherus,  Lycos,  and  Adonis  bare 
been  noticed  in  the  article  Lkbamom,  and  the  Abuia 
and  [*harpar  under  Dahabcus. 

(5.)  A  small  stream  called  Nahr  Rnweik  rises  iKtf 
the  village  of  Aintab,  Hows  southward  ihmugh  a  ui- 
row  glen  to  Aleppo,  waters  the  town  and  its  ^anlefia, 
and  empties  itself  in  winter  into  a  maish  bdidc  Lwenrv 
miles  farther  south.  It  seems  to  be  the  Chalus  of  Xcn- 
ophon(.'lBoi.i,4.9). 

(G.)  The  Sajiir  rises  a  little  farther  to  the  north,  in 
the  mountains  north  oTAintah.  Its  cnuiw  fur  the  firH 
twenty.flve  miles  is  south-east,  after  which  it  n»i>  eut 
for  fineen  or  twenty  miles,  linallv  resuming  iia  first  di- 
rection, and  flowing  by  the  towii  of  Sijiir  into  the  Eu- 
phrates.    It  is  a  larger  river  than  the  Koweik,  tbtniKh 

G.  /.uta. — There  are  only  two  lakes  of  an*  impor- 
tance in  Syria. 

(1.)  One  lies  aome  miles  north  cf  Antioch,  and  >■  callpil 
Bahrel-Abiad,"WhiteLal(e."    Itbabout  twentv-five 
miles  in  circuit,  but  has  a  broad  margin  of  manh,  whii.-h    I 
it  flooded  afker  heavy  rains. 

(2.)  The  other  lake  is  on  the  Orontee,  west  of  Hunis.  ! 
and  is  called  Bahr  Kadca.  It  is  about  six  milca  long  by  ; 
from  two  to  three  broad,  and  is  in  a  great  measure,  if 
not  entirely,  artificial  It  is  formed  by  a  dam  built 
across  the  valley.  The  water  is  thus  laised  to  an  ele-  ' 
ration  sutBcient  to  supply  the  town  and  irri^te  the  i 
surrounding  pUin  (Porter,  Aintnacu.  ii,  S44). 

(3.)  The  Sabakhah  is  a  salt  lake,  into  which  oolv  in-  ' 
tigniScant  streams  flow,  and  which  has  no  outJeb  It 
lies  midway  between  Balis  and  Aleppo,  the  mute  be- 
tween these  places  passing  along  its  northern  shure.  It 
is  longer  than  the  Lake  of  Antioch,  but  natiDwer,  beinx 
about  thirteen  milea  from  east  to  west,  and  lour  snilei 
onlv  fmm  north  to  south,  even  where  it  ia  widest. 

(4.)  Tbe  Bahr  el-Meij,  like  the  piece  ft  water  in 
which  the  Koweik,  or  river  of  Aleppo,  end^  scarcely  de- 
serves 10  be  called  a  lake,  unce  it  ia  little  better  than  a 
large  manh.  The  length,  according  to  eoluael  Ches- 
ney,  is  nine  miles,  and  the  breadth  two  mites  ^JSMpJknit,. 
i^TT.  i,503);  but  the  size  teems  to  varj- with  Ihe  sea- 
sons, and  with  the  extent  in  which  JrrigaliiMi  ia  usei) 
along  the  course  of  the  Barada.  A  recent  iiaveUer, 
who  traced  Ihe  Barada  In  its  termination,  Tinind  it  di- 
vide a  few  miles  below  Damascus,  and  otMerred  I  hat 
each  branch  terminated  in  a  marsh  of  its  own;  while  a 
neighboring  stream,  Ihe  Awnj,  commonly  regarded  as 
a  tributary  of  the  Barada,  also  lost  iiaelf  in  a  thiril 
marsh  separate  from  Ihe  other  two  (l'orur,ia  Ctogrtiat 
Jaam.  xxvi,43-M). 

7.  Ciliri. — The  principal  cilies  and  towns  of  Syria  arc 
the  following :  Damascus,  pop.  150,000 ;  Alepfxt,  pop. 
70,000;  Beirai,pop.Sa,OUO;  Hamath, pop. 30,000;  Iluma, 
pop.!0,WO;  Tripoli,  pop.  13,000;  Antioch,  Sidnn,  mnd 
Ladiklyeb.  Besides  these,  which  occupy  ancient  ute*, 
there  were  in  former  limes  Palmyrs,  in  the  eastern  des- 
ert; Abila,  on  the  river  AlMtia;  Chalcis,  II etinpnlis,  ami 
Lybft,in  Ihe  valley  of  Oele-Syria;  LaodiceaidLibanum, 
Arethusa,  and  Apamea,  in  the  valley  of  the  Otoatps  ; 
Seleucia,  Arsdus,  and  Byblos  [tee  Uebal],  on  the  *e«t- 
coast,  and  many  others  of  less  importance. 

IT.  Political  Gmgrop/ijf, — Syria  has  passed  lhn>i|~>, 
many  changes.  Its  ancient  divitions  were  numerous, 
and  constantly  varying.  The  provinces  of  the  Bitdicnl 
Aram  have  already  been  noticed.  See  Aram.  I^ho^. 
nicia  was  generally  regarded  aa  a  distinct  principaUtr 
[see  Pii<E.NiciA],and  the  warlike  tribes  of  Lebanon  mx^ 
pear  to  have  remained  almost  in  aataleof  indepenilenoc 
from  the  earliest  ages.  See  Licbamos.  The  t»1itiaii 
ilivisions,  as  enumerated  by  Greek  atid  Roman  g*<wnj_ 
[iheis,  are  indeHnite  and  aliDoel  uninleltigibte.  St.ra|H> 
mentions  five  great  provincea:  1.  Commagmr,  a  small 
terrilot)'  in  the  extreme  north,  with  Samosata  fot  caini 
tal,  aiinalcd  on  the  Euphrates.    2.  SfUuda,  lying  •ou,h 


STRIA 


n  four  diwricta  iccnrd- 
inmber  or  iti  chief  citiea:  (I)  Aniioch  Epi- 
^m:  (1)  Srleucia,in  Picria;  (8)  ApaiDu:  and  (4) 
Uodim.  In  the  djurict  of  Antiuch  wm  tnolber  >ul>> 
dimion.  n[iBled  Mar  tbe  Eupbrate*,  and  dlled  Ci'r- 
Ttmiw,  frooi  the  town  Crrrheuis,  which  contained  a 
ntebmnl  Umple  of  Diana.  Southward  were  two  sub- 
iliriitHu  (appai«ii[lf )  of  Apamea,  called  Fariporamia 
lUilOukidice.  bordering  on  the  Eiiphriies,  and  inhab- 
ited br  ScenitK.  The  territory  of  Utmiicea  extmded 
Hiolli  to  the  Hrer  Eleulhenia.  where  it  bordered  on 
Pbonice  and  Ccele-Syria.  8.  Cale-Sgrio,  cum[>tiaing 
laodicea  ad  l^nnaro.  Chalcla,  AUl«n«,  Damaaciif,  Itu- 
nn,ini]  others  farther  Miulh,  included  in  I'lleotine.  1. 
Pimmii:    &.  Jarfsn  (fff^.  xvi,748  M).). 


PtuleniT  mentiani  thirteen  pnivinces:  Commamnei 
n<TU.OrrTheMiea,  Seleucis,  Caiiolia,  Chaliboniri^  Chal- 
ci^  Apiipene,  Laodicene,  rhaenicia,Ccelr^Rvria.  I'almr- 

cwtained  in  them.  He  exdudea  Paleaiine  altogether 
(r;i«fr.  T,  15). 

Under  the  Rnmana  Syria  became  a  province  nf  Ihe 
topiie.  SocDe  portiona  of  it  were  permiited  id  ninain 
C«a  limeandcT  ibe  rslenf  petty  prince*,  dependent  on 
ibt  inprriaJ  goTcnintent.  Gradually,  liowerer.all  Ihete 
wm  iacmporaled.  and  Antioch  waa  the  ca]Hial.  Under 
liaihian  the  proTince  wai  diviiln)  iiitn  two  |iaria ;  S^na 
Unjar  oo  the  north,  and  ^iyjia-FAamct  on  iho  anuth. 
Tnoardi  the  close  of  the  tth  cenlurj'  another  partition 
of  Snia  WM  made,  and  furmed  the  baaia  of  ita  ecoleai- 
■aial  goietnoient '■  I.  Syria  Priima,  with  Aiiliocb  ai 
lafiiial!  X.  S.  Sraimla,  with  Aparoea  »  capital;  ^• 
l%rmaa  fVuia,  including;  the  Kieater  purt  of  ancient 
Phmicia— TiTe  waa  ila  capital;  i,  Fiastiiria  Serundii, 
iba  called  /'jlomria  ad  /.ibanum,  with  Damaacua  for 
(qwal  r  Car.  ■  *,  Paul,"  Gtog.  .Sac.  p.  -iBT). 

At  (lie  pnaent  lime  Syria  fonna  a  poniun  of  three 
padiaUai — Aleppo.  Damaacua,  and  Stdoii. 

V.  CUmnif,  MaiilanI;  etc— I.  The  temperature  of 
Srna  f^aily  leaemblea  that  of  Palatine.  The  aum- 
aiiii of  Hrrmon  and  Lebanon  arecrowited  niih  perpel- 
■il  motf,  and  the  high  aliiludea  along  thne  ran^^et  are 

■  (uilaatbe  aoulhiif  Enfilind;  but,  on  Ihe  mhrrhanil, 
Ik  low  maniliy  plaini  of  the  interior  arevcri-IinL  The 
Mtnant.  beiiie  much  exposed  to  Ihe  aiin'o  raya,  and 
fbthemi  by  Lhr  mnuntains  behind,  ia  generally  aulcry 
ail  nl^eel  In  ferer* ;  but  there  are  a  few  placet — such 

■  SUoo,  Beirfit,  and  Suwei<llyeh— where  the  aotl  ia 

nraer  light  ahoweta  occa- 


naled  at 


nihe 

krabic 

•4  ttuhammedant,  Yeiidee*,  Druaea,  Rumanisla,  Jewa, 
B-i  (Jftek  ChriMiana.  The  Muliamioedans,  who  pmb- 
■U*  cDoipriiF  three  fmirtha  of  Ihe  whole,  are  aeldom 
■Hoaled  with  the  progreaa  of  arta  or  indtuirA-,  and, 
l^»■e)l  pnaaeaaing  the  influence  which  belnnf:i  to  the 
nlJBi;  anihoriiiea.  are  rarely  inalmmeutal  in  the  crea- 
ti«  of  capital  «  the  diffiiairm  nf  ej rill lal inn.  Mnatof 
<li«  nometcial  eaiabliahmciiia  are  either  in  the  handa 
■ftbeOiriattan  ot  Jewish  popnlation.  The  agricull- 
Bal  produce  of  Syria  ia  far  Ibh  than  might  be  expect- 
•il  final  the  exteiiaive  tracts  «I  fertile  lanili  and  the  fa- 
■waUe  Hate  of  the  climate.  Keftious  of  the  hiehFal 
Mlitj  fnnain  fallow,  and  the  want  of  population  for 
'!•  piirpDaea  uf  cultivuinn  ia  matt  deplorable.     The 

^vt  faithfully  depicted  Sj'tia  when  be  described  it  as 
*(  laid  of  almoat  Dnparalleltd  naiaral  mouiccs,  com- 
yime  within  ii»  limita  every  tttiinable  variety  of  cli- 
Mu  and  of  soiL"    Tct  Syria,  under  the  execrable  Hiia- 


B  SYRIA 

aulman  rule,  ia  almnsl  Ifaa  lowest  in  the  acale  of  natinttf; 
but  even  in  the  present  stato  of  thiiiffa  ahe  proilucei 
pilk,  cotton,  and  wnul— three  staple  articles  of  demand. 
A  change  haa  been  bmught  about  during  the  lust  few 
yeara  in  the  external  feaiiirea  of  Oriental  dress,  and  in 
Syria  more  eepedally,  which,  with  the  decline  of  their 
own  oianufaclufES,  has  tended  to  inimduce  the  cheaper 
fabrics  of  Euiope.  The  issue  of  the  recent  Turko- 
Kusaian  war  has  been  to  place  Syria  under  the  nominal 
protectorate  iif  Ureal  Britain,  with  promiaea  of  social  re- 
fonn,  which,  however,  the  Turks  are  alow  in  bringing 
about.    See  Tukket. 

VI.  hiiloTy. — l.The  HntoccDpnnlanf  Syria  appear  to 
have  been  of  Hamitic  descent.  The  Caaaaniiish  races. 
the  HilIileK,-lebu»ile8,  Amorites,  etc.,  are  connected  in 
Scripture  with  Egypt  snd  Ethiopia,  Ciith  and  Miiraim 
6,  ]6-lH)i    and,  even    inriepeudenily  of  the 


videiic 


reason  for  heliev. 


ig  that  the  races  in  question  stood  in  close  ethnic 
neclion  with  Ihe  Cuahitie  slock  (Rawlinson,  Htrod.  iv, 
Ua-2ib).  These  tribes  occupied  nut  Palestine  only, 
but  alw  Lower  Syria,  in  very  early  timet,  aa  we  may 
Rather  from  the  fact  Ibat  Hamalh  is  assigned  to  them 
in  <^nesis  (x,  18).  Aflerwsrds  they  seem  to  have  be- 
come posseaaed  of  Upper  Syria  atao,  fur  when  Ihe  As- 
syrians Arst  push  their  conquests  beyond  the  Euphra- 
tes, they  Hnd  Ihe  llittiiea  (A'jIii''i)  ralabliahed  in 
strength  on  the  right  bank  of  the  great  rivet.  After  a 
while  the  Srst  comeit,  who  were  still  to  a  great  extent 
nomad^  received  aShemitic  infusion,  which  moat  prob- 
ably came  to  thrm  from  the  aonth-eaat.  The  family  nf 
Abraham,  whose  original  domicile  waa  in  Lower  Baby- 
loiiia,  may,  perhaps,  be  best  regardeit  a>  furnishing  iia 
with  a  siiecimen  uf  Ihe  migratory  movements  of  Ihe  pe- 

confederate  kings,  of  whom  one  at  least — Amraphel — 
mutt  hare  been  a  Shemitc  The  muvement  may  hare 
bepin  before  the  time  nf  Abraham,  and  hence,  pcrhap. 
tha  Shemitic  names  of  many  of  the  inbabitants  when 
Abraham  dial  comes  into  Ihe  cnunlr\',  as  Abimelech, 
Mtlcbiieriek,  ElieHr,etc.  The  ont>-  Syrian  town  whose 
esislence  we  |nd  dislinclly  marked  at  this  time  ia  Da- 
masons  (lien,  xir,  IS;  xr,  3),  which  appeara  to  have 
been  airaady  a  place  of  some  importance.  Indeeil,  in 
ont  tradition  Abraham  is  said  to  have  been  kint;  of 
DaniasCTaioi  a  time  (Nia  Dam.  Frv^m.  8U) ;  but  this  is 
quite  unworthy  of  credit.  Next  to  Damascus  must  be 
placed  Hai—lti.  which  ia  mentioi>ed  bj' Moaea  aaa  well- 
known  place  (Numli.  xiii,  !1 ;  xxxiv.  S),  and  appears  in 
Egi'prian  papvri  of  the  time  of  the  eighteenth  dvnaslv 
{Cambridge  Eias;  1858,  p.  368).  Syria  at  (lita  lime, 
and  for  many  centurlea  allerwanlB.  aeems  to  hare  been 

eral  nf  these  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  aa  Damascus, 
Rehob,  UiBchah,  ZoUh,  Geshur,  etc  We  also  hear 
occasionally  of  "  rA«  Uns*  of  Syria  and  of  the  Hilliles" 
(I  Kinga  X,  2H;  'i  Kinga  rli..6} — an  expretaion  indica- 
tive of  that  extenNve  subdivision  of  the  tract  amonR 
numeroui  petty  chiefa  which  ia  exhibited  to  ua  verj' 
clearly  in  the  early  Assyrian  inscriptions.  At  rariont 
limes  different  atatea  had  Ibe  pre-eminence,  but  none 
was  ever  strong  enough  to  establish  an  authorily  over 

S.  The  Jews  first  come  into  hoMile  contact  with  the 
Syrians,  under  Ikal  namr,  in  the  lime  of  David.  The 
wars  of  Joshoa,  however,  must  have  often  been  with 
Syrian  chief)^  with  whom  he  diapuled  the  poeaesaion  of 
the  tract  about  Lebanon  and  Hermon  (Josh,  xi,  2-18). 
After  his  time  the  Syrians  were  apparently  undisturbed, 
nntil  David  began  his  aggressive  nani  upon  them. 
Claiming  the  fnmtifr  of  the  F.iiphrtlCF,  which  Gnd  had 
pmmiseil  to  Abraham  (Ren,  xv,  18),  Diivid  marie  war 
.'11  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zohab,  whom  he  defeated  in  a 
great  batllf,  killing  18,000  of  his  men.  and  taking  from 
him  1000  chariots,  700  horaemen,  and  20,000  footmen 
(3  Sam.  vi  11,3,1, 18).  The  Damascene  SyIian^  having 
ciidcaroted  to  succor  their  kinsmen,  were  likewise  d«- 


SYRIA  II 

felled  with  great  Ion  (TCr.  S) ;  and  tha  blow  to  wnk- 
eiicd  iliem  ihiil  chev  sbortly  afterwitrda  tubmilted  and 
becime  David'a  lulijecU  (ver.  e).  Zubah,  however,  waa 
fat  fnm  bfing  iiibdned  ai  yei.  When,  a  few  yean 
laur,  nhp  Ammnnilea  deiermined  on  engaging  in  a  war 
with  Darid,  and  applied  to  Che  Syriana  fm  aid,  Zobah, 
together  with  Beth-Keholi,  aent  them  SD.DOO  fuoimen, 
and  two  other  Syrian  liingdunis  fumighed  13,000  (x, 
U).  Thia  army  being  completely  defeated  br  Joali,  Had- 
■ilezer  obtained  aid  from  Heaapotamia  (ver.  IG),  and 
tried  Ihe  chance  of  a  third  battle,  which  liliewiK  went 
agaimt  him,  and  produced  the  general  luhmiHion  or 
Syria  to  the  Jewinb  monarch.  The  aubmiaginn  thai 
begun  continued  under  the  reign  .of  Siilnnion,  who 
"reined  urer  all  the  kingdom!  from  the  river  [Eu. 
phratea]  unto  the  land  of  the  FhUiatines  and  unto  the 
bunler  of  Egypt ;  thev  brought  pieaenta  and  aerred  Sol- 
amnn  all  the  daya  of  his  life"  (1  Kings  iv,  31).  The 
only  part  of  Syria  which  Solonwn  h<et  aeenu  to  have 
been  Damaacua,  where  an  independent  kingdom  wae 
act  up  by  Reion,  a  native  of  Zobah  (xi,  28-85).  On 
the  aeparatinn  of  the  two  kingdimia,  eiion  after  the  ac- 
d  of  Rehoboam,  the  remainder  of  Syria  no  doubt 


ik  off  tt 


yoke. 


Ihe  lending  ataie,  Harnalh  being  tecinid  to  it,  and  the 
■HTthem  Hilliios,  whose  capital  wai  Carchemiah,  near 
Itambuk,  thiriL  See  CAKCHEHiaK.  The  wan  of  tbia 
lieriiid  fall  moat  properly  inio  the  history  of  Damaacua, 
and  have  already  been  deKribed  in  the  acmunt  given 
of  that  city.  See  DAHAacus.  Their  reaiilc  was  to  at- 
tach Syria  to  the  great  Aeaytian  empire,  from  which  ii 
l<aued  to  the  Babyloniane,  after  a  ihurt  attempt  on  the 
|tart  of  Egypt  to  hold  poaaeaiion  of  it,  which  wan  frua- 
irated  by  Nebuchadneizar.  From  the  Habybniana 
Syria  paased  to  the  Fenians,  ander  whom  it  formed  a 
BatrapT  in  conjunction  with  Judsa,  I'hienicia,  and  Cv- 
prus  (Herod,  iii,  91).  Ita  reaourcea  were  aiill  great,ai'id 
probably  it  was  hia  contidence  in  them  that  eiicoor- 
Ritel  the  Syrian  satrap  Megabazus  to  raise  tbe  standard 
iif  rtvolt  againat  Artaxerxea  Limgimanus  (B.C.  447). 
.\rter  this  we  hear  little  of  Syria  till  Ihe  year  of  the  bat* 
tic  of  Iiaua  (B.C  B33),  when  it  submitted  to  Alexander 
without  a  elruggle. 

8.  Upon  the  death  of  Alexander,  Sj-ria  became,  f<ir  the 
fine  lime,  the  head  of  a  great  kingdom.  On  the  divininn 
»r  tbe  provincea  among  his  generals  (B.C.  331),  Seleucua 
Nicatur  received  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and  though, 
in  Ihe  twenty  yean  of  struggle  which  fidlowert,  this 
country  was  kisc  and  won  repeatedly,  it  remained  final- 
ly, with  the  exception  of  Ciele-Syria,  in  the  hands  of 
the  prince  In  whom  it  was  nriginally  assigned.  That 
iwiuce,  whose  dominions  reached  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  [ndus,  and  from  Ihe  Oxus  Is  the  Southern  Ocean, 
having,  as  he  believed,  been  eipueed  to  great  dangers 
on  account  of  [he  diaianct  frum  Greece  of  his  original 
capital,  Babvlon,  resolved,  immediately  upon  his  vicioi^ 
of  IpsunCaC.  301),  to  Dx  his  metropolis  in  Ihe  West,  and 
aeltled  upon  Svria  aa  the  fltleat  place  for  it.  Antioch 
was  begun  in  RC.  300,  and,  being  liiiished  in  a  few 
yean,  was  made  the  capital  of  Seleucus's  kingdom.  The 


Syria,  which  had  lung  been  Ihe  prey  of  stranger  coun- 
tries, and  had  been  exbautied  by  their  exactions,  grew 
rich  with  tbe  wealth  which  now  Mowed  into  it  on  all 
sides.  The  luxury  and  magnificence  of  Antioch  were 
oxtranrdinary.  Broad  straight  sCreeta.  with  colonnades 
from  end  toeiul,  temples,  iiaiueSjarches,  bridges,  a  royal 
palace,  and  various  other  public  buildings  dispersed 
il  mailc  the  Syrian 


lofal 


leEast. 


h  LMidice 


I'iiices,  other  towns  of  large  nii 
up.  Seleucia  in  I'ieria,  Apamea,  and 
were  foundations  of  the  Seleucidz,  aa  tDeir  names  sur- 
liciently  indicate.  Weak  and  indolent  as  were  many  of 
these  monarchs.  it  would  aeem  that  they  had  a  heredi- 
Miy  taste  for  building;  and  so  each  aimed  at  ouiiluing 
his  predecessors  in  the  number,  beauty,  and  magnificence 


10  SYRIA 

ofhia  cooitructionB.  Aa  the  hialory  of  Syria  nndettbt 
Seieucid  princes  has  been  already  given  in  detail  in  tht 
articles  treating  of  each  monarch  [  tee  Aimociict; 

DKMirrRius:  Situtucus,  etc],  it  will  be  iij 

here  to  do  more  than  sum  it  up  generally.  Tbe  OMai 
flourishing  period  was  the  reign  of  the  foiuider,  NtcalK 
The  emjure  was  then  almoat  as  large  as  LhaL  oC  tke 
Achnmenian  Pemiana,  for  it  at  one  lime  iiicludeil  Asia 
Hioor,  and  thus  reached  fnim  the  iEgean  tu  India.    Ii 


lU  Che  n 


venty-two.     Trade  flourished  greatly,  old  liitca  o( 
trsftlc  being  rcslureil  and  new  ones  opeiiol.     Tbe  mgn    | 
of  Nicalor'a  son.  Aniiochna  I,  called  Soier,  was  abe  be-     | 
ginning  of  the  decline,  which  was  prugreative  fnxa  hia     I 
date  with  onlv  one  or  two  slight  inlermplioua.      Sottr 
hM  territory  io  Ihe  kingdom  of  Pergamus.  and  (ailed  in 
anaiiempitosubject  Klhynia.    He  was  also  miasicceaa      j 
ful  against  Blgypt.    Under  his  son,  Auliochus  IL,  called    l 
Btof,  or  '■  the  Uod,"  who  ascended  the  throne  in  B,C     j 
£61,  the  disintegration  of  the  empire  proceeded  Hmre     i 
rapidly.     The  revolt  of  I'arthia  in  U.a  £&6,  luUowed    ' 
by  that  of  Bactria  in  B.C  2M,  deprived   tbe   Syriaa     I 
kuigdum  of  some  of  its  best  provinces,  ai>d  g*vc  it  a    ' 
new  enemy  which  shortly  became  a  rival  and  finaDy  s 
superior.     At  the  aame  time,  Ihg  war  with  Kgypt  was    j 
prosecuted  without  either  advantage  or  glory.     Fnth    I 
losses  were  suflered  in  the  reign  of  Seleueus  1 1  {,Calliui-    I 
cua),  Aniiochus  It's  successor.      While  CalUiiicoa  wB 
engageil  in  Egypt  against  Ptolemy  Euergcua,  Eit- 
menes  of  Pergamus  obtained  posMstion  of  a  greal  pan 
of  Asia  Minor  (EC.  212);  and  about  the  aame  time 
Anaces  II,  king  uf  Partbia,  conquered  llyncania  ami 
annexed  it  to  bis  dominions.    An  attempt  to  recovet 


I" 

slight  reaction  set  in.     Mo9t  of  A 

ere>l  (»r  Ccrauuus  by  his  vife's  nephew,  Actueas  (a.C 

224),  and  be  was  preparing  to  invade  Petgamiia  when 

he  died  poisoned.    His  successor  and  brother,  AotkM^os 

111,  though  he  gained  the  surname  of  Ureat  fram  the 

grandeut  of  his  expeditions  and  the  partial  suceeas  of 

some  of  ihem,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  really  dooe 

anylhiug  towards  raising  the  empire  from  iis  declining 

aiaiing  of  Cvle- Syria,  Phcenicia,  and  Palewiiie,  facnKd 
no  sufficient  compensation  for  Ihe  loss  «f  Asia  Mimr, 
which  ho  was  forced  to  cede  to  Rome  for  the  agigran- 
dizementofth«  rival  kingdom  of  Pergamus  ( B.C.  1901. 
Even  had  the  territorial  balance  been  kept  more  ewm, 
the  ill  policy  of  making  Home  an  enemy  of  the  Syrian 
kingdom,  with  which  Aniiochus  tlie  tireal  ia  taxable, 
would  have  necessitated  our  placing  him  among  the 
princes  to  whom  its  ultimate  ruin  was  mainly  owini;. 
Towards  the  east,  indeeil,  he  did  something,  if  ttnt  ii, 
thrust  back  Ihe  Paitbiaui,  at  any  rale  to  protect  his 
empire  from  their  aggressions.      But  tbe  exbataMiaii 

consequent  upon  Ills  coiiaisnc  wars  and  signal  dtrfeatt 

more  especially  those  of  Kaphia  and  Uagnesia-^ — tel't 
Syria  far  more  feeble  at  his  death  than  she  bad  be«D  at 
any  former  period.  The  almost  eventless  leignofSekMi- 
cus  IV  (Philopaior),  his  »<m  an<l  successor  (KC  1«7- 
176},  is  auflicieut  proof  of  this  leebleness.  It  vtaa  not 
till  twenty  yean  of  peace  had  recruited  tbe  rewmrgca  nt 
Syria  in  men  aiul  money  that  Aniiuclina  IV  (K[n[>baaw3), 
brother  of  Phibipalor,  ventured  on  engaging  in  a  grcsii 
war  ([I.C.  171) — a  war  for  the  conquest  of  Egipt.  ,\t 
first  it  seemed  as  if  the  attempt  would  succeed.  El^^y  pt 
was  on  the  pfunl  ufyieldiiig  to  her  foe  of  n>  many  yearH, 
when  Home,  following  out  her  traditions  of  hosiifiiv  i.i 
Syrian  power  and  induence.  interposed  her  meiliataoii. 
and  depriveil  Epjphanes  of  all  the  fhiiia  of  his  victori*-* 
(ILQ  16H).  A  greater  injuiy  was  about  the  saioe  euik 
(RC.  137)  inflicted  oo  Syria  by  tbe  folly  of  EpipbKTheni 
himself.  Mot  content  with  replenishing  bis  tieaaui^  bv 
the  plunder  of  the  Jewish  Temple,  he  madly  ordered  tti« 
desecration  of  Ihe  Holy  of  Holies,  and  thus  caoaevl  t.tn, 


STRIA  1( 

itnk  aC  ibe  Jcwk,  which  proved  i  permaiient  Iom  to 
tkc  (npiiT  «nd  ai>  RggnvaiioD  of  iu  wukneaa.  After 
Iktilttihaf  Epiphum  the  empire  rapidlf  veignl  loiu 
UL  Tb(  ngil  power  feU  iaU  Ihe  hands  a!  in  inhiil, 
Andoclun  V  (Eupuor),  •on  at  EpiphiDcs  (EC.  IM) ; 
Ut  oobln  couended  for  the  ngmcy;  ■  prelendet  (u 
ike  avrnn  Muted  up  in  (he  penon  nf  Etemetriua,  aun  of 
iiikam  IV  i  Home  put  in  •  cUim  to  ndaiinuier  tlie 
((anniBKBt;  utd  amid  Ihe  troubles  thue  caiued  the 
Plnhiim,  under  Uithriditea  I,  orenan  the  eaatern  prav- 
iac«(aC  IG4),cuni(ucnd  Media,  Fenia, Sunana,  Uaby- 
l«a.*ic,anilailvaiiced  their  froiilierlo  the  Euphrates. 
It  «Bi  in  rain  that  Detoetriua  It  (Nkaioi)  made  an 
ancBpt  (&.C.  Hi')  to  recover  the  lual  terrilar)';  hi* 
tiitinc  cost  bim  hii  libeitj;  while  ■  aimilar  atlenipt 
u  the  pan  of  hii  ■ucceMor,  Antiiichui  VII  (Sidetn), 
am.  that  nHHurch  hii  life  (aC.  1'^).  Meanwhile,  iu 
iha  ■bora  Synan  kingdom,  diiorden  uf  every  kind  were 
lo  the  inereaae;  Commagene  revolted  and  eMabliahed 
btiiodepeadeBee;  civil  wan,  muTdera,  tnutinin  nf  the 
Traofia, rapidly  wiecMded  one  inotber;  thedecpiaedJewa 
wen  uUhI  in  by  both  eido  in  the  varioun  •uufg^clea : 
»d  Bvria,  in  tbe  upacE  of  about  ni 
IU  id  B£.  64.  had  no  fewer  than  ten  aovi 
rhe  wealib  of  the  cnuitiy  had  been  by  this  time  disai- 
falad — much  had  ttawtil  Komewinla  in  the  ahape  of 
luibai  more,  protaUy,  had  been  tpeiit  on  tlie  wars;  and 
Mil  Bture  had  been  waated  bj  the  kiiiga  iu  luxury  uf 
eiST  kind.  [Jnder  tliew  drcnnuiwxH,  the  Romana 
■bowed  no  eagemeM  to  oecapy  the  eihiuated  regivn, 
■bieh  paaed  under  the  power  of  Tigranea,  king  of 
Anwaia,  in  B.C  83,  and  waa  not  made  a  province  of 
cb*  SoniaD  Empire  till  after  Punipr)''a  complete  defeat 
•fHkhtidatea  and  hia  ally  Tinranea  in  aC.  64. 

The  ehronolngv  of  thia  period  baa  been  well  worked 
•M  bf  CltntAn  ^faH.  IIM.  iii,  aOH-846),  from  whom  the 
Ubwiog  table  of  the  kinga,  wiih  the  daua  of  their  ac- 


veans  fmm  ILC. 

(fna.     All 


■«.. 

^^' 

^Uol 

»  '1 

It    " 

Oct.   Bll 

A  Dg.no 

&s 

AnK.l« 

Sis 

Frb.  is; 

Feh.  IH 

*llil 

W 

m 

iASulSSlhi-:::-..;.:::::. 

KA><l.idiuaBnp^.r. 

It  D^riaa  Niellu*  (ui"igu'i:: 

U.  Aatiocbni  OiTtHio 

..j^iS;::.-:::::;:::::;:;:::' 

i.  A*  Svria  tulda  an  important  place,  not  onlv  in  the 
OM  TfM^'UM  in  the  New,  aome  account  of  iti  condition 
*Wn  the  Homana  muat  now  be  given.  That  oonditinn 
■BiOBewhat  peculiar.  While  the  eountrr  generally 
•M  farmed  intua  Roman  pmviuce.under  governors  who 
««t*al  Ant  pmpiwiaia  or  queMon,  then  proconauta,  and 
laally  legaua,  there  were  esempl«d  from  the  direct  rule 
•I  tlM  gDrcmor.  in  the  Unt  place,  a  number  of  "  free 
ntia,"  which  retained  the  admin iitration  of  their  ok 
aftm,  adject  to  a  tribute  levied  according  to  Ihe  Romi 
poiipka  of  taxation:  and,  arcondiy,  a  number  ofirac 
■ki(b  wen  aaaigned  Ioprltyprinae^  commonly  natives, 
In  be  ridad  ■>  their  pleasure,  subject  to  the  aame  ul 
risaa  oiih  the  freeciiie*  as  to  taution  (Appian,.'isr.£0). 
The  frM  eiiie*  were  Anlioch,  9eleucia,  Apamea,  K]' 
ptaneia.  Trifiolia,  Sidon,  and  lyn;  the  principalitie^ 
loniB^IFne.  Chabas  nd  Behim  (near  Baalbek),  Arethu- 
■,  Abii*  or  AbilnMi  Palnyta,  and  Damaacua.  The 
rriariMbliM  »ei»  amnatim*  falW  W!™-«™vw.  ( 
Thrjtnttr 


STRIA 

vetcralely  weilded 

that  it  was  necessary  to  consult  their  feelings,  to  Halter 
the  national  vanity,  and  to  give  them  the  semblance 
without  the  aubelance  of  freedom,  (a.)  Commagene 
waa  a  kingdom  (rrjaum).  It  had  broken  off  fmm  Syria 
during  the  later  troubles,  and  become  a  separate  aiatc 
under  the  government  of  a  branch  of  the  SeleuciilB,  whu 
aJftcted  the  names  r>rAnlinchus  and  Hithridates.  The 
Rumaiia  allowed  thia  condition  of  thing*  to  eoniinue  till 
A.D,  17,  when,  upon  the  death  of  Antiocbui  III,  they 
made  Cnromagene  into  a  provincci  in  which  cnnditliin 
it  cuntinueil  till  A.D.  38,  when  Caligula  gave  the  crown 
to  Antiuchus  IV  (Epiphanes),  the  son  of  Aiitiochus  HI. 
Antiochua  IV  continued  king  till  A.D.  7i,  when  he  waa 
deposed  by  Vespasian,  and  Commagene  was  linally  ab- 
sorbed into  the  empire.  He  had  a  aon,  called  also  An- 
tiochua  and  Epiphanea,  who  waa  betrothed  to  DniulU, 
the  aiater  of  ■■  king  Agrippa,"  and  afterwarda  the  wife  of 
Felix,  the  procurator  nfJudeea.  (&.)Chalcia''ad  Belum" 
was  not  the  city  ao  called  near  Aleppo,  which  gave  name 
to  Ihe  diatrict  of  Chalcidice,  but  a  town  of  leas  importance 
near  Heliupolis  (  Uaalbek  ),  whence  probably  the  aofHx 
"ad  Belum."  It  is  mentioned  in  this  connection  bv 
Strabo  (xvi,  2,  IU),  and  Joaephua  aavs  that  it  was  un- 
der Lebanon  {Aal.  xiv,  7,  4),  ao  that  there  cannot  be 

the  -  Hiillow  Syria"— the  modem  Buhfi'a— to  the  aouih 
of  Baalbek  (Jnsephua,  War,  i,  9,  S),  and  therefure  prob- 
ably at  Anjar,  where  there  are  large  ruins  (Robinaun, 
BM.  Rn.  iii,  496,  iVl).  Thia,  loo,  was  generally,  or  per- 
hapa  always,  a  "  kiiigdom."  Pompey  found  it  under  a 
certain  Piulemy,  "the  aon  of  HennBus,"  and  sihiweil  him 
to  retain  poneasion  of  it,  together  with  certain  adjacent 
diatiicis.  From  him  it  passed  la  hie  son,  Lyaanias,  who 
waa  put  to  death  by  Antony  at  the  instigaiion  of  Cleo- 
patra (abnut  B.C.  B4),  aller  which  we  find  lis  revenues 
farmed  by  Lysanias's  steward,  Zetiodorus,  the  royally 
being  in  abeyance  (Josephua,  A  al.  iv,  10, 1 ).  In  RC  22 
Cbalcis  was  added  by  Auguatua  to  the  dominiona  nf 
Herod  the  Great,  at  whoae  death  it  probably  passed  to 
his  aon  Philip  {Aid.  xvii,  II,  4).  Philip  died  A.D.  34; 
aiHl  then  we  Iok  sight  of  Chalcia,  until  Claudius,  in  his 
first  year  (A.D.  «|;hJ>«*l(*<'ol  ■'  "0  a  Hernd.ihe  brother 
uS  Henid  Agrippa  I.  still  as  a  "  kingdom."  From  this 
Hervd  it  passed  (A.D.  49)  M  hia  nephew,  Herod  Agrippa 
II,  who  held  it  only  three  or  four  years,  being  promoted 
from  it  to  a  better  govemtnent  (Oid.  xx,  7, 1).  Chalcii 
then  fell  to  Agrif^'a  couain,  Ariatobolus,  tan  of  the  tint 
Herodian  king,  under  whom  it  remained  till  A.D.  73 
(  Joeephua,  War,  vii,  7,  1 ).  About  this  time,  or  toon 
after,  it  ceased  to  be  adistinct  government,  being  finally 
absorbed  into  the  Roman  province  ofSyria.  (c.)  Arethuas 


sn)w 


Syria,  ai 


governed  by  pbylarcha.  The  city  lay  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Oronles,  between  Hamah  and  Huma,  rather  nearer 
to  the  former.  In  the  government  were  included  the 
Emiseni,  or  people  «f  Hums  (Kmesa),  an  that  we  msy 
regard  it  as  cumpriaing  the  Orontes  vallev  from  the 
Jebel  Erba>-n,  at  least  as  high  as  the  Rahr  el-Kadea,  or 
Baheiret-Hums,  the  hike  of  Huma.  Only  two  govcmora 
are  known — Sampaiceramu*.  and  Jamblichua,  hia  aoii 
(Strabo.  xvi,  2,  10).  Probably  thia  principalitv  was 
one  of  the  first  absorbed,  {d.)  Abilene,  so  called  from 
its  caiulal  Abila,  was  a  "  letrarchy."  It  was  situateil  Iu 
Ihe  east  of  Antilibanus,  on  the  route  between  Baalbek 

Ihe  aile  of  ihe  capital  (Kobinsnn,  BUiL  Rn.  iii,  479-482), 
which  was  at  the  village  called  el-bilk.  on  Ihe  river 
Baraila,  jual  where  it  breaka  fiinh  from  the  mounlaina. 


,11," 


Ihe  cummencemeiit  nf  JohnVmii 

.try,  which  was  prob- 

ablvA.D.S5.    Of  thia  Lvaanias  i 

he  certainly  cannot  be  the  Lysann 

swho  once  held  Chal- 

cL\  since  that  Lysaniaa  died  abov 

STRIA 

ly.  Thirteen  yr*n  irter  the  ilste  nieiitioned  by  Luke  1 1 
(A.D.  38),  the  heir  of  Ciliguli  beglavretl  "  the  telnrchy  i 
iif  LvMiiiss,"  by  whicb  Abilen*  is  no  doubi  in[nMled,  nii 
ihe  eUlcr  Agrippa  (Jowphui,  Anl.  Kviii,  6, 10),  anil  Tuur 
years  later  Claudiiu  cnnflrmed  the  ume  prince  in  the 
pmusainn  of  ihe  "Abila  of  Lysaoias"  (iMoL  xin,  S,  1). 
Filially,  in  A.D.  63,  Clau<lii>>,  among  other  firanlh  eon- 
Terred  on  the  younger  Agrippa  ''  Alula,  which  hail  been 
Ihe  telrarchy  uf  Lyaaiiiaa"  (iiid.  xx,  7, 1).  Abila  waa 
'  y  Placiiiut,  nne  at  lh«  general*  of  Vespatiian,  in 


9  (Josephun,  ITix- 


'.  7,  G),  ■ 


annexed  to  Syria,  (e.)  Pi  . 
]Hed  a  different  iwutiuii  from  the  reM  of  the  Syrian 
jn-indpaliiies.  [C  wu  in  no  Mnae  dependent  upon  Kume 
(I'liny,  //.  JV.  v,  25),  but,  relying  on  its  pnition,  claimeil 
ami  exeroiseil  the  riftht  of  aelf- government  fnim  Ihe 
breaking-iip  oT  the  Syrian  kingdom  lo  the  rtijiii  of 
Trajan.  Antony  made  an  attempt  against  it  in  U.C.4I, 
but  railed.  It  wa*  not  till  1'rajiii'g  aiicremra  a);ainn  the 
I>arthi■n^  between  A.D.  114  and  A.U.  1 16,  thai  Palmyra 
H-aa  addeil  to  Ihe  empire.  (J-)  UamaMni  in  the  laat  uf 
the  principaliiiea  which  it  in  neceMary  to  notice  here. 
It  appears  t«  have  been  le ri  by  Pompey  in  the  hands  of 
an  Arabian  prince,  Aretaa,  whii,  however,  waa  lo  pay  a 

their  pleasure  with  a  garrison  (Jusephus,  H  sf.  xiv,  4, 6 : 
5,1:  11,7).    This  slate  of  things  continued  moat  likely 

t<i  the  aettletnent  of  [Ite  empin  by  Augustus,  when 
Dmouscus  waa  attached  In  the  province  of  Syria.  Dni^ 
ing  the  rest  of  Augustus''  reign,  and  during  the  entire 
reign  of 'riberius,  this  Brrangement  was  in  furcei  but  it 
•eems  probable  that  CBllgiilD,on  hia  accession,  separated 
DamawiiB  from  Svria  and  gave  it  to  another  Aretas,  who 
waa  kiiiK  of  I'etra,  and  a  relation  (son  ?)  of  Ihe  fonner. 
.See  .^KKTAS.     Hence  the  fact  noted  by  Paul  (2  Cor,  iil, 


32), ih 
held  bi 


n  Dam< 
These 


l>eiidence  of  Damaacua  ia  thought  la  hare  continued 
through  the  reigns  nf  Caligula  and  Clauilius  (fmm 
A.D.  07  to  A.a  64),  but  to  have  Come  to  an  end  under 
N«r<>,  when  the  districc  was  probably  reattaclied  to 

The  liat  of  the  goverriors  of  Syria,  from  its  conquest 
by  Ihe  Romans  lo  Ihe  destruction  uf  Jerusalem,  has  beci^ 
made  out  with  a  near  approach  to  accuracy,  and  is  as 
shown  in  the  adjoining  table. 

The  general  history  of  Syria  during  this  period  may 
be  summed  up  in  a  few  wiirda.  Down  to  Ihe  battle  of 
I'harsalia,  Syria  was  fairly  tranquil  Ihe  inily  troubles 
being  with  the  Arabs,  who  occasionally  attacked  ihe 
eastern  frontier.     The  Roman  governors  labored  haul 


iking  grei 


]>aina  to  i«slore  Ihe  cities,  which  had 
iter  the  lat^r  Seleucidie.  Gabinius, 
vear*  B.C.  bd  and  &5,  made  himself  panicnlariy 
vpicnous  in  works  uf  this  kind.  After  Pliaroalia  (EC. 
46)  the  trouble*  of  Syria  were  rcnewol.  Julius  Uesar 
Kave  Iba  province  to  bis  relalive  Sextus  in  B.C.  47 1  bul 
I'ompey's  parly  waa  alill  so  atnnig  in  the  East  thai  in 
the  ne:tl  year  one  of  hia  ailherenlB,  Ceciliiia  UasHI^  put 
Sextus  to  death,  and  established  himself  in  ihegmem- 
ment  to  llrmly  lliat  he  was  able  lu  miai  for  three  years 
three  proconsuls  appointed  by  Ihe  Senate  u>  ditpoasesa 
him,  mid  only  llnally  yielded  uptHi  lerma  which  lie 
liimself  offereil  lo  lila  anlagonisls.    Many  of  Ihe  polly 

madic  Arabs  took  hia  pay  and  fuughi  under  his  banner 
(Slratui,  xvi,  2,  10).  Bassus  had  hut  Just  made  his 
Kubmiasion,  when,  upon  the  assasainaiiiin  of  Cnear,  Syria 
was  diaiinleil  between  Caiwua  and  l>>iUbella,  the  friend 
of  Anionv,  a  dispute  lertninaled  bv  Ihe  suicirle  nf  Dole- 
liella,  ILC.  4A,  Bt  Un<licea.  wheir  he  waa  besieged  by 
CasAlns.    The  next  year  Cassiua  left  his  province  and 


la  then  fell  t. 


«  XIV,  a 
ugee  Labienus,  overran  Syria  and  Asia  Hiiior,  deleat' 
ing  Anlonv's  generals,  and  Ibreateuiiig  Ki>me  witb  the 
kiss  of  all'  her  Asiatic  posBessiuiis  (ILC.  40-89).  Ven. 
tidius,  however,  in  RCSM,  defeale<1  Ibe  I'aithiuts,  atew 
Pacorut,  and  recovered  fur  Rome  her  former  boundarv. 
A  quiet  time  followed.  From  aa  36  to  aC,  81  Sjto 
waa  governed  peaceably  by  the  legates  of  Antoay,  ami, 
alter  bis  defeat  at  Actium  and  death  at  Alexaitdris 
in  Ihal  t-ear,  by  ihose  of  Auguslu*.  In  ILC.  87  took 
nbetwi 


imperial  ulaiio- 
Syria,  being  from  it*  CK- 


rstem  dales;  and  S 

lion  amongihe  pro, 

by  legates,  wbu  were  of  conaular 
mlam),  and  bore  severally  the  full  title  u  _ 

August!  pro  pmtore."  During  the  whole  of  thii  perioii 
Ihe  pniviiKC  enlarged  or  contracted  its  limita  acconliiig 
as  it  pleaseil  the  reigning  empemr  to  bestow  tiwTta  of 
land  on  ihe  native  princes,  or  to  resume  them  aitd  pJace 
them  under  his  legate.  Judtaa,  when  attached  in  this 
way  U>  Syria,  occupied  a  pecniisi  position.  Partly,  ;>er- 
haps,  on  accouNi  of  its  remoteness  from  the  Syrian  cap- 
ital, Autioch,  partly,  no  doubt,  because  uf  the  peculiar 
character  of  ils  people,  it  was  thought  best  to  make  ii. 
in  a  certain  sense,  ■  separate  govemmenu  A  special 
procurator  waa  therefore  appointed  lo  rule  it.  wbu  was 
goveniiiT  of  Syria,  but  within   his 


Br  of  a  legal  111 


Syria  continiicd  uiihoiit  serious  diiturbance  fnwn  tbe 
expulsion  of  the  Panhians  (B.C.  38)  to  tbe  breaking- 
oiit  of  the  Jewish  war  (A.D.  66).  In  RC  1»  it  ww 
visited  bv  Augustus,  and  in  A.D.  IB-  19  by  C 
CUB,  who  dietl  at  Auiiocli  -  -  ■ 
A.D.  44-47  it  was  the  ac 


<I,MsrciDsPhlllppn 


DIcJina. .! 


M.  Vlpsnniiis  Aerlpiis. . 

M.Tn^lioa 

M.  VIpgniiluB  AgrlppB. 

M.Tltlna 

C.SsiilluB  Sslnroluns.. 


irecelTsd  anihorlty  rhm  tiM 
Ssaale  111  dlapoasaas  Baaaa*. 


I^gstna 

Prolegntna... 
PropraitoT.. . . 

Leg*'". 

Umat.'.'.'.'.'. 


STltlA 


lo; 


SYRIA 


i.  A  Uitk  cvlier  Cbriuiiniiy  had  begun  lo  ipreail 
iMu  itiputir  by  means  of  iha«  who  "were  sciliercd~ 
M  Ibt  fiat  of  Stephen's  penecuuon  (Acta  li,  19),  pait- 
><  In  Tbe  exertiuiu  of  Paul  (Cial.  i,  21).  The  Svrian 
tlWRb  ■HO  grew  to  be  one  of  the  mut  flouruhiiiK 
l.tfli  liii  I :  XT,  28,  S6,  41,  elc).  Here  the  naine  of 
'  nKidian"  6m  aroee  —  at  the  outset  no  doubt  a  gibe, 
Iwi  ibeiHKfunh  a  f  k>ry  an>l  a  boail.  Aiitioch.  the  cap- 
ii»L  hwame,  ■■  early  probatily  aa  A.D.  ii,  the  aee  of  n 
Mmfi,  ami  *«■  M»n  icoigniaed  at  a  palrianbate.  The 
^liui  (niurcb  ia  acriupd  of  laxity  bolb  in  faith  anil 
•amb  (Newman,  A  rimu,  p.  10) ;  but,  if  it  muM  admit 
ibeilidgian  of .  ..    . 


nTStlw 


hand,  II 


,glor 


of  Mcb  name*  aa  lgnatiu>,  Theophilua,  Ephi 
Habrlia.  It  autlend  many  t^erous  peraecuiiona 
44jt  ihiiDking;  and  it  helped  to  maite  that  eni|i 
|(DltK  a^cainat  w»rldliiit«a  and  luiuriouHicaa  of  I 
u  which  monaaiiciam,  according  to  ila  uriginat  co(ic«p- 
nam.  mun  be  conridered  la  have  aimed.  The  ~,  ' 
nmika  Here  among  the  moat  eanieat  and  niost  aclT-de- 
nyinc:  and  the  namea  of  Hilarion  and  Simeon  Stylite* 
■n  Huagh  to  prore  that  a  most  imponant  pan 
pLijtd  by  Syria  in  the  aacetic  morenient  of  tbe  1th  and 
Ml  ceouirifa, 

t.  Tbe  country  remained  under  Roman  and  Byzan- 
linr  rale  till  A.D.  fiH,  when  it  waa  overrun  by  the  Ho- 
under  Khaled.  Siileen  yearn  tater  Da- 
il  of  the  Mohammedan  em- 
r  tbe  Cruaadera  enlar*d  it, 
captortd  its  principal  citim,  with  the  exception  of  Da- 
nascuf,  and  retained  poaaeagiuii  uf  them  abuut  a  hun- 
dml  yeara.  For  more  than  two  centuries  after  the  ea- 
tmlMO  of  the  Cruaaderv,  Syria  wia  the  theatre  of  fleice 
onusu  beiweeii  the  warlike  honlea  of  Tariary  and  the 
Nuadake  rukra  of  RRVpt.  At  length,  in  A.D.  1617,  it 
■a(  eapanred  by  the  Turki  under  sultan  Selim  I,  and 
bacame  a  pan  ion  of  the  Oitamin  empire. 

In  1T98  Bonaparte  landed  In  Egypt  with  a  powerful 
traiT,  and,  having  subjected  that  country  to  the  arms 
•^Franre,  marched  into  Syria,  affecting  the  iitmoat  re- 
t|«t  for  the  Miihammedan  doctrine  and  wonbip,  and 

Ea».  He  laid  riege  to  Acre ;  but,  the  Turkish  garrison 
btb^  animated  by  the  presence  of  SOO  Dritlah  sailors 
mlrr  sir  Kditey  Smiih,  at  the  expiration  ofaixly  dayg 
Ike  French  general  was  compelled  lo  retire,  after  the 
*ttilice  nf  a  large  number  uf  his  most  gallant  anldieis. 
A  towrrfii]  army  of  Turks,  who  had  adt-anced  from  Da- 
lUKim  to  raiie  the  siege  of  Acre,  were  next  attacked 
fit  Napoleon  at  the  base  of  Mount  Tabor,  and  routed 
*idi  gi^t  ataugbter,  thouaandi  being  driven  into  the 
Jndan.  JaSa  (Jnppa)  fell  into  his  bands,  and,  eon- 
'ntr  10  the  usages  uf  war,  ISUO  prbonera  wen  shot  or 
ibi^faeil  with  the  ba\unet.  But  (he  Frenvh  cam- 
paian  in  Kyria  was  of  short  duraiinn.  On  June  16, 
ITffiLibe  armr  unler  Bonaparte  arrived  at  Cairo,  hav- 
iscuaverwd'the  (treat  Desert;  and  after  the  battle  of 
MumUt.  hi  the  fuUowiug  month,  when  18,000  Turks 
reriibnl  un  the  field,  the  general  deputed  the  command 
»  Klrfaer,  and  uiled  foe  France. 

Syria  remained  under  the  Turks  till  1880,  when  Ho- 
kiaiaiiid  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  declaring  war  with  his 
•sToeign,  the  saltan,  sent  an  army  into  Paleatine,  un- 
Irr  the  command  of  his  son  Ibrahim,  which  speedily 
apiani  Acre,  Tripoli,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus,  and,  de- 
fcUBg  the  Turks  in  vsrious  battles,  cneeed  the  Taurus, 
■14  piepared  to  inarch  on  Cgnstantlnople  itself.  The 
■ilUD  was  obliged  lo  invoke  the  aid  of  Russia  against 
iIh  cvnqueTDT  of  Syria;  and  iO.OOO  KuMiana,  under 
nml  UrIuA  hHtily  landed  on  the  Asiatic  territory-, 
■MBping  between  Ibrahim  and  the  Bosphonts.  The 
■hsn  ibn  enlrred  Inio  negntiation  with  tbe  Egyptian 
nafral,an4  solemnly  conHrmed  to  Mohammed  Ali  the 
'■Tniyakj  of  Ibe  whole  terrilory  from  Adana,  on  the 
faaiien  ef  Aria  Minor,  lo  the  Kik.  The  Syrians  soon 
4«BTneU  thM  ih«lr  i>«*  "Mien  were  not  a  wl 


rapacious  than  the  Turks,  and  several 
place  in  Mount  Lebanon  and  various  districts  of  gvria 
in  1SS4.  The  presence  of  Mobsmmed  Ali  himself,  with 
large  reinforcements,  suppressed  for  a  moment  the  spirit 
of  disaffection,  and  in  the  following  year  the  Druses 
and  Christians  of  Lebaiion  weiv  disarmed.  Ground 
down,  however,  by  the  utmost  tyranny,  the  Syrians 
again  revolted  in  1887;  they  were  chastised  by  Ibra- 
him, and  again  reduced  (o  aubjection.  [n  IS40,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  treaty  between  England,  Ruteia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia,  the  seaport  towns  of  Syria  were  bombarded 
by  a  British  squadron;  and,,the  Kgvptians  being  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  the  whole  of  Syria,  the  aupremacy  of 
the  Turke  was  once  more  established  over  the  country, 
which  they  hava  ever  since  held. 

Vl[.  j^trerorure.^See,  ill  geiKral,  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Clou.  Geog.  s.  v.;  M'Cullnugh,  Gtog.  Did.  s.  v.  On 
the  geography,  see  Pucocke,  DarrijilioH  n/ilu  Etut,  ii, 
8B-!09;  Burckhardl,  Traceli  in  Sgrta  atut  He  Half 
Umi,  p.  1-W9 ;  Robinson,  Laltr  Biblical  Ratareha,  p. 
419-626;  Stanley.fmaiaiuf /■ufrOiw,  p.  40S-4H;  Por- 
ter, >iee  Ymn  in  Dumtacia;  Ainsuorth,  Trattlt  in 
lit  Traek  of  Ike  Ttn  Tkoutaad,  p.  &7-7U;  Rnrarchn, 
etc,  p.  S90  sq.;  Wortabel,  The  Syriaia  (Uind.  1866); 
Chesney,  fiapiroi'M  ErpnHtum;  TTiomson,  in  Ihe  Bi- 
bliolMeca  Stin-a,  voL  v ;  Burton  and  Drake,  {/iwpibrnJ 
Sgria  (Lond.  1872).  On  the  history  under  the  Seleu- 
cidat,  see  {heaidea  the  original  sources)  Clinton,  fatli 
Httltaiei,  voL  iii.  Appendix  iil,  p.  808-S4B ;  Gardner,  5e. 
kvcid  Coiia  (Lond.  1878);  Vaittani,  Imptrium  Srltuci- 
durvm  (Par.  ISBi);  Frolicb,  .4intiA->  Btrvni  tl  B^un 
5yrui(Vien.l744);  and  Plaihe,  CmtA.  #iic«£m.  (Leips. 
1834).  On  the  history  under  Ihe  Romans,  see  Nuri- 
sius,  CmoHipkia  IHtana,  in  0pp.  iii,  424-681 ;  Gibbon, 
DtHiHt  and  Fall,  etc  On  Ihe  modem  history  and  con- 
dition, see  Castille,  La  Sgrit  tnui  MthtmH  Ali;  Bon- 
ring,  RrpoTt  on  Syria;  Kitler,  Bgrien  aad  Paldll.f 
Murray  and  Bildekcr,  ayiri  and  PiilrH. 

SYRIA.  MisstONS  IN.  The  origin  of  the  Sj-rian  mis- 
sion dates  back  as  far  as  1823.  When  the  two  American 
misaionaries  Binl  and  Gondell  arrived  in  that  year,  the 
civil  and  the  social  condition  of  Jerusalem  and  l>alesline 
were  such  that  these  gentlemen  were  advised  to  make 
Beirflt  Ihe  centre  of  their  operations.  Soon  several 
English  missionaries  were  added  lo  the  Protestant 
force  St  that  time,  and  Ihe  papal  Church  became  thor- 
oughly alarmed.    Letters  were  addressed  froi 


different 


ible,  ll 


under- 


taking of  the  missionaries  ineffectual.  The  lelle: 
answered  by  the  analhenias  against  the  "  Bible  men ;" 
yet,  notwiihalandtng  all  Ibis,  the  missionaries  took  a 
hopeful  view  of  their  prospects,  and  commenced  schools 
in  1824  at  BrirOt.  The  firat  was  a  mere  class  of  six 
Arab  children,  taught  daily  by  the  wives  of  tlie  mis- 
sionaries. Soon  an  Arab  leacher  was  engaged,  and  be- 
fore the  year  ended  Ihe  pupils  bad  increased  to  flftv. 
In  1827  they  had  already  600  chiblren  in  Ihirteen 
schools,  and  more  than  100  of  these  pupils  were  gills. 
That  the  Romish  ecclesiastics  were  bustlle  to  these 
schools  need  not  bo  meniioiied.  1'he  troubles  which 
commenced  in  1826  with  Ihe  invasion  of  Ihe  Greeks, 
and  the  constant  apprehension  of  an  approaching  war. 


with  t 


whei 


t  was  resumed.     In  1834  ai 

cspicislly  in  the  controversy  which  Mr.  Bird  had 
.be  papal  binhop  of  Beirhl.  In  1886  a  high-school 
Dmmenced,  but  missionary  wi-rk  was  impeded  hy 
ars  uf  Lebanon.  These' I  rouble*  lasted  till  the 
1842.  In  the  rear  1844  ihe  missionaries  held  a 
ntion,  the  result  of  which  was  that  it  was  recng- 
Bs  a  fact  of  fundamental  importance  thai  ihe  pe<>- 
thin  the  bounds  nf  ihe  mission  were  Arabs,  wherh- 
-eks,  Greek  Catholics,  Druses,  or  Maruuiics. 


SYRIA 

>nd  that  the  iWtn  reli^ouB  ucia  KiUy  eonalilulcd 
one  TIC?.  It  wia  also  agreed  upon  that  wherpT 
cnmiMiiiei  were  read;  lo  make  a  cndible  profe 
piely,  they  were  eatitled  to  be  reWKiiised  as  churchea. 
and  had  a  right  to  such  a  native  minUtry  aa  coii' '  ' 
fciven  them.  About  that  time  a  call  for  pTeachiiif; 
tmm  Uanbeiya,  a  village  of  foi         "        ' 


lofMomi 


Me  body 

of  Haabeiyan*  had  aeceded  fram  the  Greek  Church,  de- 
clared Ihemaetvei  Proteataiita,  and  made  a  formal  ap. 
plication  (n  the  minion  for  relifcious  iuatruction.  Sev- 
eiilv-aix  n(  these  pei^ile  were  added  (o  the  Church  of 
ChrisL  A  penecuiioii  agsinat  the  Proteatanta  now  en- 
aiied,  who  fled  lo  Abeih,  where  the  bigh-achoul  waa  re- 
Tiveil  under  the  eharge  of  Mr.  Calhoun.  A  chapel  for 
public  wiinhip  was  (itted  up,  and  here,  ai  abo  at  Ueirdt, 
there  was  pre*chin([  every  Sabbath  in  Ihe  Arabic  lan- 
RUaee,  with  an  inlereatiiifC  Sabbath-school  between  the 
service!,  lu  the  spring  of  ibe  year  1S45  war  broke  out 
afreah  between  the  Druaea  and  Msronites,  ami  Lebanon 
was  again  purged  by  tire.  The  consequence  was  that 
the  schools  in  the  mountaina  were  broken  up;  but  in 
the  following  year,  when  Dr.  Van  Dyek  was  ordained 
lo  the  work  of  Ibe  Uoapel  ministry,  there  were  ten 
Bchnols  in  the  charge  of  the  station  at  Abeih,  with  436 
pupils.  Connected  with  the  Beirlit  sUlion  were  four 
■cliools  for  bovs  and  giria,  and  one  for  girla  aloue.  In 
SOk  el-GhClrb',  a  village  four  milea  from  Abeih,  a  Pmt- 
eataiit  seceuion  finm  the  Greek  Church  was  in  piogreiis, 

held  with  them  every  Sabbath.  At  Bhamditn,  Che 
summer  residence  for  the  brethren  oflhe  BeirClt  suiion, 
there  were  a  number  of  decided  Protestants,  and  even 
in  Zahleh,  the  hot-bed  of  fanaticism,  there  were  men 
who  openly  argued  from  the  Gospel  against  the  pre- 
vailing errora.  Missionary  work  had  now  so  ii»;reased 
that  in  the  year  1S47  an  earnat  and  ebxiuent  appeal 
from  the  miBHonaries  for  an  increaae  to  their  number 
wss  made  to  the  Prudential  Committee.  The  appeal 
was  published,  but  it  continued  painfully  true  that  the 
harvest  was  plenteous,  while  the  laborers  were  few.  In 
the  same  year  the  Proteatanla  of  Haabeiyi  sent  one  of 
their  number  lo  Constantinople  to  lay  their  grievances 
before  the  sultan.  The  appeal  was  successful,  and  the 
principle  of  tolerating  and  acknowledging  the  Protes- 
tants as  a  Christian  sect  was  recognised,  in  spile  of  the 
bull  of  excommunication  of  (he  Greek  patriarch.  The 
moat  important  event,  however,  in  the  year  IS48  was 
the  formation  of  a  purely  native  Church  at  BeirAi.  an<' 
the  beginning  of  tranalaiing  Ihe  Scriptures  into  Arabic 
ivhiuh  was  eommtlteil  to  Mr.  P.li  Smith,  who  was  sssiat 
ed  by  Butrua  el-BiMany  and  Nanf  el-YanjI.     In  thi 

was  left  in  18iu  to  be  eultivaled  by  the  Armenian  mia- 
sum,  the  language  in  that  region  being  ehiedy  iheTurii 
inh.    Ac  that  time  the  Gospel  was  preached  statedly  si 
si.iteen  places.     At  four  of  these— Beiriit,  Abeih,  Sirton 
and  Hasbeiya  —  churches  bad  been  organized.     Thi 
anathemas  of  the  Hamiiite  clergy,  once  ao  lerrifie,  had 
liHt  iheir  |ii>wer,  and  the  riobC  influential  inhabitanu 
were  on  friendly  t«rtna  with  the  mission,  and  in  fai 
of  eihicalion  and  gonil  morals.     Things  had  changed 
Ihe  last  lifteen  yean  for  the  better  in  a  moat  remarl 
ble  way.   We  hare  now  arrived  at  the  year  IS57,  whi 
opened  with  the  death  of  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  the  Iranslai 
of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.     He  had  departed  at  Beirfil, 
Kabbalh  otorning,  Jan.  II,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
workofttanslatiim  by  Dr.  Van  Dyck.wbo  had  been  re- 
moved for  that  purpose  from  HiiUm  to  UeirQl.     In  the 
}-ear  I8f>9  the  iranslation  of  the  New  Test,  was  com- 
pleted and  published  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Van  Dyck, 
who  then  proceeiled  wilh  the  translation  and  publica- 
tion uf  Che  Old  Test.,  which  was  completed  Aug.  22, 
1864.    The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  .Society  requested 
perminion  lo  adopt  this  version,  inatesd  of  the  one  for- 
merly issued  by  them.    The  result  of  a  friendly  iiego- 


tiatino  was  that  the  American  and  the  Britisli  and 
Foreign  Bible  Socieiy  agreed  to  publish   the  veisi'iii    . 
conjointly  from  etccuotype  plates  funiiahetl  by  tha  Ibr-    I 


led,  embracing  nestilv  all  Ibe    ', 
Piocestanls  of  Ihe  various  towns  and  villages,  ami  a 
commendable  degree  of  liberality  was  shown  by  tbt    ' 

natives  in  collecting  and  contributing.    The  number  of    ' 
converts  incresscd,  churches  and  stations  were  multi- 
plied and  provided  with  native  preachers  and  pasloii^ 
snd  a  proposal  was  made  fur  a  Proleelant  caU^e.    Tbt 


[1  for  the 
.1  great 


r  ndi 


igiot 


In    . 


o  8000  volumca  and    i 


18«2  the  pi 

9000  tracts,  makinu  an  aggregate  of  6,869,000  page^    | 
Besides  the  Pratestaiil  college,  which  was  proposed  in 
I8G1  and  incorporated  in  IHGS,  in  acconlsuce  wiili  the   '. 
laws  of  the  slate  of  New  York,  a  theotogicnt  aeminarv 
was  commenced  at  Abeih  in  Hay,  1869,  which  openal 
with  seven  students.    In  the  year  1870  die  Syrian  mii- 

Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions,  UDdei  whose  care  it  ii 
atill  carried  on. 

Beirdt  ia  one  oflhe  missionary  eenttea  lor  the  rerival 
of  Bible  Christianity  in  Bible  landa.  Anumg  tiw  chief 
inai  rumen  tali  ties  fur  the  develi^ment  of  Ihia  city  are 
the  benevolent  aiwl  litemy  institutians  fdiioded  by  lut- 
eign  missionary  zeoL  First  amottg  tbem  arc  the  Amer- 
ican Protestant  institutions  under  the  care  of  the  Prea- 
byterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  in  Now  York.  They 
are  manned  bv  a  noble  band  of  Christian  schidan,  as 
Dra.  H.  H.  Jessup,  D.  Bliss,  C  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  U.  £. 
Post,  and  Profs.  James  S.  Dennis,  E.  R.  Lewis,  and  HalL 
In  the  )-ear  IS77,  when  Dr.  Philip  ScbalTvinlBl  Beirflt, 
a  new  mission  chapel,  with  a  native  pastor,  bad  just 
been  opened  in  the  easlem  part  of  the  ciiy.  Tbetv  are 
the  American  Female  Seminary  and  the  printiug-prtas 
and  Bilite  depository,  which  sent  forth  in  1HT6  no  less 
than  38,4a0  volumes  (or  18.786,380  pages)  of  Bibles, 
tracts,  and  other  books,  including  a  series  of  leu-bocdu 
and  juvenile  works.  There  is  the  "Syrian  ProUKant 
College,"  which  is  independent  of  the  miasioa,  bat  grew 
out  of  it,  and  promotes  its  interest.  In  1877  it  uum- 
bered  over  100  pupils  of  different  creeds  and  naiionali- 
tiea.  The  college  embraces,  beeidw  the  liieraiy  de- 
partment—  Arabic  Isuguage  and  literature,  taatbemai- 


iguage*.  a 


nd  jurispnidence — a  medical  schonl,  niv- 
der  Ihe  management  of  Dr.  Fnsc  i  an  obsen-atory,  nn- 
dci  Dr.  Van  Dyck,  who  sends  daily  by  tel^trapb  rk- 
teorological  obaerva^ons  to  the  observatoiy  of  Gmstaiv- 
tinople;  a  library,  and  a  museum  of  lutural  curiouties. 
The  entire  Syrian  mii^on  of  the  American  Pre«h>-te- 
rian  Board  embraces,  according  to  Ihe  siatisiics  i.f  1879, 
39  American  missinnanes  (\i  men  and  17  women),  3 
native  pastors,  11^  teacher?s  16  licensed  preacherv,  iO 
other  helpers — total  force,  140;  12  churches,  716  coni- 
municanlB,  IIG  received  on  profession,  66  ptracfaing- 
places.  and  46  Sunday -schoola  with  1895  pupils.  The 
principal  stations  outside  of  BeirOt  are  Tripoli,  Abeih, 
Sidon,  and  Zahleh.  Besides  these  flourishing  Pievby  - 
terian  insliiutinna,  the  schools  of  His.  U.  Matt,  Miss 
Jessie  Taylor,  and  I  he  deaconesses  of  Kaiwrvverth  dr- 
sorve  most  honorable  mention.  The  Jesiiils  ate  alsa 
very  active  in  Beirili  in  the  interest  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  Ther  are  just  now  issuing  a  new  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Bilile,  evidently  in  opposition  to  Or. 
Van  Dyck's  trnnslation,  which  is  widely  cinslated  in 
Ihe  East.  From  Dr.  SchafTs  work,  TAroagk  BOJf 
/jondt,  we  subjoin  the  following  itatii' 


It  Soboou  it  tb(  Clom  or  ISIT. 


tiniet  BcirAt,  w«  may  mention  Damunu,  the  hot- 
M  «f  Hohaniiii«dvi  ruiaticism.  A  tiiily  diligence  con- 
lacuibbplmwithBeirOL  "It teems ■  hopektt Uak," 
^1  Di.  Schiff, "  to  pUnr  ProteiunI  Cliiutiiniiy  in  such 
>|JiMM  DuD*9cus.  Keren hdps^  ttae  thing  bu  been 
dm.  ml  not  ilIiigMhet  without  renult.''  Sinn  1843 
Uk  I'lilffl  Pnlivterian  Church  of  Ameiica  and  the 
Flabtlmin  Church  of  Ireland  hare  miintiined  Jointly 


h  for  CI 


«»  Lircn  than  before  the  miaMcre.  H'unhip  is  con- 
<tu«el  ivici  tytry  Sunday  in  Arabic,  and  occauonally 
in  Eni^iih.  Bnidea  thia  Pmbjlerian  miuion,  there  is 
in  £|iuni|ial  minion,  with  a  chapel  built  by  the  London 
^mKr  for  Pmnioling  Christianity  iminig  the  Jews. 
Anjiiiiiiiig  the  chapel  are  several  fine  schoolruoms  Tor 
Ian  sad  giili.     Altogether  this  society  etnplays  there 

•uif  it  alia  a  depot,  where  Bibles  and  other  books, 
ndi  ■•  ibe  Pilgrht't  Pnigrta,  are  for  aile.  The  mis- 
Kour  opeiMion*  at  Damascus  are  but  small  begin- 
cisp;  bia  the  lime  is  not  far  distant  when,  as  Abd-el- 
ijia  pnphemd.  "the  moaji 


to  Chris 


irchea." 


5  SYRIAC 

tinearelheGennsnculonies  at  Haifa  and  Jaffa.  Thejr 
belong  to  I  TcUgious  MKiety  known  as  "The  Temple," 
which  originated  among  the  Pietists  of  WLIrteioberf;, 
whn  accept  Bengel'a  theory  of  the  prophecies  of  tho 
bonk  of  KevelstioD  a*  wt  forth  in  his  Gtamim  of  Ihe 
A'.  T.  In  1867  an  expedition  uf  twelve  men,  sent  out 
from  the  parent  society  at  Kirschenhardthof,  establish- 
ed Ihemselvea  at  SemUmeh,  near  Naiatelh,  bat  soon 
died  at  malarial  fever.  On  Aug,  6, 1868,  another  com- 
pany set  out,  and,  arriving  in  Palestine  in  October,  sep- 
arated into  two  culnnlea,  one  settling  at  Haifa,  under 
the  pmidencyofG.  D.  Kardegg,  and  Ihe  other  at  Jafla, 
under  Christopher  HofTmanii.  Their  object  was  ■  re- 
ligious one,  to  prepare  the  Hoty  Land  fur  Christ's  per- 
sonal coming  in  the  Millennial  reign.  I1iry  purchaseil 
land,  built  hotises,  and  have  addressed  themselves  at 
once  to  agiicullure.  At  JslTa  they  have  two  Mltle- 
menrs— one  called  Sarova,  about  two  and  a  half  miles 
north  c>r  Ihe  town,  contiiting  in  1872  often  houses;  the 
second,  nesrlhewslls  of  Jaffa,  was  bought  from  the  sur- 

grief  (for  this  last  see  Ridgawat-,  ZonT)  jLimif,  p.  4R6), 
and  this  settlement  included  thirteen  houseis  with  a 
The  Jsffa  colony  in  all  numbered 


I  1872  01 


>  of  the  cokinist 


were  docton,  and 
some  twenty  were  mechanics,  the  rest  being  farmers. 
'■"he  Haifa  colony  in  1875  ntimbered  Bl  I,  having  been 
lately  reinforced  by  new  arrivals  frum  Germany.  Both 
colonies  are  welt  established,  having  neat  and  comforl- 
able  houses,  and  sif^na  of  external  pnuperity,  being  en- 
gaged in  various  trades  and  manufsclure*,  ss  well  as 
farming.  They  have  lirile  influence,  however.over  the 
native  population  and  small  security  for  permanence, 
all  bough  tui  Ihe  present  fully  tolerated  by  the  Turkish 
authorities  and  highly  ipspected  by  their  neighbors 
(see  Conder,  Tml-  Work  in  Palal.  ii.  801  sq.). 

At  Jaffa  there  has  lately  been  likewise  established  an 
agricultural  colony  of  Jews  from  Gennany.who  have  a 
small  but  flourishing  establishment  just  outside   the 


ii.llV.iii 


Fdjoi  the  work  recenllv  published  by  Dr.  Schaff, 
nn*^  B»b  /jndi,-we  extract  the  follnwing  table. 

■ill  mention  the  fact  that  the  last 
V  has  been  sigoaliied  by  the  establishment  [ 
b  prulfctorale  over  Syria  anil  all  Asiatic  Tur-  \ 

D  the  odnpiion  of  the  English  language  as  the 
cnBeaBediiunoriDslruction.    See  Anderson,  ^fffor} 

frFmigii  Mimiamt  to  lit  Orimlol' Churekrt  (Bos-  ' 
1%  l«:i-73,  1  vols.);  Schaff.  Through  hibb  lAimU 
iX.I,|g:9):  beddes  the  annual  reports  oflbe  different 
•™tif«.  Someofthe  publicaiions  frum  theJcsuitpresa 
■  lUiti  BR  mentioned  in  /.iUrariicktr  handiMuer, 

anp-awsq.   (a  p.) 

iiBiag  ibe  most  notable  misoonary  eBiirts  in  Palo- 
^nsncaaeOaniB^L  PairRSTAiiTAiinKviiiaruatLWoi 


iTnu  Pmieiiant  Cotl«e 

>^tM  9^0  SchoolK. , , 

•  twck  ol  SaHlsDd  MliraloD  In  lb*  J«wa . . . . 

■■■T>7lni^lluslemOlrts-8chi>i.1s 

it  Si'hon^{EBsieni  ^srter). 


'     «  SdMiih  nr  the  Free  CI 
AKdan  Frie    ■  —    ■ 
^oetj  liw  Pnmolioi 


of  Scotland.  ■ . . 

-  --) 

In  the  East  I 


>>iTti  or  Enfiand  Mini n  the  Jei' 

'hm:blll«l<iDarT8aelciT(la  ibe  Bm 

" '  ■ — -in  Wsslou  (Latsl 


Minisd  PnabjnariaD  M 


n  Pal- 

ine,  where  relijiious  services  are  held  with  more  or 
I  regularity.     At  Nazareth  is  an  elegant  I'rotestant 
irch  founded  by  the  English  Missionary  Society  in 
inection  with  the  Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  of  Jerusa- 
lem, where  an  ordained  clerftj'man  (furmerly  Rev.  J. 
Zeller,  now  Rev,  F.  Bellamy)  nfficiales.  assisted'  by  a  na- 
tive cstechiit.     Iti  the  same  town  is  a  hospital  founded 
by  the  Edinburgh  Medical  Missiunary  Society,  which 
dispenses  medical  aid  to  all  applicants;  and  likewise  an 
orphanage,  eststilished  by  the  Ladies'  Society  fur  Pro- 
mniing  Female  Educalion  in  the  East,  which  educatea 
anil  cares  for  about  forty  gills,  chiefly  of  Christian  pa- 
rentage.   See  TtlBKEV. 

llissionary  work  has 
thusafoocbold  in  Syr- 
ia, but  owing  to  the 
severe  Moslem  laws 
agsiiiit  proBclytism,  it 

but  little  direct  spirit- 
ual reauits  (see  Collins, 
iltH.  Entrrprine  in  lie 
ICuil,  Lood.  1878). 

SyT'lao  (Oan.  if, 
4),nrSyi(iAMToi«iUB 
—    I  iv,  7)  or  Lax- 
IB  (aKingsxvili, 


A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
pii37?t,  Aramilh, 
wbicil  is  the  (em. 


pi 


SYRIAC  LANGUAGE 


Sjrriac  Langiiag*.  Thig  repmenu  the  Wnl- 
«ni  dialect  nf  Ihat  bianch  of  rhc  Sliemitic  or  Syn>- 
AnbiMi  liiiKiiagra  uwally  termed  (hcAnmstn  ((|.  t.), 
(he  EnMini  bviiie  reprtMnleU  bv  Ihe  ChalilM  {<\.  r.). 
The  lAliill}'  between  ihii  Clllliiee  *n<l  Ryriic  ii  iii- 
■leeil  M  chiae  I  hit  biit  fur  a  few  oribographjcal  clianf;;*, 
anil  e*peciilly  Ibe  difference  In  Krilten  clinncter.ihey 
iroulil  scarcely  be  itiaiinKuiihablc,  In  apHcb  Ibey 
oinil.i  hanlly  imve  diBereil  more  Ihan  (he  ■everil  ilii- 
lecln  nf  the  Greek  (ii.  K.  the  Dnric,  iGulic,  Atlir)  fnim 
«ach  other.  White  Ihe  Childee  i«  written  in  Ihe 
•qnare  chincirr,  nnw  iiniaUy  called  the  Helirrw.  rlie 
Syriac  ia  writren  in  a  very  dilTerent  and  mure  cur- 
airs  baml,  awl  rxhilriu  (in  addiiiun  in  [he  peculiar 
fnima  liiT  Hnal  lettern,  a«  naual  in  all  the  Sbemiiic 
_  fCronp)  a  methml  of  rDmbining  certain  letleri  or  nin- 
Ding  (hem  together  In  wriuug,  aimilar  lo  ihe  practice 


0  SYRTAC  LANGUAGE 

in  Arabic,  There  are  al»  two  fonna  of  ihe  thai 
le™  (which  correrpiBid  preciirly  In  Ihe  Hebrew 
Mil m bet  ami  power) — the  ordinary  or  liglil-atrukt  It 
nnw  generally  naed  in  ptinliiig,  and  an  older  U 
called  Ihe  Eitranftein,  of  heavier  airukea  ami  more 
couth  abape^  I'he  rowel-points  aim  (••!  which  ll 
are  five,  correaponding  in  piiieral  m  tlie  modem  vni 
i,  a,  amt  u,  at  proiiounceil  in  Italian)  dil&r  entii 


hey  conaiil  of  modified  foniu  uf  the  lirtck  tuweli 
(,  o,  a),  while  in  the  Ealraiigtlo  they  are  dennceil 
o  dots  in  various  pniiiions.  Olheronhngraphical 
iariiiea  of  the  Syriac  as  compared  wiih  the  He- 
brew and  Chaldee  are  (be  use  oTa  small  line  {Hum  w- 
rHllimi)  beneath  silent  tetters,  the  soppmiion  allogeth- 

(unme  writers,  however,  emphiying  a  dot  above  a  B^ad- 
Kephath  letter,  called  A'niAoi,  i.  e.  "  liarduen,"  to  re- 
move  the  aspiration,  ami  a  dot  beneath  it,  calleil  RvlnA. 


TABLE  OF  THB  SIKIAC  ALPHABET. 


TA 

LK  wr  IH 

"'"'*'-  *LIU 

*BB-l. 

Toax. 



indication  ,rf  the  pln™l 
(when  identical  in  form 

ample. 

Final. 

with  Ihe  singular)  b>* 

OUph 

X 

SpirUui  knU 

tt 

■tt 

% 

two   horizon,.!  doi. 
placed  above  il.  callcl 

Beth 

a. 

^ 

B 

= 

b 

RMoi,  i.  e.  "increaw/ 
For  Ihe  leading  diBn- 

Oomal 
Dolatli 

r 

51. 

'%, 

G 
D 

n 

encea  in  (he  r,«mauun 
and    conslruc(ion  of 

He 

H 

r 

<^ 

07 

gous  with  the  CliaUltr. 

Van 

a. 

V 

1 

«« 

o 

OUAOlT*'''"'*''    '""" 

Zain 

V 

z 

T 

N 

? 

The  ancient  or  pn4)rr 

Svriac  is  belicred  to  \n 

Cheth 

« 

w 

GennanCH 

~ 

M 

■^ 

naw  wlHdly  •  deail  laa- 

Teth 

•t^ 

^OX^ 

T 

0 

V 

\ 

guage,  and  ia  used  only 
in  the  old  liturgiea  a»d 

Jttd 

- 

-or» 

Y 

V 

em  Syriac,  which  is  Bwi 

CopU 

a 

^or,.. 

K 

; 

& 

A 

almna(  solely  liy  the  Nn- 

Lomod 

Sor-V 

L 

V 

\ 

i. 

aia,  and  to  aonie  exieiit 

M 

by  their  Koordiah  neii:li- 

Uim 

lA 

>oor>a 

'Z 

7) 

to 

bor^diBeracon.i,l™U^■ 

Nim 

J. 

^or,^ 

N 

: 

J 

t 

fr..m  the  old  Sviiae.  .j 

Semcath 

tt 

-Bor^ 

S 

c 

ta 

ss 

principal   value  of  a 

£e. 

■%orV 

Peculiu 

^_ 

i. 

is  ita  uae  in  the  eluoda- 

Phe 

A 

^or.ft 

PHorP 

£ 

& 

1 

ihHi  of  rare  words  in  Ihe 
Old  TeaU  and  the  t™- 

Twde 

^ 

s 

TS 

:: 

^ 

X 

pariaon  with   Ihe  Hrti. 
rooia;  and  it  is  ak»  of 

Koph 

* 

A 

^or^ 

K 

p 

A 

a 

much  iminrlance  fn>n> 
the  fBC(  that  ihe  oI.Im 

Bish 

r 

B 

■1 

•i 

3 

and  b«t  MtvAsm  of  ihr 

New  Test.  (Ihe  Pahio.) 

Shin 

SH 

IT" 

X 

j:. 

is  in  (hi.  language.   .S« 

Tlian 

^ 

;'•- 

THorT 

- 

Y 

A. 

SYBIACVKKSIOMi.    Th. 

principal  liieraiurrnfilie 

ODIPOOKD 

TOWSLB.                   '" 

Bynac,  oaitiea  this  aim 
the  inferior  peminn  of  the  Old  Teat.,  cotin^i 

1      K»n».              Po 

ra.     PDit«-,Gree* 

H.bnw. 

of  certain  historical  wcnka  of  (he  Eariv  anJ 

'  Pethocho    '  0 

r  '       il       « 

_ 

Middle  A«i«,  par(icnlarlv  the  writiop  «f 
Ephrem  Syrus  (<i.  r.),  and  a  number  nf  i- 

%•     u 

:b 

Itebotso      *  0 

r  ..     a      t 

., 

liginns  poemi  and  hvmn«  (see  Stttet  fftiw 
a»t  //oni/i^a  ri»n<l.  18631,  lraiiaU(ed  Vtw> 

ChevotBO    '  0 

r  ..       6        * 

the  Syriac  by  Kev.  H,  Burge«). 

General  troatiws  on  the  Syriac  lanpiact 

Zekopho     'o 

r   '       o       0 

and  literature,  many  of  them  in  conneciin 
with  the  Hebrew,  but  e>[c1u«ve  ot  Ihoee  that 

Etsotso       '  0 

r  k      n      V 

!1 

treat  llkewiae  of  (he  Chaldee.are  bv  theftJ- 

towing:  Lysius  {V>^am.  1726),  Ulcbaelii 

SYRIAC  LITERATURE  1( 

[J.  &]  (HkL  1TK),  HicbaelU  [J.  D.]  (GotL  1768,  etc}, 
Agnfl(L'pHl,  1791;  Loud.  iai6),  Svinburg  (Uprul, 
17K),  Loigcrka  (Riigioni.  I83e),  Unaw  (Birol.  IMl). 
Sa  Ihc  y»r.  a/  Sof.  Lii.  Ov^  l§62;  «n  arr.  on  ilie 
Hfr^Arabiaa  Lmgiuign  and  /.ileralurr,  in  (he  Chiiti. 
Ac  XTii,S98  ■).;  on  .^{yrwc  Biblical  LileriUair,  in  ihe 
nml  Rrt.  T,  36  (q. ;  on  Syiiu'  Pt'i'^oaB'  ■■>  «>«  ''i^i- 
lU.  j^Ta,viii.5M*i].;  and  tbc  lut  in  LlfaleDUiiii'sS^. 

Gnmour*  on  the  Rrriu,  exctuaiveir,  ire  ihow  or 
VOkm  (Id  ed.  HiL  1G46),  Opitii»  (Leijxi.  1691),  Leu*- 
ifail  (Ullnj.  leaS),  Beveridffe  (UidiL  IdM),  Michulii 
[a&](HiiL1741).HIchaelii[J.D.](Gett.l784),ArileT 
(.tliaa.  17(H).  Zd  (Lemgo.  I7ti8).  TfichEn  (Iii>*I.  1798), 
Tun  (Lnod,  Iffil  ),  Ew«ld  <KrUng.  1826),  Hcffmsiin, 
IHtL  \»a),  UhbounD  (Berl.  1829;  N.  r.  I8&a),  Tull- 
bajfLmtiSiT),  PbilUp*  {jd  ed.ibid.  184A),Cuwper 
libid.  1860),  Uerx  (HiUe.  1867).  A  Cromnar  of  Ikt 
M»in  Sgriac  taitgvagt,  by  Rev.  D.  T.  Slndilird,  ia 
inMed  in  tlw  Jomr.  of  Ike  A  miT.  Oriailal  Sacitif  (N.  Y. 
l*l»\  nL  V,  Noi,  I.  Lexicon*  have  been  executed  by 
(iuUr  (Hunb.  1867;  new  ed.  by  Hendennn,  Lund. 
ISt)  md  SehufCLugd.  Bat.  1706):  tbe  aUlract  of 
iFc  SrriK  part  oT  CMtell'i  Htptaglai  Ltx.  by  KIuhHlia 
[J.D']  (Goit.  1TH8);  Smith.  TkrtaHmt  (l^and.  lD!iS), 
\t.i,  A  new  »ai  exieaiirc  Srriac  lexicon  via  under- 
itkn  by  PcoT.  BtnMeia  of  UeVminy.  Syriac  chmto- 
■Ulnnan  tbowarKineh(Let|HLl789>.tiriniiii  (Lem- 
f.  1793).  Knaea  (UoCI.  1807),  Hahn  and  SicfTert  (Lcipa. 
tmX  Obedeimer  (\'ien.  1826),  Ditpke  ((iolt.  1829), 
ITaic  (Ina^r.  iS65),  and  Rodign  (2d  eiL  Halle,  1868). 
Tbt  Biiic  HHiTeiuent  readiiiK-book  fur  beginiien  ii  tlie 
S)riae  -VoB  Trtt^  published  by  Bagaler  (Lond.),  and 
brief  lexicon  edited  by  Dr.  ilendenun. 

BjTlac  Litaiatore.  The  Syriac  literauire  ia  pre- 
EaimiJj'  nlifciouK  The  nldeM  monuoient  is  the  Svri- 
V  Tmiuo  or  tbe  Bible,  called  the  Fnhitha  or  Fiikilo, 
it  «hieh  aee  Striac  Vekbionh.  Uke  the  Jewa,  the 
Xriima  Uealnl  their  Bible  In  Maaoretic  manner,  wbich 
■•r  be  •ecu  fron  the  aupencriptiona  added  to  (nme 
Ixoka.    Thua  ve  read  at  the  end  of  Job,  NZr:  B^O 

lira  K^y-B  1  n3r->st  varva  np^ix  ^I'tci.  L  e. 

'Uotoidi  the  bcialt  orihe  Juatand  nnble  Jub;  it  con- 
mai  K6t  rerH."  The  retult  af  erilical  care  fur  [he 
l^ikiis  B  contained  in  a  work  ipcakiiiR  of  Lhe  variery 
•r  aaglt  leadhiK*.  of  the  correct  reading  of  ilifflcidt 
*«i4^aMl  in  which  the  pronunciation  of  proper  namea 
ifBiiSaf  Id  the  Creek  mode  i*  Uxi^ht.  The  lille  of 
'kaaUwIioo  ia  «np^n  [lr*ipTI  KPliacI  XD113 
ITVp  Hn'S^isO  ^^K  Knmi,  l.  e.  -  Bunk  of  lhe 
a»iaMl  nading*  of  Ibe  OM  and  New  Teal,  according 
u  Ike  Karkapbte  rccenaiun."  The  htWr  expreaaiun 
'raixi  t^at  die  work  wa«  prepaml  in  the  Jacobilie 
mtmitn  Kartapk,  which  by  a  miauke  lent  tlie  name 
■il  iitn  af  I  KarhipUr  or  Kariapkaaiait  rrermm 
m  Utnln,  Trnditir*  Karhipkintat,  on  In  Ma— art 
'^laSjiiait  [Parii,  1870]).     After  I  his,  all  nmicei 


na  of  tbc  Bible  mnal  disappear  once  for  all  The 
■Me  Fnneh  writer  also  calleil  atlention  to  lhe  fact 
ikM,like  the  Jcwa,  wbo  hare  an  EaMcni  and  Weatem, 
•  Uabylonlan  ani  Paieatinian.  Mainrah,  *c>  likeoiae  we 
■■■  Aiingiiiab  between  an  Eauletn  and  WeMeni,  a 
^teaahaa  and  Jaeobician,  Maaorab  among  the  Svriana; 
■ad  ibia  he  laid  dnw  n  in  bi*  Sy-int  Oi-irnlaax  it  Ocei- 
*««B»«(ihid.  1872):  "Eiaai  but  lea  deux  principaux 
UraaAiaaa««n*;''lowhichwemay  aildalhird  eaaay 
*?  tW  MBe  author :  Hitloirt  de  lii  Pondualiim  ovdtia 
)r*Mn  ektz  la  SjnaH  (ibid.  1876).  These  three  es- 
niverrry  inpoTtantfuT  the  reading  and  underala^d- 
^  nf  the  Syriac  rerwm.  Faaaingorer  the  other  ver- 
^ttwlriefa  win  ba  treated  in  tbe  art.  STStAt  Vkr- 
mu,  <n  BNBt  Mata  that  the  lUalerocanimieal  boott. 


I?  SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

which  art  not  found  in  Lee'i  edition  of  tbe  rcaliiln, 
were  alreaily  iranslaied  iKfure  the  4th  century,  fur 
Ephrem  the  Syrian  already  quote*  Iliem.  Thus  under 
the  fnrmuU  of  ytyiinirrai  ha  citea  Ecclua.iii,6,T,9. 12, 
18  (0/ip.  C.-«e.  i,  85);  xi,  S  (iHrf.  p.  92);  iv,  7  {ibid.  p. 
101) ;  with  ta^iit  yiyparrat  he  quotea  Wiad.  ir.  ' ; 
riit,  1-17  (tMJ.p.241);  iii,  ■ ;  It,  16  (iMiJ.  p.  966);  rii. 
16  iibiJ.  ii,  28) :  Ecdua.  ij,  I  he  introduce*  with  uc  >r 
ypafh  fV"  (•^h'-  n<  S^')>  ^<^  >"  l^l  Lagarde  pob- 
liahed  the  apocryphal  booka  of  lhe  Old  Teat,  under  lhe 
title  /.ibi-i  AfuKTfpki  V.  T.  Sgiiace;  Ceriani,  in  bia 
Moitamnla  Suna  ft  Profima.  torn,  i,  published  Ibe 
apocalypae  of  Baruch  and  lhe  epistle  of  Jeremiah ;  in 
the  5lh  vol.  the  4th  book  of  Kadraa;  and  in  the  7th  vnl. 
(Maliid.  IH74)  he  published  the  Wiadom  ofSolomon  and 
Eccleaiasticua. 

The  apocri'phal  Uieraturo  of  the  New  Teat„  aa  far  ai 
it  has  bHn  |iiiblished,  is  giren  by  Renan,  Fragmaat  da 
Liffre  Gttoatiquf  tnlitvU  A  po^at.  d'A  daot  ou  Ffnittnct  ou 
Talamrnt  if  Adam,  publii  d'nprti  dna  ttrtiaiH  Syr., 
in  tbe  Jiar.  At.  ait.  v,  torn.  ii.  p.  427;  by  Lagarde,  in 
DidoMcalia  Apottoiorum  Si/ruice  (Lipa,  1S54);  by  Cu- 
reton,  in  tiiiAneint  Z^ecummn,  and  Lagardc'a  Ktliquia 
Jurii  Etdtt.  A  miqvimmm  Syriacr.  1856 ;  by  H.  Cowper, 
in  lhe  Apocr.  GoiprU  and  other  Domiaenlt,  etc-  (2d  ed- 
l«iid.l867)i  and  by  Wright,  Cunliiiiilwiu  M  (*e  Ajioc- 
rypkal  Litrralurt  of  lie  A'nc  Trti..  mlittird  <md  rd- 
itfdfivM  SfHan  MSB.  n  lie  Biiliii  Mvmm  (ibid. 
1865). 

Between  the  tranalatinn  of  the  Scripturea  and  lhe 
classic  period  of  Syriac  literature  there  exii-ted  a  gap 
coTBriny  about  three  hundred  years,  which  ia  now  Hlled 
through  Curetuii'a  -ImSnil  Sj/riiic  Dncummii  rriulite 
In  Ike  Eitrlieit  hJtaUitimnI  of  Ciiitlimilg  in  Jidrwi 
(Lond.  1864).  Kunebius,  in  his  Church  History,  tells  lis 
that  he  tranalated  the  correapnndence  between  Christ 
and  king  Abgar  of  Edeaaa,  Ingether  with  the  narraiire 
of  the  healing  and  oniversion  of  that  king  by  Thadll«u^ 
one  of  Ibe  seventy  discipin,  from  the  archives  nfEdeaiia. 
A  part  of  ihis  report  has  been  found  in  Niirian  MSS,  nf 
the  5th  and  6lh  centuries,  under  Ibe  title  Tit  ItocliiiK 
nfAddai  (lately  publiahed,  with  an  English  translation 
liy  Philipp^  Lond.  1876).  From  Ibia  wc  learn  that  Ad- 
dai,i>ne  of  the  seventy,  converted  nnt  only  the  king  Ab- 
gar Ukkama,  bnl  also  a  ifrrat  nany  of  lhe  people,  and 
built  churchcB  in  and  about  Eilesaa.  Addai  was  auo- 
eeedcd  by  Aggnua,  who  was  mnrilered.  BeMdes  Ag- 
gseiiB,a  good  manyolhera  sntTered  martyrdom,  for  which 
camp.  A  aa  Muriyronim  Oritnl.  el  Occiiltnl.  (Rom.  1748, 
2  tomi,  ed.  Auemani). 

I.  Orthodox  IFrtfrrf. —Towards  lhe  middle  of  Ibe  4lh 
century  begins  the  goiden  ant  of  Sgriac  literalarr,  and 
under  this  head  we  menlinn  Jacob,  bishop  of  Niaibi* 
(q.  r.).  Although  later  SIS8.  cor.lain  tonwlhing  under 
his  name,  yet  no  genuine  works  aie  now  extant.  Con- 
temporary with  Jacob  waa  Aphraat  or  Farhad,  siir- 
iianwd  ^e  "  Persian  sage,"  the  author  of  hnniliee  writ- 
ten between  387  and  S45,  and  published  by  Anioiielli  in 
the  Amienian.  with  a  Latin  paraphrase,  ii'i  I76(i,  but  of 
late  in  the  original  Syriac  by  Wriglit  (LoniL  1869). 
I>n>f:  Kckell  Iranslaleit  eight  of  these  homilies  into 
German  (in  the  BiblioHet  der  Kirchenralrr  [Kemp- 
ten.  18741,  Nn.  102, 103).    Un  Aphraat  see  Saase,/Voir- 

Inioot  (Up*.  1878),  and  Schanfelder.  in  the  TiUmgir 
Ihrolog.  QuoiiaUehr^,  1878,  p.  196-266. 

Of  greater  renown  was  lipbrcm  (<].r,),  who  died  in 
A.U.  37a,  ami  whose  writings  were  iranslateif  not  only 
into  I>iin  and  (ireek,  but  aim  into  ihe  Armenian,  Cop- 
tic, Arabic,  Abyninian,  and  Slavonic  BesidM  Ephmn, 
we  meniion  flregory,  abbot  in  Cyprus  about  890,  author 
ofepiellea;  Baheua,  whose  bvmns  are  given  hv  Over- 
beck  in  his  S.  Kpkrami  Sy<i^ fiabnUe,  B'llai  ottnivinf  m 
Opmi  SelMii  (Oxford,  1866) ;  by  Weiiig,  in  bia  Seholn 
.$yri(tcu(Imiabruck,1866);  andin  a  German  trsnslsiioii 
by  ffickell,  in  Aa§gevSkllt  Crdifilt  drr  tsritcim  Kir- 
denrSler   (  Kempten,  1872).    Balimn's  contemporary 


SYRIAC  LITERATURE  H 

wn  CfriUonaa,  whow  hjrmiu  were  ilrc  tTanditeil  by 
BickeU  iloc.  cil.). 

Towarrlt  ihe  end  of  Ibe  4tb  ind  btgionins  nf  the  5th 
nniuiy  liveil  iiul  wrute  Uinithu,  bUbop  of  'I'agril,  au- 
thor ara  niartynili>(^v(|>riiil«din  AMeniani'sBiUiotAcca) 
diid  hymiii,  'The  eauoinof  ihe  8ynodorSclfiiciii{4lO) 
i.iiiiceriiiii{;  Church  ilucipUne,  aiiil  bearing  bis  name  and 
that  of  laaic,  bishop  of  Seleocio.  have  becii  published 
•Itar  a  I'aris  MS.  by  Umy;  Coaaliuai  Srltuaa  el 
Cleiiphoali  kabiliimam>i>HO,til.r!rn,iUutlr,  (Lotivaiii, 
18693;  RabukiL,bishDporEdeau(died43&),authororepis- 
tlea,  canuiis,  and  hymns,  tor  which  comp.  Overbeck  (loc 
dt)  and  BickelL  In  the  year  460  died  Isaac  the  Great 
(q.  v.),  pre4>yler  of  Anliocb.  His  bymna  are  traniialcd 
by  Zingerle,  in  the  TQMnger  tkrtjiog.  Quat-talachri/}, 
IBTO,  and  bv  Bicltell,  in  Ibe  Kaajihitr  HiUielluk  dn- 
Ki'-rliaicalcr,  1873,  No.  44  The  iatter  has  alsu  pub- 
lished S,  i$aac\  AnlioeAaa,  ftirto™  Syroriin,  Opaa 
unvtia,  a  omaibtii,  guotquol  alani,  Codieibu4  Minn- 
tcriptii  atta  varia  lectitme  Si/riace  Anibicr^at  primut 
fiidii,  Latine  VfrtU^  J^ro^gomeaU  tt  Gioaaario  aurit 
(Uiessen,  1873-77,  2  vols.);  see  also  Zingerle,  Mow- 
iiKula  Sgi-iaai  tx  Romam  Codidtnu  CoHrrla  ((Eni- 
punli,  1869),  i,  IB-20.  Con  temporary  with  Isaac  was 
the  monk  Dada,  who  wrote  about  three  hundred  works 
iin  Biblieal,  homiielical,  and  hagiographicai  matter. 
About  the  same  tiine  lived  Coemaa,  the  biographer  of 
^ueon  the  Slylit«  (ace  BtUioth.  Ortnl.  and  Aetu 
Marlyvrum  Oi-itniaL).  Towards  the  end  of  the  6th 
and  beginning  of  the  8th  century  lived  Joihua  the 
Slylite  of  Edessa,  author  of  a  chronicle  covering  the 
yean  495-607,  which  hos  been  edited  by  Martin,  Chro- 
tii^ut  lb  Jatai  k  SlylUc,  icnie  vrrt  Fan  bib.  TexU 
tt  TradudioK  (Leips.  I8T6),  and  Jacob,  biihop  of  Sarug 
(i|.  v.).  In  the  work  by  AbbelOn,  Dt  Vila  tt  Scriptit 
S.  JucAi  Siirnaruni  Sartyi  in  Mttopolania  t'piicopi 
(Louvain,  1867),  three  biographiea  of  Sarug  bt«  given. 
More  recent  is  Mattin's  Eeique-PokU  au  l*  fl  uu  Fit 
^iielri,  ou  Jacgutt  de  Saniug,  la  Vie,  ton  Trmpi,  tti 
(Eurra,  let  CrogoRBa,  in  the  Kttmt  dn  Scimrrt  Ec- 
rlitialiqun,  Oct,  and  Nov.  1876,  p.  809- MS,  385- 
419.  According  (o  Hartin,  Sorug  was  a  heretic,  for  he 
says,  "Jacob  waa  bom,  lived,  and  died  in  heresy;  be 
loved  everytbing  which  the  Church  caadeniwd,  and 
ctindemned  everylhiiif;  that  the  Church  bved  at  that 
liitHT."  Hig  bymiis  Uekell  puUislied  in  ■  German 
translation  in  the  A  tiMgttcallllt  Grdkiie  tyruchrr  Kir- 
ckmeaitr.  Of  Sarug'a  writing*,  some  were  puUished 
intiie  Mammala  S\iriiKa,\,-ll-'36\  ii,6-2-«3;  76-166; 
in  Aswinoni's  Aela  Miaiyr.  il,  330;  Curetuii,  Aviail 
Ooematalt,  p.  86  sq.;  Wenig,  Schola  Hgr.  p.  155;  by 
Ziogtrle,'m  i\ieZnUchnfldtrdtaUci.mniynil.Grirlliei, 
1858,  p.  IIS;  1859,  p.  44;  I860,  p.  679;  1864,  p.  751; 
1866,  p. 51 1 :  by  the  satne  aiithnr, six  homilies  iv.re  pub- 
litbed  at  Bonn  in  L867.  Martin  publisheil  in  Ihe  Zeil- 
ichi-ijt  do-  dnUci.  morgtnL  UtttlUck.  1875,  p.  107-137, 
Jtiieouri  de  Jiiegitri  dt  Sarrmg  tar  la  CiMtt  Jtt  Idoitt ; 
and  ihid.  1876,  p.  !17-i7S.  IjllnM  dt  Jacyuti  dt  Sarong 
aux  main  dn  Comtnl  dt  Mar  Bauia  it  a  Fauld-Jidiuf, 
rtttritt  «  tnidaiU:  Dr.  K.  Schriltcr,  ibid.  1877,  p.  360, 
Ihe  Comokifory  Epiiilt  lo  lit  //inijiuriru  CAriiliow,  in 

lived  John  Saba,  a  roonk,  a  native  uf  Nineveb,  author 
•  if  sermons  and  epistles,  pnUlishol  in  Greek  (Leips. 
1770),  and  Isaac  of  Nineveh  (q,  v.)  (we  Jfrnansxla 
Syriaai,  i,  97-101),  author  of  an  ascetic  work  in  teTen 
bcKiks,  and  known  in  the  Greek  translation,  tnade  by 
f aliriciiH  and  .thraham,  and  given  under  tbe  title  Lii'i 
ifr  Confnnrifii  (Vimti,  in  the  lilh  vol.  of  the  .Ifn.TKi  fii- 
Uintkrca  /'ulTKin,  where  Ibey  are  erroneously  ascribed 
In  Isaac  of  Anliocb.  With  Isaac  of  Ninei'eh  the  list 
of  iirthoilox  wrileiB  is  closed,  and  we  come  now  lo 

II.  l/tierodax  WHlert.—l.  The  AVsToiMni.- Without 
enleriug  upon  tbe  history  of  these  Christians,  we  will 
only  remark  that  the  catalogue  of  Khedjesu  on  Nesio. 
rian  wriun  was  first  publislieil  by  Abnhain  Ecchellen- 
sis  (Rome,  1603), but  inure  correctly  by  Asscmaiii  in  Ibe 


18  SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

3d  ToL  of  his  BOlialk.  OriaiU  Besidea.  we  find  nunr 
literary  and  historical  ttotices  iu  Asaemani'a  calalugue 
of  the  Oriental  HSS.  of  the  Vatican  Library,  or  in  the 
Bibliotkeca  ApoOol.  Vatic.  Codicum  MUS'.  Calalogia 
S.  E.  tt  J.  a.  Au.  mAimrmnl  Tma.  II,  cowqiliatm 
Libroi  Chald.  tint  Syroi  (ibid.  1758),  and  in  the  Ap- 
pendix by  Cardinal  Hai,  in  the  CalaL  Codd.  SiU.  Folic. 
Arabb.  tic,  ittnt  tjiu  paiiit  Utbrr.  rt  SfHace.  fiuDi 
A  utmani  in  idilions  prallrmiMtnal  ( ibid.  183]  ).  Sec 
NKsroiilANa. 

The  earliest  writers  among  the  Nealoriaiia  wen  Bar- 
■uma  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Nisibis  and  author  of  epiaUes: 
Narses  (d.  496),  sumamed  "the  Harp  of  Ibe  Siiirit,' 
author  <^  com ntenlaries  on  the  OM  Teat.,  threv  hundml 
and  aixty  orations,  a  liturgj-,  a  treatise  on  tbe  sactaaMDi 
of  baptism,  another  on  evil  morals,  various  interpreta- 
tions, paradetic  sermons,  and  hymiia  (ace  Schi>nlelder, 
Hgmnen,  ProkUtptationfn  u.  MartgrtrgtJUbi^  drt  Ae- 
(Torum  Brtricri,  in  ihe  Tiibinger  Iktolng.  Qwirfabdkn/?, 
1866,  p.  177  sq.)i  Mar  Abba  (d.  55^),  wbo  wtou  a 
commentary  on  the  Old  Teat,  and  a  iransUlioa  at  tlie 
Old  Tetl.  from  the  Sept.,  the  latter  i>ot  extant;  Abra- 
ham of  Kaahkar,  author  of  ejuatlea  and  a  aomineataty 
on  the  dialectics  of  Aristotle;  Paul  of  Nisibia.  an  exe- 
geticiil  writer;  Babeus  or  Kabi,  sumamed  "  the  Great," 
archimandrite  of  Nisibis  in  56S,  a  voluminous  writer 
and  author  of  On  Ike  Incanialioit,  an  exposition  of  tbe 
ascetical  treatise  of  Kvagrius  of  Fonlus,  a  hiatorv  of  the 
Nestorians,  hymns  for  wonhip  through  tlie  drele  of  the 
year,  an  exposition  of  the  sacred  text,  nMnastic  nUea. 
eic;  Iba,  Kuma.  and  Prubo,  dDclora  of  Edeasa,  who 
translainl  in  Ihe  5th  century  the  commeotaries  of  Theo- 
dore uf  Uopaucstia  and  Ihe  writings  of  Ariaiotle  ialo 
Syriac;  Hanana  of  Adiabene,  an  exegetical  writer: 
Joseph  the  Hiiiile,  a  mystic;  John  ^ba,  aulbor  o4 
epistles;  John  of  Apamea,  anihor  ufascetioil  trealisea. 
Famous  B>  grammsrians  and  lexicogisphetB  wer«  Ho- 
nain  Ibn-I>liak  (d.  87l>),  Bar-Ali  (about  885),  Dar-Uab- 
lul  (about  963),  and  Elias  bar-Sbinaja  (d.  1049). 

in  parts,  we  mention  Jesujabh  of  Adisbene.  patriarch 
about  060,  and  author  of  Da-HnjAet  Cka-Aer,  at  On 
Ihi  ComrrtioH  or  Chongt  nfOpimotit,  an  exbortatiosi  to 
certain  disciples,  and  a  ritual;  Thomas  Margeniua,  about 
Ihe  middle  of  the  9th  century,  author  of  a  faiaton-  of 
the  monastery  of  Beib-Abe,  published  by  AssraiaDi: 
John  bar-Abgura,  patriarch  about  900,  and  author  of 
canons.  Church  questions,  and  decisions,  in  pan  fnveu 
by  Assemaiii ;  George,  metropolitan  of  Atbela  ai>d  tlas- 
sai,autliiir>>rBn  explanation  of  the  litur^,bi'Asaemtini; 
and  Timothy  II,  patriarch  about  1318,  author  of  a  tra- 
tise  on  the  sacraments,  also  given  by  Aasemani.  The 
eibical  work,  TU  Book  of  the  Her,  by  Salomon,  iHshnp 
of  Basson  (about  liti),  has  lately  been  publiabed  win. 
a  Latin  translation  by  Scbnnfelder,  SahwriM  Kp.  Bat- 

LaimK  wriil  (Bamberg,  1866);  George  VaHa,  two  nf 
whoae  hymns  are  given  in  sn  English  tnnslatinti  bv 
Badger,  in  hie  Tkt  Snioriinu  and  Iktir  Sitaab  (Load. 
1853),  ii,  51, as,  95;  Chamis  bar-Kardacbe,whflee  bywiii 
on  the  incarnation  is  abo  given  by  Badger  (Joc^  tit.  p. 
39).  Tbe  latest  writer  among  the  NeaoTiaiM  waa  Eb«|. 
jCKi  (q.  v.),  metropnliun  of  Saba  (d.  1818). 

After  the  16th  century,  s  great  part  uf  the  Neatnriana 
returned  to  the  Church  of  Ifome.  From  their  midM  ■ 
number  uf  polemical  writings  in  the  Syrioe  kanguaffp 
were  pulilisiied  against  the  errors  of  their  cuuntrvntoi, 
as  tbe  Tkrtt  Ditamrta  on  FaUk,  about  the  year  IGOO, 
by  the  archimandrite  Adam  (aflerwanls  as  tnahr^  of 
Amido,  called  Tintathv).  These  iliwD«rsra  are  givm 
by  P.  Strmaa,  in  bis  De  DogmalOwi  CkaUmonm  Di^ 
put.  (Rom.  1617),  and  in  S^mdaUa  CkaUmenat  (ibid.), 
where  alsu  the  aynodical  letter  of  the  patriarch  Elias  m 
Paul  V,  in  a  Latin  translation,  and  tbe  hymn  «f  tbe  pa- 
iriarch  Ebnljesu  in  honor  of  nus  IV,  in  the  Syriac.  is 
given.  About  1700  the  patriarch  Joseph  II  wrote  the 
C'ltar  llirror,  parts  of  which  ue  pven  by  JbacnuDi,  and 


STRIAC  LITERATURE 


I  primt  Jaa.Garitl  piiLliibH 
■1  Bmc  (18U)  hil  f.*clioiia  Dogmali.  lie  Dieiai  /near- 
mtimK  fciu  U  Penide  iairial. 
t  !%€  Mme,Asiilrt.^Of  this  dan  of  wriUn  w< 

Wwd  by  Un J  in  Dt  Sfronm  fide  m  He  An 


;  <M 


i,l6»,w 


(W.  JTu.  Bril,  idd.  ll.i;4,  [uL  laS);  Paul,  biihiip 
I'alhiicuQi.  Ittc  Gnc  truulatoi  of  Serenia's  writb^ ; 
\fiujaa  fv  I'hiJox^nua  (q.  ¥. ),  bitbop  nf  Hifrapolts 
( MtiMK  >,  ibe  ■u[lk»  of  a  Bible  IraiiaUriun.  nimtmii- 
urm  l)t  Trimlalt  rl  /■miwt^vMr  apd  lie  t'nn  rx  Tri- 
muit  Imcamala  H  Paao  (iteoh  >,(  Ed««a  calla  Xenijas 
OK  af  tlw  four  Haaw:  wiiten  of  Sjiia) ;  Simeon,  bishop 
<]f  Bdhanaai  (<L62(>),iiitlii>rDf  cpiBtleii,f!tv«n  bv  Aaae- 
■antn  tbefiiU,Onoi/.i,UG,36l;  Peur  of  Caliiiiicum 
(i78-^l),  author  of  polemical  wnrfca  and  hymn*  (Me 
(.'oaL  ifu  Bril.  arid.  14^1.  p.  69):  John  ot  Kpbnus 
{i\.  T.),  aMbor  of  an  ecdoiaMJcal  liUtoryj  Janib  of 
£dtaa  (q.  t.).  autbnr  of  a  rccennon  of  ihe  %ro-Heu- 
p4Bhe  cnnilatlon,  fragments  of  wbicb  are  ^ven  bv  Ce- 
riui  ia  Ibc  Jil  and  &tb  mlt.  of  hil  MoKVmenla  Siicia  .■ 

Seriptarea  (ptibUabod  bv  Philippa,  Srkolia  <nt  Pauogu 
*flkt  Old  Tnl.  [Land.  I8M1X  epiatlea  (given  iu  Lhe 
lOi.  Onml.  i,  479,  ami  br  Wrighl.  in  the  Jour,  nf 
<iae.  Ul.  Jan.  1867),  canons  (given  br  Lagarde,  in  Rr- 
Sfmit  Jrrii  txcln.  Sjr.  p.  117,  aod  by  E'lnv,  in  Bt 
Hfnnm  FUt  m  lie  Euduti-wlica,  p.  96):  his  e«ay  un 
ihi  jUoi  Hammepkoraili  was  publiahed  bv  Nestle  in 
\htZrilKkiiJldTtdiWtcli.'HOTgad.GttdtldBi/t,\«;6,ii\. 
WSa).:  he  abo  introduced  a  mora  correct  rocaliiation 
IXC  Martin. yiKfun  liKdme  el  In  Voyrlla  Sgrirmtrt 
[Patii.  1870]);  Ueo^t,  bishop  ol  Che  Arabs,  in  Ihe  be- 
xinbiiig  of  the  8th  cenriirr  (see  Lagarde,  Analrrln, 
^l«f-lM);  DionjaJus,  patriarch  of  Telmaohar.  "rbo. 
pmaiiiig  the  worka  of  EuMlnus,  Socrates,  anil  John  nf 
EpkHB,  wince  anoala  fmni-)i)ie  CRatioii  lo  A.I).  775, 
tbe  tnt  book  of  which  was  puUiahed  liy  F.  Tnllberg. 
M^SB  Telmakln-nnt  (Upula,  I8M),  lib.  i ;  J<ilm  «f 
Dm  (q.  r.).  author  of  four  IhwIib  on  Ibe  Tnorrectinn 
''  Ihe  body  (esrant),  two  books  on  the  ecfleaiisllcil 
Old  crieatial  hierarchirn.  firur  bnoka  on  the  priesihood, 
Mid  a  li[u^7  (see  ZtngerJe.  in  ibe  Tibinger  Ikrvtiig. 
Qaar<dkAr^,18G7,p.lt»-W5;  1868,  p.  S67-285:  Mo- 
mmiUa  Sfriaen  rx  Ram.  CoUecfa,  i,  lOo  sq..  anil  Over- 
bat,  Ice  nf.  p.  409):  Uoaes  bai-Cephaa  (q.  v.),  aiilbur 
itfiiiponienury  on  ihe  Tarailise  (published  by  Masiua 
•  aLaiin  miialaiinii  at  Antiierp  in  l(iC9)i  bniiles.  he 

KtvTesi..  tncu  u«  the  litiii^r,  and  seven  hoaiiliet: 
HaHl'*  Jfoni  Barcpk.  3  Libi-i  Commeml.  de  Paraduo 
ai  Iftal.  ImI.  rrdd.  is  also  found  in  the  BOL  Pair. 
/jr;4n.x«ii.466;  DioDVsius  bu^Cdib  (d.  ll7l),eom- 


>lin  iif  JtlsRlin  (<L 
ll«5)  (lee  the  B»L  Ori^.  ii.  317  n).| ;  Jsoiib  nf  llai- 
patia,  aaibor  of  a  dogmatical  vork.  The  Ilituk  of' 
nliooed  by  Asaemani,  and  an  xldtess  lo 
a  be  ordaineit  (given  in  pan  in  a  Latin 
'  Deniinger  in  hia  Rilai  Orimfuiium  » 
>,  [Wnixburg,  t86B],  ii,  106  sq.). 
DonopnTniic  irriters  i*  dnaed  by  a  man 
I  all  bis  predeceioimi,  namely,  (irpgory 
AMCiraj  bar-HebtBui.  As  Ihe  lilerslnre  given  under 
Dk  an.  AbcUtabaj  (q.  v.)  is  very  deBrinil,  and  has  nf 
Ix  eraailv  iiKCsasai,  we  gire  it  here  by  vay  of  supple- 
nan.  Ai  a  hiaiorian,  Bar-Hebneus  proved  himself  in 
kiiffenntcle,  which  ia  now  complete  in  Ibe  edition  by 
UbeMa  aod  Laatr,  Crt^oHi  bar-HArm  CkroidcoB 
lairtiatlieam  guod  c  Codia  Sfiaei  BriKnaid  Dttcrtp- 
'  I  CatfamJa  Optra  Edidrml,  Lalimilale  Domnnt 
■  --  -  -  -  JTmkyint,  HiilancU,  Gmsntpkiai 
1  (LoBViin,  1873,  IBT4, 1877, 


10  SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

8  vols.);  ihal  part  of  the  cfaioiiicle  which  treaiiof  ihe 
crusade  of  king  Kichard  [  of  England  is  given  in  llie 
nri>^nal  niih  an  English  Iranslation  in  ihe  Sgiiuc 
RemlirHj  l.nto<u,  published  by  Bagaier  and  Sons  (Lond.), 
Uf  bis  dogmatical  works,  we  menlion  Mrmiralh  Xudilii, 
Lc. ''IlieUmpoflhesanc[iiaf7,''a  body  of  ihealo^.'i- o^ - 
tant  in  Arabic,  writlen  in  the  Syrian  chancier;  Katholf 
iJatriJK,  L  e.  "the  book  nS  rays,"  a  compendium  <if 
tbetdogy,  exiensively  described  by  Awemani.  He  aln. 
itniie  Kolhnbo  dii-Dvbori.  i.e.  "Ibe  book  of  moraK"  n 
comiiendiun  of  ethics,  chiefly  deduced  rrom  Ihe  father* 
and  ascetical  wnlers,  and  Kolhoba  da-T«Mt/e  Unphir. 
gmi,  "lhe  book  of  pleasant  narratives,"  a  collection  of 
anecdotes,  stnrie^  and  senlimenls  fnim  Peraian,  Indian, 
Hebrew,  Mohammeilan,  and  Chrii-iisn  wrileta,  in  twen- 
ty chapiera  (nee  Adler,  limit  Lieg«a  Sgrinttr  laUi- 
miw  [AliuLia,  1784]).  The  ecclesiastical  and  civil  law 
he  tmCs  in  his  KnthiAo  dii-Hadnst,  \.  e.  "the  book  of 
directions,"  published  in  a  Latin  translalinn  bv  Mai  in 
Ihe  lOlb  voL  of  his  Sn-iplarvm  Vtlrrvm  Aora'CnIleeli" 
CKom.  1838).  till  Auliar  Aon,  or  "lrpa>uty  of  mys- 
leries"— hia  gnaieM  exrgelicat  work— is  a  commentarj- 
on  lhe  Holy  Scriptures,  and  has  pliciled  many  mono- 
graphs. Lamow's  inienlion  to  publith  a  new  edition 
has  not  been  realized.  Ormonngraphs,  we  menlion  Ihe 
general  Proamion  and  the  Scliolia  <m  Job,  in  Kind 
CkrtHom.  SfT.  (Leips.  183j,  ed.  Bemsiein),  p.  143, 186: 
Rhode,  A  bvtphmvgii  Scholia  n  Pta.  v  tl  rtiii  (^eslan. 
1832)1  Winkler,  Caimm  Dibori*  ctm  Srhoiiii  Barke- 
braanii  (ibid.  1889);  Tallberg.AAoJui  n  JcHijomiVin 
Pinlmcn  Sriolii/rvni  Spreinirn  (Piiiam.  rl  SfioUa  ui  Pu'. 
i.ii,rm[ Tpwla,  1842]);  Kiinblnch, Ci^. H. U.Seholia 
in  pH:iitiii,i>rinmmfd.flilL  (Ureslau,  1863):  Knnn 
and  WrnnlTTg,  Gitg.  B.  //.  BrhtAia  ui  Jerrm.  (Upsala,  - 
1 852) ;  id.  Ci«7.  h.  II.  SchiAia  in  Pta.  rii'j,  W,  tH,  J  (Brch 
lui.  lS57.«l.l{.8.F.SchTOteT);  id-firfo/io  in  Gn.iKx, 
I;  fjrod. rrxii-rxiiv !  Jtidg.T,in ZritThi^fl dtr dmlich, 
moiyrnL  CrtrlUei.  xxiv,  495  aq.;  id.  3dH!liooitPta.  in,  iV, 
iri;Hi,  u-ar,  rail),  lUi  (d-gelher  with  har-Hebneiis's 
lll^acc  tn  the  New  Test,  in  Ihe  same  review,  xxix,!47- 
30S)i  id.  Grr^.  B.  II.  Scholia  ia  Jobi  i  (BresUu,  1868, 
ed.  Semstcin);  Schwarz,  Grrgorii  bar-Ebkraya  n 
Krrmgrliui*  Johaimu  Camvimiiiri'ii.  E  Theiauro  tfgi- 
irrinrum  Dmmpliim,  rdidtl  (Giitt.  187S);  KUmroih, 
Crrjjorii  Abul/arnsii  bar  -  Ebhriiya  ni  Aclut  Apotla- 
lonmi  rl  Fpitliilia  CalhoHmt  AdnoloHontt,  Sgiiace 
(ibid.  1878).  He  was  alio  not  oidy  disiinguishrd  as 
a  poet  aiHl  grammarian,  but  combined  also  both  quali- 
ties hi  that  uf  a  grammatical  porl.  His  short  gram- 
mar in  melrt  was  pnbiishril  bv  Henheau.  Grrg.  R.  H. 
Grnmm.  I.itigtia  Syr.  in  MelroEpkramtv  ((ibit.  18J8), 
while  Martin  published  Ihe  <F.»rtn  Grimmuilienltt 
d'Abovlfaradj  dil  bar-Ilthraut  (I^ris,  1872,  3  vols.), 
or  his  poems,  WoHT  published  a  Spreimen  CufBunum  pr. 
ed.  vert.  id.  (Ups.  1884),  and  Uiigerke,  Ab.  Carmai. 
Syrr.  uligaol  adhuc  tardiln  erf.  rerf.  iU.  (Konigsbeiv, 
1886-88)1  hut  lately  Ihey  have  been  publiihed  by  A. 
Scebabi,  Cre^n'i  bar-IMrai  Carmimt  Cotrrela,  uc  ab 
fodem  t.rrieoa  Adjuncltm  (Rom.  1877).     See  UoNO- 


8.  Monnlkelilie  ITrtrrra,— The  only  writer  who  cer- 
tainly belonged  to  Ibis  sect  was  Thomas  of  Hsran, 
bishop  of  Kapbailab,  who  in  1089  sent  an  apology  of  the 
monmhelitic  doctrine  to  the  patriarch  John  of  Antioeh. 
But  there  is  a  controversy  whether  the  palriarch  of 
Anlinch,  John  Mara,  was  a  Catholic,  monotheliie,  or  a 
myatical  person,  and  whether  the  Maroniles  were  aU 
ready  orthodox  before  the  cnisades.  The  writings 
which  go  under  his  name,  the  Mtlul  Kokennlka,  a 
treatise  on  Lhe  priesthood,  and  a  commentaij  nn  lhe 
liturgv.  are  not  bis — iHe  former  bekings  lo  John  of 
Dara-'the  latter  lo  Dionysius  bar-Calib.  But  there  is 
no  reason  to  deny  him  the  authorship  of  the  treatise 
on  the  faith  of  the  Church  against  Ihe  Honophysites 
and  Nealorians,  which  is  preserved  in  a  US.  dated  1S92, 
and  wrillen  in  Syriac  with  an  Arabic  translation. 

III.  TVoRsliifMiM. — The  translations  made  from  the 


SYIIIAC  LITERATURE  11 

Greek  inln  Syriac  »ib  rrry  nuraemiu,  s«pedilly  of  Ihe 
writing*  of  Ihe  tipottolic  hlbera.  The  Syrims  hail 
Uilh  epialleii  of  Uement  of  Kooie  U>  the  Uurinlbiani 
(we  Lifrarde,  CUmfiHu  Romam  RecoffmJvyaea  Si/rum 
[Lip<^  1861];  ill.  Clraeiaiaa  [ibia.  tSti&J;  Funk,  Uir 
lyritcie  Uebtrttttung  dtr  Cltmrmbriffi,  in  Ihe  TAtolog, 
<iiuinaUctii/t,tS77,p.*ni  anJ  HUeenMii,  Dit  Brv/t 
da  rOmitdttn  CUmtni  uad  Hie  lyrueht  Vfifi'ftziiiig.  in 
rlie  ZtilKhrift  JUr  vi—nudi.  ThnL  1877,  xx,  pi.  4). 
On  tha  »erOT  epUtl«  of  Ignatius  of  Antinih,  »*«,«•  for 

add  Lipniiia,  C'thrr  ilai  VrrhHtma  drr  B  lyr.  Brirji 
ritf  lymUittt  tu  itftt  iibi'ifffn  RecnuM,  der  ignal^  Literafur 
(ilHd.  ISJS),  iml  Merx,  Melrlemala  IgmtuKUt  (Brealau, 
1S6I). 

A  anmewhat  peculiar  nntk  ii  rhe  Gaemoln^  men- 
tioned tiv  Urigen,  and  sacribed  lo  Siitua  1  (in  Ihe  be- 
Kiniiiiifc'oftlie  ad  Centura),  iMiUiilwd  in  Ulin  liy  Hil- 
kiiemiua  in  1674  and  by  iSiber  in  nib.  Ijiiianle  hai 
liuhlithed  it  iu  Ibe  Sjriie  according  to  Niiriaii  bISS.  in 
Ilia  Amalicla.  Tciy  important  also  are  tlie  cimlribu- 
tiiiiia  of  Ihe  Syrian  Church  Ii>  Ihe  apnlngciic  literature 
oftheSiloenlurv.  In  Curctnii'a^riia'fr^'uH  we  Hud  an 
.iraiion  of  Melito  of  Sardca,  written  ab-Hit  A.D.  ISO  to 
Marc  Aiirel,  in  which  lie  triea  to  ahuw  the  fully  of 
imlylbeiam  and  teeki  to  f^in  him  fur  the  Chrialian 

by  \Vclte,inlheriiivverQiHirVu(KAr{/?,l86£.  Derides 
this  nratioii,  Cureton  also  sires  nine  fragmenia  from 
Helitu'i  wtilinga  on  the  bndy  and  aoiil,  on  the  croM  and 
faith.  In  the  same  Spidlrgium  we  Hnd  anolher  apolo- 
Iftlio  worii,  which  i*  otherwiee  Tnentiuned  >a  the  ~ora- 
luHi  to  the  Greeks"  by  .luilin.  The  S.i-rian  tut  mt- 
rribeii  it  to  Ambrose,  a  Greek.  FrafpnenU  nfa  Syrian 
ininalalinn  of  Irenieus  are  Kiven  by  Hira  in  Ihe  SpicHt- 
jfiim  Soif/HBiK  (Paris,  1862),  <,  8.  0. 

The  Nitrian  MSS.  aim  contain  much  material  pei^ 
taining  to  the  works  of  Hi[)p■■tylM^  the  antbot  of  the 
PiUonipianinia,  Laganle,  who  puldinheil  a  Greek  edi- 
liiHi  of  Hippolytus  ( llijipolifli  Rnrnaai  ^na  fmmlmr 
-ania  Gract  [Lipa.  I83«]),  has.  eollrcKd  the. Syrian 
fragments  in  his  A  miltdii,  ji.  79-91 ;  a|iil  in  hia  Atipf- 
dix  ad  Aaaleela  tua  Sgriiica  (ibid;  IB68),  he  gives 
Arabic  fragmenta  of  Hiptwlylua's  eomnwnlarv  on  the 
Apocalypse.  As  for  the  Sytiac  fn^meiits,  they  contain 
an  extract  of  Hiiqwiylus's  oommenlary  on  Daniel. 
Chapters  viii  and  xi  he  refera  K>  I'ersia,  Alexander,  anil 
Antiochus  Epiphanes;  the  funr  kingdoms  (ch.  ii  and 
vii)  are  the  Babylonian,  fersian,  Macedonian,  and  Ko- 
man ;  the  ten  horns  (ch.  rii)  he  refen  to  ten  kingdiims 
growing  out  of  the  Koman  empire,  three  of  which— 
£gypl,  Ethiopia,  and  Libya — wiU  be  aniiihilaled  by  Ihe 
antichrist,  liesidea  Ihe  commentary  on  Daniel,  ihese 
fnnmeau  also  contain  a  scholium  on  the  auihora,  di- 
visiun,  collection,  and  order  of  the  Psalms,  fragments  of 
a  commeiiUry  on  the  Sonu  of  Songa,  also  fra(rmput»  nf 
a  treatise  on  the  resurrecliun  (iu  wbicb  Ihe  cleaeon 
NicolaiiB  is  designated  as  the  author  or  the  Niciilaitanp) 

finir  animals  by  Ezekiel,  and  the  genealogy  of  Jnui 
Chriit. 

In  Lagarde's  Rrliqiiia  Jarit  Eedri.  Anliquiuiinm 
Sjn-irm  (Lips.  1856),  we  also  have  the  minutes  of  the 
Carthigenlan  Synod  of  366,  together  with  Cyprian's 
epiellea  and  the  Hpulola  Cimomca  of  Peter  of  Aiexan-  | 
dria  in  the  Syrian  version,  while  the  Analtda  by  Ihe 
same  author  contain  Sjriac  writingi  and  fragments  of 
Gregory  Thanmaturgua.  A  fragment  of  an  episile  of 
iKipe  Kdix  I  lo  Maximus  of  Alexandria  is  contained  in 
Zingerie's  ifonumtnla  Spi-iuca.  This  mucbfor  Ihe  nnte- 
Nicene  period.  As  lo  the  poil-h'icme  prriod,  we  nieii- 
liim  two  works  of  Harris  Cowper,  Aaiiltrlii  A'lflma 
(Lnnil.  1867),  fragment*  relating  (o  Ihe  Council  of  Nice, 
and  j^rtdc  HitctHinitt  (iUd.  1861),  or  extracts  re- 
lating to  Ihe  tinl  and  second  general  councits, and  ra- 
riiHis  (lurriailiins.  In  these  tno works  wc  haveCunstan- 
line's  inrilalorr  address  lo  Ihe  bishnpa  ot  Ihe  Nicene 


0  SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

Council,  his  decree  against  Arius,  and  Ihe  episcopal  sig 

A  great  farorite  with  the  Syrian  transtalon  wa 
Eusebius  of  Qesarea,  whose  ecclevastical  hisioTyis  pre 
served  lor  the  grvatesl  part  in  London  and  St.  Pelen 
burg  M3S.Drihe  6th  and  Gth  cenluriei.  Specimeu  oi 
the  Syriac  tranilaliun  were  given  by  Cureinn  in  th- 
CoFTHia  Ignalianam,  in  the  tipicilrsiiim  and  j4isr>m 
DtitiimnI',  while  Wright  is  preparing  ■  Syiiac  edition 
who  also  edilel  and  translated  in  the  Jour,  of  Sue 
l.il.  July,  Oct^  IBUG,  a  treslise  Ok  Ae  Star,  ascribed  I. 
E^•ebiu^  and  which  is  bund  in  a  MS.  uf  the  6th  cen 
lury.     The  Tbrephmiy  (^to^vtia),  long  losi,  was  dis 

e<lileil,  uiidet  llie  title  EuirUm  «■  lit  7'Aropjknnu  a. 
Dirimt  MnmfriUaiim  af  Jrtai  CkHM,  br  Le*  (Land 
IMi),  who  also  IraiisUted  the  same  into  English  (iUil 
I84S).  The  MS.  is  now  in  Ihe  British  Museum,  aiu 
Lee  asaigns  it  Id  A-D.  41 1.  'I'he  Tkto/ikaiHa  baa  lh< 
same  objecl  in  view  as  tin  iiriitit't  tt'myyAitii,  thi 
Dtnumitraliii  Enugtlica.  It  speaks  in  the  Jtnl  6a»j 
of  the  I>igii«,the  mediator  between  Uud  and  the  world 

Creation,  refuting  at  Ihe  aame  time  atheism,  polyitu' 
ism,  pantheism,  and  malerialisiiL  The  Kcomdboot  treatr 
of  the  faU  and  sin,  and  ofihe  neceieity  of  adivine  inter 


kind;  the  (Aiiif  speaks  of  ihe  incamalion  of  Ibcdivini 
Logos,  his  redeeming  death,  resurreclion.elc.;  theyuorr/ 
speaks  of  the  fulHImeiit  of  the  pmphedes  of  Christ  cnn- 

of  Jerusalem,  the  Temple,  etc. ;  the  jf/?i  boot  refulei 
the  objeciiuns  made  la  Christ's  miracles  as  being  magi- 


Kiples. 


nUS^fr 


in  1846,  who  also  puUi>he<l  an  English  translation  in 
lfU8;  another  English  translation  ia  given  by  Iturgew 
and  Williams  in  tlie  Libnirg  o/  lit  FtHhtri  (Oxliif  I. 
1864) ;  they  were  translated  into  liemun  and  anuolated 
by  Larsow  (I«ips.l8A2),  while  iheiirigiiiaLwiiha  Latin 
translation,  is  given  bv  Mai  in  Ihe  Aurti  Fafntm  BiHi- 
ellirCH  (Horn.  1868),  vl,  1-168. 

Bendes  the  writers  already  mentioned,  we  must  nsmt 
Titus,  bishop  of  BoatTS,  who  wrote  four  bordis  agiinal 
the  Mtnichnans,  itnperlect  in  Ihe  Greek,  but  compleie 
in  the  Syriac  translation,  and  editeil  by  Lagarde,  Tii 
BoUTtm  eoaira  Mamehitot  Liltri  IV  Sgriott  (Deri. 
I859)j  CjTil  uf  AlexandriB,whn«ecomnienlary  onLuke 
has  been  edited  by  Payne  Smith,  &  Cyri(/>  .4^.  vlr- 
ehirp.  Commrnlurii  in  Lueir  EetrngtliMm  (Oxford,  1858). 
Ofthe  ttanslationi  of  Gregory  of  Nytaa  and  ChiymioiD 
onlv  a  Tew  fragmenls  hare  been  puldished  (see  Zin- 
gerle, MoHummla  Sgriaea,  i.  111,  117).  The  Pkgn-iU>- 
jjHi,  erroneously  ascribed  lo  Basil,  was  published  (1795) 
by  Tyschen.  Phytiologiit  Synii,  sen  llitl.  AmmBlinf 
rrxii  in  Siicra  Scriplara  Afemoralomm.  A  pan  of 
■he  Piiruditf,  an  account  of  the  acts  and  discourses  of 
Ihe  most  eminent  Egyptian  monks,  cironeoasly  ascribed 
lo  Pallndins  and  Jerome,  has  been  published  bj  Diet- 
rich, Codi/.  iSyriunirMm  S/mtWiM,  jmE  inf /ttusfnndnB 
t>oyimau  dr  Cana  Sacra,  nrr  mm  Scripliint  Syr.  llito- 
™n/<,«.nW(Matbnrg,l855). 

After  the  6ih  centuri-  the  translations  from  Greek 
Church  fathers  gradually  cease,  because  the  Syiiani 
fiom  that  time  nn  either  belmig  lo  the  Nesiorlsnt  or 
Monnphysiles.  The  Nestoriant  translated  the  wiiiinp 
of  Diinlunis  and  Theodore  of  Mopsiicsiia  for  exccrpii 
from  their  writings  («ee  La(.'nrde,^itnir(*u),  while  The- 
odore's  commentary  on  Genesis  has  lately  been  publiih. 
ed  by  Sachau,  Tlirodoii  MopiaHim  FnigmeMa  Sfri- 
aeti,  rdilil  nlqm  in  IjiI.  term,  cerlil  {Lips.  1869)  i  Ihe 
MonoplivMlen  translated  Severui'i  writings,  whose  botn- 
ilies  were  iranslaUd  at  the  same  time  by  Paul  of  Csl- 
llnicum,  and  later  by  Jacob  of  Kdessa.  Four  viiiiatii'n 
of  Sevcrui  are  translaled  intu  Latin  from  the 


SYRIAC  LITERATURE  i: 

SiTUC  bj  Mmi  in  Seriplt.  Ftteram,  yora  Coll.  is,  74!  iq. ' 
StoM  rragBicnls  rmm  Jacub'a  Innatitian  of  Severiu'i 
baUia  im  publulinl  by  Martin,  »bo  alw  published 
Jui>b'i  qnide  to  Uvorge,  liisbop  of  fiiritfCi  concem- 
iog  Srriic  orthography  (we  Jiievbi  Epiie.  JWmmi 
£fiili)la  ad  Gtorgium  Epitr.  Sarvgentrm  de  Orlhs- 
jr«fJkia  SfTVKa;  nbteqkmhiT  rfiadem  Jacobi  n«non 
nima  Diaeoui  Traelatut  de  Pmclu  aliaque  Doca- 
mbt  ■•  (OKfen  mialrriam  C^>ri^  ISflO),  to  which 
am  ba  idded  Phillipa,  A  Lrtler  bg  Mar  Jacub  on  Sgr- 
iac  Oriiographg,  alio  %  Tract  by  Che  um«  inlbor,  uid 
1  DueouTK  by  GrfyorioM  bar'Ntbr.  on  Syriac  A  ccentr 
(Land.  1889),  to  which  arc  adilnl  apprndicpi.  In  fine, 
<re  BKnlioa  lb«  mnslatiou  ortheepiMleaofpopc  Juliua 
L which  iagiTen  by  LaRarda  in  hit  Analerla,  p.  67-79, 
■bik  th«  original  Greek  ia  containHl  in  Mai's  SS.  Vm. 
Xtra  ColL  vii,  165,  and  in  the  Appendix  to  Lagaide'a 
TiliBotlmn.  Ofmnalations  rmm  other  languageabe- 
Mtti  the  Greek,  1ittl«  ia  to  be  laid,  nnleaa  wo  mention 
(htworlu  into  mndern  Sytiao  iaaiied  rrom  tbe  preaaat 
Cnmnah,  aa  the  tranalalion  of  the  Bible,  of  Bailer'a 
Km  if  lit  SamU,  BanTu'a  PUgrim't  Pngrai,  etc. 

ir.  Lilaryin.  —  The  Syrian  eburchea  are  rich  in 
■Kfanenlat  lilurgiea.  The  Eaatem  Syriani  uae  a  li- 
Uirnical  furm  which  has  been  innamilted  to  them  by 
■be  apMtn  of  Ed«u  and  Selencia,Addai  and  Marifi, 
■bik  the  Weswrn  Syriana  uae  the  liturgy  of  Jamea, 
■Uch  ha>  become  the  baaia  for  the  liturgical  aervice 
Ihmifrhoui  the  Orient.  The  worlia  which  treat  on  the 
Oiinital  lilurgiea  ire  Aaaemani'e  Codex  Litiirg,  (Rom. 
t;i}-M);  U^aaudot,  LUtirgioTtm  Orimll.  Culltctio 
(Par.  1716);  Duirl,  Cod.  Lit.  (Lipa.  1863),  tom.  iv; 
y-ait,niMBTyo/lke  Uofy  ffiuemi  f*iireA  (Lond,  1860) ; 
Nctia  and  Ullledale,  Tie  Lilnrgitt  nfSS.  Mart,  Jama, 
floHnt.  Ckrifoilom,  and  BumU,  and  Iht  Church  ofilai- 
Air  (M  ed.  ibid.  1869),  traualated  with  inlroduclion 
•ad  ^iptndicea. 

Tb«  liEuTgical  Berrice  {Kurbono, "  the  oblation  or  ac- 
n*:"  abo  Kudtko, "  (he  holr  ritaal")  of  all  the  Syrian 
charcbca  couusta  of  two  pnncipal  parta,  the  firat  being 
psfcniied  in  the  public  congregation,  composed  alike 
<■[  ibe  faithful  and  Che  general  hearera,  but  the  aecond 
triilatile  only  to  the  baptiaed,  or  believers.  This  Utter 
ptn  is  called  anapkoru,  or  "the  uplining,''!  term  re- 
ftniog  both  to  the  preaentaUon  of  the  eiichariatic  ma- 
wriali  oi  the  altar  and  to  Che  devotional  elevation  of 
ibr  nind  in  the  cnaiinunicanta.  Of  theae  anaphoraa, 
a  hw  are  the  producliona  n(  Syrian  fatbera;  the  rest 
m  TRWHu  or  adapuiiona  from  the  Grwk.  The  old- 
■M  uipban  ii  that  of  Jamei,  which  ia  tbe  basia  of 
tkat  gnat  number  of  aiiaphoraa  which  are  uaed  among 
ibe  Jscobilea  and  Hamniteat  The  leaser  liturgy  of 
JuMs  is  an  abnilgtnenl  of  tbe  ronner  by  Uccgory  bar- 
HtbmiL  Thia  ia  used  on  comparatively  private  oca- 
■ioos,  at  bapiisma  and  matrimony.  To  Peter,  chief 
of  tbe  apoHles,  are  aacribed  the  Jaeobitie  anaphoraa, 
r«nd  by  R^naudot  and  by  Howard  in  his  Chrii- 
'vm  of  Si.  Tkomai  and  ibrir  LUargia  from  Syriao 
Has.  (Oif.  and  Lond.  1864).  The  Lilarsy  of  Ihe 
Trdm  Apatiln,  compiled  by  Luke,  ia  found  by  Bi- 
naidM.  Howanl,  Neale,  and  Lillledale.  Iliere  are  alao 
liriirpn  aacribed  tu  Jnhn,  Mark,  Clement  of  Rome, 
Ucnriiua  of  Atben^  Ignatiu*  of  Aniioch,  Matthew 
ib«  fmtitt,  XyituB  and  Juliua  (biahop*  of  Rome),  and 
Ctlesinr,  whoae  litnrpy  Wright  published  {Tlu  Lit- 
srjj  rf  SI.  Crtrtin*.  Bukop  o/  Rami)  in  the  Jour,  of 
Xv.  Lit.  April.  1867.  p.  S32.  To  nrthndox  Greek  fa- 
ibert  an  aicribed  the  insphoras  of  Eiiatathjua  of  An- 
'iwfa.  Baiil,  Grepir)-  of  Naiianium,  Chrj'aoMooi,  and 

aiM  Ihe  aiiapb<iras  of  llanlhas,  Jacob  of  Sarug,  and 
!&ntim  the  Peraian.  To  Greek  beretiea  belong  (he 
uapburas  of  Sevcrua  of  Antioch  and  Dioscurus  of  At- 

An  ibtae  anaphoraa  arc  either  apurioaa  or  rerydubi- 
•w,  while  ihoae  prepared  br  the  hi)ho|is,  especially  (he 
luriarthi  of  tbe  Syrian  JacoUlea,  have  mure  hiacorjcal 


1  SYKIAC  LITERATURE 

foondation  in  their  favor.  Of  such  we  mention  Philoi- 
enua,  Jscob  Baidcus,  Thomu  of  Charchel,  John  of  Baa- 
aora,  Jacob  of  Edesaa,  Eleaiar  bar-Sabetha  of  Babylon 
(abio  caUed  "Pbiloxenus  of  Bagdad"  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury), Moses  Barcepha,  John  bar-Shushan  (d.  1078), 
John  of  Haran  and  Mardin  (d.  1166;  in  Catholic  mia- 
sala  enonaoutly  called  "  Chryaoacom"),  Dionyaiua  bar- 
Calib,  tbe  patriarcha  Michad  tbe  Elder,  John  Scriba 
or  the  Lesser  (towards  Ihe  beginning  of  Ihe  18th  cen- 
tury), John  Ibn-Usadani  (d.  1268),  Gregory  bar-Ue- 
braeus,  Dioscoms  of  Kardu  (at  the  end  of  the  ISch  cen- 
tury), and  Ignatiua  Ibn-Wahib  (d.  188^). 

All  Che  anaphoras  which  we  have  mentioned  are  pub- 
lished either  in  the  original  or  in  a  iransladon,  biil  ihere 
ara  some  which  are  eiiant  only  in  MS.  or  known  from 
incidenul  quotations.  Altogether  I  hetc  are  about  aixly 
anaphoraa  belonging  to  Che  family  ufSyio-Jacohilic  lit- 
urgies. 

From  the  West- Syrian  liturgies  we  come  now  to 
East-Syrians,  who,  aa  we  have  already  s(a(ed,  used  a 
liturgical  form   transmitted  to  (hem  from  Addai  and 

the  anaphoras  of  Theodore  of  Uopsueslia  and  MesCo- 
rius  is  used.  The  latter  was,  aceording  to  Ebedjeau, 
translated  bv  Thomas  nf  Edeata  and  Marabha.  The 
anaphoraa  of  Nsnea,  Banuraas,  and  Dioriore  of  Tar- 
aua,  mentioned  by  Rberijesu,  are  lost.  The  liliirpy  of  the 
apoitles,  together  with  the  Gospels  and  Epiittei>,  is  founil 
in  Syriac  in  the  MiMsale  Cbiildaiaai  «  iVoWo  a. 
Congrtg.  d*  Propagamia  Fide  edimm  (Rum.  1767); 
Ordo  Cialdaiau  Miaal  Btaioram  app.  jnila  Sitam 
Ecda.  Malabar,  (ibid.  1774) ;  Ordo  CkaUaicv)  Riloum 
el  Lttlionum  jitxia  Uorem  Ecd.  MaL  (ibiri.  1776); 
Tvkkt  ve  Kerjane  da  Ckrdala  ica  dt  Altitrlka  akk 
TrUiia  KaldKJa  dt  Mnlabar  (ibid.  1H4)  (comp.  alao 
Ki^naudot,  Neale,  and  Uttledale  [foe.  eir.]). 

V.  RiluaL—'V\\e  main  work  on  this  subject  is  Dei)- 
lingerV  Riiat  Orimalium,  Coplaram,  Syronim  H  Ar- 
mnarun  in  Adnimtlrandit  Saerunenlit  CWIlnburg, 
1868-64,  2  vols.),  who  collecied  his  material  from  A»- 
aemani,  Codex  LUvrg,  Ertleiia  UnKtrta  in  XVIibr. 
dalribului  (Rom.  1740-G6).  and  pemaed  that  left  by 
the  late  Renaudol,  as  well  as  (he  documenta  copied  for 
that  purpose  by  Zingeria  from  MSS.  at  Kome.  The 
ritual  fur  '■  baptism"  among  the  firttoriaia,  aaid  (o  be 
used  by  the  apostles  Addai  and  Maria,  and  Uxed  by 
Jeaujab  of  Adiabene  in  tha  7tb  ceriury,  ia  tmnid  in  (he 
Cod.  Lil.,  by  Badger  in  hia  Nrtloriaru,  and  Denzinger. 
The  Jacobila  have  many  baptismal  rituals,  one  nf 
which  is  ascribed  to  James,  tbe  brother  of  (he  Lord; 
while  another,  transmitted  by  Christ  to  the  apoulee, 
and  instituted  by  Sei-enis,  is,  according  (o  a  Florentine 
MS.,  said  to  have  liecn  (raneiated  into  Syriac  by  Jacob 
of  Edeasa  (comp.  Aaaemani,  Bibliolhtat  Medicta,  Laa- 
rtnliana  tt  Palulma  Codkum  Manynripl.  Oiiffil.  Caia- 
ttyvi  [Flor.  174!],  p.  83).  The  aane  Secerns  ia  said  to 
have  prepared  two  other  baptismal  rituals;  benidea,  there 
ia  one  by  Philoxenua  fur  casee  of  emerjiency.  In  three 
forms  (for  a  bov,  a  girl,  and  (nany  candidate*)  we  have 
■n  order  of  baptism  ascribed  to  Jacob  of  Edesoa ;  an- 
other, called  alter  St.  Basil,  is  said  to  be  of  Melchitic 
origin,  although  Ihe  Jacobites  use  It.  All  thefe  ordera 
are  found  by  Asaemani  and  Denzinger.  The  ilaronila 
also  uae  (heformntte  of  Ihe  apoalleaJameaand  Jacob  of 
Edessa;  besides,  they  have  one  by  Jacob  of  Sarug,  an 
anonymous  one,  and  one  named  after  SU  Basil  Tbe 
latter  two  are  only  found  bv  Denzinger,  the  liret  also 
by  Assemani.  The  distribu'tion  of  the  "eucharist"  ia 
dcacribed  in  the  Ulurgiee.  The  "penitential  rite"  aa 
preKribeil  by  the  Neatnrian  Jpsiijab  of  AdiabFUC,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  Jacobi  teUiuiiVBius  bat-t^alib  and 
other  Jacobiticdocumenia,  are  given  by  DcnziuKer,  who 
also  gives  the  Nestorian  and  Maronitic  rite  of  "  ordina- 
tion," on  which  also  ice  Lee,  The  VolUHly  «/  Ihe  Holy 
Orderi  o/ Ike  Ckarrh  of  EogUnd  (Lonil.  1869).  Tha 
order  for  "matrimony"  according  (o  (he  Neatorian 
and  Jacobitic  rite  i*  alao  given  (•}■  Dcniingcr.    Tbe 


SYRIAC  LITERATURE  11 

ucnnwnt  ot  "estnan  nnctiuo"  hM  gnduilly  diup- 
peareJ  among  the  KeMotUtu,  tlthoogh  ibtrc  i*  no 
tliHibt  [hu  ii  exitwd  U  ■■■  early  time,  as  may  be  eeen 
rrom  TCveral  alliujoiu  mack  t»  it  by  Kpbrem  (gee  abo 
Cttd.  Vol.  Sgr,  119,  p.  127-128).  The  Jacobilic  Ordo 
lAinpadit  (a»  thia  iKninent  ia  ealkd  by  the  V/attm 
Si-riana),  Denanger  gii-**  after  Tmmbellii  Tratlalu* 
III  de  Exinma  Untfiont  (Balngna,  \"a).  In  conclu- 
eimi.  we  only  add  tbat  tlie  exlenaive  Nnlorian  ritual 
fur  (he  burial  of  a  prieit  'a  given  in  Engliata  by  Bad- 
ger (toe.  rit  ii,  p.  282  >q.).  •"d  i"  the  Offician  D'/anc- 
rorunt,  ad  Uium  Uanniitanin  Grtgorii  XIII  lmpnua 
Cialdaidt  dmraeUrHMii  Impreuim  (Rom.  15S5),  we 
find  tbe  ritual  Tor  tbe  dead,  both  clerical  and  lay. 

VI.  Tkt  Bntiaty.— On  thia  aubject  tte,  be«ide«  the 
bnviariea,  DadRet  (Aw.  ril.  li,  16-25),  IKetrich  (_Co~- 
ntmlalio  He  Piabmi  Vtu  FMieo  rt  Dirinone  m  Ec 
Ofria  Si/riaea  [  Marburg,  18623),  ■■"'  ■<'«  ■"-  ""BV- 
lARY  in  thia  CyelopBdia.  The  Neatorian  "(five  in  ila 
prerciit  furm  mav  be  traced  back  to  tlie  5lb  centurv. 
Aa  eariy  M  the  5th  century  Theodul  wrote  on  the  m.Hle 
nr  the  reciiaiion  of  the  paalmi  in  the  ofllce  (q.  v.). 
KarHK  wrote  pmclamatiun*  and  hymnii  Tor  the  Mmt, 
and  Micha  and  Abraham  of  Bethnbban  treat  of  the 
Kalhimvila  (q.  v.)  of  tbe  nnctum.  In  the  6th  century, 
Harabb*  inatituteJ  aiilipbons  (etoon)  tot  all  psalma, 
while  Babttui  arranged  the  hyiniii  liir  the  dayi  nf  ihe 
saints  and  other  feUiraln.  lu  Ilie  7lh  cenluty,  accord- 
ing (o  tbe  teetimony  of  Thomaa  Margenaia,  the  Pro- 
priam  At  Ttmpon  (chudra)  waa  arranged  by  Jesujab  of 


2  SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

ibid.  18S3},with  an  aj^iendix  eontaining  the  C^ieintm 
Drfimetonuit  and  otber  preyen.  An  editimi  nf  tbe  of- 
fice wai  publiahed  on  Mount  Lebanon  in  1855,  Bt  tirtm 
abba  va  brra  va  ntctia  de  KudtlLa  ataha  altarirv  Uibrrt- 

nan  theckimrtMa  oiA  fjada  dt  iladt  Martyuajr, 

It  may  not  be  out  ofordertoipeak  bere  of  ihe  fo-risn 
Church  lectionary.  Tbe  MS.S.  nf  the  Syriac  N'ewTwi. 
are  atrangen  to  the  modem  diriaion  of  the  bnnk*  ii 


h  tbey  di 


etbe 


w  prayeta  and  hymna,  unlU  it  received  ita 
filial  revininn  about  1260  iu  Ihe  monaalery  uf  Deir 
Kllaitha  at  MosAL 

K»r  better  underalanding,  tt  i>  neceaaary  to  know  Ihe 
diviaiun  of  ihe  Pulter  among  the  Nestnriana,  which 
almoM  correapond*  to  that  of  Ihe  Greek  Church.  The 
liook  of  Pialmi  is  divided  into  twenty  hullalaa,  to  which 
is  wkled  aa  the  twenty-fint  the  song  of  Eiod.  zvi  and 
Deut.  xxxii.  The  hullalaa  are  again  subdivided  into 
fifty-icven  (incluure  of  Exml.  xvi  and  UeuL  xxxii, 
sixty)  mannilhas.  Each  marmitha  is  preceded  by  a 
|irayer  and  succeeded  hi'  Ihe  lHoria  PalrL  £aeh  psalm 
hu  an  aniiphon  (canon)  after  the  first  Tene,  which 
serves  very  often  to  impress  the  whole  with  ■  specific 
Christian  cltaracter.  The  paalma  thus  arraiigeil  were 
printed  atHosQl  tn  1S66  and  twice  at  Kome,  PtuUeriain 
Chalduicum  in  Ui«m  Saiionit  C^bLtdttam  (184-2), 
and  Brnia'iun  Clutld.  in  Vnm  Sal.  Chald.  a  Jm. 
Gariel,  trtundo  Blitam  (1863),  Aa  it  ia  not  Ihe  object 
of  this  anicle  to  give  ■  description  of  the  breviart',  ne 
here  mention  only,  for  such  as  are  interested,  Dietrich, 
Margti^tbtle  dfr  aba  Kirche  del  OHtaliJar  dit  Fri- 
trilm  (Leipa.  18G4);  Tuklua  A  lutmnAiirAu  ilanyilha 
de  Jaannlia  tAtehime  rt  da  tiar  «  mnkida  Krlhaba 
d-ihktm  raileb<ahar  (MosQl,  1866)i  Schiinfelder,  in  the 
Tubiagrr  QaarlttUchrift,  1866,  p.  179  sq. 

The  Western  Syriac  or  Jscobitic  office,  with  whieh 
the  Mnmnitic  corresponds  for  the  greater  part,  is  distiii- 
guiilicd  not  only  froni  the  Eosleni  .Syriac  but  also  from 
all  olberis  in  not  having  the  psalms  as  ita  tiuiin  aub- 
stance.  The  Jacobilic  oRlce  is  found  in  Breriai-iim 
frrialt  Syianm  US.  Kplintmi  tt  Jiicabi  Sgivran 
JHxta  KilVM  ijuidem  yu/imii,  quod  iacipU  a  Frriii  II 
vwte  ad  SaHJtatam  iact'itice;  wtJi/ii  r/rtiu  Hymnit 
ae  Bmffliclianibus.  Ab  AlSan.  Saptar  A/iucopo  Afar- 
iHa  (Hum.  1696).  The  Siimlay  office  may  be  found  in 
O^ium  FtiiaU  juxia  Riliim  Awieai'n  Sfrarum  (ibid. 
1851).  The  office  for  the  Passiini  week  was  published 
by  Clodins  from  ■  Uipsic  MS.  in  1720,  Lilargia  Sgri- 
nca  Septimamm  Pattionu  J3nm.  A'.  /.  Chr,  rxcfrptam 
t  Cod.  MS.  BibUolA.     Lipt.  td.  ae  nolU  iUatlr. 

The  &taronitie  feaUval  office  is  funnd  in  Qfcia  Sine- 
toramjnxta  Jlitum  EccUtia  Stamailarum  (Hon).  1666, 
8  vols,  fnl),  and  in  Brrriarvim  Syriaeum,  Offidum  Ft- 
rinlt  juil.  Ril.  Eccl  Syr.  Maron.  Inmoentii  X  Ponl. 
Max.  Jiaiu  Edilum,  llmuo  Ti/pit  Exmtam  (&tb  ed. 


several  bonks  (except  the  Apncalypae)  into  readi: 
sons  of  difierent  lengths,  but  sveraging  about  fifteen 
of  our  verses.  Thus  the  first  lesson  (Matt,  i,  1-17)  ia 
for  the  Sunday  before  Chrialtnasj  the  second  (ver.  IB- 
25)  is  entitled  the  revelation  to  Joseph;  tbe  thint  (ii, 
1-12),  vespers  of  Chriidmas;  Ihe  fourth  (ver.  lS-18), 
matins  of  alanghter  of  tbe  infania,  etc  The  four  Gnft- 
pcia  contain  248  lesaons,  uf  which  aeven  are  nnappm- 
prialed  or  serve  fit  any  day,  and  tbe  remaining  24 1 
serve  for  2&2  difhrent  oecasiune.  The  AcU  and  the 
Epistles  (which  sro  culleciively  caUed  tbe  ApoMtt)  oon- 
tain  242  leasotis,  of  which  twenty  are  uDapprnpriBtpd, 
and  the  remaining  222  Ber\-e  fur  241  Dcasona,  On 
DKot  of  the  nccasiuiis  there  was  one  lesson  appointeU 
from  the  Gus[iels,  and  one  also  fnim  the  Apoatlea.  A 
tabular  view  of  these  lessons  is  given  in  the  Gnt  apfien- 
dix  to  Murdnck's  A'rd  Tal.  from  the  Syriac  l>eahito  xn- 
Non  (N.  r.  1869). 

Vll.  //yiinii%)r.— According  lo  Hahn,  the  first  hrm- 
nolngist  of  the  Syrians  was  the  celebrated  Ciniiatic  Bar- 
desanes,  who  Houilshed  in  the  second  half  of  the  £,1 
century.  In  this  he  is  in  some  degree  supported  \iV 
Ephrem  in  bia  Fijig^tliird  Hoimlg  agniiul  llrrriicm  (i'i. 
558),  where,  although  he  does  not  actually  anert  tbat 
Bardesanes  was  Ibe  inventor  uf  measures,  i-et  he  a|ie«k* 
of  him  in  terms  which  abow  that  he  not  only  wrote 
hymna,  but  also  imply  that  at  least  he  revived  and 
brought  into  fashion  a  taste  fur  hymnokig]' : 


It  ia  lo  be  regretted  that  of  tbe  hymna  of  Bardeaanea 

which,  it  appears,  in  consequence  of  their  high  poetic 
merit,  exereiseil  na  extensive  influence  over  Ihe  nlig. 

much  strength  and  popularity  to  his  Gnostic  errors—* 
very  few  fraKmenis  only  remain.  These  fragmenu  art 
to  be  found  suatiered  through  Ihe  works  of  Ephrem. 
For  Bardeaanes.  see  the  esccllcnl  monograph  bv  Hahn, 
Bardeiamt  Gaoukat  Synnm  Primiu  tlgmnelogat 
(Lips.  181R),  who  makes  Ihe  following  beautiful  re- 
mark: "Gnosliciam  itself  is  pneliy;  it  ia  not  tberefurc 
wonderful  thai  among  its  votaries  true  poets  shnuLI 
have  been  found.  Tcnullisn  mentions  the  pMlms  nf 
Volentinnsi  and  Marcus  his  disciple,  a  contemporarv 
of  Bardeeanei%  incidcsted  his  Rnoslicism  in  a  son^, 
in  which  be  introduced  the  .^Eons  conversing'*  (lie.  eil. 
p.  28). 

Harmonius,  the  son  of  Bardeaanea.  stands  next  in  the 
history  of  this  subject,  both  ehronologicallr  and  for  his 
sncceasful  cultivaiion  of  sacred  poetry,  he  was  edu- 
cated in  ttw  lanijuage  and  wisilnm  oftireece,  and  there 
can  be  no  qiieation  that  he  would  make  his  knowledge 
of  Ibe  exquisite  metrical  compositions  of  thai  litafatnre 
bear  on  the  improvement  of  his  own.     Thia  is  said  on 


SYRIAC  LITERATtJKE  11 

iIm  (miiDipdoa  that  the  occmnti  or  tbe  ccdniutietl 
iMtotitRi  Sioomcn  lod  Thcoduret  ■»  credible.  The 
hmcr  uatra,  in  his  Ufe  of  Epkrau,  lib.  iii,  c  16, 
llui  ■  Humoniai,  the  hui  nr  Btrdceinn,  having  been 
■til  tdaraled  in  Grecian  lilenture,  was  tlie  Kist  vho 
■ibJKUil  bis  native  language  U  metres  and  musical 
hn  (rpirov  /iiVpoic  Boi  »n'p(nc  fiBtwucoif  Tifv  ira- 
rauv  fHintv  rruyaytlf').  and  adapte<)  it  la  chain  nf 
■iagtn,ss  ih«  Syrians  noir  commonly  chanl— not,  in- 
Ited,  using  Ibe  (rritinga  of  lJannoniu>.  but  his  num- 
ba>  (nif  fuAtffi)  i  for,  not  being  allnifelfaer  free  from 
biilsiba's  herar  and  Ihe  Ihings  which  ihe  Urecisn 
ptHlmpben  boaMcd  of  oonoeming  the  soul,  the  biidr, 
tad  ngeseniion  (_nXiyytmiiot)i  havine  set  these  to 
Basic  be  mixed  them  with  his  own  writings."  The 
Bedn  of  'Rieotlnret  is  yet  more  brieC  Ue  says  (lib.  iv, 
c!S):  "-And  since  Harmoniui,  the  son  of  ^nleeanee, 
had  fiinBeriy  cfKnpnsed  certain  songs,  and,  mingling  his 
iB|i(fly  with  the  gwcetoeaa  uf  muuc,  enticed  lii*  bear- 
oi  and  allured  them  to  deetruction,  haring  talten  ftnm 
bio  metrical  harmnny  (rqv  dpfiownii  tob  fiiXovc)) 
Efdiira  mixeil  goiUiixaa  with  it,"  etc.  This  swtc- 
Dtnt  u  DM  niiilltmcd  by  Ephrem,  who  attiibula  (o 
Uh  fubcr  wbai  the  (ireek  hisluriant  atcribe  to  the  aon. 
HshD  idmila,  wiihiHit  any  expressed  hesitation,  the 
ladmaiy  orihe  t-reek  historians,  their  miiuke  aa  to 
ibt  intention  of  the  metres  excepted,  and  ingeniously 
ttso*  ID  Hamoiiiut  certain  fasturea  ofthe  Syrisc  poetry 
tCrirr  in  Gntiwg  in  dtr  itpvdkn  Xi'rcAe,  p.  61).  A»- 
Hsni.  in  his  UiUiilimi  Orieilatit,i,  61,  makes  an  in- 
oltnial  alliuion  to  Harmonius,  hitimaling  thai  in  the 
liter  iranicriptiunt  or  Syriac  literature  his  name  and 
iaflnnia  were  ackiwwleilgtd,  since  Ifith  he  and  his  fa- 
tim.  Ittntnanea,  are  mentioned  in  USS.  as  the  inren- 
lun  of  meirea. 

I'niil  we  cuene  (n  Ephrem,  Ibere  ia  oiie  more  name 
vhich  hss  historical  ot  traditionary  importance  in  Syr- 
iu  awtrical  literature — that  is  BalBii,  or  more  proper- 
ly Bilai,  wbo,aa  Uahn  eaya  (flanfrMnwrj,  p.  47),  "gave 
liii  same  In  the  pentasyllabic  melte,  because  the  ortho- 
doi  Syrians  •nlcttaiiied  a  horror  of  Bsrdeaanes.'  He- 
lm Epbirm,  aecordtng  to  the  catalogae  of  Ebedjeeu, 
liml  Simeon.  Lisbop  of  Seleucia,  w1k>  suSrreil  mart^'t- 
rtois  abwit   "  ~ 


o  be  foui 


of  the 


n  the  SI 


e  greateM  of  all  hyi 
■heK  niTk*  are  extant,  aiid  whose  hvmns 
mnlaied  into  German  as  well  as  iulo  English  (see 
BsiRra,  UHrimt  lljmnt  and  Hoailirt  [Lund.  1863]], 
ns  Cphrcn  Syrus  (q.  r.)  Besides  these  writers,  the 
UlHring  are  oieniioiied  by  Eberijeau :  Pauloiia,  a  dis- 
(ipk  of  Ephrem;  Marutba,  biabop  of  Haipbenwta; 
Xinn  of  Eiteiea,  Bumanieil  "  the  harp  of  the  ■{Hril," 
■ho  ned  the  hexasyllabic  metre;  Jacob  of  Edetsa; 
bH  bar^KiHbnoe.  about  A.D.  720;  Jacob,  bi*h<ip  of 
Ckiluia,  abmit  A.D.  710;  Sbalila,  bishop  of  KaBfaina, 
ibm  A.D.  740;  -Saliba  of  Uesopotamia,  about  A.D. 
ni:  Chabib-JeSD  bar-N'un  of  BethabaTt,  about  A.D. 
»»:  JtsDJahab  bar-Ualkun  of  Niiibi*,  about  A.D.  Vii2; 
Cbtainos  bat-Kardschi:  George  Varda,  about  1538; 
bmsMn,  laabop  of  Amiola,  about  I6IG;  and  Gabriel 
Hona. 

Tin.  Lihrafvir-— Asaemani,  B^olheai  OrinU.  Cl^ 
muim-VnUc.  (Sum.  17)9-28,  S  toK;  abriilg.  ed.  by 
Pfailfcr,  Eriuigen,  1776,  !  voK};  Aiaemani  [3.  E.  and 
J.  a,],  BiUkuktea  ApoHoL  Vatic  Codic.  MSS.  CnlaL 
9im.  1786  aq.);  Uai,  CaUd.  Codd.  Biii.  Valic  Arab. 
A.  iltm  rjat  parlit  Biir.  tt  Syriad  quam  A  tttmam  in 
ifim  na  prMirwattnmt  (itnd.  1831) :  Kosen,  C<ilaL 
Ctii.  HSS,  Oriimlalitai  qui  a  Mitfo  Brilitmaca 
tmsifaT  (l^oA.  1838  sq.) ;  Wiseman,  Hora  SgH 
(Ben.  ISM);  Wenricb.  IM  AkdanoH  Grat.  Vrrt 
•hu  rl  CasHMWimia  AyHnnt  (Ups.  1843).      Besi 
ibi  work!  already  mentioned  in  this  article,  see 
Btidt  "Sytische  Spt«ch«  n.  Lileralur"  in  the  Rrgrtii- 
^rjB  AOfmme  ltnil-t>r!iibip.t  Elheridgc,  Tile  Sjir 
at  CUrohs  oitd  GnftU  (l^mri.  184(1) ;  Bickell,  "  Sy 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

riscbes  fUi  dentsche  Theologen"  in  the  Liter.  Bmtt- 
■ittr.  No.  77,  78,  79,  80,  82,  86,  88,  Bl,  98;  id.  Cowipre. 
r  Rei  Sfntrvm  LtUraria  A  dditit  Noli,  BibKogrojikint 
tketrptit  Anecdotit  (Munster,  187]):  Hermann,  Hi- 

bliolkmi  Orimlalit  rl  Liagaitliea  (Halle,  1870);  and 

Friederici.  BiUiotkeca   Oriatalit    (Lund.  1876,  1877, 

1878).     (B.P.) 


Syriao  Venlooa.    The  fi>llowing  acconnt  of  the 

Iran^tions  of  th$  Huly  Scriptures  in  the  ancient  Syr- 
iac lannajce  is  sofficiently  copioiu  on  the  general  lub- 
ct.     Hee  Vi-KBioxs. 

1.  TAe  Old  Tnlamiml^Th*n  an  two  Syriac  Iransla- 
liona  of  (his  part  of  the  Bible,  one  made  directly  fmm 
the  original,  and  the  other  from  an  ancient  Greek  rer- 

A.  From  Ihe  fffimir.— 1.  ffame.—ln  Ibe  early  (imea 
of  Syrian  Christianity  there  was  executed  a  reision  of 
the  Ohl  Teat,  rram  the  original  Hebrew,  tbe  use  of 
which  must  hare  been  aa  widely  extended  as  was  the 
Christian  profevion  among  that  people.  Ephrem  the 
Syrian,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4  th  century,  gins  abun- 
dant proof  of  its  use  in  general  by  his  cuuntrjmen. 
When  he  calls  it  "our  version,"  it  dne«  not  appear  to  be 
in  opposition  to  any  other  Syriac  Iranslaliun  (fur  no 
other  can  be  proved  to  have  then  existed),  but  in  con- 
trast with  Ihe  original  Hebrew  text,nr  with  Ihnae  in 
other  langnagea  (Ephrem,  O/vra  £yr.  i,380,on  t  Sam. 

'  ,  4).  At  a  later  period  this  Syriac  Iransbilian  was 
deeignaied  Fftiilo,  a  term  in  Syriac  which  aigniHes 
timfit  or  ii'w'',  and  which  ia  thought  by  some  to  have 
been  applieil  ii>  thia  version  to  mark  its  freedom  from 
glosses  ami  allegorical  modes  of  interpretation  (Hllver- 
nick,  Eiviti).  I,  u,90).  It  is  probable  that  this  name  wan 
applied  In  the  rersinn  aDer  another  had  been  foimeil 
from  the  HexapUr  Greek  text.  (See  below.)  In  the 
iraiislalion  made  from  Origen's  revision  of  Ihe  Sept.. 
the  ctit  ical  marks  introduced  by  him  were  retained,  and 
thus  every  page  and  every  part  was  marked  with  aster- 
isks and  obeli,  from  which  the  translation  from  the  He- 
brew was  free.  It  might,  ihaMore,  be  but  natural  for 
a  bare  text  to  be  thus  designated,  in  contrast  with  the 
marks  and  Ibe  citations  of  the  dilTrrenl  Greek  ttaosla- 
ton  found  in  the  version  from  the  Hexaplsr  Greek, 

2.  Zlafe.— Thia  translation  from  Ihe  Hebrew  has  al- 
ways been  the  ecclesiastical  versiun  of  the  Syrians; 
aikd  when  it  is  remembered  how  In  the  &th  century 
dissensions  and  divisions  were  inlnutuccd  into  the  Syr- 
ian churches,  and  how  from  iliat  time  Ihe  Honnpby- 
slles  and  those  termed  Nestorians  have  been  in  a  state 
of  unhealed  opposition,  it  shows  nut  only  Ihe  aoliquiiy 
of  Ihii  veision,  bat  also  the  deep  and  abiding  hold 
which  it  must  have  taken  on  Ihe  mind  of  Ihe  people, 
that  this  version  was  firmly  held  fast  by  both  of  these 
opposed  parties,  as  well  as  by  those  who  adhere  lo  the 
Creek  Church,  and  by  the  UaroniteiL  Ita  existence 
and  use  prior  to  their  divisioiu  is  anfficientlv  proved  by 
Ephrem  alone.  But  how  much  older  it  u  than  that 
deacon  of  Edessa  we  have  no  evidence.  From  Bar-He- 
braus  (in  Ibe  18th  century)  we  learn  that  there  were 
three  opinions  as  to  it*  age :  some  saying  that  tbe  ver- 
sion was  made  in  the  reigns  of  Salomon  and  Hiram; 
some  that  it  was  translated  by  Asa,  the  priest  who  naa 
sent  by  the  king  uf  Assyria  to  Samaria ;  and  some  that 
the  version  was  made  in  tbe  days  of  Addai  the  apostle 
and  of  Abgann,  king  of  OsrhnSne  (at  which  time,  he 
add^  Ihe  Simpk  version  of  the  New  TeaL  was  also 
made)  (Wiseman,  llora  Synaca,  p.  90).  The  first  of 
these  opinions,  of  course,  implies  that  the  books  written 
before  Ihat  time  were  then  translated ;  indeed,  a  limi- 
tation of  snmewhst  Ihe  same  kind  would  apply  to  the 
second.  The  ground  of  the  first  opinion  seems  to  have 
been  the  belief  lhat  the  Tyrian  king  was  a  convert  to 
the  profession  of  the  tnie  and  revealed  faith  held  by 
Ihe  Israelites ;  and  that  Ihe  ]>oaaessian  of  Holy  Scriptors 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS  1 

in  the  SyiUe  tongue  (which  they  identified  with  Va 
own)  WM  a  neceauiy  ooruequence  of  Ihu  Adoption  of 
the  true  belief:  Chia  opinion  ia  inentioneil  lu  haviig 
been  held  by  aoRie  of  the  S}-ri>n«  in  the  9th  century. 

been  died  from  tny  Syrisc  writer  prior  to  Bar-Hebne- 
■u)  aeenu  to  have  »nie  connection  with  the  fonnatioa 
of  the  SiRiariuui  verthn  o(  the  renUleuch.  Aa  that 
renion  ■■  in  an  Araninan  dialect,  any  one  who  aup- 
poaed  that  it  woi  made  immediately  after  the  miasion 
uf  the  prieit  from  Aaayria  might  aay  that  it  was  then 
flrat  that  an  Aramean  tTinatalinn  waa  executed;  and 
tbii  might  t(teTirard\  in  ■  aun  of  indefinite  manner, 
have  been  connccled  with  what  the  Syriani  IheraiKlree 
uaecl.  James  nf  FUlessa  (in  the  latler  hair  of  the  7th 
century)  ha<l  held  ihe  thiid  of  the  opinions  mentioned 
by  Bar-Hebneu*,  who  citea  him  in  aupport  of  it,  and 
accord*  with  it. 

It  ia  highly  improbable  that  any  part  of  the  Syriao 
reiwon  ia  older  than  the  advent  of  onr  Lord,  chow 
who  placed  it  under  Ahgania,  king  of  Edesaa,  eeero  to 
have  argued  on  iho  theory  that  tlie  Syrian  people 
then  receired  Chriatianity  j  and  thus  they  auppoaed 
that  a  veraon  of  the  Scriptures  waa  a  neccaaarj'  accom- 
paniment of  auch  conTonion.  All  that  the  accnnnt 
abowi  clearly  ia,  then,  that  ii  waa  believed  lo  belong  to 
Iho  earlieat  period  nf  the  Cliristiati  faith  among  ihem : 
an  opinion  with  which  all  that  we  know  on  the  aubjecl 
accords  well.  Thua  Ephrem,  in  the  4ih  centiir}-,  not 
only  ahowa  that  it  waa  then  current,  but  alan  girea  Ihe 
impieMion  that  this  had  even  then  been  long  the  case. 
Fur  in  his  commentariea  he  giveaexplanatinns  of  terms 
which  were  even  iben  obaeure^  Thia  might  have  been 
from  age:  if  ao,  lire  rernon  waa  maite  comparaliii-ely 
lung  befure  hia  days;  or  it  might  be  from  ila  having 
been  in  a  dialect  diObrent  from  Ihat  to  which  he  was  ac- 
cuatomed  at  Edesia.  In  Ibia  eaae,  llien,  Ihe  tranalaliun 
waa  made  it)  aomo  other  part  of  Syria;  which  would 
hardly  have  been  done  unleaa  Cbrisiianiiy  had  at  auch 
■  time  been  more  dilTused  there  than  it  waa  at  Edeasa. 
The  dialect  oflhat  city  In  slatcil  lo  have  been  the  purest 
Sj'riac ;  if,  then,  Ihe  veruon  waa  made  fur  lhat  place,  it 
would  no  doubt  have  been  a  monument  of  such  purer 
dialect.  Probably  ihe  origin  of  the  Old  Syriac  version 
ia  to  be  compared  with  tbat  of  the  Old  Latin  [aee  Vrt^ 
OATe]-,  and  it  probably  differed  as  much  from  ibe  pol- 
iihcd  Isngutge  of  Edcasa  aa  diil  the  Old  Latin,  made  in 
the  African  province,  from  the  contemporary  writers  of 
ICome,  auch  as  Tacitus.  Even  though  Ihe  traces  of  the 
origin  of  Ibia  version  of  Ihe  Old  taU  be  but  few,  yet  it 
ia  of  iropMtance  that  they  ahouid  be  marked ;  f.ir  Ihe 
Old  Syriac  haa  Ihe  peculiar  value  of  being  Ihe  firit  vcr- 
aion  from  the  Hebrew  original  made  fur  Christian  use, 
and,  indeed,  the  only  translation  of  Ihe  kind  before  lhat 
uf  Jerome  which  was  made  aubaequenlly  to  the  time 
when  Epbrem  wrote.  This  Syriac  commentator  raoy 
have  termed  it  "onrvenion"  in  contrast  with  all  nthers 
Iben  current  (for  the  Targnma  were  hardly  versions), 
which  were  merely  reflections  of  Ihc  Greek  and  noi  of 
the  Hebrew  original. 

8.  Or^'n,— The  proof  that  Ihia  version  was  made 
from  the  Hebrew  is  Iwofold:  we  have  the  direct  state- 
menti  of  Ephrem,  who  compares  it  in  places  with  the 
Hebrew,  and  speaks  of  thia  origin  aa  a  fact;  and  who 
ia  confirmed  (if  that  were  needful)  by  later  Syrian 
writcn;  we  lind  the  lame  Ihina  evident  from  the  in- 
ternal examination  of  the  venunn  itself.  Whatever  in- 
ternal change  or  revisinti  it  may  have  received,  ihe  He- 
brew gmiindwotk  of  Ihe  translation  is  unmistakable. 
Such  indications  of  revition  muat  be  afterwardi  briefly 
spccifled. 

From  Ephrem  having  menlioned  Inmlalort  of  thia 
version,  it  has  been  concluded  that  it  waa  the  work  of 
•everal:  a  thuig  probable  enough  in  itself,  but  which 
could  hardly  be  proved  fnjm  Ihe  occurrence  of  a  casual 
phraae,  nor  yet  from  variations  in  the  rendering  of  ibe 
aame  Hebrew  word;  auch  variations  being  found  in  al- 1 


4  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

moat  all  Iranslatlons,  even  when  made  by  one  perawi— 
that  of  Jerome,  fur  instance;  and  which  it  would  be  ol 
moat  impossible  lo  avoid,  especially  befrire  the  limi 
when  eoncordancea  and  lexicons  were  at  hand.  Varia 
lions  in  general  phraseology  give  a  far  aurer  groand  fu: 
•uppoaing  several  tranalalnra. 

It  boa  been  much  diacuaaed  whether  thia  Iranalalior 
were  a  Jewish  or  a  Christian  work.  Some,  who  hav< 
maintained  that  the  tranalalor  waa  a  Jew,  hav«  arguei 
from  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  his  mode  of  render 
ing.  Bui  these  considenliima  prove  nolfaing.  Indeeil 
it  might  well  be  doubted  if  in  that  age  a  Jew  wouli 
have  formed  anything  except  a  Chaldee  Targum;  an{ 
thua  diffuienesB  of  paraphrase  might  be  expected  in- 
atead  of  closeness  of  transUiion.  There  need  be  no  rea- 
aonablc  ob)tctinii  made  to  the  o^Hnion  that  it  ia  a  Cbri» 
lian  work.  Indeed  it  is  difficult  lo  anppoae  thai,  befon 
the  dilTnsion  of  Christianity  in  Syria,  the  veraiMi  eoiik 
have  been  needel. 

4.  Hiitoiy. — The  Snl  printed  edition  of  thia  venioi 
was  that  which  appeared  in  ihe  Paris  Polrglot  of  LeJaj 
in  ISiS ;  it  is  aaid  that  I  he  editor,  Gabriel  Siouita,  a  U> 
ronite,  had  only  an  imperfect  Uii.,  and  that,  bewde*  er 
rors,  it  waa  ricfecttre  as  to  xhulc  pasaages,  and  even  * 

aa  if  it  were  to  imply  that  liooka  were  omitted  beside 
those  of  Ihe  Apocrypha,  a  pare  which  Sinniia  cnnfeaaed- 
ly  had  noC  He  Is  Mated  lo  have  supplied  the  defi- 
ciencies by  Iran^aliog  Into  Si'riac  from  Ihe  Vulgate 
It  can  hardly  be  aiippoaed  but  that  there  is  anme  exag- 
geration in  theae  aiatemenla.  Sioniu  may  have  eUer 
up  nccanonal  hiatus  in  hia  HS.:  but  it  requires  ret; 
deflnite  examiiulion  before  we  can  fully  credit  that  hi 
thus  lupplied  whole  booka.  It  seema  needful  lo  believi 
lhat  the  defective  Inoka  were  simply  those  In  the  Apoc- 
ri'pha,  which  he  did  not  anpply.  Ilie  teaull,  however 
ia,  that  Ihe  Paris  edition  is  but  an  inllrm  groundwurl 
for  our  sprakingwith  confidence  of  the  texl  of  this  ve^ 

In  Walton's  Polyglot,  16ft',  the  Paris  text  is  reprint- 
ed, but  Willi  the  addition  of  the  apocryphal  books  wfaici 
had  been  wanting.  It  waa  generally  aaid  thai  Wallor 
had  done  much  to  amend  the  texts  upon  MS.  author- 
ity; but  Ihe  lale  Prof.  Lee  denies  Ihia,  auiing  lhat  "ihi 
only  addition  made  by  Walton  was  some  apucryphi 
bocdH."  From  Walton's  Polyglot,  Kitsch,  in  1787,  pub- 
lished a  separate  edition  of  the  Pentateuch.  Of  ttx 
Syriac  Psalter  there  have  been  many  editions^  Tht 
first  of  these,  oa  mentioned  by  Eichhom,  appeared  iu 
1610;  it  haa  by  Ihe  side  an  Arabic  version.  In  I6ii 
there  were  two  editions;  Ihe  one  at  Paris  edited  by  Ga- 
briel Sioniu,  and  one  at  Leyden  by  Erpenius  fh>m  t*< 
MSB.  These  have  since  been  repeated;  but  anterior  tc 
them  all,  it  is  mentioned  that  the  seven  penit«ntlil 
Paalms  appeared  at  Some  In  1A84.  An  English  rnnit- 
lalioB  of  Ihe  Pialmi  of  Darid  waa  made  from  the  Pe- 
shiio  by  A.  Oliver  (Bist.  1861). 

In  Ihe  punctuation  given  in  the  Polyglota,  ■  system 
was  inlniduced  which  was  in  pan  a  pcculiaiitv  of  Ga- 
briel Sionita  himself.  Thia  has  to  lie  borne  In  mind  by 
those  who  use  either  the  Paris  Polyglot  or  that  of  Wat- 
ton  ;  for  in  many  words  there  is  a  redundancy  of  vow. 
els,  and  the  form  of  aome  ia  thua  exceedingly  changed. 

When  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  proposed 
more  than  flfly  years  ago  to  iaane  Ihe  8\-riac  OM  TesL 
for  the  first  lime  in  a  separate  volume,  the  late  Prof 
l*e  waa  employed  lo  make  such  editorial  preparation! 
aa  cnnld  be  connected  with  a  mere  revidon  of  the  lexl, 
without  any  speciRcBlion  of  Ibe  antboritiee.  Di.  Lh 
collated  for  the  purpose  six  Syriac  HSS.  of  the  Ulrl 
Test,  in  general,  and  a  very  ancient  copy  of  the  Penta- 
teuch; he  also  used  in  part  the  commentariea  of  Ephrem 
and  of  Bar-Hebneus  (see  Ihe  Clan.  Jonmal,  1821,  p. 
!4o  sq.)-  From  Ihese  various  aourcea  he  conalrvcted 
hi"  text,  with  Ihc  aid  of  that  found  already  in  the  Pol- 
yglots. Of  course  Ihe  correcliona  depend«l  on  Uie  edi- 
tor's own  judgment;  and  Ihe  want  of  a  apectflcation  uf 


STEIAC  VERSIONS  11 

llic  nnilu  of  colUtkma  kiret  thi!  reader  in  doubt  u 
u  atiil  tbt  evidence  ibmj  he  in  thoK  plans  in  which 
ihm  ii  ■  departure  rrom  tbt  Polyglot  Mxc.  But 
fhaagh  toon  infonoalHin  night  be  denirtd,  w(  bare  in 
rhE  ntilion  oT  Lse  (Land.  1S2S)  a  rentable  Svriac  text, 
Inn  .Sjrriac  aatboridei,  and  fnt  from  the  auiincion  of 
lucinit  been  foimed  in  modern  timea  by  Gabriel  Sio- 
uia'a  Iniulaluig  portiuna  frmn  the  Lalin, 

Bui  we  unr  have  in  the  US.  treuures  brought  rroni 
Ike  NiDian  Tillefs  the  mean)  of  far  more  accurately 
editing  Ihii  tenion.  Even  if  the  reiulls  nhould  not  ap- 
fiear  in  be  Riiktiif;.  a  (borough  use  u(  thrae  USS.  would 
|4aK  this  Teraon  on  aucb  a  baeia  of  liiplomaiic  eci- 
rlence  ai  would  ahow  poaitirely  how  this  earliest  Chris- 
liui  inulauon  from  the  Hebrew  wai  read  in  ihe  6th 
«(  7ih  century,  or  pmaibly  aiill  earlier :  we  could  thua 
me  Ibe  .Si-riae  with  a  fuller  degree  of  conHdenre  in  the 
criiinun  of  the  Hebrew  text,  jiiac  as  we  can  Ihe  more 
aacienl  leniom  of  the  New  TeM.  fur  tbe  criticiam  of 
Ike  Greek. 

la  tbt  teaming  of  1S40  the  Rer.  John  Knger*,  cannn 
if  Exetn,  publiabed  AnaoH  wiy  <i  A>»  £,i6uM  o/'fAe 
Padii/c,  or  Amdml  Sgriae  Vrrthm  of  lit  Old  Tola- 
meti,  limiU  be  fmbliilHil.    There  waaa  alrong  hope  ex- 
Iirtved  am  after  the  iasue  of  Canon  Koj^era'a  appeal 
■hat  the  work  would  be  funnallv  placed  in  i 
mannn  in  the  handa  of  Ihe  ReV.  Wm.  Cure 
ibB  be  accnmplished  under  his  Mipeiintendenc 
UifnnI  UniTerdlT  preea.      Cannn   Bogera  announced 
ihia  ii  an  Appendix  lo  hia  pamphlet.     Thii,  howerer, 
haaMK  been  cRectcd. 

The  onlT  tolerable  lexicon  for  the  Old.-Tesl.  Peabilo 
i<  UicbMl'ia'*  enk^ed  rvprint  of  Castell  (GBIt.  1878, 
1  pn,  iJTo),  for  Bemstetn  did  not  lire  to  publish  more 
than  (me  part  of  hia  knif^xpectcd  lexicon.     See  Stbi- 

i  /rfnfiry.— Bnl,  if  the  printed  Syriac  text  retu  on 
I'V  DO  DKBns  a  really  salitfaclory  basia,  it  may  be  aiked, 
Ihn  cm  it  be  (aid  positively  IhaE  what  we  have  u 
tht  Mnie  version  aubstantiiUy  that  was  used  by  Eph- 
nm  lu  the  1th  cmtnty?  Happily,  we  have  the  aame 
Bieani  erf  identifying  Ibe  Syriac  with  that  anciently 
Btrl  ai  we  have  nf  ahowing  that  the  modem  Lalin 
'  VDleiie  ii  suhatanLially  the  veraion  executed  by  Je- 
ra».  We  admit  that  Ihe  comniDn  printed  Lalin  has 
•il^Rd  in  various  waya,  and  jet  at  Ibe  bottom  and  in 
iu  Renenl  texture  it  is  undoubtedly  Ibe  work  of  Je- 
nae:  lo  with  the  Peahito  of  the  Old  Teal.,  whatever 
(Hon  of  jmlpment  were  oommiited  by  Gabriel  Sionita, 
ik(  Gni  editor,  and  however  little  baa  been  done  by 
lint  who  aboiild  have  conecled  these  tbinga  on  MS. 
MiWiij-,  the  identity  of  the  version  ii  loo  certain  fiir 
I  In  lie  tbn*  destroyed,  or  even  (it  may  be  aaid)  materi- 
■Oy  obaenred. 

FmiB  the  cilatinna  of  Ephrem,  and  the  aingle  worda 
« ihicb  he  makes  remarks,  wc  have  auflcient  proof 
"fibt  identity  of  the  version;  even  though  at  timea 
be  aim  fumiirttea  proof  that  the  copies  as  printed  are 
ant  exactly  as  he  read.  (See  the  instances  of  accord- 
uct,  OMCly  from  the  places  Rireii  liy  Wisemaii,  Hor, 
»jr.  p.  Vii,  etc^  in  which  Epiirem  thinks  it  needful 
■> explain  a  Sirian  word  ia  thia  veraion, or  lo  discoas 
u  waniiq^  ntber  from  ili  having  become  antiqaated 
n  his  lime,  or  from  ita  being  unused  in  the  aame  aenae 
n  the  Syrians  of  Edeaaa.) 

Tbe  pioaf  thai  the  version  which  baa  come  down  to 
■  imihaantiallr  that  naed  by  ihe  Syrians  in  the  4th 
raMny  is,  p^bapa,  more  deliiiiie  from  tbe  comparison 
<i  nrdi  than  it  wimld  have  been  from  the  comparison 
1  paaagts  of  greater  length  ;  becaose  in  longer  cita- 
<nn  there  alwara  might  be  tome  ground  for  thinking 
ilai  petfaafa  ilie  US.  of  Ephrem  might  have  been 
aafcnind  to  later  Syriac  copies  of  Ihe  aacrcd  text; 
aUle,  with  TTKBrd  10  ptctUiaT  worda,  no  such  aua- 
piriua  can  hare  aoy  place,  rince  it  is  on  such  words 
xiO  (bund  in  ttie  Peshiia  thai  the  remark*  nf  Ephrem 
•n  based.    The  fact  that  he  aomeliines  cites  it  dil^F- 


6  SVRIAC  VERSIONS 

enlly  from  what  we  now  read  only  abowa  a 
of  copies,  perhaps  ancient,  or  perhaps  aucb  ai 
merelv  in  the  printed  text  chat  we  have. 

e.  Riluliani  lo  other  TexiL—U  may  be  said  that  the 
Syriac  n  gmeral  auppotta  the  Hebrew  text  that  we 
have:  bow  far  arguments  msy  be  raised  upon  minule 
ctHncideiiees  or  variations  cannot  be  certainly  known 
until  the  ancient  te:tt  of  tbe  veruon  ia  belter  establisb- 
ed.  Occasionally,  however,  it  ia  clear  that  the  Syriac 
translator  read  one  consonant  for  another  in  ihc  He- 
brew, and  translated  accordingly :  at  times  another  vo- 
caliialion  of  the  Hebrew  was  folhiwed. 

A  resemblance  has  been  pointed  out  between  the 
Syriac  and  the  reading  of  anme  of  tbe  Chaldee  Tar- 
guma.  If  the  Targum  ia  the  older,  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  Syriac  Iranslalor,  uring  every  aid  in  his  pow- 
er to  obtain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  what  be  vaa  ren- 
dering, examined  Ihe  Targums  in  difficult  passages. 
This  is  not  the  place  for  formally  discussing  the  date 


>a(q.v.)i  1 


I  if  (as 


most  certain)  the  Targums  whieb  have 
UB  are  almiMt  without  exception  miire  recent  Ihan  the 
Syrian  venion,  itill  Ihey  an  probably  the  succeatora  of 
eariier  Targums,  which  by  ampliBcatlon  have  resched 
their  present  Kliape.  Thus,  if  existing  Targuma  are 
I  more  recent  than  the  Syriac,  it  may  happen  that  their 

ail  earlier  Targum. 

But  there  ia  another  point  of  inquiry  of  more  impor- 
tance :  it  ia,  how  far  baa  this  version  been  afecled  by 
the  Sept.?  and  lo  what  are  we  to  attribute  this  influ- 
ence?   Jt  is  possible  that  Ihe  influence  oftlie  Sept.  is 

pan,  this  belonged  to  the  version  as  originally  made. 
Fur,  if  a  tranalalnr  had  access  to  another  version  while 
occnpied  in  making  his  own,  he  might  consult  it  in 
cases  of  difficulty;  and  thua  he  might  unronsciootly 
follow  it  in  other  parts.  Even  knowing  the  words  uf 
•  particular  tnmalaiion  may  aOect  the  mode  of  ren- 
dering in  another  translation  or  revision.  Thus  a 
tinge  from  the  Sept.  may  easily  have  existed  in  this 
version  fmm  the  liist,  even  though  in  whole  books  it 
nuy  not  be  found  at  all  Biit  when  Ihe  extenuve  nse 
of  the  Sept.  is  remembered,  and  bow  soon  it  was  super- 
stitioiisly  imagined  to  have  been  made  by  direct  iaspi- 
ration,  so  tbac  it  was  deemed  canonically  authorilalive, 
we  cannot  feel  wonder  thai  readinga  from  the  Sept. 

may  have  cumroenced  probably  beflira  a  Syriac  vetriun 
had  been  made  from  the  Hexaplar  Greek  text;  becanae 
in  such  revised  text  of  the  Sept.  the  additions,  etc.,  in 
which  that  veraion  differed  from  the  Hebrew  woidd  be 
an  marked  tJiat  they  would  hardly  seem  to  be  Ihe  au- 
thnritaiive  and  genuine  text.  (See  the  article  fullow- 
iuK.) 

ft.ime  comparison  with  tbe  Greek  is  probable  even 
before  the  time  of  Ephrem ;  fur,  as  to  the  apocryphal 
baiki,  while  he  cites  some  >,r  them  (though  not  as 
Scripture),  the  apocryphal  additions  to  Daniel  and  the 
hooka  of  Maccabees  were  not  yet  found  in  Syriac 
Wboevei  translated  any  of  these  books  from  the  ^reek 
may  easily  have  also  compared  wilh  it  in  some  places 
Ihe  hooka  previously  translated  IVom  the  Hebrew. 

7.  ffecnuiDiu. — In  the  book  of  I'salma  thia  venion 
exhibita  many  peculiarities.  Either  the  translation  of 
Ihe  I'salur  must  be  a  work  independent  of  the  Peshito 
in  general,  or  else  it  haa  been  strsngely  reviaed  and  al- 
tered, not  only  from  the  Greek,  but  also  from  liturgical 
use.  Perhaps,  indeed,  the  Psalma  are  a  dllTerent  ver- 
sion; and  that  in  tbia  reaped  the  practice  of  the  Syrian 
cbiuchea  is  like  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chureh 
ami  the  Cbiinh  of  England  in  using  liturgieally  a 
dilbrent  veniun  of  the  book  so  much  read  ecclesiaaii- 
cally. 

tt  ia  stated  that,  after  Ihe  divisiniia  of  the  Syrian 
Chureh,  there  wen  revisions  of  thia  one  veraion  by  the 
Honophysitca  and  by  tbe  Ncatorians;  probably  it  would 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS  11 

be  found,  if  Ihe  Hibjcet  could  be  fullr  inr«Mig>led,  tbar 
then  were  in  the  hands  of  difliereiit  partie*  copies  in 
which  the  urdiiiary  accident*  uC  trinncription  had  in- 
troduced variatiun*. 

The  Karhipkauiiai  recenrinn  mentioned  by  Bar-He- 
brsua  wM  only  known  by  name  prior  (a  the  inveMii;*- 
liooiofWiBeniani  it  ii  (bund  in  two  HSS.  in  the  Vat- 
iotiu  In  thii  lecemioR  Job  Gomei  before  Samuel  j  and 
immediately  after  Isaiah  the  minor  prophets.  The 
Pforerba  aueeeed  DanieL  The  arran([en»nt  in  the 
New  Test,  is  quite  as  singular.  It  begins  with  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  ends  with  the  four  liimpela; 
while  the  epiallea  of  Jameis  Peter,  and  John  come  be- 

ceeded  fmm  the  Uonopfaysiies.  According  to  Asaema- 
ni  and  Wiaenan,  the  name  sipiitie*  mnunfoawiu,  be- 
caoK  it  originated  with  those  living  about  Mount  Sa- 
gara,  where  [here  was  a  monastery  uf  Jacobite  Syrians, 
or  simply  because  it  was  used  by  ihecn.  There  ii  a  pe- 
culiarity in  the  punctnatimi  introduced  by  a  leaning 
lowarda  the  Greek;  but  it  is,  as  to  iu  lubatance,  the 
Peahito  Kerrion. 

R  r*s  SyHac  Vtmmf.-om  lit  HtxaplarGnfk  Text. 
— I.  Origaawt  Ciunuier. — The  only  Sytiac  veruon  of 
the  Old  Teat,  up  to  the  Glh  century  was  apparently  Ihe 
{"ahilo  as  aboTe.  Tbe  Hrst  deliniie  intimation  of  a 
portion  of  the  Old  Test,  translated  {mm  the  Greek  ia 
through  Mnaea  Aghelms.  This  Syrisc  writer  liiid 
in  Ihe  middle  of  the  filli  century,  lie  made  a  transla- 
liniiof  the  Glapijiiii  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria  from  Greek 
into  Syrtac;  and,  in  the  prellxetl  epistle,  he  speaks  of 
thgre'rwins  of  tite  New  Test,  and  the  /^oiTfr,  "  which 
Polycarp  (rest  his  soul!},  tbe  ehorepiscopus,  made  in 
Syriac  for  the  faithful  Xenaiaa,  the  teacher  uf  llabug, 
worthy  of  the  memnrt'  of  the  good"  (Asaemani,  Bibli 
otttea  OriiMola,  ii,  SB).  We  thus  see  that  a  Syria< 
venion  of  the  Psalms  hail  a  similar  origin  in  the  Phi 
h'Senian  Syriac  New  TesL  We  know  that  the  date  ol 
tbe  latter 'was  A.U.  508;  the  Psalrer  was  pmbably  i 
eontempntanenui  wnrk.  It  ia  said  tliat  tlie  Nesiuriai 
■  patriarch  Marabba,  A.D.  552,  made  a  verainn  from  the 
Greek ;  it  does  not  appear  to  be  in  existence,  so  that, 
if  ever  it  was  compleltly  executed,  it  waa  pmbably  su- 
penieded  by  the  Hexaplar  version  of  Paul  of  Tela;  in- 
deed, Paul  may  have  used  it  as  the  basis  of  hia  work, 
adding  marks  uf  reference,  etc 

This  version  of  Paul  of  Tela,  a  Monnphysite,  was 
made  in  the  beginning  of  the  7[h  century,  for  its  bads 
he  used  the  Hexaplar  Greek  text — that  is,  the  Sept., 
with  the  cnrreciions  of  Origen,  Ihe  asterisk ^  obeli,  etc, 
and  with  the  references  to  the  other  (ireek  vsniona. 
The  Greek  text  at  ita  basis  agrees,  for  the  most  part, 
with  the  Codex  Alenandrinus.  Diit  it  often  leans  to 
the  Vatican,  and  not  addum  In  Ihe  Complulensian 
texts.     At  other  times  it  departs  from  all. 

The  Syro-Hexaplar  version  was  made  on  the  princi- 
ple of  fiilluwing  the  Greek,  word  for  word,  as  exactly  as 
possible.  It  contains  the  marks  introduced  by  Origen, 
and  the  references  to  the  version*  of  Aquila,  Symma- 
chus.  Thendution.  etc  In  fact,  it  is  from  this  Sj-riac 
version  that  we  obtain  our  most  lecurale  acquaintance 
with  the  results  of  the  critical  labnr*  of  Orieen. 

1.  UiitoTg — Andreas  Slaaiiia.  in  his  eilitinn  of  the 
bnuk  of  Joshua  (Antwerp,  1574),  tirsi  used  the  results 
of  this  8vro-HexnpIar  text;  for,  on  Ihe  authority  of  a 
MS.  in  bis  pussessiiHi,  be  teviseil  Ihe  Greek,  inlnxiucing 
asterisks  and  obeli,  thus  showing  what  Origen  had  done, 
how  much  he  hail  insertfd  in  the  text,  and  what  he  had 
marked  as  not  foimd  in  the  Hebrew.  The  Syriac  SIS. 
used  by  Masins  has  long  been  lost;  though  in  this  day, 
after  tlie  recoi-ery  of  the  Codec  Reuchlini  of  Ihe  Apiic- 
alypse  (from  which  Erasmus  flrM  edited  that  book)  by 
Prof.  Delitisch,  it  could  hardly  be  a  cause  fur  sitr|>rise  if 
this  Sytiac  Cmh'X  shoulil  again  be  found. 

It  is  from  a  SIS.  in  the  Ambrosian  librarj-  at  MiUn 
that  we  possess  accurate  means  of  knowing  this  Syr- 


6  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

Job,  Pfoverba,  Eeclesiasteii,  Cantides,  Wisdom,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  minor  pn>pbets,  Jeremiah.  Baruch,  Daniel, 
Eickiel,  and  Isaiah.  Norlierg  puldished,  at  Lund  in 
1787,  the  books  of  Jeremiah  and  Eiekiel  from  ■  Inn- 
scripl  whicli  he  bad  made  of  ihe  HS.  at  Milan.  In 
1788  Bugali  publuhed  at  Milan  the  book  of  Daniel: 
he  also  edited  Ihe  I^ms,  tbe  priming  of  which  ha<l 
been  complited  before  his  death  in  IHllii  it  waa  pub- 
lished in  I8«l.  The  reat  of  the  conteniB.^  the  Milan 
Cixlex  (with  the  exception  of  the  apocrrphal  bmikt) 
was  published  at  Berlin  in  18S6,  by  Middeldurpf,  from 
the  transcript  made  by  Noiberg;  Middeldorprnlso  add- 
ed Ihe  fourth  (second)  book  <'f  Kings  from  a  USt  at 
Paris,  Rdrdsm  isHied  Libri  JiaUcmm  rf  Rik  taaiitmi 
Vernomm  Sgriaeo'Hfrapalarrm  a  Codia  Mutri  Bri- 
tnimici  Mine  prvmim  trtiH,  Grace  (ruaWuti,  flotitfti  H- 
laHrali  (in  two  fasciculi,  1869,  1S61,  Copenbagen,  4lo). 
A  compeleut  achoUir  has  undertaken  Ihe  task  of  edit- 
ing the  remainder— Dr.  Antonio  Ceriani,  of  Milan.  In 
IS6I  appeared  ilia  ^oaaneiua  Sucra  el  Pro/ami  (Mil- 
an, torn.  L  fascic  i],  containing,  among  other  ancient 
documenla,  Ihe  Hexaplai^Syriac  Baruch,  Lamentations. 
and  ihe  Epistle  of  Jeremiah.  In  the  preface  tbe  learn- 
ed eilitor  states  his  intention  to  publish,  from  the  Am- 
hroaian  MS.  and  olheis,  the  entire  version,  even  the 

speaks  iu  just  terms.  A  second  pan  has  since  appeared. 
Besides  these  portions  of  this  Syriac  venion,  the  HSS. 
from  the  Nitrian  monasteries  now  in  the  Btilish  Muse- 
nm  woulil  add  agood  deal  more:  among  Iheae  there  are 
six  fnim  which  much  might  be  diawn,  so  that  part  of 
the  Penlateiicb  and  other  books  may  be  recovered. 
These  MSS.  are  like  that  at  Milan,  in  having  the  marks 
of  Origen  in  tbe  text,  the  references  to  rcadinga  in  the 
margin ;  and  occasionally  the  Greek  word  itself  is  thus 
cited  in  Greek.  The  following  is  the  nutation  of  these 
MSS.,  and  their  conlenla  and  dales: 
II.IU  (besides  the  Peshlto  Ei.idnp' 


>r  the  Three  Chlldrei 


IMST,  Aumkrrs  Hud  1  Kingt,  defecllve  (cent,  vll  or  vtll). 

The  snbscrlpiloii  to  1  Khie*  rajs  ihnt  li  wse  translated 

into  Hvrlnc  nl  Aleisudriii  Tii  Ihe  rear  KI  (A.D.<lf). 
14,Mt,dnisrii,detsnlTe  (with  1  Sum.  Pesbllo).    "Accunl- 

lMgtiHhe8epl."{cenL»l). 
lI,lA,Jmrpir<ii<nd  AiU,  defective  (cent,  vll  or  vlin.    Snb- 

scrlptlon  In  Jndge%  "Aecnrdlni  to  the  Sepi, ;"  loRnih. 

"Froio  Ihe  Tetmpla  of  the  Sept." 

Rurdsm  Issned  at  Cnpanbainn  In  ISM  the  first  poninn 
of  an  edtilou  i>r  Ihe  MS.  ll.lia:  anoilier  imrt  has  t\wt 
beeu  published.  Borne  of  Ihese  HSa.  were  wrttren  In  i)ie 
snmecentUTTln  wlilch  the  ver*^Hl  waamiide.  Theyrn.-tt 
lirobably  be  depended  on  ns  giving  ibe  lezi  witb  iteneral 

the  Old  Test. 


names  of  which  appear 
such  as  never  had  an  ac 
are  either  the  version 
from  the  Hexaplar  te^ 

the  auppoaed  versions  is  needless.  It  ia  only  requisile 
lo  mention  that  Thomas  of  Harkel,  whose  work  in  ihe 
revision  of  a  translation  of  the  New  Teal,  will  have  i 


ansUtior 


this. 

II.  Tkt  Syriac  .Vnc  rr-Knninrt  Vrtww.— These  ve 
may  cnnvcuiently  enumeraie  under  five  head*,  indudini: 
several  recensions  under  some  of  them,  but  treating  se]i- 
arately  the  nouble  "  Curetonian  texl." 

A.  Tla  Fahito-Ssriia  Ntic  Tat.  (text  of  Widmsn- 
Btadt,  and  Ciireton's  Gospels). — In  whatei-er  forma  rhf 
Syriac  New  Test,  may  have  exiated  prior  to  the  time 


STRUC  VERSIONS  i; 

of  rbOonqiu  (the  beginniag  of  the  6th  century),  who 
tamtd  ■  IK*  inniUtion  to  be  made,  it  will  lie  more 
BHiiFuieiit  to  coDsider  all  lach  moM  unckiit  Iraiula- 
LioWK  it^uioiu  togejhfr;  even  though  (here  may  be 
nauiu  tReminla  uugneil  r»[  iHit  ngudiiig  the  ver- 
lin  of  the  (arlier  >gu  of  Chtutuniiy  u  alwolulely 

I.  Dalt, — It  may  atand  ai  an  admitted  fsct  that  a 
rown  of  th«  New  TeM.  in  Sytiac  exialed  in  the  2d 
miiiiry;  and  lo  tbia  we  may  refer  the  tlatement  of 
Euacbint  respecting  KegcMppua,  that  he  '-made  quola- 
uuB  fnm  the  Gogpel  aetnnling  to  the  Hebrewa  arvd 
tlw  Svriac,"  fit  It  roS  tai'  'E0paioo{  liiiyyiXioii  mi 
r»g  Itpiatai  (IliM.  Ecd.  W,  22).    It  aeems  equally  cei^ 

kiiii<nicftheXeirTeu.ai~nfttieOI<].  1 1  was  the  com- 
puuan  of  the  Oh)  Teu.  tranalatiun  made  iium  the  Ue- 
l«T.  isd  aa  Hich  waa  in  habitual  uae  in  the  Syriac 

ibe  Syrian,  otthodox,  Moiinphyaite,  ur  Kestiittan,  fruiD 
ibt  ^h  ccniuiy  and  onward,  the  name  of  Peibiio  haa 
lamMnauDonly  apiilied  in  tbe  New  Teat,  as  the  Old. 
In  ih*  7lh  eenlury  at  leaM  the  Tcraion  ao  current  ac- 
quind  Ibe  name  of  oU,  in  crailrait  to  tbal  which  waa 
line  (brmed  and  reriied  by  the  Monopbysilei, 
pMBgh  we  have  no  certain  data  a*  to  the  nrigiu  of 

iai  laudation  of  the  Kew  Test,  waa  an  accompaniment 
•A  that  of  Ibe  Old ;  whatever  therefore  bean  on  the  one, 
bean  on  the  other  alao. 

1  HitUrjf. — There  aeem  to  be  but  few  nolicei  of  the 
bM  Syiiac  Tcraion  in  early  wrilera.  Coimu  ludico- 
iilnm^  in  the  (bnnei  half  of  the  6th  century,  inci- 
>itual]y  inleniu  ua  that  Ibe  Syiiac  traoalation  dues  not 
ninuiii  Ibe  Seamd  Epialle  of  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  and 

ytaa  afierwarda,  thia  ancient  tranalatioa  became  again 
toeiiB  ID  WoUm  acbolara.  In  1a53,Moaea  of  Mardin 
am*  lo  Borne  lo  pope  Juliua  III,  commiaiiotied  by  Ig- 
DUiua,  Ihe  Jacubile  (Jloonpbyaite)  patriarch,  io  itate 


»id)a 


itc  Banish  Church,  and  lo  get  tbe  Syriac  New  Teat, 
pnutd.  In  thia  last  object  Iloaea  failed  both  at  Rome 
■ml  Tcoicc  At  Vienim  he  waa,  howerer,  aacceaafiil. 
WidmaniladL,  the  chancellor  of  the  emperor  Fenlioanil 
L  bid  himaeir  leaninl  Syriac  rrom  Theaeua  Ambnuiua 
naay  yesn  pntiouily;  and  IhnHinh  hit  influence  tbe 
oqisui  uDilertoolt  the  chai^  nf  an  eilition  which  ap- 
pFOHt  in  IS&a,  Ihnwgh  the  Joint  laboia  of  Widman- 
^■It,  Mom,  uhI  PoatelL  Some  copiea  were  afierwarda 
BWd  with  the  dale  of  1562  on  the  back  nf  the  tille. 

la  having  only  three  Catholic  epiallea,  Ibia  ISvrrao 
New  Tm.  agreed  with  ihe  deacriptinn  of  Cnemaa ;  ihe 
-IfBotTpgc  waa  elan  wanting,  ai  well  aa  the  aecliiiM 
MlBTiii,l-11;  tbia laat omiaaion, and aome other  poinla, 
■tie  nMiced  in  tbe  liat  of  errata.  It  atoo  wanla  aame 
nnb  in  Uail.  x.  8  and  sxvii,3&i  two  veraea  in  Luke 
uii— viz.  17, 18;  and  I  John  t.  7,  all  which  are  abaent 
fnn  Syriac  HSSl  In  2  Cor.  v,  9  jt  hoa  in  Iht  (ram  of 
piriif,  which  ia  (inind  in  Neslotian  murcea  alonej  but 
ii  haa  ihe  uanal  reading  in  Ileh.  ii,  9,  not  the  NeHorian 
"*  twnc  3ioB.  Tbe  editor*  appear  to  hare  follnued 
iMt  USA.  witli  great  fidelity.  >o  that  the  eiliiion  \» 
)m\y  vaJued.  In  aubaequent  editiona  enilearora  were 
oadt  oonjcciunlly  lo  amead  the  te^l  by  inlrudueing  1 
iiibii  T,  7  and  other  pnrtinna  which  do  nni  belong  lo 
ikia  tranalalion.  One  of  the  principal  ediiiona  ia  that 
i' Laden  and  Schaaf:  in  Ibia  Ihe  text  ia  made  aa  full 
■  paaible  by  aupfilyingeveiy  lacuna  from  any  aource; 
n  ilw  puneliuitnii  there  ia  a  atrauge  peculiarity,  Ihat  in 
Ike  lonncr  pan  Leuaden  chnae  tr>  follow  a  aort  of  Chai- 
ta  Bulogy,  while,  on  bia  dealh,  Schaaf  inlniduml  a 

nt  «<  Ibe  volucoe.  The  [.e»con  which  accompaiiiei 
liM  edition  is  nf  great  value.  Thia  eilition  waa  Aral 
iwied  ia  ITU8 :  moTe  copiea,  however,  have  Ihe  date 
CtH;  while  tonw  have  tbe  talat  aod  diahaneat  aUle- 


7  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

ment  od  the  title-page,  "Secanda  cdltio  a  mendii  pur- 
gata,"  and  Ihe  dale  1717.  Tbe  late  Prof.  Lee  publiabed 
an  edition  in  1816,  in  which  he  corrected  or  altered  the 
texton  tbeautborilyofalewllSS.  Thia  ia  eo  far  in- 
dependent of  that  of  Widmanslidt.  It  ia,  however, 
very  far  abort  of  being  really  a  critical  edition.  In 
\liii  the  edition  of  Mr.  William  (ircenfield  (often  re- 
printed from  the  Bteieotype  plain),  was  publiahed  by 
aiessra.  Bagaler;  in  thia  Ihe  lext  of  Widmanaiadt  waa 
followed  (wlita  the  vowela  fully  expreurd),  and  with 
certain  eupplementa  within  bnckcii  from  Lee'a  edi- 
tion. For  the  collalion  with  Lee'a  lext  Greenfleld  waa 
not  rcaponaible.  I'here  ate  now  in  Europe  excellent 
maleriaJi  for  Ihe  foraialion  of  a  critical  ediiimi  uf  Ihia 

publieatioii  the  MSS.  employed  were  honeilly  uaed,  it 
ia  in  Ihe  text  of  Widminaladt  in  a  far  belter  condition 
■ban  ia  Ihe  Petbito  Old  Teat.  The  beat  leiieon,  which 
ahu  aerre*  for  a  couconlance,  ia  Schaafa  (1TD9,  Ito). 
The  Peahilo  haa  been  (ranalaled  inio  Kngliah  by  Elhe- 
riilge  (1846,  1849,  S  vola.  13mo);  and  betur  by  Mur- 
doch (in  1  vol.  8vo,  N.  Y.  18fil). 

3.  CharaarT, — Thia  Syriac  veraion  haa  been  varioua- 
ly  eatimaled  :  aome  bare  tliooght  that  in  it  they  had 
a  genuine  and  unaltered  monument  of  ihe  2d,  or  per- 
ha|H  even  of  the  lat  cenlnry.  They  Ihua  naturally 
upheld  it  aa  almoat  co-ordinate  in  aulhority  with  Ihe 
Ureek  lext,  and  aa  being  of  a  period  anterior  lo  any 
(ireek  copy  exlaut,  Otben,  finding  in  it  indulntable 
marka  of  a  later  age,  were  itKlined  to  deny  thai  it  had 
any  claim  10  a  very  remole  antiquily.  Thiia  La  Croie 
Ibuugbt  that  the  commonly  printed  Syriac  New  Teat, 
ia  not  Ihe  Peahilo  at  all,  but  the  Philoxetiian  excculed 
in  the  beginning  of  ihe  6lli  eenlurr,  Tbe  fact  ia,  ibat 
I  bia  veinun  oa  inuamilted  lo  ua  eoiilaina  marka  of  an- 
tiquity, and  alao  liacea  of  a  later  age.  Ilw  two  Ihinga 
an  IO  blended  that,  if  eiiher  daaa  uf  phenomena  alone 
were  regarded,  Ibe  moat  nppuaite  opiniona  might  be 
formed.  The  opinion  of  Weiuiciii  waa  one  of  the  moat 
perveree  that  could  be  deviaed:  be  found  in  Ihia  ver- 
aion readinga  which  accord  with  the  Latin;  and  then, 
aciing  on  Ihe  atranga  ayalem  of  criticiam  which  be 
adopted  in  bit  later  yeare,  he  aaaciled  that  any  anch 
accordance  with  ihe  Lalin  waa  a  proof  of  eorroption 
from  that  veraion ;  ao  lhat  with  him  the  pnofk  of  an- 
tiquity became  the  tokens  of  later  origin,  and  be  ttana 
anigned  tbe  Iianalation  to  the  7ih  century.  With 
him  the  real  tndicationa  of  later  reailingt  were  only  ihe 

aite  ground  to  Ibat  of  Wetlaiein;  be  upheld  ilaantiquily 
and  authoriiy  ver)'  airenuoualy.  Tbe  former  point  could 
be  eaiily  ptuved,  if  one  class  of  readinga  alone  were 
conndeird;  and  thia  ia  conHnDcd  by  Ihe  conlenla  of 
ihe  veraion  itaclL  But,  on  Ihe  other  bond,  there  are 
difficulties,  for  very  oflen  readinga  of  a  mnch  more  re- 
cent hind  appeari  It  waa  thua  thought  that  it  migbt 
be  compared  wiib  the  Latin  aa  found  id  the  Codex 
UrixianuB,  in  which  there  is  an  ancient  gnwndworii, 
but  alao  the  work  of  a  reviaer  ia  roanifeat.  Tbua  the 
Judgment  formed  by  Urieabach  aeema  to  be  certainly 
peculiarity  of  the  text  of  thia 


Heaa 


liuna);  "Nidii  b 
!.in,  prout  qi.idem  Irpis 
ulli  pmnoa  diiaimilia  ea 
exaiidrina  reeeniione,  in  plnribna  cum  Occidentali,  in 

<|UB  in  banc  poaterioribua  demum  aeculia  inreela  aunl, 
plerique  repudiet.  Ditrrtii  ergo  laiporibiu  ad  Cneru 
anHctM  pltne  dtttmtt  itemm  Uentmque  rrcogmin  raaa 
riJffH.-"  (A'oF.  Ttt.  Prohg.  Ixxr),  In  a  note  (iriea- 
bach  introduced  the  cooipariann  of  Ihe  Codex  Brixia- 
iiua,  "liluatrari  hoc  poleil  codicura  nonnullorum  Lati. 
nornm  eiempto,  qui  priaclm  quidem  veralonem  ad  Uc- 
cidentalem  reccnaionem  accommodatam  tepresentaiii. 
lelam.    £'z  koe 


SYRIAC  VEliSIONS 

GnBeo-LAtiDuecvi>tu9tiaribusI^tiniaomnibui  solus  dii- ' 
c^it,  et  in  Gtaoornim  partes  Lrumit."  Some  |tn»r  thtt 
the  text  of  Ibe  commaii  priiiwd  fesliitD  hu  b«n  re-  I 
wrought  will  appear  when  it  is  compued  with  the 
CuretunUa  Sjiiic  Goipels.  I 

1.  Minor  Receuiont, — Whether  ihe  whole  of  this  ver^ 
don  proceeded  rrum  the  same  cniiBUlor  has  been  igoe*- 
lioiKd.  Not  only  may  Michielit  be  right  in  aoj^ioBing  ' 
a  peculiar  uantlator  i^  the  Episile  to  (he  Hebrews,  but 
also  other  paru  may  be  from  ditTecent  bands ;  this  upiu- 
ion  will  beeoiDe  more  general  Ihe  more  tbe  version  ia 
Mndied.  The  revi^oni  to  wbich  tbe  veniao  was  lub- 
Jeeled  may  have  smxceded  in  pari,  but  not  wholly,  in 
eBacing  the  indications  of  a  plurality  of  translMon. 
I'he  Act*  and  Kpiiilea  seem  to  lie  either  more  recent 
than  the  Gospela,  though  far  leas  revised;  or  else,  if  i 
ooeval,  far  more  corrected  by  later  Greek  MSS.  | 

There  is  no  inlHcient  reason  for  suppoaing  that  this 
version  ever  contained  the  four  catholic  eplsUea  and  the 
Apocajypae,  now  absent  Tram  it,  not  only  in  the  printed 
editions  but  also  in  tbe  MS.S.  I 

Some  variations  hi  copies  of  the  Peshito  have  been  | 
regarded  a*  if  they  might  be  styled  Monophysite  and  l 

loo  dellnile,  fur  the  difTerenoes  are  not  sidBcient  to  wai^  I 


The  MSS.  of  the  Km 
been  termed)  nf  the  Peshiio  Old  Test,  contain  also  the 
New  with  a  umilar  character  of  texL 

B.  Tit  Curfloiiiam  Sfriuc  GoiptlM,—Tbi*,  although  in 
reality  but  a  variety  of  the  feshilo,  exhibit*  such  nark- 
it  mav  almost  be  called  a  distinct 


1.  Hiilory,  Datf,  aad  CoofMiff.  — Among  the  MS& 
brought  from  the  Nitrian  monasteries  in  IMS,  Dr.  Cure- 
tOD  noticed  acopy  of  the  Guapels  diAring  greatly  from 
the  common  text ;  aud  this  is  the  form  of  text  (o  wbich 
the  name  of  "  Cnretonian  Svrisc"  has  tieen  rightly  ap- 

■hito  not  to  exhibit  a  text  or  extreme  antiquity,  equal- 
ly proves  the  early  origin  of  this.  The  discovery  is  in 
face  that  of  the  object  which  was  wanted,  the  want  of 
which  had  been  previously  asccrtaii^ed.  Dr.  Cureton 
coasideTs  that  the  HS.  of  tbe  Gospels  isoftbeanh  cen- 
tuiy,  a  point  in  which  all  competent  Judges  are  proba- 
Uf  agreed.    Some  persons,  indeed,  have  sought  ta  de- 

Pe*hit«,  to  regaid  all  such  variations  ai  corruptions, 
and  thus  to  stigmatiie  Ihe  Curetoriian  Syriac  as  a  cor- 
rupt rerulnn  of  the  Peshim,  barbarous  in  language  and 
false  in  readiiigi.  This  peremptory  judgment  is  as  rea- 
aonable  aa  If  the  old  Latin  in  the  Codex  Tercelleiisi* 
wen  called  an  ignomnt  reri^n  of  the  vendoii  of  Je- 
rome. The  judgment  that  the  Curetonian  Syriac  is 
older  than  the  Peshito  is  not  the  peculiar  opinion  of 
Cuiaion,  Alford,  Tregelles.  or  Biblical  scholaia  of  the 


118  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

made  out  of  the  Hebrew,  which  inserts  these  thm 
kings  iu  the  genealogy;  but  afterwards  ii  speaks  ul 
fvurleni  and  not  of  Kpntlern  generations,  because  fwir 
teen  generations  has  been  subetiluted  for  aeveiiieeii  b> 
the  Hebrews  on  account  of  tbeij  holding  to  tbe  aeptcna- 
ly  number,"  etc  This  shows  that  Bar-Salibi  knew  of  i 
Syriae  text  of  the  Gospels  in  which  Ahaziah,JoMh,  anr 
Amaiiah  were  iuierled  in  Uatt.  i,8;  there  ia  tbe  MnH 
reading  in  the  Curelunian  Syriac :  but  this  might  havi 
been  a  cuinddenee.  But  in  ver.  17  the  Curetonian  ten 
has,  in  cuniradiction  to  ver.  8,^(irl<eii  geiwraliona  an- 
not  trrnUeen .-  and  ti>  had  Ihe  copy  metitioued  by  Bar- 
Salibi  :  the  former  point  might  he  a  mere  cuincideim : 
the  latlei,  however,  shows  such  a  kind  trf  union  iii  cnn- 
iraUtctiun  as  proves  the  identity  very  convincingly 
Thus,  though  this  veniun  was  unknown  in  Europe  prim 

lury  have  been  known  as  a  text  sometimes  found ;  and 
Si  mentioned  by  ibe  Umiophysite  bishop,  it  might  U 
more  in  use  among  his  co-religiniina  than  among  oth- 
ers. Porhsps,  as  iu  existence  and  use  is  thus  rMordetl 
in  the  ]2ih  century,  some  further  discovery  of  Sytiac 
HSS.  mny  furniali  iis  uiih  aiiulher  copy  so  as  to  supply 
tbe  defocis  of  the  one  happily  recovered. 

S.  RrUaiM  lo  Ihe  Prthilo  and  lo  Older  Trrli^-la  ex- 
amining the  Curelonian  text  wilh  the  common  prii)ted 
Peshito,  we  often  fiuil  such  identity  of  phrase  and  ren- 
dering as  to  show  that  they  are  not  wholly  iadependeni 


I  lie  forms  of  words,  etc.,  as  seems  to  indicate  that  in  the 
Peshito  Ihe  phraseology  had  been  revised  and  reriiied. 
Hut  Ihe  great  (it  might  be  said  characleiisiic)  diBer- 
cncc  between  the  Curelonian  and  Ihc  Peehilo  giispeli 
their  readings;  for  while  the  latter  cannot  in  it) 
nt  stale  be  deemed  an  unchanged  production  of 
Id  centun-,  tbe  former  bean  all  Ihe  marks  of  ex- 


h  as  Ewald,  and  sppai- 
xiii,  36, 


that  of  Coiiliueiital  scholars, 
ently  of  the  late  Pnif.  Bleek. 

The  HS.  contains  Hall,  i-viii,  33;  x,  Si 
Mark,  the  fmi  last  verses  onlv :  John  i.  1-42 ;  iii, 
97;  xiv,  11-39;  Uke  ii,48-iii,  16;  vii,8S-xv,31;  xvii, 
2f--Kxiv,  41,  It  would  have  been  a  thing  of  much  value 
if  a  perfect  copy  of  this  venion  bad  come  down  to  uh  ; 
but  aa  it  is,  we  have  reason  greatly  to  value  Ihe  discov- 
ery of  Dr.  Cutelun,  which  shows  how  truly  those  critics 
have  argued  who  concluded  that  such  ■  version  must 
have  eiialed,  and  who  regarded  this  at  a  proved  fact, 
even  when  not  only  no  portion  of  the  version  was  fcnimn 
to  be  extant,  lint  also  when  even  the  record  of  its  exist- 
ence was  unnuticol.  For  there  is  a  record  showitig  an 
acqnainuiiee  with  this  version,  lo  which,  a*  well  at  to 
the  version  itself,  attendoa  has  been  directed  by  Dr. 
Cureton.  Bar-Salibi,  bishop  of  Amida  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury-, in  a  passage  tmnslaled  by  Ur-  C.  (in  discnsaing 
the  omission  of  three  kings  in  Ihe  genealoiiy  in  Mat- 
thew), says:  "There  is  found  occiuonally  a  Syriac  copy, 


suffered  from  the  introduction  of  reading 

Tbe  fdlowing  are  a  few  of  tbe  very  many  cases  in 
which  ihe  ancient  reading  is  found  in  the  Oiretonian, 
and  the  later  or  transition  reading  in  Ihe  Peahiio.  Fur 
the  gtvral  avtharilia  on  the  subject  of  each  passage. 

ofthe  Greek  New  Tesl. 


Mntl.  I 


:,  n, .; 


n  with  the  Peahlto.    1 


of  [he  common  text,  ui  ti  gtiwiia^a  i  Ji-  ^ui>i.ti>#.<i 
(nnd  the  oirrespondlng  part  ofthe  rolliiwlng  verve),  uie  in 
Ihe  Pwhiioi  while  we  know  from  Orlgen  that  ibei  nvrs 
Inblsdny  apecnllarllyomark:  omitied  In  tbe  Corel. ~ 

Peshito  and  enme  revised  Lailn  eoiiles,  there  Is  mi  evi 
deiico  at  all  axlant  fOr  these  words  |ir1i<r  lo  ibe  Bib  ceu- 
tnrr.  MutLT.4.fi:  here  the  ancieut  order  uf  the  bfiati- 
inder,  SB  FDppnried  by  Oi1cen,Tartnllliin,  ihe  csnoua  of 
Bn>4UD>,  and  Hilary,  la  that  of  placing  ^..ri,,..,  .1  .pa- 

linreiuiiiaii  ■Breei'^MffThrdlillnct  laitliniHiies  f..r  I  hit 
order  agsltisi  Ihe  Peshito.  Iu  I,  IS,  wa  know  tTom  Iieiicne 
ihfit  the  nnme  "Jeaua"  was  not  read;  and  ihls  Is  n>ii- 

boirpver  widely  popiHined.  conlii  not  hnve  nrl)[loiiled 
nnill  'Inmuc  xf"'^  was  trenied  as  a  combined  pmiwr 
name,  oihemlH  Ihe  niennlngorTiir  it  'Inim::  uistoD  i.  t- 

ing  is  In  full  acc>irrisnca  with  what  w«  kimw  of  Ihe 
Id  eentnry  Iu  oppnsltloB  lo  the  Pei-blin.  In  vl,  4  ibe 
Cnretiinlan  omits  avruii  In  ihe  aame  ver.  and  In  ver.  a  It 
omits  h  n  fatiiA:  In  each  oiae  with  Ibe  best  aulborl- 
lle^bnta|[aln■llllaPe•hlto.  Malt.i.44hBa  breii  nmp)!- 
'  ■  by  cnpyirlti  In  an  ■iirnordlnsn  n»ii,„.pf  ih-  ,>..rri. 
irnckete  show  the 


fled  by  cnpyirlti  In 
which  et 


SYRIAC  VKRSIONS  ll 

_Ti«avt.  i^iS.:  Lake  Vlll.  H  ln^oMt  lEa  itdrrai  Hi: 
El.i.'^.-;  Mr.»^A..«i-HA;..K«Vt.!  ll,S,7..». 

i<.  o;  •>.'j>>i^> :  I,  I«,™_i&— ...i™  i««ir.:™:  tI, 

Oa  tilt  otber  hand,  the  Cnietaaiwi  oIUd  chiugM  tbe 
Ion  fill  Lh«  wone,  u  io  tbe  followiiig  euunplee: 

la  Lnk*  xiIt  ihs  ronleih  reru  l«  onlited,  amtnitj  lo 
lk(FBblloaiidIlwmoMuidvDtiiuGUlM3S.A,B.M'  lu 
HiiL  uU,  U,  ui  Jt>7i»  la  Rsd  b;  tba  Cnratoului ;  bat  It  la 
lUat  rrum  ibc  PwhUo,  which  la  loppucted  bj  B  and  X, 
lDTlt.M,1lw  wurda  ■■haveweDDi  ealeu  ii 
ibjiiuut"  an  loKTled  wltboal  iiiT  US.  ni 
ptnDUrrnmiLakBxIll.M.  lu  il,E3,lDeu»d 
GnHi  lEir.  U  hw  "thoa  ahali  D»t  be  eialiei 
bat:"  oiDtnrj  ti>  all  nnlborllj,  aud  bei  mjlo;;  at  me  t 
liuE  a  Onrk  orlsiiiBl  with  wi.    Id  ill.  0.  It  la  add? 

JakhiEaiid  prafflnK  Ood  tmiMnilDE  xll  that  wblcb  i 
Fiv,"  wtnda  whullj  uuaalhurtud.  In  vei.  IS,  J-^dsi 
la  mlued  wlibxiii  aDihurltT.    In  nlll.  IS,  rram  «  ,1 

iT'uiu  nil,  1«,  la  ib«  nuwiniorticd  iddl 
fafU  anixher  parable."  In  il,  tt,  "Ficep 
lb*  ninriiel  J>maa"  la  nnilited.  cnnlrnry  ii 
11.  11  it  «nllted  wltbont  aulhi.rilj.    In  i 

(IwalMBt  luTar,10  wlihuataDIbarllJ.    I 


k  lu 
horllj,  Kjr- 


,'%£, 


Te  ibc  addlUou  "go  aw 
«.t.--adAhetuoknphla 
•A^lf  an  left  ont,  acalD 

wd"ii''^„i'i'.?^.""i* 

tUS-aalhurlty. 

Tbt  Ii^kiwiDg  are  paiiiU 
.HvKSS.: 

Il  nfleB  aerws  with  B,  C.  D,  nnd  the  old  Lall 
rfmvit  wn  ciiTTecied  bi  Jerimie,  eapeclBllj  iu  1 

A»».  .Twi°u  Mat..  Vlx'l  ihe"*^.  l^T 

m.  R  a  hHie  paiwaiw  la  added  which  le  uiiV  \ 

I  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

lal,  although  injund  unce  by  copriata  or  leviaen.  Tha 
■me  view  ia  maialuiietl  by  the  abbe  Lebir  (£fi«Jr,  e(e. 
[Par.  1869]);  but  it  ia  Tigormialy  rejected  by  Ewokl 
(Jiihib.  d.  tM.  IVuiauckitft,  voL  iz)  aud  many  later 

C.  The  PhUoxmian  Sarioc  Vrrtun,  and  ill  Rtriiin 
bg  Thoimn  of  //ttrfci.— I'hiloxenm,  or  Xeniiaa,  biahoi> 
of  Uierapolia  or  Uabug  at  the  beginning  of  the  liili 
:  (who  woa  one  of  thoae  Uaiiophyaitei  that  aub- 
the  llamtiamaiibe  eiiipemrZena),cauaed  I'ul^- 
carp,  hla  chorapiacopua,  Id  make  ■  new  iranalalion  n( 
the  New  Teat,  into  Syriac  Thia  waa  einnited  in  KM. 
d  it  ia  geiiarally  termed  Philoxcnian  from  in 
er.  [n  one  puaage  Bu-UebneUa  aays  Ihal  it 
ide  ittlketiait  o/ Pliiloxenua;  in  hia  Cjinaic.™ 
waa  dona  by  Ail  dniii ;  and  in  annlber  place  iif 
the  aame  work  that  it  wu  hit  own  production.  Uoaea 
Aghclnvia  (Auemani,  BibHoth.  OritniaL  ii.  SB)  alalia 
that  its  author  waa  Polyrarp,  rural  biahup  of  FhiloxenuK. 
In  an  Arabic  M&,  quoted  by  Ataemani  {Syid.  ii,  SS), 
Pfailoxeiiiia  ia  aaid  b;  a  Jacobite  author  to  have  iraii»- 
Uted  the  four  tiuapela  into  Syriac. 

I.  //iMai:y_Thia  Taruon  baa  not  been  tranamitiail 
ua  in  the  form  in  whicb  it  waa  tint  made;  we  only 
aeaa  a  reviMon  of  il,  executed  bv  I'homaa  of  Harki  1 
tbe  fnllowing  century  (The  Goipeli,  A.D.  Glli).  INi- 
froro   itar-Satibi,  in 


S.  H,^nv  Origiaal  ofMalUm^ll  is  not  nefdrul  for 
TOT  pot  atientiun  to  be  paid  to  the  pbraicology  of 
lb  OuHooian  Syriac  in  onler  Io  a«  that  the  Goapol 
o(  Matthew  dilhr*  in  mode  of  expreaaion  and  vaiioua 
atWr  (Mnienlara  from  what  we  find  in  the  real.  Tbia 
Ktj  Itad  ua  (gain  to  look  at  the  tealimuny  of  Ba 
EU;  h«  icUa  ua.  wbeo  apeaking  of  thia  varaion  of 
ikt«,  "ihara  ia  found  ocoainnally  a  Syriac  copy 
»d  t/di»  //ahrw ,-"  we  ihoa  know  that  the  opinii 
'kr  Hyiiaaa  tbetnaelvea  in  the  13th  century  waa 
ikia  mnalaiioo  of  Hatlhew  waa  not  made  Irtnt. 
Irttrk,  bat  Tram  the  Hebrew  original  of  the  CTaniteliat : 
■cLtoo,  ia  the  judgment  of  Dr.  Curaiim:  "thia  Goopel 
i<  Matthew  appeon  at  leaat  lobe  built  upon  the  original 
Amaaic  text,  wbicb  waa  the  work  of  tbe  apoatle  him- 
kIT"  iPrtloct  III  Spine  GotptU,  p.  vi). 

Ve  kniw  fnnn  Jerome  that  the  Hebrew  Hattbew 
Sad  ^ns  where  tbe  Greek  baa  (Wiovaiov.  We  do 
Bit  fad  ibot  word  here,  but  we  nod  for  both  itnnitiinv 
Md  'wuinv  at  the  eud  of  tbe  verae.  "  cntv'tHif  of  the 
itj'  Tbi*  migbt  hare  aprung  from  the  inlerpreti 
i><i.''awrrDw  by  mnrruw."  giten  lo  *^nS;  and  it  ml 
b*  illoatraied  by  Old-Teat,  paaeages,  e.  g.  Numb,  i 
'.  Dwee  who  ihtnk  that  if  Ihia  Syriac  reraion  hi 
bna  made  from  Matibew't  Hebrew  we  oughl  to  Sr 
*nr  belt  fiirget  ibat  a  tnnaUtioii  ia  not  a  vcibol  tnn 

Wt  know  fnnn  Euacbiua  that  Hege^ppua  cited  from 
ikt  Koapel  accurilinK  to  tbe  Hebrewa.  and  from  the 
^^riiac  Xnw  irt  a  fra^^inent  of  Uegeuppua  (Bouth, 
III)  than  ia  the  quiitation.  ^uudpioi  ol  i^aXitoi  I'ln 
■i  Shn'-m{  «"  T^  "''''  '■p«'  ri  aiovavrn,  wor 
•hich  might  be  a  Grrek  remlecing  fmm  Matt,  xiii,  1 
■  it  Honda  in  tbia  Hyriac  goapel  aa  we  have  it, «  pro 
^r  tbo  in  Ibe  Hebrew  work  of  the  apiAtle  himaelf. 

Fna  ibcM  and  oiber  paiticulan,  Dr.  Cureton  co 
dsdr*  thai  in  Ibia  vcraian  Malthew'a  goapcl  waa  trana- 
ioad  (ram  tbe  apoMla'i  H«bn*  /fhnkChaldak)  origi- 


III  of  ThD 


la  of  Hir 
now  trial 


and  though  Pococke  did  ni 
had  made,  be  apeaka  of  a  Syriac  traiulalion  of  the  tii«- 
pels  commonicaled  lo  him  by  aome  learned  man  whom 
he  does  not  name,  which,  from  ita  servile  adherence  lo 
the  Greek,  waa  no  doubt  the  Harklean  text.  In  the 
BiUiolheca  OnaOalii  of  Aaaemani  there  ware  further 
nolicei  or  the  work  of  I'homaa;  and  ia  ITBO  Samuel 
Palmer  aent  from  Ihe  ancient  Amida  (now  Diarbekir) 
Syriac  USS.  to  Dr.  Ulouceater  Kidley,  in  whicb  tbe 
veraion  ia  coniained.  Thut  he  had  two  copiea  of  the 
(ioBpela,and  one  of  all  Ihe  real  of  the  New  Teal.,  except 
tbe  end  of  the  Epialle  to  the  Hebrewa  and  the  Apoca- 
lypse. No  otber  MSS.  appear  lo  have  yet  come  to  light 
which  contain  any  of 'thia  venton  beyond  Ihe  (ioapela. 
From  Ibe  aubocriptiona  we  learn  thai  tbe  text  w»  rc- 
vited  by  Thomaa  with  (Am  (aome  c<^iee  say  fwo)  (iicek 
HSS.  Out  Greek  copy  il  aimilariy  menlioned  al  tha 
cloae  of  the  Catholic  epiatlea. 

Ridley  pabliahed  in  1761  an  icconnl  of  iha  MSS.  in 
He  bad 


ended  t 


edit  the 


:  thia 


;:8  Io  1B08.  After 
ihe  publication  of  Ihe  Guapela,  tbe  reaearches  of  Adlei 
broiighl  mora  copiea  into  notice  of  thai  pan  oflhe  Har- 
klean text.  From  one  of  the  USS.  in  the  Vatican, 
Jobn'a  Goapel  waa  «lited  by  Bemalein  in  1861.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  thia  veraion  diSera  from  tbe  PeahiU  In 
containing  alt  the  aeven  Catholic  ei^atleo. 

2.  Character. — In  describing  thia  version  ai  it  haa 
come  down  to  ua,  tbe  intl  ia  the  first  thing  \o  be  coiwd- 
ereil.  Thia  is  cbaracleriied  by  extreme  lileraliiy;  the 
Syriac  idiom  ia  conttanily  bent  to  suit  the  Greek,  and 
everything  ia  in  sonie  manner  expressed  in  tbe  Greek 
phraie  and  order.  Il  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  it  coiilil 
have  been  intended  for  eccleaiaalical  reading.  Il  is  nut 
independent  of  the  Peabito,  ibe  worda,  etc,  of  whiih 
are  DfteD  employeil.  Aa  Xo  the  kind  of  Greek  lext  that 
it  represenia,  il  is  just  what  might  have  been  expeclcd 
in  tbe  Sth  century.  The  work  of  Thomaa  in  Ihe  lext 
ilaelf  is  aeen  in  the  iDlroduetion  of  obeli,  by  which  poa- 
sages  which  he  rejected  were  condemned;  and  of  asler- 
iaka,  with  which  bis  inaertions  were  diatinguished.  Hia 
model  in  all  thia  woa  ihe  Hexaplai  Greek  text.  The 
>ISS.  which  were  used  by  Thomas  were  of  a  diflerent 


dfmi 


mploye. 


11  Ihey 


ildet  and  p 

The  margin  of  the  Hsrklean  lecenaiun  contains  (like 
the  Hexaplar  text  of  ihe  Sept.)  resdinga  mostly,  appar- 
ently, Trom  the  Greek  MSS.  used.    It  ha*  been  4ue*> 


SYEIAC  VERSIONS 


witli  Che  Peabito;  ir  uiy  of  them  ue  »,  they 
probably  been  inCmlueed  linee  the  time  of  Thomi 
it,  piubable  that  the  Philoieaian  reraion  was  vei 
titi,  but  that  the  lUvigh  adaptation  to  the  lirwk 
work  of 'rhomai ;  and  that  hi*  Itxt  thiia  bare  about  the 
Mine  rela^nn  to  that  of  E>h<lo](eni»  u  the  Latin  Bilile 
■■f  Arias  Munlaiiua  duea  to  that  ot  his  pred««aar  Fag- 
ninua.    Fur  textual  criticiam  thi*  verrioii  ii  a  good  ai 
tbority  as  to  the  text  of  iti  own  lime,  at  leatt  where 
does  not  raerely  follow  the  Peahito.    The  ampliAcatioi 
■II  the  margin  of  the  book  of  Acta  bring  a  MS.  uaed  t 
Tfaomai  into  dose  compaiiaoD  with  the  Codei  Ben 
One  of  the  HSS.  of  the  Goqiels  sent  to  Ridley  conuii 
■be  Harklean  text,  with  aomB  reTiiimi  by  Bar-Saiibi. 

The  marginal  readings  are  probably  the  most  vaiui 
b)e  part  of  the  renioii  in  a  critical  view.  One  at  the 
(ireek  MSS.  compared  by  Thomat  bad  ooiiiiderable  af- 
tinitv  to  D  in  the  Gospels  and  Aots^  Of  IHO  marginal 
readings,  about  130  are  found  in  B,  C,  D,  L,  i,  S8, 6f 
With  D  alone  of  MSS.  it  harmoaiiea  nineteen  tie 
the  Uospels;  with  D  and  B  seven  times.  With  the 
Alexandrian,  or  A,  alone,  it  agrees  twi»,  but  with  i 
nthen,D,L, eight  times.  With  the  Valican,or  B,i 
it  harmoniies  twice,  but  with  it  and  others  four  ' 
(see  Arller,  p.  130, 131). 

D.  Syriuc  ftriioHM  af  ForiiovM  Wattling  in  Ike  Pahi- 
In.— {I.)  Tht  Second  kpitlle  of  Piter,  llu  Srcoml  and 
rUnl  of  Juki,  and  that  nf  Judt—Tbe  fact  haa  aireaily 
been  noticed  that  the  old  Syriac  veraion  did  not  con- 
tain these  epistles.  They  were  published  by  Fococke 
ill  1630  from  a  US.  in  the  Bodleian.  The  version  of 
ihpse  epistles  so  nften  agrees  with  what  we  have  in 
ihs  Harklean  recennton  that  the  one  is  at  least  de- 
pendent on  the  other.  The  suggestion  of  Dr.  Davhl- 
win  IBiblical  Crilidim,  ii,  196)  that  the  text  of  Pococke 
in  that  of  Philuxenus  befure  it  was  revised  by  Thomas 
Heems  most  probable.  But,  if  it  is  objected  that  the 
translation  does  not  show  a«  great  a  knowledge  of  Greek 
aa  might  have  been  expected  in  the  translstlon  of  the 
rest  of  the  Phiioxenian,  it  must  be  remembered  that 

Piilyglut  these  epistles  were  added  to  the  Peshiio,  with 
which  they  haveainca  been  commonly  printed,  although 
they  have  not  the  slightest  relation  to  that  veiHnn. 

(II.)  Tkt  Apoatlspte.-~\a  1627  De  Dien  edited  a  Syr- 
iac venion  of  the  Apocalypse  from  a  HS.  in  the  Ley- 
dcD  library,  written  by  one  "  Caspar  from  the  land  of 
tba  Indians,"  who  lived  in  the  Utter  part  of  the  16th 
cantury.  A  MS.  at  Florence,  also  written  by  thia  Cas- 
par, has  a  suliscripl  inn  sta^ng  that  it  was  co^ed  in 
IMJ  from  a  MS.  in  the  writing  of  Thomas  of  Harkel 
in  SIS.  If  tbb  ia  correct,  it  shows  that  Thomu  by  him- 
adf  wouU  have  been  but  a  ptior  translator  of  the  New 
Test.  But  the  aubMription  aeems  to  be  of  doubtful 
authority ;  and,  until  the  Kev.  a  Hania  Cowper  drew 
attention  to  a  more  ancient  copy  of  the  veruon,  we 
might  well  be  somewhat  uncertain  if  thia  were  really 
■n  ancient  work.    It  is  of  small  critical  value,  and  the 

It  was  in  the  MS.  which  Abp.  Usher  sent  as  a  present 
in  De  Dieu  in  I63t,  in  which  the  vAofe  of  the  Syriac 
New  Test,  is  said  to  have  been  contained  (of  what  ver- 
siun  is  unknown),  that  having  been  the  only  complete 
MS.  of  the  kind  described;  and  of  thia  MS.,  in  eompar- 
iiHin  with  the  text  of  the  Apncalypae  printed  by  De 
Dieu,  Usher  say*,  "the  Syriac  latelv  set  out  at  Levden 
may  be  amended  by  my  MS.  copy"  (Tnid,  WalMt.  i, 
ISO,  note).  This  b»>k,  fmm  the  Paris  Polyi;lnt  and  on- 
wanl,  has  been  aihled  to  the  Peshito  in  this  translation. 
HutatL  have  erroneously  called  this  Syriac  Aimcalypse 
the  PhiUaritiim,  a  name  in  which  it  has  no  title:  the 
error  seema  to  have  nri(>ii>aled  fmm  a  verbal  miatake 
ill  an  old  advertisement  of  (ireeiifleld's  edition  (l^ir 
which  he  was  nor  responsible),  which  said  "  the  Apoe- 
afypt  and  the  Kpiilla  not  found  in  the  Peahito  are 
raven  (ram  the  Pbiloxenian  versloa." 


10  STKIAC  TERSIONS 

(111.)  The  Syriac  i'errien  of  Jaki  viii,  1-11 Frop 

the  M&  sent  by  Abp.  Usher  to  De  Dieu,  the  latter  pub 
liihed  this  section  in  16S1.  Fium  Ue  Dieu  it  was  in 
aerted  in  the  London  Polyglot,  with  a  lEfemKe  to  Usb 
er's  MS„  and  hence  it  haa  passed  with  the  other  edi 
tiona  of  the  Peahito,  where  it  is  a  mere  interpolation. 

A  copy  of  the  same  version  (essentiallv)  is  6>und  ii 
Ridley's  C*<bx  B»nal»ai,  where  it  is  'attributed  « 
Maras,  622 ;  Adler  fouud  it  also  iu  a  Paris  US.  ascribet 
to  Abbas  Uar  PauL 

Bar-Salibi  cilea  a  diSbrent  version,  out  of  Uarai 
biahop  of  Amida,  through  the  chronicle  of  Zachaiiaa  iil 
Meliiina.  See  Assemani  (BitliolM.  Orient,  ii,  5S  an. 
170),  who  gives  the  iniroductoiy  wonla,  PrvbaUy  thi 
version  edited  is  that  uf  Paul  (aa  staled  in  the  Pari. 
MS.),  and  that  of  Haras  the  one  cited  by  Bar-Salibi 
while  ill  hidley'a  US.  the  two  are  confonnded.  Tbi 
Paul  mentioned  is  apparetitly  Paul  of  Tela,  the  trans, 
laloroftbe  H ex aplai  Greek  text  into  Sytiac 

E.  Tit  Jtriuatem  Sgriue  Ltctiomny.—Tbt  US.  ir 
the  Vatican  conluning  this  verrion  was  pretty  fully  de- 
scribed  by  S.  K,  AsMmani  in  1766  b  tbb  caiali^ue  of 
■  he  MSS.  belonging  la  that  library;  but  so  few  oopiei 
of  that  work  eacaped  destruction  by  lire  that  it  wasvir- 
lually  unpublished  and  ite  cnnlents  almost  unknown. 
Adler,  who,  at  Copenhagen,  had  the  advantage  of  study. 
ing  nne  of  the  few  copies  of  this  catshcue,  drew  public 
attention  to  this  peculiar  document  in  bis  Kitrze  i'rbrr- 
tirkl  Kiner  bOtiiei-iritiKAe'i  Rrite  nooi  Rom  (Altona, 
1783),  p.  llS-127,  and,  still  further,  in  1789,  in  his  val- 
uable examinaiion  of  the  Syriac  versions,  llie  MS. 
was  written  in  IU31  in  peculiar  Syriac  wiitingi  the 
porliona  are,  of  courae,  those  for  the  diflerent  faWivaii. 
some  parts  of  the  Gospels  not  being  there  at  all  I'he 
dialect  is  not  common  Syriac;  it  was  termed  the  Jrrn- 
tiilem  Syriac  from  its  being  supposed  to  resemble  the 
Jeruaalem  Talmud  in  language  and  other  points.  The 
grammar  is  peculiar;  the  forma  almost  Chaldee  rathft 
than  Syriac;  two  aharacten  are  used  for  expresaiug  PH 
and  P. 

In  Adier'a  opinion  ita  date  as  a  version  wnuk)  tie  fmm 
the  4lh  to  the  6th  centurj';  but  it  can  hardly  be  sup- 
posed that  it  is  of  so  early  an  age,  or  that  an;-  Syrian) 
then  could  have  used  so  cotnipt  ■  dialect  It  may 
rather  be  auppoaed  i»  be  a  translation  made  from  a 
Greek  lectioiiary.  never  having  exialed  aa  a  aubstanlive 
lation.  Til  what  age  its  execution  should  be  aa- 
aigneil  aeems  wholly  uncertain.     A  further  accoant  of 

Assemani'a  description  in  Ih 

that  of  Adler,  with  the  MS.  itself  in  the  V 

'  given  in  Home's  M<vd.  iv,  284-387.  The  only 
lete  passage  published  till  recently  was  owing  to 
'— vii.  Malt,  xxrii,  8-8!;  and  acholata  could  only 
repeat  or  work  upon  what  be  gave.  But  the  Tensou 
baa  been  puhlisheil  entire  by  Uinischalchi  Eriiio  (Vr- 

I,  1861,  ISG4.  2  voU.4to;  the  first  contuning  the 

1,  wiih  a  Latin  translation;  the  second, pmlegomena 
a  glossary).     Critical  editors  of  the  Gnek  T»- 

ent  cannot  now  overloak  this  very  valuable  docu- 
ment, whose  readings  are  an  important.  It  contains 
the  following  portions  of  the  Gospels;  all  Matthew  ex- 
cept iii,  1-2;  v,34^l;  Ti,2Ii-S4i  vii,19-23i  viii,14-l9; 
X,  9-15,23-31,  34-36;  xi,16-W;  xii,  l-S9,B8-50i  xiii. 
l-43,S9-58;  xiv,  I-IB,  Sa,S6;  xv,  1-20,39-31 ;  xvi,  I- 
12,20-28;  xvii.20,27:  xviii,a-9,  ll,!l,»;  xix,  1,3, 
13-15;  XX,  17-28;  xxi,  44-16;  xxvi,4<MS;  aU  Martt 
except  i,  1S-34.4S;  ii,  18, 18-22;  iIi,6-SS;iv,  v,l-83, 
86-43;  vi,6-18,31-»;  vii,  1-98;  viii,  1-16, 83,33;  ix, 
1-16,81, 4I-&0:  x,l-3I. 46-52;  xi,  l-Sl,  26-88;  lii.  1- 
37;  xiii;  xiv;  xv.  l-16,3S~t3;  all  Luke  except  i.69- 
75,  77-79;  Ui,  211-88:  iv.  1-lS,  87-44;  v,  13-16,  83-39; 
vi,  11-16.24-30,37-19;  vii,  17, 18,  80-86;  \-iii,  SS-'/J, 
40;  ix,7-!6.  45-56;  x,  13-15,33-34;  xi,  1-86.  »4-54; 
lii.  I,  13-16,22-31,41-69;  xiii.  I-IO,  80-8i;  xiv,  12- 
15.26-36;  xv,  1-10;  xvi,  1-9,  IS-18;  ivU,  1,  9,»)-S7j 
xviu,  1, 15-17,28-34;  xix,  11-48;  xz,9-44;  ui,  6-7, 


n  catalogue,  a 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS  1: 

8-M,  r,  »»:  ixu,  «>,  41,  46-71 ;  xxiii,  1-31,  50-66i 
■II  Job!  unpc  ti, I8-SS 1  iii, 34-86;  ir,  1-4,43-45:  vi, 

ILIS,4£,7I;  rii, 30-86 ;  xi, 46, b»-57 ;  xUi,  18-30;  xix, 

A)  U  (Ih  mdingi,  it  appeua  lo  ua  Ihit  they  are 
Kb  H  (bincurued  ibe  bth  ind  6lli  ccniuriea.  Tbe 
kii  ii  IMC  ihtt  of  It.  B,  Z.OT  even  U,  but  raiher  that 
of  A  ud  C  In  UaCL  ti,  it  hu  ifae  doxology  of  the 
In't'iPnjer,  which  is  not  in  X,  B,  D,  Z ;  it  hu  John 
iu,3S-nii.ll:  containn  JubnT,3,4;  bu  the  uxuil  or- 
ikfoflln  Ivunhind  Brth  Trnei  in  Uitt.v;  and  huthe 
inn  alirpd  tuna  of  v«r.  44.  Il  iIid  cuiiuiiiit  the  lut 
tniK  mm  of  U*rk  xri,  conlruy  to  K  iiid  B;  bu 
iM(.iwt3Hif,ia  Juhni,  IS;  and  in  Matt,  ixii,  Sa  bu 
ihr  Iiui  leading  ini  Xiywv,  omitted  in  B,  L,  and  the 
Tahiih  U  hu  alio  oi  DmiSita  in  Luiie  xxii,  14,  wilb 
A,  i;  E,  tit,  but  conliMy  to  K,  B,  D,  the  Cutetuoian 
Sinic,  and  Italic  In  John  i,  27  it  baa  the  wonli  ifi- 
ipMiir  inv  Yiyony,  txatnry  to  El,  B,  U  and  the  Cu- 
iHMiui  STtiac;  but  wiib  A.  R,  P,  etc  the  old  lulic, 
ri%u(,  and  Peabiio.  In  UatL  xix,  17  it  ha*  the  old 
ml  psiiae  ri  fU  ipwTf  c  wipi  no  aydioi ,  in  John 
iiLli,)UtaiBXir'"  aXXd  are  omitted  <rith  K  and  the 
CWMnian  Scriac,  E,  ttc  On  the  whole,  while  it  ia 
etiTliima  number  of  the  ohlett  reading!  in  the  text, 
uct  a  those  in  tt,  B,  the  old  Italic,  D,  eta,  yet  the 
m/Soft  nf  a  later  penod  praiaJL  lu  text,  thougb 
nfuu  difuing  fnm  the  Ptflhito,  ia  Dcilbet  older  nor 


I  Syriaca  (I827)i  Ridley,  De 
.^yitianM  ,V.  f'aderit  I'trikmiini  lahtf  alque  Um,  etc 
ii:(l»;  Wiaer,  Commntalio  de  Vrraomi  N.  T.  Sgriaca 
Cm  Cilia  eaale  InuilMruda  (1323)  j  Wichelhaut,  Dt 
>'<<ri  Tal.  VmitnK  Sfriaat  Aaliqaa  giiam  Pnckitho 
roal  (])W);  Betnitein,  Dr  Ckarklom  N.  T.  Trmila- 
ivr  Sfriaea  Coimrmltilio  (1667);  Cureloii,  AnliaU  Rt- 
<~u  >/d>  Syrine  Gotpeli  (preface,  etc,  IS58);  Lee, 
fnlrfimna  to  Uaglrr'i  Fnfyglol ;  Reuwh,  Sj/rut  loUr. 
fn  tan  FaiU  S.  T.  Gram  ooilatmi  ( 1741);  Slorr, 
llTTiBkWJ  imptr  ,V.  T.  Vrrtioniiii  Sfriicii  (1773); 
Lriilnn.jjnu/fp.ad  Aptericu /uteiTirM  (ISSfi);  Mi- 

AftdiJiBmim  (I7&6);  Credner,  Dt  Prvphftaram  Mia. 
fn9r.1*am  PfKiilo  TOfoU  /*fc(e(IS27);  tbe /n- 
"•dotw  of  De  Weite.  Herbut,  and  BIc«li,with  Da- 
nlm'i  TtaKm  «n  Biblical  Criltcitm,  vol.  ii ;  al»  tbe 
EufMm  cefeiTed  lo  hv  Walch,  BiU.  Tlitot.  iv,  148  «q,; 
fcwiBllUn,  Hia^mii',  iii,  19  «[.,  91  M).;  Dwii,  Thai. 
T^iKsl.p.aj:-,  Darling,  Cgelop.  Biiliag.  eoL  70;  and 
Btnnrt.  Kml-fJiefUop.  a.  v. 

SriliC  (PrMo)  VERSION,  RtLATiO!)  or,  to  thb 
-'•nctcinrr  axd  Chaldkb.  OtM  of  the  moat  mooted 
ruti  wklcb  hare  vexed  Kholar*  ia  the  qiieition  aa  to 
<hr  itluisn  of  the  Peabito  to  the  Sept.  and  Childee 

I  JMifioi  It  Ike  Srflaagitl.—k.  goml  deal  has  been 
"inn  oHweming  thii  i|iMation,  pn  and  am.  To  Ibe 
'^vtt  nte  beding  (leaeiiiuis  Ccedner,  Havemicli,  and 
BM:u>thelatler,HirzeiandHert>M.   Wilbuut adduc- 

vt  Ibt  UinmKn  ti  OKd  on  bnth  lidea,  i  t  must  be  admit  ted 
tte  » iulaeiia  of  the  Sept.  upon  Ibe  PeehitA  cannot 
h'cniid.aiidhilhissiippOMtion  we  are  led  by  a  com- 
Fnoaofthe  one  with  the  other.     To  make  our  auer- 
<""  coal,  n  will  preMnt  the  following  paHUgea  frnm 
■lifefM  booka,  and  tbe  reader  can  draw  bis  own  infer- 
on    Weconmence  with  the  book  of  lienensi 
ii.t8«pl..^;.,;r-8Tr.X-<T^-'nS.    From  the  art.  TVit 
maiic  Sana*  m  tkt  Stpttmoial,  a.  t.  SarrcA- 
•i>T  In  ttaU  CiriBpa^la,  It  wftl  ha  reen  Ihnt  the 
StM.  tbanrad  bera  pnrpowly  "•evomh"  Inio 
■■•lllb.''    ir  the  Peghlin  Tenlon  were  mads 
I  only  rmn  UN  oriitaal  Hebrew,  there  wu  no 

iBunn  why  tbe  "J-'i'Sn  oribaHebtaw  ataunld 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

ba  tnnalaled  aa  ifit  read  ^CCtl,  like  tbe  read- 
Ine  of  tbe  Sam.,  Bam.Ter«.,  and  Syr.,  wblcb  all 

I1,4.D'<SC:n  y^gt— Sept»><>>pu>i><aiT^.i;.>i  Syr. 
tl5-iX1  sciao. 
IS.  a-<Ka-Sapt.hi  .<»i>^».  <wt:<:  Syr.  msi ';«-!. 

14.  ^■<nl-8«pL  lai    Inwio.   tS   iff.   Syr.    ^vnil 

Ill,  S.  ys  -nBQ^Sepc  ini  wa^it  (iK«,  -.  Syr.  alio  hu 

T.  nb7-8ept. •MAai  8yt.EtB-^B. 

t.  ^SifT— Sept.  aoi  (Jan  'AUh  ;  Syr.  alH>  inppllea 

OIK. 
11.  ItlX-'n-Sept.  (ui  tin,  airr  °  Uii;  Syr,  -ICSI 

(r-i«  ni. 

15.  no!tn-bs-sepLriairpT»a..;i8yr.!trn3i»bi. 

IT.B.  l^riK-Sapt.  ^iUw*  M  td  ••«'»;  Syr.  KT^3 

ttrVpnV. 

10.  -iHtt^l-Sept.  •«;   €.'.■  rBi>,«;   Syr.  rt  1CK1 

tn-in. 

CpSX^Sept.  ,>°f ;  Syr.  K^l. 
IB,  pV— Sept  tix  ol^w;  Syr.  EUaKtb. 
IJ.  B333-8epL  h.  t^  i«BaT,i  8yr.  Cicby. 

16.  inSM-pK-Sept.  E&u  Til.  i»u<.  aitiAi  Syr. 

nrrsR  mnV 

ibri-Sept.  uu  oXXa^iMra  •••■(>i  Byr,  mb^ 

nsaai, 

T,  U.  ^mi-Sept. «;  ))<»>»  i  Syr.  Tim  (Id.  ver.  Bl). 
W.  Iivraa-Sept.  ^«  ^'  1p^A>  '^B*;   Syr.  p 

lia-Hepl. .»  ^i|  Syr.  -,^1. 
rl,».  iaO-Sepl.  and  Syr.  i=01, 
TlMD-'SO-Sept.  *!•*«.-.  Syr.  •(■'-in  T'in. 
1.  sa— Sept  and  Syr.  B11. 
8.  bsl— Sept.  and  Sk^SSI. 

M.  B-'-mn-Sapl.  Td  <p.  l*n\di  Syr.  (tal  ttllO. 
Ill,  T.  3101  Xir<  K3-<1-Sept.  »i  4FiU«.   .i.   ,i.^ 
>vi*>;  Byr.  -;En  K^l  pBS  pll91. 
IT.  hz—Stft.  and  Byr.  in  (Id,  Ter.  It). 
tt.  lpl-S«pt  and  Byr.  ^p. 
ypl  -Bopt  and  Syr.  Y''P- 
Ix,  1.  bsS-Sept  .»  h.  ■•>r>  j  Syr.  Vsb^V 
».C'!(  "1^0-Sept4«x"pi'l  Syr.S'T'X  ITSl. 
T.  '!X->3'Sapt  »i  ■Avi<~»  1  Syr,  IT^IKI. 
ID.  n«n33-.SepL  ui  Ari  «•!■«. ;  Byr.  Kn-<73  B71. 
Il,  K.  Iins  Pld-Sept  ■.!  li.  N-w  1  Syr.  Iinjil. 
tIi,S.^bbp131.-Sept  nil  «<it  i.r.p^j.wt  >< ;  Syr. 

T'wbisr 

T. '^Klfl-Septuii'itir  oi>y;Syr.nb  niSKI. 
13.  tt]-8epL  and  Byr.  omit  (Id.  xlll,  8). 
:lli,T.  aer— BepL.ot^wn  Syr.^'arr 
Jr.  1.  T^^X  -Sept  and  Syr.  ^I^Rl 

b7inn-Sept»v)><A;  Byr.  Win. 
3.  aXSS-Sept  and  Syr.  SttlOV 
S.  Sna.lu  Ham— Sept. £i><i  o^oTt;  Syr^Vian. 
t.  BTina-Sept.  )•  .<"■.  J^«. ;  Syr.  "Ilaai- 
I.mc,  the  cMoniry  — SepL  td^  ifix'>"";    Syr. 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS  ] 

iiv,  so.  Tra-sepi  i*.x<v.'"t  «»i  Bjt.  T^-xa. 

iv,ll.1l:Sil_8epl.wi«'ir»o«#j  Sjr.rt  -|13l»1. 

•.•,iaKni-s«pt.aii...nw,i,-AA.o».[ejr.To''ni 

(v1,  t.  tO-Sept.  DDd  Sji.  omlL  - 

«.  ^^■a-s«pl.^,  .a.-t  xtfi  •"!  Sir.  ■>s-'-i->ja. 
i8.mb^-8«pt.j.i«.  otryjSjr.nV  niTstn. 

XYll,i«.''sbo-8eiit.<Bi  il^^iL,;,;  Bjr.»zhz\ 

1».  C^nb!t-8epL4Si«irpi.'AA«,^i8yt.Dmn((b. 

xviii,B."in(t-8Bpt.<=iiitTaT«Sfi.i  6jt.;o  nrai. 
11.  emsxi: -Stpt  i.i -.flpoi^  ™  .„«t  M«;  8jr. 

onian  ■'nas  lu. 

».na^    '■9— Sept.    ■■■\a».lrrai     wiK-i    f  I  J    Sfr. 

••BTpnbs. 

H).  ri'SSH  Kb  -  B«pt    ai    nh    ^wa^.'n.;     Sfr,   K^ 

isianjt. 
zlx.t.  nnX-Stpt.  )»4<t  avToic;  Sjr.  ■jtnb  kbx. 
T.  ^OXi1-S«pl.  iln  U  npir  .^Ti.V;  S;r.  n^SXt 

■,in*.. 

11.  E^pan  ^S-9ept.  ii  T«  t£(»  Toi^oi.;  Sir.  '(^ 
M.lB.^Vo^aX  — SepL  ■kfi<ui>"x   ^f  '"ft-B-Hi    Stt. 

oniaxb. 
x^i.B.  pnx^— Sept.  'ifii.1.  «  vUi  oil..:)  sk-  Mia 
nsipnob. 

IC.  B9  (S,)— 9epl.  iDd  Bjt.  DmIL 

ij.-nji-sepL  .;.!>.« ^'t;  eyr.ttai  Kiayb. 

M.  BQ-Sept.  mi  IwJJiNri  S/r.  DD1. 

U,  JBil-Sapt  «u  tt^>r»  'AAxui^i   Sjr.  aX31 

omas. 

sill,  13.  nnK-8ept.  A;  8yr.  in. 

1«.  -\-nn^  PK-Bapt.  TDv  Atuii'»  U  ^uJ)  Sfr. 
^la  T'TTT'b. 
mil,  14.  nV-.Scpt,  *iid  9jr.  amlL 

IB.  •'3B  bs-sopi.  a  (»Tn  ^.tHin,  i  btt.  man. 

iliT.Sl.  C'<in^-bept.uiw<v»nWii;  Syr.  XpaP^I. 
H.  Dips  D3-Sepl.  ■•>>  i««i  Syr.  mnS  TjXI. 
ai.  IBK^l-Sept.  uii  ..Vik  .irf  I  Syr.  fli  lOttl. 
■3.  ial   13X11  — Sept.  noj  •!■»,  Adkn>D>i    E;r. 

.    ins<  nb  -("loxi. 

BS.  i]aV--S«pt.  ^  •■y  an  bi»<>i  Byr.  ',3    ^la's 

pn. 

40.  nVC-8«pL  atnt  K^'^em^tli  Sjr.  1111:  IH. 
IM.  t3nbo-Sept.  l«rJfi«>Tj  fu  ita  i-miM^;  Bjrr. 

brK  -JiiiB. 

W,  HTIM  1BX-^-S«pI.  tl><i>  U  ol  ilu\tti  siriic: 

Syr.  I'nn  nb  iiox^. 

in»-8epl..a;wtrii»5rBi  Sjr.l'lini. 
so.  npai-S«pi.  TiA'.iQ.  i^.  .Uci^^i  'ItS.j  Syr. 

iinnn  xpaiV. 
XII, B.pni'i_s«pt.  Vail  T^iif  >!»:{  syr.  pno^b 
ma, 
B.  xasi^Sept.  •>•  ix^put  i.Hipdi.)  Syr.  ;aw 


Without  enlarging 
once  that  thi 
Syriac  veruo 

use  or  by  tha 


ir  wllati 


'ecn  the  8«p>.  and  i 

lerely  acciilenral.  and  i 

t  th«  Sept.  has  been  ma 

Is  thU  iurereum  ct 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS 


wonla,  the  Syriac  trainlaior  made  use  oT  the  SfpL  lit 
the  other  booka  too.  And,  in<1eed,  Sfseiiiui  bai  |ii». 
<luoed  a  number  of  eiamplca  Troni  the  book  oriuiahti 
show  that  the  Sept.  hu  (oUowed  eveii  in  free  and  arti- 
trary  tnlerpreUtiona  (comp.  hia  Cownnrinr  ibtr  ii* 
Jeiaia,  i,  82  gq.) ;  and,  in  like  manner,  Crtdncr,  vhs 
baa  minutely  examined  tbe  minor  pmphela  in  iutlM 
Propielarua  J/inoruai  Vernonit  SytVKa  quai  Pnii- 
to  vocaKl  ladolf,  thinka  that  tbe  SepL  waa  employnl 
there.  A  eimilar  mult  will  be  acbieted  in  conipaiii^ 
tbe  bookorjeremiab.    Thu^ 

IL  !S.  a 


4.  nb»  bsbsiB-Sept  Jiii  >^>^  V^;  syr.r-rei 

lb->il  bSi  bolh  probably  rending  nbM. 

5.  13153 -8epl..c,»niiByr.Kari,readi'iiB27if:. 


(1.  Tilairrt-8ept  and  Syr.  orolt. 

0.  Bnin  in'xbi— sept-.o^  aitt-,,  u.^*.  urwii 

Syr.  linb  piaOSt  Sb  aini:  both  leadlat 

BHin  for  cn|n. 

E.i:i»K    DV-Sept.  r^ir<iv  !,.i,.^«.:   Syr.  VX'^ 

ei93iai:  both  reading  CU^. 
4.1110  1>SB-8Bpt.  !ai  ..-.pot  ^..r.,-;   Syr.  -jB 

»iin  nO:  both  leading  illS. 

i.iBin  iBia  D^-sept..a;irai..<\.<iM..g.^srr. 
■j-pncn  16*  prvo  ytin-.  bwh  repudBi 

^i:la  not  Ht  a  prnpn'  noon,  bnt  aa  an  Anma- 
<c  lotlnlUve  otE^T 
1.3ln  llpB  laErf  ski.  Id  tbe  Iluaratlc  ten 
the  Atbnach  nndar  l^pB  lodtcaln  that  li  be- 
kmitatiiiaiOli.  The  Sept.  ennnecUllpDirlib 
ain,  alao  randint  3111 1^.„„  ^^x-i^-  in 


It  would  be  useleaa  to  adilaee  more  examplei  for  oui 
naition,  since  we  do  not  write  a  disaertaiion,  but  fi* 
clopailja  which,  ao  far  aa  the  pninc  in  quealiun  ii 
«nied,  baa  treated  that  aubject  in  such  a  riiU  wa.T  ai 
neither  the  intrDductiona  to  the  Old  Teat,  nor  c)*elo|ia^ 
itionarie*  of  the  Bible  have  duue  before,  if 
luched  thia  point  fully, 
-et  another  mailer  which  we  nhould  not  pan 
which,  aa  it  •eelIl^  little  attention  haa  been 
paid.     We  mean  the  tillea  of  the  Syriac  paalma.  which 
found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nur  in  Ihe  eiliiiona  of 
Sept,    The  titles  are  partly  hiatorical,  parllv  dra- 
matical ;  the  fbrmer  apeak  of  David  or  the  Jewish  peu- 
'     latlerorChristUHlhiaCburch.    Nnwtheqne^ 
iwa,  ir  the  Syriac  iraiialatora  realty  peruaed  Ihe 
Sept.,  as  our  auppoaition  is,  how  ia  it  that  the  litlea 
found  in  the  Syriac  psalina  are  not  to  be  met  vitb  in 
the  Sept.?     But  the  quntion  is  easily  amweieil,  when 
we  consider  the  fact  that  these  titles  ire  not  only  fouiid 
in  the  commentary  of  Eusebina.  but  also  in  the  Cnlrx 
AUrandrinvi.     From  the  latter  Ihcv  were  rppritiieil  in 
Walion'a  Folyglm (ynl  vi,  pU  vi,  p.  ia7  •q.),aDd  again  by 
Grabe,  in  llie  fourth  volume  of  hia  edition  uf  ihe  Sept. 
ipativin  nf  the  tiilea  aa  fountl  in  the  Alex.  Codex 
:hnte  in  the  IVshito  abowi  that  tbe  dDccDwiical 
part  of  iheee  liilea  are  a  laier  aildilion,  otherwiae  v-e 
nt  for  the  omiasion  in  the  Hree k,  if  rral- 
I  copied  the  Peahilo.      Deducting  thew 
itles  otherwise  agree  with  each  other. 
Tbua  the  title  of  Paa.  ii  readi:  rpo^riia  mpi  Xp<- 
IV  mi  icX^ff(«t  i^£r;  Syr.  K^rsn  Hr.ilp  bSB 


SYKIAC  VERSIONS  i: 

m'sm  nna  iso  xnnra  101 :  Pu.  iii,  itpo^ 

rM7Eii)tforiti'wv 'iynSHi' r^douif;  Svr.'fl'T^  I'^^tt 

^TTJl  SrS3  S J !  Pm,  ir,  irpnfijriia  r^  Aauii  wtpi 
M.  Hrot^n:  SjT.m^T  Tin  bST3  T-ni. 

IL  Briaiim  In  lit  Ckaiia.—ThMt  there  is  a  loltralle 
iiinm  twCween  Itw  SvnK  uiil  Cbaldte  in  miiiy  placet 
amm  tie  ilfljiaL  GeacDlua  hu  prvdiieecl  >  iiumlMr  a( 
iiuipl**  from  luiah  la  ibow  thai  [he  Tir)(um  was 

lifinkn  in  nfnrd  lo  tbt  minor  pmpliets  {De  Propktta- 
rxm.  (IC_  fh  107).  Hiinmick  Ind  UeriHt  are  of  an  op- 
(miite  npinion,  and  ret  tbe  original  inctt  of  a  ow  of  ■ 
J'l^un  are  too  iliiitinct  to  be  denied,  ai  the  fuUowiiig 
tunpk*  in  GcDCsi  miut  ahow : 

li,  1.  Dxax  Va— chiiid.  Out  iin^b^n  Va:  sji. 

t  r33i1-Ch«ld.  Oak.  mt  ■  Syr  n-SPPKl. 

s.mpi3— ch■ld.Odk.^^^3^pbT^;^)T.D^^p^u 

IT.  ^113ia-Clin1d.0iik.''3"V^la:  8T^.^^b^1^. 

w.  Sinn  ani_chnid.onk.ioin  •fiS;  Sjr. 
xa-in-t  lojs. 

«i.  1 1.  E"3p-Chald.  Oiik.  l''1nia :  Ayr.  Stl^lfl. 
rlkt-l'-a-C-O-Chald.  Ont  ((133    n"tll3i8jr. 

R1313  nno. 
iiii,i.^3Er>i-ch«id  onk.inii:  8^- in^snrsi. 

t.  BllJt  ^n  i7-Chald.Olik.  mp  11»  ^3 : 

sjr.'Tip  '-iiais. 
jj.  -rac^-chiid.  ooij.  iiiaa^ !  Syt.  -,iia33- 

I.  It.  i;9D— Cbald.  Onh.  ^33 ;  Syr.  ^33. 
il,  ai  "JB  bS-Ckald.  Onk.  ^^n3 :  8jr.  ^03. 
ifT.H.  t^S-in  rH-CluM.  Onk.  -"nlsis  n^;  Ayr. 


13  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 

aps-iii  Syi.  if<*i''33i   fM   m-vpi 
T-ire  sips-lb. 
ml, »,  10.  byn-Chald.  S-itSl :  S)t.  01B1. 

B4.V«n  -:3-Cli:.ld,  kV«-|    RS-SSS:  8yr. 

xs:;;t  jtaisra. 
iiiTii,».  D'isjisc^rn-.st-Chnid.  "Ml?  n'.^O: 

Syr  (("31311  ((ni'O. 
ii:f,».1SB53     miOp    ICBJl-Chold.    fT'CtJl 

h'CBsa   n'i   na^an;  syr.  ncBJi 
ncBJ  --"i  nh  ((a-'an. 
iiTii,»i.n''iji  irx  i-'ain  wn  r!(i-ch»ia. 
■^ipi  ■'iipn  linn-'  lasH  kiss  n*"!,  i.e. 

andihepenjileheniiidehlni  'opiiwfnini  ctly 
toclty:  8yr.  ((ip  p   l')K   "'JO    K^jil 
K1p3.    Tbla  <>  a  terr  "bvl.in*  liDlialt<in  uf 
the  Chaldee. 
Illi.S.  ■«3'lSin"IO((1-Ch«lfl."tpn  BTI-.  Byr.O''1 

"Bpin. 

We  could  Itina  gn  on  wiib  lli«  oilier  books  of  t)ic 
Penlaleuch,  but  our  exanipln  are  Nifflciriit  to  ahow 
that  the  prloriLv  belongs  to  tbe  Chaldee  i>f  Uiikelo«,and 
not  lo  the  Peahito.  Out  auppoailion  beinji  correcl,the 
aasenii>na  of  those  muat  fail  to  the  ground  who  would 
put  Onkeloa  in  the  2d  or  8d  century.  On  the  con- 
uan:  we  believe  that  the  Targum  of  Onkeloa  beloiiga 
to  the  time  of  Christ— provided  llw  S.vriac  version  of 
the  Pentateuch  belongs  lo  the  lat  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian (ori — and  thus  the  noiicea  concerning  Onkeloa 
which  we  find  iti  the  Taltnud  are  conlirmed  anew. 
Our  examplea  from  the  book  of  Genesis  leaving  it  be- 
yond ■  shadow  of  doubt  aa  to  the  dependence  of  the 
Syriac  version  upnn  the  Chaldee,  the  Chaldee  of  the 
bo»k  of  Proverbs  will  prove  this  more  fully.    Thua  we 


Chaldee— ProT.  1,  L 

x~=  ipi  xnsvr  -.[tbaVi  ttniia^is  ■'iamb  'p-ab 
JCi  "Ttrn  -;*n  ma  niiii  -"nh  iiioa  lusias 
11,11. 
(uiom  itnniMa  y'im^  Kni-'in 

il,  IE, 

im^i-'ao  i^irsTJi  "i^psia  •,innni6(i 

lii,  1. 1W1  I^XXna-Cbdld.  Onk.  -m  ;-S3  i  8yr 
13  T>y3. 

x>tu,  11.  TOTS  ■%  nr-n  "nba  ^nw-ch«id.  -ipa 

"V  ia-bs  Knr.  n^a-'oi:  syr.  ira  p 

((Wa-Vs  "b  x«in  n-bai. 

-,pT  ■^liCI-Cb.ld.  a-'o   "Jaili  Syr.  •nai 

39(0. 

nLB-isX   ra^-Cbald.  Max)  aX31:  Syr.  a»1 

Mnaxs. 
iill.*.r>i3((a— Cbald.  WSS;  Syr.tU^po. 
uffl,  ij.  mrn  qoa-chaid.  sipn  -"ai  ((bos;  ejr. 

((ipn  "Bl  ((BO  3. 
tHr.itblEJn   bsa   inn  — ChaW.  nj^smS:   Syr. 

prsins(. 

imi,t  Tibn— Cbald.  ^B■0.  Syr.  ^B""0 

iii.ut».s"inn-cbaid.-,'Triia""i9yr.  Kmia-i, 
a  -pso  napj-tTuid.  b^b  i  syr.  eiiB, 
«t  aps-'b  c"^cpn>  pH  o'sasn  n-vn- 


Kr^smi  Krsii  tcbsbi  kpioiis  maoi  ini:i 
inns  1-K  Ola  »bisi  txrni  Vd'o  t*!*  ■>m->rba:i 

((misa    '(ipinai    Kna^in    sniis    i^paa^ 
iwisni 
Tin^biao  •(■'brtai  lapso  -iinpnuK 


We  will  not  increase  the  quotaliona,  but  let  (be  sludenl 
examine  paasagea  like  i,  6, 8, 10,  IS,  IS,  18,  S1-S8,  Se.SO, 
SSi  ii.l,i,  10,U,  I'.Sl;  iii,S,4,6-8, 12,  l&,19,ai,2&, 
29i  iv,2,8,10,lI,14,18,2l-aa,a&-!7;  r, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 
>3, 16, 1S,!I,2S:  vi,  1,3,4-6, 13,  lb,  IS,  17,  l!>,!6,S8,S4; 
vii,2-4,IO,  lS-l8,SS-3a;  viri,4,  R,  10,13,18,90,18,!)), 
83;  IK,  4, Ml,  14;  x,  S-«,  7,  9, 16,23,80,81 ;  xi,7,  IS, 
14,  I8,3l,33,36,37,etc. — altogether  mare  than  SOO  pas- 
sages where  he  will  find  a  striking  limiUrily  between 
these  two  Tcrsioiis. 

Besides  this  similarity,  there  are  a  great  many  pas- 
ssges  in  which  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  deviate  from  the 
Hebrew,and  the  inner  connection  of  both  versions  with 
each  other  can  no  longer  be  doubled.  .Thus  Prov.  i,  7, 
theHebrewreads,n91  n'0»l  mfl"  p»l"— i.B,"The 
fear  of  tiod  is  the  beginning  nf  wisdom ;"  but  the  Chal- 
dee reads,  "''1  Krhm  SPaan  B->1— i.  e. "  The  begin- 
ning of  wislnm  ia  the  fear  of  God;"  and  so  also  thcSvr. 
(("lai  ((PVni  RPOpn  CI ;  or  xvi,  4,  VjB  W 
^tnSW  nini_"The  Lord  has  made  all  things  for 
himKlfi"    the   Chaldee   para|.hraaes,  -,-«iai9     \^rAs 

n-i  T?araai  i^biMV  tmbsi— i.  e.  "All  works  of 
God  are  for  those  who  obey  him;"  aod  thus  also  tha 


SYRIAN  12 

Syt.  nV  T>sTsnoon  ^^••xh  tciw  "rmas  iinba, 

WitbiHit  iocreanng  the  numbei  of  aucb  paiiMge«,«e  will 
ulduce  •oine  in  which  bocb  venionl  entirelv  give  up  the 
Hudretic  text  and  follow  another  reading:  Ihua  Ptot. 
i,  S4,  for  UROni  the  Childw  resili  1  J-'OXP  *i\  t-r  the 
tiwuliUoa  i.  T^rSO^n  Rbl,«ndBOBl«ot1ieSyri«c,(tin 
lWS13^n:T,9,  the  Cb»We*  reads  ^3^niinle«d  of  Tnn, 
lor  the  translation  ia  ^i^n,«nil«oiiithE  Syriai,^V^n: 
ix,  II.  fur  ^3^3  the  Chaldea  lodl  na^S.  fur  the  irana- 
laUonian3lbi:j13,anilliitheSyrUcni'l^Si3.  Theae 
examplea,  which  cuuUl  be  increawd  greatly  (comp.  iii, 
27;  »,4.9,19,8li  vii,22,28j  vUi.B;  is,  II ;  «,  4;  xi, 
36;  xii,4,l9,SI,38j  xiii,  16,19;  xiv,  14iXT,4;  six, 
19,33;  sx,4,  14,30;  xxi,i,SOi  ikii,  II,  16;  xxiv,  &, 
it;  xxv,20,37;  xxvi,&,7, 10;  xxviii.G.II;  xxix,  18,31 ; 
XXX,  31 ;  xxxi,  S),  leave  iia  doubt  that  the  Cbaldee  and 
Syriac  >taud  in  a  reliliuii  ofdepeDdeitce  lo  each  other. 
.  But  in  apeakiug  of  a  rtlattmi  of  tbeae  veraiona,  it 
miut  not  be  uiidentood  ai  if  they  relate  to  each  other 
■a  the  original  and  cop}',  but  tbia  relation  conalala  in 
that  the  author  of  the  one  version,  in  preparing  the 
same,  fidlowed  mostly  tlie  other  wiihout  giving  up  his 
iiulepeudenoe  entirely.  This  we  can  see  from  the  eighty- 
two  paaaagea  in  which  the  Cbaldee  (iillowa  the  Haanrelic 
text,  while  the  Syiiao  deriateafrum  it,  as  ii,l6;  iii.SO; 
iv,S,  11,33, 3J,S3;  vji, 7, 8, 10, 12 ;  viii,7, 11,33;  ix,  13, 
18;  X,  10,13,19,34,36;  xi,  9,  10, 16, 18, 34,  » ;  xii,  IT, 
33;  xiii,  1,10,38;  xir,7,lT, 33, 33,33,86;  xv,  10, 14, 16, 
17,23,30;  xirt,7,26;  xvii,4,9,15t  xvlii,  1,8,  6,  15; 
xix,  1,4,32,29;  xxi.H;  xxii,8,19;  xxiii,  3, 6, 80, 84 ; 
xxiv,  10.  36,  as,  38;  xxv,4,  II,  10,  18,31,23;  xxvi,  3. 
11-13.  17-19.26;  xxx.  15,  J9;  or  from  Ibose  panieii* 
in  which  the  Svtiac  agrees  with  the  Masoreiic  text 
against  the  Ch^ee,  ai  vi,36;  vii,16:  viii,29;  x,  39; 
■  ■      "  -■         ■   -      tvii,6,  10;        ■■     " 


4  SYRIAN  CHURCHES 

lychian  hereay,  in  one  or  other  of  il>  fonna,  cM 
wide  extension  in  Syria :  and  ihe  uaual  teaulti  of 
sion  ensued  in  the  corruption  and  decay  of  true  rel 
The  Mualem  conquest  accelerated  (be  ruin  thus  begun; 
and  from  the  7th  century  downwarda,thia  once  flourinlw 
iiig  Church  declined  into  a  weak  and  apiiitleas  c« 

best  aecurity  from  oppression  lay  in  the  belief  en 
pan  of  ihe  canqueiors  uf  their  attcrly  fallen  and 
(emptible  condition.  Coder  the  head  Haro^tii 
been  detailed  the  moat  renuriinble  incident  in  Ibe  Isut 
biitoTTofche  Syrian  Church.  This  branch  of  the  EiM- 
em  Christianity,  although  for  the  tnmt  part  d 
from  the  orthmtox  Greek  Chureh  by  the  profean 
Honophrsitisni,  look  part  with  the  Creeks  in  their  tept'  I 
ration  from  The  West,  under  Michael  CemUrins;  bbI 

able  result  of  establishing  aide  by  ride,  within  the  nsi-  ' 
row  limits  occupied  by  the  Cliristiana  under  the  Uodaa  i 
rule  in  8yria,  two  distinct  communities,  epuking  ibi 
same  language,  unng  the  aame  liturgy,  and  foUunig 
the  same  rites,  and  yet  subject  to  Iwo  different  palti- 
archs,  and  mutually  regarding  each  other  as  bemia 
and  apoBlales  from  the  ancient  creed  of  their  countiy. 

The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  Syrian  rite,  as  contradii- 
tinguiahed  frum  the  Greek,  eoniists  in  its  liturgy,  ami 
the  language  uf  that,  liturgy,  which  ia  Syriac,  and  wiiti 
which  the  people,  anil,  in  many  cases,  the  prieala,  are  eo- 


xix,2,13;  xxiii,28;  xxiv,  9, 14;  xiv,  9;  xxviii,  1 ; 
xxxi,  8. 

To  these  examples  fronl  the  book  of  Proverbs  we 

Teaiigstions  baaed  upon  these  must  show  the  tenability 
or  otherwise  of  our  assertii.n.  See  also  S,'hunfc1der,  On- 
bloi  and  Pftchiro  (MUnchen,  I8«»);  Mnyluum.  Urbrr 
dit  Bprarht  dtt  TVirynm  tu  Jn  Spiiicin  undStwn  IVr. 
hakai—  mia  Si/rtr,  in  Merx,  ArrMr  fiir  leiafstrhii/i- 
lidlt  Er/.,riA««g  -Itt  A  lltn  TfaiutHli,  ii,  6lj  tq. :  Dathe, 
Oputaila,  p.  106  sq.;  Frankl,  SlaiHrB  aber  du  Srjiliiii- 
gUln  und  PtKhilo  sn  Jnemiit.  in  Frankel-tirHtz,  Ho- 
tmtuckHft,  1872,  p. 444  s<|.     (It.  1'.) 

SjT'la-iiui'aotuh  (1  Chroo.  xix,  S).    See  Ua- 

Bfl'lail  ("a^St,  ^ruwiai,Gen.  xxv,  20;  xxviii,  5; 
xxxi,20,24:  Dcut.xKvi,6,  2Kingsv.30;fem.ma^X, 
Aramm^SA,  1  Chron.  vii,  14,  "  Aramileis;"  plur.  nutc. 
B->S?!t.  ^ranuniHi,  2Kingsviii,38,29;  xri,  6  [where 
tbe'teit  baa  0"'iai-.tt,  which  Ihe  marg,  correeta  to 
O^ai^S,  Eiiomitfi'] ;  3  Chruu.  xxii,  6 ;  but "  Syriana"  ia 
elaewhere  the  renderinti  of  S^X,  Arim;  ^vpot,  Luke 
iv,  37),  an  tnbalntant  cither  of  Weslem  Syria,  i.  e.  on 
the  Hnlilerranean  [3  Kings  v.  20),  or  of  Eastern,  i.  e. 
Hesnpotamia  (Cen.  loc.  cil.j.    Stt  Simn. 

BytlanCburohea,  a  general  name  far  that  portion 
of  the  Oriental  Church  which  had  its  seat  in  Syria,  and 
which  was  anciently  comprehended  in  the  patriarchate 
of  Aniioch  and  (afler  that  of  Jenisalem  obtained  a  dis- 
tinct jurisdiction)  in  the  pattiarchate  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Syrian  Church  of  Ihe  early  centuries  was  exceedingly 
flourishing.  Befora  the  end  or  the  4th  century  it  num- 
bered 119  iliatinct  sees,  with  a  Chriatian  population  of 
several  millinns.  The  Gist  blow  to  the  prusperily  of  the 
Syrian  Church  was  the  fatal  dirision  which  arose  rrom 
the  controversies  on  the  incarnation.  See  Eirrvc^Hes ; 
jA<»BiTsa;  Mo:iOFHTsrTe«;  NsaTOBiANa.    The  Eu- 


innga 


maiiion  under  both  heada,  in  permitting  the  manisxe 
of  prieata  (provided  Ihey  many  before  ordination),  aod 
in  adminiaiering  Ihe  unction  ofconlirmatiDo  at  (he  aame 
time  with  baptiam,  even  lo  infants. 

The  Christian  community  uf  Syria  may  at  preami  be 
divided  into  fuur  classes:  the  Maron lies,  the  Greekt 
(who  are  also  called  tlelchites),  the  Honophynte^  who 
are  called  Jacobites,  and  the  primitive  Syrian  Chris  ' 


Dnites)whoa 


withH 


last-named  community  fori 

the  conlruveray  on  the  incamaiion,  at  the  time  of  tb* 
general  lapse  into  Mnnopbyailiam.  To  these  are  to  be 
added  the  ChristiaiM  of  Ihe'  Latui  tile.  The  HaromlM 
number  about  150.000;  the  Greeks  are  audio  be  ahooi 
50,000 ;  the  Jacobites  of  Syria  and  of  Armenia  Proprr 
are  aaid  to  reckon  together  about  40,000  families,  of 
whotD.  however,  but  a  small  proportion  (probablv  scarce- 
ly 10,000  in  all)  can  be  set  down  to  the  acconiil  of  ths 
Syrian  Church.    The  non-Hanniie  Syrians  who  follow 


the  Holy 

Land,  and  European  Catholics  whn  have  settled  penna- 
nently  or  fur  a  time  at  Jeruaalem,  BeirCLI,  and  Damas- 
cus. None  of  these  csn  in  any  way  be  regarded  as  be- 
longmg  to  the  Syrian  Chureh.  It  may  he  well  in  add 
that  the  belief,  and,  in  moat  particulan,  the  diaciplinary 
practice,  of  these  several  classes  coincide  substantially 
with  those  respectively  of  the  same  cooimuiiitiea  in  Ibe 
other  churches  of  the  East.  All  (with  the  exception  of 
Ihe  Maronites  and  ihe  few  United  Syrians)  reject  tbe 
>f  the  Roman  see.   TheSyrianaoflbeGn!^ 


1114000.   Tbe  resident  Lalii 
e  religious  onlers  who 


reject  ll 


I  Holy 


the  Jacolules  flimly  mdntain  Iheii  oM 
tenet  of  Eutychianism.  Among  them  all  arc  lo  be  found 
monks  and  religious  females.  All  enforce  celibacy  on 
their  bishops,  and  refuse  to  priests  the  privilege  of  con- 
tracting a  second  marriage,  or  of  marri'ing  aAer  oidina- 
licNi.  The  practice  of  fasting  prevails  among  all  alike. 
They  receive  and  practice  the  invocation  of  sainia  and 
prayers  fur  the  dead,  and  Ihe  use  of  painted,  although 
not  nf  graven,  images,  Many  particulars  rqcarding 
them  are  lo  be  gleaned  fmm  the  memoira  of  recent 
missHinaries  oTtbe  seTeial<leitomliiatian%  among  wbicta 


SYKINX  i: 

iki  iMUn  pobluhcd  rn>m  time  to  lime  by  the  French 
SwiMv  foi  (he  Propagation  or  the  Faith,  Kltbougb  ut- 
gnllf  tii^si  with  totue  acctarian  coloring,  are  panic- 
iilirir  full  and  iateneting. — Ckaw^rfi  Exfyclnp.  a.  v. 
S«  Eihcridge,  Uitt^  f-ityrgg,  rlc,  of  SgHan  Churchrt 
lUnl.]Si6)i  Beoifk.rmiKruiuo/'^yr.  CAiin;A«(ibiil. 

Brrlnx,  ia  Greek  mylhab^,  wai  ■  daughter  of  the 
riitr-fod  Lado,  who,  when  puraued  on  account  of  her 
Ivauij  b«  Pan,  pnjui  to  her  father  for  relief,  and  waa 
rkaopd  into  ■  renL  Pan  cut  aoine  atalka  from  it, Join- 
ts tlirm  together  with  wax,  and  uaed  it,  in  the  furm 
tnon  to  n>  aa  Pan'a-pipc,  in  remembrance  of  her 
(Ond,Jf<AHmi,690). 

Sttim,  in  Greek  mjtbology,  waa  a  daughter  of  the 
Cuian  king  Damiethu*.  She  fell  from  the  roof  of  her 
Imoic,  and  waa  natored  by  the  art  oT  Podaliriui,  who 
iliHi  Blamed  bet,  and  built  the  ciiv  named  after  bei  in 
Cuia. 

Sy'ro-Phcsnl'dan  {Xvpofolnaa/t  v.  r.  Xvpo^- 
nnara).a  general  name  (Mark  rii,  !6)  of  a  (female) 
loh^iant  of  the  northern  portion  of  Phcenicia,  which 
wH  popalariy  calM  Sifro-Pkamcia,  by  leaMin  of  i» 
pnniioitj  10  Srria  and  iti  abaorplion  by  conqueat  into 
tbn  kinpliMD.  See  Phiemcta.  The  name  ii  made  ea- 
IKiiUy  intenaliiiK  la  the  acriptural  aludent  on  acconnl 
U  the  woman  who  beaoiight  out  Lard  in  behalf  uf  her 
iditfed  daiichter,  ami  the  miraculoua  cure  wroiigbl  by 
Vlnia  ibelailet.  Uilihew  call*  the  woman  a  woman 
"fCaaaan  (ir,  23),  being  in  respect  to  her  nalionalily, 
in  cammxi  with  Ihe  PluEniciaui,  a  dearenriant  of  Ca- 
nau:  Haifc  dncriliee  her  ai  "a  (ireek, a  SyropluBnici- 
labr  nation' (vii,K),  but  RoMiimUllerriebllyobMrvea 
ihMibe  Jcwa  called  all  lientiles  Greeka  (EXXqwi). 
Jiot  M  the  Gtecka  called  ali  Mrangen  harbariana.  She 
«a  therefore  a  (lieek,  or  Gentile,  and  t  native  of  that 
pan  or  in-ria  which  belonged  to  Phonicia.  We  have 
t  caneui  inaianee  of  the  interchange  made  in  napect 
» the  lernia  Cauaaniiea  and  Phonicianit,  of  an  earlier 
Unrt,  m  ibc  raae  of  Shaul,  the  aon  of  Simeon,  w' 
wl  in  GeneHi  (xlvi.  10),  anording  to  Ihe  Sep^, 

'-  Ix  Ihe  son  nf  a  Canaanitiah  woman.  The  ca 
ilw  Si-Tuplumician  wnmaii  waa  a  very  angular 
i-vk  •«  accniinl  of  the  strong  faith  manifealed  o: 
mn.  aiid  ihe  eiereiae  nf  dirine  grace  and  power  in 
■ainoibiw*  working  by  Chriu  be}'oiid  the  proper 
•ptm  uf  hi*  penotui  miiiisiraticma.    In  Ihe  latter  re- 

PeH.  hiatorv  referred  to  br  out  Lord  in  Lake  i 

37. 

The  inventioa  of  the  word*  "  Srto-PhiBnida''  and 
'.'me-Pbaeaiciana''  aeema  to  have  been  the  woi 
iW  Boaaanii,  though  it  ia  difficult  lo  aay  exactly  what 
il>ty  intended  by  Ihe  e^ipreHiona.  It  haa  generally 
ten  ■■ppaaei)  (hat  they  wiihed  to  diuinKiiiah  the  PhiB- 
acMDi  of  Hyrta  from  iboee  of  Africa  (Ihe  Carthagtni- 
u);  and  the  term  *^53rn^hiBnis"  haa  twen  regarded 
Miht  exact  convene  to ''LihyphiTnix"(Alfard,ai/^]. 
But  Ihe  Libyphvnicea  are  not  Ibe  Phceniciani  of  Afri- 
onrfwrallt — they  are  a  peculiar  race,  half-African  and 
'■atf-Ilnenirian  ('  mixluro  Punicum  Afria  ge^n^"  Uvy, 
'li.  xn.  The  Syro-Phofuiciana,  iherefiire.  ahould,  on 
['it  aiMluf[y.  be  a  mixed  race,  half  Phvniciani  and  half 
■TnaiK  Tfaia  ia  probably  ihe  lenae  of  the  wnni  in  the 
•auiBU  LucUiua  (ap.  Non.  Marc  Di  Propi-itlol.  Sfrm. 
i>,OI)andJurenil(£ar,riii,  169),  who  would  regard 
■  •eBgrel  Oriental  aa  peculiarly  contemptible.  In  tairr 
iiw*  a  geoeraphie  aenae  of  Ihe  temit  siipcrwded  Ihe 
•iteir  on*.     Tb«  emperor  Hadrian  divided  Syria  into 

'*»t  pane Syria  Proper,  SyrD-Ptxenice,  and  Synv 

1'itaaina;  BDd  heoccfiinh  a  Syn>-Ph<Biiiclaii  meant  a 
>aiic  ■/ ^b  aab<pn"ioc«  (Lwian,  0(  Coac.  i)»r.  §  1), 
•kcb  iBchided   Pbrniicia  Proper.  Damaacnf,and  Pal- 
■]T«ot  (•MRawliDa«i,0<''aiI.it.l4BM].). 
Bjvopfthia    (alao   Stnnrapcixa,  SyovpomuXot, 


5  SYRTIS 

Syevpos),  SrtvEsncs,  a  writer  on  the  biatuy  of  lb« 
CouneilofFeirara  and  Florence  (1438  H),),  who  himaelf 
participated  in  its  boainns,  and  was  one  of  tbe  moat  de- 
termined oppuoenla  of  the  union  between  Ihe  chnrchea 
of  the  Eaat  and  Weac  upon  which  the  emperor,  Johti 
Palnologua,  had  set  hia  heart.  So  far  did  he  earn  bia 
oppoaiticfi  that  he  fnundit  advisable  to  rengn  his  place 
as  CHie  of  the  aix  debalera  in  Ihe  council,  and  came  into 
violent  anlsgonism  with  both  the  patriarch  and  the 
emperur.  He  yielded  to  the  emperor's  commands  and 
threats,  buwcver,  so  fat  aa  to  ai^in  the  decree  of  union 
which  had  been  adopted,  but  aftetwatda  deplored  tbe 
weaknen  of  hia  action.  He  waa  a  legal  officer  (^(cot- 
ilfvXn£)  attd  a  chief  aacrislan  (fiiyaf  iKtXifeiapj^O  at 
(>>nstaniinople,  and  also  one  of  Ihe  Ave  dignitaries 
about  the  patriarch  who  were  alhiwed  lo  wear  ihe 
badge  of  the  cross  upon  their  robes;  but  hia  want  of 
flrmnesB  in  the  matter  uf  the  treaty  uf  uiiicm  with  tbe 
Latin  Church  rendered  him  unpopular  at  home  an>l 
thus  caused  him  to  retire  Irom  public  life.  He  devoted 
his  leiaure  lo  the  compoailion  of  a  "  tme  hiator;-  of  Ihe 
untrue  onion  between  tbe  Greeks  and  Ihe  latins," 
Ihereby  exciting  againat  himself  the  anger  nf  ibe  Lal- 
ina  and  their  ftienda  in  turn,  ao  that  Kueaiab  writers 
like  Lahhe  and  Allatius  claaa  him  iinqualiAedly  with 
Grecian  lian  and  Ihe  worst  sort  of  scliixnalica. 

The  work  of  Sympuius  haa  important  and  undeniable 
value  aaa  source  fur  the  historj' of  the  Synod  of  Ferrara. 
It  preeenta  a  credible  view  of  ev 


nby  tl 


positi 


nallyr. 


aented  in  the  council,  besides  revealing  lo 
of  connected  and  involved  incidents  which,  but  for  Ita 
narration,  could  not  have  been  known  atthiaday.  The 
later  criticism  of  Allatius  may,  nereithelesa,  have  coi^ 
reeled  avroe  minor  parttculara  of  the  narrative.  The  oh- 
Ject  nf  tbe  book  was  to  abow  that  a  real  union  was  im- 
poBsible,  though  the  lesders  on  both  aides,  the  pope, 
Besaarion,  the  patriarch,  the  emperor,  etc.,  ateadily  drew 
nearer  to  each  other,  nnlil  the  necessities  of  Ihe  Greeks 
decided  the  result,  which  Syropulua  justly  characteriiea 
aa  a  compmrniae  iiiiainjf)  ralber  than  a  union.  The 
final  drafting  of  the  terms  of  union  involved  extraordi- 
nary difficDities  (sect,  viii,  14).  Book  xii  relates  Ihe 
disagreements  of  Ihe  Greeks  while  returning  from  Ihe 
synod,  and  their  discouraging  reception  at  home. 

The  work  is  extant  in  a  single  edition  baaed  on  a 
codex  of  the  ffihiiolheca  Regie  (N.  1S4T),  Ihtm  which 

Isaac  Voa>iua  for  publication;  bul  Sir  Eilward  Hyde, 
tbe  English  ambaandor,  caused  (he  manuacript  to  be 
placed  at  the  dispoaal  of  Robert  Creyghton,  chaplain  at 
tbe  court  of  Charles  II  and,  laler,  bishop  of  Bath.  The 
latter  iaaiieil  the  book  in  the  original  Greek  and  accom- 
panied il  with  a  Latin  Iranslalinn  unrler  the  title  Vrra 
Hitl.  Uniotii  boh  Vrra  ailrr  Grrtcoi  rl  Lolinot,  etc  (Ha- 
gtt  Comitia,  1660),  besidee  preRxinE  lo  it  a  eulogy  of 
Syropulus  and  of  the  Grecian  Iheiilngy  and  Church  as 
compared  with  the  papal,  which  rendered  Ihe  work  si  ill 
more  unpalatable  to  Rnmiah  reader*.  Allatius  accord- 
ingly prepared  a  refutation,  directed  more  especially  at 
Crevghton,  entitled  In  R.  Crrygklrmi  Apparat.,  Veriii- 
wm  d  Aof.  ad  Hiil.  Cooc.  Flamlm,  etc.  (Rom.  1669), 
pi.  i.  Creyghlon'a  edition  and  also  the  Paria  codex  are 
incomplete,  aa  ihe  whole  of  the  Hnl  book  ia  wanting; 
bnl  several  other  manuMript  copies  of  Sympulua  exisi, 
solhatlbedeliHenrj-may  perhaps  be  met.  SeeCrrygh- 
ton's  preface,  nbiiap.;  Oudiiii  ComnHwr.  iii,  t4IS;  Cave, 

lliMt.  LiltT.  Append.;  Schrdkh,  xuiv,  411 ilenog, 

RaiUKxcylhp.i.'.: 

Syrtl*  {Ifpni:,  "quicfcaanda,"  Acta  xxvit.  IT). 
There  were  iwo  quicksands  on  tbe  cnait  of  Nnrib  Af- 
rica, between  Cj-rcne  ami  Carlhage,  whnae  shnala  and 
eddies  the  ancient  marinen  grrailv  feared  (llarace. 
Odti,  i,32, 5;  Ovid,  Fnl.  iT,4»»:  TibuD.  ii,4, 91).  The 
greater  of  these  was  named  Sjrfw  Unjor,  or  Jfiijw.i. 
and  Ihe  leseer  .'^yrfia  Minor;  and  old  geographers  used 
to  ttdl  many  marvela  ttipecting  them  (Strabo,  ii.  iHS : 


SYRUS  1 

XTli,SS4;  Ptolemy,  iT,  3 1  Pliny,  r,li  3olin.27t  H«la, 
i,  T,  *i  SlUlut,  Jug.  ;S),  Modern  eiplenlioiu  fliid 
]jotb  ot  them  to  b«  highly  riiiigtroua  b*y>,  wtme  the 
tmcberou*  auidy  >hi>re  is  barely  covered  with  wa- 
ter, and  where  terrllic  cluinta  of  und  are  auddenly 
railed  by  the  >viiii<,<ibiic«rin{:  the  light  wid  oTeTwhtini- 
iiig  men  and  even  ^hi|)^  The  (ireater  Syrlia  la  now 
called  [he  aii{f  •>/ Sidro,  bttveen  Iripo]"  •"'l  Barea; 
awl  the  LcMcr  Hie  GbI/ of  Cuba.  The  runner  it  ipe- 
ctally  iiileuded  in  the  accuunl  of  Paul's  eiiipwreck  (i|.  v.). 


!6  TABEEL 

See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Clan.  Gtog.  i.  v- 


Sre  Qiics- 


Sttiu,  in  Greek  mythology,  wu  ■  ton  or  Apolki  ■»! 
Sinope,  wbu  ia  aaid  to  have  giveii  name  to  the  Syriun 

ByataSoBB  (ZuararcEai)  were  letlcn  of  limw 
granted  by  a  bishop  for  a  clergyman  lo  remove  tr-a 
bia  diocese  to  another,  called  i>y  the  old  ci 
torg  Ulhri. 

BjxfgaM.    See  Toki-pkia^w. 


aVUmi- 


Ta'ttnaota  (Heb.  Taanai;  •r\iSV\.taiidg  [Gnenins], 
orftnii/itd  [FilnC] ;  twice  [JuiIk-  xki,  ia ;  I  Cbroii.  vii, 
as]  more  briefly  Timaf,  TlSSn,  A.  V,  "Tanach ;"  Sept. 
fiaya^f  or  Oaai-ax  v.  t.  Tovajii  Savdjc.  etc.),  an  ancient 
Canaanilish  cily,  whoee  king  ia  enumerated  among  ihe 
thirty-one  conquered  by  Joahua  (J«h.  xii,  'il).  It 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  hair-irilc  orManuseh  (xvli, 
II I  xxi,  Sfi;  ICbron.vli,29j,  though  it  would  appear 
to  have  lain  within  the  original  allotment  of  iasachar 
<Jii»h.  xvii,  II).  It  wii  bestowed  on  the  Kohathite 
Lsvtla  (vxi.ij).  Taanach  was  one  of  the  places  in 
which,  cither  fnim  some  strength  or  poiitiun,  or  from 
the  graund  near  it  being  favuraUe  fur  iheir  nioile  c.r 
flgbting,  the  ibnriglnea  succeeded  in  making  a  stand 
(xvii,  12;  Jurlg.  i,  !7)i  and  in  tlie  great  struggle  of  ihe 
Camutnitei  under  Siiera  against  Deborah  and  Bank  il 
appean  to  have  fiirmeil  tbe  headquarters  ot  their  army 
(Judg.  V,  19).  Alter  this  defeat  Ihe  Canaaniles  of  Taa- 
D*ch  were  probaUyanade,  like  the  rest,  to  pay  a  tribuie 
(Josb.  xvii,  13;  Judg.  i,  28).  but  in  the  town  they  ap- 
|>ear  tu  have  remained  lo  the  last.  Taanach  is  almost 
always  named  in  cuiBpany  with  Megii<<b>,  ami  iliay 
were  evidently  ihe  chief  towns  uf  that  itiw,  rich  ilinlricl 
which  forms  the  western  portion  of  ilie  great  plain  of 
Esdnelon  (1  Kings  iv,  IS).  It  was  known  In  Kusebiua, 
who  mentions  it  twice  in  the  OammiiHct/n  (Hnni'ii;^  and 
Hn>>aq)  as  a  "very  large  village"  aiattding  between 
three  and  four  Roman  miles  from  Legia — the  ancient 
Klegiddo.  It  was  known  lo  hap-l'arehi,  the  Jewish 
tnedinval  traveller,  and  it  Mill  stands  about  fimr  milea 
wiulh-eaat  of  Leijftn,  rcuutiiiig  ils  old  name  with  hardly 
llie  change  of  a  leitcr.  Schubert,  Tullowed  by  Kobiii- 
son,  found  it  in  the  modem  Ta'ammi,  now  a  mean  ham- 
let on  the  south-east  side  of  a  small  hill,  with  a  summit 
ofuble-land  {ScUnherr,  MorfffaluHJ,  111,104;  Robinson, 
JliU.  Rtt.  iii.  IM:  AtU.  Sncra,  1843,  p.  Tli;  Schwan, 
Paltil,  p.  lat).  The  ancient  town  was  planled  on  ■ 
large  mound  at  the  termination  of  a  long  spur  nr  prom- 


I  out  noithward  from  Ihe  hills  ot 


le  plain, 

iliuate  lo  ibe  main  plain  on  its  north  siile,  and  between 
it  and  I.cjjan  (Van  de  Veldr,  i,  358).  Kuiiis  of  some 
extent,  but  possessing  no  interest, encompass  it  {Porter, 
llaadbook,  p.  371}.  The  bouses  of  [he  present  village 
are  mud  hut%  with  one  or  two  stone  buildings  (Ridga- 
way,  The  LaitTi  Land,  p.  5(W). 

Tmaaah.     See  Taavatii-Siiiloit. 

Ta'Snatb-Shi'loh  (Hcb.  Taiaalh-  Shiluh',  rtxr\ 
tAv,  Tuaanh  [Gesenins,  appivach;  Fllrat,  ardt]  ~of 
Skiioi,  so  called  piob.  from  its  vicinity  lo  that  place; 
Sept.  Tjifai  £itXw  T.  r.  Qi/raaa  mi  SiXXifc),  a  place 
mentioned  (-Insh.  xri,  6)  as  silnaled  near  Ibe  northern 
border  of  Ephraim  at  its  eaateni  end  between  the  Jor- 
•lan  and  Janohah.  Se«  TniSK.  With  this  agrees  the 
statement  of  Eiiseblus  ((TiWMUsr.a.  v.),who  pbces.Tann. 
hah  twelve  and  Tiemilh  ten  Roman  miles  east  of  Ne- 
apolis.  It  is  probably  the  Tina  {Onva}  mentintie<l  by 
Ptolemy  (Cfi^.v,  IG,s),niie  of  thechiefciiie.i  nfSama- 

tusslen  ili/iiliili.  i),  Taanalh-Shilob  is  said  to  be  iden- 


tical with  Shiloh,  a  statement  which  Kuni  {Gttti.  Jh 
All.  Bundit,  ii,  TO)  understands  as  meaning  (hat  Tii- 
naih  was  the  ancienl  Canaanitiab  name  of  th*  place, 
and  Shiloh  Ihe  Hebrew  name,  conferred  on  il  in  lokn 
of  Ihe  "  rest"  which  allowed  the  tabernacle  to  be  eub- 
luhed  there  after  ihe  cooqursi  of  the  country  had  bna 
comidcled.  But  Ihis  is  evidently  conjeclare  arisn^ 
from  the  probable  proximity  of  the  two  places.  Tii- 
nah-of-Shiluh  is  prubably  ihe  Ji'a  Tana  seen  by  Roli- 
inson  mirth-east  uf  Mejdel  (Laler  Re$.  iii,  295).  auil  l>y 
Van  de  Vehle  (ilimoir,  p.  I'il,  although  erruneoulr 
maiked  Stmtj  td'Dia  on  his  ifi^),  about  a  mile  !nm 
ihe  road  between  Acrabi  and  Mejdel,  eonsistiiig  nf-i 
small  lell  with  a  ruin,  on  the  first  loner  plateau  iu^u 

TaaDltb.     .See  Taltuud. 

Tab'aoth  {TaiiawS  v.  r.  Ta|3»3),  a  leas  corrcn 
form  (1  Esdr.v,  29)of  Ihe  name  Tabdaoth  (q.T.)°' 
iheHeb.  lists  (Kira  ii,4S;  Neb.  iii,  46). 

Tab'baoth  (Heb,  TMaJUk;  nSra^,  riigt  [Ge»- 
niua],  or  */w**  [FUnit] ;  Sept.  To^/Jnia  v.  r.  Taffa^ 
and  To^u3),  one  of  the  Nethinim  whose  deaoendaais 
or  familv  relumed  from  Babvlon  with  Zerubbabel  (Em 
i'i,W;  Neh.vii,46).     RC  s'nle  5S6. 

Tab'bath  (Heb.  TaUati;  na^,  perh.  cMraud 
TGesenius];  Sept.  Ta^a3  v.  r.  ra/3^),  a  place  men- 
tioned in  describing  the  flight  of  the  Uidianilish  biM 
afler  Gideon's  night  attack;  they  fled  to  Bech.^iiiBh, 
to  Zereraih,  to  Ibe  brink  of  Abel-meholah  on  (^T)  Tab- 
bath  (Jndif.  vii,  32).  As  all  these  places  were  in  or  n«t 
Ihe  tihor,  Tabbaih  is  probably  the  present  jT^iaUii'- 
Fahit,  i.  e.  "Terrace  of  Fahil,"  a  veiy  striking  naturtl 
bank,  600  feet  in  height,  with  a  long  horizonul  sml 
apparently  Hal  top,  which  is  embanlied  against  il"' 
wcalem  face  of  Ihe  mountains  east  of  Ihe  Jordan,  anil 
ileacends  wilh  a  very  Heep  front  lo  Ihe  river  (Rolinjoo, 
BiU.  Art.  iii,  82a). 

Tab'eU  (Isa.  vii,  6),    See  TarIu,  I. 

Tab'eBl  (Heb.  Tabtil;  !>X3B  [in  pause  T-htit. 
Itsna,  I«.  vii,  6,  A.  V."Tab«ai"J?  Cod  is  3«oJ.-  Sep'- 
TafJfqX),  the  name  of  two  men.    See  alsi  TnniM- 

1.  The  father  of  Ihe  unnamed  person  on  ulienn  1,'r- 
ziii,  king  <if  Syria,  and  Pekah.  king  of  Inrael,  pn>|<H'l 
Id  bettow  Ihe  crown  of  Judah  in  case  Ihev  uieceednl  in 
deilmiMing  Ahai  (Isa.  vii,  C).  RQ  anie  738.  Vibo 
"Tsbeal's  son"  was  is  unkni>wn,  but  it  is  conjectuml 
that  he  MBS  some  faclious  and  powerful  Ephiaiioiic 
(perhaps  Zichri,  2  Chron.  xxviii,  7),  who  proawltd  Ihe 
war  in  the  hope  of  this  result.— Kitto.  The  Aranui'^ 
form  of  the  name  [see  TaSBHsMOk],  however, bMbno 
ibougbi  In  favor  Ihe  tuppuuiion  ihai  he  was  a  Sitim 
in  the  army  of  Reiin.  'The  Targum  of  Jonathan  mi- 
llers Ihe  name  as  an  appellative,  "and  we  will  iiuil.< 
king  in  the  midst  of  her  him  who  aeems  good  lo  '"' 
(Xih  •<'iZ'n.  ;•?  r*).  Kaslii  by  Gfmalria  turns  Uh 
lume  into  JtVi;'*,  Ai'mdi,  by  which  apparently  be  woulii 
underitaiid  Remaliah. 


TABELLIUS  11 

1.  .(n  oflcn  oT  the  PoiUn  BOTemment  in  Simam 
mltitrdpcifAruiieneiCEzniv,  7).  B.C.  619.  U 
k»  ben  trgntd  thM  he,  liw,  wu  an  Aramcan,  Tmrn 
ihtfui  ibu  Ibt  kuer  whicb  he  aiid  hia  companion! 

gmp.  Gonisa,  howerer  (^rau,  i,  380),  tbinka  that 
it  m;  ban  hteo  a  Samariun. 

Tlbel'lfaU  (Ta|]iAXioc)-aOTSclz«l  fiinn  (1  Eadr. 
B,:*l  oT  lb.  Hab.  naoM  (.Em  W,  7)  TAomt.  (q.  v.). 

Tab'eilll  (Htb.  JiihroA',  n^53P,  aHuumplioa ; 
SifL,  ^mxipir],  a  place  in  the  vrildemeu  nf  Paran  ; 
utalMriun  tbcfact  that  "the  Sre  of  Jehovali  bamed" 
(TCljaiDong  the  laneliie*  there  in  conaequerce  of 
tbdTMplunii  (Numb,  xi,  S).  It  by  at  the  next  bU- 
boa  bnoni  Hunb,  aiid  muM  thereraie  be  aoiight  some- 
ibtR  in  Waily  SiaL    See  ExoiiG.    Keit  arguea  (Cuiii- 

■unuu  part  i-f  the  camp,"  and  rrom  the  omiarion  of 
iMaiwin  Numb.  xx!tUi,  IhU  the  place  waa  identical 
•ilk  ibc  uaiHin  Kihtalh-halluvab  next  oameil;  but 
^  mtiboki  the  fact  that  both  iheae  are  aeparaleljr 

TaberiOB  (~iEBh'3;  Sept.  fStryuf (vnt ;  Tulg. 
unaroVn).  an  nhaulete  won!  tned  in  llie  A.  T.  of 
!>iL  ii,  7  in  ihc  itnit  of  itmnHiiM^,  or  making  regular 
mini!.  Tbe  Hebrew  word  ia  derived  from  5|FI,  "a 
lialftL"  Hid  Ihe  image  which  it  bringi  before 


nine  * 


in  of  Nineveh,  led  ai 


«  bcai  ipdn  ilKir  timbieli  (comp.  Pna.  Iiviii,  ib  [26 J, 
•IKR  ibe  name  retli  ia  uwd).  llie  Sept.  an'l  Vulg.,  an 
■tart.  Bake  d»  iitempt  at  giving  the  exact  meani 
TIcTirgiim  of  Juiiaihan  givM  a  word  wlitch,  like 
Krtni,  haa  Ihe  meaning  of  ''iTTDpaniuntca."  The 
*-r.iolilninanner,reprodoceaihe  original  idea  (* 
•vi^  The  "labour"  or  "labor"  waa  a  musical  in 
mi  !if  Ihe  drum  irpe,  which  with  Ibe  pipe  fiirmnl  Ihe 
^■dodcDiipin-rillase.  We  nuin  a  (race  at  once 
of  ibf  ■«id  and  of  the  Ihinp  in  the  "  laboiiriite"  ut 
'uatamiie'  of  modem  muric,  in  Ihe  "  labrei"  of  Ihc 
A.T.  ud  oMn  English  writers  To  "  labour."  accord- 
■ely.  b  to  beat  with  loud  BUohea  aa  ineii  beat  upon 
>jd  u  iMniiiienl.  The  vcrti  ia  fuund  in  thia  senae  In 
BsMora  and  Fletcher,  Tie  Tibmi-  T.tmed  ("  I  would 
"<«  bcT^.  and  anwen  with  a  aingnlar  felidty  to  tbe 
mn  Mailing  of  the  Helircw,     See  I'iumptre.  BOk 

TtbenMcle  it  the  rendering,  in  ihe  A.  T,  of  the 
tAnnig  Heb.  and  (ir.  wordai  I.  bnit,  CM,  the  moat 
ln|Hi  lenn,  bat  often  Hgnifyingand  rendered  acom- 
^■"inl;'  i.  *,^13C,  nHsAtmi,  the  dialtnelive  term, 
■''•II  »  mdeml,  except  ("dwelling")  in  1  Chron. 
"''i;  Jiibiviii,ll:  xxi,38i  xxxix,6;  I^a.xxvi,Hi 
iIa.ll:lixiT.;;  Iixxvii.  !;  Isa.  xxxii,  18:  Jer.  ix, 
I':i»,8;li,80;  Kiek.xxv,4;  Heb.i,6;  ("habita- 
na')  tCbnm.XKix,6;  Paa.  Ixxviii,  38;  cxxxii,  5; 
''•■ixii,lS;Kv,  Ij  ("tent")  Cant.  1,8;  8.  "rjO  [once 
r'  Ublb,  6],  (At  (Paa.  Ixxvi,  !),  nzQ,  mlcHi  (Lev. 


^U',I6,lB,19),orrqsp,nUiifA  (Amosv.a 
■■iag  1  tmiti,  u  oOeii  rendered :  4.  omjvij,  in 
'tra.T.l.t),!^  sc^Hifui  (Acta  vii,  46  [rather  hab- 
■■■a]:!  tyt.i,IS,U),a(nif.  Deaidea  occaaioiHl  uk 
^  u  MdiDaTy  dw^ing.  Ihe  term  is  specially  employed 
>  Inipiaie  Ihe  Arat  aacred  odillce  of  ihe  Hebrewafmor 
OiteiinnofSidDmoa;  fully  called  l;^-3  hni)i,lhe 
.'•*«Jp"(e*p*ciallyinNnmb,)  mrn  IJCia.'oi- 
'*'*  •/  lit  eongrtgatiB*  (Sept.  onjv^  [1  Kinga 
Uirii)ni(u,]  rov  fHipn>piin>i  Philo,  iipiv  ^«pifT&y, 
Vii,  lU;  Joaephua,furafipnfu>'0£  *ai  nf/nr^mi- 


7  TABERNACLE 

ir»c  va6i;  Awl.  iii,  S,  I).  (In  the  diacusaion  of  lliis 
iiiEereitiiig  subject  we  hnve  availed  ourielvea  uf  MS. 
ointtibutiuns  from  ProT.  T.  O.  Paine,  LUD.,  author  i.f 
Soloinim't  Timplr,  elc,  in  aildition  lo  Ihe  suggestions  in 
Ihe  twik  ilaeir.  For  an  exhaustive  treatment  we  trfrr 
lo  the  most  recent  volume  and  charts,  entitled  The 
Tubtmade  xf  Itrad  m  rAa  Z>e*rr(,  by  Prof  Jamea 
Strong,  Providence,  1888.) 

1.  Tttmt  ami  Synoa^nt. —  1.  The  first  word  thita 
used  (Exod.  xxv,  »)  ia  IBO^,  mitkk&K,  from  ^31$,  lo 
lit  dotal  or  dwell,  and  thus  itself  equivalent  to  diptUiiig. 
It  connecu  iuelf  with  tbe  Jewish,  though  ikol  acriptu- 
ral,  word  Sbecbinah  (q.  v.),  aa  describing  the  dwelling- 
place  of  Ihe  divine  glory.  It  is  noticeable,  however, 
that  it  ia  not  applied  in  proae  to  Ihe  common  dwellings 
*r  men,  Ihe  tenta  of  the  patriarchs  in  Genesis,  or  those 
of  larael  in  the  wildemcas.  It  seems  to  belong  rather 
to  the  speech  of  poetry  (Psa.  l.Txxvii,  !:  Cam.  i,  8). 
The  loftier  character  of  the  word  may  obvioiuly  have 
helped  to  determine  its  religioua  use,and  Juatifiea  Irvis- 
lators  who  have  the  choice  of  synonyms  like  "laber- 

"  and  "tent"  in  a  like  preference.    In  ila  applies- 

to  the  sacred  building,  it  denotes  (u)  the  ten  iri- 

oilureil  curtains;  (b)  the  forty-eight  phinka  supporting 

Ihem ;  (c)  Ihe  whole  building,  including  the  ruuf.     See 

DWEtUNO, 

2.  Another  word,  however,  is  also  used,  more  con- 
nected with  the  common  life  of  men;  SHit,  ihtl,  Ihe 
emt  of  tbe  patriarchal  age,  of  Abraham  aiul  of  Isaac 
and  of  Jac»b  (Gen.  ix,  21,  etc.).  For  the  moat  part,  as 
needing  something  to  raise  it,  it  ia  used,  wben  appliol 
to  the  sacred  lent,  with  some  diitingniahing  epithet. 
In  one  paaaage  only  (I  Kinga  i,S9)  does  it  appear  with 
this  meaning  by  itself.  The  Sept.,  not  dialinguiahing 
between  Ihe  two  wonia,  gives  tt^v^  for  both.  Tlie 
original  difference  appears  li>  have  been  that  3i^!t  rep- 
resented the  uppermnat  covering,  the  black  gosis'-hnir 
roof,  which  was  strictly  a  tent,  in  dialinctiini  rmm  the 
lower  upright  house-like  pari  built  of  boards.  The 
two  wonle  are  acoorriingiv  sometimeejoincil,  asin  Exod. 
xxxix,  32 1  xl,  S,  e,  29  ( A.  V.  "  the  tabernacle  of  the 
tent").  Even  here,  however,  the  Sept.  gives  oaivij 
only,  with  Ihe  esception  of  the  vur.  Uel,  of  q  aajvi^ 
rqc  snirqt  in  Exod.  xi,  19.  In  its  application  to  ihe 
tabernacle,  the  lerm  iM  mean*  (a)  the  lenl-roof  of 
goata'-hair;  (t)  the  whole  building.    See  Text. 

3.  r73,  iijn'A,  Aotua  (olcoc,  domui},  ia  applied  lo  the 
Ubemacle  in  Exod.  xxiii,  19;  xxxiv,  S« ;  Joah.  vi,  24 ; 
ix,  23;  Jiidg.  xviii,  81;  xx,  18,  as  it  had  been,  appar- 
ently, lu  the  tenia  of  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xxxiii,  IT). 
So  far  aa  it  dilTera  from  the  two  preceding  words,  it  ex- 
idea  of  a  fixed  settled  hab- 


■r  the 


Israel  after  Ihe  people  were  setlled  in  Canaan  than 
during  their  waitdetings.  For  us  Ihe  chief  inleteat  of 
Ihe  word  lies  in  ita  having  deacended  from  a  yet  older 
nnler,  the  Hrst  word  ever  applied  in  the  Old  test,  to  a 
local  unclaary,  Beth.«],  "fAr  AonM^Co(f"(xxviii,  17, 
22),  kee[Hng  its  place,  ride  by  aide,  with  other  words — 
tent,  lalMniacle,  palace,  temple,  synagogue— and  at  last 
outIi\-ing  all  of  them;  riaing,  in  the  Christian  Ecdftiu, 
to  yet  higher  uses  (I  Tim.  iii,  15).    See  HotiSE. 

4.  cnp,  kdJai,  or  ti^^Q,  mhlath  ^iyiniriia,  iyio- 
trr^ov^  ro  uyiov,  rd  tiyui,  4anctuarium\  the  hi/tj/^ 
consecrated  place,  and  therefore  applied,  according  lo 
the  graduaUd  scale  of  hulineaa  of  which  the  Ubeniacle 

none  but  the  prieala  might  enter  (Lev.  iv,  Gi  Numb,  iii, 
38;  iv,  IS),  somelimeB  to  Ihe  inneimnst  sanctuai)-  of  ul, 
the  Huly  uf  HoUea  (Lev.  xvi,  2).  Here  also  the  word 
had  an  eariier  slarting-poinl  and  a  far-reaching  nia- 
tory.  En-Mishpal,  the  city  of  Judgment,  the  seal,  of 
some  old  oracle,  hal  been  alao  Kadeah,  the  sanclusrv 
(Gen.  Mv,  7;  Ewald,  CacA.  /jr.  ii,  807).     The  nair 


TABERNACLE  11 

El- Kadi  stiD  cling>  to  tfa«  w*Ui  of  Jeruulem.    See 

Sa!(CTUABT. 

0.  bs^n,  ktfk^  ItmpU  (mSt,  Umptam),  u  meanine 
the  stately  buUding,  or  palica  of  Jehovah  ( I  Chron. 
xxix,  1, 19),  ii  applied  mem  commoiiljr  to  the  'I'eniple 
(S  Kinga  xxiv,  IS,  etc),  but  wu  u«ed  aUo  (prulwhly  at 
the  period  when  the  ihuoght  of  the  Temple  had  affect- 
ed the  teligioiia  Domendatitre  of  the  time)  of  the  lab- 
emicle  at  Shiluh  (I  Sam.  i,  9t  iii,9)  and  Jenualeni 
(Paa.  V,  7).  In  dlher  owe  the  thought  which  the  wont 
emboiUes  a  that  the  "  tent,"  the  "  home,"  ii  royal,  the 
dweUing-plaee  ot  the  great  king.    See  Tkmflk. 

The  flnt  two  of  the  above  wordi  receive  a  new 
meiaing  in  combiaadon  with  tsn  (wwid),  and  with 
nnsn  (ta-efiil*).  To  undenitaad  the  full  meaning 
of  the  diitinctive  titles  thus  fomied  ia  to  poMcse  the 
kaj  to  the  HgnificaDce  of  the  whole  taberoade. 

(a.)  The  primary  force  of  15^  i«  "to  meet  by  ap- 
poiotmenC  xnd  the  phrwe  ^;p^a  hnx  ha>  thertfure 
the  meaning  of  "a  phice  of  or  for  a  Hxed  meeting." 
Acting  on  the  belief  that  the  meedng  in  thia  cue  wu 
that  of  the  worabippert^  the  A.  V.  bu  unifonnly  ren- 
dered it  by  "ubcniacle  of  the  congregation"  (lo  Seh. 
Schmidt,  "tenlorinm  conTentOsi"  and  Luther,  "Stlfta- 
hUtte"  in  which  Slift  -  P/an-kinAe),  while  the  SepU 
and  Vulg^  confounding  it  with  the  other  epithet,  have 
rendered  both  by  ij  ffnji^  roii  (mpruprop, and  "taber- 
naculum  lealiiDonii."  None  of  these  rendering!,  how- 
ever, bring  out  the  real  meaning  of  the  word.  Thii  ia 
[o  be  fiiund  in  what  may  be  called  the  Iocum  doanou, 
as  the  interpretation  of  all  wonla  connected  with  the 
labeinacle.  "  Tbia  ahall  be  a  continual  burat-offering 
...  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  mirliiig  (^S'19) 
where  I  will  mat  you  0?J!«,  ymaHl'ioiiai)  to  apeak 
there  auto  thoe.  And  there  will  1  tneeC  OPI^ri,  raCo- 
fioi)  with  the  children  of  liraeL  And  1  wiU  u<iitt{fy 
(■>ri1S^p)  the  ubemade  of  meeting  .  ,  ,  and  I  will 
dutU  Ori93l^)  among  the  children  of  Israel,  and  will 
be  their  Uod.  And  they  shall  know  that  I  am  the 
Lord  their  Qod"  (Exod.  xxix,  tt-K),  The  same  cen- 
tral thought  occurs  in  xvr,22,»ThareI  willnMfwith 
thee"  (comp.  iln  xsx,  6,  BS{  Nnmb.  xvii,  4).  It  is 
dear,  therefore,  that  "  congretcation"  ie  inidequste. 
Not  the  gathering  of  the  worsliippera,  hut  the  meeting 
of  (iod  with  hit  people,  to  commune  with  them,  lo  make 
bimseJf  known  to  them,  was  what  the  name  embodied. 
Ewald  has  accordingly  suggesMd  OffaibaruKgiith  =  tent 
ofreTelBtion,aatbeb««equiralent{^frer4Aiiner,p.lS0). 
Thia  made  the  place  a  icwrliKiry.  Thus  it  was  that  the 
lad  wu  the  tbcrllii^,  the  Aouae  of  Uod  (Bithr,  SfmL  i, 
81).    See  CosonaoATioK. 

<A.)  The  other  compound  phraM,  TnTn  bns,  as  con- 
nected with  TIS  (=  to  bear  witnes«),  is  righlly  ren- 
dered by  if  eiaivii  tob  futprvpioii,  tiibimaeuliim  I. 
nanii,  die  H^oiiiua^  dei  Zniffiiiita,  •'  the  lent  of  the 
ny"CNumb.ix,  15)  -      -     - 


<xv 


.-iii,  2). 


:  derive 


name  from  that  which  ia  the  centre  of  its  holinesa. 
The  two  tables  of  alone  within  the  ark  are  emphatical- 
ly tie  testimony  (Exod.  xxv,  16, 31 ;  xxxi,  18).  'Ilioy 
wete  to  all  Israel  the  abiding  witness  of  the  nature  and 
wilt  of  God.  The  tent,  liy  virtue  of  ita  relation  to 
(hem,  became  the  wilness  of  ita  own  aigniflcance  as  the 
meeting-place  of  Rod  and  man.  The  pmbaUe  con- 
nection of  the  two  distinct  namea,  in  aenae  u  well  aa  in 
Hnind  (n:thr,  Symb.  i,  S3,  Ewald,  Alt.  p.  230),  gave,  of 
oiurse,  a  force  to  each  which  no  transladuo  can  repre- 
sent.   See  Tkstimo!<», 

II.  Hinory.—l.  We  may  diatinguiab  in  the  OM  Teat. 
tbree  aacred  tabemicles, 

(1.)  The  Anle-Sinaitic,  which  wu  probably  the  dwell- 
ing of  Hoses,  and  waa  placed  by  the  camp  of  the  la- 
nclitea  in  the  desert,  for  the  transaction  of  public  bmi- 


8  TABERNACLE 

neM.  Exod.  xxxiii,  7-10,  "Moaes  took  the  tabemaele 
and  pitched  it  without  the  camp,  afar  off  from  the  csixp 
and  called  it  the  Tabenucle  of  the  Congregalim.  Ant 
it  came  lo  paaa,  that  every  one  which  sought  the  Lort 
went  uDt  unto  the  tiliemacle  of  Che  congi^ation,  whict 
was.withodt  the  csrap.  And  it  came  to  pass,  wber 
Hole*  went  out  unto  the  tabernacle,  that  lU  tite  peo- 
ple rose  up,  and  stood  every  man  at  his  icnt-door,  anu 
looked  after  Huses  ontil  he  wu  gone  into  the  taber- 
nacle. And  it  came  to  pass,  aa  Mote*  enteied  into  ih< 
tabernacle,  the  clouily  pillar  descended,  and  stood  at  th< 
dooi  of  Ibe  tabernacle,  and  the  Lord  talked  with  Uoaes 
And  an  the  people  aaw  the  cloady  pillar  stand  at  tin 
tabemacle-door :  and  all  the  people  rose  ap  and  woe- 
shipped,  every  oiw  in  bis  tenl-door."  This  waa  neitbei 
the  sanctuary  of  the  tabernacle  described  in  eh.  xxv 
sq.,wliich  wu  not  made  tilt  after  the  perfect  reaora- 
tion  of  the  covenant  (ch.  xxxv  aq.),  nor  anntber  ■wictu- 
oiy  that  hid  come  down  fnm  their  forafatfaen  and  wn 
used  before  the  ttdjetnacle  proper  wu  built  (u  Le  QtR, 
J.  D.  Uichielia,  and  RnaenmuUer  supposed) ;  but  an  or- 
diasTy  lent  used  for  the  occasion  and  puipose  (Keil, 
Commem.  ad  lot).  - 

(2.)  The  Siiudlie  labemicle  sopeneded  the  tent 
which  had  served  fur  the  transaction  of  pnblic  business 
probably  from  the  begthning  of  the  lixode.  This  wu 
conalnicted  by  Beialeel  and  Aholiab  ai  a  portaUe  man- 
sion-house, guildhall,  and  cathedral,  and  set  up  on  the 
first  day  or  the  first  month  in  the  second  raw  after  leav- 
ing Egypt  Of  thia  alone  we  haveaccuraledeacriptions. 
It  wu  the  second  of  these  sacred  tents,  which,  u  the 
most  important,  is  called  the  tabernacle  jmr  exerllaKr. 
Moses  waa  commanded  by  Jehovah  to  have  it  erene<l 
in  Ibe  AraUan  deaen,  by  vcduntary  contributioos  of  the 
laraelitcs,  who  carried  it  about  with  them  in  their  mi- 
graliona  until  altar  the  oonqnesi  of  Canaan,  when  it  re- 
mained stiiionirv  for  longer  perioda  in  various  towni 
of  Palatine  (is  betow). 

(3.)  The  CawJic  tabernacle  WM  erected  by  David,  in 
Jerusalem,  for  the  reception  of  the  ark  (2  Saul,  vi,  11): 
while  Ihe  old  tabernacle  remained  to  tbe  days  o(  Sok-. 
mon  at  Uibeon,  together  with  the  biaseo  altar,  n  tbe 
place  where  sacriSoes  were  offered  (1  Chron.  zri,  S9;  i 
Chron.  i,  S). 

2.  lurifd  Fortmia  o/llte  SaaiHc  Tabenade.  (I.) 
In  Ike  K'iUerwu.— The  outward  history  of  the  taber- 
nacle begins  with  Exod.  xxv.  It  comee  after  the  fiiH 
great  group  of  lawa  (ch.  xix-xiiii),  after  the  oovensni 
with  the  people,after  the  vision  of  the  divine  glory  (ch. 
xxiv).  For  forty  days  and  nights  Moaes  is  in  themoiinL 
Befnre  him  there  lay  a  problem,  a>  measured  by  hunun 
judgment,  of  gigantic  dilficuliy.  In  what  flt  symliol* 
wu  he  to  embndy  the  great  truths  without  which  thr 
nitiim  would  rink  into  brutality  ?  In  what  way  conlrl 
those  sytnbola  be  gttarded  agaiiiit  the  evil  which  he  had 
Been  in  Egypt,  (^  idolatry  Ihe  moat  degrading?  He 
wu  ni4  left  to  solve  the  problem  fur  bimselt  Therr 
ruse  before  him,  not  without  puinis  of  contact  with  prt- 
vioiis  amncialiona,  yet  in  no  degree  formed  out  of  then. 
the  "  palioru"  of  the  tabernacle.    The  lower  analogia 

ward  eye,  [heir  completed  worii  before  the  work  titdf 
begins,  may  help  us  to  understand  how  it  wu  that  the 
vision  on  the  miiunt  incloded  ill  detaila  of  form,  mess- 
urement,  materials  Ihe  order  of  the  ritual,  the  appanf 
of  the  priests,  lie  is  directed  in  his  choice  of  the  im 
chief  artists.  Bezsleel  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Aholiab  ef 
the  tribe  of  Dan  (ch.  xxxi).  The  sin  of  the  golden  calf 
apparently  posi|>nues  the  execution.  For  a  moment  it 
seems  u  if  the  people  were  to  be  left  without  the  Dirim 
Presence  itself— without  any  recognised  symbol  of  il 
(xxiiii,  3).  Aa  in  a  tnntiiion  period,  the  whole  fut- 
ure depending  on  the  patience  of  Ihe  people,  nn  the  i> 
lercession  of  their  leader,  ■  lent  ia  pllched  (ptThsblfi 
thatof  Moses  himself,  which  had  hitherto  been  tbe  b»i)> 
quartern  of  coniultatinn),  outside  tha  camp,  to  be  imW 
visionillr  the  labemnclr  of  meeting.    Then  the  mm 


TABERNACLE  1; 

•f  the  liw^Tct  CDtere  into  «ver-doMT  fellowahip  vith 
Iht  mind  of  Ood  (ver.  11),  ietm^  la  think  of  blm  la 
"■■Kitiful  inil  gradoiu"  (iixir,6);  in  the  gtreofith  of. 
ilu[  ihooKht  b  led  back  to  the  rulfllment  of  the  plin 
whicti  had  iMiii*!)  Ukel^  to  ervd,  u  it  b*gin,  in  vision. 
Wlti)  ptvTinanal  tabenucle  it  bu  to  b«  noticed  that 
tbsi  wu  tt  yet  no  ritnel  and  no  prirathood.  The  peo- 
plt  veal  out  la  it  u  IS  an  oraela  (xxiiii,  7).  Joahui, 
ilwugh  of  the  tribe  of  Ephnim,  had  free  acma  to  it 
t«.iO. 

Another  outline  law  waa,  however,  given ;  another 
period  n(  BlitBde,  like  the  Aral,  followed.  The  work 
onlil  now  be  tcaumed.    The  people  offered  the  necea- 

S,6).  Other  workmen  (ver.  2)  and wo[kiiromen{j[xi[v, 
&)  placed  ihemaelTea  under  the  direcljon  of  Bexaleel 
ind  Aboliih.  The  parti  were  completed  geparately,  and 
tktD,  oD  the  fint  day  of  the  aeooiid  year  from  the  Ex- 
ok,  Ibe  tabernacle  itself  waa  erected  and  the  ritual  ap- 
poMed  for  it  begun  (il,  2). 

The  position  of  the  new  tent  wu  itaelf  H^iBcanl. 
Il  Hood,  not.  like  the  prot^iaional  lahemacle,  at  a  dia- 
tasn  Ironi  the  camp,  but  in  ila  Tery  centre.  The  mul- 
tindt  <i<  Israel,  hitherto  acatiereil  with  no  flied  order, 
■en  Dov,  within  a  month  of  its  erection  (Numb,  ii,  2). 
(Tosped  niund  it,  as  around  Ihe  dwelling  of  the  unseen 
Csplain  of  tbe  Host,  in  a  fixed  order,  according  lo  their 
tnbal  rank.  The  priests  on  the  east,  the  other  three 
Imitia  of  tbe  Levites  on  the  other  sides,  were  closest 
ia  tUoidance,  tbe  "body-guard"  of  the  Great  King. 
See  LcviTE.    In  the  wider  square,  Judah,  Zebutun,  Is- 


;  Ephrai 


Benjs 


■la,oo  Ihe  west;  the  leeaconspicuoua  tribes,  Dan,  A>h- 
B,  Napfatali,  on  the  north ;  Reaben,  Simeon,  Gad,  on 
■lie  amlh  aide.  When  Ihe  army  put  itself  in  order  of 
Batdk,  the  poiition  of  the  tabernacle,  carried  by  tbe 
l«ii(s,  was  still  central,  the  tribe*  of  the  east  and  south 
IB  (real,  thoM  of  the  north  and  west  in  the  rear  (ch. 
u).  Upon  It  there  rested  the  lymbolic  cloud,  dark  by 
d^  and  Hery-red  by  night  (Eiod.  il,  88).  When  the 
dml  remoTed,  the  host  knew  that  It  waa  Ihe  ilgnal  for 
lbatogoforward(Ter.S6,S7;  Numb.li,17),    Aslong 

t^tj  coniinued  wbere  they  were  (ver.  16-2S).  Each 
natch,  it  maN  be  remembered.  Involved  the  breaking- 
sp  e(  tbe  whole  atructore,  all  the  parts  being  carried  on 
wiggna  t^  Ihe  three  LeviUcal  familiea  of  Kohatb,  Ger- 
•bca,sodHerari,«bi]e  the  "sons  of  Aaron"  prepared  for 
ibe  temoTal  by  covering  evemhing  in  the  Holv  of  Ho- 
li(awiihapur|^clotb(iT,6-la).    See  EnCahfhent. 

Ib  an  apecia]  (acts  connected  with  the  isbemacle,  the 
engioal  thought  reappears.  It  Is  the  place  where  min 
unit  wiih  God.  There  the  Spirit  "conies  upon"  the 
"moty  tlders,  and  they  prophesy  (Numb.  li,  24,  26). 
Tbitbo-  Aanm  and  Miriam  are  called  out  when  they  re- 
U  against  the  servant  of  the  I/ird  (iti,4).  There  the 
'(k^  of  the  Lord"  appears  alter  the  unfaithfulness  of 
Ii*  twelve  spies  (xiv,  10)  and  the  rebellion  of  Korah 
sad  his  company  (xvi,  19,  42)  and  the  sin  of  Mertbah 
(XI.  G).  Thither,  when  there  is  no  sin  in  punish,  but 
a  diSculIy  to  bt  net,  do  the  daughters  of  Zelophehad 
»■«  lo  bring  their  caul*  « before  the  Lord"  (xxvii,  2). 
Tbcn,«beD  the  dcaih  of  Hoses  draws  near,  is  the  sol- 
(■n'diarge"  given  to  hia  successor  (Deut-xxxi,  H). 

(Z)  h  I'alaliite. — As  hmg  a*  Canaan  remained  un- 
(Boqurcd,  and  the  people  were  itill  therefore  an  arTny, 
tbt  (Remade  was  jirobably  moved  from  place  to  place, 
■kmer  the  boat  of  Israel  was  for  the  time  encamped— 
St  Gilgal  (Joab.  iv,  19),  in  the  valley  between  Ebal  and 
Gtnam  (vlil,  SO-Si),  again,  at  Ihe  headquarters  of 
Gillpl  (ii,6;  X,  15.  4S)i  and,  finally,  as  at  "  the  place 
■kich  tbe  Lord  bad  chosen,"  at  Sb'iloh  (ix,  27  j  xviii, 
I).  The  leasonaofthi*  laatijioiceare  not  given.  Pan- 
h.  periupa,  iu  central  poaiUoo,  partly  iu  belonging  to 
ttt  puwBftil  tribe  of  Ephr«im,the  tiibe  of  tbe  great 
■flAof  the  hoal,  nay  bave  determined  the  pieferenee. 
Tim  it  ooDlhiued  doringihe  whole  period  of  the  Judges, 


TABERNACLE 

the  galbering-pcnnt  for  "  the  heads  of  the  fathers"  of 
'  1,  SI),  for  council*  of  peace  or  war  (xxii, 
1! ;  Judg.  xxi,  12),  for  annual  solcmti  dances,  in  which 
the  women  ofShikih  were  couFpicuons  (ver.2l).    There, 
too,  as  the  religion  of  Israel  sank  towards  the  level 
■tic  heathenism,  iroope  of  women  assem- 
bled, ahamelesa  aa  those  of  Midian,  worshtppen  of 
Jehovah,  and,  like  Ihe  cipii^ovXoi  of  heathen  lemples, 
»  of  his  priesla  (1  Sam.  ii,  32).     It  was  far, 
,  from  being  what  it  was  intended  to  be,  the 
one  nstional  sanctusiy,  the  witness  against  a  localized 
divided  worship.    The  old  religion  of  the  high- 
u  kept  its  ground.     Allan  were  erected,  at  flr>t 
:i  protest,  snd  with  reserve,  as  being  not  for  sacri- 
Sce  (Josh,  xxii,  26),  aflerwarda  freely  and  wilbout  Bcm- 
■     (Judg.  vi,  24;  xiii,  19),     Of  the  names  by  which 
one  special  asnctuaiy  waa  known  at  this  period, 
■e  of  the  "  house"  and  the  "  temple"  of  Jehovah  (I 
Sam.  1,9,24;  iii,3, 15)  are  most  prominent. 

A  state  of  things  which  was  rapidly  aaaimilaling  the 

inhipofJehovabtothatDfAthUrothorMvliltaneed- 

I  to  be  broken  up.    The  ark  of  God  was  taken,  and  Ihe 

aanctuBiy  lost  its  glory ;  and  the  tabernacle,  Ibough 

*'  Aid  not  perish,  never  Bf^ain  recovered  it  (1  Sam,  iv, 

).    Samuel,  at  once  the  Luther  and  the  Alfred  of  Is- 

^1,  who  had  grown  up  within  ila  precincta,  treala  it  as 

abandoned  shrine  (ao  Psa.  Ixxviii,  60),  and  sacrifices 

elsewhere— at  Miipeh  (1  Sam.  vii,  9),  at  Bamah  (ix, 

12;  i,S),atGilgal  (ver.8;  xi,  15).     It  probably  became 

once  again  a  movable  aancciiary;   leaa  honored,  as  no 

longer  possessing  the  symbol  of  the  Divine  Presence, 

'  e  priesthood,  and  some  portions  at 

least  of  its  ritnal  kept  up.    For  a  time  it  seems,  under 

~    '   to  have  been  settled  at  Nob  (xxi,  1-6),  which 

became  what  it  had  not  been  before— a  priestly 

The  massacre  of  the  priests  and  the  flight  of  Abi- 

'  must,  however,  have  robbed  it  yet  further  of  iu 

glory,     !l  had  before  lost  Ihe  srk.     Itnowlostlbe  pre*- 

high-priest,  and  with  it  the  oraculai  ephod, 


eUriT 


d  Tbun 


n  (X. 


,i,  B).     What 


ige  of  fortnne  then  followed  W' 
fact  that  all  Israel  waa  encamped,  in  the  lost  days  of 
Saul,  at  GilboB,  and  that  there  Saul,  ihough  wilhout 
success,  inquired  of  the  Lord  by  Urim  (xxviii,  4-6), 
makes  it  probable  that  the  tabernacle,  as  of  old,  was  in 
the  encampment,  and  that  Ahiathar  had  returned  to  it. 
In  some  way  or  other  it  found  its  way  to  Gibeon  (1 
Chnn.  xvi,  89).  The  anomalous  separation  of  the  two 
things  which,  in  the  original  order,  had  been  joined 
brought  about  yet  greater  anomalia.  and  while  the  ark 
retnained  at  Kirjatb-jearim,  the  tabernacle  at  Gibem 
connected  itself  with  tbe  worship  of  ihe  bigti-places  (1 
Kings  lii,  4).  The  capture  of  Jernsalem,  and  the  erec- 
tion there  of  a  new  tabernacle,  with  the  ark,  of  which 
the  old  had  been  deprived  (2  Sam.  vi,  17;  1  Chron, 
XV,  1),  left  it  little  more  than  a  traditional,  historical 
sanctity.  It  retained  only  the  old  altar  of  bumt-oS'et- 
inga(l  Chron.  xxi,29).  Such  aait  was, however.neither 
king  nor  people  could  bring  themselves  lo  sweep  it  awa.v. 
The  double  service  went  on;  Zadok.as  high-priest, of- 
ficiated at  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi,  39);  the  mote  recent, 
more  prophelie  service  of  psalms  and  hymns  and  mu- 
se, under  Asapb,  gathered  round  Ihe  tabernacle  at  Je- 
nualem  (ver.  4,  S7).  The  divided  worahip  continued 
all  the  daya  of  David.  Theaanctjty  of  both  places  was 
recognised  by  Solomon  on  his  accession  (I  Kings  iii.  15: 


imply  ic 


It  tent,  it 


decide  betwren  them.  The  purpose  of 
David,  futHlleil  by  Solomon,  was,  that  the  claims  of  both 
should  mei^e  in  Ihe  bigbci  glciry  of  the  Temple.  Some. 
Abialhar  probably  among  them, clung  (o  the  old  order, 
in  Ihiaaa  in  other  things;  butihe  Hnal  day  at  last  came, 
and  the  tabernacle  of  meeting  was  either  taken  down  or 
left  to  perish  and  be  forgotten.  So  a  page  in  tbe  relig- 
ioua  hiatory  of  Israel  was  closed.  Thus  Ihe  disaster  of 
Shiloh  led  lo  its  natural  conaummalion. 


TABERNACLE 

IIL  ^)cKr^(iim.— The  wri[lvii  authoriliei  for  tbc  n 
lontionof  tbeUberrulBarc.linl.Ihe  dfuiled  accou 
ia)icrauD(liaExod.xxTi,Rncl  repeated  in  xxxvi,S-S8, 
wiibout  Uij  virution  bej-ond  tbe  sliKbUtt  pouiblc 
■bridgmeot;  tecondly,  [he  Kcoant  given  of  [he  build- 
ing bj  Joaephui  (Ak/,  Ui,  6),  which  is  so  nearly  t  repe- 
CitiDD  o(  the  account  found  in  the  Bible  tbac  we  may 
feel  anured  that  be  had  uo  really  imporUDt  authotity 
before  him  except  the  one  which  is  equally  acceaaible  ' 
■la.     Indeed,  we  might  alnioat  put  bii  account  on  a 
Bide  if  it  were  not  ibat,  being  ■  Jew,  and  ea  much  nei 
er  tbe  time,  he  may  have  had  aeceaa  U>  sonie  traditional 
accauDia  wbicb  miy  hare  enablnl  him  to  realize  ita  a 
pearance  more  readily  tbaa  we  can  do,  and  hii  knon 
edge  of  Hebrew  technical  terma  may  bare  aaaiated  hi 
U>  underatand  what  we  might  otherwise  be  unable 
explain.    The  additional  imlical 


TABERNACLE 


n  Philo  ■ 


fulai 


It  (hey  p: 


iwledge,  and  may  lafely  L 


auihoritiea  probably  would  n( 


X  without  sc 


the  aTTaogemeats  of  the  tabernacle  were  so  simple 
that  they  are  really  all  that  are  required.  Every  im- 
portant dimension  was  either  fire  cubits  or  ■  multiple  of 
Bve  cubits,  and  all  the  arrangements  in  plan  were  either 
•quarea  or  double  aquarea,  aotliat  there  ia,  in  ract,ai 
Acuity  in  putting  the  whole  together,  and  none  i 
ever  hare  occurred,  were  it  not  that  tbe  dimensio 
the  sanctuary,  as  obtained  from  the  "boards"  that  formed 
i(a  walls,  appear  at  first  sight  la  he  one  thing,  whili 
those  obtained  from  the  dimensioiu  of  tha  curtains 
which  covered  it  appear  to  give  auotber.  The  appar- 
ent discrepancy  is,  however,  easily  explained,  as  we  '  " 
presently  see.  and  never  would  hare  occurred  to  an_ 
who  had  lived  long  under  canvas  or  was  familiar  with 
the  eiigenciea  of  tent  architecture. 

The  following  close  transUtion  of  Exod.xxvl  will  act 
the  subject  generally  before  the  reader.  We  have  indi- 
cated, by  the  use  of  ilalia,  marked  variationi  from  Ott 
A.  v.: 

1.  Andthe  taheniac1e<^BdQ)lhansbsltiniike— ten 
talna:  twUtedUnen.andTlnletandpnrnlaandcilmaan 
of  cochineal:  cherabg,work<>r(an]  artificer,  thou  shalt 
1.  makeibem.   (The)lengt]i  Dttheoneciirlaln(sha1l  *--' 
eight  and  twenty  by  the  cubit,  and  (tha  breadth)  I 
bf  the  cnbit,  the  onecnruln:  one  measnre  tobstl 
1.  to  all  the  cnrtalna.    Five  of  the  cnrtalua  sball  be  lam- 
ing sacb  to  It*  fallow,  and  lire  of  the  cnrialoa  Jornlni; 
4.  each  to  Ita  Mlow.    And  than  ahalt  make  loop!  {b)bj 
ofrlolel  upon  {the)  edge  of  the  onscurtalu  from  (the) 
endlnlheJolnlne.anifsoshallthonniskelndhelMltn 
t,  a/tAxndnusteurtatnln  thesKDnd^fr^ntng.' flRjluopt 

•anmd  iiHntny,  the  loojw  stenrfftiff  iqipoiUt  (nibjptt) 

a,   theonelollarellow.  And thonshalt mskeflllytsdies 

(D^P)of  gold,  and  thou  ihalt  Join  the  cnrtalna  one  In 

lu  fellow  wltb  the  taches,  and  tbe  tabernacle  shall  be 

T.  And  thou  tholt  make  cnrtnlnt  of  Koats  f  hair)  for  a 

unt  (bntt)  upon  the  Ubemacle,  eleven  cnrtalna  •halt 

a  ihon  make  them.     (Thel  length  of  the  one  csrtaln 

(shall  be)  thlrt;  by  the  cMx.  and  (ibej  breadlh  fnar  bv 

the  cnblt,  the  one  cnrtalD :  one  miware  ishill  be)  to 

>.  (the)  eleven  cnrtalna.   And  thou  sbaltjoln  areofihe 

cnrtalD*  Miparalelr.and  iliof  tbecDrtalnisapsratcly; 

and  thon  sbalt  dnnble  the  sixth  cnrtalo  l«Mnl(  (the) 

14.  IbrelhiiitartheMiit.  And  ihoDshnltmakefiny  loops 
npon  (the)  edge  oTih*  one  cnrtalu— the  endmoatln 
Ihejolniog^  and  linj  Imps  npon(ibe)  edge  of  the  cnr- 

IL  taiu— the  KonHl  joining.  And  than  abalt  make  Uches 
of  copper— flfty  1  and  shalt  bring  the  taches  In  the 
loone,  and  thon  ahalt  Join  the  tent,  and  (it)  shall  he 

n.  one.  And  (the)  overpfnaSonu  In  (liie)  curtains  of  the 
ItM  —  lialf  t/  tbe  iiverplns  cnrtnlo  snail  hanr  npuo 

18,  the  back  of  the  Ubemacle:  and  Ue  cnblt  from  ihia 
(side)  aadlAtcnbllfrom  that  <«lde)  In  the  orerplns  In 
jibe)  length  of  (the)  cnrtalna  uf  tbe  tent  shall  be  bang 
npon  (the)  side*  oflbe  taberancle  from  this  l^de)  and 
from  that  (side),  (o  cover  It 


.  And  thou 


nt,  sUna 


,  And  than  ahalt  make  Itw  plunki  (9^^)  Fir  tbe  tab- 
eratcle,  trees  [n»d]  of  acaclni  (S'::3),  nnndlug. 

L  Ten  cnhlla  (>hall  be  the)  tengih  .>!  thepliDk.  and  (a) 
cnblt  and  (llir)  hiilf  of  the  ciililt  (tbe)  iimidih  uf  the 

.  one  plank.  IVti  hnndi  (U~MUJ  (shalt  there  be)  to 
the  one  plank.Jolned  [niatO'O.olhers  nmapniddv) 


thon  1 


(0[or 


o)f..raII(tlii 


le  tabernacle.  And 


B.  Andf     . 
13.  [wH(]th( 


phlDks  f.ir  (Ihel  T^tgeh  CxnitA]  quarter  toward*  Tej- 

n.  miallluKnilhi.  Andforty  bam  (-j-TX)  of  sliver  ahalt 

than  make  nnder  the  twenty  pliiilu,  iwu  basoa  under 

the  one  plank  for  lis  two  h;iuds.  n^  two  bases  under 

».  (he  one  ttian  plank  fw  lis  two  hsuds.     And  for  Ihe 

■eoind  rib  l/ankj  of  the  tnbemacie  to  (the)  TesphAn 

n.  [i»rf A] quarter  (Ibere  shall  l>e)  iweui)'  |>innks:  sad 

■  —  *  "wo  bsM*  under  ihe  ouo  (nnij  plank. 
thlgha  [noil  of  the  tabernacle  seawsfd 
laltmske  tli  plauks.  And  two  pliukt 
Ike  for  (Ihe)  angles  {71Xpp,ni(tn>tr>>/) 
.  ofthetabemaclein  thelfalght  [rsor]:  and  (they)  slisii 
be  twinned  (D''nMn,perhsiieJolnlsd,Uii^  or  Mud) 
from  below  together,  and  shsll  he  twins  npon  Its 
head  ['op\  towards  tbe  una  ring:  so  shall  (1i)  be  lo 
both  ..f  them  ;  for  the  two  angles  shsil  (Lhey)  be, 
,  And  {there)  thsll  beeiRhtnlaoks.  and  their  base*  of 

and  two  bases  under  tbe  oue  [iitxt]  plank. 

(Tl-'lai  of  trees  li«i«f]of 

......  ..he)  plank*  o 

inclCj  snd  five  bsrs  l<>r  (the)  plsnki 


KDi  thon  fhalt  maki 


■caclaa  (ShUtiml ;  five  for  (the)  plank*  of  Ihe  on*  rib 

M.  l/anijofthotabemncle  sndfi»ebs™^^>^(lhe)^'~'" 
or  the  aecoDd  rib  Iflani]  of  ihe  tnbemaele,  atiu  eve 
burs  for  (the)  planks  of  (the)  rib  IJIank]  of  the  taber. 

IS.  nscle  for  the  Ihlgha  [r«n  eeawnrd  Imirij.  And  Ibt 
middle  bar  In  (the)  niddre  o[  ibe  plunks  (abalt)  bar 
(H'^'IS^.be  bolUng  throngli)  from  the  end  to  the  end. 

».  And  I'be  planks  than  ehilt  overlay  (with)  gold,  and 
the  rings  thoashflU  make  (of)  gold, (as)  houses  [piaa'l 


1.  Tie  eoBrf  pxn)  was  a  large  rectangular  eneloann. 

ftsdimensions  are  given  more  tlian  once,  being  lOOmbiii 
long  and  60  broad.  Jta  conslruciiun  was  very  simplr, 
being  composed  of  a  frame  of  fimr  aides  of  dislinct  pil- 
lars, with  cnrtalna  hung  nponlhem.  In  other  wordi.lt 
wai  surrounded  by  canvas  screens— in  the  East  calW 
kawaSli,  and  still  univcisally  lued  M  enclose  the  pri. 
rale  apartments  of  important  personage*.  The  pillsn 
were  probably  of  shi  tlim-wood  (that  is,  the  desert  acacii). 
a  light,  close-grained,  imperishable  wood,  eaaily  lakiiiir 
on  a  line  natural  polish,  though  it  is  nowhere  diceci'y 
intimated  of  what  malerial  they  were;  Ibay  wtre  Bis 
cubits  in  height  (sufficient  to  prevent  a  person  from  look- 
ing over  them  into  tbe  enclosure),  but  their  other  di- 
mensions are  not  given,  so  that  we  cannot  be  sore 
whether  ther  were  round  (Ewald)  or  four-ootmnd 
(Dahr).  probably  the  latter.  At  the  bottom  these  pil- 
lan  were  protected  or  shod  by  suckela  of  bias*  (coppd). 
It  is  nol  quite  cany  to  aay  whether  these  sockets  wet* 
merely  fur  protection,  and  perhaps  ornament,  or  if  thtr 
also  helped  to  give  stability  to  the  pillar,  to  tbe  [stter 
case,  we  mar  conceive  the  socket  to  bare  been  of  Itis 
shape  of  a  hollow  wedge  or  pointed  funnel  driven  into 
the  ground,  and  then  the  end  of  the  pillar  pushed  doan 
into  its  cavily ;  or  they  may  have  been  aimply  plsto 
laid  on  the  ground,  with  a  hole  for  the  reception  of  iht 
tenoned  foot  of  Ihe  pillsr,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "boanlf" 
noticed  bebw.  Other  appliances  were  used  to  give  tit 
structure  firmness,  vit  the  common  article*  of  lent  a^ 
chitecture,  ropes  and  pins  (Rxod.  xxxr,  18).  Atll»  I 
top  these  pillars  had  a  capital  or  head  (xmriii,  1^ 
"chapiter"),  which  was  overlaid  with  nlrer;  butwheth-  . 
er  the  body  of  the  pillar  was  plated  with  any  metil  i>  I 
not  said.  Cunnecled  with  Ihe  bead  of  tbe  pillar  were  i 
two  other  articles,  hsokt,  and  thing*  called  O^p^'S 


TABERNACLE 


TABEKNACLE 


■nillorCMU 


tt»k,Um,n 

rclirf 
nnl  the  pillar  (lo  Ewild,  .Iftrr. 
tturr,  p.  33S,  iKtU  &),  bat  moU 
pntitbir  moaing  rodi  (w  <ie- 
■nniUit'Uni,  and  othen),  Joining 
OH  piUu  u>  aDothcT.  Tbesc  rodi 
mt  kid  DpoD  the  hoaki,  and 
vn-ed  lo  mltach  tli«  hwiginga  to 
nd  mpend  them  rrooi.  Tbe  hooks  and  rodi  were 
■Ircr,  ibuugh  Knobcl  conjectures  tbe  liller  miut  have 
bwo  m«e1)r  pUt«d  (ExaL  p.  278),  The  mode  of  ad- 
JuBing  ibfae  haofpngt  wu  timilar  to  tbat  of  tbe  door- 
■if  xTHiu  and  "vul"  deKiibed  below. 

The  drciuDfereoce  of  tbe  enclos- 
m  tha  formed  ■»  800  cubit*, 
at  tbe  niunber  of  piltaia  is  iwd  lo 
iiT«beaiSO+»)  +  10  +  10=60, 
■luch  vonld  give  betoeen  areiy 
m  piUin  a  apu:e  of  ^  -  &  cu- 
Ini.  There  baa  beeo  conaider- 
■Ue  difiealty  in  ■ccorately  con-  cnrtaln-wall  orEnlmi 
cnriog  ibc  melbod  adopted  by 
(hi  writer  in  dlculiting  tbeK  pillan.  Thi>  difficulty 
na  from  the  ooraer  pillan,  each  nf  wbicb,  o(  coune, 
Idngi  both  (D  tbe  tide  and  tu  the  end.  It  baa  been 
■Vpoacd  b;  nany  that  tbe  author  calculated  each  one 
(■nxr  pillar  twice;  tbat  is, coniidered  it,  though  one  in 
iuctf.aia  pillar  of  tbt  side  and  abo  u  a  pillar  of  tbe  end. 
nitmoM  antkein  all  56  actual  pillars,  and,  ofcourae,  u 
■«iT>pac«(Itabr,KnDbel,elc.);  that  ii, nineteen  spaces 
«  each  aide,  and  nine  on  the  ctiU.  Now  uace  tbe  aide 
■H  100  rabiu  and  the  end  50,  thia  would  give  for  each 
■itail^e  Vlf.=?A.'""l  f™™""  •'"'  »P»"  V=6f  •!'»■ 
t>iti,ipaceiaiiificial  in  ihenuelvea  and  unlike  each  other, 
hiioerlainlj  mrot  probable  that  the  apaces  of  side  and 
ol  were  of  exactly  the  aame  liie,  and  that  each  of  them 
«M  MRH  exact,  and  no  fnctiMial,  number  o(  cublta. 
Tbe  lUBnilt y  may  be  completely  remored  by  aaauming 
tbe  dalance  of  3  cubiu  to  each  ^lace,  and  counting  aa 
in  tbe  accompanying  gnmnd-plan.  Thus,  aince  each 
■ilia  vaa  100  cubitti  tbia  neeils  twenty  apacea.  But 
mnty  ^lacea  need  twenty-one  pillin.  So  that,  aup- 
p«i«g  ua  Id  aurt  from  the  aoutb-eaat  comer  and  go 
■Jcog  tbe  nath  ndr,  ve  ihould  have  for  100  cubila 
msty-oDC  pilUrauui  twenty  tpuxt;  but  of  theae  we 
Awid  OD«Dt  twenty  spacea  and  piUara  for  the  aoutb 
■de,aad  eaU  the  aoutb-weat  corner  pillar,  not  the  twen- 
ty-ana pilhr  of  tbe  nda,  but  the  ftiit  of  the  end.  Then 

cess 


rr'rm 


(Det. 


1  snggested  bj  AMjrlu 


going  up  tbe  end,  we  thould  count  ten  pillara  and  spaces 
aa  end,  but  cvnsder  the  north-wnt  comer  pillai  nut  a* 
eleventh  of  tbe  end,  bat  firet  of  the  north  siile;  and  so 
on.  In  ihi*  way  we  gain  sixty  pillira  and  aa  many 
•paces,  and  have  each  apace  esaciiy  5  cubiia. 


dbyo, 


whUe  B. 


rendering  « 

for  conon.  At  all  cventa,  tbe  curtaina  were  a  atriHig 
this  glancing  white  material,  and  were  hung 
pillars,  moat  likely  outude,  ihoiigb  that  u  not 
known,  bdng  attached  to  the  pillan  at  tbe  top  by  the 
hooks  and  rods  already  described,  while  the  whole  waa 
stayed  by  pins  and  cOTds,  like  a  tent. 

The  entrance,  which  via  uluated  in  the  eentnof  the 
eaat  end,  and  was  twenty  cubita  in  extent,  waa  formed 
also  of  ■  hanging  (tecbnically  T\0'0,  matdi)  of  "  blue, 
purple,  and  acarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen,  work  of  the 
Dpi-^  rokem'  (A.  V.  "  needle-work").  The  lut  word 
has  usnally  been  cocaidered  to  mean  rmbnidertr  with 
the  needle,  and  the  curtain  fancied  lo  have  had  figares, 
flawera,  etc,  of  tbe  menlioned  culora  wrought  into  it. 
But  BDch  kinds  of  work  hare  always  a  "wrong"  «de, 
and,  moat  probably,  taking  into  account  the  meaning 
of  the  word  in  Aiabic,  and  tbe  fundneta  of  the  Arab*  at 
this  day  for  atriped  blanketa,  the  word  means  "weaver 
of  atriped  cloth,"  and  the  hanging  1*  to  be  coneeived  aa 
woven  with  lints  or  stripes  of  blue,  purple,  and  aculet 


a   e   ;    B 


S  3  ii  5  S  E  .1 


o 


Fla«  oftba  Tabamade  and  lu  Coart.    (From  BIggenbaeb'a  MoiaiKKt  Sf/tiUlu.) 

tmltlmwO.  a.ArtlalttHoljDtHolia.  t,T>)l>iifik 


TABERNACLE 

Ml  th«  whiM  gnand  of  ikak  (Koobel,  K«it,  etc), 
other  worda,  the  tcarp,  or  lougitudinil  threads,  wi 
whiui  linen,  while  the  moo/  made  cro»-bars  (n 
would  hmng  verticaUv)  of  hrilliinlly  dyed  wool 
treble  thread.  Thej  were  merely  iiiiin  uid  wi 
without  gohl  ur  emljroiderHl  figures. 

The  furniture  of  the  court  coiuiMed  of  the  eltar  of 
burut- offering  and  the  iaver.  ThCK  are  Hifflci 
deectibed  under  their  appropriate  heading).  See  Al- 
tar; Lavkr.  What  coocenu  us  ia  the  position  of 
them.  In  all  probability,  the  tabernacle  proper  stood 
with  iu  entrance  exactly  in  the  middle  ol  the  court, 
that  is,  any  cubila  frooi  the  entrance  of  the  court 
very  poasilily  the  altar  of  burnt -olleriug  ulood,  again, 
midway  between  the  door  of  the  court  and  that  of  the 
tabernacle,  i.  e.  twenty-five  cubitafmin  each,  and  i 
where  in  the  twenty-live  cubits  between  the  alta 
the  tabernacle  stood  tbe  laver  (Josephua,  AM.  iii,  6,  2). 

'i.  The  TiAenuide  iTMl/t— Following  the  nethod  pur- 
sued with  the  outer  court,  we  begin  with  the  walls. 
These  were  built  of  bosrds,  or,  rather,  planks  (B^1C^[|'| 
Ixriulim),  in  dose  contact  with  each  other.  Tbey  were 
of  shillim-wood,  overlud  with  gold  on  both  sides,  ten 
eubita  high  and  one  and  a  half  culut  broad,  their 
thickucBs  being  nowhere  given.    From  the  foot  of 
plank  came  out  two  "tenons"  (TMl^, jnddfA  =  hands), 
which  must  not  be  conceived  as  connecting  the  pL 
with  each  other  lateralli',  m  if  there  corresponded 
tenon  in  one  plank  a  mortise  in  another;  they  wer 
connecting  each  particular  plank  with  the  ground, 
mutt  he  conceived  as  two  wedge-ahaped  or  pointed 
pieces  (probably  of  copper,  or  perhaps  of  silver),  pro- 
jecting from  the  lower  end  of  the  plank.    These  tenon 
were  thrust  into  silver  aocket^  of  which  two  were  pre 
pared  for  each  plank,  each  socket  being  the  weight  of 


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irt.  Slid  their  Position  nn- 


talent  of  ulver.  Whether  theae  sockets  were  wedge- 
ahued  or  pointeil,  and  themselves  went  into  the  ground, 
or  whether  they  were  mete  faot-pUtes  fur  tbe  pisnk 
with  holes  forthe  tenons  to  pamlhruugh  into  the  grounii 
(the  last  more  probable),  is  not  intimated.  I'n.r.  PaiiK 
has  ingeniously  suggested  the  thickness  of  these  sock. 

ulni  BQuarc).  ai  in  the  adjoin- 

if  the  sock- 

es,  that  the  planks  should  be  (as  Jose. 

third  of  a  spsn,  i.  e.  one  MXth  of  a  cu- 

■"    thick  (which  i! 


tJ 


jiPdne). 


strenglh),in  order  to 

ly.as  illustrated  in  the 
subjoined  cut.  This 
might  indeed  hr.TC 
been  effected  on  the 
suppodiion  that  the 

thick,aitbe  accompa- 
nying cut  will  show ; 
hut  we  can  hardly 
suppose  that  the 
planks  overhung  the 
Bupport- 


ConierPlai..r,.,.„„„ 

tbe  BsHs  (accord- «■  them.  These  I 
did  not  nquirc  U 


•       1       I — 

—        •  • 


Planks  on  their  Bases  (aceordinit  to  the  eomaon  view), 
ter  deeply  into  the  ground,  aa  tbei«  wu  do  lateral  ainin 
upon  them,  and  the  whole  wright  of  the  building  kept 
them  firmly  in  their  place.  TlKir  only  object  was  to 
keep  the  Iraltom  of  the  planks  level  and  even.  Tbe  up- 
per ends  of  the  planks,  however,  needed  to  be  kept  from 
separating,  as  tliey  would  certainly  do  under  the  trac 
tion  of  the  atay-ciinl*  fure  and  al\.  Hence  the  lenosi 
mentioned  in  Exod,  iKvi,  IT  are  carefully  distinguished 
from  those  (already  described)  referred  to  in  ver.  19; 
and  they  ate  designated  (without  any  sockets  aasi(^«i 
to  them)  by  a  peculiar  term,  nSa^d'a,  tiutluillihiiti, 
which  occura  here  only.  It  is  regardnl  bj-  Qeseniui  as 
radically  signifying  nnlcAtd,  but  he  undciitands  it  here 
as  meaning  joi'nnf,  a  sense  in  which  FUrst  and  Ullhlau 
emphaticallv  concur,  to  the  exclusion  of  that  adcqxed 
by  the  Sepl  iAvTixirrovrit)  and  the  A.  V.  ("set  in 
order").  Prof.  Paine  refers  the  term  to  the  lop  of  the 
pUnks,  and  renders  it  dutped,  understanding  a  separate 
plate  with  holes  corre- 
sponding to  pins  or  ten-  Ff:  ZTl 

ons  (probably  all  of  cop-  [^ ^ 

per)  in  the  nppet  end  " 
of  the  pUnks  likewise,  ^ 
as  in  the  annexed  cut.  i-pl p=h-. 


visimifurtheatabiliivof  " 

the  Mracture,  of  *liich  '''^'^^X-'"  'the  T^raad' 
no  one  else  aeema   to      (accord!  ug  la  Psina). 
have  thought.     Never-       j,^.,i_^   B, i- b-,* d-p-. 
thelern,  as  he  privately 

informs  ua,  he  has  since  abandoned  this  distinction  be- 
tween the  lop  and  bottom  tenons,  and  in  hia  tbtthcoin- 
ing  second  edition  he  will  dispense  with  the  dasps. 
The  long  middle  bar,  if  pinned  to  each  end  fJank. 

'ould  subserve  a  umilar  purpose.  Something  of  ibii 
sort  ia  perhaps  intimated  by  the  boiling  (n^-IZ-S,  m:!i) 
The  roof-curtains  wwilil 
likewise  assist  in  holding  the  planks  together. 

or  these  boards,  which,  being  one  and  a  half  mbll, 

!.  about  two  and  •  half  feet  broad,  must  have  been  fann- 
ed of  aeveral  smaller  ones  jointed  together,  there  "tie 
the  north  and  twenty  nn  the  south  sidp,tliiis 
making  each  side  the  length  of  thirty  cubita.  For  tbe 
west  end  were  made  six  boards,  yielding  nine  cuhits. 
and  in  addition  two  boards  for  the  comers  (Exod.  xxvl, 
22  sq.),  making  in  all  eight  boards  and  twelve  cubltii 
and  as  the  end  is  thought  (so  Josephus,  A  nf.  iii,  6,  B) 
'  have  been  ten  cuhits  (proponionate  to  that  in  Soln- 
m'a  Temple,  I  Kinga  vi,  3,  30),  this  would  imply  that 
each  comer  plank  added  half  a  cubit  to  the  width,  hoi 
nothing  to  the  length,  the  measurements  being  tskati 
inude.    Were  the  planka  supposed  a  cuhit  thick, wbicb' 


.n  (but 


i«hi),lhei 

iBclly  cover  the  thickness  of  the  »«, 
plank.    The  description  given  of  the  comers  is  exeerd' 
ingly  perplexing,  and  the  diversity  of  opinion  is  nalursl", 
lygreat.  ThodiKcuhiesallliein  Kxoil.xxir,t4.  Itgooj 
.......  ,|,p]jj  together;"  rather,  they  ibiDl 

be  "  twins,"  or  "  twinned"  (DCXP,  MEaifn].  "Tber* 
evidently  refen  to  the  comer  plonks;  and,  setting  saM 
they  make  twins  together,  which  antm 


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W- 


vX  itself  iDikes  talni,  whicb 

I  it  would  do  if  iL  bad  two  \tp 

•  ccauining  tbr  ■ogle  bMween 

—  them.    IfChe  comer  pUnk  be 

two-leggsd,  it  iildi  necema- 

rily  Mmething  la  llie  length, 

and  thai  de«tni)-8  ibe  meaa- 

<       I  uremenL      One  explanation 

CoTKi  Board  of  Iha  Tab-  i,  therefore  to  regara  the  end 
Si^i.T"  .,.>.^,rpU,„l..,,^..in. 
t.  e.  corresponding  to  the  aide 
[hnk  (L  FoTtber,  ewh  comer  plauk  must  be  "  entire 
(:-ari,(<iaui(j»)«lorop  ita  head"  (A.  V.,  with  many 
abmcoiHiden  fanuum  the  aame  aa  toaminC),  Kow  if 
ibftuaiTbe  not  the  lop  of  the  plank,  but  the  edge  or 
pint  <if  [tic eomer,^  then  the  atitcirtenl  impliea  that  the 
onfrpliDk  of  the  end  wall,  though  prolnnKing  the  aide 
Till  ouiadp^  muat  TK>t  be  cut  away  or  sloped,  for  example, 
mitKCBhioR  indicateil  bv  the  dolled  line*  c  i.  Once 
agn,  Ibe  worda  are  added  "  unto  one  ring,"  accnratelj 
■HiathedntriDg."  Keii(ConTnflif.adloc)undeiaund9 
ihit  -Ibe  tmo  eorner  luardi  at  the  back  were  to  cmisist 
DfKiiiiinx*  joined  logetber  at  a  right  angle,  >o  aa  to 
{stB,  at  doable  boardi,aiie  single  whole  from  the  top  to 
tilt  bouom."  and  cliaC  "one  ring  waa  placed  half-way 
^  ■ifxi  Dprif-bt  board  in  tbe  comer  or  angle,  in  such  a 
niBBttihil  tbe  central  bolt,  which  stretched  along  the 
rvtirf  IfDgrh  of  the  walla,  might  fasten  into  it  from 
bub  ibt  aide  and  back."  Hurpby  {Cammaa.  ad  Inc.) 
suggeala  a  rorm 
which  we  rep- 


.in.pI.. 


effectual 

C«Mr  Board  (aecoriing  to  Murphy),  m"""*'-  The 
rnig  and  sUplee 
■  the  tip  and  bottom  of  the  comer  planks  formed  a 
lii^.nibal  tbe  adjoining  planks  were  nciannf,  ot  car- 
n»l  tuftether  aa  me.  That  the  end  planks  went  in  be- 
'nm  the  last  tide  planks  (aa  neatnea*  and  uuge  in 
■di  itniaam  dictated),  making  the  inlerlor  width  of 
Ot  ubenade  the  full  twelve  cu- 
iitL  ii  probable  from    Ihe  length 

■Ard,il  tbey  were  kHigitndinal- 


Ibe  ■illi  or  pUnka,  in  addition 
lo  [U  natality  they  may  have  dc- 
nnl  Ironi  the  aocketa  at  the  bot- 
■■>  (ad  periiapa  tbe  cl*spa  at  Ihe 
1^).  vac  boBDd  together  liy  fire 
bn  or  botii,  thma  into  rings  ot- 
UcMu  each  plank.  Theae  bars, 
n  sD  |int)aljilily,nn  along  the  ouu 
idc  iboogb  that  ia  not  inlimated, 
M  Evald  tbinka  otherwise^  One 
laritnidlohavegonain  Ihemid- 
<lle  Ti'ra) :  thia  ia  uaually  Uken 
U  BOB  k^r-way  op  the  pisnk,  and 
■iib  tn  bars  on  each  aide  of  it, 
•ice  Hid  below ;  but  some  inler- 
tm  ""tbrnugb  tbe  heart  of  the 
toanji*  (Rii^enbacb),  and  others 
*>kniai>4  it  of  the  rear  bar  alone. 
Tint  tbeie  scciD  to  bare  been  ihm 


rowa  of  bars,  the  top  and  bottom  one  on  each  of  the 
sidea  being  in  two  pieces.  Jowphus'a  account  ii  sonie- 
what  different :  "  Eiery  one,"  he  savi  iA  -1.  iii,  6,  8), 
"of  tbe  inllars  or  boards  had  ■  ring  of  gold  sfGxed  to 
its  front  outwards,  into  which  were  inserted  bars  gilt 
with  gold,  esch  of  Ihem  five  cubits  long,  and  these 
bound  together  tbe  boanls;  tbe  head  of  one  bar  run- 
ning into  another  after  the  manner  ofiine  tenon  insert- 
ed into  anotbeT.  Hut  for  the  wall  behind  tliere  waa 
only  one  bar  tbat  went  through  all  ihe  boarda,  into 
which  one  of  the  ends  of  the  bars  on  both  sides  was  in- 
serted." Tbe  whole  edittce  was  doubileaa  further  stayed 
by  ropes  attacheil  to  tent-pins  in  the  ground  from  knoba 
on  the  outside  of  the  planks.    (See  below.) 

8.  Draprry  oflkt  raiernocfa.— Tbe  wooden  stnictare 
was  completed  as  well  as  adorned  by  four  kinds  of 
hangings,  each  of  which  aerreil  a  useful  and  even  need- 
ful purpose. 

(I.)  Tht  Aoo/— The  first  question  that  arises  here  is 
whether  Ihe  roof  was  Sat,  like  ihat  of  Oriental  housea, 
or  peaked  and  slanting,  as  in  Occidental  buildioga.    The 


<1J  tlUI   MHll 

=1  i=«  !=«  6=*  !=«  6=^  ^=e  t= 


Qeneral  view  of  the  Wooden  Walls  of  tbe  Tabdnacla. 


(^wW^lc 


TABERNACLE 


TABERNACLE 


M  minred  by  FtrgnnoD. 


old  regireaenUtion*,  HKh  w  Cdmet'i,  take  the  roroKr 
vie*!  but  to  this  it  ma;  be  rorcibl;  objedetl  that  it 
wDuU  ID  that  cue  ba  impUMible  to  (trelch  the  ruof-  , 
covering  lufficienllv  tight  lo  pievent  Che  nin  and  anaw  ' 
ftnm  callecting  in  the  middle,  and  either  cnuhing  the  ! 
whole  hy  iu  weight  or  flooding  the  apartment*.  Uenee 
moat  later  writera  awinie  a  peaked  n»r,  althoagh  there  ; 
it  no  mention  of  a  ridge-pole,  nor  of  lupparta  to  it ;  but ; 
the  name  "  lent"  given  to  the  upper  part  or  the  edifice 
u  itaelf  concloaive  of  thii  rorm,  and  then  theie  acceaao- 
rie*  would  necowarily  Tollow. 

The  roofing  material  was  ■  canvas  of  goals'  hair,  the 
article  still  employed  by  the  Bedawin  for  their  terns.  It 
consisted  of  eleven  "  curtuns"  (n*9'<'l'^),  L  e.  breadths  or 
piece*  of  (this  csmlet)  cloth,  each  thirty  eutnls  long  and 
fear  cubits  wide,  which  is  as  large,  probably, aa  could  well 
be  woven  in  the  loom  at  once.  Ten  of  these  were  lo  be 
*■  coupled"  (^xn),  i.  e.  aewed  together,  live  in  one  sheet,  I 
and  five  in  another,  evidently  by  the  selvage;  thus  I 
makiug  two  large  canvases  of  thirly  cubits  by  twenty  ! 
each.  But  aa  Iho  Iniilding  was  only  twelve  cubits  wide,  | 
one  of  them  alone  woold  more  than  suffice  for  a  roof,  | 
even  with  a  peak.  Hence  moat  interpreters  understand  i 
that  the  surplus  width  waa  allowed  to  hang  down  the  | 
aiilea.  But  what  is  to  be  done  with  the  _ 
other  sheet?  FergiiMon  {in  Smith's  Did. 
of  At  BibU,  a.  V,  "  Temple")  supposes  (with 
interpreters  in  {general)  that  the  two  aheeis 
were  thrown  side  by  side  across  the  ridfce- 
pote,  the  extra  length  (aome  tifteen  cubits) 
being  enlended  at  the  cavea  into  a  kind  of 
wings,  anil  the  anrpliis  width  (ten  cubits) 
furled  along  the  ^t•<^>f  of  the  gable,  or  per- 
haps itretcheil  out  as  a  porch.  But  Cliere 
is  no  authority  wbatet'er  for  this  diaposal; 
and  if  the  two  pieces  uf  canvas  were  intend- 
ed lo  be  thus  ai^joincH,  there  appear*  no 
good  reason  why  tiiey  should  not  have  been 
teioed  together  at  the  tint,  like  the  indiviil- 
ual  breadths.  Hence  Paine  Bii|;gesls  that 
they  were  designed  as  a  douUr  roof,  so  as 
the' more  eKectually  to  »he.l  rain,  nomewhat 


adequate.  If  the  angle  nt  the  peak  werr  a 
rii;ht  ani;le,  as  it  naturally  would  be,  rhe  K*- 
t^  of  COUTH,  being  an  isoacelea  triangle, 
eil-lilaiid  a  half  cubits  would  becei|uite<l  fur 
each  slope  of  Ilie  roof  (they  being  the  two 
legK  of  which  twelve  i*  the  hypolhenuse) ;  ^ 
leaving  one  cubit  to  cover  each  of  the  p 
a  (as  qiecidol  in  ver.  IS),  anil  <«ie  cuUI   U 


Older  to  be  water-'tight  (especiall]'  since  they  ran  paral- 
lel with  the  ridge  and  eavea)  aa  well  aa  smooth,  would 
best  be  formed  by  overiappiiig  the  edges,  in  sb  ingle  style. 
The  sixth  "curtain,"  or  extra  single  pietc,  waa  lo  be 
"  doubled  in  the  fore-front  of  the  tabernacle"  (xxvi,  9, 
^rjSO  "^B  ^""S"!"?  P^!91)i  "hich  interpreters  gen- 
erally have  undenlood  as  meant  to  dose  the  gable. 
This,  aa  Paine  auRgests,  it  would  neatly  do  if  folded  in 
two  thicknesses  (like  the  rest  of  the  goat'a-bair  dotb) 
across  the  lower  part  of  the  rear  open  space  above  the 
"boarda,"  as  it  is  just  long  enough  (twice  Sfieen  cubits; 
the  surplus  three  eulnts  being  employed  exaoly  aa  in 
the  case  of  the  other  sheeta),  and  sufficiently  wide  (rour 
cubits  up  the  ni  of  the  perpendicular;  leaving  only  s 
small  triangle  at  the  peak  for  ventilation) ;  the  goi« 
oi  comen  probably  being  tucked  in  between  the  twe 
tbickncaacs  of  Che  roo^sheets.  This  sixth  curtain.nl 
course,  was  sewed  rmhcim  lo  one  of  the  outer  fMCCCS  o{ 

These  roof-curtains  were  Joined  by  means  of  flFly 
"loops"  (riK^b,  lulaSth)  of  unspecified  (prttbably  Che 
same  strong)  material,  and  as  many  tacbea  (B^O", 
Irraiim)  of  "biaas."  With  most  interpreters,  Fergus- 
son  nndersUnda  (hese  to  be  intended  for  connecting  the 


^ 


TABERNACLE 


TABERNACLE 

bMrdi  uid  prereat  any  one  IVooi  ImkuiK  through  tbe 
cnek*  from  without.  These  cuiuins  wen  uupended 
on  artf  kooba  or  tachu  of  gold  by  means  of  flftj  loops 
or  the  mate  milerial  as  the  curtains  Ihemsdres;  these 
baCeniogi  may  be  artanged  as  in  the  case  or  tbe  roof- 
is.  It  thus  became  "one  tabenucle"  (veT.6,  ^IC^ 
inx,  L  a.  these  cartaios  belonged  to  the  upright  [woud- 
en]  part  of  the  sErucluiv^  in 


[ca 


as]  01 


;  it).     The  n 


Copper  Tscbe  In  the  Tnb- 

itaAttachmanls.  (After 
False.} 


piiiamtauifona  oi 
tuTia.    But  bendca   the 
BiknoH  of  this  (as  above 

pciinial  (nt),  on  this  plan  the  laia  would  flnd  an  easy 
ulH  It  this  imperfect  suture.  Hence  Paine  more  rea- 
Boably  coneliidea  that  they  weic  designed  for  button- 
iog  dmn  tbe  double  canras  M  the  eavea  so  as  to  form 
■™t««"(xxvi,  ll.inst  bri»,i.e.  the  upper  or  tent 
pan  rf  the  baikting).  the  taches,  according!}-,  were 
not  iult  ( as  DMat  understand :  Fergusson  thinks 
*S  bm^'^,  but  ktioba  in  the  planks  on  the  outside, 
plmd  one  cnUt  below  the  top  (ver.  12).  The  number 
tliit  tiches  would  tfaus  exaclJy  correspond  to  the  re- 
quRmnits  of  lbs  "  boards,"  Le.  twenty  for  each  side 
ul  eif bl  lor  the  end,  with  one  additional  Tar  each  rear 
ana  (where  a  tache  would  be  needed  for  both  edges 
°f  the  board,  the  others  being  in  the  front  edge,  as  the 
tnt  board  wnold  neceoaarily  have  it  there  i  in  the  rear 
basnU  ibe  knob  would  be  in  the  middle).     See  Tacuk. 

(i)  ADOther  set  of  curtains  was  provided,  c 
°rt«|Heceaaf  stuff,  each  twenty-eight  cubits  long  and 
Iw  abiu  wide,  lo  be  aewed  into  two  large  clolhs  of 
irt'cBrtaiiis'Dibrvadthseach.  Fromthegene  ' 
bti^of  ihedtKriptioo,  interpreters  hive  naturally  iu- 
fcrnl  thai  they  were  to  bejoini 


was  similar  to  that  of  the  door  of 
the  outer  court  (xxvii,  16),  but  it  wis  also  to  be  em- 
broidered with  cherubim,  like  the  interior  "rail"  (xxvi, 
"'~  -'-■-'h  will  be  considered  below. 

coat  of  "nuns'  skins  dyed  red  and  tAchash 
badgers',"  probably  teal  or  some  other  fur; 
13  furnished  ai  an  additional  covering  {xivi,  14, 
nb^^bp,  m^lemdlai, /r<m  upaard).  This  is  usually 
regirded  as  ■  part  of  the  roof;  hut  to  pile  them  there 
■auld  have  been  sure  to  cstch  the  rain,  and  so  prove 
irune  than  useless.  Paine  places  them  on  the  outside 
>f  the  "boards"  to  hide  the  cracks  and  prevent  the 
wind  and  rain  from  driving  in.  Hence  the  number  of 
kina  is  not  q>ecified ;  they  were  la  form  a  blanket  luS- 
iently  large  to  cover  the  walls,  and  run  up  under  the 
dge  of  the  roof-canvas  so  as  to  catch  the  drip  from  tbe 
Lavea,  Doubtless  the  tAchash  fur  was  placed  next  the 
smooth  gilding,  and  in  its  natural  stare,  because  hid- 
den ;  and  the  rougher  but  more  durable  ram's-wool 
was  exposed,  the  hiir  shingling  downward  to  the 
weather,  but  dyed  a  brilliant  color  for  effect.  They 
would  naturally  be  hung  upon  the  copper  taches, 
rved  so  many  useful  pniposes  in  tbe  "  boards." 
They  are  called  in  ver.  H  "a  covering  (nOSO, mitii*, 
not  necessarily  a  roof,  for  it  is  used  only  of  this  fur  robe 
[or  aome  nmilBi  one,  Numb,  iv,  S,  12]  and  of  tbe  screen 
[whatever  that  may  have  been]  of  Noafa'a  ark  [Gen. 


•a;  bol  (he  a 


irsctlcahility  of  employing 

HI  obvious.    Nor  does  the 

sides  the  difficulty  of  disp< 

of  the  suTplussge  in  breadth 

(in   length   they   would   be 

scant  if  double),  we  natu 

ask.  Why  were  they  dill 

in  number  and  siie  IVom  the 

other  rooSng  material?    Prof. 

Paine  therefore  thinks  that 

they  were  sewed  mil  loaid  (the 

original  is  nriht(~SS  flS 

to  Mearjler,xxvi,8;  <! 

I  ferent  fntm  13b,  trparatelji, 

ver.  9,  of  the  roof-curlains)  in 

two  long  piece*  (they  would 

I  probably  have   been   woven 

I  thna  bad  it  been  possible). 

1  and   then   hnng   double  in 

I  loose  drapery  around  the  in. 

_^_^ I  toiorof  tbe  tabemacle.being 

Tit  Isfw  Cnrtalns   ac  i"*  high  enough  (four  cu-    ] 
cordlag  to  Paine.  laii)toooverlhaJniiitsuf  the 


nchmeurp.    (After  Pilne. 


TABERNACLE  11 

viii,  13  ])  (or  ibe  ItuT  (^nbl^),  apptnoUr  u  oompletiiig 
the  onvu  or  unt-like  part  of  the  MnictoTe. 

SulachUU  {Ai'cliaol  dtr  /ftbrStr,  ii,  BSl  sq.)  repre- 
KDii  tb«  hingingi  of  tbe  ubeniwje  •>  ttupeoded  in 
the  torm  uF  a  ten),  but  in  a  pecuUu  rurm.  He  thinks 
the  *|SCT]  was  pruperlv  the  apaoe  endiwed  bj  the 
lioanls  erf' acacia-woml ;  aiwl  that  theae  formed  the  outer 
wall.ao  to  apeak,  ■ri'Ain  which  the  tabernacle,  the  bnx 
properiy  ao  called,  wai  nared  in  the  form  of  a  peaked 
tenu  or  this  thi  bjiaus  curuioi,  he  auppoaes,  rormed 
the  interaal  drapery,  while  the  goata'-haii  cunaina,  cov- 
ered with  teathct  and  tichaih  akina,  formed  the  outer 
coveting.  The  whole  alracrure  would  thiia  pnaent  the 
appearance  externally  of  a  peaked  lent,  reared  withia  ■ 
hieb  paliudeorwood.audopea  at  the  front.  This  rep- 
teaentaliun  hai  the  advanta^  ofallawinf;  the  omanien- 
tal  curtain,  and  alao  the  gilded  boarda  with  their  gold- 
en rings  and  ulver  aoekela,  to  be  fully  riaible.  There 
•eenih  however,  at  leait  oue  fatal  abjection  to  it,  via. 
that  it  doea  not  rulOI  the  condition  that  the  joining*  of 
the  curtain*  ahill  be  over  tbe  pillaia  that  aeparate  the 
holy  from  the  moat  holy  plaee_a  condition  of  eoential 
■igniflcanre,  as  we  shall  aee. 

(i.)  'I'be  tloorvagi  of  the  tabernacle  were  formed  or 
rather  closed  in  a  manner  altogether  analogous  to  the 
entrance  of  the  exterior  coart,  namely,  by  a  vertical 
screen  or  sheet  of  cloth  made  of  heavy  material,  and 
(in  one  case)  still  further  stiffened  by  embroidery,  stmi- 
lar  to  the  piece  of  tapestry  that  hangs  at  the  portal  of 
modem  cathedrals  in  Italy,  or  (to  speak  more  Oriental- 
ly) like  the  Hap  at  tbe  opening  of  a  modem  tent  and 
Ihecarpetorcamlet  partition  between  the  male  and  fe- 
male apartments  of  a  Uedawin  abode.  Of  them  there 
were  two,  each  of  which  is  denoted  by  a  distinctive 
term  rarely  varied. 

(n.)  The  front openin)t{nnB,p*ioc*(  A.  V.  "door") 
was  closed  siifllcienily  hi;;h  li>  i>rt'\-eiit  a  passer-by  from 
looking  in,  by  a  "haiiginj;"  I'^'^'i.mtudt,  a  lerroi,  or 
'■covering"  from  the  sun  [I'na.  cv,39]  or  from  obsen-a- 
tlon  [2  Sam.  vii,  19;  Isa.  Kxii,  8])  of  maleriilji  exactly 

suspended  upon  five  copper-socket«d  and  gilded  pillars 
(S^nirs?)  of  acacia-wood  by  means  of  golden  hooks 
(9^1^,  prfft,  spoken  only  of  these  and  those  at  the  outer 
entrance),  the  whole  being  probably  of  the  same  height, 
proportions,  and  style  in  other  reelects  as  the  exterior 
one  just  referred  to.  Tbe  number  uf  these  pillars  is 
signiScant;  as  there  werrjiie  of  them,  one  must  neces- 
sarily stand  in  the  centre,  and  this  one  was  probably 
carried  up  no  aa  t«  support  one  end  of  tbe  ridge-pole, 
which  we  have  above  aeeu  is  presumable.  A  coire- 
iponding  pillar  in  the  rear  of  the  lent  may  be  inferred 
to  sustain  the  other  end,  and  possibly  one  or  mc 
the  middle  of  the  building. 

(ft.)  A  "  vair  (nS^O.  parAlxlh,  uparalrix,  used  only 
of  this  particular  thing,  sometimes  [Cxod.  xxxv,  IS: 
xxxix,84i  xl.  21]  with  the  addition  of  the  previoui 
term  fur  emphaus)  divided  the  interior  into  two  sparl- 
menu,  called  respectively  the  "holy  place"  and  the 


111  b»th 


udes;  comp.  I  Kings  vi.  29)  with  llgures  of  chen 
stitched  (probably  with  g-dd  thread,  i.  e.  strips  of  p 
leafrolleil  and  twisted)  upon  it,  apparently  with  thi 
of  the  embroiderer  (Stin  HiO^?,  Ihr  aort  nf  ,in  ,i 
icir;  A.  V.  "cunning  work").     It  was  suspended  upon 
four  pillars  precisely  like  those  of  the  door  "  hanging," 
except  that  their  socketa  were  of  Hirer.   A  special  state- 
ment of  the  text  (Exod.KX>i,  33),  "And  thou  shalt  hang 


D^sn^n  rnn),  evidently  meaning  that  the  pilUi 
which  ita  ends  were  to  be  attached  were  to  be  ph 
directly  beneath  the  gulden  knobs  opposite  in  the  wall^ 


TABERNACLE 

wise  hung  the  side-cartains,  shows  both 
ler  were  thus  completed  by  a  drapery  on 
J  side  of  each  room  (it  will  be  renwD- 
bered  that  tbe  front  knobs  likewise  oormpond  in  pu- 
that  of  the  doorway  screen),  and  likewise 
a  chsracler  snd  situation  of  tlie  tacbes  them- 
selves (out  hooks  in  tbe  roof,  which  at  the  eaves  was  st 
five  cubits  above  the  top  of  the  "  vail").  As  ibe 
l,"likB  Ibe  two  outer  Brreena,  wis  stretched  tight 
across  the  space  it  occupied,  it  was  of  course  made  ex- 
actly Long  enough  for  that  purpose;  thus,  too,  tbe  eru- 
broidered  figures  (which,  if  of  life-sixe.were  uf  just  th« 
height  to  extend  upright  across  the  stuiT— about  foot 
cubits)  would  show  to  the  finest  effect,  not  being  ia 
folds  like  the  interior  tide-euruins. 

It  ia  not  a  little  singular  that  the  es.nct  position  of 
tbe  "vail"  is  not  otherwise  prescribed  than  by  the 
above  rvqnirement;  nor  is  the  length  of  either  of  the 
which  it  separated  given,  although  together 


hirty  ci 


On  I 


4.  Si 


(sustained  by  the  analogy  in  Ibe  Temple)  that  the  Host 
Holy  was  an  exact  square,  Le.  (acconling  to  our  deter- 
mination above)  twelve  cubila  each  way,  the  knob  of 
tache  oppinle  which  it  would  hang  must  have  been 
that  which  stood  in  the  forward  edge  of  the  eighth 
plank  from  the  rear  of  Ibe  building.  Whether  it  was  in 
front  of  or  behind  the  pillars  is  not  certain;  but  the  br- 
mer  is  probable,  as  it  would  thus  seem  a  oioie  efleetaal 
lurrier  from  without.  The  end  pillars  apparently  Hood 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  eide  walk,  both  in  order 
to  sustain  the  ends  of  the  vail,  and  to  leave  a  wider  apace 
between  them  for  ingress  and  ^ress.  The  vail  was  sus- 
pended directly  upon  golden  pins  (A.  V.  "hooks")  in- 
serted in  the  face  of  the  piltais  near  their  summit ;  nd 
thus  differed  (as  did  likewise  tlie  screen  of  the  dootof 
the  tabernacle)  from  the  hangings  of  the  outer  court, 
which  hung  upon  silver  rods  (A.  V.  "  filleta")  (doubtin* 
by  loops  running  on  the  rods)  resting  on  similar  pins  or 
"  hooks."  The  reason  of  this  diBercnce  seems  (o  have 
been  that  the  greater  space  between  the  Court  |Hllsn 
(so  as  to  admit  animals  as  well  as  men)  would  have 

diite  support,  which  could  only  be  furnished  by  the 
'   and  attachments  along  tbe  upper  edge. 

'  Ty  .Vo/r. — Since  tbe  above  was  in  type 

ure  of  this  eiiific*  which  admit  of  further  elutidii ion. 

(1.)  r^s  "  t'i.rnfr-6o(ird)."— Tbe  fact  that  tbe  Uinxn- 
Bioni.of  the  courts  and  the  building  itself  were  iu  deci- 
mal proponiuns,  and  that  iu  tbe  temple  subseijuently 
erected  for  the  same  purpose,  which  maintained  multi- 
ples of  these  dimensions,  the  holy  and  most  holy  wen 
exactly  twenty  cubits  wide  (I  Kings  vi,  t),  l«adi  K 
strongly  to  tlie  presumption  that  in  the  uberaarie 
these  rooms  were  ten  cubits  wide,  that  we  are  disposed 
to  recall  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the  l>icef;nag 
disciiaHon.  which  gives  these  apanmenia  a  widlh  of 
twelve  cubits,  leaving  for  tbe  holy  place  the  imgo- 
lar  dimensions  of  eighteen  by  twelve  cubits.  Adopdng 
the  suggpBlion  of  Kcil  {ConuHnilary,  ad  loc.)  thai  tbe 
comer-buanls  were  constructed  of  two  parts,  forniinp  a 
right  angle  with  each  other,  we  hare  only  id  iskt  a 
plank  one  and  a  half  culnis  wide,  like  all  the  atbo^ 
divide  it  lengthwise  into  two  portions,  one  fiwr  rijllu 
and  the  other  Hve  sixths  of  a  culdl  wide,  and  fasten  ibne 
together  in  that  manner,  in  order  to  obtain  the  needed 

one  wing  of  the  comer-bnaril  to  lap  around  the  tnd  of 
tbe  last  side-board,  and  cover  Ihe  joint  neiily  anil  lyB- 
metrically,  as  in  the  following  figure.  This  lax  it  lbs 
adjustment  adopted  by  Bmwn  (nt  TnUniacit,  Ut. 
[Lond.  lS!-i],  p.  23),  who  reviews  and  Justir  rejects  lbs 
conjectures  of  Josephus  (/iNf.  iii,  6,S),  Kaliich  |C«- 
meiirdr;, ad  loc.),anil  Von  (leriacb  (ilml.).    HiicvnipU- 


TABERNACLE 


Comer 

lw»rd 

■Dd  BockeU. 

IvA  iivi. 

M,  "Anrt 

llier 

.hHU  be  f»»«J  (n-'B^h) 

flWDbflonr.MiiiWSftl 

crih 

y  ihall  be  mmptoe  (D 

-HB) 

upon  Id  rnp 

lo  the  firU  (o 

.am)  nii(r,"WB  <ni< 

(hen 

mdcoluidl 

at  iheywere  tobe  in  Ihil 

Its  -yintni 

:  chf 

r  lenf^b.  «nd  were 

(be  fir<t  or  . 

rid^pl.,.k  in  coram 

IfcsIopiwBt 

bar.  (hiu 

hDldl 

ng  [he  comer  Hrm  in 

both 

gf  the  >ule-bir  for  further  wcurity. 


■CoiMi-lMirf,"  thoRlDe  it»  "One  Ring,"  I 


wlUi  It 


uf  the  Slde-pl 


(t)  Pontitm  oflkt  Car1abu.  —  -Vbt  ate  of 
pines  of  dr^iei7"ill  nnt  be  miteriiilly  effected  by  thj* 
rteiee  in  Ibe  width  of  Ihe  Hrui-'iure.     We  need  only 

io  Mdet  to  di^mie  of  the  n>of-c«ii>M.  The  curuiu 
Knm  the  retr  ^tiAf  oi«y  be  wr«|i(>eil  a  linle  farther 
•IsBc  ibc  Bde  u  each  end,  and  it  will  al  the  tame  time 
aiT«  ibe  top*  of  Uie  feat  planka,  aiiJ  cloK  the  joint 
■ben  (he  endi  rftho  ronf-cuitain"  fall  thort  of  doing  to. 

Ub  Ibe  Mippontinn  of  a  flat  ronf  itretchtd  directly 
•aw  Ibe  lapa  of  the  pUiiki,  the  dimenHona  of  bo 
Ml  of  nrtaini  may  readily  be  maiii  in  ciirrMpond  wi 
lh«  r«(iureiBenta  of  Ibe  buildiofc.     The  embroidered 
CKtaint  may  either  be  used  aruund  the  walls,  ai 
tiiHwIy.oi  Ehey  may  be  juined  togeihcr  inlii  one  I 
•beet  ID  carer  the  eeiliug  and  walli  nn   the   ini 
TlKw  lenclh  (iwenty^iBhC  cubiu)  would  in  the  latter 
tmm  reach  id  within  one  cubit  of  the  cmund ;  and 
CMibiiKil  breadth  (forty  cubila)  would  in  like  ml 
nnr  (he  end  «aU  (ten  eubiu  -f  thirty  cnbiu  of  lenRlh 
of  buil.ling).     The  lutore,  where  the  two  canyaaea  are 
ortioatily  wppoaed  to  be  Joined  by  the  lonpn,  woidd 
tbB  alao  exactly  fall  over  the  ■'vail,"  acparsling  the 
bdy  fion  the  moat  holy  place. 

1  he  Mme  wouU  be  true  likcwiM  of  thegoati'-hiir  cur- 
laiH  ir«nulaily  Joined  and  apnad  over  Iba  roof  and  out- 
■da  a(  Ibe  UbeViiBcle,  reMhing  to  within  one  rixth  cubil 
rf  (be  riauai  op  each  aide  and  rear.    The  only  diScul- 


If  tl^ 


TABERNACLE 

I  to  the  eleventh  or  exlii  goala'-bair  cur- 

e  wholly  superfluoua,  unleu 

■      light  be  if  doubled 

iofEiod.iiTi,9). 


idlba,  it 
uied  (o  clixe  the  ■ 
(according  to  the  iuubI  intcrpretuii 
But  it  aeema  agreed  upon  by  all  critici  mat  it  must  be 
employed  upon  the  rair  of  the  building  (aa  explicitly 
atated  in  ver.  1!).  tCeil  understonda  that  it  was  di- 
ided  between  the  bach  and  the  front  equally;  but 
lia  anawera  lo  neither  poaaage,  niakea  part  of  the  rear 
trtUg  covered  in  fact,  and  brings  (by  his  own  confea- 
kdb)  the  suture  one  cubit  behind  the  "  vail"  {contrary 
to  rer.33).  Brown  reviews  and  confutea  the  explaua- 
tions  of  other  inlerpretera  (Kaliieh,  Von  Gerlach,  and 
FerguBion),  bul  frankly  admits  his  own  inability  lo 
Bolre  the  problem  (p.  43).  Taine's  interpretation  ia  tbe 
only  one  tlisC  meets  the  caae. 

this  last  insuperable  difficulty,  together  with  the  im- 

poeailulity  of  abedding  the  rain  and  snow,  aeema  lo  na 

acnnelu^ve  objection  agiinat  the  flat-rooT  theory  uf  the 

building.     Brown  innocently  remarks  (p.  47), "  Admil- 

ling  that  snow  sometimes  falla  on  the  mountaina  of 

Sinai,  it  seldom,  if  ever,  falla  in  the  wadiea  or  plains ; 

if  slight  sbonera  ever  do  occur,  they  must  be  like 

Is'  visits,  few  and  far  between.    None  of  the  many 

ors  I  have  followed  acroas  the  detert  of  wandering 

I  ever  to  have  wilneased  snow,  and  veiy  rarely  even 

,"     This  last  circumstance  is  probably  owing  lo 

fact  (hat  travellera  almost  invariably  avoid  the 

er  or  rainy  season.     The  writer  of  Ihia  article  waa 

orertaken,  with  hia  party,  by  a  snow-storm  in  March, 

covered  the  ground  in  the  ptaina  and  bnl- 

Sinai  ankle-deepi  and  ev- 


ery I 


aveller  n 


t  have 


■served  t 


traces  of  terrific  flooda  or  freaheta  along  the  vslleya  of 
lie  whole  region.  It  olYen  rains  here  in  perfect  Inr- 
!n(a  (ace  Palmer,  Datrl  of  the  Kiodai,f.aS,  177).  "A 
.ngle  (hunder-storm,  with  a  heavy  ahower  of  rain,  fall- 
ing oa  Che  naked  granite  mountains,  will  be  sufflcieix 
dry  and  level  vallev  into  a  roaring  river  in 
hour3"(i4irf.p.ia9).'     '    ' 


-nade 


„    ,  ily  be  done  efleciua  _     _ 

(he  Inie  ten(-form,wilb  ridge  and  peak.    See  TittiT. 
\  funulurt  qf  Ikt  TaitniarU^-Tha  only  piece  of 

of  the  covenant;  and  the  furniture  of  the  outer 
n  or  holy  place  eonnated  of  the  altar  of  inceoae, 
table  of  show-bread,  and  the  "  guldra  candlestick," 

55.    They  are  all  described  in  detail  under  their  re- 
vive heads  in  this  CydopaiHf.  but  we  subjoin  the 
follovring  particulars  aa  supplementary  to  (he  article  oa 
the  last-named  piece. 

rndfUArum,  as  described  in  Exod.  uv,  S1-S7 
(of  which  ixxvii,  17-23  it  almost  retbatim  a  copy), 
■  ■  irably  from  (hat  in  the  account  of  Joae- 
6, 7),  and  from  the  sculptured  figure  still 
extant  upon  the  Arch  of  Titus  ( Kdand,  Dt  Spoliit 
Trmpli,  p.  6;  in  which  work  other  repreaeutalions,  all 
aligbily  varying,  are  giren  from  Rabbinical  aourcea  and 
'  i).  Hence  it  is  probalile  that  the  "  eandleauck" 
luilrucled  for  the  tabernacle  bv  M'laes  waa  not  ex- 
actly the  same  in  form  as  iu  the  later  models  of  Solo- 
moii't  and  Herwl's  templet ;  it  would  nslurally  be  sim- 
pler and  leas  ornamental  in  the  earliest  case,  and  the 
Herodian  fahriealion  (if,  indeed,  this  were  other  than 
tha(  of  the  restoration  from  Babylon),  tu  which  all  the 
later  Jewish  and  profane  tiatementa  apply  (Solomon 
does  not  appear  to  have  furnished  hia  Temple  with  any 
Other  than  the  original  eandelabrum  of  the  tabernacle), 
would  of  course  depart  roost  widely  from  the  scveriij- 


(1.)  In  t 
clearly  del 
There  waa 


jrieinal  ol 


TABERNACLE 


A.  T. "  ih>a"),  doubUeaa  fUring  or  enluged  at  the  bot- 
tom, foe  ■  wcun  foot.  From  each  aide  of  ihU  went  off 
(ippareotljroppouuucb  other,  aail  at  equal  intemta), 
Ihree  arm*  (C?^,  taain,  mdf,  "branchM"),  baring 
each  along  their  coune  thiee  aliDond-ahapcd  calycei 
CB''S''3S,  ^ehim,  cvpf,  "bowlt"),  one  crown  (in&X, 
h^t6r,ari^,"in<ip"),»adone  blouom  {fn^piraci, 
'•  flower") :  the  middle  stem  bad  Tout  such  calyces,  and 
■t  leaat  tbiee  crowns,  placed  each  immediately  beneath 
the  Mveral  junctions  of  the  arms  with  tbe  main  stem ; 
alto  more  than  one  blonsom.  Finally,  tbera  were  seven 
burner!  (0'''nl,  wrini,  iijAlj,  "lamps"),  evidently  one 
for  the  eilremity  of  each  arm,  and  one  for  the  top  of 
the  central  stem.  Every  part  of  tbe  candelabrum  (in- 
cluding the  burners,  only  so  far  as  applicable  to  them) 
was  a  continuous  rounded  (hammered  or  turned)  piece 
of  refined  gold  (nina  2m  pn»  ITEpO, "  one  beaten 
worlc  of  pure  gold*^.  It  has  usually  been  assumed  Chat 
tbe  arms  were  all  in  Ibe  same  plane  with  the  main 
stem,  and  their  summila  all  of  equal  height,  and  equi- 
diitant  from  each  other,  as  is  the  case  with  tbe  repre- 
senUtion  on  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

(2.)  The  following  are  the  principal  points  that  re- 
main uncertain :  The  relative  position  of  the  calyces, 
crowns,  and  blassoms  on  the  arms;  for  although  they 
are  always  enumerated  in  this  order,  there  is  nolhlng 
to  show  absolutely  whether  the  enumeration  begins  at 
the  intersection  with  the  shaft  or  with  the  extremities. 
Tbe  former  view,  which  is  counleiuiiced  by  the  rest  of 
tbe  description  (since  this  proceeds  upward  fmm  the 
base),  it  adopted  by  Dr.  Coiiant  (in  the  Amer.  ed.  of 
Smith's  MiV,  rj/'fiU  £iMr,  s.v."Candlesticli'');  the  lat- 
ter, which  is  favored  by  the  difficulty  (or  rather  impus- 


Templt, 


it  of  th 
re<|uire),  is  adopted  by  Prof.  Paine  {Soloi 
etc..  p.  10).  The  signification  of  tbe  terras  is  not  de- 
cisive ;  for  the  kaphlSr,  or  "  knop,"  may  quite  as  well 
signify  a  little  ornamental  bait  or  globular  enlargement 
in  the  necks  of  the  arma  and  in  the  stem  at  their  points 
of  departure,  as  a  oopifaJ  or  surmounting  decoration  (the 
three  ranged  along  the  main  stem  certainly  were  not 
such  in  strictness).  The  pirach,  or  "  Bower,"  is  regard- 
ed by  both  tiie  above  writers  (who  thus  agree  iu  mak- 
ing these,  after  all,  tbe  extreme  points  of  the  chande- 
lier) as  the  "receptacles"  of  the  lamps  themselvei; 
theae  last  being  regarrled  by  Paine  a*  denoted  by  tbe 
g«biim,  or  "  bowb,"  having  a  iriiial  form  in  tbe  case  of 
tbe  aide  arms,  and  aquatemal  in  tbat  of  the  raain  sEcm 


18  TABERNACLE 

~a  Tiew  wliich  leads  to  great  complexity  in  tbeit  con- 
ttruction  and  in  the  form  of  their  sockets,  and  which, 
moreover,  is  incongroent  with  the  number  (seven  only) 
assigned  to  the  lights.  Furthermore,  in  Ibe  eonipar- 
i»u  of  tbe  ornament  in  question  with  tbe  nhspe  of 
atmrndt,  it  is  not  clear  whether  the  fiotcn  or  fnit  of 
that  tree  ia  reTerred  la;  we  prefer  the  latter  as  briog 
more  properly  designated  by  the  simple  word,  and  be- 
cause the  former  is  denoted  by  a  diOerent  term  in  the 

must  also  be  noteid  that  the  anus  had  each  three  of  tbs 
first-named  ornament,  and  but  one  of  tbe  other  twoi 
whereas  the  main  stem  had  four  of  the  flral,  and  at 
least  three  of  the  second  and  two  of  tbe  third:  tbe 
three  kinds,  therefore,  did  not  invariably  RO  logclhet, 
although  they  may  have  done  so  in  tlie  vase  of  ihe 
central  stem.  Feihapa  Ibe  whole  may  be  best  adjusted 
by  aasigning  such  a  group  or  combination  of  tbe  thm 
kinds  to  each  summit  and  to  each  inleraection  of  tbe 
arms  with  the  main  stem,  and  merely  two  othen  of 
one  kind  (the  ff^Aia,  or  "  bowl")  to  Ihe  aide  arms,  piob- 
ably  at  equidistant  points;  the  group  itself  consistiiig 
simply  of  an  ovale  cup-like  enlargement  of  the  rod  con- 
stituting the  shaft,  with  a  raised  band  Just  above  (be 
bulb,  and  the  rim  opening  into  petal-like  li|»,  fomung 
a  cavity  or  socket  for  Ihe  lamp.     Sec  Lamp. 

IV,  Relation  of  the  TxitnacU  to  lit  SeHgioai  Lifeef 
liratL — 1.  Whatever  connection  may  be  (raced  belweta 
other  parts  of  the  Mosaic  ritual  and  that  of  the  nalious 
with  which  Israel  had  been  brought  into  conlacl,  the 
thought  of  tbe  labeniacle  meela  us  as  entirely  new. 
Spencer  {Dt  Leg.  HAraor.  iii,  S)  labor*  bard,  bnl  not 
auccesafully,  lo  prove  thai  tbe  tatiemaelci  of  Moloch  of 
Amos  V,  S6  were  Ihe  prototypes  of  the  lent  of  meclin)'. 
It  has  (o  be  remembcreil,  however,  (1)  that  Ihe  word 
used  in  Amos  (njbtuljl)  is  never  used  rXlht  tabemarle, 
and  means  something  very  different:  and  (!)  tbat  the 
Moluch-worship  repreaenied  a  defection  of  the  people 
i^ae^uenl  lo  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle.  The 
'■house  of  God"  [see  DKTHtx]  of  the  patriarchs  hod 
been  Ihe  large  "pillar  of  stone"  (Gen.  xxriii,  18, 19). 
bearing  record  of  some  high  spiriliial  experience,  and 
(ending  to  lead  men  upwani  lo  it  (Bfthr,  SymboL  i,  M), 
or  the  grove  which,  with  its  dira.  doubtful  light,  at- 
tuned the  souls  of  men  to  a  divine  awe  (Gen.  xxi,  3S). 
The  temples  of  Egypt  were  magnificent  and  cohMol, 
hewn  in  the  aolid  rock,  or  built  of  huge  blocks  of  stone 
as  unlike  as  ponible  to  the  sacred  lent  of  Israel.    The 


ness.  The  stalely  temples  belonged  lo  Ihe  house  of 
bondage  which  tbey  were  leaving.  The  sacred  pUcfs 
of  their  fathers  were  in  the  land  towards  which  they 
were  journeying.  In  the  UManwhile,  they  were  la  be 
wanderers  in  the  wilderness.  To  have  set  up  a  betbd 
after  the  old  pattern  would  have  been  (o  make  that  a 
resting-place,  Ihe  object  then  or  afterwards  of  devout 
pilgrimage;  and  the  multiplication  irfauch  placeaatthe 
different  stages  of  their  march  would  have  led  inevita- 
bly to  polytheism.  It  would  have  failed  uturly  to  lead 
■'-—■--•-     -'     ight  which  they  needed  m  '     "' 


e  Presence  never  absent  froi 


a,  protecting,  n 


judging.  A  sacied  tent,  a  moving  bethel,  was  the 
nt  sanctuary  for  a  people  still  nomadic  It  was  capable 
of  being  united  afterwards,  as  it  actually  came  to  be, 
with  "the  grove"  of  the  older  fulfut  (Josh,  xxiv,  !6). 

cerlainable  historical  connection,  are  to  be  Ibund  antOBg 
the  Galulians  and  other  tribes  nf  Northern  Africa  (SL 
Ital.  iii,  S89),  and  in  the  sacred  lent  of  Ihe  C^artfaaginian 
encompmenta  <Diod.Sio.xx,  66). 

1.  The  structure  nf  the  tabemade  was  obvioasly  de- 
termined by  a  complex  and  profound  aymhoUsm,  bat  iu 
meaning  remaina  one  of  Ihe  things  at  which  we  can 
but  dimly  gueaa.  No  interpretation  is  given  in  the  law 
itself.  The  explanations  of  Jewiah  wrilen  long  aher- 
warda  are  manifestly  wide  of  the  mark.  That  which 
meets  us  in  the  Epislle  to  the  Hebrews,  Ihe  applieatian 


TABEKNACLE  I: 

•f  Itw  Ijf^  of  Ihe  Ubetnaele  u>  tbs  nijsterie*  of  rc- 
dnptioo,  wu  Ulenl  till  tboM  myMtties  were  made 
liiuiB.  Vet  we  ciniiM  but  believg  thmC,  b  nch  por- 
un  «r  thi  mmderfiil  order  lOM  before  the  inwird  eye 
rftlieliirgiTer,  Itmiut  hire  embodied  dittinclly  miui- 
(gU  Imilu  which  be  ipprehended  hiiii»lf  and  sought 
u  ononnicatc  la  othen.  It  entered^  inilecd,  jnlo  the 
oiln  of  >  divine  cduolion  Tor  Mosei  and  for  larae), 
nal  in  fdncatioD  by  meant  of  aymlwls,  no  le«  Ihan  by 
tiMine  lanf!U»B»'    So 


k  (Witaiui,  ^HgjpHaai,  in  Ugulino,  Tht- 
anr,  tbL  i),  frum  aaking  what  ihoughla  Ihe  Egvptian 
ttaaiiim  of  Moms  wonld  lead  bim  to  connecl  wilh  [be 
■jinboli  he  waa  now  taught  to  dm,  we  nay  aee  in  it  a 
Ifgttinaie  awthod  of  inquiry— almoat  the  only  awtbod 
poBhle.  Where  that  bil^  the  gap  may  b«  filled  u|>  (aa 
in  Btbr,  Sfmbol.  panim)  from  the  analogic)  of  other 
nationn,  indicating,  where  they  afcree.  a  wi(le«|tread 
piaenl  lymboUin.  So  far  Trom  laboring  to  prove,  at 
ibc  prin  of  ignoring  or  diatoiting  facta,  that  every  thing 


tinkna 


IS  liule  I 


tiUn- 


a  tee  ia  Hebrew  a  new  and  heaven-t 
gatnopoken  for  the  Hnt  tine  on  Sinai,  written  for  tbe 
tm  time  on  tbe  two  table*  of  Ihe  covenant. 

>.  The  tbooght  of  a  graduated  unctity,  like  that 
al  Iht  outer  court,  the  holy  place,  the  holy  of  holien, 
lud  iu  counterpart,  often  the  nine  number  of  atagea, 
B  Ihe  Mmctnre  of  Egyptian  temple*  (BKhr,  SymiuL  i, 
IK).    SeeTajirUL 

(I.)  The  interior  adytum  (to  proceed  ftom  the  inner- 
BOit  iKfaa  outward)  waa  tmall  in  proportion  to  tbe  net 
tflbe  bflilding,  and  commonly,  ai  in  Ihe  tabernacle  (Jo- 
«n>hBi,^if.ii.6,S),wu  at  ibcweatemeDd  (Spencer, 
At  I^  Hfbrmr.  iii, !),  and  waa  but  Utile  liKhted.  In 
(he  idyium,  often  at  leaat,  waa  the  ucred  ark,  the  cul- 
Biuting-point  of  hoUneaa,  containing  the  higheat  and 
■m  DTaterioni  aymboli — winged  figures,  generally  like 
thoMBfihe  cherubim  (Wilkinson,  ^ac  £;»>(.  v,  3T5t 
Korick,  Egspt,  i,  460),  tbe  emUenu  of  alability  and 
Kfb  Here  were  outward  poinls  of  raemUanec.  Of 
a  (leBfflU  iif  Egyptian  woiahip  thia  wai  one  which 
cndd  be  liauaferted  with  leaat  hazard,  with  moat  gain. 
Na  ne  could  think  that  the  ark  ilaelf  waa  the  )ikene«» 
ef  Ibt  God  he  worshipped.     When  we  ask  what  gave 

dilerence,  the  gmi  golf  between  the  two  ayMem& 
That  of  Egypt  wM  predominantly  OMnricdJ;  atarting 
ftMi  tbe  productire  powen  of  nature.  The  symbola  of 
ihcae  puwen,  though  not  originally  involving  what  we 
kmnmitaparitv,  tended  to  it  fatally  and  rapidly  (Spen- 
ow.  IM  Liy.  BAntor.  iii,  1 ;  Warii'urton,  Diruit  Liga- 
lait,ii,4.nole)L  That  of  larael  waa  predominantly  eff- 
«aL  TIm  nation  ma  taue^t  to  think  of  <it>d.  not  chief- 
ly at  ntealed  in  nature,  but  aa  manifesting  himself  in 
ad  ta  tbe  spirita  of  men.  In  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
B  the  hifheM  revelation  then  ponble  of  the  Divine 
■Me,  were  the  two  table*  of  atone,  on  which  were 
pavtB,  bv  the  teaching  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and  Ihere- 
fcnbyiha  finger  ofUod"(Hatt.iii,28;  Lukeii.W; 
■«ihDCViD«it  of  Alexandria  [Slnm,v\,  taSJ  and  1 
KlapxviiLW;  !  Kings  iii.  IS;  Eiek.i,B;  iii,  Hi  I 
Ctnn.  iiviii,  19),  tbe  great  unchanging  laws  of  hn- 
■aa  duly  which  had  been  proelaimeil  on  Sinai.  Here 
■ba  lassNi  taught  waa  plain  enough.  The  highest 
knuwtedge  waa  aa  tbe  aimplcM,  the  esoteric  aa  the  exo- 
wk.  In  the  doptb*  of  the  holy  of  holiea,  and  for  the 
U(h-priesi  as  for  all  Urael,  there  wia  the  revclalion  of 
a  nihteous  Will  requiring  rigiitenusoeaa  in  nun  (Saal- 
^1ia.AtjiUoLe.T!y     See  Ark. 

l^tT  the  aik  waa  the  topkfrfth  ("  mercy-aeat"),  an 
•Bad  with  a  twoMd  reference  to  the  root^neaning  nf 
Ik*  word.  It  <««ereil  the  ark.  It  waa  tbe  witness  of  a 
■wiey  ntmag  sin*.  Aa  the  "fontataol'  of  God.  the 
'■kruna'of  tlM  DivtiM  glmy,  it  declared  that  over  Ihe 
In  which  aecmed  so  rigid  sod  nnhending  there  rested 
Aa  eampMaioD  of  one  Kngiving  "  iniquity  and  umt- 


id  TABERNACLE 

gression.''  EwaM,  however,  giving  to  *1(9,  the  root 
of  koptertik,  tbe  meaning  of  "to  scrape,"  "erase,"  de- 
rives from  that  meaning  the  idea  implied  in  the  Sept. 
iXairrqfuriVi  and  denies  that  the  word  ever  aignilleil 
iTiaipa  (AUrrlk.  p.  1!S,  129).     See  Mkrcv-skat. 

Over  the  mercy-seat  were  the  cherubim,  reproducing, 
in  pari,  at  leaa),  the  aymboliam  of  tlie  great  Hamilic 
race*,  forma  fumiliar  to  Moaea  and  to  Israel,  needing  no 
description  for  them,  interpreted  for  n*  hy  the  fuller 
vision  ofibe  later  prophet*  (Eiek.  1,6-19;  x,8'IG;  xli, 
19),  or  by  the  winged  forms  of  tbe  imagery  of  Egypt. 
Representing  a*  they  did  the  manifold  power*  of  nature, 
created  life  in  ita  higbest  form  (^hi.  J>t  Ltg.  H^rraor. 
i,  841),  their  "overshadowing  wings,"  "meeting"  at  in 
token  of  perfect  harmony,  declared  that  nature  a*  well 
as  man  found  it*  highest  glory  in  subjection  to  a  divine 
law,  that  men  might  lake  refuge  in  that  order,  aa  under 
"  the  ahadow  of  the  wings"  of  God  (  Stanley,  Jemiih 
CKureh,  p.  08).  Placed  where  those  and  other  like  fig- 
urea  were,  in  the  temples  of  Egypt,  they  might  be  hin- 

fying  the  worship  of  the  people.  But  it  was  part  of  the 
wisdom  which  we  may  reverently  trace  in  the  order  of 
the  labemacie  that  while  Egy pliansymbol*  are  retainetl, 
as  in  the  ark,  the  cherubim,  the  urim,  and  thelhummim, 
their  place  i*  changed.  They  remind  the  higb-prieal, 
the  representative  of  Ihe  whole  nation,  of  the  Iruiha  oh 
which  the  order  rests.   The  people  cannot  bow  down  and 

The  material,  not  Ie*a  than  the  forma,  in  the  holy  of 
boliea  waa  significant.  The  acacia  or  shittim-wood, 
leaat  liable  of  wood*  then  accesnble  to  decay,  might 
well  represent  the  imperishsbleneaa  of  divine  truth,  of 
the  laws  of  duly  (Mhr,  Ss<«boL  i,  286).  Ark,  mercy- 
seat,  cherubim,  Ihe  very  walls,  were  all  overlaid  with 
gold,  tbe  noblest  of  all  metata,  the  symbol  of  light  and 
purity— sunlight  itself,  as  it  were,  fixed  and  embodied, 
the  token  of  the  incomiptibte,  of  the  glory  of  a  great 
king  {ibid,  i,  2812).  It  was  not  without  meaning  that 
all  this  lavish  expenditure  of  what  waa  most  costly  ws* 
placed  wbere  none  might  gaze  on  iL  Tbe  gold  thus 
offered  taught  man  that  the  nobleat  acta  of  beneficence 
and  sacrifice  are  not  those  which  are  done  that  they 
may  be  seen  of  men,  but  those  which  are  known  only  to 
him  who  "seeth  in  secret"  (Hatt  vi,  4). 

Dimeuuons  alao  had  their  meaning.  Difflcolt  aa  it 
maybe  to  feel  sure  that  we  have  the  key  to  the  enigma, 
there  can  be  but  liltle  doubt  that  the  older  religious 
systems  of  the  world  did  attach  a  mysterious  lignificaoce 
loeach  separate  number;  that  the  training  orMoaeB,Ba 
sfternanl*  tbe  far  leas  complete  initiation  of  Pythagoras 
in  the  symbolism  of  Egypt,  must  have  made  that  trans- 
parently clear  to  him,  which  in  ui  is  almoat  impenetra- 
bly dark.  A  full  discussion  of  the  subject  is  obviously 
impoaaibJe  here,  but  it  may  be  uaeful  to  exhibit  briefly 
the  chief  though  ta  which  have  been  connccledwith  the 
numbera  that  are  most  prominent  in  the  language  of 
aymboliam.  Arbitrary  aa  some  of  them  may  seem,  a 
sulEcient  induction  to  establish  each  will  be  found  in 
Biihr's  elaborate  diaiorution  (SyiiboL  i,  128-255}  and 
other  work*  (cnmp.  Wilkinson,  .4 iir.  Egypt,  iv,  190-199; 
LeyrEr.ln  Htno^t  Ktal-Eiryldop.  s.v.  "Stiftabuite"). 
OKI— Tbe  Oodbead,  elernlly,  lih,  ereallve  fores,  the  inn. 
Two— Mallar,  time,  death,  receptiva  capacity,  Iha  moon,' 


Pooa  (I  be  number,  or  Id  ihe  sqnnreor  cube)— Condi  tinned 
eilstonce,  the  world  aa  created,  dlvlue  order,  revelii- 

Biivn<*a=it-|-4)— Tbe  nninnnnhe  world  and  Ond,  real 

(na  In  the  Babbsib),  pescr.  hltsdiie,  pnrlllrjiil.iii. 
Taii(a«  =  l  +  t-f.8-|-«)— (Jiimplereiiet^mornlnndphyal- 

cnh  perfcctlnn. 
Pivs.-Perfoctlanhairaltainsd.lncompleleneM. 
TwiLva— The  signs  ofths  sod  lac  Ibecycleof  ilie  •carina  t 

In  l>mel  ihe  litenl  nnmheroftbe  iienple.  iifiliecoi- 

Eoaut.>ra->dw1thlbero. 


TABERNACLE  I 

To  tboae  who  think  over  the  word*  of  two  great  lucli- 
en,  one  heathen  (Pluurch,  Dt  It.  el  Ot.  p.  411)  and 
une  CbriMiu)  (Clem.  AL  Strom,  vi,  fM-87),  wbo  had  al, 
leait  Uuilied  u  Tar  u  tbey  could  tlie  mfateriea  of  the 

religion  of  Egyyil,  and  had  inherited  part  nribeold  aya- 
lem.lhepreciaiunofthenunibi  "       '        --■    -  - 


willni 


If,  in 


a  tighl-angled  triangle,  with  the  aide* 
three.  Tour,  five,  repreiented  the  triad  of  Oniris,  lait, 
OruB,  creative  force,  receptive  matter,  the  nnit-ene  of 
creation  (Plutaich,  loc  «r.),  the  perfect  cube  of  the  hn)y 
or  boliea,  the  conaunt  recuntncc  of  the  numheni  1  and 
10,  najwell  lie  accepted  aa  ■jtobolizing  order,  atability, 
pofection  (Bahr,  Syibol.  i,  226}.  The  lymbol  reap- 
pears in  the  most  atartling  form  in  the  ftosing  visions 
of  the  Apocalypse.  There  the  beavenly  Jeruaalem  it 
detcrtbed,  in  wordi  which  abaolotely  exclude  the  literal- 
iam  that  baa  sometiniea  been  blindlj'  applied  to  it,  oa  a 
city  fuuT-square— 12,000  furlongs  ill  length  and  breadth 
and  height  (Rev.  ixi,  IS).     Sec  Ndkber. 

Into  the  inner  aanctuarjr  neither  people  nor  the  prieata 
■a  a  body  ever  entered.  Strange  u  it  may  seem,  that 
in  which  everj'thing  repreaenled  light  and  life  waa  left 
indarknesa  and  solitude.  Onctonly  intbeyear,  on  the 
day  of  atonement,  might  the  high-prieat  enter.  The 
ilrange  contrast  haa,  however,  ita  parallel  in  the  spirit- 
ual lifa.  Death  and  life,  light  and  darkneea,  are  wou- 
deifully  united.  Only  through  death  can  we  truly  live. 
Onlv  bv  passing  into  the  "  thick  darkneaa"  where  God 
ia  (Exod.  xx,  21;  1  Kings  viii.  IS)  can  we  enter  at  all 
into  the  "light  inaocesuiila"  in  which  he  dwells  evei- 
lastinglj.  The  solemn  annual  entrance,  like  the  with- 
drawal of  symbolic  forma  from  the  gaie  of  the  people, 
was  ilaelf  part  ofa  wise  and  divine  order.  Intercourse 
with  Egypt  had  shown  how  easily  the  symbols  of  truth 
might  become  common  and  fimiUar  thinga,  yet  without 
■ymbola  the  tniiha  themselves  might  be  forgotten. 
Both  dangers  were  met.  To  enter  once,  and  once  only 
ill  the  year,  itiLo  the  awful  dariuieat— to  stand  before 
the  Isw  of  duly,  before  the  presence  of 
gave  it,  not  in  the  stately  robea  that  became  the  rep- 
resentative of  God  to  man,  but  as  representing 
his  humiliation  in  the  garb  of  the  lower  priest 
footed  and  in  the  linea  ephod— to  confeas  his  o 
and  the  una  of  the  people — Ihia  waa  what  connected  the 
atonement-day  (jtipjnSr)  with  the  mercy-seat  (kopki- 
n/h).  To  come  there  with  blood,  the  symbol  of  life, 
touching  with  that  blood  tbo  mercv-seat— with  incense, 
■he  symbol  of  adoration  (Lev.  xii,  12-1*),  what  did 
that  express  twt  the  truth  (1)  that  man  must  draw 
near  to  the  righteous  God  with  no  lower  offering  than 
the  pure  worship  of  the  heart,  with  the  living  sacrifice 
of  body,  soul,  and  apitit;  (3)  that  could  such  a  perfect 
sacrifice  be  found,  it  woald  have  a 
working  beyond  itself,  in  proponioo 
cover  the  multitude  of  sins? 

From  all  Dlhem,  from  the  high-priest  at  all  other 
limes,  the  hcdy  of  holies  was  »hroude<l  by  the  heai 
vail,  bright  with  many  colors  anil  strange  forms,  even  . 
curtains  of  golden  tissue  were  lo  be  seen  hanging  befo 
the  adytum  of  an  Ef;yplian  terople,  a  strange  contra 
often  to  the  bestial  furm  behind  them  (Clem.AI.  Fird. 
ill,  4).    In  one  memorable  instance,  indeed,  (lie 
waa  the  witness  of  higher  and  deeper  Iboughls. 
the  shrine  of  lais  at  Sais,  there  were  lo  be  read  words 
which,  thnugh  pointing  to  a  pantheistic  rather 
ethical  religion,  were  yet  wonderful  in  their  loftiness. 


n(« 


■0  yfyoviiiO,  I 


shall  be,  and 

\tpfny)  (Vlutarcb,  Dt  fi.el  Otir.  p.  894). 
more  unlike,  the  truth,  we  feel  that  no  such  words  could 
have  appeared  on  the  vail  of  Ihe  tabernacle.  In  that 
identificatiou  of  the  world  and  God  all  idolatry  waa  la- 
tent, aa,  in  the  faith  of  Israel,  in  the  /  on  all  idolatry 
waa  excluded.  In  that  despair  of  any  withdrawal  of 
the  vail,  of  any  revelation  of  the  Divine  will,  there  were 
latent  all  the  ana  of  an  unbelieving  priestcraft,  subsli- 


TABERNACLE 

i^ng  symlnlii  pomp,  ritual,  for  such  a  revelation.    Bui 

what,  then,  was  the  meaning  of  the  vail  which  met  tlw 
gaie  of  Ihe  priests  as  they  did  service  in  the  sanctuary? 
ColorSfin  the  art  of  Egypt,  were  not  leaa  significant  than 
number,  and  the  fonr  bright  colon,  probably,  after  Ihe 
fashion  of  that  an,  in  parallel  band»— blue,  symbol  of 

and  Joy,  and  whita  of  light  and  purity  (B«br,  Symigl 
i,  805^30  >^faTmcd  in  their  combinatioa  no  itmote 
umilitude  of  the  rainbow,  which  of  old  had  been  a 
symbol  of  the  Divine  covenant  with  man,  the  pledge  of 
peace  and  hope,  the  sign  of  the  Divine  Presence  (Eiek. 
i,!8;  Ewald,,1frnYLp.S33).  See  Color.  Withintbe 
vail,  light  and  truth  were  seen  in  their  unity.  The  vail 
itself  represented  the  infinite  variety,  the  troXuirokiXs; 
oo^K  of  th e  divine  Older  increii ion  (Eph.iii,  10).  Tben^ 
again,  were-  seen  copied  apua  the  vail  the  mysteriDui 
forms  of  the  cherubim ;  how  many,  or  in  what  attitude. 


i,  IGj  : 


i,4).s 


to  justify  t! 


that  here  also  they  were  of  gold.  In  the  aba^ioe  of 
any  other  evidence,  it  would  have  been  perhaps  natural 
to  think  that  they  reproduced  on  a  larger  scale  the 
number  and  Ihe  position  of  those  that  were  over  the 
mercy-scat.  The  visions  of  EiekJel.  however,  repro- 
ducing, aa  they  obviously  do,  the  forms  with  which  bu 
priestly  life  had  made  him  familiar,  iniUcale  not  Ich 
Iban  four  (ch.  i  and  x),  and  thnce  not  all  alike,  haviDg 
severally  llie  faces  of  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox.  and  an  eagte 
— strange  symbolic  words,  which  elsewhere  we  thuolil 
have  identified  with  idolatry,  hut  whicli  here  were 
bearing  witneaa  against  it,  emblerai  of  the  manifold  va- 
riety of  creation  as  at  once  manifesting  and  concealing 
God. 

(2.)  The  outer  sanctuary  waa  one  degree  lets  awful 
in  its  holineas  than  the  inner.  Silver,  the  type  of  hu- 
man purity,  took  the  place  of  gold,  the  type  of  the  Di- 
vine glory  (lUhr,  SgwiboL  i,  384).  It  was  to  be  tro<l- 
den  daily  by  the  pricala  as  by  men  who  lived  in  the 
perpetual  consciousness  of  the  neameaa  of  God,  of  the 
mystery  behind  the  vaiL  Barefooted  and  in  garments 
of  while  linen,  like  the  priests  of  Isia  [see  Paiasr], 
they  accomplished  their  minittrationa.  Here,  too,  then 
were  other  emblems  ofdivine  realities.  It  waa  spedsl- 
ly  illumined  by  Ihe  golden  lamp  with  ita  aeven  lights 
never  all  extinguished  together,  the  perpetual  syntbtpl 
of  all  derived  gifts  of  wisilom  and  hoiineia  in  mao, 
reaching  their  mystical  perfection  when  they  thine  ia 
God's  sanctuary  lo  his  glor^-  (Exnd.  xxv,  31 ;  xxvii.JO^ 
Zech.  iv,  1-14).  The  sbew-biead  (the  "bread  of  faces') 
of  Ihe  Divine  Presence,  not  unlike  in  outward  fonn  to 
Ihe  sacred  cakes  which  the  Egj'piians  placed  before  Ihe 
shrines  of  their  gods,  served  as  a  token  that,  though 
there  was  no  torm  or  likeness  of  Ihe  Godhead,  he  wti 
yet  there,  accepting  all  offering  recognising  in  partic- 
ular that  special  oF    ' 


n  the  I 


of  ib 


unity 


li,  2).     The  i 


people  (Enald,Xi/*rtA,  p.  120).  The 
01  tne  altar  of  incense  was  not  less  obi'ioiii. 
i  of  fragrant  smoke  was  the  natural,  alirmt 
rrsal,  emblem  of  the  heatl's  adoration  (Ph. 


-iukled  on  Ibe  si 


Ihe  Ismp  taught  men  that  all  otbetoffenngsneedeilibe 
intermingliiii;  of  that  ailoration-  L'pon  thai  sliu  «« 
"strange  lire"  waa  lo  be  kindled.  When  fresh  fire  wta 
needed  it  was  to  be  taken  fnim  the  altar  of  biint-oStt- 
ing  in  the  outer  courl  (Lev.  ix,  24;  x,  I).  Very  strik- 
ing, as  comparcil  with  what  is  lo  follow,  are  the  sublim- 
ity and  the  purity  of  ihenc  symbols.  It  i*  as  if  the 
priestly  order,  already  leading  a  consecrated  lilir,  were 
capable  trf  understanding  a  higher  language  which  hsd 
lo  be  translated  into  a  lower  for  Ihoae  that  wen  uiU 
without  (Saalschl)t2,XrcAoof.|TT). 

(3.)  Outside  tlie  teni,  bul  still  within  the  consecnUd 
precincts,  waa  the  court,  fenced  in  by  an  eticlotBrc,  f  c( 


TABERNACLE  u 

tprs  10  ill  Ihe  coagregttion  U  •rell  u  Is  tbe  Lei-itcs,  I 
lime  oDlf  excrpteil  who  wen  cerenoniallT  unckan. 
Ka  Gentik  mighi  pun  IwjtodiI  the  curUuii  of  Ibe  en- 
amct,  bul  crtty  member  or  the  prieuly  ntlion  night ' 
ihu  tu  "rtnir  tieai"  U>  the  prewnce  of  Jehovah, 
ilwf,  therefore,  Moocl  the  alur  uf  biimi-jflcringii,  at 
ihich  ucrifice*  in  all  their  virieiies  were  aS'ereJ  b; 
imiiiHit  or  thankful  wurehippcra  (Exud.  xxvli,  1-8; 
uiriii,  1),  the  bruen  Uver  at  which  those  wonhip. 
|xn  purified  themtelvei  before  ibty  ueriflced,  the 
prieM  befbn  they  entered  into  the  aincCiKry  (xxx, 
I'-il).  Here  Ibe  ^odualed  Male  of  bolineu  ended. 
WhU  Imel  woa  to  the  world,  fenced  in  and  wt  apart. 
liH  ibe  court  of  the  tabernacle  WM  tu  the  iiirrDunding 
■lldenwH,  Just  as  the  distinction  betiteen  it  and  the 

indMhri  laraelilce;  Jnn  uthe  ide*  of  holinen  culmi- 
utnl  pcmnoU;  in  the  high-prieal,  loeoUy  in  the  bol; 
irflmlia, 

V.  Tkteriao/Lattr  Tiaei.—\.  It  !■  not  probable  that 
the  eliborale  symbolidd  of  tuch  a  stlucture  was  undec' 
UDod  br  Ibe  rude  and  xnauat  multitude  thai  came  out 
<if  Ejcypi.    In  iu  fulaeae,  perhapa,  no  mind  but  that  at 

faia,  DM  half,  and  that  the  hlgheat,orit9  meaning  muM 
bave  hem  allnselher  latent.  Yet  it  ira«  not  the  lett, 
■u  perhaps  the  more  fitted,  on  that  account,  to  be  an 
■  e  people.  To  the 
.  least  a  wilncsa  of 
[t  net  the  craving 
0  vrorghip,  wilh 

lit  their  fleshly  nature  wan  the  hindemncc 
hat  it  renilered  them  unclean  i  that  only 
in  nbdLiiug  il,  killing  it,  aa  they  killed  the  bullock  and 
Ibi  gMt,  cuulil  they  offer  up  an  acceptable  sacrillce; 
that  Hch  a  ncriAce  vaa  the  ccndilion  of  forgiveness,  a 
tiigber  tacriOce  tfaan  any  they  could  offer  as  the  ground 
tl  tbu  liirgireness.  The  sina  of  the  past  were  coneid- 
tn<l  *•  belonging  Co  the  fleihly  tialuie  which  nai  slain 
and  offered,  not  to  the  true  inner  self  of  the  worshipper. 
Hire  thoughtful  minda  were  led  inevitably  to  higher 
inutis.  1'bey  were  not  slow  to  see  in  the  tabernacle 
Ihe  parable  oX  God's  presence  manifested  in  creation. 
UukntM  was  as  hi*  pavilion  (2  Sam.  xxii,  1!}.  He 
bu  made  a  tabeniacle  for  the  sun  (Psa.  six,  4),  The 
beaTm  were  spread  out  Uke  its  curtains.  The  beams 
idiot  chambers  were  in  the  mightv  waters  (civ,  2,3: 
!«.  il.  ti:  Lowth,  D«  Sac  Pua.  viii}.  The  majesty 
i/liai  seeu  in  the  storm  and  tempest  wa*  as  of  one  who 
ndw  apDa  a  ebcnib  (a  S.im.  xtii.  1l>  If  the  wordi 
"Hcthaldwellcth  between  Che  cherubim'' spoke  on  the 
toe  mIc  of  a  special,  localized  manifestation  of  the  Di- 
Tio*  Praieiior,  they  apoke  also  on  Ibe  other  of  that 
Pnamcc  u  in  (be  heaven  of  heavens,  in  the  light  of 
•Mtiag  nins,  in  Ihe  btackncn  and  the  flashes  of  the 


!  TABERNACLE 

him  to  Bee  in  the  holy  of  holies  and  the  sanctuary  that 
which  answered  to  Ihe  Tlatonic  distiuclioti  between  the 
visible  (oi'jSijrH)  and  the  spiritual  (jpoijTii),  the  coarser, 
less  intelligent  Josephus  goes  still  more  completely  into 
Ihe  new  system.  The  holy  of  holies  ia  the  viuble  fir- 
mament in  which  Uod  dwells,  the  sanctuary  is  the 
earth  and  sea  which  men  inhabit  (_Anl.  iii,  S,  4,  Tj  7, 
7).  The  twelve  loaves  of  the  sbew-breod  repce«eiitei1 
the  twelve  months  uf  the  year,  the  twelve  signs  of  Ihe 
zodiac  The  Mven  tamps  were  Ihe  seven  planets.  The 
four  colon  of  the  vail  were  the  four  elements  (aroixlT"), 
air.  Ere,  water,  earth.  Even  Che  wings  of  Ihe  cherubim 
were,  in  the  eyes  of  some,  the  two  hemispheres  of  the 
universe,  or  the  constellotions  of  Ihe  greater  and  Ihe 
lesser  bean  (Clem.  Alex.  Slram.  v,  3G).  The  table  of 
shew-bread  and  the  altar  of  incense  stood  on  the  nonh, 
because  north  winds  were  most  fruitful ;  the  lamp  on  the 
south,  because  the  raoliona  of  the  planets  were  soulh- 
wsrd  (iUd.  g  84,  85).  We  need  not  follow  such  a  sys- 
tem of  interpretation  further.  It  was  not  unnatural 
that  the  authority  with  which  it  started  Bhould  secure 
for  it  considerable  respeel.  We  find  it  reappearing  in 
some  Christian  write™ — Chrj-soslom  (_  Horn,  in  Juann. 
Btipl.)  and  Theodoret  (QncMf.  in  Ezod.);  in  some  Jew- 
ish—Ben-Uzziel,  Kimchi,  Abarbaiiel  (^hr,  SymboL  i, 
103  sq.).  It  was  well  for  Christian  thought  that  the 
Church  bad  in  the  Epistle  lo  the  Hebrews  and  Ihe 
Apocalypse  of  St.  John  thai  which  helped  to  save  it 
from  the  pedantic  puerilities  of  this  physico-lheologi-. 
It  ia  curious  to  note  how  in  Clement  of  Alexandria  the 
two  systems  of  interpretation  cross  each  other,  leading 
sometimes  to  extravagances  like  thnae  in  Ihe  text, 
sometimes  lo  thoughts  at  once  lofry  and  Irue.  Some 
of  these  have  already  been  noticed.  Olbcr^  not  to  be 
passed  over,  are  that  the  seven  lamps  sec  forth  the  va- 
ried degreea  and  forma  (woXufitpcSc  tai  B-oXurpciirwt) 
of  God's  revelation,  the  form  and  Che  altitude  of  Ihe 
cherubim,  the  union  of  active  miniatry  and  grateful, 
ceaseless  canlemplatinn  {Stmta.  y,  86, 87), 

8.  It  will  bave  been  clear  from  all  that  has  been  aaid 
that  the  Epistle  lo  the  Hebrews  has  not  been  looked  on 
as  dewgned  to  limit  our  inquiry  into  the  meaning  of 
the  symbolism  of  the  tabernacle,  and  that  there  is  cun- 
sequently  no  ground  for  adopting  the  system  of  inter- 
preters who  can  see  in  it  nothing  but  an  aggregate  of 
types  of  Chiislian  mysteries.    Such  a  ayatem  has,  in 


1.  The  thought  ihui  uttered,  eaaentially  pnetical  in 
its  astaie,  hod  its  fit  plan  in  the  psalms  and  hymns  of 
laoeL    It  loat  its  beauty,  ic  ted  men  on  a  false  track, 

Jadoiim  and  Greek  philosophy  were  alike  effete,  when 
sfetUe  physical  acienoe  which  could  read  nothing  bnt 
its  own  thoughiain  the  symbols  of  an  older  and  deeper 
lyAem  ma  ohcr  its  own  fashion  niinnaliiing  the  my- 
tMggy  of  haatbeniim,  there  were  found  Jewish  writen 
wilUnft  ^  ■PP'y  the  same  principle  of  inierpretatioa  t( 
Ue  tabernacle  and  iC*  order.  In  Ibac  way,  it  seemed  tc 
them,  ihey  wouhl  aecure  the  respect  even  of  the  men 
oflKten  who  eouU  not  bring  tbcmselvei  to  be  prose- 
tylaa.  The  result  appean  in  Joaepbua  and  in  Philo,  in 
tta  also  in  Clement  nf  Alexandria  and  Origen.  Thus 
iaufpnted,  the  entire  significance  r>f  the  two  lableaof 
Ibe  OTVtsant  and  Iheir  |>la(c  within  Ihe  ark  disap- 
peared, anil  ItW  truths  which  the  whole  onler  repre- 
••atad  btcane  ennuaJ  iosMad  of  ethical.  If  the  ape- 
(ial  MlaifDeraey  of  ona  wiUw^ilo,  De  Prnfug.)  led 


fact,t< 


ives.     Eitl 


meaning  was  made  clear,  at  least  lo  the  devout  wor 
ahippers  of  old,  and  then  it  is  no  longer  true  that  the 
mysteiy  was  hid  "from  ages  and  generations,"  or  elite 
the  mystery  was  concealed,  and  then  tiie  whole  order 
waa  voiceless  and  unmeaning  aa  long  a>  it  lasted.  Ihcn 
only  beginning  lo  be  instructive  when  it  was  "  ready  to 
vanish  away."  Rightly  viewed,  there  is,  it  is  believed, 
no  antagonism  between  the  interpretation  which  stacls 
from  the  idea  of  ii/niboli  of  great  eternal  truths,  and 
that  which  rests  on  the  idea  of  lifptt  foreshadowing 
Christ  and  his  Work  and  his  Church.  If  the  latter 
were  Che  highest  manifests t inn  of  the  formes  (and  this 
ia  the  keynote  of  the  Epistle  In  the  Hebrews),  then  Ihe 
two  systems  run  parallel  wilh  each  other,  Tlie  type 
may  help  us  to  understand  the  aymbnl.  The  aymbol 
may  guard  na  against  mi«nler|ireiing  the  type.  That 
the  same  things  were  at  once  aymlmls  and  types  may 
lake  Us  place  among  the  proofs  of  an  insight  anil  a  fore- 
sight more  than  humsn.  Not  the  vnil  of  nalnre  only, 
but  the  vail  of  the  flesh,  the  humanity  of  Christ,  at 
once  conceals  and  manifenls  the  Elemai's  gtory.  'The 
Tcndinj;  of  that  vail  enabled  all  who  had  eyes  to  see 
and  hearts  to  believe  to  enter  into  the  holy  of  holies, 
Into  the  Divine  Presence,  and  lo  see,  not  less  clearly 
than  the  high-priest,  as  he  looked  on  Ihe  ark  and  the 
roercv-scat.  Iliac  righteousness  and  love,  truth  ami 
mercy,  were  as  one.  Blood  had  been  abed,  a  life  had 
been  offered  wliich,  through  the  inflnile  power  of  lia 


The 


0  tabernacle  in  Ihe  Apocalyp 


TABEENACLE  1' 

■te,  u  might  ba  np«cl«d,  full  of  intemL  Ai  in  a 
viuon,  which  Iums  light  of  lU  time  limit*,  the  temple 
of  the  tihemule  in  aeea  in  heaven  (Kev.  xr,  fi},  and 
yet  in  the  heavenly  Jenuakin  there  is  no  temple  leen 
(xxi,  2:2).  In  the  heavenly  temple  there  ia  no  longer 
anj  viU;  it  is  open,  and  the  ark  of  (he  covenant  ii 
clearly  eeen  (xi,  19). 

i.  We  caiiiiot  here  ToUovr  oat  that  Urain  of  a  higher 
mood,  and  it  would  not  be  profllable  to  enter  into  the 
•peciilaliuns  which  later  wiitera  bavs  eugrafled  on  the 
lirftt  great  thoughL  Those  who  wish  to  enter  upon 
that  Uiie  of  inquiry  may  Hod  materials  enough  in  any 
or  the  grealer  cummeiitaries  on  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews [Owen's,  Siusrt's,  Dleeii's,  Tholucfs,  Deliiisch's, 
Alfiird'a),  or  in  special  ireaiises,  such  a*  (hoee  of  Van 
Till  (IM  Tabrrmic  in  Ugolina,  T'Aaaurvt,  viii),  Bede 
(  JCxpoiilio  Ugliai  H  Morula  Motaici  TubtntacuH  ), 
Witeins  ( De  Tuitrti.  I.m).  Ugitervi,  in  the  Mitettl. 
Sucr.).  Slrange  outlying  hallucinationt,  like  those  of 
ancient  rabbins, inferring  from  "the  psilern  ihowed  to 
UuMi  in  the  Huunt."  the  permanent  existence  of  a 
heavenly  tabernacle,  like  tn  form,  structure,  pmpor- 
lions  to  that  which  stood  in  the  wiideniese  (Le)Ter,?of. 
<ii.),  or  of  later  writers  who  have  seen  in  it  (not  in  the 
spiritual,  hut  the  anatomical  sense  of  the  word)  a  Igpt 
uf  humanity,  representing  the  outer  bodily  rnmework, 
the  inner  vital  ui);an*  (Friederich,  Sjfmb.  der  Mo*. 
StiftMAilile,  in  Lcynr,  toe.  dl.,  and  Ewald,  Aberik.  p. 
S9H},  ma;  be  dismissed  with  a  single  glance.  The 
Judaic  and  patristic  opinion  in  the  main,  though  not 
in  the  detail^  was  (dvocaled  by  Btbt  in  his  Sgiubidii 
(IS37),  ill  which  be  consi<lered  the  tabernacle  a  symbol 
uf  iIhi  universe,  the  court  represrnting  earth,  and  the 

material  sense,  but  as  the  place  and  iustiumenta  of  God's 
revelation  of  himself.  In  liis  work  on  the  temple,  ten 
f  can  later,  Mhr  retracted  much  of  his  lormer  theory, 
and  advocated  the  opinion  that  the  tabernacle  sym- 
boliied  the  idea  of  the  dwelling  of  (iod  in  the  midst  of 
IsraeL  Another  view,  which  seems  an  exaggeration 
iuto  unwarrantable  detail  of  the  true  idea  that  each 
Christisn  is  a  temple  of  God,  proceeds  Id  adapt  to  the 
elements  of  human  nature  the  divisions  and  materials 
of  the  tabernacle.    Thus  the  court  ii  the  body,  the 


place  of  Uod.    Tbl 


e  holies 


T.ighl  d 


illustration,  and  was  so  used  by  Luther; 
has  been  fully  developed  and  defenileil  against  the  at- 
tack of  Bilhr  by  Friederich  to  his  S^oib.  iltr  Mai.  Siifi- 
ikiUe  (Leips.  IMl). 

6.  Nevertheleis,  as  the  central  point  or  a  great  sym- 
bolical and  typical  institute,  the  tabernacle  nectHsrily 
possessed,  both  as  a  whole  and  in  its  contents,  a  sym- 
bolical and  typical  signiticance,  which  has  been  recog- 
nised by  all  orttiodox  interpretetB.  On  this  head,  ss  we 
sec  above,  much  fanciful  and  unregulated  ingenuity  has 
been  indulged;  but  this  must  not  induce  us  to  neglect 
■hose  conclusions  to  which  a  just  application  of  the 
principles  of  typological  interpretation  conducts. 

(I.)  Uniler  the  Ohl-Tesl.  economy,  the  primary  idea 
of  the  tabernacle  waa  that  of  a  dwelling  for  Jehorah  in 
the  midst  of  his  people,  and  this  was  prominently  kept 
in  view  in  all  the  arrangements  concerning  the  con- 
struction and  location  of  the  structure.  "Let  them," 
said  God  to  Moms, "make  me  a  sanctuary  that  I  msy 
dwell  omoug  them"  (Exod.  Kxv,  8;  xxii,  46) ;  when 
the  structure  was  completed  it  was  set  up  in  Ibe  midst 
of  the  cungregalion,  and  there  it  always  remained, 
whether  the  people  rested  or  were  on  their  march 
(Numb,  ii) ;  on  it  retted  the  cloud  which  indicated  the 
Divine  Presence,  and  which  by  Its  quiescence  or  re- 
moval indicated  the  will  of  the  Great  Sovereign  of  Is- 
rael as  to  the  resting  ur  the  removing  of  the  camp 
(Exod,  xl,  86-B8);  and  to  it  the  people  repaireil  when 
■  hey  had  sacriSce  to  oHTer  to  Uud,  ur  counsel  to  aik  of 
l.im{Uv.  i,8;Numb.xxvii,  S;  Deul.  xxxi,  H,  eic). 
Ai  Judaism  was  strictly  monotheistic,  it  knew  but  imt 


TABERNACLE 

tacnd  place  where  Jehovah  wm  to  be  found.  The 
holy  of  holies,  which  the  apoatle  call*  "the  second  tab- 
ernacle" (Heb.  ii,  7),  was  the  appropiiale  residence  of 
Jehovah  as  the  Uod  of  IsraeL  In  this  the  iiriiMapal 
thing  was  the  ark,  in  which  woa  placed  "  the  tettitnony" 
(n<17),  and  whtcb  was  covered  by  "the  mercy  ft" 
(n^ni).  The  testimony  was  the  book  of  the  law,  and 
it  was  put  into  the  ark  as  a  witneai  against  the  peoplo 
because  of  tlieir  nnfulnen  (Deuu  xxjti,  36,  !7).  Thia 
aymboliied  the  great  truth  that  the  fint  relation  into 
which  Jeliovah  cornea  with  the  sinner  it  that  of  a  rater 
whose  law  teatiBet  against  the  liantgressor.  But  this 
testimony  was  kid  by  the  mercy-seat,  on  which  tbe 
blood  of  atonement  was  sprinkled  by  tbe  faigh-prieat 
when  be  entered  within  the  vail,  ai>d  on  which  ibc  viai- 
ble  emblem  of  Jehovah's  presence— the  ■bechioah  be- 
tween the  chemlnm  of  gtoiy — was  enthroned;  and  in 
thia  there  wai  an  emblem  of  the  fact  that  tbe  eoa- 
demningand  accusing  power  ofthe  Iswwat  taken  away 
by  (he  pmiHtiaiory  covering  which  God  had  appointed. 
Uy  all  (bis  was  indicated  the  grand  truth  that  the  char- 
acter in  which  Jehovah  dwelt  among  hit  peofde  was 
that  of  a  Justly  oSended  hut  merciful  and  propitiated 
■overcign,  who,  having  received  atonemeiit  for  their 
sins,  had  put  these  out  of  his  sight,  and  would  remem- 
ber tbem  no  more  at  all  againit  them  (comp,  Pbilo,  De 
V~>LJfMW,bk.iii). 

In  ^e  first,  or  outer  Ubemacle,  were  the  altar  of  in- 
cense, the  table  with  the  shew-hread,  and  the  golden 
candkatiek.  The  flrst  wat  symbolical  of  the  neceaniy 
and  the  aceeptahleneu  of  prayer,  of  which  the  iiDohc 
of  sweet  incense  that  wat  to  ascend  from  it  morning 
and  evening  appears  (o  be  (be  appointed  KblJcal  xvta- 
bol  (comp.  rsa.  cxli,  i;  Luke  j,  10;  Rev.  v,  8;  viii,  3, 
1).  Tbe  second  was  emblematical  of  the  necesaity  of 
good  works  to  accompany  our  devotions,  the  bread  be- 
ing the  ol&ring  ofthe  children  of  Israel  to  their  Divine 
King  (Lev.  xxiv,  H),  and  consecrated  to  bim  by  the  of- 
lering  of  incente  almig  with  it  as  emblematical  ofpraver. 
The  third  was  the  symbol  of  (he  Church,  or  people  of 
God,  the  gold  of  which  it  wat  formed  denoting  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  Church,  the  seven  lamps  ita  compleic^ 
ness,  and  the  oil  by  which  they  were  fed  being  the  ap- 
propriala  symbol  of  the  Divine  Spirit  dwelling  in  his 
people  aitri  causing  them  to  shine  (comp.  Zech.  it,  3.3; 
Matt.  T,  14,  16;  Kev.  i,  12,  »). 

In  the  f'lre-court  of  the  tabernacle  stood  the  altar  of 
bumt-oSering,  on  which  were  offered  the  tecriHcea  i>f 
(he  people,  and  Ibe  laver,  in  wbtch  the  priests  cleansnl 
their  hBnda  and  feet  before  entering  the  holy  place. 
The  symbolical  significance  of  three  it  too  well  known 
(0  need  illuttralion.    See  Uffkiiibc  ;  PtBtFlvATioN. 

(2.)  Under  the  new  dispensation,  if  we  view  the  tab- 
ernacle as  a  general  symbol  of  Jehovah's  dwelling  in  the 
midst  of  hit  people,  then  that  to  which  it  answers  can 
be  no  other  than  the  human  nature  of  our  Lord.  He 
was  "God  manifest  in  the  flesh,"  "ImmanDd,"  Go>l 
with  ut,  and  in  him  "dwelleth  all  the  fuluest  of  the 
Uotlhead  bi«iily- (I  Tim.  ill,  16;  HatLi,23;  Col.  ii.9). 
Hence  John  (i,  14),  in  q)eaking  uf  hia  ineamition,  Bay^ 
"The  Word  became  fleah  and  labmtaeted  (iscqvHn) 
among  ua,"  where  the  language  evidently  points  lo  iho 
ancient  tabernacle  as  the  symbolical  residence  of  Jeho- 
vah; and  in  the  book  of  Revelation  (xxi,  5)  the  owne 
apostle,  in  announcing  the  final  presence  of  Christ  in 
his  gloriJled  humanity  with  hia  Church,  uses  tbe  ex- 
preatiiin,  "  The  labtTnarie  of  God  is  with  men."  Fmn 
these  Btalements  of  the  New  TeaL  we  may  hold  oxr- 
aelvea  JuatiSed  in  concluding  that  the  ancient  taberna- 
cle, viewed  in  ita  general  aspect  as  tbe  dwelling  of  Jebn- 
vah,  found  its  antitype  in  the  human  nature  of  ChritI, 
in  whom  God  really  dwelt.  Viewed  more  particularly 
in  its  two  great  divisions,  ihe  tabernacle  tymbuliaed  in 
its  inner  depanmeni  Ihe  reign  of  Jehovah  in  hia  on 
majesty  and  glory,  and  in  its  outer  department  ihe  ser- 
vice of  God  Gy  propitiatioD  and  pnyer.     In  keeping 


TABERNACLE  H 

nu  ltal%  Ibc  writer  of  the  Epiide  to  the  Hebrem 
Mclia  (*•  ibore  Kta)  lu  to  regmid  the  outer  put  of 
Ibc  ubunade  u  Dioie  Mrictly  typical  of  the  pereon  of 
lata  Chriat,  tai  the  inner  of  huTen,  into  which  he 
tiH  Dov  eoteial.  Thiii  he  ipealu  of  bin)  (Tiii,  2)  u 
oav,  iDthe  heiFenlf  state,  "■  miniwer  of  the  true  [i.e. 
Twi,  aXii^trTh  u  dialinguijhed  from  n/mbolical]  ttber- 
ude  which  the  Lord  pitched^  And  not  nmn,**  where  the 
tUnwrD  Menu  to  be  partly  to  the  fict  that  Chriat  is  iti 
hano,  and  paitlj  to  the  fact  that  he  miniateni  there 
B  luinan  natore.  Still  more  explicit  is  the  Uoguage 
uhI  in  ia,  11,  where  the  writer,  after  speaking  of  the 
uxtioui  letTkca  of  the  uieient  ecoaomy  ae  merely 
igmlire  tod  outward,  adda,  "  But  Christ  having  ap- 
psnd  at  high-prical  of  the  good  things  to  come,  by 
staaa  of  the  greater  and  more  perfect  tabernacle  not 
aide  with  bands  (that  is,  not  of  this  creation),  nor  by 
acan  of  blood  of  pMt  and  calrea.  tmt  by  meana  of  hia 
m  Uood,  entered  once  (for  all)  into  the  holy  pUoe, 
tiring  obtained  eternal  redemption  for  us."  In  inter- 
indng  this  pBnage,ffe  would  follow  those  who  take 
Il»  ■bole  as  far  as  the  wordi  "hia  own  blood"  u  the 
kIjki  of  the  sentence,  and  consequently  join  the 
daiBffl  depending  from  ita  with  rapayivdfitvoCt  ^^ 
BM  with  uVqXSii' ;  for  it  seems  to  be  more  natural  to 
eppOK  that  the  irriter  should  say  that  it  was  by  means 
gf  ■  mie  perfect  tabernacle  and  a  holier  sacrifice  that 
Chriit  btcame  the  higb-priestofiipiiitualbleaeingatbin 
■u  thai  he  entered  into  the  hilly 


.    Tbeol 


■eol^iw. 


with- 


AUanl  urges,  that  < 

ml  uy  pieccdiDg  member  ofthe  nega^n  to  follow," 
of  so  weight,  for  it  burdens  the  construction  be  adopts 
a  DBcti  at  that  he  rejects,  and  is  to  be  obviated  in 
Biha  case  by  teaolviog  oiii  into  aoi  ou  (see  Meyer's 
lutoant.  11).  Assuming  this  to  be  tbe  proper  con- 
■rgclim  of  the  passage,  it  seems  clearly  to  repiaent 
Ik  baiBsa  nature  of  our  Lord — that  in  which  he  made 
lui  loil  u  offering  for  un — as  the  antitype  of  the  an- 
aen  tabernacle  in  which,  the  high-pri«at  offeted  tacri- 
iKirlub  the  hesTeoJy  world  into  which  be  had  enter- 
el  n  a  high-prieat  was  typilied  by  the  holy  place  into 
<r)urh  the  Jewish  high-prieat  entered  to  appear  in  the 
•yabDlical  presence  of  Jehorah.  For  further  conflrma- 
lia  oT  this  may  be  adduced  Heb.  x,  SO,  where  the  writ- 
B,^«Uogof  the  privilege  enjoyed  by  believen  under 
UKBFirdispeoiation  of  approaching  (iod  through  Chriit, 
niwsianda  it  "by  a  new  and  living  way  which  he 
kd>  ioiagiuated  (ivaairurcr)  for  us  through  the  vail 
(ika  ii,  hit  own  Beth)."  The  aUuMou  here  is  undoubt- 
eljy  to  the  andent  tabernacle  service,  aod  the  truth  set 
linb  it  thai  at  the  high-priest  of  old  went  with  lacriS- 
Bil  blood  through  the  vail  into  tlie  holy  of  holies,  so 
n,  ■  Disde  priests  natt>  God  by  Jesus  Christ,  may  ap- 
imcli  the  immediate  presence  of  Jehovah  through  that 
pith  which  Che  Saviour  has  iasugursted  for  us  by  his 
doth  iahmnannauiie— that  path  by  which  he  himself 
tat  inceded  us  as  our  great  uitercesaor,  and  which  is 
mr  badi  sod  living  for  us.  There  may  be  some  rhe- 
■siicsl  confuiDn  in  this  passa^^  but  tbe  general  idea 
ana  pfadoly  thi^  tbat  the  body  of  Christ,  stain  for  u^ 
■Ma  na  s  paSHge,  by  means  of  sacriHce,  into  the  pres- 
enof  Godijostas  tbe  first  tabernacle  with  its  servicea 
AoM  an  entrance  to  the  higb-priest  of  old  into  tbe 
Ut of  holies  (lee  Hofmann,  Sckri/lbaetu,  II,  i,  40a  sq. ; 
D'oHf.  a.  Br/ilUng,  ii,  189  sq.)- 

F«  the  symbolism,  in  a  New-Teat,  sense,  of  ths  va- 
rm  paita  and  usee  irfthe  labemaele,  such  as  the  altar 
(iwutST^pior,  Heb.  xiii,  10),  the  vsil  (jcarawiraaiin, 
^  tt),  tbe  nwTcy-sest  (jXatr^piov,  Rom.  iii,  25),  etc, 
«  nch  woid  in  ita  place. 

&  It  it  pnps-  in  this  coonectjoii  to  refer  to  a  apecD- 
Urt  bypMiiesa  which,  though  in  itself  ODSubstanrial 
<^°<<gh,  hrD  been  leviTcd  nndcc  eirenmstances  that  have 
(irtn  It  profniDence^  It  has  been  maintained  by  Von 
BohlrasDdystkc  (Blhr,i,ll7,Z78)  tbat  tbe  commands 
"A  the  descriptions  rda^ag  to  the  tabenucle  in  the 


13  TABERNACLE 

books  of  Hoses  sre  altogether  unhlstorical,  the  result  of 

the  efllort  of  some  Iste  compiler  to  ennoble  the  cradle  of 
bis  people'!  bbtory  by  transferring  to  a  remote  antiquity 
what  he  found  actually  existing  in  the  Temple,  modi- 
fied only  BO  far  as  was  necessary  to  fit  it  into  the  the- 
ory of  a  migration  and  a  wandering.  The  atructure  did 
not  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  if  indeed  there 
ever  was  an  Exodua.  The  Ubemacle  thus  becomes  the 
mythical  aftergrowth  of  the  Temple,  not  the  Temple 
the  historical  sequel  to  the  tabernacle.  It  hia  lately 
been  uiged  as  tending  to  the  ssme  conclusion  that  the 
circumstances  connected  with  the  tabernacle  in  the 
Pentateuch  are  manifestly  unhistoricaL  The  whole 
congregation  of  Israel  are  said  to  meet  in  a  court  which 
could  not  have  contained  more  than  a  fen  hundred  men 
(Co]ttao,PaitalaitA  and  BookofJoihua,  pui,ch.ir,v). 
The  number  of  priests  was  utterly  inadequate  for  the  ser- 
vices of  the  tabernacle  (ilnd.  ch.  xx).  The  narrative  of 
the  head-money  collection,  of  the  gifts  of  the  people,  is 
full  of  anachronisms  {Oid.  ch.  xiv). 

Some  of  these  objections — those,  e.  g.,  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  tbe  Brst-bom,  snd  the  diapropoitionate  smallneM 
of  the  priesthood,  hsve  been  met  by  anticipation  in  re- 
mat^  nnder  Pniii^T  and  Lkvitk.  Others  bearing  upon 
the  general  veracity  of  tbe  Pentateuch  history  it  is  im- 
possible to  discuss  here.  See  FENTATstiCH.  It  will  be 
sufficient  to  notice  such  as  bear  immediately  upon  the 
aahject  of  thia  article.  CO  I'  "■?  *«  "■'■  ^^^  "i'« 
theory,  like  other  similar  theories  as  to  tl>e  history  of 
Christianity,  adds  to  instead  of  diminishing  difficulties 
and  anomalies.  It  may  be  potubla  to  make  out  plausi- 
bly that  what  purports  to  be  tbe  first  period  of  an  intti- 
tution  is,  with  all  its  documents,  the  cretin  of  the  sec- 
ond ;  but  ibe  question  then  comes,  How  are  we  to  explain 
the  existence  of  the  second?  The  world  rests  upon  an 
elephant,  and  the  elephant  ou  a  tortoise,  hot  the  footing 
of  the  tortoise  is  at  least  somewhat  inaecuie.  (2.)  What- 
ever may  be  the  weight  of  tbe  argument  drawn  from 
the  alleged  presence  of  the  whole  congregation  at  the 
door  ofthe  tabernacle  tells  with  equal  force  sgainat  the 
historical  existence  ofthe  Temple  and  the  narrative  of 
its  dedication.  There  also,  when  the  population  num- 
bered some  seven  or  eight  millions  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  9), 
"all  themenoflarael"  (1  Kings  viii,  !),  "all  the  con- 
gregation" (ver.  6),  "all  (he  children  of  Israel'  (vei.63) 
were  assembled,  and  Ihe  king  "blessed"  all  the  congre- 
gation (ver.  14,  6S),  (3.)  There  are,  it  is  believed,  un- 
designed touches  inrticsting  the  nomadic  life  ofthe  wil- 
demesi.  The  wood  employed  for  the  tabernacle  is  not 
the  sycamore  of  the  valleys  nor  the  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
as  afterwards  in  (lie  Tcmp'le,  but  the  thiltim  ofthe  Si- 
naltio  peninsula.  See  Siitttah-triie;  Shittim,  The 
ibundanceofflnelinenpoints  to  Egypt,  the  seal  oi 
phin  skins  ("badgers"  in  the  A,T.,  but  n  ~ 
s.  V.  dnri)  to  the  Chores  of  the  Red  Sea.  See  Badgsr. 
The  Levites  are  not  to  enter  on  their  office  till  the  age  of 
thirty,  as  needing  for  Iheir  worit  as  besrers  a  man's  full 
strength  (Numb,  iv,  23,  80).  Afterwards,  when  their 
duties  are  chiefly  those  of  singers  and  gatekeepera,  they 
were  to  begin  at  twenty  (1  Chran.  xxiii,  24).  Would 
a  later  biatory,  again,  have  excluded  the  priestly  tribe 
from  all  share  in  the  structure  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
left  it  in  the  hands  of  mythical  persons  belonging  to 
Judah,and  to  a  tribe  then  so  little  prominent  as  ihnt  uf 
Dan?  (4.)  There  remsint  the  strong  Egyptian  stamp 
impressed  upon  well-nigh  every  part  of  the  tabernacle 
and  its  ritual,  and  implied  in  other  incideuts.  See 
Bkazkh  Skrfemt  I  Lbvite;  Pbikst;  Uhih  anq-Thum- 
MIM.  Whatever  beariiig  this  may  have  on  oui  views 
of  tbe  things  themselves,  it  points,  beyond  alt  doubt,  to 
a  time  when  the  two  nations  had  been  brought  Into 
close  contact,  when  not  Jewels  of  silver  and  gold  only, 
but  treasures  of  wisdom,  art,  knowledge,  were  "bor- 
rowed" by  one  people  from  the  other.  To  what  other 
period  in  the  history  before  Samuel  than  that  of  Iha 
Exodus  ofthe  Pentateuch  can  we  refer  that  intenourse  / 


TABERNACLE 

When  «u  it  like)]'  that  ■  wild  tribe,  with  diScuItv 
keeping  it«  grouml  aeuiiM  neighboring  nations,  would 
have  idupCed  luch  ■  compUcaled  ritual  rrom  *  syitem 

Spencer,  with  or  without  ■  hostile  purpose,  were  de- 
nounced u  diring  and  dingcroiu  and  unsettling,  are 
now  Men  bi  be  wiuinsci  lothe  onliqaity  or  the  religion 
of  Isrsel,  and  so  lo  the  subsuntisl  tnith  of  the  Momic 
htalDiy.  They  are  lued  as  such  by  tbeologiana  wbo  in 
various  degrees  enlei  their  prulesl  against  the  more 
destructive  CTilictsm  of  our  own  time  (Hengslenberg, 
EgsP'  "•'^  '*'  Baoit  ofMota;  Stanley,  Jm^k  ChurcA, 
lect.  iv).  (6.)  We  may,  for  a  moment,  put  an  imagi- 
nary case.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  records  or  the  U1>1 
Tet't.  bad  given  ua  iu  1  and  1  Sam.  a  bist4)ry  like  that 
which  men  now  seek  to  substitute  for  wliat  is  actually 
given,  bad  represenled  Samuel  as  the  first  i;Teat  preach- 
er of  the  worship  of  Elofaim,  Gid,  or  some  later  prophet, 
as  inlmdueing  for  the  Hnt  time  Ibe  name  aud  worship 
of  Jehovah,  and  that  the  Old  Test,  began  wiih  this 
(Colenso,  pi.  ii,  ch.  xxi).  Let  us  then  suppose  lliat 
some  old  papyrus,  freshly  discovered,  slowly  deciphered, 
gave  us  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  what  we  now 
find  in  Exodus  and  N'umbeis,  that  there  was  thus  giien 
an  explanation  boib  of  the  actual  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple and  of  tbe  Egyptian  element  so  largely  intern!  infilcd 
with  their  rituaL  <Jaii  we  not  imagine  with  what  jubi- 
lant leal  the  books  of  Samael  would  then  have  been 
"critically  examined,"  what  iiuunsisteiicies  would  have 
been  detected  in  Cbem,  how  eiger  men  would  have  been 
to  prove  that  Samuel  had  had  credit  given  him  far  a 
work  which  was  not  hisj  that  not  he,  but  Mose^  was 
the  founder  of  the  polity  and  creed  of  Israel ;  that  the 
UbemactoonZian,ingleadofcoming  fresh  from  David's 
creative  mind,  had  been  preceded  by  tbe  humbler  tab- 
ernacle in  the  wilderness? 

The  objectina  raised  against  che  truthfulness  of  the 
narrative  (Colenso,  tiiid,  ch.  vii)  on  the  ground  that  the 
entire  congregation  of  600,000  is  said  lo  have  been  con- 
vened at  the  door  of  this  small  structure  (Lev.  viii)  is 
readily  obviated  by  the  natural  interpretation  thai  only 
Ihe  principal  persona  stood  immedialely  near,  while  the 
multitude  easily  viewed  the  ceremonies  from  a  conven- 
ient distance  (Dirks,  The  tJrudui  o/Iirael,  p.  HI). 

VL  Lileralure.— Beside*  the  comnienUries  on  Exodus 
ad  loc,  see  BKhr,  Symbntik  i.  mat.  Cult,  i,  5G  sq. ;  Lund, 
Diejid.  Baligtkiimer  dargaliUt  (Hamb.  1695,  1738); 
Van  Til,  Ommtnt.  <fa  Tabtnuic  Hot.  (l>ord.  1714 ;  also 
in  Ugolino,  Thaahr.  voL  viii) ;  Conrad,  De  TnbriTmaili 
MotU  SlruOura  et  Fi^ra  (Offenbach,  1T12);  Lamy, 
De  Tahenaailo  Fadcrit  (Paris,17m);  Tyrope,  Tubrr- 
aaculi  e  MoTmvitnlii  Deacriplio  (Jena,  1731);  Carpiov, 
Appar.ji.2i8K{.;  Relsnd, -IWtj.Snrr.  i,3-5;  Schacht, 
Aiiimaih.adIkm.Anlij.p.2li7  sq.;  D'Aqiilne  [Phil.], 
Da  TabfrnacU  (Paris,  1623-24);  Bcnzelii  Dimiia- 
tionef,  ii,  97  sq. ;  Millii  Miialtuaea  S.iera  (Amil.  I7M), 
p.Siflsq.;  BaviuB,  Di  iii  qua  tr  Arabia  ia  ujun  Ta- 
Jt™nn(K/i«raii//'frffu(Ullraj.l7o3,ed.J.M.Schrockh, 
Lips.  17&5);  Recchiii,  l^Can  (Manlua,  177G);  Vrie- 
moet,  Dt  Aulao  ndyli  Tahemaeuli  (France  174S); 
Ueyer,  Ai'kMrHfun?,  p.  263  sq.;  Lanzi  [Michelangelo], 
Im  Sacra  Scnllura  lllailrala  cob  .WoBum. / Vhico  A>- 
Miri  al.  Egkiani  (Ituma,  1827,  foL) ;  Neumann,  Die  Slifli- 
*i(«e(Golha,18fil)iFriederich,SyBi4oi.rf.BiD»,S(i:ft(Aii(/e 
(Lcips.  l»4t);  Kurtz,  in  the  Stad.  u.  KiiL  1844,  ii,  306 
sq.;  Riggenbach,  DU  mui.  SI\/\thBllt  (Basel,  \»ioi, 
1867);  Sultau,  VearU  of  Ike  Tabenmele  (Und.  18G5); 
Paine,  jTAe  r,ibeniaclf,TmpU,elc.(Bc<M.imi)i  Killo, 
The  Tabtmade  and  in  Fundmre  (Lond,  1849):  Simp- 
son, Tgp.  Chanidrr  •>/  lie  TiiberaaHf  (Ediiib.  1852)-, 
Brown,  The  Tuba-node,  etc  (ibid.  1871, 1872, 8vo). 

TABERNACLE  ia  ■  name  given  to  certain  chapels 
or  ti»eeting-bouscs  in  England  erected  by  Mr.  White- 
field,  and  to  similar  places  of  worship  rearol  by  Koben 
Haldane  for  the  accommodation  of  a  few  large  congre- 
gations in  Scotland,  out  of  which  have  cbieHy  been 


144      TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


stone  Tabernacle  ot  Klutore.  Aberdeenshire. 

formed  Ihe  present  churches  of  Congregational  di& 

Tabtmack  is  alao  a  term  applied  U 


r  hovel  f< 


image.  3.  An  ambiy  on  the  right  side  of  ll 
behind  it,  fur  the  reservation  of  the  host,  christn 
oil  for  tbe  luck,  8.  A  throne  carried  like  ■  litter  <i 
shoulders  of  Spanish  priests  in  Ihe  pruceeuon  of  (' 
Chritli,  and  supporting  the  faost.  4.  A  smaU  ir 
over  the  central  part  of  an  altar  for  the  reservaii 
(he  eucharist,  contained  in  the  pyx,  and  often  dea 
viith  a  crown  of  three  circlets.  Its  eaiiieat  furm 
coffer  of  wood,  or  a  liltle  arched  receptacle ;  tb™ 
came  a  tower  of  gold,  or  of  circular  shape,  being 
ket  for  the  chalice  and  paten,  in  fact  ■  c3>oriun 
the  15th  century  the  labcnucle  became  a  magn 
piece  of  fumituie  over  or  nn  the  lefl  side  of  the  tii 
tar,  with  statues,  towers,  foliage,  builresses,  and  i 
work,  as  at  (irenuble,  St.  John  Maurienne,  Leau, 
nay.  and  Nuremberg,  the  latter  sixly-fuiir  feet  hi;; 
of  white  stone.    See  CtBoniuii;  Dovki  Fyx. 

TabemaoleB,  tiik  Feast  op,  the  third  of  iln 
great  annual  festivals,  the  other  two  being  the  fo: 
the  Passover  and  Pentecost,  on  which  the  wlioti 
popuUiiion  were  requited  to  appear  before  the  L 
the  national  sancluary.  It  was  a  celebration 
in-gathering  of  all  the  fruits  of  the  year,  and  i 

'  '  ..       ■       corresponded  to  the  (i 


Thniditr 


Sec  Fkbtiva 


I.  Kama  and  lin'r  SigmfiealioK. —  Thu  fest 
ea:;sd— 1.  riaon  sn.  Chag  hai-SuIMth  i  Sept. 
n^r£,v,lheF»ii,alo/T»,l,i  Tnlg./ma  toifcr. 
mm  !  A.  V.  Ihe  Ftail  of  Tabrmarlei  (2  Cbmii.  v 
^ra  iii,  4;  Zech.  xW,  IC,  18,  IS);  imivoiniyia 
vii,  2;  Josepbus,  Anl.  viii,  4,  5);  at^vai  (I'li 
Stpt.  §  24);  >i  aatiyii  (Plulsrcb,  S^piu.  iv,  G.  • 
cause  every  Ismeliic  uus  commanded  lo  live  in 
nucles  during  its  continuance  (comp.  Lev.  xxi 


TABEKNACLES,  FEAST  OF      Us      TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


'.  tf^Vi  in,  iopT^  avrrtkiiat,  Iht  Fetui  of  I'Kgaiher- 
>!}  (Riod.  xxiii.  16;  xxxiv,  !2},  becauK  it  wu  cele- 
mifd  II  Umi  cud  of  ihe  ■gricuUural  j'ear,  wben  the  in- 
fuhtrinE  of  (he  fruits  uid  the  btrvest  wu  compUCed. 
3.  Ii  l>  ur'  lEo^qv  deooiniruted  nin^  an,  tht  Fatitcd 
t/JdMak  (Lcr.  zxiii,  39),  or  aimpljr  inn,  in,  lite  ft*. 
rM(lKi«Et  viii,!;  2ChroD.r,3;  vii,8,9;  Misbna, 
JtatoEuLiii,!;  SaiiaA, ii, 6 ;  Itotltha-Shana,i,2;  Mt- 
l3bk,i^,i:  rauBfjt,  i,  1,!),  bcooM  oriuimportmce, 
nd  rf  iu  being  the  nmu  joTful  of  all  feMivala.  The 
wnnn  ot  Winer  (S>M.  IiialKSrlerindi,  k  v.  "  Liab- 
titaeilaT),  repeated  by  Keil  (A  rehSologU,  voL  i,  §  S5, 
ii>lr3)iiid  Mhr  {Sfmbul^  ii,  660),  (hat  the  rabbins 
all  ihi)  fesiivil  nSTi'sn  Bl"',  diti  mvUiplieatioait,  is 
The  Miihiu,  which  Winer  quolea  in  cditoV 


MoTlbu 


■imply  speilcii  of  the  i 
c&Bitoth*  But  day  ibereof:  "  If  any  one  tows  wine 
^C«  Ike  Temple]  he  mutt  not  give  ten  than  three  logi; 
if  cil,  mt  leB  thui  one  log^  ,  .  .  If  ho  Bayj%  I  do  not 
kiH>  lun  much  t  bare  aec  apart,  he  muat  give  ai  much 
I' a  ued  on  Ibe  day  which  requires  mem"  {Mauaholk, 
'Lii.  3)— i.  t.  u  ii  iised  on  [he  firU  day  of  the  festiril 
[.^Tibcrniclea]  when  it  happens  to  be  an  i  Sabbath, 
ijra  Bcb  1  day  there  are  more  libations  nsed  tban  on 

■n  nftind  in  the  different  ■acrificcs. 

Tbe  faUawiog  an  the  principal  pueageainthe  Pents- 
inebirbtch  refer  to  thia  feBtiril ;  Kxod.  xxiii,  16,  where 
"  Bipoken  of  u  the  Feait  of  Ingathering,  and  is  brought 
uu  esiuKccian  with  tlie  other  feativala  nnder  their  ag- 
rifdUnd  dengnatioDB,  the  Feait  of  [InleiiTened  Bread 
uJ  ib«  Feut  of  HarreeC;  Lev,  uiii,  M-36,  89-48, 

of  ClM  Imelitcs  thiDugh  the  dcKrl ;  Deut.  xv 
11  "iith  there  ii  no  notice  of  the  eighth  day, 
wutil  u  a  [hankagiTing  fbtthe  hirvnt;  Nua 
I'^^  ■here  (hcie  is  an  enumeiition  of  the  ucriHci* 
"bich  Man;  to  the  festiral;  Dear,  iixi,  10-18,  where 
fit  iajanction  u  giren  for  the  public  readiog  of  the  law 
uiibSabbalicalyMr,  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  In 
Nrt.  Tiii  then  i«  ,n  account  of  the  observance  of  the 
fcM  br  Em,  from  which  several  additional  partlculara 
it^Kting  it  may  be  gathered. 

U.  Tke  Time  at  lekicA  Ikii  Ffilieal  tsui  cfltbral^l.- 
TV  line  died  for  the  celebration  of  thia  feast  is  from 
lit  IMi  to  the  22d  of  Tinbri,  when  Ihe  seunn  of  the 
T«  ■  changing  for  winter  (Joiephus,  Anl.  iii,  10,  4); 
i.  r.  in  Un  auiaoia,  nhen  the  whole  of  the  chief  fruits 
ritktgmand — Ihe  cnro,  the  wine,  and  the  oil— m 
piVfB]in(i:iDd.xsiii,16i  Lev.  xxiii, 39;  Deut.i 
>^13;.   Hence  it  is  spoken  of  as  occurring  "  in  the 
'^'tn  year,  when  thou  liaM  gathered  in  thy  labon 
"f  itK  itlL"    There  wen  thus  only  four  days  in 
•nog  biTiieen  thi«   restivol  and  the  Great  Day  of 
AiDnnsnit.    But  thooKh  its  duration,  alriclly  speaking, 
n>  sdi  icren  days  (DeuL  xvi,  13;  Ezek.  xlv,  23),  yet, 
*>  ii  «■  foUowrf  by  a  day  of  holy  convocation,  this 
Mnl  B  sDmetiniea  detciibed  as  lasting  eight  daj-s 
l}f.  iiiii.  3« ;  Neb.  riii,  18). 

Hi  rfa  Maimer  in  teUeh  IkU  Fnlivat  teat  ettetraled. 
-AiitiiBHst  eatendal,  in  deseribing  the  mode  in  which 
i^lcait  was  and  iiill  is  celebrated,  to  distinguish  he- 
intaibePeniateucha]  enactments  and  ' 
■BMuB,and  practices  which  gtiduilly 
°^irke  of  tiDK,  we  shall  divide  our  description  into  three 

I.  rii  Prriod  /ram  tie  Initilalian  0/  Iku  Falieal 
'^<!iaV«>naC(^iDt(ii.— The  Hoaaic  enactments  aba 
''■'  UBitier  in  which  this  festival  is  t«  be  celebrated  are 
»Ukm:  The  lanelitea  are  to  live  in  tabernacles  di 
■;  Ue  icrea  days  cf  this  fesiiroj,  "  that  your  genei 
'  '  ■    -  ■    i^j  ,||g  children  of  Israel 


mail 


of  II 


Mii(Egjpi'(Lei-.>xUi,4a,48).  The  fliM  day  alone. 


however,  is  to  be  a  holy  convDcation  (CJ^p  K*^pp), 
Sabbath  or  day  of  perfect  cessation  of  husiue»,  on 
which  nu  duiiugt  of  secular  work  is  to  be  dune  (ver.  Zb, 
and  all  the  able-bodied  male  memhera  of  the  con- 
gregation, who  are  not  legally  precluded  from  it,  are  to 
appear  tn  the  place  of  the  national  aaocluarv,  as  on  the 
Paisovei  and  Pentecost  (Exod. xxiii,  14,i;;'xxxiv,23). 
Ob  thia  tUy  the  Iiraeliies  are  to  take  "Ihe  fruit  of 
goodly  trees,  wilb  branches  of  palm-treea,  boughs  of 
thick  trce^  and  willows  of  the  brook"  (Lev.  xaiii, 
DDSt  probably  to  symboliie  the  varied  vegetation 
1  grew  in  the  different  localities  of  their  joumey 
through  the  wiidernesj — viz.  the  palm-tree  of  the  plain 
'     a  the  Israelites  encamped,  the  willow  at  Ihe  moun- 

drink;  and  the  drsignedly  indefinite  thick  bush  on  the 
mountain  heights  over  which  they  had  to  travpl ;  while 
the  fn;ita  of  the  goodly  trees  represent  the  produce  of 
the  beautiful  land  which  they  ultimately  obtained  after 
their  pilgrimagea  in  the  wildemeiii  (Preswl,  in  Uerzog'a 
Rtai-EacyUopadie,  >.  v.  "  LaubliUltenfest").  As  thia 
festival,  however,  though  symbolizing  by  the  several 
ices  thereof  the  pilgrimage  through  the  wildemeaa, 
levertheless  more  especially  designed  to  celebtate 
omplction  of  the  harvest  in  the  Promised  Land,  as 
typified  by  "  the  fruit  uf  the  goodly  trees'  in  contrast  to 
plants  of  the  wilderness,  the  Israelites  arc  enjoined 
1  to  appear  before  the  Lord  empty,  but  every  one 
shall  gire  as  he  is  able,  accorduig  to  the  blessing  of  the 
Lord  thv  God  which  he  hath  given  thee"  (Exod.  xxiii, 
15;  Deul.  xvi,  16, 17).  Hence  they  are  to  offer  burnt- 
offerings,  meat-offerings,  drink-offerings,  and  other  sac- 
rilioea  as  follows  i  On  the  first  day,  the  bumt-offering  is 
isist  of  thirteen  bullocks,  two  rams,  fourteen  lambs, 
and  one  kid  of  the  goats  for  a  sin-offering,  with  the  ap- 
propriate meat-  and  drink-offerings;  the  mest-offerings 
being  three  tenths  ofanephah  of  flour  mingled  wilh  one 
half  of  ■  hin  of  oil  to  each  bullock,  two  tenths  of  an 
ephah  oT  flour  mingled  with  one  third  of  a  bin  of  oil  to 
rim,  and  one  tenth  of  an  ephah  of  flour  mingled 

oSbring  consisting  of  one  half  of  a  hin  of  wine  to  each 
bullock,  one  third  of  a  hin  of  wine  to  each  ram,  and  one 
quarUTofa  hin  of  wine  to  each  lamb  (Numb,  xv,  3-11 ; 
xxTiii,  l'i-14}.  The  same  number  of  rams  ind  limbs, 
and  onB  kid,  are  tn  be  offered  on  the  following  days; 
the  number  of  bullocks  alone  is  to  be  reduced  by  one 
each  dav,  ao  that  on  the  seventh  day  only  seven  in  to 
be  offered  (xxix,  12-38).  There  are  accordingly  to  be 
offered  during  the  seven  days  in  ail  seveuty  bullocks, 
fourteen  rams,  ninety-eight  lambs,  and  sevea  goits, 
with  thirty-threo  and  three-fifths  ephahs  of  flour,  Nity- 

sixth  bins  of  wine.  Moreover,  the  law  is  to  be  reirt 
publicly  in  the  ainctuary  on  the  first  day  of  the  festival 
every  Sabbatical  year  (Dent,  xxsi,  10-18).  The  six 
following  days— i.  e.  15th-22d  of  Tishri-are  to  be  half- 
festivals;  they  were  most  probably  devoted  to  social 
enjo}'roent«  and  friendly  gatherings,  when  every  head 
of  Ihe  family  was  to  enjoy  the  feasts  from  Ihe  second  or 
festival  lithe  with  his  son,  daughter,  ma n-ser rant,  rnaid- 
servant,  the  Lerite,  the  stranger,  the  fhtherlees,  and  the 
widow  (xri,  14).    See  Tithe. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  seventh  day  another  festival 
is  to  be  celebrated,  denominated  the  ecmctadisg  duy  (D1'< 
Tri-l'S\aietighlhe(mdudi«gdaylp'yty  '■}''~'Oi  Sept. 
iC'iLov).    Like  tbe  fiiit  day,  it  is  to  be  a  holy  convo- 

it  is  not  only  the  finishing  of  Ihe  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
but  the  conclusion  of  Ihe  whole  cycle  of  festivals,  Ihe 
dwelling  in  the  tabernacle  is  to  ceise  on  it,  and  ihe  sac- 
rifices to  be  offered  thereon  are  to  be  diailnct,  and  un- 
like thoee  offered  on  the  preceding  days  of  Tabernacles. 
The  burnt-sacrifice  is  to  consLit  of  one  biillcfk.  one  rim, 
and  seven' lambs  one  year  old,  with  Ihe  appropriate 
meat- and  drink-offerings,  ind  one  goil  for  a  sin-offlfering 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF       146      TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


(Numb,  xxii,  86-S8).  The  taciifica,  tbetefoiE,  wen 
Ui  b«  liitt  tboM  or  the  KvtnCh  new  mooa  and  tbe  Great 
Day  of  Atonement.  Being,  hawever,  acUcbed  a>  an 
octave  lo  the  Feait  oT  'I'tbernaclei,  the  Sabbatical  reit 
and  Ibe  haly  conrocation,  which  properly  bektng  to  the 
■ereoth  day  of  tbe  Feaat  of  Tabeioades,  are  tranaretnd 
to  it,  and  hence  the  two  feativala  are  frequently  jirined 
together  and  apokett  of  aa  one  compoaed  of  eight  daya. 
There  ia  only  one  inMance  on  rtooid  of  tbii  featival  be- 
ing celebrated  between  the  entrance  into  tbe  Proiniied 
Lud  and  the  Babvliiniaii  caplivitv  (I  Kinga  viii,  i;  S 
Cbton,vii,8-10  with  Seh,  viii,  17).  No  trace  of  any 
expoaition  of  the  I'entaleuchal  enactments  with  regard 
to  thi*  festival  ia  to  be  found  till  we  come  to  the  poet- 
exilian  period. 

Z  The  Ptriod/nm  lit  Rttumfnm  Babgloit  to  the 
DeilntcliOB  iffihe  Ttmplt. — In  the  account  nf  the  lint 
celebration  of  this  featival  afier  the  return  of  the  Jewa 
thim  the  Babylonian  catitirity,  the  ccnciac  i'entaleuchal 
injuncIioD  ia  espanded.  Nnl  only  are  the  localitiea 
specified  in  which  these  booths  are  to  be  erected,  hut 
additional  plants  are  mentioned,  and  the  use  to  be 
made  of  these  plants  is  stated.  The  Jewn,  according  to 
the  command  of  Ezra,  made  themselves  booths  upon 
the  roars  of  houaea,  in  tbe  courts  of  their  dweliinga,  in 
the  court*  of  the  aanetuary,  in  the  alreet  of  the  water- 
gate,  and  in  tbe  street  of  the  gate  of  Ephraim,  fn>m  the 
olive-bnnches,  the  pine-branchea,  the  niyrtle^ranehea, 
tbe  palm-brtnchea,  snil  the  hranchca  of  tbe  thick  trees, 
which  they  were  told  to  f^alher,  and  dwelt  in  these 
boothsaeven  daya(Neh.viii,  15-lS).  The Saddiiceea of 
old,  who  are  followed  by  Ibe  Karaiies,  look  these  boughs 
■nd  the  fruits  tu  be  identical  wilh  those  mentioned  in 
Lev.  xxiii,  39,  40,  and  maintained  that  these  were  to  be 
used  Cot  the  conaltuction  and  ailomment  of  the  booths 
or  tabernacles.  Tbe  Pharisees  and  the  orthodox  Jew- 
ish tradition,  however,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  inter- 
preted this  precept  dilTeientlv. 

When  the  Feast  of  Tabemscles,  like  aU  other  fesli- 
rali  and  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  Uw,t)eKan  to  be  strictly 
and  generally  kept  al^er  the  Uabylonian  captivity,  uit- 


iottl 


Sinbedrim,  and  the  doctors  of  tlie  taw  =  sctibea,  more 
minute  deSnitiona  and  more  expanded  applicationa  of 
the  coDciae  Pentaleuchal  injunction  wpre  impetatively 
demanded,  in  order  to  secure  unifonnity  of  practice,  aa 
well  aa  to  infuse  devotion  and  Joy  into  the  celebration 
thereof,  both  in  the  Temple  and  in  tbe  booths.  Hence 
it  was  ordained  that  the  labemacle  or  booth  (nxD,  luh- 
MHi)  must  be  a  detached  and  temporat;  habitation,  con- 
structed for  the  sole  purpose  of  living  in  it  during  this 
festirsi,  aiul  must  not  be  used  aa  a  permanent  dwelliu;;. 

cubits,  nor  lower  than  ten  palma ;  it  must  not  hare  lesa 
than  three  walls;  it  must  not  be  completely  tuofcc 
or  covered  with  any  solid  material,  but  must  he  than 
in  such  a  manner  aa  to  admit  the  view  of  the  sky 
the  stars ;  and  tbe  part  open  to  tbe  rays  of  the  sun  i 
tent  the  part  shaded  by  the  co 
«  under  a  tiee;  ndlher  must  it  be 
:i,  nor  with  anything  which  contracts  <lelile- 
>ea  not  derive  its  growth  from  the  ground 


•tr.    it 


(SliFt 


which  » 


fairly  necessary.  It  would  seem,  however.  Ihst  there 
was  no  strict  rule  on  this  point,  and  thst  there  nas  a 
considerable  difference  according  to  the  habits  or  cir- 
cumstances of  tbe  occupant  (Carpiov,  p.  416;  BiiMorf, 
Bt/B.  Jttd.  p.  461).  (See  curious  figures  of  different 
forms  of  huts,  and  of  the  great  lights  of  the  Feast  ■  ' 
Tabemades,  in  Surenhusius,  Mitdaia,  voL  ii;  sImi 
lively  description  of  some  of  the  hula  used  by  the  Jci 
in  modern  ffmesin  La  VUJvivt  en  AUoet,  p.  170,  etc 
Every  Israelite  u  to  constitute  the  tUiUM  his  regular 
domicile  during  the  whole  of  the  seven  days  of  tbt  fee- 


ival,  while  his  hiNise  it  only  to  be  hta  oeeaatmal  abode, 
md  be  ia  only  to  quit  the  booth  when  it  rains  very 
heavily.  Erea  ■  child,  as  soon  as  he  ceases  to  be  de- 
pendent upon  his  mother,  must  dwell  in  the  booth ;  and 
tbe  only  persona  exempt  from  this  duty  are  those  de- 
puted on  piODS  misaiont,  invalids,  nurses,  women,  and 
inranIa(Uishna.SuMui,il,8,9).  The  orthodox  rabUns 
"  ^  time  of  Christ  would  not  eat  any  food  which  ex- 
ceeded in  quantity  the  aize  of  an  egg  out  of  the  bomb 
{ibid,  ii,  5). 
The  four  spedea  of  vegeuble  prodactioDB  to  be  uud 
ring  prayer  (Lev.  ixiii,  89,  40)  are  tbe  next  distioc- 
'efeaiureof  thisfcttival,to  which  tbe  ancient  docton 
the  law  befote  the  time  of  Christ  devoted  much  al- 
ilion.  These  M.n—\.''TktfruiU  of  tlu  goodig  Im' 
(l-in  ^5  ■>-1t).  Aa  the  phrase  joorf^  or  sfAWan™ 
(•nn  ]'9)  is  too  indeRnite,  and  the  fruit  of  such  a  tm 
may  simply  denote  the  fmlt  of  any  choice  fniit-tnr, 
leaving  it  very  vague,  the  Hebrew  canons,  bawd 
one  of  the  aignificationa  of  -nr\  (fo  Arttt,  *o  rwf  ,■ 
aahi  on  Lev.  xxlii^  40),  decreed  that  it  means  ih 
/niiU  wiidi  permamrtilfji  rest  upon  llu  Ira — L  e.  lie  di- 
ron,  lit  paraJite^ppla  (3^'^nK,  akrigy  Hence  Ibc 
rendering  of  Onkelos,  tbe  so-cailed  Jousakm  Targum, 
and  tbe  Syriac  version  of  '^*iri  by  elkrSg  (=arp<sv. 
Joaephns,  Ant,  xiii,  IS,  fi),  ciavn.  Josephus  clsewkne 
(ibid,  iii,  10,  4)  says  that  it  waa  the  fruit  of  the  jtrrwn. 
tee  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  convevtd  from  Penis 
Egypt  {Hi$l.  Sal.  iv,  13),  and  which  some  hste 
identified  with  the  peach  {Mabii ptrnra).  Tbe(**nij 
must  not  be  from  an  uncircumcised  tree  (Lev.  lii,  M). 
nor  from  the  nnclesn  heave-oSering  (comp.  14umb.xviil, 
11, 12);  it  must  not  have  a  stain  on  the  crown,  nor  be 
without  the  ctown,  peeled  of  iu  rind,  perforated,  or  de- 
fective, else  it  is  illegal  (Mishna,  ^'bHyiA,  iti,6,6).  1 
"BrandUi  o/paim-lrrn'  (ni"icn  TB?).  AcHodins 
to  the  Hebrew  canons,  it  is  the  shoot  of  the  palm-tree 
when  budding,  before  Ihe  leaves  are  spread  abroad,  and 
whUe  it  is  yet  like  a  rod,  and  ibis  is  called  luldi  (S^)^), 
which  is  ihe  technical  expression  given  in  Ihe  Chshlet 
versions  andin  Ihe  Jewish  writings  for  Ihe  Biblical  phiaie 
inqueBtion(Iiuxtoif,£f3-.  7'uIn.rul.ll48;Carpior,j<pp, 
Crif.p.416;  DruBiuii,A'o(.«<ij.inLev.xxiii).  TbelaUt 
must  at  least  be  three  hands  tail,  end  must  be  tied  Inge ih. 
er  with  its  own  kind  (Uiahna,  SulLak,  iii,  1,8;  Uaimoni- 
da,  tad  Ila-Chmiku,  llUckolk  /.uioj,  vii,  1).  S."r*« 
ioaj*  o/o  (AicidV  (rbrysqar).  This  amlHgiKiui 
phrase  ia  ioterpreled  by  the  ancient  canons  10  dcirale  "Ibc 
myrtle-branch  (D^SJ)  whose  leaves  thickly  covet  the 
wood  thereof:  it  must  have  three  or  more  shoots  sroimil 
■he  stem  on  tbe  same  level  of  the  stem,  but  irithastim 
shoots  opposite  each  other  on  the  same  level,  and  ihe 
Ihinl  shoot  is  above  them,  it  ia  not  Ihick,  but  is  ralW 
(n:310  ni=3)  a  Hin  mgrtU"  (MUhna,  SaOai.ai  b: 
Maimonides,  &id.  vii,  2).  This  explanation  accouiiii 
for  Ihe  rendering  of  the  Chaldee  parspbrases  or  tliii 
phrase  by  kaddt  (D^ll),  njirffe-^mmt.  Iftbepoiutirr 
this  mynle-brancli  is  broken  ril^  or  if  its  leaves  an  tuni 
off,  or  if  it  has  more  berries  on  it  than  leavea,  it  is  illei?! 
(Miahna,  Suthik,  iii,  2).  4.  "  Tit  teUl(»c,  o/lkf  bwi" 
<^™  ■'?"i?=«i/u:  krlix)  muat  be  of  that  specira  ih' 
distinguishing  marks  of  which  are  dark  wood,  and  bog 
leaves  with  smooth  margin.  If  any  one  of  Iheae  fbur 
kinds  hss  been  obuined  by  thelt,  or  comes  from  a  gteve 
devoted  to  idolatry,  or  from  a  town  which  has  hetn 
enticed  to  idolatry  (oomp.  Deul.  xiii,  12,  etc),  it  is  ilkgal 
(Hid.  iii,  1-5).  Their  legality  having  been  ascenaiacd, 
the  palm,  tbe  myrtle,  and  Ibe  willow  are  bound  up 
together  into  one  bundle,  denominated  UUb. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  SadducMS  io 
and  before  Ibe  time  of  Christ  maintained  that  the 
boogbs  and  fruit  here  d 
an  to  be  used  for  the  o 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF       147      TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


Ibt  bsMlu,  and  that  they  tppail  to  Nrfa.  riii,  IS,  IG  in 
■uppon  of  thia  riew.  TtaU  view  hM  not  only  been  e«- 
;aw]  by  tbt  Kanitt  Jews,  (be  wecenan  or  tbe  3ad- 
iluaa  [«  Sadducbi],  bat  ii  defendnl  by  binhop  Pat- 
rick, Ktil,  and  moat  moilFni  Cbiistian  interpreUra, 
if^ttt  this,  bowcrer,  U  to  be  iinftd  that— (1.)  The  ob- 
rwaa  ttOMt  <ii  tbe  idjuoctioa  (Lev.  uiil,  40)  ia 
iksH  booBh*  are  Is  be  cairiett  ai  i^mbob  during  ibc 
RiokiDg,  aod  that  we  (hnuld  expect  aametbinR  more 
tiplidl  than  the  Mngle  and  ninple  word  OPn^Vl,  ani 
31  Aalt  lair,  had  il  been  deaiened  that  these  bt 
■bndd  be  employed  for  the  Tonuruction  of  the  bi 
(tjlhe/nat  (■'"la)— *i  the  margin  of  the  A.  V.  rightly 
hB  it.  aod  mt  boMffkM,  ai  it  ia  in  the  text  with  which 
ibif  iojiinetioo  eummcnces — could  turelv  not  be  ai 
ibe  Biatniali  fur  the  cnnNnielion  of  the  bootha.  (S.)  The 
Uw  abiMt  the  bootha  it  entirely  aeparated  from  th 
tiiamg  uf  the  fruit  aod  bouf^hi,  aa  may  be  aeen  from 
aii^riaaaarLev.xxiii,40withveT.i3.  (4.)  The  flnt 
day  of  thia  featiTal,  ai  we  have  aeen,  wai  a  holy  oonvu- 

It  iatbenfim  againat  tbe  aanctity  of  the  day  to  aui>- 
pue  that  tbe  command  to  lake  the  thiit  and  the  bougha 
M  the  Bnt  day  meant  that  the  Imeliiea  are  to  con- 
■end  with  theae  planta  the  bootha  on  this  holy  day. 
(i)  Tbe  appeal  to  Neh.  riii  is  beaide  the  mark,  iaainiuch 
u  Afatdl  materiala  are  there  mentioned — e.  g.  olire- 
toaehea  and  ptne-brauehes—wbich  were  actiuUy  used 
(ai  auking  the  booths,  while  tbe  Aodor  fruit  am'  ''" 
■ilbw  apedBed  Id  the  renUteiicbal  injunction  -.. 
mitled.  With  the  regulationa  about  the  tabemacBts 
and  the  bougha  or  luUb  before  as,  we  can  now  continue 
the  IncTiptioo  of  the  mode  in  which  this  featiral  was 
alefaated  in  the  Temple. 

lUI  b/  TMH  was  the  rrrparatim  Dag  (oii  3-1S 
S13  -  n^Himnt).  The  pilgrims  came  up  to  Jeruta- 
lea  on  (be  day  prerioiis  to  the  commencement  of  the 
fBOTal,when  they  prepared  ererythii\g  neceaaaty  for 
itiaolemn  obaerraiice.  Ths  priests  prodainwd  the  ap- 
prtadi  of  the  holy  convocation  on  the  ere  of  this  day 
b*  tbi  Ussis  t^  trnmpeui.  Aa  on  the  Feasts  of  tbe  Paas- 
I,  the  altar  of  the  buml-aacHflce  waa 


night-wi 


b(Mi.l 


1,  Yom 


tai  the  galea  of  the  Temfile,  aa  well  aa 
air  cDon,  were  opened  immediatdy  after  midnight  far 
th*  ennreuience  of  the  piieala  who  resided  in  the  city, 
aad  tx  the  people  who  Hlled  the  court  before  the  mck 
or*  Id  hare  their  aacriOcea  and  oflkringa  duly  exam- 
ioed  by  the  prieaia  (ibti/.i,8).  When  the  first  day  of 
Tstatnades  bspfieocd  on  tbe  Sabbath  the  people  brought 
tbBi  f^B-bnDchs  or  UUit  on  the  11th  of  Tiahri  to 
Ike  aynagogtte  on  the  Temple  nxrant,  where  the  ter- 
raaB  of  the  synagogue  (Q'']tn)  deposited  them  in  a 
giDfiT,  while  tbe  ImldU  of  the  eUere  of  the  synagogue 
(S*I^)  were  placed  in  a  seponte  chamber,  as  it  was 
agaoM  tbe  Sabbatical  laws  to  cany  the  palms  on  the 
Sabbath  fnm  the  booths  of  the  respective  pilgrims  to 
IbtTemi^. 

IM  a/  rujlri.— At  dsybzuk  of  the  flist  day  of  the 
liaival  a  priest,  accompanied  by  a  Jubilant  procession 
and  by  a  band  of  music,  descended  with  a  golden  pitch- 
er hoUiBg  three  logt  to  the  pool  of  Siloam,  and,  having 
SIM  it  with  water  fiom  tbe  brook,  he  endeavored  tn 
rascfe  the  Temple  in  time  to  join  his  hnlher  prieUa 
*bs  earned  the  momitig  sscriOcc  to  tbe  altar  {Tmipi- 
M  dkUii,  c  iii>.  Following  in  their  steps,  he  entei- 
s<  ism  lbs  fodih  (broogh  ibewaier.([ale  into  (he  inner 
cant  (Mishno,  UiiUalk,  Ii,  6;  Gcmara,  Sakhili,  48  a). 
Os  loeluns  lb*  waler-gate,  bs  was  welcomed  by  three 
UaMs  of  the  tmmpeu  He  then  ascended  the  atepa 
•(  the  altai  with  BDotber  priest  who  eanied  a  pitcher 
rfirhMlorthadrink.«aeriiig.  Tbe  two  priests  turned 
*  (bs  Mt  of  tbe  altar  wheie  iwe  tilrer  basins  were  llx- 
awUi  We*  U  tba  bouoo;  tbe  basin  for  the  water 
•IS  lo  Iha  wtM  >nd  IumI  ■  nomw  bole,  while  ths  one 


for  the  wine  was  to  the  east  and  had  a  wider  hole,  ao 
that  both  might  get  empty  at  the  same  time.  Into 
these  respective  basins  they  simultaneously  and  slowly 

both  were  emptied  at  the  same  time  upon  the  baae  of 
the  altar.  To  the  priest  who  poureil  nut  tbe  water  the 
people  called  out.  Raise  thy  hand]  The  teason  for  this 
isibst  when  Alexander  Jannai,  who  officiated  as  priest, 
was  charged  with  thia  duty,  being  a  Sadducee  and  re- 
jecting the  ordinances  of  the  scribes,  he  poured  ths 
wster  over  bis  feet  and  not  into  tbe  boain,  whereupon 
the  people  pelted  bim  with  their  elhr6g$,  or  citrons. 
At  (his  catastrophe,  which  nearly  coat  the  life  of  the 
Uaccabaan  king,  Alexander  Jannai  called  for  the  oa- 
siatoDct  of  the  soldiers,  when  nearly  nx  tboaaand  Jews 
perished  in  tbe  Temple,  and  the  altar  was  damaged,  a 
comer  of  it  being  broken  off  in  the  struggle  which  en- 
sued (Josephus,  AtiI.  xiii,  13,6;  Hiahna,  5)ii:i(i(,  iv,  U-, 
tiemara,  Md.  48  a;  61  a;  GrklE,  Gadiichte  der  Juden 
[ad  ed.  Leipa,  1863],  iii,  113, 17S  sq.).  See  Scumes, 
The  ceremony  of  drawing  tbe  water  waa  repeated  ev- 
ery morning  during  the  seven  daya  of  the  festivaL 

At  the  same  lime  that  the  priesta  went  in  procenion 
to  the  pool  of  Siloam,  another  Jubilant  multitude  of  peo- 
ple went  to  a  place  outude  Jerusalem  called  MoUd 
(KXiS),  which  abounded  in  willowa.  These  willows 
they  gathered  with  great  rejoicing,  cairied  them  into 
the  Temple  amid  the  blaaU  of  trumpets,  and  placed 
them  at  the  altar  in  such  a  manner  that  their  lopa  over- 
hung and  formed  a  son  of  canopy  (Uiahna,  ^ubtoA,  iv, 
6).  The  decorating  procest  of  the  altar  being  flnishsd, 
tbs  duly  momiiig  aacriflce  was  first  offered,  Mai£ph 
(S|9"3);  then  the  additional  or  special  sacrifice  for  this 
festival  prescribed  in  Numb,  xxix,  12-SS,  which,  on  the 
lint  day,  consisted  of  a  bumt^iaering  of  thirteen  bul- 
locks, two  rsms,  and  Iburteen  limba,  with  the  appropri- 
ate meat-  and  drink-offerinK,  and  a  f^t  fur  a  sin-ofl^- 
ing,  and  then  the  peace-trfTerings.  tbe  vowa,  and  tbe 
free-will  offerini^  which  conatituted  the  repast  of  the 
people  (JeroHlem,  Sfildcak,x).  While  these  earrifica 
were  offered  the  I-eriles  chanted  Ihe  Grral  llaltrl,  as  oa 
the  feasta  of  the  Poasover  and  Pcntecoac.  On  this  occa- 
sion, however,  each  of  the  pilgrims  held  in  his  right  hand 
Ihe  luldb,  or  palm,  to  which  were  tied  the  twiga  of  ro)-r- 
tle  and  nilhin  as  described  above,  and  the  tlhrdg,  or 
citron,  in  bia  left,  while  these  psalms  were  chanted; 
and,  during  the  chanting  of  Pia.  cxviii,  the  pilgrims 
shoiik  their  palms  three  times — vix.  at  the  tincing  of 
ver.  I,  !5,  and  29  (Miihna,  SaOah,  iii,  9).  When  the 
Maadph  chant  was  finished  tbe  priests  in  prnces»on 
went  round  the  altar  once,  exclaiming:  IIosanna,0  Je- 
hovah; give  us  help,  O  Jeliovah,  give  prosperity!  (Psa. 
cxviii,  aa).  Thereupon  the  solemn  benediction  was 
pronounced  by  the  priests  and  the  people  dispersed, 
amid  the  repealed  exclamations,  "Hnw  beariliful  art 
thou,  O  stiarr  or  "To  Jehovah  and  thee,  O  altar,  we 
trive  thanksl"  (Mirhna,  Suitai,  iv.  6;  (iemara,  ibid.  44  b, 
iS).  Each  one  of  the  pilgrims  then  beliwk  himseir  to 
his  respective  bouth,  there  to  enjoy  his  repast  with  the 
Levite,  the  stranger,  Ihe  poor,  and  the  fatherless  who 
shared  his  hospitality.  This  practice  explains  the  re- 
narks  of  the  evonRcUsts  (Matt.  xii,8,9, 16;  John  xii,' 
12, 13).  It  ia  to  be  remarked  that  on  the  first  day  of 
he  festival  every  Innieliie  carried  about  his  luldb,  or 
>a1m,  all  day ;  be  carried  it  into  the  synagogue,  held  it 
n  hii  hand  while  praying,  and  only  laid  it  down  when 
ailed  to  the  reading  of  Ihe  law,  as  he  then  had  to  hold 
he  scroll  [aee  Stkagoock]  ;  carrieil  it  with  him  when 
le  went  to  visit  the  sick  and  comfort  the  moumen 
(Uishna,  Syiiak,  41  a  1  Bfaimunides,  lad  Ha-Ckrwka. 
llUchelk  LuUA,tii,U). 

IM-KU  0/  rMH.— These  days  were  balf-holydaya; 
Ihey  were  called  Iht  middle  dayi  b/  Iht  fiuicnt  (b-n 
inn ^/Htoi'OilC  TTis  iBiiT^,3oyia-n\,H),otlkt  Utttr 
'iititaH'f'ap  ISIIl).     Any  antclca  of  food  or  raiment 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF   U8   TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


required  for  immediilB  u>a  wm  illowwl  to  be  pui^ 
ebued  primely  during  these  ilay«,  and  work  demmd- 
ed  by  the  emergeuciei  or  tlie  public  lerrin  or  required 
for  the  feitiiril,  the  omisnion  of  which  enUiled  Ion  or 
injury,  was  permitted  (o  ue  done.    Se«  Fawover. 

On  the  night  of  the  ISth,  aitd  od  the  fire  tucceeding 
nighta,  Iht  rtjoieiag  of  tht  dramng  of  icaler  (nniJO 
naXlCn  n''3)w»celebratedinthe«mrtoflheTi!m- 
ple  in  the  follawiDg  manneri  The  people  usemblcd  in 
large  muaea  in  the  court  of  the  women  at  night  ader 
the  expiration  ot  the  Gist  day  of  the  festiTBl.  The 
women  occupied  the  galleries,  which  were  permanent 
fixtures  in  the  conit  (Misbna,  Middalh,  ii,  15),while  the 
men  occupied  the  space  below.  Four  hnge  golden  can- 
delabra were  placed  in  the  centre  of  tbe  court ;  each  of 
these  candelabra  had  four  golden  basini  and  four  lad- 
ders, on  which  stood  four  lads  from  the  rising  yoatha 
of  the  priests  with  jars  of  oil  wherewith  they  fed  the 
basins,  while  the  cast-off  garmenta  of  the  priesta  were 
nsed  as  wicks.  The  lights  of  these  candelabra  illumi- 
nated the  whole  city.  Anand  these-  lights  pious  and 
distinguished  men  danced  before  the  people  with  light- 
cil  flambeaux  in  their  hands,  singing  hymns  and  songi 
of  praise;  while  the  Levitee,who  were  stationed  on  tbe 
firteen  steps  which  led  into  the  woman's  court,  and  cor> 
responded  lo  the  fifteen  paalms  of  degrees = steps  (Pb«, 
:iv],  accompanied  the  songs  with  barpa,  psal* 
^,  cymbub,  and  numberless  musical 


icmg,  a 


IS  the  1 


)reak.  Some  of  these  pious  men 
novementa  with  tbeir  flambeaux 
while  dancing  for  the  amusement  of  the  people.  Thui 
it  is  rebiwd  that  R.  Simon  II  (A.D.80-60),  son  of  Ga- 
maliel I,  the  teacher  of  tbe  apostle  Paul  [see  Eduoa- 
Tion],  usod  to  dance  with  eight  lurches  in  his  han<' 
which  he  alternately  threw  up  in  the  oil  and  caug 
■gain  without  their  touching  each  other  or  fidling 
the  ground  (Toiiphla  Suktai,  c  ir;  Jerusalem,  Sub- 
kak,  V,  4;  Babylon,  Hid.  63  a).  It  it  supposed  that  il 
was  the  splendid  light  of  this  grand  iUnmination  whicl: 


suggest! 


-"  I  ai 


world"  (John  viii,  12),  Towards  the  approach  of 
day  two  priests  stationed  themselves,  with  trumpets  in 
their  hands,  at  the  upper  gate  leading  from  the  court 
or  the  Jsraeliles  to  the  court  of  the  women,  and  awaited 
the  annouucement  of  daybreak  by  the  crowing  of  the 
cock.  As  soon  as  tbe  cock  crew,  they  blew  tbe  trumpets 
three  times  and  marched  out  the  people  of  the  Temple 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  bad  to  descend  the  ten 
steps,  where  the  two  priests  again  blew  the  trumpela 
three  limes,  and  when  they  reached  the  iawest  step  ii 
the  outer  court  they  fur  the  third  time  blew  tbe  trum 
peta  three  times.  They  continued  to  blow  as  they  wen 
marching  across  the  court  till  they  reached  tbe  easterr 
gate.  Here  they  t»inei<  their  faces  weslwanl  towardi 
the  Temple  and  said,  "Our  fathers  once  turned  their 
back  to  the  sanctuary  in  this  place,  and  tbeir  faces  tfl 

(comp.  Ezek.viii,  15,  \6);  but  we  lift  up  our  eyes  to 
Jehovah."  Thereupon  they  returned  to  the  Temple, 
while  tbe  pcopie  who  were  thus  marched  out  went  to 
their  respecliTE  booths.  Some,  however,  formed  them- 
selves intnaproceSBion,  and  went  with  tbe  priests  to  the 
pool  of  Silosm  to  fetch  the  water;  while  others  relum- 
ed Ui  the  Temple,  to  be  present  at  the  moniiiig  sacriHce 
(Miahna,  Suitali,  v,  2-4 ;  Maimonides,  lad  lla-Chezalai, 
Hilchotk  Sukkah,  riii,  12-15).  The  Talmud  maintains 
that  the  ceremony  of  the  drawing  of  water  is  anterior 
to  the  Babvlunian  captivity,  and  that  Isa.  xii,  3  refers 
to  it  {Sukkak,  48  b).  Indeed,  it  is  only  on  Ibis  suppo- 
sition that  the  imagery  in  Isa.  xii,  8  obtains  its  full 
force  and  significance,  As  t«  the  import  of  this  cere- 
mony, ancient  tradition  furnishes  two  explanations  of  it. 
(I.)  Since  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  the  lime  of  the 
latter  rain  (Joel  ii,  23),  the  drawing  and  pouring  out  of 
the  water  was  regarded  as  symbolical  of  the  forthcom- 


ing rain  which  it  was  ardently  desired  might  be  bkascd 
to  the  people.  Hence  the  remark  that  he  who  will  not 
come  up  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  shall  hare  i»  rajn 
{SuOak,  48,  51 ;  Rati,  kaSluauik,  16;  Taanik,  S  a). 
(2.)  The  Jews  teem  to  have  regarded  the  rite  as  symbal- 
ical  of  the  water  miraculously  supplied  to  their  faihen 
from  the  rock  at  Heribah.  But  they  also  gave  lo  il  a 
more  strictly  spiritual  ugniflcation.  It  was  repaided 
■a  typical  of  tbe  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Hencc 
the  remark:  "It  is  called  the  house  of  drawing  the  wa- 
ter, because  from  thence  the  Holy  Spirit  is  draws  in 
accordance  with  what  is  said  in  Isa.  lii,  3,  '^^  ith  joy 
shall  ye  draw  water  out  of  the  wells  of  salvation' "  ( J*- 
nisalem  SuJckah,  v,  I).  It  is  upon  this  eipIanBlinn 
that  our  Saviouc^s  remark  is  based  (John  vii,ST~39)  in 
allu^on  u>  this  ceremony  on  this  last  day  of  the  feuivtl 
when  it  was  performeil  far  the  last  time.  The  two 
meanings  arc,  of  course,  perfectly  harmonioua,  aa  i* 
shown  by  the  use  which  Paul  makes  of  the  historical 
fact  (1  Cor.  X,  4)—"  they  drank  of  that  spiritual  nick 
that  followed  them :  and  that  rock  was  Christ." 

The  mode  in  which  the  sacrifices  were  offered  in  the 
middle  days  of  the  festival,  tbe  use  of  the  palm  and  the 
citnni,  tbe  priicesBion  round  the  altar,  etc.,  were  Nmply 
arcpi'iitionof  the  first  day  of  the  feslival,  with  this  ex- 
cept inn.  however,  that  the  number  of  animals  diminibh- 
cd  duily,  according  to  the  prescription  in  Numb,  xxii, 
ia-88,  and  that  the  JAUtr  HolUl  was  chanted  bv  Le- 
Tiles  inMead  of  Ihf,  Grtal  RaUrt  (q.  T.>  A  peculiarity 
coinieclcd  with  the  sacrificial  sen'ice  of  this  festival 
must  here  be  noticed.  On  all  other  fcwirala  only  thikM 
of  tite  twenty-four  orders  of  the  priests  officiated  upon 
whom  the  lot  fell  (comp.  1  Chron.  xxiv,  7-19),  but  on 
theaevendaySofTabemaclesihe  whole  of  the  twenty, 
fonr  orders  officiated.  On  tbe  first  day  (be  thirteen  buK 
locks,  two  rams,  and  one  goat  were  offered  hy  sixteen 
orden,  while  the  fourteen  sheep  were  offered  hy  the  oth- 
er eight.  As  Ibere  was  one  bullock  less  ofierrd  each  of 
tbe  seven  dsys,  one  order  of  priesis  led  each  day  the 
sixteen  orders  who  offered  these  bidlocka  and  joined 
those  who  offered  the  fourteen  lambs.  Hence, "  on  the 
first  day  six  of  these  orders  offered  two  lambteacb,  and 
the  two  other  orders  one  Iamb  each.  On  the  Becond 
day  Are  orders  of  the  priests  offered  two  lambs  each, 
and  the  four  other  orders  one  lamb  each.  On  the  third 
day  four  orders  offered  two  lambs  each,  and  six  order* 
one  lamb  each.  On  the  fourth  day  three  orders  nSertd 
two  lamb)  each,  and  eight  orders  one  lamb  each.  On 
the  fifth  day  two  orders' offered  two  lambs  each,  and  ten 
Oidera  one  lamb  each.  On  the  sixth  day  one  order  of- 
fered two  lambs  each,  end  twelve  orders  one  lamb  each ; 
while  on  the  seventh  day,  when  the  orders  of  priests 
who  sacrificed  the  bullocks  had  diminished  to  eight, 
fourteen  orders  offered  one  lamb  each"  (Miahna,  £tijt- 
kah,  V.  G). 

21«(  o/ruAii.— The  seventh  day,  which  was  itaom- 
iaa.teAthelaildayBftkfFtaile'fj'abeniaclai'Lra  D^^ 
an  b«  V^riKH,  Uishna,  SuOaih,  iv,  6),  was  especial- 
ly dislingnisbed  in  the  following  manner  from  the  oili- 
er ux  days.  After  the  Mtitaph,  or  special  festival  sac- 
rifice of  the  day,  the  priests  in  procession  mailc  seven 
circuits  roand  the  altar  (iind.  iv,  !i),  whereaa  on  the  pre- 
ceding days  of  the  festival  only  one  circuit  was  made. 
Tbe  willows  (71319)  which  turrounded  the  alur  were 
then  sothoroughlyshakenby  the  people  that  the  leayc* 
lay  thickly  on  the  ground.  The  people  also  fetebed 
palm-branches  and  beat  them  to  pieces  at  the  side  of 
the  allnr  (th'if.  iv,  G).  It  is  from  Ihia  fact  that  Ihe  last 
day  of  the  festival  obtained  Ihe  names  of  rAe  Day  of 
WiUoKi  (nau  B1%  ibid,  iv,  \),lht  Crrat  lIoKima  Dog 
(n3T  M  nr'^Oln  Dl^),  and  Ihe  BraiKh-thraihing  Dag 
(nl^in  aian  C1^,i4iitv,0).  Henfeld auggcsl* that 
the  thraahing  of  the  willows  and  palms  may  haye  been 
to  aymboliae  that  after  the  last  verdure  of  the  year  had 
served  for  the  adornment  of  Ihe  altar  tbe  tree*  might 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF   I«   TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


DO*  fEO  on  to  CMt  off  their  leina  ((Tatol.  <Ut  VeOctt  It- 
rad,  ii,  12o).  Ai  •oon  ai  Ifae  thruhing  procen  vis 
oi«,lb«  childnnwbo  were  prawnt,  »nd  ivho  ■]»  air- 
ricd  about  the  Tative  ao«g«yi,tbrewaw«y  their  palms 
taiMiapli\atrlhriigi,<  '         -■■    ■- 


n  the  I 


n  of  ll 


bFgui  10  reiDure  the  rurniture  fiDm  Che  Tabemaclea 
bunitof  IbclaMdiyortbe  TeMival"  (titiJL  iv,8),  as  tl 
ohligetua  (o  live  or  eat  iu  the  booths  ceaud  in  the  j 
(tnMOD  of  the  Mventb  day,  inumuch  at  the  Featt  i 
Talmudc*  ilMir  had  noir  lerminaled.    The  eighth 
ilaT,  u  we  ahaU  praenily  k«.  wit  a  holy  conrocaiion, 
vbcnua  BD  Banner  of  work  waa  aUowed  lo  be  done, 
■ad  tbe  HibrEwa  could  no  moni  dismautle  their  bula 
ntbiidaywiiboatdeseciatiugit  tbaoon  the  Sabbath. 
Ii  aiiiu  ■!»  be  remarked  that  this  laic  da;  of  the  Tei- 
tiril.  ibia  Great  Uonanna  day,  was  regarded  as  one  of 
tb<  [iwr  days  whereon  God  judges  the  world  (Mith- 
i*.  Rath  \a-SkaMtik,  \,  2;  Genwra,  lAid.).     There  can, 
ihERriire,  be  but  little  doubt  that  when  John  reeorda 
ilu  nwnionibk  worda  uttered  by  Chriet  {iv  rf  lirxaTf 
n«ip?  rf  lujiXf  riit  ioprijt),  "•  (A*  laH  glial  rfuy  of 
lir/cfrinJ  (John  vii,  37),  he  meant  thi*  diUinguished 

1SJ  of  Tittri^^The  eighth  day— which,  us  we  hare 
■n,  nM  a  aepante  feolical— was  ■  day  of  holy  cunvo- 
otka  whereon  no  manner  of  work  was  allowed  to  be 
line.  After  tbe  daily  maming  sacridce  and  ihe  pri- 
me offerings  of  the  people,  the  sacrifices  prescribed  in 
Kamb.  nil,  S6-38  were  offered,  during  which  lit  Grtal 
NoJM  was  chanted  by  the  Levitei.  At  the  aacriScei, 
bowtrer,  the  twentj-roiir  ordera  of  priests  were  oo  kmg- 
tf  present,  but  lota  were  cut  as  on  other  festirahs  and 
ibat  order  upon  whom  the  lot  fell  offered  the  sacrifices 
(Vubna,  auUali.  v,  6).  The  Israeli 
ia  the  booihi  on  this  day,  the  joyful 
drswiag  of  water  was  discontinued,  ihe  grand  illi 
n  ceased,  and  the  pall 


It  only  remains  tc 


1  the  Fetat  of 


]  added,  that 
1  Sabbatical  year  (q.  v.)  the  reading 
oT  portionB  oT  the  law  (Dent,  xxxi,  10-13}  was  after- 
wiids  confined  to  one  bonk  of  the  Pentateuch.  This 
•me  rrom  the  mnllipliealion  of  synigDg^e^  in  which 
the  Iht  was  read  every  week,  thus  rendering  it  less 
nndful  to  read  eiteosire  portiona  in  Ihe  Temple  dur- 
ing this  festtral,  inasmuch  ai  Ihe  people  had  now  am- 
ple iqipDrtunities  of  listening  in  (heir  respectire  places 
ofwonbip  to  the  reading  of  the  Liw  and  the  prophete. 
BoKe  aba  the  reading  of  the  law,  which  in  olden  days 
fk  place  in  Ihe  lait  hours  of  the  forenoon  of  every 
in  of  this  festival,  was  afterwards  reslricted  to  one 
<a>.  It  was  at  last  assigned  to  the  high-priest,  and 
dtiBslelylo  the  king. 

It  is  aiid  [hat  the  altar  waa  adorned  thtoughoat  Ihe 
Kin  days  wtlh  sprigs  of  willowa,  one  of  which  each 
Indite  who  came  into  the  court  brought  with  him. 
Tbe  great  number  of  the  aacriflces  has  already  been 
nmitti.  Tbe  nnmber  of  public  victims  offered  on  Che 
irit  day  exceeded  thoee  of  any  day  in  the  year  ( Jfnuoi. 
uii.5|.  But  besides  these,  the  Chagigahs  or  private 
peaee-ofltringa  were  more  abundant  than  at  any  other 
liw;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  whole  of 
■W  Mcrikea  nearly  ouinuoibered  all  those  offered  at  Che 
uhtr  (eaiirals  put  ti^Iher.  It  belongs  to  the  character 
of  tbe  feast  that  on  each  day  the  trumpets  of  Ihe  Tem- 
plmesaidiohaveiMinded  twenty-one  times.  Though 
•U  the  Hriirew  annual  festivals  were  seasons  of  r^oic- 
Uf.  tbe  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was,  in  this  reaped,  dtstin- 
CaiAfd  above  them  alL  The  huts  and  the  iabUm  must 
bvf  made  a  gay  and  striking  spectacle  over  the  city 
'T  day,  and  the  lamps,  the  flambeaux,  the  music,  and 
tb(  jsyoos  gathenng*  in  Ihe  court  of  tbe  Temple  must 
ksre  given  a  still  more  teative  character  to  the  night. 
Hence  it  was  called  by  the  rabbins  an,  Itt/atirat,  ear' 
IfuVf-   Tbtteisaptoverbia  ji[Uui(v,  l),''Uewha: 


has  never  seen  tbe  r^oieiiig  at  tbe  pouring-out  of  tbe 

Msimonides  says  that  be  who  failed  at  tbe  Feast  of 

Tabernacles  in  conliibuting  to  Ihe  public  Joy  according 
to  his  means  incurred  especial  guilt  {CiTfiaiv,  p.  419). 
The  feast  is  designated  by  Josephus  (Ant.  riii,  1, 1) 
iopr^  nj-mirar^  tai  luyiarti,  and  by  Hiilo  loprSy 
/iiyitrnt.     Its  thoroughly  festive  nature  is  shown  in  the 

IV,  33],  as  well  as  in  (he  accounu  of  its  celebration  by 
Sulumuii,  Eura,  and  Judaa  MaccabKua.  From  this  fact, 
and  iu  coouecliun  with  Ihe  ingathering  of  the  fruits 
of  the  year,  especially  Ihe  vintnge,  it  is  not  wonderful 
that  Plutarch  should  have  likened  it  to  the  Dionyaiao 
festivals,  calling  it  Otipao^pia  and  apanipo^opia  (£yn- 
pru.  iv). 

8.  Fran  the  Duperiitm  of  lie  Jeu-i  lo  lie  Prtitnt 
Tiiat, — Kicepling  the  ordinances  which  were  local  and 
belonged  lo  the  Temple  and  its  sacrificial  seriice,  and 
bating  the  expusitioo  and  more  rigid  explanation  of 
some  of  the  rites  so  aa  to  adapt  them  to  Ihe  altered  con- 
dition of  the  nation,  the  Jews  lo  tbe  present  day  con- 
tinue to  celebrate  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  as  in  tbe 
days  of  the  second  Temple.  As  soon  as  the  Day  of 
Alooement  is  over,  every  orthodox  Israelite,  according 
lothe  ancient  canons,  begins  to  erect  his  booth  in  which 
he  and  hb  family  take  up  their  temporary  abode  dur- 
ing this  festival  Each  patecfamUias  also  provides  him- 
self with  a  /uUA^palm,  and  efAr^— citron,  as  defined 
by  the  ancient  canoua,  On  the  eve  of  the  14tb  of  Tiah- 
ri,  or  of  the  Preparalioa  Day  (mso  BIS),  tbe  festival 
commences.  All  tbe  Jews,  attired  in  their  festive  gar- 
ments, resort  to  Che  synagogue,  whore,  after  the  evening 
prayer  (3'''^7Q)  appointed  in  the  liturgy  for  this  oc- 
casion, Ihe  hallowed  nature  of  the  fciiival  is  procliimed 
by  the  cantor  (Itn)  in  tbe  blessing  pronounced  over  the 
cup  of  wine  (Ul^p).  After  the  evening  service,  every 
family  resorts  ta  its  respective  booth,  which  is  illumi* 
nated  and  adorned  with  foliage  and  diverse  fruit,  and 
in  which  the  first  festive  meal  is  taken.  Before,  how- 
ever, anything  is  eaten,  the  head  of  tbe  family  pro- 
nounces tbe  sanctity  of  Ihe  feslival  over  a  cup  of  wine. 
This  sanctiacatiou  or  ATinUuA  (IS^tp)  was  ordained 
by  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  {q.  v.),  and  as  there 
is  no  doubt  that  our  Saviour  and  bis  apostles  recited  it, 
we  shall  give  it  in  English.  It  ia  as  follows;  "Blessed 
art  thou,  O  lArd  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who 
hast  created  the  fruit  of  Che  vine  I  Blessed  an  thou,  O 
Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  univeree,  who  hast  chosen 
us  from  among  all  nations,  hast  exalted  us  above  all 
tongues,  and  host  sanctified  us  with  thy  command- 
ments. In  love,  O  Lord,  thou  bait  given  us  appoint- 
ed times  for  jov,  festivals,  and  seasons  for  rejoicing; 
and  this  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  this  time  of  our  ^ad- 
nas,  Ihe  holy  convocation,  in  memory  of  the  exodus 
'vm  Egypt;  for  thou  bast  chosen  us,  and  hast  sane- 
.Bed  us  above  all  nations,  and  basC  caused  us  to  in- 
erlt  thy  holy  festivals  with  joy  and  rejoicing.  Blna- 
d  art  thou.  O  Lord,  who  bast  sanctified  Israel  and  the 
nsoni!  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of 
the  universe,  who  hast  sanctiOed  us  with  thy  command- 
mentSi  and  hast  enjoined  us  to  dwell  in  booths!  Bless- 
ed art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  King  of  tbe  univenc,  who 
host  preserved  us  alive,  austnined  us,  and  brought  us  to 
the  beginning  of  this  season!"  Thereupon  each  mem- 
ber of  the  family  washes  his  hands,  pronouncing  the 
prescribed  benediction  while  drying  them,  and  all  en- 
Joy  the  repssL  The  orthodox  Jews  sleep  in  the  booths 
all  nighu  The  following  morning,  which  is  tbe  first 
day  of  tbe  festival,  Ibey  again  resort  In  the  synagogue, 
heading  the  palms  and  citrons  in  their  hands.  They 
lay  Ihem  down  during  the  former  pan  uf  the  prayer, 
but  take  Ihem  up  alter  Che  eighteen  benedictions,  when 
they  are  about  to  recite  the  llattd.  Holding  the  palm 
in  the  right  hand  and  tbe  citron  in  tha  left,  cbey  recit* 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF       160      TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF 


tbe  following  pnyer:  "Blttd  art  tboo,  O  Lord  our 
God,  King  of  ihe  nniT«ne,irho  hut  unetifled  tu  with 
th7  com  maud  menu,  and  tuat  enjoined  ui  lu  takfl  the 
pal  m- bran  ch  1"  Thereapon  each  one  tunu  bia  citron 
apiide-down  and  wava  hia  palm-branch  three  timea 
toward!  the  eait,  three  time*  towaida  the  weat,  three 
timea  lowarda  the  aoulh,  and  three  timea  towards  the 
mnh.  Tbe  legale  of  the  congregation  pmnouncoa  the 
foUowing  benediction:  "Bleued  art  ibou.O  Lord  our 
God,  King  of  the  universe,  who  hast  lanctified  lu  with 
tby  commandmenla,  and  luwt  enjoined  us  to  recite  the 
HaUel!"  and  tbe  HaUd  ia  cbant«1;  when  Lbe;  come 
to  Paa-ciTiii,  tbe  waving  of  Ihe  palm-branch  ia  repeat- 
ed at  the  fint,  tenth,  and  twenty-flrih  venea,  Juat  aa  it 

then  taken  out  of  the  ark  (^V^K,  nS^P)  and  brougbt 
on  the  platform  (HC^l),  when  tbe  ieaaons  for  the  dm 
day  or  the  (ettiral  are  read  out  IVom  tbe  lair— Lev.  xxii, 
86~xxiii,44;  and  NumbLXxix,  12-16, aa  Wo^ir;  and 
fram  the  prophets,  Zech.  xiv,  1-!1.  See  Hafhtarah. 
After  this  the  Mutdpi  prayer  la  ledled,  which  eorre- 
^Kwds  Id  tbe  MutSph  or  oMilional  aacrifices  in  the 
Temple  tor  this  special  festival.  Wbeo  the  legate  of  the 
oongregation  in  reciting  the  Jfutdpi  comes  to  Ihe  pas- 
sage where  the  exprcauon  pritttt  (S'<3na)  occurs,  the 
Airuoim  and  tbe  Levitea  arise,  and,  after  the  latler 
have  washed  tbe  hands  of  tbe  former,  the  prieils,  with 
uplifted  hands,  pronounce  tbe  sacerdotal  benediction 
(Numb,  vi,  21-27)  upon  the  congregation,  who  have 
their  ficea  veiled  with  Ihe  T<iH'h.  See  Fbisoe.  The 
ark  of  tbe  Lord  is  then  plsced  in  Ihe  centre  of  tbe  syn- 
agogue, when  Ibe  elden  form  themaelves  into  a  procn- 
sioD  beaded  by  the  legate,  who  carriei  the  scroll  of  the 
law,  and  all  the  rest  carry  tbe  palm-brancbes  in  their 
hands  and  walk  round  ibe  ark  once,  repealing  Iht  Ho- 
fama,  and  waving  the  palmi  in  oommemoration  of  the 
procession  round  the  altar  in  the  Temple  (Maimonides, 
lad  Ha-Cltaaka,  IlUdtolk  Ijilah,  vii,  29).  When  the 
■Donung  service  is  concluded,  the  people  betake  them- 
selves to  their  respective  booths  to  partake  of  *     ' 


live  re 

lernDou,  about  Ave  oi 


and  Ihe  i 


IntI 


K  o'clock,  they  agaii 
Kite  the  Mindi&h  (Ttnn)  prayer, 
answering  lo  tbe  dail;  evening  aacriSce  in  the  Temple. 
A*  soon  aa  darkness  seta  in  or  the  stars  appear,  the  sec- 
ond day  uf  the  fesiival  commences,  the  Jews  having 
doubled  the  days  of  boly  convocation.  The  evening 
prayer  as  well  as  the  practice*  for  this  evening  resem- 
ble those  of  tbe  first  evenings 

The  ritual  for  the  aocond  day  in  Iba  morning,  as  well 
as  the  ritas,  with  very  few  variations,  is  like  Ibat  of 
the  first  day.  The  lesaoD,  however,  from  the  prophets 
is  different,' for  on  this  day  I  Kings  viii,  2-21  is  read. 
Afier  the  alUmoon  service  of  this  day  the  middle  days 
of  the  festival  begin,  which  last  four  days,  when  the 
ritual  is  like  that  of  ordinary  days,  except  tbat  a  few 
prayers  bearing  on  this  festival  are  occasionally  iuserleil 
in  Ihe  regular  formuhe,  lessons  from  the  Ian  are  read  on 
each  day  aa  specifled  in  tbe  article  Haphtahah,  ami 
the  above-named  procession  goes  round  Ihe  ark.  The 
aeventb  day,  which  is  tkt  Grtal  Hoitima  <  MlSS^n 
ra^),  is  celebrated  with  pecnllar  solemiiily,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  believed  tbat  on  Ibisdsy  God  decree"  the  weather, 
or  rather  the  rain,  for  the  future  harvol  (Sliahns,  Ruth 
ka-S}utiiah,\,2;  Uetnara,  tttd).  On  the  evening  pre- 
ceding this  day  every  Israelite  prepares  for  himself  a 
small  bunch  of  wiltows  tied  up  with  Ihe  bark  of  the 
palm;  sotne  of  the  pious  Jews  assemhle  either  in  the 
synagogue  or  in  the  booths  to  read  the  book  of  Deuter- 
onomy, the  Psalms,  tbe  Mishna,  etc.,  all  night,  ami  are 
■moKrsed  before  the  morning  prayer.  When  the  lime 
of  morning  service  arrives,  numerous  candles  are  lighted 
in  the  ai-nagngue,  and  after  the  Sharbrilk  (n"inO)  = 
■raroiog  prayer,  which  is  aimiUr  to  that  of  the  previous 


day,  seven  serolls  of  tbe  law  are  taken  out  of  tbe  ark. 
and  from  one  <A  tbem  tbe  leaaon  is  read.  Tbe  Uuifyh 
or  additional  prayer  ia  then  recited ;  thereupon  a  pro- 
cession  is  formed:,  headed  by  the  rabbi  and  Ibe  legate 
wilh  the  palms  in  tbeir  hands,  and  followed  by  those 
who  carry  the  seven  scrolls  of  the  law.  This  procc«i«i 
guvs  seven  times  roond  tbe  ark,  which  is  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  synagogue,  or  round  the  reading-detk, 
reciting  Ibe  Hoaannas,  in  accordance  with  the  seven 
drcuita  around  the  allar  which  were  performed  in  the 
Temple  on  tbia  day,  and  waving  their  palms  at  ceitaiii 
expiesaiiHis.  Tbe  palms  are  then  laid  down,  and  every 
one  takes  up  hia  bunch  of  willows  and  beats  off  its  leaves 
at  a  certain  pan  of  Ibe  liturgy,  in  acmrdance  wiih  ihe 
healing  olT  the  leaves  from  the  willows  around  the  akar 
in  the  Temple,  which  took  place  on  tbia  day.  On  ihe 
evening  of  the  seventh  day  the  feattval  eomneoces 
which  concludea  tbe  whole  cycle  of  festival  (^3'QC 
m'S.'S).  It  is  a  day  of  boly  convocation,  on  which  no 
manner  of  work  ia  done,  and  ia  introduced  by  Ihe  A'ict- 
Hth  (I91lp)  =  proclamationofita  sanctity,  given  in  the 
former  part  of  this  sectioii.  On  Ihe  following  monung 
the  ilews  reaort  lo  tbe  synagogue,  rcdte  the  morning 
prayer  (n-<^no),  as  in  the  Bnt  two  daya  of  Ibe  Feaat  of 
Tabernacles,  insening,  however,  some  prayers  appropri- 
ate for  thia  orcanocL  Thereupim  the  special  lessen  for 
Ibe  day  is  read,  the  MiaAph  or  addilional  prayer  ia  of- 
fered, and  the  priests  pronounce  tbe  benediction  in  the 
manner  already  deacribed.  The  people  no  longer  uke 
"'   "         ......         ...   ^^^    Onlbeeveuing 


f  thia  day  a( 


valcc 


Rfjoicmg  nf  Iht  Laa  (nlln  moO).  After  the  rr- 
ciiing  of  the  Eighteen  Benedictions,  all  Ihe  scrolls  of  iW 
law  are  taken  out  of  the  ark,  into  which  a  lighted  canillc 
is  pUced.  A  procession  is  then  formed  of  the  distio- 
guiabed  members,  who  are  headed  by  tbe  Irgalt:  tlicy 
hold  llie  scrolls  in  their  hands,  and  gu  around  Iht  read- 
ing-desk; tbe  Bcrolla  are  then  put  bach  into  tbe  ark,  ami 
only  one  ia  placed  upon  Ihe  desk,  out  of  which  is  leail 
the  last  chspter  of  Deuteronomy,  and  to  the  reading  of 
which  all  persons  present  in  the  synagogue  art  oIIhI, 
including  children.  When  Ihe  evening  service  is  over 
the  children  leave  the  ^'nagogua  in  procenoii,  cartyiag 
banners  with  sundry  Hebrew  inscriptions. 

On  the  foUowing  morning  the  Jews  again  retort  to 
the  synagogue,  recite  the  SaJfaf  after  the  Eighteen  Bm 
edictions,  amply  tbe  ark  of  all  its  scrolls,  put  ■  lighted 


it,  fom 


sdJ 


with  the  scrolls  in  their  bands,  and  amid  Jubilant  soOfK 
go  round  the  reading-deak.  Thia  being  over,  Ihe  scroUi 
of  Ihe  law  are  put  buk  into  the  ark,  andfiom  one  olllie 
two  which  are  retained  is  r«ad  Deui.  iixiii,  whneunlu 
four  persons  are  at  first  called,  then  all  (he  litlle  cbildieii 
are  called  as  on  the  previous  evening,  and  then  again 
several  grown-up  people  are  called.  1'he  first  of  ibrH 
ia  called  Ihe  Bridrgroom  of  Ihe  Lav  {TrnTi  pn).  and 
after  the  cantor  who  rails  him  up  has  addressed  him  hi 
a  somewhat  lengthy  Hebrew  fotmida,  Ihe  last  vemesof 
the  I'entateucb  are  ivid;  and  when  the  ivading  of  (bt 
lawiaihuennishedall  tbe  people  exclaim,  pirt,irilrn$.' 

Ihe  Hebrew  It  ble  aa  well  as  of  ever^-  non-inspired  Hc 
htew  work.  After  reading  the  Inst  chapter  of  the  ii". 
the  beginning  of  Geneus  (i,  1-ii,  3)  is  read,  to  wb^cb 
another  one  is  called  who  is  denominated  the  BnJegnum 
of  Gfiiriit  (H'^OXia  irri),  and  (o  whom  again  It* 
cantor  debver*  a  somewbat  lengthy  Hebrew  fumiik! 
the  .VajAltr,  connsting  <if  Numb,  xxix,  Sfr-xxx,  I,  ii 
then  read  from  another  scroll ;  and  with  the  reci(«ti.i» 
of  the  ifatapi,  or  additional  special  prayer  for  Ibe  (f*- 
livnl.  Ihe  service  is  concludctl.  The  rest  of  the  day  is. 
Fpi'ni  in  rejuteing  and  feasting.  The  design  ofihiifn- ' 
liral  is  10  celebrate  the  annual  completion  of  Iheprni^dl 
of  tbe  F«ntaieuch,  inasmnoh  aa  on  I  hia  da  v  Ibe  IisimiH' 


TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF       151 

ria  uftbt  Uv  u  rod.    Hence  the  lunie  of  the  ftttlTil, 
a,  Rif-Uug  nfFmshag  Uu  /mv. 

IV.  Dr^H  oMd  Imparl  o/IAii  FaHgal-^Uko  PcDte- 
HM,  ibc  Fcut  of  Tibeniades  owei  iu  origin  (o  the 
htnai,  wbiofa  lenniaued  at  Ibiii  time,  and  which  the 
Jen  ia  comnKHi  with  other  nationa  ar  antiquity  cele- 
boiol  ta «  Mucm  of  joy  uid  ihankrulneu  for  the  kindly 
fniii  of  Ibt  tuth.  Thii  ii  undoubtedly  implied  in  its 
vay  uma,  lie  Ftait  of  Ingalhering,  anil  ia  dirtinclly 
ilnUndinEioiLixiii,  16:  "Thuu  shall  keep  ...  the 
fcM  or  ingitbeiing  in  the  end  of  th«  year  wben  thou 
bulgulwrcd  in  thy  labora  oat  of  the  Aeld"  (cuitip.  alau 
Uf.  uiii,  S9;  DeuC  xvi,  13).  With  this  aKriculiural 
KiKiB,  bmrerer,  ia  aaaocialed  a  great  liiMoricil  event, 
■hieh  tbr  Jcwa  are  enjoined  to  remember  during  the 
cddotini  of  tbi*  hMiral,  and  which  inipan«d  ■  aectmd 


TABITHA 


"  Ye  ahall  d> 


1171 . . .  that  yoor  generauona  may  knon 
iW  lUMrco  of  Inael  to  dwell  in  booths,  w1 
tkn  mt  of  the  land  of  Egypt"  (Uv.  xxiit,  4%  48), 
■hnee  Ita  name,  IM*  FtrM  of  Baolta  or  Tabtmaiiia. 
ThFr(aKorTabeniaelea,tlieTefure,liketbePaaaaTer,haa 
ilwubMiigniftEaDce— Tii.it  bail rererence  both  to  lbs 
nuBl  FDone  of  nature  and  Co  a  great  national  event. 
Ai  to  tbe  reaaon  bt  connecting  this  pre-eminently  Joy- 
in  roiiral  of  ingathering  with  the  honieleaa  dwelling 
ri  Ihr  Imtlila  in  bootha  in  the  wililemeu,  we  prefer 

bt  aodem  commentalon.  In  the  midat  of  their  great 
joT— ibm  their  botuea  are  full  of  com,  new  wine,  oil, 
■ml  ilJ  guod  things,  and  their  heaita  OTerflow  with  re- 
jwan--the  lanelilea  might  fo^el  the  Lord  their  God, 
ml  BIT  tbii  it  ia  their  power  and  the  alrength  of  their 
•nawbicli  havegotun  themthia  pmaperity  (DeuU  nii, 
li,  ttc).  To  gaard  againat  this  the  Hebrewa  were 
namindedtoquit  their  permanent  and  alkelteteil  huuae 
tul  niouTn  in  booths  at  the  time  of  han-eit  and  in  the 
nidnoT general  abundance,  to  beieminde<1  rhpreby  Thai 
ilwT  irere  ooc«  hooKleaa  and  wanderera  in  the  wilder- 
Ka,  lod  that  tbey  ■»  now  in  the  enjoyment  of  blcM- 
10(1  ibnmgh  the  goodneaa  ami  faithrulnesi  of  their 
bamly  Pather,  who  fulSlled  the  piomiKB  made  to 
Atnhim,  liaac,  and  Jacob.  Tliii  idea  waa  atill  more 
ilcnlDped  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  wben  the 
omit  aboot  tbe  building  of  the  bootha  were  enacted. 
Tbe  boothi,  aa  we  have  aeen,  were  to  be  corered  in  ancb 
•  BioHf  aa  to  admit  the  view  of  tbe  ahy  and  the  stars, 
nwlcf  that  tbe  aojoaTDcra  therein  might  be  reminded 
<'ltarOrtttOT,and  remember  that,  however  great  and 
FtUTRoaa  tbe  harveM,  the  thinga  of  earth  are  perishable 
m  riaiiy  of  ranitiea.  Thia  it  the  reason  why  the 
a^ibci  ■!»  ordained  that  tbe  book  of  Eccleaiaste*  should 
bt  Rsd  oa  thiijoyooa  featiTaL 

The  origiD  of  the  Feaat  of  Tabemadn  ia  by  some 
«H«cd  with  Sukkoth,  the  first  halting-place  of  the 
Inalitet  on  their  march  out  of  Egypt ;  and  the  huts 
m  Likai,natto  commemorate  the  tenia  in  the  wilder- 
oa.  but  tbe  leafy  bootha  (wblnfil)  iu  which  they  lodged 
br  tie  Isal  time  before  they  entered  the  deiert.  The 
loaeinld  ihiu  call  to  mind  the  tranajlion  from  settled 
U  Doaadic  life  (Stanley,  Simai  and  Palatuif,  Aiqwndix, 


st  for  the  original  eqaal- 


riiilo  mw  in  thia  feait  a  wio 
Itrefallihememben  of  the 
!)■  nek,  poor  and  rich,  the  inhabitant  alike  uf  the  pal- 
'a(BdUiehaTel,lired  in  bula  which,  in  alrielneas,  were 
Id  I*  oT  tbe  plainest  and  moat  ordinary  material!  and 

'•VIA  bt  reminded  with  atill  greater  edification  of  the 
l^iW  and  toilsome  march  <>f  his  forefathen  through 
ibc  diBtn,  wIhii  tbe  nation  sFemeil  to  be  mote  imme- 
ilUid;  dqiendent  do  God  for  fiud,  shelter,  and  pntec- 
"»,  wbila  tbe  CDiB|deted  harrest  stored  up  for  the 
"^^f,  winler  act  belbie  him  tbe  benefits  he  had  de- 
nrid  from  the  priaacsrinn  of  tbe  land  flowing  with  milk 
ul  boDty  which  tiad  been  of  old  promised  to  hiarace. 
Bat  the  calminatiag'iiotnt  of  Ihia  blearing  was  the 


of  the  central  ipot  of  the  national  worafaip 
in  tbe  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Hence  it  waa  evidently 
tluing  that  the  Feast  of  Tabeinadea  should  be  kept  with 
an  unwonted  degree  of  observance  at  the  dedication  of 
Solomon's  Temple  <1  Kings  Tiii,  i,  66;  Jonephus,  AhL 
viii,  4,  6),  again  alter  the  rebuilding  of  tbe  Temple  by 
Ezra  (Neh.  viii,  IB-IS),  and  a  third  time  by  Judas  Hac- 
cataeus,  when  he  hid  driven  out  the  Syrians  and  re- 
stored tbe  Temple  to  tbe  worship  of  Jehovah  (3  Mace. 
x,5-8). 

V.  /.ifertKani,— Maimonidea,  lad  Ha-Clitiala.  Hil- 
duH\  Lnlab ;  Ueyer,  De  Temp,  tl  FetUt  l>itbu$  f/tbrao- 
rvflt  (Utrecht,  1766),  p.BI7,  etc;  mtiT,  Si/mbvlit  da 
Moiaitdm  Culha  (Heidelberg,  1839),  ii,  C21  sq.,  652  sq.; 
Henreld,';eact>fi/«i&iruUu/tnu/(Nordhauaen,]B&7), 
ii.  120  sq.,  IT7  sq. ;  TU  Jaciih  Ritual,  entitled  Derek 
Ha-Ciajim  (Vienna,  I8S9),  p.  214  b  sq.,  295  sq. ;  Keil, 
Hasdbadl  dtr  biilitclten  A  rchaaUigie  (2d  ed.  Frankfort- 
on-the-Hain,I869),p.412Bq.;Carpiov,.47>7i.C>'iI.p.114; 
Buntorf,  Sj»,  Jud.  c  mi :  Hetand,  /)  tK.  i v,  fi ;  Lightfoot, 
rcn^  firmer,  xvi,  and  A>e>rif.nJocm.vir,3,87;Olba, 
Lex.  Sab.  230;  tbe  treatise  fiuUoA,  in  the  Miahna,  with 
Surenhuaiua'aArii(M,Bupreld,ife/'««.//efrr.pt.ii;comp. 
tbe  monographa  Dt  Libaliiyae  Afw*  n  Fell.  Tab.  bv 
Iken  (in  the  Symbol,  etc  [Bremen,  1744],  i,  160),  Biel 
(Vitemb.  1710),  and  Tresenreuter  (Alt,  1743),  Groddek, 
De  Certmonia  Palmanini  ia  Ffl.  Tab.  (Lip*.  1G94-96, 
also  in  Ugolino,  voL  xviii) ;  Dachs,  on  Suktai,  in  Ibe 
Jerusalem  Ganara  (Utrecht,  1726)i  Tirsch,  De  Taber- 
aac.  FtrUi  (Prag.  a.  L  et  an.). 

Tab'lthB  (Taj)<^a  ;  Vulg.  T<Mia),  also  called 
Dorcat  (Aopnic),  a  female  diaciple  of  Joppa,  "  full  of 
good  works,"  among  which  that  of  making  clothes  for 
the  poor  is  specifically  mentioned  (Acta  ix,  BG-42). 
A.D.  82.  While  Peter  waa  at  the  neighboring  town  of 
Lydda,  Tabitha  died,  upon  which  the  disciples  at  Joppa 
sent  an  urgent  message  to  the  apostle,  begging  him  to 
come  to  tbem  withoal  delay.  It  is  not  quite  evident 
from  the  narrative  whether  they  looked  for  any  exercise 
of  miraculous  power  on  his  part,  or  whether  they  simply 
wished  for  Christian  consolation  under  what  tbey  re> 
garded  aa  the  common  calamity  of  their  Church  1  but 
the  miracle  recently  performed  on  £neaa  (ver.34),Bnd 
the  expression  in  ver.  S8  (^kXScii'  <iuc  q»iui>),  lead  to 
ths  former  supposition.  Upon  hiii  anival  Peter  (iiund 
tba  deceased  alreaily  prepared  for  burial,  and  laid  out  in 
an  upper  chamber,  where  she  waa  aurroundrd  by  the  re- 
cipients and  the  tokens  of  her  charity.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  our  Saviour  in  the  bouse  of  Jairua  (Matt,  ix, 
26 ;  Blark  v,  40),  "  Peter  put  them  all  forth,"  prayed  for 
the  divine  assistance,  and  Iben  commanded  Tabitha  to 
arise  (comp.  Btark  v,  41 ;  Luke  viii,  64).  She  opened 
her  eyes  and  sat  up,  and  then,  anistcd  by  the  apostle, 
rose  from  her  couch.  This  great  miracle,  aa  we  are  far- 
thcr  told,  produced  an  extraordinaiy  eOect  in  Joppa,  and 
waa  the  occaaion  of  many  converuons  there  (Acta  ix, 
42).    See  Pbtbr. 

Tbe  name  of  "Tabitha"  (K^^ZS)  is  the  Aramaio 
form  answering  to  the  Hebrew  n^3X,  Uebiy&h,  a  "  fe- 
male gazelle,"  the  gazelle  being  regarded  in  the  East, 
among  both  Jews  snd  Arabs,  as  a  standard  of  beauty — 
indeed,  the  word  '■ZX  property  meant  "  beauty."  Luke 
gives  "Dorcas"  as  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  name. 
Similarly  we  Bnd  iofxat  aa  the  Sept.  rendering  of  ''3X 
in  DeuL  xii,  16,  22;  2  Sam.  ii,  IS;  Prov.  vi,  S.  It  hu 
been  inferred  from  the  occurrence  of  the  two  names  that 
Tabitha  was  a  Hellenist  (see  Whitbv,  oiJiH:.).  This, 
however,  does  not  follow,  even  i:'      ' 


ually  b, 


Gentile  name  in  addition  to  1 
Jewish  name.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  fmm 
language  ol  Luke  Chat  Tabitha  actually  bore  ihe  n. 
of  Uurcaa.  All  he  tells  ut  ia  tbat  tbe  name  of  Tsb 
meant  "gaietle"  (f opirif),  and  for  the  benefit  or 


TABLE  1( 

0«u(ilc  reiden  he  BfterwRTdl  apeiln  of  her  by  tht  Gr«ek 
eqoiTaJeaU  At  tbe  auoe  time  it  is  very  poasiblB  thM 
■be  may  hire  been  known  by  both  nim»;  11111  we 
IcarD  from  Joaephui  ( IVar,  iv-,  B,  6)  that  the  name  of 
DoTcaa  was  not  unknowD  in  Paltatine.  AiDonK  tbe 
Greeka  alao,  aa  we  gather  froni  Lucretiue  (iv,  1154],  it 
wia  a  leriD  cif  endeirmeDl.  Oth«r  eumplei  of  the  nie 
at  the  name  will  be  found  in  Wettstein,  ad  loe,     See 

DORCAH, 

Table  lathe  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  usually  of  ^nVd, 
Aukhan  (Xew  Tea^  rpafrtfa,  likewiae  iiirariably  au 
translated,  except  Luke  xix,  23  ["bank"};  Aeta  xri, 
84  [-'Dieot"]),  to  called  ftum  being  txinded  (n^O; 
eomp.  Homer,  OJ.  x,  37;  and  aee  Pn.  Ixix,  23),  and 
denoting  especially  a  table  spread  with  food  (Judg.  i, 
7;  1  Sam.  Jtx,  29,  S4;  I  Kings  v,  7;  i,  6;  Job  xxxvi, 
18;  Heh.  r,  IT);  but  spoken  likewise  of  the  taUt  0/ 
thia-iriad  (aee  below),  and  likewiae  of  the  Itcliileniia 
prepaied  before  iiloli  (laa.  xlv,  II;  see  Schumann,  Dt 
LMultTmu  itt  Sacro  Cod.  [  Lips.  1789]).  For  the  "  ta- 
bles" of  sl«ne  on  which  tbe  Decalogue  waa  engraved, 
■ee  below.  The  word  SI^O,  madb,  ■  dican  (q.  v.),  is 
once  rendered  "it  table"  (Cant.  1, 12).    See  Sittino. 

Little  is  known  as  (o  the  form  of  table*  imong  the 
Hebrews;  but,  aa  in  other  Oriental  nations,  they  were 
probably  not  high.  In  ExoiL  xxr,  W,  Indeed,  the  Ukblf 
far  the  shew-breid  is  described  a*  1  cubit  aad  a  half  in 
height ;  but  the  table  o(  Herod's  temple,  as  depicted  on 
tbe  arch  of  Titus  at  Rome,  is  only  half  a  cubit  high. 
Probably  the  ublc  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  diRered  little 
fiom  that  o(  the  modem  Arabs,  namely,  a  piece  of  skin 
or  leather  spread  upon  the  ground  (hence  tbe  figure  of 
eDlanglcment  in  it,  Psa.  Ixix,  23).  Ip  Palestine,  at  the 
present  day,  the  general  custom,  even  oF  the  better 
classes,  is  to  bring  a  polygonal  stool  (jtursi),  about  four- 
teen inches  high,  into  tbe  camaion  sitting-roam  for 
meals.  Upon  this  is  placed  a  tray  (Mnfyri)  of  basket- 
work  or  of  metal,  generally  cupper,  on  which  the  food 
is  arranged.  These  two  pieces  of  furniture  together 
compose  the  table  {ti/rah).  The  bread  lies  upon  the 
mat  beneath  the  tray,  and  a  cruse  of  water  stands  near 
by,  from  which  all  drink  as  they  have  need.  On  fonnal 
occasi□n^  this  is  held  in  the  hand  by  a  servant, 
waits  upon  the  guests.  Around  this  stool  and  tray  the 
{tuests  gather,  sitting  un  tbe  floor  (Thonison,  Aaiuf  and 
Book,  i,  IBO).    See  Eatino. 


Modem  Oriental  Tabic  1 


Among  tbe  > 

dent  Egyptians,  the  table  was  much 

the  as 

nteaslhal 

of  the  present  day  in  Egypt,  a  small 

■tod, 

I  round  ttav.on  which 

he  dishes  are 

placn 

(1-leL.u^e 

«o4%.i,190):  but  it 

diflerwl  from 

this  in 

having  ii 

eircubr  summit  flied 

n  a  pilUr,  or 

Ieg.w 

ichwasol 

ten  in  tbe  form  of  a  ma 

,  generally  a 

captive,  who  supported  the  slab  upon 

is  head,  the 

whole 

beitig  of  s 

one  or  some  hard  wood. 

On  this  the 

AnclenlEfmitlsn' 


ight  in  with  the  Dishes  npoi  IL 


dishes  were  placed,  Ugether  with  luave*  of  bread,  sonie 
of  which  were  not  unlike  thoae  of  the  present  day  in 
Egypt,  flat  and  round,  as  our  cmmpets.  Others  had  the 
farm  of  rolls  or  cakes,  sprinkled  with  seeds,  Tbe  tablt 
was  not  generally  covered  with  any  litwn,  tut,  like  ihe 
Greek  table,  was  washed  with  a  sponge,  or  napkin,  afier 
the  dishes  were  removed,  and  polished  by  the  aerranri, 
when  the  oompany  had  retired;  though  an  instance 
sometimes  occurs  of  a  napkin  spread  on  it,  at  least  « 
those  which  bore  offerings  in  honor  of  tbe  dead.  One 
or  (wo  guests  generally  sat  at  a  table,  though,  from  the 
mention  of  penons  seated  in  rows  according  to  rank,  it 
has  been  sapposedtbc  taUc*  were  occasionally  of  along 
shape;  as  may  have  been  tbe  case  when  the  brethren  of 
Joaeph  "sat  before  him,  the  fiist-bom  according  (0  hii 
birthright,  and  the  youngest  according  to  his  youlh," 
Joseph  eating  alnne  at  another  table  where  "they  set 
on  for  him  by  himselT."  But  even  if  round,  they  mielil 
Still  Al  BCdnding  to  rank,  one  place  being  always  the 
poet  of  honor,  even  at  the  preaent  dav,  at  the  round  ta- 
ble of  Egj'pt  (Wilkinson,  ^nc  EggplX  1'9).    See  Dues. 

The  tables  of  the  ancient  Assyrians,  aa  delinestid 
upon  tbe  monuments,  were  often  iif  a 
highly  ornamental  character  (Uvard, 
A'inewA,  ii,  286  j   Botia,  MiKtiK,  p. 
188).     See  Banqi:^. 

For  the  tricUnium  of  the  Koman 
period,  aee  Accusation;  Sup. 

Other  Greek  words  than  rpoTiZa 


e(wl 


h  lik< 


aionally  a  broker's  a 


tf'liai,  etc,  often  rendered  "  sit  at 
bk"),  which  are  transUted  "  table"  in  Ancient  AsajrlsB 
tbe  A.  V.  in  a  difTertni  sense,  are:  '^^^*- 

kXi'jtj  (Mark  vii,  4),t  bed  {u  eiaewhere  rendered),  or 
couch  used  for  eaUng,  L  e.  the  tridmiiim  above  nMicnl; 
and  wXiil  (2  Cor.  iii,  8 ;  Heb.  ix,  4),  a  lablrt  for  inscrip- 
tion; morefully  mi'iuiJioi'iavi'tlHiy-ruUt  (Lukei,G3). 
See  Tabls  or  thk  Law. 

TABLE  (nsV,  Had,  a  Uibln,  whether  of  stone  [•« 
below],  wood  ["board,"  Exo<l.  xxvii,  8,  eta],  or  fuc 
writing  on  [Isa.xxx,8i  HBUviii,9;  Prov-  iii,  3])  of 
TiiK  Law  (only  plur.  in  the  phrase*  "  tables  of  tiim" 
naM  Prt,  Exod.  xxiv,  12;  xxii,  18;  or  D^JSK  "i, 
zxxiv,  1,4],  and  "tables  of  the  covenant"  [Deal.ii.9, 
lS]or"orihelcstimony''[Exod.xixi,l8]),suchasthiM 
that  were  given  tn  Moses  upon  Mount  Sinai,  being  wnl- 
ten  by  the  linger  of  God,  and  containing  the  Decali^it, 
or  Ten  Commandments  of  the  taw,  as  they  are  rebeanrd 
in  Exod.  xx.  Many  idle  questions  have  been  saailid 
about  these  tables;  about  their  matter,  their  furm,(bnt 
number,  who  wrote  them,  and  what  they  coiiuiiiML 
The  words  which  intimate  that  the  tahlea  were  writtso 

ally:  others,  of  the  ministry  of  an  angel;  and  vtbcis 
explain  merely  to  signify  an  onler  of  Uoil  to  Uosis  I*  ; 
write  them.     Tbe  expression,  however,  in  Sdiptare  al- 

wayt  signifies  the  immediate  Divine  agency.    SeeWa)- 


TABLE  11 

tkcr,  fir  Daabmt  Tnbalit  l^pideU  (Region).  1679};  Ui- 
cbMlU,  Dt  Tat.  Fad.  Prwrihu  (Vitemb.  1719). 

TAHLEi  (be  iiwdc  f^Tcn  to  Ui«  luprcioe  eedcnaNi- 
nl  cvurt  of  the  Wtldcnum  Church  (q.  v.). 

TABLE,  CiieUKXCS,  ■  nnoU  lide-tnble,  commonly 
placed  on  the  aoulh  side  of  Ihealur,  rorthetluu  bnadi. 
<TKa  oT  wine  uiJ  water,  offennry  Jiih,  service-boolu, 
linbo  diab,  ami  other  things  uecemry  for  the  inlenin 
a  bir  celebraliuii  of  the  holj  eucbariaL     See  Chb- 


IIBLE,  HoLV.  I.  The  Lord'*  Uble  or  iltar.  2.  A 
total  lo  an  aliar;  e,  g.  one  given  to  Glastonbury  in 
IKJ,  Dade  of  gukl.  lilver,  anJ  irory,  and  one  at  St. 
Allai'a  in  the  l:iih  ceiiluti'.  3.  The  menu,  the  upper 
mnt  altar-alab.  4.  i'tnulin^  containing  the  names  of 
bntlktaTa,  r^iatera  of  miracles,  a  liu  of  induigencea, 
tad  iht  CMiiM  of  officiaiilr,  nSkiating  clergy  at  the 
kgan,  ud  cclebtaaU  of  masMi. 

TABLE  or  Cokmakdmbktb,  a  icpmenladoa  or 


eComi 


Mgra™ 


t|ilicrd  na  the  eaat  wall  of  the  church  or  chaiicd. 
TABLE  or  Dmitua,  a  formal  liat  of  relalkmahi. 
Inh  bj  blond  and  affinity,  within  which  degrees  the 
narch  of  England  authoritalirely  prohibit!  marriage. 
nil  table,  uMially  printed  at  the  eDd  of  Ihe  Anglican 
,  Pnnr-boDk,  ia  ordered  to  be  hung  up  in  a  yomi- 
nniplare  in  the  nave  of  eveiy  church  or  chapel,  by 
ite  aoibority  al  Tariooa  viaitatioD  article^  eapecial- 
I7  thar  of  arcfabiahop  Parker  in  1&6S,     See  Arrix- 

TABLE  or  (motablb)  FbASts,  a  list  of  movable 
lEKiTalf  prefixed  (o  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  for 
Ibt  guiliDc*  and  inilmclion  of  both  clergy  and  iaity. 

TABLE  or  Lvao^a.  A  tabular  arrangement  of 
Srri|>tare  leciiiHW  fur  matins  anil  eveiianng,  rlaily  ar- 
(lagallhnut-houtthej'ear.  Thu  Ulile  was  HrU  drawn 
tf  n  IU9,  altered  in  the  leviiuDd  of  1661,  and  again 


11870. 


TABLE  or  tmb 
awd  tD  dtiignate  1 
lim  ClHirch  (1  Col 


lioiai,  a  phra: 


n  the  Old  Test,  the  wonis 
lieen  applied  indifferently 
to  ibt  ume  thing  (Ezek.  xli,  3S).  Among  other  terms 
*Udi  have  been  used  lo  designate  the  Lord'*  table,  it 
i>  ubiioos  10  mention  the  word  "aliai"  at  having  ~ 
ID  tBpliiyed:  it  ii  a  tern,  howerer,  which,  thou_ 
■•y  eniy  be  borrowed  in  a  Agurative  sense  fVom  the 
HKifdt  Scriptures,  ia  neither  found  in  Ihe  New  Teat,  in 

<'kiiirh.  In  the  flnt  Prayer-book  of  king  Edward  TI, 
p>hlabcd  in  1M9.  which  may  be  considered  as  a  con- 
■enii^tlinkbelweentbe  Missal  and  mir  present  Prayer- 
balk,  the  word  "  alur"  occurs  in  the  Communion  Ser- 
•>»  at  least  three  limes:  hut  in  the  service  of  lf>&2  (the 
mam*  Pnyer-book  of  Edward  V[)  it  is  in  every  in- 
■mee  siraek  out  1  and  if  another  expreanon  is  used  in 
plan  al  a,  that  espreSNon  it  The  LonTi  Tablt.  Thii 
nmnnunce  in  the  more  worthy  of  remark,  becaust 
■lirnreT  in  the  older  of  these  books  the  phraae  "  God't 
BranT  was  adopted  aa  descriptive  at"  Ihe  Lord's  Table' 

TABLE  or  PBomiau.    See  Crkiience-tabls. 

TABLE  or  Skokts,  a  piece  of  paper  placed  at  th< 
fatsf  ibe  cms  on  the  altar,  and  containing  the  part  of 
Iki  inrviae  the  prieat  i>  to  say  while  turned  to  the  altar, 
«  ihat  be  need  not  turn  lo  look  on  his  book.  T' ' 
(itai  upon  (aslaboard  or  thin  woodi  and  richly  framed. 
-MiKBe,  A'acyc^  TUalagiqiu,  a.  v. 

TABLE  or  Shiw-b««AIi  (B«!Dn  •\n}>V,laNeo/tke 

/'«*,  !iB>Db.  fv,  7 ;  ng^^^n  inic,  laUr  if  ihi 

-UrTitfJITtii '"  '":  ~r&n^ribi^n,depare 

MUr,  Ler.  asir,  A(  ^  Cbimi.  xlii,  1 1 ;  Sept.  q  rpdiriSa 


I  TABLE 

'qc  wpsSiniut,),  one  of  the  pieces  of  furniture  in  th« 

Mosaic  Ubemacic  (Exod.  xxv,  23  sq. ;  xxxvij,  10  aq.), 

Solomon's  Temple  (I  Kings  Tii,48i  comp.  3  Chron, 

ix,  18),  in  its  restoration  by  Zerubbabel  {1  Mace  i, 

phiis,  IKur,  vii,5,6).  It  stood  in  the  outer  apartment 
or  h'lly  place,  on  the  right  hand  or  north  aide,  and  was 
of  acacia  (shiltim)  wood,  two  cubits  long,  one 
bruad,  and  one  and  a  half  high,  and  covered  with  lami- 
I  of  gold.  According  to  the  Hishna  (Mtnaeh.  xi,  fi), 
was  ten  handbreadths  long  and  Ave  wide ;  other  tra- 
ions  make  it  twelve  handbreadths  long  and  fix  wide. 
The  top  of  the  leaf  of  thia  taUe  was  encircled  by  a  bor- 
r  rim  05,  a  crown  or  wiwirt)  of  gold.  The  frame 
of  the  table,  immediately  below  the  leaf,  was  encircled 
with  I  piece  of  wood  of  about  four  inches  in  breadth, 
around  the  edge  of  which  was  a  rim  or  bonier  (n^tO^, 
a  nuii-gia)  similar  to  that  amund  the  leaf.  A  little  low- 
er dawn,  but  at  equal  distances  from  the  top  of  the  ta- 
ble, there  were  four  rings  of  gold  fattened  to  Ihe  lce^ 
through  which  atavc*  covered  with  gold  were  inserted 
forthe  pu  rpose  of  carrying  it  (Exod.  xxv,23-2g;xixvii, 
10-16).  The  deKriplion  of  Joaephus,  which  is  quite  mi- 
nttle,  varies  in  several  particulars  {A  al.  iii,  6,  S),  These 
rings  were  not  found  in  the  table  which  was  afterwards 
made  for  Uie  Temple,  nor  indeed  in  any  of  the  sacred 
furniture,  where  they  had  prerlnusly  been,  except  in  the 
ark  of  the  covenant.  Twelve  unleavened  loaves  were 
placed  upon  this  table,  which  were  sprinkled  with  frank- 
incense (the  Sept.  adds  salt;  Lev.  xxiv,7).  The  num- 
ber twelve  represented  the  twelve  tribes,  and  was  not 
diminished  after  the  defection  of  ten  of  the  tribes  from 
the  worship  of  God  in  hia  aanctuary,  because  the  cove- 
nant with  the  sons  of  Abraham  was  not  formally  abro- 
gated, and  because  there  were  still  many  true  Israelites 
among  the  apostaiUing  tribes.    The  twelve  loaves  were 

standing  tealimonial  that  their  proper  place  was  before 
the  forsaken  altar  of  Jehovsh  (see  Philo,  0pp.  ii,  151; 
Oem.  Alex.  Strom,  vi,  279). 

Wine  also  was  placed  upon  the  table  of  shew-bread  in 
bowls,  some  larger,  P'nsp,  and  some  smaller,  IT'IIB; 
also  ill  vessels  that  were  covered,  n'liSp,  and  in  cups, 
ni>|S9V,  which  were  probably  employed  in  pouring  in 
and  taking  out  the  wine  from  Ihe  other  vessels,  or  in 
making  libaliona.  Gcseniua  calls  them  "  pstrne  libato- 
ria;"  and  they  appear  in  Ihe  A.  V.  as  "spoons."  8ome 
of  them  were  perhaps  for  incense  (ni^Z^  ^=^13.  Mish- 
ns.l'onui.v,!).  See  generally  Kxo.l.xxv,!9,30i  xxxvil, 
10-16j  xl.4,a4i  Lev.xxiv,6-9;  NuraUiv,?. 

The  (ste  of  Ihe  original  table  of  shew-bread  is  un- 
known. It  was  probably  transferred  by  David  (If  it 
then  still  existed)  tn  his  temporary  sanctuary  on  Mt. 
Zioii,  and  thence  by  Salomon  to  his  sumptuous  Temple. 
With  the  other  articles  of  sacred  fumilure,  it  was  car- 
ried away  by  the  Babylonians,  and  possibly  in  like  man- 
ner restored  after  the  Captivity,  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
despoiled  the  second  Temple  of  this  as  welt  as  of  ita 
other  treasuiea  (1  Hacc  i,  S3),  and  hence  on  the  Bfao- 
cabsan  resiorstion  a  new  one  was  made  (iv,  49).  Ao- 
currting  to  Josephl1^  it  was  reconstructed  in  a  moat 
elaborate  and  cosily  manner  at  the  expense  of  Ptnlemir 
Philadelphus  (^Aai.  sii,  3,  9,  where  the  description  is 
very  detailed).  The  same  historian  again  describea 
more  briefly  Ihe  Hemdian  shew-bread  lable.which  wa* 
carried  away  by  the  Romana  ( War,  vii,  \  b),  and  waa 
depouted  by  Vespasian  in  his  newly  erected  Temple  of 
Peace  at  Roma  {Md.  vii,  S,  7),  where  it  survived  the 
burning  of  that  bnilding  under  Comnadus  (Herod ian,  i, 
14).  aiiil  In  the  middle  of  the  &th  century  was  taken  by 
the  Tondals  under  Genseric  lo  Africa  (Cedren.  t^om- 
pnj.  i,  340).  It  is  (siil  to  have  been  rescued  bv  Bcli- 
sarius  (A.D.  &30),  and  sont  to  ConsUatinople,  whence 
it  was  finaliy  remiiteil  10  ileruaalem  (Procopio8,rniirfaL 
zi,  9).    Tbe  only  authentic  ispnsenuiion  ot  this  In- 


tcreatiiiK  article  exltnt  ia  tbst  upon  the  arch  of  Titoi 
at  Rume  [>ee  Skew-bbrad],  which  wm  canfuUy  ilclin- 
olnl  unit  docribed  by  ReUnd  (De  SpoUit  Tanpli  [Fr. 
Ml  Kb.  ITIS],  c  S-9)  when  it  Keini  lo  hava  been  in 
abetwrauiuiofpraBervition  th«n«t  prewnt  See,geQ- 
enlly,  Schlichwr,  Dt  Maaa  Facitmm  (HiL  1738  -,  tUao 
inUgolino,  rftuaur.x);  VHtaat,  if imU.  SocT.\,a36\ 
Cnfzov,  Appar.Crit.p.^6;  fishr, ^ymioJ. d: nwi. ChJ- 
m,  i,43fi;  Friederich,  SsnAot.  d.  niii>.  SUftihvUe,  p.  ITO  ; 
Keil,  Tauptl  SaL  p.  109;  P»ine,  The  Tahemuelt  and  tht 
TmpU  (UoM.  1861),  p.  11;  Neumsiin,  Die  SliJUhmte, 
etc  (l^iiB.  1861).  p.  186;  RigKOiib«ch,  Die  moi.  SliJIt- 
kitte  (Biiwi.  IfWiT),  p.87 ;  SoUhu,  VfiwUofIhe  Tabena- 
dt  {Loud,  lB73),p.  17-28.  See  TAiiEBNACLEi  Thhi-lk. 
TAItLE  OP  SuccKuioK.  A  li>t  of  the  succeswr*  of 
St.  Peter  made  by  Euwbiui.  He  aclmdwletliced  that 
there  wu  great  difficulty  in  procuring  infonnation,  and 
bi>  account  appeals  (o  hai-e  been  cumpiled  chiefly  riom 
teporls  or  traditiona.  Of  bii  tidelity  he  hai  giren  pioof, 
by  leaving  vaouiciei  in  his  eonjcclural  list,  when  be  had 
no  JiRht  to  guide  him.  Tbeae  TBcanciea  were  aubae- 
quently  ailed  up  by  Nicephonu,CalliBtua,  and  Simon  the 
HetapbiaBC  (see  Elliott,  Dtltneation  o/Rtmaatm,  p.  438). 
See" 


Table -tumlnK.     See  Sfirituaush. 

Tablet  ia  the  inaccurate  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
two  Heb.  worda  deaignaling  some  kind  of  female  nmi- 
ment:  I.  ivn,  tumSx  (ao  called,  aoMrding  to  Geaen., 
from  (be siotuiar form;  but, according  to FUrat,  a  (octer 


orcUup;  Sept.  >fi)rX&nii  mi  iripif f Ei^  Volg.  (feif robi, 

xjcii,  60),  probably  dropt  hnog  like  beada  in  a  airing 
around  the  neck  or  arm,  aa  deacribed  bv  ancieol  au- 
tbora  on  Arabia  (Diod.  Sic  iii,  M,  £0;  Sirabo,  xTi,177). 
2.  EiCjri  -<n3,  bottef'  hcm-tK'phah,  kamet  of  tke  tout 
(Iia.iii,  20,  Sept.  farTv\iai,Valg.  <ilfacloriola),\.t.frr- 
fumt-iotlla  af  eaaencee  oi  smelling-aalta  kept  in  locieu 
»u^)ended  about  the  person.    See  OniiAHKXT. 

TABLKT,  Memoriai.  A  tablet  placed  on  tbc  Bom 
of  a  churcb  or  cloitter,  InMiibed  with  a  l(f[end  in  mem- 
ory of  aome  petann  deceaaed. 

TABLET,  MuitAU  A  Ubtet  an  which  an  inacriptioo 
has  been  placed,  affixed  ta  the  wall  of  a  church  ot  cloialer. 

Ta'bor  (Meb.  TaboT',  "lisri,  a  aunm^,  the  name 
of  ihree  apota  in  Palestine,  all  chiwly  related  to  each 
other,  if  not  indeed  actually  idenliciL  See  alao  Azkoth- 
Tabob;  Chisloth-Taboh. 

1.  Mount  Tabor  (Sept.  raiS^if,  [t.  t.  Ta^]. 
upof  Sa^vp,  Ga^p^  but  tA  'Ira^^ov  ID  Jer.  and 
Uowa.BDdin  Joeepbua[HHf.  T,&,S;  lfar,ip,l,l,elc], 
whDhaaalao'AmpfJiipiiiv.  asin  Folybiua,  v,T0,6;  Volg. 
TMabar),  a  mountain  pn,  Judg.  ir,  6, 1!,  14,  daewben 
without  ihiaepithrt,J(wh.xix,  22,  Judff.riii,  18;  Paa. 
Ixxxix,  12;  Jer.  xlvi,  18,  Hon.  r,  1),  one  of  the  moat 
interesting  and  remarkable  of  the  aingle  moonlaint  in 
Palestine,  ll  was  a  Rabbinic  saying  (and  shows  ihe 
Jewish  estimate  of  the  attractions  of  the  locality)  tbst 
the  Temple  ought  of  right  to  have  been  built  httr.  but 
was  required  by  an  express  rcrcUlioD  lo  be  erected  ua 
Mount  Moriah. 


gnuaorapringrnggnin.  Aithe; 
tn  contiguous  lo  each  other,  or 
inurrnixRl,  thew  pirti- colored 
plots  prearnt,  as  looked  down 
in  fmiD  aUivr,  an  appeinnce 


gaycl 


ml  >v 


MouDL  Tabor,  rrooi  Iba  Weat.    (Fni 

L  Damptiom.—tl.tiaat  Ttiiot  riara  abniptlir  from  the 
iunb-«ast*ni  ann  ot  the  plain  of  Esdraeloo,  and  staiida 
tiiiue]]r  inulated,  except  on  the  WMt,  where  a  nimw 
niln  nionKti  it  iriih  the  hilLa  of  Naurelh.  [t  pre- 
■nu  la  the  eye,  aa  seen  from  a  dlatance,  a  beautiful 

nvnded  off  liiie  a  hemiaphera  or  Lhe  aegnient  of  a  cii- 
rk,  jH  rarting  aomewhat  aa  viewed  fivm  different  di- 

■ol.  The  body  of  the  nxHinuin  coiiaiau  of  the  pecid- 
nliiKaiaoe  of  the  cuunuy.  It  ia  studded  vilh  a  com- 
[HlIiTelT  df  oae  furrat  of  uaki,  putacias,  and  other  tieei 
and  boahea,  with  the  eiieption  of  an  occa«onal  open- 

■u.   The  coTCrta  afford  at  preaent  a  shelter  for  wolvea, 

■ild  Inra,  Wniea,  aiid  Tarious  reptiles.     Its  height  ia 

t  1300  fact  frooi  the  base,  and  1866  from  the 

•,Laiido//lrait,p.iSi).    Ila  ancient 

Higgeated,  iudicaCo   its   elevation, 

rise  Biueh,  if  at  all,  above  some  of 

in  Iba  viclnitj.     It  ia  nuw  called 

Mrln-Tir,  a  name  which  aotnw  hare  Inn)  to  identify 

Mil 

Tiim 


}tuffrapb.) 
distant.  I 


li  li 


eitiht  miles  almoat  di 


aav ibe little  lillii^-e  uf  Debfliieb, probably  the  ancient 
Iliktnib  (Joali.  xix,  11),  though  it  can  be  made  with 
•atiie  eaae  in  mher  placca.  It  require*  three  quarters 
rf  an  hour  ur  an  hour  to  reach  the  top.     The  path  ia 

fmiit  it  dimcult  to  ride  the  rniire  way.  The  trees 
"i  bashes  are  geiNrally  so  thick  as  to  intercrpi  the 
tnafect;  but  now  and  then  the  traveller  as  he  ascends 
(■■•a  to  an  open  spot  which  reveals  to  him  a  magnif- 
lEBI  riew  of  itie  plain.  Que  of  the  moat  pleaaing  aa- 
fcu  of  (he  landacape.  aa  seen  from  such  poinla,  in  the 
^Bsa  of  the  early  harveai.  is  that  presented  in  the  di- 
"nitnl  apprannce  of  the  6elila.  The  different  pluta 
■'(iDBnd  exhibit  various  oolura,  according  to  the  state 
■*  (alLiratian  at  the  time.  Sonte  of  them  are  red, 
•kn  ibe  land  twa  been  newly  ploughed  up,  owing  to 
UiBaiuialpniiicHieaoftheaoUiolhcTBj'eUow  Of  white, 


ungularly  beautiful.  'I'ho  lop  of 
Tabor  coniiata  of  an  irregular  plat, 
form,  half  a  mile  long  by  three 
quartets  wide,  embracing  a  circuit 
of  half  an  liour'a  walk  and  com- 
manding wide  views  of  the  sub- 
Jaeeut  plain  from  end  lo  end.  A 
copious  dew  falla  here  during  the 
warm  montba.  Travellers  who 
have  spent  the  night  there  have 
found  thdr  tents  as  wet  in  the 
morning  as  if  they  had  been 
drenched  with  rain. 

It  ia  the  nntveraal  judgment 

I  of  those  who  have  stood  on  the 

!    spot,  that  lhe   panoram*  spread 

'lem  as  they  look  from 

idudea  aa  great  a  variety 

I    of  objects  of  natural  beauty  and 

any  ona  lo  be  aeen  from  anv  poai- 
tjon  in  the  Holy  Land.  On  the 
east  the  waten  of  the  Sea  of  Ti- 
berias, not  leas  than  fiReen  miles 
igh  the  cleat  Blmospbere 
tbeyrapoae  BO  quietly.  Though 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  snifaoe  of  the  lake  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  entire  outline  of  its  basin  can  be  traced 
on  every  side.  In  the  same  direction  the  eye  follows  the 
course  of  the  Jordan  for  many  miles,  while  still  hither 
east  It  rests  upon  a  boundless  perspective  of  hills  and  ral- 
levB,  embracing  Ibe  modem  Haui4n,  and  farther  south 
the  mountains  t>f  the  ancient  Gilead  and  Bashan.  The 
dark  line  which  akirta  the  horizon  on  the  west  ia  the 
Mediterranean;  the  rich  plains  of  Galilee  till  up  the  in- 
lermediale  apace  aa  far  as  the  fool  of  Tabor.  The  ridge 
ofCarmel  lifts  its  head  in  the  north-west,  though  the  por- 
tion which  liea  directly  on  theaeaisnot  distinctly  risible. 
On  the  north  andiiorth-eaatwe  behold  the  last  ranges  of 
Lebanon  astbey  rise  into  thehilla  about  Safed,  overtop- 
ped in  the  rear  by  the  Bnow-cap|>e<l  Hennon,  and  still 
nearer  to  us  the  Momsof  Hattln,  the  reputed  Mount  of 
the  Beatitude*.  On  the  south  are  seen,  drat  tbeaammila 
of  Gilboa,  which  David'a  touching  elegy  on  Saul  and 
Jonathan  has  tlxeil  forever  in  the  memory  of  mankind, 
and  farther  onward  a  confused  view  of  the  maunt«ina 
end  valleys  which  occupy  the  central  part  of  Paleatine. 
Over  the  heads  of  Dhhy  and  Gilboa  the  apeclator  looka 
into  the  valley  of  lhe  Jordan  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Beisan  (itself  nut  within  sight),  the  ancient  Bethshean, 
on  whose  wall*  the  Pbiiistines  bung  up  the  hesdlesi 
tmnk  of  Saul,  after  their  victory  over  IsraeL  Looking 
acroaa  a  branch  nf  the  pUinofEsdraelon.we  behold  En- 
dor,  the  abode  of  the  aorceresswhom  the  king  consulted 
on  the  night  before  hia  fatal  battle.  Another  little  vil- 
lage clings  tu  the  hill-aide  of  another  ridge,  on  which 
we  gaze  with  still  deeper  interest.  It  is  Nain,  the  vil- 
bige  of  that  name  in  the  New  Teat.,  where  the  Saviour 
touched  the  bier  and  restored  to  life  the  widow's  son. 
r  must  have  often  paased  at  the  foot  of  this 
e  course  orbisjounteya  in  different  parts  of 
ia  not  surprising  that  the  Hebrews  loakol 
I  uch  admiration  to  this  glorious  work  of  the 
nd.  The  same  beauty  rests  upon  its  brow 
lo-ilay,  the  same  richness  nf  verdure  refrcsha  the  eye, 
'laid  aspect  of  so  manv  of  the 
The  Christian  traveller  yields 
spunlaneously  to  the  impretNon  of  wcndci  and  devo- 


D  the  Unguago  Of  tha 


Thi  narib  sud  l)ie  aoDlb  Ihcmbut  cnatad  themi 
Tibot  aud  Hsriuiiu  stiBll  r^oice  Id  thj  mine." 

2.  l/ittoTy. — TiboT  ia  not  exprenly  mentioocd  in  the 
New  Teiit.,  bui  makH  a  proinineat  flgure  in  the  Old. 
The  book  of  Joshui  {xix,  22)  uimea  it  a*  the  buundw 
beloeen  iHachu  and  Zebulon  (gee  ver.  12).  Barak,  at 
the  corDinind  of  Deborab,  Mwmhied  bia  furcea  on  Ta- 
bor, and,  on  the  arrival  or  the  opponune  momcni,  de- 
BMndul  thence  with  "ten  thonaand  men  afi*r  him"  into 
the  plain,  and  conqoered  Siaen  on  the  hank*  of  the 
Kiihnn  (Judg.  iv,  6-15),  The  brnthen  of  Uideon,uch 
orvhaiD  "retembled  the  children  o{ti  kinfc,"  were  mm- 
dered  here  by  Zebah  and  ZaimuDna  (riii,  18, 19).  Some 
writera,  aflet  Henlcr  and  others,  think  that  Tabor  ii  in- 
tended when  it  iiaaid  or  lasaehar  and  Zebulon  in  Deuu 
xxxiii,  19,  that  "Ibey  shall  call  the  people  unto  Iht 
moinaaia  i  there  they  ahall  offer  aacriScea  of  righleoui- 
neo."  Stanley.whohoidi  thi>  view  {Sntai  n«d  Pairi- 
(BK,  p.  851),  remai**  ihot  he  woa  (track  with  the  as- 
pect or  the  opta  gLidea  on  the  aummic  aa  ajicci ally  fitted 
Tor  the  convocation  orTealive  aaacmbHeit,  and  cuuld  well 
believe  that  in  some  reOiole  age  it  may  have  been  a 
aonctiuiy  o(  the  northern  tribes,  if  nut  of  the  wliole  na' 
tkm.  The  prophet  in  Hoo.  v,  1  reproaches  the  priests 
■nd  royal  Tamily  with  having  "been  a  anare  on  Mizpah 
and  a  net  spread  upon  Tabnr."  lite  charge  against 
tbem  probably  is  that  they  had  set  up  idols  and  prac- 
ticed heathenish  rites  on  the  high  placca  which  were 
uaually  aelecled  fur  such  worship.  The  compariaon  in 
Jer.  xlvi,  18,  "As  Tabor  is  among  the  mountains  and 
Camicl  by  the  aeo,"  imporla  apparently  that  those 
heights  were  proverbial  for  their  conspicnoueneaa,  beau- 
ty, and  strength. 

After  the  clnae  of  Old-Teat,  blitary,  Tabof  eontinned 
to  be  a  strong  fortress.  In  the  year  RC.  2IR,  Antiochus 
the  Great  got  posseaaion  of  it  by  itrat^^m  and  strength- 
ened its  fortifications.  The  town  existed  on  the  sum- 
mit in  New-Test,  times,  but  the  defencea  had  fallen  into 
decay,  and  Josephus  caused  tbem  to  be  rebuilt  {War, 
iv,  I,  8>. 

8.  FratMl  Condi/ion.— T)t.  Robinson  (£iU  Rra.  ii,  368) 
bai  thus  described  tbe  niiiis  which  are  to  tie  seen  at  pres- 
ent on  the  aummit  ofTsbor:  "All  around  the  top  are 
[he  foundations  of  a  thick  wall  built  of  lar^  stonee, 
some  of  which  are  bevelled,  showing  that  the  entire 
wall  was  perhaps  originally  of  that  character.  In  sev- 
eral parts  are  the  remains  oT  towers  and  bastions.  The 
chief  remains  are  upon  the  ledge  of  rocks  on  the  south 
of  the  little  basin,  aud  especially  towanJa  its  eaalem 
end;  here  are,  in  indiscriminate  confuuon,  walls  and 
arches  and  foundations,  apparently  of  i 


large  bevelled  ati 


!B  of  a  fort  I 


leof 


is  still  siandinc.  and  lieara  the  name  of  UAb  el-llawa, 
<  Gate  of  the  Wind.'  Connected  with  it  are  loophole*, 
and  othen  are  seen  near  by.  These  latter  foniAcatioDS 
belong  to  the  tera  of  the  Crusades ;  hut  the  large  bevel- 
led stones  we  refer  to  a  style  of  architecture  not  later 
than  the  times  of  the  Unmans,  before  which  period,  in- 
deed, a  town  and  furtress  already  existed  on  Mount  Ta- 
bor. In  the  days  of  the  Crusaders,  loo,  and  earlier,  there 
were  here  churches  and  monasteries.  The  summit  has 
many  cisterns,  now  mosllv  drv."  Tlie  same  writer  found 
the  Ihermomeier  here.  10  A.M.  (June  IN),  at  98°  Fabr., 
■t  sunrise  at  <i4^  and  at  sunset  at  74°.  The  Latin 
Christians  have  now  an  altar  here,  at  which  their 
priesis  from  Nniaretb  perform  on  annual  mans.  The 
Greeks  also  have  a  chapel,  where,  on  certain  festivals, 
they  assemble  fur  the  celebration  of  religious  riles. 
SUnlej,  in  hta  Xolicri  n/ Locaiilia  KuifaJ  vUA  'Ae 


6  TABOR 

PruKK  o/  Waltt,  remarks,  "  The  fortreaa,  of  wUcb  (be 
ruin*  crown  the  summit,  hod  evidently  four  galewaye. 
like  those  by  which  the  great  Roman  camps  of  oar  own 
country  were  entered.  By  one  of  these  gateways  toy 
attention  was  called  to  an  Arabic  inscription,  said  to  be 
the  only  one  on  the  mountain."  It  records  the  bnilil- 
ing  or  rebuilding  of  "  this  blesard  fortresa"  by  the  order 
of  the  sultan  Ahu-Bekr  on  bis  return  from  the  Kasi 
A.U,  607.  Ill  I8T3  the  monks  began  the 
ofaconvent  on  the  noith-east  brow  oflbei 

4.  Traditumat  /ntpor/aHCf.  — In  the  monastic  ages, 
Tabor,  in  consequence  partly  of  a  belief  that  it  waa  the 
scene  of  the  Saviour's  transfiguration,  was  crowded  with 
henuits.  It  was  one  of  tbe  shrines  from  the  earliest 
period  which  pilgrims  to  tbe  Holy  Land  regarded  a* 
a  sacred  duty  tti  honor  with  their  presence  and  theii 
prayers.  Jerome,  in  his  Kvttrary  of  Panda,  writs, 
"Scandebat  nuntem  Thobor,  in  quo  transfignralus  cat 
Dominus;  ospiciebat  procul  Hermon  et  Hensotiim  <t 
campos  latiiHmos  Galihes:  (Jesreel),  in  quibus  Sisua 
prostratus  esL  Torrens  Ciion  qui  mediam  plonittem 
dividebat,  et  oppidum  jnita,  Kaim,  monstrabanlur.' 
This  idea  that  our  Saviour  was  transfigured  on  Tabor 
prevailed  extensively  among  the  eariy  Christians  (see 
Robinson,  B3A.  Ra.  ii,  S58  sq.),  who  adopted  legends  of 
this  nature,  and  often  reappears  Mill  in  popular  religious 
works.  If  one  might  choose  a  place  which  he  would 
deem  peculiarly  fitting  for  ao  sublime  a  trsmsaction, 
there  ia  certainly  none  which  would  so  entirely  satisfy 
our  feelings  in  this  respect  as  the  lofty,  majestic,  beauti- 
ful Tahor.    It  has  been  thought  difficult,  however,  to 

mit  of  Tabor  appears  to  have  been  occupied  by  a  town 
as  earlv  as  the  lime  when  the  Israelitea  took  poeamioii 
of  the  couairy  (Josh,  xix,  32).  Indeed,  such  a  strong 
position  would  scarcely  be  left  unoccupied  in  ibose 
stormy  times  of  Syria's  history.  Accord!  nglv,  as  above 
seen,  it  is  susceptible  of  proof  Irom  the  Old  Teat.,  and 
from  later  history,  that  a  fortresa  or  town  esisletl  on 
Tabor  from  very  early  times  down  lo  RC.  50  at  bS: 
and,  as  Josephus  says  that  he  strengthened  the  fonifia- 
tions  of  a  city  there,  about  A.D.  fiO,  it  ia  certain  that 
Tabor  muat  have  been  inhabited  during  the  interrening 
period,  that  is,  in  the  days  of  Christ  (comp.  Polvhius,  v, 
70,6^  Jnsephus,.1at.xiv,6,a;  ITar,  ii.EO,  l;'iv.  1,8; 
Lift,  §  87).  But  as  in  the  account  of  the  transfigura- 
tion It  is  said  that  Jesus  took  his  disciple*  "  op  into  a 
high  mountain  apart  and  was  transfigured  before  them" 
(Matt,  ivii,  1,  2),  we  must  understand  that  he  brought 

alone  by  themselvea  [tar  iiiav).  Yet  it  is  not  proba- 
ble that  the  whole  mountain  was  occupied  by  edifices, 
and  it  is  quite  posnble  that  a  solitary  spot  might  have 
been  (bund  amid  its  groves,  where  the  scene  eould  have 
taken  place  unobserved.  The  event  has,  indeed,  been 
referred  by  many  to  Mount  Ilermon,  on  the  gnmnd 
that  our  Lord's  miracle  immediately  preceding  waa  at 
Cwsarea-I'hilippi;  but  the  interval  of  a  whole  week 
("six  davB,"Hatt.  xvii,  I,  Mark  ix,  2,  "eight  davs," 
Luke  ix,  28)  decidedly  favors  the  idea  of  a  conaideriiUe 
journey  in  the  interval.    See  TfuManauHATion. 

Some  Church  traditiora  have  given  also  to  Tahor  the 
honor  of  being  Hdchixedek's  hill,  from  which  be  came 
forth  to  greet  Abraham,  so  that  here  is  another  king's 
dale,  rivalling  that  at  Geriiim,  if  tradition  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed. The  whole  legend  will  be  found  at  fuU  lenmh 
in  Athanauus  (0pp.  ii,  7  [Colon.  I6e«]).  That  fatber 
tells  us  that  Salem,  the  mother  of  Helchiaedek,  ordered 
him  to  go  to  Tabor.  He  went,  and  remained  seven 
years  in  the  wood  lutked,  till  bis  back  became  like  a 
snail's  shell. 

1'he  mountain  haa  been  visited  and  described  b}-  mul- 
titudes of  travellers,  especially  (in  addition  to  those 
named  above)  Bussegger  (Ani.  iii,  258),  Uosaehfuist 
(  Vosogr,  p.  IT9),  Volney  (  Voyagr,  ii,  27i),  Schuben 
{Morgeul.  iii,  17S),  Burckhardt  {Syria,  p.  882),  Stephens 
{Ti-artU,  ii,  SI7),  Nugent  [lord]  (Zjutdt,  etc,  it,  I9B); 


TABORITES 


157        TABULA  EUCHARISTI^ 


m  ilB  BcUnd.  Palat.  p.  S84;  Haekett,  lilalr.  of 
^irript.  p.  301 ;  Tboniaon,  Land  and  Book,a,  136;  Pdi- 
ur.  Hitrndb.  p.  401 ;  BKdekec,  Ft^f^.  p.  864 ;  Ridgawij', 
I    TUlortt  Laud,  ^  Sir. 

2.  The  Plain  (  or  rather  Oak  )  of  Tabor  ( ',i^K 
var;  Sept  ii  epBc  Qa&iip;  Vulg.  Quemt  Thabor) 


A  only  ii 
ibt  liooitntni  journey  uf  Saul  afler  hia 

-KKhd's  wpulchre  it  Zelub.-     But, 
ILtc  90  muiy  of  the  other  apou  iiani«il  ir 


inointing  ly 
oumey  sfler 
nfortunitely, 


e,lhe  p 


k  of  Tib 


>«t  tnn  SxeJ.    See  SaI'I.    EwdJ  h 

It  nituo  (^nnu)  that  Tabor  *nd  Debunb  are  mer 

KSHitiDirly  klentiSt*  the  oak  of  Tabor  with  the  t 
onbc  irbicb  Dvtiorah,  Rachel's  iiurae,  was  buried 
Ilka.  HIT,  8).  and  that  again  wiih  the  palm  un- 
to which  Dcboiah  the  prophetcua  delivered  her 
ondo  (Gar*,  i,  390;  ii,4S!)!  iiL  29),  and  this 
■;iin  with  the  Oak  of  the  old  Prophet  near  Beth- 
<l  iHiil.  iii,  444).  But  thia,  though  moat  jngen- 
uis  can  only  be  reccired  aa  a  conjecture,  and  the 
pgsLkiD  on  which  il  would  land  ua — "between 
£uiuh  and  Bethel'  (Judg.  Iv,  6)_U  loo  Tar  from 
itcMt  lepulchre  l«  fall  in  with  the  conditiona 
•i'iit  nartalire  of  Saul'a  joumey,  H  biif;  aa  we 
'  '1  that  to  he   ll>e  tradilional  acpulchre  n 


We 


I  only  A. 


t  lav 


ween  Betblebem  and  Bethel,  but 
•hr  it  received  the  epithet  ■■  Taboc"  it  ia  impomble 
dinver.  Vet  we  lee  from  the  namea  Cbialotb-Tabot 
■mi  Ai3wth-Tabu(  that  the  mnuntain  gave  aifjuiicC  ti- 
da  u  [ilacn  at  a  conaidctahle  dlttance.  See  Zelzaii. 
3.  The  CiTX  or  Tabor  (Sept.  eo|3up  v,  r.  Baxx'^  > 
Vul;.  TkiAar)  U  mentioned  in  (he  liMa  of  1  Cbroiu  vi 
■Sicily  of  the  Meracite  Lerites,  in  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lug  [veT.77J.  ThecatatoKueofLeviLicalcilieain  Joab. 
uidoa  nai  contain  anv  name  anawering  to  thiB(comp. 
>«.  H,  3^;.  But  the  Ust  of  the  towna  of  Zebulun  (ch. 
miMotaiiB  the  name  of  Chisiotii-Tabor  (ver.  12), 
ti  a  iLecefoie  ptHaible  either  that  thiii ' 


.r(wl 


TaboiUoa,  a  aeciinn  nf  the  Huaaires,  the  other  be- 
mc  known  aa  the  Caljxtlnea.  The  Tabnritea  were  lo 
oUbI  fiwD  the  fortified  ciry  of  Tabor,  ended  on  a 
■Duamiin,  in  th«  circle  of  Ilechin,  in  Bohemia,  which 
bkl  beea  cniuecrated  by  the  field-preaching  of  Hun. 
The  ;«ntle  and  pious  mind  of  that  martyr  never  could 
Ian  anticipated,  far  leaa  approved,  the  tei 


le  eletpy,  in  one  o 


I  tho  e 
pnvr,  the  aspire,  and 
linKirBl  ami  bloody  wi 
wmna  md  tbeir  vengeance  after  the  death  of  king 
Vraetaliaa,  Aug.  16,  1419,  by  the  deettuction  of  the 

(ntai  and  monka  were  murdered.  John  Ziaka,  a  Bo- 
hemin  knigbt,  fonneil  a  numeniua,  well-moanted,  and 
*««riU»ed  anny,whlch  built  Tabor.aa  above  deacribed, 
ml  nadrred  it  an  iinprejiiiable  depot  and  place  of  de- 
(we.  He  waa  called  Zitka  of  At  Cup,  becauae  one 
mat  pHRt  foe  which  the  lluaaites  contended  wa«  the 
Mof  ibe  cup  bv  the  laiiv  in  (he  aaerament  At  hi> 
•tnlh,  in  14»l.  the  immc^  maaa  of  people  whom  be 
l*i  mUected  fell  to  |iieces;  but  under  Procopiua.  who 
■cHcded  Ziaka  aa  general,  the  lIiiKitea  again  rallied, 

in  1 427  and  1431.  After  thia,  aa  all  partiea  were  de- 
<<><ai  of  coming  uj  (eraiB  of  peacf,  the  Council  of  Batle 

•van  broke  out  in  14S4,wben  the  Taborittt  guned  a 
laaplcte  Tictory.  Owing,  however,  to  the  treachery 
'      '  liad  aided  in  aaoending  the 


throne,  they  were  much  weakened :  and  from  thia  time 
they  abstained  from  warfare,  and  maintained  their  dia- 
putea  with  the  Catholica  only  in  the  deliberationa  of 
the  diet  and  in  theoli^cal  controveTsial  writings,  by 
tneana  uf  which  their  creed  acquired  a  purity  and  com- 
pleteneu  that  made  it  aimilar  in  many  reapects  lo  the 
Protestant  confeaainna  of  the  IGtb  century.  Encroach* 
menta  were  gradually  made  on  Ihett  religiaua  freedotn, 
and  they  continued  lu  auffer  until  they  gradually  merged 
into  the  BoiiiuiiAK  Bhrtuioui  (q,  v.).  See  Bezeiyna, 
in  Ludwig,  miq.  MSS.  vi,  142,  186;  £neaa  Sylriua, 
Hilt.  Bohtm.  epist.  180. 

TabT«t  (a  contraeUon  of  labortl,  for  »  Uboring"  [see 
Tabeb])  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V,  of  the  two  kiti- 
dred  words  E|P1,  liph  (Gen.  xxxi,  27;  1  Sam.  s,  6; 
.  S;  Iss.  V,  IS;  xxiv,  8;  xxx,  82;  Jer.  xxxi,  4l 


Hadem  Oriental  iDStromenls  of  the  Drum  kind. 

Euk.  xxviii,  IS;  elsewhere  "timbrel")  and  ncn,  Ii- 
ph^h  (Job  xvii,  6),  which  both  mean  a  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  drum  kind  (from  :;tP,  fo  bral).  This  sort 
of  music  has  alwaya  been  in  great  request,  both  in  clas- 
aical  and  sacred  scenes,  especially  un  festive  occasions. 
See  Ml'bical  Instritments.  Eapecially  has  that  form 
of  the  drum  known  aa  the  tanAaurint  been  in  vogue, 
particularly  for  female  performers.    See  Tihbrei. 


Tambootine  Players  (from  HeRulanenm). 

Tab'timon  (Heb.  Tabrimmeit',  l^nSD,  ^ooil  U 
Kimmoa ;  Sept.  Ta^ipi/ia  V,  r.  TaPivpnifpa ;  Volg.  Ta- 
Arcmoii),  the  father  of  Benhadad  I,  king  of  Svria  in 
the  leign  of  Asa  (I  Kinga  iv,  18).  B.C  ante  928, 
The  name  ia  in  honor  of  the  Syrian  god  (comp.  the 
analogous  forms  Tobiel,  Tubiah,  and  (he  Phienician 
Tabaram   [Geneniua,  Uon.  Fhan.  p.  466]).     See  Bm- 


Tabfila  D«i,  a  Latin  term  for  the  Tablx  or 
Lord  (q.  v.). 
Tabflla  Bncluulatln,  the  Christian  altar. 


TADULA  PACIS 


Tabfila  Fa- 
cia {labUl  of 
pracf),B[erni«|i- 
plied  lo  tfae  Oacii- 
i^TomD«(q.v.), 
.»  orn.n.«.l  by 
which  the  kiss  of 


L    \ 


Tacbaah.     S«e  BAnaiit. 

Tacbe  (D*^pi  iint;  Sept.  i^rot;  Valg.  ni'eujtif, 
jihiiu).  The  word  thin  rendered  occura  only  in  (lie 
description  of  tlic  slmctare  oT  the  t*bemacle  uid  it 
flttingi  (Exod.  xxvi,  6,11,  38j  xixv.ll;  xxxvi,  18 
xxxlx,  89),  and  has  usiiully  been  thought  lo  indicati 
the  small  hooks  by  whii  ^  ^  curtain  is  suspended  lo  (hi 
rings  whereon  it  hangs,  clV  coi  rted  vertically,  as  ii 
the  caw  of  the  vail  of  the  1.  y  of  llolieg,  with  thi 
loops  of  another  curUin.  The  hiitori-  of  the  Engliil 
word  ia  philolagically  internting,  u  preteiiting  paints 
of  contact  with  many  different  languages.  The  (iaeli 
and  Brelou  bnachea  of  the  Celtic  family  give  lar.rt 
ladi,  in  the  Knsc  of  ■  nai]  or  hook.  The  bller  mean 
JDg  appears  in  the  urfacfarTiafuccatv,  of  Italian;  in  the 
aUacher,  detacher,  of  French.  On  the  other  hai 
the  tat  of  Dutch,  and  the  2af*e  of  Oenoan,  we  h 
word  of  like  sound  and  kindred  meaning.  Our  Angto- 
SazonfaccanandEnglishlab(lOBeizeaBwilhB  h(  '  "' 
are  probably  connected  with  it.  In  later  use  the  woni 
baa  alightty  altered  both  its  fonn  and  meaning,  and 
laeh  is  no  longer  a  book,  but  a  anall  flat-headed  i 
(comp.  Diei,  Roman.  Worltrb.  a.  v.  "Tacco"). 

The  philological  relations  of  the  Hebrew  word 
likeMise  interesting.  It  comes  from  the  obscure  i 
D^p,  karat,  which  occurs  only  in  laa.  xlvi,  I  ("  stoop- 
cth,"  Sept.  mviTpi^ ;  Tulg.  coMrilua  tt()  as  ■  : 
nym  of  7^S  ('■  boweth  down")  in  the  parallel  hemi 
and  is  therefore  understood  by  Oeseniua  and  FurM  t 
nify(o6t™^ofbyMUhliintoi«ro™d(iilieinjj).  The 
only  derivatives,  beaides  the  proper  name  Kirot  (OTip, 
Neh.  vii,  47)  or  Keroi  (o'lp,  Ezra  ii, «),  are  t  he  term  in 
qneation  and  ^Vy^,  larM,  the  onUs  (occurring  only  in 
the  dual,  "  feet," 


Aa  the  Icwpa  are  explicitly  stated  to  have  been  in  the 
trttage  of  the  curtains,  the  "taches,"  if  meant  as  hooka 
to  join  them  edgewise,  would  present  the  appearance  in 
■he  annexed  cut,  which  ia  autiMantiallT  the  representa- 
tion of  those  interpieten  who  have  adopted  this  idea. 
Now,  to  say  nothing  far  the  present  of  the  gap  thus  left 
in  the  roof,  we  lind  that  these  "  laches,"  being  exactly 
fifty  for  each  set  of  "curtaini,' bear  no  special  numeri- 
cal relation  (o  the  general  aize  nf  the  cuitains  them- 
Mlvea,  the  edgea  so  Joined  being  in  one  case  thirty  and 
in  the  other  twenty-eight  cubits  long;  whereas  all  the 
Other  numbers  and  dimensions  about  (he  building  have 
defini(e  propnrtiona  lo  each  other.  Nor,  if  the  sixth  or 
extra  breadth  of  the  goata'-hair  cloth  was  sewed  in  the 
ordinary  way  like  the  other  Ave,  can  we  divine  any 
good  reaion  for  resorting  to  this  singular  method  of 
joining  the  remaining  selvages. 


'  TheTalwrU-icli 


TACHMONITE 

There  are  oihn  and  slill  graver 
difficulties  in  (he  ordinary  plan 

.  -_-J  immediately  be  nvealed  In 
the  actual  auempt  at  reconstruc- 
tion, and  will  be  anticipated  by 
any  one  familial  with  lent  archi- 

(a.)  The  "vail"  hung  exacfly 
uniler  (he  "  tachea"  (Exod.  xmi, 
83).  Due  aa  the  colored  sheets 
(which  of  course  must  have  been 


bits  wide  and  twenty-eight  ei 

long.if  they  were  spread  Ihns  I 

bined  over  the  ridge-pole,  the  su(-     the    "loiips"   »nd 

ure- between   Ihem    whieh   thrse     '■'"rhef,"  accrndliic 

ure  Mt«Mn  them   whicti  these    ,^  R,np,„b,ci,  ,„d 

hooks"  formed  could  in  no  case  FerEDMon. 
have  well  tallied  with  this  posi- 
tion :  had  rhey  been  slratched  lengthwise  of  (he  building 
(as  their  close  cnrrcapondence  in  length  would  indicaicj, 
the  joint  alsn  would  liarebeen  intbesamedJrFcltan,Lr. 
at  right  an^es  with  the  line  of  ihe  vail ;  if  croHwiaeof 
the  building  (aa  Iwlh  Riggenhach  and  Fergnason  anp- 
poH'},  then  the  line  of  (he  suture  and  that  of  the  "rail' 
cotdd  nnly  have  coincided  on  the  suppoaition  that  the 
enlirr  extra  ten  cubits' breadth  of  the  embroidered  ^cur. 
tains"  was  thrown  outside  (he  rear  of  (he  edifice,  where 
it  would  be  utterly  uaeleat  and  exposed  to  tfae  weaifa- 
er.  Nor  could  the  requirementsof  the  text  cited  be  iDft 
by  using  these  colored  sheets  singly  in  this  manner;  not 
longitudinally  for  the  same  reason  as  before ;  not  trans- 
veraely,  for  then  their  breadth  would  not  cover  both  the 


bined  by 


ble:  placed  longiiudinally  on  the  ridge  (as  their  lenjclb 
would  emphatically  indicate  by  this  aecond  repetirion 
of  the  Ihirly  cubits),  they  would  certainly  leak  inl<4rr- 
the  Jiiini,  unless  this  were  brought  exactly  at 

,  eveu  ID  the 


e  odd  n 


this  set  (II)  preventsi  placed  tn 
most  favorable  manner  (Fergua 
joints"  with  (he  su(ure  in  the  sheets  under  them.  Ihrj 
must  (as  B  corollary  from  the  above  combination  of  the 
latter)  hare  had  their  extra  width  (fourteen  cubits] 
project  wholly  beyond  (he  r»ir  of  the  building!.  Icaviii); 
nothing  for  ■  "  porch"  (which  Fergussan  imagines). 
(r.)  In  any  ease  it  would  have  been  a  bad  artangiN 

come  exactly  over  so  cboice  a  piece  of  drapery  aa  the 
"  vail"  was ;  for  some  drip  must  hare  been  apprehemtrd. 
01  an  embroidered  lining  (a  delicate  article  with  which 
to  slop  a  leak)  would  not  have  been  provided — to  sav 
nothing  of  Fergusson's  idea  that  the  sheep-skin  aod  fur 
robes  may  have  been  for  the  purpose  of  covering  ihp 
joint  [  In  short,  the  bare  fact  of  leaving  siu^h  a  oark 
in  the  nxif  would  have  been  an  irremediable  blunder. 
which  it  is  strange  that  a  professional  architect  shoulil 
make.     On  Riggenhach's  theorv*  of  a  fiat  roof,  aU  the 

directly  upon  (he  vaiL  Jehovah  planned  better  th«n 
"     ve  may  be  sure.    See  Tai 


TaclunaB.     See  Nioht-kaivk. 
Taota'monlt*  (Heb.  [without  the  art.]  T'acAiv- 
am'.  ^:^3nn ;  Sepu  u  \avavaia^  v.  r.  uiuc  Ghi^o- 
vij  Viilg.  iiipifiUutmvM).    "The  Taehmonite  that  mi 
aeal,"  chief  among  David's  captains  (3  Sam.  xztii, 
in  1  Chron.  xi,  11  called  "Jashobeam  a  Hacfaino- 
or,  as  Ihe  margin  gives  it,  "aon  of  Hachmoni." 
;eneva  version  has  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,e,  "He  that 
iheeeale  of  wisedome,  being  chiefeot the  prince*, 
dinoof  Ezni,"  regarding  "Taehmonite"  aa  an  ad- 
jective derived  from  Q:n, cAuitJin,  "wise,"  and  in  ihia 
following  Kimchi.     Kennicoti  has  shoim. 


TACKLING  ]l 

nth  DDtt  appearance  o(  probibilitjr,  that  Ibe  worda 
rati  3S^,  joiiib  baiktkibtlli,  "  he  that  ut  in  the 
KK*  ut  a  Eomption  of  Jaiinieam,  [he  Uue  name  of 
Ihi  kou,  and  thai  the  miatake  arow  ftom  aa  emi  of 
lif  innaoiber,  nbo  carcksal)'  ioaened  riSGS  from  the 
pnriiKi  vtrae  where  it  occun.  He  TunbeT  conaiden 
■'TichDxiiii''  a  cnmptioD  of  the  appclUtion  in  Chioni- 
de^  ''Hii  at  llachmoni,"  which  waa  the  family  or  local 
SUM  of  Juhobeam.  "  The  name  hen  in  Samuel  waa 
Willi  ^^asnn,  the  article  H  at  the  beginning  having 
bncotnipted  iulo  ■  H;  fotthe  void  "{3  in  Chroniclea 
it  ngalMjiy  lupidied  in  Samuel  by  thai  article"  (Dutoi. 
f.>a\  liKn:fbrelMC(n>dadea''JaahobeainIh«Hach- 
nniie' IB  bare  been  the  Hue  muliDg.  Joaepbni  (.4*(, 
iii.ll.  4)  calb  him  'turaafutt  oiAc  'KxtfLaiov,  which 
kna  KennicMt'a  ementbljon.  In  theaa  eomctl<»ia 
Id]  (fiammna.  ad  loc) 


Tackling  ia  the  rendering  In  the  A.  T.  of  eav7\, 
wUcb  ocean  naXj  in  Acta  ixvii,  19,  meaning  the  apara, 
n^  tbaioa,  etc.,  of  a  vesd'a  furnitur?  (aa  in  Diod. 
!.i(L  lir,  79;  to  of  booaehold  morablm.  \\Ajb.  W,  6,  6; 
n^pige^  Xenoph.  Amib.  ir,  7,  77;  HenrJian,  vi,  4,  II; 
vi^kt  ipparatoa,  Diod.Sc.  iu,71}.    See  Smif. 

Tacqaet,  Asdhkv,  a  Jeiuii  of  Antwerp,  linawn  for 
hb  ikill  in  the  mathenutiol  aciencea,  died  in  1660. 
Ht  fnUiabed,  among  other  thinga,  a  good  treatiae  on 
mamnj,  an  edition  of  Euclid,  eu.  The  pnjudicea 
oflbeliaH*  aeero  to  have  prevented  him  from  more  ef- 
IMiallj  defending  the  avatem  of  Copeniicaa.  Hii  col- 
iKUd  voiki  went  published  at  Antwerp  (1669,  1707, 
U). 

Tad'mor  (HcIl  Tadnor',  ^t/Vn,  prob.  atj  of 
fohi  [aee  below]] ;  Sept.  Oit/iifi  r,  t.  BotSfiop ;  Vu^ 
PtlMtia), »  aXf  "in  the  wildemeaa''  which  Solomon  ii 
iiiillabavebnilt  (1  Chroikviii,  4).  In  the  nearij  por- 
>Utlpaaage(l  King!  in,  18),  where  the  phiaae  "  in  the 
hnT  it  added  to  the  deaeriplion,  indicating  that  thia, 
ike  the  awciateil  ciiiea,  wai  within  Salamon'a  legiti- 
B<u  juriodiction,  the  reading  "Tidmoi"  ia  adopted  in 
ib(  A.T.  rrom  the  A'cri,  or  margin ;  the  KellUb,  or  text, 
bi  ^CT,  Tamdr  (Sept.  BtpfiaS  r.  i.  Baniiiip ;  Tulg. 
I'limra),  which  ahould  piobablir  be  pointed  *liin,  by 
cmmnioD  Tut  lta'1?,  or  in  imitation  of  the  original 
'^  the  ^£»-tm'  (ace  Keil.  CumiHoU,  od  loc).  See 
fiUL  The  ume  would  lecin  Id  indicate  an  ahnndanca 
i!tdal*-palm*  anciently  in  that  vicinity,  allbough  tbay 
■e  tant  in  iu  ptcaeni  neglected  atale. 

1.  Cimical  Identijiealim There  a  no  reaaonable 

daA  thai  thii  city  ii  the  lune  oa  the  one  known  In 
Ike  Greek!  and  Romani  and  to  modem  Europe  by  the 
•ant,  m  tome  form  or  other,  of  Pi^myra  (llnX/ivfin, 
lULfi^  Ptlmiia).  The  identity  of  the  two  ciliet  re- 
■iki  from  the  following  circumacancet :  (1.)  The  aame 
oi.'  II  ipeciallT  mentioned  by  Joaephoa  (^  ut.  viii,  6, 1) 
■  btiring  in  his  time  the  name  of  Tadmor  among  the 
^rnant.and  Palmyra  among  ihe  Greeks;  and  Jerome, 
13  hli  l^n  tmulatimi  of  the  Old  TesL,  tnnslalee 
T»)iogiby  Palmira  (2Cliion.yiii,4>  <2.)  The  modem 
Anbtc  name  of  Palmyra  ia  aubaUDlially  the  aome  aa 
Ac  lltteew  word,  being  TadcuiT,  or  TaXkmur.  (S.) 
TUvonl  Tad<i»r  has  neariy  Ihe  aame  meaning  asPai- 
■vn,  ngirifying  probably  the  "  City  of  Palma,"  from 
Tmor,  a  pabn ;  and  this  ia  confirmed  by  the  Arabic 
■^  fcr  Palnu,  ■  %>aniab  town  on  the  (iuadalquivir, 
>I<H  ia  aaid  to  be  called  Tadmir  (nffi  Geseniiis,  in  hia 
^Uuru,  p.  H6).  (4.)  The  name  Tadmor,  or  Tadmor, 
arjallj-  occnra  as  the  name  of  the  city  in  Aramaic  and 
'intfc  inKriptiotia  which  have  been  found  there,  (a.) 
Is  Ite  Cbroniclea,  the  city  is  mentioned  as  having  been 
<ui  by  SDlomod  afUw  his  conqnest  of  Hamath-Zobah, 
Mil  it  named  in  conjimction  witb  "all  the  atore-citiea 
rtirli  he  built  in  Haniath."  This  aceorda  fully  with 
Ik  uqation  oT  Palmyra  [nee  Hanatb]  ;  and  there  is 


9  TADMOR 

no  olber  known  city,  either  in  the  deaert  or  not  in  tbe 
detert,  which  con  lay  claim  to  the  name  of  Tadmor. 

2.  Nutmy^-Ai  above  auted,  Tadmoi  waa  built  by 
Solomon,  probably  with  tbe  view  of  aecuring  an  inter- 
est in  and  command  over  the  great  caravan  traffic  from 
the  East,  aimilai  to  that  wluch  he  had  established  in 
respect  of  Ihe  trade  between  Syria  and  Egypt.  See 
this  idea  developed  in  Eitto's  Pidorial  BiUe  (note  on 
2  Chron.  viii,  4),  where  it  ia  shown  at  some  length  thai 
the  pteaence  of  water  iu  thiaamalloatiamust  early  have 
made  this  a  atalion  for  caravani  c:)ming  west  through 
the  deaert ;  and  thia  circumatance  probably  dictated  to 
Solomon  the  importance  of  founding  here  a  garriaon 
town,  which  would  entitle  him— in  return  for  the  pro- 
tection be  could  give  from  tbedepredalionsof  theAraiks, 
and  for  ofl^ring  an  intermediate  station  where  the  fac- 
tors of  the  West  miglit  meet  fl^e  mercbanta  cf  llie  East 
— to  a  certain  regulating  power,  and  peihspa  to  aome 
doea,  to  which  they  '',^^i  Liiii  it  more  convenient  to 
submit  than  to  ctaan|^,^fhe  line  of  route.  It  is  even 
poaaible  that  the  Phteniciana,  who  locdt  much  interest 
in  this  important  ttade,  pointed  out  to  Solomon  Ihe  ad- 
vantage which  he  and  bis  subjecls  might  derive  fmm 
the  regidation  and  protection  of  it  by  building  a  forti- 
fled  town  in  Ihe  quarter  where  it  waa  expoeed  to  tbe 
greatest  danger.  A  most  important  indication  in  favor 
of  these  conjecturea  ia  found  in  tbe  fact  that  all  oiu  in- 
rormoiinn  concerning  Palmyra  from  heathen  nriten  de- 
acribes  it  as  a  dly  of  merchanla,  who  told  to  the  Wesl- 
em  nations  the  products  of  India  and  Arabia,  and  who 
were  so  enriched  by  the  traffic  that  the  place  became 
proverbial  fur  luiuiy  and  wealth  and  for  the  expensive 

We  do  not  again  read  of  Tadmor  in  Scripture^  nor  ia 
it  likely  that  the  Kcbrewa  retained  poaaeeaioD  of  it  long 
after  the  death  of  Solomon.  No  other  source  acquaints 
na  with  the  aubtequenl  history  of  the  place,  till  it  reap> 
pears  in  the  account  of  Pliny  (Hitf.  A^of.  v,  24)  asacon- 
aiderable  town,  which,  along  with  its  tetiitoiy,  formed 
an  independent  state  between  the  Roman  and  Parthian 
empires.  Aderwarda  it  was  mentioned  by  Appisn  (J3n 
Bed.  Cic.  V,  9),  in  reference  to  a  ttill  earlier  period  of 
time,  in  connection  with  a  design  of  Hark  Antony  to 
let  his  cavalry  plunder  it.  The  inhabitants  are  said 
to  have  withdrawn  themaelvei  and  their  eflects  to  ■ 
strong  poaition  on  the  Euphrates,  and  the  cavalry  en- 
tered an  empty  city.  In  ihe  Sd  century  it  secma  to 
have  been  b^ulifled  by  the  emperor  Hadnan,  aa  may  be 
mferred  from  a  slatement  of  Stephanus  of  Byzantium 
as  ID  the  name  of  tbe  city  having  been  changed  to 
//mfrionopoJu  (a.  T.  IlaX/ivpa).  In  the  beginning  of 
the  8d  century  it  became  a  Roman  colony  under  Car- 
acalls  (A.D.  311-^317),  and  recdved  Ihe  jus  Itoiicum. 
Fmm  this  period  the  influence  and  wealth  of  Palmyra 
rapidly  jncrraaed.  Tbough  nominally  subject  to  Dome, 
it  had  a  government  of  ita  own,  and  waa  ruled  by  its 
own  laws.  The  public  affairs  were  directed  by  a  senate 
chosen  by  tbe  people;  and  most  of  its  public  monuments 
were  built,  aa  the  inscriptions  show,  by  "the  senate  and 
people."  For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  this  prosper- 
ity continued,  and  it  was  only  checked  at  length  by  the 
pride  it  generated. 

Tbe  atoiy  of  the  unfoitunate  Valerian  is  well  knovm. 
Iteing  captured  by  the  Peraianh  hia  nnworthy  son  did 
not  uae  a  single  effort  to  release  him  fhjm  Ihe  hands  of 
his Conqueron.  Odenathus,  one  oTthe  ciliiensof  Pal-  ' 
myra,  revenged  the  wrongs  of  tbe  fallen  emperor,  and 
vindicated  the  majesty  of  Rome.  He  marched  against 
Ihe  Hersiana,  took  the  province  of  Hesopolamia,  and  de- 
fleil  Sapor  beneath  the  walla  of  Cteaiphon  (A.D,  260). 
The  services  thus  rendered  to  Rome  were  ao  great  I  hat 
Odenaihus  was  aaeociaied  in  the  sovereignty  with  lial- 
lienua  (A.D.  164).  He  enjoyed  hia  dignity  but  a  short 
period,  being  murdered  by  hia  nephew  at  a  banquet  in 
the  city  of  Emesa  only  three  years  atlerwnrds.  Ilia 
reign  was  brief,  but  brilliant.  Not  only  wos  Sapor  con- 
quered and  Valerian  revenged,  but  Syrian  rebels  and 


TADMOR  1( 

tbe  northern  bubtriaiu,  who  now  begin  their  incnr- 
uona  inio  the  Roman  eiDi»re,felt  tbe  force  of  hii  um*. 

OdeDBthns  bequeathed  bia  power  to  ■  ironhy  luo- 
coaoT— Zenobia,  bi>  widow  (  ami  tbe  namea  ot  Zenobia 
■nd  Palmyra  will  always  be  auooiated  h  long  u  hiiu>- 
ly  remaiiit.  Tbe  vinne,  the  wiadom,  and  the  heroic 
■pirit  of  this  extraordinary  waman  have  iielilom  been 
equalled.  At  first  she  wai  content  with  the  title  of 
regent  dnritig  the  minority  of  her  aon  Vaballatui,  bat 
unfortunately  ambidon  prompted  her  to  adopt  the  high- 
(Oonding  title  of  "  Queen  of  the  EasC"  tihe  aooa  add- 
ed EgJ'pt  to  her  poaeeHioni  io  Syria,  Alia  Minor,  aid 
Haopotamii,  and  ruled  over  it  during  a  period  of  flvs 
year*.  Id  A.D.  271  the  emperor  Aurtlian  turned  bii 
■rm>  agiiniC  hcr,Bnd  haTiag  defeated  her  in  a  pitched 
battle  near  Antioch  and  in  another  at  Emeea,  he  drore  her 
back  upon  her  desert  home*  He  then  marched  his  reU 
erant  acron  the  parched  plain  and  invested  Palmyra, 
which  capitulated  after  a  brief  itruRgle.  ZenoUa  al^ 
templed  lo«icape,bot  was  captured  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euph rales,  and  btougfatbaclita  tbeprtsence  of  the  con- 
queror. She  was  taken  to  Rome,  and  there,  coveied 
with  hei  jewels  and  bound  by  fetters  of  gold,  she  was 
led  along  in  front  of  the  triumphant  Aureliin.  Zeno- 
bia deserved  a  better  fate.  If  common  humanity  did 
not  prevent  the  Roman  dtizens  from  exulting  orer  an 
bonorabJe,  though  fallen,  foe,  the  memory  of  her  hut- 
might  have  saved  her  from  the  indignity  of  appearing 
before  a  mob  in  chains 

Aureliin  look  Palmyra  in  A.D.  ST2,  and  left  in  it  a 
kfcer  his  depattura  the  people 
On  hearing  of  thii  (he  em- 
peror returned,  [dllaged  Ihe  city,  and  put  tbe  inhabi- 
tants to  the  aword.  It  was  soun  repaired  by  the  orders 
of  tbe  conqueror,  and  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  rebnilt; 
but  it  never  recovered  its  former  opulence.  Twenty 
yean  later,  under  the  leign  of  Diocletian,  Ihe  walls  of 
the  city  were  rebuilt  It  appears  from  an  inscription  to 
have  aawsted  tbe  emperor  Alexander  Severui  i 
against  the  Peruana ;  and  there  are  proofa  of  its  having 


TADMOR 


inhiUted  until  the  downfall  of  Ihe  Bo- 
man  empire.  There  is  a  fragment  of  a  boilding  with  i 
Latin  iuacription  bearing  the  name  of  DiodetUn ;  uil 
there  are  existing  walls  of  tbe  city  of  the  age  of  the  em- 
peror Justinian,  together  with  the  lemaiDB  ofaconly 
aqueduct  which  he  built.  It  eventoally  bccune  the  hii 
of  1  bishop,  but  never  recovered  any  importance.  When 
the  successors  of  Mohammed  extended  (heir  conqnau 
beyond  the  confines  of  Arabia,  Pslmyn  was  one  oftbt 
fltit  places  which  became  subject  lo  the  caliphs.  In  the 
year  659  a  battle  was  here  fought  between  the  ealipbi 
Ali  and  Moawiyah,  and  won  by  the  former.  In  'U  it 
was  itill  ao  alroogly  fortified  that  it  look  tbe  cilipta 
Uerwan  seven  monlhs  lo  reduce  it,  the  rebel  Soljniii] 
having  shut  himself  up  in  it. 

From  this  period  I'almyra  aecms  to  hive  gradully 
fillen  into  decay.  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who  was  then 
towards  the  end  of  the  ISth  century,  speaks  of  ii  « 
"Thidmnr  in  the  desert,  built  by  Solomon  of  eqotllj 
Urge  itnnee  [with  Biilbec].  This  city  is  surroonded 
by  a  wall,  ami  stands  in  the  desert,  fst  from  any  inhib- 
ited place.     It  is  four  days' journey  from  Biililh  [BaaJ- 

witb  the  Christians  and  with  the  Arabian  subJKit  of 
Noureddin,  and  aid  their  neighbors  Ihe  UobaniniKluu.' 
In  connection  with  this  statement,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  tbe  existing  inscriptions  of  Palmyra  alteit  the  pi»- 
ence  of  Jews  there  in  its  moat  flourishing  pmod,  and 
that  tbey,  in  common  with  its  other  citiiens,  shared  in 
Ihe  general  trade,  and  were  even  olijecti  of  public  honm. 


amall  garrison,  but  n 


One 


n  of  1 


lilt,  ■  Jew,  for  hiving  at  b 
penae  conducted  a  caravan  to  I'almvra.  This  wia  in 
A.D.  368,  not  long  before  the  tnne  of  Zenobia,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Bonie  writers,  was  of  Jewish  exCnctton.  Irby 
and  Mangles  (TrartU,  p.  S7S)  alao  noticed  ■  Hcbrev  in- 
acription  on  the  architrave  of  the  great  colonnade,  but 
give  no  copy  of  it,  nor  iiy  what  it  ezpreaaed.  Tb< 
latest  historical  notice  of  Tadmor  which  we  hive  bna 
able  to  And  ii,  Ihit  it  was  plundered  in  1400  by  the 
!  umy  of  Timuc  Beg  (TamerlaDe),  when  200,000  sbeep 


PUo  or  tbe  Rnlns  of  Palmyra. 


TADMOK  11 

vo*  Ukeo  (Kankin,  Wari  of  the  MangoU).  AbulTcdi, 
al  ih»  beginniHg  of  the  Hth  century  (iJeicripl.  A  tab. 
f.  W),  ifetka  til  Tadmor  u  merely  »  vILltge,  bul  ce]e- 
bntniroriuruinsuf  Dldand  atignificencediHcea.  The>o 
nba  of  asdenc  art  and  magnidcence  were  scarcely 
tnuwa  ia  Europe  lilt  Uiwardb  the  clnne  of  [be  17Lb  cen- 
UTj.  In  the  ^eai  1678  aome  Englioh  mercbanta  at 
Utfpa  reaolTed  to  veriry  by  actual  inapectlon  the  re- 
port! enaeeming  theie  ruiiu  nhieb  exialed  in  tbat  i^ace. 
Tbe  eipeditioD  was  unrortunate.  foi  they  were  plao- 
ilmd  of  ererytbing  by  the  Arabs,  and  returned  with 
ittfii  street  unlccompUabed.  A  aecond  expedition,  id 
1631,  had  better  HKceeaj  but  the  accouDta  which  were 
tni^ht  back  received  tittle  credit,  aa  it  seemed  unlike- 
1<  itaat  a  ciiy  which,  according  to  tfaeir  report,  must 
liaie  been  »  magniflcent,  should  have  been  erected  in 
tbe  nidcc  of  deaert&  When,  however,  in  the  yeu  ITbS, 
Koben  Wood  published  Ibe  views  and  plans  which  bad 
twta  Uktti  with  great  accuracy  on  the  apot  two  yean 
tefin  In-  Dawkiaa,  the  truth  of  the  earlier  accounts 
awld  na  longer  be  doubted ;  and  it  appeared  that  nei- 
ibn  Greece  aor  Italy  could  exhibit  antiquitiea  which, 
is  [sint  of  splendor,  couM  rival  those  of  Palmjrra.  From 
mtly  beea  vinled  by  travellerB, 


yond  the  valley  which  leads  throagh  these  hills  the 
ruined  city  llrst  opens  upon  the  view.  The  tbouaanda 
of  Corincbian  colnmna  of  white  marble,  erect  and  fallen, 
and  a  half,  pre- 


II  of  a 


is  slightly 


have  often  been  de- 


ctBeb  From  Damaacua.     Ita 
icribtd  and  delineated. 

3.  Prttenl  /tomum.— Tadmor  wu  litusted  between 
Um  Euphratea  aud  Hamatb,  Ui  the  sauth-eaic  af  Chat 
diy,  in  a  fertile  tract  or  oasia  of  the  desert.     Patzn- 

botiutinaucbnnmben  a>  would  warraul,  aa  they  onoe 
did.  the  impoaitioo  of  the  name.     The  present  Tadmur 

iiii  of  number*  of  peaaanta'  mud-hues,  cliutered  to- 

gsharsmund  the  relica  of  Che  great  Temple  of  the  Sun. 
The  mina  cover  a  sandy  plain  stretchiup  along  the 
baara  of  a  range  of  mountains  called  Jebel  Belies,  ruu- 
niog  nearly  north  and  south,  dividing  the  great  dciert 
from  ibedeiett  plains  extending  wwlward  towards  Da- 
iiaactu  and  the  north  nf  Syria.  The  lower  eminences 
nf  [best  mounrainB,  bordering  the  ruins,  are  covered  with 

•»al  Palmyrcnea,  in  which  are  found  memorials  similar 
bi  ib(M  of  Egypt.  They  are  seen  tu  a  great  distance, 
«d  hare  a  suikiag  effect  in  this  desen  aolitudc.    Be- 


furest.    The  site  on  which  t1 
elevated  above  the  level  of  ihi 
circumference  of  about  ten  miles,  which  the  Arabs  be- 
lieve to  coincide  with  the  extent  of  the  ancient  city,  oa 

this  space.  There  are,  indeed,  truces  of  an  old  wall,  not 
more  than  three  mitea  in  circumference;  but  Chia  was 
probably  built  by  Justinian,  at  a  time  when  Palmyra 
bad  lost  its  ancient  importance  and  lieoome  a  desolate 
pUce,  anil  when  it  was  consequently  desirable  to  con- 
tract its  bounds,  so  as  to  include  only  the  mote  vatuable 
portion.  Vnlney  well  describes  the  general  aspect  which 
these  ruina  preient:  "In  the  space  covered  by  these 
ruins  we  sametimea  And  a  palace  of  which  nothing  re- 
mains but  the  court  and  walla;  sometimes  a  temple 
wboae  peristyle  is  half  thrown  down ;  and  now  a  por- 
tico, a  gallery,  or  triumphal  arch.  Here  stand  groops 
of  columns,  whose  symmetry  is  destroyed  by  the  fall 
of  many  of  them ;  there  we  see  them  ranged  in  rows  of 
such  length  that,  similar  to  rows  of  trees,  they  deceive 
the  wghL,and  assume  the  appearance  of  continued  walk. 
If  from  this  striking  scene  we  cast  our  eyes  upon  the 
ground,  another,  almost  as  varied,  presents  ilself— on 
all  sides  we  behold  nothing  bnt  subverted  sliafts ;  some 
whole,  otbers  shattered  to  pieces  or  dislocated  in  their 
jointa;  and  on  which  aide  soever  we  luoli,  the  earth 
is  strewn  with  vast  stones,  half  buried ;  with  broken 
entablatures,  mutilated  friezes,  disflgured  reliefs,  effaced 
sculptures,  violated  tomb^  and  altars  defiled  by  dust." 
Tlie  colonnade  and  individual  temple*  are  inferior  in 
beauty  and  majesty  to  those  which  may  be  seen  else- 
where— such,  for  example,  as  the  Parthenon  aud  the 
remains  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Atbensj  and  there 
is  evidently  no  one  temple  equal  to  the  Temple  of  the 
Son  at  Baalbec,  which,  as  built  both  at  about  the  sann 
period  of  time  and  in  the  same  order  of  architecture, 
suggests  itself  most  naUiially  as  an  object  of  compari- 
son. But  the  long  lines  of  Corinthian  columns  at  Pal- 
myra, aa  seen  at  a  distance,  are  peculiarly  imposing; 
and  in  their  general  eOect  and  apparent  vastneia,  they 


iKcct.GoogIc 


TADMOR 


162 


TAG6ART 


wcm  to  tarpua  ill  othtr  ruins  Ot  (he  ume  kind.    The 

two  hinda.  The  one  dan  miiM  have  anginsteil  in  veiy 
mnou  timtii,  and  con«i>u  of  Tade,  unihapf  ii  hillocka  nr 
Tuin  *nd  rubbinh,  covered  with  aoil  and  herbage,  Mich 
at  now  ilone  mark  ihe  siw  uf  the  most  ancienC  cities 
at  HeeopoUmii  and  Babylonia,  and  among  which  it 
would  be  reaaonablc  to  aeek  some  traces  oC  the  more  an- 
cieul  city  of  Sulonon.  The  other,  to  which  the  moat 
gorgeous  monuments  belong,  bean  the  impresa  of  lal«r 
ages.  It  is  clear  Irom  the  atyle  of  architecture  that 
the  later  buildings  belong  to  the  three  centuriea  prece- 
ding Diocletian,  in  which  the  Corinthian  order  of  pil- 
lars was  preferred  to  any  other.  All  the  buildings  to 
which  these  col  umna  belonged  were  probably  erected  iu 
the  2d  and  9d  centuries  of  our  era.     Many  inscriptions 

The  TempEe'of  the  Sun  is  the  muat  remarkable  and 
magnificent  ruin  of  Palmyra.  The  court  by  which  it 
was  enclosed  was  179  feet  square,  within  which  a  doable 
row  of  columiiB  waa  continued  all  round.  They  were 
890  in  number,  of  which  about  sixty  still  remain  stand- 
ing. In  the  middle  of  the  court  stood  the  temple,  an 
oblong  quadrangular  building  surrounded  with  columns, 
of  which  about  twenty  stilt  excise,  though  without  capi- 
tals, of  which  they  have  been  plundered,  probably  be- 
cause they  were  composed  of  metal.  In  the  interior,  at 
the  south  end,  is  now  the  humble  mosque  of  the  village. 

A  little  beyond  the  temple  begins  the  great  colon- 
nade.which  runs  neatly  from  east  to  west;  it  is  of  great 
length,  and  very  beautiful.  The  columns  are  in  good 
proportion  and  eJicellent  preservation ;  each  shaft  oon- 
■isiiug  of  three  courses  uf  stone  admirably  Jointed,  with 
a  bracket  for  a  bust  or  statue  interposed  between  Ihe 
second  and  third.  In  their  present  naked  condition, 
these  brackets  are  uiiBighily;  yet  when  ihey  were  sur- 
mounted by  statues  the  effect  must  have  been  eitueme- 
ly  graud. 

'rhe  necropolis  of  Pnlmvra  lies  half  an  hour  north- 
west of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  the  Wady  el-KebOr, 
the  ravine  through  which  we  made  our  approach  to  the 
city.  The  lombK,  which  ere  very  numerous  and  ex- 
tremelv  interesting,  sre  almost  all  of  them  towers,  two, 
three,  four,  and  in  one  instance  five  stories  high.  The 
tomb  of  Jamblichus,mentioneil  by  Wood,  is  now  dread- 
fully dilapidated,  its  stain  crumbled  away,  and  the 
floor  of  the  Iburth  story  entirely  gone.  It  is  five  sto- 
ries high,  and  was  built  in  the  third  year  of  the  Chtih 
tiaa  era.  That  of  Manains  is  peculiarly  interesting, 
and  in  some  respects,  indeed,  the  most  curious  building 


at  Palmyra.  It  is  in  wonderful  preservation,  and  i^ 
deseripiioii  will  aUbrd  some  idea  o(  Ihe  others,  as  ibey 
sra  almost  all  built  on  Ihe  same  plan,  though  far  leia 
beautiful  It  is  a  lofty  square  tower,  about  fifteen  feel 
in  the  side,  leaaeuing  t^  three  counes  of  aionelike  fttf* 
at  about  a  third  of  its  heigbL  An  inscription  in  hiHiot 
of  the  deceased  is  engraved  on  a  tablet  over  the  door- 
way. The  principal  apartment  is  lined  with  four  Co- 
rinthian pilasters  on  each  side,  with  recesses  between 
them  for  mummies;  each  recess  divided  into  five  tiers 
by  shelves,  only  one  of  which  retains  its  position.  The 
ancient  Palmyrenes  buried  their  dead  in  the  Egyptian 
manner,  and  Wood  found  in  one  of  the  tombs  a  muin- 
my  in  all  respects  similar  to  those  in  the  land  at  Hit 
Phanohs. 

4.  AutkoTiiirt The  original  sources  for  the  history 

of  Palmyra  may  be  seen  in  An  Scriptortt  Hiitoritr  Au' 
gaila,  Triginla  Tyrcaaii,  toL  Xlv  ;  IHrul  AartiiaHut. 
vol.  Jtxvi;  Kttlropivi,  ix,  10,  11,  12.  In  A.D.  1696 
Abraham  Seller  published  a  most  instructive  work,  en- 
titled The  Atttiquitirt  ff  Palmyra,  cOTUaiimiff  Ikt  llit- 
Utry  nfthe  City  and  ift  Emprrttrt,  which  contains  eev- 
I  ersl  (ireeb  inscriptions,  with  translations  and  explana- 
tions, (lesenius  published  an  account  of  the  Palmvrene 
inscriptions  at  Kome  and  Oxford  in  bis  itimamnta 
Beriptura  Lingaagur  Pkimcrr,  %  63.  The  hest  work  on 
the  ruins  of  Palmyra  is  still  Robert  Wood's  splendid  fo- 
lio, entitled  Tkf  Ruou  of  Palmyra,  etc  (Lond.  17531. 
Very  good  accounts  of  them  nay  also  be  seen  in  Irbv 
and  Mangles,  TrartUi  Richlei,  iPali/ahrln;  AddiHui, 
JiamaKui  avd  Pnltm/ra.  The  last  work  conUine  a 
good  history  of  the  place;  for  which,  see  also  Roseo- 
fflUUer's  BOL  Gtog.,  translated  by  (he  Rev.  N.  Morren: 
and,  in  particular,  Cellarius,  Ditirri.  dt  Imp.  Paliryrmit 
(1693).  Gibbon,  in  ch.  xi  of  the  Dtclint  mnJ  FuU,  has 
given  an  account  of  Palmyra  with  his  usual  vigor  and 
acctirac}'.  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  pieseiit 
state  of  the  ruins,  see  Porter,  Handbooi  Jbr  Syria  inuf 
Patmim,  p.  643-649;  Beaufort,  Effyplian  Sepnlrkm. 
etc,  ToL  i  1  and  Bitdeker,  Syria,  p.  623.    Bendes  Woo-fs 

liahed  by  Csssas  in  his  V'nyayt  Pilteraynt  dt  la  .Syrv.- 
and  later  by  Laborde  in  his  I'ojra^  a  Orml,    Recently 

accurate  knowledge  of  the  remains  of  this  renovmd 
larkable  place  is  thus  made  accessible  lo  the 


whole  1 


irid, 


Part  of  a  Tomb  at 


Taft,  Gkoruk.  D.D.,  ■ 
bom  at  Metuloii,  Mass.,  Aug.  27, 1791,  and  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Brown  University,  in  the  class  oT  1816.  ilf 
pursued  his  theological  studies  under  the  direction  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Crocker,  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Prov- 
ideiice,  R  I.,  and  was  ordained  a  deacon  by  bishop  Gri>- 
wold,  March  7, 1R18,  and  a  preebvter,  Sept.  3,  IS19.  lit 
became  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church  in  Pawtuckel,  R 1, 
in  October,  1820,  continuing  for  a  lime  to  teach  in  > 
school  in  Providence  with  which  be  had  been  connectHJ 
for  several  years.  Such  double  service  not  being  allB- 
gether  satisfactory  to  his  bishop,  he  gave  a  gentle  bini 
la  the  parish  of  St.  Paul's  Ibat  "he  had  not  ordainni 
their  minister  to  keep  school;"  and  he  thenceforth  ilf- 
voted  himi«lf  with  great  zeal  and  success  lo  his  wnck 
as  a  minister  of  ihe  Gospel  until  bis  death,  which  u> 
curreil  at  Pawtuckel,  Dec  II,  IBfiS.  His  rainistiy  >a> 
a  little  over  tifty  years  in  duration.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Tfifgart,  Samuel,  a  Presbylerian  minister,  wis 
born  at  Londonderry,  N.  H.,  March  24, 17M.  Ue  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1774,  was  licensed  m 
preach  by  Ihe  Presbytery  of  Boston  June  1, 1776,  ami 
was  onlained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Cule- 
raine.  Itamiuhire  Co.,  Mass.,  Feb.  19, 17TT.  He  was  > 
member  of  Congress  from  1803  to  1817,  He  died  April 
25. 18^5.  Mr.Taggart  poBsessed  a  mind  of  great  sirencih 
and  vigor.  He  published  several  theological  ireali>i^ 
sermons,  orations,  political  BpeeIhe^etc.  (1800-19),  Sh- 
Sprague,vlmiui»o/(A«,1  Bier.  iVpiliiii,  377;  Alliboiie, 


TAGGART  1( 

DitL^ Bril.  and  Amir.  ^ tKlori,  h  T. ;  Packard,  ZTiM. 
t/lit  0ittnAf  umI  Mhattm  in  Franiliii  County 

Tacsort,  WUllani,  D.D,  a  FrubyieiiaD  dirioe, 
v»  bocn  in  tT8S,  edncaled  privuelf,  gnduted  at  thi 
Tbtoh^ical  Seminatjr  of  the  Associate  Kefonned  Church, 
\t<r  York,  in  1813;  wu  licensHl  to  preach  by  tbe  Ho- 
soogabda  Asoociare  Heronned  pTe(d>f  lery  in  the  ume 
Tear,  and  DidainFd  by  the  same  presbjtCTy  and  installed 
)«u>T  of  the  uiiiud  ooDgre^tioDi  at  Upper  Wheeling 
ud  Cadii  in  1814,  where  he  oaadBued  to  labor  uotil 
vU  age.  He  died  Sept.  11,  1866.  Dr.  Taggart  was  a 
run  oT  itnHig  thought  "  His  moral  and  intellectual 
uuibulea  were  perhaps  rarely,  if  ever,  eicelled."  See 
Aikoo,  Proft.  //id.  A Imanac,  1866,  p.  279. 

Talian  (Heb.  Tool'in,  ^n^,  oamp  [Geseniua],  or 
irannmea  [FUnl]X  iXe  name  ol  two  deaceudanls  of 
Ejibraim. 

1.  (Sept  Tavix  r.  r.  Tavai:  VuIr.  Ththtn.)  The 
had  of  ooe  of  the  families  of  the  Kphraimites  at  the 
cul  of  tbe  EKode  (Kumb.  xxvi,  35).  &C  ante  1618. 
weTAHAmra. 

3.  (Sept.  eoir  ▼.  r.  eaav;  Tulg.  Tlman.')  Son  of 
Tdah  aiul  father  of  I^adan  in  the  Palestinian  lineage 
-I  Ephfum  (1  Cbron.  vii,  !6).     KC  post  I61& 

Ts'lunlt*  (Heb.  Taduad',  *<9nr|,  patioDymic  from 
Takaa;  Sept.  Tavox'  ^-  '•  Tacit;  Volg.  Thdiatila), 
the  bmilj  Dune  (Numh.  zxvi,  86)  of  tbe  dcKcndants 

ofTARA-l  1  (q.v.). 

TalMp'aiiis  (Jet.  ii,  16).    See  Tahpasuks, 

TahaioUi.    See  Talmud. 

Talutb  (HeK  Tachatk,  nnpl,  in  pause  TdduiA, 
rnn,  KaHait,  X.  k.  fcnmlt,  u  onen),  the  pame  of  a  place 
■ad  aTthne  dhu. 

L  (SepL  Kara^  t.  r.  Ooii^ ;  Tulg.  Thahcak.'i  One 
of  Ike  lutiont  oT  tbe  IsneliUs  in  the  deaen  between 
H^Motb  and  Tarah  (tfumb.xuiii,3e);  situated  ap- 
lareolly  not  far  beyond  the  western  edfte  of  the  Arabah 
Btarty  oppoaiie  Haunt  Hot.     See  ExoDK. 

3.  (Sept.  e<ia3  T.  T.  Ka<id;  Tnlg.  TkakaUi.')  A 
Eobalfaite  Lerite,  son  of  Assir  and  father  of  Uriel,  or 
Zqiboiah,  in  the  anceatiy  of  Samnel  and  Heman  (1 
CtoML  ifi,  84,  57  [Heb.  9  and  22  J ),     aCcir.  16Se. 

3.  (Sfp<.  Baai  v.  r.  Gaai;  Vulg.  Thahath.)  Son 
i-f  Bmd  Did  father  of  Bladah,  among  the  imniediale 
itaetodanu  tA  Ephiaim  in  Palestine  (1  Cbron.  vii,  20). 
KC  poet  161&  Borrington  {Geual.  i,  ZT8)  regards 
bn  sslbe  same  with  Tihan  (q.v.)  tbe  SOD  of  Epbraim; 
but  gainst  the  text. 

4.  (Sep*.  £au3  v.  i.  No/ui ;  Vulg.  TixJuUi.}  Qrand- 
na  of  the  precoliag  (with  whom  some  confound  himX 
bfi^  son  of  Elsdab  and  father  of  Ziimi  (1  Cbroti.  rii, 
Xy    aapaatl618. 

TaUtian  7«raioii.  The  extensive  asBembUge  of 
nlmd)  in  wbicb  the  Tahitian  dialect  is  spoken  includes 
iW  Soctciv,  or  Leeward,  and  the  Georgian,  or  Wind- 
•Dd.  UeiC  with  the  Low  I9land^  and  the  "  i'aumotu," 
V  Dangaoas  Archipelago.  The  largest  of  the  islands  is 
i«ah«ie,  or,  more  properly,  Tahiti,  where  the  Tahitian 
'nnage,  generally  considswl  as  the  most  perfect  type 
i'  ill  the  Poiyoesian  dialects,  remained  in  its  primitive 

kad  b«n  peopled  before  any  olluir  island  of  Polynesia, 
pn^isly  so  aQeH ;  that  flora  thence,  as  from  a  centre, 
aettie  on  the  islands  of  the  sumand- 
fai  as  New  Zealand,  and  that  while 
'h  Pnljncsian  language  became  more  or  leas  modified 
ty  ibe  mode  of  life  called  for  by  the  nature  of  the  soil 
■r  of  the  climate,  it  remained,  as  slated  already,  in  its 
;nnit«e  aimpiidty  at  TahitL  The  Tahitian  version 
*m  made  from  tbe  English  Bible,  wilh  constant  refer- 
«a  ED  tbe  ^Eitd  origioals.  Tbe  first  portion  pub- 
•  Med  was  the  Gospel  of  Lake,  which  appeared  in  1818, 
■Ut  in  1888  the  entire  Bible  was  published  in  Lon- 
te  odei  ibe  wperintendence  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Nolt. 


,3  TAHPANHES 

Otber  editions  fallowed,  of  which  (he  most  important, 
consisting  of  a  revised  edition  of  the  entire  Scripturei, 
was  oompkled  in  London  in  184K,  In  1877  the  annual 
report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  an- 
nounced that  the  mmmittee  were  bringing  out  a  revised 
edition  with  maps,  which,  according  to  the  report  in 
1879,  had  left  the  press,  the  edition,  consisting  of  5000, 
having  been  edited  by  the  Rev.  A.  T.  Saville.  Up  to 
March  SI,  1889,  the  sum  total  of  BibiM  diatributol, 
either  as  a  whole  or  in  parts,  was  67,679.  See,  besides 
7'ile  BSile  of  Every  Land,  the  annual  reports  of  Ibe 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  since  1860,  which  are 
the  only  source  of  infonnaljon.     (B.  P.) 

Tah'panliem  (HeL  TachpaniAu',  cnSDnri,  Jer. 
ii,  16  [maig.]i  zliii,  7,  8,  9;  xliv,  I;  xlvi,  14),  Ta- 
hap'uiM  (Beb.  Taekpantt',  D9Dn^  ii,  16  [text]), 
or  Teh«iph'neh«B  (Heb.  TtckaplittKluf,  oni&nn, 
Ezek.  xxx,  18;  all  of  Egyptian  origin  [see  below]; 
Sept.  Taf  rac  or  TA^vat ',  Vulg.  Tapktie  or  Taphm),  a 
city  of  Egypt,  of  importance  in  the  time  of  the  propheta 
Jeremiah  and  EzekieL  The  name  is  clearly  Egyptian, 
and  closely  resembles  tbat  of  the  Egyptian  queen  Tah- 
nraKS  (q.  v.X  which,  however,  throws  no  light  upon  it. 
The  Coptic  luune  of  this  place,  Taphmu  (Quatrem^re, 
Mim.  Giog.  tt  Hitt.  i,  297,  298),  is  obviously  derived 
from  the  Sept.  form:  the  Gr.  and  Ut.  forms,  Hafviu, 
Herod.,  Aa^vi),  Steph.  Byz.,  IM^fiio,  Iliit.  Anl^Kn  per- 
haps nearer  to  the  Egyptian  original  (see  Parthey,  Zar 
ErxOxxtt  da  alltn  Afgyplaii,  p.  528).  Can  the  name 
be  of  Greek  origin?  If  the  IIaneh  mentioned  by  Isaiah 
(xxx,4)  be  the  ume  as  Tahpanhes,  as  we  have  sug- 
gested (s.  v.),  this  conjecture  must  be  dismissed.  No 
satia&clory  Egyptian  etymology  of  this  name  has  been 
•uggeited,  Jablunski's  Taphtna,  "  the  head"  or  "  begin- 
ning of  the  age"  {Opasc.  i,  343),  being  quite  untenable; 
nor  has  any  Egyptian  name  resembling  it  been  discov- 
ered. Dr.  Biugsch  ((;to^.  AjcAr.  i,  800,  801,  Taf.  Ivi, 
No.  1728),  fallowing  Hr.  Heath  {Exodvi  Pupgri,  p.  174), 
identifies  the  fort  Tilimrt  with  Tahpanhes;  but  it  b 
doubtless  the  present  TtU  Dtfttmth  (described  in  tho 
ilh  Report  of  Egyptian  Expl.  Fund,  Ixind.  1888). 

Tahpanhes  was  evidently  a  (own  of  Lower  Egypt 
near  or  on  the  eastern  borde'r.  When  Johatiin  an<l  the 
other  captains  went  into  Egypt  "  they  came  to  Tahpan- 
hes" (Jer.  xlUi,  7).  Here  Jeremiah  prophesied  the  con- 
quest of  Ihe  country  by  Nebuchadneuar  (ver.  8-13). 
Erakiel  foretells  ■  battle  to  be  there  fought,  apparently 
by  the  king  of  Babylon  just  mentioned  (xxx,  IB).  The 
Jews  in  Jeremiah's  lime  remained  here  (Jet.  xliv,  I). 
It  was  an  important  town,  being  twice  mentioned  by 
the  latter  prophet  with  Noph  or  Memphis  (ii,  16; 
xlvi,  14),  as  well  as  in  the  passage  last  cited.  Here 
stood  a  house  of  Pharaoh  Hophra  before  which  Jere- 
miah hid  great  stones,  where  the  throne  of  Nebu- 


atterw 


alls  I 


.n  Judith  i, 


h  "Rami 

HermluK 


i  II.,- 


iai),  and  relates  that  P 
garrison  against  tbe  Arabians  and  Syrians,  as  at  Ele- 
phantine against  the  Ethiopians,  and  at  Maiea  against 
Libya,  adding  that  in  his  own  time  the  Persians  had 
garrimnt  at  Daphns  and  Elephantine  (ii,30).  Daphms 
was  therefore  a  very  important  post  under  the  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty.  According  to  Stepliaiius,  it  was  near 
Pelusium  (s.  v.).  In  Ihe  llinerary  of  AnUminlu  this 
town,  called  Dit/ito,  is  placed  sinleen  Human  milea  to 
the  south-west  of  Pelusium  (up.  Parthey,  Map  vi,  where 
observe  that  the  name  of  Pelusium  is  omitted).  This 
position  seems  to  agree  with  that  of  Tei-D^enneh, 

,  wbicb  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  lupposea  to  nurk  the 
site  of  Daphnn   (Modtm  Egi/pt  aad   TStia,  i,  447, 

I  448).  This  identiHcstinii  favors  Ihe  inland  position  of 
the  site  of  Pelusium,  if  we  msy  trust  to  the  diMsnce 
stated  in  tbe  Itiuerarg.     See  Sin.     Sir  Gardner  n'ilk- 


TALBOT 


It  maj  be  observed  that  tha  Campi.  rd  STpatitnia, 
the  nxed  giiriaoa  or  IddUiu  ■nil  Cirian*  MUbhilMd 
bj  PHnuneitchiu  I,  may  posaibly  baTc  bMQ  at  Doph- 

Tah'pauAB  (Heb.  Tachpenej/t',  S^inrrri,  evidentlj' 
oT  Egyptian  origin,  but  uncenain  in  iu  ligniflcation 
[«ee  rAiifANiiEs]  I  Sept,  etn^'viii'  r.  r.  eui/iivai 
Vulu*.  Taphna),  a  pruper  name  oT  an  Egyptian  queen. 
tih«  was  wife  of  the  PliBrai>h  wbo  received  Iladul  the 
Eiliimile,  and  who  gave  him  her  aitur  in  marriage  (1 
Kiiiga  xi,  18-30).  B.C.  cir.  I MW.  In  the  Sept.  the  lat- 
ter is  called  the  elder  aiMer  of  'lliekeniina,  and  in  the 
addition  to  ch.  xii  Shishak  (Susakim)  is  said  to  have 
given  Ana,  the  elder  aisler  of  Tbekemina  hit  wife,  to 
Jerolmani.  It  is  obvious  that  this  and  the  earlier  itilr- 
ment  are  irreconcilable,  even  if  the  evidence  rrani  the 
probable  repetition  of  an  elder  siuer  be  let  aaida,  and 
it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the  name  of  Shi- 
shak'a  chief  or  only  wife,  KaraHmat,  doe*  not  auppgrt 
the  SepU  aildition.  See  Shibhak.  There  ii  therefon 
but  one  Tahpeoes  or  Tbekemina.  At  the  time  to  which 
the  narrative  refers  there  were  probably  two,  if  not  three, 
lines  ruling  in  Egypt— the  Taniles  uY  the  twent)  ' 
dynasty  in  the  lower  cauutrj*;  the  high-priest  I 
at  Thebes,  bat  possibly  they  were  of  the  same  line 
perhaps  one  of  the  last^uuund  of  the  Rameses  family. 
To  the  Tanitic  line,  as  apparently  then  the  most 
erful,  and  as  holding  the  territory  nearest  Palestine,  the 
Pharaoh  in  question,  as  wall  as  the  ta(her-in-la 
Siilumon,  probably  belonged,  (f  Uaoetho's  lii 
oirrect,  he  ma;  be  conjectured  to  bave  been  Pauae 
See  Pharaoh,  9.  No  name  that  has  any  near  n 
Uauce  to  eilhet  Tahpenes  or  Tbekemina  has  yet  been 
round  among  tb»e  of  the  period  (see  Lepsius,  Kimgt- 
buch). 

Ttth-nH  (Heb.  Ta<Are'ii,  ?nri^,™aiwi^  [Geseniot], 
or  j%*t  [FUret] ;  Sept.  eapi  v.  i.  OapAx :  Vulg.  Tha- 
rad),  third  named  o(  the  tbui  sons  of  Micah,  Jonathan's 
grandson  (1  Chron.  ix,  41) ;  called  in  the  parallel  pas- 
sage (viii,  aS)  Tarka  (q.  v.).     U.C.  post  1037. 

Tall'tliil-Hod'alll(HeU7'aal(m'CA«Jftli',0'>nnR 
''Onn,  lit.  lotBla«dt  mg  numlhi  Sept.  eaffat^  Q  iarir 
Uniasai  v.  r.  {^my  aiatai;  Tulg.  inferiora  HoM), 
a  region  (V^K,  "land")  mentiooed  as  one  of  the  places 
viMled  by  Joah  during  his  census  of  the  land  of  Israel, 
between  Gilead  and  Dan.Jaan  (i  Sam.  xxiv,  G).  PUnt 
{ffnitdteirftrb.  i,  BSO)  proposes  lo  separate  the  "Lan. 
of  the  Tachlim"  (tnm  "  llodshi."  and  to  read  the  tatte 
as  //iirtAJ— the  people  of  Harveheth  (comp.  Judg.  it , 
8).  TheniuB  reMores  the  teit  of  the  Sept.  to  read  "  the 
Land  of  Bashan,  which  is  Edrei."  Tbis  iu  ilsi-lr  is  fca- 
aible,  although  it  is  certainly  very  difHcull  lo  cBinect  it 
Willi  the  Hebrew.  EwaM  {Getek.  iii,  207)  pro|K)s.«  to 
read  Herman  for  llodshi:  and  Gesenius  [Thei-iiir.  p. 
AM  a)  dismisses  the  passa^  with  a  Htpro  man  hiibni- 
dum.  There  is  ■  district  called  the  Ard  tl-Tahia,  to 
the  eait-northeast  of  Damascus,  which  recalls  the  old 
name — but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  any  Israelite 
was  living  so  far  from  the  Holy  Land  in  the  time  of 
David.  It  seem*  probable  from  tbe  connection  that 
the  whole  is  a  proper  name,  descriptive,  however,  of 
■he  physical  aspect  of  the  reffion  tu  which  it  was  given. 
The  route  taken  by  the  king's  messengeni  was  first  easl- 
wnni  tn  Moab;  then  northward  through  Gilesih  then 
from  Uilead  to  "the  land  of  Tahlim-IIiHlshi,"  lo  Dan- 
Jaai>  and  /idon.  "The  land  of  Tahiim-IloiW  was 
Ihiismanirestlyasectiunof  the  upper  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan, probably  that  now  called  Ard  il-UaUh,  lying  deep 
down  at  the  western  base  of  lletmon. 

Taltasak  or  Ta;t««ak,  JoasrH,  a  Spanish  Jew, 
belonged  to  those  300,000  exiles  who  had  to  leave  their 
country  in  HSJ.  With  bis  father  and  btotbers,  be  set- 
tled at  Salonica,  where  he  wrote  Vp'i"'  nilB,  "  Ibc 
fruitful  bough  of  Joseph"  (after  Uen.  xlix,  2S),  a  con>- 


mentary  on  Eccteaiastes,  ii 


io-phIl(Wi>phieal 


sQ'lo  (Venice,  1699):  — B-^  OI^B  tlXp,  i- 
oerpts  (ram  hia  eommeniary  on  the  Psalms,  published 
FeDini'a  work,  SriTn  y^,  "  the  tongues  of  gobT* 
(ibid.  1699).  Tbe  MS.  of  hU  complete  commentan- on 
tbe  Psalma  is  lo  be  found  in  the  libraries  of  Paris  ami 
Oxford: — D'<inD  WXi,  "the  bread  of  aacredness,"  in 
alluuon  w  Prov.  ix,  17;  a  eommeniary  on  Daniel  and 
the  five  HegUbth,  vii.  the  Song  of  Songs,  Hull],  lMa~ 
entationa,  I'kclesiastea,  and  Esther  (ibid.  IfiOS).  In  its 
preaent  farm  this  work  ocJy  contaius  fragments  of  Tai- 
Uzak's  commenlaiies  on  three  books,  and  HS8.  of  ihe 
entire  commentaries  are  still  extant;— 3^^K  nv:.  ■ 
commentary  on  Job,  extant :— HIIBI  CpOB,  L  e.  ques- 
tions and  decisions  (ibid.  163£).  See  FHim,  BibLJad. 
iii, 112;  De  Rossi,  Z>utaiuru  5rarini,  p.  314  (Germ. 
IransL) ;  Stein  Schneider,  Caialogai  Libr.  Hibr.  in  /(At 
Sodf.  cuL  153S ;  Kitto,  Ci/dop.  s.  v. ;  Finn,  Stphardim, 
p.  413.     (a  P.) 

Tajas,  SaHI'kl,  bishop  of  Saragoasa,  lived  in  tbe 
7th  century.  In  tbe  year  646  he  weut  lo  Rome  at  tbe 
command  of  king  Chindaswiiith,  and  with  the  aanction 
of  the  seventh  Conncil  of  Toledo,  for  tbe  sake  of  bring- 
ing back  the  long.misaed  Kipoiilio  in  Uiatmm  t.  Mora' 
Hum,  lib.  XXEV,  of  Gregory  I.  According  lo  tiaditinn, 
he  was  shown  in  a  vision  tbe  place  where  it  was  bid- 
den. TajuB  was  also  present  at  the  eighth  and  ninth 
councils  of  Toledo.  Besides  an  Hpitlala  ad  Eageimm 
Toltlaaum  rpiKvpum,  he  also  wrote  Snirnlianm  Ub.  v 
(Migne,  Falrol.  vol.  Ixxx),  containing  extracts  fiwn 
Gregory's  work  on  (a)  God,  creation,  creature,  govtm- 
ment  of  the  world;  (()  ineaination,  Chun:h,  Cbimb 
government ;  (c)  moral  life,  virtues ;  (d)  sins  and  lict* ; 
(<)  sinners,  prince  of  this  world.  Antichrist.  Judgmriii, 
condemnation.  Wherever  Gregory  failed  him.  he  sup- 
plied his  work  from  Augualine's  writings.  Tbe  wutk  is 
preceded  by  a  Prafafio  ad  Qiinaim  Sarriiumatrm 
Kpumpum,  In  whom  the  work  is  dedicated,  together  with 
the  Bapoiuio  Quirki.  Set  Urgeiahirgtr  Conrenatiimi- 
I-rxibm,  a.  v. ;  Tlitalogi*eha  Unirmal  -  Lrxilam,  t.  v. 

<ap.) 

Tolapotiu,  priests  or  friars  of  tbe  Siamese  ind 
other  Indian  nations.  They  reside  in  monasteries  oniler 
the  superintendence  of  a  superior,  whom  they  oil  i 
.Sanerar.  Celibacy  is  obligatory  upon  them,  and  ■  brucb 
of  chastity  in  the  case  of  any  one  of  them  is  punisbfd 
with  death.  They  perform  penance  for  such  of  the  jito- 
ple  as  pay  them  for  iti  are  very  hospitable  to  sinii- 
gers,  and  strict  in  their  rules  of  chastity.  There  in 
also  female  Talapwns,  who  live  according  to  rules  dtDi- 
lar  lo  those  of  the  men.  The  residences  of  the  Ttla- 
(miiis  are  much  superior  lo  thoae  of  the  prieala  in  Crr- 
ion  and  Bunnah,  having  richly  carved  ei 


Talbot.  Pater,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine,  was  tbe 
son  of  sir  William  Talbot,  and  was  bom  in  the  conniv 
of  Dublin  in  1620.  He  entered  the  sodety  of  Jeaoita  in 
Portugal  in  1636;  and  after  studying  philosophy  and  di- 
vinity, went  ittio  buly  orders  at  Rome,  whoice  he  n- 
tumed  lo  Portugal,  and  afterwards  to  Antwerp,  when 
he  read  leclures  on  moral  theology.  He  is  supposnt  m 
be  the  person  who,  in  lfl&6,  reconciled  Charles  Il.tbn 
al  (>>logiie.  lo  the  popish  religion;  and  Charles  is  it- 
ported  Iu  have  sent  him  to  Madrid  to  inform  tht 
court  of  Spain  of  his  conversion.  Sent  to  EngUad  it 
"'"    "  "  ■■  -t     Romish  Church,  be  paid  court  lo 


welUw 


tefunen 


ended  ai 


tgj»- 


,   ,  ii*n«-il  with  bis  VI 

uit,  and  advanced  him  to  the  titular  archtrishopiic  of 
IJublin.  He  immeiliately  began  to  pernecut*  lho«  of 
his  order  who  had  signified  their  loyalty  to  the  kin^ 
quairelled  with  Plunkcl.  the  titular  primate  i  and  wh^ii 
tbe  popish  plot  was  discovered  in  England  in  I67f .  ht 
n  Castle  on  suspicion  ofbeiif 


TALBOT  1 

MPwmtil  in  it,  and  died  there  in  1680.  He  was  ■  mm 
i/ibilii;  and  kaniing.  but  Tain,  imbitioiui,  and  turbu- 
Im.  Amaag  fail  pablicatiocu  ire,  J)e  Katuru  Fidti  el 
ffrrtat,  TractatuM  di  Rtliyiom:—A  TruUut  o/JMig- 
im  imi  Ga^tntmaU  (1670,  *to)  i—LtUtTi  to  Iht  Raman 
I'alioHa  M  iTrland  (Pacu,  1671,  4to).  See  Allibone, 
r>Kt.a/Bnl.<nKlAitr.Aiiliu>rt,t.v.;  Cbalanat, Ittog, 

TalboC  Robert,  DJ).,  to  Engliih  divine  ind  an- 
iKfUtian,  m*  bom  >c  Thorp,  Ni>rthsiiipttHuhire.  and 
w»  MtnilMd  to  New  Collie,  Oifotd,  in  1526.  He  left 
thr  nninnityin  IWO;  in  IMI  wu  made  prebendary 
ii<  Weill;  and  Inanner  of  the  catliednl  church  of  Nor- 
■iefa,  A|vi)  9, 16i7,  which  poution  ho  retained  until  hit 
.l^th,  Aug.  27,  ISMt.  lie  wai  a  diligent  searcher  into 
ihr  inliquiiica  ot  hii  countty,  tun)  his  ooUectiDns  proved 
at  great  Mrrice  to  Leltnd,  Bale,  Caiua,  Camden,  and 
xhera.  He  al»  fumiihed  archbiabop  Parker  with 
ruuijr  Saxm  boekK     He  wu  the  fIrM  Engllshioan 

ingi  and  nolea,  but  hia  a&tti  reach  only  to  the  aixth 


Talbot.  BaiOMOO,  D.D.,  I  Baptiit  miniater,  wu 
bom  near  Uttana,  O^  Jnne  28,  1828,  and  was  a  grad- 
uau  of  Granville  College,  now  DeoiHin  Univemiti ,  O., 
in  186i,  and  of  Newton  Theological  loatitule  in  IS&5. 
lie  wai  Dcdaiaed  in  1856,  and  was  pastor  or  the  Bap- 
iLi  Chunih  in  Dayton,  O.,  eight  yearn,  1856-64,  and 
vu  then  appointed  president  of  Deiiiaon  University, 
■hicb  poaitiun  he  held  oniil  hit  death,  which  occurred 
1  XewtoD  Centre,  Mass..  June  29,  I8T3,  President  Tal- 
!■«  aas  an  accoini<liiihed  achiilai,  ■  pror«ind  thinker, 
udbade  bir  to  stand  in  the  very  front  rank  of  acholan 

Talbot  William,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  wai 
Isra  at  StourlDB  Castle  in  I6b3,  aai  in  1674  entered  ai 
a  fCtntknun  coininofier  of  Oriel  Collie,  Oxford.  After 
gndaatioa  be  entered  holy  order*,  aud  in  the  logii  of 
king  Jamea  il  preached  anil  acted  with  great  leal against 
lupefj.  In  April,  1691,  he  was  nominated  to  thedean- 
HT  of  Womster,  and  Sept.  21,  1699,  was  advanced  to 
ihV  bishopric  of  Uxfard.  He  was  iranslaled  to  the 
balnpric  of  Ssrum,  April  23,  1715 ;  and  in  September, 
l7Ji  sas  tiaiulaled  lo  that  of  Durham,  of  which  coiin- 
IT  be  was  made  lord-lieutenant  and  cutloa  rotulorum. 
lie  died  Oct.  10, 173a  There  are  in  print  two  speeches 
•f  U*  ia  the  Hoose  of  Lords,  and  a  volume  of  Strmau 
IHvo). 

Talant.  reproenting  the  Greek  raXavrin;  I^U  la- 
IrVask  il  the  rendering  of  the  Heb.  and  Chald.  HiUiir, 
~:t,  a  dnit.  the  coin  being  no  doubt  of  that  form.  It 
<rai  the  largest  weight  among  the  Hebrews,  being  used 
im  netals.  whether  gold  (I  Kingi  ix,  14;  x,  10,  etc), 
lilnr  (2  Kingi  »,  M).  lead  (Zech.  v,  7),  bronie  {Exod. 
iiCTiii,  »),  or  iron  (I  Chion.  xiii,  7),  A  hiU  suffi- 
nm  (or  the  rite  of  a  city  waa  nld  for  two  talents  of 
■ilntO  lungs  xvi.  24);  and  for  1000  talents  of  silver 
tb*  fiiindship  of  the  Aasj-rian  king  waa  purchased  (2 
KisKs  XV,  19} ;  another  Aiayrian  king  laid  the  kingdom 
of  Jwtab  under  a  tribute  of  300  Uleuta  of  silver  and 
K  ol  gokl  (xviii,  14) ;  a  similar  tribute  impoant  by  an 
LjtTpiitn  king  cunsisteil  of  100  talents  of  silver  and  one 
UkD<afgold(xxiii.33);  the  crown  ofan  Amtnonitiah 
U^;  weighed  oik  Ulenl  of  gold  (2  Sam.  xli,  30).  The 
■iTBluteniilaofthe  Tabernacle  ami  theXemple  amount- 
fl  to  oiaiiy  uirnts  of  silver  and  gold  (Exod.  xxv,  3!) ; 
mviii,  21,  25,  27;  I  Kings  ii,  14,  etc.).  But  there 
nnt  be  some  error  In  the  numbers  at  1  Cbron.  xxix 
IV  Kittu, /V(.  ;;iiiJr.  note  ad  inc.).  .See  Nitmbkfl  In 
<V  pat-exilian  period,  likewise,  talents  were  a  mode 
•feunalkn  (I  Mace,  xi,  28;  xiii,  16,  19;  xr,  81;  2 
lbc.i)i,4.S,et&).  In  tbe  New  Teat,  the  Uient  only 
■on  to  a  pnable  (Matt,  xxv,  1&  aq.),  and  aa  an  esil- 
Mt  of  a  sume's  weight  (Rev.  xri,  21).  From  Kx»<l. 
aiiiii,  2J.  26.  it  ap[iears  thai  ooe  talent  wai  eqiiivs- 


15  TALLENTS 

lent  lo  BOOO  shekels  of  the  aanctnaty  (Schmidt,  BM. 
Malhm.  p,  183;  Bdokh,  MrtxTl.  UTiltrt.  p.  65).  See 
Shrkhu  As  the  mina  (q.  v.)  consisted  of  60  aacred 
shekels,  it  follows  that  the  talent  was  equal  to  60  mi- 
na, just  aa  tbe  Attic  talent  had  60  mine.    See  Mb- 

TALENT  figuratively  aigoiGea  any  gift  or  opportunity 
God  gives  to  men  for  the  promotion  of  his  glory.  "  Ev- 
erything almost,"  saya  Mr,  Scott, "  that  we  are,  or  po»- 
aeta,  or  tneet  with,  may  be  conaidered  as  a  tafait ;  fur  a 
good  or  a  had  use  may  he  made  of  every  natural  rn< 
dowroetit,  or  provideotial  appointment,  or  they  may  re- 
ipied  through  inactivity  and  aelflshuess. 


h,  vigor 


ofbi 


■r  of  es 


and  enduring  fatigue — the  natural  and  acquired  abili- 
ties of  tbe  mind,  skill  in  any  lawful  art  or  science,  and 
the  capacity  for  close  mental  spplicstLon  —  tbe  gift  of 
speech,  and  that  of  apeaking  with  fluency  and  propri- 
ety, and  in  a  convincing,  attractive,  or  perauaaive  man- 
ner— wealth,  influence,  or  authority — a  man's  Biliiation 
in  the  Church,  tbe  community,  or  reUtive  life— and  the 
various  occurrences  which  make  way  for  him  to  attempt 
anything  of  a  beneficial  tendency;  these,  and  many  oth- 
ers that  can  ecarcely  be  enumerated,  are  talenta  which 
the  conustent  Christian  will  improve  to  the  glory  of 
God  and  the  benelit  of  mankind.  Nay,  thia  improve- 
ment  procures  an  increase  of  talenta,  and  gives  a  man 

of  doing  good;  because  it  lenda  to  eatahliah  hia  repu- 
tation fur  prudence,  piety,  integrity,  aincerity,  and 
diaintereated  benevolence:  il  gradually  forma  him  to 
an  bsbitual  resdiness  to  engsge  in  beneficent  designs, 
and  to  conduct  them  in  a  genOt,  unobtrusive,  and 
unasraming  manner;  it  diapoaea  othera  lo  regard 
him  with  increasing  confidence  and  aStetion,  and  Ui 
approach  him  with  satisfaction;  and  it  piocuns  for 
him  the  countenance  of  many  persona  wboae  assistance 
he  can  employ  in  aecompliabing  his  own  nlutary  pnr- 

Talifiola,  Lex  (lav  of  retaliatian).  This  wu  a 
Roman  Law  lo  the  effect  "Tbat  if  any  one  called  an- 
other man's  credit,  or  fortune,  or  life,  or  blood  into  ques- 
tion in  Judgment,  and  could  not  make  oat  tbe  crime  al- 
leged against  him,  he  shoidd  Buffer  the  same  penally 
that  he  intended  to  bring  upon  the  other."  Although 
tbe  eccleeiaitical  law  cuuid  not  inflict  the  punishment 

yet  such  false  leatiioony  was  esrly  reputed  by  the 
Church  as  the  highest  specica  both  of  calumny  and 
murder,  snd  oonsequeully  brought  such  witnesses  under 
all  the  ecclesiastical  peJislti»  due  to  those  crimea.— 
Bingham,  C/iHM.  A  ntig.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  x,  %  9. 

TaUtI).    See  Fbinoe. 

Tal'ltba  Cn'ml  ( roAiSa  loiip ;  Aiaro.  »n''ia 
^pap,  Itiilhd  tiimi),  two  Syriac  words  (Hark  v,  41) 
signifying  "  Damsel,  arise."  The  word  MD^Va  occnrs 
in  tile  Chald.  psrsphrase  of  Prov.  ix,  8,  where  it  aigni- 
fies  a  girl:  and  Lightfoot  (ffenn  ««4.Mark  v,41)  givea 

writer.  Geseniua  {Thttaiir.  p.  550)  derives  it  from  the 
Hebrew  nba,  <i  lamb.  The  word  iialp  is  both  He- 
brew  and  Syriac  (2  p.  fem.  imperstive,  Ksl,  snd  Peal), 
signifying  ilimd,  ariir,  Aa  might  be  expected,  Ihe  last 
clauae  of  thia  veise,  after  Cumi,  is  nol  found  in  the  Syr- 
iac version.  Jerome  (JSp,  In'i  ud  PamiiMckium,  Opp,  i, 
3(M  [ed.  Vallars])  records  that  Mnrk  was  blamed  for  a 
false  trinalatinn  on  accountuf  the  insertion  of  the  wonlx 

iiance  of  the  superiority  of  a  free  over  a  literal  transU- 
tion,  inaimiich  as  the  words  inserlrd  serve  lo  show  the 
emphasis  of  our  Lord'a  manner  in  giving  thia  command 

Tallenta,  Fiiancik,  an  eminent  Nonconformist  di- 
vine, was  bnm  at  Paisley,  ni^r  Chesterflcld.  F.nglnn''. 
November,  lGI!i,and  wan  wlueated  anhejuilili';*'!"'"!* 


TALLEYHA.su  V 

of  Huutteld  rod  Newuk.    H«  enlereil  ret«rbo(ue,Giin- 

btid^  but  being  clioaen  aubtulor  tn  the  sons  of  the  earl 
of  Suffolk,  removed  to  Magdalen  College,  of  wbich  he 
altenvanjs  became  rellon,  iienior  fellow,  mil  proidenC 
In  1648  be  was  ordained  at  LoDdon  in  tbe  Presbj-lcrian 
form,  and  In  1662  became  miniiter  orSt.  Mary's,  Sbrews- 
bury.  At  tbe  Kestoration,  not  wisbing  to  be  le-orriain- 
ed,  be  was  ejected,  and  in  16TS  returned  Ui  Shrewsbury, 
and  became  pastor  of  a  Dissenling  oangregation  there. 
He  died  April  11,  1708,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Mary's, 
Shrewsbury.  He  publiihed,  Vittr  ofVtarenal  Hulory 
to  1700(Lond.  1700,  foL ) :— Siorf  Hitlory  of  Bdmm 
(1705,  Bvo):— CowidrrolHinl  on  S.  Ganoomt'l  Annoer. 
SeeChalmen,  JJid^. /.Mc<.e.F.;  AUibone,  Oirf.  o/ Srif. 
aad  A  mer.  A  ulkorl,  >.  V. 

TaUeyroDd  (de  Pj^rioord),  Alaxuidre  An- 
gdliqas,  a  noted  French  prelate,  »a>  bom  in  Paris, 
Ocul6, 17S6,and  after  a  course  oT  education  at  the  Col- 
lege de  ta  Flbche,  the  Seminary  ot  St.  Sulpice,  and  un- 
der the  direction  of  abbe  Bourliet,  became  one  of  the 
almonen  of  the  king,  later  vicar-general  of  Verdun,  and 
(in  1762)  abbot  of  Giid  (diocese  of  Amiens).  Having 
been  oboeen  coadjutor  of  the  archbishop  of  Rheims,  be 
was  consecrated  at  Kume,  SepU  26,  1766,  under  tbe  title 
of  archbishop  of  Troyanople  in  partibur.  lie  succeeded 
lo  the  archbishopric  of  Hheims  Oct.  27, 1777,  and  wn 
very  active  in  improving  his  diocese,  as  well  as  in  pub- 
lie  and  ecclesiastical  functions,  sharing  the  varied  fort- 
unes of  tbe  Church  and  State  during  tbe  atonuy  period 
uTlhe  French  Kevolutioo.  After  having  been  a  refugee 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Brussels,  and  other  places,  he  was 
recalled  in  1803,  and  on  July  28  was  made  cardinal,  and 
on  Aug.  S  following  biiihop  of  Paris,  where  be  died,  Oct. 
30, 1821.     See  Hoefer,  .Voui.  Biog.  Grnirah,  a.  v. 

TalleTTOnd  (i>e  PriHiuoMH).  Bile,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  P^rigueux  in  1301,  and  was  educated 
for  tbe  priesthood  at  the  school  of  Sl  Front  in  that 
town.  He  became  successively  archdeacon  of  Piri- 
gueux,  dean  of  Richmond  (diocese  of  York),  abbot  of 
Chancelas,  and  (Oct.  10,  VSli)  bishop  of  Umoges.  al- 
though be  was  not  consecrated  because  of  his  youth; 
■nd  in  1S28  he  waa  tranaiated  to  the  see  of  Auxcne, 
though  he  continued  to  reside  at  Oudan,  engaged  in  lit- 
erary studies.  He  was  created  cardinal  May  23,  1331, 
and  theoraforth  became  active  in  public  affairs,  iu 
which  be  axperieuced  many  remarkable  adventures. 
He  died  at  Avignon,  Jan.  17, 1864,  leaving  a  vast  fon- 
une.     See  Uoefer,  A'obb.  Biog.  G^irate,  s.  v. 

TolUa,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  Knglisb  niuiician, 
flourished  about  tbe  middle  of  the  16th  century.  Un- 
der queen  Elizabeth  he  became  geuileman  of  tbe  royal 
chapel  and  organist.  Although  he  was  a  diligent 
nillector  of  musical  anliquitip',  and  a  careful  peni- 
»er  of  the  works  of  other  men,  his  compositions  are  an 
truly  original  that  he  may  justly  be  said  to  be  the 
father  uf  the  cathedral  style.  Nutwilhstanding  his 
supposed  altachmenl  to  the  Romiah  religion,  it  seems 
that  1'sllis  accommodated  himself  and  bis  studies  to  the 
allerRtiuns  introduced  at  the  Reformation.  Wilh  this 
view,  ho  set  lo  mu«c  those  pans  of  the  English  liturgy 
which  at  that  lime  were  deemed  most  proper  to  be 
sung,  vii.  the  two  moniing  services — the  one  compre- 
hending the  Vtnilf  Erulianut,  Tt  iJtum,  and  /Iniedic- 
ttti ;  and  the  other,  which  ii  part  of  the  communion 
ofBce,  conMSting  of  the  Kj/rie  Eltiutn,  h'icmt  Ci'rtd, 


the    MogniJUat    and    Suae    Dim 


He 


service  is  performed.  The  services  of  Tallis  contain 
also  chants  fur  the  IVntfe  Exullemut  and  the  Creed 
of  SI.  Aihananut,  two  of  which  are  published  in 
Dr.  lloyce's  Cathedral  Muiie,  voL  i.  HeHides  the  of- 
fices s'bove  mentioned,  consiiiuting  what  are  now 
urmed  the  morning,  communion,  and  evening  services, 


IB  TALMUD 

In  four  parts,  with  the  pcecea,  teapnnses,  ami  litaiiv, 
Tallia  composed  tnany  anthems.  He  died  Nov.  33, 
1&8G,  and  was  buried  in  the  parish  chnrch  oT  Green- 
wich, in  Kent. 

TalmaKe,  SAtrrsr.  Keitiicdt,  D.D.,  a  Preabvterian 
divine,wasboraatSomerville,N.J„Decll,  ITStt.  Hi 
graduated  St  the  College  ofKewJerseyin  IttaO;  taiiglit 
in  an  academy  for  two  yean;  was  tutor  in  tbe  CoUrEe 
of  New  Jersey  for  three  years,  eitiploying  hie  leisure 
boars  in  studying  theology  privately ;  was  licensed  and 
ordained  an  evangelist  in  1825  by  tbe  Newtoo  Preaby- 
teryt  labored  as  a  miaaionary  at  Hambon;  uid  other 
points  in  Edgefield  District. S.C.,  for  one  year;  in  18S7 
was  a  colleague  with  the  Rev.  S.  &  Davia,  D.D.,  in  sup- 
plying the  First  Presbyterian  Chnrch  at  August*,  (j*.: 
in  1828  became  pastor  of  tbe  Aagusu  Church  ;  in  1K36 
was  elected  professor  of  languages  in  Oglethorpe  Uni- 
versity, which  chair  be  held  until  1840,  when  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  institution,  where  he  cnntinued 
to  labor  until  IS6S,when  his  health  failed.  He  die<l 
Sept  2, 1866.  Dr.  Talmage  was  an  able  minister,  a  fin 
scholar,  and  a  succeiaful  inslruclor.  See  Wilson,  Frttb. 
HiH.  Almaiutc,  1866,  p.  868, 

Tal'mai  (Heb.  Talnag',  ^-Ari^/yrrmeed  f  Geaeni- 
u*]  or  boil  [Fllr8t,who  comp.  eoXofiaioCi  Joaephns, 
A  ttl.  xiv,  8, 1 ;  Ba|>-SaXa;in;oc.  Hatl.  a.  81 ;  Sept.  OaX- 
liai,  HoX/ii,  OiXapiiv,  eoXofin!,  etc ;  Vulg.  Tkotmiii  or 
T'AoJomuf ).  the  name  of  two  men. 

1,  Last  named  of  the  three  gigantic  "sons  of  Aiiak' 


polled  by  Ca- 


in Hebron  (Numb. 
leb  (Josh,  xr,  14)  aou  siain 
by  the  Judshites  (Judg.  i, 
10).  EC1618.  Ithasbeen 
thought  that  these  people 
are  depicted  on  tbe  Egyp- 

light-complenoned  race. 
In  the  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tion they  are  named  Tatt- 
naku,  which  may  be  the 
Egyptian  retidering  of  tbe 
Hebrew  word  Talmai,  al- 
lowing for  the  interchange 
of  the  liquid  J  for  n,  so  con- 
stant in  all  languages.  Tbe 
figure  is  From  a  picture  on  a 
wall  of  the  tomb  of  Aime- 
nepthah  I,  supposed  lo  rep- 


Hitrogiyphict- 

2.  Son  of  Ammihud  and  king  nfGeshnr  (3  Sam.  iii, 
3;  xiii,37;  1  Chrun.  ill,  2).  RC  1045.  Hisdausbier 
Maacbahwaguneofthe  wives  of  David  and  mot  her  ul 
Absalom.  He  was  probably  a  petty  chieftain  dependent 
on  David,  and  his  wild  retreat  in  Basban  aflbrded  a  ahet 
ter  lo  bis  grandson  after  the  aiwaaninntinn  of  Amnoo, 
See  David. 

Tal'mon  (Heb.  Talmo«;  ;il3^e,  opprttor;  Sept 
TiXftiiv  and  TeXo/iiV  v.  r.  TtXfirif,  ToX/iui-,  TfXu^eiv! 
Vulg.  Trlmm\  the  head  ofa  family  of  door-keepers  ii 
the  Temple, "the  potters  for  Ihe  camps  of  [he  sc 
l^vi"  (1  Chroii.  ix,  17 ;  Neh.  xi,  19).  RC.  1013. 
*  ■  *    descendants  relumed  with  Zerubbabel  (E«™  3 


45),  and  were  employed 


1  their  her 
d  Ezra  (Keh.  x 


Talmnd(1=i^Vn.  («/™id,dnrt>Tw;  fhim  TO^,  "^ 
tCBcli").    TbeTslmud,  "that  wonderful  mo 
human   industry,  human  wiadom,  and   human    fallj 
(Milman),  is  the  work  which  embodies  Ihe  canoiii 
and  rivil  taws  of  the  Jews.     It  consists  of 


TALMUD  II 

tuks  and  iUuatndoiu,  cillcd  in  the  man  modem  He- 
bnw  tfaraa,  uii)  in  Anmue  Gtmara,  "the  oomple- 
toaa.'  at  " completioD,"  rrom  "ISI,  "to  roike  perfect." 
JImux  the  mea  wbo  ddivend  theae  deciaive  commeii- 
cirie*  are  called  Gemanils,  BometimeB  UoihIid,  but 
nwra  oomiaaalj  Amanlm. 

L  Hitlorji  md  Com/KMifion.— The  Jeira  divided  their 

(lined  the  Feutateueh,  TrtvranvxoCi  nD'<33n,  ^CdH 
mm,  or  tbe  3n339  n^in,  rfr&iim  Dei  tcrip<am, 
■TIMfac;  tl<^  Utui  was  haoded  down  orally,  (he 
Tit  iTSS  mm,  trapatoilti,  Btrium  Dti  non  tcrip- 
iiH,  offM^c.  Some  Jewg  have  anigned  (be  same 
uiliquity  H»  both,  alleging  tbat  Moaea  received  (hem 
.«  lloaa(  Knai,  and  (hat  Joshua  received  the  oral  law 
ttoa  Uowa,  who  innsmitud  it  to  the  aevenly  etden ; 
■ibI  thtse  again  traDimitled  it  lo  the  men  uf  the  Great 
S'oagaguT,  tbe  loatarwhom  naa  Simon  tbe  Just  (q.  v.)- 
I'roD  th«  men  of  tbe  Great  Synagogue  it  came  into 
ilMpaaaeaaiDnorthe  rabbinn  dll  Judah  Che  Holy  (q.  v), 
-vlw  embodied  in  the  celebrated  code  o(  tcidttioDal 
laiT,  or  Hiihna,  all  tbe  authorized  inlerpretationa  of 
(be  Moaaic  law,  tbe  traditiona  and  decisiona  of  the 
iomed,  and  the  precedenti  of  the  courla  or  schools;  or, 
a>  HoiH  Uaimoaidea  (q.  r.)  atalea,  in  his  pivface  to 
Jbt  Uiabna  (Srdrr  Ztraim),  "  From  Mows  our  Richer 
CD  oar  boly  labbi  no  one  baa  united  in  a  sing^  body  of 
diruiBS  what  was  publicly  taught  as  the  oral  law  ;  but 
•B  iverv  Keneralion  the  chief  of  the  tribunal,  or  the 
fnplMt  of  ha  day.  made  memoranda  of  what  he  had 
iteaid  frorp  his  preilecessura  and  instructors,  and  com- 

indindaal  cimimitied  to  writing  for  bia  own  use,  and 
aooordiag  to  the  degree  of  hia  aUlicy,  the  oral  laws  and 
tbe  inlbrmaiiiiii  be  had  received  reipecting  the  intei^ 
(nUiHo  of  the  Bible,  with  the  varioua  decision!  (hat 
liad  been  pronounced  in  every  age  and  sanctified  by  the 
nokority  of  the  gnat  tribunal  Such  was  the  form  of 
(mcndiag  until  our  rabbi  the  boty,  who  first  collected 
all  tbt  traditions,  the  judgments,  tbe  ■entences.and  the 
eipaitioD*  oTtbe  law,  heard  by  Hoses  our  master,  and 
uoght  in  each  generation."  There  is,  no  donbt,aome 
vritb  in  this  as  to  a  few  elementaiy  principles  of  He- 
Inw  uiage  and  practice,  both  dvil  and  religious;  but 
■he  whole  of  the  unwritten  law  cannot  have  this  |iri- 
•nKilisl  ra^iesiy,  for,  without  referring  to  the  trivial  and 
tailiib  ehancter  of  many  of  iia  appoiiitroenta,  we  know 
ilui  Hidraahim,  or  explanationa  and  amplifications  of 
Bibbcal  upica,  wen  of  gndual  growth.  Their  com- 
wtiKHBent  date*  prior  to  the  chronicle  writer,  becauae 
fee  nftts  to  works  of  that  nature  (2  Chron.  xin.  Ti; 
uir.  B).  The  aystem  of  inujipretation  which  they 
euspiify  and  embody  existed  in  the  age  of  the  so- 
oUcd  .Vtyrlm'x,  or  scribes,  who  look  the  place  of  the 
Vnphcia.  The  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  promoted 
it.  tt  prevailed  from  the  Asmoniean  period  till  that  of 
Hadrian,  Le.  about  3O0  yean.  The  Midtash  wss  nai- 
■rally  tiaple  at  Aral,  but  it  soon  grew  loore  compreben- 
nce  and  complicated  under  a  variety  of  iiifiueoeea,  of 
wluch  controversy  was  not  the  least  powerful.  When 
*eRl  meanings,  hidden  wisdom,  deep  knowledge,  were 
-naebt  in  tke  letter  uf  Scripture,  the  Midtsshim  ihaped 
'bSBneltes  accordingly,  and  a  distinction  in  their  con- 
tnu  canlA  be  made.  Thus  they  have  been  divided 
isu.  Ike  //alaidi,  nsbn,  "the  rule,"  and  HagadSh, 
'ren,"wljal  u  «ud."  Legal  prescriptions  formed  the 
Halaksh.  free  inteipntatiooa  the  Hagadah.  The  one.  ai 
•  rait  of  oadacE,  «aj(  be  aOetdrd  (o  ,■  the  other  merely 
MHdfgraoiwbl^aasii  The  one  was  permanent  and 
tsxneded  fmm  anthoritative  sources,  from  achools,  the 
■rarhcrs  of  iha  law,  etc;  the  other  was  the  product  of 
'•4iridaal  minds,  consisting  of  iileas  which  hsd  oflen 
■>  other  object  than  of  being  expressed  at  the  moment. 
T\a  oUest  collection  of  Halaknth— that  i^  the  oldest 
Ibhoa-pnceeded  frocD  tbe  Khool  of  HiUel.    Kahbi 


TALMCD 


Akiba,  who  was  sUin  in 
have  composed  Miahnic  regulations.  The  school  of 
K.  Simon  ten-Gamaliel  (q.  v.),  A.D.  I G6,  who  waa  a  de- 
scendant of  Hillel,  collected  and  wfted  the  exiiting  ma- 
leriala  of  the  oral  law.  The  present  Mishna  proceeded 
from  the  handa  of  R.  Judah  the  Holy  (q.  v.),  son  and 
successor  of  R.  KmoD  ben-UamalieL  The  title  of  Ju- 
dah's  work  is  simply  J/uAnoA,  njsa,  jEt>rtpwai£  (from 
mo, "  to  repeat"), "  repetition,"  like  the  Arabic  Jf ufAon 
(Koran,  xv,  87  ;  ixxix,  84),  that  is,  either  (consider- 
ing tbe  divine  law  aa  twofold,  written  and  traditional) 
the  second  branch  of  tbe  twofold  law,  or  else  the  law 
given  in  a  second  form,  as  an  explicative  and  practi- 
cal development  of  it  (comp.  Grfttz,  Geid,  d.  Judea,  iv, 
419). 
The  work  ilaelf  ia  composed  of  the  following  ele- 

1.  Pure  MlihiM  (reVS),  the  eluddstton  of  the  funda- 
inentsl  text  of  the  Mosaic  Isws,  and  their  application  to 
na  endless  variety  of  partlcnlar  cases  and  clrcumstaocea 
not  Dieuiloned  In  them. 

a.  ?aIaUA  (l-lsVn),  the  nsages  snd  cnstoms  of  Jnda- 
Ism,  as  sanctioned  sud  couBrmed  by  time  and  general  ao- 
qnleaceuce. 

B.  ZX»nv  CAotemlm  (Q'<nDn  "^Sl),  law  prlnclplas  of 
the  wise  men  ur  sages,  I,  e.  Ihs  ancient,  and  at  that  time 
the  more  teceol,  leachen.  b>  whose  declalona  Itae  people's 
respect  for  them  gave  a  greater  or  leaa  weight. 

4.  Ilaa^liyil^  (PI^CFa),  practical  facts, coDcliialoDeat- 
rived  St  b;  the  coarse  of  sveota. 

L  OairMli  (ni1^13>,  eiMmporaneoDs  decisions  de- 
msnded  by  emergencies. 

(.  Tttanitk  (^Mpri),  modlflcaUans  of  uaages  tu  meat 


1.  rtrusMst  (D^WIITI,  "interpretatlnns"  given  to 
Hoses  by  Ond,  the  anthurllj  of  which  hae  never  bean 
dlspnled  (B''3B  01103  Bn3  npltriTS  T'M). 

a.  HaiaUhUMMiM  jnu-sini]/  fj^cis  non^  ns^rti, 

"precepts  delivered  to  Uoaea  on  Hmui  Hlnal."a  dlailnc- 
llon  which  gslned  the  applsnae  of  nil  theciasslcnl  rabblna, 
because  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  nndisputed  decislona 

t.  Tboas  wblcb  bave  admlKed  of  dlsCDsslan,  and  ths 
vnlne  and  weight  ufwblch  have  been  mnlDly  detsrmlnad 
by  sn  eilenalTS  consent  among  the  anthoritles. 

t.  Qaar6A  (Hllll),  "declalona'  which  bave  been  mads 
by  Ibe  wise  men  nsifardlUK  aome  of  the  written  laws,  and 
which  decisions  are  designed  to  Insure  more  (tally  Ibe  ob- 
servance of  sDcb  Iswa  (or  to  make  a  fence  about  tbe  law, 

niini  s^o  rinsb  ^iD). 

S.  'ntanilhl.ri'iipn),  "aiperlm«nUI  suggestions,"  re- 
ferring to  things  recommended  or  enjoined  by  particular 
msslera,  which  though  they  may  not  possess  tbe  stringent 

(OrmaUoD  of  social  and  religions  hsblls  and  usages. 

In  constructing  bis  work,  Jehndah.or  Judah.  arranged 
theae  manifold  materials  under  six  general  classes,  called 
Sedarlm  (0''T1D),  or  orders.  The  first  is  called  Zeraim 
(B"*  J^T),or  "seeds,"  and  treats  of  agricultural  laws :  the 
second,  ifSed  (1513),  or  "festivals,"  or  "solemnity," 
treats  of  the  Sabbath  and  (he  annual  festivala  and  boiy- 
days,  the  duties  of  their  observance,  and  the  various  en- 
actments and  prohibitions  thereunto  pertaining;  the 
third,  A"o»*im  (BIO)), nr  "women,"  treats  of  the  inler- 
coiiree  between  the  sexes,  of  hnsbsnd  and  wife,  (he 
dutiea  of  a  brother-in-law  towards  his  widowed  and 
childless  sister-in-law,  tbe  right  of  untying  the  shoe 
(Ueuc  XXV.  Fi),  of  dowry  and  marriage  seltteme»i>s  of 
eapouaals,  divorces,  and  of  all  the  laws  to  these  snlijwt* 
respectively  appertaining;  Che  fourth,  Nnikiu  ('"P""  ■ 


TALMUD  1( 

oc"injari»,"trMU  ortbe  Uwt  of  propeny  (moTable  as 
well  u  immovable)  uid  of  commerce ;  the  linh,  Koda- 
ikiia  (Q'^S^p).  or  "cooKcrations,"  treau  of  ucriSce* 
and  Iheir  laws;  the  aiith,  ToMarSlk  [or  rather  Toko- 
nSrA]  (m"nna),or"piirific«tio[u,"treateofthe  law*  of 
pureneu,  legal  duDoeu,  and  thaC  bach  poaitively  and 
npgativdy.  The  initial  letlera  ofcheM  titles  combined, 
for  Che  sake  of  memary,  give  die  lechnical  word  Zmdn 
ndta  (Qpl  IST),  "a  time  accepted." 

TliG  regulations  thus  generally  duaiftcd  are  further 
■irangei]  under  a  multilude  of  uibsidiary  topics,  each 
Sider,  or  order,  being  diviileil  into  a  number  of  uacU  or 
treatises,  called  JUiutit>6lli  (nlnSDO),  and  these  v«re 
again  subdivided  into  Peraldm  (D^p*1B),  chapton. 
The  latter  again  are  divided  or  broken  up  into  para- 
graphs. Altogether  there  are  63  Jf uuib^,  with  626 
chapter!  and  4187  parasrapha.  in  the  Hiahna.  The 
whole  is  calkd  Hhiii  (OS),  afUr  the  initials  of  noa 
C^*^'nS,i.&tbe  six  orders.  Siiux  a  general  aoalyuB  of 
thecontentsorthcMiahnahas  already  been  given  under 
the  sn.  HisHNA  (q.  v.).  w*  tnasl  refer  the  reader  to  it, 
while  a  more  minute  analvus  will  be  given  farther  on. 

R  Juilsh's  Mishna,  however,  did  not  contain  all  Mid- 
rashim.  Many  others  existed,  which  are  contained  in 
part  in  the  Siphra  on  Leviticus,  Sipin  on  Numbeii 
and  UeuteronoTny.  iftrhtba  on  Exodus  (see  the  arc. 
Hmirasii),  the  Mishuas  made  by  individual  teachers 
for  the  use  of  their  pupila,  with  the  addition  to  the  offi- 
cial Misbna  collected  by  R.  Chiya  and  hia  contempora- 
ries. All  the  Halakoth  of  this  sort,  which  were  ex- 
tra-Mi>hiiaic,  were  called  Sorailhai  (nln^^^S;  Heb. 
n^SIS^n)  or  Totiphlai  (ninBOin).  Aa  has  been 
slated,  It.  Judah  the  Holy  collected  the  great  mass 
iif  traditions  in  the  work  called  Mishna;  but  even  thia 
copious  work  cnuld  not  satisfy,  for  the  length  of  time, 
the  zeal  of  the  rabbins  for  the  law,  for  all  casuistry  is 
endless  in  ics  ileiaila.  There  were  a  great  multitude  of  all 
kiiiiis  of  poasibiitties  which  were  treated  in  the  tlishna, 
and  yet,  again,  each  single  sentence  left  open  divers  pos- 
sibilities, divers  doubt*,  and  conNderations  not  yet  An- 
ished.  Thus  it  was  an  inner  necessity  of  the  natter  that 
the  text  of  the  Mishna  ahould  again  became  the  pninc 
of  learned  diacuseion.  Partly  by  means  oriogic  (that  is, 
Babbinical),partly  with  the'helpof  the  traditional  mat- 
ter, which  had  not  yet  been  included  tn  the  Mishna,  all 
open  quesCioni  were  now  diacuseed.  This  Cask  was  car- 
ried out  by  the  Atnoraim.  or  Gemarical  doclora,  whose 
vf'-y  lingtilar  illunlratimis,  opinions,  and  doctrines  were 
subsequently  to  fornj  the  Geinaias,  L  e.  the  Palestinian 
and  Itabylonian:  a  body  of  men  charged  with  being  the 
most  learned  and  elaborate  triflers  that  ever  brought 
discredit  upon  the  repuUic  of  lelteii — 

"  For  mystic  learning,  wondrous  able 


Dcep-sluhiH  lo 


itelllneuce. 


With  unexampled  assiduity  did  they  seek  after  or  in- 
vent obscurities  and  amliii^uitiea,  which  cimtinually  fur- 
nished pretexts  for  new  expuutions  and  illuBtraiiuns. 
the  art  of  clouding  texts  in  themselves  clear  having 
less  difficult  than  that  of  elucidating  pas- 


I  obscurity. 


le  sense  of  which  might  be  really 


"  He" 


onled  spiders  draw  the  Himsy  line  I" 
The  Iw"  main  schools  where  this  casuistic  trpatmentof 
the  Mishnic  text  was  exercised  were  that  at  Tiberias,  in 
Palestine,  and  that  at  Sora  (q.v.),in  Babylonia,  whither 
Abba  Areka,  called  "  Rab"  (q.  v.),  a  pnpil  of  K.  Judah, 
had  brought  the  Mishna.  In  these  and  other  schools 
(as  Nahardea,  Sipporis,  Fumhaditha  [r|.  v.].  and  Jabni 


ia),t 


explain  wbkb  tl 


TALMUD 


Che  Sciiptiire  text,  to  iltusti 

doctors  and  wise  men  of  the  schools  h 

bored,  succesaive  generations  of  Gtmirid  now  devoteiL 

their  whole  attention  to  the  exposition  of  the  text  oT 

Che  Mishna;  and  the  industrj'and  caviUation  weresuctk 

plied  with  amaiing  rapidity  and  to  so  ponenlous  a 
degree  that  they  eventually  swelled  into  a  monstrous 
'  ic  mass,  which  was  dignified  by  the  name  of 
ira,  X^aS  (lapplrmtnt  or  compfrfnaifl,  and  this,  to- 
gether with 'the  Mishna,  was  called  "Talmud."  Not- 
withstanding the  uncertain  paternity  of  this  incongru- 
otu  body  of  opinions,  there  were  not  wanting  those  wbo- 
gave  a  preferenee  to  the  Geman  over  tlie  Uiahna,  and. 
even  over  the  "  written  law."  It  was  aaid  by  some  that 
the  "written  law"  was  like  water,  the  Mishna  like  wine. 
and  the  Geman  like  hippocrs,  or  spiced  wine.  Th* 
"words  of  the  acribei,"said  those  supporters  of  the  t!e- 
mara,  are  lovely  above  the  "  words  of  the  law,"  for  the 
"  words  of  the  law"  am  treigkly  and  lighl,  but  the  "  woidl 
nf  the  scribes"  are  all  weighty. 

It  was  by  B.  Jochanan,  rector  of  tbe  Academy  of  H- 
beiiaa,  Chat  the  minor  chaos  of  comments  and  farriiB 
began  to  be  oolkcled :  and  these,  being  added  to  the 
Hiahna,  wen  Urmed  the  Palaliman  Talmad,  iir  TaU 
mudJemkalMi,  \.  e.  Jeruaalen  Talmud.  This  Talmud, 
which  was  completed  at  Tiberias  about  A.D.  OM.  only 
contains  four  orders,  vix.,  Zemtm,  MAid,  A'asAim,  anil 
A'atHB,  together  with  Che  treaiiae  A'uMaji  and  some  oth- 
er fragmentary  portions.    From  the  schotds  of  Babylo- 

bal,  as,  upon  the  desolation  of  Palestine,  the  study  nf 
the  law  was  chiefly  prosecuted  in  Babylon,  the  colleges 
there  were  far  mora  numerons,  and  far  more  ingenious 
and  prolitic  were  the  imaginations  of  the  Babylonian 
profesmrs.  To  collect  and  mechodiie  all  the  disputa- 
tions, inlerpreiaCions,  elucidations,  commentaries,  and 
conceits  of  the  Babylonian  tiemarici  was  consequently 
a  labor  neither  of  one  man  nor  of  a  single  age.  The 
firet  aitempC  was  made  (A.D.  S67)  by  R.  Ash^  elected 
at  Che  age  of  fourteen  to  be  rector  of  the  schoi^  of  Sira 
(q.  v.),  a  teacher  described  as  eminently  pious  and 
learned.  B,  Asbi  labored  during  sixty  yean  npon  the 
rank,  unwiehly  work,  and,  after  arranging  thiny-  five 
books,  died  in  427.  leaving  the  completion  to  his  bdc- 
ceaaoiB.  For  1(10  years  longer  did  rabbi  after  ntilu, 
with  undiminished  zeal,  succesaively  continue  thia  un- 
profitable applieacion,  until  at  length,  aflei  the  lapw  of 
12S  yean  (about  A.D.  bit),  rabbi  Abina,  the  sixth  in 
succession  to  Ash^,  gave  the  finiafaing  acroke  to  thia 
srond  Talmud.  Denominated,  from  the  name  of  tbe 
proviace  in  which  it  was  first  compiled,  the  Bnbflamnm 
Talmud,  this  second  Talmud  is  as  unmanageable  lo  the 
student  on  account  of  its  style  and  composition  as  nn 
account  of  its  (Hwligious  bulk.  Composed  in  a  dialect 
neither Cbaldaicnoi  Hebrew,  but  a  baitatouscommixi- 
ure  of  both  of  these  and  of  other  dialects,  Jumbled  to- 
gether in  detiance  of  all  the  rules  of  composition  or  of 
grammar,  it  aObrds  a  Mecmd  specimen  of  a  Babylooiaa 
coB/uiioa  o/Uiagaugfi. 

"li  was  a  psrti-colored  dress 
Ur  patched  sod  piebald  langnseea. 
Which  made  some  think,  wlien  IC  did  eabbla, 
Thev-d  heard  three  labopers  of  Babel, 


Abounding,  moreover,  in  fantastic  trifles  and  Rabbinical 
reveries,  it  must  appear  almost  incredible  that  any  sane 
man  could  exhibic  such  acumen  and  such  ardor  in  thr- 
inventjon  of  those  unintelligible  comments,  in  those 
nice  scrupulosities,  and  those  ludicrous  chimeras  which 
the  rabbins  have  nulemnly  published  to  the  world,  omt 
of  which  we  will  speak  further  on. 

II.  /bmi  and  d''y/r.—In  general,  tbe  Gemara  takes  the 
shape  of  scholastic  discuiwions,  more  or  leas  pmlMiged. 

sory  view,  it  is  true,  these  discussions  have  the  air  of  a 


TALMUU  If 

doihiwy  and  eonfoMd  wrangle;  but,  »ben  Mudled  more 
ttntaUj,  tbty  resolve  tbeoiHtvei  inlo  B  ■}-swm  ^v- 
«n«dl:T»™*'^™*''''Wf't»''wn.    "Non  veto  sWrilia 

inn  undo  rah*  cxplieet.  Sed  prolieiu  in  earn  uuft- 
lal  JtMfmtationu,  qumlianet  pnpoiiendu  et  ad  taa  re- 
ibia  movcrido,  aaqoe  aolvenda,  cicipiendo 
"  (WKfancr.  A  ntiqq.  Hrbr.  \,  389). 
Th*  language  of  the  Talmud  is  partly  Hebrew  and 
pinlr  Anmaic  The  b«t  Hebrew  o(  the  work  i*  ia  the 
(nt  sf  the  Uishna,  that  in  Ihe  liemara  being  larf^ly  de- 
tuned with  exotic  words  of  varioui  lonKueB,such  as  Lalin, 
^.ieek.Arabic,Coptic,andFeruan(cDmp.A.IbUll,/'rem(<- 
t^radtUckr  RBdtHtaritn  in  dn  Talmulai  und  Midnukin 
,  Lfipfc  IW9]),  barbarooa  spelling,  and  uncMuth  gram- 
TDUical,  or  rather  ungramoiaticil.  forms.  The  Hme 
rniMrk  will  appl;  lo  the  Aramaic  portions,  which,  in 
i;«inal,  an  Ibnae  containing  papular  narrative,  or  le^- 
emUrr  illnMration,  while  Ibe  Law  principles  and  the 
(bunens  reUliojE  to  Ibem  are  embodied  in  Hebrew. 
HuTtiKmBaf  the  Talmadic  dialect  are  BO  peculiar  as  to 
nukt  a  grammar  adapted  to  the  worii  itMlT  greall}' 
vbedenred.  Ordinary  Hebrew  grammu- will  not  take 
a  nan  thtongh  a  pag«  of  it.     See  Rabbinical  Dia- 

Id  Myla  tbe  Uishna  is  reroarfcable  for  ils  extreme 
Mmwneia,  and  Ihe  Oeoiacs  is  written  upon  the  same 
fwttl.  [bough  not  BO  frequcDlly  obscnre.  The  prerail- 
<B|c  piininpla  of  the  composition  seema  to  have  been  the 
taploymait  o(  the  fewest  words,  thus  rendering  the 
mk  a  constant  brachylogy.  A  phrase  becomes  a  focus 
<i<sunTihougha,  a  solitary  word  an  anagram,  sdpher 
At  a  whole  subject  of  reflection.  I'o  employ  an  appni- 
pnateexpreaSDaofUelitach,"  What  Jean  Paul  says  of 
(be  Mjie  of  Haman  applies  exactly  td  that  of  the  Tal- 
mud :  '  It  is  a  firmament  of  telescopic  stars,  containing 
aaDT  a  dusur  of  light  which  no  unaided  eye  has  erer 
taohtd"*  (Zar  Gr^fMtktt  dtr  jiidiic&ai  Point  [Leips. 
1836],  p.  31).  But  without  regard  lo  grammatical 
ail  lingoiuic  difBcnlties  and  numtierleH  abbreviadoDi 
wbicb  crowd  the  pages  of  tbe  Talmnd,  there  are  a  nom- 

naly  in  tbe  Kabtanical  schools,  but  have  been  incorpo- 
lutd  in  the  (lemata,likejainlsand  liganMiits  in  its  or- 
(fixation,  to  as  to  make  tbe  knowledge  of  them  indis- 
ptnaUe  to  tbe  student.     Such  Itrmmt  were— 

1,  The  trpHMtbm,  or  IDIT'B,  which  Is  Introdnced  by 
■te  (^rmnlie  13  "'Bta,  "Whal  Is  Ihisf  1i:Rp  "iHIS, 
-What  does  he  say  r  V"''?"'*  "'Kiaa,  "How  Is  thlsto 
teasderMoodr-  l^pOS  ^NnS,  "What  Is  tbe  matter 
b«r  ms  ^3^  ',XS,  "  Who  coaLd  think  ><t  such  a 
lilBjf"  ''01  ^D^  "How  have  we  to  Interpwt  this!" 

inMfBHMn.OT  nVxC  If  H  qnesllon  Is  offiired  by 
rwi  Hhonl  ta  aoniher,  It  Is  Introdnced  by  tba  formula 
'fi  H'sa^Jl,  "They  propoee  lolheio;"  It  from  several 
pmo*.  tnoDc.  the  Ibrmula  Is  n->]'<a  173,  "They  sfk 
si  Un :'  or  if  the  demand  Is  made  of  oue  person  to  an- 
•Kkfr.lt  IS  n^S-ta  K93,"laskafhlm." 

LTkenqnuf.nrna^sn,  which  may  consist  either  In 
Kiw(  rMMOB  (HaSB  or  y^'1*n)  or  In  strong  objec- 
<M»  nU^^B  or  tC^O^P),  Is  lotrodoced  by  the  formnla 
•,i  «33,  "Whence  hsve  yon  this  T"  or  nis  ""in  ■'RO, 

(.  T-lphm,  or  ttrSOin.  an  appendix  to  the  Hlahna. 
VshiT*  Kwn  that  II.Chi7a.0r,  as  some  hBTeIt,R.Ne- 
kar*  andar  lila  direction,  csmpoaed  a  work  of  ihts  de- 
^ItptloB  la  Paleatlne.  the  substance  of  which  is  dlflhsed 
■sctislkms  Ibroaghout  Ihe  Talmud.  Thej  are  indicated 
W  Ike  ilga-woTd  Taita,  (UKH,  "  He  teaches,''  or  Ftlani 
<*■},  "iy  "liVn,  ■*  it  1*  taught  beranpon/'  predied  to  the 

)i  laraUlU,  or  ItTVi'*-^^,  annther  kind  of  supplement 
>•  Ike  HUna.    Siicb  an  the  h.nka  94>Am,  Stj^rr,  and 
'KUMa.iseiiiloued  ■■•'•vs.    When  a  cltntlDD  Is  adduced 
X.-C' 


9  TAI.MUD 

fnnn  aBorallhala  the  Talmnd,  II  Is  Introdnced  by  one  of 

these  forms:  Ttoni  roUofun,  ISa"!  ISn,  "Onr  rabbin* 
hare  tanght;"  Taniehada,  Ktn  ■'JH,  "A  certain  {rabbl> 
h«!lanKht,"Blc, 

t.  The  siupenai,  or  Ip^H,  Is  used  when  scaee  cannot  be 
decided  either  pro  or  eon,  and  thus  this  ronnnla  Is  used, 
which  Bcoirdlui:  to  some  contains  the  luitlals  of  ^310n 
m^S3^»1  m-'lOlp  yln^,  L  e.  '■  tbe  Tishblto  ( via., 
Elijah,  at  bis  coming)  will  explain  all  obJeetlonB  and  In- 
quiries." Olhereibowerer,  pretend  that  it  Is  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  QJp^r, "  It  remains  In  itatu  gw." 

T.  The  obSKHon,  or  M'^Qlp,  a  qnesllon  not  of  a  flied 
Bslakah,  which  ia  Irrefragable,  bnt  of  some  portion  ofibe 
AraorsIm  or  perhaps Tanalm.  which  la  lawfally  dsbalable, 
aud  1b  Introdnced  by  the  formnln  7aO  Mr,  "Come  and 
bB»r!"n3''n  Saa,  "Hearofthlai"^3n  "K,  "Ifsn:" 
K-Am,  "Therefore ;•  nt3  rpiVn«,  "There  is  a  c.™- 
iroversy  in  this  case :"  ^3^B-<13  Mp  ■<tt133,  "  What  <s  (he 
ground   of  the    controversy T"    ^nST     Bpio,  "Th.in 

B.  The  TffvtttHim,  or  Kna^^H,  is  used  In  order  U>  up- 
hold tbe  authority  of  the  Bible  (piDBH  *,Q)  against  a 
TBna1te,and  to  oppose  the  snthflrit7  of  a  TsnaTte  against 
ihstofone  of  the  Amnralm,  and  ts  Inlrodnced  by  (be  for- 
mula Mnai^n,  ttnalT,  "This  objection  Is  trnly  of 

>.  The  mflCraiKcMon,  or  n'<13^,  an  objection  thrown 
against  ■  senllnnut  or  opinion  by  tbe  allegation  of  a 
contrary  anthority,  and  Is  Introdnced  by  tbe  ftirmula 
TiJ^Bll,  "Bull  oppoeo  this. - 

10.  The  ar<rui«nta«an,  or  ttnBpm,  "an  assailing  or 
selling  npon,"  Is  a  kind  of  ah]ectlon  In  nse  only  among 
the  Inter  AmoraTm,  and  Is  tnUvdoced  by  tA  Cj^pns 
'i^^B  'l,  "RnbblK.  ohjecia  to  this."  It  this  obtectlon 
Is  not  relbledi  Ittokes  the  vslne  oTHstaksh. 

It.  The  mtulion,  or  p^1'<B,  Is  tbe  eiplanatoiy  anawei 

10  the  obteetloD  (see  mifra  T). 

11.  Tbe  InitratoHan,  or  V9D,  "disowning  or  sbltllug 
off,"  when  a  sage,  sorely  pressed  In  debate,  shifts  off  his 
thesis  npon  another.  Introducing  this  by  tbe  fiitmnla  KH 
*<]«,  "  Bnt  whoae  Is  tbis  sentence," 

IB.Theapput,  or  31"'D,  "sapport,"  la  a  corroborative 
evidence  for  a  dorlrlne  or  principle.  Introduced  by  the  fi)r^ 
mnin  rfb  S-'-'OO  »T0-O,  "It  can  be  said,"  "There  Is 

l^ThenMsariqi.orns-^Itn.  This  tens  Is  used  In  or- 
der ifl  Jnstiry  a  sentence  or  a  word,  or  even  a  single  let- 
ter, which  seems  snperBoous  In  the  Bible  ur  in  the  Mlah- 
un,  and  Is  Introduced  by  tbe  formula  '^  TtA  ^T  Kri, 
"What  is  this  fort-  To  which  Is  answerad,  HS'^nx,  "  It 
Is  absolutely  necessary." 

16.  Tbe  a«ird,  or  Ha^O,  "  series,"  a  catena  or  line  of 
Talmodlc  teschers,  died  against  a  given  proposition. 

16.  Sugia,  K'>3^D,  means  the  proper  namre  of  a  thing. 
By  this  word  the  Oemsra  rehrs  to  Itself  with  regard  to  Its 
own  properties  and  chnracterlslics. 

17.  initoMa,  Etrobn,  is  the  nltlmste  conclusion  nn  a 
mBtterdebBtsd.henceroriheanatlCntlDgs  mte  of  conduct. 
Mnch  of  tbeOeinnra  conilsU  ot  discussions  by  which  they 
sre  verlned,  condrmed.snd  deslgnsted.  When  the  advo- 
cates ot  two  opposing  theses  hsve  brought  the  debate  10 
sn  iHne,  they  sey,  "  The  Halacta  Is  with  Bach  a  one  " 

•,y.  p  (tn:bn. 

13.  JfowoA,  or  niDVa,  fialvm.  Ihe  establishment  of  a 

Halacla  br  eases  ornclnal  experience  or  practice. 

IB.  ShrmaUUka,  NPPD&SI,  "to  hear."  describes  a  Jndg- 
ment  or  principle  which,  beliii;  fonnded  on  Holy  Writ,  or 
being  or  seir-evldenl  authority,  n---  ■-    -      ■ 

>0.  Htrraalt,  nX'^in,  "demonstration,"  doci 
Insle  Slid  anlhnrltntivF. 

n.  Hagadah.  mT\,  "a  saying,"  Incident  i 
ecdota  or  legend  employed  In  the  war  of  < 
Uagadab  Is  not  law.  bnt  It  serves  U>  IllDBtrate  ] 


TALMUD  r 

III.  l.ilerary  ami  Moral  Clmraettr  of  lit  Boot. — 
Since  the  tienura  is  in  generil  only  ■  more  complete 
ilevelopmeDt  of  tbe  HUhua,  it  also  compriaea  all  the 
primary  elcmenuorihe  Miahna  mentioDcd  abuve,  which 
■re,  ho we»er,  intermixed  with  an  endleB  varielj- of  Wa- 
gadolh,  \.  t.  anecdoiea  and  illuatrationa,  hialorical  and 
legendary,  poetical  allegorieii,  charming  parable*,  with 
epilbalamiuma,  etc,  and  thug  making  the  Talmud  odd- 
uin  all  and  mtn/lkiiig,  or,  aa  Buxtorf  (la  Pratfiil,  Lex. 
Ciaid.  el  Talmud.)  Hys: 

"Snnt  sDim  In  Talinnd  mthnc  mullii  qnoqne  Theologica 

fVa  jDd^cn  ci.llBpw  Te]nll"fiid'erH"el  Teatl|[li,  ad  con- 
vlucsodim  poaterDTum  Jodenmni  yerfldlim.id  lllnirrau- 
dam  aliiUKinBTeitanienll  hlatoriam,  ad  recte  eipllcandoa 
ritna,  leiiet.  cunanetadlnea  pnpull  HebiKl  prlacl,  pi  nrlmum 
coDdacentlK.  aunt  lu  eo  mnlia  Jurldlca,  Uedlca,  Pbralcn, 
Ethlca.Pulltica,  A«tmiidinlc*etnUanini  aclenllamm  pne- 
Clara  d<icnmeiiu,qD«lailna  lenlla  el  lemuoHii  blalotlnm 
taMStx  cnmnwndonl..  Santlu  en  IJlaairIa  n  autlqaltate 
pnirerWii.lni'liueaaenlenite,  acuta  apiipblhemiiaiii.icttB 
pnidemerqiie  ^ctn  liinumera,  qoK  lecioreni  vel  melliireni, 


ImKDoDmlnaaHeb 


prnjl    R.  1 
>ne  ibut 


e  eipli- 


Holy  One,  bleaaed  be  he.  doea  pray  1 
I  will  brliiK  them  to  hit  holy  mcinauln, 
.yrul  111  my  honae  o»  prayer,"  Mirk.  \\ 
my  prayer;  Iberefore  It  Ii 


Iveli  proved  that  be  nraio.     / 
R.  Zaira.  the  ion  orTDbla,  aal 

ly  mercirniiy  iteal  wlibmy  chlldreu  and  keep  jnallce  In 
Ejnnce."    In  comibnrHti.m  of  tlila,  the  following  story 


|gl<>)dbyR.lamael,Ihe*»narEliaha.    On< 
I  saw  Acalbriel  Jah,  tbe  7»rd,  i 


,  bleae  me  1  and  I  addramd  to  hin 
ahook  bis  head  {BrrabitK,  p.  i,  c 
rOod  pray>^  Then  ha  mnatalaopi 
pan  ibla  polui  the  rabbins  da  iioi 


and  by  tbe 


I).  l«o[«aver.Oadhaeai 


if  R  i^hlmenii  Cbaai 


ue  leani  thnt  Ibe  Holy  One.  blessej  be  lit 
MiwiB  the  He  of  iMb  plivliicwrles,  which  ll 
piirt  of  hia  head"  ^lieraMh,  p.  7.  coi.  1), 


IfQod  praya.  Ibei 


iven  G,k1  prevaricated,  Por  It  Is  written  la  Oen. 
mill,  flrpt  Ibat  M^isb  Mid,  ■'  My  Lord  la  old  ;"  bat  nfier- 
wnrds  II  la  wrtiicn  .be  said.  ■'  And  1  nra  old"  (KitomtitA, 

Ood  is'  reiirei-ented  aa  needKie  a'  aacrlllce  to  nloDe  for 
himseir  R.  Shlmei.n,  the  son  of  I>hiI,  aaked.It  Is  wrltteo, 
"And  Qod  made  two  urent  IlKhiS;"  and  again,  the  great- 
er light  Hnd  (be  leaaer  light;  bow  doea  this  aEree  T  Ann. 
The  niooii  naid  to  the  Holy  One,  Usased  ba  be— Lord  of 


f"!"'**"^;.. 


■aid  to  hini,  What  advnniase  will  ihla  be  to  inef  Of  what 
use  Is  a  cniidle  In  the  middle  of  the  day  I  He  replied.  Ou 
and  let  tarnel  nniober  the  days  of  Ibe  year  by  Ibee.  She 
aald.  It  la  Impoaalble  even  far  the  ann  that  Ibe  cnlendiir 
Bhauld  be  reckoned  alter  him  only,  for  It  le  nrltien.  "  L<-t 

He  'aid  to  her,  <io,  and  tho  rlcbieous  will  he  callwi  hy  thy 


the  little,  etc  Btit  wh«n  Ood  aaw  that  Ibe  mn.>ii  wae  not 
qnhe  iwmforted  wUh  these  pnimlao,  be  anld.  Briui;  le  a 
■acclSce  to  aiune  fur  ma,  becaaae  I  learened  the  alie  >if  Ih» 
moon.  And  tblacirreBpiiudawlib  theaavlugnf  B.Bhim- 
eau.  the  aon  of  Lnklab  ;  Why  la  the  mouthlT  ■■crillca  dla- 
itnculsbed  ^omoitaera,  Inasmnch  aa  it  la  written  coacvm- 
lug  II.  "  And  one  kid  of  the  goata  for  a  aln-offerlDg  unto 
the  LordT-  (Mnmh.  izvilljll).    Becanre  God  said,  Thia 

•  if  tbe  moon  (Cfttillu,  p.  W,  col.  t).  Baba  bu  bar  Cbana,  in 
telling  a  lung  atory.aaya,  1  heard  a  Bath-kol  crrlDE,  Wae 
to  me  that  lliave  awum  I  And  now  since  I  haie  ewoni, 
wbo  will  abaolve  ma  from  my  oath  t  {Baba  BaUira,  p.  74. 

Ocaipatfon  nf  Oti. 
Ou  one  occasion  Abyathon  fonnd  ElUab,  and  anked  blm. 
What  does  tbe  Holy  One,  blessed  be  be,  do*  Ue  Boawered, 
He  la  stndylns  the  caie  of  the  concilhlne  orOlbea.     [We 

aboul  Itr  Hesaya  that  AbTnitaoD,  my  son,  is  right :  and 
Juiinthan,  my  son,  is  also  right,  la  ibare,  then,  a  donbt 
Inbeaveaabont  Itr  No,  not  In  the  least,  rejoined  Bl|]ab: 
but  both  oplolona  an  tbe  words  ofthe  livlog  Ood  (OOUn, 

ElUab,  and  aaked  blm, 
d  be  be,  do  F  Blljab  re- 
tut*  from  the  llj*  ..fall 
If  rabbi  Meir.     ^ut  why 

rabbi  Meirr    " 


practice  his  deeds.    Bli/ahaui 
my  aon  {ChatrtgaK.  p.  10,  col.  S) 

RAbbu  says,  ir  there  hud  ni ,.._ 

ore  far  it,  it  wonld  be  Impossible  to  maki 
raelil :  bat  It  is  wrlllon,  "In  the  same  day  ehall  tbe  Lord 
ahnve  with  a  raior  thai  Is  hired,  oamely,  by  ttaem  bey,iDd 
the  rlver,by  the  king  ofAssyria.  the  bead,  and  the  hiilrof 
the  feel:  and  liaballBlao  consume  [iiBlwiird"  (lea.  vil.aiv 
God  appeared  to  Benn--'---"  '  '-  * —  ' 
tteniiacherlh  aald  to  hi  _        _ 

oriheeaat  and  tbe  west,  wboHi  eblldrei 


bon^det  go  to 


Bwered.  I  vaold  say  to  them  that  this  man.  i.  a.  Senna- 
cherih,  alia  also  In  fear.  Sennacherib  eaid,  What  then 
•hall  I  dor  Gild  said.  Go  and  dlaenlse  tbyseir,  that  they 
Bhauld  not  recognise  tbee.  How  sball  I  dlagnlse  myeein 
God  aald.  Go  aud  bring  me  a  rasor,  and  1  wfll  ahave  thee. 
)feiinaeberIbreplled,FromwhereshnllIbringtheearai<fl'f' 
Ood  aald.  Go  to  that  house,  and  bring  It  me.  Be  went 
there  and  foaitd  one.  Tben  angels  came,  and  appeared  to- 
him  In  the  form  uf  men  :  and  were  grinding  oflTS4eeds. 
Ha  said  to  tbcm.  Give  me  a  ratur.    They  leplied,  Cmib 

He  did  so  and  they  gsve'''  ■'"  •-•-'"^'•^'-~<^-—^~^''- 
God  tt  became  dark.    Go 
he  brought  coals  of  dre  t 

God  Bhavsd  hia  bead  and  beard  (Sanksdrin,  p.  M.  col.  I). 
The  schools  of  Hlllel  and  nfShammal  were  diapaling  for 

miiiit^ned  that  It  was  Infallibly  right.    At  last  a  Bath- 
kol  cams  down  from  heaven  and  aald.  The  opinlona  of 
buth  are  the  words  of  tbe  living  God,  bnl  the  law  la  aatha 
achool  orillllel  {Enibin,  p.  IS,  col.  i). 
R  Joahua.  the  son  of^Levl.  saya.  When  Hawa  came 


Uhlm.Brlngall, 
:«alight;aQBwhl 

hold  of  hia  beard; 

and  beard  (Sanksdrin,  p.  M.  ca 


replied,  [ 


aairt,  Lord  of  tbe  i 
:d,[  have  given  llti 
aakedj  Where  is  Ihi 

ked.Vbi 


le  earth.  He  went  to  the 
wl  Tbeeanbuitwercd. 
treoT  (Jab  uvlll,  tS).  He 
—  la  Ibe  lawf  The  aek 
the  depth,  and  aiiked 


of  the  nuiverife.  t  hate  searched  for  it  all 
.  and  bare  not  round  It.  God  said  to  blm,  ( 
fAmram.  Ue  came  tn  Hoses,  and  uld  to  J 
'bleb  God  cave  thee,  wbeie  Is  M 
.Who  am  I.  that  and  should    ' 


!1C 


rplled  I. 


iwl   Tberr- 


it|ionJ)odaa 

Lordofthen   .   ..     ,.      _.      .., 

thy  dally  delight,  and  staonld  I  eWm  it  formy  own  a 
ia;;er  Ood  said  to  him.  Because  tbon  didat  ihlnk  111 
lhy»elf.lhetawshallbecalledafIerthynin]C.  Aaltiewni- 
lei>."Rememberyethelawi>rHDBesmyaerTaul"(Hal.lT.4> 
HnbhlJoahnacoullnnea  to  narrate;  Wbeu  Hiwas  went 
lip  to  heaven,  he  found  Ood  vxtiplia  in  twMttia  irrrmtjt* 
for  the  letters  (of  the  Inn).    And  be  culled,  Uoaaa  •  is  ther? 

aei'vaut  sbnold  salnle  hia  miiBlerf  God  said,  Ttioa  nii];bi~ 
c«  tn  have  hel|ied  nie;  I.  e.  Ihon  sbouldBt  have  wirheil 
mesaccessinmy  work.  Immediately  Mose*  said  la  hii.,. 
"And  now,  I  boKTch  thee,  let  the  power  of  my  Li>rrt  »w- 
greiii,  accordini!  ns  thou  haat  epokau~  (Hnnih.  li*.  ■;> 
l.Snt6«*,p.Sf.cal.  I). 


J  ■  (ew  of  the  miDv  examplca  which 
I  of  Ihe  Talmud.  That  these  ■■nri« 
,  and  oftcD,  nrben  takeu  lilecally,  ib- 
n  dcDy.  But  they  muit  be  merely 
their  meaning  and  inication.  Much 
;aiiul  the  Talmud  on  account  of  the 
>me  af  thesQ  legenda. 
t  ibogU  give  tba  Hebtefr  lilerali  the  benefit  of  their 
nua  apUoaticHu.  They  tell  ui  that  in  the  Talmud 
the  Uagadah  hat  no  abaolnle  authority,  nor  any  ra 
tinpt  in  the  way  of  elucidation.  It  often^but  i 
ilviyw-cnwrapa  a  philosophic  meaning  under  tbe  ^ 
ipf  allegefv,  mythic  folk-lore,  ethical  story,  Oriental 
DUDce.  parable,  and  aphorism  and  fable.  They  deiiy 
ibat  tbe  authors  of  tboe  (ancy  pieces  intended  either  I 
■Id  lo  the  law  of  God  or  to  detract  from  it  by  (hem, 
tai  ooly  Ifl  explain  and  enforce  it  in  terms  best  «ui 
u  the  popular  capacity.  They  caution  us  agaiiut 
cririDg  iheae  things  according  to  the  letter,  and  admon- 
ob  oitD  understand  them  according  to  their  spiritual  or 
ami  import.  "  Bewaie."  layi  Haimonides, "  that  you 
uit  not  the  word*  of  the  wise  men  literally,  for  thia 
■ould  be  degrading  to  the  sacred  doctrine,  and  some- 
iiaK*  cDDtradici  it.  Seek  rather  the  hidden  senic; 
iihI  if  yoa  cannot  And  the  kernel,  let  the  shell  alone, 
•ndaiafeia. '  i  cannot  understand  this.*"  Bat  the  im- 
Hmalreadermuatatonce  admit  that  these  suggestions 
in  BMfdj  the  aner-lhoughta  of  lender  apalogtsu,  for 
tiat  of  ibeee  atoriea  have  do  hidden  sense  at  all,  bat 
anM  be  taken  literally,  because  meant  so,  ta  the  foUow- 
isf  win  proves  In  the  treatise  Gillat,  foL  69,  col  I,  we 
nad  the  following  preacription :  "  For  the  bleeding  at 
the  DOae,  let  a  man  be  brought  who  is  a  priest,  and 
■kose  name  is  Levi,  and  let  him  write  the  word  Levi 
taciirards.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  get  a  layman,  and 
ki  bin  writ«  the  following  words  backwards:  'Ana 
|iipi  Sfaila  bar  Stunki ;'  or  let  bim  write  theM  words : 
'  Tum  dli  bemi  keaeph,  team  li  bemi  paggan,^  Or  let 
luBiake  a  root  of  giua,  and  tbe  coid  of  an  old  bed,  and 
paper  and  safTnin  and  the  red  part  of  the  innde  of  a 
;aiai.Iiee,  and  let  him  burn  Ihem  toeether;  and  let  him 
like  sooie  wool  and  twist  two  threads,  and  let  him  dip 
ibem  in  vinegar,  and  then  roll  them  in  the  ashes  and 
f  (hop  into  his  noae.  Or  let  him  look  out  for  ■  small 
■nsa  of  water  that  flow*  lh>m  east  to  wen,  and  let 
tita  go  and  Maud  with  one  leg  on  each  side  of  it,  ani 
III  luD  lake  with  his  right  band  some  mod  from  unde 
■kakft  foot,  and  with  his  left  hand  from  under  his  right 
It*,  and  let  him  twist  two  threads  of  wool,  and  dip 
itaa  in  the  mud,  and  put  them  into  bia  noelrila. 
h  bin  be  placed  uniler  a  apout,  and  let  water  be  brought 
ulpnim)  upon  him,  and  let  them  say,  'As  this  wat 

••OHO  N^alan  ceaae.'"    A  commentary  on  this  wisdo 
''  Uly  is  uperfluous.    That  this  direction  to  stop 

Ike  feflowing  mode  of  treatment  for  the  scratch  or  bi 
iri'i  Bad  d<«  will  prove.  In  the  treatise  Yinaa,  fol.  88, 
eA,l,w*  read:  "Tbe  rabbins  have  handed  down  the 
ifiditioo  that  there  are  five  things  to  be  obeerved  of  a 
'■^  dag :  bi*  ntuatb  is  open,  his  salira  flows,  his  ears 
^•mf  dawn,  his  tail  is  between  his  legs,  and  be  goes  by 
ilii'  lidet  nf  tbe  ways.  Soote  say,  also,  that  he  barks, 
-a  kii  tciee  is  not  beard.  What  is  the  cwise  o' 
ndaea?  Kav  says  it  proceeds  from  thui,  that  the 
■Ucies  are  makinc  their  sport  wiih  bim.     Samuel  says 


I  TALMUD 

clothes  and  ran  away.  He  also  says,  I  fulfilled  in  my- 
seir  these  words  ;  '  Wisdom  gives  life  to  them  that  have 
it'  (Ecdes.  vi,  12).  In  can  of  a  bite  the  man  will  die ; 
what,  then,  is  the  remedy?  Abai  says  be  must  lake 
the  skin  of  a  male  adder  and  write  upon  it  these  words: 
■  I,  H.,  the  son  of  the  woman  N.,  upon  the  skin  of  ■ 
male  adder,  1  write  against  thee,  Kanii,  KatiH,  KUrvt.' 
Soma  say,  '  Kamk,  Kandi,  Kluna,  Ja/i,  Jah,  Lord  of 
hosts,  Amen,  Amen,  Selati.'  Let  him  also  cast  off  his 
clothes  and  buiy  them  in  the  graveyard  for  twelve 
months  of  the  year;  then  let  him  take  them  up  and 
bum  them  in  an  oven,  and  let  him  scatter  the  asbes  at 
tbe  parting  of  tbe  roads.  But  during  these  twelve 
months  of  the  year,  when  he  drinks  water,  let  him  drink 
out  of  nothing  but  a  bnsa  tube,  leat  be  should  see  the 
phaDtom-form  of  tbe  damon  and  be  endangered.  This 
waa  tried  by  Abba  the  son  of  Haitfaa,  who  is  tbe  same 
as  Abbs  the  eon  of  Manjumi.    His  mother  made  a  gold- 

In  the  face  of  such  entravsgancies,  we  are  not  sur- 
prised at  the  following  statement  made  by  a  modem 
Jewish  writer,  H.  Hurwitz,  in  an  essay  preceding  his 
HfbreiB  Taht  (Lond.  1S26),  p.  94  sq. : 


rely  wisb  bad  either  never  ap- 

.  f  Somr^fTe.e'Hyi.i^  an 

tbam  are  calcnlsted  to  produce 
tfisloas.    Of  the  fi>nner  descrip- 

theParthiaii'sanii 


iplnnallon 


I  all  tb 


Pnrsdise, 

Idle  tale*  borrowed 


ist  probably 

uIgatliiM  iif  Ilia  Tslmnd.  .  .  ■  How  ibesa  objectionable 

Ssimsgescsme  at  nil  In  be  Inserted,  can  only  be  accounted 
ir  from  tbe  grent  reverence  witb  wblcb  tbe  tsroalltes  or 

made  them  look  opon  every  word  and  eijiresslon  tbat 
drn|iped  ttom  Ibe  mouth  of  Ibelr  Instrnctors  as  so  msnr 
precious  Mjtngt  well  wiirtby  of  being  preaerved.  These 
thn  wrote  down  for  their  own  private  laformBliou,  Ia- 

Siher  with  more  Important  nuitienv  and  wbeD,  In  afier* 
nee.  these  writings  were  cullecled  In  order  to  be  em- 
bodied In  one  entire  work,  the  collecton.  either  from  want 
of  proper  discrimination  or  fcnm  aone  idons  notlve,  snf- 
rered  them  to  remnlu.  and  thus  they  were  banded  down 
to  p.wterltj.  Tbat  Ibe  wlwr  p-irtiou  of  the  nation  never 
nporuved  ofthem  Is  well  known.  Nay,  tbat  some  of  the 
Talmudisn  themselves  regard  them  with  no  tsvorable 


In  which  they  spoke 


n  Lev), 


portion 


nealnst  them  Ifur  einmple,  Jehorhi 

crilRis:  "Hawh'iwrltefthemdowi 

In  the  world  to  come;   he  who  aipiuos  tnem  wui  oa 

scorched"],  ■  ,  .  I  ndmlt,  alio,  tbnt  there  nrs  maov  aud 

vnrloue  coctrndictlnns  hi   the  Tslmnd,  and,  Indeed,  H 

would  be  a  mlrnrle  If  Itaere  were  none.     For  the  ivork 

tug  In  the  same  mcleiv,  nnder  precisely  similar  clrcniu- 
stances,  but  of  hnnd^ed^  nay.  tbonBBods,  of  learned  men 
of  Tartooe  tnlcnls,  llvlii|;  In  B  long  series  of  acee.  In  dlF' 

lions.  ...  To  believe  tbnt  Its  mnltirsrions  contents  are 

sappose  thai  all  it  contains  is  founded  In  error.  Like  all 
other  prodnctlons  of  nnsided  hnmanlly,  it  is  not  free  from 
mIsMkes  and  pmladlces.  to  remind  ns  that  the  writers 
were  rilllble  men,  and  that  unoualiaed  admlrallon  DIDi>t 
be  reserved  flir  tbe  works  of  divine  tusplration,  wblcb  we 
onghl  lo  stody,  the  better  lo  ndnre  nnd  obey  the  nil-per. 
feet  Author.  1Bui  while  I  sbonid  be  xmoi>«  tbe  lln-t  lo 
pnitesl  BWlnst  any  cunfoslon  of  the  Tiilmndic  rills  with 
-" -.--.-- of  Holy  W--  '-■ ' 


hBlher 


nod  VI 


IT  Ibat 
lunble  i 
I  of  the  I 


'pired 


It  llebrei 


with  Sac 


»l,fci 


What 


But  while  we  admire 


1  be  used  but  the  catlitig  of  some  mis- 
•^  napoc  If  a  mad  dog  scratch  any  one,  he  ia  in 
•Bftr;  but  if  he  bite  him  he  will  die.  In  case  of 
•Tsrb  thne  ia  danger;  what,  then,  is  the  remedy? 
Us  Ibe  man  c>al  off  his  ciutha  and  run  away,  Kab 
ioa.  tbe  son  of  Rab  Joshua,  was  once  scratched  in  the 
•'rt  by  one  of  them;  he  immediately  cast  off  his 


BTof  this  Jewish  wr 
■is  coreligionist*  ac 
le  same  principle,  as  the  sequel  will  prove.  An  i 
e  in  the  iiiiarUrlg  Jierifio  for  October,  1867,  with 
lading  "  What  it  the  Talmud  ?"  has  taken  the  w 


tractive,  about  a  subject  utierl 


TALMUD 


mu  ■  J*v.  Mr.  B.  Deutach  (hi 
n«c  Mid  141  J»nib|  "The  voiM  is  Jieob'a  voice, 
I  hands  ire  the  handi  of  Euu,"  muat  be  applied 
author  of  "  What  ia  the  Talmud?"  We  cuinot 
:er  thi(  micle  by  merei;  alliidinK  to  it:  it  de- 
'ei  our  full  atuntion,  on  account  id'  the  mischief  it 
already  wrought,  and  muat  work,  in  the  mindi  of 


othe 


The  writer  iccusea  (p.  4  of  the  American  reprint, 
contained  in  the  lAUrary  Rmaini  [S.  Y.  1874])  the 
inveatigaloni  of  the  Talmud  of  mistaking  the  grimy 
elone  earicaturea  oret  our  cathedrals  for  the  gleaming 
statues  of  the  sainta  within.  But,  entering  into  the  ca- 
thedrals of  the  Talmud  and  beholding  these  sainta,  we 
hear,  in  the  treatise  ylioda  5aM,  fol.  17,  coL  I,  of  rabbi 

Eiieaer,  niVs  K3  sbo  oiiS3  pnst  njM  H-jn  kVio 

(we  dare  not  translate  thia  sentence  into  English,  but  we 
give  it  ill  Latin;  "Non  erat  mcretrix  in  terra  quaoum 
non  romicatus  enet*^.  When  rabbi  Kachman  (vre  read 
Tt.rDDia,tbl.  I!,  coL  2)  went  to  Shanuzib,  he  proclaimed 

KisTiV  »iin  yxa  ni3o  a-'O-mi  sbpa  13  3-1 

(this  also  we  dare  itot  trantliie  iulo  Gngliah,  but  we 
give  it  in  Latin:  "  Rab  quum  Tarsum  in trirel  procia ma- 
bat  quam  rellet  [uxoiemj  in  diem").  Of  rabbi  Abuha 
we  read  (Tr.  Btratolh,  foL  H,  ool.  1)  that  he  was  auch 
■  strong  eatet  that  a  Hy  could  not  rest  upon  bis  fore- 
head; and  (t£U)  uf  rabbi  Ami  and  rabbi  Aasi  that 
(hey  ale  so  much  that  the  hair  fell  from  their  heads; 
aud  of  rabbi  Simeon,  the  aon  of  Lakeah,  that  he  ate  so 
much  that  he  Uut  hia  aenaes.  In  Tr.  Baba  Mettia,  fol. 
hi,  coL  I,  we  read  that  rabbi  Itmael,  the  aon  of  rabbi 
Jose,  and  rablu  Eleazar,  the  i»n  of  rabbi  Simeon,  were 
ao  corpulent  that  when  they  alAoil  face  to  face  a  pair  of 
oxen  could  pass  under  them  urithout  touching  them. 
Uf  the  honesty  of  rabbi  Samuel  and  rabbi  Cabauna  we 
read  a  nice  atory  in  Tr.  Baba  Kavaaa,  foL  IIS.  cul.  2, 
which  we  had  better  pass  over,  for  enough  has  been  aaid 
of  some  of  the  Talmudical  aainta. 

The  writer  In  the  Quarterly  is  astonished  at  the  bet 
that  the  Talmud  haa  so  often  been  bumed.  But  it  is  an 
old  saying, "  Habent  aua  fiiu  libelli."  The  followera  of 
the  Aiabian  prophet  bumed  the  great  library  at  Alex- 
andria, and  they  atill  do  the  ssme  with  every  book 
which  they  believe  is  written  against  their  religii 
The  Jews  have  bumed  and  excommunicated  the  booka 
of  their  owd  great  Maimoiiidea  (q.  v.),  and  con« 
him  ■  heretic  They  have  bumed,  and  still  bum,  loe 
Hebrew  Old  Test,  because  of  the  Latin  headings  and 
crosaea,  la  say  nothing  of  the  New  Teau  The  Koman 
Cathuiica  burn  the  Frotesunt  Bible.  Why  should  the 
Talmud. have  escaped?  Beaidee,  ignorance  and  fa- 
iiaiiciam,  in  all  ages  and  counirlea.  have  bunted  the 
iHxika  which  they  supposed  were  Bf^ainst  their  system. 
This  was  especially  the  case  wiib  the  Tslmud,  A.D. 
r240,  when  a  conference  was  held  in  Paris  between 
Nicolaus  [>onin  and  some  Jewish  rahbina  concerning 
(fruin  blaspbemiis  contained  in  the  Talmud  and  writ- 
ten against  Jesus  ami  Mary.  K  Jecbiel,  the  most 
piuminent  of  the  Jewish  rabbioa  at  that  conference, 
would  not  admit  that  the  Jesus  spoken  of  in  the  Tal- 
mud waa  Jeiua  uf  Nazareth,  but  another  Jeeua,  a  dis- 
covery which  was  co|Hed  by  later  writers.  But  modem 
Jills  acknowledge  the  failure  uf  thia  argument,  for, 
^svH  Kr.  Levin,  in  his  prizr-esgay  Dit  BrUgununlitpuln- 
rv'.»  dft  R.  Jtchiel  mm  Parii,  etc.,  published  in  Gratz's 
MonaU^iri/l  (1869),  p.  198,  "  We  must  regard  the  al- 
ii'mpt  of  K.  Jechiel  to  ascertain  tbat  there  were  two  by 
the  name  of  Jeaua  aa  unfortunate,  original  ae  the  idea 
mav  be."  The  reault  of  thia  conference  was  that  the 
Talmud  in  wagon-loads  waa  bumed  at  Paris  in  1242. 
Thia  waa  the  firal  attack.  When,  however,  the  writer 
in  the  QuaMtrfy  autea  that  Justinian  in  A.D.  6&S  al- 
ready honored  the  Talmud  by  a  special  interdictory  no- 
rrlUi  (146  lltpi  'Bffpaiaiv),  we  must  regard  such  a  sute- 
ineiit  aa  eminenun  and  auperOcial,  for,  aa  Dr.  tirftti,  in 


!  TALMXJD 

Lia  Geidi.  der  Juden,  v,  393,  ehows,  thia  novella  baa  no 

reference  to  the  Talmud  at  all  (comp.  also  tdL  vii 

[  1873  j.  p.  441  sq.).    In  our  days,  such  accuaattona^iiut 

theTalmud  aa  that  preferred  by  Donin  were  imposaibk* 

because  all  I  hese  odbnsive  pasaagea  have  been  remored 

80  much  by  the  hands  of  the  cantor,  as  by  tba 

tbemaelves,  aa  the  following  document  or  dreutsi 

letter,  addressed  by  a  ooundJ  ofddera,  convened  in  TV 

'  in  tbe  Jewieh  year  S891  (L  e.  A.D.  I63IX  to  thrir 

igioniata,  which  at  (be  aame  time  conlaina  the  due 

in  later  editions  of  the  Talmud  certain  ptata)^ 

'anting,  will  show.     The  cinular  runs  thus  in  tbe 

translation  uf  Cb.  Leslie  (in  A  Skori  aad  Knf  jaelM 

vM  tht  Jtat,  p.  2  sq.  [Lond.  Iitl2],when  tbe  otigisil 

Hebrew  is  alao  found) : 

"Qreat  peace  to  our  beloved  brethren  uf  ibc  houe  of 

"HhvIbb  received  Information  that  many 

knowledge  »r  the  IsDanage  lu  which  our  IhhiV 

Kreiil  ban  (to  tie  Inflicted  upon  such  of  you  as  i 

sillier  of  the  Hlehna  or  Oemara.  publish  anyihinn  relalin 

wrfle  anjIhInR  cooce'mln);  ^Im.  either  K"id  or  bnd-K 

any  iiilnry.  For  we  know  "what  lK<^e  meu  uf  Belial.  Ibe 
Miiini<Tn,  have  done  t..  ns,  when  they  liecame  Chrinlauj, 

C'inlrary  thereto,  aud  cnnllnue  tn  t>ub1lph  our  biixkf  is 
[he  aame  manner  as  before,  you  may  occoslou,  both  !■<  ni 
aud  yooraelves,  greater  aOllciluus  than  we  have  hiihe"" 
ezperlenced,  nud  be  the  means  of  onr  being  c^imipcl led  !■> 

thus  nur  latter  tronliles  m^ht'be  mint  than™  e^^i^r. 
For  these  reasons  we  commaiiil  yon  ihai.  If  you  pnblirt 
any  new  edition  otthoae  booka.  1st  the  plai-eb  retHiingiu 
Jons  lbs  Nautene  be  lelt  In  blank,  and  fill  np  Ibe  sian 
wlihaclTFlellkeihls.o.  Bnt  the  rabbltis  and  teacbtn 
of  chlldreu  wUl  know  h<iw  to  Instrort  the  yoalh  by  won) 
of  month.    Then  Uhrlsllane  will  on  Irnii^rnave "- 


The  writ 


anhjact,  and  we  may  eipeei 


r  in  the  Qaarierli/,  while  lontUy  pninne 
ute  Dumane  spirit  which,  as  be  tells  us,  pervades  the 
"ayatem  and  institutions  set  forth  in  the  Talmud,"  en- 
deavora  at  tbe  aame  Mme  to  apologize  for  those  parts 
of  the  Talmud  which  contain,  as  he  admita  (p.  li), 
"gross  offences  against  modem  taste,"  by  telling  h> 
that,  when  compared  with  other  ancient  srrsteroi!  of- 
Jiiriaprudenee, "  the  Talmud  will  then  stand  unt  mihet 
favorably  than  otherwise."  It  ia  not  neceaaaiy  to  say 
much  on  thia  painful  and  disguating  part  of  the  aabjecl: 
but  we  urill  say  this,  that  it  is  one  thing  to  point  to  the 
existence  of  mire,  tbat  we  may  warn  the  unwary,  arHl 
another  to  wallow  with  delight  in  it.  We  heartily  wisti 
thatsomeoftherabbinswhowrote  theTalmud  had  been 
content  with  discharging  tbat  which  tnav  be  conndervd 
a  duty,  and  not  hiid  themselves  open  tn  tbe  cha^iiv  jux- 
ly  brought  against  them,  of  doing  injury  to  tbe  mi-rall 
and  minda  of  thoee  who  atndy  Lheit  writings,  by  ibrii 
unnecessary  and  improper  slalemenUi  and  details,  of 
which  the  treatise  Niddo,  which  we  have  here  especial- 
Iv  in  view,  and  which  treatanf  the  "oenslruaung  w<hb- 
an,"  is  so  full  When,  in  IH4S.  Messrs.  De  Sola  aiKl  Ra- 
pball  publiaheii  a  trantlatinn  o.'a  portion  of  the  Midi»k 
they  excused  the  omission  of  this  treatise  by  saying.  \t 
tbe  preface  to  their  work, "  The  treaiiae  A'tiAto,  not  be- 
ing auiled  to  tbe  refined  notiona  of  the  English  rpnler 
has  not  been  printed."  They  did  well  and  wisely  to  onii 
it  in  the  list  of  portions  selected  for  tranalation.  It  niaj 
be  aaid.  But  this  treatise,  bad  as  it  is.  is  only  a  connnetv 
tary  on  some  portions  of  the  laws  of  Moaea.  To  this  hi 
may  reply,  it  was  manifestly  neeesaary  that  Infinite  Wi» 
domahouM  solemnlyprohibit  many  atrocities  then  pi-e*' 

them,  they  nmsi  of  necessity  be  mentioned.  Ku  dnnbl 
the  proper  feeling  which  leads  us  to  turn  with  iliiipiti 
from  the  very  thought  of  the  crimes  thua  foibidiirn  i 


TALMUD  1 

Tny  niacfa  owing  to  IhoM  Ten-  livrs  which  were  given 
[hit  the  children  of  larael  should  be  diAtinguLihed  from 
•<Mt  DUioiu,  and  Uiu*,  bdng  cercmonuill}' clean,  ahuu  Id 
Ik  IH  lo  antct  the  tabtnude  of  God.  But  i»  there  uiy 
pnqjtf  evcuie  for  writing  Or  printing  one  hundred  and 
•natj-dght  folio  f*gt*  in  order  to  define  ill  the  fonns 
■  ■hieb  imagination  can  nggoat  that  only  one  of 
lime  eriiiMa  enuld  be  coniaiitled.  Let  us,  u  the  uib- 
im  it  10  io^xHtant,  fur  a  momenc  oonuder  a  parallel 
«e.  Hunter  ii  forbidden.  Thit  law  i«  of  ineipMai- 
Uc  impnrtaDce.  It  is  imposaible  to  dwell  too  largely  on 
■be  cnatmiti-  of  ihi*  crime,  or  lo  apealt  too  earaeatly 
el  tbe  iiimnifj  of  watching  againit  anger,  hatred,  cm,- 
diT.  (ad  (Tcry  poasibfe  form  in  which  we  can  in  any 
ny  partidpaie  in  tbe  guilt  uf  this  dreadful  ain.  Just 
»  w«  canoot  aay  too  much  about  tbe  neoewity  of  per- 
•Doal  parity  and  holiness,  for  God  will  be  "  sanctified  in 
Ibea  ibat  draw  near  him."  But  what  would  we  say 
■it  s  man  who  abaold  write  a  large  volume  merely  to 
ilaiTibe  all  the  varioui  modes  in  which  a  murder  can 
te  carried  out,  and  the  symptoms  of  decay  and  dismlu- 

On  ptfft  S6  <it  tbe  article  alluded  to  we  are  tdd: 
-Then  are  many  miKe  riial  points  of  coiilaet  between 
tbe  New  Te^  and  the  Talmud  Chan  divines  yet  aeem 
fully  to RaliH.  for  such  terms aa 'redemption,'  'bapdam,' 
-Ctace,'' faith,'  'salvation/  'regeneration,'  'Son  of  man,' 
-Sin  of  Uod.' '  kingdom  of  heaven.'  were  not,aa  we  are 
i|M  to  think-  invented  bj  Christianity,  but  were  house- 
hrU  words  DfTBlmodicalJudsiam,  to  which  Christiani- 
ty gave  ■  higher  and  purer  meaning."  It  requires,  how- 
I'tr,  a  TOy  alender  acquaintance  with  the  Bible  to  en- 
able BBT  one  lo  reply  to  this  stitement  that  many  of 
It  were  familiar  to  the  Jews  long  befo 


leOld 


Toe  And  not  only  so,  but  the  New  Test,  itself  is 
finch  older  book  than  the  Talmud.  Our  author  tells  ua 
ihsl  the  Uishns  wss  compiled  shout  A.D.  300.  The 
HU  later  dat«.  It  aeema  etrange,  indeed, 
occur  to  the  learned  author  Ihst  it  is  im- 
Bt  the  Mew  Test,  had  no  inflnence 
>  rejected  its  authority.  Unquea- 
ji  of  Paul  and  the  writings  of  tbe 
Mko- spnsda  grcatJy  sflbctedihe  whoLetone  uf  thought 
Bid  Bsmwr  of  expression  which  prevailed  among  those 
•bo.  ncTertbeleas,  refused  to  acknowledge  their  own 
WfMih.  This  is  a  common  mistake  among  even  learn- 
ed Jem.  Bncaose  tome  parO  of  the  Talmud  an  attquea- 
cioubly  very  ancient,  they  apeak  of  the  icioU  as  a  woili 
Uriiy  great  antiquity.  They  oannot  altogether  divest 
thiwlves  of  tbe  fabubMS  notwo  that  God  gave  the  oml 
asiKlJ  aa  the  written  law  to  Hoses  himself  Thus  they 
hrfiiiiiHy  claim  for  the  Talmud,  aa  to  antiquity,  a  de- 
nlitled. 


The  a 


1  distinctly  protest,  is  this.  We  are 
aaU  that "  the  Pentateneb  remains  in  all  casea  tbe  back- 
pBud  and  latent  source  of  the  Mishna"  (p.  IT).  And 
ainia, "  Either  tbe  acriptnral  vane  forms  tbe  (etminus 
'J  fKs  or  the  tenninns  ad  gitmL.  It  ia  either  the  start- 
wg-pMBt  for  a  discussion  which  ends  in  tbe  production 

KBUd  is  traced  back  to  the  divine  sounx  by  an  oui- 
wKd  'hint,'  however  uisgniAcant"  (p.  19).  Kow,  al- 
' '  I  iililerally  tmc  a*  to  many  of  the  cinf  JoHi 

ioa  of  the  actual  state  of  ibe  case  t»  tn  Ibc 
:h  form  tbe  subatancc  and  the 
the  lawa  of  Moan.  If  those  men  who 
wTute  tba  Talmod  really  luderttood  and  followed  out 
iW »— tiffg  of  Moaea,  why  do  tbcy  almost  entirely  ig- 
"m  the  teaching  of  tbe  other  prophets?  It  is  aston- 
^U(  ID  se*  how  rerf  little  mention  it  made  in  the 
Jwmalem  Talmnd  and  in  the  HM  pages  of  the  Biby- 
WaaTalBiad  of  a  great  part  ot  tbe  Old  Test.)  and  a 
»>Ml  «f  tbe  book  called  *,*VW  mbin  1B0,  eom- 


■3  TALMUD 

piled  by  R.  Aaron  Piaaurenais,  or  Pesaiu  (q.  v.),  which 
containa  an  index  of  all  tbe  passages  of  Holy  Writ 
quoted  in  the  Talmud,  will  make  good  our  assertion. 
Passing  over  some  minor  pointa,  such  aa  on  astronomy 
or  mathemadcs  or  the  science  of  interpretation  of 
dreams  (a  filthy  spedraen  of  the  latter  is  especially 
giren  in  Tr.  Beraholk,  foL  67,  coL  1),  we  will  only  touch 
another  point,  tbe  Talmudical  praise  of  women.  Thus, 
we  read  on  p.  66,  among  other  moral  sayings,  "  Love 
your  wife  like  yourself,  honor  her  more  than  youraelf." 
Without  arguing  the  question  from  what  we  know  of 
the  puulion  of  Jewish  female*  in  the  countries  wliere 
the  Talmud  is  studied  and  its  precepts  obeyed— a  poei- 

luded  to— it  ia  well  known  to  every  student  of  the  Tal- 
mud that  the  docton  of  tbe  Talmud  in  general  do  not 
hold  in  high  atimation  the  female  sex.  They  put  them 
in  the  category  with  tlavea  and  children.  Again  and 
again  we  read,  "  Women,  slaves,  and  children  are  ex- 
empted." "You  shall  teach  tbe  law  in  your  Bonn,  and 
not  (o  year  daugbten."  "  He  who  teaches  bis  daugh- 
ter tbe  law  is  Ufce  as  if  he  leaches  her  to  ain."  "  The 
mind  of  woman  ia  weak."  "The  world  cannot  exist 
without  males  and  females,  but  blnaed  is  he  whose  chil- 
him  whose  children  aredaugh- 
ber  tbe  teaching  of  the  Talmud- 
ical sages,  thsta  man  may  consider  his  wife  like  a  piece 
of  butcher's  meat  We  alia  remember  that  in  the  morn- 
ing prayer  the  husbatid  tbsnka  God  "  tbst  be  hath  not 
made  bim  a  woman."  As  to  the  preoept  which  the 
writer  in  the  QuarUrly  BtfktB  quotes  aa  one  of  tbe 
moral  sayings  of  the  Talmud,  we  must  believe  him  ob 
hia  word,  or  search  over  the  2947  pages  of  that  elu- 
pendous  woik,  since  the  writer  has  thought  proper  la 
conceal  the  treatise  and  the  page  of  the  Talmud  from 
which  he  has  translated  the  above  senteace.  We  are 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  reviewer  bad  the  following 
paasage  {Tr.  *(DiA«inB,  foI.T6,  col.  8)  before  bim :  "  Kabbi 
Judsb  has  Slid  that  Rah  has  said,  He  who  marriea  his 
daughter  Co  an  old  man,  and  he  who  gives  a  wife  to  his 
son  when  too  young,  and  he  who  returns  to  tbe  Goi 
(Gentile)  the  things  the  Gentile  baa  lost,  concerning 
him  the  Scripture  aays,'In  oider  to  add  drunkenness 
to  tbint,  tbe  Lord  will  not  forgive  him'  (Deou  xxix,  IS, 
19}.  They  replied,  tie  who  love*  his  wife  Uke  himself, 
and  be  who  banors  ber  more  than  himself,  and  he  who 
directs  his  sooa  and  daughters  in  the  right  way,  and 
gives  them  into  marriage  at  the  proper  ages,  concerning 
bim  the  Scripture  savs,  'And  thou  shalt  know  that  tbv 
;  and  thou  shalt  visit  thV 
(Jobv,i4).''  This,  how- 
optional  according  to  the 
Talmnd  and  the  following,  as  given  in  Tr.  Yebamati, 
foL  6!,  coL  2 : 

"Rabbi  Tinebnma  ssid  Ctasl  rabbi  Hanllsl  had  said. 
Bverrmau  who  la  wlthnui  awlfe  is  wlibonljoy.  witbont 
blewlng,  wtlbonl  goodneie.  Without  Joy  because  It  Is 
written,  'Thon  shslt  ri^alce,  thnn  and  tbine  hoonhnld' 
(Dent.I1v,W);  wllbont  a  blesslDg.  for  It  Is  written, 'That 
3*):  wjihonl  Bondnwa,  for  It  la  written,"'"  is"  .l 


, 11  Ihe  ■ 

idd  that  tbe  msn  who  is  wlttaoo 


;,  In  Ibe  wei>llhey 
»,  fur  i 


w'.msn  •hull  campoM  a  man'  (Jer.  nil,  H).    Habba,  Ihe 
'And  ibnu  absU  know  thai  thy  isbariiiicle  ahnll  b«  Id 


sod  hii  dsnghlers  In  tbe  rigbt  wnj.  and  gives  tbem 

111  pence,  and  tbon  f  hslt  ilalt  thy  batniation,  snd  ehjtl 

We  venture  to  think  that  theae  are  the  passagf 
the  Talmnd  which  the  reviewer  has  picked  out- 
most, however,  be  allowed  to  observe  that  it  is  not 

impentivc, "  Love  your  wifr,"  but  the  psriiciple  ' 


TALMUD 

[he  anide, "He  who  kv«a."  It  will  be 
have  tmt  tnnalit«d  the  whule  p*r*gnpb : 
We  will  leave  ibat  to  tbe  reviewer  and  hii 
what  we  have  lell  out,  aiid  much  i>f  the  roUowing,  belongi 
to  [he  deliled  and  defiling  poriiaiu  af  ibe  work,  in  which 
the  Talmud  ia  w  rich.  Pram  anolhei  tuch  fuul  page 
(HaaAfdrin,  foL  22,  cxiL  I)  the  reviewer  has  copied,  "  He 
who  rursakes  the  love  of  hia  youth,  God's  alur  weeps  (or 
him."  "  He  who  aeee  bia  wife  die  before  him  has,  as 
it  were,  been  preaent  at  thedeatluclion  of  the  aaoctuwy 
ilaelf.  Around  him  the  world  growi  dark."  The  len- 
iences are  badly  rendered;  and,  even  if  they  were  not, 
seeing  in  what  coiinectioa  Ibey  aland  and  tbrough  what 
a  i|itagmire  the  reviewer  was  obliged  to  wade  tu  Uih 
tliem  out,  they  are  wunhleas.  Another  auch  moral  say- 
ing runs  thus';  "When  the  thief  has  no  opportunity  for 
slealint;,  he  conMdera  himself  an  boneat  man."  Who  of 
the  Talmudical  aagea  haa  said  this?  The  Talmud  re- 
latesthatwbenAbishagthe8hunamniiiewaabroughtto 
king  David  abe  said  M  him,  "Marry  rne;"  the  kiuf;  re- 

repruach  to  the  king,  the  Talmud  makes  the  Shunammite 
aay,  S-'p)  »eicS  OBi  K3Mi>  n->-iOn  (Saahfdrii, 
ibid.),  which  (he  reviewer  translated  as  abova.  After 
all,  it  would  be  strange,  indeed,  if  we  cuuld  not  gather 
from  a  work  of  2947  pages  aume  good  sayings  and 
aeulencet.  But,  unless  the  whole  work  be  translated,  it 
will  never  be  known  what  the  Talmud  reallv  is.  For 
inaUDO^  in  one  of  the  treatises  of  the  Talmud  called 
ChaUak  we  find,  almost  verbatim,  what  our  Lord  save 
inUatl.T,  28;  and  yet  that  portion  of  the  Talmud  is 
written  in  language  ao  obscette  and  immoral  that  it 


lofai 


We 


challenge  any  admirer  of  the  Talmud  to  translate 
treatise  and  publish  it,  aitd  theu  every  one  will  be  able 
to  give  the  right  reply  lo  the  query  so  oflcD  raised  by 
(be  reriewer,"Whatia  (he  Talmud?" 
The  article  in  question  thus  ooncludea: 
■•When  the  maslera  of  Ibe  law  soleivd  and  leR  the 


ai"jer 


hej  had  b, 


It  declare  pun  ihai 


ihee,  O  Lord  mj  Uod,  that  I  maj  not  t 
oBeucB.  nor  err  In  aiiTlhlng  aa  regsrdi 

any  of  ihliisTB  nuclean  the/ . 

they  are  unclean,  and  that  my  enrnpanlc 
tnytblDg  at  regard?  (he  Halakah,  and 


jolM 


Dd  that  t  may  no 
id  thhigecleanlha 

— -/rj'i 


•I  ihai;klliee,myO. 


f^iven  me  my  portion  omonir  Ihi^se  wl 

receive  a  reward,  Ihey  work  and  receive  no  reward.    1 
run  and  tbev  ran  i  I  mn  tu  everlsHtlog  life,  and  they  run 

Is  not  tbia  prayer  like  tha(  of  the  Phariwe  in  the  gos- 
pel? (Luke  xviii,  il.) 

Afler  having  (ouched  upon  the  moat  vital  pointa  of 
the  Talmud — which,  as  we  believe,  has  been  done  nw 
tru  el  tttuUa,  but  in  accordance  with 


u  Plito 


m  the 


Talmud  bv  different  authoia, 
o/Judaitm  (p.  DM),  says : 
"The  MIshna.  at.flnt  considered  as  the  perfect 


ts  from  the  llpa  of  their  oracles,  ihe 


talrlvhninsht  together  aud  Bnbmitl 
"The  Hbliua  now  uuIt  served  an 
sea  being  slightly  regarded)  to  call  f 
potltloDS.  The  Terr  sons  i>f  the  fi> 
aet  the  example  by  preleDdinK  Ihnt  I 
their  father  meant.    Tbe  work  onct 

■  Holy'  were  ancceeded  br  b  Iuiik  Hi 
tbslr  divinity  achoola.  under  tbe  tit 
of  the  Jnuntilm,  ur  didaoirt.     Tber 

rtnththey  had  Ihenitelvea  ciiiiatnicit 
(n,  or  sptnliHU^  no  longvr  dictating 
iiuia  by  keen  apecolallous.  Aa  In  " 
merelfiprldlltlesctt"  ■"  -■      - 


eoioglao 


Hlghl,  n»e  Ihe  Of, 

sank  Into  tbe  Eainil 

::d  the  sole 


the  load  of  their 
tearful  when,  tw 
gmuflhelr  I'l.l] 


ohbeflnnlcompllntl-: 
■ted  with  [be  title  .>f 

lad  bei^  touched  its'"! 
a  cnmnletely  rsbblnlH 

1.  or  the  bnctrinal,  as  f 


Uii:e :  miss  puerile  UleB  and  Orii 

rinit  maxtnusand  riddles;  nothli 

ad  .ir  nroilded  aralniit.  (iir  their  _ 

1   bts  Dirr, 
lya  child  I 

a  third  Ih< 
HL^nna,  wnico  waa  n  pecma  law,  and  x 

Dr.  laaoc  Da  Coata,  in  his  Iiriirl 
(N.  Y.  laib,  p.  116),  saya: 

■'The  Talmud  Is  a  mn«t  cnriona  moon 
aalonlahlDg  labor,  yel  made  up  of  pner 

Ereaent  poattlon  of  the  Jew,  away  fron 
-om  hIa  Heaalah.  and  In  diaobc^lence 
Talmud  Itaelf  ia  a  chsoe  lu  which  the  n: 
menta  are  fuiind  lu  Juilaposltlon,  II 
fnia  In  mmepana  entirely  devoid  of  op 
oihera  mied  with  deep  nieiulne.  aki 


III  oihera  mied  with  deep  m 
rnrd  auhtleiies  aikd  legal  jbu 


the  parables  and  sentences  of  tbe  New 
mod  Is  an  Immenne  heap  of  nbblah,  ai 

found.  No  bonk  haa  ever  exptesaed  id. 
aplrli  of  Iteanthora.  Thia  wa  notice  tba 
|>arlug  Ihe  Talmud  wilb  Uw  Bible-lbe  1 

Ihe  Talmud,  Ihe  bonk  donwd  by  lam 
Gnd.  In  Ihe  time  of  th^  iltpersloD,  Ui 
their  degeneracy." 

Dr,  Milnuu),  in  his  HiiUiy  iffOu  Jru 
"The  reader.at  each  suttstal'e  eiMcl  A- 
dlnary  compllailon  (I.  e.  Ihe  Talmsit),  hr 
In  admire  tbn  vein  of  pnCwol  alk|urla 
pleailng  moral  apologae,  to  smile  at  the 
iravagauce,  or  ii>  ahuddar  at  Ibe  dulDi  M 
luflnence  of  Ihe  Talmud  on  Eonpean  inpi 
Ions,  and  even  literature  kiuIdk  to  be  i 

tbe  nailonal  mind  parieutly  lahujed  for  ai 
ln£  the  bidding  of  ihe  inclanl  aud  ibIkI 

veulure  lo  pasK." 
Hi.Farrar,  in  hia  Lift  of  Chid  (a,ii 
"AnylhluR  more  uIIerlT  Dnhlilafiral  Ibl 

canmit  be  cuhcvlved.    li  la  proUblt  ihii  B 


ubM»uily  and  mud*.  Iuem 


TALMUD  1 

mitWr  whlcb  orerr  oub  cu  now  verify  for  h[in»If_tb»I 
iiHK  m  uiuituelj  fcx.  cuDslderlot;  the  vnu  Unlk  of  iih- 
ikiual  HtBTAtarc  m>iii  which  ih«y  ai«  drawp.    And,  After 

an«d  by  th«  nbbiai  to  wtinm  they  were  ntuibntedt 
Vho  will  aopplj  m  with  the  [alnleat  oppronch  to  a  proof 
ilMt  {when  Dot  fbnnded  rm  ihe  Old  Test.)  Ibej  ware  not 
Oinaij  or  ludlrcctlj  due  to  Chrlitiui  Inflneuce  or  Chri^ 
lUi  tbOfl^tr" 
PnC  Dditoeb,  in  h[»  lectures  on  JSduchtt  Hand- 
\r  Zat  Jau  (3d  ed.  EiUngcn,  IS79,  p.  35), 


"Hmm  irbo  bm  not  la  i 
dttoDclT  dUBcali  t»k  of 
ntn*  will  tuTdiT  be  ible  to 
nimlil  COIOMDK.     It  ll  ■   ' 


IG  dejcres  acaonipllihed  Ibo 
ndlue  ibia  work  fiir  them- 
rm  <i  clear  Idea  of  ihia  polj- 
t  debailuK  cinb.  tn  whicb 
.Had  volcex  of  at  leut  Ave 
fmertw.  A«  we  nil  know  b]r  eipeHence,  a  law,  thontth 
Ttrj  minutely  end  exacttj  deflned,  may  jti  be  auacepd- 

It  nn  lo  arli«  when  it  cornea  to  be  appli^  to  Uie  ever- 
Tujing  clreoButincea  of  ulaHl   life.     Sappnee,  then, 

B>  JewMi  liCg  and  duviaed  onder  dlffercDt  bead),  and 
add  tn  Itaaaa  ten  ihoneand  definltlona  about  Ate  hundred 
doctor*  sDd  lawiera,  beloniHiie  moitlr  to  Faleetlne  or 
BatwIoBla,  who  make  theKaeflnltloDe,  one  after  the  olh- 
«.  iWnbtect  ofcxBiniDallun  and  debate,  and  wbo,  with 
Kaif-aplliilos  acotcneae,  eihanat  not  only  erer;  poaalble 
vDH  the  word!  will  bear,  but  erery  poailble  practical 
veeamaot  arielDi  oot  of  Ibem.  9nppo««  thni  tbeae  line- 
•ina  tbreada  ■>(  ueae  legal  dlsqalaltlona  frequentlr  loae 
i>rawlTe»  in  dlginailOM,  aod  thai,  when  ooe  ha*  waded 
Umaib  a  loo^  tract  of  Ihla  aandy  desert,  nne  llghta,  here 


,    Thlad< 


le  code  of  lawa,  is 


ufCDsipicbeciaiTBDBn,  the  law-boolu  of  ai: 
m  bol  lllllpntlan,  and,  when  compared  wl 
iu  kaleidwoplc  Babel,  Ihey  reaemble,  ln<! 


hnik,  (he  origlna]  Babyloulan 


B  iflgtiber  Into  ■  nonber  of  nnlfonn  fnlloa, 
udjudnd  in  like  manner  1  if,  becauM  aome  aaperFtltlaaa 
Bunk  abnald  wrlie  dllj  'Uvea  of  SalDU.'  therelbre,  the 
■ '  '-'■n  Booyan  ahanid  alao  be  conaldered  worth- 


Both  will  Snd 


rA^J?" 


uj  f.  »*t«h  U 


It  the  e> 


.1.  and  reject  whi. 

■laad  the  te*(  ofOod'a  Word." 

Inci>nclusoD,whilewe  acknowledge  tbe  facttbaCtbii 
put  enc.TCloiaedia  of  Hebrew  wiadom  i«eina  willi  error, 
aad  thai  in  alinosl  eyety  department  in  science,  in  natu- 
al  hutnry,  in  chronology,  genealogi-,  logics  itid  marala. 
UKhood  and  mLwake  are  mixed  up  with  truth  upon 
iupB^ea,  we  nerertbelen  confeaa  that,  notwithatanding, 
vith  aU  its  imperiections,  it  ia  a  uieful  book,  an  altcsta- 
tioa  alxitt  paat,a  criterion  of  pr[i|;reei  already  attained, 
aad  a  prnpbecy  of  the  future,  "  It  ia  a  witneaa,  too,  of 
thf  tngth  of  fdly  la  which  (be  mind  of  man  may  drift 
■bn  be  diadaiaa  (be  wigdom  of  God  as  revealed  in  the 
<fa^eJ  \  and  in  tbeee  reapecta  it  will  always  hare  a  claim 
•■  the  atleoliaa  of  the  wiae.  When  Talmiidinn,  at  a 
raficiea  anleni,  (hall,  in  a  genentian  or  two,  have  passed 
away,  ibe  TakoDd  iiadf  will  be  still  resorted  to  a>  a  treas- 
ury 4f  thing!  amadng  and  things  proHtable;  adeepcav- 
nu  of  Bntii(uii7,  wbere  be  who  carries  the  necessary 
URb  will  not  fail  to  End,  amid  whole  labyrinths  of  tbe 

wiD  be  DDc  for  all  timea  (o  come,  and  gems  of  e(hical 
■id  poetic  Ibaogbt  whicb  ntain  their  btigblneas  for- 
"o'  (Etberidge,  Imtroitaiim  to  Jtmih  Uteralurt). 

■  —The  ox  Stiarim,  or  orders,  of  which 

'  0  fouDd  in  the  Taltnud, 


TALMUD 

iiof  thcoD 


I.  B^Snt  SIO.  Stder  Zeratm  (Seeds). 
This  Stdir  conUlns  the  fiillowloe  eleyen  tractates : 
1.  ni313,  Btrakoth,  ut  tbe  treatise  of  blf—ingi,  and 
speaks  Id  nine  chapters  of  the  daily  prayers  and  tbanks- 
glilDgB,  etc:  a.  TiCXlS  (so  called  from  tbe  Bret  ward 
of  Che  chapter)  treats  of  the  time  when  ibe  Sbemals  to  be 
said  In  tbe  morning  and  eienlug,  of  tbe  poeitlon  of  (be 
body  at  prayers,  and  the  benedictions  to  be  eald  reepei- 
lively  (eaectlons).  b.  K^ip  H^H  speaks  of  the  sections 
and  order  of  tbe  Sbema,  of  bow  the  voice  is  to  be  naed  in 
saying  the  prayDT,  and  of  the  occnsiiins  wblcb  exempt 
ftom  prayer  (S  MCllons).  t  IH^O  ^n  points  out  such  if 
areeiamplod  fromptajer  (Ksections).  d.  "inOi^  naCH 
treat*  of  the  time  dnring  which  prnyera  may  be  aald. 
whether  the  Shemoueb  Esreh  (ii.  v.)  are  to  be  aald  In  an 
abbreviated  manner,  of  prayer  Ha  aa  opua  operatwH,  of 
praying  In  dingerotis  places,  and  of  itae  additional  prayer 
<T  MCtlons).  (.  plal?  I^tt  Tefen  to  the  outer  and  In- 
ner position  at  prayer ;  ofprajor  for  rain;  of  the  prayer 
on  Sabbath  evening;  of  the  minister  of  ihe  cnngreKflllon : 
andmtsUkesInprayerHtsecUons).  /.  1^31313  nX^3  re- 
cites tbe  different  blessings  to  be  aald  forfmilsotihstree 
and  the  earth,  wtne  and  bread !  for  wine  before  and  aOer 
meals;  aftbesltilngand  lying  at  the  (able:  nfbleHlDgs  for 
the  main  tnealsaudwaterigsectlona).  j.-lbsKS  ntubc 
ipatlnles  on  bleaslngaprDnnDnced  conjointly;  with  Hbom 


lemaybi 


of  prayer  to  be  used  In  accordance  with  tbe  number  of  per. 
soDs.afdldbrentcompanlesdlwKtlona).  A.  D^ai  I^X 
1-130  shows  tbe  differences  between  (be  schools  of  Hlllal 
and  Shammal  concerning  tbe  waeblng  of  hands  and  the 
blessing  at  meals  (8  sections),  tnttlin  uamas  the  prayer 
tu  be  aald  at  beholding  algna  and  wonders,  at  the  bnlld- 
Ing  of  anewbonae:  and  treats  of  prayers  offered  In  vain, 
of  prayers  at  the  leaving  and  going  Into  a  city:  of  tb* 
pralalng  of  Ood  for  the  good  as  well  as  for  Ibe  evil  1  bow 
10  approach  the  Temple  monntaln  ;  of  the  nslng  of  lbs 
name  of  Ood  at  salaUUon*  (S  sections). 

S.  hKD,  Pah,  or  tbe  aimtr  of  IA<  jbR  treats,  In  elgbt 
chapters,  of  the  Held  comers,  gleanings,  etc,  to  be  left  la 
lbetK»r,et<:.r<i.D->nai  lbK,ortha  meammofthe  Peab, 
where,  of  what,  and  how  large  II  mnstbe  given,  and  bow 
long  the  fmli  Is  exempted  from  tithe  (S  sectinna).  b. 
I'lpotS  I^MX  how  fields  and  trees  as  to  tbe  Peah  may 
be  separated  from  each  other  (S  secllana).  e.  rl33bl3, 
how  large  a  Held  must  be  of  which  Peah  must  be  given 
(8  aectlona).  d.  nttBH,  how  the  Peab  most  be  given  |tl 
sectional,  e.  IC1*13.  what  belouga  to  the  poor,  and  on  (he 
bnnch  left  Ibrongh  forgetfDIoess  <8  sections).  /.  17*3 
"•VXe,  what  may  1»  regarded  as  a  bnnch  left  through 
forgetftilneaa,  and  what  not  <11  aectloos).  g.  n^Vs,  Uie 
same  concerning  olive-trees;  nn  tbe  right  of  the  poor  lu 
the  vineyard  IS  sections).  K  bs  ^m-'KH,  how  long  the 
right  of  the  poor  lasts;  what  cnnsIUales  tbe  poor,  and 
wbn  Is  not  entitled  to  the  right  of  tbe  poor  {9  sections), 

3.  '■N'al,  Jinna1,or(I«ibtAil,lreBlf,ln  sevBncbapten,of 
frnlla  about  which  some  donbta  may  be  raided  whether 
tithes  should  be  paid  for  them  ornot,  vli.  a.  ^''bpn,  which 
fmllB  are  exempted  nvm  the  rights  ofDeinaii  bow  the  De- 
mal  tithe  diffen  from  other  tllhe»,  and  as  to  the  rights  oT 
I>eraaliyalts(4seellODsl.  S.  p^OSns  O-'ini  I^KT,  who 
may  be  regarded  a  strict  Israelite,  and  to  whom  the  per- 
lUrmance  of  the  DemaT  law  belongs  at  baylag  and  eeUlng. 
t  T'^'-alCa,  who  may  receive  Demal  tor  eating,  and  that 
nothing  shonld  be  given  away  nntlthed  (S  sections),  d. 
npibn,  how  a  man  may  be  believed  concomlng  tbe  titbee 
(7  sections).  «-  p  Hplbn,  bow  the  tithe  la  to  be  given 
from  Demal  (11  sections).  /■  33pS)n,  what  to  do  at  the 
renting  of  a  fleld,  at  the  pressing  In  company,  and  of  tbe 
Ihtlte  In  Syria  flt  secUone).    g.  pi3ian,  how  Co  act  with 

sepaiaie  tbe  tithes  lu  divert  caaea;  and  what  most  be 
taken  Into  accunnt  when  tithed  and  ontlthed  frulu  are 
mlied  Dp  (S  sections. 


i.  Q*m3,  JC<IaiflM,oriiiic<ii»ii,trMI«,liiiilnecfaipMnb 
or  tbe  tirublblLed  iiiiDKlliig  or  [ 
■«me  Held,  etc., Tit  o.  0^-nfl,  which  klu(i«o((ni)i»,treei, 
■ud  imtmuli  are  Kllorliii,  aud  bow  to  graft 
KCi]<ii»l.  ».nK&  bs.wliaEUidowhKiitHokludiurucd 
tie  mlied,  or  Id  cau  of  vowing  uiuUiar  Und  on  *  flcld  al- 
riiad J  eii*D,  or  111  tatt  otmaklDg  bedi  afdlffereDt  coni  lu 
ana  ilald  (II  McUona).  e.  nms.  of  Iwda,  tbelr  divlalmj ;  or 
tabln^  and  lu  dlauum  (t  aeciluui).  d  and  t  B*13  mid 
T\n-<p,  ot  Tliiejarde  and  Itaelr  KUajlm  (»  and  S  sec- 
iti.ut).  /,  irn-[(,ofthBrIghuofaTin«ral«odoiiaiie«pal. 
lerlSaeccioua).  a.-J'naBn.oflhBlarBriDRorylnBa.apread- 
li>g<>riinea,«K.  (B  aecUonaJ.  h.  -^ias.  In  bow  far  KUaylm 
areliitbiddei]  amung  anlnult,  In  foking  togatbtr  aa  well 
lu  In  copnlallDg,  and  what  to  dn  wllb  butardi  and  aoiiie 


a.  n^7"3U  BMiltlk.  or  the  SatbaNBCU  inor,  In  Un  chap- 
lera:  n.  ^Inxn  rTra3  VITlin  TO^H  ^5,orflBld^  wlih 
Ireea,  a4id  bow  lung  thej  maj'  b«  ciiUiTatsd  Id  Ihe  al 
jear  (8  aecllona).    b.  pSn  mca  'n  ft  S,  of  opeD  Od 
aud  wbat  maj  ba  dune  Id  tbeu  Illl  the  beginning  at 
•erenlbjMrdOBKll.Hif).    e.  1^X^X1  D  ^rO^RO.ofi 
nnrlngUw  Bald:  or  breaking  iLouin  and  pnlUngdowDWi 
(Ibaactloiu).   d.  railStna,  of  cDCUng  abd  pmnlngtra 
ftam  what  lime  on  IC  I*  parmllled  to  cat  of  l  be  frnlta 
the  aarenib  year  which  tiive  growD  by  ibamaelm  (10 
HCIliiaa).     (.  mv  n^33,  oncaming  the  white  flg  and 
aunirner-ontoiis;  wblch  farm  Dienglla  cannui  ba  aold 
lent  (fl  MCtloDB).   /,  rlri^N  Vlibv.  <A  the  dlOereiiM 
conntrlea  concerning  the  aeveoib  jear,  and  wbal  rraila 
cannot  Im  Mken  ontalde  »f  tbe  ciiiinti7  (t  aectlnDiJ.    g. 
31^3   bbs,  what  IhlueH  are  ■ahjtn't  to  tbe  right  of  tbe 
rerenth  jear  <I  aeetloMa).    h.  ^^li,  V>^  what  nae  maj  h« 
nada  of  n-nlia  wblch  have  Krtiwn  i<y  IhoiDMlTet:  what 
mnal  be  obaerved  at  their  aale  aud  the  proceed*  thereof; 
bowlbeyare  tii  be  gathered  ill  aeotlnin).    L  oa^'BTt.  nf 
the  frnlta  which  may  be  bimgh;,  and  of  stnrliig  *wij  the 
preeerred  ffnlla  (»  aectiona).    j.  piySO,  of  the  remit. 
tauce  of  debta  (•  MCtloua). 

a.  niainn,  ItcnunoU,  nr  oMaHona,  relatea.  In  eleven 
chapter!,  to  the  heaTe-offeriug:  a.  TTOTSn.  what  perenng 
cnngivetheTemmotb,aiidofwhlcb  Crnlta:  aud  of  gtiliig 
the  Ternmoth  not  aceordlni;  to  number,  meiwniB,  and 
weight  (10 .ectlona).  6.  T^mir  T>X,  theTemmolhean- 
nol  be  glTcn  trom  the  pare  for  Ihe  Impure ;  ofdletlngniab- 


muft  be  given  aaecond  lime;  bawto  determine  the  Ten 
mahi  of  theTerumah  of  a  Qeutlle  (B  Hctlona).  ij  and 
riKO  and  U-^'lESn,  of  the  quautltyot  the  large  Temmal 
In  which  cases  common  fmit  becomea  nnt  medammn  (i,  i 
tslobe)^Teneultrel;asTeniDUb),  Id  spite  of  bnviiig  bet 
mixed  with  Temmah  (19  and  S  sections).  /.  ^Slttn,  e 
tbe  reetltatioD  ot  tbe  Ternmah,  when  a  person  has  eate 
Ibereof  bj  mistake  {i  eeclioiia).  g.  ^Slttn,  when  a  pe 
■n  (I  eectlous).    A.  nv^xr 


otih 

eooad  (ISaectio: 

mon  frnlta  by  I 


-e  that  a  Temmah  get  neither  uoclcau 


leiDi 


an  sowD  (1  aeclioiis),  j.  iss,  how  cr 
le  mere  taste  cnn  become  Temmah  fi 
^''in^l  y^K.  how  the  oil  of  a  Terun 


(in  sectional, 

1.  mnOSns,  JfaoaenKA  or  lilha.  due  to  tbe  L 
flyechapleri:  a.  II^X  MS.'iflheklndBotfrnil 
toillhea.aud  from  what  time  on  tb«yaredae(B  i 
b,  "a^y  n^rr,  of  exceptions  (8  sectlaiis).  c,  " 
where  fmlu  became  tltbable  (ID  eecllont).  d.  tc: 
preservlDg.  picking  oat.  and  olber  i 
tithes  {«  sections),  e.  ipisn,  otrenioring  ofphmla;  of 
hnyliigand  selling;  of  xltie  aud  teed  that  cannot  be  titbed 
te  f  ectloDS). 


F6  TALMUD 

S.  "iC  ISTfi,  Jfujcr  aAent,  or  womid  KUc,  wblcb  lbs 
Letlleehad  to  paj  out  of  their  leuib  to  the  priests,  lu  Air 
chapter*;  a.  '3V  ^D913,  that  Ihla  Iwtb  caDOot  be  dir- 
poMd  of  in  any  way  (I  sectlous).  b.  ym  ^3a  IBWC 
ODly  things  neceaaary  for  eating,  drinking,  and  auoiuting 
can  be  bought  for  the  money  <i[  tbe  tenth :  what  to  do  wlieu 
tuDth-monoy  and  common  money  are  mixed  logmber.  •«- 
wheu  tenth-money  moat  be  exchanged  (ID  MCtioni).  r. 
"^SX^  Kb,  frulta  ofthe  second  leDtb,  when  once  In  Jenica- 
lem.canootbetakenoDiagaiDllSwctiona).  d.  ^''blsn, 
what  mutt  be  obaerred  at  tbe  price  afthe  tenth,  and  hnw 
money  and  that  which  It  fonod  must  beregatdsd  (It  sec- 
tions), a,  ^S3-<  ons,  of  a  vineyard  In  ita  fcitinh  rear, 
the  (hillB  of  which  are  equally  regarded  aa  the  fpnlu  of  >he- 
taklng-away  of  ibe^ 


tenth,  la  performed  In  a  solemD  m 
Dent,  ixvl,  IB  eq.  as  aectloaa). 

«.  rnrt,  ChalUUt,  or  ttaugh,  refers  to  the  cake  wbieli  rh«- 
womeD  were  required  tu  bring  of  kneaded  dongfa  !•<  ihf- 
prleat,  In  four  cbaptera:  a,  B^^31  noan,  which  friiii^ 
are  robJect  to  Challah  {■  sectiohi].  b  and  o.  ni1-Il  nrid 
I^SS'K,  of  special  catea  wblch  need  a  more  precise  deO- 
DlUoncoDcemingCfaallBh.andoftbequanTiiyotmuIand 
ita  Challah  (8  and  10  sections),  d.  O^IC)  TIB,  nrcmni- 
lDg  together  ofdilTereiit  rmita,and  tbedllTereut  righu  nt 
coDUtrles  concerning  Challah  (11  seotlona). 

10.  nbir.Orfa*,  llt.JtonaHH,  ofthe  flirblddeomitaoT 
the  trees  In  Palestine  during  tbe  llrst  three  yeara  of  thclr 
growth, la  thi-te chapters;  a.  SS^Sn.wblcbirBesaicnb- 
Ject  to  tbe  law  of  Orlah  and  which  nni  (B  ■ectlnns).  ». 
nsfmn,  what  to  da  lu  caae  Dflruits  ut  Otinh  or  Kllayin 
being  mixed  with  other  fhilu ;  i  ~ 


or  Cbollln,  baring  b 
1J3.bowtbe  same  law  Bl» 
poses,  and  the  dre  ased  for 

0^133,  fliUar*!*, 


a  mixed  up  (II  Mcil»n 

uncems  colon  rordyelu 

xiklng:  and  wbal  Is  to 

«ofco 


/rM.jVuibi,  In  foor  ebB|>lar«: 

l^»''3a  V\  who  Is  not  enillled  la  offer  the  flrst-fhilt*, 
wbounaBbrtbemwIthoatobaenlng  the  fornulapi*- 

scrlbed  <l>ent.  titI,  D)  ;  <if  what  and  when  they  are  la  be 
;pald  (11  sectional.  *.  n''^123m  noiim. 
nice  of  tbe  Brat-fniita  ot  the  Teramab  and  tbe- 

aecnud  tenth,  eiipeclally  of  the  pomegranate  at  the  Fea« 
•f  Tabernaclea;  of  blood  of  men  and  of  the  animal  Onl 

llsiiniulabed  fniiu  all  anlmala  (II  aecUona),  c,  1X^3 
liO^BO,  of  Ihe  ceremonlea  to  ba  obeerred  al  brlnglDg 
hiilu  to  Jerusalem,  and  tbeir  rights  (11  sectlous). 
d.  O^r^yiliK,  <>r  the  harmapbrodlu  (B  *eclloD*>.  (Thte 
B<iraitha,or  addition  to  tbeaecond  chapter,  and 
where  anly  tbe  Hiahna  is  printed.) 


This  Seder,  one  of 

la,  nan},  SSONxUh,  containing  twenty-foqr  cbapten, 
rents  of  the  laws  relating  to  Ihe  Sabbath,  wlib  leepeet 
It  llghis  and  oil  need  on  that  day,  oTena  in  wblch  arti- 
cles of  food  were  warmed  on  Ihe  Snbbnth.  and  the  dreaa 
men  and  women  used  on  tbe  aame  day.  It  also  en»- 
irales  ihlrty-nlue  kluili>  of  work,  by  each  of  which,  aep. 
ilely,  Ihe  guilt  of  Sabbaih-breaking  may  be  incnrted, 
plongh  ;  8,  to  mow ;  4.  to  gaiher  into 


es;0,to 

grind;  •,  tosleva:  Id,  to  kneads  11,  to  bake;  lt,toBliear 
wool;  IB, to waab wool;  Htocard;  ia,iodyei  ]<,toeplni 
I.  to  warp ;  IS.  to  abnot  two  threads ;  10,  t»  weave  two 
bread*;  K,  to  cat  and  lie  two  threads;  11,  to  tie;  K,  i.i 
inllei  ta,  to  sew  two  atitches;  M,  to  tear  two  ihreadt 
vlth  Intent  to  sew;  ts.  to  catch  game:  H,  to  slaughter i 
T,  to  skin;  BS,  to  sell  a  hide;  *».  loalnge;  M,  lotao;!!. 

0  eni  up  a  skin  ;  3*.  ID  write  two  leiien ;  n,  to  erase  twi> 
etter*  with  intent  In  write;  B4,lo  build:  W,  Co  demolish ; 
t.toextlngnlshflre;  BT,  to  kindle  Are;  SS,  to  etrlke  with 

1  hammer;  B»,  to  carry  out  ot  one  property  into  another, 
t  treau  of  the  differences  between  the  schools  or  mile) 
ind  Bhammal,  etc.,  vii.  a.  rOffln  ni.'fS'',  of  remnvalo- 


TALMUD  1' 

<■  ib«  tebbnth  dnjT ;  work  to  ba  iToldid :  dLuduInu  b«- 
iiicu  itM  KbouU  tiF  Ulllsl  uid  Sbsmnui  u  u>  wliiit  coii- 
rtiuM  wurk:  voik  tllowod  (11  HctloDg).  b.  rra3 
'lY'^^P.  ul  thi  llihtlog  d/  >  luip  i  iTt  oT  tba  Sabbatb 
llttaioBt).  t.  n^^a,  ordlStrtDt  Dfcui,  uid  prapulng 
■  Id  irimtag  tba  msmluo  Stbbalki  otpklli  tor  nLanUou 
•t  iM  ditpplDS  oil  o  ■pvk*  of  tlw  Ump*  {e  wctloua).  d. 
■■;g3  rraa,  ef  thiiiR*  to  conr  ap  pota  lo  laUlB  t)ia 
hot.  tnd  or  ibin|i  not  to  corer  ap  the  poU  (1  wctlaat). 
(.  rrarra  noa,  with  wS«l  n  benst  li  led  fmb  or  oovervd, 
rppedillj  »  e«Ml(»  »ertl™«.  /.  nOR  fioa,  wtib  wbiii 


'  ud  b.  nso  ^3  I 


i:  urwrioo*  ilylee;  iif  plnnloj  Ike  t 
(10  KcUutu).    J.  iflj  iba,  .if  kow 


lit ;  ot  rll 


Ingf  1  Bu  mej  b«  rsBponB^ble  tor  noder  oert^c  cLreaiD- 
nunt  Ux  IcDtmuUr  impM^ng  agilnil  tbe  Stbbaik ; 
iktiURr-aiDa  klndi  aribrMddmi  woA;  rule  ud  meat- 
on  inr  udngi  Iks  cuTTliif  of  wbkh  nului  liable  to  ■ 


luRaUa  tklBga  on  tka  tebbatb  daj  (I  aeetlmt).  }. 
inJXBn,  of  dlflkmit  klDda  <if  poruble  tblog*:  otcanj'- 
taig  RiriDf  or  dead  men,  and  of  miui}  olkar  tklnjia  (taee- 
Ugof).  k.  p^in,  of  tbrowtHKOier  tbe  Btreai,  ditch,  and 
rock,  Tlrer  and  land ;  nF  tbe  diatance  bow  br  K  cud  be 
■nr  (fl  aectloM).  I.  hSiar^ 
I,  borlD^,  ploughing,  gath- 

,      , ,.  ,_ing,  picking  np,  wtHIpb  (•eecllona).    m. 

"Tribx  ^^  of  weaTlni,Kwlne,CBttlDK.iTa(hliig.  beat- 
en aectloh*).    n.nri310,  ofcatck- 
Orbldrten  medldnM. 

o.  c-^op  ^W,  ot 

irlug  iDd  oa^ng  ot  knua ;  of  (iilding  garmenla,  and 
■•kint  iha  hada  II  •ectlotu).  p.  ^ans  33,  or  tviVae 
lUin  oot  of  a  oMiBiiitratlnn ;  of  eitlognlahlug  and  covai- 
mg.aclBBectiooal.  f.  S'^bsn  bs.orvoaaela  which  but 
b(  Bond  on  the  Sabbath  |S  aectlonal.    r.  '{''JBia,  what 

•na;  of  leadlDg  tbe  chUd;  of  an  animal  that  cnlna;  a 
•(■■aa  ibai  ia  to  be  detitemd,  and  ot  a  child  {t  aactiaiial. 
•.  '^r'^M  ^31,  at  dreanicbion  on  Ike  Sabbath,  and 
■kat  hBk»p  10  ti  (t  aectlona).  t.  la^K  ■^IS^^K  S 
^4^  of  Btnlnlng  the  wtne :  of  fodder;  ofcleanaliig  tbe 
(Tlh;  otKraw  on  the  beda  and  clolbea-preae  IS  ■ectlonal. 
a.  liaij,  of  thloga  pennltted  to  be  carried  ;  afdeBuTiiga 
pUd*:  Ike  table,  of  ptcUngnpthecnimba;  aud  ofapiiugea 
OiMllaeal.  w.  ri''an,orciulu,c]aiernB,batklng-c1iithei. 
iBttaa,e(e. :  of  enuHic*!  ofaeitlng  a  limb  or  ■  mpinre  {S 
■Kdona).  ic  CIK  bKID,  of  batrowlDS;  of  coniitlDg 
tram  a  book,  dr*«la(c  lou,  hiring  laborera;  ot  waiting  ai 
iMaal  otaSabbatb-wai':  nf  nnnmlog-plpea, coma,  nod 
pBiawklA  a  heathen  baa  dng  I  whacmajrbe  dona  to  tbe 
4eid|»aRt]oni).  «.  ■I^anna  ■'B,  otone  who  la  a*ar- 
utrs  bf  the  dnik  aa  Ike  road  i  of  feeding  the  anlmala  ■ 
■f  pompklua  and  enrrloii  i  of  aeveral  tblnga  permitted  on 
<te  Sabbath  (S  aectlona). 

a.  T^a^"^?,  KrtMn,  or  mingUng,  In  ten  chapters,  deala 
•kk  thaaa  ceremonlea  bj  which  the  Sabbath  bonudarr 
™«It«flod:  "mingling- a  whole  town  Inlo  one  llcli- 
Ui>H  r*rd.  ao  that  canylng  wttbln  it  aboald  not  be  unlaw- 
lU: «.  "iian,  concern  lug  Ibe  entir  ">  ■■>  allsT  (10  'ectlnna), 
•-70t'p0^7,coac«nilngendo«nrea|aBecLioua).  e.^sa 
T'a^Sn,  eoDCcralng  a  holrdaT  or  a  Frida;  (R  aoedona), 
>  ^TTWiXiriD  *a,  coDC«riilng  tbe  «tepplng  befond  the 
Mibaik  llnitdl  HcUona).  a.  1^3133  1X^3.  coucemini; 
't<  anlarflng  the  boaada  of  a  cIit  n>  eecilona).  /  and  17. 
~^n,  etc,  l^n,  coocenilDg  the  oel^bborhaod  (lO  and  II 
•aOliMl.  A.  I^snnes  tx^a,  concerning  what  may 
taAaelaajardaiaBcUou).  i.  nu  Va.coucerulug 
r«ib,Mc  (4  BHtlona).  /.  vViBP  nXIOn.  coDcernlng 
nat  difltreni  Sabbath  lawi  (IB  Mciloni). 

H.  e^nOV,  f^aocMm,  In  incbaptera,  ireataof  thepaa- 


TALMUD 

dnra-IK^  -|'1M,ofM;irchlugforleaT- 
■u;  huwtupnt  Hawaii  uriliBlUatar-cake.audtha  herbs  for 
the  bitter  herba{T  and  eaeciloua).  b.  ^■■■^3^9  nVK.utthc 
ctretoaToldleaTen(SBectlone).  d.  limC  DlpB,orih» 
worka  oo  the  daj  belbre  Saaler,  and  what  kinda  ut  work 
are  permitted  <•  aectlona).  <.  UntS}  I'^OP,  wkeu  and 
how  to  kUl  the  paackal  laab  1  ot  ileanlug  aud  akluhlnic 
tbe  same,  and  huwkbecomesdlaallowedllOaaciloua).  /. 
noB3  D-^iai  ibx,  huw  tka  Paaaover  abrogalea  tbe- 
cummaud  agniiist  work  on  tbe  Sabbath;  of  tbe  oSetliiit 

with  auotkar  (8  aacClow).    3.  yi-\3  1X^3,  ot  nmatltig 

remaining  paru  (IB  aeciioaa).  A.  11313  nSKn.  whiit 
peraona  are  •Ilowed  to  eat  it  aodwbll  an  not;  of  ciinipu- 
alea  (S  aecUoaa).  t.  Nino  ^S,  of  the  aecoDd  Batter ;  of 
the  Enaier  In  Bgj'iji,  and  of  diian  caaea  whan  paachal 
limbs  taare  been  exckonged  (11  aecUooa).  j.  ^yiS' 
□TIDI).  uf  the  order  at  tbe  Saalar-meal  alMr  tbe  fi'iir 
cnpi  of  wtne  which  are  aeeeaaarjr  lor  It  (8  aectlona). 

IS.  Q'^bpO.  SkaUim,  or  eketela.  In  eight  chaplen,  cun- 
talna  lawa  relating  to  tbe  baltebekel  which  wat  paid  for 
Ibeanppunorpnbllcwoniblp:  a.  11X3  ^nK3.  how  the- 
moaej-ebingert  lake  their  aeal  at  tbe  monsj-iablea,  011  the 
IStk  of  Adar,  where  tbe  people  exchange  their  mouer  (T 
eectlnna).  fc.  ^■Vl:tS,  nf  changing,  aud  of  colna  need  liv 
former  iliiiea;  of  tbe  remaining  moneT  (0  eeollooa).  e. 
CpiB  nosiCa,  how  Uia  paid  ahektla  may  be  taken 
again  from  the  iraaaurj  (4  aeclloiu).  d.  tfa'Witl.  bow 
Iher  are  to  be  apent,  and  what  to  do  with  ibe  balance  9 
aecUona).  a.  *,'<3'<iai3n  ',n  ibit,  of  tbe  offices  lu  Iba- 
aaneInar7,andotthe  tenia  (fleectlana).  /.  ItSS  ne^9, 
how  often  the  number  thirteen  occnrred  lb  the  Bancinu? 
<C  aectioni).    p.  -WXBIC  nXO.  ot  moDeji  and  other 

ther  belong  <T  aectlona).  K  ^tpiin  ba,  of  other  dnbl- 
one  Iblngi;  resolDtlOD  that  the  shekel  aad  fliatlinga  kare- 
«aaed  with  tka  Temple  (8  aactlanB). 

la.  KQ^i,  remAOrtbellatKi^jfoiifliufiCilnelgbtchap- 
teni  (L  a^V  nsac.  ot  the  preparallona  of  tbe  high- 
priest  p  aecUona).  &.  nslOida,  of  casting  loia,  and  of 
the  offerlngan  sections).  cDllV  iaet,ofthe  banning  of 
tha  Da;  of  Atonement ;  nf  bathing,  washing,  and  dressing 
the  blgh-iirieat,  and  of  preaenilng  the  bnllncka  and  goat* 
(II  aectlona).    d.  lubpa  qiB,  ofcaallng  Ibe  lota  niHHi 

wbal  waa  to  be  done  In  the  Hoi;  ot  Holies  (T  seetlnna). 
/.  il^ID  '^9D,  of  aendibg  forth  ihecoal  (8eecllaiia}.  g. 
•b  M3,  what  Ike  blgh-prtoet  waa  meanwhile  to  do,  and 
nnlll  the  end  of  hie  serrlce  at  night  (B  aectlona).  k.  Sl^ 
D^IIBan,  of  the  priTllegea  of  fasting:  bowman  Is  Itar- 
given,  and  how  he  Is  not  Ibrgiven  tfi  sections). 

17.  naiD,  SuUoA,  or  the  PraM  0}  Tabtmada^  tu  Bve 
chapters:  a.  N'RHJ  n31D,ofthesliesndcoTerlogarihe 
Sokkah  <li  aectlona).  ».  IC'^n,  how  often  meals  should 
be  eaten  in  It ;  exemptions  |»  aectlnus).  1.  aVlb.  of  the 
palm-branctaas,  myrtle-boughs,  willows,  citrons;  what 
conalitntes  their  fltneaa.  and  whst  not;  bow  to  tie  and 
Vnke  them  (IS  sedlont).  i.  na->9^  aViV,  how  many 
daya  these  ceremonies  last ;  of  the  ponrlngmot  ofthe  wa- 
ter (10  sections),  «.  b^bnrr,  oftherrJolclnge:  bowtodl- 
Tlde  the  offerings  and  shew-bresd  00  Ibia  fetllval  among 
tbe  orders  of  the  priests  (8  sections). 

!§.  31^  01^,  Kom  IW,  i.e.iiaod  «Iau.  or,  aa  It  Is  general- 
If  oiled,  riX^a  DrUatt,  i.e.tlit  i^,  from  tbe  word  witb 
which  it  coiDDience*,  cuDtaialog  live  chapiere;  a.  flVa 
nlbl9a,  whelheranagglaldoiiihefeailTBl  maybei^nteo 
iberenn.  On  this  qnestion  the  schools  otShainmal  and 
Hlllel  DM  diTided:  the  former  decide  la  ike  aarmnlire, 
the  latler  In  the  negative  (in  eecllons).  b.  alU  D1^  or 
V^-'Oan  3113, 1,  e,  of  cimnecilng  the  meals  on  tbe  Sab- 
bath and  other  aobseqneiit  holydsys.  Ualmooldes  girrx 
tbe  following  account,  which  will  enable  Ibe  reader  10  nn- 
dentand  this  oipresrioa:  "Tbe  rabbhia.  In  older  to  pre- 


T<nt  coahln:  or  prop«r«i 
f illoKlvg  wnrklug-difi, 
SubbiHh  ImmedlBKly  full 


>r  [nod  on  the  hltlvi]  fur  the 
I  prohlblWd  It  even  fur  the 
ig.  ThByhnTBorderetUh™- 

dny  iwrote  the  fcellvsl,  to  which  more  m»y  bo  cooked,  In 
•ddltlaa,  on  the  re«liTnl ;  which  hu  been  ordared  with  the 
Inteutioii  of  reminding  the  Kcnenl  msu  thai  it  la  Dot  )aw- 
fnl  (u  pjepart  my  lood  od  the  fe«tlvml  which  f»  not  eaten 
thereoD.    It  Ib  Mlled  311S.  or  mlilnre,  becanse  It  miiea 


done  bj  dij,  and  what  can  1>e  d< 
c  ^■'Sn  ^32.  ol  the  eale  of  ho 
\ir  the  Sabbath  dnrlug  the  mnnl 

if  the  penou*  roqnlred  for  tbe  la 
4ch  penon  ma;  read:  wbo  mi 
irajer:  of  the  puaages  wMcb  a 


>lne«  tHe  f 


tal  with  Uat  reqaired  for  tlis  I 
iHtlduahTtm  Tab,  cii.ti),  c 
killing  nntmala;  hnw  to  buy 


mlly'aui 


,  of  caUhlng  and 


lecuuaiy  Ibliiga,  with- 

-caiTjlns,  oapecially  wood  not  reqoirod  for  barolng  (T  i 
Uoui).    (.  l^b^OO,  ennmerallon  and  predM  dednlOon 
«f  clHrHsa  of  iblnge  which  cannot  be  done 
-day,  allll  leaa  on  a  Sabbath  day  (T  aectlons). 

IS.nSOn  06("1,»»AHMft-«fciiKi*,or.V(w-B«w,inroBr 
■thnpien;  a.  D'^SO  ^OKI  nS  3  ^K,  of  tbe  fOnrNew-yeaTi 
(»  KelloDi).  b.  IS""!*  OK,  of  examining  wHnesaea  who 
wltneMCd  tb>  new  moon,  and  of  annonnclnK  11  on  the  top 
of  the  moonb^nt  by  flre  (B  Becllone).  e.  ^ni»-i,  of  an- 
Donnctng  the  new  moon  and  new  year  with  corneU  (8 
»ectlon«|.  d.  ita  3ia  BT',  what  to  do  In  eaw  th«  Bew- 
yenr  rails  on  tha  Sabbath,  and  of  the  order  of  aanlee  on 
4he  NoW'year  19  aectlons). 

».  n^3Sn,  TamiOi,  or  /fMns,  In  fooc  chapters',  o. 
^O^KO,  of  prsjer  for  rain,  and  proclamallooB  of  hsUnK 


IS  In  due 


e.  iVs  ni-'isn  iiD,  of 

«uiBru™»..m-u..-"u6.  -.not  blowing  alarms  1  whro 
to  cenw  ruting,  In  caM  It  rains  (>  sections),  d.  ncaSS 
O^p^B,  of  the  iwsnty-fonr  atsttona  or  deleRalea  i  their 
ftMlnKs.  lessons  1  of  bringing  wood  for  the  alUrj  of  the 
ITIb  of  Tsmmna  ind  of  tbe  Bth  and  IStb  of  Ab  (S  sec- 
(Ions).  The  HIabua  tells  ns  the  following  concemlog 
4he>e  dates;  "On  tbe  ntb  of  Tammoi  the  at 
wen  broken  and  tbe  dally  olTerTng  ceased,  ai 
was  broken  np,  and  ApustBmne  (1.  e.  Antlochi 
lies)  bnmed  tbe  law,  and  he  set  np  an  Image  h 
pie.    On  the  »lli  of  Ab  It  was  proclaimed  to  > 


Isblea 
Id  the  cliy    ' 


iinu,  Thi,  m  tui  Tme  of  tub  Oij>  Tii 
M.  llBp  1S1B,  Jf«(f  Soton,  or  *wi 
chaptere,  ttesla  of  Iba  hklf-bolrdB^s  b 
tbe  laat  day  of  tbe  Faseover,  nnd  ol  tli 
cles:  a.  l^pon,  of  working  In  thoflel' 
msklng  coOdb  ;  and  what  psrtalns  tc 
tloDs).  b.  ~CnO  ^a,  otttie  workdi 
may  bo  carried  and  iMoghl  (0  sectloni). 

ny^in,  ClagigaK  ft  flatting,  lo  tb 

e  voluntary  sscrlllcee — otber  than 

«d  by  Indlridnal  Jowa  on  the  gn 

lia-wn,  of  the  penoue  who  are  obllBi 

■  ,te{9secilon,>,  t.  ITU -111  y».oi 
■Ingnodlrectconnectloo  with  theei 
title  of  tbe  treatise :  thoe  the  lint  ae 
chapter  opens  with  "Men  mnat  not  lee 
Inceal  (or  sdoltoryl  before  three  pereoi 
I  creation  before  two,  nor  on  the  i 
■  he  be  wise  and  Intelligent  by  his 
oflaylng-onothsnd«(T  sections). 
,w  tsr  the  rales  for  holy  things 
for  the  heaTe-offerlng;  In  how  fi 
_  be  credited;  how  the  vessels  of  tl 
cleaned  again  after  the  feast  (3  BecOons; 

in.  BTS  -nCSiitr  NatMn 

This  Safff  Is  compijMd  of  seven  tresli 
H.  niaS-*,  YOiamHh,  entem  Into  1 
tails  aa  lo  the  pecollar  Jewish  precept 
obligation     *      '""  ""'  """"■" '' 


ta  the  sllei 


r  btben 
uUk- 


mliied  fiir  the  flret  and  second  time,  an 
en,  and  the  city  *»s  ploughed  np."  Kabban  Slmm 
■on  of  Qamsllel,  s»1d.  "There  were  no  holydays  In  Isrsel 
like  the  IBth  of  Ab,  or  like  the  Day  ot  Atonement,  be- 
cause  111  Ibem  the  daoghlers  of  Jerasslem  promenniled 
in  wbtte  garments,  bumiwed,  thst  no  one  mlshl  be 
■shamed  of  her  pnterty.  All  these  garraenta  must  be 
baptised.    And  the  dsaehtera  o(  Jerasalem  promenaded 


>lirul,  and 
^f 'eth  the  Lord,  sU' 
e  her  ot  the  frail  ol 


snced  In  the  vlneysrds. 
■  Look  here,  yonng  man,  and  si 
ont  for  beauty,  look  for  fcmily 

shall  be  praised;'  and  ft  is  ml' 
her  hsnds,  and  let  her  own  works  praise  hei 
{Pror.  ml.  80,  811-  And  11  la  also  said  :■  < 
.dsDgbters  of  Zlon,  and  behold  king  Solui 
irowo  whctewlth  hla  mother  crowned  him 
his  esponsals,  and  In  the  day  of  the  gladneee 

»l.  ni-ja,  **i7"'a*.ortheroaofthebookofKeiher.lo 
fonr  chapters :  a.  n^iiQ,  of  tbe  daya  on  whlib  the  Megll- 
lah  Is  rend  (11  secllons).  The  Gemsrs,  on  the  fourth  sec- 
tion of  thlsMlehna  (fol.  T,  col, «.  tells  ns  thai  the  Jews  are 
illrected  to  get  so  drank  on  the  Feast  of  Pnrlm  that  they 
lanoot  discern  the  difference  between  "  itieesed  bo  Morde- 
cal  Slid  cttl»ed  be  Haman"  and  "  Cursed  be  Mordecal  and 

an7  rabbi  Zira  made  their  Fnrim  enlertalnroenl  together. 
When  Mabba  got  drunk,  he  arose  and  killed  'jl''''_^2in. 
On  the  following  day  "  '  -^ 


■gslnt. 


.  The  following  year  Kabba  proposed  lo  h 
nake  their  Pnrlm  entertainment  together ;  t 
ted,  'Miracles  don't  happen  every  day.'" 
How  to  rend  the  Meglllah;  what  can  only 


.;  the  chlldlesg  wl> 
iBilv'e  dlqrace  of  tbe  pe 
mofsl  of  the  shoe  of  th 
!  book  of  Rath.    It  eon U 


realise  will  give  a  good  Ides  of  the  ID lij 
FIfleeu  women  free  their  rival  wives 
Irals  from  the  challtslh  aed  yibblim  c 
Is  danghler  (tbe  desd  brolhet's  wift  be 


id  his  dangbler-hi 


It,  however,  any  of  these  had  died,  or  r 
sent,  or  had  been  divorced,  or  Is  ddBI 
their  rivals  may  be  mauled  bj  ylbbftm 
consent  or  uafllneM  tto  procroste]  cinn< 
respect  to  his  molher.ln-liw,  or  tt*  mnlh 
In-law."  This  Mlthna  If  called  CO!  ■" 
sections),  b.  riB»  ^a3,  of  taiei  whcrt 
horn  ufler  the  married  hrolher*!  duthj  a 
brother  is  to  be  freed  eilber  sccordlnslo  I 
for  the  BScrednesB  of  llie  person  i  of  Hie 
brothers  and  sons ;  ofbcUalbliiglo  pern 
be  dtsLlngulshed  froni  eicti  alder;  of  wIt 
be  married  {10  sections),   t  '\VS  f1J3"l 

tlons).  it  ySinn,  of  the  ililn-ln-lswith 
be  pregnant;  when  she  gfU  llil  herluge 

what  conslltolee  a  msmar,  i.  t.  sa  ilttp 
Ibet  the  sister  of  the  dertisnl  "Ift  inay  I 
sections).  *.  bK-^Voj  IS"',  of  lUs  ri(lil" 
coutrsct  and  divorce  it  seclioit).  /.  >S  K: 
blgb-ptleit  cannot  manr;  "bit  MOitlli 


ODM,  Bud  of  a[ 


1.  b^sn.  of  OH  tlut  Is  vooadad  Id  tbs 
ihU  bai  hit  piiTT  member  cal  off;  c 
r*A  Hf^Utv;  of  Itac  hermiphrodlte, 
i.  yiTMO  ff',  of  womTO,  or  brotheni-lD-liw,  who,  on  hc. 
tngclof  Uiairtelatlonihlp,  can  oeUher  nurry  DOT  be  mir- 
nnl,uidorihe[irobibl(sddegr*e«(6»ciiaoM.  j.  nOItll 
^^nCofKilH  nenihitoue  or  tbe  oiber  died;  of  the 
anil  iDtemnne  of  one  who  1b  not  jeL  nurrlageable  [tt 
KcUou).  k.  l^KB13,DfvlolBtedwomon,proMljtw,iind 
liItrcliUEed  chlldron  (I  (ecllops),  J.  msnn,  of  the 
cein»til«aorU>eclu1IMb(SHKtlai»).  •n.B'^'^SIX  ob, 
ud  ■.  ain,  at  the  reftlMl  nf  one  who  U  not  of  sge  lo 
muTj  ■  nan  ;  of  ibe  Tight  of  draf  persum  (la  and  t  see- 

uou).  0.  nsi  na  rrBun,  ana  p.  -|ino  ncKn 

nis!.  how  the  eiidmce  thai  loa  it  dead  reoolyB«  cte- 
tance,  iDd  Ite  vaiidiij  u  to  tbe  rlghl  ot  the  wife  tnorry- 
Ing  again ;  and  lh«  Lerlrato  (q.  r.l  (10  and  T  wctluuB). 
Sennl  pnrlloDa  of  Ihls  ireatiM  are  to  olTensIre  to  all  feel- 
h^  of  dellctc;  tb»i  [hey  ha*e  been  [eft  natraneUled  by 
Um  Eufllah  tnoiUton,  and  are  eltber  prlnlHl  In  HtOnw 
<T  rrprcBentcd  by  aateriAka  aJone. 

n.  nisins.  KctAutoUV.  in  tblrteea  chipMra,  contAlna 
Ut  lin  nlattng  to  marriage  contracu :  a.  riplns.  of 
ttA  u  arv  regarded  a*  virglnB,  and  of  the  anm  promlaed 
by  Ite  ltrtd«%T<>om  to  the  bride  (10  MCIIont).  b.  rtDEtri, 
vbellMr  a  pBwiu  may  teatlfy  ofblmMltend  of  (be  credl- 
bttily  ot  Uw  wlueaaaa  (10  eaellona}.  c.  n^^S9  "bn,  of 
tba  peoalty  tor  Ttolatlng  a  Ttrgln  (»  Mctlon«),  d.  niSJ, 
iDvkDiD  the  fine  balongi)  of  the  rlntiU  of  ■  faiber  orer 
tlfdanghter;  of  a  bnsband  over  hla  wife ;  what  the  hiu- 
laad  owea  the  wll« -.  of  [be  beriiageofionianddaDghten 
(ItmnioD*).  e.^BisElSt'Ofl"'*^*"™'""'"^""''*' 
(crtbaramailpaUied  In  ibe  manlaie  contract) ;  of  the 
duta  bdooglDg  Lo  tbe  wife;  of  conjngal  dbtlea;  to  how 
neck  ■  wife  La  entitled  for  bee  living  (9  ■ecllans],  /. 
rX'XB,  what  «ho  wife  owe*  lo  her  buibsud.  and  wbat 
WoBKi  to  him :  ot  aaalgnlng  agilnat  tbe  lam  which  Ibe 
irUgbubraotcbt  Id,  aiidof  the  dowry  of  I  daughter  (Taec- 
tkMl-  »i  1■'^BH,of^l■TowBOfawonun,sndorIbede■ 
kcawbicbautKadlToneaOaectlona).  k.1SB3a]  neNH. 
<f  Lbe  rlghu  of  the  bniband  to  the  property  wblch  fell  to 
Hi  wife  dnrlng  her  marriage,  and  vice  verta  (3  aectlont]. 
L  3ni=n,  of  tbe  prltilegei  at  the  meeting  of  credllon,  and 
betire  whom  the  wife  ba*  to  iwear  that  (be  hae  recelied 
DOblBgorfaerkethnbthOHctloni).  >.  n^Ol  n><nO ''Q, 
deamwhera  a  man  ban  more  than  one  wife  ((  aectloos). 
i  n]ir>>  niS^K,  ot  ibe  righu  of  wIdowB,  and  of  tbe 
■k  of  tbe  kelbPbUi  whlcb  la  InTsMed  In  ImmoTable 
pnpnty  1<  weaoDa).  I.  nSKH  HK  KSlin,  of  tbe 
n(hi  of  a  danjthlar  ota  rormei  bniband,  and  of  tbe  right 
</>  widow  lo  remain  iD  her  biubind'i  bonee  (4  ■ectionsj. 
iL^l^^n  ^3 d.  different  oplnioni  of  two  Jndgee  of  Jem- 
Btm:  bow  a  wife  may  not  be  taken  ttom  Ode  place  to 
uolWr;  of  the  prltUegei  In  llTing  in  tbe  land  oriirael 
tU  a  Jcrualem ;  a)  to  tbe  money  In  wblcb  the  ketba- 
Uk  BBU  be  paid  (11  MCtlona). 

K.  C'<'11J.  ti'alarim,  or  »«>(,  Id  eleran  cbaptera:  a. 
^"U3  In.  of  the  eipreaalona  for  tdwi,  slnci 
aMpA  lo  keep  Ihem,  even  tt  the  woida  were 
HI  mtraMly  proODODced  {(  eectlona}.  b.  'p' 
eiui  wof^  do  not  conadtnte  avow;  bow  they  are 
4Mlofnl*hed  bom  an  oatb  ;  whit  raitilctloDe  and  i 
nXtn  may  occbt  <fi  MCtlonaX  e.  O^^TS  nHSntt,  ot 
Inr  kiada  of  tow*  wblcb  are  regarded  ai  mid ;  of  the 
•vn  made  lo  robben,  pnbliciDa.  etc  (11  aectlona).  d. 
•*Tn:n  l^a  ytt.  and  •.  l-nJO  rcmori,  of  the  ca«e 
•Itrc  a  i>CT*au  baa  conieDled  to  derive  uu  advuntage  from 
iHlbnor  lu  be  to  bimotnn  nae.  and  biiwouecan  make 
-•MhlDg  prohibited  to  (be  Olber  (B  and  <t  McLiout).   /. 

feisisn  10  iTisn,  and  3.  pi'^n  Ta  iTisn,  of  dit- 

hnat  Uoda  of  eAtablee,  lu  caH  they  have  been  renounced, 
fc(IOaDd«Metlaiu).    h.  l'<^  Clip,  euncemlng  tbe  lime 


onglyand 


or  dangbler 
vows  can  ht 


TALMUD 

eilends(TBeclIODi), 
which  n  vow  may  be 

(S  aectlona). 


'Vk  •'31, 
IBybemade(gi.ec(1oDW. 
ililng  tbe  TQW  of  a  wife 

k.  D-'-nj  ibKl,  what 


. ...  _.je  cbaptera,  relallng  10  vowa  of 

a.  nil^TJ  i^IJa  H,  of  the  form  lu  wblch 


lUirile  (II  aectlon 


which,  in  diver* 


ISKC,  of  the  remisaion  and  1^ 

tloiie).    c  ■'Mas  r-i^,  what  la 

error  and  other  dnbioua  cueea 

^^niDK,  of  thinga  prohibited  to 

g.  bns  ins,  fbr  wbat  nncleanneaa  he 

»elf{iiecllona).    A.  D"'T'T3 'JIEJ,  ot  aot 

(S  aecttona).    i.  Biasn, 

casea,  leads  lo  the  eappoeltlon  thai  he  la  andean ;  wbetb- 

«r  Samoel  waa  a  NaiBrtle  (B  aecllDn*). 

18.  nsie,SoCaA,orthe<ni[iipiwi>>an,lnBinectaaplarai 
a.  KSpiari,  what  conatltnlea  an  erring  woman;  wbomnat 
drink  the  bitter  water :  bow  ahe  la  to  be  prewnted  In  pnb- 
lie, etc (•  sections).  6.  K^3a  n^r^ofwrltlngtbecurMS, 
and  the  ceremonies  connected  with  It  (S  secliona).  e,  riTt 
ba^3.  of  the  offering  ot  the  aotU.  and  tbe  bte  of  tbe  wom- 
an found  guilty  <B  sections),  d.  noilK,  where  tbe  bitter 
waur  Is  not  lo  be  need  (B  aectloDS).  a.  B-^ane  OSS, 
Ibat  Ibe  bitter  water  sbonld  also  be  taken  by  the  adul- 
terer (fi  aectlona).  /.  Kl^pV  '''0,  of  tbe  repaired  tevll- 
mony  (4  aectlons).  a.  1^*IBE<9  I^M,  of  rormolna  to  be 
epoken  In  the  baty  tongoe,  and  of  sncb  not  10  be  spoken 
In  that  tougne  (a  seclionB).  k.  niCB,  of  the  sddrees  of 
the  priest  anointed  asking  (7  aectlons).  <.  nVA9,ofkllt- 
IKK  tbe  bellMr  for  expiation  of  an  uncertain  murder;  ot 
different  things  which  have  been  aboliihed,  and  what 
will  be  at  the  time  of  the  Mesilah  (II  sections).  The  last 
aectlons  of  this  Mlabni  sre  very  interssting  because  they 
foretell  tbe  aigna  of  tbe  approaching  Meaaiah,  and  wind 
up  with  the  following  remarkable  words:  "In  tbe  Hme 
ottbeUoHlah  the  people  will  be  impudent  and  be  given 
to  drlnklngi  pnbllc-bonaea  will  flonrlsb  and  the  vine 
will  be  dear:  none  will  care  for  puniahmect,  and  the 
learned  will  be  driven  from  one  place  to  the  other,  sad 
no  one  will  have  compassion  on  them;  the  wisdom  ot 
the  scribes  will  be  atinking;  tear  or  God  will  bedeaplied : 

The  young  men  will  Bhime  tbe  old,  tbe  old  will  riae 
against  the  yonngi  the  son  will  despise  the  father;  tbe 
~  inghler  will  rise  againet  the  moiber,  the  dan^ter-ln- 


leyofhl 


'  of  that 


le  cbaptera,  trsita 


the  bee  of  a  dog;  the  aon  ab 
Bsthart" 

■9. 1^»,  oatfn,  or  divoret  bOt,  In 
of  divorce,  and  the  writing  given  to  the  wife  an  that  oc- 
cielon;  bow  it  must  be  written,  etc:  a.  C31  N^Sart,  of 
sending  a  divorce,  and  wbat  moat  be  obaerved  in  case  tbe 
ibiindaendBonetohlBwife(<MCt1onB).    (>.  BJ  tf^Sari 


n:^-! , ,  _.„, .., 

(T  sections),    c.  QS  ^2,  Ibat  It  n 
name  ot  tbe  wife  (S  sectlona),    i 

(9  eecllous).    i.  pp-'ljfl,  enacln 


Ll  It  u 


nndry  ci 


It  divorce  (T  aectlons).  g.  IIHKC  "■Q.  of  additional  con- 
iltlona  <S  aectlons).  A.  Xli  p^'fin,  uf  throwing  the  dl- 
'orce  bill,  lis  different  effects :  what  coiiatllntes  a  bald 
>i11  of  divorce  (I.  e.  one  which  according  to  the  Mli>hua 
IBB  mere  folda  than  subscribing  witnesses)  [10  aectlons). 
.  1S*13an,  of  the  algnatore  of  witnejtea,  and  of  the  cnose 
bat  constitntea  a  divorce,  of  which  the  school  of  Sham- 
nal  aaya,  "Mo  man  msj  divorce  bla  wKe,  nuleia  be  And 


TALMUD 

In  bar  KUidalcnu  bibiTlor,  fur  It  I*  i 


'  Evgii  If  be  Inand  oat  hsudwiiDer  tlua  Ehs.  for  It  it 
■Hid,  If  It  hsppen  Ibal  "he  fonnd  no  tnoi  lu  Ui  ejei.' " 
M.l'lB"p.K*Mi«JW",orl«(rolAiiI«,lnfonrch»pi«ri:  a. 
n":p)  nOXn,  oflbe  dlOertnt  ii»ji  in  wblcb  •  wlfk  Is  bc- 
quired,  aud  ban  sfaeregilualiiillbcnT;  of  tbs  dlffcniiK 
ufpruycnwhlcbinlacDnibeDtnpoi]  then»D  andvlfs,!)! 
nnd  iiDUlde  ufLhs  lud  of  brul  (lOtactlans).  b.  QTKn 
1C^a,  dI  valid  Bud  laiBlId  beuotbili  (10  ucUuu*).  '. 
"3nV  "ralttn,  ot  beuotlula  mBde  nuder  wruin  coDdi- 
llonsi  orcbtldreQafiIlffenntniirrtie»(llweCloiie).  d. 
yOTTf^  rnOS,  oC  tta«  dlfhTSnt  klnda  of  (kmllicB  wbich 

known  or  nnknoon  Hnngc-,  rules  accordiDE  to  wbicb  a 
man  oa^bc  not  to  be  in  ■•ecloded  i>l«ce»lonawllb  worn- 

raelli*  iibould  bring  Dp  hl«  «on ;  occopatlona  whlcb  an  nu. 
■nnriled  miQ  ahoDld  not  follow,  ou  account  of  tba  Rreat 
rucllttlea  tbey  offer  for  nnchaaie  prailicaa.  It  alao  atataa 
Ihnl  all  ais-drlvera  are  wicked,  camel-driiem  are  honeal, 
■ailiirt  are  plow,  pbrBlclua  an  diallned  far  bet),  and 
buicben  are  company  for  Anuilek  (14  aectlons). 

IP-lf'TS  ITO,  Srfar  ycitfn  IDamagw). 

SI.  KQp  X33.fiataSaninia,ortbejtratgate,ao  called 


iiered  In  tbegate- 


WHyofaclly.    It 

rvaK  nS31S(.orionrklnd.  ufdamagee. 

Ita  amonnt  (4  aecllona).    b.  iain  Tfa,  bow  an  anirr 

can  canae  damage,  and  of  tbe  ovner  who  la  obliged 

make  mUlatlun  (•  aecHonaV     o,  nijun,  of  dama 

caoaed  bj  men  ;  of  gorloic  oxen  01  aectlona).    d  and 

110,  conilnnation.  and  of  damage  eanaed  bj  an  open  pit 

ts  and  I  Mcllons).    /.  OSIsn,  of  damage  caneed  by  neiiU- 

Beni  reeding  of  ealilB  and  hTfireBMciionB).    g.  nanu, 

orrealltntlon.when  It  la  dotiNe,  twofold  or  flvefuld  <T«ec- 

tlona).    k.  byirm.  nt  realltntlnn  tor  bnrtlng  or  wunudlug 

bappena  wltb  aometblng  robbad:  oriheflflb  pan  nb 
the  osual  «>tltnUon,  In  co»e  of  perjorj  (1!  ««!«oual, 
V''3K01  iiwn.of  Bondry  casea,  applicable  to  tbe  real 
tlou  of  aiiilfn  goods  <10  aectlona). 

K.  nVSO  tiyx Bata Kelttah,oraitmidaUgatr,in 
thaplensireaia  of  claim*  reaulting  front  Iniats:  o.  B' 
T'TTIIK.  and  b.  nlBfXO  WX,  wbat  lo  do  wltb  gooda  wl 
were  fonnd  (8  and  11  eoctiona).    c.  n^pBlsn,  of  depoclu 
(II  BcMloDB).    4  anin,  of  bnylna,  and  dllTereDt  kinda  of 
rtaeatlng  (tl  sectlana).    e.  ^m^X,  of  different  kiiida 
naurj  ud  nveruilng  (11  Kcliona).    /.  ISIOn.  of 
rlghleorblrlng{9aectlODe).    ff. -ijlOn  TK  -I310,1,  of 
■he  rlgbta  of  laborers  concemlDg  Ibeir  eating,  and  wbat 
ibej  may  eat  of  tbe  eatable*  tbej'  work  on  ;  of  tbe  foi 
klnda  of  keeping,  and  what  la  meant  by  Ann,  1.  e.  oui 
>rrui[tu(11sectioua).  A.^!t^1i:tn,contlnaBtlon,aDdagal 
of  hiring  (9  aecilont).     i.  ^SpSTI.  of  tbe  rigbia  amobg 
farmeri ;  of  wagea,  and  Caking  a  pledge  (IS  aectiona). 
r-^Tt,  of  dlTerB  casea  wben  eomeihlng  belnbglDg 
two  has  fallen  In  ;  of  tbe  rIgbIa  of  public  placea  (6  a 

Sa.  K^na  Ka::,  Baba  Bathra,  or  tbe  latl  gpli,  In  I 

leiianlry,  joint  occupation,  and  right*  of  common: 
','<Br>'ncn,  or  tbe  partition  of  incb  things  as  are  in  en 
tnoni  wbi 
obliged  to 


0  TALMUD 

void  (11  aectlons).    /.  TVrr-t  "OlWn,  tot  what  a  penoB      , 
must  be  good ;  of  the  required  alie  of  different  places  aad      | 
the  right  of  paaalng  through  (S  aectknia).    j.  ^TOVISy  of      I 
beCDiniiig  ewnrlij  for  a  sold  acn  and  (rfolbsr  thlnga  pet-      < 
talDlng  to  It  (4  Bsetlons).    k.  yVTVa  ff<,  of  InberltancB 
(8  aectlons).    i;  nm)  "fO,  of  the  dlTialon  of  property  ()• 
sections).  J.  Vmt  W,  wbat  la  reqnlred  In  order  to  ludw 
a  contract  legal  (8  aecilob*). 

M.  TnlnSO,  SB>i*«*rtn,  or  emurU  t/ jialict,  in  elneu 
chapten:  a.  nlSISa  '']'<1,ottbedllletei]ce  of  IbeibrR- 
tribunaiauE;  ii.Bt  leaittbtee  persons  i  fi,  tbe  aniall  Sanfae- 
drlin  of  tirenty-itaiee  penoc*;  and,  t,  Ibe  sreat  SanltKlriiii 
of  aeventy-one  petBona  (»  section*).  S.  5111  ^ns.ofihe 
priTllegea  of  the  bigb-prleel  and  king  (B  aectloni).  t  -nm 
n'1311313.  of  appointing  Jndge*:  ttnfitne**  for  beln^  Jnii^ 
ludwlineflBi  of  bearing  ihewltoesaee  andpubliahiugihe 
lenteuce  ( 8  Bectioun ).  d.  ItlK.  of  indgmentH  In  mciticj 
ind  jDdgmsDta  lu  soul*;  a  defcripilou  bow  they  aai  in 
iDdgDMnl  (6  eectiiina).  *,  l^pTia  TTy  again  of  exam- 
nine  wltueaaeis  and  what  mnat  be  otxerved  In  cnplul 
poulebmenta  (8  aectlont).  /.  TOU,  of  *tonIng  Id  *peci>l 
llonal.  g.  nin^S  Sa*1!t,  of  the  other  c^tal  pu- 
tobmeula ;  (boae  that  were  lo  tw  atoned  (II  eectlona).  L 
-tfta  Ifl,  of  stubborn  aoua  and  tbelr  ponlahmeota,  wUk 
uy  rsatricilona.  bowersr,  that  tbla  oua  bsntly  cmld 
iBTB  occurred  (T  aecUona).  *.  in  lV»\  of  criminal* 
•ere  bom ed  or  beheaded  (S  aectiona).  J.  biOIS^  ^ 
■Be  who  bar*  part  in  the  world  to  came,  tIb.  "all  li- 
(1  sections).    Bnt  the  following  hsTe  no  abate;  b* 


rs  klnda 


a  partltlou  (*  aectlona).    6.  llBm  [6,  of 


nethin 


le  twnoved  ttota  tbe  neigbbor'a  premlsea  for  diffe 
cm  caowB  (U  sections),  e.  rpin,  of  supersnnaaHan  ol 
Ihliigs,  and  Its  rights  (It  BBClloni).  d.  n''3n  HK  ^3113i~1, 
what  is  ■.>1d  al.inz  wltb  Ibe  aale  <«  aectlona),  t. 
TWSGT\  rtt,  couUunatliiu,  aud  how  a  sale  may 


ifibedi 


arid  u 


m.     Beeidea, 
B,  Jerobonn 


Doeg,  Ahltnpbel,  and  Oehail.  So,  likewise,  the  geiien- 
tloo  of  the  Deluge;  IbatorLheDlaperalon  (Oen.il,  Kl:  the 
men  of  Sodom,  tbe  splea,  ibe  gsaeration  of  tbe  wilder- 
Deaa,  tbe  cobgreKalloii  at  Korab,  and  Ibe  men  »r  a  dlr 
given  til  Idolatry.  In  the  Oemara  a  good  deal  la  apokeu 
of  tbe  Meaalab.  1.  -ppiniH  p  iVx,  of  tboet  that  an 
airaiigled,  especially  rebellious  aldeia  and  tbelr  punisb- 


S.  n^=a,  JfnUoU,  < 


'  •trtpst.  In  three  cbaptais,  tnal* 
la:  B.  B^17ri  1X'<3,  Id  wbai 
indicted  wlib  the  stripes,  and  of 


case*  falBe  wltDe**eB 

the  mode  of  procedoL.  _„ _. ^ 

(10  aecUon*).  b.  yn  1^!*,  of  unintentional  murdeta,  and 
tbe  clilea  of  refugees  eectlune),  e.yn  ibttl,  of  crlmlnsla 
desenlng  the  stripe* :  how  they  ahould  be  inflicted:  why 

reganled  ae  too  weak;  Ibat  *DCh  as  have  aaffared  tbis 
penalty  are  free  from  the  pnnlabment  of  eitermlnatlon : 
of  the  reward  of  those  who  keep  the  law :  why  ea  maoy 
laws  were  siren  ti>  larael  (It  eectlons). 

M.  n Vt31E),  Skihtalk,  or  aolkt.  In  eight  chapter* :  ai. 
DTIUJ  ninao,  of  different  kinds  wherein  a  person  la 
conscious  or  nnconsdons  of  having  tonched  anything  as- 
clean  (because  it  is  treated  under  the  bead  of  oathn.  Lev. 
V,  E];  ofthe  atonement  through  sacrifices;  what  alus  were- 
atoned  by  the  different  klnda  of  aacrtticea  {1  Bectloua).  b. 
ni3''T',  bow  far  the  aanciilr  of  tbe  conrt  of  Ibe  Temple 
reach**  (B  section*),  c  PiiyQlD,  of  forswearing.  Its  kinds 
and  fleKTeea  {11  aectlona).  rf.  rmsPI  nS133,  ofthe  natta 
of  witnessea ;  of  blasphemy  aud  cursing  (IS  aections).  (, 
■(■inpCn  mSISB,  of  the  osth  mentioned  In  Lst.  »i.  t, 
and  of  the  perjurer  (Beecf  Ions).  /.  l^J-^^IPI  nSlSCof 
the  oath  demanded  by  the  court,  when  11  must  be  taken 
or  not,  and  what  onghl  to  be  leailfled  (I  sections),  g. 
I^raein  ^3,  or  aocb  oath*  a*  are  for  the  benefit  of 
him  thai  aweara  (B  sectlona).  h.  ^■^-HOIU  riyaiBC,  of  the 
different  watcbmen  who  mnat  be  security  for  gooda  ;  bow 


farltgc 


87.  m^S,  Brfniw(*, 
.  1*  >o  called  because  It  ct 

der  leacbers.  In  Saobedrii 


'A  («  aectlona). 


eight  cbmpten. 
which  tried  and 
been  adopted  by  thi 


■ottlDsUdithaotlwr  HgesderlHlefrom  Iha  Kfaiwli 
.iSUamtl  ud  HlUel,  or  wheralo  ihr  Khaol  of  BUlel  1i 
■      ■     -        ■    o!  of  Btllel  hsi  glTen  waj  « 


iiiii4l(Uie 


.  ft.wsn-'; 


,^lilnmi  nbUu,  MpedtUj  ol  a  lahmul  Hud  R.  Aklba 
n  m«U)  aDlDportnt  Italngi  (10  HCtlODt).  e.  "on  K 
'pKEB,  nueuwnw  or  R.  Don  on  dlreiB  daaiem«nw  (II 
MiM«.  d.  a'^3"!  '<!>M,  lnwa  In  vhleb  tHe  Khnil  of 
ninail  U  aore  lenleot  tban  tli*t  of  Hlllil  (13  BMttons). 
.  mrn  •^1, 1»wi  whieh  K.  Akib»  wonld  not  take  b«ck 
r,«Aat).  /.)Z  rmrr  ''3■^ordl(r««^lklnd•ofd«- 
tloHi  OB  wbleb  dlspniH  bare  laken  pUu  wHb  R.  Rll- 
ncKlKtloDil.  p«id*.5»lir>  *!  •rrri.ofKnBeDil. 
Hrpntatiwkithnnnot  be  broogtit  nnder  one  commoD 
•MMKlUon:  It  tbs  end  ws  rMd  tbit  Blljnb  tba  Prophet 
iilltullTihlmnlne  ill  dlspDlcd  point*  ul  tlie  ragM  ud 
«i]i  briTif  p««  <t  ud  T  ■ectLooB}. 
&  mi  muv.  JtsduA  2iimA,  or  idolatry,  la  are  diBp- 
i«i.  ThlsUeslJKiBwancIogln  thsBulBedlllonoflSTS, 
becuH  ■rren  reDMtioIU  npon  Jenai  Cbrlat  and  h<>  tn[- 
ImnwtnfDiindUierelDbj  the  censor:  n.'^ri^'T^K  ^3113, 
lU'-EiabeohHrred  cDncemluit  IdaUtrooa  AulB,*iid 
„rutai!iiiottobeK>1dtoldaUt«i(Si«Uoni}.  k  ^''N 
rTOTaotdltem  forbidden  occaalone  which 
viidi  •  HU  relation  with  IdoUlen ;  of  the  a«e 
h  Bait  al  tbt\i  goods,  eipedallj  eatihta  (T  wcUoiu). 
•  3r:bsn  bs,  or  Idula,  lemplea,  alum,  uid  grorei  (IB 
wwn),  ibitSStr  ''3-i,Df«ba(  belong!  to  an  Idol, 
ud  nr  doecratlog  an  Idol :  prohibition  ot  wine  of  Uba- 
Din.  ud  or  ererf  wine  which  waa  onlj  lonched  bj  a 
taUtLbKinM  even  the  allghteat  llbntinn  conid  have 
BHklluerttcial  wtDedSaecUona).  e.  nsltsn.contln- 
Mi«i«tUDtci  with  which  wine  coold  hare  been  mind 
Bp :  boa  M  cleaua  nietulU  banght  of  a  heathen  for  eat- 

■-  msm,  ibM,  or  PlSit  "iplt  Pirttu  AMk,  con- 
ulu  Ike  lUdcal  m>rlmit  of  the  btben  of  tba  Uialina. 
Ii  a  Impoalbla  lo  glre  an  analjila  of  the  alx  cbaptera. 
WtuK  Kit;  (11  conlaiD  toaxlma  wUbool  an^  cbrc 
'  ■    ■  r,  TtilB  treatUe  apeaki  of  the  t     '  ' 


1  TALMtTD 

bow  the  attar  lanctlfter  tbe  olRred  paR  {T  aectlnni).  }. 
T^ir.h  is,  of  ihe  order  In  which  aacrlflcei  niuiit  be 
Iwought!  which  precedea  tbo  other  (3  •ectlona).  t.  Q1 
nxan,  or  waahlug  Ib*  dreaa,  etc,  ou  which  Iba  hlood 
of  a  alD-omnng  taaa  eume  (9  escUona).  1.  Dn  blSO, 
lom  Ihe  akloa  beloDt  aud  when  ther  go  («  aeo- 
,  M.  arniSn,  ut  dlT«ra  tropaiHa,  when  treepiaa 
)en  cammHIed  nncoDacloosIr  during  Ihe  aacrlAdil 
a  (8  McUona).  n.  nctain  DIB,  of  the  dllTeraDt 
pLacea  of  aacrlflclal  Mrrlce  dnrlug  diSerenl  perluda  (OU- 
gol.  SbUoh,  Nobb,  Qlbeon,  Jemailem),  and  of  ihe  dlire> 
ice  between  the  aUar  and  the  heighii  (Id  aectlone). 
48.  mniO,  Mtnadiiith,  or  mtat-ogMngt,  In  eighteen 
chapwra:  a.  ninjon  S5,  of  taking  a  hand/nli  what 
ipnnda  In  aacrlBcea  to  the  act  of  i>BtrllIclnB:,  wben  It 
ies  naflt  or  an  abomlnailon  (4  aecllona),  6  nnd  c, 
Valpn,  and  i.  n^snn,  according  to  the  dlffennl  kind- 
if  meal-olftrlnga  (^  T.  and  S  recltona)  t.  mnjOH  93 
msta,  and  /.  Pima  iblt,  of  tbeae  differed  klnda  and 
their  irealmeot  (B  and  T  aecllone).  g.  minH,  of  il.e 
thank-offering  and  of  the  Naiartle'a  oBSring  {0  eectlonp). 
h.  m33^p  is,  whence  the  neceasary  good  Iblngi  ware 
tabcn  (T  eectloDB).  t,  PI^S  TiD,  of  tbe  meaanrea  In 
Ihe  aanctoary:  oftbedrlnk-olTerliiBaand  the  laylng-on  of 
baoda  (B  Becllona).  j.  iRSBK^  ""a^,  of  the  wave-loaf 
(Seeclloiia).  t.BnVn  Tia.iirtbePentecoBtnl  andahew- 
breada  (S  aecllone).  (.  mnSTSn,  ofchangea  in  Ibe  of- 
fbrlngfllaeetlonel.  m.  ^is  ■'in,  of  IndednlteTOwa;  of 
ttie  Dnlaa  lample  In  Bgypt;  a  correct  expoaltlon  of  the 
words  "  a  eweet  aaror"  (11  eaclione). 

43.  T^bin,  CWfn,  or  ^mcimtecratti  Ufn>»,  in  seventeen 
chaplem:  a.  l^amo  Vsn,  who  mayalaoghter;  wherc- 
wllb  and  where  It  can  tie  alaDKbtered  IT  aectloua).  b. 
■WIK  Dni1cn,ofciittlnglhronKblh 


oimiii,  umee  of 

ho"r«ei 

^„^- 

and  contain  a  maxima. 

wiadom 

fthe 

wiae. 

The  Srat  chap- 

«>»»14tbeae™idlfl,lhe 

thif. 

18,  th 

e  fourth  M,  the 

delalladaceoilD 

<1Uhub«.glTei 

Id  the  an 

-Piai 

aA« 

™(q.v.). 

»  rriin.  h-x 

■»I»tt,  or 

three  cbaptera. 

inabaf  Ihe  nana 

srofpron 

ancin 

gaen 

encH  and  nihe 

w  the  I 


becomee  nnllt  no  leellona 


•BUn  Rlaiieg  lo  JndKM  and  their  nine tlon a.  bat  which, 
*a«rt  emnwina,  atlil  were  obeerved.  and  For  which  a 
«*<ifcrlogwii  lobe  bronghl  according  to  Lei.  Iv,  13:  a. 
^T  Is  what  cue*  and  ander  what  drcnmslaneea  anch 
'*rti(i  van  lo  be  brooght  bj  the  congregailo 
t^Hpti).  fcina  rmn.onbeain-olftrlngof 
•d  fiwl  tad  prinre  (I  aadlou).  e.  tTOO  '{T. 
Mut  br  an  anointed  prieat  and  pr!nc« :  of  Ihe  dlfl^rence 
^nnen  iii  anointed  prieat  and  one  onl;  Invaalcd  with 
•it  prteukood;  of  the  pren^atlvea  of  ■  hlgh-prleat  be 
fn  1  cconwa  prieat :  of  the  male  «ei  before  Ihe  female 
*nllj,  of  the  order  of  precedence  among  tboae  who  pro 
k^  lbs  Jewish  raHglon,  that  a  learned  precedes  an  nn 
Inniti  (8  ewtlona). 
T.  B*np  "nD.  SWar  KddaaMm  (Conaecratlona). 

•-S^inba.lnbowfai 

•dniblht  lBt«DIioliUut .-- i---- 

wm.  k  iapB  oTQTn  Va,  and  t.  pSiBBn  is, 

>">libec«Bcsanflt  or  au  abomlnatlan  (taodl  aecllona). 
'ins  r'C,  of  sprinkling  the  blood  (S  aectlona).  t. 
"-■pi!  Tir«.  of  the  difl!erei>ce  betwaeo  the  moat  holy 
v^i^naadthoaaadaaabailneaatRaactlona).  /.  "^IDnp 
'"znf,  of  the  place  ot  Iha  ahar  where  eierj  aicrlllce 
^<alK  oArcd  (T  eecUoiia).    p.  Z\^ST\  PNan,  of  Ibe 

wite  of uida «  sectioiia).  h.  'a'isrDO  n">Pan  1>3, 

•f  IMS  when  aometblng  of  ibc  annctlded  bns  hern 
l'°.-(d  irith  the  other  pnna  (11  sections),    i.  rOTan, 


wfbl,  but  trephtih,  1.  e.  Dn- 
lawtbl;  the  sign!  of  clean  fowls,  grasahoppete,  and  (lehea 
(I  seellonel.  ±  nopan  nana,  eTiaciments  eooeam- 
Ing  an  animal  flitna  (T  sei^ilona).  t.  IVZ  EIKI  iniN.  of 
the  problhlllon  agonal  alnagbterlng  an  animal  nnd  Ihe 
jOBngontheaamedajlsaeclIonal.  /  mn  ^lO^a.tbe 
precept  of  covering  tbe  blood  of  wild  animala  and  fbwl  (T 
aectlonsl.  fl.  nojn  I^Jithe  preceplconcernlnglhepro. 
hlbltlonofeatlBgibealnaw  which  shrank  (8  aecllon*).  *. 
^oan  ^3.  tb«  problhlllon  to  boll  any  kind  of  flesh  in 
milk  («  sections),  f.  aD'-im  ^im,  pollution  commn- 
nicated  by  a  carcaae  or  trephkh  (8  sacilons).  j.  Sllin, 
of  the  ohiallooe  dne  to  the  priesl  from  Ibe  alanghlered 
anlnal  (4  SMdons).  *.  »jn  n^EKI,  of  the  flratUnga  of 
thedeecatlaecHoDa).  J.  pn  nlio,  the  precept  oflet- 
tlDg  the  parent  bird,  (band  In  the  neat,  fly  away  (B  aec- 

44.  mllaa,  «!*)«(», or ;l™Hom,  in  Dine  cbaptera:  a. 
"1313  nplbn,  of  the  redemption  of  tbe  Brat-bom  of  an 
ass:  how  to  redeem  It  (T  aeciiona).  fc.  "QM  npr>rt 
m^t,  wheo  the  flral-bom  of  an  animal  la  not  to  he 
given;  of  aome  defecla  of  a  sanclifled  snimali  ofanndry 
dnbtons  caeea  na  to  whnt  eonsillnlas  tbe  flrst-born  I*  eec- 
tionsl.  c.nana  npiin,ofiheslKnoftheblrlliofthe 
araUbom;  ot  the  wool  of  a  flrs^bnm  |4  secllDaK),  d.  19 
naa,  how  long  the  Brat-bom  ninal  be  raised  up  before  It 
is  given  to  Ihe  prltat ;  what  mnat  be  paid  (or  ihe  Inspec- 
tion (10  sections).  «,  ■'blBB  «,/.  rala  rSK  as,  and 
g.  lin  l^ala,  of  the  detocls  which  make  a  flrai-born  nn- 
fll  for  sacrillee  or  eervlce  in  Ihe  fanclnary  in,  1*,  and  T  sec- 
tions), h.  ^133  tD\  of  the  rlghla  of  ihe  flret-bom  con- 
cerning a  berltai-e;  in  whal  cn-es  he  forfeits  mcb  a  right 
nr  the  priest  forfeits  the  rlpbl  on  the  Br*t-bom,  and  of 
what  property  he  haa  to  receive  hia  heritage  (10  e*cil"n<l. 
i.  nana  ^BSa,  concemlog  Ihe  lithe  of  Iha  herd :  ol 
what,  when,  and  how  the  iltho  haa  to  be  giTen ;  what  to 
rt,>  in  dnlilons  caaes  (S  secllonsl. 

4G.  l^anr.  F.rakin,  or  nllmaira.  In  nine  chapters:  a. 


TALMUD 


-i3't-i7S  Vsn,  who  h«i  to  m«t«  Uila  ullniate  and  on 
wliail4»ctinn»l.  ».  1^3^53  pR,  wlnl  coiucitntet  herelu 
the  mliilmtim  sud  mulmum  <«  i»cltoii»).    c.  -,-'3-153  1S->, 

to  lh«  ottaer  (B  HctlooB).  d,  1^  ISH,  bow  Ihe  valuaLion 
ha>  ID  be  made  accordlQK  to  Ibe  meaaa,  age,  «[c  (4  TCC- 
ttona).  I.  ^ipDTS  iniitn.  TBlnmion  according  to 
neigh^andbow  tbe  ireiinarec  laket  a  fur&lt  t«  aecUonB). 
/.  QiBin^n  Qlnj,  of  iiroclalminK  and  redeeming  (S  »ec- 
llona).  s.  T'O^npia  l^S,  and/i.  C^lpiSh,  oflhoban- 
labed  (B  and  T  a*cllons).  L  IITIO  nS<  HS^on,  uf  re- 
deamiof  a  eold  Held  1  ofhoaMg  Id  a  city  turroaadea  wltta 
a  wall  (Lev.  xx,  U);  of  tbe  prirllege  of  the  bOBau  and 
cilieaofltae  Leiltea  (SaectloOB). 

W.  n^mr,  TrntunJi.  or  eEclkan^  (L«.  nvil,  10,  W). 
In  KTan  cbapten,  treati  of  Die  ittj  eichanjKes  are  to  ba 
effecled  between  aacrsdlliliijB!  a.l^T'O'S  ssn.lowbat 
peraoDB  andthlnga  tbli  liebtmajrbe  applied  or  not  (4  aec- 
tlOBiJ.  fc.  nia5np3  »■',  of  the  dmrence  betveeu  the 
Mcriflce  of  an  ludlridoal  and  a  congreKatlon  [3  eeetlons). 
S^tt31p  iVk,  of  IheeicliangeorthB  jonngofawcred 
■.  d.nKambl.ofalQ-Jirerlngawhlch 
rhich  were  lost  and  found  again  (4  eee- 
tlons). *.  T'TS^HSO  ^X^3,  of  Ihe  meana  to  cheat  Ihe 
prieet  oni  of  Ihe  flmi-lHifQ  :  how  yoniig  and  old  can  be 
•aDCIllled  nr  ihe  same  time  or  eeparately  (8  nectlona).  ^. 
■pllOSn  Va,  wbnt  Is  prohibited  lo  be  brought 
tbe  altar  (S  aectlaut).  g.^'Slp'S  V\  of  the  dlObrant 
righta  of  IhlDga  aanctlBed  for  [he  altar  and  for  Ibe  Teni. 
pie;  what  mnr  be  bi  '  '"  ...... 


ire  starved,  oi 


ir  bnrned  o 
■oUHngof.iB 


QD  chapters. 


47.  mn*"13,S'eri(ftolA, 
treala  of  offfeiiders  being  i 
Ibe  offences  were  waalonl; 
ly  cummltled,  enlall  the  obligation  to  bring  Blti-offertnga : 
a,  01S1  B^cblE,  of  Ibe  eacrlflceofa  woman  in  childbed, 


e  birth  i' 


Id  c.  nisK  li  IIOK, 
where  one  or  more  >lti-ufferlngB  were  to  be  bioitght  {t 
and  10  sectlona).  d.  !i3X  pBO.  of  a  donbtfal  sln^ffer- 
ing  {B  sectlone).  «.  tlHVia  CT  V^tt,  of  eating  blood 
and  dlTera  dnubifnl  eiiiliigs,  and  wbat  thej  cause  (S  see- 
tiona).  /.  QtCK  t(^33ri.  of  cbhs  where  tbe  secret  aln 
became  known ;  of  the  efflOBCy  of  tbe  day  of  expiation : 
of  rhebela  which  were  need  separately  and  for  other  par- 
poees  (0  eecUoDS). 

4S.  nb^Sn,  JftiioA,  or  trapoK  (Knmb.  »,  t,  8),  In  sli 
chapters,  treats  of  things  partaking  of  the  name  of  sacrl- 
legf:  a.  D^tS^p  '^QTp.  what  racrUce  canses  a  treapsu 
.    fc.r|1snr!»Bn,ftom  what  lime  Ills  poaal- 


M  ((  sections).  /.  'i'sm 

ler  altar  end  the  canillc<- 

irllgbllnKlbelDccnse 


the  priesti ;  of  otTec 
B«blS.  again  of  cle 
■  of  patting  OI 
(9  sections).    17. 1^30 -]ST3.of  Iheei 

LDd  of  the  other  priests:  of  the  bleeslng  of  the 
prfeiis:  when  the  hlgh-prlaat  offered  the  sacriacea:  of 
Ihe  chant  which  the  LerltM  latoned  In  the  sanctuur  (4 

nil's,  MMiol^  or  nuasunrnmU,  In  llTe  chapten, 

parti  and  conria:  a.  tmalps  noVo3>  of  Ihe  til^t- 
ilches  In  the  Temple,  the  gales  and  chambera  C>  see- 
lus).  b.  n'^sn  nn,  the  monntain  of  the  Temple,  Ita 
ills  and  conru  (S  secUone).  a  HST'sn,  of  tbe  altar 
id  the  other  space  of  Ihe  Inner  contt  to  the  hall  ofDw 
Temple  (8  sectlone).  d.  "inHB,  eompniiilon  of  the  meae- 
nres  of  the  Temple  (I  lecUons).  e.  n*lt;n  ^3,  at  Uu> 
meanire  of  Ibe  court  and  lie  chambers  (1  seclioiw).  This 
tractate  baa  no  Qemara  or  eoromsDtary. 

SI,  D''3p,  KiiaiTA,  or  MrO't-ti—la,  In  time  chapteiv 
treats  of  Ihe  mbCakea  abont  doves  and  beasts  brtngU 
Into  the  Temple  tor  aacrtflce:  a.  qiSH  Pl«}n,howtb» 
blood  of  these  blrda  was  stirinkled  In  dllRirent  manner— 

oBCrlDg  below  ihe  red  line  whicb  atretcbed  around  tbe 
al[ar(4aectlons^  ».  riQinQ  p.of  Ihe  KKalledludsO- 
nite  neat  <S  sections),  t.  0^-<i1  na3.  of  possible  mia- 
Ukesotthe  prieila  and  Ihe  otKrIng  women  (•■eetlons). 
VL  nnna  110,  Sads-  IbJaroa  (Pnrlflcatlaiis). 

This  order  baa  twelve  tnctates : 

M.  Q'^Vs,  Kellm,  or  e«sela,  in  thirty  chaplen,  treala  of 
those  which  convey  oacleanneas  (Lev.  U,  a») :  «.  m3K 
PIX'S'^Liri,  of  Ihe  main  kiuda  of  nncleanness  according 
to  ihelr  ten  degreea,  as  wall  as  of  other  ten  degreB*  of  od' 
cTeBiiDessaswellasofhoUnesidtsecIloni).  b.yV  ''bs.r. 
-lbs  IIS'ilD,  RDdil.  Dnnrtiofeartbeo  vessels,  which  are 
Ihe  least  callable  oruucleanness,  but  which  become  clean 
as  soon  aa  they  break  wholly  or  partly  (B,  8,  and  4  sectlouB). 

e.  "iisn,  /.  noisn,  p.  mrtpn,  h.  iixno  iiBn,  sud 

i  ana,  or  the  divers  kinds  of  nvena  madeof  eartb  <ll,4, 
8,  II,  and  S  eecllone).  .j.  Di»  iVk,  of  vesHla  which  hy 
cover  and  binding  are  prolecied  SKaluat  unclean neea  (S  sec- 
tions). *.  msra  ^Vs,  t  nix  nsao,  m.  q-'ion,  and 

n.  nT33  mslTO  ■ba,  of  meial  vessels  which  beeocne  ao- 
cleau,  and  how  Ihey  get  clean  (»,  B,  8,  and  B  Kctiona),  o. 
VJ  ■'93,y.  Vy  "ba  ba,  and  9-  ^bs^'ibs  bs.orveMris 
of  wood.  tkl". '--'■--   '■— 


bJe  accordiuic  to  the  ni 


•e  of  tt 


t  rstan  "ib^oflhingswhicbwereglvenftom  such  tres- 
pass (8  sections),  d,  ItSIQ  '''Olp,  bow  far  the  nddltiou 
of  different  thioffi  lakes  place  (0  sections).  (.  p  Hinifl 
Dipnn,  In  how  far  the  wear  and  lenr,  by  spoiling  some, 
thing  of  ll,  or  the  use  thereor,  is  to  be  considered  (B  sec- 
lion.).  /.  n'iS'3  n-ban,  m  bow  far  a  man  may  tres- 
pass l>y  means  of  a  third  person  («  sections). 

49,  T'On,  Tanid.  or  daily  tturifiaa.  In  seven  chnptors. 
Mats  of  the  morning  and  evening  offerincs :  a.  nsbcS 
nlClpiS,  of  the  nlgbl-watcb  andof  Ibe  arrival  of  the  cap- 
lain,  when  the  giile  was  opened  and  Ihe  priests  went  in  (4 
aectloDs).  ft.1^nK  IHIKI.of  the  Bret  work,  how  the  al- 
tar was  cleared  from  the  ashes,  the  fagota  were  bronghi  and 
nnll  Are  were  arranged;  Ihofonni 


then 


lofthcs 


IT  t1l( 


Jaofth 


nnV  nax. 


tt.chom 

ber,  openl 

g  the  Temple 

liar  a 

ndcaiidleBlick<l>9irellons 

of  sin 

nghiering 

nd  sprinkling 

u,  ami  di 

idlug  Ihe  pa 

onb 

1-3t<,..fth 

morning  pray 

leieby  tl 


re(t,8,si] 


us,  and  tbe  aiia  ot  Ihe 

in:  also  of  the  time  of 


and  •.  plBan.ofbedalSandlOseeliona),    (.0''13Tl,of 
thlnge  which  beonme  andean  by  aittlng  Iher«on  (T  »k- 

etc.  (3  sectUmsl.    r.  ^nbun,  of  tables  andcbairs  (10  se<. 

tlona),    V.  *i1ian,  of  things  which  become  unclean  by 

rldlog1hereon<SBetUons).    i-l^O^ln  nnblU.oragreal 

y  things  by  wblch  th 

"     if  the  onislde  and 


inside  of 
longing  It 


,.  o-b=n 

ssels,  the  handle  and    _     . 

bem  (B  secliouB).    i.  bl3D.  of  veweia  whii 


^  that 


wblch  ia 


ly  he  called  a  drees  (!■  uid  10 

sections),    cr.  ^ni3,  of  cords  on  dUferent  Ihlugs  <B  sec. 
tlons),    <ld.  n^aiai  ■^bS.ofveatelaofgtaaairtilebarellai 

S3,  nlbnx,  UJkoIsfA,  or  umt  manb.  lii,  14),  to  tweniy- 

iieM,elc.:  a.  B^KQU  S'<3S.  of  Ihe  dilferent  modes  and 
degrees  ofuncleanuess  over  a  dead  body ;  of  the  diaerence- 


>els:  ofthen 

■,Bndoflbe  number  of  Ihe 

b.  1'XQQa  ibK.whnI  be- 


a  body  a 


tb,  hair,  uid  nnllB,  prurided 


of  Ihe  I 


I  of  opeulugi 


_.  ._,  _.  .  .  be  pTi>pA£&t«d  , 

^IJS,  of  TOMla  Into  vtaich  DDclciunas  doet  nut  pciie- 
uiu  (9  wctloDS).  <.  "iiyn,  wben  Ibe  upper  alorj  mar  be 
niwdad  aa  aopanled  trom  tbs  lower  pui  (I  aecUoo*).  /. 
3^3^  D1K,  how  men  ud  Tsaaala  fnnn  >  COTer  over  ■ 
aiuii;  or  Ibe  UDcleannesa  In  the  wal)  nf  a  boDae  (t  aso 
dM).  g.  nsta^nn.  nf  ■  wuman  gMng  birth  to  ■  dead 
cblU  {*  teeilciaa).  A.  ^^M^313  V^,  of  ttaioga  coBTejlDg 
ud  aeparathiK  uneleaaDeaa,  and  ot  olhara  wblcb  do  not 
l<  neiion).  £.  nlllS,  how  br  a  la^e  buket 
(KMtUooa).  J,n3*nx.«Da».n''3n,ofopentneBl 
tDBaeaDdcracluonaroot(Iud(HKllDDB).    1. 1S3, 


ai.  niSO  nsnsn,  or  the  mewin  of  ■  bole  oi  windo 
■bidi  m^  prnpagiu  ancleanDeaa  (A  aectloiia).  n.  1^11 
M^a.aDd  a.  DI^D,  ofrornlceaaDdparlltlaniin  Bhonai 
stlian*  (I  and  10  asclloDa).  p.  T'VaitSari  bs.  roi 
diiat[ioiDr(ni«Tude(DMC(l<iiia).  f.  HN  CUnn,  bd 
r.  1X^  of  Ue  »M  Itap'pm  (field  In  wblch  \  gnn  bi 
taes  dtieeied,  or  moM  be  preaamed,  etc)  i  haw  hr  tl 
broMiDdbebBkUwnmBnberagirdedMiuicleaii  (Sao 


H.  CVi:,  A'aprim,  or  piofua  <tf  klHWD. 
chaplera,  IreaM  otieproaj  of  men,  (larmenta,  or  dwelUnga : 
a.S^li  rittlS.ofihe  tbarlDdlutlaDaofleproaTand 
Ikebt1ndB(Sa«eUou>).  K  P^nS.otibeingpecClonaflep- 
n.T  (g  hcOod*).  c.  -pX13S13  b3n,oribetlm«  and  aigua 
wtea  oacleBnDfva  la  prononnced  (H  aecllona).  <L  IC^ 
T;m  of  the  dmreDce  twtweea  the  different  aljcas  of 
lepfot;  (11  etcliona).  (.  pBD  Vs,  of  dubinnn  ca»eB  when 
ndaaBDeae  la  proaoancsd  (D  mcIIodi).  /.  rinnS,  ut  the 
>lia  nl  Ike  while  «po(.  and  Che  pla(«s  where  no  leproaj  oc- 
lannawdonaV  t^  Plins  l^tt,  of  tha  cb*Dgea  of  the 
•fou  <if  lepnwj.  and  when  Ihej  were  rooted  ont  (S  aec- 
iknl.  L  n^lfin,  of  the  ETOwlng  of  the  apole  (10  aec- 
uuBi.  i.  ',"rran,  of  Ibe  dllftrence  between  a  tool!  taxi  n 
tevhiE  (3  McUonal.    J.  Cpr.jn.of  acalda  (10  aeclloni). 

t  c"ian  ba,  (.  o^ron  bs,  and  m.  B'na  ninr, 

■tfUelepnay  In  hoaaea  and  garmeDta  (1!,1,  and  It  aee- 
UoM).    >.  Tainan  ■1X''3,  of  daanalng  a  leper  (is  aec- 


e.  B^t^  niaO.aeparallonoflbBpriealtUrbi 


piV  lur  huTTiliiK:  KBtherlDE  Ihe  atbea  (11  aectlnua).  d. 
TXSn  ms,  how  the  aacriflcae  mo}  become  nnBt  under 
I  Mt  rntt  (t  aecllona).  e.  Ef^aian,  of  the  Ta>aela  tot  Ibe 
■ii^hllBi-waler  (B  aecllona).  /.  IHpQn.afcaaeawbere 


'Him  mrsn,  how  tua  >i 

ur  UBd  of  labor  01  aecUoaa 
1-7  tka  water:  of  Ibe  aaa  and 

>M  qiTtakllDf-wali 


anflt  ' 


I  Pectlon 


a  cannot  be  Intermpled  by 
.  A.TflO  D'>SO, oflieep. 
aaa  and  olbar  waters  with  regard  to 
(llrtCiinnal.  i  p-'mia.ci.uHun- 
—.  ^  -v.™..-^  J.  ^ISlTt  Vb,  how  clean  pereoiia  niid 
inarti  nay  become  uudeon  (a  aeciiona).  t.  PTtlSX 
rrt-JfH),  or  Iho  hyawp  fur  aprlnkllog  (»  aectiona).  L 
:'T)tn.itrthei>mr>naflt  lbreprlnli1lng(ll  aectiona). 
M.  ril'ns.  T'dhanxA  (prop.  Tuhonth),  at  pariffatUmt, 
c  MttB  cbapier*.  teachea  hi>w  pnrlllcatloae  are  to  be  af- 
kiH:  a.*ia7  nabo.i'fihecarrliinorBcleuiiiDilnn- 
•  iafawl(*Beclli.h*l.  b,nn->ni9  naMn,oribe imcleau- 

■fcni^lhediaerBnldeijreeanfu.icleaaHeaaiiaecil.iii"). 

'  75^^n,  of  lieTersEca ;  oribecMlmatloD  of  au  iii>cldM>- 

■    — .ineiibetlnieoflUdatactloBtgfecUona).   d.  pilin, 


13  TALMUD 

(.  V'^'an,  and/.  n^niB  Dips,  ofdaubtfat  cuaa  otno- 
clesnnata  (IS,  S,  and  10  aectiona].  g.  *1^pn,  how  n  lay- 
man makea  BomBlhlDgDoclean^  of  the  care  lul>e  tukaniit 
preserTlogtbacleauneaaafdreaaeeBudTeaaelitVsecilotii). 
A, -nn.  bow  to  keep  victuals  clean  («  aectiona).  iD^DM, 
of  the  cieanneaa  in  preaalng  tbe  ollree  (S  eectlana).  j. 
bviin,  of  tbe  eame  In  the  treatment  uf  wine  {B  aectiona). 
BT.  ni  Klpn,  JfiiwwrfA,  or jwoJa  nfmOr  (Komb,  ix»i,  es). 
In  flfteen  cbaplan,  Ireata  of  their  caQ>triiciioii,  and  tha 
qnaatllyorwatarneoeaanrjtorcleanalng;  •.niSSlS  1919, 
of  tbe  ail  dlireraul  gradea  nf  poola  of  water,  where  one  ia 
pnrer  than  tbe  preceding,  fruci  tbe  wnter  In  tbe  pit  to  th» 
living  water  (8  aecllune).  b.  Xoan,  of  donbtfal  caaei  con- 
cerning bathing;  how  much  and  bow  fiir  drawn  water 
make«amiti>dA,orbaitilag-place,onfltrorbatbInga*>Hc- 

(4  aectiona).  i  n^JaP,  how  raln-watar  la  to  be  led  Into  a 
'mlkrUi,  BO  SB  not  to  become  drawn  water  (E  aectiona).  f. 
T'Sa  of  dIflWaot  klode  of  waler— aprtng  waur.  rlrer  am) 
eea  water  («  aectiona).  /.S^ISSn  bs, what  la  regarded 
aa  connected  with  a  mlkvlb,  and  how  mikvafith  may  be- 
come nnlted  (11  aeetloua).  g.  y^^S-Q  0^  what  makes  h 
mlkTih  complete  and  fll>  and  where  Ibe  cbauge  of  tbe- 
colorbaatobeconaldered(TaecUooa).  h-bKIC^y^X. 
of  aome  nncleaoneaa  of  the  mlkvUi  (■  aacUoDB),  <■  19K 
^^XXin,  of  the  difference  between  bathing  tbe  body  and 


eating  and  diinklug,  wbel 


ir  lib. 


B8.  ni3.  Siddah,  or  aeparatlon  of  women  dnrlna  Ihelr 
menaea,  after  childbirth,  etc,  In  flrteenchaptera;  a.  ^tmv 
"^alX.  ofcompnliogthe  tlmaoftbeiiiddllb,  and  where  It 
la  to  be  anppoaed  (T  aecllona).  b.  ^^H  bs,  of  tbe  iilddtk 
itMlt(TaactlanB).  c.  n^BSn.  and  d.  D^nlS  ri33,  of 
women  In  childbed  |T  and  T  section*),  t.  ^B11  KSI^,  of 
tbe  dllhrent  agea  of  children  accoiding  to  tbetr  aei  (>  aec- 
tiona). /.  ^13-10  (c3,oftbeb1ood-Bpota(14Becilont).  g. 
n^Sn  D1,  what  makea  Duclean  If  It  be  damp  or  dty  (5  eec- 
li.ina).  A.nxi^n,  and  i.  Xina  ne»n,oriecogDlBlng 
theblood^pola:  their  origin;  of  changea  in  the  meuaea  (4 
and  11  eeclloot).  J.  nptir,  of  all  klnda  of  enppontlona 
euncernlng  claanneae  and  nncleanneaa  (S  eectlana).  Thia 
tieatlae  ataoald  be  read  only  by  persona  alDdylng  med- 
icine, II  being  dcToted  to  ceruln  nUaa  not  ordlnnrily 
dltcnsaed,  altbongh  tbej  appesr  to  have  occapled  a  dis- 
proportionate pan  of  the  BttentloD  of  tbe  rabblna.  Tta» 
objecliona  Ibal  oar  modem  aeuse  of  propriety  ralsea  to 
Ihe  practice  of  tbe  coufesaional  apply  with  no  leasfurce  to 
the  eabjeet  of  thia  tract,  coneidered  ae  a  matter  to  be  reg- 
nlated  by  tbe  prleslhood. 

H.  I'l^-'ISSIS,  MaitlHrin,  or  K^uort  that  dirpoee  eenria 
and  finlta  to  receive  pollntlon.  In  all  cbaptera:  <i.  bs 
npisa,  of  tbe  precantlon  by  the  (hnit  ofwhlcb  aotneibiiig 
baa  become  wet  (S  aectiona).  b.  rS'^T,  of  swentlDg  and 
steaming;  of  dlfliirent  rigbta  of  citlea  in  wblch  Jena  and 
heathen  reside  111  Hctloii a),  c.  plO,orFaBeB  whererniiia 
are  moistened  unlntcDtlonally  (8  seciloni).  ti.  nui'jrn, 
of  Ibe  regnlatlons  of  rain-water  Id  alinilar  cases  (10  aec- 
Hone),  e,  bSBS  ^Q.  of  caaea  where  entnblea,  althongh 
ihey  have  become  wet.  do  not  cbauge  (II  aectiona).  /. 
nbxnn,  of  ine  anen  llqaors,  their  variety :  and  of  auch 
llqiiora  aa  at  the  asme  time  make  clean  and  uuclean,  or 

W.  D'^at,  Zabin,  or  bodily  flniea  that  canee  pullntion, 
in  flTB chapters:  a.  nXl^H, uf  compuiiny  'hla  unclenn- 
oeaa  («  aectiona).  b.  l^Kna^O  bsn,  of  einmliiiug 
whelher  encb  an  Issne  ia  not  eiiRtrced  (4  eectloiis).  c. 
3in,  and  J.  sa^n-'  ^Zl,  of  the  power  and  dlffirmt 
motlona  towards  pollution  <S  and  1  sections),  r.  SyiiTt, 
comparison  of  divers  poUotlons  and  what  makes  ihc 
beaie.«fferlng  unclean  (11  aectiona). 

01.  Bl^blaO,  TOihiil'om.orbaptlBmonlherlaTofnn- 
cleuiiwaa  (Lot.xili, «),  In  fonr chapters!  a.  DJr-En,  wBen 
caka>  of  broad,  grain,  and  aeedf  become  onclemi,  or  temaln 


<1«iii  throngh  the  toach  of  >  tlbhU  jAn  (B  mcIIdtii).  El 
nptOQ,  how  flrUie  diun|iD«u  af  a  HbbAljrAmli  not  lobe 

Ibe  Dnlm]  of  aowubed  taanda  witb  ttaoce  of  itibbai  jim 
jire  to  be  dlecenied :  bow  me  nncleiuneH  tbmngh  s  ilbbul 
jAm  dllTen  [ram  uiotbcr  uDdemiueH  In  all  kindn  of  bnil- 
«rt  Ihlufci  and  Teaaeli  of  wloe  (B  sectiuDB),  t.  m^t  hs, 
«t  Itae  ehOMT,  ur  cODnecllon  of  the  parts  and  the  whole 
concemlDg  the  nDcleanDesii  Ihmagh  a  tibbai  jAm  In  fmiu, 
«ggii,berba.bol1ed  tbinfn,  andeauibleaof  sllktuda  (Sht- 
Iloua),  d.  'WSV  ^3iet,  the  same  In  aeparatini;  the 
heare-offerlng,  cakea,  etc.,  aecntdlDK  to  older  mm«  leuleut 
And  recent  more  etiicl:  law*  [I  eeeilona). 

Si.  W'^\  tTadiOiA,  or  fundi,  In  foor  chaptera,  traata  of 
the  waahlng  of  hand!  beAin  eating  bread,  thongb  dry 
frnlta  are  allowed  to  be  eaten  wlthonl  mch  waahlng:  a. 
Ti"'5''3"'  ^a,  how  ranch  water  la  reqolnid  for  ablniton  of 
tbe  banda;  what  kind  of  water:  of  the  leafeln  for  the 
same ;  who  lOBj  ponr  it  ont  (B  •eclloua).  b.  ^1->  b'M.  of 
the  twoablndone  whereby  the  sncleanOrai  water  In  wath- 
■ed  away ;  how  the  nblaUoD  moat  take  plnce  {*  eeclloni). 
c.  a-'J^Vil,  whether  and  bow  the  handa  beconie  uuclean 
lu  the  flrat  degree,  and  Itow  In  the  aecoiid ;  whetber  and 
bowFiir  the  toacbliig  nratiapa  of  phflacterlea  and  of  bal; 
writing!  defllee  (B  aectiuna).  d.  31^3  ^3.  of  anme  apaclal 
■dlMDMlona ;  of  the  deOlement  hjibeChaldce  In  the  Bible, 
and  nf  the  Aaayrlaui  dlapn tee  between  tbe  Pbarleeee  and 
Saddnceea  (T  aectloua). 

6S,  *->Xp^9,l7biM<H, or atalkaorrynit which  conrerDn- 
<leHriii»»,lolhr«e<:haptan:  a.  Miners,  of  the  difference 
lieiween  the  ftalka  aud  bnska  of  fmlta  (0  eectlone).  b. 
"iCSSO  a'^nt.  what  la  added  (u  the  whole  from  etonea. 
bueka,  lenoea,  etc.  (10  eectlona).  c  1i3->1S  tr,  otHttei- 
«ul  clnaeee  of  thiDga,  bow  and  when  Ihey  are  apt  to  ab- 
«>tb  nn  nncleanDeaa  (It  aectloha). 

In  addition  to  the  treatise*  which  compoae  the  Ge- 
mara,  there  are  certain  minor  ones  which  are  connected 
with  it  ai  a  kind  of  Apocrypha  or  appendix,  nnder  the 

■er  IrealiKt.     These  arc : 

I.  D*''>B^B.  SripAtrfm,  concerning  tbe  aerlbe  and  reader 

■ol  ihc  law  (SI  cbaptera).  Tbla  treatlae  la  Important  for 
the  Maaorah.  A  eeparace  edition,  wllb  note*,  waa  pnb- 
llahed  by  J.  Mlkller  (Lelpa.  \VK).     Sue  also  tba  »t.  8o- 

1.  nVa,  Eallah,  relalea  to  marrlagee  (1  chapter). 

s.niniao  K-ipsn  Tiai  Va!t,«wita»o«<,orSa. 

-nuvAeKi,  concerning  tbe  ordlDBncea  for  hinetal  aolemnl- 
4le*  lUchaplara). 

*.y-iVk  ■I'n.Bmlr&fta.onaocUldnllBaalcbaplerB). 

B.  KS1T  y^Vl  IT'''.  '>*"''  ^rtb  Sula,  mlea  fur  the 
learued  (In  chaptera). 

ft,  D'^ori  plB,i>er(tAa'RAalDni,on  Ihelovenf  iieace 
<1  chapter). 

1.  D''13,  Gerim.  concerning  proaeljlea  (*  chnptera). 

S.  B^nlS,  IfutAlm,  concerning  Samarltnim  (1  chaplere). 

B.  D^*taS,  .1  ti»t<™,  concemlnK  alaiea  (B  chaptera). 

10.  ri^X'<X,  mititA,  coDceralng  frlngea  (1  chapter). 

\l.  ^'^''Bn,  TtphiUin,  concerning  phjlacterlea  (1  chap- 


ilng  the  writing  on  thedoor- 


li,  rHW3.J(«w 
poat  (S  chnptera).    See  art-UneiAB. 

18.  nil n  ISO,  SfjiAer  TAoro*,  coneernliig 
of  the  liiw(li  chaptera). 

N™.  I-1S  were  pahllahed  together  by  R.  KIrt 
ai!tltiel\lU;SfptrmLiliriT<itmudieiParirHFi»i 
Main.  liui). 


To  these  Ireatisea  are  Bomctimi 

n.^xi'S-'  ris  r'lzbn.iiniir. 

to  the  Kiiya  of  alaiighterlug  miln 
-Jewlab  Idene.  a  treatlae  which  la  m 


a<lde<< : 


B.  ini  "ann  niait  AboOk  dt-jiaAti 

ntarjonorampllOcallonof  th«  trektii 
I).    For  theanthuTotthlB  treatUs,  se 


Nu.. 

V.I.      1                       Dlrt.1. 

VII 
X 

i 
i 

VI 

f 

I 
1 

XII 

il 
1 

IV 

XII 

XI 

xu 

5' 

Abode  Zarab 

•i-l-.'i:::::: 

"      Mctali.h 

::  ■  ■ 

K"^-::;;:::::: 

Sa-.:::: 

gr:::::::;::: 

Zernlml."!.' 

Snthoti,-:::;:::::: 

Taharrtth 

Kodaahfni.... 

llaaaerSh»l.:.:... 

SF----------- 

iS^t--' 

RoehHaah^bauah. 

TlhbDlYom 

Tahirtih 

Having  f^vfo  an  analytii «( the  canmia  of  I 

will  present  to  the  reader  a  Clint  idu  of  tlie  o 

pmceiliire  as  we  And  it  in  that  wenderful  woili. 

We  open  the  very  flrat  page  ef  tbe  1'aliniid,ih 

tise  BrralcMh,  on  bleaatngi,  toaiBHicing  ^ri:^K' 


are  Ihe  wirrts  •>!  Ihe  rnhbl  Kllfitr^  boi  lit  wl«  rati 
nnill  mldiilKhL    Habbnii  Oamallel  nji  till  Itn  mt 

fr.im  a  lean-,  they  i-nld  niihi  bim, 'Ve  bire  om  yi 


SKi;';.: 


'laraudtriibl 


itoubliiDIliorHTOliL  be  teuhu,  rnHawlut  Lime  dd- 
ni4t  Aad,b«1d»i)iai,wbjdoaa  he  UacboD  ilieevi-11. 
liIln>.uilmtgbltieiaKb  on  iha  mornlnKflntf  Tlis 
nuiiunMDu  ibe  Scrlplofe,  for  Itl*  writlm. -When 
iM  JMi  ion  ud  when  thnn  rlHd  ap,'  ■nd  «o  be 
■jt^B,  at  lima  or  redtlDK  tbe  Sbenu.  vfaen  Ihon  Uecl 
lfln,wbni  )■  lit  Priira  tb*  lime  whtm  the  prieiu  go 
>i  u  w  uriheir  ablation.  But  ifUiDa  wtlt,  wy  t,  be 
kuta  tikni  It  «i  nrtbe  crtulon  of  tbe  world,  [i>r  it  la  aild 
iiwuftnlD^and  li  waa  mora Inff  one  day.  ITthle  laao, 
ii  nlitii  be  tbe  lui  MIf  bn*  whlcb  teacbe*.  Id  Itae  mom- 
lag  trt  old  two  bleaalnpfi  beTore  and  one  alter,  and  Id 
III  eitntui  two  befure  and  two  Htlflr,  and  jec  Che/  [each 
in  [to  etMloK  lint.  The  Thanna  hegloi  In  tbe  oTening, 
tbto  btleathtt  In  the  morning:  u  he  ireats  orthe  moni- 
ia:,K  h(  uplalne  tbe  thlnga  orthe  morning,  ud  then  be 
(^H  Ibt  Ibinga  or  the  ereniag.* 


TUi  ii  k»  than  one  fourth  put  of ' 
<lu  Goun  OD  thu  pMuge  in  the  Misho*,  «ih)  Ibe  le- 
csula  ii  djaall}-  lucid  Mai  iuttrtttiag. 

Sobuliiria  to  the  Talmud,  printed  either  ia  tbe 
Bir^  of  Ibc  pa^  or  at  tbe  end  of  the  IreatiKa,  are 
1 1)  Iht  roBprii^exegtticaladUiuani  bj  lil«r  autfaom; 
■S  Mamrai  ia-tlutk  Stdarin,  being  maiginal  Uuo- 
mitiirlicnto  the  ni  orden  of  the  Hiehua;  (3)  Aia 
<t  Dt-lliiipal,  i.  e.  indei  of  pUcea  on  the  tilea  and  in- 
liiuioa;  (4)  A'«-  JVtlwoU,  ■  ([cneral  index  of  de- 
flam  tccunling  lo  Ihe  digett  of  Hiimonidei',  and  (&) 

IV.  UcTwj  Tm.— The  falmad  haa  been  applied  to 
tiKcrilicim  and  interpretation  of  the  Old  Teal.  Host 
ttittdtuioiu,  however,  agree  with  the  preaent  Muo- 
mitleit.  It  hu  prabably  be«n  conformed  to  the  Ua>- 
ordc  ttandanl  by  the  Tibbina,  at  leaat  in  the  lat«r  edi- 
BBtti  For  rariaiioiB.  see  the  art.  QutrrA-nosa  Of  thb 
Uu>  Tot.  IK  THK  Talmud  1  for  the  inlcrpretatjon, 
•w  ibt  an.  SauFTURK  iirtKapBcrATioN  amono  thb 

Jntl. 

Tbt  Tabnnd  haa  *1m>  been  used  in  the  iUuMntion  of 
il»\e*Tat.b;Ughtroot,Schitl'gen,Meuacben,Wett- 
win.  (ifrorer,  RobertwHi,  Nark,  Delilzsch.  Wunsche. 
BaL  in  thia  department,  jdao,  ita  utility  haa  been  over- 
'■laMwl.  and  by  none  nwre  than  by  Lightfoot  himeelT, 
*i>inr>,iii  the  dedication  prefixed  to  bis  Talmudical 
'iBtiiaiiiini,  "  Chtiatiaoa,  by  their  akill  and  indiiatry, 
"ty  nudtr  Ihem  (the  Talmudic  writings)  moat  uaeful- 
Ij  wniceaUe  to  their  aludenta,  and  most  eminently 
•ffllio?  10  ibe  imerpretationa  of  the  New  Teat,"  Bu'l 
M  n  liaac  Vonus,  who  laid  Ligbiroot  would  hare 
■iMl  lta«  by  illnatrating  the  eTangelintit  firom  the 
^"■ibmiibeaeiirfciiie  raMwMU',  and  exdumed,  "Sit 

n.niiiiiii  Jiidii..-i<  iaiiusmodi  Gdere  fabellis!"  ("Let 
n.iinijfu  ai  length  ceOM  from  playing  the  fnol  and 
'^'■in;  ii>  nich  wretched  Jewiih  fables  as  thoee  con- 
-imnl  ia  (be  Talmud !")  The  mietake  of  UghtToot  is 
■^nadbrWiUiache.inhia  A'n/e  BrilrSg/iMT  EtISuI»- 
•     -  ■  ,  Taimad  inxf  Midraih  (Oiitl. 


IM).,i 


atrpreltoidi  a  like 


wriiiiig  an  aputogy  for  Judaiim;  bence  great 
—mii^  omit  be  aibibited  in  the  perusal  of  the  latter's 
'"ft  There  is  only  one  way  of  uaing  the  Talmud  fur 
'>  X'cw  Teat,  for  which  see  uur  aiL  Skrmon  on  thk 

"l"  t  ASD  THK  TaUIDII. 

Fwile  Old  Test,  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  TaJ- 


*-■";  iw,  like  a  good  many  uihei  worka,  theae  MSS. 
'■'*  Uant  the  pray  of  time,  and  only  a  Tew  uf  them  ate 
'°*L  AllcbaliaktHnrnis(l)the'llratdiviHDnoftbe 
■•^■lem  Talmud  in  poaaosion  of  the  Jewish  conpre- 
*«  at  QmMantinople ;  (!)  a  complete  copv  of  the 
V^niuTibnud  from  the  year  1M3  in  the  Royal  U- 


13  TALMUD 

brary  at  Mooicb ;  (8)  a  fragment  of  the  same,  evident- 
ly older  than  No.  i,  in  the  same  place ;  (4)  a  fragment 
of  the  same  from  the  year  1134  in  the  Hamburg  City 
Library  I  (6)  the  treatiae  Sanhairin  according  to  the 
Babylonian  redaction,  and  belonging  to  the  12th  centu- 
ry, in  the  Ducal  Library  at  Carlamhei  (6)  eome  fra^ 


with  TOluable  v. 


eUni- 


veiuty  Library  of  firealau.  There  ia  no  doubt  that  it 
some  libraries  fragments  may  yet  be  found,  if  the  cover* 
of  old  books  ahould  be  property  examined,  for  which 
they  have  been  used  by  ignorant  binders.     That  such 

the  Brealau  University,  but  rmm  a  more  recent  discov- 
ery of  W.H.  Lowe,  who  published  tbe  Fragranl  oflht 
Talimd  BabU  Paadiim  <if  the  Sik  or  lOlA  Caiturn, 
in  tkt  Vmttnily  Libraiy  at  Cambridge,  vili  Nala  and  ii 
Fac-nmih  (Lond.  1879). 

2.  fiJitioM.— Like  the  Old  Test,  at  first  only  parts- 
of  the  Talmud  were  published,  on  which  see  De  Komi, 
Aanaltt  /l/brav-lypographiri  Src  .Tl'  (Farms,  ITSo). 
The  Hnt  port  of  the  Talmud,  the  treatise  Brraiolh, 
was  published  at  Soneino  in  1484;  but  the  Ont  com- 
plete edition  (the  basis  of  later  ones)  was  published  by 
Bomberg  (Venice,  1&30-ZS,  13  voU.  (oL)  (a  complete 
copy  of  which  is  in  the  iibraiiea  of  Caaael  and  Leipiie). 
^ce  that  titne  edition!  have  been  published  at  different 
places,  which  are  enumerated  by  K.  N,  Habbinowici,  in 
his  tioirn  notin  is  ^asta,  or  KrUiKhi  Crbtr- 
ncAt  der  GrtamnU'  tmd  Eiraelatngabenda  bab^tomnctien 
Tabmudi  tat  1481  (Munich,  1877)  (with  tbe  exception 
of  the  German  lille-page,  the  reat  is  in  Hebrew).  The 
Jerusalem  Talmud  was  Hr«t  published  bv  D.  Bomberg 
(Venice,  1623);  then  with  brief  glosses  (Cracov.  1G09; 
Deaaau,  1743 ;  Berlin.  1757  ;  Schitomit,  lBfiO-67, 4  voia. 
ful.i  Krotoechin,  1S66,  fuL).  A  new  edition  of  Bom- 
berg's,  with  commentariea,was  commenced  by  the  late 
Dr.  l.  Krankel,  of  which,  however,  only  the  first  division, 
was  published  (Vienna,  1876-78). 

8.  TVoMlutiau.— There  ezUta  as  yet  no  caniptel« 
translation  of  either  of  the  Talmuds  in  any  language^ 
Tbe  Arabic  tianslstion,  aaid  to  have  been  piepared  in 
A.  D.  1000,  at  tbe  will  of  king  Hashem  uf  Spain,  is  no- 
longer  extanL  A  large  portion  of  the  Jerusalem  Tal- 
mud ia  found  in  a  L^tin  tnnslalion  in  Ugolino,  TJietaur. 
Aiitiq.Saa-„vix.Priachim  (vol,  xvii),  SAria/im,  ra«n. 
SuttaJi,  Roth  Haih-thamah,  Taamth,  MrgiUah,  Ckagi- 
gah.BezaA,M6idKiilon{yoLsviiij,i/aaKrolh,C/ia!itili, 
Orlak,  BUhirim  (vol  xi),  SioAtdrm,  MakiolA  (voL 
XXV),  Kidduthin,  Solali,  KdhuboU  (voL  xxx).  In  the 
same  work  we  also  find  three  treatises  of  Ihe  Babyloniaik 
Ttiiaudivii^  Zrlacbim,  Memiciolli  (vDLxix),and  Sait- 
itdria  (voLxxv).  Into  French,  the  treatises  Iftroltolhy 
Peak,  Ormul,  KUagtm,  SAMilh,  Tenmoti.  Maattrnlk. 
Maotrr  Skmi,  ChitUah,  Orlah,  BUkurim  of  the  Jeru«s- 
lem  Talmud  were  translated  by  M.  Schwab  (Paris,  1H7J- 
79).  The  treatise  Btnikolk  according  to  the  Jerusalem 
and  Babylonian  Talmuds  was  also  translated  into  Freiicb 
bv  L.  Chiarini  (Leips.  18B1)  snd  into  liermsn  by  Kabe 
(  Halle,  1777 ).  Of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  we  have 
Rerroan  translations  of  berokolk  by  I'innet  (Berlin^ 
1843);  Df-fiakf^rtfidbv  A. Sammter  (ibid.  1876-79); 
of  Aboda  Zarah  by  F.'Chr.  Ewald  (Nuremb.  I86S). 
Tbese  are  all  the  tnnslatiuns  which  are  known  to  us. 

4.  i/onoffriiphtM  —  Since  Ihe  Talmud  is  the  grest 
Btorebuuse  of  all  snd  everything,  different  branches  of 
science  and  religion  have  been  treated  in  monographs. 
Thus,  on- 

o.  Botany :  by  Duscbak.  Zur  Bolaaih  da  Talmud 
(Leips.  18701. 

b.  Civil  and  criminal  law:  by  Frankel,  ftr  fferirht- 
licit  Jietcrit  naeh  mot.-lalniaditbFin  firrble.  Am  Bh- 
Irag  tur  Krnlma  det  motMabnuditckrn  Criminal-  u. 
CintrrcbU  (BerUn,  1846);  Duscbak,  Dot  mmaitrh-lal- 
muditdu  Ehmehl,  ett  (Vienna,  1864) ;  Th"nis».ii.  Iji 
PriaedeUorirln>ulf.Talmid(Kta-nt\\n,\HiiM);  \\\.u-h, 
Ihu  motaitrh-utlmviliiirhe  IUi:>i>rrbt  (  Uijis-  IKIS); 


TALMUD  1( 

Lielit*ch«in,  Die  Kli/ nadl  notaitc/i-talBoidiieArr  Aaffai- 

j-mguaddaimotautkJnlmvdmhe  EhencKt  (ibiit.  1S79) ; 
Fisid.  Dai  motauch-rabbiiaickt  Gericklt-  Vtrfakm  in 
<mlTw:htlickak  Sadin,  eW.  (\"ienn«,  1858);  Knnkel, 
ffnind/iRun  da  mOKiucA-falinuiJiKAen  Eherti:hl$  (Bres- 
Uu,  1860);  UielxiDcr,  ZKe  KerAobRUM  dtr  SUambd 
■dtn  aUai  BtitSem  nack  biU.  u.  lalaiud.  QutUai  iar- 
ffnlfOl  (Leipa.  I8b9). 

f.  Coini  •nil  weighw :  by  R  Zuekenn«nn,  Urier  tal- 
mudtKhe  Mibaen  und  Gevicke  (BnsUu,  1862). 

i  Ertucition:  5.  Marciu,  Zur  Schal-Padagagii  dti 
roinwd (Berlin,  1866);  Sinwii, /.'^uearioneir/rulme- 
Vion  da  EnfanU  chrz  Iti  A  nriau  Jaift  dapr'tt  la  BibU  d 
Jr  Taimud  (Leipe.  1879);  SuliUch,  l}ii  PadagogO:  dn 
T'llmud  fFimnkr.-on-the-MaiD,  1663).  S«  rIso  the  art. 
f^iiOOt^  \n  thu  Cydopadia^ 

'.  Ethics,  muinia,  praverba,  etc;  Laiinu,ZHr  CAo- 
•  iikttrinHc  der  lalmudiKhm  tl/ai  ( Brenlan,  1877); 
Riaxima  and  proverts  ■re  given  by  Dukes,  AuUinurAc 
Blumtnlae  (l«ip«,  1844),  in  yi1~n  l^i-a  ^CO  (Wb> 
siw,  1874),  and  byA.Fruick,  La  StrOoKts  d  Provtrbti 
da  Tainad  tl  du  Midraik,  in  tbe  (raria)  Journal  da 
JiaeanU,  Nov.  1878,  p.  669-676  i  Dec  p.  709-7S1. 

/.  UeographT :  by  A.  Neubauer,  La  Giographie  da 
Talmudj  Mfmoirt  courome  par  TAcadiptie  da  Iiucr^ 
liotti  rt  Billa-UUnt  (Pari*,  1868). 

p.  Mathemalice;  by  Zuckenoajin, Dm  taalhanaliicie 
tm  Talmud  (Breslau,  1878);  Id.  Dai  jUditdu  Maau- 
Sgilem  {iUd.  1S67> 

h.  Medicine ;  Wuoderbar,  BiUucA-faimuducAe  JUtdi- 
™  (Kiga,  186i-69);  Halpem,  BrilrSgr  mr  GtichkhU 
dtr  lalmudiiAm  Chinirgii  (Brellui,  1869). 

i.  Magic :  Brecber,  Dai  TramoeKdaitfde,  lUasie  a, 
magiiclie  HeUarIm  im  TuJiaud  (Vienna,  I860). 

}.  VtvchtAofy :  Jacobann,  VermcA  entr  PigAtiogit 
da  T.Uamd  (Hamburg,  1878). 

jt,  HellgiouB  pbiloaophv:  iiif^,  Dit  RdigtmipkHoio- 
phir  <Ui  Tahmd  ( Leipa. 'l 864). 

L  Zoology :  Lewyaobn,  Zur  Zeclogit  da  T'nteuif 
(Frankr.-oD-th&'Haiii,  1868). 

m.  l^boc  and  handicraft ;  8.  Meyer,  A  riot  und  Hojid- 
vrri  im  rohiwil  <  Beriin,  1878)-,  Delitucb,  JlidiK*a 
HimdwrherMm  mr  Zetl  Jau  (3d  ed.  ErUngtii,  1879). 
The  latter  wrote  alao  on  tb>  cohort  in  the  Talmud  id 
fiord  und  SBd,  May,  187a 

n.  Biblical  Antiquities;  Hamburger,  BHHkA-ToI- 
tmdiifk.  Wdrltriuch  (Nen-StreliU,  1861). 

G.  TtTtual  CWrtcun.— Lebrpcht,  Kriliidte  I,at  vtr- 
Irtfrrlrr  Laartm  am  Talmud  (Berlin,  1864);  Rabbi- 
iio«ici,  Varia  Ltcltona  ia  Miiclmnm  rltn  Talmud  Babi/- 
Joniciim  ^um  ex  aliil  l-ibrii  A  nfigvitiimit  rl  ScripHi  i4 
Impraiiilum  r  Codia  Moimixnri  Prailaiaiuimo  aillrr- 
ta.  A  molatiofiilmi  uurrurfn  (pi.  i-viii,  Munich,  1868~7T). 

6.  ifiWiojrnpAy.—Pinner,  in  hi»  preface  to  Htraiolh, 
p.  9  »q. ;  Beer,  in  Frankel's  Montluckrifi,  1857,  p.  456- 
45«:  IjehjKcYA,  HandKhriflm  nod  ertle  Getammtauiga- 
ben  da  hahyl.  Talmud,  in  den  mamchnflli^hm  Biol' 
Urn  del  BrrliBer  Belh  ha-Midraieh  (Berlin,  1862); 
SteinM:hnri.lcr.  IlfbrBiKhf  BibHograpkie  (I86S),  y\,  I 
»q.i  Dc  RoBsi,  Amvtlei  llebrao-)ypogi-npliiti  See.  X 
<l'anni.  I'9.'i] ;  id.  De  tlebratar  Tspogriipkia  Origint  i 
Primiiiit.  etc.  (ibid.  1776), 

7.  /.iBQtiufie  H^pt.  —  BoKlorf,  Ijerifon  Chaldainn. 
Talmii'ltcum  el  RubbinicHm  (BaHl.  1640,  r.>l. ;  new  ed.  by 
K  t'iwher,  Leipsic.  1869-75);  Liiwv,  Xnliebraiieiei 
und  childaiichei  Wmrrbach,  pIc  (ibid.  1875:  in  the 
cour»r  of  publication)  i  A  rucA,  ijv  Nathan  lien-Jechiel ; 
new  critical  edition  bv  A.Knhnt.  Plenum  A  nrh  Tarnum. 
Tulmu-Hai-Midraiek  Verbalr  el  Bealt  /.eriam  (Vien- 
na,  1878  aq.) ;  Brull,  Framltyraeklif^t  tledenmrfen.  etc 
<L«paic,  1869);  Geiger,  Zur  Gaekiekle  der  lalmudi- 
(cAm  IjriienipniAie,  in  ZrilKhrift  d.  I).  .1/.  *i.  IR.W. 
Tii,  14a :  Stein,  Talmadiiehe  Trrminobifp>-  (Prague,  1869) : 
Ziickermandel,  in  GrHli'a  MmiU'tch-ijI.  1873.  p.  4-21- 
4.10.  475-477;  1874,  p.  30-44,  1S0-I3H,  183-189.  213- 
■«■•■•■.  KUir,  Zur  Laullehre  der  ar„wailti-laImtiJiKheri 


6  TALMUD 

Diaiede,  i,  Die  KeiUaule  (Leipsic,  1879);  BeriiDer,&t- 
Irrigt  lur  AtbrSiirMm  Grammalii  im  Talmud  umd  l/i- 
dratch  (Berlin,  1879};  KmUtcb  [I.],  Sbeldi  of  Ike  Tai- 
mud, induding  Ikt  Sepkrr  Jniruh,  vilk  Tramiatkm. 
"olei,  and  Glouarg  (N.Y.  1877). 
8.  Literature  in  CoKToi.— Treatiaea  on  the  Talmud 
ive  been  written  in  diOerent  languagea,  and  Iboi 
number  ia  legion.  To  enumerate  them  would  be  nnt 
fdioua,  but  useleaa,  because,  wriuen  rmm  a  crttain 
aUuidpoint,  thpy  unly  gii'e  one  side  of  Ibe  queslinii. 
Sucb  are  the  treatisea  of  Doatach,  written  fur  ihe  glnri- 
fiiaiion  of  modem  -luilaiim,  and  repealed  liy  Srhicab  in 
his  introduction  to  his  treatise  Berakolk  (Paris,  1871), 
and  of  Robling  and  Martin,  written  in  ■  hostile  atHiit 
■gainst  Judaism,  because  tnore  or  less  dependent  on 
Eisenineni^'a  Enldeddei  Judenlkum  (Kcinigsberg.  I'll, 
•i  vols.).  Quite  different  U  the  work  of  A.  H-Cul,  Tkt 
Old  Patki  (Und.  1854),  and  tbe  Pnlaleuck  a 
lo  lie  Tulmu^  (voL  i,  Geneaiis  ibid.  1874)  bv  P.  J.  i- 


show  hen 


'oid  by  a 


Phar 


]  hu 


a  tbeTal- 


made  the  law  of  God  i 
We  therefore  conttne 

give  tbe  reader  the  necessary  information  o 
mud,  via.  TFShner,  Aniiquitalei  Ebraoram  (1743),  i, 
Z3I-684;  Wolf,  Siiliolketa  Hetnra,  ii.  657-998;  iv, 
830-456;  Brtlll,  ^>>e  EnUlfkungiffeichiHile  da  babyL 
Tiilmudt,  ia  tin  JahrbHrker  (Frankfon-on- tbe- Main. 
1876),  ii,  1^128;  Aue[b«;h,  Dm  jSdiiche  Oblii)alion- 
iwJf,i.  62-114;  Frankel, /fifrWurttu  in  Talmtid  Hirr»- 
tolymilanum  {SnOmi,  1870  [Heb.]);  Wiesner,  Gibdl 
JetuKkalatm,  ed.  SmoUnaky  (Vienna,  187':I  [Heh]l; 
Flirat,  LUrralurblall  dei  Oritnli.  1843.  No.  4»-*l ;  1850, 
No.  laq.;  \i.  KuUur- u.  Literahirgetchieklt  der  Jtdrm  in 
Alien  (1849),  voL  i:  Z.ini.  Die  gollendirnUlicken  Vor- 
IrSge  dtr  Judfn,  p.  61-56,  94 ;  Jost.  Geick.  d  ItmAitaL, 
iv,  e?2  aq.,  338-3381  id.  Oack.  d  Judenlkumi  u.i.af- 
ten,  ii,  202-213;  UrKlz,  Cad.  dJHdm,  iv,  384.  408-41} 
sq.i  Frankel,  Monalackri/},  1851-62,  p.  36-40,  70JW, 
203-220,  403-421,  509-531:  1861.  p.  186-194,  305-31^ 
366-272;  1871, p.  120-187 :  Gr\gtr,Jiidiirke  Zeittrkrifi, 
1870,  p.  378-806;  I^nner,  Compendium  da  kimM^fm. 
und  babt/lon.  Talmud  (BerUn,  1832);  id.  EinleAuag  h 
dm  Talmud,  in  his  translation  of  Berakolk,  fbL  1-13; 
ScbUrer,  Handbuck  der  neuleOam.  Zettgackiehle  (Leip- 
sic, 1874),  p,  87-49:  Pressel,  art,  Talmud,  in  Htnog'i 
Rral-Eacylkop. ;  Davidson,  in  Kilto'a  Cgdnp.  a.  v.; 
Mauaseaux.  /^  Ju'f,  le  Judalime,  el  la  JudafioliM 
(FRri^l86^),p.76sq,;  Bernstein, CBSrmS.an  apol- 
ogy for  tbe  Talmud  (Odessa,  1868);  Waldberg,  '3"1 
D-<13tDn,  or  explanation  of  the  kigic  of  the  Talmud 
(Lemberg,  1876).  The  expurgated  paaaaKea  are  col- 
lected by  Mekleuburg  in  r^Sntsnn  nXl=p;  the  dif- 
ficult paaSBgea  of  the  Talmud,  which  are  explained  by 
Raachi,  are  found  in  O"!^  TBO  (Scbilomir,  1874) ;  Jonti 
Brilll,  l-i-tX^  tn'^-l,  or  Maemolrekwik  dei  Tahaii 
(Vienna,  1864  [Heb.]) ;  Bacher,  Dit  Agada  der  biAf 
Umiirken  Amordtr,  Kin  Beitrug  lur  Gtlckiekte  der 
Agada  und  zur  Einlei/UHff  n  den  batglonirken  Talmnd 
(Straaburg,  1878) ;  FriedlBnder,  CeirkictlMlder  ai  der 
Zeil  der  Tanailen  und  A  morder,  Ei»  Bttlrag  lar  Ge- 
ichickte  da  Talmadt  (BrUnn,  1879).  Tbe  Hafiadoth 
contained  in  both  Talmuds  are  collected  in  Jacob  ibn- 
Chabib'a  apsi  yt  (latest  edition  Wihia,  1877).  S* 
Flint,  BUiL  Jud.  i.  161 ;  Wolf,  BOd.  Heb.  i,  590  ■).:  iii. 
456  aq.;  iv,866Bq.;  and  in  Jafe's  n»-iO  ftf  (comn 
Wolf,  i6id:  i,  1304 ;  iii,  1 109 ;  Flln>t,  ii,  9,96) ;  the  roHphU 
is  now  in  course  of  bring  edited  by  Dr.  M.  S.  Zncktr- 
mandel  (Beriin,  1876  si).)i  Schwarx,  Die  Tonfia  der 
OrdHungMoidiniAr'n  VerkSllniii  tur  Miickna  kririirki 
iinlerniekl,rt.i,Der  Traftal  Satbali  (CarUmtte.  liC»\f 
Jellinek,  f/agadiirke  flermeneulii  mit  JUidraick-C-^ 
menlar  (Vienna,  1878):  Placxek,  Die  Ag-iiia  uh>I  drM 
HiinriHiimui.  in  the  .Iii.!.  IJimihirUnH.  vol.  vii,  Xo.  U 
0.  8. 11.  IS.  10, 17,  33-31 :  Mnhlfeldpr,  Bub:  .f«  /^brn^ 


TALMUD  If 

lU  mr  Gadadtle  At  Tofiwd  (Lnpt.  I8TI);  F«Mler, 

l/vBt^uiibTtaiieiaeidte  Amora.Em  Btilragnir 
fnJt  ia  Talmud  (Bmlui.  1879);  Hoffmun,  Mar 
AoHii,  StcUr  derjiiludUii  A  tadauie  H  tftiardm  in 
ArijUin  {Uip*.  1878).     (B.  P.) 

TALMUD.  Tin  Ou>  TsaTAHEin  ih  thb  Time  or 
iHt.  Tbe  Talmnd  premppoan  ■  Wit  bo  flnnl/  HUb- 
lubtd  bj  tndidoa  thu  tbe  Tilmndisu  no  longet  venl- 
in  10  iks  injtlung  in  it ;  they  merdf  leck  to  MtUe 
11  oDchiiigtablT  Tor  all  time  by  mum  or  verr  predae 
rtiiluioai  on  the  robjrct  of  Biblinl  ciUignphy,  tbe 
ililTcRiii  «ayi  or  mding,  etc 

1,  Tit  GnM  (mvuv).— Tbi>  word,  which  ocean  fint 
in  Uw  3d  coiUirj  after  Chiiit,  hu  do  oamsponding  ex- 
ptmm  in  Jewish  writings.  Tbe  Bible  is  celled  IBD, 
a  -Eon,  ■>  the  Book'  (Salbaa,  IbL  18,  odL  1 ) ;  "  the 
IsipUm,*  ions  (Taigum  ii  in  Gen.  sii,  4!)  t  "  Holy 
Writiig^-BTpn  -isro  (aiMatA,tcLl6,coU);  tcipia, 
-Eddiiig'  (roOMfA,  foL37,  coL3).  In  A'iiUiuAia, 
hLU.nLl.we  And  the  exptemon  B'^K'^S]  Kn^-<-ilX 
Z-ZVal, "  tbe  L«w,  the  Prophets,  »nd  the  Writings." 

Tbe  ocdtr  of  hooks  u  found  in  onr  present  Hebrew 
Bibles  i>  thit  of  the  Huorita,  tnd  differs  fiom  that 
pn>  ia  the  Tehnud,  as  tbe  fdlowing  UUe  will  show  I 


■7  TALMtTD 

as,  for  instance,  the  iraolis  of  Ben-Sira  and  Ben-Toglab, 
hriflgs  confiiuoa  into  his  house."  Accordingly,  Eccle- 
niuticus  is  not  included  in  tlie  canon  of  Heiito,  Ori- 
gen,  Cyril,  Laodicea,  Hilary,  RuflLius,  etc.;  and  thongh 
Augustine,  like  tbe  Talmud  and  the  Hidrashim,  eoa- 
Btantly  quotes  it,  y«t  he.  as  well  as  tbe  andent  Jewish 
aiiiharitiea,  distinctly  ssjrs  that  it  is  not  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  (De  Citil.  Dei,  xvii,  20).  Comp.  also  Jerome, 
PruL  in  Libr.  Solom,,  where  he  ssyi  that  Ecclesias^- 
cus  should  be  read  "for  the  instnic^n  oT  tbe  people 
(pMu),  not  to  support  the  authority  of  ecdedastical 

2.  The  A  IphiAa.— It  is  difficult  to  determine  with 
precision  the  time  at  which  tbe  square  character  was 
perfected.  Origen  and  Jerome  ascribe  the  invention  in 
Ezra,  and  so  does  Jus^  iien-ChBlafta,who  flourished  be- 
tween A.D.lS8aadlM.  IntheTalmudwetinddeKrip- 
tions  and  allusions  to  the  Ibrm  of  Hebrew  letters  which 
precisely  suit  tbe  square  alphabet ;   and  even  in  tbe 

ami,  traces  occur  of  the  same.  Ill  our  own  days  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Hebrew  squire  alphabet  before  the  Tal- 
mudic  lera  baa  been  proved  by  the  discovery  of  some 
tombstones  Id  the  Crimea,  a  few  of  which  even  beal  tbe 
date  A.D.  6  and  30  (comp,  Geiger,  JOditcht  ZeUtchT\fi, 
iii,13»<138,!S7|  iv,214sq.).     But  these  atones  cannot 


Lefiticns. 

.mom 
.«-ipii 

'•Mge, 

landnSamad.. 
landnKlngl... 

.VitiaiD 

Jremlab 

BiekleL 

znUlnotPropbc 

Psalms 

Pro«rbs 

.ispim 
s.itjs  ■•-ir 
.B-Vnn 
.-boo 

SongofSatomou. 

.D^-.-on 

Ecclseiastas rtnp 

Bather -moK 

Daniel hf/Til 

Bir>udMehemlah.K-1t9 
IandntSironleles..H''TJTl  •• 

Thenn 
>       Bolls, 

nib»  van 


Mdatbcae  twenty-fonr  books,  tbe  Talmud  also  quotes 
(na  ihe  apocryph^  book  Jtmt  bm-Sira,  belter  known 
iBdaib«  name  of  £Ecfe«usftciu,as  Ihe  passages  given  in 
It*  at.  EccLKSumcL'B  indicate.  But,  in  spite  of  this 
b*A  being  quoted  so  oflea,  we  ore  distinctly  told  that  it 
B  Ml  ODODicaL  Thus  Yadain,  ch.  ii,  says, "  The  book 
'^  Bni-Kn,  sod  all  the  other  books  writien  after  its 
iTO-ire  not  canonical"  (C-Tn  P»  l^KBBB  ^K). 
Im,  tbe  declaration  made  by  R.  Aklba,  that  he  who 
aidifi  uocanonical  books  will  have  no  portion  in  the 
•wU  u.  come  (Muhno,  SankedT.  i,  1),  is  expUined  by 
%  Jtnnakm  Talmud  to  mean  "  the  books  of  Ben-Sin  : 
M  Bn-Uwiah ;"  and  the  Midrath  on  Cohelrlh,  xii.  IS 
''ssiki,>'Whoaoever  introduce*  into  his  house  more 
'lui  Ihe  tweniy-foiir  bonks  (i.  e.  the  Sacw!  Scrifrturw), , 


be  relied  upon,  and  the  forgery  has  been  made  manifest 
by  Dr.  H.  Strack,  A .  Firkomitch  u.  ftint  Enldrehmgm 
(Leips.  1876).  In  the  Talmud,  however,  we  ore  dis- 
tinctly told  not  to  change  K  and  9,  3  and  3,  3  and  S. 
1  and  n,  n  and  n,  1  and  \  I  and  1,  U  and  B,  O  and  O 
(_S/,abbath,  foL  103,  col.  2).  The  Talmud  also  knows  the 
Ave  final  letters  •\,ti,y,'],a  (ihid.  foL  104, coL  I),  which 
were  ptobaUy  used  to  render  reading  more  easy  by  di»- 
linguisbing  one  word  from  another  (thua,  rSBTlSSt 
[the  ihirdandfoiirthwotdsoftheHeb.Bibie]  might  be 
read  nxa  ■<nbx,"Godiadead").  TheTalmud.agaiii, 
lint  only  ntentioiia  tbe  so-called  Inyffin  (l^an,  ClPit, 
or  calligraphic  omamenls  on  the  letters  y.  J,  T,  i,Z3.  S.O 
(Mnarholi,fu].2i>,eol  1  sq.i  SI>ubliiiti,M.S9,<:ol.t: 


TALMUD  18 

ruLia5,  aaL3),but  ilaogiTea  different  eomtuiutioiii  of 
tlicilphibet,u 

bs,  D-  ja,  on,  ST,  eji,  yn,  p^,  -a,  »a,  r» 
ns,  IT,  -10%  pin,  v=i,  C|"'»,  sua,  on» 
na,  o%  ^o,  pn,  ^t,  s^,  yn,  ei,  is,  oa,  iit 

Tbe  GnC  of  th«se  comliinuionB  u  Temirkible  on  ac- 
count of  Jerome  hiving  h  coiittdeolly  ■ppUed  it  id  tbe 
word  SittAuk,  ~\W,  in  Jer.  xxv,  K,  it  being  tb«  Mune 

8.  Tht  rMcc^iate.—S«  that  article. 

i.  Divition  pf  Wanb^HehTew  wa»  originally  wriu 
ten,  like  most  ancient  languages,  without  any  diiiriona 
between  the  words,  in  a  wripftoomfniKi,  which  fact  ac- 
counte  Tot  the  variooa  reading*  in  the  Sept.,  ■■  Gen.  vii, 
lljO'^lOS  for  Bl^  lor;  M,  16,  pnai  lis  for  Va 
rn;r;  xJ,  17,  i=s  oVaa  for  bait's  baa,  «c;  i 

Sam.  i,  1,  qiX  p.  Ales,  iv  Kaai^  a->X]a ;  Paa.  ix,  1, 
n'.ial)?  for  mo  Vt,  etc  But  there  i«  no  doubt  that  a 
diviaion  of  wonli  already  existed  in  the  lime  of  the 
Talmud;  at  least  the  final  letters,  which  are  already 
mentioned,  may  have  served  luch  a  purpose;  and  in 
MmuchBti.fohSO,  col.l,the  apace  between  the  words  in 
the  sacred  MSS.  ih  fixed  with  precision.  Whether  or 
not  this  division  of  words  by  points — as  used  in  tb 
maritan  PeiilateuFh — was  applied,  must  be  left  undetei- 
mined. 

6.  Dieinoiu  actording  lo  lit  Mtataag  of  Vtmi. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  at  a  very  early  period  a  divisiaD 
according  («  i-erses  (0''piOB)  existed.  "Every  verae 
divided  by  Moses  may  not  be  otherwise  divideil,"  we 
read  in  MrgiUah.  fol.  22,  eoL  I.  The  reason  for  sucb  di- 
visions was  probably  twofold :  a.  The  readily  i\f  thi 
Srriplmtt,  especially  in  the  synagogue,  led  to  such, 
TheMishna  (J/f^YfaA,ch. iv,$  4}  mentions  the  D'^p'lOB 
in  relation  to  this,  for  we  read  that  "  not  less  than 
three  verses  of  the  holy  law  may  be  read  in  the  syna- 
gogue to  each  person  (called  lo  read>.  One  verse  only 
uf  Ihe  law  may  at  one  time  be  read  li>  the  mtl^urgemait, 
or  inlarpreleri  but  it  is  lawful  lo  read  three  consecu- 
tive verse*  lo  bim  from  the  prophets ;  but  if  each  veise 
shoulil  form  a  separate  section,  one  verse  only  may  be 
read  to  him  at  a  lime."  Tbe  Gemara  forbids  the  leav- 
ing of  the  qrnagogue  before  the  ending  of  sucb  a  Ac- 
tion (/itrah>tk,  foL  8,  coL  1),  introduces  tbe  injunction 
of  Kira  (Meh.  viii,  8 ;  MrgiUah,  foL  S,  coL  1 1  \'td,irim, 
fid.  .'IT,  coL  2),  and  prescrilres,  in  reference  lo  the  proph- 
elH.  how  many  sections  are  lo  be  read  on  weck-dayi 
( il,<ba  A'amma,  fuL  82,  coL  1).  4.  The  sTarfy  <•/  Ihe  iaw, 
■be  instrutlioii  and  scliool-teaching  of  the  same  pro- 
duced such  sense-divisions.  These  were  distinguished 
from  I  he  former,  which  were  merely  called  D''p^CB,  by 
the  names  O'OrB,  etomei,  tentenlitr,  or  alwi  "'piOI 

claum  (a''0~::  plD^B)  was  a  special  part  of  the  rab- 
biuicsl  teaching  (.VnJuriin.roL 37, coLl);  \n  Btratolh, 
fol.  02,  coL  I.  the  teacher  is  said  to  point  it  out  10  his 
scholars  with  his  right  handt  and  aecordini;  to  it  dis- 
puted points  of  the  law  were  settled  {CAngigali^t-M,  coL 
2).  As  to  the  sign  of  this  division  which  is  now 
ill  the  Hebrew  Bible  (:),  it  is  not  seen  on  the 
giigue-nill,  nui  is  it  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  but  is  of 
later  nrigin ;  and  we  must  conclude  it  as  highly  proha. 
ble  thai  tliese  divisions  into  verses  and  perinUs  were  noi 
liral  externally  designated,  but  wore  merely  transmit- 
led  by  oral  tradition,  as  may  be  si-en  from  the  follow, 
ing  quolatjon.  In  KidAahitt,  foL  JW,  coL  I.  we  read 
"Tbeierore  are  the  ancients  called  Supherioi  because 
they  counted  all  letters  in  Holy  Writ.  Thus  they  said 
that  the  rns  in  ^na  (Lev.  xi,  42}  is  the  half  of  all  the 
letters  in  the  PenUteuch ;  CIT  VII  (Jt,  IG)  is  thi 
middle  word;   nVsmi  (siii,  3ai,  the  middle  veisc; 


TALMUD 

that  JjM  in  -\S^v  (Phl  Ixix,  14)  is  the  middle  letter 
I^alms,  and  luvii,  S8  the  middle  vena.'  In 
le  passage  we  also  read  that"  ibePenutcBchtoc- 
986  verses,  the  Psalms  eight  more,  and  Chtuni- 
clea  eighl  teas."  Now  if  we  compare  this  number  with 
that  given  by  the  Uasorites,  we  shall  find  ihat  the  Tsl- 
■  Dunts  forty-three  verses  more  than  the  HaMtiUs 
Pentateuch,  and  this  difference  can  only  be  ri- 
plained  from  the  statement  made  by  the  Talmud  {BiAa 
Bathra.  foL  14,  col.  2),  that  Joebua  wrote  his  book  and 
eight  vorses  of  the  law  (Deut.  xxxiv,  5-12);  and  the 
Occidentals,  as  we  read  in  KidJuitiii,  loc  ciC,  diriilnl 
Exod.  xix,  9  into  I^ree  verses.  Thus  much  is  oertsiii. 
hat  in  the  limeof  the  Talmud  there  was  a  division  or- 
wrding  to  verses;  but  what  this  mark  of  division  wa^  if 
here  were  any  atall— al  leastTr.  £opAeriBi,cb.iii,{5.i* 
igainst  it — is  difficult  in  point  out. 

6.  SIvAoi  ierixoi) The  poetical  passages  in  Eii-I. 

ivi  Deutxxiii;  Judg.  v;  2 Sam. xxii,  were  in  (iM liaie 
)(  the  Talmud  already  written  vrij^qpwc  (comp^  filut- 
»afA,foL103,coL2,in>u!,-S(^er«iijcli.xii).  ThenDr 
may  be  said  of  the  poetical  booka,  HCitt,  L  e.  Job,  Piuv- 
erbs,  Psalms.    The  Decslogue  was  also  originally  wrii- 

{O-a^,  <nlxoi},  as  is  intimated  in  the 
TargiuD  on  the  Song  of  .Sollg^v,  IS :  "Tbe  two  uUb  uf 
which  he  gave  lo  his  people  were  written  In  ten 
(Miillis),  resembling  tlie  rows  or  beds  (ittRn)  in 
the  garden  of  balsam."     See  also  Shitta. 

7.  TMe  SnuiUtr  Seetioni  o/Ihe  /Vnf  alevci.— In  our  He- 
brew Bibles,  wbicb  foUow  the  Masoretio  text,  the  Pnla- 
teuch  is  divided  into  669 parosioi,  or  sections  (r'.^ET'E, 
nanB),  of  which  290  are  open  (n^nlDB,  and  dis- 
tinguished in  our  Bibles  by  the  initial  letter  &)  and  S79 
are  closed  (niair.D,  marked  by  the  initial  leUo  Dl. 
Of  these  parashas  mention  is  made  in  the  Talmud,  vii. 

»«-aiVlli-  - 

S.  UrratDrA.cb.ii,tE:  Tttmid,  eh.v.t.. 

Hi,  1 1,  the  rectlons  of  tbe  prayer  and  phylaclcrle 

ilil.  1-13:  DeuLVI,  4-«;  Xl,  1»^tl:  Numb.  IV.  Si 

i.  MfgiilMk.  ch.  Ill,  i  4-«(camp.  also  roiM,  ch.  Hi 
MA,  ch.  nil,  i  7),  the  follow  lug  sections  fur  IheSabt 
ftiatltBlsaniElveii,vls.:  Exod.  1X1,1 

1»;  Nnmb.xrtl-M:  Eii 

the  drst  day  of  the  Passo 

coPt) !  Lev.  ixlll.  M-»  (for  New  Tear) ;  xvl,  1-M ;  xxrn. 
iS-aKforlheDayoIAIoniimeul}:  Nninb.v1,tt-vll.1»(r'>r 
Ihe  Day  of  Dedkntlou):  Bind,  ivll,  §-ll  (for  Piirim': 
Numb.  iivlll,ll-lE  (for  the  new  moou):  Lev.  xzvl, i  ■>] : 
Dent,  xxvili  sq.  (liir  the  fast-days). 

4.  TinnU,ch.  v,11i.S<>fnA.ch.vll,)t,eiNDmb.*l,tt-i:. 

0.  radalm.  ch.  Ill,  1 4.  Numb,  i,  n,  30. 

0.  :SMak,  ch.  vll,  1  T.  Dent,  ivlt,  14-Wi  Nnmb.r,  U-ll: 
iti.1-2\!:   I>eut.ixi.  l-«;  iivl.l.U:  ilv.n-SIi  ikI. 
1*-I6.  Ixv.tHO,  aud  msi.y  others. 
In  the  Gemara  the  fallowing  panshas  are  mentioned : 

J.  SAail>oWl,fol.ll^co1.^4(o1-lI•,eol.l.NnInll.I.»5,3li. 

H.  Brrakotli,  Int.  12,  col.  1,  stsle*  that  "everr  u*r»>tii< 
which  Muses  divided  we  also  divide :  snd  suy  <me  whicD 

why  tbe  verse  SIS  to  ^iVp  (Nurol^  iHv,  »  wsa  not 
taken  out  from  Ihe  long  section  (ch.  iill-iilv)  and  UKd 
tot  the  prayer -■Uniui/inul,  I.e.  "Hear.  O  Israel." 

ft.  /tad.  fid.  OS,  coL  t,  Numb,  vl,  l-«:  v,  11-31,  are  mtn- 
tloned. 

sq.,  are  meuuoiKHj. 
That  some  of  these  were  open,  anose  doml,  we  read  in 
Sinbbath.  fol.  103.  coL  2;  JfwtacfaK*,  «A  BO.  81 ;  Jero- 
snlem  HeyiUui,  foL  71,  col.  2;  and  in  Sopitrim,  i.  14, 
we  alsu  read  that  the  open  section  is  an  empty  «pa«. 
the  width  of  rArrr  lelltn,  at  the  beginning  of  a  Unc. 
and  the  duird  is  as  much  in  the  middle  of  a  line. 

B.The/niYjfrsertitnw,  markedinourBibleebj-BBE 
and  D  C  O,  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Talmud. 

9.  //opAfaroAt.— After  the  reading  of  the  law  in  the 
synagogue,  it  was  also  customaty  from  an  early  peniNl 


TALMUD 


181 


I"  read  ■  pMBlgC  Itom  the  prophets  (comp.  Acls  xiii, 
lit,  il ;  Lukt  ir,  66  sq.),  ind  with  that  to  diHolTe  the 
iu««uig  {\iiuv  r^v  wva^vyrjv.  Acta  xiii*  43  \  Heb. 
*^'Stiri)j  hence  the  reader  who  made  this  concl 
ni  oiled  1''UGS,  wd  the  prophetic  pusige  read 
rnSBn.  Tbe  Miahiu  npeateilly  speaka  af  the  Haph- 
uraha  {MtgiUai,  ch.  it,  g  1-3, 6, 10),  and  as  eirlv  aa  in 
i\»litBata{iltgiaak,fol'19,eiA.i:  fol.Sl.coL  i),aev- 
«l  U^htarahi  an  named.  Yet  in  geneiil  they  cao- 
lut  [hen  have  been  fixed  dclerminatelir,  and  even  mm 
diSneDt  imgea  prerail  among  the  Jem  of  iliflerinC 
foBiitnet,  a*  ma;  be  wen  from  the  table  giren  in  the 
in.  IliPifTABAH,  fur,  aa  Zuna  aaya,  "our  preaent  aider 
« ibt  work  of  later  centutiea." 

10.  Varioiu  Rtadiitgi. — Tbe  TarioDS  readings  w 
fjimtlj  (bund  in  the  margina  and  foot-notes  of  the  He- 
tnii  BiblM,  Itnnwn  aa  £eri  and  Kitha,  (S^tlSI  "ip, 
fL  -ia-nsl  V"^?).  «"  'e^  andenu  The  Talmud 
mm  tbe  aoarce  of  these  rariationa  to  Hoaea  hinuelf, 
lilt  we  are  dialinetly  told  in  Nedarim,  foL  37,  oaL  3, 
thai  -the  prDnuncialion  of  certain  irorda  according  to 
Ok  Kribea  (C^ntlO  tt^pi:),  the  emendationa  of  the 
Khbea  (B*<'nB1D  *^1S'),  the  not  reeling  of  worda 
wbieli  an  in  the  te«  (i-ip  «il  a*T13X  and  tbe  read- 
ing of  irarda  which  an  not  in  the  text  (xbl  '■^p 
37J>,etcareal«w(rfHoiie»  from  Sinai  (niSlsVns^n 
•J'OO)."  We  here  mention  aome  of  the  Taltnudic  pas- 
ages  which  hare  lefeieoce  to  thew  readings : 


{BtrithUk 


Qa.  TlU.  IT,  Retbib  KXin,  but  Kerl  NX^n 

KaUtt,  ad  loc  aecL  undv,  M.  SI,  col.  !)■ 
Ut.  ai,  B,  Kethlb  nm;;'<,  but  Kerl  IITIp^  (IfaUDCA, 

M.M,cuLl), 
Ut.  nlll,  tS,  Kethib  n3Dl^  bat  Keri  13D91  {MmaeheO, 

I  SsK  itH,  tt,  Ketbib  ni-17Q0,  hot  Kerl  niS^SSS  {So- 

Hue.  I.  ii,K«Uilb  133K\  bat  Keri  n-133K  (romo,  fbL  11, 

Esib.  iK.  tl,  Kethib  ^3pi,  but  Keii  ibspl  (Jemsalem 

AralM*,  lu).  It,  coL  S). 
Eceli*.  ti.  A,  Ketbib  "WZTi,  bat  Karl  -OT^  (Jenualem 

BnfaUt,  lal.  IS,  coL  t). 
J<4i  illl.  IS,  Kethib  vb,  bat  Keri  1%  [Sotak,  cb.  T,  1 6). 
frcit.  xnl,  la,  Kethib  b^bs,  but  Kerl  n^'<^3  (ftOta,  ed. 

flabw  [Ljck,  ISiSl.  (ol.  A  col.  1>. 
lsLlilIi,«,KeLlilb  Kb,  bntKeri  lb  (Ss/ok,  fol.  SI,  coL  1 ! 

wMls  raoniUt,  foL  11,  col.  1,  ruda  IS). 

Ta  these  vatiatiana  beloogs  aba  the  aabstitatiDn  of  m- 
jitmitu  (or  ooeopAoatsBu.  See  the  art  Ekbi  and 
Kethib,  S& 

Fm  the  most  part  the  labbina  folio*  the  leading  of 
Iks  •^,  often  that  of  ri  a^na,  sqieciatlj  when  they 
<aa  ebcit  a  new  interpretation  from  the  reading  of  the 
3Tl3i  thus, e.g.,  Ruth  iii,S,lbe]'  interpret  the  reading 
•f  the  3^P3,  ^nTl^,  while  tbe  ""ip  reada  nV\'■^ 
lifiA'.AitfA  AaUa,aeet.*.  foL43,  coL3  [Cracov.  1688, 
^]),  Tbe  reading  according  to  the  a^PS  is  cited  in 
ntBai,  foL  68,  ooL  I,  from  Lev.  u,  2  and  2  Sam.  xxiii. 


'As  tUs  paaaage  la  *er7  IntersMlnE,  we  ([ive  tc  In 
M:  -R.  Samoel  bar-Enln  eallh,  Wh^  has  tbe  Setblb 
^:X1  and  the  Kerl  HiaaX  f  What  is  meant  bj  the 
i^HonnrthenF  Ii  is  becstwe  of  the  flue  iblngs  wblcb 
Bade  ibe  difference  heiween  tbeflrKtnnd  second  Temple, 
ii.,ibF  ark  wlih  tbr  lid  and  the  chembtm  npon  It:  the 
.^'•(tmDi  heaven,  cnmp.  SChron,  ill,  1],  the  Shtchiaah,  the 
'MiO*«4;iu>d  Ibc  Crfm  and  r*«mm*ii..-  In  the  jWdrasft 
Ufa  an  tbe  Souk  of  Sookc,  vlli.  s,  wbete  (he  name  thing 
■  morded,  Ibe  JUif  irfl  (nn^San  ^SC)  Is  s 
ftt  Bbvhlnab,  aaona  of  tbe  Ave  Ibixgs,  fol 


20,  in  BerakoH,  foL  18,  CoL  1,  «i  fine.     In  the  Misbna 

we  Bnd  the  marginal  reading  '■'ip  six  times,  that  of  tbe 
a^na  twice,  la. : 

Lev.  Is,  n.  It  Is  written  1^*^ :  but  In  SoCoA,  ch.  ril,  {  «,  and 

TtamU,  ch.  Til,  I B,  It  reads  I*!"*. 
DenL  ii.T.lt  la  written  DSBO :  bat  In  JMoh,  ch.  ti,  I  e, 

nanc,  according  V>  the  Keri. 
1  KlDKs  vl, «,  it  Is  written  31X->n :  bat  In  KUOMk,  ch.  It, 

1 4, 5''Xin. 

lBn.i,lS,UlawritMn^^aKa:  bat  In  rodolm,  ch.  W,  i  «, 

i-'aa. 

Kaek.i1ll1,t8.liiswrlilen  Vxnttril:  bat  In  JWdMA,  ch. 

iii,ii,bK''i»nr 

Jobxlll,IB,1t  Is  wrlttenKbibatlaSaraJt,cb.T,  (ti.lb. 

Tbe  reading  according  to  the  Kethib  we  find  in  two 
passages,  Exod,  ixi,  8,  Kb  {Berakotk,  ch.  i,  §  7 ;  Kidda- 
ihiR,toL  17,  coL  1),  and  Isa,  x,  18,  in  Yadaim,  ch.  It,  g  *. 

WordtuiriiteBbatnotread,'''\p  K^l  3^na,are  men- 
tioned in  Xedarim,  fol.  37,  coL  3,  viz.  K3,  3  Kings  v,  8 ; 
nitl,Jet.ixiii,ll;  ^m^li.Sj  BoripEaeli.  xlviii,  16i 
DK,  Rutb  iii,  12. 

Words  read  hut  nol  writlat,  STB  kVi  'np,  are  men- 
tioned in  JVcdnrun,  foL  87,  coL  3,  vii.  n^B,  3  Sani.viii, 
3;  D-K,iTi,3S;  O-iKS,  Jer.  xxxi,  38;  nVL29;  HK, 
Rutbii,ll;  ->bK,iii,  &,17. 

In  connection  with  thii  we  may  remark  that  in  the 
treatise  Mtgillah,  foL  36,  coL  2,  we  are  Cold  of  certwn 
passages  of  Scripture  which  are  read  in  the  synagogue 
and  interpreted,  read  and  not  interpreted,  and  such  as 
are  neither  read  nor  interpreted.  Thus,  "Tbe  inler- 
courae  of  Reuben  with  Billah  ia  to  be  read  without 
being  interpreted;  thatofTamar  (and  Amnon)  ia  tobe 
read  and  interpreted.  The  (first  part  of  the]  occurrenoe 
with  the  golden  calf  ia  to  be  read  and  interpreted;  but 
the  second  part  (oommencing  Exwl.  xxxiv,  31)  is  to  be 
read  without  any  interpretation.  The  bleasing  of  tbe 
priests,  and  the  occurrence  of  David  and  Amnon,  are 
neither  to  be  read  nor  interpreted.  The  description  of 
the  divine  chariot  (Ezek.  i)  is  not  to  bf  read  as  a 
Haphtarab,  but  R.  Jehudah  pennils  it;  R  Eleszer  ssya 
neither  (Eiek.  xvi),  'Cause  Jeruaalem  to  know  ber 

11,  A  blalio  Scribaram,  0*^010  ^1U7,  Ntdarim,  (bL 
S7,  coL  2.     See  the  art.  Masorah,  g  G. 

13.  Correclio  Scribarum,  B^BID  "Ip^,  '»  >"'  "Kt*- 
tioned  in  tbe  Talmud,  but  reference  is  made  to  it  in  the 
MfxAilta,  S^hri,  TanJiima,  BrrtihUM  Jlatia,  ShemoiA 
Rabbah  (Midiashic  works,  enumerated  under  Midhahh); 
the  pauagcs  belonging  to  the  corrtctio  ter^vrum  are 
given  a.  v.  Masorah,  6.    See  also  TiKKt;!(  Sophkkim. 

13.  Paada  Extraordinana, — Over  aiogle  letters,  over 
entire  words,  we  find  data  or  pointa,  generally  called 
"  puncia  exlraordinaiia."  The  hist  instance  ia  men- 
tioned in  the  Miahna,  Peiachim,  ix,  %  over  tbe  n  of  tbe 
word  npm,  Numb,  ix,  10.  Ten  aach  worda  which 
have  these  extraordinary  points  are  enumerated  in 
Hidnuh  Ba-mdbar  ffiiUoA  on  Numb,  iii,  39,  secL  iii, 
fol.216,coL4;  comp.  n'nbsdbAaUi  A'a<ian,cb.xxxiii; 
flipArioq  Numb.ix,10;  SBpl>erim,vi,S ;  HoMtoraMag- 
aa  on  Numb,  iii,  39 ;  Oktah  ve-OUah,  g  96. 

Tbe  foUowing  words  are  mentioned  in  the  Talmud: 

Gen.xTU),>,  i^blt.  On  I1>l»  passage  the  Jf>i(raB/i  Srr*- 
thUA  RaMa  rsmurks:  "I^K  are  pointed, 
butnoltheV.  ItSlmeanben-EUeieraalih, 
wherever  yon  Oiidmore  letters  than  points, 
ron  mnst  eipluin  the  leltere,  I.e.  whitt  is 
written:  but  where  yon  And  more  pointa 
than  letters,  yuii  must  explain  the  points. 
In  this  case,  where  there  are  more  potnta 


TALMUD  H 

the  poluU,  tIi.  i^K,  'nbew  l(  Abrahiio.' 
The  meaolug  ta  Ibat  Iba  pidnU  ortt  tbme 
three  lellan  intend  to  [ndlcate  IbU  the 
tbm  noEele  did  Dot  Mk  'when  U  Sani, 
n^ernx,'  but  'wheT*  li  Abrtbam.'  I^il 
BH13tt"  (comp.  Baba  MttaieU,  fol.ST,  col. 

»■  . 
Ti  Tt»,tn,  naipai.  In  the  Telnmd,  «uJr,  fill,  M, 
col.  l.WB  read:  "Whylitheras  poinlorer 
theFoB.i,  "fiho  wordnnlp3^'  Tolodl- 
cate  that  •hen  the  laj  down  be  did  nol 
pemlve  It,  bat  when  ihe  aroae  he  perceived 
il"(oonip.al«oHoroi«i(*.fol.l0.eoLl!  and 
Jerame,eu<aM.<nOnMi,.-  "  Appnugant  de- 
enper  qnaai  Incredlblle  et  qaod  rarnni  pa- 
tnra  nou  capiat  coire  qucmqaam  DeaclcD- 

nb.  UI,  n,  ^^'ntti.  Bo-mMtar  Bathah,  lac  dt.,  uj* 
that  the  poltita  orer  Aanm  iDdlrata  Ihat  ha 
waa  not  «de  ot  Ihat  namber  (comp.  alaa 
BcriiJtoU,  fol.  4,  col.  1). 
lx,lD,hpn^.  Inlllahna,FBne&tm,li,l,i*eread: 
"WhEtleadliUolJoarDerl  R  Aklbaan]^ 
fram  Modllm  and  bejoDd,  and  froi 
plucei  aiannd  Jeravalem  >ilDaied  a 
aame  dlatnnce.  R.  Elaaur  aajra  'an; 
tnuL-e  bernnd.the  oalalde  of  tbe  Ibresbold 
ofthe  cimri  ofihe  Temple.'    B.Jo<£HTt 


Inlllal 


IB  point 
Ui  de[ii>te  thai  It  la  po 
nally  on  a  dlatant  rot 
he  thrtfbold  ot  tbe  c 


anlCestn 


ndnoi 
.  neeeaaorj 
),  bnt  only 


p.  &inArfnn,foL«.col.l,iB^ 

P>«.  mil,  IS,  k5i5.    Bemtetfc  toL4,eol.l,»ajB,'-I«rd 

or  tbe  nnlTsrae,  I  am  amn  that  ihoD  RTcai- 

Ijr  lawardeBt  tbe  Jat  Id  IbtDre  agea.  bnt  I 

know  not  whether  I  ahall  partake  of  II  with 

them  OP  account  of  ror  sin."    Builort  re. 

marbaouIhlgpas»i:e,DSa  Vtn  aVQ.i.t. 

a  aenie  wllhonl  aiir  wnit    The  menniiig 

probibly  le  thai  R313,  wltbont  the  piiliiUi, 

meane  if  not,  like  the  Latin  nM,  hnt  with 

the  polnla  It  algniflea  "  a  duubL" 

At  to  tbe  origin  and  rigniflcation  of  these  p(Mnt«,  noth- 

iDg  certain  on  be  aaid.   According  to  the  rabbins,  Ezra 

ii  Mid  10  have  been  the  author  of  tfaem  (comp.  Ba-mid- 

bar  Babbah  on  Numb,  iii,  89,  «ect.  iii.  fol.  216.  coL  4; 

Abolhde-RiMi  !^alhaii,  ch.xx^u).   This  much  may  be 

taken  for  grsrted,  that  theae  points  were  known  long 

before  the  Talmud. 

14.  /nwrterf  A'un,  [.—Before  Numb.  Ji,  86.  and  afler 
irer.  36,  we  find  in  our  Hebrew  text  the  letter  iVha, 
). inverted (e).    IntheTalmuil,SA<ii6a(*,fol,  115,col.2i 


,116,col.l,»earcloldtli 


■1  (Nun 


L.  36)  ti 


rwv  -raicn  ii»n  swa 
made  by  God  with  agoB  belov  and  aboi   . 
that  it  is  not  in  iu  proper  place.     But  Rabbi  said  this 
is  not  so,  but  that  this  book  was  counted  by  itself. 
How  do  you  know  it?     K.  Samuel  bar-Nachman  said, 
B.  Jonathan  aaith  (it  is  written)  '  .She  hatb  hewn  out 
her  seven  jrillara'  (Prov.  ix.  1)  ;  this  means  the  seven 
books  of  the  law."    On  tbe  inverted  A'uiu  found  in  Psa. 
evil,  mention  is  nude  in  Rotk  llath-thaaah,  fol.  17.  col.  3, 
15.  Tht  Vae  Kiiid  in  Numb.  Jixv,  12.— Of  this  -'il 
KS^Up,  or  V«p  cat-off,  which  is  found  in  our  Hebrew  Bi- 
ble ^  we  read  in  the  TalmDd,X^tcUu>Ain,  fol.  66,  coLS: 
"  Whence  do  we  have  il  that  a  person  having  aomt 
feet  ia  unfit  for  the  sacred  miniati??     K  Jehudah 
thatR.SamuelIaught  that  thia  is  because  the  Scripture 

says, '  Wherefore  say,  Bchol 

napt  of  peace'— a  perfect  peace. 


TALMUDISXS 

said  one,  it  is  mitten  OI^ID, 
I. Nochman, tbe  Vav  in  OlSt 

IS.  The  Cloud  or  Fuud  Man  (n)  in  tl 
otd  Isa.  ix,  6,  nS-tD^.-In  the  Talmud 
I,  coL  2,  we  And  the  following  : 
"WhTlalt  that  all  theHsnu  In  tba  ta 
V  span  (1.  e.  S)  and  Ibis  oae  cloaed  <L  e. 
ue  (bletaed  be  he)  wanted  ta  miikv  He* 
ah.  and  Sennacherib  Oog  mnd  Maico^  ;  i 
ce  pleaded  befbra  tbe  preMtnce  ofthe  Ho. 
le  world,  -What !  David,  the  kins  of  I« 
}  many  hymns  and  praises  before  thee, 
lake  him  the  MeailabT  Bnt  HeaekUh.  fi 
bast  parronaed  all  the  mlr*ct«,  sod  who  ta 

ig  before  Ihee, 
Tberefote  baa  the  Vim 

IT.  SKqinid(d/.«fterj.— The  anapended  / 
no's,  Judg.  XTiii,8a  The  TBlmud,  Babt 
109,  coL  a,  BUlea  the  following : 

"Was  hfl  a.  a.  Gorahom)  Iho  eon  of  HaD 
the  Scripture  aaya  the  aoDa  at  Mnaea  were 
Genhom.  But  becanae  he  did  Ibe  deede  of 
Kluga  nl),  did  the  Scripture  append  bim  to 
ofUanaeaeb."  The  meaoInK  Is  tbat  Ihe  pro 
like  to  call  Oerahom  the  sou  of  MoM«,  bMa 
be  Ignnminloua  that  Hosee  shonld  bave  had 
son ;  hence  be  called  him  the  bod  of  Hanaee 
en»pend*a  letter,  which  may  nie«i  the  aou  o 
or  Moses. 

TheanapeDdedHjruiisfomidiDB^  Q1,  J< 
IG.  In  tbe  Talmud,  SanludTiR,  KL  108,  col. 
tbe  following;  "Wby  is  tbe  5  in  O'lJO^  auspi 
ia  to  teach  that  when  a  man  is  0*1,  poor,  in 
be  will  also  be  'O'^  in  the  world  to  eome,-  ot 
poor  below,  he  will  also  be  poor  above." 

Of  the  auapended  Ayin  in  1  ""IJ,  Psa.  ttx 
read.  XJdcbuUit,  foL  30,  coL  2,  that  this  letter  ia 
die  letter  in  the  Paalms. 

18.  Majatcalar  and  Jfiaajcafar  LtOtn.—i 
written  with  large  and  small  tetlen  in  our  He 
ble  we  find  nothing  in  the  Talmud,  but  some 
instances  are  mentioned  in  tbe  Sopkrrim,  eb.  ii 
thia  mode  of  writing  must  have  been  veiy  and 
not  be  doubted,  for  there  ia  a  diepnta  in  Ibe  ' 
MegiUaA,  foL  16,  col.  2,  whether  the  1  in  «nf' 
ix,  9)  should  be  written  as  a  majuscular  or  mil; 
letur;  and  the  word  nbv^m  (Lev.  liii,  S3),  ■ 
now  written  with  a  majuaculir  i,  i»  mentioaed  i 
dtuitn,  fol.  80,  coL  2,  aa  beisg  the  middle  of  tbe 
of  tbe  Pentateuch. 

19.  Modt  nf  Qaotatioiu.   See  QDOTATion  o. 

Old  TUTAHEirT  IM  THE  TlLHDD.      |E  P.) 

Talmndlato.  Under  this  hmt  HtiadDdt  ill 
rabbins  whose  opinions  aie  regtnled  ai  lutbnrii 
in  the  Talmud.  The  period  of  these  meo  ton 
the  time  IVom  about  aC.  ISO  lo  A.D.aOO,  Lbrm 
mon  the  Jost  to  ttle  complelion  of  llie  Tilmini. 
period  ia  agun  aubdivided  inlo  ibit  of  Ibe  Tiauo 
that  of  the  Amoralm — tbe  Ihidk  reprnoiting  the 
from  about  B.C.  160  l«  A.D.  219,  the  latler  Inni . 
219tDA.D.b00. 

I.  rnnnint.— Thefintrea:^)Kd,ill(r3JD«i'iile 
as  Ihe  head  of  the  Sanheilria  wsi  Antigoioi  of  ft 
about  B.C.  IHO.  ttia  coaumporaiy  wu  tiaa  I 
Charaum,  celebrated  for  bis  opakitK,  letmiEg  i 


I,  and  not  an  imperfect 


Antigonus,  ai 


two  (or  ajsA)  Mnd  tl  tbe  hn^ 
nity— ine  Hnt  bdng  Iht  preadent.  ibr  a 
«  -  president  Ai  the  Bnl  of  Ibeif  tap* 
t  mentioned  Jc«c  bcD-Jsoei  ud  Joq 


iKh  (.i|.  T.).  The  fcHinh  pair  is  repraaeaud  in  Sbe- 
Btji  UHl  Ablilion,  aboiU  RC  47.  The  Bfih  and  1*M 
[•iriR  Hilkl  (q.  v.)uid  8hininni(q.r.).  Und«rlheir 
fmamcj  lived  Baba  ben-Boli,  Chaoiiii  ben-Dqac, 
Jtcbmui  bni-Zacfau  (q.  v.),  and  Nechunjah  ben-ba- 
Ciaa  {q.  v.).  Hillel  waa  foUowed  b<r  bia  aon  ^mon  (ben- 
mM)(q.v.).  HnHOce«or«u<liiiuliell(q.T.},*bo 
*M  fbllvwed  bv  bis  nn  Simon  (ben-Gamaliel)  (q.  v.). 
Wilh  Simon  eloaea  tbe  period  of  tfas  lo-called  tarlier 
Tualm.  The  later  Tinalm  firat  figure  in  hiBtory 
■ben  tbe  Temple  was  in  aibea  and  Jenuakem  a  beap 
tXnam.  Al  this  penod,  vexing  upon  decay,  when  Ju- 
dun  «as  without  any  centre  and  aupport,  appeared 
Jwfaanan  ben-Zachai,  tbe  last  among  Hillel's  eighty 
diidplei.  Jocbanan  ataUialied  a  school  at  Jamaiab, 
a  Jabneh,  wbooe  president  he  became,  Uia  succeaaoi 
nt  Gamaliel  bai-Simoo  (q.  v.),  and  his  fellow-laboren 
-  Joseph  ( q.  T. ),  Elieier  ben  -  Asaija, 
!,  EliBer  ben-Uyrkano*  (q.  v.),  Isaia«l 
a  (q.  T.)<  Joahna  ben-Hananja  (q.  v.),  Nechanjah 
■'.ana  <q.  »;),andTarphon  (q-v.).  Gamaliel  was 
I  by  bis  aan  Simw  (ben-Garoaliel  11)  (q.  v.), 
■lened  the  Rabbinical  apparalus  to  TibeiiaSL 
To  his  ooUege  bekniged  Nathan  ha-Bab!i  (q.  v.),  Jose 
btD-Hilepbla,  Jebudah  beo-Ha],  rabbi  Meir  (q.T.),and 
SiBon  btm-Jnchal  (q.  t.).  Simon  ben-Gamaliel  waa 
•aneeded  by  bis  son  Jndah  tbe  Holy  (q.  v.). 

IL  Amoralm. — With  the  life  and  labon  of  rabbi  Jn- 
dsb  ended  tbe  socceseion  or  the  Tanalm,  who  were  now 
■allowed  by  a  new  order,  Che  AmonTm  (D''X'11'3K),  i.  e. 
the  (ipositofB  of  tbe  law,  at  length  no  longer  oral,  bul 
■edaced  to  a  written  text.  Some  o(  the  most  dislin' 
gaiibed  of  their  number  were  rabbi  Chija,  Chanina 
bai-Chana,  Abba  Aieka,  or  Kab  (q.  t.),  Bar-Kappara, 
Jocbanan  bar^JJapacha  (i^  v.),  and  Simon  ben-Laki>h 
(q.T.).  Of  tbe  scholastic  labon  of  these  men  we  hav 
tbe  ouaumcatal  resnlt  in  the  Palestine  (iemaia,  com 
B0dy<alled  Talmud  JtntialiHH'^-ahTlf\-^  Tinbn). 
AAer  tbe  death  of  Judah,  not  only  learning,  but  also 
tbe  paliiaichal  dignity,  was  more  aiid  more  in  tbe  cT 
dint ;  for  with  Jadah's  death  tbe  star  of  Judsa's  leai 
ill;  had  set,  never  to  rise  again  in  Palestine.  Rabban 
Gtmaliel  111,  Judab's  son,  and  Judah  II,  son  of  Gama- 
hei  III,  bis  socoeaor,  were  weak  iu  character,  mediocrt 
1  theological  acumen.  The 
nee  Co  Tiberiaa,  and  Galilee, 
odesfiiscd, DOW  became  "tbe  Holy Ijmd,"andTi 


OfG 


ellV,  t 


ir  of  Gamaliel 


Jaibbll.andJL 
IV,  biHory  bas 
<km  tbe  line  of  Palestinian  teacbera.     Heani 

KHDiis  migntions  of  rabbins  to  Babylon  h 
Fta»,  eapeoally  in  the  reign  of  Conataniius,  who  peise- 
nied  ibe  Jews.  Wc  leave  Palestine  and  tarn  to  Baby- 
ion,  where  the  schools  al  Sora  (q.v.),  Pumba<litha  (q.  v.), 
Nshardca,  and  Machusaweie  in  a  flanrishing  condition. 
Ai  Babylon  the  iireater  and  more  noble  pun  of  the 
Jewish  familia  aettlHl  at  the  Captivity,  to  return  no 
Bon  to  their  aneesual  soil,  and  Ibere  the  literary  cult- 
■ic  of  Uw  peoide  toak  a  development  which  exerted 
■Ball  influence  on  the  studies  of  anei  -  generations. 
Than  the  Jews  lived  under  their  rtth  geluiha,  or  prim 
of  Ibe  exiles,  whom  office  waa  of  an  ecclesiastical  an 
■tculit  kind.  So  long  as  the  Temple  was  slandin)c  the 
Habjknian  Jews  acknowledged  the  presidency  of  the 
bigh-priesi,  and  paid  the  didiachi 
Ttaple.  which,  however,  Chey  did  not  after  Che  dcsttuc- 
U«  if  that  edifice.  Finally,  Che  Babylonians  succred- 
td  ta  eMablishing  Cbeir  own  independence,  in  civil  and 
■tlfsiaMiral  matleia,  of  the  Western  patriarchate,  and 
"UUislMd  schools  of  learning  all  over  the  country 
vilbonl  nulcfial  «d  from  those  of  the  fatherland, 
'^>ogh  iba  schools  took  the  same  undeveloped  furm  as 


TAM 

those  of  the  Holy  Land.  Tbe  names  given  to  thestt 
schools  were  AiBDuean  forms  for  the  Hebrew  onesof  thtr 
Palestinian  schools.  The  "  house  of  learning"  was  called 
Bith  Ulpiana  (NlBblK  11^3);  Beth  Midnuk  (p-^S. 
1Q1-I13),  "Che  bouse  of  doctiine;"  Belh  ha-Vaad 
(-tsnn;Heb,no:3n  n*"3),"thehou»eofaaBemblager 
BOh  MttOHlia  (KP3TH  n-'3i  Heb.  naiC),  "tbft- 
tting;".  BiA  Rabbaaan  (IJSI  rT'n),  "the- 
hoDBeoftbemaaterst' &rA5tifr(i(K1^  n'3),"th» 
bouse  of  order."  Tbe  principal  or  rector  of  tbe  schoid- 
Fas  entitled  RiA  Btth  Ulphana  (KIB^IM  TVZ  Zn\ 
Rak  lUttaiAa  (  CinS^ns  O"-! ),  Sfk  aidra  (  VI 
K'^'^Q),  etc  So,  loo,  the  academical  degree  of  War 
(^v)  waa  equivalent  Co  tbe  Palestinian  title  of  riMi 
pZ^),  and  waa  conferred  after  the  same  course  of  study 
by  tbe  scthMA  (ns'SD),  or  "imposition  of  hands." 

III.  SeMooU.— The  earliest  school  of  which  we  havt 
any  specilic  information  la  that  which  was  situated  at 

1.  !faAartlea. — With  this  school  we  drst  become  ac- 
quainted towards  tbe  cloae  of  Che  2d  century.  Nabar- 
dea  was  situated  on  tbe  Euphrates,  and  for  a  lime  she- 
was  Che  Babytonisn  Jerusalem.  While  the  Temple  was- 
yet  in  existence,  thia  place  bad  thetreasuiyof  thE  Baby- 
lonian congregstiouafor  Che Temple^ifTcrings  which  were- 
brought  lo  Jerusalem  (Jo8ephus,.4Ti«.  xviii,  12).  The 
ant  rector  at  Nabardea  was  fi.  Shila,  who  waa  succeed- 
ed by  Har-Samuel,  the  aacrotiomer  (slao  called  AriocU 
and  Jarchinsi),  in  A.D.  190-247.  Hia  disciples  were- 
Nacbman  ben-Jacob,  Sheshet,  Rabba  ben-Ahbuha,  and 
Joseph  ben  -  Chama.  When  Nahardea  was  sackeil  ia< 
299  and  Che  academy  broken  up,  they  migrated  to 

2.  Machuta,  a  town  on  Che  Tigris,  about  four  hours- 
from  Cteuphon,  where  a  new  academy  was  founded. 
Rabba  ben-Abbuha  promoted  this  scbtwl  of  learning  by 
his  lectures,  and  Hacbusa  attained  some  celebrity.  Ten. 
years  (A-D.  363)  after  Rabba's  death,  the  city  waa  de- 
molished by  cbe  Bomana  in  the  war  under  Julian.  The 
most  famoua  schools,  however,  were  those  at 

3.  Ptimbadilha  and  Sora,  where  Che  Amoralm  at- 
tained great  renown.  Tbe  teachers  of  these  schools 
having  already  been  mentioned  in  the  ans.  Pithra- 
DiTHA  and  Sora,  we  need  only  to  refer  to  them.  Of 
the  names  mentioned,  we  have  only  given  the  most 
prominent,  which,  in  pan,  are  already  given  under  the- 
respective  letter,  or  will  be  treated,  so  far  as  omitted,  ii> 

IV.  ZteFra(urf.-Luizatta,  B-X-raXI  O-'lOn  '^la 
(Pngue,  1X39);  LOkt  JucAa4iH,  ed.  Filipowski  (Lond. 
1867 )  1  Frankel,  Hodtgttka  n  Mitchnam  (  Lips.  ie6» 
[Hdi.]) ;  Weiss,  Zur  Getchichle  ArjiblMiea  TradMim 
(Vienna,  1872-77, 2  vols.  [Heb.]) ;  ChUrini,  U  Talmud 
ifefuiyJbnf  (Leips.  1831), i,  105 sq.;  Bacher./>>«'<$Rd<i 
der  i«yimiB-A(B  Amordrr  (  SUaaburg,  1878).  The- 
Talmudists  whose  names  are  mentioned  in  the  treatisc- 
Babfi  Mettia  are  given  by  Sammter  in  Che  appendix  to- 
hia  German  translation  of  Baba  Mttita  (Berlin,  1879), 
p.  160  sq.     See  ScRtBK.     (R  P.) 

Talochon,  Marik  Vihckht,  better  known  by  hia 
clerical  name.  Pitt  Elyfit,  was  a  French  surgeon,  bom 
in  JsnusF}',  17.^,  at  Thorigny,  and  reared  among  the 
Brotliera  nf  Charity  at  Paris,  whose  order  he  entered 
Jan.  30.  IT74.  He  was  engaged  in  various  public  and 
benevolent  enterpriws,  and  died  in  Paris  Nov.  27, 1KI7. 
See  Hoefer,  .Vonr.  Hiog.  Geatralr.  s.  v. 

Tal'sas  (SoWac  v.  r.  SaX.inc,  Vulg.  TkaUa>\  a 
corrupt  tinedsm  (1  Esdr.  ix.  22)  for  Che  name  Elasaii 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Hebrew  list  (Ezra  x,  22). 

Tun,  Jacob  ben-HbYr,  better  known  in  Jewish  lit- 
erature under  the  name  of  AaJms  TVin,  waa  bom  ni 
Remera,  France,  about  1100,  and  died  in  1171,  He  wan 
a  grandson  of  Rsshi  (q.  v.),  and  youngest  bmihcr  af 
Rasbbam  (q.  v.),  and  was  famoua  not  only  as  a  I'slmud- 


TAMA 


r,  for  wbicb  he  obuined  the  i 


/a,  but  alio  for  bU  pi«- 
:  ■ppellation  Tam  (cri),ii] 
■lliuion  to  (ien.  xxv,  -H,  where  his  nimeuke  Jacob  u 
•denuniinswd  Tam^pio\n  (BFI  CiM  Sp?:;).  Under 
the  [itie  ofllB^  IBS, "  tbe  biwk  of  the  righUDua,"  be 
wrote  additions  on  thirty  tieatiaea  of  tbe  Talmud,  pub- 
liataed  at  Vienna  in  1811.  Supplemeola  are  given  by 
Lnzzitlo  from  an  old  MS.  in  the  Kerem  Chtnud  (Prague, 
lB4a>,vii,  19  aq.;  maiisn'!  mitto  -ir!r,i.e.  ten 
Talmudic  decisions,  also  given  by  Luuatio  {toe.  cil.) ; 
0''a5»n  ^OBOTa  is  n^an^S.Le.  a  poem  on  the  He- 
brew accenia,  conaiMing  of  forty-five  stanzas,  five  of 
which  were  first  published  by  Luzzatto  llot,  cil.),  and 
4he  whole  forty-five  of  which  appeared  in  the  following 
-work :  r^S^SDMO,  or  grammatical  and  lexical  ani- 
(DadveTHonB,  designed  to  recondle  the  diOerencts  of 
Dunaah  ibo-Labral  and  Uenachen  ben-Saruk  on  points 
of  grammai  and  exegesis  (Ant  puUished  by  Filipowski, 
Loiid.  1866) ;  min  IBD  llpfl,  or  no  nlsio,  or 
n^lB^O  Vpn,  a  guide  for  transcribing  HSS.  of  the 
£ible,  in  H3.  extant;  •\\v\  ■'OIIB.  or  a  grammatical 
iMimmentary  on  the  Bible,  which  has  iMt  yet  come  to 
light,  bat  is  quoted  by  commentalora,  lexicographere, 
and  grammarians.  B.  Tam  also  enriched  the  Jewish 
lilual  with  some  iHeces,as  the  B3nB  T'X'^  (i.  e. "  the» 
vurds  are  true,"  etc),  in  the  itadwr  AtMiaiazim,  and 
used  alter  tbe  haplttaTah  for  the  second  day  of  Pen- 
tecost. SeeFl)rst,£>KJiuLiii,40esq.;  De  Rossi,  Z>t- 
zionario  Slorico  (Germ,  liansl.),  p.  306;  Kitto,  Cfctop. 
a.  V. :  Uiiiti,  Gitch.  d.  Judat,  vi,  19G  sq. ;  Braunschwei- 
ger,  GtKh.  d.  Judm  in  d»>  ronumudim  Slaalen  (Wun- 
JNirg,  IH65),  p.85j  Geiger,  raniundatAa  (Leips.  1866), 
p.  24  eq.;  Kalish,  Ittbrew  Grammar  (Lond.  1863),  ii, 
27 1  Zuni,  SgnapogaU  Poaie  (Berlin,  !855),  p.  '248 ;  id. 
Ltltraiuryutltiehlt  air  tfaaifogaUn  Pottie  (ibid.  1866), 
p.  265-267;  id. Zar  Lilrratur  and  Gachickte,  p.  Z2, 109; 
Rapaport,  in  Ktrtm  Chaaed  (Prague,  1843),  vii,  1-3; 
Luzzatto,  iMiL  p.  19-94,36-63 1  Landshnth  [L.],  Jmuiir 
HiuUiedah  (n-nssn  -^llaS)  (Berlin,  1867),  i,  106  sq. 
<B.P.> 

Tama  (Ktlhib  in  1  Kings  ix,B).    See  Tadhor. 
Ta'inab(Ileb.rrain,  re'nuicA,-  in  pause,  nsri,  Tii'- 
iiucA,JauyAlrr[Gesen.], or camial [Flint];  Sepueq/ur, 
^iHa ;  Vulg.  Thema),  the  name  of  a  man  whr 
acendants  (ur  rather  a  place  whose  inhabitants) 
«d  among  the  Nethinim  from  the  eaplivily  irith  Zeiub- 
tttbel  (Eira  U,  68,  "  Thamah ;"  Neb.  vii,  66). 

Ta'roar  (Heb.  ■>'!B,  Tamar',  a  patm.-*ree,  as  often ; 
Sept.  Bafiafi  [v.  r.  Oq^iiip],  but  Baipav  in  Ezek.;  Jo- 
wphuB,0o^apa,^iitvii,8,3;  8,1;  10,3;  Vulg.  no- 
mar),  the  name  of  one  place  and  trf'  three  remarkable 
-women  in  Old-Test,  history.    See  also  Palu. 

1.  A  spot  on  the  eoutheostem  fronder  of  Judah, 
named  in  Ewk.  xlvii,  19;  xlviii,  S8  only,  ev 
called  from  a  palm-tree.    We  naturally  think  n!  Ilnir- 
du-fiinuir,  the  old  name  of  Etigfdi:  but  this  is 
quite  appropriate  for  location.     Eueebius  and  Jen 
mention  a  Thamara,  a  place  lying  between  Hebron 
Ailah  (Onoimu'.  a.F.  "Haiezon-lamar");  and  Ptolemy 
(v,  16, 8)  mentions  a  eofiopu,  as  do  also  the  Pcutinger 
Tables  (Reland,  Pi^l.  p.  462).    Robinson  identifies  it 
with  Kanmb,  a  place  eonlaining  the  ruins  of  an  old 
fonreae  about  an  onlinsry  ilav's  journey  from  el-Milh  to- 
wards the  pass  ex-Sufiih  (im.  Rti.  it,  198,  21 
however,  depends  on  a  cunjectural  emendation  of  the 
OfloiiMff icon,  where,  ill  the  clause  cufiij  t\fitTSina  MoiJ'i. 
(v.  r.  /JiiXit,  MoXic),  'ifipav  oZov,  Hobinsoii  would  read 
MaXaftiK  for  Ma^ic,  whereby  he  makes  ' 
day'a  journey  from  Holatha,  which  he  identifies  with 
el-Hilh.     Bssdes,  as  Van  de  Veldo  observes,  the 
tance  of  Kumhb  from  el-MUh  is  not  a  day's  joui 
but  only  four  hours;  nor  is  Kurnflb  to  the  soulh- 


TAMAR 

of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  the  Peulinget  Tables  fita 
Tbamaro;  nur  arc  the  ruins  ancient  (Van  de  Teldf, 
.^yrta,  ii,  130).  FUrst  {//c&  La.  a.  v.)  icgatda  it  ai 
ideniital  with  the  Tam-ir  of  the  Kukib,  or  teii,  in  1 
Kings  ix,  8;  but  that  is  generally  thought  to  mesa 
Tadmor  (q.  v.).  Schwara  (/>«Jfsr.  p.  21,  note)  thinks 
ut  Zoar  is  meant,  on  the  strength  of  certain  Tal- 
ludicol  notices.  De  Saulcy  (iVorr.  i,  7)  endeavors  lo 
itablish  a  connection  between  Tamai  and  tbe  Kalaat 
^m-Boffhit,  at  the  month  of  the  ravine  of  that  name 
n  the  Houtb-west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  giDumi  j 
(among  others)  that  the  names  ore  aimilar.  Bai  this,  , 
lo  say  the  least,  is  more  than  doubtful.  It  is  rather  ta 
be  sought  at  tbe  e;itreme  soolh  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
I  the  line  aa  run  by  Eiekiel  evidently  begins  (see 
Kei1,cui^.);  perhaps  at  aome  clump  of  palms  anciently 
existing  at  ^  in  tt-'A  rva,  near  the  month  of  Wady  Fi- 


kreh. 

2.  The  wife  succesiively  of  Er  and  Onon,  the  tws 
ins  of  Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii,  6-80).  Her  irapoitanct  j 
I  the  sacred  nairalive  depends  on  tbe  great  anxiety  Xe  ! 
eep  up  the  lineage  of  Judab,  It  seemed  as  if  the  (am-  ' 
r  were  on  the  point  of  extinction.  Er  and  (hian  (<|.v.  ' 
respectively)  had  each  in  turn  perished  suddenly.  Ja-  I 
'  wife,  Batbshuah,  died;  and  there  only  remaineil  ' 
id,  Shelah,  whom  Judah  was  unwilling  to  trail  is  I 
in,  as  it  appeared,  with  Tamnr,  lot 
ilh  the  same  fiste  as  bis  brothtcs,  ' 
That  he  should,  however,  matry  her  seems  to  have  beoi  , 
regarded  as  part  of  the  fixed  law  of  the  tribe,  whenn 
its  incorpotation  into  tbe  Mosaic  law  in  after-ttinn  : 
(DeuL  XXV,  6 ;  Uatt.  xiii,  S4) ;  and,  aa  such,  Tamar  was 
determined  not  to  let  the  opportunity  escape  thtmgli 
Judah's  parental  anxiety.  Accuidingly,  she  lesorted  u>  . 
■  desperate  expedient  of  entrapping  the  fiLher  him- 
inlo  the  union  which  he  feared  for  his  son.  He, 
on  the  first  emergence  from  his  mourning  for  his  wife, 
went  to  oiie  of  the  feslivala  often  mentioned  in  Jewiib 
history  as  attendant  on  shCep-shearing.  lie  wore  on 
his  finger  the  ring  of  his  chieflainship ;  he  carried  his 
Htaff  in  his  hand;  he  wore  a  ooUar  or  necklace  round 
his  neck.  He  was  encountered  by  a  veiled  woman  on 
tbe  road  leading  to  Timnatb,  the  future  birthplace  of 
Samson,  among  the  hilla  of  Dan.  He  took  her  for  tSK 
of  the  unfortunate  women  who  were  consnnled  to  the 
impore  riles  of  the  Conaanitiah  worship.  See  HaB- 
ixrr.  He  promised  her,  as  the  price  of  bis  inlercoume. 
a  kid  from  the  flocks  lo  which  be  was  going,  attd  left 
as  his  pledge  his  onumenta  and  bis  staff.  Tbe  kid  be 
sent  back  by  his  shepherd  (Sept.),  Hirah  of  Adullam. 
The  woman  could  nowhere  be  found.  Honths  alW- 
wards  it  was  discovered  to  be  his  own  daughtcr-in-lair. 
Tamar,  who  had  thus  concealed  herself  unds-  tbe  veil 
or  mantle,  which  she  cast  off  on  her  return  hoiiie,wbett 
she  resumed  the  seclusion  and  dress  of  a  widow.  Sbe 
was  sentenced  to  be  burned  alive,  and  was  only  saved 
by  the  discovery,  through  the  pledges  which  Judah  hul 
left,  that  her  seducer  was  no  less  than  the  cbief^in  of 
the  tribe.  He  had  tbe  magnanimity  to  recogniae  thai 
she  had  been  driven  into  this  crime  by  his  own  neglm 
of  his  promise  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  his  yonnpeJ 
son.  "She  hath  been  more  righteous  than  I  .  .  ,  and 
he  knew  her  again  no  more"  (Gen.  xxxviii,  26).  Th; 
fruit  of  this  intercourse  was  twuis,  Pham  and  Zonh, 
and  through  Pharez  tbe  sacred  line  was  continutd. 
RC.  ISR6,  Hence  tbe  prominence  given  to  Tamar  in 
the  nuptial  benediction  of  tbe  tribe  of  Judob  (Rath  iv. 
IS)  and  in  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  (HaU.  i,  8).    See 


7  of  David  and  Haachah  the  Gesbmif. 


Jul 

3.  Daugbtei 

princess,  attd  thus  sister  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiii,  1-3?; 
1  Chron.  ill,  9;  Josephus,  Ant.  vii,  8, 1).  She  and  her 
brother  were  alike  remarkable  for  their  extracKdinar;' 
beauty.  Her  name  ("  palm-lree")  may  have  been  givj 
cii  her  on  this  account  (comp.  Cant,  vii,  7>  This  fatal 
beauty  inspired  a  frantic  passion  in  bev  half-brotbe* 
Amnon,  the  eldest  son  of  David  by  Abinoam.     Hi 


TAMAR 


■Med  nray,  froni  tha  Tefling  tbit  it  wu  impOMble  [o 
(mtify  bit  deaiie,  "  fur  ihe  wu  a  virgin"— tha  mr™- 
lin  lum  i[  uDCeruin  whether  rran  ■  Mrupic  an  hi* 
pin,  at  ffom  the  «cluiiicm  in  which,  in  her  unmarried 
lUibibr  wu  liepl.  Homing  by  morning,  ai  he  re- 
(tirnl  ihe  visiu  of  hit  friend  Jimadab,  he  ia  paler  and 
ikinaei  (Jcuephua,  A»l.  lii,  It,  1),  Junadab  diwoveni 
Ihe  nnK,  and  tuKgeata  lo  him  the  meant  of  accom- 
pliihlni;  hii  wicked  purpose.  He  waa  tn  Teign  aickneaa. 
The  king,  who  appean  In  hive  entertained  >  eooiidcr- 
tUe  aSfciinii,  alnwM  awe.  fur  liim  la  tlie  eldest  »n  (2 
^aia.iiii.5.31;  Sept.), eame  to  visit  him;  and  Amnnn 
fliimied  the  pceaence  of  Tamil  on  the  pretext  thit 
ihc  lime  could  give  him  the  food  tbit  he  wnuld  eat. 

tlH  rstal  life.  It  would  almntt  seem  rhit  Timir  was 
ai{i|»Hd  to  hare  ■  peculiar  art  of  baking  palaUble 
nlie\  She  came  (o  his  bniiAe  (for  each  |>rince  appears 
14  hiv*  had  a  ^parate  establish  meat),  took  the  dough 
■III  kwailed  it,  and  then  in  his  presence  (for  this  nu 
III  be  a  pan  of  his  fancy,  as  if  there  were  some  * 
ftquiwie  in  Ihe  manner  of  her  performing  the  < 
kaeaded  it  a  second  lime  into  the  foim  of  cake&  The 
usne  pren  lo  these  eikes  (/rUMt),  "  heart-cakes," 
*>»■  been  rinnuslv  exjiliined:  "hollow  cakes,"  "cakei 
niik  some  Mimnlalini;  spices" (like  our  wnni  cordial), 
cik«  in  tbe  ihape  of  ■  heart  (like  the  Sloraviin  ge- 
riirlr  ilrrua,  Thenins  ad  hc.\ctka  "the  delight  of 
ibt  heirt."  Whatever  it  be,  it  implies  something  spe- 
tiil  aad  peculiar,  .'ihe  then  took  the  pan  in  which 
(bn  hail  been  baked  and  poured  them  all  out  in  ■ 
br(MT  the  prine&     This  operation  seems  tn  hive  gniie 


103  TAMIL  VERSION 

beiutiful  aunt,  and  inberiliDg  the  beaut;  of  both  annt 
md  father  (2  Sam.  xiv,  7).  Sbe  was  the  sole  survivor 
of  the  honse  of  Abukm ;  and  ultimately,  b.v  her  mar- 
riigewilh  Uriah  of  Gibeih,  became  the  mother  of  Maa- 

chah,  tbe  future  queen  of  Judah,  or  wife  of  Abijah  (1 
Kings  XV,  2),  tlaaehah  being  called  after  bet  greal- 
(pandmotber.uTimaiafterberaunt.     B.C  1023.    See 


•|ie»rf.     He  ciBsed  his  attendants  tn  retire,  calle 
n  tbe  iniRr  room,  and  there  iccompliihed  his  design 
In  bci  toHcbing  r^iDuiiatritfce  (*a  points  ire  remarki- 
Ut    Finr.  Ihe  eipTeaaion  of  the  infamy  of  such  a  crime 
"ia  ffnir^"  implying  the  laftier  standard  of  morals  thit 
prmiM  ■■  compared  with  other  countries  at  that  tin 
tad,  tHOOiUy,  tkc  belief  that  even  this  sundani  mig 
Ir  tverbonie  lawfuUv  bv  mval  lulhnritv — "Speik 
lb-  kUtt,  fi"  >>«  ■'"  "«  withhohl  me  from  thee."    Tl 
tilffEniwi  bis  leil  to  much  needless  explinilion  frc 
uicHtradiclian  toLer.  xviii,  9;  xx,  17;  Deul.  xxv 
3! :  as,  e.  p.,  that  ber  mother.  Haachah.  not  being  a  Jf 
•a.  Ikere  was  no  proper  legal  lelitionship  between  her 
tad  Amnnn;  sr  that  the  was  ignonnt  of  the  law;  or 
ikM  ibe  Moaaic  laws  were  not  then  in  exitlence  (I'he- 
iiia\s4  !«■.).     It  ia  enough  lo  suppose,  whit  evidently 
kFt  whote  tpeecb  implies,  tbit  the  king  bad  a  dispent- 
•n  f""  which  was  conceircd  lo  cover  even  extreme 
am.     The  brutal  hatred  of  Amnrn  suDceeiling  to  hit 
Witil  |itiai  III,  and  tbe  jnilignalinnof  Timar  at  bis  bar- 

>kiaeful  •atrigc,  arc  pathett^iy  and  gnphieally  told, 
mi  ia  (W  Barraiive  another  Kitmpse  it  given  us  of  the 
■aiamts  of  Ihe  njyal  household.  The  unmarrieil  prin- 
rF»i»,it  iRmsi  were  distinguished  by  robes  or  gownt 
ith  dreret  (ao  the  Sept.,  Josephos,  etc,  take  the  word 
■nadaied  in  the  A.  V.  "divers  colors").  Such  was  the 
irrm  woni  by  Tamar  nn  the  present  nccaiinn,  and  when 


ibem  on  her  hair,  then  tore  off  her  roj-al 
•WTf^  asd  clasped  her  ban  hands  upon  her  head,  and 
nnbeil  tn  aoil  fro  tbrough  the  tlreets  acteaming  aloud. 
la  this  nate  the  enooHnterwl  her  brother  Absalom,  who 
t>t  her  to  hia  hooae,  where  she  remained  as  if  in  a 
Kite  tl  wiihnvbaod.  Tbe  king  was  afraid  or  unwiUini; 
<•■  unerfpTe  with  the  heir  to  tbe  throne,  but  she  wsi 
■  mjfd  tiy  Abtalom,  as  Dinah  had  been  by  ^meon 
a--(  Uri,  and  nat  of  that  vengeance  grew  the  teries  of 
^■aitie*  which  darkened  the  cbie  of  David's  reign 
'wSunley,y(«iaCAarcA,U,IW).    au  1033.    See 

l  t>iBtk(«r  of  Abaalonii  ciltcil,  pnbalily,  ip 


<  several  Roman  ec- 

elesiasitcs,of  whom  we  meiiiion  (he  fullowing: 

1.  MiciiAELAsaHLUB,ofModena,  waa  made  general 
of  the  Jesuits  Jan.  SI,  1706,  and  died  Feb.  £8, 1730. 

2.  PiETRO,  bom  in  1737  at  Brescia,  received  his 
theological  and  philosophical  training  at  the  seminary 
of  his  native  place,  where  he  afterwards  acted  it  the 
head  of  the  lyceum  founded  by  him.  He  was  also  head 
of  the  CoUrffium  Gn-maaicum  at  Home,  ami  was  pro- 
moted by  Maria  Theresa  to  a  prufe»Lirsbip  of  theologr, 

Insophy  at  I'avia.  He  resigned  his  prufessijrship  in 
17115,  but  was  compelled  by  the  French  luthoritiea  in 
Lombardy  to  fill  the  chair  of  etiiict  and  international 
law  in  1797.  For  three  yeara,  1798-1901,  this  chkii  was 
suppressed,  but,  being  restored  iu  the  latter  yeir,  wai 
ftlled  by  Tamburini  ill]  181^  when  he  was  appointed 
dean  of  the  faeultv  of  law.  He  died  at  Pivia,  Hareh 
14, 1827.  He  wit' made  a  chevalier  of  the  Iron  Crown 
by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  received  other  distinc- 
tions, He  wrote, /del  d(tfa«anra£«Je(Pavia,  1784)1 
—InlrodHii-m  alio  Sladio  della  FUofofia  (Milati,  1797)i 
— /.«i"™  di  FUoiofia  MaraU,  etc.  (Pavia,  1806-12,* 
volt.) !— fffemm/a  Jurw  Natara  (Milan,  1815):— Coiw 
mUa  Prr/ellSrilila  dtlf  Umaaa  Faaaglia  (ibid.  1823)-. 
de  Kcriaia  CKriiti  tt  Uaicma  Jantpm- 
dnliii  Ktrltiiatlica,  qua  hatuil  h  I  cademia  Fkitmti 
(Lipsiie,  18*0,  4  ptt) :— Pniifrfiona :  de  Jatiilia  Christ. 
tt  de  Sacramttitit,  de  Utlimo  llominit  Fine  dtque  ViTlu- 
lUrnt  TktoL  H  CardinalSiiH  (Ficino,  17S3-8a,  9  vi^)  ;— 
A  HOliti  dtlk  Apolof/ie  di  S.  Juiliito  Marl.,  etm  aJcnne 
Rijitaiom  (Pavia,  1792)  ■.—Ra^<mnmt«li  ml  I'Libro  di 
Orig.  tetUra  CcUo  (ibid.  1786) :— on  Tertullian,  Atuititt 
dfl  Libro  dfUe  Pracriiiimi,  can  akuae  Ouerruiimi  (ibid. 
1782). 

3.  ToMUASo,  1  Jesuit,  wit  bom  in  IS9I  at  Caltaniael- 
ta,  in  Sicily,  wia  professor  of  theology,  ifterwirda  censor 
and  counsellor  of  Ihe  Holy  Office,  and  died  at  Palcimo 

1675.  His  moral  and  theological  writings  were  pub- 
lished at  Lyons  ill  1659.  and  Venice  in  1755. 

See  Tkfologiicka  Uaieenul- Latihon,  ».  v.;  Wetier 
I.  Weite.  KireJu-Lrxiiim.  xli,  1818 ;  Zuchold,  BOI.  Thtnl. 
ii,  1306;  Winer,  Itaudbuek  dtr  lluoL  LUeralur,  i,  816, 
897,900,913;  ii,797.     (B.P.) 

Tamld.    See  Talmud. 

Tamil  Tenlon.     Tamil,  or  Tamul,  the  language 

the  ancient  kingdom  of  Draviri,  is  spoken  in  the  ez- 
nsive  country  now  called  the  Catnatic.  and  is  the  ver- 
nacular language  from  the  town  of  Pulical  in  tbe  north 

Cape  Oimurin  iu  the  south,  and  from  the  thoiee  of 

c  Indian  Ocean  on  the  eaat  lo  Ihe  Uhauts  on  tbe  wett- 
It  also  obtains  slong  the  whole  northern  coast  of  Cey- 
nn,  including  tbe  populous  district  of  JaSha,  where  it 
t  spoken  by  a  race  of  people  sometimes  called  the  Mal- 
ibin.  Tamil  is  likewise  the  vernacular  language  of 
the  Moormen  of  Ceylon. 

"  "■      ■'  '  '     New  Test,  was  executed  by 

Ziegenbalg.  the  fint  Prolestani  tnisiionary  to  India, 
the  help  of  other  miiaionaries  aaaocialed  with  him, 
inqiiebar.  He  commenced  the  translation  in  1708, 
nmpleted  it  In  1711.  The  printing  of  this  ver^on 
was  delayed  in  order  that  it  might  receive  the  benefit 
thorough  revisal ;  and  this  impotlanc  task  was  coid- 
:ed  to  John  Eniest  (inindler,  a  German  tniisiaiiary, 
I  hid  irrived  in  India  soon  after  (he  commencement 
Under  his  care  the  work  was  print- 
Ihe  title  A'oran  TtHamaitam  D.  X.  Jem 


TAMIL  VERSION  u 

CArii^rz  Originati  Ttxtv  In  Laguam  Damulicam  Vtr- 
iiim,in  Dtun  Gtvlii Malabnrica,<ipenelHa'Mo\ltnho- 
Inmsl  ZitgcnUIg  et  Join.  EmcBli  Urundleri  SereniMimi 
Diiiis  KcgiB  Fridtrid  IV  ail  Indos  Orientoln  Uitiiuo- 
luuiDmoi  (TnDi|Uebine,  1714).  In  1717  Ziegeab*lg 
comroeiictd  tlie  iranslu^on  of  the  Old  Teat.,  and  in 
1719,  having  carried  it  ••  Tar  as  the  book  of  Ruth,  he 
ilicd,  at  the  age  or  thirtf-ux.  After  hia  deceaw,  and 
that  [>r  hia  felluw-labar«r  Grundler,  which  occurred  dur- 
ing ihe  fuUnn'ing  rear,  ihe  rerition  of  hi>  manuwriptB 
and  the  prosecution  of  the  vcnioD  of  the  Old  Teat,  de- 
volved on  Benjamin  Schullic,  ■  misiionary  who  had 
■rtived  from  Halle  a  ehorl  time  previously  under  the 
|iatrouage  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge. Schulize  ptililiahed  the  portion  of  Ihe  Old  Tc«t. 
translated  by  Ziegenbalg  in  J723,  and  completed  the 
version  In  1727,  which  waa  pnbliahed  in  three  pirla,  vii. 
Bittia  Oamulita,  ifu  qaod  Dtui  OamipolnituiimaM  itmel 
ipgam  ex  ma  jEltnalale  ctarivi  Mini\fn(alami  de  Calo 
rU  Lomlvt.  Vttnv  Tf^ammliPart  Prima,  tn  ;»<]  Motit 
Libri  gniagiif,  Jotuit  I.iitr  unu,  atqut  LUrr  vtuit  Judi- 
cun,  Uudio  et  opera  Banholamiri  Zegenbalgii  Misaio- 
narii  ad  Indos  OrientnleB  in  linguani  Damulicam  versi 
continent u r  (Tranq I lebariie  in  littore  Coronnndelino,  tv- 
pis  et  suiTiplib>ii>  Miuiania  Danitir,  1723).  SibHa  Da- 
tnulica,  Ku  ^od  Dm  Sapiailunniiit  in  taa  Divina  CEeo- 
wimui  evm  Popato  JvarUtico  ft  Kgit  H  Locuthr  ttt.  Vrle- 
rit  Talamtali  Part  Sttanda,  in  qua  librllui  Jiuti,  Samu- 
elii  Ubrr  Ptior  it  PoUirior,  Libtr  f/tUmr,  Ltbn-  Etihtr, 
Ijier  Jobi,  Liber  PmlmariBH  Dactdit,  Z.tlwr  PrortrHo- 
ruiH,  IMkt  Ecdoiatla.  tl  Uber  Canlici  CialKorain,  studio 
ct  opera,  etc  (iliid.  1726),  BHUa  Danvliai,  an  quod 
Dtut  Omnueitit  dt  gratia  in  Jrtu  Ckritia  tempore  iV'ori 
Tetlamenii  Rntlanda  per  Sonctoi  mot  Propielai  eti  Va- 
ticinafiit.  Vttrrii  Teefamtnii  Part  Terliii,  m  qua  Pro- 
phela  Maji'Tn,  Etuiai,  Jeremiat,  rjuidrp^ue  Liimenln- 
lionet,  Ktecliitt,  DartitU  Prophrla  Uiaarri,  llotrai,  Joel, 
A  mot,  Obnilia,  Jona,  Sfidui,  Naivm,  /fabacuc,  Ztptoniii, 
Ilnggai,  Zaehariai,  et  Malaekiat,  studio  ct  Optra,  etc. 
(ibid.l7S7).  Totheaepaitan'creadded.inlhejearliSS, 
the  Apocryphal  hooka,  or  IMii-i  Apocryphi,  ten  Libri  a 
guibuidam  Piit  Virii  Eeebiia  A  itliqutcJitdaicapoil  Pro- 
pkelai  I'elrri*  Ttttamenli  Seripti,  coB/i'nnU«  jwrfim  t'n- 
rioM  Rtgulai  Vilit  [7lilft,parliin  SHt^emealum  /iiiloria 
Eccienatliea  Velerit  Tn/amenliyKjlicel  Liber  Supirnlia, 
EccletiaitintticeSira(^,l.ibfrEidrit,  Liber  ToUa,r.iier 
Judith,  A  iljtclio«nadLibrttm  Enhrr,  Libtr  Baracli,  Epit- 
lolaJrremia,AdjfctioiieiadDiinifle!mtu  TVimn  I'lroiiiiii 
Jfj/Bmotngiu,  Hittoria  Sotomue,  item  Belit  tl  Draronii, 
Maccabaomm  LOier  Primvi,  Secandat,t!  Teriiiu,  rfrnigue 
Oralio  Manaaii,  studio  et  o|*ra,  etc  (ibid.  I72R), 

Schultze  likewise  addresseil  himself  to  a  diligent  re- 
viMon  of  the  New  I'esU,  ■  second  edition  of  which  he 
put  to  press  in  1722,  and  completed  in  1724,  at  Tranque- 
bar.     It  has  the  same  title  as  the  Srat,  with  the  addi- 

mn  tfjutnt  capilit  auctior.  In  1758  a  third  edition  of 
the  New  Test,  nas  (mnted  at  the  ■ame  place;  il  had 
previously  been  subjected  to  another  reiiMun.  in  which 
aeveral  missionaries  took  a  part.  The  second  Tranque- 
bar  edition  waa  reprinted  at  Oilonibo  in  1741-43,  aner 
having  undergone  some  alterations  adapting  it 
Tamil  spoken  in  Ceylon.  This  edition  was  designed 
for  the  native  Tamilian  Christians  in  that  island,  and 
was  published  under  the  auspices  of  L.  B.  vou  ImhutT, 
the  governor. 

In  1777  an  important  veniim  of  the  New  Test,  was 
published  by  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Fabricius,  one  of  Si-huliie's 
Buccessora  in  llie  Danish  mission  at  Madraa.  This  ver- 
sion is  far  more  elegant  and  claancal  in  diction  than 
that  of  the  Tranqoebar  translators.  Fabridus  likewise 
undertook  the  revision  ofSchuilie'a  version  of  the  Old 
TesL,  preparatory  to  a  second  edition  i  but  Ihe  work,  as 


TAMIL  VERSION 

onaries,  and  fmin  these  tn  tbe  native  tranililoi  lo 
Danish  Korcmment.  The  notes  and  correciioni 
obtained  were  carefully  collated  by  Fabricius,  mil 
'hole  translation  was  again  subjected  by  him  tu  ■ 
searching  revision.  It  was  printed  at  Ihe  misaiim  pr™ 
at  Tranquebar  between  the  years  1777  and  178!,  ondei 
the  special  care  of  two  miaaionaries,  one  of  whom  nn 
Dr.  Rntller.  Fabricius  was  esteemed  an  "  unparalleled 
Tamil  scholar,"  and  his  Iranslilion  long  hdd  the  nnk 
of  the  standard  Tamil  version  of  Ihe  Scriptuns  in  tht 
missiona  of  the  Society  for  the  Pmpagatiou  of  the  Gna- 
pd  in  Tanjore  and  Madras,  and  partly  in  ihnae  in  Tin. 
nevelly,  and  also  in  the  mistiuns  of  the  Ldpgic  Lulhtnn 
Miisionarv  Sodetv. 

The  editions  of  Ihe  two  venions  of  Ihe  New  Twt. 
above  mentioned,  printed  by  ibe  Danish  miinonirin 
prior  to  tbe  cnmmeiKement  of  ibe  present  centiirv, 
amount  in  all  to  btirteen,  besides  two  versions  of  the 
Old  TesL  But  Ihe  number  nf  copies  issued  being  very 
far  from  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  native  ChTisliaH^ 
the  deplorable  scarcity  nf  Itie  Scriptnrca  in  the  Tamil 
couniry  was  first  presaed  upon  Ihe  notice  of  Ihe  Briiith 
and  Foreign  KUe  Sodely  in  a  letter  from  Ihe  Bfv.  Dr. 
Buchanan,  dated  Uadnn.lSOG;  and  jn  18ia  an  rdiiiixi 
consisiing  of  5000  copies  was  eompleted  by  Ibe  Seram. 
pore  misoiunaries.  Ibe  text  being  that  of  Fabricius. 

As  a  great  demand  for  the  Scriptures  still  continued 
throughout  the  Tamil  country,  even  ahei  Ihe  circuU- 
tion  of  this  large  edition,  it  seemed  necessary  to  tike 
immediate  measures  (m  issuing  further  auppliea.  Tht 
want  of  copies  nf  the  Scriptures  appeared  lo  be  pariin- 
larly  felt  at  Ceylon,  where  I  he  number  of  naiire  Chti>- 
lians  speaking  the  Tamil  language  was  eslimaied  it 
4&,0Da  Beudea  the  edition  of  Ihe  New  Test,  pnhliihni 
at  Colombo  in  1743,  as  above  mentioned,  a  version  of 
the  Penlateuch,  translated  by  Mr.  De  Milho,  had  alM 
been  printed  in  Ceylon,  under  the  patronage  nf  ihi 
Dutch  gflcemmen^  in  1790.  These  ediiiona.  howo-ti. 
had  Iieen  long  exhausted,  and  the  people  in  gnten 
were  ilinnat  destitute  of  Ihe  Scripluies.  It  waa  ihrtr- 
fore  deemed  advisable  not  only  lo  issue  anntlierediil'ie 
but  also  lo  obiBJn  such  a  revision  of  Ihe  existing  vtnim 
as  might  render  it  inlelligibie  to  the  Tamil  populaiigi 
of  Ceylon  and  of  the  adjacent  continent.  This  impor 
tant  venion  was  committed  tn  the  Rev.  C  T.  E.  Rbe 
nius,  of  the  Church  Uisuon,  subject  to  tbe  nperinteDd 
ence  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Roltler  (who  ha<l  finnerly  aneiatn 
in  carrying  the  version  of  Fabridus  ihrouRh  the  pim 
and  lo  tbe  inspection  of  the  missionaries  at  TricbinnpiJi 
Tanjore,  and  Tranquehar.  To  secure  the  greater  accu 
racy  of  ihe  work,  a  comnitlee  of  translation  was  ap 
pointed  at  Madras  in  1821.  In  1829  Rbenius'a  venioi 
seemed  lo  have  been  completed,  and  from  the  tine  ai 
its  appeinnce  it  has  been  used  in  Ibe  misaions  of  ib 
Church  Missionary  Sodetv,  and  in  ihoae  of  the  Londn 
Missionary  Society,  the  Wesleyan  Uiuionaiy  Sociel; 
and  Ihe  American  Boanl  i-f  MisMons. 
But  neither  Fabricius's 


!d  by  111 


I,  has  every  claim 


and  indepei 

by  sheet,  fur  examinaiion 

arics  at  Cuddalore ;  from 


Hese 


t  Ihe  translation,  sheet 


nongT 


lil  Chris 


leilhervenio 
It  prescriptive  revereiH 


reded  K 


had  acquired  ai 
and  aulhorily  ' 
English  version  (except  by  Roman  Catholics)  whcrevi 
Ihe  English  language  is  B|ioken.  Fabridas's  vendoi 
though  admitled  by  all  to  be  very  faithful  to  the  orig 
nil,  waa  regarded  by  Tamil  scholars  in  general  as  ic 
frequently  unidiomitical  and  nbwurei  while  Khenius 
vereion,  though  generally  written  in  clear,  idiomaii 
Tamil,  was  regarded  by  some  of  those  by  whom  it  wt 
used,  and  by  all  who  were  accustomed  lo  Fibricius,  i 
too  paraphraalic,  aa  departing  too  frequently,  withoi 
sufficient  warrant,  from  the  renderings  adi^ed  in  it 
principil  European  versions,  and  as  needlessly  differii> 
from  Fabricius's  forma  of  expresMon,  even  wben  tht 
happened  lo  be  perfectly  correct. 

For  the  sake  of  baring  a  version  which  shontd  I 
generally  sccpptable  to  Tamil  ChrisHans  and  Tair 
srhoUrs,  the  Rev.  P.  Perclval,  aasiated  by  miasionaTi 


m  Jiffru,  Cejb>Ti,  uadertook  in  1B49  ■  new  vei 
knovn  B  the  "Tenutire  Vereion,"  which  hu  proved 
TnbtaTMv  valuable  coDtribution  lo  the  work  orTimil 


TtwR. 


ly  oT  publishing  any  portion  of  iha  Holy  Scripturei 
IS  Tamil  during  the  300  years  in  whicb  they  had  beer 
UlxnDg  in  the  Tamil  country,  were  induced  in  1857  U 
puUiih  at  Pondicherry  a  trandation  of  their  aim  of  ihi 
(iMftU  aud  the  Acta  of  the  Apoatlea.  Thia  Iranslalior 
Lo  bwn  made  rmm  the  Lalin  Vulgate,  not  rrom  Ihi 
nrigiatl  Greek,  and,  where  it  it  a  ({ood  iranililion,  mat 
be  iTguded  ai  a  reproduction  of  Fabriciua,  with  a  uil 
more  eaceaaire  leal  for  litenlity.  Where  it  differg 
fiMn  Fabricjua,  though  occaaionallj-  it  succeeds  in  giv. 
inf  a  happv  turn  lo  the  expreaaion,  It  more  often  pre' 
MBU  B  curiuiB  a  mixture  of  high  and  low  Tamil,  anr 
tba  Rnieial  character  of  the  composition  is  >o  ruggc< 
ud  aiKoutb,  Ibal  even  the  heada  of  the  Human  cominU' 
uiiylbemselve*  need  hare  very  little  fear  that  thia  long' 
Mafcd,  teluccanlly  published  translation  of  a  portioi 
of  the  Scripturea  should  be  too  generally  read  by  tlieii 
people. 
Taking  alt  these  circnmitances  into  account,  and  con- 

imoDg  Tamil  Christians  of  a  variety  of  versiuna  of  the 
Ttmil  Nei.  Test.,  it  was  felt  that  another  etTi.rt  was  in 
[Kr  highest  d^m  desirable  to  secure  to  the  Tamil  peo- 
|jle  a  rertiuo  wbich  sfaoulil  be  wnrthy  of  being  accepteil 
bf  all  celigioui  eommunitiea  in  the  Tamil  country,  how- 
trcr  they  might  differ  in  variotu  other  particulira. 
IcfonliDgly  delegatei  were  selected  from  the  various 

im  nceiing  was  held  at  Palamcotta.  tc  comtnenced 
<a  April  »,  1861,  and  closed  on  June  18,  doling  which 
perioa  the  delegatet  worked  nine  hours  a  day.  In  1863 
the  Rvisiun  of  the  Tamil  New  Teal.,  under  the  edito- 


lofth 


la  tl 

Ike  Ua<lias  Auxiliary 
Ihc  TamU  Old  Test^  ( 


Rev.  II.  Bower,  n 


r  isca  w 


"The  a> 


of  thia 


tion  of  the  Kew  Test,  under  the 
e  of  the  Rev.  H.  Bower."     The 


il  that  Mr.  Ikiver  has  been  appointed  to  pre- 
pve  tlw  marginal  references  and  alternative  rendering* 
>*ibe  Tamil  llible.  Up  to  March  ;il.  ISHU,  the  British 
ami  Fonign  Bible  Society  had  dispuwd  .if  2,549,150 
nipiia  of  the  Tamil  Bible,  while  of  the  Tamil  with  Eng- 
luh  32,0U0  were  disiributed.  See  Mauih,  BiUinlhtca 
■twm.ii,  197  *q.;  the  BiUe  of  Ectry  Laad;  anil  the 
-4aanil  RqKTU  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Suci- 
ay.    (aR) 

Tam'niu  (Deb.  with  tba  ■rtiele  hat'Timamt', 
Wann,  Iht  TVubmui,  aa  if  originally  an  appellitiTei 
■SepCiTa/iiiafO,  ■name  of  great  obamrity,  which  oc- 
ran  bat  once  in  the  Scripturci.  In  the  aixlh  year  of 
the  captiritT  of  Jehoiachin,  in  the  lixth  month  and  ou 
■be  ffth  day  of  the  month,  the  prophet  F.zekiel,  sa  he 
lat  ia  bit  bouse  ■Drroundeil  by  the  elders  of  Judah,  was 
iruapDfied  in  spirit  ti>  the  far-dlitant  Temple  at  Jeru- 
•len.  The  hand  of  the  Lonl  God  was  upon  him,  and 
bd  hiD  "to  the  door  of  the  gate  of  the  house  of  Jeho- 
rah.  which  was  towards  the  north;  and  behold  there  the 
■'awanuing.weepingforlheTammu>''(F.iek.viii,14). 
Seme  iranalsle  the  laat  clause  (IIHRn-rK  nis^^) 
'aiiiiDg  iheTaoimuato  weep,' and  the  inQuenea  whicb 
■ku  nuleriog  hu  upon  the  inurpielstion  will  be  teen 

I.  A>y*M%inrJ  SiipdficaliiM  oflh*  WoTd^U^^•aVi 
te  a  Rgatarly  fiirninl  Hebrew  word,  it  must  be  derived 
Mhaf  from  a  root  tpj  or  tsB  (conip,  the  forms  qitx. 
nn),  which  ia  not  known  lo  exist.  To  remedy  this 
M^FAim  {UamUh.a.v.)  invents  a  mot,  to  which  he 
fnt  Ibc  signUkalian  "to  be  strong,  loigbly,  viclori- 


3  TAMMUZ 

oug,"  and,  transitively,  "  to  overpower,  annihilate."  It 
ia  to  be  regretted  that  this  lexicographer  cannot  be  con- 
tented to  confess  bis  ignorance  of  what  is  unknowu. 
R5diger  (in  Geaenius,  Thaimr.  a  v.)  auggeats  the  deri- 
vation from  the  root  Dl;ia=tT19;  according  to  which 
T^QP  ia  a  contraction  of  TITttri,  and  signiAes  a  melting- 
awBy,diMalution,  departure,  and  so  the  d^vnT^of'Afw- 
vtioQ,  or  disappearance  of  Adonis,  which  was  mourned 
by  the  Phienician  women,  and,  alter  them,  by  the 
Greeks.  But  the  etymology  is  unaoiind,  anil  is  evi- 
dently contrived  so  as  to  connect  the  name  Tammiii 
with  the  genersl  tradition  regarding  it.  Muhlau  (new 
ed.  of  Gesenius's  I,,t3.)  refers  to  Delilzseb's  elucidation 
{Siud.  I.  timii.  Rrligionistich.  i.  35,  800  sq.)  from  the 
Baby tunico- Assyrian  form  i'liiu  (fur  i>uini(ii),  signify- 
ing "sprouting  of  life." 

B.  OU  /n/erprrfufioM.— The  ancient  veiMona  supply 
us  with  no  help.  The  Sept.,  the  Targutn  of  Jonathan 
beu-Uziiel,  the  Peshito-Syriac,  and  the  Aratric  in  Wal- 
ton's Polyglot  merely  reproduce  the  Hebrew  word.  In 
the  Targum  of  Jonathan  on  Gen.  viii,  li,<<the  tenth 
month"  is  translated  "the  month  Tammui."  Accord- 
ing to  Castell  (La,  llfpt,),  Itimix  is  used  in  Arabic  to 
denote  "the  heat  of  sutnmer ;"  and  riiiHtiii  is  the  name 
given  to  the  Pharaoh  who  cruelly  treated  the  Israelites. 

The  Vulg.  aloue  gives  Adtmit  aa  a  modem  equiva- 
lent, and  [his  rendering  has  been  eagerly  adopted  by 
subsequent  commentators  with  but  few  exceptions.  It 
is  at  least  as  old,  therefore^  as  Jerome,  and  the  fact  of 
his  having  adopted  il  shows  that  it  must  have  embod- 
ied the  most  credible  tradition.  In  his  note  upon  the 
passage  he  adds  that  since,  according  to  the  UenUle 
fabte,  Adonis  had  been  slain  <n  the  month  of  June,  the 
.Syrians  gii-e  the  name  of  Tnmoiui  to  thia  month,  when 

which  he  is  lamenteil  by  the  women  as  deail,  and,  after- 
wards coming  to  life  again,  is  celebrated  with  songs  aitd 
praises,  [n  another  passage  (ad  Paatinam,  in  Opp,  i, 
102,  ed.  BasiU  1060)  he  laments  that  Bethlehem  was 
overshadowed  by  a  grove  of  Tammui,  that  is,  of  AJonia, 
and  that  "in  the  cave  where  the  infant  Christ  once 
cried,  the  lover  of  Venus  was  bewailed."  Cyril  of  Alex- 
aadria  (in  Ottam,  In  Opp.  iii,  T9,  ed.  Pari;,  lOSS)  and  Tbe- 
odoret  (in  Ktrek.)  give  the  same  explanation,  anil  are 
followed  by  the  author  nf  the  Ckrtmiam  FatchaU.    The 

Islion  of  Melilo'a  Apology,  edited  by  Dr.  Cureton  in  his 

SpieUrgiiuu  Si/riuiruin.     The  date  of  the  tranelation  Is 

unknown;  the  original,  if  genuine,  must  belong  to  the 

2d  century.     The  following  ia  a  literal  rendering  nf  the 

Syrloc:  "The  sons  of  Pbtenicia  worshipped  Balthi,  the 

queen  of  Cyprus.    For  she  loved  Tamuio,  the  aon  of 

Culhar,  the  king  of  the  Phcenlcians,  and  fuiwok  her 

kingilom  and  came  and  dwelt  in  liebal.  a  fortress  uf  the 

Phrxniciaiis.     And  at  that  time  she  made  all  the  vil- 

lagea  (not  Cfpriiau,  as  Dr.  Cureton  Innalates)  subject 

Culhar  the  king.    For,  before  Tamuzo,  she  bad  kived 

■es  and  committed  adultery  with  bim,  and  Hephe»- 

s,  her  husband,  caught  her  and  was  Jealous  of  her. 

id  be  (L  e.  Aiea)  came  and  alew  Tamuio  on  Lebanon 

lile  he  made  a  hunting  among  the  wild  boars.     And 

from  that  lime  Baltltl  remained  in  Gebal,  and  died  in 

city  of  Aphaca,  where  Tamuzo  was  buried"  (p.  3S 

he  Syriac  text).     We  have  here  very  clearly  the 

Greek  legend  of  Adonis  reproduced  with  a  single  change 

ne.    Whetherthiachange  isdue  to  the  tnuialator, 

not  improbable, or  whether  he  found  "Tammui" 

e  origiiiKl  of  Melito,  it  is  impossiblo  to  say.     Be 

■a  it  may,  the  tradition  embodied  in  the  passage 

thor  nbicb  regards  Serapisss  the  deificstion  of  Joseph. 

'■■■      Syriac  lexicographer  Bar-Uahlul  (lOth  century) 

gives  the  legend  as  it  had  come  down  to  his  lime. 

■  "omiiio  was,  as  they  say,  a  hunter,  sheplier.l,  and 
aser  of  wild  beasts;  who, when  Belathi  loved  him, 
ik  her  away  from  her  builMnd.    And  when  ber  bus- 


TAMMUZ 


IM 


band  wfnt  Tonti  to  wck  her,  Tomnzo  aiew  him.  And 
with  itgud  to  Toniuio  also,  there  met  him  in  the  des- 
ert «  wild  bou  aiKl  ilew  him.  And  his  father  made 
fur  him  a  great  lamentation  and  weeping  in  the  month 
J'omuz:  and  Belathi,  his  wire,she,  loo,  made  a  lamen- 
tation and  muuming  over  him.  And  this  tradition 
was  handed  down  among  the  heathen  people  during 
b«r  lirelime  and  after  her  death,  which  ume  tradition 
the  Jews  rewived  with  the  rest  of  the  evil  reMivals 
or  Itie  people,  and  in  that  month  Tomuz  used  lo  make 
(br  him  a  great  feast.  Tomuz  also  is  the  name  of  tme 
ofthe  months  of  the  Syriana." 

In  the  neit  century  the  legend  auumeB,for  the  first 
time,  a  different  form  inlhehands  nf  a  Rabbinical  com- 
mentator. Rabbi  Solomon  Itaaki  (Raahi)  hai  the  fol- 
lowing note  on  the  passage  in  Blzckiel:  "An  image 
which  Ihe  women  made  hot  in  the  inside,  and  its  eyes 
were  of  lead,  and  they  melted  by  reason  of  the  heat  of 
the  burning,  and  it  seemed  aa  if  it  wept;  and  they  (the 
women)  said.  He  aslielh  for  offerings.  Tammuz  is  a 
word  signifying  burning,  as  WJJbV  nin  ^^  ^J  (Dan. 
iii,19),«ndn^*n;  niK  !(:SB»(ver.i2)."  Insleadof 
rendering  "weeping  fur  the  Tammuz,"  he  gives  what 
appears  to  be  the  equivalent  in  French, "  faisantes  pleu- 
rer  I'^chauSe."  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  Raahi  re- 
gards TammuE  aa  an  appellative  derived  from  the  Chal- 
dee  root  Kl^,  aza,  "lo  make  hoi."  It  is  equally  clear 
that  his  etymology  cannot  be  defended  for  an  instant. 
Id  the  I2tb  century  (1 161)  Solomon  ben-Abraham  Par- 
ebon,  in  bis  J>n'coB,  compiled  at  Salerno  from  the  works 
of  Jehuda  Chayug  and  Abulwalid  Merwan  ben-Gan- 
n»ch,haslhB  following  observations  upon  Tammua:  "II 
ia  the  likeneu  of  a  reptile  which  they  make  upon  lh( 
water,  and  the  water  is  collected  in  iiand  flows  througli 

called  Tarnmui  is  Persian,  and  so  are  all  our  months, 
none  oF  them  is  from  the  sacred  tongue.  Though  they 
are  written  In  the  Scripture,  they  are  Persian;  but  in 
the  sacred  tongue  the  first  month,  the  second  month," 
«le.  At  Ihe  close  of  this  century  we  meet  fur  the  first 
time  with  an  entirely  new  tradition  repeated  by  K.  Da- 
vid Kimchi,  both  in  his  Ltxicon  and  in  his  t'ommtn- 
larf,  from  the  Mortk  Kdmchim  of  Maimonidesi  "In 
the  month  Tammuz  they  made  a  feast  of  an  idol,  and 
the  women  came  to  gladden  him;  and  some  say  that 
by  crafty  means  they  caused  the  water  to  come  into 
the  eyes  of  the  idol  which  is  called  Tammuz,  and  it 
wept,  as  if  it  asked  them  to  worship  iC  And  some  in- 
terpret Tammuz  'the  burned  one,' as  if  from  Dan.  iii,  IS 
(see  above),  i.  e.  they  wept  over  him  because  he  wai 
burned;  for  Ihey  used  to  burn  Ihdr  sons  and  iheii 
daughters  in  Ihe  lire,  and  the  women  used  lo  weep  ovei 
them. , . ,  But  the  Knb,  ihe  wise,  the  greal.  our  Rabbi 
Moshe  bar-Maimnn.of  blessed  memory,  hss  w 
lit  ia  found  written  in  one  of  the  ancient 
books  that  there  was  a  man  of  the  idniatrous  prophets, 


(Ihe  p 


id  his  n 


Audi 


king  and  commanded  him  lo  serve  the  seven  pi 
.and  the  twelve  signs.  And  that  king  put  him  to 
.olent  dealli ;  and  on  the  night  of  his  death  there 
.leathered  together  all  the  images  from  the  ends  i 
earth  to  the  Temple  of  Babel,  lo  the  golden  image  which 
was  the  image  of  the  sun.  Now  this  image  was  sui 
pended  between  heaven  and  earth,  and  it  fell  down  i 
the  midst  of  the  temple,  and  the  Images  likewise  (fe 
down)  round  about  it,  and  it  told  them  what  had  befal 
en  Tammuz  Ihe  prophet.  And  the  images  all  of  thei 
wept  and  lamented  all  the  night;  and,  as  It  came  I 
pass,  in  the  morning  all  the  images  flew  away  lo  thei 
own  temples  in  the  ends  of  the  earth.  And  ihis  was  i 
them  for  an  everUsting  statute;  at  the  beginning  of 
the  first  day  of  the  month  Tammuz  each  i-ear  lh< 
mented  and  wept  over  Tammuz.  And  some  interpret 
Tammuz  as  the  name  of  an  animal,  for  ihey  at  ' 
worsliip  an  image  which  they  had,  and  the  Targi 


:iT,U) 


•non  •,1"'5"1S^1.    But  in  moet  copies 
ten  with  two  Vavs."     The  book  of  the 
ancient  idolaters  from  which  Haimonides  qnotes  is  ihc 
now  celebrated  work  on  the  agriculture  of  the  Kabs- 
Ihieans,  to   which  reference  will   be  made   hereafter. 
Brn-Helech  gives  no  help,  and  Abrndana  merely  quotes 
'  e  eiplanutions  given  by  Rashi  anil  KimchL 
S.  ifodem  Opinioni. — 1'he  tradition  recorded  byJe- 
me,  which  identifies  Tammuz  with  Adonia,  has  been 
llowed  by  most  subsequent  commentators;  amonft  oth- 
ers, by  Vatablus,  CastelUo,  Cornelius  s  Lapide,  (Min- 
der, (^spar  SanctiuB,  Larater,  Villalpandns,  Selden,  Si- 
monis,  Calmel,  and,  in  later  titnes,  by  J.  D.  Uicharlir; 
esenlos,  Ben-Zeb,  RosenmUller,  Ha'urer,  Ewald,  Hii- 
^mick,  H  il.ug,  and  Movers.    Lulher  and  others  irganl- 
edTammnzasa  name  of  Bacchus.    That  Tammua  «■» 
the  Egyptian  Osiri^  and  that  his  worship  was  inlnv 
Jerasaletn  from  Egypt,  wai  held  by  Calcin, 
Piscator,  Junius,  Leusden,  and'Pfeiffer.     Ilits  view  de- 
pends ciiiefly  upon  a  false  etymology  propoaed  bj'  Kirch- 
er,  which  connects  the  wonl  Tammuz  with  the  Coplic 
(aniKI^  to  hide,  and  so  makes  it  signify  the  hidden  vi 
concealed  one;  and  therefore  Osiris,  the  Egyptian  kinc 
slain  by  Typho,  whose  loss  was  commanded  by  lus  I" 
be  yearly  lamented  in  Egypt.     The  women  weepinp 
for  Tammuz  are  in  Ihis  case,  according  lo  Junius,  ihc 
priesteises  of  Isis.     The  Eicyptian  origin  of  Ihe  ninir 

god  Amut.  mentioned  by  Plutarch  and  Hemdolot,  Kliri 
is  identical  with  Osiris.     There  is  good  reason,  fanw- 

That  something  corresponding  to  Tammni  is  found  in 
Egyptian  proper  names  as  thrr  appear  in  Greek  canivt 
be  denied,  Topwr.  an  Egyptian,  appears  in  Thucydi- 
dea  (viii,31)  as  a  Penian  officer,  in  Xennphon  [Anai.  i. 
4, !)  aa  an  admiral.  The  Egyptian  pilot  whs  heiid 
Ihe  mysterious  voice  bidding  him  proclaim  "  Gnat  Pin 
is  dead"  was  called  ea/ioi-i  (Plutarch,  JM  Ihfrcr.  Omi. 
17).  The  names  of  the  Eg>*ptian  ki^g^  Oov^ifiumc. 
Ti5/ii«nc,  and  e/iioit,  mentioned  by  Manetho  (J™- 
phus,  Conl,  Ap.  i,  14, 16),  have  in  tnni  been  comparrH 
with  Tammuz;  but,  unless  stime  more  certain  evidrnct 
be  brought  forward  th^n  is  found  in  Ihese  appirent  re- 
semblances, there  is  Utile  reason  to  conclude  that  ibe 
worship  of  Tammuz  wia  of  Egyptian  origin. 

The  identification  of  Tammuz  with  an  idolstreii' 
prophet,  which  has  already  been  given  in  a  quotalion 
from  Haimonides,  who  bimaelf  qnotes  from  the  ^^'- 
cuUurt  nftht  NabatliitaJu,  has  been  recently  revived  tr 
Prof.  Chwcdeon,  of  St.  Petersburg  (  Cebtr  fammn,  tie. 
[St.  Petersb.  ISeOJ).  An  Arab  writer  of  the  lOih  cen- 
tury, En-Nedim,  in  his  book  called  Fikriit  tl-'Cli<*. 
says  (quoting  from  AbO  Said  Wahb  Iwn-Ihrahlm)  ibsi 
in' the  middle  of  the  month  Tammuz  a  feast  is  held  in 
honor  of  the  god  Ta'Oz,  The  women  bewailed  him  be 
cauae  his  lotil  slew  him  and  grountl  liis  bones  in  a  mill, 
and  scattered  them  lo  Ihe  winda.  In  consequence  oF 
this  the  women  ate  nothing,  during  the  feast,  Ihit  bail 
been  ground  in  a  mill  (Chwolaon,  Dit  Siabirr,  eic,  ii. 
27).  Prof,  Chwolion  regards  Ta"(lz  as  ■  comiplion  of 
Tammuz;  but  tbe  most  important  passage,  in  his  ey<i. 
is  from  the  old  Babylonian  book  colled  the  Agrintitn 
ofthe  A'uiufAiiow.'to  which  he  attributes  a  fibulm« 
antiquity.  It  was  written,  he  maintains,  by  one  Qui- 
'nml,  towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  B.C  and  sis 
iranalated  into  Arabic  by  a  descendant  of  the  ancinil 
Chatdoians,  whose  name  woa  Ibn-Waahiyyah.  As  Prnf. 
Chvrolson's  theory  has  been  strongly  attacked,  and  as 
the  chief  materiala  upon  which  It  ia  founded  aie  not 
yet  before  the  public,  it  woukl  be  equally  prenutore  i» 
lake  him  as  an  authority,  or  to  proiwunce  potitiicly 
against  his  hypotheBi^  though,  Judging  from  pitsoii 
inclined  to  be  more  than  sceplifil 


from 


I.     QAi'iiml  tl 


o  us,  tells  the  B 


TAMMUZ  II 

impbM  Tamniiu  u  bu  (Ireidy  betn  ftiren  lu  the  quo- 
uiiuii  fiDO  KiiPchL  It  wu  rod  in  the  Umplei  after 
pnim  to  an  audience  who  wept  aud  wiUcd ;  and  no 
Heat  wa«  the  nugic  iufluance  uT  ihe  tale  that  Qfit'ftntl 
bliBKlf,  liKHi^b  iDcreduluika  of  ilA  truths  was  uiiabLe  Uj 

Inl  ii  refccml  to  an  erenl  w  Tat  removed  by  lime  from 
ibt  aee  in  which  he  lived  that  he  waB  compelled  to  be 
nptical  on  niany  poinu.  Hia  traoililor,  Iho-Waahiy- 
yii.  idila  [hat  Timmiu  beluDged  neither  to  the  Cbal- 

ii>  the  AnrTiaiia,  but  to  the  ancient  people  of  Juiban. 
Thk  lasc,  Chwulaon  cnnjectores,  may  be  the  Sbemilii; 
Bime  Kiven  tu  the  gigantic  Ciuhite  aborigines  of  Cbol- 
ilaa.  whom  the  Sbemilic  Nabathasans  Touud  when  they 
imaa^  into  the  cauntry,  and  from  whom  they  adapt- 
ed certain  dementa  of  their  worship.  Tbiu  Tammuz, 
wTammaii,  belongi  to  a  religinui  epoch  in  Babylonia 
«bich  preceded  Ihe  Shemitic  (id.  l/tUnitle  d.  aliba- 
^  l.ii.  p.  19),  Ibn.Wa»hijyah  aays,  moreover,  that 
ill  the  Sabian*  of  bi)  time,  both  those  of  Babylonia  and 
of  Harran,  wept  and  vailed  fat  Tammut  in  Ihe  month 
which  wai  named  after  him,  but  that  none  of  them  pre- 
•mtdauy  traditioa  of  the  utigiti  of  the  worship.  Thia 
rwt  atone  appean  to  militate  strongly  against  Ibe  truth 
oflba-Washiyyah'a  story  as  to  the  manner  in  which  he 
divoTend  the  works  he  professed  to  translate.  It  has 
bMO  due  Ui  Pmf.  Chwolaon'B  reputation  to  give  in  brief 
(he  iabataaee  of  bis  explanaiton  of  Tammuz;  but  it 
Dan  be  amfeased  that  he  Ibruws  little  light  upon  the 
ohanrily  of  the  subject. 

It  seems  perfectly  clear  from  what  has  been  said  that 
Ihe  name  Tammui  alTmla  no  clue  ifl  the  identittcation 
sf  the  deity  whom  it  deaignated.  The  slight  hint  given 
by  (he  pcophel  of  the  nature  of  Ihe  worship  and  wor- 
■hippen  of  Tammui  has  been  suffident  to  conned  them 
>ith  the  yearly  mourning  for  Adonis  by  the  Syrian 
lUaneli.  Beyond  this  we  can  attach  no  special  weight 
10  the  explanation  of  Jerome,  tt  is  a  conjecture,  and 
Dahiag  more,  and  don  not  appear  to  represent  any  tra- 
dition. All  thai  can  be  said,  therefore.  Is  that  it  is  not 
mpogsllile  that  Tammui  may  be  a  name  of  Adonis,  the 
n-god,  hut  thai  there  is  nothing  to  prove  it.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  Ihe  name  of  Adonis  does  occur  in  Hhceni- 
OK  iiHcriptiaas  p]i^!(,>ee  Gewniue,  JfoNun./'ilaR.ii, 
Mt).  and  the  ooincidences  of  the  ancient  iiotieea  above 
lad  the  mode  of  worship  detailed  below  wilh  Ihe  lan- 
gaage  of  Exekiel  affiml  the  ntoel  plausible  interpiela- 
tioD  hiifaeiui  offered. 

1.  Conufw*  o/lU  ChITiu.— There  was  a  temple  at 
Aiksihus.  in  Cyprus,  shared  by  Adonis  and  Aphradito 
Ifvaan.  11,41.2);  and  Ihe  worship  of  Adonis  is  said 

PtniBa  war  (Apollwlur.  ill,  14.4;  Pauian.  ii,!0.fi;  Ovid, 
Jr'r<».x,;26.  l>h(laiir..l/»iJLvii,3-i;  Plutarch,  .4 /cift. 
c  \»:  Atheiu  xv,  672;  Arisioph.  Pax,  420).  But  Ihe 
iDwa  e(  Dybloa,  in  Pbtenicia.  was  the  hcRdquiners  of 
Ihe  Adonis-worship  (Hsmakcr,  MiiaU.  Fhatdc  p.  ViS). 
The  (mt  in  bis  honor  was  celebrated  esch  year  in  the 
iHBple  of  Aphrodite  {swd  to  have  been  founded  by  Ki- 
nyna,  tbe  reputed  father  of  Adonis)  on  the  Lebanon 
iWisn,  De  Dta  Sfra,  g  S)  with  ritog  partly  aorrowfid, 
panlr  JoyfuL  Tbe  emperor  Jaltan  was  present  at 
Antiseh  when  tbe  same  festival  was  held  (Amm.  Hare, 
uii,  9, 13%  It  lasted  seven  days  (xx,  I),  Ihe  period 
i/ Beaming  amotig  the  Jews  (Ecclns.  xxii,  12;  Gen.  1, 
N;  I  Sam.  xiii,  18;  Judith  xvi,  34),  the  Egyptians 
iHeliodor.  ^ik.  vii,  II),  and  Ihe  Syrian!  (Lucian,  Dt 
Dm  SjTa,  %  63),  and  began  with  the  disappearance 
|a*anff^)  of  Adonia.  Then  followed  the  search  (fq- 
r«»c)  made  by  the  women  after  bim.  His  body  was 
Ktseaented  by  a  wooden  image  placed  in  the  BOHUlled 
j^rdeni  of  Adonis"  ('A^wvicoc  aqroi),  which  were 
wihenwai*  veaaeb  filled  with  mould,  and  planled  with 
•kfit,  barley,  leuucc,  and  fenneL  They  were  exposeil 
^  Ihe  woaien  to  tbe  heat  of  tbe  nti)  at  the  houae-doois 


17  TAMMUZ 

or  in  the  "  Porches  of  Adonis,"  and  Ihe  wilhennfc  of  tbe 
plants  was  regarded  as  symbolical  of  the  slaughter  of 
the  youth  by  the  flre-god  Mars.  lu  one  of  these  gat- 
deni  Adonis  was  found  again,  whence  tbe  fable  says  be 
was  slain  by  the  boar  in  the  lettuce  (d«dn]=Aphaca?), 
and  was  there  found  by  Aphrodite.     The  finding  again 

nied  by  all  the  usages  which  in  tho  Cast  attend  such  a 
ewemonv— [iTosi it  ution,  culling  off  the  lutir  (comp.  Lev. 
xtx,  28,' 29;  xxi,  b;  Deut.  xiv,  I),  cutting  the  breast 
with  knives  (Jer.  xvi,  6),  and  playing  on  pipes  (comp. 
MatLtx.  23).  The  image  of  Adonis  was  then  washed 
and  anointed  with  spices,  placed  in  a  culSu  on  a  bier, 
and  the  wound  made  by  the  boar  was  shown  on  the  fig- 
ure. The  people  sat  on  the  ground  round  the  bier,  with 
their  clothes  rent  (comp.  Ep.  of  Jer.  SI,  S2),  and  tbe 


>wled  ai 


!d  aloud.   The  ' 


burial  of  the  figure 
of  Adonis  (see  Moven,  Ph^mxitr,  I,  vii).  According 
to  Lucian.  some  of  Ihe  inbabilauta  of  Byblos  maintained 
that  tbe  Egyptian  Osiris  was  buried  among  them,  and 
that  Ihe  mourning  and  orgies  were  in  honor  of  him,  and 
not  of  Adonis  (Oe  Dta  Syiv,  g  7).  This  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  legend  of  Osiris  as  told  by  Plulaicb  (De 
U.  d  0*.).  Lucian  further  relates  thst  on  Ihe  same 
day  on  which  the  woukd  of  Bybkw  every  year  mourned 
for  Adonis,  the  inhabitants  of  Alexaiiilria  sent  them  a 
letter,  encluaed  in  a  vessel  which  was  wrapped  in  rushes 
or  papyrus,  announcing  that  Adonis  was  fuuud.  The 
veaael  was  cast  into  tbe  sea,  and  carried  by  the  current 

cian  ^v^\frriv  Ki^Xqv,  and  is  said  to  have  traversed 
tbe  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Byblos  in  seven 
davs.  Another  marvel  rebted  bv  the  same  narrator  is 
Ibu  of  Ihe  Kiver  Adonis  (Nshr  Ibnhim),  which  flows 
'     "  '  was  tinged 


e  legend,  c 


if  Adonis  (comp.  Milton,  Pur.  Iau 
but  a  rationalist  of  Bybkis  gave  him  a  different  expla- 
nation, how  thai  the  soil  of  the  Lebanon  wa>  naluralty 
very  red-colored,  and  was  carried  down  into  Ihe  river 
by  violent  winds,  and  so  gave  a  Uoody  linge  to  the 
waler;  and  to  Ibis  day,  says  Porter  (/yumfkwl,  p.  I8T), 
"  after  every  siorm  ihat  breaks  upon  the  brow  of  Leba- 
non the  Adonis  still '  runs  purple  to  tbe  sea.'  Tbe  rush- 
ing waters  tear  from  the  banks  red  soil  enough  to  give 
them  a  ruddy  linge,  which  poetical  fancy,  sided  by  pop- 
ular credulity,  converted  into  the  blood  of  Thammux." 

The  lima  at  which  these  riles  of  Adonis  were  cele- 
brated is  a  subject  of  much  disputo.  It  is  not  so  impor- 
tant with  regard  to  the  passage  in  Ezekiel,  for  there 
dues  not  appear  to  be  any  reason  for  supposing  that  the 
time  of  the  prophet's  vision  was  coincident  with  (he 
Ume  at  which  Tammui  was  worshipped.  Hovers,  who 
maintained  the  contrary,  endeavored  to  prove  thai  the 
cele^aiion  was  in  Ihe  )a(e  aulumn,  the  end  of  the 
Syrian  year,  and  corresponded  wi(h  the  time  of  Ibe 
autumnal  equinox.  He  relies  chiefly  for  his  conclu- 
sion on  the  account  given  by  .Ammiaiiiis  Uarcellinos 
(xxii,  9,  IS)  of  (he  Feast  of  Adonis,  which  was  held  at 
Antioch  when  the  emperor  Julian  entered  the  dtv.  It 
is  clear,  from  a  letter  of  the  empenH-a  (£)..  Jui,  62), 
that  he  was  in  Antioch  before  Aug.  1,  and  his  entry 
may  therefore  hare  taken  place  in  July,  Ihe  Tammui 
of  tbe  Syrian  year.  This  lime  agrees,  moreover,  wilh 
Che  explanalion  of  the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  ritea 
given  by  Ammianus  Matcellinus  (xiii,  9, 16)  that  they 

Now  at  Aleppo  (Russell,  Aleppo,  i,  72}  the  harvest  is  all 
over  before  the  end  of  June,  and  we  may  fairiy  conclude 
Ihat  the  same  was  Ihe  casa  at  Antioch.  Add  to  this 
that  in  Hebrew  astronomical  works  lion  PDIpn,  ttki- 

more  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  Adonis  feast  of 
Ihe  Phienicisns  and  Syrians  was  celebrated  rather  as 
the  summer  solstice  than  as  the  autumnal  equinox.    Al 


TAN  19 

this  time  tbe  *un  bcgina  to  dncend  among  the  winliy 
ugni  (Kenrick,  Piamcia,  p.  310). 

Sm,  in  iddition  la  the  abave  tlunture,an(l  that  dWd 
under  AnoHis,  Simonie,  Dt  SigntJicatioiK  Tiutmmvt 
(KaL1744);  Heunii  Adimia.iD  Gronor.  ril«aur.  vii, 
'208 aq,;  Mrrctnb,  ReBita,Jui.id60;  Cirulian Rtnum- 
branar,  April,  1861. 

Tan.    See  Dragov. 

Ta'nacb  (Joah.  xxi,  2&).    See  Taamacb. 

Taaairo.    See  Scribeb,  Jswiaii. 

Tancbelm  (Tanchklim,  TANquKLiN),  a  ranatlc 
who  liveil  in  the  llih  century,  and  wu  identifleri  vtiih 
the  oppoaition  current  in  that  age  igainat  the  ecclesiu- 
ticism  then  prevailing.  We  are  luld  Ibat  he  deipjied 
the  Cburch  and  the  clergy,  from  the  pope  downward, 
and  claimed  that  the  true  Churcli  inhered  in  him  and 
hia  followen ;  that  the  prically  ilalirm  has  no  influence 
upon  the  ucnment  of  the  euchariat.  worth  and  aanctity 
lieing  the  only  efficient  qualilicstiona  of  the  minister. 
He  declared  himaelf  to  l>e  poasesscd  at  the  Holy  (ihoat, 
■nil  even  to  be  Gnd,  aa  Chriat  ia  God;  and  he  affianced 
himself  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  whose  imajce  hepreaenied 
to  the  vision  of  the  aaseinbied  multitude,  demanding 
aponaalia,  which  were  readily  eonlribuWd.  Water  in 
which  he  bad  bathed  was  distriljuled  for  drinking  pur- 
poeca,  with  Ihe  asaurance  that  its  UM  formed  a  aacred 
and  powerful  Hcrameiit  to  Ihe  gond  of  Ihe  body  aa  well 

rrom  the  lower  claaaca  of  aoctety,  and  were  moally 
women.  Hia  opetaliona  were  carried  on  along  Ihe 
coaat  uf  the  Netherlands,  and  particularly  in  Utrecht, 
where  disluibfliicea  were  occasioned  which  called  forth 
Ihe  successru]  interference  of  archblahop  Frederick  of 
Cologne.  Tancbelm  Ihen  removed  to  Bnigea  and  Ant- 
werp, where  he  caused  atill  greater  tumults  than  at 
[Jtrechl,andwaa  killed  on  shipboard  by  a  prieat  in  A.D. 
IIS4  or  1125.  Hia  sect  continued  la  exist  aomewhot 
longer,  but  was  ultimately  scattered  or  reclaimed  tu  the 
Church.  See  Hahn,  Gack.  d.  Krttrr  m  Milltlalltr 
(Stultg.  IS4a),  i,  469  sq.:  Okken,  Diu.  de  Prica  RrL 
Cki-iH.  Med.  ^vo  inltr  NttUrUadoi,  etc  (tironing.  1846), 
p,  43  sq.;  Ep,  Traj.  Eai.  ad  Fridtricun,  Archirjiiteo' 
pumColm^'mltDg^St\,ColL  Vtt. Moimm.cv<ara Scki- 
nwirinH(lngoIst.l6l2),p.86Ssq.;  Du  Plesaisd'Argen- 
tie,  CoU.  Jad.  dt  Aon*  Erroribiu,  etc  (Paris,  l7-i8),  i, 
1 1  sq. — llerzog,  Rtal-Encykhp^  &  v. 

TancliBlmlaiia.    See  Tancheui. 

Tanohtun  (of  Jkri'Saleh)  BE^-JoflBP,  also  called 
"ff.  Tancham  Jemihilmi"  »/ Ualtb.  flourished  about 
A.D.  1265-80.  The  first  who  made  Tanchum's  name 
known  to  Ihe  learned  world  waa  tb*  famoua  acbolar 
Schnurrer,  who  in  1791  published  ch.  i-xii  of  Tanchum'a 
.\rabic  commentary  on  Judgea:  A.  TanciHnii  IJitiom- 
Igmilatii  ad  I.ilmu  V.  T.  Commmlani  A  rabin  Sprcimen 
ana  run  Aiimiilatieinbiit  dd  attgaot  Lota  LUai  Jadirvm 
(.Tubingen,  1791).  Knee  that  time  hia  exegetical  worka 
hare  been  brought  to  light,  though  nothing  uf  his  life 
is  known  except  that  he  must  have  lived  shortly  aOer 
the  devastation  of  Falealine  by  the  Mongolians,  A-D. 
t:;60.  He  wrote  a  commentary  in  Arabic  on  the  whole 
Olrl  Test.,  cnlitled  ItfabK  asrs,  i.  e.  The  Boot  of 
Erpoiilion,  of  which  the  I'ollowing  are  still  e.xtant  in 
MS.at  the  Bodleian  Library:  a.  the  commentary  c.n  the 
earlier  prophets, i.e.Jinhua,  Judges, Samuel, and  Kings 
(CiHl.ro[ack314);£.commenlarieaun.lcremiah,Ezekie1 
and  the  minor  prophela  (Cod.  Pucock  344):  ccummen- 
tariea  on  the  five  Megillath  (i.  e.  Song  obSunfp^  Kiilh, 
I^amenlaltons.  EcclcaiaaIeB.and  Esther)  aiul  Daniel  (Coil. 

Pi>cock  320);  A  ni-iuBnbs  mcitt  astrs,  i.  e.  r*f 

//npAr(iroM,or /rsHiBi /ram  tAei>nipAeH,transbited  into 
Arabic  (Cod.  Hunt  607).    T 
ceded  by  elaborate  inlniditctions  tr 
import  of  Holy  Writ.    Besides  Ihe 


TANCRED 

been  edited  by  W.  Curetfln,  Tandtumi  Bierotalf- 

ni  Comm.  A  rabirui  m  tamenlatiimtt  t  Cvdia  oav 
r.iltrit  /Itbroiat  erarala.  Dacnptit  Cia- 
raelere  Arabico  tl  edidit  (Lond.  1313),  Ihe  fullowing  per- 
liona  bave  been  published :  L  Commentary  on  ,/ojjUiir, 
edited  by  Haarbrilcker,  in  Ihe  Wu$niKhnfilidu  K/aWw 
UKi  dtr  Veilrt-llmt-EphTaim'Khen  LiAraiutati  (Berlin, 
1863);  ii.  on  Judgel,  in  part  bv  Schnurrer,  cb.  1-iii,  and 
ch.  xiii-xxi  by  Haarbrilcker  (Halle,  l»17);  iiL  on  Sam- 
utt  and  KUgi,  by  Haarbrilcker  (Leipsic,  1344);  ir.  nn 
llabaOat.  with  a  French  IniisUtion  br  Dr.Hunk  (Par- 
is, IS4S,  in  C:ahen's  Uble,  voL  xiii).  "R.  Tanchum's 
contributions  to  Biblical  exegeaia,"  aara  Dr.  Gioabufg, 
"  are  very  important  to  ila  hbtiiry.  His  commenrarica 
are  based  upon  the  literal  and  grammatical  meaning  of 
the  text.  He  freqnenlly  avails  himselrof  the  labon  of 
Hai  Gaon,  Danash  ibn-Libral,  Ibn-Chajug,  Ibn-UanKb, 
Ibn-Kira,  Maimonides.  etc;  rejects  (he  traditionid  in- 
terprelalions  (comp.  cnmm.  on  Judg.  xii.  7 :  xx,  !8)( 
Iranspoeea  sundry  portions  of  the  sacred  narratives,  so 
aa  to  point  out  their  chronological  order  (comp.  Judg. 
iviii,  1 ;  xic,  !8),  and,  like  Maimonides,  diatiuguiaha 
diflerenc  degrees  and  kinds  of  prophecy  (comp.  vi,  H; 
xiii,  1;  XX,  38)."  He  also  wtote  an  AnMe  Laiam 
to  the  Hishna,  entitled  ^C»=Vm  IsncVx,  i.  c  .4  B*f- 
Jicimt  Gaidr,  treallng  on  tbe  relation  of  the  language 
uf  the  Miahiia  and  uf  Maimonidea'  lad  ha-Cluaaia. 
There  are  four  different  MSb.  of  Ibis  work  in  the  Bod- 
leian Libiary,  viz.  Cod.  Pocock  297,  written  by  Saadia 
ben-Jacob  in  1388;  Cud.  Hunt.  129,  by  Saadia  hen-Da- 
vid In  1461 ;  Cud.  Hunt.  I»l,  by  Solomo  ben- David  hen- 
lUnjamin  in  1393;  and  Cod.  Pucoch  215,  216. 229,  will- 
ten  iu  1449.  He  aleo  wrote  a  Grammar  of  Ihe  Old- 
Teat.  Hebrew,  quoted  by  Tanchum  himseir,  but  which 
has  not  yet  cume  lo  ligbl.  See  De  Kossi,  Itiiiiaoriir 
Slorico  (<ierm.  trontl.),  p.  145  sq.i  Kitto,  {."fiti^.  (.  v.; 
Fllral,  UibL  Jud.  ii,  oG  aq.;  Sleiiiichtieider,  Calahsti 
libr.  ItAr.  u  }m.  BadL  cuL  26G6'36i;9i  Ewald,  Bri- 
trSge  tar  Gi$th.  J.  iilliiltn  Anstri/UHS  a.  SprachtrUi- 
ni«!i  da  A.  I'al.  (Slullgan,  1844),  i,  151  aq.;  Giitti, 
Gad.  d.  Judnt  (Leipalc,  1873),  vii,  144  sq.;  Etbcridge, 
fnlrod.  lo  IM.  LUnuiatr,  p.  44 ;  Kejt,  Itilrod.  to  lit  OU 
TaL  II,  384  sq.i  Bleek,  Eiidaliimi  m  dai  Altf  Tal.  p. 
106)  Go1dziher,5fifdtpnii6rrr(iaaliu>./erwci(alan(Ldp- 
sic  1870),  Oeiger,  Judacht  ZtitKhnJi,  1862.  p.  19Si 
1871,  p.  199;  Grktz,  l^omiUtrkT^}.  1870,  p.  23»,  tS); 
Zuchold,  BiUiulkeca  Tkeol«gica,  ii,  1306.     ifi.  P.) 

TancbtUDa  bh-n-Abba,  who  flourished  A.D.  am,  'a 
the  reputed  author  of  the  celebrated  commentary  on 
Ihe  Pentateuch  called  X«in:r  Cnis,  for  which  see 
Ihe  an.  Miuiuaii.  The  latest  edition  ia  that  published 
bv  E.  Perlmutter  (Stettin,  1864).  See  Fllrxt,  Bibl.JtJ. 
ii'i,  409;  Steinschiielder,  CalaloguM  Ubr.  ffrir.  m  BtU. 
Bodl.  cot.  2669;  Grati.  fltich.  dtt  Judm,  iv,  458,  558; 
Woir,  BOL  lltin:  i,  1159  aq.:  iii,  1166  aq.;  iv,  lOS&i 
Zunz,  Gallad.  Votirage  (Berlin,  1832),  p.  226-239;  De 
Kiisai.  Dizlooario  Slorico  «ienn.  Iransl.),  p.  307;  id. 
A  muiUa  Urbiav-lfpoffraphiei,  p.  24.     (&  P.) 

Tancred,  CHtiiBTorHEa,  an  Engliah  benefacliv, 
was  the  sou  of  Sir  Kichard  TaiMred,  and  died  iincDat- 
tied  in  17o4,  leaving  hia  house  aud  estate  at  Whixley 
for  the  mainteitance  of  twelve  deeayetl  Kenilemea 
who  had  borne  arms  in  ihe  aervice  of  ilieir  county. 
Ha  also  founded  four  medical  exhiliiiiona  at  Cuoi 
Cnllege;  four  in  divinity  at  Chri.i'a  Cullege,  Cam- 
bridge;   and     fuur    law     studenialiipa    at    Liiiculo'a 

TsDiJiad  OF  BoLOOHA  waa  a  moat  celebrated  can- 
oniat  uf  the  I3lh  century  (who  must  not  be  confounded 
with  another  Tailored  of  Corneto;  comp.  Da  Savi^v, 
Gad,  d.  rom.  Rtthi$  im  MiHrUillrr  [2d  ed.],  v.  135, 
and  p.  115, 116).  Ilia  preceptors  were  Aio  in  Knman 
and  Laurentiiis  in  canon  laiv.  In  1210  he  was  himerlf 
a  teacher  {decrrlonm  mitffitirr)  at  Bidogna,  and  inimai- 
of  importanl  aBaira  by  bulb 


TANCKED  1! 

<  ibepopcuMl  tht  cilv.  He  belonged  tn  the  Chapter  of 
Bolo^I,  ukI  in  I2J6  wu  mide  archclsiaiil  by  Hchid- 
riu  III,  whkb  pueilion  then  includ«<  amDEig  iii  dutiea 
ihc  Hpenuian  of  pcomurkma  in  the  univenily.    The 

liriiir  u>  l£36,  u  the  arehiluiconatr  ig  then  found  to  be 
n  Mh»r  hand*  (aee  Saiii,  Dt  Clarit  Ardt^mnarii  Bo- 
w^flH.  Pntfiuoi-Oai,  {un  ii,  tt\.  S8,  »,  36,  S7,  181)- 
Ilia  lilHWT  reouiiu  iocluda  ■  Smmria  dt  Miilrimonia, 
mam  between  1310  aiiil  1213;  flnt  published,  wjtb 
imnania  intcrpolatioiu,  bv  Simon  SchanI  (Colngne, 
\ha\  and  again,  in  rerised'fonn,  by  Wunilerlich  |,GJit- 
iiiign,134l);— an  0rdoJtiditiatvit{0r4iaaFiatTaticrt' 
Ji'XwriUHi  about  1214,  and  anerwaidireviwd  in  1225, 
1S34,  and  often  bj-  anknowii  Mhotara.  It  waa  formerly 
Icbmd  that  thii  work  originated  in  abaiiC  1227,  but 
iht  earlttT  dale  ii  now  accepted.  An  edition  of  the 
mitk  in  iu  oritcinnl  rorni  waa  t«ued  by  Bergmann  (ibid. 
IHlit  TancTBl'a  Irciureg  at  Bolngna  were,  among  Other 
luiim.  upon  Ihe  cnllectioni  of  decrelala  teecifed  into 
ihc  curriculum  of  Biiln;;na  after  the  close  of  (iratian'i 
nilkciion,  anil  naultcd  in  jlpponiriu,  or  commentariea, 
<«•  ibe  trat  three  compilaiiona  He  hail  no  pari,  how- 
rrn-.in  Ibe  preparation  of  Ihe  Hfth  ancient  cnmpilalion. 
In  idditioo  to  the  above,  Ihere  is  extant  of  Tancred'e 
BoTit  a  raaniucript  list  of  bishoprica  throughout  the 
<.'hiin:li,  arranged  iu  the  order  of  province!  (De  Savigni-, 
tt  np.  p.  117, 118).     See  Heraog,  Heal-Eiiqitiop.  8.  v. 

Tancted  of  Ijicilt,  the  aon  of  Eudes,  a  Nnnnan 
barun,  and  of  Emma,  the  aiaier  of  Kobert  UuiKard, 
■u  one  nf  Ihe  celebrated  heroes  of  ihe  first  Cruaade, 
sad  «ai  born  after  the  middle  of  Ihe  llih  centuti'. 
Smw  chnmidera  prDfeuui  detail  Ihe  even  la  uf  his  early 
life,  deaeribing  him  aa  Ihe  most  accomplished  youth  of 
hi)  time  iu  athletic  and  military  exercises,  and  of  a 
•liidsmfatsurpaAinglhat  of  men  of  mature  yeara,  and 
M  a  ptitiaan  of  hi)  eonslu  Bohemoiid  in  the  quarrel 
wiih  their  uncle  Koger  of  Sicily.  But  the  first  au- 
tbntic  infonnalinn  leapecling  him  is  that  he  raiaed  a 
iann  body  of  men  ill  Apulia  and  Calabria,  and  Joined 
Bubiaund,  then  on  his  way  In  the  first  Crusade.  The 
m  fouains  landed  in  Epirus,  and  Hrst  one  and  then 
■he  other  made  hia  snbmiaainn  to  the  <ireeli  emperor 
Alriii.  Tancrtd's  exploiu  on  the  way  to  Syria;  his 
iinarrel  with  Baldwi 
hii  suhaequent  chiv 
hii  ii<al;  hia  womli 
killed  no  fewer  than  7011  inHdela,  IranHniiling  the  heads 
<t  ieTeniT  to  ihe  pope,  and  receiving  a  correipanding 
auBbet  lif  marka  of  silver  in  return  j  hia  rigorous  re- 
pabe  of  the  lini  aortic  by  the  iiiKdels  friNn  -leruBalem ; 
liiiHd  and  luiwly  vigil  •ti  Ibe  Mount  of  Olives;  and 
his  callaniry  at  the  BUnining  of  I  lie  sacred  vtly,  are  all 
•Mailed  by  tlie  numerous  chmniclen  of  this  epoch  in 
■heir  oBoal  Myle  of  exlraragant  laudation,  but  with  a 
hanHigy  which  «|<eaks  favorably  for  their  correct  ap- 
rnciaiion  of  hia  characler.  He  was  one  of  the  claim- 
ua  al  the  ihnitie  uT  Jerusalem,  and  was  pacified  by 
'iodrrey  (q.  v.\  Ihe  successful  competitor,  with  the  gift 
<jf  BHiM  luwns  in  Palesiiiie^  and  tbc  principnlily  of  Gal- 
ilee or  Tiberias.  A  brief  quarrel  with  Baldwin,  after 
(^udfiey'i  death,  petty  combata  wilb  Ibe  infidel  and 
Ncaoooal  wars  with  the  other  Chriatian  princes  who 
had  nttled  in  Syria  and  Palcatine  occupied  the  remain- 
der of  hii  life,  wbii'U  was  Lruught  lu  a  close  al  An- 
lioeh  iu  1111.  Bendea  hit  own  princriialily,  be  gov- 
traed  that  of  Antiuch.  bel-ngiiig  In  hia  conriti  Uiibe- 
wnd,  from  liOO.  Tlie  fiery  and  energeiic,  but  at 
tlH  taaie  ubm  pioirs.  sagaciuus,  and  (brlicaring,  chief 
wkom  ih«  chraniclen  present  lo  ua  haa  been  conaid- 
mblf  loned  down  bjr  Twao  in  hia  Gtruialmmt  Libt- 

Tan'btunsth  [aone  Tmlm'mak']  (Heb.  Tanchv'- 
■**•  fW^??.  HMsaoliltoa;  Sept  BavaiiaS  or  Oavnc 
*ii  V.  t.  Ua*tfii^,  etc;  Vulg.  Tkamhanitlh).  the  fa- 
itn  (PDnt  aaja  molhtr,  a>  the  name  is  fern.)  of  Seraiah, 


II  Aabearance  lu 


)9  TANNER 

in  the  lime  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kings  xxr,  23,  where  he  ap- 
pean  as  a  Netuphathite  by  the  clerical  emisaion  of  an- 
other name,  as  ia  evident  from  the  parallel  passage,  Jer. 
xl,  8).     RC.  ante  582. 

Ta'nlB  (Tofic,  the  Greek  form  {Judith  i,  10)  of  tbe 
Egyptian  city  Zmn  (q.  v.). 

Tankeifleld,  Gkorqr,  an  English  martyr,  waa  s 
native  of  York,  and  followed  the  occupalion  of  a  cook. 
SeeiuK  the  great  cruelty  shown  by.  the  papists  under 
queen  Mary,  he  began  to  doubt  their  doctrinea  and  to 
abhor  them.  After  study,  reflection,  and  prayer,  he  ab- 
jured poperj-,  whereupon  he  was  arretted  and  taken  to 
Newgale  in  February-,  Ifioi.  Being  summoned  before 
bishop  Bonner,  lie  decUred  his  convictions  concemini; 
auricular  confession,  the  mass,  etc.  He  was  sentenced 
to  deslh,  and  was  burned  at  the  stake  Aug.  26.  See 
Miliier'a  Fos,  lliH.  ofCkrii).  Martj/Tdam,  ii,  770, 

Tanner  (fSufxrtvc,  Hebraized  in  the  Talmud  as 
-S113,alsa  "pOlU),  ihe  occupalion  of  Simon  of  Joppa 
(AcU  ix,  43;  x,  6,  S2).  TbU  trade,  on  account  of  tho 
bad  smell  connected  with  it  (comp.  Scbol.  on  Aristoph. 
Eg.  44;  Petron.  Sal.  II),  was  despised  among  the  Jews 
{Krlhabolh,  vii,  10 ;  AltgilltA,  iii,  2;  see  Schtitigen,  Ho>: 
Heb.  i,  447;  Wetlstein,  If.  T.  ii,  &I6>  Those  who  fol- 
lowed it  were  called  by  the  Greeks  ^upaoipHiai,  in 
Ulin  evriarii,  mboriarii  (Guler,  Jmcii/H.  p.  1648,  No. 
8).  They  usually  had  Iheir  work-place  outside  the 
cities  (Artemid.  i,  51 ;  Misbna,  Babii  Biilhra,  ii,  9),  or 
on  Btreama  or  the  sea  (Acts  x,  6).  See  Walch,  Daml. 
M  Act.  ApoMl.  ii,  101  aq, — Winer.  See  Heciianic.  Th<r 
ancient  Egvptians  used  the  bark  of  various  trees  for 
Uiining  (Wilkinaon,  ii.  106).    See  Lkathkk,    The  lan- 

(Thomson,  Laad  and  BDok,  ii,  281>     Several  drcuni- 

"  house  of  Smou"  there  (Stanley,  Patnl.  p.  269).    See 

Tanner,  the  name  of  several  theological  scholars 

1.  AiiAM,  bora  at  Innsbruck  in  I&72,  a  Jesuit,  lecl- 
ured  on  theology  at  Ingolitadt  and  Vienna,  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  Univeruty  of  Prague,  and  died  March 
25, 1B32,  at  Unken.  He  wrote,  AViicA^  iiier  dif  Diipa- 
laliim  za  HfnniAuTg,  1601  (Munich.  1602) :— rfcwi^ 
SehotaUica  (4  vols.):— .jnnroiniii  Cmfrinmu  AugUM- 
tima:—Apoiogin  pro  Soevrtale  Jriu  (Vienna,  1618):— 
Diiputalvmn  Thrilof/iir  ia  Samanm  Thomai—Aitroto' 
gia  Saoa  ([ngolstadt,  1621). 

3.  CoMiAD,  bnni  at  Schirrx  Dee.  38, 17.^2,  was  made 
abbot  of  miiisiedeln  in  1808,  and  died  April  7, 1825.  He 
wrote.  Die  hiblang  dn  Geitllkhea  i/m-ci  Ceufntibiinf/ni 
(Augsburg,  1807, 2  vols. ;  ttih  ed.  1 847)  -.—Btlraclilmgm 
mr  liliarhm  A«JTM}-mg  im  Idfrn  Johrkundtrt  (ibid. 
1804)  \—Hnrachlmgm  aa/dit  Feilt  dit  Htm  and  der 
Hritigm  (ibid.  1829  >q.). 

3.  MAi-riiiAB,  bom  at  Pilsen  in  ICSO,  a  Jeauit,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  and  theology,  and  was  sent  lii 
Home  in  1675  aa  procurator  of  his  oriler.  He  died  about 
1705.  He  wrote, Crunifi(niCAi-uliiS»cri|!ciain/Bcruenru 
.Vtm  Saaifiao  rrjdifalum  (Prague,  1669)i_Coii'ru 
Omtiti  impie  Agmlti  in  Locit  Sacrit  [Latin  and  Bohe- 
mian] ■.^Soeitlai  Jtiu  utqut  ad  Sunfiaiiiii  el  Wilr  I'rn. 
futvimm  MilHimi  [a  glorification  of  Ihc  Jesuitic  mis- 
sion] (iliiil.  1675 ;  in  German,  1683J ;  similar  is  SnHttnt 
Jem  Apiitloluram  Imiltilrixnce  ti'tin  Prmebnarl  Virla~ 
M.clc.  [Utin  and  (ierman]  (ibid.  IWH  and  1701):.^ 
//in/ai-ia  Montit  Otireli  in  Sfomri/i  ad  Sfrtimbrrgam 
5>f>  [UohemUn]  (ibid.  1 1166).     (B.  P.) 

4.  Thomas,  an  Englioh  divine  and  aniiquari-,  na* 
bora  at  ItlnikctLavingion,  Wiltshire,  in  1674.  He  en- 
tered Queens  College,  Uxford.  in  tl>N!>!  was  admilled 
clerk  in  l«90i  graduated  in  1S93:  cnlered  holv  ..rdera  at 
Chrislma^  1694;  became  chaplain  of  All-Souls'  Odh-^c 

'  inuary  followine;  fellow  of  Ihe  same  in  1697;  and 
chancclkir  of  Norfolk  and  rector  of  Thorpe,  near  Nor- 


TANQUELMIANS  2( 

Kich,  ID  17a«.  Hs  »u  inaUlW  prebcndin-  nf  Ely 
Sept.  10,  1713;  archdeicon  al  Kiirfulk  Utc.  7,  1721; 
cinon  of  ChriM  Church  Feb.  8, 17i3:  pruluculnr  of  the 
Plouse  iif  Convocition  in  1737:  anil  wu  conMcnted 
biiihnp  of  Sl  Auph  Jan.  S3, 1732.  He  died  at  Chri>[ 
Church,  OxA^  Dec  U,  1736.  Alter  hia  dealh  ip- 
pesrecl,  Noliiia  Moiuulica,  or  an  Accoind  nfaUiht  Ab- 
brs;  Ihioria,  fle.,fon»ttty  in  England  and  Wain,  rlc, 
wiih  ulitiiiimit  br  (he  Rei-.John  Tanner  (Lotid.  1744, 
ful.;  Camb.l7«7.'Uil.):  —  SiblivHtt(aBrilaiatiai.//i6rr- 
ificit,atte  de  ScripiorilHUfqui  m  ^it^uj,elc.  (LinkL  1748, 
ful.;  SaOcopiea). 

See  Tifohgitcitt  l/nittiial-Lfxiion,  >.  v. ;  Wetter  u. 
Welle,  Kirekrti-Laihm,  s.  v.;  RrgrmdniTgeT  Conrerni' 
UoHt-l^nikvn,  i,  v.;  Winer,  Hati^Kch  drr  Iktolog.  Lilt- 
ralur,  \,  lU;  ii,  40,  797;  Chalmera,  8103.  W(T.  ■.  v.; 
llook,  Eairf.  Biog.  s.  v.;  AUiboiie,  Din.  of  Bril.  mid 
AmtT.  Author*,  a.  v.  On  Adam  Tanner,  lee  also  Wer- 
ner, Gitclt.  drr  kalheL  TheoL  leil  dm  tridttU.  ComU. 
tMuiiich,  ISlHi;,  p.  7, 17,  ib. 

Tanqnelmloiu.    See  Taschelmiahs. 

Taolatm,  Taoism.    See  Lao-ted. 

Tapers,  Early  Ubb  of.  It  became  cuatonary  at 
an  early  period  lo  bum  tapers  in  cliurches  cm  various 
ucciHona.  Thia  waa  dune  during  the  reading  of  (he 
lioepel,  and  in  partly  cxeuaed  by  Jeronie.  lie  aaya  to 
Viifilanlim,  "We  do  not  light  candles  in  open  day, 
therefore  you  alaiider  ua  without  reaaon,"  Heconfeates, 
le  untaught  laymen  and  aimple  relig- 


n,"ofw 


say  It 


have  a  leal  of  (iodwiihuut  knowledge,' 
in  honor  of  nurlyra;  but  he  aaka,  What  ia  the  harmi 
And  then  he  refers  to  a  ciiMoni  prevalent  in  Ihe  East 
"  In  all  churches  of  the  Eaat  ihey  light  tapers,  withoul 
niiy  respect  to  the  rclica  of  inanyrs,  vrhen  the  goepel  ia 
lu  he  read,  even  when  the  aun  ahines  brighlly 
ia  done,  not  for  the  aakc  of  giviiig  light,  but  ai 
preuion  of  joy.  Hence  the  virgina  in  the  Guapd  had 
their  lamps  lighted;  and  Ihe  apoelles  were  warned  lo 
*  let  their  loins  be  ^rded  about,  and  iheir  tighta  hum> 
infc.'  Hence  it  is  said  of  John  also, '  He  woa  a  burning 
tilU  •  shining  light.'     Abo  under   * 


rij  light  \i 


ed  tl 


'  Itglit  of  which 


a  read  in  the  Psi 
'Thy  word  is  ■  lam 
uniD  my  feet,  and 
light  unto  my  path.' 


'   blematicnl  uf  thd  \\\i 

same  custom.  Tapers 
were  also  uaed  at  mar- 
riat^a;  and  in  funeral 
proceiwona  carried  be- 
fore and  behind  the 
coffln.  —  Farrar,  Kcda, 


Bticha  which  sre  placed 


=  were  lighted  during  the 


0  TAPPAN 

the  Weal  expects  that  at  WaaC  two  be  lightMl,  enn 
at  low  celebriiiona;  at  bi^h  celebralions,  in  Ibc  Ljilin 
Church,  aa  alan  in  aone  ICnglish  churches,  six  iBfieis 
are  ordinarily  lighted.  They  symbottzc  (1 )  the  faci 
lur  Saviour,  "G.hI  of  Uod,  Light  of  Li({hl,  very 
God  of  very  Gnd,"  is  the  true  Light  of  the  worlil.  Tliey 
also  (a>  aytnbola  of  joy  and  gladneaa  on  the  pan  of 
faithful  that  Chriit  ie  bom  into  the  worlJ  (a)  nalu- 
rolty,  ifi)  MKTamen tally,  i.  e.  in  Ihe  encharistie  iDysierr. 
'  seventh  taper  ia  added  if  ihe  bishop  of  the  diacei>e 
celebrates  a  solemn  poniihcal  mass;  ereu  twelve  ur 

Ta'phath  (Heli.  Taphalh',  r$^,  omomatf ;  Sept. 
TtfidS  V.  r.  Ta^ra ;  Vidg.  Txpirth).  Solomon's  daugh- 
T,  and  wife  of  Abinadab,  liis  commissariat  in  Ibe  dis- 
ict  of  Dor  (1  Kings  iv,  ll>  ac.  cir.  1000. 
Taph'nea  (To^Mf),  a  Grascised  foriD  (Jndiih  i, 
I  of  Ibe  Egyptian  city  TaiifanHks  (q.  v.). 
Ta'phoa  (v  T(^;  Jnaephus,  Tojon  or  Toxiav: 
ulg.  rinpo;  Syr.  Ti/at),  one  of  Ihe  ciliea  in  Judsa 
iitilini  by  Bacchidca  (1  Mace  ix,  SO).  It  is  pnbiblv 
the  Itin-11-TAl^i.'Aii  fq.v.)  of  Ihe  Old  Te>i_  which  laV 
ar  Hebron.  The  form  given  by  Josephus  snggfsn 
■ton,  but  Grimm  {Errg.  riandlmci)  has  pointed  out 
at  Ilia  niuivaleni  for  that  name  is  Qirwi ;  and  ilirre 
beaides,  lun  much  unanimity  among  the  venkxis  (o 
low  uf  its  being  accepled. 

Tappan,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Congrrgaiional  min- 
er, the  son  of  (he  Rev.  Uavi.1  Tappan,  pnifraaoi  of 
linily  in  Karranl  College,  and  grandson  of  Benjamin 
TapiMii,  pastor  in  Manchester,  Mass.,  was  bom  at  West 
lurv'.  Mask  Not.  7, 17H8.     He  graduated  at  Hai^ 
College  in  1H06.  tpent  some  time  learbing  at  Wn- 
and  .Salem,  and  in  IK09  became  (ulor  at  Itowdniti 
Ee,  Me.,  which  position  he  held  liir  two  years,     la 
lie  was  ordnined  over  the  Church  in  Auguata,  Me, 

of  the  Maine  Hiaaionar;  Soeietv  in  1M9.  His  ijeaih 
took  place  Dee.  Si,  1863.  His  ninial>y  w»  eminejiily 
useful,  and  few  men  occupy  a  more  pmminnit  place  in 
the  liiatory  uf  Congregalionaliam  in  Maine.  He  was 
vice-presiilenl  of  the  board  of  Bowdoin  College  uniil  hii 
death,  secretary  of  Ihe  Maine  Miseiunsrv  Soriciv  fnim 
1840  to  1HG3.  and  trustee  uf  Bangor  Tb^logiral'  Semi- 
nary from  ISib,  of  which  he  was  a  most  liberal  ai>d 
steadfast  friend,  and  a  prufeaHinhip  in  which  he  dr- 
clined  in  1829.  Dr.  Tappan  wu  an  immense  worker, 
waa  noted  for  his  hotpitaliiy  and  generosity,  and  hb 
Christian  chararler  waa  one  of  beauty  and  siimgih. 
He  was  an  efleclive  preacher,  and  had  a  remarkable 
gift  in  prayer.  Dr.  Tappan  waa  one  of  the  pionecri  iu 
the  temperance  reform,  preaching  a  permnn  on  ihe  uib- 
jccl  in  IttlS.  Walervitle  College  (now  Colhv  Uoivei- 
sity)  conrened  upon  him  Ihe  degree  of  D.D.  in  18S«, 
and  Bowdoin  in  1846.  See  (Wji.  Quarlrrlf  (siL  by  bii 
BOii  Ilenjamin),  18i;6,  p.  131-159. 

Tappan,  David,  D.D..  a  Congregational  minieier, 
was  born  at  Manchester,  Ma-w.,  in  1763,  gndualed  11 
Harvard  College  in  1771,  and  was  onlained  in  April, 
1774,  pastor  at  Sewbury,  Uasa„  where  he  remained  un- 
til inaugurated  profeaanr  of  divinity  atHarvanlCollrgp, 
Dec.  96, 1T92,  nhich  position  he  rviained  until  bia  death, 
Aug.  27,  IWIS.  He  puWished,  Ttco  /"lirw/^  IrllrTi  l<i 
Piilalftirt  (1786)  :_^n  ^ifilmi  lo  ihr  StKdfiHi  »/At,~ 
dnrrr  Aatdrmg  (1791);— .4a  Addmt  lo  Aaiittr  Slu- 
dmli  (1794):— and  a  large  number  of  occaaianal  *V.. 
mom.  After  hia  death  were  publiahed  f.erriirn(niJ<w. 
ilh  Anliyuilirt  (1SI17):— i$rmini(  on  ImportBtl  Snljrr'i 
(1807).    SeeSprague,^tnuibD/tta^iiMr./>ll^,ii,9r. 

Tappan,  ^7111  lam  Bingham,  an  American  di- 
vine, was  bom  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  in  1794,  eirtend  ihe 
aertice  of  the  American  Sunday-school  Union  in  1S26, 
and  continited  this  connection  until  his  death,  al  West 
Ncedham,  Masa.,  in  184!*.  He  puhlished,  among  nihcr 
[■lelical  Borkfs  Porlry  n/  Ih  iltati  (WorccBicr,  I8J5, 


TAPPUAH 


201 


TARES 


l^o)i—Siuniilaiid  MittrOiuirouiPoemt  (Bottrm,  1846, 
ltmoy:—Pattrf  of  Lift  (ibid,  1847,  lBrDo):-r*«  «llii- 
A)r«Dh»t  amd  othrr  PaemI  <ibid.  1848,  lamo;.  See 
Uiiiailt,Diel.efBril.aiidAtittt:Altlkort,s.v. 

Tap'pnall  [aanie  Tof>pa'ak'\  (Hpb.  Tappu'adi, 
nan  [  in  1  Chmn.  ii,  43,  nsn  J,  in  o/jpfr,  m  orteii; 
Stpt.  To^ir,  Tafovr,  eoftS,  eii^«ou,  etc.,  and  iwice 
[J.Bh,  IV,  34;  »vii,  8]  omiu;  Vulg.  TupiBu),  tb« 
uimtnTa  mia  uidilao  of  two  placet  ia  Paleatine.    See 

1.  Second  named  of  Ihe  four  •odi  ot  Ilebrnn  o(  the 
lioHge  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii,  43) ;  not  lo  be  confounded 
litb  liiher  of  Uie  fuUowing  (see  Keil,  ad  fee).  EC 
uulEia. 

3.  A  town  in  Ibe  lowlanil  dialrict  of  Judab,  men- 
umd  betireeii  Ethgannim  and  Euam  (Josh,  xv,  U), 
in  Ibe  giwigi  situated  in  Ibe  N.VV.  comer  (  aee  Keil, 
i^let.):  A\Sen  fmni  the  Deth - Uppuab  (q.v.)  ot 
IB.  SO,  but  foiibably  llie  lame  with  the  rujal  city  of 
ib(  Canaaniiea  (Jah.  xii,  17),  conquered  by  the  lariel- 
iiolKe  Keil.  oJ  toe.).  Itiiperbapa  the  preaont  Bril- 
't'oi,  an  important  place  on  a  conspicuous  hill,  about 
hiir-wav  fniiD  .leniiakni  U>  Beit-Jebhn.  It  contaiiu 
iboai  SIM  or  TOO  inhdjitanta,  it  built  of  atnne,  and  hat 
1  ruined  lower  or  castle  (  Robinun,  BibL  Ra.  ii,  IB ). 
Tha  i>  tppaienilT  the  place  meant  by  Schwarz  {Fulrtl, 
ivioj)  bv  "the  villatfe  BrfA-7V(/)a,'t)Te  Engliih  miles 
.V.W.  [i«  N.E.]  of  BeiUibriii." 

3.  A  town  in  ihe  tribe  of  Epbraim,  near  the  bnrder 
cf  Jlanassch,  in  which  latter  Ihe  adjacent  territory 
rliBd  iirTa|>|Hiab~}  lay  (Joth.  xvi,  8;  xrii,  8);  prob- 
ibly  nntaining  a  fine  spring,  and  hence  called  (.ver.  7) 
Ki-TArptTAii  (q.  v.).  it  is  no  douLi,  aa  sugKested  liv 
Vis  lie  Vel.le  <  Mrwu>ir,  p.  361 },  akhough  this  is  di^ 
inred  li*  KeiJ  (Cosiwnir.  ad  loc),lbe  same  a*  Ihe  pres- 
tsiMi.;;  a  dcMrted  rillage  about  fiMir  hnura  N.E.  by 
L  tt  Kablil^  with  iracn  or  anti(|uity  and  ancient  wells 
ofuceiltnt  water.  Schwan  also  slates  that  "at  the 
^aent  day  Ih«  Arabs  call  Ihe  country  between  Nablflt 
ind  the  Jordan  EiJad-iapitack.  at  prMiably  the  town 
sTtkis  Dame  wa*  Ibrmerly  lu  it"  {lUiltti.  p.  89>     See 

Ts'rab  (Heh.  rr'rocA,  rvv.  [in  pause  TirncA, 
rrs].  r<Tmkriiig  or  rfrtij;  Sept.  Tafi6i  v.  t.  eapo3; 
Tut^  Tkatr),  a  siatioo  of  the  Isnelitea  in  the  desert, 
mmud  between  Tahath  and  Milhcah  (Numb,  x^xiii, 
T-);  prrbapa  in  the  great  Wady  el  -  Jerafvli,  ufqusite 
IkaM  Hot.     See  Exodk. 

TValah  [aome  Tara'lak']  (Ileh.  Tar,tl..li;  nVsj-l^, 
wC^;  Sept.  eafioXi  v.r.  Bnptrt\d;  Vulg.  7'haitii),M 

■ntiuned  between  Irpeel  and  Zelah  (Josh,  xviii,  «). 
Srhaan  *uf{):eMa  (Piiltit,  p.  128)  that  it  "is  perhafis 
lbs  lilla^  Tkimirl^TkaritL,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
L-i.'  pcirtiahly  meaning  Stbi/  Daniyot^  two  miles  south 

irniurj  of  Benjamin  did  not  reacb  so  far  west,  tt  is 
piwldy  repretenled  by  the  modern  village  BtU-Tina, 
la  tTady  .\bmftl,  just  north  of  Beit-Jala,  with  a  well 
Lt^acenc  and  sereral  ruined  siiea  in  the  vicinity. 

TuaAiUB.  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  a  »Bloni< 
tad  aaite  supporter  of  image-wonhip  in  the  time  nf 
ikr  emprev  Irenes     See  Ico!ioci.Mv.     Me  first  held 

w^lbHigh  a  layman,  to  (ill  the  patriarchal  office  bv 
i>«b  the  own  and  the  penple  (A.D.784).     His  elecrioii 

inwd  by  Hadrian  I  on  the  gmiind  of  his  avowed  In- 
intiuB  to  nstnre  the  worship  uf  images  in  the  lireck 

^rasuiiiiuople  with  other  churches,  which  he  hsil 

^:;ea(d  aa  a  enodilinn  of  hit  acceptance  of  the  pp. 

'    rivehate,  met  in  '85,  but  was  oompelled  by  a  iiinb  tii 

L  ifmn  to  NIeea.  where  it  reconiened  in  787.     In  this 

■  Wy  the  papal  If^tca  were  acoorded  the  flnl  place  and 


patriarch  nf  Conslanlinople  the  wcnnil,  and  the  Ul- 
heartily  endorsed  the  new  creed,  which  determined 
that  worship,  in  the  exercises  of  kissing,  biiwiiig  the 
knee,  illuminaiions.  and  burning  nf  iiiccKse,  sbouli)  be 
rendered  to  the  images  of  the  human  person  of  Chtinl 
and  of  Mai)-,  the  angels,  gpostles,  pnipliets,  and  all 
saints;  but  nut  such  worship  aa  ia  tfue  to  the  Divine 
Being  only  (  t^v  n^flrut^v  rpouKiniivit' — ni  p^v  r^i- 
dXijdiv^v  XfTptiai',  ii  rpiiTfi  /lovfi  rp  iiif  ^tirti).  All 
bwa  directed  against  the  worship  of  images  were  anath- 
ematjzed.  In  his  own  person,  'fsrasiua  •.ss  »l«n  espe- 
cially active  in  the  work  of  converting  tlie  opponents 


■tantiue,  the  so 


lial  BfTsir 


of  Con- 


Irene,  Tsrasius  played  si 
part.  He  piotetteil  at  first  against  the  rejection  of 
(jueen  Maria  and  the  tubslitution  for  her  of  Theodota, 
but  soon  gave  way  lo  the  wishes  of  the  court,  and 
thereby  came  Into  coUiuon  with  the  inonkt,  who  re- 
garded the  emperor  as  excotDCDunicaletl.  Taratiut  died 
Ui  806,  and  ranks  among  the  saints  of  both  the  Greek 
and  the  Romish  Cburcb.  His  literary  remaina  con- 
sist ofletten  and  homilies  (see.  Walch,  fnliptir/aiKr 
roUtl.  /lit/,  d.  Ketiti-rieH,  Spailimgtn  u.  JUligienHlrriliff- 
keiiru  [Leips,  1782],  i,  419-611),— Herzog,  Beal-Ency 
lij).  S.V. 

Ta'roa  [some  rurs'o]  (Heh.  rnnt'a.S^IRn.by  in- 
lerchange  of  gutturals  for  roArra;  Sept.  Sopii  v.  r.  Sa- 
pii;^;  Vulg.  TAaraa).  son  of  Micah  in  the  lineage  of 
king  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii,  96  )  i  elsewhere  (ix,  41}  called 
TAiinsa  (q.  v.). 

T«r««  ({i^Di'ia;  Tulg.  lumui).  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  Ihe  ZtZiivia  ot  the  parable  (Matt,  xiii, 
25)  denote  the  weed  called  "darnel"  {UUum  lemultUua), 
■  widely  distributed  grass,  and  the  only  species  of  (he 
order  that  has  deleterious  propettics.  The  word  uieil 
by  the  evangelist  is  an  Oriental,  and  not  a  Creek,  term 
(ibe  native  (irrtk  word  seems  to  be  nlpu,  Dioacor.  ii, 
91).  It  it  the  Arabic  micin,  the  Syriac  tizdna,  and  the 
lonix  (^■'p1)ofthe  Talmud  (Mishna,  1,109:  see  Bux- 
torf,  J^r.  Tiilm.  s.v.).  The  derivation  of  the  Arainc 
word  from  ion,"  nausea,"  ia  well  suited  to  the  character 
of  the  plant,  the  grains  of  which  produce  vomiting  and 


■'<"'"- "-Wwx^Ic 


KuppoKd  to  be  produced  by  Iheir  oilme*! 

'  'enUlly  aitullcralcd  witli  lulium"  (Higl.  Cyct^; 


■iiig  iH 


"UImm"). 

niniibr  in  ipp««niice  \u  wtieii;  hence  the  commaiHl 
I  lint  iWiuoNta  bIioiiIiI  be  left  lu  the  birvHt,  leit  while 
men  gilucked  up  ihe  uies  "they  should  loot  up  alao 
the  Khnc  wilh  Ihem."  Truf.  Stanley,  hoxever  (Sim' 
andPaku,  f.t'>Sl,  speckt  nf  woiuen  aud  children  pick- 
ing out  rrom  tbc  vhcal  in  the  coniOrlda  <if  Samarii 
the  tall  green  atalki,  Hill  called  by  Ihe  Aratn  zuw& 
"TheBe  eialks,"  he  continues,  "if  Kiwn  desipicdlj 
ihroughout  the  fields,  wonid  be  insepatalile  Trcrni  the 
wheal,  frum  which,  eten  when  grnH-in);  naturally  and 
by  chance,  ihey  are  at  Hrst  sight  hanllv  distinguiah- 
Bhlc."  See  al>u  Thunuon  {Uiad  and  iimk,  ii,  Itl ) : 
"  The  grain  ia  jiiu  in  the  proper  stage  to  illuMrale  the 
parable.  lu  Ihnse  parts  where  the  grain  haa  htndrd 
ual,  the  larei  have  done  the  same,  and  then  a  child 
canniil  mistake  them  for  wheat  or  barley;  but  where 
luith  are  less  developed,  tlie  cloBCSt  scrutiny  will  nrien 
fail  to  delect  them.  Even  the  farmers,  who  in  this 
country  generally  tcrtd  their  Helils,  do  not  attempt  to 
wparate  the  oiie  fmm  the  other."    The  grain -gronerv 


TARGUM 

tre  dropped  Ihe  first  ayllable,  and  beitowed  it  m  thiM 
loffeodiiiu  "  ray"  or  '■  rye  grasses,"  by  which  the  du- 
ll ia  tepreaenled  in  our  hay-flrhU  Thus  a.Klenlood, 
how  well  do  theae  'laret'  represent  those  who  mike  a 
I  false  pmfeagioiii  who  appear  among  Uod's  people;  vln 
draw  near  with  their  moulh,  and  honoi 


ipa,  but  (heir  heart  ia  far  from  him  ( laa.  xj 
Hatt.  xr,8i  Hark  vii,6)!  Both  grow  li^ether.aiHl 
HrM  may  aeem  alike.  Man  cannot  accurately  diatji 
guiah  between  the  true  and  the  false;  but  a  I  ihegrt 
the  LonI  will  separate  Ihem.    Ui 


13; 


gather  the  « 


bile  Ihe  li 


e  bvliei 


iHH'.Jn  ii 


IS  Ihe  wheat  inma  l^ 

ion.  It  is  curious  to  ubaerve  the  retention  of  ihe  fallacy 
ihroiigli  many  ages.  "  Wheal  and  mnis'  aays  Light- 
font  (//or.  f/(i.  on  Malt,  xiti,  2a).  quoting  from  the  Tal- 
mud, "are  not  seeds  ofdiflerent  kinds."  See  also  Bux- 
lorf  (  Ltx.  Talm,  s.  v.  l^jHl  ) :  "  Zizania,  species  tritici 
ilegeneris,  sic  dicli,  quod  scnnaDdn  cum  bono  Iritico 
ill  pejorem  natutam  ileRsnerar."  The  Roman  writera 
(iomp."lnfelix  lolium,"  Virgil,  Groig,  i,  164)  appear 
lu  have  euunained  a  similar  opinion  with  reapeci  to 
BomeofihecerealB.  Thiui  Pliny  (//iff.  A'al.  xviii,  17), 
borriiwing  probably  from  Tbeophra9tu^  asserts  that 
''batley  will  di^neraie  into  the  oat."  The  nalimi 
that  the  zizontii  of  Ihe  parable  are  merely  diseased  or 
ilegeneiale  wheat  haa  been  itefenileil  by  Brederu]  (see 
Ilia  letter  to  Schiilletus  in  AfrirtT.  Kpaiij.  ii.  G5).  and 
strangely  adopted  by  Trench,  who  (jVirfM  on  Me  Para- 
blri,  p.  VI,  4th  eil.)  regards  the  diaiinclion  of  these  two 
plants  lo  be  "a  falsely  assumed  fael."  If  Ihe  titania 
of  the  parable  deiioie  the  ilnriiel,  auii  there  cannot  be 
any  .reasonable  doubl  about  it,  the  plants  are  certainly 
distinct,  and  Ihe  L.  lemalnilum  baa  aa  much  right  to 
apecific  diHinciinn  as  any  other  kind  of  graaa.  On 
the  route  from  BeirAi  to  Akka  (1852),  Dr.  liohinson 
describes  fields  of  wheat  "of  Ihe  roost  luxuriant  groulh, 
Hiier  than  which  1  had  not  befoie  eeeti  in  this  or  any 
other  country.  Among  these  aplendid  fiehls  of  grain 
are  alill  found  the  lam  apokcn  of  in  the  New  Teni.  Aa 
describeil  to  me,  ihey  arc  not  to  be  distinguish «l  from 
the  wheat  until  the  ear  appcata.  The  seed  resembles 
wheat  ill  form,  but  is  smaller  and  black.  Ill  Dcirdl, 
poultry  ire  fed  upon  this  seed,  and  it  ia  kept  fin-  sale  for 
that  purpose.  When  not  separated  from  Ihe  wheat, 
bread  maile  from  Ihe  tlour  often  causes  dixxlness  to 
ihose  who  eat  of  it"  (BtW.  Bn.  iii,  55).  TTie  bearded 
darnel  has  Ihe  bad  reputation  of  yielding  llie  only  dele- 
terious grain  among  all  the  countless  grassrs.  We  are 
not  aware  that  any  injurious  qualiiy  has  been  deiecieil 
in  the  seeda  of  its  own  congeners,  f-oUum  armar,  I.. 
jttrtam,  the  rye-grasses  ao  familiar  lo  Itritlsb  hu^balld- 
ry  1  bul  if  mixed  with  bnad.  £.  Irmalmlim  occasiona 
giddiiieu,  nausea,  difficulty  of  articulation,  and  other 
aympuima  ranging  fiom  inloxicatinn  to  paralysia,  and 
inalancea  are  on  record  where  mortiScal  ion  of  the  ex- 
tremities, or  even  dealh,  has  ensued  (see  Ilunietl,  PUn^a 
Uliliort;  vol.  iii).  Hence  the  French  have  named  il 
irrntr,  or  "lipay-grass,''B  word  fiom  which  tbc  Knglt>1i 


Gonumed  "  (Balfour,  Eot.  iiml  StUg.  p 
See  Ki tio,  Pict.  Biblr,  ad  loc. ;  Hackeii,  lUiittr.  ofSir^. 
p.  180;  Calcolt[Udv],Scny.//n*a/,p.476aq.;Tti«.     , 
iram,  JViir.  IliH.ofiht  £iUr,p.4«6:  Bocheliua,  Zi>^  2t-     ' 
niNtismA'cr/ta.  ZJri/>i«emtR<ifu(Arg.  1661).  | 

Taiget  (^11^3,  IdilSa,  I  Sam.  xTii,  6.  a  ijitaT,  a 
usually  rendered ;  nt!C,r>»ifliiA,  1  Kings  x,  Ifi:  SChim. 
ix,I5;  xiv,  8,a  large  iAtriiI,uutually  rendercd>    Sh 

SlIIELIt. 

Targtlin  (O^S^ln,  i.  e.  Iratutalioii,  ialerprrtaliaii)  b 
the  name  given  to  a  Chaldee  ttrnon  or  paraphnae  of 
the  Old  Teal.,  of  which  there  are  several  extant. 

1.  Oi-^a  o/ihe  ruryunu.— The  origin  of  the  CliaklM 
paraphrase  may  be  traced  back  to  the  lime  of  Kin. 
Alter  the  exile  it  became  the  practice  to  read  the  law 
ill  public  to  the  people,  with  the  addition  of  an  ornl 
jiaraphrose  in  the  Chahlee  dialed.  Thus  we  irait  iii 
Neh.  viii,  8, 5niB«  B'^nixn  p-iira  -loa  is-p^ 
3:i3  ClSn,  which  expreasion  the  Talmud,  Bab.  HrpU 
lah,  fol.8,  col.  l,expUinB  DUin  It  OTiDQ,  i.e.  "to  n- 
plain  meana  Targum."  This  ecclesiasiical  »aage.  rrn- 
dered  neceasary  by  the  change  of  language  fouseqiirnl 
on  the  Captivily.  wna  unduubteilly  conlhiueil  in  ali^r- 
times.  It  rose  in  importance,  rapeeially  when  the  nn- 
agogues  and  public  schools  began  to  tluurish,  tlie  chirf 
subject  of  Dccupaiion  in  which  was  ihe  expmilion  nf 
Ihe  Thorah.  The  office  of  the  iiuerpreter  (^C3'^1~« 
lliSnir,  ttniSS,  less  frequently  'Vil,  comp.  Zunz. 
DU  gollrid.  Vaiitigf,  p.  SB2)  thus  became  one  of  ike 
most  imporlani,  and  the  canon  of  Ihe  Talmud,  thai  a> 
the  law  was  given  by  a  mediitor.so  il  can  be  >ead  and 
expnundeil  only  by  a  mediaior,  became  paramount  (Jr- 
lUB.  Megillah,  ful.  74).  The  Talmuil  contains,  even  in 
iiB  oiliest  portions,  precise  injuncltons  concerning  ihe 
manner  of  conducting  these  expository  [iielections. 
Tbiia,  "Neither  the  reader  nor  Ihe  interpreter  is  tn 
raise  his  virice  one  above  Ihe  olher;"  "They  have  lo 
wait  for  each  other  until  each  have  Hnished  his  verse:" 
"The  methuigeman  is  not  lu  lean  against  ■  pillar  or  a 
beam,  but  to  mand  with  fear  and  with  reverence'."  "-He 
is  not  to  use  a  wiilten  Ta^im,  bii 


"No  I 


mllie 


Pentateuch  and  three  in  the  prophela  shall  be  read  or 

than  one  reader  and  one  inlerpreler  for  the  law ;  while 
for  the  prophets  one  reader  and  one  interpreter,  or  two 
inlerpreiera,  are  allowed"  (Klishiia,  UrgiBak,  iv,  t<,  10; 
SofAxrim,Ta,i).  Again  (Jfr^M,  ibid.,  ami  Tor^tiia, 
c.  iii),  ccitain.  passages  lialile  to  give  offence  to  ibt 
multitude  arc  spccifieil.  which  may  be  read  in  the  syni- 
gngue  and  Iraoslaied;  othera  which  may  be  read  but 
not  tnnslaied;  others, again,  which  nuy  neither  be  iea>l 
tranalateiL     I'o  Ihe  lirat  class  belong  the  om 


on  account  of  its  most  vital  bearing  upon  Ihe  rclsiion 
between  the  Creator  and  Ihe  Cosmos,  and  ihe  nalitre 
of  bolh;  Ihe  deed  of  Lot  and  bis  two  daughters  (Cen. 
xix,  31);  of  Judah  and  Tamar  (ch.  xxxviii);  the  Bnt 
accountofthe  making  of  the  golden  calf  (Exod.  xxxii): 
all  Ihe  curses  in  the  law;  the  dee>l  of  Aninun  and 
ramar(2.Sam.  xiii);  of.\bsalom  with  his  father-*  ««. 
L-iibiiics  (xvi,  a);  the  alury  uf  the  woman  of  (iibcah 


TARGUM  2( 

(Itiix.  xiK>    These  its  lo  b«  tcad  >iul  tnuuUted,  or 

:'tl^n:l  T'SlpJ,  To  be  nmd  but  not  [nmUUtt, 
•|'^>-rfl  K51  T*^?'.  "re  'he  deed  of  Keuben  with 
ha  (■iher'i  coneutitte  (G«ii.  xxv,  22) ;  tlie  latieT  par- 
Vau  n(  tlw  ntury  of  the  mlilen  calf  (EHud.  xxxii) ;  uid 
ibe  dml  of  David  and  Batheheba  (2  Sam.  xi,  xii> 

Ai  wbal  lime  Ibese  paiapbr»ea  Kere  wrillen  down 
>t  tionoi  lUtc;  buL  it  idu>[  certainly  hare  been  at  an 
tirir  period.  Bearing  in  miml  that  the  Helleniatic 
int  hid  fur  a  loni;  lime  been  in  poweision  of  the 
141  traiulaied  iiiio  their  language,  and  that  in  the 
U  Rninry  iml  only  bad  (he  Jewa  (bemHlves  iuued 
liittk  rtrHouB  in  oppnution  to  the  Alexandrian  ver- 
tin,  Kbi>;h  were   receivHl  with  decided   approbation 

ncDiiai  uf  Aquila  in  the  Talmud  proves,  but  that 
bLv  the  SrrijtDf  had  been  prompted  to  trannlale  the 
Hdy  ScrilHurea,  it  would  indeed  be  strange  bad  not 
tbr  Jewi  [amiliaT  with  the  AraiDxan  dialtct  aluo  fid- 
loitei]  the  practice  at  that  lime  univenally  prevalent, 
ud  BBifcbt  to  pmSt  bf  it.  We  have,  in  point  of  Tact, 
(ettain  tracn  of  wriilea  Targoms  extant  at  leaat  in 
iW  time  nf  Christ.  Fur  even  the  Miabna  seems  lo  im- 
plj  this  in  I'ltdain,  tv,  b,  where  the  aubject  treated  ia 
ilir  language  andstvleDfcharaclertobeused  in  writing 
ibr  Tar^mL  Farther,  the  Talniud,  Shabiallt,  fuL  115, 
d4.  1,  mentiuna  a  written  I'lrgum  on  Job  of  the  middU 
of  iht  Itt  century  (in  the  lime  of  Gamaliel  I),  which 
I  Kgind  the  distp|>rabatinn  of  Gamaliel.  Znnz  here 
jutlT  remark*, "  Since  it  ia  not  likely  that  a  beginning 
■brmid  bare  been  made  with  Job,  a  stitl  higher  anliq- 
irii;  as  very  probably  belon),'ing  to  the  Iliat  renderings 
'/  (be  Uw  may  be  asuimed"  (''"'■  cH-  P-  6*^)-  Griltz,  in 
till  Unniuchrifl,  ISTT,  p.  61,  believes  (hat  (his  Tar- 
Kja  of  Job,  mentioned  four  times  in  the  Talniuil,  can 
icIt  nfer  (o  ■  Greek  tnnsU(ion  of  that  book:  and 
Derabourg.  in  his  Eaai  ivt  niitloirt  tl  bi  Giograpkit 
Ji  la  Pub^af,  p.  342,  accounis  for  the  action  nf  (iama- 
M,  bacaaw  it  was  written  acre  da  caivdires  non-Aa- 
Wifui.  Bui  as  Delitzsch,-in  //oro  llrir,  tt  Talmud. 
\ZaurJi  ri/l/irdittalh.  ThtolosU  a.  Ktrdtf  [  Leipa.  1 878], 
p,tll>,inikarks"B13~^n  Srs  mesas  ' in  Targum,' i. e. 
wriKen  in  the  Aramtean.  and  refen  not  to  the  charac- 
len  with  wbicb,  but  tn  (he  language  in  which,  it  was 
nidm.      Gamaliel  acted  according  (o  old  principle, 

p.-i:i  '^xs-i  rrrx  ^s*  nc  braa  o^^a^,  i.  e., '  all 

ihsi  bdongs  to  oral  (radiiion  was  not  to  a|>pear  in  writ- 
In  Mm."  Thii  principle  included  also  the  Targnm, 
bat  11  **a  not  strictly  c^weri'ed,  ami,  like  Ilie  Mishiia, 
•^  aba.  Tafgums  were  dandestincly  circulated  in  sin- 
^  copies.  That  this  waa  the  case  we  see  from  Ibe 
[«  that  Ramaliel  of  Jabneh,  the  grandson  of  Gama- 
W  I  Of  ehler,  having  been  found  reading  the  Targiim 
<«  Juh,  ■•*  remiudnl  of  (be  proceilnre  of  his  giand- 
biks,  who  had  the  copy  of  the  Job  Targum,  which 
■a  biiiiigh(  to  bim  while  aianding  on  the  mountain  of 
ibeTMipie,immDredin  nnler  to  prevent  its  further  use. 
I>r.  Frankl,  in  /Ke  ZaaoUe  in  dtr  Sipt.  lu  //to£  (in 
I'Tia,  .VomalMKiriJi,  IK!1,  p.  313),  says,  "  There  ia  no 
dgubt  Ibat  Ihe  additiona  in  (he  Sept.  were  made  ac- 

Uia  of  his  Btawmeiit  ho  quotes  Tot^la  Shabbalh,  c 
Itl  SiaUiUi,  (••L  I15,coL  I;  Jenta. '    "   ~ 


3  TAKGTJM 

of  (be  Targuma  (eomp.  Lengerke,  Dt  Ephrartni  S.ArU 
llirmauul.  p.  II  aq. ;  Assemani,  Bibt.  OHal.  i,  66). 

II.  Tht  Targum  of  Onkrlot—Tiitn  is  a  Targum  of 
Onkelos  on  llie  renlateuch  which  has  alwayi  been 
highly  valued  by  the  Jews. 

1.  Aulhimhip. — In  regard  to  the  author,  the  notices 
of  him  are  meagre  and  uncertain.  We  now  approach 
one  of  the  moat  mooted  quesriona  as  to  the  identity  of 
Onkelos  with  Akilas  or  Aquila;  but  before  solving  it 

tion  of  Onkeloa  is  found  in  the  Tuiiphln,  a  work  drawu 
up  shortly  after  the  Mishna.  From  this  we  learn:  a. 
That  OnkeU  (he  Proselyte  (isn  OlbpSX)  was  so  se- 
rious in  his  adherence  (o  the  newly  adopted  (Jewish) 
faith  (hat  be  threw  his  ahara  of  hia  paternal  inher- 
iumee  into  the  Dead  Sea,  "]bDn  n-l>  ipbn  ■^yb^n 
(Toa.  Dtmn\.  vi,  9).  b.  At  the  funeral  of  Uamaliel  the 
elder  he  burned  more  than  seventy  mints  worlb  of 
Bpicesiuhia  honor  (Toa.  5AiiMarA.  c.  8 ;  the  same  story 
is  repeated  with  variations  Btiaichalli,  c  S,  and  1'alm. 
^ivifa.?Ri'aA,rol.ll,col.l).  e.  He  iaiiiially  mentioned, 
by  way  of  corroboration  to  different  Halachas,  in  con- 
necrion  with  Gamaliel  in  three  more  place^  viz.  Chagi- 
^,iii,l;  JfUcnoi'A.Ti,!)  A:e/iii>,iii,S,2.  In  the  Baby. 
Ionian  Talmud,  Uukeloa  ia  mentioDed  in  the  followLig 
passages: 
1.  GilMn.  fol.  M,  col.  t;  tol.  BT,  col.  1,  where  we  read, 
unkeloi  the  I-roseljle,  the  sod  or  Kslontkiis  (Cnlllnicaa 

_.-..  ....,.._.,  .u .™. ....—  ......  ■uiondluK  — 

r  Thus,  6 


ered  the  drrt  In  the  other  world.  Their  auawer  that  Is- 
rael wiiB  llie  fuvored  one  decided  him." 

i.  Abeda  Zarah,  fol.  It,  col.  I,  here  called  (be  Bon  of 
Knlonjmos  (CleoiirmoB*):  and  we  alio  read  lu  this  plac* 
(bni  the  emiienir  eent  three  Ibimnn  coliuria  (a  eaptun 
him,  and  thu(  ha  cniiver(ed  (hem  nil. 

3.  Baba  fiotAro,  fol.  M,  col.  l,nber«  Onkeloa  (ha  ProM- 
lyle  Is  qumtd  as  an  anihoritj  on  lbs  qneatloii  at  iba  tana 
of  the  cherubim  (comp.  I  C'hmn.  III.  ID). 

«.  MiflUah,  fol.  S,  col.  1.  when)  we  rend,  '■  it.  Jenmlab, 
or,  sccordlnK  to  iilben,  ILCbla  bar-Abbu.  anid  the  Targiim 
on  the  Penwteacb  wii>  ninde  b.v  ihe  jiroteljrie  Oiikeliie, 


:f«fttTim.  >,  15.     We 


I    thUB 


liliged  V 


•aril  origin  Cor  the  Targuma,  a  fact  which  will  be  cor- 
atamtA  further  on,  in  spite  of  (be  many  objections 
iBitd,  tbe  chief  of  which,  sdduced  br  Eiclihoru,  being 
>kt  silewe  of  (he  ChriKlsn  fathers,  of  whom  none,  not 
"»»■  tpiphinias  or  .leiome,  mention  the  suhjec^  But 
'Ma  aileiKie  is  of  little  weight,  because  the  fatbera  gen- 
«»Bj  were  ignorant  of  Hebrew  and  of  Hebrew  litera- 
'nK.  Nor  waa  any  importance  attached  to  them  in 
-iwiiarisDii  *itb  Greek  translaiiona.  Beaidea,  in  (ru(h, 
"m  BMtrtion  in  queaiion  ia  not  even  supported  by  (he 
kai  of  Ibe  ease;  fur  Epbrsem  Syiiis,  e.  g.,  made  use 


rinn  tbe  nanth  of  It.  Blleicr  and  I 


jBhoshna;  Ihel^ 


■Sicai,  Zecliaiiahi  and  Mi 
iTtuiight  Uiai  Ibe  TarKi 


Onkelos  rectoted  li." 

In  (he  itidriuh  runcAumn, section  "jV  -|ii  (Gen.xxviii, 
SO),  we  read,  "Onkelos  the  rroselrte  ashed  an  old 
man  whether  that  waa  all  the  love  God  bore  towards 
a  proselyte,  that  he  promised  to  give  him  bread  and  a 
garment?  The  old  man  replied  that  this  was  all  (br 
which  the  patriarch  Jacob  prayed,"  In  the  book  of 
Zuhar,  section  HI'S  ^inx  (Lev.  xviii,  4),  Onkelos  Is 
rcptesenleil  as  a  disciple  of  Hillel  and  Sbammal.  Fi- 
nally a  BIS.  in  the  library  of  the  Leipaic  Senate  (0.  H. 
17)  relates  that  Onkelos,  tbe  nephew  of  ibe  wicked 
Titiia  (SO^H  Oia^a  is  TTSJ),  asked  tbe  emperor's 
advice  rb  to  what  merchandise  be  thought  it  waa  prof- 
itable to  trade  in.  Titua  told  bim  that  that  shnuld  be 
bought  which  was  cheap  in  the  market,  since  it  wsa 

studied  the  law  under  R.  Elieier  ayd  R.  Jehoahiia,  ami 
bia  face  becsnw  wan  {Tiains  TIB  T>m).  When  he 
returned  to  Titus,  one  of  the  ooartiers  observeil  the  pal- 
kir  of  biB  counlenince,  and  said  to  Titua, "  Onkelos  ap- 
pears to  have  studied  the  Uw."  Interrogated  by  Titua, 
hendmitted  Iba  fact,  adding  that  be  bad  done  it  by  bia 
advice.     No  nation  bad  ever  been  so  exalted,  ami  none 

"  (herefore,"  he  said, "  I  c.neludcd  that  in  the  end  none 
would  be  of  higher  price"  (comiK  Anger,  Dt  OnMo,  pt, 
ii  [Lips.  1846),  p.  12,  where  the  whole  passage  in  the 
original  ia  copied).  In  all  these  passages  the  name  of 
Onkelos  is  given.    But  there  arc  many  passobTa  in 


TARGUM  2C 

which  the  venion  of  Akilu  (tA-*py  Dann)  is  mea- 
lioned,  and  the  DOticca  concerning  Akiiu  bear  eoiuid- 
erable  Ulienes*  to  thou  of  Onkeloa.  Akilta  i*  men- 
tioDed  in  Stphra  (Lev.  xxv,  7),  and  in  Jerua.  Talmud, 
AnwiF,  37  d,u  having  been  bom  in  Pontua;  tbB[,arur 
'  having  embraced  tha  Jewith  faith,  he  threw  bia  pa- 
ternal inheritance  into  an  aaphalt  lake  (Jenu.  Denial, 
25  d)j  that  be  tnnilated  tha  ToriOt  before  R-Eliezer 
and  K.  Jehoahua,  who  pratKd  him  pniK  lob^p^)  and 
■aid  to  him,  "Thou  art  furer  than  the  sons  of  men" 
(_ann  ^320  r^B^B'<);  or,  according  to  the  other  ac- 
counla.  before  R  Akiba  (comp.  Jenu.  Kiddnthin,  i,  1, 1, 
etc:  Jerus.ir9iUaA,  i,9;  BabyL  JV^'iiA,  fuLS.col.  t). 
We  leam,  rnither,  that  he  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian 
{Chag.  ii,  1).  that  he  waa  the  win  of  the  emperor'a  lit- 
ter {Tanchari,  ed.  Prague,  foL  S4,  coL  2),  that  he  be- 
came ■  convert  against  the  emperut't  will  (OmL  and 
ShmolA  Rabbali,tal.  146  c),  and  that  he  connilted  Eliezer 
and  Jehoahua  about  bia  coavei«Dn  (Brralii/lk  RiiUa, 
fal  78  d ;  comp.  Uidraih  Co/ttUOi,  l-A.  10!  b). 

That  Akiloa  ia  no  other  than  Aqnila  {'AiuXac),  the 
well-luiowa  Greek  tranalMor  of  the  014  Teat.,  we  need 
hardly  add.  He  waa  a  native  of  Pontua  (Iren.  A  dv.  liar. 
8,24;  Jerome, i>«  Kw-./ti.c 64 i  Fbiloalr.O!  J/ar.§  90). 
He  lived  under  Hadrian  (Epiph.  Dt  Pwd.  tl  JHtru.  1 12). 
He  ia  called  the  wcviipHts  {Chron.  Alex.  nv3ip6s)  of 
the  emperor  (iMf.  §  14),  becomea  a  convert  to  Judaism 
(5  16),  whence  be  ia  called  the  Proaelyte  (Iren.  Inc.  fif. ; 
Jerome  lo  Jer.  viii,  14,  etc),  and  receives  inattucliona 
from  Akiba  (Jerome,  loc.  cil.).  Ha  trannlated  the  Old 
Test.,  and  bia  veniou  waa  conaidered  of  the  higheat 
import  and  autliorit;  among  the  Jews,  eapecially  tboae 
unacquainted  with  the  Hebrew  language  (Euaeb.  Prop. 
fmnj.loccir.;  Augustine, ZJeCir, Dei, iv, 23;  Philoatr. 
De  Har.%  90;  Juatin,  NoetU.  146).  Thirteen  rfitfinof  quo- 
tations from  thia  version  are  preserved  in  the  Talmud  and 
Hidlaab ;  and  we  may  classify  the  whole  u  roUowa ; 
dvtt  OatffaUimM.  —  flen.  avit.  1,  In  Sfr«A.  Rab,  01  b' 

ShaU.  S,  4,  till.  S  bi  E«V  ivi, 
].am.1S,faj.Rab.ioai:  Pea. 
»iiiii.  1U1B111D..1.  ><:»  i  1.11,  according  tii  the  Sept.),  jerni. 
Kts.i,B,  r«l.  T8  b^  PrciT.  irtK.  11,  Faf.  Hat.  (■•].  mH  b: 
Ssib.  I.  C,  IfiJr.  IfKA.  IH  di  Dan.  V,  G,  Jetns.  romo,  S,  S, 

HiVrttt  Quotattana 
Xli,  W,  JeniB.  Kid.  1, 
Mc. 

CAsIdH  QHOtaUsnK— Pmv.  xzr,  11,  BbtbA.  Bab.  104  b; 
Im.  V, «,  Mldr.  CtoA.  IIS  e,  d. 

All  Iheae  quoUtions  are  treated  at  length  by  Anger, 
De  Ovktto,  i,  IS  sq.,  and  the  variations  adduced  there 
ahow  how  carefully  they  have  to  be  perused,  and  the 
more  so  since  we  have  as  yet  no  cntical  edition  of  the 
Talmud. 

The  identity  of  Akilas  and  Aquila  having  been  as- 
cerUined,  it  was  also  argued  thai,  acconling  lo  the 
parallel  accounts  of  Onkeloa  and  AquUa,  Onkelos  and 
Aquila  must  be  one  and  the  same  person,  since  it  was 

could  have  belonged  lo  two  different  individuals.  But 
who  will  warrant  that  the  statements  are  correct? 
There  are  chronological  differences  which  cannnt  be 
reconciled,  anless  we  have  recourse  to  such  means  as 
the  Jewish  hlaloriaa  Dr.  GrUli,  who  renders  'pin  i^ 
(i.e.  R  Gamaliel  I,  or  eider)  "Gamaliel  II."  Is  it  not 
suriirisiiig  that  on  one  and  the  same  pajie  Onkelos  is 
nnce  spoken  of  as  "Ookeloa  Itie  Proselyte,"  and  "Onke- 
los the  son  of  Ealonymos  became  a  convert"  {Aboda 
Zaruh,  foL  II.  coL  t)?  It  has  also  been  suied  that 
ChikeloB  waa  neither  the  author  of  the  Targum  nor  a 
hiatorical  peiaon,  but  that  Tarffum  Onkrlot  means  »aa- 
pl^  a  verswn  made  nfitr  CAe  monnn-  of  AHiot.  ihe 
Greek  translator.  Aquila's  tranalaiion  waa  a  special 
favorite  with  the  Jews,  because  it  was  both  literal  and 
accurate.  Being  highly  valued,  it  waa  considered  a 
model  or  type  after  which  the  new  Cbaldee  one  was 


I*.  SiiUah,  g, 


■uu  ay:  IH.  IN,  nr,  tr 

in,Jfiifr.nr>n,We: 


TAKGUM 


led,  in  commendalion,  perhapa, 

s  view  ia  very  ingenious,  but  it  is  hardly  probaUt. 

r  cbe  queslioD  arises,  bow  ia  it  that  there  is  enly 

:rsioD  of  Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch,  while  Aqiili 
•hole  Old  Test.?  If  Onkelos'a  Targmn 
'as  really  made  alter  the  manner  of  Aquila,  how  is  h 
that  the  Utter  is  so  slavishly  literal,  Iranslatuig  evcD 
the  nit,  sign  of  the  accusative,  or,  as  Jerome  staia  (Ot  I 
OpI.  Gat,  Inttrprtl.),  "Non  solum  verba  sed  et  elrms- 
logias  verborum  transtetre  conalus  esL  ,  .  .  Quod'  He-  ' 
non  solum  hat>ent  Spipa  sed  et  npiapSpa,  ille 

i!qXw£  et  ayliabaa  interprei«lur  el  lilteras,  diciai- 
aiv  rov  aipayiv  coi  aiv  r^K  yqf  quod  Gixca    i 
et  Latina  lingua  non  Tcciptl,"  while  Onkelos  is  fleet, 
adding  sometimes  here  and  there  a  word  or  phrase  lor   I 
the  better  underalanding?  I 

That  the  Targum  Oakeloa  cannot  mean  a  Taignai  I 
after  the  manner  of  Aquila  ia  also  evidcnl  from  the  i 
fact  that  while  Aquila  made  a  recension  of  the  Ibtn 
existing  SepL,  nothing  of  the  kind  can  be  said  ef  Oo- 
keloa. The  Utter  wrote  for  the  people  in  a  langnsp  , 
which  it  undenlood  better  than  Ihe  original  Hebrew; 
the  fomier  wrote  for  polemical  purposes,  to  counuibsl- 
■nce  the  arguments  of  the  Chrislians,  who  made  use  of 
the  Alexandrian  venion  against  the  Jews.  That  Iht 
author  of  tlie  Chaldee  paraphrase  waa  not  a  proHlrie, 
but  a  native  Jew,  ia  aoffleiently  proved  from  the  excel- 
lence and  accuracy  of  his  work ;  for  without  having 
been  bred  up  from  his  birtb  in  ihe  Jewish  religion  anil 
learning,  and  long  exercised  in  all  the  rites  and  doctnnti 
thereof,  and  being  also  ihorougfaly  skilled  in  both  lbs 
Hebrew  and  Chaldee  languages,  as  far  as  a  native  Jew 
could  be,  he  could  scarcely  be  tbouglit  Ihoniughly  ade- 
quate to  that'work  which  be  performed.  The  npn- 
senling  of  Onkelos  as  liaving  been  a  proselyte  seems  lo 
have  proceeded  from  tbe  error  of  taking  him  to  hare 
l>een  Ihe  same  with  Aquila  of  I'ontus,  wbo  was  inlnd 
a  Jewish  proselyte.  A  comparison  of  both  vrrsioDi 
must  show  the  superiority  of  Onkelos's  over  chsi  of 
AquiU.  The  latter,  on  account  of  his  literal  adheienet 
to  the  original,  makes  bis  version  often  nonsensical  and 
unintelligible,  and  less  useful  tbsn  the  former,  as  the 
foUowing  will  slww : 

II,  a.  T>!tl-Aq.  tw.t\,r,u«:  Onk,  «03T<. 
T.  [11309— Aq.  i,aw,<Hi:  Ouk.  KrM3C3- 
t1,4.  n^Wln— Aq.  J».i.;.,eKrK:  Onk.  R^Traj- 
18.  lr«1S-Aq.  uixwA""'  1  Onk.  i^n^s. 
Tilt,  1. 13ai1-Aq.  «•;  (i»-X.w..  :  Onk.  ITOl 
HI,  9.  pns^l— Aq.  M'lipf  i  Ook.  pipOW. 
XT,  8.  plOa  -pl-Aq. .™«  ™  .«;.«^K  1  Onk.  151 
K031D. 

iTiii,  IS.  nanps— Aq.  HD.'  atTflt ;  Onk.  unrni 

■>niVa-Aq.  .a..v.>J,M>;  Ouk.  n-3->oi. 
Dii.s.n-'iiisn  )'-i»-Aq.Ti,.vt,  Ti.  -...^it 

Ook.  tUnViD  KS^M^. 
IB.  -|a03-Aq.  i.  n%'f:  Onk.  [(jV-(ia. 
ixtI.BS.  SaiU  1R3— Aq.«,»<ip  <\iir«...n)  OotlU 

rao. 
iii,8.iniinBJ  n-inVit  "■imM-Aq-m^yp.**. 
wioi«i  Onk. -irirs  'niap, 
11.  naa  (Kerl  11  KS)— Aq.  )x)..  I,  {s«.i  Onk. 
11  Knit. 

Iiill.!».p3!*^1-Aq.  (.i.)Li..oi  Onk.  imostl. 
iiiiv.tI.e":bD-Aq.  ^■■f>r,<,|»-,<»i  Onk.^^sbs. 
XMV.  1«.  yiX    P1=3— Aq.  .bV  itn  .it  -,«;  Ont 

K51S  3113. 
Iixvl,  U.  BlS'^n    nM-Aq.  1 

9.-I1SX 


!  lofisHi   On*.  Fi'' 


TARGUM  2' 

□nl^n.  SU    nc  — Aq.  T.  wl^ntirinai   Onk.  tVa 

kA  -inn  vi^^- 

mrta,  IS.  ^^^nc^— Aq.  >r»tTTj.;  Ook.  KB^'<0. 

),»,  Olin-Aii.  i.r«.».  (Id.  Dent  li.  1]|  Ont 

II.  r*330a  ^nS-Aq.  *i>^a  «>!•■«.«»;  Oak. 

II  T1B3-Aq.  h  tp.f^tt'"'  i  Onk.  1-^3. 
Kit  ^^n^'tllTI— Aq.  »«•»  «  (Id.  Ter.  10^  iiIt, 
lltlonre^aiiCiti,  Uksnrniiii  ^IXn  Ook. 
^5■'B^!^{ld.  ler.lB:  uIt,  It). 
ia.1%  a-t^Sn-Aq.  riwuu.;  Oiik.  ^^I^"!. 

m.n.  ijn^stV  — Aq.  •;<   ^x<^»   »;«=!   Onk. 
iT>BpinV. 

it.S.  ir^TJ-Aq.  l«w<.Wii;  ODk,  {(O^Sn. 
uIt,  <.  ri^»X3-Aq.  I>  ■poSilwo'" :  Onk.  ifpliva. 
nfilUa^JO  — Aq-fc-if^pw  <M-iDCT,WiW)t  Ook. 

i-iim. 

n1i,t  ItJ-Aq.  ToWroXB.;  Onk.  «V>i3. 

arxsm  D-<-iiB3  bs-Aq.  j{.xa.u.:  ..^i 

Juuvr^i;  Onk.  ■'Sini  R111B3  i». 
m,  M.  IBID-Aq,  »(.x..^.  j  Onk.  Ip-nB- 

»n;'^B    ^3  Kin  S^'\t  —  Aq.  iwnwtrat^hot 

airii  iT.i  Onk.  »^n  V-iaa. 
Aq.i«.«*i=«faiT4.:0nk.  n^j-'iasK  ^1S. 

IZlil,tL^'rOSt    Cn^S— Aq.   Tptrf    laiiiav,;    Oak- 

■(•■jTST  nin. 

m.  I.  truba-Aq.  tvv-^;  onk.  KOT'p  noss. 
iiiui.naBn  noB— Aq.  )*iu««  h.jof»;  ouk. 

q^in  etssix. 
nu,i.c^->;s^-Aq...:t*p<x»i*»ad.isi.im,  ti)i 

Ont  "ilTTlV 
iiT,M.^»-<  ISXI-Aq.  hbr  tn-t-rlm.:  Onk. 

piiB^  -m. 

iitII,lK'>bB'>-Aq.  »«>H>«nifiij  Ook.  OIB''. 

1. 47.  natl^— Aq.  ,ti  ^(M»;  Onk.  KKaiD^. 
11,8.  IVan  IsV  — Aq.  rKiuirra«lXiu't»i  Onk. 

sncaa  e^in. 
mu,  11  raSBH-Aq.  x.((tTii. ;  Ook,  t<na-\ 

1.4*.  tA    ^JB-Aq.  n<nn  .^t»t!  Onk.  -UBrtt 

till,  •.  a^Vs— Aq.  iKutiiuatt :  Onk.  ^'^at'PS. 
nSTS-Aq.  ^.r,j,«.;H..» ;  Ouk.  MtSaSS 
mil,  U.  T>3Bi    ■(■>=''1X  rvPil-Aq,  r»4oEMi  lei, 
Ja>p<>'^<'""'>*i>«'>''"°>i  Onk.  ■IDna^l 

imp  laaT  "■isa. 
rniHwinttimsn  nsi  mscn  nn— Aq.  iro.^ 
•«    ^T^JoiM)   Onk.  n'^l   KHT'XO   n-" 

It  im  bna  arged  thU  whik  AkiUa'a  veraioa  ia  al- 
np  dud  in  tha  Talmud  by  tba  name  of  iw  aucbor, 
S>*p9  BIS'irvibeTarginncif  Onkelotiinercrqnoled 
nk  ha  nanw,  bM  intraduccd  with  ^'''^^'^riC  "is, 
■■  n  tranlito,'  or  l"n  BWiri,  "out  Tirgum,"  or 
Tirrs, "  M  Um  Ta^DiD  ba»  it ;"  but  thii  011I7  ihinra 


6  TARGUM 

■he  high  Mteem  in  which  Onkeltw'a  Taignm  atood. 
And  aa  w  ibe  qnotaliona  of  Aquila,  alntoat  all  which 
■re  cit«d  are  on  the  propheli  and  Hagiufirapha,  while 
Onkeloa'a  Targum  ia  unly  on  Ibe  law;  and  a  cluae  ex- 


■  only  to  the  Gmk  venion, 
which  ia  Tully  expresaed  in  Ibe  praise  of  R.  Eliezer  and 
R.Jehoshua  when  aajing  OIK  ^JSa  mB■'B^ " Thou 
art  fairer  than  the  aona  of  men,"  thereby  alluding  tu 
flen.ix, 37,  where  it  ia  aaidtbatJapheth  (i.e.  the  Greek 
language)  ahould  one  day  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem 
(L  e  Israel)  {MtgHlaA.  i,  11,  71  b  and  c;  Btra/iUJi 
Rabba,  40  b). 

There  ia  another  very  important  point,  which  haa 
been  overlooked  by  all  favoring  Che  identity  of  Akilaa 
wilh  OnkeloB,  and  thua  putting  the  origin  of  the  Tar- 
gnm  of  Onkelot  at  a  Ute  date,  vii.  the  uae  of  tha 
menra—Xpjos  by  Onkeloa;  and  this  peculiarity  of  the 
Targum  ahowa  that  its  origin  belongs  to  the  time  of 
Philo  and  the  New'Teat.  period.  It  U  not  unlikely  that. 
In  this  reepect,  Onkeloa  Haa  followed  by  the  other  Tar- 
gumiata,  and  that  his  intention  wai  to  reconcile  Alex- 
andrian with  Paleatinian  theology.  John's  doclHna 
of  the  Logos  would  be  without  any  foundation  or  point 
of  departure  if  we  could  not  suppose  that  at  the  lime  of 
Jeaua  a  almllar  doctrine  concerning  Ibe  Word  of  God, 
as  It  can  be  deduced  from  the  Targum,  waa  known 
among  the  Paleatinian  Jew&  That  later  Judaism  haa 
put  aside  this  important  moment  of  older  theology 
must  be  explained  from  ita  opposition  to  Christianity. 

In  the  Targum  of  Onkeloa  we  And  not  the  leart 
indication  that  it  waa  made  aFter  the  dutniction  of 
Jeruaatem ;  we  And  neither  the  least  trace  of  hoatil- 
iiy  to  the  Romans  nor  of  oppbeition  to  Chrialianity. 
The  Temple  is  regarded  aa  still  atanding,  the  feadra 
■'"  celebrated,  the  .' 


which  n 

be  a 


1   froi 


the  prophet! 


Tbia  may 


after  A.D.  70. 
14:  ao  abo  Jonathan,  1  Kings  iv,  IS)  (he  name  Tra- 
cbona  (tUi3^B)=Tracbonitii  (Luke  ill,  1);  Joaepboa 
wiitea  Tpaxwrint-  sometimea  i  Tpiiyuv  {A  nl.  xv,  10, 
1  and  3;  xviii,4,6(  xx,  7,  1).  The  Pesbito  of  the 
Pentateuch  did  nut  follow  this  explanalioa  (Luke  Ul, 
1,  M313^aT  MnrX),  probably  because  the  division 
uf  Palealine  at  the  lime  of  Jeaua  did  not  exiat  in  the 
Sytisn  tnnalator'a  daya,  or  it  was  unintelligible  to  him 
(among  the  rahbini  M313na  ia  uaed  in  the  aenae  of 
"palace,"  ^S^B  [Buxtorf.  Lex.  p.  918  aq.J).  All  Ihit 
indlcalea,  or  rather  conflnna,  the  aupposltion  that  this 
Targum  belonga  to  the  lime  of  Jeaua.  There  is  a 
similar  indication  in  Onkelna'a  rendering  of  Baahan 
by  ',ZVO  (Syr.  I^JP-Q),  Batanau  («ee  Geaeniua,  Comm. 
lu  Ja.  ii,  18);  m)3  O^  by  Gennesaret,  IDlS^l. 
This  reminds  one  of  the  language  of  the  New  Test.; 
BO  also  etma  (Hammon),  "the  injuatice  with  tbd 
Hammon"  Cjl  hnaaa  yV^i  it  ia  aaid,  in  Gen. 
xiil,  13,  of  the  Sodomites).  When  Paul  tpeaka  of  that 
"spiritual  rock"  that  followed  the  children  of  Israel  in 
the  wilderneaa  (1  Cor.  i,  B),  he  undoubtedly  refers  to 
the  tradition  preserved  by  Onkeloa  (also  by  Pseudo- 
Jonathan),  "The  well  which  the  princea  digged,  tha 
chiefs  of  the  people  cut  it,  the  scribes  with  their  alavea; 
waa  given  to  them  in  the  wilderaesa.  Andrrom[the 
ne]  thatitwaagivenlo  them  it  descendeil  with  them 
the  rivers,  and  from  the  riveia  it  went  up  with  them 
the  height,  and  from  the  heigbc  to  the  Vale  which  ia 
the  held  of  H«b"  (Numb,  xxi,  18  sq.).  Hence  the 
exprtaaion  of  the  apostle,  "apirilual,  following  rock," 
The  Syriac  retaina  the  proper  namea  of  the  Hebrew  l«il; 
After  what  haa  been  laid,  we  believe  theTargnm  of  On- 
keloa originated  ahwf  tit  Uma  uf  Pkito—tn,  opinion 


TARGUM  2( 

wbicb  it  abo  held  b?  Zunc  (Gallnd.  rorlragr.  p.  62). 
Thia  bring  trn«,  OokelM  and  AhiUs  (or  AquU*  )  are 
tot  OIK  and  lie  mm*  pfrmm—a  view  alsn  exprtned  by 
Fnnkel  (Za  dsn  Targum  dfr  FivplultH  [  Brtsltn,  1873], 
p.  e)  1  «nd  theTilmudic  nolic«  conc«niin([  Onkelos,  the 
duciple  of  Gimaliei  I  (or  tit\et),  Ihe  Uachcr  of  ihe 
■poalle  Paul,  are  eormborstcd  ii;  our  argument,  minut 
the  notice  that  Onkelos  was  a  ptowlyte,  as  we  hare  al- 
ready BUUd  ibore.  For  with  the  ideiitiir  of  Onkelos 
with  Akilaa  (or  Aquila),  it  w  hnnily  conceivable  that  a 
man  like  Aquila,  who,  froni  a  Ch ri si ian,  became  a  Jew, 
and  Biich  a  zealous  one  that  he  prepared  atMlher  Greek 
rerrion  for  polemical  purpntes  against  the  Christians, 
■bnild  have  spent  lo  much  money  at  the  death  o( 
Gamaliel  I,  whose  liberal  and  friendly  altitude  towards 

becrmie  a  Christian,  as  a  tombstone  covering  his  re- 
nwins  in  a  church  at  Pisa  indicates : 

"  H'c  <D  FHTGOpbaRo  reqnleicnnt  corpora  sacrii 
Buiictornm.  .  .  .  Ssnclui  Gamallef  .  .  . 
flanuiltel  dlvl  Piinll  dIdnKaliin  olim, 
Doctor  et  eicellenr  iFrncl.in  Fidt, 
C.mclUl  inn^ni  adelqne  per  omnia  cnltor," 
We  now  come  to  the  work  it«eir. 

a.  Slglf,  ffc— The  Unguafje  of  Onkelos  greatly  ap- 
proaches the  Biblical  Chaldee,  i.  e.  it  has  still  much 
of  Hebrew  coloring,  though  in  a  less  degree  than  the 
other.  It  also  avoids  many  Aramaiams  (such  as  the 
contraction  of  nouns)  which  at  a  Uier  period  bccatne 
prevalent,  and  comprises  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  Greek  words,  and  of  Latin  words  none  what- 
ever. Of  Greek  words  we  mention,  Exod.  xxviii, 
25,  [«Via=^qpuXXDc;  ver.  11,  r|ia=y\uffli  Gen. 
x^tviii,  17,  Ol-'nnzri'Aolnic;  Lev.  xi,  BO,  l*r:jVn= 
KoAwTijc;  Ejtort.  «Tiii,  19,  tfpla=SpM.ac  (Pliny, 
xixTii,68);xxxix,ll,!U''-l3-l3=K(ip:(i|£ovioi;  Deut. 
XI,  20,  01:1= sx^P^'"^"  i  Eiod.  isviii,  20,  D1^3= 
Xpu/jal  Numb.  XV,  88,  Dent,  xxii,  12,  N1BD1^3  = 
KpiaitiSov;  Exo.l.xxx,34,PC:3=ic;rT'oci  <ien,  xxxvii, 
28,  Ci::b=\qfDi';  Exod.  xxiv,  16,  KDID -^apooc ; 
xxvi.6,«B11B  =  Ti;pini;  Gen.  vi,  U,  0111p=n'ipoci 
Exod,  xxviii,  19,  "35p  =  jriyxf««  (riiny,  xxxvii, 
14).  There  are,  bealde8,>onte  obscure  expressions  which 
were  partly  uniiilelliglble  to  the  Talmudisls,  as  K31SDS 
fur  enn,  etc,  in  Exod.  xxxv,  !8;  xxviii,  4,  btSBIB 
for  -^SSn;  ver.  17,  ;pl-^  for  nTBBi  ver.  18,  ■'-l''=lp 
for  oab;   Lev.  xxii,  20,  rT'5"'Sa    T'iTI  for  V^ap 

ij^sa,  et 


The  translation  o 
>imple  and  exacu     ] 


possession  nf  a  rich 
ft  6nd  him  omitting 


exegetical  traililinn ;  hence  v 

•ny  pamage  of  the  original.  His  eiucitiations  oi  aim- 
cult  and  obscure  passages  and  expressions,  perhaps  leas 
aalisfaclory,  are  commonly  those  most  accredited  by  ia- 
ternal  evidence,  and  in  this  particular  he  is  worthy  ofa 
more  careful  regard  and  assent  than  hare  usually  fallen 
to  his  lot     Gen.  iii,  15  he  translates  -.-^1  "!T  S"n 

n^b  ^aj^np  pri  TiBtpia  n^i  nan  rt^s  ^b 
KC^O^,  i.e.  "he  shall  remember  ibee  what  ihou  hast 
done  to  him  from  the  beginning,  and  thou  shalt  watch 
him  unto  the  end ;"  iv,  7  he  triiisUtes  aa-iP  CS  «in 

Di-'b  i"ms  aa'P  xb  ctti  -V  parin^  ynis 
31  -;5a  RTiBPX^  Tipsm  ^■'::j   -jxun  stJ-n, 

"shall  not  pacrlon  bo  given  to  thee  if  thou  doest  well; 
hut  if  ihou  doesi  notwell,thy  sin  shall  be  preserved  till 
the  day  of  judgment,  when  it  will  be  exacted  of  thee," 
etc.  Here  Pits  is  laken  from  KCS,  in  the  sense  of 
foa(rep«TOf<i.i,p."taking-awayofMn,"and  not  in  the 
seiue  of  "  lifiiiig-up  of  Ihe  countenance.''    Onkelos  did 


TARGUM 

nnderalind  the  meaning  of  the  verte,  but  fsays 
Winer)  "sensum  hujus  lad  prudenliBinKis  eiUm  iiiln- 
prelea  mlrifice  veiavii."  Gen.  vi,  3,  Onkelos,  like  ihc 
Sept.,  Syr^Saad^  and  many  recent  commeniaiort,givF3 

ttioa  lusn  V^^a  '""in  «vz  kit  cpn  tA 

(C3D  =  C3  "^eita),  i.  e."this  evil  geueralioo  ahall 
not  stand  before  me  forever,  because  they  are  flesh  C 
r,  14,  -"niobw  n-i  t-i^n,  i.  e. "  he  armed  his  ynong 
■n,"  but  XV,  S,  pm3"p  =  KD)^B",a,  "governor,"  a 
ulnry  to  tbe  true  sense  of  the  words;  xx,  IG,  he 
1  not  rightly  undentand  PP=19^,  fur  he  iransUlet 
r.naiPJt  HIOKT  rua  bs  Vsi  "and  with  napect  to 
all  she  uid  she  was  reproved ;"  xxiv.  So,  ^  ~'~'' 
^1197,  which  the  Sept.  correctly  translates  irpipac 
urti  iita,  Tulg.  lallan  dtcmi  dtei,  Onkelos,  in  acronl- 
ance  with  all  Jewish  interpreters,  explains  by  1*17 
-;^rn^  K^QS  1K  in:a,i.e.'' a  season  of  times,  or  ten 
months  i"  xxiv,  W,  nrvA  is  Inmslaled  by  n»!iZ7. 
"lo  pray;"  xivii,  42,  Dnlpia  is  translated,  by  way  of 
explanation,  -^  apxA  ^i  103,  "plotteth  againn 
thee,  to  kill  thee."  The  difficult  TQK,  in  xli,  43,  is  es- 
plained  by  ttsViab  !t3it,"a  father  to  the  kine,''and 
nWB  PJBSbyrPb  "i-liJ  "i^T'CaT  ttna^i.-theiiun 
to  whom  mysteries  are  revealed."  The  03 O  ~b  "PPl 
^n»,  in  slviii,  22,  is  correctly  given  by  "b  P-'Sr.' 
in  pbin."andIgivetheeone  parti"  and  C^IS  Wt, 
in  xlii,  4,  by  ^BK  StpV  pblK,  "  thov.  hast  been  cai- 
ried  away  by  thine  anger." 

EipUiMtory  additions,  which  evidently  belong  m 
Onkeloa,  are  found  in  Gen.  vi,  3  (^^a^P"  EX,  "  if  Ihry 
may  be  converted,"  at  the  end  of  the  vene);  ii,  ■■> 
(■mnsCl  KTSI  P""  T10"''l,"who  sheddeth  tbe  hk-i.1 
of  his  brother")  I  xiv,  22  (where  ibxa,  "in  ptayer."  l< 
added  to  ■1"'   "nia'-in);   xliii,  8!  (where  «e  hart 

•,'hsx  ^x^as  n-b  t^pi  "X^sist  K^^ra'^si. 

"because  the  Hebrews  eat  Ihe  animals  which  an 
sacred  to  the  Egj-ptians")  (camp.  Winer,  Ih  On- 
kioK),  p.  41 ).  Larger  additions  and  deviations  from 
tbe  original  text  are  found  mostly  in  the  poetical  psn> 
of  (be  Penuleueh  (Gen.  xlix,NDmb.xxJv,  Deut.  xivti 
and  xxxiii).  In  Ihe  multiplicity  of  words  which  i' 
here  employed,  the  original  text  almost  disappeiu- 
Thus  lien,  xlix,  11, 13,  which  is  referretl  to  (he  M»- 
siah  (the  parallel  being  Kumb.  xxiv,  17),  is  lendere^. 
"  Israel  shall  dwell  in  Ihe  circuit  of  his  city;  the  peo|ilr 
shall  build  his  temple;  and  there  shall  be  Ihe  rigtitmn< 
in  his  circuit,  and  Ihe  maken  of  the  law  in  bis  A<r- 
trine;  the  best  purple  shall  he  his  clothing;  hb  cover- 
ing shall  be  ulk  dved  with  purple  and  with  varinu* 
colon.  His  mountains  sliall  be  redder  in  their  vinr- 
yardsi  hia  hills  shall  drop  wine:  his  Aekls  shall  1* 
white  with  his  grain  and  with  flocks  of  sheep." 

In  passages  relalive  to  tbe  Divine  Being,  we  perceirt 
the  effect  of  a  doctrinal  bias  in  certain  deviations  from 
the  Hebrew  text.  Anthropomorphic  and  anthropn- 
palhic  expressions  are  avoided,  lest  human  altribaiH 
shoidd  be  assigned  to  the  Deity.  Thus,  D-pbx  inl 
nlP"  are  rendered  "■"l  K-ia-'U,  "  the  Word  of  God  f ,« 
••^^  KHp^"thesplendorofGod;"or^>'l  !(PJ3S3,"ibt 
Shechinah  of  God."  Akin  to  this  peculiarity  is  Ibe 
avoidance  of  Q^nbK.  when  it  is  applied  in  men  or  idols 
and  iheemployment  of  3-1,  !CS">n,llS»,  !»"''■  1"  «»*' 
w  here  divinequalitiesorornamenls  appear  lo  be  assignnl 
to  men,  Onkelo*  modifieaand  smooths  Ihe  meaning,  anl 
snbelilutcs  a  difierent  idea.  Thus,  ;^na-0  'inr'. 
i.  e.  "ye  shall  be  as  princes,"  Is  subKitated  for  BP*"?! 
0"nbi«,  In  Gen,  iii,  b ;  or  TJ^^  TTIM  mPI  BTKH  "jn 


n  nc.  tt,  is  tmuUled  by  swi 7=  Tn">  mn  mK 
m'S,  "behold  Adam  U  the  onlj'  one  in  the  world  of 
binHir." 

Oiikeld*  (how*  an  apparent  desire  to  preaeni  the 
(real  men  it  hii  naiion  in  as  favorable  a  light  a>  pon- 
iilile(conip.U<n.xvi,  1«;  xxv,i'l;  xlv.ST).  Difficult 
■imli  ire  nut  uiifrequentlv  retained,  a  in  (ien.  ii,  13; 
Kiad.xri,T;  Lev.  xiii.30i  and  Deul.  xxii,IS.  Namei 
dT  penples,  citira,  and  mountains  are  given  aa  they  wen: 
ammna  io  bii  tim&  Thus,  in  Gen.  viii,  4,  instead  of 
■STfMH  -^n,  he  has  ITIp  ^tla,  u  in  Syr.  and  Arab. ; 
Var  "px,  in  X,  10,  beeomes  ^33  i(51K ;  D■'^l^Ea, 
in  T(t.  14,  becomes  ^Xpaitp:  ^^ixs^a3^in  ixxvii, 
iS,  becomes  ^!t2n;,  etc  (see  Winer,  <^.  cil.  |i.  39).  In 
l«niuii(i  OnkeloB  a*  a  aource  uf  emending  the  Hebrew 
itii.  eieat  caution  is  DuesHarr,  and  the  mnre  so  be- 
aat  Ttt  have  not  as  yet  a  critical  edition  ••{  this  Tar- 
eanL  The  nnly  safe  rule  in  emending  the  Hebrew 
ii  nkHi  the  same  variety  of  readings  which  the  Cfaaldee 
jnwHU  is  found  in  seteral  Hebrew  MSS.  Thus.  e.  g^ 
u  Eiod.  ii,  7,  we  read  in  the  Hebrew  hxns''  mp'O'i, 
but  in  the  Cbaldee  ixllC^  ^«T  »-i^?3a.  The  orig- 
iiul  nading  was  probaUy  btt'lCT'  ''SS  njp^lS,  which 
i<  (lond  ill  several  M.S.S.  of  Kennieott  and  De  Koast, 
ani  in  iBint  nf  the  andent  verrion:^  The  Targum  of 
(toktloshas  always  been  held  in  high  regard  among  the 
Jn^wbo  alsi'  cttmpoaed  a  Mnanrah  upon  it.  Such  a 
llvanb  baa  lalrly  been  [lublished,  from  ■  ver)  ancient 
cndu,  by  Or.  Ilertinpr, Z>k  Mtiuariih  lam  TargvmOn- 
hia.  nuMiillrml  Jiiutorai  Atagna  and  ilaitoroh  Farcn 

i.  iliauucripfi  nf  Onkelni  are  extant  in  great  num- 
ken.  0%r.inl  has  five,  London  (BHiiah  IkluHum)  two, 
Vittm  li.x,  Augsburg  one,  Kureniberf:  two,  Altdnrf  one, 
Cailinihf  three,  Stuttgart  two,  lirfurt  three,  Dresden 
sot,  Ldfaie  sue,  Jena  one,  Dessiu  one,  Helmuildt 
■wo.  Ueriin  four,  Brealan  one,  Brieff  one,  Katisbon  one, 
lliraburg  wren.  Copenhagen  two,  Upsala  one,  Ainsler- 
lUo  "nr,  I'aria  eifibt,  llulthetm  one,  Venice  siic,  Turin 
iwi\  Milan  fuur,  Leghorn  one,  Sienna  one,  Geneva  one, 
Flmace  Sve,  Bohifnu)  two,  Padua  one,  Trieale  two, 
Pinna  about  fnny,  Rome  eighteen,  more  at  lera 
[J«r.  rti^  cnnlainine  Onkelna.  Fur  a  full  dcH:ri 
«llhrte  USa,  sec  Winer,  Dt  Onkelaio,  p.  IS  sq. 

4,  A^ifinas.— The  Targum  uT  Onkeltis  use  Hret  pub- 
litksl  with    Rashi's  commentary  on  the    Pentateuch 
(Hobigna,  I48i,  fid.).     It  waa  snhseqiiently  reprinted 
qsiia  frequently,  and  may  be  round  in  the  Rabbiiuo 
aad  PolyglnE  Utbles.     Buitorf  waa  the  first  to  add  the 
i-owel-points  III  (be  Taigiim.    As  jet,  we  have  no  cri 
cal  edition  of  this  Targum.    Dr.  Berliner  purposes 
(nbliih  ■  new  and  crilieal  edition  according  to  til 
xTSabujoeta  (I&B7).     'I'hia  Targum  has  been  translated 
JoioLiiin  bv  AlphonsodeZamora  in  theOimplutensian 
IVdygiM,  by  Paul  Fagius,  ami  by  John  Uercicr  (1668). 
That  or  t'agius  is  the  best.     It  waa  rendereil  into  Eiig- 
u4i  by  Kiheriilge  <l.unil.  ia62-&5). 

5.  IMrralurr—Jm.  Berlin  (Pik),  StlS^Sir  ^S^C,  ot 
glnaacB  and  commenti  upon  ihe  Tai^m  nf  Onkelo* 
(UrolaD,  1837);  Lunato,  13  3n-!X,  F/iilorrmii,  nVe 
A  Omhion  ChaUiiica  Pmlulaehi  Venvint  Diutrlatui, 
fic  (Vienna,  1830),  distribute*  the  devialiona  from  the 

ilieleat  friRi]  MSk,  although  the  genius  of  the  rereion 
i<  DM  well  describeil  in  it  tlhe  writer  nf  Ihe  art. "  Tar- 
inaa- in  Smith'a  Wcf.  o/(Ae  BOfc,  besides  a  great  deal 
•  I  aaekea  ballast,  thought  It  necessary  la  copy  Luz- 
ots):  Berkowiti,  1-91  nsi7,on  (he  hermeneuticaor 
UnteU  (Wilna,  1843);  id.  niV^O  niD''ir<  (ibid. 
iKt):  Levy,  in  Geigcr's  Znlnlirifl,  1844,  v,  1/&-I98; 
f^», /.HfratirrUatl.  184S,  p.  8S7  s(|..  3M ;  Smith, />Hi- 
■^  ii  ChaU.  PttrapinulU  torumqiie  rernonuaa  (Oxf. 
Kti);  WiDer,  D<  Onitian  rjiiqiu  Paraplttari  Cial- 


17  TARGUM 

daita  (Lips.  1890);  WMybaum,  Die  A ttlhnpomorjMrn 
Hud  A  alhrupoptaiiat  bei  OnkeUa,  etc.  ( Bredau,  IS70  ) ; 
Geiger,  JiUHxht  ZeiiKkriJl,  1871,  p.  SS-  104;  nj'ni 
-i>b,  or  a  commentary  on  Onkelos  by  Dr.  Adier  in  the 
edition  of  the  Pentateuch  with  ten  cnmmen  lanes  (W'Una, 
18(4);  and  the  litersltue  given  in  Ihe  an.  ONKltLOs  in 
this  Cgclepadia. 

ML  Jonalhon  htB-Uitiet <m  Ihe  Pro/iheU,  i.e.  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel.  ami 
Ihe  twelve  minor  prophets,  stands  next  in  lime  aiyl  ini- 
porlance  lo  Onkelos. 

I.  Aullkorihip  ami  Soams.—Ai  lo  Jonathan  himaeir, 
we  read  in  the  Talmud— (1.)  "  Eighty  disciplea  had  llil- 
lel  the  elder,  thirty  of  whom  were  uorthy  that  the  She- 
chinah  [  Divine  Majesty]  ahould  rest  upon  them,  as  it 
did  upon  Hoses  our  Lord ;  peace  be  u]ioii  him.  Thiny 
of  them  were  worthy  that  (he  sun  ahould  stand  sUll  at 
(heir  bidding,  as  it' did  at  that  of  Joshua  ben -Nun. 
Tweiily  were  of  interaiediate  worth.  The  greatest  of 
them  ill  waa  Jonathan  ben-llEiiel,  (he  least  R.  Jochanan 
ben-Zachai ;  and  it  was  said  of  R.  Jvchaiian  ben-Zachai 
(hat  he  left  not  [uninvestigated]  the  liible,  the  Mishna, 
(he  Gemara,Ihe  Ha]arhaha,the  KBggadalu,(he  suUle- 
ties  of  the  Uw,  and  the  snbtleliesof  Ihe  Sopherim  .  .  .  ; 
the  easy  tilings  and  the  difficult  things  [from  the  moat 


.  ifth 


I  is  Slid  of  the  least  of  them,  w1 


e  greaii 


sn-Uaziel?- 


(Balm  Jlalhra,  184  a;  ramp.  ^luUaA, '28  a).  (3.)  A  sec- 
ond passage,  referring  mnreespecially  to  our  present  sub- 
ject, reads  as  follows;  "The  Targum  of  Onkelcw  was 
made  by  Onkelos  the  Proselyte  from  the  mouth  of  R. 
Eliezer  and  R.  Jehoahua,  and  (hat  of  the  prophets  by 
Jonathan  ben-Uxziel  from  the  nwuth  of  Haggai,  Zech- 
ariab,  and  Blalschi.  And  in  that  hour  waa  (be  land  of 
Israel  sliaken  three  humlred  parasanga. . . .  Aivdavoiee 
was  heani.  saying, '  Who  is  this  who  has  revealed  my 

Uzxiel  and  said, '  It  is  I  who  have  revealed  thy  secrets 
lo  the  sons  of  man.  .  .  .  But  it  is  known  and  revealed 
before  thee  that  not  for  my  honor  have  I  done  it,  nor 
fur  the  honor  of  my  father's  house,  but  for  thine  hoiwr, 
that  the  disputes  inay  cease  in  Israel.'  .  .  .  And  he  fur- 
ther desired  to  reveal  the  Targum  lo  the  Hagiogrepha, 
when  a  voice  was  heard, ' Enough.'  And  why?  Be- 
cause (he  day  of  the  Messiah  is  revealed  therein"  (iff 
gUlah,  3  a). 

Tilers  is  some  exaggeration  in  this  description  of 
Jonathan's  paraphrase,  but  it  only  shons  the  high  es- 
teem in  which  it  stood.  Fabulous  as  the  whole  may 
appear,  ret  there  is  no  doubt  as  lo  Ihe  high  antiquity 
of  this  paraphrase.  Many  doubts  were  raised  as  lo  the 
Buthnnhip  ofthis  Targum.  Some,  who  would  not  deny 
Ihe  existence  of  Jonathan,  hesiuie  lo  believe  that  he 
had  any  share  in  the  Targum  commonly  ascribed  to 
him.  It  has  also  been  suggested  by  Lunato  and  Gei- 
ger  that"  JonoMiM  is  (he  aame  with  Ihe  Greek  TAeoAi- 
litm,  and  that  the  Babylonians  gave  this  naine  lo  the 
paraphrase— especially  as  they  were  acquainted  with 
thai  of  Jonathan  ben-Uuiel — to  indicale  (liat  the  Tar- 
gum was  cffler  Ihe  maimer  of  Theodoliim,  like  the  re- 
puted origin  of  the  name  Ottkrlot  in  connection  wilh 
(he  Greek  AkUai  or  Aqu^"  But  this  more  ingenious 
than  true  suggestion  has  no  support,  and  needs  no 
refiitsiion.  It  has  also  been  suggested  by  most  of  tbo 
modern  critics  that  because  this  Targum  ia  uever  once 
quoted  as  the  Targum  uf  Jonathan,  but  is  invariably  in- 
troduced with  the  formula  ^01*^  1  QJm^lS,  "as  R. 
Joseph  interprets."  thai  not  Jonathan,  but  IC  Joseph,  is 
the  author  of  this  Targum;  and  ihia  supposition  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  the  Talmud  relates  that  this 
R.Joseph,  in  bis  latter  years,  occupied  himself  chiefly 
with  the  Targum  when  he  had  become  blind.  This  re- 
lation of  the  Talmud,  and  perhaps  the  fact  (hat  Jona- 
than's Taigum,  which  was  called,  by  way  of  abbrevia- 


TARGUM  2( 

tion,  ^r>,  i.  e.  yrni^  CiyiT^,  made  Jowph  the  luthor 
(if  ihia  Tirgum,  since  '■H  niav  ilao  mean  i\UV  V\ifT\, 
m  something  elw,  and  the  re*l  Tu^m  is  now  quoted 
under  Josefih'a  name.  That  Jonathan's  Targum  was 
nally  extant  berore  the  time  of  R.  Joeeph  *e  aee 
from  MfgiUvh,  8  a,  where  on  Zech.  xii,  13  R.  Jowph 
remarks,  "WitbauC  the  Taipim  to  this  potslge,  we 
onilil  tint  unilenland  it;"  but  when  Ibe  writer  of  the 
"Targum"  in  Smith's  Diet,  o/lhe  Bibb  remarks, 


l"l«    ' 


quoted   i 


h  the  addition,  >  Without  the  Targum  to  this  verse 
( due  tti  him  ),  we  could  not  underetand  il,' "  he  only 
betraj's  hi«  c»rele«ne»  as  to  the  Talmndic  sentence. 
After  all,  we  do  not  see  why  we  shotild  not  rely  upon  Ibe 
Talmudic  notice  concerning  Jonathan  equally  as  mocb 
as  upon  that  concerning  R.  Joseph.    The  langusge  con- 


ning I 


lefurm 


little  fa; 


this  does  not  exclude  the  truth  of  tbe  matter.  Besides, 
there  is  nothing  lo  mililaie  against  Jonathan  hi 
written  a  Targiim  on  the  prophets;  and  CTcn  thi 
pression  that  this  Targum  was  made  "  from  the  a 
of  Haggai,  ZccbarUh,  and  Halachi"  is  not  >o  absu 
the  writer  of  the  art.  "Targum"  in  Kitto's  Cychpadia 
iroultl  suppose,  for  if  it  means  anything,  it  means  tbis, 
that  the  explanation  of  Jonathan  contains  ihc  transmit, 
led  exposition  in  tbe  spirit  of  Hillel,  and,  as  Zunz  re- 
marks (Gollrtd.  Vorlragt,  p.  032),  "Jonathan's  Targum 
on  the  prophets,  as  a  result  of  studies  which  were  in- 
stmmenlal  in  forming  fixed  national  opinions,  proves 
that  a  considerable  time  before  it  was  customary  I 
plain  the  contents  of  the  prophetical  books,  by  n 
of  Tsrgnmicsl  prelections  or  otherwise,  to  the  public 
Nay,  he  commends  tbe  teschers  for — even  in  evil 
—teaching  the  law  in  the  synagogues  at  the  lie 
the  CDngregationB"  (Targ.  on  Judg.  v,  3, 9}.  From  the 
New  Test-  we  know  that  Uoeei  and  the  prophets 


IX,  26)." 

Another  peculiarity  of  Ihia  Targum  arc  the  Jewish 
dogmatical  opinions  of  that  day  with  which  the  work 
I,  and  the  theological  representations,  in 
introducing  which  a  special  preference  was  given  totbs 
'      '  of  Daniel.     Examples  of  this  ire  Ihe  inlerprrling 
le  phrase  "stars  of  God"  bv  "people  of  God'  (lu. 
IB;  comp.  Dan.  viii,  10;  2'Maccix,  10);  the  ap- 
lion  of  tbe  passage  in  I^n.  xii,  1  to  thai  in  Isa.tr, 
.n  Isa.  X,  32  the  author  iiilroducea  a  legend  framsd 
nitalion  of  the  narrative  in  Dan.  iii,  which  is  n- 
peated  by  later  Targumiats  (comp.  Targ.  Jems. ;  Gen. 
'  !S;  xri,  &;  2  Chmn.  xsviii,S);  in  lsa.ixii.  Hand 
-,85  he  has  interwoven  the  doctrine  concerning  the 
rmd  dralk  ( comp.  Rev.  ii,  11),  which   tbe  wicked 
should  die  in  the  next  worid  or  kingdom  of  the  Ueiaali ; 
■nd  in  Isa.  xxx,  33  he  menltont  Grinnui.     In  vaiisBs 
places  the  notices  respecting  the  Meniafa's  offices,  chsi- 
aetet,  and  conduct,  the  eBecU  of  hia  advent  and  per- 
sonal influence,  harmonize  with  tliose  of  tbe  Jfew-Teit. 
writers  (comp.  lu.  xlii,  1  sq.i  Hatt.  xii.  17  sq.);  but 
fromtbistheSept.diflen,andBt  other  times  the  N.T. 
writers  differ  from  this  Targum.    Ita.  liii  it  rKOgnisa 
as  referring  lo  tbe  Meniafa,  and  assumes  a  suffering  and 
expiatory  Messiah.  Its  author  nevenhelesa  here,  as  well 
as  elsewhere  (Mic  v,  1),  Indulges  in  many  ptrversians. 
He  seems  to  have  entertained— in  germ,  at  least — tb« 
idea,  which  became  further  developed  in  the  Tikniul, 
of  a  Messiah  submitting  lo  obscorilvfur  the  sake  af  Ike 
sins  of  the  people,  and  then  appeariiig  in  glory  (eoMp. 
with  Zech.  iii, 8;  iv,7). 


t  la  litt 


Lthas  n 


jvedsr 


le  synagogues,  and,  di 
language,  there  Ia  no  reason  fi>i 
tiquiiy  of  this  Tsrgum.     The  text  is  rei 
same  manner  as  by  Oukelos,  free  from  all 
polemical  o " 


ibling  the  high  an- 


luded  and 
ce  the  2d 


bllowed.  Many  passages  are 
Messiah,  even  sncb  as  do  not  rightly  belong  lo  him, 
ao  that  no  polemical  tendency  against  Christians  ap- 
pears in  (he  version.  The  following  is  a  1'  "  " 
them:  I  Sam.  ii,  10;  2  Sam.  xxiii,  S;  1  Kings  i 
IsO.  iv,  2;  ix,  6;  x,  27;  xi,  1,  6;  xv,  2;  xvi 
xxviii,  6;  xlii,  1;  xliii,  ID;  xIt,  1;  Iii,  13;  Ii 
Jer.  xiili,  Gj  xxx,  21;  xxxiii,  18,  15;  Un& 
xiv,8i  Mitiv.S;  t,  2,18;  Zech.  iii,  8;  Iv,?;  ' 
X.4. 

2.  Ciaradtr,  etc.— In  the  historical  books  the  exe- 
gesis is  simple  and  tolerably  UleriL  A  few  words  are 
•dded  occasionally,  vthicb  bave  no  representatives  in 
the  original,  but  tbey  are  not  many.  The  interpreta- 
tion is  good.pving  the  sense  fuUy  and  fairly;  but  in 
the  prophetic  books  the  Ux.  is  more  freely  handled,  for, 
■■  Zunz  justly  remarks  (op.  cil.  p.  68),  "  The  propheti- 
cal writings,  not  containing  anything  of  the  luture  of 
legal  enactment,  admitted  of  a  greater  latitude  in  hand- 
ling the  text.  This  became  even  unavoidable  because 
of  the  more  obscure  language  and  the  predictions  con- 
cerning Israel's  future  by  which  they  are  charaeteriied. 
Even  in  the  case  of  tbe  historical  b«>ks,  Jonathan  often 
acts  the  part  of  an  expositor.  In  the  case  of  the  prophets 
themselves,  this  course  of  exposition— in  reality  iwcom. 
Ing  a  Ilaggadah — is  pursued  almost  uninterruptedly.' 
"'I'his  pervading,  often  misunderstood,  characteristic,' 
Bays  Havemick,  "constitutes  the  chief  proof,  confirmed 
also  by  exiemal  evidence,  of  the  imtMU  of  the  aulhor- 
■bip  of  this  Targum ;  for  not  only  do  parallel  passages 
(sucb  as  Isa.  xxxvi-XKxix ;  comp.2Kingsxviii,lSsq. 
Isa.  ii,  24;  Mic.  v,  1-8}  literally  harmonize,  but  he  i 
also  in  the  habit  of  funiishing,  particularly  the  puet 
ieol  portions  of  the  historical  boi^ks  (Judg.  v:  1  San 
ii;  2  Sam.  xxiii),  with  profuac  additions.    These  ad 


His  head  Zuns  (op,  e 
1  that  is  hostile  lo  Rome,  e.  g.  Exod.  xi 
;  1  Sam.  ii,  i;  Isa.  xxxir,  9.  So,  loo,^niiiUi 
L  xi,  14,  To  these  may  be  added  perhapa  Grrwi 
im  Gomcr,  in  Kiek.  xxxviii,  6;  the  supeistitioai 
d  inserted  in  Isa.  x,  B2  relative  to  tbe  army 
mp  of  Sennacherib ;  and  the  peculiar  stray  abml 
1  (Judg.  V,  8).     Even  Rashi  speslu  of  intrrpDliti 


.  of  Jon 


n  (Eiek.  xlvii,  19);  a 


I  Wolf 


says  (Bill'-  Hti.  ii,  lie6),'<QuBi  renr,  vel  quod  a< 
et  barharas,  vel  ad  res  «late  ejns  infetioiea,  ant  futiBs 
nonnuUa,  quamvis  pauca  triplicis  bojus  generis  exMent, 
it^  occurrunt,  ea  merito  falsarii  cujuedara  iiigenio  od- 
Bcribunlur."  The  printed  text  of  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot confirms  this  suppootion  of  interpolations,  since 
several  of  them  are  wanting  there.  So  long  as  we  have 
no  critical  edidon  of  this  'Tartrum,  we  most  be  careful 
to  draw  the  inference,  as  did  Moriniis  and  Yoss,  infivat 
of  a  very  late  origin  of  the  Targum;  for  a  perusal  of  tbe 
recently  published  edition  of  ibis  Tsrgum  by  Lagorde, 
from  the  Codex  Reuchliu,  and  its  comparison  with  mr 
present  editions,  will  only  show  the  corrupt  state  in 
which  Ibe  lext  at  preseot  Isl 

The  style  of  Jonalhan  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  ssme 
as  that  tif  Onhelos.  Eicbhom  and  Bertbold  asserted 
that  this  Targum  teems  with  "exotic  words."  Tet, 
notwiihstaniling  their  assertion,  we  believe  that  Carp- 
lov  (O*.  Sacra,  p.  461)  ia  correct  wben  he  saja, 
"CiiJuB  nitor  sermonis  ChaldKi  et  dictioois  laudatur 
puritas,  ad  Onkrlosum  proxime  accedens  et  pnrum  dt- 
flectens  a  pure  letsoque  ChsUlaiamo  Biblico."  Tbe 
text  lying  at  the  basis  of  the  Tsrgum  is  the  Masorei- 
ic  one;  yet  it  differs  from  the  Masoretic  text  in  vari- 
ous places,  where  it  aj^ais  lo  follow  preferable  read- 
ings. But  the  freedom  which  Ihe  translator  loot 
makes  it  difficult  to  tell  tn  every  cose  what  particu- 
lar form  of  the  text  lay  before  bim.  Heuce  gitst 
caution  mutt  be  used  in  applying  the  Targum  to  crit- 
ical purposes,  and  Ihe  more  so  as  we  have  not  as  yet 

We  subjoin  from  the  art. "  Targum"  in  Smith's  Diit. 
of  Iht  Bililf  Ihe  following  qxcitiniis  of  thia  Targiun 
from  diOcrent  books  i 


w 


fSVi. 


JaUb^  ^  klsjt «  KvfilH  I  ooliKlEb 

in  fItpyMJ  bifcf*  Odd  I  I  H>lia,  jl»»  IkukB  kl4 
n  £.  i!wl,  lb>  Bid  it  IhJl 
I.  I«l.  •kH  U«  •«»>  »l        1.  [O  Liod,  ibf  U>  •kkb  tbcii 


rccaT 


«ll»l    c 


"."•■. ?-.!?.  ^4! 


rill  tiEina.    B>l  iki^Utbluh  MM  upui 

L,uJ     iTiL  Un  d/jhI,  Mnad  Ibi  wii- 
b  bj.     bm  I   Out  wU  b>l  wUiud  Is 

lUfH        T.  Dwumd  wan  Lbf  mn  rlUw 


~!X^~. 


Si  3hW  um.  witb  IRi  It  inM 
[ASu^UiUlr  lb>J£Idt(ninT 


•«  rtjb.jji^--c  lb.  p«fl.. 

juan  (DBOID,  a.,  „ 

MUik  lk>  Oll-^dlU  did,  >U  lOal  »«  FblluUl  Ibi  jAiT 
SaTiaii  *•.    [A*d  ■)■  ItaMaWuWjial.lErnr  ^mj 


^^ ,  ■Ull  vtot,  ba  si  ih  bman  I 
■•  Aii^n  ud  dllM,  wft  l>iW  W 


V  "^ 


n^hv  Ed  dif  ulmloD. 
«■«  it  aDH  ba^Ut  U«*,  HlOv     AtbQf,  did  ab*  rtnebmy,  u J  i 


»  Hid  It*  ni^bi, 


3.  Z,i<«r(iti(n; — For  Che  cdUiona,  tnntlatioiu,  md  old- 
er litenlure,  k«  ¥IMt,Bibl.Ja^  h,  106  iq.i  WoH.BOL 
HtbrAi.1166;  LtLong(ei.Ui»ch),U,i,aatq.;  RoMn- 
mllUer,  Haadbvch,  iii,  9  aq. ;  Fruikel,  Zu  dem  Targun  6er 
/>rqpj|eMn(Bieakii,1872};  Ligude, /VopAfla CAoUotDr. 
£j&faCwfi«iAinicAJviian'(LilM.lST3aq.);  Buber.ATrt- 
(ucAe  t/ii(dni(atKq^(uiiiPri^iA<(dMiir;;tuii,iD  IbcZtil- 


TARGUM  2 

idkrijl  d.^alKk.  moTgtid.  GrtdUrhttfl,  1874,  x.xviii,  1 
•q.;  ie75,  luix,  1&7  aq^  B19  aq.    S«e  Jonathan  ben- 

]V.  Tkt  Targum  o/Puado-Jonalhan  tadJenuhalmi 
<m  ikt  Pmtalftic/i. — 'I'h*  greater  umplicitj  which  cliir- 
■cwrizeil  the  nldrr  'I'lr^ims  aoon  ceued  to  ulisfy  the 
progreaMvely  degpner«tiiig  l«8te  of  ihe  Jews,  cspecial- 
l;  *rt«r  the  Tilniitil  began  to  asaume  ■  written  TinD. 
Hence  Targumt  marked  by  greater  !a:iily  xnn  began 
to  be  writicii  which  embrand  more  the  opiniona  pecul- 
iar to  the  agE,  anil  fumiahetl  the  text  with  richer  tia- 
dilioiul  addenila.  Or  these  latitiidinariin  Tatguma  wc 
po«ae»two  on  the  I'enlaleuch  —  the  one  known  \ij  the 
name  of  Paeudo-Janithin,  inumuch  u  writert  of  i 
later  period  ascribe  it  to  tbe  author  of  the  Targum  on 
the  Prophets;  and  the  commonly  lo-cillefl  Targum  Hi- 
eroMlvmitanum.  or  Jeruahalmi. 

I.  Pieuilo-J!m<ilhtm.^Tblt,  paraphnae  ia  Tilaely  aa- 

Gnt  ver«  of  Genesis  to  tbe  last  of  Deuteronomy.  Tfa< 
way  in  which  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  his  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  mialake  of  a  copyist,  who  made  out  of 
■^  r,  i,  e-  Tiirguia  JwoiWmi — *,r31^  P,  Targurn  Jtma- 
tkaa.  Proof  ii  not  needed  at  the  preaenc  day  to  show 
[hat  tbe  Jonathan  of  the  prophets  is  not  the  Jaoathan 
of  the  Fenlateuch,  for  he  could  have  little  to  do  with  a 
Taigum  >¥hich  speaks  of  Conalanljuople  (Numb,  xiiv, 
19,  Z4),  describes  very  plainly  the  breaking-up  of  the 
West-Roman  empire  (ver.  19-S4),  mentions  the  Turks 
(Gen.  X,  9),  and  even  Mohammed's  two  wives,  Chadija 
and  Fatima  (xii,  21),  and  which  not  only  exhibits  the 
fullest  tequaintanee  with  tbe  edited  body  of  the  Baby- 
knian  Talmud,  b;  quoting  entire  paaaages  from  it,  but 
•doplB  ita  peculiar  phraseology:  not  to  mention  the 
complete  disparity  between  the  style,  language,  and 
general  manner  of  tbe  Jonatbanic  Ta^um  on  the 
Fropbets,  anil  those  of  this  one  on  tbe  Pentileucb, 
Strikinglv  palpable  at  firai  sight.  Thia  waa  recognised 
by  early' investigators  (Morinus,  PfeilTer,  Walton,  etc.), 
who  sunn  overthrew  tbe  old  belief  in  Jonathan  ben- 
Uiziers  autlionhip,  as  upheld  by  Henahero  Rekanati, 
Asaiiab  de  Hosh,  Uedaljah,  Galatin,  Fagius,  etc  The 
work  of  the  Pseudo -Jonathan  ia  not  a  vcnion.  It  is 
rather  a  paraphrase,  though  by  no  means  exclusively 
BO.  Neilber  iait  aHaggadic  commeniary.  Version  and 
paraphrase  are  interwoven  throughout,  tbe  author  ael- 
dnm  confining  himself  to  simple  explanation,  but  pro- 
ceerling  to  large  Midrasbim.  Halachah  and  Haggadah 
■re  riclily  imbcdiled  in  tbe  work,  the  latter  especially. 
His  legenda  are  rich  and  copious.  His  Haggailab  is  not 
bislorical;  it  is  ethical,  religious,  melapbyucal,  lyrical, 
and  parabolic  It  lias  been  well  observed  that  he  is  only 
the  inleriireter  of  the  ideas  prevailing  in  hia  time— the 
narrator  of  tradttion^  religious  and  national,  not  their 
inventor,  because  mont  of  them  are  found  in  preceding 
literature,  or,  u  Zunc  slates  it,  "almost  all  hia  expla- 
IMiiuna  and  embellishments  coinciiling  with  the  Hag- 
gadah we  find  occurring  in  the  other  Haggadie  writ- 
ings; tbe  few  which  are  peculiar  to  him  he  has  nut 
dei'ieed,  any  more  than  Jonathan  has  devised  his  inter- 
prelotiun  of  the  prophets.  In  both  the  culture  of  the 
■ge  and  the  potency  of  traditional  ideas  are  manircst" 
{Oolltid.  ror(i^,fu  72),  To  these  embclliabments  he- 
longs  the  manner  iu  which  events  and  characters  are 
dressed  out  hypetbolically  in  Jonathan's  Midrasbim; 
not  only  the  Biblical  heroes,  as  was  natural,  but  even 
tlieenetniee  of  tbe  Jewish  nation.  Thus  Og  carries  on 
bis  bead  a  piece  of  rock  sufficient  to  bury  all  the  camp 
of  Israel  beneath  its  weight  (Numb.  xxi,85).    A  moun- 


d  ofdivj 


led  in 


in  of  Israel  (Exod. 
examples  are  given  by  Zum  («p.  cil.  p.  72,  note  *)  to 
show,  against  Winer  and  Petetmaun,  that  all  these  sto- 
ries were  not  invented  by  Peeudo -Jonathan,  but  bor- 
luned  from  traditional  usage.    The  ethical  llnggsdah 


0  TARGUM 

is  perhaps  the  beat  part  of  the  work,  Ibr  here  tbe  eie- 
gete  becomes  didactic  Thus  we  are  told  in  Uen.  xl 
that  Joseph  Buffered  two  additional  years  of  impriioii- 
menl  because  he  built  on  man's  rather  than  God's  Mf, 
a  view  also  espoused  by  Kashi.  The  region  of  the  m- 
peniatural  is  treated  very  freely  by  Jonsihan.  Hia  in- 
gelulogy  ia  manellous.  lie  has  the  najnea  of  tdsiit 
aiigela  outside  the  circle  of  the  Ilible,  aa  Samsel,  Ga- 
briel, Uriel,  Ssgnugael,  etc.  We  ftnd  rhetorical  or  pwi- 
icai  digressions  in  Gen,  xxii,  14  (the  prayer  of  Abnhim 
on  Mount  Mnrish),  Dent,  xxxiv,  e  (ihe  hymn  on  Mnse.' 
death)!  (ien.  xlix,!;  Numb.xxi,S4;  Drui.  xxxii,  50 
(parables).  Like  Onkelna  and  olheis,  he  avoids  an- 
thropomorphic ideas,  and  is  avene  in  ascribe  niper- 
huntan  aliributes  to  heathen  gnda.  The  Halachab  'a 
alao  brought  within  the  circle  of  his  paraphrase,  iiid 
its  results  emploj-ed  in  the  exposition.  This  part  of 
Jonathan's  version  has  of  late  been  treated  by  Dr.  ii. 
Gaonemann,  in  his  Di<  junarhmiKht  Pmlalniclt.Uitrr- 
itUviig  in  iArtnt  I'tihdlmiit  tur  llalarka  (Leipsic,  1879). 
The  language  of  this  Targum  shows  it  to  he  of  Pslts- 
tinian  origin,  as  it  is  in  what  is  called  the  Jerusslen 
dialect,  like  that  of  ihe  Jerusaleru  Talmud,  but  villi 
many  peculiaritiea.  It  is  far  from  being  pure,  beciuat 
the  Syriac  bad  deeply  affected  it.  Foreign  elcmtnu 
enter  into  it  largely,  auch  as  Gen.  i,  7,  OlJ^^plSsir.- 
ayas  (ii,  6;  Numb,  xxxiv,  6);  ver.  9,  SPrn^to- 
Xtiov,  or  ioCTi  ^er.  20, 1'>1!<=ii^!  ii,  II,  ■;-b-i-:= 
/jqpuXXoc,  Syr.  Vbl--Z :  iii,  4,  ^1C:b^n=dWuloi-;  iv. «, 
l^ilp^K=Eieoi'ie;  vi,  2,  Opu,  tmm  rtim,  or  riiit. 
or  iriirui  ver. 9,  V.V'ii=yiv^elf,y^^vt|a^z^  T'twf;  Svc 
D>3  and  KDII,  etc. ;  comp.  Pelermann,  De  Dtabtt 
Fn^altachi  Parnpkrat&ut  Chatdaicit,  patticuta  i,  p.  SG 
sq.,  where  a  collection  of  these  foreign  words  is  giveo. 
The  names  of  ConalanllnDple  and  Lombardy,  and  even 
of  two  of  Mohammed's  wives,  which  occur  in  ibis  pirs- 
phrase,  besides  the  many  foieign  words,  pmve  the  Tar- 
gum to  have  originated  in  tbe  second  half  of  the  Tib 
century.  Thai  Joiialhaii  had  Onketos  befiiie  bim,  i 
Tfry  alight  comparison  of  both  will  show.  Many  pisMS 
attach  themselves  almost  verbally  lo  Onkelos,  as  Gen. 
XX,  1-15.  Indeed,  one  object  which  Ihe  I'seudoJoni- 
ihan  had  in  view  was  lo  give  a  crliicisin  upon  Onkelo*. 
He  corrects  and  allers  bim  more  or  less.  Where  Onke- 
los  paraphrases,  Jonathan  enlarges  tbe  paraphtSM.  The 
same  attention  Lo  Ihe  work  of  bis  predecessor  is  shown 
in  his  Halachic  as  in  hia  Hsggadic  inierpreiation :  u 
also  in  tbe  avoidance  of  anthropomorphisms  sndaiithri>- 
popatbiams.  Sometimes  the  divergences  from  Onkelos 
arealigbl,  sometime*  important;  and  ihey  are  often  nh 
perior  to  Onkelos,  but  sometimes  the  reverse.  Ai  hii 
object  was  different,  his  production  presents  a  giest 
contrast  on  the  whole,  because  he  intended  to  inieipm, 
not  to  translate.  Besides,  this  divergence  from  Onkeloj 
must  be  accounted  for  in  another  way :  he  did  not  base 
bis  work  ^n'niortilji  on  the  laller,  but  upon  another  par- 
aphrase; or,  in  other  words,  be  worked  upon  Onlekia 


«  becau 


n  tbe  fl 

duclion  resta  on  the  basis  of  the  Jerushalmi,or  Jeniis- 
lem,  Targum.  But,  before  proceeding  with  our  obeei- 
vaiion  on  Ihe  Pseudo-Jonathan,  let  us  apeak  of 

•2.  The  JtntMkabni,  or  Jtratotem,  riin/vsi.— 'I  he  Je- 
rusalem Targum,  written  in  the  same  dialect  suUtsn. 
tially  as  that  of  Ihe  Pseudo- Jonathan,  and  inlerprelinir 
igle  vetws,  often  single  words  only,  is  exlsnt  in  thi 
rullowing  proportions:  a  third  on  Geneus,  a  fourth  on 
Deuteronomy,  a  fiflh  on  Numbers,  three  twenticltis  on 
ExuluB,  and  about  one  fourteenth  on  Leviticus.  Judg- 
ing from  the  roun<led  and  complete  fntm  in  wh'ich  the 
parts  are  given,  we  may  infer  that  it  is  noB  in 
live  slate.  If  so,  it  cannot  be  a  hagnwntary 
recension  of  Jonathan.  Yet  their  similarity  is  striking,  j 
TheHaggadahoftheoneregula-'  '  -Mher.    ' 

and  has  usiiallv  a  more  coaci-  I  leni    I 


„)Ogk 


TARGUM  21 

Tirgom.  Indeed,  there  is  olten  a  verbil  agreement,  oi ! 
nwl*  »,  bcLVeeD  them,  »  ihw  one  might  it  flnt  be 
iKlinnl  to  mniiire  their  origjiul  identity,  ir  not  ihit 
Ike]'  ue  (undamenully  Ibe  ume  work  —  the  Jeniulem 
Tuf^m  conuiniaK  rBrisllDns  trom  the  other,  or  1>«nf; 
1  ftagmentJtry  recension  of  it.  The  latter  opininn  i> 
Md  bT  Zaat.  But  aguniC  Ihii  there  an  many  argu- 
mnu,  Mpeciilly  the  fact  ihat  (he  work  a  complete  and 
nmndtil  off  in  many  parts.  Ami  [hough  the  Bimilariiy 
it  [be  Jonathan  anil  Jenisalcm  Tar^ma  is  consideralile, 
there  i*  so  much  divergence  n  lo  prove  diversity  of 
Mibonhip.  Thus  Jeiushalmi  knows  verv  little  of  an- 
pls :  Uichael  is  the  only  one  ever  nccuning.  In  Jona- 
ihan,™  the  other  hand,  angelolngy  Hourishesvrich  great 
vigor:  to  the  fiiblicalMichael,aabriel,  Uriel,  are  added 
■lie  An^l  uf  Death,  Samael,  Sagnugoel,  Shachasui, 
IIM;  seventy  angels  descend  with  Gal  lo  see  the 
bnlding  of  Ibe  Babylonian  lower;  nine  hundred  mill- 
iain  of  puniihing  angels  go  thmugh  Egypt  during  the 
iii);b[  of  Ihe  Kxude,  etc  Jotuahaliai  makes  use  but 
rsniy  of  llalachah  and  Haggadah,  while  Jonslhan  sees 
the  lt>t  ai  it  were  only  through  the  medium  of  Hag- 
gadati:  to  him  Ibe  chief  end.  Hence  Jonathan  has 
cnasy  Midraahim  not  found  in  Jerashalmi,  while  he  does 
vx  unit  a  single  otie  contained  in  the  Utter.  There 
■R  aa  direct  historical  dalea  iti  Jemshalmi,  but  many 
■R  found  is  Jonathan;  and  since  all  oihrr  signs  indi- 
taie  that  hut  a  short  space  of  tiRM  intervenes  between 


rhich  i 


aiads  maniFnl  by  these  dates,     The 

Ermuie  bsLween  them,  however,  and  Ihe 

iwni  tbancteristic  of  either,  is  this,  that  while  Ji 

•hilni  adheres  more  closely  to  the  language  of 

Hitbaa,  Jonathan  has  greater  affinity  to  that  of 

tiraut.     It  ia  also  perceptible  that 

Oakckis  for  Ihe  name  of  Cod,  shown  ii 


is  JuDUban  as  in  iho  JsTiualeiD  Targum.     If  such  t 
Ibt  diversity  of  .lansthin  and  the  Jeruaalem  TarRim 
tliey  are  not  one  work  runda  men  tally ;  nor  is  the  one 
rneosian,  nnw  in  frsKments,  of  the  other.     But  how 
Iteit  nwrnblance  to  be  explained?     Only  by  the  fact 
that  both  have  relation  lo  Onkelos.     Tbe  author  of  ' 
Jwidslem  Targnm  worked  upon  that  of  Onkelos, 
object  being  lo  correct  it  according  to  certain  principles, 
and  lo  insert  in  it  a  Kleclion  of  Haggadahs  cum 
inunK  Ihe  people.     Pseudo- Jonathan  afterwanls  i 

wKir  bad  begun.  The  Jentsalcm  Tii^um  formed  I 
bast)  of  Jonathan,  and  its  own  basis  was  that  of  Onke- 
ka.  Jonathan  used  both  his  pTedeceasnrs"  paisphrases, 
lie  aathor  nf  the  Jeruulem  Targum  that  of  Onkeloa 
alme.  There  is  no  doubt  Ihst  Ihe  smsll  gloMsrial  pas- 
■ages  of  the  Jerusalem  Targum  arc  intended  as  a 
lal  sonmentaiy  upon  Onkelos,  and  from  his  standpoint 
Ibi  Boltanr  proceeds  freely  in  using  his  predecMSnr. 
Tbm  ho  iTJects  his  acceplations  of  words,  and  givea 
dDser  acceptations  for  his  freer  one&  In  many  places 
■brre  Onkelos's  scrupulnsiir  about  removing  anthropo- 
Bwphisma  friim  the  tent  had  obscured  the  sens 
Imtilkm  Targum  re*u>res  Ihe  original  meanin 
■(Be  adilition  or  change.  Thus  in  Gen.  Ti,  6,  i 
Oakclos  omits  the  name  Jehovah  and  parajihrases. 
the  J«rusalem  Targum  comes  near  Ihe  original  Us 
SsBttJBwa,  where  Onkeloa  Atamaiics  a  Hebrew  woi 
Ihi  JflBBaleia  Targum  aobstitntea  a  genuine  Arami 
■a  OM,  as  in  viii.  «,  where  the  tta*;^  of  Onkelos 
4ii^ac*d  fcr  W^I^TC.  8o  in  xxiiv,  il,  where  Onke- 
los has  "QTro^  yyf''^  the  Jernaalem  Targum  pul 
insist  Xy^V.  Vice  rrrso,  the  Jemsalem  Targui 
•Itea  prtfen  a  Bebrewwonl  to  Onkelos's  Araawan  oni 
ftthap*  became  (hs  latter  wu  better  known  in  Pales- 
liB«,as  in  xai,  i*  '^—  •-  '-'•ed,  no  unifum 
tsftwtu  Onkalos  'he  nse  of 


TARGUM 

readily  traced.  After  all  that  has  been  said  there  can 
that  the  general  object  of  Ihs  author  of  the 
Jerusalem  Targum  waa  lo  correct  and  explain  Onkelos, 

aibipling  it  to  a  later  time  and  different  country  by  eii- 

laled,  so  that  ics  deScieiiciea  might  be  removed.  From 
being  a  version,  he  uished  lu  supplement  it  in  various 
parts,  to  that  it  should  be  a  parspbraae  there.  That  he 
lakes,  and  departed  ii 


n  Oiikeh 


them  (o/,.n 
salem  Targi 


10  sc).).    It  it 


■e  Feten 


is  frsgrae 


>t  remark, 
IS  colJaleil 

'  n  the 


e.  He  uses  the  larger  paraiihnues  and  Hag- 
of  it,  as  well  as  the  smaller  variatiiHis  rmai 
Onkelos,  but  always  wiili  discretion,  llore  commonly 
the  Uaggadah  of  the  Jerusalem  Targum  is  simplified 
and  abridged.  Nor  does  Jonathan  follow  Onkeloa  im- 
plicitly, hut  often  diverges  If  he  does  nut  adhere  con- 
nstently  to  the  Jerusalem  Targuni,  we  need  not  expect 
to  see  "hjm  copying  Onkelos.  Thus  in  (icii.  rii,  ll; 
xxii,  24,  he  leaves  Onkeloa  f.ir  the  Jerusalem  Targum. 
It  ahoutd  also  he  ubaerred  Ihst  Jonathan  relies  upon 
Onkelos  much  more  than  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  which 
ia  freer  and  more  independent.  Tbua  Ibe  former  fol- 
lows Onkelos,  and  the  latter  departs  from  him  in  Gen. 
xt,  30;  xii,  6,  lo;  Kiii,  G;  xiv,  6,  ^1 ;  xvi,  7,  III;  xix. 
SI ;  XX,  18,  etc  The  interval  of  lime  between  Ihe  Je- 
rusalem Targum  and  Junathan  csunot  be  determined 
exactly,  but  it  must  have  been  a  century,  From  these 
nbservstions  it  will  no  longer  be  uncertain  "whether  Ibe 
Targum  of  Jerusalem  hath  been  a  continued  Targum,  or 
only  the  notes  of  some  learned  Jew  upon  ibe  margins 
of  the  Pentateuch,  or  an  abridgment  of  Onkekn"  (Allix. 
Judgtmaan/aeAaeiti}lJewiiihCharch,tU.,p.88).  All 
the  guesaea  are  incorrect.  The  only  objeciion  to  thii 
hypothesis  is  Ihe  statement  of  Zuni  that  because  many 
ciutions  made  by  older  authors  from  the  Iwn  Targums 
in  quaslinn  are  now  missing,  an  older  ami  comj^te  Je- 
rusalem Targum  must  hare  existed,  which  ia  now  loel. 
But  when  we  consider  the  probable  chances  of  pasaages 
being  hM,  in  the  course  of  tranKriplinn,  and  of  olhera 
being  interpolated,  as  also  the  fact  of  variations  in  the 
editions,  it  need  not  be  assumed,  in  the  face  of  inientsl 
evidence,  that  they  are  rrry  diCferent  now  from  what 


Many  of  I  h 


dbya, 


gether,  need  a  great  deal  of  sifliiig  and  correction,  aa 
has  been  ably  shown  by  Seligsohn  in  Frankel's  Mo- 
naUKkriJi,  1S67,  p.  113.  The  view  of  Ihe  relation 
now  given  between  Onkelos,  the  Jeruaatera  Targum, 
and  Paeudo-Jonathan  was  briefly  ailvncaled  bv  Fran- 
kel  {op.  cir.  1846,  p.  Ill  S(|.)  with  ability  and 'success. 
His  view  has  again  been  laken  up  by  Seligsohn 
and  Traub,  and  satisrsetorily  established  by  Ibem  in 
priie-essay,  published   in    Frankel's  Monaludii'if), 


—The  Pseudo -Jona- 


1867, 

S.  EtBlvmi  and  Connnirar 
than  Targum  was  drst  published  at  Venice  in  I69I ; 
tbenatHanau,  1G18;  Amsterdam,  IC40;  Prague,  I64G; 
Amalcrdam.  1671  and  170S;  Berlin,  1705;  WilnB,1862i 
Vienna,  1869,  elc^ — all  these,  as  well  aa  the  fdilio  prin- 
erpi,  having  Onkelos  and  the  Jerusalem  Targum.  it  ia 
also  in  the  London  Polyglot,  vol.  iv,  together  with  a 
Latin  translation  made  by  Aniniiy  Chevalier.  It  was 
translated  into  English  by  Etheridge  (Loud.  ISHa-eo). 
The  Jorusalem  Targum  was  first  printed  by  Bomberg 
{Venice,  1518)  in  hif  Kabbinical  Bible,  and  reprinted  in 
the  subsequent  Kabliinical  Bibles  issued  by  him,  and  in 
the  great  INilyglnts.  Since  iu  publication  by  Walton 
in  I«67,  it  has  also  appeared  at  Wilna  (1853),  Vienna 
(1859).  and  Waraaw  (1876).  Francis  Taylor  made  a 
Latin  veision  of  this  Targum  (Lond.  1&19);  but  the 
mote  correct  one  is  that  of  Antony  Chevalier  above 

A  commenury  was  written  upon  the  PseudoJona- 
(han  and  Jerusalem  Targums  by  David  ben-Jacob  Zc 


TARGUM  2: 

bcwyn  (Pngne,  1609),  entided  ynv^  OlSln  is  Oll't 
^ab31-^^  D11*irij  by  Hordecai  ben-N>pbuli  Hinch 
(Arnttentam,  1671  ),Bnti lied  CHOn  P^Sp,  but  OTl^B 
^nifflT'l  "iPSI^  Oia^n  is  it  giren  in  the  Veolawuch 
edilion  publiihed  it  Wilna  in  1859.  B.  Pheibd  ben- 
David  (Haniu,  1614),  lulhar  o(  nib^n  llttS,  did  pot 
compose,  aa  Ihe  wrilet  of  the  act.  "  Ta^um"  in  Kitlo 
elate*,  ■  commenurjr  on  Pwudv-JoDBtban  and  Jeru- 
Bbalmi,  but  an  elucidation  ol  difficult  word*  found  in 
Jonithui'e  I'argum. 

We  aubfoin  the  fulloiring  BpMimeDa  bom  Geneaia  and 
DeuieroDomy,  adected  at  random : 


8,  IB).    Tbe  extraneoui  inaertioDi  are  vtiy  nnnMfoa^ 

^ad,  "  And  the  three  frienda  of  Jnb  heard  of  all  ihc 
i-il  that  had  come  upon  him  when  thej  had  aeen  the 
¥<■  of  his  garden  burned  np,  and  the  tovad  of  U*  food 
changed  into  living  fleah,  and  the  irute  of  bit  diiok 
into  lilood  1  and  they  cama  each  one  fram  hia  place, 
and  for  this  service  they  were  delivered  from  tbe  plate 
appointed  them  in  Gehenna."  In  i,  II>  the  *rord>  oTlba 
original  »33  liS  ism  are  rendered  Cj^5na  flit;! 
13-i;3l  n;is«  n'>V'<V,  "  and  the  queen  of  Samar- 
(?)  inddenlf  1 


4.  r,»(era(wr».  —  Winer,  De  Jonalliafiii  in  PeMalev- 
eium  Paraphrawi  ChalAnca  (ErUngeii,  1823);  Peter- 
mtna,  De  Dtiahvi  PeiUolmchi  Puraphraiibut  Clmldaini, 
pU  i  (  De  ludoU  Parnpkratrot  q«m  Jonalhanii  at  did- 
tur  (Bcrolin.  1829);  Bitr,  GtiM  det  Jtnurhalmi  {I'trado- 
Jimalllan),  in  Krankel's  MomUariTift,  1861-62,  p.  286- 
■M2 ;  Sdigeohn  and  Traub,  Ueber  dm  CtiH  dtr  Utbrrtnt- 
tuv]  daJntmlhnn  ben-Uriil  mm  Pentalnck  anddii  Ab- 
/liuang  da  in  dm  Edilianm  ditter  Utbmrltung  btige- 
dnictten  Tar/pim  Jmiiciatmi,  ill  Frankera  Sfonatt- 
tchrifi,  1867,  p.  96-lU,  188-149i  Geiger,  Dai  Jrrum- 
ItmiKkt  Tarvum  vim  Pfnlolrnrh,  in  the  I'Tichiift  n. 
Vrhtrttl^unff  drr  BiM  (Bmlau,  1867),  p.  467-480;  Se- 
ligaohn,  De  Dnolmt  l/itroxdynilinia  PenlalrvM  Para- 
phriudm  (ibid.  1868)  (  Gronemann,  Die  Janathariidie 
Petaaleaeb-Vrbertrn>iiig,eK.  (Leipi.  1879). 

V.  TaTgamt  on  Iht  ffngiosrapJia — Theae  Targnms 
are  ceuerally  divided  into  three  gtoups,  viz.:  a.  Job, 
I'salmis  Proverbs;  6.  The  Ave  Megilloth ;  c.  Daniel, 
Climniclea,  and  E^ra.  Tradition  aacribea  to  R  Joseph 
Ihe  Blind  tlic  aulhorahip  of  (his  Tarpim,  but  this  is 
contradicted  by  writera  even  of  the  lath  century  (see 
Zuiii,  np.  ci/.  p-  66). 

1.  Tin  Targam  on  lie  Boot  o/Joft.— A  feature  of 
this  Targiim  ia  ita  Haggadical  character.  As  early  as 
Ihe  nuddlpofthe  Ist  eenturj'a  paraphrase  on  tbe  book 
of  Job  is  menlioned.  lis  difficulty,  but  more  especially 
iu  adaptation  to  allegorizing  fancies,  presented  ■  pe- 
culiar temptation  to  Chaldee  eipoeitora.  In  many 
places  we  find  a  doable  Targiim.  After  one  interpre- 
tation, which  is  always  free  in  character,  another  atill 
more  paraphraalic  is  annexed  witli  the  inlrodtMtorr, 
XT,  i.  e.  injt  Cliir,  amlher  Tatyam  (comp.  iv 


mentioned,  the  date  ia  late.  The  language  la  intn- 
mixed  with  Greek  and  l^tiii  words  in  the  same  drpre 
aa  the  Palestinian  Targumim  and  Uidrashim.  Thas 
Ihe  word  "has,  dyyiXoc  (angel),  is  used  in  x>,  16; 
XX,  !7i  XXXV,  10.  Bacher  alwi  (iiids  in  this  Targaia 
Ihe  Latin  word  deialar,  and  cornea  to  the  eooclaiia 
that  tiie  author  lived  in  Palestine,  under  Roman  do- 
minion, in  the  4th  or  61b  century,  while  Ihe  wtiicr  at 
the  art.  "  Ta^m"  in  Killo  atalea  that  "  Ihn  work  it  a 
fcrowtb  belonging  to  variona  time*  and  writers,  of  which 
tbe  beginning  and  end  cannot  be  precisely  deleimiiKd.* 
With  regard  (o  the  Haaore^  text,  the  Targam  of 
Job  agrees  aDmeliinn  with  the  Sept.  (as  xix,  IS:  '3, 
Targ.  n->3,  Sept.  iv  almf;  xxii,21:  -]nKlSn,  Taig. 
inibj,  Sept.  rnp«ic  "Of  I  »»"'i  83 :  PI^IK^,  Targ. 
!f<30:UtVSept-{(voC,bDthrn:X),0T  with  the  Peshilo 
(comp.iii,8i  vi,  16;  vii,4;'ix,7;  xvi,  10;  xivi,  10; 


id  t-  iilT,  W:  n\  Tar.  IVI  O31IIS). 

■  n-        T,   B;^!t,  "    Vn  fi*'0il3V'!B. 

in,  B;  nsio,  "  nmo  ntmsn. 

nviH,  Ti  r^ic,  "  mn  (nvi). 

■  TB—  Til,  4i"rTO\  "  T1J41  (n-nrnn. 
•  tt—  III,  Wi  nms,  "  omu  c'lfr'n). 
'  n-  i»ii.  «i  ofM-ranai,  "  oni-ianai 

'  1-  iii,«i'a,     .-    '■  in  (ms). 


A. 


HS- 


TARGUM  2! 

■>  uj  1-iiTiii,  T:  mtt,     Tu.  mn  {mm. 

nll.WiO-'JiS,      •■    B-'SW  (SOn-HD). 
3-0-     tU,   •;  -,ZS,  "    \0S  CpOt-l  K133in 

mil,  so ;  t|WDn,      "    C|(«n  P">SP.). 

Id  l<n>  aaet  tbe  rariadoD  b  to  be  KcouDlcd  for  by 

taring  unit),  rix.  xxiz,  2!,  vbere,  iusteid  of  >]Sr, 
:a'n(1BBn),  md  uxii,  23,  where,  tor  nsin, 
il3ir(^ivri)  is  read.  Tbe  numtier  is  greaur  wbera 
ihtTonl-poiDU  differ  from  ibooe  oClhe  Masonh.  Ya- 
liMliaa  of  Ibis  kind  may  amount  to  about  tbirty. 

Tbc  Tupim  on  Job  was  published  by  John  Teien- 
tin  (Fnn^  IG6S)  [Ihe  text  being  that  of  fiuxtorf,  and 
ibt  Uiin  innslatian  that  of  Arias  Montanut],  with 


TARGUM 

extends  even  l4i  the  chtHoe  and  poajlion  of  woriln, 
comp.  i,  l-«,  8,  10,  13,  IS;  ii,  9,  10,  13-15)  iii,  2-9j 
1-8,  !6;  V,  1,  2,  4,  6;  viii,  27;  x,  S-G;  xxvi,  1; 
rii,  2,  6,  6,  8 ;  xxix,  6,  6 ;  sxxi,  81.  Dathe,  in  bis 
De  Ralirmt  Contniui  Vaaoaii  ChaUaica  a  Sfriaea 
yiamm  Soiononit  (Lips.  17(>4),  was  the  first  who 
«cia1  attention  to  this  fact,  and  came  to  Ibe  con- 
that  the  Chalilee  interpreter  was  depcndoni  on 
iac  He  endeavors  to  prove  hii  potiltim  hy  tnany 
pertinent  arguments,  such  u  that  the  Syriac  explain* 
froai  the  Hebrew  most  naturally, 
and  that  muiy  Syriacisras  Id  words,  forms,  and  orthogra- 


™,ria<inE  of  V. 


Bxplan 


ef  Childee  words.  The  Latin  version  of  Alphonso  de 
Zimm  *u  published  with  notes  bv  John  Herder 
iibid.l6«S),  and  Victories  ScisUi  tiuialated  it  iatn 
Luia  (Rome,  1G18).  This  Targuin  has  been  treated 
bi  Bichtr.  ill  Grilx't  MemUuckri/r,  1871,  p.  !08-22S, 
lid  bv  Weiss,  De  Liiri  JM  Parapkrati  Chaldaka 
(Vnii,!.  IS75), 

t  Tie  Taiytm  on  llu  Pialml.—Thia  Taignm  is  not 
«  Bmcsdic  or  diffuse  as  that  of  Job.  Sumetimes  it 
Mien  the  orieinal  with  a  tolerable  degree  of 


ilsl^a  in  pnlti  digressions,  absurd  fables,  and  caarnion- 
F^  remarks.  Two  or  three  ditTerent  versions  of  the 
oiw  uxi  occasionally  follow  one  another  without  re- 
lurk,  though  the  introductory  notice  SIP,  i.  e.  DIS'^TI 
■fl»,ii)iiieiimMprecBctes(comp.ci,l).  The  additions 
ii>  ibc  text  are  often  inappropriate,  the  sense  distorted, 
ihi  lida  wrongly  paraphrmiied,  and  fables  are  abundant, 
Ttiio  in  CI,  1  the  paraphrase  bns.  "The  Lnrd  aaul  in 
In  word  that  he  would  appoint  me  lord  of  all  Israel; 
lu  b  said  to  me  again,  Wait  for  Saut,  who  ia  of  the 
uibt  dT  Benjamin,  till  he  die.  because  he  does  not  agree 
ID  ilw  kingdom  with  an  usociate:  and  afterwards  L 
liDnike  thine  enemies  thy  foatstool,"  to  which  is  sub- 
}iui  Kn,  tbua, "  The  Lord  aaid  in  bis  word  chat  he 
"hU  gire  me  Ihe  dominion  because  I  was  intent  upon 
"•t  ikariDc  of  the  law  of  his  right  hand :  wait  till  I 
'°>b  lUne  enemy  the  footstool  of  thy  TeeL"  Deria- 
liiu  Irnin  ihe  Hasoretic  text  are  numerous.  On  Ihe 
'^Kjt,  Ibe  lingnislic  character  of  this  Tai^^m  corre- 
HMnii  with  that  on  Job,  and  resembles  that  of  the 
-Jnoaleai  Targum.  It  abounds  in  Greek  words;  thua, 
'.enlea  ihe  oyytXoi,  occurring  al»  in  Job,  we  meet 
*<A  lipay,  IX,  t ;  wiXa/oc.  xlvi,  B ;  ruptw;,  liii,  1, 
'•iicTii.lO;  vTiroc,  Ixxii,  10;  rkania,  Iviii,  Vi;  tu- 
""cUiiii,  13;  u^Xoc,  IxKxix,  7;  nrM^fKov,  Ivji,  92; 
t^ln>|iii,  iriii.  34,  etc  According  to  Bacher,  Dot 
Tainn  a  den  Ptalmeti,  in  GtHU's  MomHuehriJ},  1872, 
l^4(«-iIS;*6S-473,the  author  of  tbia  Targum  is  the 
■'mHorihat  on  Job.  DaTidson,  in  Kitto's  Cgdop.  s.y. 
"TitmiB,"  thinks  ihat,  "like  the  Targum  on  Job,  thi 

wumes."  The  Targum  on  the  Psalms  was  primed  i 
Jwioiuii-,  poij^ini  Psalter  (Genoa,  1618),  and  in  th 
Hfiiginl  edition  of  the  Psalter,  published  at  Rostock, 
W  ft  i>  also  printed  in  the  latest  Rabbinical  Bible 
'^^•naw.  ]S75).  The  Antwerp  and  following  Palv- 
eV">  (1572, 1645,  1657)  contain  the  La^n  reruon  of 
Ann  Mimianua.  From  the  Codes  Reochlin  it  wm 
piUiiked  by  Lagarde  in   his  Haghgraflia  Chnldnice 

,    'Wrnl8:31,andi>epablishedbyNesileii  ■■     "    '      ' 

I    ■"T'driyforti.B  (Tub.  1877-79). 

I       1.  Tkt  Taryvm  om  PrOFtris.  —  This  T 

I    Bignfie,  and  adheres  more  closely  to  Ihe  original 

I    "U-    lis  remarkable  agreement  with  the  Syriac 


n  the  vt 


ChaJdee,  or  at  least  are  verv  rare.    Eichbom  and 

licit  take  the  same  view.     HKvemick  denies  the  use 

the  one  by  the  other,  endeavoring  to  account  for 

eir  similarity  by  the  cognate  dialecla  in  which  both 

I  written,  Che  identity  of  country  in  which  they  Iiad 

Iheirorigin,  and  their  Itterality.  Davidsnn,inKitlo'a(^ 

ciapadia,  is  inclined  to  believe  that,  the  Targum  having 

1  made  in  Syria,  the  Syriac  as  well  as  the  Hebrew 

nonsuited,  or  rather  Ihe  Greek  through  the  medium 

he  Syriac     White  the  Hebrew  was  the  basis,  Ihe 

Syriac  was  freely  used.     Different  entirely  is  the  opin- 

of  Maybaura,  who  takes  the  opposite  ground  to 

that  of  Dathe,  Eichhom,  and  others.     He  believes  Ihat 

the  Svriac  interpreter  was  dependent  on  the  Chaldee. 

The  Btatemenla  in  the  an.  Syriac  TkrhioS,  Its  Rb- 

l-ATIOn    TO    THE    SeptCAQTST    AMD    ChALIiER,  in    iblS 

Cgdopadia,  candTBi  this  view.  The  greatest  obstacle 
in  all  these  disquisitiooa  is  Ihe  want  of  a  critical 
text,  and  Slaybaum,  who  compaivd  the  diBbrent  read- 
ings together  with  an  ancient  codex  preserved  at 
Brealau,  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  Dathe's  evi- 
dence is  based  upon  corrupt  readings.  As  to  the  orig- 
inal language  of  this  Targum,  Dathe  (np.  dl.  p.  125) 
■   was  originally  wril- 


n  Syiii 


baving  been  interpolated  by  Jews:  "Nempe  Jud^ 
nlebaumr  versionibus  Hyriacis,  quae  legere  atqoe  inlel- 
ligere  ob  sutnmam  ulriusqiie  lingun  coiisensionem  pa- 
teranC  Sed  mutabant  eaa  passim,  partim  ad  sns  dia- 
lect! pmprietatem,  parlim  ad  leclionera  textus  Hebrn 
inter  eos  receptam."  His  hypothesis  is  based  upon  Ihe 
fact  that  the  Chaldee  in  xviii,  22  agrees  with  the  He- 
brew 313  KSa  nett  KXS,  and  while  Ihe  other  ver- 
sions read  n3;a  after  niTit,  the  Chaldee  agrees  wilh 
the  Hebrew.  But  it  is  evident  that  because  the  word 
is  wanting  in  one  WS,,  chis  inference  cannot  be  drawn 
concerning  all  others.  The  fact  in  the  matter  is,  that 
only  ill  Walton's  edition  does  the  Chalilee  agree  with 
the  Hebrew  text;  while  others  as  Dathe  himself  admita, 
have  the  word  ra^^a.  And.alUr  all,  how  is  it  chat  the 
Chaldee  so  often  deviates  from  Ihe  Hasoretic  text? 
Whence  is  it  that  en  many  Chaldaisma  are  found  even 
in  those  codices  which,  in  the  passage  quoted  above,  do 
not  agree  with  the  Uasareticlext?  The  answer  is  that, 
as  the  Chaldaisms  in  our  Targum  are  as  original  as  Ihe 
Syriaeisms,  we  bave  bere  evidently  to  do  with  a  mixed 
dialect;  and  from  the  analysis  given  on  Ihe  linguistic 
pec^lialiIie^  Msybaum  comes  to  the  condution  Ihat  lie 
latiguage  nf  Ihe  Targfmt  on  Piwerbt  u  Syro-CkaUaic, 
ami  Iht  original  bm/mage  nf  tie  author.  The  relation 
of  the  Chaldee  to  the  Syriac  ver«on  having  already 
been  treated  at  some  length  in  the  arL  Syriac  Version, 
ITS  Relatiok  to  thk  Skptuaoint  and  Chai.dke, 
we  can  only  refer  to  it.  If  Che  hypothesis  of  Maybaum, 
which  we  have  adopted,  be  true,  viz.  that  the  Syriac 
depended  upon  Che  Chaldee,  not  ri«  rcrdi  —  for  even 
Davichion  admits  that  "a  uniform  dependence  of  Ihe 
Arammn  upon  the  Syriac  cannot  be  lustained" — the 
Targum  on  Proverbs  must  have  existed  at  a  very  early 
period;  at  any  rale,  Davidson  acknowledges  chat  the 
Targum  on  Proverbs  is  alder  than  those  on  Job  and 
Psalms,  in  this  respect  following  Zunz.  This  being  so, 
we  do  nut  err  in  aaauniing  that  the  Targum  on  Proverbs 


TARGCM  2 

belongs  lo  tilt  3d  or  3il  ccnCury.  It  is  gcncnlly  found 
id  (he  Polyglut  uitl  l{al>liiiiical  Biblei.  It  wm  trint- 
Uted  JDlo  Lllilt  by  Alphonio  de  ZimorH  and  John 
Mercier.  See,  betijes  Dithe'a  trealiae,  aireiily  nien- 
{ionei\,iitkyhtam,  Ctber  die  Spraclie  dti  Tin  gum  IH  dm 
SprSchai  and  dtuea  Verh^htia  mn  Sgnr,  in  Mers'i 
A  rciip.fur  iciiHjitdut/llkltt  Forichung  drt  Altrn  Tttta- 

4.  Tie  Tarijum  on  Ihe  Fire  SftgiUoth,  L  e.  on  Ruth, 
Esther,  Ecclesiutes,  Cantidea,  aiiii  tbe  Lamentaiiuiia, 
is,  according  to  Zuiic,  a  Midrirtic  paraphrase,  esceed- 
in;;ly  loose  and  free  in  character,  canUiuing  legemlB. 
fablesi  illusions  to  Jenish  bislor}*,  and  many  faudfnl 
additions.  The  whole  bean  the  impress  of  a  dale  con- 
siderably posterior  to  the  Tstmudic  time,  and 

of  Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs,Bnd  the  East  Anmiean  of 
the  Babylonian  TalmuiL  The  least  Ha);gadic  is  Kuth, 
the  must  rhapsudical  that  of  Canticles.  Delilzsch 
(anch.d.jiJ.  Pottie,  p.  135}  thinks  that  "  Iho  Targuma 
on  the  five  UeK'Udi  "^  ^^^  "X"'  beautiful  national 
works  of  art,  through  wbich  there  tuns  the  golden 
thread  of  Scri|>ture,  anil  which  are  belil  together  only 
by  the  unity  of  the  idea.''  Whether  these  Tnigiims 
are  Ihe  work  of  one  or  different  persons  cannot  be  nrell 
deciiled.  The  fonuer  is  the  opinion  of  Zuni,  Volck, 
and  Deutsch,  Ihe  latter  that  of  DavidMin. 

(I.)  The  Turyam  on  Ralh  naa  published  separalely 
with  a  Latin  translation  and  scholia  by  John  Mercier 
(Paris,  1604),  ■nd  the  following  specimen  will  Rive  a  fsir 
ideaoftheaanie:  Kuth  it,  10, 1 1,"  Why  have  I  found  pily 
in  thine  eyes  to  know  me,  and  I  of  a  strange  people,  of  the 
dauj;hlers  of  Moab,  and  of*  peo|dc  who  are  nut  clean  in 
enter  into  the  Church  of  the  I>inl?  And  Uniz  answered 
and  said  In  her.  In  telling  it  has  boeu  told  me  by  Ihe 
'    1 1  he  Lonl  decreed,  he 


TARGUM 

(4.)  The  Targvm  on  Cantictei  is  Ihe  racit  Hagga£e 

of  all,  and  hardly  desen'es  (he  natne  of  a  paraphrase, be- 

Luse  the  words  of  the  original  are  completely  tottnt 

I  extnvagiiit  and  inflated  expranoiia  ("  oug*  au|iit 

iTolilatw'')  which  refer  to  another  subject.   "Thepata. 

phrase  has  indulged  in  Ihe  HreateM  license,  aod  aUuned 

imagination  to  run  riot  in  a  mulliplicilr  of  wan.' 

He  has  composed  a  panegj'tic  on  his  |>eaplF,  deacrihing 

prophetjciliy  the  history  of  Ihe  Jewish  nation,  begiii- 

;  with  their  exude  from  Egypt,  and  detailing  ibnr 

igs  and  sufferings  down  to  the  coming  of  the  Us- 

uab  and  tbe  building  of  Ihe  third  Temple.    I'hui.ac- 

rding  to  this  allegon-,  i,  8  relates  Jehorab's  fsaic 

lich  went  ibroad  in  consequence  of  the  wonders  he 

ruught  when  bringing  tlie  Israrlitee  out  of  Egipi; 

T.  n  dsKribes  tbe  departure  of  Mows  In  receive  Ihe 

'0  tables  of  sloiie,  and  how  the  Israelites  in  the  mesn- 

Dc  made  the  golden  calf;  rei.  II  pailiculariies  the 

'   ■         "  ■  m  of  the  labematle: 


)  spring  from  tl 


itoflh 


(2.'|  The  paruphrtue  on  LnmnUnliofu  is  more  Mi- 
dranhic  ihsn  that  on  Kuth,  but  of  the  same  ty|ie,  being 
copiomly  interwoven  witli  pieces  of  history,  allegoiy, 
fsblea,  reflections,  etc. 

(3.)  The  paraphnue  im  EctUtiattn  is  more  Mi- 


The  fi'llowing  verses  will  beet  illustrate  the  cbiracler 
of  this  paraphrase.     In  i,2,  we  read; 

"VCbeii  Solomon  tbe  king  ot  lamel  foressw.  by  Ihe 
■plHt  of  prophecy,  that  Ihe  kluadiim  or  Hebolinnm  bin 
aon  woald  b«  divided  with  JeroiHMm  Ibe  son  d[  Nebsi. 
and  ihni  Jerusslem  and  Ihe  hohr  temple  would  be  de- 
etroTed.  nnd'  ihat  Ihe  people  of  tm^r^  would  be  led  Into 
capllvlty,  he  said,  by  the  Divine  Word,  Vanity  oF  vaullles 
Is  this  world:  nulty  of  vsniilo  Is  nil  whirh  I  sud  my 
father,  David,  have  labi.rrf  for,  sU  ..fit  is  vanity . . .  (ver. 
IJ,  18).  When  kluit  Holomon  wne  sllllos  upon  the  thr..iie 
III  his  kingdom,  his  banrt  bseanie  very  prrmd  nf  his  rlch- 
u,aad  he  trausgresHd  the  Word  <>r  and.  and  he  gathered 

many  hnnes  nnd  eiiarims  nnd  rIdi'TT,  and  ■- ' 

math  eold  and  silver,  nnd  he  mnrrlcd  frnn 
tlinis,  wherenpnn  thi  auger  of  the  Lord 
aoalnal  him :  and  be  sent  In  him  Aehmoda 
the  dKnioiii,  who  drove  bim  IVinn  Ihe  Ihrom 
dom.  and  look  nwsy  tbe  rliiK  frimi  bis  hand. 


is  king. 


It  In  Ibe  wnrii 


S^il'edS^V.Snon" who'™  king' iwer  Isniel  In  Jerai 

ud  1  (live  m;  hear "■ '  -  —  " 

when  he  apposred  nuui  mo 
ask  mevhstl  desire  of  him; 
•icept  wisdom,  to  know  tbe  oinei 

evil,  and  knowledm!  nf  whatiuwi,.   ... 

run  lu  this  world,  and  I  saw  nil  the  works  of  the  wicked 
rhildreu  nf  men— a  s«d  biinineM  which  Ood  EKie  to  th 
children  at  men  in  bo  sflllcted  by  It." 

As  this  Targum  has  be«i  Iranslated  into  English  b; 
fiinsburg,  in  his  CoaiBmlan/  on  Ecdriuuli'i  (London 
1801),  Ihe  reader,  by  perusing  the  same,  will  lie  enablei 
to  judge  for  himself  better  than  by  id;  eiincts. 


1,6-11  n 


e  Jordan,  I 


leadership  of  Ji 
'  '  conquering  inevanaaniios,ann  [ueuuiiningoiatiwy 
I's  Temple;  v,  2  describes  the  Babylonian  cspiiriiy; 
t  represents  Ihe  deliieraiice  of  Israel  through  Cyrai, 
the  building  of  the  second  Temple;  ver.  7,  cti^ 
leslhe  battlesof  Ihe  Maccabees;  vii,lt,13rrpitwnii 
present  dispci«on  of  the  Jews,  and  their  future  sni- 
'  lo  learn  the  time  of  their  restoration ;  viii,  S,  (Ic., 
describes  tbe  returrpctiua  of  the  dead,  Ihe  final  ingsih- 
ering  of  Israel,  Ihe  building  of  tbe  third  Temple,  elc. 
The  very  Urst  verse  of  this  Targum  reads  thus: 
■'The  wnM  and  l.ridses  which  Solomon  Ibe  proptiet, 
kin^  «C  Israel,  ksde  dv  Ihe  solrll  of  propbecy,  beAm  Gnl, 
ihe  Lord  of  the  whole  world.    Ten  soiiLit  were  snuf  ti, 
ihle  world,  but  Ibis  aoiig  i*  lite  most  telebrateil  oftlinii 
iill.    l-he  Jfrst  simg  Adam  snnu  when  his  sins  were  f.r- 
Hlven  bim,  and  when  the  Babbnlh-day  eaow  and  pniteci- 
«l  lilin  he  opened  bis  mouth  and  ssid,  "A  moit  Ro-  iIk 
Sshbsth.diiy,'eic(rHi.zdi).  The aEsviid song H«e> sn<l 
the  children  of  Israel  aaug  when  ibe  L<ird  otOtr  WHld  di- 
vided the  Red  Sea  (br  them.  They  all  opened  tbciiix-etbi 
and  rniif;  as  one  mnn  the  song  as  li  ts  wrllien,  'Tbco 
sane  Mi, ses  and  Ihe  children  of  Iarael>(BX'>d.  IV,  I).   Thr 
(Mrd  >ong  the  children  of  Israel  stni;  whei  the  well  ■•! 
water  wns  clven  lo  them,  aa  li  la  wtitien,  "Thsn  Fsse 
laner  (Nnmb.  Xli,  II).     The  /earIA  eoni;  Moms  lb» 
prophet  sang  when  his  llms  rams  In  depart  fti>n  this 
world,  In  which  he  reproved  the  people  I'f  ike  k«im  "f 
Israel,  ns  It  Is  nTlllen, 'Give  ear,  O  benceli'.  aid  i  wfll 
sneak'  {Dent.  i»ll,  1).    The  jiff*  sniii-  J.ohu*  ibr  sno 
of  Nnu  sang  when  he  wued  war  In  l^tbeoa.nud  Iht  no 
und  m.«u  sinod  still  for  «m  thlrly^li  bnnr< ;  and  -lira 
they  lefl  off  einiHni;  Ihair  song,  he  hlnirelf  onnied  his 
month  and  sMc  this  sonr.  as  It  ts  wrllien,  *  Then  fisi' 
Joshon  bedira  the  Lord'  ( J<i'h.  i, »).    The  >M*  >oni: 
Barak  and  Debumh  sang  in  Ihe  day  when  the  Lord  il>>. 


(judg,  V,  n 


!i,  as  It  Is  wriuan,  'Thea  mug  Deborah.' elc. 
Tbe  ssMnt*  soni:  Hmnab  simg  when  a  k'i 
Br  by  tlie  Lord,  as  It  Is  wrllien,  'Aud  Uoiiauli 
bellrally  and  anid'  |1  Nim.  11. 1.  and  Ike  Ti<- 
I.  The  figlM  song  David  Iha  son  of  lumH 
Fi,iK  ,i»  •',  ihe  wonders  whkb  the  Li-rd  did  for  hlsL  Hr 
opened  bis  month  and  saug  a  hymu,  as  It  is  written.  'Aad 
David  fane  in  pniphecjr  behire  the  Lord' {t  San.  uii.l. 
and  the  ifrgnm,  od  Ik.),  llw  nfnfk  song  K'll.nHMi  ihr 
kinc  of  Israel  sang  by  the  Holy  Sidrlt  beAm  lind.ihs 
Lord  of  the  whole  world.  And  Ihe  ttmlh  snni  lb*  cbii- 
dran  of  the  caplivilv  shall  ting  when  they  shall  bcdfllv- 
ered  from  iheir  capdvliv,  aa  11^  wriiien  nnd  derlared  bT 

rhel,  "nils  sanic  shall  b«  nnio  yoa  (iirjnr. 
In  which  the  (East  of  Ibe  Psnover  Iscelr- 


as  In  the  nlet 


gladi 


won-hlp  Wfon 

*.  *»)•■■ 


From  Ibis  specimen  it  will  be  seen  how 
tiroughlon  wis  correct  in  saving  that  Ihe  pi 
"  is  worth  oor  study,  both  ibr  deliehl  anl  profit."  This 
Targiim  is  found  in  the  Kabbinical  Bibh-s:  it  has  bm 
iranshilcd  into  Lalin,  and  is  also  accewible  lo  Engliih 
readers  in  the  tnnolatiou  of  Gill,  at  Iheetid  ofhia  C'lm- 
tHfnIiiry  im  tht  Song  nf  Soktmon  (Lond.  17£1),  p.  M6  iq, 
(5.)  The  Ttirgum,  or  ralkrr  Targamt.  m  fMkrr^ 
The  boi*  of  Esther,  enjoying,  Ixrth  ihnnigh  ill  story- 
like form  and  the  early  Injunction  vf  its  being  read  o( 


TARGUM  S 

bttnl  br  eren  one  on  the  PnK  orPurio),  ■  grut  dreu- 
Urk>D4nd  poputflnty,hifl  licvn  tirguiDized  many  tiriKft 
thir  DiniMian  of  cuociM  rum,  and  idbsring  cloiwly  U 
ihE  uii.  occura  in  itw  Aniwerp  Pcilvglut  (voL  Ui) ;  il  wu 
isncd  mtireTa  with  gioaet  bv  Tiiler  in  Tarimn  Piwm 
ri  PnHrnat  m  »r<lrr,  Mudiit  F.  Tilkri  (LuihI.  1G55), 
ud  r<ra»  llw  r,injtim  Priat  wliich  i*  cnnUiiwd  in 
iIk  Imidon  Pnlvfjioc,  Much  more  (irolix,  aiHl  Rmpli- 
Wmf:  dill  more  ihe  legends  of  [hU  Targum  (oiimp. 
Ulllii.&,7;  >ii.I:  V,  I4,eu.)utbe  ruiw"^""- 
riu  in  Tsiler,  it  being  '■■  colleclion  or  EiMern 


lingle  Ti 


•R  [u  be  mel  vi[h  in  tlie  Ad,lmra>  or  CAomit,  oi 
EHrm  cuHection  oT  legends  and  laleB."     In  Hull  r«- 
lUoHin  fimbalily  beliin(!ii  lo  it 
Itnciew  or  Dr.  Munli,  Ibe  latest  editor  of  this  second 
Tirgnm,  one  of  the  tales  or  which  nins  m  follows : 

"Oii  d  -J  when  the  kln|-  (Sulomnn)  was  ngaln  rnit  of 
1M.  He  o>innuiided  that  >tl  irlld  niiimali,  llie  bwli  of 
Hsir.uid  tbe  eraeplni!  auiauls  »f  the  earth,  as  well  ss 
iH  derib,  damnnis  and  *pir1t«,b*  bmadii  lo  bim,  tbai 
iIki  aikbl  dance  betir*  bim,  and  bahiild,  with  all  Iha 
fcinn  wtin  were  wllh  bin,  bit  elorf.  Tbe  nijal  scribe 
cilM  Ibein  bf  their  name,  and  ther  all  ciinEr^ied  bo- 
r>Tc  tbe  kinsi  with  Ibe  excepiinii  »f  tbe  wild  ciick.    At 

f'!-.  aiid  wheii  £iuid,  should  be  bnmirhl  In,  luteudlniflc) 
X.\\  klBi.    Tnmi  aaid  tba  wild  cock  lu  Ihe  klnu,  Mr  Tird 

[  nlzDe'd  la  nTy  mind.  a*Dd  flew  nbinl^  lii'lha'°whole 

1  ■>  then  a  cltj  1u  tbe  Biial.  at  the  nsme'of  iTitor, 

■  II.  •!>«  i>  cnlled  qaeen  of  Sheba.  If  It  pIfdm  ttiee,  mi 
l.rd  king.  I  iball  ;,ii  \a  Ihsl  cli;,  bind  their  kliias  lu 
etiilini.  lud  their  nilers  wlih  Iron  feiien,  and  brlaR  them 
bUbcr.    A*  Il  pleased  (he  king,  wrllen  w 

□cb.    He  came  [O  Ibe  qaeen,  wbn,  iibser 
"id  teiid  tb* 


rtypr 


*n^  W^''s..l.JI.i 


im  lit  lb*  w 

folttg'j! 


rvpcxiB  of  Ibe  eanb  spp 
npo-i  ttee  klnn,  leuion 


great  honor;  tr  B< 


_.    _.  D  the  birds  of  beaten, 

_. . _    and  spirits;  Ibe  goblins  are  Ibe  le- 

(inat  Hhn  absll  ilraosta  ]wu  la  jiniir  beds.    When  Ihe 

Ibt  rldci*  and  lorrls.  wring.  Kui>w  te  what  king  Solo- 
M«h«i  rent  lo  met  The/  ninwered.  We  nellher  know 
aoTMrem  bIm.  Th*  qneen.  however,  tmitlng  ibem  not, 
nlM  fiir  aallnra  and  sent  presents  to  the  klnc,  and  after 
tkiH  jws  tbe  came  berrelt    Tbe  king,  nii  hearing  of 


f r  tuitj  thai  be  w 


Tstsl  ball  t<i 
J  slltlnn  I 
pan  Ibrol 


.which  Bl 

r  I  (ha  therefim 


, .^roligb.    On  seeing  his  glorj, 

AttmU.  Marlhe  D>rd  ih)'  Godl<e  pralaed  who  has  found 

We  have  porpoedT  selected  Ibis  piece  from  the  first 
rbapter,  becaiue  it  is  also  found  in  ati  abridged  Torm 
in  the  Koran  (aura  xxaii).  With  a  cummeniaty,  tbe 
Koood  Targum  ia  found  in  Ibe  Waiww  RabtNnJcal  Bi- 
Ue.  A  separate  edition,  with  various  readings,  notes, 
ei^iraa  published  bv  UuDk,  rar;^n  Srkmi  mm  Bacit 
FjOt  (Ueriin,  1876).  Il  has  lately  been  translated  by 
Ciael,  in  an  appendix  to  hia  Da$  Hveh  Eilhrr.  Kin 
Btiin>3  in-  GrttiidHii  drt  Maraaiiadn  (ibid.  1878). 
It  kia  been  mated  in  an  eaaay  by  Reisa,  f>at  Targum 
Iklini  w  dm  Buekt  Ealtrr,  in  Ihe  MottalHtkriJl  ed- 
ited hT  (irata,  1876,  p.  101  sq..  S7I!  sq.,39H  wg, 

h.  Tkf  Tnr^m  oa  Ikr  Booki  n/CAronK^S.— This  ia 
pn^irei]  in  three  cnlicca.  '[lie  oldest,  beannj;  the 
•lur  of  ll»(,  ia  in  tbe  Vatican,  known  as  Cod.  Urbin.  I, 
sad  is  still  awaiting  «  critical  edition  ur  perusal.  A 
wawl  codex,  of  Ihe  year  I3VI,  tieioiiging  In  ihe  F.rfurl 
Ubrao,  was  piiblii-hal  by  Beck  (Augsburg,  1680-83, 
I  roll.),  and  edited  with  a  Ldtin  traiulation  uid  learned 
■BnotatinruL  The  Erfurt  MS.  has  aiany  chaama,  eepe- 
mlly  in  tbe  flnt  fmirteen.  chapters.  The  third  codex, 
•fthe  year  13*7,  and  belooging  to  the  Unirersitv  of 
(tebrwtee,waa  published  by  Utrid  Wilkina  (Aniiter. 


5  TARGUM 

ITI5).  Here  the  lext  is  complete,  so  Ibat  tbe  lactcsa 
in  Beck's  edition  are  filled.  Uke  its  predecessor,  it  bos 
also  a  Latin  version,  but  there  are  no  Dotee.  (ireat  aa 
was  Wilkins's  alnlily  for  edilioK  this  Targum,  yet  it 
speaks  badly  for  his  knowledge  that  be  has  pnl  on  the 
title-page  K.  Joseph  aa  the  author  (though  Beck  waa 
of  the  same  opinion),  and  thai  he  haa  made  bim  rector 
of  the  academy  in  Syiiii,  instead  of  Sorii  in  Babylonia. 
Wilkins's  edition  was  lately  republished  from  a  copy 
fa<ind  at  fragoe  by  Ur.  Kihmer,  under  Ihe  title  B'\3-in 
K-vn  ^~.i1  io  (Thorn,  IBG6J,  and  the  deviation* 
from  Beck'i  edition  are  given  in  notes.  We  cannot  en- 
ter here  upon  a  comparison  of  Ihe  Erfurt  coilci  with 
that  of  Cambridge.  As  to  the  authorship  of  this  Tai^um, 
its  ascription  lo  R.  Joseph  the  Blind  must  be  regarded 
■s  exploded.    Whether  it  is  the  Kork  of  one  author  or  of 

and  Haggadic  parsphrase  show  its  I'alestinisu  origin. 
traHKribes  Ihe  Jeniaa- 
verbally,  as  in  the  ge- 
chapter  (camp.  ver.  61  with 
i.  39).    So,  aim, 
words  often 


lem  TaT);um  on  the  Pe 
nealogical  lable  of  the  I 
the  Jerusalem  Targum  on  Geti.  x 
in  the  paalm  pi 


with  1] 


It  be  put  eariier  II 


The 


origin  of  this  Targum  ■ 

8tb  century:  or,  as  the  most  recent  wnier  on  tnis  lar- 
gnm  iJiinks,  the  older  lexl,  aa  preserveil  in  the  Erfnrl 
codex,  belongs  lo  the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  and 
Ihe  later,  as  preserved  in  the  Cambridge  cnlex,  to  the 
beginning  of  the  Bib.  Owing  to  the  Ule  origin  of  this 
Targum.we  must  not  be  surprised  at  finding  the  name  of 
Hungary  occurring  in  it,  as  well  as  some  other  foreign 
words,  besides  many  fables,  especially  in  the  explana- 
tion of  proper  names.  For  critical  purposes  both  edi- 
tions must  be  used— the  Drat,  raraphraiu  Chatdaka 
Libr.  Chrorurorvm,  mra  M.  F.  Btdtii,  for  Ihe  learned 
notes:  Ihe  >ecm\i,  Paraphraiii . , .  uucfore  R-Jiarpko, 
etc.,  for  the  more  correct  and  complete  lexl.  The  writer 
of  the  art.  "Targum"  in  .Smith's  IHd.aflhe  Riilr  atatea 
that  "the  science  of  exegesis  will  profit  little  by  it"(this 
Targum).  What  we  know  of  the  subject  induces  us  fo 
bold  an  opposite  opinion  (see  Frankel,  MonalHckrift, 
1867,  p.  349  sq.:  but,  more  especially,  Rosenberg,  IMt 
Targam  lur  CkroHti,  in  (ieiger's  JUdiKht  Zattciiifl, 
IH70,  p,  72  sq.,  1S6  sq.,  363  sq.). 

6.  Tkt  Targam  on  />uNtr/.  — The  existence  of  Ibis 
work  was  first  noticeil  by  Munk.who  think*  that  he 
(onnd  it  in  a  MS.  in  the  Imperial  Librarv  at  Paris  (No. 
45  <lu  Fonrls  de  SL-Germainiles-IVB).  The  M&,  how- 
ever, contains  only  a  Persian  Targum,  giving  an  apoc- 
rj-phal  account  of  Datiiel.  According  to  the  learned 
writer,  thisbtcn  mxp,  .ir  ffuloiy  o/fiawf,was  Uken 
from  a  Targum  on  Daniel  in  Chaldee.  The  limt  words 
are  written  in  Chaldee,  they  are  Ibeii  repealed  in  Per- 
sian, and  the  history  continues  in  the  Istfer  lan- 
guage. After  several  legeuda  known  from  other  Tar- 
gums,  folloHB  a  long  pMphecy  of  Daniel,  from  which 

Crusade.  Mohammed  and  bis  successors  are  mention- 
ed,alBO  a  king  who,  coming  from  Eun^  ClSfri-i  IS), 
will  go  to  Damascus,  and  kill  the  Ishmaeliiic  (Moham- 
HKdan)  kings  and  princes;  he  will  break  down  the 
minarets  (nnK313),  dealrny  the  tnoM{ueB  (KmSO?), 
and  no  one  will  after  that  <lare  to  pronounce  Ihe  name 
nf  the  Profane  (5nDD=Mohammed).  The  Jewa  will 
also  haie  to  suffer  great  misfortunes  (as,  indeed,  the 
knightly  Cnisaders  won  their  spnrs  by  dastardly  mur- 

— in  tbedhetloaahaig  the  Itbine  and  elsewhere,  before 
they  suned  to  deliver  (he  holy  tomb).  By  a  su<lden 
Iransiiion,  the  pfv(ihM  then  passes  on  (o  the  "  Mesuah, 
son  of  Joseph,"  to  (log  ami  Alsgng,  and  to  the  "  i  nie 
Mewiah,  the  son  of  David."  Munk  righlly  concludes 
that  Ihe  boiik  mint  hare  been  ciimpnsed  in  the  12lh 
century,  when  Christian  kings  reigned  for  a  brief  period 


TARGUM  21 

DTci  Jcroulam  (iVoMra  nr  Saadia  [Pti.  1888],  p.  S2). 
Aecurding  to  (hs  d«criptiun  her*  given,  tbeie  cin  be 
no  doubt  ihiL  it  ia  the  utne  wbich  Zolfnbcrg  publish- 
ed same  yean  igo,  in  Penlin,  witb  i  German  iranila- 
tioii,  in  Hen's  Artiiv,  i,  tUUi  sq.,  and  beginning  thus: 
"  HiUoT7  of  Daniel  (peace  be  upon  him).  I  am  Dsn- 
iel,  of  the  children  ol  Jeconisfa,  king  of  Che  bouae  of 
Judah."  Daridson  says,  "  We  miut  eipress  our  donbls 
■bout  lucb  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  on  Daniel,  in  the 
absence  of  ill  proDf  that  the  Peraiau  waa  made  from 
the  Chaldee;  for  a  few  Chaldee  words  at  Ibe  beginning 
are  no  argument  in  favor  of  it.  All  that  Hunk  com- 
municalea — i.e.  part  of  a  page — ia  insufficieDt  (o  war- 
rant ua  in  accepting  the  fact.  Yet  Sfcinschneider  bsa 
referred  lo  '  a  Tarpim  on  Daniel,'  simply  on  the  author- 
ity of  Hunk's  notice  (CufuJo^i  Ltinorvm  Htbraonim 
in  BiiliotAaa  Bodlrtaaa).  No  Targum  upon  Daniel  is 
extant,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  and  it  ia  rery  doubtful 
whether  one  was  ever  made.  The  reason  anigned  in 
the  Talmud  for  not  rendering  the  book  into  Chaldee  is 
that  it  reveals  the  precise  time  of  the  Heaaiah's  advent. 
A  good  pan  of  llie  book  is  already  in  Chaldee."  To 
thia  it  may  be  answered  that,  at  the  Umewhen  Davidson 
wrot«,  this  Targum  was  not  yet  published,  otherwise  he 
would  have  [bought  differenlly.  [IscouteuUshow  that 
the  original  Chaldee  was  the  basis  of  it.  A  number  of 
Hebrew  words  oacnr  in  it,  and  it  doaea  with  quoting 
Psa.  culvii,  2. 

7.  There  is  tiot  any  Targum,  so  far  as  is  known,  npon 
Ezra  and  Nehemiab.  Part  of  Eira  ja  already  Chaldee, 
and  Nehetniah  was  counted  with  it  aa  one  book. 

8.  To  Ibe  Roman  etiiiiun  of  the  Sept.  of  Daniel,  pub- 
lished in  1772,  a  Chaldee  version  is  aiUled  of  the  A|>oe- 
ryphal  pieces  in  Esther.  Tbis  haa  been  printed  by  De 
Koaei,  accompanied  by  a  Ltin  version,  remarks,  and  dis- 
senaliona  {Specinim  yaivimia  /.wfimtim  Siieri  Trrlut 
tlCluMiiieaEillieniAddilamaila,Ktc[Tab.n»3,Sy<>]). 

An  etiition  of  the  Chaldee  Hsglograpbs  wsa  publish- 
ed by  Lagarde  (Leips.  ISTS). 

Vi.  Fragmaaaty  Taiyumi  oa  l^e  Oilier  Boola.—Ac- 
cordiii)!  to  Zunz,  the  Jerusalem  Targum— or  rather,  as 
iEsbuuld  be  called,  tbe  Pateslinun  one— ei  tended  to  the 
prophetic  books  also,  and  hejuslifles  bis  opinion  by  the 
fallowingparticulars.whichwegive  in  bis  order:  Abud- 
raham  cites  a  Jeruaalem  Targutn  on  1  Sam.  ix,  13,  and 
Kimchi  has  preserved  several  passages  from  it  on  Judges 
(Ki,l,consi>tinRof47wordB),an  Samuel  (1,17,  IS:  106 
words),  and  Kings  (i,  2%  SI:  08  wurda;  ii,  4.  I:  174 
words;  iv,  G:  56  words;  ver.  7:  7!  words;  xiii,  31 :  9 
words),  under  the  simple  name  of  ToarpA/aA,  L  e.  Ad- 
dition, or  Additional  Targum.  Luzialo  baa  also  lately 
found  rragmen  ts  of  the  same,  under  the  names  "  Targum 
of  Paleatine,"  "  Targum  of  Jerushalroi,"  "  Another  Read- 
ing." etc,  in  an  African  codex  written  A3I.  A!47=A.D. 
14X7,  viz.,  on  1  Sam.  xviii,  19;  3  Sam.  xii,  IS;  1  Kings 
v,9.  11.  18;  X.  IS,  !6;  xiv,  IS;  on  Hos.i,l;  Obad.i,!. 
On  Isaiah  (cb.  Ixvi),  Raahi,  Abuilraham  (liv,  11),  and 
Fariesol  (Ixvi)  quote  il,  agreeing  in  part  with  a  ftag- 
ment  of  the  Targum  nn  this  prophet  extant  in  Cod. 
Urbin.  Vatican.  No.  1,  containing  about  190  wonts,  and 
beginning,  "Prophecy  of  laaiah,  which  be  prophesied 
at  the  end  of  his  prophecy  in  the  days  of  Hanasseh  the 
■on  of  IJezekiah,  the  king  of  tbe  tribe  of  ihe  house  of 
Judah,  on  the  17th  of  Tamui,  in  the  hour  when  Manas- 
aeh  set  up  an  idol  in  the  Temple,"  etc.  [saiah  predict* 
in  this  his  own  violent  death,  ["arts  of  this  Targum 
■re  also  found  In  Hebrew,  in  rrtibah  Rabialhi,  6  a, 
and  I'alttil  lia.  AS  d.  A  Jerusalem  Targum  nn  Jere- 
miah iameulioneil  by  Kimchi;  on  Eiekiel  bvR.Sininn. 
Nsthsn  (Aruch),  and  likewise  by  Kimchi,  who  also 
itpesks  of  a  fiinhFr  additional  Targ'um  on  Jonathan  lor 
Ibja  book.  A  Targum  Jeruahilmi  on  Micab  is  known 
lo  Kashi,  and  of  Zechariah  a  fragment  baa  been  pul)- 
liahed  by  Bruna  {Hrptri,  pt.  xv,  p.  174)  from  a  Reuch- 
linian  Ha  (Cod.  Kennic.  154),  written  in  1106.  The  | 
paasage,  found  aa  a  marginal  gloss  to  Zech.  lii,  10,  reads 


"  Tfirvina  Jinukalmi.— And  I  shall  pour  onl  opnn  tka 
bnnsa  of  David  aud  Iha  Inbsbitauisof  JeroMlem  the  nilrit 
ofpruphec;  and  of  prayer  Ii>t  tntb.  And  after  Ibis  fliiU 
CO  liirtb  Hearlah  Iha  Bnn  ofEpbrnlm  tii  wsm  war  seatiisi 
Oog.  And  Oos  will  kill  him  before  Iha  clii  r>r  jfni.a- 
lem.  Tlwr  win  look  Dp  in  ma  sud  itaejr  will  trk  me 
wherefora  tbe  besthens  hsve  killed  Heistah  the  Soo  of 
Epbrsim,  Tbe/  will  iben  monm  over  him  a*  Di'>Dru  fiither 
and  mother  over  sn  only  s.in,  aud  Ibej  wtU  wall  over  bim 

A  Taifrum  Jerushalmi  on  the  third  chapter  of  Habak- 
kuk,  quoted  by  Rashi,  ia  mentioned  by  De  Rossi  (Cod. 
2B5  and  40S,  both  of  the  ISth  cenlurj-). 

To  these  quolationa,  which  led  Zunz  lo  draw  the  in- 
ference  that  tbe  Jerusalem  Targum  extended  to  tlie 
prophetic  books  also,  a  large  number  of  fragment*  and 
Tirialions  must  now  be  added  aince  the  publication  of 
the  Reucblinian  codex  by  Lagarde.  Tbeae  fragment* 
and  variations  deviate  from  the  common  translation, 
and  are   introduced  by  five  different  designationa,  a* 

a-in,  inniBo,  xmntt  Ksci,  i«ipkt  r-'tti, 
'OT'";  and  ir^V.  These  additions,  as  found  in  the 
Reucblinian  codex,  have  been  analraed  in  a  very  scbi^ 
■rly  manner  by  Dr.  Uacber,  in  At  ZtilKkiifl  drr  AiH- 
4chai  morgnl,  GtfliKhoJi,  1S74,  xxviii,  1  sq..and  Ibry 
extend  lo  Ibe  following  lJOok^  via.:  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  Kings,  laaiah.  Jeremiah,  Kirkiel,  Kosea,  Joel, 
Amos,  Jonab,  Micab.  Habakkuk,  Zephaniab,  and  Zecb- 
Obadisli,  Nshum.  Hapgai,  and  Malschi  are  not 


:luded.     Zun 


alter  refen 


oiijectu 


!ibat 


the  Jen 

ing  more  than  the  Haphtsruih,  or  leaanna,  remarks  that 
the  idea  is  nnirnable,  because  the  expressions  of  iheiu- 
ihoia  who  allude  to  it  go  to  show  that  tbey  had  seen 
Targums  upon  entire  books  {GoOtti.  Yortrayr.  p.  78). 
Thia  may  b«BO;  but  the  existence  of  an  entire  Targum 
of  Palestine  on  all  the  propbela  is  pmtilemalical.  Wa 
have  seen  above,  if  Ihe  Reucblinian  MS.  may  be  taken 
as  a  standard,  that  nn  four  prophrls,  vii.  Obadiab,  Na- 
hum,  Haggai,  and  Malichi,  such  fragments  are  not 
given.  Sums  books  may  have  received  such  a  para- 
phrase;  on  olhera,  and  those  the  great  majority  of  the 
prophetical  books,  there  is  reason  lo  doubt  iueiitieDce. 
It  is  more  probable  that  portiau  were  treated  para- 
phraalically  in  Ihe  apirit  of  the  later  H*cgadah— por- 
tions selected  oo  no  deflnite  principle,  but  adopied  by 
tbe  fancy  or  liking  of  paiaphrasts;  and  we  are  the  more 
JustiOed  in  Ibi*  conclusion  when  comparing  Dr.  Bacber') 
parallels  fVom  the  Talmud  and  Hidrasb  with  these  frag- 
mentary additiona.  Deulach,  the  writer  of  the  art. 
"Targum"  in  Smith's  /fut.  nf  thi  Bihtr,  thinks  "tbe 
Babylonian  version  —  Ibe  Jonathan  Targum  —  though 
paraphrastic,  did  not  saliary  theappareoily  more  imagi- 
native Paleatinian  public  I'hus  from  heaped-up  ad- 
ditions and  marginal  glosses,  the  step  to  a  total  rewrit- 
ing of  the  entire  codex  In  Ihe  manner  and  laateoftbe 
later  timea  and  the  different  locality  was  easy  enough." 

Bacber  >ays,"nne  of  the  darkeat  points  io  the  disquiu- 
tion  of  the  Targum  on  Ihe  prophets." 

VII.  Cliaracter  and  Valae  of  Ike  Targum,  in  Gtneral. 

There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  Targuma  were 


correct  the  punctuslion  and  bring  it  as  near  as  poeriUe 
10  the  standard  of  Ihat  in  Daniel  and  Ezra,  for  which 
some  censured  bim,  though,  we  believe,  unjustly.  It  is 
no  reproach  to  his  memorj'  lo  say  that  he  did  not  per- 
fect their  vocalization.  Aa  there  ia  at  present  im>  oiti- 
cal  text  of  tbe  Targums,  tbey  can  only  be  carefully  em- 
ployed in  tbe  criticism  of  the  Hebrew  original,  although 
they  show  theaubelantial  integrity  of  Ihe  Masonliciexc. 
The}'  may  be  advantageously  used  in  suggesting  read- 
ings of  aume  importance  and  value.  Perhaps  ihry  are 
more  useful  in  interprvtalinn  Iban  the  lower  criticism. 
On  the  whole,  Richard  Simon's  view  of  the  Tai^unis 
deserves  to  be  noted  here.  In  his  /KM.  Crit.  Vit.  Tru, 
lib.  ii.  c.  18.  he  says,  '•f)mne»  istB  paraphrases,  pivici 
illam  Onkcluai  vt  JonatbsiilA,  nnn  maguKmihi  uliliraii* 


ID  Mm  Chi 


a  iuqiM  et  ui- 
Quid  quod 

qm  DDMnc  Adei  faveQtia  cndimiu,  pleraque  vene  lunt 
■UFtcotiB,  qnu  nim  opemum  vtrbie  alio  coiiTett«n; 
ueqae  «im  religin  allcguriu  pmlulur." 
VIII.  Liirmturt, — Since  we  hire  ilreid;  menltonnl 


Kdiffprt 


will 


t  IhewDricsanEbeTu-giiiniin  ingeneni  Here 
btlnni;— bendMtheeeneralinlTuducliniiAtotheOldTeat. 
■(  EKhhoni.  [liiTeniick,  D>  WaU,  Blwk,  Kaulen,  uid 
Klrinm  — Prideiux,  Coaaniiim  (ed.  Wheeler,  Lonrt, 
leSj),  ii,M3  ■).;  V/t.ilon,  PralfsaaiBia  (ed.  Duthe): 
Soiih, /UiCnhi  df  CkalAaai  Purap/iraiibm ;  Wolf, 
an.  BttrM,  ii,  1135-1191 ;  iv,  T80-78i;  Znnz,  IHt 
ffini.  VoTlTdge  dir  Jadn  (Berlin.  18SS),  p.  61-88; 
•,tniH.DaiJairluHidfnilriHriU,i,a6-b9;  ¥lint,{.i- 
untmrViitl  da  (hiaiU,  1»10,  Not  44-47 ;  id.  BiU.  Jad. 
iL  lOi-IOT;  iii,  18;  Fnnkel,  £i>r^  IH  dm  TargviHin, 
ID  Ike  Zriutkrift  fir  die  rtHgtam  Ivltrrttm  da  Ju- 
*vk  l«l«,  p.  110-120;  Herafeld,  GrieLJ.  Volialirarl, 
ill.  <i  m^  561  aq. ;  Geiger,  UncAriJt  und  Urltrtrltaaffni 
^  Biiil,  p.  les-ie?;  Volck,  ■.  V.  "Thnreuniiin,''  in 
Htnn|;'(  Ittal-KmyUnp.  xv,  672-683;  DeuUch,  a.  v. 
-TtFfum,"  io  Smhh't  Ditl.  of  lit  Biblr:  Daviibon,  id. 
mKiua'ify&pinfia;  id.  MMtcoI  Crirtcwn,  <,  ?24*q.; 
I^n-tn,  7)cu  JaJnlk,  m  ^uUifuii,  p.  TO-72,  309-218, 
XX iq. 4 ID sq. ;  NSldeke, Dir alumamnlliekt LUtralur, 
p.lii-iEi:  SchUrar,  IjrMrbacM  der  meutalainrnllieirn 
ZAgatkKlUf  (Leip*  1874),  p.  476  sq.  The  best  lexi- 
nm  od  [be  Tugunu  i«  that  of  Levy,  CialilSachet  WUr. 
IrrlKl  iba-  die  Tarsunin  (ibid.  1867) ;  the  bleat  An- 
taut  gnmnui  is  that  of  Lemer,  yi'O^  p\tp'^  ^BD 
T-'xnx  (Waraaw,  187o).  See  Cualdek  Lakouaoi. 
iRP.) 

Tamoosr,  HaXiXIUAH  ron,  ■  Roman  Catholic 
ndnuHic,  wai  bom  Oct.24, 1806,  at  Scbvtai,  in  Tj'roL 
Hiriair  f^raduated  at  the  frjmaauun]  at  InliAbruek,  fae 
tUfml,  in  1824,  the  clerical  leminary  *l  Salzburg,  and 
iHHTtd  tb«  Gnt  onlen  in  1839.  He  cumpleted  hii 
■•ha  at  Vleana,  and,  after  having  boen  honored  in 
liS  wilb  the  tbcok^cal  doctonu,  he  was  appointed 
imfiaaji  of  dngmalica  at  Saliburg.  In  I8U  he  became 
•  MBfaer  of  the  Salzburg  chapter,  ami  Innn  that  time, 
bnaa  tbe  tnMy  adviaer  of  the  cardinal  and  priiice- 
■rkJBhop  Schwaneiibe^,  he  tnok  an  active  part  in 
enberg  r      ' 


IM;  Flint,  BOI.Jtid.  iii,  411;  Dieatel,  Gnekidite  da 
AllaiTalaineiia,p.SilS,ib6.     (B.  f.) 

Taioov,  Paul,  a  Uerman  dnctor  and  pmfMBoT  of 
theology,  uncle  of  Jobann,  was  bom  April  39,  1&6S,  at 
,  UieviamUhlen,  and  died  at  Haatock,M*rcl>  6, 1633.  He 
lA  the  author  uf,  la  Joami.  Eiting.  CitmmnUaniu  (Roa- 
lock,  l6i9):—LtbTi  III  de  Cmjagio  (ibid.  K\i):—Dt 
Saenu.  Mintttrit  Libn  III  (ibid.  1623).  See  Winer, 
Hatdlmch  der  throi.  LiUralio;  i,  248,  460,  461;  ii,  T97. 
(RP.) 

Tar'pellte  (Child,  only  in  the  plur.  emphil.  Tar' 
pfioye',  X^io^B;  Sept-Tnp^nXaloi  v.r.Top^Xaloi; 
Vulg.  Tharphalai).  the  Aranuean  deugnatioo  of  a  race 
of  culonistii  who  were  planted  in  the  citiea  of  Samaria 
after  the  captivity  of  the  northern  kingdom  of  larael 
(Ezra  iv,9).  Juniua  and  others  hare  found  •  kind  of 
resemblBnce  in  name  to  the  Titpelitea  in  tbc  Tapgri 
(Taieoupoi,  Piolemv,  vi,  2,  6;  Arrian,  Alrie.  iii,  8,  7j 
TAmpoi,  Stnbo.  xi,5l  1, 516,  i>20, 523),  a  tribe  of  Media 
who  dwflt  eastward  at  Elymaia,  hut  the  reaemblance  is 
acarcely  more  than  apparent.  Qibere,  with  a»  little 
probability,  have  aouifht  to  reeognite  the  Tarpilitea  in 
the  Taiyrla  (TopirqrEcStTabo,  xi,49e),aMa»liciaee. 
In  tbe  Pohito-Svriac  the  reeemhlanc^A^ greater,  for 
they  are  there  called  TaTjH^.  FUn£  (tfinidfub.  a.  v.) 
sayainnoouecan  rmpr'.tbecauutrynrtheTariielile*, 
be  the  Phcenician  Tripoliti  although  Scbwati  (PidtU. 
p.62)aBaumea  thit. 

Taipbon,  or  Trypbon,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  Sd 
century  A.D.,  belonged  to  a  aaeenlotal  family.  He  was 
a  friend  and  cnniempurary  of  rabbi  Akiha,  and  for  some 
time  rector  of  tlie  school  at  LyUds.  He  was  noted  as 
a  bitter  enemy  of  Chriatianily,  anil  cleclared  that,  al- 
though the  gospels  and  the  other  writings  of  the  "Min- 
im." or  Christiana,  conuined  the  sacred  name  of  the 
Deity,  tliey  ought  to  be  burned ;  that  heathenism  was 
leas  dangerous  than  Christianity ;  thai  heathens  of- 
fended from  ignorance,  while  Christians  did  so  with  fidl 
knowledge;  and  that  he  would  prefer  aeeking  shelter 
in  a  heathen  temple  rather  than  in  a  meeting-place  of 
the  Minim  (Talm.  ^AoUorA,  firi.  116,  coL  I).  This,  hU 
animosity  against  Christianity,  induced  some,  as  Light- 
fuot.  CarpzAv,  and  others,  to  maintain  that  rabln  Tar> 
pbon  is  the  same  Trypho  who  is  the  interlocutor  in 
Justin  Martyr's  Dialogue,  an  opinion  which  probably 
owea  its  origin  to  ICusebius  (Acet  Hitl.  iv,  IS),  but 
which  has  little  or  no  probability  in  its  defence.  la 
tbe  Pirke  Abolk,\i,  20  *q.,we  have  the  recotiW  max- 


iha  aiehtnibopric  of  Prague  in  18i0,  Tamoczy  was  ap- 
iniaitd  bii  succeaor  at  Sabburg,  and  was  consecrated 
>aoe  1, 18il,  fur  that  office.  In  his  new  poailion  he 
■boed  fmr  twenty-five  years,  and  hia  bbora  were  ac- 
maMged  by  Pitis  IX,  who  maile  him  a  member  of 
iMadegeorcardiitals,Dec^22, 1873.  Afterslong  ilt- 
•TKTanMWtvdied  at  Salzburg,  April  4, 1876.  See  the 
JirtaHtcher  Hambetittr,  1876,  p.  285.  (D.  P.) 
TUnoT,  Jobano.  a  Uerman  doctor  and  professor 
■f  ihenlDfj.wM  born  April  19, 1686,  at  Grevisnuhlen, 
■n  Hecklenburit,  and  died  Jan.  71,  1629,  at  Kostock, 
■Wte  be  bad  lectured  since  1611.  He  wrote:  Dtda- 
fvtiB  tanm  ^m  ad  Didi  Etaucib  v.i  Sum  LUrrali 
ttrtmig.  M  Kimil.  Siblif.  aUata  mt  (Rostock,  1621 } ; 
-Exnein.  Biblic.  /.ibri  IV  n  tptOmi  I'rnu  rt  Cniiriii. 
ftmLoOT^im  Sneronim  Uullonm  liiqtiiritiir  ac  Dt- 
'Mirrr(idfd.  ibid.  1621,  and  onen):^/a  Til mHiJere- 
*■  CoauinX.  (Hamburg.  1TI>7) :— 7ii  Propkrku  lUino- 
™Aa»i.(Leipalc,1688,170B):— /■ft-Dpief(nB//ojj«- 
Bi  CiMHh  (Rosliieli,  leH) ;— /■  ProFheinn  Malachiam 
Cmm.  (itwL  1S34)  :'-Coataw>K.  n  FpiMliil.  PaiiU  ad 
ttim,  PUl^^  Colaat., «  TlHOaL  (ibid.  1636).  See 
rmm,  HimdlmeA  Ar  litoL  UtorMar,  i,  IBS,  HO,  222,  \ 


B   of  tl 


I  sage!  ■ 


but  The  laborers  are  slothful,  though  the  reward  ia 
great,  and  the  Master  presseth  fnr  dtspatch.  It  is  not 
iiicnmbent  iipon  thee  to  coraplple  the  work,  and  yet 
tbou  art  not  at  liberty  to  be  idle  about  it.  If  Ihon 
hast  studied  the  law  much,  great  reward  will  be  given 
thee;  for  faithful  ia  thy  employer^'who  will  award  to 
thee  tbe  hire  of  thy  labor,  and  be  anare  that  the  awan) 
nftherighteouBwillbein  tbe  future  which  is  to  come." 
See  Basnage,  HiUnire  da  Jai/i  (Taylor's  Eng,  iransL), 
p.52'1;  De  Rem,\,Ditionaivi  Sloritudr^i  Aatori  Ebrri 
(Hamburger'a<ierm.tranal.).p.B2l,s.v.-Tryfon:"Eth- 
eridge, /ndWucfion  fo  l/tbmo  l.iltraluif.fKlib;  Fried- 
liinder.  PalriMlitcht  und  lalmuditcAe  Sladim  (Vienna, 
1878),  p.  186  sq.,  M7 ;  Furst,  BtU.  Jad.  iii,  449.  (R  P.) 
Tarqniul,  CAHtLto,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  was  borti 
Sept.  27.  1810.  at  Harta,  near  Monicfiascone.  He  be- 
longed loa  noble  family  and  studied  at  K..me.  In  1837 
he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus.  From  IWiO  he  was  pro- 
fessor uf  canon  law  at  the  Collegium  l{omauum,an<l  waa 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  fTi'i^o  CatloUra.  Resides  a 
number  of  mnnographs.  he  published  Jyrii  KerUriailKi 
I'vbiici  I»,lU,UUma  (K..me,  1862;  8d  ed.  1873).  He 
alio  wiote  a  gnmniat  and  lexicon  on  the  ancient  Etrus- 
can language,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  In  1878 
he  was  made  cardinal-deacon,  and  died  Feb.  16,  187*. 
Tarquiui  was  tbe  Hrst  cardinal  who,  nnce  171S,  woB  Bp- 


TARRAGONA,  COUNCILS  OF    218 


TABSRISH 


poiDltd  fnm  the  membcra  oflhc  Society  of  Jtsui.  See 
Ibe  LiUraritditr  i/dHdicewrr,  1863,  p.  183;  1874,  p.  1T6. 
(B.P.) 

TaTTBgona.  Connotla  oC  Th«K  two  cDiincib 
were  n  called  becuiie  they  wen  held  in  the  city  of 
thet  neme  in  Sp»in,  This  dly  (■ntieiilly  Tanaco), 
Mpital  oflhe  province  of  the  ume  naii>e,i>  HlJUled  at 
the  mouth  oT  the  Fnncoli,  hu  ■  pn|)ul«(i<jn  of  abiiui 
18,000,  is  the  leat  of  an  archtHihop.  and,  besidcB  other 
tchooli  of  learning,  has  an  eccleuaatical  Kminary. 

1.  The  firt  council  of  Tarragona  wai  held  iu  616, 
during  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  king  of  Italy,  and  guar- 
dian iif  Amalric,  king  of  Spain.     Ten  biihopi  were  pm- 


liihed. 


S.  ForMdBii>n'7iimoDEcli 
4.  Piirbldi  lilvhopH,  prleM 


eouDirj  paiiBh  ahall  re 

deiieim  shall  ancceed  him  nud  keep  hla  week)  In  oMer  li> 
celebrate  dWdie  Hrvlce  oUh  Ihe  clerka :  nnd  ihnt  mi  Sat- 

VaaS»j  oOce.    It  hIfo  orders  (but  luuttu*  and  (eipen 
■hall  be  wild  dHlly. 
'     II.  Porblda  mnuka  10  lenve  Iheir  cnnienl  In  onler  t<i 

perior.    See  Unual,  Coue.  \v,  IHl. 

II.  The  iKorid  council  was  held  in  1243.  by  Peter 
Ihe  archbishop,  against  the  Walilenacs  in  Aragnn. 
I'ait  odI;  of  tha  aela  remain.     See  Mansi,  Cone,  si, 

fat. 

Tar'aUab  (Heb.  O'^^n,  TanhM',  mhdutd  [Ge- 
■en.]  ot  aiablitktd  [FUrMj  ;  Sept.  Bapeiis  [but  Kap- 
Xqwv  in  Iia.  xjtiii ;  Kflpj^qconoi  in  Ezek. ;  SiiXaaan 
in  Isa.  ii,  16];  Vulg.  usually  Tharnti  A.V.  "Tharshish," 
I  Kin)(s  X,  ■&;  xxii,  48;  1  Chron.  vji,  10;  once  Heb. 
IT^^ir;>n,  Tarthitkah;  1  Chron.  i,  7),  the  name  of  three 
meii,  of  a  counlry,  and  of  a  gem. 

1.  Second-named  of  the  fbur  sons  of  Jaran,  the  son 
of  Japheth  (Gen.  x,4;  1  Chron.  \,-,\  RC.  p<«t  S5I4. 
He  may  hive  been  the  founder  of  the  city  noticed  be- 


187a. 

3.  Fourth-naiDed  of  the  Nren  "princes"  of  Perua 
in  the  lime  of  Artaxerxe*  (Esth.  i,  14%  ac.  483.  As 
a  Persian  name  the  word  stands  in  relation  with  Tffk 
(ii,  St ;  vi,  2),  and  with  Tir$kalha ;  all  probably  from 
the  root  rordl.Mten  (Gesenius,  nrwiiir.B.  v.). 

4.  A  famous  port  or  region  Ihe  location  of  which 
has  been  much  disputed.  Josrphos  (yl  nr.  i.  6, 1 )  con- 
founds it  with  Tariui  in  Cilicia;  and  in  the  Sept. 
vertioD  of  Iso.  xxiii.  I,  10-14,  it  is  rendered  Kop- 
XilJuv,  Cunhaiif.  A  similar  rendering  is  found  in 
£iek.xiETii,  I2t  xxjiviii,  13,  Kap^fifiovtoi,  Carthago- 
■on,  an  idenliHcation  urgeil  by  Davia  {Carlhiige,  ch.  i). 
As  the  Vulg.  translates  it  by  "sea"  in  Ibe  passage  quot- 
ed atuve,  BO  the  Sept.  in  Isa.  it,  16  renders  it  iaXoanK. 
a  transUiion  followed  by  Saadias  and  Luther,  The 
Targums  adopt  the  same  iranslslion  in  some  places,  and 
Jerome  apologizes  for  the  blunder  by  saying  that  "  Ihe 
Hebrews  thought  Tharsie  was  their  original  term  for 
aea;  the  noun  in  common  use  among  them,  ian,  being 
a  Syriac  one."  In  other  places,  aa  1  Kings  xxii,  4>l, 
atid  Jer.x,9,  Ibe  Targum  gives  [he  peculiar  rendering 
of  Rp^^ER,  Africa.  Most  interpreters,  however,  arc 
agreed  that  (with  the  poasible  exception  of  the  passage 
in  Chronicles)  the  allusion  is  Ut  TarirMui  in  Spain. 
It  seema  to  have  been  the  source  of  Ihe  preeiona  Mone 
called  by  Ibe  same  name. 

In  Ihe  great  genealogical  table  (Gen,  x,  4,  6)  it  i* 
placed  among  the  sous  of  Jaran ;  "  Kliahah  and  Tar- 
■hiih,  Kiilini  and  Uodanim.  By  these  were  the  isl- 
ands of  the  lieniiles  divideil.''  This  refers  the  mind  at 
once  to  the  north-western  parts  of 


To  a  similar  condnsion  does  other  •ciipUiral  Isngiup 

lead.     In  Psa.  Ixxil.  10  it  is  sud.-Tbe  kings  of  Tu- 

shiah  and  of  Ihe  isle*  shall  bring  presents;"  sod  ia  1 

Chnin.  ix,  21  we  reoil, "  The   king's  {Sukimon's)  lUpt 

Tarshish  with  Ihe  servants  of  Hinun;  enir 

ars  once  came  ihe  ships  of  Taishiab  bringti^ 

gold  and  silver,  ivory,  and  apes  and  peacocks."     Niiv 

iin's  city.  Tyre,  lay  on  ihe  Mediterranean  cnsal,  siid 

easy  to  see  how  Solomon's  vessels  might  be  sKx- 

il  wiih  hia  in  ■  voyage  towards  ibe  wesi  to  fMch 

In  laa.  Ixvi,  19  we  find  Tanbiah  um- 

.  way  which  coiiBims  this  view:  "And  I  liD 

among  them,  and  I  will  send  lb«r  [hat  f>- 

cipe  of  them  unto  ihe  nalioiis  (or  Uenlile*'):  lu  Tv- 

'    I,  Ful.  and  Lud  that  draw  the  bow,  to  Tiibol  ami 

n.  lo  the  isles  afar  off."     These  passages  make  u 

clear  that  1'arshish  lay  at  a  ilintance  from  JurUu.  inl 

and  the  meniinn  of  such  names  as  UhI,  Jaran,  and  tlv 
isle*  catries  the  mind  to  ilie  extreme  iKoth-ve?!.  and 
iggests  Spain  as  the   place  fur  Tanliish.     But  Tai- 


ihish  n 


"  The  ship*  of  Tamhisb"  were  «l- 
ebialed  under  that  deeignation,  which  may  have  bun 
used  in  that  wide  sense  in  wbicb  wc  aiwak  of  an  Em- 
Indiaman,  reference  being  made  rather  to  ihe  plarf 
whither  Ibe   vessel  traded  Iban  to  that  wtiere  it  «i 


.ephra, 


lar  kind  of  vessel,  i.  e.  I  radiiig  or  meiebaiit  shtp^  rmoi 
the  celebrity  of  Tarshish  as  a  cuRimercial  port  1 1  Kinc 
x,W;  Psa,x]viii,7;  l^*,^i,10;  xxiii.l-U;  li,9i  Fjefc 
xivti,36).  Thesesix  timeido  we  meet  with  ibephn*. 
ship*  or  navy  of  Tarahish ;  wliich  of  itself  show)  bow 
iBiieil  a  seaport  we  have  under  couHderalinn.  if  it  dop 
not  prove  also  that  in  process  of  lime  Ihe  ierm>  ha^ 
oome  lo  describe  veasels  according  to  their  occupsiiiHi 
rather  than  their  counliy,  aa  we  say  "a  slaver," d<T»i- 
ing  a  ship  engsgeil  iu  the  slave-itade  {comp.  HitH. 
"Mvis  Libuniis,"  Ciuiii.i.S7i  "Bilhvtia  carina,"  L3&: 
"  trabe  Cypria,"  i,  1).  In  Eiek.  xxvi'i,  IS-Jft  Ibe  plsn- 
is  described  by  its  putauils  and  its  merchandise— "  1  "- 
shish  {here  again  in  connection  wiih  a  wesiem  eimnitr, 
Javan,  ver.  18)  was  thy  (Tyre's)  mrtrionl.  in  aU  tirhr. 

The  ahips  of  Tarshish  did  sing  of  lliee  in  ihy  iMrka 
and  thou  watl  replenisheil  ami  made  verv-  glomiii  i" 
the  midst  of  Ihe  seas."  The  last  words  are  adminUi 
descriptive  of  the  soulh-weslem  coast  of  Spain.  How 
could  a  Hebrew  |>oet  belter  describe  the  locality  where 
[he  songs  of  the  sailors  of  Tsnhish  made  ihe  nsnie  of 
Tyre  glorious 'i'     Let  the  reader  lum  lo  Ihe  nap  n^ 

and  aay  if  this  spot  is  not  pre-eminently,  when  rirKe<1 
from  Palestine, "  in  the  midst  of  the  seas,"  There  ii ' 
propriety,  too,  in  Ihe  words  found  in  Psa.  xlviii.T  (msr 
Eaek,  xxvili,  W).  "Thou  breahesl  Ihe  ship*  oTTanJiiili 
with  an  east  wind,"  if  we  sitppnse  merchant  veiaeli 
working  eastwardly  up  the  Medilemnean  towards Tyiv 
encountering  an  east,  or  rather  north-east,  gale,  «hic) 
ia  a  very  violent  and  desiniclive  wind  to  ibis  ds» 
Jeremiah  (x,  9)  lells  oa  that  "  silver  spread  into  pbio' 
was  brought  from  Tarshish  i  and  from  the  cmneciiiii 
the  silver  appears  to  have  been  elabonlely  wtougTiI 
whence  we  infer  that  at  one  period  there  was  in  Tsi 
shish  Ibe  never-failing  connection  found  belween  mm 
nterce,  wealtb,  and  an.  An  important  tealimony  ocnir 
in  Ezek.  xxxviii,  13,  "Sheba  and  Iledan,  aitd  the  an 
chants  of  Tarshish,  wiih  alt  the  young  li«u  Ibeieot 
shall  say  unio  thee.  Art  thou  come  lo  lake  a  ^wil?  b 
carry  away  silver  and  gidd?  to  take  away  ratlle  sni 
goods,  to  take  a  great  spoil?"  whence  it  i*  dear  ibi 
Tarshish  was  an  opulent  place,  abounding  in  calile  an 
goods,  til  silver  and  gold.  We  are  not  sure  that  III 
words  "Ibe  young  liana  thereof"  are  intended  to  b 
taken  lilcrally.  They  may  refet  to  the  linn-heirtt 
chiefa  oflhe  nation:  hut  if  they  are  undeTMood  as  in 
plying  that  Itona  were  litctally  Aiund  in  Tarshish,  llu 


TARSHISH 

■nl(  oncar  with  other  part*  «r  Scripture  in  nhoiiii 
tttt  lb»  nanw  i>  to  be  tal(en  in  a  wide  acoepluiun, 
ilaiaunKi  iKudes  raodrm  Aiidaiusii,  thoae  parts  of  J 
lia  abich  lie  near  and  opposiic  id  Spain.     Nor  a 
UDpKhle  that  k  pan  of  the  trade  of  Tarshish  lay 
dwae  and  id  otbn  iiiioi*I> ;  for  we  ceitahilf  iiitow  that 
ialoBoa'a  afa ipa  bruiight  that  prince  apes  and  peacocks: 
till  Iknu  may  have  been  caught  in  Africa  and  convej'- 
•1  io  dijp*  of  Tarthlsh  la  lyre.     Sheba  and  Dedan, 
ti^nnr,  are  oHiitioiied  liere  in  connection  with  Tar- 
Aula,  and  they  were  ceruinly  Kauem  countries,  lying 
pmbablf  on  the  western  aide  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
AnbU.     But  (be  object  of  the  writer  may  have  been 
u  lORitiaa  the  cuuntriea  placed  at  (he  excremiti 
iIr  then  known  woriil — 'i'anhiah  on  the  wear,  Sbeba 
mi  Owdan  on  the  east.     In  Isa.  xilii,  l-U  ire  read,  as 
■  iiatt  '>r  the  bunlen  of  Tyre,  that  Che  ships  of  Tarsh 
m  called  on  to  howl  at  tier  deatruetinn,  Ixcause  T 
■Smkil  tbem  no  longer  a  commerrial  port  and  a  '. 
•n:  aonU  which  entirely  agree  with  the  hypothi 
tliai  m^ea  Tarshish  a  city  on  the  Naboaril  of  Spain, 
traifing  ap  the  Mediterranean  Io  Tyre.     Nor  ar 
nrla  fuund  in  ver.  G  discordant — "Pass  ye  ov 
Tinhish;  howl,  ye  inhabitauU  of  the  isles."     Let  us 
sn  tufn  to  the'  book  of  Jonah  (i,  1-S;  ir, !).     The 
ptsiibH  was  cooiRianded  to  go  and  prophesy  against 
Sisereh  on  the  Tigris.     For  this  he  should,  on  qu' 
Jcraaletn,  have  gime  in  an  easterly  direction;  but  he 
Aamied  the  duty  and  Bed.     Of  eonnt  he  naturally 
iol  in  a  direction  the  oppnaite  of  that  in  whici 
•nuM  ol^t  lay;' he  proceeded,  in  fact,  to  Tarsliiih. 
Tsnbiib,  then,  must  bave  been  to  the  west,  and  no 
Ibt  tut,  of  JeruBalem.     In  order  to  reach  Tanhish 
■est  u  Joppa  and  took  ship  fur  the  place  of  his  di 
tuiia.  ihiiB  MiU  keeping  in  a  wesleriy  coune  aiul  oh 
inf  that  Tarsbish  lay  to  the  west.'    In  Tarnhish, 
leM.  placed  in  the  extreme  north-west,  he  might  well 
ctpect  to  be  distant  enntifrh  from  Nineveh.     It  ia  al 
nttkr  of  notice  that,  when  he  anived  at  Joppa.  un  t 
caax  ef  Palatine,  *' he  fuund  a  ship  going  toTarshisb 
•liidi  fart  we  can  well  underaland  if  Tarshinh  lav 
(he  -**(,  but  by  no  means  if  it  Uy  on  the  Ited  Sea. 
*»eOrmR. 

Tu  br  all  the  paaaage*  cited  agree,  with  mc 
lot  enilBB(«,  in  filing  Tarshish  somewhere  in  or 
hm.  Bat  in  i  Chtun.  xx,  36  it  is  recorded  that  Je- 
kjtkaphai.  king  of  Judali,  Joined  himaelf  Kith  Ahaii- 
•l.  king  of  Israel,  "  to  make  ships  to  go  to  Tanhish, 
nJ  ihey  nude  the  ships  in  Eiion-geber,"  that  i^  on 
itf  ElsDttie  gulf  on  the  raalem  arm  of  the  Ked  Sea. 
It  tkea.  these  venels  built  at  Eiion-geber  were  la  go 
■"TvBhish,  that  place  must  lie  on  the  eastern  side  of 
I'llpuur.  instead  of  the  western ;  fur  we  cannot  siip- 
IweiWy  circumnarigated  Africa;  not  because  such  a 
ri'yagc  Ku  impossible,  but  because  it  was  lung  and 

•^rr  WIT  lo  Tarshish  lay  from  the  porta  of  the  Pales- 
'iniss  cuasi.  Bat  in  the  [latallel  passage,  found  in  1 
lij<«r>  i^ii,  49,  these  reasclii  are  described  as  '-ship*  of 
Ttntiish''  (foerchant  vessels),  which  were  intended  to 
f .  u  OpUr,  DO*  to  Tarshish.  litis  remores  the  diffi- 
nkr  al  once,  for  Ophit  was  in  the  Eait,  and  accounts 
11  ibe  fact  that  the  lleet  was  buUl  on  the  Kni  Sea, 
wee  h  aaa  an  eastern,  not  a  western,  royige  which 
•ii  isUDded.  The  reference  appears  tn  be  In  the  same 
'mrn  mle  of  which  mention  is  made  in  x,  'I'l,  where 
•(  tad  Hiiam  and  Solomon  importing  fmm  the  East 
»  ibipt  of  Tanhish,  or  mercbsntmen,  gold  and  ailvcr, 
'■<n.  ipa  and  peacocks.  We  have  noi  space  Io  en- 
IB  iKa  the  critical  questions  which  this  conlrariely 
I    "Owea  the  hooke  uf  Kings  and  Chroniclea  auggesls  f.ir 

"W  a  dit-ersily  appears  in  the  ataleioeiil*  of  these 
^  lutborities,  no  competently  informed  theologian 
I  '*U  hoiule  to  give  the  preference  lu  the  former, 
^h  lUcniative  of  two  place*  by  the  name  of  Tarshish. 
*  M  .Spain  and  the  olbet  in  India,  was  adopted  by 


9  TARSHISH 

Bocharl,  Phaleg,  ill,  7,  and  baa  probably  been  the  ordi- 
nary view  of  thoae  who  have  perceived  a  difiiculty  in 
the  paaaagea  of  the  Chronicles;  but  the  above  recon- 
ciliation, which  was  lirat  suggested  by  Vitringa,  has 
been  adopted  by  the  acutesL  Biblical  critics  of  our  own 
time,  auch  as  De  Wette,  /n/mducfion  to  Iht  Old  TtHu- 
lana  (Parker'a  translaliun,  Boston,  1K48),  ii,  3li7 1  Winer, 
Biiiitcha  RtutaoTla-lHidi,  a.  v.;  liesenius,  Tktinirai 
Lmjaa  tlrt.  a  Chald.  a.  v.;  and  Ewald,  GaciicJiU  dii 
VoditM  linui  (1st  ed.],  iii, '6;  and  is  acknowledged  bv 
Hovers.  Utbrrdtf  C*n)iiajf/n(l834),  p.a54,and  HHver- 
nick,  SptikUt  JiiiJeilttng  in  dm  Abt  TatamaU  C1»S9), 
ii,  •iSI. 

It  appears,  then,  dear,  from  this  minute  review  of 
the  scriptural  accounts  and  allnaions,  lliat  Tarshiah  was 
an  old,  celebrated,  opulent,  cultivated,  commercial  city, 
wbich  carried  on  trade  in  the  Heiliterranean  and  with 
the  seaports  of  Syria,  especially  Tyi 
irohably  lay  on  the  exl 


Was  II 


these  parte 
Spain, 


liich  corresponded  wit> 

I?    There  was.    Such 

lid  lo  have  been  a  Phtenicia 

86),  a  fact  which  of  itself  wo 

'    Palesti 


o  the  I 


erne  west  of  that 

these  clearly  aa- 

I  colony  (Arriaii, 
lid  account  for  its 
ind  the  Biblical 
a  (so 


written  Diif^nally)  lay,  auihoritics  are  not  agreed,  as 
the  city  had  eeaaed  tu  exist  when  geography  began  lo 

of  llibraltar,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  GiudBlquivir, 
consequently  al  no  great  distance  from  the  famous  Ura- 
nada  of  biter  days.  The  reader,  Iwwever.  must  eulsrge 
his  notion  beyond  that  of  a  mere  city,  which,  how  great 
loever,  would  scarrely  correspond  with  the  ideas  of  mag- 
nitude, affluence,  and  power  that  (he  Scriptures  aug- 
gesL  The  name,  which  ia  nf  Phcenician  origin,  seems 
Ui  denote  the  district  nf  Soul  h-weslem  Spain,  compris- 
ing the  several  colonies  which  1'yre  planted  in  Ihat 
country,  and  so  being  equivalent  tn  what  we  might 
daignate  Phtenicisn  Spain.  We  are  not,  however,  con- 
vinced that  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  was  not  in- 
cluded, BO  that  ihe  word  would  denote  to  an  inhabitant 
of  Palestine  the  enlreme  western  parts  of  Ihe  world. 
We  seem,  however,  authorized,  by  consideni  lions  be- 
sides thoae  which  have  already  been  elicited,  in  identi- 
fying lbs  Hebrew  Tarshish  with  the  Spanish  Tsrlesaus, 
wbalever  may  have  been  the  extent  ol  the  neighboring 
country  over  wliich  the  latter  hebl  ilominion  or  possess- 
ed immeiliale  inSuence.  Among  these  cunsideraiions 
we  mention :  I.  That  the  two  names  are  similar,  if  they 
are  not  the  same;  Ihe  Greek  Tapnfiraa;  with  Ihe  Ara- 
maic pninunriation  would  be  D^P^P,  a  fact  which 
would  of  itself  seem  to  seule  the  question  in  Ihe  ab- 
sence of  conflicting  evidence  and  claims.  3.  Spain  was 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  Pbtenidan  colonization ;  and 
if  we  unite  therewith  the  north-west  of  Africa,  we  shall 
some  idea  of  the  greatness  of  the  power  of  Tyre 
Gse  parts,  for  Tyre  is  reported  to  have  founded  not 
fewer  than  three  hundred  cities  on  tlie  western  coast 
of  Africa,  and  two  hundred  in  South<westem  Spain 
;Sirabo,  ii,  82).  Here,  then,  was  found  Ihe  chief  object 
if  the  Phcenician  sea-(rade.  These  countries  were  lu 
Pvre  what  Peru  was  to  Spain.  Conflning  our  remarks 
a  Spain,  we  leam  from  Heenm  Ihat  the  Pluenician  col- 
inies  on  the  European  side  of  the  sea  were  situated  in 
he  south  of  the  present  Andalusia.  Here,  with  other 
important  places,  lay  Tarleaaus,  a  name  which  is  borne 
B  river,  an  island,  a  town,  and  a  region.  Heeren 
inctly  says  thatio  Orientalists  the  woid  indicated 
farthest  west  generally,  comprising,  of  course,  many 
places.  In  the  comnicrcisi  geography  of  the  Phteni- 
cians,  he  adds,  the  word  obviously  meant  the  whole  nf 
their  colonial  dependencies  in  Southern  Spain.  In  the 
general  way,  we  nse  the  (erm  West  Indies;  and 
arose  Ihe  river,  the  town,  the  district  of  TBrtessu^ 
the  country  iiicluded  them  all  (Heeren,  Idea,  ii, 


TARSHISH  2i 

44  «q.).  S.  It  does  much  Ui  confirm  our  view  Ilut  all 
the  articlei  reported  in  JeremUh  ind  Ezekid  lo  have 
been  brought  from  Tinhuh  might  hive  come  from 
Soulh-wateni  Spain.  Here  there  were  mines  of  t^ld 
and  ailver,  and  Tartewut  a  expressly  named  u  afford- 
ing Ihe  tatter  mineral  (Slnln,  ili,  167;  Diod.  Sicv,  3b). 
'lln  waa  brought  by  the  Pbceuictaua  from  Britain  into 
Spain,  and  thence  carried  (o  the  Oriental  mirketa.  Ac- 
ccinliiig  to  Diudorua  ^ului  (v,  38),  tin  waa  pivcured  in 
Spain  abo,  as  well  as  lead,  according  to  Pliny  (//iff. 
Kal.  iii,  4).  Ptiiiy's  words  are  forcible:  "Neatly  all 
Spain  abounds  in  the  metjUs — lead,  iron,  copper,  silver, 
gold."  We  add  one  Dt  two  corroboracians  of  the  above 
identiflcation.  Ileeren  (/deeii.  ii,  64}  trautlit(«  Enk. 
xKvii,  25,  "The  ships  of  Tarahish,"  etc.,  by  "  Spanish 
ships  wer«  the  chief  abject  nf  thy  merchandise ;  thou 

'l*he  Pbcenicians  were  as  eager  in  their  quest  of  gold 
and  gold  countries  as  were  the  alchemists  and  the  Eu- 
ropeans of  the  leih  centur}-.  The  lust  for  gold  urged 
ihem  over  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  the  diSs  of  the 

passion  carried  them  weslwardly  to  the  coasts  of  Spaiu 
and  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  "Spain,''  says  Hecren. 
"  waa  once  the  richest  laud  in  the  vroild  Tor  ailver;  gold 
was  found  there  in  great  abundance,  and  Ihe  baser  met- 
ala  as  well.  The  silver  moanlains  were  in  tbose  parts 
which  the  rhvniciant  comprised  under  the  geueri' 
name  uf  Tarlessus,  or  Tsrehisb.  The  immeasurable  at 
fluence  of  precious  metals  which,  on  their  first  atriva 
they  found  here  so  astounded  them,  and  the  ai^h 
thereof  BO  wrought  on  the  imaginaUon  of  the  peopli 
that  fact  called  fable  to  its  aid,  and  the  story  gain* 
currency  that  the  first  PhiBnicisn  colonists  no)  only  Oil- 
ed their  shi[>a  with  gold,  but  made  thereof  their  various 
implement*,  anchors  not  excepted."  See  Comhehce. 
In  the  absence  of  positive  pmuf,  we  may  acquiesce  i 
tlie  sutement  of  Straho  (iii,  14S)  that  the  river  Btetis 
(now  the  Gnadalquivir)  was  fomnrly  called  Tartesaua, 
that  the  city  Tarteasua  waa  situated  between  the  two 
■tma  by  which  the  river  flowed  into  the  sea,  and  that 
the  adjoining  couDtry  waa  called  Tanessis.  But 
were  two  other  dties  which  some  deem  to  have 
Tartessun;  one,(isdir,or(iadita(Cadiz){Sallust.?'rajpn. 
liUii;  Pliny,  Attf.  A'lif.  iv,  S6;  and  Avienus,  i>eM>i>r. 
Ork  Terr.  p.fll4);  and  the  other, Carleia,  in  Ihe  Bay  ' 
Gibraltar  (Stral^  iii,  ISI;  Ptolemy,  ii,  4 ;  Plinr,  iii, 
Mela,  ii,  S).  Of  the  three,  Carteia,  which  has  foumi 
learned  supporter  at  the  present  day  (Erech  and  Gi 
ber,  Etuydi^.  s.  v.),  seems  lo  have  the  weakest  claims, 
for,  in  the  earliest  Greek  prose  work  extant,  Tarteasui 
is  placed  beyond  the  Columns  of  Hercules  (Heroilolus, 
iv,  152);  ^nd  in  a  still  earlier  fragment  of  Htesichorun 
(Strabo,  iii,  148)  mention  is  maile  of  the  rinr  Tarles- 


Carteia  (  =  El  HoccadiUo)  which  de- 
serves lo  be  called  OKire  than  a  nt  u- 
let.  Stricily  speaking,  the  same  ob- 
jection would  applv  to  liadir.  but, 
fur  p.«lical  uses,  the  Guadalquivir, 
which  is  only  twenty  miles  distant, 
would  be  sufficienlly  near.  It  was, 
perhaps,  in  reference  to  the  claim  of 
Gadir  that  Cicero,  in  a  letter  to  At- 
ticus  (vii,  3),  jocosely  calls  Balbua  a 

turn  tuum."  But  Tartessius  was  like- 
wise used  by  poeta  lo  expnsa  Ihe  ex- 
treme west  where  the  sun  set  (Oviri, 
Melam.  xiv,  41Si  Silius  Ilalicus,  x, 
358;  comp.  id.  iii,  S99).  See  Smith, 
Din.  of  Clan.  Geog.  u  v.  "  Tartes- 
BUB."  See,  in  addition  lo  the  works 
cited  by  Bochart  and  Winer,  at  tup., 
the  Joam.  of  Sac.  Lit.  Oct.  1861,  p. 
226  sq. 
S.  (A.  T.  "beryl.")    A  precious 


TARSUS 

>,  SO  called  as  brought  fiom  Tanhiib,  as  0|Att  it 
put  for  the  gold  brought  thence  (Exo(Lxxiriii,SO; 
ix,  13;  Ezek.  I,  16;  i,  9;  xxviii,  13;  CauL  v.  H; 
.  X,  G).     The  SepL,  followed  by  Josephw,  mikts  ii 
'chiysollle,"  i.e.  the  lopai  of  the  modems,  vhickii 
found  in  Spain :  so  Braun,  De  Valitu  Saerrd.  ii.  I'.. 
!r»  Buppoae  it  to  be  "amber;"  but  this  doo  SM 
agree  with  Ihe  passages  in  Enndus,  which  make  On  [ 
Tarsbiah  to  have  been  one  of  the  engraved  stooei  of  | 
Che  bigh-prieat'sbreastpiale.     See  Ucryi.  i 

Tar'flQI  (Tapwdi),  the  chief  town  of  Cilieia,  "no  | 
ean  city"  in  other  respects,  but  illustrious  ID  all  lint  i 
as  the  birthplace  and  earlv  residence  of  the  apwile 
Paid  (Acta  ix,  11 ;  xii,  39 ;'  xiii,  3).  The  only  Mba  \ 
passages  in  which  the  uame  occurs  are  Acts  ix,3atsd  ' 
xi,  25,  which  give  the  limits  of  ibat  residence  in  hit ' 
native  town  which  succeeded  the  first  visit  to  Jeiuu-' 
lem  after  his  couvenion,  and  preceded  his  active  sin- 
iaterial  work  at  Antiocb  and  elsewhere  (comp.  iiii.  ii 
and  GaL  i,  21)-  It  was  during  this  period,  no  doulii, 
that  he  planted  the  Gospel  there,  and  it  has  never  urm 
entinly  died  ooL  There  is  lillle  doubt  that  Paol  wu 
there  also  at  the  be^nning  of  his  second  and  third  mis- 
sionary journeys  (xv,  41 ;  xviii,  23).    See  Paiti. 

Tarsus  was  Bituated  in  a  wide  and  fertile  plsin  on 
the  banks  of  the  Cydnus,  the  waters  of  which  are  ft- 
mous  for  the  dangerous  fever  caught  by  Alexatidei 

lialra.  'i'he  river  flowed  through  it  and  divided  it  into 
two  parte.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  by  Greek  wriioi 
called  Tapaoi  in  the  plural,  perhaps  not  wilhout  Hnw 
reference  lu  a  fancied  resemblance  in  the  (onn  of  ii( 
two  divisions  of  the  city  to  the  wings  of  a  Utd.  Tbu 
pari  of  Cilieia  was  intersected  in  Knman  timea  by  giol 
roads,  eapedally  one  crusaiug  the  Tsiirus  northwanl  by 
the  "Cilician  Gates"  to  the  neighbothuod  of  Lyun; 
and  Iconium,  the  other  joining  Tarsus  with  Aniinch 
and  pasfling  eastward  by  the  "Anianian"  and  "Sjtian 

Tarsus  was  founded  by  Sardanapalu^  kinf;of  Assyrii, 
The  Greeks,  however,  claimed  a  share  in  its  colooiia- 
tiun;  and  Strabo  (xiv,  673)  has  prewrred  an  ancimi 
legend  of  certain  Argives  having  arrived  there  wiih 
Triplr4emua  in  search  of  lo.  It  appears  first  in  authen- 
tic history  in  Xenophon'a  time,  when  it  was  a  city  uf 
some  conaiderable  consequence  (.4  aai.  i,  2, 23).  Itwai 
occupied  by  C}'tus  and  bis  troops  for  tweniy  days  and 
given  up  to  plunder.  After  Alexamlei't  conquests  hail 
swept  this  way  (Q.  Curl,  iii,  5}  and  the  Seleuod  kinR- 
dom  was  established  at  Antiocb,  Taisus  usually  belan^' 
ed  to  that  kingdom,  Ihougb  for  a  time  it  was  under  ibi 
Ptolemien.  In  the  civil  wars  of  Rome  it  look  Ohbi'i 
side,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  from  him  bad  in 
name  changed  to  Juliopolu  (Cosar,  StU.  A  Inc.  W ;  Uica 


Hnp  of  the  Coast  of  Tarsua. 


Cmi.  ilvii,  M). 

6Wt  Or.  V,  7),     ■ 

nih  fn«doiii  rrum  ttibuie:  but  iliil  not  cniifcr  ihajuM 

fofi.  ■•  nuillv  iiipiMMal.  on  iKa  nccount  Ihat  Paul  en- 
jinal  ttw  privilcKe  of  Kamin  cidzenship.  Taniis,  in. 
JrTd,  rcmiuRlly  •I'ul  become  a  Itoman  colanv,  which 

nil  ImgaTur  ibe  lime  i>r  Pul  (Deyling,  Obtfrc-il.  Siicr. 
III.  »l  tq.).  See  CiTiXENSiiir;  CoLONV.  We  Ihus 
thxl  tbit  ihe  Roman  tribune  at  Jeniukm  ordered  I'au) 
u>  bd  iDHirgcd,  thniigh  be  knew  tbat  he  wu  a  unlive 
ijf  Tanini,  but  doiated  an  learning  that  he  wai  a  Ki>- 
nanciliaen  (Aeu  ix,  II;  xjii,t*9;  xxii,  !4,  !7).  We 
ou^htto  nule,  on  the  other  hand,  the  drcumBlancea  in 
ilir  iDcial  Kale  of  Tanni.  which  had,  nr  may  be  con- 

lag  and  chvacter.  It  was  reiinwned  aa  a  place  of 
F-Jieuioa  onder  Ihs  early  Rciman  empemrs.  Strabo 
rnsraiH  it  in  this  retpect  to  Athena  and  Alexandria, 
pMBg,  aa  n^anla  the  leal  fur  learning  ahnwn  by  the 
itaiitnita,  (he  prefereDce  to  Tamil  (xiv,  67R}.  Soma 
riiaiaguiihed  name*  adorn  its  iiinali;  among  others, 
Aihtnadaru*,  the  tutor  of  Aiiguatiia,  and  NeMnr,  the  tu- 
iKDfiilamlliu,  the  nephew  of  AuRuatua;  Artemidorua 
nl  I>io(lDnus  celebnteil  grammarians,  and  Uiiniyaidca, 


<[n«ici 

oerw,  and  Batil  deacribea  il  as  a  point  c.f  union  fu 
.'Hnaiis  Ciliciana,  luutiana,  and  Cappaducians  (Up.  Ei 
iHi  .fawet;  Kpiic.).     Owing 


tages,  Turaua  continued  to  flourish  under  the  Itotnan 
emperora,  unlil  it  fell  into  Ihe  hands  of  ihe  SaraceiiM. 
It  was  taken  from  them  aAer  a  memorable  ritgt  by  the 
emperor  Nicephoru^  but  soon  afierwaribi  renlored  to 
theiD.  In  the  time  of  Abulfeda,  that  ia,  (owards  Ihe 
end  of  IhelSlh  and  beginning  of  the  Hi h  eeiiiun',  Tar- 
in  Ihe  occupation  of  Armenian  Chrialinna  {Tab.Syi-ia. 
p.  ISA).  It  still  survive*,  though  greiaily  redureil,  un- 
der  the  modem  name  Trrnu.  Kinneir,  who  apent  ■ 
week  in  Taraua,  aUiea  {TranU,  p.  121)  that  hardly  a 
vealtee  of  lh>  former  magniScence  of  Taraua  nmaina; 
nor  does,  perhaps,  the  modem  town  occupy  one  fonnli 
part  of  the  area  of  the  aneient  city.  He  obaen-eil  a 
few  ancient  rains,  but  not  a  single  inscription  or  anv 
monument  of  beauty  or  art.  The  bouaes  are  interseci- 
ed  by  gardens  nnd  nrchanls;  they  aeldi-m  exceed  one 
story  ill  height,  are  flat-mofcd,  and  Ihe  greater  part  of 
them  are  conatrucieil  of  hewn  atone,  to  furnish  which 
the  more  ancient  ediflcea  hare  been  levelieil  with  the 
ground.  The  inhabitanta  amount  lo  timut  thirty  thou- 
sand Boula,  mostly  Turka  and  Turcomans.  The  adjuiii- 
ing  Tillage*  are  cliiefly  inhabited  by  (■^rek^  who  prefer 
agriciilluial  puraaits  lo  a  town  life.  The  sea  ia  not  risi- 
blefinm  the  town.  TheCydnuaialhere  about  fortyyardi 
wiile,  and  small  canals  are  cut  from  il  for  irrigation. 

See  Heumann,  0<  Clarit  Tartnnuii.  (liiiit.  1748); 
Alunann,  Kicm.dt  Tano  (Bern.  1731);  Zeibich,  2iifi> 

Kirri /Inn*;.  rnr>nu.(Vi(cb.  1760);  Mannen,ii,97sq.; 
laenmUllcT,  BiU.  Umg.  \n,  88;  lleaiifiirt,  Kurami/nia, 
p.!7o;  Irby  and  Uanglea,  Tiiicrli,  p.  6ari-6n6;  Bellev, 


.dbyGoogle 


TARTAR  2i 

in  ToL  xxvii  of  th«  Acadimit  dti  JnKript,/  B«iqfII, 
Gmg.o/ Wat.  Aria,  li, 97;  CrRmer.^nu  Minor,  ii,iU; 
heake,Aiia  J/inor,  p.  !14 ;  BttVa,  Liirft  ami  Pmalei, 
p. 81, 178,187;  Smi[b,i>uf.n/C(u».(;«v.Lv.i  LBwin, 
SI.  Paul,  i,  78  aq.;  Murrait  ilaHdboet /ur  Turl^  w 
^»i'u,p.B70. 

Tar'tak  (Heb.  TaHak',  pFl^P;  Sepl.  Bapiat; 
Vulg.  T/iartAac),  one  of  the  goiU  of  the  Avi(«,  or  Av- 
vil«,cakii>iBt9  who  were  planted  in  ihe  ciliei  or  Stni- 
ria  ifier  the  removal  of  Che  tribes  by  SbalmsneMr  (3 
King*  xrii,  SI).  According  lo  Rsbbinicil  mditioii, 
Tartak  ia  eaid  la  have  been  wonhipped  under  tbe  fomi 
at  an  ■»  (Talm.  BibfL  Saniied^w,  M.  63  b).  From 
thia  U  haa  been  conjecliired  tbat  this  idol  wu  the 
EgTptian  Ti/pho;  but,  thouRh  in  the  hierof;lyphica  the 
aaa  la  the  aymbol  nf  Ff  ph<i,it  vasao  far  rrom  being  re- 
garded a*  an  object  lif  wonhip  thai  it  waa  conaidered 
abaulutely  unclean  (PluUrcb,  J:  tt  Oi.  c  U).  A  Per- 
■ian  or  I'ehlvi  orifpn  has  been  au^^aCed  for  Tariak. 
according  la  which  it  >ifiiiifle»  either  "iiiteiiae  daTknna," 
or''heroof  daHineaa,"or  ihe  undervrorld.andao,perhap», 
■Dine  planet  nf  ill-luck,  as  Saturn  or  Mara  (Geaenius, 
Tlieiaur.  a.  v.;  Flint,  Hnndirb.  a.  v.).  The  Cansaiiiana, 
a  warlike  raee  on  rhe  I'enian  Gulf,  nnishipped  Han 
alone  oTaU  the  gods,  and  aaeriHced  an  aaa  in  hia  honor 
(Strabo,  XV,  727).  I'erhaps  some  trace  or  thia  wurahip 
may  have  given  riae  to  the  Jewish  iradition, 

Tar'ton  (Heb.  Tartan',  'n"!^ ;  Sept.  esp^ax 
Tavaativ  or  TopoSiii';  Vulg.  'Tharlhiia),  which  o 
only  in  3  Kinga  xriii,  17  and  Isa.  xx,  I,  hu  been 
enlly  recarded  aa  a  proper  name  (Geaenius.  Ltx.  I/rb. 
a.  v.).  Winer  asumeit,  on  aucounl  of  Ihe  identity  of 
name,  ihat  Ih«  same  person  ia  intended  in  the  two 
pUcea  (Static,  a.  v.).  Keceiit  discoveries  make  it  prob- 
able tliat  in  Tarun,  aa  in  Kabsaria  and  Rahahakeh,  we 
have  not  a  proper  name  at  all,  but  a  tille  or  otiidal  dea- 
ignatinn,like  Pharaoh  among  the  Eevptieni<,nr  Siireni 
amnng  the  Partbians  (Tacil.  .Int.  vi,42).  T lie  Assyr- 
ian Tartan  is  a  general,  or  commai>der- in -chief.  Il 
seem*  aa  if  [be  Greek  translator  oTS  Kinga  had  an  ink- 
ling of  the  truth,  and  Iherefore  prefixed  the  article  tc 
all  three  namea,  which  he  very  rarely  prefixea  to  the 
names  of  persons  where  they  are  first  nteniioned.  If 
this  be  the  true  account  of  the  lerm  Tarun,  we  mual 
tindemand  in  2  Kings  xviii,  17  ihat  Sennacherib  xenl 
"■  general,"  together  with  hia  "chief  eunuch"  amj 
"  chief  cup-bearer,"  on  an  embaasy  to  Heickiah,  and  in 
laa.  XX,  1  that  >*  a  general"— pmbably  a  diflerenL  per 
son— was  employed  by  Sargon  asalnat  Aabdod,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  the  city.    Se 


, ,  a  irootim  anif  or  ifufc, 

noar,  in  Epiphanius,  Harrl.  48,  n.  14),  a  heretical 
Galalia(Hieron.  t'omoi.  ill  A>J.  arf  Cdi.)  belonging  prob- 
ably to  the  4lh  century, are  by  some  included  tnuiUf    ' 
Gnostica  of  the  school  of  Mark  [see  Marlub  thk 
kksiakch],  e.  g.  hy  Theodoret,  /lirrtt.  Fiii.  i.  9, 10, 
hy  others  among  the  Montaniats,  e.  g.  by  Kpiphaiiiua, 
v(  mp.    The  term  ia  unquestionably  a  nickname,  ap- 
plinl  lo  ihcH  heretics  becauae  they  were  acciiMomeil 
during  prai'er  to  place  a  finger  to  Ihe  nose  or  moii 
like  a  pole,  at  the  same  lime  observing  ibe  profoumli 
ajlence.    See  Augustine,  Oe //sffs.  63 ;  Philaalr. //IP^ 
7C;  and  Epiphanius.     Theodoret  says  ihat  they  rii 
culed  Ihe  aaeraments,  rejected  the  creeds,  repudiated 
revelalion)  and  others  charge  on  [hem  a  denial  of  [lie 
incamalioii.     Their  assemblies  were  legally  prohi 
after  the  4th  century,  but  [races  of  them  are  se 
Theoilore  StuiUta  in  Ihe  0th.    They  are  by  aoroe 
posed  to  be  identical  with  tbe  Paasidor^-nchiles.— Her- 
ang.  Real'EiiryUiip.  *.  v. 

Tasmaoitt.  formerly  Vak  Dirhen'b  Lahd, 
considerable  ii4snd  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  lying 
lietween  40^4(1' and  43=40' south  lal.  and  144'' 80' and 
148^  30'  east  long.,  at  the  aoiitb  of,  and  separated  froto 


TASSCHEMACHER 

Australia  by  Ban'a  SlraiL  Its  greatest  kngth  frm  I 
Cape  Grim  un  Ihe  nonb-west  to  Cape  Pillar  on  tht  , 
south-east  is  240  miles,  and  its  greatest  hreadlh  fnn  i 
east  to  west  200  miles.  Its  area,  including  the  ailjactct 
islands,  is  about  20,000  square  milm.  Its  cardial  ia  Ho- 
ban-Town,  with  a  population  of  25,044,  In  lbH6  iil, 
Ivlal  population  of  Tasmania  was  138.791. 

I.  //utoiy^— Tasmania  was  lirsi;  discovered  liy  Tax- 
man, Dec  1,  1642,  and  named  by  him  Van  Diccntn'i 
Land  in  honor  of  hia  palmn.  the  then  coventor  of  ilit 
Dulch  West  Indies.  In  IH03  Lieut.  Bowen  was  ilt- 
spatcbed  from  .Sydney  wilh  a  few  aoldiers  and  cunvicu 
to  form  a  selllemeiit  in  tbe  aoulh  of  the  island,  which 
wBsfinally  fixed  upon  thespot  where  Hoban-Town  ixnr 
stands.  From  1817  commenced  a  rapid  increase  in  tht  I 
number  nf  free  selllersi  and  in  1825  Tasmania  was  de-  i 
clared  independent  of  New  South  Wales.  The  tram-  ! 
imnationofconvictsceasedinisas.andon  Jan.  4,  IHSe,  i 
on  petition  of  the  Ifgiitlative  Council  lo  ihe  home  pii-  ' 
emmeiit,  the  name  of  the  colonv  was  officially  ehangol 
to  Tasmania.  Of  Ihe  8000  aborigines  found  in  ibe 
eountiy  Iha  number  rapidly  decreased,  until  now  nui  ' 

II.  Climolr,  Suit,  etc.— The  climate  nf  Tomania  it  | 

test  month  (January)  is  68°  57',  of  the  ci>lJeat  (July) 
46°  Hi',  and  of  the  whole  year  54°  9i'.  The  agriculi- 
iiral  binds  may  be  dividnl  inio  three  daaaes — tfluvisi 
depoMt^  Tertiary  clays,  and  loamy  aoile.  In  their  rir- 
>f  the  lauds  are  marrrlloutlT  produclivF: 


ough  it 


ovidenl 


Ibe  aoil  has  deieriotated. 

III.  AdmimUrali'm.—Smtt  the  passing  nf  the  Cot>- 
siitutiunal  Act  in  1854,  the  governing  aulhnrity  hat  , 
been  vested  in  a  Parliament,  coiuiisiing  of  the  goveraor,  ; 
at  Ibe  queen's  repre9entalire,and  two  elective  Hiiu««_  . 
Ihe  Legislative  CoDncll  of  eighteen,  and  the  AaaemMi' 
of  thiny-six  membeia.  The  qualitkatiiHi  of  vnlen  is,  . 
for  the  former,  a  fieehoM  uf  the  annual  value  of  liily 
pounds,  and,  lur  the  latter,  a  freehokl  valsefl  al  one 
hundred  pou^d^ora  ten  pniinda  rental. 

IV.  Rrligiim  ami  t:ditcntion.—lly  Ihe  Onstitutiinal 
Act  fifteen  thousand  ponnds  were  annually  reserved  fur 
the  support  of  religion,  divided  amiHig  the  vario-if 
religious  deimmi nations,  but  this  is  now  withdrawn. 
They  were,  in  1870:  Church  of  Etigbin.l,  !3.H-;  Ro- 
man Catholic,  22,091 ;  Presbi'leriaiis,  9*041  Wesleyani. 
7187  ;  lndependenl^  3931 ;  l)aplist^  931 ;  Jews,  231  i 
For  the  support  of  elementary  education  twelve  thou-  . 
sand  ponnds  a  year  ia  apprnprialed  hy  ParliameM.  ibe  , 
disbursement  of  which  is  intmsted  lo  ■  Cenird  Doanl  I 
holding  its  sitings  at  Hobart-Town.  The  le«her8  art  i 
appointed  by  Ihe  board,  and  are  onder  the  superrinan  | 
of  the  inspector  of  the  schools.  There  treie,  in  18itl,  ; 
204  public  schools;  14.241  piipila.  wilh  an  avenge  al-  | 
tendancenfl0,93SilDa  mate  teachers,  KM  female  leach-  . 
era,  and  82  pupil  tenchera.  There  are  eight  aapeiw  I 
schools  — Horton  College,  Hipb-achool,  Hutehiiia's  I 
School,  Ihe  Church  Grammar-Mihool,  elc 

Tbe  eObrts  of  the  Wesleyau  miasiomtrien  in  Taama- 
nt*  hare  been  directed  mainly  in  the  Engliah  popola-  . 
tiou.  The  mission  was  begun  in  Uno  hv  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Horton,  who  was  on  his  way  to  New'  Suuih  Wales.  ! 
The  mission  wai  approved  hy  the  governor  of  Ihe  cob-  I 
ny,  and  anodier  misHonary  was  soon  sent  out,  who  was  ! 
followed  by  (wu  more  in  1827,  and  bv  ■  fifth  in  183i.  I 
The  following  is  the  leport  of  Ihe  mission  for  1876:  I 
Chapels  and  other  preaching  places,  95;  miisiou-  j 
ries  and  anittanls,  16 ;  local  preachers.  70 :  full  mem-  | 
bers,1286{  perwns  on  trial,  202;  Sunday-schools.  47 ;  , 
teachers,  401 ;  acholara,  307G;  alteadants  on  wuiahlp,  ; 
9176. 

The  Primiiive  Methodist  Hiasion  reponed  in  Itt73:  i 
Principal  stBtian^  4;  n>iDialen,4;  membrrsiiS.  ' 

The  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  had,  in  Iha  I 
same  year,  8  lay  agents  and  38  members. 

TaaBchemaohec  (Duti 


TASSEL  2: 

PnMn.Mie  of  tbc  nrlinc  miniiun  ofth«  Rerormfd 
;Diticl<)  Church  in  the  United  Sulu,  wu  bom  in  U"l- 
livL  tnl  ntueatcd  sL  the  UniTenilv  of  UlrechL  He 
•u  iriilFd  in  Lhc  United  Suu*  ArU  iL  KingUan,  N.  Y^ 
111  Ifi7«-r7,  then  went  tn  Dutch  timtaa,  3.  A^  1677-78, 
■ml  In  1679-80  ve  Bnd  him  »  New  Amalel,  now  New 
I  Mlt,  Dei  Here  ilifficuliiei  inMc  which  induced 
Jim  la  leaie  that  people.  He  supplied  the  Church  on 
SUM  I^ud  oceuionallT.  1682-tl3.  In  1684  he  took 
(hanp  of  tbe  Chunh  ■■  'SchenectmJy,  N.  Y.,  which  he 
Ruincd  uniil  hii  death.  Heintiiue,  in  I6S4,  ae  the 
ncDflli  show,  he  organized  the  Church  at  HackeiiMck, 

leio.  to  peach  and  rei 

Uid't  tupper,  until  17S 

kin  then  much  time  and  labor;  hi 

metliod  of  joumejingi  and  viiiutionn   n 

dIiI  rbarcbea  vrefe  planted  and  MUained  in 


ihip.    At  Sc 


ly  Hr. 


e  Ind 


.if  thai  city.  Feb.  8. 1690,  "  The  French,  in  order  to 
nmtnl  the  Indian  trade,  had  planneil  (he  capture  of 
Albany  and  New  York  the  year  before.  The  plan  wu 
M  wlwllr  carried  out;  but  a  party  of  French  and  Iii- 
ilim  liti  Hontreal,  and.  proceeding  hy  way  of  L^ke 
i^tnplain,  intended  attacking  Albany.  But,  the  Indi- 
an chilli  not  canaenting,  they  turned  off  towards  Sche- 
DKiaily.     They  gave  ocden  thai 


it  of  cl 


iml  befiHe  he  could  be  personally  recognised  he  waa 
aUiii  aad  hia  bouM  and  paiiers  burned.  His  head  wan 
rirvea  open  and   his   bwly  burned  to  the  thouldec- 

Diby  nidnij^ht  before  they  i»uld  escape  or  defend 
ibrnielres  from  their  ■lealchy  and  cruel  foes.  The 
rriMant  that  escaped  kept  the  Church  of  Schenectady 

■onhip  amid  the  tuins  of  the  city,  cboae  their  eWers 
sa-J  deaama  fmin  vear  to  vear,  who  were  ordained  bv 
ih(  Ker.  Uodfriedu's  Dellius,  oT  Albany,  and  his  succes- 
er.  Ber.  Petnis  Van  Dressen.  until,  in  170:i.  the  little 
Airk  ibua  kept  alire,  ami  having  gained  in  numben 
ud  strength,  called  the  Kev.  Bemardus  Freeman  and 
inpited  bim  as  their  pastor.  Little  more  is  knnwn  of 
Ui.TaBchemacher'*  history.  He  died  a  martyr  among 
I'H  lloek,  and  his  minisin-  and  death  illuitnte  the  per- 
ils taid  which  the  (impel  was  preached  and  church- 
•1  voe  catablished  in  their  early  days  upon  the  fron- 
im.  See  Conrin,  MtaUuU  of  th  Rrf.  Ckardt,  p.  486. 
.W.J.E.T.) 

Taaael.  In  mediaval  times  the  sacred  vestments 
M  ibe  minisiers  of  the  Church  were  adorned  with  tas- 
<r\\  to  whkh.  in  the  case  of  dalmatic*  and  tunica,  balls 
.ifsyMd  were  attached.  Tbe  word  also  denotes  >  thin 
(ilHtaf  girid  or  silrer  wotd  od  the  back  of  the  oope  aiul 
FiKinpal  ^Tcs. 

Tat«.NAKi-]i,B  wen-known  paalmodist,  was  bom 
'1  Oahiin,  Iceland,  in  165!,  and  at  tbe  age  of  sixteen 
>»  admitted  to  Dublin  College,  but  does  not  appear  to 
■Live  fUlowed  any  prufesstun.  He  succeeded  Shadwell 
■•  poet- laureate,  and  continued  in  that  office  till  his 
4tiih.  which  happened  Aug.  12, 17  IS,  in  the  Mint,  where 
!u  resided  as  a  place  of  refage  from  bis  creditorik  He 
*■  tbe  author  of  nine  dramatic  performances  and  a 
lir^  Bomber  of  poems;  but  is  at  presetii  better  known 
W  hia  TTTMon  of  the  Psalms,  in  which  he  was  joined 
I:  Dr.  Bradv.  Fur  a  complete  list  of  his  works,  see  Al- 
Hiooe,  />irf.'  of  Bril.  and  A  mer.  A  klMon,  s.  v. ;  Chal- 
b(n,  Biny.  Dirt.  a.  r.     See  Psauioor, 

Tatiui,  a  notable  Chnstiaa  writer  of  the  3d  cen- 
Vy,  was  «  Daiire  of  Asarria,  though  Clemens  Alejtan- 
taa  aod  later  fathers  term  him  a  Syrian.    He  had 


mastered  the  Cnocn-Romau  culture  of  his  day,  largely 
through  eitlenrieil  travels;  and  his  reading  was  very 
wide,  no  fewer  than  luuely-thre*  cUssic  aulhurs  being 
referred  to  in  hia  works.    In  thecouneof  his  wanderings 

the  great  centre  for  all  intellectual  interests  and  tenden- 
cies, and  there  turned  his  attention  to  Cbrisiianity.  To 
justify  this  action  he  wrote  his  Aoyoc  Tpuc'EXAqvac. 
a  work  in  which  he  confesses  himself  a  convert  lu  the 
bartiarian  philosophy  of  the  despised  sect,  ntid  invites  his 
contemporaries  to  examine  it,  that  they  too  miRht  ob- 
serve the  axlui I ishing  contrasts  it  presents,  with  lis  sim- 
plicity and  its  cleantesa,  to  tbe  darkness  of  tbe  heathen- 
ism of  that  and  eveiy  other  age.  At  Rome  Tatian  was 
associateil  with  .lustin.  perhaps  as  a  pupil;  hut  he  soon 
became  himself  a  teacher  of  Chriatianity.  His  attitude 
was  apoliigeiic,  ■<"!  necessarily  involved  the  most  mark- 
ed antagonism  to  pai^niam.  Stem  aiid  even  harsh  in 
bis  moraliiy,  he  could  recognise  no  tnith  In  heathen 
philosophy,  and  feel  no  sympathy,  even  though  but  of 
a  scientific  or  nsthetical  nature,  with  heathen  life  and 
culture.  To  him,  as  to  his  contemporary  Christians, 
the  belief  in  one  <ii>d  was  of  llie  highest  moral  signiH- 
cance.  The  loss  of  this  faith,  he  taught,  had  exposed 
the  soul  of  man  tu  the  rule  nf  the  dark  powers  of  mate- 


Its 


y  delive 


.niloft- 


pantheism  of  the  Stoics,  Tatian  defended  the  supermun- 
dane spirituality  of  the  one  Uod.  the  Creator  and  First 
Cause  of  all  things,  in  whom,  as  iheGieat  Source  of  be- 
ing, all  things,  including  matter,  potentially  existed  at 
the  Unit.    At  the  beginning  the  Logos  sprang  into  be- 

producfl  the  world,  himself  creating  the  material.  The 
created  universe  is  everywhere  pervaded  by  tbe  spirit 
of  material  life,  which  is  inrerior  to  the  Divine  Spirit- 
being  in  man  the  soul,  which  it  iiHtisaolubly  connected 
with  the  body,  and  in  the  world  the  world-soul  {xrivfia 
iiXicoc).  Human  nature  in  its  pure  state  is,  hoMcver, 
privileged  tn  a  substantial  and  intimate  union  {mitvyia) 
with  the  perfect  naiure,  Ihe  Spirit  of  (iod  hiinself. 
This  throws  a  slgniAcant  light  upon  Tatian's  conception 
of  tbe  Trinity.  He  teaches  that  as  the  Fat  her  is  (in  h» 
eieence)  Spirit,  »o  the  Logos  proceeiling  from  the  Father 
is  Spirit;  and  the  latter,  that  he  miicbt  imitate  the  Fa- 
ther, has  made  man  in  the  image  uf  immortality,  to  the 
end  that  man  might  have  part  in  Uod  Bnd  attain  to 
immortality.  The  Sinrit  thus  became  the  life-compan- 
ion of  the  soul.  In  this  way  fiod  himself  lives  in  man 
by  his  ministering  Spirit,  by  which  ia  to  be  nnderstoiid 
Mmply  tbe  bypostatized  eScienci'  of  the  Logos.  Tbe 
fall  involved  the  removal  of  the  Divine  Spirit  ftoro  the 
soul,  and  plungeil  the  Utter  deeper  Into  the  condition 
of  [be  merely  hylic,  so  that  hut  faint  sparks  of  the  Spirit 
and  dim  longings  after  <iod  remain.  It  is  possible, 
however,  for  the  soul  to  turn  away  from  evil  and  towards 
(rod  in  the  exercise  of  its  freedom— how,  Tatian  does 
not  cleariy  state.  The  fame  which  Tatian  acquired 
through  his  apology,  from  which  the  foregoing  sketch 
it  principally  taken,  waa  lost  in  consequence  of  his  per- 
version to  Gnoatieisni.  He  went  to  Syria,  it  would 
Bcein,  after  the  dealhof  Justin  (in  ISB?).  'He  is  charged 
with  holding  to  the  existence  of  nous  after  the  fashion 
of  Valentiiius  (q.  v.),  and  similar  spectilatinns;  with  an 
ascetica!  course  of  life,  carried  even  to  the  extent  of 
using  water  instead  of  wine;  with  rejecting  marriage 
as  a  state  of  practical  fornication;  with  promulgating 
Docetic  ideas  respecting  the  person  of  Christ,  etc. — all 
■garded  as  substantially  a  truthful 


He  would  seem,  h 


r  related  to  Satuminus  (q.  v.)  than  loValentinns  in  his 
iews.  The  time  of  Tatian's  death  ia  not  exactly 
nown,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  Ihe  date  of 
lie  work  by  [re^«u^  Adv.  liar,  (c  176).  His  moat 
imou*  work  was  a  hanoony  of  Ihe  Goqieia,the  Dialet- 


TATUNI  EVANGELIUM        2! 

taron,  of  which  the  Juobite  bishop  Bu-Salibi  (ISlh 
ctniunr)  repona  Ihst  Ephnsm  Synis  (tj.  v.)  wrote  ■ 
commetiury  on  it,  and  Tbeudoret  Ibe  geiieilogical  u- 
hla  tad  all  Che  puugn  by  which  Ihe  Liord'a  dencent 
from  David  is  made  apparenl.  The  Oralio  ad  Gnee. 
wae  fini  publithMl  at  Tigur.  1640,  fol^  and  aa«rwanla 
often.  aetVtnit\,Talia!iat,drr Ainlofff<.(H»lU!,lV37): 
Tdbh\rr,Falrolngw;  KUer,Cneh.d,ciriill.FHliiiopAi/, 
vol.  j ;  Domer,  Ptrioi,  Chriili,  i,  438 ;  Mdller,  Kiamologtr 
d.  !;rirch.  Kircht,  p.  im  iq.;  SlbcM,  Gach.  d.  Phihf.  ia 
d.palnAZfiltp^li6m.;  Huher^ Pliiio*.d^KircAfnrdtrr, 
p.  !0  aq.  1  Duneker,  Apotogd.  Srfimd.  Sat.  dt  EitmtiiiL 
Natvra  Hum.  PaTtOnu  Plaata  (Gou.  1850),  pt.  ii ;  and 
Hcnog,  ReaUEmyklop.  a.  v.  For  moangniphii,  aee  Vol- 
beding.  Index  Programmatvn,  p.  104. 

Tattanl  Bvangelliuii.  Epiphaniua(//<irT(.  xlri, 
I  i  xlvii,  4)  mentioni  ■  Gospel  of  Talian  aa  being  usal  by 
Ibe  Eiieralite*,  and  even  among  the  Catholic  Christiann 
of  Si'ria.  Being  compikd  from  Che  four  gotpehi,  it  is 
■bo'calW  liayytX.  iii  Tiaaapvv  (Theodorel.  //<trn. 
Fab«l.i,iO:  Coll.Atnbrot.Pro<im.m  Lvc,-  Euteb.  Hitl. 
EccL  iv,  20).  Epipbaniiis  enuneonsly  identitteit  it  with 
the  Keangrliam  wc.  Ilibraot  (see  Fabric,  i,  B77).  See 
SemiMh,  TaHam  Dialtttaron,  AnHquiuimum  N.  T. 
ErattgrlioTunt  in  tnwm  Digatorum  Spfdmen  (Brealau, 
1866).  Tatian  is  otherwise  also  censured  la  being  a 
dint;crDU>  cotDpilalot  and  TalaiAeror  Holy  Writ  (Fabric. 
ii,GSB).  The  Btiil  exunt  gospel  hamtanj  (reprinted  in 
CMtodaxoffrnphii  and  fliU.  Palrum,  a.  v.  Tmiiin),  as- 
cribed Id  Tatian  by  Victor  Capuaiiua  in  Pnr/at.  ad  A  m- 

See  Fahticius,  Codex  Ajwcrgphut  K.  T.  i,  3:8;  ii,  510. 
(RP.) 
TatlBilUt*,  followen  of  Tatian  (q.  r.).    See  alao 

EllCItATITKa. 

Tat'nai  (Heb.  TaUm/,  ^JfiN ;  Pen.,  perhaps  gijl  ,- 

Sept.  Hav^avat  T.  r.  Qavaval',Ba^^avat,  etc.;  Vulg, 
Thalhaaaij,  a  Persisn  governor  (nnp,  \.r.paiha)  who 
succeeded  Rchum  in  the  rule  of  Sarnaria,  and  probnldy 


h  of  Jnd 


n  the  ti 


r  Da- 


rius HyalaspiBandZcnibbabel  (F.irav,  S,6: 
B,C.  &20.  Heappesislohavebeena  moiejast  person, 
and  more  friendly  to  the  .Tews,  than  hi*  predecessor. 
An  adverse  report  of  their  proceeditigi  at  Jeniwilem 
reached  him ;  but  he  resolved  to  suspend  his  judgment 
till  lie  had  examined  into  the  matter  on  the  spot.  He 
accordingly  repaired  thilher,  accompanied  by  another 
great  officer,  named  Sheihar-boinai  (q.  v.),  and  their 
collesguea,  and,  finding  that  the  Jews  alleged  the  au- 
to the  supreme  goremment  a  temperate  and  fair  re|wrl, 
founded  on  Ihe  information  he  had  obtained,  suggniing 

of  Cyrus  snd  oilier  matters  should  be  verified  by  refer- 
ence to  the  arrhives  at  Babylon.  Then,  without  one 
wonl  to  inlluence  the  decision  or  to  prejudice  Ihe  claioi 
advanced,  I'aCnni  concludes  with  inllmiling  that  he 
■waits  the  myal  orilera.    This  ofHctal  letter  of  the  Per- 


■lul  iniih,  and  gives  a  very  favorable  idea  of  the  ad- 
ministrative part  of  the  I'ernan  government.  The  re- 
•cript  bcinc  Tavorable  to  the  clsim  of  the  Jews,  whose 
statement  bad  been  verihed  by  the  discovery  of  the 
original  decree  of  Cyrus,  Tatnai  and  hit  colleagues  ip- 
plieil  themselves  with  vigor  to  the  execution  of  tbe 
royal  commands.    See  EzHA. 

Tattam,  Henrt,  a  learned  English  divine,  was  bom 
in  Irelanrl,  Dec  28, 1788;  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Cullece,  Dublin,  and  at  the  universities  of  Gottingen 
and  l.ei'deii,  where  he  received  his  doctorate  in  laws, 
theology,  and  pbilueophv.  He  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England  i  wu' rector  of  St.  Ciithbert's.  Bed- 
Ibid,  iei8-4o :  and  fur  a  portion  of  that  time  was  rector 
llbo  of  Great  Woolsinne,  Duck^  In  1846  he  became 
BTcbdeacoa  of  Bedtord,  and  iti  1849  rector  of  Siamf.ird 


*  TAULER 

Rivers,  Essex.  Re  wa*  afterwanlB  chaplain  in  ordinan 
to  the  queen.  He  died  at  Stamford  Rivera,  J*n.8,1««K 
Travelling  in  the  East,  he  laid  the  foundation  ofauio- 
timite  knowledge  of  Oriental  languages,  and  became 
the  chief  modem  authority  concerning  the  Coptic  Hr 
discovered  at  the  Convent'  of  Nitria,  in  the  N.W.drwn 
of  Egypt,  a  splendid  collection  of  ancient  Syriac  MSS, 
which  be  sei^Ted  for  the  British  Museum.  Ke  b  the 
author  of  Hdpt  W  Dero4ioi,  (Sd  ed.  Lond.  186*.  Iftno) 
—ComprndioBi  Cmmmar  nf  iAt  Eggplian  Lmgtast 
(1828,  Swoy.—IjxvBK  jegnplinrrf-lAiiimH  tx  I'HrrO,, 
lAasua  jfigyptiaea  Monti\nenHt,ttc.(fixof\,  lB3i,3ro): 
—Dvodirim  Prophrlanim  Minoniin  Librat,  in  Lii^a 
jEirsplutra,  vuljo  Copiica  sen  JUempiiiira,  etc.  (Latine 
edidit ;  L»t,et  Copt.  1836,  «to)  ■.^IMfnet  oflki  Vktnk 
k/  KKffUmd  agaimt  thr  A  llacit  k/  a  Homan  CnHolii 
(Lond.  1843, 12mo):— ^e  Aneimt  Coptic  Innon  "flit 
Rook  ofJJ)  Iht  Juil  (transL  into  English  and  riHf.\, 
]^7,8rn}:—Apoito1icalCoiutilutioiu  n  Coptic  (Enfl 
transl.  18<S,  8vo)  ■.—Propkrta  Unjorrt  w  Dialtdo  Lot. 
nua  jKtispHaat  (Oxon.  1862,  2  vols.  8vo).  See  Alii 
bone,  IHci.  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthon,  s.  v. 

Tan  Croas  is  a  cross  formed  like  the  Greek  lettfi 
T  (Tau),and  one  of  tbe  must  ancient  forms.  See  Stafi, 
Pastohal. 

Tauler  (niiginal  form  Taiiireler),  JonixKEa,  the 

Stnuburg  in  A.D.  1290— though  authorities  diSer  with 
respect  lo  both  time  and  place.  He  was  of  hononl<> 
family  and  early  devoted  lo  tbe  priesOy  office.  In 
(about)  1308  he  became  a  monk  and  went  to  ParK  to 
tbe  College  of  St  James,  to  study  tbeolopT.  He  ln.iii.1 
gieater  pleasure  in  the  study  of  the  writings  of  iht 
Arropagile  St.  Bemanl,  and  the  two  Victor*,  aid  nft- 
cially  oi  Augustine,  than  in  tbe  popular  philnoph}-. 
hi*  attention  was  also  given  to  the  Neo-Platonists,  *»l. 
among  schoolmen,  to  Aquinas  with  respect  to  rlhin. 
On  his  return  to  SCrssburg,  Tauler  came  under  the 
influence  of  Master  EckatI,  and  also  of  a  more  simple 
and  praclical  company  of  mysiical  thinkers  among  Ihe 
monk^  including  Nicholas  nf  Slrasburx  and  nihits.  He 
became  a  preacher,  and  associated  himself  with  ilie 
Friends  of  God— a  society  formed  to  teach  and  comfiiit 
the  people  upon  whom  rested  the  ban  of  ihe  Church 
imposed  by  pope  John  XXII ;  and  in  this  society  be 
labored  all  his  life.  His  semions  were  clear  and  adipi- 
ed  to  Ihe  popular  needs,  but  not,  it  would  seem,  at  this 
time  pervaded  by  the  power  nf  a  personal  union  oF  the 
preacher  with  Christ.  In  1340  occurred  an  e<ent  iif 
.lecisive  importance  toTauler.  He  was  then  visiifd  bv 
NichoUs  of  Bask  (i).  v.),  and  by  him  led  In  reaKie  hii 
need  of  a  personal  conversion  to  God.  During  tuD 
yeansin  which  he  refrained  from  preaching  andbetanK 
an  object  of  ridicule  to  his  fellow-monks,  who  were  IIDS- 
ble  lo  understand  Ihe  reason  fur  such  similes  aa  he 
was  passing  through,  did  he  wrestle  wiih  his  sense  nf 
Mn  and  his  need  of  pardon.  Finding  peace  at  lengib. 
he  passed  through  further  discipline  by  reason  ••(  a  iv- 
graceful  failure  in  an  attempt  to  preach  ;  bat  from  thit 
time  he  preached  persistently,  and  with  a  power  n« 
previously  possessed.  Wicked  clei^ymen  were  unable 
loendure  the  faithful  rebukes  with  which  he  visited  Ihtit 
sins,  and  Ihey  prohibited  him  from  preaching;  but  Ihp 
magistracy  |irevenled  Ihe  enforcement  of  their  onler. 
Under  the  preaching  of  Ihe  fimt  sermon  after  bis  ron- 
veraioa  ■  number  of  persons  fell  down  as  dead,  and  hr 
was  besought  to  discontinue  tbe  sennon.  He  was  one 
of  ihe  few  who  refused  to  cease  from  preaching  (o  iho 
people  in  obedience  to  the  papal  intenlicr.  and  braved 
the  anger  of  his  immediate  superiors  in  the  exeontlcn 
of  thai  duly.  In  1348  the  "  black  death"  swept  over 
Siraiburg,  carr;*ing  off  sixteen  thousand  victifnf,  an<l 
adding  to  Ihe  horrors  of  the  niuation.  Only  I'aukr 
and  two  other  monks  had  pity  upon  the  people,  ami 
they  appealeii  in  writings  (whose  drculaiion  was  ■< 
ouce  pndiibitcd)  lo  Ihe  other  clergy  lo  do  what  they 


TATTLER  2! 

ndJ  that  tbe  "  poor  ignorant  populace  aliould  not  Ibus 
dit  Dndei  Uw  ban."  Charlc*  IV  Boon  aft«marda  came 
U  ^mbarg  and  caused  the  thne  monks  Id  be  bnnigbt 
Mon  bim,  and,  after  inquiring  into  their  prlniHplea, 
diamwd  Ifaem  vith  the  admonition  not  to  ^offond 
igiiul  the  ChuTch  and  ita  interdict  agiin."  Tauter  re- 
nnd  10  Cologne,  and  became  preacher  in  [be  nunuerr 
<<S(.tifrtrude,  but  arter  a  tew  yon  returned  to  Sttas- 
(nirg,«heie  he  had  «  lut  interview  with  Nicholm  of 
bijb  He  committed  to  tbe  care  of  tbat  friend  the 
niiiBp  he  wished  to  have  given  to  the  world,  and  died 
Jdm  IS.ISSl.  He  waa  buried  in  his  convent,  and  the 
lUiH  which  coreted  hia  grave  is  preserved  in  the  "  New 
Cborch"  of  Straiburg. 

Tulec')  worlui  consiat  of  aermona.  homilies,  and  an 
Imlalio*  of  the  Life  ofCkrvt  in  ilt  PorrHy.  The  aer- 
nm  are  eitant  in  manuscript  in  several  libraries,  the 
oldeal  MS.  being  a  parcbmeiit  at  Sliaabiirg.  In  printeit 
lata  tbe  fint  ed.  appeared  at  Leipsic,  1498,  in  Ito,  and 
dttmat  Angaburg  (150S,  foL)  and  Basle  (I&21  and  1522, 
loL),  the  latter  bfing  aupeiior  tn  the  farmer.  Of  cnod- 
ncited  ediuons  that  of  Frankfort  (1S2G,  S  pta.  8vo)  is 
boL  The /ini(<i«ono/WriH  also  eiiats  in  different 
MSS.  and  editions,  Che  best  ed.  tieing  that  of  SchlosMi 


iFnakt  U 


l,8voJ. 


imher  ol 


riboud  to  Taoler,  bat  without  authority. 
Tbe  teachings  of  Taoler  are  not  presented  in  bis 
■otks  ia  aj'stematlc  form.  His  aim  waa  practical,  and 
tht  edifying  element  predominates  over  the  speculative 
m  hiatbeokigy.  A*  with  Eckart,  the  speculative  ideas 
mr  be  traced  back  to  tbe  concept  tieiiig — the  absolute, 
liiaplev  uncreated  entity,  which  involves  neither  dis- 
UBOioai  nor  rtlationa,  and  which  no  name  is  adequate 
It  HprcH.  Il  is  the  hidden  Deity,  whose  nature  re- 
ijBta.  however,  revelatioa  and  opcratioiu  Revelation 
il  the  process  of  the  Trinity;  operation,  with  the  Deity, 
il  bigeuing.  Hence  the  Deity  in  operation  becomea 
FnhR,  ta  he  knows  himself,  and  in  that  act  of  knowl- 
pdp  eapKsaes  himself,  the  word  which  he  speaks  being 
'M  Sh.  Between  them  exist  reciprocal  approval  and 
•m-aad  this  love  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  proceeding  from 
>«>ilbe  Father  and  the  Son.  Thia  conceplion  of  the 
Trimly  evidently  involves  a  distinction  of  relations 
rnW  than  of  kgpoiluta  in  the  Godhead.  The  Son  ia 
flenisL  Witb  reference  to  Che  creation,  Tanler  cornea 
ichings  of  pantbeiam  at  times,  but 
cs  the  distinction  between  the  Cre- 

Uv  irschings  of  the  B^haids  and  Brethren  of  the  Free 
'Vra-  Itw  buman  soul  came  forth  from  God,  anil  con- 
t>ia<  a  divine  ipark,  in  which  the  Trinity  ia  reflected. 
oi  vbich  strives  to  return  to  (iod,  while  tbe  senausl 
put  of  man  yearns  for  the  creature  world.  Sin  consiata 
13  ciriog  way  to  the  latter  impnlsf  It  cannot  wholly 
^rnvc  the  soul,  which  is  at  bottom  noble  and  in  har- 
>mv  Kith  tbe  good,  of  its  veaming  for  reunion  witb 

(mi:  t  '     ■'■ 


■iiW.    Bighi 


1  be  recovered  only  through 
>  of  Cbrist.  Meditation  on  the  work 
"A  imitalion  of  the  life,  especially  the  auflerings,  of 
ITiritt  lorm  the  way  by  which  to  return  to  God.  This 
suuiiDa  ahoold  be  outward,  but  also  inward,  tranaform- 
»■  [he  aitire  man.  By  this  way  the  soul  rises  supe- 
i>*  to  all  creature  control;  Goil  enters  in  with  all  his 
^'^nang,  and  supplies  the  place  of  grace  with  his  im- 
Viliala  operation.  As  the  soul  becomes,  in  thia  way, 
'6w  ftom  grace,"  so  it  also  becomes  "  free  from  virtue," 
>- 1  ii  BO  longer  practices  an  isolated  virtue,  but,  with  a 
f»«H  transformed  into  love,  he  pL-rmita  God  to  work  in 
>iB  afl  virtues  aa  the  outflow  lA  that  love.  No  idle 
™»aptation  or  passive  asceticism  Ands  the  approval 
"<  fuler.  but  a  life  of  active  love  and  pity,  of  patience 
^  iMekncM— a  lih  in  the  imitation  oF  Chtitt.  Tan- 
w  4d  Dol  contradict  the  doctrines  of  his  Church,  hut 
''  vaa  animaled  by  an  exalted  reformatory  spirit;  his 
**<ticisin  displayed  a  free,  praetical,  evangelical  ten- 
*<T  which  has  given  it  histoiical  importance ;  and  we 

x.-a 


15  TAWBUTTE 

may  appropriately  retain  for  bim  the  title,  early  be> 
stowed,  of  Dmlor  lUuminatai. 

See  the  preface  to  Tauler's  works;  Btihringer,  Dk 
KirduChrittiu.ihreZtiigm;  Schmidt,  jDiLToufervon 
Slratlmrg!  Noack,  CAruiJicAs  JIfyMit  (I8&3);  Biblioli, 
Sacni,  XV,  253  aq.;  Helh.  Quar.  Km.  1869,  I,  arU  Ui: 
and  Henog,  J{eal-£>ic]iklop.  s.  v.  See  Nicholas  or 
Bablx. 

Tanaan  (or  Tageaei]),  Johan,  a  Danish  Befonner, 
was  bom  at  Kikinde,  island  of  Funen,  1194;  and  was 
eilucated  at  Aarhuus  and  Odense.  Becoming  a  monk, 
he  entered  the  convent  of  tbe  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem at  Antwonkow,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  writings  of  Luther,  He  visited  Wittenberg,  and 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  Melanctbon.  Returning  to 
his  native  country,  he  delivered  lectures  on  theology  in 
the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  lb24  avowed  him- 
self a  disciple  of  Luther.  After  being  expelled  rrooi  one 
convent  and  imprisoned  in  another,  be  was,  in  lfi26,ap- 
poinied  chaplain  to  Frederick  I,  king  of  Denmark;  and 
in  1629  was  appointed  to  the  Church  of  St.  Nicholas  at 
Copenhagen,  where  he  remained  till  IS3T.  He  was  then 
appointed  professor  at  Roeshildp,  and  in  1542  was  made 
bishop  of  Ripen,  and  died  in  1561.  He  published  sev- 
eral theological  treatises,  Borne  Danish  hymns,  and  a 
Danish  translation  of  the  Psalms.  See  Hook,  Ecdtt. 
Biog.  a.  V.  \  Jocher,  Grlehrten-Lrx.  iv,  1030. 

Tav.     See  ALfiiABKr. 

Tavern.     See  Three  TAVER.-n. 

Tavemer,  Richard,  a  learned  and  pious  layman, 
was  bom  at  Brisley,  England,  in  1505.  He  ia  said  to 
have  studied  at  Corpus  Chriati  College,  Cambridge,  wd 
at^Twards  at  Oxford,  and  then  law  in  the  Inner  Tem- 
ple. Having  been  appointed  one  of  the  cleriis  of  the 
signet  in  16S7,  be  held  tbat  office  until  the  reign  of 
queen  Haiy.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  Reformation,  and, 
in  order  tn  promote  it,  undertook  a  tiew  translalioii  or 
edition  of  the  English  Kbie  (Lond.  1539,  foL).  It  was 
dedicated  to  the  king  and  allowed  tn  be  read  in  the 
churches;  but  in  I&45  the  Romish  bishops  committed 
him  to  the  Tower,    tie  was,  however,  soon  released. 

Parliament  in  1545.  Taverner's  edition  of  the  Bible  is 
a  correction  of  what  is  cslled  Hatthewe's  Bible,  many 
of  whose  marginal  notea  arc  adopted,  many  omitted, 
and  others  inserted  by  the  editor.  On  the  accession  of 
king  Edward,  Tavemer,  although  a  layman,  received  a 
special  license  in  1553  to  preach  throughout  the  king's 
dominions,  from  which  he  was  obliged  to  desist  upon  the 
accession  of  queen  Mary.  He  resumed  his  preaching 
when  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne,  and,  besides  receiv- 
ing other  commissions,  was  msde  high  sheriff  of  Oxford 
Oninty  in  1569.  He  died  July  14,  1576.  Besides  his 
Diblc,  we  have  the  following  list  of  his  publications:  The 
Sam  and  Pith  of  CL  /"joiiiUD/jDaMrf,  etc  (Lond,  1639, 
Hvo)  -.—Tht  Epiitia  and  Go^kU,  iHlh  a  Btiif  Poilill, 
etc.  (ibid.  1540,2  pts.  «o)!—f™i(  o/"faW,  eta.  (Ibid. 
1.182,  lamo)  \~Tie  Gardta  of  Wiidomr,  ttc.  (ibid.1539,2 
bka.)  -.—Florei  aliquot  Stnlatlinmm  tx  Vaiii*  Scriplo- 
riiiu  (translated from  Erasmus);— Co(om«Z>M((ei«.«o- 
ralia  (ibid.  1553. 8vo;  1655,4(o):-;b  J/imom  Pablianaia 
Lib.  1  (ibid.  1562)  :-Ciilrci,iin<ut  Fidei:-~Prortrbi,  or 
.1daffM(iM.  I&l5,etc.).  SetNMlea,  /litlory of  Corpiu 
Chriili  CotUtie;  Ward,  Grttham  Pnfeaoni  (Jewcorabe, 
Engliih  Bibiical  Tra/utaliant ;  Chalmers,  fiioj.Wrt.  a.  v. 
.See  AcTilORtEED  Vehstos. 

TaTtlie,  the  Babylonian  name  for  "  the  mother  of 
the  i^Hla,"  thought  to  be  the  same  as  Tihumta  or  Tiha- 


Tavrbutta,  a  talbot  (i.  e.  a  hunting  d< 
ly  used  in  mediaeval  heraldic  devices.  In 
of  church  gooils  at  Easington,  Oxford,  ii 


ingi  "iMm,  ■  VMtriHDt  powdered  with  sun  and  Uw-  ' 

Tairdiy,  >  name  given  to  the  necklace  woni  nf  old 
by  Engluh  peasant  girls,  in  memory  aud  bonor  or  St. ' 
Ethelreda,  or  Awdri',  patroneu  of  the  iliocese  of  Ely, 
who,  after  ibe  had  become  religious,  mouniHl  for  the 
vanity  in  which  she  had  indulged  by  wearing  gold 
necklaces. 

Tax,  Hebrew  (some  form  of  ~T'^,  lo  arrange). 
Taxes  of  some  kind  luust  have  been  coeral  with  the 
origin  of  civiliied  societj-.  The  idea  of  the  one  is  in- 
volved in  that  of  ihe  other,  since  siwiety,  as  every  or-  ' 
ganizalion,  implies  expense,  which  must  be  raised  by 
the  abstraction  of  properly  from  the  itidiviiluals  of  which 
it  consists,  either  by  occasional  or  periodical,  by  self-im- 
posed or  compulsory,  eiaciiona.  In  the  history  of  Is- 
rael, as  of  other  nstions,  the  student  who  ile«rcs  to  form 
a  just  estimate  of  the  social  condition  of  the  people  must 
lake  into  account  the  taxes  which  they  bad  to  pay.  Ac- 
cording as  these  arc  light  or  heavy  may  vary  the  hap- 
piness and  prosperity  of  a  nation.  To  them,  tbouf(h 
lying  in  the  backicronnd  of  history,  may  often  be  traced, 
as  to  the  true  iDotire  power,  many  political  revolutions. 
We  find  a  provision  of  income  made  at  the  very  com- 
mencement of  the  Hoaaic  polity.  Taxe^  like  all  other 
things  in  that  polity,  had  a  religious  origin  and  import. 
While  the  people  were  in  the  migratory  stage  during 
their  marches  through  the  desert,  only  such  incidental 
taxes  were  levied,  or  rather  such  voluntary  contribu- 
tions were  received,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  time  de- 
manded. It  wa>  not  mi  their  establishment  in  Canaan 
that  taxation  assumed  a  regular  and  organized  form. 
We  propose,  therefore,  in  the  following  article  (which 
treats  only  t>(  public  anil  xiated  impoau)  to  consider 
tbe  subject  chrunologicaUy  from  that  point,     Sei 


I.  Uadtr  thtjudgri,  acconiing  to  the  theocratic  gov- 
ernment contempluteil  by  the  law,  the  only  payments 
obligatory  upon  the  people  as  of  permanent  obligation 
were  the  tithes  (q.  v.),  the  flrst-fruita  (q.  v.),  the  redeni|)- 
lion-money  of  the  lirsi-bom  (q.  v.),  and  other  oflerings 
as  belonging  to  special  occasioni.  See  PuiEar.  The 
payment  by  each  Israelite  of  the  half-«hekel  as  "  alone- 
meiit-money"  for  the  serrice  of  the  tabernacle,  on  taking 
the  census  of  the  people  (Exod.  xxx,  13),  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  had  the  character  of  a  recnriing  lax,  but 
rn  have  been  supplementary  lo  the  free-will  offerings  of 
Exod.  XXV,  1-7,  levied  for  the  one  purpose  of  tbe  con- 
struction of  the  sacred  lent.  In  later  times,  indeed,  af- 
ter the  return  from  Ilabylon,  there  was  an  annual  pay- 
ment for  maintaining  the  fabric  and  services  of  the  I'em- 
ple;  but  the  fact  (hat  thia  begins  by  Ihe  voluntary  com- 
pact to  pay  one  third  of  a  shekel  (Neh.  x,  82)  'shows 
that  (ill  then  there  was  no  such  payment  recognised  as 
necessary.  A  little  later  the  (bird  became  a  half,  and 
under  the  lume  of  the  didrachma  (Mat!,  xvii,  24)  was 
paid  by  every  Jew,  in  whatever  part  of  the  worhl  he 
nut!ht  be  living  (Josephus,  AnI.  xviii,!).  1).  From  the 
Talmudical  tract  ShtiaUm  (Mi»hna,ii,  4),  the  lime  nf 
payment  Bp|>ears  to  have  been  between  the  ISth  ami 
tlie  '25th  of  the  month  Adar,  that  is,  in  March.  Alter 
the  destruction  of  (he  Temple,  this  didrachm  waaonler- 
ed  by  Vespasian  to  be  paid  into  the  Capiiol,  "as,"  says 
Joaepbus,  "they  used  to  pay  the  same  to  Ihe  Temple  at 
Jerusalem"  ( K'ar,  vii,  6, 6).  During  Ihe  prosperity  of 
Falestine,  large  sums  were  thus  collecled  in  Rabylon 
and  other  Eastern  cities,  and  were  sent  lo  Jerusalem  un- 
der a  special  escort(Jo»ephus,  .4b/.  loc.  dt.;  Cicero,/'™ 
Flacc.  c.  28).  We  have  no  trace  of  any  further  taxa- 
tion than  this  during  the  period  of  the  judges.  It  was 
notin  itself  heavy:  it  wasligbtened  by  the  feeling  that 
it  was  paid  as  a  relipnns  act.  In  return  for  it  the  peo- 
ple secured  the  celebration  of  their  worship,  and  the 
presence  among  them  of  a  body  of  men  acting  more  or 
Isas  efficiently  as  priests,  Judges,  teachers,  perhaps  also 
as  physicians.    We  cannot  wonder  that  the  people 


6  TAX 

should  alierwarda  look  back  lo  the  gooil  old  days  wbca 
they  bad  been  so  lightly  burdened. 

II.  Under  the  moruiicAy,  its  centralized  govemcmit 
and  greater  magnificence  involved,  of  course,  a  larger 
expenditure,  and  therefore  a  heavier  taxation.  Tha 
may  have  come,  during  the  long  history  of  the  king- 
necessities  of  the  times.  The  chief  burdens  appear  to 
have  been  (1)  a  tithe  of  the  produce  both  of  the  goU 
and  of  live-stock,  making,  together  with  Ibe  eccleaiaUi- 
cal  tithe,  twenty  per  cent,  on  incomes  of  this  nature  (1 
Sam.  viii,  IS,  IT);  (2)  forced  military  service  fur  a 
month  every  year  (ver.  12;  1  Kings  ix,  22;  1  Cbran. 
xxvii,  1) :  (9)  gifts  lo  the  king,  theoredcally  free,  like 
the  old  benevolences  of  English  taxation,  but  expected 

Sam.  X,  27)  or  in  time  of  wit  (comp.  the  giftaof  joae, 
xvi,  30 :  xvii,  18).  In  the  case  of  subject  princes  the 
gifts,  still  made  in  kind— armor,  horses,  gold,  silver,  etc. 
— appear  to  have  been  regnlarlv  assessed  (I  Ripgii, 
2a;  2  Chron.  ix,  24).  Whether  this  was  ever  the  can 
with  the  presents  from  Israelite  subjecla  must  remain 
uncertain.  Besides  the  loregoing,  there  were  (1)  im- 
port duties,  chieHv  on  the  produce  of  the  t/pvse  districts 
of  ArabU  {I  Kings  i,  16) ;  (3)  tbe  monopoly  of  cataii 
branches  of  commerce,  as,  for  example,  (bat  of  gold  (ii, 
28 ;  xxii,  48),  Ane  linen  or  byssus  from  Egypt  (x,  28), 
and  horses  (ver.  29) ;  (6)  the  appropriation  to  the  king's 
use  of  Ihe  early  crof  of  liay  (Amos  vii,  I).  This  may, 
r,  have  been  peculiar  to  Ihe  northern  kingdom. 
'  '  special  emergency  (Ewald,  I'ntpL 
ad  loc.). 

It  is  obvious  that  burdens  such  as  theae,  coming  upoo 
a  people  previously  unaccustomed  to  them,  must  hare 
been  almost  intolerable.  Even  under  Saul  exemption 
from  taxes  ia  looked  on  as  a  sufficient  reward  lor  great 
military  services  (I  Sam  xvii,  2S).  Under  the  outward 
splendor  and  prosperity  of  the  reign  of  Solomon  Uiere 
lay  the  deep  discontent  of  an  overtaxed  people,  and  il 
contributed  largely  to  tl.e  revolution  that  followed.  The 
people  complain,  not  nt  Solomon's  idoUlrv,  Init  of  their 
taxes  (1  Kings  xii,  4).  OfaU  the  hinl;'s  officen  be 
whom  they  bate  muac  is  Aduram,  or  Adotiiram  (q.  v.), 
whnwas-'over  tbe  tribute"  (ver.  18).  At  limes, loo, 
in  the  history  of  both  the  kingdoms,  there  weiespECial 
burdens.  A  tribute  of  fifty  shekels  a  henl  had  u  be 
paid  by  Menaheni  to  the  Assyrian  king  (2  Kings  xv, 
under  his  auccesaor,  Hoahea,  thia  asaumed  tbe 


mofai 


e(xvii.4;ai 


MStri). 


defeat  of  Joeiah  by  Pharaoh-N'echo,  in 
manner,  a  heavy  iticDme-lai  had  to  be  imposed  on  tbe 
kingdom  of  Judah  to  pay  the  tribute  demanded  by 
Egypt  (xiiii,36>,  and  the  change  of  mHters  omie- 
quent  on  the  battle  of  Carchemish  brought  in  thb  le- 
spcct  no  improvement  (Jusephus,  A  nf.  x,  9, 1-3). 

Ill,  Under  Ihe  Ptrtim  mipirr,  the  taxes  paid  by  the 
Jews  were,  in  their  broad  oui  lines,  Ibe  same  in  kind  as 
those  ofuther subject  races.  The  linandal  system  whieb 
gained  tor  Daiiiis  Hyslaqiia  the  lume  of  the  "dup- 
keeper  king"  ( cii tniXof,  Herod,  iii,  89)  involved  the 
payment  by  each  aalrap  of  a  flxed  sum  as  the  tribota 
due  from  his  province  (ibid.),  and  placed  him  arconl- 
ingly  in  the  poeition  of  a  puUicanut,  or  farmer  of  tbe 
revenue,  exposed  to  all  the  temptation  lo  extortion  and 
lyranny  inseparable  from  such  a  system.  Here,  ao 
conlingly,  we  gel  glimpses  of  taxes  uf  many  kinds.  In 
Judna,  as  in  other  provinces,  the  inhmtaiania  had  n 
proi'ide  in  kiiui  for  the  maintenance  uf  the  goveraiir'i 
household  (  comp.  the  case  nf  Themiitocles,  Tbuc>'d.  i, 
138,  and  Herod,  i,  192;  ii.  98),  besides  a  money-paymeDt 
or  forty  shekels  a  day  (Neh,  v,  14,  I&).     In  Eara  iv,  13, 

great  branches  of  the  rvvenne.  1.  The  m^diMl, 
mtoMured  payment,  probably  direct  taxation  (Grotiut). 
2.  "l^S.  the  excise,  or  ocfroi,  on  articles  of  amtsafti" 
(Gesenius,  s.  v.).    S.  ^bn,  probably  the  toll  payable  al 


TAX  2! 

taUgo,  JarAt,  or  cairtiin  ■Utiona  <>n  tbe  high-roid.  The 
inflocDcc  or  Km  Kcuied  for  Hie  whole  et^eauutial  oi- 
6tt,  fniBi  ibc  prieMs  down  (a  tbe  Nelhinini,  in  immii- 
mty  rruRi  all  three  (Uiri  vii,  34):  hut  the  hurdeo 
[iraKd  faeavilj  on  the  great  bodj  of  the  people,  Rnil 
ikij  csiDpUiDed  iHiterly  both  or  IhU  and  of  Ihe  ayya- 
piiin;  or  force;!  tuvioe,  to  which  they  oDil  their  ciille 
nre  litble  (Neh.  ii,  37).  Tbev  were  compellca  lo 
Doflgage  their  Tir.Pfanls  mad  Hekla,  Iwmwiiii;  mom; 

cotlr  dibet  in  money  or  in  kiiid  (v,  1-11)-    ^'ailiiitC 

■iihmcthc  miiigatioo  oTtbe  year  ur  jiiUlee)  of  aeizing 
(he  pemaa  or  the  debton  ktid  ireatiiig  them  aa  davea 
(.«.  5;  comp.  2  Kiog.  1,-,  1).  Taxation  was  lading 
■t  Jtnslem  la  prociaelj  the  ume  erila  as  those  which 
ipputcd  rniiD  like  causn  in  [he  earl;  liinlory  of  Rome. 
To  thu  cu»  may  probably  be  aMriLed  the  incomplele 
piTmnt  of  liihea  or  offerings  at  thii  period  (Neh.  xiii, 
14,  \i:  UtL  ill,  »),  and  the  conseigDeDt  Deceesiry  of  a 
ipKial  puU-tax  oT  the  third  part  of  a  ahekel  (i>r  the  aer- 
lice*  of  the  Temple  (N'eh.  x,  3-2).  What  could  be  done 
lo  miiigmte  the  eril  was  done  by  Nefaemiah,  bnt  the 

nvked  the  govemmeiil  of  the  proTiuce  in  a  Urge  de- 


in  moilcru  ti 


nOrie 

mired  thejr  moat  rerollinft  il- 
ismtioa  ID  ine  hiMory  of  Tuikey  over  Iheae  ume  re- 
gimii  the  aettleil  policy  of  whoM  gorenimefit  has  ever 
baa  to  griod  the  people  hy  the  uimnat  extent  ofexlnr- 
tiaa.  peculation,  and  eepiooage,  in  aU  Ihe  gradn  of  offi- 


IV.  VitdtT  lit  l-Jggplitm  <ind  Syriaa  Ungt  the  taxes 
paid  by  the  Jms  beouneyet  heavier.  The  "brming" 
•yaeoi  of  finance  waa  adopted  in  iia  warM  fonn.  The 
Penaao  gorcnion  bad  been  obliged  lo  pay  a  lixed  aum 
taUD  the  treasury.  Noir  the  taxes  were  put  up  to  aue- 
tioa.  The  motract  sum  fur  thoae  of  Phoenicia,  Judsc, 
lad  Samaria  had  been  eelimated  at  abont  80IKI  talents. 
Aa  uiiacrupuluiis  advetilurer  (e.  p.  Joseph,  under  Ptole- 
my Eoeisete*)  would  bid  double  that  anm,  and  would 
Ibea  1^  iluwn  ID  the  province,  and  by  violence  and  cru- 
tbj.  like  thai  of  TurVish  or  HindD  ciillectors,  sijueeu 
«H  a  large  nurgia  of  prodt  for  bimaelf  (Josepbus,  A  nl, 
xiL4,l-5>. 

L'ndet  the  Syrian  kings  wc  meet  with  an  ingenious 
Twie^  of  taxation.  Direct  tribute  (f  ripoi),  an  excise 
iiMy  on  salt,  crown-taxes  (anipayw,  golden  crowns,  or 
ibcir  ralue,sent  yearly  to  the  king),  one  half  the' prod- 
ace  of  fnnt-nees,  one  third  that  of  com  land,  a  tax  of 
•ume  hind  on  catlle;  Ibese,  as  the  heaviest  burdens,  are 
•MtditaiiooBlT  enumerated  in  the  decrees  of  the  two  De- 
■Bstriuoei  remitting  them  (t  Mac&  x,  29,  30;  xi, 
Ethi  afl.T  Ibis,  however,  the  golden  cmwn  and  sci 
rabceooiinue  lobe  sent  (xiii,  39).     The  proposal  ol 

aTrage  (460  Mlents,  while  Jonathan  [xi,  28]  pays 
obIv),  and  to  pay  150  talents  tnore  for  a  licenie  to  open 
•  rima  ft  Mact  iv,  fl),  gives  ns  a  gtimpae  of  aiMn" 

■«  (ke  prioti  and  other  ministers,  with  the  deduct 
of  aue  third  for  alt  the  residents  in  Jerusalem,  was 
panntly  only  temporary  (Joaephus,  A  nl.  xii,  8,  8). 

T.  Itomam  raxaiion,  in  its  pressure,  if  not  absolutely 
Ikfctier,  was  probably  more  galling,  as  being  more 
•ogh  and  ■yslemalic,  more  clistincfivply  nmarkof  1 
■ee.    The  eaptute  of  Jerusalem  hy  Pnmpeywaa  fo 
••■  nioediately  by  the  impoaitioaofa  tribute,  and 
IB  a  stun  time  the  sum  thus  taken  from  the  resci 
•f  the  CDaDliy  amounted  to  10,000  talents  (Josephus, 
^•(.iir.4.4,5>    ThedecreeaofJuliiisOaariho 
i*aisili  liiirii  desire  to  lighten  tbe  burdens  that  pi 
a^a  tbe  subjetts  of  the  republic     The  tribute  was  not 
tekt  bnned.     It  oas  not  to  be  levied  at  all  in  the  I 
kanc  Tear.    One  fiKirth  only  was  demanded  in  the  i 
■at  Mlirwerf  (itu/.xiT,  10,6,6).     The  people,  stiU 
M  the  gDvemnienC  of  Hyrcatina,  were  thua  protectcil 


TAXATIO 

mat  their  own  mleia.     The  struggle  of  the  repnbli- 
pany  afUr  Ihe  death  of  the  diclalor  brought  fresh 
lena  upon  the  whole  of  Syria,  and  Casnui  levied  not 
than  700  talents  from  Judna  alon&    Under  Htiod, 
night  be  expected  (torn  his  lavish  expenditui«  in 
lie  buildings,  the  tsxaiioii  became  heavier.     Even 
ears  of  famine  a  portion  of  the  pioduce  of  the  aoil 
seized  for  tbe  royal  revenue  (iMiJ.  xv,  9, 1),  and  it 
not  ^11  the  discontent  of  the  people  became  form!. 
dable  that  he  ostentatiously  diminished  this  by  one  third 
(ibiJ.  IV,  10, 4).    It  was  no  wonder  that  when  Hero.1 
wished  to  found  a  new  city  in  Trachonitin,  and  to  at- 
a  population  of  lendents,  ha  found  that  the  mont 
effective  bait  was  to  promise  immunity  from  taxes  (ibid. 
:vli,  2, 1),  or  that  on  his  death  the  people  should  be 
lud  in  their  demands  that  Arehelaus  should  release 
tbein  from  tbeir  burdens,  complaining  specially  of  the 
nly  le\-ied  on  all  sales  {ibid,  xvii,  8,4). 
When  JudsB  became  frirtnally  a  Koman  province,  the 
hole  financial  system  of  the  empire  came  as  a  natural 
jnnequence.    The  taxes  were  systematically  fanned, 
nd   the  publicans  appeared  as  a  new  curse  to  tbe 
country.    See  Publican.    The  portoria  were  levied  at 
harbon,  piers,  and  the  gates  of  cities.    These  were  the 
riXq  of  Malt,  xvii,  24;  Bom.  xiii,  7.    In  addilioD  to 
this,  there  was  the  c^Hrof,  or  poll-tax  (Coif.  D  gives 
twicE^iiXaiov  in  Mark  xii,  15),  paid  by  every  Jew,  and 
looked  upon,  for  that  reason,  as  the  spedal  badge  of  ser- 
vitude.    It  was  about  the  lawfulness  of  this  payuent 
that  Ihe  rabbins  clisputed,  while  they  were  content  to 
acquiesce  in  the  payment  of  the  cuitomB  (Malt,  xxii, 
17;  Marii  xii,  18;  Luke  xx,  20).     It  was  against  this 
apparently  that  Ihe  struggles  of  Judas  of  Galilee  and 
his  followers  were  chiefly  directed  (Josephus,  J nf.  xviii, 
t,  6;  IFtir,  ii,  8, 1).     United  with  this,  as  part  of  Ihe 
aame  system,  there  was  also,  in  all  probability,  a  prop- 
erty-tax of  soma  kind.    Quirinua,  after  the  deposition 
of  Arehelaus,  was  sent  to  Syria  In  complete  Ihe  work — 
begun,  probably,  at  Che  time  of  our  Lord's  birth  — of 
valuing  and  regialering  property,  and  this  would  hardly 
have  been  necessary  for  a  mere  poll-tax.    See  Cybb- 
NIL'S.     The  influence  of  Joazar,  the  high-prieal,  leil  the 
people  generally  (the  followers  of  Judas  and  the  Phari- 
see Sadduc  were  the  only  marked  exceptions)  to  ac- 


tinuol,  and,  under  Tibeiiiis.  they  applied  fur  some  alle- 
viation (Tacitus,  ^im.ii, 42).  In  addition  to  these  gen- 
eral taxes,  the  inbalHlants  of  Jerusalem  were  subjeitt  to 
a  special  house-duly  about  thia  period;  Agrippa,  in  his 
deKire  to  reward  tbe  gnod-wUl  otlhe  people,  remitted  it 
(JiiBcphua,  A  at.  xix,  6,  B). 

It  can  hardly  be  doubled  that  in  this,  as  in  most  oth- 
er cases,  an  oppressive  taxation  tended  greatly  lo  de- 
moralize Ihe  people.  Many  nf  the  most  glsring  fuulla 
<'(  the  Jewish  character  are  distinctly  traceable  to  it. 
The  fierce,  vindictive  cruelty  of  Ihe  Galileans,  the 
Zealots,  the  Sicarii,  was  ila  natural  fruit.  It  was  not 
Ihe  least  striking  proof  that  the  teaching  of  our  lAnI 
and  his  disciples  was  more  than  the  natural  outrush  of 
popular  feeling — that  it  Bought  to  raise  men  to  the  high- 
er region  in  which  all  such  matters  were  regarded  as 
things  indi(rerent-_and,  instead  of  expresung  the  popu- 

the  precept  "Bender  unto  Cssar  the  things  thst  arc 

whom  custom."     8«  Tribute. 

TAX,  CLERicai.    See  Taxes. 

Taxatlo  Ect;LisiAsmcA.  Anciently  Ihe  first-fmits 
nf  all  ecelesiaslical  beneliceswere  paid  to  the  pope.  In- 
nocent IV,  in  1258,  gave  the  same  for  three  yean  lo 
Henry  Itl,  which  oecawoned  a  taxation  made  by  Wal- 
ler, bishop  of  Norwich,  who  was  delegated  lo  the  task 
by  the  |iopc  in  Ihe  fallowing  year.  It  was  sometimes 
called  the  fi'aitcich  Taxation,  and  somelimea  Pope  Inno- 
cmt'i  Valor.     In  1288  Nicholas  IV  granted  the  Icnihi 


TAXES  2! 

to  Edward  I  far  ni.  j'ean  towards  del^jiitig  tba  ex- 
penM  of  an  expedition  to  tbe  Holy  Land;  and  in  Order 

ID  their  collection  a  taxation  by  the  king'a  precept  was 
begun  in  that  year,  and  flnisbsd,  sa  to  the  prorinee  of 
Canterbury,  in  1-291,  and  as  to  York  in  the  following 
yeacj  the  whole  being  luperinlended  by  Jobn,  bishop 
of  WinchcBter,  and  Oliver,  bishop  of  Lincoln.  A  third 
taxation,  entitled  aoca  taxatio,  as  to  some  part  of  the 
province  of  York  was  made  in  1818  by  virtue  of  a  man- 
date directed  by  Edward  II  to  tbe  bishop  of  Carlisle, 
principally  because  the  Scotliah  invasion  had  rendered 
the  border  clergy  unable  to  pay  the  tax.  Pope  Nicho- 
las's taxation  is  an  imporiant  record,  because  all  taxes 
were  regulated  hv  it  until  the  tator  benrficioram  of 
Henty  VIII  was  mmpleted;  and  because  the  statutes 
of  colleges  founded  antecedently  lo  the  Rerurmation 
were  interpreted  by  this  criterion,  according  to  which 
(heii  benedccs  under  a  certain  value  were  exempted 
from  tbe  restriction  respecting  pluralitiei  in  the  Sltt 
Henry,  c.  13,  It  was  published  in  1802  by  the  Record 
Commiision,  and  Che  original  rolls  for  many  dioceses  are 
still  picserred  in  the  Exchequer.  In  puisuance  of  an 
act  of  Parliament  of  Henry  VIII,  commiBiioneni  were 
appointed  to  inquire  "  of  and  for  tbe  true  and  jasc  whole 
end  yearly  values  of  all  the  manors,  lands,  IcnemeDts, 
hereditaments,  rents,  tithes,  otTeringa,  emoluments,  and 
i>tbcr  profits,  etc.,  appertaining  to  any  archbishopric, 
bishopric,"  etc  The  result  of  their  iiuiuiries  waa 
the  V'alar  Ecdftiailiciu.  sometimes  called  the  Kiiufi 
Boola.  It  has  been  publishetl  by  the  Record  Commia- 
sioD.  In  1647  PsrlUment  iuued  commiuiona  for  sur- 
veying all  the  Crown  and  Church  lands  in  Englsnd, 
and  copies  of  the  aurveya  returned  were  deposited 
in  most  of  the  cathedrals,  but  the  originals  wen  de- 
tlroyed  in  tbe  great  Gre  of  London.  In  183&  s  report 
of  the  ecdeuasticsl  commissinners  for  England  and 
Wflles  was  laid  on  tbe  table  of  bath  houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, which  contuiued  the  results  of  their  inquiry  into 
the  revenues  of  the  Church  of  England.    See  Flaar- 


Tazes,  Clkrot  Ei 
of  Christian  emperors,  the  clergy  were  exempt  from 
some  of  the  taxes  which  were  laid  upon  lbs  rest  of  the 
Roman  empire.  They  did  not,  however,  claim  this  ex- 
emption aa  a  divine  right,  hut  freely  acknowledged  it 
to  be  owing  to  the  pioua  munilicence  and  favor  of  the 
Christian  princes.  Baronius  does  the  clergy  great  in- 
justice in  pretending  that  they  claimed  a  freeilom  from 
Iiibitle  by  the  law  of  Christ;  and  that  no  emperor 
ever  imposed  any  tax  upon  them  except  only  Julian 
tbe  Apostate,  Volens  the  Arian,  and  the  younger  Val- 
entinisn,  who  was  wholly  under  the  influence  of  his 
mother,  Justina,  an  Arian  empten  (An.  376,  iv,  5SH). 
Bellanoine  asserts  {Di  Clericit,  i,  28)  that  the  exemp- 
tion iif  the  clergy  in  political  matters,  whether  relating 
to  their  persons  or  their  goods,  was  introduced  by  hu- 
man right  only,  and  nut  by  divine.  The  following  is 
a  table  of  the  taxes  levied  in  the  empire  showing  the 
exemptions  of  tbe  clergy : 

1.  Census  CspitQ m (or person altiibnIeV  Clei^  exempted. 
%.  JDgaLlo,Jags.Ca|ilintln.eic.(taioulauda.etc).    Cler- 

S.  Anrom  Tirunicnm,  etc.  [tiilillpreand  horaea  furnished  lo 
the  emperors).  Cicrg;  (ptobably)  exempted  lo  special 


r.  Rond 
ClerK: 


eiemptet 
.  and  Brid 


Clen 


vejthg  c 


r  Uucic,  nud  Dewrlplln  Lacratloram 
(lax  poiu  to  the  curia  of  every  cltjr).  Cterjry  exempt 
under  Jaa^lnlao. 
The  clergy  were  also  exempt  from  all  civil  personal  of- 
Hces:  from  all  sorilid  oiGces  (e. g. building  and  repair- 
ing roads,  etc.),  both  predial  and  personal;  and  from  all 
curial  or  municipal  offices.     In  order  xu  cheek  the  prac- 


8  TAXING 

tiee  of  rich  men  seeking  lo  avoid  taxes  by  taking  «- 
ders,  Coiistantine  made  a  law  that  no  rich  plebeian  who 
was  qualified  by  his  estate  to  serve  m  curia  and  besr 
civil  offices  in  any  city  should  become  an  eccledaMic. 
The  laws  respecting  exemption  of  the  clergy  were  fre- 


uenUy  cl 


>e  above 


See  Ilingham,CArwt.<lfirif.  bk.  v.ch.iil. 

Tazliig  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V.,  of  a  Greek 
word,  which  occurs  in  two  passages,  qiiira7pafq(Vglg. 
dtKiiptio,  Luke  ii.  S;  pnftuio.  Acts  v,87}.  Tbe  cog- 
nate verb  iiraypa^aStu  in  like  manner  is  rendered  b^ 
"In  be  taxed"  in  the  A. V.,  while  the  Vulg.  emplori 

"ut  proQierentur  singuli"  in  vcr.3.  In  Heb.  xiii,  !9 
(irpuTDraiuii'  RiroyFfpnfifiiirkiv  iv  ol)paviat\  where 
the  idea  is  that  of  the  registration  of  the  first-biini  ai 
citizens  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the  A.V.  has  sim- 
ply "written,"  the  Vulg."qui  conscripii  sunt-"  lioth 
tbe  Latin  words  used  in  the  two  passages  Srat  cited 
above  are  found  in  clasHcal  wrilen  with  the  meaniDg 
of  a  regiatralinn  or  furmal  return  of  populaUon  or  prop- 
erty (Cicero,  Kerr,  ii,  8,  47;  JMOJT-UT;  Suetun.  riirr. 
80).  The  i::iglish  word  coqveya  lo  ua  more  distinctly 
the  notion  of  a  tax  or  tribute  actuidly  levied,  but  it  ap- 
pears Co  hare  been  used  in  the  16lb  century  for  tbe 
simple  nasesameiK  of  ■  subsidy  upon  the  pnqieny  of  a 
given  county  (Bacon,  ffnujr  V7/,  p.67),or  the  registra- 
tion of  the  people  for  the  purpose  of  a  poll-tax  (Csm- 
den,  f/iil.  of  aizabtlh).  This  may  account  for  Ike 
choice  of  the  word  by  Tyndale  in  lieu  of  "  description" 
and  "profeaaton,"  which  Wyditfe,  following  the  Val^ 
had  pven.  Since  then  "taxing"  has  kept  ill  ground 
in  most  English  veraions  with  the  exception  of  "  trib- 
ute" in  the  Geneva,  and  "enrolment"  in  the  Xhemiih 
of  Acu  v,a7.  The  word  diroypntij  by  itaelf  leaves  the 
question  undetermined  whether  the  relunu  msde  wen 
of  popidatioQ  or  property.  Josephus,  using  the  woida 
q  dwonyqaic  rwv  oinnuv  (^Ant.  xviii,  1,  t)  as  aa 
equivalent,  ahows  that  "tie  taxing"  of  which  (iama- 
liel  speaks  included  both.  That  connected  with  tbe 
Nativity,  tbe  tirst  step  towards  the  complete  statisti- 
cal returns,  was  probably  limited  to  tbe  former  (Gres- 
well,  Uarmumj,  i,  &12).  In  either  case  "census"  wodM 
have  seemed  the  most  natural  l4tin  equivaleut;  but 
in  the  Greek  of  Che  New  Test.,  and  cherefore  probably 
in  the  familiar  Latin  of  the  period,  as  ofterwaidi  in 
the  Vulg..  that  word  slides  off  ii>lo  the  sense  of  the 
tribute  actuallv  paid  (Malt,  xxii,  17;  xvii,  !4).  See 
Cknsus. 


■aid  to  have 

Augustus  that  "all  the  world  (i.  e.  the  Koman  empiR) 
should  be  taxed"  (dwoypd^oSoi  nairav  rqc  oUmfiir 
iiiv)  (Luke  ii,  1),  and  is  connected  by  the  evangdist 
with  the  name  of  Cyrenius,  or  Qnirinua.  Tbe  secooil, 
and  more  important  (q  airaYiiafli,  Acta  v,  37),  is  le- 
ferred  lo  in  Che  report  of  Gamaliel's  speech,  and  is  there 
distinctly  wunciated,  in  point  of  time,  with  the  revolt 
of  Judas  of  Galilee.  The  account  of  Josephus  (<!■(■ 
xviii,  1, 1 ;  War.  ii,  8. 1)  brings  together  the  two  naUMS 
which  Luke  keeps  distinct,  with  an  interval  of  serenl 
years  between  Chem.  Cyrenius  cornea  as  govenor  of 
Syria  after  the  deposition  of  Archelaus,  accompanied 
by  Oiponius  as  procurator  of  Judea.  He  is  sent  to 
make  an  assessment  of  the  value  of  property  in  Sriia 
(no  intimation  being  given  of  its  exteiiaion  to  tbe 
oirov/iii^),  and  it  is  thia  which  rouses  Judas  and  hii 
foUowera  to  their  rebellion.  The  chronological  ques- 
tions jiresented  by  these  apparent  discrepancies  hare 
been  discussed,  so  br  aa  they  are  connected  wiili  tbe 
name  of  Iho  governor  of  Syria,  under  CrBSMVi,  An 
account  of  the  tumults  caused  by  the  taxing  will  be 
found  under  Judas  of  Gaui.ek. 

There  arc,  however,  some  other  quesllona  connected 
with  the  MHtpment  of  Luke  ii,  l-S,  which  call  for  some 
notice.     The  truth  of  the  statement  has  been  que*' 


TAXING 

Inmd  it  Stnutt  (_Ldfn  Jaa,  i,  28)  and  Dc  Wette 
l(:'oaiuiif.  td  loc),  and  othere,  who  coDcludF,  rrom 
ma  cbjpcciooi,  that  chia  staWmint  belonea  to  lpg( 
M  FO  bbiory ;  ttiat  it  was  ■  conlriTance,  more  or 
ui^iiiui,u>  ■ccDuiit  fuT  tha  bklh  al  Bcthlebem  (Ihit 
brin;  uBiiDeil  in  popular  traditinti  a>  a  precoiiceii 
LKOXiy  Tor  the  Meniih)  or  one  whnte  kindred  liv 
ind  alio  hiouelf  had  grown  up  at  Nazareth ;   tl 
tin  wbole  narrative  u{  cbe  infamr  of  our  Lord, 
lakt't  (nnpel,  is  lo  be  looked  upoii  a*  mythical     W« 
mnicuhH  theae  objectioiii,  and  under  each  we  pre- 
Mil,  within  brief  limila,whal  appean  to  m  a  uifficieiil 

1.  The  roremoM  ground  of  ol^ection  is  that  neitbei 
Jwpbui  nor  any  olber  mntemporar]'  writer  roentioni 
laauieilendlng  over  tbe  whole  empire  at  this  pcrincl 
(A.LrX  TJO).     An  edict  like  thia,  cauung  a  general 

la  wtieh.  fur  anrne  reaaon  or  other,  they 

rtgiiUird,  moK,  it  ia  uiil,  have  Iwen  a  conapicuoua 

[ici.  nch  as  uo  hiitorian  would  pan  over. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
tuiiniy  \A  thia  portion  of  the  ivign  of  Augustus  is 
(milt.    Tacitus  b^ns  his  Amalt  with  the  tmper 
ileuh.    Suetoaliu  is  gossiping,  inaccurate,  and  ill' 
natoL    Dion  Cauiua  leaves  a  gap  from  A.U.Q 
10  TS6.  willi  hardly  any  incidents.     Ja»ephus  doea 
pnleaa  lo  giro  a  hUtuiy  of  the  empire,     [t  might  i 
ill  be  [hit  a  general  cenaua,  cir.  A.U.C.  749-750,  shnuUI 
rraUD  unrecorded  by  Ibem.     K  (be  moainre  was 
</ frequent  occurrence,  it  would  be  all  the  more  lil 
ii>  W  pined  over.     The  teatimony  of  a  writer  like 
Lstt,  ubviously  educated  and  well  informe<l,  giving 
■Binj  casual  inUicationsof  astudy  of  chionolojcical  data 
(Lube  1,01  iii;  Acts  xxir,37),and  of  acquaintance  with 
iht  Htfidiaii  family  (Luke  vlii,  S;  xxiU,  8;  Acts  xii, 
'il:  liii.  1}  and  other  oSlcial  people  (ch.  xxiii-xxvi), 
rftigniiing  distinctly  the  later  and  more  conapicuoue 
iicgiH^q,  must  be  admitted  as  fair  presumptive  evi- 

dfece  to  the  csnuary.  How  haiardous  such  an  infer- 
tna  rron  ibe  silence  of  historiana  would  be,  we  may 
judgt  from  the  fact  that  there  was  undoubtedly  a  ge- 
•aumcil  Birtey  of  the  empire  at  some  periud  in  rhe 
ni<pi  of  Auguiuu,  of  which  none  of  the  above  wrilera 
latr  any  notice  (comp.  the  extracts  from  the  Kei  Agra- 
n»  Sniptorea  in  (jrwwell,  HarnoKf,  i,  5B7).  It  has 
(to  srgiied  further  that  the  whole  policy  of  Auguatus 
rsted  «B  a  perpetual  commnnicaliun  to  the  central 
gDvnnment  of  the  statistics  of  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
The  ioscriptioD  on  the  monument  of  Ancyra  (<iruler, 
(Vju  Itucript.  i,  330)  namea  three  general  censuses 
n  k-V-C  7*6.  740.  767  (oomp.  Sueton,  Oft<tr.  r.  !8; 
HmwtO,  HariK.  i,  ^5).  Uion  Casa.  (Iv,  13)  nieiilions 
•MbH  in  Italy  in  A.U.C  757.  Others  in  Gaul  are  ss- 
'^ratd  to  A.U.C.  7^7,741, 767.  Strabo  (vi,  4, 2),  writing 
orij  ia  tbe  reign  lA  Tiberius,  apeaka  of  fua  rwv  ni3' 
«u(  nfi^wv,  aa  if  they  were  common  thinga.  In 
^I'.UiiG.  when  Augustus  offered  to  resign  his  power, 
br  liid  before  the  aenate  a  "  rationaiiom  imperii"  (Sue- 
iHU  (Mar.  c  -28J.     After  his  death,  in  like  manner,  a 

'•D  niBnu  of  the  population,  wealth,  resources  of  all 
utu  of  the  empire,  a  careful  digest  apparently  of  facta 
f-Umnl  durioi;  the  labors  of  many  y eats  (ibid.c.  101; 
I>io]iCB*i.lv,  Tacitus,  ,<nn.i,  11).  It  will  hardly  seem 
aiup  that  ana  of  the  miitine  nfEcJal  stepa  in  this 
(nicMB  >buuld  oi)ly  be  meniioned  by  a  writer  who,  like 
Ukr,  bad  a  apecial  reaauii  for  noticing  IL  A  cenaus, 
niulring  piuperly  -  returns,  and  the    " 


I  then 


iTirjitnfi  wiiuld  hare  little  in  It  to  disturb  men'a 
BiuK  or  force  ilself  upon  a  writer  of  history. 

There  is,  however,  tome  evidence,  more  or  less  cir- 
nsaautial,  in  confinoaiion  of  Luke's  itatement.  (1.) 
TLf  inference  drawn  fnim  the  silence  of  hiatoriana  may 
h  Ifgiiimaielj'  met  by  an  inference  drawn  from  tbe 


l»  TAXING 

silence  of  objectoTB.    It  never  occurred  to  Celsus  or  Lu- 

the  Gospel  hintorv.  In  question  this.  (2.)  A  remarkable 
pi»iage  in  Suiilaa  (a.  v.  'Aroypa^)  mentions  a  census, 
iibviously  differing  from  the  three  of  the  Ancyran  raon- 
uinent,  and  agredng,  in  some  respects,  with  that  of 
Luke.  It  vaa  made  by  Augustus,  not  aa  censor,  but  by 
his  own  imperial  authority  (fdjov  airifii  amip.i(^KSt 
t-'-yixa,  Luke  ii,  I).  The  returns  were  collected  by 
twenty  commisuoners  of  high  rank.  They  includral 
pmperly  aa  well  as  population,  and  extended  over  the 
whole  empire.  (S.)  Tertutlian,  incidentally,  writing 
cnntrovenially,  nut  against  a  heathen, but  ngainat  Mar- 
cioii.  appeals  (o  the  reiiirns  of  the  census  for  Syria  un- 
der SentiiL^  Satiiminua  as  accessible  to  all  who  careil  to 
search  thr">.snd  provinic  the  birth  of  Jesus  in  tbe  city  of 
David  (Titiull.  Ailr.  Mate,  iv,  19).  Whatever  difficul- 
ty llie  diBereinje  of  namea  may  present  [see  Cvrksivs], 
here  is,  at  any  rate,  a  strong  indication  of  the  fact  of  a 

harmony  with  Luke's  narralive.    (4.)  Greswell  (Hnrm. 
i,  476i  iv,  6)  baa  pointed  to 
lioned  by  Joseph  us  in  the  la 
lliererore  coinciding  mth  t 

which  imply  some  special  action  oi  me  noman  govern- 
ment in  Syria,  the  nature  of  which  the  hisiorian  care- 
lessly or  deliberately  suppresses.  When  Herod  attends 
the  council  at  Berylua  there  are  mentioned  aa  present, 
besides  Satumlnus  and  the  procurator,  oi  atpi  ntSiiviov 
■npia^tt,  as  if  the  officer  thus  named  had  come,  ac- 
companied by  other  commissioners,  for  aome  purpose 
which  gave  him  fur  tbe  time  almost  co-onlinaie  iiiAu- 
enca  with  the  governor  of  Syria  himself  (  War,  i,  27,2). 
Just  after  this  again.  Herod,  for  some  unexplained  rea- 
son, found  it  necessary  to  administer  to  the  whole  peo- 
ple an  oath,  not  of  allegiance  (ohimaelf,  butof  gooil-will 
to  the  emperor;  and  this  oath  six  tbousond  of  the 
Pharisees  refused  to  take  ( Josephul,  AnI.  xvii,  'i,  4  \ 
War,  i,  29,  3).  Thia  alalement  impliea,  it  is  urgal, 
some  disturbing  cause  affecting  the  public  tranquillity, 
a  formal  appearance  of  all  citizens  before  the  king's 
officers,  and  lastly,  some  measure  specially  distasteful  to 
the  Pharisees.  The  narrative  of  Luke  o&^ra  an  unde- 
signed explanation  of  these  phenomena. 

S.  Aa  a  farther  objection,  it  is  urged  that  Palestine 
was,  at  Ibis  time,  an  independent  kiiigilom  under  Herod, 
and  therefore  would  not  have  come  under  the  operation 
of  an  imperial  edict. 

This  objection  admits  of  as  satisfactory  an  answer  as 
the  foregoing.  The  sta^silcal  document  already  re- 
ferred to  iticluded  subject  kingdoms  and  allies,  no  less 
than  tbe  provinces  (Sueton.  toe.  dl.y.  If  Auguatus  had 
any  desire  to  know  the  resources  of  Judtes,  the  position 
of  Herod  made  him  neither  willing  nor  able  to  reusu 
From  first  to  last  we  meet  wilh  repeated  instances  of 
subaen'ience^  He  does  not  dare  to  try  or  punish  his 
sons,  but  refers  their  cause  to  the  emperor's  cognizance 
(Josephus.  .4Rf.  xvi,  4,  1 ;  xvii,  6,  8).  He  holds  his 
kingdom  on  condition  of  paying  a  lixed  tribute.  Per- 
mission is  ostentatiously  given  him  to  dispose  of  Ibe 

He  binds  his  people,  as  we  have  seen,  by  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  emperor  (_ibid,  ivii,  i,  4).  The  threat 
of  Augustus  that  he  would  treat  Hemd  no  longer  aa  an 
ally,  but  as  a  subject  (lAici.  xvi,  9,3),  would  be  followed 
naturally  enough  by  some  such  step  as  this,  and  tbe  de- 
sire of  Herod  to  regain  his  favor  would  lead  him  to  ac- 
quiesce in  it. 
3.  Another  abjection  alleged  is  that  if  such  a  meas- 
¥,  involving  tbe  recognition  of  Itoman  sovereignly, 
id  been  attempted  under  Heroii,  it  would  have  roused 
le  same  resistance  as  the  undisputed  census  under 
uirinus  did  at  a  later  period. 

In  reply  to  this,  we  msy  say  that  we  need  not  won- 
der that  the  measure  should  have  been  carried  into  ef- 
fect without  any  papular  outbreak.  It  was  a  return  of 
tbe  population  only,  not  a  valualion  oT  property  j  then 


TAYGETE  2. 

wu  no  iiiiin«dutc  Unation  w  tbe  canaeqacnce.  It 
migbt  iitCtnd  i  fuuly  like  tbe  PbariBMS;  it  wu  not 

tume  the  proguoUication  of  m  coming  clitnge,  anil  uf 
direct  government  by  [he  Kimiaii  einpetur,  we  kmnr 
that  there  wia  ■  Urge  tiiil  iiitlueiitiil  parly  reaJy  la 
welcome  tbat  change  as  the  lieac  thing  that  cuuld  hap- 
pen Tor  its  country  (Joaephiu,  AM.  xvii.ll,!). 


every  m 


li  Mid  tc 


<k  cugtit- 


h  the  rulea  of  ( 
unce  of  the  place 

On  the  other  hand,  tbia  apparent  inconrialency  nf  whit 
Ltike  natntea  is  precisely  what  toighl  be  expected  ud- 

though  Kumaa  in  origin,  was  elTerteil  by  Jewiah  iiiatru- 
mentslity,  and  was  in  haimony,  therefoie,  with  Jewiah 
cuatomB.  The  alleged  practice  ia,  however,  d<«ibtful; 
and  it  has  been  miiiitained  (Huachke,  Utber  ilen  Cmia, 
etc.,  iti  Wiuei,  a.  v."  Schatzung")  that  the  inhabifanis  of 
the  provincca  were,  as  far  a*  poeaible,  regiuercd  in  their 

only  residents.     It  may  be  nnticnl  incidentally  that 


le  jour 


n  Ni; 


Bethlehem  beta  _ 
Judna  were  under  the  a»me  niler, 
lare  been  out  of  the  queation  (si 


time  when  Galilee 

the  Bubject  of  one  prince  would  certainly  nut  be  regis- 
tered as  bekmging  to  atiolber)  after  the  death  of  Herud 
the  Ureau  The  circumauncea  of  the  Nativity  indicate, 
if  tliey  do  not  prove,  that  Joseph  went  there  only  for 
personal  eurolmeut,  not  beciuae  he  was  tbe  possessor  of 
house  at  land. 

leither  in  the  Jewish  nor  the 


6.  It  ii 
Roman  census 


before  the  re; 
This  objeci 


Kould  it  have  been  i 


ry  (ir  the  wife 


;r  biuband  in  atdet  to  ajipeat  personally 


.r(«. 


i/oi-). 


3  IS,  perhaps,  the  moetfnvolouaanJ  vei- 
ls of  aU.  If  Mtiy  were  herself  uf  tbe  hiiiMa  aiid 
lineage  of  David,  there  may  have  been  special  rcasona 
for  her  appearance  at  Bethlehem.  In  any  case,  tbe 
Scripture  nnrtatiire  is  ccnsiaienl  with  ilaelf.  Nothing 
cuiikl  be  mote  natural,  looking  to  the  unsettled  stale  uf 
Faleaiine  at  this  period,  than  thai  Joseph  sliiHiliI  keep 
hisHife  under  his  own  prolecljon  inaleail  of  leaving  her 
by  herself,  in  an  obscure  village,  expoaeil  to  danger  aihI 
reproach,  lu  pruportion  to  the  hupea  he  had  been  taught 
to  cherish  of  Ihe  birth  of  a  Son  uf  David;  in  proportion, 
also,  to  bis  acceptance  of  Ihe  popular  belief  tbst  Ihf 
Christ  was  lo  he  bora  in  the  cily  uf  David  (Hatt.  ij,  S  i 
John  vii,  4'i),  would  be  bis  desire  to  guard  against  the 
accident  uf  birth  in  Ihe  despised  Naiareth  out  of  which 
"nu  good  thing"  could  come  (1,46). 

The  literature  connected  with  this  subject  is,  as  might 
be  expected,  very  eitenaive.  Every  commentary  con- 
tains something  on  ic  Heyer,  Wui^worlh,  and  Alford 
may  be  consulted  as  giving  the  latest  summaries.  A 
very  full  and  exhaustive  disciiBaun  of  all  poinu  con- 
nected with  the  subject  is  given  by  ijpanheim,  Dubia 
Etiing.  ii,  3-9;  and  Kichardua,  lAu.  lii  Cnuu  Avgutli, 
in  Menthen.7■*elOH™J,ii,428-,coI^|l.alaoE1Ucotl,alIi- 
TaygSt6,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of 
Atlas  and  Pleloiie,  mother  of  I,aced:enion  and  Eurotas 
by  Jupiter.  She  became  nne  of  the  I'leimles  after  death. 
Others  affirm  that  she  was  transformed  into  a  cow  by 
Diana,  in  order  to  escape  the  embraces  of  Jupiter.  The 
mountain  Taygetus  was  named  after  her.  See  Smith, 
Diet.  ofCtat.  Biog.  aad  Mstial  s.  v. 

Taylor,  Charles  CaclergymanufibePmiestant 
Episenpa]  ChuTch,died  Feb.!,  IB^.at  Kalamazoo, Mich. 
In  1 841  he  went  to  Michigan  and  took  charge  of  St.  An- 
drew's Church,  Ann  Aibor;  and  in  July,  I8&3,  became 
reclor  oTSl  Lnke's  Church,  Kalamuou,  where  he  labor- 
ed until  Ihe  last.  He  had  frequently  represenled  hin 
diocese  in  the  General  Convention,  and  bad  fat  a  loii|; 


0  TAYLOR 

time  been  a  member  of  tbe  slandini^ 

was  a  faithful  and  eloquent  preacher.     See.4niii.ijiur. 

Church  Rmiew,  1866,  p.  161. 

Taylor,  Cluituiaey,  a  Congregational  miniMfr, 
was  bom  in  Williamstnwn,  Vl.  Feb.  17.  1806.  Afltr 
preliminary  study  at  Hioesburgb,  he  entered  ibe  Uai- 
venity  of  VemHinl,  from  which  be  graduated  in  18S1, 
and  then  studied  tbenh>gy  with  Hev.  Ira  Ingraham,  of 
Brandon.  Jan.  11, 1836,  was  tbe  dale  of  his  ordinslio), 
when  he  was  installed  paslur  at  ChJItenden,  and  n- 
mained  until  IS87.  One  year,  from  1888,  he  preached 
at  James's  Island,  near  Charleston,  S.  C-:  fmm  1839  to 
1841  be  was  acting  pastor  at  Chiitenden.  Vi.  The  two 
years  frillowing  he  wu  wiihnul  charge,  living  at  am 
and  at  another  in  Uilton.  Fran 
Albnrgh.  in  lbs 
latter  year  be  was  teinsulled  at  Chittenden,  where  he 
remained  until  Angust,  1854,  when  he  went  to  Langdon, 
N.  H.,  and  served  there  *b  acting  paslor  for  two  yesis. 
Then  be  became  a  home  missionary  at  Algous,  Koasotb 
Co.,  la,  beginning  his  ministrv  there  in  ieS6,  galheriog 
a  Church  in  ISA8.  and  being  insulleil  in  1867.  After 
sen'ing  this  cDngregation  until  July,  187B,  he  was  dis- 
missed, and  never  resumed  the  care  of  a  parish.  He 
died  there  Feb.  £9,  1876.  See  Coag.  Quor.  At.  181;, 
P.4M, 

Tajrloi,  ComelluB  H^  D.D.,  a  Preshyleriao  min- 
ister, was  bum  in  18S1.  Soon  after  tbe  oompleiion  of  his 
theological  studies  be  became  paslor  of  the  Charch  of 
Huron,  O.  From  thence  he  removed  to  Illinois, snd  was 
ioslalled  paslor  uf  Ihe  Church  at  Alton,  where  he  labor- 
ed ten  years.  In  1868  he  received  a  call  from  Ibe  Thin) 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Gncinnati,  O.  He  was  a  lead- 
ing man  in  Ibe  Church  in  all  places  where  he  libond. 
He  died  at  Cincinnati,  Feb.  !G,  1875.  See  Pntbylaiiii, 
March  18, 1876.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Taylor.  David,  one  of  Wesley's  early  helper^  be- 
gan to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Cheshire  and  Deibyiliire 
about  the  time  that  Wesley  began  his  public  laben. 
Many  were  saved  through  hn  instrumenialiiy,  aainig 
whom  was  John  Bennett.  He  lived  for  a  tiaie  ia  tbs 
family  of  lady  Huntingdon  <q.  v.).  On  one  accaBou 
be  was  waylaid,  with  Charles  Wesley,  and  sevntly 
wounded.  He  evenlually  erred  with  respect  to  nar- 
riage,  not  submitUng  to  tbe  mode  prescribed  by  law, 
atvd  bis  usefulness  became  neutraliied  thereby.  Be 
united  with  the  Matavians.  but  Mum  left  them  and  at- 
tended tbe  meetings  of  Ihe  Quakers.  He  afterwitd* 
returned  tn  his  uld  friends  the  Methodists, and  alienpl- 
eil  10  preach  unce  more;  ''bul,alaa!''  saysAlaiorr,  "hb 
gifts  were  gone."  He  died,  in  obscutiiy,  about  I7W. 
See  Almore,  Mtli.  Mraorial,  s.  v.;  Smith,  Uiti.  Viai 
Utflmlam,  i,  IBS,  191-196,201. 

Taylor,  Edirarcl,  a  Cougregalional  miniiur,wat 
bom  (according  to  president  Stiles)  at  Coventry.  Eng- 
land, in  164S,  and  received  an  excellent  ednealiiHi  ia 
his  native  oountiy.  Upon  Ibe  restoration  of  Chsrlrt. 
he  resolved  not  to  conform,  and  sailed  for  the  United 
Slates  April  £2, 1668,  arriving  at  Boston  July  6.  On 
July  S8  he  entered  Cambridge  llniversiiy,  from  which 
he  grndnaled  in  1671.  Invited  to  preach  at  WtstSeU, 
heconsented.andarrivedthereDccS.  1671.  Tfaepsa- 
ciiy  of  pupiilaiiun  and  the  insecnrily  of  person  and 
pniperlv  delayed  for  a  long  lime  tbe  foraatioa  of  i 
Church  j  but  this  waa  doire  Aug.  £7, 1879, 0.  %,  and  Mr. 
Tavkir  was  ordained  as  its  paslor.  He  eontinaed  to 
hibiT  here  snlil  his  death,  June  S9, 17S9.  He  kit  in 
manuscript,  A  Commailary  m  lie  four  Gmpfb,  theo- 
logical treatises,  sermon^  and  poems,  none  of  whicb 
have  l>eeii  published.  See  Sprague,  A  mab  a/lkr  A  ma 
Ptlpii,  i,  177. 

Taylor,  EIIImmi.  ■  Meihodist  Episct^  miniutr, 
waa  bum  in  South  Carolina,  Feb.  19, 1788.  He  first  le- 
ceived  license  lo  exhori.  and  afterwaids,  April  13. 1^16, 
tu  preach.    Soon  alter  this  he  joined  the  uavdling  m» 


H<  dinl  in  1SS6.  Hr.  Taylor  pouenetl  excetltnt  ul- 
sti,  nu  unifurnity  accepublr,  incl  gmlly  belor«d  bj 
ibe  tindi  of  Iruc  TtUf^ioD.  Se«  jfinuttt  iff  AtaatdL 
fonfenn.,  i.  Ml. 

Tijlar,  Baaklel  Dnoton,  b  Congregitioiial  miii- 
ii((f,iiabaminBriatol,Vt.^Juiie2,l817~Lhe  vouDg- 
M  of  (tn  brothcn,  all  ninistera.  Hi>  m\y  eduuCioo 
nmxiveil  »t  Si,  Lswtface  tLoAtmy,  Powd«m,  N.Y„ 
ud  VeUTn  Rracrve  'rochet's  Seminary.  Afier  Irar- 
io{  ihi  luui  iitililulinii  he  becime  priiiciptl  t>f  Shaw 
.lodtmy,  Euclid,  O.,  iiid  remiined  in  that  poMCion  un- 
til lit  began  the  >tudy  uf  IbeoUigy,  which  he  prosecuteil 
udo  the  ilirettion  of  the  Grind  Kirer  l*re»tywry  and 
mih  bii  brother  Chiuncey.  From  Jan.  1,  \Uh,  lu  1817, 
In  ■>  icting  putor  at  De  Itiiyler,  M.  Y. ;  and  aftf r 
m  ftai'i  labor  <•»  ordained  at  Weat  Slockhnlm,  Dec 
^.  IMi,  wbne  be  remained  ihm  yurs,  nnlil  1850,  at 


bich  lioit  he  wai  illamisged.    Hii  m 


field  w 


TI'mdMi  and  De  Peyslei  ai  aclin;;  paMor,  at  which 
plwaliepreached  one  year  (liom  iseo  lo  1851);  then 
II  Ougrio  Filt^  O.,  four  yean,  until  1855.  At  Claren- 
lion  ht  preached  eighteen  yean,  until  1878,  Trom  which 
lioK  Hinxuiiely,  unlil  bta  death,  he  aerred  at  South 
."inhuiy,  farkmao,  and  Troy.  He  died  at  bia  home 
iaTn?.  D«.  W,  1878.      (W.  P.  &) 

Tarloi.  Fltcb  ^V.,  a  cler^man  of  the  ProteiUDt 
Epiwfial  Cburch,  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  July  24, 
)»6iignl  liiiy-twa  year*.  He  waa  the  oldeat  chap- 
kio  u  ihe  United  Stales  Navy,  anil  aerved  under  com- 
■udonRmt  in  liia  expedition  againit  the  Halayi;  waa 
10  ilK  Kciicau  War ;  and  waa  chaplain  of  the  fl'ag-ahip 
-Rirtbrd,'  io  command  of  admiral  FarraKut,  during 
iht  KcMlisn.  See  Aiiter.  Qiiar.  Ckarch  Stviea,  Oct. 
IMii,  p.  199. 

Tlflor,  Hcnly,  an  Engrwh  Baptist  and  Melhoditt 
■uaiHcr.  waa  bom  aC  Uosaendale,  Lsneaihire.  and  began 
loprtich,ina  toc&l  capacity,  in  the  Methodiac  connec- 
nni  at  aa  rarly  period  of  hia  life.  He  soon  after  united 
•nh  Uw  ClaaHominuniun  Baptiali>,and  waa  for  aeveral 
.mn  a  reipectable  minister  in  that  (Jhurcb,  and  a  pas- 
tvi/aaoagrtgaCioD  in  Binningham.  In  IT88  he  of- 
(end  liinMir  to  ibe  Hethodiat  Conference,  was  accepted, 
ml  appointed  to  Liverpool.  He  waa  a  popular  preach- 
fLc^Kially  in  Sheffield,  in  1796,  where  several 


its:. 


ibich  re&ected  opon 


I  light,  in 
moral  conduct,  ha  was 
ing  until  the  next  Con- 
(mice.  He  reurtd  to  Liverpoiil,  and  was  sent,  before 
ikt  Coofefen™  met,  by  an  owner  of  poaaeaaiona  in  the 
Wen  Indies  to  teacb  achoDl  on  hia  planlationa.  Taylor 
W«ithe|iaisage«croas,in  1798.  See  Atmore,  J/rtl. 
Jfnwri4a.T.;  Utoilb, HiAe/  IVaL  M^.ii,i9i. 

Tkrlor.IuBC  (1),  a  Dissenting  miniMer,  known 
> 'Taylor  of  Ongar,"  waa  barn  in  London  in  1759,  and 
n>  far  a  time  a  aucceasful  engraver  In  Ibat  city.  He 
mnntd  to  Urenham.  Suffolk,  in  17fl«.  He  was  mln- 
iWr  of  an  Independent  Church  at  Coicbeater,  Eases, 
irx-iaio,  and  of  anoLher  at  Ongar,  Enex.  from  I81I 
wa  bi)  death,  Dec  11,  1BS9.  Beridra  other  works, 
l»  pabliihed,  Boot  o/  Marlfnfor  llie  Fowis  (lamo) : 
-fin^ca  Explamtd  to  a  CUM  (i  Tola,  limo)  -.-Chibfi 
(^  »/  Ckrul  (ISmo) ; — Sttf-cuUitalim  Rtcmrnimdid 
Oiaa:  Doaton.  1820, 12nio>!-7^  GhtT,ofZim:-tni 
tlm  Bogle  Sermon*.  For  a  fuller  Uit  of  publications, 
»  AlEboiM,  Ditt.  o/Brit.  and  A  mrr.  A  ulhon,  p.  v. 

larlor.  Isaac  (3),  LI.D.,  a  CbriitUn  philompher, 
>Blani  at  Lavenham,  SofTolk,  Aug.  17, 1787.  He  was 
'"ftti  by  his  father  for  an  artist,  began  to  atudy  for 
■  Dimting  mloiater,  but  became  a  member  of  the 
KaablidKd  Churrh  and  aeltled  down  at  Stanford  Rlv< 
"■  ■  a  literary  reduse.  In  186!  he  receiTed  a  civll- 
"iv*  penano  of  one  hundred  poimda  for  bia  sen-icei 
k  Innsture  in  the  departOKnta  of  hiatory  and  philna- 
td.'-    illdiedMbUhoclir.StaDfoitl  Birers,  June38, 


1  TAYLOR 

1865.  He  published,  among  other  worka,  Eltmadt  of 
nought  (Loud,  1823,  8vo;  N.  Y.  1851,  12mo;  llth  ed. 
1867, 8vo) ;—  Tkt  Procra  of  Hitloiical  Proif  ExtmpU- 
JledimdExplaiiied(\bid.]eiB,BTo;  1969,8vo)  :—Batamv 
afO-iminalits.  or  Mental  frror  Compartd  milk  Impiorat 
Coiubicl(,ihii.lS2S,l2ma):—!faturalHutOTyBfEnlhiai- 
atm  (ibid.  1829, 8vo ;  Boston,  ISSO,  13mo;  lOlh  ed.  Lond. 
l8ib,8TO):—Nai!i{odflBfCliriUianiriaiotuiih\d.l»a. 
8vo;  new  ed.  1866,8^0):— /-uaad'einn  (ibid.  1888, Bvo. 
N.  Y.  1884, 12nio ;  1866.  fp.  8vo) :— SpiViruirl  Dttpalim 
(ibid.  1835,  8to;  2d  ed.  1835,8ro:  N.  V.  1835,  l^ma)l— 
/'JSJricoJ7■*»^yo/^nDMf^/,i/■e(LoBd.I886,!2molN.y, 
1836,  1852, 1853,  1866,  I2mo)  :-//(mu  EducaHon  fibid. 
1838,  fp.  8™i  7tb  ed,  1867,  8vo;  ad  Am.ed.  N.V.  IB38, 
iGmo):—AnciailCkrUliat»U3,ondlhtDoelTviaofUuOx' 
ford  Tract*  for  Iht  Timii  (ibid.  1839-40,  in  eight  8ni 
parM;  4th  ed. with  supp.  and  indexes,  1844,3  rt^Svo): 
— tfan  Ik^ioaiibU  for  Au  Oupotiliont,  etc.,  a  lecture 
(ibid.  IS40, 8vo);— £^c^  and  Jtrmtitm  n  iTi  Radimrntt 
(Lond.  1849, 1850, 18G3,  8to  ;  K.  Y.  1819, 1861,  ISmo)  :— 
WtiUy  and  Mukodum  (Lond.  1B51,  1863,  1865,  8vo; 
N.Y.  1862,12mo):— T-Aa  RutoraHon  if  Bilirf  (^lonA. 
1855,8TOiPhill.1856,  t3mo;Camb.t8&4,8va):— /x:^M 
Tifologg,  and  other  eaaayi  (Lond.  1859,  fp.  Svo;  with  a 
■ketch  of  author's  life  and  catalogue  ofhis  writing*,  N.Y. 
1860, 1 2mo) :—  r*(  tifti  rjs  Ditd  (*e  Diitnlfrt  (Lond.  1860, 
8TO):-rA<Spiri(o/?A(//rfr™/'«/rj((ibid.l8fll;N.Y. 
1861,  8Fa;  1862,  8ta) :— Coiuidiratioai  on  lie  Fenla- 
Ituch,  etc.  (ibid.  1863,  Svo).  See  Allibone,  Diet.  ofBrH. 
and  A  mrr.  .4  ulht/rtj  s.  V. ;  Charnbrrr't  Encydop.  a.  t. 

Taylor,  JbxdBB  A.,  a  Uethudiat  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, waa  received  on  trial  in  the  Ohio  Omfereuce  in 
1347,Bnd  appointed  to  Goshen  Orcuit;  in  l848,toMad- 
isonville ;  in  1850,  to  (jallipolia  Circuit ;  and  in  1851,  ta 
Jackaon,  which  waa  bia  last  appointment.  He  died 
Aug.  10,  18d1.  He  waa  a  young  man  of  undoubted  pi- 
ety, goiid  mind,  and  remarkable  zeaL    See  MvaUti  of 

Taylor,  Jamsa  Bralnerd,  a  young  Congrega- 
tional minister  of  ardent  piety  and  great  promise,  was 
honi  at  Middle  Haddam,  Conn.,  April  15,  1801.  His 
parenta  being  memben  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  ha  waa  trained  up  in  religious  aasociationa,  and 
while  clerk  in  a  store  in  New  York  city  was  convened, 
and  joined  the  Church  of  Dr.  Romeyn.  He  early  be- 
came useful  in  all  Christian  activities.  The  departure 
of  Dr.  Scudder  for  India  turned  his  attention  10  Ibe 
ministry,  and  after  a  preparatory  course  of  two  years  at 
Idwrenceville  Academy,  N.  J.,  he  went  to  Princeton 
College  as  a  sophomore  in  1823.  On  his  graduation  in 
182G,  be  entered  the  Yale  Theological  Seminary,  but  he 
soon  bad  symptoms  of  Inng-diseaee,  which  compelled 
him  to  aeek  relief  in  a  tour  through  the  South.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  bv  the  Hiddleaei  Convocation 
at  Eaat  Haddam,  Oct.  8, 1828,  but  the  state  of  hia  health 
was  such  that  he  reaolred  to  spend  the  winter  at  the 
Theological  Seminary  in  Richmond,  Va.  He  died  there 
Harch  29, 1829,  leaving  a  bright  example  of  the  power 
ofdivine  grace  sitd  the  triumpbof  Cbcistian  hope.  Sea 
hia  Memoir  by  Dr.  Rice  (N.Y.  1SB8). 

Taylor,  Jane,  daughur  of  the  Rev.  Isaac  Tayloi 
of  Ongar,  and  aa  a  writer  for  youth  the  worthy  rival  of 
Mrs.  Barhauld.  waa  bom  Sept.  28, 1783,  in  London,  where 
her  father  then  reaided  in  the  practice  of  his  profession 
aa  an  artist.  Even  from  her  third  and  fourth  year,  in 
connection  with  her  aisler  Anne,  who  was  two  years 
oUler,she  is  said  to  have  compnse'l  little  tales  and  songa, 
which  they  would  sing  togcthpr;  and  Jane  eapecially 
seemed  to  live  in  a  fairy-land  of  her  own  imaginaliim. 
Her  father  removed  to  Colcheaier  in  1796.  There  Jane, 
in  her  Bfteenth  year,  gave  decided  indications  of  per- 
aonal  piety.  She  waa  Ilso  one  of  a  select  society  of 
young  friends  for  the  reading  of  original  essays  and 
the  promotion  of  intellectual  improvement  A  visit  t« 
London  in  1802  Aral  brought  her  before  the  public.  Her 
firat  contribution,  Tkt  Beggar'i  Bog,  appeared  in  the 


TAYLOR 

Minor'!  Pecitt-book  fuc  1804.  It  was  followed  not  Ioiir 
«rter  \iy  [he  two  volumea  o(  Original  Potnafor  Ii\fa«l 
MimU,  ithymn  for  the  Nurterg,  etc,  the  joint  produo 
tioii  or  Jane  and  her  sLslera,  which  quickly  gained  ibe 
ravnr  of  the  public,  were  rcpna(«d  in  America,  and 
traiwlated  inlo  Germiiii.  Few  bookB  have  been  found 
more  agreeable  to  children,  ai  more  uecful  in  the  bimi- 
ness  uf  early  education.  In  1809  the  conltibuled  to 
Tht  AuoriiiU  Miailr/li,  and  soon  after  engaged  with 
faei  !-iBlera  ill  the  more  difficult  talk  of  compoting  Ugmni 
for  Childrm,  This  volume  must  be  pronounced  equal, 
If  not  superior,  buth  iii  merit  and  popularity,  to  Dr. 
Watts'a  Diviat  Songt.  Its  success  called  forth  a  second 
volume  adapted  for  Sunday  ■  schools,  the  contents  of 
which  have  been  incorporated  with  atmoM  every  subse- 
quent collection  for  that  purpose,  and  are  now  continu- 
ally sung  by  millions  of  infant  voices  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  In  1814  she  publinhcd  Ditplay,  and  in 
1816  her  Eaayi  in  /Uymc  on  Morali  and  J/oHMn,  which 
gained  her  a  large  increase  of  well-merited  reputation. 
Her  CoalribulioninJ'li.Q.Ui  the  Yourh'i  Magaziae  were 
among  her  last  and  best  lileraty  efforts.  They  have 
unce  been  reptibliahed  in  two  vols.  1-imo.  She  died  at 
Ongar.  April  13,  1R34,  conllding,  calm,  and  happy  in  the 
Lord.     See  Metaoirt  and  Remiint,  by  her  brother. 

Taylor,  Jereio;,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Anglican 
diviue,  was  bom  at  Cambridge  in  IBIS.  He  entered 
as  ■  sixar  in  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in  1620,  and 
became  chaplain  to  archbishop  taud  and  to  Charlea  I ; 
wasmidefellowof  A11-SuuIb' College,  Uxfurd,  in  1632; 
and  was  reclrir  of  Uppingham,  Itutlanilshice,  I63H;  se- 
questered by  Parliament  in  1642  j  and  after  the  de- 
feat of  the  Koyalists  suffered  frequent  but  short  im- 
prisonments. During  the  flrstyeat  of  the  Froteclorate, 
he  kept  a  school  in  Wales  in  conjunction  with  William 
Nicholson,  and  officiated  as  chaplain  to  the  earl  of 
Carbetrj-  at  Golden  Grove,  Carmarthenshire.  In  1658 
he  sellled  in  Ireland  and  preached  allemalety  at  Lisbiim 
and  I'ortmore.  He  returned  to  London  in  the  spring 
of  1660,  and  signed  the  loyal  Dedaralioa  qfihe  Xabili- 
tg  and  Grnlrs  April  S4,  thirty-five  days  before  the  Kes- 
toration.  lie  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Down  and  Con- 
oor  in  January,  1661,  made  a  member  of  the  Irish  Privy 
Council  in  February,  intrusted  with  the  diocese  of 
Dromort  in  Uarch,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
vice-chancellor  of  the  Univeriily  of  Dublin.  He  died 
at  Lisbum,  Aug.  13,  1667,  and  was  interred  in  the  choir 
of  the  cathedral  at  Dromore.  His  ftineral  serman  was 
preacheil  by  his  chaplain.  Dr.  George  Rust,  who  said  of 
him :  "  His  endowmeiKs  were  so  many  and  so  great  as 
really  maile  bim  a  miracle.  He  was  a  rare  humaniK 
and  deeply  versed  in  all  the  polite  arts  of  learning,  and 
thoroughly  Qoncocled  all  the  ancient  moralists,  Ureek 
anil  Itoman  poeis  and  orators.  He  had  the  good-hu- 
mor of  a  gentleman,  the  eloquence  of  an  orator,  the  fan- 
cy of  a  poet,  the  aculeness  of  a  schoolman,  the  pro- 
Ibuiidneis  uf  a  philosopher,  the  wisdom  of  a  chancellor, 
the  sagacity  of  a  prophet,  the  reason 
the  piety  of  a  saint.  He  had  devni 
cloister,  learning  enough  for  a  uii 
enough  for  a  college  of  virfuon."  To  sum  up  all 
attainments,  Thompson  calls  him,  in  bis  Biog.Hiil., 
"Homer  of  divines;"  Hannah  More,  the  "Shahspeare 
of  the  Church;"  earl  Shaftesbury,  the  "Spenser  of  Kng- 
lish  iheulogical  literature."  An  account  of  his  writings 
and  the  various  editions  would  HIl  a  volume.  We  give 
an  outline  of  his  works,  and  simply  the  dni  editions: 
Tht  Saertd  Order  and  Officii  of  Epiicopaeg  (Oxford, 
1642,  4to):  — ^  Ditcouru  concrraing  J'ragtr  (Lend. 
1640, 4to) ;— iVew  and  Eatg  ImlilalioH  of  Grammar  .-— 
Ducaarte  o/Ihe  Liitrlg  of  Prophaying  (1647,  4to):— 
The  Great  Exemplar  of  Saaciiiy  a<id  Holy  Lift  (1649, 
tto)  -.—The  Rale  and  ExtrcM  of  Uolg  Living  (16S0. 
12mo);— ris  HuU  and  Krerdie  ofllolg  Dgmg  (16fil, 
\imo):—A  DiKOVrte  nf  the  Office  Miaiilerial  (Lond. 
1651. 8vo)  ■.—Strmomfor  aU  Sandagi  in  <*e  Year  (ibid. 
1663,  2  vols,  fol.)  ■—Mamal  of  DaUy  Prayert  (165.5, 


t2  TAYLOR 

a  vo)  :—Ooc(r»iB  OBd /■ra«»ce  o/ayosMnre  (limd.  IWS. 
8vo)  -.—PoUaaajl  and  Moral  Diicouria  (1057,  loL):— 
Diicottrtei  i]f  the  Katare,  Qffica,  and  Meaara  of 
FrinaUAip  (1662, 12mo)  -.—Offica  or  Foraa  of  Praia 
{\6bS,9n):-TkeRiiUofCimiaeMt{liia,2v<As.\<A.y. 
—The  WoUhg  Commuaicanl  (1660,  Svo)  :-ftd^  ami 
Adri((tlii  the  Clergg  of  the  Diofoe  of  Dotcn  and  Con- 
nor (Dublin,  IC61,  8vo)  ■—Dittoarit  of  Con/irtalirm 
I  IBGi,  Bvo)  ■.—Diaaaiirei  fnm  Poperg;  addrriied  It 
Ibe  Pi«ph  of  Ireland  (ibid.  pt.  i,  1864,  4to;  pt.  ii,  IW.', 
4to,  some  8vo)  ■.—Canlemplalioni  of  the  Slate  of  Mat 
(1084, 4ln  and  Bvo).  There  have  abn  been  puWiihsl 
■eparatelv,  CAi-urim  Coatolaliont  Taught  from  Jteligiai 
(Horn) -.—Guide  to  £ffnial  liappHtu  (lima) -.—Bqi^ 
tialt  Juttyied,  teilh  Xolei  (y  Dr.  Anderion  (l2mo):— 
Rererrnce  Due  to  Iht  Allar;  Preparation. fo'  the  Saira- 
meat  {limo) -.—Comforlt  of  Pii/g  (12aio):—3liir,iagr 
Ri«g  (Lond.  1B3B,  Himo  ) :  —  WuruMy  luoi  (KMf^ 
lamo):— Crtc;;yF«tr(1867,33mo>:-«efertion>/i™*B 
/>i'<i^r((18Il,8vo):— itnuUirt^ycrnny  7'i>jJar(Laoil. 
\Ui):—Seleclioiu  from  hit  IVrtfiN^  (in  Sparks,  £w'ji 
and  Traelt  in  ThtoUgs,  vol.vi.  No.  II).  There  hirt 
been  numeroua  editions  of  Dr.  Tavkir's  works;  SrM 
IFonb  (1813,6  vols.  8vo,  Longman);  SeUd  Worh-hw 
Bradley  (2  vols.);  Select  Workt,  bv  T.  S.  Hnghc^  D.U. 
(6  l-ols.  8vo) ;  Practical  Waitl,  by  George  Croly,  D.II, 
(a  voLkSvo);  Whole  WarlUjicilh  fjiag  Siograpl>i«il 
and  Critical,  by  Hel1r^*  Rogers  (1835.3  vols.  imp.  8v'U|; 
WMe  H'orla,  by  Bev.  J.  R.  Pitman,  with  lih  of  theaa- 
thor  and  a  critiol  examination  of  his  writings;  Lifeef 
Biihop  Tiiglar.  by  bishop  Heber;  and  alw  Ufi  1^ 
Rev.  J.  Wheeldnn,  in  which  the  piire  spirit  of  his  writ- 
ings  is  exttaclei)  and  exhibited  for  the  general  beni- 
fit.  See  AUiboiie,  Dirl.  of  Brit,  and  Anier.  Aulknn, 
8.V.;  Cbalmer8,«tty.i><rf.B.v.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Taylor,  John  (1),  "the  Water  Poet,"  was  bom  it 
Gloucester,  England,  in  1580,  and  was  educated  tt  a 
free  school  in  that  town.  He  went  to  London,  where 
he  was  apprenticed  tn  a  waterman,  and  followed  this 
occupation  for  the  most  of  his  life;  hence  his  appelli- 
tionoflhe  Water  Poet."  Hewns  also  colkcturoTibF 
wine  fees  for  the  lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  and  keeper  (4 
a  pnblic-house  at  Oxford  and  Wesiminater.  He  dieJ 
in  1654.  His  productions,  in  pioee  and  verve,  nunbR 
about  140,  among  which  we  notice,  Urania,  etc,  triH  o 
Narration  of  the  Thirteen  Sieget  and  Six  Sortitgi  of 
Jeriaalem^tAe,  (1015, 8vo)  -.—Saferhiit  Flag<ittm,orlkt 
Whip  of  Pride  (1021,  Hvn);— .l^iut  Curling  and 
Suearing,  in  prose  and  vetse  (  Worti,  i,  39-5i):— 7*» 
Life  and  Dtalh  of  lit  Mott  Bleued  among  Womn.  lii 
Virgin  Mary,  etc.  (1622,  Bvo) :— l-VrSmH  Sm^nlttmn. 
an  epitome  uT  the  Old  Test,  in  vetae  ( Worki,  pt.  iii) :— 
Salvator  Maadi,  an  epitome  of  the  New  Test,  in  vem 
( with  preceding,  in  1693,  e4mn,  called  The  Tkui-t 
BilAt )  -.-Book  of  Marlyrt  ( 1639.  18mo  )  ( ITorfe,  iiL 
130-141)  ;—r«(!  Ckureh'e  DrUrtrantee.  from  the  veir 
156S  to  1G30,  in  vene  (ITorjti,  iii,  142-146)  i— .4  Smm 
ofSeetariet  and  Sckitmatiqua  (1611,  4io).  For  full 
list  and  description  of  works,  see  AUibcnie,  Did.  ofBiil. 
and  A  mer,  A  ulhort,  a.  v. 

Taylor,  Jobn  (2),D.D.,aleanied  English  Disenitt 
andeducalor.wasbomnear  Uncaster  in  I694,andwi* 
educate.1  at  Whitehaven.  He  setUed  (Irst  at  Kirkite*!. 
Lincolnshire,  where  he  preached  to  a  small  corigngs- 
lion  and  taught  a  grammar^cbool  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  In  1733  be  was  settled  over  a  Pmbyterisn 
Church  at  Norwich,  bnt  in  1757  went  to  Warrington,  in 
Lancashire,  to  superintend  an  academy,  and  died  (here. 
March  5, 1761.  Amnngbispublicatioasare,  TAf  5rn>'- 
nre  Doctrine  uf  Original  Sin  (Lond.  1788  and  later)  ;— 
A  Paraphraie  an  Roman*  (ibid.  1745); — A  Scrifturi 
Catechiim  icilA  Prmfa  (ibid.  1745)  —A  Collertion  of 
Tuntt,  etc.,  vith  a  Bcktmefor  Sapporting  tie  Spirit  ami 
Practice  of  Ptalmodg  (ibid.  1750)  -.—The  SeripiKrr  Ifoe- 
lriHeofAlonrmtiiHl7J3):-A  llebrcK-Englith  Concnri- 
aace  (ilrid.  1754,  2  vols,  fol.)  —The  LonTi  Supper  ij- 


TAYLOR  a; 

fim^^xm  ScriptH  re  PrmdpUi  ( 1 764) :—  TjIc  Cowtiant 
•/OraaaDffina  o//n/a«t  Sapliim  ( 1756}  -.—A  Sktlrh 
^j  Iforal  PUioiipks  (UGO).  tJii  greiloc  vurk  ia  faia 
Htbm  CoKordaacr,  adapted  to  Che  English  Bible,  in 
iliich  nerr  ttord  in  thti  Hebrew  Bible,  with  all  iCa 
lita  ud  BKiiiHcitioni,  is  to  be  fouail.  Hii  Scriplurt 
Dalnmnf  Origami  Sin  called  forth  the  celebrated  an- 
ntrii[Ed«anl>,inhii  tieatinoD  Oiigiaal  Sin,  vhkh, 
whitm  else  mar  be  aaid,  it  wai  not  in  the  power  of 

llu  Somam,  with  nolea,  he  also  Tuuiid  opporCunit;  U> 
bmch  (ntiy  hii  i 


>    illusi 


ikmund'a  Church, 


■xnugnCbcEpiatlt 

TajloT.  Joba  (3),  an  English  diriiie, 
Shmibur}',  and  baptized  at  Sr  '" 
Jont  S,  1701,  and  wa*  educated 
Oitn.  of  Condmer,  at  Si.  Jobn'i  College,  Cambridge, 
■bncbe  look  hb  A.a  in  1727.  He  afleTwardg  became 
bMbftllowand  tutor  of  thit  college,  and  iu  March,  1732, 
wM  ippuimed  librarian,  which  office  he  held  but  a  abort 
liDF,  being,  in  1751,  ippoiDted  registrar  of  the  univer- 
WT.  In  I'-U  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  dioceaa 
rfUiMolB,  and  in  April,  1751,  waa  preferred  to  the  reo- 
iwT of  Lawford,  in  Eaaex;  while  m  Jannary,  17fi8,  he 
bt^ow  atcbdearon  of  Buckingham.  He  was  made 
tvna  reaidenliari  of  SL  Paul's  in  July,  1767,  and  re- 
p»Tnl  10  London,  where  be  resided  until  his  death, 
-Vil  It,  1766. 

Taylor,  John  (4),  a  Revalulionary  patriot  and  pro- 
l(«H  of  natural  philoaophy  and  mathematics  in  Queen's 
roUqR.  He  waa  elected  by  the  trustees  at  their  lir«t 
DHiing  in  1771,  an<l  Kev.  Dr.  Jacobus  Rucseii  Harden- 
ba^  iraa  chosen  as  prtaident.    The  college  went  into 

'•ft  padualed.  When  the  war  broke  out,  these  two 
iilwiiooa  men  Ihrew  themaelveianlently  into  the  cause 
■^  iwkpemleiice.  Prorctsor  Taylor  drilled  the  stiidenls 
1!  1  miburj-  company,  and  tbey  were  quite  expert  in 
ih  «  of  arms.  The  irruption  of  the  British  troops 
•hu  accu|iicd  New  Brumwick  broke  up  the  college, 
.to  alTeniMment  ia  still  e:<tant  thai  the  exerciaes  of 
li*  oilIeRe  would  be  continued  at  a  private  house  at 
it(  litail  ot  Ibe  Rarilan  during  one  of  these  years, 
Silwqutoily  profesMir  Taylor  became  cokiiiel  of  the 
-'if»J(Twy  Stjte  regimeiiti  but  he  continued  to  " 
^iiiR  hi)  professional  duties  for  a  lime.  In  a  leUi 
pmmor  Liringston,  Sept,  25. 1779,  he  qwaks  of  "the 
»xi«tvof  atieiidiiig  the  examinalion  at  the  atudenla; 
udu  ihe  trostees  insist  upon  my  fuimii 
*™u,  I  hope  I  shall  be  discharged  from  the  regiment 
X  lOHi  as  posaible."     Of  bia  subsequent  life  there  ' 


•>!  niaiionthip  In  the  college  are  important  and 
inming  as  ihowing  the  palrioliam  of  both  officers  i 
iidniUDfthe  infant  cutlege.Tand  the  close  connect 
^nco  enlightened  academic  education  and  Ihe  spirit 
"f  ioiteptadince  in  that  period  of  New  Jersey  history. 
^nm^  tboK  whom  Prof.  Taylor  drilled  in  the  com- 
psi.r  of  Undents  Ibe  roost  eminent  was  the  first  grad- 
Mr  nfibe  college.  Simeon  De  Witt,  who  was  Waah- 
"■(Inn's  chief  "geographer  to  the  army,"  or  topograph- 
"al  Mgineer,  as  the  office  is  now  termed.     See  Rrculu- 
*«"»  Cnrrapomimet  of  JV.  J.  p.  177 ;  Hill,  of  Hut- 
JTiCAjt     (IV.J.RT.) 

T17I01,  John  S.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
■Hloni  in  Delaware  County, Fa,,  Aug.  29, 1795;  con- 
'<n«l  March  10.  IH37 ;  admitted  on  trial  in  the  Phila- 
^^i> Coofereiice  in  1833, and  appointed  loMilford Cir- 
liii;  in  1835,  to  Cambridge  Circuit;  in  1 886-37, to  Ac 
•wmOreuii;  ill  1838.  to  Northampton  Circuit;  in  188^ 
<^u)  Snow  Hill  an;uil ;  in  1841-42,  In  Dorchester  Cit- 

j  'x^  in  18(3-48, 10  Mariners' Bethel,  PhiUdelphia;  in 
'^",  aipersannaCed.  He  died  Aug,2l, 1849.  See  .Vtn- 
t'o/.fmw/Con/faic'a,  ir,423. 

I     lar'of'  JoDBtbcn,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 


3  TAYLOR 

Friends,  wis  a  resident  of  Honnt  Pleasant,  in  Ibe  Stale 
of  Ohio.  Ua  was  much  esteemed  by  the  society  of 
which  he  was  a  member.  He  was  seat  as  a  delegate 
to  the  societies  in  England  and  [reUnd  in  the  year  1831. 
During  hisjoumev  he  was  attacked  with  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  and  die<l  al  Kilnock.  near  Carlow,  Ireland, 
June  II,  1831.     See /liiRu<ii  .1/omfar,  I833,p.&7, 

Taylor,  Joseptl,  a  Congregationi]  missionary  to 
India, was  bom  in  17S6;  commenced  his  laboTS  in  India 
in  1812,  laboring  some  time  in  the  Bellary  Miaeion,  and 
removing  Ibence  to  Belgium,  where  he  continued  until 
1.852,  when  he  retired  lo  Bombay.     Here  he  died,  Xov. 

19,  1859.     See  (Loud.)  Cany.  Yenr-book,  I8GI,  p.  iti. 
Taylor,  Toebua.  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epia- 

co|uil  Church,  was  boni  at  Prineelon.  N.  J,,  Feb.  5. 1768. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  cabinet- 
maker, and  continued  in  hia  employ  three  years,  when 
the  death  of  his  mother  awakened  his  mind  to  his  spir- 
itual condition.  After  a  severe  struggle  against  scep- 
ticism,he  entered  fully  into  communion  with  the  Church 
in  1791 1  became  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  was  appoint- 
ed lo  FUndera  Circuit,  K.J.  The  next  year  he  went  to 
New  England,  and  labored  in  the  circiiila  of  Fairfield, 
Midd]etown,(>ranril1e,  and  Trenton,  in  Connecticut.  In 
1797  he  was  transferred  to  Maine,  and  appointed  pre- 
siding elder  of  the  newly  formed  district  in  that  Stale. 
In  1798  he  united  with  his  duties  as  presiding  elder  the 
care  of  ReadDeld  Circuit.  In  1801  Mr.  Taylor  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Boston  District]  in  1803  hewas  retunied 
lothe"Di>trictDfMaine."and  in  1804  was  suiioned  at 
Portland,  Me.  He  located  in  I806.coniinuing  10  preach 
in  I'ortland  and  vicinity,  and  leaching  a  private  schooL 
]n  1824  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  presidential  eleclors 
of  Maine,  and  cast  bis  rote  for  John  Q.Adams.  Fmm 
1826  in  1848  he  confined  his  labors  principally  to  Cum- 
berland, In  the  latter  year  he  re-entered  the  Confer- 
ence, waa  entered  aa  auperannuated,  and  was  appoint- 
ed chaplain  to  the  almshouse,  where  he  attended  10  Ibe 
duties  of  bia  office  lill  June,  1852,  when  he  was  disabled 
by  paralyais.     He  died  at  his  home  in  Portland,  March 

20,  1861.  About  1802  he  was  engaged  in  a  pamphlet 
coiilTOTcny  with  a  Rev.  Mr.  Ward,  a  Congregationnl 
minister  who  attacked  Methudist  doctrines.  "The 
Meihudist  party  waa  entirely  salisded  with  the  result 
of  the  controversy."     See  Zion'.  //eruU,  April  8, 1861. 

Taylor,  Michael  S.,  a  Methodist  Epitcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Scott  County,  Ky.,  Oct.  28,  1798; 
licensed  to  preach  September,  1824,  and  some  time  af- 
lerwanis  received  on  Itial  in  the  Kentiujky  Conferetu^. 
He  travelled  about  four  years  in  the  Kentucky  Confer. 
ence;  was  then  transferred  to  ihe  Illinois  Conference, 
and  ihence  lo  the  Indiana;  was  subaequently  retrana- 
ferred  to  the  Illinois  Conference,  and  appointed  pre- 
siding elder  in  the  Wabash  Dislricl,  where  he  contin- 
ued his  labors  for  four  years.  In  1836  he  waa  appoint- 
ed presiding  elder  of  the  Quiiicv  District.  He  died 
July  20,  IS3S.  In  all  the  relations  of  life  he  was  irre- 
proachable See  Mmala  of  Aatiual  Conftrenca,  1839, 
p,eG1. 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  (I),  an  English  clergyman, 

pointed  pastor  ofa  congregation  at  Salter's  Hall  in  1695. 
He  died  in  1702,  at  the  age  of  about  forty.  He  publish- 
ed, Sermotti  (Lond.  1688, 4to)  i— /^Hrrof  Sermon  (1691. 
4(o)  -.—Fratnalivt  agaUat  IMtm  (1698,  4to)  ■.—Fuae. 
Tal  Stnaon  (1699,  4to) :— i>tBCaur*e  of  Faith  I'u  Jena 
CkrUI,  elfe  (1700,  4lo)  -.—Dr.  WiUiam  Shahck't  Cam 
and  Ltlier  vf  Church  Communion,  elc,  Coniiler fd  (1702 
8vo)  ■.—PraiUcal  Diicourtei  {\7I&,  8va).  See  Allibone, 
Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Autkori,a.v, 

Taylor,  Mathaniel  (2).  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, waa  bom  at  Danbury,  Ck>nn.,  Aug.  27, 1722  (O.  ».). 
He  graduated  at  Yale  (Allege  in  1745,  and  was  ordaineu 
pastor,  June  29.  1748,  at  New  Milford,  Conn.,  where  h( 
remained  until  his  death,  Dec  9, 1800.    For  twenty-six 


TAYLOH 

feara  be  was  one  of  Ihe  Yals  College  bunl  of 
Uii  oolv  publiciliooB  were  iho  occuiDnil  i 
In  1769  he  wa  chaplain,  undn  Col.  N.  Wliiiin) 
around  Crown  Point  and  Ticonileruga.     See  tipraguc, 
A  mail  o/ lie  Avar.  Pulpit,  i,i67. 

Taylor,  Natliaiilel  1)7111181)1,  D.D..  an  eminent 
Conf^rFKationil  prcactier  anil  divine,  and  the  graiidaon 
of  the  preceding,  vas  bom  at  New  Miirurd,  Conn.,  Jiu» 
2S,  178G.  He  Bpent  hii  early  yean  on  a  farm,  was  pre- 
parett  for  ifflllege  by  Rav.  Dr,  Aiel  Backus,  and  gratlii- 
ated  at  Yale  College  ia  JSOT,  having  bad 


q.,i,h  h 


I  studiei  on  ac 


.    He 


ii  ror  a  year  in  Albany  and  Hontred, 
studied  theology  four  yeai»  with  Dr.  Dwight, 
lfll2  saeceeded  Hnws  Stuart  in  the  pastorate 
First  Church,  Ktw  Haven,  when  be  labored  with  great 
Buccm  for  len  years.  Of  his  presching.  Dr.  Dulton 
thua  apeahi:  "The  intellectual  qualities  of  his  preach- 
ing wera  Ihorougb  and  profound,  yet  lucid  and  scriptu- 
ral i  exposition  and  discussion  or  weighty  themes;  a 
marahailing  of  cumprebenaive  forces  of  luminous  and 
enkindled  logic,  to  bear,  with  caropacted  and  converg- 
ing unity  and  climacteric  power,  on  Ihe  one  question  in 
band;  a  full  and  frank  meeting  of  ilifficulties;  bold,  da- 
fiant,  and  powerful  grappling  with  abjectioni;  fearless 
reference,  in  defence  uf  scriptural  doctrine  and  precept, 
to  reaaon  and  common-Mnse;  close  and  pungent  appli- 
cations to  conscience,  and  earnest  and  lettdec  appeals  to 
the  heart."  Dr.  Taylor  waa  conii  Jered  one  of  the  ablest 
preacbera  nf  his  lime,  and  in  certain  aapecu  was  thought 
to  have  had  no  equal.     After  he  became  ibeulogical  in- 

Dughi  by  tbe  Cburch  and  freely  given.     In 


I8»,  u 


le  College,  he  was  chosen  I>wight  professor  of  di- 
dactic theology,  which  position  he  held  until  March  10. 
18&8,  when  be  quietly  and  peacefully  passed  away  from 
earth.  It  was  aa  a  teacher  of  theology  thai  his  infln- 
ence  has  been  most  widely  felc  In  Ibis  field,  he  was 
an  original  iDvestiiialor,  and  few  men  have  left  a  deeper 
imptren  upon  American  divinity.  In  several  important 
respects  he  diverged  from  the  traditional  theology  of 
New  England.  He  held  that  the  mind,  however  af- 
lecUd  by  sin  in  intellect,  sensibility,  or  will,  is  yet  a 
free  agent,  capable  by  intellect  to  perceive  and  under- 
stand tbe  object*  and  moiives  of  choice,  capable  by  sen- 
sibility to  feel  their  influence,  and  capable  by  will  to 
choose  or  refuse  any  one  of  them ;  and  thai  liie  power 
nf  will,  by  which  it  makes  a  given  choice,  is  a  power 
that  c<>ulil  in  the  lime  and  circomslauces  have  chnsei 
differently  and  (^jposiiely.  He  repiidialeil  Ihe  prrdi 
eating  of  Ibe  words  "  prolealinaled"  and  "decreed"  I 
Uod.  and  subniiltiled  the  word  "purposed."  While  de- 
pravity ia  universal  to  the  race,  it  is  not  l«  be  aaciibed 
to  any  property,  propensity,  or  disposition  of  the  *onl, 
priur  to  actual  Iraiisfiressioii,  as  sinful  in  ilself,ora>  the 
necessary  cause  of  sin.  nor  to  a  sinful  nature  corrupled 

atitulional  propenuty  of  man  for  natural  good,  as  per- 
verted by  his  own  moral  agency.  "  Sin  comes  in  as  an 
unavoiilable  result,  so  far  as  divine  prevention  is  con- 
cerne<1,  of  sucb  materials  as  (iihI  uses,  and  must  use,  in 
a  moral  universe— to  wit,  free  agents."  God,  having 
created  man  moral  and  responnible,  caiinnt  prevent  Ihe 
entrance  of  sin  without  coniradicliiig  himaelf.  He  ad- 
mitted snd  uught  that  sin  is  among  Ibe  things  which 
arc  according  to  Ihe  counsel  of  God's  will,  yet  only  in 
an  indirect  and  remote  sense,  God  preferriiiB  a  moral 
system  in  which  sin  is  necessarily  incidenlal  to  the  non- 
eiislence  of  a  moral  aystem.      Aa  to  the  originality 

miicb  di (Terence  of  opinion  haa  prevailed.  Some  of  his 
follow*™  have  cUimed  that  they  are  original  wilh 
him;  others  quote  Wbately,  Woodward,  and  Dr.John 

his.  Dr.  I'ond  chsrges  him  with  reviving  "  the  old  Ar- 
minian  deistical  hypotheais,"  while  Dr.  Dultjin  claims, 


;4  TAYLOR 

on  the  contrary,  that  "  lime  baa  fully  proved  that  Ins 
mode  was  allogetfaet  best  tor  tbe  refutation  of  Aimia- 
ianisiD."  Dr.WhedonsaysthatwhileI>r.Taylor''via- 
dicaled  Ihe  divine  govemmeol  by  introducing  inlo  his 
system  the  Arminian  view  of  sin,  he  overthrows  hb 
own  work  by  admiiting  the  principle  of  preordinalion." 
At  all  events,  the  enunciation  of  Dr.  Taylor's  views  gare 

carried  on  with  unusual  persistency  and  ability  betneea 
himself  and  his  oolleaguea,  on  Ihe  one  hand,  and  On. 
Tyler,  Woods,  and  otber  prominent  Congregational  di- 
vines, on  the  other.  Dr.  Taylor  never  admitted  that 
his  Dpiniona  were  heretical.  Judged  by  the  slandanl 
Iheoliigiananf  New  England,  but  labored  haidtopiDrt 
their  substantial  conformity  lo  the  lattrr.  Defended 
snd  enforced  by  his  intense  eamestncsa  aud  eloqnrai*, 
and  by  his  powerful  logic,  his  theology  has  woii  nsay 
adherents,  and— so  it  has  been  claimed~bu  silent^ 
"fled,  and  in  a  true  sense  ratiunaliied,  the  Calviiiis. 

leology.  Dr.  Taylor  attached  much  importaDce  to 
the  trutba  of  natural  religiiHi,  and  he  also  laid  much 
stress  upon  Inia  theories  of  mind.  A  correct  mniUl 
philoaophy  he  deemed  fundamental,  and  eUbnraled  iitUi 
much  care  a  system  of  his  own.  With  Dwighl  sod 
Edwards,  he  held  that  all  motives  find  their  ullimale 
ground  of  appeal  in  the  desire  of  personal  happiosa, 
and  that  the  idea  of  right  in  its  last  analyus  is  resulted 
into  a  tendency  to  the  highest  happiness.  As  a  teacher, 
Or.  Taylor  won  the  admiration  and  affection  of  his  pa- 
lila,  nearly  seven  hundred  being  under  his  Iraining.inil 
.nspired  ilicm  with  enthusiasm  and  pleasure  in  the  fut- 
lait  of  their  studies.  In  his  aocial  and  domestic  nla- 
jons,  be  was  peculiarly  attractive  and  lovely,  and  pe- 
culiarly beloved.  As  in  aulbor,  Dr.  Tayh>r  is  kiwna 
principally  by  posthumous  works.  His  conlivvtnul 
articles  were  contributed  principally  to  Ibe  Moal^tBi 
amirltttf  Chiiiriim  Sptdalor  and  to  tbe  Spoil  o/lit 
Pilgrint,  Since  hisdeaih  there  have  appeared  IheM- 
lowing,  edited  by  Noah  Porter,  D.D.:  Pivaical  Srr- 

(N.  r.  U:iS,  ttvo)  —LMura  on  Uu  Moral  Gotirm- 

of  God  (ilud.  1H59,  3  vola.  8vo),  his  greatest  and 
celebrated  performance :  —  E»tas$,  Ltdnrw,  rfc, 

Srlm  Topia  in  Rtrtatrd  Theoiogs  (ibid.  l«o9, 
evo).  See  the  Congrrg-Hioaal  Qgailtrl),  ISGO.  p.  Hi 
sq.  (by  Dr.  button) ;  Allibone,  WcT.o/fli*.  uad  .<>". 
A  N(Aor>,  s.  V. ;  Appltlont'  Cj/iiopadia,  a,  v. ;  aba  the 
CAru(.<iHar.Spec^vuls.ii.iv,  v;  Spirit  o/lit  P^tu, 
vols,  v,  vi;  Kete-Eaglumhr,  Nov.  I»9  (by  Prof.  Mar. 
tin);  Aner.ThroL  Rrr.  ltto9,  p.  391  sq.  (by  Dr.Pund); 
Alrlk.  Qiiai:  Rn.  1859,  p.  S17.  067;  18U0,  p^  116,  6W- 
6G9  (by  Dr.  Wheilon) ;  Mfmniil  n/Xatianitl  W.  Taj- 
lor,  D.D.  (New  Haven,  18^,  8vo),  comprising  scrmani 
by  Drs.  Bacon,  Dutluii,  and  Fisher.  See  TiiiOLOori 
TvLKtt,  BK-iNicr. 

TaylOT,  Oliver  Aldan,  a  Congregational  miun- 
ter,  waa  bom  at  Yarmouth,  Maaa.,  Aug.  IS,  1601.  He 
graduated  at  Union  College,  l»lb;  entered  the  miniuiy 
November,  1N2S ;  and,  spending  the  next  eleven  yesn 


Sept.  18,  1833.  and  died  Dec  18,  1861.  He  puUisbel. 
CihitosufofthtAndorer  Throhgical  Smimiry  {MOH): 
—Pitly  in  ilumbk  Life  <18M,  by  the  Uaaa.  S.  S.  Soci. 
ety)i — aiHl  numerous  articles,  original  and  ttaiulaltd, 
and  some  poems,  in  various  periotlicals.  A  memoir  al 
his  life  by  Rev.  T.  A,  Taylor,  his  brother,  was  publiiied 
in  1863,  a  second  edition  of  which  appeared  in  185t. 
See  Sprague,  Amalt  o/Uit  A<mr.  Pulpit,  ii,  7S5. 

Taylor,  RioliBrd  Cowling,  an  eminent  Engliib 
ntiquary,  was  bom  at  Hinlon,  Suffolk,  Jan.  IH,  I7W, 
nd  emigrated  to  theUnited  Slates  in  July,18S0,setiling 
n  Philailelpbia.  He  was  a  surveyor  and  geokigist,  snd 
ras  greatly  useful  in  develr>ping  tbe  mineral  rewiunM 
f  various  pans  of  Ibe  counlrv.  He  died  OclW,  IHil- 
11  addition  to  scieniillc  works,  be  published  /ixfcr  *»• 
ailiaa,  or  lit  A  tifg,  and  olier  MtmaMrritM,  Atia  Fii- 
aria,  Friariei,  CoUfgtt,  CoUryiale  Cktrtta,  Be^ak, 


TAYLOK  2! 

A,n  rta  CUt  ofNorviA  (Lend.  I8!t,  foL).     See  AI- 
'OMtt,  Ilia,  of  Brit.  iBtdAmtr.AuaHir$,t.y. 

Tajlot,  Roivlaacl,  IX.D^  an  Englisli  clergy mta 
ud  mirtyr,  is  mppoaed  to  h4ve  been  a  Yurkahiremui; 
indiftK-beingediicaUdal Cambridge, beome  [behead 
if  Border  Huuk,  Dear  Caioi  College.  He  wasprewnud 
bjarchbuhop  Crtnowr  to  the  rectory  of  Haiileigh,  nliere 
bt  uiemled  TaitbruU;  lo  the  ipiritual  iiesdi  of  hii  pa- 
nbiunen.  In  IU3  he  wai  (ummoned  berure  Ciardiner 
benBiuing  thepopiih  mas)  at  HoUJeigh.  He  defended 
kitcwM  with  OrmDeia.but  waa  mmmiueil  to  tba  King'a 
Bach  Piiaoo,  Kbere  he  remained  till  Jan.  £2,  I5&6,  when 
bf  WH  lenCenced  to  be  burned.     Ths  execution  look 


Xarirr'i  Slone  it  Hadlelgh. 
Taylor,  Samuel,  a  Presbyterian  miniilei,  iiai 
bori  in  Nova  Sculia,  Srpl.  14,  1795;  gradunled  at  the 
PnnHiun  Theolc^cal  Serniiiarr  In  \Sib;  was  licensed 
u  pRach  the  same  year,  iiiJ  >h>irliy  after  waa  ordained 
tad  uMalled  paaior  of  the  tlillenliurg  and  Stoner  Mouth 
eknrcbea  of  Bourbon  Countv,  Ky.  In  1831  became  pw- 
tBgTtb*  Nicbotuville  and'Cedar  Creek  churchea,  Ky.i 
ialB3«,at  Frankfort,  Ind.;  in  I8U,  Waveland,  Ind.;  in 
l8K,Waahington,Ind.)  in  1854, Waco, Texu.  Hedied 
Junes,  Ift^.  Mr.  Taylor  waa  a  close  student  and  a  man 
aTliienrir  taMes.     As  a  theologian  he  nas  acute,  pro- 

actiTC  Bie'mlier  of  the  Board  of  Tnisleea  nf  Hanover  Col- 
!*[(,  Ind,  asd  of  the  New  Albany  'rheological  Semi- 
iVT,  lad.     See  WilMia.  PrtA.  Hit.  A  Imauac,  1BS7,  p. 

Tiylor.  Stephen,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  miniater, 
*ii  bom  at  TyriiighaiD,  Berkshire  Co,  MasL,  Feb.2S, 
1TK.  He  panued  hla  preparatory  studies  at  Lenox 
Aadeny;  graiiuated  at  Williams  College,  with  the 
1iI()ksi  honor,  in  INIG;  wai  preceptor  uf  the  academr 
SI  ffotfield,  Has.,  fur  one  year,  and  luloi  in  WiUianii 
&4Iei;e  1017-19:  studied  Iheolagy  in  Andorer  Theo- 
la;ic>lSeminaii-,and  afterwards prinalely;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1924,  and  shortly  after  was  ordsinod  pastor 
of  a  church  in  Kalifai  Co„  Va.  In  1826  he  became 
paniir  of  the  Sbockoe  Hill  Church,  Richmond,  Va.j  in 
lOi  was  jppoinled  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in 
llxUaioa  Theologicil  Seminary  in  Prince  Edward  Co.; 
ia  IIM  leaigned,  and  sbortlj  after  became  pastor  of  a 
chsKh  iu  Abingdon,  Va.;  in  IHB,  of  the  High  Street 
Chueh  in  l^tetaburg,  Va. ;  in  1S47  returned  to  Kich- 
OHod,  and  engaged  in  leaching  j  in  ISoObecamo  paiUir 
of  tbe  Duval  Street  Church,  Uichmond,  and  continued 
in  charge  of  it  until  hi)  death,  Mareh  1,  1853.  Mr. 
Tiylar  waaao  instructive  preacher,  au  excellent  pastor, 
•od  a  learned  tutor.  See  Sptague,  Aiamiio/lAe  Aiaii. 
P«4*.  i".  673. 

Taylor,  Thomms  (I),  a  learned  Puritan  dirine, 
•«  bora  at  Kicbmuod,  Yorkibire,  in  IG76 ;  and  was  ed- 
»au4  at  Cbrist'i  College,  Cainbrtdge,  of  which  he  be- 
(aaw  fellow,  and  afkenrards  Hebrew  lecturer.  On  leiv- 
Of  the  unirersily,  he  settled  first  ai  Wiironl,  Heitford- 
■Mr:  ths  at  Kaading,  Berkshire:  and  in  1626  he  ob- 
■aiDad  tba  living  of  He.  Kary  Aldennanburr,  London, 
■kick  be  retained  during  the  remainder  of  bis  life.  He 
tiMl  nrly  in  1681    Hi*  cuntemporariei  unite  in  giving 


5  TAYLOR 

him  a  faigb  character  for  learning,  piety,  and  nseftil- 
ntn.  Among  hia  works  are,  Commtiitarg  on  tkt  EpiitU 
of  SI.  Paid  wrillea  lo  TUvi  (Camb.  1612,  4to;  Ifiie, 
1619,  best  ed.  1658,  roL);—7^varMi!  o/'CArurtoNA<  fiji- 
ioH  (1618, 4to)  ■.—Eipoiilum  upon  ParaUe  of  the  Soitn; 
etc.  (I«nd.  1821,  4to;  1631,  1684)  !~C*™i'.  lidory 
oBtT  Ht  Droffon  (163S,  4to):-C*™(  Bretaltd,  Jr  lie 
Old  TeilanwU  fjjiloined,  etc  (1685,  am.  4lo).  Other 
works,  with  Z.i/"e,appeared  (Lond.  16B8,foL).  See  AUi- 
booe.  Did.  of  Bi'il.  and  A mrr.  A  utioTi,*.  v.;  Cbalmen, 
Biag.  Diet ».  v. 

-  Taylor,  Tbomaa  (i), "  the  Platonist,"  waa  bom  ii) 
London,  May  Ifis  1758.  He  studied  for  three  yean  at  St. 
Paul's  schmi],  with  the  design  of  becoming  a  DiM>>nting 
minister,  lait  afterwards  entered  Lubbock's  banking- 
house.  Liiter  he  recei>-ed  the  appointment  of  astistant 
secretary  to  the  Suciiiy  fur  ths  Encouragement  of  Aru, 

eial  years.  During  the  last  forty  years  of  hia  lile  be 
resided  at  Walworth  (partially  supported  by  an  in»me 
of  £100,  from  bis  friend  W.  Meredith).  He  died  Nov. 
1,1835.  Hia  works  comprise  lixly-lhree  volumps,  of 
which  twenty-Ibree  are  large  qusnua.  Besides  treatisea 
on  arithmetic  and  geometry,  and  a  few  minor  e-aays, 
etc,  bis  prindpal  work  waa  the  traualation  of  .''Isto, 
Aristotle,  and  other  Ureek  and  Laiin  authors.  Tie 
WorkM  of  Plato,  vii.  hit  FiJIf-fice  Dialugoii  and  7mlM 
EpitlUti  Xineof  the  DinhguH  by  IhrbiliFlogerS jdot- 
ham,  and  the  Rrmiiader  bg  Tkomu  Taylor,  etc  (i:<04, 6 

Norfolk,  who  locked  up  uearly  the  whole  edition  in  his 
house,  where  it  remained  till  1848,  wheo  it  was  sold. 
Of  bis  translation  of  Aristotle  (1806-12, 10  vols.  4to}  only 
ttty  complete  copies  were  struck  off,  the  expense  being 
defrayed  by  W.Ueredilh.  His  latest  works  were  trana- 
tUinns  of  Proclus.On  Proridnct  and  Eril  (1833, 8voi 
1841, 8vo);  and  Plotinus,Ofl  £u>ade  (1834,  8vo).  Hia 
translation*  have  been  commended  by  some,  but  by  oth- 
er* very  severely  criticised.  For  full  catalogue  of  Tav- 
lor'*  work*,  *M  AUibone,  Did.  of  BiiL  and  Amer.  Ah- 

Taylor,  Thomaa  Hoaae,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of 
tbe  PnileiHant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  of  Engliih 
(.ateiKB  ill  Georgetown,  &  C.  Oct,  !8, 1799.     Hia  early 

eilucation  was  acquired  at  Uuilford,  Conn.-,  he  gradu- 
ated from  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia,  as  valedic- 
lorianof  hitclase;  studied  theology  under  bishop  White; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  IHZl,  and  priest  in  1836.  For 
nine  years  he  was  rector  of  Si.  John's  Chureb,  Cullelon, 
-lohn's  Island,  S.  C.  In  April,  1834,  he  became  rector 
of  Grace  Church,  New  York  city,  where  he  remained 
until  the  cIoki  of  his  life.  He  died  at  Weal  Park,  on 
the  H  udson,  Sept.  9, 1867.    Dr.  Taylor  was  a  fine  schol- 

and  affection  of  hia  people.  He  held  aeveral  positions 
of  honor  and  trust.  See  A  mrrican  Quar.  Church  Rev. 
Jan.  1868,  p.  066. 

Taylor,  Tlmotlly,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  at  Hempstead,  Herifordshire,  iu  lG09,'and  enier- 
td  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  I62f!.  He  became  vicar 
of  Almeley,  Hertfordshire;  subsequently  a  Presbyte- 
rian, and  then  an  Independent.  Iu  1668  he  removed 
lo  Dublin,  and  became  asslatant  to  Samuel  Halher, 
and  afterwards  lo  Nathaniel  Mather,  and  died  there 
in  1681,  He  wrote  £V/me«  of  Sundry  Potitiom  and 
Scr^itura  aUtgrd  lo  Jutlify  lie  Congregational  Way 
(Loud.2  pt4.4to:  pt.  1,1645;  pt.ii,I646).  Thev  were 
answered  by  Kichard  HolUngworth  il<  hi*  Certaia  Que- 
rirt  (1646, 4io),     See  tM.hoBe,Dict.DfBi-U.aadAmtr. 

Taylor,  Tltnotby  Aldan,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister and  author,  was  bom  at  Ilawley,  Maa*.,  Kept.  7, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Amhent  College  in  1835.  and 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1888.  Hcwaa 
ordained  at  Slalenvillv^K.  I„  1839,  where  he  preached 
(uddenly  in  the  midat  of  his 


TAYLOR 

UMfuInfM,  March  !,1858L    Ur.TvIot 
anfliiicbiDg  in  his  RtUchment  ' 

and  fsilhruL  He  wu  ■  diligenc  uuiwnc,  um  wroie 
much  fur  the  petiodical  piera.  He  alto  publiihed  i  Me- 
moir at  hu  brother,  Re\:  Oliver  Aldeu  Tif  kir  (Botton, 
12mo,  1858;  id  f±  l»66)  i—T/u  iSotice  (Aiaio) -.—Tin 
Too  Mothert  (32mo)  -.—Zim  (a2mo)  i—Ziim'i  PrUAwaf 
(12010)  -.—Bible  VieiB  o/tht  Dtalh  Peaally  (8to).  Se* 
Conj.  Quurtfl-^,  1869,  p.96i  Allibone,  Z>ic(.o/ Anr.owi 

Taylor,  Varon  D.,  ■  Pmbylerian  miniHer,  wu 
bora  at  Bin««bui^,  Tl,  in  1798;  received  an  acadFOi- 
ical eduralion  1  uudiedlhcologypriraccly;  waalicenaed 
by  Ibe  AdilisoD  Congregational  ABOciitiun,  Vl,  and  or- 
dained by  a  CangrCKaCioiul  council  in  tS2S.  Hii  Gelda 
of  labor  were  as  foUawi:  Eliiabethtawn,  N.  Y.;  Litch- 
field, South  Fanna,  Conn.-,  Amenia,  N,  Y.;  Ualesburg, 
Mich.;  Hanliburg  and  Dover, Ohio;  and  waaSeaman'a 
cbapUtn  at  Uoffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  Cleveluid,  Uhiu.  He 
died  Sept.  6,  18(i4.  See  WUion,  P>1^  llUt.  Aimiaiac, 
1866,  p.  328. 

Tajlor,  WllUnm  Cooke,  LLD.,aaI[iah  author, 
wa>  born  at  Yougbal  in  1800,  and  waa  eilucaled  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  went  to  London  in  1829,  where  be 
remained  until  I8J7,  when  he  ntumed  to  Ireland,  Id 
•eive  the  viceregal  bouwhold  in  (he  capacity  of  atatis- 
tidui.  He  died  in  Dublin,  SepL  12, 1849.  In  addition 
to  many  work*  on  wcular  aubjecti,  he  wrote,  Catrckirm 
ijftAe  Chriilian  Rfttffim  (Lond.  1828, 12nio)  -.—HiHoty  0/ 
JtfoAanwiwtoinim  oaJ  id  .S«*»  (1834,  l!mo)  i— ffaW/y  d/ 
Poptry  (new  ed.  1887,  Sro)  -.-lUuitratiau  o/fAe  BiWe 
and  Uonjinnationi  n/  Sacnd  Hiilory/rora  lie  Motai- 
mmte  of  Egypt  (1838,  12ma):— //ulory  o/CArHftantly 
front  ill  Piomubjation  to  ilt  Legal  EtIabliiSmtM  in  the 
Boman  Empire  l.l&li,Svo).  See  Alliboae, i>vf. o/'firif. 
tmi  A  mer.  A  athori,  1,  v. 

Tobti-ohor,  the  prayei-mill  uaed  by  the  Buddbiu 
prieata  in  Chinese  Tanary.  It  ia  omstrucled  in  t* 
Tornii.  (1.)  One  is  a  small  wheel  with  flies,  which  moi 
either  by  wind  or  water.  On  these  Hies  are  writu 
pnj-ere,  and  it  ia  supposed  that  all  the  merit  of  Ibe 
recitation  is  conferred  upon  him  that  sets  the  wheel  in 
motion.  (2.)  The  other  is  ■  huge  egg-shaped  barrel, 
ai  large  as  a  hagabead,  upon  an  upright  apindle,  com- 
poaed  of  endless  sheets  of  paper  paated  one  over  Ibe 
other,  and  on  each  sheet  is  wtjlten  a  diflerent  pnyer. 
At  Cbe  botutm  or  this  pasteboard  barrel  is  >  cord,  which 
gives  to  it  a  rotary  modon.  The  laaiaa  make  tbta 
spin  rapidly,  and  thus  acquire  Ihe  merit  of  the  repe- 
tition or  all  the  prayers  written  on  all  the  papers 
at  every  rotation  of  the  barrel  Tbe  lamaa  spend 
iniieh  of  their  time  in  plying  the  tcbu-chor  by  way 


reckon  them  among  Ihe  exlTaoT^iaar 
(iod,  and  uses  no  mark  of  distinction  or  separation 
I  apoalles,  with  which  be  begios,u  * 


rilh 


n  for  (t 


ceive  from  each  pe™ 
trouble. 

Teacb  (lleb. prop.  1^^,  but  also  many  other  words; 
Or.  prop.  MoBKiii,  but  alien  other  lerma).  Tesehing 
ia  an  important  branch  of  the  commisaion  which  Christ 
gave  to  his  apostles  before  he  left  [he  earth,  "(io," 
said  he,  "  teach  all  nslions,"  or,  as  we  hsve  it  recorded 
by  another  of  the  evangelists, "  fteach  the  (iospel  to 
every  creature."  In  tbia  way  they  were  to  make  dis- 
ciples, SB  the  ward  iia^ni<aan  imports.  It  is  one  of 
the  precious  promises  of  the  new  cavenani  Ihat  all  ils 
Bubjecta  shall  be  "uught  of  the  Lord"(Tsa.  lir,  13). 
The  Lord  JCBUB  quoted  these  words  in  tbe  days  of  his 
public  ministry  (.lohn  vi,  45),  and  describes  the  effect 
of  thitleschinKthua;  "Every  man,  therefore,  that  ha  lb 
heard,  and  hath  learned  of  the  Father,  cometh  unto  me," 
which  be  aflerwards  explains  to  mean  neitbei  more 
iwr  less  than  believing  on  him.    See  Preachikg. 

Teadieri,  or  "  doctors"  (v.  r.),  are  mentioned  among 
dlTinc  gifta  in  Ephes.  iv,  1 1,  and  it  ia  possible  liiat  the 
apoatle  does  not  mean  such  ordinari-  teachers  (or  pas- 1 
tors)  as  the  Chunb  now  enjoya ;  but  aa  he  seems  Ui , 


office  of  the  Jewish  doctors;  meaning  well-io- 

formed  persons,  to  wbrnn  inquirinut  Christian  conrerts 

might  have  recourse  for  removing  their  doubu  and  dif- 

Oculties  concerning  Christian  observance*,  tbe  uob- 

Its,  and  other  rituals,  and  for  receiving  fmm  Soipt- 

the  demonstration  that  "this  is  the  very  Christ ;" 

that  the  things  relating  (o  tbe  Heesiah  were  ae- 

iplished  in  Jeaus.    Such  a  gift  could  nut  but  be  very 

■iceable  in  that  infant  state  of  the  Church,  which, 

indeeil,  without  ic,  would  have  seemed,  in  this  paiticn- 

lar,  inferior  la  the  Jewish  instiiulions.    With  thisapees 

distinction  (Rom.  xii,  7)  between  doctors  (learUng, 

lilavKU)v)  and  exhorters,  q.  d.  " he  who  gives  aiKicc 

prirattlg,  and  lesolves  doubts,  eta,  lei  him  attend  to 

that  duty;  be  who  exhorts  with  ■  loud  voice  (xapa- 

taXiiv),  let  hitn  exhort"  with  proper  piety.     Tbe  ssne 

appears  in   I  Cor.  xii,  !8,  where  the  apostle  lango^ 

Ist,  apoades,  public  instruclura;  2d,  prophets,  oocsiioBa) 

instructuis;  Sd  {litaatakei),  doctors  or  teachers,  pn- 

For  monographs  nn  niir  Lord  as  the  Great  Tnchn. 
•ee  Hasr,  Leten  Jem,  p.  180  sq.    See  Jebcb  Chbwt. 

Tean  (n;n?,  jucpua)  are  ibe  well-known  em- 
blem and  usual  sccompsniment  of  grief;  and  as  grief 
is  generally  most  violent  when  it  ia  indulged  for  Iba 
dead,  so  in  the  two  fulloning  passages  tbe  wijHiig* 
away  of  learg  is  connected  with  the  aboliiiou  of  death: 
laa.  XXV,  8,  "And  the  Lord  Jehovah  shall  wipe  awsv 
the  tear  from  off  all  faces:"  Kev.  vli,  17,"  And  God  shail 
wipe  away  all  tears  from  their  eyes."  Tean  are  wonl 
lo  be  poured  out  on  occasions  of  nsorlalily :  Ihua  in  Jer. 
iiii,  16,  "A  voice  was  beard  in  Ramah,  lanienlatiai 
and  bluer  weeping,  Rachel  weeping  (or  her  childia 
refused  to  be  comforted  for  her  cbildreii.  because  tbey 
were  not:"  again  in  xzii,  10,"  Weep  ye  not  for  the 
dead,  neither  bemoan  him,  but  weep  sore  for  bin  ihsl 
goelh  sway,  for  he  shall  relum  no  more,  not  Me  hit 
TUiivo  country."  Tears  are  snmetiines  shed  for  aa- 
tional  calamities :  thus  in  L^m.  i,  2, "  She  weepelh  sole 
in  the  night,  and  her  tears  are  on  her  cheeks;"  again 
in  Numb,  xiv,  1,  "And  all  the  cungregation  lifled  ap 
their  voice  and  cried,  and  Ihe  people  wept  thai  nigkL* 
In  Gen.  xxi,  16,  IS,  Hagar's  pitiable  case  is  ibut  de- 
scribed, "And  tbe  water  was  spent  in  the  biittle,aBd 
the  cast  the  child  under  one  of  the  shrubs.  And  she 
went  anil  aal  her  down  over  against  him  a  good  wsy 
off,  as  it  were  a  bow-shot;  for  she  said,  Let  me  not  sre 
the  death  of  tbe  cliiU.  And  she  sat  over  sgsinst  hio, 
and  lifted  up  her  voice  and  wepL"  Tears  are  often 
the  eymbol  of  divine  judgments,  as  they  are  sonietitDa 
also  of  human  oppressions.  (See  Ecdes.  iv,  1 ;  Acts  xx, 
19;  Jer.  xiv,  17.)  They  are  sometimes  tbe  fruit  o(  le- 
penlance  and  contrition.  (See  Beb.  xii,T;  MatLxivi, 
I&.)  But  commonly  they  are  the  result  of  nalorsl  af- 
fection deploring  a  beloved  object,  of  which  the  eista- 
ples  sre  too  obvious  and  numerous  to  cite.  Bui  whsi- 
ever  tbe  causes  of  tears  10  the  righteous,  all  these  ahtB 
be  abolished,  which  is  what  is  meant  by  "  God's  tripiag 
away  all  tears  from  their  eyes."  For  desth,  oppmsion, 
cnUmity,  repentance,  ahall  have  no  place  in  the  btav- 
enly  region.  Weeping  may  endure  for  a  night,  but  j«y 
cometh  in  tbe  morning.  Those  who  boh  in  lean  sh^ 
reap  in  joy.    See  Grief. 

For  the  ratfqi  of  lean  (Psa.  Ixxiciv,  6),  sec  Bac*. 

For  monographs  on  tbe  tears  of  Christ  over  Jenia- 
lem  (Luke  xix.  41),  aee  Valbeding,  Iwlex  PngnmmB- 
turn.  p.  63.  Comp.  Kiesling,  Di  Lacnmii  Vatam  (Lipa 
1747).    See  Jsaua  Christ. 

The  so-eslled  lofhrymalorift,  or  "  tear-botlles,"  «"!•■ 
posed  by  some  to  haie  been  used  far  collecline  ib 


(Thomson,  Land  wid  Book,  i,  147),  w 


s  of  tl 


a  ratha  tea- 


Mb  {or  pdfudwiy  <"  Booen  (we  Ih*  Paoni  Cychp. 


Ts'bah  (Ileb.  Tt'baeh,  r\X3,  ^uuglUer,  u  orten; 
StfLTajiai  Joxphiu,  Ta/Jaiof,  AM.  i,  6,  b;  Vulg. 
Ua),UieDlilHt  oTihc  fnur  aons  oTNibot  bv  bia  con- 
oibioe  Bnimib  (Gen.  ix>i,34).    RCcir.  SO&O. 

Tabali'ata  <Utb.  mily  in  the  prolonged  roro  Tt- 
Uja'lm,  SIV'iaM,  purijitd  [KOnI,  proltHtd}  \>y  Jtko- 
tak :  SepL  T«fJeXiai;  v.  t.  T«(3Xn{ ;   Vulg.  TaUlkii), 
Lbird  of  ihe  roar  lont  or  Honih  "  or  the  chilitren  ot ' 
nh~(l  ChtiiQ.  ixvi,  1 1),     aa  lOU, 

TalMth  (  Heb.  Ttbeiy,  Paa,  ijiinrenUy  of  A»- 
iriUn  origin,  TibilHo),  the  tenth  oiontb  (E»th. 
o/lht  ucnd  yeirof  the  Hebnin,  raiTesponding 
Diiii  u  JaKuarg.  Jerome  hu  the  fullowing  cor 
opoa  Eiek.  xxix,  1:  "Decimui  meniifs  qui  Hebmis 
■nidUtur  TtttIA,  et  ipnd  jRgyptiot  [with  whom  it 
n>  the  artb  month]  Tv^i  [or  T^fii,  Coptic  roM], 
•pud  Rnnuiun  Januiinui.'  In  Anbic  it  I*  ctlled 
IdaK  in  Greek  Tp/li  or  Tijj),  and  io  Sanacrit  Tapat. 

SetClLUinAKiJEWISIL 

Tabnl  Tom.     See  Taluui>. 

Ta  Denm  lauhauus  (i.e.  "We  priiie  thee,0 
Had').    Th>«  hymn,  whieb  it  written  in  iomrtm  Sw 
lwi«  Trinlulu,  cominonly  cdled  Hymiia  SS.  A 
kwii  H  A  aijmUiiii,  ■ml  known  u  the  A  minuuin  Uyimt, 
R  nmncutHl]'  ucribed  to  Ambniee.     ' 


Is  Drciu  (d.  laH),  biahop  or  Uilui,  we  ere  tolil  thai 
It  ihc  baptism  of  Augnilioe,  which  Ambmee  perfom 
in  the  vear  387,  both  the  baptiat  and  the  candid 
•pmuncouily,  as  if  inipired  by  Ihe  Holy  GhoW, 
lOQcd  tbi>  hymn.     Thii  Uidition  would  aeem  to  hi 
bfen  cormborated  by  a  pasaage  of  a  apurious  (the  9! 
atniMn  of  Ambraie  which  treats  of  the  baptiam  of  J 
KMiDt     But.  in  truth,  ibe  tniiitioa  owes  its  ori{ 
u  this  paiaage,    Auguaiine  himaelf,  who  speaka,  in 
CW/'ruiflu,  of  his  conTCraion  and  baptism,  tloea  i 
■mtiea  anything  of  the  kind.    Some  have  ascribed 
thb  bynn  to  Athanaaiua,  biahop  of  Alexandria;  others 
t»  Niceliiia,  about  the  year  &35 ;  and  a  tbird  class  to 
Hitoy  of  Poiiieni.     Tho  whale  tenor  of  thia  hymn 
pnira  ita  Eastern  origin,  and  at  a  very  early  time. 
Inieed,  Ibe  Codex  AUzaadrinui  contains  a  morning 
AyvQ  cootmencing  Ka^'  jroffnjv  ^fiipav  fifXoy^our  n 
ui  miriyTn  rv  ovofia  uov  tie  rbv  aiii>t*a  \  and  thia  cir- 
CBBiUiice,  ti^ttber  with  the  fact  of  ita  great  resem- 
bliwx  with  the  Te  Drum,  induced  Daniel  (7A«aur. 
Hi^bI.  ii,  289  aq.)  to  say,  "The  Tt  Dtim  is  based  upon 
m  waml  Greek  hymn  which,  exUnsively  known  in 
ikt  East,  has  fuund  many  iranalaiara,  which  fact  not 
oolT  Ksoania  for  the  variety  of  readings,  but  >1ao  for 
ibc  Tsrioua  snthara  to  whom  it  ia  aacribed.    Of  these 
■eriiaiB,  the  one  which  Ambroae  made  for  the  aervicc 
Df  Ibe  Milan  Church  met  with  the  most  approval  and 
ra  Bnany  Biioptetl,  and  this  explains  why  it  was  com- 
BBflly  called  the  A  nbrtMan  Hyma.^ 

Ertn  brfwe  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  this  hymn 
■»  nng  on  ipecial  occasions  in  both  cliurches  of  the 
Eait.  The  Roman  Breviary  uaeaitaioneofthe  mom- 
ia(  hynni  to  be  aung  tbroogbout  the  year,  with  Ibe 
oeepiian  nf  the  Sandayi  in  Advent,  Lent,  and  Ihe 
Fna  uT  the  Holy  Innoceuu.  Long  before  tho  Relbr- 
■wiiia.  it  was  known  in  a  German  Iranelstion.  In  1533 
a  m  iramlaied  by  Luther, "  Herr  Gott,  dieh  laben  wir," 
a>l  inet  that  time  ii  has  been  translated  into  German 
W  Englbh  by  different  aatborh  We  subjoin  a  few 
i»f>  of  the  original : 

*Ti  tksaa  iBDilamns,  te  Domlniiin  confliemnr. 
Tim  .Rinsi  angtti,  lllil  Hiil  ei  nnlveraw  jintedates. 


\1  TEKOA 

This  beautiful  and  inaptring  compoiiliou  ia  read  or 
chanted  at  the  morning  sen-ice  of  Ihe  Church  of  Eng- 
land afur  the  reading  of  the  Hrat  leteon.  The  rubric 
enjoina  that  it  ahall  be  said  or  sung  daily  through- 
out the  year  in  the  vernacular  language^  The  ancient 
office*  of  the  English  Church  gave  this  hymn  the 
title  of  the  "Psalm  Te  Deum"  or  Ihe  "Song  of  Am- 
brose and  Auguatine"  indifferently.  As  used  it  may 
be  considered  aa  a  responsory  paalin,  since  it  follows  a 
lesson ;  and  here  the  practice  of  Ihe  Cburch  of  England 
resemblea  that  directed  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea, 
which  decreed  that  the  pealma  and  lessouB  shoold  be 
read  olurnately.  The  hymn  consists  of  three  equal 
parts — praiae,  coiifesaion  of  belief,  and  supplication.  See 
Kambaeh,  Ailhol«gie  thritllidur  GrtSngt,  i,  87  sq. ; 
litttia,  AvnotM  abckritltKher  Liider,^tA  tn.;  Her- 
log,  Rtal-EiKiiiiop.  i,  875  sq.  (id  ed.  p.  328  aq.) ;  Ten- 
tiel,  Extrdlationri  X  dt  Ilgmno  Tt  Dtam  Lmidamai 
(Lips.  IG92):  Ilingham,  Ckriit.  Atttij.  bk.  xir,  ch.  xi, 
j  9;  and  Ihe  moiiogtapbs  cited  by  Tolbeding,  ladix 
Pivgrammal»m,  p.  134.     (  B.  P.) 

Te  Igltnr  (i.  e.  "Thee  therefore"),  the  Grst  two 
words  of  the  canon  of  the  Ijnin  mass.  This  part  of 
the  eucbaristic  sen-ice  ia  said  lo  have  been  drawn  up 
under  Ihe  direclinn  of  Gregory  Ihe  Great,  though  por- 
tions of  it  are  doubtless  of  much  earlier  dale.  It  was 
also  called  Obtcralio.  This  sen-ice,  as  distinct  from 
Ihe  miasal,  was  uaed,  and  ia  still  used,  by  bishops,  prel- 
ates, end  other  dignitaries;  and  aa  the  canon  is  the 
most  sacred  part  of  the  service,  oalha  upon  the  Te  Igi- 
tar  titn  regarded  as  especially  solemn.  The  Te  Igitur 
appears  to  hare  been  used  in  the  ordeal  of  compur- 
gation. 

Teen  (Chinese,  ieaeen),!  word  generally  used  by 
the  early  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  to  denote  the 
Snprenw  Being;  but,  to  render  it  more  evidenllj  de- 
scriptive of  a  person,  the  Inquisition  ordered  the  sddi- 
tion  to  ilofthe  word  C*oo,  "Lord."    Thus  Teen-Choo 

appellative  of  God  by  Romish  converts.    The  Protes- 
tant misaioiiariea  rejected  Teen,  and  aubstituled  Shm  or 

Teenab.    See  Fio. 

Tehaph'i]ebea(Eiek.ixx,I8).   See Tajip Amis. 

Tebln'nah  (Heb.  Techimah',  rigrin,  tupplkatiim, 
aa  often ;  Sept.  Bava  v.  r.  Sni/Krv ;  Vulg.  Tekinna},  a 
name  occurring  in  the  obscure  list  of  t'lie  descendants  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  12)  as  the  last-named  of  the  three 
aonsof  Eabloo  (q.v.),  and  grandson  of  Chelub  (q.v.); 
with  the  added  epitbet  '■  Ibe  father  of  Ihe  city  of  Na- 
hash"  (/IJi-fr-AuciniA),  and  the  scaUment  "These 
are  the  tnen  of  Bechah"  (q.  v.).  From  all  this,  we  can 
only  gather  that  Tehiniab  was  probablv  related  la  the 
family  of  David.    RQ  cir.  1033.    See  Naiiahh. 

Teboratb.    See  Talmud. 

Teil-tree  is  properly  the  linden-tree,  or  Tilia  Ea- 
rapaui  of  bocsnisla.  tt  ia  mentioned  in  the  A.  T.,  in 
Isa.  vi,  13,  "as  a  teil-tree,  and  as  an  oak ;"  but  as  in 
Ihe  Hebrew  the  word  is  nbx,  elah,  usually  rendered 
"oak," by  many  supposed  lo  be  the  lereiinlA,ot  "tur- 


is  from  wbat  it  bas  in  other  paisagea. 


See  Oak. 

Teind,  the  n 
Tithes  (q.  v.). 

Te'kel  (Chald.  7V1W,  ^pn,  Knglifd.  as  immei 
ly  explained  in  Ibe  context!  Sept.»«(Xi  Vulg.M 


Q  in  the  law  of  Scotlaml  to 


I  of  Ihe  ■ 


worrh  i 


ihylonian  king  (Dan.  v,  25, 27).     See  Meat 

Tekeletb.    Sc«  Blue. 

Teko'a  (Heb.  id.  ^ipn  [once  with  h  directive, 
nsipn,  a  Sam.  xiv.  2],  a  itorltade ;  Sept.  Oixiaf  and 
Btxirvi,  JosephuB  Buwii  and  Btmi  i  Vulj-.  Thfcvt ;  A.Y. 


TEKOA  2! 

"Ttkoib"  in  2  Sam.  xiv),  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Judab 
{2  ChraD.  zi,  6,  u  the  ■BBociitvd  places  show ;  anJ  in- 
Mited  in  ila  place  in  Joeh.  iv,  a9,  60  in  the  Sept.  [see 
K«il,tu( /«%]),  on  the  rang*  of  hill*  which  riae  neat  H 
bmn,  and  Mretch  eastward  tawanla  the  Dead  Sea.    The 
lilUa  bouml  the  view  of  the  apectilnr  m  be  loolu  to  t 
south  rrom  the  aummit  of  the  Mount  of  Olivet.    Je- 
nime  (tn  Amoi,  Proam.)  saya  that  Tekoa  was  six 
man  miles  from  Bethlehem,  an<l  that  as  be  wrou 
Jer.  vi,  1)  he  bad  ihal  village  daily  befate  hia  i 
("Thekoamquotidieoculiicenumua"}.   InhieOHonti 
can  (a.  v.  Edhei,  'EcScifci)  li«  tcproenu  Tekoa  as  i 
milea  only  from  JeiuBatem;  but  elsewhere  he  ag 
with  Eusebiui  in  making  Ihe  distance  twelve  miles.    In 
the  Utter  case  he  reckons  by  Ihe  way  of  Betblehcni,  Ihe 

but  there  may  have  been  alao  another  and  shorter  way, 
lo  which  he  haa  reference  in  (he  other  computation. 
Some  suggest  (Bachiene,  PatatUmi,  ii,  GO)  that  an  emu 
may  have  crept  into  Jerome's  test,  and  that  we  should 
read  twdce  there  instead  of  taw.  In  i  Chr 
(•ee  also  I  Mace  ix,  S3)  mention  is  made  of 
dem^BB  of  Tekoa,"  which  must  be  undentonl  of  Ihe  ad- 


jacent region  oi 

in  its  phyucal  character  ai 


St  of  the  town  (we  iir/iii),  which 
"    LO  that  des- 


t  from  th 
r;?n,"lo  strike,"  said  of  driving 
the  ground  for  securing  Ihe  tent),  as  well  as  from  the 
manifest  adaptation  of  the  region  to  pastoral  pursuits, 
that  the  people  who  lived  here  must  have  bet 
pied  mainly  aa  shepherds,  and  that  Tekoa  in 
days  oonid  have  been  little  more  than  a  cluster  of  tents, 
to  which  the  meu  returned  at  intervak  from  the  nei^h- 
boring  pastures,  and  in  whichtheirfamilies  dwelt  during 


The  Bibl 


St  of  Tekoa  arises,  not  so  mu 

irom  any  events  wtiich  ire  related  as  having  occun 
there  aa  from  its  connection  with  various  persons  w 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture.    It  is  not  enumerated 
the  Hebrew  catalogue  of  towns  in  Judah  (Joeh.  xv,49), 
but  is  inserted  in  that  passage  by  the  Sept.    The  "  wise 
woman"  whom  Josh  employed  to  eftect  a  recondliation 
between  David  and  Atoakm  was  obtained  from  thii 
place  {i  Sam.  xiv,  3).    Here,  also,  [ra,  the  son  of  Ik- 
keah,  one  of  David's  thirty  "  mighty  men"  (B"''^a!l),  wa; 
b..ni,  and  was  c«illed  on  that  account  -  the  Tekoite"  (8 
Sam  xxiii.ae).     It  was  one  of  ibe  places  which  1 
beam  fortified,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  as 
fence  agaiiisl  invauon  from  the  south  (2  Chron.  i 
Somu  of  tlie  people  from  Tekoa  took  part  in  building 
the  ivalli  of  Jerusalem  after  the  return  from  the  Cap- 
tivity (Neh.  ili.  6, 27).    In  Jer.  vi,  I,  the  prophet 
claims,  "  Blow  the  trumpet  in  Tekoa  and  set  up  a  sign 
of  Are  in  Beth-hacccrem"  —  the  latter  probably 
"Frank  Mountain,"  the  cone-shaped  hill  so  ronspict 
from  Bethlehem.     It  is  Che  aouiid  of  the  trumpet  i 
vtaming  of  the  approach  of  enemies,  and  a  eignal-flre 
kindled  at  night  for  the  same  pur^wse,  which  are  de- 
acribcd  here  as  so  appropriately  heard  and  seen,  in  tht 
hour  of  danger,  among  the  mountains  of  Judah.     Bui 
Tekoa  is  chiefly  memorable  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
prophet  Amos,  who  was  here  called  by  a  special  voice 
'  from  heaven  to  leave  bis  occupation  as  "a  herdmsn' 
and  "a  puncturcrof  wild  figs," and  was  sent  forth  thence 
to  tratify  againat  the  sins  of  the  kingdom   of  Israel 
(Amos  vii,  H).     Accustomed  to  such  pureuita,  he  mus 
have  been  familiar  with  the  solitude  of  the  desert,  am 
with  the  dangers  there  incident  lo  a  shepherd's  life 
StHne  eSbcc  of  his  peculiar  training  amid  such  scene 
may  be  traced, aa  critics  think  {I>e  Wetle.  Eint.  HuAUe 
Tat,  p.  So6),  in  the  contents  and  style  of  his  prophecy. 
Jemme  (mi /imw  \,'i)  saya,  "...  etiam  Amos  pr 
tarn  qui  pastor  de  pasloribus  fuit  et  pastor  non  ir 
cultia  et  arboribus  ac  vinds  consitis,  ant  certe 
a^lvas  et  prata  vireiitia,  sed  in  lata  eremi  vastita 
qoa  versalur  leonum  fetitas  et  intetfectio  peconim 


TEKOA 

ttmtoK^i"    Compi  Amos  ii,  18;  ili, 4, 
2;  vii,  1;  and  see  the  striking  reiDaAi 
of  Dr.  Pusey,  fnfrW.  to  Anot. 

genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  it,  ud  ir, 
.  a  posthumous  son  of  Hearon  and  ■  brolbci 
of  Caleb,  is  mentioned  as  Ihe  father  of  Tekoa,  wbich 
1  that  he  was  the  founder  of  Teku. « 
:r  of  that  village.  See  RSdiger  in  Ge- 
sen.  ThaauT.  ui,  1&18. 

people  among  the  Tekoilen  di^irnl 
great  activity  in  the  rejiairs  of  the  wall  nf  JenMlnn 

Nehemuh.     Thev  undertook  two  lengths  of  ibe      ' 
ling  (Meh.  iii,  6,27).     It  is,  however,  speciilly 
ined  that  their  "  lords"  (Q^'^sSk)  l«ok  no  pan  in 

Tekoa  is  known  still  as  Teii'a,  and,  though  it  liei     I 
mewhat  aside  from  the  ordinary  route,  haa  been  via- 
hI  and  described  by  aeveral  recent  travellcra.    Its  die- 
nee  from  Beit-Lahm  agrees  precisely  with  thai  as-     i 
Tned  by  the  early  writera  as  the  distance  beiiiMii 
Tekoa  and  Bethlehem.     It  is  within  sight  also  of  lbs     ' 
"Frank  MounUin,"  beyond  question  the  famous  Hero-     I 
dium,  or  site  of  Herod's  Castle,  which  Josephns  <  ICir.     i 
ir,  9, 5)  reprearnla  as  near  the  ancient  Tekoa.     It  lit!     ' 
on  an  elevated  hill,  which  spreads  itself  out  inloanimit- 
ular  pbin  of  moderate  extent.   Its  "  high  pDBi(iou''<  Kob- 
inson,  BibL  Srt.  i,  486)  "  gives  it  a  wide  prospect.    To- 
wards Ihe  north-*ast  the  land  slopes  down  towards  Wady 
Kbureildn ;  on  the  other  siilea  the  hill  is  surrouided  t^ 
a  belt  of  level  table-land;  beyond  which  are  vslkyi, 
and  then  other  higher  hills.    On  the  south,  at  some  dis- 
tance, another  deep  valley  runs  off  south-east  tswinlB 
the  Dead  Sea.     The  view  in  this  direction  is  boanilnl 
only  by  the  level  mountains  of  Moab,  with  freqodii 
bursts  of  Ihe  Dead  Sea,  seen  through  openings  amoiLf: 
the  rugged  and  desolate  intervening  mountains."    lu 
the  spring  there  are  often  encampments^  of  sheiibeids 
there,  consisting  uf  tenta  covered  with  the  black  gost-    . 
skins  so  commonly  used  for  thst  pqrpoee;  Ibey  are  sup- 
ported nil  poles  and  turned  up  in  part  on  one  side,  so  M 
enable  a  person  will 


in  the  remoter  bill- 
E  horse*  and  nltle 


Floe' 

sides  in  every  direction.  There  a 
and  camela  also,  though  these  are  not  »  numemns  aa 
the  sheep  and  goats.  A  well  of  living  water,  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  village,  is  a  centre  of  great  ititeteet  and 
activity,  the  women  coming  and  going  with  their  |Hlch- 
en,  and  men  Hlling  the  troughs  to  water  the  animslt 
which  they  ha™  driven  thither  for  that  purpose.  Th* 
general  aspect  of  the  region  is  sterile  and  unattractive; 
though  here  and  there  are  patches  of  verdure,  and  some 
of  the  lields,  which  have  yielded  an  early  crop,  nay  be 
seen  recently  ploughed  up,  as  if  for  some  new  spedet 
of  cultivation.  Fleecy  clonds.  while  as  the  driven  anow. 
float  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  and  their  shadows,  ss  they 
chase  each  other  over  the  landscape,  seem  lo  be  Gl  em- 
blems of  the  changes  in  the  destiny  of  men  and  nations, 
of  which  there  is  so  much  to  remind  one  at  such  a  time 

as  the  walls  of  houses,  cisterns,  broken  columus,  and 
heaps  of  build ing-stonn.  Some  of  these  stones  hsv* 
the  so-called  "bevElled"  edges  which  are  suppoaed  to 

Che  beginning  of  the  6th  century,  established  by  Si- 
Tabu^  and  a  Christian  settlement  in  the  time  of  the 
Crussdeis;  and  undoubte<1]y  most  of  these  remains  be- 
long CO  modem  times  rather  than  sncienC  Among 
these  should  be  mentioned  a  baptismal  font,  scnlptnied 
out  of  a  limestone  block,  three  feet  nine  inches  deep, 
with  an  internal  diuneler  at  the  top  of  four  feet,  aiid 
designed  evidently  for  baptism  as  administered  in  the 
fireek  Church.  It  stands  in  the  open  air,  tike  a  simi- 
lar one  at  Jufna,  near  Beitin,  the  ancient  Bethel  See 
~        in  theC*ri>ttanAcn«s(N.T.),  1863.P.519. 


rekA'a, 


Ml  the  b 


a  frighiful  precipice,  are  the  ruins  uf  KbureitAn,  poa- 


TEKOITE 


ID  of  Kerioth  (Josh,  it,  9S),  and  in  tbiC 
K  iwrhip*  tbe  binlipUce  of  Jadu  the  tnitor,  who 
■■9  IJiHieo  (Mll(d  Iscariot,  i.  e.  "mtn  of  Keriolh."  It 
H  inposeibif  Ut  survey  Ihe  Mfiwr;  of  the  place  and  not 
to  M  Ibat  >  dark  ipiril  would  find  ilwlT  in  iU  own  ele- 
WDE  amid  tbe  ■pcliujon  and  wildnesa  of  aucb  a  opoL 
HIgb  up  fnoi  the  bottom  of  the  nTine  i>  an  opening  in 
tbe  fact  of  ibe  rocki  which  leadi  into  an  immenK  >ub- 
tRTuean  labj-rinth,  which  manv  aappoae  mav  have 
bMS  the  Cave  of  AdiiUain,  in  which  David  and  his  fol- 
bvtn  aought  refuga  from  the  ptireuit  of  StuL  It  'a 
h^  tnoDgh  to  conuin  hundreds  of  men.  and  is  capa- 
Ur  of  defence  agaiiuE  almost  any  attack  that  could  be 
iDide  upon  it  from  without.  When  i  parly  of  the  Turks 
Ml  iipoD  Teka'a  and  sacked  it,  A.D.  1 188,  most  of  the 

iDd  thus  aaved  their  lires.  It  may  beqaenioned<Rab- 
ialDa,i,4S0  whether  this  waa  the  actoot  place  of  Da- 
lirTi  nimli  hot  it  illuotratea,  at  all  even  to,  that  peculiar 
gKik«ical  lormation  of  the  coutitry  which  accouota  for 
ndi  rnqnent  alluuona  to  "  detii  and  cares''  in  tbe  nar- 
tllioiH  of  tbe  Bible.  It  is  a  common  opinion  of  the  na- 
dra  that  lome  of  the  passages  of  this  particular  exc»- 
ruiao  extend  as  far  aa  to  Hebmn,  aevetil  miles  distant, 
sod  that  all  the  cord  at  JeruaaletD  would  not  be  suffi- 
ciau  to  KTve  u  clue  for  travening  ita  windinf;*.    See 

One  of  tbe  gate*  of  Jerosaletn  in  Christian  timea 
mmt  to  have  boms  tbe  name  of  Tekoa.  Arculf,  at 
nr  tale,  menliona  the  "^ate  called  TecuiCis"  in  bia 
ouiiKfUiM)  of  the  gates  of  tbe  city  (A.U.TOO].  It  ap- 
pean  to  have  led  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Kedroti, 
Muhably  near  the  ooathem  eii<1  of  the  east  walL  But 
bii  descripiioo  is  not  very  dear.  Poeaibly  to  this 
JsMM  alludes  in  the  singular  expreasion  in  the  Kpil, 
Ptafe  ($  13),  -  .  .  .  rerertar  Jemaolymam  et  per  The- 
nan  atque  Amoi,  ruiilantem  montis  OliveCi  crucem 
atpidaiD."  Tbe  Chareb  of  the  Ascension  on  the  eiim- 
nii  of  Olivet  would  be  just  opposite  a  gate  in  tbe  east 
■all;  and  tbe  "gltltering  ctoas"  would  be  puliculocly 
a»(|itci»iis  if  seen  from  beoealh  its  shadow.  There  is 
■0  aiore  pTHM^/ucu  improbability  in  aTekoa  gate  than 
b  a  BMUehcm,  Ja^  or  Damascus  gate,  all  which  still ' 
tna  at  Jenioakm.  But  it  is  strange  that  the  allu- , 
■nil  to  it  ahould  be  so  rare,  and  that  the  circumntancea  ! 
■hid)  made  Tekoa  prominent  enough  at  that  period  to  I 
cane  a  gue  to  be  named  after  it  should  have  escaped  I 
[raervaiion.  See,  in  addition  to  the  above  author-  i 
UH,  Itriand.  Pohat.  p.  1038;  Schubert,  Ittitn,  p.  H; 
g|— »,  Faiattiaa,  p.  219;  Turner,  Tour,  ii,  110; 
lity  ami  Hangica,  p.  344 ;  Tristram,  Land  of  Iiratl,  p. 
W;  Schwalz./'uiFfr.  p.lU;  Thomson,  ^onifanJSnil, 
6.4*4;  PUrterin  .Varraj/i  tfiiniSiook,f.'i5i;  BlWeker, 
Pabtiir,  p.  ibi. 

Teko'ita  <Heb.  with  the  art.  hal-TrtoI',  ^SlpPlh 
[ia  1  Sam.  ixiii,  !6;  Neb.  iii.  37,  'Fpnn],  palriol  from 
TAm !  Sefit.  o  6icwrqc  and  a  dtw!,  v.  r.  Bmivins 
•Dd  Biid ;  Valg.  Tkfcuila,  Thtcaemu,  and  dt  Tkeaia), 
ainhabitaatiiif  Tekoa  (q.T.),aD  epitbetof  Ira  tbe  son 
of  [kkeab,  one  of  David's  wsniors  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  36; 
1  Cbion.  zi,  38;  xxvii,  9).  Tbe  name  lurvtved  the 
Cpdrity  (Neh.  iii,  5,  27> 

Tala  StragtUa,  a  term  uwd  Eo  designate  the  up- 
per nrering  fur  the  holy  table  when  not  being  used 
fci  the  sacriBcv.     It  is  commonly  called  the  atlar  pro- 

Tel-a'blb  [many  rrf'-oM]  (CbaU.  Td-Al»b', 
r^K-!in,  corwIaUi  Sept.  MEriupoc;  Vulg.  Ad  ac«r- 
m  miranM/rMgiiwi),  was  probably  a  city  uf  Chaldtea 
w  Babylonia  (Ezra  iii,  1C>),  not  of  Upper  Heaopotamia, 
■  gCDFrally  imagined  (CalnKtjtnJ toe.,'  Winer, ad  toe). 
TV  whole  aceoe  of  Exekiel'i  preaching  and  visions 
•faia  to  hare  been  Chaldaa  proper;  and  the  river 
tMar,aa  alreailv  obaerred  [see  Ciidab],  was  not  the 
Oabbftr,  but  a  branch  of  the  EaphrateL    Ptolemy  baa 


TELAS5AB 


in  tbis  region  a  Tlui-haKaM  and  a  T}ial-4>lha  {Gmg, 

V,  30);  but  neither  name  can  be  identified  with  Tel- 
abib,  unless  we  suppose  a  serious  corruption.  ThUafa 
and  ThtUaphata  of  Ammian.  Marc  (xxiv,  3;  xiv,  8) 
have  likewise  been  compared ;  but  they  are  equally  on- 
certain.  Tbe  element  "Tel,"  in  Tel-abib,  ia  undoubt- 
edly "hill."  It  ia  applied  in  modem  times  by  the 
Araba  especially  to  the  mounds  or  heaps  which  mark 
the  site  of  mined  cities  all  over  the  Hcsopotamian 
plain,  on  application  not  very  remote  from  tbe  Hebrew 
use,  according  to  which  "Tel"  is  "especially  a  heap  of 
stones"  (Gesenius,  ad  he.').  It  thus  forms  tbe  first 
S3-llahle  in  many  modem  as  in  many  ancient  names 
throughout  Babylonia,  AsBvria,  and  Syria  (see  Aasc- 
mani,  SiU.  OriaO.  Ill,  ii,  784). 

Talab  (Ileb.  Tc'ladi,  TfiPt,  bread  [Geaenina]  or 
rigor  [PUrst];  Sept.  OoXi  v.  ri  enXitci  Vulg.  Thale), 
SOD  of  Besbepb  and  father  of  Tabar,  in  tbe  lineage  be- 
tween Ephraim  and  Joshua  (I  Chron.  vii,  36).  KC 
ante  1658, 

Tcralrn  [soirte  Tela'tm^  (Hcb.  with  the  art.  ial- 
7fZaI«',  o'-Kb-jr|,tbeyoungAm{<>[inIsa.xl,ll];Sepl. 
iv  rnX/oXoif;  Vulg.  jBOJi  iiipmi),  a  place  where  Saul 
collected  and  numbered  his  forces  before  his  campaign 
against  the  Amalekites  (I  Sam.  xv,  4).  It  is  strange 
that  both  the  Sept.  version  and  Josephus  {Anl.  vi,T,3) 
read  GUgal,  which  was  in  the  valley  uf  the  Jordan,  near 
Jericho,  and  certainly  not  a  fitting  place  to  marshal  an 
army  to  war  with  the  Amalekius,  seeing  it  would  have 
to  march  through  the  wild  posaes  of  the  wilderness  of 
Judah  (Ewold,  Grtch.  iii,  £0).  The  Targum  ren- 
ders it  "lamha  of  the  Paseover,"  according  to  a  curioua 
fancy,  mentioned  ebewhere  in  the  Jewish  books  (Fo/- 
tul  on  1  Sam.  xv,  4,  etc  ),  that  the  army  met  at  tbe 
Passover,  and  that  the  census  was  taken  by  counting 
tbe  lambs.  This  is  partly  endorsed  by  Jemme  in  the 
Tulg.  A  similar  fancy  is  found  in  the  Midrash  in  refer- 
ence to  the  name  Bezck  (1  Sam.  xt,  8),  which  is  taken 
literally  aa  meaning  "  broken  pieces  of  pottery,"  where- 
by, aa  by  cotmlera,  the  numbering  was  effected.  Beiek 
and  Telaim  are  conaidered  by  the  Talmudisla  aa  two  uf 
the  ten  tmmberinKS  of  Israel,  past  and  future.  It  is 
probably  identical  with  Telem  (q.v.),  the  southern 
position  of  whicb  (Josh,  xv,  31)  would  be  suitable  for  an 
expedilion  against  Amalek;  and  a  certain  support  is 
given  to  this  by  the  mention  of  the  name  (Tbailam  or 
TbeUm)  in  tbe  SepL  of  2  Sam.  iii,  IS. 

Telam'aar  (Heb.  Tdauar',  lifit?  [in  Isa.],  fully 
nSK^n  [in  Kings],  ituyrKiniiU,'  Sept.  enifrdii-,  Oti- 
/idd  v.r.eaXaaaaptBaipnl;  Vu\g.Th<tauaT,  Thalat- 
lar)  is  mentioned  in  3  Kings  xix,  13  (A.V.  "Thelas- 
sar'^  and  in  Isa.  xxivii,  13  as  a  city  inhabited  by  "  the 
children  of  Eden,"  which  bad  been  conquered  and  was 
held  in  tbe  time  of  Sennacherib  by  tbe  Assyrians.  In 
both  passages  it  ia  connected  with  Goian  (Gauzanitia), 
Haran  (Carrhn,  now  Harran),  and  Reieph  (the  Rotap- 
pa  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptiona),  all  of  which  belong  lo 
the  bill  country  above  the  Upper  Mesopotamian  plain, 
the  district  from  which  rise  the  KhabQr  and  Belik 
rivcr&  See  Goz.i!';  Harak;  Mesofotahia.  It  is 
quite  in  accordance  with  tbe  indications  of  locality 
which  arise  fhjm  tbis  connection  to  find  Eden  joineii 
in  another  passage  (Eiek.  xxvit,  23)  with  Haran  and 
Asshur.  TeUssar,  tbe  chief  citv  of  a  tribe  known  as 
the  Beni-Eden,  muat  have  been' in  Western  Mesopota- 
mia,  in  tbe  neighborhood  of  Harran  and  Orfa.  The 
name  ia  one  whicb  might  have  been  given  by  the 
Assyriana  to  any  place  where  they  had  built  a  temple 
ID  Asshur,  and  hence  perhaps  ita  application  by  the 
T'arguma  to  the  Resen  of  Gen.  x,  12,  whicb  must  have 
been  on  the  Tigris,  near  Nineveh  and  CaUh.  See 
Raain.  Ewald  (Gttck.  iii,  801,  Sole  8)  identifies 
it  with  a  heap  of  ruina  called  Teleda,  south-west 
from  Races,  the  TMfda  of  the  Pial.  Tub.  (xi,  c),  not 
for  fVom  Palmyra.     It  ia  in  favor  of  this  that  in  that 


TELEIOI  2. 

cue  Ihc  placH  mcnlioned  tlong  with  it  in  the  pu- 
*aga  cited  Mii>d  in  the  order  in  which  they  would 
iiatiirnlly  be  iiuckeil  by  ■  force  iiiTiilinK  (he  territory 
frum  (lit  eut,u  would  the  Anyri*iii(Theiiiiw,£n^. 
Uaadbach,  ad  loc).  H^reiaidt'e  idenlifiotion  (£»t, 
fk  478)  with  the  Thalaiha  (9aXn3H)  of  Ptolemy  (v,  SO, 
4)  wouM  plue  it  (Ml  bi  nnith.  The  Jeruulen  Tirgum 
(on  Uen.  xiv,  1)  and  the  Syriic  take  it  from  EUatiar 
(q.vO.in  the  [erriwry  of  Artemiiia  (Ptolemy,  vi,  116; 
Sttabo.  xvi,  p.  744).  Layard  Ihiuka  (  \intitk,  i,  257 ) 
that  it  may  be  the  present  TrI  Afer,  or  perhaps  A  r\iun 
(Nia.  atid  Bai.  p.  2S3),  although  no  uame  like  it  ia  found 

Telelol  (riXdoi  or  Ti\iiaipfroi,  the  ptrffd),  a 
name  of  early  Chriuiana,  which  bad  relation  to  the  aa- 
creil  myiuries,  and  demted  inch  ai  had  been  initiated. 
Oipliem  was  denotainated  Tiktrif,  to  Join  [he  Church 
wa»  ttyled  SXiiiv  ini  rA  tiXhov.  Io  allain  (o  po/eKim; 
the  participation  of  the  eucharist,  which  fullowed  im- 
mediately on  baptism,  waa  called  riXirq  riKiT&r,  per- 


Chri. 


The  w 


m  of  I 


le  New  TeiU. 
to  Christian  perfectiou. 

Teleion.    See  Tstjiiot. 

TelelotSrol  (rtXitmrtpoi,  more. ptrftcl),  one  of  the 
different  classes  of  catechumens  among  the  ancients; 
the  perfect  ones,  or  the  proficienw,  who  were  the  imme- 
diate candidates  for  bipliam. 

Te'lem  (i\ti).id.z\'q,Bpprtiaon  [Gesenius;  but 
Fllrst,yiiceo/fumbs]),  the  name  of  a  town  and  also  of 

1.  (SepuTeXtfiv.r.Motwijt;  Vulg,  Tffcia.)  One 
of  the  citin  which  are  described  as  "the  ullermos  ' 
the  tribe  of  Judah  towards  the  coast  of  Edom  m 
want"  (Josh,  x.\;  24,  where  it  ia  menijoned  between  the 
louthcni  Ziph  and  Bealuth).  It 
except  we  regard  it  as  identical  with  TkLAUi  (q,  v.)— a 
theory  which  seems  highly  probable  ( Reland, /"u^iHr. 
p.  10^9).  Telem  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
as  a  city  uf  Judah,  but  they  appear  to  have  been  igno- 
rant of  its  site  (fiioi>HUf.s.T."Taleni").  The  ~  . 
(Vat.)  in  Josh,  six,  7  adds  the  name  Ba\x"t  between 
Kemtnon  and  Elher,  to  the  towns  of  Simeon.  This  ' 
said  by  Eusebiiis  (Onomorf.)  and  Jerome  to  hare  been 
(hen  existing  as  a  very  large  village  called  ThtUa,  six- 
teen miles  south  of  Eleutheropolis.  The  Sept.  of  2  Sam, 
iii,  12,  ill  both  MSS.,  exhibits  a  singular  variation  from 
the  Hebrew  text.  Inslead  of  "on  the  spot"  ('■^nnn; 
A,V.  incorrectly  "on  his  behalf "),  they  read  '  "" 
lam  (or  Thelam)  where  he  was^"  If  this 
should  be  subslaniialed,  there  ia  tome  probability  that 
Telvm  or  Telaim  is  intended.  David  was  at  the 
king,  and  quartered  in  Hebron,  but  there  is  no  n 
to  suppose  that  he  had  relinqubhed  his  marauding  hati- 
it>;  and  the  south  country,  where  'I'eiem  lay,  had  fu 
merly  been  a  fararite  6cld  for  his  expeditions  (I  Sai 
xxvii,  a-U).  The  opinion  of  Wilton  that  a  (race  i 
the  ancient  Telem  is  found  in  the  Arab  tribe  DhuUii 
which  gives  ita  name  to  a  district  lying  south-east  • 
Beershi'ba,  ia  not  altogether  improlMblc,  especially  as 
the  Arabic  and  Hebrew  words  arc  co^ate  {Tht  Xrgrb, 
p.  «7;  comp.  Kobinson,  liiU.  Ra.  ii,  102).  Rabbi 
Schwarz  iPaltU.  p.  lOO)  thinks  Telem  was  different 
from  Telaim,  and  he  states  that  there  is  still  "a  distr' 
south  of  Madura  called  Tulam,"  doubtless  referring 
the  above  Dhullam.  He  also  ciles  a  reference  frum  the 
Midrash  {Kaheltlh,  v,  lU)  to  a  certain  SIcnahem  Talmia, 
as  if  a  resident  of  Telem.  If  a  more  precise  location  of 
the  town  be  sought,  it  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the 
"small  site  with  foundalions,  called  £udnJ,"  men- 
tioned by  Dr.  Kobinson  as  lying  in  the  above  region 
(AiU.  Aet.i,l02),NX  mika  aouth-east  of  Tel  ' 
See  TociiKM. 


2.  (Sept.  TtXXq/i  v.  r.  TiXqft  and  T(X/iqi'{  Tn^ 
Tettni).  One  of  the  Temple  porters  who  renounced  bis 
Gentile  wife  after  the  Captivity  (Eirax,  24).  EC 
458. 

TslMOftohtU,  an  Auatic  monk  and  martyr  who  ia 
Juatlr  renowned  for  the  act  of  daring  self-devuiion  \ij 
which  be  cauaed  the  gladiatorial  combats  at  Konu 
to  be  abolished.  In  the  year  404,  in  I  lie  midst  of  the 
spectacles  of  Ibe  amphitheatre,  Telemachus  rushed  iala 
rena  and  tried  to  separate  the  glidiatotii  Tbe 
spectators  stoned  him  to  deslb,  but  the  emperor  Hono- 
tius  prochiimed  him  a  martyr,  and  soon  after  abnUihed 
the  gladiatorial  combata.  Some  doubt  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  story  on  account  of  the  absence  from  iheThto- 
doaian  Code  of  any  edict  by  Conitantine  in  exislerKe, 
and  no  evidence  con  be  produced  to  show  that  flxn 
were  any  gladiatorial  fights  alUr  this  period,  although 

the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire.     See  Smith,  Bitf. «/ 
Biog.  aitd  MylhoL  s.  v. 

Teleology  (riXoc,  an  rnd,  and  X.:-yof,  rfunwiw)  ti 
the  doctrine  or  general  philosophical  discuwion  of  iht 
subject  of  causes.  It  maybe  uliimalr,  reaching  to  Uod, 
or  proximate,  contemplaiini;  the  more  immediate  por- 
pose.  The  word  frlrologg  is  applied  to  the  argimtM 
from  design  in  proof  irf' the  Deity.  Also,  when  a  nat- 
ural philosopher  assigns  the  purpose  or  end  of  any  nat- 
ural arrDngement,as  tbe  oBentive  or  defensive  wrapons 
of  an  animal,  he  is  said  to  give  a  teleological  explaoi- 
tion.  "Existences  must  be  considered  as  Handing  in 
relation,  not  jnerely  to  caata  fffiatUti  (to  (heir  itnnie- 
diate  causes),  but  also  to  tatiiit  finalti ;  inileed,  (be 
cniiii*  r])CcKnrrt(hemselveBmust  be  coned  red  asmnved 
by  tbe  cauia  Jinala,  or,  in  other  wo^d^  by  the  eitmsl 
rational  ends  meant  to  be  subserved  by  created  ubjRU, 
which  ends,  although  in  one  reelect  yet  awaiting  resli- 
lation  in  the  future,  must  in  another  respect  be  tup- 
p^-'eil  to  be  already  cptralirt.  We  cannot  fully  under- 
stand realities  unless  we  look  forward  to  the  result!  to- 
tended  finally  to  be  attained.  Present  actualities  ibtn 
acquire  a  double  MgniBcance  and  receive  B  doable  ex- 
planation. The  whole  of  modem  speculation  has  a 
lelenl»gical  character"  (Martensen,  Ciiriir.  Dnjmii.  p. 

78  sq.). 

T«l«pta  (or  Talla),  Council  of,  propcrlv  Zctu 

(q.v.). 

TeleHpbfinia,  pope,  is  said  toharebeenoftiiecisn 
family,  and  to  have  occupied  the  see  of  Rome  from  A.D. 
128  to  189.  Our  kiioiiledge  ofhim  ia  altogether  legenil- 
ary.  An  interpolated  passage  in  the  Ckrameoii  oT  Eu- 
sebius  and  a  discourse  smuggled  into  the  works  of  .\ii>- 
broae  make  the  statement  (hat  Telesphmrus  bad  made 
the  TcgulalidliB  of  fasting  more  strict,  that  he  had  tx- 
tendeil  the  fait  before  Easter  (o  cover  seven  weeks,  and 
that  he  direcled  three  masses  lo  be  said  and  the  Gloria 
in  Eictlni  to  be  sung  in  the  night  before  ChriBtiNi. 
He  is  reputed  to  have  eaergetically  contended  sgainx 
the  heretical  teachings  of  Marcion  and  Valentine,  ind 
to  have  died  a  martyr's  death.  See  Henog,  Srat-E»- 
(yitop.  B.T,;  comp.  iloefer,  Aour  Biog.  CAi*rulf,s.v. 

TelaUrcbea  ( rtXtrapx>]C)>  ■  Greek  term  fer  a 

TelstaTcblkoa  (rcXtrap;(ucac),  a  Greek  lem  ug- 
nifying  eontfcrotiiig. 

Telete,  a  term  in  the  l^tin  Church  for  the  huly 
eucharlsL    See  TKLHiot. 

Tel-luu'e'Bba  (Neh.  vii,  61).    See  Tel-uirsa. 

Tel-bar'M  (Hcb.  [for  Chald.]  Td-ckariha;  '^^ 
X^'^n,  hiit  o/lht  arlificrr  [  Geaenius,  o/ die  vooi! 
Furst,  af  the  Mngui'] ;  Sept.  StXaffqaa  v.  r.  BiXapia; 
Vidg.  Thelharim).  one  of  the  Babylonian  towns,  or  vil- 
lages,  from  which  some  Jews,  who  "could  not  show 
their  father's  house,  nor  their  Seed,  whether  they  w«« 
of  Israel,"  returned  to  Judna  with  Zerubbabel  (Etraii, 


TELINQA  VERSION  2 

a-.  Nth.  Tii,  61  [A.V.''Tel-hiTesha]).  It  probiblj 
m  in  ilic  loir  country  near  Ihe  hi,  iu  tbe  ueighbor- 
toll  of  Tel-melah  and  Cherub,  places  which  are  >wo- 
duH  wilh  it.  Uenfel J'l  coujcecure  (CncA.  Iir.  i,  452) 
Ibil  Iht  DUiio  ii  coaDected  with  Ihe  river  Ilaraa,  in 
Sbiuu  (AmmUn.  Maic  Kxui,p.325,  Bip.)  u  very  pre- 

TelinEB  (or  Tklooooo)  Tenion.  The  Telingi 
Impugf  is  apokea  within  Iwcniy-three  miles  of  Ua- 
dns,  uid  pierails  for  about  Hve  hundred  miles  alunf; 

OriBi.  The  aupeificUl  eiteiit  of  the  enliie  regioi 
■luch  (bis  language  is  prednm' 
tt  118.611)  square  mite*.  Tb( 
EuntKr about  10,000,000.  TbeTelingslanguigeisslso 
difined  To  *  greater  or  lesi 
oiumes  of  Soulhem  India, 
Cwurett  are  the  proper  vemacutat  languages.  This 
dilfLiiiun  in  part  arises  from  Ibe  eidy  eoiicjuests,  daling 
turn  Ihe  t4ih  century,  achieved  by  the  people  irfTeliD- 
p  in  [he  Sooib.  Ulte  the  Ronians,  they  endeavored 
10  iKuie  ibeii  conquests  and  to  keep  the  natives  io 
mbjeciion  by  the  establinhnient  of  railiiaiy  colonies; 
■od  the  Telinca  language  is  still  spoken  br  the  ilescend- 
uu  nf  the  Telinga  families  who  were  depiileil  by  the 
kinp  of  Vidianagara  to  found  these  colonies.  The 
reaming  tendencies  of  the  Telinga  people  also  serve  to 
•Knint.  in  part,  for  the  diffiisiiin  of  the  language.  On 
ihis  lubjecl  the  missioiiarie*  have  remarked  that  "  in 
inieUi>ifncp,  migiatoiy  habits,  secular  prosperity,  and 
isfnqMuey  of  retom  to  their  native  bnd  this  people 
•n  in  relation  to  other  parts  of  India  what  the  Scotch 
sn  in  relation  to  England  and  the  world."  Benjamin 
Sckiluei  the  laborious  Danish  mistionary,  was  the  first 
ibo  engaged  in  a  Telinga  version  of  the  Bible.  He 
Haomced  his  translation  in  172G,  immedialel 
lii>  tompletion  of  tbe  Tamul  version  (q.  v.),  Ut 
laud  from  ihe  Greek  and  Hebrew  texts,  and  finished 
the  Telinga  version  of  Ihe  New  TesL  in  1727,  and  ol 
ih(  Old  Test,  in  1732,  iho  whole  bearing  the  title  Bi 
Un  r^viTHn  ex  Hrbnaca  H  Craeo  Ttxtu,  adhOilu 
■aftu  nUu  V'mionibHj,  in  Liaguan  Tttiigicnm  Trinit- 
lain  a  BrpjamiiHi  ScAuUiio  Miuinniria  ad  Ittdat  Ori- 
tialn  .In.  ITSi  Fniui  some  cause  hitherto  unex- 
pliioed,  Ibis  work  was  never  prinledi  aiul  Maiscb,  in 
lilt  BMiolirca  Saera,\i,Vi%Mj\:  "Quo  vero  tempore 
in  pahlicuiB  prodiluri  linC  Biblia  Telugice  impressa.  di- 
rin>  pmriilentin  reservatum  manebit."  Schulize  ilied 
in  17eo  ■!  Halle,  and  it  has  been  thought  that  bis  Te- 
lioci  MSS.  may  still  be  preserved  in  that  city.  In 
IHj  the  Serampore  missionaries  commenced  another 
nraioB  of  the  Scriptures  in  this  language,  and  in  1809 
ibtf  bid  Iranalaied  the  whole  of  the  New  Tetl.  and 
pan  »f  the  Old.  Owiog  to  various  causes  of  deliv,  Ihe 
N"ew  Test,  was  not  prinleil  tiU  IBIS,  and  in  l»tO  the 
ftnureiich  was  published. 

While  the  Serampore  version  was  in  progress,  the 
llir.  AiiRustus  Deigrangea,  of  Ihe  London  Missioiiarj' 
Sjorty.  had  commenced  another  version  and  earned  it 
"a  to  Ibe  close  of  the  First  EfHstle  to  tbe  Corinthians. 
Mt.  Dagranges,  who  bad  been  stationed  at  Viiagapa- 
tsa  Hncc  IWJ,  bad  the  assistance  of  the  Kev.  George 
Cna,  slio  stationed  there,  and  of  Anunderayer,  a  Telin- 
tt  Brahmin  of  high  caste  who  bad  been  converted  to 
Oiriaianity.  Io  1808  Hr.  Cran  died,  and,  two  years 
Isier,  Mr.  Uefgrange*.  On  examination  it  was  found 
Uit  the  first  ibree  goapels  were  Ihe  only  portions  of 
ite  irajulaiion  that  were  in  a  suie  of  leadineaa  for  the 
proa,  ur  theae  one  thousand  copiea  were  printed  at 
ItniBrpoTe  in  1813,  under  the  care  of  Anunderayer. 

la  the  meanliroe  another  version  of  Ihe  Telinga  New 
Tw.  bad  been  cmnmeoced.  Rev.  Hessn.  Pricchelt  and 
Ut.  agents  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  arrived 
"  ^—  ~  '  a  short  tioM  prior  lo  Ihe  decease  of 
Ur.  Lee  nudeilook  a  translation  of 


It  the 


■bnrarda  devolved  almost  mlusively 


ly  on  Ur.  Prit-  I 


11  TELLER 

chetl,wha  betook  himself,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  trana- 
lation  of  the  New  TesL  lu  IBIS  Mr.  Priichetfs  iSew 
Test,  was  issued  by  the  Uadtaa  Bible  Society.  He  now 
commenced  Ihe  tianslaiion  of  the  Old  Test.,  but  in  1820 
he  was  stopped,  in  tbe  midst  of  his  work,  by  death. 

Iu  1828  another  veraion  of  tbe  Scriptures  was  oHered 
to  the  Calcutta  Bible  Society  by  tbe  Rev.  J.  Gordon, 
also  of  tbe  London  Mi«ionary  Society.  It  was  very 
difficult  to  decide  upon  the  relative  merila  of  Ur.  Prit- 
chett's  and  Ur.  Gordon's  translation;  but  fiually  Ur. 
Gordon's  prevailed,  and  the  committee  of  the  Madras 
Society  resolved  upon  adopting  his  version,  requesting 
hira,  before  he  sent  it  to  Ihe  press,  to  compare  it  care- 
fully with  Mr.  Pritcheti's  Iranslslion.  Mr.  Gordon's 
important  labors  were  closed  by  death  in  1827.  After 
his  decease,  it  was  found  that  Ur.  PritcbeU's  version 
was,  attcr  all,  more  conect  than  had  been  expected, 
and,  after  introducing  certain  emendations,  an  edition 
of  two  thousand  copies  of  Ihe  Now  Test,  was  printed  in 
1828,  accompanied  by  two  thousand  copies  uf  Mr.  Gor- 
don's venion  of  Luke.  An  edition  of  three  tbousMid 
copies  of  the  Old  Test.,  baaed  upon  the  versions  of  Prit- 
chett  and  Gordon,  was  iinied  from  the  Madras  press  in 
1S55,  logether  with  Urge  ediiions  of  particular  portions 
of  the  Telongoo  Scriptures  both  of  the  Old  and  of  the 
New  Testament.  From  the  different  reports  we  learn 
thefollowingfacts.  The  report  for  1866  states  that -'an 
entirely  new  translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  executed  by 
C.P.Btown,  Esq.,  has  been  deposited  by  that  gentleman 
wiib  Ibis  auxiliaiy  wiib  a  view  to  future  publication; 
and  extracts  (him  (ienesis,  Proverbs,  Psalms,  Malaebi, 

lated  for  the  opinions  and  criticism  of  the  Teloogoo 
scholars."  That  fur  Die  year  18i>8  states  that  the  Te- 
loogoo  revision  committee  appointed  in  1S5T  had  com- 
pleted a  new  translation  of  Paul's  epistles  to  tbe  Ro- 
maus,  Colnssians,  and  Philemon,  and  of  the  general  ejda- 
lles  of  James,  John,  and  Jude,  logether  wilh  the  four 
gospels  and  Acts,  all  of  which  were  leaily  for  the  ptesa. 
In  IS63weTead:  "The  Old  Test,  has  been  publishsil  for 
tbe  flnl  time,  the  New  TesL  newly  translated  and  ■ 
revised  edition  recently  published."  In  l8Gt>  the  report 
states  that  the  "Madras  auxiliary  has  taken  up  the 
question  of  a  revision  of  Ihe  Telnogoo  01>l  Test.,  and 
has  appointed  a  committee  tor  thai  purpose,  on  tbe 
same  plsji  as  that  uf  the  Tamil  revision  committee. 
The  vcrMon  of  Ihe  Teloogoo  New  TesL  now  in  use  was 
adopted  in  1S&8,  and,  after  revision  by  a  commillce  ap- 
pointed for  tlie  purpose  of  bringing  Ihe  Kev.  Ueaara. 
Hay  and  Wardlaw's  iraniUlion  into  accordance  with 
Ibe  Itxtvt  ifcrplut  and  Ihe  rules  of  Ibe  society,  was  piib> 
lished  in  1860."  As  to  Ihe  revision  of  the  Old  Test.,  we 
learn  from  Ihe  report  for  18CT  thai  "a  committee  haa 
been  formed  by  the  Rev.  John  Hay,  who  has  already 
revised  the  books  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Num- 
bers. Deuteronomy,  and  Joshua.  The  remainder  of  ihe 
work  is  ill  progress."  At  present,  according  to  the  last 
report  for  1879,  the  following  parts  are  printed  and  cir- 
culated: IbeenEire  Bible  according  to  the  Vizagapatam 
version,  the  book  of  Genesis  according  lo  the  revised 
veraion.and  tbe  PenlaieiKh  and  New  Test,  published  in 
18aS.  ?«tThfBaUiHErrr3ljnd,m.\t\x^AtmualRt- 
pnm  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bibl«  Society.  (B.  P.) 
TelloT,  Romautu,  a  Lutheran  divine,  was  born 
Feb.  21,  1708,  at  Leipsic,  where  he  also  died,  April  5, 
1750,  as  doctor  and  profeaaor  of  theology  and  pastor  of 
St.  Thomas's.  He  wrote,  DitsrriaiiuH.  Saciir.  ad 
Oiuuat  HmttneuL  SptcianHum  Urmt  (Lips.  1740)  :— 
D.  HoUac :  Kxaxm  Thtal.  A  cronm.  dmon  t.lidit  ft  A  n- 
imaAwa.  auril ;  Ikmomlrall.  llomiUL-lhratogiat  (ibid. 
1728);  new  eililion,  laHHvli.  Tlifolagia  Homilrl.  MoJto- 
do  Sdeatiit  A'ucrii  IHgna  Attomata  (ibid.  1741).  Id 
connection  with  Baumgarten,  Brucker,  and  Dietelmaier, 
he  published,  Biirl,  d.  L  colUl&vlipt  Erktdruag  dtr  hfili- 
jHu  Sch>ift  amdem  Engtuchm  (ibid.  1748, 19  vols).  See 
"■■  r,  Hnmibach  der  IkfoL  LilfrMur,  i.  107,  186.  297l 
72e:Pan>,BiiLJutLiil.iia.     (EP.) 


fslher  HU  then  proffuoc  anrt  pulor.  In  1755  he  waa 
mads  catflchisc  and  bachelor  of  Iheolo^,  and  began 
with  his  earliest  lilerarj-  pruduction  to  disfday  hii  sj-ni- 
palby  with  ihe  liberal  school  of  theokigians.  He  turn- 
ed hia  altentioD  man  iinmetliately  to  the  criticini  oT 
the  tent  of  the  Old  TeaL  after  the  manner  of  Uichielii. 
In  1756  he  published  ■  Lalin  transUlton  of  Kenni- 
colt'a  diasertMion  on  Hebrew  text-criliciant.  In  1761 
he  WRB  made  general  superintendent  and  professor  at 
Heimstedt.  In  1764  he  issued  his  Lrhibuch  dn  chritl- 
Uchm  Glavbfiu,  which  revealed  the  advanced  theolog- 
ical views  to  which  he  had  aUained,  and  alarmed  the 
facullies  and  conalatories.  Its  position  was  that  of  the 
first  athge  of  ralionBlislic"enl<ghlennient,''  and  its  most 
noticeable  trait  a  revulsion  against  the  authority  of  tn- 
ditional  beliefs.  The  excitenienl  occ»ioned  by  ita  ap- 
pearance was  Bucb  that  the  whole  edition  was  conGs- 
caied  in  Electoral  Saxonv,  and  that  he  retained  hi 
iition  at  He)mst«dt  with  aetious  difBculiy.     From 

meiit  to  Cologne  on  the  Spree  as  provuet  and  me 
of  the  high  conwstory,  where  waa  the  very  heart  of  the 
panv  of  progreas,  and  where  he  felt  free  to  pubit 
the  world  his  views  wilhtnit  reservp.  He  did  Ihit 
Worltrbuch  d.  Naiea  Tatanienli  (1772,  and  aften 
in  six  editions),  whose  preface  contained  an  appi 
preachers  that  they  ahoutd  expound  not  only  llie  words, 
but  alaa.and  much  more,  the  ideaa,  of  Scripture,  because 
the  latter  contains  not  only  Hebrew  and  Greek  forma 
of  expression,  but  also  Hebrew  ami  Greek  forms  of 
thought.  A  further  opportunity  of  showing  his  inde- 
pendence occurred  in  179!  in  connection  with  ihe  tria 
of  a  preacher  named  Schnlz,  of  Gielsdurf,  for  departur 
fmm  the  standards  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  opiii 
ion  of  the  high  consistory  having  been  required,  Tel 
ler  voted  for  acquittal  on  the  grounds  that  under  the 
Lutheran  form  of  Church  government  every  person 
is  constituted  his  own  Judge  in  matters  pertaining  ic 
the  faith,  and  that  all  such  matlera  must  be  determined 
by  Scriptnre.  ScliuU  was  acquitted,  but  the  memben 
of  the  chamber  were  afterwards  fined  and  provost  Tel- 
ler was  suspended  for  three  months  because  of  this  ac- 
tion. The  latter  neverthelesa  proceeded,  in  the  samt 
year,  lo  publish  a  more  complete  statement  of  bis  viewi 
in  the  work  Dit  HfUgion  dfr  VoWammfnerfHj  who» 
t.hrniint»auptT/fe(ibililsii/ChritliiniOy.  In  1798  ht 
received  in  address  from  Jews  resident  in  Berlin  de- 
manning  admisnoa  into  the  Christian  Church  withoul 
the  imposition  on  them  of  a  Christian  creed ;  but  th( 
high  consistory  negstived  the  request,  though  with  re- 
gret, and  with  a  promise  to  impose  on  Ihe  petitioner) 
no  new  disabilities.  Teller  died  Dec.  %  1804.  Hii 
more  important  works  have  been  menlioned  airave. 

printeil  in  a  third  edition  as  early  as  1(93.  He  pub- 
liahcil  the  Ntaa  Magatin  /Br  Prtdigrr,  whose  tenth 
volume  appeared  in  1801,  which  was  also  well  rect' 
even  among  Koman  Catholic  clergyman.  In  addition 
to  original  work,  he  edited  Turretin's  Ti-aet.  di  Script. 
Sacr.Interprtlatioiu;  and  he  was  an  important  contTit>- 
ulor  to  the  A  ttgtm.  dnHiehr  BiUiolhrk.  See  Nicolai, 
GedHrhmitiKhriJt  au/ TtUrr  Omi):  Stmmariidt  I^ 
benmachr.,  appended  to  Troschei's  memoria!  discourse; 
Herzog,  Real- EatyUnp.  s.  v.;  Hacenbach,  Hul.  "f 
CilurcA  in  IHfjl  and  19M  Cmr.  i,  S47, 3C6, 371, 499. 

Telllar,  Michael  le,  a  Jesuit  and  father  confessor 
to  Lojis  XIV,  was  bom  at  Tire,  in  Normandy,  in  1643. 
He  ortered  the  Order  of  Jesuits  in  his  eighteenth  year, 
and  at  litst  devoted  himself  to  historical  studies,  whose 
fruit  was  an  edition  ofQuintas  Curtius  in  167S;  but 
evBiHually  engaged  in  theology,  becoming  one  of 
most  violent  opponents  of  Ihe  Jansenisls.  In  I67'>, 
1675,  aud  1684  he  published  fulminalions  againt 
Monj  (properly  Amsterdam)  version  of  the  Wlile  by 


TEMA 

De  Sacy  and  other  Fort- Royalists     He  co-opetairi 

*  '  father  Bouhoars  in  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures, 

o  China  ugaiuat  the  well-founded  complaints  raised 
Hat  them.  In  1699  be  issued  ■  Ili^mri  dti  Cbq 
Pif^mtitiptu  de  Jmumiai  under  the  name  of  Dumai, 
laaailed  Qneanel  (q.  V.)  as  a  lebel  and 
became  provincial  of  bis  order,  and  in 
the  king.  In  Ihe  latter  capacity  he 
succe«led  in  inducing  the  king  to  procure  from  pope 
Clement  XI  the  condemnation  of  the  New  Test,  with 
Queenel's  notes.  The  bull  Umgenilui,  which  occanoa- 
France,  and  was  forcibly  ei- 
be  charged  primarilv  upm 
Tellier.  His  dominion  ended,  however,  in  t7t5,'on  the 
death  of  Louis,  and  he  waa  removed  Hrst  to  Amiens  and 
afterwards  to  La  Fltche.  He  died  at  the  lalter  plact 
in  1719.— Herzog,  Kral-EnyUop.  t.  v. 

Tal-me'lah  (Heb.  Trl-r«f-UKh,  nVs'bn,  kU  JUU,- 
Sept.  QiXptXlx  and  etX/iiXt9,  v.  r.  e(X/u;^X  and  etp- 
/i(X(3n  ;  Vulg.  TMmalu)  is  joined  with  Tel-baisa  and 
Cherub  as  the  name  of  a  place  where  the  Jews  lelumed 
who  had  lost  their  pedigree  after  the  Cap) ivilv  (Eiraii, 
59;  Nch.iii.GlJ.  It  is  perhaps  Ihe  J'Acine  of  Pnrieaiy 
(V,  iO),  which  some  wrunglv  read  as  Thmmr  (eEAMH 
for  OEAM  K),  a  city  of  the  h>w  s«lt  tract  near  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  whence  probably  llie  name  (Gesen.  La.  //A 
S.V.).  Cherub,  which  may  be  prettv  surelv  identiW 
with  Ptolemy's  Ckiripka  (Xip<#a],  was  in  the  same  re- 
gion. Henfeld  (Cesci.  ftr.  i,  ib2)  inaisie  thst  it  desij^ 
nates  the  province  at  Afrti/rttr  according  to  ftolenij  (vi, 
3),  adjoining  Suaiana  west  of  the  Tigris;  but  PlolemT 
(v,  7,  5)  and  Pliny  (vi,  S)  know  only  a  Helitene  on  ui* 
border  of  Cappadocia  aud  Armenia  Msjor. 

Te'nui  (Heb.  Tryna',  Kyp  [in  Job  vi,  19  more 
concisely  Trma',  KSF)]  =the  Aiab. r-^ymn, " a  liririf 
[but  Gesen.=Teman.  i.  e.  the  Snulli];  Sept.  Baifiar, 
Vulg.  Thtma  [but  in  Iso.  Auitery),  the  name  of  a  per- 
son and  of  a  tribe  or  district. 

1.  The  ninth  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv,  15;  IChm 
i,30).     aC.  post  2030. 

2.  The  tribe  descended  from  him  mentioned  in  Jsb 
vi,19,"The  troops  of  Tema  looked,  the  companies  rf 
Sheba  wailed  for  Ihem,"  and  by  Jeremiah  (xxv,  S), 
"  Dedan, Tema.  and  Bui;"  and  also  the  land  occupied 
by  this  tribe ;  "The  burden  upon  Arabia.  In  the  fmetl 
in  Arabia  shall  ye  lodge,  O  ve  travelling  a 
Dedanim.  The  inhabilantsaf  ihelandofTem 
water  to  him  that  was  thirslv,  Ibey  prevet 

brud  him  that  fled"  (Isa.'xxi,  13, 14). 


Them 


>e  tribe  a 


writers.  Ptolemy  mentions  the  dly  of  nna- 
mt  (e»fi/iq)  among  those  of  Arabia  Deserts,  and  appar- 
ently in  the  centre  of  the  country  (fitogr.  v,  19).  Riny 
states  that  "lo  Ihe  Nabat«i  the  andenls  joined  tbe 
Thimaati'  {lliti.  NaT.  vi,  82).  It  may  be  qutstioMd, 
however,  whether  be  refers  to  the  Biblical  Trmm  u 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Themnw  of  Ptol- 
emy is  identical  wllb  Ihe  modem  Trima,  an  Atab  torn 
of  some  Ave  hundred  inhabitants,  sitQa(«d  on  the  wal- 
em  border  of  the  province  of  Nejd.  Wallin,  who  vint- 
e<l  it  in  1848,  thus  descrihea  it:  "Teima  stands  oa  i 
mass  of  crystalline  limestone,  very  slightly  rused  above 
the  auTTDunding  level.  Patches  of  sand,  which  hive 
encroached  upon  the  rock,  are  the  only  spots  which  tan 
be  cultivated.  The  inhabitants,  however,  have  contid- 
crabte  date  plantations,  which  yield  ■  great  variety  of 
Ihe  fruit,  of  which  one  kind  is  ealeemed  the  best  6ariiRd 
in  all  Arabia.  Grain  is  also  cultivated,  especially  oati 
of  a  remarkably  good  quality,  but  the  produce  is  nevti 
safGcicnt  for  the  wanla  of  the  inhabitants.  The  grcali- 
er  portion  of  the  gardens  are  watered  from  a  copious 
well  in  the  middle  of  the  village.  The  hydraulic  c>m- 
trivance  by  which  water  is  raised  for  distribution  through 
channels  among  Ihe  [daiitations  is  Ihe  same  as  is  oaed 


TEMAN  2 

(taoagb  UoDpotUDU  u  well  ai  in  N«Jd,  Tic  ■  buckel: 
of  cuDtl-akiii  hung  to  the  eod  of  ■  long  lever  movinfi 
■pan  ui  upriglit  pole  fixed  in  the  ground"  (Journal  S. 
ii.  3.  XT,  S32).  Arab  uriten  slite  of  T«ima  IhaC  "  ic  ii 
1  inn  in  the  Syrian  dewn,  anil  that  ic  la  commanded 
In  the  caade  called  El-Ablak  [or  EI-AbUk  el-Fanl],  of 
b-Scmawal  [Samuel]  Ibn-'Adiya  <be  Jew,  a  contem- 
pnn  at  Imrit-el-Keya'  (A.D.  c'ir.  550) ;  but  accanling 
ID  I  mdilion  it  was  built  bv  SolonMn,  wfaicli  poinu  ■[ 
UT  lale  ID  its  BRiiqyitv  (mmp.  El-Bekri,  in  Stardiid, 
ir,'l3).  Wallin  »«ya  no  remaini  of  the  casi  le  now  eii- 
iM,B«  does  even  (be  name  "lire  in  the  memoTy  of  the 


'  buried  in  sand  and  ml> 
■(■peaml  la  me  to  be  Uw  tnconaiderable  to  admit  c 
biinR  identified  with  the  celebrated  old  castle"  (ul 
1^333).  Thiarorlrew>eei»,lilcB  thalofDumat-el- 
iM,  19  be  one  of  the  strongholds  that  tnutt  bavo 
uetni  the  taraTan  route  along  the  northern  TrDnlii 
Atatai;  and  tbev  recall  the  passage  following  the 
meniioo  of  the  aona  of  Isbmael :  "TbeM  {are]  the 
gdihsatl.  and  theae  [are]  their  names,  bj  their  Ic 
Bd  br  their  aatleii  twelve  prince*  accarding  to  thdr 

It  .nms  probable  that  the  ancient  Arab  tribe  of  Bb»- 
Tiim.  of  whom  Afaalfeda  speaks  (Hvt.  Anlailam.  ed. 
FhiKtiH',  p.  138),  were  conDeeted  with  this  place,  and 
wcrv  ibe  more  recent  Tepreaentalirea  of  the  children  of 
TtniL  fonter  would  further  identify  the  tribe  ofl'eina 
(iih  tlie  Bai-Tfiaim,  who  bad  tbeir  chief  stations  on 
lit  ibora  of  the  Penian  Gulf;  but  his  proof  does  not 
Rn  gatiifactory  (Cm?.  o/vlniMtl,  i,  SB9  sq.). 

It  ii  laterefting  to  find  OMmotiala  of  the  nation  found- 
al  by  Ibis  son  of  Uhmaal,  not  meKlr  referred  to  by 
dOHc  and  Arab  geogmpheii,  bat  exiWiDg  to  the  prea- 
ni  dir,  in  the  rerj  region  where  we  TUlurally  look  for 
<ltn  (see  D'Anvill^  Gmg.  AndaiiK,  ii,  260;  Abolfeda, 
Dacnpi.  ^  rot.  p.  6  sq.;  SeeUen,  in  Zach,  MoaalL  Cor- 
lapaxlBa,  iviii,  874).  Like  other  Arab  tnbea,  the  chil- 
dm  Df  Tema  had  probably  a  nucleiu  at  tile  Iowa  of 
Ttiitii,wbile  Ibeir  pasture-ground*  extended  westward 
u  (bi!  border*  of  Eiloin,  and  eastward  to  tht  Eaptaratet, 
jut  as  those  of  the  Beiii  Sbnmmar  do  at  the  present 

To'igui  (deb.  rfynum,  yo^P),  the  rigM,  also  the 
■Ml  Hoften;  Sept.  Ooi^iiii' T.  r.  Si/inv  and  8afiiiv; 
Talg  TVnaa  v.  r.  MariHa,  Avter),  the  naow  of  a 
mao.aiid  also  of  a  peopte  and  countr]'. 

1.  The  oldest  son  of  Elipbaa  the  son  of  Esau  (Oen. 
imi,!!).  Racir.  1960.  It  would  appear  that  Te- 
■an  was  the  Brat  dtJx  or  prince  (P\^\  K)  of  the  Edom- 
ilB  |(,  lb);  and  that,  having  founded  a  tribe,  he  gan 
Ut  otme  to  the  region  in  which  it  settled  (v,  S4). 

2.  The  country  of  the  Temanites,  which  fornie4  in 
■(ter-ap*  the  chief  stiODBhold  of  Idumaan  power. 
Iltwe,  when  the  Lord  by  the  mouth  of  Elukiel  pn>. 
rBHnced  ihe  doom  of  Edom,  he  said,  "I  will  Disks  it 
iit»i*te  from  Teman"  (ixv,  IS).  The  Temanile*  were 
ciMrslal  for  their  courage;  hence  the  force  and  point 
»l  OUduh's  Judgment:  "  Thy  mighty  men,  O  Teman, 
lUU  be  dismayed"  (ver.  9).  They  were  also  ramous  for 
ndoD;  in  allusion  to  wbich  characteristic,  and  per- 
tips  with  special  reference  to  Job's  friend  Eliphai  the 
Teoanile.  Jeremiah  mournfully  asks,  "Is  wisdom  no 
HniuTeman?  ia  counsel  perished  from  the  prudent? 
>  lUir  wisdom  vanished?"  (Jer.  xlix,  7;  Job  ii,  II; 
tnp^  Batucb  iii,  33.     See  Pusey,  On  Obadialt,  ver.  8). 

Tbe  geographical  position  of"  the  land  of  Teman,"  nr, 
■m  literally,  the  "  land  of  the  Temanite,"  aa  it  is  called 
is  G™.  iixvi,  M  (■"JO-'nn  yy^-q :  Sept.  ic  rflc  y^c 
SaiiiitMn',  A.  T.  "Temani"},  i*  nowhere  defined  in 
^pture;  but  there  are  several ioeidenlsl 


■fndtoai 


1.  It  i< 


Uaiaidy  manected  with  Edom,  and  manifeHly  eilbcr 
(med  ■  ptvrtmie  of  it,  or  lay  upon  it*  border  (Jer.  xUk, 
'.10>    In  one  pwaage  it  t*  indnded  in  the  sBDie  cult* 


i3  TEMNEH  VERSION 

with  Bomb,  the  capital  of  Edom :  "  I  will  senil  a  Are 
upon  Teman,  which  shall  devour  Ihe  palaces  of  Bozrah" 
(Amos  i,  12).  2.  Habakkuk  joins  Teman  in  paralkliam 
with  Mount  Paran  (iii,  3);  and  this  might  probably  in- 
dicate that  the  portion  nf  Edom  lying  over  against  Ka> 
desh,  beside  which  rose  Uount  Pirsn  (q.  v.],  was  called 
Teman.  Perhaps,  a*  the  northern  section  of  Edom  wa* 
called  Gebal,  the  southern  seclion  may  bave  got  the 
name  Teman.  8.  Eiwkiel  groups  Teman  in  such  a  way 
with  Edom  and  Dedan  as  would  lead  (o  the  concliirion 
that  it  lay  between  them,  and  therefore  on  the  south 
and  soatb-east  of  the  former  (Ezek.  xxv,  IB).  See  Dk- 
DAN.  On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  Teman  wa* 
the  name  given  by  K>au'*  disdnguisbed  grandson  to  his 
IwssessioDS  in  (he  southern  psrt  of  the  mouulaina  of 
Edom.  Aa  the  tribe  increased  in  atrenglh  and  wealth, 
they  spread  out  over  tbe  region  extending  eoiilhward 
along  the  shore  of  Ihe  Gulf  of  Akabsh,  and  eastward 
■        ■    '  *       " passage  in 


>k  of  Joshua,  hitherloi 


laidered  obscun 
«ntlym 


n  Biblical 
geography  tend  to  elucidnl*.  The  sacred  writer  com- 
mences  hi*  deacriplion  of  Ihe  territory  of  J  udah  in  these 
words:  "Thia,Ihen,wa3  Ihe  lot  ofihe  children  of  Judah: 
even  to  Ihe  border  of  Edom  the  wildemcsa  of  Zin  south- 
ward was  the  nttermosl  part  of  the  soul h  coast"  (xv,  I). 


Besidi 


a  lite 


of  the  Hebrew;  and  lb*  renderings  of  (he  Sepl. 
and  Vulg.  are  still  worse.  Tbe  Hebrew  may  be  traiis- 
laled  aa  follow*:  Towards  (or  alaag,  Vst)  the  bonier  of 
Edom,  the  wildemeea  of  Zin  to  the  N'e^b  (HBU)  from 
the  extremity  of  Teman""  (l«''n  ^J[;^tl).  The  writer 
ia  describing  the  sonth-eattem  section  of  Ihe  lerrilury. 
It  extended  along  the  border  of  Edom.  including  the 
wildcmen  of  Zin  from  Ihe  extreme  (north-western)  cor- 
ner of  Teman  to  llie  Negeb.  Teman  is  unquestionably 
a  proper  name,  as  is  ehuwn  by  Ihe  nord  Fixps  being 
placed  before  it.  So  also  is  Negeb.  The  wilderness  of 
Zin  extended  up  a*  far  as  Kadesh,  and  a  part  of  it  was 

of  Edom  a*  far  north  as  Mount  Ilor,  opposite  Kadesh ; 
and  thus  the  territory  of  Judah  reached  (o  its  extreme 
north-western  comer.  The  Nrgeb  included  the  downs 
along  the  southern  base  of  the  Juilean  hills,  and  lay  be- 
tween them  andthewildenvessofZin.  The  above  trans- 
lation ia  found  in  part  in  the  Arabic  version,  and  ia 
adopted  by  Houbigint.. 

The  accounts  given  by  Eusebios  and  Jerome  of  To- 
man are  not  cunaiatent.  They  describe  it  as  a  region 
of  the  ruleraof  Edom  in  Ihe  lanrtofGfinii/u;  and  i hey 
further  stsle  that  there  is  a  village  of  that  name  fineen 
(Jerome  has>nr)  miles  from  Petra.  But  in  another 
notice  they  appear  to  diatinguish  thia  Teman  from  one 
in  Arabia  (fimimatt.  a.  v.  "  Theman").  On  ihe  map  in 
Burckhardl's  TVaerbviiSyria,  Theman  i*  identified  wi(h 
the  modem  village  of  J/iitin,  cut  of  Peira;  but  for  this 
there  seems  In  be  nn  auchurity  (Winer,  Bibliichtt  Rtai- 
aOrlnb.  a.  v.  "Theman."  See  Porter,  Hiotdboolc/or  Sgr. 
and  Pal.  p.  58).  The  occupation  of  Ihe  eonntt7  bv 
the  Nabathisans  seems  Co  have  obliterated  almoat  all 
of  Ihe  tracea  (always  obscure)  of  tbe  migratory  tribes 
of  Ihe  desert.    See  Edou. 

Te'manl  (Gen.  xxxvi,B+)  or  Te'manite  (Heh. 
Trjpaam'i^ilS'^Vi-,  Sept.eaifiavf  oreui/infinic)  isthe 
litle  (1  Chron.  i,  46;  Job  ii,  II  sq.)  of  a  descendsnt  of 
Teman  or  an  inhabitant  of  that  Unit    See  TKMjtit. 

Tsm'enl  ["ome  Te'meni  or  Teiie'ni]  (Heb.  Trgmt- 
ni',  ^  W^n,  r*ninmre[Gesco.l  ni forlmalr  [  Ir'llrsI] ;  Sept. 
Baifiav,  Vulg.  Thrtaam),  second-named  of  tbo  bur  sons 
of  Ashnr  (q.  v.),  (he  "  rBiheT"af  Tekoa  by  his  wife  Naa- 
rah  (I  Chron.  iv,6).     KC  cir.  1618. 

Temneb  (or  Timneh)  Venlon.  Temneb  is  tbe 
language  apoken  in  the  Ituiah  counlrj-,  near  Sierra  L*- 
one,  in  West  Africa.    At  present  there  exisu  a  iransia- 


TEMPER  2^ 

tion  of  the  Kew  T»t^  Genesia,  anil  Pulmi.  The  <i«- 
p«1  ufSt  Matthew,  tnnalateil  by  [be  Rev.  C.  F.  ^Iilen- 
ker,  w««  prinied  only  in  1866,  the  other  pwtB  now  pub- 
liehnl  bsvinR  been  addiKl  tince  ihkt  time.  Comp.  Re- 
parti  of  tbe  Briiish  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.    (H.  1'.) 

Xamptr,  the  diaponition  at  (he  mind,  ihe  aum  of 
our  inelinations  and  tendenciM,  whethet  natural  or  ac- 
quired. The  word  iaaeldnra  uaed  by  good  wril«n  with- 
out an  epithet,  as  a  goad  or  a  bad  temper.  Temper 
moat  be  diitingiiiahed  (rom  panion.  Tlie  paaucini  are 
quick  and  stroiiK  emotiona,  which  by  degrees  >ub»ide. 
Temper  ia  the  disposition  whieh  remains  after  Iheae 
emotions  are  past,  and  which  forma  the  habitual  pm- 
penstty  of  the  loul.  See  Erana,  Practical  jDticotirvi  on 
the  ChTUtiia  TtmptT;  and  the  various  articles  Fobti- 
Tui'K,  HuuiLiTT,  Love,  Patjumck,  etc 

Temparance  ((yiportio,  t(f-rtilrai«i),  that  vit- 

restrains  his  Knaiial  appetite.  It  i>  often,  however,  naeit 
ill  a  much  more  general  sense,  as  synonymous  with  niod- 
tralion,  and  it  then  applied  indiacriminately  to  all  the 
pasaions.  "Tempcranie,"  aayi  Addison, "  has  thoae  par- 
ticular advantages  above  all  other  means  of  health,  that 
it  may  be  practiced  hy  all  ranks  and  conditions  at  any 
season  or  in  any  place.  It  is  a  kind  of  regimen  ini« 
which  every  man  may  put  himself  without  interruption 
to  business,  expense  of  money,  or  loss  of  time.  Phytic^ 
for  the  most  part,  is  nothing  else  but  the  aulntilnte  of 
exercise  or  temperance."     In  order  to  obtain  and  prnc 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM 


command  (Phi 


ir  it,  1 
5;  Luke  !tKi,Mi  Prav.xxiii,  1-3 
health;  8.  Aa  advantageiius  to  I 
powera  of  the  mind ;  4.  As  a  deronce  against  Injuatii 
lust,  imprudence,  detraction,  poverty,  etc ;  5.  The  e 
ample  of  Christ  should  be  a  most  powerful  stimulus 

Temperaaco  Reform.  As  an  organized  mov 
menl,  the  temperance  reformation  ia  of  very  modem 
origin.  For  ages,  indeed,  wise  men  have  deplored  111 
miseries  of  the  habit  at  whose  extinction  it  aims;  yc 
it  is  hut  recently  tbst  the  enomDus  magnitude  o 
those  evils  seems  to  have  been  fully  apprehended,  th 
true  basis  of  reform  recognised,  aiid  united  and  per- 
sistent effort  made  for  the  auppteamoo  of  the  gigan^c 
mischief. 

I.  The  Habil  of  Z>nmicineM.— An  interestinfc  fact 

toxicants.  Man  discovered.  long  ago,  that  bis  menial 
slate  ia  affected  by  the  action  of  certain  drugs,  and  tbal 
they  have  power,  not  only  to  lend  increased  enjoymeni 
10  social  hours,  but  to  lessen  pain,  cheer  tbe  despundiiip 
and,  for  a  brief  period,  lift  even  the  despairing  out  of 
the  [lepths.  Thus  Homer  describes  the  effects  of  tie- 
paiihe  (Odgtlry,  Ik.  iv) : 
"Mesnllme.  with  eenlnl  Joy  to  warm  the  soni, 

Bright  Helen  railed  a  mlrth-liisplrlng  bowl. 

Tempered  nllh  drng#  of  soverefgn  nte,  to  nuungo 

The  hiilllni;  bOFom  of  tDmiillnnut  rage : 

To  clenr  Ibe  cluudjr  front  nf  wrinkled  Care, 

And  dry  the  lentriil  slnlcea  of  Despair. 

Charmed  with  ihst  potent  ilrangbt,  the  einlled  mind 

noUEh  on  the  blailnii  pile  hia  fniber  lay. 
Or  a  loved  brother  sroaued  bis  life  away ; 

Fell  breatiilese'iithla  feet,  a  mangled  corse: 

From  morn  to  ere,  Impaaalte  anfl  sereiio, 

Tbe  man,  enlrauced,  would  view  the  deaihfiU  scene." 

This  is  a  true  portrait,  and  fits  our  own  times  as  aecU' 
ralely  as  it  did  those  of  HonKr.  Thia  state,  which  wt 
have  been  accustomed  to  charaeteriie  by  tbe  term  in- 
toxication, or  drunkenness,  is  In  reality  a  eomtrinalior 
of  two  effects,  narcosis  snd  exhilaration.  Notonlywhen 
tbe  victim  has  become  visibly  dnink,  but  from  tbi 
ment  when  tbe  dose  begins  ile  impression,  the  cii 
tion  loses  force,  tbe  blood  cools,  physical  strengll 
dines,  the  nerves  are  less  sensitive,  mental  acum 
dulled,  and  every  power  of  roiud  and  body  it  lessened. 


lull,  there  is  a 


eshiUn 


sciousneas  of  augmented  powers.  He  never  before  fdt 
so  strong,  or  realized  Ihat  he  naa  so  ititelleelual,  an 
wise,  to  witty ;  he  never  before  had  so  much  couGdenoe 
in  hia  own  powers,  or  contemplated  himself  generally 
with  BO  much  satiaTaetion.  This  delusion  eontiniM, 
and  even  increases,  while  he  it  sinking  rapidly  into  nt> 
ler  imbeeilily,  mental  and  pbvsicaL 

There  are  various  tubalancea  which  have  less  or  more 
of  this  strange  potency.  Those  chiefly  osed  for  Ibe  de- 
liberate purpose  of  producing  these  ejfects  are  slcohij, 
ofHum,  the  hemp  poison  (Cmmoiu  Jitdica),  tobaccc,  the 

the  general  effect  of  these  substance*  is  the  same,  there 
is  tome  variety  in  their  actioo.  Alcohol  bensmbt  Ibe 
body  more  rapidly  than  opium  and  Indian  hemp,  and 
lendt  more  to  noiie  and  vinience  at  llrtt,  and  a  paralytic 
stagger  afterwards.  The  thorn-apple  produces  lenpo- 
rary  delirium  as  ihe  final  symptom.  The  coca-ltaf, 
IoImcco,  and  the  betel-nut  are  milder  form*  of  ibe  in- 
loxicating  principle,  and  seem  to  be  uaed  chiefly  to  al- 
disquiet,  and  superinduce  a 


imfort 


led  indulgence  tends  to  the  formation  of  a 
tyrannical  habit,  whose  force  grows  out  of  tbe  fact  Ibat 
repeated  druggings  produce  an  abnormal  condition  of 
the  brain  and  of  the  whole  nervous  aystem.  The  notice 
experiences  his  dreamy  joys  for  a  brief  space,  and  ihm 
comes  out  of  them  in  a  condiliou  more  or  less  morbid, 
according  to  Ihe  power  of  the  dose.    He  generally  rs- 


has  no  desire  to  repeat 

it  again  and  again,  ' 
himsdrin  the  clulcl 


bis  experience;  but  ifbe  repeats 
will  not  be  long  before  be  Ends 
]pelil«,  and  burdened 
pressing  want.  Now,  when  tbe  fom  of 
Ihe  last  dosB  of  tbe  drug  has  been  spent,  be  is  in  a  con- 
dition of  uuresl,  menuil  and  physical,  which  nay  be 
only  a  alight  degree  of  uneasiness,  or  amount  to  diint 
agony,  according  to  the  atage  which  he  baa  reached  in 
his  downward  rosd.  From  this  disquiet,  or  distress,  he 
knowt  of  only  one  method  of  quick  relief,  and  Ibit  is 
another  dose  of  the  same  drug.  And  so  the  dmg  be- 
comes the  tyrant  and  he  the  ^ve.  As  the  coilsoflbe 
serpent  tighten  about  him,  he  sinks,  menially,  morally, 
socially.  At  last  he  caret  only  for  his  drug,  or  nlbrr 
is  driven  to  it  by  the  lash  of  remorse  and  horror,  which 
come  upon  him  whenever  he  is  not  under  the  tpclL 
He  cares  not  for  pvverty,  rsRS.  and  dirt,  for  coM  and 
hunger.  He  cares  less  for  bis  wife  and  diildrm  than  a 
tiger  does  fur  his  mate  or  a  wolf  for  his  cubs.  The  pity 
of  the  good,  the  scnm  of  the  brutal,  the  prayers  and 
tears  of  those  who  love  him,  the  wrath  of  the  living 
(iud,  hare  no  power  lo  move  him,  and  in  pasuve  and 
hopeless  shatoe  and  despair,  allemaling  with  brief  wa- 
sons  of  attempted  reform,  he  goes  down  to  his  dooca. 

ir.  £ifnUaBrftci^.//itfoi»cHsoa.— ThultheA^ia^ 
ic  peoples  bear  the  burilen  of  evil  caused  by  indulgenm 
in  opium  and  the  hemp  inloxicanl.  llius  Europe  sad 
America  groan  under  Ibe  woes  inflicted  by  alcohoL 


ir  ending  June 


10,  is;». 


156,122  retail  dealers  ir 
states  and  territories  of  Ihe  Union,  and  the  total  re- 
ceipts fmni  Ibe  taxes  levied  on  distilled  liquon  wFie 
over  *B2,000,0<».  This  is  an  increase  over  the  previooi 
year  of  1082  in  Ihe  number  of  dealers,  and  t!,000,oai)  in 
ihe  receipts.  The  same  year,  82;,(I00,0DD  gailiws  of 
malt  liquors  paid  into  the  Treasury  over  #10,010,0(10, 
making  the  total  receipts  from  taxee  on  alcoholic 
liquors  9G3,000,00a  The  Increaaed  consumption  oF 
malt  liquors  the  same  year  wss  S6,OD0,OOO  gsllou. 
The  total  annual  outlay  in  the  United  Slates  fur  dis- 
tilled and  malt  liquors  cannot  be  len  than  t70O,O0fl,0l)IX 
In  England,  during  Ihe  year  ending  Sepl.BO,  18T8,lh«ie 
were  I56.&89  licensed  venders  of  inloxicallng  liquor^ 
and,  as  tbe  report  of  the  committM  of  tbe  House  of 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM        21 

Itfdi  thaws,  the  drinking  habili  of  the  people  cot 
t)>Mi  Hie  Him  or  «7 18,000,000. 

Bui  Ihii  faormoiu  irute,  which  iwillowa  np  »  Urge 
I  pan  of  the  euningi  of  the  people,  a  only  the  begin- 
uiof;  or  woei.  Vice,  crime,  piiiperism,  public  evils,  and 
fubiic  bordeni  of  ereiy  kind  multipl.T  in  direct  propor- 
[ioutolhe  prerdenceoriheakolialichBbit.  What  ure 
unlljr  ailed  Che  duigeroiu  claaaea  in  our  ciciea  ace  iti 
rreitigo.  It  IB  ■  proliBc  ■ouice  of  political  oorTUption. 
PamTul  in  lotea  and  monef,  and  with  in  iiutinctive 
diwi  of  iotexrily  in  public  men,  the  liquor  interaat 
gnriiaua  to  the  wrong  side  of  eiery  public  question. 
Bf  iu  lid  bad  men  are  exalted  to  office,  the  lavri  are 
inpeifeeilyadminisleredplite  and  property  are  rendered 
iiiiicuR,and  taxes  increase.  In  lU  CbriBtiaii  lands,  the 
liquor  hihic  and  the  liquor  interest  are  recognised  more 
and  mm  clearly  as  the  direct  anuganists  or  morals,  re- 
ligion, and  every  element  or  the  welfare  of  men  and  na- 
tiuti.    On  thne  groandi  the  temperance  reform  basea 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM 

In  16(1  the  people  of  East  Hampton,  on  Long  Island, 

resolved,  at  a  town  meeting,  that  no  one  should  retail 
liquor  bill  Buch  aa  were  regularly  authorized  to  engage 
in  (he  buiinesa,  and  eren  then  not  to  furnish  "above 
half  a  pint  at  a  time  among  four  men.''  Something  li  lie 
a  prohibitory  law  is  said  to  have  been  passed  by  the 
Virginia  colony  in  1676,  but  what  the  novel  experiment 
amouitted  to  caunot  now  be  aacertained.  The  practice 
of  providing  liquor  on  funeral  occasions  generally  pre- 
vailed I  and  it  was  not  until  about  the  year  1760  that 
an  eamest  combined  effort  was  made  by  the  various 
churches  to  abollab  it,  and  even  this  small  reform  was 
not  accomplished  till  many  veara  afterwards. 

On  Feb.  28, 1777,  the  Craitiuental  Congress,  then  in 
Philadelphia,  pasaeil  unanimously  the  follow- 


ended  lo  the  sevenl  legle- 


III.  /ItMtrny  o/Oia  Trt^trcaut  JVaeantRf.— The  first 
t#ir»  to  stay  this  tide  or  death  date  back  many  years. 
I  in  ancient  timea — there  were  per- 
I,  generally  through  religioua  mo- 
licatlng  drinks  of  their  day.  Such 
me  tlie  Naiaritcs  among  the  Jews,  and  the  Vestala 
isoog  the  RomaoSi  All  through  the  agea,  excess  has 
•tn  amdemned  by  the  thoughtful,  while  the  moderate 
■ngrintozicaauwas  long  deemed  allowable,  if  not  nee- 
■iiy.  Thus  the  colonies  of  MassacliuseCti  and  Con- 
■rtkot,  as  long  ago  ai  1689,  passed  laws  designed  to 
sive  use  or  distilled  liquors. 

wai  the  pioneer  of  the  modem  reTorm. '  thropjst  of  Philadelphia,  and 
"  '       >tepaied  tbe  "General  Rules"  for   or  Independence,  made 


g  resolution: 


■f,  TlintU  be  recna 


t  effectlvi 


focpnlllne  an  Immediate  a 


II Iclous  practice  or dlstllmut  grain,  by  which  the  moat  i 
lenslvB  evils  bib  likely  to  be  derived  IT  not  quickly  p 


U  ilw  ri 


1  ofhis  societies,  and  it 
aina  of  the  times  he 


.  o/« 


Thi 


rule*  which,  as  he  declarea,  "  we  art  taugfat  or  God  to 
ohisTe,  even  in  his  written  Word )"  and  the  rule  stands 
ifrdar,  ID  the  eitact  words  or  Wesley,  in  the  DucipHu 
a/nk  Mttiodiit  Epaoapal  Churti.  Wesley  was  equil- 
t>  naispoken  in  the  pulpit.  In  hia  sennon  Oa  Me  Uu 
D/Jfnn^  it  the  loUowing  passage : 

neighbor 
'■■■--hicl 

,  ..  _it  llqnid  lite  c 

nnnir  called  drams,  or  nulriipoat  llqanre.  It  is  true  tbei 
•ur  have  a  pUca  In  medlclua  .  .  .  alihiiagh  (heie  noul 
niTij  tie  □cowlon  for  Ibem,  were  It  not  rur  the  nnikllfa 
MX  of  tha  practttloner ;  iherelore  such  sa  prepare  an 
Hll  ibem  DolT  rnr  this  end  nuy  kenp  iheir  cnniclenr 
clui.  .  .  .  Bnt  all  who  sell  tbem  In  the  commnc  vriy  I 


ing  his  people   to  the  evili 
■mes  dnudmatH, '  the  cily  united  it 
drialiag  them,  ua-    they  compare  "  tbi 
'    *       to  Ihoae  or  "  plagL 


This,  bowerer,  seeme  to  have  been  a  war  measure  rath- 
er than  an  attempt  at  reform.  It  makes  no  mention  of 
present  effects,  but  is  prompted  by  the  fear  or  some  Tut- 
ure  evil,  probably  a  scarcity  of  griiin,  caused  by  the 
gitlieriug  of  fami  laborers  into  tbo  army,  and  the  con- 
sequent lessened  production. 

In  17X9  two  hundred  rarmers  of  Lilcbfield,  Conn^ 
united  in  a  pleilge  not  lo  use  distilkd  liquors  in  their 
rarm-work  the  ensuing  season.  In  1790  a  volume  of 
sermons,  the  authorship  of  which  has  been  attributed 
to  Dr.  Denjamin  Rush,  an  eminent  patriot  and  phiian- 

■      '" ifthe  Decbralion 

iiession  in  regard 


)holic  vice,  and  tbe  physi' 
memorial  to  Congress,  in  which 
cages  of  distilled  apiriis  upon  lire" 
r  pestilence,"  only  "  more  ccrlun 
,  and  pray  the  Congress  tn  "  impose  such 
heavy  dutiea  upon  alt  distilled  spirits  as  shall  be  effect- 
ual 10  restrain  their  intemperate  use." 

In  I'M  Dr.  Rush  published  an  essay  entitled  A 
Medical  tnqiiinj  in»o  the  t^Jfecti  tf  A  rietA  SpiiiU  upon 
the  Bojg  and  Mind,  in  which  he  srgues  that  the  habit- 
ual use  of  distilled  liquors  is  useless,  pernicious,  and  uai- 
vemtly  dangerous,  and  that  their  use  as  a  beverage 
ought  In  be  wholly  abandoned.  Still  the  blow  was 
aimed  at  distilled  spirits  only,  and  the  true  ground  of 
reform  was  nut  yet  reached. 

In  1808  a  society  was  formed  in  Saratoga  County, 

N.Y.,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  lint  permanent  or- 

■  ."fp""      ■       ■ 


»i>ia*>aBty'BaBMecIsby  whore*ole,neiiherdn«s  tnelreye    perance.     It  waa  called  "Tbe  Union  Temperate  So- 

Tb.Mhw,  woiiM  eoiv  their  larie  eslnles  and  samptnons  I  pledged  themselves  not  lo  dnnk  any  dislillcd  sptrils  or 
paltear    A  caraa  la  In  ibe  midai  odbem;  tbe  cnne  of  i  wine,  nor  offer  them  to  others,  under  a  penaltv  of  licsi'y- 


«  ofOodUli 

Hl'-d;  Uood'ls  there ;  liie  RniudailnD,  the  floor,  tl 

>tt  r<«t,  are  suiuwl  with  blood.    And  canst  lb< 

Om-BBiaunr  blood!  thiiugliihnR  sn  clothed  li 

•irf  tat  haen,  and  forest  snmpiniinslv  every  day— cixnst 

ihiB  hope  lo  dellrar  down  Ihy  flelil*  of  ^'~~•  -  "■-  ■■■■-■ 

mKnulunr    Not  ao,  lor  then  li  a  God  1 

fmv  thy  name  abail  soon  be  rooted  oat.' 


T1«ae  bold  wordaw 


if  iuoiicBiing  liquors  was  universal,  both 
ml  America.  Thus  John  Wesley  leaped  at  once  to  a 
l«iiioa  which  other  reformers  did  not  reach  in  almost 
>  bandml  yeara.  Indeed,  in  regarti  to  another  mailer, 
■>*cw)i*t  akin  to  alcoholic  indulgences,  he  at  once  ad- 
luccd  to  a  position  towards  which  bis  rolloweia  in  our 
on  day  an  reehly  straggling,  but  which  no  Church,  as 
•seta,  hat  yet  reached.  He  strongly  counielted  his  peo- 
A  not  10  uae  muff  or  tobacco,  and,  in  regard  to  his 
pnchett,  morde  it  a  pondve  role  that  none  of  them 
«a  "  to  ute  tabMoa  Tor  smoking,  chewing,  or  tnuff,  un- 
aphjHdtD.'' 


those  days,  and  the  projectors  of  it  were, 
'?°'  1  DO  doubt,  duly  abused  as  madmen  and  fanatics. 
'      I      Still,  the  day  was  dawning.     Religious  bodies  began 
awake.     In  1812  tbe  General  AsBcmbly  of  the  Pre*- 
■niKsiii  luvns-    nyterisn  Church  adopted  a  report  which  urged  all  the 
ministers  or  I  liat  denomination  to  preach  on  the  subject, 
when  the  use    and  warn  Iheir  hearers  "  not  only  sgainst  ac 


eveni  day— ■ 


third 


and  indulgence* 
which  may  have  a  tendency  to  produce  iL"  The  Gen- 
eral Association  or  Connecticut,  the  same  year,  adopted 
a  report  prepared,  by  Rev.  Lyman  Bcecher,  which  rec- 
ommended entire  abstinence  from  all  distilled  liquors. 
Thus  they  reached,  in  1812,  the  pMition  which  John 
Weslev  occupied  Bud  inculcated  m  his  "General  Rules" 
ill  1748.  The  same  year  (18i2),  the  Consociation  of 
Fairfield  County,  Conn.,  publitlicd  an  appeal  which 
goes  one  step  rurther.  It  saya,  "  The  remedy  wo  would 
suggest,  particulariy  to  those  whoso  appelite  for  drink 
is  Birong  and  increasing,  is  "  """'  '■""'" 


a  total  absliaencc  rrom  the 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM         !4«  .      TEMPERANCE  REFORM 


a*e  i>raU  inloiicUing  liqaon."  Tbu,  thgy  wlmil,"  mij 
bedtemed  >  hinh  mnKlj',"  but  ihey  ipulapie  (ur  it  on 
the  ground  chmt  "  llie  iMUire  of  the  diieue  ■bsolulelT 
requires  ii."  The  conBocittion,  *t  the  same  time,  inmde 
■  praclkal  begiiiiiiii((  arrefurm  by  excluding  bU  apirilu- 

In  18ia  the  MaiHcbuMtta  Society  fur  Ihe  Siippret- 
aou  of  Inlecnperance  wu  farmed  in  DoMau.  The  ao- 
ciely,  however,  aimed  only  to  Hippna*  "  ihe  too  free  use 
uf  anient  epiriia  and  iu  kindtnl  vices,"  uiri  therefore 
■eoooipluhed  liltle.  Slilt,  all  ibeae  msvemeou  called 
public  atleDtion  to  the  evil,  and  kept  men  thinking. 
The  apell  of  indiOetence  waa  broken,  the  Uitcuuion  be- 
came more  eame«t  and  Ihnrough,  and  appeal*,  Mimona, 
and  pimphlele  began  to  isaue  from  ihe  prena.  Fore- 
mint  among  thete  wrilen  was  Rev.  JuMin  Edwarda, 
pantuc  of  the  Church  at  Andorer,  Man.,  who  aflcrwarda 
occupied  a  etilt  more  prominent  place  in  the  reform 
moTCment.  In  1823  Dr.  Eliphalet  Nukt,  preridtnt  of 
Union  Collie,  publiahed  a  volume  of  Smnoiu  «  ike 
Urilt  of  lalemptrrnicr,  which  greatly  aided  the  reform. 
In  Januart-,  I8!G,  Rev.  Calvin  Chapin  publithed  in  the 
Cmneaical  Obterttr  a  wriea  of  articka  in  which  he  look 
the  f^und  that  the  only  real  antidote  fur  the  evils  dep- 
reciled  ia  tuUl  abetinence,  not  only  from  distilleil  apir 


— (olal  abetioence  from  all  inroxicating  drinki.  Ur. 
Luther  Jacksoo.  of  the  cily  of  New  York,  prepand  i 

pledge  of  this  chancter,  and  aecnred  a  thousand  Bigaa- 
turea.  To  him  bekmga  the  honor  of  inaugurating  a  new 
sra  in  the  hiiCoty  of  the  reform. 

In  Hay,  18S3,  the  fiitt  National  Temperance  Coavo- 
lion  waa  held  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  Four  bim- 
dred  and  forty  delegates,  rcpreseniing  nineteen  Ualc* 
and  one  lerritory,  couniellcd  togelher  three  dayi.  T« 
important  conduiions  were  embodied  in  their  rcsolo- 


noraUy  ' 


itfroi 


that  the  local  aodetic*  should  accept,  as  sc 

Gable,  the  total-abstinence  pledge  A  permancjit  a> 
ciety  was  formed,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Ameri- 
can Temperance  Union,  accom  plished  much  for  IhFcaaM. 

lion — one  line  of  argument  and  effort  aiming  todisjuadi 
the  people  from  all  use  orintoiicBnts,and  the  oibej  Id- 
ing  Ihe  ihape  ofan  attack  upon  [he  traiSc  and  thi'  laws 
which  sanction  it.  Public  aentinKnt  was  fan  approacb- 
ing  the  conclusion  that  inalead  of  being  proterted  bv  taw, 
under  the  pretence  of  regulating  it,  the  traffic  tlioald 
b«  pruhibileil  by  law.  The  Urand  Jury  uftbc  city  and 
county  of  New  York  put  on  record  their  ileltbetalt  jndg- 


'rages.     His  position,  I  ment  that  three  fourths  of  the  cr 


caused  by  the  drinking  habile  of  the  pi 
It  ia  our  solemn  ioipresaion  that  the  time  haa  now  ar- 
iveilwhen  our  publicautborilies  should  no  longer  sane- 
ion  Ihe  evil  complained  of  by  granting  Ucenae*."  Ser- 
ral  state  conventioLa  the  sante  year  adopted  leteb* 
iona  of  the  same  tenor  a*  thoae  of  the  National  ConrtD- 


la  generally  regarded  ai 

In  February,  1B26,  chiefly  through  the  inslrumcnial-  i 

ity  of  Dr.  Edwards,  a  few  friends  of  the  refiirm  met  in  t 

the  city  of  Boston,  and  organizetl  Ihe  American  lem-  t 

perance  Society.    The  pledge  was  still  the  olil  one— ab-  I 

nevertheless  an  advance,  inasmuch  u  the  object  of  the       In  18S4  Rev.  Albert  Barnea,orPhiladclphia,pablitbcd 

society  was  to  inaugurate  B  vigorous  campaign  through-  two  sermons  on  the  iniquilie*  of  the  tnlfic;  and  SaB>> 
out  the  country.  In  April,  Ker.  William  Collier  eatab-  uel  Chipman  made  a  personal  inspection  of  Ihe  alms- 
Ibhed  in  Itoston  the  first  newipsper  devoted  to  the  i  houseaend  jails  in  the  state  of  New  Vark,  and  pubUak- 
cauac     It  was  called  The  \alional  PMHaiilhrripul,  and  !  etl  a  report,  ahowing  how  largely  the  alcoholic  vice  wn 

was  published  weekly.     This  same  year  (1826),  Lymi     '  ■ '    '  

Beecber  published  his  famous  Six  Sertmmi  on  Tnupt 
ling  eloquence  and  powerful  cm 


deniatiuni  of  truth  have  not  been  aurpsseed  . 
thing  since  written  on  the  aubjecl.  The  refoim  was 
now  fairly  begun.  In  1827  there  were  state  societies 
in  New  Uampehire,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
and  lllintns,  while  two  hundred  and  twenty  local  socie- 
tiea,  acaltered  through  these  and  other  stales,  enrolled 
an  aggregate  of  thirty  thousand  members.  Men  of  the 
highest  character  and  position  were  identiScd  with  the 
reform,  auch  as  Dr.  Justin  Edwards,  Dr.  Day  (president 
of  Yale  College),  Uen.  Lewis  Cass,  Edward  C  Delavon, 
and  eminent  phyaicians,  such  aa  Iha.  Hassey,  llnaack, 
and  .SewelL  About  this  time  L.  M.  Sargent  publithed 
his  Temptranct  Tiilt;  thus  bringing  into  the  bstile  a 
new  and  powerful  weapon. 

Tbe  reform  made  rapid  progresa.  In  1831  there  n-ere 
State  societies  in  all  but  fire  alales,  wliile  the  local  or- 
ganiisiions  numbered  2-200.  In  1833  (i en.  Cess,  Ihe 
secretary  of  war,  abolished  the  spirit  ration  in  the  army, 
and  issued  an  order  prohibiting  the  sale  of  distilled  liq- 
uors by  Bulkrs.  This  action,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  repealed  by  some  one  of  his  successors  in  office,  as 
we  fliul  ticn.  McClellan,  thirty  years  afterwards,  issuing 
an  equivalent  order  in  reference  to  the  Army  of  the  Fa- 
in order  offenng  the  men  extra  pay  and  rations  of  cof- 
fee and  sugar  instead  of  the  spirit  ration.  In  1833  there 
were  6000  local  sacielie^  with  more  than  a  million  of 
members,  of  whom  it  was  eaiimated  Ihit  10,000  had 
been  intemperate,  4000  distilleries  bad  been  closed,  and 
1000  American  vessels  sailetl  without  liquor. 

This  year  (1833)  is  notable  for  another  advanced  step. 
Experience  was  daily  demonstrating  the  insuOlciency 
of  a  reform  which  interdicled  distilled  liquors  only. 
Not  a  tew  drunkards  signed  the  pledge  against  such 
beverages  and  kept  it,  and  were  dninkarda  atiU.  Pub- 
lid  opinion  was  steadily  nKviog  towards  tbe  true  ground 


Rev.  George  B.  Checver,  then  the  youthful  putorof  a 
church  in  Salem,  Watt.,  published,  under  the  till*  tf 
DtacoH  Ciln'i  DiiliUinf,  what  purported  to  be  a  dreaok 
Damons  were  represenlcd  as  working  in  Lhe  deiim** 
distiller}', and  manufacturing  "liquid  da mnatioii,'''- mur- 
der," "suicide,"  etc,  for  tbe  human  employer.  The 
stinging  aaiire  look  eOect.  Hr.Dieever  was  aMolKd 
in  the  alreeta  of  Salem,  and  waa  also  prosecuted  lot  slan- 
der by  a  certain  rum-distilling  deacon,  who  thought  he 
recognised  his  own  portrait  in  the  deacon  Giles  of  tbC 
dream,  kir.  Cheever  was  convicted  and  imptisoned  lor 
a  few  days,  but  on  his  release  relumed  at  one*  to  the 
attack  in  another  dream  concerning  Dtaam  Jott^t 
itimvry,  in  which  devils  are  described  as  making  beer, 
and,  a*  they  dance  about  Iba  caldron,  chanting  the  sptU 
of  the  witches  in  Shakespeare's  ^facie<J^ — 
"Ronnrt  abonl  Ihecatdmn  go; 
DniKs  that  In  the  coldest  veins 

Iferbs  ihal,  brouthl  from  helO  black  door. 
Do  I  heir  baslnesa  slow  and  sni*- 
Donble,  d'.nble  toll  and  Imoble: 
Fire,  bnrn ;  and  caldron,  hubblt." 
The  BBsault  and  Ihe  piuaecncion  called  univenal  slte*- 
lion  to  the  affair;  the  dreams  were  published  evMy- 
where,  and  produced  great  effect.    About  the  umetioM 
another  local  excitement  aided  the  general  cause.    Mr. 
Delavan  exposed  the  methods  of  the  Albany  bteirei, 
whom  he  charged  with  procuring  water  for  ibcir  bmi- 
ness  from  a  foul  pond  covered  with  green  scum  ami  4»- 
fllcd  with  the  putrid  remains  of  dead  cata  and  dogs. 
Eight  brewers   brought  sutla  against  him,  claiming 
damsgesio  the  amount  of  three  hundred  thousand  det- 
lar^  but  did  not  succeed  in  recovering  a  dime. 

In  183G  a  second  National  Temperance  ConventiiMi 
attended  by  four  hundred  delegate^lnd  presided  onr 
by  Chancellor  Walworth,  was  beU  at  Saratoga,  K.  T. 
The  EDost  impoitant  buunea*  dona  waa  thep«Mii«<f* 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM         247         TEMPERANCE  REFORM 

meluiiiHi  that  faenoerorth  the  pledge  shouU  be  total  oldeet  of  the  compact  organ iulioiu  wbicb  not  onlv 

iMiaaa  from   all  thai  inloxicatei.     This  reMliitiim,  pledgetbeti  membento  b>talabatmence,butuain  Ibem 

ihoiigb  offend  by  Ur.  Edwaida,  lupparled  br  Ljman  on  ■  plan  of  mutual  ■yalemallc  relief  in  limea  af  nick- 

BncbH,  and  adopted  unanimomly  by  the  conventiuii,  neu.     During  the  thiity-eigbt  vcais  of  ila  existence 

OB  DM  approved  by  all  wbo  claimed  to  bo  friends  of  the  order  hu  varied  greatly  in  numerical  strengtb.    In 

lit  auie.     Not  a  lew,  wboae  tempeiance  zeal  consisted  1850  it  numbered  2BJ,238  membera.    Suffering  severely 

ia  lu  ardent  tieain  lo  refomi  other  people  from  rum  and  during  the  late  war,  Che  "Sooi"  in  1S6G  numbered  only 

biuilr,«bile  they  theinielveadiank  ninewiltaout  scfti-  64,7li3.     Since  tbat  date  i hey  are  again  making  prog- 

ple,fciloutof  thcnukanTthe  reform,  and  were  seen  no  leas,  and  now  number  about  100,000  membera.    The  In- 

Bin.    Sucietiea  diabandnl  in  every  directiao,  prami-  dependentOrderDrBechabites,a  society  of similarchar- 

KDl  Horken  under  the  old  pledge  became  ailent  when  acur,  establisbeil  in  England  in  1BS6,  was  introduced 

tit  am  one  Kaa  adopted,  and  once  mare  the  cry  of  into  the  United  Slates  in  1843,  and  spread  with  consid- 

TtKa  ia  the  ehorua.  Siill,  not  until  this  bour  had  the  of  Uonoi  and  Temperance,  was  established  in  New  York 
itdirm  piaaltd  iueit  an  the  right  ground  and  grasped  city.  This  fraternity  was  originally  designed  (o  be  a 
iht  inie  weapona  of  ita  warfare.  The  people  rallied  ;  branch  of  the  Sons  of  Temperance,  vbose  members 
snand  the  new  banner,  and  the  work  vent  on  with  should  pais  thmugh  various  decrees,  and  be  known  la 
mnn  efficienc7  than  ever  befure.  In  January,  1837,  the  each  other  everywhere  by  signs  and  passwords;  hut  it 
Jiirmil  nflJU  Amtrican  Tfmptrmice  Union,  edited  by  ,  was  organized  as  an  independent  society.  They  aam- 
BiT.  John  Uarah,  was  establislied,  and  did  valiant  ser-  !  her  about  17,000  members. 

Ttee  till  18Gi,when  it  was  supeneded  by  Ibe  SatUmal:  The  discussion  in  regard  lo  the  morality  of  the  license 
Ttmptrata  Aihocatt.  j  system  went  on  with  vigor.    In  1846  the  matterHas  by 

In  1838  began  the  legisUlive  war  against  the  traffic  law  submitted  to  the  people  of  Connecficut  and  Biichi- 
— asnttai  which  baa  seen  many  vicloriea  and  defeats,  (ran,  and  the  vote  was  strongly  against  license.  In 
ad  will  probably  see  many  more  befon  the  final  vie-  1846  the  question  was  submitted  lo  the  people  <i  the 
l«y.  Innaponse  lo  growing  public  sentiment,  Ihe  li-  slate  of  New  York  (the  city  of  New  York  being  eicept- 
ceaw  laws  of  several  states  were  maile  mere  altingenu  ed)i  several  whole  countiea  voted  "no license,"  and  five 
llawacbosetts  passed  a  law  prohibiting  the  sale  of  al-  sixths  of  tha  towiu  and  cities  gave  large  majorities  in 
csbolicliqaora  in  le»  i|uanlity  than  Slleen  gallons.  In  the  same  direction.  In  IS4&Uaine  passed  a  probiliitory 
I8S9  HiaiBippi  fulloweil  wilh  a  "one  gallon  law,"  and  law,  which,  with  many  changes,  made  from  time  to 
lUiaois  adopted  wliat  would  now  be  termeil  "local  op-  .  time  lo  rctHler  it  more  stringent  and  effective,  htia  re- 
lin."  The  universal  agitation  on  Ihe  subject  created  .  mained  for  thirty-four  yean  the  will  of  the  people  and 
gential  alarm  among  those  inUresled  in  tha  manufact-  ,  the  policy  of  the  stale,  and  it  is  to-day  in  full  and  sue- 
iin  sod  sale  of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  they,  too,  begsn  to  cessful  operation,  the  glory  oT  the  commonwealth  and 
Kganiie  and  collect  funds  to  be  used  at  the  polls  and  in    the  almng  defence  of  ita  citizens. 

IcjniiaiiTe  balls  to  arrest  the  ref.irm.  Still  the  good  For  the  next  ten  years  (1N6  to  186G)  (be  question 
casse  advanced.  Temperance  organizations,  temper-  of  license  or  no  license  waa  agitated  in  almost  ereiy 
net  joaraala,  lectures,  and  labors  of  every  kind  nere  part  of  the  Union,  but  to  give  the  history  of  the  strug- 
aultiplying.  Uood  news  or  progress  came  from  Eng-  gle  in  the  several  states  would  require  a  volume.  Mainc^ 
laid,  and  from  father  Mathew,  a  Catholic  priest  in  Ire-  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Maasachusctls,  Connecticut, 
Isnil,  who  had  giveu  hirnxjlf  lo  reform  work  and  bad  '■  Rhode  Ishuid,  New  York,  Delaware,  Michigan,  Indiana, 
icbtered  marvellDiis  successes.  { Iowa,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  pasaed  prohib- 

In  1840  the  "  Washingtonian"  movement  began  in  itory  laws— some  of  Ibem  more  than  once.  In  most  of 
Baltimsre.  Six  hard  drinkera,  who  had  met  for  a  night's  these  states,  if  not  all,  the  question  was  submitted  In 
onaial,  suddenly  reaolved  to  reform,  signed  a  total-ab-  ,  some  form  lothe  popular  vote,  and  Ihe  prohibitory  prin- 
aionKs  pledge,  and  formed  a  wciety  for  active  labor,  ciple  received  emphatic  endorsement.  In  New  Jersey, 
Tbey  belli  meetings,  recited  the  aimple  story  of  their'  also,  the  popular  voice  was  strongly  in  its  favor,  but  the 
irma  emn,  and  bow  they  wen  reacued,  and  invited  j  liquor  interest  succeeded  in  thwatling  the  will  irf  the 
the  oost  hopekas  victims  of  the  vice  to  join  them,  j  people.  In  two  states,  Pennsylvania  and  Illinaia,  ■ 
Wsoderful  reulia  foUowed,  Iht  work  spread,  and  in  the  small  majority  appeared  against  prohibition. 
ifian  of  two  or  three  years  it  ia  estimated  that  one  hiin-  Thelegisiative  reform  was  rewstedat  every  slep,'terce- 
^(d  sad  fifty  thousand  inebrialeabadsigneiltheplcilgr.  ly,  desperately,  and  by  the  use  of  the  most  unBcru|Ailou* 
Iiamenic  good  was  done,  and  yet  the  movement  soon  I  means.  After  the  prohibiiory  law  had  been  itningly 
btgia  to  wane.  1'he  demand  for  reformed  drunkards  as  approved  by  a  direct  popular  vote,  and  passeil  by  both 
hnarm  bseama  so  great  as  to  bring  into  the  field  a  !  Mousesof  the  Legislature  of  New  York,  in  18&4  govem- 
ODinlofitTeaponsible  men;  some  without  sufficient  in-  |  or  Horatio  Seymour  vetoed  it  on  trivial  grounds.  Gov. 
tdligHwe  for  their  poution,  others  lacking  in  principle.  |  Seymour  of  Connecticut  in  1853  did  the  same  thing 
That  made  a  trade  of  the  business;  they  sneered  at  all  i  under  similar  circumstances.  In  both  cases  Ihe  people 
■orktis  who  had  no  dninkeu  eiperiencca  to  relate,  j  at  the  next  election  carried  their  point  by  defeatinj 


ataued  the  churches,  and  sought 

talnvsganl  descriptions  of  their  past  lives.  tSoon  that 
which  began  as  an  agonizing  sCroggle  for  life  became 
s  wrrr  popular  amusement;  the  funniest  lecturer  got 

Xnt,  poKcrlul  as  it  was  at  one  time,  broke  down  under 
th  lotil  of  the  ignorant,  unprincipled,  and  foolish  oper- 
atm  vbo,  for  tbeir  own  profit,  piled  their  weight  upon 
it  Still,  bitterly  as  the  friends  of  temperance  were  dis- 
Woiated  by  tha  collapse  of  the  Washinglonian  episode, 
tb(  geaeral  causa  coniinued  lo  advance.  In  the  ten 
jan  ending  in  1840,  while  tlie  population  of  Ihe  United 
Sun  had  grown  from  12.000,000  to  17,000,000.  Ihe  eon- 
xopllun  of  dialilled  liquors  had  fallen  fiom  70,000,000 
(■  ajmOfiOO  gallons.  In  thinv  yearn  Ihe  number  of 
<>KUbrita  bad  fallen  from  10,000  in  10^06. 

Ia  1811  the  order  of  the  Sons  of  Temperance  was 
hmlcd  in  tbs  dt7  of  Haw  tatfc.    This  order  is  the 


had  temporarily  defeated  them.  In  aeTcral 
states  the  law  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  tha 
courts.  In  New  York  it  waa  set  aaide  in  IBU  on  Ihe 
ground  that  it  destroyed  the  value  of  property,  to  wit, 
of  the  liquors  alreaily  in  the  hands  of  the  dealers.  In 
several  of  Ihe  slates  the  law  was  passed,  submitted  to 


tilin  once  fur  all  for  the  whole  country.  With  Daniel 
Webster  and  Rufus  Choale  as  their  counsel,  the  dealers 
in  alcohol  carried  their  caae  into  Ihe  Stqireme  Court  of 
the  Uniteil  Slates;  but  the  unanimous  deciMon  of  the 
court  waa  that  each  sute  haa  a  constitutional  right  lo 
regulate  or  even  tolally  suppress  Ihe  liquor  traiBc. 

In  1949  the  first  Civil  Damage  Law,  as  it  has  been 
called,  waa  passed  in  Wisconsin,  prohibiting  the  retail 


TEMPERANCE  REJt'ORM         2- 

Inde  in  intoxicating  liqnara,  union  the  vender  Ont  gave 
bonrie  "to  auppocc  all  paupcre,  widowi,  and  orphaiu, 
and  pay  the  expensea  of  all  civil  and  criminal  proaeco- 
tioiia,  growing  uut  of  or  jiutly  attributable  lo  such  tiaf- 
Be."  Several  other  alales  followed  the  example  uf  Wia- 
conain,  and  tbete  laws  have  been  found  to  be  ofconaid- 

Ibis  ume  year,  1849,  the  cauae  received  a  new  iin- 
pulac  from  tbe  preience  and  labors  of  father  Mathev, 
the  Iiish  apostle  of  temperance,  who  came  to  America 

among  ibe  Irish  Catholica.  Ciowda  greeted  bim  ereiy- 
I'hFre,  and  Ui^e  numbers  took  the  pledge  at  hia  hands. 


1  fuUon 


>ucc(4ii.  Slauy  pledged  tbemaelrea  by 
pulie,  mored  thereto  by  the  enthusiaam  of  aaaembled 
multitudes,  with  little,  clear,  intelligeni,  fixed  conviction 
of  the  evils  inseparable  trvm  the  habtta  which  tbey 
were  renouncing.  The  pope,  their  infaUible  teacher 
both  in  regard  lo  faith  and  mortli,  bad  never  pro- 
nounced moderale  drinking  ■  Bin,  either  mortal  or  ve- 
nial 1  anil  even  occaaional  drnnkenness  had  been  treated 
in  the  confewional  aa  a  trivial  offence.  The  retail  traf- 
fic, especially  in  the  cilieB,iiraB  more  largely  in  the  hands 
of  Irish  Catholics  than  any  other  class  of  [WOple.    Kfore- 

city  authorities,  and  gubaidiea  from  the  public  treasury 
for  the  support  of  its  sectarian  inacitutions,  and  it  could 
obtain  what  it  vanled  only  by  a  political  all! 
the  liquor  interest.  For  these  reasona  the  Catholic  cler- 
gy, as  a  body,  seem  to  have  made  no  vigorous  eSbrt  to 
huld  tho  ground  wbich  the  venerable  father  Halthei 

bs  wiser  than  their  teachers^ 

During  the  period  named,  while  the  battle  was  raging 
in  reference  to  the  legalizing  of  the  traffic,  and  )i 
ler  year  went  on  as  fiercely  as  ever,  the  liquor  it 
receiveil  powerful  reinforcements  from  an  unexpected 
quarter.  During  ihe  twenty  years  previous  to  1840  the 
immigration  from  Germany  tinmbered  165,000  penoi 
During  the  twenty  yean  between  1840  and  1860  tl 
German  immigration  numbered  1330,000.  This  vast 
multitude  brought  with  (hem  their  preil 
and  Sunday  halidaya,  Under  their  aus| 
fitcture  of  beer  became  a  great  businei 
especially  in  the  towns  and  cities,  saloons  aprang  up 
without  number,  until,  in  aoma  places,  there  was  a  sa- 
loon fur  every  score  of  legal  voters.  The  distillers, 
brewers,  and  dealers  of  all  sorts, 
became  a  power  in  Ihe  political  arena  which  no  party 
dared  to  leave  out  of  its  calculations,  atid  before  wbich 
every  mean  aitd  mercenary  demagogue  hastetieil  to  full 
on  his  knees.  . 

The  temperance  cause  is  so  pure,  itit  logic  so  com- 
plete, so  utterly  unanswerable,  that  it  mi^jht  have  mul- 
ed all  its  enemies  had  the  contest  gone  on  without  in- 
terruption. Ilut  while  the  line  of  battle,  notwithstand- 
ing local  repulses  and  temporary  defeats,  was  aleadily 
advancing,  its  prugress  was  stayed  by  another  overmas- 
tering appeal  to  the  patriotism  of  the  people.  The  Be- 
lies of  evenla  which  preceded  the  late  civil  war  were 
culminating  in  an  agitation  which  swept  all  the  streama 
of  popular  enthusiasm  into  ita  mighty  current.  The 
same  principles  and  convictions  which  made  men  the 
foes  of  the  alcoholic  curse  made  them  feel  keenly  the 
national  peril ;  while  those  who  were  coining  their  ill- 
gotten  gains  out  of  Ihe  blood  of  their  neighbors  could 
lie  expected  to  care  little  for  the  life  of  the  nation. 
Thus,  while  tbe  true  patriot  laid  aside  all  else  to  save 
Ills  country  from  the  awful  peril  of  the  hour,  the  selOsh 


le  belter 
he  accomplishment  of  its  own  sordid  ends, 
bile  the  popular  demand  fur  better  laws  in  re- 
gard to  the  traffic  in  alcohol  almost  ceased  for  a  lime  to 
lie  felt  in  current  politics,  the  moral  reform  made  some 
progress.  In  1856  the  American  Juvenile  Temperance 
Society  was  founded  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  the 


8         TEMPERANCE  REFORM 

next  year  a  monthly  paper  for  children,  called  the  A-  i 
rrttile  Trmptrana  Jtanntr,  was  eitabliahed.  Id  Jstw- 
ary,  1859,  four  young  men,  who  had  met  one  Sundiir 
evening  in  a  hquor  aaloon  in  San  Franeiaco,  sodduily 
resolved  to  change  their  evil  niune,  formed  a  sacidy 
which  they  called  the  "  Dashsways,"  and  inaugurated 
an  extensive  movement  on  the  PaeiGe  coast  much  like 
the  Washingtunian  campaign  of  1840.  The  next  yest 
a  similar  reform  organization,  originating  in  Chicsgi^ 
spread  through  the  state  under  the  name  of  Ibe  TtOH 
perance  Flying  Artillery.  In  ISG2  the  spirit  raiioB  ia 
the  United  States  navy,  which  was  made  aplioosl  ia 
1SB2,  totally  ceased  by  order  of  Congress;  and  cd9m 
was  substituted  for  whiskey  in  the  array  of  the  Poto- 
mac. The  friends  of  the  cause  were  ercrywhen  actlre 
in  their  benevolent  hibora  among  the  toldiera  and  ail- 
ora  during  the  war. 

The  fifth  National  Convention,  hehl  at  Saratoga  in 
August,  1865,  organited  Ihe  National  Tempennce  So- 
ciety and  Publication  House,  whose  headquarter)  an 
at  68  Kewle  Street,  New  York,  and  which,  by  its  vn 
periodicala,  the  A'ultunal  Tanpmnia  Adiocalt  widtbi 
Yoalh'i  Trmperance  Bamer, 
and  tracts,  has  been  an  effic 
ening  and  stirring  the  public  mind.  In  April,  1B6«, 
Congress  voted  to  banish  the  liquor  traffic  from  tbs 
Capitol  and  the  public  grounds  at  Washington,  snd  ib( 
next  winter  a  Congreaiiunal  Temperance  Sodely,  Hon. 
Henry  Wilson  president,  was  organized.  In  1868  the 
"  Frienda  of  Temperance"  and  Ihe  "  Vanguard  of  Free- 
dom," tbe  one  a  aodety  of  white  people  and  the  otker 
of  the  freedmen,  were  organized  in  Ihe  Sonth.  loJoly, 
1868.  Ihe  sixth  National  Convention  met  in  Clevelaad. 
Ohio.  Its  most  important  resolution  declatea  that  the 
temperance  cause  "demands  the  perustent  use  of  Ibt 
ballot  for  its  promotion."  In  1869  women  began  In 
form  associations  for  the  siippreuuon  of  the  traffic  Tbr 
first  were  organized  in  Kutlaiid,  Vt. ;  Clyde,  O.;  iid 
Jonesville  and  Adrian,  Mich.  This  was  the  beginaing 
of  a  (iilal-wave  of  enthttsiasm  which  culminated  iii  the 
Ohio  crusades,  and  .crystallized  In  the  establishment  of 
the  Woman's  National  Christian  Temperance  Union, 
The  churches  were  actively  at  work.  "Bands  of  Dope' 
were  formed  among  the  children.  The  iniquities  of  thi 
license  s}-stem,  and  the  wisdom  of  separate  political  so- 
lion  on  the  part  of  temperance  men,  were  everywhen 
discusaedj  and  the  liquornleileis,  in  alarm,  were  bmj 
organizing  leagues  and  collecting  funds,  because,  as  they 
confessed,"  of  the  damage  being  done  to  the  liquor  b»i- 

In  January,  1878,  the  Kon.  Henry  Wilson  intToductd 
in  the  United  States  Senate  a  bill  providing  for  a  Com- 
mission of  Inquity,  wlioae  aim  was  to  secure  a  thorovgh 
investigation  of  the  evils  of  the  alcoholic  habit,  and  as- 
cerlain  what  measures  are  most  efficient  in  removing  m 
lessening  those  evils.  This  bill  has  been  repeatedly 
brought  forward  in  Congress,  backetl  by  memorials  rma 
all  parts  of  Ihc  counlri-,  but  has  been  defeated  every 
time  by  the  influence  o.'  the  liquor  mtereat.  The  guiliy 
alone  fear  tbe  light.  I'.  August.  1873,  the  seventh  Na- 
tional Convention  was  held  at  Saratoga.  It  dedated 
again  that  the  legalsuppression  of  Che  traffic  is  the  only 
effect  Ive  policy,  and  that  the  lime  bad  arrived  "  fully  u 
introdttee  the  temperance  issue  into  state  and  national 
politics,"  but  counaelled  tbe  friends  of  the  cause  to  co- 
operate with  existing  political  parties  "  where  sticb  will 
endorse  the  policy  of  prohibition." 

In  the  winter  of  1873-74  a  novel  movement  b^!U 
which,  under  Ihe  name  of  the  Woman's  Crusade,  at- 
tracted universal  attention.  In  the  town  of  IliUrimr- 
ough.  Highland  Co.,  O.,  the  liquor  trade  was  doing  its 
deadly  work,  and  at  (he  same  time  the  enemies  of  that 
traffic  were  earnest  in  their  labors  to  lessen  ila  ravages. 
At  a  public  meeting.  Dr.  Dio  Lewis,  of  Boston,  iiild  how 
a  drunkard's  wife,  furir  years  ago,  afier  long  and  fervent 
prayer,  galheretl  a  band  of  Christian  women  and  wait- 
ed upon  the  Ilqiiar-d.''a1er,  imploring  him  to  give  i^  hit 


TEMPERANCE  REFORM 


heir  pn;en  were  •niwereii. 
The  next  dif  Mrenty-Sre  CbrLnciaii  women,  led  by 
Ha.  E.  J.  Thompun,  ■  diugblcr  of  ex-govenioc  Trim- 
tit,  (jcgin  a  ■ysUmatic  viaiULion  or  the  diug-sUirea, 
t»ub,incl  salgnosoTHiUsboiougli,  anil  coDtinueii  it  till 
ricuiry  cnwneil  iheir  eSurta.  In  ei|;bt  days  all  the  bb- 
bofii  were  c]o«ed*  The  work  ■preid  frnm  town  to  Lnwn 
•ml  rnm  city  u>  cily,  in  not  >  (ew  encDunlering  tierce 

ii^  put  and  permsiHini  good,  Thi»  wonderful  move- 
iDcnl  (pread  iDlo  olhar  autei,  reclaiming  thouundt  of 
iwfariim,  cloainj;  thousanda  of  aalooDii,  and  giving  a 
laigbiy  impulie  (o  all  formi  of  temperance  work. 

At  ibii  praent  time  (Januari-,  188U)  the  tefiirm  aeems 
tt  b>  eren  tDon  prominenlly  bttnte  the  public  mind 
iluB  ii  wu  before  tbe  war.  Tbe  iuiqiiiiies  of  the  traf- 
IcbtrebMn  argisd  upon  tbe  attention  of  the  legida- 
inm  oT  the  atalea,  aud  the  lawi  are  cnnUanily  chanK- 
iag,  gmenlly  Tot  the  better,  ciccaaionally  (or  tbe  worse, 
IE  Imd  or  Amalek  prevaiU,  bo  that  it  is  almut  impoa- 
shlc  to  elunfy  them.  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Damp- 
tluR.Obio,  and  Norib  Carolina  prohibit  the  traffic  in 
•U  bia:(icaling  liquoia.  Iowa  piohibiii  the  tra 
diUiUfd  litguun,  but  not  in  wine  and  beer.  Rhode 
blind,  Connecticol,  lllinuia,  Kentucky,  Uinneauta,  Uia- 
■)gh,ATkanua,Tcxaa,and  tbe  DiMricEorOilnmUa  are 
•Dder  Lual  Option  lawB,  The  people  of  Kanaaa  are  t( 
•ou  thii  fall  (1880)  on  a  propoaed  amendment  to  th( 
Slate  Coniiilation,  which,  if  aduptol,  will  prohibit  both 
tbi  manuradure  and  the  aale  of  alcaholic  tntoxicanti. 
Sone  of  the  Watei,  aa  New  York,  Ohio,  and  lUinois, 
kan  Civil  Damage  lawi,  which  make  the  dealen  re- 
■pouible  before  the  couiia  fur  miKhief  done  by  meant 
oflktirwarea.  Nevada  has  no  law  on  tbe  aubjecu  In 
Busy  of  (be  Male*  qwciai  lawa  give  particular  countiei 
or  lownt  the  powet  to  prohibit,  by  popular  Tole,  tbe 
nd(  in  (leobal.  Experience  baa  Riven  aiopla  deroon- 
Kniios  that  where  prohibitory  legislation  it  fully  aua- 
Ubed  by  publie  aentiment  the  liquor  irafGc  cai 
«uiped  out  aa  thoroughly  aa  any  other  form  of  ci 
All  through  the  land  the  active  frienda  of  tamperi 
with  icanely  an  exception,  are  tlxed  in  the  convi< 
'     "  a  tiafGc  in  alcoholic  driiika  is  a  c 


qi^aiaii  iocietj-,  and  tt 


oiberci 


e  againal 


9  have  I 


tolic< 

lublic  welfare.     Tbia  corn 
!nie  from  year  to  year,  ami  rrom 
«  eaTely  predicted 


Previi 


alf  a  acore  of  local  temperance 
■Kiecia  aaiong  onr  Catholic  population.  I' 
an  pnbably  a  Ibouiand,  with  an  aggregate  of  200,000 
Btalien.  Tbe  Womon'a  National  Cbiiatian  Temper- 
UB  Uoioii,  which  grew  out  of  the  Ohio  cmsade  more- 
a(ai,aod  waaorganlEed  in  I874,haiaprcad  itanetworli 
•r  «wtiei  over  more  than  half  the  United  State^  and 
by  iti  emiTeationa,  publicatioiui,  and  eameat  labon,  ii 
viddiBg  a  powerful  influence.  The  Independent  Order 
of  Good  Templar*,  which  originated  in  Central  New 
Tert  in  1851,  leada  all  the  other  compact  temperance 
otuiiaiiona  in  nnmben  and  continued  lucceu.  It 
n  hai  abuut  400,000  members  in  the  United  States, 
•Ml  per^p*  300,000  more  chiefly  in  England  and  her 
Tiiaicm,  The  frienda  of  temperance  are  organiied, 
Don  ae  lr*a  ihotougbly,  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 
Fmy-aiie  newipapen,  the  organs  of  the  various  tem- 
Fnince  bodies,  are  diaeminating  information  on  all 

Alf  the  great  teligloni  denominations  among  ui  have 
nno  nnphaiie  ullerance  to  their  aenlimenti,  not  only 
•a'wiiog  folly  the  principle  of  total  abMinence,  but 
*«e  of  them  declaring,  as  iH  the  General  Conference 
•I  tbe  Htibodiat  Epiacopal  Church  in  18T2,  that  they 
'iqcerd  the  mannfacture,  sale,  or  the  using  of  intoxi- 
Wag  drinka  morally  WIO      ' 


,9         TEMPERANCE  REFORM 

mifermented  wine  on  sacramental  occasions;  and  record 

should  be  suppieaaed  by  the  strong  arm  of  the  law. 
There  probably  is  not  in  Christendom  any  other  body 
of  people  so  large,  and  so  free  from  the  use  of  ijitoxi- 
cants,  aa  tlie  evangelical  Protestants  of  the  United  iitateH. 
The  o^taUon  among  us  cannot  cease  till  tbe  right  is 
victorious. 

IV.  Tie  Tenptramx  Cautt  m  Fi>rrig«  Coumria.— 
The  first  temperance  society  in  the  British  isles  was 
formed  in  New  Ross,  IieUnd,  in  August,  1K29.  A  soci- 
ety was  formed  at  Greenock,  Scotland,  jn  October  of  the 
oame  year.  Early  in  IB30  a  society  was  organized  at 
ilradford,  England.  The  reform  began,  as  in  AnKrlca, 
in  opposition  to  the  use  of  distilled  spirits  only;  but 
in  1833  a  society  uas  funned  at  Pieston,  England,  on 
tbe  principle  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating 
drinks.  The  British  Association  for  Ibe  Promotion  of 
Temperance  was  fonned  at  Manchester  in  September, 
18SB,  on  this  basis;  and  the  new  pledge  in  a  few  years 
wboUy  superseded  tbe  old.  This  orgauizatjoii  after- 
wards changed  its  name  to  that  of  "Tbe  British  Tem- 
perance League."  ll  is  still  laboring,  with  accumulaling 
power.  The  United  Kingdom  Alliance  was  formeil  in 
1853,  and  is  still  in  vigorous  operation  and  doing  ex- 
cellent service.  lu  specific  aim  is  the  "total  legislative 
suppression  of  the  traffic  in  intoiiciling  beverages." 
The  fonn  of  law  which  the  Alliance  is  laboring  to  se- 
cure is  one  giving  "the  rate-payera  of  each  petish  and 
township  a  powet  oflocal  veto  over  the  issue  of  Hoc  uses." 
.\  bill,  driwn  up  by  Sir  Wilfred  Laweon,  in  accordance 
with  this  aim,  has  been  nSered  in  Parliament  every 

couraging  gains.  The  Alliance,  meanwhile,  is  spelling 
a  hundted  thousand  dollars  annuaUy  in  advocating  the 
measure.  The  Scottish  Temperance  League,  funDed  in 
1844,  combines  both  branches  of  the  work— the  reform 
of  the  victim  an<l  the  legal  suppression  of  the  traflic. 
The  temperance  sentiment  of  Ibe  Scottish  p6ople  found 
expression,  in  18M,  in  what  is  called  Ibe  "  Forbes  McKen- 
lie  Act,"  a  bw  which  closes  all  public-houses  in  Scot- 
bath,  and  on  other 
A.M.    The  League 

Publication  House,  and  keeps  ei^ht  or  ten  lecturers  con- 
stantly in  the  fielil.  Tbe  Irish  Temperance  League  waa 
organized  in  Belfast  in  1859,  for  "the  suppression  c^ 

■  nness  hy  monl  suasion,  legislative  prohibUion, 
other  lawful  means."  It  baa  an  income  of  about 
£10,000,  publiabes  a  journal,  and  employs  agents  to  labor 
throughout  the  islaiid.  The  women  of  Great  Britain 
also  organized  a  Christian  Temperance  Associa- 

meeting  for  that  purpose  at  Newcaatle-on-Tyne  in 
April,  187G,  and  they  are  engaging  heartily  in  the  good 

In  Sweden  a  temperance  societv  waa  formed  in  Sloek- 
holm  in  1831,  and  some  Ave  hundred  more  in  varioua 
parts  of  the  kingdom  during  tbe  next  ten  years.  King 
Oscar  himself  became  a  member,  and  also  caused  tracts 
papers  to  be  regularh  distributed  in  the  army  and 
navy.  Great  benefits  have  folioned  among  the 
people,  anil  tbe  reform  is  still  piogresaing. 

lis,  Madagascar,  India,  and  China  the  re- 
form haa  begun  ita  wurk.  which,  we  trust,  will  never 
'  all  iu  broad  field,  till  the  enormous  vice  and 
crime  at  whose  extinction  It  aims  shall  be  found  nQ 

V.  /.iTenifure.— Many  valuable  works  have  been  pub- 
lished which  treat  of  the  matters  that  form  the  basis 
!  temperance  movement,  among  them  the  follow- 
Deechet  [Lyman],  £u  Stnaom  on  Temprraiux 
(18-23);  Nolt,  Lrrnum  oh  Trmptrmct  {1857);  Perma- 
aml  Ttmperana  DocumnU  <  1837-43) :  Hiicthtit  (Ixnd.) ; 
j4n/>-fiacc;iu(  (ibiiL);  Carpenter,  Phytiolopi/  o/  Intm- 

Palkotoffs  of  Dnmlxmesi ;  Pitman, 

AImM  and  Ihe  Stalei  Kichanlsun,  Alcohol,  and  Tna- 
piranet  Ltaon  Booi;  Fairar,  TaiJu  on  Teinptrancti 


TEMPLE  2E 

Lee,  Ttxtiooh  0/ Ten^erana ;  Cnae,  Arlt  of  InUai- 
tation;  HiignsTCs,  Our  WaiUd  Ihtoarat;  Lizin, 
AlcokiA  and  Tobacro;  The  ProhSiitiotulft  Ttxf-book; 
Bacrhui  Drthroned;  Hunt,  Alcohol  at  a  Food  and 
M/didne;  I'atum,  fiiifc  Wiatt.or  lam  of  FermenLa- 
rion,'  Richinlaon,  Action  of  AicoKoi  OH  the  Bod^  nad 
onthiMiad;  YAsaaaA^Me^ealVtof  Alixi\iA;  'KvHa- 
■nlHHi,  Mtdical  Proftuion  aad  A  laihul,  and  Alodtrale 
Drinhag;  SUirej,  Alcohol,  iU  Naturt  md  Ffftdt;  The 
CtBlaaaal  Tenptrana  folumt.     (J.  T.  a) 

Temple,  s  word  uaed  to  deugnaU  ■  building  dcdi- 
cited  Ui  Lhe  wonhip  of  >  deity.  In  this  article  we 
treat  only  ol  the  nrica  or  edifices  erected  Tor  thit  pur- 
puH  at  Jeruulem, India  dmngn  wepreient  Ihe  r«an- 
Mruclioni  bitherto  the  Utest  and  meet  approred,  wilb 
Mrtcturea,  however,  apon  tbeir  defeeu.    See  Fauice. 

I.  Namti. — The  ueual  and  appniptiite  Heb.  term  for 
Ihi*  structure  ia  ^I"^,  hegt^  whicb  properly  deno(« 
a  royal  reeideace,  and  heuce  the  aacAd  name  Flin^,  Jt- 
Aorah,  is  freqiMatly  added ;  occaaianally  it  ia  alu  qual- 
ified by  Ibe  epithet  O^p,  iddith,  tmetuaTy,  to  deugnate 
ill  aacrednua.  SonMlimea  the  aimpler  phraae  ri^B 
mrp,  bn/lh  stfitit6li,  AoNM  ofjthotah,  a  used;  and  in 
lieu  ur  the  latter  other  names  of  cbe  Deity,  especially 
Q'^n^SJ,  ^hlm,  God,  are  emploTed.  The  usual  tireek 
word  is  vaiiQ,  which,  howeTer,  atiictly  denotes  the  cen- 
tral building  or/one  itself;  while  the  more  genenl  leTm 
itpov  inclnded  all  tbe  associated  slnictutes,  i.  e.  tba  sur- 
rounding  courts,  et& 

Tbe  above  leading  word  Vl^n  is  a  participial  noun 
from  the  root  bsn,  10  koid  or  rtottet,  and  reminds  us 
strongly  of  the  Roman  tmiplam,  from  ri/iivof,  ri/i  via, 
bcai  libtralat  et  effattu.  When  an  nugur  hid  defined 
a  space  in  which  he  intended  lo  malte  hia  oliaervationB, 
he  liied  his  tent  in  it  (MkrwocuJuinciipere),  with  planks 
and  curiaina.  In  the  arx  Ibis  was  nut  necessary,  be- 
cause there  was  a  permanent  auguraeubm.  The  Sept. 
usually  renders  bs^Fl,  "  temple,"  by  oucot  or  vaiSt',  but 
in  the  Apocrypha  and  the  New  Test  it  is  generally  called 
Ti  ap6v.  RabtNnioal  ippeUations  are  tn^an  r'<3, 
hrglh  ham-MihUth,  Ihe  houte  of  tht  nmOatary,  tl^a 
n^'Par!,  **<  dtoten  hoMtt,  O^TS^rn  n"-?,  ikt  kaat  of 
agtt,  because  the  ark  was  not  trsnarerred  from  it,  as  it 
was  rrom  Gilgal  alter  2i,  from  Sbiloh  after  369,  from 
Nob  after  13,  and  from  Gibeon  after  50  yean.  It  is  also 
called  li:^,  a  dictUing,  I  e.  of  God. 

In  imitation  of  this  nomenclature,  the  word  ttmplt 
dsewhere  in  Scripture,  in  a  figuralire  sense,  denolei 
oometimes  the  Church  of  Christ  (Kev.  iii,  13) :  "  Him 
that  overcomelh  will  I  make  a  pillar  in  Ihe  temple  of 
my  God."  Paul  says  (3  Thesa.  ii,  i)  that  Antichrist "  at 
God  sitlelh  in  the  temple  of  God,  showing  himself  thai 
he  is  God."  Sometimes  it  imporls  beaven  (fss.  xi,  4): 
"  The  Lord  is  in  hia  holy  temple ;  the  Lord's  throne  ii 
in  heaven."  The  manyrs  in  heaven  are  said  to  be 
"before  the  throne  of  God,  and  to  serve  him  day  and 
night  in  his  temple"  (Bev,  vii,  16).  The  soul  of  i 
righteous  man  is  tbe  temple  of  God,  because  it  is  in- 
baUled  by  the  Holy  Spirit  (1  Cor.  iii,  16, 17;  vi,  19: 
8Cor.vi,!6). 

II.  niilory  of  tkt  Templt  and  ilt  Srrrrol  SaettiKri, 
—t.  The  Fir^  Trmple.  — After  the  Israeliteg  had  ex- 
changed their  nomadic  life  for  a  life  in  permanent  habi- 
tations, it  was  becoming  that  they  should  exchange  alw 
their  movable  sanctuary  or  tabernacle  for  a  temple. 
There  elapsed,  however,  after  the  conquest  of  I'alettine. 
Nveral  centuries  during  which  Ibe  sanctuary  ciinLiuued 
movable,  although  the  nation  became  more  and 
ttationary.  It  appears  that  the  first  who  planned  the 
erection  of  a  stone-built  sanctuary  was  David, 
when  he  was  inhabiting  his  house  of  cedar,  and 
had  given  him  rest  from  all  his  enemies,  medltatp 
design  of  building  ■  temple  in  which  the  srk  of  Gud 


TEMPLE 

L  be  placed,  instead  of  being  depoaited  "wiiUi 
us,"  or  in  a  tent,  as  hitherto.  This  design  wu  at 
mcouraged  by  the  prophet  Nathan ;  but  he  wo 

was  less  appropriate  for  him,  who  had  been  a  waniix 
'     1  his  youth,  and  had  shed  much  blood,  than  for  Ul 
who  should  enjoy  in  prosperity  and  peace  the  r^ 
wards  of  hts  fathers  victoiiesi    NcTerlbelcss,  tbe  de- 
ign itself  was  highly  approved  aa  a  token  of  ptopit 
feelings  towards  the  Divine  King  (!  Sam.  vii,  Uli;  1 
"•  on.  xvii,  1-14;   xxviii>     See  Davjd.     We  lean, 
-eover,  from  1  Kings  T  and  1  Chron-  xxii  that  Di- 
bad  collected  materials  which  were  aficrwsnls  tot- 
ployed  in  Ihe  erection  of  the  Temple,  which  was  com- 
menced four  yean  after  his  death,  in  the  second  niailli 
(oorap.  1  Kings  vi,  1 ;  2  Chron.  iii,  S).    This  correspradi 
Hay,  ac  1010.    We  thus  learn  that  the  IsraeUlidi 


ea  subsequent  10  tbe  conquest  of  Canaan.  "In  lbs 
rth  year  of  Solomon's  teign  was  the  foundalion  of 
house  or  the  Lord  laid,  in  Ihe  month  Sir;  and  ii 
eleventh  yeaT.in  the  month  Bui,  which  is  ibe  eighik 
1th,  was  the  house  finished  ibrougbout  all  Ihe  pans 
tbereor,  and  according  to  all  Ihe  fashion  of  it.  So  wu 
he  seven  years  in  building  it."    See  SoLOHon. 

The  workmen  and  the  materialsempluyedio  the  tree- 
tion  of  the  Temple  were  chiefiy  procured  by  Soloiasa 
from  Hiram,kingof  Tyre,  who  was  rewarded  by  a  UbenI 
importation  of  wheaL  Jusephus  sutes  {A  n(.  viii,3)  tttt 
dupUcalt*  of  the  letleii  which  passed  between  Solomon 

Jenisalem  and  among  the  Tyrian  records.  He  infonis 
us  that  the  peisons  employed  in  collecting  and  amng- 
ing  the  materials  for  the  Temple  were  ordered  to  leank 
out  the  largest  stones  for  the  fonndation,  and  to  prtpan 
them  for  use  on  the  mountains  where  they  wen  prs- 
ciired,  and  then  convey  them  to  Jerusalem.  In  Itm 
part  of  the  business  Hiram's  men  were  ordered  to  snisl. 
Josephus  adds  that  the  foundation  was  sunk  to  on  m- 
lonishing  depth,  and  com  posed  of  stones  of  singular  ma^ 
niiude,  and  renr  durable.  Heiiig  cloeely  monUrd  into 
tbe  rock  with  great  ingenuity,  1  hey  rnrmed  a  basil  ade- 
quate to  tbe  support  of  the  iniended  structure.  Jist- 
phus  gives  to  the  Temple  the  same  length  and  bnadlli 
as  are  given  in  1  Kings,  but  menliona  sixty  cubits  si 
Ihe  height.  He  says  ihat  Ihe  walls  were  composed  en- 
tirely of  while  stone;  that  tbe  walls  and  ceiliuf;*  wen 
wainscoted  wilh  cellar,  which  was  covered  with  ths 
purest  gold;  that  the  stones  were  pnt  together  wilh 
such  ingenuity  Ihat  the  smallest  it 


It  Ihe  ti 


with  in 


cramps.  It  is  remarkable  ihat  after  the  Temple  *B 
finished.  It  waa  not  consecrated  by  Ihe  high-priest,  bat 
by  a  layman,  by  the  king  in  peraon,  by  means  of  extem- 
poraneous prayem  and  sacrifices.     See  SiiKCHiifAH. 

The  Temple  remained  the  centre  i>f  public  wonhip 
for  all  the  If'raelites  onlv  (ill  Ibe  death  of  Soknnon.  af- 
ler  which  ten  tribes  forsook  this  sanclnary.     But  even 

ecratcil  by  altars  erected  In  iriobk  For  insUncc-Us- 
nasseh  built  altars  fur  all  the  host  of  heaven  in  the  two 
courts  of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  And  he  csusnl  hii 
son  lo  pass  through  the  fire,  and  observed  times,  and 
useil  enchantments,  and  desit  with  familiar  spirits  and 
wiiards:  he  nrnughl  much  Kickedncss  in  the  sight  of 

en  image  of  the  grove  that  he  had  made  in  the  horap," 
etc.  Thus  we  find  also  that  king  Josish  eommandeil 
llilkiah.  the  high-priest,  and  Ihe  prieela  of  the  rohhI 
order  10  remove  Ihe  idols  of  Baal  and  Asberah  fmm  ihe 
house  oftheI>ird(!  Kings  xxiii, 4, 18):  "And  the  al- 
tars that  were  nn  ihe  top  of  Ihe  upper  chamber  nf  Abas 
which  the  kings  of  Jiidah  had  made,  and  die  altan 
which  Mansstch  had  made  in  the  two  courts  of  ih* 
house  of  Ihe  I.ord,  did  tbe  king  beat  down,  and  brake 
them  down  from  ihence,  and  cast  the  dust  of  Ihem  into  | 
the  brook  Kidron."    In  fact,  we  are  informed  that,  In    1 


TEMPLE  2i 

tfiM  tt  the  betur  nwwu  of  pablic  devotion  which  the 
aaeatTf  Dodoabtedly  iffordrJ,  the  nationil  monli  de- 
diud  »  DDCh  that  the  chosen  nation  became  wone 
ihin  tbe  idolatera  wbom  the  Lord  deitioTed  before  the 
dukbeo  of  Imcl  (xxi,  9) — ■  clear  pnwf  that  the  poi- 
HMon  of  exlemal  meaoB  ii  not  ■  guarantee  fur  their 
rubtoe.  It  appear*  also  that  during  the  lime*  when 
11  n  (•thionable  at  court  to  wonhip  Baal  the  Temple 
•iiai  dnolaic,  and  that  iu  repairs  were  neglected  (xii, 
t,7).  We  further  learn  that  the  coat  of  the  repairs 
m  lUtafed  chiefly  by  voluntary  contribution,  by  of- 
robipi,  and  by  redemption  money  (ver.  4,  5).  The 
irigiol  coat  or  the  Temple  aeemi  to  hare  been  defray- 
nl  by  royal  bounty,  and  in  great  meaaore  by  treaaum 
oOccled  by  David  for  that  purpoee.  There  waa  a  treas- 
ury in  tbe  Temple  in  which  much  preeioui  metal  was 
oUrded  foi  the  maintenance  of  public  worship.  The 
oUaod  tilrcr  of  the  Temple  were,  however,  fTequeni- 
It  iptilied  to  political  purpoeea  (I  Kingi  sr,  18  eq. ;  3 
King!  lii,  18;  xri,  8j  xviii,  lb).  The  treasury  of  the 
Tensile  was  repeatedly  plundered  by  fotragn  inraden : 
fix  IraUnce,  by  Shishak  (1  Ktiif,'*  xiv,  26);  by  Jeho- 
■ii,  king  of  Israel  (3  Kings  xiv,  H);  by  Mebiichadnei- 
tv  (hit,  IS) ;  and,  lailly,  again  \iy  Nebochadnezxar, 
■hi.  hanng  removed  the  valuable  contents,  caused  the 
Vtai|ile  to  be  bamed  down  (xxv,  9  sq.),  summer,  B.C 
!M>  The  building  had  stood  unce  its  completion  416 
l-csn  (Joaephu*  has  470,and  RuHnus  870,  years).  Thus 
reminaud  what  the  later  Jews  called  I^OX-in  fl'^S, 
•iifoil  jloHK     See  Jkkuhalkh. 

1  Tin  Sftcomd  Trmple.^lu  the  year  EC  636  the 
Jewi  obtained  permision  from  Cynu  to  colonise  their 
MiiTT  Lend.  Cyrus  commanded  also  that  the  sacred 
Blnnls  which  had  been  pillaged  in  the  Hrst  Temple 
tboold  be  rHtoied,  and  that  fur  the  restontion  of  the 
ronple  sssistaiKC  should  be  gnnlnl  (ICira  i  and  vt;  9 
Cbna.  ^iiivi,  22  sq.).  The  Hrst  coluny  whii-h  retum- 
ti  luider  Zenibbabel  and  Joshua  having  ooUected  the 
secmuy  means,  and  having  also  obtained  the  assist- 
un  of  nKEoician  workmen,  commenced  in  the  second 
Tsu  ailer  their  return  the  rebu'Jding  of  the  Temple, 
■prisg,  B.C.  585.  The  Sidonians  brought  rails  of  ce- 
<lv--K»  from  Lebanon  to  Jnpps.  The  Jews  refused 
ikt  eo-Dptrslinn  of  the  Samaritans,  who,  being  thereby 
oSniJeil,  induced  the  king  Artachshasbta  {probably 
Sor-iia)  to  prohibit  the  building.  It  was  oidy  in  the 
«apd  year  of  Darius  Hystaapia  (sumiDer,  RC  GSO)  that 
iW  l>uiUiDg  was  resBmed.  It  waa  completed  in  the 
■iiL  year  of  this  king,  winter,  RC  G16  (cnmp.  Kara  v 
nl'i:  Hagg.  i,  16).  According  to  Jo*et>hue  (^Anl.  xi, 
4,7)  the  Temple  waa  completed  in  the  ninth  vear  of 
ibt  leign  of  Darius.  The  old  men  who  hid  seen  the 
liru  r«nple  were  moved  to  tears  on  beholding  the  sec- 
und,  which  appeared  like  nothing  in  comparison  with 
iktln((Ezn  iii,Iii  Hagg.ii,  8  sq.).     It  seema,  liow- 


T,  that  it  was  not  si 


d  Tcmpk  was  inferii 
sod  in  ben%  deprived  of  the  ark  uf  the  oorenanl,  which 
had  been  bomed  with  tbe  Temple  of  Solomon.    See 

AltertbeeataUiahment  oftheSelencidBin  the  king- 
'leatof  Syria,  Antiocbua  F.piphsnes  invaded  Kgypt  sev- 
tnl  times.  During  bis  first  expeiiiiinn,  B.C  171,  tbe 
r*M|^  Henelaua  (q.v.)  procured  (he  ilrath  of  the 
rcnlsr  high-prieet  Oniaa  [I[  (q.  v.)  (3  Msec  iv,  !7  sq.); 
JuiiC  his  aecond  campaign,  un  retiring  fur  winler-qusr- 
"B  n>  Palestine,  Antiochus  slew  certain  other  penuns, 
B,C>  I'd;  ami,  tliuilly,  he  pillaged  and  desecrated  the 
Issfdr,  and  subdued  and  plundered  Jerusalem,  June, 
■IC  IM.  Ha  also  ordered  tbe  disoontin nance  uf  the 
'iailrtaetiftoa.  In  December  of  the  samej'sar  he  caused 
<•  iltar  hr  sacriBoa  to  Jupiter  Olympius  to  be  placed 
•  IbealtarorJehovah  in  the  Temple  (vii,i,fi).  This 
■•  'the  sbominatiun  that  msketh  ileaolale."  At  the 
W>  ticM,  be  devoted  tbe  temple  on  Mount  Qerizim,  in 
•aoo  to  the  foreign  origin  <rf  iist-  -  '■■- 


I  TEMPLE 

pitet  Btnac.  The  Temple  at  Jenualem  became  so 
desolate  that  it  was  ot-ergrown  with  vegetation  (I  Mace 
iv.Sai  3  Mace,  vi,  4).  Three  years  after  this  profaoa- 
lion  (Dee.  3fi,  ac.  165)  Judas  MaccaUeus,  baviiig  de- 
feated the  Syrian  armies  in  Palestine,  cleansed  the 
Temgdo,  and  again  commenceil  sacrificing  to  Jehovah 
upon  tbe  altar  there.  He  repaired  the  boilding,  fuT- 
nisheil  new  utensils,  and  erected  forlificitions  against 
fuuire  attacks  (1  Hacc  iv,  43-GO;  vi,  7;  xiii,  63;  ! 
Mace  I,  IS;  X,  B).  Forty-fire  days  aFler  cleansing  the 
sattctnaiy,  Antiocbasdied.  Thus  were  fulfilled  the  pre- 
dictions of  Daniel:  from  "the  casting  down  some  of 
the  iioat  and  elan,"  1.  e.  ataying  some  of  the  pious  and 
influential  Jews  by  Antiochus,  especisUy  from  the  death 
of  Onias,  B.C.  171,  to  the  clunsing  of  the  sanctuary, 
B.C.  1 66,  was  six  years  (of  860  days  each)  and  140  daya, 
or  2S00  days  (Dan.  viii,  8-14);  from  the  reduction  of 
Jerusalem,  EC.  IGS,  tu  the  cleansing  of  tbe  sanctuary, 
EC.  166,  was  three  years  and  a  half,  le.  "atime.iimea, 
andahalf,"oria90dBys<vii,36;  xii,  7, 11);  and  from 
the  reduction  of  Jerusalem,  EC  168,  to  the  death  of 
Aniinchus,  which  occurred  early  in  EC.  164,  forty-five 
daya  after  the  purification  of  the  Temple,  1SS6  days^ 
As  to  the  140  daya,  we  have  no  certain  date  in  hiato- 
ry  to  reckon  them ;  but  if  the  yeart  are  correct,  we 
mav  well  auppoee  tbe  doj/t  to  be  so  (ver.  13;  Joeephus, 
jinf.  xii,T,6;  ITar.pref.  7;  i,  1, 1;1  Hacc  1,46,47;  ir, 
88-61;  2  Maccv,  11-37;  vi,  1-9).  See  AsnocHua. 
Alexander  Jan meus,  about  EC  1 06,  separated  tbe  court 
of  the  priests  from  tbe  external  court  by  ■  wooden  rail- 
ing (Josephus,  AnI.  xiii,  18, 6).  During  the  conlentiona 
among  tbe  later  Maccabees.  Pompey  attacked  the  Tem- 
ple from  the  north  side^  caused  a  great  massacre  in  ita 
courts,  but  abstained  from  plundering  the  treasury,  al- 
thoogh  he  even  entered  the  holy  of  holies.  EC.  68  (Ait 
14, 4).  Herod  the  Great,  with  the  assistance  of  Roman 
inHips,  stormed  the  Temple.  EC.  37;  on  which  oceasioa 
some  of  the  surrounding  halls  were  destroyed  or  daiD- 
■ged.    See  Palestuo. 

a.  The  nird  Templr.—Hrimi,  wishing  to  ingratiala 
himself  with  the  Cburcb-and-Slate  patty,  and  being 
fund  of  arehitectural  display,  undertook  not  merely  to 
repair  tbe  second  Temple,  but  to  raise  a  perfectly  new 
structure.  As,  however,  the  Temple  of  Zembbahel  waa 
not  actuallydestrnyed,  but  only  removed  after  the  prep- 
arations for  the  new  Temple  wero  completed,  there  haa 
arisen  some  debate  whether  the  Temple  of  lierud  could 
properly  be  called  the  third  Temple.  The  reason  why 
the  Temple  of  Zembbabel  waa  not  at  once  taken  down 
in  order  to  make  room  for  the  more  ^lendjd  sliuetura 
of  Henxl  is  explained  by  Joeephus  as  follows  {ArU.  xr, 
II,  3):  "The  Jews  were  afraid  thst  Herod  would  puU 
dawn  the  whole  edidce  and  not  be  able  to  carry  his  in- 
tentions as  to  its  rebuilding  into  effect;  and  this  danger 
appeared  to  them  to  be  very  great,  and  the  vaslness  of 
the  undertaking  to  be  snch  as  could  hardly  be  aocom- 
plisbed.  But  while  they  were  in  this  disposition  tbe 
king  cncouragod  them,  and  toM  them  he  wonid  not  puU 
down  their  Temple  till  all  things  were  gotten  ready  ft>r 
building  it  up  entirely,  As  Heiod  promised  them  thi* 
beforehand,  so  he  did  not  break  his  woni  with  them, 
but  got  ready  a  thousand  wagons  that  were  to  bring 

the  roost  shilful  workmen,  and  boirght  a  thousand  sacer* 
riotal  garments  for  as  many  of  the  priests,  and  bad  some 
of  ihem  taught  the  arts  of  Btone-cuiters,  and  others  of 
carpenters,  and  then  began  tu  build:  but  this  not  till 
everything  was  well  prepared  fur  the  work."  The  work 
was  actually  commenced  in  the  uineleentb  year  of  the 
reign  of  Herod— that  is,  the  beginning  of  EC  31. 
Priests  and  Levites  finished  tbe  Temple  itself  in  one  year 
and  a  half.  The  out-buildings  and  courts  required  eight 
years.  However,  some  building  operations  were  con* 
etanlly  in  progress  under  the  succeesois  of  Herod,  and 
it  ia  in  reference  to  this  we  are  infurmeil  that  the  Tem- 
ple was  Snished  only  under  Albinus,  the  last  proruralnr 
but  one,  not  long  before  the  commencement  of  the  Jew- 


iah  war  in  which  the  Temple  wu  again  deMroyeil.  It 
i>  in  reference  also  lo  these  protracied  building  opera- 
tiona  that  the  Jews  uid  to  Jmu, "  Forty  ami  tix  yean 
«U  this  Temple  in  building"  (Jghii  ii,  20J.     Sed  Ubr- 

Under  the  aoni  of  Herod  the  Temple  remained  ap- 
parently ui  good  order,  and  Herod  Agrippa,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  emperur  Claudius  iu  giiirdtan,  even 
planned  the  repair  of  the  eastern  pari,  which  had  prob- 

the  Jews  and  Ronwii  of  which  the  Temple  was  repeat- 
edly the  scene  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvji,  10).  During  the 
final  atrnfc^le  of  the  Jcwi  againal  the  Iian)anii,A.U.  70, 
the  Temple  was  the  last  scene  of  the  lug  of  war.  The 
Rnmans  rushed  from  the  Tower  of  Anconia  into  (he  sa- 
cced  precineta,  the  halls  of  which  were  set  on  lire  hy 
the  Jews  Ibemselvea.  It  was  against  the  will  ofTilus 
that  a  Roman  soldier  threw  a  diebrand  inui  the  norlh- 

fiat{tatiim  uf  [he  whole  stnictuie,  although  Tims  blm- 
aell  endeavored  to  extinguish  the  Are  (ITiir,  vi,  4). 

racy  uf  this  period  thereto  relating;  for  the  same  munlh 
and  day  were  now  observed,  as  I  said  befnrp,  wherein 
the  holy  house  was bnmed  formerly  by  the  Babjloniana. 
Kow  the  number  of  years  that  passed  from  its  Hrst 
foundation,  which  nas  laid  by  king  Solomon,  till  this 
its  destruction,  which  happened  in  the  second  year  of 
the  rei|<n  orVeapasian,  are  collected  tii  be  one  thousand 
one  hundred  and  thirty,  boaidea  seven  months  and  HI- 
teen  days;  and  from  the  second  bnilding  of  it,  which 
was  done  by  Haggai  in  the  second  year  of  Cyrus  the 
king,  till  its  destruction  under  Vespasian  there  were  six 
hundred  and  thirty-nine  years  and  forty-five  days." 

The  sacred  utensils,  the  golden  table  of  the  shew- 
breail,  the  book  of  the  law,  and  the  golden  candlestick 
were  displayed  in  the  triumph  at  Rome.  Kepresenta- 
tions  of  them  are  still  la  be  seen  aculptured  in  relief  on 
the  triumphal  arch  of  Tilus  (see  Fleck,  ITiunifriii/l- 
tfcAcA<ue,i,l,  plate  i-iv;  and  Keland,  iJe  5i>ui>if  Tern- 
pti  ffifrtHolsmilimi  in  Ann  Tilimo,  ed.  E.  A.  Schulze 
[Tnu.ad  Kb.  1775]).  The  place  where  the  Temple  had 
aloud  seemed  to  be  a  dangerous  centre  for  the  rebell- 
ious papulation,  until,  in  A.D.  13G,  the  emperor  Hadrian 
founded  a  Roman  colony  under  the  name  £lia  Capito- 
lina  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  and  deriiciied  a  lempls 
to  Jupiter  CapilolinUB  on  the  ruiua  of  the  Temple  of 
Jehovah.  Ilenceforth  no  Jew  was  permitted  to  ap- 
proach the  site  of  the  ancient  Temple,  although  the 
worshipper!  of  Jehovah  wei^.in  derision,  compelled  to 
pavaUK  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
(see  Dion  Caiaiui  [Xiphil.],  Ixix.  12;  Jerome,  .4 .J  Jm. 
ii,  9;  vi,  11  sq.;  Eiisebius,  Hitl.  Ecda.  iv,  6;  Dmim- 
ttratio  EmnfffCica,  viii,  18),     Under  the  reign  of  Con- 

for  liaving  attempted  to  restore  the  Temple  (see  F  " 
Cii  I.UX  Eeiagrlii,  p.  124). 

The  emperor  Julian  undertook,  in  3G3,  to  rebuil 
Temple;  but.  atlcr  considerable  preparation  atul  much 
expense,  he  was  compelled  to  desist  by  flames  which 
burst  forth  tVom  the  luundations  (see  Ammiapus  Mar- 
cellinu^xxiii,!;  Socrates, //>('.  t^iitM.iii, 20;  Sozomen, 
V,  23;  Theodoret,  iii,  IS;  Schrockb,  KirdtngackirhU, 
vi,  385  Bi|.).  Repenteil  attempts  have  been  made  la 
account  fur  these  igneous  explosions  by  natural  causes; 
for  instance,  by  the  ignition  of  gases  which  had  long 
been  pent  up  in  subterraneous  vaults  (see  Michaelis, 
Zertlr.kt.Bckrifl.\n,Ua»c\.).  A  similar  event  is  men- 
tioned bj'  Josephui  {Am.  ivi,  7, 1),  where  we  are  in- 
farmed  thai  Herod,  while  plundering  the  tombs  of  Da- 
rid  and  Solomon,  was  suddenly  frightened  by  flames 
which  burst  out  and  killed  two  of  his  soldiers.  B'  ' 
Warburton  contends  for  the  miraculousnessorthe  i 
in  hi)  discourse  Coneotiitig  lie  Kartkqaait  and  f'iriy 
KrypltoKKhi^  Dr/mtedJiiUaa't  AUaiipt  lo  RfbuUdlhf 
TanpU  of  Jmualrm.  See  also  Lotter,  Huloria  ]n- 
tiattrationit  TttnpU  Hitroao^miliini  lab  Jaliano  (Lips. 


TEMPLE 

1728, 4to);  Uichaelia  (F.  Holifuss>,Z)(M.<h  7ni^-/7h 
profu/jntuTiiiH  Juliniii  itandnlo  per  Judaotjnatra  7H- 
Ma  RfUhitiom  (HaL  ITfil,  4to);   Urdner,  CtJUaiim 

Lmesti,  Theol.  BOJ.  ix,  G04  sit.  R.  Tourlet's  Frencli 
translation  of  the  works  of  Julian  (Paris,  ISSI).  ii.43i 

this  remarkable  event.     See  also  Josi,  CnnluJif 
/<r(u(i'(ni,iv,  211.264  atg.i  and  ii^  A  Ugtmti^  Gr- 
ichidUeilajiidiichai  l-'oUri,  ii,  1 58.     Hee  JvUan. 

A  splendid  musqoe  now  stands  on  the  site  of  tlic 
Temple.    This  mosque  was  erected  by  the  caliph  Oi.inr 
after  the  conquest  of  JeroBSlem  by  the  Saracens  in  Ue. 
Soma  think  that  Omar  changed  a  Cbrielian  chunJi 
which  stood  on  the  ground  of  the  Temple  into  the    , 
nweque  which  is  now  called   El  Aksa,  lA<  ouirr,  n    I 
norfA«n>,  because  it  is  the  third  of  the  most  celebrated    j 
mosques,  two  orwhich,nsmel}',  those  of  Mecca  andlle- 
dina,  are  in  a  more  southern  latitude.     See  MoeitrE. 

HI.  Siliialian  nnd  Aaxuofia  of  ike  Temph.-\.  IV 
site  of  the  Temple  is  clearly  stated  in  2  Chmn.  iii,  I : 
'-Then  Solomon  began  tu  build  the  house  of  Ihs  Lonl 
at  Jerusalem  in  Mount  Moriah,  where  llie  Lord  ipfieir- 
ed  unto  David,  his  father,  iu  the  place  that  I>avid  bn) 
prepared  in  the  threshing-Sour  of  Oman  (or  Ataunth) 
the  JrbuNle."  In  anuth-eaatem  countries  the  lile  of 
the  threshiiig-fioun  is  aelecled  according  to  the  (sm 
]iriuciples  which  might  guide  us  in  the  selection  ofibt 
site  of  windmills.  Vie  Knd  them  usually  on  the  K^i 
ofhillt  which  are  on  all  aides  exposed  to  the  winds,  ihc 
current  of  which  is  required  in  order  lo  aeparait  \hf 
grain  from  ihechalT.  It  seems  that  the  summit  nf  Uu- 
riah,  although  large  enougli  for  the  agriculiunl  put- 
poses  of  Araunah,  had  no  level  sufficient  for  the  plau 
of  Solomon.  Acoording  to  Josephua  (irar,  v,  b),tht 
foundations  of  the  Temjde  were  laid  on  a  ateep  emi- 
nence, the  summit  of  which  was  at  firat  innifflcieni  f<ii 
the  Temple  and  allar.  As  it  was  surrounded  by  ptrd- 
pices,  it  became  necesairy  to  build  up  walls  and  but- 
tresses in  order  lo  gain  more  ground  by  filling  up  the 
interval  with  earth.     The  hill  was  also  fortified  lir  * 


wall,  1 


i    loWE 


which  " 


hundred  cubits  high;  and  the 
deplh  oF  the  foundation  was  not  visible,  bHanae  it  had 
been  nccessari-  in  some  parta  to  dig  deep  into  the  grmad 
in  arrier  to  obtain  auflicient  auppiirl.  The  dimtt»i>n 
of  the  atones  of  which  the  walls  were  composed  tm 
enormous;  Joaephua  menliona  a  length  uf  forty  nibiu. 
It  ia,  however,  likely  that  some  parts  of  (he  fortifies. 
tioLis  of  Moriah  were  added  at  a  later  period. 

A*  we  shall  eventually  see,  the  pwliion  and  dinKih 
sions  of  the  present  area  of  the  llaran  rvasonablv  cot- 
respond  to  the  requirements  of  the  several  ancient  K- 
counts  of  the  Temple.  Tbeie  can  be  little  doubt,  look- 
ing at  the  natural  cnnfurmatian  of  Ihe  rocky  hill  itwIL 
tiiat  Ihe  central  building  always  occupied  the  sunoiit 
where  the  Mosque  of  Omar  now  alanda.  The  theorvof 
Ferguiaon  (in  Smith'a  Din.  oflht  Bible,  and  elsfwbere) 
that  it  was  aitusted  in  Ihe  extreme  snulh-west  comn 
of  the  present  platform  has  not  met  with  aoceptantt 
among  archcologials.     See  Moiiiah. 

The  Temple  was  in  ancient  warfare  almost  impregna- 
ble, from  the  ravines  at  the  precipitous  eilge  of  which 
it  Blood :  but  it  mtuireil  more  sniAcial  furtillcaliuns  on 
its  western  and  nonhem  shies,  which  were  snrTounilH 
by  the  city  of  Joiuaaiem;  fur  this  reason  there  vu 
erected  at  its  north-western  comer  ihe  Tower  of  Aoi* 
nia,  which,  although  standing  on  a  lower  level  Ihiii  \hr 
Temple  itself,  was  ao  high  as  lo  overlook  Ihe  aicivl 
buildings,  with  which  it  was  connected  partly  by  a  Ui^ 
aiaircase,  partly  by  a  subterraneons  communicaliro. 
itecled  the  Temple  from  sudden  i^cu^ 


city  of  Jeruaalom,  and  from  dangeroui 
iig  the  thousands  who  were  fiequentlr 
n  Ihe  precincts  of  the  eaurts;  whith 
Imes  used  for  popular  meetings.    Ses 


TEMPLE  2i 

t  )£inr  lannu  bare  KtopKd  ■  atylc  u  if  Oxty  pca- 
ncd  nuch  iofunnBLinD  iboutlhe  archivuoflbe  Tern- 
pit;  ibtte  are  i  few  indiuLinni  from  which  we  leani 
ihu  inporUnt  documents  were  rtepoaitetl  in  tha  Taber- 
Buieuid  Temple.  Even  in  DeuMixxi,  SG,  we  Ood  that 
(u  tDok  of  tbe  law  wu  depouted  in  the  iik  of  the  cov- 
atnt;  aud  accatdiag  Co  2  Kiagi  xxii,  S,  llilkiah  r«li>- 
amrti  ibe  book  of  the  law  in  the  hoiue  of  Jeborah. 
In  i  Vmx.  ii,  13  we  dnd  a  /ji^ui^nt  mentioned,  ap- 
ptTtDilT  (siuiitine  chiefly  of  Ibe  caaonical  books,  and 
pnbalilf  depoaited  in  the  Temple.  In  Josephui  ( IVar, 
7, 5)  it  i>  menlimicd  that  a  book  of  the  law  wai  foumi 
ia  iht  Temple.  It  appeals  that  the  aacred  writing* 
■Fit  kepi  in  the  Temple  (Aa/.  T,  1, 17).     Copiea  of  po- 

inauiy  oftbe  Tampl*  (1  Hacc  xiv,  49).  Thii  tieaa- 
uy,i  iipit  Aiiamrpot,  was  maniged  by  an  inspector, 
fflsiifRXaE.  ^3tl,  and  it  eoDtained  the  great  aumi 
■birh  were  annoally  paid  in  by  the  laraelitei,  each  of 
■ban  paid  a  half-shekel,  and  many  of  wham  eent  dona- 
tjam  10  iwney  and  precioua  renela,  dva^fiara.  Such 
cntlr  preaenta  were  eapecudly  tranamitted  by  rich  pnw- 
dna,  and  eren  aomelimet  bv  pagan  princee  (S  Hacc  ill, 
3:.laKpbin,^iil.xiT,lG,4;'][viii,3,&;  xix,6, 1;  War, 
ii.l"»:  V,  13,  6;  Coat.  Apion.  ii,  b ;  Philo,  0;;p.  ii,  69 
•H,  U}).    It  ia  nid  especially  that  Ptolemy  Philadel- 


™ple,iu 


puilnde  for  baviug  been  permilteil  lo  procuia  the  Sept. 
[ii»lalion(Ariiteas,/>erran9f<(f.£A'X,p.l09w).).  The 
pSa  (ihibiled  in  the  Temple  are  mentioned  in  Luke 
III.  5:  we  find  even  that  the  rents  of  the  whole  tuwn 
dT  holtniaia  were  given  lo  the  Temple  (I  Mace,  x,  39). 
Tboc  wrre  also  preserved  historical  curioaities  (2  Kinga 
iL  10),  opeciaJly  the  arma  of  cdebraWd  heroes  (J«e- 
pkB^JaL  zii,6,l):  this  wu  also  tbe  caie  in  the Tab- 


I  ffrpnnjy'C'  Twenty  men  were  re- 
quired for  opening  and  abuttine  the  eaalem  gate  (Jose- 
pba^ir<ir,vi,5,3i  CiM.  Apim.  ii,9;  Atil.\'i,b,3;  xvii, 
i  SI    The  KTpoTijyoc  had  his  own  secretary  (j1b(.  xi, 

fniBp.  Acta  iv,  1  and  v,  34).     He  appean  to  have  been 
el  HlScient  dignity  to  be  menlioned  logelhet  with  the 


Itae 


IB  that  hia  Hebrew  ti 


r-^  in,  (ia  mtm  ofiht  nomlam  afihe  Asum  {Uid- 
iiA^i,^).  TheprieMa  tbemaelvea  kept  watch  on  three 
ditoent  posts,  and  the  Levjiea  on  iwenlr-one  pnita. 

It  was  the  duty  ol  the  police  of  the  Temple  to  pre- 
ml  womeo  from  entering  tl>e  inner  court,  and  to  lake 
Bie  that  tio  penon  who  was  Levitically  unclean  should 
Hiicf  within  the  aacred  precincts.  Gentiles  were  per- 
DUifd  to  pam  the  fltit  enclosure,  which  was  therefore 
nM  tbe  Oxin  of  ibeGeniilei;  but  persons  who  were 
«i  iny  Bcconnt  Levilicnlly  andean  were  not  permitted 

fer  iMtasce  that  arising  from  the  touch  of  a  corpse,  ex- 
diaM  only  frnm  the  court  uf  the  men.  If  an  unclean 
pnaa  had  entcrcil  by  miatake,  he  was  required  to  offer 
■niSBea  of  purification.  The  high-prieet  himself  was 
Middta  to  enter  (he  holy  of  holies  under  penalty  of 

(l'blii.0^.ii,591).  Nobody  was  admitted  within  the 
pnciDcts  of  the  Temple  who  carried  s  stick  or  a  basket, 
lad  who  wanted  tn  pass  merely  li>  shorten  hia  way,  or 
vbo  had  duaty  ahoes  (.Sliidalh,  ii,  2). 

IV.  GatenU  Tgptt  n/Ot  rrmpfc.— There  is  perhaps 
v  buihiiiig  of  the  ancient  world  which  haa  excited  so 
■«ti  aitoitian  since  the  time  of  its  deatruction  as  the 
Topic  which  Solomon  bailt  at  Jerusalem,  and  its  sue- 
^nor  aa  rebuilt  by  Herod.  Its  spoils  were  considered 
TRiky  of  farming  (he  principal  illuslnlion  of  one  of 
At  iwatbeaiiUfnl  of  Bnman  triumphal  arcbea,  and  Ju*- 
■■ian'f  higtaett  arcbitectanl  ambition  was  '' 
•^[tii  iurpaa*  it.     Throughout  the  Middle  > 


3  TEMPLE 

flueneed  to  a  eonsidenble  degree  the  farnis  of  Christian 
churches,  and  ita  peculiarities  were  the  watchwords  and 
ral lying-points  of  all  associations  of  hiiilders.  Since  lh« 
revival  of  learnin|-  in  the  ]6lh  eentiiry  ita  arrangements 
have  employed  the  pens  of  numberless  learned  antiqua- 
rians, and  archilecta  of  every  coupiry  have  wasted  their 
science  in  trying  to  reproduce  ita  forms. 

But  it  is  not  only  lo  ChrialiaDS  that  the  Temple  of 
Solomon  ia  so  inleresting;  Ibe  whole  Mohammedan 
world  look  to  it  as  the  foundation  of  all  arehitectnral 
knowledge,  and  the  Jewa  stilt  recall  its  glories  and  ^h 
over  their  loss  with  a  constant  tenacity,  unmatched  by 
that  of  any  other  people  to  any  otber  building  of  the 

Withall  this  interest  and  attention,  it  might  flirty  ba 
assumed  that  there  was  nothing  more  to  be  aaid  on  such 
a  subject-~that  every  source  of  information  hod  been 
Tonsscked,  and  every  form  of  restoration  long  ago  ex- 
hausted, and  same  settlement  of  the  disputed  points  ar- 
rived at  which  had  been  generally  accepted.  This  is, 
however,  far  from  being  the  case,  and  few  things  wonld 
be  more  curious  than  a  collection  of  the  various  restora- 
tions that  have  been  proposed,  as  ahowiiig  what  dlSer- 

architectural  letma. 

When  the  French  expedition  to  Egypt,  in  the  Srst 
years  of  this  centun-,  had  mads  the  world  familiar  with 
the  wonderful  architectural  Tcmains  of  that  country, 
every  one  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple roust  have  been  deagned  after  an  Egyptian  model, 
forgetting  entirely  bow  liateful  that  land  of  bondage 
was  to  the  Israelites,  and  how  completely  all  the  ordi- 
nances of  (heir  religion  were  opposed  to  the  idolatriea 
Ihev  had  escaped  from — forgetting,  too,  the  centuries 
which  had  elapsed  since  the  Exode  before  the  Temple 
was  erected,  and  how  little  communication  of  any  sort 
there  had  been  between  the  two  countries  in  the  inter- 
val. Nevertheleas,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments  remarkably  confirm,  in  many  respects, 
the  anc"  ..-■-. 


with  a  very  considerable  prospect  of  success,  for  the 
analogies  are  now  true,  and  whatever  can  be  brought  to 
bear  on  tbe  subject  is  in  the  right  direction.  The  orig- 
inal seats  of  the  progeniton  of  the  Jewish  races  were 
in  Meaopotamia.  Their  language  was  prsclically  tbe 
same  as  that  spoken  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  Their 
bistorical  traditions  were  conaentaneoiis,  and,  so  far  as 
we  can  judge,  almost  all  the  outward  symbolism  of  tb«t 
religion  wo*  the  aame,  or  nearly  so.  Unlorttinslely, 
however,  no  Assyrian  temple  has  yet  been  exhumed  of 
a  nature  to  throw  much  light  on  this  subject,  and  we 
are  still  forced  to  hare  recourse  lo  the  later  buildinga 
at  Fersepolis,  or  to  general  deductions  from  the  style  of 
the  nearly  contemporary  secular  buildings  at  Nineveh 
and  elsewhere,  for  such  illastrslinns  as  are  available. 
These,  although  in  a  general  way  illustrative,  yet  by  no 
means,  in  our  opinion,  suffice  for  all  that  is  required  for 
Solomon's  Temple.  For  some  architectural  features  of 
that  erected  by  Herod  we  rauH  doubtless  look  to  Rome. 
Of  the  intermediaU  Temple  erected  by  Zerubbabel  we 
know  very  little,  but,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  hav- 
ing been  erected  under  Persian  influences  contempora- 
neously with  the  buildings  at  Persepolis,  it  is  perhapa 
the  one  of  which  it  would  be  most  easy  to  restore  ttie 
details  with  anything  like  certainty.  Vet  we  must  re- 
Tiiembcr  that  both  these  later  temples  were  essentially 
Jewish,Le.Ph(eniciRn,in  their  style;  and  wemay  there> 
fure  presume  that  the  original  type,  which  we  know  wot 
copied  in  plan,  waa  likewise  imitated  in  details  to  a  very 
great  dtgree.  There  are,  however,  two  sources  of  iUns 
iralion  with  which  the  Temple  wos  historically  con- 
nected in  a  very  direct  manner,  and  to  these  we  Ihere- 
■     --te  a  toief  attention  before  considering  the  sev- 


ta  of  the ' 


larchea 


TEMPLE  2i 

I.  The  TahrmacU  crectnt  by  Hdm*  in  tbe  de«ert  wu  ' 
QDquealiunably  tbe  ixttem,  in  «1I  iU  enrntul  features, 
of  iis  Solamonic  tucceuor.  In  tbe  gradually  increuing 
««nclity  of  the  ievcral  diriiiion»,  u  well  aa  in  iheir 
■irikinKly  proportionile  dimeDsioni,  we  find  the  Tem- 
ple little  more  than  the  Tabernaele  un  «n  euUrged  icile, 

that  we  need  not  dwell  upon  it.     See  Tabkb!Iaci.k. 

!.  The  E^fpliaa  Tempia,  ill  their  cotiventional  Hyle, 
erince,  notwicbgtandiDg  their  idulatroui  luea,  ■  woii- 
deifu!  relaliDD  to  both  tbe  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple. 
Ai  will  be  leen  from  the  accompanying  plan  of  the 
Temple  of  Denderah,  which  ii  one  of  the  limpleet  and 
moat  aytniaettical  aa  well  a>  tbe  beet  preMTred  of  itt 
claiB,  [here  is  a  itrikinft  agreement  in  the  points  of  the 
canipaas,in  the  extra  wid^ofthepoich,  in  theaoterioi 
holy  place,  in  the  interior  ahriiie,  in  the  nde-rooms,  in 
tbe  culumnar  halls;  and  in  the  grander  Egyptian  tem- 
plet, luch  aa  the  earlier  poniona  of  tbote  at  Luxor  and 


I 


Kamak,  we  bare  the  two  obeliaku  at  the  portal  like  the 
pUlara  Jacliin  and  Boaz.  These  coincidencea  cannot 
have  been  accidental  Not  i*  this  general  adoplion  of 
■  plan  already  familiar  to  the  Hebrews  inconuitent 
with  the  divine  prescription  of  the  details  of  arcbitecl- 
an(Eiod.][XV,9;  1  Chron.  xxviii,  12).  See  Eoyrr. 
V.  DrioiUd  DtKriplim  ofSolomm't  Tfmplt.—\.  A  n- 
cuiK  ^ccounU.— Tbe  Temple  itself  and  iu  ulenails  are 
deMjribed  in  1  Kinga  vi  and  vii,  and  2  Chron.  iii  and  iv. 
According  t«  these  passsges,  the  Temple  wu  SO  cublli 
long,  SO  wide,  and  30  high.  Jo9cphu\  however  (.4iaf. 
viii,8,2),iay8,"The  Temple  was  GO  cubits  high  and 
60  ciibita  in  length,  aitd  the  breadth  was  30  cubils; 
above  tbia  was  another  stage  of  equal  ditnenaions,  >o 


4  TEMPLE 

that  the  height  of  the  whole  structure  was  120  cabin.' 
''  ia  difficult  to  reconcile  this  alatement  with  that  giccn 
I  Kings,  uiilesi  we  aiippoae  that  the  words  lasc  r«c 
fiirpoif,'.  ftptal  H  tHfonru,  do  nut  signify  an  eqaaliiy 
in  all  dimensions,  but  only  aa  moch  aa  equal  in  tbe 
number  uf  eabitii  so  that  tbe  porch  farmed  a  liind  of 
,    .  projected  as  much  above  the  roof  of  iba 

Temple  as  tbe  roof  itaelT  was  elevated  above  itsfaanda- 
Uona.  AalheCbronidea  agree  with  Jooephiu  in  tncit- 
ing  that  the  summit  of  the  porch  was  t!0  cubila  hi;;ti, 
there  retnaini  atill  another  apparent  contradict  ion  to  Ic 
lived,  namely,  bow  Jooephua  could  assert  that  tbe  Ttrn- 
le  itself  was  GO  cubits  high,  while  we  read  in  1  Kinei 
laC  ita  heightwasonly  30  cubiia.  We  aappoae  tint  in 
le  book  of  Kingn  the  internal  elevation  of  the  ssncfii' 
Joeephua  describee  its  extcreil 


elera 


y(wl 


duding  tl 


listed,  0 


Jng  of  ro 


if  prieala,  containing  alao  t< 


accommodation  ol 
and  treasuries),  might  be  double  the  internal  height o( 
the  sanctuaiy.  The  inlemal  dimenaioQ  of  the  ■■  holy,' 
which  wag  called  in  preference  ^3^n,  waa  40  cubits Isng 
30  cubits  wide,  and  30  culNia  high.  Tbe  holy  wai  wp' 
anted  from  tbe  "  boly  nf  holies"  (~^2^)  by  a  panilkn, 
■  large  opening  in  which  was  closed  bv  a  uapcndid 
enrUin.  Theholyafbolieiwas  on  Ihewealem  eitnai- 
ity  of  the  entire  building,  and  its  internal  dimension 
formed  a  cube  of  20  cubits.  On  the  easlem  eitTemili 
of  the  building  stood  the  porch,  C^^K,  rpoi'aoc.  At 
the  entrance  of  this  pronaoa  stood  the  two  columns  called 
Jochin  and  Boai,  wbich  were  35  cubita  high. 

I'be  Temple  was  also  surrounded  by  a  triple  ?■];, 

bits  high,  so  that  there  remained  above  ample  apsR 
for  introducing  the  windowa,  aomewhat  in  the  tnan- 

ment  of  Josephas,  who  says  that  each  of  these  ai<>- 
riea  of  chambets  (r'ljbs)  was  20  cubits  high,  cinnit 
be  reconciled  with  the  BiMical  slatementi,  and  miy 
prove  that  he  was  no  very  close  reader  of  hb  aulhoii- 


lehada 


lofinfoi 


tbe  chambers  reached  halt-way  up  the  height  ( 

building,  and,  taking  the  maximum  height  of  ISOciiIh'i 
instead  of  the  internal  height  of  the  holy,  he  maderach 
story  four  times  too  high.  The  wimiowa  which  m 
mendoned  in  1  Kings  vi,  4  conalsted  probably  of  lattice- 
work. Tbe  lowest  Bloiy  of  the  chambers  waa  five  cu- 
bits, the  middle  six,  and  the  third  seven  cubits  vide. 
ThisdiSbrtnce  ofthe  width  arose  from  the  circumctsna 
that  the  exlemsl  walls  of  the  Ten 


it  after 


if  five  feet,  so  Ihst  the  scarcement  in  tbe  wall  of 
Ihs  Temple  gave  a  Arm  support  to  the  beams  which 
supported  the  second  storj-,  without  being  inserled  inlo 
the  wall  of  [he  sanctuary;  this  insertion  being  perbspa 
avoided  not  merely  for  architectural  reasons,  but  also 
because  it  appeared  to  be  imverent.  The  third  story 
was  supported  likewise  by  a  similar  scarcement,  which 
sfTordcd  a  atill  wider  apace  for  the  chamber  of  the  third 
story.  These  obaervationa  will  render  intelligible  the 
following  Uiblical  itslements:  "And  against  the  wall 
nf  the  bouae  he  built  stories  round  about,  both  of  Iht 
Temple  and  of  the  oracle;  and  be  made  chambera  round 
about.  The  nethormost  alory  waa  Bve  cubits  broad,  and 
tbe  middle  was  six  cubits  broad,  and  the  thin]  waa 
seven  cubils  bmad ;  for  without  in  the  wall  of  the  house 
he  made  narrowed  nests  (PU'^S^,  narrowings  or  re- 
batements)  round  about,  so  that  the  beams  should  not 
be  fastened  in  I  he  walla  of  the  house.  The  house,  when 
it  was  in  building,  was  built  of  atone  made  mdy  before 
itvraa  brought  thither;  »  that  there  was  neither  ham- 
mer, nnr  axe.  nor  any  tool  of  iron  heard  in  tbe  bouae 

while  it  was  building.     The  door     " ■*oiy 

waa  in  the  right  side  of  the  hoi  up 

with  winding  ataiis  into  the  p  of 


TEMPLE  2. 

it  niildle  iilo  the  tbird.  So  he  boilt  tbs  home,  anil 
HooM  it;  lai  CDvend  Ihe  houie  vith  bcamt  md 
\atii  U  adu.  Aod  Cbeo  be  built  cbamben  agiiau 
lU  ibt  biiBK,  fira  cubiu  higli ;  and  Ibev  rated  on  the 
6(iwi.ilh  limber  ofced*r"(l  King*  Ti,"7).  From  tbii 
jitrripiHii  il  ml)' be  iDlened  thit  the  entrance  to  these 
ama  wii  ftiiiii  without  i  but  •ome  anhilccu  have  wp- 
{hhI  Ibu  il  wu  rrom  witbinj  which  arraDgemeat 
HDu  U)  be  igunat  the  general  aim  of  impreoing  the 
linditiihwanihipperswitb  aacred  awe  by  the  aedusion 
rfibnrunctuai} 

Id  nftience  to  the  windows,  it  should  be  observed 
ihuihev  itrTcd  chieBy  for  ventilaiioD,  lince  the  iight 
niibiii  the  Tomple  was  obtained  from  the  sacred  cin- 
Jtsicl*  It  seems,  from  the  descriptions  of  the  Tem- 
;Ii,  L>  be  oitun  that  the  1''31,  snide,  or  holy  of  bo- 
tin,nsu  D^M  withont  windows.  To  this  fact  Sol- 
osco  ^iiKais  to  nfer  when  be  spake, "  The  Lord  said 
iJui  hi  imuld  dwell  in  the  thick  darkneai"  (1  Kinga 
™.l*)- 

Tbe  T^^,  oradt,  bad  perhaps  no  other  opening 
dim  Iteminnce,  which  was,  as  we  may  infer  from  the 
fnipbcticTiaiQns  of  Czekiel  (which  probably  cornepond 
rilh  iIk  tiiuoric  Temple  of  Solomon),  six  cubits  wide. 
Fmi  1  Kings  Tii,  10,  we  learn  that  the  prirate  dwell- 
Dp  (^  SukiDHm  were  built  of  masiure  euine.  We  hence 
arnthltlht  framework  of  the  Temple  also  conHsteil 
iriltfnmemaleriiL  TheTemplc  was,  however, wain- 
nuil  Kiih  cedar  wood,  which  was  covered  with  gold. 
Ibt  toanfa  within  the  Temple  were  ornamented  by 
bsiiiril  carvings  representing  cherubim,  palms,  and 
hwm.  The  ceiling  of  the  Temple  was  supported  by 
^*aa  of  cedar  wood  (comp.  Pliny,  f/iiL  A'nr.  svi,  69). 
Th(  aill  which  separated  the  holy  from  the  holy  uf 
bibs  ptubsbly  consisted  iKit  of  tuiae,  but  of  beama  of 
«^[.  li  seems,  further,  that  the  partition  partly  con- 
MUd  nf  an  opai  rvficuinfum,  so  that  the  incense  could 
<jmi  liun  the  holy  to  the  moat  holy.  This  we  infer 
boa  1  Kings  ri,  21 :  "So  &ilomou  overlaid  the  house 
ntisiith  pure  gold;  and  he  made  a  partition  by  the 
(kiuKor  gold  before  the  oracle,  and  he  overlaid  it  with 

Tbt  Boor  of  the  Temple  was  thrnughoDt  of  cedar,  but 
IwM  over  with  planks  of  Rr  (1  Kings  vi,  li).  The 
*»«i  iJ  the  (H>de  were  composed  of  o]|yo.lree;  but 
Ibt  dmn  aC  ihe  outer  temple  had  posts  of  olive-tree 
■dlaTcsorGr  (ver.  31  >q.).  Both  doois,  as  well  that 
>bicb  kd  into  the  Temple  as  that  which  led  from  Ihe 
U;  to  the  holy  of  holies,  bad  folding-leaves,  which, 
kiVRtr.vca  to  have  been  usually  kept  open,  the  aper- 
■wc  b«iiig  eJoMid  by  a  suspended  curtain — a  contrivance 
"ollKHiaiihe  thutch-dootsin  Italy,  where  the  church- 
tta  uiaally  stand  open;  but  the  dootwayi  can  be 
I*s(d  nlj  bj  moving  aside  a  heavy  curtain.  From  2 
f^"a-iii.^JI  appears  that  the  greater  house  waa  al» 
nkj  villi  fir.  It  is  stated  in  vet.  9  "that  the  weight 
'  ibc  nails  employed  in  the  Temple  was  fifty  shekels 
<'l°lil:'  sod  alao  that  Solomon  "overlaid  the  upper 
*«hm  with  gold." 

Tbt  linlri  and  aide  posts  of  the  oracle  seem  to  have 
Bnoacribed  a  apwx  which  contained  one  flfih  of  the 
*b4t  aiva  of  the  partition;  and  the  posts  of  the  door 
'ibTioiple  one  fourth  of  the  area  of  the  wall  in  which 
*^  nre  placed.  Thus  we  understand  the  paaaage  1 
up  ri,SI-Sfi,  which  also  stales  that  the  door  was  cov- 
■M  viih  tarred  work  overlaid  with  gold. 

WiUiD  the  holy  of  holies  stood  only  the  ark  of  the 
"■aut;  bat  within  the  huly  were  ten  golden  candle- 
■i^inl  the  altar  of  incense.     SmAltaii;  Candle- 


.  TitTempten 

■  Qiniiiclea  la  called  the  ODort  of  the  priests,  and  i 
'^niih  the  hiKber  eoint.  This,  again,  was  snrronnd 
|KhtwaDeoaaiatingaf  cedar  b^ms  placed  on  aston 
I  MilBiiM  (1  Kinga  vi,  36) :  ^  And  he  built  the  inne 


\5  TEMPLE 

dor  beams."  This  enclosure, accordbg  to  Josephua  (.4  nt. 
viii,  3,  9),  waa  three  cubits  high.  Besides  this  inner 
court,  there  is  mentioned  a  great  court  (2  Chron.iv,9)'. 
"Furthermore,  he  made  the  court  of  the  priesta,  and  the 
great  court,  and  doora  for  the  court,  and  overlaid  the 
doors  of  them  with  brass."  It  aeems  that  this  was  also 
called  the  ostward  court  (comp.  Ezek.  x1,  17).  Thia 
court  was  also  more  especially  called  the  court  of  the 
Lord'sbotiserjer.zix,Mj  xivi,!).  These  courts  were 
surrounded  hy  spacious  buildings,  which,  however,  ac- 
cording to  Joaephns  (Ifur,  v,  6, 1),  seem  to  have  been 
partly  added  al  a  period  later  than  that  of  Solomon. 
For  inaUnce  (3  Kinga  xv,  35),  Jotham  is  said  to  have 
built  the  bighcr  gate  of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  In  Jet. 
xxvi,  10  and  xxxvi,  10  there  is  mentioned  a  new  gate 
(comp.  also  lilzek.  xl,  5-47 ;  xlii,  1-14).  But  this  pro- 
phetic vistun  is  not  strictly  bislorical,  although  it  may 
sen-e  to  illutlrata  history  (comp.  also  Josephus,  AnI. 
viii,  B,  9),  The  tiird  entry  into  Ihe  house  of  the  Lord 
mentioned  in  Jer.  xxxviii,  14  does  not  seem  lo  indicate 
that  there  were  three  courta,  but  appears  lo  mean  that 
the  enUy  into  the  outer  court  was  called  tbe  first,  that 
into  the  inner  court  the  second,  and  the  door  of  the 
sanctuary  the  third.  It  ia  likely  that  these  courta  were 
quadrilateral  In  the  viwons  of  Ezekiel  they  form  ■ 
square  of  four  hundred  cubits.  The  inner  court  con- 
tained towards  the  east  Ihe  altar  of  bunil-airering,  the 
brazen  sea,  and  ten  brozeti  lavers;  and  it  seetns  that 

ewesL     From  these  desctip- 


ahed  by  n 


t  by  good  atchilectural 


materials.  Manyof  ourchurehes  have  an  extemnl  form 
not  unlike  iliat  of  tha  Temple  of  Solomon.  In  fact, 
this  Temple  seems  lo  have  been  the  pattern  of  our 
church  buildings,  to  whicb  Ihe  cbief  addition  has  been 
the  Qothic  arch.  Among  olheia,  tbe  Roman  Catholic 
church  at  Dresden  is  supposed  to  bear  much  teaein- 
blance  lo  the  Temple  of  Sotomon. 

8.  Modem  BecoHttmctioia.—Jl  thus  appears  that  aa 
regards  the  building  itself  we  have  little  more  than  a 
few  fragmenlary  nolicea,  which  are  quite  insufficient  to 
enable  us  to  make  out  ■  conect  architectural  represen- 
tation of  it,  or  even  to  arrive  at  a  very  deHnite  idea  of 
many  things  belonging  to  its  complicated  si 


«id.for 


■mpla  tl 
this  direcliuii  have  utterly  foilef 
have  proceeded  on  enlirtly  wrong  prin 
waa  remarkably  the  case  with  Ihe  first  great  work  upon 
Ihe  subject  hy  iirofessedly  ChrLiIian  writers;  namely, 
the  portion  of  iho  commentary  on  Ezekiel  by  the  Span- 
ish Jesuits  I'rudui  and  Villalpandue  (1596-1G04)  which 
treat*  of  the  Temple.  It  was  accompanied  by  elaborate 
calculaliona  and  magniflcent  drawings;  but  Ihe  whole 
proceeded  on  a  series  of  mbtakes — fitsi,  that  [he  Tem- 
ple of  Ezekiel  waa  a  delineation  of  that  which  had  been 
erected  by  Solomon;  secondly, that  this  was  again  ex- 
actly reproduced  in  Herod's;  and,  thirdly,  thai  Ihe  style 
of  architecture  from  the  Hrst  was  of  Ihe  Gneco-Koman 
character  — all  quite  groundleas  suppositions.  Their 
idea  of  Solomon's  Temple  was  that  bnlh  In  dimensions 
and  arrangement  it  was  very  like  the  Escntial  in  Spain. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  whether  the  Escurial  was  in 
process  of  building  while  their  book  was  in  the  press  in 
order  to  look  like  Ihe  Temple,  or  whether  iu  authors 
look  their  idea  of  the  Temple  from  the  palace.  At  all 
events,  their  design  la  so  much  Ihe  more  beautiful  and 
cummndiouB  of  ihe  two  that  we  cannot  bul  regret  that 
Hemra  was  not  employed  on  the  book  and  the  Jesuits 
set  to  build  the  palace.  Various  other  writers,  chiefly 
on  the  Continent,  followed  iu  the  same  line— llaifen- 
retfer,  Capellus  CTpiadyiov.  printed  in  the  Cril.  Sacri), 
Lightfon^  Sturm  (in  Ugolino),  Lamy,  Semmler,  Mel — 
a  notice  of  whoae  treatises,  some  of  Ihem  large  and 
ponderous,  may  be  seen  in  Btthr,  SalanuHOKhf  Temprl 
(S  3).     They   are  now  of  comparatively  little  us*' 


Sell  (Bibliieht  AreluUAogUi. 


Lightroot'a,  as  Btlhr  sdmits,  ii  (he  bot  of  tbe  whol^ 
bcini;  mora  dew,  teunnl,  ind  loliilly  grounded  in  its 
repretentaliuni.  But  it  baa  chieH]r  lo  do,  ■•  iu  Lille 
iuilicates  (  The  Ttmpit,  ttpedalti/  lu  it  itood  u  lie 


™gh  U.U.11 


u 


wunl  of  anviliiiie  but  ibe 
Ihia  beiriK  raganW  a>  a 
■  in  a  very  inferior  Uyle  of 
of  heathen  antiquity.  Ii 
ia  only  during  the  present  cenlut;  that  any  •criuui  ef- 
foru  hare  been  nude  to  construct  an  idea  of  Sotonm'g 
Temple  on  right  princi|>les:  that  ia,i>n  the  pmund  ant- 
ply  of  the  repreaenlatiiiiia  made  concerning  it  in  Scripi- 
ufe,  and  with  a  due  reganl  to  the  purpaan  far  which  it 
wot  erecled,  and  the  dilTerence*  as  well  a*  the  RSea- 
blsncea  beticeen  it  and  heathen  temples  of  the  ■■» 
(Bra.  A  aucceseion  of  worka  or  trealiw*  vith  tbU  view 
has  appealed,  almoit  exclutit'ely  in  (iermany,  WTeial 
of  them  by  architects  and  antiquarians,  irith  special  lef- 
erence  ID  the  hialoiy  of  the  building  an.  They  differ 
very  much  in  menl;  and  in  one  of  the  latest,  as  per- 
hapa  also  the  ablest,  of  the  whole,  the  treatise  of  Bibt 


Front  BleTstlan  of  Solomnn's  Temiile  nccordlnir  to  The- 1 
ii!d>  iDic  BtirhCT  dtr  k'ioiiie). 

Dust  of  Oar  Sarioiir),  with  the  Temple  of  Herod,    * 
and  but  very  briefly  refers  to  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon.    An  essentially  different  class  of  writings  on  the 
Temple  sprang  up  after  the  middle  of  last  century, 
introduced  by  J,  D.  Michaeljs,  which,  in  the    spirit 


1 

^^m^r- 

^ 

I 

1 1 

n 

n 

TJ 

1 

1 

^ 

1 — 1 

|S| 

1 

^  1  lal  1  ^  1 

n 

led  in  1818), 
en  of  the  aim  and  characteristics  of  preceding 
gations.     A»  a  general  result,  it  haa  been  c 
eatablubed  on  the  negative  side,  and  ia  not 
acquiesced  in,  that  the  means  entirely  fail 
senting  a  full  and 
lectural  respect,  o 

Its  being  cost  in  the  rectilinear  snd  chest  form  plii 
dielinguiahed  it  from  erections  in  the  (ireek  ind  K 
style;  and,  if  the  employment  of  Phicnidiin  aitH 
might  naturally  suKgcst  some  approach  in  certain  pM 
to  I'hixnician  models,  it  is,  an  the  Other  hand,  admili| 
by  the  most  careful  inveatigators  in  this  particnUta 
partmenc  of  antiquarian  study  that  little  or  nothian 
known  of  the  Phienician  style  of  building  (Btbr,  pM 
We  hera  prescni  the  delineations  of  several  laCnfl 
Temple  «■    ''I"*"''''  "hicli  show  how  variously  the  hislorial^ 


,  scripliona  are  interpret 


Eatinlj  different 
iin  m  tbe  Temple, 
the  -"mtupiig  mad 

EnLiii," 


1  Tsmple,  vritb  lu  Accompinyit 
the  finv^iag  ifl  Prof.  Paine'e 
K  from  hii  interpreUtion  of 
lug  about  Mill  apwird"  of 
iQg  of  the  upper  cbim- 


overji 


bm  bf  giUeriM  (Tanpit  nf  Soiamam,  p.  38).     A 
nbJKiion  lo  ucb  ID  arranftsmeDt  i>  Ibr  inaecuriCy  ofi 
tmiUiof  thm  widening  at  tbe  top. 

VL  Zenbbabdi  Temple^-We  btve  very  few  partic- 
lUn  ngarding  the  Temple  which  the  Jews  erected  af- 
tcf  ibdi  return  frotii  the  Captivity,  ind  no  description 
lliu  would  tBthit  oa  to  reatiie  its  appearance.  But 
Ihrre  are  ■omn  dinHmsioiu  givea  in  the  Kble  and  elae- 
ihrR  which  are  extremely  interesting  as  affording 
pouiu  of  anspaiiaoD  between  it  and  tbe  temples  wbich 
fmtded  it  or  were  erected  ader  iU 

The  Snt  and  most  authentic  are  those  given  in  the 
bokof  Ena  (vi,  3)  when  quoting  the  decree  of  Cyrus, 
'hnoD  it  ii  said, "  Let  the  house  be  builded,  the  placa 
ibcn  tbej  offered  sacrifice^  and  lot  the  foundations 


thereof  be  (tronglj  laid;  the  height  thereof  tbreescors 
cubits,  and  the  breadth  thereof  threescore  cnbila;  with 
three  rows  of  great  atonea,  and  a  row  of  new  timbet." 
Joaephua  quotes  tbii  passage  almost  J iteroUy  {.4rI.i1,  4, 
G),  but  in  doing  Bo  enables  us  W  translate  "  row"  (Chald. 
TJ573,  layer)  as  rlory  (^o/ioc,  so  also  the  Sept,)— as,  in- 
deed, the  sense  would  lead  us  to  infer — for  it  could  only 
apply  lo  the  three  stones  of  chambera  that  sumnuid- 
ed  Solomon's,  and  afterwards  Herod's,  Temple;  and 
with  tbia  again  we  come  to  the  wooden  stnieture  which 
sannouDted  the  Temple  and  formed  a  fourth  story.  It 
may  be  remariced,  in  pasaing,  that  this  dimension  of  six- 
ty cubits  in  height  accords  perfectly  with  the  words 
which  Josephus  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Herod  (ibid,  xv, 
11, 1)  when  he  makea  him  aay  that  the  Temple  built 
after  the  Captirity  wanted  sixty  cubits  of  the  h^ht 
of  that  of  Solomon.  For,  aa  he  bad  adopted,  as  we 
have  seen  above,  the  hoght  of  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty oabila^  m  wriu«n  in  the  Chronicles,  far  that  Temple, 
remained  only  aixty. 


of  si 


cnbits  in  breadth  is  twenty  en- 
tntt  in  exeeaa  of  that  of  Solo- 


adopted  for  the  Ten> 

by  Herod.   At  the  aame 
re  have  no  aathority  for 


rwards 


e  of 


Herod'a.  As  this  Temple 
Zembbabel  waa  atill  standing 
in  Hersd's  time,  and  was,  more 
atricUy  apeaking,  repaired  rath- 
er than  teboilt  by  him,  we  can- 

menaiona  were  then  lUmioisbed. 
We  are  leh,  therefore,  with  the 

alternative    of  assuming   that 
the  porch  and  tt      '      ' 


width,  including  tbe  thickneaa 
of  the  walls,  instead  of  ten  cu- 
bits, as  in  the  eaiUer  building. 
This  nuy,  perhaps,  to  some  ex- 
tent,be  accounted  for  by  the  in- 
troduction of  a  poaasge  between 
the  Temple  and  the  roomi  of 
the  priest's  lodgings,  instead  of 
each  being  a  thoroughfare,  a* 
most  certainly  have  been  the 
cose  in  Solomon's  Temple.  Thia 
alleration  in  the  width  of  the 
Fleromata  nude  the  Temple 
one  hundred  cubits  in  length 
by  sixty  in  breadth,  with  ■ 
height,  it  is  said,  of  sixty  cu- 
bits, including  the  upper  roooi, 
or  Tolsr,  though  wa  caonot  help 


TEMPLE  21 

(uspecling  Ihit  thin  liat  dimension  ia  aomewhat  in  ei- 
ceu  uf  th«  truth. 

The  only  other  deMriptinn  of  this  Temple  is  Tnund  in 
HeoueuB  the  Abderite,  who  wrote  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  Ibe  (ircM.  As  quoted  by  Jusephua 
(ells'.  Ap,  i,  22),  he  aaya  that  "in  Jeniaalem,  lowRrda 
the  middle  of  (be  city,  ia  *  aioDe-walled  enclosure  about 
five  hundred  feet  in  lenf;th  (u>c  invrairXidpoc)  and  one 
hundred  cubita  in  width,  with  double  gates,"  in  which 
he  describee  the  Temple  >■  being  lilualed.  It  may  be 
that  at  this  age  it  wai  found  neceMuy  to  add  a  court 
I<iT  the  women  or  the  Gentiles,  ■  aort  of  Nanhei  or 
Ullilee  for  those  who  could  not  enter  the  Temple.  If 
this,  or  theae  wgether,  were  one  hundred  cubits  square, 
it  'wentd  make  up  the  "  nearly  fire  plethra"  of  our  au- 
thor. HecatBus  also  mentions  that  the  altar  waa  twen- 
ty cubits  square  and  ten  high.  Although  be  mentions 
the  Temple  iuelf,  he  unfortunately  does  not  supply  us 

The  Temple  of  Zerubbabel  had  seveiil  couita  {ab\a^ 
■ml  cloiatem  or  cells  (irpoSvpa).  Jowpbuadistinguish- 
M  an  internal  and  exUmal  itpov,  and  mentions  cluis- 
Icn  in  the  courts.  This  Temple  was  connected  with 
the  town  by  means  of  >  bridge  [AM.  xiv,  4). 

VII.  EukUl)  Tffl.pfc.-The  vision  of  .  lemphi  which 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  saw  wbile  residing  on  the  banka 
of  the  Chehar  in  Babylonia,  in  the  twenty-fiflh  yew  of 
the  Captivity,  docs  not  add  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  subject.  It  is  not  ■  description  of  a  temple  that 
ever  was  built  or  ever  could  be  erected  at  Jerusalem, 
and  can  consequently  only  he  conMdered  as  tlic  beau 
ideal  of  what  a  Shemitlc  temple  ought  to  be.  As  such 
it  would  certainly  he  inleresling  if  it  could  be  correctly 
restored;  but,  unfortunately,  the  difficulties  of  making 
out  a  complicaletl  plan  from  a  mere  verbal  description 
are  very  great  indeed,  and  arc  enhanced  in  this  instance 
by  our  imperfect  knowletlge  of  the  exact  meaning  of 
the  Hebrew  architectural  terms,  and  it  may  also  be  from 
the  prophet  describing  not  what  he  actually  knew,  but 
only  what  he  saw  in  a  vision. 

Be  this  aa  it  may,  we  find  that  the  Temple  itself 
of  the  exact  dimensions  of  that  built  by  Solomon, 
an  adytum  (Ezek.  kI,  1-4)  twenty  cubita  square,  a  r 
twenty  by  forty,  and  surrounded  by  cells  of  ten  cnl 
width,  including  the  thickness  of  the  walls;  (he  wh 
with  the  porch,  making  up  forty  culnts  by  etgl 
The  height,  unfortunately,  is  not  given.  Beyond  i 
were  various  courts  and  residencea  for  the  priests, 
places  for  sacrifice  and  other  ceremonies  of  the  Temple, 


(ill  h. 


o  the  0 


hundred  reeds  on  each  of  its  sidea;  each  reed  (ver.  6) 
waa  six  Babylonian  cu1nt»  long,  viz.  of  cubits  each  of 
one  ordinary  cubit  and  a  handhreadth,  or,  at  the  lowest 
estimate,  twenty-one  inches.  The  reed  waa  therefore 
x  inches,  and  the  side  consequently 


indrrd  i 


d  fifty  ( 


^k  feet,  or 


TEMPLE 

It  has  been  attempie<l  to  gel  ove 

be  apecificstion  of  the  length  of  the 
lore  careful  than  the  mode  in  wbtc 
uiahed  from  cubita  throughout;  as. 


subelituted,  it  would  be  n< 


™ple,K 


the  descripci 


.  Nevertbelns,  Pni: 
of  this  as  weU  as  ik 
in  and  dimennons  in 


laelve 


iblr 


of  being  pb>tted  di 

NotwilhalaDding  its  ideal  character,  the  whole  ii  ti- 
Iremely  curious,  a>  showing  what  were  the  aspiraiiuiB 
of  the  Jews  in  this  direction,  and  bow  differen(  Uwj 
were  from  those  of  other  nations ;  and  it  is  inlemtiti: 
here,  inasmuch  sa  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  thai  iV 
arranKementa  of  Hemd's  Temple  were  iit  some  meusR 
influenced  by  the  description  here  given.  The  ooiw 
court,  for  instance,  with  its  porticos  measuring  fiir 
hundred  cubits  each  way,  is  an  exact  counterpaii,  on  » 
amaller  scale,  of  the  outer  court  of  Etekiel's  Tern  pic,  and 
is  not  found  in  either  Solomon's  or  Zerubhahel'a;  anlV' 
too,  evidently,  are  several  of  the  inleniat  arrangoiwnik 
See  EzEKiEi. 

YIII.  llerodi  Tnapie.—T\ia  most  full  expUrit.  inri 


that  tt 


>nhy  infnm 


.  subjec' 


lup.)  ai 


It  of  the  Jewish  Talmud  entitled  Miiink  {L(. . 
asures"),  which  is  almost  aa  minute  in  its  descrip- 
I  anddimenaiuns  (no  doubt  by  parties  who  had  ihh. 
u  priests  been  familiar  with,  the  edifice)  aaamoilHii 
itect's  specifications.  Besides  this,  the  iko  descrip- 
'  ■  'le  Temple  incidentally  given  by  Josephui  (■! 


will  therefore  beta  fol- 


low theae  where  they  agree,  and  to  reconcile  (heir  wett- 
ing discrepancies,  noting  at  the  same  time  all  impnnani 
allusions  in  the  Bible  and  uninspired  historians  of  antiq- 
uity, and  constantly  com  pari  nR  the  whole  with  the  indi- 
cations on  the  molem  si(e.  Occaaional  use,  for  veii&u- 
(ion,  may  be  made  of  the  measures  in  the  spiritiial  leaiplf 
of  Ezek.  xl-xlii,  but  with  great  caution,  aa  but  In  i^ 
tbem  seem  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  actual  irpt 
which,moreos-er,waB  Solomon's  Temple, and  not  Hsml'i 
(I.)  TiiK  OUTii  CiaotriT  OF  ™.  Tmni 
We  assume  ihm  tfie  present  enclosure  of  the  Hir"" 
correspoDda  to  the  areas  of  the  Temple  and  or  the  T.xi' 


The  ED^Iish  eORiucers  engaged  in  (he  late  C^dnanrc  fbi 
ver  traced  these  nil  along  the  aoDthern  end,  and  f-'of" 
them  resting  on  the  native  rock,  some  of  them  still  ir 

..,..,__  ... ,._  -,f  the  original  Tjrian  workoKiJ  '••r- 

a,  p.  109).    NonJowphualnSiniiX' 


MfK.iv.11,3:  H 
BDlarged  by  hulld 


PerspeetiTe  of  Herod's  Temple,  with  all  lie  Con 


TEMPLE 


_._jii  of  the  KoilwD  W»ll  of  Om  [j^ 

_  therefure,  ihnithelerni  "«Qq«re"lBlh« 

Htalma  uid  JoM[ibu>  oHdlw  m  itrlct- 


.... nbblHhtlitt 

I'll  apon  uein  irom  the  dcmalltLan  at  the  upper  put  of 
Ur  nil*,  iDd  hiTC  thai  escaped.    It  li  dtsTcDlt  lo  gnp- 


Hdn  vlll  be  noted  lu  iclTlDg  ibe  clfcnll  of  Ibe  nail  1u  de- 
hH.  Tbe  "Jew*'  WaniDg-plnce''  alone  the  weeiern  wall 
a  tgnei  apuo  all  hands  u>  h«  avErIiii6)e  innrk  ofaDtlq- 
dn.  filing  lH(k  alleulaa  braa  the  time  of  Herod. 

il  Tbe  CDORnoai  Tanlted  aubtu-DCIIniia  foDud  noder 
U<  natbcm  end  of  tba  Haram  are  erldsntlj  tbe  i>nin« 
■kick  vnnld  be  left  between  theae  embankmentB  Biid  the 
uilie  rock :  and  It  was  apparentl j  imnD)c  theae  thnt  the 
iTTut  Siuiin  aahilateil  liO  after  (he  de>tmctli>n  of  the 
tej  tJoKphna,  War.  tII  i,  ti  Bnt  eapeclallj  does  Hal- 
■  SBide*  rpeak  expreaelf  nf  Iha  arebea  iopportlng  the 
p\*nd  on  thla  part  in  order  to  prevent  gravea  nnd  olh- 
ir  poUiUnD  beneath  (Light fixil.  IVoijwcri  i/ttie  Tkmple, 

:ii.  That  the  platForm  (not  Ibe  mere  lru{lding)  of  tbe 
'/•a  Anionia  occnpied  the  whole  niirthem  end  of  this 
■Mclnanm  we  think  la  nearl;  certain  ITom  the  following 

<  he  acvped  rock  and  wall  on  this  aide  can  be  no 
i:wr  than  the  precipice,  rendered  more  inncceeelble  bv 

iFv.T.a.  g).    Ku  aucb  ridge  can  be  foasd'to  [he  north 
•.'ikl.. 
t.  TbeptcHDH  ofthe  Ibeae  (fbaad  in  the  modem  "Pool 

SM  ta  oi*  on];  rererred  to  In  the  aevernt  notices'  of  An- 
tacii  hj  JoHphns  above  cited,  bnt  In  AnL  ily,  4. 1, 1  he 
ifaki  at  It  aa  belo|F  "broad  and  deep,""of  ttnmeiife 
brriti ;- «  thai  ItcuDid  hardly  hlTe  Uled  to  remalu  aa 

'  Tbe  proJectlDg^utlona  at  tbe  Donh-weat  and  north- 
n«  nrglea  api^ar  lo  be  the  relic*  of  Ibe  towet*  al  lhe« 
smin.  and  tbe  prujectlon  at  the  Oolden  Gate  maj  have 
^'a  cDvnected  with  the  tower  at  the  stinth-eBsC  corner 

'-.  IV  pmeni  barracks  of  the  Tarklth  tronua  are  nii 
actndlil»narTilieaftheToweraf  Antontait  thenortb- 

uitibir  wnb 


I 


the  dlmcuainna  of  tbe  Temple's  and  Au- 
Accrdlng  to  the  Talmnd  (SfiddofA,  11, 1 ). 

at  l-SwYeet  (fee  CimiT],  woofd  give  »12 
F  length  ofeach  side.  Now  the  total  lengih  of  the 
-»M  walfoT  the  Haram  la  BR  feet,  which  will  allow 
Uc(  Ibe  thlckneaalal  thesnrftee)  of  each  wait,  n  c<dn- 
Boc  thai  cannot  be  accidental.  Again,  Joseph Ds  elvea 
IbtoDce  anHiDd  tbe  whole  eDClosara  of  the  Temple 
AntoDl*  UKcetbcr  aa  bdne  ali  etadi*  (tTor,  >,  E,  !); 
If  we  aobmct  iron  tbil  Ivie  eellmale  of  funr  etadln 
hecfacnh  of  ibe  IVmple  (itnC  xr,  11.3).  we  haia  one 


f^S, 


jn  toti 

for  tbe  aides  of  tbe  entlr«  en< 


wthla 


ittlie  Hanm  la  this  direction, according  to  Ibe  Qrd- 


rbicb  are  expoeed  to  view.    This  mode  of  reconcilement 

tbeae  aide*  to  hav,-  boen  ahlfledTlii  the  fnu  of  everr  pos- 
sible evidence  of  idemliv.  By  tDimlne  the  dlvidlnii  line 
between  Iho  Temiile  and  the  coort  of  Aiit.iolH  immeaiate- 
I7  sonth  of  the  Qolden  ante  (ao  aa  to  make  thla  latter, 
which  la  evidently  oncleut,  the  entrance  to  Ahionln,  abd 
not  to  the  Temple,  wblcb  had  bat  one  eastern  gtui),  wa 
obtain  another  right  anu'einud  niaku  the  funr  side*  oT 
tbe  Temple  area  nevlj'  eqaaL 

Havins  thas  settled  the  general  line  of  the  onler  wall 
of  the  -rtmple.  It  remalua  1.-  trace  the  objects  of  interest 
lying  airing  It,  both  on  Ihe  Inner  sud  outer  sides,  In  itblch 
endeavor  we  will  berfp— 

I.  Oh  the  sonth-weat  corner.    Here  win  the  fsmona 


.  i";"-  •■"1  •.,» 
id  *'?'r'"°»''' 
nay  still  be  seen 


the  three  lower  cnarMS  (6(1  feet  long)  of  the  lirsl  arch,  evl- 
denily,  iif  thta  bridge,  which  spanned  the  Tyropteon.     A 

entire  Hrch  war  nbont  4S  Teet  (see  Iheae  details  fii  the  Orit- 
naner.  Surirjl,  p.  ST),  so  that  sm™  such  srchoa  woold  con- 
veniently eileiid  across  the  valley  {360  (eel,  the  remslaing 

piers  beLween  them.  This  wn.  evidenHy  tlie  "passage 
over  the  Inlennedlale  Tiilley,"thronch  which 

*.  The  Bret  gau  (from  the  Hinih)  .m  ihe  wealern  «ldo 
of  the  Temple  ''led  lo  Ihe  kliiaV  pnlnce-  on  ZIon  (Ji>. 

otfelnSlybniltfiySoti.monll  '&'ua'^™i*^br^BAs™ 


of  the  valley),  by  the  csnaewny  of  the  going  op"  to  Zlon 
(1  Chmn.  iivl,  10:  comp.  ver.  18);  arihonah  UEhlfool 
places  Ibem  both  at  Ihe  northern  end  or  Ihe  Temple  wall, 


i.  Jolt  Dortb  of  (be  Zlon  nil  tl 


11  l<fc*Ud,  m  wDild 
rerred  in  InlChnm 
uruieTempk,U(i- 


niding  JDMphat'B  Fiwr   galea 

tWartm,  li.SM).    Tnerseirin  «!...,       ...  ,  .  ... 

baokmeDt  not  fir  nwlii  of  Ihi.  fpol,  aeroaa  which  the    »«il.  II  »  IjiiiB  nn  IbewMIe 
"upiwr  lerel"  iqueducl  frDm  Bethlehem  la  prabablj  car-    Ileal  *rllb  Joaephna'a  otharga 

ried  ED  Horiah.    Th!>  la  ap£areiiil7  the  a>me  with  the  I  a  cODTsnient  pUce,iudaniror-.^ ^ 

gale  an deul It  named  Sur  !i  KioiaiU  ■),  oUiemlae  called  i  the  gate  above  and  Ihat  below,  and  Jost  it  the  prhbi 
the  Quit  uTtht  FOtinilatiBn  liCbrou.  iii\\,b).  The  reawin  Bab  es-eili>11ch.or  "  Oale  of  tbe  Cbaln,"  al  Ibe  bead  ol  Ibc 
Dflhe  name  "Sur"  (llleraliT,  •'remoted'')  l«  qoile  oncer-    modem  ■'Street  of  Dartd,"  which  la  the  prlndpalenlranot 

tain.    The-'tonnflallon"  tnav  refer  to  the  hfRh  baae  of    --■•--" 

the  wall  auuporttnji  the  brldfie  adjnliilne'    II  aeema  Ui 

Inir  Athaliah  on  ZIon  and  ths  refoeeofthe  foDng  klnElD 
u  apeclnlly  gnarded ;  thef 

""■"••"""'"si; 


n  ench,  hot  dUTerentlr  named : 
Horee  Gate   (at  "tSe  Uliig-a 


"the  gale  behind  the  [former]  gnard"!;   so  tBut  If  any 

'uDUrl  courla."  he  ahoald  ellll  bt  ^iteicepted  b;  the  laai 
before  reachlug  the  prince.  Llnhtrool  inlerpnt*  dlffer- 
emlf  IWorIa,  ix.i2t^.  In  the  Talma d  It  la  eiplldllj  isld 
that  there  waa  lapparetiU;  but)  one  mU  In  the  weeleru 

repealedij  rehrnd  lo  aa  being  Hie  In  number,  of  which 
lour  areaeelgned  to  the  other  «Tde*  (MUdttK  1, 1, 3).  Thla 
ainglewealetn  one  la  Ibere  called  SipbniaHMd.  I.9|.  That 

be  probable,  from  the  coDeHeniiluu  thai  thla  belug  the 
principal  entrance  on  thla  aide— aa  ie  erldent  not  only 
Rum  ila  poaltlnn  and  the  point*  ooDnected,  bat  »lao  lh>ni 

tbeir  oeeHnallon  meDtloned— nil]  tcconnt  for  lbs  tilence 
in  the  Talmad  reepecting  the  other*.  From  the  name  11. 
Mlf  little  can  be  aal^ly  aigoed :  M«  I.igbtfUDt'a  ilKmpU 
to  dellne  It  (IFtn-to,  li,  t»).  Each  orihe  gates  In  the 
onur  wall  of  Cb«  Temple  (■■  well  na  tbcM  In  the  Inner 
"-  wia  10  cnblla  bleb  and  lU  wide  (VbUsrA,  11,  S).  wblch 

,bn»,  ipparer"-^— '-•" '■■ ■■  — ■- 

extenda  (In  the  ca 
alaolh* 


outer  wall  of  Cb«  Temple  (aa  well  na  tbcM  I 
wall)  wia  10  cnblla  bleb  and  lU  wide  {MUdMli, 

Joeepbna,  ipparentljIncladlDg  aide  and  c*p  , 

.->«..!.  Aw  *td  .*^  of  the  Inner,  and  Iherefbre  probnbly 
1)  to  30  cnblla  btgb  and  IE  wide  OTor, 


a.  In  1  ChroD.iiTl,18,UI 

1th  ■'ibeoanaewaj.-aelfm 
Ik  In  I  King!  EiflL  II  la  m 
g  from  "  the  aubiirba"  Into 


ila  predaelj  agreea  wlt£  the 
ilddle  gatea  whlcb  Joaephua 


le  name.    11  probably  waa  Ilie  plan 
imple  olferlnga  (aee  Ugbtf^wt,  Wor 


X  The  Rcimaur.  sltbongh   iben   uiMiltiDg  tbe  o 


&Thatthi«bDildlng 
pie  le  clear  from  the  fai 

[from  a  nottberly  polu 

poalle  the  eame  north- 
a  wealerly  dir 


re  oftbelr  opentlatuoD 

aide  of  the  Tem- 

'  engiaee  tbe  Int 

. .    ..  tbe  inner  coan 

1  aide"  ir, then, 'thla aecondonc be a^ 

,  the  third  will  be  farther  aontb  onlht 
Lbeeontb  gate  of  Aenpplraandlbeold 
conalatent  arranBement.  Tbe  Towei 
irerenled  any  being  reared  muer  ib< 


S.  The  other  Gall  of  Ammiin  we  Iberefore  place  at  a 

ilera  the  Hiram  from  Ibe  modern  ■'Cotloo  llart,"and 
'nr*  ulleri  Rah  nl.KitUnln.    Ughlfoat  aneru  thai  1hi> 
la  Bhillechelta)  w 

iier-  --  ' 

tli».    ■- 

thla  aide  thatl  led  U 
cllj,"  i.  e.  Acre  ^AnL  ly,  11, 01. 

i.  \u  thla  liat  paasage,  ilao,  Juaephna  atatee  Ibnt  <m 
paaalng  out  of  thla  gale  "the  road  deacended  dnwn  Into 
the  Tilley  |of  the  Tyropaon]  by  a  great  number  of  tfrpi, 
and  thence  Qp  again  by  the  aecenl,"  which  agreea  xiili 
the  fact  thai  Ibe  delrllDa  adjoliilng  the  wall  la  bere  Tl  feet 
deep  (OrdRinuw  Surea^.  p.  W). 

10.  We  next  arrive  it  ibenorth-weat  iwrnarof  tbe  Trm- 
ple  encloanre,  ibont  1000  hel  from  the  ea 


lie  encloanre,  ibont  1000 
oDth  elde.    Near  Ible  c< 


niennlne '■BDbarb,"BlIltoogh  Ila  radial  eenae  wonl> 
pear  l<i  ne  an  irprA  buildiT^  or  apoea  (aee  Qeeenlni 

c  Alapolnl  tWfeet  nortb  ofth 
Ihe  ilanm  there  aiill  exiets  a  gat 

leading  into  the  Haram,  and  lii  the"rii....._    ..  .__ 

there  muat  ilwaja  have  been  a  gale  near  thla  apot. 

d.  Beyond  thla  point,  aa  we  ehall  preaeutly  aee.  there  la 
Du  opportuuity  for  a  gate  aouth  of  the  point  where  the 

thalwill  maal  have  Incloded  one  oftheae  "cmea  lo  [he 
anburba,"  botb  Ibr  Ibe  aafee  of  convenience  and  to  prevent 
an  nndue  crowding  of  three  gates  In  the  weatem  Temple 
wall  north  of  Itelnnction  wllS  tbe  Zl^n  wall.     Bare,  how. 

able  locality  about  bilf-way  between  Ihe  bridge  and  the 
Zlon  wslL 
t.  Theae  viewa  art  conBrmed  by  the  following  point : 
4.  Joaephua  mentloin  (Woi-,  vl,  8, »)  le  lying  along  this 
will  '■  JiAb'i  TbuJvr,  which  he  bnllt  In  the  war  he  made 
■giinal  Simon,  over  the  gntee  thai  led  «  Ihe  Xyatiia,"  by 
wlilcb  gale  we  nnderetiiid  this  of  Pirbnr,  and  that  the 

wny  lying  oppoalte  Simon'a  or  Ihe  Ljlng^iut  Tower. 

a.  The  next  object  of  Inlereal  la  "tbe  OnmcU-haa*!" 
mentioned  hyjoaephnaaa  the " 


'l.«,I]hi 
I  sidel,  w 


Ked,  and  Iherefon 


le  gallerlaa  within 


Jin  eltmlflcalloa,  bat 


{ao  ilgblfool  from  the  Talmnd),  wblcb  tbe  obdracilnn 
of  Antonii  wonid  nalonlly  occaaion.    We  place  It '-  "- 
middleorihe  will,  nearly  oppoalte  both  the  One  o( 
and  the  present  "Oala  el-Hltla,"on  the  north  «lde 


dl  jual  eonih  uf  ihe  Ool 
>nla,  possibly  the  old  ic 


of  Ihe  aqiiare  would  thna 


of  Meah  (Meh.  Hi,  1 ;  xli, 


'  prleat,  when  he  bnmed  Ihe  red  bei 
ifOllvee,  might  exactly  face  [be  allsr: 

the  lower  over  the  gate  waa  lower  I 

itlng  the  oiber  gitee,  ao  as^not  to  lDterte| 


,tely  Joined  tl 


<f  tbe  old  wall 
limy  implies  that  It 
Temple  wills  met, 


,6ons  following: 


e  present  Street  of  Davl< 


honae  matt  be  located  north  of  lb  la  apol. 

b.  The  apace  hert  nnapproprULed  (abont  100  tat 
tween  the  Jewe' Wnlllng-plice  and  David  Street)  ' 
be  n  suitable  one  for  a  pDbllc  building  wllb  lis  In 

r.  Tbe  Unkhama,  or  ■'lowD-baIl,''of  the  modem 
exactly  on  IhH  apol,  and  "some  of  It  bas  mors  tl 
pearance  orbeingineitu  than  many  of  (he  other  re 
In  the  clly"  (Onfiiowe  Survq/,  p,  K). 


Llehtf. 

Idea  iWwkm,  il, '""  "" 
WlUinma  Ande  ii  .i«o~if  •■>  » 
notes).    This  position  shows  tbi 
were  In  a  range  with  tbe  other  gatea 
an  inapcTil-m  of  the  rectlanii  view  ol 


the  Talmad  ax 

>1«);  wblcb  location,  however.  II 
"  ipnte  IHtAj/  City.  II.  as 


gate  11 


Ighton  tbe  Mo 

Ighl  he  teen  thmagh 

over  thla  gate.    We  And  no  traces  of  i 

. .    .  louth-eaal  coroer  Jo»e| 

fr^meiifleM  prtritA 


■nilotied  by  If 

... '"-phaa  snya  [here  via  i 

.      .  S,  «.  spp"rvntly   "lb. 

(Luke  iv.  i),  aim  to  be  recngnlaed  In  ibe  steep  de 
aceuL  at  this  point,  and  proved  to  have  been  aoclesll 
more  pmfonnd  by  ibe  vaolud  snbatractloDa  beneath  lb 
Inaide  of  Ibe  Barnm,  raising  thla  angle  of  Its  platlnn 
above  the  old  bed  of  the  valley.  Tbe  wall  la  here  ■bm: 
m  f<Kt  higb,  and  abont  so  (eel  deep  frnni  the  pr««iDt  an; 
face  of  tbe  gTvnnd  ontsldi.    From  Joaephna'i  )ang-iu( 


TEMPLE  ! 

nr.rl.  J,1,U  laarldaot  thttlhe  precipice  it  the  nortb 
*t  avg\B  *u  kIk>  Tery  coQBldenble. 
19.  On  tlw  aoatb  ilil*,  uconliuii  la  ifae  Til  mud,  weri 
t>  gOf,  bath  named  BuUoA  Otiddolh,  1.  t).  pertaapi 
nn  (be  pmpbeLcaa  oftbai  Dnme.  Ttaeie  Are  evMvnMi 
B"Es(e*ln  tbe  middle"  of  tbit  Bide  niBnlloned  hr  J<> 

■J  tocfllier,  ^d  (wlcb  I- , ,  - 

t  doable  Eileiny  gtlll  Iband  In  Ihe  i 


irullfvll 


:^,i"'j 


^LHk^ioi 


rdljolnilt.    luen- 

V.  ha.  t,  WD)  iDd  It 

Ibepluiformotlhe 

bBve  oiber- 


ebnsdlb  le  4!  feet  (Rr 
lied  ^  a  il^tug  pi 

i^ioiiled  (0  eili,  nor  even  tben  wlLbnai  

•tina.  LigblGnt,  however,  mikea  ibeu  e»lea  divide  Ibe 
mil  loiD  tbcee  eqaal  pane  {Wuria,  ii,  EM),  eppsrenilj 
nenlj  er^idng  friiin  Ibe  ecetenieiit  of  Jtuephus.     It  le 


H  lo  Ibe  ilDele 


III  tbe  niiTlhaDdei 


h  aide.  Id 


le.     Tbe  oibtr  mndem  veeitina  of  porula  on 
-*  ■-'—--  -'-,  and  antlqnllT. 

itdei  of  Ihe  Cmrl  tf  IKi  Gri 

mier  mil  (cilled  alao  tbe  C 


ifinterii 

a'S™fihJT^rd'°l 
Uir»f>  pedal  note 
11.1  On  the  nnn 
peoioH  or  Adtle 


iuiUB")  ib«n  were  eeienil  obJecU  wor 


itio 


».8,«. 
il.ll>.0 


■t  idde  I 


'1  Porc\  <Jobu  X,  SI : 


fxrh  and  wnt  (joeepbai,  Xi 

I&1  On  the  eouth  aide  wax  the  Soyal  Parliai  (apparenlr 
Ij  10  caned  after  Hemd,  who  nbnllt  It ;  Jnaepbni,  irar, 
I.  n.  IL  wtalcb  differed  rrom  Ihe  riet  Id  belnc  triple,  tbe 
IT,  Mt  aielee  belni  30  feet  broed,  and  the  mldSle  one 
«caBdahairubraad(JnI.iT,  ll.s).  Llghtfuoi  baa 
amgelT  •«  (bew  dowu  ai  being  reepeetlTelt  la  end  ttl 
«Mtt  briMd  (miRiBD'a  edIUan  of  bla  WorU,  li.  SN,  with 
■kicb  kii  own  map  airan :  the  Bngllah  fuflo  edltloR,  1, 
1MI,  hu  U»  aame  narabera  i  but  the  UtlQ  edition  In  Ugo- 
Miyi.  neeennu,  la,  DM,  tiaa  for  tbe  middle  alale  ./Vwl^/^ne 
<-al>li«i.lo  (rtaleb  we  anepecC  some  ovenljrhtfperhaparrDn] 
ibinktD^  of  Ihe  dlmenrrona  of  the  other  clolslersraa  all 
cdiUoua  of  Joeephna  here  read  alike,  and  the  MiiiM, 
dm  uol  partlcnlariiB  on  Ihla  polnL  The  hjpotheela 
•I  miHama  IBt*!/  Cit]l,  %  Wl)  (hat  would  throw  tba 
Bojnl  Portico  onulde  the  Temple  area  le  nppoaed  to 
Dl  •ndent  aalhorllTi  en  much  eo  that  eren  bla  coaiMii. 

M,.    . ......     ..     .. ^__      ...^    ((jy_ 


k«  ProC  Willi,  la  CO 


>  TbCM  eloletera  w( 

■  of  aolld  marble,  In  in 

e  men  eonld  Jiul  apan  ihi 

d  lb*  iiUle*.  beside*  anoU 
rater  wall  (Jo«phIl^  Ant. 


led  to  dlaaent  from 
adorned  witb  Corl 


alw  lbs 

I  wlifa  tbelr  DDtatrelcbei 
of  ell  feel),wblcll  aepa 


nalltb 


mTDDi  ntereljt :  for  Ibey  wonld  then  be  Dndalv  crowded, 
tad  tbe  average  apace  between  them  which  webave  made 
.ibnt  a  (eai)  i«  no  Rrealer  (pan  tor  the  roof  ilmbera 
'bu  ttratm  the  middle  alale  of  the  aontb  Oolaler.  The 
EarmonT  wlih  whlcb  tbe  aevenil  rate*  full  In  between 
UrB  wbeo  ihna  dlatrtbiited  la  uo  flttle  corroboration  of 
Uf  entire  echeme.    In  Ibe  aubolrdcled  vaulte  tbe  rowe  cif 

v^ald  Call  exactly  under  Iheae  plllara,  theae  plere  alao  av- 
trzrbtt  Bb»al  hair  the  dleUnca  apart  of  Ibe  colnmna 
avnc.  (See  Prof.  Wlllla'a  remnrka  In  Wllllanu'a  Hnlii 
ntv,  apfiendix,  I.  m>ISS;  althongb  we  cannot  >ee  wbV 
be  Bimid  Eblnk  that  a  column  atood  aver  each  plrr  one 
»»j  when  thej-  ("Old  have  been  onlv  over  every  other,  or 
nrrr  nurd  one.  the  other  wav.)  Theae  colnmna  were  W 
cabtia  h>cn  uu  three  Fides,  whleb  determiuea  tbe  belcbi 
af  tbe  mof  "n  Ihim  aides  IJowphnt,  War,  v,  G,  S) ;  bnl  on 

f»f  tu  so  r«t.  an„  ..„.  .,..,.,.™  ^ 
prutaUy  by  an..thtr  aerlea  of  col 
acrvoonElns  the  llrFl  (■Iflf.  XT,  11, 
fee*  fBarded  tbe  tdwft  of  the  Di 
■m  Bfobulily  capped  with  tnrreia,  tor  ornam 

~  r™  were  portera'  todffrl  adjoining  at  1 
I  (MiMotIi,  I.  I),  and  pn'bnhly  elmllai 


d  donbli 


1  baaea  raleloa:  ihe 
waa  twice  ea  higb, 

Balnalrndea  donbi- 


«<lke  m 


US). 


1  TfaeT8lmDdal»'peakaof>A(iwliithlBconn,wbere 
■«rl«  aaed  lo  eurlnce  weie  kepi  tor  aale,  la  well  le  at 
■  »uH  In  which  the  Jewlrh  "Cuaudl  of  Twentj-tbree," 
— -■-  -'-  lanbedrlni,  eat:  tbeae  UehtS>ot  lo- 
an Gaie.  Ihe  former  on  the  gronnd- 
.eihead(irw*«,1i,MU!Ml.  It  waa 
tbia  privlleire  of  eale  that  led  to  'be 

-■,  abeep,  nud  plgeooe  bj  the  iradera 

Chrtet  eipelted- 


^C__^^_ 


1  TEMPLE 

<n,)  Tbe  Saoian  EiioLoaitai. 

BrevIlT  will  require  that  In  the  conelderailooot  the  de- 

tallaorihelDlerlorportluna  of  Ihe  Temple  Ihe  simple  di- 

with  their  antborltj,  with  aa  lltUe  dlecuaelon  aa'poaallile, 
I.  A  tallla-uaa  all  around.  1  cobll  broad,  S  cublia  biib, 

with  eqnid latent  pjliara  cimialnlni:  Dotleea  of  nan-ndmlii- 

elno  (Joaepblu,4nLiv,ll,a:  rar,T,D,l):  called  cUl 

(Lam.  II  B). 
3.  Thie  eiDod  IS  alflit,  each  one  half  cnblt  bleb  and 

broad,  nbovB  Ihe  GenillM'  Court  [on  Ibe  norlb  and  aooth 

sldea]  {Mtddolh,  II,  K),  but  U  (on  Ibe  eaal  aide)  (ITar,  v,  B, 

S|. 
3.  A4]olnlDg  wiB  a  piaVmn,  ID  cnblta  wide  ( War,  v,  B,  i). 

(III.)  Tut  Conn  or  the  Wonm. 
1.  This  conn  (called  alao  New  CoDrl,  1  Cbron.  ix,  5: 
Onter  Conrt.  Biek.  xlvl.  II :  Trenenry,  John  vMI,  luj  was 
IBS  cnblta  aquare  [interunllr]  (VidiloU,  II,  b);  "foar- 

1  hgau  on  each  side  (Far,  v,S,i>.    These  were  sa  cn- 
blta  wide  [luclodlng  ornamental,  anpported  lif  pllliirs  at 

e.  Tbe  enet  sale  ^lled  "  Beaallful,"  Acta  III)  S)  wee  M 
CDblta  wide  [Inelading  side  omamenu  of  ItcnbltaJ  [IFar, 

1.  There  were  S  tUp*  Txom  tbe  platlbrm  fl.  e.  tbe  dllhr- 

rBameal!)ror,v,6,»,B). 

E.  Theie  were  ID  aUpa  to  the  Conrt  of  the  Israelllee 
(H'ar.v,S,S):  circular  for  the  "Psalma  of  degrees"  (Mi<(- 


rom  a  Naiarlte's  vow.  In  tbe  sn 
dlorj.  In  the  aontb-weet  for  cit 
rtb-weat  chambers  fur  wine  aii< 
,ll,B!Biek.ilTl,il-M).  Ughi..  . 
Naiatlles'  room  In  tbe  sontb-eaat, 
me  woou-toom  in  ue  nortb-eaat,  the  iBpere'  room  In  the 
north- west,  and  tbe  wine  and  oil  raome  In  the  aiMiib  weat 
(ITrrrta,  Ii,  801),  correcting  Snroihiulna'a  nlelrauaiatlon. 

1.  Single  galleries  uf  (wo  atoiles  (men  below,  women 
above)  between  the  comer  courts  [on  the  north,  eaat,  and 
weat  Bides]  (MIddolh,  II,  B) :  rapponed  by  colamne  similar 
lo  lh<ne  of  the  Oehlllea'  Conrt  (War,  t,  B,  1). 


e.  bhdergroond  rooma  for  mn 
Bide  of  tbe  gala  between  tbla 
IMiddnth,  II,  $. 

10.  There  waa  a  tetaer  over 
with  an  ocenlt  [anblerranean  J  yc 


e  Israelllea*  Corn 

It  [Beantlfnll  gal 


.)  Tbs  Coow 


1.  TblB  waa  1ST  cnblls  from  eaat  I 

tbe  east  and  weal  IMUiaih,  II,  <). 

a.  Snrronnded  by  ii  p.irtlco  tlmlli 
tiles'  Court,  but  aluRle  ( War,  v,  B.  1) 

t.  Had  three  galea  on  tbe  north  nnd  eonlb,  naue  on  the 
west(JffifdnUi,fr4:  irar,T.B,!).    Th<u^  on  the  north  and 


It,  IBB  from  Dortb 


lo  tbose  nf  tbe  Gi 


s),  new  Miiie  («ier.  xxTi,  11^ 
(Biek.  xl,  ID),  QaU  qf  Xita 


r(M:ddolk,i,t). 


xvll, 

B.  Oaurnlid~n)onia~ia  ihe  wHii  ndl'iliilDg  u'foliowa,  be- 
inth-weat  corner  (for  lEe  antborllv  ot 
■    -  ■        -        -  -    refer  m  Lightfoot'a 


.     _.  Lif  the-epolnlalllaaaL 

cliatlona  [  Wtrrin,  Ix.  SBS-S90J,  ae  there  can  be  do  dlspnit 
reepecting  them.  We  have  not  in  all  casea  arranged  lh( 
room*  precisely  IlkeLlghtruot,  bui  have  made  a  few  sllelil 

(I.)  Senlfneraflali,  weat  ot  tbe  Oral  gi 
-■ -KimlUT- 


(t.)  Oatt  <^  KindUjia. 
(3.)  Quord-mont.  adjoining  enet 
(4.)  OaC(i/Prr((ltnaLlnUie  m 
».)  a»^-roam  adji'lnlng  II. 


Into  Ibe  priesUi' lavt 
(».)  Himti  OaxUh, 

tl.lThe  .s>«ton-r. 


m  thia  aide. 
mBelhlehemriderlvli 


II  Ibe  apace  In 


r,  adjoining  tbe 


ilddle. 

,.«./  ...^^..-.wrmndlnlnlnir  II. 
(0.)  1f;«Hl-ra 

>ll-nwni.'wi(h  lla  drai 

■       ■        "    hlohem  H  derivlnir 

th^rtni.  with  lie  triple 

rati  con 
enlarged  It 

tbe  prleeiB  to  pray  and  caei  il 

iiib  eide  of  the  Osle  of  Nicni 


Id  by  no 


be,  tar  ike  unrtlOcBl  dreiivs. 
.     .   liitbanKrllhMMcuruBMlw  £arfA«HH> 
tbe  Hcredjxicitrjr. 
Wi  A  <Auinl-nuiii,sil]o1nlii|t<>ii  the  cut. 
i\4.)Tbt  OaliB/Smn. 
(IB.)  Adlalniiig  tbli>,  n  ITuft-rooni  tor  cleuuias  Ihe  en- 

(10.)  A  j^nn/ar  BIda  of  viaimt,  hriA 
f  IT.)  Tbe  SaU-Toam,  tor  tbe  uli  DMd  In  preeerrlng  (hem, 
tnlhfn  order,  ndjoinliijt 
(IS.)  The  OaU  ef  Women.    AAjnfuIng  Ui1«, 
(10.)  A  TVeawurfsroHii,  Tor  the  nxon  pennBiieDt  depoflit 


{20.)  A 


.    Theu  idjoli 


K  equ*l  pnru.    Thts  bulldlue  projected  in 


Ureil  onli  from  the  conn  within : 

[1.]  Adjoining  the  gile,  the  f/uuK  of  Ihi  CimeieraUd 
Stotm  of  ilie  former  arur  (removed  alter  ibe  rededlcallon 
under  Ibe  llAccabees,  oa  buying  been  deeecmted  by  An- 
tiiKbus  Eplptaanee),  In  Iho  uuriEr—  —■-■•'-'-'—  ■  — -•  ~- 


Ibe  mnlb  tbe  Slitv-bnad  Bakery. 

[1.1  In  tbe  middle  the  Priatt'  HM.  wbere  wng  a  fln 
for  tb«  OK  of  Ibe  gnvdii  Hi  nighu 

S]  Tbe  weMerb  pottlon  was  occDpted,  nn  the  Donb  To 
futf  OiJM'W-rwm,  nnd  on  the  KiDtti  for  keeping  Itai 
Lanbt  aelecled  lor  the  dKllT  eacrlllcc. 

6-  The  principal  difficulty  connected  with  tbla  cunrt  li 
the  nnmber  of  itept,  and  iWr  beigbi,  leading  Into  It  oi 

»,  ^  2)  Jbal  between  me  Hcred  iilatfun.i'iud  th«";^ntBi1o 

icb  [fliKbll  rlniiiB 


WHB  enured  by  [Iwci  (llEh 

e  cabins  thus  rnuklDg  &  ...,,., ...  .»..  „..  ..  ..n.. 

elepii.  Agiiln  he  Mjii  (iWif.  {*)  that  "there  were  Ih  _._,. 
[IhoM  or  tbe  "  degreefl  which  led  away  [I.  e.  e-fiwaid 
from  the  [wc«IJ  wall  of  the  Court  nfihe  Wumeii  to  [i.  c.  I.'. 
warde]  tbis  crculer  gale  {Lhc  Beautiful  Gale).  uAiraui  Ihoi. 
ttal  led  IhiOirr  (1.  e.  to  the  plaiForni  down  to  which  thi 
n»»uilful  Gale  ledj/roni  (Ae  oOur  galti  [openlui  uiwardi 
iB  platform]  wire  ftw  lUpe  iliorUr,"  by  wblcli  we  cat 


Qiily  nnder' 


Ute  rW  (JX  cnblU  at  the  Nicanor  GBle  +  »M  at  the  Beaotl. 
ful  Qaie  =  10).  ID  ImpracllCHble  ccent.    i'inallj. '--    - 
tibU.  i  9)  thM  -'  tbe  belehi  of  lu  bnlldlnga  Ctta" 
WumeD'aCoiirtJ.aUbuneh  11  were  on  the  oulaldi 


irtheK 
aatl- 


_.  .   .  .  „  llnga  [ttaOM  of 

I'aCoortJ.aUbonBh  U  were  o~  ■•■- '-■-  -"  — ■ 

wm  hlddeo  by  Ibe  Bteps,and  on  L_ „  „.„_. 

«u  bntW  cnbltf,"  wbich  we  lake  to  denote  that  the  ti>i> 
of  the  mil  aockMng  the  Codk  of  the  laraelltsa  (wblcn 
wai  contlpDoiu  with  that  of  tbe  Court  of  the  Women) 
wae  M  cDblU  ftom  tbe  letel  ot  Ibe  floor  at  tbe  Cnuri  of 
Ibe  Gentiles,  the  Intervening  'tepe  msklnR  Ibe  dllTerenea 

In  n  aingle  cnbit   (iL+.'"  +  '"^ifl)  .    The  E«ie-turrei. 


I  aim  btgber 
08(iror,v,l 


Conrt  ot  Ibe  Itraelltee. 

T.  Tbe  Mtfitiiflw  of  tbta  wall  la  n 
Miebna,  bnl  Is  given  by  Jwephne  ai 


■epnrsllng  U  from  tbe  clulate 


Z',C~. 


I?  PtetfwU  lifthf  P-mpte.  ai 


hie  digest  on  ibia  anbjeci.    «> 
(ever,  reqalrea  special  counilen. 


north  to  anutb  [ibe  Itraelllee' Court  wu]  tSC  caUu 
[wide],  as  foliowi !  from  Ibe  B*cent  to  tbe  enremllj  of 
Ibe  allar  [1.  e.  tbe  whole  length  at  the  altar  Incladlog  ll9 
Intltiied  ajceiil]  were  M  cnblla  [L  e.  hprizontal  mrum, 

E'.ve  M  In.'lead  of  n  cnblia,  meaiured  eniierflclally  (s 
iEhtf.Hit,  IForia,  ii,  «11)),  (Tom  tba  altar  to  tbe  rfnp 


[,iEhtf,«t,  Work! 
:ubili;  Ibeplaci 


Bcublia  (making  tbna  110  cublul;  lAtntC  [«Scnbii>]urr 
ai  well  the  tpaiie  bcCuMn  (V  aeetnt  and  mU  at  a  ujin  tt 
ailinnna"  ( JfiifdoUi.  v,  1).  This  last  clause  Is  x.niFOhlL 
ambtgnoQB,  bnl  la  genarallv  qnderatood  aa  lueauliin  Ib.l 

ptwU  (like  those  on  ibe  north  side)  (or  aacrifldng  ot 

nr>l  res  any  good  reaaou  fur  dlMentliig.  9n  L'Kmpeieo 
(In  bla  Beparale  commealnrr  ou  Ibe  MUdaUt,  p.  1^)  s 


K'SSi 


•rill,  tor 
which. 


'o(A,ri.in 

panly  fo 

luls  lo  the  wne  Iblng  u  to  Ibe  ^.. 
i>Llghtrool(»l'or*..U  418).    The  p 


rhlch 


W.lx.VS).    TfaeiH- 
flied  wlib  tegarJtB 


with  moet  at 


irianp.  we  are  dlipnaed  in 

-  -   — . B  altar  la  asanmedlobavE 

been  rcand.  In  the  remarkable SiereilJJoctnnilrrUieili-iiir 
orihecenIrHlmo>quetirtbeUai«m.  This  laUurWfwt 
broad,  occupying  nearly  Ihe  whole  space  Iminedlately  tit- 
der  Ibe  dome,  and  rieina  aboDt  B  Ibet  shore  tbe  Su»r  of 
tbe  building,  which  la  li  feet  higher  iban  tbe  rew  udKc 
eiiclnaure.  Tbe  centre  of  tbe  rock  la  (boat  !Sa  Bvl  Dmdi 
the  aouibem  and  610  from  the  eiatero  wall  otihe  IJariDL 
Tbe  freqner- -    - ■      ■ 


Tbe  freqneal  enppoelUon  thai  II  ibiod  within  Ibe  i 
holy  place,  or  at  feaal  within  tbe  Temple  pnroer.  la  i 
atlved  by  the  relative  dl-«n™  preMiilly  to  be  not 
from  the  Talmud.  The  iwaltlve  leasour  '-  -  — •^— 
alUr  coincide  with  Ihe  Sacred  Rock  may 

(a.)' Tridl lion— Jewish,  Cbrlsllan,  and 
it  (see  Wlllliima,  Boly  City,  II,  S*VS«). 

(6.)  Thli  ruck  la  promtneiii  above  all 
we  know  that  the  great  alliir  was  bigbi 
floor  of  the  TemplellBCIf. 


>lke^ 


would  tbas  be  Identic 


(d.)  The  ( 

ceaepool  a: 

Tbla  site  of  the  great  aliar  flieathe  general  preiilon 

creal  area,  and  agrees  wllh  Ihe  only  dcflnlte  slalemerl 
the  Hlahna  on  Ihe  aubjecl,  namely,  thai  "ibo  great 


about  79  feet,  on  Ihe 
abont  1S9  feet,  op  the  : 


eapectliely  on  ibe  wet 
HI  so  feet,  on  ibe  rtt\ 
01  6*3  feet.    Llsblf.iolV 


le  AntioKiria  ofoi 


../IKeJiirt,  p.  118),  on  lbegr..iiid"battbe*TlItmild  ati'lc' 
thai  "in  the  place  largest  (ii  mesBaremenl  was  held  m<*i 
service"  (Mi,aolh,  11, 1) :  but  tbe  lexl  obvioiuly  means  Uir 
spnce  In  Ibe  ooier  conn,  neihai  alone  Is  Ihe  snbjecllheiv 

The  pnellloDotthe  nlur  also  Biea  the  llneofibe  bim- 
darji  between  ibe  tiibea  of  Jndah  and  b«ninmm.     ' 
nt  tills  date  cut  off  nna  cubit  rmia  tbe  annui-eart 


iar—a  clrcniDstance  of  wblch  tbe  rnhbliis  tat: 
!e LlgblBHil,  Wortt,ix. S»).   Tbls i«>up 

-' lb  of  the  holyclly  (Jwl 

siofJehnaby  Dan 


appears  to  have  .lonexed  Motiiit  Zioii  Mnnnnemly  ■" 
Jiidah  (ISnm  Iv,  7  1.  The  -nlMqiieni  uarcbaw  i/ih, 
thre^hiiiLr-fl.i.>ror.Aninii.ih  liie  Jebutllr  ty  David  (»»ir. 


TEMl'LE  2 

V.  \  n^m.'xl^,  W)  u  Ibe  litc  of  hia  sttar.  tod  OTent- 
tillf  >i[  a>  Tnuple  (i  Cbron.  HI,  1),  doee  uot  HKm  to 

IffmnJ  £kqerni(uni  q/  JAtf  TVmpJf  /Vofwr.— ThLs  va 
lid  *tlJ  imimulud  lu  Winer  tIlralie6TUrb.  li.  S&3  aq.), 
ftna  \it  anbiped  atsUmenU  af  lbs  Talmad  (nd  Jnae- 
|ilii.(ihel>liB,how«TBr,»liboogb  »  prLeii  bv  blnb.Hud 

Nuilf  Dlio  the  ileaciiiKlun  uf  Hcrod'i  nlihibatortlul- 
una't  Trnplc  tbii  wa  DiDnl  oneb  dlntnul  bli  detullak 

ntt  edikc  wu  conalniciad  apon  new  fuundiitli<ni 
(JuHphiu,  Jut  IT.  II,  SI.  sDd  uf  whIM  niBrble,  IhE  blr-cka 
bciap  Ld  HDia  iDfUnc«a  4Q  cnbits  Iode,  A  broad,  aud  B 
kigtir*i.t.S,t;  ciimp.  Anf.iT.ll.S).    Tboanlire  width 

'liii^bal  the  mulnder  (rear  panj  ot  the  bnili^los  vaa 
<iDlj«coUla<aix>>rdiiiK  tnllie  Talmndlru  10,  Incladliig 
ibr  tide  dumber  «r  B  cubltn,  the  wh)1  <>f  S  cuMIa,  air.), 
>iUuttw)»[di  projected  !i>(nr  1E>I  culili>  mi  encb  side 
iHpBdDia  real  or  the  elniclnre.  I  la  length  wae  alaolM 
loliiLi,  and  Itt  height  the  name  ;  but  Jinwpbna  najg  {Atu. 

»i(^i  lieliig  ItU},  a  otalemeni  which  Ulrt  (p.  ID)  regards 
<)in)1xbl;  with  jD>tl«)  u  a  mere  legend.  The  Inierlur 
'fn*  no,  KcurdiiiE  to  Jiisephut,  ao  diilded  thai  the 
j-ifdi  bid  a  len^rib  (mim  uonh  to  eunth]  or  oo  cnblta,  a 
brnlih  of  10,  and  a  beicbt  oriM  (comp.  War.y.B.t):  the 
tolr  place  a  ieDEth  of  M  cublti,  a  brendlh  ufM.  and  * 
K^i  uICO;  amflhe  moDt  holT  place  a  lenKth  and  breadlb 
<iI«nUl>,aid«helEbtofW;  bnt  the  TalmndlWddoIA, 
T.  0  mikBi  the  beigbl  of  bntb  the  latter  ri-oniB  to  have 
vn  onlr  40  cubtin,  bj  which  we  suspect  It  meaiia  the 

»m  Ihli  lui  wu  »  perrecl  cube.    The  entire  bnlldiiis 

J<rrjk<it  ia  the  main  hidicales,  allhoagb  bis  nnmberv  In 
rrrrral  pasHges  appear  to  be  coufosed  ar  curmpt.  Thi^ 
..irmt  a  iBe  alalcmeal  of  the  Talmud  |>t«J.  Iv.  T). 

snBth(from  mat  tuweai)  of  the 

,  that  of  the  saDclnarr  40  cnbila. 


r,  9),  besldu  a 


Ti^Biit  hath  slal«.  the  po 

^  liner  ItSleS)  onljr  M  highuu  luc  lunuc.  ms  uiiii;icni:e 

"fltcablts  may  bare  been  thai  of  the  peaked  roof.  If  a  ga- 
Ht:  bgi  the  dllTeienca  la  their  nnmbsTB  at  to  the  helKbl 
•liMnar  portion  of  the  bnlldingglTeapnibBbllItT  to  (be 
niuwnl  of  the  Tnlmad  (Orvl.  Iv,  B)  thai  there  waa  au 
•Ptn-  mm  (rnlsS)  over  the  holy  and  moal  bolr  places. 


13  TEMPLK 

conlalDlbg  trap-doon  Id  the  Root,  Ihrangb  which  work- 

paira  (ibid.  It,  0).  JunepbDe  calls  this  pan  of  ibe  baildiug 
,6  1^,^.  i.ip«.  and  l^e  Talmud  elves  It  a  height  of  *t 
cnbliB.  which  apparenilT  refers  dqIt  Iu  ibe  luiermedlata 
rpace  left  by  the  difference  between  the  holy  aud  the  must 

pesiedl  jMBpho.  says  nothing;  he  only  remarLs  (Ifaf, 

■i>ikea  {Sfi,i.i,').  probably  of  glided  Iron,  [Uleued  wlt^  lead, 

the  Talmud  P^IS  D^IS.  JfiddsrA,  It,  S),  where  ihej  are 
■Bid  U)  bace  been  one  cQbit  lb  height.    The  roof  Itwlfap- 

|se«  L'EmiHrenr.  ad  MIddeth,  It,  «),  with  1  balustrade 
(Hpsai  tbree  cubits  high.  Tbe  space  aboTe  the  mVs 
Is  thus  divided  (JfirfrfiilA,  Iv,  t) :  1  cnhit  ^I'-a  (T  celllngh 
8  cubits  nciT  n'a  (plnca  of  ralu-water) ;  1  cnbit  mpa 
(limber) ;  1  cabll  HS'T  SQ  Iflnorliig) ;  t  cbbits  rnlllng :  1 
cuhli  scarecrows.  On  both  sides  of  the  Interior  apan- 
meata  WBB  a  space  of  iOcublts  deToted  to  a  enlle  of  mums 
{„:,„.  ,p.=T<To.).  which,  bowevsr.  eilended  only  «  cubits 
hltihWoeephus,  Jn(.  lY.ll.B;  ITar.T.D.S).  Accordlogio 
iheTulmnd  (JfidchXA,  lT,8),  (hes«  (D^I^)  were  In  slISS: 
numely.  IB  on  the  oortbaod  aoutb  sideeaeb.  andSon  Uia 
west  or  rear  (comp.  tbe  "  many  roBasinui-,"  linai  isXXo^. 
of  John  xlr.  !).  Tbe  abonlder  or  projecting  rpace  (uurlb 
aud  •niiiht  cm  each  ride  of  Ibe  porch  (40  cubits  Id  Josa- 
phnr.  ao  In  the  Talmud)  was  Dsed  aa  a  depoeliory  of  the 
I'acrlflcliil  Impleraeats  (DlnV^nn  r\'0,  Iku  aKHipfM- 
rum,  JffddoU,  It,  7). 

The  most  holy  place,  wblcb  was  entirely  empty  Ihtiii 
oiii,  „>.M,  iv  oir^,  Josepbus.  War,  v.B,  B),  except  the  atoue 
CnniS  13K)  which  occupied  the  place  of  the  ark  (Hiah. 
na,  Ytma.  r,  t).  and  on  wblrh  tbe  blgh-priest  set  Ibe  ceu- 


.rated  al 


ly  trui 


holy  plac 


IFnr,  V,  B,  SI 

the  eanhquaki:  at  Jesua'  death  {HatL  iivli.ei).  The 
rabbloa  apeak  of  a  iotibtt  vsll :  according  lo  the  TuluiDd 
these  occupied  a  space  of  1  cubit  between  the  apanmeuta 
l^^Dp^:),  Middoth,  iv,  1).  Tbe  holy  placa  bad  an  anlmbce 
with  two  gn Id-plated  d<K)r.le«ve»,  which,  according  liiJo- 


:tu1  buildiiigl,  acc<'rding  to  F^nruattiu.  | 

..ooglc 


TEMPLE  2 

•ephnKirar,  V,  S,  «,  wereSSnihlii.  high  uiidl*  brand: 
but,  uwrdlug  lo  lie  Ml-ln-a  (J(WJ"(ft,  Iv,  1),  *0  cnblu. 
bigb  sod  HI  Grind— »  dlflfertuce  wiilcli  LlBhltiut  reciiu- 
cilM  III  loppnelug  ibat  Jot.ephn>  lucJndei  iiie  deeoruiliiii. 
(oirblcB,  eiiuiblUllM,  etc.).  Tb«  Talmudl.w  iiI«j  epeak 
or  «  dvuUe  diHir  ii  thia  pmage,  wblcft  the  ihlckTienB  iil 

tipestrj  iif  byMBB.     o—"--       '-'- 

?rom,  llw  iib'e^t 
The  porch  bud  ■ 
(MIshDi,  40  bIgb  »nd  SObro 
be  reconciled  w  abnie). 


iidIt  the  H 


o(  lie  hul. 


cloee  proilmllT  (hut  Mimewh»t 
gJlheUverpi'SI:  o.id  there 
stood  tbe  grant  altar  [ete  Bum 


tWioutb,»uIi(a(A,ll 
nniKs],  tbe  tDteriei 


TEMPLE 

11M],  Oreen  [Ibid.  ItSII.  and  BuldrlcD  [Znr.  ilnj).  Bn. 
od,  1u  imitfltloji  of  lb«  ureeke  and  RumeoB,  luepeuded  ib 
I  he  porch  Hverul  urihe  rich  •uolli!  mid  iropbleewbktihc- 

Iheu  uatLuDS;  VlrglL  lutJodDcei  ^ueae  bovllng  vt  hav- 
iH^Ihe  poruli  ul  >  QracliQ  temple  (^n.  Hi),    ttee  Um- 

IX.  Tht  ApocalfplU  r™^*,— In  the  viaion  o(J<*n 
DD  Pumos  be  expressly  lelln  ui  reipecting  tbe  New 
Jerusakoi,  "  I  uvr  no  temple  therv in,  Tor  the  Lord  (led 
Almigbty  lad  the  Ltoib  *re  the  temple  thereof"  (ReT. 
ui,  23).  The  celeilial  dty  itself,  in  other  words,  it  tu 
be  one  vast  temple  filled  ¥iith  the  perpetual  Shechinib. 
We  bere  t^re  Paine's  sketcb  of  the  ideal  riiy  on  the 
mountain,  the  len^^h  of  which  was  equil  to  its  breadib, 
and  [hie  again  was  equal  to  tbe  height  o(  the  eiir 
abore  the  ^n  (ver.  16), 


eoed  1  a  little  beyond  were  8  : 


V^<0  ^V).  on  wblcb  tbeir  Reab 


The  Celestial  Clij  latler  Paine). 

J  bnly  (Mlshnn.  Cht- 1  X.  Sacred  Obtnajicet  CotmeOrd  vitk  tke  Trm^e^ 
>rrlngF  (tn  the  pnve-  ].  The  Dailg  Streicf.^'The  following  is  an  outline  of 
mgblered  were  fiiM-    [he  regular  duties  of  the  priesthood : 

isoended'  I  ''■>  '^'  morning  imife.  After  haying  enjoyed  IhtLr 
.-..—v...  I  repofe,  the  priests  balbed  tbeni(ie1«e«  In  the  mnnn  pm- 
(nisnau  ',  viSed  inr  that  pnrpioe  and  waited  the  arriTal  nnhr  t'ra>' 
were  laid  I  Irieot  of  the  lots.    ThIauBlcer  ll     '  ' 


iMiddoth,  iil. 

>: 

n™(d,iu,B 

Slubillm, 

.1,4).    W» 

of  marble, 

a  which  tbe 

ht  of  the*  v! 

tims 

I  depoiliet 

.  tbe  other 

of  sllTer  (I) 

upon  which 

pt  the  Impl 

this  service. 

S,  Kunfitoncs  n/  Ue  OnJral  Building.— Tlit  vast  sams 
which  Herod  laid  out  In  adomlDE  Ibli  ilracture  gare  It 
the  mnet  inagiiltlcent  and  Impopliig  appearance.  "lie 
appearance,"  aaTs  Jneephni,  "  hnd  everything  that  conid 
strike  Ihs  mliid  and  astoniib  the  sleht.  For  It  wsa  on 
every  side  ciirered  with  lolldpbitee  nf  gold,  BO  that  when 

■ling  eSDIgence  that  the  eye  of  Ibe  beholder  was  obliged 

radlsnce  thsn  the  splendor  of  tbe  >nn"  (ITDr,  v,  n,  t).  T« 
strangers  who  nnpruached  the  capiml,  It  appeared,  at  a 
distance,  like  a  huce  mountain  covered  wItt  sDOiv.  For 
where  It  wasorii  decnraiedwllbplatesof  giild.it  was  ex- 
tremely while  and  glistening.  The  hi'toriaUi  indeed,  snye 
that  the  Temple  of  Herod  was  the  miisi  astonishing  pirnci- 
nre  he  had  ever  seen  or  beard  of.  as  well  an  ncromil  of 
Its  archlleclnre  as  its  magnllnde,  and  likewise  the  rich- 
ness sud  magnlllcence  oHtB  various  parts,  snd  Ihe  fsme 
nod  reputation  of  Its  sacred  appDrte nances.  Tscllascnils 
tl  imminia  tpulmtia  templum  {Hul.  v,  IS).  Its  exter- 
nal glory.  Indeed,  couslsled  pot  only  In  Ibe  "pnlcnce  niid 
tnaeniacencenf  the  boildiiig.  but  also  in  the  rich  glfUwIlh 
wblcb  It  was  adorned,  and  which  exclied  the  airmlration 
nftboee  who  beheld  them  (Luke  iit.B).  In  the  pflnlco 
the  varlnna  TOLlve  nlTerdiim  miile  hiiih  h>  .lania  a,.!!  r.r. 
eigners 


'Ided  with 


companies,  each  of  which  wte 
«  or  torches,  and  madeaclrcnitnf  iht 
liferent  directions,  and  meetiii;:  ni  ihc 
pastryninn's  cbsmber  on  Ihe  soDtb  side  of  the  nie  Nin- 

blgh-prlest's  meat-olTering,  Ihey  reilr^  with  tbe  pml- 
deiit  lo  the  sonth-east  comer  of  the  court  and  cssl  !"!• 
tor  tbeduilee  connected  with  the  altar.    The  prien  beloe 

ed  bis  foet  at  the  laver,  and  then  wlib  tbe  silTtr  ihovtl 
proceeilcd  to  his  work.  As  soon  as  he  had  remove*  ont 
shoveiral  of  tbe  ashe^  tbe  other  nrleats  retired  to  ntb 
Ibelr  bands  and  feet,  and  then  Joined  bim  in  cImdiIdk 
the  altar  aod  leiiewliig  tbe  flres.  Tbe  next  act  wis  Ui 
cast  lots  for  the  thirteen  particnlar  duties  connected  iiiih 
Dll^rlog  tbe  sacrifice:  whicb  beiUK  settled,  the  preeldfni 
ordered  one  of  them  to  fetch  the  Iamb  for  Ihe  nomliie 
sacriUce.  While  the  priests  on  [hlsdnty  were  eni^gfd  hi 
retching  nnd  examining  tbe  victim,  those  who  carried  tbe 


ning  I 
holy  place.    Wht 


np«ts  gavi 


le  pfople.   The 


S :  Ix.  IS:  Josephus.  Jn<.  xiv,  Ifl,  4 :  xvlll,  i.  B;  xis.  d.  1 ;  concTusVon  of  Ibe  r  prRver  andsTelie™!  of  be  M- 
Warn  II.  3 :  y  IB, «;  Api<m,  ii.i:  Pbllo,  0pp.  11,  Ma.  Ml)  comtn-hdmenta  and  Ihefr  pbylscterles,  the  priests  -.(si" 
we  tind  specially  mentioned  a  large  golden  table,  pi-eeeiil-  „«  lots  to  choose  two  lo  offer  Incense  on  tbe  Koldm  sl- 
ed by  Potnpey  the  Great,  and  several  Rolden  vines  of  ex-  „r,  and  another  to  lay  the  pieces  of  Ib^sacrlfce  on  ih. 
quIsllB  workmanship  snd  Immense  size :  for  Josepbos  fl„  of  the  braien  aliar.  The  lot  being  detemln'd,  tf 
assures  us  that  same  of  the  cluster-  of  golden  grapes  were  two  who  were  to  offer  the  Incense  proceeded  to  dlKhsrn 
aa  tall  as  a  man  {IFar,  v,  D,  4).  One  such  golden  vine  their  duty.  Ihe  time  for  which  was  between  the  spdsk- 
Om  io  IBS.  MiddM\  111,  8)  especially  seems  to  have  |Sl'fhe'mo''rJi''r''a",l'd  in'i'h'e  e«lSn  '''hS'w^'lS'l'll"- 
lieeu  trained  op  over  the  entire  front  of  the  building  (Jo-  ihe  pieces  np^m' lb"  nlisrand*ttfertrSk-n)frring.    Asihrr 


TEMPLE  '  2 

■It  Leriut  to  come  to  ilnfi.  and  the  sUtlon- 

I  noi  perfrcied.    The  prlwi  whu  cunied  the 

on  ihe  pvti  ultiir,  srier  klDdllnK  IbB  Are  no 

print  whii  hud  ihe  lDCen»  iilone  !□  Ibe  boly 
oan  u  Iho  sLenKl  ku  given  bj  the prenl dent, 

ou  kindled;  the  bol;  ulnce  wu  fllled  wlib 

irrfiw,  ud  Ibe  conemgitlon  wlthonl  Joined  in  the 
imta  (Loka.  I, «).  Tbew  being  ended,  the  priat  wbo« 
I'll  ir  wu  In  \tj  the  piece*  of  the  BBcriflce  Eipoft  the  alt^r 
I'lrtaibem  Into  Die  nre,snd  Iben,  tnkiuK  the  tonga,  dla- 
|.«d  Ibtm  in  Hmewlml  of  tbelr  nalnnl  nrder.    The 

BfTdl  oue  of  ibem  pninoonced  the  eolemn  bletetng 
NomluTl.M-W).  After  Ihle  bsoediciliio,  the  dully  mo«t- 
-Tnlge  wu  oflkied :  theD  the  mest-nlTeriiig  of  the  hi|:b- 
,insi:  ind  IW  of  ill  the  drink-oOertng ;  U  the  eoDclu- 
■ion  of  nhich  the  L«Tltes  begnn  the  kidk  of  pralie,  and 
iitniT  piaw  Id  the  mnrlc  the  irnrnpelB  aoDDded  end 
tbrpeniilewanbipped.  Tbie  wsi  the  lennlnBtlon  of  the 
-  — ■ — .    ft  ihoDld  be  etaled  tb»l  the  mnruiiig 


'^}''?: 


a  oplttorr  niwre.  Their  duties  noald  therefore  >ar; 
ii»ii(li(totlMnnaI)>er  *nd  nmtare  of  the  olOrlngs  th~~ 

lit  lie  msino  lerrii*  isried  In  ■  very  Irllllnjt  mef 
flrva  Ibilof  the  moniiiiK;  mid  tbenmne  priest*  mi 
I'lrml.  ucept  when  there  wu  one  Id  Iba  bonae  of  thi 
FvbnvhoWtieTeTbnniediDBeiiMilu  which  ciiH  th 

~w.ibt;cuil(itBWhoebDdld'beeniplu7ed.    See  D^i 

1  Hofwu  o/lie  Ptoct— The  injunction  of  Lev.  uin, 
^.-Ti  thill  reverence  idv  uncluar}',"  laid  the  people 
indn  ID  Dbligition  to  muntiiii  a  solemn  and  bolj-  be- 
kiiior  iben  Ihey  came  to  worship  in  the  Temple.  We 
liiK  •irtady  «een  that  such  aa  were  ceremonially  an- 
(Ith  im  forladden  to  ent*r  the  sacred  court  on  pain 
<<'(tmli;  but  in  the  coarae  of  time  there  were  aereral 
FfobibitioDi  enloreed  by  the  Sanhedrim  which  the  law 
Ui  not  nunrd.  The  following  hive  been  collected  by 
IJtlnliBt  Mt  of  the  Rabbinical  writinga  (Temple  8tr- 

l.i  "Ho  isaD  might  eater  tbe  mountain  of  the  hoiwe 
•n»ii.iia(r.- 

it>  "Kdm  might  enter  In  thither  with  hit  iboes  on  his 
tru'tknagta  he  might  with  hii  iandala. 

ai"Nur  mijthi  any  man  euler  the  mountain  of  the 

%i  "Nor  Tnighl  b«  dime  in  with  the  dnat  on  hia  feet." 
Hi  M  Boit  waah  or  wipe  them,  "and  look  to  hie  Iwsl 

Ki^lB,  Uiii  he  abonld  then  ibiike  off  all  worldly  though  ta 

i  parse."    He  might  bring 


•it\itim' 


:  and  In  Ibis  way 
If  Ibis  had  nut 


might  rpit  In  liie  Temple ;  If  he  were  D( 


''liir  »Cire  tSe  gate 
tiei  I*  Ike  Temiiie. 


4icanor,"  that  b^ng  eiactiy  In 

FS,' 

3 1  "Dn  iliai  went  Intn  the  court  tnnat  go  leianrely  and 
ruriy  Inli.  bi*  place  -.  and  there  he  mnrt  demean  him- 
>  [ « 111  the  pretence  of  the  Lord  Ood,  in  a)]  reverence 

'•I  '-Be  most  worship  atandlog,  with  hia  feel  close  to 
■rt  uter,  bia  ejea  directed  lo  Ibe  grunnd,  hia  hnnda 
.  **  Ut  bmsl.  wltb  tbe  right  one  abore  the  left"  ;eee 

j     lU-Na  Doe-Jtowerer  weary,  mlgbc  sit  down  in  tbe 
n^-.'  IV  onn  eicepiiuo  was  In  bvorof  tbe  kings  of 
I  k'wtorDsTld. 

tt'IfHwrnleht  prafwIUl  bis  bead  nncovered.  And 
^  vht  Dni  and  ibeir  scholars  never  prayed  wlihont  a 


2«iKI>  directs  Ihe  i 

-iThdt  b..dily  ge 


ring  beliire  the  Lord 


ir  "bending  of  tbe  kiMM,''"bowlDg  tbe  head," 

igpruBlrate  on  the  gmuDd." 
(11.)  Uaviiig  perbrmed  the  aervica,  and  being  aboDI  tn 
retlrc'^hevmlght  not  turn  their  backs  npon  the  nltar." 
™.__  .,.___/_ .  ■---■-,,rjg  till  they  were  oat  of  ibo 


Concerning  the  high  Tenerilion  which  the  Jewa 
cheriabed  for  [heir  Temple,  Dr.  Hirwood  has  eoUeelcd 
some  intereating  particulars  from  Pbilo,  Jneephus,  and 
the  writinga  of  Luke.  Their  reverence  for  the  aMred 
edifice  was  snch  that  rather  than  witnen  ila  defilement 
[hey  would  cheerfully  submit  to  death.  They  could 
not  bear  the  least  disrespectful  or  diabunorable  thing  to 
be  aaid  of  it.     The  leaat  injurious  alight  of  it,  real  or 

Jew,«nd  wasati  aflrort  never  lo  be  forgiven.  Our  Sav- 
iour, in  the  couree  of  his  public  inatructiona,  happening 
lo  aay, "  Destroy  this  Temjde,  and  in  three  d«y»  I  will 
riiae  il  up  again"  (John  li,  19) — it  waa  eonatrued  inlo  a 
conlemptuDUB  disreapect,  designedly  thrown  out  against 
the  Temple — his  words  iostonlly  descended  into  the 
heart  of  a  Jew  and  kept  rankling  there  for  several 
yean  J  for,  upon  bis  trial,  this  declaration,  which  it  was 
impossible  for  a  Jew  ever  aa  forget  or  to  forgive,  waa 
alleged  againat  him  as  big  with  the  most  atrocioua 
guilt  and  Impiety  {Matt,  iivi,  61).  Nor  waa  the  rancor 
and  virulence  which  this  expreaaion  had  occaaioned  at 
all  sol^ened  by  all  the  affecling  circnmslances  of  that 
excruciating  and  wretched  death  they  saw  him  die; 
even  aa  he  hung  upon  the  cross,  with  infinite  triumph, 
scorn,  and  exultation,  they  upbraided  him  with  it,  con- 
temptuoualy  shaking  their  heada  and  saying,  "O  thou 
who  couldat  demolish  our  Temple  and  rear  it  up  again 
in  all  its  splendor  in  the  apace  of  three  days,  now  save 
thyaelf,  and  descend  from  the  cross"  Cuvii,  40).  Their 
supetstitious  veneration  for  the  Temple  further  appears 
from  the  account  of  Stephen.  When  his  adversaries 
were  baffled  and  confounded  by  that  superior  wiadom 
and  those  distinguished  gifts  he  posaeaaed,  they  were  so 
exasperated  at  the  victory  he  hsd  gained  over  them 
that  they  went  and  aulnmed  persona  to  awear  thai 
they  had  heard  him  apeak  blasphemy  against  Moses 
and  against  God.  These  inflaming  the  populace,  the 
magistrates,  and  the  Jewish  clej^,  he  waa  aeiied,  drag- 
ged away,  and  bronght  before  the  Sanhedrim.  Here 
the  false  witneatm  whom  they  had  procured  acood  up 
and  said,  "  This  person  before  you  ia  continually  utter- 
ing tbe  most  reproachrul  expreseiona  againat  this  sacred 
place"  (Acts  vi,  IS),  meaning  the  Temple.    Tbia  waa 

of  high-priests  and  scribes  would  never  forgive  such 
impiety.  We  witness  the  aame  thing  in  the  case  of 
Paul  when  they  imagined  that  be  bad  taken  Trophi- 
muB,an  Epbeuan,  with  him  inlu  the  Temple;  for  which 
insult  tbey  had  determined  to  imbrue  their  baiMlB  in 
bis  blood  <xii,ZS,  etc.). 

XI.  LiUratun. — As  we  have  said  above,  the  two  claa- 
aical  aucborilies  on  the  Temple  are  the  general  descrip- 
tion of  Josephus  (Ant.  xv,  11,  and  War,  v,  b)  and  the 
minute  account  of  Che  Herodian  building  in  the  Tal- 
mudic  tract  Middolh  (Miahna,  v,  10),  which  has  been 
edited  and  commented  upon  by  L'Empereur  of  Op- 
pyck  (Lugd.  Bat.  1630,  4la).  Among  the  older  worka 
on  tbe  subject  we  especially  name  vols,  viii  and  ix  of 
AntiqviialfM  Hebraicf^  by  Ugolino,  which  conlain,  in 
addition  to  other  dissertations,  Moses  Mumonidea,  Con- 
ilituliimei  de  Domo  Electa  ,•  Abraham  ben  -  David,  De 
Tempio ;  see  also  Schulze.  Dt  VaritM  Judaontm  Emrt' 
baiinI>eicriplioneTfinpliStctB¥S(¥.$iaiS.nS6;  also 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Reland,  />e  Spoliii  TempU 
nierosotymitimi  [llltraj.  1776]);  Hafenrefer,  Tmplum 
Eiedi.  (Tubing.  1613) ;  \11lRlpando  and  Prado,  In  Ezt- 
chirl;  Jud.  Leo,  Libri  Quaiuor  de  Tempio  Hienu.  tam 
Priori  qaam  Potttr.  rx  llebr.  Lat.  Ver:  a  J.  Saubert 
(Helmsu  l666,4lo)i  Cappellus.TpKrayioi',  (i>c  Triplex 
Trmjdi  Deliatalio  (AmsL  1643, 4to;  alaoinaerled  in  the 
Crilici  Aaglicaai,  vol.  viii,  and  in  vol.  i  of  Wallnn's 
Polvglot)  \  Hareiiberg,  In  d.  Brem.  u.  rei-ditcli.  Bibliolh. 


TEMPLE  2( 

iv,  1  «i,,S"9iq.,BT0iq.!  LvDy,I>e  Tubti-n.  FaiL,  C-ie  ' 
Jlieivi.  It  (fe  Tmaplo  (Par.  1720  h].)  ;  Ciemer,  Dt  Sidoni. 
Tempio  (H«id«ov,  1748) ;  Eninci,  Dt  Trmplo  Herod. 
(Upa.  175S) ;  GruUck,  De  Dittino  to  7<npb  Eztch.  Con- 
tilio  (Viumb.  1775).  Monogr^hs  on  the  Temple  ja 
Hebrew  hive  been  writcen  by  C  Altschul  (Amsi.  1T24>, 
J.  M.  Alwchul  (ibid.  1782).  W.  Aluchul  (Sklov,  1791; 
Warwvr,  1814),  Leone  (AmeC  1660;  Middelb.  1642;  in 
Li[mbySaubert[[]elni!Ll665]),He]ler(Prague,l602; 
F.»d  M.  l714).Chefez(VM.1696),Wiln«CSIdov,1802), 
Sniikr  (tond.  iSib).  The  principal  lal«r  worke  on  tbe 
Nibject  ire  thiwe  of  LiKhEfool,  Dttcriplio  TempU  Hitro' 
tolgautaiB,  in  0pp.  i.  583  »q, ;  Hid,  Drr  TemprI  Salo- 
Btoni  (Berlin.  1809,4(0);  StiegVux,  Ottch.  ikr  Dautaial 
(Nuiemb.  lH'27),p.  125h|.;  Lm,  Beilriifft  tar  GticMch. 
d.aaMtd.BaakmM  (Leipi.  1834), i, 63  w).;  Heyer,i>(r 
ToH/^f  Salmn- (Berlin,  1830t  uuerted  alBa  in  SlStter/. 
hoherr  Wairhtil,  i) :  UrUneuen,  in  the  KaaMlaa  E. 
^tfoiyraW:  1831,  No.  78-75,  77-80.  Other  works  ire 
menCiuned  by  Meusd,  BiUioth.  Hit/or.  i:  ii,  113  sq.; 
and  Winer,  «Hi/iriirtMi.g.v."Tempel."  See  aim  Ben- 
nett, rA*  Ttmpit  of  Eutiil  (Lood.  l»U) ;  lateele,  Ear- 
IcitTi  Templt  (ibid.  1827);  Kirchner,  Dir  Ttmpd  lU  Je- 
nu.  (Neu-Eber>.  1834) ;  El-Sin^,  HiM.  of  tht  Ttmpte 
(Irtna  tha  Anl»c  by  Keynolda,  Lend.  1837);  K«l,  Der 
Tmpti  Salomo't  (Dorp.  1839);  Kupp,  id.  (Stntleart, 
1889);  the  Sivd.  u.  Kril,  1844,  ii,  BSO,  361;  Thenina, 
£rkUb:  iL  Kimgf,  in  the  Kungrf.  rjrrg.  U.mdb.  ix. 
Anhang,  p.  25  «q.;  BHhr,  l>tr  Sahm.  Temprl  (CarUr. 
1848);  Ilalmer-Rinck,Cc*rf.iir™pei-.4rc*i<«/Br(I-ud- 
wigsb.  1858).  The  laiest  worka  are  Ibon  of  Bannis- 
ter, The  Tmplri  of  Ikt  Hibrnei  {Lond.  1861);  Paine, 
SiJomon'i  7nn;>fr,  etc  (BoAt.  1861);  VnrvAi,  b.  alle  Je- 
rM.«.:Baa<ctrU(\^mhtz,l«6\);  ita-m,  iJer  Tern- 
ptl-l'Uilt  '/"  Morvi  (Gotha.  1866);  Ferpiwon,  Tht 
Templet  of  the  Jews  (Lond.  1878).  Th>)  laat  and  iiunt 
prei«itioua  effijrt  at  reconalnictlnf;  the  Jewish  Temple 
is  thorouKhly  vitiated  by  two  favorite  preconceptions 
vf  the  author— namely,  a  false  location  of  the  structure 
al  the  Miulh-weet  angle  of  tbe  Haram,  and  an  over- 
weciiin);  estimate  of  modem  architfctural  lasle  as  a 

misses  the  explicit  and  repeated  Rabbinical  alatemenl 
of  the  ditnensioni  of  the  Court  of  the  Women  as  "  ab- 
surd" (p.  98)  and  "  impossible"  (p.  117),  hecauae  it  can- 
not be  got  within  his  imaginary  "rectangle  600  feet 
square"  (Joaephua's  round  number  for  the  entire  Tem- 
ple area).  He  falsely  aasena  that  tbia  Rabbinical  ac- 
count "  ia  borrowed  avoweilly,  but  uninlellieently,  froni 
Ezekiel"  (p.  117),  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  Mishna, 
which  contains  these  measurements,  has  come  down, 
liadllionally  if  not  in  wrilin);,  fmra  contemporaries  of 
Elerod'a  Te'rHplc  llavlf.  What  a  pity  chat  tbene  author- 
ities, or  even  Herod  himself.did  not  have  the  beneflt  of 

TKMPLE.    This  name  was  scarcely  ever  usai  In  the 
first  three  ages  by  any  Christian  writer  for  a  church, 

was  destroyed,  and  temples  were  piii^^l  and  ronaecrat- 
Fd  as  Chri'atian  churches,  then  the  wrilera  of  the  fol- 
lowing BRea  freely  fjavp  them  the  name  of  temples.  At 
first  no  idol  temples  wecv  macle  usn  of  as  churches,  but 
were  generally  tolerated  until  the  twenlv-Hfih  vear  of 
ConBtantine.A.D.  338.  In  that  year  bk  published  his 
laws  commanding  the  destruction  of  temples,  altar^ 
and  imacea.  This  policy  was  continued  until  the  reign 
of  TheiHlinina,when  another  method  waa  adopted,  and 
we  hnil  the  emperor  luminj!  the  famnua  temple  of  He- 
liopolis.  called  Balanium,  into  a  Christian  church.  Ho- 
norius  (A.D.4U8)  publisher)  two  laws  forbidding  the  de- 
■Irucliun  of  temples  in  the  cities,  because,  being  purged, 
they  might  serve  for  ornament  or  public  ukt.  Bnlv 
(lib.  i.e.  30)  tells  us  "that  Cregory  the  tlreat  gave 


16  TEMPORAL  POWEK 

pulled  down.and  the  materials  were  given  to  the  Chunk, 
out  of  which  new  editicea  were  erected  for  ihe  serrirt 
of  Ttbgion.  Sonwtimea  additions  were  made  to  iht 
emoluments  of  the  clergy  by  the  donalian  of  btithn 
templea  and  the  revenues  tbat  were  letlled  upon  tbtn. 
although  the  latter  were  usually  appropriated  by  tbe 
eiitperors  tbemaelves.  Set  Biagbtai,  Ckriit,  Ailiq.tit. 
V,  eb.  iv,  §  10;  bk.  viii,  ch.  i,  §  6 ;  ch.  ii,  %  4. 

Temple.  Daniel,  a  Congregational  miniater.  vu 
born  at  Reading,  Masat,  Dec  23,  1789.  He  was  m- 
ployed  in  mechanical  Ubora  until  he  wai  twenlr-iM 
years  old.  In  1810  he  was  converted,  and  joiofd  ibr 
Church.  His  attention  was  called  to  tbe  minonuT 
field  by  reading  Buchanan's  RrMevjrhtM,  and  he  tour- 
meuced  the  work  of  preparation  by  eniering  PhlUiia 
Academy  at  Andover.  He  subsequently  entered  Din. 
mouth  College,  fmm  which  he  graduated  in  1817.  Hi> 
iuHuence  for  good  in  college  was  great,  ile  spent  Ihirf 
years  at  Che  Andover  Theological  Setninarj-,  and  wn 
licensed  to  preach  at  Billerica  by  the  Andover  aieKii- 
tion  in  August,  1820.  Aller  being  employed  one  jnr 
i  in  Haasachusetti  by  tbe  American  board,  be  wn  a- 
I  dained  at  the  same  time  with  the  Rev.  Isaac  Bird  ii 
'  North  Hridgewater,  Oct,  3,  1821.  After  his  manisi:' 
with  Miss  Rachel  B.  Diit,  be  tailed  ftiim  Baslon  [<■ 
Malta,  .Ian.  2, 182'/.  caiiving  with  him  the  fiiu  ptial- 
iiig-presB,  which  has  since  proved  such  a  blesMOg  to  ibt 
people  of  the  Orient.  His  wife  died  in  Hilla  in  W- 
Two  of  his  four  children  survive,  and  are  now  ptnck- 
ing  [be  Gospel.  He  returned  to  America  in  1830,  ind 
aft«r  remaining  a  abort  time,  duritig  which  he  uimtd 
again,  he  went  back  to  Malta,  where  he  remained  unul 
1833.  when  he  left  for  Smyrna,  taking  with  him  the 
whole  printing  establiahmenu  Though  he  flnt  lel  up 
the  press  in  Malta,  its  producCiona  were  for  regiocu  Ei^ 
yond.  The  authorities  ordered  tbe  press  away  rrom 
Smyrna,  yet  he  retained  it  until  he  left  the  coixL  Ue 
establiahed  schools  there  among  the  Greeks,  but  who- 
ever would  see  what  he  accompliahed  must  go  to  Cm- 
stantinople,  Aintab,  and  elsewhere  in  thai  land.  V' 
continueil  his  connection  with  the  press  until  be  kfi 
the  miiBian,  in  1844,  and  returned  to  Americi.  Afiti 
his  return,  he  commenced  preaching  at  Wielps.  Ootiri* 
Co.,  N.  v.,  where  his  labors  were  greatly  bleMcri.  Hit 
act|uaintaiice  with  the  Hcripturea  was  wonderful.  Vriott 
familiar  with  every  part  of  them.  For  aume  time  be- 
fore his  end  be  waa  not  able  to  preach ;  but  in  sifkntia 
and  ill  health,  in  Buffering  aa  in  labors,  he  gloriHed  hii 
tIasCer  until  hia  death,  which  took  pUce  at  Reading, 
|Maaa.,Aug.  11, 1861.  Sec  Sprague,  .4  r«&  o/'dr  .4  iw. 
Pulpit,  ii,677  sq.     (W.  V.  S.) 

Temporal,  a  term  often  used  for  imilar,  in  a  die 
tiuciiiui  from  spiritual  or  ecclesiaelical ;  likewise  M 
anything  belonging  to  time  in  contrast  with  eieniii;^ 
I  Temporal  Povrer  op  tub  Pops  is  ■  phraw  W 
cepiible  of  two  meanings,  which  arc  very  distinci  fn) 

1.  In  one  of  these  senses  il 


the  Saxona  in  BriUUn,  that  if  tbey  were  v 
ahoiikl  not  lie  destroved.  Imt  only  ronverl 
vU-e  <•(  llir  irm-  C.hI."      .Snnetimn  tbe 


Lensea  tt  means  the  sovereign  pa 
er  possessed  by  the  pii|ie  as  ruler  of  Ihe  Papal  State 
.States  ok  tub  Ciii'Hini  (q.  v.),  where  the  hattf 
its  origin,  progress,  and  downfall  is  btiedy  driill 
The  ((ueBCiun  as  to  the  necessity  or  utility  ol 
power  vested  in  Ihe  hands  of  a  spiritual  ruler,  a 
its  hiwfuliiess  and  its  compatibility  with  his  i 
duties,  has  i>cen  warmly  debated.  This  cimim 
not  of  entirely  recent  origin,  for  many  of  ihe  itmlis 
seciaries  urgeil  the  iucompaiibility  of  the  spiritual 
the  temporal  power  in  the  same  person,  not  only  : 
latioD  to  Ihe  pope,  but  also  to  the  baron-bishops.  Ji 
were  the  doctrines  of  the  Vaudi.is,  of  Pierre  dc  l(r 
and  especially  of  Anirdd  of  Breacia.  In  tbe 
folhjwing,  Ihe  aniiiiapal  contrnversMS  turned  st 
upon  iliictrine  that  there  waa  little  aiieuciun  pa 


I  sn.<  iChrai 


ic  pni 


Even  H>N 


TEMPORAL  POWER  2 

Dol  nnly  ailiniKei]  lh«  Uwfulnen  nStlw  pnix's  trrtiponl 
suvmigui}',  but  conicnded  {hit  it  mu  in  •mne  kdw 
Mcratif  to  Ihe  free  enenMe  of  bi»  spirimil  power. 
The  cantCDTcnv  onlj'  usomed  any  practical  intereit 
dsrisg  ibe  omllict  between  Fiut  VII  and  Napoleon  I, 
ibedengii  of  the  latter  of  annexins  papal  tetiiton-  to 
France  being  une  of  the  main  c*iii«b  of  iliApuie.  No 
t.rnBilaodauthariIaiivejiiilKnwninribe  ItiiiDaii  Church 
Kit  been  pronaunced  reyardinn  Ihe  qiienlion  of  Irmpo- 
nL  power,  but  a  Mroiig  and  alinoat  unaiiimDiit  tipr»- 
MHi  of  npiniiHi  waa  tendered  In  Ihe  lale  pope,  Piua  IX, 
in  Ibe  kim  of  letter*  and  iddressei  from 
Mhcn  in  every  part  of  Catbolic  Chriiteni 
pnitu  ihai  the  poaseaiian  of  temporal  po< 
■CDlial  pan  of  the  privileges  of  the  aucceaaor  of  Pe- 
in.  but  they  regard  it  aa  the  meana  provident iailj  Es- 
uUiihed  for  the  pmtKtion  of  the  spiritual  independenee 
(jfthepope  ami  the  free  exercise  of  his  functiona  as  apir- 
ilual  ruler  of  the  Church. 

IL  By  the  neomd  aignification  of  the  phrase  "lem- 
(iifil  fmwer  of  the  pope"  is  understood  what  would  more 
pniptrly  be  called  Ibe  claim  of  Ihe  pope,  in  virtue  of  his 

uiditates.  Tbia  power  nuy  beoftwo  Itinda:  I.  Dirrc- 
In.  or  the  power,  ai  npreme  moral  teacher.  lo  inatruct 
ill  nccabcn  of  bia  Cbureh,  whether  subjecte  or  eov- 
errignh  in  the  moral  duties  of  their  aeveral  states,  'i. 
ire.     If  the  power  be  regarded  aa  coercive,  it  is 


They 


I  of  II 


wticb  may  be  employed.  Coerci 
in  the  ihieac  or  inflictiun  <it purify  ^ritual  rauurri,  or 
ii  Biay  iutolre  temporal  eonaequeneea,  eiich  a*  auapen- 
■on  •«  deprivation  from  office,  forfeiture  of  the  alle- 
giince  of  subjecta.  and  even  lialolity  to  the  puniahment 
lit  dtaih.  In  Ihe  former  nenae  it  may  be  regarded  aa 
iIk  natural  DHiMniuence  of  the  apiritua]  headship  of  the 
(.liurcb.  which  is  ackiiowleilgpd  by  all  Cathidicti.  But 
tht  claim  in  authority  over  ihe  lemporalitiea  uf  kings 
tngone  far  beyond  these  limiii.  From  the  lUth  cen- 
tury piipe*  have  claimed  and  repeatedly  exerciaed  a 
^rwM  ufcnercing  kings,  and  have  punished  Ihem  when 
rvfiactory  by  aiispensioo,  by  deprivation,  and  by  the 
inufFi  of  the  allegiance  uf  their  subjects.  This  claim 
hv  iKrD  a  subject  of  oontrorersy  between  Ihe  Uallican 
lod  Ultrammitane  achnoU,  and  in  Ibe  latter  two  tbeoriea 
hin  been  devised  for  its  explanation.  The  Hrst  and 
DIM  extreme  auppoaes  Ifaat  this  power  was  given  di- 
rectly by  Ood  to  Peter  and  hia  anccessors;  that  the  two 

V I :  and  that  the  temporal  power  ia  a  privilege  of  Ihe 
r*iaiacT  by  diviite  law  equally  with  the  apirilual  sover- 
r^aiy  itsdf.  The  second,  or  iadirrtt,  theory  holds  that 
itiF  lemporal  power  is  not  directly  of  divine  institution, 
liii  i>  ail  indirect  though  necessary  consequence  of  the 
f  uriiual  supremacy,  and  is  only  given  aa  a  means  of 
c«0|>leting  and,  in  a  corrupt  and  disorganized  sUle, 
reutEring  more  elUcacioua  the  work  which  the  spiritual 
■aitniacy  isdireclly  instituted  tu  acciunpliah.  In  this 
iiurr  form  tha  theory  of  Ihe  temporal  power  was  de- 
iflidnl  by  cardinal  Hellarmine,  and  lite  celebrateil  dec- 
waion  of  the  llalUcan  dergy  in  IWl  was  directed 

A  [bird  view  of  the  temporal  power  was  propounded 
tiv  Fraelaii,and  ia  generally  described  as  the  "  historical 
ibturr  of  Ihe  lemporal  power."  According  to  Ibis,  the 
)i>Ipiloeii  not  pnssem.  whelher  by  direct  divine  appnint- 
ismi  ur  ill  virtue  of  the  necessities  of  his  spiritual  of- 
irt.  ur  temporal  power  whalaoevcn  but  he  poMcsse* 
ilw  plriiiude  of  spirilusl  power  which  is  minirrtl  for 
ibf  wvemnteni  of  the  Church,  and  is  empowered  to  en- 
l-me  ii  by  spiritual  penalties,  and  especially  by  excum- 
'asaicatiun.  Allhough  these  penalties  are  purely  spir- 
lail,  yet  the  religious  seniitnent  and  awe  wiih  which 
t>  ('butch  is  regarded  by  many  invest  them  with 
■fitiu  lemporal  effects.  In  aerenl  cou^trie^  as  Eng-  ; 
'J  ..\.D.»&9j.  France,  Spain  (A.D.6B8).  and  Germany, 
11^  Meimre  of  certain  civil  righia  wu  attached,  in  the  ' 


i7  TEMPT 

case  of  private  persons,  to  the  spiriliial  censure  of  ex- 
cnaimnnicaliun.     The  same  spirit  of  the  age  is  seen  in 

ereign  in  many  cuunlries,  by  which  the  monarch  swore 
to  h«  the  protector  and  defender  of  the  sovereign  pontiff 
and  ihe  holy  Catholic  Church— thus  making  their  king- 
doms feudatory  to  the  see  of  Kome.  ProtD  theae  and 
similar  indications  of  the  public  feeling  of  the  medieval 
time,  Ihe  advocates  of  ibis  theory  of  the  temporal  pow- 
er infer  that  orthodoxy  and  obedience  to  the  pope 
were  accepted  as  a  condition  of  the  tenure  of  supreme 
civil  authority.  On  Ihe  other  hand,  it  is  difficult,  ifnoc 
impneaible,  to  reconcile  tbb  theory  wiih  the  language 
used  by  the  popes  in  enforcing  their  claims  to  temporal 
sulhiirilv,  and  with  Ihe  fact  that  such  power  continued 
Hi  be  claimed  and  exercised  until  very  recent  time*. 
i,Romu<iumAt  It  Ji;  1£&mt.t,  Ddiatalian 
I ;  and  the  articles  Papacy  and  States  op 


See  Bsrnu 


Temporalities  uc  Dinhoph,  in  law,  are  the  lay 
Tevennes.  lands,  leneiiieuts,  and  fees  belungjng  to  the 
sees  gf  bishops  or  archbishops,  as  Ibey  are  baruns  and 
lords  of  Patliatnent,  including  their  baroniea.  They  are 
defined  as  all  things  which  a  bishop  hath  by  livery  from 
the  king,  as  manors,  lands,  tithes.  From  Ihe  lime  of 
Edward  I  to  the  Keformation,  it  waa  customary,  when 
bishops  received  their  teraporalilies  from  the  king,  to 
renounce  in  writing  all  right  to  the  same  by  virtue  oT 
any  pmvision  fmm  the  pope,  and  lo  admit  that  they  re- 
ceived them  from  the  king  alone.  The  custody  of  Iheaa 
temporalities  is  said  by  Blockslone  In  form  part  of  the 
king's  ordiiuiry  revenne,  and  thna,  a  vacancy  in  the 
bisbi^c  uccnrriiig,  is  a  right  of  the  crown,  originating 
in  its  prerogative  in  Cbureh  matters,  tbe  king  being,  in 
intendment  of  law,  preserver  of  all  episcopal  sees.  For 
the  same  reason,  before  the  dissolution  of  religious 
houses,  the  sovereign  had  the  custody  of  tlie  temporaii- 
lies  uf  all  such  abbeys  and  priorie*  aa  were  of  royal 
foundation.  There  is  another  reason  in  virtue  of  which 
Ihe  king  jiossesses  ibis  right,  which  is,  that  as  the  sue- 

liable  to  spoil  and  devasta^on.  The  law,  therefore.  Iia- 
wisely  given  lo  the  king  Ibe  cualody  of  these  tempnraii- 

all  intermediate  proliu.  and  to  present  to  all  preferment* 
tailing  vacant  during  the  vacancy  of  the  see.  Thu  rev- 
enue cannot  be  granted  to  a  subject  i  but  tbe  UEdwanI 
III.  slat.  iv,ch.  iv,  V,  empowers  the  king,  on  a  vacancy 
occurring,  to  lease  the  temporalities  lo'the  dean  and 
chapter,  with  a  reservation  of  all  advowsoni,  escheats, 
and  Ibe  like.  To  remedy  the  wrongs  to  the  Church 
perpetrated  by  former  sovereigns,  who  sometimes  kept 
bishoprics  vacant  in  order  to  enjoy  tbe  possession  of 
their  temporalities,  and  when  they  did  supjily  the  va- 
cancy compelled  the  new  bishop  to  purchase  bock  his 
temporalities  at  an  exorbitant  price,  Henry  I,  by  char- 
ter, agreed  neither  to  aell,  let  to  farm,  nur  take  anything 
from  Ibe  domaina  of  ihe  Church  until  the  successor  was 
ioatalleiL  By  Magna  Charta  provision  waa  made  that 
no  waste  shcnild  be  committed  in  Ihe  temporalities 

the  bishoptics,  and  that  neil 

them  be  sold.     At  present  tl 


>ralities  oi 


IB  the  n< 


wnsecrated  ami  conlirmed,  he  usually  receives  reatiin- 
ion  of  his  temporalities  entire  and  untouched  from  his 
aivereign,  to  whom  he  at  the  same  time  does  homage, 
uid  then  poasesse*,  which  he  did  not  before,  a  fee  sim- 
ile in  his  iHshopric,  and  may  maintain  an  action  for  the 

Tompt  is  useil  in  the  Rhie  in  the  Latin  sense  of 
DroTi*.  aa  s  rendering  especially  of  ini.  AtirArfa,  and 
nipaiiu,  which  bolh  signify  lo  iiU  or  try.  It  i«  applied 
n  various  heinfp  in  different  senses,  not  always  invidv- 
ng  an  evil  purpose  wherein  Ihe  lemptation  is  prcseni- 
d  to  the  mind  aa  nn  inducement  to  sin.     Sic  Tkmit.i- 


TEMPTATION 


268       TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST 


•nd  ilnngtben  him  bf  ihie  Irial,  and  to  fumiih  in  bit 
person  an  example  and  paltcm  of  perfect  obedience  for 
■11  luceeeding  ages.  God  doea  not  tempt  or  try  men 
in  order  to  ascertain  their  Icmpert  and  dispoeitiuna,  at 

tne,  to  purify  it,  to  render  it  conapicuoua  lo  others,  to 
give  tbem  an  opportunitv  of  receiving  fivorg  from  hit 
hands.  When  ire  read  m  Scripture  that  God  proved 
bis  people,  vthethei  they  would  walk  in  bis  lanr  or  not 
(Exod.  xvi,  4),  and  tbat  he  permitted  filve  piophets  to 

tbem  whether  they  would  eeeli  the  Lord  with  theit 
whole  hearu,  we  should  interpret  these  expressions  by 
that  of  James  <i,  13-14),  "Let  no  man  say  when  he 
is  tempud.'I  am  tempted  of  Uod.Tor  God  cannot  be 
tempted  with  evil,  neither  lempteth  be  any  man.  But 
evciy  man  is  tempted  when  he  is  drawn  sway  by  his 
own  lust  and  enticed." 

2.  The  devil  Cempta  as  to  evil  of  every  kind,  and  lays 


1,  lays  inducements  before  th< 
minds  of  men  to  solicit  them  lo  sin  (1  Coi.  vii,  o;  1 
Theas.  iii,  6 ;  James  i,  IS,  14).  Hence  Satan  is  callnl 
that  old  serpent,  the  devil,  aiid  "the  tempter"  (Rev.  xii 
9;  Halt,  iv,  3),  and  the  temptation  of  onr  first  parenu 

(Gen.  iii,  1-15;  John  viii,  44;  2  Cor.  xi,  »;  1  John  iii, 
8).  He  tempted  onr  Saviour  in  the  wildemess,  and  en- 
deavored Ui  infuse  into  him  sentiments  of  pride,  ambi- 
tion, and  distrust  (MatLiv,  1;  Mark  i,  13;  Luke  ii-,2). 
Be  tempted  Ananias  and  Sapphira  to  lie  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Acts  V,  3).  In  the  prayer  that  Christ  hii 
haa  taught  us,  we  pray  God  "  to  lead  us  not  inlu  temp- 
tation" (Matu  vi,  13) ;  and  a  little  before  bis  death,  oi 

tbeymigbt  not  enter  into  temptation"  (xxvi,41).    Pai 

we  tit  able  to  bear"  (I  Cor.  x,  18). 

3.  Hen  are  said  to  lempt  tbe  Lord  when  they  unsei 
sanaUy  require  proofs  of  tbe  divine  presence,  power,  c 
goodness.    Without  doubt,  we  are  allowed  to  seek  tli 

we  need;  but  it  is  not  allowed  us  lo  tempt  him,  nor  I 
expose  ourselves  to  dangers  from  which  we  cannot  ri 
cape  uidess  by  miraculous  interposition  of  his  omnipc 
fence.   God  is  not  obliged  to  work  miracles  in  our  fsvoi 


e  within  tbe  uiilinsiy  messures  qf  our  strength. 
The  Liraelites  in  the  desert  repeatedly  tempted  the 
Lord,  ss  if  they  had  reason  lo  doubt  hie  presence  among 
tbem,  or  his  goodness,  or  his  power,  alter  all  his  ap- 
pearances in  their  favor  (K:    '       ■"-.-" 


i,  IH,  i 


,etc). 

e  another  when  they  won 


4.  Hen  tempt 
know  whether  things  are  reajiy  wnaL  iney  neem  to  oe, 
whether  men  are  such  as  they  are  thought  or  desired  lo 
be.  The  queen  of  Sheba  came  to  prove  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon  by  proposing  riddles  for  him  to  explain  (1 
Kings  xi,  It  2  Chron.  ix,  1).  Daniel  denrcd  nf  him 
whn  had  the  care  of  feeding  him  and  his  companiuns  to 
prove  (hem  for  tome  dayswheiher  abstinence  fmm  dml 
ofcertainkindswouldmakc  them  leaner  {Dan.i,  12.14). 
The  scribes  and  Pharisees  often  templed  our  Saviour, 
and  endeavored  lo  decoy  him  into  theii  snares  (Matt. 

Temptation  (TiDS,  irEipavrioc,  both  meaning  rrt- 
al),  in  the  modem  usage  of  the  term,  is  the  enticement 
of  a  person  to  commit  sin  by  offering  some  seeming  ad- 
vantage. There  are  four  things,  says  one,  in  tempu- 
tion-(l)  deception,  (2)  infection,  (8)  seduction,  (4)  per- 
dition. The  sources  of  temptation  are  Satan,  tbe  world, 
and  the  flesh.     We  are  exposed  to  them  in  every  slalr. 


wisely  permitted  lo  show  us  our  weakness.  In  (it  mr 
faith,  to  promote  our  humility,  and  to  leach  us  in  place 
our  dependence  on  a  superior  I'oweri  yet  are' must  lui 
run  into  them,  but  watch  and  pray ;  avrnd  sinful  em- 
pany;  consider  the  love,  auO^rings,  and  consiiuev  of 
Christ,  and  the  awful  consequences  of  falling  a  victia 
to  temptation.  The  following  rules  have  been  bid 
down,  by  which  we  may  in  some  measure  know  whn 
a  temptation  comes  from  Satan:  1.  When  tbe  temp- 
tation is  unnatural,  or  contrary  lo  tbe  general  Kb 
or  temper  of  our  minds;  2.  When  it  is  opposte  lo 
Che  present  frame  of  the  mind;  3.  When  the  tempti- 
tion  itself  is  imtional,  being  contrary  to  whatever  m 
could  imagine  our  own  minds  would  suggest  lo  ui; 
4.  When  a  temptation  is  detested  in  its  rint  ritiof 
and  appearance;  G.  Lastly,  when  it  is  violent.  See 
Brooks,  Owen,  Gilpin,  Capel,  and  Gillespie  on  Temp. 
lation;  South,  Sevtn  Strmont  rm  Templation,  in  toL 
vi  of  bis  Servumt;  Kke  and  Hayward,  CoKt  nfC»- 
tdaux :  aud  Bishop  Porteus,  Seniumi,  voL  i,  set.  3  aad 

TEMPTATION  or  Christ.  Immediately  after  Iht 
inauguration  of  his  ministry,  Jesut  was  led  up  of  the 
Spirit  into  the  wilderness  to  be  templed  of  tbe  devil; 
and  after  enduring  for  forty  days  the  general  assault  of 
Satan,  be  suffcrvd  three  special  niliciudons.  which  art 
recited  in  dcuil  (MstL  iv,  1-11 ;  Uark  i,  II,  13;  Lnkt 
iv,  1-13).    See  Jesub  Ckbist. 

I.  PaHiadart  and  Driji  nf  iKt  TnaL—la  the  fim 
.  temptation  the  Redeemer  is  ahungered,  and  when  ihc 
I  devil  bids  him,  if  he  be  the  Son  of  God,  command  ibst 
the  stones  may  be  made  bread,  there  woidd  seem  to  be 
no  great  un  in  thit  use  of  dit-ine  power  to  overcome  tbe 
pressing  human  want-  Our  Lord's  answer  is  required 
10  show  us  where  the  essence  of  tbe  lemptaliun  lav. 
He  takes  the  words  of  Hoses  to  the  children  of  IsisVl 
(Deut.  viii,  3),  which  mean,  not  that  men  must  dispense 
with  bread  and  feed  only  on  tbe  study  of  tbe  Dirioe 
Word,  but  that  our  meat  and  drink,  onr  food  and  rai- 
ment, are  all  the  work  of  the  creating  hand  of  God,  and 
that  a  sense  of  drpendmct  on  God  is  the  duty  of  man. 
He  tells  the  tempter  that  as  the  sons  of  luael  standing 
in  the  wilderness  were  forced  tn  bumble  themselves  and 
to  wait  upon  the  band  nf  Gnd  for  the  bread  from  heaveo 
which  he  gate  them,  mi  the  Son  nf  man,  fainting  in  ihe 
wildemeiw  from  hunger,  will  be  humble  and  will  wail 
upon  bis  Father  in  heaven  for  tbe  Word  that  shall 
bring  him  food,  and  will  not  be  hasty  to  deliver  him- 
self from  that  dependent  sute,  but  will  wail  patiently 
for  the  gills  of  his  goodness. 

In  the  second  temptation,  it  is  nol  probable  that  tbev 
left  the  wilderness,  but  that  Satan  wasaUowed  to  sug- 
gest to  our  Lord's  mind  the  place  and  the  marvel  ihtt 
could  be  wrought  there.  They  stood,  it  has  been  sug- 
gested, on  the  lofty  porch  that  overhung  the  vallev  nf 
Kedron.  where  the  steep  ride  of  tbe  vallev  was  added  la 
the  height  of  the  Temple  (Josephue,  ^iK.'iv,  11, 5),  and 
made  a  de|iih  thai  tbe  eye  could  scarcely  have  bonie  tu 
linik  down  upon.  "  Cait  thyself  down" — perform  in  tbe 
boly  city,  in  a  public  place,  a  wonder  that  will  at  once 
make  all  men  confess  that  none  bat  Ihe  Son  c(  Gnd 
could  perform  it.  A  passage  from  Psalm  id  is  qnnied 
color  to  Che  ar|^meni.     Our  Lord  replies 


n  alius 


s  hw-fc 


again  to  the  Israelites  wandering  in  the  wildetnrs!; 
"  Ve  shall  not  tempt  the  Lord  your  Goil,  as  ve  (empinl 
him  in  Matsah"  (DcuU  vi,  16).  Their  oind'uct  is  ainn 
fully  described  by  the  psalmist  as  a  tempting  of  God  -. 
"They  tempted  God  in  their  heart  by  asking  meat  for 
their  lust;  yea,  they  spake  against  God:  ihev  «i>L 
Can  God  furnish  a  table  in  IheoildemeeB?  Behidd  he 
smole  the  rock  that  the  waten  gushed  oui  and  thi 
streams  overflowed.  Can  he  give  bread  also?  Con 
he  provide  flesh  for  bis  people?"  (Psa,  Ixxviii).  Ju« 
parallel  was  the  lemplalion  here.  God  has  prnininl 
thee  s»  far,  brought  ihee  np.  put  his  seal  u|i>jn  thee  liv 


TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST       269       TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST 


Dusihsl  (onob  of  bU  t»vm.  Ctn  be  do  this  abo? 
las  rw  mi-l  the  angeli  to  buoy  thee  up  in  (hy  descent? 
ilta  h<  mike  the  air  thick  to  aiutain  and  the  earth  aalt 
ID  Rceive  thee?  The  appropriate  aoawer  is,  "Thoo 
ibtlt  IHH  tempt  the  Lord  thy  Qod." 

In  the  third  teoiputiun  it  i»  not  anerted  that  there 
it  nj  moantain  fTinn  which  the  eyes  of  commoD  men 
aa  «e  tbe  vorld  and  lla  kinBdomi  atunce  displayed; 
ii  wu  with  the  mental  vinion  of  One  who  knew  all 
ifaiDgi  that  thtH  kiDgdoma  and  their  glory  were  seen. 
Satan  has  now  begun  to  discover,  it  be  knew  not  fioni 
tbr  banning,  that  One  is  here  who  can  become  the 
iLingoTer  ibem  aU.  He  lays,  "All  these  things  will  I 
gin  thee  if  thou  wilt  fall  down  and  worship  me."  In 
Lake  the  wuda  are  fnller:  "All  this  power  wiU  I  give 
Lhce,  lod  (tw  gloTy  of  them,  fiir  that  is  delivered  unto 
DC,  and  to  wbomsoaver  I  will,  I  give  it;"  but  these 
ncdi  an  the  lie  of  the  tempter,  which  be  uses  to  mis- 
kad.  "Thou  art  come  to  be  great— to  be  a  Kin|!  on 
tbe  earth;  bot  I  am  strong,  and  will  resist  thee.  Thy 
Mlowen  shall  be  imprisoned  and  slain;  some  of  tbem 
■ban  fall  away  through  fear;  others  shall  forsake  thy 
caaae,  hiring  this  pieaent  world.  Cast  in  thy  lot  with 
m:  let  thy  kingdom  be  an  earthly  kingdom,  only  the 
lEnslest  of  all — a  kingdom  such  as  the  Jews  seek  to  see 
fSabbsfaed  on  tbe  throne  of  David.  Worship  me  by 
kTinic  as  the  children  of  this  worU  live,  and  so  honor- 
ing cw  in  thy  life :  then  all  shall  be  thine."  The  Lord 
luuvi  that  Ibe  tempter  is  right  in  (bret^lling  such  trials 
ui  him  -.  but  though  clouds  and  darlineas  bang  over  Ibe 
[laihofhiBministrybemiutwork  theworkofhim  that 
nt  him,  and  not  another  work :  he  must  worship  God, 
■sdnon  other.  "  Get  thee  hence,  Satan ;  foritiswrit' 
UB.  Tbm  Shalt  wonhip  the  Lord  thy  Ood,  and  him  only 
■halt  tbou  serve."  Aa  r^aids  the  order  of  the  Icmpta- 
tion,  iben  are  internal  marks  that  tbe  acooant  of 
KsUbcw  aangns  them   their  historical   order.     Luke 

■Dggoud  br  commenuton  (MatL  ir,  1-lt ;  Hark  i,  12, 
IS:  Lnkeiv,  1-13). 

Tba  thm  lempuiions  are  addressed  to  the  three 
Cvmsin  which  the  disease  of  sin  make*  iu  appearance 
M  the  soul—  to  the  aolaee  of  sense,  and  the  love  of 
pniiii,aiid  the  desire  of  gain  (I  John  ii,  16).  But  there 
ii  «■  dement  common  to  them  all— they  are  attempts 
u  raU  ap  a  wilful  and  wayward  apirit,  in  contrast  to  a 
fttiral  self-denying  one.    See  Tempt. 

Tbe  suthor  of  Eca  H<MO,  altbougb  be  takes  too  sub- 
JFctive  a  view  of  the  last  temptation  scene,  has  admi- 
r^y  developed  tbe  tboughc,  as  lying  at  the  foundation 
at  ijhrist's  whole  public  demeanor,  that  be  was  coit- 
Rmly  oa  bis  guard  against  the  prevailing  notion  of 
SB  MsblitbmeDt  of  tbe  Meanah's  kingdom  by  Jorce  in- 
Hiaa  of  tbe  influence  of  love;  and  he  weU  obtenta 
Uiu  the  temptation  to  this  course  was  one  that  QiuBt 
bn  presented  itself  at  some  time  to 


llCmiibiii/g  and  DaigK  of  At  JViirralitw.— That 
■tm  our  Idrd  retired  to  the  iDterior  part  of  tbe  wil- 
•Imos  tbe  enemy  or  mankind  should  present  the  most 
[i^Bibli  temptation  to  our  Redeemer,  under  these  tzj- 
isg  ctiounstances,  is  perfectly  eoDsistent  with  the  ma- 
Ifnlmce  ofbia  character.  The  grand  question  is,  Why 
•>M  IWan  suiTered  thus  to  insult  tbe  Son  of  God? 
Wkstftre  did  the  Redeemer  sntTer  his  stale  of  relire- 
nnl  to  be  thus  disturbed  with  tbe  malicious  sngges- 
(uKirihe  ttend?  It  maybe  answered  that  herein  (1) 
U  giTi  an  innpr"*  of  hii  own  condeacension  and  bu- 
■Bislion,  (3)  be  hereby  proved  his  power  over  tlie 
"■Vur,  (S)  he  set  an  example  of  firmness  and  virtue 
fB  lis  Mkiwera,  and  (1)  be  here  allbrda  conaolation  to 
'<■  •Ariog  people  t^  sbowing  itot  only  that  be  hini- 
■"  vu  tempted,  but  ii  aUe  to  succor  those  who  are 
■•|i>t<l(Ueb.ii,  13;iv,  lb). 

UL  aiMarieai  Chara^er  e/dkt  Scem,—Aa  the  bap- 
Mi  af  oar  Lord  cwinat  btve  bMn  for  him  tbe  token  of 
'^Hace  and  intended  rcf-xmatiui  which  it  wa*  for 


ure  of  bis  lemptalion,  for  it  was  the  trial  of  one  who 
could  not  possibly  have  fallen.  This  makes  a  complete 
conception  of  the  temptation  impoasible  for  minds  where- 
in temptation  is  always  associated  with  the  poaubility 
of  an.  But  while  we  must  be  coaleut  with  an  incom- 
plete conception,  we  most  avoid  tbe  wrong  oonceptions 
that  are  often  substituted  for  iU  The  popular  view  of 
this  undoubted  portion  of  our  Saviour's  history  is  that 
it.  is  a  narrative  of  outward  transactions;  that  oar 
Saviour,  immediately  after  bis  baptism,  was  conducted 
by  the  Spirit  into  the  wilderness — either  the  desolate 
and  moantainoos  region  now  called  Qnarantania  by  the 
people  of  Palestine  (Kitto,  Phyi.  HiH.  p.  39,  40),  or  tbe 
great  desert  of  Arabia,  mentioned  in  Dent,  viii,  16; 
xmii,  10;  Hce.  ziii,  G;  Jer.  ii,  6,  etc — where  the  devil 
tempted  him  in  person,  appeared  to  him  in  a  visible 
(bnn,  spoke  to  him  in  an  audible  voice,  removed  bim  to 
tbe  summit  "of  an  exceeding  high  mountain," and  to 
Ibe  top  of  "a  pinnacle  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem;" 
whereas  the  view  taken  by  many  learned  commenta- 
tors, ancient  and  modem,  is  that  it  is  the  narrative  ofa 
pwioB,  which  was  designed  lo  "  supply  that  ideal  expe- 
rience of  temptalioD,  or  trial,  which  it  was  provided  in 
the  divine  counaelB  for  our  Lord  to  receive  pievionsly 
to  entering  npon  the  actual  trials  and  difficulties  of  his 
ministry"  (Bishop  Hallby,  Strnunu  [Lond.  IStlS],  ii. 


27fi). 


e  the' 


withn 


of 

the  principal  trials  attending  Christ'a  public  ministry" 
(Inqairj  inlo  Ok  Naturt  and  Daign  ofChri^'t  TtmfM^ 
litm  I^Lond.  1776,  8vo],  preface). 

On  behalf  of  the  popular  interpretation,  it  is  urged 
that  the  accounts  given  by  tbe  evangelists  convey  no 
intimation  that  they  refer  io  a  viuon ;  that  the  feding 
ofhunger  could  not  have  been  merely  ideal;  thatavia- 
ion  of  forty  days' continuance  is  incredible;  thatHoaea, 
who  was  a  type  of  Christ,  saw  no  "virions,"  and  that 
hence  it  may  be  concluded  Christ  did  not;  that  It  is 
highly  probable  there  would  be  a  peraonal  conflict  be- 
tween Christ  and  Satan  when  the  former  entered  on  his 
ministiy.  Satan  had  ruined  Ibe  flrst  Adam,  and  might 
hope  to  prevail  with  the  second  (Trollope,AnaI«la 
[  Lond.  1880],  i,  4B).  Why,  loo,  say  others,  was  our 
Lord  taken  up  into  a  mountain  to  see  a  vision?  As 
reasondily  might  Paul  have  taken  the  Corinlhians  into 

charity"  (1  Cor.  xii,  31). 

On  the  contrary  side,  it  is  rejoined  that  the  evangel- 
iata  do  really  describe  tbe  temptation  as  a  vision.  Hat< 
thew  saya,  iviyj^  lis  n^v  iptiixov  iirii  tov  nvfipaTott 
WnkiTb  wfii/ia  abriv {sjiiMH;  and  Luke, tJyirofiTy 
rvii/iaTi.  Do  these  phrases  mean  no  more  than  that 
Jesus  went  by  the  guidance  or  impulse  of  the  Spirit  to 

particular  locality?    Do  ihcy  not  rather  import  that 


Christ 


ought  in 


le  full  in 


ofthepiophetic  spirit  making  suitable  revelations 
to  his  mind?  Wilh  regard  to  the  hunger,  the  proph- 
ets are  represented  as  enperiencing  bodily  sensations  in 
their  vision*  (Ezek.  iii,3;  Rev.  x,  10).  Further  argu- 
ments, derived  from  an  unauthorized  applicaUon  of 
types,  are  precarious — that  the  first  Adam  really  had  no 
perromil  encounter  with  Satan;  that  all  the  purposes 
of  our  Lord's  temptation  might  be  answered  by  a  vis- 
ion, for,  whatever  might  be  the  modt,  the  effect  was  in- 
tended to  be  produced  upon  his  mind  and  moral  feel- 
ings, like  Peter's  vision  concerning  Cornelius,  etc.  (Acts 
X,  ll-)7);  that  commentators  least  given  to  speculate 
allow  that  the  temptation  during  the  fint  forty  day* 
was  carried  on  by  mental  suggestion  only,  and  that  the 
visible  part  of  the  temptation  began  "when  the  tempt- 
er come  to  him"  (MalLiv.S;  Lukeiv,SjScott,(Ul/oc.}; 
that  with  regard  lo  Christ's  being  "taken  up  into  an 
exceeding  high  mmmtain,"  Eiekiel  aaya  (xl,3},  "in 
the  visions  of  God  brought  be  me  into  the  land  of  Is- 


TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST       270       TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST 


rsrl,  and  set  me  upoa  i  very  high  mountain," etc;  and 
I  hat  John  ur^"be  canied  me  away  in  the  spirit  to  ■ 
greit  and  high  mnuniain.  and  ihosied  me  tbit  great 
vity,  the  holy  Jerusalem'  (Kev.  iii,  10).  But  cerlain 
dirrcl  arffumaiU  are  also  urKCd  un  the  same  side.  Thus, 
ia  it  consiitent  nith  the  sagscilT  and  policy  of  the  evil 
spirit  10  suppose  that  he  appeared  in  his  own  proper 
person  to  our  Lord  uttering  solicitations  u>  evil?  Was 
not  this  the  readiest  mode  to  fniatrate  his  own  inten- 
tioHB?  Archbishop  Seeker  says, "  certainly  be  did  not 
appear  what  be  ivas,  lor  that  nould  have  entirely  frus- 
trated his  intent"  {Sermoiu,  ii,  114).  Chandler  says, 
"  The  devil  appeared  not  as  hinuelf,  for  that  would  have 
fiuBlrated  the  effect  of  hia  temptation"  {Srrtn.  iii,  178). 
Seeker  supposes  that  "Satan  transformed  bimself  into 
an  anifel  of  light;"  but  was  it  likely  that  he  would  put 
on  this  form  in  order  to  tempt  our  Lord  lo  idolatry? 
(itlalt.  iv,  9).  Chandler  thinks  he  appeared  ai "  a  good 
manj"  but  would  it  have  served  his  purpose  to  appear 
as  a  good  man  promising  universal  dominion?  The 
supposition  that  the  devil  disguised  himself  in  aoy  form 
might  indeed  constitute  the  temptation  a  trial  of  our 
Lord's  understanding,  but  not  of  his  heart.  Beudes, 
Christ  is  repreeeiil«d  as  addressing  him  as  "  Satan"  (ver. 
10).  It  is  further  urged  that  the  literal  interpretation 
does  but  little  honor  to  the  Saviour,  whom  it  represents 
as  earned  or  conducted  "by  the  devil  at  bis  will,"  and 
therefore  as  accessory  to  his  own  temptation  and  dan- 
ger ;  nor  does  it  promote  the  consolation  of  bis  follow- 
ers, none  of  whom  could  ever  be  similarly  tempted. 
Our  Lord  indeed  submitted  to  all  the  liabilities  of  the 
human  condition  i  but  do  these  involve  the  dominion 
of  Satan  over  the  body  U>  the  extent  thus  represent- 
ed? The  literal  interpretation  abw  attributes  miracu- 
lous powers  to  the  devil,  who,  though  a  spiritual  being. 
is  represented  as  becoming  viuble  at  pleasure,  speaking 
in  an  audible  voice,  and  conveying  mankind  where  be 
pleases — miracles  not  inferior  lo  what  our  Lord's  prcser- 
vauon  would  have  been  had  he  cast  himself  headlong 
from  the  Temple.  Suppose  we  even  give  up  the  old  no- 
lion  that  "the  devil  hurried  Christ  through  the  air,  and 
carried  him  from  the  wildemew  to  the  Temple"  (Benson, 
£.i/'o/CArMf,p,35),and  say,  with  Doddridge  and  oth- 
ers, that  "the  devil  took  our  Lord  about  with  him  as 
one  pemon  takes  another  to  different  places."  yet  how 
without  a  miracle  shall  we  account  for  our  Saviour's 

indeed,  obtained  permission  of  the  authorities,  which  is 
not  recorded  fcomp.  Josephus,  A  nf.  xv,  1 1 ;  iii,  5 ;  War, 
V,  5).  The  ditSculty  is  solved  by  the  supposition  sim. 
ply  of  a  change  in  our  Lord's  perceptions.  How  can 
we  further  understand,  except  by  Che  aid  of  a  vision  or 
a  miracle,  that  the  devil  "showed  our  Lord  all  the  king- 
doms of  Ibe  worhl  and  t^  glory  of  them  in  a  moment 
of  time"  (iv  vriyiif  ^ovov),  a  phrase  referring  to  the 
mathematical  pmnt,  and  meaning  the  most  minute  and 
indivisible  portion  of  duration,  that  is,  instantaneously; 
yet  in  this  space  of  time,  accoiding  io  the  literal  inter- 
pretation,"  the  devil  showed  our  Lord  all  the  kinf^ms 
of  the  world  and  all  the  glory  of  them,"  L  e.  whatever 
relates  to  Ibeir  magnificence,  as  imperial  nibes,  crowns, 
thrones,  palaces,  courts,  ((uards,  armies,  etc  Scott  and 
Dotklridge  resort  to  the  supposition  of  an  "illusory 

WHS  conducted  by  such  means,  why  not  the  other  iwoV 
Macknight  endeavors  to  explain  "all  the  kingiinms  of 
■he  wnrld  and  the  glory  of  them"  as  relating  only  to 
the  land  of  promise  (llarmoi^  of  thr  Gotp'U  [Lond. 
18*!1,  p.  3S0,  note).  Farmer  conceives  thai  no  moun- 
tain in  I'alestine  commands  so  extensive  a  prospect. 
it  is  a  further  difficulty  attending  the  literal  interpre- 
tation that  Satan  represents  all  ihe  kingdoms  of  the 
world  and  their  glory  to  be  at  his  disposal;  an  assc 
not  denied  by  out  Lord,  who  umply  rejects  the 
It  may  readily  be  conceived  that  It  would  answi 
purposes  that  Jesus  should  item  to  have  the  proposal 
in  question  made  lo  him.    It  is  next  observed  that 


many  things  are  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  being  dene 


y  refer 


30;  Hoe. 


;  Ezek.  iii.  iv,  v.  Paul  calls  I 
"caught  up  int«  the  third  heaven  and  into  ParadiK"! 
vision  and  revelation  of  Ihe  Lord  (2  Cur.  xii,  l-i).  It 
is  plain  from  this  instance  in  the  case  of  Paul,  and  ftim 
that  of  Peter  (Acu  xii,  7-9),  who  had  already  ex|>ui- 
enced  vituons  (x,  10,  etc.),  that  neither  of  the  apiHtlei 
could  at  first  distuiguiah  visions  from  impressions  nude 
on  the  senses.  In  further  illustration  it  is  urged  Ihu 
the  prophets  are  ofien  aaid  to  be  carried  about  in  vii- 
ions  (Eiek.  viii,  1-10;  xi,  U,  25;  zxxvii,  1;  xl,  I,  il 
The  phrase  "  by  the  spirit,"  etc.,  ia  said  to  be  equivdeu 
to  "the  hand  of  liod,"  etc,  among  the  prophets  (1  King) 
xviii,  46;  3  Kings  iii,  IS;  Ezek.  i,  3).  A  comparimi 
of  the  parallel  phrases  in  the  Sept.  of  E^kiel  and  in 
the  evangelists,  in  regard  to  Christ's  temptation,  ii 
thought  to  cast  much  light  npon  the  subject;  tbc 
phrase  "the  devil  leavetb  him"  being  eqiuva' 


"  the  vi 


nih 


.Li,  24). 

Another  form  of  the  above  theory  is  that  the  pne-  i 
ence  of  tbe  tempter,  the  words  spoken,  etc.,  were  mere- 
ly conceptual,  i.  e.  mental  phenomena  or  impressioiii  | 
upon  the  Saviour,  similar  Xo  the  suggestions  ordinariJr 
experienced  by  sainls  in  temptations  of  peculiar  vivid, 
ness  or  pungency.  This  view  is  confuted  by  the  fol- 
lowing considerations;  L  Tbe  language  ("came,'''taiiL' 
"lakelh  him,"  etc)  implies,  if  not  a  physical,  certainly 
at  least  a  visional  presentation  as  distinct  as  if  aciasL 
Such  expressions  as  "The  word  of  the  Lord  caiDe." 
urged  as  parallel,  are  not  in  point ;  for  in  these  the  tub. 
jecl  presented  being  necesisarily  immaterial  of  itself,  de- 
fines the  presentslion  aa  being  merely  mental  2.  Tlie 
comparison  of  our  Saviour's  psycbologj-  in  this  use 
with  that  of  common  mortals  is  inapposite,  since  they.  , 
being  fallen,  are  always,  in  some  sense  at  least,  templed     i 

could  have  no  evil  thoughts  of  bis  own  surmiong;  noi 
could  they  arise  in  his  mind  except  as  directly  siiggea- 
ed  from  some  absolutely  extemiJ  source.  And  even 
supposing  they  could  hare  occurred  as  an  intellectaal 
proposition  to  his  mental  perception,  they  must  hart 
instantly  passed  away  without  any  of  that  vividnw 
and  pertinacity  which  Ibe  whole  narration  Implies,  dd- 
less  they  had  been  enforced  and  sustained  by  Ihe  per- 
sonal soiidtation  of  a  palpable  being  and  a  formal  cfn- 
versation.  3.  The  parallel  with  Ihe  temptaiion  of 
Adam  in  Paradise  requires  more  than  an  imaginatr 
scene.  Some,  indeed,  have  bv  a  like  process  of  iiiln- 
pietation  Uken  tbe  record  of  the  FaU  in  Eden  likewise 
nut  of  the  province  of  actual  histoty ;  and  it  is  difficvli 
l«  see  why  one  event  is  not  as  At  a  subject  fur  tbii  evi^ 


tt  [Lond.  1828].  i, 


Townsend,  dnmoiogkal  A 

92).    In  short,  there  muH 

sis  of  fact  in  the  case  of  our  Saviont  to  justify  the 

marked  character  of  the  transaction  as  recorded  by  tbe 

evangelists. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  all  these  auppositloiu  set 
aside  the  historical  testimony  of  the  gos)«ls;  ihe  temp- 
tation  as  there  described  arose  not  from  the  sinltn  mind 
of  the  Son  of  God,  where,  indeed,  thoughts  of  evil  ooidd 
not  have  harbored,  but  from  Satan,  the  enemy  of  the 
human  race.  Nor  can  it  be  supposed  that  this  account 
is  a  mere  parable,  unless  we  assume  that  Matthew  and 
Luke  hare  wholly  misunderstood  their  Master's  mean- 
ing. The  stoiy  'is  that  of  a  fact,  bard  indeed  to  be 
unclersiood,  hut  not  to  be  made  easier  hy  ex[dana- 
lioiiH  such  as  WDuM  invalidate  the  onlv  lestimony  on 
which  it  rests  (Hcuhner,  Practical  Commnlaty  oa 
MaHheir). 

IV.  I.iltra'ure.—Uce,  besides  the  works  cited  above. 
Bagot,  Ttmplulioii  i«  thi  IViUenias  (Lond.  1S40) ;  Elall. 


TEMPUS  CLAUSFM  r, 

S„vm  M  Our  LonTi  Ttmftation  (ibid.  lS45)t  DoUss, 
rtruti  Templatiim  (ibid.  l84B)i  Knimaiacher,  Chriit 
u  lb  ffiUmm  (fram  Iha  Germ.,  3d  ed.  ibid.  186!) ; 
Sniili  [T,T.],  Taaptatioi  of  Our  Saviour  (ilid.  1852) ; 
Nomi  7a<y<a(Hm  o/  Ciruf  (from  the  Freach,  iUd. 
Ijjt);  Uultod.  ToHftatim  of  Oar  Lord  (ibid.  1873) ; 
ud  it«  Jr.  TAmZ,  An.  Jnly,  1861 ;  Boil,  Rev.  Maccb, 
\^:  ika  ihe  monDgrapbs  cited  by  Wolf,  Cant  to 
>'.r.i,e$:  bj  TolbedinK,  /wIez  /VojrrainnKUum,  p.  2S  ; 
It  Hw,  t(*™  Jtm,  p.  89 ;  »nd  by  Mevcr,  ComntnlaTy 
«  Mao.  it  (EdiDb.  ed.),  i,  129. 

Tefflpiu  Clansom  (Fkriatuh,  Saceiatvm),  a 
.*mi  iMc,  ii  tbe  period  during  wbich  noisy  Teiilirities 
lie  prabiUted  in  the  Cburch  n(  Rome,  ptrticuUrly  such 
celebretion  of  ■ 


niniige.    Tbe  origin  of  ft 


plurtd  u  ■  preparation  for  the  WDTIhy 
Ituu  tmong  the  Isnelites  (Bxod.  lix,  I4  aq.;  i  stm. 
),  ind  the  custom  it  endoraed  by  Paul  in  1  Cor. 


>.  Tbem 


TEN  ARTICLES 

I,  "«  pMt;"  Vulg.ifccima),  plainly  derived 
ten,"  which  aLw  (in  the  form  ~ivis)  meaui 
le  ruA  Duinber,  perhaps  be- 


s  under 


The 


has  been  rather  hastily  conceived  as  liein(;  retained  in 
the  Greek;  thus,  liriu,  Sixofat,  "lo  receive,"  "bold,*' 
etc,  ittta, "  ten,"  becaiue  the  ten  fingers  bold  everything; 
and  in  the  Latin,  f«Ko ,-  French,  conferar;  English,  con- 
tan,  In.  Pythigaras  speaiu  of  tbe  Decade,  which  is 
the  Bum  of  all  the  preceding  numbeis  1  +  2+3+4,09 
comprehending  all  musical  at>d  adlhmelical  proportiuiis. 
For  a  view  of  his  doctrine  of  numbers  and  the  probabil- 
ity of  its  Egyptian  origin,  see  Wilkinson,  Matuitrt  and 
CuMom  of  Iht  Aneimt  Egyplitaa,  iv,  193-200.  For 
Aristotle's  lumilsr  ideas  of  the  number  ten,  see  Probt.  \\i, 
16.  This  number  seems  significant  of  compleleiieas  or 
abundance  in  many  poMajfes  of  Scripture.  Jacob  said 
unto  Ijiban,  "Thou  host  changed  mv  wages  these  ten 
limes"  (Gen.  xxKi,  41);  "Am  not  1  letter  lo  ihee  than 
ten  Mns?"  (1  Sam.  i,  H) ;  "  These  ten  limes  hare  ye  le- 
pToached  me"  (Job  six,  3) ;  "  Thy  pound  hath  gained 
ten  pounds"  (Luke  nix,  IS),  etc  'This  number,  as  the 
end  of  less  numbers  and  beginning  of  greater,  and  aa 
thus  aigniryinii  perfection,  sufficiency,  etc,  may  have 
been  selected  for  its  suitablenras  to  Chose  euchaiislie 
donations  W  religion,  etc.,  which  mankind  were  required 
lo  make,  probably,  in  primeval  rimes.  Abraham  gave 
:o  Melchizedec. "  priest  of  tbe  Host  High  God,"  s  tenth 
of  all  the  spoils  be  had  taken  from  Chedoilaomer  (Uen. 
xiv,20i  Heb.vii,4).  The  incidental  way  in  which  this 
fact  is  staled  seems  to  indicate  an  ratabliibed  custom. 
Why  should  Abraham  give  tithes  of  the  spoils  of  war 
if  other  things?  For  instances  of  the  heathen 
g  to  thnr  gods  the  tenth  of  warlike  spoils,  see 
WettBtein,Oitfet^n>,4.  Jacob's  vow  (Uen.  xxviii,  22) 
iply  to  relate  to  compliance  with  an  establish- 
ed custom;  his  words  are,  literally,  "And  all  that  thou 
■halt  give  me  1  will  assuredly  tithe  it  unto  thee,"  *I1D7 
-^  M'i'asyi.  On  the  practice  of  the  heathen,  in  vari- 
and  distant  countries,  lo  dedicate  tithes  to  their 
'cd  careful   6"^  >^  Spelman,  On  TMei,  cb.  zxvi ;  Selden,  cl 


,   t  date  back  to  the  middle  of  the  4th  a 
<t  1,  Ome.  Lao^eai.  c  &1,  (>3).    The  civil  authoriries   t 
i-nbiiKd  Ibe  prohibitions  imposed  by  the  Church  (e.  g. 
'''>iAgf(ru(,c^ll,  iii,  12of  Leo,and.\nthGmiu!  ' 
1*1  tlmapon  the  Taapiu  Ciaatam  was  generally  made    I 
u  ipply  to  the  Lenten  period,  and  its  exteiision  over  i  < 
iht  Adieni  snd  other  festal  periods  recnin mended.    No    : 
^mnal  sod  indexible  rule  for  the  dia  obtrrvtib^*  e^ 
ixrd  daring  the  Middle  Ages,  and  none  has  since  bet 
nubliibfd.    The  usual  time  is  containe<l  between  the  1 1 
tt<i  ^^andiv  in  Advent  and  the  octave  of  Efnphanv, ' 
Vptns^ima  and  Elaster,  Rogation  and  Trinity  Sun-  ' 
^tL  Quiet  weddings,  OS  they  are  termed,  are  permit-  ,  i 
W  10  he  cflebrated  during  Chose  periods,  but  never . , 

Tht  Irmput  dounm  was  adopted  by  the  FrotesCaDt    , 
(loitba  of  (iermanv  (see  (loschen,  Doclr.  de  Matt . 
K  u  Qrd^uK.  £cd:  Kviny.  etc  [Halis,  1848, 4io],  p.  1  "' 
K  39;  in.  133-140),  and  the  subject  received  careful    6- 

acMdasiion  so  late  as  1867  in  the  conference  of  F.ise-j  Lesley, iMme  A^  a/TMa,^  7;  Wettatein,  CM  Zfei. 
ukIi  (Ke  Moser,  .4f^sni.  KirchnAI.  f.  i.  temigd.  \  tU,  2.  The  Mosaic  law,  therefore,  in  this  respect,  as 
iMuicU,  1S&7,  p.  32S  sq.,  M3;  I85H,  p.  197  sq.).  The  weU  as  in  others,  was  umply  a  reconstitulion  of  the 
Tmfti  Cbomm  Qitadragaima  in  such  churches  com-  patriarchal  religion.  Thus  the  tenth  of  miliuiy  spoils 
Bniy  sxunda  over  the  period  between  Asb-Wednes-  I  is  commanded  (Numb.  xx]ii,Sl).  For  the  law  concern- 
4fT  sod  Easter-Sandmy,  though  it  includes  only  tbe  ing  lilhes  generally,  see  Lev.  xxvii,  30,  ew^  where  they 
fitm  week  in  some  regions,  and  in  others  is  not  lec-  are  Snt  spoken  of  as  things  already  known.  These 
•puHdatalL  Its  obeervance  also  varies  greatly.  Pub-  tithes  consisted  of  a  tenth  of  all  that  remained  alter 
Iciaaements  are  prohibited,  and  marriages  are  some-  payment  of  the  flrst-fruiCs  of  seeds  and  fruits,  and  of 
t^  wiMlly  forbidden  or  are  compelled  to  be  quietly  calves,  lambs,  and  kids.  This  was  called  the  flnt  tithe, 
<i^tnttd.  Where  such  legal  prohitMCions  are  in  force,  and  belonged  to  God  as  the  sovereign.  See  TrruK. 
>  from  their  operation  may  usually  bi 


V>.  fh  S/form.  Matrimoit. ,-  Bfihmer,  Jta  Bedta. 
Iitiu.iit.ilvi,§45;  lib.  Iv,  tiLxri,S2sq.;  Kliefoth, 
iinrjitdtt  Ahkaitdbngin,  i,  &5  sq.— Hem«,  RtaUEt 


TemmatL 

See  Cabala;  Talhud. 

I«n  p3?, 

»•  HA  plur 

O'liOS,  nrim,  means  "twenty;" 
is  thMKht  by  Furst  and  Huhlau  lo 

<T  luapii^,  but  GeseniDS  regards  it  as  primitive) 
ubtr  »h<ch  liea  at  tbe  baua  of  modem  numera 

bris^  its  natural  ongin  in  the  twice  Ave  fingers  used 
^  (^mating,  and  larf^ly  employed  as  such  even  by 
"•  Hebiewa,  notwithstanding  their  pecnliar  regard  foi 


'sUw  civil  and  eccleaintical  Dsages  of  tbe  Israelites 
I  k  naoMrica]  idea  cvpedaUy  appears  in  Iheir  word  for 
'«b(-  (ytSI^,  Lev.  xxvii,  30,31, 82,  etc. ;  Sepl.  ilia- 


itled  "  Articles  devised  by  the  king's  highnei 
esty  to  st^>lish  Christian  quietnesa  and  unity  among 
us."  Theae  were  probably  compiled  by  Cranroer,  though 
ostensibly  emanating  from  the  crown.  Five  of  tbe  ar- 
ticles related  to  doctrines  and  five  to  ceremonies.  The 
former  were :  1.  That  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  three 
Creeds  are  the  basis  and  summary  of  a  true  Christian 
faith.  2.  That  baptism  conveys  reminion  of  ring  and 
the  regenenting  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  is  abso- 
as  well  for  children  as  adults.   3.  That 


tiou,  and  is  necessary  to  salvation.  4.  That  tbe  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  in  the  ele- 
ments of  the  euchorist.  G.  That  justification  is  remis- 
sion of  sin  and  reconciliation  to  God  by  the  merits  of 
Christ;  but  good  works  are  necessary.  The  latter 
were :  1.  That  images  are  useful  as  remembranceni,  but 
are  not  objects  of  worship.  %  That  sainia  ore  to  be 
honored  as  examples  of  life,  and  is  furthering  uur 
praveis.  3.  That  sainia  mav  be  invoked  as  inleii^eHiuir^ 
and' Iheir  holvda^s  observed.     4.  That  cerem«nieB  are 


TEN  COMMANDilEXTri         2 

to  be  nbKTVcd  for  the  uke  of  Ihfir  loyMicjl  signifle*- 
iloD,  and  u  conducive  U>  deToiion.  b.  That  pnyen 
fur  the  drad  are  good  aiid  uMful,  but  Ihc  eflcacy  of 
papal  piTdun,  and  of  ■oul-maHei  offered  at  eertaiii  local- 
iiiea,  is  negatived.  Upon  iheie  articles  was  Tounded 
ihe  work  entitled  liuliiuiiau  of  a  Ckriniaa  Maa  (q.  v.), 
cummonly  known  u  "The  Buhop's  Book" (q.T.),    Sec 


Ten  Commandmenta,  Tub,  the  commoD  de«g- 
nition  of  the  i)eaiAi^t,  or  that  portion  of  the  lavr  ofHo- 
MS  nhich  contains  the  moral  law.    See  Law  of  Hoses. 

I.  Title.— The  popular  name  in  this,  at  in  w  m«ny 
instjuice*,  is  not  that  of  Scripture.  There  we  hare 
the  "•en  words"  (D^^2^n  ri«5,  atirelA  HadMo' 
rim.  Ike  dtcade  of  Ihe  vanit ;  tiept.  ri  iita  pqifora  ; 
Vulg.  veria  decent),  TWt  tbe  ten  oommandroenta  (Exod. 
iixiv,!8;  Deu^iv,  IB;  ii,4,  Heb.).  Tbe  difference  is 
not  altagether  an  anmeuiing  one.  Tbe  word  o(  God, 
the  "  word  of  the  Lord,"  the  jconaUnily  iBCuiring  lenn 
for  the  fuUeal  revelation,  wai  higher  than  my  phrase 
expressing  merely  a  CDOuaand,  and  carried  with  it  mote 
the  idea  of  a  self  •fulfilling  power.  If,  on  the  one  side, 
there  was  (he  special  contraH  to  which  our  Lord  refers 
between  the  commandmenls  of  God  and  the  traditions 
of  men  (HBtI.xv,3),  the  atmgance  of  the  rabbin*  ahowtd 
itself,  on  the  other,  in  placing  Ihe  wordi  of  the  ecribea 
on  the  lune  level  u  the  wordi  of  Hoi.  See  S<:kibe. 
Nowhen  in  the  later  hooka  of  the  Old  Test,  is  anv  direct 
reference  made  to  their  number.  The  treatise  of  Pbilo, 
however,  wipi  Tuv  i'aa  Xoyiuv,  shows  that  it  had  fiied 
itself  on  tbe  Jewish  mind,  and,  later  still,  it  gave  occa- 
sion to  the  fonnalion  of  a  new  word  (the  "  Decalogue," 
If  hiiakayai,  first  in  Clem.  AL  Pad.  iii,  12),  which  hu 
perpetuated  it«elf  in  modem  laiieuagee.    Other  nanies 


Thes< 


unchanging  groui 
n  between  Jehovah  and  bis  people,  all  else 
Biipersiructure,  accessory  and  subordinate 
tiv,  IB).    They  are  aim  the  tables  of  (esli- 

n  of  the  divine  will,  righteous  itaelf,  demanding 

i,  18,  etc.).     k  is 

\  of  their  pretence  in  it  that  the  ark  becomes, 

n,  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (Numb,  x,  83.  etc.), 

tacred  tent  became  the  tab<eniacle  of  witoese, 

SeeTABEMMA- 

They  remain  there,  throughout  [he  glory  of  the 
kingdom,  the  primeval  relicaof  a  hoar  anlitguily  (I  Kings 


),  (heir  i 


It  the  ( 


and  the  i 


a  then 


le  great  tepfescnL 


ot  wealthy 
Ewald  is  disposed  u>  think  that  even  in  (he  furrei  in 

ditioue  made  at  a  laiet  [leriod,  and  that  the  second  and 
the  fourth  commandment  were  originally  as  hricfty 
imperative  as  the  sixth  or  seventh  (dfKh.  Itr.  ii,  206). 
The  difference  between  the  reason  given  in  Exod.  xx, 
11  for  the  fourth  commandment  and  that  statcil  (o  have 
been  given  in  Deu(.  v,  16  makes,  perhaps,  sucli  a  con- 
jecture possible.    Scholia,  which  moilem  aiinotators  put 

Test.,  incotpora(ed  in(i>  the  tcxL  Obviously  both  forms 
could  not  have  appeared  written  on  the  two  tables  of 
stone,  yet  Deut.  v,  16, 31  not  only  states  a  different  rea- 

Kai^Conment-ou  ^j^Tx)  teems  on  this  point  disposed 
to  agree  with  Ewald. 

IL  Double  Remrd—Tbe  Decalogue  it  found  in  (wo 
psBsages,  Gist  in  Exod.  xx,  2-17,  again  in  Deut.  v,  6- 
Sl :  and  there  are  certain  differences  between  the  two 


form 


*  for  tl 


anlage< 


purpvist 


TEN  COMMANDJIEXTS 


paraging  the  historical  correctness  of  either  form,  and 
Bumetimes  aa  a  conclusive  argument  against  the  doc- 
trine of  iii^iradon.  The  diiTerenca  are  of  three  kinds ; 
(1.)  Simply  reriial,  oonaiiting  in  the  insertion  or  omis- 
eion  of  the  Hebrew  letter  "l,  which  signines  and:  in 
Exod.  it  is  only  omitted  onoe  where  it  is  found  in 
Deut.,  namely,  between  graeai  image  and  my  iiiavji, 
in  (be  second  commandment;  but  in  Deut.it  occun 
altogether  nx  times  where  it  is  waning  in  Exod.;  and 
of  lJieae,/oiir  are  at  the  eomnKDcement  of  tbe  last  fmir 
commandmenia,  whj^  are  tevarally  introduced  with  ta 
and.  Joining  them  to  what  precedes,  (i.)  Dillerenrei 
in  form,  while  still  (he  tente  remains  essentially  (he 
same:  under  tbe  fourth  commandment,  it  it  in  EioL. 
"  nor  thy  ctttie,"  while  in  Deut.  it  i*  "  nor  thine  ox. 
nor  thine  ass,  nor  any  of  thy  cattle" — a  mere  amplifies^ 
(ion  of  Ihe  former  by  one  or  two  leading  panicularr:. 

"  thy  neighbor's  bouse"  comes  first,  while  in  Deut.  ii  is 
"(by  neighbor's  wife;"  and  here  also  after  "thy  nuch- 
bor's  bouse,"  is  added  "  his  field"— another  slight  ampli- 
fication. (8.)  DiOerenoes  in  re^>ect  lo  matter :  these  sre 
all<«elher  four.  The  fourth  commandment  w  tnun- 
daced  in  Exod.  with  remember,  in  Deut.  with  kep;  the 
reason  also  assigned  for  its  observance  in  Exod.  is  de- 
rived tem  Uod's  original  act  snd  procedure  at  creaiioo, 
while  in  Deut.  [bit  is  omitted,  and  the  deliverance  sf 

Dent,  the  filth  commandment  runs, "  Honor  thy  father 
and  thy  mother,  ai  Uie  Lord  (Ay  God  commaKded  ihe:' 
the  lattar  words  having  no  )dace  in  Exod. ;  and  in  (he 
tenth  commandment,  instead  of  "Thou  shall  not  cerri 
thy  neighbor's  wife,"  it  stands  in  Deut.  "Thou  ihali 
not  denrt  thy  neighbor's  wife" — differing  onlv,  bow- 

upon  the  improper  desire  to  possess,  and  tbe  other  upon: 
the  improper  desire  itselt 

It  is  obvious  thst  tht«e  differences  leave  tht  mun 
body  or  substance  of  the  Decalogue,  as  a  revelatiwi  of 
law,  entirely  unlooched;  not  cue  of  them  affects  thf 
import  and  bearing  of  a  single  precept ;  nor,  if  viewol 
in  their  historical  relation,  can  they  be  icgarded  u  in- 
volving in  any  doubt  or  uncertainty  the  verbal  anuncy 
of  the  form  presented  in  Exod.  We  have  no  reason  o 
doubt  that  the  words  there  recorded  are  precisely  those 
which  were  uttered  from  Sinai,  and  written  upon  the 
t^les  of  stone.  In  Deut  Mosea  gives  a  revised  acconst 
of  Ihe  transactionfc  uiing  Ihroughout  certain  fteedoBt. 


:  and,  while  be  repeats  tbe  na- 
which  the  Lord  had  spoken  fmia 
the  midst  of  the  fire  and  wriUen  on  tables  of  slsat 
(DeuU  V,  M>,  be  yet  shows  in  his  very  mode  of  dohi; 
it  Ihat  he  did  not  aim  at  an  exact  reproduction  of  (b* 
past,  but  wished  to  preserve  (o  tome  extent  tbe  fDmi  of 
a  free  rehearssL     This  especislly  appears  in  the  addi- 

commanded  thee,"  which  distinctly  pointed  back  to  a 
prior  original,  and  even  recognised"  that  as  the  penas- 
nenily  existing  form.  The  introducing  also  of  s»  sisiiy 
of  the  U(er  commands  with  the  copulative  and  (eadt 
(«  the  same  result;  aa  it  is  precisely  what  would  be 
natural  in  B  rehearsal,  (hough  not  in  the  original  an- 
nouncemenu,  and  came  ftom  combining  with  the  legin- 
Istive  something  of  the  nanative  style.  Such  beisi 
plainly  tbe  character  of  (hit  later  edition,  its  other  anil 
more  noticeable  deviations  —  the  oocasjonal  amputa- 
tions admitted  into  it,  the  subttitotion  of  duire  for  wr- 
el,  with  respect  to  a  neighbor's  wife,  in  tbe  tenth  con- 
msnd ;  and  of  the  deliverance  of  Israel  tram  Efyjit,  for 
tbe  divine  order  of  procedure  at  the  creation,  in  Ot 
fourth— must  be  regarded  as  slightly  varied  and  ei- 
planahny  statements,  which  it  was  perfectly  compeleiil 
for  the  authorized  mediator  of  the  covenant  lo  intn>> 
duce,Bnd  which,  in  nature  and  design,  do  not  msterisIlT 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS         21 

nitcn  of  tbt  New  Teal,  oa  tba  puuffM  tbcj-  quote 
tna  the  Old  (mm  Fairbiini,  Htman.  Mtnaat,  p.  354 
*).).  They  we  not  without  use  in  an  exegetiiil  re- 
>p«f  J  Mni  hi  tb«  prewnt  me  have  tiao  a  diatinct 
hittnkal  ralue.  from  the  importint  eTtdence  they 
lidd  hi  &TM  of  cbe  Honic  sutborabip  of  Oenu ;  ■ince 
t  any  Uur  lathor,  flctitioualy 
[  UoaH,  would  hare  Tentarrd  on  making 
o  what  had  been  ao  expnaaly  ascribed 
by  Hoaa  to  God  bioueir,  and  which  Memed  to  beu 

ibbiliiy  (HiiTemick.  iMrodaeUm  lo  Ike  Pa^Utuci, 


L  Sdiwtc.  — The  cirH 
rmi  mrdi  were  fi: 


e  people  luTToanded 
iiMa  with  ao  awe  which  attached  lo  no  other  precept. 
[•I  Ibc  midM  of  the  cloud,  and  Che  darkneia,  aud  the 
uihiDg  lightning,  and  the  Beiy  unoke,  and  the  thun- 
<W,  like  the  Toice  of  ■  iniinpet,  Home  wai  called  to  re- 
«iv<  the  law  without  which  the  people  would  ceaae  to 
be  a  holy  nation.  Hen,  ae  elwwhere,  Scripture  uniteg 
on  beta  which  men  Kparale.  God.  and  not  man,  wai 
■IKaking  lo  tbe  leraelitee  ia  thoae  terron,  and  yet  in  the 
Uogaage  of  later  impired  teacben,  other  inHCrumental- 
ity  wBi  DDt  excluded.  Bnxtorf,  it  ia  true,  aseerta  that 
Jewiah  inlerpretflin,  with  hardly  an  exception,  maintain 
that  ■'Deui  verb*  I>ecalogi  per  ae  immediate  locutus 
at"  (Din.  Jt  Dteal.).  The  language  of  Joeepboa, 
howertr  (Aat.  st,  b,  S),  not  lew  than  that  of  tbe  Mew 
T<M,>bnw*  that  atone  tioie  the  tradition*  of  the  Jew- 
iih  Kbcola  pcnnted  to  the  opponu  roncluaioo.  The  law 
■at "  ordained  by  angela"  (GaL  iii,  9},  "  spobeA  by  an- 
gila'  (lleb.  ii,  1),  recdred  aa  the  ordinance  of  angels 
(AcUTii,fi)i).  Theagencyortboae  whom  tbe  thougbti 
of  the  PialmiK  connected  with  the  winds  and  the  dam- 
ingdre  (Ph.  civ,  4 1  Heb.i,  7}waa  present  aln  on  Sinai. 
Tha  pact  of  Uoaca  himself  wan,  as  the  language  of 
Paal  (GaL  iii,  19)  afflrma,  that  of  "■  mediator."  He 
itaod  "  between"  the  people  and  the  Lord  "  to  abow 
ibem  the  wnd  of  tbe  Lord"  (Deut.  r,  5),  while  they 
■eod  atiu  off  to  give  form 
■Olid  ebe  hare  been  terrible  and  dt( 
'ttia  of  the  Lonl"  which  they  beard  in  the  thunder- 
iaga  and  tbe  aound  of  the  trumpet,  "  full  of  majesty," 
■dJTiding  the  flames  of  fire"  (Pbl  xxii,  3-9},  was  fo 
tdsi  a  dirine  eoni,  the  lestimonyof  an  eleinal  wiU,jiu 
u  b  tbe  parallel  inatanrc  of  John  xii,  29,  a  like  teitl 
BDDy  led  some  to  ny  "it  thundered,"  while  others  re 
aired  thewitoeaa.  No  other  words  were  proclaimed  i 
like  manner.  The  people  ahraak  even  frinn  this  neai 
not  u  the  awful  presence,  even  from  tbe  very  echoes 
nt  ibr  divine  voice.  The  record  wsi  a>  exceptional 
M  tbe  original  levelation.     Of  no  other  words  could  it 

(Ognved  on  tbe  tables  of  stone,  not  as  originating  in 
uaa'i  contrivance  or  sagacity,  but  by  the  power  of  the 
Et«nal  Spirit,  by  tbe  "finger  of  God"  (Exod.  xxxi,  l«; 
inii,  181.     See  Bath-Koi. 

IT.  TH*  luaibrr  (en  wa^  we  can  hardly  doubt,  itaelf 
■gn6caDt  U>  Hoae*  and  the  Israelites.  The  received 
vnabol.  then  and  at  all  limea,  of  completeneaa  (Bttbr, 
^^iwkU,  i,  I7&-183>,  it  Uught  the  people  that  the  law 
«l  Jtbnvah  was  perliwt  (Psa.  lii,  T).  The  fact  thai 
ihay  were  written  not  on  one.  but  on  two  tables,  proba- 
Ut  io  two  group*  of  Ave  each  (infra),  taught  men 

iMtr  eihio)  the  gnat  diviunn  of  dntiea  towards  God 
sad  da  ties  towards  our  neighbor,  which  we  recognise  as 
■hegnnndwork  of  every  true  moral  system.  It 
ibra  also,  Ave  being  tbe  symbul  of  imperfection  (Biihr, 
I.  IBl-IHT),  how  incomplete  each  set  of  duties  i 
■ben  divorced  from  its  companion.  The  recui 
ihtae  Bumbei*  in  the  PenUteucb  ia  at  once  frequent  and 
■riking.  Ewald  (ffeKA./>r.ii,  il3-2t7)  has  shown  t 
I  large  indoctioa  how  conLinoally  laws  and  precep 
MM  oa  in  gnnpa  of  Bve  or  ten.  Tbe  nnmben^  it  w 
■    n  thebasliofsllihepr 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS 

is  of  the  tabemicle  (q.r.)  and  temple.    It  vouliT 
show  an  ignorance  of  all  modes  of  Hebrew  thought  to- 
thia  symbolic  aspect.     We  need  not,  however,. 
altiigeiher  that  which  some  write™  (e.  g.  Gro- 
tiua,  Dt  DkuL  p.  36)  have  substituted  for  it,  tbe  connec- 
tion of  the  ten  words  with  a  clecimal  Bysleoi  of  numera- 
tion through  the  ten  flngers  on  which  a  man  counlii.. 
Worda  which  were  to  be  the  rule  of  life  for  the  poor  as 
learned,  the  groundwork  of  edncation  for  all 
children,  might  well  be  connected  with  the  Mmpleai 
facta  and  processes  in  man's  mental  growth,  and  ihu> 
stamped  more  indelibly  on  the  memory.      EMhr,  ab- 
sorbed in  symbolism,  has  nothing  for  this  natnni  aug> 
a  but  two  note*  of  admiration  (! !).     The  analogy 
great  eoramandraents  in  the  moral  law  of  Biul- 
might  have  shown  him  how  naturally  men  crave 
iber  that  thus  belpa  them.     A  true  system  was 
as  little  likelv  lo  ignore  the  natural  craving  aa  a  lab« 
(see  note  in  Ewald,  Gfch.  Itr.  ii,  107).     See  Tui. 
V.  TMa.^lTi  what  way  the  ten  commandmenU 
!n  to  be  divided  has,  however,  been  a  matter  of  mucb 
niroversy.     At  lea>t  [uur  distinct  arrangementa  pre- 
nt  themselves. 

1.  In  the  received  teaching  of  the  Latin  Church  rest- 
ing on  that  of  Augustine  (Qu.  in  £i-.  71;  Hp.adJ/aiiiar.. 

'I;  De  DrcaL  etc),  the  first  table  contained  three- 
imandmenta,  the  second  the  other  seven.  Partly  on. 
myalical  grounda,  because  the  tables  Ibus  symboliied 
the  trinity  of  divine  persons  and  the  eternal  Sabbath,, 
partly  aa  seeing  in  it  a  true  ethical  diviaion,  he  adopted 
this  daseiScatioD.  It  involved,  however,  and  in  pare 
,  an  alterarion  in  the  received  arrange- 
What  we  know  as  the  Hrst  and  second  wpre 
sequently  the  Sabbath  law  appeared  at 
thecloeeofthefirat  table  aa  the  third,  not  as  tbe  foorth.. 
commandmeii).  The  compleceneie  of  the  number  was 
ttored  in  the  aecond  table  by  making  a  separate  (the- 
Dth)  command  of  the  precept,  "Thou  abalt  not  covet 
thy  neighbor's  wife,"  which  with  ua  forma  pan  of  the* 
tenth.  It  is  an  almoat  fatal  objection  to  tbis  order  tbal 
in  the  Hrst  Ubie  it  oonfounds,  where  it  ought  to  dis- 
tinguish, the  two  sins  of  polytheism  and  idolstry;  ami 
that  in  the  second  it  introduces  an  arbitrary  and  mean- 
ingless distinction.  The  later  theology  of  the  Church^ 
of  Kome  apparently  adopted  it  aa  seeming  to  prohibit 
image-worahip  only  so  far  aa  it  accompanied  tbe  ac- 
knowledgment of  another  God  (C'ufrrA.rriiiait.  iii,  12. 20). 

2.  The  familiar  division- referring  the  first  four  to- 
our  duty  towarda  God,  and  the  aix  remaining  to  our 
duty  tovraids  man— is,  on  ethical  grounds,  simple  and 
natural  enough.  If  it  ia  not  altogether  satisfying,  it  is 
because  it  fails  to  recogniae  the  symmetry  vtbich  givea- 
to  the  number  Bve  so  great  a  prominence;  and  perhapSr 
also,  because  it  looks  on  tbe  duty  of  the  fifth  command- 
ment from  the  pdnt  of  view  of  modem  ethics  rather 
than  from  that  of  the  ancient  Israelites  and  the  first 
disciples  of  Christ  {jrfia). 

3.  A  moditicaUon  uf  I  hiu  been  adopted  by  later  Jew- 
iah  writers  (Jonathan  ben-Uzziel,  Aben-Eara,  Moses  ben- 
Nacbman,  in  Suicer,  T'Auaar.a.v.  AKaAoyoc).  Retain- 
ing the  combination  of  the  first  and  second  command- 
ruenta  of  the  common  order,  they  have  made  a  new 
"  ward"  of  the  opening  declaration, "  1  am  the  Lord  thy 
God  which  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  out 
of  the  house  of  bondage,"  and  so  have  avoided  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  subdivision  of  the  tenth.     The  objection 

Ihority,  and  {i)  that  ii  turns  into  a  single  precept  what 
is  evidently  given  aa  thegmundwetk  of  the  whole  body 

4.  Rejecting  these  three,  there  remains  that  recog- 
nised by  the  older  Jewish  writen— Joaephus  {AhI.  iii, 
6,  6)  and  Pbilu  (De  Dmil.  i),  and  supported  ablv  aiid 
thoughtfully  by  EwaW  (dock.  Itr.  ii,  208),  which  places 
Hve  commaodmenla  in  each  table,  and  thus  preserves 
the  pnlad  and  drcaJ  greup'mg  which  pervades  the 
whole  code.    A  modem  jurist  would  perhaps  object  that 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS  2: 

thb  places  the  fillh  commuidmeDt  in  >  wrong  poMlion ; 
tbM  ■  duty  to  ptrenu  is  ■  duty  Ww»rd»  our  neighbor. 
From  the  Jewiah  point  of  view,  it  is  believed,  the  plsie 
(hiiB  given  to  thic  cMiniiiiniliiieiic  wss  esseiiLially  the 
light  one.  InaKad  of  duties  Uiwirde  God,  and  dutiea 
tow«rd«  our  neighbors,  we  must  think  of  the  Ural  ubie 
■9  cniitaining  all  llinl  belonged  to  the  Eufli/JEia  of  the 
tlreeka,  lo  the  Pino*  of  the  Romius — duties,  i.  e.,  with 
no  corresponding  rights;  while  the  second  deals  with 
duties  which  involve  rights,  and  come,  therefore,  under 
the  bead  at  Jaititia.  The  duly  of  honoring,  i.  e.  sup- 
porting, parenU  came  under  the  fomier  head.  As  soon 
■9  the  sen  was  capable  of  it,  and  the  parents  required  it, 
it  was  an  absolute,  unconditional  duty.  His  right  to 
■uy  maintenance  from  Cbem  hid  ceased.  He  owed 
them  rerercnee  as  he  owed  it  to  bis  Father  in  heaven 
<Helj.  xii,  9),  He  was  lo  show  piety  (Aet^ar)  to 
■hem  (1  Tim.  v,  4).  What  made  the  "  Corban"  casu- 
istry  of  the  Scribes  so  specially  evil  was  that  it  was, 
in  this  way,  a  sin  sgunst  the  piety  of  the  first  table, 
not  merely  against  the  lower  obligations  of  the  sec- 
ond (Hark  vii,  11).  It  at  lease  harmonizes  with 
this  division  that  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  Hllh 

having  special  unctions  attaching  to  them,  while 
the  others  thar  follow  are  left  in  their  sioiplidty 
by  themselves,  as  if  the  parity  of  tigbis  were  in  itself 
a  sufficient  (ground  for  obedience.     A  further  conflrma- 

Paul,  summing  up  the  duties  "  briefly  comprehended" 
in  the  one  great  law, "  Tbou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as 
th}'Kir,"  enumerates  the  last  live  commandmenta,  but 
makes  no  mention  of  the  fifth. 

VI.  Addition.— to  these  ten  commsndmenlJi  we  God 
in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  an  eleventh  added: 
the  Lard  tbv  Ood  •] 
ircinsnu,  wbUhertl 

Iver? sfEe" thoo^shult  hnvt 


Inn 


ought  tbee 


IS  words  or  this  Isw. 
used  over  Jordan,  thou 
coinmniid  thee  tbia  ds- 
mit  build  there  snsltHt 


ipthow 


d  tboo 


ie  Lord  Ihy  Qod, 
iitoiiea :  inun  snnit  not  tin  up  any  Lrou  theretiu.  Of  un- 
hewn atones  Bhnlt  thnn  build  thut  nlliir  to  the  Lord  Iby 
Ood.  Slid  tbnu  shale  otei  on  It  hnrut-olTerLiiga  to  the  Lord 
thy  God,  «nd  thon  shall  sacrlUce  peace-olfcrlnEB,  and  shall 
-ei.t  ihem  ihere:  nud  ihoa  xhalt  rejoice  before  tbe  Lor-* 
Ihy  Ood  In  Ibst  mouplnln  beyond  Jordnn,  by  tbe  wi 


lleih  lu  ibe  pi 


I"  (Wall 


•LPety- 


In  the  absence  of  any  direct  evidence,  we  can  o 
as  to  the  history  of  this  remarkable  addi- 
tion.    (1.)  It  will  be  seen  that  the  whole 
passage  is  made  up  of  two  which  are  found 
in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Deut.  xxvii,  2-7  and    j 
jti,  30,  with  tbe  aubatitulion,  in  the  former,    j 
ir  EbaL    (2.)  In  tbe  al 


4  TEN  COMMANDMENTS 

perhaps  admit  the  plea  which  Walton  makei  in  in  be- 
half (Joe  nil.')  that,  in  the  first  formation  of  tbe  Peau- 
teuch  as  a  Codex,  the  transcrilierB  had  a  large  munbfr 
of  separate  documents  lo  copy,  and  that  cuotequenllr 
much  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  individual  scribe. 
Here,  however,  that  excuse  is  hardly  admissble.  Tb. 
interpolation  has  every  maiit  of  being  a  bold  autmpl 
to  claim  for  the  schismsiic  worship  on  Gerizim  the  scJ- 
emD  sanction  of  the  voice  on  Sinai,  lo  place  il  on  ibi 
same  fooling  as  tbe  len  great  words  of  God.  Tbe  guilt 
of  the  interpolation  belonged,  of  course,  only  lo  the  fait 
contrivers  of  it.    The  later  Samarilans  might  easily 

the  Jews  as  corrupted  by  a  fraudulent  omission.  It  ii 
lo  the  credit  of  Ihe  Jewish  scribes  that  they  were  DN 
templed  to  retaliate,  and  that  their  reverence  for  the  ■- 
cred  records  prevented  them  from  suppressiug  the  liii- 
tory  which  connected  the  rival  aanctnary  with  the  ttas- 
ingsof  Geriiim.    See  Suiaritas  I'laiTaTKDCii, 

menta  in  the  Taigum  of  Jonathan  ben-Usiel  is  nw 
without  interest-  There,  as  noticed  above,  tbe  fint  ml 
second  commandmerts  are  united  to  make  up  Ibe  sec- 
ond, and  the  words  "  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God,"  etc,  an 
the  first.     More  remarkable  is  the  addition  at 


11  for 


elaal 


Thou  Shalt  commit  no  mni^ 
der,  for  because  of  the  ainsof  murdet«n  the  sword  gneth 
forth  upon  the  world."  So,  in  like  manneiand  with  tbe 
same  formula,  "death  gnetb  forth  upon  the  wothj"  as 
the  punishment  of  adultery;  famine  ai  that  of  iJieli; 
drooghtas  that  of  false  witness;  invauon,  plunder, 
captivity,  as  those  of  covetousneaa  (Walton,  BOL  Pt^ 
glolt.).     See  Tahol'h. 

yin.  raJfltud—Tbe  absence  of  any  distinct  releroKt 
to  the  ten  commandmenu  as  such  in  tbe  Firix  Aiafk 
(  =  Maxims  of  the  Fathers)  is  both  stiange  andognill- 
cant.  One  chapter  (ch.  v)  is  expressly  given  lo  oa 
enumeration  of  all  the  scriptuiol  tacts  which  may  bt 
grouped  in  decades— the  ten  words  of  Creation,  the  tn 
genera^ons  from  Adam  to  Noah  and  from  Noah  to  Ahia- 
ham.  the  ten  trials  of  Abraham,  the  ten  plagues  of  Egypt, 
and  the  like;  but  the  ten  divine  words  find  no  place  in 
the  list.  With  all  their  ostentation  of  profoond  levtf- 
ence  for  the  law,  the  leaching  of  the  rablnns  turned  oa 
other  points  than  tbe  great  laws  of  duty.  Id  this  way, 
as  in  others,  they  made  void  the  commandments  of  <^id 
that  they  might  keep  their  own  traditions.  Gimp. 
Stanley,  Jttrii/i  6'Aiirci,  lecl-  vii,  in  tUitUration  »f  maiLv 
of  the  points  here  noticed.    See  Talmi'I). 

IX.  Emmamiad  /rnporfono^— Tlie  giving  of  the  irn 


1,  Ebal   ' 


must,  so  far  aa 

be  looked  uponas  the  true  reading;  (Jeriiim 
as  a  falsification,  casual  or  delibrrale,  of  the 
text.  (3.)  Probably  the  choice  of  Geriiim  aa  the  site  of 
the  Samaritan  temple  was  determined  by  the  fact  that 
it  had  been  the  Mount  of  BlesAings,  Ebal  thatofCurses. 
Possibly,  Bs  Walton  suggests  (Prvleg.  t.  xi\  the  difficul- 
ty of  understanding  how  the  latter  should  have  been 
chosen  instead  of  the  former  aa  a  place  for  sacrifice  and 
ulTeriiig  may  have  ted  them  to  look  on  the  reading  Ebal 
as  erroneous.  They  were  unwilhng  to  exp-»e  them- 
selves to  the  taunts  of  their  Judsan  enemies  by  build- 
ing a  temple  on  the  Hill  of  Curses.  They  would  claim 
the  inheritance  of  the  blessings;  they  would  set  the  au- 
thority of  [heir  text  against  that  of  the  scribes  of  the 
Ureal  Synagogue.  One  was  as  likely  to  be  accepted 
as  the  other.  The  "  Hebrew  verity"  was  not  then  ac- 
knowledged as  it  bos  been  since.  (4.)  In  other  repeti- 
tions or  transfera  in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  we  may 


L  Polylhels 
t.  Idolatry. 


in  or  Tua  Hoatr.  Law. 
on,  Tb  Sftuls. 

n."    =^     e.  Murder. 


pensations.  Of  the  whole  law  thia  was  both  the  firH 
portion  lobe  communicBied,  and  tbe  basis  of  all  that  fol- 
lowed. Various  things  attested  ibis  superiority.  It 
was  ^nken  directly  by  the  Lord  himself— not  oomioDni- 
cated.  like  other  part*  of  the  old  economy,  tbrongh  the 
minislratioD  of  Moses — and  spoken  amid  the  most  im- 
pressive ugns  of  his  glorious  presence  and  msjeaty.  \ot 
only  were  the  len  commandments  thus  spoken  by  God, 
hut  the  fuTthvi  mark  of  reUdve  imponance  was  pol 
upon  them  of  being  written  on  tables  of  stone— writitD 
by  tbe  very  finger  of  God.  They  were  thuselevated  to 
a  place  above  oil  the  statutes  and  ordinances  that  were 
made  known  through  Ihe  mediator  of  the  old  covenant: 
and  the  place  then  given  them  they  were  also  akstined 
to  hold  in  the  future;  for  the  rocky  tablets  oa  which 


n  eDgnvad  undoiibteilly  imaged  an  il)i<1ing| 
ud  iffipnittnc«.  It  wu  Bii  emUem  uf  relative 
V.  The  very  namber  of  noril*,  or  muruices, 
imprised,  tm,  benpoke  the  ume 


en  w«s  iiiiiverjallv  resiini- 
ims  (Sp«nwr,  Ite'l^.  Hrb. 
See  Dkoaloolk. 


\iimz\  fur  Ja  the  ligniBcanc 
Kribcil  toreruip  numben, 
nl  B  ihc  sfiDbol  of  completf 

Tcnibrae  (.Jurlsvu),  an  oflice  rt.r  ihe  Wednesday, 
Thundir.  and  Fridar  of  Holy  Week,  ciiinnienioraiin|{ 
ibc  niffenDga  and  JeaLh  o(  our  Blenrd  Saviour.  Tbc 
UDH  oT  Ihe  ulBce  hai  been  traced  lo  the  fact  thai  il 
H  fDnoFrlT  cfkbnted  al  inidni);hl,  aa  an  allusiaii  In 
Oiria  Miking  no  more  openly  with  the  Jews,  as  Cran- 
nn  an.  Oihera  auggcst  ihal  it  is  derived  fioDi  the 
^ul  exuncticHi  o(  ligbta,  wbich  originally  were  put 

In  ingbolof  grief  and  nHKimiiig;  or,  as  Belelb  auggests. 


le  Panioi 


Thei 


b«  of  ligbla  Taried.  la  aome  cbarchei  there  was  a 
aniUe  cnmpoadiiig  to  each  pealtn  and  kseon  of  tbe 
oS«.  Tbw  we  find  »e«n,  nine,  twelve,  fifteen,  iwen- 
ij-Siur,  Iwenty-flve  at  Vork,  Ibirty,  aei'enty-two,  or 
troi  at  many  as  each  person  Ihoogbt  Ht  M  bring. 
fix*  tm  exlingiiiahed  sometinifla  at  once,  or  at  two 
It  ihiH  iotervala.  In  onme  placca  they  were  qoeiiched 
wiib  I  moist  sponge,  and  in  othemnitb  a  band  of  wax 
ffiirprtKnlJudu.  St.  Gregory  of  Toun  says  that  on 
tic  night  of  Uood-Friday  the  watchings  were  kept  in 
dirknen  until  the  third  bonr,  when  a  amall  light  ap* 
ptrcil  ibore  the  altar.  Cnnmei  eiplaine  that  the  lui- 
fUiikna  o(  Jeremiah  wei«  read  in  memory  of  the  Jews 
nkiog  nnr  Lord's  life  at  tbia  lime.  Tbe  Reproaches 
ual  TriMgiaa  were  not  mng  nntil  the  14th  century  on 
<rQQd.Fndiy. 

Teidaoii,  Thoxas,  a  learned  English  prelate,  was 
Inn  u  Cotlenham,  Cambridgeshire,  Sept.  !9, 1636;  and 
mtiiing  his  primary  education  at  the  free  school  at 
Nwwicb,  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge, 
>bai  he  graduated  in  Lent  term,  1666^7.  He  began 
In  xudy  medicine,  but  on  the  eve  of  the  Restoration 
JKiiird  BpoD  the  theological  profession,  and  waa  or- 
lained  privately  at  Kicbmond  in  Surrey  by  the  bishop 
i{  ^aliibury.  Being  admitted  fellow  of  his  college 
HuTb  U,  IBS!,  he  became  tator,  and  in  1665  was  chosen 


le  cure  of  St  Andrew  the  Great 
is  Cambridge.  In  1667  he  received  the  rectory  of 
Holjuell  and  Nedingworth,  Huntingdonshire,  from  tbe 
«H  at  Mancheuer,  and  in  I6T4  was  chosen  principal 
annser  to  tbe  Church  of  St.  Peter's  Hancrof),  Nor- 
vicb.  In  1680  he  tmk  tbe  d^ree  of  D.D.,  and  in  Oc- 
Mer  of  tbe  same  year  was  preeented  by  Charles  II.be- 
Bg  iben  a  myai  chaplain,  to  tbe  vicarage  of  St.  Mar- 
tEL'Hii-tbe.h'ielda,  Lnndon.  Immediately  alUr  tbe  Rev- 
^aaa  he  was  promoted  to  he  archdcacun  of  London ; 
■V  CDDaccraled  bishop  of  Lincoln,  Jan.  10, 169:2 ;  and 
ntnind  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  in  1694. 

inrKi  Ui  the  king  proper  persons  fur  alt  ecdesiaa^cal 
rtftmeots  in  bis  gift  above  the  value  of  £20  per  ~  ~ 
<™.    He  attended  bis  majcaty  during  bia  last  illn 
nl  ouwned  queen  Anne.    He  was,  in  April,  1706,  m 
in  (xamissianer  in  tbe  treaty  of  union  between  E 
W  and  Scotland  ;  and  aflenraids  crowned  Georg 
Bii  ikub  oocuned  at  Umbeth  Palace  Dec  14, 1715. 
U*  bit  will  he  beqneatbed  Urge  sums  to  charitable  pur- 
t*i.  and  provtid  ■  liberal  benefactor  to  Uenedici 
■it.Uaibtidge,  the  library  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the 
•■"oeK  frit  the  l*n>niotion  nf  the  Goepel,  Bromh-y  Col- 
ff.  «t     He  published.  The  C'rrtd  a/  Mr.  {Tkomai) 
«««»  Eiammed  (Lood,  1670. 18mo)  ■.—IdobHry:  a  DU 
=wir(1678,4lo)i — Baconiana;  or Crrlain  Gtmnnt Re 
I    •■iaa/Zj>ntAioon(16;3,8voj  1674,'fto).     See  Alii 
[    'f.lrid.of  Brit.aml  Aiiur.Aulh<in,»,T,;  Chalmers, 


>  TEN KENT 

Tennent,  Oilbeit,  an  eloquent  Presbyterian  di- 
rine,  and  eldest  sou  of  tbe  Rev.  William  Teunent,  Sen., 
■as  bom  in  the  County  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  Feb.  b,  I'OS : 
'migrated  with  his  father  lo  America  in  1718;  received 

lis  education  under  the  paternal  roof;  had  the  honorary 
leRTee  of  master  of  arts  conferred  upon  bim  by  Yale 
Jullegein  1735;  studied  theology  privately;  was  licensed 
.0  preach  in  May,  17i5;  and  was  ordained  and  installed 
-ninisler  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  at  New  Brans- 
nick,  N.  J.,  in  1726.  In  1740  be  waa  prevailed  on  by 
VVbitefield  to  accotnpany  him  on  a  preaching  tour  to 
Boston;  and  this  tour  constituted  one  of  tbc  great  events 
if  bia  life.  Tbe  eflect  of  his  preaching  in  Boston  ia 
thus  described  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Prince,  minister  of  ihe 
"' '  Soutb  Church:  "It  was  both  terrible  and  scarch- 
...  By  bia  arouang  and  spiritual  preaching,  deep 
pungent  convictions  were  wrought  in  the  minds  of 
ly  hundreds  of  persona  in  that  town :  and  Ihe  esme 
effect  was  produced  on  several  scores  in  the  neighboring 
ingregatious.  And  now  was  auch  a  lime  as  we  never 
knew.  TheRev.Mr.Cooperwas  wont  to  say  that  more 
to  him  in  otie  week  in  deep  concern  than  in  tbe 
whole  twenty-fonr  years  of  his  preceding  ministry.  I 
n  say  also  Ihe  same  as  to  the  numbers  who  repaired 
me."  He  bad  much  lo  do  in  bringing  about  the  di- 
oon  of  Che  Presbyterian  Church  in  IT41 ;  indeed,  it 
was  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  one  sermon  called 
the  "Nottingham  Sermon,"  which  Dr.  Alexander  de- 
clares lo  be  "  one  of  the  most  severely  abusive  sermons 
that  were  ever  penned,"  that  that  ecbism  occurred.  It 
is  lo  bia  honor,  however,  thai,  seventeen  years  aher,  he 
waa  a  prindpai  instrument  in  a  reunion  of  the  two 
parties.  In  1743  he  became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
congregation  (dtsdplea  of  WhileBeld)  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  continued  tbe  residue  of  his  ministry  and  life, 
which  was  about  twenty  yean.  He  died  July  !8, 1764. 
Mr.Tennent,BB  a  preacber,  bad  few  equals  in  his  vigor- 
oiis  dnya,  "His  reasoning  powers  were  strong;  hia 
Ihoughts  nervous  and  often  sublime;  his  style  Howery 
and  difliisive;  hia  manner  of  addresa  warm  and  pathet- 
ic—such as  must  convince  his  audience  that  be  was  in 
eameaL"  Heniy  R  Smith,  D.D.,  saya  of  him,  "  Gilbert 
Tennent,  that  soul  of  fire."  He  waa  of  a  truly  pub- 
lic spirit,  needing  no  other  motive  to  exert  himself 
than  only  to  be  persuaded  that  the  matter  in  question 
was  an  important  public  good.  He  published  SemmiM 
(Phila.  17M,  8vo)  :_/>i.«)ur«»  (1745,  12mo)  :— «w- 
mmt  (IT68,  ]2mn).  He  also  published  many  occasional 
sermons,  some  pamphlets,  etc.  See  Sprague,  AmuiU  of 
Ihe  Amer.Pulpil,iu,ab^l;  Sena,  on  hii  DTalh,bv  S. 
Finley,  D.D.  (17&1,  Svo);  Alexander,  Biit.  of  Ike  Log 
Colltgf,  p.  91-94 ;  Strmmit  and  Eaoyt  bg  tht  TeimmU 
and  tkeir  Contemporariel  (186a,  12mo};  AlliboiK,  Ditt. 
of  BriL  and  Atner.  Authon,  s.  v.;  Gilliee,  Bin.  ColL 
(J.  L.  S.) 

Tennent,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  third 
son  of  the  Rev.  William  Tennent,8en.,  was  bom  in  the 
County  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  Nov.  12, 1706.  His  parents 
emigrated  to  America  when  be  was  twelve  years  old. 
He  was  educated  at  (he  Log  College,  and  licensed  to 
preach  Sept.  IS,  1729.  On  Nov.  19, 1T30,  he  was  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Freehold, 
Monmouth  Con  N.  J.  He  had  but  a  brief  ministrj',  his 
death  Dccuning  April  23, 1732.  He  was  distinguished 
for  a  clear,  discriminating  mind  and  earnest  manner. 
One  of  bis  sermons,  on  regeneration,  was  published, 
withaahartmemoirofhiBlire,byhiBhn)therGilben  Ten. 
nenu     See  Sprague,  .4  Biioii  o/VA* /I  mn-. /'uiptl,  iii,  41. 

Tennent,  'William  (I),  a  Presbyterian  minister 
and  educator,  and  tbe  father  of  Gilbert,  John,  and  Will. 
iam  Tennent,  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1673.  He  received 
a  liberal  education  in  hia  native  country,  and  was  prob- 
ably a  graduate  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  entered 
the  ministry  originally  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and 
was  orduned  deacon  by  the  bishop  of  Down,  July  1, 
1T04 1  and  priest.  Sept  22,  I70C.    He  emigrated  to  Amer> 


TENNENT  2 

icT  in  1718,  ind  immediatd;  cbanged  hii  ecdeiiaatial 
leUtions,  being  received  inio  the  Piesbylerian  Church 
September  17  of  the  ume  year.  He  supplied  Eiet 
Chester  and  BedronI,  N.  V. ;  Benulem  and  Smithfield, 
BiiekB  Co.,  Pl;  and  in  1726  accepted  a  call  from  the 
Church  at  Neshaminy,  in  the  —me  roanty,  where  he 
■pent  the  remainder  of  hie  life.  He  waa  but  full;  set- 
tled when  he  waa  imprewed  with  the  antvictioii  that 
there  were  other  duties  than  those  of  a  pastor  de- 
manding his  attention.  The  country  was  in  a  forming 
■tile,  and  he  felt  that  it  was  all  -  important  that  it 
■hould  have  a  ri){ht  direction.  Hia  four  sons  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  their  godly  father,  and  were  oonaiatent 
Christians.  His  attention  was  early  directed  to  the 
young  men  who  were  growing  Dp  around  bim,  and 
who  be  saw  must  be  educated  to  tiecome  useful  tneni- 
ben  of  society.  As  there  were  no  schools  or  colleges  in 
that  region,  he  determined  to  erect  a  building  for  edu- 
cational purposes.  His  means  were  limited,  snd  conie- 
quently  the  building  must  conespond  with  them.  In 
process  of  time  a  log  bouse  wss  erected  of  bomble  pro- 
portions about  a  mile  from  Nesbaminy  Creek,  near  to 
the  church.  This  building  was  afterwards  designated 
the  "  Log  College,"  and  was  the  Hist  literary  and  theo- 
logical institution  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  this 
country.  It  was  the  immediate  parent  of  Priucetoa 
College  and  Theological  Seminary,  and  of  all  other  in- 
Btiiutiona  of  a  similar  characler  in  the  Church.  The 
Nte  of  the  Log  College  was  in  every  way  desirable, 
commanding  as  it  did  an  extensive  prospect  of  level, 
fertile  country,  bounded  by  distant  hills.  The  dis- 
tinguished WhiletlelJ,  who  visited  it  in  1789,  saya  of 

"The  place  wherein  the  vonng  man  stad;ls  a  lug  hoose 
me  it  seometl  lo  resenible  the  iiclin.il  of  the  old  praptaeta. 


Hges  of  Scripture  wherein  we  are  tnid  that 'each  of  them 
took  a  beam  to  build  them  a  bnnse;'  and  that  at  a  fesst 
"   'lepropheis  '  one  o(  them  pot  on  the  poL. 


while  the  other*  w< 


forth 


>na  wlthont.  Prom  this  despised  plsce  nre 
worthy  minister*  of  Jssus  bate  lately  been 
;  more  ate  almost  ready  to  be  sent,  snd  the  f.ic 
s  now  laying  (br  tbe  InstractluD  of  many  othen 


or  Mr.  Tennent,  the  founder  of  this  college,  but  little  is 
known  outside  of  bis  connection  with  the  institution. 
Wbitefield's  journal  refer*  to  him  thus: 

Ins  of  one  Mr.  Tennent,  an  old  gray-headed  diuiple  and 
BuTdler  of  Jesus  Cbrist.  He  keeps  an  icademy  about 
twenty  miles  from  Pblladelphia,  snd  has  been  blessed  with 
four  aracloui  sons,  three  of  which  bave  been,  and  still 
continue  lo  be.  nsefnl  In  the  Church  of  ChrlaU  He  Is  a 
great  friend  ot  Mr.  Bisklne  of  Scotland,  and  be  snd  his 
i-i>ns  ore  secretly  despised  by  the  synod  generally,  se  If  r. 
Errklne  and  his  (Hends  are  hated  bv  the  judicatories  of 
Hcotland,  snd  as  the  Hethodlst  preocberaare  by  the  breth- 

Whitefteld  further  saysi 

where  1  was  Ui  preach  to-day  according  to  appoliiImenL 

nunt,  Jr.,  as  wa  stayed  beyund  ths  tloie,  was  preschlug  to 

which  was  snog,  and  then  I  Iwi-sn  lo  speak  ss  the  Lord  gave 
nie  utterance.  At  Arst  the  people  seemed  unsffecieil,  but 
In  the  midst  nf  my  discourse  tbe  power  of  the  Lord  Je»us 
csine  upun  me,  sod  I  felt  such  a  stroMlIng  wllblu  myself 
for  the  people  aslacarco  ever  felt  before;  the  hesrersbe- 

we  bad  ainid  reason  to  bops  tbe  Lord  Intended  gnod  for 
msut.    After  1  had  finished.  Mr.  Oilberl  TennenI  ^sve  s 


to  that  I  was  obliged  to  retire  for  a  while,  yet 
It  coinmnnlon  with  each  other,  and  spent  the 
oncecilug  what  meaaure*  bsd  best  be  tski.'n 


fnr  promoting  nor  dear  Lord's  kingdom.  It  hsppessd 
very  provldenilally  that  Mr.  Tsuusnt  and  bLs  bnibnu 
sre  sppolntfld  to  be  a  presbytery  by  the  synod,  so  ihsl 
Ihey  Intend  brlmrliiR  up  gradoas  youths  and  sendlqc 
Ihem  ont  from  Ume  to  time  Into  the  Lord's  vineyard." 
.\mong  the  ministers  sent  out  from  Log  College  ts 
preach  the  Uo^iel  were  hi*  four  sons,  Uilbert,  WiUIsm, 
John,  and  Charles;  Kev.  Messrs.  Samuel  Blair,  Saowd 
J.  Finley  (allerwanls  D.D.  and  pmident  of  PrincMoi 
College ),  W.  Robinson,  John  Rowland,  and  Chaita 
Beatty.  In  1742  this  venerable  man  became  unable  l» 
perform  hit  dntiea  as  pastor,  and  his  pulpit  was  supplitd 
by  tbe  presbytery.  In  174S  Hr.  BeaUy  was  onlaiDnl 
as  his  successor.  His  work  was  nearly  done,  and  al 
bim  it  may  be  aaid,  in  tbe  language  of  Dr.  Alexander, 
"The  Pnsbyteriui  Church  is  probably  not  more  in- 
debted for  her  prosperity,  and  for  the  evai>ge1ical  sprit 
which  has  genenlly  pervaded  her  body,  to  any  indi- 
vidual than  to  the  dder  Tennent."  Ue  died  at  bis 
loved  borne  in  Neshaminy,  Hay  6, 1746.  His  published 
works  consist  mostly  of  sermons,  twenty-three  of  which 
appear  in  one  volume,  Svo.  Two  other  discourses  woe 
also  published.  Uany  occasional  sermons  and  paai- 
phlets  were  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1758.  Rev. 
Samuel  Finley,  D.D„  his  former  pupil,  preached  hitfii- 
aeraldiacourae,  which  was  also  published.  Seedpngoe, 
Atmali  of  tht  Aiaer. Pulpit,  iti,  23;  Gtn.  AttaiL  Mill. 
Mag.  or  KvangtL  lalelL  ii ;  Alexander,  Hit/,  qf  Ijog  Cat- 
bge;  Temtenfi  FamHi/ Record.     (W.P.S.) 

Temieilt, 'William  (2),  a  Presbyterian  miniater, 
and  brother  of  (iilbert  Tennent,  was  biwn  in  theCmmty 
of  Antrim,  Ireland,  Jan.  8,  ITOB.  He  emigialed  with 
his  fslher,  the  Rev.  William  Tennent,  Sen.,  to  Am«ica 
in  1718,  where  he  received  his  education  under  iheia- 
MTuctioD  of  his  father,  and  studied  tbeolagy  by  the  aid 
of  his  Uotber.  Ue  was  licensed  by  tbe  Philsdelpkii 
Presbytery,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbvterisu 
Church  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  Oct.  26,  1733,  where' he  le-  . 
matned  untS  his  death,  March  8, 1777.  About  the  time  ' 
that  Mr.  Tennent  completed  hla  theological  course,  he 
was  the  subject  of  a  remarkable  trance,  which  has  per- 
haps given  bim  his  greatest  celebrity.  A  full  account 
of  this  extraordinary  incident  was  published  by  Elias 
Boudiiuit.  Mr.  Tennent  conttibuted  sennoiu  to  ^- 
moni  on  SacramtntaJ  Occiuioru  (1739),  and  a  3rrmim 
upon  Matt,  v,  23-24  (17d9).  See  Sprsgue,  AwmU  a/ 
the  Amor.  Pulpit,  iii,  62;  Allibone,  Di<*.  of  BriL  md 
AmtT.Au1hort,t.M.;  SUx\,  Baniiitg  and  Shtrnng  Ia^ 
(1864):  Gtn.  AaenA.  Mia.  Mag.  vol  ii;  Aleiander, 
HitU  /Mg  ColUge;  Prince,  CkritL  tlUU;  Lift  ofWiB- 
(on  Trmait,  ailh  an  AoamaU  of  Ail  btiitg  Tkrtt  Daf 
m  a  Trance  (N,  Y.  1847,  l8mo>;  Sermon  amd  fwqs 
bg  lie  Tamna  and  Iheir  Conltrnporariet  (1856,  12ii»)i 
Btachcood't  Mag.  iv,  693 ;  Ston,  Coiatitatim  of  lit  Bit' 
mm  Soul  (1857),  p.  817.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Tennftilt,  WllllBim  (3),  a  Preabyteiian  miniiHr. 
and  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Tennent'<a>,  waa  bom  in 
Freehold,  N.  J.,  in  1740.  Ho  graduated  at  the  CoUegr 
of  New  Jersey  in  1758,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  tbe 
presbytery  of  New  Brunswick  in  1762,  onlaiiied  by  the 
same  presbyterr  in  1768,  snd  installed  as  junior  paatoi 
of  the  Church  in  Norwslk,  Conn.,  in  1765.  In  17?t 
he  became  pastor  of  an  Independent  Church  in  Chaite*- 
ton,  S.a  He  died  Aug.  11, 1777.  Mr.  Tennent  was 
an  eloquent  preacher.  Elegance  of  style,  miyesty  of 
thooght,  and  clearness  of  judgment  characterind  all  hit 
disconrsea.  See  Sptague,  Amali  of  lie  Amer.  pMlpii, 
iii,  242;  Hall,  Bitl.  of  Nonmli;  Ramsey,  /fwc.  of 
South  Ciirolinn,  voL  ii ;  Bill,  of  lite  CiunA  o/Chabf 
Ivu ;  Alimn,  Funeral  Strmon.     (J.  I.  S.) 

T«iin«j,  Afla  Feaal«e,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Corinth,  Tt,  Feb.  14, 1801.  He  woriied 
at  an  anvil  in  Haverhill,  N.  H. :  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Grant  Powers  and  President  Tyler  of  Darunootb 
College;  preaclied  his  flrat  sermon  in  father  Ovddaida 
meeting-houBe  in  Norwich,  Vi. ;  and  when  tn 


n  yea 


TENNEY  V, 

t  MumoBvj  Societ}-,  Uboiing  in  Hc- 
D.  Id  Much,  1838,  he  became  fint  pu- 
ll Church  in  Concord  (West). 
N.IL,  when  he  ^ed,  Hatch  1,1867.  Mr.  Tenney  waa 
original,  doqueni,  and  a  mighty  revivalisl.  He  had 
■mderful  knowledfce  o(  Che  Bible  and  human  nature, 
and  *a0  a  pnHligioua  worker,  hia  Knnona  for  over  tbir- 
iv-(«ir  years  avenging  mora  than  four  a  week.  See 
A  Bbwiimitk  n  lie  Pulpit  md  in  Ihe  Pariih,  in  the 
Ctmftfgationat  Qaarlerfy,  1867,  p.  369  aq.,  380. 

Tean«y,  Caleb  Jewrtt.  D.D,  a  Congregational 
muiincr,  waa  bom  at  HoUis,  N.  H.,  May  S,  1780.  He 
KDduaud  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1801,  entered  the 
■Biuinry  Aug.  20,  I80S,  and  waa  ordained  Sept.  12, 1804, 
potor  It  Newport,  B.  I.,  where  he  remained  until  May, 
IHI4.<Fhen  he  iHnKned  and  became  co-paator  in  Wethen- 
Md.  March  27,  1816,  bul,  on  account  of  his  voice  fail- 
ing. HBi  diamiased  in  1840,  and  removed  to  Nortfaamp- 
Km.UaK, where  be  died,  Sept. 28, 1847.  He  acted  aa 
tictal  Tor  hath  the  Aioerican  and  the  Maiaachuaetta 
I'Dloniiatioo  Society.  His  publications  were  Tko  Dii- 
a*na  on  BaptittH  (1816)  and  a  few  Occaaiomil  Sfr- 
iHU.  See  Spn^ue,  AmaU  of  iht  Amer.  PalpU,  it, 
472. 

ToniiAy.  Eplmlm,  a  Preabyterian  miniaUr,  waf 
bom  in  Dammenton,  V^  Nov.  12,  1813.  He  grad. 
uaied  at  Wbealon  Odl^  lU.,  in  1811,  and  entered  th( 
iJsicn  Theological  Seminary  the  same  year,  and  in  the 
vnr  foUowiug  be  died  in  Srooklya,  N.  Y.,  March  8. 

(ff.p.a) 

Teimey,  RobivaII.  a  Presbvietian  minister,  wai 
bun  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  1796.  He  waa  educated  al 
Danmaoth  College,  studied  theology  in  the  Union 
Thnkfical  Seminary,  Prince  Edward  Co.,-Vi.,  waa  li- 
irtmA  by  the  Hanover  Presbytery  April  36, 1828,  and 
ordained  by  the  sams  Nov.  28, 1829.  Hia  first  preach- 
iag  wu  aa  a  home  miasionary ;  after  that  he  preached 
HKmaavelj  at  Salem,  Uoity,  Somerset,  and  New  hex- 
iogton,  Va.;  three  points  in  Perry  County,  O.— Logan, 
IMprt,  and  Wairen;  two  pcrints  in  Washington  (>iun- 
tT.  0.;  Dover,  Haas.;  Hanover  Centre,  N.  H.;  again 
in  Salem  and  Fearing,  O.;  and  finally  at  Ameaville,  in 
Aibtni  Connty.  He  died  Aug.  6,  1866.  See  Wilson, 
iVnl.  Hilt.  ^ImoKac,  1887,  p. 321. 

Tenuey,   Samnal  Oilmaii,  a  Congrega^nal 
mioiKer,  waa  bom  ^t  Rowley,  Mass.,  April  12,  1793. 
He  poughi  an  edacation  with  a  view  of  entering  the 
Diniury,  being   impressed   that  it  was   his  duty  to 
pnach.     He  was  fitted  for  college  at  Heriden,  N.  H., 
aftM  which  he  enterrd  Dartmouth  College,  from  which 
he  gndaaled  in  1823.     He  studied  theology  under 
ibe  Rev.  Dr.  Chapin  at  Woodstock,  Vt.     He  was  or- 
dainnl  June  29, 1825,  andioatalled  pastor  of  the  Lyndon 
Cborch.Yt.     Here  he  labored  for  ais  yeara  with 
am.    He  was  subsequently  pastor  in  the  follov 
placa:  Bakenville,  Vu,  four  years ;  Waitsfiehl,  Vt., 
jran:  Hillsborough,  N.  H.,  five  ycara;  Wordsboroi .. 
Tt^Kven  years;  and  Alatead,  N.  H.,  seven  years,  when 
)>*  ntired,  after  an  unbroken  minialry  of  furty-nine 
yen.  in  the  aixty-fouith  year  of  his  age.     His  labors 
vert  biased  in  many  places  by  special  and  powerful 
nviTsla.     He  died  in   Spiingfleld,  Vt.,  Dec  5,  1874. 
(W.P.S.) 

Tent  (naoaUyand  properly^riN,dAci.  so  called  from 
j'tHfTB^  [Genenius]  or  being  round  [Ftlrst],  ffnjvii; 
botli  orcariooally  "  tabernacle ;"  elsewhere  IBlCa,  midh- 
ion,  t  HrrlHag  [Cant,  i,  8],  the  regular  urm  for  "  taber- 
asrl'  r  nss,  nuUoA  [  2  Sam.  xi,  1 1  ],  a  "  booth :"  or 
n; ;;.  t>UtU,  a  dome-like  pavilion,  only  in  Numb,  ii,  8), 
a  BHiiible  habitatioD.  made  of  cunaina  extended  upon 
poltK    See  Tabkilhacle. 

Among  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  nomad 
■Met,  tbose  two  have  always  been  numbered  whose 
•ngin  has  been  ascribed  to  Jabal  the  son  of  Umcch 


TENT 

(Gen.  iv,  20),  viz.  to  be  tent.dwellera  (htm  a1^^  comp. 
27;  onivinK',  Pliny,  vi,32,  35)  and  keepers  of 
cattle.  Accordingly  the  patriarchal  fathers  of  the  Is- 
dwellers  in  tents,  and  their  descendants 
proceeded  at  once  from  tents  (o  houses.  We  therefore 
read  but  little  of  huU  among  them,  and  never  as  the 
fixed  habitations  of  any  people  with  whom  they  were 
By  huta  we  understand  small  dwellings, 
made  of  the  green  or  dry  branches  of  tieea  inlerwined, 
and  sometimes  plastered  with  mud.  In  Scripture  they 
are  called  booUu.  Such  were  made  by  Jacob  lo  ahvller 
bis  cattle  during  the  first  winter  of  hia  return  from 
Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxxiii,  17}.  In  atUr-times  we 
more  frequently  read  of  them  aa  being  erected  in  vine- 
yards and  orchards  to  shelter  the  man  who  guarded  the 

ipened  produce  (Job  xxvii,  IS;  Isa.  i,  8;  xxiv,  ■X). 

t  was  one  of  the  Mouical  inaritutiona  that  during  (he 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  the  people  should  live  for  ■  week 
made  of  green  boughs  {Lev.  uiiii,  42),  In  ob- 
tbe  directiona  of  the  law  respecting  the  Feaat 
of  Tahemacles,  the  Rabbinical  wriUra  laid  down  as  a 

latinction  between  the  ordinary  tent  and  the  booth, 

itiSh,  that  the  latter  must  in  no  case  be  covered  by  a 
chitb,  but  be  restricted  to  boughs  of  trees  aa  its  shelter 
(_Suttah,  i,  3).  In  hot  weatber  the  Arabs  of  Mesopota- 
mia often  strike  their  tents  and  betake  themselves  to 
aheda  of  reeds  and  grass  on  the  hank  of  the  river  (Lav- 
ard,  Ninaiii.  ii,  216 ;  Burckbardt,  Kola  on  Btd.  i,  37, 
46 !  Vohiey,  TrateU,  i,  898). 

In  Egypt  the  Hebrews,  for  tbe  most  part,  left  olT  tent 
life,  and  lived  in  houses  during  their  bondsge;  but  on 
their  deliverance,  and  during  their  protracted  sojourn  in 
the  wilderness,  tent  life  was  again  resumed  bv  the  na- 
tion (EsoAxvi,  16;  Josh,  vii,  24),  and  continued  for  some 
time  even  after  their  settlement  in  the  Holy  Land  (xxii, 
8).  Hence  the  phraseology  of  lent  life  remained  among 
the  people  long  after  it  had  ceaaed  to  be  their  normal 
condition  (IKingsxii,  16).  Herewe  may  observe  that 
tent  life  is  not  peculiar  lo  nomads  only,  for  we  Ond  set- 
tled clans,  occupied  in  agricultural  purauiti,  still  dwell 
in  tentfl,  and  such,  probably,  was  the  case  in  Pslesiine  in 
all  ages.  The  family  of  Heber  the  Kenite  was  appar- 
ently of  this  class  (Judg.  iv,  11-22),  and  even  the  pa- 
triarchs seem  partly  to  have  adopted  that  mode  of  life. 
laaac  not  only  "had  poeaession  t^ flocks  and  possession 
of  herds,"  but  slso  he  "  sowed  in  the  land,  and  received 
in  tbe  same  year  a  hundredfold"  (Gen.  xxvi,  13).  It 
waa  not  until  the  return  into  Canaan  from  Eg:i'pt  that 


e  Hebrei 


Inbabil. 


remarked  tl 

for  many  years  later  in  tbe  tabernacle  of  Shiloh,  which 
consisted,  as  many  Arab  tents  still  conaisl,  of  a  walled 
enclosure  covered  with  curtains  (Mishna,  Zi AacAi'm,  xiv, 
6 ;  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Pahl.  p.  233). 

The  Midiaiiitea,  the  Philistines,  the  Syrians,  tbe  de- 
scendants of  Ham,  the  Hagaritea,  and  Cuahanitea  are 

pie  moat  remarkable  for  this  unsettled  and  wandering 
mode  of  \i(e  are  the  Arabs,  who,  from  the  time  of  lah- 
mael  to  the  present  day,  have  continued  the  custom  of 
dwelling  in  lenta.  Amid  the  revolutions  which  have 
transferred  kingdoms  from  one  posaeseot  lo  another, 
these  wandering  tribes  still  dwell,  unsubdued  and  wild 
as  was  their  progenitor.  This  kind  of  dwelling  i>  not, 
however,  confined  to  the  Arabs,  but  is  used  thniughnul 
the  continent  of  Asia.  In  one  of  the  tents  shown  in  A<- 
syrion  sculptures  a  man  is  represented  arranging  s  cmch 
for  Bleeping  on,  in  another  persons  are  sitting  conversinn, 
and  inotheracookingulenailsand  ihe  process  of  cooking 

watching  a  caldron  on  what  appears  to  be  a  tire  between 
some  stones.  Among  lent-dwellets  of  the  present  day 
must  be  reckoned  (1)  the  great  Mongol  and  Tartar 
hordes  of  Central  Asia,  whose  tent-dwellings  are  some- 
times of  gigantic  dimeneio^^  and  who  exhibit  tnnre 
contrivance  both  in  the  dwellings  themsrlvM  and  in 


rs  TENT 

laileatd  to  ihort  Micks  or  pins,  filleil  art!  m  nifnf, 
which  are  driven  into  th«  ground  with  ■  cAubr/or 
niBlleU  or  the  Mme  kind  ww  the  nr^,  naii  (q.T.), 
nnd  the  r2^i£,  hamsier  (eg.  v.),  wbich  Jul  uwd  (Judg. 
iv,  -21).  Kound  the  back  ind  sides  of  the  Udu  nuw  s 
piece  or  Uulf  lemoTible  >t  pleuure  to  idmil  air.    Tbg 


)Tl 


Ajsyrlan  Tents  lH.  ^—,- 

nscherlli  betire  Lacn,., 

their  method  or  tnnsportinK 


let. 


10;  Matcol'aki,  rnicfed.  Bofan],  p.  128,  liiu,  211;  ( 
bon,  ch.  XXV,  [vol.  iii,  p.  298,  ed.  Smilh]) ;  (2)  u  at 
observed,  the  Bedawin  Arab  trilies,  who  inhabit  ti 
which  are  prohabi]'  coDstructed  on  the  ume  plat 
those  which  were  the  dwelling-places  of  Abraham 
arjacab(lleb.xi,9). 
The  lirat  lent 


!r  higher  than  the  other  two.  Hooks  are  attacb- 
1,  ed  tu  these  posts  for  hanging  various  arliclea  (litD. 
>■  xviii,  10;  Judg.  xiii,  6;  Nicbuhr,  I'oyijjf,  i,  1«T;  Lav. 
'c  tr<\,  .Via.  aad  Bab.  p.  i6l).  See  Pillar.  In  the  men't 
tK  ■putment  the  ground  is  usually  covered  with  caipeli 
IS  or  mats,  and  the  wheal  sacks  and  camel  b»gt  are 
Ld  ^  heaped  up  in  it  around  the  middle  post  like  a  pyramid, 
at  the  base  of  which,  or  towards  the  back  of  ihe  leni, 
Dubtedly  covered  with  skins,  are  arranged  tbe  camel  pack-uddlet,  ngainsl  which  iIh 
of  wbich  there  are  [races  iu  the  Pentateuch  (Exod.  men  recline  as  ihey  sit  on  Ihe  ground.  The  womoi'i 
xivi,  14) ;  but  nearly  alt  the  Cents  mentioned  in  Script-  apaitnient  is  less  neat,  being  encumbered  with  all  tbe 
ure  were  doubtless  nf  goals'-hair,  spun  and  woven  by  lumber  of  the  tent,  the  water  and  bullet  skins,  and  the 
the  women  (xxxv,  S6;  xxxvi,  U),  such  as  are  now,  culinari'  ultnsila.  The  part  of  the  tent  appnipnainl 
in  Weslern  Asia,  used  by  all  who  dwell  in  tents.  Tents  tn  the  women  is  called  karem ;  and  no  straiigef  ii<  prr- 
of  linen  were,  and  still  are,  only  used  occasionally  for  milled  to  enter  it,  unless  introduced.  Hence,  perhsio. 
holiday  or  travelling  purpoees  by  those  who  do  not  Sisera's  hope  of  greater  security  in  the  hareui  of  JmL 
habitually  live  in  them.  Some  modem  tents  are  con-  See  Hosf  italic  v.  "The  tents  are  amnged  in  a  an 
>trucl«d  of  most  cosily  materials,  and  ate  very  beautiful  nl  square;  they  are  mailc  uf  black  haii-elotb,  not  larKc; 
Chardin  mentions  that  a  late  king  of  Persia  had  one  and  are  mostly  open  at  one  end  and  on  the  siden.  the 
made  which  coal  upwatds  of  two  millions  sterling.  It  latter  being  turned  up.  The  tenis  form  the  comiiM* 
was  called  the  "golden  house,"  because  gold  glittered  rendezvous  of  men,  women,  cliildreii,  calves.  Iambs. and 
everywhere  about  it  (see  Pier.  Bible,  note  on  Cam.  v,  1).  kids"  (Kobinson,  Raeai-chei,  i,  iSb).  Few  Arabs  have 
A  lent  or  pavilion  on  a  magnific«nt  scale,  constructed  more  than  one  tent,  unless  the  ttmily  he  aiigmeiiitd 
for  Ptolemy  Fbiladelphus  at  Alexandria,  is  described  by  the  families  of  a  son  ut  a  ileceaseil  bruiber,  or  in 
by  AlhenieuB(Exad.v,  196sq.).  This  class  of  tents  is  case  the  wives  disagree,  when  the  master  {utches  a  init 
fumishedwitb  Turkey  carpels  for  the  Hndrand  cushions  for  one  of  them  adjoining  his  own.  An  encarapmral 
ti>  recline  upon,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  owner,  is  generally  arranged  in  the  form  of  an  endiwure,  wilh- 
Ihough  the  inwde  arrangements  vary  among  different  in  which  the  cattle  are  driven  at  night,  and  ihe  cm- 
clans  and  tribes.  Those  who  are  loo  puorloaffiird  them-  tre  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  tent  ut  tenis  of  ihe 
a  proper  tent  merely  bang  a  piece  of  cloth  from  a  emir  or  sheik.     If  he  is  a  person  of  much  conBequenn, 


hem  shell 

An  Arab  lent  is  called  bfi/,  "house;"  { 
connietH  of  siulT,  about  lliree  quarters  of  a 

p.  'iHI),  laid  parallel  with  the  tent's  lengl 
sutncieiit  Iu  resist  the  heaviest  rain.  Thi 
called  amuil,  or  columns. 


hem 


a,  and  strangers,  respectively.  Tbe  fitst  twi> 
of  the  most  importance,  and  we  know  that  Aim- 
's wife  had  a  separaW  lent  (Gen.  xiiv,  87>     ll  is 


are  faBteneU.  not  lo  ihe 

I  oops  consisting  ofaleUh- 
•rn  thong  lied  to  the  ends 


,ab,  Google" 


TENTH  DEAL 


le  WM  on  this  model  (Exod.  xivi.SI-B7), 
Dh  individiul  uau  of  Leah,  Rachel.  Zilpub,  and  Bilhah 
■uy  that  hare  been  either  aepuate  lents  oi  apaitoieiits 
ID  the  principal  cenc  in  each  ca>e  ( Geo.  uxi,  SB ). 
Wbca  the  pauuTe  neai  an  encampment  ia  SKhauated, 
ibi  uau  an  taken  down,  picked  on  canwig,  and  re- 
■HiTed  (Ih.  uxviii,  12;  Uen.  xxri,  17, 13,  2i).  The 
bfaat;  at  an  Arab  encampment  ii  noticed  by  Sbaw 
(Tranii.  p.  '221;  aee  Numb,  xxiv,  6).  In  chooiiDg 
placn  for  encampment,  Aiaba  prerer  the  neigbborhood 
Ddnn,  for  (be  take  of  the  shade  and  coolnm  which 
iher  iflbnl  ((len.  iviii,  4,  8;  Niebuhr,  fee.  cit.).  Some 
nil>B«  hare  their  lenta  conilmcted  so  ai  to  house  their 
ikckii  al  ni^b^  (inat  deKiibes  such  a  one  among  the 
BtfUih  Kfirdi:  "Our  lent  waa  aboat  (ony  feet  long 
and  eighteen  or  twenty  wide,  one  aide  left  quite  open, 
•hik  1  wall  of  reeda  formed  the  otberiidea.  The  am- 
ptt  nnf  of  black  hair-clolb  waa  aupported  by  a  number 
•A  mall  poles,  and  secured  with  cnid*  and  wooden  pini 
drirrn  iolo  the  earth.  About  one  foortb  of  the  lent 
ns  feDcni  off  with  a  wicker  inUia  for  the  Iamb*  of  the 
Dock,  which  are  kept  there  daring  the  night"  (A>>Ca- 
ria«,p.93). 

Tht  manafactnrv  of  tenia  formed  ■  regular  and  lucra- 
dee  trade  ( vntvoiroiut ),  at  which  Paul  occaaionalty 
lihored,  especiaUj  in  connection  with  Aquila,  at  Corinth 
(Am  xviii,  3).     Sec  Paul. 

A  reatnre  of  Oriental  life  so  chatacleriitic  as  the  lent 
onld  not  fail  to  suggest  many  slrikiog  metaphors  to 
ibe  KUicil  writers,  and  accordingly  the  Hebrew  ha> 
ifiaai  leroH  for  pitching  (nuj  or  nin)  and  atiikiug 
(7'ivn)  a  tent.  The  tent  erected  and  its  cords 
welched  oat  are  ofteo  figuratively  alluded  to  in  the 
toiptDrea.  Thus  taaiah  repreaenta  God  as  tbe  one 
"that  urelcbeth  out  the  heavens  as  a  curtain,  and 
ifnadeth  them  out  as  ■  tent  to  direll  in"  (xl,  2!).  He 
abo  mja,  in  speaking  of  the  glorious  prosperity  of  tbe 
Oincb  and  tbe  need  of  eulargeoMnt,  "Enlarge  tbe 
place  of  thy  lent,  and  let  tbem  stretch  forth  the  cur- 
laias  of  thine  habitations;  spare  not,  lengthen  thy 
conbi,  ami  urtngtben  thy  stakes"  (liv,  2;   see  also 


ii.ao). 


kofso 


linpeily,  especially  ■  large  one,  requiring  the  united  eC- 
fiin«  nf  willing  bands.  Hence  the  pathetic  language 
of  Jeremiah  in  mourning  over  the  desolations  of  (rmfs 
(mple :  "  My  tabernacle  is  spnileil,  and  all  my  cords  are 
broken^  my  children  are  gone  forth  of  me,  and  they  are 
DiK;  there  is  none  to  stretch  forth  mv  tent  any  more 
•nd  to  set  up  my  curtains"  (x,  20).  'These  tents  are 
n)ililly  struck  and  removed  from  place  to  place,  so  that 
lich  tu-<lay  rests  un  a  large  encampment  ac- 


h  life  I 


ilrnins.  Thus  Isaiah  says, "Mine  age  is  departed, and 
ia  niMtred  from  me  as  a  shepherd's  tent"  (xxxviii,  12). 
Tht  bcilily  with  which  tents  are  taken  down  and  the 
frsiltt  of  iheir  material  are  beaulifuUv  alluded  to  by 
Paul  In  2  Cor.  v,  I  (see  also  2  Pel.  i,  13, 14).  See  Hack- 
tti.  lOtHr.  nf  Script,  p.  S3-40i  Van  Lennep,  /Jible 
Utdi.  eb.  iii;  Rhoiles,  TrM-li/r  from  Ihr  Enrlial 
Timn  (Loud.  IHoH);  Conder,  Ttnt-sork  in  Piihtl.  ii. 

Tentll  D«al  r(1~^Vy,  ituinm.  a  Imih :  Sept.  cua- 
t-t).  the  imik  pnrl.  a  measure  of  things  dri',  s|>ecislly 
ft«Krun  and  meal  (Exod.  xxix. 40;  Lev.  xiv;  Numb. 
If,  iiviii,  xxix):  more  fully  tbe  tenth  of  an  ephah 
i.u  the  Sept.  and  Vnlg.  expUin  at  x*,4).  i.  e.  an  omtr, 
n  abflot  ihree  and  a  half  quarts  (comp.  Lev.  v,  16;  vi, 
13:  Nuaib.v,  15).     Sec  Hutiioukit. 

TbdUis,  in  English  law.  are  the  tenth  part  of  the 
'larly  value  of  every  spiritual  benefice  as  it  is  valued 
in  the  f.t6rT  Sfyii.  This  na*  an  impnni  formerly  paid 
In  the  pope,  and  was  annexed  to  the  crown  In-  the  21! 
Hiniy  >111,  c  3,  and  the  I  Eliiabelh,  c.  4 ;  but  by  ihe 
t  Amir.  r.  11.  was  granted,  together  with  tbe  (Irst-fruils, 
•■■"inU  (he  augmentation  of  paor  clergymen.     A  lax 


9  TERAH 

on  the  temporality,  and  also  certain  rents  reserved  by 
the  king  out  of  the  monastic  possessions  he  granted  la 
his  subjects,  were  also  called  tenths.  Tenths  of  eccle- 
siastical beneliFes  and  lands  were  Srst  paid  in  1188  tti- 
wards  Henry  ll's  crusade.  See  Taxatio  EccuuiusTl- 
ca;  Tehpoealities  of  BtHnors;  Tithks. 

Tentael,  Wilhklu  Ernst,  a  German  thecdogian. 
waabom  July  ll,1669,Bt  Ureuseen,  ill  Thuringia.  He 
became  lecturer  at  the  gymnasium  at  Got  ha  in  1685,  and. 
was  appointed  in  169£  historiographer  there,  and  dieil 
at  Dresden,  Nov.  24, 1T07.  In  (he  theologiol  depart* 
mentbe  iaespecially  known  by  his  controversy  with  Iho 
Jesuit  Schelstrale  on  the  aratm  lUtciplina  (q.v.):  Dii- 
trrUttio  de  DiK^ina  Arcam  (Wittenb.  1683:  also  in 
his  Kxrrdlalionei  Sebcta  (I.eipB.  and  FronkfL  1692). 
written  against  the  AnHquUat  lUuttrata.  Tentzel  also- 
published  Eiemitali/inn  X  de  Ht/Jimo  Te  Dtum  t.au- 
damm  (ibid.  1692).  Of  great  interest  is  also  his  his- 
torical narrative  of  the  beginning  and  Srst  progress  uf 
Luther's  Reformation,  thus  explaining  Seckendorf's  his- 
tory of  Lulheranism,  edited  by  Cyprian  (ibid.  I7IB,  )l 
vols.):— 0«  Protaickii  aamaritixntm  (Wittenb.  1682): 
— Ditttiiatio  dt  Ritu  Ltclionum  SacrarBm  (ibid.  1685). 
See  ThtoL  Umctrtat-Leiiiori.KV,;  Winer,  HandbueK 
Jo- /A<oiti/*rarar,  1,609,628, 738, 849, 854 J  ii,799;  Fa- 
bridus,  BiUiolL  Ercltiiait.  (Hamburg,  1 718),  voL  i ;  Rt- 
gftubarffer  Rfal'Eatytlop,  i,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Tea     See  ASTBLQI^ 

Teocalll  (Aziec,  itoil,  "god,"  and  calS,  "house"), 
a  lume  given  to  the  aboriginal  temples,  many  remains 
of  which  are  still  in  existence.  Recent  investigationa 
have  rendered  it  probable  that  many  structure*  which, 
on  Spanish  authority,  have  been  received  aa  temples, 
and  palaces  were  in  reality  multiple  hoDBes. 

Teotl,  the  name  for  God  among  tbe  ancient  Mex- 
icans. He  is  called  "  tbe  Cause  of  cauae* "  and  "  the 
Father  of  all  things."  He  was  identiBed  with  the 
sun-god,  which,  on  this  account,  waa  deaignaled  lie 
TtoO. 

Tepllilllll.    See  PanacTEiiT. 

Te'iah  (Heb.  Te'rach,  n^n,  ttalum  [see  also  Ta- 
RAii];  SepL ei^pa. eapa ;  J<isephus,eii(i^t,.^n(.i,G, 
fi ;  Vulg.  Thanj,  the  father  of  jtbram,  Nabnr,  and  Ha- 
ran,  and  through  them  Ihe  ancestor  d"  the  great  fami- 
lies of  the  Israelites,  Ishnuwlites,  Midiani(es,  MoaUtes, 
and  Ammonitea  (Gen.  xi,  24-82).  RC229S-208S.  The 
account  given  of  him  in  the  Old-Ts*t.  narrative  is  very 
brief.  We  learn  from  it  simplv  that  be  waa  an  idola- 
ter (Josh.xxiv,2);  that  he 'dwelt  beyond  the  Eu- 
pbraies  in  Ur  of  tbe  Chaldees  ( Gen.  xi,  28 ) ;  that 
in  the  westerly  migration  which  he  undeniwk  in  bis 
old  age  he  went  with  bis  son  Abram,  his  daughter-in- 
law  Sarai,  and  his  grandson  Lot, "  to  go  into  the  lanil 
of  Canaan,  and  they  came  unto  Haran  and  dwell  (1ierc~ 
(ver.  31);  and,  finall.v,  that  "ihe  days  of  Terah  were 
two  hundred  and  five  years;  and  Terah  died  in  Haran" 
(ver.32).  Taking  Ihe  language  of  Abraham  about  Sa- 
rah being  Ihe  daughter  of  his  father  but  not  of  his 
ntnlber  (xx,  12)  in  its  natural  sense,  Terah  must  have 
had  children  by  more  wives  than  one;  but  we  have  no 
particular  account  of  his  domealic  relations  in  this  re- 
in connection  with  this  migration  a  chronological 
difficulty  has  arisen  which  may  be  noticeil  here.  .In 
the  speech  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  4)  it  is  said  Ihai  ihe 
further  journey  of  Abraham  fmm  Haran  to  Ihe  land  of 
Cjtnaan  did  not  lake  place  till  after  his  father's  drath. 

Samar.  text  and  version  make  him  one  hundnii  and  l^ir- 
ly-Sve,  and  so  avtrid  this  difficulty)  when  hi-  dltil,  and 
Abram  was  seventy-lire  when  he  lefl  Haran  (lien,  xii, 
4)  it  follows  thai,  if  the  >i>eech  of  .Stephen  be  .-orrect, 
at  Abcam's  birth  Terah  mu^t  have  been  one  hundred 
and  thirty  yean  old;  ami  therefore  that  Ihe  order  oT 


TERAH  2 

Tik  Hina — Abnm,  Nihor,  Humo — given  tn  Gen.  it,  36, 
17  i!iiu>t  their  order  in  point  of  age.  Lord  Arthur  Iler- 
ver  ur>  (CflMoJ,  p.82,S3),  "The  difflcully  iseuily  got 
iirer  by  nipposing  cbat  Abrim,  though  uined  Bnt  on 
account  of  hii  dignity,  was  not  Ibe  eldest  son,  but  prob- 
ably the  youngeit  of  the  thm,  bom  nheo  hia  Tather 
was  one  hundred  and  thirty  year*  old — ■  suppoaition 
wlih  which  the  marriage  of  Nahoinitb  hi*  elder  broth- 
er Haran't  daughter,  Milnh,  and  the  apparent  neanieaa 
iif  age  between  Abram  and  Lot,  and  the  three  genera- 
'  s  from  Naboi  to  Rebekah  correapoading  to  only 
ji  luac,  are  in  perfect  bannony." 


the  death  of  hia  father,  induced  him  to  proceed  from 
Haran  to  Canaan.  The  order  to  Abraham  to  proceed  to 
Canaan  immediately  after  Terah's  death  geetna  to  in- 
-dicate  Ibat  the  pause  at  Haran  was  on  hia  account. 
If  hether  he  declined  to  proceed  any  farther,  or  his  ad- 
vance age  rendered  him  aneqnal  to  the  fatigues  of  the 
journey,  can  only  be  conjectured,  Ii  appeara,  however, 
from  Joah.  jtxir,  2, 14  that  Terih  was  given  to  idolatry, 
■or  rather,  perhaps,  to  certain  idolalmus  supeialidona, 
leiaineil  together  with  the  acknowledgment  and  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah,  such  as  existed  in  the  family  in  the 
lime  of  hia  great-grandson  Uban  (Cien.xixi,30].  This 
may  suggest  Ihat  it  was  not  in  the  divine  wisdom  deem- 
-ed  proper  that  one  who  had  grown  old  in  sucb  practices 
should  enl«r  the  land  in  which  hia  deacendanis  were 
-destined  to  exemplify  a  pure  faith. 

From  the  simple  facts  of  Terah's  life  recorded  in  the 
Old  Test,  has  bven  cotistnicled  the  entire  legend  of 
Abnm  which  is  current  in  Jewish  and  Arabian  tradi- 
tions. Terah  the  idolater  ia  turned  into  a  Duker  of 
imai^and  "Urof  the  thaldees"  is  the  original  of  the 
"  ■  h  Abram  was  cast  (comp.  Eiek.  v, 


2)- 


in  Qen. 


nthe 


of  Terah  his  father:'  in  the  lifetime  of  bis  fa- 
ther. And  the  Midrash  Haggadah  says  that  ha  died  be- 
side Uin  father,  for  Termh  had  complained  of  Abram  his 
son  before  Nimrod  that  he  had  broken  his  images,  and 
he  cast  him  into  a  furnace  of  hre.  And  Haran  was  sit- 
ting and  saying  in  his  heart.  If  Abram  overcome,  I  am 
on  his  aide;  and  if  Nimrod  overcome,  I  am  on  bis  aide. 
And  when  Abram  wsa  saved,  they  said  to  Haimn,  On 
whose  aide  art  thou?  He  aaid  Co  them,  I  am  on 
Abram's  aide.  So  they  cast  him  into  the  furnace  of 
Are  and  he  was  burned;  and  this  is  [what  is  meant  by] 
l/r  Caidira  (Ur  of  the  Cbaldees),"  In  BfrnMilh  Rab- 
■6a  (par.  17)  the  story  is  told  of  Abraham  being  left  to 
■ell  idols  in  his  father's  stead,  which  is  repeated  in 
Weil,  DiUiail  Lfgaidt,  p.  49.  The  whole  legend  de- 
pends upon  the  ambiguity  of  the  word  *137.  which  aig- 
nillea  "  Ui  make"  and  "  to  serve  or  worship;"  so  that  Te- 
rah, who  in  the  Biblical  narrative  is  only  a  worshipper 
-of  idiilM,  is  in  the  Jewish  tradition  an  image-maker; 
and  about  this  single  point  the  whole  sloiy  has  grown. 
It  certainly  was  unknown  lo  Josephus.  who  telb  noth- 
ing of  Terah  except  that  it  was  grief  for  the  death  of 
his  son  Haran  that  induced  him  lo  quit  Ur  of  the  Cbal- 

In  the  Jewish  traditions  Terah  ia  a  |>rince  and  a 
great  man  in  the  palace  of  N'imrod  (Jellinek,  Hrt  ham- 
HidTiuh,  p.  n),  the  captain  of  his  army  {Sfjihrr  lliig- 
yaihnr),  his  kit.  in-law  according  lo  the  Arabs  (Deer, 
Lrhra  AbniAnnu,  p.  97).  His  wife  is  called  in  the  Tal- 
mud (Hiiba  Hathra,  foL  91  a)  Amtelal  or  Emteloi,  the 
daughter  of  Camcbo.  In  the  book  of  the  Jubilees  she 
iscallcit  Edna,  the  daughter  of  Arem.or  Aram;  and  by 
the  Araln  Adna  <  IVHerbelot,  HSdvUtuque  Orimlalt,  s.  v. 
-Abraham;"  Beer,  p.  97).     According  to  IVHcrbelol, 

4raditialr^  and  Terah  was  his  grandfather.     KImakin, 
<|U'Pteil  by  llottingcr  {Smrgma  Orimlak,  p.  Wl),  says  . 


10  TERAPHIM 

that,  after  the  death  of  Yuna,  Abraham's  mother.  Tmb 
took  another  wife,  who  bare  him  Saiah.  He  adds  ihsi 
in  the  days  of  Terah  the  king  of  Babylon  mode  wir 
upon  the  country  in  which  he  dwelt,  and  that  Uainu], 
the  brother  of  Terah,  went  out  against  him  and  ilnr 
him;  and  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  was  trantfcmd  ro 
NiiKveh  and  HoauL  For  all  these  traditions,  ne  tba 
book  of  Jasherand  the  works  of  Hotttnger,  D'Herbdot, 
Weil,  and  Beer  above  quoted.  Philo  (Dt  .Somw)  Is- 
dulges  in  some  strange  speculations  with  regard  U  Te> 

Tmr'aphlm  (Heb.  terapKim,  S^B^P ;  only  thus  Id 
the  maac  plur.  in  the  Bible,  but  in  the  fern.  plur.  nil^ri, 
Irrapkdik,  in  Rabbinical  writers)  seems  to  denote  tutelar 
household  imsges,  by  whom  families  expected,  for  rei-tr- 
ence  bestowed,  to  be  rewanledwith  domestic  pro^rity. 
such  as  plenty  of  food,  health,  and  various  necetvariet  of 
domestic  life.  This  word  is  in  the  A.V.  alwayi  ren- 
dered either  by  "teraphi 


■"with -I 


ptinl  Sam.xv,  23;  ZedLi, 

2,  where  it  is  rqiresented  by  " idolatry,"  "idiJfc"  The 
Hngular  of  the  word  does  not  occur,  though  in  1  Sam. 
Ill,  13, 13  it  appears  that  only  onr  image  is  refeired  to. 
Poaaibly,  as  in  the  ease  of  the  Roman  Penates  (which 
word,  also,  has  no  singular),  these  representative  imagei 

in  the  Sept,  they  are  rvptMcnled  by  a  different  ivndei. 
ing  in  nearly  every  book  where  the  word  occuisi  in 
Uen.  xiii  by  itiuXa;  in  Judg.  xvii,  xviii  by  iffofh' 
oTtd^papiivi  in  1  .Sam.iix  by  nrkoroffui;  in  EmL 
xxi,  21  by  yXvTTBi  in  Hoa.  iii,  4  by  ^qXm;  and  ia 
Zech.  X,  2  by  aTVfifyroiuvoi.  In  ibe  Vulg.  we  bid 
nearly  the  same  variations  between  lirraphim,  daim, 
iiola,rimaUara.igviTaiilolomH,idiMalrin.  Foroibn 
tnuulatims,  which  we  And  to  be  equally  vague  asd 
various,  see  below. 

I.  D*rviatitmo/At  TVrss.— The  etymology  and  mnn- 
ing  of  this  word  maybe  interred  from  the  various  nwdes 
in  which  it  is  represented  by  the  Greek  translator*,  ucb 
as  iipa^iv,  ri  Sfpa^'tv,  or  vii  Stpa^V,  remiiHling  u 
of  ihe  etymological  connection  of  q^a,  qir,  to  aoarisl, 
with  Tpif-ttv,  Its  remote  derivatives  in  modem  ha- 
guages,  viz.  the  Italian  taiifii,  ?'rench  lar^,  and  evai  Ibe 
English  (ripr,throw  a  little  Kght  upon  our  subject.  Ac- 
cording lo  its  etymology,  the  word  teraphim  has  been  lit- 
erally translated  Jititriiortt.wtiTuhrri,  1 1  wenig  that  Ibe 
plural  form  was  used  as  a  collective  singular  for  the  pM- 
sonified  comtnnation  of  all  nourishing  powers,  as  the  plo- 
ral  teraphim  signifies  (^od,  in  whom  all  auperior  poirm 
to  be  revered  with  reverential  awe  are  combined  (tonijk 
the  classical  epithets  of  goda — Sol ,  Ph(efau^  Ceres,  Teaiu, 
Cybele,  Pales,  Trivia,  Fidea,  Kbylla,  etc,  almia,  ofiTMoc, 
rffilfifioc).  The  word  uraphim  signified  an  object  or 
objects  of  idolatr}-,  as  we  may  learn  from  some  of  the 
above  renderings  of  the  Sept^  iituiXov,  yXvrr^ni;  smI 
that  it  was  in  meaning  similar  lo  the  Paaart  ia  imlicsl- 
ed  by  KivoTafioK.  Aquila  renders  it  ftopfaitara,  rpf 
TOjiat,  av^i^nipfviQ,  ia-iXuctic,  iljtwXo;  Symmacbut 

Tbe  bot)k  Zohar  derives  the  name  teiaphim  fmn 
rillP,  turjntude,  but  mentions  also  that  rabbi  Jehnds 
derives  it  from  rtE'>,  fa  ifacini,  because  they  alackenal 
the  hands  of  men  in  well-doing.  The  rabbi  adds  tbtl 
they  uttered  a  ncn  nv.izi.pnphnia  l<aa,iniadi,nwi, 
a  louse  sort  of  prediction.  Hence  rabbi  Bechai  lajt 
that  D^E'n  are  the  same  as  VD'^iftrbk,  objects  int 
to  be  dependeil  upon.  But  in  Tanchuma  the  fonnrt 
ety^lolog^'  is  produced,  since  the  leraphim  were  nC'* 
y\~|^^,opa^larJnladilHlttafltdi^rai^  (see  Buxtor6i '.«'- 
rutnvff.  rf  AiM.  s.  V.  q^r,  which  root  oceuts  in  the  Lai. 
lurpit).  Onkclos  retiilers  teraphiin  in  Gen.  xxxi  by 
X-'I'sbX,  and  Jonathan  in  Judg.  ivii  and  xviii  br 
','Xa-^  inuigrt.     The  Targum  on  Has.  iii.  1  has  •'"^Tn, 


TERAPHIM  2( 

Hiaiu,txpoaDder  of  otuIm,  where  llie  Greek  hu  SSf 

l«;  ud  the  Targnm  on  1  Sam.  iv,  28  itnlSD,  idoU. 
Svtaaia,  ondei  C)ir,  goee  so  far  u  ui  assert  that  the 
witi  a)!^^!!!?!);  'a  (bmwd  (hm  D'^B^nn.  Lud.  de 
Dkh,  ind  after  him  Spencer,  in  Leg.  Rit.  Hthr.  Dimrt, 
liu,LS,c3,  §  7),ursealhe  frequeot  intercbaoge  of  the 
looDdi  (  uid  t  and  lA,  in  order  lo  show  that  teraphiin 
ind  Knphim  are  etpnotogically  coiUMCted.  Hat- 
ing, ID  his  Smtfftna,  and  Kiicber,  in  the  tint  vol- 
ant of  bis  (E£pui  ^gj/pliacut,  exhibit  the  eCymo- 
I 'ogiiti  pnigitnion  tbua:  Sor  ApU  (aiip  air,  ark  a/Oit 
oil,  Sanqiu,  Serapit,  Terapit,  TerapAim,  The  Ara- 
HciMtba  Aben  Nepb  al«a  asaetta  tbe  idendty  of  Tera- 
fUat  and  Srmpida.  Othen  appeal  to  KB^,  brpa- 
TTuv,  la  ital  (comp.  Wirhraaniuhauaen,  Diuaiatio 
ii  Trrapiim:  Witniu,  jEgfptiuca,  i,  8;  UgoHno,  Tha. 
lii,  'iW).  Coin,  in  his  BMiMie  Theohgie,  derives 
ttafiluni  froni  the  Syiiac  arapk,  perconUiri,  Geaen- 
iia  (rAaoKr.  p.  1619}  refers  it  lo  the  Arabic  root 


fm,    Fllm(aAi^.)retnmBU>therDot  b]'in,inlhe 

[L  Biblical  Ae/eroKM.— I.  Teraphim  are  fint  men- 
boDHlin  Qen-ixxi,  19,  where  we  are  told  that  Rachel 
Rok  tbe  teraphim  of  her  father  Laban,  aud  succeaafully 
fmwsled  them  from  his  search  mider  the  iiran,  or 
owK  carpet  which  ia  used  ui  cover  the  wicker-woch 
|«k-wldle  of  the  cameL  Aben-Eira  says  that 
ule  tbem  in  order  that  her  falher  might  not,  by  mt 
tl  Lhor  mctea,  discover  the  direction  of  Jacob's  flight 
{tod  >e  note  that  L^bao  adopted  this  or  some  other 
Emie  of  aogury  from  bis  use  of  tbe  word  idcAdthlhi, 
-[  hai-e  ■Dgniiid''  [xxx,  27]);  bul  Josepbos  says  that 
»be  carried  off  tbeae  rvrau^  rwv  ^twf  that  they  might 
wTc  u  a  material  protection  to  her  if  overtaken,  al- 
ihough  (tae  herself  disbelieved  in  tbem  (Earn^avdv 
lur  r^  Touunic  ffK  ^"^  3<i*v  tttafavroc  aliT^v 
!ti  'tooi^OTi  [Ant.  i,  19,  Sj)  ;  and,  lastly,  some  sup- 
poK  that  she  waa  templed  by  the  precious  meti ' 
rhich  tbcv  were  made.  It  is  far  more  probable 
H^  ber  (ather,  Rachel,  wboee  mind  waa  evidently 
fd  aith  snpeiatition  (GeiL  ixx,  14),  regarded  the  tera- 
pliiaiai  lutelarr  "gods"  (xixi,8D).  Laban's  eagerness 
u>  iKBTet  them  shows  the  importance 
itTvbtid;  and  it  is  important  to  observe  that,altbough 
>  Wiever  in  Elohim  (ver.  68),  be  openly  paid  to  these 
inafibiiD,  which  were  probably  ancestral  divinities  of 
hia  Eimilv  (ibid.),  an  idolatrous  worsbip.  Jurieu  (_l/at. 
*i  VBgna  H  det  CuUa,  ii,  3,  456 ),  after  etabontely 
FBUring  into  the  queation,  thinks  that  they  may  have 
Inti  inugea  of  Sbem  and  Noah.     Ftam  this  Rihiical 

iin»  lipirea,  which  could  not  very  easily  be  secreted. 
1  li  is  extremely  probable  that  these  household  de- 
•n([e  gods" 


breqmi 


e  up. 


•ad  "hirh  were  buried  by  him  under  the  boughs  of 
.(ita-Jfflwoi«t,  -the  Borcereis'  oak"  (Judg.  in,  37). 
^  an  isolated  act  would  naturally  be  ineffectual  lo 
■Mwb  a  colt  which  had  probablv  existed  for  centuries 
ic  tbe  Aramiean  home  of  the  Shemites;  and,  conse. 
lonitly,  in  the  time  of  the  Jud^ies  »e  find  the  worship 
'-tUfiphiai  distiiig  in  full  vigor.  The  ITlh  and  ISth 
'kipttfiof  JuHpe*  are  entirely  occupied  with  the  story 
'f  Hicah,  an  Ephraimite,  who  in  tttose  wild  and  igno- 
'■n  linvs  bad  fancied  that  he  could  honor  Jehovah 

nd.  13)  by  establishing  a  worship  in  his  own  house. 
'"  ib(  ffihiMl  and  teraphim  which  he  already  posseiseil 

'^-i)  bis  mother  ad<ted  a /'urf  and  iltuidiik  (possibly 
'■  ciTKi  and  ■  molten  image")  made  out  of  the  gold 


W  aoleD.  When  Jonathan,  the  grandaon  of  Moses 
amtd  u  the  bouae  in  his  accidental  wanderings  Mi 
■fngagol  him  as  a  regular  priest,  and  anticipalnl,  ii 


TERAPHIM 

GfHisequence,  tbe  special  blessing  of  Jebovah.  The  five 
Danite  spies  consulted  these  oracular  Penates  of  Micah 
through  the  intervention  of  Jonathan  (ivUi,  6),  and  in- 
formed the  Oanites  on  their  way  to  Laish  of  the  imagea- 
'  icb  the  house  contained.  The  Danite  warriors,  with 
most  unscrupulous  indifference,  violently  carried  off 
the  whole  apparatus  of  this  private  cult,  including  the 
priest  himself,  to  thdr  new  city ;  and  we  are  informed 
that  it  condnued  to  be  celebrated  till  "  the  day  of  the 
captivity  of  the  land,"  which,  aa  we  see  from  the  next 
verse,  may  perhaps  mean  tilt  tbe  capture  of  Shiloh  by 
the  Philislines.  What  is  most  remarkable  in  this  nar- 
re  is  the  fact  that  both  Uicsh,  who  was  s  worship- 
of  Jehovah,  and  the  Danites,  who  acknowledged 
Elohim  (ver.  h,  10),  and  Jonathan,  the  grandson  of  Hn> 
ses  himself,  should,  in  spite  of  tlie  disiinctest  prohibi- 
ions  of  tbe  law,  have  regarded  the  adoration  of  tera- 
him  and  other  images  aa  harmlcas,  if  not  aa  laudable  { 
nd  that  this  foroi  of  idolatry,  without  any  political  mo. 
ive  to  palliate  it  aa  in  the  case  of  Jeroboam,  should 
have  been  adopted  and  maintained  without  surprise  or 
hesitation,  nay, even  with  eager  enthusiasm,  by  an  entire 
tribe  of  IsraeL  Thia  is  very  much  as  at  present  some 
fonns  of  image-adoration  are  blended  with  the  service 
of  God.  That  such  will-worship,  however,  was  only 
comparatively  innocent,  aud  originated  in  an  obstinate 
pTuritui  of  improving  rather  (ban  obeying  God's  reve- 
lation, Samuel  clearly  expressed  in  reproving  Saul  (1 
Sam.  XV,  2B) :  "Stubbornness  is  as  iniquity  and  idola- 
try" (literally  teraphim).  We  da  not  read  that  tbe 
slubbomneaa  of  Saul  led  him  actually  to  worship  tera- 
phim. However,  bis  daughter  possessed  teraphim,  aa- 
we  shall  see  preaently. 

Sam.  xix,  18-16,  where  Hicbal,  lo  give  David  more  time 
to  eacape,  deceives  the  mesaengers  of  Saul  by  putting 
*'  the  teraphim"  in  his  tied, "  with  a  pillow  of  goata'-luiir 
for  bis  bolster."  The  use  of  the  article  shows  that  "  the 
teraphim"  waa  somethiug  perfectly  well  known  (Theni- 
us,aiJJoc.);  and  tbe  fact  that  we  thus  find  it  (or  them) 
in  the  bouse  of  a  man  so  pioua  as  David  entirely  con- 

The  suggestions  of  Micbaelis  that  Michal  may  have 
worshipped  them  unknown  to  David,  and  that  barren 
women  were  especially  devoted  to  them,  are  wholly 
without  foundation.  The  article  (D'^B^m)  explodes 
the  arguments  of  Michaelis  {Dt  Thtraphii,  Commai. 
Soc.  GoU.  1768),  Bochart  {Ilieroz.  i,  623),  etc,  that  the 
lerapbim  in  ibis  instance  was  a  mere  hastily  made  dull 
of  rags;  in  fact,  a  Bortuf  malkin.  We  may  legitimately 
itifer  from  tbe  passage  that  they  had  some  rude  resem- 
blance to  the  human  shape,  being,  perhaps,  somethiug 
bke  the  Uenns;  hence  Aquila  in  this  place  rendeis  the 
word  by  irporofiai.  Tbe  Sept,  rendering  avoTa^ta 
very  probably  points  to  the  belief  that  the  teraphim: 
were  images  of  deceased  ancestors  (^tivoia^m  Tiva 
ijoov  iKiaooftfva  wc  ruiroc  vicpoii.  Suid.  vul.  Bo- 
chart, fiiem,  t,  ii,  Gl)i  and  the  rendering  of  "pnt  a 
pillow  of  guats'-bair  for  his  bolster"  by  mi  Ijrap  twv 
alfaiv  tSiro  rpic  KifaXijt  aiiToO,  "she  placcil  the 
goats'  liver  at  his  head,"  shows  that  they  read  "^23, 
"liver,"  for  -l^aa,  "mattress."  Now  if  thia  ancient 
reading  were  correct,  it  brings  the  passage  into  remark- 
able parallel  with  Ezek.  xxl,  21,  where  Nebuchadnezzar 
is  said  to  have  decided  his  course  by  bclomaiilia.tngelh- 

hver  (eifiipirium).  It  is  possible  thatMichal  may  have 
lieen  divining  by  means  of  a  sacrifice  to  the  terapliim 
when  Haul's  messenger  arrived,  and  that  she  pui  the 
yet  palpitating  liver  on  the  bed  with  the  image,  which 
in  a  small,  ilark,  narrow  recess  might  well  enough  |iasB 
lor  a  human  txing.  Jusephus,  with  his  usual  want  iif 
honesty,  omits  all  mention  of  the  teraphim,  and  mily 
says  that  she  put  the  liver  under  the  bedcti 


g  that  it 


[hat  I)av 


1,11,4).    The- 


TERAPHIM 

odont  (QboM.  49,  in  1  Rtg.)  NpMU  thii  pfcpoaUioiu 

Oil  eveiy  lerivsl  of  tho  knowled^  oT  the  written 
nvebtlon  of  God  the  lera]jliiin  wrie  swept  kwiv,  to- 
other wilb  the  woiw  fnrm<  af  idolaU;  (2  Kings  ixiii, 
1i*):  "The  workers  with  familiu  •piriu,  »nd  the  wii- 
■nls,  Hid  the  imiges  ((enphim),  rbA  the  idols,  and  all 
the  ibominationi  that  were  ^ied  in  the  land  of  Juilali 
and  in  Jeniulem,  did  Joaiah  put  away,  that  be  might 
perruTRi  Ihe  words  of  the  Uw  which  were  wrillen  in  the 
t><-uk  that  Hilkiab  the  priett  found  in  (be  bouse  oftbe 
J»rd.- 

4.  The  next  passage  in  bistoricol  order  aliout  the  ter- 
4iphini  19  Hos.  iii,  4,  which  is  encompuaed  b;  difficul- 
ties. The  pniphel,  purchasing  Gomer  to  himself,  bids 
lier  lie  chaste  for  manj-  days,  "for  the  children  of  Israel 
Almll  abide  many  days  without  a  king,  and  without  a 
nacrilice,  and  wilhout  an  image  (malsebdh),  and  without 
an  ephod,  and  without  teraphim."  Here  it  would  cer- 
tainly be  the  priimiyacu  impression  of  every  unbiassed 
reader  that  Ihe  niatiebab  and  the  terapbim  are  men- 
■iaucd  withont  blame  as  ordiniiy  parts  of  religious  wor- 
ship. Without,  however,  entering  into  the  question 
(which,  perhaps,  cannot  be  decided)  whether  Hoaea  did 
or  did  not  mean  <o  commend  or  tolerate  these  maEerial 
adjuncts  lo  a  monotheistic  worship,  it  is  certainty  not 

should  have  continued  in  Israel  side  by  side  with  that 
le  calves,  which  bernnd  all  doubt  were  intend- 
mere  Elohistic  symbols;  and  this  is  the  less 
surprising  when  we  lemembet  that  one  of  these  cheni- 
hii  emblems  was  set  up  in  the  very  city  (Dan)  to  which 
the  teraphim  otMicab  bad  been  carrial;  and  probably, 
indeed,  because  oftbe  existence  there  oftbe  irregular 
wonhip  esUhlished  by  Moses'  grandson.  But  here, 
again,  the  ScpL  version  is  curious  and  perplexing,  for  it 
nap"  the  word  iqXoi  (sc  \l^o^  bright  gems),  a  word 
which,  like  ^qXwmi-,  it  uses  elsewhere  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  (Numb,  xxvii,  31;  I  Sam.  xxviii,  6)«  and 
Aquila  seems  to  have  bad  (be  same  notion  in  adopting 
4be  word  funfr/uftc,  and  it  is  even  countenanced  by 
Jerome,  who  in  this  passage  includn  the  Leiaphim 
among  the  "  insUumeDla  aaeerdotaUs  habitus."  This  is 
<me  surling-point  for  the  theoi7,  supported  with  such  a 
mass  or  splendid  but  unconvincing  learning  by  Spencer 
(  De  Ugg.  Hi*r.  lib.  iii,  dissert,  vii,  p.  920-1038},  that  the 
tera|ihim  and  urim  were  identical.  He  argues  not  only 
frumtbisreuderingi^\oi,but  also  (1)  from  the  frequenl 
union  of  ephod  with  teraphim ;  (2)  from  the  supposition 
(but  urim  means  "Giea,"  and  thai  teraphim  means  tbe 
Minp,  being  a  mere  Aramaic  equivalent  ' 


12  TERAPHIM 

ued  down  to  the  blest  period  nf  Jewish  history;  isd 
lastly,  that,  although  the  more  enlightened  prophets  and 
•irietest  later  kings  regarded  tbem  ss  idolaunus,  the 
priests  were  much  less  avene  lo  such  image*,  and  tbdr 
cult  was  not  considered  in  any  way  repugnant  lo  ibe 
pious  warship  of  Elobim  ;  nay,  even  lo  the  worship  at 
him  "under  tho  awful  title  of  Jehovah,"  as  in  the 
cose  of  Aaron,  Jonathan,  Uriah,  etc  (See  some  acute 
remarks  on  this  subject  in  Nicolas,  ituAt  CrU.  nr  bt 
BiiJt,  p.  I-29-IS5.)  In  fact,  tbey  involved  a  monothe- 
istic idolalry,  very  dilDirent  iqdeed  from  polytbeian: 
and  the  lotennce  of  them  by  pHeMs  a*  compared  with 
Ibe  denunciation  of  them  by  Ibe  keener  insight  and 

analogy  lo  the  views  of  the  Koman  Cotliolioa  Tt«pecling 
pictures  and  images  as  compared  with  the  views  of 
Prutestanla.     It  was  against  this  use  of  idolatrous  lynt- 


bols  . 


imblen 


uidmi 


wied,  w 


_  _    irer  sin  of  direct  polytheism.    Bat 

the  whole  history  of  Israel  shows  bow  patly  and  how 
uiterly  ibe  law  must  have  fallen  into  desuetude.  The 
worship  of  the  gulden  calf  and  oftbe  calves  at  Dan  and 
Bethel,  against  which,  so  far  as  we  know,  neither  Elijah 
nor  Eliaha  said  a  lungle  word;  the  tolenmie  of  high- 
places,  teraphina,  and  bntytila;  the  offering  of  inoenw  for 
centuries  to  the  brazen  setpent  destmyed  by  Hezeldahi 
the  occasions!  glimpses  of  ibe  most  siarilinK  irr«gulari- 
saitclioned,apparenlly,even  in  Ibe  Temple  wonhip 


■ning  or 


-(8)  ft 


cular  purposes.  He  concludes,  therefore, 
thai  iliey  were  small  images,  pcrmilled  as  a  kind  of 
net'CSKsrv  concession  to  deeply  rooied  idotalry,  placed  in 
the  folrli  oftbe  ephod  and  believed  lo  emit  predictions 
of  the  divine  wiU.  How  ill  Ihe  theory  accnnis  with  the 
•lau  before  us  will  be  obvious  at  once.  This  passage 
seems  tn  indicate  that  as  Ihc  use  of  teraphim,  like  that 
of  the  reiiates  and  Lares  among  the  Komans.  was  con- 
iiecteil  wilb  natioiudity,il  necessarily  perinhwl  with  the 


I.  fhc 


suited  e< 


n  after  the  Cap- 


itseir,  pi 


Shemitic  n 


ged.  Ibe  instinct  vl  the  obols 
ither  words,  one  nngle  branch  of  tbs 
'  Uod^s  providence,  educated  i  nio  purs 
monntheism  only  by  centuries  of  misfonune  and  aeries 
of  inspired  men.  In  fsct,  we  have  most  remsrkabk 
proofs  that  the  use  of  Mtaphim  coexisted  with  the  wo^ 
of  Jehovah  even  in  comparatively  pi 


and  w 


■r  the  1 


worshippers  of  Jehovah  not  finding  full  o 
and  satisfaction  in  the  stem  mnnt  Iruth  of  spiiitoil 
worship,  and  iberefore  carrying  on  some  private  lyv- 
holism  by  fondling  tlie  lerapbim.  It  seems,  boKtrer, 
that  this  swerving  from  Iruth  was  campaniively  ioiM- 
cenU  ll  was  never  denounced  and  suppressed  with  the 
same  rigor  as  the  worship  ufMulocb.  ThereUin  ADr.sa 
positive  evidence  that  the  teraphim  ever  were  aruiallT 
worshipped. .  They  seem  raiber  to  have  been  cherisbpl 
as  (itlunuins  than  as  idols.    See  Maoic 

III.  Opimoni  af  LattT  ,!<cAoJ<irj.— Haides  Speneer'i 
theory,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  we  may  nun- 
tion  othcTB,  utterly  valueless  indeed,  yet  curious  ss  bal- 
ing on  the  history  of  the  subject. 

1.  AoMtnt According  lo  the  great  rabbi  Elienr. 

who  was  the  son  of  Hyrcanua  and  the  brotber-in-li' 
of  Camoliel  II,  who  seems  lo  have  been  tin  iui>ir 
of  Paul  (in  Pirhe  Aholh.  and  the  Targum  of  Jons- 
than  on  Gen.  iiii,  19),  the  worship  of  leraphim  »•• 
connected  with  atrocities.  "  The  makers  of  leraphin 
slaughtered  a  man  who  was  a  firslr-bom,  cot  his  hod 
-       ■      ■     I  it,  and  cured  it 


livity  by  persons  upon  whom  true  religion  had  no  firm 

ter  this,  tbey  wruie  the  name  of  an  impi.re  spirit  and 

lar  to  Ibe  angaria  of  the  Komans.     Thus  (Zech.  x,  2) ; 

placed  under  the  tongue  of  the  beait,  which  was  fts- 

lened  lo  the  wall,  and  lighted  lamps  befin^  it.  and  knit 

In  like  manner  at  a  previous  age,  in  connection  with 

ilcwn  in  adoration,  upon  which  tbe  tongue  began  u 

Ihe  *.ir...,..o.i  inslilnted  by  tbe  king  of  Babylon,  we 

utter  divinations."    Rabbi  Salomo,  or  Koshi  (2  Kinp 

rewt  ly.ix'n.  xxi,  21, 26)  Ibat  he  consulted  images  (tera- 

xxili, -^4),  says,  ''The  leraphim  uttered  divinalioni  by 

phim). 

magical  and  boniscnpic  ans."     On  1  Sam.  xix,  15  aq- 

The  main  ami  certain  results  nf  this  review  are  that 

he  adduces  the  opinion  Ihat  Ihe  terapbim  were  bon- 

the  teraphim  w.r..  nide  human  images:  that  tbe  use  of 

them  was  an  antique  Aramaic  ciuttom;  that  there  in 

he  ™nfe»seB  Ibat  ibi.  opinion,  lo  which  be  it  binisdf 

reason  to  suppose  tbem  to  have  been  images  of  deceased 

Mlchal.  from  which  it  is  evident  Ihat   the  tersplii'i. 

(liry  were  not  confined  lo  Jews;  that  Iheir  use  coniin- 

had  the  shape  of  man.     On  Gen,  xxsi,  Aben-Etrs  s.l- 

TERAPHIM  21 

dKt*  the  opiniOD  that  tbe  Unphim  wen  automala, 
Bidt  bj  utcologeis  10  u  to  bIiow  ihe  boun  and  to 
oiur  dirinUioDi,  Hence  the  Penim  Tswu  in  Gen. 
uu  tTtiitUE«s  tutroiabia.  Aben-^Ezra  alto  addncee 
iht  OfHUioa  that  Baefael  stole  the  tenphim  of  Laban 
in  Older  to  prevent  him  from  idolatry,  and  rrom  ukinK 
tb(  Kraphim  whither  his  children  had  Bed.    Rabbi 

■tie  bamao  Ggurca,  by  which  the  imiginatioii  ot  di- 
linen  was  to  excited  that  they  supposed  they  heard 
1  low  roice  ipeaking  alnut  future  events  with  which 
iheit  on  thoagbts  were  filled,  although  the  image  did 
iBC  ipeak,  an  operalicHi  which  can  only  be  performed 
In'  lueh  oatuiBl  organs  as  God  has  provided  for  that 
[xirpoM. 

i.  Modinu. — Hichaelis,  in  Commmtatimtet  Soattali 
GnOmgaiti  Mala  (Brem.  1763),  p.  6  sq.,  compares  the 
m|riiim  to  Ifae  Salgri  and   Silrm,  referring  to  the 

pans  of  Silecl  in  the  coantry  of  the  Hebrewsj  and 
lUuding  to  the  hairy  oart  ("  deWls,"  C'^'^StD)  of  Lev. 
iiii.  T.  Creuzer  asserts  that  the  (eiaphlni  had  some- 
ihiKg  of  nuu  In  them  (CrHnnuRliilionu  Herod,  i,  2TT ; 
j^iii,30e  aq.);  and  refers  to  Ihe  old  cajumny  that 
iIk  Jews  worshipped  the  head  of  an  ass  (Tacit.  Hut.  v, 
4iRDliliDS,  1,387).  Creuiei  appeals  also  (Sjmii.  ii,  340) 
Ui  lien,  mi,  in  order  lo  prove  Ihe  feitilizing,  or  rather 
fKondiung,  power  of  the  D^^P,  which  scarcely  can 
bt  proved  from  ver.  19  [comp.  here  RosenmUlleri  Sdio- 
Ji:a.-Jibn,iii,506s().). 

IV.  Rtcail  Ittiutralioji»,—ii.  BotU  found  in  cavities 
snlfr  ihe  pavement  o(  tbe  porch  of  the  palace  at 
Kbenabsd  several  small  images  of  baked  clay  of  fiight- 
fid  aipeet,  aometimes  with  lynx  head  and  human  boily, 
tad  tooetimea  with  human  head  and  lion's  or  bull's 
body.  Some  have  a  mine  encircled  at  the  bottom  wiih 
a  double  pair  of  horns,  and 
othen  have  their  hair 
rolled  in  large  curls.  In 
"    '  evetal  doors  he 

Ihesiceofoneofihe  bricks, 

and  about  fourteen  inches 

in  depth,  lined  with  tiles, 

id  having  a  ledge  roHiMl 

ighl  be  covered  by  one 
tbe  bricks  of  Ihe  pave- 
nil  bout  hel  raring 
istence  «f  Ihe  'cav- 
ity.    It  has  been  sug- 
gealed  that  these  Images 

household  gods,  of  the 
ancient  ABsyri  ans,  w  b  icb , 
being  seoreteil  under  the 


TEREBINTH 


es  of  the  palao 
See  Uonomi,  A'in«reA,  p 


IK. 


Fienrei  somewhat  amiba  but  less  hideous  have  been 
(wad  amoDK  the  Egyptian  mine  and  elsewhere,  which 
!*BB  lo  have  been  employed  wiih  a  like  significance. 
)V(  Tbnmaon,  Laud  aitd  Book,  li,  'ib. 

Ik  teraphim  are  Michaeli^  De  Ttraphit,  in  the  Com- 
«r..'iu7.Ca<r.(I{rem.I7G3),p.5sq.t  Henen, /Je  Tera- 
Hn  I  Viwb.  1665);  Wickmannshatisen,  De  Ttraphim 
'iUd.1705};  also  in  Ugolino.  rAcsa»r.xx>ti,T:  Antast, 
(•  Mi  Fanalia  JuaM  (Lips.  ITM);  Buxtorf,  Lrx. 
Tiilm.p.ieeO-6i\  PttHht.Jizrrc.SaLp.l-i8:  Ilot- 
li^fer,  ftitt.  Oriat,  p.  296;  Selden,  De  Ih'ii  .Syria 
fl^i^m.  i,  'i-  Rpencer,  Vt  Ltgg.  Htb![,  p.  920-1038; 
Miart.  ffiena.  i,  623;  CarpiAv,  Appar.  Cril.  p.  537- 
<«:  Juriru,  f/W.  C'-H.  ilri   Uoj^mH,  ii,  3;   Uesentus, 


li,  351  sq. 


See  Idolatbt. 

T«reblnth,  a  majestic  Oririttal  Iree,  which  has 
been  made  by  many  a  rival  of  the  oak,  as  a  represen- 
tative of  the  Heb.  n^K,  nhs,  b-ist,  or  "iits.  See 
Plain.  So  Celuun  {llierob.  ii,  S-I-dH),  aiul  natUTalisls 
generally  unce.  Travellers  freqnenily  cuuliiund  Ihe  two 
trees.  They  are,  however,  quite  differeni  in  many  par- 
licuUrs.  The  bark,  shape,  and  general  character  are  re- 
markably alike,  but  the  wood,  the  leaf,  and  the  hlosaiiin 
differ  very  obviously.     See  I'OPOOHArHiCAi.  TKRJi.t. 

The  tereUnlh  is  the  JSHatiii  Irr-binlhui  of  l».Ia- 
nists,  called  by  ihe  Arabs  the  helm  or  balm,  and  well 

Tbi1_     In  Chios  especially  a  considerable  quantity  of 
turpenliiic  is  extracted  from  it  by  tapping  il: 


ilry.  being  generally  found  ii 
T  the  oak,  whose  place  it  there  supplies,  although 
c  occasionally  found  immediatelv  arijuiniug.  as 
•l-Kady  (Tristram,  tanrf  of  Urail.  p.  .t8I).  I.  i, 
seen  in  chimps  or  groves,  never  in  forests,  but 


d-liki 
I  nothing  el 


1y  pur|ile  and  remarkably 


ivrni  lancet-shaped  leaves 


among  the  leaves,  of  the  a 
pie  color  variegated  with  gn 
ol'  (Jypnis  believe  that  it  is 


flow«  I  nrt  of  tranaparait  bduoi,  oonscituting  ■  very 
pure  aiid  fine  speciei  of  [urpentine.  with  an  ■gree- 
■ble  odor,  like  cjcron  or  jesumjne,  *iid  *  inildtute,  and 
hardeoiDg  ptiuaOy  inlu  >  tnnBparenl  gum.  Ic  is  cilled 
Cypnit  or  Chi»n  turpentine,  anil  is  obtained  in  July  by 
woundinfi  tbe  bark  in  several  placet,  leaving  a  space 
of  about  three  inches  between  the  woundi.  From  theae 
the  Curpenline  is  received  on  stones,  upon  which  it  be- 
comes M  much  cDiidensed  by  the  coldness  ortlie  night 
aa  to  admit  of  being  scraped  olT  with  a  knife,  which  is 
always  done  before  sunriae.  It  is  again  liquefied  in  the 
nun  and  passed  through  a  strainer,  in  order  to  free  it 
from  all  exlnneoos  matten.  The  quantity  produced 
ii  very  small,  four  large  trees,  sisty  years  old,  only 
yielding  rwo  pounds  and  a  half:  it  oiay  be  somewhat 

and  ita  superior  qualities,  the  lurpenline  is  very  coMl;, 
and  is  oII«d  adulterated  with  inferior  aubaunces  (KitU, 
P*y«.  Hilt.  o/PakH.  p.  ccxxxviii).  The  tree  is  found 
also  in  Asia  Minor  (many  of  them  near  Smyrna),  Greece, 
Italy,  the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  in  the  north  of 
Africa,  and  is  there  described  as  not  usually  rising  to  the 
heightof  more  than  twenty  feet.  I(  often  exceeds  tliat 
siie,  however,  in  the  mountains,  and  in  the  pUina  of 
Syria  it  is  very  much  larger.     See  Oak. 


H  TERMINISM 

Hany  terebinths  remain  to  this  day  objects  of  tedb- 
ration  in  their  neighborhood,  and  the  favorite  burying- 
place  of  a  Bedawin  aheik  ia  under  a  sohlarytree.  East- 
ern ttsvelleiB  will  recall  the  "  Mother  of  raga"  on  the 
oulakirts  of  the  desert — ■  terebinth  covered  with  the 
votiveofferings  of  superstition  or  affection.  The"oak 
of  MBmTe,"near  Hebron,  waa  said  to  be  a  terebinth, 
which  remained  till  the  <lh  century  (Jerome,  Dr  £oc 
Hri.  87;  Soiomen,  Ecela.  Bitl.  ii,  4;  comp.  Jowphui, 


War, 
church,  tl 


>.  n . 


ins  of  which  still  remain.  It  is  said  that 
thelreedried  up  in  the  reign  of  Theodoaius  tbe  young- 
er; but  that  tbe  trunk  produced  a  new  tree,  from  whicb 
Brocard  (vii,  64),  Salignac  (x,  6>,  and  other  old  tiavst- 
lera  declare  that  they  brought  slips  of  the  new  and  oU 
wood  to  their  own  country  (Zuallart  Vogapt  dt  Jin- 
mltm,  iv,  1).  The  tree  waa  accidentallv  degtrored  by 
fire  in  A.D.  1646  (Mariti,  p.  620).  lu 'modem' repre- 
senlalive,  however,  ia  a  true  oak,  aa  ia  proved  both  by 
ita  leaves  and  actual  acoma.  The  tree  oo  which  Jn- 
daa  hanged  himself  is  said  to  have  been  a  terebinth, 
and  its  descendant  is  yet  shown  lu  the  credulous,  over- 
hanging the  valley  of  HiniMHn.  Towards  the  north 
of  Palestine  the  tree  becomes  more  scarce;  but  in  an- 
cient Moab  and  Amman,  and  in  the  region  siouad 
Heshbon,  it  is  the  only  one  that  relieves  the  monot- 
ony of  the  rolling  downs  and  boundleaa  abtepirtUu; 
and  in  the  few  glena  south  of  the  Jabbok  there  are 
many  trees  of  a  larger  size  than  others  which  remaiu 
west  of  the  Jordan  (Tristram,  Hat.  HiM.  oftkt  BUt, 
p.  401).  In  Turkey  the  burial-grounds  of  Christian^ 
particularly  (he  Armenians,  are  planted  with  terebinili- 
trees,  the  cvpress  being  reserved  for  the  MohamraHl- 
ans  (Calcott  [Lady],  acripl.  Utrial,  p.  604).     Sec 

TUKPHSTIMK-rRBE. 


Te'reab  (Heb.  id.  Bi"ri,  pr 
[in  some  copies  only]  Biipoc  oi 


the  second 


nb.  Fers.  ttridmu:  Sept. 
eri^pae;  Vutg-J-AoTW), 
eunucha  who  kept  the 

B,  and  who  were  hanjid, 

Munlecai  (Esth.  ii,  21|  vi,  S).  B.C.  4:9.  Josephiis 
calls  him  Tkeodala  (Bfo^tonic,  Ant.  xi,  6,  4  and  \n\ 
and  says  that,  the  conspiracy  having  been  deieclcd  by 
Bamabazus,a  servant  of  one  of  the  eunuchs,  who  wiia 
Jew  by  birth,  and  who  revealed  it  lo  Mordecai,  the  tm- 

Tennlnlsm  and  the  TKuuiNiBrir  Contbovebst, 

The  word  Trrmimnn  has  reference  to  the  terminia  of 
the  period  of  grace  accorded  lo  man  aaan  individusl  gr 
in  the  maaa.  The  bans  of  the  dispute  which  ime 
upon  this  matter  waa  the  Middle- Age,  Auginliniin 
theory,  that  the  end  of  Ibis  earthly  life  is  in  every  in- 
stance the  end  of  gracious  opportunity,  lo  that  evsn 
unbaptizeil  children  become  at  death  the  prey  of  helL 
The  Kefurmation  led  the  consciousness  of  (jbrutiins 
back  to  the  dynamic  condiliona  at  salvation,  nimtly, 
on  the  one  hand,  lo  the  free  grace  of  Uod.  and,  on  the 
other,  lo  the  internal,  religious,  and  moral  slate  i<f  n- 
penlaiKe.  In  the  light  of  the  former  condiiiun  it  vu 
possible  lo  suppose  that  tbe  trrmimit  gratia  mighl  be 
extended  beyond  the  tniniimi  vita  ;  nnder  the  Isiier 
it  could  be  contracted  to  even  narrower  limila  than  tbe 
duration  of  earthly  life.  A  recognition  of  the  possilnl- 
ity  of  widening  the  period  of  grace  led  lo  the  dewlnp- 
ment  of  [he  diictrlne  of  the  Apocatastasia  (q.  v.),  ohile 

The  leading  promulgaton  of  Teiminisro  were  tbe 
Frirmli,  who  taught  that  every  person  has  a  special 
day  of  visitation,  which  is  but  transient  and  mar  end 
before  the  close  of  the  life  of  earth  (see  Winer.  tJonp. 
Darileltung,  p.  87).  T"  -  •  ■ 
wards  the  growth  of  that  luea  oy  tnei 
the  worth  of  repentance  late  in  life, 
upon  the  subject  was  fairly  opened  b 
of  a  work  by  J.  G.  l^yfv.  deacon  at  Sonu  (died  1700\ 
enttrlwl  Trrmiunt  I'mmplorivt  Salulii  //unutaiF.  He 


a  also  conlribuled  lo- 


TERMS 

06H).  A  nnniber  of  responjei  were  wrilten,  the  nm 
impotuot  of  tbem  fay  N«umuin,  profeuor  at  W 
uabeig.  DitM.  de  Ternu  Salul.  etc  (Viteb.  i;uO),  and 
Dia.  dt  Trmpon  GraOa,  etc  (1701) ;  ■!»  Itlig,  pro- 
bmat  U  Leipsic,  VortrSge  iU.  d.  propktl,  apntloL  u. 
mag^JadL  Lekrt,  cte^  viih  other  works.  Recbeuberg, 
ihe  MD-iD-law  of  Spener,  cusa  to  tbs  usiUvicc  of  Bow 
■  iih  hia  Dia.  Jt  Grot.  Rm<xalricit  TVrn md  [  Lipi. 
1700).  The  dispute  wu  dropped  od  the  death  of  Itcig, 
10  ITID,  uxA  the  adruice  oF  MtiDnolum  deprived  the 
ijursliDU  of  inteleat.  For  the  theology  of  our  lime,  the 
wdf  idjportuice  of  the  diKimion  lies  Id  ite  poaeible  in- 

Rgird  Eo  the  pooBbiiity  of  becoming  haidened  Hgeiiut 
gncc  ia  this  life,  and  the  inBtiite  cunaequencea  depend- 
log  upon  the  hour  of  death  and  the  free  auvereiguty 
ufliod. 

The  literature  of  the  conlroTeray  is  largely  givei 
the  woiki  of  Rechenberg  uid  Ittig.     See  alao  Wi 
TikiW.  /.itcmnir,  p.  446;  Bretachneider,  Sgitimiil. , 
*kU.|).69S.    On  thediapaMilaelf.Ke  Einem,  ATii-rAm- 
fuc4.  i.  18.  Jairk.  li,  737 ;  Watcb,  EM.  w  d.  Rdigvms- 
ilniiigt,  d,  eemff.-liilk,  Kirdir,  ii,  561  sq. ;  Baumguten, 
'jactitkU  d.  Beligiimiparldat,  p.  1SS2  >q.  —  Uenog, 

Tenua,  m  laie,  an  (be  periods  in  England  when 
tlie  CDurti  of  law  hold  their  aittingt  at  Weitminel 
(bi  riiKbirge  of  their  judicial  functions.  Thei 
tier  in  every  year,  namely,  Hilary  term,  Easter 
Trimly  lens,  and  Michaelmas  term;  but  the  last  of 
tboe  ii  usually  at  the  commencement  of  the  legal  year. 
They  were  suppoaod  by  Selden  to  have  been  established 
hf  William  the  Conqaeror;  but  Spelman  bas  shown 
Ilut  they  originMed  in  the  obaerrances  of  the  Church, 
■ndwete  no  moretban  those  leisore  periods  when  there 
WM  neilber  fast  nor  festival  nor  ratal  avocation  to 
vilbhold  the  suitor  from  attending  the  court.  At  tint 
the  ceart*  in  Christian  countries  continued  open  all  the 
TEST  round,  but  the  Church  interposed.  The  aacred  sea- 
n  of  Advent  and  Chrutmas  originated  the  winter  va- 
t*baa :  the  time  of  Lent  and  Eaater  gave  rise  to  that 
of  ib(  ipring;  the  third  we  owe  to  Pentecost;  and  the 
ct^aiBtioos  of  agricultural  pursuits  account  for  the  long 
^wtethatinteTvenesbelweeaHidBummerandHichi  ' 
■■a.  Sundays  and  other  bolydays  were  included 
(be  ptohibition  which,  in  617,  was  estab^hed  by  a  ci 
n  of  the  Church,  and,  aaya  Blackslone,  fortified  by 
iopnial  constitution  of  the  younger  Theodosjus,  co 
(toed  in  the  TMrodoritm  Cade.  In  the  cottimencenii 
■ad  duration  of  thfae  terms,  these  regulations  of  the 
Cbsrch  were  kept  in  view.  Edward  the 
wof  bis  lawi,  says  that  from  Advent  t 
of  Epiphany,  from  Septoagesima  to  the  octave  of  Eas- 
tt.fruoi  the  Ascension  to  the  octave  of  Pentecost,  ani 
ttsm  r«ir  in  the  sncmoDn  of  every  Saturday  nnUI  the 
«d  cf  the  succeeding  Monday,  the  peace  of  tiod  and 
bolj  Chinch  should  be  kept  throughout  the  realm  (A  n- 
(Hi  Laei  and  Imtitulmu  of  England,  p.  IM).  We 
bam  fimn  Britton  that  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I  no 
•Malai  plea  could  be  held,  nor  any  man  sworn  on  the 
mogvliits  daring  Advent,  Lent.  Pentecost,  or  the 
tisa  of  harvtsE  and  vintage,  and  the  days  nf  the  great 
Elaois  and  all  solemn  festivals.  The  bishops,  how- 
STH.  be  adds,  gisnted  dispensations  that  assiies  and 
jaw*  might  be  taken  at  these  seasons;  and  afterwards, 
W  Mituto  Wntminster  I,  3  Edward  I,  t  51,  it  was 
tutted  that  assiiea  of  novel  disseisin  mart  d'ancester 
aad  danvia  preaentmenl  should  be  taken  in  Advent, 


.KM(i  or  CuHMiiKiOM.  those  conditions  on  whir 
Wfnbers  of  ■  particular  Church  are  agreed,  ai 
I  ait  the  basia  of  their  rellowghip.  Terms  of  con 
n  an  not  to  be  idenliOed  with  terms  uf  salvalioi 


5  TERRITORIAL  SYSTEM 

nor  should  terms  of  lay  comtnunion  be  as  comptehea> 
sire  and  tbeulogical  as  those  of  clerical  fellowship. 

T«rraoa  ()n^0i3,  maiil^,  2  Chroo.  ix,  11 ;  Sept. 
Ava^aait  i  ■  /liyhaoji,  as  elsewhere  usually  rendered), 
a  statidse,  constracled  by  Solomon  for  his  edifices  out 
of  the  algum-trees  imported  from  (he  East  Indies.  Sea 
PAt.Acs;  Thmpu^ 

Teiraiaoi),  Andij,  a  French  clergyman,  and  first 
of  a  literary  family  of  considerable  note  in  France,  was 
bom  at  Lyons  in  1669,  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory, 
preacher  to  the  king,  and  afterwards  preacher  to  the 
court  of  Lorraine.  His  pulpit  services  were  much  ap- 
plauded, and  attended  by  crowded  congregations.  His 
exertions  during  Lent  in  the  metropolitan  church  at 
Paris  threw  him  into  an  illuess  from  which  he  died, 
April  25,  1728.  Hia  Sermont  were  printed  in  1726  (4 
vola.l2Dio)  and  1736.  See  Chalmers,  fiio^.  Z<ict.  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  f-'aav.  Biog.  Ginerak,  s.  v. 

TaRtuaoQ,  Gaapard,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  bom  at  Lyons,  Oct.  6, 1680,  and  was  sent,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  to  the  house  of  the  Oraloiy  at  Paris; 
lie  resided  afterwards  in  different  bouses  of  his  order, 
chieSy  at  Troyes.  where  he  delivered  a  fuaenl  oration 
for  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XIY.  For  some  time  he 
employed  himself  in  delivering  exhortations  in  the 
seminaries,  but  after  Andre's  death  he  accepted  solidta- 
ttons  to  preach,  and  soon  aofuired  a  reputation  superior 
to  that  of  bis  brother.  He  preached  in  Paris  during 
five  years;  bnt  various  circumstances,  pa rticuhiTly  his 
attachment  to  the  Janeenists,  obliged  bim  to  leave  both 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  and  the  pulpit  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  appointed  curate  of  Treigay  in 
1735;  but,  persecution  stjll  following  bim,  he  was  gent  to 
the  Bastile,  wbich  he  left  in  1744  to  be  confined  with 
the  Minims  atArgenleuiL  He  was  at  length  set  at  lib- 
erty, and  died  in  Paris,  JaiL  2, 1762,  leaving  Semunu  (4 
vobi  12mo),  and  an  anonymous  book,  f^lrti  lur  la 
Jiatia  ChHtimm,  which  was  ceitsured  by  tb«  Sof 

TerraBsoo.  Jean,  brother  of  the  f 


It  Lyons 


I  1670, « 


>  preceding, 


entered  the  Oratory.  In  1707  he  was  admitted  ii 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  he  entered  into  the  liter- 
ary discussions  of  the  day.  In  1731  he  became  profess- 
or of  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Prance,  and  in  1731 
be  was  made  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  To- 
wards the  end  of  his  life  he  lost  his  memoiy.  He  died 
in  Paris,  Sept.  15,  1760.  He  published  a  number  of 
historical  works.    See  Hoefer,  iVbus,  fio^.  Cinfrofr,  a.  v. 

Tvnlar,  a  formal  survey  and  plan  or  schedule  of 
Church  property,  ordered  by  English  canon  law  to  be 
made  and  preserved  in  the  bishop's  registry.  A  terrier 
of  glebe  lands  made  under  queen  Elizabeth  ia  preserved 
in  the  British  Exchequer. 

TenltoriBl  Sjt,totti.  This  title  is  applied  to 
that  theory  of  Church  government  which  assumes  that 
the  ruler  of  a  country  poaacfnes,  tji  eirtut  of  kit  (OFCr- 
figtly,  the  right  (o  govern  the  Church,  if  Protestant, 
which  has  been  established  within  hts  realm. 

The  Middle  Ages  had  witnessed  a  constant  aaocia- 
tion  of  the  Church  with  the  Sute,  wbich  was  at  times 
carried  so  far  as  to  include  the  one  under  the  other  as 
one  of  its  pans.  When  the  principles  of  the  Jewiab 
theocracy  could  be  asserted,  the  Church  would  attempt 
to  subject  the  State  to  its  authority ;  but  when  a  re- 
lapse into  heathen  principles  look  place,  the  State  was 
ready  to  enforce  the  authority  of  the  civil  power  over 
the  religion  of  the  land.  When  the  reformatory  move- 
ments of  the  ISlh  century  had  failed,  the  renewal  agi- 
tation, of  which  Zwingli,  Luther,  etc,  were  the  rfpre. 
sentatives,  addressed  itself  to  the  princes  and  estaies  of 
the  land.  The  sovereign  powers  of  either  party  a*- 
sumed  the  right  to  dictate  the  creed  of  their  subjects. 
The  Soman  Catholic  prince  who  became  a  Protestant 
Bongbt  to  carry  his  country  with  him  over  lo  Prole* 


TERRY 

Unliam;  the  Luthenn  trho  pmed 

rormed  Church  uaumed  la  transfer 

The  belief  of  the  prince  tru 

tbu  land.     The  Peace  of  Weitphalii  ended  this  anoni- 

■loua  pimctice,  but  exprenly  recogniNd  the  aoveieignty 

of  the  prince  u  Ihe  Bouice  o(  the  j'uf  rrfornumdL 

The  dangcioiu  chaiacier  of  the  principle  which  de- 
riTciL  all  Ibe  rigbu  belonging  to  in  evangelicil  Church 
from  (be  head  of  [be  State  vru  toou  recogniaed,  and  led 
to  Ibe  develupmeiit  of  the  theory  which  is  usually  known 
as  the  epiacoptd  ryttrm. 

Tbe  territDrial  system  wai  formulated  at  the  close 
of  the  17ih  centurj'  u  a  foil  to  that  theory,  finding  its 
leading  advocates  in  Cbristjan  Thomaaius  (q.  v.j  and 
his  pupil  firenneisen  (_Dt  Jure  Piinapit  circa  Adia- 
phora  [Hatn,  1676],  in  Thomasiua,  ^  werkaoM  dcuUcic 
Sdirifltn,  1696,  p.  76  sq.),  and  \ta  principal  opponent  in 
Jobann  Benedikl  Carpzov  (q.  v.).  As  (bnnulated  bj 
Thornasius,  tbe  reigning  prince  potsesaes,  u  a  natural 
right,  the  authority  to  regulate  ihe  ecclesiastical  af- 
taira  of  bis  country,  and  of  baiiiahing  persons  who  dis- 


e  Chur 


He 


cannot  impose  his  own  creed  upon  his  siibjecis,  nor 
OnalJy  delcrmine  in  matters  of  religion.  The  theory 
found  many  supporters,  jurists  as  well  as  theologians, 
among  them  J.  H.  BOhmer  and  Joh.  Jac  Moser  [q.  v.). 
It  has  been  defended  in  quiu  recent  times,  in  connec- 
tion with  their  liturgical  disputes,  by  Uuller,  Mar- 
heinecke,  August!,  and  others.  The  cclifffial  lyttem 
deprived  the  territorial  theory  of  every  support;  and 
the  present  tendency  towards  an  entire  aeparation  be- 
tween Stale  and  Church  is  wholly  antagonistic  to  ita 
prevalence.    Both  legislation  and  praxis  have  Buflered 

On  iho  entire  subject,  see  Stahl,  Kirdairer/tuiang 
nach  lAhrt  tuRecht  d.  ProttMatUoi,  p-lH  sq.;  Riebler, 
Gaeh.d.eTang,Kirriuni!er/aKmigm  DtKltc}JaBd,-p.H2 
sq.  \  Friedberg,  Dt  FinSmt  inter  Ecdaiam  tt  Civiialrm, 
etc  (Ijps.  IXfil)  1  Lehmano,  De  Pact  Rtiigioia,  i,  23 ; 
Nettelblsdi,  Oism-uO.  Jn™  Ecclaiailiei  <Hal«,  1T83, 
fivo}:  the  works  of  Thomauus, CarpzoT, etc. i  Biihnier. 
ConaUia  et  Dtcinonrt,  lom.  i,  pars  i,respons.  xv. — Her- 
Tog,  Jital-f:Kyklop,i.v,  See  Chuscii  aBD  Statk; 
CouLuuiAL  System. 

Terry,  pAttSHALT^a  Piesbylerian  minister, was 
at  Aquebogue,  Long  Island,  N.  Y..  Nov.  8,  1806;  wan 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
of  Xew  York;  preached  at  Aquebogue  for  two  years: 
was  ordained  by  Ihe  Congregational  Convention  of 
Long  Island  in  1831,  and  labored  for  a  number  of  years 
■I  Patchoguej  but,  feeling  the  need  of  a  more  thor- 
ough course  of  theology,  iiudied  in  the  seminary  at- 
tacheil  to  Yale  College,  gradualed  in  1840,  and  became 
a  member  of  Onondaga  Preshylery.  In  IS4S  he  was 
editor  of  Ibe  Religioia  Rtcorder  at  Syracuse,  M.  Y.;  in 
1848  removed  io  Marathon,  N.  Y.,  and  was  received  by 
Cortland  Presbytery;  thence,  in  18&3,  to  Paiuesville,  O.. 
where  be  minielcrtd  three  years.  He  subseqoenllv  la- 
b.ired,inl8,57,atUMionville,0.;  18511,  Thompson ;  1861, 
Hudson:  1862,  Franklin  Mills;  1863,  Tmy.  He  died 
(>cl.  20,  1865.  He  was  ■  man  of  more  (ban  usual  tal- 
enls,  which  he  improved  by  culture.  See  Wilson,  Jiitti. 
Iliit.  A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  822. 

Ter  Sanctiu  fs  the  triumphal  hymn  of  the  an- 
cient liturgies,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord  God  of  hosts, 
henvensnd  earth  are  full  of  thy  glory,"  etc.,  and  is  based 
on  the  three  holies  (Isa.  vi,  S ;  Bev.  iv,  8).  In  all  an- 
cieni  liturgies  the  Ter  Sanctui  eomea  near,  but  before, 
the  prayer  of  consecration,  and  is  sung  by  the  choir 
and  Ihe  people.  "The  ponlilT  who  is  to  celebrate  ap- 
proacbea  tbe  altar  and  praises  tbe  worice  of  God,  and, 
giring  thanks  for  all,  associates  bimself  with  the  an- 
gels, and  vociferates  with  tbem  the  triumphal  hymn 
Holy,  holy,  holy;  and  tbe  peoirie  also  recite  it,  lypify- 


16  TERSTEEGEN 

ing  Ihe  equality  of  peace  which  we  shall  hemfirr  eo- 
ytj  with  the  angels,  and  our  union  with  tbem"  (tsinirua 
of  Thessalonics,  Cotaia.  m  LU.  of  SI.  Chrym.).  Thn 
hymn  formerly  concluded  with  tbe  words  "  Hmanna 
in  Ihe  bighesi,  Uessed  ia  He  that  cometh  in  the  naiBe 
of  the  Lord,  Hosannn  in  the  highest."  This  is  [he 
case  in  Ihe  lltnrgies  of  St.  James,  St.  Chrysosloni,  St. 
Basil,  tbe  Malabar,  Hoiarahic,  and  Samm.  In  thai  of 
Sl  Clement  the  Sandut  and  Hotama  are  separaie,  ud 
the  Moiarabic  has  the  further  addition  "  Hagica,  higi- 
os,hBgios,KyriehDTheoe.''  The  prefaces  of  ^cr  fiaw 
lut  are  very  various,  being  adapted  to  different  fali- 
vals  and  seasans.  But  Ihey  invariably  end  with  the 
daxological  form  tepresenled  by  the  "  Thereruii  with 
angels  and  arcbangelSt'elCiof  the  Prayer-book.  In  all 
lilurgiea  the  preface  is  sung  or  said  by  the  celebrant 
alone,  the  choir  and  people  Joining  in  at  the  hymn  it- 
self. Hence  in  the  Sarum  Missal,  followed  by  the  Tray- 
er-books  of  1549  snd  lfi£2,  the  SancUu  is  printed  at  a 
separate  paragraph.  Tbe  hymn  is  also  called  Trimi. 
o-(q.v.). 

Tenteegen,  Gehhari).  the  mystic  and  sacred  poet,. 
wasbomatMeurs,on  Nov.  26, 1697.  He  early  acquired 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  ancient  languages,  including 
Ihe  Hebrew,  and  friends  advised  his  preparation  for  a 
learned  career;  but,  his  father  having  died,  hu  mmha- 

morcantile  life  for  him  inslead.  He  was  apprenliced  w- 
bis  bratber-in  law  at  Mulheim  in  1713,  and  in  Ihe  fol- 
lowing year  was  powerfully  wrought  upon  by  the  grue 
of  Gud.  Mlllheim  was  at  thai  time  the  scene  nf  in  ex- 
alted and  vigorous  piety  which  was  kept  alive  ihmitgh 
the  holding  of  weekly  convocations,  and  made  itself  (eh 
in  all  Ihe  affairs  of  life.  These  conrocalioits  becsmr  sn 
occasion  of  offence  to  the  Chureb  at  large,  and  Hoff- 
mann, the  Mutheim  pastor,  waa  cited  before  the  Claais 
of  Duisburg,  which  decided  that  he  must  refrain  fron 
holding  tbem  in  future,  and  induced  the  Syitoil  of 
Clevea  u>  lake  stmilir  action.  Nothing  has  been  fotml 
however,  to  show  that  Hotrmann  was  guilty  of  hrteto- 
doxy,  or  that  the  convocalions  served  any  othtr  pur- 
pose than  tbit  of  leadmg  many  souls  to'  Christ.  In 
spile  of  ibese  inquisitorial  measures,  the  cDnvocaliim 
were  obstinately  continued  at  Mlllheim,  and  Ttnltt- 
gen,  for  his  pan,  was  alienated  froni  the  Church  l» 
such  a  degree  as  Io  refrain  from  participating  in  llie 
public  woTship,  and  particularly  in  the  sacranwrn  of 
the  l.,ord's  supper,  of  which  evident  unneia  were  tOum- 
eil  to  partake.  He  Bnished  his  apprenticeship, but  two 
years  arierwards,  in  1719,  under  the  impulse  <rf' religious 
sentiment,  renounced  his  business  for  one  of  a  more  le- 
tired  charadfr.  He  now  became  a  ribbon-weaver  inil 
an  ascetic  He  had  no  companion  save  the  girl  who 
wound  his  silk.  His  clothiiig  was  poor,  his  food  scanty 
and  simple;  but  his  charities,  whatever  might  be  hit 
income,  were  numerous.  He  considered  this  aacetical, 
hermit  life  the  ideal  condition  of  a  Christian  on  Ihe 
earth,  and  for  a  lime  endured  its  trials  and  privstiom 
with  unwavering  confidence  in  the  care  of  his  hctrndy 
Father;  but  gradually  he  became  the  prey  of  inicnal 
anxieties  which  tortured  him  during  five  years  with  but 

1724  that  period  of  suffering  came  lo  ilacloee.  Uectt- 
ebraled  the  return  of  his  Saviour's  smile  in  the  hymn 
biti  Du  mir  to  itmiff  gut,  mrin  Uohtyrit 


signed  w 


his  own  blood— probably  ii 
de  Reoty,  whose  life  he  had  treated  with 
great  pleasure  in  his  book  tci™  4n/^fr  Sccfm,  i,  8. 

With  the  conclusion  of  ibis  period  of  spiritual  dark- 
ness his  preparation  came  Iv  an  end.  He  was  thtnot- 
forward,  though  much  against  his  will,  thrown  amo^ 


religion.  He  resided  with  his  brother,  and  While  en- 
ployed  in  the  tuition  of  that  brother's  children  was  W 
to  undertake  a  work  which  initialed  his  career  is  a 
mystical  writer— the  CnparlmKitr  Abriu  ekriMHdia 


TEliSTEEGEN  21 

1,'ndiMiriMCni,  >  catecbeticil  maniul,  Hnt  prinud ' 
II 1W1  tad  tgiin  in  1S42.  In  Ihu  bouk  he  evid«nl]y 
UHd  on  the  French  nyuic  HAre  Puiret  (q.  v.)  u  re- 
ipKii  bcth  iu  ■mngemeiit  &nJ  roitcer.  The  iint 
ihrKceUunn  of  the  Church  are  repre»nl«I  u  hiiinK 
l«i  pure,  »Qd  the  succeediiiK  tgta,  fruin  CunBlantine 
loibttSthoentiiry.ua  period  of  great  apoaui)'.  The 
lirti  bfohe  thruugb  wiih  power  io  the  Reformation, 
luiifteniirdsagua  declined.  CbriUiKaity  exiiu  more 
han  in  ftcU     Upon  thii  w    '    '  ' 


il  prer*co,  in  the 
"  to 


hind  1 

|inf*niioii  nf  which  'I'eruecgen  was  ac 
fnd  the  time  ttlrr  «x  o'docii  in  the  evening.  The 
lia  iicludes  Lahulic,  Munuel  Je  Piiti  (with  preface 
li[n!»Ulheiio,MHy!t,  1T26);  Jean  de  Bemi^rea  Lou- 
tijjnv'j  Borks  (Dia  teriai-grur  LAai  nuf  Chriito  « 
1,^'.  eic,  with  preface  dated  Dec  18, 17S6) ;  Tbomiu 
1  Keinpi^  Italalio  Chitti;  Geri»rh  Peteraen,  Soiilo- 
pill  (1727).  In  17BS  he  b^n  (he  publicuion  of  the 
iMk  entitled  A  atrrUtme  Ijtiautaichr,  heil  Strlrti,  the 
«nil(lhinl)roIuiTienf  which  appear«l  in  1758,  follow- 
ribr  t  ivcond  edition  of  the  ifhof?  irmk  in  the  neitt 
rur.  The  Hinu  >o  connnefDonUed  belong  altogether 
in  ilw  Roman  Catholic  communion— a  fact  which  Ter- 
•ur/m  eicDSed  on  the  ground  that  othern  had  rentier- 
rd  I  UDiilar  service  (o  Proteelantiam ;  but  there  in  sat- 
isbaurv  proof  that  be  poMcttKd  an  eapecial  fbndnen 
for  the  peculiar  piety  cultivated  by  the  mytlical 
but tbie  fonner Church.  In  1749  he  publiahed  a  trans- 
liiioa  of  a  poetic^  oomposition  by  Madame  Guyon  il- 
hHiniiTe  of  the  inner  life,  and  with  this  work  com- 
^icd  the  wriei  of  hi*  myMical  writings.  In  them  all 
l«  iak«  poirct— sometimea  Grdfrey  Arnold  (q.  v.)  also 
-kt  hia  maater.     Hia  mratical  tendency  ia  sametiniea 

cm  ipeak  in  glowing  terma  of  approval  of  a  state  of 
ptifrct  reat  for  the  aoul  which  begins  and  continuei 
iliniut[h  the  direct  operation  of  God  on  the  auul  witb- 
m  anv  mediation  whatever,  even  tbougb  it  be  that  of 
^mpluRorofChrieU 

Tenteegen  yielded  to  the  perauariona  of  HolTmi 
ml  others,  and  began  to  address  public  asaemblies 
iboal  the  time  when  hia  firiE  literary  efTorts  were  ] 
inb.     Id  I'38  he  renounced  hia  handicraft  and  gi 
tunself  wholly  to  the  care  of  (oula.     Mis  wanta  w 
sippUed  by  the  contribntioos  uf  friends  and  by  several 
le^acii^  ao  that  he  was  even  able  to  exercise  a  liberal 
l*ocirii)eDC«.      Hiiailriccwasdedred  by  great  num be 
T'/penplcliTtni'  even-where  in  the  lerrituries  of  Clexi 
ai  BtTjc.     Oiterbeck,  a  farm  between  Mtllheim  an 
innfeld.  became  a  station  where  a  number  of  bis  ar 
IvTMita  lived  together  in  the  practice  of  industry,  ael 
imiocialiof),  and  piety.     He  furnished  them  tweh 
nla  of  conduet  (given  at  the  clo«of  voLiii  of  hiale 
'■rr-),  and  watched  over  them  with  jealoua  care, 
•urk  written  in  their  behalf  in  I7S7  became  a  bulwark 
WniBt  Antiiit>a>ianiam(q.v.),andaaved  thetn  from  the 
■itaaa   into  which  other,  but  kindred,  asaocti 
•ere  drawn.      A  second  centre  of  his  influence  wi 
■ffeM,  and    «ibsequently  Barmen.     This  region  was 
Rwbled  with  the  fanatical  influence  of  Eller  (q.     ' 


■appDners. 


^tthat 


I  eflectoal  admonition  (comf.WtgdtrWiiki 
■il.ii).  Solingen  waaa  third  »iation,and  it  was  there 
hii  TersCeegee  delivered  the  only  htrh 
d  t^  bim.  At  Crefeld  extraorriinaiy 
mmipmicd  ■  work  of  grace,  which  were  controlled 
Imnigh  hia  judicious  eounseL  He  was  also  brought 
■M  relatioiiB  with  the  Moravian  Brotherhood,  and  wai 
•IfichI  bv  Zinaendorf,  Dober,  and  other  leaders  to  casi 
I  hia  lot  with  tbein;  bat  be  steadily  refused,  less  oi 
hr  grDunil  of  their  unusual  methods  than  because  hi 
rfirTFd  llieir  l««:hiog>  to  be  erroneous.  He  chargei 
Mai  with  identifying  sonctilication  with  jusllficatini 
H  witli  miaiepreaenting  the  legal  and  the  evangelical 
k^mta  of  religion.  He  found  i 
tmag  in  the  way  of  ■  progrearin 


TERTIARIES 

for  thorongb-guing  aelf-deiiial  and  iwraiaient  watchfuU 

leas  and  prayer,  which  they  denounced  as  legalism. 

His  position  hindered  the  Monviaiia  rnm  aecuring  aa 

Labliahment  in  the  regions  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 

In  1740  an  occurrence  at  Solingen  led  the  aulhnrities 

sleegen  saw  bis  extended  and  successful  labors  inler- 
During  ten  years  he  was  aUe  to  hold  publk 
gatherings  only  in  Holland,  whither  he  frequently  jour- 
neyed ;  but  bis  coirespondenee  and  private  labors  in- 
creased enormoualy.  He  regarded  the  prohibition  as  a 
trial,  and  counselled  submission.  But  when  in  1750  a 
ining  look  place,  he  began  once  more  to  as- 
sert the  right  of  "private  assemblies."  He  wrote  an 
wakening  sermon  st  this  time  on  2  Cor.  v,  14,  whiclt 
'as  favorably  received  and  led  to  the  ultimate  publica- 
lon  of  a  series  of  discourses  under  the  title  Geutlici« 
irotama,  etc  (1773, 2  vols,  in  4  pts.).  They  represent 
the  culmination  of  his  powers,  and  are  equalled  in  con- 
nla  and  method  by  but  few  of  the  productions  of  hi» 

The  favor  with  which  these  aermona  were  received 
brought  their  author  into  general  nodce,  and  led  to  the 

the  work  of  Teisteegen  among  his  adherents.  The 
person  selected  for  this  duty  was  a  member  of  the  high 

'  a  friend  to  Tersteegen.    Through  him  the 

and  Bubeeqnenlly  a  critique  of  the  Oiavra  da  Fhilii' 
HpAe  de  SOTU-touci,  which  elicited  the  approval  of  th& 
king.  A  steady  approximation  on  the  part  nf  TetMee- 
•en  and  his  friends  towaide  the  State  Churoh  ia  notice' 
ible  from  Ibis  period,  but  he  waa  never  formally  identi' 
led  with  it  because  of  its  tolerance  of  open  nnncrs  as 
!Ommunicanta.  Me  diacussed  this  question  in  a  tract 
ssuedin  I7B8,  shortly  before  bisdeceas&  A  feeble  andi 
broken  constitution  troubled  him  all  his  days;  but  hi» 

loined  to  the  age  of  seventv-two  years,  passing  away 

a  quiet  slumber  April  3,  1769. 

Aa  a  poet,  Tersteegen  was  prolific,  and  thoniughly, 
though  evangel icallv,  mystical.  His  apprehension  of 
the  idea  of  self-renunciation  and  a  blessed  loss  of  self 
in  God  was  so  profound  aa  to  prevent  the  Church  of  his- 
day  from  appreciating  his  merit.  His  hymns  are  now 
found,  however.  In  the  collections  of  every  German 
Church.  Mis  principal  collection  of  hymns  was  pub- 
lished in  1739  under  the  title  Geiaticha  Blumeitg&ntan 
(15th  ed.  Essen,  1856).  He  also  rendered  the  mystical 
poems  of  Labadie  into  (Jerman,  and  coniributeil  to  the 
collection  known  as  GoUgcbtiiigfa  /lar/tiapitl  d.  A'ii~ 
<Jrr,elc  Ilia  works  have  been  published  iu  Germany  b" 
G.  D.  BItdecker.  Hie  life  waa  written  by  Dr.  Kerleit 
(Mulheim,  1853),  and  Giibel  in  his  Vetchtdilt  d.  ekrviL 
L^ttai,  etc,  iii,  289-447.     See  Heraog,  Rtat-EncsMop. 

Tertia  (LaL  Ihird)^  the  name  given  in  the  early 
Church  to  the  third  hour  of  prayer;  that  is,  nine  in  the 
morning.  Different  theories  are  given  of  its  origin; 
some  saying  that  it  was  observed  in  regard  to  our  Sav- 
iour's being  condemned  by  Pilate  at  that  time,  other* 
that  it  ia  in  memory  of  the  Holy  Ghost  coming  upon 
the  apostles  at  that  hour.  This  is  the  reason  assigned 
by  Caasian  and  Baut.  On  all  festivals  this  service 
waa  omitted,  because  on  Sundays  the  communion  was 
useil,  which  alwaya  began  at  this  hour.  See  Bingham, 
Chriit.  A  tUiq.  bk.  Kiii,  ch.  ix,  §  IL 

Tertiaiia,  tbe  term  applied  to  the  third  part  of  all 
Church  revenues  in  the  Isle  of  Ubo,  which  thini  part 
was  received  by  the  bishops  of  that  island.  See  Bing- 
ham, CArisf.  .lii<i^.bk.iii,ch.  viii,  §  6. 

TortIarie»(TEnni-sOni)ODEPiE.tiTKNTiA:  Ter- 
TiARii;  FratrEB  CosvEKSi ;  also  SoKORKS  Tehtii  Ok- 
DiNis)  is  the  name  given  to  the  members  of  a  unluu 
organized  primarily  in  connection  with  the  toendicant 


I,  but  HibwqiieDtl;  conaMted  alu  with  ot 


They 


It  requii 


f  in  the  ( 


undergo  the  three  princip»I  vowp,  and  were  designed  to 
fetsin  their  place  in  the  world  and  repreaent  the  order 
in  whose  privileges  they  shared  in  the  eommon  walks 
<>f  lire.  Their  origin  is  traced  iMck  to  Norbert,  tha 
fmiiider  of  the  Order  of  PnemonMrueiuea.  The  Tern- 
pUra,  too,  had  ■  nmilar  institution  ooiUMCtcd  with  their 
nrganizatian.  The  actual  introduction  or  the  Order  of 
Tertiiries  was  due,  however,  to  Francia  of  Aaaiu,  and 
dates  bach  to  1221,  the  occasion  for  ils  creation  being 
the  effect  produced  hy  his  preaching  at  Cama no, where 
men  and  women  in  great  Dnmben  dissolved  the  malri- 
fnonial  relation  in  order  to  give  themselves  to  repent- 
ance, AU  virtuous  and  orthodox  pennns  were  received 
into  the  order.  The  rule  forbade  participation  in  fes- 
tivities, disputes,  and  oSenuve  wars,  and  reqaired  norks 
-at  charity,  ililigent  religious  eiercisea,  an  annual  con- 
voeation  for  penance,  and  masses  for  the  souls  of  tbe 
Tertiaries,  living  or  dead.  The  order  was  governed  by 
superiors  periodically  chosen.  Ita  costume  was  to  be 
of  inferior  auiff,  neither  wholly  white  nor  black,  and 
without  onuunent — an  ash-colored  coat  and  rope  being 
finally  chosen,  over  which  ordinary  secular  clothing  is 
permitled  to  be  wnm.  The  female  tertiaries  adopted 
■>  similar  rule  and  costume,  with  the  occasional  addition 
veil    The  rale  was  conflrmed  by  popes  Ho- 


«  III,G 


Micholaa  IV.     The  o 


grew  rapidly,  and  found  favor  in  the  highest 
having  numbered  among  ils  members  the  e 
Charles  IT,  kings  Louis  of  France,  Bela  of  Hungary, 
.and  Philip  of  Spain,  queen  BUnca  of  Castile,  prinoesa 

Anna  of  Austria,  etc. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  13th  century  a  branch  order 
-waa  established  among  the  male,  and  a  century  later 
among  the  female,  Tertiaries  lo  satisfy  the  craving  of 
some  for  a  stricter  rule— (Ac  Regulaltd  Order  ofTtrlia- 
ria  {Trrliarii  Rtgvlara).  After  a  rapid  eitendon,  this 
■econdary  order  separated  into  different  congregations, 
which,  in  substance,  followed  theFrandscan  rule.     Thi 


latter, 


TERTULLIAN 

the  fhmiliar  usage  of  the  Latin  ordinals  emplnyen  s) 
proper  names.     The  idle  pedantry  (indulged  in  t^  Bun 
,  Eierrit.  TkeoL  ii,  161  sq.)  which  would  make 

ind  Silas  the  aame  peisun  because  Urtiui  ind 

i1C-<bd  mean  the  aame  in  Utin  and  Hebrew,  hardly 

crres  to  be  mentioned  (see  Wolf,  Cara  PhOolofiia, 

.  295);  and  equally  idle  is  Roloff's  conjecture  (A 

Trib.  A'omin.  Pauli  [Jen.  1731])  and  Storck's  (Errrdl. 

de  Tertio,  in  the  Forlga.  nulzL  SammL  p.  23)  that  Ttr- 

'  I  but  a  pseudonym  for  Paul  himself.     In  regani  to 

ncient  practice  of  writing  letten  from  dicislinn, 

see  Becker's  Galiai,  p.  ISO.     Ka  credit  is  due  to  iht 

iten  who  speak  of  him  as  bishop  of  Iconium  (tee  Ki- 

bricius.  Lux  Erotica,  p.  117).— Smith.     See  alto 

Briegleb,Z)c  Terlio  (Jen.  1T&4);  Eckhard,  De  Sigao 

/>iiu/i(Viteb.  1687);  lUrtzog,  Dt Sabicriplioiiibtt  PatS 

(Lips.  1703).    See  Pjtui. 

Teitre,  JACtft^ES  (as  a  priest  Jeah  Baptiste)  dt, 
French  miwooary,  was  bom  at  Calais  in  Septembov 
1610.  After  travelling  for  some  Ume,  be  retuiDed  Is 
:e,  and  entered  the  Dominican  order  at  Puis  iu 
1635.  Five  j^ears  after  he  was  sent  as  a  misaioiuiry  lo 
jnerican  islands,  returned  to  France  in  1658.  iwl 
died  at  Paris  in  1687.  He  piibUahed  tlatotn  GminU 
da  AntitUt  I/abitiei  par  lei  Franfoii  (1667-71,  4vdi. 
<to).     See  Hoefer,  Aouc.  Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v, 

TeTtlllli8l](lU),  QVINTCH  SeITIMIL-S  FLOREII^il 

le  most  aocieqt  of  the  Latin  fathers  whose  worlu  an 
>w  eKtant,andaneDfthema«t  Dolewortby  pcTSDUfKi 
Jonging  lo  the  early  Church.  Our  knowledge  of  fait 
irsonal  history  is  extremely  limited.  He  was  bom  it 
Ckrthage  in  A.D.  160,  or  near  that  date,  his  fatha  be- 
ing a  Roman  centurion  in  the  service  of  the  pnxoMd 
of  Africa.  His  natural  endowments  were  gieal,  aod 
they  were  supplemented  by  a  comprehensire  count  rf 
studiea  whose  fruit  appears  in  tbe  wealth  of  hieton- 
cal,  legal,  philoeaphical,  physical,  and  antiquariaa  tie- 
menta  contained  in  his  wridnge.  He  was  destinnlfbi 
the  civil  service  of  the  empire,  and  was  a 


Hospital  Brothen  and  Sisters.     They  Uk( 

vows,  and  an  additional  one  which  binds  them 

for  the  sick,  and  to  live  in  hospitals  or  unions  known  as 

"  families"  and  amenable  lo  the  bisho| 

Tradition  credits  Dominic  with  the  founding  of  an 
order  of  Tertiaries,  male  and  female.  An 
nobles  and  knights  was  formed  by  him,  i 
version  of  the  Albigenses,  (o  recover  the  alienated  prop- 
erty of  the  Church  and  convents.  They  were 
ingly  styled  MUittt  dt  IUili)ia  CKriui.  Tht 
bound  them  to  that  work,  (o  diligenl 
public  worship,  e(C|  and  lo  the  wearing  of 
■idiy  hue.  Their  wives  were  pledged  to  promote  the 
objects  of  the  order,  and  were  not  allowed  U>  marry 
again  after  becoming  widows.  In  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century  this  asoociation  became  an  onler  of  peni- 
tents, assumed  the  Dominican  rule,  and  was  placed  un- 
der the  Dominican  general,  receiving  the  tille  of  "Broth- 
ers and  Sislers  of  the  Penance  of  St.  Dominic."  Other 
orders,  e.  g.  the  Augustines,  Minims,  Servile*,  TrsppisUs 
etc.,  subsequently  organized  associations  of  Tertiaries. 
See  MusMn,  Fruj^raal.  Gtieh.  4  roradimtl,  MOncAiiar- 
dm,  etc  (Paris,  1751  sq.). — Herzog,  Arat-A'ni^Uop.  s.  v. 

Ter'tinB  (Tipnoe,  GrwHzed  from  the  Lai-  ttriiut, 
third;  Vulg.  TfTliat)  waa  the  amanuensis  of  Paul  in 
writing  the  Epistle  to  the  Romana  (xvi,  22).  A.D.  55. 
He  wan  at  Corinth,  therefore,  and  Cencbree,  the  port 
of  Corinth,  at  the  time  when  the  apoatlc  wrote  U>  tl 
Church  at  Home.  It  ia  noticeable  that  Tertius  inle 
cepts  the  message  which  Paul  sends  to  the  Rami 
Christians,  and  inaerta  a  greeting  of  his  own  in  the  first 
person  unguUr  (limraCo/iai  iyii  Ttpnoc).     Both  that 

Bomans  may  indicate  that  Tertius  was  a  Koman,  and 

!0f 


:ribed  a 


:  of  foren^ 
i,  2,  where  Tertnlliia 


as  RbAqub  renders  it, "  one  of  the  m«t  di>- 
dnguished  wrilen  oflhe  idtin  Church"—"  inter  nosOn 
scriptores  admodum  clarus").  His  mode  of  argucan- 
lation  and  terminology  everywhere  reveal  the  legal 
turn  ofhis  mind,  and  his  writings  in  many  places  Ibnm 
light  on  disputed  poinlsof  the  Roman  civil  law. 

Tertullian  was  converted  to  Christianity  when  be- 
tween thirty  and  forty  years  of  age,  and  he  ininwdiaie- 
ly  became  its  fearless  champion  against  pagans.  Jews. 
and  heretics,  especially  Gnoatica.  He  was  tbe  Brat  re-  l 
ligious  teacher  after  tbe  apostles  who  attained  lo  a  dear  | 
recognition  of  tbe  mighty  contrast  between  sin  and 
grace,  and  who  presented  it  in  all  its  force  bi  the  nind 
of  the  Church.  He  was  miiried  (see  his  tract  AA 
Cxorem),  but  neverthelen  enteicd  tbe  rinks  of  the 
clergy,  Jerome  says  that  he  was  first  a  presbyter  of 
tbe  t^tholic  Church,  but  his  own  wiilings  do  not  deter- 
mine whether  he  was  a  member  of  the  spiritual  «det 
prior  to  his  lapse  into  Hontanism  or  not.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  he  sojourned  for  a  time  in  Rome  (tM  Di 
CubaF^cT;  Eusebius,  J/.£.  ii,2). 

The  transition  to  MonUnism  occurred  a  few  yeas 
after  Tertullian's  conversion,  and  about  A.D.  302.  The 
act  doubtless  had  its  origin  in  bis  eccentric  dispositiMi 
and  rigorous  moral  vicws,which  piediiposod  him  to  re- 
gard that  heresy  with  favor  and  to  dislike  tbe  Romm 
Church.  Jerome  attributes  it  to  personal  motive)  ex- 
cited by  the  jealouay  and  envy  of  the  Roman  clergy, 
and  modem  writers  bavs  ascribed  it  lo  disappoinUd 
ambitioa.  We  know,  however,  that  the  peniiaiMl 
discipline  of  the  Church  was  administered  at  Rome 
with  exceeding  laxity,  and  that  such  indifference  wis 
an  abominsrion  in  the  eye»  ofTeltuUian  (/•AifowpiiP 
mena  [ed.  Miller,  Qjton.  1851],  ix,  S90),  "    ' 


TERTHLUAN  2 

<Jiil  art  ngud  HonUniu  h  the  Panulete.  He  recog- 
niaadin  ths  Uiur  ajmply  an  inepired  organ  of  the  Spir- 
it. Ht,  nlber  Ihui  Monlaniu,  becMOif  the  heict  of  the 
UaUDiiiii;  pany  in  Africi,  s'^'ins  ">  'heir  uniieflned 
rim  ■  ibeological  chancCer  and  a  conceded  influence 
Ota  the  life  of  the  Church,  and  eaubluhing  it  on  foun- 
diiiooi  lulBcientlf  6rm  to  enable  it  to  pioUxct  ita  be- 
ing 6owa  to  the  &lh  century.  He  died  in  old  age,  be- 
iKwa  A.D.  no  and  !40.  The  uienion  that  he  re- 
umci  b>  the  Catbnlic  Church  Iwfure  he  died  ia  aome- 
timta  made,  Init  cannot  be  Butnlan  tilted,  and  (be  con- 
oantd  tiiaiena  of  the  sect  of  Terlullian lata  would  aeem 
M  coilndict  the  aaaumption  (see  Neander,  TeriuU.  [2d 
tdf.  p.  *ei;  Auguac  IM  //nr.  U.  86).  It  ia  a  signia- 
cut  Fact,  and  an  argnment  in  behalf  of  the  liberal  in- 
ipqnriatioo  of  ancient  Church  hiMory  for  which  Frot' 
otaiiumi  conteiida,  (hat  it  waa  pieciaely  thia  great  de- 
Ftiider  of  Catholic  orthodoxy  againat  Gnoatlc  hereay 
wKo  >•>  a  achiamatic  to  euch  a  degree  that  he  baa  nev- 
n  been  included  by  the  Church  of  Rome  among  the 
iuabtT  of  her  aainls,  or  among  that  of  the  pairti  m 
diajnguitbed  from  the  mere  icriplara  mdaiialici. 

Aa  a  vriter,  Tertidlian  via  exceedingly  fiesh  and 
rignnnA,  but  aL<o  angular,  abrupt,  and  impeluoua.  He 
(meaaed  a  liTely  imagination,  a  fund  of  wit  and  aatire, 
■veil  BB  of  acquired  knowledge,  and  conaiderable  depth 
nd  keenncaa;  but  be  wai  deHcicnt  in  point  of  logical 
clcincn  and  aclf-poaaenon,  aa  well  aa  of  ntoderatinn, 
tal  of  a  thorough  and  barmonioua  culture.     He  waaa 

baopby.  Flia  aapiring  mind  aought  in  vain  for  ade- 
ingnage  in  which  Co  expreaa  itaelf,  and  struggled 
•     - -™   ■ .^)„  ,^p 


lofChria 


•nihe* 


a  of  truth  and  of  art,  and  nearly  ali 
ifipMr  ID  hia  writing)  in  ridiculoua  plighL  Uewaa  the 
dinet  oppoaite  to  Origen,  holding  the  extreme  poaiIii»n 
ofralimi  od  the  bordera  of  macerialian).  He  wai,  fur- 
ibrrnmre,  the  pioneer  of  nrthodox  anthropology  and 
MinDlagr,  Che  teacher  of  Cyprian,  and  forerunner  of 
As^OMine,  in  the  latter  of  whom  bis  apirit  was  repro- 

irtrilici  and  anj^laritiea.     It  ia  possible,  alio,  to  trace 
nvoblanoa  between  bin)  and  Luther  with  respect  to 


ineaLM 


[i»4aB.  polemical  relentleaaneaa,  etc.;  but  the  father 
licked  the  childlike  amiability  ortheReTnrmeT,  who  was 
bixh  i  lion  and  ■  lamb. 

TtTtuUian'a  wriilnga  are  uiually  of  brief  extent,  but 
ihty  inTene  Hearty  all  llelils  of  the  religiout  life,  and 
IhFTOinititute  the  most  proliHc  source  for  the  history  of 
n  his  lime.    No  aalisfac- 


.ofth 


Itw  of  them  afford  tht 
■  artwrne.  The  claaMlicatiDn  here  preaentcil  reals  upon 
lir  utare  of  the  aeveral  writings  as  being  either  Cath- 
"Uc  «  Anlicathidtc,  in  which  light  the  furmer  are  con- 
lidmUy  more  numerous  than  the  latter. 

(L)  CaiXuUc  Wriiiagt,  er  ncM  ai  Drfind  Onhodox 
fhiaiamhi  agaiiiit  UnMifctn  and  Brrrtki. — Moat  of 
Iben  works  date  from  the  Montaniat  nra  of  the  au- 
tbor'i  life. 

i.  Afulogiet  affahat  Pagaiu  md  Jam.— Flrat  of  all, 
ibt  Apabiirtinu,  addressed  to  the  Raman  magistntcr. 
.LD.  196  (Uiihler)  or  304  (Kaye),  and  forming  one  of 
ib<  boL  rebuttal*  nf  the  chargea  raiaed  by  the  heathen 

•n  tke  J d  A'ariiwi  IMtrill.  In  Dt  Talimmo  Atnma 
ibt  author  develop*  an  argument  for  the  unity  of  Und 
ud  the  reality  of  a  future  atate  from  the  innate  percep- 
<t«H  and  feelings  of  the  aonl.  In  the  work  Ad  Srapu- 
lam  Iw  Nmoaatmea  with  the  African  governor  of  that 
osaa.  «bo  was  bitleriy  penecuting  the  Christians. 
The  JdwroM  Juitot  iAfr  drawa  fnim  the  Old-1'est. 
imfWla  (he  ptoof  tliat  the  Ueiaiah  has  appeared  in  the  ' 
X.— 10 


19  TERTULLIAN 

person  of  Jeans  of  Naiareth  (comp.  Hefele,  TertttU.  alt 

Apologtl,  in  the  Tub.  QuartaUrittft,  1838,  p.  80-8S). 

2.  Dodriaal  artd  Fotemital  Wrilingi  A  imtd  iigaimi> 
Herttiet.-'Hert  belongs,  first,  the  Dt  Pnacnplione  H»- 
rtliatram,  or  rules  to  be  observed  by  Christiana  in  deal- 
ing with  heretica.  Tha  argument  involve*,  aa  its  funda- 
mental principle,  the  idea  that  heretics,  aa  innovatora, 
are  nnder  the  neceasity  of  proving  their  po^tiona,  while 
the  Catholic  Church  ia  aaaured  in  ita  aole  right  to  the 
allegiance  of  Christendom  by  the  uninterrupted  current 
ofapoctolical  tradition  and  an  unimpaired  succeMJon.BO 
that  it  need  not  enter  into  controversy  wilb  heretica, 
After  the  defection  to  Montaniam,  Tertullian  wrote 
agunst  various  individual  heretics,  e.  g.  in  the  fifteenth 
year  of  Septimiua  Severua  <A.D.  207  nr  208),  Airirmi 
Mardoivn  Libri  V,  bis  most  extensive  and  learned  po- 
lemico-dogmatical  work,  and  a  principal  aource  for  the 


at  Carthage,  who  had  adopted  the  dualistie  theory  of 

the  eternity  of  matter; — Advertai  Vatailiiaiaio*,*  trag- 
icoMiimical  representation  of  the  Valenlinlan  Gnostics: 
—and  5corpiucr,  an  antidote  against  the  Bcorpion-poiaan 
of  auch  heretics. 

Particular  Gnostical  doctrines  are  assailed  in  Dr  Bap- 
litme,  a  defence  of  waler-baplism  against  the  Cainites 
and  their  peculiar  theory  of  a  myatical  apirilual  bap- 
tism:— DeAtama,  an  inquiry  into  the  nature,  etc.,  of  the 
soul  -.—Dt  Carne  Ckriti,  a  defence  of  the  true  humanity 
of  Christ:— and  De  Itawrtclvme  Canai,  a  confutation 
of  the  hereay  which  denied  the  reaurrection  of  the  body. 
The  tract  Adwrtui  Praxtam  assail*  the  Phrygian  Anti- 
montanist  Praxeas,  and  confutes  hia  pairiparaloniat  et- 
roia  in  the  intereat  of  the  orthodox  view  of  the  Trinity. 

S.  EAictd  andAKdwd  Ifrifv^i.— This  class  is  com- 
poaed  of  works  of  small  size,  but  of  considerable  value 
to  the  regulation  of  praci  leal  life  and  the  adminislraLon 
of  eccleuastical  discipline.  The  list  includes,  De  Oro' 
titinr,  an  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  rules  for 
prayer  and  fasting : — De  Spedaculi;  ■  warning  against 
theatrical  exhibilinns : — Dt  IdoloUaria : — Ad  Vxortm 

she  should  outlive  him  :— D*  PanHnlin,  a  Catholic  and 
Anlimontaniatic  presentation  of  the  doctrine  of  repent- 
ance,dating  from  the  earlier  period  of  his  Christian  life : 
—Dt  Patienlia,  a  commendation  of  the  virtue  of  pa- 
tience, accompanied  with  a  lamentation  because  of  hia 
own  lack  of  that  virtue:— ^dAfar'jnw,  an  exhortation 
addressed  to  the  confeaeors  who  in  the  time  of  Septimiua 
Severua  awaited  in  prison  tha  martyr's  death. 

(U.)  AnIicalitilHi  Wiitaigt,  in  ichich  .VonlanitlU  Di- 
cergenca/rom  Ctit&oiic  Cuftomt  are  KrprtHly  Drjfndtd, 
— De  Pudiatia,  a  retraction  of  the  principles  laid  down 
in  the  earlier  work  De  P</milmlia,»ni  violent  advocacy 
of  the  rigoriatic  view  on  which  deadly  sins,  like  murder, 
aiiullery,  and  flight  from  peraecntion,  should  never  he 
condoned; — De  Mouogamiut  an  emphatic  denimciatlun 
of  aeccind  marrlagea  (oamp,  Hauber,  in  Sl«d.  u.  Krit. 
1843,No.3):— fir  A'j'itarrattoMCdWiftiria, in  which  three 
degrees  nf  chastity  arc  distinguished- the  tint,  absolute 
and  lifelong  cvslraintj  the  second,  continence  from  the 
time  ofliaplism;  the  third,  refraining  from  contracting 

the  habit  of  unmarried  women  appearing  in  public  un- 
veiled as  being  contrary  to  nature,  the  will  of  God,  and 
the  Jiscipliiie  of  the  Church  generally  -.-De  Habitu  M»- 
lirbii  et  dt  CtiUu  Feitanamm  condemns  the  adorning  of 
the  person  by  females  with  ornaments,  etc.:— Z)(yrf'uniu 
adeeriui  P^chicot  (Catbolica)  ia  a  defence  of  exag- 
gerated fasting: — DeFuga  denies tiie  righto! Christiana 
to  flee  from  persecution  -.—Dt  Connui  MUilii  commenda 
a  ChcisUan  soldier  who  refused  to  wear  the  festive  chap- 
let  on  a  great  oceaaion  aud  auffered  punishment  lot  hia 
act:— /hPdlftaia  a  witty  explanation  of  hia  conduct  in 
wearing  the  pallium  inatead  of  the  ordinary  Roman 
((^o,  dillicult  for  ns  to  understand  because  ofilsnnroer- 


Tbe  earliest  ei 


n  of  the  collected  w 


ts  of  Tert 


TERTULLUS  21 

Uaa  waa  that  of  fitatiu  Rheiiuiu*  ( Bule,  1521 ).  It 
wu  followed  by  Ibose  of  I'triKUiis  (Antw.  1579),  Kicil- 
liuB  (Paris,  1634;  Vfiiice,  1744),  Stmltr  (Hille,  IT70- 
78, 0  voU.),  Leopolrl  in  Gendiirf,  BibL  Pair.  A'orf.  iMliit. 
Selrcta  (Lif*  I8B9-4I),  p«m  iv-vii,  and  Migne  (Parii, 
1S44).  Tbe  UleN  and  IwM  tdilion  is  that  of  Oehl«r, 
a.  Sfpl.  FhitfU.  TrrtuU.  etc  (Upa.  1858,  8  vola.).  V»]. 
iii  coiiMini  th«  diaoeniliun*  an  Tertulliin  of  Pameliua, 
AUii,  Nic.  de  Noun?,  Hotbtiin,  NfiMclr,  Seml*t,  ami 
Kayr.  The  life  of  'I'ertiiUian  has  been  wriiten  by 
Neuider,  A  Mignotlicut,  Gtut  da  TrrtuL  v.  EM.  tn  drum 
Schriflm  (BerL  IHift;  Sd  ed.  1849);  Heawlberg,  Ter- 
tuUian-M  l^n  (DoHMil,  18*8),  pLi,"  Life  anJ  Writingi;" 
K*ve  [  AngUcan  biitaop  of  Lincoln],  Ecd.  Hut.  nfllu  id 
and  Sd  CaUvria  lllal./roia  lie  Wiitngi  ofTtrtiiUion 
(Lond.  lS4&t  ad  ed.  1848).  See  HUhler,  PatrolnyU 
(ed.  Reilhmayr,  Ratiabon,  1840),  >,  701.790;  BehrinRcr, 
KWdu  Chrim  (Zurich,  IMS),  1,  i,  270-374!  Haae,  Kir- 
Cjbs^K*.  (Tthed.),  §84.  p.109:  ^Mxti,  II aiidb.d.  Kir- 
eiayari.  (Sd  ed.),  i,  807 1  Htuek,  TtiivUian'i  Irbfn 
und  Wrrie  (Erltng.ia:!);  ttmng,  Rtal-EHCsUap. 
L  V. :  Smith,  Did.  of  Gr.  lad  Horn.  Biog.  a.  v. 

Taitnl'lna  (Ti^iniXXoCi  >  diminulive  from  ihe  Bo- 
man  name  Ttrtiiu,  aiialogoiu  to  Lucalliu  from  Luctat, 
FabuUu,  from  Fabiu,,  etc),  "a  «rUin  oralor"  (Acta 
XXVI,  1)  who  waa  retained  by  the  high-prieel  anil  San- 
hedrim to  aceuK  the  apntile  Paul  at  Ciesarea  before 
tbe  Koman  procurator  Anlonius  Felii.  A.D.  6B.  See 
Paul  He  evidently  belonged  to  the  claaa  of  profea- 
ahmal  orators,  tnultitudee  of  whom  were  to  be  found  nut 
(inly  in  Rome,  but  in  other  parts  of  Ilie  emin re,  lo  which 
they  had  betaken -themaelvea  in  tbe  hope  ofAndtng  oc- 
cupation at  the  triliunala  of  tbe  provincial  magiMratea. 
Dolb  from  hia  name,  and  from  the  grcaL  pTubabitily 
that  the  proceeding!  were  conducted  in  Latin  (aee  ea- 
ptciallv  Milinan,  Bumpiem  Uelurti  for  1S27,  p.  18A, 
note),  we  mav  infer  that  Tertullu*  waa  of  Roman,  or  at 
■U  events  of  Italian,  nrisin.  The  Sanhedrim  would  nat- 
urally detire  to  weiire  his  arrvieea  on  account  of  their 
own  ignoranca  both  of  tho  Latin  language  and  nf  the 
ordinary  procedure  ofi  Roman  law-cDurti  for  tbe  Jewg, 
aa  well  as  the  other  peopiea  lubjeet  to  the  Romans,  in 
their  Bccuaations  and  proceaaea  before  the  Roman  nug- 
isliatea,  were  obliged  to  ftdlow  the  furmn  of  the  Roman 
law,  of  which  they  knew  little.  The  different  prov- 
incee,  and  particularly  the  principal  cities,  conaeqiienl- 
ly  aboniided  with  pecaona  who,  at  the  aante  time  advo- 
cates and  orator*,  were  equally  ready  to  plead  in  dvil 

cither  in  Greek  or  L^lin,  at  ibe  place  or  oceation  re- 


The  exordium  of  hia  speech  ia  designed  to  concilii 
the  good  will  of  the  procurator,  and  ia  accordiofcly  nvi 
eharged  with  flallerj-.  There  is  a  strange  contrast  I 
iween  the  opening  clime— iroXXJc  i''p^"lt  rufxpvn 
nc  fci  (rail— and  the  brief  summary  of  the  proeuratu 
adminiilration  pven  by  Tadlus  (//if.  v,  9) ;  "  Am 
niua  Felix  per  oronemacvitiam  ac  libidinem,  jus  regit 
iervill  Ingeniu  exercuil"  (comp.  Tacii.  ilnn.  xii,  h>. 
But  the  commendations  of  Tertullus  were  not  altogetht 


>  Felix 


really  succeeded  in  puiting 


down  several  eedilious  movements.  See  Kklix. 
not  i-ery  easy  to  detemiine  whether  Luke  baa  preserved 
the  ora'tion  of  Tertullus  entire.  On  the  one  hand,  we 
have  the  eUborate  and  artificial  opening,  which  can 
hanlly  be  other  than  an  accurate  report  of  thai  part  of 
the  speech;  and,  on  Ihe  other  hand,  we  have  a  narra- 
tive which  ia  an  very  dry  and  concise  that,  if  there  were 
nothing  more,  it  is  not  easy  to  nee  why  the  orator  should 
have  been  called  in  at  alL  The  difficulty  is  ittcreased 
if,  in  accordance  with  tbe  greatly  preponderating  weight 
of  external  authority,  we  omit  the  words  in  Acts  xxiv, 
'     '  V  v/uTEpov  .  .  .  Ifi-nfttiai.  Jiri  vi.     On 


the  w 


itural  t. 


n,  wbo  waa  almost  certainly  an  ear-witness, 
merely  givea  an  abetract  of  the  ^leech,  giving,  howev- 
er, in  full  tbe  moat  salient  points,  and  those  which  had 


(ver.5). 

The  doubtful  reading  in  vers.  6-8,  to  which  reTeience 
has  already  been  made,  aeens  likely  lo  remain  an  uo- 
aolved  difficulty.  Against  the  extemsl  evidence  there 
would  be  nothing  (o  urg«  in  favor  of  Ihe  dispottd  pu- 
aigt.  were  it  not  that  tbe  statement  which  remsiiii  af- 
ter ita  removal  is  not  merely  extremely  brief  (its  breii- 
ty  may  be  acoounted  for  tn  the  manner  already  niggot- 
ed),  but  abrupt  and  awkward  in  point  of  construct ioL 
It  may  be  added  thst  it  is  cauet  lo  refer  wop'  ab  (ver. 
8)  to  the  tribune  LvKJas  than  lo  Paul  For  arguments 
founded  on  the  wonls  cni  mrd  ■  .  .  cpiHiv  (ver.  6)— 
arguments  which  are  dependent  on  the  genuineness  of 
the  disputed  words — see  l^rdner,  CrtdSiUilf  /•ftktGiu- 
pri  Huloiy,  bk.  i,  cb.  ii ;  Biscoe,  Oa  llie  Arfi,  vi,  16. 

We  ought  not  to  pass  over  without  notice  a  atrai^ 
etymology  fur  the  name  Tertullus  proposed  by  Calmti, 
in  the  place  of  which  another  has  been  suggesteil  bv  bti 
English  eilltor  (e<l.  I8S0),  who  Ukes  credit  fur  faaVing 
rejected  "fanciful  and  improbiUe"  etymolugio,  iikI 
Mibstiioled  improvements  of  hia  own.  Whether  tbe 
suggestion  is  an  improvement  in  this  rase  Ihe  readn 
will  Judge:  "Tertullus,  TiprvXAoc,  fior,  impoilor.tnm 
npni-oXoyoc,  a  lelier  ojfMoritt,  a  citat.  [(^.— Was  hii 
true  appellaiioD  Ter-TuUiui, '  thrice  Tully,'  that  is,  ex- 
tremely eloquent,  varied  bv  Jewish  nit  into  Tertol- 
lusV]- 

Tesob«nmBoli«r,  Wbrxkr,  a  minister  of  tbe  Rt- 
formed  Church  in  Jutien-Cleves-Berg,  and  a  writer  of 
some  prominence  In  ecclesiastical  and  political  lileratair. 
was  bom  at  Elberield  in  September,  1689.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  llerbom  and  Heidelberg,  and  aflerwardt  sen  nl 
the  Chuicb  from  lEIOorlSIl  until  16SS  in  herpulpiis, 
where  he  gained  the  reputation  of  an  eloquent  sndiUc 
preacher  of  the  Wonl.  His  services  oere  much  in  re- 
quest by  the  churches,  Elbeifeld,  Cleves,  and  Emninich, 
at  that  time  Ihe  seal  of  ihr  Kraiidenburg  govetntpnit, 
being  bis  principal  lields  of  labor.     He  was  also  gnady 

lie*  that  led  lo  hia  selection  for  the  conduct  of  imiiy 
affairs  in  which  the  presenation  and  welfare  of  the 
Protestant  churches  of  Ibe  duchy  were  at  stake  dating 
that  stormy  period  of  religious  wars.  He  was,  hswerer, 
of  hasty  temperament  and  excenlingly  self-willed,  so 
that  he  frequently  came  into  conflict  with  other  cieiR- 
men,  and  occasioned  the  government,  which  niihrd  him 
well,  considerable  trouble  in  the  effiirl  lo  sustain  him. 
His  retirement  from  the  pulpit  >vas  the  result  or  s  col- 
lision with  Slflver,  a  newly  appointed  colleague  to  hi* 
charge.  He  removed  to  Xanlen  and  gave  himself  i" 
literary  labors  until  his  death,  on  Good-Friday.  April  % 
1C38.  Teach enmachei's  writings  are  chiefly  biatimcal 
in  character,  and  of  brief  extent.  They  are,  Stptiik 
Urvcii  CalAoL  H  Oiihodoz.  BfL,  ipia  SagMUitu  Bti  Br- 
mfido  anU  StKulam  a  Papain  K'/orm.  in  CUrir.JtIit, 
MoBlium  nucalibiu,  etc  (Veaeliie,  1636,  4B  pp.):-^a- 
nalfi  Ecdfi.  K^ormaliontM  Kctlniamm  Cliria,  eit 
n6aS):-AmuilrtCliria,«c(lGS8;  !d  ed.  bvDithiDti. 
Frankf.-on-the-Oder,  17^1),  a  political  work  which  » 
sliU  valuable.  Works  in  M&:  5m»oni.-,4  Coai-wKorj 
on  rht  Epitltf  lo  Iht  CerinHioia,  in  Latin  -.—AtimilaM 
Ecd.  t:pilomt  tn  gua  prttdpve  Granuuna  Qwutiii  a- 
plUatar  dt  Saccraioia  et  iSlalu  Eat.  Cki-itl.  to.  Ap 
aulobiognphy  in  atotto,  and  a  biography  by  F. 
Teachenmacher,  are  both  lost. — Heiiag,A«if-£ii9ttif 

TeisSiW  (toinu).  The  early  Christians,  when 
compelled  to  travel,  were  careful  to  aeenre  a  recogajiimi 
by  their  fellow-Christians  wherever  tfaey  went  Tbcr 
were  always  provided  with  lettera  of  recommendatioo; 
and  when  arrivuig  in  a  strange  town  bad  only  to  in- 
quire fbr  Ihe  church,  and  to  produce  these  letters,  wbw 
they  were  received  aa  brethreu,  and  provided  with  n- 


201   TESTAMENTS,  PATIUAKCHAL 


Teat,  the  impnutioa  or  an  o*tb,  or  an;  otbcr  act  by  I 
«rlucb  ih«  nli^oiu  priiKipla  of  an;  individual  ai«  put ' 
M  prv"/.  Tata  and  diialrilitiM  air  dixioct  from  pat- 
altta  properiy  m  called :  ii  nonld  b«  abaurd  Co  Ulk  of 


Tamt  AotB,  also  callnl  Corporation  Acts,  the 
popalar  name  given  lo  [wu  Eiigliah  aLauites  impoaiiig 
(rruin  naths  uu  the  bnlden  of  p'Idic  offices.     Act  13 
Charlea  11,  c  1,  direcu  that  all  magluratet  ahall  take 
ihr  oailw  or  allegiance  and  aupremac}"!  ai  veil  . 
Ditti  reniiunciiig  iho  doclrine  (hat  it  ia  lawful  lo 
irau  axuaw  ihe  king;  and  proridei  Ihal  they  ma 
CHTF  Itae  OHnniiiiiiun  accDcdlng  la  the  riles  o 
Church  of  En)(Iand  within  a  year  before  election.    Act 
a  Chulea  II.  c  I ,  impo«d  the  like  condilions  oi      ' 
b'lilen  of  all  public  oiBcea,  ciril  and  miliiary,  and 
Mii^ra  Ihem,  in  addition,  to  abjure  all  belief  in  the  doc- 
iriiK  of  traniDbMaatUiIon.    These  acta,  which  were 
pnnically  evaded  to  a  large  extent  by  meini  of  ■ 
uf  ioileiiinity  pused  eiery  year,  were  repealed  by  9 
CitBfgc  IV,  c.  17.  in  so  far  u  regarded  the  admiiiisli 
IKD  of  the  aaerament.  Tor  which  ■  declaration  let  foi 
in  ihat  act  was  subatituted.    A  Matute  of  William  IV 
MbMiUited  a  declaration  for  an  oath  in  moat  gnvem- 
ami  offices.     A  new  form  of  oath  has  been  lubatituled 
fix  [be  oaths  of  supremacy,  alleKiance,  and  ibjuri 
brSlandM^'ictoria.c.W.— C*nBi*n»'»f:itcyetop. 
at  Skeau,  Uitl.  of  Fret  CImrdtet  of  Englaitd  (sei 

Tostanant  is  the  frequent  rendering,  in  the  New 
Tnl.,  of  the  Greek  SiaXiO]  (literally  ■  ifiqHXa/), 
InUi  are  used  in  two  dislinct  lenaei  (aee  Cremer,  Lee 
I/S.-T.  arrrk.  p.  S76  kj.). 

I.  The  nalBial.  and  in  elassieil  Greek,  as  in  otdinsry 
Ei^bli,  the  «ilr,  algniScalion  ii  a  deriaement  bv  will 
or  kRacT  (Plutarch,  Dt  Adatal.  28;  Plato,  Lrgg.  922; 
DtBHstli.  1136,  12),  and  in  this  sense  the  word  occun 
in  Heb.  ii,  le,  17.     See  iMHUirTANca. 

i.  But  [be  tnore  common  signlAcation  in  the  New 
Tea.  is  one  that  has  come  over  from  the  Sept.,  which 
often  OSes  ^lo^iirq  as  ■  rendering  of  the  Heb.  r<^'^31,  or 
anaml,-  and  in  this  aense  "  tesument"  is  the  render- 
iBR  in  Ibe  A.  V.  of  the  Greek  word  in  Heb.  vii,2!;  ix, 
M;  Bar.  xi,  19;  and  eapecially  in  the  phrase  the  nns 
■owwiri  (Halt.  xxT),  28;  Hark  itiv,  24;  Uike  xxii, 
»;  I  Cor.  iii,6;  Heb.  ix,  16  (i.  e.  "new  covenant,"  ai 
in  Heb.Tiii,8;  xii, !«]), which  has gaiiied currency  as 
the  litis  of  the  Christian  Scriptures  as  s  whole  See 
Ntr-Eaglaiila;  Hay,  IU7,  Land.  (Wealeyan)  Quar. 
Sn.  July,  ]8ft7.     See  Covxraht. 

TRSTAMENT,  Old  akd  Nkw.  When  ibe  hooks 
■rillen  by  the  apostles  of  Jesus  Chritt,  or  by  apouulic 
nn,  came  to  be  placed  alongside  the  sacred  biwks  of 
the  llebrewi,  ss  comprising  the  eatira  scriplunl  canon, 
it  bname  necessary  tu  dislingnish  the  two  divisions  by 
ancDpriate  dcsignaliuns.  A  ussge  which  already  pre- 
tailed  furnished  the  designiLoni  required.  The  gn- 
auH  engagtmeula  inlo  irhich  Gud  vtaa  pleased  to  enter 
wilb  indiTiduala  and  communities  bear  In  the  Old  Test. 
tbc  use  of  n^^^,  or  cocaual  {q.  v.),  and  to  this  cor- 
nqnods  Ibe  Greek  lia^rti  in  the  SepL  and  New  Test. 
Of  ihtst  csrenanU  two  stand  out  from  all  the  rest  ss 
of  pre-uninent  importance— God's  curenant  with  laiael 
Mdialad  by  Hoaea,  and  that  oovanant  which  he  prom- 1 
■•ed  to  esublish  through  the  Ueasiah.  In  the  Jewish  ; 
bcnpinns  this  latter  is  deaignatad  ni^^  n'<n^,q  nuv4  I 
Iwiiicq  (Jei.  xixi,  11),  and  this,  adopted  by  oar  Lonl 
(Hsn.  ixTi.l8),  aod  familUrly  used  by  the  apostles  (2  I 


Cor.  lii,  IS;  Heb.  ix,  18,  tic"),  would  nitnrally  snggtst 
the  application  of  the  phrase  q  waKatd  Ao^qini  to  the 

n^^an,  xXowf  rSc  itmSinif,  for  the  lahlels  on  which 
the  taw  was  inscribed  (DeuL  ix,  9) :  P-nan  ^GD,  ^• 
^iov  rqt  latSiiiiit  <Exi>d.xxiv,T;  2  Kings  xxiii,21;  1 
Hacc  i,  67),  ^/ftoc  Itdiiiaie  (Eecloa.  xxiv,  33),  were 

such  an  expreasionas  thst  Drtheaposlle(2Cor.iii,  14), 
^  Avayvuiait  rift  waXoinc  tia^ntt,  where  the  name 
appropriate  to  the  thingcontainediaosed  of  that  which 
contains  it.  There  thus  arose  in  the  Greek  Chuich  the 
usage  of  the  phrases  17  raXati  fiaSiJjn)  and  ij  anir^ 
jiodqci)  as  deugaations  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
sacred  writings  respecli^-ely.  In  the  Latin  Church  the 
usage  prevailed  of  calling  these  Veiut  M  Novum  Tttla- 
mmluin.  Why  the  word  Talammlam  was  selected  to 
represent  JioSqBj  rather  than  Fadui  or  /'actum  may 
be  explsined  by  the  fact  that  the  former  ratber  than 
the  latter  is  the  proper  equivalent  of  the  Greek  word. 
Hence  in  the  old  Ilala  made  from  the  Sept.  it  is  always 
oBid  where  the  Greek  has  f  inS^ni ;  and  in  the  Tulgale 
it  is  used  similarly  in  those  books  that  remsin  in  the 
old  version,  whereas  in  those  which  Jerome  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  r''ia  is  represented  byjadui  or  pac- 
lum,  Thst  tbis  usage  was  an  early  one  in  Che  Latin 
Church  is  evident  from  the  words  of  Tertullian  (X*. 
Mure  iv,  1) :  "Duos  Deos  dividens  (Marcion)  altcnim 
altertus  Instrurnenti  vel,  piod  moyu  Hiui  est  iftvrr,  Te*- 
tamenti."  The  use  of  rei'iimAifHn,  however,  doea  not 
seem  to  have  been  univeraally  accepted  till  a  much  later 
period.  In  the  passsge  quoted  TenuUian  evidently 
gives  the  preference  to  the  word  wrruinmCuin,  a  term 
used  technicallv  to  denote  a  writing  by  which  anything 
is  to  be  attested  or  prored  (comp.  Quinlil.  liul.  OnU. 
xii,8, 12);  and  this  is  Che  word  he  generally  uses  (comp. 
Ade.  Marc  iv,  2;  l)e  Padic  c  12,  etc).  RuBnus  also 
has  "  novum  et  vetus  instrumenlum"  (Eij/ot,  Sgmb. 
ApoMoL);  and  Augustine  uses  both  nKramenluin  and 
unammhim  in  the  aame  context  {Dt  Cic.  Dei,  ix,  4). 
Lactantius,  however,  freely  uses  lalantraiim  as  a  well- 
accredited  term  when  he  wrote  (fnir.  Die  iv,  20). 

From  the  Vulgate  and  the  usage  of  the  Utin  fathen, 
Teitamtnt  has  nstiirally  pssseil  iiitn  the  title  uf  Che  two 
divisions  of  the  Soriptures  in  the  Eiiulish  and  moat  of 
the  European  venions.    See  New  Tistameiit  ;  Ou> 

Testamenta  of  the  Twilvk  PATKiARCMa,  Thk, 
is  one  oflhe  serenty-two  Apocri'phal  books  of  Che  Old 
Test. which  were  atone  time  in  circulation, and, accord- 
ing toEpiphanius  {Lii.iU  Mnmriirll'iindtribiii,^  10), 
it  formed  one  of  the  twenty-two  canonical  books  sent  by 
the  Jews  In  Ptolemj',  king  of  Egypt.    See  ArocRrriiA. 

I.  Author  "flit  Waii:  and  hii  Oijett—lhen  cnn  bf 
no  dispute  thai  the  writer's  main  object  and  purpose 
was  the  conversion  of  the  Jewbh  nation  to  tho  Chris- 
tian Ikith.  To  gain  his  object  his  appeal  is  based  not 
on  the  authority  of  Mnsee  or  Che  law  of  Sinai,  hut  is  re- 
ferred back  to  the  earlier  period  of  the  patriarchs,  where, 
ng  the  simple  covenant  between  God  and  man, 
mt  the  flnt  geima  of  Christianity.     From  tl: 


.haabi 


T  himielf  wi 


Grabs,  ihc  first  who  created  at  length  of  the  Testaments, 
thnughl  that  the  writing  in  question  wsn  the  wnrk  nfa 
Jew  shortly  before  the  Chriuisn  btb;  and  10  account 
for  the  presence  of  passages  which  nn  Jew  could  possi- 
bly have  written,  he  had  recourse  Co  Che  Cbeory  of  inter- 
'  ion.  This  opinion,  however,  has  Ihund  but  lilde 
,  and  critics  have  generally  agreed  to  Che  conclu- 
sions of  Niiisch,  who  dcHnitely  attributed  the  work  Co  a 
Judno-Chrialian  writer,  an  opinion  adopted  now  even 
bv  RitBchI,  who  in  IMaO  maint«ne.I  that  author  was  a 
Christian  of  Pauline  tendencies.  Without  entering  upon 
the  different  views  sdvanced  on  this  point,  we  pass  od 


TESTAMENTS,  PATRIARCHAL   292   TESTAMENTS,  PATRIARCHAL 

II.  Timt  of  Compontvm, — Tbat  it  ww  not  oompoaed 
■Klurc  A.D.  70  we  may  infer  from  Che  autbor'a  allunon 

TtKamtatt  ■  date  aulwequent  la  thii  event.  On  the 
other  hind,  it  is  almdy  quoled  by  TeitulUin  (Aio. 
Marc.  V,  1 ;  Scorji.  c  IS)  and  Origeii  {Horn,  m  Jih.  it, 
C.6};  and  thu*  w«  may  aafely  infer,  without  quotin); 
the  diObrent  opinioiia,  that  the  nxitt  probable  dale  fur 
il*  compnaitiOD  ia  80-1 10  or  130  of  our  era. 

IIL  LaitsMage  in  liich  tke  Work  «ui  irrirt«.-Tbe 
TtVammli,  aa  we  have  it  now,  waa  no  doubt  wiitleii 

work.  Crabe  mwnUiaed  thai  it  waa  ari)(iiialty  writ- 
ten iQ  Hebrew  and  wu  tnnilated  into  (ireek  with  the 
canonical  hooks  uf  the  Old  Tot.  But  igaintt  thii  view 
it  ha*  been  argued  that  already  the  lille  of  the  book,  oi 
iiaSijitai  rAy  i^'  noTpinpniv,  indicatei  ita  Gmk  ori^ 
inar,  becanse  the  Hebrew  pis^a  or  nil?  would  hare 
been  preMiited  by  the  Greek  diXiiyiai,  fvreXai,  or  /inp- 
TBpia.  We  also  And  a  number  of  inalancea  of  parono- 
maaia,  hardly  poaMble  on  the  hypotheaia  of  a  Hebrew 
originaL  Such  are  d^inii'  .  .  .  mv^triir,  ifaipiait 
.  .  .  araipiatt  (Tett,  Judak,  note  23),  Xifwc  . . .  Xoifiiic 
(iHi) !  iy  rd&i . . .  drnitrov  {Soph,  note  3),  rdfic  ■  ■  ■ 
li  rnt^a  (tUd  3).  We  flnd  rarioue  expreaoona  pertain- 
ma  ">  <'<B  Greek  philnaophy,  aa  Ao^okc  aii^ott, 
fiidiQ  rfXoc,  ita&ai\un;  avii^vXtiiiv  rivi.  Taking 
all  in  all,  we  are  led  to  the  auppoaition  that  it  wa>  orig- 
inally written  in  Greek  (aee  Nilxach,  Dr  Trtl.  XII  Patr. 
[Wilemb.  1810],  p.  16;  Vantman,  Ditjait.  Jt  Tttlam. 
XII  Palriarct.  p.  8  aq.). 

IV.  CoHleiU  of  rhe  Tatamfiil4.—Tlit  work  profeaaea 


moral  precepts  for  cbe  guidance  of  their  deacrndanta,  who 
may  thereby  be  preaerved  from  the  aiiarea  into  which 
their  fathers  felL  "  Still,"  says  Vontman,  "  at]  (he  pa- 
triarcha  are  convinced  that  their  children  will  deal  wick- 
edly, falling  away  from  God, deOlinK  themselrei  with  the 
ains  of  every  nation.  They  therpfure  prophesy  what  is 
to  come;  they  foretell  the  troulilea  impending  on  tbeir 
children.  But  they  venture  lo  raiae  morejoyou*  K/aius 
than  these,  liod  himself  is  to  put  an  end  to  iheir  trou- 
b)ea;  he  will  visit  his  people;  he  will  break  the  power 
of  sin.  Vropbeciesnfa  Messiah  are  bniuKht  forward  by 
the  patriarchs.  With  such  hopea  they  die.  Their  dis- 
courses, therefore,  may  justly  be  called  Testaments,  when 
at  the  pwnt  of  death  they  speak  to  their  children  theit 
laat  wonla.  They  leave  ui  them  nothing  save  injunc- 
tions and  prophecies.  The  words  of  Ikiijainiu  (c  10) 
will  apply  equally  to  all !  raura  yap  avri  raaiK  nXij- 

V.  .Utuiiimc  Idriu  of  lit  Boot.~The  Hewlsnic  views 
are  stMngly  tinged  by  national  feeling.  Tbe  Messiah, 
conilHiiing  iu  himself  the  funcliona  of  high-priest  and 
of  kiuK.  is  to  arise  from  the  tribe  uf  Levi  as  well  a*  from 
tbe  tribe  of  Judah.  Slill  there  is  a  tendency  through- 
out which  aims  at  leaching  that  his  high-priestly  office 
is  greater  than  his  kingly  one.  .'I'he  Messianic  passagea 
having  icfereoce  to  the  promiaoi  Messiah  of  Israel 
be  divided  inl«  auch  as  speak  of  him  as  divine— as 
coming  into  tbe  world  in  the  likeness  of  man— and 
such  as  refer  to  him  sa  man  alone.  Uf  the  latter  we 
read  in  Tnt.  Leci,  c  16,  "And  the  man  (avepa)  who 
renewelh  the  bw  by  the  power  of  the  Must  High  ahsll 
ye  call  a  deceiver:  and  at  last,  as  ye  suppose, ye  will 
■lay  him,  not  knowing  hia  resurTFCliim  ( df aoni/ta ), 
wickedly  taking  the  innocent  blood  upon  your  awn 
heads.  And  because  of  him  shall  your  holy  places  be 
desolate.''  .  .  .  Judah  (c24)  says,  "And  aOer  these 


hing^a 


of  Jac. 

up  of  my  » 


no  sin  shall  be  fmnd 

in  him."  Naphtali  saya  (c.  4),  "  Until  the  compaanuii 
(saXayyi'Sv)  of  the  Lord  shall  come,  a  man  {avifm- 
mt)  working  righteouaiiess  and  showing  mercy  to  all 
that  are  a(ai  off  and  to  tbuae  that  ate  near.'' 

Such  are  tbe  only  panagea  which  dwell  menJy  oo 
Iba  human  nature  of  the  Mesnah.  Let  us  look  at  iboM 
which  refer  to  bis  divine  nature.  Thus  the  palriarcb 
Dan  (c  6)  bids  bis  cbiMren  "draw  near  to  Gvd  and  is 
the  angel  that  inlenfedeth  for  you  (ry  Bi^  *ai  Tijr  iiyyi- 
Xt/i  lY  rafiaiTOBiuyiii  u/iac)-  He  is  called  "the  ne- 
diatoT  between  God  and  men"  (avTut  Soti  /iiirinit  Hici 
lai  ivSpiiraiy),  "His  name  shall  be  in  evnr  place 
in  Israel,  and  among  the  Genrilea.  Saviour"  (ri  it  iyt- 

01  Swrqp).  Levi  (c.  4)  speaks  of  I  he  Messiah  as  nt{ 
Kvpiov.  Simeon  (c.  6)  speaks  of  "  the  Uird,  the  Greet 
God  of  Israel,  who  shall  appear  opon  the  earth  as  msii, 
and  who  shall  save  all  the  Gentiles  ami  the  race  of  Is- 
raeL"  Judah  (c  32}  lells  his  children,  "Among  the 
Gentilea  shall  my  kingdom  be  consummated,  until  the 
salvation  shall  hare  cometn  Israel;  until  the  appearing 
of  the  God  of  righteousnem  to  gii-e  quielnesa  in  peace 
to  Jacob  and  all  natiDn^''  Asher  (c  7)  tells  hit  chil- 
dren that  they  should  be  dinpeiaed  throughout  the 
world  until  "the  Host  High  should  visit  the  eaith, 
himself  coming  as  a  tnaii  (lii^^woc).  eating  anddriok- 

ing  Willi  men He  shall  save  Israel  and  all  the  Gen- 

tiles;  God  speaking  in  ihe  person  of  man"  (ei^i'i'Vot- 
tpa  ua-oipivu/Jivat).  Joseph  (c.  19)  says  to  hia  cbiMien, 
"And  I  saw  that  from  Judah  mob  born  a  virgin  wearing 
a  linen  garment,  and  from  Iter  went  forth  a  lamb  wiili- 
out  apot"  {nfiriif  i/iiinioi).  That  reference  is  hoe 
made  to  the  sinlessness  of  the  Messish  Ibrte  can  be  no 
doubt.  Haj;enbach  (in  hit  J>n7<n>K^srAirAr'.p.l43.cd. 
S)  refers  to  lllppolyius aafumitbing  the  Erttinuana of 
the  application  of  the  word  "tpolless"  to  out  L>rd,biU 
we  have  here  an  earlier  examiJe.  Thus  Benjamin  (c. }) 
speaks  of  "the  I^mb  of  God  and  the  Saviour  oF  the 
world,"  that  "spulleea  he  shall  be  delivered  iq>  (ut  Ibt 
wicked,  and  Hnless  ahatl  he  die  for  the  ungodly."  Leri 
tells  his  children  that  Ihey  shall  tlay  the  Messiah  and 
"  wickediv  lake  the  iniHicent  (riSyoi)  blood  npon  tbrit 
heads."     Judah  (c.  St)  aaj-s,  "  No  sin  ahaU  be  ftiand  ja 

As  to  the  office  of  the  Messiah,  he  is  continually  ^ta- 
ken of  both  aa  king  and  high-priest  (.Smi.c.T;  Caol,c8', 
i>(ni,  c(i;  i/oi.  c  19).  As  king  springing  IVom  the  kUk 
uf  Judah  (£in.cT),  he  is  to  wage  oar  and  to  triiioi[ib 
over  Beliar,  the  peisoniAcation  of  the  kingdom  ol  tril 
{Leri,c.lS;  Daii,<!.b,6;  Brpj.r.3).  As  high-piieM  be 
was  lo  have  no  successor  (I-fri,  c  18),  i.  e. « ilh  him  ibt 
olTcriag  of  sacrifices  wu  lo  come  to  an  end.  The  Ho- 
siah  it  a  Saviour;  Levi  is  bidden  lo  "proclum  coocem- 
inghim  who  shall  redeem  Israel"  (c.2;  IJai.cb;  Jot 
c  19 ;  Hn>j.  c.  3) ;  and  another  patriarch  adils,  '■  He  that 
believes  in  him  shall  nign  in  truth  in  the  braveu'' 
</;un,  c.  b).  I'he  Meuiali  waa  to  Buffer:  "Thy  sods 
shall  lay  hands  upon  him  Iu  crucify  him"  (Lrri,  ct); 
"and  he  shall  enter  into  the  front  of  the  Temple  (rOi' 
irpwri't-  vaof).  and  there  shall  the  Lord  be  lreal(d  with 
outrage  and  he  shall  be  lifted  up  upon  a  tree'  (B/tj-t. 
9;  Bee8l«o/.rti',clO,H.lG).  The  rending  of  the  Tem- 
ple vail  isalludeiltoaalheact  in  which  the  Spirit  of  God 
went  over  to  the  Gentiles;  "The  vail  of  the  Temple  ahall 
be  rem,"  says  Benjamin  (c.  9),  "and  tbe  Spirit  of  God 
shall  be  removed  unto  the  Gentiles  astttE  poured  forth." 
Levi  (e.  10)  say»,"Thcvail  of  the  Temple  shall  be  rml, 
that  it  ahall  not  covet  your  shame."  As  to  the  Heaiatai 
ascenuun  and  triumphant  reception  into  heaven,  M* 
/.xri,clliiB^.c.9.  That  he  was  Iu  nlum  to  fotun 
jutlffmeni,comp./rfri,c.  16. 

VL  />o^/<caiawiftViical/dr(is,— Thenlvalionof 
the  Messiah  is  lo  be  obtained  by  faith  as  the  means  of  juk 
liGcationwilh  God;  The  kingdom ofevilia to cofDCtoaa 
end  "on  the  day  on  which  Israel  shall  believe"  (Co*,! 
6).    "Aa  many  as  have  believed  in  him  un  earth  abd 


TESTAMKN're,  PATKIAKCHAL    293  TESTAMEKIS,  PATRIARCHAL 


njoia  with  him  when  sll  aball  liM  igiin,  Mine  lo  glory 
udmH  to  ahame'  (fing.  c  lOj.  AUmuon  U  mwle  lo 
tbt  iinporUDee  of  biptistn  for  thia  enil.  Thua  Levi  (c 
Jt)  ttUa  his  children  the  piiniBhmcnt  that  «hsll  bi'fall 
tbtin  for  iheii  treatroenc  of  the  Messiah :  "  Ye  ehall  be 
a  cune  amimg  the  Uentileaand  shall  twacattered  abroad 
mlil  be  ahill  a^n  TisiC  yon  and  in  pity  shall  take  yuti 
ubimaalf  ir  Tiara  tai  vlart."  The  sanie  patriareb 
(c  Ifl)  again  aifa  of  tbe  Heasiah,  "In  water  ahail 
ht  hioaeir  give  the  glorv  of  the  lard  of  liii  aons  in 
intb  roraTCr."  Both  the  righteoua  aiid  the  wieted 
dull  riae  again ;  the  former  to  rejuice  with  the  Heinah, 
the  tatter  lo  weep  and  lament  and  to  be  deatroyed  fur- 
mr  (camp.  yadoJi,  CIS;  ^tm.  c.  6;  /.tti,  c  IS;  Ztb. 
e.  10).  Benjamin  declarea  (c  10),  '■Then  ahall  ye  be- 
lulil  Enoch,  Noab,  Sbem,  and  Abraham  and  laaac  and 
Jvnb,  ariaing  an  the  right  band  in  jay;  then  ahall  ne 


aien And  ahinan 


lieved  oi 


a  of 


n  all  ahall  ariae,  anme  to  glory 
tod  anme  to  contempt.  And  the  Loni  ahall  Judge  Is- 
rael int,trtn  for  the  wrong  they  did  to  him;  for  when 
be  came  as  a  deJirerer,  God  in  the  fleah,  they  believed 
him  not.  And  then  shall  he  Judge  all  the  oationa,  aa 
Ban*  aa  beliered  him  not  whea  he  appeared  upon  earth." 
llaii,  who  baa  been  ronned  in  the  image  of  God 
(.Vdjiit  c  t),  is  compoaed  of  two  parta,  body  and  apir- 
ii,  eonfoTOiable  to  each  other.  To  man  aevea  apirita 
were  given  at  his  creation  by  God,  in  themaelvea  not 
nil  ■iiilj  either  good  or  bad,  referring,  as  they  do, 
mainly  to  external  seiiaationa.  Theae  apiiils  were  Z<i"l 
(L  e.  [he  BE3,  the  mere  animal  life),  iipooic.  omq,  oa^pii- 
nt.XnXiii,  ytMnc.  and  awopd,  all  ofwhiclr,  aa  {wq,  refer 
cadasTely  to  the  mere  animal  life  of  man,  aa  doea  also 
a  gupplenwDtary  eighth  apirit,  that  of  Cirvof.  Super- 
added to  these  are  eevea  other  spirita,  given  lo  man 
br  Beliar,  ivpreaenting  seven  principal  evil  tendencies 
llbKt.  e,i,3\  The  latter,  which  are  apnken  of  gen- 
oiUy  SB  Td  rrti'/iara  rq£  itX^vi7(,  are  wholly  bad,  and 
ret«*«ii  difleient  evil  tendencies  of  humanity.  They 
are  tbe  spilila  of  iropwr'n,  (iirXiiBrio, /idvii,  dpiirifia  of 
paYjaniu,  vrtfnifai'ia,  ^taiot,  and  aciida.  Within 
nan  war  ia  waged  by  his  two  aelvea.  Judah  speaks  of 
Ha  two  spirits  that  "attend  (trxp\n!ioMi)  upon  man, 
tkr  apirit  of  truth  and  the  apitit  of  error;  and  in  the 
laidK  is  the  apirit  of  the  understanding  of  the  mind," 
which  may  turn  lo  either  aide  it  will  (c  20).  The 
quit  of  truth  ecems  lo  be  almoat  equivalent  to  eon- 
neH3e,far  it  ia  added  "The  spirit  of  truth  testiBeth  all 
tkiBjiT,  and  accuaeth  all."  Reuben,  too,  epeahs  of  hit 
owdencr  ((rr^«i!i,fl.t)  troubling  him  all  hia  life  long 
hr  his  crime  of  incest.  Han  has  a  free  will  to  choose 
teiwten  tbe  two  wars  that  Ooil  haa  given  to  bim.  He 
eaa  ebooae  either  "  the  darkneaa  or  the  light,  either  the 
hw  of  the  Lord  or  the  works  of  Beliar'  (_Lm,  c  19) ) 
■nd.  tboo^fb  man  ia  weak  and  ever  prone  to  error,  yet  if 
he  pawver«  in  hia  Btttmpta  to  do  right,  "  evarv  apirit 
•^t  StBi  -kM  Uj"  !,aim.ci,&;  Judah,  c  18, 19,'n ;  It- 
lacLc  7:  Zrb.c.9t  GitdjCi)  from  htm. 

Sin,  tbci^ure,  being  eepecially  regarded  aa  proceeding 
frum  r^  wrf^'iinTa  t!k  T\ii>i|c,  is  constantly  spoken  of 
at  ijrata,  rv^aMiCi  ■■"I  *^^  'ilt^  f'"  "hicb  panlon  is 
rmCIv  granted  by  (^>d.  Ignorance,  however,  though 
affording  ■  plea  fi>i  pardun,  cannot  of  itself  be  accounted 
aaeieuae  for  the  unt  the  appeal  ia  atill  to  be  made  to 
i^  merey  of  4>od.  But  aA  from  aina  ignorantly  com- 
MiMl  nun  paasea  on  to  those  dune  against  light  and 
tanwledgc,  mt  a  there  a  deeper  caat  of  sins  than  dyvoia. 
ftes  il  wu  ayfoia  on  the  part  of  Zebulon  (e.  1 ;  comp. 
tai,  c  I ;  Otid,  e.  2)  not  to  reveal  lo  his  father  hie 
hKhcBD'a  crime  of  selling  Joaeph ;  that  eritoe,  however, 
«a  JvDfiia  on  their  part.  And  this  ia  alike  tnie  for  a 
■  wtaallr  eommilied  and  for  one  as  yet  in  embrvo  in 
■t  LhdsgbU  of  the  heart:  for  Simeon  (c  3),  whoae 
laird  fur  Joa^b  had  led  him  lo  conlemplaCe  the  sin 
ffeacdef.  ta  acMunted  in  Ood'a  aight  guilty  of  that 


crime,  and  therefore  punished.    We  see  here  the  doc- 
of  Ibe  apostle  endoraed;  "Ha  that  hateth  his 
ist  is  a  murderer." 
le  doctrine  of  Gnd'a  retributive   juttice  ia  fully 

M'orld  (comp.  AeuA.  c.  1 ;  Sm.c2;  UaiJ,  c.  5},  therefore 
man  should  follow  God's  laws  (comp.  Rtub.  c.  4 ;  5i'iR. 
c4;  J>i«,c.  13;  Benj.  c.  3;  7A  c  8).  The  fear  of 
God  appears  as  the  chief  mntive  for  the  fulSlmcnt  of 
righteouaneas  (comp-ficuft.  c4,  irop(ileii&f  ly  ar\6nin 
mifliaiilvfii^  Kvpiotti  Sim.  ci,iiXiait  TovpSntmo 
Iti  ^"fiov  Kvpioii  yirtTm;  Gad,c.b,o  fo)3ac  roii  6edu 
vxf  ro  /liiroc ;  BnJ.  e.  S.  o  ydp  f  o^oy/itvo j  riiv  0tor, 
tai  oyoirrZi'  rbv  irXt(<riow  airo';  litro  row  aipioii  ww^ 
florae  ro''  BiKiAp  oil  liivaTm  irXijyqivi;  Joi,  c  11; 

It  is  aLiii  worthy  of  remark  that  moat  of  the  patri- 
archs dwell  more  especially  on  some  one  particular  form 
of  vice  lo  be  ahunned,  ordinarily  that  vice  wherein 
each  aevemlly  had  succumbed  to  lemptatiou.  Thua 
the  tyetem  of  ethics  which  prevails  throughout  the 
Talaraenli  preaents  a  very  high  and  noble  code  of  mor- 
als to  us,  not  unworthy  of  a  teacher  who  sough!  to  win 
over  his  countrymen  to  the  Christian  faith. 

VII.  Aiumi.— Having  given,  in  the  main,  an  outline 
of  the  moat  important  points  conuined  in  tbe  TeMla- 
mtnit,  tbe  question  as  to  the  sources  for  the  work  can- 
not be  auperfluout.  From  the  work  ilaetf  we  infer  that 
the  book  of  Enoch  must  have  been  known  to  the  author. 
Thus  seven  Testaments  out  of  twelve  allude  loit  as  ypa^ 
'Bnix,  0i^\es  (jiifiXwv,  /3.;3X.a,  XdyoO  'Ewlxro'"  i''*'"'- 
oii,jpaf/tvipov'Eytix{'feSim.e.b;  />n,c9,IO,I4  16; 
A'opU.  c  4 ;  ,/uiliA,  c  IS;  Ain,  c.  G ;  Aflj.  c  9),  and  other 
simitar  expreadons.  Zebulon  refers  lo  tbe  ■ypa^i  wnri- 
ptarv  (c9),  and  Levi  (c.  5)  and  Asher  (c.  7)  refer  to  ai  wXo- 
rit  THV  ovpavui;  "  heavenly  tablets."  Aa  to  I  he  latter, 
whether  they  were  a  book  containing  what  ia  foreknown 
and  foreordained  in  heaven  aa  to  tbe  course  of  the  fut- 
ure, and  were  appealed  lo  when  some  oracular  declara- 
tion ofwcighty  import  waa  needed,  or  whether  they  were 

are  often  quoted  in  the  book  of  Enoch  and  Jubilees. 
Besideit  the  works  mentioned,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  author  of  the  TnltimtHli  kneir  the  book  of  Ju- 
bilees, since  the  amount  of  coiiiciilence  between  the  two 
writings  is  verj-  great  (comp.  eg.  /Itut.  c  3  n'ith  Jubilftt, 
c  33 ;  T^  c  2, 4, 3,  S  with  JubUni,  c.  32 ;  /.en',  c  9  with 
c  81;  ell  withcSl;  Judah,  c.S-T  vi\\'tic.M,S»:  c  9 
withe  37;  «.  10  with  c41;  cl9  with  c41:  AraA.c7, 
Sim.  c  8,  Lai,  c.  19,  Judah,  a  26,  Ztb.  c  10,  Dan,  c  7, 
Naphl.c.9,  Gad,ca,Athtr,c.»,Bttij.c.  12  with  ^uM- 
Itti,  c.  46,  etc).  He  also  made  use  of  the  Targums,  Jo- 
aephus,  the  Miclrashim,and  the  like.  Of  greater  impor- 
laiice  ia  it  to  know  that  the  author  also  made  use  of  the 
New  Test,  and  fur  the  latter  fact  we  refer  lo  the  elab- 
orate article  of  WarGcld,  Tht  Apohgrlical  Value  o/tht 
TnlameaU  of  the  XII  Paliiarchi,  in  the  (N.Y.)  Pra- 
fK/tti-iaa  Reciew,  Jan.  1880,  p.  S7  aq. 

Vltl.//Mi'oiyD/tAelfDrjt.-"KabentsuafataliL^llL'' 
IL  is  remarkable  Chat  this  work,  which  was  known  lo 
TertuUian  t^Adc.Mardonem,v,l:  ScOTj)i«Br,c\S)  and 
Origen  (lima.  inJmuom  ar.c.  6),  became  lirst  known  to 
the  world  at  large  through  the  Latin  version  of  Robert 
Gro8BeteBte,oiGreathead,hiahop  of  Lincoln,  of  the  16th 
century.  This  version  soon  spread  over  Europe,  and, 
in  the  course  of  time,  translationa  into  a  large  number 
of  languages  were  made  from  il — into  Engliali,  French, 
German,  Dutch,  Flemish,  Danish,  Bohemian,  and  Ar- 
menian. More  than  four  centuries  had  passed  since 
Groweteste's  I^tin  version,  when  at  last  the  Greek 
lest  waa  for  tbe  llrst  time  published  by  Grabe,  in  hii 
Spidltgium  Pulrum  H  llaitlicorum  (Oxford,  169S), 
from  s  MS.  in  the  universilv  library  of  Cambridge,  col- 
lated with  one  at  O.tfurd.  In  1713  Fabricius  published 
the  Greek  teit  in  hia  Codn  Pifudtpigriiphui  V.  T. 
(Hamburg),  adding  but  slightly  to  the  criticism  of  ib* 
text.    In  1714  Grabe  published  a  second  edition.  r» 


TESTAMENTS,  I'ATRIAKCHAL  2M  TESTIMONT  OF  DISOWNMENT 

iLiing  the  true  uit  in  wveril  putigcs,  but  in  nianr  I  HnfcennSn,  and  fuur  editions  or  hii  innditioo  wtn 


leleMU 


It  n^ing,  to  niit  Gnibe'*  iDcomcc  te 
ubliahed  ■  Mcond  dljlion  in  1722,  on  i 
-ate  than  hi*  flnt 
Ijrabc'a 


printed,  with  but  feir  additiona,by  tiiUMid,iii  lii«  BAU' 
otkrra  VtUivm  Patnm  (Venice,'  1765),  i,  198  iq.  In 
IBfi9  Robert  Sinker  published  an  accurate  Innscript  of 
the  Cambridge  MS^  carenilly  colUteil  with  tlie  Oxfurd, 
to  which  he  iildtd,  in  1879,  a  culUtion  made  rrom  two 
uther  HSS^  vii.  a  Koman  MS.  in  the  Vaticui  Librw 
(Cod.  Gnec  TSl),  and  a  PatioiM  US.  in  the  librar}'  at 
the  MoniBtery  or  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (Cod.  Ill), 

IX.  Vernoni. — As  already  indicated,  there  existed  ver- 
sions in  different  languages  berore  the  Greek  text  was 
published.  The  editions  or  the  Latin  version  are  nu- 
merous. That  which  is  presumably  the  tdilio  praictpt 
bears  neither  dste,  printer's  name,  nur  place  of  printing. 
The  title  is  rii»/UTB*[i<i  daodtcva  |  PalriarcAari  I  Fili- 
Dmn  Jacob.  [  e  Grreo  ia  Lalvii  \  verta  R<Aerlii  |  Lin- 
aminai  |  Epacopo  \  uiterprr|(r.  From  Ibi*  was  taken 
the  criitbn  printed  at  Qageuau  in  153S  by  John  Se- 
ceriui,  at  the  instance  of  Uenrul  Holther.  The  work 
or  Julianus  Pomerius  Contra  Jvdaoi  is  published  in 
the  same  volume.  Besides  the  separate  editions,  the 
Tatammlt  ia  published  iu  the  BSHolhtta  Palrtun, 

In  English  there  exist  at  least  three  independent 
tnnilationa — one  from  the  Latin,  the  others  from  the 
Greek,  The  translation  from  the  Latin  first  appeared 
in  1677,  ml  was  often  reprinted,  especially  in  the  17th 
century.  The  first  edi^on  is  of  great  rarity,  and  there 
exists  no  copy  uT  it  even  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
second  edition,  of  I&81,  of  which  there  is  a  copy  in  tbe 
British  Museum,  has  the  roliowing  title-page  i 

"The  Tsslsmenles  of  the  Tweleej  Fairlarcbss,  the 
Sonues  uf  Jacob:  tnn-lslsted  ont  oftjreeke  Idio  Lstlue 
bj  Riibert  |  Oroatbed.  sometime  Ulsbop  iif  Llnoiiue,  I  sud 
Dili  of  hys  copy  into  French  ai>d  |  Dnlch  by  'itbers :  Now 
eng-|llshed  by  A.  O.  |  To  the  credit  whereof  an  annclent 
Oreeke  copye  |  written  In  parchment,  la  kept  In  tbe  Vnl-| 
rnnliy  LIuary  nf  CsmbrldEe.  I  At  tondmi  I  Prinied  by 
John  Paye,  dwelling  oner  Adetagsle.  ItkSl.  i  Cam  print, 
leglo  Begin  |  MaleFtails." 

There  sre  about  forty  other  English  editions  printed 
after  tbe  year  1681.  A  translation  was  made  directly 
from  tbe  Greek  (of  Grabe  and  Fsbridus)  by  Whia- 
lon  in  his  Ci^tciion  q/*  A  lUhmlic  Stmrdi  bdinffing  lo 
Ike  Old  and  A'w  Tr^ammt  (Lond.  1TZ7),  i,  29i  sq.  In 
Clark's  Anle-Xkaie  CkritdoH  Library  (vol.  xxii),  Mr. 
Sinker  published  a  translation  from  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  text.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  Uug- 
gletoniana  (q.  v.)  in  England  receive  the  Tflamrvlt  of 
Iht  XII  Patriarda  a*  inspired,  together  with  the  Old 
and  Mew  Testa.,  the  book  of  Enoch,  and  the  works  of 
Reeve  and  Mu^leton.  From  the  English  a  Welsh  ver- 
aioii  was  publbhed  at  Oroarvon  (18-23),  Tatamnd  y 
deuddtg  Palritirch,t*f  Sleibioa  Jaeob. , . . 

There  are  at  least  two  translations  in  French,  both 
Ukeii  from  the  Utin.     One  was  published  in  1648  at 
Paris,anotherinl713.    The  Istier  was  also  republiat    ' 
in  Migne's  £'H($c/i>/^ir  TAnJu^ur,  voLKxiii  (Diet, 
Apociyplia,vo\.  i),  coll.  854  aq. 

In  Germany  the  TeilamrtilM  have  evidently  been  very 
popular,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  number  of  editions 
ihat  have  appeared.  The  oldest  German  irandati 
the  one  puUUhed  in  1669  at  Basel:  Dai  Trttamn 
ncoy  Palriartliai  Jfr  Siinai  Jucoit ;  the  latest,  the  one 
published  at  Tubingen  in  1867,  Aeckle  apoeiyphitche 
Blkhrt  ikr  IleiSgeH  SckriJ) . . .  (ii)  Dai  T.  4.  mUf  Pa- 

The  Dutch  and  Flemish  editions  are  also  very  nu- 
merous. There  are  two  editions  without  any  dste, 
but  which  must  hsve  appeared  before  1644,  since  an 
edition  was  published  iu  that  same  year.  Altogether 
there  exist  about  fourteen  editioiu  iu  Dutch  and  Flem- 
ish, the  last  pubUsbed  in  1679. 

The  TtMamaiU  was  tianabted  iaio  Danish  by  Dana 


but  whether  one  or  the  other  has  ever  been  printed  we 

Tbe  Bohemian  version  can  clstm  to  be  tbe  first  ef  the 
the  Latin,  having  been  made  long  b(- 
e  invention  of  printing.  It  is  referred  to  by 
s  Stitny  about  tbe  year  1S76.  There  eiins  a 
Brealau,  in  the  library  of  tbe  Dominican*  at  St. 
n,  dated  1491,  and  another  in  the  uoivenitv 
library  at  Prague  (xvii,  R  16,  No.  6)  dated  14SS.  The 
oldest  printed  Iranslatum  bears  tlie  date  1646.    Only 

ro  copies,  each  of  a  difTerent  edition,  are  extant— one 

tbe  library  of  the  National  Museum  at  Prague,  and 

e  other  in  the  univervty  library  there. 

An  Armenian  version  exist*  in  MS.,  dated  837,1  e. 
A.D.  13»8,  in  the  library  of  the  Mecbilarista  at  VieuH, 

hich  appears  not  to  have  been  pripted. 

X.  LUfraturt. — Beudes  Grabe,  sec  Vorstma'n,  Oujei- 

'to  dt  TatamiMorvM  XII  Palriarckaitm  Origim  H 
PrMe  (Rouenlam,  1867)  \  Niliach,  Commailalio  CriHrg 
de  Tttamtutii  XII  Palriarektimm,  Libro  I".  T.  Piniif 
pigrapko  (WIttenb.  1810);  RitschI,  Dir  EnWrkny  irr 
attkaikMicktB  Kirdt  (Bonn,  1850);  Kayser,  in  K(hb 
and  Cunita's  Btilragr  lu  dm  tiirot.  WiMtmcki-Jin 
(Jena,  1861),  p.  107-140]  Wieseler,  Die  70  Wockn  ari 
die  63  Jakncocktn  da  I'ropheten  Ihntitl  (G^tt.  1839); 
Langen,  Dat  Judmlkum  fn  Patatlina  »r  Ztil  Ciriti 
(Fteibu^,  1866),  p.  140  sq. ;  Geiget,  JSdiicit  Ztiltkrifi 
Jir  Wiurntckaji  and  Ltbtn  (BnsL  1869),  p.  116  X].; 
Warfleld,  Tkt  Apolagtlicol  Vatat  of  Ike  TritamoUi  i^ 
Iht  XII  PalrUiT^,,  in  the  (N.  ¥.)  PrmlytrTiat,  lUiinr, 
Jan.  1880,  p,-e7  aq.;  but, above  all,  Sinker,  TtHamnbi 
XII  Pah-iarduirHm  (CamU  and  Lond.  1869);  and  bit 
ApptKdix  (ibid.  1879).    (R  P.) 

Teataa  BynodUea,  penons  chosen  tn  help  ilw 
church-wardens  in  fulBlling  their  duties,  and  in  pi»- 
moting  order,  quiel,'  ami  decorum  at  visitations,  syn- 
ods, and  clerical  meetings.  They  were  also  cailtd 
StDEBMEH,  qrnodsmen,  or  QLiBTStKN  (q.  v.). 

Teatlmonlai.  Every  candidate  for  adminion  IS 
holy  orders  in  the  Church  of  Englsnd  is  requued  Is 
present  to  the  bishop  a  testimonial  of  good  cmdno 
from  his  college,  or  from  three  beneficed  dcrgymta. 
The  usual  form  of  this  document  is  as  fullowi: 


clsred  t.>  ns  hi*  Inienil.in 
r<irtheBi<credofflcear[s  . 
rtquepied  of  ns  letters  te 
goiid  behsvUir.  we,  Ifaerer 
^nbscrlbed,  dii  levtliy  l^- 


hnih  H 


pnst.  hath,  dnrlug  that  lime.  Ilted  picinsly,  suberlj,  sad 
houe>l1y,  and  dllTgently  opplted  himself  10  his  audits: 
mn-  hsth  he  si  any  time,  an  fur  ss  ne  know  snd  beliefs, 
held,  written,  or  tangbt  anything  contrary  to  the  doctrlse 
or  disclplioe  ot  the  united  Church  at  England  and  Ire- 

t"  be  a  person  worthy  to  be  admitted  to  the  sacred  ordst 
of  l>cacouL  In  wliiicas  whereof,"  etc 
A  similar  testimonial  is  required  fVom  candidslt*  by  tbe 
Prolesunt  Episcopal  Chun:h  of  the  United  Stales.  At 
th'u  ia  one  of  the  safeguanl*  which  ecclesiaslical  nils 
ha*  latiblisbed  to  preserve  the  purity  of  its  niiniiitcrs,il 


terofform.     Noco 
a  document  unless 
bears  such  solemn 

i 

entious  man  can  safelv 
assured  of  the  laclsio 
mony. 

alKHMKh 
which  hi 

inued  by  the  monthly  meeting  of  ih 

n  official  decuimiH 

e  Society  of  ?riewla 
member.    Thel» 

steps  which  have  led  to  it;  nut, 
the  means  unavatlingly  used  to  reclaim  the  oBcodtf) 

added  an  expression  of  desire  for  bi*  repentsnce  and 
for  his  restoration  lo  membership.  In  case  ItW  (!• 
peUed  member  repents,  he  it  bmutd  to  send  in  •  wiifr 


a  tbe  mcmbcnhip  oT  the  »- 
dety. 

T«'t«  CTipii  r.  T.  'Amird ;  Vqlg.  ropa),  ■  cofnpt 
UrnMd  foim  (1  Eidr.  *,  28)  of  tbe  iudk  U«TrrA  (q.  v.) 
odbc  H«h.U«*  orTempla  doorkeeptn  (Em  ii,ia; 
Nth.  Tii,  ti). 

Tatrasr*l&inXtOii  (rirTapa./wr,  ind  ypo^/in, 
blir^  ■  mm  to  doagoite  (lie  ncnd  n«me  of  the  Deily, 
Jitarak,  in  fuur  IcUo*,  rtlTW  By  the  poe»e*uaD  of 
Hm  nuK  the  earijr  Jewiib  opponenti  of  ChrittUiiity 
telBid  thai  Ibe  mindes  of  Chiut  wen  perfbnned. 
Tbe  mjibcal  *TOtd  Om  o{  Ihe  BuddbiMa  of  IndU  ind 
TbibM  u  avppoaed  lo  poaaeAi  ainiilu  Tinae*  la  the  pre*- 


Tetrapla,  a  Gnck 


pia,  ■  laitCK  term  luea  to  ocHgiute  ■  cerum 
vn  M  the  Holj  Scriptuie^  beiag  foot  iodependent 

Kpani*  Greek  Tenioiu,  noged  aide  bj  aide,  vU. 

ibiH  of  AquiU,  SrmaikchiK,  the   SeTent;-tHO,  end 


TotrapolitAna  ConfeMlo  (alio  Sokvica  end 
AiOEfTiKUua)  ii  the  title  by  which  the  CDiifesuan 
nTCiilh  tttiniiKed  (o  the  Diet  of  Aagsbu^  in  l&SO  by 
Ibi  four  diie*  of  Struborg,  Constance,  Uemmingen, 
ud  Undau  it  knawn. 

Tbe  endeavar  to  conttruct  a  confeaaion  wbich  ahnuld 
fdrijTepreaeDt  the  riewa  of  all  theaectioaa  of  the  evati- 
gdieal  patty  latled  tbiDogb  tbe  Mubbom  refiml  of  the 
Sajtona  Is  unite  io  any  way  with  the  Zwingliana  of  tbe 
filieit  and  tbe  Straabiii;g  deputiea  conacquenlLr  invited 
Sont  Bud  Capita  lo  prepare  a  aepaiale  lymbol  for  the 
■t  of  Ibe  latter.  Capitu  had  previoutlv  prepared  ■ 
•ktUb  of  the  Kefomed  faith  by  order  of  the  Council  of 
Soakiurg,  and  thii  paper  became  the  baaia  of  the  new 
oalMcKi.  Tbe  laturwaa  completed  by  July  11,  IG30, 
ud,  ifur  haring  been  aubinilted  to  the  confeileraled 
cilia  lod  reoeired  their  aignaturea  (with  the  single  ex- 
QCptjoaof  Ulm),  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  tbe  imperial 
lier-cbsnoeUaT,  Heikel,  for  tiansmiaslon  to  the  empemr. 

The  CDofeaaioD  contain!  twenty-three  article^  and  It 
(kancleriied  by  great  cleameasand  moderation  of  stale- 
moit,  compleienaa,  and  tlioroaghneta  of  elaboratiun. 
lisBtit  anicle  aaiena  the  chief  funnel  principle  of  Pnit- 
aaantism,  wholly  wanting  in  the  Augailana,  that  the 
BlUe  ii  tbe  only  aouree  and  rule  of  doctrine.  It  teach- 
9  that  tbe  disciples  of  Christ  partake  of  his  body  and 
Uwd  in  the  tacrameut  in  a  spiritual  sente  only.  The 
brm  of  expTetsian,  however,  is  eTCrywhere  confotaied 
to  that  of  the  AagMtttxma — a  featiire  which  reveals  the 
hud  of  Bucer  (i(.  v.),  who  was  already  at  work  upon 
plan  fur  the  prDmoiion  of  union  among  Protesianta. 

A  reply  to  tbii  confeasian,  written  by  Eck,  Faber, 
■Dd  CochlBut,  was  returned  Oct.  34.     Thia  Corifuliaian 

hn  drpoiiea  and  theulo|{ians  of  the  four  cities.  A  copy 
d  this  reply  wat  ileiiiwl  them,  bnt  they  iiicceedml  in 
stuining  one,  which  was  appended  to  the  first  edition 
of  ibi  T^rapoliruMa,  piibJishcd  In  Uetman  by  Bucer  at  i 
Smtburg  in  1631.  A  Latin  edition  followed  a  month 
laur,  in  September.  Bucer  wai  compelled  to  publish 
iW  rmftasioa  in  order  lo  put  an  end  to  false  repretenla-  ' 
<»n<>fits  eharacterj  bat  hii  oirn  peiwslenl  efforta  in 
behalf  of  anion  between  the  Protestant  churches  con-  ' 
tiibaiHl  [(I  tiibiirilinate  it  to  the  Saxon  cunfcsaion.  In 
lUtth*  Xtiasburiten  contented  lotuhscribe  Ihe  Aagiu- 
(aso.  though  with  the  express  understanding  that  the 
TWopoUuM  should  be  regarded  as  their  proper  sym- 
W.  Finally,  when  Bucer  was  dead  and  Martyr  (q.  v.) 
waspnernia  SlTatburg,a  rigid  Lulbetaniim  look  pus- 
fmoB  of  tbe  city.  An  attempted  reprini  of  the  Hnt 
iditioa  of  the  TiirapoliUaia  by  Sturm  in  loSO  was  pre- 
nsitd  by  a  deeree  of  the  counciL  1'he  lau  edition, 
■Meh  UKbtdea  the  Coif/a/alwii  and  Apologf,  appeared, 
<•  (ai  as  It  \atma,  M  Zweibnicken  in  I6IH. 
'k  tht  liimiiire  and  ediliom,  tee  Niemeyer,  CoBee- 


<t  TETRARCH 

Ha  Coffanomim  (Lipa.  1840),  p.  88  sq.;  eomp.  Baum, 
CivHo  uw'  Biuo-  (Elberfeld,  1860),  p.  4«6  sq.,  b9b; 
Planck,  Gack.  d.prt>L  Ltkrbrgrifft  (Zd  ed.  Leipo.  IVM), 
III,  i,  68  sq,— Herug,  Btai-Hncsldop.  s.  v. 

Te'tmiotl  {^riTpapxtti:,  from  TiTTapa,  four,  anil 
ap][q,  jfDKnmoU]  properly  denotes  the  governor  of  ■ 
province  or  district  which  wss  regsrded  as  the  fourth 
part  of  a  larger  province  or  kingdom,  while  the  diitrict 
ilaelf  wat  called  a  (efmrcAy  [Ttrpapxi"  or  nrpatap^a). 
The  earliest  uie  of  the  word  which  seema  to  have  been 
discovered  ie  In  conneclioii  with  the  divition  of  The»- 
saly  as  originally  eonitituted  (Eurip.  AUMt.UM\  Stra- 
bo,ix,f>}  and  ai  reconstnicled  in  the  time  of  rhilipof 
Macedon  (Demoetb.  PKH  iii,  !6),  and  of  Ualatia  be- 
lts conquest  by  the  Itomans,  B.C  189.  The  Un( 
bete  countries  was  then  divided  into  four  parts,  each 
hich  wat  named  a  tetrarchy,  and  its  ruler  a  tei  ratch, 
tuboidinate  to  the  tagut  (Thirjwall,  Hiil.  aj'  Gnttr,  vi, 
18  tq.).  The  tecond  was  divided  into  three  sections, 
each  of  which  wat  again  subdivided  into  four  smaller 
ones,  to  which  and  to  their  governors  the  same  tcrme 
were  applied  (>'iacberi  Protmioma,  p.  428,  note);  and 
these  were  ultimately  fused  into  one  iirapxia  under 
Deiotanis,  cir.  RQ  M  (Strabo,  b66 ;  Plutarch,  De  V.  M. 
[ed.  Wylt],  VOL  ii).  In  the  later  days  of  the  Roman 
republic,  aiul  during  the  empiT«,the  etymological  mean- 
ing wat  almost  entirely  lost  sight  of,  and  it  was  applied, 
like  "ethnarcb"  and  " phylarch,"  to  the  petty  tributa- 
ries, "the  creatures  of  a  procontul'a  breatb,  and  tbe  pufv- 
pelt  of  his  caprice"  (Merivale,  Bin.  o/lAt  Rom.  iv,  167), 
whose  importance  did  not  warrant  their  receiving  the 
title  of  "king"  (see  Sallutt, Coftil  xx,  7 ;  Cicero,  ^>fo, 
xxviii,  76;  Vali*.  »ii,  29;  Horace,  Sal.  i,  8,  12j  VelL 
Pal,ii,  Mi  Jaataa,  Aim.  xv,2i).  It  it  in  thia  second- 
ary sense  that  in  all  probability  Ihe  word  is  used  iu  the 
New  Test,  of  tbe  letrarchs  of  Syria,  the  heirs  and  suc- 
cessor* of  Herod  the  Ureau  Kiebuhr  {Hut.  of  Aomr, 
ii,  IS&)  compares  them  lo  the  lemiwbin  of  Bengal  after 
their  recognition  by  lord  Comivallis  (1791-93}  as  pro- 
prietors of  the  soil,  and  enjoying  some  amount  of  tover- 
eign  righta  within  the  limits  of  their  leroindary.  The 
title  ufletrarch  wat  certainly  given  byAutony  to  Herod 
the  Great  in  the  early  part  crfhit  career  (B.C.41)aiid  hit 
brother  Pbasael  (Joaephua,  Jitf.  sir,  IS,  I ).  without  ref- 
erence to  territorial  divitions)  and  though  it  appean 
that  the  letrarchs  Antipas  and  Philip  did  actually  re- 
ceive a  fourth  part  of  their  father's  dominions,  while 
Archelaus  as  "ethnarch"  inherited  half  (ibid,  xi-ii,  11, 
4;  War,  Ii,  6,  3),  this  correspondence  of  the  name  and 
the  share  may  be  contidered  accidental,  or,  at  futtheat, 
the  exact  use  of  the  term  in  the  New  Test  mutt  b> 
OMiAned  tu  Antipas  and  Philip. 

In  the  New  TetL  we  meet  with  the  dengnatioo, 
either  aclually  or  in  the  form  of  ita  derivative  rt- 
Tpapjjtiv,  applied  to  three  peraons: 

1.  Herod  Antipas  (Matt,  xiv,  1;  Luke  iii,  1,  19;  ix, 
7;  Acts  liii,  I ),  who  is  commonly  distinguished  at 
"  Herod  the  tecrarch,"  although  the  title  of  "  king"  is 
also  assigned  to  him  both  by  Matthew  (xiv,  9)  and  by 
Hark  (vi,  14,  2-2  sq.).  Luke,  as  might  be  expected,  in- 
variably adheres  to  tbe  formal  lille  which  would  be 
recognised  by  Gentile  readers.  This  Herud  it  described 
by  the  latt-named  evangelist  (iii,  I )  as  "letrarch  of 
Galilee ;"  but  hla  dominions,  which  were  bequeathed  to 
him  by  his  fsther,  Herod  the  Great,  embraced  tbe  dis- 
trict of  Penea  beyond  the  Jordan  ( Josephut,  ^l  n/.  xvii, 
i  8, 1) :  this  bequeit  was  conflrmed  by  Augustus  {War, 
ii,  6,  8  ).  After  the  disgrace  and  banishment  of  Anti- 
pas. his  tetrarchy  wat  added  by  Caligula  to  the  king- 
dom of  Herwl  Agtippa  I  (A«l.  xviii,7,2).  See  Hkhod 
i  Antifah. 

I  2.  Herod  Philip  (the  son  of  Herod  the  (ireal  and 
Cleopatra.noC  the  butliand  ofHerodiat),  who  it  taid  by 
'  Luke  (iii,  I)  to  have  been  "  letrarch  of  linma  and  of 
I  the  region  of  Trachonitis."  Joeephus  tells  us  that  his 
father  bequeathed  lo  him  Gaulonitia,  Trachonitis,  and 
I  Panea*  (  ^  af.  ivii,  8,  1 },  and  that  bit  father's  bequ^ai 


TETRASTVLK  2 

wu  confinned  by  Augustua,  who  ungned  tu  him  Bita- 
nna,  TnchDnitii,  and  Aiinni[ii,wilhcenam  pacts  iboul 
Jamnii  belanging  to  the"bauw  oC  ZeDudorus"  (_tVi 


■iliiiElj-.  I 


ufPliili 


eiiiled 


e«»Lv(|inl  fr 

the  bi>rdera  uf  Pvrea  northward  to  Lebanon  and  tbe 
neighlwrhwd  dC  Damucua.  After  Ibe  dearh  or  Philip 
hii  telrarchy  waa  added  U>  the  piorince  of  Syria  by  Ti- 
beriua  (_Anr.  xviii,  4,  b),  and  Mibeequenlly  conferred  by 
Caligula  on  Herod  Agrippi  1,  with  the  lit  la  of  king  {Hid, 
xviii, G,  10).  See  UsHOD  Aatun-A  I;  Hebod  PuiufI. 
8.  Lyunia*,  who  it  uid  (Luke  iii,  I)  la  hare  been 
"tetnrch  of  Abilene,"  a  Mmill  diurict  aurTounding  the 
iDwn  oT  Alula,  in  ihe  fertile  valley  of  Ihe  Barada  or 
Chryaorrhoas,  between  Damascna  and  Ihe  moantain- 
range  of  Antilibanua.  See  Abilk^i:.  There  ia  hhdc 
diffi<:itlty  in  Uxing  the  limits  of  this  tetrarchy,  and  in 
identifying  the  |>eraon  of  the  icmrch.  See  Lysakias. 
We  )eam,  however,  from  Joaephua  {An/,  xviii,  6,  10; 
six,  5, 1)  that  a  Lyaaniaa  had  been  telrarch  oTAbila  be- 
fore the  lime  of  Caligula,  who  added  thia  tetrarchy  to 
the  dominioiia  of  Herod  Agrippa  I— an  addition  whicb 
was  contimied  by  Ihe  emperor  CUudioa. 

Tetiastjlo  (nrpa<irvXoi'),a  name  given  lo  the  pe- 
riphery of  the  area  "  "  ^  ' ' 
iween  ibe  purch  an< 
building  proper 
times.  This  court  was  with- 
out any  covering  except  that 
each  side  had  porticos  or  clois- 
ten,  built  upon  eolumna.  luthe 
porch  or  in  the  porticoa  Mood 
tbe  tirst  claas  of  penitcDta  la 
beg  the  prayers  of  the  faitbrul  d-=  ^- —  _—  -  ■ 
as  they  went  into  Ihe  church. 

TetmeL  Johaiin,  the  noUt- 

abameleaa  traffic  in  itHiulgences 

impelled  Luther  to  Ukethefitat 

step  towards  the  Keforraation, 

was  bom  and  reared  at  Leip-  Totrsstyle. 

sic,  where  his  father,  Johann  ••  '^^^\  i.'rm.^ '  '' 

Tietie,  pursued  the  buwness  of 

goldamilh.    In  1487  Teliel  received  the  degree  of  bnch- 

eloT  of  philosophy,  having  distinguished  himself  in  Ihe 

eximinatiun  above  all  the  other  compeiilura.     He  pos- 

aessed  an  impwiog  Hgure,  a  srinarous  voice,  and  cnnaid- 

inglv  selecled  to  preach  ihe  indulgence  connected  with 
the  Vear  of  jubilee,  after'    '    '  '    "' 


displayed  great  leal  in  h 


:  duties.'  He  en- 
1  indulgencea  in  lCOZ,and  prose- 
culed  it  lo  his  own  great  pecuniary  advantage  and 
equal  DOtoriely,  making  use  of  even  blasphemies  and 
obscenities  to  enforce  hit  appeals  fur  money.  Nor  waa 
he  more  circumspect  with  regard  lu  his  conducL  The 
drinking-roome  of  lavemi  were  favorite  places  of  resort 
in  which  to  ply  his  trade;  be|iermiited  himself  lo  com- 

with  tbe  wife  of  a  cilicen  led  l»  his  being  aent«nced  to 
death  by  drowning  at  Innapcuck.  Having  been  par- 
doned, and,  after  a  time,  liberaled  from  impriaonment, 
he  resumed  his  Iraffic,  and  became,  if  poaaible,  more  bold 
acid  shamelesB  than  before. 

Wheti  pope  Leo  X  appointed  eomroieeariea  for  the 
aale  uf  indulgences  for  the  alkged  purpose  of  oblainiitg 
funds  with  which  la  complete  tbe  ediflce  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Kome,TeUel  was  made  an  under-commiaHcy.  He 
held  a  special  concesuon  from  the  emperor  for  the  pma- 
eculionof  bia  business,  and  after  a  time  obtained  a  papal 
brief  permitting  him  lo  sell  indulgences  everywhere  in 
Germany.  To  these  advaniagea  he  added  that  of  being 
nude  an  inquiaitor.  In  1&I7  be  began  to  iaane  letters 
of  indulgence  in  bia  own  name,  having  previously  acted 
aathe  agent  of  arcbhiabop  Albert  of  Mayence.    He  pro- 


16  TF.XT 

nouiwed  abaoluttons,  for  money,  from  the  moat  heinom 
Crimea,  without  r^ard  lo  repentance  and  with  tbe  as- 
Bursnce  of  complete  exemption  from  the  firea  of  purga- 
tory.    His  peculiarly  impudent  and  frivolous  bearing 

rcatraiiiing  his  conduct,  until  he  arrived  on  the  boiden 
of  Saxony.  At  this  point  of  Teliel'a  progreaa  Luitaet 
waa  made  aware  of  tbe  hurtful  conaequeocta  of  his  op- 
erations through  the  confessional,  and  at  once  denounced 
the  Dominican's  business  from  the  pulpit.  Teltel  ■*- 
plied,  and  Liiiher  drew  up  Ibc  famous  Aciny-jtiv  Tirtrt. 
which  Tetul, for  his  pan,  buriitdin  Ihe  market-plan  <if 
Jlllerbock.  He  then  obtained  tbe  degree  of  licenliaie 
and  doctor  of  theology  from  Fninkfott-an-tbe-Oder,<u<^. 
der  lo  combat  Luther  from  a  more  favorahl''  poaition,  aod 
he  enlisted  the  Betrice*  of  Wimpina,  rti  tui  of  thsi  uni- 
venity,  in  hia  cause.  The  Utter  drew  up  Jiii  iheen 
antagotiialtc  to  those  of  Luther,  wbiih  were  in  tun 
burned  by  the  aludenla  at  Wittenberg,  and  afterwards 
fifty  additional  theses,  upon  which  'i'eUel  rii^uteil  in 
January,  If>18. 

The  diapulc  had  in  the  meantime  excited  alteniioa 
in  Rome,  and  aroused  the  conviction  that  more  podlirt 
measures  must  be  employed  to  preserve  the  autboritv 
of  Ihe  Church.  The  negoiialions  of  Cajelan  with  La- 
ther bad  failed,  a   "  


berg,tt 


Ha 


ing  ai 


It  Allen- 


legate  cited  TeUel  to 
the  latter  declined  to  obey.on  the  ground  that  the  joat- 
□ey  would  involve  hia  life  in  danger  at  the  bands  uf 
Lather's  adherenia.  He  appeared,  however,  on  tbe  re- 
pealed summon*  of  the  legate,  aflcr  Ibe  latter  had 
reached  L«ipaic;  and,  having  been  found  guilty  of  ia. 
moralities  and  ahameleaa  conduct,  was  harshly  repri- 
manded and  threatened  with  the  anger  of  tbe  pope  and 
expulsion  from  bia  order.  He  wbbed  to  flee  fivmttie 
country  in  order  to  avoid  tbe  dangers  which  be  now 
aaw  lo  be  threatening  his  peace,  but  sickened  betnre  he 
could  execute  his  pnrpoee,  and  died  in  the  Dotninican 
convent  at  Leipaic  in  July,  1&I9.  Lulher  pitied  tbe 
man  in  his  wrelchednesa,  and  forwarded  him  a  letter  rf 
consoliiion.  The  alatemrnt  that  Tetiel  died  of  the 
plague  is  without  aupport. 

Urrnftirr.  — Cyprian.  f'Hd.  MfOmii  Bill,  ttrfarw. 
etc  (Upa.  1718);  Lfiecher,  YoOt.  Rrf.-Acia  ■.  Daa- 
•WHM  (ibid.  17W).  i,<tl&:  the  works  and  Iclien  ofbt- 
ther  as  gathered  bv  Wtlcb,  De  Welte,  etc;  Hechtiai, 
Fill  Jo.  TnM  (Witwnh,  1717);  Hai-er,  Dtu-irJa. 
TnrliB  (\'ilemb.  1717);  Kapp,  Wy.  Hiti. dt yamlHi 
IndulgriU.  Quiril.  Site.  XV  H  XVI  (Lips.  17J0);  and 
Kxtreil.  I'a  A  mtro*.  A  llamur.  Etogiam  Jok.  Trtrtii  (ilml 
1721);  K»ppm,Sr»avplatideiTmrliKirnAiluuhviu, 
etc.  (ibid,  1720),  and  Hamulm^  tiinger  Srtnflni  ibrr 
i/.^M>H,  etc.  (ibid.  I7!l);  Vogt],  Lrin  .  .  .  J«i.Tr- 
fzrCi  (ibid.  1717, 1727) :  Dttilxht  BUdtrrti.  Sririfin.fl. 
viii;  Hofaiann,  LrimitttckrtHm«g  .  .  .  Triufi  (ed. 
Foppe,  ilHd.  1S44) ;  Seidemann,  Carl  r.  MilHi  (Dcnid. 
1844);  id.  lulhtt't  Brv/r.tte.  (BcrL  1866). p.  10,  l«,«». 
Grdne,  Trlttl  u.  Lnlker.eK.  (Soest,  185S).— Ueru)g,Jt»i(< 
EnryUop.  a.  v. 

Texerants.  A  local  name  given  to  Ihe  Auo- 
uKNBEa  (q,  v.)  in  those  districts  ol  Southern  Frantc 

mostly  found  among  the  Menvers— " «b  uau  texendi* 
(Ekbect,  Ads,  CatAar.  in  BiU.  Max.  Lagd  axa, 
601).- 

Text.  Tbe  application  of  the  woni  rn<  lo  the 
Word  of  God  is  derived  from  the  Latin.  From  Ihe  rim- 
ilsritv  between  apinning  and  weaving,  and  the  an  of 
composition,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  the  l^tin  aatkois 
applied  to  the  latter  several  expressions  proper  to  tbe 
former.  Horace  saya, "  Teimi  dtibirlo  fnrmalajih"  and 
Cicero  uses  the  tcrma  Inert  oraHonm  and  emiam 
earmtu.  Among  later  Komanwriteni,/erAitoccD»Dflen 
in  the  sense  of  a  piece  or  comporilion :  and,  by  nrri- 
lence,  came  to  denote  the  Word  of  God,  Jnat  as  the  aonl 


TEXT  OF  SCRIPTURE  2 

ArifAni  did.  Tbe  meaning  of  tbe  vordi  Mzf  and 
;Jm  miy  be  uccrUiDed  (nun  Ihe  mettiad  ur  writing 
ibi  Sdiptmc*  befure  tbe  ut  of  printing  wu  invented. 
Tbe  faUinriiig  auy  be  Ukeu  u  ■  ipedmen : 

(Halt.  Til,  H) 
Et  lane  coDfllebar  Dlis  quia 


JM"»  ■*    nnnqaam  noil  w 


di*. 


a  of  thu  it  pat 


the  ■idea  are  tbe  glou;  the  middle, 
T  type,  is  tbe  lert;  and  betweeu  the 
the  lAter/Mear  y/oUi  in  which  place 


(be  CoOgiuan  uid  other  Ubrariea,  la  aometimes  inaerted. 
Tbe  iBit  here  meani  the  Word  of  God,  at  oppoaed  (o 
tbe  ftoo,-  and  becaoae  tbe  text  wu  uauallj-  written 
b  a  laige  and  ilrong  hand,  bence  inch  writing  waa 
oDtd  Ee^-fauKi.  By  ghu  waa  generally  meant  • 
anDBceury  or  expontioo  taken  out  of  the  Latin 
lalbcni  but  afterwarda  it  came  to  aignify  an;  ex- 
pnition  or  larger  commentary.  Hence  our  Englinh 
phna^  lo  pul  a  gloti  <n>  am/lJuiig,  that  ii,  a  faiyirable 
'  m ;  jrfoM,  a  abiuing  ontude;  and  to  gtott,  to 


TEXT  Of  Scbittuhk.  Thii  term  ii  naed  to  aignify 
tfortia*  of  the  text;  Lea  abort  Kntence  outofScripl- 
gie,  Dttd  either  aa  the  (iruundwatli  of  a  diacoune  from 
the  polpit,  i»T  brougbl  forward  to  auppoTt  an  argument 
erin  pioof  ofa  poaiiiim.  The  cuatom  of  taking  a  text 
Tot  a  inmoD  ia  pmhably  coeral  with  that  of  preachiog 

triiial  poinu  ii  of  the  very  eaecnce  of  true  Ib«ilagy,and 
■ac  «vcr  [he  cuatom  even  of  thuM  who,  prafneing  the 
niiM  of  Chrialians,  denied  the  truth  of  Chriat.  One 
uuN  tbcrefiinr  be  on  hia  guaril  agaiiiit  receiving  ev- 
erribing  fur  which  a  lext  ia  quoted,  not  accepting  it 
aa  prnof  until  ita  true  aenae  ia  Icnown;  "otherwiar,  ao 
luthuriied  falaehooda.' 


IT  ita 


it  ia  connected,  elae 
wi  may  be  putting  forward  aa  truth  wbat  ia  in  fact  but 
an  auiboriaed  falaehoofl ;  we  ahouJd  also  guard  againat 
Ibe  practice  of  taking  a  text  from  Scripture  in  a  aenae 
vbicb,  however  auund  and  true,  ia  not  that  of  tbe  paa- 
•agt  itaelf,  aa,  for  inalance.  "  Heat  Ihe  Church,"  em- 
ployad  aa  if  it  were  a  precept,  in  the  imperative  mood. 
Hm  nao-abaervanee  of  the  latter  caution  baa  a  tendency 
to  kad  othera  to  Ihe  neglect  of  the  former. 

TBXtiu  ia  a  technical  term  for  tbe  book  of  the  Goa- 
palt  aa  need  at  the  Chriatian  aacriOee.  Copiea  of  the 
Goapda,  richly  iUominiled,  and  bound  in  gold  and  ail- 
nr,  are  often  exposed  on  the  higb-altara  of  Continental 
ebaiebn.    Sometime*  they  are  kept  in  abrinea,  and  only 

impunant  feaiiraU     Keferencea  to  aucb  eiiat  in  large 
nmbeia  in  early  writera,  and  many  remarkable  exim- 

taoofwbich.at  Aix-la-Cbapelle  indMayence,areknown 
to  aniiqaarin.     Numemua  rich  exacnplea  are  reckoned 


Testos  ReoeptOB  (i.  e.  Ikt  namd  lext),  a  pbnae 
IfOftally  empkiyed  by  critica  to  denote  the  currently 
aMfpttdlextoriheCrnkTetlamenU  Thia  ia  uanally 
ouidend  to  be  tbat  of  the  Elievira,  eapecially  the 
editioa  of  ItSB,  tbe  preface  of  which  containa  tbe  ex- 


lia  Bibjedmua,"  referring  lo  the  edition 
twaa  a  reprint.  The  meat  commonly  pri 
tnt,  ia  thai   of  Suvcni,  uauallv   Uilla' 


of  which 


lUamloallon  of  an  Audent  Itotu,  nr  Book  iif  the  Goapeta. 

Sometime*  tbe  phrase  (tzfua  rtceplia  ia  in  like  manner 
extended  to  tbe  Uaaorelic  text  of  tbe  Hebrew  Bible, 
especially  Van  der  Hooght's  edition,  which  has  been  re- 
printed by  Hahn.     See  Cmiicisu,  Biblicai. 

TesoatUpoCB  (Shiaiag  3/trror),  the  chief  of  the 
thirteen  greater  gods  of  tbe  ancient  Hexicsns.  On  the 
monuments  and  in  the  paintings  be  i*  often  represented 
as  encircled  by  the  disk  of  the  aiin.  lord  Kingaboi^ 
ough  {AaliqMilvi  of  ifrxiaj  aUtea  tbafall  the  attri- 
butes and  powers  which  were  aseigned  to  Jehovah  by 
the  HebrewB  were  also  bcatowed  upon  Tezcatlipoca  1^ 
the  Uexicans."  Mr.  Hardwick,  bowcTer,  inclinea  to 
tbe  belief  that  this  deity  was  merely  the  dei&ed  im- 
perscinatinn  of  the  generative  powers  of  catnre,  and 
as  such  his  highest  type  was  the  sun.  A  festivai 
in  his  honor  was  heU  annually  in  May,  when  a  young 
and  beautiful  person  was  sacrificed,  aud  the  heart 
of  the  victim,  still  warm  and  palpitating,  was  held 
up  lowsnla  the  sun,  then  thrown  down  before  the 
image  of  the  god,  while  tbe  people  bowed  in  odors- 

TbaboriTun  (Ba&iipiot'  or  Mtraii6pfv«ii,  Falum 
TremtfiguraHomt,Kpa:ffactumii  CkriUfi,  ttK  Feaat  of 
the  Tranaflgaralion  of  Christ.  It  was  exalted  to  a  feut 
ofunirersal  observance  by  pope  Colixtus  l[l  in  1467,  the 
day  amgned  to  it  being  Auguat  6.  The  ancient  Church 
had  not  altogether  ignored,  but  none  the  leea  greatly 
neglected,  its  obaervanee.  The  purpose  of  its  modem 
revival  was  Ihe  coinmemontinn,  Hrst,  ofthe  ttansAgun- 
tion  of  Chriat,  ami,  second,  of  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  at 
the  siege  of  Belgrade  in  M&fi.  See  Auguali,Cj(ri>ti.  ^r- 
cJtfrjI<j$K  (Leips.  1820),  iii,  292  aq.;  amog.Httd-Ency 

Thacfaer,  Q«orge,  D.D.,  a  Congiegatiunal  minia- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Hatlfonl,  Conn.,  July  35, 1817.  His  Mr- 
Ir  education  was  receive  at  Hopkins  Urammar-BchaDl, 
Hartford.  He  waa  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  IHO, 
and  in  tbe  aame  year  entered  Tale  Theological  Semiiia- 
tv,  where,  afler  a  full  three  yeara'  course  of  studv,  be 
was  ngulsily  graduated  in  1S43.  Ilia  first  pattiirala 
was  at  Drrby,  Conn.,  where  be  went  in  June,  184.1 1  on 
Jan.  4,  1844,  he  waa  otdaineil,  preaching  there  unUI 
Oct.  10,  1848,  when  he  was  dismiaaed.  He  next  re- 
ceived and  accepted  ■  call  lo  Nantucket,  Maaa.,  where 
he  waa  installed  Nov.  14,  1848,  and  remained  until 
Mav  14,  I8S0,  when  he  was  dismiised  lo  the  pa.itoral« 
of  the  Allen  Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  Tork 
ciry.  where  he  waa  installed  May  26,  1850,  and  dit- 
m^aed  Oct.  9,  I8M.     He  was  then  auccesajvely  io- 


■Ulkd  M  the  Fint  Church,  Heriden,  Conn,  Nov.  IS, 

1851,  ditmiued  SepU  IS,  lH60j   Keokuk,  Iik,  Oct  30, 
'  imissed  April  B,  1867.     At  thU  Uticr  ilate  be 


a  Kii 


]pe,w 


spent  >  few  montha.     Ke- 


CbuTcli  fruru  May  tu  Octdber  or  the  ume  yur.  He 
nu  Chen  acting  paitnr  at  Walecloo,  lo.,  rram  October, 
1S6H,  lu  Uirch,  1H71,  In  1871  h«  wai  elected  preiidtnt 
of  the  State  Uiiiveraty  of  Iowa,  in  which  poaitiun  he 
remaiiied  uiilil  June,  1877.  Ha  wu  then,  from  1877  lo 
ISTB,  acting  paatot  at  Iowa  City.  In  1871  he  received 
Che  hanonry  degree  of  D.D.  from  Iowa  and  Knox  col- 
legea.  Me  died  in  Hartford  of  diKa«  of  the  brain  and 
heaii,  Dec.  77, 1878,     Dr.  Thacher  publiahed  Tu:< 


u  at  Meriden, 


e  of  which  vi 


d  by  Cl 


r  of  Juhn  Brown:— .4  Btrnm!  "A'o  F^ovihip 
with  Slavery"  (Keokuk,  1861)  ■.—Inaugural  Adiinu,  m 
preiident  of  Iowa  Univeraity  (1871).    (W.  P.  S.) 
a  Cangregatiur 


n  16&l,a 


ttev.  Tbamaa  Thacher,  drM  paaCor  of 
Church,  BosUDi.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1671,  and  waa  tutor  there  for  aevenl  yean  foUnwing. 
He  Chen  went  to  England  lo  prepare  himieir  more  fully 
for  hia  profeasian,  but  hia  friend  Samuel  Danforth 
dying  ahortly  afler,  Mr.  Thacher  returned  to  America. 
He  refused  leveral  templing  oOera  to  enter  the  E>ta1>- 
lished  Cburch;  and  in  September,  1081,  was  ordained 
pastor  of  Che  Church  in  Milton,  Masa.  Here  he  la- 
bored effectively  until  a  week  berore  hia  death,  vhich 
occurred  Dec.  17, 1727.     "  He  waa  ■  person  of  eminent 

cheerful,affable,  humble,  and  free  of  apeech  lo  Ihe  mean- 
est he  met."  He  publiahed  several  theological  trea- 
tises and  single  aermona  (1708-^),  for  a  liac  of  which 
aee  Sprague,  Aratali  of  lie  Amer.l^fyit.i,  196. 

Thaoher,  Poter  {"2),  a  Congregational  rninister,  the 
ton  of  Thomas  Thacher,  Jun.,  and  grandson  of  Thomaa 
Thacher,  the  first  minister  of  the  Old  South  Church, 
was  boni  in  Boston  in  1 G77.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1S9G,  and  immediately  after  his  graduation  began  to 
teach  at  llatdeld,  and  is  supposed  to  have  studied  di- 
vinity under  the  Rev.  William  Williams  of  that  place. 
OnNov.Sfi,  1707,  he  was  ordained  paalor  of  the  Church 
at  Weymouth,  where  be  remained  between  eleven  and 
twelve  years.  In  January,  1720,  be  telumed  to  Boston 
and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  New  North  Church  as 
colleague  with  Mr.  Webb.  Here  he  labored  until  bis 
death,  Feb.  26,  1738.  Mr.  Thacher  published  an  A'fcr- 
iionStrnvn  {11 'i6),  tai  i  SermmoB  He  J}ealhn/M ri. 
Gee  (1730).  See  Sprague,  AmKiU  of  Hit  Amer.  PulpH, 
1,266. 

Thacher,  Peter  (S),  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  1688,  and  graduated  at  Harrard  College  in 
1706.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Mid- 
dleborough,  Msas.,  in  1709,  and  died  there  April  22, 
1744.  He  published  an  account  of  the  revival  of  re- 
ligion in  Middle  borough,  in  Prince's  Ciriilian  llutory. 
See  Ailibone,  Din.  nf  Brit,  and  A  imr.  A  ulhoti,  s.  v. 

Thacher,  Peter  (4),  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congrega- 
tional miniater,  was  bom  at  Millon,  Mass.,  March  21, 
1762.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  176»,  and 
waa  ordainiil  pastor  Sept.  19,  1770,  at  Maiden,  Mass., 
from  which  charge  he  was  dismissed  In  allow  his  ac- 
cepunce  of  a  call  from  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston, 
Dec.  8, 1784.  He  entered  upon  bis  new  charge  Jan.  12, 
178&.  and  there  continued  until  hii  health  failed.  He 
died  in  Savannah  Dec.  16, 1802.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  convention  which  met  in  Boston  in  1780 
to  frame  a  state  consiiiulion,  and  opposed  the  reten- 
tion of  the  governor's  oSce.  The  University  of  Edin- 
burgb  made  him  D.D.  inlT9l.  He  publiahed,  .4n  Ora- 
tion agaaut  SlandiHg  A  rmiti  {V'S) :— Three  Strmota  in 
Proof  nf  the  Etemits  af  Future  Pumthmmti  (llSt)  :— 
Oitrraliml  OB  lie  Stale  of  lie  Clergy  in  jVm  England, 
Kith  SIricturet  ypon  Iht  Foieer  nf  i/iimiMMing  lAem 


8  THACHER 

Ui>irpedifomeCiari!lirtO^^)-—'i  Reply  lo  Strim- 
urtt  upon  Ike  Preceding  (1788)  -.—HtMoirt  of  Dr.  Bo^ 
lott  (1780)1  — and  several  occasional  aermona.  Sn 
Sprague,  <(nna{fq/'bls^iiur./^fpt/,  1,718. 

Tliacher.  Bamnel  Cooper,  a  Unitarian  preacher 
and  son  of  I'eter  (4),  was  bo™  in  Boaton,  Han,  in  1786. 
He  graduated  at  Har\-ard  College  in  1804,  and  immedi- 
ately after  bia  graduation  commenced  hia  theological 
aCndiea  under  Che  direction  of  Rev.  William  E.Cbanniug. 
In  the  eariy  part  of  1805  Mr.  Thacher  look  charge  of 
the  Boston  Ijatio  GrammaT-school,  but  in  the  sumawr 
of  1806  was  chosen  to  be  Ibe  travelling  companion  of 
Kev.  Mr.  Buckminsler.  Returning  in  September,  1807. 
be  was  shortly  after  appointed  librarian  of  Harvard 
College,  and  entered  on  hia  dutie*  in  1808.     He  proae- 

ceeded  Dr.  Kirkland  as  pastor  of  the  New  South  Chutcli, 
May  16, 1811,  retaining  this  connection  nntil  bia  death, 
at  Moulins,  France,  Jan.  2,  181S,  His  pnocipal  puUi- 
cattona  were,  Apoiogi/  for  Salional  and  Erangtliail 
ChriMiata^,  i  discourse  (Boat.  I81G,  8vo)r— (Taify  of 
God,  a  aermon  (Liverpool,  181B,  8vo;  2d  Amer.  td. 
Worceater,l8l7,8vD):— SCTmoiu,withaAfai»irbTBeT. 
F.W.  P.  Greenwood  (Boat.  1824,  8vo)  i— i.'riiJnHe  Kn~ 
usury  la  Etiablui  Ihe  Doariae  of  Ike  Trinity' X\tlli, 
12n:)D).  See  AUibonr,  Did.  of  Bril.  <oid  A  mrr.  A  ulkon, 
S.V.;  Sprague,  ^mo/i  a/ (,((  .4 skt.  PuJjnf,  viii, 4Sfi  aq. 
Thacher,  Thomaa,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Salisbury-,  England,  Hay  1,  1610.  lie 
declined  the  offer  of  his  father  to  send  him  m  an  Eng- 
liah  university,  preferring  to  emigrate  to  America.  On 
June  1, 1635,'he  arrived  at  Boeion,  Mass.,  and  sixm  af- 
ter entered  the  family  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Chauncr,of 
Scitiiate.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Wevmouih 
Church,  Jan.  3, 1644,  where  he  labored  for  more  than 
twenty  years^  He  then  removed  to  BMon,  when  be 
preached  occasionally,  but  waa  principally  engaged  in 
the  practice  of  nvedicine,  till  he  was  chosen  first  paxsr 
of  the  Third  (Old  South)  Church.  His  ioataUattoa 
took  place  Feb.  16, 1669,  and  after  a  happy  ministry  be 
died  OcL  IS,  1678.  He  wrote,  A  Brief  Rvie  la  Gnii 
Ihe  Commim  PropU  of  Sen  Engtmid  how  lo  Order  Tirm- 
telva  and  Thein  in  Ihe  Small  Facte  ar  MeatUt  (BoN. 
1677;  2d  ed.  1703),  anid  to  be  the  HrU  medical  Iract  pub- 
lished in  New  Englai^d;— .4  Fail  of  Code  Ckmtg,^ 
■ermon  (1674,  4Io;  1678).     See  Sprague,  .4 nub  n/ lis 

Thacher,  Tyler,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 

bora  at  Princeton,  Mass..  Sept.  " 


veral  g 


a,  both  in  this  o 


ntrjai 


in  England,  had  been  Puri 

of  high  distinction.  Among  them  were  Kev.  Ifier 
Thacher,  of  Saliabury,  EngUnd;  Rev.  Thomaa  Thacher, 
of  Boston,  Masfk.:  Rev.  Peter  Thacher,  of  Milton,  Usm; 
and  Rev.  Peter  Thacfaer,  of  Attleboroiigh,  Man.  In  alt 
not  leaa  than  nuie  generations  of  the  family  have  had 
representatives  in  the  Chris)  ian  ministry  either  in  Eng- 
land or  in  America."  The  subject  of  this  sketch  wasa 
graduate  of  Brawn  Univenity  in  the  dan  of  1824,  and 
waa  licensed  lo  preach  April  26,  I8SB,  and  ordaiiHd  n 
ah  evangelial  in  Wrvnlham,  Mass.,  Dec.  4, 1827.  He 
did  not  permanently  settle  in  the  ministry  until  Uay 
14,  1834,  wlien  he  became  colleague  pastor  with  Rev. 
Jonathan  Grant  over  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Hawley,  Mass.,  where  he  remaineil  abnnc  nine  yean 
(1834-43)  and  then  returned  tuWrenihsm.  FurKvei^ 
al  years  he  aopplied  the  Church  in  North  WienthsD, 
until  he  moved  to  California  in  1861.  Here  he  mnain- 
ed  the  rest  of  hia  life,  teaching  and  preaching,  and  m- 
gaged  in  such  employments  as  auited  his  taates.  'He 
was  distinguished  among  his  brethren  for  his  tbeolog- 
ical  and  litcrarj-  altainmenta,  and  even  in  Ihe  wilder- 

ihe  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages  and  in  phikisophy. 
He  waa  a  man  of  quiet,  scholarly,  and  devout  hatuli, 
and  much  given  to  the  study  of  nature  and  the  pnb- 


THACHER  21 

1m  of  iheology."  Mr.  Thachet  died  U  C«eh«  Creek, 
CiL  Dee.  4, 1869.    (J.  a  S.) 

Tbttcbei,  Waahiagton.  ■  PrwbyiwUn  minixcr, 
n  bom  U  Aulrbnraugb,  Hue.,  Feb.23,  ITM.  He  re- 
nirtd  hi*  dueicil  cilucui<«  under  Ihe  Rev.  Lj-man 
BichndMD ;  uudied  tbeolngy  ander  the  Rev.  John 
Traiir:  WM  )ic«i»«l  Ui  preach  by  the  Ou^a  Preiby- 
UnialSSli  was  orduDtd  in  182-2;  officiated  u  Mated 
np(jTuMDrTiaTille,N.r.,IBi2-2ei  was  paitor  ofthe 
Chsrch  in  Jordan,  N.  Y.,  1826-1S{  rtfiigned  hU  cbar){e 
«  icoHDi  of  ill-healtb ;  wai  afterwarda  a  BUled  eupply 
It  Eaton,  N.  Y.,  three  yearsi  was  appointed  lecretary 
ud  Bgmc  of  the  Central  Ageocj  of  the  American  Home 
ITaiauary  Society  id  July,  t»7;  and  died  June  39, 
ISJO.  He  was  an  eminently  devout  man  and  an  ear- 
got  and  effective  preacher. 

Tlwddsei  Ai^ta.  The  minion  ot  Tbaddniu  to 
king  Abgar  of  Edeiia,  the  correspondence  between 
Christ  and  Abgar,  and  tlie  picture  uf  Christ  which  pui- 
paits  IB  have  been  liken  lor  Abgar  are  very  oJU  tradi- 
CiMS,  9r>i  mentioned  by  Eiiaehins,  /liil.  Ecda.  i,  13. 
Fbeihcr  these  A  cU  rarmed  the  basia  Tor  these  traditions 
(asDM  be  decided.  TiKbendorrhaspablished  the  Greeii 
1(11  fram  a  onJrs  Paria.  orthe  llthceDlury  in  intAda 
ipuUlormApaeryplutiUfi.lSbl),p.t6\-il^  (aP.) 

Thaddsei  Bvaagellnm,  meniioned  in  the  Drtnt. 
Gitaiiiir  l-iirii  Apotrypkit  {\nJat  Canomeiint,  xr,S). 
L'nins  iben  is  an  erroneous  reading  for  Uattitie,  it 
vaoM  either  belong  to  the  apostle  Judas  Thaddsus  or 
la  a  Jadas  helongiug  to  tbe  seventy  whom  Thomas 
■dl  10  Kdeasa  Co  king  Abgar  (EuaebioB,  Hitl.  Eeclei, 
i,  13;  see  Fabridui,  Cuda  Apocrgphtt,  i,  136,  S73). 
But  indUion  does  not  determine  whether  Thaddteua 
■hu  was  sent  to  Abgar  bebiDged  to  the  twelve  or  the 
sCTBity,  on  which  point  Eusebius  and  Jerome  d 
agree.  See  Eusebius,  Hill,  EccUt.  (ed.  Reading),  p. : 
iu(ei,& 

On  the  coneapoudeuce  between  Abgar  and  Jesus, 
rt  fjpedallv  HoFmann,  Z.eifa  Jan  Biuk  den  Apohy. 
fitw  (Leips.  ISil),  p.3a7  sq.     (B.  P.) 

TtMdd»'iu(eo^^a>ac:  Vnlg.  7'AaiUm(),anaii 
ii  Mark's  eatal<^ue  of  the  twelve  apoUle*  (iii,  18) 
(be  great  aiajurity  of  US.S.  In  Matthew's  catalogue 
lx.3)  ihe  correqwoiling  place  is  assigned  to  Oatiatot 
k*  ike  Tatiean  US.  (B),  and  the  Sinailie  (N),  ai 
itS^iH  by  the  Codex  Bess  (D)i  whUe  lb 
land  text,  following  the  lint  correction  of  the  Codex 
Epkneai  (C) — where  the  original  reading  is  doubtTnl 
— ts  well  aa  Duny  frigraentary  uncial  and  several  eur- 
■le  MSa,  rada  Ai^^oc  i  JxirXij^iJe  BaMtaos. 
We  tn  prabably  to  iufer  that  Ac/)^ioc  alone  is  the 
•cigioal  R«ding  of  Mate  x,  3,  and  BatlaTas  ol  Hark 
ia.  IS  (SO  Tiacbendorf ;  but  Tregelle*  ha*  QaSiaXot  in 
bnih  passages).  By  thne  two  evangelists  the  tenth 
|te«aDHDg  the  apoallea  is  given  (o  Lehbawsor  Thad- 
iat,  the  eleventh  place  being  given  to  Simon  tbe 
CBuoitc.  Luke,  in  both  his  catalogues  (vi,  lb;  Acts 
1 13),  plaoa  Simon  Zelous  tenth  among  the  ipostlea, 
sad  assagna  tbe  eleventh  place  lo  'loMac  'laim^ov. 
li  ihe  mba  names  iMorded  by  Luke  are  identical  with 
Asa  wbtch  appear  (though  in  a  different  order)  in  tbe 
lot  1*0  goapel^  it  seems  scarcely  poAsible  to  doubt 
ikatibc  three  names  nfJuitas,  Lebbleu^and  Thaddsus 
wHe  borne  by  voe  and  the  same  person.  See  JuDa  : 
Loaves;  Thu>i>.si  Act*  and  Evahoeliuu. 

Tlultash  (HeU  T'lcA'iuM.  tna.  baA/f  [q.  v.]; 
.S^«.ToYac;  Joaepbii^Touoof,  ^iX.i.8,6;  Vulg.  THa- 
biV  third  nsmedof  tbefooraoatofNahoiby  hiscon- 
aMae  Beumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24).     KQ  cir.  3050. 

TbalamailD,  CnauroPH  Wilhrui,  a  Lutheran 
aiK,  wa*  bom  in  1727  at  Webentiid^  in  Tburingia, 
■4fied,aa  doctor  and  profeanr  of  theology,  at  Lei  puc, 
bb  10,  1778.  He  wrote,  Trattatiii  de  fiabe  tapir 
iTa  Fm^rit  Commnio  Jadaieo  (Lips.  1 752)  :—Traeta- 
•  it  PkUomi  ri  Jetephi  A  «cUritaU  in  IliiUiria  BOatm 


>0  THAMER 

SacrorttM  (Ibid.  1771)  z—Dt  Sfiua*Vtrirt  Folii  iit  Itttr- 
pretaliont  Librorum  Sacroruni  (ibid.  1775) : — Diofiialio 
dr  Kmdiliinie  Pauli  ApoiloU  Judaica  non  Grata  (ibid. 
1769):  — ['rriib  Liilita  Evangtliaram  ifalli^  Lac,  el 
JoA.,i(«iii5iie^ef. /Ipp., edits  a  K.Ch.TitlmBnn  (Berlin, 
ITW).  SeeFurU,fiiUyiu£.iii.419;  Winer, /foniJAHcl 
Ar(A«>itiWriKur,i,lBe,lBS,Ba9,896;  ii,799,    (HP,) 

Xhalfta,  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  and  the 
Hist  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  was  born  at 
Miletus  about  B.C  640,  After  acquiring  tbe  usual 
learning  of  bis  own  country,  he  travelled  into  Egypt 
and  several  parts  of  Asia  to  learn  astronomy,  geometry, 
mystical  divinity,  natural  knowledge,  or  philosophy, 
etc.  Returning  lo  his  own  country,  be  commiinicsled 
the  knowli'ilge  be  bad  acquired  to  many  diiciplea, 
among  the  principnl  of  whom  were  Aiiazimander, 
Anaximenes,  sii'l  ryinagoras.  He  was  Ihe  founder  of 
the  louiau  sect  of  philosophers.  Ijiertes  and  several 
other  writers  agree  that  he  was  the  father  of  the  Greek 
philosophy,  being  the  fint  thit  made  any  researches 
into  natural  science  and  malhematics.  His  doctrine 
is  tbst  water  is  tbe  principle  of  which  all  the  bod- 
ies in  the  universe  are  composed;  that  the  world  is 
the  work  of  Ood;  and  that  God  sees  the  most  secret 
thoughts  in  the  heart  of  man.  He  Uught  that  in 
order  to  lire  well  we  ought  to  abstain  from  what  we 
Bnd  fault  with  in  others;  that  bodily  felicity  consists 
in  beallb;  and  that  of  the  mind  in  knowledge.  That 
the  most  ancient  of  beings  is  (iad,becsuM  he  is  uncre- 
ated; that  nothing  is  more  beautiful  than  the  world, 
because  it  i*  the  work  of  Goil ;  nothing  more  extensive 
than  space,  quicker  than  spirit,  stronger  ihan  necessity, 
wiser  than  time.  He  used  to  observe  that  we  ought 
never  to  s*v  that  (o  any  one  which  may  be  titmtd  to 
out  prejudin;  and  that  we  should  live  with  out  friend* 
as  with  persons  that  may  become  our  enemies.  In  ge- 
ometry Tbalea  was  a  considerable  inventor  as  well  as 
an  improveri  while  in  astronomy  his  knowledge  and 
improvementa  were  very  consideiable.  His  morals 
were  aa  Just  as  his  mathematics  well-grounded,  and  his 
judgment  in  civil  aflain  equal  lo  either.  He  died 
about  B.C  550.  Concerning  his  writings,  it  remains 
doublfut  whether  he  left  any  behind  him ;  at  least, 
none  have  come  down  lo  us.  See  Chalmen,  Biog. 
Die*.*,  v.;  Smith, />ic*.o/Cfa«.B>Dj.a.r. 

Tha'mah  (Heb.  Tt'madi,  naV)-,  in  pause  Ta'madt, 
rran,  Uaighler  [Gcsenius],  or  ttmihat  (;Fllrst]  ;  Sept. 
8(fia;  Vulg.  rAmia),  one  of  the  Nelhinim  whose  "chil- 
dren" returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbahel  (Eira  ii, 
53;  "Tamah,''Neh.vii,56).    RC.an(e5a6. 

Tha'mat  (Matt,  i,  8).    See  Tahar. 

Thaiuat,  Theobald,  a  theological  agitator  in  tbe 
time  of  the  Reformation  In  (^rmany.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Rossheim,  in  Alsice,  and  >tudi«I  at  Wittenberg 
under  Luther  and  Melanclhon,  taking  the  degree  of 
master  in  1689.  He  had  been  supported  whiles  student 
by  the  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  who  wished  to  train 
tbe  youth  for  service  in  his  employment;  and  after  a 
time  spent  as  professor  of  theology  at  Frank  fort-on-the- 
Oder,  Thamei  responded  to  the  landgrave's  call  and  be- 
came professor  and  preacher  at  Marburg.  To  the  cha- 
grin of  hi*  prince,  bowerer,  he  showed  himself  a  rigid 
Lutheran,  whose  influence  was  directly  opposed  to  the 
compromises  which  Philip  hoped  to  bring  about  be- 
ttreen  the  contending  evangelical  (actions.  In  the 
Smslcsld  war  Thamer  served  in  the  Scid  as  a  chaplain. 
He  there  saw  reason  lo  lose  faith  in  the  cause  of  the 
Reforraaiinn,  and  to  discover  the  occasion  of  all  tbe 
Iruuhles  iif  the  nlualiun  in  Ihe  Lutheran  doctrine  of 
justiflcatinn ;  and  on  his  return  to  Marburg  he  assailed 
that  doctrine  in  the  pulpit  and  the  lecture-room.  He 
emphasiied  the  ethical  side  of  Chrtslianily,  and  sepa- 
rated it  from  Ihe  doctrinal  side,  thus  gradually  coming 
to  occupy  raiionalistic  ground.  The  government  dealt 
with  hioi  mildiy,  at  Srst  transfeiritig  him  lo  Cassd,and 


THAMNATHA  8( 

then  enuring  inio  txtenilHl  negotiatioiu  with  him ; 
but  *B  he  |>entiHred  in  duturiiiDg  the  peace  of  the 
Church,  he  wu  rtumiMed  (cum  ill  hia  ofBcea  Aug.  Ifi, 
1M9.  He  Hcuretl  ■  pusilian  u  preacher  at  Fraukfurc- 
on-the-Maiu,  whence  he  coiidnued  ui  aApene  the  Lu- 
theran docuines,  until  he  exhaiuud  the  patience  of  hu 
new  patrona.  He  ihen  turned  Ia  the  landgrave  with 
the  offer  U>  defend  hia  viewa  before  cnmpeleiit  judgea, 
and  he  aclualiv  visited  Melancthon,  Gresaer,  Schnepf, 
and  Bullinger.  No  Killeinenl  wag  reached  in  their 
,  diacunions.  honrerct,  and  Thiiner  win  dimiiaaeil  fnim 
the  dotniniuna  of  Bene.  He  went  to  Italy  and  in  1557 
entered  tlie  Romiili  Church.  In  lime  he  waa  mide 
prDfenor  of  theoli^y  at  Freiburg.  He  died  Mav  £3, 
1669.  See  Neander,  Throbald  Thamer,  etc.  (Beti.  IMS) ; 
ii.  Hill,  of  Dogmoi,\i.Wl;  PeaUlozzi,  AuWiiypr,  p.  461 
aq.;  Scheniiel, lOwn if.  jVorefroHriinitiJ, i,  144 aq. ;  Hoch- 
huth,  Dt  Th.  Thamri  Vila  n  Sa-iplii  (Mirb.  laiS),  and 
the  article  in  Niedner's  ZrilKli./.  kiH.  Thmiogir,  1861, 
Nu.  g.—HeizDg,  Ural-Eiicsktap.  u  v. 

Tham'natlui  (i)  eafivaii ;  Viilg.  Tkavmala),  nne 
oT  (he  dtiea  of  Juilea  Tortified  by  Bacchidea  alUi  he 
had  driven  the  Uaccabeea  over  the  Jordan  (1  Mace  ix, 
50);  no  doubt  an  ancient  TluKATHipnaaibly  the  present 
Tibmk,  half-way  between  Jerutalem  and  th?  Mediler- 
mnean.  Whether  the  name  ■hoiild  be  Joined  to  Phara- 
thoni,  which  ruUowe  il,  or  whether  it  should  be  iudepen- 
denl,  il  a  malUr  of  iloubL    See  PiiaKathoh. 

Thane,  Daniki.,  a  Preabylerian  miniiter,  was  bom 
in  Scotland  and  received  bia  daancal  education  at 
Aberdeen.  After  rnminf;  to  America,  he  enleied  the 
FriiTcelon  Theological  Seininarv,  from  which  he  grad- 
uated in  17W.  He  waa  ordained  by  the  New  Yi<rk 
Preebvlerv  and  inilalled  paMor  at  Connecticut  FaniH, 
N.J.,Aug  29,  i;60.  In  ITMhe  wuaent  by  the  Syn- 
nd  nf  New  York  to  Virginia  and  the  Camiinaa.  Ram- 
aey.  in  hit  llittary  of  Soalk  CaraUmi,  aaya  that  he 
preached  un  tlie  fork  of  Broad  and  Saluda  riven,  where 
there  were  only  aix  familiea.  Theae  were  driven  away 
by  the  Indiana  between  the  yean  1756  and  1763,  but 
they  returned  and  set  up  congregation  a,  served  in  afler- 
titne*  bir  Dr.  Joeeph  Alexander  and  ntheri.  In  1808 
there  waa  a  Bourisbing  congregation,  with  ■  meeting- 
hiMK  on  the  ipot  where  Thane  preached,  in  1764,  un- 
der a  tree.  He  was  dismined  in  1767,  and  left  at  lib- 
erty to  join  the  Preabyteij  of  Newcastle  or  Lewes. 
He  was  settled  in  the  united  congregatiuiii  of  New- 
castle and  Christina  Bridge,  where  he  remained  until 
1763,  when   the  pailnial  relation  was  disMilicd.     He 

>d  soon  after.     Dr.  Hoaack,  in  his  JUrmoir  of  I)'  Will 


tt  Thau 
er  of  New  Windsor,  N.V. 


Clitd 

tuition,  anil  that  he 

(W.  P.S.) 

Tbank-offering  (ti'lin  nST,  Lev.  xxii,  S9 ;  or 
briefly  rnim.SChron.xxix.S;  Pea.lvi,  13;  Jer.  xvii, 
!6 ;  literally  praat  or  Aanit^xing,  as  ofien  rendered), 


of  II 


.e  fuU  e^ 


mm  O-lsilirr  PI'P  nai,  Uv.  vii,  13, 16),  the  other 
two  kinds  being  the  votive  offering,  speciAcally  such 
Cnj  njl),  and  the  ordinary  free-will  offering  (nsi 
nznj).  As  itn  name  implies,  il  was  a  bloody  or  ani- 
mal sacrifice,  and  iii  specific  character  waa  the  priiiie 
which  it  embodied  lowanla  God.  Like  all  the  other 
divisions  of  the  peace-uffering,  it  waa  entirely  volun- 
lar}',  being  placed  in  the  light  of  >  privilege  rather 
than  a  duly.  It  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
"  mealHiO^ring"  (q,  v.). 

The  nature  of  the  victim  waa  tell  to  the  aacriHcer! 
it  luigbt  be  male  or  female,  of  the  flock  or  of  the  herd, 
provided  that  it  waa  unblemitiied ;  the  hand  of  the 
sacridccr  waa  laid  nn  its  head,  the  fat  burned,  and  the 
d  sprinkled  as  in  the  buml-ofleriDg 


0  THANKSGIVING-DAY 

to  the  priest ;  the  rest  belonged  to  the  sacrifieer  as  a 
aacHficial  feaaL  (1  Cor.  i,  18),  to  be  eaten,  either  on  iht 
day  of  sacrifice  or  on  the  next  day  (I^v.  vii,  11-18,  »- 
34),  except  in  the  case  of  the  flntli^g^  which  belooged 
to  the  priest  alone  (ixiii,  W),  The  eating  of  the  Aesh 
of  the  meat-offering  was  considered  a  partaking  of  the 
"  table  of  I  be  Lord ;"  and  on  solemn  occasions,  as  at  the 
dedication  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  il  was  conducted 
on  an  enormous  scale,  and  became  a  great  national  feast, 
especially  at  periods  of  unniual  aolemnity  or  rejoicii^i 
ai  at  the  fint  inaugaraliun  of  the  covenant  <Eiod. 
xxic,  6),  at  the  first  consccralion  of  Aaron  and  of  the 
labemacle  (Lev.  ii,  18),  at  the  solemn  reading  of  the 
law  in  Canaan  by  Joahua  (Josh.  viii.Sl),  at  the  acco- 
sion  of  Saul  ([  Sam.  xi,  IB),  at  the  bringing  of  the  iifc 
10  Mount  Zion  by  David  (2  Sam.vi,  17],  at  the  consr- 
cntion  of  the  Temple,  and  thrice  every  year  afterwards, 
bvSulamon  (I  Kings  viii,G3;  ix,!6>,  and  at  the  great 
Panover  of  Heiekiab  (!  Chron.  ixx, «).  In  two  caus 
only  (Judg.  XI,  26;  2  Sam.  xxiv,  ib)  are  these  or  any 
other  kind  of  peace-oDbring  mentioned  aa  olfeied  with 
bumt-olKringB  at  a  time  of  national  sorrow  and  failing. 
Here  their  force  seems  lo  hare  been  precalot;  rather 
than  eacharistic  The  key  lo  the  understanding  of 
this  is  furnished  by  Hengstenberg:  "  To  give  thanks  fat 
grace  already  received  is  a  rellned  way  of  bej^ng  luc 
mure."  As  prayer  is  founded  on  the  divine  promise,  it 
"may  be  expnased  in  the  way  of  anticipated  thanks.* 
Among  thank-oBerings,  in  the  m»t  extensive  soaF, 
might  be  reckoned  the  piraentation  of  the  first-bnn 
(Exod.  liii,  13,  13) ;  the  flrst-fmils,  including  the  fmil 

xxiii,10-13t  Numb.zviii,12:  1  Chron.ix,29;  Keh.i, 
37;  SChnin.xxxii,  b);  the  second  tithe  <DeuL  xii,  17, 
18;  xiv,  23>i  and  tbelambof  cbePaMover(Exod.iii, 
8-17).  Leaven  and  honey  were  excluded  from  all  of- 
ferings made  bv  fire  (Lev.  it,  II);  and  salt  was  required 
in  all(ii,l3:  Mark  ix,  49;  Col.iv,6).  So  also  the  He- 
brews were  (bibidden  lo  offer  anything  vile  and  (oa- 
temptible  (Dent,  xxiii,  18 ;  MaL  i,  7,  S).    See  Peao- 


TbankaEiTlng,  the  act  o(  giving  thanks  or  tx- 
preasing  gratitude  fiirfavoiBor  mercy  received.  It  im- 
plies, according  to  Dr.  Barrow  (Strtnom,  i,  >er.  8, 9).  ( I)  a 
right  apprehensian  of  the  beneHte  conferred;  (2)afsitli- 
ful  retention  ofbeoefiu  in  the  memory,  and  frequent  re- 
flections upon  them ;  (3)  a  due  esteem  and  valuation  rf 
beneHla;  (t)a  reccplion  of  those  benefiuwiih  awilliag 
mind,  a  vehement  affection ;  (6)  due  acknowledgment 
of  our  obligations;  (6)  endeavon  of  real  com|>enMtia>, 
or,  as  it  respects  the  Divine  Beiug,  a  willingnees  ID 
serve  and  exalt  him ;  (7)  esteem,  veneration,  and  hivs 
of  the  benefactor. 

The  blessings  for  which  we  should  be  thankful  are 

(1)  temporal,  such  as  health,  food,  raimenl.  ntl,  elc; 

(2)  spiritual,  such  as  the  Bible,  onlinances,  the  Gospel 
and  its  Ueasings,  as  free  grace,  adoption,  pardon,  JustU- 
cation,  calling,  etc ;  (8)  eternal,  or  the  enjoyinent  ef 
(lod  ill  a  future  stale;  (4)  also  for  all  that  i>  past,  what 
we  now  enjoy,  and  what  is  promised  ;  for  private  and 
public,  for  ordinary  and  extraordinary  blessings;  On 
prosperity,  aikd  even  adversity,  so  tir  aa  rendered  sub- 
servient In  our  good. 

The  obligation  to  ihis  duty  arises  <1)  from  Ihe  rela- 
tion we  stand  in  lo  Cod;  (2)  Ihe  divine  command;  (S) 
iheprumiaetCod  has  made;  (4)  the  example  of  all gosd 
men;  {i)  our  unwnrthiness  of  Ihe  blessings  we  receive; 
(6)  the  prospect  of  eternal  glory.  Whoever  possesssa 
any  good  without  giving  thanks  for  it  deprives  him 
wtio  bestows  thai  good  oThis  glory,  seta  a  bad  exampla 
before  others,  and  prepares  a  recollecllon  severely  pain- 
ful for  himself  when  be  comes  in  his  tuni  to  experience 
ingraiilude.  .See  Chalmers,  Sirmunui  Uall,  Semmn 
Dwigbt,  Thtelofff. 


THANKSGIVING  SERVICE       801 


THAYER 


ib(  rlaJK  1/  Ihc  PuriUni  lor  gmler  limplicity  in  the 

{jiiui>(Hon)iip  of  the  Establuh«l  Oiurch,  and  a  piir- 
poK  [i«  10  Klebrau  any  at  Ihe  numerout  fttxirai-^ayi 

[iiisg  hu  bceu  recomnKiidcd  li;  the  civil  iiitlinriiiH 
ar£iinip(,ii«l  wch  I  day  «■»  obMrveri  in  Lryilen,  Hol- 
toid.  Oct.  3,  lilfi.  the  flnt  anniTFrury  of  the  rteliver- 
uRofitut  ciiy  rram  siege.  Ikfurt  the  adnpiton  of  an 
uiiiul  ihiiilugiving-div,  we  find  in«niii>n  nf  several  ap- 
pamal  foi  ipenal  nuuis.  After  Ihe  6tU  harvest  at 
Fhiwuih,  in  1611,  Guv.  Uridford  sent  four  men  out 
UU^,  that  ihey  "  might  after  a  more  special  manner 
[cjcitt  ugethtr.''  In  July,  I6S3,  the  governor  appoinl- 
ididiyodhanksgiving  Tor  rain,  after  a  long  drought, 
o!  ttic  ncordt  ihiiw  ■  aimilu  ■ppoiiitmenl  in  IG33  he- 
<*BC  of  tht  •rrival  nf  suppliea  from  Irelaxtl.  There  is 
■Ik  rrtari  of  the  nppuintmenl  of  ilavs  of  thanksKiving 
in  Munchwiu  in  Iti33,  IB3S,  !G34,  1C37,  ICilS,  and 
li39,u<t  in  riymouih  in  ISil,  I64M,  1C80  {when  the 

OHH  u  inniial  cuMora),  I6B9,  and  IRW.  Tlie  Dutch 
^rsnon  of  New  Netberlaiid  in  1644, 1645,  1656,  and 
ieM,iiul  Ibe  Eiiglinh  gorennn  of  New  York  in  1755 
ukI  ITW.ippoinled  dayi  of  thank  Bgi  ring.  During  the 
UrToluiiai,  Thanksgiving-day  was  observed  hy  the  na- 
lix,  bring  annnally  recommended  b)'  Congress;  but 
ikmwiinn  niiional  appointment  Ijetween  Ihe  general 
itots^ringfor  peace  in  17A4  and  1789,  when  presi- 
*iii  ffsihinglon  recommendeii  a  day  of  thanksgiving 

fnil  iliys  hare  been  set  apart  boih  by  preaiilents  and 
oreraofs  until  IBM,  when  Ihe  preaenc  practice  was 
(kfUd  of  ■  national  annual  thanksgiving.  The  pmi' 
imt  iHits  ao  annual  proclamation,  followed  by  the 
sovmio™  of  the  several  suies  and  mayors  of  llic  prin- 
apd  (ilies.  CuMotn  has  lixed  the  time  for  the  lut 
Tboaiay  in  Noveinber. 

TttanksglTlng  Service.  There  are  varioui 
■tte  UDdtr  tlie  Old  Test,  of  offering  thanksgiving. 
WawinHi  it  *«■  public,  sometimes  in  the  family.  It 
»"  (iwHioilly  acoumpanied  hy  »acri6ces  (i  Cbron. 
1I11.3I)  and  peace-nfferings,  or  offerings  of  pure  de- 
™ii>i,  arising  from  Ihe  sentiments  of  gratitude  in  the 
!faH"so«nmiml(Lev.Tii,l2,loi  Psa.cvii,23:  cxvi, 

M  i)i(  coice  of'meliHly  (Isa.  li,  S),  or  (as  Neh.  xi,  17) 
siUi  nngiag  and  with'bonuf  (Kev.  vii,  li) ;  but  occa- 
ot  generallv,  with  supplication  (PhiL  iv,  G> 


er  (1  Tim 


17). 


In  At  Book  of  Cimininn  Prayer  there  are  varimis 
'*mofihinkigiving,  particular  and  general,  ■■  e»pc- 
f^y ibe  -IJcneral  ThankagivinB,''  which  was  added  at 
"ir  l>a  leriiion,  and  appiiiiilol  for  dailv  use.  and  mure 
WKaluly  llie  -  Office  fnr  the  Holy  Coiimunion."  Hut 
''■tn  irr,  Uesiilos,  particular  thanksgivings  appoinled 
'TMicrnnce  fruni  drought,  rain,  famine,  war,  tumult, 

I  after  child 


a  cammeotnraleil  great  deliverance!  o 


•luck  I 

0mA 

^  ■%  of  Ih  lu  kigivi  ng. 

Tttanoer,  Icxaz,  a  Rotnan  Catholic  divine,  was 
l™i  Feb,  9, 1770,  at  Neumarkt,  in  Bavaria.  In  1S02 
K  vn  (ppninted  profenor  of  catechelio  at  Salzburg; 
■  IWi  pnfesKTuf  philosophy  at  LanJihnl;  in  I80S  he 
oetUedto  tnnspnick,  and  in  1810  to  Salzburg  again, 
"■■m  lie  died,  May  28,  1856.  At  fint  he  belonged  to 
U-Kmtian  philoaophicsl  school,  but  soon  became  con- 
'•mi  10  thai  of  Schelling.  He  wrote,  Dtr  Tranieen- 
^^Himiu  ta  trmer  drti/adiai  Sleigervng  (Munich, 
■«l;-Di.  tJrt  da  Organitmu.  (ibid.  1806)  ;-//a™f. 
**  */  f  arVrn(a»r  iura  itUaltlditligm  viiurmchq/i- 
**tStHdiMm  (ibid.  1807,  2  \-<.lt.):—DiirUtaiing  der 
*^ln  UrwHaliUire  (ibid.  IS\0) ■—Loffiicke  Apia- 
^n  (Salzborg,  lUlt—Uhr-  Hmd  Haadbuck  dri- 
^n<iietn  mf  prakHttktn  Pkiiofiphit  (ibid.  1811,  2 


vols.) : —  WiurnMckcfPlickt  Aphoritmm  dtr  katAoL  Dog. 
DUfa  (ibid.  ISIG).  See  Winer,  BiimO.  (far  Ikiol.  IX- 
leratUT,  i,  306;  ii,  800;   R/gmibiirger  Rial- Enci/Uop. 

^v.  (a  P.) 

Tha'ra  (Luke  iii,  34).     See  Tkrah. 

Thu'ra  (Vulg.  Tharn,  fur  the  Greek  faila  here),  a 
corrupt  form  found  in  the  Apocryphal  addition  lo  Ihe 
book  of  Esther  (xij,  1)  for  Tkbesh  (q.  v.). 

Thar'sllUb,  a  less  exact  n>nn  of  Anglicizing  the 
word  TAsaHtBn  (q.  v.),  applied  in  the  A.  T.  to  (a)  the 
pbce  (1  Kings  x,  22;  xxii,  48)  and  (b)  the  man  (I 
Chron.  vii,  10). 

Thas'sl  (eonri',  eniniiii  Vulg.  Than,  llaitii},  the 
surname  of  Simon  the  eon  of  Mattathiai  (I  Uacc  ii,  B). 
The  derivation  of  the  word  ia  uncertain.  Michielia 
suggesta  ^1C1^  (Chald.),  "  the  fresh  grass  springs  up,'' 
i.e.  "the  spring  ia  come,"  in  reference  to  the  tranquillity 
flrH  eecured  during  the  supremacy  of  Simon  (<irimm, 
ComoKiir.  ad  b>c).  This  seems  very  farfetched.  Winer 
(  Aeaiui.  B.  V.  "  Simon" }  suggests  a  connection  with 
oeP|,/nTerr,  as  Grotiua  {ad  Uk.)  seems  to  have  done 
before  )iim.  In  Josephus  (ylnf.  xii,6, 1)  Ihe  surname  is 
written    MarS^c,  v.  r.  BnirK.  daS^c-     See  MacCa- 

ThanmatopcBl  (Sau/iarairoiDi),  a  term  ap^ied 

work  miracles  by  the  power  of  magic,  such  as  James 
and  Jambrea.  Simoji  Magus,  and  ApoUonius  TyaiiKua. 
Sec  Bii^hani,  Clinil.  Aniiq.  bk.  ivi,  ch.  v,  §  7. 

ThBumBturg;.    SeeHiRACuiA,  EccuuiAaTicAL. 

Tbaxter,  Joseph,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Hingham,  Maai„  April  03,  |T42.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  Colkge  in  1768,  expecting  (0  entpr  the  medi- 
cal profession,  hut,  deciding  upon  Che  ministry,  he  stud- 
ied tbcologv  under  Dr.  Gav,  and  began  to  preach  in 
IT7I.  On  Jan.  23,  1776,  he  received  a  commission  aa 
chaplain  in  the  army,  and  probably  helil  that  position 
for  two  or  Ihree  i-ears.  He  was  installed  pastor  of  Ihe 
Chunth  in  Edganon,  Martha's  Vineyard,  in  IT80.  The 
last  Sunday  that  he  pieacheil  he  fell  in  the  pulpil,  was 
assisted  home,  and  died  July  IB,  1827.  Ur.  Thaxter 
acted  IS  chaplsin  al  Ihe  laying  of  Ihe  cornerstone  of 
the  Bunker  Hill  monument,  July  17,  1825.  His  only 
publicition,  BO  far  as  known,  was  a  OUnkumfor  Sub- 
balk-tchooli,  fit^  Sfimgaf,  A lauUn/lhtAmer.  Pulpil, 
viii,  83. 

Tbayar,  Elihu,  D.D.,  a  Congrrgatiunal  preacher, 
was  born  at  Braiiitrce,  Mass.,  March  20, 1717.  He  vat, 
as  a  child,  very  r..rward  in  his  studies,  having  read  Ihe 
llilile  through  three  limes  at  Ihe  age  of  seven  yean, 
He  entereil  I'rincclnii  Cidle<!:e,  one  year  in  advance,  in 
1766,  anil  gradualol  in  1769.  His  theological  studies 
were  proeeenteil  larrlv  under  Rev,  John  Searle,  Stone- 
ham,  and  paiily  under  Kev.  Mr.  Weld,  Uraintree.  U- 
censed  (o  preach,  he  supplied  for  nearly  a  year  the  church 
in  Newburypiirt.  He  was  then  (Dec.  t8,'l7T6)  net  apan 
to  lake  the  pastoral  care  of  the  Church  in  Kingston, 
K.  H.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  New  Hampshire 
Missionary  Society  in  1801,  ami  continued  to  hold  ihe 
office  till  18t  1.  He  died  April  3, 1812.  A  volume  of  his 
6tnnofa  was  published  after  hia  death  (lB13,8vo).  See 
Spragus,  ^nnuZg  o/ihe  A  mtr.  Pulpil,  ii,  104. 

Thayer,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister, 
was  bnm  at  Hampton,  N.  H.,  July  II,  1769,  studied  at 
the  Phillips  Academy,  Kxeler,  and  graduated  from  Har- 
vardCollege  in  1789.  He  immeilialely  took  charge  of 
the  grammar-school  in  MeilfonI,  and  at  Ihe  same  lime 
comiiienced  the  siuily  of  Ihrology  under  Dr.  Os^tooiL 
At  the  end  of  a  vear  he  reiurneil  to  Cambridge,  and 
continued  to  study  under  Dr.  Tappan,  divinity  profei*>r 
in  tlie  cnllege.  He  held  the  position  of  (utor  in  cid- 
Ifge  for     ■ 


It  the  gi 
tipplying  a 


.ngregat 


n  there.    On  his  re 


u  to  Mas- 


THEANDKIC  OPERATION       302 

ucbuKItB,  he  preached  to  the  New  South  Church,  B»- 
ton,  ■□<!  at  Dorchester.  He  ww  orUained  and  inttaUed 
cnlleae'ie  putor  of  Che  Church  in  LjLicaM«r,0ct.9, 1798. 
The  putor,  Kev.  Timolhv  Harrington,  lired  about  two 
years,  and  al  hisdraih  Mr. 'i'hiyer  mccwded  to  theaote 
charge  of  the  Church.  He  waa  a  maii  whuae  aetvice* 
were  greatly  eUeemeil  and  rmiuenilj  emplni'ed;  be 
was  a  member  of  no  lesa  than  160  eccleeiiatieal  coun- 
eilii  preached  the  Artillerr  Election  aennon  in  17SS, 
and  the  annual  aennon  befure  the  LeKiiUture  of  Maaaa- 
chusetu  in  1823.  He  received  hit  D.D.  in  1817  from 
Harvard.  When  Lafayette  made  hia  tour  through  the 
UniUHl  States  in  18-26,  Mr.  Tliayer  addressed  him  in  be- 
hairnf  the  people  of  Lancaster.    Being  snniewhat  debili 


tateJ,  he,  in  June,  1840,  set  out  to  traveL  He  reached 
Rochester  on  the  22d  of  that  month,  retired  to  rest  at  his 
usual  huur,  and  died  at  two  u'dock  the  next  morning. 
Bis  remains  wen!  carried  back  to  Lancaster.  Mr.  Thayer 
published  a  number  of  serowns  and  discourses,  fur  a  list 
uf  which  see  Sprague,  Amalt  oj  Iht  Avitr.  Fidpil,  viii, 
346  sq. 


naliicea  and  the  two  wills  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  by 
which  they  act  as  the  nature  and  will  of  one  inrisiblis 
Person,  God  and  nuti.  It  was  called  a  uoi'el  term  by 
the  Council  of  literati  (A.D.  649),  and  diacoumged  as 
such  in  its  l&tb  cannn,  which  speaka  of  the  "  heretics" 
who  had  introduceil  it  (r^F  iir'  ourp  QmvSpixy  rnivi^i' 
(iqiriv),  which  makes  it  seem  likvlv  that  it  has  been 
used  by  some  of  the  Monolhelite  sect  in  justification  of 
their  )irinciples.  John  Dainascena  (Oa  Oiiiod.  FUr, 
cb.  Ixvi)  thusexplains  the  term:  "The  Theaudric  oper- 
ation, then,  (ignifiei  this,  that  when  God  became  man 
both  hia  human  operation  was  divine,  that  is,  deiHed, 
and  not  void  of  parlicipaliun  in  his  divine  operation, 
and  his  divine  operation  was  not  void  of  participation 
in  his  human  operation,  but  cither  is  contemplated  in 
connection  with  the  other.  And  this  manner  is  styled 
*  peiiphrans^  when  aperaon  embraces  any  two  things  by 
one  expreaiioi];  for  as  we  call  the  divided  cauterizing 
and  (he  inflamed  incision  of  a  heated  knife  the  aime 
thing,  but  call  the  incision  one  operation  and  the  can- 
lerizing  another — calling  them  operations  of  different 
natures,  the  cauterizing  of  lire  and  the  incision  of  iron 
— so,  also,  speaking  of  one  Tbeandric  operation  of  Christ, 
we  undersisnd  of  the  two  natures  to  be  two — the  divine 
that  of  bis  divinity,  and  the  human  that  of  bis  humani- 
ty." 

Theatinsa,  an  nrderofregularclergyin  the  Church 
ofRome,  which  was  founded  in  the  beginning  uf  the  16th 
century  for  the  purpose  of  defeating  the  effiirts  towanls 
a  reformation  oiilside  the  Church  by  reorganiiing  the 
clergy,  enrorctng  discipline  in  the  convents,  restoring  an 
^KHtolical  simplicity  of  life,  and  infusing  a  religious 
apirtt  into  the  Church  by  means  of  the  public  worship 
and  the  sermon.  The  unler  was  founded  by  Cajetan  of 
Thiene  ( thence  called  Ordir  of  Ike  CajHina ),  bishop 
John  Feter  Caraffa  of  Thcate,  subsequently  pope  Paul 
IV,  who  was  usually  calle.1  Chieli  (hence  Chiflinfi  and 
Pauliwi)  and  Boniface  ofColle.  It  was  confirmed  by 
Clement  VII  in  16S4  (June  24).  Caraffa  was  its  first 
superior,  and  hit  bishopric  gave  the  order  ita  name. 
The  members  renounced  all  woridly  . 
fused  cither  to  labor  or  beg,  depending, 
which  Providence  should  confer  on  them,  i  neir  num- 
ber was  never  very  considerable;  but  as  they  were  chief- 
ly of  iiubic  rank,  the  reputation  of  the  oriler  was  great, 
and  they  acquired  houses  in  maiiyciticsof  Italy,  Spain, 
P»lBnd,nnd  Havaria.    Maiarin  conferred  on  it,in  1644, 

France.  It  attempted  misaions  in  Tartary,  (icurgia, 
anil  Circaasia,  which  have  been  nnprwluctive  of  rcsultii. 
The  garb  of  the  order  is  the  usual  lilacli  robe  of  the  reg- 
ular clergy,  niib  the  addition  of  white  etockiiigs.     See 


Caraccinii,  Dr  Vila  Pimli  IV'i  id.  CajfUai  TUnm, 
Bomfacii  a  CoUe  ...  cum  Path  IF  .  .  .  OnL  Clni- 
coram  Rtgul  Fmdavt>-uia  Vita  (CoL  UbiDmm,  l«I!)i 
Hiroi  Sigula  rt  Cmtlilulionet  Ckricoram  ta  C<mg.  IV- 
FnHiam  (Antverp,  1638). 

Two  congregations  of  Siitrri  are  attached  to  tbeOi^ 
der  uf  Theatinea,  both  of  which  were  founded  by  Ibe 
hermit -virgin  Ursula  Benincass.  She  was  aided  by  tbe 
Spanish  priest  tiregoiy  uf  Navarre,  and  TecomuicBiM 
by  Philip  Neri,  founder  of  the  Otaiorians  (q.  v.).  Tbi 
rule  given  to  the  congregation  founded  by  her  io  1583 
bound  the  nuns  by  the  three  simple  tows  <to  a  ODnmuD 
life  of  poverty,  al^lion,  and  humility),  pern 


e  boiiy.'  Their  >ii 


nd  enfort 


Ureal  s  prophesied  a 


orld-wi 


single  houae  in  Palermo.     It  was  attached  to  the  Tbti- 
tinea  by  pope  Gregory  XV. 

The  second  congregation  was  founded  in  1610  at  Xi- 
ples.  Ita  members  were  to  be  thirly-six  in  numbtr  in 
each  convent,  and  they  were  euvenied  hy  a  more  rii:i'l 
rule  than  the  fumter  clasa.  Complete  separation  In'm 
the  world  and  ita  affairs  was  enforced,  aevere  penanw 
and  morttflcalions  imposed,  and  stringent  vows  ei>cir<l 
A  novitiate  of  two  ye«rs  was  required  before  enKtinC 
the  onler.  This  cnni-regatioii  secured  but  one  arhli- 
tional  houae,  also  in  Palermo.  Clement  IX  united  \\>e 
siaUrhood  with  the  Theatiiiee.  Its  garb  conustt  uti 
while  robe,  black  girdle,  blue  scapuUry  and  mantle.  >i"l 
black  veil  for  the  head  and  neck  (see  Ildyol,  .1^!- 
fiikiL  GfKk.  alUr  grinL  v,  imW.  A'fcifet-  a.  Ri""- 
OtJat  [Leips.  1763-56],  iv,  108  sq.) Henog,  Rtai-l-'- 

TbAktro  (SsarpDi').  The  Greek  term,  like  the  a>^ 
responding  English  one,  denotes  the  jiact  when  rtia- 
malic  performancea  are  exhibited,  and  also  the  Mrar  >'■ 
self,  or  iptctnci',  which  is  witnessed 


IS  rushed  to  the  theatre.o 


by  Demetrius,  in  order  tt 


803  THEATRE  AND  THE  CHURCH 

bM  in  minil,  no  doubt,  the  igonU- 
ticicene,  in  which  ChrigliaoH  ■« 
viewed  u  Tunning  a  race,  and  not 
the  theatre  or  atage  where  the 
eyea  of  the  apectaUn  are  fixed 

Among  the  UreekB  and  the 
atatea  af  Urwk  origin,  the  the- 
atre—  the  propel  approptiatioa 

of  the  public  garnet  —  was  also 
used  ai  the  place  of  aaaemblv  hr 
IE  every  kiml  of  pubUc  biuiiiera; 
and  aerxed  for  lown-liall,  aenate- 
houae,  rurum,  elc^  and  haraiigtien 

ed.  Indeed, all  imponani  ]>ul)lic 
buaineaa  was  traiiaacled  in  these 
placea — war  waa  declaretl,  peace 
proclaimed,  and  criminals  were 
executed.     Anliocliua   Epipha- 


• 


16);  and  ii 


9     by  Che  Hemda  in  Jeruaalem  and 
other  town*  of  Syria  (Juaephua, 
k      A     A      .4»r.Iv,S,l;  xvi,5,I;  iix,7,S; 
H'ar,i,!l,tl).  in  which  magniG- 
cent  apectades  wer«  exhibited, 
nUMn  I /.  sup  I    principally  in  honor  of  the  Ro- 
man tmperora.    The  remaina  nf 
hargei  igainat  I  one  or  theae  near  Oeaarea  an  Mill  clearly  inceable 
„■     ■  "     '"'      i«on,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  237).      Kor  the  hitlory 

ikia  DM  occur  in  the  uriginel  text  or  in  our  English  aiid  conaCnicCion  of  auch  buildinga  in  ihac  dav.  >eo 
nnion)  that  il  waa  in  the  theatre  at  Cwarea  that  Smith,  nid.  of  CUm.  A<,aiq.  &  v.  Weltuein  well  ub- 
Hend  Agrippa  I  gave  audience  to  the  Tyriaii  deputiea,  leivea  that  the  very  liiuition  of  the  theatre  at  Epbe- 
aBd  vaa  bimaelf  stnicli  with  death,  because  be  heard  ao  sua  wouUi  not  a  little  promolB  and  increaae  the  tumult 
^Ir  the  impioui  acclamationi  of  the  people  (Acta  xii,  in  the  caae  of  Paul,  unce,  aa  we  And  fton  the  accounts 
;il-!3).  See  the  remarkable  couHrmatory  account  of  of  those  who  have  aurveyedtheaituation  of  the  Temple 
iliiaerMitin  JoMphus(^nr.  xix,  S,2).  Suchauaeof  ofpiana,  it  was  within  view  of  the  theatre.  See  Ephk- 
ihe  theatre  for  public  Buembllea  and  the  transaction  of  SLia.  The  ebell  nf  this  theatre  remains  unmistakably  to 
peblic  buMneaa,  though  it  was  hardly  known  aiDongthe  be  recogntaed  on  Mount  Priar,  though  tlie  marble  seals 
fioatani.  was  a  o'lnmon  practice  among  the  Greeks,  have  been  removed.  lis  ruins  are  described  bv  Fellows 
TkusYaler.  Max.  11,3,"  t,egaltii)theatrum,ut  eat  con-  {Ana  Minor,  p.  274)  at  "a  wreck  of  immense  gran- 
■seiiKloUneciv,inlnHluctii"  Justin,xxii,2,''Telulire>-  deur,"and  it  ia  said  to  be  the  largest  of  any  that  have 
puUio  siaium  furmaturus  in  theatrum  ad  contionem  come  down  to  us  from  ancient  days.  See  Lewin,  31. 
rncari  jusrit;"  Gmi.  Nep.  TimoH,%  i,  "Veniebat  in  /'iiu',ii,828;  Wood,  WrrorerieitBipAefui  (Lond.  1877), 
ibcolrum,  cum  ibi  cuncilium  plebit  haberetur."   2.  The   ch.iv. 

Kber  sense  of  the  tem  ■' theatre"  occurs  in  I  Cot.  iv,9,        THEATRE  akd  Till!  CuURCH.     The  wrileis  of  the 
■heiethe  Common Veniuu  renders, ''God  bath  setfonh   early  Church  were  very  severe  in  their  invective* 
m  the  tpoellea  last,  as  it  were  appdnted  to  death ;  for    against  all  frequenters  of  the  theatre  and  public  stage 
■t  are  made  (rather,  irrrv  madr,  ^iarpov  iyive^ftv)    plays,  and  such  frequenters  were  excluded  from  the 
a  •ffOadt  unto  the  world,  and  to 
angels,  and   to  men."     Instead  of 
"•fMctKle"  (soalsoWycliffeandthe 
Rbnuiih  traiislaion  after  the  Tul- 
gste),  some  might  prefer  the  more 
tncr^ic  Saxuii  "  gsting-atuck,"  as 
inTTiiJa)e,Cranmer,  and  the  Ueite-    , 
vs  lersiuo.      But  the  latter  would  \ 
be  n^w  inappTupriate,  if  it  includes  j 
■be  idea  of  Kurn  or  exultation,  unee  I 
ibe  angels  look  down  upon  the  auf-  ' 
fnings  of  tbe  martyrs  with  a  very  | 
dibrmt  interut.     Whether  "the-   ' 
itn~  denotes  more  here  than  10  be  , 

va),  Di  refera  at  the  same  time  to 
(bt  tlieaiTe  as  the  place  where  crim-  I 
iasls  were  aomelimea  brought  fur- 
Kard  fur  puniihmeni,  ia  not  agreed  ] 
soMiig  interpreters.  InHeb.xii,l,  , 
■lieie  the  writer  speaks  of  our  bav-  ' 
■Bg  atwmd  us  "au  great  a  cloud  of 

sB#t>w  qfiiv  vifofi  iiapripitK),  be  Rulna  of  the  Theatre  nf  "-'■ 


^'.ooglc 


THEATRE  AND  THE  CHURCH   304 


THEBES 


privilc),'a  of  baptiim.  For  Ihi*  wntimeat  napccling 
the  Cheicie  tbece  ire  tno  rfawiu  usigned :  1.  The  aev- 
enl  »rta  ol  beitheo  gimeB  and  plays  were  iostitulcd 
upon  a  religioui  account,  in  hunor  o(  the  ^a,  and  men 
[houRht  tliey  wei»  doing  a  grateful  thing  to  them  while 
they  were  engaged  in  aucli  exercisea.  Cliriaiians  could 
nor,  iheierore,  be  prewiit  at  Ihem  ai  apectaMn  without 
partaking,  in  nome  meaaure,  in  the  idolatry  o(  tbem. 

ceac  BiiJ  adulter}'  were  represented  with  abominable 
abacenity.  Venua  waa  represented  in  all  her  lewd  be- 
havior, Mara  as  an  adullerei,  and  Jupiter  no  le«  a  princa 
inhiaviccalhanin  his  kingdom.  The  theatres,  by  rea- 
•on  uf  their  itnpuritjea,  were  placet  or  unavoidable  lemp- 
lation,  and  were  conaideied  aa  the  devil'i  own  ground 
and  property.     Tertullian  (De  Speaac.  c  M)  layt  the 

Christian,  and  he  onswereil,  confidently,  "  I  hail  a  right 
t«,  fur  1  found  her  upon  my  own  grounil."  Id  the  lime 
of  TertuUiaD,  and  when  the  aulhur  of  the  Comtitulitmt 
drew  up  hia  collec liona,  a  Chriatian  becoming  a  specta- 
tor of  these  plays  loat  his  title  lo  Chrialian  comraunioD. 
I^ler,  when  the  theatres  were  purged  from  idolatry,  but 
not  from  lewdness,  the  faCbers  eonunted  tbemaelvea  with 
declaiming  agsinsl  them  with  abarp  invectives.— Bing- 
ham, Chril.  Aatig.  bk.  si,  ch.  T,  1 9;  bk.  xvi.ch.xi,  §  12. 
It  it  well  known,  neverthelesa,  that  the  dramatic  rep- 
representation  of  modem  Europe  grew  up  under  the 
wing  of  ihe  Chnrch,  and  only  alowly  detached  itself 
from  this  its  earliest  shelter.  Uftlie  il  cams  tic  clement 
which  was  allowed  to  Bnd  place  in  its  own  aervicea  we 
have  a  curious  illualracion  in  Ihe  maimer  in  which  the 
oBering  of  ihe  magi  was  set  forth  in  snme  churches  on 
tbe  feslivnl  of  Epiphany  (Binterim,  firafarfin^feifm, 
v,316).  Three  boys,clothed  in  9ilk,witb  golden  crowns 
upon  their  head^  and  each  «  golden  vessel  in  his  hand, 
represented  the  wise  men  of  the  EaaL  Entering  the 
choir,  and  advancing  lowatda  tbe  altar,  thev  chanted 
the  following  Strophe; 

"O  qnam  d<enl»  celehrnnda  die*  lata  InndihDS,      ■ 
In  qnaChrliill  genltiirn  propalalor  genilbua, 
Fni  lerreuls  unncialnr,  gliirln  FaieaLibnt; 
"     '  m  fnlgelOrienli*  pairia. 


Tbebes  (Theb.c,  or  Diospous  Haqna)  was  i1m 

Greek  name  of  a  city  uf  Egypt,  and  ita  capital  dnrii^ 

called  in  the  Bible  Xo-Amon  Qmf  tU; 

Sepl.fKpJc 'A/i/uii-;  Nah.iii.S)  or.Vo({(3;  Sepl.\w- 

i-oXic;  Jet.  xlvi,  35;  Eaek.  xxx,  U,  15, 16),  ranuHii  in 

L  A'onK.— The  ancient  Egyptian  nsmra  of  ThebM 

e,  aa  oaual,  two.    The  civil  name,  perhaps  the  more 

ticnt  of  the  two,  la  Ap-I,  Ap-lu  (Bnigsch,  GfOffrnpU- 

icht  liKirifltn,  i,  177,  pL  xnxvi,  No.  78l-781>     Hence 

the  Coptic  iapt,  which  allows  that  the  fern,  vtide  i  wai 

in  this  caae  transferred  in  pronunciation,  and  explsiaa 

tbe  origin  of  the  cUasical  furms,  (^)3q,  S!,^i,  Titk, 

TIteba  {tit  Wilkinaon,  Modein  tiggpl  ami  Tiftn,ii.\3i, 

137),     The  sacred  name  has  two  fonna,  Pa-Amn  of 

perhaps  Par- A  men  {Btugsch,  Croffraphuriie  liudirififii, 

i,  177,  No.  780),  the  "  house  of  Amen,"  or  Jupiter-Ant- 

preaerved  in  the  Coptic  ptamoim ;  and  Kv-A  mm, 

city  of  Amen,"  the  Boan<l  of  the  flrst  part  of  which 

icen  discovered  by  M.Chabas,who  reads  tVe-i^arn 

{^Rtchfichei  lar  le  .Vom  Egypt,  dr  Thibrt.  p. 6).    Tbe  lit- 

'irm  of  the  sacred  name  is  transcribed  in  the  Hebrew 

l>art  Nu,  "tbe  city,"  instead  of  the  whole,  it  a  tine 

I  Thebes  was  itill  the  must  important  city  of  Egypt. 

This  sacred  name  oflliebes,"  the  abode  of  AmMi,"' Ihe 

Greeks  reproduced  in  their  Diotpelit  {^ih(  iroXic),  »■ 

pecially  with  the  addition  Iht  Gnat  (^  fiiyakii).  it- 

'ng  that  this  waa  the  chief  teat  of  Jupiter- Amiouii, 

distinguiahing  it  from  Dioipotit  the  Lea  (q  /iirpi). 


Tresad 
During  the  unging  of 
proached  the  altar;  thi 
which  be  held  in  his  band,  exclaiming, 

And  tbe  second : 


iftedui 


And  the  third : 

Hercnpon,  the  first  once  more : 

The  second ; 

And  the  third: 


nyrrhnm  dante  lerilo." 


thus  colestc 


Then  one  of  tbem  pinnted  with  his  hsnd  lo  the  sur 

hanging  from  the  roof  of  Ihe  church,  and  sang  in  a  loud 
voice, "Hoc  signum  ma)[ni  iiegis',"  and  all  three  pro- 
ceeded 10  make  their  offerings,  singing  meanwhile  tbe 
reaponsnl,"E;amus,in(|uirnmus  eum.etofferamus  eimu- 
iiera,  aurum,  thus,  et  myrrham."  At  the  conclusion  of 
this  respoiisal,  a  younger  boy  lifted  up  his  voice,  which 
was  meant  to  imiute  tbe  voice  of  an  angel,  from  be- 
bind  tbe  altar,  and  aang,  "Nuntium  vobie  fero  de  an- 
pernis ;  Xatus  cat  Chrislus  dominator  orbis  In  Bethle- 
hem Judeie;  sic  enim  propheta  diierat  ante."  There- 
upon the  three  who  represented  the  kings  withdrew 
into  the  sacristv,  singing,  "In  Bethlehem  natua  est  Bex 
HBlorum,"  etc. ' 


Otil 


twenty  nomea,  oi  districts,  ii 


Egypt  waa  divided,  the  fourth  in  onier,  ptoceeding 
northward  from  Nubin,  was  designated  in  Ihe  hieiv- 
glyphicB  as  Zfi'n— the  Phathyrite  of  Ihe  Greeka-and 
Thebes  appears  as  the  "  Zu'm-diy,"  tbe  princJiial  city 
rlropolis  of  Ihe  Za'tn  nome.  In  later  tioirs  the 
Za'm  was  applied  in  common  speech  to  a  pailic- 
ular  locality  on  the  western  side  of  Thebes. 

II.  Poiilim The  siiualion  of  Thebes  with  rcfeTCDCe 

to  the  rest  of  Egypt  well  suited  it  to  be  the  cspitsl  of 
the  countr}'.  Though  farther  from  Ihe  Hedileiranem 
and  Syria  than  Memphis,  it  waa  more  secure  fmni  inra- 
won  ;  and  if  it  was  far  from  the  northern  trade, il  com- 
minded  the  chief  line  of  commerce  from  Ihe  Reil  Sea. 
The  aclnal  site  ia,  perhaps,  the  best  uf  any  ancient  Imrn 
of  Upper  Egypt.  Here  the  valley,  usually  stiailened  by 
Ihe  mountains  on  one  side,  if  not  on  both,  opens  out  inio 
a  plain  which  is  comparatively  spacioua.  On  the  wtst 
bank  the  mountains  leave  ■  broad  band  of  cullivaMe 
land;  on  the  cssl  Ihev  recede  in  a  semicircle.  On  the 
former  side  they  rise  lo  a  tine  peak  about  1200  frft 
high,  unlike  the  level  clifT-like  form  of  the  oppwlie 
range,  a  form  M-ldom  varieil  on  either  bank  throughout 
the  whole  valley.  The  plain  between  is  about  two 
milea  long,  and  has  an  extreme  breadth  of  about  frur 
miles,  no  large  space  fur  a  great  capital  except  in  EfOP*' 
Through  the  centre  of  this  plain  6ows  the  river  Xilf, 
usually  at  this  point  about  half  a  mile  in  width,  but  at 
the  inundation  overflowing  the  plain,  especially  upao 
the  western  bank,  for  ■  breadth  of  two  or  more  miles. 

The  monuments  do  not  arrest  the  at  ten  lion  of  Ihe  irar- 
ellec  as  he  sails  up  Ihe  river  asdo  the  pyramids  of  Mem- 
phis. On  the  east  the  massive  Ibrt-like  winged  poOal 
of  El-Knmak  and  Ihe  colonnade  of  El-Ukiur  (Luier), 
and  on  the  west  the  hills  honeycombed  with  sepuldiral 
grollos.are  the  most  remarkable  objects  to  be  seeii,bul, 
boing  far  apart,  lliey  are  singly  seen  from  Ihe  river.  If 
viewed  from  the  western  mountain,  the  many  roomi- 
menls  of  Thebes  give  an  idea  of  tbe  grandeur  of  llii> 
ancient  city,  the  grealesl  in  the  world  for  magnjfi- 

III.  IlittOTs.—l.  ClaHiroI.—Tht  origin  of  Ihe  city  >■ 
lost  in  antiqnity.  Nicbuhr  is  of  opinion  that  Thtbes 
was  much  older  than  Memphis,  and  that  "after  the 
centre  of  Egyptian  life  was  Iransferred  to  Lower  ERvp', 
Memphia  acquired  its  greatneia  through  Ihe  ruin  of 


THEBES  3( 

TMm'  (Lfctura  on  A  adeU  HiiiCTy,  lecl.  vii).  Olher 
•uEhtiriiio  mign  priority  to  Hemphis.  But  both  citiea 
itlt  from  0111  orheH  Mutbeolii:  knowledge  of  Egyplisn 
kMsrr.  The  finl  ■lliuion  UiTheliet  in  clugical  liMr- 
iinn  'ia  ihe  familiar  puHge  of  the  Itiad  (ix,  36I-38E) : 
"  Rgvpti>n  Thebea,  wbtre  are  Twt  treasurei  laid  up  in 
iht  bouan ;  where  are  n  hundred  gate*,  and  from  each 
tm  buodted  men  go  funh  with  huraea  aud  charioM," 
Hmoer— speiking  with  a  poel'a  license,  aud  nul  with 
^K  accnracf  of  a  atatinlcian— no  doubt  incorpnraled 
bio  his  Tern  tho  gluwiiig  accounts  of  the  Egyptian 
capital  camnt  in  hia  time.  Wilkinaon  thinks  it  con- 
dmite  againat  a  literal  uniteriuanding  of  Homer  that 
mliacsgrin  ancient  city-wall  can  be  found  at  Thebea, 
ml  accepta  aa  probable  the  tuggealion  of  Diodorua  Sic- 
ito  that  the  "gates"  of  Homer  may  have  been  the 
pftiprtEi  of  the  temples :  "  Nan  centum  portai  habuiaae 
orkeni.  led  mulia  et  ingentii  templorum  veatibula"  (i, 
4».  7).  In  the  time  of  Diodo^u^  the  cily-wall,  if  any 
there  was,  had  already  disappeared,  and  the  queatioii 

ea  Ibe  other  hand,  la  rejtaid  the  "gitea"  of  Homer  as 
leniple-parchn  is  In  make  Ibeae  the  barracks  of  the 
HniT,fliiic«  from  Iheao  gates  the  horsemen  and  chariots 
IBM  Ibnh  to  war.  The  almost  uniFersal  cuiinrn  of 
nlliug  the  cities  of  aniiquily,  and  the  poet's  reference 
to  the  ^les  aa  pouring  forth  iroups,  point  alrongly  lothe 
npfxHiiioa  that  the  vast  area  uf  Thebea  was  siirround- 

Humer's  allusoii  to  the  treasures  of  the  diy,  and  to 
ihtuH  of  its  BlandinK  army,  numbering  30,000  chari- 
oU  ibom  the  eariy  repute  of  Thebes  for  wealth  and 
IBTtr.  Its  fame  as  a  great  capital  had  crossed  the 
H  when  Gn»ce  was  yet  in  iu  infancy  as  a  lulion.  It 
kit  been  questioned  whether  Herodotus  visited  Upper 
Egypt,  but  he  says, "  I  went  to  Heliopolia  and  to  Thebis, 
cipiHsly  lo  try  wbether  the  priests  of  those  places 
■nU  agree  in  their  accounta  with  the  priests  at 
Memphis"  (ii.  3).     Afterwards  he  describes  the  feat- 

iiaaa  upoa  the  river,  as  only  an  eye-witness  would 
be  Ukdy  to  Tecu^l  them.  Ha  informs  us  that  "  from 
Kfliopniis  to  Thebes  is  nine  days'  sail  up  the  river,  the 
Anaoa  4800  stailia  .  .  .  and  the  distance  from  the 
sa  ialamt  to  Thebea  6130  stadia"  (ii,  8,  9).  In 
nil  of  ibe  same  book  he  slatea  that  he  ascended  the 
Sile  as  high  as  Elephantine.  Ilerodolus,  however, 
pvrt  DO  particular  account  of  the  city,  which  in  bis 
liiae  had  kMt  much  of  its  ancient  gnndeur.  He  alludes 
la  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  there,  with  its  rsm-heaileil 
imagf,  and  to  the  fact  that  goata,  never  sheep,  were  of- 
trnii  in  sacrifice^  In  the  1st  century  befure  Christ, 
INudutus  visited  Thebes,  and  he  devotes  several  sec- 
tibcis  of  his  gen-'^al  work  to  its  history  and  appearance. 
Thnngh  he  saw  the  city  when  it  hail  sunk  to  quite 
■coodaiy  importance,  he  preaerrca  the  tradition  oif  iu 
orly  giaodeur — its  circuit  of  140  stadia,  the  uze  of  its 
inUicntidcca,  the  magnificence  or  its  temples,  the  num- 
Icr  of  its  monuments,  the  dimennonB  of  its  private 
boiHet,  some  of  them  four  or  five  atones  high — all  giv- 
ia;  ii  an  air  of  grandeur  and  beauty  surpassing  not 
ooly  all  other  cities  of  Kgypl.  but  of  the  world.  Dio- 
dxiB  deplores  the  spoiliiiR  of  its  luiklings  and  monii- 
tmts  by  Cambyoea  ( i,  46,  46 ).  Strabo,  who  visited 
E|^rpt  a  little  later  —  at  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Chfiation  am — thus  describes  (ivii,  816)  the  city  under 
ihe  luaM  Dinspulis;  "Vestiges  of  its  magnitude  still 

are  a  great  number  of  temples,  many  of  which  Cam- 
■nies  mutilated.  The  spot  is  at  present  occupied  by 
•illaget.  One  ^n  of  it,  in  which  ia  the  city,  lies  in 
Anbia;  aootber  is  in  the  country  on  the  other  side  of 
the  river,  where  is  the  Hemnonium."  Strabo  here  makes 
Ike  Nile  the  dividing  tine  between  Libva  and  Arabia. 
TiK  ifiDplei  of  KLKamak  and  El-Ukaui  (Luxor) 
'B  llat  eastcra  side  of  the  river,  where  was  probably ' 
Bain  part  of  the  city.     Stnbo  gives  Ibe  folkiwing 


5  THEBES 

Bcriplion  of  the  twin  colossi  sUIl  standing  upon  the  west- 
ern plain :  "  Here  ate  two  colossal  flgurea  near  each  oth- 
er, each  onnaisling  of  a  single  stone.  One  is  entire;  the 
upper  parts  of  [he  other,  from  the  cliair,  are  fallen  down 


iflhei 


It  whici 


IS  of  a 


light  1 


in  the  > 


■a  I  was  at  thoee  places,  with  ^liualiollus, 
lus  friends  and  suldiere  about  him,  I  heard  a 
!  first  hour  of  the  day,  but  whether  proceed- 
le  base  or  from  the  colossus,  or  produced  on 
some  of  those  standing  around  ihe  Lose,  I 

^  I  am  inclined  to  believe  anything  rather 
s  disposed  ii     '  • .        • 


r(xvii,46).    Simple,h 


Bveller. 


mystery  of 

statue  has  emitted  a  sharp,  clear  sound  like  the  ringing 

prodiiceil  by  a  ragged  urchin,  who,  for  a  few  piastres, 
clambered  up  the  knees  of  the  "  vocal  Uemnnn,"  and, 
there  effectually  concealing  himself  from  obnervation, 

Ihe  statue.  Wilkinson  conjectures  that  the  priests 
had  a  secret  chamber  In  the  body  of  the  statue,  from 
which  they  could  strike  it  unobaerved  at  the  instant  of 
sunrise,  thus  producing  in  the  credulous  multitude  the 
notion  of  a  snpematunl  phenomenon.  It  is  difficult  to 
conceive,  however,  that  such  a  trick,  performed  in  open 
day,  could  have  escapeil  detection,  anil  we  are  therefore 
left  to  share  the  mingled  wonder  and  scepticism  of 
Sirabo  (see  Thompson,  Pkolosmpkic  VitKt  of  Eggpl, 
Pat  imd  Pman,  p.  156). 

Pliny  speaks  of  Thebes  in  ^(ypt  as  known  to  fame 
01  "a  hanging  city,"  i.  e.  built  upon  arches,  so  that  an 
army  could  be  led  forth  from  beneath  the  cily  while 
the  inhabitants  above  were  wholly  uno 


irough  tl: 


nid- 


itHon 


onedil, 


he  has  celebrated  Ihe  hundred  gates  of  Thebes,"  Do 
not  the  two  stories  possibly  explain  each  other?  May 
there  not  have  been  near  the  rivet-line  arched  buildings 
used  as  barracks,  fnnn  whose  gateways  issued  forth 
20,000  chat^ots  of  war? 

2.  Jfonumenln/.— The  oldest  myal  names  found  at 
Thebes  are  those  of  kings  of  the  Nanlef  line,  who  are 
known  tu  have  been  there  buried,  and  who  are  vari- 
ously assigned  to  ihe  9th  and  the  11th  dy nasi j-,  but 
undoubtedly  rei/nied  not  king  before  Ihe  ]3lh.  The 
llth  dynasty,  which  pn^bly  ruled  about  half  a  cen- 
tury, begat)  about  2000  years  aC ;  and  the  t2th  was, 
like  it,  of  Theban  kings,  acconling  to  Hanetho,  the 
Egyptian  historian.  The  rise  of  the  cily  lo  importance 
may  iherefore  be  dated  with  the  beginning  of  the  Aist 
Tbcban  dynasty.  With  the  l!lh  dynasty  it  became 
the  capital  of  Egypt,and  continued  BO  for  the  200  years 
of  the  rule  of  that  line.    Of  this  powerfitl  dynasty  the 

uaty  ofthe  great  temple  of  Amen-ra,  now  called  that  of 
El-Karitak.  The  ISth  dynasty  was  succeeded  by  the 
18th,  which  appears  after  a  lime  lo  have  lost  the  rule 
of  all  Egypt  by  the  establishment  uf  a  foreign  Shep- 
herd dynasty,  the  ISth  to  the  ITth.  Theban  kings  of 
the  12th  and  ISth  dynasties  continued,  however,  to  gov- 
ern a  limited  kingdom,  tributary  to  the  Shepherds,  un- 
til an  insurreclinn  arose  which  led  (n  the  conquest  of 
the  foreigners  and  Ihe  capture  of  their  capital  Zoan  by 
AHhmes,  Ihe  head  of  the  ISth  dynasty  and  founder  of 

19th  and  30th  dvnosties,  all  of  Theban  khit.'s,  for  about 
400  years  from  RC.rir.  I4»2.  During  this  pciiorl  Thebea 
was  Ihe  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  of  an  empire  of 
which  the  northern  limit  waa  Uesopotaniia,  and  th^ 


Hulhvm  ■  terriloiy  upon  (ha  Upper  Nile;  utd  Ihen, 
eap«cii]lr  by  the  kings  uf  the  18th  aiid  ISlh  dynulies, 
ihoM  gnu  manumeolt  vhich  make  Thebe*  the  won 

The  kings  who  hive  Ish  Ihe  (iueM  works  ire  Ihothmea 
III  aiid  Amenoph  111  of  the  18th  dviiuiv.Sethcw  1  and 
Rameaes  II  or  Ihe  19th,  and  lUiueaes  111  ot  the  ':»Cb 
(i9th)i  but  throughout  the  period  of  the  empire  the 
capital  was  constantly  beaulifled.  During  the  20th 
dynasty  the  high-prieBls  of  Amen-ra  gained  the  sorer- 
eign  poner,  perhaps  correspond  iiig  lo  Maiietho'a  SIst  dy- 
nasty, which  he  calls  of  Tanitet,  and  which  rouatin  this 
case  be  considered  as  of  Thebani.  They  continued  to 
add  to  the  monuments  of  the  capital,  though,  like  the 


of  reraarksblc'siEe.  The  22d  dynasty,  beaded  by  She- 
sbcnk  I.  the  Shisbak  of  tbe  Bible, seems  still  to  have 
treated  Thebes  as  the  capital,  although  they  etnbet- 
liabcd  llicir  native  city,  Bubastis,  in  the  Delta.  Under 
them  and  the  kitiga  uf  the  23d,  who  were  evidently  of 
the  same  line,  some  additions  were  made  to  its  temples, 
but  no  great  independent  structures  seem  lo  have  been 
raised.  The  most  interesting  uf  these  additinns  is  Shi- 
ihak's  list  of  Ihe  countries,  cities,  and  tribes  conquereil 
ur  ruird  by  him,  including  tbe  names  of  those  captured 
fmrn  Keboboam,  sculptured  in  the  great  temple  of  El- 
Karnak.  Under  Ihe  28d  dynasty  a  period  of  disacDsion 
b^an,  and  lasted  for  some  years  unlil  Ihe  Ethiopian  con- 
queal,  and  eatabltshmenl  of  an  Kthiupian  dynasty,  the 
26lh,  about  RC.  714  (see  De  Kouge's  interesting  paper, 
Inicr.  HiH.  d«  Rot  I'tunchi-Miiiamoan,  in  the  Rrv.  A  rck. 
N.  S.vm,  94  sq.).  At  this  time  [be  imporlance  of  Thebes 
must  have  greatly  rsllen,  but  it  is  prohahle  that  tbe 
Ethiopiana  made  it  their  Egyptian  capital,  for  their 
sculptures  Tound  there  show  that  Ibey  were  carefu]  to 
add  their  records  to  those  of  Ihe  long  series  of  sorer- 
etgns  who  reigned  at  Thebea.    It  is  at  the  lime  of  the 

duration  uf  Hfty  yeaia,  that  Tlieli«s  ia  first  mentioned  in 


e  THEBES 

Scripture,  and  Irom  tbta  period  to  that  or  tbe  iapt«i 
of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnenar  il  is  spoken  of  as  (oa 
of  the  chief  cities  uf  Egypt,  or  as  No,  "the  city."  Un- 
der the  Ethiopiana  it  waa  no  more  than  a  pRmnciil 
capital  j  immediaiely  aAet  tbeir  rule  it  was  taken  twice 
al  least  by  tbe  Assyrians,  Asshur-b«ni-pal,  ton  aad 
successor  of  £aar-haddan(Asshur'akh-idanna],ji  bo  csne 
to  the  throne  about  HC  607-666,  in  a  first  expedilioa 
defeated  tbe  troope  of  Tirbakah,  and  captured  ibe  oiy 
of  N\'a;  a  second  lime  be  invaded  tbe  ctiuntry,  which 
had  revolted,  and  again  captured  Nl'a.  Tbe  exact  tirx 
of  Ihese  erenta  baa  not  been  fixed,  but  it  is  evideni  that 
Ihey  occurred  either  st  tbe  ctoae  of  tbe  rule  of  ikc 
Kihiopian  dynasty,  or  early  in  that  of  the  Salte  i&h,. 
when  Egypt  was  governed  bv  the  Dodecaicbv.  Ta- 
hakah  and  Niku.  evidenlly  Necho  1,  tbe  fuher  rf 
Heammetichus  I,  are  mentioned  almoat  as  late  as  the 
time  uf  [be  second  expedition,  '  Psammetichus  I  ctae 
to  [he  tbnine  aC.  664,  and  therefore  it  is  probaUc  Ihit 
theae  erenta  took  place  not  lung  before,  and  about  the 

especially  important,  aa  it  ia  probable  that  tbe  pnphei 
Nahum  tefen  lo  the  first  capture  when  warning  Nine- 
veh by  tbe  fate  of  her  great  rivaL  But  this  reference 
may  be  to  a  still  earlier  capture  by  the  Assyrians,  for 
Esar-baddon  conquered  Egj'pt  and  Ethiopia,  tboi^;h  il 
is  nut  distinctly  stated  that  he  captured  Tbebt*  (act 
Rawlmson,  lUiutraliom  of  KsypHm  Hittory,  rlc^frtm 
tkt  Cunrifirm  Itueriptiont,  In  tbe  Trantaelioiu  o(  tbe 
R.  S.  Lit.,  Sd  »er.  vii,  137  sq.).  The  Saiie  kings  of  lbs 
26th  dynasty  continued  to  embellish  Thebes,  whtck 


the  I'ersian  conquest  by  Cambyses,  it  evidenlly  endartd 
a  far  more  severe  blow.  Later  Egyptian  kings  nill 
added  to  its  edifices,  and  the  earlier  Ureek  soveragBi 
followed  their  example.  The  revolt  against  Ptohoy 
X  I^thynis,  in  which  Thebes  stood  ■  siege  of  tfan* 
years,  was  tbe  final  blow  lo  its  ptoaperity. 


THEBES  8 

In  ralMequrnt  [imea  in  population  dwelt  in  ■malt 
t[Uie«,  uid  Thebu  no  longer  exiited  aa  a  city,  ar 
(bit  bu  bHn  Ibe  case  tya  ainiv ;  nn  one  nf  that  vi 
itgesarihoae  that  have  enecceded  them— fur  theun 
(jta  io  nnt  appear  in  alt  caKB  to  bive  been  occupied- 
luring;  risen  to  tbe  importance  of  a  city.  At  the  pres- 
ni  time  itiere  ire  two  village*  i>n  the  eastern  bank,  El- 
EuiiikandBt-U<uar(Luxur);  therormer.which  ia  in- 
(aiiiii(nble,rtearthe  oldeal  part  or  ancient  Thebea;  the 
lutrr.  which  is  lai^  and  the  moat  important  place  oa 
ihe  iiie^  so  as  to  deierre  to  be  called  a  amall  town,  Ij- 
iiLf  aome  diaiance  lo  the  south  on  Ibe  river's  bank. 
Opposle  El-Kanuk  is  the  mined  village  of  EI-Kumeb, 
of  which  the  popotalion  mainl}' inhabit  sepulchral  grot- 
i«;  and  oppoaiu  El-Ukaur  is  the  village  of  RI-Ba'iraC, 
■hidi,  indeed,  is  almost  beyond  the  circuit  of  Ihe 
BwntBorThebea, 

IV.  f^Kr^ioK.— Tbe  plan  of  Ibe  citv,  as  indicated 
br  tb«  principal  monuments,  was  nearly  quadrangular, 
annring  two  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  lour  from 
e*«  to  wot.  Its  font  great  Undmarka  atill  are  El-Kar- 
nik  and  Et-Ukaar  upon  Ihe  eastern  or  Arabian  side,  and 
El-Kumehand  Medinel-Haba  apoD  the  western  or  Liby- 
an Me.  There  are  Indications  thai  each  of  Iheae  tem- 
pls  may  have  been  connected  with  those  facing  it  upon 
iwa  liclpi  bv  grand  dromoij  lined  with  sphinxes  and 
other  oalosul  figure*.  Upon  the  weatem  bank  Ihera 
■u  Blm«t  a  continuous  line  of  temples  and  public  edi- 
Smfgradistance  of  two  miles,  from  El-Kumeh  to  Medi- 
BI-HabU;  and  Wilkinson  conjectures  that  from  a  point 
atir  the  Lalter,  perhap  in  the  line  of  Ibe  colosu,  the 
'ttitti  Street"  ran  down  to  the  river,  which  waa  crosa- 
■I  br  a  feny  terminatiog  at  £1-Dksur  on  the  eastern 
•de. 

Ai  Memphis  is  remarkable  for  its  vait  Decropoli*, 
Tbtbii  HTpaasea  the  other  cities  of  Egypt  in  its  tem- 
plet. The  pKmeval  kings  of  Egypt  who  ruled  at  the 
nmheni  eapiial  were  tomb  -  builders,  those  who  pre- 
ftrnd  [he  southern  capital  were  rather  temple-builders: 
■ad  Bathe  works  of  the  fi>rmer  give  ns  the  best  inaigbl 
into  the  characteristics  of  the  national  mind,  those  of 
tke  laUer  lell  us  the  bialory  of  Ihe  country  under  Its 
noit  powerful  kings.  Thebea  ia  the  moat  thoroughly 
hiatotical  site  in  Egypt.  The  temples  are  not  only  cov- 
«■!  with  lbs  ecnIpUiTed  represenlalions  and  htatotiea 
itlbf  chief  campaigns  of  Ihe  conquering  kings  and  Ihe 
■imlUr  records  of  their  presents  to  the  sbrines,  and 
laanT  other  details  of  hislorical  interest,  but  Ihey  have 
ihs  advantage  of  abowlng,  in  Ihe  case  of  the  most  im- 
inrtani  temple,  or  rather  collection  of  temples,  what  was 
under  each  dynasty,  aln>oaI  each  reign,  from  Ihe 


\Vi  C4 


r  Rai« 


vindicate  the 

darisg  Che  chief  part  of  ihe  period  for  which  Thebea  was 
•ilber  the  capital  or  an  important  city  of  EgypL  The 
Ulovingia  the  plan  of  an  Egyptian  temple  (q.v.)  of  the 
^  of  the  empire :  An  avenue  of  aphimtea,  with,  at  in- 
■•rrak,  pain  of  coloasal  statues  ofa  king,  usually  seated, 
W  np  lo  iis  entrance.  The  gsle  waa  flanked'by  lofty 
■nj  bmad  wings,  extending  along  the  whole  front  of 
ibr  IcDpte.  the  long  borimnlal  lines  of  which  were  re- 
fcred  by  tapering  obelisks.  The  first  hall  waa  usually 
lirpcthnl,  unless  perhaps  it  had  a  wooden  roof  and 
■ai  aorrounded  by  oolonnadea.  The  second,  but  aome- 
limis  the  third,  was  Oiled  with  columna  in  avenues,  the 
nnlnl  avenue  being  loftier  than  the  rest,  and  support- 
B^  )  raited  portion  of  Ihe  roof.  Beyond  were  the  naos 
•Del  rarioua  chambers,  all  smaller  than  Ihe  court  or 

in  ihf  Tbeban  temples  of  which  the  remains  are  suffi- 
•itnt  fur  ui  to  form  an  opinion.— The  grcst  temple  of 
El-Karoak,  dedicated  lo  Amen-rs,  Ihe  chief  goA  of 
Thebei.wBji  founded  at  least  as  early  as  the  time  nf  the 
llih  dynasty,  bul  is  mainly  of  ihe  age  nf  the  Iflih  anil 
IWl  Tie  first  winged  porul,  which  is  more  than  SCO 
^  xide,  forms  the  front  of  a  court  329  feet  wide,  and 
Ti  ]»ag.    Outside  the  eastern  portion  of  tiie  south 


arib  Prr-pjlon.  0.  H»J1  -llh  (WrLHJa  BnrH.  H.  Gj*o\U^i*nnnrf 
a  a^Blvlv  Chambtn.  t.  Op«  ConrL  K.  C4lDFniMr  KdlBc*  of  Thpt^ 
■•orghbUk,  f.  grmlainra  orRanxM  It.  if.  Smun  OtallA.  1. 1«£ 
•lid.  /,  Fillnngrodrun  I.    ^.  FUll  «f  AuaUn. 

all  nf  thU  court  is  sculptured  the  famous  Hat  of  the 
dominions  and  conquests  of  Sheshenk  I,  the  Shishak 
of  Scripture,  which  has  already  been  mentioned.  See 
Shibhak.  The  great  hall  of  columns  ia  immediately 
beyond  the  court,  and  is  of  the  same  width,  but  ITO  feet 
long:  it  waa  supported  by  194  columns,  the  lufliest  nf 
which,  forming  the  central  avenue,  are  nearly  seventy 
feet  high,  and  about  twelve  in  diameter;  Ihe  teal  more 
than  forty  feel  high,  and  about  nine  in  diameter.  This 
forest  of  columns  produces  a  aingularlv  grand  effect. 
The  externa!  sculptures  commemorate  the  wars  of  Se- 
thos  I  and  hie  aon  Ramesea  II,  mainly  in  Syria.  Beyond 
the  great  hall  are  many  ruined  chamlKca,  and  two  great 


ir  place, 


south-west  of  Ihe  temple  of  El- 
Kamak  is  that  of  El-Uksur  (Luxor),  a  smaller  but  still 
igantic  edifice  of  the  same  character  and  age,  on  Ihe 
bank  of  the  Nile,  and  having  within  and  partly  around  it 
isoTtbe  modem  village.— On  thewcnlcm  bank 
temples  of  importance,  a  small  one  of  Selhosl, 
the  beautiful  Rameafum  ofKameaea  IT,  commoidy  called 
the  Memiionium,  and  the  stately  temple  of  Rameses 


On*t  Hall  at  EnmKlc 


nlli 


» III  w 


nophlll.ot 

standing,  except  the  two  great  cokosi,  the  Vucil  Mem- 
nun  and  lis  felliiir,inonoUlhs  about  roTty-aeTcn  feel  high, 
sxcliisive  of  the  pcdealali,  which  hare  •  height  of  about 
twelve  feet.   They  represenieil  Amenoph,  and  were  part 

of  the  dronios  which  leil  to  hia  temple Besidei  theiw 

Lemplen  orWeatern  Thelwa,  the  desert  tract  beneath  the 

11  bordering  the  cultivable  land  and  the  lower 


elevati 


Inaddili 


less  inumDiv-pili,arG  covered  with  built  tombs,  and  hon- 
ey-combed with  wpulchral  grotloe,  which,  in  theit  beau- 
tiful painlings,  tell  u9  Ihe  livea  of  the  riitmer  occupants, 
or  represent  (he  mystics]  subjects  of  the  soul'a  existence 
after  death.  The  latleiare  almoaC  e.tdiisively  thedcc- 
orationB  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  which  are  excavated 


in  two  remote  valleyt  behind  the  mountain.  Thtat 
lomba  are  generally  very  deep  galleries,  and  are  renurfc- 
able  for  the  extreme  delicaej  of  their  paintings,  whidi, 
like  most  of  the  hislDrical  reconts  of  Thebes,  have  suf- 
fered more  at  the  hands  of  civilized  barbarians  in  this 
century  than  from  the  effects  of  time.    For  fulltr  dc- 

travel  on  Egypt.  The  ruins  have  been  copiously  de- 
picted photograph icallv.     See  Eotpt. 

V.  fliWica/A-Df.™.— The  moat  remarkable  of  the  no- 
tices of  Thebea  in  Ihe  Bible  is  that  in  Nahnm,  when 
Ihe  prophet  warns  Nineveh  by  her  rival's  overthnnt. 
"Art  thou  better  than  No-Amon,  that  was  silnate 
among  the  rivers,  [that  had]  the  waters  round  abnut  it, 
wboaenmpart[was]  the  sea,  fand]  her  wall  [was]  from 
Ihe  sea?"  Notwithstanding  her  natural  as  well  a>  po- 
litical strength,  Thebes  had  been  sacked  and  Ihe  peo- 
ple carried  captive  (iii,  8-10).     The  description  of  ihr 


imnoDlnm  at  Tbebes. 


iKcct.GoogIc 


THEBES,  SEVEN  HEROES  OF    308 


THECLA 


dij  ipplitt  niDlrkiblj  lo  Thabea,  whicb  (lane 
tht  ciii«  of  Kgrpl  wu  buili  on  bnlh  lidet  of  [he 
Wn  tn-ice  ciUhI,  ki  now  by  tbe  modem  inhiibiuiiu, 
Ike  H.  The  prophecj-  Ihal  it  ahould  "be 
ia'  (Eick.  XXX,  16)  probablf  primarily  refen  lo  iu 
bnaking-up  or  captare;  buC  the  cmrellei  can  Kirce- 
If  doabt  ■  wcond  and  mora  lileral  ndW  wben  be 
li>4i  upon  i(«  TiM  Mm  and  heaped-iip  ruina.  The 
other  notices  are  are  in  Eiek.  xiv,  16,  and  in  Jer.  xlri, 
a.    See  No. 

THEBES,  Thi  Skvkx  UKBOEa  or,  in  Grecian  my- 
tbalagy,wera  a  body  of  cliieriains  who  engaged  ill  the  firM 
Thebaa  wtr.  Jucasie,  the  mother  ol  (Edipiu,  wu  inad- 
naently  euilly  or  incmt  with  her  (Oil,  anil  bore  him  the 
Iwia-hroihers  Eteoclea  and  I'olynice*,  though  Kiine  au- 

coTeTTaThiiinceaKEilipuiwM  btni«heil,anil  Red,  leav- 
ing htacune  upon  hiachitdren.  Et«oclea  and  Poiynicea 
■gtnd  t»  reign  allemjiiely,  ■  year  ita  time,  and  the  for- 
ner  iicended  the  throne  by  virtue  of  leoiority;  iHit  when 
Ikeyur  expired  he  refuaedto  make  way  for  bin  brother, 
wko  ihrreupon  fled  to  Adraitiu,  king  oT  Argoa,  tiearing 
with  him  the  necklace  and  mantle  oT  Harmunia,  both 
gfifbich  were  Bovered  with  jewels  and  were  exceeding- 
ly pfmauii.  having  been  made  by  Vulcan,  but  which  were 
u  bring  mi^ortune  to  the  person  into  whose  poswaBiun 
Ibty  night  ciiroe.  Pglynice*  reached  Argns  at  nighi, 
■ml  DctTydeiB,  who  had  joM  arrived  tmm  .£ialia,and 
the  two  became  inrolred  in  a  iguirrel,  which  Adrastua 
■roied.  An  ancient  oracle  having  commanded  that  the 
iiu(:hter>  of  Adraitus  should  wed  a  lion  and  a  boar,  they 
were  given  to  the  viaitora  became  they  bore  correspond- 
iafdericts— Polyuiceaalioii'a,anUTydeu9Bbaar'ii,head. 
Ailmbeame  the  wife  of  the  fomner,  and  Delpyle  oftbe 
latter.  AilraAtua  promised  to  recover  the  lost  thrones 
for  hiA  soDS-in-iaw,  and  iLirected  his  drst  efforts  towarda 
TiRba  in  behalf  of  Putynices— the  war  of  (he  San 
ofoiiul  Tkrbfi  (see  fschylua).  The  leading  beruea  of 
llKArgicea  having  beeii  )u m mooed.  Am phiaraua,  Cap- 
aaeu,  Hip|>j«edon.  and  I'arthenopieiia  joined  the  ex- 
|icd<[iiM,tb<ii  oompleting  the  list  uf seven.  Amphtarana, 
■  rarnrite  of  Jupiter  and  Apollo,  a  seer,  foresaw  the  fail- 
wtaf  [be  attempt,  and  endeavored  m  avoid  participating 
ID  it  by  concealing  himaelf,  but  waa  disaovered,  and  com- 
pdled  by  his  sense  of  honor  to  unite  with  hie  comrades. 
Iu  the  furni  of  Nemea  the  heroes  suffered  mucb  from 
ttirsi:  bui,  meeting  with  Hypaipyle  of  Lemnos,  the 
mm  at  young  Opbelles,  aon  of  Lycurgiui,  they  induced 

Wrabcnce.  Funeral  gamea  were  held  in  honor  of  the 
<kad.but  the  gods  had  decreed  the  ruin  oftbe  expedilioii. 
Tjiau  wai  sent  in  advance  to  negotiate,  but  withont 
MliH  tesalt  than  that  fifty  men  surprised  him  wbile 
■Muraing.  wboiD,  with  the  single  exception  of  Maon,  he 
•It*  with  hit  own  hand.  The  heroea  then  took  pnasee- 
■ea  of  all  approaches  to  the  city,  at)d  esUblisheil  them- 
<rl>t>  befure  Ihe  several  galea.  I^e  aeer  Tiresiaa 
■imnl  the  Thebnns  that  the  city  must  fall,  unlet*  some 
•«  ihoolii  voluntarily  aacrifice  himself  fur  its  deliver- 
tuft^  UentBceua  accordingly  threw  himself  headlong 
6«B  the  wall,  and  (be  war  began.  Capaneu*  had  al- 
nadr  mounted  the  wall  when  Ju^riier's  lightning  smote 
hia  u  the  graand,  and  with  him  fortune  fled.  Eteoclea 
and  Pidynicea  slew  each  other  in  tingle  combat.    Five 


Th«'b«s  (Hcb.  Tiiirti',  ysn,  mmpiaumt;  SepL 
eqj3t|c  [v.  r.  Salffuit]  and  Hn/inor' ;  Vulg.  Thtta},  a 
'  place  mentioned  in  the  Uible  only  as  the  acene  of  the 
death  of  the  usurper  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix,  60).  After 
suffocating  a  thouaand  of  the  Shechemitaa  in  the  bold 
of  Itaal-berith  by  the  amoke  of  green  wood,  be  went  off 
with  his  band  to  Tliebez,  whither,  no  doubt,  the  rumor 
of  bis  inhumanity  had  preceiled  him.  The  town  waa 
aoon  taken,  all  but  one  tower,  into  which  the  people  of 
the  place  crowded,  and  which  was  strong  enough  to 
hold  out.  To  this  he  forced  his  way,  and  waa  about  lo 
repest  the  barbamug  stratagem  wliich  hail  succeeded 
so  well  at  Sbechem,  when  a  fragment  nf  millstone  de- 
scended snd  put  an  end  to  his  turbulent  career.  The 
story  was  well  known  in  Israel,  and  gave  the  point  to  a 
familiar  maxim  in  the  camp  (2  Sam.  xi,!l).  The  geo- 
graphical poHliim  of  Thebea  is  not  ttatal ;  but  the  nar- 
rative leavea  the  impreeaion  that  it  was  not  far  distant 
finm  Shechem.  Euaebius  defines  its  position  with  hia 
usual  minuteness.  He  aays,  "  It  is  in  the  borden  of 
Neapolis  .  .  .  st  the  thirteenth  mile  on  the  mad  to 
Scythupa]is''(Oaoia(ur.a.v.  "Thebes'^.  Just  about  the 
distance  indicated,  on  the  line  of  Ihe  old  Roman  high- 
way, is  the  modem  village  of  Tubal,  in  which  it  is  not 
difficult  to  recognise  the  Tliebez  of  Setiplure.  It  waa 
known  to  Hap-Parchi  in  the  13th  ceiilury  (Zuni,  Sm- 
jaimtt,  ii,  Vi6),  and  is  meiitiuned  occawonally  by  later 
travellers  (SchwarE,P(ifr>'.  p.  IfiS).  It  stands  on  a  hill- 
side at  the  nurtbem  end  of  a  plain  samiunded  by  rocky 
mouniaina.  The  bill  is  skirted  by  fine  olive  grovea, 
and  the  whole  environs  bear  the  marks  of  industry  and 
ptnsjierity.  It  ia  defective,  however,  in  water;  so  that 
the  inhabitants  are  depender^^  on  the  rain-water  they 
keep  in  cistema,  and  wben  this  supply  fails,  they  must 

aon,  BM.  Ra.  iii,B06).  Some' large  hewn  stones  in  the 
walls  of  the  modem  bouses,  and  a  number  nf  deep  wella 
and  cialema  in  and  around  the  village,  are  the  only 
(races  of  antiquity  now  remaining  (Van  de  Velde,  7ra(>- 
ej>,  ii,  3SS ;  Porter,  Hmdbook,  p.  St8}. 

Thcbnten,  or  Thcbnthla.  All  that  b  known  of 
thia  person  is  the  aUtement  that  Eusebiua  {IJiil.l'erln. 
iv,  22)  quotes  from  Ilegeaippua  to  the  effect  that  Tbe- 
butes  made  a  beginning  wcrellv  to  corrupt  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem,  because  Simon  the  Bon  of  Cleophas  waa 
appointed  lo  be  bishop  of  the  Chrialiana  of  that  dly  in- 


miTedbyJupilcT  into  the  eanh,whileAdrastua  escaped 
DB  hb  diiine  steeit  Arion,  the  offspring  of  Neptune. 
Th«  TictorioDs  Thcbaos  fnrbaile  the  burial  of  their  ene- 
■ueain  pain  of  death;  an)  Cteon  caused  Antigone,  who 

ber  btoihet  I'.dynices,  to  be  buried  alive.  The  humane 
ialeiftisimi  of  TheMua,  king  of  Athena,  ultimately  in- 
iland  the  Thebans  tu  withdraw  their  cruel  prohibition. 
Mmut  suliaequenily  took  up  the  aword  again,  and  led 

ika  isas  •/  (he  heroea.  the  so-colled  Egiigoni,  in  a  vic- 

^■^sas  aaf^gn  asaloai  Tbebea. 


Tbeca  (3qn|,  i 


ly  of  rich 


upper 


iiig  the  corporaK  and  presented  to 
It  was  of  square  form,  made  nanal- 
lined  like  a  bag  with  Ane  linen  nr 
side  was  a  sacred  image  nr  cniea. 
Dtitry,  of  canvB^  remains  at  Hea- 
he  Veronica  (q.  v.)  and  tbe  U0I7 


le  of  several  aainis  of  the  Romisb 


TlMola,  the  ni 
Church. 

1.  The  daughter  of  people  living  at  Iconiiim,  who  ia 

occasionally  mentioned  by  Epiphanlua,  Ambrose,  Aiigiis- 
tiiK,  and  other  Church  fathers,  and  of  whom  tradition 
relates  that  she  was  converted  through  the  preaching 
of  Paul  in  Ihe  house  of  Onesiphorus,  and  that  shethere- 

rurldly  possessions  atitl  separated 
betrothed,  a  wealthy  man  named  Thamyiia. 

>peBls  could  change  her  course. 
Both  she  and  Paul  were  imprisnneil ;  and  she  was  con- 
demned lodeBlhby  lire,  while  the  apostle  was  haniihed, 
A  cinud,  however,  extiuguir>hed  the  lire,  and  Thecia, 
uninjurFil,  accompanied  I'aul  lo  Antioch.  Tn  escape 
the  peraialenry  of  a  second  wooer  of  noble  rank  named 
Alexander,  she  took  refuge  with  a  noble  widow  whose 
name  was  Trvphwna.  Again  she  was  conrlimneil  to 
die,  this  time  by  the  leelh  of  wild  heoels,  and  again  she 
escaped  uninjured,  the  animabi  crouching  at  her  feel  or 
being  kille<l  by  ihunder-bulta.  .She  now  assumed  male 
"'  -wed  I'aul  to  Myra,  where  riie  rcccirtd 


THECLA  AND  PAUL  31 

diractiaD  from  him  to  teaeb  the  bealhrn  the  trnthi  of 
Cluiraiidity.  She  ihereupon  returned  to  her  native 
dty,  ind  ■ft«rwsrdB  went  Ut  Sdeuci»,  where  she  »ui- 
cealnl  in  coiiveniiiK  many  peupis  mnd  in  healing  larjje 
numbers  of  the  nick.  A  thining  cluud  accoiopaiiied  her 
uahenent  abouu  When  she  dicil,  many  mi racles  were 
wrought  at  her  Krare  and  bv  ber  relici.  Her  dav  is 
variou»]y  given— May  18  or  19,  ur  Sept.  28  or  i*.  A 
treatise  entitled  flipiotoi  Fauli  rl  Thtcia,  probably  ihe 
iTorkuran  Asiatic  presbyter,  was  in  circulation  a<i  early 
as  the  3d  century.  It  mentioned  her  miuionary  lours 
in  the  company  of  Paul, and  her  miracles;  recnmmended 
the  celibate  slate,  and  auerted  its  huUne«s ;  inculcated 

and  was  branded  m  Apocryphal  by  TertuUiin,  Jerome, 
and  pope  Oelasius  1.  See  Xc^  SS.  28.  Stpl.  [Antw. 
1767),  Ti,  M6-M8 1  Bironiua,  A  nuL  Ecd.  (CnL  Agrip. 
1609).  i,  39e-«)S:  UneKiM.  finchr.  r.  aUr«  v.  wool 
thtolog.  SiKhea  (Leipa.  1702),  p.  136  aq.     See  Thecla 

ANl.  PAtTL(-lMo/). 

2.  AreputeilnativearSicUyof  noble  rank.  She  wis 
inwructeii  in  Christianity  by  her  mother,  Isidora,  aid- 
ed many  persecuted  ChriaUana,  and  gave  burial  to  the 
bodiea  of  many  martyr*  which  she  had  purchased.    Fur 


ing  danger.  Afterwards  she  instructed  many  heathen 
people,  built  a  number  of  churches,  and  endowed  with  s 
rich  income  a  bishopric  which  she  founded.    Jan.  10  ii 


wociat«  of  Mariana,  Mai 
is  reported  to  have  livei 
amed  Paul  endeavoreil  b 


3.  An  alleged  maityr,  Ihe  a 
thi,  Mary,  and  Knaeis.  She 
near  Asa,  in  Persia.    A  priest  n 

pcmuada  theae  virgins  to  renounce  tne  unnstian  laitn, 
anil  when  they  relused  he  caused  them  to  be  terribly 
scourged  and  then  beheaded.  Soon  afterwards  he  be- 
came himself  the  victim  of  a  violent  death,  as  they  bad 
predicted.  The  memory  of  Iheae  martvra  is  honored 
on  June  9.  See  Au$JuhrL  /InL-Ltxiion  (C<>li>i:ne  and 
FranltC  1719),  p.  2182  aq.— Heraog,  fital-E«csU..p.  a.  v, 

THRCLA  AND  Paul,  ^cK  q/.  The  name  Theela, 
which  nowhere  occurs  in  Scripture,  occupies  sn  impor- 
tant pontioD  in  the  Apocryphal  writings  of  the  New 
Test,  because  it  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  the 
apostle  Paul  Under  the  title  HMo/'oa/iet  TilrrJii  (first 
edited  by(}rabe,in  his  SpictoyiUBiSS./>/>.lOion.  1696; 
3d ed.  1700];  i\\en  by  Jonvt,  A  Ifein and FuU MfOsd nf 
Srliling  lie  Cianmiail  Aulhorily  of  Uit  Nao  Tntamat 
[Lond.  1726];  and  finally  by  Tischendorf,  in  his  Adn 
Ap(iifLAjntcryplut[iApa.l6a\'\,mi'Vlng\H,ApocTyiAai 
Acti  oflht  Apotlta  [Syriac  and  English,  Loud.  Itt71,  2 
vub.]),  we  have  an  Apocryphal  work  extant  which  baa 
furiibheilricbmaterialforlhe  so-called  "  Tbecia  Legend." 

I.  The  CuniBitt  of  it  are  as  follows : 


THECLA  AND  PAUL 

though  they  hid    , 
igels  of  Oud. 


" '  Blessed  ara  the*  that 
none  Jur  they  shall  hi       ' 

■-'Blessed  are  thcT' 
abtll  becume  aa  the  ai 


tt  ban  kept  ibe  bapUsn 


wlbej 


lewordaurOod,r.i 


"■  Biassed  ate  Ihej  that  are  parUken  orihe  wiadr 
Jesus  Christ,  for  they  shall  be  called  the  SODS  of  the 
High  Odd. 

■'^'Blesied  are  the>  who, for  the  love  of  Cbrin,  ai 
patted  from  coufannui  to  this  world,  for  they  shall . 
tbe  angels,  and  shall  be  biased  at  the  right  baud  • 


na  speakini,  there  was  a  certain  tIf- 
daoKbter  oTTbeadein,  betrui  bed  to 
u  Tbamyris ;  and  she  sat  at  a  wln- 


man  J  """""  Bo^ 


icemlns  vlrgl"rtt,!'J'p 
to  the  IbinKS  whicb  wi 


"WhenPiinlbi 


Bed  rrtiir 


him,  that  he  might  bring  him  Into  his  hnnse.  Now  be 
had  not  seen  Pnul  In  the  llesh,  but  Tltiix  had  lold  of  him. 
He  therefore  weiil  along  the  road  to  LfMrn.  looklnz  f.ir 
J"'"J  '/"ITS  ""eni  Ihst  Mssed  by.  And  when  he  eiw  Ponl, 
be  beheld  a  msn  small  In  auitnre,  bald-headed,  of  a  Kood 
ciinipleilon,  wlih  ejebMWs  meetiuK.  and  n  coniiienance 
full  of  grare.  Fur  sumellniea  he  appeared  like  a  man.  nnd 
Bonieilmes  he  hiiil,  as  It  were,  llie  liice  ot  an  aiiEel.  And 
when  Pnnl  saw  Oneslpho^u^  he  smiled  upon  him.  But 
ODesipboros  said. '  Hall,  servant  of  the  blessed  G<>d.' 
And  P.ul  answered,  -Otace  bo  with  tbee,  and  with  thy 
bonse.'    But  Dentas  and  Hermoeenes  were  full  of  wrath 

"  It ^^  Paul  had  come  Into  the  house  of  Oiieslptaoms, 
there  was  great  Jiiy.  and  Ihey  bowed  their  knees  mid  brake 
bread.    And  Pnnl  preached  unto  them  the  wmd,  snyiiig, 

"  ■  Blesi^ad  aie  Ihe  pure  In  heart,  Tor  ther  shall  see  Ood. 

1  thiw  that  bear  nde  over  themselves,  Ibr 

:  wlib  them. 

I  Ibey  that  have  kept  chaste  their  flesh,  for 
vuvj  riinii  >n^'>u»  Ihe  temple  of  (^. 

'■' Blewednre  they  Ihnlhjive  kept  themselves  apart  from 
this  worid,  for  the;  shall  be  called  righteous. 


l^'^an 


mleht  be  deemed  worthy  U 
hear  tbe  word  of  Cbri»U 

"Fur  three  days  and  tbree  nIghtsThecIa  llslened  tn  the 
apostle,  till  her  mother  sent  for  Tbatavrls  In  »«  wbelbir 

In  vain,  fur  Thecla  only  Iliioued  to  the  thlUK*  which  wen 
spoken  by  Panl.  Then  Tbamjris  started  op,  and  went 
forth  Into  the  street  of  the  city,  watching  ibnse  that  went 
In  and  came  nnl  of  the  house  of  Oixarphoms.    And  he 

said,  'Tsll  me,  I  praj  you,  who  Is  this  that  leadsth  asiraj 
the  souls  ofionng  men,  and  decelvetb  rlrRlue.  en  ibat  tber 
dunotroarrj.hnttemBluasIbey  aier  1  promise  to  gin 
TOO  mouej,  for  I  am  one  of  Ihe  chief  men  of  Ihts  dly.' 
The  men,  who  were  Demas  nnd  Hermogenes,  said  bbio 

That  be  deprives  ronngmeu  of  wives,  and  mnldeos  of  bos- 
have  a  resurrection  than  byuotpoltotlng  the  fliesh.andby 
keeping  It  chasLe.'  At  the  supper  which  Thanijria  )nve 
ihein  In  bis  bonse.  Ibey  advised  him  to  brinx  the  apurile 
before  the  goreruor,  charging  bim  with  peranldlui;  the 
multitudes  to  embrace  this  new  doctrine  of  ibe  Chrieiianp. 
The  governor,  they  said,  will  deatroy  him,  and  Ih.m  wilt 
have  Thecla  to  thy  wife:  sod  we  will  leach  tbee  that  the 
resurrecUuu  which  this  man  speaks  of  has  taken  plan 
alreadjr.  tor  we  rose  again  In  our  children,  and  we  nisa 
again  when  we  came  to  tbe  knowledge  of  the  iroe  (}ad. 

"  The  next  morning  Piinl  was  broDcbt  iKfore  Ihe  govern- 
or by  ThamTris,  who  acted  tn  accordanca  with  the  words 
of  his  adrlaera.  Tbe  governor  said  to  Pnnl,  ■  Who  art  Iboo. 
oe      ac        or      e>       ng^no  ™.^^ 

ig  0<>d.  tbe  o3 


batIieacb.llBIen,Ogo> 
sed  of  nothing  (Jvpoih 


niorl  the 


nnesa  aud  corruption,  from  all  ptisnaare.  and 
so  that  Ibey  may  not  sin.  Wherefore,  aim, 
I  own  Ron.  whom  I  preach  unto  ^oii,  leachiDC 
Ibelr  hope  on  him,  who  alone 
1  a  world  thnl  was  led  astny. 


the;  may  have  faith,  and  tbe  [enr  of  0.<d.  nnd  the  kix-wl- 
edKB  of  hi)1lne*s,and  the  loteof  Ihe  Iniih.  Ifl  iberelure 
teach  that  which  has  been  revealed  tome  by  Uod.wbetviD 
do  I  go  ostrajf  When  the  governor  badbear^  ihir.  be 
ordeied  Paul  In  be  bound  and  he  pni  in  ward,  MTing. 
'When  1  shall  be  at  leisure,  I  will  beat  him  more  ntlca- 

"Tliecla,  having  bribed  the  keeper  of  the  door,  was  ad- 
mitted by  night  to  the  Imprisoned  apivlle.  aud  riltlng  at 
his  feet,  beard  the  wonderfid  works  of  God.  When  Ae 
wnsfound  there,  she  was  bn>nghtbe6iro  the  governor  to- 

«f  the  city,  butVbeda  was  ordsred  to  £B'bni^ed.'*S.'>o'u 
a  pile  was  erected,  and  after  she  had  made  the  siirn  "ftba 
crosa  she  went  up  thereon,  and  the  wrbod  wav  kindle^]. 
When  Ihe  Are  wo*  blailiig,  a  beavy  rain  and  hail  ram* 
dr.wn  IVom  heaven,  and  thus  Thecla  was  snvird. 

"  Now  Panl  was  fiutlne  wlib  Oueslphoms  and  bis  iHfo 
and  children.  In  a  new  t.nnb,  on  the  way  tr.«n  IgodIoio  •» 
Japhnc.    After  several  days,  whan  the  children  \ 
n hungered. Paul  loolioffhls  elnak  and 
thecbl1dreu,BBjliiii  ' 


mheth 


tin.aiKinnvDread.'  Onibe 
BalDaklngr..rPaaL  Wfa«) 


ngr..rPaaL  Wfa«) 

lo3  n>r  her  nits  d«- 

iiverance.     inecia  saia  to  l^ni.  -i  wdl  cut  my  hair,  aud 

swered.  'This  I*  a  shameless  age.  andibim  art  very  rsir, 
I  fi»r  lest  another  lemptaliuu  come  upon  lba«  worst  tbKB 


TUECLA  AND  PAUL 


vllhBlind  It  nnt.' 


'Vu\y  mnka  me  ■  partnkar  af  Lbe  ml  tbat  l>  In  Cbritt. 
utd  MmuullDn  (lull  uni  toDcti  me.'  BdI  PibI  Buinered. 
■uTa«;l;i,  wsit  wlib  iwUeoce  and  Ihuu  molt -- 


indiir  b;r  iiiUDC,  lecliii  Tbwla,div«  uuiu  ber  lu  lova.iiucl 
voiild  bais  gnea  eIhs  and  pnnnw  aiiin  PanL  Boi  M 
Mkl.'l  knn*  nuitna  woiniu  of  whom  tbon  (MiikeeT,  U'lr 
Uibeiiilne.'  Atihla Alaiuder embraced herliitbeBircBt 
iitLbecliy.  BiiluTlieclamialdDOiaiiirerllilK.sbe  muk 
t.Jd  "f  Alaiaiider  aud  urn  bla  diAk  and  diiIImI  off  blx 
tn-wo.    Anbunwd  nF  whaL  bad  luppened,  Aleundsr  bad 

-Uiai  Fha  mlgDi  remain  pnro  nut  11  r)ie  ahunld  llgbi  wiih 
Uk  wlkl  beaau— la  au;  wlih  a  canaiu  womou  uamed 

^Vbeu  tbe  xame*  vera  eihlblled.  Iber  bnnnd  Tbcda  to 
•  tercc  liiiueM,  bat  Ibo  beall  licked  ber  feat.  And  Lbe 
neiplt  m^rrelled  pemij.  Ami  ibe  title  n[  her  nccuaatliii^ 
^'B.crll<gtu<i>?  Ai'd  the  -umcu  cried  ont.-Aii  Im- 
plmu  «inence  baa  been  piiaMd'      " 

FaioniUli  wa>  I 


THECLA  AND  PAUL 

aald,  I  The  fact  ia  that  churchet  were  built  in  honor  of  Ihe 


vad  TbetiB,  fur  her  daoj 
ad  Bald  lo  her  mother, 
Bugcr,  Thecin,  lu  I 


whalpver  is  said  of  her  is  Ihe  sBine  as  <ve  And  ii  in  the 
A  da  Pauli  ft  TUtla.  As  one  writer  has  ru]l<>iie<l  the 
other,  our  euminalion  will  be  confined  to  the  earlicrt 
teacimany— to  that  of  Tcrtulliin.  In  his  treatise  l)e 
Baplano.  eh.  xvii,  ws  nad:  "But  if  any  defend  Ihose 
ihiagt  which  have  been  rashly  ascribed  to  Paul,  under 
the  cxamjileorl'hecla,  sa  isto  giTe  liceiiM  tovfomen  m 
teach  and  baptize,  let  them  know  that  Che  presbyter  in 
Alia, who  com|iiipd  the  account, u  it  were, under  the  title 
of  Paul,  accumulatingof  his  own  store,  being  convicted  of 
what  he  had  done,  and  conresnng  that  he  had  done  it  out 
of  lore  lo  Paul,  waa  reniored  from  iiia  frface.  F'lr  how 
could  it  seem  probable  that  he  who  would  not  give  any 
Ann  perniiaiion  to  a  woman  to  learn  ahoulit  grant  to  ■ 
It  haa  been  taken 


and  Ihe  ■tlipratforiiiiLlhBl  I  maj  be  Irannfemsl  to  tho    "'"'■"'  P""*'  '"  tcaru  bhu  uapiiip  r      it  uaa  oeen  taaen 
i*iMo(Lhe  jniL'    And  Theelo  prajed.payl.ijs 'O  Lord  j  fur  granted  that  Ihe  roeaning  ii  that  a  prcibyter  of  Asia, 


dealre,  Uut  her  daughier  Falcon 

IT  Akiaudei  cama  again  to  fetch 
-   '     '      '    Ki  that  Alexander  m 


And  uraighiway  the  jniveniur  seut  an  onler  ibni  'I'berln 
ab-'Bld  he  hniDi,-ht.  Aud  Trv|)b*iia,  holdliie  her  bf  ihi- 
luiid,iBld,-llr  daiigbter  PAlom II In,  Indeed,!  t.xjk  f.  Ilie 
tmib:  andlbae.TliecIa,!  am  taking  in  the  wild  lien<-ir.' 
And  Tbeehi  wept  Terr  hlllerly  and  mid,  'O  L<.rd  U»d,  in 
•Hun  I  bare  belletA  ■•■  "hum  I  bn*e  Bed  for  rafuKe, 
tbiiii  who  dldal  deliver  me  tr-<m  Iba  Are,  do  ihun  umni  n 
TKompeare  t^*  ^yphana,  wlhr  hath  had  cinupaBMi'U  nu 
tbf  lerTBui,  and  bath  kept  OM  uni«.'  Whan  1'becla  had 
bnii  iskca  001  of  the  hands  iil  Trjphaiia,  ibay  nr)|>|ied 
.  -..-.-  wM^lr  ■■  •" 


ahr  wBB  Ibrown  In  la  the  thea 

MBwl  of  kUllDi  Thacla,  ih«T  t<i 
WIS  ptsjini;,  mauT  Dinia  wild 
wheii  Ihe  had  ended  ber  pm; 


w  agalnsi 


BPoDier.   While  xl 


r,w 


IMniiae  of  Jeans  Christ,  I  bnptlHu 

■trr  duod  round  abuDi  ber,  i-u  ihal  neither  waa  rhe  nen 
naked,  nur  coold  lbe  wild  beaaia  di>  her  ban.  And  when 
ciUKr  beaaia  wera  e»i  liibi  lbe  theatre,  the  wnnieii  wept 
amlo.  And  amne  iif  ihem  ihraw  down  sweet-fmellini: 
karlM.Rtbal  thenwaaan  abandance  ut  perfnmee.  And 
til  lbe  wild  beiaia,  ctbd  as  ilinngh  they  bnd  beau  mlnilned 
bTtlm>.i»acbedberui>t.  When  ftarcebnlls  were  lei  Uhm, 
iVpheoa  Unied,and  ihe  mnhllode  cried, 'Queen  Try- 

nln«cThBcia,'Bailuc, 'IfOmar  hear  otlbeae  lhlug>,be 

will  dcMr-T  lb*  clirPircanM  hla  kinawomnn  queen  Try- 
|ibiM:i  hBddled  btrlde  iha  Iheatra.'  And  the  guvennir 
flM  f.wThwila  oai  iif  tbe  nldtl  'if  the  wild  beast*,  nnri 
•■•d  auiu  her, '  Who  art  ih<HiT  and  what  hnat  thon  about 
ii«,tbai  none  of  the  wild  beaata  loncbelh  Iheer  Aud 
•be  laid, 'I.  Indeed,  am  ■  servant  or  the  llTlUKOnd!  nnd 
aa  to  what  there  la  about  ma,  I  bave  believed  lu  tbe  H<in  of 
God,  In  whom  Qod  la  well  pleased,  'rberehire  balh  not 
oDt  uf  lbe  baaata  tonchod  me.  For  ha  alciM  la  the  way 
«t  ulisU'-B.  and  Ihe  griHinri  of  immortal  IIAi.  Ue  la  n 
nta^  lu  the  umpeat-lA»ed,  a  aulace  to  the  nllllcied,  a 
abelierhitbDn  that  an  ludetpalr;  ■nd,oncerornll,  who- 
■wer  ihall  nut  believe  la  bin  shall  not  live  eieruatlj.' 
Who  ahe  •«•  releaaed,  ahe  atajied  with  Trtpbciia  eluht 
wya.  And  atae  Instructed  her  In  tbe  word  nrOod,  a>i  that 
BgH,  eveu  of  lb*  miild-tarvauta,  bellerwl.  Boi  Thecia 
iMRd  i.>  aee  Paul.  When  aho  was  tiild  that  ha  waa  alar- 
Inj  Bl  Mjra  of  L^cla,  rhe  went  there,  beliij;  dreaned  In 

nnlnd  the  bapUam,  O  Paul !  For  he'  llint  wriinKhi  to- 
ptker  with  (hea  Rir  the  gurpel  bath  been  effeclnal  bIhi 
Willi  me  for  the  baptism'  When  Thecia  told  him  thni 
■br  wai  lolnir  to  Iconlum.  Panl  Bald  la  her, 'Go  and  teach 
lbe  word^otAid.' 

"Ia  ItoallQ  ahe  want  liitn  the  honae  of  Onealpborns 
'whsra  Cbiial  made  the  lli;hl  flrsi  to  (blue  upon  her.' 
AfUr  having  tried  In  vain  lu  cnUTert  her  mother— Thaniy- 
rta  bavlBi  aitd  In  tha  meanUme-Bhe  went  to  Selenda, 
"beta  ahe  enlliblened  jnany  by  tha  word  of  God,  and 


7  of  Paul  and  Thecia.  and,  instead  of  publishing 

in  good  faith,  pnbliahed  it  falsely, 
Iherefore  wickedly,  under  the  name  of  Paul,  ai 
thongh  he  were  himself  Ihe  writer;  [hat  he  waa  con- 
forgeiT,  and  deposed  from  Ihe  prieithood. 


n'anvnan 


This  scGoun 


advocates  have  ventured  to  say  that  a  tton- 
taniaC  writer  of  the  name  of  Leuciua  wag  the  real  author 
of  these  ^cfi  (Tiliemont,  Mhnoim,  ii,  440).  Jerome 
{Calatogut  Script.  Eal.  c.  7),  commenting  upon  Ihe  pas- 
sage of  Tertiillian,  says  thai  the  presbyter  who  wrote 
the  liiatory  of  Paul  and  Thecia  waa  deposed  for  what  he 
hail  done  by  John  {apvd  Jokimnem)  the  apostle.  That 
Jerome  relied  upon  Tertullian  ia  evident  frotn  hit  slale- 
ment;  but  his  conduct  in  fathering  the  atory  of  the  dep- 
osition by  John  upon  Tertullian  ia  incumsable,  because 
no  auch  atalement  waa  niailo  by  Tertullian.  On  Ihe 
other  hand,  we  muat  bear  in  mind  that,  acrotiling  to 
tradition,  alleged  or  real  evenia  which  occurred  in  Asia 
Minor  and  touched  upon  tbe  life  of  the  Church  have 
been  brought  in  connection  with  John.  Thua  he  is  said 
lo  have  confuted  Cerinthus,  Ebion,  Marcioii,  nnd  even 
Basilides.  Even  miraclee  which  were  firat  narrated  by 
diaciptes  of  the  apostles  or  by  bishops  of  Asia  Minor 
were  afterwards  referred  to  him(comp./'atr.^^asf.  07>r>. 
ed.Gebhanll,  Uaniack.Zahn,  i  Jed.  i],  194).  Our  pas- 
sage isapmof  of  this.  Tertullian  speaks  of  an  Aaialic 
presbyter,  Jerome  adds  n/iud  JoAoininn,  and  biscnpyista 
wrilei  instead  of  "apud  Juhannem,"  a  JohaioK. 

Now,  putting  aside  Jerome's  commentary  and  the 
other  jiatriBlic  tealimonies,  which  will  be  found  collect- 
ed at  great  length  in  Barnnius,  Tiliemont,  and  SchUn, 
we  see  from  the  external  evidence  as  contained  in  Tci^ 
tullian-a  pansage  thai  the  Aai  -fPoHl  and  Tlittta  muH 
have  existed  in  his  time.  To  this  external  evidence 
of  antiquity  we  have  the  internal,  furnished  by  the 
Aeti  themselves.  This  will  determine  nothing  as  to 
who  waa  their  author,  but  will  be  valuable  in  helping 
us  to  assign  an  appruximate  date.  An  indication  of  the 
early  origin  of  a  Christian  document  is  the  absence  of 
quDtatioiiB  from  lbe  Now  Test.  True,  this  ia  only  a 
negative  evidence;  but  when  hiind  in  connection  wilh 
sayings  aliributed  to  Christ  or  the  apoallea  which  arc 
not  found  in  the  canonical  Scriptures,  it  tends  lo  esiab- 
lish  antiquity.  Now  there  is  not  a  single  direct  ciialion 
from  the  New  Test.;  and  when  Paul  preacliea  upon  Ihe 
Beaiitiidea,  worda  are  boldly  put  iiflo  his  mouth  which 
are  not  in  Scripture.  This  waa  becoming  enough  in  a 
contemporary  of  the  apostle,  or  in  a  writer  of  the  !d 
century  who  had  received  lliem  through  a  not  fai-dia- 
lant  tradition;  but  it  would  ha\-e  been  unbecoming  in  a 
writer  of  the  8dc«ntury,nnd,  speaking  in  general  terouk 


THECLA  AND  PAUL 

itiTu  whit  writers  of  the  8d  06011117  Mldom  did.    Thiu 
we  coulJ  quote  Clement  ut  Hoidf,  Iguitiiu  of  Aiitin' 
Jiucin  MirtjT,  Pulriarp,  btaidea  referriug  la  tho  i 
Sayisos, TnADiriONAi^ of  Christ,  tbat  sucli  hu  be 


century,  that  tbe  wri 


kdoci 
boul.1  lepreKut  Piul  not  oa\y 
le  roercitul,  for  tbty  shall  oti- 
lI  an  Ihey  whioh  have  kept 
The  baptism,  fur  ther  shall  have  rest  with  the  Father 
anil  the  Hon."  AfitnhetinilioitionorthecDtnpinitively 
early  dale  o(  this  cumpusition  ja  its  leaching  the  aal- 
vabllily  or  departed  lieatheiu.  All  early  Cbristeudom 
bcliened  in  the  efficacy  of  prayers  for  those  who  had 
fdllea  asleep  in  the  faith  of  Christ.  But  it  was  only  the 
Ural  two  cent uriea  which  taught  that  prayer  was  of  avail 
fur  such  aa  bad  died  without  baptism  and  without  the 
knowledge  of  Christ  on  earth.  'I'huiwe  have  a  parallel 
cute  to  the  prayer  or  Thecla  fur  Falconilla  in  the  Panto 
Prrpetua  el  Frlidliitii,  where  we  read  that  i>rpetua, 
thniu);h  her  prayers,  saveil  her  brother  Dinocrales,  who 
ha<l  died  witbuut  baptism,  "from  the  dark  place;"  and 
from  the  place  uf  suOerings  be  conies  to  the  place  full 
uflighl.    Augustine,commentingupun  thie(/'e  Oi-igiae 

baptized,  and  that  he  was  suffering  in  consequence  of 
some  childiBh  fault  committed  after  baptism.  But  Au- 
guatine'ji  ataiement  that  the  boy  was  t>aptized  is  arbi- 
trary, because  beet  suited  to  his  own  theory.  But  is  it 
in  the  least  likely  that  Dinocrates  had  been  baptized, 
when  Perpetuaherseirwaaunbaptized,  and  only  received 
ba]iiiam  nhonly  before  her  martyrdom  ?  Now  in  the  2d 
century  it  was  not  an  luicommoii  thing  to  pray  for  non- 
Christians;  but  after  the  3il  century,  not  only  do  we  lose 
all  trace  of  prayer  for  nun-Christians  who  had  departed 
this  life,  but  we  Snd  the  contrary  opinion  (irmly  main- 
tained. So  entirely  waa  this  the  case  that,  as  we  have 
seen,  Augustine, "  in  order  (o  get  rid  of  tbe  plain  infer- 
ence tu  be  drawn  fmm  Sl  Perpelua's  prayer  fur  her  broth- 
er, was  driven  tu  invent  ihe  ingenious  but  scarcely  amia- 
bks  explanation  that  1  lit!  le  child  who  had  died  at  the  ear- 
ly age  of  seven  years  was  aiiBeriiig  purgatorial  lonneiita 
for  some  infantile  fault  committed  iijlrr  his  baptism." 

Another  indicadun  of  an  early  date  is  Ihe  fact  that 
the  name  Xpianapoi,  which  occun  Iwice  in  tlie  Acli, 
is  only  used  by  the  two  companions  of  Paul,  nho  call 
the  attention  of  Thamyria  to  this  fact  as  a  |iuiiit  Urr  ac- 
cusation. Tbls  would  place  tbe  compilation  odhtAdt 
at  a  time  when  the  name  "Christian"  was  siillicient 

Jan.in  the  year  115.  We  may  feel  a  reasounble  confi- 
dence, then,  thai,  whether  tbe  legend  oCTliecIa  be  true  or 
faLie,  it  was  cumpuacd  at  least  before  A.D.  IJDO,  perhaps 
somewhere  between  IGo  and  IU5,  and  most  probably 
within  a  few  years  of  the  middle  of  that  (>eriud. 

III.  Ol'Jecl  Bj'tkc  /I Nfiior.— Whoever  nay  have  been 
the  anilinr  of  the  .4m,  the  quesiiou  bos  'been  asked, 
What  waa  bis  object?  It  has  been  aaid  that  he  intend- 
ed to  deleiid  and  maintain  tbe  Moiitaiiist  theory,  and 
the  most  imjiurtant  eviilence  in  favor  of  the  Montanisl 
authurshi|i  of  ihc  Actt  was  taken  from  the  ctHicludiiig 
any  by  the  wnni  of  God ;"  by 


words,  ■■»! 


eing  ta 


10  baptized  those  whom  she  convert- 
eu.  now,  leaving  aside  the  statement  of  Jerome  that 
"  Tbccln  baptiznl  a  lion,"  a  statement  which  he  himself 
calls  n/ubala,  and  which  he  did  not  And  in  Tenulltan, 
whom  he  follows,  and  who  would  have  undouhleilly 
stigmaii/cd  it  as  nonsense,  for  such  it  is;  and,  without 
investigating  huw  he  came  to  make  such  a  statement, 
or  whether  it  was  originally  meant  that  Thecla  baptized 
a  persou  of  the  name  of  Leo  (which  means,  in  Idtin, 
"lion"},  we  know  that  Thecla  baptized  none  eicepi 
herself.     The  only  point  in  the 


roXAoi'c 


y  by  tl 


'  'V  ^"rv  f' 


LfU- 


woid  of  Ood,"  which,  as  Basil 


12  THECLA  AND  PAUL 

of  Seleucia  (whether  he  is  Ihe  author  of  Ihe  Aili  m 
merely  their  editor)  says,  mean  that  "-Thecla  biptind  , 
those  whom  she  converted  tu  Christ."  Now  il  is  true 
that  ^rif(»-  has  been  used  bv  Gregorv  uf  Nazianiuai, 
Gregory  of  Nyaaa,  F.usebiua  (HUl.  f^cU.  iii,  S3, 8),  and 
Methodius  (Cow.  Ceeeia  Virg.)  in  tbe  sense  of  "baptise,* 
and  ^uinn/jcit  for  "baptism,"  and  by  Clemens  Aleuadii- 
nuB,Atbanasius.Chry*D8tom,JnstinUanyT(JpaJli,$l; 
comp.G5):  but  this  is  not  the  only  meaning,  for,  ai  Jiutia 
himself  says,  luiXi'iTai.  rauTo  ri  Xovrpif  fmueiiii  in 

thus  deriving  the  new  Mgnilication  of  the  word  fmo)  lb* 
old:  and  Dionysiua  A leopagita,  Clemens  AlexaniliiDii, 
Chrysos(om,aiid  Cyiil  of  Alexandria  use  the  wonl  Mn- 
ff^uv  for  "illumination,"  "  instniction,"  which  signified 
tion  is  required  here  by  the  addition  r^i  Xoj'v  roO  fiai.  j 
We  have  here  tbe  some  uiui  loquendi  that  we  Bod  in  EpK  ' 
iii,  9;  Heb.vi,4;  >i,S2;  and  so  also  in  tbe  Sep^ whne 
it  is  used  for  n^^n.  For  examples,  camp.  Slephinni, 
Thft.  GriK.  Ling.  a.  r.  ^rr'ttii'.  We  are  not  told  Ihu 
she  inslructed  in  public,  whicb  is  the  main  piHiit;  tad 
if  she  had  preached  at  all,  it  probably  was  no  sennoaia 
the  strict  sense  of  ihe  word,  but  a  missionary  discuuiae; 
This  inference  we  make  from  Ihe  Adt  themselves, as- 
corcting  to  which  she  lived  among  heathen;  there  wti 
not  as  yet  a  congregation,  consequently  also  no  oSte. 
Tbat  women  taught  in  the  apostolic  age  was  nothiag 
uncommon,  (or  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla  we  are  loU  (Actt 
xviii,  2G)  that  they  took  ApoUo  tai  atpifiiaripiyr  nvry 
(£i&£vro  njv  iSiii'  tdu  Ocdu;  and  in  Bom.  xvi,  3  *|. 
Paul  calls  them  roiij  avitpyoii!:  pov  iv  Xpiar^. 

Aflerall,  we  can  not  perceive  any  Monlanislictpndtwy 
in  tlie  author  of  the  Actt,  for  his  Thecla  does  notieoiiDd 
us  of  the  ftlonlanistic  pnjpheteues,  who  even  perfonsel 
ecclesiastical  functions.  Tliat Thecla  baptized  othenm 
ate  not  told ;  and  when  Basil  of  Seleucia  stoles  thii  of 
her,  he  does  it  because  of  his  interpretation  of  ^urulHi>, 
and  indicates  that  in  Ihe  beginning  of  Christianiiy  in 
Asia  Minor  such  things  had  happened.  We  need  «dy 
refer  to  the  letter  of  Firmilian,  bishop  of  Ccaarpa,  ad- 
dressed tu  Cyprian  against  pope  Stephen  (Ihe  Taih  of 
Cyprian's  Ltlleri'),  and  to  the  Apvttolic  Cmitt'i/uw 
(iii,  9).  The  latter  expresdy  forbid  women  to  baptist 
and  teach,  il  being  imafaXii;  pSWov  ti  npomfMr 
Eni  dot^i,,  as  well  as  against  the  Scripturea.  We  caa 
very  well  perceive  how,  in  the  face  of  such  tendendt^ 
which  in  theSd  century  could  have  been  only  of  a  very 
rare  occurrence,  a  book  must  have  been  welcomtd  cnt 
uf  which  Ihe  authority  of  an  apostle  could  be  quoted  ia 
favor  of  female  prerogatives  in  Ihe  Chnn:b.  Being  dis- 
posed to  gencraiite  a  single  cose,  the  difference  in  Ih* 
time  and  persons  was  overlooked,  and  this  special  cos* 
was  applied  errotwously  to  different  coses.  For  what 
we  know  of  Thecla's  baptism  is,  tbat  she  asked  the  tpoi- 
tie  for  that  rile,  hut  he  exhorted  her  to  be  patient  and 
waiu  At  Aniioch,  when  in  tbe  arena,  and  believing 
that  she  will  surely  die  without  having  irceivrd  the 
baptism,  she  throws  henelf  into  Ihe  tTe]ich.  After  her 
deliverance  she  remains  eight  days  with  Tr}-phaMia.aDd 
instructs  her  in  the  word  of  Und.    We  are  not  told  that 

lieved,  and  that  there  was  great  joy  in  the  house.  Tbn 
she  comes  to  Paul  at  Uyra,saying,iXn0o>i  ro  XovTpii; 
floiiXf '  u  ydp  aoi  injvifrffiBCt  tit  to  irHYyi^'or  Eifioi 
mn'qFtyiifnv  ti'c  ru  Xoufroaiai  (ch.xl).  Paul  does  not  ut- 
ter his  disapprobation,  but  keeps  quiet-    But  when  she  is 

and  baptiEe,but"goand  teach."  The  faculty  which  Je- 
sus gives  to  his  disciples  (Matt  xxvili,  19,10)  it  entirely 
different  from  the  one  which  Paul  gives  10  Thecla. 

Tbecla's  case  is  exceptional  on  account  of  her  two- 
fold martyrdom;  being  lelt  by  Paul  and  tbe  adhereala 
to  his  leaching,  and  being  in  pericalo  aoiiii,  she  bap- 
tizes herself,  using  the  Christian  formula.  According 
to  tbe  whole  narrative,  Paul  cannot  make  any  oijedion. 
because  God  has  made  himsdf  known  in  delivering  he^ 


THECLA  AND  PAUL 


313 


THECLA  AND  TAUL 


Dd  (hi  actiaii  uf  a  tnutyr  caniiol  be  preKripIive  u  to 
odwrs.  B«iil»,  \ht  imhur  briii(f>  befure  ui  >  lime  in 
■hich  c«claiu>ical  affiin  hul  not  ytt  Uken  t  definite 
6inn.in<l  Iherc  i>  nut  Ibe  k'ut  evideace  Ibat  the  abject 
sC  tht  uitbuc  ut  the  A  cU  wu  to  support  Maiitaiiistk 
(kcuinrt,  tad  to  catabUah  tlie  ume  bj  the  authority 
if  Lbt  apDMje  Paul  The  only  ol^l  which  the  author 
onld  bare  had  in  liew  wai  to  ileecribe  the  apoetolic 
lime,  in  which  he  succeeiled  onlj  in  part.     It  ia  ■  time 

wiafi  big  imn  jtidgment  iu  thia  respect,  it  beconMS  fa- 
uLsJDce  ihe  author  connecia  the  person  of  an  apostle 

KiiLlil,!!.  romp,  wlih  .4cta  P.((  TILcb.xi>Til.  ili: 


with  deed)  and  doctrines  which  in  Ibis  connection  muM 
be  detrimental  lo  Ihe  order  of  the  Church.  Such  a 
writing  could  only  be  a  great  hiudnnce  to  the  leaden 
of  tlie  Church:  and  in  urder  ID  render  it  uf  no  efirct,it 
waa  aercrely  eriliciwd,  and  ila  aulhor  called  to  account 
and  deposed.  Yet  the  poisiliility  of  a  hialorical  sub- 
atralum  in  the  Aiita  not  precluded,  although  it  ia  dif- 
Acoll  to  say  where  history  ends  and  le(rend  commencea. 
IV.  ^ourrHo/fjU^cte.— We  have  already  alalrdlhat 
the  Afl>  contain  not  a  single  direct  citation  (roto  the 
New  Test.,  yet  (he  student  cannot  fail  todiscoTCr  many 
instances  in  which  Ihe  New  Teat,  has  been  used.    Thua: 

<>  <vWa>m>  i  Otit  «D>  airoi  (POtnii.  nlso  Unit.  Xll,  IS :  XtK,  B). 
tre  the  Bealhodea  sre  formed  accordliii;  f  >  thnee  cifMnu. 


'ftlTjfJIhn  V,  uT'i'^KSTu,^''" 


ivi. 

^  t'V  M"^  n"  <anY.,>o»,.  (Comp.  also  Mark  a 

", 

xx\. 

tJ^li;*"  '^ZX\TT''  ^'  '"''*"' 

s;lk 

iviti, 

Itlll, 

•oi-^a  r^fi  TO«  nu^c  »iT«S  «oH>  •.  r.  A, 

^i. 

«».ill. 

«•<«•  al.n  ry  e<^ 

gH^jr*  ,„.,..  „.„..,    ,.„ 

li 

.Xla.  x«vll.  7^  tj"™  "t  r^  ™.«. 

In  N.  T.}. 


i  Xp,.r~,  reyj.  rrf  e«»  (Luke  1, «). 

™p.«,Vi  tnkewlv.M.s.o.inN.T.). 

le  codex,  aiimtiko)  i  e<oi  t>>  IhtoI  taita,  it 

i)mp.v,4,li  i>li,tiiilli^a;Rom.vlfl,U,  a.  "■ 


mil,  IB, 

■ml  nil,  IT, 

1  Cor.  I,  J. 

Ul.  H  II. 


w°bBti.  n.  S4 

ta.  xjl.  *. 


mil,  8). 

.X,.>.,<  C*..  ..i  s™S  (comp.  xm.  M :  Lnko  It,  «). 

irr-*"  -!»—•"  "»<■  (comp-  OaL  N,  H). 

nH, 

"W"—  "-  """P-  "'*"  "'"1. ».  Wi  ''ill.  ")■ 

111,  inl, 

nalx,.  , . .  J^A..  iU  T«  .iX.«  tcomp.  alll,  no;  alir,  19). 

I, 

h(..7>n'<'>'<'>'><^«^"''oi'Y- 

M.'i.  -  .9x»».!.=™(c™p:«li.M!  Markx,«;  LnkeTll.lJ). 

Ix,' 

«iT-.f>,.  ).-*»( .«-*X..  {.f^HMO"  .   .   .  TQ^O-A^. 

r,i  »..  1^.  .»-»  )b>».». 

•iM^  7«»>  <xeT«  •;<  loXiKi  and  xxrl,'i»ntw  t.^  wpArt  (comp^ 

also  iTll,  *,«)._                ,                           _ 

.?*-^^_W.IX^"Tl.M:°Ii«T4.'t'.ii^V«.^'i*"""a.S.. 

iili. 

ix. 

>v>lrt>TS  .a.  i  »xX«. 

S!i»lll. 

iJii!" 

0?At"j^«4.«- 

Ini, 

fc.„._.;r  .*  «^«. 

rrii. 

Ul, 

^^^''"'..i;  .iXoTsi..',„  e<»  (comp.  Lake  I,  1;  John  irltl. 

x'rti. 

ill. 

'iJ'iBZ'  ""*" — '"  *"'  "■'""' ""' 

I''' 

« lxJ^t°,,y^hax  in  Mi  tv""- 

„irif  .  .  .  IMwii  n  mmrnfiav  (COmp.  1  Cor.  T,  i,  t). 

XXlVlll, 

XXIT, 

i.aT«.T»K.pi«f»-C.'ls«'-V<"™|C"rop.xl,Bl,a.o.inN.T.K 

xvlll. 

„Sf.«.  A  .;..«. 

II. 

a  !»(.  ffM  HM^iuM  t,c  ™  cn.n<Xi«  •»»•''  ™wTi|"i-  tit  « 

!- 

™  i™,,^'.'™  (of  Christ). 

I», 

<cip>>>  l<U.HkF>n. 

xxivil. 

jd  idi  T,»>  nU'  (comp.  I  Jobn  i»i,  tj. 

~""-^  •■":"■       Ckioglc 


THECOE  3 

Tbat  the  anthor  oT  the  AeU  waa  Mqiuint«d  wicb  the 
Meoncl  epiule  to  Timothy  a  unqiieidofuble,  becauM 
there  are  many  striking  parilleb  belvreen  that  epiille 
anil  ibe  AM,  which  need  not  be  menlioned. 

v.  LUeralart. —  Eiipeucni  Optra  Oavaa  (Pariiis, 
1619),  p.  998  aq.;  Bironiai,  Maiisrologiun  Romaniim 
(Vtiieiiia,  1693),  id  23  Sept.  p.  4ai~134;  id.  Anmihi 
EcdetUiitiei  ad  AmvM  47  (Lucai,  17B8),  i,  338  *q.; 
fautiuui,  Nola  in  Ed.  Librorum  II  Buiiiii  Sritaria  id 
/Awriu  f^HKopi  Jfl  Vitaac  ifiraatlii  D.  TAtda  (Antv. 
IflOS),  p.  f22-238i  Hi>meju>,  /litl.  EocL  (Bninavicii, 
1619),  i,  40-42;  I'rliiHiia  Ocddaaaiii  Ealene  Murly- 
rotogiHiH,  etc.(ed.  Fraiic.  H.  Florentinui  [I-uce,  lUtiHj), 
nolB  ad  12  et  £)  S«pU;  CombeS*,  BMiilAteiii  b'tosco- 
run  Palium  Auclarium  Xoviinnan  (Par.  lOTS),  pt.  i; 
JVd(.  ad  Nicela  PuphL  Oral,  n  Tktdam, 
Tillemiml,  ifimoii-a  pour  tertir  a  r/Iitloii 
tique,  etc  (ibid.  I6M),  ii,  65-70,  628-630;  Ittig,  Dt 
l/aretiartiu  (Lips.  1690);  Apprndiz  Dtuerlaliniui 
llaraiarckiK  (ibid.  1696);  Dt  PKn-ltpij/rophu,  i, 
129j  De  Bibiiothtdi  rt  Cataat  Palrum  (ibid.  1707),  p. 
700-706;  tirabe,  SpiaUgium  SS.  Patmm  (Oxonia,  ed. 
ii,  1700;  ed.  i,  169M),  i,  87-94,  reap.  136,  330-336;  /)a 
&eilv/tii  Cluaenlit  lliilorie  ton  daitn  Reiien  uimI  Lebm  dt* 
AinilfU  PHriyinil  emtm  Vorbtrkhlr  S.  A  noUi  {Betiin, 
1702);  Ada  aatidorum  (Antv.  1717),  mena.  JuD.  vji, 
662, 663  (auctuie  Job.  Bapt.  SoUerio) ;  Hitrorymi  Catti- 
loj/uiH  ^cripliirum  b'txUtiatticorioH,  cum  uoLii  Enimi 
Kocerdami,  Mariaiii  VicUitii,  H.  Gravii,  A.  Mini,  et  Jo. 
Alb.  I'abricii— EniealM  Saloino  Cyprianiu  receiuuit  et 
annnLauonibua  illuacravit  (Fnncof,  et  Lips.  1722);  Dddi. 
Georgius,  in  an  aniioUIioa  to  the  ilarlyrology  o(  Alio 
of  Vieoiie,  in  hU  edition  or  the  aame  (Kom.  1716  fuL), 
p.  493;  Latdner,  Tkt  CitdSntih/  of  tie  GmptI  Hiilory 
(2d  «d.  Load.  1718),  II,  ii,  697.703;  Acta  dancCoran 
(Antv.  1767),  ad  23  Sept.  vi,  646  iq.  (auctore  Ju.  Slil- 
Ila|^)l  Fabrieiua,  BMinthtca  Gi-mca  (Hamb.  1807), 
ed.  tlarie&  k,331  ;  Thib,  Aeta  S.  Tkoma  Apailoti  (Lips. 
1828),  proL  p.  lix,  U;  Schwegler,  Drr  .Vmlaniim. 
(Tub.  1811),  p.  262-268;  Ti»ehendorf,A(*i  Apoldum 
Apocrypha  (Lips,  1851),  praL  p.  xxi-XKvi;  KSstli 
IHe  pKudimi/int  lAlrratur  dtr  Sltatm  Kifdr,  in  tl 
TitoL  Jakrbaeher  (Tub.  1861),  p.  175,  177;  Ewald, 
UrbertidU  dtr  1861-6!  ertdantcmm  Sekr\flen  lur  hibt. 
WiwMdmfi,  in  the  yuJrMoiir  lUr  bOiL  Wi-eatduff, 
1S32.  p.  127 ;  Bitachl,  Die  EiUtlthung  dtr  olltalioludtn 
Kircht  (2d  ed.  Bonn,  1857), 11.292-294;  Neudecker, art. 
"ThBkla-  in  Heniog,  «ra(-i,-|iiyiA./i.  iv,  704, 705 ;  Uut- 
■chmiil.  Die  Kdaigmanttn  dtT  iipoert/pk,  Apoitttyric&ic&ll 
(Khein,  Mu»,  18M),  new  seritas  »ix,  176-179,  896,  897 ; 
Ueaa,  Gwk.  d.  heiL  Sckri/im  (Brunswick,  I8t>4),  g  267, 
p.  264,  luite;  HiiKenreid,  Novum  TalameBtum  rxliii 
Canoarm  RttrptHm  (Lipa.  1866),  \v,  69;  Kenan. 
Paul  (Par.  1869),  1,10 ;  MUller,  Eriliiimg  dit  Dai 
Brir/n  (Leipa.  1809),  p.  1;  WtijtiK,  Apctrsptat  Adt  of 
the,  Apotlhi  (Liind.  1871.  2  vak);  Hiusnth,  NtatiUa- 
taeUl  Ztitgachkhlt  (1872),  ii,  617;  Lipsiiis,  l}^r  dm 
Urtpraag  uwf  iUltt/tn  Gtbniaeh  da  Chruleimamen 
(Jctia,  1873),  p.  8;  MiMsman,  A  Hulory  nfikt  Calkoli 
Ckarch  ••J'Jriut  Ckritlfrom  tkt  Dtalk  ofSt.Jokn  to  tk 
ili.Uk  n/rht  SfoiHd  frnlarg  (Lond.  1873), p. 361-100; 
I>tr  Katkolit,  Nov,  1875,  p.  461 ;  but  ranre  espccia" 
Schlau,  Die  Actea  da  Paulut  und  dtr  Thtcla  and  • 
alUre  Tkeciii-f.tffe»de  (Leipi.  1B77);  and  the  review 
ypsiua  in  Schllrer,  Tknd.  LittralurxtUaay  (ibid.  1877), 
p.  643.     (a  P.) 

TheCO'S  (Biiuiy,  the  Greek  rorni  (1  Hacc  ix,  S3) 
of  the  Heb.  name  (2  Chron.  xx,  20)  Tekoa  (q,  v.). 

Theft  (na_3S,  rXffijio  or  eVomj)  is  treated  in  the 
Houic  code  in  iu  widest  bearingit  (Exod.  xxii,  1  sq.), 
eepecially  when  accompanied  by  burglary  or  the  abrep- 
tion  ofinimilt  ( Joeephus,  Jl  n/.  Kvi,l.  1;  V\\i\a,Opp.  ii, 
336).  If  the  iliilen  property  had  already  been  sold  or 
rendered  ueeless,  the  thief  waa  required  in  make  ftve- 
fold  restitution  in  aiita  of  hnmed  caille  (ci>in|i.  2  Sim. 
xii,6;  Pbilo,  C>;9>.  ii,  337),  or  fourfold  in  case  of  ibeep 


14  THKINER 

or  goats;  but  only  twofold  in  case  the  living  animil 
vtaa  tealared.  But  Che  atatuui  lihewiae  induded  tbe 
stealing  of  inanimate  articles,  a>  ulver  and  gold  (Jon- 
phus,'4iit,iv,B,27).  The  prominence  given  to  the  for. 
mer  kind  of  theft  ia  explainable  on  the  ground  of  the 
pastoral  character  of  the  Hebrew!  (comp.  Justin,  ii,  1; 
Walther,  Getek,  d.  ram.  RtdiU,  p.  807 ;  SadiL  Ciiw^ul- 
Co(fec,art.226;  HareioU,CruunuJ-C»Ja-,p.38S>  Any 
other  kind  of  property  might  easily  be  found  and  lecov- 
ercd,  and  hence  its  thelt  was  punished  by  its  timpk 
restoration,  with  a  6fth  part  of  the  value  added  for  loa 
ofuse  (Lev.v,22Bq.;  vi,3iq.).  Rabbinical legislstim 
on  this  point  may  be  seen  in  rhc  Mishoi  {Baha  Mrtnak, 
ii).    From  Proi.  vi,  30,  Hichaelia  infers  a  sevenfold  na- 

rouiid  numbers.  On  the  ancient  Greek 
•r,A«liq.  i,  364  iq.;  and  on  that  of  the 
twelve  Wblea,  Adam,  Rom.  A  ntiq.  i,  426 ;  Aliegg,  Sin/- 
recAuicitt.  p.  449;  or  generallv  Gellius,  xi.  18;  on  that 
of  Ibe  modem  Arabs,  see  Wdlatett,  Tmrrii,  i,  287 ;  on 
the  Talmudic,  see  Oiho,  Ux.  Rabi.  p.  268.  The  Rab- 
binical interpretationa  of  the  law  are  given  intheUisb- 
na,  Baba  Kamma,  vii  sq.  If  the  burglar  suffered  a  fa- 
Cat  wnund  in  the  act  bv  night,  Che  act  was  regarded  ss  a 
justifiable  homicide  (Exod.ixii.2).  Solikewite  in  So- 
lon's Uws  (Demosth.  Timocr.  p,  7B6)  and  among  the  sa- 
clent  Romans  (lleinecc /nf>7.  Jur.  Ana.  IV,  i,  3, 199), 
as  <veU  as  Qermans  (Hanke,  Garh.  d.  dailtdi.  pM. 
Aecj|n,p.99).  Kidnapping(;Ju^m)ofarreelKaelile 
wai  a  capital  crime  (Exod.xxi,  IG;  Deut.xKiv,7],pnD- 
ishable  with  Birangnlation(5aitbdr.  xi,  1);  andwuio 

estine  was  peculiarly  liable  from  piracy.  A  similar  pen- 
ally prevailed  among  the  ancient  Greeks  (Xeuoph.  JVe- 
m'>r.i,2,62;  DemoMb.  yAi^i.  p.  53)  and  KomSH  s^- 
ler  Constanline  (see  Harezfill,  Crimiaoirtdil,  p.  370; 
Ueim,  Crinmalr.  d.  Rim.  p.  890) ;  comp.  Philo,  Opf.  il 
338.  See  generally  Michaelis,  Moi.  Btckl,  vi,  G6  Bii.,n 
sq.    See  SiKAl. 

THEFT,  CiiHiBTiAK  Trkatment  of.  In  the  tarty 
Church  (heft  was  reckoned  among  the  great  crinea 
which  brought  men  under  public  penance.  Ataong  SL 
Basil's  canons  ibere  is  one  that  particularly  specifio  the 
time  of  penance.  The  thief,  if  he  discover  taimacU; 
shall  do  one  year's  penance;  if  he  be  discovered  by  oth- 
ers, two  1  half  the  lime  as  a  proMrator,  tbe  other  half 
acoatander.— BiDghaai,(7irur..4iil>i.  bk.xvi,ch.xli,j4. 

Tlieila,CAm.GorTPBiui  WiLiiEtJi,  doctor  and  pTD- 
feasor  of  theology,  waa  bom  atGnisscorbelha,nearlIn- 
seburg,  Feb.  26,  1799,  and  died  at  Leipaic,  Oct.  8,  J8aS, 
He  wrote,  De  Triun  Eviagrlioram  Nteniilsdim  (Upk 
1828)  -.—HetHia  Xmi  Commtniaiii  in  Norum  TrUamn- 
run  (ibid.  1829)  ■—Tabula  Rtiim  Dognuilicamm  Com- 
pndU-ria  (ibid.  1830)  ;  — Ciristiu  uml  dit  Vrrmnifi 
(ibid.  1830)  ■—Commenlariiu  in  t:pittok<m  JiicoU  (ibid. 
iaS9)!—Zur  BiosrapkieJem  (ibid.  1637)  i—rituiwnu 
Liltratiira  TAn>l4igicie  A  cadeinica,  liet  Rtctntat  Dukt- 
latioBUm,  at.  (ibid.  1840) :— /■ro  Cmfr$riam  BtHgi'M 
advtriui  Confemmam  Thtologiam  (ibid.  1850).  Be- 
Mdeithe  above,  he  edital,  together  with  B.Slier./'oV 
glottm-Bibtl  sum  Handgrbnatck  (lUelcfeld,  18M,  Bill 
often,  6  vols.) ;  he  atw  edited  Van  der  Hoaf;hl'>  Ilitnm 
Biiir  (Leips.  1849,  and  often),  together  with  f>plieatit 
Epicriston  MoMOTrthicanim ;  Cotaprdvt  l.fv<intuim,t<t. 
This  ia  one  of  the  best  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
He  also  published,  Novitm  Tttlaneiiuin,  Graet  H  Cf 
manict  (ibid.  1852,  and  oflen);  and  fforiim  TeUaii*- 
tun  Graoe,  ex  recognitione  Knaptt  emendalius  edidil 


«  kieoa  pamllelos 


;  lltb 


nero  oriticam  et  indices  wljecit  (7lh  ed.  ibid.  18 
ed.  ibid.  1N76.  by  Oscar  von  Gebhardl).  See  FtirK, 
BibLJad.  ill.  Hi;  Viiatt,  llandbuch  dtr  Iktobis.  IjiifTO' 
tar,  i,  85,  237,  302,  652;  ii,809i  Zuchold,  BM.  TktoL 
ii,  1820  sq. ;  Schlirer,  Tlualog.  LUtnUartritiins.  1S7G, 
p.1aq.  (B.P.) 
Tbelner,  Aagiutlli.  a  Roir  <, 


THEINER  $ 

naboniApril  tl,l8IM,aCBralHu,iiiSile^    Hi  dm 

iiudiflt  tbeoli^ET,  sricnitnls  philnsophy  and  jurisprii- 

nftrjurii.  Foi  Mveral  yean  he  collecled  maieriil  at 
ibF  libnria  of  Vienna,  Farii,  and  I^ndoii  tor  canimkal 
duqaBEioas.  Shortly  before  hii  pnnDoCion  he  pub- 
k'lHd,  logetber  »itb  bia  brother  Job ann  Anton  (q.  v.}, 
flii  EraJiluTPtg  dtr  trtiBungrBtn  EhtlonyktU  bri  den 
•iiviMm  GdmUchtH  Hnd  ihrt  Folgm  (Allenburg,  1S2S, 
:nili,|;  bul  he  mhd  peiceived  hia  erron,  and  went  to 
Eonr,  nhere  he  enlerid  the  Coagregation  of  St.  Philip 
Kai,ud  nvtived  holy  order).  He  remaineil  in  Rome, 
ud  b  IBSS  Pius  IS  appoialed  bim  pnefeet  of  llie 
Tuictn  aichirea.  In  1870  be  retired  from  bii  office, 
•ml  died  Aug.  10,  1871.  Of  hia  many  vrritinga  we 
nmim,  Comtaatatio  de  Rmumoivm  PoHlifixm  Kjiato- 
Lmn  DtCTtU^iH'^  AMiqui*  Cattectumibur  et  de  Oreffoiii 
IX  P.  M.  Dtrrttaluim  Codiee  (Upo.  1829)  —ItechenAt* 
itrflraari  CoUniiaai  laiitilei  de  Dicrilalti  da  Muj/m- 
if- {Ptnt,  IS3S) —GruJikAii!  dfr  peillidien  Bildungi- 
•aHidUK  (ISSa):  — CunOiaJ  FnnJitnUiy  ami  tern 
Kaa^fir  die  Kirdie  (Freiburg,  I860)  -.—Zalandt  dtr 
h,i!>A  Kirda  ia  SrkUmii  von  1740  iu  1758  (Raiisbor 
1!^  i  Toll.)  —Getclkithle  da  PoMificali  Cltmnu  AVI 
(rah%  1833,  S  Tola.}:—  Vetera  MommenUi  llittorio 
Hwfariam  Sacrant  lU^MraiUia  (Rome,  1859,  1860, 
nUi):—  Velt.  tfonum.  Poiimia  et  Lilkivinia  Uenliumqa 
FMtiartK  HiHaruim  lUuUraVia  (ibid.  1860-63,  3 
ioli,l:— I'fW.  J/osBiB.  Siimrtua  Mtridiumiliam  Hi 
isr./thiAr.  (1863)  t^Codex  Domvai  TtmporaUt  Sonera 
M>(1861  Kj.,3  vols.).  Healao  published 
liiw  rfibe  Amiali  of  Baronius,  and  worked  I 
Htm  ilw  BFOtinusUon  of  Ihia  gigantic  work.  See  Wi- 
at,  Miaobnt  der  iknAig.  t-Uerulur,  i,  603, 
n>;  ZiKboia,  BOL  TIhoI.  ii,  I32S  aq.  i  TheoLig.  Urn- 
rntvi-La.  s.  t.;  /hjnuhirjKr  Real- EncsUop.  a.  v.; 
Lkmnirier  Bambeeuer  fur  dai  kalhol.  Deauditand, 
lKI,|i.]lBai{.;  1874,p.303Bq.     (aP.) 

Tbelner,  JobRnn  Anton,  brother  of  Augusliu, 
ni  hm  II  Bnalau.  Dec  15, 1799.  Ho  atudied  theol- 
'^,'U  iDade  cbaplain  in  1833  in  Zobten  on  the  Bo- 
bn,  and  in  1824  wbb  appointed  ptoreuor  of  exetfeaia 
ia-1  anon  law  at  Brealau.     The  '■     '     ■   ■  -■  ' 


e  reforn 


ia  Chur 


i*lii;Bl  hi 

■pal  ininlmrial  duties  at  different  places.  In  1845  be 
bM  viib  the  Genoan  Catholic  morement,  from  wbicb 
kt  HMD  withdrew,  in  1818,  and  lived  excummunicaled 
li<  hu  Chnreh  unUl  ISSa.  when  he  was  made  cuaiin  of 
ihonireraiivlibrirv  Bl  Brealau,  where  he  died,  Ma V  15, 
^y^l.  Hf  wtvM,  Driaiplio  Codicil  qui  Veiii-'iiem'Feii- 
o^teti  Araticaia  confine*  (Berlin,  1822)^/>M  acilf 
ti-is  hvpietai  (Uipa.  1828)  ■—Daifinflt  Baeh  M<f 
•aUM.l83l}:—Dr  Piemdoiiido  ' 
(BK  (Bmlau,  1837):— i>K  rrfarmalorithen  Bttlre- 
l*V*''er  kalkU. Kirchi  (Alienhnrg,  mh):—l>iu8»- 
l^tiriirhjma  n  der  iaikil.  KirtAe  (iLi.1.  l(«7)!-iJK- 
UH^Sn  Oxr  Lehrm  u.  Lrbea  der  bilii-L  Geti/lichkHl. 
iff  Winer,  HaitOucA  der  tirolos-  l-Heralur.  i,  171, 603 ; 
■i.IihW!  rkrologiKhet  UmcruiU^z.  i,  \:;  Rnjni- 
^mr  Ktal-Baryklop.  a.  r.;  Zuchcil.l,  lliU.  Thiol.  " 
OB:  FBi«,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  419.     (tt  P.) 

Theism.  The  etymological  nppoHte  oftheism  c 
olr  be  aiiriem,  lince  the  word  dcai{;natea  a  cuiieepti 
^  (bf  nairenn  according  to  which  a  Deiiy  rulea  o\ 
laiait  and  rnrn.  and  the  atheistic  view  deiiiea  the  e 
mtKi  al  the  Deity  and  dii-ine  pnwent     Various  ape- 

HilaKuinc  of  the  term,  aa  moiintheiani  and  polylht 
■a.^deinn  and  panthrinm. 

IhediipaU  between  raonntheiam  and  polytbeiam  i 
>°  IhCH'  open.  Phikaophy  and  theology  have  loi] 
f««  ipwd  (hat  the  Deity  can  be  but  one,  and  that  th 
■■l>ai<imultiplidcy  of  goda  involves  a  coniradielio  in 
'^ii.  Then  cui  be  but  one  supreme,  perfect. 
late  Bnng,  and  auch  a  Being  ii  required  even 


THEISM 

Buperior  ordei*  generally  of  aupemalural  beings  be  in- 
cluded under  the  idea  of  the  Deity.  This  docirine  baa. 
moreover,  the  auppurt  of  human  experience,  9iuc«  hia- 
ury  shows  that  in  every  inacance  where  a  thorough  de- 
velopment of  polytbeiim  haa  been  reached,  it  eventu- 
ates in  monotheiam  to  the  extent  of  subordinating  the 
many  goda  to  one  who  ii  supreme,  or  of  r^irding  them 
aa  simple  modes  of  conceiving  of  his  nature,  powers,  or 
manifeatationa.  It  may  be  added  that  the  convene 
idea,  on  which  (he  origin  of  polytheism  is  found  in  pan- 
theistic identiScationa  of  the  Deity  with  nature  and  ill 
forces,  affords  the  most  satisfactory  explanation  poaaible 
of  the  beginnings  and  growth  of  this  error. 

The  monotheiitic  conception  once  received,  however, 
opens  the  way  to  discusuona  respecting  the  nature  of 
the  Deity  and'ofhisrelatiuuB  to  the  univene,  and  com- 
pels recognition  of  the  iaaue  between  deism  and  panthe- 
iam.  For  the  conceptiona  which  underlie  the  terms,  we 
refer  to  the  articles  Panthkisu  and  Deihs),  and  in  this 
place  note  merely  that  the  term  deitm  designates  that 
conception  of  the  world  on  which  God  is  not  only  dif- 
ferent, but  also  distinct,  from  the  imlverse,  and  which 
therefore  denies  the  immanence  of  God  in  the  world 
under  any  form,  and  constitutes  the  direct  contradiction 
to  pantheism.  It  is  evident  that  this  deism  harmoniiea 
with  Christianity  as  little  as  does  pantheism  itself.  It 
ia  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Scriptures  return  no 
direct  and  poaitive  anawer  to  the  queslion.  How  ia  the 
relation  of  God  to  the  universe  to  be  conceived?  and 
speculation  is  accordingly  compelled  to  attempt  the  so- 
lution of  the  problem  after  its  own  fashion.  Theologg 
has  attempted  the  aulution— with  what  degree  of  sue- 
ceat  it  does  not  belong  to  this  article  to  determine,  since 
theism  ia  not  a  Uieological,  but  t pkUoKpkiealjltTm. 

The  modem  literature  of  philosophy  apprehends  Ibe 
idea  of  theism  in  a 


I.  b,  11 


mediate  be- 


dpncy  and  those  aysiema  w 
tweeii  pantheism  and  delsr 
ological  problem  in  question  by  the  method  of  free  phi^ 
osopbical  inquiry.  Such  endeavors  grew  directly  out 
of  the  development  of  the  modem  philosif  by  of  Ger- 
many, beginning  with  Kantand  passing  through  Ficbte, 
Scheltiiig,  Hegel,  Herbart,  etc.,  ualll  deism  and  panlbe- 
ism  came  to  be  direct  eontradictories  within  the  domain 
of  philosophy  iiseIC  A  removal  of  the  difficulty  was 
evidently  demandeil  by  the  state  of  philosophy ;  by  Ibe 


assumed. 


and  absolute  Being  impassible  by  ita  < 
Btanlial  bond  which  connects  God  ai 

The  object  of  theistjc  speculation,  I 
wn  correctly  stated  by  the  younger  I'lcnie  in  nia  essay 
Udier  den  Vtiltrtehiai  amurim  elkitchem  unrf  luiluro- 
lititdtrm  TheismHi,  in  the  ZriUchr.  fiir  Philoiophit  H. 
phUoiopiiche  Krilik  (Halle,  1856),  p.  329,  in  these  words: 
"Theism  denotes  for  us  the  altogether  general  idea  that 
the  absolute  world-pi"     -  ■         ■  ■■- 


opinion  respecting  the  limita  within  which  it  may  ba 
objectively  apprehended  may  obtain,  can  yet  in  no  case 
be  conceived  of  as  blind  and  unconscious  power  under 
Che  category  either  of  a  universal  substance  or  of  an 
abstract  impersonal  reason,  and  mual  be  apprehended  as 
■  being  having  existence  in  ond/or  idff/",  to  whose  fun- 
damental attribute  human  thought  can  find  no  other 
analogy  and  form  of  expression  than  that  of  vbiolule 
wlf-eotitnoiuBta.  Connected  with  this  conception  of 
the  Ah«>lute  Spirit,  and  necessarily  leading  up  to  it,  b 
the  equally  general  idea  that  the  universal  fact  of  the 

accident  and  blind  chance  no  more  than  it  affords  room 
for  the  thought  of  an  absolute  necessity  which  conld 
not  be  otherwise.    The  only  appropriate  thought,  in 


THEISM  31 

view  of  the  eonditloni  of  the  world,  is  the  intermediate 
idea  ot  adapliitum  to  on  mrf,  which,  on  the  one  hand,  im- 
plies the  poniliility  of  a  itlfTerentiy  canilitianed  world- 
order,  but,  on  the  other,  uwila  Lhat  the  existing  older 
ii  moBC  pefftct,  nnd  projertcl  in  liarmuny  with  the  ideas 
of  the  f/Kti  and  rhe  beautiful  This  result  of  an  empir- 
ical DlHeiration  of  the  world,  whidi  may  inflniuly  en- 
large itielf  by  the  study  of  particulara  in  all  the  depart- 
iDFiilH  of  nature,  and  may  advance  to  a  steadily  in- 
creaBiii);  degree  of  certainly,  compels  metaphysical 
thonghl  10  ascend  to  the  idea  of  an  absolute  Dri|riiial 
resBun  which  determines  the  end;  to  whose  attributes,  as 
demunslrated  in  Ihe  universe,  human  Isnguige  is  once 
more  unable  to  And  nihcr  de«giiations  than  perfect 
thought  and  a  will  which  requires  the  ((ood."  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  leading  idea  in  this  deflnition  is 
the  existence  of  God  tn  and  for  himttlf,  or  of  his  abso- 
lute self-cAnscious  being.  The  prevalence  of  this  Idea 
determined  the  general  current  of  speculalion  to  disa- 
gree with  the  Hegdian  doctrine  of  the  Absolute,  accord- 
ing to  which  God  i   '  '      * 


of  him 


oniyi, 


Tbe  dislinclinn  between  ethical  and 
)■  of  secondary  importance,  but,  nevcrthelew,  deserves 
notice  Id  the  extent  of  observing  that  it  grew  out  of 
Schelliiig's  advance  towards  chejstic  views,  in  which  he 
attained  to  tbe  recngnition  of  God  as  an  independent 
Being,  and  u  the  "Lord  uf  Being;''  but  u  he  penisled 
in  rctaiuing  the  theocentrie  position  of  his  early  teach- 
ings, and  "derived"  the  finite  world  out  of  the  absolute 
Caseiice  of  Und,  he  really  conceived  of  tioit  simply  as  a 
cosmical  principle,  as  the  younger  Fiehte  observes. 
Other  philosophers  followed  in  his  trmck,  e.  g.  the  Ro- 
man Cat  liolie  Baader(q.v.);  but  the  representatives  of 
the  theisUc  tendency  belonged  rather  to  the  school  of 
Hegel  than  that  of  Schelling,  as  a  rule,  though  they 
"passed  beyond"  the  master  and  differed  widely  among 
themselves,  as  they  adliered  nuire  or  less  closely  to  his 
views.  The  principal  names  in  thi»  class  are  3.  H. 
Fiehte  (Untinrpingea  eaei  tpttalaliixtt  TAritmut  [  Klber- 
(eld,  lS3a])  and  K.  P.  Fischer  QErvyU.  d.pkiloi.  If'issn- 
tdtnflea  [  Frankf.-on-Main,  lS4Si  voL  iii  1856]). 

The  present  status  of  pliilosophical  theism  is  signifi- 
cantly illustrated  in  the  works  of  Chr.  H.Weiase.  This 
writer  regards  the  dialectics  of  Hegel  as  the  "comi^eted 
(mm  of  philusuphical  inquiry,"  but  n-jects  tbe  panlhe- 
....  .-  .  ■(ggppiii.j^nii  drought  HcgeL     Hi  '    " 


that  llie  teleolagical  proof  is 
theistic  idea  of  Gml  and  counteract  (be  pantheit 
dency  of  the  onlological  and  coamological  arg 
The  world  was  created  for  (inl,  and  finds  its  end 
In  his  absolute  essence  (iod  is  absolnle  personal 


3  Ihe 


aeeonri  person,  or  Son,  prior  tu  the  creation,  and  inde- 
pendently of  it,  represents  the  eternal  reason  and  poni- 
bUity  of'the  creation  of  the  world,  but  irilA  the  creation 
iB"infused  into  it,"  "enters  into  \l^'  "gives  himself  to 
Ik'  This  second  person  of  the  trinity  is,  however,  to 
be  regarded  as  the  absolute  Primai  of  the  world,  and 
Dot  be  identified  with  the  latter,  ere.  To  avoid  the 
oonlradiclion  of  an  absolute  dualism  in  the  Deity,  it  he- 
fty, who  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  is 
ooequal  with  them,  [n  harmony  with  this  view,  the 
creation  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  "the  effect  of  a  suffi- 
cient reason,  but  as  the  result  of  the  tflf-rnmncialiu«  of 
the  second  Divine  Teisonality."  This  self-renundalion, 
though  represented  as  the  free  act  of  God.  comes  to 
pass,  however,  because  only  in  creation  can  God  become 
the  "God  who  exist*  as  liod,"  the  "really  Supreme  Be- 
ing," since  "it  is  only  thus  that  he  can  lie  the  all-em- 
hracing,  supermundane,  self-conscious  Divine  Spirit  in 
whom  all  neuty  originating  beings  ate  preformed,  and 
all  eiisling  ones  are  combined  into  a  higher  unity  of 
expression  or  irlea."  At  the  point  of  bis  rennnciation, 
the  idea  of  God  is  seen  to  coincide  with  that  which  i> 
niually  termed  nuMlerf  the  activitf  of  the  Deity  he- 


6  THENIUS 

coming  the  matter  of  the  creation.    See  Weitae.  P^Sn. 
taph.  DogniatUcodeTPhUMOplaed.ChritleiilhamM(Jje\\:s. 

I85S). 

A  review  of  the  progress  of  theistic  apecnladon  re- 
have  been  fully  met  in  the  principal  endeavors  tueatab- 
lish  the  theistic  conception  of  the  worid  on  a  philo- 
sophical baois.  The  worid  is  represented  as  liarin; 
emanated  from  the  being— the  nature,  esaeniialily,  aub- 
stance  — of  the  Deity,  as  the  realizing,  renunciaiion. 
viewing,  completing,  of  bimseir;  his  self-consciousi' ~s 
and  subjeelivity,  however,  being  regarded  aa  exinu^^  | 
independently  of  the  world.  Bui  no  similar  justice  Lsa  i 
been  done  to  the  claims  uf  deism;  for  (be  leading  and  | 
fundamental  demand  of  the  deittic  conception  of  (he 
world  is  the  idea  of  God  as  the  A  biolule  Spirit  who  i> 
eteinaUy  compUU  in  A unsefT through  his  absolute  powei 
and  goodness,  as  contrasted  with  the  world,  which  B 
bound  by  eomlitiota  and  constantly  engaged  in  the  proc- 
ess of  btcomifg  and  dentopiitg.     " 


dbye- 


vrldU 


part  of  the  Mamof  of  God  himself,  since  soeh 
a  view  transfers  the  becoming  and  developing  condition 
of  Ihe  world  into  Ihe  nature  of  God.  The  abtoUli  a 
necessarily  cumplete  and  perfect. 

Lilfralurr.—Schelliag,Piiloti>pkitiLUgtlKiiigie!i±  . 
PkUom]>kied.Ofadianmg;  Yacbn,  Die  Idrt  ±Goniiti 
(Sinttg.  18S9),and  the  EnyUop.  mentioned  above; 
Winh,y)K.Sprtui:/inCoffei,etc(StDltg.lS4a);Chalv- 
bsus,  Sstlrmd.  If  iunucAn/lifeAre  (Kiel,  1846) ;  Scbwan, 
Wfilet-bildans  d.  TSeitmu*,  in  ZnlKhr.  f.  PkOoieplm 
(HBlle,l84T),voLxviiiiid.CoM,^aniri(.J/e»Dl(Hanor. 
I8G7);  Von  Schoden,  G'ffauali  d.  Ilieiil.  u.  panAnd. 
*((nK^ni«(Eriangen,l84«)i  Mayer,  rArtMW*  itAm- 
ikeiimai  (Freiburg,  1M9) ;  SchcnBch,  Mtttipkgiik  (Inn- 
apruck,  1866):  ^.ckan.Tknitiickr  Iirgrinduiiii<LAatlir- 
tik  (Jena,  1867);  Hoffmsnn,  Tkrinuia  u.  PaMrinmt 
[Wllraburg,  1861);  Ulrici,  GoU  a.  die  yatur  (Leipa. 
1861);  Bowne,5fudMi>n  rAewm(N.  Y.ie79).— Ueraog, 
Bml-EHCsilop.  s.  v. 

TbeU'Mir  (S  Kings  xix,  1!).    See  Tel-assul 

Tbeler'saa  (ScXcptrac  "■  '■  8<^oac).  a  Greek  fono 
(1  Esdr.  v,S6)  of  the  name  Hebtaiied  (Ears  ii,S9)  Tu, 

HARBA(q.V.). 

The'tnau.  or  Thaxah  (Qaiiiav),  the  Greek  faa 
(Baruch  iii,  22,  23)  of  tbe  Heb.  nairte  TkujIJ*  (q.  t.> 
Thetnlatlaru,  an  early  school  of  theorists  whidi 


lefrot 
n  by  the  patrian 


on,  T 


.y  led  h 


ife).  ( 


y  knon 

of  Ihe  present  and  the  future  was  imperfecl,  and  there 
were,  therefore,  some  things  of  which  he  wu  igno- 
rant. The  patriarch  himself  repudiated  this  cnndosiaa, 
but  a  school  of  theorisu  grew  up  under  tbe  leader- 
ship of  ThemisUus,  and  became  known  as  AoaoBrra 
(q.,.). 

Thenlna,  Otto,  doctor  of  theology  and  phileanphT. 
was  bom  in  1801  at  Dresden,  where  be  abo  died,  Aug. 
13.  1876.  Allliough  TheniuB  occupied  the  pulpii  for 
more  than  twenty  yeara,  yet  bis  main  renown  is  as  ! 
an  exegetc.  and  aa  such  he  will  always  hold  an  h(inM~ 
able  position  among  scholars.  He  published,  Ertldra*^ 
dcr  Uiichtr  SamutU  (Leips.  1842;  3d  ed.  1064) :— f  r- 
Ullruag'lerBiichfTderKiitigtQbtAAH^:  2d  ed.  1873).  . 
with  an  Appendix,  which  was  alsu  published  sepaiste- 
Iv,  Dat  cortxUiKhf  JtntMalem  vud  dtMtm  Taapfl;-^  ■ 
Ertldmng  <fcr  Ktagrlifder  JerimiS  (ibid.  1855)  t—Dt 
J.oeo  Joh.xiii,  31-28  Diufrtaliamulu  (Dresdie,  IB37); 
— <2lli>  Pt.li  Auclor  failm  vidralur  (ibid.  ISSS);— 
Die  GrabfT  drr  KSntge  ron  Juia,  in  lUgrn'a  ZeU- 
tchri/t/ur  die  kitloriirhe  Theologie,  184*: — Ueber  dtr  i 
Sl^finpialmtn,  in  Sladitn  md  £ri(ifa9i,  I8U,  Ttd.  iu,  | 


THEOCANUS 


Thcaim'i  wnrVa  will  iliraT 

cntkuoi.     Sm   FUnt,  BOL  Jud.   iii,  419;   ZiiclioM, 

BM.  TitoL  ii,  1823;  TkeolM/itdut  CuictrKiLLtx.  g.  v. 

(RP.) 

Xlieoc'Mnia  {BitMarit  ^^  r.  Batavit  anil  Oucii- 
fC),  ■  BHTopt  Greek  form  (1  Emir,  ix,  14)  for  the  Ileb. 
BUM  (£»«  >,  15)  TlKVAH  Cq.  v.). 

TbBOOatagnoatBB;  i  name  ukJ  br  John  of  Da- 
n«Kiit  ipparcnily  u  *  general  term  Tor  beretie*  wbo 
belli  unotiliodoi  opiiiiaiu  about  God,  and  Lhcrefore 
-ihooghi  evil"  (iraraTHMoic)  respecting  him. 

Theocnoy  (3«wpori'n,  ™fc  o/  Cod),  a  form  of 
ei><reniDeiit  nich  aa  pnvaileri  among  tht  aner«i>t  Jews, 
m  whieb  Jehorsh,  the  God  of  tha  univene,  was  direcl- 
Ijr  RCDiEUiml  •>  tb«ir  aupreme  civil  ruler,  and  his  laws 
wtre  uken  aa  Ihe  BlaIul«-baok  irf  the  kinifloni.  This 
pRndple  ii  repeatedly  laid  down  in  the  Uosaic  code, 
tad  HI  eoatinually  acted  upon  thereafter.  See  Kino. 
Momvai  but  the  appointee  anil  agent  of  Jehovah  in 
giringihe  law  and  in  deliTCiiDg  the  people  fram  Egypt; 
and  ibmugbout  the  Exodetbe  conitant  preaence  of  God 
ta  ilw  pillar  ami  the  dood,  u  well  as  upon  the  mercf- 
scsi.  was  on  every  nccauon  looked  to  for  guidance  and 
tfAiroL  So,  likewise,  Joahna  and  the  Judgee  were  spe* 
dsl  -ki^tea  of  the  skia"  tu  perform  their  dictatorial 
luKitans.  Even  under  Ihe  mmiarchy,  God  reserved 
tbc  chief  direction  of  aSain  for  himself.  The  kings 
wen  each  specifically  anointed  in  hia  name,  and  pmpli- 


afhit  will,  who  did  no 
later  history  of  the  cl 


:a  rebuke  it 


.  infurm  thei 
Thei 


1  people  ia  but  a  rehearsal  of 
tais  ooadicl  and  inlercDurse  between  the  Great  Head 
of  the  kingdom  and  the  refractory  functionaries.  Uii- 
dtr  the  New  EcviMmy ,  this  idea  passed  over,  in  its  spiril- 
aal  iapoiT,  to  the  Ucsaiah  as  the  heir  of  David's  per- 
(ciual  dynasty,  and  thus  Christ  becomes  the  ruler  of 
kii  CboRh  and  the  hearts  of  its  member*.  See  Spen- 
cer, Dt  Tluoeralia  Juduitu  (TUU  ITS!);  Witaius,  J)e 
nwTa/ia/<71ld.(L.ugiLIG9i};  Blcchschmidt, Zte rAw j 
rr-iHu  «  Populo  Saacln  tniliima ;  Deyling,  Dt  ftratti 
Jrii-r-r  Iknnotio  ;  lioo.\ma,l>tTkrnrralialiTattilaivm 
(L'ltrsj.  IGW);  Hular,  fit  Jrkacii  Urn  Rrgr  ae  Dua 
Mllilarii»rritcolirarU;  liuiTitia.aer,Potiliea  BibUca; 
CMriug,  fir  Paliiia  tirbnronn  (Helmtt.  1648);  Ui- 
chariia,  Dt  /iMriftrtratthu  (Eamotaia  Patriareluilit ; 
Sfhickard,  Jut  Rigim  Hrbmonm,  cum  stiinuKlver- 
liiwibiu  e<  Dotia  Carputvii  (Lips;  I6T4, 1701);  Abarba- 
otl.  Ur  Siatu  tt  Jun  Biyio,ttc^in  Ugolino,  Tlutatirut, 
vul  naiv.     See  KtsoitOH  os"  Heaveii. 

TbeodemlT,  a  Goth  who  was  abbot  of  Psalraodi,  in 
the  .liorrse  of  Nisme*,  at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  cen- 
tal}. He  waa  reputed  lobe  very  leamod,  so  that  even 
bubnpClaodiiH  of  Turin  (q.v.;  comp.  Illgeu,iriir>('Ar. 
Jar  dit  iU.  Tttteloffit,  184S,  ii,  S9  sq.)  dedicated  many 
•'f  hii  oHBisenl tries  lo  him.  Theotlemimrote  a  letter 
to  Claudius,  in  which  he  iDenttAued  the  approval  which 
tin  wrilinffs  of  the  latter  received,  eupccially  from  the 
Fnnkish  bishops;  but  he  suhseqoemly  dixcnvcred  ex- 
ftfmeat   in   the  oimmenlaries,  particularly  Ibnse  on 

I  principal   objectiim  being  raised 


:  of  imt)^  and  relii 


■onbip.  Claodius  Iheieupon  wrote  an  Apologtli 
l"e*  asud.  Tnar.  Kpiic.  iHrd.  Oprram  Spreimmo,  etc., 
»ihiUii(  A.  Rnitelbach  [  Havn.  1824];  Pcvron,  Tuff. 
Cienimii  Oratiomim  Fragmnla  lar^a  [Stu'ltg.  Ifl:;4], 
p.  13),  Id  which  Theodemir  replied.  The  dispute  was 
BiAtd  by  the  death  of  Theodemir.  about  A.D.  825  (ice 
GitsFlrf,  I^Ari.  der  Kinittignck.  voL  ii;  Ncsnder, 
a*nk  Hit.  iii,  *3S).-Heraog.  RnUEnrj^op.  s.  v. 

ThaodlCT  (  rmditnliim  i>f  f  A*  A'rnc  gBrenmnil, 
b«  (Me,  Cod,  and  ttut),  jrmia'i.  Tbit  word  dales 
*»A.ta  Um  BCDBe  in  which  it  is  oow  ~.~~>iv  employ- 
ed, Ba  CsnbET  ttun  the  ccltbr  -<niiz, 


17  THEODICY 

whote  GtM  edition  appeared  at  AmMcrdam  in  ITIO;  It 
deaiKnalea  the  attempt  lo  justify  God  with  reference  to 
Ihe  impcrfeclions,  the  evil,  and  especially  the  sin,  which 
enist  in  Ihe  world,  or,  in  other  word^  any  attempt  la 
show  that  God  appears  in  tht  creation  tud  government 
of  the  world  as  the  highest  wisdom  slid  goodness,  de- 
spite sit),  evil,  and  apparent  imperfections. 

Leibnitz  preceded  such  evidence  with  ■  DiKvan  da 
la  Con/ormili  dt  J<t  foi  arte  la  RaUoo,  because  a  the- 
odicy must  evidently  proceed  on  the  aaauinption  that 
reaaou  and  revelation  do  not  contradict  each  other,  and 
that  the  former  has  the  ability  to  recognise  the  ftcl* 
presented  by  Ihe  latter,  whethei  in  nature  or  in  history. 
As  the  aim  of  Iheodicj'  is  to  refule  by  reason  the  objec- 
tions of  superficial  reasonen  against  Ihe  wisdom  and 
goodnees  of  God,  the  work  necciaarily  demands  agree- 
ment between  fai:b  and  reason.  U  is  consequently  the 
primary  object  of  Leibnitz  to  show  that  such  agreemenl 
exists,  or  that  it  muat  be  presumed  lo  exist  so  soon  as  a 
correct  view  of  the  idea  and  nature  of  reason  is  eiiler- 
tained.  Keasun  is  the"  rightful  combination"  of  (ruths 
which  we  rccngniae,  either  directly  ot  by  means  of  rev- 
elation, and  there  can  be  no  conflici  between  it  and  the 
Inith  which  God  reveals.     There  are  two  claves  of 

roe  meaning  of  the  word,  reason  has  to  do  only  with 
such  truths  as  it  derives  from  iteelfor  recognises  with- 
out asrislaace  from  without;  and  in  this  character  It 
cnntrssts  with  experieiKe,  and  also  with  faith  in  jo  ttl 
as  the  latter  is  based  on  authority  and  fonnl  a  tort  of 
empirical  certainty.  Its  truths  are  "elemaland  neeea- 
sary  truths,"  in  no  wise  dependent  on  sense-perception, 
and,  a  priori,  such  as  reason  alone  can  apprehend  and 

physical,  or  geometrical  necessity.  Another  class  of 
truths  presents  to  view  definite  facth  e.  g.  ibe  laws  of 
itature  (tiritii  defiiit),  such  at  come  immediately  with- 
in the  province  of  experience  and  faith.  Thia  class  of 
iniihs  likewise  involves  nKtitilg,  and  is  so  far  set  forth 
within  the  domain  of  reason  also;  but  this  necessity  ia 
I  physical,  insletd  of  logical  or  melt  physical.  The  con- 
trary to  such  iniths  ia  not  logically  impossible  and  un- 
thinkable, but  cannot  be  because  its  existence  would  be 
an  imperft«iian,a  fault.    This  physical  necessity  istbut 

in  Ihe  attributea  of  God  aa  the  highest  wisdom  and 
goodness;  and  aa  moral  necessity  ii  appcrlaina  also  lo 
Ihe  doctrinea  of  the  faith,  being  ascertainable  by  reaaon, 
and  forming  ground  on  which  lo  comprehend  and  ac- 
cept such  doctrines. 

With  leapcct  to  the  creation  of  the  world,  Lcibnili 
leaches  tbst  it  was  the  free  act  of  God,  performed  that 
he  "might  most  effectually,  and  in  a  manner  most  wor- 
thy of  his  wisdom  and  goodna^  revesl  snd  impart  his 
perfection."  He  could  create  only  a  rtlaliti  perfection, 
however;  Ihe  creation  of  abaolulely  perfect  beings,  i.e. 
gods,  was  not  possible,  and  Ihewarlil  and  iu  inhabitanta 
were  accordingly  created  relatively  imperfect.  Thit 
condilion  of  lliinga  may  be  denominated  McrapAfiiDal 
eca.whuae  exutciicc  wot  directly  conditioned  in  the 
will  of  God  by  which  was  determined  the  creation  of 
limiltil  and  imperfect  beings.  Physical  evil,  or  sufler- 
ing,  and  moral  evil,  nr  tin,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not 
directly  willed  by  God,  but  only  itidirectly,as  serving  to 
promote  ihe  goal  and  secure  Ihe  alttinment  of  a  higher 
perfection  of  Ihe"  whole,"  though  themselves  evil  as  re- 
spects the  individual.  Thegrumid  of  mel  a  physical  evil 
was.  therefore,  the  good  which  Gnd  hiIIihI  tu' secure  in 
the  creation  of  limited  beings,  while  that  of  phvsical 
and  moral  evil  ia"thc  better"  which  coubl  only  ilius  bt 

To  the  objection  that  God  might  have  created  a 
world  in  which  physical  and  moral  sliiiulil  have  no 
place,  or  that  he  might  have  tlli^elher  rcfraiitedfrom 
the  work  of  crealinx,  Leitniiiz  replies  that  physical  evil 
may  serve  to  help  the  world  to  achieve  a  higher  degree 
of  good;  and  that  moral  evil,which  is  pvs»jb|e  be^ute 


THEODORA  3 

Ood  hu  endowed  man  nith  powerB  oF  volition,  is  lihc- 
WIH  (o  wondfriullJ-conlTliUed  u  [o  incniu  tbr  besuly 
of  bin  unii-eree  u  ■  whole.  To  the  further  ohjection 
thilGod  Ihug  bewiDG*  Ihe  author  of  tin,  he  replies  lli*t 
■in  hu  no  poiiiive  cbum  in  4ci  fu  a*  it  ii  actuoliieil  in 
conKquenra  of  the  imperTrctioiii  of  ihe  creature,  bill 
only  >  amin  drfitient,  wbich,  mureaver,  iloea  not  work 
^n  directiv  and  of  its  own  motion,  but  only  par  aixi- 
ehat  by  reiuon  of  the  eiiaumce  of  a  higher  gnul  thui 
•cnne  can  recopiiw  oi  doMre.  'I'iie  Bnil  Dbjeclion,  that 
aa  timi  fiirekiiew  all  that  ia  future,  ami  comequently 
iiiaiigurateil  a  ciuul  connection  wbich  must  inevita- 
bly lead  to  whatever  may  come  (o  paaa,  indudinf;  sin, 
the  Utter  ia  unavoidable  and  ita  punishment  unjust, 
ia  met  by  Leibnitz  by  fonnulating  a  dlstinclion  be- 
tween predestination  and  neceaaity.  No  volitional  act 
need  tie  performed  by  man  unleaa  he  will.  Fmwir- 
dinaiinn  is  not  compulajonj  and  the  intervenUon  of 
foteonlaiiicd  events  sercea  only  to  influenix  Ihe  will 
with  molivea,  and  not  at  all  tt>  conalrain  the  will  with 

The  review  of  Leibniti'a  work  shows  that  it  is  far 
from  aatiafying  the  demandaof  the  problem  with  which 
it  dealt.   Tbe  reason  for  its  raibire  lies  in  the  philnaopb- 


Nuptiis 


ical  V 


.t  the  I 


,  of  hii 


■cheme— hia  iileas  of  the  monada,  of  tiod  aa  the  priini 
live  monad,  of  the  relations  between  reosnnand  Ihe  will, 
of  freedom  am)  neceasiiy,  reapciting  wbich  see  tbe  art. 
Lkibnitz.  Not  ia  this  Ihe  place  to  attempt  a  new  and 
independent  aolutiDii  of  the  problem  of  tbeodiev,  which 
neceaaarily  moat  involve  the  development  of  an  entire 
system  of  philosophy.  Suffice  it  to  aay  that  Ihe  gen- 
eral method  of  Leibnitxmuatever  be  regulative  to  thoM 
inquirers  who  approach  tbia  problem  from  the  stand- 
point of  Christian  theiam,  and  that  the  main  attempt 
most  be  to  separate  more  clearly  between  the  concep- 
tions of  physical  and  moral  evil,  and  mnnect  Ihe  former 
more  intimately  with  morality  and  the  moral  consum- 
mation of  tbe  world — toshair  more  clearly  the  pmfonnd 
reasons  for  the  necesaity  hy  which  the  possibility  of  sin 
■a  included  in  the  couoept  of  hnman  fieedom,  and  Ihi 
existence  of  the  latter  is  involved  in  the  idea  of  thi 
ffood — and,  finally,  to  loiio  down  certain  theological  ex- 
Bggerations  of  the  power  of  evil,  and  present  freedon 
and  morality  in  their  gradual  development  out  of  the 
natural  life  and  human  naluralnesa,  aa  well  as 
dded  negative  contrast  with  nature. 

Host  nf  the  phiioaophen  of  more  recent  limi 
have  treated  this  subject  have  appmnimated  more  or 
leaa  closely  to  Leibnitz,  and  have  endcavi 
ciam  or  modificaiion,  either  avowedly  or  ai 
rect  the  faulta  of  bis  eaaay.  We  can  only 
of  the  older  writers,  e.  g.  Balgiiy,  Bioine  BrneroUticr 
VmdieaUd  (Sd  cd.  Lond.  I80S,  I3mo);  Werdermann 
Veriack  tar  Tkeodien,  etc.  (Dessau  and  Leips.  1784-1 
98):  Benedict,  Throdicaa  (Annahurg,  ISM);  Blascbc, 
Dot  B6K,tlei.  (Leips.  1827);  Wagner,  Tiwrfiope  (Bam- 
bet^,  ISIO);  Erichson,  VerhiUla-tltr  TAtoJ.  tur  tprku- 
iufi'p.  Konnologit  (Cirifawald,  IH3G);  Sigwart,  PnMm 
da  BSifo,  etc  (Tub.  1S40);  Von  Schaden,  Thtodicet 
(Carlsruhe,  1842);  MareI,^A'udi«<(^ari^  1837)i  Young, 
£«!  and  God,  u  lUglny  (id  ed.  Lund.  1861).— Heizog, 
Jieul-KncyUop.  s.  v. 
Tb«od6rft  (I),  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Justinian, 
'  was  the  daughter  of  Aeaclus.  who  had  charge  of  the 
wild  beaala  of  the  Prasini  at  OmaUntiiiople.  The  de- 
cease of  her  father  and  remarriage  ofher  mother  obliged 
her  to  earn  her  living  aa  on  actress,  and  she  also  became 
a  notorious  courtesan.  She  accompanied  Eceboliis  aa 
his  mistress  to  Pentapolis  when  that  wealthy  Tyrian 
was  appoiiilecl  prsfect  of  that  government,  but  was  soon 
deserted  by  him  and  obliged  to  return  in  poverty  to 
Constantinople.  She  iben  altered  her  moile  of  living 
and  sought  to  earn  a  virtuous  name;  and  while  living 
in  retirement  sbe  won  tbe  favor  of  the  imperial  prinw 
Justinian,  and  so  excited  his  paeaion  that  on  the  death 
of  the  empress  he  persuaded  the  reigning  emper.ir.Jua- 


THEODORA 

I  law  which  stood  in  the  way  of  hu  mat. 

odura  ( see  Cod:  JuiL  lib.  v,  tit.  4.  "  Ue 
They  were  married  in  A.D.  52a;  and 

icreasion,  in  627,  Theodora  was  publitiy 
proclaimed  empreie  and  coregent  of  the  empire.  Hu 
influence  over  him  became  unbounded,  and  coutiuiiu. 
even  after  her  deceaae. 

Theodora  participaled  actively  in  tbe  Uonophytitc 
conlroTersy,  lending  her  laRuence  secretly  to  the  propa- 
gation of  that  error,  and  endeavoring  to  win  her  consort 
from  the  orthodox  view.  Colloquies  instituted  beiHcn 
bishops  of  the  two  conflicting  panics  in  631  accomplish- 
ed no  substantial  reault ;  but  the  empress  succeeded,  in 
6Bfl,  in  promoting  the  Monopbysite  bishop  Anthinmi 
to  tbe  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and  afterwuiK 
tbrougb  the  aaeistance  of  BeliaariuB,thefamaDSgeiicnl. 
in  advancing  Vigilius  to  the  same  position.  She  wit 
twice  visited  with  the  ban  of  the  Church,  but  was  dm 
therebj-  intimidated  to  such  a  degree  as  lo  prevent  bn 
intervention  m  the  controver^-  of  the  Thi«e  Chapten. 
She  died,  bowever,  before  the  dispute  waa  detenuind, 
at  the  early  age  of  forty  years.  Historiana  describe  bn 
as  having  been  proud  and  tyrannical ;  but  no  charge  is 
raised  against  her  chastity  after  lier  marriage  with  Itie 
emperor.  She  bore  tbe  lailer  one  child,  a  daiutatti, 
wbo  died  eaHy. 

/.ifmilHiv.—rrocopiua,  Iliit,  Anxnn;  id,  AnsAt. 
9,  10;  id.  Dt  ^dif.  i,  Jli  Niccpborus  CaUiaius,  iri, 
37 1  ilanai,  CoU>ilio  CalhoL  can  SrreriaH,  a.  631,  viii, 
817  sq,;  id.  Joatmb  Epitc  Atia,  in  Aasemani,  B»L 
OritHU  ii,  89;  Ada  Syi.  Coiut.  a.  636,  in  Uaon,  rtii, 
878  sq.;  Evagrius,  ch.  iv;  f,iberar.  Sreriur.  p.  21  ■).; 
Anaaiasius,l"i((B/'im/i/:j  Vigilii  KpiH.  ad  JuHa.  tt  ai 
JfnmQBt,  in  Maii»i,iii,a6,a8;  Wemsdorf, Z>e  Sifrmo rt 
\''igUiOi  Grogor.  Nazian.  Kput.  ix,  BG;  Theophatus, 
ChroH.  P.B50;  Vict.Tununens.CArt».,-  Ludewig,  Fila 
JtuMaiiva  Imp.  H  Tluodom  (HaL  1781,  4to);  Inm^ 
niui,  Dt  Sebui  GriHt  JaUaian  (Rom.  1T8S) ;  (iibbm, 
DediiK  and  Fall,  ch.  xl ;  Wakh,  KfUftyrte'i.  pL  vi,  vii; 
(Jieaeler,  J/OBOpiyj.  Vrtt.  Varia  dt  CArsWi.Mc.  (UiiU. 
lSSa-88);  and  the  Church  hiatorio.  Also  Smilb,  iW. 
ffBiog.  aad  MstM.t.v.,  and  Herzog,  Reat-EKjUafk 

Theodora  (2),  wife  of  tha  enpemr  Tbeophilas,  wha 
succeeded  his  father,  Bfichael  II,  on  the  Ihmne  in  A.a 
829.  Sbe  obtained  the  regency  of  the  empire  on  tbe 
deatb  of  her  husband,  in  812,  and  hastene<l  to  leston 
the  worship  of  ^mage^  which  had  until  then  been  «T- 
agely  represaed.  She  banished  John  (irammalicii>,tlie 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  gave  his  place  In  Me- 
thodius wbo  waa  in  sympathy  with  her  plana,  and  tbea 
called  a  synod  which  decreed  the  restoration  ofitnage- 
warship  throughout  the  em|di«.  To  commemorate  tlul 
event  she  ordained  an  annual  "festival  of  orthodoxy.' 
Not  content  with  having  thus  endeil  ■  dispute  wbi^ 
had  agitated  the  empire  during  160  years,  she  inaitgu. 
Paulicians  (q.  v.),  and  thoe- 
which  entire  [»«- 
inces  were  d;vaitttted  and  depopulated  by  tbe  di«d 
I'aulicians  and  Saracens  (see  CedrenuB,p.  641  sq.;  Zm- 
aros,  Chnm.  xvi,  1 ;  Petr.  Siculi  lliil.  ilanch.  p.  TO  iq.; 
Pholiua,  Corttra  Afaiiich.  ix,  S3;  Conatsulin.  r«pbi> 
rog.  Continuator,  iv,  IC,  23-26). 

A  more  creditable  worii  waa  the  conversion  of  the 
Bulgarians,  which  was  acc<implished  by  the  Tbeoale- 
nian  monks  Cyril  and  Methodius  ui  862.  The  empre* 
however,  was  not  permitted  to  see  (his  success.  He( 
son  Michael  III  compclleil  her  lo  resign  the  regency, 
and  incarcerated  her  in  a  convent,  where  she  diedd 
grief  in  A.D.  856  <aee  Dalkeua,  De  lnuiginibui  [Liigd. 
1642];  Spanheim,  HUl.  Imagimim  Ratitaia  [iM. 
1686];  id.  0pp.  vuL  ii;  Schlnsser,  Gttdi.  dor  UUir- 
tlirra.  KaUfr,  etc,  {  1812  ] ;  Marx,  BOdertrfit  drr  if 
tanl.  Kaitrr  [1839]:  Walch,  KmtrgadL  pL  x,  n: 
SchrOckh,  ChriitL  KircingrtclL  voL  ix;  Gieseler, fir- 
ckmgack.  [4th  ed.],  ii,  1,  9) — Henog,  Ani^fn^Uip 


THEODORE  3 

Tbeodoie  (TrbodSbus),  SI^  ot  (be  4ih  eeDtaty, 

Mdiltlf  lUte.  Ungory  of  Sytat  reUIn  that  'I'beo- 
.HcJoiHd  the  Romu)  txmy  {thence  tilled  tiiv)  when 
KuuDin  and  (ialeriua  were  peneculing  the  ChriilienB^ 
but  v)3  hiimclf  ilenouiKCil.  Hii  yoythrul  appeaniiice 
wsn  for  him  three  dan'  rtupite,  al  the  end  of  which 
kt  va  to  die  unlen  be  ihould  recuit.  White  engiRetl 
In  uraat  pnyer,  ■  Chrutian  diiguiaed  u  ■  whlirr, 
uotd  Didj-miu,  apptoaehed  and  exhorted  him  to  Hee, 
■UA  b«  didL  Didymiw  wai  thereupon  Kizeil  as  a 
ChiBfiiD  and  amdemned  to  decapilatioD.  Theodore 
mamed  and  aieadrutly  endured  horrible  lorturei  un- 
til be  died  by  Grr.  Hia  body  wu  rescued  by  Chrii- 
iiiiu,ind  ii  leponed  to  have  been  hruught  to  Itrinditi 
in  the  ISih  century,  while  hia  bead  is  uid  to  be  gtill 
(nvrved  at  Liaela.  Gregory  prunounced  a  eulogi-  in 
ha  amory.  The  Greek  Church  dedicate*  to  him  Feb. 
i;,  the  Latin,  Nov.  9,  See  Grrj.  A'yHoi  0}^.  (  Par. 
]ei&),ii,10C'iaq.;  llenag,Rail-aif)Hi>p.».v. 

neodore,  archbuhop  OF  CANTEsniTRT,  lucreeded 
Droiikdii,  who  died  in  the  year  664.  Wbeu  the  elect- 
ed Aii|;k>-9ajton  preebyter  Wigheard  died  in  Koine, 
whne  he  had  gone  lo  teceive  ordination,  pope  Vilnlian 
iMkhI  (hat  he  inlendeil  to  wnd  a  worthy  niLintiiiitc. 
The  Koman  abbot  Hadrian,  a  native  of  Aftiea,  refuted 
(e  be  elected,  and  called  attention  lo  Theodore  of  Tar- 
■saia  man  well  qualiSetl  in  ererr  reapect  fnr  that  pu- 
HtioD.  In  Harcb,  668.  he  left  Home  for  bin  new  poM, 
ud  wu  acoampanieil  by  Hadrian,  who  waa  to  act  as 
hit  adiiser,  bat  who,  in  fact,  wu  to  see  that  tiolliini;  of 
the  Roman  ritual  waa  replaced  by  the  Greek.  Theo- 
iatr  acted  in  the  spirit  of  Rome;  he  founded  mnias- 
lerits  and  aehools,  and  died  SepU  19,  690,  in  London. 
His  forpse  wu  the  flnt  buried  in  Si.  Peter's  at  York. 
He  left  a  pmilential  book  and  a  collection  of  canons 
(n|insted  in  ihe  colleelinn  o(  Latin  penitenlttl  books 
rfibe  AnglD-.Saxons  by  Kunatmann  [Ifarenee,  1844]). 
Set  Ibe  hlrodiitium  to  Kunsimann's  collection;  Bsk- 
i./b&r£t</(r/>apsfi-,  1,180,184;  Titologitc/ia  L'ni- 
■■     ■■  (RP.) 

nieodora,  sumaiiKd(JHArTL'H,a  monk  of  St.  Saba 
■bo  it  KmewtiBt  prominent  amon){  the  munkuh  mar- 
lyn  of  iconoUtry.  He  was  bom  at  Jerusalem,  attained 
lA  tb«  rank  of  presbyter,  and  was  sent  by  the  patiiarch 
Tbgrnai  of  Jerusalem  to  Conttanlinople  about  81tf  lo 
liW  io  defence  of  the  image*.  In  the  execution  of 
tbii  purpDW  he  reoiODBCratcd  so  vehemently  to  the  em- 
ptnii's  face  that  Leo  the  Armenian  caused  him  lo  be 
•mrgtd  and  transported  to  the  coast  of  Pontua,  Three 
yttn  later  be  was  pardoned,  but  again  imprisoned  and 
bniahtd.  this  time  by  Uichael  the  Sumoierer.  The 
Hit  empeniT,  Theophilus,  caused  him  io  be  scourged 
ssd  carried  to  Ibe  isJind  of  Aphutis.  Having  retum- 
ol  slier  seven!  years  and  reneweil  his  passionate  advo- 
cscygfinage-wotship,  he  waa  thresleneil  and  lorturrd, 
sad  (nally  banished  a*  incorrigible  lo  Apamea.  Bui 
Itw  nitlngs  are  ascribed  In  him;  among  them  are  a 
dilatation  of  ibe  patriarch  Niccpbonis,  given  in  Combe- 
<k,Orif.  Comttaaliiiop.  p.  159 : — a  letter  by  John  of  Cri- 
mam  Banaiing  the  uiSerings  endured  under  Tbeoph- 
ilat,  also  in  Combefls : — a  manuscript,  De  Fidt  Orlho- 
iua  amlra  InmcmuidHit,  from  which  a  fragment  is  giv- 
en ioOnbeas,  p.  221.  See  I'ibi  rtrni  Cr.  io  Combe- 
^  p.  191,  Latin  by  Suriui,  Dec  36 ;  ind.comp.  the  no- 
lieta  in  Cave,  and  Walch,  Cadi.  d.  Kftuniat,  x,  G77, 
JlJ^Ilenog,  Hfol-Ent^Uop.  a.  v. 

Tlwodors  LscTOR  (tkt  Rtader),  a  Church  histo- 
riaa  in  the  East,  was  reader  in  the  Constantinopolitan 
Cbatch  in  or  about  the  year  bib.  He  fumisbed  an  ab- 
>na  of  the  history  from  the  twenliath  year  of  Con- 

wmkt  of  SocTiie*,  Soanmen,  and  Theodorel,  which  is 
luuwB  onder  Ibe  nanw  lliiloria  TripariSia,  and  is  still 
'  '  I  Taltsius  published  so  much 
ind  lo  vary  rrooi  Theoilore'a 


9  THEODORE 

•ourcea.  A  second  and  more  important  work  bq^na  an 
independent  record  at  the  point  where  the  history  of 
Socrates  ena^  and  cirriea  it  forward  to  the  year  4S9. 
Neither  of  these  works  can  be  regarded  as  a  completed 
wbole,  and  between  tbem  is  an  untouched  space  of  sev- 
enty years.  The  latter  history,  which  wa*  contained 
in  two  books,  has  been  tost;  but  extended  rrigments 
have  been  preaerved  in  John  of  Damaacua,  Nilus,  and 
especially  Nicepborus  CalliMu^  and  published  by  Robert 
Stephen*  and  Valesiua.  These  remains  show  that  the 
histories  of  Theodore  contained  much  important  matter 
in  reladoD  to  polilics  and  the  progress  of  the  Church. 
Conap.  the  literary  notices  in  Cave,  Fsbriciui^  Hamber- 
ger,  and  Stliudlin- Hemsen,  Gt$(A.  u.  Lit.  d.  AurAeis- 
gtui.  p.  76.  Ediciona ;  Stephanu*,  'Ejc  rjc  irtkrieia- 
BTiKiit  ioropjoc  Gmiiipov  ivayiiiBTov  ii\oyai,  cum 
EtaibUt  (Par.  1644);  Heading,  Ererrpta  rx  Ecd.  Hit. 
Thtod.  Ltct.  tt  Fragmenta  alia  II.  Vtilnio  Inltrpr.  cum 
Thtal.  Hittoria  (CanUbr,  1720).-Heriog,  Rtat-Eney 
lchp.t.v. 

Theodore  or  Hoi'SUESTtjt.  bishop,  and  leader  in 
the  so-called  theological  acbuol  of  Anttoch,  waa  horn  at 
Antioch  about  the  year  8G0.  He  studied  philnophy 
and  rbetoric,  the  latter  in  company  with  John  Chrysos- 
tom  at  the  school  of  the  famous  Libanius.  Stimulated 
by  Chiysoelom  to  a  fervor  of  Christiiui  enlhuiuasm,  he 
renounced  hia  proposed  secular  career  in  order  lo  devote 


o  Chris 
bough  aflectioi 


laily  named  Hermione  inier- 
rccalled  to  it  by  the  zealous 
enort*  oi  nis  inenn,  and,  through  the  inUuence  of  bis 
teacher,  Uiodorua  of  Taraus,  who  introduced  him  to  the 
study  uf  sacred  literature,  wa*  confirmed  in  ii  for  life. 
Two  of  Chrysoatom's  letters  lo  Theodore  In  relation  to 
I  his  subject  are  yetexlanu  He  l)ecame  a  presbyter  at 
Antioch  and  rapidly  aojuiied  reputation,  but  soon  re- 
moved to  Tarsus,  and  thence  to  Mopsuealia,  in  Cilicia 
Secunda,  as  bishop.  In  894  he  alicnded  a  council  al 
Cuiistaiiliuople,  and  subsequenlly  other  synod*.  When 
Chrysostom  was  overtaken  by  his  advHse  fortunes, 
Thtotlore  sought  to  aid  hia  cause,  bat  without  suc- 
cess. Theodore  himself  enjuyei)  a  notable  repuUtioa 
throughout  t  he  Church,  especially  In  Ihe  Eaalem  branch. 
Even  Cyril  of  Alexandria  deemed  him  worthy  uf  praiaa 
and  esteem.  He  was  sccused,  indeed,  of  favoring  rbe 
heresy  of  Pelagius,  but  died  in  peace  in  iiB  or  429, 
before  the  Christological  quarrel  began  between  Ihe 
schtiol*  of  Antioch  and  Alexai^dria,  in  which  hta  cUai^ 
ncler  for  orthodoxy  waa  so  seriously  impaired.  After 
hia  death,  Ihe  Nestorian*  appealed  to  his  writings  in 
support  of  their  opinions,  and  at  Ihe  Fiflb  (Ecumenical 
Council  Theodore  and  hia  writinga  were  condemned. 
Ilia  memory  wa*  revered  among  Ibe  Neitorians,  and  hi* 
works  were  held  in  repute  in  the  eburehes  of  Syria. 

The  theological  importance  of  this  father  giowa  chief- 
ly out  of  his  relation  to  the  Christological  controverdes 
of  hit  time,  and,  in  a  lower  degree,  out  of  his  eiegeti- 
cal  labors.  He  was  an  uncommonly  prolilic  writer,  and 
expended  much  elTurt  on  the  exposition  of  the  SciipU 
ures;  but  of  his  exegetical  works  only  a  comnieiitary 
on  the  minor  prophets  in  Greek  has  been  preserved  in- 
tact to  the  present  lime.  Other  expoeiliont  of  minor 
hooks,  e.  g.  the  Pauline  epistles,  wbicb  had  been  pub- 
lished in  Latin  by  Hilary  of  Poiliers,  have  lately 
been  recognised  as  the  properly  of  Theodore.  Frag- 
menla  of  still  other  exegetical  labora  by  this  father 
are  scattered  through  the  compilation*  of  Wcgner.  Hai, 
and  Fritische  (see  below).  Theoilore's  method  waa 
that  of  sober,  historical  riposiiinn.  slihoiigh  bis  results 
are  not  always  satisfactory ;  and  to  ibis  he  addnl  inde- 
pendent criticism  of  the  canon.  He  disiinguialivd  the 
books  of  the  Bible  into  prophetical,  historical,  and  di- 
dactic w^iting^  the  latter  class  including  Ihe  books  of 
Solomon,  Job,  etc,  whose  inspiration  he  denied. 

In  Christology  TheiHlore  was  opposed  to  Auguslinl- 
anism,  and  thus  naturally  approximated  to  Pelagian- 
iam,  though  hia  poaition  waa  in  termed  iate.    Adam  was 


THEODORE  31 

oeitcd  moTtiL    The  bum*n  will,  in  it<  nRhly  cnvi-  ' 

mnnieD[,vuuld  necosarily  b«  drawn  into  sin.  Adam'i 
un  WM  not  Iniisniiiied,  ind  Cbriti'a  work  hail  for  ita 
Dbjecc  the  enaUling  uf  ■  created  and  iiiiperrecl  nature 
[o  realize  the  tnie  tnil  ur  iu  beiiiK  nthcr  Lhan  the  re«> 
toration  of  a  ruined  nature.  All  iiilelUgent  beings  were 
includdl  in  thii  puriwte,  and  it  would  mniequently  ap- 
pear that  Theodore  taught  the  imposaibility  of  eternal 
puniibnient. 

Th«  Korki  of  this  author  vrhlch  are  utill  estant  are, 
A  Commrnlarg  on  Ikr  Minor  PiophtU  (Wegner  [  BeroL 
lSB4]i  M«i,Sm/i/.  Vn.Koc.Coa.  [Kom.  IKI2],voLvi), 
and  f'r«;meB«,  ill  Mai,  A'or.PiKr,  SiW.  1854,  voL  vii.  The 
Greek  Tragnienisare  more  co(nplelel]>  given  in  Fiitzache, 
Thiod.  Mopi.  in  K.  Tut.  Comm.  (Turiei,  1847).  Kira, 
in  SpicU.  SuUtm.  (Par.  1854),  roL  i,  bai  Latin  veinona 
of  Thcodore'a  commentariea  on  Philippians,  ColoaNans, 
and  Thesuluniona.  See  also  Mercator,  0pp.  ed.Balui., 
on  the  councilt  growing  out  of  the  coatcoveny  of  ibe 
Three  Chapteni.  etc 

Li^rafMir.— Dupin,  .Vour.  BHiL  roL  iii ;  Care,  Saipl. 
EecL  Hilt.  £>(.  p.217 ;  Tillemont,  Mimoira,  vol.  xii ;  Fa- 
bridin,BiK  Cram, ix,  ins  ■q.<ed.HarLx,a46);  Nuririi 
Din.  it  Syutdo  QutHla,  in  hia  Hin,  Ptlag.  Pat.  16TS,  and 
percoBiraGnTntTinltuLibtralui!  theChunhhistoriea; 
Fritaacbe.  Ve  Theod.  ifopi.  Vila  el  Script.  ( 1836) ;  Kle- 
ner,  SgnAol.  Lil.  ad  Theod.  Mopt.  Ptrtin.  (tJott.  183fi). 
AIki,  with  referemie  to  exegetical  question*,  SiefTerc, 
THtod.  Mopt.  Vft.  Till,  lobrie  Islirpr.  Viiid.  (Ke^iom. 
1827);  Kahn,  Theod.. If  op.  tt.  Jan.  A/ricaiuaalMlixtge- 
Im  (Freib.  1880);  and  the  hlaloriee  of  iiil«rpietaliaa. 
With  reference  to  doctriuei,  tbe  literature  of  the  Pela- 
f^an  controverav,  and  espedallv  Domer,  EntKiddaiigM- 
gach.  voL  ii.-an.iih.  Did.  of^Biog.  and  MsthoL  s.  v.; 
and  llenog,  Rettt^Eneykiop.  L  v. 

Theodoie  I,  pope,  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  and  reign- 
ed rrnm  642  w  C49.  He  excommunicated  Paul,  the  pa- 
triaicb  of  Conetantinnple,  in  646,  for  holding  Honothe- 
lite  views,  and  recognised  in  hia  atcad  the  banished  pa- 
triarch Pyrrhus,  who  had  recanted  his  Maaotbelite  er- 
rors while  at  Rome.  Pynhus,  however,  returned  to  hia 
heretical  opinions,  and  Theodora  thereupon  pronounced 
the  ban  against  him.  Shortly  before  hia  death,  in  649, 
this  pope  convened  a  aynod  at  Rome  which  reject*d  (be 
Tjipoi  promulgated  by  the  emperor  Constana  II:  and  he 
alan  sent  a  vicar,  in  the  person  or  the  bishop  of  Dore,  to 
Palemine  in  order  to  dlaroisa  all  bishops  who  should  be 
found  (o  hold  the  Uonochclite  heresy,  and  (bus  stamp 
out  the  aect'e  adherenta.  He  wmt«  Kpitlola  Sj/Hodica 
ad  Pimtaia  Piilr.  Coml.,  and  Eivaplar  Proponl.  Coit- 
ttaniianp.  Trantmitia  adv.  Pgrrhun. 

Th«odora  II.  pope,  a  native  Roman,  reigned  only 
twenty  days  in  897. 

Tlieodoret  (QioJiipiiroe ;  also  THEODomrita)  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  ecclesiastics  uf  the  5tb  coiitu- 


He  was  bor 
pie  at  Antiucb  in 


.and  pirn 


THEODORET 


parishes.     Ilia  life  as  bishop  was  exemplary,  and  chir- 

neas,  successful  guidance  of  hia  clergy,  and  great  uil 
fur  the  faith.  Though  great  numlien  of  Ariaos,  Uace- 
donians,  and  eapecially  Marcionites  were  found  in  tiii 
diocese,  be  succeeded  by  449  in  refining  them  all  to 
the  Church.  He  reports  the  baptism  of  no  \ta»  thaa 
teti  thousand  Uarcionitei  alone.  These  labon  he  pn*. 
ecuted  often  at  imniinent  risk  to  bia  life,  and  alvaii 
without  invoking  the  aid  of  ibc  temporal  power. 

I'he  quiet  tenor  of  Theodoret's  life  was  intemipiei 
by  the  Nestorian  controversy,  whose  progma  and  »■ 
suits  inibitt«red  his  lalei  career.  Gamiei  states  |la 
Hfe  of  Thfodom,  v,  350)  that  Nesloriua  had  been  The- 
odoret's fellow-pupil  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Eaprepia^ 
and  charges  the  latter  with  holding,  in  tact,  the  vien 
which  caused  the  ruin  of  the  former  representadre  of 
the  Antiochian  acbooL  It  appears,  however,  that  Tbe- 
odoret  was  concenied  rather  to  reiiiat  Ibe  intulnance  of 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  combat  his  eiron,  opposite  u 
those  of  Nestorius,  than  to  advocate  the  views  of  the 
latter.  With  his  school,  be  opposed  the  unilicaiiaD  of 
the  two  natures  in  Christ,  and  taught  that  the  Logoi 
had  assumed,  but  had  not  become,  flesh.  He  iknial 
that  Uod  had  been  crucified,  and  thereby  implied  ihu 
(lod  had  not  been  bom,  and  that  the  term  Sforonc 
could  not.  ill  any  proper  sense,  be  applied  lo  Mary.  It 
was,of  couree,  impoBHble  that  while  holding  such  view 
iild  become  an  avowed  aniagoniat  of  Nestoiiu, 


In  4 


I  letter 


386  (Gamier)  or  898  (Tillemont,  Me- 
His  mother  was  especially  devout, 
and  susceptible  to  tbe  influence  of  a  number  of  hermit 
monks,  ciiie  of  whom  had  relieveil  her  of  an  apparently 
incurable  alTection  of  the  eyes,  and  another  of  whom 
aiinounceil  to  her.  aller  thirteen  years  of  sterile  wed- 
lock, that  she  should  give  birth  to  a  son.  In  obedience 
tn  their  directions,  Tbeodoret  was  dedi 


™ofse 


itered  tl 


!t  by  St.  Euprepius, 
och ;  and  there  ho  remained  for  twenty  years  enga^ml 
in  theological  study.  The  works  of  Diodonia  of  Tar- 
sus, Cbrysoslum,  and  Theodore  of  Mopauestia  formed 


dual  teachcTKi  In  time  he  was  appointed  lector 
in  Autiuch,and  arterwards  deacon;  and  in  the  latter  of- 
Sce  he  acquired  such  reputation  that  be  waa,  against  his 
will  {Ep.Hl), consecrated  to  tbe  bishopric, 420  or  439. 

The  diocese  intrusted  to  hia  care  had  for  its  seat  the 
impoverished  (own  of  Cyrus,  or  Cyrrhus,  the  cainCal  of 


'ism,  Arisaim, 
and  other  similar  errors  in  the  twelve  Capinlo.  In 
431,  at  the  Synod  of  Epheaus,  he  urged  delay  in  th« 
transaction  of  business  until  Che  Eastern  biahops  couU 
arrive;  and  when  that  advice  was  disregarded,  he  unit- 
ed with  those  bishops  in  a  synod  which  condcmaed  (he 
proceediugB  of  tha  council  and  depoeed  CyM.  He  alal 
headed,  with  John  of  AnUoch,  the  delegation  which  Ibt 
OtienCais  sent  to  the  emperor  with  Ihcir  coiifesaian  cf 
faith,  whose  rrjection  closed  the  series  of  incidents  («- 
nected  with  the  Epheaisn  aynod,  After  his  return  froa 
(hat  miasion,  Theodoret  wrote  five  books  on  ihe  incar- 
nation (flsvraXoyiov'Evni^piiinuffdiii'),  with  the  inleai 
of  setting  forth  his  views  and  expxnng  the  hentictl 
tendency  of  Cyril's  (enets  and  the  unjust  conduct  of  hii 
party  in  the  proceedings  at  Ephesus.    Of  Ihit  work 

the  Latin  version  of  Uarius  Heioitor,  a  bigoted  adbe- 
renL  of  C>Tillian  views.    He  also  wrote  a  work  in  ile- 

suestia,  against  the  charge  of  having  originated  Hnto- 
lianiim  (see  Hardouin,  .4cf.(7oiw.iii,  I06sq.).  Hewia. 
however,  induced  to  yield  to  the  pressure  brooghl  W 
bear  by  John  ofAnttuch  on  the  opponents  of  th«  poEn 
of  Ihe  emperor,  and  to  acknowledge  tbe  orthodoij  ol 
Cyril.  He  alao  submitted,  under  protest,  to  tbe  depos- 
lion  of  Nestorius.  But  when  Ibe  Nestoriana  were  tnal- 
ed  with  extreme  severity  in  43.'>,  be  renounced  the  idea 
of  peace,  and  once  more  stood  forth  the  decided  opps- 
nentofCyriL 

With  the  accenion  of  Dinscurus  aa  the  succeMr  of 
Cyril,  Theodoret's  position  became  more  unfavorable. 
He  opposed  Eiitychianism,  as  Cyril's  doctrine  now  came 
to  be  called,  with  inflexihle  energy;  and  tbe  newpilri- 
arch,  in  448,  procured  an  order  which  forbade  hioi,  aa  a 
mischief-maker,  to  pass  beyond  hiadioccse.  Theodoret 
defende<i  himself  in  several  letters  addresaed  to  pnnai- 
nent  peisonages  (_Kp.  T9-82),  and  wrote  repeatedly  aUo 
to  Dioscurus;  hut  Ihe  latter  responded  with  puUii^v 
snathematiziug  the  troublesMse  bishop,  and  finally 'itb 
causing  him  to  be  deposed,  in  449,  by  a  decree  of  the 
"  Robber  Synod"  of  Epheaoa.  TheodorU  now  invsked 
Ihe  issiatanca  of  the  see  of  Rome,  which  was  leaililr 
grant  td  he  alio  applied  to  other  Ooci- 


THEODORET 


inU  (Habop*  (£p.  119>  In 
bna  ttfll  10  Ihc  rooDiMery  of  Apimei.  vhcra  he  vrw 
■ibJHUd  to  rigorous  treatment  utiiil  (he  smpeior  The- 
odotiua  dinl,  in  *M,  and  Pulcheri*,  with  her  husbanil, 
Huciin,  lannded  the  throne.  1'he  imperial  policy 
DOT  chingcd,  uid  the  depoeei]  hiahopa  were  set  ftt  Lib- 
tnr.  The(Hb>Tet  appcued  belon  the  cecumeiiical  lyn- 
uliifCbikedoii  ID  431  u  the  accuKr  ofDiOKunii  and 
•1  a  pnitioDf r  for  the  reatonlion  of  hia  biahopric  In 
Ihii  tynod  be  round  himMlf  charged  with  being  a  Ne>- 
iinaii,aiid  wu  prevented  fiom  making  any  eiplanatioD 
ef  hi!  rirva  uulil  be  comniled  to  pronounce  au  anathe- 
BtoD  Neatoriua.  Ha  wai  thereupon  unanimoosly  re- 
■tond  (Haniouin,  Cone  ii,  496).  Thia  action  has  been 
T«ir  generally  condemned  by  aludenta  uf  hiitory  ai  the 
DM  biot  upon  an  DtheraiK  spatl«M  career;  but  there 
He  not  wanting  apologiala  to  defend  even  thia  (aee 
SmiUi,  Dk/.  of  Biog.  and  Mslkol.  a.  r.  "Theodoret"), 
1[  VDold  oniloubletlly  have  been  more  creditable  to  him 
lu  hare  renatcd  the  clamor  of  bla  enemies  at  that  time. 
He  left  the  ayood  with  a  cmaty  "  Tarewell,"  and  retnm- 
td  to  bii  bishopric,  where  he  died  in  467,  Tbe  Eu- 
iichiana  anathematized  hia  meniory  at  their  Bynoda  of 
499  and  51!,  and  hia  name  waa  involved  in  the  contro- 
TcnyoT  the  Three  Chapters.  SeeCHA[>TKRa,THKTHaKE. 
TbtodDTet  waa  tbe  author  of  many  worlia  in  exege- 
iii,hiil«7,  polemica,  and  dugmatica,  the  exegetical  he- 
ir^ 1^  chief  consequence.  He  was  generally  free  from 
itie  diipiMition  to  all^oriie,  and  had  a  taate  for  simple 
•oil  liunl  expoution.  His  method  ia  partly  exposito- 
IX,  partly  apologetic  and  controveruaL  On  tbe  hislor- 
icsl  boo'ka  uf  tbe  Old  Teat,  be  rather  diacutaen  difflcalt 
paaMgn  than  pmenis  ■  continuous  comtnentary.  He 
tmtfd  the  first  eight  books,  and  ajao  Kinga  and  Chron- 
iclei,on  (be  plan  of  aimply  atating  and  meeling  the  djf- 
Scallitt  Ihey  present  to  the  thoughtful  mind,  without 
ramin^t  into  a  consecutive  commentary  of  the  several 
books;  but  upon  other  booka  be  wrote  expoeidotui  in 
the  uauat  form.  His  commenUries  on  Psalms,  Canti- 
cle^ and  Isaiah  exiat  no  lunger  save  in  fragmentary 
eitracti.  He  wrote  also  on  the  remaining  prophets, 
tbe  Apocryphal  book  Baruch,  and  the  Pauline  epistle*; 
and  bcliriickh  preferred  Thcodotet'a  commentary  on  the 
latter  to  all  others,  though  it  is  very  defective  aa  re- 
eardi  the  statement  of  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
teveral  books.  The  apologetical  work  'EXAi)vic£v  6i- 
iNnnvnrq  lla^iiaTttv,  etc,  wat  intended  to  exhibit  Ibe 
nmflimations  of  Christian  truth  contained  in  Grecian 
phikianphr,  and  adbrds  evidence  of  the  author's  varieil 
kiniing,  aa  do  alao  bis  ten  diieontaea  on  Providence. 
Hia  dogmaticn-polemicsl  works  ore,  a  cenaure  of  Cyr- 
iri  twelve  heads  of  anathematizaiinn  •.—EnmitUi,  sru 
Ai^aaiTiiu,  containing  three  trentises  in  defence  of 
ibe  Anliachian  Chriitologj,  and  directed  against  En- 
lyckes,  in  447,  one  f  car  before  tbe  coudemiiation  of  that 
hawic  at  Cooatantinople:— a  compendium  of  heretical 
hUn,  wbcae  atalcmenu  are  evidently  inexact  and  very 
nperflcial:  this  work  contains  so  barsh  a  judgment  of 
KfstoriuB  as  to  lead  Gamier  to  deny  its  authenticity: 
~  twenty  -  seren  booka  against  Eutvchianism,  an  ab- 
Mract  of  which  is  supplied  by  Photi'ua  iBiU.  Cod.  46). 
Tht  biaurical  wDfks  are  two  in  number— /I  Hiitory  of 
tb  CiUrd,  in  Sre  books,  eitanding  fmrn  S36  to  429, 
nplementSocralesandSoiamen: — and 
'ottAi!)iot'lmafiia,atRtligiotami- 


Ther*  ai*  only  two  complete  etUtinna  of  Theodoret'a 
■eat^  the  frit  hy  tb*  Jasoits  Sirmond  and  Gamier 
(hria,IMl-H),inflraTolnme&  The  last  volume  waa 
addad  after  CaraicT^  death  by  Hankniln.  Tbe  other 
edttHB,  by  SehoUe  and  Naaadt  (Balk,  17S9-74,  b  vols. 
is  10  pli.  Svo),  ia  based  oo  tbe  Knmer,  and  contains  all 
thai  ia  good,  whila  it  correcta  much  that  ia  faulty  in  its 
Foe  aa  aec  of  separate 


oka  CO 
gas  fro 

demned  idol- 
m  bouses  and 

ingM 
St.    T 

ivorahip  Hod 
e  inhabitants 

1  THEODOSIUS 

See  Gamier,  Duwrtarinnu,  in  voL  v  of  Schnlie'a  ed. ; 

Tilleroont,«(«oir*»,voLxiv;  Cave,  flirt. Lit s.T."423.'' 
p.406  foLed.  BaaiL;  Fabricius,  BiU.  Graca,  viiiiSS;  viii, 
277;  Schulze,  De  Vila  el  Seriplii  Throd.  Diuert.  prefixed 
to  vol  iofhia  edition;  Neaiider,  OVacA,  rf.  e*rirtt /fet  u. 
KiTvke,  voL  ii  pasaim ;  SchrOckh,  Chrill.  Kirdaigaci. 
xviii,  365  sq.;  Oudin,  Ctmaarnl.  de  Sartor,  Eed.— 
Saiitb,  Diet.  <i/' Biag.  and  Uf  Hull.  i.  v.;  Henog,  Seal- 
EiiejiUqp.t.y. 

ThoodSnu.    See  Thkodorc;  Tkroiittlds. 

TliBodoBluia,Baect  of  dissenters  from  theRnaao- 
Greek  Cbnrcb,  wba  separaXed  some  yean  since  from 
the  Pomoryans,  partly  because  they  neglected  to  pur- 
ify  by  prayer  tbe  articles  which  they  purchased 
from  unbelieiera.  Tbey  are  noted  for  their  hon- 
esty and  strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  An  early 
Prutestsiit  sect  bearing  this  name  was  formed  in 
Ruisia  iu  1562  bv  Theodosius,  one  of  three  monks 
who  came  from  the  interior  ofHuscovy  to  Vitebsk, 
a  luivn  in  Uthuania.  These  n 
airous  riles,  and  cast  onl  the  in 
churches,  breaking  ihem  in  piei 
people,  by  their  addresses  and  wi 
alone,  through  out  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
renounced  Idolatry,  and  built  a  churcn,  wnicn  was 
served  by  Prolealaat  ministen  from  Lithuania  and 
Poland. 

Theodoaltu  I,  Roman  emperor,  whose  services  to 
the  State  and  the  Church  earned  for  bim  the  title  of 
"tbe  Great,"  waa  descended  from  an  ancient  familv,  and 
bnm  about  A.D.  846  at  Caiica  or  at  Italics,  in  Spain. 
His  fsther  waa  Cornea  Theodoaius,  the  soldier  who  re- 
stored Britain  to  the  empire.  He  was  trained  in  the 
camp  of  bis  father,  and  entered  on  a  military  career,  a|i- 
proving  his  talents  in  a  campaign  in  Mtnia  in  374, 
where  he  defeated  the  Sarmatiana;  but  he  renounced 
hia  biilHiinl  prospects  when  the  emperor  Gratian  caused 
the  elder  Theodoaius  to  be  beheaded  at  Carthage  in 
S76,  and  retired  to  bla  estalea,whcre  he  engaged  in  ag- 
ricultural pursuita.  The  incursions  of  the  Goths  sonu 
rendered  bis  services  necessarr  in  tbe  fiehL  Gration 
colled  him  to  fill  the  place  of  hia  colleague  Valeno,  who 
had  fallen  at  Hadrianople,  and  be  was  proclaimed  Au- 
gustus Jan.  19,  879,  He  recdved  the  garemment  of 
the  EaaU  His  conduct  of  the  war  waa  distinguished 
br  the  prudence  with  which  he  handled  the  diapirileit 
troops,  so  that  victory  waa  gained  without  the  bgbtmg 
of  pitched  battles.  On  hia  return  he  pasaed  through  ■ 
severe  sickness,  and,  in  the  belief  that  hia  end  waa  near, 
received  baptism  at  the  hands  of  Ascoliua,  the  orthodox 
bishop  orTliesaalDnica.  His  baptism  Maa  followed,  Feb. 
28,  am,  by  an  edict  which  impoaed  the  Nicene  Creed 
on  hia  subjects  as  the  faith  of  tho  Und.  Other  Inws, 
hiving  regard  to  the  improvement  of  morals  and  the 
wellsreof  the  State,  followed  on  his  restoration  to  bealth. 
The  Gotha  were  subdued  in  successive  campaigns,  and 
admitted  into  the  empire  aa  allies. 

At  the  time  of  tbe  aeeeauon  of  Theodoaius,  Constan- 
tinople waa  Ibe  principal  aeat  of  Arianiam.  Demophi- 
lua,  the  Arian  prelate,  preferred  to  resign  hie  dignities 
rather  than  auliecribe  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  Gregory  of 
Nailinium  waa  invited  to  become  bis  successor.  He 
declined  the  place,  but  induced  the  emperor  to  deprive 
the  Avians  of  the  poeaeasian  of  all  churehes  and  oth- 
er property,  and  (o  expel  them  from  the  metropolis. 
The  Eunomiana  experienced  similar  tieatment.  The 
Hanichun  heresy  was  made  punishable  with  death  af- 
ter Ibe  Second  tEcumenical  Council  had,  in  Ml,  con- 
firmed the  Nicene  Cieeil  and  condemned  all  bereik& 
Tbeodneius  also  exempted  bishops  from  obedience  lo 
the  civil  Iribunsla;  and  to  his  reign  belongs  the  infamy 
of  first  establishing  inquisitors  of  the  faith.  Measures 
were  also  taken  la  prevent  the  sacrifice  of  bloody  oOer- 
ings  and  the  practice  of  augury  among  the  adherents  of 
heathenism,  which  induced  such  volariea  to  retire  from 
the  cities  to  more  dialant  and  unimportant  placea,   Thia 


THEODOSniS 


gave  riw  to  the  lermi  pogan  and  paganitm  in  popul 
oAAge  wheD  ip«Akiiig  of  the  pol^theialic  rpLiginns. 

Ill  tlie  ye«r  885  the  princeM  I'ulcheria  died,  >i 
Hwn  afterwKrdt  the  empreu  Flacilla,  pinegA-rics  beii 
]iruiiiiunced  in  their  honor  by  (Iregoryof  NvBU;  and 
the  fuUowiiiB  year  Theodmiua  marrieil  Ualla,  the  n^ 
ot  Vikiituiian  II,  emperor  of  the  West.    The  Uiti 
with  hii  mother,  wai  eicpelleil  from  Italy  in  387  by 
Maximua.  the  usurper  who  ruled  io  Spain,  Giul,  ami 
Britain ;  and  Theodoaius,  after  he  bad  heard  that  Max- 
imua  favored  the  pagsna,  marched  against  and  defeated 
him.     He  entered  Kome  on  June  !3,  889.    In  391  oc- 
curred the  famoui  incident  in  which  AnhrDM,  the  arch- 
bishop orHilan,  forbade  the  emperor  to  enter  biichnrch, 
and  required  of  him  the  aeknowledgment  of  hia  guilt 
in  having  delivered  over  to  death  7000  (chiefly  inno- 
cent^ inhabiiania  of  Theasalonica,  in  retaliation  for  the 
murder  of  hia  ({ovenior,  Uoleric.    The  emperor  laid 
the  inaignia  of  his  rank,  and  entreated  pardon  fi 
great  ain  before  ttie  congregation  in  the  Church  o 
ian;  and  he  iuiied  an  ediet  by  which  an  inten 
thirtv  dava  vraa  flxed  betneeti  every  aevere  aeii 


at  length  a< 


Coin  of  Tbaoduflua  I. 
The  affairaof  the  Weatem  Erapite  wet 
id,  and  Valenlinian  re-e«tablithed  on 
at  TheodosiuB  wu  at  liberty  to  return  Ui  hia  own  cap- 
Un  the  way,  he  delii-ered  Macedonia  from  the 
•n  wliD  lurked  in  ila  furesta  and  anampa,  and  en- 
ured Constantinople  in  November,  391.  Valentinian, 
nwever,  uaa  alain  on  May  15,  392,  probably  at  the 
latigation  of  Arbogattea,  a  eoldicr  of  Frankiah  race, 


itaL 


Thew 


n  the 


plaina  or  Aquileia,  and  achieved  a  victory  which 
Btroyed  both  Eugeniua  and  Arbogastei,  and  fiecureil  (I 
aubminion  of  the  West.  Four  montha  later  Theodoai 
died,  Jan.  17,395,  of  dropav.  ilia  Iiodv  uaa  broug 
to  Conitaiitinople,  and  buried  ill  the  maii'aoleum  ora> 
auntiue  the  Great. 

See  Zoaimm,  flur.1ib.iv,iHtMiin,-  ClandJan,  f^Seifn. 
50  K).;  Dt  IV  Com.  /loivrii,  etc.;  Paeatiu,  Pane^gr. 
Tkeod.  A  ng. ;  Thcmialiua,  Oratl.  B,  6, 16, 13 ;  Soxomen, 
/lul.t'cd.  lib.  V,  vii;  Socratea,  lib.  v;  Theodoret, //ur. 
i.W:iib,v;  AmmianiiaMarcelliniu,lib.xiii,X]iiici  Je- 
rome, ad  an.  879,  and  IM  Viru  lltiulr.  ciititiii,  103 ;  Am- 
brose, A>i;>.  17,-21,-27,  JM,  51, 67,etc.;  \A.LtObilv  Theod. 
passim;  Idithius,CAraR.p.lOBq.,iuidA'iMr.p.]10;OrD- 
aius  lib.  vii;  Cod.  Tlirod.  pasum;  Augustine,  De  CtvUnK 
Dti,  lib.  v  1  RuHnuB,  Uitt.  Kcd  II,  vi ;  Pro^r,  Ckrtm.  ,- 
r>drentis,p.532sq.i(ireg.NB2.Carni.p.!l;id.Omr.25: 
Thcophanea,  p.  lOo  aq. ;  Libaniiis,  Oral.pro  Templit,  ed. 
Kebke;  Symmachua,  A^itf'.  x,  17  tq.;  tireg.  Nyia.  0pp. 
Inm.  iii,  cil.  Paris;  F.vaRrioti,  Hiil.  Kcd.  i,  30;  Eunap. 
>«des,e.4,p.60Bq.;  Paulin,  Vila  Aiabrot.c2i;  Philn- 
>lo^(p^^lI,xi;  Ambroar,/;;  Fulrn/.  OMo  Cou. p.  1 173. 
Also  Flechicr,  Hill,  dt  Thrvdaie  k  Gnmd  (Paria,  1680, 
3vo;  TMetaoni,  flitl.de*  i:mpenBrt,\-ol.v;  Gibbon, ch. 
ivand  vj  I)aumKBnen,X%i-in.  ITi^Dvici.  (Halle,  1754} 
vol.xiv;MUHertl'.E.l,ComBi«i*.Hi((.de  ..  .Thtodo-. 
(Giltt.  1797  aq.);  Rlldiger,  I*t  Slain  Paganomm  nb 
Impp.  Chritlianit :  .Suffken,  De  Throd.  M,  etc  (Lugd. 
1838):  Pauly,fl«i(-Kin-yjHnp.».v.i  L'llmann,  Giv^r  r. 
A'<ui<inz(DarmW.  1825)1  Olivier,  />c  Thmd.  lU.  Cofuli- 
talionibui  (Ugd.  liat.  1835) ;  Schriickh.  CiriilL  Kirr*eii- 
ffeMch.  vcd.  vii;  Gieseler,  Kirr/tmgttc/t.  vol.  i ;  Smith,  Did. 
o/Biog.  and  Mi/AoL  a.  v.  -,  Ueizog,  Reat-EnryUop.  a.  v. 


12  THEODOTION 

ThBodotlaiiB,  a  name  given  to  the  HoKABcntMt 

(q.  v.),  from  their  founder,  Theodotus  (q.  v.). 

Theodotlon  ia  the  name  of  one  of  the  Greek  inns- 
lators  of  the  Old  Teat  after  the  time  of  the  Septuat{iiii 
(q.  v.).  According  to  Epiphaniua  (De  /"owf,  a  Mnt 
c.  IT,  19),  he  was  a  native  of  Siiiope,  in  Pontua,  andbr  a 
time  «ded  wiih  the  Marcionites,  bit  left  them  afin- 
wanta  and  became  a  Jew.  Iremeua,  however,  calls  bin 
Epiailui,  i.e.  a  native  of  Epliesus;  while  Jerome  and 
£iiae1»uscallbiman  Ebluiiile,  or  semi-Christian.  BIkIi 
thinks  It  most  probable  that  Theodotion  was  a  Juda- 
izing  heretic,  a  aemi-Christiaii  and  Ebionile,  aecoriii^ 
m  Jerome's  prevailing  description  of  him.  His  reaaons 
for  thinking  it  probable  that  he  profeaaed  to  belong  10 
the  Christian  Church  are  these  two:  n.  "We  find  ■» 

and  Flill  less  of  its  having  been  held  in  esteem  by  them: 
much  more  was  this  the  case  in  the  Christian  Cbutch. 
which  accepteil  his  translation  of  Daniel  fur  eccleaiaMi- 
cal  use.  b.  He  liaa  [ranalaied  a  clauae  in  Isa.  xxr.f, 
KordrdSi]  u  Bavaroi;  ii'c  v'aor,  precisely  aa  in  1  Cm. 
XV,  M,  but  thoroughly  deviating  from  the  Sept, . . . 
Tliis  concurrence  is  probably  not  purely  Bccideiilal,  but 
ia  to  be  explained  by  Thcodotiau  having  appropriated 
to  himself  the  Pauline  tranalation  of  the  paaaage;  aod 
this,  again,  makea  it  extremely  probable  that  be  was  a 
Chriatian  at  the  time  of  making  the  iranalitiau.'' 

As  to  the  lime  when  thia  translation  was  made.  ai> 
cording  to  Epiphaniua  it  was  publiahed  under  the  em- 
peror Commodus  (A.D.  130-182),  which,  as  Keil  n- 
marks,  "is  not  impossible,  and  can  perfectly  well  be 


iciled  w 


n  by  Ii 


the  u 


.  of  Symmachua"  (q.  v.), 

-  e  character  of  the  translation,  if  w< 


had  the  ' 


ly  in  I 


adopteil  by  Tbe- 
ouoiion  aulas  an  iniermeiiiBie  place  Mtweeii  the  scru- 
pulous literalily  of  Aquila  and  the  free  Inlerprelaiion  of 
Symmachus.  The  translator  appears,  indeed,  to  have 
mode  the  Alexandrian  version  the  baus  nriiiaoim,aDd 
In  have  abided  by  itaa  lunc  as  it  repreMiiIa  the  Hebrew 
faithfully ;  departing  from  it  and  freely  traoslaling  to 
himself  only  where  it  inadequately  expresaea  the  sense 
of  the  nriginaL  His  object  was  rather  to  supply  tbe 
defects  of  that  version  than  to  give  ■  new  and'indt- 
peiideiitone;  hence  the  additions  found  only  in  the  fir- 
mer reappear  in  his  work.  From  the  rvmainini;  fiae- 
menls,  it  may  be  inferred  that  hia  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
was  not  great.  He  has  retained  Hebrew  wonls  not  very 
dillloutt  or  obscure,  expressing  them  in  Greek  letlen 
from  ignorance  of  their  meaning;  "I'n(t«r  alii  minis 
ilerpretia  signa  qun  erudito  lectori  exphrands 
mis,  persapc  ilU  verba  Hebiaica,  quorum  inter- 
prelalio  nnn  ita  difficilia  erat  ut  verteiidi  molestian 
declinaret,  Gnecis  Uteris  expressit"  (Monfaticon,  PivU- 
....  129,  ed.  Bihrdt).  Thus,  Isa.  iii,  !4. 
WrS^^j.aj  xix,  15,  TUSiX^ny/iii.;  xliii,  JH, 
Qt9n-3ii-vi>';  Joel  ii,  17,  DblXn^orXa^  ;  Job  viii, 
11.  inx-ri;(v.  But  Jabn  {EialiUatig,  i,  178  sq.)  eno- 
jectures  that  they  were  used  among  the  Ebiouiics,  and 
therefore  retained  by  him — a  suppotution  as  improlaUs 
as  that  of  Owen,  that  they  were  left  ao  fur  particular 
the  honorof  the  Jewish  nation  {lnjvoj 
into  IhtPmnt  Slateoflht  Sfpl.  IVrnon,  p.  108).  Among 
"-  ttianathe  version  of  Theodotion  woaheldin  higher 
lation  than  that  oT  Aquila  and  Symmachus;  and 
Origen,  in  his  HeTOfJii,  supplied  the  ominions  of  the 
.Sept.  chicHy  from  it.  At  a  later  period  hia  version  of 
book  of  Daniel  waa  universallv  adopted  in  the  Greek 
Ilible  among  Christians,  inatead  of  the  Alexandrian  ver- 
According  to  Bleek,  this  change  occurred  son* 
between  the  age  of  Oiigea  and  that  of  Jefomt 


THEODOTUS  31 

Tht  IitlFT  ttT>,  in  hit  Pr<rJ'.  i*  Dtmitl."  DanMem  Juitta 
LXX  ioterpretei  Dumini  Salraioris  ecdesin  non  Ipgiint, 
DUDlts  nivdoliomi  editione,  el  cur  hoc  acridait  macio, 
Sincnim  quU  Mni)flCh>Uuaa*«t,et  quibuxHam  pro- 
pmutibus  ■  iHHUo  <kK|uia  di»crep«[,  noluBninC  Seplui- 

ChlliUkini  liiiKUun  iciente  editus  eUlibrr,  aive  Bliuil 
quidciu9ic«xwiteritignaniDs;  hoc  uduid  iffirmare  pos- 
luiD,  quod  multam  a  vrritatr  diicordet,  ct  redo  jvdicio 
rfjNRfiafK  fil'  DeliUKb {De //abaaici Prophtla  Vila 
al^  £latt  Commetitatio  Iliilorico-iiagogiea  [Giimo, 
im\  p.  28)  uya,  "  Quipropter  ego  (donee  praferaii- 
ig[  iT^menu  cun(r«rii)  venionem  Dtnielia  Theodo- 
lioniiniin  ib  ccclnii  non  prius  ailopuiam  esse  cenMO, 
HUCB  sli  Orijfeiie  unquim  cii«ig«U  Aleundrinie  ediiio 
ia  UrupU  rccrpla  cl  ab  Kusebiu  et  Pamphilio,  cum  ex 
Va  luiuiD  BFpIiuginlBi-inlcin  ederent,  septua^nUri- 
nJi  ubBtilula  eeu"  Crcdner  tliiuks  that  Ihe  CbriaCiinn 
■oe  B  laas  iinilet  tlie  pressure  nf  contradictions,  as- 

iku  finally  (ihougli,  tn  be  sure,  uot  iu  general  before 
tbt  <nd  uf  ihc  3d  century)  they  gave  up  their  Greek 
umlition  at  the  SepL,  and  set  that  of  TheodoIioD  in 
iti  place.    From  a  passage  by  Jerome  on  Jer.  x.\\x,  17, 

SnniBSchus  BortMimo*,"  it  has  l)een  conjectured  that 
thtRiln  existed  a  second  eriitinn  uf  Tbeodotiou's  ver- 
na;  but  Hody  {lie  Siblioram  Ttxiibui,  p.  634)  thinks 
ilul  the  text  of  JeromE  here  is  cormpt,  and  that  after 
nifrwu  ve  should  insert  A  quila  piina  eitifio. 

BeHdn  tlie  literature  given  in  FUnI,  Bibl,  Jud.  iii, 
UO  K|_  see  also  Davidson,  BiUical  Crtrictm,  i,  317  sq.; 
%til. Itmdacliov  lo  Iht  Old  Tet$.  ii,  233  sq.;  Geiger, 
SadigAmfmSchiifla,  (Berlin,  IST7),  iv,  87;  Kaulen, 
Emiritmi}  m  die  hriL  Schrift  (Freiburg,  1876),  p.  78; 
Milnch,  vp.  cif^  p.  28  sq.;  Ginsburg,  CoimiuHUny 
txdfiiailH  (Load.  IS61),  p.  497  sq.  Sec  Grkek  Veb- 
t^K    (ai'O 

Th«od'OttlS  (efuJorot,  God-^cfn-Johanan), 
me  of  the  three  messengers  sent  by  Nicannr  to  Judas 
Vicednni  to  Degoliate  peace  (3  Mace  xiv,  19).    I3.C. 

TbeoclfitlU  TIIK  Fl  LLKD  (6  vciiTEuc)  "■•  ■  lesther- 
droarr  who  went  from  Bjnutium  lo  Kome  about  the 
tiid<4'ibe  ill  centurr.  and  there  taught  Ebionitish  doc- 
tiiMS;  but  the  Uoraiih  bishop  Victnr  is  uid  to  have 
(.lojmmunieated  him  from  the  Church,  Theodotus 
msinluncd  that  Jesus,  although  bom  ufthe  Vir^n  ac- 
nriiai;  to  the  will  of  the  Fallier,  Has  a  mere  man,  and 
Uut  at  hi>  baptism  the  higher  Christ  descended  upon 
bio.  But  this  higher  Christ  Tbcodotus  conceived  as 
ibrSon  of  hint  who  wis  at  once  the  supreme  God  and 
CnaL^rofihe  world,  aiul  not  (with  Cerinlhus  and  other 
Oiuniti)  a*  the  son  of  a  deity  eupcriui  to  the  God  of 
IhtJeu..  F.piphaniDB  {IJ<tra.  64)  anociilei  him  with 
ibiAlDji.  lie  must  not  be  confuunded  with  another 
berdical  Tbeodotus  <i  rpnwiCinic  or  opyitpo/ioi^ilv) 
vho  was  ronneeleil  with  a  partv  of  the  Gnnstics,  the 
)lclclit)e.^liilei.  StttitmAinjlitl.ofChHtt.Chardt, 
!,&(»;  Uebcrweg.  Iliii.  nf  PkiloKphg,  1,808. 

TbeodiJSml  (Stojpafiei),  ■  term  applied  lo  coa- 
rim  in  the  early  Church.  It  was  tbeir  duty  to  give 
ptiratt  notice  to  every  member  where  and  when  the 
Chuih  aaemblage  wo  tc  be  held  (Ba^)niu^  Anal.  68, 
alM).  See  Bingham,  C*ru<.JM».  bk.viii,ch.vii. 
Hi. 

nwodnlph,  termed  /4  urefiowMtt,  probably  nGoth, 
*■  one  of  the  men  whom  Charlemagne  invited  to 
Fmee  lot  Ihe  iilvancement  of  learning.  He  was  in 
(iaalatfatiT  aa78t,  and  in  his  classial  tendency  resem- 
bM  Alcuin,  whoee  commendation  he  received.  He  was, 
In  fao,  one  of  the  foremost  reprHeniaiives  of  the  pe- 
17  called  into  being  by  Charle- 


iM  ■iikoiu  value  u 


■  social  con- 


THEODULUS 

-De  OrdiM 

iptitmi,  De  Spirilu  Hmelo  —  fragmenls  of  sermons, 
and  CupiltUa  addressed  to  the  presbytcm  of  his  parish. 
The  Capitula  reveal  bis  tare  for  his  clergy,  a]id  espe- 
cially his  concern  for  the  establishing,  by  the  clergy,  of 
[Hipular  schiul)  throughout  the  diocese.  Charlemagne 
gave  him  the  abbey  of  Fleury  and  the  bishopric  0/  Or- 
leans, and  employed  him  in  affairs  of  state.  In  734 
Theodulph  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Frankfort 
After  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  he  appears  to  have  at 
first  connected  himself  with  the  party  of  Louis  the  Fi- 
ona, but  al^erwardi  (o  have  desired  a  more  powerful 
niler.  The  complaint  laid  against  him  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  accused  him  of  conspiring  with  Bemanl  of  Italy, 
and  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  monastery  of  Angers. 
He  was  pardoned  by  Louis,  but  was  soon  afterwards 
snatched  away  bv  death,  in  831. 

I.ilrral<irf.—liitl.  Lit.  fh  lit  Franct,  iv,  459;  Tira- 
basclii,«tori(idcU<iLrrf.M(j:itI,ii,19G;  m]ir,Gnei.-l. 
rSm.  Lit.  in  Carol.  Zrilalirr  (Carlnuhe,  I84U),  $  84,  36, 
130;  Guizot,  Coui'f  aUitoire  Modmr.  ii,  334,  Urusselx 
ed.  ii,  334;  iA.  Hitl.it  ia  Cirilitaliim  m  FraBct.\\,\^1- 
904.  Theodulph's  poems  were  collected  bv  Sirmond 
(Paris,  1646,  8vo).  Also  in  Ribl.  I'nir.  m'ox.  (Lugd. 
1677), xiv,  28;  and  in  Higne,/>a<>Dl.  105.  See  Henog, 
ReaUEncyktop.  ^  v, 
Theo^flltui  (or  Theoi)ori.-s),  t" 


csided  o' 


r  these 


VaUis  in  SwitierUnd. 

1.  Theoiiorl:s  1  was  the  first  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  Valais.  He  was  present  at  the  Synod  of  Aqiiileia 
in  881,  which  condemned  the  Arian  bishops  Palladius 
and  Secundianas,  as  diiected  by  the  command  of  the 
emperor  Oratian;  and  his  zeal  for  orthodoxy  was  such 
that  he  refused  lo  recognise  PalUdius  as  a  Christian 
and  priest.  He  was  especially  meritorious  in  enhanc- 
ing the  welfare  and  glnry  of  his  own  Church,  where  he 
ia  said  to  have  eetabliihcd  orthodo.iy  on  an  assured 
basis,  and  lo  have  discovered  the  relics  of  the  Thebaic 
martyrs,  in  whose  honor  he  anbsequenllv  built  a  church 
nearwheretbeChurchofSt.Maurice  now  stands.  The 
Influx  of  ptlf-rims  to  this  church  caused  him  10  devise 
an  appropriate  cull,  and  thereby  to  give  occasimi  for 
the  organiution  of  a  monastery.  Tbeniloriis  also  for- 
warded relics  to  Vitricius  of  Rouen  and  llartin  iifTouni, 
fur  which  thanks  are  rendered  by  the  former  in  his  lie 
/.aadibu*  Sondorum;  and  he  furnished  Isiar,  bishop 
of  Geneva,  with  information  respecting  the  discovery 
of  the  famous  relics  which  became  the  bnris  of  the  leg- 
end written  by  ICucheriiis.  Hieodnnis  I  thus  appears 
to  have  been  the  actual  apnslle  of  the  country,  as  be 
was  its  first  consecrateil  bishop,  and  also  the  founder  of 
the  Church  of  Valais  and  of  the  cult  which  became  its 
boast-  His  name  appears  in  the  oldest  liturgical  man- 
uscripts of  Ihg  country,  the  very  oncieiit  Minnie  Sedt- 
niim,  an  ancient  Martgrolng;)  preserved  in  the  Castle  of 
Valeria  in  Sion,  and  in  the  il>.rtgroL  CuUic.  His 
name  occurs  also  among  those  of  the  ten  bishops  who 
wrote  to  pope  ^ridus  fmrn  Mihin  iu  S90.  After  this 
he  disappeata,  and  is  accordingly  lupposei)  to  have  died 
about  391.  See  the  ancient  Ada  Cone.;  S.  F.ucheri 
Patiia  Agtaimtittn  Marlyr.;  ancient  marlyrologies ; 
Viln  Thtodul.  EjnK.  in  the  Bollandists,  a<l  Aug.  16,  iii, 
27R-280.— Henog,  lUal-KrKyldop.  s.  v. 

3.  Theodhlus  or  Thbot>ori.'b  II,  bishop  of  Valais, 
is  mentioned  in  the  spurious  articles  of  endowment  by 
king  Sigismund  to  the  Convent  of  Su  Maurice,  and  was 
evidently  confounded  by  the  author  of  that  document 
with  Theodonis  1,  as  he  is  mode  lo  ur^e  the  erection 
of  a  new  convent  and  an  appropriate  endowment,  on  the 
ground  that  the  bones  of  the  Thebaic  martyrs  were  vet 
.D.515.      l>eBpilc  the 


Kl  by  th 


im,he1 


THEOGNOST0S 


32)       TllEOLOGIA  GEKMANICA 


•nonjiDoai  contemponry,  in  Ihs  life  of  abbot  AmbniH 
or  St.  Haorice,  u  having  niaed  colleclioiu  in  behalf  of 
Ihe  new  church  edifice,  ukI  as  having  uiisted  in  the 
ctiltectiun  of  relict  for  iu  emlowment.  A  new  biaha|i, 
ConUanliua,  appeui  in  Ihe  SvikxI  of  EpWMi  in  A.U. 
&i7;  (he  dcaih  of  ThcuiluTus  wu  acronlingi;  prior  to 
that  dat«.    See  Bolland,  ad  Aur.  ST. 

3.  THBOi>onuB  III,  preferably  callnl  Thkodulub, 
the  moM  famoiH,  but  lini  the  nuwt  im|«Tf«rly  aiitheii- 
ticaud,  bishop  of  Valaia  of  lliis  iiamf.  i--  rciiuleil  to  have 
lived  in  Ihe  time  of  Charlemagne.  I'lie  only  suiirce  fur 
Che  auumplion  that  be  lived  in  the  le^^nd  uf  tst.  Theo- 
dulus,  by  Kuodpert,  which  runs  at  fullowt :  'I'beodulua, 
of  the  noble  family  of  Qrammonl,  in  Burgundy,  wai  in- 
vited by  Charleniagne  10  a  general  council  which  wm 
lu  deriae  meana  for  reuoring  hie  peace  of  mind.  All 
the  Inihopa  responded  to  ttie  monirch'a  lean  with  the 
pTomiie  of  twenty,  and  even  more,  prayera  and  aacrificea. 
but  Theodulus  proroiied  only  a  tingle  one.  Hi>  prayer 
was  continued  day  and  night  ami  fullowed  with  the 
masa,  ao  tint  Gcid  >ent  an  angel  who  rereakd  to  Tbe- 

forgiren.  Thus  atlesled,  the  emperor  cuuld  not  dnubl 
the  bisbop't  asturance,  and  rewarded  the  latter 


nutry.tl 


might  be  able  I 


conlral  the  rude  inhabiUnla,  while  exempting 
gy  from  the  civil  authoriliea.  A  later  addendDm  to  thi* 
legend  relates  that  Theodulua  had  revcaleil  la  him  by 
an  angel  (hat  the  pope  intemled  to  spend  a  night  in 
the  cmbncea  of  a  concubine.  While  thinking  upon 
ibis  revelation,  the  devil  diew  near  in  female  fumi. 
'rheodulot  seiied  hira,  leaped  on  his  sboulden,  and 
oimpelled  him  to  aerve  as  a  medium  of  transportation 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  able  lo  prevent  the  papal  sin. 
The  Bollanditts  add  to  the  above  ■  miracle,  Ibiough 
which  Theodulua  filled  alt  obtainable  vetsela  with  the 
juice  uf  ■  single  grape  which  he  had  bleased  at  a  time 
when  the  vinlage  had  failed.  This  minde  elevated 
him  lathe  rank  uf  patron  aunt  of  (ha  country,  in  which 
character  he  is  still  GommemorBted  with  great  rejoin 
ings  an  Aug.  III.  No  martyrologiei  or  umilar  docu- 
ments mendon  Ibis  Theodulua.  Ruodper(  ia  clearly  a 
mythical  peisonoge.  The  bishop  under  connideralion 
la  Imaginary,  and  probably  developeil  out  of  Ihe  fact 
that  donations  li>  Ihe  Church  of  Valais  were  made  in 
luMorm  S.  ifiii-iai  or  S.  Theodon  (ThtodaK),  and  the 
other  fact  that  Charlemagne  had  a  court  bishop  named 
Theodore,  who  deilieated  the  Church  of  Zurich.  See 
Getpke,  Ki'<:ltm,^Kh.  d.  Sdirrii,  I,  91  tq.,  liO  tq. ;  li, 
95 sq.:  Btiguet.  V\fllniaClknttiaaa{nU).p.iS»q^9a 
•q.;  RWaz.  Br  Ifi  /.if/ion  ThibiriVHi  (17J9\  p.  37,  elc; 
Conmml.  Prtrriai  Uulielmi  Cuperi,  etc— Hcmig,  ftmt 

Theognostus.  A  person  of  ibit  name  it  said  by 
Philip  ,of  -Side  (mc  Dmiwell,  Ditien.  in  /rm.  [Onon. 
16B9],  p.  41tK  »|.)  U<  have  presided  over  ihe  catechetical 
school  of  Alexandria  in  the  second  half  nf  the  3d  cen- 
tury. I'botius  calls  him  an  Alexandrian  and  an  ex- 
egete;  and  he  was  unqueslionibly  an  Urtgeniii,  in  the 
ttricE  seuBc.  Photius  alto  e.xprcstly  nates  Ihat  Theog- 
nostni  shared  ilie  errors  nf  Origen  with  respect  to  ihe 
Trinity,  and  termed  the  Sun  Krin/Mr  (comp.  Dionyt.  Al- 
ejund^and  Me  Athanasius,  lie  Btiitpk.iit  Spirit.  Sane- 
Inn;  also  Origen,  De  Priac.  1,  3,  7,  03).  Thengnostus 
wrote  seven  books  uf  Ili/pol&tier,  which,  according  to 
IMtotius,  contlitute  a  lUicirinal  work  cunttrucleil  in  Ihe 
order  of  /oci— (1)  of  Uod  the  Father  at  Ihe  exclusive 
originator  of  the  world  (against  an  assumed  etemitv  of 
matter);  (2)  Of  the  Son;  (3)  of  the  Hdy  Spirit;"  (4) 

(?)  of  the  woildmrder.  The  brief  exiracta  from  this 
work  which  were  piwerved  by  Athanasius  in  V)e  Dferel. 
JVtc  5)nodl  I  *J&,  and  a  fhigiuNl  fmm  I  hat  father's  work 
Oh  Iht  BUaphtm^  of  the  Ho^  Ghut  (Al  han.  Ep.  4  ad 
8trtxp.%  II)  may  be  (bund  in  VntMh.  Rtliq.  Sacr.  ni. 
m  aq.  See  Galland.  HiU.  Vrl.  Pair,  iii ;  (iuericke,  Dt 
Sdkota  Ahximl.  (Ilnlle,  1824),  i,  76;  li,  S-J5  sq. 


Theogony  (Ptoytyrla),  the  name  given  in  ancient 
Greece  10  a  data  of  poems  recaunting  the  ffnnalegf  of 
lie  godi.  HuBiens  it  said  10  have  written  the  earliest 
Theogony ;  but  his  work,  as  well  as  the  theognniet  of 
Orpheus  (q.  v.)  aitd  others,  hare  perished;  that  of 
Heaiod  beuig  the  ouly  one  that  has  come  down  10  us. 
This  has  been  troosUWd  by  Thomas  Cook  (Loud.  I7ta, 
2  vult.  410). 

Tbeologal.  The  third  Loteran  Cooncil,  held  in 
11T9|  ordered  that  teachers  ahould  be  ^ipointed  to  Ibe 
various  churches  and  monasteriea  who  ahould  imlnict 
Ihe  clergy,  and  be  rewarded  for  their  labors  wiih  uil- 
able  benefloet.  The  fourth  I^Ieran  Council  reptalfd 
this  ordinance,  and  provided  in  Canon  10  that  only  ea- 
pable  men  should  be  appointed  in  cathednls  and  con- 
vent churches,  who  thould,  in  their  capacity  of  matlera, 
assist  the  bishops  in  piescblng,  bearing  confeasioas,  im- 
posing ecclesiastical  penalties,  and  otherwise  pronHKing 
tbe  welfare  of  Christians.  Canon  1 1  provided,  in  ad- 
dition, Ihat,  where  the  means  of  a  ehurcb  permiued, 
a  good  leacher  of  grammar  should  be  appointed;  while 
metropolitan  churchct  should  appiunt  a  theolagiaa, 
whoBs  business  it  should  be  to  instruct  the  clergy  snd 
other  religionitts  in  the  kuawledge  of  Holy  Scripture 
and  all  othermsilers  which  are  important  to  the  care  of 
souls.  This  leacher  should  be  allowed  the  income  fnHD 
a  prvbeiul  to  long  as  be  continued  to  perfomi  (be  (unc- 

it  was  U  tuch  iiislntctors  that  the  name  oF  Ikrologal 
waa  given.  The  Cioundl  of  Basle  ordered  the  nxn 
general  employment  of  IheuhgaU.  See  Forlsnn^t 
SamtnL  r.  ulTm  h.  «t»n  Ihrol  ^iachen  (  Leipa,  ITil ), 
p.9Cfl;  Mausi,  5urr.  C'oflc.  A'om  n  A mpUa.  CoSraii, 
(Veneu  1778),  xxii,  998  tq.  — Her»^,  Ani^£B^%<. 

Thoologla  OenoMiIca  (the  German  (ide  ■ 
BBiMm  von  drr  dtalKhfn  Thralngie)  ia  (he  title  of 
the  famous  theological  work,  by  «i  unknown  aiUkor, 
which  was  discovered  by  Lnilicr  and  published  for  the 
first  lime  by  him  in  l&IG.  I'lie  title  implies  mmlf 
(hat  it  is  a  German  lheol<<gioal  wurk.  and  is  not  10  be 
undertloiid  as  asserting  Ihe  spin!  of  exduiivenea  (« 
which  Poirel  objected,  in  any  degree. 

The  coiilenls  of  (be  book  are  entirely  in  hsmony 
wi(b  the  writings  nf  Taiiler,  Suso,  and  other  my«itt 
connected  with  the /Vwiirfi  o/' Cod  of  the  Mth  ccnrarr. 
Its  object  it  to  leach  telf-renunciation,  the  laylng^sidc 
of  our  own  and  (he  accomplishing  of  the  Divine  will 
It  declares  Ihat  only  our  telf-will  separates  mas  fnm 
God,  the  perfect  one;  it  was  telf-will  that  changaliiK 
gels  inlD  devila,  ami  it  ia  this  alone  whicb  feedi  the 
flames  of  helL  Haughty  and  opiniomied  minds,  ii  a*- 
aerts,  aim  at  perfeclion  in  other  ways  (han  (bat  of  Iw- 
mility  and  obedience.  In  thit  their  conduct  resenbltt 
that  of  Ihe  devil,  and  they  can  accordingly  end  only  in 
ruin.  Communion  with  God  is  to  be  had  only  whn 
Ihe  soul  passes  tbrough  repentance  and  is  puriHfd  Inai 
sin  and  selfiihnest,  thus  aliaining  to  enlightenramL 
I»ve  and  the  prscrice  of  virtue  are  alio  rtquisiu  to 


The  book  has  been  altribnied  In  vsrioos  aulhan,e.|i. 
EUendutiTauler,  etc,  but  without  authorily.  Lalbif't 
preface  declares  Ihat  it  was  written  bv  a  piieM  anl 
cnstos  in  the  "Deutachherm'  house  at  Frankfort-oo- 
tbe-Haln.  A  manuscript  copy,  diteovered  by  Dr.  Rom 
of  WUnUirg,  calls  it  simply  her  Fraadrfurler,  Han- 
berger,  in  Herxog.  RhJ-  Eitegkiop.  a.  v.,  thinks  tU 
the  priest  Heinrieh  of  Rddrlheim  has  been  abown  be- 
yond coiitTDveray  In  be  its  author.  The  qneMioa  sf 
Butbofship  is  a  difficult  one,  beeanse  (he  wri(er.  wlw 
usocialed  wilh  (he  Frimdi  0/ Cod,  inteniiDnaUf 
red  (be  cus(om  of  Ihdae  mystic*  in  writing  togaj' 


THEOLOGIAN 

Tm  tad  tli*[  Liiihcr  lint  gave  piibliciiy  to  tbe  work 
(u»d  it  lu  b<  reginled  in  time  ■■  tlie  special  propeitv 
of  Pntcatwita  'i'h*  Kumiah  Church  at  AnH  paid  no 
■utnlkm  10  it,  (hnugli  it  gare  occaaiun  to  [he  Bavarian 
Uibnp  IHrxingcr  lo  write  •  Tetclielu  Tktologn/  from 
\m  pniut  of  view.  Id  Uirch,  I6!l,  however,  the  (!rr. 
•at  Tkiologs  was  plaeed  on  the  Inda.  A  reeei't  Ho- 
muh  tbenloKian,  GUniher,  liaa  charged  it  with  paii- 
thtijcir;  tendencies;  but  this  iB  evidently  malicious, 
HDce  it  stnios  the  language  of  a  book  wliich  does  not 
pnttnd  to  ■  strictly  •cienliflc  character  further  than 
(be  ewe  will  narnmt.  Luther*  edition  of  laie  was 
inwDpleie;  but  the  wcond  editinii  comprehended  the 
■bile  wurJc,  and  was  accompanied  with  a  preface  rroni 
Yii  peiL  Numerous  tdiiiniis  fiiltowed  in  rapid  aucces- 
nni,  Luther  hiiDself  adding  five  to  those  alre^y  men- 

Juhion  Arodl,  who  aupptements  I^uthei'a  preface  with 
an  tirenent  one  bv  binuelf  (1G31).  The  tnanuacripC 
lUmrae-i  by  Dr.Reuas  was  edited  by  Ur.Pfeiffe  ■ 
Timna  (Id  ed.  1865).  Thi>  venion  i*  man  complete 
■tun  [jithei'a,  particularly  in  the  flnt  third  and  near  tbi 
(od of  the  work.  Repeated  tianslationB  have  been  madi 
inloLow-tinrnan,  Flemish,  Eiigliiih,  Latin,  and  French 
the  iMt-kDown  English  version  being  that  of  Mia 
SuHKiu  Winkworth,  with  preface  by  Rer.  C  Kingsley, 
and  iBimduction  by  Prof.  Stowe  (Andover,  I866>— 
LJNn,  llrildrirt  der  Tkrologia  Crmuniica,  etc  (Stutt- 
gart, 1867),  and  Heraog,  Rrat-EneylSop.  s.  v. 

Th«oloelBll.  one  who  treats  of  t  heology,  or  the  »ci- 
nct  of  things  divine.  The  most  ancient  Greeks  und 
the  latter  term  in  the  sense  of  niirT(if(ai/ei£m,  and  those 
■bo  wrote  the  history  of  the  gndi,  their  works  and  ex- 
ploitn,  wen  called  9(oXu7di.  tlosea  is  called  by  Philo 
SfAiiyiiv  when  he  gives  the  history  of  the  creation. 
Among  the  Romana,  from  the  time  of  Numa  Pmnpilioa 
to  thai  of  the  emperots,  the  knowledge  and  worship 
of  the  gods  were  made  subservient  lo  the  interette  of 
the  State.  Thus,  acconling  In  Augustine  (Z)e  Cir.  Dti, 
vi,  I),  tliere  were  three  kiiida  of  theoli^y  —  the  poti- 
iai,  or  that  of  the  poeta^  the  pkgticat,  oi  that  of  the 
phikHophen:  and  tbe  political,  or  that  of  tbe  legisla- 
KKi.  Tbe  Greek  Ohriatians  originally  deaignaled  any 
deep  philosophical  apprehension  of  the  truths  nf  relig- 
ion t^  the  term  Gitotii  (knowledge),  which  was  op- 
poant  Id  Patit  (faith).  Flnt,  during  the  Sd  and  4th 
eenuiries,  the  word  IheolDgy  came  iiit«  use  especislly 
in  Brtnneetion  with  such  of  the  fathers  as  defended  the 
doctrine  of  the  deity  of  the  Logos,  [n  this  sense  the 
evangelist  John  and  Grc)^ry  of  Nazjaiizum  nerc  torm- 
•il  IbeolDf^iana.  During  the  lame  period,  the  word  the- 
<i4iigy  woa  applied  lo  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In 
tht  century  following,  Theoilorec  widened  ita  applica- 
tion by  applying  it  to  the  whole  circle  of  theoretical 
inilraction  in  leligion.  Finally,  in  the  IZth  century, 
Abdsnl,  in  his  Tkrologia  ClirittiBm,  gave  the  word 
thu  eomprebensjve  signification  it  still  bears,  u  ei- 
JiMBTe  Dot  only  of  a  theoretical,  but  alsn  of  a  prae- 
lifal,  expoitian  of  religioii*  truth.  In  grnersl,  there- 
^.  ihc<4ii|cy  is  the  knowledge  of  God  carried  to  the 
UghM  decree  of  perfection  in  res|>ect 


vidence  of  which  it 


TbeobgT  is  divided  into  two  great  branches— (I) 
JVgfaru/,  or  that  which  relates  te  such  disclosures  of 
diDHlf  as  God  has  made  in  tbe  outwanl  world ;  and 
[1)  Kmattd,  or  such  as  he  hu  made  through  hit  spo- 
kes and  wrillen  word.  Eminent  writers  in  (be  latter 
ArpaitBeot  of  theology,  aa  Schlelermaeher,  Hsgenbach, 
I^  tiodrt,  and  othCTS,  present  different  methods  of 
■Tngit);  tbe  differetil  subJecM  embraced  in  this  study. 
8n  Thidtjmt.  The  arrai^^ctuent  adopted  by  Dr.  J. 
Ifaiirtoek  is  given  in  tbe  article  MEnioi>OLOC¥(q.  v.). 
1^  diS^imt  biancbea  are  discuiaed  under  Ibeir  several 
^**^  Mee  also  APOLoasncs ;  Ecclebtastical  His- 
*Q*ti  EcctxaiAancAL  POLnr;  Ethh^;  PoLiinca, 


:o  THEOLOGY 

Thttolfigiu  is  the  title  of  a  clerical  inatnictorof  the 
clergy  astudated  in  chapters,  etc,  who  was  appointed, 
by  tbe  authority  of  several  councils,  to  teach  the  Holy 
Scriplnres;  tbe  7'AMi%a/(q.  v.). 

ThaoloEY  (from  a<dr,  Cod,  and  Xiiyoc,  dtwoiirac) 
is  not  to  be  interpreted  aitnply  ai  its  etymology  re- 
quires, oa  tkt  doclJVK  of  God,  nor  yet  hiBtuiicilly,  aa 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  but  ia  to  be  underatood  with 
reference  to  a  definite  range  of  life  which  it  ia  to  bring 
into  the  conaciouaneaa  and  apprehend  both  theoretical- 
ly and  practically.  Theolo^  is  not,  consequently,  the 
doctrine  of  tbe  Christian  religion,  nor  of  the  self-con- 
sciousneca  of  Uod  in  man,  as  apeculative  theology  ia 
wont  to  speak,  nor  yet  of  the  feeling  of  the  Absolute, 
It  is  primarily  (he  shaping  of  a  life  in  manj  in  the  lan- 
guage of  SteenBirup,  the  Danish  divine,  it  is  an  inter- 
nal habit  wbitli  Ilea  deeper  than  tbe  intellect.  This 
has  been  cnneeded  since  the  time  of  Schleiermacher 
with  reference  to  both  religion  and  theology.  Riidel- 
bacb  describes  it  as  a  science  of  divine  things  mediated 
by  the  Spirit  of  God.  Vilraar  leaches  that  true  theol- 
ogy is  esoteric  in  form,  because  truly  scientific;  but  also 
practical,  because  it  involves  piety  and  tbe  entire  con- 
tents of  religion.  It  auBlains  to  tbe  practical  life,  bow- 
ever,  only  the  relaljon  of  idea  to  piaclice.  The  heart 
of  the  Christian  life  is,  moreoi-er,  not  religion,  but  the 
kiugdom  of  God,  or  God's  organic  revelation  to  the 
world — the  Church  (see  Storr,  Schleiennacber,  Baum- 
garten-Crusius,  and  many  Romish  theologians;  aln 
Kling,  in  Elenog,  Real-Enci/khp.  lii,  600-606).  Theol- 
ogy thus  becomes  the  science  of  tbe  unfolded,  objective 
self-man ifeslation  nf  the  Divine  Spirit  in  the  phenome- 
nal kingdom  of  God— a  practical  science  which  devel- 
ops progreasively  and  ude  by  side  with  that  kingdom. 
But  it  is  none  the  less  a  potilire  science  also  through 
its  relation  to  the  klngdotn.  Schleiermacher  {Karzt 
OattitU,  etc)  describes  Oristian  theology  as  the  com- 
prehenBioii  of  all  that  scientific  knowledge  and  thnae 
scientific  methods  without  vrhoec  poeaeseion  aad  use  a 
barmonious  direction  nf  tbe  Christian  Church,  i.  e.  a 
Christian  Churcb  government,  is  not  posnble.  This 
definition  is,  however,  too  exteriial;  for  in  tbe  material 
of  theology  all  truth  finds  its  goal,  snil  that  fact  shoulil 
be  expressed  in  its  definition.  Both  the  object  and  tbe 
scientific  character  of  theology  will  be  retained  if  tbe 
latter  be  defined  as  the  scientific  self.cot 
the  Churoh  with  reference  to  its  develop 
(he  Holy  Spirit,  or,  more  briefly,  iti 
with  respect  tc  its  self-edification. 

From  this  definition  theology  branchea  out  into  par- 
ticiUar  departmentiL  The  aelf-consciousness  has  for  ill 
Jfrd  task  the  apprehenuon  of  the  CJhurcb  in  actuality 
by  determining  its  hitlorical  origin,  development,  and 
present  stale.  Iliilorical  theology  is  the  history  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  consciously  apprehended.  It  subdi- 
vides into  the  three  special  branches  of  Sscred  History, 
EecksiBBtical  History,  and  Eccle»astical  Statistics. 

The  determination  of  sources  and  portrayal  of  the 
ontworking  and  development  of  the  leading  priniiplei 
by  which  even  ta  are  governed  are  of  priniary  importatiae 
iu  historical  study.  The  first  source  here  ia  wholly 
unique,  being  the  migU  <•/  Ike  Dirine  Spi'-il.  The 
aource  fur  the  beginnings  of  the  Christian  C^hurch  i% 
at  the  same  lime,  a  regulative  guide  and  vivifying  prin- 
ciple to  the  Church.  By  the  side  of  other  sources  it 
aObrdi  knowledge  respecting  the  time  of  the  origin  of 
tbe  Old  Covenant,  and  its  develnprnrnt  until  it  became 
the  New,  and  it  posscasM  unquestionable  authority  u 
the  earliest  witneas  to  tbe  operative  power  of  the  Di- 
vine Spirit  in  the  world,  and  consequently  as  its  medi- 
ating principle,  or  as  Iht  B9iit,  tbe  only  sacred  book. 

Tbe  first  part  of  historical  theology  is  consequently 
a  knowleilge  respecting  the  Bible  (Biblicsl  theology,  in 
the  wider  meaning).  It  is  all-important  to  determine 
what  books  beltHig  to  the  Bible,  and  this  is  (he  businees 
of  the  Canon.  Tbe  whole  Bible  is  to  be  authenticated 
both  in  its  parts  and  its  text ;  to  accomplish  Ibia  is  the 


THEOLOGY  31 

work  of  hietoricil  and  texliul  crilicitm.  Inlrodudiim  ' 
Ifl  the  book!  of  Ihe  Old  and  New  Teu&  (ftugegin),  or, 
mnn  exaOiy.ihe  Ifiilary  afllit  Cunoa  and  of  Siblieal 
Littratun,  preseiiu  Lhc  cwlleclive  maleriil  lu  view,  uid 
ii  foUoweil  by  phUuUigical  and  lluologieal  expoiition. 
ThaKientiGcconcoptinn  of  this  expoulory  work  ii/Zfr- 
mtmalia,  nt  Ihg  *rt  of  iiiUrpretaliun.  The  hiilorj'  of 
the  Word  of  (hkI,  the  Dirine  KeveUlion,  iiul  the  pr**- 
enUtion  of  in  contenu  which  bare  ittained  la  their 
developnient  aro  given  in  Sacred  Hiitory  (and  Archn- 
oloKy)  and  in  Uililical  Dogmatiea  and  Ecbict — luually 
terni^,  in  Germany,  Biblical  Theology  of  tbe  Old  and 
New  Testa.;  (he  latter  being  tbe  flnal  and  giaduilly  de- 
veloping phaie  of  the  Divine  Kevelatiou,  whose  central 
point  iatheestabllahingof  the  kingdom  of  divine  grace 
through  Jesua  CbriM.  Thia  acivnce  ii  theologico-his- 
lorical,  and  therefore  deali  largtly  with  deui1>,e.g.  the 
particuUrductiiualcanlentaoraepanteOld-TeiLbooke, 


Penonalci 


«  of  great  importance  in  this 


ooanectiop.  Without  being  rooled 
elation,  no  apprehcnMon  uf  ita  meaning  ia  poiiible. 
TheconlenU  of  the  Kerelation  ta  appropriated  both  by 
Ihe  individual  and  the  Church  muit  accordingly  be  re- 
ceived into  the  acientiHc  conaciouaneaa,  which  indicate* 
the  talk  of  icieiuijic  Aealogif.    Tbe  latter,  however,  doea 

thiDugh  numeroua  intermediate  agendea,  to  contem- 
plate which  ia  the  work  of  Ecdetiawical  Hiatory,  and, 
in  ao  far  aa  they  bekmg  la  the  pieaent  age  of  the 
Church,  of  Eccleniattical  Statiatica. 

E^ieaiaaiical  Hiatory  portrays  the  history  of  the  king- 
dom of  God  in  time  fnim  the  founding  of  the  Chriatian 
Church  on  Ihe  day  of  Peat«coat  to  the  pnaent  day, 
having  the  enri  of  prophecy  continually  in  view  as  ita 
goal.  It  directa  ita  attention  more  prominently  either 
to  Ihe  outward  development  of  that  kingdom  in  the 
Church  and  the  life  as  renewed  and  inipired  by  Chris- 
tianity (Church  Hiatory),  or  to  the  conaciouaneaa  of 
that  development  and  ill  contents— the  History  of  Doc- 
trines and  the  connected  Hiatory  of  Christian  Ethics, 
Literature,  and  Art.  The  study  of  Sonrcea.  Geography, 
Chrunoloniy,  etc,  likewise  involrea  much  that  is  pecul- 
iar, and  requires  the  separate  theological  treatment  of 
tboaa  bniiicliea,  in  conaequence  of  which  originate  P»- 
trislict,  Ecdesiasticil  Archaology,  History  of  Liturgies, 
tic 

The  present  not  only  forms  the  limit  of  development 
at  which  the  kingdom  of  God  ha*  arrived,  but  also  the 
ground  on  which  we  stand.  Tbe  description  of  this 
ground  is  the  work  of  Eccleaiaatical  Staliatica.  It  in- 
cludes both  external  and  intenuU  conditions,  both  of 
the  faith  and  the  life,  and  givea  rise,  on  the  one  hand, 
tn  Statistics  of  Churches  in  different  countries  and  of 


Hiatori 


il  Syn 


Iniiuiry  into  the  faith  a 
ination*  leads  from  Slatisti 
The  nature  of  the  latter 
nf  the  Christian  coiiscioiisues*  as  Inaed  on  a  new  life  in 
the  individual  and  Ihe  race.  The  ilevelopment  of  that 
consciuuaiieu  into  scientific  knowledge  requires,  first,  an 
assured  recognition  of  the  principles  which  underlie  the 
kingil'im  nf  God  as  manifested  in  Chriatianity;  ne.tt, 
an  unfiililing  of  tbe  cnnlenta  of  auch  principle*  in  sys- 
tematic furm ;  and,  Bnally,  a  rccngnilion  of  the  rehilian 
of  thia  knowledge  to  Ihe  universe  of  human  knowledge. 
In  this  way  is  obtained  a  science  of  the  principles  and 
Ihe  particular  phenontena  of  Chiistianity  as  the>-  art 
given  in  ita  history  (the  science  of  Christian  principles 
or  fundamentals),  a  science  of  their  diKtiinal  and  ethi- 
cal contents  generally,  and  also  in  the  particular  confes- 
sions (thellcal  theology),  and  a  philosophy  of  Christian- 
ity (parallel  to  the  philowphy  of  law  in  a  different  field 
of  ethic). 


6  THEOLOGY 

of  the  entire  Church  or  of  onB  of  ita  sabw^inate  pot% 
it  provides  room  for  Ecclesiastical  Tradition.  Thestan- 
ing-point  is  the  idea  of  the  kingilom  of  God  which  reals 
on  the  Word  of  God  as  objectively  presented  to  us  in 
tbe  Canon,  aa  approved  in  Ihe  heart  in  the  character  of 
Christ,  and  as  given  in  Tradition  in  the  forms  of  faith, 
custom,  constitulinn,  and  methoda.  The  consummalioa 
ia  in  Ihe  Dogma,  in  which  God's  kingdom  ia  the  object 
of  Ihe  scientific  eonaciousneae  of  the  general  Church,  or, 
under  historical  limilalions,  assumes  a  definite  form  in 
tbe  panicular  denominslion  f Denominational  I'rinajiies 
"  mbolici).    At  Ibis  poini 


of  other  denomina^ona  ana  of  moiiiid  apparitious  with- 
in the  Church  to  which  it  belonga.  The  latler  obser- 
vation gives  rise  to  Polemics,  or,  belter,  the  DiscuHoo 
of  ethical  and  doctrinal  excrescences  in  ibe  Chunb 
(analiigous  to  pathology  in  medicine). 

The  ground  baa  thus  been  prepared  for  Ihe  founding 
and  establishing  of  Tbetical  Theologj',  the  conbeaonal 
Dognulica  and  Elhio  aa  tradidonally  drtcrmiucd  ea  the 
baais  of  the  underlying  faith.  Here  Ihe  dognia,  in  in 
character  of  scriptural  truth  subjectively  apprehended 
and  banded  down  in  the  Church  by  authoritative  tra- 
dition, attains  to  ita  complete  development;  and  here 
Ihe  various  doctrines  are  combined  inu  a  system  Ihnnigh 
the  labon  of  critical,  religiously  ethical,  and  eystrmsiic 
scholars.     The  true  relation  ia  accurately  Indies 


Unque 


lephraj 


"  Ihe  science  of  Ihc  fsilb.' 


mind  transmutes  thia  auccesaively  and  partially  inU 

Thia  dogmatico-ethical  process  begets  a  system  of 
knowledge  respecting  God  and  divine  things.  This 
con  Bli  totes  Speculative  Theology,  the  last  result  of  a  phi- 
losophy of  Christianity  which  waa  conceived  in  myui- 
cism,  unfolded  in  theoaopby,  ufted  by  criiicisn.  ami 
formed  by  speculation,  and  now  presents  Chtiwianity 
with  the  science  of  it  aa  the  centre  and  goal  of  all  cuU- 
ure  and  aa  the  crown  of  the  scientific  labors  of  the  en- 
tire human  race.  Christianity  is  here  presented  as  a 
religion,  and  aa  (he  highest  manifestation  of  religion, 
and  also  as  the  complete  realisation  of  the  kingdum  of 
God  on  eanh  through  a  progressive  development  whicb 
re«chea  down  lo  the  final  conaummaiinn ;  and  in  ikis 
light  Chrislianity  is  presented  aa  Ihe  central  featon  ii 
tbe  philosophy  of  human  bialory. 

Tbe  duty  of  the  Church  lo  insure  lu  awn  edifiotioa 
through  the  power  of  Ihc  Holy  Spiri 


meal  d 


That  edification  is  Ecclc«aslicai  PnuclM,  at 
tific  understanding  of  its  foundations  and  methods  eon- 
aliiules  Practical  Theology,  Ihe  Ihird  principal  Innch 
of  theological  science.  The  slarling-poini  of  Ihis  r>- 
ence  is  the  energy  of  the  Christian  life  which  is  lo  Im 
perfected.  Practical  theology  is  ihe  science  of  bitmsii 
operations  within  the  kingdom  of  <ind  and  as  enaUed 
by  Ihe  Holy  Spirit,  lo  Ihe  end  that  thai  kingdom  may 
be  fully  developed.  Ouiy  through  God  can  we  airin 
at  God,  in  knowledge  as  in  feeling  or  in  practice. 

The  •etling-forlh  of  these  fundamental^  and  of  the 
methods  by  which  the  organiam  of  God's  kingdom,pai- 
ticuhtriy  in  the  Church,  is  to  be  erected  on  Ibem,  ii  tlia 
work  of  the  science  of  Ecclesiastical  Koundai  ions,  nihei^ 
wise  Ihe  science  of  the  principles  of  rtactical  Theology, 
which  finds  its  camplelinn  in  Ihe  science  of  Church  vr- 
ganizatioii.  We  next  discover  ■  separale  departdgeM 
of  Church  law,  which  cnnslilutea  Ihe  secvnd  ^i<  of 
Practical  Theology,  and  subdivide*  into  Church  Isw  ssd 
Church  government  (in  a  reetriiMd  sense,Churcb  polt- 
ty :  in  an  onrestricled,  the  core  nf  souls).  Tlie  procns 
of  self- ed  ideal  ion  under  Ihe  Holy  Spirit's  intloeDC^ 
moreover,  givea  rise  to  a  recognitinn  of  II 
throuffh  which  Ihis  is  achieved,  at  '  ~ 
a  Ihird  technical  pari,  covering  the  Ibeorie*  of 
od<  in  t  be  diflerent  Christian  churches  which  are  kiuntv 
with  reference  to  the  shaping  of  the  exlerual  funns  ef 


THEOLOGY,  BIBLICAL  327    THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND 


nnhip  n  tint  Ihcf  miy  repraseat  the  worsbip  at  the 
viiiermui,u  Litu^in:  with  reference  to  the  prncUma- 
lUm  or  the  Wonl  of  Uod,  u  Homileiics  or  Keryktics; 
■iih  rrferetice  to  [be  Lniiiing  gf  the  young,  u  Chris- 
litn  Padigngice  and  Catechetio  1  with  rerennce  to  the 
anctnion  of  huihen  and  Dibei  TiIh  religianiaU,  u 
Uiliniiio  and  Theon- of  MiMioni;  and  with  reference  to 
Ihe  ort;iniution  of  ideutific  innruclion  for  the  Chuich, 
H  Lcckuauical  I'sde it tica,  which  hu  to  do  with  [he 
Cbrinliin  organiiation  of  instil  utiun*  of  learninu,  as  the 
plaoDguf  theological  ficuliies  iu  uDivenitiet,Ibefoand- 
iag  of  tbtological  Kininariea,  etc  Theologi<al  liura- 
uiR  cannol,  of  conne,  be  brought  within  any  rnle,  but 
oaf  be  clainGed  in  conformity  with  its  manner  of  en- 
idii^  upon  the  arena  of  the  Chiiatian  and  the  Church 
life^  Herwi;.  Rrai-EHcyldop.  s.  v.     See  Theoujotan, 

Ste  Fdt,  TktoL  EvyUop.  (Hamb.  and  Gotha,  1843), 

wijj  wboBC  Lheorv  the  above  article  ii  AubotantialLy 

■Kind.    See  Emcicli>i>.«dia  ov  Tkholoot,  with  the 

liwnture  there  referred  to. 

THEOLOGY,  Biblical.    See  BlBUCAl.  Thboloot, 

THEOLOGY,    Doomaticai.      See    Doouatical 

TuiOLtKlt. 

THEOLOGY,  ExKOrrtCAL.    See  Exbobtical  Tms- 
THEOLOGY, NATinAi.    See  NatckalThkolocv. 


L  OiTj(W  and  Dtcttopmmt. — The  original  theiriaey 
of  %>  England  waa  the  Mrict  Calviniam  of  the  Ite- 
Ibraied  atandanlo.  In  I64fl  the  Wewmiiuter  Confession 
im  hnaily  adopted  by  the  synod  convened  at  Cam- 
bfidgf,  and  it  remained  the  atandird  of  faith  for  all 
"the  Nfw  English  churches"  until  1680,  when  "the 
elden  and  meewpgen  of  the  churches  in  the  colony 
of  the  Ms3Hchuselt9  in  New  England"  subaiituted  the 
canroBion  drawn  up  by  the  Congregation  si  isti  of  the 
iBMb«  cointry,  and  known  aa  the  "  Savoy  Cunfeaiton." 
In  littl  the  Connecticut  churches  made  the  same  change. 
Thi)  Mbalitution  waa  in  neither  case  demanded  by  a 
(haof^  theological  sentiment  in  Che  churchea,  the  8a- 
TOT  Conftuion  being  almoat  wonl  for  word  identical 
with  the  Westminster,  except  on  piania  connected  wjtb 
Church  polity.  Its  Calvinism  waa  equally  strict.  Not 
long  alter  thii^  however,  Btroog  and  inilependent  minds 
be^ran  to  appear  in  the  ranks  of  the  New  England  tnin- 
ixry,  wbo»  phikaophical  acumen  and  practical  eamest- 

■bich  lo  [hem  seemed  palpably  inconsistent  in  patta, 
sad  Doritly  paralyitnf;  as  a  whole.  These,  prompted 
partly  by  [heir  own  subjective  dilScnllies,  and  partly  by 
the  eiigencea  and  induences  of  the  period  which  wit' 
■Msaed  the  rise  of  New  England  Unitaiianism.  the  in- 
irodiKtiin  of  Unirenalism,  the  visits  of  Charles  VVet- 
kr  and  Ueorge  WhiteKehl,  the  planliiif-  of  Methodism, 
the  Bevdulionary  War,  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
New  Eogland  states,  the  dtfection  fmm  orthodoxy  of 
Harvard  College  and  the  largest  churches  of  Masaa- 
riiiMtts,  the  end  of  the  compulsory  support  of  religion 
bw  Lues,  the  fall  of  the  Lockenn  and  the  rise  of  a  tran- 
scMtrlnital  tchout  of  philosophy,  the  extension  of  the 
Baptist  and  of  the  Hethoili«t  Episcopal  and  Protestant 
KpiiDDpal  churches  over  all  the  New  EngUi 
lbs  [Dfloiling  of  the  noble  mii^ona  of  the 
Boaid  — not  to  mea^n  remoter  and  less  important 
emu — comntenccd  a  aeriea  of  mollifications  in  the  tra- 
ditional Calriniitic  >)'s(em  of  doctrine  designeil  to  ren- 
dn  it  more  ratiooal.  more  palauble  to  the  believer,  and 
nan  easily  defensible  against  the  assailsnt.  The  proc* 
•■  has  been  going  forward  with  a  good  degree  of  stead- 
buss  aver  hiub  the  daya  of  pieaidenl  Edwards.  One 
husiggeslsd  change  in  one  part,  another  in  another; 
<»*  has  brought  forward  a  metaphysical  novelty,  an- 
Mksf  a  theokigical  one,  a  third  an  ethical  i  liberal  and 


»  genen 


>f  the  it 


n  up 


dogical  revolution  haa 
gradually  taken  place.  In  their  earlieet  developmenr, 
the  more  generally  received  of  these  new  views  wen 
styled  "New-light  Divinity;"  then  "New  Divinity," 
alierwarda  "Edwardeani"  aametimea  "  Hopkintonian" 
or  "  Hopkinsian."  From  the  fact  that  Edwards,  Hop- 
kins, West,  and  CatUn  reuded  in  Berkshire  County,  tha 
avstem  was  at  one  time  called  "Berkshire  Divinitv." 
When  embraced  in  Great  Driiaiii  by  Andrew  Fuller, 
Dr.  Kylsnd,  Robert  Hall,  Sulclifte,  Carey,  Jay,  and  Ers- 
kine,  it  waa  called  "  American  Theology,"  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  European  svstcms.  In  this  countrv  it  has 
often  been  denominated  "New  England  Theology,"  in 
order  to  discriminate  it  from  systems  that  have  prevail- 
ed in  other  parte  of  the  land.  Thlt  term,  however,  is 
far  from  satisfactory,  partly  because  ihe  New  F.ngUnd 
theology  of  to-day  is  very  different  from  ihe  New  Eng- 
land theology  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  and  part- 
ly because,  in  speaking  of  the  New  England  theology 
of  recent  limes,  the  term  must  be  useil  in  ■  sense  auf< 
ficiently  wide  and  vague  to  include  differing  typea  oT 
doctrine  historically  associated  with  various  individual 
divines  and  with  the  Andovet,  New  Haven,  and  East 
WiiHlaor  (now  Hartford)  schooU 

The  preciae  reUlion  sustained  by  the  elder  Eilwarda 
(1703-58)  to  this  theological  devekipment  has  long  been, 
and  still  remains,  a  subject  of  controversy.  The  advo- 
catea  of  the  most  advanced  new  views  are  anxious  to 
claim  him  as  the  real  father  nf  the  whole  movement, 
while  the  Old-Bchool  writers,  with  equal  zeal,  endeavor 
to  guard  the  good  man's  memory  from  so  "  slanderous" 
an  allegation.  The  former  appeal  to  Ihe  "Ten  Im- 
provements in  Theology,"  enumerated  by  the  younger 
Edwarde  (Worfa, i,  481)  as  having  been  "made  by  hia 
father,"  and  claim  that  tuch  a  list  entitlea  their  author 
to  the  very  first  rank  among  the  innovators  upon  New 
England  orthodoxy.  The  latter  find  in  this  ennmera- 
tion  of  the  younger  Edwards  only  sn  effort  on  the  part 
of  its  author  to  magnify  Ihe  number  and  character  of 
hia  father's  theological  novelties,  in  order  the  better  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  his  own  ntore 
radical  and  dangemua  onea.  One  writer  (in  FrmetfiM 
Rrv.  Oct.  1858)  has  atumpted  to  show  that  president 

of  his  age  were  confined  to  two  poinis-^vii.,  he  held  lo 
mediale  instead  of  immtdiule  ini|>u[alion ;  and,  secondly, 


The  tf 


:eof  tl; 


vould  s< 


It  Ed< 


such  a  grand  revoluiiou,  really  advanced  piinciplea  and 
made  sialemenu  which  alterwarda  suggested,  and  al- 
most logically  necessitated,  the  peculiar  views  and  even 
phraseology  of  bis  successors  {aee  Park,  On  the  Sut  iff 
Ihe  Edicardtaii  Throrg  of  the  Atonfmtnt). 

To  present  a  complete  delineation  of  New  England 
thwilo;(j',  it  would  be  necessary  to  write  a  critical  his- 
tory of  New  England  speculation.  Contributions  and 
modifying  influence*  have  come  from  so  many  sources 
that  even  then  it  would  he  exceedingly  difficult  to  ap- 
portion to  each  of  the  oriipnal  elabt^lora  his  precise 
due.  This  difficulty  is  greatly  enhani^  by  the  inti- 
macy of  the  relalions  which  subsisted  among  them.  So 
close  were  those  relations  that  in  aome  instatMiea  it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  determine  the  real  authorship  of 
important  modiNcalions.  Edwanls.  Bellamy,  and  Hop- 
kins, the  "great  triumvirate  of  New. England  theologi- 


■m|"ii 


onfi- 


Jential  friends,  reciproral  teachers  and  learners,  m 
givers  atui  receivers,  allied  investigators  of  divine  truth. 
Each  bad  peculiarities  of  belief,  each  held  fast  to  the 
substance  of  the  old  Calvinisiic  sj-stemj  but  there  was 


THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND    32s    THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND 


vonble  oppoitunitie*  rortlieintercbangeilf  Hnlioiepta, 
mutual  atjmuluiun,  and  influence.  Their  reUtians  u 
tb«  gtneralinn  socceeiling  were  ilflo  intimaie.  The 
drat  wu  TiLher  of  Dr.  Edwards,  ibe  wcond  bia  theoli^- 
cal  leacber,  Ihe  third  wis  hia  moat  valued  couiisellur, 
and  was  iuiimati'ly  sssocUied  with  him  in  theexami- 
iiaiUin  oT  hi*  fnilivr'a  MnS.  Weat  was  a  coufidential 
comjisiiion  of  Ik-llamy  stiil  Hopkins,  intiicate  also  wiita 
Dn.  Edwards,  Smaller,  and  Umiiuiiia.  Through  Dr. 
Edwards  the  spirit  of  the  Iriurnviiate  was  irantmirted 
tu  his  pupils  Dwight  and  Griffin,  to  hia  rrknds  Backus 
and  Smailey.  Smalley  was  a  pupil  o(  Uellaaiy,  the  tn- 
Btrletor  ot  Emmans,  the  Triend  of  Hopltina  and  West. 
To  ssccnain  the  exact  cunlribulion  of  anv  one  of  these 
to  the  actual  development  is  evidently  a  task  of  the 
greatest  difGci 


About 


ed  as  "  Edwsrdean 


■M  I'SG  ll 
'*  had  cc 


Ini; 


>e  popularly  diiiinguii>h- 


according  to  Dr.  Stiles,  to  about  forty-live.  Durinf 
year  Dr.  Hnpkina  puUished  bis  Itiqairy  into  iJit  h'ature 
of  True  UuUatH,  elaborating  the  Edwardean  theory 
more  perfectly  than  Edwards  had  done;  and,  in  a  Tolu- 
minoua  appendix,  defeniling  it  against  the  objecliona 
which  Mr.  Hart  and  others  had  published  agaiiiat  il. 
Thenceforth  the  Edwardeana  were  generally  denomi- 
nated "  Uopkinsiann."  This  new  lenn,  llinu((h  Qnt  ap- 
plieil  to  the  New  Divinity  wiib  special  reference  to  iti 
doctrine  nftbe  utter  Miifulnesa  of  sll  acta  preceding  re- 
teneration,  was  aoon  uaed  lo  deaignale  all  Calviuiatii 
divines  who  favored  the  docirines  of  general  atonement 
natural  ability,  the  active  nature  of  all  holineaa  and  sin 
and  the  Justice  of  Gvfl  in  imputing  lo  men  none  bul 
their  own  perBouat  Iransgressiona.  Their  number  in 
1T96,  according  to  Dr.  Ho|)kins,  was  upwards  i^  a  hun- 
dred. Dr.Stilea  enumerates  aa  among  the  champinna  of 
the  new  system  in  i:S7  the  two  Edwardscs,  Bellamy, 
Hopkins,  Trumbull,  Smstley,  Jndson,  iipring,  Kobinaon 
(ruber  of  Dr.  Erlward  Riibiiison),  Strong,  Dwigbl,  Em- 
moni.  In  1799  tJopkina  appended  the  names  of  West, 
Levi  Hart,  Backus,  preaiilciil*  Batch  and  Fitch.  A 
pen  has  added  the  bnnoied  names  of  Dr.  Callin,  presi- 
dent Applelon,  and  Dr.  Austin.  At  Ihe  present  time 
Ihe  peculiarities  of  New-school  New  England  Ihenlngr 
have  very  general  prevalence  in  the  orthodox  Oin- 
gr^^tioual  churches  of  the  New  England  and  Wes^ 
em  Stales,  and  are  favored  by  many  in  other  Calrinia- 
tic  bodies.  They  are  taught  in  the  theolagicsl 
nariea  of  Andover,  New  Uaven,  Bangor,  and  Chicago. 
They  are  dtsaeminaled  by  qtiarlerly  and  other  organs 
of  markeil  ahiliiy,  among  which  the  fliilailttea  Sorra 
and  Tie  NrK-Ev^midrr  bold  Ibe  Hrst  rank.  They 
have  affected  the  current  theological  teachings  of  the 
Bapiiatchurchea  not  a  little;  and  the  great  ach ism  whj 
divided  Ibe  Presbyterian  Chun-h  in  18S7  was  chie  . 
Iraceable  to  their  influence  in  that  communion.  Sec 
PliKaBYTBKiAH  Ciii'Rcii  w  THE  Uhiteh  States. 

1 1.  RilalioK  to  Ordinal  (7ci/rinitn.— The  meuphyai- 
cal  and  elhical  piineiplea  accepted  by  the  New-achonI 
repreeenlalivea  of  modem  New  England  theology,  and 
fundamental  to  their  system  of  doctrine,  are  the  follow- 
ing: (I.)  There  is  a  radical  distinction  between  necessi- 

untary  nature;  ihe  same  ia  true  of  all  hnlineas.     (3.) 

the  natural  power  of  contrary  choice,  still,  aa  a  matter 

ar  words,  althongb  the  will  always  eon  choose  Ihe  least 
apparent  good,  it  always  wili  choose  the  greatest  appar- 
ent good.  (1.)  NatnnU  abilily  miial  in  all  cases  equal 
obligation.  <S.)  Moral  character  or  deserts  are  in  no 
case  tranaferalile.  In  logically  adhering  lo  these  prin- 
ciples and  such  oa  these  in  all  their  theological  applica. 
lions,  the  Edwardean  divines  have  deviated  from  the 
old  Calvinistie  system  in  Ibe  following  important  theo- 
logical, anthropological,  and  soteriological  points: 
1.  Prtdetliaalvm. — They  do  Dot  leacb  that  Uod  de- 


moral  agents  in  aucb  a  atnse  aa  M 
necessary,  but  only  that  he  has  il-^ 
.  and  place  men  that  tbey  will  act 

'  itj  or  men's  choices,  but  do  nut  secnie  tbeii 
He  predelerminea  all  that  lies  back  of  tb( 
the  sensibilities  of  the  agent  and  whatever 
I  these— which  predetermination  enables  him 
the  reeuli.     At  the  same  time,  Ihe  agent  ic 
y  case  to  choose  otherwise  than  he  actually 
does;  and  ought  ut  make  a  hdy  choice  even  whoe  Gai 
reseea  that  Ibe  choice  will  be  sinful,  and  actually  dr- 
ees to  do  that  wbieh  will  in  fact  resuJt  in  the  ainfal 

2.  Original  5fa._Denying  that  there  can  be  any  iU 
desert  prior  lu  personal  tranagression,  iliey  repudiate 
the  old  Calviiiistic  doctrine  respecting  the  imputation 
of  Adam's  guilt  lo  bis  posterity,  both  in  its  mediate  and 
immediau  forma,  with  their  realistic  and  diathetic  Jns- 
tiflcalionsor  theodicies.  In  its  place  Ihey  mainiun  that, 
in  consequence  of  Adam'a  trani^^vssiuii,  all  men  ate  so 
made  and  placed  that  Ihey  will  uniformly,  certaia1v,hni 
freely,  choose  wrong  rather  than  right.  This  conitilD- 
tton  is  not  ain,  but  merelv  Ihe  aure  occasion  of  it. 

a.  n*  ^'onflncnr.— (1.)  As  lo  ita  nKure,  Ihey  track 
that  the  sufferings  of  Chriil  were  a  satisfaction,  not  W 
the  distributive,  hut  only  lo  the  general, Justice  offiod. 
){e  suffered  nut  the  exact  penalty  of  Ihe  law,  but  pains 
auUlituled  for  that  penalty  ami  anawering  its  purpose 
ifthe  endaof  the  moral  govemmint. 
ground  of  ill  nrctinli/.  The  necenilyfec 
waa  govern  menial,  not  arbitraiy  or  Data- 
logical. (8.)  FrvitM :  (o)  simply  release  from  the  cans 
of  the  law,  aiHl  thus  mediately  the  bleasinga  lo  Ibe  re- 
ception of  which  tlial  curse  was  a  bar  (Emmons), or  (t), 
all  blessings  whalsiiever  (GriIGn  and  Ihe  main  body)- 
(4.)  £iYnW.  'n>e  atonement  was  not  deaigned  fur  the 
elect  alone,  but  was  nude  for  all  men  as  truly  ss  tm 

i.  Juttificalum  does  not  cooNSt  in  any  real  di  brpo- 
Ihetical  lianafer  of  Ihe  rigbteouBncas  of  Christ  to  the 
believer,  but  in  panluning  his  sius  for  Cbrist's  sske  asd 
treating  him  as  if  innocent  (Emnmia),  aa  if  holy  (aiMa 
body). 

h.  Ar^nn-nfion.— Objecling  lo  old  Calvinistic  descrip- 
tions of  this  work,  the  New  England  theologians  dellM 

or  relish  (ehler  Edwards,  Dwigbl,etc) ;  or  (£),  aa  a  apil- 
icual illumination  (Bellamy);  or(r),aaa(buman)chaiiga 
of  governing  purpose  under  Ihe  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Taylor,  Finney,  etc) ;  or  (J),  aa  a  giMlnal  con- 
version by  the  moral  suasion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (pecal- 
iar  to  Gilbert  and  his  aympathiiera) ;  or  (e),  as  that 
radical  change  of  the  soul  which  is  produced  Im'  Ihe  ia- 
lerpcaition  of  Ihe  Holy  Spirit,  and  which  consists  in  a 
change  in  the  balance  of  Ihe  sensibiliiie*  and  a  change 
of  preference  from  wrong  to  right  (Prof.  Paii);  «  (/% 
a*  a  restoration  of  that  life-communion  with  which  IM 
waslostbyidn(l)ushnell].  ProfesH.r  Park  would  ap- 
ply Ibe  term  regenemi  ion  to  Ihe  work  iuaianlanconly 
wrought  by  Ihe  Holy  Spirit  on  Ihe  nature  of  iheaosl, 
and  the  term  conveninn  lo  the  flnt  boly  act  of  the  sod 
ilself,  Ihe  work  of  Uod  preceding  Ihe  fiee  act  of  the 
soul  in  Ihe  order  id'  nature,  though  not  of  time.  By 
some  the  soul  in  this  change  is  eilted  wholly  aoivs 
(Emmons,  Spring,  Pond);  by  others,  wholly  panre 
(Smallev,  Burton) ;  bv  othera,  both  active  and  pawn 
(Park).' 

'   "  -The  elect  can  fall  away  afler  regBi- 

■taliy  and  finally,  bnt  never  will    Tlui 
y  most  on  purely  Biblical,  aa  distiDgnidi- 
ed  from  psychologi'al,  grounds. 

Other  poinia  might  be  adduced  on  which  origbiBl 
Calvinism  and  Ibe  new  tenets  are  far  from  aceordsnli 
hut  Ihese  are  the  most  rundamenlal,  and  the  diflcrenen 
above  indicated  will  be  found  a  key  lo  the  whole  >n- 
lem.     PerbapB  nothing  better  illnalralea  Ibe  spiiili' 


THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND    329    THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND 


lb*  two  Uita  ibdr  lopectire  Ticw>  Of  tba  final  end  of 
tiod  in  cralkiD  and  provideace.    Aocording  (o  Old  C4I- 

■bifdiuated — is  the  nuDifnuiioa  of  QoA't  clunctec, 
paltaiUrly  liu  juaiice  md  mere;,  to  intelligent  creat- 
am:  uxb'rding  10  Dr.  Taylor,  ot  Mew  Haven,  as  under- 
nood  bj  manv,  it  ii  the  production  of  the  lugeat  amount 

tbento;  according  tu  Anilover,  and  perhaps  tbe  main 
bodT  oT  New  England  Calriniita  of  tbe  New  School,  it 

ki^MM  b^qnnen  tteing  timplj  a  natural  coiuequence. 
(Bciiee  a  loiiwwhat  different  repretent^tion  of  Taylot's 
riewi  by  preudent  Forter  in  7'A«  Aap-£sgiam]er  for 
IMO,  p.  736-773.) 

The  cantiOTen;  lupecting  llie  "  Doinga  of  tbe  Un- 
rcgenente"  bw  been  quite  too  promioeDt  in  tbe  history 
ud  derdopinent  of  this  New  Divinity  (o  be  pawed 
onr  in  aileiice.  Tliere  hare  been  three  theoriei:  ([.) 
That  man  i*  under  obligation  to  repent  at  once,  and 
ibal  ill  monl  choices  before  repentance  are  sinful  and 
UK  be  Dtteily  forbidden  (Emmong,  Spring,  Park).  (2.) 
Thai  man  is  under  obligation  10  repent  im mediately, 
but  lie  may  perform  preliminary  acts  which  are  neither 
soTid  nor  boly,  and  hence  ire  not  furbiddea  (Taylor). 
(3.)  (CorresponJing  with  the  Old-school  theori')  That 
vbOe  all  acta  of  choice  are  uiiful  before  repentance,  it 
ii  Kill  right  to  exhort  men  to  the  performance  of  ler- 
tais  act*  bcTore  repentance,  ag  this  is  the  moat  probable 
aethod  uf  aecuiing  their  repentance  (Dwighc). 

III.  KrLuiim  to  Original  A  muRiunum.— The  lepre- 
leouiivnof  old-faahioned  Calvinbm  have  often  cha^til 
thai  [be  modi6cBtiona  introdoced  bj  tlie  Edwirdean  cii- 
viiio  have  aimply  brought  about  a  lubititiition  of  the 
.InaiiiiaD  ayilem  for  the  Calvintatic  one  of  the  primi- 
tive >'ew  England  churches.  The  teachings  of  New 
EngliiKl  theology  with  respect  to  tbe  abaolute  depend- 
ence of  individiuU  aalvalion  upon  individual  divine  elec- 
lioii,  B  alao  with  respect  to  "ipeeial"  grace  and  to 
honin  ability  conudered  apart  from  the  gracioaa  aids 
«f  tbe  lloJy  Spirit, do  not  euatain  this  charge;  but  in  al- 
BHsi  every  other  principle  and  doctrine  the  allegation  is, 
ia  an  view,  ausceplible  nf  the  fullest  lubsLautiation. 

coBirorenr.  The  Calvinista  afBnned  and  the  Armin- 
■BB  drnied  (I)  that  the  decrees  of  God  respecting  the 
eternal  salvation  or  damnatioD  of  individual  men  are 
imspeetive  of  the  use  tbey  may  make  of  their  own 
bsdum;  (2)  that  in  the  divine  purpose  and  by  divine 
•leciee  tbe  benefita  of  the  BtaneoKnt  ars  limited  to  on- 
cniiuonally  elected  individuals;  (3)  that  in  conse- 
•lience  of  original  sin  all  persons  naturally  engendered 
fraa  idtia  are  in  such  a  condition  of  spiritual  death 
tbit  viibout  that  effectual  calling  and  supemalura] 
leaoraiion  which  is  by  divine  decree  limited  to  the 
elect  they  can  do  absolutely  nothing  either  towanls 
ibt  fuMlment  of  (Sod's  law  or  towards  an  eOectnal  ap- 
pmpriaiiun  of  tbebenelitsof  redemptii 
gtieiulu  inflaencea  of  the  Holy  Spirit' 
sod  nficieDt  10  lead  a  Hnner  to  true  repentance  and 
Hivaiton  are  restricted  to  a  portion  of  the  race,  name- 
ly, to  the  aocondilionally  elect;  and  (6)  that  true  be- 
Uereis  eannot,  by  any  poaubiliiy,  totally  and  Hnallyfall 
fna  gnce.  In  every  one  of  these  memorable  issues 
oT  tbe  Uamonslrant  and  Contrs-Bemonstnnt  parties 
ilie  lepreaeDtativea  of  Sew  Englaiul  theology  stand 
■ith  the  origiiial  Arminiana. 

t  Tbe  aame  mrtaptfiical  and  tikical  prindpla  un- 
Mie  the  two  systems.  We  will  review  them  in  the 
skIb  befera  given:  (1.)  Certainty  as  distinguished 
Ens  neseasilv.  This  was  a  favorite  Aiminian  distinc- 
iMi  (see  Anniniua,  imt.'Sl;  lit,  403,  411,416,433, 
tS;  epulolm  Tlieeiiisica,e^a. xix.lKiJi  [Aiminius]; 
CWsellnu^  p.  774,  etc.).  (S:)  Active  and  voluntary 
aalore  of  sin  and  beliiKas,  aniversally  insintained  by 
the  Anninian  divines  (see.  for  instance,  Episcopius,  ii, 
U  b;  Careellnu,  p.  IBfi,  137,  903,  904;  Licnborch,  U, 
X— 11* 


>n;  <4)(h 


xiiii,15;  UI,iv,8i  V,iii,3).  (D.)  Self-determinstion 
in  view  of  motives.  According  to  New-school  Kew 
England  theolc^,  the  will  invariably  chooses  the 
greatest  apparent  good.  This  may  be  deemed  incom- 
patible with  Arminian  principles.  Properly  explained, 
however,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  so.  Tbe  theory  is  not 
that  the  will  invariably  cbooeee  the  greatest  real  good 
proffered  for  choice,  nor  even  the  greatest  apparent 

simply  that  it  chooses  that  good  which  appears  to  tbe 
subject,  organized,  circumstanced,  and  disposed  as  he  is, 
as  most  desirable-  Tt  isonlysayiog,  in  other  words,  that 
a  man  invariablychooaeejustas  under  the  circumstance* 
at  that  moment  tbe  BtAte  of  bis  mind  prompts  him  to 
choose.  But,  (a),  the  Arminian  authorities  never  denitd 
this  position.  They  denied  that  the  mere  absence  ofco- 
actioR  constituted  hb«rty(EpiacopiuB,i, 856,367 a);  but 
New  England  divines  do  the  same.  Tbey  denied  that 
mere  spontaneity  is  liberty  in  its  full  sense  (ibid.  p.l98b; 
Cnrcelheus,  p.  168, 159) ;  but  the  New  England  divines  do 
the  same.  They  denied,  as  did  Leibnitz,  that  the  deci- 
sion of  the  will  is  invariably  determined  "ab  ultimo  judi- 
cio  rationis  practice"  (Episcopius,  i,  309  b  sq. ;  Curcell*- 
us,p.986;  Limbarch,p.l3l,etc.);  but  in  the  form  pro- 
pounded to  tbem,  the  divines  of  New  England  would  in 
like  manner  repudiate  it.  They  denied  that  the  will  id 
necessarily  determined  by  motives;  but  this  doctrine  is 
rejected  with  equal  explicitneas  by  champions  of  New- 
school  New  England  theology.  '  (b.)  I'he  will  in  all 
rational  choices  invariably  acts  in  view  of  a  good  (Epi- 
scopius, i,  302  b,  et  aL).  (c.)  The  will  ia  able  to  choose 
Ihe  least  apparent  good.  This  follows  from  theArmin- 
ian  doctrine  of  power  to  the  contrary.  It  is  also  illus- 
trated in  choices  between  objects  of  equal  apparent  de- 
sirableness. "  Si  paria  offerat,  quonim  alterum  lanlum 
ellgendum  est,  libenas  plensria  locuto  babebit"  (ibid, 
p.  207).  (dL)  In  all  deliberate  choices  men  ordiiMiiw 
follow  the  decision  of  the  judgment;  when  not,  it  ia 
because  "alia  quodam  causa  impediat"  (ibid.  De  Liitiv 
^rttrHo,  Vill,  ix).  (r.)'rhey  will  never  choose  evil 
as  evil,  or  "sub  ruioiie  mali"  (ibid,  i,  316  b,  318  sq.). 
(/)  Though  the  will  does  not  invariably  choose  the 
greatest  good  acoanling  to  the  decision  of  the  judg- 
ment, it  does  in  all  rational  choices  invariably  choose 
that  good  which  seems  the  most  desirable  to  the  whole 
man.  This  doctrine  seems  to  be  cleariy  implied  in  cap. 
X  of  Rpiscnpius,  Ezamtn  Smlmlia  Camrrimii.  The 
apparent  contradiction  found  in  cap.  viii  of  his  Rape*- 
rio  ad  DtfeatioBem  CamttoHit  is  ejsily  solved  by  ob- 
serving that  according  to  tbe  doctrine  uf  Episcopius,  as 
according  to  that  of  the  New  England  divines,  the  will 
does  not  invarisbly  follow  the  dictate  of  reason,  nor  in- 
ibly  follow  the  dictate  of  the  italuru  apptliliva. 


boihw 


«llyc. 


le  doctrine  in  question — to  wit,  that  the  will  invariably 
cbooees  the  good  wbich  to  tbe  whole  man  under  the  in- 
ward and  outward  conditioni  seems  the  most  desirable. 
On  this  point,  then,  so  far  is  the  doctrine  of  the  New- 
school  divines  of  New  England  from  being  incompalt- 
ble  with  Arminian  teachings  that,  on  the  contrary,  that 

earliest  and  most  carefully  guarded  enunciations.  (4.) 
Obligation  cannot  transcend  ability — an  axiom  with  the 
Aiminians  (see  Arminius,  Drdat-ano,  passim;  Curcel- 
Icus,  p.  96  b;  also  VII,  ii,;ia*nn,'  Umborcb,  111,  iv, 
7,  etc.).  Hera  we  may  remark  that  the  distinc- 
tion between  lu/larai  and  morni  ability  ia  much  older 
than  its  emergence  in  New  England  theology,  being 
clearlv  laid  down  in  several  of  the  elder  Arminian  di- 
vines (see  Episcopius,  ii,  M  a;  Curcelteus,  p.  156,  431). 
(5.)  Jntransferableneaa  of  moral  character  and  deserts, 
atronglv  asserted  bv  Episcopius,  ii,  lol  b;  by  Curcel- 
Isus,  p.  IS1-13T,  424,  470.  K9a-90:j;  bv  Umborch,  T, 
Ixxvii,  18:  HI,  iii,  li.etc 

3.  In  positive  iheologiait,  anlhropologiait,  and  toltri- 
obigital  ttaehingi  the  two  systems  are  in  marked  accord. 
(1.)  The  Dtcrat  0/ Cod— The  New-school  divioca  of 


THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND    3S0    THEOLOGY,  NEW  ENGLAND 


New  England  bold  to  a  uiiiverul  roreordintlion,  ib- 
■olule  19  resp«cW  ill  divins  icts,  effrclull  u  regarda  all 
coiueqiwncFe  of  IhoM  RCCs.  One  of  ths  coni^utnces 
or  those  lets  U  Ihe  establish  meat  and  nuintcnance  or 
human  fteedom.  Wbat  said  Anninian  Iheolngy?  (n.) 
All  divine  acts  are  abenlulely  decreed—"  Ueos  nihil 
fadi,  nisi  prim  apud  h  id  decrereric  facere"  (Curccl- 
Ibu,  p.W).  (6.)  God  foreordains  (positively  or  per- 
miHirelj)  whatsoerei  coawtb  to  pass — "Nihil  absque 
ipaioa  pennissu  auc  directione  evenit"  (ibid.  p.  87).  (e.) 
God  decrees  lo  da  things  which  he  knows  will  occasion 
sinful  choices  on  the  part  of  men,  and  ti>  abstain  from 
acta  which,  if  wrought,  he  knowa  would  prevent  nnful 
choice*.  Tbia  also  is  cleatir  inrolved  in  what  is  laid 
downbyArDiiniua(ili,41S-1-i9),Episcopius,CurceUaus, 
and  Umborch  on  Permitii",  Excacalio,  and  Indaralio. 
(d.)  God  decree*  to  do  that  which  he  knows  will  occa- 
sion Mn.for  aspecidc  end,  and  that  end  is  Che  best  pos- 
sible (ArtniniuB,  iti,4l9).    (e.)  A  decree  to  do  Ihit  which 

neceviute  that  sin  (CurceUnut,  p.  383, 1021). 

(2.)  The  Cmilinuion  of  Mm  not  Sin,  bal  the  Imaria- 
ble  Occaiitm  of  Sin. — No  New  Kngland  divine  has  pro- 
duced an  abler  expoailioa  and  defence  of  tbia  view  than 
are  found  in  Curcellmis,  Diuniatio  it  Ptccato  Originii, 
and  in  limboich,  III,  iv. 

(3.)  nt^riHwneaf.— The  ideality  of  the  Edwardean 
theory  of  the  alunement  with  the  Dutch  Arrninian,  as 
respects  Ihe  nature  of  the  atonement,  ground  of  its  ne- 
cessity, and  its  extent,  is  arliculalely  proven  in  artiii  of 
the  Mnh.  Quar.  Rn.  Jolv,  I860, 

(4.)  /uXi/Ccafion.— Arminiiis's  deiinition  ofJusliAca- 
tion  could  be  subscribed  lo  by  the  whole  bidy  of  New 
England  divinea  with  perhaps  Ihr  exception  nf  Eid- 
mons.  "Justification  is  a  just  and  gracious  act  of  Gud 
as  ajudge,  by  which,  froni  the  throne  of  his  grace  and 
metcv,  he  abeolres  from  his  sins  man,  a  sinner,  but  who 
is  a  believer,  on  aecouDt  of  Christ  and  Ihe  obedience 
and  righteousnessorChriBt,andconiiiderahim  righteous 
[jmlam],  to  the  salvation  of  the  Justified  person,  and  to 
the  glory  of  divine  righteousness  and  grace"  (ii,  116). 

(Ci.)  Bfgtafraiioii.—liy  the  elder  Arminian.  Calrinis- 
tic,  and  Lutheran  divines  this  operation  of  the  Spirit  is 
not  sharply  and  definitely  dislingui^ed  from  sanclilica- 
(ion,  but  in  the  dednitions  of  the  representative  New 
England  divines  there  ia  nothing  to  which  Arminius  or 
his  dinciplea  would  have  objected. 

(6.)  /Vrsffi(ru««,_-{jj.)  The  regenerate  COB  fall  away. 
This  is  universally  maintained  by  Ihe  Arminians.  (A.) 
The  regenerate  in  point  of  fad  never  do  fall  away.  Ar- 
minius did  not  decide.  He  says,  "  At  no  period  have  I 
aswrled  that  beiievera  do  Anally  decline  or  fall  away 
from  faith  and  aalvation"  (11,381).  Like  New  England 
Calvinists,  he  asserted  the  pviiibHilif,  but  not  the^cf, 
of  a  total  and  final  defection  of  Ihe  elect. 

From  the  foregntng  it  is  evident  Ihat  the  evangelical 
New  England  reaction  against  Calvinism,  while  re- 
markably indij^ous  and  original,  resembles  in  a  most 
striking  manner  the  earlier  Arrninian  reaction.  The 
Kemonstranls  repudiated  no  pari  of  slandanl  Calvinixn 
which  Ihese  New  England  Iheoli^ians  do  not  rejiu- 
diate;  they  revolted  from  traditional  teneta  from  the 
same  honurable  mnlives;  ihev  anlieipaled  bv  two  cen- 
luries  neatly  every  favorite  idea  of  their  New  Knglsnd 
successum,  and  would  perhaiu  have  anticipateil  every 
one  explicitly,  had  it  not  been  for  the  backwardneM  of 
Ihe  psycbuli^ical  and  ethienl  sciences^  Nevertheless, 
there  ever  reniaiiu  this  railical  difference,  that  acciird- 
ing  lo  New  England  theology,  as  according  to  urininal 
Calvinism,  the  real  reason  why  one  man  is  saved  aiul 
another  is  not,  is  always  in  the  last  analysis  lo  be  found 
in  the  <1ifferenl  foreordinaticins  of  liod  respecting  Ihe 
Iwo,  and  thia  dilferenoe  of  fbiaoidina  lions  ia  referable 
solely  lo  the  sovereign  good-pleasure  of  God. 

IV.  Wariatio'it  ami  Sicfe-iisuf  j.— Sevetsd  noteworthy 
views  and  speculations, to  which  their  reaped ive  authors 
nwed  iH>  small  share  of  ihsit  repataiiuu,  are  either  Dot 


adapted  or  posilivelv  repudiated  bv  Ihe  great  dum  o( 
recent  New  England  Caivinints,     For  example : 

I.  The  Eilwardean  notion  of  human  liberty.  Presi- 
dent Edwards  is  generally  understood  to  have  accepted 
the  definition  of  Locke  and  of  the  aensationol  schuuj, 
mailing  the  liberty  of  the  human  will  "  the  power,  op- 
portunity, or  advantage  that  any  one  has  lo  ijo  as  he 
pleases;"  in  other  words,  one's  ability  freely  to  errtytt 
\-olilions  philosophically  or  coscllvely  nnrHitnird,  The 
inadequacy  of  thia  definition  la  now  univemlly  admit- 
ted.   See  EnwAMiB, 

3.  Hopkins's  doclrine  of  disintertated  benevolence. 
This  was  at  one  time  [he  most  vital  and  essential  ele- 
ment in  Ihe  New  Divinity.  With  Hopkins  it  was  Iba 
eonier-atane  of  systematic  theology.    See  HopKina. 

B,  Emmons's  hypothesis  of  Cod's  efflcieni  cansaliiyof 
every  moral  act  of  man.  Emmans  held  lhat  Gad  waa 
the  efficient  originator  of  every  volirion  of  the  homan 
mind,  good  or  evil,  holy  or  sinful.  He  has  had  but  few 
adherents,  and  doubts  are  expressed  sa  lo  whether  he 
has  been  eorreclly  nnderatood  by  many  on  this  poinl 
(Park,  Mtmoir,  p.  386  sq.).     See  Khkoiv. 

4.  Nathaniel  \V,  Taylor's  view  of  Ihe  non-pterenta- 
bility  of  sin,  his  doctrine  of  the  basis  of  virtue,  and  hia 
melapbysical  explanation  of  Ibe  Sacred  Trinity.    See 

5.  The  perfeclionism  of  Prof.  Finney.  See  CHSia- 
TiAN  Pehpection;  Oheruk  Thhologt. 

e.  Dr.  Edward  Beecher's  doctrine  thai  all  Ihe  doceod- 
aula  of  Adam  have  enjoyed  an  equitable  probation  in  a 
previous  state  of  being,  and  lhat  they  tn  bom  under 
the  curse  of  anginal  tin  on  account  of  having  sinned  in 
lhat  pre-existent  slate.  See  his  CoK^itt  of  Agti  mi 
Covcord  ofAgri.     See  Phe-eXIbtence. 

7.  Dr.  Horace  Busbnell'a  view  of  Christ  and  of  the 
Sacred  Trinity,  of  revelation,  sin,  and  Ihe  atanemenl. 
See  literature  below. 

V,  LUrralvrr.—  l.ln  GrwraL^Memniri  and  Worfa  of 
Ihe  Edwardses,  Bellamy,  Hopkins,  Stephen  and  Ssmul 
West,  Samuel  Spring,  John  Smallev,  Emnons,  Dnigbt, 
Leonard  Woods,  N.  W.  Taylor,  Bennet  Tjler,  Lymaii 
Beecher,  Horace  Bushnell,  and  others  above  meniionedi 
Park,  Euoy  on  lir  Drtrlo/mml  oflhf  Hdrardtm  Tkntrf 
if  Ihr  Alontmnl  (prefixed  lo  his  collectioD  of  iNmnrsn 
nnd  Trtalua  on  thf  Alotirmnl  by  Edwards,  Smslley, 
Maxcy,  Emmons,  Griffin,  Surge,  and  Weeks);  Woodi, 
Old  nad  A'nr  Tktohgg  (from  an  OM-school  Presbyletian 
slandpaint);  Hodgson  [Melh.],  fi'fK  Dimiiy  Hiam- 
twrf;  Fisk  [Melh.J,  Tht  Cabmitlie  Ctmlrorrrrjn  EHb 
[VaU.],FiJ>sreart<ifl>irUitilananConlrortris:Fakt 
[Cnng.],  A'ncfBj.  rAeol.  in  0)U.  Sue.  xxii,  4T7,  »8 ; 
Lawrence,  in  Amer.  Thtol.  Xte.  May.  1860;  BiU.  Sac. 
and  Prinrrlan  BiiL  Rrprriory,  1851-53,  mtiipaitivi .-  7t< 
C*iirc*ffmfir,ii,89;  t,B49;  Smith, CAiircA //ulDrjrn 
Tiitl't.  p.  78 ;  L'eberweg,  Ititl.  of  I'SiL  (Amer.  ed.),  ii, 
446-4fiOi  Sherman,  A'™  England  tHtitm;  Spngiie, 
Annab. 

t.  Thf  /"re-fdtrorcfciniPm'orf.— SeeSpragne.^mii, 
vol.  i;  Cotton,  Joll^:  Davknport,  Joiik;  MATnis, 
Corros,  iNCHeARK,  and  Kioiiaiii):  Stoddabs,  Solo- 

MOS;    W ICULES WORTH,  El>WA  HI). 

S.  Jonathan  Edwardt  and  hit  T'jlro%y.~'Reviews  of 
hi>  work  on  the  Will  bv  Dr,  James  Dana  (1770),  J.  Day 
(184I),A,T.  Bledsoe  (1845),  D.D.Whedon  (186B):OM- 
>'er  Wendell  Hnlmea'sarl.  in  the  InlrmationalJitt.ittIr, 
\m).  The  mbliolhtca  Sacra  will  give  some  of  EJ- 
wnnls's  yet  unpublished  manuscripts  in  1881.  One  on 
1'rinity'and  Kedemplion,  ed.  by  Smyth,  N.  T.  1880, 
See  Ei>WAR1>!i. 

4.  Ifaptiru  and  Hapkiminnitm. — Mfrmoir  and  Worit, 
Sri>K:fitAf.,S<ir.ix.l74sq.;  x.SBsq.;  xix,6iS:  Ely. 
Ciilrimmi  and  t/opUtitianitm,    See  Hopkins,  Sajiiii. 

5.  Kmnuynt  imrf  Kmm/>ntiim.—Mfmoir  and  Worh.  6 
vi'ki  abslraet  ofhislheologyinfitM.  Soe.  vii.SMsn, 
47flmi.:  «e«  also  ix,  170  sq.,  and  xxii,  467  sq.;  S^liI^ 
Failk  and  Philot»phy.  p.  31  &-!6S. 

6.  Taglor  and  T'lyloritm.—  iffmotr  aad  Werti,  4 


THEOLOGY,  PRACTICAL        3i 

ToU.;  BM.  Sac  ivit,  856  aq.,  462  •q.;  Lord,  iu  the 
gnng-Mi^.  1832-86;  TylxT,  Letltr  lo  Dr.  Naica i  o- 
•m  in  CMriiliia  Sfitdalor  idiI  Spii-U  of  Miaiotit,  pu- 
■iai  V\ixoa,S'eallacmTKrolngi:iaLil.andniBLR- 
wr,I-,I49*q.;  vi,  121, £80,567;  fh\iei,  DittUHitmi m 
Hilary  aitd  Tkmlagf  ( 1880),  p.  285  aq.;  Thuhrr,  Taslor. 
»en»WMf(I834,t!Rio);  Melk.Qaar. Btv.Oct.lSG0, 
IBEi;  A'nvfi^^cmfcr,  18^9, 1860. 

7.  BiuharU  and  BuihutUiim.  —  Life  and  Ittltr,; 
H'orJb,  t»pecUUy  God  in  Chriil :  ^  Forgicaitu  avd 
loK-'—VicarwutSaerificr;  'Vatnban,  Striae  of  Buili- 
tttiTieoria!  Hovey.  God  icilk  Ui,aH  Kxam.of  Buth- 
tdti  Kit  Sac. ;  Butol,  PrinnpifM  and  FortraiH,  p.  366 
■I.;  riK  Srw-£iiglaada;ii,309,U0;  y,6i  Meli.Qaar. 

/br.ieee. 

8.  A^FB  Dieiaity  u  Ikt  Prabglma*  Ckurdi.—Kimoin 
■ml  wrilings  of  Rer.  Albert  Itanws;  BeiDUi,  On  Iht 
Abmmet;  Duffield,  Rrgmtralim;  Whelplejr,  Trian- 
jh;  E.  S.  Ely,  E.  D.  Griffin,  etc;  Hodge,  £any«  omJ 
KiriHci:  HibL  Sac  xx.  K[.  See  PuasBYTEMAN 
Chubch,  Nrw-9cuooi- 

».  The  "Old  SctooT  in  f/ac  Etigland  TheclBSy—Tvlet, 
Mtmi>irand/.rTtura!  Wwdfs  ITorif  (6  voU) ;  Burton, 
Eaaji :  Fi»ber,  J)itaiMtimii  in  Hiitory  ami  TAeofojip, 
[i.2r«).:  BM.  Sac.  XX,  Sll»n.;  xxx,  371  iq.;  Par- 
«a>  Cooke,  \af  .England  PuHIoh!  Ricordtr,  etc 
(W,  F.  W.) 

THEOLOGY,  Pbactic At.   S«e  Pbactical  Theol- 

THEOLXMiY,  ScitOi-UTic.    See  Schol^tic  Tiie- 

TMEOLOUr  AND  SacNCE.    See  Science  and  Re- 

THEOLOcr,  Specitlativr.  Thii  title  hu  came 
ioio  use,  particularly  in  Cierminy,  to  designate  that 
DiHhal  in  iy«eTaaiie  theokigy  which,  arailing  itacIC  or 
all  the  belpe  aubsiiliiry  to  theology,  collect*  ita  inaleriil 
under  the  guidaiie*  uTi  phtlowpbiail,  or  (peculativ-e. 


if  the  I 


1 


1  B)-.t. 


n  ii  ahoim  by  the  fact 
Ifaal  neillin  lyMematic  theology  nor  Chriatiinily  ilaelf 
canbtoDOiptewHtwitbintheconiptHofaiyMemufprac- 
licd  doctiine*  only.  Chiulianity  ii  designed  to  beueSt 
Uc  eniirv  man,  hU  intellect  aa  well  as  hia  feclinga  and 
■ilL  Indeed,  Chrisliau  flely  a  baaed  on  Ikt  Intlh ;  and 
Cbrbiianity  is  tlie  rerelaiion  of  the  truth  and  the  n&ia- 
bti  TtUgivH.  To  illaiii  a  direct  abjective  knowledge  of 
■iod,  ai  dutincl  from  the  iniliteet  knowledge  iiliiained 

the  work  of  speculation ;  and  the  aame  is  true  of  that 
itSam  of  Chriitianity  which  not  only  undermines  the 
ir);mwnta  of  aaaaiUnta,  but  establisbea  the  reasona  fur 

2.  The  materral  of  speenlilive  theology  la  gsihered 
ft™  the  realm  of  expeiience  everywhere,  mundane 
«nl  Hpermundane.  anil  mure  directly  atill  from  the 
Chimiin  faiih.  The  laik  of  speculative  tbeolDfry  is  to 
fsmlHBe  the  experimental  facts  of  the  religioua  life  into 
1  kannonious  system  in  which  thought  and  scientHic 
knotleilge  are  the  other  elements.  Its  m^kod  la  to 
•coc  on  the  historieal  facta  connected  with  ChrisIiauUy 
tad  trace  them  up  until  it  aniirea  at  the  great  ceniral 
lac(~(be  divine  life  incarnated  in  the  peraon  of  JcMa 
Climt.  Faith,  by  which  we  mean  an  immovable  ' 
io^  on  the  truths  and  reatiiiea  of  Chrialianit.v,  ia  i 
tn  a  pFcrequisite  for  this  science;  but  this  can  i 
bssote  fanulcism,  becauao  the  science  is  equally  baaed 
<m  the  safe  (ground  of  known  historic  fact. 

Chriitianiij  b  specially  ulapted  for  speculative  treat 

which  eombine*  both  iilea  and  fact,  God  aiHl  man,  am 
Ihertfiire  mocetitnlea  in  itself  the  power  to  overcnm 
■D  awtrasU.  The  andent  Church  correctly  fixed  thi 
rnnt  in  the  incarnation  of  the  Lokos.  (Ignatius,  IrenKiii 
Uri{ea,  Alhuiatius,  liregnry  of  I4yaaa).     The  dai]ger 


THEOPASCHITES 

of  speculation  in  theology  are  well  illustrated  in  the  in- 
tlectualism  ofcontemplaliDn  la  diaiJayed  in  the  East- 
n  Church.     The  more  practical  and  cihiral  teudenrv 
the  West  served  to  complete,  and,  t.>  some  extent,  coi- 
ci,  the  Eastern  intelleclualism.     Trrlullian  and  Au- 
gustine gave  themaelvea  to  pracllcol  spcculaiion;  but 
Ansclm  was  the  rnthci  iiT  genuine  Chriiillaii  apeciilaiion 
{Cur  Dtm  llomot).    Aquinita  and  Uuns  Scotus,  though 
inferior  to  him,  rendered  good  service  in  the  same  field. 
The  Refunnatiun  was  concerned  rather  with  the  di>- 
lively  religious  than  the  speculative. interests  nf 
Cbriatianity,  though  Anaelm's  ideas  were  carried  for- 
and  established  in  its  progress.     Not  until  afler 
fundamental  inquiries  into  the  philusophy  of  knowledge 
'  'nio  tbe  facta  connected  with  Gud'and  the  world 
I  we  possess  had  been  made  waa  it  entirely  pos«- 
I  utiiiie,  f»r  ipeculaiire  purpoaea.  the  treasures  of 
Christianity  for  defence,  attack,  and  positive  develop- 
The  fruitage  of  auch  inresligationa  may  be  Been 
e  worka  of  Schleiermacher,  Daub,  Uarheinecke, 
[lotbe,  Martenseii,  etc.     See  pHitoeovilT. 

Upon  the  wbule  subject  consult  Baur,  Chrtill.  Gnoiii 
(1836);  Ritter,  Gnci.  d.  riritli  PhUotapkie  (tS41-&l, 
"  vols.).     See  llerzog,  Rral-EaijUop.  a.  v, 

Theomaocy  (Ococ,  God,  and  finvrtia,  dtrinaUeB), 
\  kind  of  divination  drawn  from  the  ccaponaes  of  the 
iracle  among  heathen  natioiiSL 

Tliefinas,  or  Tbeon  (see  the  extract  from  Phihi- 
itiirgiua  given  by  rhotiua),wa9  biabop  orMarmiiriea,  in 
CiTenaica.  in  the  4th  centur}-,  and  one  of  the  most  de- 
led adherents  of  Arius.  The  synodal  circular  given 
Atbanasius,  i,  398  iq.  (eil.  Montfiiucan),  from  bishop 
Alexander,  which  mentions  the  earliest  measures  taken 
■t  Ariua,  contains  the  uames  of  Theonas  aiHl  bis 
colleague  and  neighbor  Secundna  of  Ptolemais.  1'he 
ircular  referred  to  iiidieatea  that  both  Thconaa  and  Se- 
undui  had  been  dejwised  :  but  it  woidil  seem  that  tbe 
depoution  was  not  enforced,  wnce  they  appeared  at  the 
CMinal  of  Nice  in  tile  character  ofq'ualiHed  members. 
They  achieved  nutririety  in  that  synoil  by  resisting  the 
HomoBuiioii  more  Hrmly  even  than  did  their  leailers, 
Eusebius  and  others;  and  aa  they  refuncd  to  unite  in 
the  conilemDatinn  of  Arius,  they  were  again  deposed  and 
banished.  Pliilostorgius  (i,  %  I)  state*  that  Theonoa 
waa  recalled  by  the  emperor  Conslantine;  but  he  would 
seem  to  have  taken  no  further  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 
conflicu  nf  the  time.  Hia  name  occurs  no  more  in  the 
lists  ofcombaunt  a.  See  Theodoret,  Hitl.  Eccltt.  i,  7  sq. ; 
Socraies,//if/.  ft'fofcf.  i,9(/)«TeMq/'A't«);  Epiphaniua, 
//ar.  txix,8,andcDmp.lxviig,6,and  Ixix,  1 1 ;  Tillemont, 
tfimoirej  pour  Ki-rir  a  FHitlairt  Eccltt.  (Brusaela,  Svo 
ed.),  vi,  2;  ttitl.  Abrigie  da  Anau,  art,  vi,  vii;  and 
llitloi-y  ofUie  Council  of  Htct,  art  vi,  x'l, — Henog,  Seal- 
Enq/Uop.  a.  V. 

Tbeopaichlt«B  (from  Siuf,  God,  ai 
iBjTfT).     This  term  was  applied  to  those  f 
ancient  Church  who  pronounced  in 
that  God  had  auflered  and  been  en 


iciHed,  ai 


rsfor 


imCq.v.) 

(Kpp.'i.  lK,m\  The  addition  nf  the  rlaueeSiot  i/rratt- 
pai^  to  tbe  Triiasion  by  Peter  Fulln  (q.  v.)  gave  great- 
er currency  to  its  use  (Theophauis,  CAniimgruphia,  p.  97, 
1S4).  and  formed  on  element  iu  the  Monopbyaile  dia- 
ptitea.  Fulgentiua  Ferrandua  and  Fulgentius  of  Rus|i« 
declared  in  faror  of  the  formula  "One  belonging  to 
the  Trinity  has  been  crucifted"  (see  (iieseler,  i,  2,  365; 
Scbrdckb,STiii,68S),which  was  Hibacquently  approved 
bv  the  Filth  (Ecumenical  Svnod  of  <>nstanliiu>ple  in 
563  (Anathema  10).  Fidlo's  addition  to  the  Tritagion 
wM  in  use  among  the  Catholica  of  Syria  until  its  rtjec- 
tion  by  tbe  Caneilium  Qpimfxlum  in  COi  (Canon  81), 
sfler  which  only  Monophysites  and  Monothelites  con- 
tinued its  use.  The  Calhulics,  in  tbe  meantime,  had 
reached  the  ooncluaion  that  tveiy  addition  to  the  Tiii- 
nipon  involved  a  quatemity.  Theopaschitism  is  a  very 
general  conceplian  of  the  impnlar  mind,  even  la  Prote*- 


THEOPATHETICS  a 

Unt  countri«a,  (nd  hu  liwnd  auppoit  in  manv  b^mni 


nnecled  wiib  the  conception 
which  uiiilerlies  the  expreoion  '^  Mother  of  God  i"  for 
if  it  may  lie  uid  thic  God  wu  bom  of  Uiiy,  it  may 
with  equil  propriety  be  uiil  that  (iod  wu  cniciSed. 
See  tbe  Church  HiMotio;  Smilb'a  Hsgenbieh,  llitl. 
of  Doctrina,  §  102  j  Herzog,  Stal-lJicfklop.  a.  v. 

TheopathetlQB,  a  deeignatton  of  tboM  mrMica 
who  have  resigned  Ihemaeivea,  mora  or  leu  pasiively,  to 
an  imajfined  divine  miiiifeatatiiin.  Among  thue  nuy 
be  menltoned  Tanchelm,  who  appeared  in  tbe  I2lh  ccd- 
tury,  and  announced  himseif  aa  the  residence  of  Deity ; 
Gichlel,  wbo  believed  himwlf  appointed  to  expiate  by 


anenaeotDeil 

Theoph&niB  oc  Brmriuu,  the  deaignation  of 
ttvu  early  eccluiaatical  cbarncten. 

1.  A  hiitorian  who  is  luppoaed  to  have  liveil  it  Con- 
Hantinople  at  the  cloae  of  the  6th  centurj-.  He  wrote 
a  hialnry  of  the  war  waged  with  Pen>ia  fnim  £67  to 
57^1,  and  also,  it  ia  said,  a  hiatory  of  the  reign  of  Jufr 
tiiiian.  Pbotiu)  mention*  both  works,  and  quocea  from 
the  former  (Cod.lH).  See  Labbeus,  Eittrpta  LrgatiO' 
nun  (Paris,  1617). 

2.  Tba  chrunngrspher,  confessor,  and  saint.  Of  thia 
man  an  ancient  biography,  said  to  be  the  work  of  Theo- 
dore Studila  (q.  v.),  relates  that  ho  was  bom  in  or  abont 
the  year  S7S,  and  that  the  empemr  Constanliiie  Cupron- 
vmus  became  hla  guardian.    The  munattic  impulse  led 

bis  mirriage  with  the  daughter  of  a  wealthy  patrician 
chosen  b>  be  hii  bride  by  the  emperor  himself,  and  aiib- 
aequently  to  separate  himself  from  hia  wife  altogether. 
Leo  IV  called  him  to  court,  laid  upon  him  offlcial  re- 
span«bi11  lies,  and  placed  him  over  the  public  buildings 
in  M.r.iia;  but,  in  Ireno'a  reign,  Theophnnes  becamr  a 
monk  in  LesMr  Hysin,  and  in  time  abbot  of  Ihe  mem- 
aatery  uf  \^t,  which  he  had  built.  He  wa>  a  lealnis 
iroage-wiirahipper,  and  present  as  such  at  the  second 
~    ncil  of  Nice  in  787.     In  813  Leo  the  Armenian 


ought  t- 


images,  and  punished  hia  obstinate  refusal  with  impris- 
onment and  banishment  to  Ihe  island  of  Hamothrace, 
where  Theophines  died  atnut  fil&  A  CkmnosTaphy 
by  him  is  extant,  which  records  both  ecclestasiical  and 
aecubir  matters  from  the  tirsi  year  of  the  reign  of  Dio- 
cletian to  the  drit  year  of  Leo  the  Amenian.  It  lacks 
many  excellences,  and  has  been  attribuleil,  though  with- 
out luScient  reavin,  to  other  aulhon  j  but  its  sMlemcnts 
possess  considerable  value  as  sources  for  the  Icnnorlastic 
troubles.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Classen  (Bonn, 
1S39,  2  vols.),  preccled  by  a  Greek  Vila  and  an  Offici- 
un  S.  Patrii  Koil.  ThtoplumU,  etc,  of  March  12.  See 
Vossius,  De  IIUU  Dr.  ii,  34:  Cave;  Oudin;  Fabr., 
BiU.  Gr.  vi,  151  (old  ttLj,  etc— Henog,  Rrul-£tKs'^- 

THEOPHANES,  styled  OmAVEua,  archbUhop  of 
TaiimnieiDium,  between  Syracuse  ami  llcssiiia,  in  the 
former  liilf  of  the  I  Ub  century  (?  see  hia  own  Homily 
26,  and  lea  AUaliuS)  but  comp.  Scorsus,  uf  ta/hi).  He 
■iso  bore,  it  would  seem,  the  name  of  Uregory,  which 
occun  in  several  MS3.  He  wrote  lloniliti,  sixty-two 
of  which  were  published  in  1644  by  tbe  Jesuit  Scorsiis 
at  Paris,  with  notes  and  two  pmema  setting  foith  the 
life,  teachings,  and  literary  qualities  of  Theopbinea,  elt. 
Tbe  llonatict  are  written  in  Greek,  and  Ihe  slyla  is 
flowing  and  easy,  bot  vitiated  by  an  excesuve  tendency 
lo  aUegoriie,  Image-worship  and  invocation  of  the 
Virgin  are  Uught  everywhere.  Consult  Cave,  Hitl.  Lil. 
ii,  132,  and  see  Htrzog,  StaUEmytlop.  a,  v. 


12  THEOPHANY 

Theophaay.  Tbe  ancient  Greeks  were  accustom- 
ed, during  a  certain  festival  named  Til  Siopavia,  to  dis- 
play at  Delphos  before  the  public  gaze  the  images  uf  all 
tbeii  gods.  Oiofavtsa  denoted  the  apparition  of  one 
or  mora  gods.  The  term  thus  underatiwd  waa  ajiplitd 
by  ancient  Chrislion  writers  to  the  manifestations  of 
God  under  tbe  Old  Covenant  and  to  tbe  incainalion  of 
Chiiitj  in  Ihe  latter  instance  with  raference  to  tbe 
birth,  tbe  bapdam,  and  tbe  arcond  advent  of  Chrisl. 
'U  tiripaiifia  was,  however,  a  usual  lubstiiule  for  its 
employment  as  respects  his  birth.  See  ErirHAiCT. 
Later  usage  has  given  lo  Ihe  term  a  doctrinal  meaning, 
by  which  it  is  made  lo  designate  a  special  form  uf  ilie 
divine  ravelalion,  to  delennine  which  form  il  is  neces- 
sary lo  examine  Ihe  entire  series  o(  modes  of  the  divine 
manifestation  (see  BreUchneider,  Egtlrmat.  Ei^md-Utg. 
p.  196).  Without  delaying  to  undertake  a  surrty  of 
this  kind,  we  sketch  Ibe  scriptural  view  of  the  thea]di- 
any  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

1.  The  theophany  is  nei'cr  an  immediate  ravelatioa 
of  the  BupennundaneDeily  itself  (John  i,  16;  1  Tim.vi, 
IB).  Uod  reveals  himself  only  ill  Christ  (Ualt.ii,!7). 
Tbe  Iheophany  is  therefore  more  accurately  defliMd  as  a 
Christo  phony,  or  an  cpipbatiy  of  God  in  Christ;  and  all 
nature  is  a  storehouse  of  signs  of  Ihe  divine  prcaeiiee, 
which  unifoimly  point  I o  Christ  (Rom.  i,  20;  Col.  i,  18). 
See  Logos. 

2.  The  tbeophany,  regarded  as  a  Cbristopbanr,  u  de- 
veloped in  three  great  stages :  (1)  under  Ihe  Old  Ttsl.i 
(2)  in  the  incarnation;  (3)  in  Christ's  second  idvent 
In  that  advent  the  thenphaiir,  or  revelation  of  Ihe  di- 
vine gloiy,  will  reach  its  consummation  (Tiius  ii,  18). 
Tbe  first  advent  Kas  also  a  revelaiion  of  ihe  liiudnets 
and  love  of  God  (iii,  4)  and  of  bis  grace  and  Inilh  (John 
i,  14-17;  xiv,  9);  and  with  that  revelaiion  currrsfwnded 
Ihe  fact  that  Christ  taw  the  Father  in  all  his  Hotk,eva 
as  the  futura  manifestation  of  Christ  shall  be  accompa- 
nied with  the  blessed  vision  of  the  sainU  (1  John  iii,  tj. 
Our  attention  is,  however,  confloed  br  dogmatics  to  t)w 
modes  of  manifestation  which  occumd  under  Ibt  Old 
TcBi.  prior  to  Ihe  aih-ent  of  Chrisl.  or  under  tbe  New  a> 
accompanying  or  representing  his  presence.    See  Ac- 

8.  The  theophany  or  Christopbany  of  Scripture  is  ibs 
epiphany  nf  the  coming  Christ,  mtdialeil  through  the 
angel  of  Ihe  Lonl  (Gen.  xvi,  7,  etc),  of  tbe  face  lEisd. 
xxxiii,  11 ;  Isa.  iii,  9),  or  of  the  covenant  (MaL  iii.  1). 
This  angel  was  not  a  created  being.  His  symbolic  ngD 
was  the  pillar  ofcloud  and  fire;  his  attribute  the  display 
of  the  glory  or  msjest.v  of  God  (iCla,  TiSS) ;  bii  liltr 
Rabbinical  and  theological  designation  ibe  SkiAiiak 
Cq.T.). 

4.  The  manirestation  of  Goil  in  Cbristoli^ical  thFopb- 
any  beginawith  the  voict  or  the  miracle  uf  heorini;  like 
voice  of  God  and  of  heaven  being  identical,  but  dilcreot 
from  the  Bath-Ko]  of  the  later  Jews),  and  prognssn 
lowanla  apparition  proper,  which  is  a  miracle  addnaol 
to  the  eye,  and  in  which  the  angel  of  the  Lord  appein 
escorted  by  actual  angels,  at  first  only  two,  but  In  later 
instances  myriads  in  number.     See  Bath-Koi. 

5.  Theophany,  the  objective  mode  of  revelation,  Df  v<r 
takes  place  without  being  accompanied  in  the  mind  et 

with  the  tbeophany  distinguishes  Ihe  vision  Inm  the 
ordinary  historical  occurrence  (2  Kings  vi,  17;  John  xi. 
12;  Acisix,  7;  eomp.xiii,  9;  xii,  11).  On  the  oiba 
hand,  no  vimou  is  without  its  element  of  Iheophany, 
which  fact  distinguishes  it  fram  mere  subjective  hallo- 
cination  (tsa.vi,  I  aq.;  the  book  of  Daniel;  Zechaii^: 
Acta  X,  8),    See  Vision. 

6.  The  various  modes  of  manifestation  can  be  dislia- 
guished,  therefora,  only  when  Ihe  predominantly  A- 
jective  facta  of  the  Iheophany  are  compared  with  tbe 
predominantly  subjective  facta  of  the  visiou,  S« 
Phophect. 

7.  Theopbanic  CbiiilopbanycDteia  fully  intoeaitblf 


THEOPHILANTHROPISTS        S3S 


THEOPHILUS 


(Muluiiiiu  by  being  incorpnnlvd  in  cleiDtnta  of  nitare 
udufKHil-lire.     Ucomplcteaiisclfinoiie  directind  by 

tbc  ■ppuilion  of  uuyela.  and  in  the  other  by  lymWiciil 
npiesenUIions  of  ui  (urlbly  nature  (Geo.  iii,  H;  Kxod. 
ii.ie;  Pu.i<iii,ll;ciT,4;  bi.lxi,S;  Uil.ii,T):  but 
BuHDnilbT  tbeUrimandTliummim  (q.  v.)- 

8.  VHion  tskes  pUcM  in  the  w»7  ofa  moiDeiituy  T«- 
cuing  of  the  boily  or  ut  ecMMy  (3  Cor.  sii,  *).  It  ex- 
puHlg  in  in  abunduice  of  eymbolical  uid  allegorical  vi- 
iioiu(Ezek.,  Dia.,Zecb.,ltev.),Bnd  Bnda  iucompletiun 
in  tbe  prophetic  drum.  The  Utlcr  ii  conditioned  in  a 
higher  detemination  at  the  ordinsTy  life  of  tbe  per>on 
cboten,  and  occurs  chiefly  nhere  the  common  life  hai 
not  been  developed  to  any  conHderable  exleut.ai  with 
ibe  Uld-Tegt.  Joaepb;  or  where  it  in  involved  with  a 
Kculir  oiling,  u  in  the  ease  of  tbe  New-Test.  JoKph. 
See  Dkkak 

9,  The  life  of  Chtiit  combined  into  ■  higher  anjty 
■n  ibe  rn^pnenlaiy  featurce  of  pre-Cbi ' 


•elf:  b 


eoyhai. 
whole  ir 


,  1).     His  perianal  life  reveal- 
attewing  him- 


Ithei 


It  between  ecstuy 
lod  ordinarv  cunKioDsneaa  of  the  world  no  longer  ex- 
in.  CuDSalt  Henog.  Rtal-Eiuyaop.  a.  v. :  Battsteilt, 
Aa  Aipariliombui  Dronim  GnUUifim  (tier.  1744) ;  Hil- 
liei.  Di  Varla  Geaaibui  eto^vfiuv  (Hal.  1802) ;  ^tnt 
».  Krii.  18J0,  No.  ii.     See  CKnianjUKiv. 

Tli»optiilantIiroplBta  (Gr.  lonen  of  God  tad 
man),  the  name  anumed  by  a  party  of  French  d«BU 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror  lo  indicate  their  adherence 
u  1  naioral  or  tbeistic  religion  and  worship  which  were 
iattnded  to  superaede  Chrislianitr.  In  February,  1795, 
fretilom  of  religious  opinion,  and  with  it  of  religious  wor- 
■hip,  vti  allowed ;  and  it  waa  clear  that  neither  Chri>- 
liinity  nor  Catholiciim  in  ila  uaual  furma  had  been 
driren  out  of  the  bearta  of  the  people.  The  civil  an- 
tboritiea  were  much  concerned  leat  the  old  political 
rmpalhiea  for  royalty  ahonld  revive  with  Cathi " 


MOfth 


le  relig 


The  fo 


a  form  of  wnnhip  adapted  t< 


S(U1,B 

ion  led  m 


wu  ialil  in  lT9fl  by  Hve  heads  of  fimilea,  who,  having 
dnlartd  tbemwlrea  Theophilantbropiata,  met  together 
every  week  for  united  prayer,  to  listen  to  moral  re- 
matki,  and  to  ung  bymna  in  honor  of  God.  In  the 
BDM  year  a  kind  of  eateehism  or  directory  for  pablic 
or  social  wonhip  was  published  at  Paris  under  tbe  title 
ol  tlamitl  drt  I'MoMrophUa.  This  breviary  was  baaed 
«a  tbe  simple  fundamental  article*  of  a  belief  in  the  ez- 
Islenee  of  <>nd  and  in  the  immnnality  of  the  soul.  In 
HOT  l^reveillere-Li'paux  atouil  at  the  head  of  the  ao- 
ciety;  the  Directory  assigned  ten  parish  churches  lo  the 
rapidly  growing  amoeiatiun,  and  the  new  wonhip  soon 
■pnad  over  the  provitKsea.  As  to  their  mode  of  wor- 
•kip.  there  waa  a  umple  altar— whereon  Sowen  and 
frail. according  to  their  season,  were  placed  as  ibank-of- 
ferisgi— and  a  rostrum  fur  the  speaker.  The  iralls 
nn  adorned  with  moral  mottoes,  such  as,  "Children, 
hoKir  your  parents  and  respect  your  eldem"  "  Has- 
bands  and  wives,  he  ki^d  to  one  another."  Instead  of 
Ike  traditional  festivals,  there  now  occuned  those  of 
Balon, arnngeil  accord.ng  lo  the  seasons  of  the  year; 
in  the  place  of  sacraments,  there  were  arbitrary  and 
bi^hly  spntimetital  ceremonio,  which  took  place  at  the 
birtb  of  ■  child,  at  the  recaption  of  new  members,  at 
edebntiona  of  marriage,  at  distribution  of  prizes  to 
childim.  and  at  funerals.  They  had  four  special  festi- 
val, in  honor  of  Socrates,  Si.  Vincent  da  Paul,  Jean 
Jocqoes  KouaMau,  and  Washington.  As  religious  feel- 
ing began  to  revive,  the  Theophilanthropists  began  to 
ihiliiib  They  and  their  sentimental  trumpery  were 
luntd  oat  of  the  churches;  the  Kevolutinnaiy  gnvem- 
nm  Ibrliada  tbem,  Oct.  4, 1801,  to  use  even  tbe  three 
etinrAta  whicb  were  led  in  their  hands:  and  when 
iMi  jttbkin  fur  holding  tbeir  ir  "as 


refused,  the  Tbeophilanthropist  religion  soon  died  ofin- 
anilion,  despised  by  the  infldel  party  ss  well  as  by  those 
who  still  remained  Christians.  An  attempt  to  revive 
it  after  the  revolution  of  ISiM)  utterly  failed.  See  Blunl, 
Dkt.ofSeea,a.v.\  Gardner, /'aitAi  o/ (*«  »'orld,s.v.; 
Gregoire,  lliiloiie  dti  Stctti  Rttigitiuei ;  Hagenbach, 
y/iiT.  ofAe  Chui-eh  in  the  I8fA  and  ISlh  Crnlsritt,  ii, 
4SB. 

TbaophileatSti  ( ecof  iXiirToroi,  nod  dear  ia 
God),  a  title  of  respect  given  to  bishops  in  the  early 
Church.  This  title  frcquemly  occurs  in  the  emperor's 
rescript  in  the  civil  law,  and  was  of  such  common  use 
in  those  times  that  Socrates  (Pruam.  ad  lib.  vi)  thinks 
himself  obliged  to  make  some  apology  for  not  giving  It 
to  the  bishops  that  were  then  living.  See  Uingham, 
Ckrul.  A  tuiq.  bk.  ii,  cb.  z,  J  C 

ThBOph'llna  (e(ofi\o(,/riflB(  of  God),  the  name 
of  two  men  associated  with  sacred  history,  one  of  them 
being  mentioned  in  tbe  New  Test,  and  tbe  other  byJo- 

1.  The  person  to  whom  Luke  inscribes  his  Gospel  and 
the  Acta  of  the  Apostles  (Luke  i,  3 ;  Acts  i,  I).  A.D.  cir. 
66.  The  important  part  played  by  Theophilna  as  hav- 
ing immcdislely  occasioned  the  composition  of  these 
two  books,  together  with  the  silence  of  Scripture  con- 
cerning him,  has  at  once  stimulatv d  conjecture,  and  left 
the  field  clear  for  iL  Accordingly  we  meet  with  a  con- 
siderable number  and  variety  of  theories  conceniing 

1.  Sevenl  commentators,  especially  among  the  fii- 
then,  have  been  disposed  to  doubt  the  personality  of 
Tbeophilus,  regarding  the  name  either  as  that  of  a  ficti- 
tious person  or  as  applicable  to  every  Chiistian  reader. 
Thus  Origen  {Horn.  1  in  Lve^  raises  the  question,  but 
does  not  discuss  it,  bis  abject  being  merely  practicaL 
He  says  that  all  who  are  beloi-ed  of  God  are  Tbeopbili, 
and  may  therefore  appropriate  to  themselves  the  gos- 
pel which  was  addressed  to  Theophilus.  Epiphanius 
(Hrtru.  Ii,  429)  speaks  doubtfully,  (ir'  oiV  nvi  eio- 
^Xi/i  roTi  ypai^u/v  iXiyiv,  f)  irovri  av^piiirifi  Bioi- 
AyairvvTU  Salvisnus  (^EpiiX.  9  ad  Saloniam)  appar- 
ently assumea  that  Theophilus  bad  no  historical  e:  ' 


He  Jus 


don  of  a 


A  d  Ecdaium  Catholicam,  under  the  ni 
by  the  example  uf  the  evangelist  Luke,  who  addressed 
bis  gospel  nominally  to  a  particular  man,  but  really  to 
"the  loi-e  of  God:"  "Sam  ricut  Tbeopbili  vocabulo 
amor,  uc  Timothti  honor  divinitatia  exprimiCur."  Even 
Theophylact,  who  believe*  in  tbe  existence  of  Tbeophi- 
lus, takes  the  opportonityofmoraliiingupon  his  name: 
Efii  troc  ti  af^paiwoc  ^lofiXijc,  icai  tpdroi  KarA 
tSiu   Jra^iiv   di-n^iila/wvoc   Uto^iXic  i"""'    tpa- 

B^nyytXiou  {Argva.  in  Luc).  Among  modem  com- 
mentatota,  Hammond  and  Leclerc  accept  the  allegorical 
view;  Erasmus  is  doubtful,  but,  on  the  whole,  believes 
Tbeophilus  to  have  had  a  real  existence. 

2.  From  the  honorsble  epithet  eporurrf.  applied  to 
Theophilus  m  Luke  L  3,  compared  with  the  use  of  the 
same  epithet  as  applied  by  Claudius  Lynai  aiul  Tertul- 
lus  severally  lo  Felix,  and  by  Paul  to  Festus  (Acts  xxiii, 
2(1 ;  xxiv,  S;  xxvi,  25),  it  has  been  argued  with  much 
probability,  but  not  quite  cnncluuvely,  that  he  waa  a 
person  in  high  olBcial  position.  Thus  Theophylact 
{Ari)um.vi  Luf.)  conjectures  that  he  was  a  Komsn  gov- 
ernor, or  a  perwn  of  senatorial  rank,  grounding  his  con- 
jecture expressly  on  the  use  of  c^imrrr.  O^nmenius 
{Ad  Ad.  Apotl.  i,  I)  tells  us  that  he  was  a  governor, 
but  gives  no  aiilliOTity  for  the  assertion.  The  tradi- 
tional connection  of  Luke  with  Antioch  has  disposed 
some  to  look  upon  Antiuch  as  the  abode  of  Theophilus, 
and  possibly  as  the  sent  ofhis  government.  Bengal  be- 
Ueves  him  lo  have  been  an  inhabitant  ofAntioch,  "ul 
veteres  testanlur."  The  belief  may  partly  have  grown 
out  of  a  stoiy  in  the  so-called  Rtcojailiimi  of  SI.  Clftnnl 
{lib.  x),  whicb  represents  a  certain  nobleman  of  Anlir>ch 


THEOPHILUS 


epiieopal  Mil.     Beiigel  thinks  ll 
-pdriBTt  ill  Act.  i,  1  ],.         ■■    -' 


L  tlie 


IS  llian  when  he  compucd 
hia  gospel. 

3.  In  the  Sfruc  lexicon,  extracted  from  the  Lrxiam 
llrploshl.  of  CMlell,  uid  edited  by  Michwlia  {p.  848), 
Ihe  rullcming  deKriptiun  of  ThcDphihii  is  qiiutcd  from 
lJar-l)ihlul,iS)'riui  l«xico|;npher  of  the  10th  ceiitur}': 
"Theophilus,  primus  credeniium  et  celeberrimus  a|)iid 
Alexandrienwa,  qui  cum  aljis  .£g}'ptiia  Lucam  rogibal, 
tit  ei>  evangelium  scriberel."  In  Ihe  inicriplion  of  the 
Uospfl  nccurding  to  Luke  in  ihe  Syriac  venion,  ne  are 
told  thai  it  wsa  pub1iah«d  at  Alexandria.  Hence  it  ia 
inferred  bf  Him  (Bild.  Sremtmii  Clau.ch,  iv.faac.  iii, 
ili».  4,  quoted  bv  Michaelis,  Inlrad.  to  lie  Nap  Tril. 
[ed.  Jlarali],  vol.  iii,  oh.  vi,  %  4)  and  by  Bengel  (On/o 
TempOTUm  [2d  ed.],  p.  196}  that  Theophilua  wu,  aa  w- 
srrted  by  Bar-Bahlul,  a  convert  of  Alexandria.  Thia 
wriler  ventures  la  advance  Ihe  startling  opinion  that 
TheophiluB,  if  an  Alexandrian,  vaa  no  other  than  the 
i:cleb[ated  Philo,  who  is  said  to  have  bome  the  Hebrew 
name  of  Jedidiah  (n^'"!^,  i.e.  enl^oc)-  I'  hardly 
aeema  necessary  to  refuie  this  theoiy,  as  Hichaelia  has 
refuted  i^  )>)■  cbronological  argnmenls. 

4.  Alexander  Hoius  ( A  d  Quaiam  Loca  Km.  Fad. 
A'oha.'  ad  Lac.  t,  1 )  makea  tbe  ralher  hazardous  con- 
jcclure  that  Ihe  Tbeophilua  of  Luke  is  identical  with 
ihe  person  who  is  recorded  by  Tacitiia  (.*imaL  ii,f>6}  to 
have  been  condemned  for  fraud  at  Athens  by  Ihe  court 
of  Ihe  Areopagus.  Groiiua  also  conjectures  that  he 
was  a  maeiBiralc  of  Achaia  baptized  by  Luke.     Tbe 

Jerome  (an  ataertion  which,  if  it  is  received,  rendera 
that  of  Hums  pnasible,  though  certainly  iDoat  improb- 
able },  namely,  that  Ijike  published  his  gospel  in  tbe 
parts  of  Achaia  anil  Bceotia  (Jemrne,  Coiim.  in  Mall. 
/•remit.). 

6.  It  is  obvious  10  Buppoae  thai  Theophilus  was  a 
ChriMian;  but  a  different  view  has  been  entertained. 
In  ■  series  of  disMnalions  in  Ihe  BibL  Brrmtnni,  of 
which  Michaelis  gives  ■  riiami  in  Ihe  secliou  already 
referred  lo,  the  notion  ibat  he  was  not  a  Chrialian  is 
maintained  by  diiferen I  writers  and  on  different  grounds. 
Heumann,  one  of  tbe  contribulors,  assuming  that  he  was 
It  he  ciiuld  twc  be  a  Chris- 


THEOPHILUS 

of  high  rank.  His  snpposed  connection  with  Aolioch, 
Alexandria,  or  Achaia  rests  on  too  slender  evidHia 
either  to  claim  acceptance  or  to  need  refutation;  and 
the  view  of  Hase,  although  endorsed  by  Hichaelia,  ap- 
pears to  be  inconteslably  negatived  by  tbe  Geolile  com- 
plexion of  the  third  gospel.  The  grounds  alleged  by 
Heumann  Tot  his  bypotheais  that  Theophilus  was  not  a 
Christian  are  not  at  all  trustworthy,  as  consisting  oF  two 
diaputable  premises ;  for,  in  the  flnl  place,  it  ia  nm 
at  all  evident  that  Tbeophilos  was  a  Roman  governor, 


lo  Chris 


ould  be  appointed  lo  such  ai 


10  Chrii 


kelyl 


a  charge  intmsled  to  him.  Another  writer  (Theodore 
Hase)  believes  thai  ihe  Theophilus  of  Luke  was  no  other 
Ihan  the  deposed  bigh-priest  Theophilus  the  sun  of  Ana- 
nus(see  below).  Hichaelia  himself  iit  inclined  lo  adopt 
Ihia  theory.  He  thinks  thai  Ibe  use  of  the  word  conixq- 
9irc  in  I'ike  i,  4  proves  thai  I'heophilus  had  an  impetject 
acquaintance  with  the  facta  of  Ihe  gnapel  (an  argument 
of  which  bishop  Msrah  very  properly  disposes  in  his 
note  upon  the  passage  of  Hichaelin),  and  further  con- 
lends,  from  ibc  iv  iiiuv  of  Luke  i,  I,  that  he  was  not  a 
member  of  Ihe  CbrtsUan  commutiiii-.  He  thinks  it 
probaUe  that  Ihe  evangelist  wrote  his  gospel  during 
the  imprisonment  ot  Paul  at  Cssarea.  and  addressed  it 
to  Theophilus  as  one  of  the  heads  of  the  Jewi^  nalion. 
According  to  this  view,  it  would  be  regarded  as  a  sort 
1  apology  tor  Ihe  Chiislian  failh. 


(«n 

il  does  not  at  all  follow  that  no  pcrsi 
would  become  a  Chrisliaii.  In  fact,  i 
pie  of  such  a  conversion  in  the  case  of  Seigios  Plulas 
(Acts  liii,  12),  In  ihe  arc  Luke,  Gospel  acfokuixq 
TO,  reasons  are  given  for  believing  that  Theophilus  was 
"not  a  native  of  Paleslina  ■  ■  .  not  a  Uacedouian,  not 
an  Athenian,  nor  a  Cretan.  But  thai  he  was  a  native 
of  Italy,  and  perhaps  an  inhabiUnt  of  Rome,  ia  probable 
from  similar  data."  All  that  can  be  conjeclored  with 
any  degree  of  aafety  concerning  him  coma  lo  ibis.  Hut 
he  waa  a  Gentile  of  rank  and  consideration,  who  csaw 
under  Ihe  influence  of  Luke,  or  (not  improbably)  uoder 
that  of  Paul,  at  Rome,  and  was  converted  lo  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  It  has  been  observed  ihal  the  Greek  of 
Luke,  which  elsewhere  approaches  more  neaily  lo  Ibe 
classical  lype  Ihan  that  of  the  other  evangelists,  ia  puiet 
and  more  elegant  in  the  dedicalion  lo  Theoiihilui  Ihan 
in  any  olber  part  of  hia  goepel.  From  all  these  cir- 
CDmstances,  and  especislly  from  the  fact  that  both  Ibe 
gospel  and  the  Acts  were  dedicated  to  Throphllus — 
both,  therefore,  being  wrilteii,  in  all  probability,  ibiwl 
the  same  lime,  and  ihsl  time  being  Paul's  impriinn- 
ment  at  Rome,  where  Ibc  latler  ends— we  may  rrssnn- 
ably  infer  that  Theophilua  was  one  of  Ihe  apnsile'i  con- 
veits  in  the  imperial  city  during  Ihe  two  years'  sojouraof 
Paul  there,  for  a  part,  if  nol  Ibe  most,  of  which  Luke  wa* 
hia  companion,  and  hence  likely  to  be  acquwnted  vilh, 
and  inlerfated  in,the  nobleconvert.  SeeLl'XB;  Paii- 
Monngrsphs  in  Lalin  have  been  written  on  Tbeophiliu 
bv  Heumann  (in  the  KbL  Brrmmiu,  iv,  483).  Osiaodn 
ri'ub.  1659),  Stolue  (Viteb.  1698),  and  Schelvig  {<M. 
1711). 

3.  A  Jewiah  high- priest,  the  son  of  AnnasorAnamii 
bnithe>iD-Uw  to  Caispfaas  [see  Amtiab;  CaiaFIIu], 
and  brother  and  immediate  aucceasor  of  Jonalhsn.  Tbe 
Roman  prefect 'VI tell iua  came  lo  Jerusalem  at  ihe  FOH- 
over  (A.n.Si),  and  deposed  Caiaphss,  appoiiiliug  Jona- 
than ill  hia  place.  In  Ihe  same  year,  at  Ihe  feaal  of 
Penlecost,  be  came  toJerusalvm.and  deprived  Jonaibin 
of  the  high -priesthood,  which  he  gave  lo  Theophilus 
(Josephiis,  AnI.  xviii,  4,  8;  6,  8).  Theophilus  wss  n> 
moved  from  his  post  by  Herod  Agrippa  I  after  the  se- 
cession of  that  prince  to  the  government  of  Judaa  in 
A.D.  41,  so  that  he  mtisl  have  continued  in  office  alwut 
five  years  {ibid,  six,  S,  3).  Theophilus  ia  not  neit- 
lioned  ill  the  New  Test,  as  no  events  occurrrd  during 
bis  pontiflcale  in  which  ihe  apostles  were  specially  in- 
volveil.    See  Hioh-pbimt. 

TheopbllllB  OF  Alkxakdria,  a  bishop  in  Ihe  lai- 
r  pan  of  Ihe  4th  and  the  beginning  of  the  Sth  century, 
distinguiahed  for  his  perKciition  of  Ihe  Otigtnials, 
"■  ...  jj,j. 


InsL 


1  of  conjectures,  and  ol 


ipiilous 


wecdni 


thing  mure  Ihan  conjectures,  we  find 
it  easier  lo  determine  what  is  lo  be  rejected  than  what 
we  ate  to  accept,  lii  the  lint  place,  we  nuy  safely  re- 
ject tbe  patristic  notion  that  Theophilus  was  either  a 
lietilioua  person  or  a  mere  personification  of  Christian 
lore.  Such  a  persoiiiflcalion  is  alien  from  tbe  spirit  of 
Ihe  New-Test,  writers,  and  the  epithet  tparioTt  ia  a 
sufficient  evidence  of  the  historical  existence  of  Theoph- 
ilus. Ic  does  not,  indeed,  prove  that  he  was  a  govern- 
or, but  it  makes  It  most  probable  that  hg  was  a  person 


He  succeeded  Tintotheus 
shop  of  Alexandria  in  A.D.  385,  and  soon  after  se- 
iml  Ihe  favor  of  the  emperor  by  a  characterislic  ns- 
suvre.  When  the  fate  of  the  empire  was  suKpendnl 
I  the  battle  which  was  lo  decide  between  Uaiiou 
id  Theodoaiua  (388),  be  sent  his  legale,  Isidore,  le 
omo  provided  with  letters  lo  bolh,  the  one  or  the  Mb- 
■  of  which  he  waa  to  deliver  with  certain  presenis,  ac- 
cording lo  Ihe  issue  of  the  battle.  He  was  also  very 
zealous  against  beaihenism,  and  in  S9I  obtained  the 
severe  ineuures  agaiiud  Ibi 


TIIEOPHILUS  OF  ANIIOCH      335 


THEOPHYLACT 


piguu  ia  hLi  dutrict,  which  rnolled  in  the  moM  or 
ibm  beiog  driven  oul  ot  EKypt.  H'u  behavior  Ui  the 
Jitennt  accU  of  ChiutUiu  wu  marked  by  the  ume 
DDKrapuloua  iDcauuuency.  He  ippean  to  have  piM- 
Bl  ■  part  of  hia  early  life  among  the  monka  of  Nitria, 
ume  of  wham  were  OrigeniMa  and  olhera  Anthrupo- 
moriihitea.  At  fine  he  declared  himnelf  decidedly 
agiinit  (he  lalter,  and,  in  oppoeiog  them,  he  aided  open- 
Ij  with  tbc  Origeniata,  drawing  hi>  ai^umenta  from  the 
■Mki  of  Origeu.  When,  however,  it  became  eviilent 
thai  ibe  majority  of  the  Egyptian  monks  were  Aothro- 

amdemiienl  the  writinga  of  Origen,  commanded  all  hia 
rlergy  to  bum  them,  and  comownced  a  cruel  perseci 
tim  of  all  who  oppoaed  the  Anchropamorphitea,  while 
he  hiDMlf  eonliiioed  to  read  the  works  of  Origen 
admiralinn.     In  101  he  iiaued  a  violent  letter  in  « 
be  condemned  the  writings  of  Origen  and  threatened 
the  laUer'i  adheteals;  in  the  fullowiog  year  he  i 
r«tb  anotheT  of  like  character,  (o  the  unbounded 
ligtit  of  Jerame.    Tbeopbilua  was  lubseqaenlly  called 
la  Cooatantinople  by  the  emprcaa  Eudoicia,  and  aecure^T 
the  deposition  and  banishment  of  Chrysoatoni  (q.  y.) 
—     "    ■  '      bich  followed,  Theophilui 


o  Aleaa 


bird  Paachal  letter  against  the  Origenista,  and 
■ben  he  died  in  413.  The  works  of  Theophilua  men- 
lioiKd  by  the  ancient  wriien  are,  flpoa^uii^tuciv  ^p^ 
nrc  fftoyoivTa^  rd  'OfHyivovc.  quolcd  bv  Theodaret 
(DiaL  ii.  191), and  which  Uennadiiu  (33)ca]'li "  advi 
Origenero  unum  et  grande  volmneni" — LtUer  lo  ■ 
pifrjf  BMnp  of  AtiJiotll,  quoted  in  the  Ada  CeaciL 
Eflia.  pi.  i,  c  4  ;— the  three  PaKkal  Lttltn  already 

«ialiBiu,letlen,and  contrDversial  works.  The  Patchal 
IjUm  are  alill  extant  in  a  translation  by  Jeromi 
are  paUished  in  the  Aniidol.  cotHra  Dietri.  On 
Sanlonm  Haraiat  (Basel,  1G28  fuL);  and  the  whole 
of  hit  extant  remains  are  contained  in  Galland,  Bibliolh. 
Patr.  vii,  608  fuL ;  Cave,  IliH.  Lilt.  a.  a.  885,  ij.  879,  ■" " " 
Jloidoek,  note  lo  Hoshcim,  Erdr$.  Hill,  i,  444  (F.ngL 
(d.).— .Smith,  i>itf.  o/Gnmt  onrf  ialin  Bu^,  a.  V. 

TttAopUIlu  or  Amtiocii,  a  wriler  and  biabOp  of 
the  primitive  Church,  was  educated  a  heathen,  and  af- 
terward! converted  to  Christianity.  He  waa  ordained 
lisbap  of  Aniiocb,  Hicceeding  Eroi,  about  A.D.  I7r 
gDvemed  the  Church  twelve  or  thirteen  years,  a 
end  of  which  be  died.  Having  been  converted  from 
htathniam  by  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  he  wrote  ar 
tpiAotj  for  the  Christian  faith,  addtesaed  in  the  fom 
of  a  letter  to  hia  friend  Autolycut.  The  work  showi 
■Duch  learning  and  more  simplicity  of  mind.  In  iti 
genenl  unieture  it  reaembles  tbe  wtnka  of  Justin  Martyr 
and  the  other  early  apologista;  but  it  coiitaina  a 
doaikd  examination  of  the  evidence  for  Christianiry, 
derived  both  from  Scripture  and  from  hisMry.  Thi 
ihiee  books  of  Theophilus  to  AutolvcuB  were  Brat  pub- 
Itditd  in  the  coUection  of  the  monks  Antoniui  an( 
Maiimia  entitled  Saiif^ianm  tire  CopUam,  Theologi- 
CBrm  praripae,  ex  Sacrit  et  Frofatiii  Librii,  Tom  ' 
Tm.  There  have  been  a  number  of  editions,  the  moe 
esmpltte  being  that  of  JohannChrisUph  Woir(Haml 
ITUSto),  and  an  English  translation  by  Joseph  Beltv 
(Oilard,  1723,  Svo).  Theophilus  was  the  author  of 
Kveial  other  works  which  were  extant  in  the  tim 
Euatbiia  and  Jerome.  Among  them  were  works  against 
the  hoeaiea  of  Harden  and  Hermogenes: — Commmlaij 
•m  lie  GiMprU  (still  extant  in  Latin,  and  publisheil  in 
Uk  BiaoOitea  Fatrum  [Parii,  lfi75, 1598, 1609, 1654, 
ttc}).  Jerome  refer*  to  hia  Conmenlaritt  on  the  Prov- 
oV  See  Smith,  Did.  of  Gnrt  and  Jtomaa  Biag.  S.  v. 
Fabric  aM.  Gncvii,  101-106;  Hoaheim,  EecUt.  Ilitl. 
Renog,  Reai-Emq^iop.  a.  v. 

ThoopbUns  or  Cjauxmn,  •  biahop  who  pmided 
over  the  Council  of  Caaarta  in  Palestine,  and  tigned 
■be  letter  of  that  cooncil,  which  appears  to  have  ' 


drawn  up  by  himself,  on  the  Paschal  controversy,  A.D. 
198, 

ThAophlltu  OP  CluctA,  so  often  mentioned  in 
legend,  is  said  to  have  originally  been  Ibe  adminislralot 
of  the  Adana  bishopric.  Out  of  modesty,  be  declined 
tbe  episcopal  see,  and  was  deprived  of  all  his  honors  by 
the  new  bishop.    He  now  applied  fur  help  to  a  Jew- 

tion  of  devils.  Here  help  was  promised  tu  him  provided 
he  would  deny  Chriet  and  Miry  and  would  asMgn  his 
souL  He  waa  restored  to  his  former  poHiion ;  but,  re- 
gretting what  he  had  done,  he  prayed  aa  a  penitent  to 
Hary,  and  through  her  inlerceuion  Christ  took  the 
assignment  away  from  the  devij  and  placed  it  upon  hia 
breast  while  asleep  in  the  church,  tired  out  by  prayer. 
He  now  openly  confessed  his  sin  and  died  three  days 
later.  The  author  of  the  legend  is  said  to  have  been 
a  Creak  cleric,  Eutychianus;  while  a  Neapolitan  priest, 
Paulus  (9th  centurv).  "'■<'«  't  known  in  the  West. 
In  the  Ada  SS.  fur  Feb.  4  we  Und  this  legend  in  a 
poetical  dreia,  by  tbe  bishop  Marbod  of  Rennes.  See 
Jubinal,  (Eaciti  de  Bultbrii/,  voL  ii ;  Pfeilfer,  Maricn- 
'rpouim (Stuttgart,  1846);  Blomaert, TAaa/iAitiu (Ghent, 
1886)i  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  THtophaia  (Uanov. 
1853-54} ;  Meyer,  Radaciiu  Gedichl  fifvr  Timphilui 
(Munich,  1873;  edited  after  a  Munich  MS.  of  the  ISth 
century),     (a  P.) 

TheopUloc  or  tiic  iNtiiiu,  bisho|)  of  ihe  Homer- 
itea,  was  born  in  Ibe  isle  of  Uiu.  When  yet  a  youth  he 
was  brought  as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
became  a  Cbristian  (Arian).  He  was  made  deacon,  and 
anally  biahop  for  the  Arable  mission  about  S50.  Be- 
ing supplied  by  Constaniius  with  rich  presents  for  the 
prince*  at  home  and  with  money  for  Ihe  building  of 
churches,  he  converted  the  king  of  the  Homeritee,  and 
biiilt  churches  at  'I'aphar,  Aden,  and  Hormuz.  The  large 
number  of  Jews,  however,  residing  in  the  coontry  pre- 
vented a  further  propagilion  uf  Cbristianily.  In  the 
year  S56  Constantiua  ^pointed  him  biabop  of  the  Ethi- 
opic  Church.  From  the  isle  of  Socotra  he  went  lo 
Axum,  but  was  soon  obliged  lo  leave  the  place.  See 
Le  Quien,  Orieai  ChTUlianu;  ii,  644 ;  Theolog.  Uami- 
sni-ieiaon,  s.  V.     (R  P.) 

Ttl«Dph6ri  (fltafiSpiH,  God-irartn'),  a  name  as- 
sumed by  snme  ul^  Ihe  early  Christians,  signifying  that 
they  carried  about  with  them  the  preaence  of  God.  St. 
Ignatius  gires  himself  this  title  in  his  insctiptions  lo 
hia  epistles,  both  of  which  begin  'lypinot  i  xtii  8(e- 
topof ;  and  explain*  hia  meaning  in  hia  dialogue  with 
Trajan,  "Thtophorus  is  one  that  canies  Christ  in  his 
hean."  "Dost  thou,  then,"  said  Trajan,  "carry  him 
that  waa  crucified  in  thy  heart?"  Ignatius  answereil, 
"Yea;  fur  it  is  written, 'I  wiU  dwell  in  them  and  walk 
in  ibem.'"  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  indeed,  gives 
another  reason  why  Ignatius  waa  called  T^tophorut 
(diD^opos,  Cod-ionx)— becaoso  he  was  Ihe  child  whom 
our  Saviour  look  and  placed  in  the  midst  of  his  disciples, 
laying  his  bands  upon  him ;  and,  therefore,  the  apostles 
would  never  presume  to  ordain  him  by  impoution  of 
hands  afler  Christ.  But,  as  biahop  Pearson  and  others 
observe,  Ihis  is  a  mere  invention  of  Ihe  modem  Greeks. 
Vincentiua  Bellovacensis  and  others  advance  thia  ridic- 
ulous reaaoni  that  Ignatius  waa  so  called  because  the 
name  of  Jeans' Christ  was  found  written  in  golden  leuer* 
in  hia  heart.  But  against  these  traditions  we  have  the 
fact  thai  the  title  waa  nol  peculiar  lo  Ignatius,  hut  com- 
mnn  to  all  Christians.    See  Bingham,  Cliriir.  Anliq.  bk. 

TheoptiylHCt,  archbishop  of  Achridia  and  inelro- 

polilan  uf  all  Bulgaria,  en  eminent  ecclesiutical  wriler, 
was  bom  and  educateil  at  Constantinople.  He  waa 
bishop  in  1077,  and  perhaps  some  yean  later.  Tbe 
dale  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but  probably  about  1 1 12, 
or  later.  After  he  was  made  bishop,  he  labored  dili- 
gently to  extend  Christianity  in  hia  diocese,  but  rael 
with  much  oppoulion,  of  which  he  complained 


THEOPHTLACTIANS 


330 


THERAPEUTiE 


episLloL  The  worha  of  Thenphylict 
in  Qaaluor  Hirangtlia  (Pari*,  1631,  fnL)  ■.—Conmfnlaria 
on  Ht  Act!  of  the  Apottla,  Ureek  >iid  Latin  (Colon. 
156H)  ■.—CommtMaria  <m  St.  PauCt  EpUlltt,  (Ircek  and 
Lalin  {\Ami.iem,ti\.):—ComKit»taiiet  on  four  •>/ Ihf 
Miiwr  Pi-ophOt;  namely,  Habnkkuk,  Jonas,  Nahum, 
■ml  Ho>ej^  in  Latin  (I'aria,  1aH9,8v-n).  The  Commen- 
taritt  on  all  the  twelve  minor  propbel*  u«  extant  in 
Greek  in  the  library  of  Siraaburg,  and  hive  been  de- 
seribed  hy  Uicbaelia  in  his  BiUtoth.  OriaitidU.  These 
cooimentariei  are  fuunded  on  tbote  of  Chryamtom ;  but 
hia  exegeus  ii  to  direct,  precise,  and  textaal,  and  bia 
remarks  are  often  »  felicitous  and  lo  tbe  pwnt,  that  bis 
cammentaries  have  always  iieeu  bigbly  priied: — So- 
taly-jite  KpiMlUi,  in  Greek,  with  notes  by  John  Mem- 
»us  (Leydtn,  1617, 4tu),  and  also  in  tbe  BOiiolheca  Pa- 

doubtful    A  splendid  edition  of  all  bis  works  in  Greek 
and  Lalin  was  published  by  J.  Y.  Bernard  Maria  de 
beis  (Veuet  1764-63,  *  vols.  foL).    See  Chalmers,  B 
Dia.  M.  V. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  GrtA,  ami  Lain  Biog.  s.  < 
TheopbylactlBiu,  ■  nan»  giren  to  the  ortho 
Chrls^ns  of  Alexandria  bv  the  Jacobiles  in  the 
century.    See  Neale,  HiA  ofikt  Ea*trn  Ckwd,,  il, 
Theoaebltea,  a  svctwhich  spread  in  Palestine 
Phisnicia  during  tbe  Nrat  half  of  the  &th  century, 
appear  lo  bare  bec.n  siiniUr  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
HTF8i8TARlANa  {q.  v.).    The  Theotebices  exalted  Ihe 
sun,moon,and  stars  into  objects  ofwomhip.and  yet  ac- 
knowledged the  Supreme  Ueliy  over  all.     Their  relig- 
ioti  thus  appears  to  hare  been  an  aduileration  of  Chtia- 
liauity  wiih  Magianiim,    Probably  these  secla  are  to  b( 
traced  to  the  Tberapcutte  and  ll^senea,  who  worshipped 
ro  ov  ot'T^ttdCi  ItepC  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and  Jew- 
ish observances  respecting  food.    They  professed  a  par- 
tial belief  in  Christ,  but  were,  at  tbe  aame  lime,  stti< 
Unitarians. 

Tb«0BOpby  (dtovo^a,  ^am  midom),  the  nan 
given  to  1  so-called  sacred  science^  which  holds 
place  distinct  as  well  from  that  of  philosophy  as  fro 
that  of  theology,  even  in  queslions  where  these  lat[i 
sciences  have  the  aameobjcci  with  it:  namely,  Iba  na 
ure  and  attributes  of  God.     In  investigating  the  divii 
nature  and  attributes,  philosophy  employs  as  the  bat 
of  its  investigation  the  ident  derived  {mm  natural  re. 
son,  while  theology  superadds  lo  Ihe  principles  of  nati 
nl  reason  those  derived  from  auihority  and  revelalio 
Theosophy,on  the  coatrary,professes  In  exclude  all  di 
lectical  process,  and  to  derive  its  knowleilge  of  God  fro 
direct  and  immediate  intuition  and  contemplation,  or 
from  the  immediate  communications  of  God  himself. 
Theosophy,  therefore,  so  far  as  regards  the  science  of 
God,  ia  but  another  name  for  mysticism  (q.  v.);  and  the 
direct  and  immediate  knowledge  or  intuition  nf  God,  lu 
which  the  Mystics  laid  claim,  was,  in  fact,  the  foundation 
of  that  tn^mate  union  with  <iod,  and  consequent  ab- 
straction from  outer  things,  which  they  made  the  bwK 
of  Ibfir  moral  and  oscelical  system.     Theosophy  has 
existed  from  a  very  early  date;  and  within  the  Chris- 
tian period  we  may  number  amontr  Theosophs  the  Ncn- 
Platonista,  especially  Plotinus,  lamblichus,  and  Prochis; 
the  llesychasU  of  the  Creek  Church ;  all  those  of  the 
medinval  Hyslics  who  laid  claim  to 
or}';  and  in  later  times  the  Paracelaials,  Bodenaiein  and 
Thalhauser,  Weiiel,  Jacob  BiEhme,  and  Swedenborg. 

Below  is  a  brief  outline  of  Theosophy  as  taught  by 
BfEhme  (q.  v.).  Finite  exisltnccs  of  every  kind 
efflux  from  the  One  Infinite  Kxistcnce,  and  such  an 
is  a  necessary  attribute  of  God's  own  being.  All  things 
come  from  a  working-will  of  the  holy,  triune,  incompre' 
hensiblc  God,  who  manifests  himself  through  an  exter. 
nul  efflux  of  lire,  light,  and  spirit.  Angels  and  men  art 
the  true  and  real  offspring  of  God,  their  life  originating 
in  the  divine  fire  from  which  light  and  love  are  genei^ 
ated  in  them.  Tiiia  triune  life  in  God  is  the  perfection 
of  being,  and  the  loss  of  it  constituted  the  fall  of  angels 


Tbus  man  having  been  made  a  living  image 

M  oature  and  endowed  with  immortality,  he 

exchanged  the  light,  life,  and  Spirit  of  God  fur  the  light, 

"'  ,aiid  spirit  of  tbe  world.    He  died  to  the  influencea 

he  Spirit  of  God  on  the  very  day  of  his  transgrm- 

1,  but  remained  subject  lo  all  tbe  external  influencca 
he  world;  and  (be  restoration  of  the  influence  of  the 

Spirit  constilotea  the  work  of  redempiion  and  aanctlficsi- 
Christ  restored  to  men  the  germ  of  the  paradiu- 
acal  life,  wbich  is  possessed  by  all  through  new  birth 
No  son  of  Adam  can  be  lost  except 
by  the  wilful  loss  of  this  paradisiacal  germ  of  tbe  divine 
'Ifei  and  its  development  is  the  deveh'pment  of  salra- 
ion.  In  the  hande  of  Law,  the  theosophy  of  Bcehiiie  aa- 
umed  a  much  more  reasonable  form  than  ihat  in  which 
t  had  been  clothed  by  its  author,  whoac  language  \rt 
I  medley  of  alchemy,  obscure  analogies,  and  false  ety- 
nolngies.  It  was  then  exhibited  as  a  pliik)*ophy  of  re- 
lemption  and  spiritual  life,  which  only  wanted  the  key- 
tone  of  sacramental  psychology  to  make  it  a  firm  aya- 
tem  of  truth.  For  very  full  information  on  (he  subject, 
ee  Walton,  A'otei  onif  Ualeriaii  far  an  A  dtqaate  Biog- . 
■aptty  of  WiBiotH  Laa,  eamprinng  an  Ebieidalion  of 
Ihe  Scope  and  Coalrtitt  of  Ihe  Wrilmgt  of  Jacob  BrtAmr, 
mdofhit  Great  CommnUalor  Dimnftiai  A  ndrrai  Frtber, 
etc(lBM).  SeeBlunf,Z>(M.o/i>oc(rMiif7'Ao>i»;9,s.v.; 
CAomfteri'f  Fncyclop.  s.  v. 

TIieotfikoB  (eEoruKOC,  God-teai'uis).  1.  A  title  ap- 
plied by  various  Romish  writers  to  tbe  Virgiu  Mary  as 
the  "  mother  of  God."    Sec  Mariolatrv. 

2.  An  ecclesiastical  tenn  adopted  at  the  councila  of 
Ephesus  and  Chalcedon  to  assert  the  doctrine  of  the 
divinity  of  our  Lord's  person.  The  Iruih  which  it  waa 
designed  to  teach  is  that  although  two  natures  are 
united  in  one  Christ,  yet  there  are  not  two  persons,  but 
one.  Our  Lord  was  a  divine  penon  from  all  etenilly, 
and  upon  his  incarnaliun  he  did  not  oease  to  be  the 
|ierson  he  had  been  before.  There  Kas,  therefore,  no 
change  or  interruption  of  his  identity,  for  the  Godhead 

not  by  the  conversion  nf  ihe  tiodfaead 
taking  the  manhooil  into  God.  At- 
tluiugh  Ihe  nature  which  he  took  of  the  substance  of 
'lis  mother  was  human,  tbe  person  who  was  bom  vat 
ivine,  and  this  was  the  truth  declared  in  ihe  adoption 
of  the  term  BEUficnc.  It  is  not,  of  ooars''.  meant  Ihat 
the  Virgin  was  the  mother  of  the  Godhead  of  our  Lnrd, 
but  that  the  buman  nature,  which  he  had  assumed  of  her 
substance,  was  BO  united  to  Ihe  divinity  thai  ihe  person 
begotten  of  her  was  God  as  well  as  man.  In  ihia  sense 
she  might  be  called  the  mother  of  Gnii.  Equivalent 
expressions  are  used  by  Irennus  and  Ignaiiui,  while 
eionicar  is  used  by  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  Athana- 
aius,CyrilDf  Jerusalem,  Origen,  and  Grepnrj- Theologni. 
This  doctrine  has  been  tbe  cause  of  much  debate,  and 
of  more  than  one  council.     See  CrbIstolocv. 

TberapentSB   (iipatrtvrai   {aUmdanlt,  i.  t.  ror- 

j*ijBjwr*,sc.  of  GihI]  and  Stpoirturpiftc),  ■  Jewish  seat 

in  Kcyp'i  which  is  described  by  PhtJo  in  a  sepafwr 

treatise  Ilfpi  ^I'uu  ^tupi/ntou  $  iTfpi  Inrwi'  apirwi', 

or  lit  Vila  Coalimpliilica  {0pp.  [eiL  Mangey],  ii,  47U 

486).     It  is  strange  that  no  other  writer  of  that  |ieriod, 

'     ^phus,  knows  anything  about  Ihe  Then- 

iat  we  find  in  ecclesiastical  writings  about 

■■ —  )f  Eusebius  is  nothii;g  but  a  repra- 


e  I'hiloni. 


1  Ihe 


opinion  nf  Eusebius,  who  regarded  the  Thcrapeul*  as 
Christians,  has  been  fallowed  by  all  Churoii  fathers, 
with  Ihe  exception  of  Photius.  Klodern  critics  have, 
nith  a  few  exceptions,  i'lenlified  the  Therapeuln  with 
the  Es3enes,but  with  this  difference,  that  while  Ihe  far- 
mer were  only  thcorisis,  Ihe  laller  were  men  nf  practical 
life.  Of  late  the  qneMion  as  lo  who  the  TherapeutE 
were  has  become  superiluoua,  since  some  BchDl■n^  espe- 
cially the  Jewish  historian  Grftti^  believs  Pbilo's  trea- 
tise to  be  spurious,  and  only  an  rmbellishmenl  of  Chris- 
tian monachism  as  il  began  ii  ''•dun  dc- 

,     C.oo«lc 


,oogk 


THEKAPEUT^  3i 

cidinK  the  qumiiin  ■«  [o  whether  Ihii  treMiH  ia  ipnTi- 
(oa  or  pnuine,  we  muu  examine  6nt  what  Philo  lells 
IB  aboui  the  Therapeuts. 

I.  Minmtrt  md   Viogn  of  Ihe   nrraprula The 

fuhcriind  of  the  Therapeulia  ia  Kgypt,  and  berond 
Iba  mtintiy  Cbe  order  has  probably  not  been  propa- 
gated. When  Pliilo  apeika  of  their  dilfuuon  through 
[be  whole  world  (iroXXnjoO  jiiv  eiv  rqc  oUovpirri 
itri  TBVTo  TO  yi'wO. "«  eannot  take  hia  worJa  in  thei 
lilenl  Miwe,  aa  does  Lucim  (Oie  Thtrapfultn  [Strai 
burg,  1«H0],  p,  16  «q.)T  bul  in  ■  more  Reneral  aenie,  be- 
cauae  we  hare  no  notice  whttever  or  the  Theiapeuue 
ntiide  oT  Egypt.  What  he  meant  t4i  aay  ia  that,  out 
■ilk  of  Egypt,  the™  were  also  men  of  a  similar  tenden 
(T.without  belieTinjc  that  they  really  belonged  to  thii 
ordei  in  Egypt.  Keim  thinks,  therefore,  that  Philo'i 
"onhare  an  eiagBiraiion,  or  rather  that  he  confiuej 
ibf  bermic  life  of  the  Jews  with  like  "phenomeni 
UMUg  the  Ureek)  and  bartMriaDi."     Grilz,  however 

foe  Ckristian  moiilu,  who  were  generally  difToied  at  at 
tiriy  age  (a*  earlv  as  the  time  of  EusebiiiB  or  of  Phi' 
b?).  "  But."  asks  Dr.  Keim,  "  haa  not  Pliilo  compared 
Inth  the  Eaaenea  and  TberapeuUa  with  the  Gymno- 
wphisls  and  Mi;^,  with  the  wiae  mati  Kalanoa,  with 
AnaiiirorBsand  DetnucriiusV"  It  ia  erident  th  ~' 
ki,in  dewribing  tbia  order,  had  a  certain  colony 
near  the  Lake  Marcotiii,  to  the  south  of  Alexandria,  where 
ibe  ThtrapeulB  fiTed,  They  dwelt  at  no  great  di». 
luce  fnttn  etch  other,  but  erery  man  in  hia  own  little 
iKwr,  bis  tanctoaiy,  and  his  «1L  They  lived  alone 
[:[  Ibe  whole  week,  not  stepping  over  the  threibold, 
turWkingont  (r^v  aiiXvav Bvx«"p^aivoyTti,a\\' 
oUi  i(  irorrov  iuiipovynt). 

Smiile  aa  was  their  house,  their  raiment 
n.  being  a  cloak  of  some  shaggy  hide  forw 
ihin  nianlle  or  linen  shawl  in  the  summer; 
RllgioiH  assemblies  they  appeared  in  ■  white  garment. 
Ai  irmperancc  wia  fegdtded  aa  the  hieheat  virtue, 
Ibtir  mwle  of  living  was  veiy  simple.  None  of  them 
■ixd:  any  nteat  or  drink  before  lbs  selling;  of  the  amt, 
tiKiuM  they  believed  that  the  work  of  philoBophiiing 
fB  one  worthy  of  the  light,  and  that  the  care  fbr  the 
DRHuties  of  the  body  wia  suitable  onl; 
wbich  accoDDt  Ibey  appropriated  the  d 
npalim,  and  ■  brief  portion  of  the  night  to  the  other 
(inrf i  ri /uv  f  iXoffo^i V  njiov  fairoe  tpivovaiv  ilivi, 
nimc  £i  roc  a—finrueAQ  avoyienc,  oStv  T^  flic  i/fii- 
«[,  rail  H  (Sp^X"  *■'  M^poc  rqc  wirric  Ivft/iai'}, 
Huy  fMted  for  three  days,  aerersl  for  nx.  They  ate 
nnbing  of  a  cosily  character,  but  plain  bicad  with  a 

'■Tiber  ttaxmcd  with  hyssop,  and  their  drink  was  water 
fnnq  the  spring.  For  anch  a  simple  mode  of  living  they 
ininnIlT  had  no  neeil  of  great  earthly  poeseuion);  but, 
•>  Pbiki  layg.  they  led  their  puesesaionii  Iji  their  rela- 
tJTH  nr  friends,  and  without  any  property  they  went 
Ml.  u  if  their  mortal  life  had  already  come  to  an  end, 
■il;  aniiouB  for  in  immortal  and  blessed  exialence 
(An  lii  Tar  Tq{  iSafarov  *ai  natapiaQ  Jai^c  "ipipvv 
nrtXivTuwivai  vo/iiJoiTTC  flft;  rbv  Srvrirbv  0lnv  itiro- 
luTJwi  fit  obaiac  uioic  ^  ivyarpAinv,  lire  nil  Sk- 
W  ny/tviaai). 

Tb«T  pnyed  twice  every  day,  at  morning  and  at 
"nmg.  When  the  sun  rose,  they  entreated  God  that 
>b  bippioeaa  of  the  coming  day  might  Im  real  hapFHtieaa, 
■  thtiibrirmiods  might  be  filled  nith  heavenly  light. 
^inlerTal  between  morning  and  evening  was  devoted 
■boUy  to  mediia^on  on,  and  the  practice  of,  virtue. 
tVytnk  Dp  the  Sacred  Sctiptuiea  and  philiisophizeil 
woctniing  them,  investigaling  the  sllpgories  of  [heir 
"Wimalphikaophyiaince  theyluokeil  upon  their  literal 
<ip(nnan>  u  symbol*  of  some  secret  meaning  of  nat- 
■^  iaUnded  to  be  conveyed  in  thoee  Agurstlve  exprea- 
"■"  (Imrrjirivomc  yip  roic  iipoJc  ypn/Jfii 


Sr^; 


17  THERAPEUT^E 

jMltriftif  dirorticpii>i/ifHic,  iv  inrofoiait  ftlXoufilMjc). 
As  a  caiKiD  of  such  allegorical  expoaition  of  Scripture, 
the  real  home  of  which  waa  in  Egjpl,  Ibey  used  the 
writings  left  by  the  founders  of  their  sect  (tori  it  auraic 
rni  mnrypa/ifiaTa  woXauut  ivipiiv,  ol  r^c  aipiimwt 
aoxiyirat  yira/i 

'I'hey  also  composed  pulma  and  hymns  to  God  in  every 
kind  of  metre  and  melody  imaginable,  which  they  sang 
at  their  meetings.  Having  thus  paned  Ihe  day,  they 
pnyed  again  that  their  soul,  being  entirely  lightened 
and  relieved  of  Ihe  burden  of  the  outward  senses,  might 
be  able  to  irace  out  truth  existing  in  its  own  consistory 
and  council-chamber  (iv  Tip  'awSc  avtipiv  ""'  ^•>'^ 
\iVTijpiif  nki^tiar  IxrjiKaTfiv);  and  many  of  them,  if 
Philo's  statement  is  to  be  given  credence,  are  said  tu 
have  spoken  in  their  sleep,  divulging  and  publishing 
the  celebrated  doctrinca  of  the  aacred  philosophy  (iroX- 
XoJ  oiiv  Kai  iK\a\oveiv  iv  trwoTc  dviifMToXoi'r/uvDi 
rd  t-^c  iipac  ^offof  iac  ioiSifui  iuy/inrn). 

Women  were  also  received  into  theirorder,  the  great- 
er part  of  whom,  though  old,  were  virgina  in  respect  to 
their  purity,  and  were  animated  by  Ihe  same  admiration 
for,  and  lovt  of,  wisdom,  in  the  exercise  of  which  Ihey 
were  desiroaa  to  pass  their  lives.  These  women,  like 
the  ncale  tnembera  of  Ihe  order,  lived  aeparat^y,  per- 
forming the  same  duties;  but  at  the  meetings  and  ban- 
qnets  both  sexea  were  nnitad. 

Slave-labor  was  dispensed  with,  beeauae  they  loiik- 
ed  upon  tbe  powcssion  of  alarea  as  aumething  ab- 
solutely and  wholly  coniraiy  to  nature — for  nature 
had  created  all  men  free;  but  the  injuatice  and  covet- 
ousness  of  some  men  who  preferred  inequality  —  that 
cause  of  all  evil  — having  subdued  the  weaaer,  had 
given  to  the  more  powerful  authority  over  the  van- 
quished. At  their  comman  banquets,  therefore,  no 
s  miniatered  to  Iheir  wants,  but  young  men  who 
selected  fmm  tbeir  order  with  all  possible  care, 

character  could  be  seen  in  it,  or,  to  use  Ihe  words  of 
Philo,  d^uforoi  ti  as!  mi^ti/ilvoi  roig  viriDPi'mcDuc 
liaianv  vinimTituovTtt,  Inca  Toi  p^iiv  liSmXov 
intfipiaSai  lovXeirptrout  oxiJitaTOt,  c'r  rouro  ri 
avfuraaiov,  L  cl  they  were  unginlled  and  with  their  tu- 
nics let  down,  in  order  that  nothing  which  bears  any  re- 
semblance to  a  alavish  appearance  might  be  introduced 
into  this  festival. 

At  tbe  banquet  they  were  presided  over  by  a  preri- 
dent  (irpiltfpat),who  addressed  Ihem  and  intoned  a 
hymn,  in  which  all  jmned.  They  sat  according  to  theii 
age,  i.  e.  acconlinic  to  the  length  of  time  they  belonged 
to  the  order.     We  must  not,  however,  think  that  the 


restricted  to  the  assemblies,  in  which  also  ^ifiorit  and 
!Sapx<it  were  mentioned,  who  acted  as  leaders  of  the 
choruses    Theseventh  day  was  especially  distinguished. 
They  anointed  their  bodta,  and,  clothed  in  white  gar- 
I,  they  assembled  in  the  eommoD  mjiiviiov.    Here 
sat  down  with  all   becoming   grarily,  keeping 
hands  inside  their  garments,  having  tbeir  right 
between  Iheir  cheat  and  Iheir  drew,  and  the  left 
hand  down  by  their  side,  clone  to  their  Hank.     Then 
lie  oldest  of  them,  who  had  the  most  profound  leam- 
ig  in  tbeir  doctrines,  came  forward  and  apoke  wilfa 
steadfast  look  and  with  steadfast  voice,  with  great 
v  of  reasoning,  and  great  prudence  —  not  mak- 
ing exhibition  of  his  oratorical  talent,  like  the  rhet- 
iana  of  old  or  tbe  sophists  of  the  preeent  day,  but 
rat igating  with  great  pains  and  explaining  with  mi- 
eaccnracy  the  precise  meaning  ofihelaws,which  pen- 
lied  through  their  hearing  into  the  soul,  and  remsin- 
here  lastingly.  Quietly  they  listenedinMlence,ahow- 
iheir  assent  only  by  nods  of  the  head  or  the  eager 
!  of  the  eyes.     In  this  sacred  assembly  the  women 
shared ;  but  they  had  their  own  aeai^  being  seps' 


THERAPEUT^  3: 

nt«i!  from  Che  rnale  munbers  by  «  mil  rittDg  tbm  or 
Tour  cubili  apwirds,  but  in  Mich  ■  muiaec  that  tbry 
could  heir  the  voice  of  the  iip«k«t. 

The  leventb  S«bb«th,  the  niTiiEOirrq,  wa»  eipeeii]- 
ly  iliflinguiiheij.  The  iiamber  6hy  wm  legirdeil  by 
Ihem  as  the  most  buly  and  natural  of  number),  bciiig 
compoLindeU  of  the  pover  of  the  right-anf^led  triflugle, 
vhich  ia  the  ptinciple  of  tbe  arigiiiition  uid  oanditioii 
of  the  whole  (itri  ii  irpMiipnoc  fuyiariK  ioprqc. 
flv  wiynitorTAt  IXaYiv,  uyiirnroe  *ni  f  iiantwrarot 
(ipi^flwv,  it  T^s  Tou  ipSoy<i/viau  rpiyJii^v  Ivva/Xlvt, 
Sirtp  ivTiy.  ipxi  rjc  ^Sv  okiav  yinnuc  ic"i  avara- 
<nwv)>  Clolheil  in  while  ^rmculi,  they  eame  together 
to  the  cammon  fesit.  Before  they  pirtook  of  the  ume, 
ibey  lifreil  up  their  eyea  and  banils  tn  heaven  and 
prayed  to  God  thatit  might  be  acc«piable  lohim.  Alter 
the  prayer,  they  sat  down,  the  men  ntting  on  the  right 

raaierial.  Before  the  feast  commenced,  queationa  were 
aaked  and  aniwered.  A  paaaage  of  tbe  Scripture  waa 
explained  and  reli^oua  questions  were  sellled.  All  list- 
ened attentively  to  the  speaker,  indicating  their  atten- 
tim  and  comprehenaion  l>y  tbeir  nods  and  looks.  When 
the  president  appeared  to  bare  spoken  at  sufficient 
length,  aud  to  have  carried  out  his  intentions  adequate- 
ly, so  that  his  ezpUnatiou  had  gone  on  felicitonaly  and 
fluently  through  his  uwn  acuteness,  and  the  hearing  of 
tbe  otbera  bad  been  profitable,  applause  arose  from  them 
all  aaofmen  rejoicing  atwhatthey  bad  seen  and  heard: 
and  then  some  one,  rising  up,  sang  a  hymn  which  had 
been  made  in  honor  of  God,  either  sucb  as  he  bad  com- 
posed himself  or  some  ancient  one  of  some  old  poeL 
Afler  him  others  also  arose  in  tbeir  ranks,  and  in  be- 
coming manner,  while  every  one  else  listened  in  de- 
cent silence,  except  when  it  waa  proper  (o  take  np 
the  burilen  of  tbe  song  and  join  in  at  ^e  end.  When 
each  individual  had  finished  his  psalm,  tbe  young  men 
brought  in  the  table  on  which  was  tbe  food — the  leav- 
ened bread  with  a  seasoning  of  salt,  and  mingled  with 

was  in  the  holy  outer  temple;  for  on  this  table  were 
placed  loaves  and  salt  without  seasoning,  and  the  bread 
was  unleavened,  and  the  salt  unmixed  with  anvlbiug 
else. 

Afler  Ihe  feast  ibey  celebrated  the  sacred  festival 
during  Ihe  whole  night  (/iiTa  H  ri  itiirroi'  ri^v  iipiv 
djonni  irai'ivxiia).  All  stood  up  (ngether,  and  in  the 
middle  of  Ihe  entertainment  two  choruses  were  formed 
at  Gist,  the  one  of  men  and  the  other  of  women.  Each 
choTushad  ilsleader  and  chief,  who  was  Ihe  most  honor- 
able and  most  excellent  of  the  band.  Then  they  sang 
the  hymna  in  honor  of  God  in  many  metres  and  tunes, 
at  one  time  all  singing  together,  and  at  another  moving 
tbeir  hands,  and  dkncing  in  corresponding  barmony. 
When  each  chorus  of  the  men  and  each  chnnis  of  the 
women  had  feasted  separately  by  itself,  they  joined  to- 
gether, and  (he  two  became  one  chorus— an  imitalion 
of  that  one  which,  in  old  lime,  was  established  by  the 
Bed  Sea,  on  account  of  the  wondrous  works  which  were 
displayed  lliere  before  lsnMl,and  where  both  men  and 
women  tngel  her  became  all  one  chorus,  Hooes  leading 
the  men,  and  Miriam  leading  the  women.  When  [he 
sun  arose,  they  raised  tbeir  bands  to  heaven,  imploring 
tranquillity  and  truth  and  acuteness  of  understanding. 
After  the  prayer,  each  retired  to  his  own  separate  abode, 
again  practicing  tbe  usual  philosophy  to  which  each 
had  been  wont  to  devote  bimself. 

II.  rAfrdpmtodiirf&seites.— On  account  of  the  man- 
ifold similar  traits  which  were  found  among  the  Tbera- 
peuin  and  Essenes,  it  ha*  been  inferred  that  the  Thera- 
peulB  were  Imt  Che  Kgyptian  branch  of  Palestinian 
Eisenism.  This  hypollieHs  is  seemingly  confirmed  by 
what  11iih>  says  at'the  beginning  of  his  trealise  on  the 
Tberapeul]G:  "Having  mentioned  tbe  Essenes, who  in 
all  respects  selected  fur  their  admiration  and  for  their 
especial  adoption  the  practical  course  of  life,  and  who 
excel  in  all,  or  what,  perhaps,  may  b«  a  leaa  unpopular 


8  THERAPEUT^ 

and  invidious  Ibing  to  say,  in  nmat  of  iti  parti,  1  will 
now  proceed,  in  tbe  regular  orderoTmysubJect,  to  speak 
of  (hose  who  have  embraced  Ihe  speculalive  life,  and  I 
will  say  what  appears  to  me  to  be  desirable  to  be  uid 
on  ihe  subject."  The  miuorily  of  critics  have  ihereBm 
not  hesitated  to  believe  in  a  causative  connection  be- 
tween the  two  sects,  and  have  thus,  on  account  of  Philo's 


In  I 

only  be  ■  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  which  of  ihe  two  teen 
Justly  claims  tbe  temporal  precedence — whether  the 
theory  of  the  TbetapeuCs  or  the  practice  of  the  Ewhi 
is  the  original,  or,  in  other  words,  whether  Egypt  or 
i'atesdiie  is  the  ralherland  of  Ibat  tendency  within  Ju- 
daism which  is  designated  by  the  name  of  Eaaeoisiii. 
The  opinion  that  the  temporal  precedence  belwigt  id 
the  Therapeuto,  and  that  after  Therapeutism  had  bm 
planted  on  the  soi)  of  Jod«a  Che  Order  of  the  Eastnt* 
originaled,  is  advocated  by  Gfrorer  (Kriliicie  GadtickU 
(JMC'rcArurai(iluiNf[Stntlg.l831],ii,336sq.),tjitIerbeck 
(ffle  neiirM/iiiB«a(ic*eii  Lthtirgnj/i  [Mavence,  lass],  i, 
27&sq.),Mang(ild(ZN:s/rr(aimd^J>(uforu»ri'/r  [Mar- 
burg, 1856],  p.  57  sq.),  and  Holtzmano  (CtidiiriU  da 
VaOca  ItrarlundiU  Enlteh<i«gdttChii^mlliamt[ljA^ 
1867],ii,T9sq.).  Theopposileopinion  is  represented  by 
Ritschl  {Thfolaifuchii  Jahrbiichtr  [ed.  Baur  and  Zdler, 
IMS],  p.  U£  sq.),  Hilgenfeld  {Diejiidiidu  Apetalffiik 
in  ihrn- gfirkiehltiriln  Eattacklung  [Jena.  1857],  p. JTB 
S(|.),  Herxfeld  {Gftdiichit  da  Volka  Itrarl  [Zd  uLLdps. 
1869  ].  iii.  406),  Zeller  (  Grichickle  dtr  Phltnai^u  ^ 
GiiiiAm  [ibid.  1868],  III,  ii,  288  sq.),  Bellermauo  (.Varj- 
i-icArnt  am  deta  A  lleilhun  abrr  Ettnur  und  TKtTopnUai 
[Dertin,  IB3I],  p.  SO,  nou),  and  Ilamischmacber  {l>e 
Eumamm  np«d  JudaoM  Soditalt  [Bonn,  18G6],  p.  36), 
who  admit  a  causative  connection  of  both,  without  de- 
ciding Ihe  lime  of  tbe  origin.  Now,  denying,  as  we  do, 
in  opposition  to  the  above-mentioned  critics,  any  connec- 
tion between  these  seels,  and  thus  dismissing  altogethei 
the  question  nUich  of  the  two  formed  the  connectiog- 

assertioD,  draw  a  parallel  between  the  two  sects,  aod  fini 
consider  tbii«e  piiiiits  in  which  both  agree. 

Bulb  sects  diligently  studied  Ihe  Scripture,  and  iniri^ 
preted  the  same  allegoricaliy.  Besides  the  Old  leu., 
both  bad  a  high  consuleiation  for  the  writing*  of  the 
older  members  of  theii       '  ■    ■       ■  ■ 


imple  i 


were  accustomed  to  appear  al  their  religious  ci 

proved,  excepting,  perhaps,  the  fact  that  both  led  id  nn- 
married  life.  But  even  this  is  nu  proof,  because,  aoconl- 
ing  lo  Joecpbiu,  at  least  one  part  of  the  Ea•ene^  lliosgb 
perhaps  imly  the  minority,  married.  It  cannot  also  be 
said  that  both  agreed  in  leading  a  lifeeniirelyieparaieii 
from  the  world.  Of  Ihe  Thcrapeuii,  it  is  true,  (bison 
be  said,  but  not  of  the  Essenes,  because,  as  Josepkin 

an  active  part  in  the  weal  and  woe  of  their  peojde.  as 
they  did, for  instance,  in  Che  war  against  Ihe  Booiani 
fut  the  liberty  of  iheir  country. 

Bui  more  numerous  and  imporlant  are  thedilfettncn 
which  exist  between  the  Tberapeutie  and  Essenes.  We 
callallention  tolbefuUowiugi 


1.  The  Ther 


leleda 


'oclqded  life,  glieu 

1    TbefrlatHr 
purposely  a;>- 


wni>  prescrPied  and  regntnled 

Chiled.    They  cnliWoied  ihe  uciub,  miu  wire  bd^ibi 
msnnal  Isbora  »  well  as  lu  arig. 

t.  The  Ther^>ent»  lived  separaied  from  each  olher  in 
cells,  and  only  cnme  tniraiher  nn  ihe  Biibbaib  and  on 
specini  occasiiitio.  The  Ksseuet,  honever,  wherever  thtr 
resided,  hnd  ihelr  commuo  lodges,  where  they  lived  sail 
dined  (lucether. 
1.  Tbe^heriii 


THERAPEUT^ 


knowledge  of  mriterlei 


nHDUKC 


ilngoftlwkl 


liilj;  II 


ilbond,  and  wera  uni  no  far  BpRrt 

."he  ordionDceJ  premcrited  to 

irrlM  oribsTempte.    Thet  fnrnlthtd 

_-   _  _    .'maple  at  JsrusalEin.  iiid  [hoi  becsme 

tT  <jf  upoelMliiiii!  rrnm  in  Ir 

Liw.    Tbe  KiKoea  wen  «p 

■Dd  pmpb*c/ :  we  know  DOtlili 

ingUuTliHriipeal*. 


ud  Iba  UrIUciil  iiniilb 
tma  anb»d<iz  Judaitm. 
talivTed  Ibeir  laalraLli 
ir^reaier  lnipnruknc« 


.  that  the  diflerencei  between  tbe  t 


•id  tbe  other  tu  practice,  becaiiK  the  njppo^tioi 
like  gTuund-pnaciple  is  not  wiRicieDt  for  explaining  w 
nid;,  >n<l  M  the  laine  time  verv  impoilwit,  diffei 
Mux  all  thai  we  know  of  both  theae  •ecta.Ihe  au 
lion  of  a  causal  eunnection  between  the  two  mii 
pair  rtrv  haiuiloui;  Tor  ir  there  leiUy  were  >. 
eniDeetian  between  Ibem,  and  if  both  were  easentiilly 
oDeuidtbeBame  accl,  it  iasurpriaing  tbat  Joaepbus  bia 
nMncoid^  the  fact.  As  littlest  we  beliere  with  Phi' 
in  a  real  conacctinii  between  the  Jewish  Eraenea,  the 
UTeo  wi»e  toen  of  Greece,  and  the  Indian  Gymnoio- 
phiiu.whoai  be  compares  in  bia  book  Qaod  Oamit  Pro- 
6n  iikr,  juit  w  little  connection  ia  there  between  thi 
Ewoes  and  Therapeutie,  bwaiuae  Philo  divided  then 
into  tbe  theorists  and  prictitionen.  Tbe  Esaeoes  did 
tm  originate  froia  tbe  propsgation  of  Tberapeuti 
Pdeitine,  Uecaiue,  aa  we  know,  Alexandrian  reli 
phiksophy  di>l  not  find  a  fertile  Mil  in  Judna, 
ciallir  It  the  time  in  which  both  IbeH  sects 
Mltd.  We  cannot  assunie  that  tbe  reverse  should 
takoi  place,  otherwise  the  essential  traits  of  Eaaenism 
mmU  have  been  found  again  among  the  Tbi 
Tbe  stamp  of  bulb  aecta  is  so  dtfTereiit  that  the 
tciiknticali  and  in  treating  of  the  Therapeu' 
gaid  i*  thertroiG  to  be  paid  to  the  Easenea. 
III.  nerapaOa  and  CArirtioni'ji.  — Aaauming  that 

Ibe  Earaea  were  only  consistent  Chaiii 

tbe  Jewish  hiatorian  GcSti  to  maiie  the  a 
Phiki'i  traliae  on  the  Therapeutie,  according  to  which 
[bFT  were  bithcnu  regarded  aa  Bii  Egyptian  ofTsboot 
uf  Palestinian  Easeniaa),  could  not  be  genuine.     A 
onding  to  the  aame  writer,  it  is  not  so  much  owing 
tbe  dncription  of  the  Esatnea  by  Joaepbiia  as  to  t 
book  Iltfl  0iav  ^tmfiHTticou  h  i«rwv  apftHv  th 
ikat  not  coinciding  with  the  furmer'a  views  have  i 
rind  at  ■  Wae  rcaiill  regarding  the  essence  and  orig 
«( tbe  E«ene  secL     GtiM  also  aaaerts  that  a  Jewi 
sect  of  the  Tberspents  never  existed,  but  I  hat  they  w( 
Chiiaiana.  uceucs  of  a  heretic  tendency,  who  sprang 
br  ibe  dozen  in  the  2d  and  3d  centuries.     The  autb 
if  tba  book  which  haa  cauaed  so  much  confusion  is  r 
Phila,but  a  Christian  "who  probably  belonged  either  lo 
lheEiicratico.^DstieDrHDntanislic|iarly.and  intended 
to  write  a  panegyric  on  monastii' 
■ity  of  which  Philu's  authority  was  lo  confirm."     This 
iitbt  resalt  at  which  UrHU  arrives;  and  although 
takes  it  for  grantnl  thai  the  attentive  leader  of  t 
Uak  n^  ^lov  dtwpipruiDii  muat  at  once  adopt  the 
CHncUMH  of  bia  aisertion,  he  has  nevertheless  tak- 
a  the  pains  to  make  good  bia  hypothesis  at  great 

i«rh. 

This  bypotlWBis  t^GrSli  haa  been  analyzed  by  Zel- 
Irr,  and  tbe  leault  is  that  the  reasons  ad'  "  '  '  '' 
JDRna  ire  not  auffident  and  acceptablt 
namuBg  tbe  question  once  more,  and  ei 
areaKwt  of  GAU  \a  order  lo  eslsblisb  tbe  Christian 
rharadef  oT  tbe  ThetapeutK,  we  do  so  beciuae  of  iia 
g  with  tbe  essence  and  origin  of  the 


9  THERAPEUTJi: 

KCt— in  tbia  we  diflbr  with  Zeller— and  because  there 
are  some  points  to  be  proved  against  G^tx.  Tbe  lat-- 
ter  has  denied  the  exiatence  of  a  Jewish  sect  of  the 
Therapeutie,  and  conicquently  also  the  genuineness  of 
the  Philonio  treatise  Ilepi  'fiiou  iii^Tiiov,  on  the 
ground  of  the  ailence  of  Joaephus  and  Pliny,  who  wrote 
much  about  the  Easenea;  while  they  know  nothing 
the  Thempeuio,  the  alleged  Egyptian  branch  of  tbia 
::<.  AgaiuBl  this,  Zeller  haa  argued  that  the  ailence 
ol  Joaephus  cainiot  be  so  remaikable,  since  the  Tiiera- 
peuue  were  a  branch  of  tbe  Essenes  restricted  to  Egypt 
alone,  and  because  Josephua  tells  very  little  about  the 
later  aflalraofthe  Jews  in  that  country.  But  if,  accord- 
ing to  Zeller,  the  Therapcuta  were  really  au  Egyptian 
branch  of  the  PaleeliniBii  Easene^  or  bad  some  connec- 
tiuii  with  them,  the  Esseiies  in  Palestine  ou^ht  to  have 
known  something  about  it;  and  even  if  Pliny's  ailence 
could  be  explained  because  be  only  kiiuwa  one  Easenio 
colony  living  by  the  Dead  Sea,  it  might  be  supppsed— 
and  in  this  Griitz  is  correct — that  Josephua,  who  other- 
wise apeaka  very  fully  about  the  order,  ought  lo  have 
mentioned  the  'i'herapeutn.  The  ulence  of  Josephus 
can  therefore  only  be  explained  from  the  very  fact  that 
the  TherapeutiB  had  no  connection  whatever  with  tbe 
Essenes,  but  that  they  formed  au  independent  aect 
within  the  Egyptian  Judaiim,  tlie  exiateiice  of  which 
.^nce  its  number  and  activity  were  leas  impoitimt — 
was  entirely  unknown  to  Josephus.  Wliat  Pliilo  nar- 
rates concerning  tbe  female  Therapeutn  {^fporiv 
rpilfc'),  Graiz  also  finds  incredible,  because  Joaephua 
marks  it  as  one  of  tbe  characteristics  of  tbe  Essenes  lo 
avoid  bU  contact  with  the  opposite  sex-,  hence  be  be- 
lieves that  these  female  Tbenpeuta  were  nothing  else 
than  the  sisters  ( toroift  tubairoduria )  whom  the 
Christian  aacelics  used  to  have  about  them  fur  the  sake 
of  attaining,  by  constant  lemptadon,  a  higher  virtue,  but 
who,  aa  is  known,  have  been  the  cause  of  great  scandals. 
Against  thia,  Zellci  remarks  that  in  tlii'i  reapect  the 
Egyptian  Eaaenes  or  Therapeutsa  might  have  had  oth- 
er inaiitutiona  than  those  »r  the  Palestinians,  aince  their 
prindples  on  the  worth  of  an  unmarried  state  were  iu 
tbe  main  not  alTecied ;  and  this  ditTerence  of  view  does 
not  indicate  such  a  great  deviation  from  the  principles  of 
the  order  as  tbe  practice  of  one  branch  of  tbe  Palest  In- 
iaii  Esseiies  who  married.  We  agree  with  Giiitz  that, 
according  to  Josephus,  the  wives  of  the  married  Ea- 
senea were  not,  like  the  female  Therapento,  members  of 
the  order.  But  ihia  actual  deviation— that  while  tbe 
Easenea  excluded  women  entirely  from  the  common 
feasts  and  meeting  thia  was  not  the  case  among  the 
Therapeutie — is  only  another  proof  that  Eeaenes  and 
Therapeutie  are  not,  as  Zeller  believes,  one  and  the 
same  sect.  Thia  being  tbe  case,  it  must  not  be  aup- 
poaed,  ss  Grllz  believes,  that  the  TherapeiitB,  not  being 
Caaenea,  were  ChrutioM.  GrUtz  overlooks  the  circum- 
stance that  while  the  ao-called>Dn>riMStiMnln>(tiicf«  lived 
in  very  close  communication  with  the  Chriatian  aacetica, 
thia  cannot  be  said  of  the  female  Therapeuts.  For  can 
we  sajely  infer,  from  tbe  participatinn  of  women  in  the 
common  feasts  and  meetings,  that  the  'I'berapeulB  real- 
ly lived  each  with  a  female  companion  1  Against  such 
a  hvpolhcais  we  have  also  the  words  of  I'bilo,  rdf 
lUv  oiiv  tC  iiiiipoQ  xiiipii  'isamiu  novovyitvoi  trap' 
iatrrdii  In  rofc  \(j£^£'i",  /iOi^onipioic  ^oaofoSm, 
who  emphasizes  the  fact  repeatedly  that  they  sought 
solitude  and  desired  to  be  left  lo  ihemselvea  in  order 
not  to  be  diatuibed  in  their  contemfdative  life  {h^npiv 

Jip  Koi  tvaapmrav  roic  ipmiiav  ittt\aiK6m  xai  inra- 
micouaaiai  fHTViiinti;).  Ilul,  above  all,  we  aak,  where 
is  the  passage  in  this  treatise  which  indicates,  as  Griiii 
ttiea  to  prove,  that  tbe  Therapentoi,  like  the  Christian 
aacetica,  had  aimed  at  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  by 
living  together  with  the  female  members?  From  the 
introductory  words  of  the  Phikiiiic  treatise,  Gratz  also 
infen  that  it  cannot  be  genuine,  since  it  connects  it- 
self with  the  treatise  Hipi  rav  ravra  tieiniiaiov  iJyai 
tkiHitpof  erroneously,  as  with  a  writing  on  thr  Es- 


THERAPEUT^  SI 

scnCB.    The  worda  in  queatkin  ue,  'EwoiW  -rtpi  fia- 

j3iDviv«ira(ni',E.r.X.  Grttz  ihinka  cbat  Phtlo  cuuld 
not  pouibi;  uy  Ihat  he  "  *nol«  a  treatiae"  an  the  Ea- 
genes  ('EBniiHuv  iripi  iioXfxSc'tJ.wheii  Ihe  pasn(!e  in 
quesliun  only  ocoupiea  [tia  ivreltlh  part  of  Ihe  treatiw, 
aiiU  he  only  meationa  this  sect  aa  one  of  Ihe  man)-. 
Bui  againat  Ihii  it  muat  be  argued  Ihat  liaXiyiaSai 
miii  nvov  does  not  mean  "lo  write  ■  tTeatiw,"  but 
to  "apeak  on  Bomeihiiig,"  and  thia,  aa  Zeller  remarlis, 
PhtJo  hoa  evidenlly  done  coticeming  the  Esienea.  MoK- 
orer,  auch  an  uBociition  of  tupica  is  not  comiol  at  all, 
Lz  thinks,  becauae  by  thia  two  Jeuiah  aecia  which 


of  t( 


t  the  ra 


a  point  Tor  ihe  «[ 


n  by  a  Chris 


ought  in 

ita  being 
n  the  fact 


that  ChriaCiana— HI  Euaebiua  {/Jiil.  £eetf. 
othera  after  liim— recogniied  llie  Therapeulte  aa  "  Seah 
of  IheiT  own  flesh."  The  holy  cells  of  the  Then- 
peulie  are  called  rnonsateriea.  It  ia  evideni,  arguea 
Giulz,thatwe  have  here  the  beginning  of  Ihe  mniiaalie 
cells,  which  existed  even  before  Anthony  of  Thebes, 
the  fouuder  of  monaslicisni.  But  even  if  we  admit 
Ihat  Ihe  entire  mode  of  living  of  the  Therapculs  ia 
similar  to  thai  of  Ihe  later  Chriatian  l^Dnk^  we  are  not 
at  all  justified  lo  infer  tbat  Ihe  Therapeutn  were  CArit- 
tiaa  Bumki.  Why — and  herein  we  agree  with  tirHiz — 
ahoiUd  there  not,  hare  been  in  Eg}'pt,  the  fatherland 
and  the  proper  home  of  monaslidani,  ascetics  even  be- 
fore Anthony  of  Thebes  ?  And  why  should  thia  not 
have  been  poauble  within  the  pale  »f  Judaism?  And 
are  the  Palestinian  Esaeiiea  not  a  airailar  phenomenon  V 
To  impress  on  the  Therapeute  the  Christian  character 
because  of  the  word  lutfaariipiov,  which  the  Chrialian 
monks  used  far  their  cell,  is  not  reaaoiuble,  becauae,  as 
Zellei  reminda  us,  the  expressions  fiavaorqpioi'  and 
Df/JVEiov  were  only  used  by  the  Therapeots  for  a 
part,  and  nol,  aa  did  the  Christian  mnnks,  for  the 
whole,  of  Ihe  dwelling.  The  aupposilion  seems  la  be 
that  the  Therapeulx,  or  rather  Phllo  himself,  fanned 
the  words  iioyaariipuiv  and  of/ivflui',  and  that  Chris- 
tian monks  borrowed  thia  nomenclature  from  Ihcir 
Jewish  predecesBora.  That  Hiilo,  who  waa  the  first  lo 
use  these  expresaiona,  has  alao  formed  the  same  appears 
from  the  fact  that  he  himself  explains  them  when  say- 
ing, iv  jraffrjf  H  ot'icif  irrriv  ifpiy  o  coXcirni  aipniov 

livarlipta  Ttkaivrat.  The  TherapculE,  Grtliz  i^ocs  on 
lo  argue,  had  not  only  a  common  fensl,  but  atier  the 
feast  [hey  bad  ■  kind  of  Lord's  supper  {jravyiirr 


.v),c 


of  w 


li  all 


did  not  partake,  but  only  Ihe  better  ones, 
dently  believes  that  we  have  here  Ihe  difference  be- 
tween the  mitia  caltclittmemnim  and  the  maaa  JideK- 
um.  From  the  1allei,which  consisted  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  supper  and  in  a  hind  of  liturgy,  those  who 
were  not  yet  baptized,  Ci^ifGther  with  those  who  wen 
excommunicated,  weie  excluded;  for,  he  aaka,  is  thia 
not  Chrialian?  But  ihia  question  we  mnal.  also  answer 
in  Ihe  negative.  GriltE,  aa  Zeller  remarks,  has  over- 
looked Ihe  fact  Ihat  Ihe  so-called  Lord's  snp|«r  did  not 
take  place  after  the  common  meal,  but  it  was  this  com- 
mon mcnl  itself.  At  thia  eupper  not  vvkawned,  but 
imcnrfrf,  brrad  was  eaten  (aproc  fli'/iw/ifi'OC  fitra 
irpwro-^iilpaTotj&^^yoltvaaianotii'rtiiiiiirTailtalftti 
rqc  araiiifiifJiQ  Iv  rrf  ayif  vpovaifi  iipac  rpoTrfsic) 
oul  of  reverence  for  the  unleavened  showbrcad  in  Ihe 
Temple  at  Jerusalem.  But,  above  all,  GrStz  has  erred 
in  asserting  that  thia  supper  was  a  pren-galive  of  the 
better  ones.  Now  the  worda  Tvn  ipmirt  rpovopiav  oi 
Kpiirrovic  do  not  refer  lo  the  Therapeutic,  but  to  the 
Jewish  priests,  to  whom  alone  tbe  Therapeuls  conceded 
the  use  of  unleavened  bread  aa  a  HpecinI  prerogative. 
Thia  unquestionably  followa  from  the  words  of  Philo; 
orny  Si  iimrTOi;  Siartpavtirai  ric  I'livov,  o!  rim  rMi 
rpo  fiitpai  Xtx^aaav  rpaviZav  vetOjiiZowiv,  Jf'  )|i' 


0  THEBAPEUT^ 

rb  ■nafayierarov  oiri'nv  tCi'/iwfii i-oc  fiirii  irpase^ 
juiTOC  oXur  olc  vaavToz  ayofiifiiiiTOi  h'  oi^v  r^ 
livanipivijt  ii-  Tif  ayiip  rpoydiii  iipa(  rpatii^t'  iii 
7iip  rnvTTti'  ii'aiv  dpTot  Kai  Skig  dfla  ^liaparoi:,  a^B- 
fioi  fiiv  oi  aprni,  afiiyut  ti  tal  oi  uXe;.  npvaqKgi' 
yip  i)t<,  ri  /lir  iinXoilMTaTa  Eai  iiXttpiyiirTaTa  TJ 
tpaTia-qi  riiv  iipAv  imviprfiiivai  iiipiii,XnTOvpyiac 
oSXot',  roue  li  (SAXouc  rii  iiiy  u/ioio  CiiXciv,  dx-txi- 
vSai  ii  Tvv  apTuiy,  Tfn  i^ttvi  rpevopiar  oi  nywrTw- 
i-cc.  Ihat  the  TherapeutK  were  Christians,  Gi^ti  alao 
linda  in  the  fact  that  Ihe  preabyteis  among  them  oon- 
pied  Ihe  fiist  po«iioi< ;  and  ihat  they  were  not  prcshv- 
ters  becauae  of  llieir  age,  but  becauae  of  their  strict  oh- 
aen-ance  of  the  Therapculic  lite  irpfa0VTip<rvt  yip 
oi  voKi/tTiii  Kai  nt-Kaiovt  ropiZomny  aXXd  in  «■ 
liilf  yiovi  Taiiac  tav  inf/i  rqt  Trpoaipiaiut  IpaeSA- 
aiv,  nXXi  rofe  i*  wpwnjc  iJXuiiTc  tt^jSijcrniToc  tai 
ivaipanavTat  Tip  iiuipnTiwiji  pipii  ^tiaofiot.  S  H 
laXXioToi-  Ml  Siuirarov  ion).  We  have  thu^  Grata 
argues,  the  presbjlera,  or  iirioaowoi,  of  the  CliriMian 
congregations,  who  held  one  and  Ihe  same  office  in  Ihe 
ante-Nieene  lime.  Bat  thia  conclurion  is  the  kasjuali- 
Hablei  since  the  office  of  preabylcrs  was  not  exactly 
a  Christian  iiialilution,  but  exieled  even  before  the 
Chri-iian  «ra,  and  wu  adopted  by  the  Church  fmn 
J<idii>ni.  Kvcn  among  Ihe  Easenea  we  find  such  a 
di»tiii<.tion  nf  rank,  and  yet  Gntla  would  be  ihe  laM  In 
call  them  Chrialiana,  alihough  he  firmly  beliei-es  that 
Clirint  lielunged  to  the  Esaenca.     The  argument     '    * 


a  from 
TherapeutB,  for  th 


vipils,  sc 


g  Ihe 


fasting  was  eomelhing  pe- 
culiar to  Judaism  and  waa  adopted  by  the  Church;  and 
as  to  Ihe  vigils,  such  nocturnal  aervicea  exieled  before 
Ihe  Christian  era.  It  ia  therefore  not  nnnaaiy  la 
ihink,  as  does  Griilz,  fullnwiiig  Eusebiua  {Nitt.  Kertti. 
ii,  17),  of  Chrialian  riles  before  Easter  Sunday.  From 
the  liturgy,  Ihe  metrical  hTmn^  and  typical  mode  of 
exploinini;  Ihe  pmpheta,  according  to  Grilli.  othn  ar- 
gumenia  fur  the  Christian  character  of  Ihe  Therapeiila 
might  be  made.  But  even  these  alleged  ChriMian 
traits  are  purely  Jewish.  Of  the  hymns  of  Ihe  Thera- 
peutE,  I'liilo  exprraaly  stales  that  they  were  formed 
after  Ihe  hymn  of  Mosea  and  Hiriam  (Exod.  it); 
and  a>  lo  Ihe  allegorical  interpretation,  it  waa  uaed 
among  the  Alexandrian  Jews  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  even  before  !>hik>.  But  as  In  what  GHIIi  under- 
stands of  tlie  liturgj'of  theTherapeutv  and  of  ila  Chria- 
lian character,  he  has  not  fiilty  entered  upon  this  point, 
nor  can  anything  of  tbe  kind  be  deduced  from  Phihi'i 
slalemenu  GrUu  refers  lo  Eusebiua,  and  to  those  after 
him  who  r^arded  the  Therapeula  as  Clirisliant,  bat 
this  proof  is  the  least  satisfaelur^-.  Eusebiua  reganfa 
Ihe  treatise  Htpi  &iov  Scupigrirav  as  Pbiloniin,  and 
makes  the  Jewish  philoso|iber  a  disciple  of  juhn 
Mark,  who  accompanied  Paul  on  bis  first  miision- 
ary  tour,  and  afterwards  labored  at  Alexandria.  Ac- 
curding  to  Eusebius,  Ihe  Therapeuls  enisted  as  Chris- 
tians in  the  Isl  century.  The  opinion  of  GrXli  that 
the  Therapeutie  were  a  Christian  monastic  sect  of 
the  3d  or  3d  cenluri'  of  the  Cbristinn  «n  has  there- 
fore no  eiipport  in  Ensebius.  While,  however,  liter 
Christian  wrilcn.  with  the  exception  of  Photiua  (J/y- 
riolHHm  tin  BiUMhrca  [Rotbomagi,  I6&S],  ed.  Pav. 
Halachelius,  p.  37S),  identify  Therapeuta  with  monki^ 
and  while  the  wridngs  falsely  ascribed  to  Disny- 
siuB  Arcopagita  use  both  expressions  synonymooaly, 
Realiger  has  called  aliention  to  Ihe  fact  that  tlie 
designation  of  Therapculie  for  monka  dependa  rrH/Ai 
upon  the  inlerpretaiion  of  Eusebius  (Scaliger,  Z)r  Emat- 
daliont  Tmiporum,  vi,  252),  With  the  exception  of 
GrHIz,  no  writer  baa  regarded  Ihe  Therapeutic  as  a 
Christian  heretical  sect,  and  he  himself  is  yet  unde- 
cided in  what  series  of  heretical  sects,  which  sprang  up 
by  the  doien  within  the  Church  in  the  ti  and  Sd 
ccniurics,  he  should  plao-  -ding  to  Grtli, 

the  author  of  the  IreaUr  d  to  the  En- 


THERAPEUT^ 

■nUco-CDoalu:  or  MoDUniatic  put;.  But  he  hu  not 
liifd  la  lUta  uij  plaiuible  reuoD  tot  hi*  h^potheiu, 
■hub,  in  bet,  would  be  impoMible;  and  be  binuelf 
a}i  that  Ihti  prant  ii  ouuude  of  bis  object,  4Dd  miut 

•IKCuUt.  We  uk,  however,  wbit  leasoii  could  there 
tun  beta  Tor  ■  ChriBtian,  even  fur  a  heretic,  lu  father 
jpMi  Pfailo  Hich  a  bouk,  fur  Ihe  nka  of  recom 

We  nowhere  hear,  except  Cram 
'  !W  concerning  Che  Thers- 
pciiUe  led  him  to  the  opinian,  tbat  Philo  hod  such  i 
ewd  rTpuUlian  within  Ihe  ChiiMian  Churcb,  and  chat 
Chriuiana  appealed  to  bun  for  their  Tiewa  And 
ti  the  OMte  remirkable  ii  cbe  face  that  in  Ihe  whole 
tnaiiie  neither  Chriu  nor  the  doctriaea  of  CbriMiRnity 
uc  Hice  oMnliuiinl.  Where,  then,  li  the  Chi' 
cbuacur  of  tlie  Therapeuue?  Ae  fur  Che  lin( 
climncr  of  the  book  [Ifpi  jSioti  iiiitptiraov,  it  entirely 
tgntt  wicb  rbiio'i  roode  of  repreeentation ;  *nd  there 
ii  no  internal  nor  eiiemal  argnmenc  for  denying;  Philo 
u  be  Cbe  author  of  tin  book.  The  Therapeute,  aa  wi 
tiiall  aee  fortber  on.  were  Jews. 

IV.  CkiraelrT  and  Ongin  of  the  8trt  of  the  Tiera- 
fab*. — From  the  manner  in  which  Philo  apeaka  of 
Iba  Thenpenbe,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  liimaelf 
"ai  very  much  prepoaaened  reBarding  them,  for  the 
■nok  Ilipi  ^iott  SiufngriKou  ia  notLio((  but  a  panegyric 
on  Ihe  eecl.    Thia  fact  alone  would  lead  to  the  suppoai. 

chaiartfT  of  the  aecc— tbat  the  TtaerapeuUe  cultivated 
and  adhered  to  Jcwiah  religious  philoaophy,  which 
nmnbeml  Philo  among  ila  most  lealoua  disciplea.  It 
is  hardly  conceivable,  aa  Gftijrer  {Ph^  vm/  diejUJitcll- 
almBHbimiKke  TktOKphie,  ii,  381  aq.)  baa  indicated, 
that  io  a  time  like  that  in  which  Philo  wrote,  when 
the  religioiii  movement  waa  at  a  high  pitch,  and  when 
the  moat  divene  teligioiu  partiea  existed  aide  by  aide, 
a  man  with  auch  peculiar  religious  viewa  ahould 
aoch  ■  pan^jric  on  a  aecC  anleu 


Now  cbere  can  be  no  donbt  tbat  the  Therapeule  rep- 
rMented  ■  Jewish  sect.  They  baaed  their  inveatiga- 
lioDS  sod  rcaearcbn  upon  the  writings  of  the  Old  Test. 
In  their  aifivtia  they  bad  only  the  law  and  the  proph- 
tlt  {rofioi  mi  Xiiyia  deaxiaiiyra  i%a  Tipoft\riiv), 
Philo  calls  them  Mwotu;  yvupifiDi,  and  further  says 
that  ihry  gave  chemselrea  to  pbitoaophjcal  apecula- 
lun,  aceording  to  the  holy  doctrines  uf  the  prophet 
HoKs  (card  rile  roil  rpo^ran  Wwaiaii  Ufuvrdroc 
•rftrjvniiQ).  Tbe  Therapenta  strictly  observed  tbe 
Jewish  Sabbath,  and  had  great  reverence  for  the  Tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem  and  the  Leritical  priesthood.  Their 
bnlv  choruses  are  eipresaly  said  to  be  an  imitation  of 
iboae  1  tbe  Red  Sea.  All  these  traits  show  that,  on 
the  ooe  hand,  tbe  Tberapents  atrictly  adhered  to  the 
tradiiiona  and  views  of  Judaism,  while,  on  the  other 
band,  they  deviated  in  many  particulanj  hence  they 


Aa  to  their  natDC,  Philo  leaves  na  to  choose  between 
Im  views.  They  are  called  Therapeotie  either  because 
Ibev  iKofeaa  an  art  of  medicine  more  excellent  than 
that  in  general  use  in  cities  (thus  Therapeutte  would  be 
eqiurilenC  to  "phjaicians  for  Che  atHil").  or  because 
tiny  have  been  instructed  by  nature  and  the  sacred 
laws  to  aerre  the  living  God  {^(pairiviiv  Th  'Ov): 
thus  TheimpeutM  would  signify  those  who  ^  serve  God." 
Tbe  latter  view  is  probably  tbe  more  correct,  Nnce  the 
Tbetapeuls,  aa  the  true  spiritual  "worshippers  of  God," 
called  iheoHClFfa  the  contemplatives  irar'  iKoxhVi  and 
this  appellation  aocorda  more  fully  with  tbe  whole 
toior  and  character  of  the  sect  than  the  designation 
"^pbysciaRa  for  the  souL"  Beaidea,  Philo  uaea  iitVoi 
and  itfta-warrai,  yivoQ  itpawivTOov,  and  yivot  i«ri- 
I'lr  lynonyinaiiBty,  in  aider  to  designate  the  worship 
of  flol  in  the  sense  of  Alexandrian  theoaophy,  in  op* 
pDBtiDn  to  the  faith  and  warship  of  God  of  the  great 
Mm.    (fie  Vktimat  ogrmtibia  [Mangey],  ii,  258 : 


1  THERAPEUT^ 

uetTiu  rol  dtpawturaX  rev  itrwc  ovroc-  De  J/oaan 
cAtii,  ii,  4Jfi :  tn/tpis  icirou  coi  ^oStou  Oiov  ;iuvDV 
^^Niircvto'  dEiovn-Df .  Cthi  Metit,  ii,  164 :  rb  iipa- 
srcvruiv  aurov  [sc.  roii  ewS]  fivet.  De  Prefugii, 
i,  6f>! :  ri  y&p  Aipa'Xtvntlnf  •firoi  ava^jia  iirri  6<ou 
ilpufiivov  Tqv  iU-yaXriv  a^i^iixrifi^i'  aiiri^  fiovt/K) 

From  Cbe  Greek  derivation  of  Therapeutie,  we  ae« 
Chat  there  existed  a  apiritual  relationship  between  this 
sect  and  Jewish  Alexandrian  religious  philusaphy ;  and 


reledtr 


Jeit  which  formed  the  basis  of  their  contemplative  life. 
Its  purpoae  was  to  lead  to  Che  knowledge  of  the  Deity, 
To  achieve  this  it  was  necessary  to  auppreaa  tbe  mate- 
lial  man  and  elevate  the  spiritual.  For  this  reason  they 
lived  in  a  very  simple  manner,  restricting  their  want* 
to  Che  smallest  measure.  Abstinence  and  moderation 
they  regarded  aa  tbe  foondation  of  all  virtues,  because 
by  these  man  is  brought  nearer  to  the  simple,  which 
enables  bim  to  aee  tbe  simple  essence  of  the  Dejcv,  and 
Co  indulge  in  the  blessed  intuition  of  the  same,  there- 
fore the  TberipeutB  lived  aecluded  from  the  outside 
world;  they  denied  themselves  everything  that  could 
bring  them  in  contact  with  others,  thus  living  only  to 
themsclvea  and  their  contemplation.  They  denied 
themselves  marriage,  because  tbey  preferred  to  live  to- 
gether with  the  divine  wisdomi  and  sought  not  after 
the  mortal,  hut  the  immortal,  fruila  of  a  soul  loved  by 
God,  and  which  the  same  only  brings  forth  when  she  ia 
impregnated  by  the  spiritual  rayi  of  the  heavenly  Fa- 
(ber.  For  this  reason  slavery  waa  banished  from  cheir 
niidsc,  because,  in  a  community  which  was  animated  by 
such  motives,  men  could  not  be  tolerated  who  were  de- 
graded below  the  dignity  of  men.  If  the  entire  aim 
of  Che  Therapeutie  accorda  with  the  object  and  time  of 
the  Alexandrian  religioua  phikeophy,  the  relationship 
between  the  civo  shows  itself  more  fully  in  Che  allegor- 
ical exegesis,  which,  discinguishing  between  spirit  and 
letter,  idea  and  symbol,  endeavored  to  explain  Ihe  writ- 
ings of  the  Old  tesL  Accnidiog  to  Philo,  the  Thera- 
peutie had  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  who,  aa  thu 
founders  of  ibis  tendency,  left  behind  them  many  me- 
moriabi  of  the  allegorical  system.  The  same  sym- 
bolic character  we  also  find  in  their  holy  feast.  The 
historical  relation  with  which  it  connected  itself  was 
the  exode  from  Egypt  and  the  going  through  the  Red 
Sea,  aa  the  cboruaea  eung  at  this  feast  were  in  imita- 
tion of  those  songs  which  Moses  and  Hiriam  aang. 
Now,accordiiig  to  the  allegory  of  the  Alexandrians  and 
Philo,  Egypt  ia  the  symbol  of  the  sensual  life  in  earthly 
lust  and  bodily  pleasure ;  the  song  of  ftloses  symbnlizea 
the  rapture  which  man  feela  atier  he  has  denied  him- 
self every  earthly  thing  and  suppressed  all  sensual  lust, 
and  now,  as  a  purelv  spiritual  being,  indulges  in  the 
intuition  of  the  Deity.  Thus  the"  Therapenta,  like 
Philo  and  the  Alexandriana,  held  tbe  view  that,  the 
body  being  the  seat  of  sin,  the  Bight  from  a  corporeal 
into  a  purely  spiritual  existence  ought  to  be  tbe  true 
and  highest  aim  of  life.  And  Philo  himself  expressly 
scales  chat  Che  TherapeDUe  went  into  the  desert,  be- 
cause they  had  entirely  broken  with  their  earthly  life, 
and  intended  to  lead  another,  as  it  were  immortal  and 
blessed  existence.  The  Therapeutie  thus  represent  a 
sect  which  eameatly  atrove  after  carrying  out  and 
practicing  those  principles  and  views  to  which  the 
Jewish  Alexandrian  religious  philosophy  did  homage. 
At  wbat  time,  however,  thia  sect,  nith  its  ceremonies, 
originated  it  is  bard  to  tell,  since  Philo  does  not  aay 
ling  more  definite  about  it.  The  only  indication 
!  Ilipi  ^'ou  iiuifiriTiiiov  from  which  we  may  mn- 
clude  that  the  secc  existed  a  hmg  time  before  I'hilo,  is 
notice  Chat  the  Therapenta  possessed  writings  of 
ancients  whtcb  the  founders  had  lell  beliind  ihem 
aemorials  of  tbe  allegorical  system,  and  which  the 
Therapeutje  took  as  a  kind  of  model  The  founding 
of  the  sect  ptnhably  took  place  at  tbe  time  when  the 
Jewish  Alexandrian  theosophy  originated  and  devel- 
itaelf.    We  may  trace  it  back  to  the  be^inuiny 


THERAS  3^ 

oftlie  3d  century  beroTC  Chriat,  to  AriMobuIu*,  who  in-  I 
tmduced  Jewish  doctrinei  ialo  the  Orphic  hymn*  be- 
cause he  believed  that  Greek  ptiilo«ophera  had  (ierircil 
their  uriadom  rrom  in  incient  venion  of  the  fenta- 
teuch.  Whether  we  h«re  iny  traces  of  s  conneetinn  of 
Greek  pbiloeophy  with  Jewish  ibeologr  in  Ihe  Septus- 
pinl,  which,  acconliiiit  to  Jotephua,  was  commenced  in 
RC.  2S5,  is  at  least  very  doubtfkd ;  but  certain  It  is  that 
with  the  beginning  of  Ihe  3d  pre-Christian  century  the 
conditions  were  already  given  fur  Ihe  origin  of  the  sect. 
TliattheKctoriheTheiapeutBirMpTap*gat«d  beyond 
Egypt  is  nut  probable,  and  its  number  was,  perhaps,  not 
very  large. 

After  all,  it  is  very  interesting  to  know  that  about 
the  time  when  Christ  came  into  the  world,  among  the 
Jews  in  Egypt  Ihe  desire  was  felt  lo  come  into  a  nearer 
relation  to  the  Deity,  and  to  be  freed  from  tlion  rela- 
tions which  were  not  satiifactory.  The  TherapeuttE 
endeavored  lo  reach  this  object  by  lesring  all  earthly 
possessions,  and  in  this  respect  they  resemble  the  Chris- 
tian monks,  who  borrowed  from  them  many  lTBits,a*,  in 
fact,  Eeypt  was  Ihe  real  coantiy  of  monuiicism.  But 
when  Cliristians  regsrded  Ihem  foi  a  long  time  as  flesh 
of  Iheif  own  flesh,  they  misunderstood  the  charscler 
and  tendency  of  the  Therapeutte  entirely,  because  their 
whole  history  shows  bow  far  they  were'  still  froRi  that 
goal  which  alone  could  satisfy  the  cravings  of  the  heart, 
but  which  human  reason  and  power  alone  cannot  reach. 

V.  LUtralurf.—G(r&nT,  PiUo  md  dU  judiich-alex- 
andrinueit  TSrotophit  ( Stuttg.  1SS6);  DBhne,  Ge- 
tchitkllirht  DartltUmig  dtr  jiidiich  -  akxandriniehen 
StligumfPhHoiophif  iUtWclSai);  Koenen,  £>e  God- 
ditial  ran  Iirael  (Haarlem,  1870),  ii,  SS2  sq.  (EngL 
transL  by  May,  Tit  Migim  <•/  lirarl  [Lond.  1874 
(iq.])i  Kit«;hl,Z>w/;B/«/*Ai«ffrffroft*af*o/Me4ni  KircAe 
(Bonn,  IR57),  p.  210;  Herzfeld,  GaiMchI'  dei  Volkt* 
Itrad  (Leips.  1863),  ii>.  496-,  Delannav,  Ecrilt  HiMo- 
r^M(Jf/'Aifoi.(P«r.lB70),p.6Bi  W.  Mnina  et  SibyUri 
(il>id.  IS74),  p.  363;  Baar,  Drei  AbAandlutisn  lur  F7e- 
tciichit  dtr  aUta  FkilotnpkU  (Leip&  187G),  p.  ai6i 
Schwegler,  Dai  nachiipotlotiicht  Zttlalltr  (Tub.  1946), 
i.  190;  Lutlerbeck,  iJie  nrBlrilnmmllicArn  Lthrlrffriji 
(Menu;,  1869),  i,  131.  271 :  Wegnen),  Utbrr  dm  Vtr- 
hShiiu  dn  C/lnttmlhumi  turn  Eumiimu;  in  Illgen's 
ZriUek.  f.  d.  hill.  Throl.  1R41,  xi,  S,  1  sq.:  ].eroux,  En- 
cudnpidie  NovefUe  (Par,  1843),  iv,  056  aq.i  Bauer, 
Chriihu  und  die  CStarm  ( BerL  1S79),  p.  807  sq. ; 
GrAU,  GaeiidUt  der  Jadnt,  3d  ed.  iii,  464  sq. ;  Jost, 
Crich.  da  Judmliumi,  i,  324;  Nicolas,  fimie  de  Tkf- 
ologii  (Strasb.l8e8),  p.S6  sq.;  Di^renbouig,  Jaurwij 
ArialiqiK  (Par.  1868),  p.  283  sq.;  Renan,  Jaunat  de 
Sacaatt  (ibid.  1874),  p.  798  sq. ;  Oemens,  Die  Thtra 
pmlett  (Konigsl*.  1869) ;  Lucius,  Die  Tkfraptvlm  und 
»*re  Slrllang  in  der  Gtichicife  dtr  Aittte.  Eiae  in'- 
liielie  I'mtrmchung  der  Schnft  di  Vila  CofHemplaltra 
(Slrasb.  18H0).  The  last  writer  comes  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  Therapeutie  wens  not  Jew*,  and  that  the 
treatise  Iwsring  Ihe  name  of  Philo  was  written  towards 
the  end  of  the  3d  century  as  on  apology  for  Christian 
a»^eticism.     (B.R) 

Tba'raa  {Sipa),  a  corrapt  Greek  form  (I  Esdr.viii, 
41,61)of  Ihe  lume  Hebraized  (Ezra  v  iii,  31,  31)  Aha- 
«A(q.v.>. 

TbeTamiii,  I.vnwio  FnraiiEHirH  Fpami,  a  cele- 
liraieil  Oermsn  preacher  and  pmrMMir,  was  bom  at 
Cramiow.  March  19,  1780.  He  was  of  HuKucnot  ext- 
inction, his  family  having  emigrsted  from  France  after 
the  Hevocatioo  of  the  Edict  of  Mantes,  and  his  falher 
was  the  pastor  of  the  French  conservation  in  the  town 
where  Franz  was  born.  After  siiilsWe  preparation,  the 
latter  was  onlained  at  Geneva  in  1805,  and  in  1810  was 
chosen  by  Ihe  French  congregation  at  Berlin  tn  be  its 
paslor.  This  post  he  exchanged,  Dec  39. 1814,  for  that 
of  preacher  to  the  conTt.  In  1834  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  Ihe  high  cnneistoiy  anil  lecliiret  in  the  department 
of  instruction  of  the  ministry  of  irorship;  indintliesame 


2  THERESA 

year  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  conTerred  on 
him  by  the  Univeiwty  of  Greifiwalde.  In  1839  he  add- 
ed to  his  former  dignities  that  of  exlraordirurv,  and  in 
lB40thatof  ordinary,  honorary,  professor  in  the  Univer. 
sity  of  Berlin.  He  lectured  on  homiletics,  and  estab- 
lished a  homiielicsl  seminaiy  in  his  houae,  devoting 
himself  to  the  guidance  of  the  latter  with  an  enibutiaBi 
which  increased  steadily,  in  proportion  as  phyiinl  in- 
flrmilies  reslricted  the  range  of  his  activity  as  a  preach- 
er. A  cataract  formed  over  one  of  his  eyes,  and  gave 
rise  to  the  apprehension  that  he  would  become  totsUy 
blind ;  but  he  was  relieved  from  such  fear  bv  dealh, 
which  came  to  him  quietly  and  gently  Sept.  36, 1846. 
Hie  wife  hod  preceded  him  into  Ihe  eternal  world  by 
more  than  twenty  years.    A  bod  and  an  unmsrriol 

'fberemin  was  the  representative  of  a  specific  boni- 
letical  tendency  which  held  that  classiest  antiquity  U 
the  true  school  of  eloquence  and  claimed  Demosthenes 
as  its  masler.  Its  characlerisiic  was  that  it  devoted 
finished  perfection  of  form,  sod 


iginci 


German  school  of  eloquence  of  which  Luther  i 
resenUIive,  and  whose  peculiarity  it  is  that  "  out  of  the 
fulness  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh"  and  shapes  in 
own  forms  of  expression.  Not  Luther  or  Harms,  b«l 
MasstUon.  was  Theremin's  ideal;  for  Theremin's  miiHl 
was  in  its  stmcture  not  German,  but  French.  I'hia  pt- 
coliarity  msy  partially  explain  the  fact  that  Theremin 
did  not  found  a  school  of  pulpit  orators  in  inysetusl 
sense;  while  Reinhard,  to  whom  he  was  unquestinnaMr 
superior,  had  numerons  Imllalon.  Theremin's  funda- 
mental principle  in  homiletics  was  that  eloquence  is  vat 
an  an,  but  a  virtue  (see  hi*  work  Berrdimtrii  «k  Ti- 
ffmd).  The  idea  ia  evidently  faulty,  siim  eloquence  ii 
not,  like  other  virtues,  a  doty:  nor  is  Ihe  nse  of  elo- 
quence confined  altogether  to  the  pmmotiun  of  ethical 
resulta.  Aa  a  preacher  he  was  accustomed  to  use  brirf 
texts,  and  consequently  lo  employ  connderable  btituAe 
in  the  handling  of  hia  themes,  often  dragging  in  ei- 
traneoos  matter,  instead  of  eilucing  it  from  th:  leni. 
His  bearing  in  Ihe  pulpit  was  Ihsl  of  quiet  di^itr: 
his  gestures  were  few  and  simple,  his  voice  gooJ,  bit 
modulation  perfect.  TheHnish  of  his  productions,  bor- 
ever,  produced  Ihe  impreesion  of  an  aristocrstie  refine- 
ment, which,  though  evidently  altogether  natural  in  tiii 
case,  prevented  the  achieving  of  such  populsr  results  n 
were  secured  by  Luther,  Heinrich  M  tiller,  Conrad  Riepr, 
L.  Hofacker,  and  others,  Ten  volumes  of  his  Semmt 
have  been  publishe<l,  most  of  them  in  lepealed  edttiov 
(Duncker  and  Humblol,  Berlin).  Other  worka  of  lbei>- 
logical  and  ascelical  chsrocteT  emanated  from  hia  pm, 
and  have  received  deserved  recognition,  e.  g.  l^rr  m* 
gSIII.  Keieie  (Beriin,  1828)  -.—A  dalberl't  Btteminiat  (M 
ed.  1835]  :_.4  bndMlunden  (5th  ed.  18fi8).  See  nenas. 
Rtnl-Kneyklop.  s.  v. 

Tberesa,  or  Teresa,  St.,  was  bom  at  Avila,  is 
Castile,  Spain,  March  38,  1615.  Her  full  name  was 
ThrrTia  SamAa  de  Crpeda.  From  culy  chiMboodshS 
was  accustomed,  with  a  favorite  brother,  to  read  Iht 
lives  of  tbe  saints  and  martyra,  until  they  both  btcsn 
possessed  of  a  passionate  desire  lo  oblain  the  crown  of 
martyrdom.  When  they  were  children  eight  or  nine 
years  old,  they  set  off  on  a  begging  expedition  into  the 
country  of  the  Moors,  in  hopes  of  being  taken  br  thr 
infldels  and  sacrificed  for  their  tkllh.  Disappointed  in 
this,  they  resolved  lo  turn  hermila;  but  in  this  I  hey  were 
also  prevented.  Theresa  lost  her  mother  at  Ihe  age  of 
twelve,  and  in  a  few  j-ean  became  so  worldly  Ihst  bn 
father  placed  her,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  in  a  convent. 
Here  her  mind  again  took  a  religious  luni,  and  when 
twenty  years  of  age  she  obtained  her  falhn'*  eonarat 
to  take  the  vow,  and  entered  Ihe  convent  ot  the  Csr- 
mclites  at  Aviia.  For  nearly  twenty  yeaia,  bowevef. 
she  Bsys,  she  lived  without  feeling  ll^  itrk 

ehc  had  hoped  when  she  sacrifice-  i  ii 

length  while  reading  ibo  Cai/rt'  la^ 


SLTbereu. 

ibt  WIS  led  to  priy  with  f{r«it«T  conBdence,  and  li< 
Ltuuiutie  and  nsUen  sfiirit  Tound  peace.  Sbs  rei 
td  io  [be  convent  in  her  native  toirn  till  1561,  when  she 
nORiTFd  the  idea  of  reforming  the  Onler  of  the.Car- 
uditn,  into  which  iWTeril  dttnrdcrs  had  crept.  In 
im  tbt  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new  mooaitery  at 
.\vila,  which  she  dedicated  to  St.  JoMph,  irhom  she  had 
choHD  ai  her  patron  Hint.  The  branch  of  her  order 
which  ihe  faandei]  were  the  "Barefooted  Catoielites,'' 
and  alw,  after  her,  the  THEHEiiANB  (q.  v.).  It  wu  the 
[inBci|>1e  of  Theresa  that  the  conrentt  of  tha  CarmellteK, 
under  her  new  rule,  should  either  have  no  worldly  pos- 
•asona  whatever,  and  literally  eviat  upon  Che  char! 
of  othera,  or  that  they  ahouUl  be  so  endowed  aa  not 
rcqaire  any  external  aid.  Thit  waa  a  principle  from 
■btch  bet  spiritual  director!  obliged  her  Co  depart 


THESSALONIANS 

fhini  the  original  HSS.(Le  Nana,  t8a2-S6,Srola.Svo). 
For  Lira  of  Theresa  cnnaul  t  those  of  Rjbera  (Salamanca, 
1d90),  ptire  Bouix  (Paria,  1B65),  Bollandist  Vender- 
■DoeTS  (Braaaela,  1845),  and  Haria  French  (Und.  1875). 
See  Mia.  Jameaoii,  Lfgmit  of  Ihe  Uotnufie  Ordtrt,  p. 
llBeq. 

Tlier'meletli(e(pfi(Xi3),a<>reekfarn)  (1  Eadi.v, 
86)  of  the  name  Hebraiied  (Eira  ii,  69)  Tkl-uelah 
(q.vO. 

TheaanTailua,  the  treasurer  of  a  cathedral  or  col- 
legiate church;  Che  bursal  (creaaurer)  of  a  college  or 
mnnaatery ;  the  keeper  of  a  shrine  house  or  treaaury. 

Thesaftlo'tilaii  lidiaaaXormvt,),  the  designaikm 
(Actaxxri,4;  tThe«.i,li  2  These,  ii,  I ;  " of  Tbesaa- 
lonica,"  Acta  zxvii, !)  of  an  inhabitant  of  Thesealonica 
Cq.'.). 

THESSALONIANS,  FinsT  Epistlk  to  the,  is  the 
eighth  in  order  of  the  Pauline  efristles  as  Toand  in  the 
New  Teal,,  but  the  first  in  point  of  chronological  date, 
and  immediately  followed  by  the  aecond  bearing  a  cur- 
reaponding  title. 

I.  A  HtAoriAip  and  Ccaamcthi, — The  atUraal  evidence 
in  favor  of  the  genaineneia  of  Ihe  First  Epistle  lo  the 
Thesaalatiiain  ia  cbieHy  negative,  but  Cbis  is  impirrCanC 
enough.  There  is  no  Crace  tbal  it  was  ever  disputed 
at  any  age  or  in  any  section  of  the  Church,  or  even  by 
any  individual,  till  the  present  century.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  allusions  to  iC  in  writers  before  the  close  of 
the  Sd  century-  are  confenedly  faint  and  uncertain— ■ 
circumstance  easily  expUined  when  we  renienil>er  Ihe 
character  of  the  epistle  itself,  its  comparatively  simple 
diction,  ila  silence  on  the  most  important  doctrinal  quea- 

ins,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  absence  of  any  salient 


point. 


It  the  al 


e  refen 


■I  life  Theresa 


■he  ha.1  foul 
teen  fur  men.    Durinj 
foood  ample  occupatii 

to  another  to  promulgate  her  new  regulati 
goncnment  of  her  order.  In  If>81  she  was  seized  with 
her  lad  iUnesa  in  the  palace  of  the  duchi 
was,  b»  her  urgent  raiuest,  carried  back 
of  San'j'HP,  where  she  died  a  few  days  afterwarda.  She 
wai  beaiihed  by  pope  Paul  V,  April  H,  1614,  and  canon- 
iud  bv  tinffOTy  XT.  March  32, 1622,  her  feast  being 
bted  00  October  \b.  Philip  III  declared  her  the  second 
patron  saint  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  after  Santiago, 
a  dsote  ulemnly  confirmed  by  the  Spanish  Cortes  in 
leil  Her  shrine  ia  at  Avila,  in  the  church  of  her  con. 
voiL  The  ascetic  treatisea  and  letteia  of  Theresa,  in 
which  she  deacribes  the  internal  itrugglea  and  aspira- 
lieonDf  her  heart,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  docu. 
EMnti  of  the  mystic  literature  of  the  Roman  Catholit 
Church.  Five  of  them  are  eitant :  Diieurio  d  Rtlaeiim 
it  n  I  kin  (ISUS) —El  CamiM  dr  la  Per/fCBion,  prepared 
ialM3uaguide  for  the  nons  of  the  refonned  order:— 
il  J.Aro  (fr  lot  Fundaeiona,  an  account  of  convents 
foioded  by  brr:—/U  CniliUo  hOrrior,  6  lot  Moradai 
{\iTi):—tlmlotC(mcrploiddAmordeDiot.  The  orig- 
laal  JLSS.  of  Ihe  Orst  four  works  are  preserved  in  Ihe 
library  of  the  Escnrlal,  Ihat  of  the  last  was  burned  by 
uf^trof  her  confeaanr;  but  a  copy  had  previously  been 
takes  by  one  of  her  nuns.  The  first  complete  edition  of 
Si.  Theroa'a  ITarb  appeared  at  Salamanca  (llUt7),  and 
a  reODl  one  by  Ochoa  at  Paris  (IMiy.—IMIen  (Sara- 
enn,  1668).    '''  edited  a  complete  cfd- 

Wcii,a  t(  bet  -Is,  1640-46, 4  vols.) ; 

wi  tOT  It  French  cranalalion 


In  Clement  of  Kome  there  are  some  slight  coincidences 
of  language,  perhaps  not  purely  accidental  (c  88,  card 
wdvri  lixopioTi^v  aiiTiji,  comp.  I  Tbest.  v,  18;  ibid. 
OiilioSiii  oir  jiiiiv  oXoi-  ri  awfia  ir  X.  I.,  comp.  ver. 
28).  Ignatius  in  two  passages  (/Vl^t.  I ,  and  Epha.lV) 
seems  to  be  reminded  of  Paul's  expression  ri^inXd'ariut 
irpoaivxifSi  (1  Theaa.  v,  17),  but  in  both  passages  of 
Ignatius  the  word  a^inXiivrwt,  in  whicb  the  umilarily 
mainly  consists,  is  absent  in  Ihe  Syriac,  and  ia  tberefore 
probably  spurious.  The  aupposed  references  in  FdIv- 
carp  (ch.  iv  to  1  Thess.  r,  17,  and  ch.  ii  Co  ver.  22)  are  also 

the  epistle  was  included  in  Ihe  Old  I^tin  and  Syriao 
versions,  that  iC  is  found  in  Che  canon  of  the  Muralnri- 
an  fragment,  and  that  it  was  also  contained  in  that  of 
Marcion  and  of  tbe  Council  of  Laodicea  in  364.  With 
Irenieus  commence  direct  citations  (Adc.  Harti,  v.  B, 
1)^  "On  account  of  this  tbe  apoatle  hath  set  forth 
the  perfect  spiritual  man,  saving  in  1  Thest., '  But  the 
God  of  peace  sanctify  you  wbotly,  and  may  your  whole 
body,  aoul,  and  spirit  he  preaer^'ed  blameless  to  tbe  com- 
ing of  our  Lord  Joans  Christ' "  (comp.  1  TheM.  v,  23). 
Clemens  Alei.  (^Paday.  i,  8fl) :  "  But  this  Ihe  blessed 
Paul  hath  moat  clevly  signified,  saying, 'When  we 
mighc  be  burdensome  as  the  apoetka  of  Christ,  we  were 

(comp.  I  Theas.  ii,  7).  TertuUian  (De  Rnuntct.  Car- 
nil,  c  24);  "WhaC  these  times  were,  learn  along  with 
the  Thesnlonians;  for  we  read,  'How  ye  were  turned 
from  idids  Co  serve  the  living  and  true  God,  and  to  wait 
for  his  Son  from  heaven,  Jesus,  whom  he  hath  raised 
from  the  dead' "  (comp.  1  Theas.  i,  9, 10).  This  father 
quotes  the  epialle  more  than  twenty  times;  To  these 
citations  we  mav  add  those  bv  Gains  (ap.  Euseb.  tlM, 
Efxta.  vi,20),by  Origen (Com'.Crh. lib. iii),and  by  oth- 
ctsof  the  ecclesiastical  writers  (Lanlner,  ii, pi  lore.). 

On  Ihe  other  hand,  the  iidtrmil  evidence  derived  from 
Ihe  character  of  the  epistle  itself  is  ao  atrong  that  it 
may  fairly  be  called  irresistible.  It  would  be  impossi- 
ble lo  enter  into  the  question  of  tfyfe  here,  but  Ihe  rend- 
er may  be  referred  to  the  Introduction  of  Jowetl.  who 
has  handled  thia  subject  very  fully  and  aatisfaclorilj^ 


THESSAL0NIAN8  31 

An  rquilly  Mjong  ugument  nay  be  drawn  aln  lirom 
the  malltr  contuuetl  in  the  epUlk.  Two  inUanccs  or 
thi)  muu  suffice.  In  tbe  fint  place,  tbe  Snenen  and 
delicacy  of  touch  with  which  the  «po«d«'»  reUtiona  lo- 
wanls  bia  TheMalonian  oonvena  are  drawn — hii  yearn- 
ing uisee  them,  his  anxiery  in  the  abaence  ofTimolby, 
'  'and  hia  heart-felt  rejmcing  at  the  Riwd  newa — are  quite 
.  beyund  the  reach  of  the  clumsy  furgerie*  of  the  early 
I  Church.  In  the  aeconil  place,  the  wriler  uses  language 
which,  howerer  it  may  be  explained,  ia  certainly  color- 
'  cd  by  the  aaticipatton  of  tbe  apeedj  advenL  of  the  Lnrd 
'-language  natural  enough  on  tbe  apoatle'i  own  lipa, 
but  quits  inconoeivible  in  a  forgery  written  afler  bit 
death,  when  time  had  diaappointed  Ibeae  antieipationa, 
and  when  the  reTival  or  mention  uf  tbem  would  aerve 
no  purpoae  and  might  Kem  to  discredit  the  apoatle. 
Such  a  position  would  be  an  anachroiiiacn  in  a  writer  of 
the  2il  century. 

Ttie  genuineneai  of  this  epiitle  waa  tint  questioned 
by  Schrader  (Apold  Paulai),  who  waa  fnllowed  by 
Baur  (/'oWtu,  p.  480).  The  latter  writer  haa  elaborated 
and  ayalemaliied  the  attack.  The  argumenu  which 
be  altegea  in  favor  of  hia  view  are  briefly  controverted 
by  LUnemann,  and  more  at  length,  and  with  great  fair- 
neaa,  by  JowetL  The  fallowinft  u  a  aumraary  of  Baur'a 
argumenia,  {a.)  He  aliributes  great  weight  1o  (he 
general  character  of  the  epistle,  tbe  difference  of  atyle, 
and  especially  the  absence  of  dinlinctive  Pauline  doc- 
trines— a  peculiarity  which  will  be  remarked  upon  and 
explained  below  (|  iii).  (ft.)  In  the  mention  of  the 
*'wrath"  orettaking  the  Jewish  people  (ii,  16),  Baur 
sees  AD  alluuon  to  the  deatmction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
therefore  a  proof  of  tbe  later  dale  of  the  epistle.  The 
real  aignificanceof  theae  wordawill  beconaidered  below 
in  discussing  the  Apocalj-ptic  passage  in  the  second 
e^Hstle.  (r.)  He  urges  the  contradictions  to  the  ac- 
count in  the  Acta — a  strange  argument,  surely,  to  he 
brought  forward  by  Banr,  who  postdates  and  discredits 
tbe  authurity  of  that  narrative.  The  real  extent  and 
bearing  of  these  divergences  will  be  considered  below 
(§  iv).  (A)  lie  discovers  references  to  the  Acts,  which 
^ow  that  the  epistle  was  wtitten  later.  It  will  be 
aeen,  however,  that  the  coincidence*  an  subtle  and  in- 
cidental, and  tbe  poiuts  of  divergence  and  prima-fade 
contradictiona,  which  Baur  ' '  "  " 
insists  upon,  are  so  nnuierous  as  to  preclude  the  snppo- 
aition  of  copying.  Schleiermacher  (KMrit.  tnt  iV.  ~ 
p.  160)  tightly  infers  the  independence  of  the  epistle 
these  grounds,  (e.)  He  supposes  passages  in  this  ep 
tie  to  have  been  bonowed  from  the  acknowledged  1 
teta  of  PauL  The  reaembtanccs,  however,  which 
points  out  are  not  greater  than,  or,  indeed,  so  great 
those  in  other  epiallea,  and  bear  no  traces  of  inii 

II.  Ditlt. — This  has  been  approximately  determined 
in  the  following  way :  During  the  course  of  his  aecomt 
missionar)- journey,  which  began  in  the  year  4",  I'aul 
founde<l  tlie  Church  of  ThcHialunicB.  Leaving  Thessa- 
a.  be  passed  on  to  Bercea.     From  Beraia  he  went 


o  Athen; 


o  Corfu 


,  (Act. 


With  this  visit  to  Corinth,  which  estendi 
over  a  period  of  two  years  nr  ihereabont*.  his  second 
missionarj'  journey  closed,  for  from  Corinth  he  return- 
ed to  Jerusalem,  paying  only  a  brief  visit  to  Ephesua  on 
tbe  way  ( ver.  -JO,  2 1 ).  There  ia  some  uncenainty  about 
the  movemenla  of  Paul's  companiona  at  Ibis  lime  (stf 
below) ;  but,  whatever  view  we  adopt  on  ibia  point,  ii 
seema  indinputable  that,  when  this  epistle  was  wtillen, 
Silvanus  and  Timothy  were  in  the  aposile's  companv 
(1  Thc»B.i,li  comp.2TheBs.i,l)- 


confines  the  di 


o  the  I 


thougli  Timothy 

in  connection  wilb  Paul  during  this  visit  to  Cirinth 
(Acts  xviii,  5  \  i  Cor.  i,  19).  The  epistle,  then,  must 
have  been  written  in  the  interval  between  Paul's  leav- 
ing Tbeaaalonica  and  tbe  doso  of  hia  reudence  at  Cor- 


14  THESSALONIANS 

inth,  i.  e.  witbin  the  years  48-61.  Tbe  foUowing  mo- 
sideratioiis,  however,  narrow  the  limits  of  the  posMbk 
date  still  more  closely.  (1.)  When  Paul  wrote,  he  bad 
already  visited,  and  probaUy  left,  Athens  (1  Thess,  iii, 
1).  (!.)  Having  made  two  untuccessful  allempu  to 
revisit  Theasalonica,  be  had  despatched  Timothy  to 
1  tidings  of  his  converts  there.  Timolby  had  ic- 
ititned  before  the  apostle  wrote  (ver.  %  6).  (3.)  Paul 
ipcaks  of  the  Theeaalonians  aa  "ensamples  lo  all  Ibat 
lelieve  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia,"  adding  that  "in  ev- 
;ry  place  their  faith  to  God-ward  was  spread  abroad"  (i, 
f,  8) — language  prompted,  indeed,  by  the  overflowing 
>f  a  grateful  heart,  and  therefore  not  to  be  rigoroialy 
preaaed,  but  still  implying  some  lapse  of  lime  at  least. 
(4.)  There  ore  several  traces  of  a  growth  and  progiea 
"  :  condition  and  circumstances  of  the  Thessslonisn 
Church.  Perhaps  the  mention  of  "rulers"  in  the  Churcb 
(v,  12)  ought  not  to  be  adduced  as  proving  this,  uncc 
orginitation  would  be  necessary  from  the  very 
beginning.  Hut  there  isotberevidesce  besides.  Qoes- 
hsd  arisen  relating  to  the  state  of  those  who  bad 
fallen  aalecp  in  Christ,  so  that  one  or  more  of  the  Thn- 

13-18).  The  storm  of  persecuiion  which  the  apnlls 
had  diaeemed  gathering  on  the  horizon  had  already 
hurst  upon  the  Christiansof  Theasalonica  (iii, 4, 7}.  It- 
regularitiea  bad  crept  in  and  aullied  the  infant  polity 
of  the  Church  <iv,  4  i  r.  14).  Thelapse  ofafew  moDlli^ 
however,  would  account  for  these  changes,  and  a  mnch 
longer  time  cannot  well  be  allowed.  For  (5)  the  letter 
was  evidently  written  by  Paid  immediately  on  the  re- 
turn of  Timothy,  in  the  fulnesa  of  his  gratitude  foe  Ibe 
joj'ful  tidings  (iii,  6).  Moreover  (6),  the  second  epistle 
also  waa  written  before  he  left  Corinth,  and  Ihert  taon 
have  been  a  sufficient  interval  between  Ihe  two  to  al- 
low of  the  growth  of  fresh  difficulties,  and  of  such  com- 
munication between  Ibe  apoatle  and  his  converts  n  the 
case  supposes.  We  shall  not  be  far  wrong,  therelbtt, 
in  placing  the  writing  of  this  epiatle  eariv  in  Paul's  res- 
idence at  Corinth,  a  few  months  after  he  bad  fwiidnl 
the  Church  at  Thessalonics,  I  e.  during  the  year  49. 

Tbe  statement  in  the  subscription  appealing  in  ser- 
eral  MSS.  and  versions  that  it  was  written  'hom  Alb- 
ens"  is  a  soperOcial  inference  from  1  Tbea.  iii,  1,  la 
which  no  weight  should  be  attached,  aa  is  clear  fnn 
the  epistle  itself.  (I.)  In  i,  7,  8  Paul  says  thai  Ibe 
Thesaittonians  had  become  "ensamples  to  all  that  be- 
lieve in  Macedonia  and  Achaia:  fiir  from  von  [mti 
be]  sounded  out  the  word  of  the  Lord  not  only  in  M»t- 
edonia  and  Achaia,  but  also  in  every  place  your  faith 
to  God-watd  ia  spread  abroad."  Knw.  fiT  such  an  ex- 
tensive diffiision  of  the  fame  of  the  1'beasalunian  Chris- 
tians and  of  Ibe  Gospel  by  them,  a  much  longer  periMI 
of  time  most  have  elapted  than  ia  allowed  by  Ihe  sup- 
posilion  thai  Paul  wiute  this  epistle  while  at  Athens; 
and,  betides,  hia  reference  particularly  lo  Achaia  steiaa 
prompted  by  the  circumstance  of  his  being,  at  Ibe  line 
he  wrote,  in  Achaia,  of  which  Corinth  was  tbe  chief 
city,  (i.)  His  language  in  iii,  I,S  favors  the  opinion 
that  it  was  not  from  Athena,  but  after  he  had  left  Ath- 
ens, that  he  wrote  this  epistle;  it  is  hardly  tbe  lura 
which  one  living  at  Athena  at  the  time  would  hare 
given  his  words.  (S.)  Is  it  likely  that  during  the 
short  time  Paul  was  in  Athens  befijre  writing  this  r|Hi- 
tie  (supposing  him  to  btve  written  it  there)  he  should 
have  "over  and  again"  purposed  to  reviait  the  Thisa- 
lonians,  but  have  been  hindered?  And  vet  aucli  pur- 
poses be  had  entertained  before  writing  this  epistle,  ti 
we  learn  tnm  ii,  18;  and  Ibis  greallv  favors  tbe  Itlcr 
date.  (4.)  Before  Paul  wmle  this  epiatle,  Timothy  fatd 
come  to  him  from  TbeaMlonica  with  pwid  tidings  ftai- 
ceming  Ihe  faith  and  charilv  of  Ihe  Christians  then 
(iit,6).  But  bad  Timothy  followed  Paul  to  Athens  frao 
Kenea,  what  tidings  could  he  have  brought  the  apoUle 
from  Thessolonica  except  aucb  heaia«"  *—>-»-  ■-  woald 
inform  tbe  apostle  of  nothing  bed'  'T 

From  these  considerations  it  fu'  da 


THKSSALONIANS  3. 

KM  Ht  wriUm  from  Athem.  It  muK,  however,  b«re 
IcB  ■»[[«!  very  ainn  ifler  his  arrivil  at  Corinth ;  for 
■L  IIk  time  or  hia  writing  Tinwthy  had  just  arrireil 
(no  TheauloDica  (ipri  iX36vTot  T'fi<.3iab,  iii,  6),  an<l 
I'ld  hal  not  been  long  ia  Corinth  before  TimolhT  and 
SUtjaioed  him  there  (AcU  xvii,  1-G). 

HiehMlia  o«ii«ndi  for  ■  later  ilace,  but  hia  argaai^nu 
ate  itotitute  of  weight.  Before  Paul  could  learn  that 
ihe  linie  of  the  Tbesuluniui  Church  had  ■pread  through 
Achaia  and  far  beyond,  it  waa  not  necesurj.u  Michae- 
Ib  atppoMo,  that  he  ahould  have  made  aeveral  exUn- 
liie  jgumeya  from  Corinth ;  for  >a  that  city,  from  iU 
iDcreiDtile  importance,  waa  the  leaort  of  penwna  rrom 
lU  paiu  at  the  commerdal  world,  the  apoade  had  abun- 
daai  EKona  of  gathering  this  inrorniatinn  even  during 

art  U)  the  (uppoaiLiiin  that  when  Paul  aaya  that  over 
Bd  atciia  Satan  had  hindereil  him  from  fulflUing  hia 

nKka  or  loaie  auch  miafortanea  (aa  !klichaelis  aug- 
gaufi  foe  Satan  baa  many  waya  of  hindering  men 
baaoBch  parpoaea  beaideaamidentain  travelling.  The 
viewaoferiticBwho  have  oaai^ed  (n  this  epiatle  a  later 
dau  than  the  second  miaaianair  Journey  ire  Mated  and 
refuted  in  the  Intioduction  nf  Knch  (p.  S3,  etc.)  and  of 
Lanamaiin  (|  3). 

IIL  Bdatiom  la  Otier  f/niT^j.— The  epiallea  to  the 
newilanians  then  (for  the  aeconil  fuiloired  Ihe  Hrst 
ilut  DO  bng  interval)  are  tha  eariieat  of  l^anl'i 
iiig>— perhaps  the  earliest  wrilCcD  recoriU  of  Chriatian- 
iiT.  They  belong  to  thai  period  which  Paul  elsewhere 
«>iB  "Ihe  beginning  of  the  Gaspel"  (Phil,  iv,  1&). 
Tbry  preaenl  the  disciples  in  the  Brat  flush  of  love  and 
lerotion. yearning  for  the  ilay  of  deliverance,  and  straiii- 
iig  their  eyes  to  catch  the  first  glimpse  of  their  Lnrd 
itcaccDding  omidu  the  clouds  of  heaven 
lererish  anxiety  they  furget  Ihe  sober  buaiaess  of  liJa 
itanibed  in  thia  one  engroising  thi>ii;:ht.  It  will  be  n 
nenbcKd  that  a  period  of  about  live  years  interveni 
before  the  second  group  ot  epistles — those  to  the  Corii 
ihiini,  Galatians,  and  Komons — were  written,  and  sbiii 
twice  that  period  to  the  date  of  Ihe  opistles  of  the 


n  epistles  wilh  111 


Uteil 


note  the  points  of  difleience.     These  differences  are 
nuiidy  fourTold. 

1.  In  the  [general  sfjrfo  of  these  earlier  lelten  there  is 
ICnatct  sinplicity  and  leas  exuberance  of  language. 
The  beevily  of  [be  openiof;  salutation  is  an  instance  of 
tbin  -■  Haul ...  In  the  Church  of  the  Thessalooiana 
in  (iwl  the  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Chriat,  grace  and 
pncc  U  you"  (I  Thesa.  i,  1 :  comp,  S  These,  i,  1).  "" 
dniug  benediction  is  correspondingly  brief:  "  The  grace 
ofoarLord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you"  (lThess.1  "~ 
coaip.  S  Theaa.  iii,  18).  And  throughout  the  epiatlea 
then  is  much  more  evenness  of  style ;  wnrda  are  not  ac- 
coBHilaUd  in  the  ume  way,  Ihe  syntax  is  less  involved, 
pamitbesea  are  not  so  frequent,  the  turns  of  thought 
awl  feelinx  are  less  sudden  and  abrupt,  and,  altogether, 
there  is  less  intetisity  and  variety  than  we  And  in  Paul's 
IstR  episikik 

1  lite  onM^onns  la  Paul  is  not  tbe  same.    The  di- 
nnioe  of  the  attack  bos  changed  in  the  interval  be- 
tvstn  the  writing  of  these  epistles  and  those  of  the 
Mit  group.     Here  the  oppouUoa  comes  from  Jei 
The  admiisian  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  hopes  and  pri' 
lexcs  of  Meanab's  kingdom  on  any  condition  is  repul- 
■iTita  them.     They  "forbade  the  apoatls  to  apeak 
the  Gentilra  that  they  might  be  saved"  (1  Thns.  ii,  1S> 
Aperiod  of  Ave  yearn  changes  tbo  aspect  of  the  CO 
vwsy.    Tbe  opponents  of  Paul  ara  now  no  longer 
•s  Doefa  as  Judaiiing  Christians  (Kwild,  Jahr^l.iu,  249; 
Smiickr.p.  li).     The  question  of  the  admission  of  the 
rmilib*  has  been  solved  by  time,  for  they  bare  "  I 
■ha  bagdon  of  heaven  by  storm."     But  the  antigo- 
■nm  Is  ih«  apnatle  of  Ihe  Gentiles  having  been  driven 
koaitaint  pnauiHi,  anirenched  itself  behind  ■  (Bcond 


THESSALONIANS 

ier.  It  was  now  urged  that  though  the  Genliki 
be  admitted  to  the  Church  of  Chriat,  the  only  duor 
of  admtsaion  ia  the  Mosaic  covenant-rite  of  circumci- 
I.  The  language  of  Paul  speakin);  of  the  Jewiab 
Christiana  in  this  epistle  shows  that  the  oppoalion  to 
his  leaching  had  not  at  this  time  assumed  Ibis  second 
phase.  He  does  not  yet  regard  them  as  Ihe  disturbers 
of  the  peace  of  the  Church,  the  false  teachers  who,  by 
imposing  a  bondage  of  ceremonial  observances,  frustrate 
the  free  grace  of  God.  He  can  still  point  to  them  as 
examples  to  hia  converts  at  Thesaalonica  (I  Thess.  ii, 
The  change,  indeed,  was  imminent;  the  signs  ol 


e  gather! 


>l  (Gal.  ii 


II), 


but  hitherto  they  were  faint  ai 

scarcely  darkened  the  horizon  of  the  Gentile  churches. 

8.  It  will  be  no  surprise  that  the  doctrinal  leaching 
of  the  apostle  does  not  bear  quite  the  same  aspect  in 
these  as  in  Ihe  later  epistles.  Many  of  Ihe  distinctive 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  which  are  inseparably  connect- 
ed with  Paul's  name,  tboiigh  implicitly  contained  in 
the  leachingof  these  earlier  letters— as  indeed  they  fol- 
low directly  from  the  true  conception  of  tbe  person  of 
Christ — were  yet  not  evolved  and  distinctly  enunciated 
till  tbe  needs  of  tbe  Church  drew  them  out  into  promi- 
nence at  a  later  date.  It  has  ollen  been  observed,  Tor 
instance,  that  there  is  jn  theei^istles  to  theThessslonians 
no  mention  of  the  characteristic  contrast  of  "  faith  and 
works  t"  that  the  word  "jiistiflcBlion"  does  not  once  oc- 
cur; that  tbe  ideaofdyiuRwitb  Christ  and  living  with 
Christ,  so  frequent  in  Paul's  later  writings,  is  absent  in 
these.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  opposition  of  Judaiiing 
Christians  insisting  on  a  strict  rilualiam  which  led  the 
apostle,  somewhat  later,  to  dwell  at  greater  length  on 
the  true  doctrine  of  a  saving  faith  and  ihe  true  concep- 
tion ofa  godly  life;  but  tbe  time  had  not  yet  corner 

4.  This  difference  appears  eapeeially  in  the  fichattilo- 
ffy  of  the  apostle.  In  ibe  epistles  to  the  Thesaalonisna, 
OS  has  been  truly  observed,  the  Gospel  preached  ia  that 
of  the  coming  of  Christ,  rather  than  of  the  cross  of 
Christ.  TbGTo  are  many  reasons  why  the  subject  of 
the  second  advent  should  occupy  a  larger  space  in  the 
earliest  atage  of  the  apostolical  leaching  than  alter- 
wirds.  It  was  closely  bound  up  with  the  fundamental 
fscc  of  tbe  Gospel,  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  thus 
it  formed  a  natural  starting-point  of  Christian  doctrine. 
It  afforded  the  true  satisfaction  to  those  MesMsnic  hopes 
which  had  drawn  the  Jewish  converts  to  the  fold  of 
Christ  It  was  Ibe  best  consolation  and  support  of  Ihe 
infant  Church  under  peraecution,  which  must  have  been 
most  keenly  felt  in  the  Hrst  abandimment  of  worldly 
pleasures  and  interests.  More  especially,  as  telling  of 
a  righteous  Judge  who  would  not  overlook  iniquity,  it 
was  essential  to  that  call  to  repentance  which  must  ev- 
eryivbere  precede  the  direct  and  positive  leaching  of 
tbeGoapeL   "Now  he  commandetb  all  men  everywhere 

will  judge  the  world  in  righteouancss  by  that  Man  whom 
he  hath  ordained,  whereof  he  hath  given  assurance  unin 
all  men  in  that  he  raised  him  from  the  dead"  (Ads  xvii, 
80,81). 

There  is  no  just  ground,  however,  for  the  supposition 
that  the  apostle  entertained  precipitate  •Kpeclations  as 
to  the  Lord's  second  coming.  His  language  is  suited 
to  evenr  age  of  the  Church.  Where  an  event  is  cer- 
tain of  accomplishment,  hut  uncertain  as  regards  the 
precise  time,  it  may  be  said  to  be  always  "at  hand"  to 
devout  expectation;  and  this  ia  the  aspect  which  tbe 
topic  in  question,  after  all  that  has  been  vrilten  on  tbe 
subject,  wears  in  Paul's  writings  taken  as  a  whole.  Tlie 
task  of  proving  that  he  was  mistaken,  and  therefore 
that  Ihe  gift  of  inspiration  was  only  partial,  is  as  ardn- 
oua  as  one  would  suppose  it  must  b«  ungratdbL 

IV.  Rttation  lo  Ihe  Auocialtd  Hillory.—  ' 


if  the  ni 


allnsi 


d  tbe  Second  E|HStle  to  the  Tbesaalon 

instructive   with    the   foregoing   com[<arison, 
ime  striking  cinncideneea,  ihfre  is  just  that  dc> 


THESSALONIANS  i 

grec  of  direriteim  xbicb  miBht  be  expected  between  i 
writer  who  bed  bome  tbe  piincipal  |urt  in  the  Kena 
referred  In  uiil  *  iiatrauir  who  ilrrirei  hia  iiifuTmatioi 
from  othera,  between  the  cuiuil  hair-expresaed  allusiom 
of  a  ramiliar  letter  aod  the  direct  account  of  the  pn> 


1.  PosNng  uver  patent 


e  nav  aiiigle 


out  pne  of  a  more  tublle  and  delicate  kind.  It  ariwi 
out  of  tbe  rorm  which  the  accuaation  brought  against 
Paul  and  bia  companion*  at  Tbesaalonica  takes  in  the 
Acta :  "  AIL  these  do  contrary  to  tbe  decrees  of  Cssar, 
saying  that  there  is  another  king,  one  Jeaaa"  (xrii,  7). 
The  altuaioiia  in  the  epistles  to  the  'rbessiloniuis  ena- 
ble US  to  underatand  tbe  ground  or  ibis  accusation.  It 
appears  that  the  Hiigdom  of  Christ  bad  entered  largely 

of  the  epiatlea  themselvea.  He  had  charged  his  new 
converts  to  await  tbe  coming  of  the  Son  of  God  from 
beaven  as  their  deliverer  (i,  10).  lie  had  dwelt  long 
and  earnestly  (Tcpotirafiiv  car  SiifAapTvpafuBa)  on  the 
terrors  of  the  judgment  which  would  overtake  tbe  wick- 
ed (iv,  6).  lie  had  even  explained  at  length  the  Mgns 
which  would  usher  in  the  last  day  (3  Thest.  ii,  S). 
Either  from  malice  or  in  ignorance  such  language  bad 
been  misrepresented,  and  he  was  accused  of  setting  up 
a  rival  sovereign  to  the  Roman  emperor. 

2.  On  tbe  other  hand,  the  language  of  these  epistles 
diverges  from  the  narrative  oT  Luke  on  (wo  or  three 
points  in  such  a  way  as  to  establish  tbe  independence 
nf  the  two  accounts,  and  even  lo  require  some  exp~ 

(I.)  Tbe  first  of  these  relates  to  the  compoaitii 
the  Church  of  Theasalonica.     In  the  first  epistle  Paul 
addresses  bis  readers  distinctly  aa  Gentiles,  who  bad 
been  convened  fromidolatTy  to  the  Gospel  (i,  9, 10).    In 
the  Acts  we  are  told  that "  same  (of  the  Jews)  believed, 
.  .  .  and  of  the  devout  Greeks  (i.  e.  proselytes)  a  great 
multitude,  and  of  the  chief  women  not  a  few"  (nvii,  " 
If  for  vi^fiivuir  'EUqvwv  we  read  aipoiuvum  i 
'EXXiirutv,  "  proselytes  and  Greeks,"  the  difficulty  vi 
isbes;  but  thougb  inlemat  probabililiu  are  somewhat 
ill  favor  of  this  reading,  the  array  of  direct  eridi 
(now  reinforced  by  the  Codes  Sinoiticus)  is  agains 
But  even  if  we  retain  tbe  common  reading,  the  acci 
of  Luke  does  not  exclude  a  number  of  believers  i 
verted  directly  from  heathendom;  indeed,  if  we  i 
argue  from  the  parallel  case  at  Beroea  (xrii,  I!), 
"women"  were  chiefly  of  this  classj  and  if  any  di 
genre  remains,  it  is  not  greater  thin  might  be  expected 
ill  two  independent  writers,  one  of  whom,  not  being  an 
eye-witness,  possessed  only  a  partial  and  indirect  know|. 
edge,    ikith  accounts  alike  convey  the  impression  thai 
the  Gospel  made  butliltle  progress  with  the  Jews  tbem- 
selves. 

('2.)  In  tbe  epistle  the  persecutors  of  the  Theasalanian 
Christians  aro  represented  as  their  rellow-countrymen 
Le.  as  heathens  (uto  tuv  ilivii'  aviifuKirAv,  ii,  14), 
whereas  in  the  Acts  the  Jews  are  regarded  as  the  bit- 
terest opponents  of  the  faith  (xvii,  5).  This  is  fairlv 
met  by  I'atey  (/lone  Paul,  ix.  No.  5],  who  pointa  out 
that  the  Jews  were  the  instigators  of  the  persecution, 
which,  liowei-er,  they  were  powerless  of  themselves  lo 
carry  out  without  aid  from  the  heathen,  as  may  be  gath- 
ered even  from  the  narrative  of  Luke.  Wo  may  add, 
also,  Ihsi  the  expression  liioi  ovii^uXirai  need  not  be 
restricted  to  the  heathen  population,  but  might  include 
manv  HeUenisI  Jews  who  must  have  been  cjliiens  of 
•he  free  town  of  Theasalunica. 

(3.)  The  narrative  of  Luke  appears  to  state  that  Paul 
remainetl  only  three  weeks  at  Tbeitsalonica  (nvii,  i), 
whereas  in  the  epistle,  though  there  is  no  direct  n 
tioii  of  the  length  of  his  residence  among  them, 
whole  langusge  (i,  4;  ii.4-11)  points  to  a  mueb  longer 
period.     The  letter  part  of  the  assertion  seems  qii' 
correct,  the  former  need*  lo  be  modilied.    In  tbe  A< 
ic  is  stated  umply  that  for  Ibree  Sabbath  days  (Ihi 
weeks)  Paul  taught  in  the  synagogue.    The  silence  of 


THESSALONIANS 

oea  not  exclude  subsequent  labor  among  the 
Gentile  population;  and,  indeed,  as  much  wems  lo  be 
implied  iu  the  success  of  his  preaching,  which  exaspM- 
■led  the  Jews  against  him. 

(4.)  Tbe  notices  of  the  movements  of  Silas  nnd  Tiiii» 
thy  in  the  two  documents  do  not  accord  at  firm  lighl. 
Iu  the  Acts  Paul  is  conveyed  away  secntly  from  Beraa 
lo  escape  tbe  Jews.  Arrived  at  Athens,  he  send*  to  Si- 
las and  Timothy,  whom  he  had  left  behind  at  hena, 
urging  them  to  join  bim  as  soon  as  possible  (xvii.  14- 
16).  It  is  evident  from  the  language  of  Luke  Ibat  Iht 
apostle  expects  them  to  join  him  at  Athens;  yei  urt 
hear  nothing  more  of  them  for  some  time,  when  ai 
length,  allcr  Paul  hsd  passed  on  to  Corinth,  and  scv- 

Silaa  and  Timothy  came  from  Macedonia 
mm  the  first  epistle,  on  the  other  hand,  «e 
gather  the  following  facts :  Paul  there  tells  us  that  they 
(q/itiC,  i.  e.  himself,  and  probably  Silaa),  no  longer  able 


cleft  a: 


Athens,  and  sent  Timotheus  their  brother"  to 
lonicB  (iii,  I,  3).  Timothy  returned  with  good  nen 
(ver.  6)  (whether  to  Athens  Or  Corinth  does  not  sp- 
pear),  and  when  tbe  ivro  epistles  la  the  Tbessalonisia 
were  written,  both  Timothy  and  Silas  were  with  Paul 
(i,  1 ;  2  Thess.  i,  1 ;  comp.  2  Cor.  i,  19).  Now,  Iboogh 
we  may  not  be  prepared,  with  Palcy,  to  construct  so  un- 
designed coincidence  out  of  these  maicrialA,  yet,  on  tbe 
other  hand,  there  is  no  iiisiduble  difficukv;  for  ibe 
ilifferent  ways,  titber 


willbi 


ng  the  1 


Bupposilion  r|uil 


sistent  with  the  apostle's  expression  of  "consenting  tn 
be  left  alone  al  Athens."    In  Ihia  case  Timothy  woukl 

and  the  two  would  join  Paul  in  company ;  not.  ho»ei-M, 
at  Athens,  where  be  was  eipecling  ihem,  builateiooat 
Corinth,  same  delay  having  arisen.  This  eipisnaliiin, 
however,  supposes  that  the  plurals  "ice  conseninl,  ih 
sent"  {tirlotliiiafuv,  J«i)if  «;«>'),  can  refer  lo  Psulskioe. 
{b.)  Tbe  sltemaltve  mode  of  reconciling  the  aHnuma 
ia  as  follows :  Timothy  and  SUta  did  join  the  apoale 
at  Athens,  where  we  learn  from  the  Acts  that  ht  wsi 
expecting  them.  From  Athens  he  des|alched  Hido- 
thy  lo  Thessalonica,  so  that  be  and  Silaa  (^fuic)  had 
to  forego  the  services  of  Iheir  felJow-Uborer  fur  a  lime, 
This  misrion  is  mentioned  in  the  epjsllp.  but  not  in  tbe 
Acts.  Subsequently  he  sends  Silas  on  some  other  mis- 
sion, not  recorded  either  in  the  history  or  the  epiide: 
probably  to  another  Macedonian  Church — Philippi,  for 
instance,  from  which  be  is  known  to  have  receivnl  oiiB> 
tributions  about  this  time,  and  with  which,  thneltn, 
he  was  in  communication  (!  Cor.  xi,  9;  oomp.PhiLir. 
14-16;  aee  Koch,  p.  IG).  Silas  and  Timothy  reteratd 
together  from  Macedonia  and  jirined  the  apostle  at  Coc- 
Inth.  This  latter  solution,  if  it  aaaumes  more  than  tbs 
fori 


,  has  the  advantage 

if  the  plural  •'  tee  consenteil,  K 

ouhlful  whether"     ' 


!s  the  plural  of  hiB- 
'  .  thiscasebeu- 

B  iianial  knovi- 


leai 

self  alone.    The  s 

plained  either  by  his  possessing  ont> 

edge  of  the  circiitnstances,  or  by  his 

dents  of  which  he  was  aware  as  unimportant. 

Wbether  the  expected  meeting  ever  look  plan  tl 
Athens  is  therefore  a  matter  involved  In  much  anctr- 
Winiy,  Uichaclis,  Eichborn,  De  Weile,  Koppr.  Pdi. 
and  otbera  are  of  opinion  that,  at  least  aa  respects  Tinw- 
thy,  it  did  lake  place;  and  [hey  infer  that  Paul  again 
remanded  him  lo  Thessalonica,  and  that  he  made  a  sec- 
ond Journey  abing  with  Silas  to  Join  tbe  apostle  at  C«- 

ney,  viz.  from  Thessalonica  to  Corinih;  and  uodemandi 
the  apostle,  in  1  Thess.  iii,  I,  2.  aa  intimating,  not  ihsl 
he  bad  sent  Timothy  from  Athena  to  Tbessalonica.  but 
that  he  bod  prei'ented  bia  coming  ta  Athens  by  •end' 


THESSALONUNS 

i^hirn  from  Dcnet  tn  TheawlDnici.  BetwMn  lh«i« 
HTo  [.[stiioiu  iherc  L«  imlhiiig  tii  enable  lu  to  Judge  witb 
csuinK-,  unlen  we  lEtach  w«LKlit  u>  llie  exprenion  o( 
Lakf.  th»t  I'm!  hid  ilttired  Ihe  pre«n™  of  Timothy 
uid  SiLu  in  Alheni  iif  raxarra.  "  u  ipeetlily  M  pomi- 
Hf.'  Hii  dnirinR  [hem  lo  follow  him  Ihus,  wiLbaat 
lou  of  liiDF,  fivon  the  concliuimi  ihat  tbey  dlil  rejoin 
bim  in  Athens,  and  wen  Iheiice  Mnt  to  Tbeantkiiiict. 

T.  Otouiom  of  Iks  Epi*dt.—'V!t  mn  now  prepared  to 
noulet  (be  circunuianca  of  the  Churcb  al  Theualo- 
nira  which  drew  (urth  thia  letter.  These  wen  ai  ful- 
Im:  Paul  had  twin  Btlempttd  10  reriaicTbeMalonica, 
ual  bmh  limea  had  been  diuppointed.     Thua  prevent- 


mly  [l 


e  had  h 


,n  Chris 


t  Timothy 


pnctice,  but  alio  their  itrmig  actaehmenc  lo  tl 
i™cber(ver.6-10).  The  Fi™t  Kpiatle  to  the  T 
niua  ii  the  oatpoating  of  the  apinlle'i  grutituili 
ctirigi;  thia  welcome  newa. 

At  Ibe  lanM  lime,  the  report  of  Timothy  was 
mixed  with  alloy.  There  were  certain  feiturei 
mndilion  of  the  Thraaalonian  Church  which  called  for 
Piiiri  interference,  and  to  which  he  sddresaea  hi 
in  hii  letter.  (1.)  The  rery  inleiuity  of  their  Chriitian 
tiiihjdirellinB  too  excliuivety  on  thoday  of  the  Lord'i 

■    "  onsequencee.    Oi 

X  had  arisen.    Ii 


then 


!  hand,  a 


ended  w 


ir  fcremb  expectation  of  thii 
n  led  to  neglect  their  ordini 


au  preaenoe  of  so  vast  a  change  (iv,  11;  Gomp.' 
ii.1;  ili,6,ll,  12).  On  the  other  hand,*  theoretical 
ditEcnilr  had  been  felt.  Certain  members  of  Ihe  Church 
hul  died,  and  there  was  great  anxiety  leat  Ihey  shouli 
be  excluded  fioni  any  ahsre  in  the  (-lorieB  of  the  Lord', 
advent  (iv,  13-18).  Paul  rebukes  the  invKulirities  of 
the  liinDet,  and  diuipates  the  feais  of  the  latter. 
The  dame  of  peneeuiinn  had  broken  out,  and  Ihe  Tbes- 

ihtirsore  trial  (ii,  14:  iii,  IM).  (S.)  An  unheilthi 
i-ffcehne  with  t^jard  to  spiritual  gifts 
iurlf.  Like  the  Coiinlhiani  at  a  laterday,  tbey  needed 
to  tie  reminded  of  the  superior  value  of  "  pmpheaying," 
cMapared  with  other  giri)  of  the  Spirit  which  they  ex- 
alted at  ita  expense  (v,  19, 20}.  (4.)  There  was  the  dan- 
Ecr.  which  Ihey  shared  in  common  with  moat  Gentile 
churcbeii,  of  relapaing  into  their  old  heathen  proHigacy, 
AfainK  Ihis  the  apostle  often  a  word  in  season  (iv, 
«-«).  We  need  not  aoppoae,  however,  Uiit  The«al»- 
aica  was  worse  in  Ibis  respect  than  other  Greek  cities. 
SnTiiKaSA  IONIC*. 

Xti,  notwithstanding  all  these  drawbacha,  the  cnndi- 
liun  nf  the  Thnaalonian  Church  was  highly  satlsfac- 
•WT,  and  the  most  conlial  relations  existed  between 
I'm]  and  hu  eraiverts  there.  This  bononble  distinc- 
tioB  ji  share*  wiih  Ihe  other  great  Church  of  Macedo- 
nia, that  of  PhilippL  At  all  times,  and  amid  every 
ckanfn  uf  circumstance,  it  is  tu  his  Macedonian  church- 
a  tkal  the  apostle  turns  for  sympatby  and  support.  A 
ptiiad  of  nearly  ten  yean  is  inierpoaed  between  the  First 
Epiiile  tu  the  Thesaalunlina  and  the  Epistle  lu  the  Phi- 
hppians,  and  yet  no  two  of  his  letCcn  more  closely  re- 
toible  Fach  other  in  this  respect.  In  both  he  drops 
hii  official  title  of  apostle  in  the  opening  salutation, 
lliB>  appealing  raiber  lo  their  affection  than  to  his  own 
satbarity:  in  both  he  commences  the  body  of  his  letter 
with  beany  and  uoqualiDed  commendation  of  bis  con- 
•eils;  and  in  both  the  same  spirit  of  conSdeiice  and 
wannaOeclion  breathes  throughnut. 

VL  r.'oi«fiir(;--Tbe  deaign  uf  this  epistle  thus  being 
loeaafurt  the  Thesaalonians  under  trial,  and  toencour- 
aga  them  to  tha  patiant  and  coosislent  ptolessiDn  of 
Uhristlaaity,  the  lelter  itaelf  is  rather  practical  than 
tetiia*!.   It  wM  aaggoted  nor*  by  penoiial  feeling 


7  THESSALONIANS 

than  by  any  urgent  need,  which  might  have  formed  a 
centre  of  thought,  and  imptessed  a  distinct  character  on 

expect  10  trace  unity  of  purpose,  or  a  coiitinuaus  argu- 
ment, and  any  analysis  iDUSt  be  tDore  or  less  arliflcial. 
The  Imly  of  the  epistle,  however,  may  convenienlly  be 
divided  inio  iwn  parts,  the  former  of  which,  extending 
over  Ihe  first  three  chapters,  is  chiefly  taken  up  with  a 
retrospect  of  the  apostle's  relation  to  his  Thesaalonian 
convena,  and  an  explanation  of  his   present  circum- 
stances and  fcelingst  while  the  latter,  comprising  the 
4th  and  Slh  chapters,  contains  some  seesunable  exborDi- 
tions.   At  the  close  of  each  of  these  divisions  iaa  prayer 
commencing  with  tbeaaiDe  words,  "Hay  God  himself," 
etc.  and  expressed  in  somewhat  ^milar  language.   The 
epistle  may  ibereTote  be  tabulated  as  follows : 
Salutation  (1, 11 
I.  Narrsitts  portion  (I.  JAW.  It). 
1.  Tha  npiAtJe  gralefuliy  records  their  conveTsTon  lo 
the  Gospel  and  their  progress  In  the  fiiltb  (i,  i-101. 
I.  He  reminds  them  how  pnre  and  blameless  his  life 

nudm1nlslryanionctbeinhadbeen(ll,  1-ie). 
S.  He  repenta  his  thanksgiving  for  their  conversion, 
dweTllug  especlillv  on  Itaa  persecutions  which 
tbey  hsd  endured  <i1,  ]3-l«J. 
4.  Be  dncribes  bts  own  suspense  and  anilelv.  tba 
consequeal  mission  of  llmolliy  U>  Tbessalnnlca, 
BUd  The  encnnrsglug  report  ishlcta  he  bruuchl 
back  (tl,  ll-lli,  W)" 
K  Tha  apiaUe's  proiivr  for  Ihe  Thesssloulnus  (III,  1I~ 


1.  Watnlng  saainst  impnrilTtlv,  I-S). 

g-KxhurUilonlo  brotherly  love  and  sobriety  of  con- 
duet  (1.,  9-lS>. 

>.  TonchlnglheBdventorthaLord(lv,1S-v,  11). 

0.  The  dead  shall  have  their  place  In  the  resnnec 

b.  The  lime,  hnwerer.  Is  nncerlaln  (t,  1-S). 
e.  Therefore  ail  mnst  be  wnlcbrnl  (v.Hll, 

4.  Bxhonatlon  to  orderly  Hvlng  nnd  the  doe  perfurm- 

snce  nt  soclnl  duties  (v.lt-lR. 

5.  liijDuetlons  relating  lo  prayer  and  splrllas]  mat- 

ten  generally  <v,  ft-K). 
t.  The  apoatle's  pnijer  fur  the  Theasolonlans  (v,  SS, 


Vir.  ComnaUaria. — The  following  are  the  special 
exFgelical  helps  on  bdh  the  episUea  to  the  Thessaloni* 
ansexclusivelv;  to  the  most  itnportant  of  them  we  pre- 
fix an  asterisk;  Willich,  CoHUnrnfurias  (Argent.  1545; 
Basil.  1646.  8vo) ;  Weller,  Coniwirfnrta.  [includ.  PhiL] 
(Norib.  1661,  8vu);  Major,  Kaarralin  (Vilemb.  1S68, 
8vo):  Musculus,  CanrntHlariiu  [indnd.  other  ep.]  (Ba- 
siL  1564,  1578,  169B,  fol.}-,  Aretins,  fonunmluriiu  [in- 
dud.  PbiL  and  Col.]  (Morg.  1580,  8vo);  'JeweU,  ii- 
fHuHion  (Lond.  1683,  ISino;  1811, Bvo;  also  in  Latin, 
and  in  Worki);  Zanchiua, fomssoifuruu  [inclnd.  PhiL 
and  CoL]  (NeosL  1596,  foL;  also  in  0pp.);  •RoUock, 
CommaOariiu  (Edinb.  1598;  Herb.  1601,  8vo);  also 
£>clHrs((Ediub.l606,4to);Hunnius,erpo>ttio(Francof. 
1603,  8vo):  Steuan  [Ron.  Cath.],  CominoUariiu  (In- 
goUt.  1600,  4to);  Crell  [Sodn.],  Cominmtanuj  [from 
Pet  MocoVs  notes]  (Kacov.  1636,  Svo;  also  in  Opp.)\ 
Ferguson. /jpunrion (Lond.  1674, 8vo);  Schmid.V'aro- 
pkriuit  [includ.  other  ep.]  (Hamb.  1691, 1696.  l'04,4to) ; 
Undresen,  ^rlUnm7  (Frank f.  1707, 4to)',  Sireso,  iltdi- 

'  (AmsLi;iO,gvo)tTurretin,t'ow»9i(anM(Basil. 
8vo:  also  in  0pp.) ;  Chandler,  SoltM  [includ.  (iaL] 
(Lond.  1777,  4tu);  Krause.  KtldSnuy  [includ.  PhiL] 
'Frankf.i;90);Schleiermacher,A'»re(BeroLlBJ3,8vo); 
'Pelt,  CamBmlariui  (Gtyph,  1830,  Bvo) ;  Scbott,  Con- 
lailariai  (lipa.  1SS4,  Svo) ;  Tafcl,  Huloria  llitaalo- 
aetntUim  (Tub.  1835,  8vo);  Sumner,  Ionium  (Lond. 
1860,  2  vols,  lamo);  Lillie.  Vfrtim  (N.  Y.  IS56,  4id)i 
Iso  Ltcturrt  (ibid.  1870,  8vo);  •F.liicotI,  Connenraiy 
(Lond.  1858,  1862,  1866,  8va);  Edniunda,  Cimme<a,iry 
(ibid.  1858,  8vu);  Headland,  Xain  (ibid.  1S66,  8vo); 
-'Eadie,  Conmaaitry  (ibid.  1877,  Bvo).     See  Ei'iotle. 

On  the^i'il  epistle  alone  there  are  the  following: 
iclater,  ExpoiilUm  (Und.  1629,  4to) ;  Martin,  Ana^ 
tit  (GrtBiiing.  1669,  ISmo);  Van  Alphen,  VcrUaaiif 


THESSALONIANS  3. 

(U[r«cbl,  1741, 4ta) ;  Pliillips,  £:xplam>HoB  (Lond.  1761, 
4(0);  Burgcrhouill,  De  Argamtnlo,  etc  (U  B.  i»ib, 
Svo)i  Koch,  C'oniBMJrfar  (BerL  1848,1856,  evo)i  Pttet^ 
■on,  ComnntfnrjF  [includ.  JiDWi  and  t  Juha]  (Ediob. 
18&7,  ei-o).     See  Cohhkhtakv. 

THESSALON1AN8,  Sbcomd  Epistlk  to  thk,  fol- 
lows immediatcl]'  ifter  the  6nt  in  all  the  tcxu  wiJ 
TenionB  of  the  New  TeM. 

I.  A  WAor.— I.  The  eilemal  evidence  in  favor  ot  the 
Fpiatle  is  eomewhat  more  definile  thiiii  that 


hich  CI 


ought  in 


(Dt  h 


*  delivered 

not  faith 

I.  Cam 


be  rererroi  lo  in  one  or  two  paaeages  of  Pulj'carp  (iii, 
15,  in  Polycc  11,  and  posdbly  i,4  in  the  tame  chapter; 
comp.  Pulvc  c  3,  and  He  iWner,  ii,  6) ;  and  the  Ian. 
guage  in  which  Justin  Martyr  iDioL  p.  836  D)  speake 
of  the  Man  of  Sin  is  ao  aimilar  that  it  can  acarcely  be 
independent  of  this  epiatle.  With  Irennua  Ihe  direct 
testimony  commencea  {Adt.  liar,  iii,  7,  !):  "And 
again  in  the  second  epistle  to  rhe  Tbessalnnian*,  speak- 
ing concerning  Auttcbriit,  'And  then  shall  the  un- 
godly one  be  revealed,  whom  the  Lord  Jeans  Christ 
ahall  slay  with  the  breath  of  his  month 
a  Thes».'ii,8).  Clemen*  Alenandrinus  (. 
"The  apoade  Bays,  'Pray  that  we  tnai 
from  perverte  and  wicked  men,  for  all  hi 
(comp.  a  The*s.>iii,  3).     Teitidlii 

viz.  the  Tbessaloniana,  "wilh  greater  eamealneas  he 
says,  '  I  beaeech  yon,  brethren,  by  the  onmin);  of  the 
Lord  JeauB  Christ,  elc.,  that  ye  be  not  soon  moved  in 
your  miiul,  nor  shaken,  neither  by  spirit  nor  by  word,' " 
etc  (comp.  2  Tbess.  ii,  3,  S). 

The  second  epbtle.like  the  flrsi,  is  found  in  the  can- 
ons of  the  Syriac  and  Old  Latin  versions,  and  in  Ihose 
of  the  Muratorian  fragment  and  uf  the  heretic  Mardun, 
and  was  universally  received  by  the  Chunk 

2.  The  internal  characier  of  the  epiatle,  as  in  the  for- 
mer case,  bears  the  strongest  testimony  to  its  Pauline 
origin  (see  Jowelt,  i,  143).    "The  genuineness  of  thi 
einttte,''  remarks  Eichhom,  "  followa  from  its  contcnti 
Its  design  is  lo  carreet  the  erroneous  use  which  had 
been  maile  of  some  things 
but  the  writer  of  that  first  epistle  wonld  have  set  him- 
self thus  to  such  a  task?    It,hawever,  appears  that  ' 
authur  of  the  first  must  also  be  the  author  of  the  i 
nnd ;  and,  as  the  former  is  tbe  production  of  Paul, 
must  ascribe  Ihe  latter  also  to  him.     It  was  easenlial 
to  the  apostle'*  reputation 
quences  which  had  been  deduced  from  his  word*  should 
be  refuted.     Had  he  refrained  from  noticing  the 
peetation  built  upon  his  words  of  the  speedy  retun 
Christ,  his  «lence  would  hare  conHrmed  the  conclusion 
that  this  was  one  of  hi*  peculiar  doctrints; 
would  have  passed  tu  the  succeeding  generation;  and 
when  they  perceii-ed  that  in  this  Paul  had  been  mi»- 
(aken,  what  confidence  could  they  have  had  in  othei 
parts  of  his  leaching?     The  weight  of  this  as  an  evi. 
dence  of  the  genuineness  of  this  Second  Epistle  lo  the 
Thessaloninns  acquires  new  alrengtb  from  the  fact  that 
of  ail  the  other  eKpresaions  in  the  epistle  not  one  ii 
opposed  to  any  point  either  in  the  histotv  or  Ihe  doc- 
trine of  the  aiwalle"  (fiitfcifc  «a  N.  T.  iii,  69). 

3.  Notwitlistanding  these  eviilences  in  ila  favor,  the 
genuineness  of  this  epistle  has  been  called  into  doubt 
by  the  restless  scepticiim  of  some  of  the  Geti 
ics.  The  wav  here  was  led  hv  John  Ernest  Chr. 
Schmidt,  who,  in  1801,  published  in  his  BiUiothrk  fm- 
KriiHt  and  Ertijae  a  tract  entitled  Vermulkuitgai  vbtr 
die  btidn  Briffe  an  die  Tifuatonier,  in  which  he  im- 
pugned the  genuineness  of  the  first  twelve  versea  of 
tbe  second  chapter.  He  aflerwanls,  in  his  Einleitinig, 
p.  £56,  enlarged  his  objectinns  anil  applied  them  lo 
the  whole  epistle,  lie  has  been  followed  by  Schrader 
{Apotlft  PatilvX  Rem  iTSbvy.  Zriltchr.f.  Thtcl  1839, 
it,  14G),  and  Baur  (faaiat  der  ApoHfl).     De  Wetle  at 

his  condemnation  and  frankly  accepted  it  as  genuine. 


8  THBSSALONIANS 

His  cavils  are  mora  than  usnally  frivolotu,  and  hav* 
most  fully  replied  to  by  Ouericke  (^Batrige  i*r 
kiiL-L-rH.  EirJeiL  ua  If.  T.  [Halle,  1828],  p.  9i-99),  br 
Heiche  {Aulkalia  Pint,  ad  Thtualon.  Kpitt.  PndMa 
[GdtL  1829],  and  by  Pelt,  in  the  Prolryomna  to  hb 
Commmloty  on  tAe  Epiitla  lo  tht  Tkrualoman  (fi. 
xxvii).  See  alHi  Grimm,  in  the  TieoL  SUid.  a.  Kni. 
1860,  p.  TSSaq.;  Lipdus,  iMf.  1864,  p.  905  aq. ;  Hilgen- 
feld,  in  his  Znltckr.f.  KUt.  ThroL  186£,  p.  £25  sq. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  epistle  has  been  rtjecl- 
ed  by  some  modem  critics  who  acknowledge  the  first  (n 

to  arguments  brought  against  the  Hrst,  such  as  we  have 
considered  already.    The  Apocalyptic  psaasge  (J  Thet<. 

been  objecied  in  either  as  allwling  lo  events  Hibae- 
queiit  to  PauFe  death — the  Nerunian  peraeciition,rar  in- 
sunoe— or  as  betraying  religious  views  derived  fmrn 
the  MonUnism  of  the  Sd  century,  or,  lastly,  ss  conlra- 
dicting  Paul'a  anticipations  expressed  elsewhere,  espe- 
cially in  the  first  epiatle,  of  the  near  approach  of  the 
Lord's  advent  That  there  is  no  reference  lo  Nero  we 
shall  endeavor  to  show  presently.  That  the  doctrine 
of  an  Antichrisl  did  not  alart  into  being  with  Moota- 
nism  is  shown  from  tbe  allusions  of  Jewish  writers  em 
before  the  Christian  lera  (see  Bertboldt.  CirtH.  p.  69; 
GfrSrer,  Jahrk.  da  lleiU,  ii,  267);  and  s|-pear. still  more 
clearly  from  the  passage  of  Justin  Alartyr  referred  to  in 
the  paragraph  above.  That  the  language  used  of  ihe 
Lord's  coming  in  the  second  epistle  does  not  conlradirt, 
but  niher  supplement,  Ihe  teaching  of  i  be  Srst— post- 
poning the  day,  indeed,  but  still  anticipating  its  ap- 
proach as  possibly  within  the  apostle's  lifeiiioe — may 
be  gathered  both  from  expressions  in  ihe  passage  itself 
(e.g.  ii,  7,  "is  already  working")  and  fmm  other  parts  of 
the  epintle  (1, 7, 8),  especially  those  which  speak  of  ihe 
"  signs"  of  the  coming.  Other  special  objections  lo  ih« 
einstle  will  scarcely  command  a  hearing,  and  mutt  nee- 
easarily  be  passed  over  here. 

II.  Z>ii'c. — Tbera  is  tbe  strongest  reason  for  believinic 
that  this  second  epiatle  was  written  ver^-  anon  after  the 
first,  and  at  the  same  place,  vii.  Corinth,  A.D.  rir.  56. 
The  circtimstancesoftbe  apuslle  while  writing  the  one 
seem  very  much  the  same  as  they  were  while  writing 

any  greater  difference  than  such  as  the  infiuenccs  rein- 
red  lo  in  the  second  epistle  may  be  auppcsed  in  a  very 
short  Ume  to  have  produced.  What  seems  almost  to 
decide  the  question  is  that,  while  writing  tbe  SKoid 
egHStle,  the  apostle  had  Timothy  and  Silas  still  with 
him.  Now,  after  he  left  Corinth,  it  was  not  for  a  kmg 
time  that  either  of  theae  individuals  was  found  agun 
in  his  company  (Acta  Kviii,  18;  comp.  jiix,  ^):  and 
with  rt^rd  to  one  of  them,  Silas,  there  is  no  evidence 
that  he  and  Paul  were  ever  together  at  any  subsnt"™' 

It  will  be  seen  presently  that  the  teaching  or  the 
second  rplstle  is  corrective  of,  or  rather  supplemtnial 
to,  that  of  the  disband  therefore  preaupposrs  it.  MoR- 
over,  the  first  epistle  bears  on  its  fsce  evidence  thsi  it 
is  the  first  gush  of  his  aOtetionate  yearnings  lowaidt 
his  converts  after  his  departure  from  Thessatonia; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  second  epiatle  containsa 
direct  alliinon  to  a  previous  letter,  which  may  suitiUv 
be  referred  lo  the  fiist— "Hold  fast  the  tradition  wbick 
ye  were  taught  either  by  word  nr  by  letter  from  u>" 
{ii,  IS).  We  can  scarcely  be  wmng,  therefore,  in  iDSin- 
taining  the  received  order  of  the  two  epistles.  It  i« 
due,  however,  to  the  great  names  of  Grotius  and  ef 
Ewald  {^Jahii.  iii,  250;  Sendickr.  p.  16).  who  are  follow- 
ed in  this  by  Baur,  Mitgenfeld,  Laurent,  and  Davidaoa, 
to  mention  that  they  reverse  the  order,  ptadng  the  •«- 
ond  epistle  before  the  first  in  point  of  lime— on  diflerrnt 
grounds,  indeed,  but  both  rqiially  insufBctrni  to  diMiiik 
the  traditional  order,  supported  as  it  ia  by  the  co^side^ 
at  ions  already  alleged. 

III.  OccaeioH  aad  i>u^.— In  the  former  letter  «( 


THESSALONIANS  S 

«w  cbilAf  the  outpooring  of  Hrong  penuiul  aHeclJan 
«xBi<NW<l  by  ihc  rauewjl  of  the  spoule'ii  inteccourae 
«iih  the  Theauloniaus,  uid  Ibe  doctrinil  siiil  hortalo- 
iT  panvHu  are  tbere  subordinate.  In  tbe  Kcund  epi»- 
tie,oii  the  olber  banrl^  bis  leadinif  motive  aeems  to  hAve 
been  tbc  dnire  of  mrrecting  emire  in  tbe  CbuTcb  of 
TlvmlimicL  We  notice  two  poiuu  eapeeially  which 
all  tinb  hia  rebuke. 

1.  It  Henu  that  the  anxioiuejipecUliaiiortbe  Lord's 
•dreDt,  inatead  of  lubnding,  hid  gained  ground  unce 
the  vritiuB  of  tbe  Hrat  e;H>tle.  Tbey  now  looked  upon 
tbii  gieat  criiii  ai  imminent,  and  Ibeii  dai' 
itre  nejlecteii  in  conaeqoence.  There  w 
•HSU  in  the  &m  epittle  wbicb,  taken  by 


■at  falMly  represented  to  be  the  apostle's  doctrine. 
This  Dotion  anm  inculcated  is  a  truth  specially  con- 
Gfined  to  Ihcm  by  the  Spirit;  others  advocated  it  aa 
pan  vf  the  apostolic  doctrine ;  and  some  claimed  for  it 
tbe  ipKilic  aoppon  of  Paul  in  a  letter  (ii,  2).  Wheth- 
er the  letter  here  referred  to  ii  Ibe  apostle's  former  epiv 
tli  la  (he  Thesealaiiians  or  one  forged  in  bis  name  by 
■DOK  keen  and  unaciupulous  advocates  of  the  notion 
■t»>e  referred  to  is  uncertain.  The  Istler  opinion  hai 
ben  rery  geneiallir  xlupled  Trom  the  time  of  Chryaoa- 
bn  ilnwnwirds,  and   is  certainly  aameHhBt  counte- 

c|wile  as  la  hit  autograph  aaliilatinn  being  the  mark 
dT  a  genuine  letter  from  him  (iii,  17).  At  the  aame 
rine,  it  rouac  be  admitted  that  the  probability  of  anch 
a  thing  being  done  by  any  one  at  'Tbesaalonici  it,  un- 
der all  the  cireumstancea  nf  tbe  caae,  not  very  strong. 
He  DOW  writes  to  soothe  this  restlesa  spirit  and  quell 
ibeir  apprefaenaiont  by  showing  that 


9  THESSALONIANS 

ir.  EfdUUolog!/.—Tbt  moat  striking  feature  in  the 
epistle  it  the  apocalyptic  passage,  announcing  tbe  rev- 
elation of  the  Man  of  Sin  (ii,  1-12);  and  it  will  not 
be  irrelevant  to  investigate  ita  meaning,  bearing,  as  it 

written,  and  illustrating  this  upecl  of  the  apostle's 
teaching.     He  had  dwelt  much  on  the  subject;  for  he 

and  remmtls  them  that  he  tuld  them  these  things  when 
he  was  yet  with  them.  The  following  considerations 
may  help  to  dear  up  this  obscure  siilijecl. 

1.  The  paasage  speaks  of  a  Rreat  apostasy  which  is 
to  usher  in  tbe  advent  of  Chrisi,  the  great  judgment 
There  are  three  prominent  figures  in  tbe  picture— Christ, 
Antichrist,  and  the  Kestniner.  Antichrist  it  described 
as  the  Man  of  Sin,  the  Son  of  Perdition,  is  Ibe  Adver- 
sary who  exalteth  himself  above  all  that  is  called  God, 
■a  making  himself  out  to  be  God.  Later  aa  (for  appar- 
ently the  reference  is  the  same)  he  is  styled  the  "  mys- 
tery of  Itttlestnesi,"  ■'  the  Uwlesa  one."  The  Restrain- 
one  place  spoken  of  in  the  masculine  aa  a  per- 


n(i, 


TtX'"*')'  1°  »f 


in  the  m 


t,  refer 


ingti 


huora]  teaching  at  TbesaabHiica 

i.  The  apostle  bad  also  a  perwjnal  ground  of  com- 
piainl.  His  authority  was  not  denied  by  any,  but  it 
■aa  lanpervd  with,  and  an  anautborizcd  use  was  made 
of  his  name.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  cir- 
'nnulances  of  the  eaaa  from  casual  and  indirect  allu- 
wKu,and  Indeed  we  may  perhaps  uiferrrom  tbe  vigue- 
WS1  of  the  apostle's  own  Ungtisge  thst  be  himself 
was  not  in  poaaeasinn  of  definite  information ;  but,  at  all 

■sight  misrepresent  his  teaching  in  two  ways,  either  by 
nppntiing  what  he  actually  had  written  or  said,  at  by 
futftiiig  leiten  and  in  other  ways  representing  him  as 
tnchine  what  he  had  not  taught-  Paul's  language 
different  places  at  bath  these  rondet  of  false 


Hes 


e  tbe  first  epistle. 


of  the  Lord,"  to  see  thai 
M  epistle  ia  read  "to  all  the  holy  brethren"  (v,  21)— 
a  charge  nninielligihle  in  itself,  snd  only  to  be  explain- 
•1  by  suppoaing  some  misgivings  in  the  apostle's  mind. 
Btfare  the  second  epistle  was  written  bit  tutpicions 
•eea  to  have  been  confirmed,  fut  there  are  two  pas- 
■ages  which  allude  to  Ibese  misrepresentations  of  bia 
leaching.  In  the  Qrst  of  these  he  tells  them  in  vague 
la^wge,  which  may  refer  equally  well  to  a  false  inler- 
pretaiion  put  upon  his  own  words  in  the  first  epistle,  or 
ts  a  supplemental  letter  forged  in  bia  name.  "  nnt  to  be 
tnialiled  either  by  spirit  or  by  word  or  by  Irtler,  as 
oixsing  from  Bt.as  if  Ibe  day  of  tbe  Lord  were  at  banil." 
They  ate  not  to  be  deceived,  he  uldi,  by  any  one.  whai- 
evn  means  he  employs  (tard  jiijfiva  Tpiirov,  tl,  2,  S). 
In  the  neond  passage,  at  the  doae  of  the  epistle,  he 
says, "Tbe  aaluUtion  of  Paul  with  mine  own  band, 
wkich  is  ■  token  in  every  epistle;  so  I  write"  (ill,  17) 
—•ridently  ■  pracantion  against  forgery.  With  these 
two  fstnia  should  be  combined  the  expression  in  iii, 
M,  (no  which  we  infer  that  ha  now  enleruined  a  fear 
•f  di«ct  opposilioii— "  If  any  man  obey  not  out  word 
comqttl^ •-'-  ■—'  that  raan." 


fjfai').  The  "  mystery  of  lawlcssnesa" 
IB  aireauy  at  work.  At  present  it  is  checked  by  the 
Restniiier;  but  Ibe  cbeck  will  be  removed,  and  then  it 
will  break  out  in  all  ita  violeiKe.  Then  Christ  will  ap- 
pear, and  the  enemy  shall  be  oonsumed  by  the  breath 
of  bia  mouth,  shall  be  brought  to  naaght  by  the  spleii- 

2.  Many  different  explanations  have  been  offered  oT 
this  passage.  Each  generation  and  each  section  in  the 
Church  has  regarded  il  as  a  prophecy  of  that  particular 

be  most  fraught  with  evil  to  tbe  true  taith.  A  good 
account  of  these  manifold  interfoetatioiu  will  be  found 
in  Lllnemann's  commentary  on  the  epistle,  p.  201, 
ScAbwinn.tUH,l-I2(teealaoAlfotd,/>niAv.).  Byone 
dosBof  interpreters  it  has  been  taferred  to  ciicutottancea 
which  pataed  within  tbe  circle  of  the  apostle's  own  ez' 
perience,  the  events  of  his  own  lifetime,  or  the  period 
immediately  following.  Others,  again,  hsve  seen  in  it 
the  prediction  of  a  crisis  yet  to  be  realized,  tbe  end  of 
all  things.  The  former  of  these,  the  Pneterisis,  have 
ideniiHed  [he  Man  of  Sin  with  divers  historical  char- 
acters, and  have  sought  for  a  historical  counterpart  to 
the  Kcstrainer  in  like  manner.  Among  them  may  ha 
mentioned  Urotius,  Wetlsceln,  Whitby,  Scbiitlgen,  NiiH- 
selt,  Krau*e,and  Kem.  Agreeing,  however,  in  the  main 
point  of  s  post  accomplishment,  these  writers  diflbr 
widely  from  each  other  in  the  details  of  interpretation. 
The  Han  of  Sin  was,  according  tu  Grotius,  Caligtda; 
according  to  Wei tstein,  Titus;  according  to  Hammond, 
Simon  Magus;  by  many  (Whitby,  Le  Clerc.  elc)  tbe 
Jewish  people  are  thought  to  have  been  thua  indicated 


o  Chris 


iiity  ai 


power  (ru  carixor).     Commentatan  of  this  class  are, 

already  past,  i.  e.  to  interpret  it  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem;  and  this  alone  seenH  to  render  the  view  un- 
tenable. For  Paul's  description  of  the  parousia,  or  ap- 
pearance, of  Christ  (1  Tbeaa.  it,  19)  is  for  too  exalted  to 
correspond  In  any  temporal  event.  The  latter  class  of 
interpreters,  ihe  Futurists,  have  also  given  vatiout  ac- 
counts nf  the  Antichrist,  tbe  mysterious  power  of  evil 
which  is  already  working.  We  hold,  in  general  terms, 
that  this  view  is  substantially  right,  ie.  that  the  proph- 
ecy, however  it  may  have  been  partially  fullitled  in  tbe 
post,  yet  awaits  its  complete  fiilfilmenL  But  among 
Ihe  advocates  of  the  Futurist  opiniim  also  differences 
nf  o[>inion  prevail  To  the  Ureek  Church  the  Han  of 
Sill  was  Mohammed,  and  the  "  mystery  of  iniquity"  is 
Mohammedanism,  which,  it  ia  held,  will  yet  culminate 
in  aome  fearfully  Antichristian  form.  From  the  middle 
of  the  Ulh  century  the  pope  began  to  be  considered  the 
predicted  Antichrist,  and  this  view,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  became  the  prevalent  one  in  all  the  Prot«»> 
Unt  churches.    By  way  of  retaliation,  Romanista  main- 


THESSALONIANS  3i 

Uined  that  Liither  and  Proustantiim  are  pointed  at  in 
the  lunage.  ThU  swina  lo  abovr  the  danger  of  limil- 
ing  the  prophecy  lo  aiiy  one  rorm  or  Antichriniaii  er- 
TDT.  John  wriiea  that  even  in  his  time  there  were 
"  many  imtchrista"  (1  John  ii,  18) ;  ihe  one  he  apecifiea 
aa  denyinK  that  "Jeana  Cbriac  had  come  iii  the  Heah" 
Is  deacripiire  neither  of  Uohammed  nor  of  the  pope 
nor  of  Lulher,  liut  of  the  Unoalica.  Many  of  the  Teat' 
urea  of  Aniichriu  aa  ponrayeil  by  Paul  no  dnubt  pre- 
sent ihemwlves  in  the  papacy,  but  others  hsrdly  ao. 
At  any  rale,  the  papacy,  so  far  as  it  contains  elementa 

perhaps  did  so  three  hundred  yean  ago,  and  yet  Cbriat 
has  not  cotne.  We  are  diapoaed,  therefare,  la  adopt  Ihe 
view  thai  there  have  b«n,^nce  the  prophecy  was  writ- 
ten, many  partial  tDanirealations  of  ATilJchriMian  error 
— theGno«ticB,tbe  Judaizing  tendencies  of  the  lit  een- 
lury,  Mohammed,  the  papacy,  the  French  Revolution, 
etc.i  but  that  there  atil]  is  tn  prospect  some  mysTerrof 
iniquity  which  will  combine  in  itself  Ihe  aeveial  evil 
leiideiicies  which  the  Church  has  already  witneased, 
a  f^reatly  inleniifled  form;  aud  probably  that 


this  : 


ipiety  » 


personal  head  or  representatire,  the  Han  of  Sin  of 
epistle.  His  appearance  will  be  the  signal  for  Ihe  i 
ond  advent  of  ChrisU  Aa  regards  the  Kestrainer  (A  i 
Tix^i'-  ru  tarixov),  the  view  of  Ihe  fathers  does  not 
■eem  far  wrong— rii.  that  Paul  obscurely  alludes  lo  the 
temporal  power  (in  his  and  their  day  the  Roman  em- 
pire), by  which  the  excesses  of  lawless  licenlionanesi 
are,  to  some  extent,  held  in  check.  Hence,  in  Paal'i 
if  the  State  Bi  such  was  a  divine  one 


(Rom. 


iii). 


icularly,  therefore,  in  arbitrating  betweei 
the  Prseierisu  and  the  Futuriais.  wa  are  led  by  thi 
analngy  of  other  prophetic  announcements,  aa  well  a 
by  the  language  of  the  passage  itaelf,  tn  take  a  middle 
course.     Keither  is  wholly  tight,  and  yet  both.are,  I< 
certain  extent,  right.    It  is  the  special  characteristic 
prophecy  lo  speak  of  Ihe  distant  future  through  the 
present  and  immediate.    The  persons  and  events  falling 
within  the  hunzoii  <•(  the  prophet's  own  view  are  the 
types  and  repnsenlaliTea  uf  greater  figures  and  crises 
far  off,  and  as  yet  but  dimly  discerned.     Thus  the  older 
prophets,  while  speaking  of  a  delivery  from  Ihe  tempo- 
rary oppression  of  Egypt  or  Babylon,  spoke  also  of  Mes- 
siah's kingdom.    Thus  our'Lord  himself,  foretelling 
doom  which  was  even  then  hanging  over  the  holy  e 
glances  at  the  futnrr  judgment  of  the  world  as  tjpiHed 
and  portrayed  in  this:  anil  the  two  are  so  interwoven 
that  it  is  impossible  to  disentangle  them.    See  Doublk 
SkNBk.     Following  this  analog}',  we  may  agree  with 
the  PnMerists  that  Paul  is  referring  to  events  which 
fell  under  his  own  cognizance ;  fiit  indeed  the  Resli 
er  is  said  to  be  restraining  now,  and  the  mystery  nl 
iquity  lo  be  already  woikingi  while,  at  Ihe  same  t 
wc  may  accept  the  Futurist  view,  that  the  aposti 
(lescrilnng  the  end  of  all  things,  and  that  therefore  (be 
prophecy  has  not  yet  received  its  most  striking 
complete  fulHIment.     This  commingling  of  the  ii 
diate  and  partial  with  Ihe  final  and  universal  minifes- 
tation  oriiod's  judgments,  characteristic  of  all  proph- 
ecy, is  rendered  more  easy  in  Paul's  case,  because  ' 
seems  to  hare  contemplated  the  end  of  all  things 
possibly,  or  even  prubabh',near  at  hand:  and  therefore 
the  particular  manifestalinn  of  Antichrist,  which  he 
witnessed  with  Ids  own  eyea,wnuldiiBlurally  be  merged 
in  and  identified  with  the  final  Antichrist,  in  which  the 
opposilioii  to  the  Gospel  will  culminate.    .See  KsciiA- 


view.  Hut,  liefore  sttempting  lo  appronimale  lo  a 
planation.  we  may  clear  the  way  by  laying  dnwi 
mlea.  (I.)  The  imagery  of  the  passage' must  be  i 
pteted  mainly  by  itself,  and  by  the  eireumstancea  of  the 


THESSALONIANS 

The  symbols  may  be  borrowed  in  SDine  cases 
from  tl>e  Old  Test.;  they  may  reappear  in  other  paris 
of  Ihe  New.     Itnt  we  cannot  be  sure  that  Ihe  saine  im- 


uguage  describi 


thing  IT 


.    The 


borrowed,  I. 

of  Anliocbos  Epiphanea 

the  Booh  of  Daniel,  but  Antiochus  cannot  be  meant 

■re.     The  great  adversary  in  the  Kevelaiion  seems  In 

I  the  Roman  power,  but  it  may  be  widely  different 

ire.    There  were  even  in  the  apostolic  age  "many 

itichrists;"  and  we  cannot  be  sure  that  Ihe  Antichrisi 

present  lo  the  mind  of  Paul  was  the  same  with  thr 

Aotichrist  contemfdated  by  John.      (2.)  tn  all  Sguia- 

''re  passagea  it  is  ariiiirary  to  assume  that  a  peiaon 

denoted  where  we  Hnd  a  personiAcalion.     Thiia  Ihe 

an  of  Sill  here  need  not  he  an  individual  man;  it 

I  the  case  of  Ihe  Keslrainer  we  seem  to  have  pnsiliie 
ground  for  ao  interpreting  il,  since  in  one  passage  Ihe 
neuter  gender  b  used,  "the  thing  which  restiaineih" 
(ro  KBfixoi'),  as  if  aytmnymous.  (See  Jowetl,  Kwuy 
the  Man  itysin,  i,  ITS,  rather  for  suggestions  aa  to 
the  mode  of  inlerpretaiion  than  for  the  conclusion  he 

rivea  at;  aUo  Cowlcs,  in  the  Bi6li>Hi.  Sacm,  xiii, 

S.)    See  Ma:)  of  Sm. 

S.  WIh-ii  wb  inquire  deAnitely,  then,  what  Paul  had 


and  the  Ii«trainer,  n 


e  Man  ol 


It  find  that 


Imself  by  se 


appriiximate  answer  by  investigating  the 
of  the  niHislle's  life  at  this  epoch.  Moi 
Ihe  chief  opposition  to  the  Gospel,  and 
I'aul's  preaching  at  this  lime,  arose  fnm  the  Jews.  The 
Jews  had  conspircil  against  the  apostle  and  his  comnan- 
ions  at  Thessalonica,  and  he  only  si 
crct  flight.  Thence  they  followed  hi 
he  hutriedly  left  in  the  same  way.  At  Corinlh,  whence 
the  letters  to  the  Theasalonisns  were  written,  they  per- 
secuted him  still  further,  raising  a  cry  of  treason  sgainst 
him,  and  bringing  him  before  the  Roman  proconiuL 
These  incidents  explain  the  strong  expremons  he  uses 
of  them  in  these  epistles;  "They  slew  the  Lord  Jews 
prophets,  ar  ' 


laleful 


Divine  wrath  (q  ipyi'i)  at  length  ov«> 
Uke.''(l  Thpss.ii,15,IG),  With  these  facts  in  view.it 
seems,  on  the  whole,  probable  that  Ihe  Antichrist,  in  its 
primary  aspect,  is  represented  especially  by  Judaim. 
With  aprophetic  insight  the  apostle  foresaw,  as  he  con- 
templated the  moral  and  political  condition  ofthc  race, 
the  approach  of  a  great  and  overwhelming  calastmpbr. 
And  it  is  not  improbable  that  our  Ijird's  predictiiHU 
of  the  vengeance  which  threatened  Jerusalem  bkniled 
with  the  apostle's  vision,  and  gave  a  color  to  this  pas- 
sage. If  it  seem  strange  that "  lawlessness"  sboold  be 
mentioned  as  the  distinguishing  feature  of  those  whine 
very  zeal  for  "the  law"  stimulated  Iheir  oppoaition  to 
the  Gospel,  we  may  appeal  to  our  Lonl's  own  wonli 
(MatN  xxiii,  28)  describing  the  Jewish  teachers,  "with- 
in they  are  full  of  hypocrisy  and  lawlessness  (dro/iioi)." 
Corresponding  lo  this  view  of  the  Antichrist,  we  shall 
probably  be  correct,  as  alreaily  anggested,  In  regsrdine 
Ihe  Roman  empire  as  the  restraining  power,  fur  so  il 
was  taken  by  many  of  the  fathers,  thougli  wilhout  alto- 
gether undentanding  its  bearing.  It  was  to  Roman 
justice  and  Roman  magistrates  that  Ihe  apostle  hid  R- 
course  at  this  time  lo  shield  him  from  the  enmity  rf 
the  Jews,  and  to  check  their  violence.  At  Philippiihi> 
Roman  citizenship  extorted  an  ample  apotog}-  for  iQ- 
iroatment,  Al  Thessalonica,  Romsn  law  secured  hin 
fair  piny.  At  Corinth,  a  Roman  proconsul  acquiiltd 
him  of  frivolous  charges  brought  by  Ihe  Jews.  It  an 
only  at  n  later  date  under  Nero  that  Rome  becams  tite 
antagonist  of  Christendom,  and  then  she  also,  in  tnm, 
was  (illy  portrayed  by  John  as  the  type  of  Anticbrin. 
Whether  Ihe  Jewish  opposition  to  the  Gospel  entirely 
exhausted  I'aul's  own  CDiiceplioa  of  the  '-mystery  tt 
lawlessness"  as  he  saw  it "  already  trorkii^"  in  liis  ma 


THESSALONICA  3, 

dij,  or  wbethcT  other  elemcnli  ilid  not  ■!»  comlnne 
wiihihia  to  complew  (he  idci,  it  is  impoaaible  to  uj; 
bat  ve  may  presume  that  lie  had  at  lent  a  dim  llid 
e>iitii]  aniidpitian  of  the  more  distJint  rntuie,  and  at 
lort  n(  the  filial  eirlldy  caUilnpho  wbicb  the  Pirtiie 
Spirii  iniimat«  in  this  itriking  prediction.  Horeorer, 
It  Ihia  diitanee  of  time  and  with  our  imperfect  infurai- 
lion,  wr  cannot  hope  lo  explain  the  exact  bearing  of 
ill  the  details  in  the  picture.  But,  Taltowing  the  guid- 
tnet  ol  hiuoTT,  ne  teem  juMJHed  in  adopting  thia  u  a 
pnbaMe,  though  onl/  a  partial,  explanation  of  a  very 
diEcult  paraage.     See  Kkvei-ation,  Book  op. 

v.  Cpnlmli. — Thii  epiillc,  in  the  range  or  aubject  aa 
wtll  u  in  style  and  general  character,  cIomIt  resembles 
itat  Gm;  and  the  remarks  made  on  that  epistle  apply, 
tat  [be  most  part,  equally  well  to  this.  The  structure, 
ilsD,  is  someHbat  similar,  the  main  body  of  the  epistle 
being  dii'idt*)  into  two  parts  in  the  same  wsy,  and  each 
put  filling  uich  a  prayer  (ii,  IG,  17 ;  iii,  16;  both  coa>- 
DXDcing  Hiih  airis  ii  i  siipioc).  The  rollowing  is 
ubulir  summary : 

Tbs  cpcnlne  sfilDiaitan  (1, 1.  S). 

1.  A  general  eipreulon  of  thankblneso  ind  iDlerei 
IndlBf  ap  to  the  dlDciilIy  nbuni  the  Luid's  aUtenl  ( 

;~u.m. 

t.  The  apostle  potin  forlh  his  Ihsniist^TlnE  Tor  (be 
pnwrefls  In  Lbe  Tulth ;  ha  eucnoroges  them  to  I 

EUent  ander  psrHCntlcin,  remiudlog  them  of  tl. 
Igment  to  come,  niid  prays  tbnt  Ibey  may  be 
pnjiared  I"  mast  U  (I,  S-II). 
1  He  Is  (has  led  in  corracl  the  e 
Jadrment  la  immluenr,  pnl. 
ainsl  bappcD  lint  (II,  1-li). 
I.  He  repeals  bis  thanksgiirliiK  and  eihnrUilon,  and 
condades  tbis  partluD  nllb  a  praotr  ^11,  IS-II). 


lbe  Idle, 
a  the  riifl 


■nrderlT,  and  diKibedleni 


withdrn' 


snch 


enedlc- 


TblsportioDsnlncloTCS  trllhapraifn-(ll!,  IB). 

The  epistle  er-"-  -'•'- '-'  " — ■'—  — •"  ' - 

lUi  (lU,  II,  16). 

YL  CiitimtmXariei.—The  lidlowing  exegetical  helpa 
aieoa  the  Second  Efostle  to  the  Tbe>Hil«iians  exclu- 
ticrly :  Hoffmann,  Cmmeitariiu  [includ.Til.]  (Prancof. 
IJU,  8to);  Uradsbaw,  Krpotitioa  (Lnnd.  IGIO,  4(o) ; 
JsekvD,  ijposifioii  (ibid.  lG2l,4io);  Keiche,  .1  HfjUn- 
'ia.  etc.  (UoU.  It<29,  4to) ;  Sclater,  EzpotUim  (Lend. 
16»i  4iol.     See  £riiiTi.E. 

Thessaloni'ca  (fitanaXoviai,  in  closaiFal  wiilers 
ilai  emniXovmin  and  9fTTaXovicij),  a  large  and  im- 
fwtjni  town  of  Macedonia, 


a  Chur 


1.  Same. — Two  legendary  nam 
]« -oiil  lo  bare  borne  in  early  tin 
str.  ffiif.  xii,  26)  anil  llaliu  (Slef 
probably  baling  ref- 


I  which  Thceealoniea 

»  are  Emalkia  (Zo- 
I.  aa.v.),theUller 


cocke  as  being  st 


THESSALONICA 

ch  especially  is  described  by  Po- 
stance  of  four  English  miles  from 
Scylax,  p.  27*1,  ed.  iisil).  Three 
stories  ar«  told  of  the  origin  of  the  name  TtiessalonicB. 
The  first  (anil  by  far  the  moat  probable)  is  given  by 
Strabo  (vii,  Epil.  10),  who  says  that  Therma  was  rebuilt 
by  Casaander,  and  called  after  his  wife  Theaaalonica, 
the  daughter  of  Philip',  the  second  is  found  ii)  Slepb. 
K  (s.  f.),  who  says  that  its  new  name  was  a  memorial 
of  a  victory  obtained  by  Philip  over  the  Tticssalians 
(see  Const.  Porpbyrog.  be  Them,  ii,  51,  ed.  Bonn) ;  the 
third  is  in  the  Etym.  Magn.  (s.  v.),  where  it  is  stated 
that  Philip  himself  gave  the  name  in  honor  of  his 
daughter.    Whichever  of  these  stories  is  true,  the  new 

with  the  name,  are  distinctly  associated  with  the  Mace- 
donian period,  and  not  at  all  with  the  earlier  passages 
of  true  Greek  history.  The  name  thus  given  became 
permanent.  Through  the  Roman  and  Byzanline  pe- 
riods it  remained  unattei«d.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
Italuiis  gave  it  the  form  of  Salonithi  or  Sii/anitt,  which 
is  still  TrequenL  In  Latin  cbrouicles  we  find  Salonicia. 
In  German  poems  of  the  ISth  century  the  name  ap- 
pears, with  a  Teutonic  termination,  as  Salnri.  The  un- 
educated Greeks  of  the  present  day  call  the  place  TdXo- 
riti),  the  Turks  Srlanit, 

II.  SUualion.—This  is  well  described  by  Pliny  (iv,  10) 
as"niedioflexulitotit  [sinus Thermiici]."  TbeKulf  ex- 
tends about  thirty  leagues  in  a  north-westerly  direction 
from  the  group  of  tbe  Tbesaalian  islands,  and  then  tarns 
to  the  north-east,  forming  a  noble  basin  between  Capea 
TardirandKorAbumu.  On  the  edgeof  (his  basin  is  the 
cily,  partly  on  (bo  level  shore  and  partly  on  the  slope 
of  a  bill,  in  40=  88'  47"  N.  1st,,  and  22=  6T'  22"  E.long. 
Tbe  present  appearance  of  the  ciiy,  as  seen  from  the 
sea,  is  deaciibed  by  Leake,  Holiand,  and  other  iravellcn 
as  very  impoiing.  It  liaca  in  llie  form  of  a  crescent  up 
tbe  declivity,  and  is  surrounded  by  lofty  whitened  walla 
witb  (owers  at  intervals.  On  tht  east  and  weat  sides  of 
tbe  city  ravinia  ascend  from  tbe  shore  and  converge 
towards  the  highest  point,  on  which  is  the  citadel  called 
' Error I'pyioy,  like  that  of  Constantinople.  The  port 
is  still  convenient  for  large  ships,  and  the  anchorage  in 
front  of  tbe  (own  is  good.  These  circumstances  in  the 
situation  of  Theasalonica  were  eridenlly  faviinble  for 
commanding  the  trade  of  the  Macedonian  sea.  Its  re- 
lations to  the  inland  districts  were  equally  advantageouik 
With  oneoflbe  two  great  levels  of  Macedonia,  viz.  tbt 
pUin  of  the  "  wide-flowing  Alius"  (Homer,  //.  ii,  849), 
to  lbe  north  of  tbe  range  of  Olympus,  it  was  immediately 
connected.  With  the  other,  the  plain  of  the  Str^moii 
and  Lake  Cercinitis,  it  communicated  by  a  iiasa  acroat 
the  neck  of  tbe  Cholcidic  peninsula.  Its  distance  fron 
ven  by  the  Itineraries,  is 


9  of  the  trade  of  the  ( 


[  70,0U0,  and  (though  Adrianoplc  n 


bm  period  of  its  au- 
ibtniic  historv,  it 
■SI  known  under  tbe 
■nieiir  rterma  {fiip- 
fa.  .£wh.;  Oipi'it, 
Hood,Tbocyd.j«ip. 
fiai.  MaleUs.  Chr-i- 
■<?.p.l90,Hl.  DomiJ, 
ittitei,  in  common 
■iih  tbe  dcugnation 
<t  Lbe  gulf  (Ther- 
nsim  Sinus),  from 
the  hot  sail -springs 
"birb  are  found  o 
•uioaa  parts  of  thi 


^ew  of  ThessBlon 


iKcct.GoogIc 


THESSALONICA 

be  larger)  it  ii  lh«  moat  impntUnt  town  oT  EuiO| 
Turkey  next  ifur  Coiiaunliiiople. 

III.  Poliliail  owl  Mililart/  lluloiy, — TheesaloDica 
■  place  of  unine  imponince  eveu  while  it  ban  iti  ea 
turoe  ofThenna.    Three  pinaeea  of  chief  iiitemi 
be  menlionEiJ  in  thla  period  of  in  hiaiory.   Xerxea: 
ed  here  on  his  march,  hi>  Uad-fotce*  being  encan 
on  the  plain  between  Therma  and  the  AxiuR,  and  hia 
»bipa  cruiaing  about  the  Thermaic  Bulf; 
view  from  hence  of  OlympUB  and  (Jiu  which  tempted 
bim  to  explore  the  counie  of  iha  Peneus  (Herod.    " 
maq.).    A  ihorttime  (aa4!l)  before  the  breaki 

the  Athenians  (Thuerd.  i,6]);  hut  two  yean  later  it 
waa  given  up  to  Perdi^  (ibid,  ii,  39).  The  third  men- 
tion of  Therma  ia  in  j£achines  (^De  FoU.  Ltg.  p.  SI,  ed. 
Bekk.),  where  it  ia  spoken  of  aa  one  of  the  placea  taken 
b;  Piuaaniaa, 

The  true  history  of  Theasalonica  hegina,  u  we  have 
implied  above,  with  the  decay  of  Greek  nationality. 
The  earlieat  author  who  mentions  it  under  its  new  name 
ia  Polybiui.  It  seems  probable  that  it  waa  rebuilt  in 
the  same  year  (B.C.S1&3  with  Cassandrea, imoxdiatelv 
after  the  fill  of  Pydna  and  the  death  orOlympiaa.  We 
■retold  byStiabo(foc.cir.)  that Caaaander  incorporated 
in  hia  new  city  the  population  not  only  of  Thenoa,  but 
likewise  of  three  smaller  towns,  via.  Attea  and  Ciaeua 
(which  are  auppoaed  to  hare  been  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  gulQ  and  Chalastta  (which  is  aaid  by  SCrabo 
[vii,  Epil.  9J  to  hare  been  on  tha  farther  side  of  the 
AaiuB,wbenceTarel(p.xxii],  by  some  mistake,  infers 
(hat  it  lay  between  the  Axios  and  Therma).  It  does 
not  appear  that  these  earlier  citiea  were  absolutely  de- 
■trored  ;  nor,  indeed,  ia  it  certain  that  Thenna  k«t  its 
separate  existence,  lliny  (Joe.  dl.)  seemi  to  imply  that 
a  place  bearing  this  name  was  near  Tbessalonica ;  bat 
the  text  ia  probably  corrupt. 

As  we  approach  the  Roman  period,  Theaaalonica  be- 
gins to  be  more  and  more  mentioned.  From  Livy  (xliv, 
10)  thia  city  would  appear  to  have  been  the  great  Mace- 
donian naval  si 


endered  to  the  Romans 


afler  the  battle  of  Pydna  (iUd.  xliv,  4fi),i 
the  capital  of  the  second  of  the  four  divisions  ot  Mace- 
donia (ibid,  xlv,  29).     Alterwards,  when  the  whole  of 
Blacedonia  was  reduiwl  to  one  province  (Flor.  ii,  14), 

its  n)etropoli^  though  not  so  called  till  a  later  period. 
See  UACEimNiA.  Cicero,  during  his  exile,  found  a  ref- 
uge here  in  the  qmmor's  house  {Pro  Plane.  41) ;  and 
on  his  joume)-s  to  and  trom  hia  province  of  Cilicia  he 
passed  thia  way,  and  wrote  here  several  of  his  extant 
letters.  During  the  first  civil  war  Theaaalonica  was 
the  headquarters  of  the  Pompeian  party  and  the  Sen- 
ate (Dion  Case,  xli,  W>  During  the  second  it  took  the 
aide  ofOctavius  and  Antoni us  (Plutarch,  Unil.4a;  Ap- 
pian,  B.  C.  iv,  IIS),  and  reaped  the  advantage  of  this 
course  hy  being  made  a  free  city  (see  Pliny,  foe.  <Vf.l. 
It  ia  possible  that  the  word  IXivitpiat,  with  lite  head 
of  Octavia,  on  some  of  the  coins  of  Tbessalonica,  has 
reference  to  this  circumstance   (see  Eekhel,  it 


below, 


n  the  Van 


r  gate,  n 


oiicd 


Even  bcfon 


jf  the  Republic,  Tbessalonica 
was  a  city  of  great  importance,  in  cimaequence  of  its 
poHtion  on  the  line  of  onmmuiiicatioii  between  Rome 
and  the  Eoat.  Cicero  apeaka  of  it  as  "piisita  in  gremiu 
Imperii  nostii"  It  incieased  in  site  and  rose  in  impor- 
tance with  the  consolidation  of  the  Empire.  Strabo, 
in  the  lat  century,  and  Lucian,  in  the  !d,  speak  in 
strong  language  oT  the  amount  ciT  its  population.  The 
supreme  magistrates  (ap|iarenlly  dx  in  number)  who 
ruled  in  Tliesaalonica  as  a  free  city  of  the  Empire 
were  entitled  woXirapx^'ia*  we  team  from  the  remark- 
able toincidence  uf  Luke's  language  (Acts  xvii,6)  with 
an  inscription  on  the  Vardit  gate  (Bi)ckh,  1967.  BeUey 
mentions  another  inscription  containing  the  same  tens).  < 


i2  THESSALONICA  ' 

In  Acta  xvti,  S  the  iqfiot  ia  mentioned,  which  faima 

part  of  the  conatitulion  of  the  city.     Tafcl  thinks  thai 
it  had  a  ^ouX^  alio. 

During  the  first  three  centuriea  of  the  Christian  era 
TheHsalnnica  was  the  capital  of  the  whale  country  t«- 
tween  the  Adriatic  and  the  Bhuk  Sea;  and  even'oftir 
the  founding  of  Couitantinople  it  remained  practicallj 
the  metropolis  of  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  lllvtioini.  In 
the  middle  of  the  8d  century,  as  we  learn 'from  (Dint, 
it  was  made  a  Roman  cobnta  ;  perhaps  with  the  Tie> 
of  strengthening  this  podtion  against  the  barbarian  in- 
vaaiona,  which  now  became  threateniiifi      ~' 


& 


here  after  his  victory  over  the  Sarmariana;  and 
perhaps  the  second  arch,  which  is  mentioned  bdow. 
I  commemontion  of  this  victory.  He  is  said  also, 
by  Zoeimus  (ii,  S6,  ed.  Bonn),  to  have  eoastiucted  iha 
port,  by  which  we  are,  no  doubt,  to  understaad  (bat  ht 
'paired  and  improved  it  after  a  lime  of  compataiirr 
?glcci.     Passing  by  the  dreadful  massacre  by  Tbendo- 


a(Gibl 


Hi),» 


■b  the  Oothic  war»  were  only  ibe 
prelude,  and  the  brunt  of  which  waa  aucceaafnllv  bane 
y  Tbessalonica  from  the  middle  of  ibe  6rh  ceiituiy  In 
lie  latter  part  of  the  8th.  The  hiatory  of  tbeae'iii 
ilavonic  war^  and  their  relation  to  Tbeasalonio,  hai 
leen  elaborated  with  great  care  by  Tafel. 

In  the  courae  of  the  Middle  Agea,  llieMaloDiea  wsi 
hree  times  taken ;  and  its  hislorr  during  this  period  ii 
huB  conveniently  divided  into  three  aiagts.     On  Sun. 
ay,  July  29, 904*,  the  Saracen  fleet  appeatrd  before  the 
it'y,  which  was  atormed  afler  a  few  daya'  tigliling.   The 
slaughter  of  the  citiiena  waa  dreadful,  and  vast  niimbcn 
:  Bold  in  the  various  slare-markela  of  the  Levant, 
story  of  these  eventa  ia  told  hy  Jo.  Cameniaia,  who 
emsicr-bcarer  to  Ibe  archbishop  of  Tlimiahiniis 
a  his  narrative  it  has  been  inferrHl  that  the  popula- 
of  the  city  at  Chat  time  must  have  been  210.000 
( [>e  Kxcidia  ThtuabmUxni,  in   the  volume  entitled 
rAcopAonu  ConTBuuifBi  of  the  Bonned.  nfiheBviantiiM 
writers  [1888]).    The  next  great  catastrnphe  of  Tbessa- 
lonica waa  caused  by  a  diflerent  enemy— tbe  Momsn 
ofSicily.     The  fleet  of  Tancred  sailed  round  the  Uoiea 
tbe  Thermaic  gulf,  while  an  army  marched  by  iht 
a  Egnaiia  from  Dytrhachium.      Theasalunies  wai 
Len  on  Aug.  IB,  1189.  ami  the  Greeks  wera  batte- 
ously  treated  by  the  Latins,  whose  crueUi«a  m  dt- 


THEBSALONICA  31 

Kiibal  br  Kicetai  Cbonuitca  (_D*  Andmn.  Coimow,  p. 
MI,nL  Borni,  1835).  The  celebnud  EuiUChiiin  was 
•rchbitbop  of  TtaenlaDica  at  thii  timej  and  be  wrote 
u  aceouni  o(  chU  capture  or  the  ciLy,  wfaicb  wa>  tlru 
pobliibHl  b^  Tafel  (Ttlb.  1R33},  >n<l  is  now  prinlcd  ia 
itKBorm  eA-otibe  Ujianline  wriLen  {De  TiesMnlimica 
a  Lmiiat  Capla,  in  tbe  game  foL  with  Leo  Grammati- 
ea  [IM2]).  Scmii  aHtr  Ibis  period  ruUows  ibe  curioui 
kixocy  or  WeMeni  feudalism  in  Thenalonica  under 
Bocirace,  oiaiquia  of  Huniferrac,  anil  bis  eucccaeora, 
during  the  Him  hair  of  the  ]3ih  ceniuiy.  Thecily  waa 
■gaiu  under  Latin  doininion  (having  been  nld  by  the 
Gmk  nnpemr  to  the  Venetians),  when  it  waa  tLoall; 
iskHi  br  the  Turk*  under  Amunih  II,  in  1430.  This 
tviut  alM  i)  described  by  a  writer  in  the  Bonn  Byzan- 
line  aeriea  (Joannta  Anagnoates,  De  TArttiJometiiti  Ex- 
ni»  Sarratio,  in  the  ainie  vol  with  I'hranw*  and  Ca- 

otnuiliaas]). 

For  the  medisval  hittiny  of  Tbessalouica  nee  Hi. 
rinliT'a  Korka,  Mrdixral  Grnre  (185I)i  p.7a,71, 13^ 
W-.BjttatiiK  nmtGnti  fnpirvt  (1S£3),  i,  S16-332i 
(1854),  ii,  182,  2&4-!6e,  607.  For  its  modem 'condi- 
timi  we  IDBSI  refer  to  the  [ra%-ellen,  especially  Beaujour, 
Owanerv,  HuUand,  and  Leake. 

IV.  Eaieiuitical  Bulo'y^The  annals  ol  Theasa- 
kinicaare  saclnsely  connected  with  religion  that  it  is 
dcanble  to  review  them  in  Ihia  aspect.  After  Alexin- 
litr'i  dfstb  the  Jewa  spread  rapidly  in  all  the  large 
citiea  oT  the  provinces  which  bad  formed  his  crnpini. 
Hmn  [here  is  im  doubt  that,  in  the  lat  century  of  the 
Christian  Bra,  they  were  Htlled  ' 
otn  It  Thessaluiiica ;  indeed,  t 
iribalnl  In  the  Snt  eaublishment  ofCbriitisnity  there 
br  Paiil  (Acta  xvii,  t>.  It  seems  probable  chat  a  large 
(DouBunliy  of  Jews  has  been  found  in  this  city  ever 
(inz.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  Tth  centuij-,  during 
the  Slavonic  wan;  and  again  in  the  12tli,  by  Eusta- 
thins  and  Benjamin  of  Tudels.  The  evenu  of  the  I6th 
cctitiirr  had  the  effect  of  bringing  a  large  number  of 
Spanish  Jews  tu  Thnsalnnica.  Paul  Lncas  sava  that  in 
hit  day  then  were  30,000  of  this  nation  here,  with  22 
■ynai^ogiiesi  More  recent  authorities  vary  between 
ib.OOO  and  W.OOO.  The  present  Jewish  qtiiRei  is  in 
tlie  Knth-eaK  part  of  the  town. 

Christianity,  once  established  in  TheaaaJonica,  spread 
From  it  in  various  directions,  in  eoDse<)uence  of  the  mer- 
oniilt  nluions  of  the  dty  (1  Thesa.  i,  6).  During  tho 
ncaedtng  centuries  this  city  was  the  bulwark,  not  sim- 
(ilyof  the  Byiantine  empire,  but  of  Uriental  Christen- 
iliai;  and  was  largely  instrutnenlal  in  the  conversion 
of  the  .Slaronisns  arid  Bulgarians.  Thus  it  received 
Ike  dni)ciutiDn  of  "The  Orthodox  City."  It  is  true 
Kuitbe' ■--'■«- 

[on  oft  i 


3  THESSALONICA 

after  this  time;  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  provinces 

subject  to  its  jurisdiction  from  conueclinn  with  Che 
see  of  Rome,  in  the  rrign  of  Leo  Isauricus,  became 
one  of  tbe  principal  causes  of  the  separation  of  E^ast 
WesL     Cameniala,  the  native  historian  of  the 


mily  of  904,  was,  aa  B 


e  iliad  and 


youd  dispute,  the  most  learned  man  of  hii 

OdifUty,  and  of  theological  works,  which  have  Deen  re- 
cently published  by  Tafd.  A  list  of  the  Latin  arch- 
bishops of  ThesaalonicB  from  120a  to  1418,  when  ■  Bo- 
man  hienrchy  was  established  along  with  Weslem  feu- 
dalism, is  given  by  Le  Quieu  (Oriou  CMiiiluxmu,  iii, 
lOSS).  Even  to  the  laac  we  And  this  city  connected 
wich  queaiioDB  of  religious  interest.  Simeon  ofThes- 
salonica,  who  is  a  chief  authority  in  the  modem  (ireek 
Church  on  ritual  subjects,  died  a  few  months  before  the 
fatal  siege  of  1430;  and  Theodote  Gaza,  who  went  to 
Italy  soon  ifter  this  siege,  snd,  as  a  Latin  ecclesiastic, 
became  the  tianslalot  of  Aristotle,  Theophiaslus,  and 
Hippocratea,  was  anatii-e  of  the  city  of  Demetrius  and 
Eustatbius. 

V.  ComecHm  loitli  (Ac  Apoilk  PauJl— Paul's  visit  to 
Tbessalonici  (with  Silas  and  Timothy)  occurred  during 


I  of  Chris 


y  jnu 


iiuty  . 


oThea 


Timt 


any  part  of  the  direct  ni 
of  what  hippenedatTheaMlonica,  though  he  appears  as 
Paul's  companion  before  at  Philip;n  (Acta  xvi,  1-lS), 
and  afterwards  at  Benea  (xvii,  14, 15);  but  from  bia 
Bubeequent  mistion  in  Theaialonica  (1  Theas.  iii,  1-7 ;  aee 
Acts  xviii,  B),  and  Che  menCion  of  bis  name  in  tbe  open- 
ing salutation  of  both  epistles  to  the  TbessalonUns,  we 
can  hardly  doubt  thaC  he  had  been  with  the  apcslle 
throughouL 

Three  circumstances  must  here  be  mentiDoad,  which 
illustrate  in  an  important  manner  this  visit  and  this 
Jonmey,  as  well  as  the  two  epistles  Co  the  Thessalonians, 
which  the  apostle  wrote  from  OirinCb  very  sooD  after 
his  departure  from  his  new  Macedonian  converta.  (1.) 
This  was  the  chief  station  on  the  great  Boman  road 
called  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  connected  Kome  wich  the 
whole  region  to  the  north  of  the  iGgcan  Sea.  Paul 
was  on  this  road  at  Neapolis  (Acts  xvi,  11)  and  Philippi 
(ver.  12-40),  and  his  route  from  the  latter  place  (xvii, 
1)  liad  brought  him  through  two  of  tbe  well-ltnown  mi- 
nor stations  mentioned  in  the  Itineraries.  See  Amfhip- 
OLis;  Apollokia.  (2.)  Placed  as  it  was  on  this  great 
road,  and  in  connection  with  other  important  Roman 
ways,  Thessalonica  was  an  invaluable  centre  for  the 
spread  of  tbe  GospeL    It  mu 


D„.„ab,GoOgIc 


THESSALONICA  354  THESSALONICA 


Hicedonia  and  wilh  far  mote  remote  regions,  iu  m«ri-  ticed  that  he  wu  certainly  ihcre  again,  tbotigh  iht 
lioie  pocition  made  il  a  great  einpoiium  of  trade  byau.  |  name  of  the  dtjia  not  gpeciUedjOn  hiilbird  toiBiionatf 
Id  fact,  it  was  nearly,  if  not  quite,  on  n  level  with  Cor-  ,  Joumej,  both  in  going  and  reluining  (Acts  xz,  IS). 
inth  and  Kpheaus  in  ill  abarc  of  the  commerce  of  the  |  l\iMib1y  he  woa  alao  there  again  after  lii*  Ubentina 
Leraiit.  Thu«  we  aee  the  force  of  wbai  Paul  faya  in  '  from  hia  first  impriaonnieiit.  See  PhiL  i.  26,  M;  ii,H 
hia  flnt  epialle,  stMinly  after  learing  ThessaJonica—a^'  |  for  the  hope  of  revisiting  HBcedooia,  eateTtaiiKcl  by  itt 
ifiwp  iVrXn'"!  u  Xoyoc  Tov  Xupiou  oil  povny  iv  ty  apoaile  at  Borne,  and  1  'nni.i,Sj  3  Tim.iv,  13i  Tir.iii, 
Maaoovtf  lai  iy  ry  'Axoi?,  a\k'  iv  travri  riiiry  (i,8J.  12,  for  sabaequent  Journey  a  in  the  neighbartxwil  ofTbn- 
(3.)Tlieci  ■■      ■  


iru  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  in  this  part  of  Uacedo- 
nio.  had  evidenlly  much  to  do  with  the  apostle's  plans, 
anil  also  doubtleaa  with  his  suceeaa.  Trade  would  iner- 
italily  brinfi  Jews  toThesealonici;  and  it  is  remarkable 
thai,  ever  since,  they  have  had  a  prominent  place  in  the 

The  first  scene  of  the  apoetle's  work  at  Theseakinica 

was  the  synagogue.  According  (o  Ilia  cuatom,  he  begs 
Ibere,  arguing  from  the  ancient  Scriptures  (Acta  xvi 
8,8);  and  the  same  general  results  followed  aa  in  othi 
pbces.  Some  believed,  both  Jews  and  proselytes,  an 
it  i»  paiticulariy  added  that  among  these  were  many 
influential  women  (rer.  4);  on  which  the  general  body 
of  the  JewK,  stirred  up  with  jealousy,  enciled  the  Gen- 
tile population  to  penecule  Paul  and  Silas  (ver,  fUlO). 

tintieil  for  ihree  weeks  (ver.  2);  hut  we  are  not  nhligcd 


or  the  first  Christians  of  Thessak>nica,we  an  iMe  to 

Rom.  xvi,-2]),DemaB  (at  least  conjeclunllv  :  tKJTim. 
iv,  10),  Gain*,  who  shared  some  of  Psul's  peril*  at  Ephr- 
■us  (Acts  xix,  29),  Secundiu  (who  occompaninl  him 
I    from  Macedonia  tn  Asia  on   the  eastward  Tnoie  «f  bii 
I    third  miaaionary  Journey,  and  was  pmbably  coDCemed 
,    in  the  business  of  the  collection!  see  jli,  i),  and  rrpt- 
r    cially  AriilaTchus  (who,  besides  being  mentioned  here 
I    with  fundus,  accompanied  Paul  on  his  Toyag*  id 
'    Rome,  and  had  therefore  probaldy  been  with  htm  dwing 
"'      whole  interval,  and  is  also  specially  refeirtd  lo  in 
I  of  the  epistles  written  during  the  first  Roniap  im- 
.    prisonment;  see  zxvii,3:  Col.iv,  11);  Philem.  U;  abo 
i\cta  xix,  29,  for  his  association   wlih  the   aposik  U 
F^phesus  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  third  Juamey). 
to  limit  to  this  lime  the  whole  stay  at  the  apostles  at  |      TI.  Ancitnl  Etmavu, — The  two  monumenU  of  great- 
Tbcaaalonica.    A  nourishing  church  was  cerlaiuly  form-  ,  est  inierrsc  at  Thessilonica  are  two  arcbe*  connecltd 
ed  there;  and  the  epislies  show  that  its  elementa  were    with  the  line  of  the  Via  Egnaiia.     The  courae  of  Ifais 
much  mure  (ientile  than  Jewish.     Paul  apeaka  of  the    Roman  road  is  undoubtedly  preserved  in  The  long  stnet 
Thessalonians  u  having  turned  ••fmin  idols;"  and  he    which  intersects  the  city  from  east  to  west.     At  ill 
does  not  here,  as  in  olber  epistles,  quote  the  Jewish    western  extremity  is  the  VardAr  gale,  which  ia  neaily 
Scriptures.     In  all  respects  it  is  Important  to  compare    in  the  line  of  the  modem  wall,  and  which  baa  receiveil 
these  two  letters  with  the  narrative  in  Ibe  Acts;  and    its  present  name  from  the  ctrcum stance  of  iuleadinf- » 
such  references  have  the  greater   freabnees  from   the    the  river  TantAr,  or  Axius.     This  is  the  Roman  arch 
short  interval  which  elapsed  between  visiting  the  Thes-    believed  by  Beaujour,  Hoihind,  snd  others  to  have  brtn 
salonians  and  writing  lo  (hem.     Such  exprewunsBB  iv    erecied  by  the  people  of  Thesaalanica  in  honor  of  (■ct*- 
SXnJ-H  jToXX^  (I  Thess.  i,  0),  and  Jc  iro^if  ajivi  (ii,    vius  and  Antonius,  and  in  memorv  of  the  b«ltle  of  Phi- 
2),  sum  up  the  Buffering  and  conflict  which  Paul  and    lippi.     The  arch  is  constructed  of  large  blocks  of  mat- 
Silas  and  their  converts  went  through  at  Theasalonici    ble,  and  is  about  twelve  feet  wide  and  ei{;htceii  fen 
(see  also  ver.  U,  15;  iii,  3,  4;  2  Theso.  i,  4-7).     The    high;  but  a  considerable  portion  of  it  ia  buried  deep  bt- 
persecutian  tank  place  through  the  instrumentality  of    low  the  surface  of  the  ground.     On  the  outside  face  tn 
worthless  idlers  (ruv  ayopaiaiv  ayipa^  nvilc  irovij-    two  bas-reliefs  of  a  Roman  wearing  the  toga  and  MUnA- 
poii,  Acts  xvii,5),  who,  instigated  by  the  Jews,  raised    ing  before  a  hone.     On  Ibis  arch  is  the  abave-mfe. 
a  tumulu    The  house  of  Jason,  with  whom  the  apoatlea    tioned  inscription  containing  the  namesuf  the  ;»/irnrrli 
seem  to  hare  been  residing,  was  attacked ;  they  them-    of  tlie  ciiy.     Leake  Ihinks  from  the  style  i-f  lb*  aculpi- 
setvei  were  not  found,  but  Jasnn  was  brought  before  the    ure,  and  Tafet  from  the  occurrence  of  ihe  name  Klaviui 
anthorities  on  Ihe  accusation  that  Ihc  Christians  were    iu  the  inscription,  that  a  later  dale  oiighi  to  be  aeaignnl 
tri-ing  to  set  up  a  new  king  in  opposition  to  theempcr-    tn  the  arch  (a  drawing  of  it  is  given  by  OnisinerT'i. 
or;  a  guarantee  (rA  ianvuv)  was  taken  from  Jason  and    The  other  arch  is  near  The  eastern  (said  in  ClarkVt 
others  for  the  maintenance  of  the  peace,  and  Paul  and     Travrii,i\,3h9,by  mistake,  to  be  near  the  wcMem)ex- 
Silaa  were  sent  away  by   night  Bouihward  to  Benra    tremiiy  of  the  main  streei.     It  is  built  of  biiek  aad 
(Acts  xvii,  6-10).     The   particular  charge 
brought  against  the  apostles  receives  an  tilus- 
tralion  from  Ibe  epistles,  where  Ihe  tiitpdon 
of  Christ  is  prominenlly  mentioned  (1  Thess. 
ii,  IS;  3  Theas.  i,  6).     So,  again,  the  doctrine 
of  the   reauiTeciion   is   conspicuous  both   in 
Luke's  narrative  (xvii,  3)  and  in  the  lirst  let- 
(et  (i,  lOi  iv,  14,  IG).     Ifwe  pass  from  these 
points  to  such  OS  are  personal,  we  are  enabled 
from  the  epistles  to  complete  the  picture  of    ; 
Paul's  conduct  and  attitude  at  Thcssaloniea, 
as  regards  his  Uive,  tenderness,  and  zeal,  his  , 
can  of  individual  souls,  atul  hia  diainterested-    . 
nH(seei,G;  it,  1-10).     As  to  Ihia  last  point,  1 
I^ul  was  partly  supported  here  by  eontribu-  \ 
tions  from  Pfailippi  (Phil,  iv,  15,  IG),  partly  by  ■ 
the  labor  of  his  own  hands,  which  he  diligent- 
ly practiced  for  the  sake  of  the  better  success 
of  the  Gospel,  and  that  he  might  set  an  exaio- 
pte  to  the  idle  and  selfish.    (He  refers  very  ex- 
prensly  to  what  he  had  said  and  done  at  Thes- 
salonicB  in  regard  to  this  point ;  see  I  Thess. 
ii,  9;  iv.  11 ;  comp.  2  Thess.  iii,  8-12.)     See 
Tiii»SAt.OMANB.     To  complete  Ibe  account  Trlomphnl  Arch  of  Consunllne  atTJieasalonlca. 


THESSALONICA  8 

htrd  wUh  mublr,  ind  rarmerly  coniiucd  of  three  arch- 
vivs.  Tti«  Kiilplureil  omcli  give  an  Oriental  upect 
(o  [ht  DHHiunieiit:  and  it  is  generally  nippowd  to  cum- 
ncmmte  tbc  victory  or  Coiuuntiiie  OTCt  Liciniiu  oi 
am  tbc  Sarmaliain. 

N<sr  cKe  line  of  the  nilin  atreet,  between  the  two 
■bDve-mentioned  arches,  are  fuur  Corinthian  calumni 
wppntling  an  architrave,  above  which  are  ciryatidea. 
This  iDDDument  ii  now  pare  of  the  houae  of  a  Jew;  and, 
fnHQ  a  noiioii  Chat  the  figuid  were  petrilleil  hy  TPigic, 
it  ia  ealled  bv  the  Spanish  Jewi  Lar  Incrmt<  ' 
Turka  caU  it  Streth-AfaUk  (A  view  will 
with  architectural  details,  in  Stuart  and  Revett,  Al/ien, 
Amliq.iu,&3\  This  culonnaile  ii  suppOHd  b> 
luTC  been  part  of  the  Pmpylu  of  the  Hippodi 
porilion  of  which  is  believed  by  Beaujour  and  Clarke 
to  have  been  in  the  •aulh-e«leni  part  of  the  to*  ' 
iween  Ihe  sea  and  a  building  called  the  Rohmda, 
moeiiue,  previou«l»  the  church  Eiti-Mtfropali,  but  for- 

theon  at  itome.  Another  monqoe  in  Theasalonica,  call- 
ed Etti-Jama,  if  mid  bv  Beaujour  to  have  been  a  tem. 
pie  ctHuecraied  to  Venus  Thermsa.  The  city  walla  an 
of  brick,  and  of  Greek  cflnslmction,  reating  on  a  mucli 
dder  rouii<lation,  which  coiiaiala  of  hewn  atones  of  im- 
menae  thickness.  Everywhere  are  broken  columna  and 
fnsDientR  of  sculpture.  Many  remains  were  taken  in 
lOO  la  ConManlinople.  One  of  the  lowers  in  the  cil; 
wall  is  called  the  Tower  of  ttM  Statite,  because  it  eon- 
tain<  ■  cDlonal  fifiure  of  Theasalonica,  with  Ihe  repre- 
•enlaiioa  of  a  ship  at  ila  feel.  The  castle  is  partly 
Greek  and  partly  Venetian.  Some  colunna  of  veril 
■mique,  supposed  lo  be  relics  of  a  temple  of  Hercules, 
are  to  be  noticeit  there,  and  also  a  shattered  triumphal 
arch,  erected  (as  an  inscription  proves)  in  the  reign  of 
Marcus  An^el>u^  in  honor  of  Anloninus  Pius  and  bis 
daughter  Faustina. 

In  harmony  with  what  has  tieen  noticed  of  its  his- 
tory. ThFssalonica  has  many  remains  of  eeeleuastieal 
antiquity.  Leake  says  that  in  this  respect  it  aurpaaaea 
any  other  city  in  Greece.  The  church  uf  greatest  in- 
terest (now  a  mosque)  is  that  of  St.  Sophia,  built,  ao- 
eordiRi;  la  iraditiDn,  like  the  church  of  the  same  name 
at  Constantinople,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  and  aftei 
Ihe  designs  of  the  architect  AnthcmiuB.  This  church 
b  oflen  mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  Middle  Ages,  as 
ia  Ihe  lett«*  of  pope  Innocent  III,  and  in  the  account 
of  the  Norman  siege.  It  remains  verv  entire,  and  is 
felly  deKTibed  by  Beaujour  and  Leake.  The  Church 
of  !M.  Demetrios  (apparently  the  third  nnthe  same  site, 
and  now  also  a  masque)  is  a  structure  of  atill  greater 
Hie  lod  bemty.  Tafel  believes  that  it  was  erected 
■bout  the  end  of  the  7th  century;  but  Leake  conjecl- 
ans,  from  its  architeclnral  features,  that  it  was  built  by 
Ike  Latins  in  the  13th.  Tafel  has  collected  with  much 
dilitnnce  Ihe  notices  of  a  great  number  of  churches 
which  liare  exiMed  in  Thessalontcs.  Dapper  says  that 
in  hii  day  the  Greeks  had  the  use  of  thirty  churches. 
Walpole  (io  CUrke's  Tramli,  iv,  849)  gives  the  number 
■  iilleni.  AU  travellers  have  noticed  two  ancient  pul- 
llu,  eoosialing  of  "  nngle  blocks  of  variegated  marble, 
iflb  anall  steps  cut  in  them,"  which  are  among  the 
MB  lucreating  ecclesisslieal  remains  of  Tbessalouica. 
TO. -ilnrAonrief.— The  trnvellers  who  have  described 
Tlwlniica  are  numerous.  The  most  important  are 
Um,  SreoHd  yugiign  (ITM);  Pococke,  DrtcripHm  of 
(fc  Eat  <  1 7*S-'ia) :  Beaujour,  raUrau  du  Comrnerai  de 
h  ffnce,  iraiulaled  into  Knglish  (1800);  CUrke,  Trai>- 
tb  m  Eanpt,  eu.  (ISIO-SS);  Holland,  Trav^  in  Ikt 
lat^i  Itht,  etc.  (1815);  Coiisin^rv,  Vogagt  dmu  la 
Ifanidi'iii  (Ifiri),  Uake,A'or4AeniC;reeiw(1835};  Za- 
AM<i,fiR(e«  cfrmOrinf  (1840);  Griesbach,  ffriK  <AircA 
aMMltH  (1841):  Bowen,  Momt  Alkot,  Ttttaalg,  and 
Kflm  (I86» ;  Dodd,  in  the  BiUiolk.  Sacra,  xi,  880 ; 
XTiii,845. 


iS  THEUDAS 

orTheasalonicaby  theabb^BelleT.  But  tbemoitelab- 
orate  work  on  Ihe  subject  is  Ihst  by  Tafel,  flitl.  Theua- 
limiat  Ktqaf  ad  A.D.  904,  the  flrat  part  of  which  waa 
published  at  Tubingen  in  1836;  this  was  afterwards  re- 
printed as  Prolegomena  to  the  DiuniaUo  dt  Thrua- 
luaiea  fjvtqiie  Agro  Gtogrophica  (Beri.  1839).  With 
this  should  be  compared  his  work  on  the  I'tu  Egmilia. 
To  these  authorities  we  ought  to  add  the  introduction 
to  some  of  the  commentaries  on  Paul's  Epiilirs  lo  llu 
rAecHibmuflif— especially  those  of  Koch  (ibid.  1849)  and 
LUnemann(GSII.  1860).  The  eariy  history  ofthe  Tho- 
salonian  Church  is  discussed  by  Bu^ierhoudt,  i>s  CjMii 
Ckr.  TStuaL,  Om,  falitgiie  (Uid.  1826).  A  good  de- 
scription of  the  modem  place  is  given  in  Marraif't  Hand- 
book/or Crrra,  p.  466. 

Tban'daa,  ■  person  incidentally  mentioned  but 
once  in  the  New  Test.  (Acts  v,  8B),  and  concerning 

I.  The  Mime.— This,  in  the  original,  is  BrvSas  (a  form 
which  likewise  occuis  in  Joaephus,  A  al.  ix,  6, 1),  end, 
if  Greek,  may  be  for  etoSat,  as  a  contraction  of  Btilo- 
TOQ  or  Sriijuipor,  Le.ffoi^iwt^jDbanan  {comp.  Vulg. 
Theodia).  A  similar  form,  Qfiutai:,  occurs  in  Diogenes 
Laert.  ix,  Utt,  If  Hebrew  (Simonis,  Oaamiul.  ff.  T.  p. 
72),  it  may  -  Cnip,  prait.  The  Mishoa  bas  a  umilat 
form,  e^^lP(fieo^or.iv,4). 

II.  fi<rv[Amal Staioaat. — According  to  Luke's  report 
of  Gamaliel's  speech  before  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  on 
the  ocearion  of  the  Srst  arraignment  of  the  apostles 
(A.D.  29),  Theudas  waa  the  leader  of  a  popular  tumult 
some  time  previously  (irpA  rouruv  ruv  q/iCjDuv)  (Acta 
V,  84-3G).  He  is  spoken  of  as  a  religious  impostor  of 
high  pretensions  (Xiyui.  Aval  rir-a  iavrov),  lo  whom 
a  considerable  body  of  adherents  (nvipav  optSput  uf 
nrpnEooi'iiiv)  closely  attached  themselves  (irii<"'>iro^- 
X^jij,  wpoffjrXiSjj,  A.  B.),  but  who  was  ultimately  slain 
(DV(|pi3i)),  and  his  party  annihilated  (tyf foiTo  fiq  ob- 
till).  Gamaliel,  it  appeaia,  was  counselling  prudent 
and  temperiie  measure*  towards  the  apostlea.  Previous 
well-known  examples,  he  said,  had  made  it  plain  that 
the  leaders  of  a  bad  cause  would  sonn  tiring  all  [»  ruin, 
while  those  of  a  different  kind  woiddhe  sure  to  succeed. 
The  flnt  case  he  appeals  to  is  thst  of  Theudas,  as  above 
recited.  He  Ihen  goes  on  to  notice  the  case  of  Judas 
of  Galilee,  who  rose  after  llieudaa  in  the  days  uT  the 
taxing,  and  after  collecting  a  considerable  band  was  de- 
feated and  slain.  Now  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judas  here  spoken  of  was  the  Judas  Gaulonites  of  Jose- 

niuB,  raised  a  disturbance  by  opposing  the  census  then 
ordered  to  be  taken  bv  Ihe  Koman  government,  and 
off  (Jnsephus.'  -4nr.  xviii,  1,  % ;  War,  ii,  12). 
Thus  far  there  is  no  iliHiculty ;  it  ia  only  by  a  compari- 
mn  iif  coiitemporsneous  history  that  a  discrepancy  is 

III.  Adjuixmixt  of  Ihe  Aixmml  leUhJoffphui—Ho  in- 
lurgent  of  this  name  is  mentioned  by  Ihe  Jewish  histo- 

several  somewhat  Hmilar  occur- 


Es  about 

A  religious  impostor  (ynris  rif  itv^p)  named  Theu- 
is  described  by  him  as  having  raised  a  strikingly 
anal(M;ou9  commotion  in  Ihe  reign  of  Claudius,  when 
Cuspius  Fadus  waa  procurator  of  Juibea.  .Tosephns's 
accmnt  of  the  molter  (AnI.  xx,  6, 1)  ia  Ihst  this  fanat- 
ic, laying  claim  lo  prophetical  powers,  persuaded  a  very 
large  body  (_riif  wXiJnro*'  uxXow)  to  follow  him  to  the 
'  rdsn,  taking  their  effecis  shing  with  them,  with  the 
urance  that  Ihe  walrrs  would  divide  bofure  him  as 
they  had  done  before  EliJHh  and  FJisha  in  the  days  of 
old;  but  being  unexpectedly  sitsckeil  by  a  squadron  of 
cavalry  sent  out  nfler  him  hy  Fadus,  his  followers  were 
killed  or  taken  priioners,  and  the  leader  himself,  being 
taken,  was  beheaded.  The  reign  of  Claudius  and  Ihe 
ralonihipofFadusfixlhisincidentatabautA.D.44. 
ime  fifteen  yean  later  than  the  delivery  of  Ganw- 


THEDDAS  Si 

lid's  ipeech ;  aod  wine  tbrty  ttUi  the  tcriptunl  event,  I 
«ince  Luke  place*  his  Theudu,  in  the  order  of  lime,  be- 
fore Judaii  the  Gililieui,  who  made  hia  appearsnce  *aan 
after  the  dethronement  of  Archeliue,  L  e.  A.D.  6  or  7 
(Ji>«pliuii,irur.ii,8,  I;  ABl.s.vin,l,et  jiK,b,i). 

Now,  if  we  Ire  Ui  regard  ic  a*  cenun  thai  there  wu 
only  ime  .lewiah  insurgent  named  Thcudss,  it  fallowa 
that  cither  Luke  or  Josephus  muii  be  guilL>'  of  a  chron- 
ological blunder.  The  hj-polhesia  that  Josephus  has 
misplaced  Theudas,  though  not  itnpoatible,  and  main- 
tained by  Micbaelia  (EiHltil.  in  \.  T.  i,  68}  and  Jahn 
(duAsoi  il,  2),  is  ■  way  of  cullitig  the  knot  which  no 
unbiassed  critic  would  desire  lo  resort  to.  That  the  ei- 
(DT  is  Luke's.  Ihough  taken  fur  granted  by  most  modem 
(ierman  critics  (Eichhom,  De  Wetle,  Crwiner,  Meyer, 
Baur,  etc),  is  even  miire  improbable  when  we  take  into 
account  the  great  historical  accuracy  of  his  narrative, 
which  closer  researches  an  eontiiiuslly  placing  in  a 
stronger  light,  and  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the 
Acts.  (It  any  not  be  amiss  lo  remind  the  reader  of 
■ome  fine  remarks,  in  iUnslnlion  nf  Luke's  bislorical  ac- 
curacy, in  Thiduck's  Cimfccfl'iAjJWf  der  trang.  Cr- 
tdikhlf,  p.  161-177,  373-389.  See  also  Ebrard,  Ktan- 
SiiiKlie  Krilit,  p.  678  «q. ;  and  Lechler,  Orn  ApotloStckt 
Zrilaltrr,  p.6»q.)  Few  things  are,  therefore,  less  cred- 
ible than  that  a  careful  author  like  Luke,  writing  with- 
in a  few  years  of  the  event,  ihould  have  been  betrayed 
into  nucb  a  glaring  bislorical  miaUke  as  aniedatiiig  the 
insurrection  ofTheudas  by  nearly  half  a  century-  That 
he  should  have  done  this  by  an  intentional  ^n^iTim,  aa 
is  supposed  by  some  (Vales.  A  d  EaiA.  H.  E.  ii,  1 1),  it  as 
oompletely  at  variance  with  the  simplicity  and  unanis- 
tic  character  of  his  narrative.  It  is  the  height  of  in- 
justice to  cbsrge  that  the  writer  of  the  Acta  either  fab- 
ricated the  speech  put  into  the  mouth  of  Gamaliel,  or 
that  he  catclefflly  or  surreptitiously  wrought  into  it  a 
transaction  which  took  place  forty  years  or  more  after 
the  time  when  it  is  said  to  have  occurred  (see  Zeller, 
Die  Apotltlgrtdndiit,  p.  \ii  tn-). 

But  without  reaoning  to  either  of  these  violent  meth- 
ods, (he  difficulty  may  be  solved  with  perfect  talisfac- 
tiun  by  the  simple  hypothesis  that  (here  were  two  in- 
surgents of  the  san>e  name.  Since  Luke  represents 
Theudas  as  having  preceiledJudaa  the  Galihcan  (q.v.), 
it  is  certain  that  he  could  not  have  appeared  later,  at 
all  events,  than  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Herod 
tbelireal.  The  very  year,  now,of  that  tnoiiarch's  death 
was  remarkably  turbulent;  the  land  was  ovemin  with 
belligerentpartie8,under  the  direction  of  iiisurrectionsry 
chiefs  or  fanatics  (iVtpn  /mjHO  bopi&aiv  ixiifuna  rfiv 
'toviaiav  cnnXo/i^vt,  Ji>«phus, ^  a/,  xvii,  I:!, 4).  The 
whole  of  these,  with  three  exceptions,  are  passed  over 
by  Jowphus  without  paiticnlarizing  Ibeir  leader^  so 
that  it  need  create  lillle  surprise  that  one  in  which  cum- 
paralively  so  small  a  number  were  concerned  (Gama- 
liel's WO'caii  hardly  be  made  to  tally  with  Josephus's 
wXdcToc  uK^oc)  should  have  been  omitted  by  him,  or 
spoken  of  in  equally  general  terms.  The  name  Theu- 
das was  one  of  no  onfreqiient  occurrence  (see  above), 
while  the  fact  that  there  were  as  many  aa  three  impos- 
tors of  the  name  of  Simon  (Juscpbus,^)il.  xvii,  12.6;  ax, 
4,  S),  besides  Simon  Hagus,  and  as  many  Judases  {ihid. 
xvii,  IS,  b;  War,  i,  S3,  'i-4),  mentioned  by  Joaephua 
in  the  space  of  about  ten  years  increases  the  probability 
that  (here  may  hare  been  two  named  Thendas  in  the 
apace  of  forty  yean.  This  mode  of  reconciling  Luke 
with  Josepbus,  which  has  commended  itself  to  such  crit- 
ics as  Beza,  Scatiger,  Casaubon,  and  Bengcl,  in  earlier 
times,  and  Kuinol,  Olshausen,  Winer,  and  Ebrard,  in 
later  days,  is  ably  supported  by  Anger  {be  Tempp.  m 
jlcf. /1/»if.A(iltDiH,p.  186),andalsD  by  Lardner  (Crofi- 

strsnge  that  there  should  be  two  impostors  in  Judaa  of 
tha  same  name  in  the  compass  of  forty  years,  and  that 
they  should  come  lo  the  same  end;  on  the  contrary,  it 
is  strange  that  any  learned  man  should  find  this  hard 
to  believe."     So  impartial  a  witness  as  Jost,  ihe  histo- 


rian of  the  Jew*  {GaeUdat  der  /fmefiloi,  ii,  Anh.  pi.  76), 
admits  the  ressoDablenes*  of  such  combinations,  and 
holds  in  this  case  to  the  credilnlily  of  Luke,  as  well  as 
that  of  Joaephus.  Uoreover.Josephuswasby  no  roesnt 
infallible,  as  Straus*  and  critics  of  hia  school  may  al- 
most be  said  to  take  for  granted ;  and  it  is  possible  cer- 
tainly (this  is  the  pusiiion  of  some)  that  Joaephua  him- 
self may  have  mii-placed  the  lime  of  Tbewlas,  instead 
of  Luke,  who  is  chaiged  with  that  nvenight.  Calvin's 
view  that  Judas  Ihe  Uslilaau  appeared  not  qfltr,  hat 
hrfurt,  Theudas  {^tIi  TovTov=iniiptT  vel  pivftreo), 
and  that  the  examination  of  the  apostles  before  (he 
Sanhedrim  occurred  in  the  lime  of  Claudius  (contrary 
to  the  manifest  chronological  order  of  the  Acts),  de- 
serves meolioii  only  as  a  way  mark  of  the  pmgreat  which 
has  been  made  in  ^blicsl  exegesis  nnco  bis  time. 

2.  Another  explanation  (eieeulially  different  only  as 
proposing  to  identify  Ihe  person)  is  that  Luke's  Theu- 
das may  have  been  one  of  the  three  insurgents  whose 
names  are  mentioned  b}-  Joaephus  in  connection  with 
Ihe  diatuibancea  that  took  place  about  the  tiiDe  nf  Her- 
od's death.  Sonntag  iTifoL  Sliid.  ».  KHrO.  1837,  p. 
622,  etc;  transUled  in  the  BOIiolk.  Sacra,  1848,  p. 409 
,  tq.)  has  advanced  Ibis  view,  and  supported  it  with  niiich 
.  lesming  and  ability.  He  argues  that  the  Theudss  ce- 
ferred  lo  by  (iamallel  is  the  individual  who  orcurt  in 
JoHephusunder  lhenameor£<iiua(»'ur,  ii,4,  !;  Amt. 
\  xvii,  10,  6),  a  slave  of  Herod,  who  atlempUil  lo  nake 
.  himself  king  amid  the  confusion  which  aliended  the 
I  vacancy  of  Ihe  throne  when  that  monarch  died.  He 
'  nrges  Ihe  following  reasons  tur  that  opinion :  first,  Ibis 
Simon,  as  be  was  the  moat  noted  among  those  who  dis- 
turbed the  public  peace  at  that  lime,  would  be  apt  M> 
occur  lo  Gamaliel  as  an  illustration  of  his  point;  aec- 
onrily,  he  is  described  as  a  man  of  the  same  kifly  pre- 
tensions (eIvoi  d&ot'  iXwionc  irnp'  in-iniv '^Xijmr 
I  ilvai  nvn  iauTof);  thirdly,  he  died  a  violent  death, 
which  Josepbus  does  not  mention  as  true  of  Ihe  other 
iwo  insurgents;  fourthly,  he  appears  lo  have  had  com- 
paratively few  adherents,  in  cunformily  with  Luki'i 
ANrtJ  TirpaOHiiuvx  ancl,  lastly,  his  having  been  origi- 
nally a  riave  accounts  for  Ihe  twofold  appellation.  Him 
it  was  very  common  among  Ihe  Jews  lo  assume  a  dir- 
ferant  ttame  on  changing  their  occiipadon  or  mode  of 
life.  It  is  very  piissible,  ihervfure,  that  Gamaliel  apesks 
of  him  as  Tbeudas  because,  having  borne  that  name  K 
long  at  Jerostlcm,  he  was  best  known  by  ii  to  the  mem- 
ben  of  the  Sanhedrim ;  and  that  Jceephus,  on  tlw  tiKi- 
tnry,  who  wrote  fur  Komans  and  <ircek^  speaks  of  biD 
as  Simon  btamse  it  was  under  thai  name  that  he  set 
himself  up  aa  king,  and  thus  aoquircd  bis  foreign  DOIiv 
ritiy  (seeTacit.//isi'.v,9). 

8.  Wieseler  (C*nm.  Sjmjw.  o/GoJ7wt,  iransL  p.  90- 
92)  considers  Luke's  Thendas  to  hare  been  the  same 
with  MaUhiaM  or  Hatifaew,  the  son  orHargabih  (Utl- 
IhliBsriJFI^  being  Ihe  Hebrew  form  of  BiiioTB^- 
BitiWf).  of  whom  JosephoB  (.<  nl.  xvii,  6,  2-4)  gives  s 
detailed  account  at  a  diatinguished  teacher  among  1  he 
Jews,  who,  in  the  latter  days  of  Herod  the  Great,  rused 
a  hand  of  hia  tcholars  to  effect  a  social  reform  in  the 
spirit  of  the  old  Hebrew  conslilulion,  by  "dettmying 
Ihe  heathen  works  which  Ihe  king  bad  creeled  conini; 
to  the  law  of  their  fathers."  A  Urge  golden  eagle, 
which  the  king  had  caused  to  be  erected  over  Ihe  grtsi 
gale  of  the  Temple,  in  defiance  of  (he  law  that  liitbidi 
images  or  represenlations  of  any  living  rrealures,  wit 
an  object  of  their  special  dislike,  which,  on  hearing  a 
false  report  that  Herod  was  dead,  Malihias  and  fcii 
companions  proceeded  to  demolish;  when  the  king') 
captain,  supposing  the  undertaking  to  have  a  higher 
aim  than  was  the  fact,  came  upon  the  riotous  reformcn 
with  a  band  of  soldiers,  and  arrested  ihc  proceedings  of 
Ihe  multitude.  Dinperaing  Ihe  mob,  he  appreheniied 
forty  of  the  bolder  spirils,  together  with  Matlhisi  tvi 
hta  frllow-leader  Jiidaa.  Hatthias  was  burned.  Sos. 
had  we  used  the  term  Theudas  foe  the  tenn  HaltbiM4 


juatgivn 


THECRGISTS  3! 

CT  wvuld  u  oDca  have  mcd  that  »bat  «c  hive 
!□  (tbid  [he  more  mjuule  naiTitive  ot  JoKphiu 
iwhu  dcuilnl  mttment  or  the  Tut*  or 
vhieti  GuDtllel  gave  t  brief  Bummary  before  the  Sin- 
bcdrin.  The  chrunulogical  dilBculiy  then  diuppeaiB. 
Kiuki««,or  Th«ulM,»ppeBrecl"beiure  Ihwe  d«y»,''be- 
tniaduaftialilFe,uidbtruraLbecen>iu:  be  appeared, 
thUu,<Diiw  fiKir  yean  anicriar  ID  the  birih  urourL.inL 

4.  OUwr  ideniilkatiuna  are  those  of  Utlier  (,1r«.  ]\. 
7i;)  uHt  Zuacblag,  who  regard  Theudai  as  the  aaiue 
pcnM  ariU)  JMdoM  the  robber  (JusepbuA,  /Inf.  avii,  10, 
Sl.oc  wiih  TkauHim  (iUd.  4,  g).  Such  altempts  ariie 
Irua  IB  onwillingneia  to  aequieace  in  the  fragmeuiary 
ebincler  of  Ihe  annaJi  of  the  period,  and  are  aimply 
CDiiuiii  as  eAorta  of  iugenuily. 

Vt.  LitetalMre.  —  Among  the  worka,  io  addition  to 
tbaM  already  uentioned,  which  diaciua  this  qtiotion  or 
bmtk  upon  tl  are  the  following:  Caaauboa,  Exrrcit. 
JafAom.  ii,  18;  Neander,  GadadiU  itr  Pfiaiamg,  i. 
'ii.li\  \\ii\\niM»,Eictre.adArt.\\ilb:  Guericke,fin- 
Iri^  iir  fjolfil,  iM  N.  Trtt  p.  90 :  Rinmgirten,  Api>- 
MttgadiicJUt,  i,n*i  Uehlli^t,  Jlor.  Heb.u,7IH:  Bis- 
«M,  Hillary  a/tit  Aelt,  p.  428;  Wordsworth,  Coamm- 
larj.  ii,  26:  and  the  mnnofiniphs  De  Thmia  bv  Groa 
(Tiid).  Xtal),  KUng  (Uafn.  1714),  and  Scheuffelhnt 
(Lipt.  1774). 

IllaiiTgiBtB,  Lh«e  myatka  who  claim  to  hold  can- 
Tent  wiih  the  world  of  spiriu,  and  (o  have  (be  high 
power  and  pren^ative  of  woTkitig  miradea,  uot  by  mag- 
ic,  but  by  lupoiiatiiral  eiiitowment  Among  ihese  may 
be  oentioned  Apollnnius  oTTyana,  Peter  of  Akaiiiara, 
and  the  Urge  company  of  Romish  uinta. 

TbeaTg7(e(oiip)'ia,Awei»ri:)  is  IbeaaoKeoan- 
cmuag  the  ^ida  and  the  rarioua  ds«ea  of  w|ietior 
^liiila,  their  afppniring  to  men  and  their  operatii-na; 
aid  the  or^by  meaiu  of  certain  acu,  babit^  words,  and 
••■bols,  of  moving  the  gods  Co  impart  to  men  aecrels 
which  surpass  ibe  poiteia  of  reason,  to  lay  open  to  Ihem 
the  fature,  and  Ui  beoome  viriUe  tu  them.     These  com- 

anloi  of  wpemaUiral  beings  with  whom  men  rose  to 
dnrcne  by  the  puwet  of  purificatory  rites  and  by  the  j 
pamnion  of  science.    Magic  of  this  kind  waa  cootideied  ' 


raoflologicsJ  rite*  which  waji 
le  of  Purphyrj*  triumphed  com- 
pletely under  PnxJaa    The  magic  of  ancient  Hg^'pt  was 
quile  tbeurgie  in  origin  and  doctrine,  and  we  cannot 
4tDr  thK  the  leveries  of  the  Uler  Nen-Pbuotiiau  are  in 

■ski  the  place  of  all  other  worship,  being  cnaMdennl  in- 
ferior to  the  official  religion,  aiid  uutrurmally  recognined 
at  a  rile.    See  Leoormant,  CkatdniBi  Music,  p.  '4  aq. 

Tlwvot,  AaDK^  a  writer  of  some  note  in  Che  Iflch 
tmazj,  waa  bom  at  AngoulSme,  )''rance,  and  entered 
Ibe  Fnncisean  Order,  and  afterwarda  visited  Italy,  the 
Huty  Land,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Brazil  On  bia  return 
lofciDccin  15a^  be  quilted  theCordelier'shsbU, took 
that  of  an  ecdcaiaMic,  and  was  appointed  almoner  Co 
qatea  Catherine  de  U^dicia  He  had  the  titles  of  bia- 
(«riiignpber  of  France  and  coamographer  to  the  king, 
aad  TeeeiTed  the  prodta  of  theas  officea,  lie  died  Nor. 
n.  lUO,  leaving  CormograpUi  da  Lmnml  (Lyona,  JAM, 
4<o):^.l  //Mcwy  eflOatlTioiu  Jfaa  (1671,8  vols.  ISmo; 
«r  ISM,  i  rok.  foL) -.—SiiigidarilU  <fe  Ut  Frama  Ait- 
an*ifiu  <Pari8,  I5U,  410) ;  and  otbet  worka. 

Tfaittd,  Cyma  da,  a  Ftmch  prelate,  became 
IMnp  of  Cfaalon-mr-SB6oe,  Feb.  SO,  IGM,  and  auisl- 
■d  M  tba  Rtatea-Gantral  held  in  Parii  in  1614.  Iiav. 
U(  lacdTed  by  letlets-patefit,  Aug.  18,  1603,  the 
rifht  to  npreoent  Dijwi.  He  died  Jan.  3, 1634.  leav- 
l>M!  aaly  a  Pa^orat  arldrcaml  ut  bia  elergjr  (Chalon, 

un). 


17  THIBETAN  VERSION 

Thiard,  Hsnil  de,  cardinal  of  Kny,  waa  bora 

May  -2a,  ItiA?,  and  at  the  age  oftwelve  received  the  ab- 
bey of  Noaille,  in  reward  for  hi>  father's  Hrrices  to 
Loiiit  XIV.  He  wai  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College 
uf  Dijon  and  at  tbe  Sorbonne,  and  was  made  doctor  of 
theology  in  the  Utter.  In  1687  he  was  named  as  biib- 
up  ofToul,  but  was  not  consecrated  until  169S:  In  1697 
be  waa  offered  the  archbishopric  of  Bonlcaux,  but  de< 
dined;  and  aoan  aflerwarda  was  given  the  abbeys  of 

uf  Heiux.  He  waa  raiaed  to  the  cardiuaUie  May  29, 
1716.  Other  papal  honors  were  tubaequently  conferred 
upon  bim.  He  dieil  iu  Paris,  July  26, 1787,  having  pub- 
lished numpraus  ecclesiastical  wotka,  for  which  see  Hoe- 
fer,  Soia.  I  tog.  Ghiiralr,  a  v. 

TbibBi.d,  srchbisbnp  DfCanlerbury,  of  vboae  fam- 
ily nothing  is  kuuwu,  was  dnt  made  abbot  of  Uec  slier 
the  year  1 136,  and  siwn  afiei  was  called  to  England, 
where  we  dnd  him  raised  to  tbe  see  of  Cancerburv  la 
1IS9.  Under  tbe  influeiKe  of  Thomas  ii  Becket,'rbi- 
baudeapoused  tbe  cause  of  the  pope  in  the  quarrels  with 
Che  king  of  EngUnd,  and  was  therefore  irealed  by  th« 
latter  ai  a  public  enemy.  He  escaped  In  St.  Omer,  but 
was  aherwards  imprisoned  by  Eustacbiiis  for  refuaiDg 
to  crown  the  SOD  of  the  Utter.  Suroe  lime  after  liiS  he 
was  ctstared  to  bia  diocese  by  tbe  duke  of  Mormendv, 
and  died  AprU  18,  1161,  leaving  a  number  of  Z^te^a. 
See  Hook,  LiBC*  o/lkt  Arckbiikopt  of  Caatrbitry,  s.  v. 

Thibet,  Rkuoion  OF.  The  religion  otBuddhawaa 
intruduced  into  Thibet  under  king  SrungiUan  Gampn, 
in  A.D.  617-698,  by  pricMs  from  Siiide.  The«e  prieiu 
brought  with  them  the  an  of  writing,  and  translated 
the  sacred  books  uf  tbe  Indian  Buddbisti  into  Thibetan, 
and  their  monasterirs  became  the  ceniresof  learned  edu- 
cation and  prnfesHiousl  skilL  In  the  11th  century,  the 
llompa  religion  (the  old  worship  uf  evil  demons)  waa 
once  more  eatabliihed,  but  after  eighty  yeaca  the  Bud- 
dhist prieata  again  came  into  power.  Theae  priests,  in 
the  14ih  cencuri',  had  become  mere  jugglers:  and  then 
aroK  a  reformer,  the  monk  Tsonkbapa,  born  in  135$,  in 
the  district  of  Amdo,  where  u  now  tbe  famous  munaa- 
lery  of  K unburn.  Heoppoaed  the  tricks  and  pretended 
miracles  uf  charlatanism,  and  undertook  the  task  of  unit- 
ing and  reconciling  the  dialeccical  and  myatical  scliooU 

univetaatly  acknowledged.  Iu  tbe  Ifitb  century,  Gednu- 
Duh,  piovoet  of  a  Urge  RHHiaslery,  claimed  Co  be  an  in- 
carnation of  Buddha,  and  aoumed  the  title  ofihe"  very 
costliest  teacher  ocean."  The  Mongols  called  himGyaa- 
ln,Dr  Dalai  Lama,  the  "priest  ocean,"  and  thus  was  in- 
augurated Lamaism  (q.  v.),  which  became  the  eatablish- 
ed  religion  of  tbe  countr}'.  The  election  of  the  grand 
lama,  although  by  lot,  haa  been  so  managed  as  to  pre- 
vent any  child  frnm  being  elected  which  might  be  dis- 
agreeable to  tbe  Chinese  government.  The  last  elec- 
tion took  place  in  1876,  and  a  child  from  che  western 
boundary,  towards  Ladsk,  waa  elected,  which  aeema  to 
indicate  a  decrease  of  the  Chinese  influence.  Thitet  is 
greatly  oppreaeed  by  ita  ecclesisseical  sygiem.  The 
number  of  monaateries  and  monka  is  almost  incredible. 
Eighteen  thousand  Ii 


>e  pla 


entb,  man  U  a  monk,  and  muu  be  pmrlded  for  by  oth- 
ers The  poverty  of  the  people  u  very  creat,  their 
moral  depravity  atill  greater.  Between  18&4  and  1864 
aome  French  miwionaries  attempted  lii  establish  a  Ro- 
man Cathoticitation  at  Bonga.iii  ISouth^astem  Thibet, 
but  were  violently  assailed  by  the  lamas,  and.  unpro- 
tected by  the  Chinese  inthoricien,  they  were  obliged  to 
leave.  All  other  effoiu  to  Introduce  Christianity  have 
also  failed;  indeed,  to  jealous  of  Europeans  are  tbe  au- 
thoritiea  that  they  are  rarely  even  admitted  into  tbe 
country.     See  Lamaism. 

Thibetan  Veralon.  The  vast  and  monntainoua 
tract  of  country  in  which  Che  Thibetan  Ungnsg*  ia 
spoken  lita  directly  north  of  Hiodoatan,  fmm  which  it 


THIEF  3i 

U  upinted  by  the  HiouUya  Houotiiai.  lu  «itlcri> 
(hnitun  bunler  un  Cbiiu;  Id  the  wat  it  eitendiu  far 
ts  Cubinere,  Artthaiiigiui,  and  Turknun ;  wbU«  ou  Hit 
nunli  it  is  txiuiiileil  by  tba  oauDCrie*  or  tha  Turlu  uvi 
tbe  Uungula.  It  ii,fur  tba  moat  put,  ciinipriMd  wilhiii 
(be  Cbineae  empire;  thewesleni  paiu,  bawevei, ap^ar 
tobeindepeiKleiiturCbiDa.  Oil  account ut tbe estrenic 
jealousy  of  tbe  Cbine«  gnvenimenti'i'bibtt  ha*  bilberto 
beeu  alnioiit  ioacccMibk  tu  rur«igiiera,  siul  our  know  ledge 
of  tbe  country  a  in  cousequeiice  extremely  limited. 

In  IBie  an  attempt  wai  made  by  Ibe  Church  Mi>- 
Boiiary  Society  to  furniah  Ibe  Thibeunt  wilb  a  veniioii 
of  the  Scriptures  in  their  owii  language,  but,  unhappily, 
Ibis  inipurcant  uiulenaking  uliimalely  proved  abortive. 
The  iDBtler  rested  until  Ibe  year  1813,  when  Dr.  Uibti- 
lin,  an  ageut  of  the  British  and  I'ureigii  Bible  Society, 
alKrJ>iumeyin);thruiigh  Thibet,  aKain  farced  tba  neces- 
sity uf  a  Thibetan  venion  upon  the  attention  oT  Cbria- 
llaii  sucieiiea.  Ur.  Hfiberlin  states,  as  the  result  of  his 
obMrvaliuDS  aiid  inquiriea  in  lliibeiilbal  "at  tai  ai  the 
Thibetan  language  il  spoken  and  (he  Lsmis  have  any 
away,  BO  br  literaiure  eierciaea  an  impMrlanl  infliieiii.'e 
on  I  he  people.  If  Ibeiewere  aiemon  of  the  Scripture! 
in  the  Thibetan  language,  thuusands  of  volumes  might 
annually  be  sent  into  the  interior  ii(  Asia  rroni  Ave  dif- 
ferent points  along  the  immense  froniier  of  British  In- 
dia ;  and  the  millvHis  ut  people  speaking  thai  language, 

profitable  opportunity  of  being  made  acquainted  with 
Ibe  things  that  bekmg  to  their  aalvalkm.'  In  spile  of 
this  encouraging  fact,  the  object  advucaled  by  Dr.  Hk- 
betlin  moveil  lerj'  alowly,  fur  not  unlit  1S66  do  we  read 
of  an  effiirt  made  toward*  tranalatiiig  the  Gvspel  of  St. 
Mai iliew,  which  in  1668  was  published  by  tbe  Mora- 
vian Hiseion  at  Kvelang.  Abnut  the  same  time,  a 
Kbie  society  for  the  Punjab,  with  ita  headquarters  al 
Lahore,  wo*  formed,  and  one  of  the  projecta  enlertained 
by  thai  society  was  the  iranslatioD  of  the  Scriptures  into 
the  Thibetan,  which  had  already  been  commenced  by 
Moravian  missionarka.  The  difficulties,  bnwevet,  wen 
very  great,  and  tbe  work  of  tranalatiun  was  nainrally 
very  slow.  Hence  we  need  not  be  surprised  that  about 
five  yean  after  the  publication  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Hal- 
Itaew  those  of  John  and  Mark  were  published,  while  up  tc 
dale  the  New  Test,  has  not  vet  been  completed.  See 
hOtt  0/  Every  Latd,  p.  80  sq'.     (a  P.) 

Xtli«f  (3)1,  cUxnic)-  Among  Iba  Hebrews,  the 
reHttulioo  that  was  required  in  case  of  theft  was 
doabU  the  amount  Uken  (Exod.  11, 3-8).  If  a  sheep, 
however,  was  stolen,  and  had  been  slain  or  sold,  fiiurfuld 
was  required;  or  if  an  ox,  a  fivefold  rcalilulioii  ■ 
be  made.  The  reiaon  of  Ihi*  distinction  was  that  ■ 
being  kept  in  the  desert,  were  more  expveed  than 
animals  to  be  stolen ;  and  oxen,  being  so  indispen 
necessary  in  an  agricultural  comrooiiily.  could  n 
taken  from  Iheir  owners  without  great  injorv  an 
culiar  agi-ravalion  (:<xii.  1).  In  case  the  thief  w. 
able  to  make  the  restitution  demanded  by  the  law.  he 
was  sold,  with  his  wife  and  chiklren,inlo  servitude  (ver.  I 
3;  iHam.  x«,6;  3  King*  iv,  I;  camp.  Gen.  xliv,  17). 
In  later  times,  tbe  fine  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
increased  (Prov.  vi,  30,81).  Whoever  ilew  a  thief  who 
was  allempling  to  break  a  house  at  night,  i.  e.  any  hour 
bef'ire  sunrise,  was  left  unpunished,  uiiee  he  did  not 
know  bat  that  the  thief  minht  have  a  de^gn  upon  hi* 
life,  snd  be  was  unable  akm,  owing  to  the  darkness,  to 
ideiilifv  and  thereby  bring  him  la  Justice  (Eaod.  xxii, 
3).     See  THitfT. 

'■  Hen  do  not  despise  a  thief,"  says  Solomon,  ■■  if  be 
steal  to  salisfv  his  soul  when  he  is  hunf^'.  Bnt  if  he 
be  found, be  shall  restore  sevenfold;  he  shaU  give  all 
theBubManceorbisbouse"(Prov.  vi.  SD,3I).  Bishop 
Hall  is  of  opinion  that  Solomon,  in  this  passage,  doe*  noi 
so  much  extenuate  the  crime  oT  theft  as  piunt  out  the 
greater  criminality  of  adultery ;  but  we  have  abundant 
Rvideaoa  that  theft,  unaccompanied  by  violence,  was 


S  THIERMES 

viewed  more  leniently  by  ancient  than  by  iDodeni  Irgi- 
ialalur*.  Wilkiiuuu  says,  "The  Egyptians  liad  a  sin- 
gular cuslom  respecting  theft  aail  burglary.  Those  who 
followed  the  prufeeaion  of  thief  gave  in  their  oametoiba 
chief  of  the  rabbers,  aud  agreed  that  be  should  be  in- 
furmed  of  everything  they  might  ibcncefurwatd  aleal 


Iheir  quality  and  quantity,  the  day  ai 
were  stolen,  and  other  requiute  poriiculara,  the  guiida 
were  idenlitied,  and  on  payment  of  one  quarter  of  tlieir 
value  tbey  were  reatoied  lo  the  applicant  in  the  sane 
state  as  when  taken  from  bis  house;  fur,  being  fully 
persuaded  oT  ibe  impracticability  of  putting  ou  euiin 
check  to  robbery,  either  by  Ibe  dread  of  punishment  cr 
by  any  other  method  that  cuuld  be  adopted  by  the  dkni 
vigilant  police,  they  conaideml  it  more  for  the  advan- 
isge  of  the  community  thai  a  ceitain  Bacri&ce  sbuuld  ha 
made,  in  order  lo  secure  the  rcsiiiulion  of  the  remain- 
der, than  that  the  law,  by  taking  on  itself  to  protect  iba 

cause  of  greater  loss;  and  Ihat  tbe  t^^ypiians,  like  tba 
lndian^and,l  may  say,  tbe  modern  in  habjtaats  of  tba 
Nile,  were  very  expert  in  the  art  of  thieving,  we  hav* 
abundant  teslimvnv  from  ancient  aulburs"  (Ate.  Egyf^ 
tima,  ii,  316).    See  Sriuu 

wilb  our  Liird  ap- 


pear to  have  been, n 


ftbew 


"tbievi 


(Xpvrqc  is  carefully  distinguished  frum  tXimK,  John 
x,8),  i.e.  fellDw-tiini;;nii'>  with  Barabbas;  for  it  is  sud 
thai  he  "  lay  t»und  with  Ibem  thai  had  made  insuTTec- 


ithe  in 


(Mark  XV,  7).     These  malefsflui^ 
who  had  taken  ap 


fijr  pritfifj  bt 

Mon,and  lo  what  they  thought  an  unlawf.d  burden,  tbe 
iribnte-money ;  who  made  no  scruple  lo  rob  all  tbe  Ko- 
nians.snd  when  engaged  in  these  unlawful  eautea  made 
less  diSeience  between  Jews  and  Romans  than  Ibei  at 
first  meant  io  do"  iStntrnt  [1819-SS].  voL  i).    Sea 

Thiemon.  otbertrise  DiimiiAn,  a  Bavarian  pielata 

and  anisi,  was  bom  of  noble  parentage  about  lOb 
Agreeably  to  tbe  custom  of  his  time,  he  was  as  well 
versed  in  meclianic*  a*  in  tbe  fine  art*.  He  extcuUd 
many  works  in  painting  and  sculpture  far  the  chunhe^ 
particularly  for  the  Church  of  St.  Blaise,  near  Ems.  la 
10?£>  be  was  appointed  abbe  of  Ihe  diocese  of  Sakhar(, 
ami  in  1090  wis  chosen  archbishop  of  that  city.  Ua 
started  for  the  Holy  Und  about  1099,  and  is  aid  la 
have  been  taken  prisooei  by  the  inSdela,  who,  kamug 


culptu; 


re  Ibe 


idol.  Refusing  to  do  so  Du  account  of 
religious  scruples,  he  was  pul  lo  death,  in  1101.  Se* 
"  lunner,  Biog.  /liil. a/ tie  fiiit  ArU.t.v. 

Thlermea  (or  Tlennaa),  in  the  mythology  of  lb* 
LiSplinderB,  was  Ihe  son  of  the  devil  by  a  Inland  gitL 
The  latter  was  silling  upon  the  ground  under  a  Im, 
when  Perkel  (Ihe  devil),  disguised  as  a  stranger,  caate 
lo  ber,  and  oxked  her  to  bang  her  fur  coal  upon  a  hMidle 
of  wood.  This  she  omiplied  wiih,but  suddenly  the  baa. 
die  of  woul  began  lu  bum,  and  she,  vainly  cndearariiic 
ti>  escape  his  embraces,  became  his  victim.  The  child 
was  renuiveil  to  the  highest  heaven,  and  was  there  qtua- 
lioneil  a*  to  whose  child  it  desired  10  br,  ih*  fatbci'a  ur 
the  mother's.  It  decided  in  favor  of  ihe  mother,  sAer 
which  Ihe  high  ruler  made  of  il  a  god  of  thuider.  As 
such,  piinueil  bt-  ita  father,  il  flies  about  in  Ihe  beavetx, 
thundering  and  lighleuing,  now  uproolilig  lreel,a£UB 
splitting  rocks,  doing  good  snd  eviL  Tbe  Laplmdn* 
have  a  poorly  developed  wor*hip  of  Ibe  deitieOi  Tha^ 
it  seems,  there  can  be  accreiUled  to  Tbiemc*  ooly  a 
general  wonbiq. 


THIERS  31 

ThlWB,  Jkah  Uaptistk,  ■  French  divine,  wu  bom 
■1  Cbutn^  Not.  11,  1606.  He  wu  pnjfeaaor  it  the 
College  da  Fkaaii  in  P*ri*,  «>ul  nw,  iu  IG66,  appoinled 

i  Htn  Im  came  in  conaict  witb  the  arcbcleicoii  of  Chu^ 
I  iremiid  «Mil  10  Kibnye  (MeuK),  where  be  died,  Feb. 
'  !«,  I'm.  He  wrote,  De  Filorum  Dimim  ImmiiuiliorK 
iLpoii  1668),  which  wm  placrd  on  the  Initeic  "  douec 
CHTigaturf — Truiti  de  V  Expotilim  du  S.Saeriotaitilt 
tAttrl  (Plrin.  leiay i—Tntiti  dri  Suptrililiotu  tebm 
lEerHart  .S'liMc  (ilrid.  lejS) -.-/Hvirt.  lur  la  Saime 
Larmii  I'adAiu  (ibid.  1696),ie>i><M  which  HabiUon 
•nte  >  lejoioder,  Lain  ifiiii  Bintdictia  a  Mgr.  de 
Bhii  (ibid.  1700).  Againw  the  priothood  he  wrote, 
LAncal  dti  Pauera  (ibiiL  1676) -.—Hutoire  del  Ptr- 
nfui  { ibid.  \iV>  ).  He  lira  wrote  wime  historiul 
■Mii%  fur  which  Me  Niceron,  Mtmoira  poar  Servir, 
m,vi>Liti;  Dupiii,.Voiiiv&ifiUtD[jLvaLiii;  Titolog. 
l.'tinTtal-I.a.  t-t.;  liixftr,  fioat. Siog.  Giiuralt,i.v. 
(ttp.l 

meaa,  Joiia:<ii  O,  a  (ieimui  doctor  of  thcolog]', 
■u  bum  Aug.  1&,  1763,  at  Uambui^.  Finr  >  number 
of  nui  he  lectured  at  the  Univenitj  of  Kid,  retir- 
iMf  in  I«e.  He  died  Jan.  7, 1810.  He  wrote,  Ho«d- 
hcri  d.  muenm  iet.  daUdttn  a.  prolrtl.  Lilrral.  d.  ThtoL 
(LfipL  1796-97,  2  vol«,)-^A'eun-  krit.  Commattar  Sbtr 
im  S.T.  (pt.  i,ii.  Die  Eermgrl-dtr  ApotM  tatd  Jrna 
[HiDe,  ISOt-G]):— rorlutii^miiier  du  J/uru/ (Gen, 
mt):—f'iiiiiia»nita  TktaL  Ciriit.  CrUieo-dogmaliea 
iLiph  17K)  -.—A  Commr«tarj  m  !  T/im.  ii,  1-12  md 
Juiti.ll-ie  {Ki*],\m9):—i'rbtr  dit  bibL  und  tireiL 
tfetnuff  rod  der  Kwigkrit  der  fldltatMtrafm  (Hamb. 
1791)1- C7rier  dU  Magier  utd  ikm  Stem  (ibid.  17»4) : 
— EMnlajH  ititnenertGttch.der  Jltligirm,  dtr  Kirde 
K^rr  Atol.  Wiufiudiajtn,  (ibid.  1740,  tT96;  Sleawiclt, 
]7»7),  eie.  See  Winer,  lltndb.  ikr  IhnL  LUtralur,  i, 
&17i.l37,!M,S»4,368,  478,  b&6,  680,  867,868;  ii,  SI, 
U,*2,  IS6,  136,331,860,366;  Fant,  HiiL  Judaica,  iii, 
m.    (RP.) 

Thletmax,  ■  noble  Saxon  belonging  to  the  bmil]' 
</  Wikleck,  and  related  la  the  imperial  houae,  wi>  bom 
Jnljr  ii,  974.  In  989  he  becaine  canon  of  St.  MauriDC, 
•ad  in  lOOl  provoat  of  Waldeck,  which  hii  grandfather 
bad  fsunded.  In  1009  he  wa.i  made  biahop  of  Mene- 
bur^  aid  in  1018  he  died.  He  wrote  ■  chronicle,  with 
t^|iD()iiHe  of  iranmniltin);  to  hii  ■uccenor*  in  the  bisb- 
oprlea  history  of  Merschurg;  but  the  work  grew  into  a 
Uaory  of  ibe  German  State  and  of  the  neighboring  Ger- 
■nieiod  Slavonic  cull ntrie&  It  i>  the  moat  important 
rfirtrwible  siurcee  for  the  time  of  the  later  emperors, 
■Kt  iti  autenienta  cover  almoat  the  whole  of  the  lOth 
tanmtj,  and  are  largtl]'  the  rcporta  of  what  the  antbor 
klmelf  uw  and  knew.  The  book  ii  dedcient  in  point 
•I  literary  exeeUeueea,  but  ii  chofuteriied  by  abun- 
duee  of  nutter  and  tmthfulneaa  of  (fririt.  It  iaaaim- 
|Krunt  for  the  illuatration  of  mannen  and  euatoma  in 
tbedaya  ofthe  Saxon  emperonaa  lor  the  atatement  of 

IJ^fratarr. — Lappcpberg'a  preracc  to  Hon.  Germ.  Bill. 
roL  iii  of  Seripll. ;  Ginebrecht,  in  Rinke'a  Jakrbi.  II, 
i,  liS-163,  and  Gaji.  der  Kait.  i,  746,  780 1  ii.  617,  647 
44.1  WatlenbKh,  GruMciliqvrllfii  Deutidlandi  in  ifil- 
Uul«r.p.lSl  eq.;  Maiirenbrecher,  f)e  /liil.  Dfdm  8v- 
ctS Seripll. (Bona,  186\):  Lappenbcn<. eiL of  Thietmar's 
Oroailtn  JVoi>.{;ci-in.//^.iii.7S3-8Tl.  See  aho  Hall, 
Al^m.Lil^ZeiliaH,  1849,  Noa.  204^306.— Henog,  ReaU 

Thlerea,  The  Two,  os  run  Crow  (Matu  xxvii, 
3a-t4;  Hvk  xv,37i  Luke  xxiii,  39-43;  camp.  John 
iriti,40).  Tb«  men  who  nudcr  thia  name  appear  in 
■lie  biatory  of  the  cmeillxian  were  mbben  (Aaorai} 
taihet  than  thievea  (iXirrai),  belonging  to  the  lawlew 
buda  by  which  Palealine  waa  at  that  time  and  after- 
wanli  iofeated  (JoRphoa,  AM,  xvii,  10,  8;  xx,  8, 10). 
A^aat  tbeaa  briganda  every  Romaii  procurator  bad  to 
ngt  oDotiaual  war  (JoKphna,  [Var,  ii,  IS,  2).    The 


9  THIEVES 

parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan  shows  how  common  It 

was  for  them  to  attack  and  plunder  travellers  even  on 
the  higb-mad  fnim  Jeruaalem  to  Jericho  (Luke  x,  30). 
It  was  neoeasary  to  use  an  anned  police  to  encounter 
them  (xxii,  62).  Often,  ai  in  the  case  of  BaraUba^  the 
wild  robber  life  waa  connected  witb  a  fanatic  zeal  fur 
freedom  which  turned  the  marauding  attack  into  a 
popular  inaurrection  (Mark  xv,  7).  For  Crimea  luch  lu 
these  the  Romans  had  but  one  aentence.  Crucifixion 
wBfl  the  penalty  st  once  of  the  robber  and  the  rebel 
(Josephuh  War,  ii,  13,2). 

or  the  previous  history  of  the  two  who  aoffered  on 
Golgotha  wfl  know  uDthing.  They  had  been  tried  and 
condemned,  and  were  waiting  their  execution  before 
our  Lord  was  accnaed.  It  is  probable  enough,  aa  the 
death  of  Barabbu  was  clearly  expected  at  the  ume 
time,  that  they  were  antong  the  nwrmnain-ai  who  bad 
been  impiiaoned  with  him,  and  had  taken  part  in  the 
inaurrection  in  whicli  leal,  and  hate,  and  patrii><ism, 
wd  luU  of  plunder  wete  mingled  in  wild  confusinn. 

They  had  expected  to  die  with  Jesus  Barabbaa 
(q.  v.).  Tbey  Snd  tbenuelvea  with  one  who  bore  the 
same  name,  but  who  waa  described  in  the  superacrip- 
tion  on  bia  croas  as  Jeaus  of  Nazareth.  They  conid 
hardly  fail  to  hare  heard  something  of  hia  fame  aa  a 
prophet,  of  hia  triumphal  entiy  as  a  king.  They  itov 
Snd  him  sharing  the  aame  late  as  themselves,  con- 
demned on  much  the  aatne  charge  (Luke  ixiii,  6), 
Tbey  too  would  bear  their  croases  to  the  appointed 
place,  while  He  fainted  by  the  way.  Their  garmenta 
would  be  parted  among  the  soUietx.  For  them  also 
there  would  be  the  drugged  wine,  which  He  refused,  to 
dull  the  sharp  pain  of  the  first  hours  on  the  croas.  They 
catch  at  first  the  prevailing  tone  of  Mom.  A  king  of 
the  Jews  nbo  could  neither  save  himself  nor  help  them, 
whose  followers  bad  not  even  fought  for  him  (John 
xviti,  36),  was  strangely  unlike  the  many  chieftains 
whom  they  bad  probably  known  claiming  the  aanw 
title  (JoaephuB,  A  al.  xvii,  10,  8),  strangely  unlike  the 
"  notable  piiaoner"  for  whom  they  bad  not  hesitated,  it 
would  seem',  to  incur  the  risk  of  bloodshed.  But  over 
one  of  them  there  came  a  change.  The  dark ne«a  which, 
at  noon,  was  beginning  to  steal  over  the  sky  awed  him, 
and  the  divine  patience  and  silence  and  meekness  of  the 
suOerer  touched  him.  He  looked  back  apon  bis  past 
life,  and  saw  an  infinite  evil.  He  looked  to  the  man 
dying  on  the  crosa  beside  him,  and  uw  an  inAnite  com- 
posrion.  There,  indeed,  waa  one  unlike  all  otber  "  kinga 
of  the  Jews"  whom  the  robber  had  ever  known.  Such 
a  one  must  be  all  that  he  had  claimed  to  be.  To  be 
forgotten  by  that  King  seems  to  him  now  tbe  moat  ter- 
rible of  all  punishments;  to  take  part  in  the  triumph  of 
bia  return,  the  moat  blessed  of  all  hopes.  The  yearning 
prayer  was  answered,  not  in  the  letter,  but  in  the  spirit. 
To  him  alone,  of  all  the  myriads  who  had  listfined  to 
htm,  did  the  Lord  speak  of  Paradise  (q.  v.),  waking 
with  (hat  word  the  thoughts  of  a  purer  past  and  the 
bopeaof  an  immediate  rest.  But  iu  joy  was  to  be  mora 
than  that  of  fair  groves  and  pleasant  streams.  "Thou 
Shalt  be  vilA  me."     He  should  be  rtmtnbtred  there. 

We  cannot  marvel  that  a  history  of  such  wonderful 
interest  should  at  all  times  have  fixed  itself  on  men'* 
minds,  and  led  them  to  speculate  and  ask  questiona 
which  we  have  no  data  to  answer.  The  simplest  and 
truest:  way  of  lotriting  at  it  has  been  that  of  tboie  who, 
fmra  the  great  Alexandrian  thinker  (Origen.  in  Bom. 
iii)  to  tbe  writer  of  the  most  popular  hymn  of  our  own 
times,  have  aeen  in  the  "dying  I'taet"  tbe  fint  great 
typical  insUDce  that  "a  man  is  justified  by  faith  with- 
out the  deeds  of  tbe  law."  Even  those  whose  thoughia 
were  teas  deep  and  wide  acknowledged  that  in  this  and 
other  like  cases  the  baptism  of  bluod  supplied  the  place 
of  the  outward  sign  of  i^j^eneration  (Hilar.  Dt  Ttinl. 
C.X!  Jerome,  £>>.  xiii).  The  l.igical  spccularions  of  the 
Pelagian  contmveny  overclouded,  in  this  as  in  other 
instance*,  the  clear  Judgment  of  Augustine.  Maintain- 
ing the  absolute  neceasity  of  baptism  to  salvation,  he 


It  Ibicf 


THIEVES 


bad  lo  dUciua  the  qucation  whether  the  pei 
had  beeo  beptizcd  or  iiat,incl  he  oacUUln,  wiin  melan- 
choly indecision,  beLween  the  Iwo  inawere.    At  timo 

he  u  disposed  to  rest  conunl  wilh  the  soluliou  which 
bad  utia6ed  othera.  Then  again  he  venluies  on  the 
conjeclute  that  (he  waWr  which  sprang  forth  from  the 
pierced  side  had  sprinkled  him,  and  so  had  been  a  eur- 

logic  ur  I  sacramental  theory,  he  rests  in  the  assump- 
tion that  he  probablv  had  been  baptized  berure,  eilhei 
in  his  prison  or  before  be  enleml  ou  bis  robher-lifc 
(Augatt.DeAinma,\,U;  iii,  12;  Stnii.iUTemp.ldO; 
Rtlrad.  i, » ;  iii,  18, 5S). 

Olher  conjeclurea  turn  more  on  the  circumstances  of 
the  history.   Beiigel,  iistiiily  acute,  here  oTershoois  iht 
d  flnds  in  the  Lord's  words  lo  him,  dtoppiiiB 


■l]   n 


if  the  Men 


that  the  penitent  thief  was  a  ficnlile,  the  impenitent  a 
Jew,  and  that  thus  the  scene  on  Calvary  was  typical  of 
the  position  of  the  two  churches  (tjnonton  N.  T.  in 
Luttnaii).  Slier  {Werdtoflke  Lord  JnBi,mi  loc.) 
reads  in  the  worda  uf  reproof  {uiiti  fofig  ai  Tiy  6(dv) 
the  language  of  one  who  had  all  along  listened  with 
grief  and  homir  to  the  reiilings  of  the  muliiiude,  the 
bunt  of  an  indignation  preriiiusly  suppressed.  The 
Apocryphal  gospels,  as  usual,  do  their  best  to  lower  the 
divine  history  to  the  level  of  a  leiiend.  They  follow 
the  repentant  robber  into  Ihe  uniireii  world.  He  it  (he 
Snt  to  enter  Paradise  of  all  mankind.  Adam  and  Seth 
and  the  patriarchs  And  him  already  there  bearing  his 
crowi.  Uichsel  the  archangel  had  leil  him  to  the  gate, 
and  the  Stcy  sword  had  turned  aside  lo  let  him  pass 
(Erwig.  Nicad.  ii,  10).  Names  were  giren  lo  the  two 
robbers.  Demas  or  Dismu  was  the  penitent  thief, 
hanging  on  the  right,  Ueslas  the  impenitent  on  the 
lefl  (jKdLi,  10;  Narral-Jo^k.  <:.&).  The  cry  of  en- 
treaty is  expanded  into  a  long,  wordy  prayer  (A'amif. 
Jotrpi.  loc.cit.),and  the  promine  suffen  the  same  treat- 
ment. The  history  of  the  Infancy  is  made  prophetic  of 
Ihst  of  the  cruciSxion.  The  h(dy  family,  on  their 
flight  to  Egypt,  come  upon  a  band  of  robbers.  One  of 
them,  Titos  (the  names  are  different  here),  has  com- 
paasion,  purchases  the  silence  of  his  companion  Duma- 
chus,  and  the  infant  Christ  prophesies  that  after  thirty 
vears  Titus  shall  be  erucifledwith  him,  and  shall  go  be- 
fore  bim  into  Paradise  {Etmg.  Infvnl.  c.  28).  As  in 
other  inatances  [see  UaoiJ.so  in  this,  the  fancy  of  in- 
ventors seems  to  have  been  fertile  in  names.  Bcde 
(CoUtdan.)  gives  Matha  and  Joca  as  those  which  pre- 


.0  THIGH 

Romans,  as  we  have  seen,  not  ud  men  thieves,  but 
rebels.  Barabbas  had  been  ooe  of  these,  aitd  (hough  he 
"lay  bound  with  them  that  had  made  insurrection  with 
him,  who  had  committed  murder  in  the  insurreclico," 
Mark  (xv,  27)  has  the  same  word,  Xporiji,  "rubber," 
which  is  applied  to  him  by  John  (xviii,  40),  It  u  mot 
probable  that  these  '■  malefactors"  were  two  of  his  eata- 
panions.  Our  Lord  was  coudemned  under  the  ■biq« 
charge  of  insurrection  (Luke  xxiii,  2),  and  the  mati 
whose  cue  we  are  coasidering  aays  to  his  fellow-suf- 
ferer, "Thou  art  under  the  same  tnltiKr"  iw  ry  bOt^ 
icpifinTi,  and  admits  that  they  both  were  guilty  of  the 
charge,  while  oar  Lord  was  innocent  of  it  (ver^40,4l)L 
I  It  is  impossible,  then,  (o  delennine  the  d^ree  of  bis 
,  criminality  without  knowing  what  provocations  he  had 
received  under  the  despotic  and  arbitrary  rule  of  a 
Roman  governor  such  aa  Pilate,  how  far  li 


■ailed  in  hia  time.    The  ni 


n  the  ( 


Nicodemos  has,  however,  kept  its  ground,  and  St-  Dis- 
mas  takes  his  place  in  the  hagiulo^y  of  the  Syrian,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Latin  Church.— Smith.  It  has  been  as- 
sumed that  the  penitent  thief  had  been  very  wicked; 
that  he  continued  so  till  he  was  nailed  to  the  cross; 
that  he  Jinned  the  other  malefactor  in  insulting  the 
Saviour;  and  that  then,  by  a  miracle  of  grace,  he  was 
transformed  into  a  penitent  Christian;  soOrigen  (//sir. 
Se  in  itall.1,  Chrj'soslom  (//nm.  S8  in  MaU.'i,  and  others 
(comp,  Suicer,  a,  V.  Ajor^v)'  But  this  view  of  the  case 
seems  to  involve  some  misconception  of  the  facts,  which 
it  may  not  be  inexpedient  to  indicate.  Whitby  says. 
"  Almost  all  inleiptvters  that  I  have  read  here  say  thai 
this  thief  began  his  repentance  on  the  Croaa."  Wilh 
regard  to  his  moral  character,  he  ia  indeed  styled  by  the 
evsngeliat  one  of  the  "  malefactors  (rnxoiipyoi)  who  were 
led  with  Jesus  to  be  put  lo  death"  (Luke  nxiii,  S2){  but 
the  woni  is  evidently  uaed  ioSaanicSc,  i.  e.  malefactor* 
as  ihey  were  considered.  Mallhew  (xxvii,  44)  and 
Mark  (xv,  27)  call  theio  XpflToi' ;  hut  this  word  denotes 
not  only  robbers,  etc,  but  also  briga^d^  rebels,  or  any 
who  carry  on  unauthorized  boslililics,  iiuargniU  (Thu- 
Cyd.  iv,  63).  Insurrection  was  a  crime,  but  it  waa  a 
crime  B  person  might  have  committed  who  had  good 
qualitie^  and  had  maintained  a  respecubla  character. 
Again,  this  man's  punishment  was  cruciAxion,  which 
was  not  in  usa  among  the  Jew^  but  was  inflicted  by  the 


:  sediii 


.   The 


notion  chat  be  was  suddenly  and  inatanianeously  a 
vetted  on  the  cross  is  grounded  entirely  upon  the  ;r»- 
era(  statement  of  Matthew,  "the  Ihie'ves  also  which 
were  crucifled  with  him  cast  the  same  in  hia  teeih'* 
(xxvii,  44) ;  whereas  Luke,  in  hia  relation  of  the  ind- 
denl,  is  more  exact  lustances  uf  Matthew's  style  of 
speaking,  which  is  called  amplijtalion,  abound  in  the 
gospels,  and  in  all  writers.  Thus, "  the  soldiers  brought 
him  vinegar"  (Luke  xxiii,  36;  John  xix,  S9),'-oiMof 
them  did  so"  (Matt,  xxvii,  46;  Mark  xv,  36).  "The 
disciples  had  indignation"  (Halt,  xxvi,  8),  "some  ef 
tbeni''(Maikxiv,4),"oDeolthem''(Johuxii,4).  So 
inMarkxvi,6;  Mat^  xxviii,  2,  there  ia  mention  of  oae 
angel  only:  but  in  Luke  xxiv,4;  Juhn  xx,  12,  then  is 
mention  of  two.  This  it  substantially  the  eiphmaiiMi 
given  by  Cyprian  (_J)t  Piiuiimt  Ifonui),  Augustine  (0> 
Com.  £1X11^.  iii,  16),  and  others,  which  asauma  a  ly- 
oecdoche  or  syllepsis  or  enallage.  The  captious  ahjK- 
liuns  to  Ihe  narrative  of  Luke  aa  inconsistent  wiih  that 
of  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  the  inference  drawn  froiB 
them  that  both  are  more  or  less  legendarv,  are  Ihtie- 
fore  puerile  (Strauta,  Lfbm  Jen,  ii,B19;  Ewald.Cirf. 
(lai,  in  Gmi.  v,  438).  It  is  far  from  certain  that  eitbtc 
faith  or  repentance  uf  this  "  thief"  was  the  fruit  uf  iliit 
particular  season.  He  must  have  known  somcthinir  sf 
the  Saviour,  otherwise  he  could  not  have  said  tiiir 
arowov  irpaii,  "he  hath  done  nothing  amiss."  He 
may  have  been  acquainted  with  the  miracles  tad 
preaching  of  Jeaua  before  he  was  cail  into  piiton;  he 

convinced  of  our  Lord's  Messiahship, "  Lord,  temtDber 
me  when  thou  comest  into  thy  kingdom."  His  criaia 
possibly  consisted  of  only  one  act  of  insubordinatian, 
anil  he  might  have  been  both  a  sincere  btlitnr, 
and.  with  this  one  exception,  a  practical  follower  ef 
Chrisr.  Kiicher  (ap.  Bloomfleld,  Run.  Synop.)  teOs 
US  that  it  it  a  very  ancient  tradition  ihai  the  Ibief 
wat  not  converted  at  the  cross,  but  was  previously  im- 
bued with  a  knowledge  of  the  UcepeL  See  Kuinol, 
Macknight,  etc ;  and  the  monographs  died  by  TolU- 
ding.  Index  ProgTaBuaatum,  p.  68 ;  Hase,  LAm  Jot, 
p,212. 

ThiBh  en'!!;.  jar«.-  SepL,iiw.ic;Tulg./™irr), 
properly  the  pan  of  the  bodyfromthelegstotbe  tnuA, 
of  men,  quadrupeds,  etc(Uen.ixxii,  26,  81, 32;  Jvlg. 
iii,  16,  II ;  Psa.  xtv,  3 ;  Cant,  iii,  S),  occurs  in  seven) 
phrases  of  special  ugniQrance  in  the  llible. 

1.  Pulling  Iht  iand  mdtr  Ike  tkigM  appears  to  hare 
been  a  very  ancient  custom,  upon  occasiuu  of  taking  aa 
oalb  to  any  one.  Abraham  required  this  of  the  oUtil 
servant  nf  hia  house,  when  he  made  him  swear  that  he 
would  not  uke  a  wife  for  Isaac  of^be  daugbteis  of  ita 
Canaanites  (Gen.  xxiv,  2-9).  Jacob  required  it  of  In 
son  Joseph,  when  he  bound  him  by  oath  not  to  bgiy 
him  in  Egipt,  but  with  his  fathen  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan (xlvii,  29-31).     The  origin,  form,  and  import  of 

Aben-Eira  say^  "  It  appeara  to  me  that  it  was  the  c*» 


THIGH  31 

lorn  in  ihu  igc  fur  a  KFraol  to  place  bia  hand  on  hia 
nixa'i  [faigh,  at  the  conimaiicl  of  iba  UtUr,  lo  ahoti 
ihal  Im  CMiaiilrred  himaelf  tubjcclla,  anduiideTtoolc,  hii 
nustrr'i  bidding ;  aiid  aucb  ia  at  preaent  the  cuatoin  in 
India."  GrotiuB  thinka  that,  u  the  sword  waa  worn 
apoa  the  thigh  (conip.Judg.iii,  16,  31;  Pat.  xIt,  S; 
Caul,  iii,  S),  Ihii  cualDm  waa  aa  much  aa  to  aay,  U  1 
filiirir,  kill  mr.  Not  a  few  commenuton,  aucient  and 
aeiaa,  explain  it  of  laying  the  biaJ  un  or  near  tlie 
Ktio  dmnwviiniu,  to  protHt  by  that  lolemn  covenant 
of  God,  whcreuf  circumcision  ww  the  badge  and  type, 
ID  ibe  Abrahamic  family.  So  R.  Eleaiar  aai-a,  "  Before 
ihtgiringof  thelaw,  the  anrient  falhen  awore  by  the 
an-mant  of  circumciaion"  (/Hike,  c.49).  The  Targum 
of  Jonathan  ben-Uniet  eiplaina  it  ^r.binn  ni^ias, 
■-is  ■wxione  cIrcumciaiDnis  meaj"  the  Jenudem  Tar- 
giB.'n'^  "1T>  ninr',''subfemo«f«Bderiainei"  Dr. 
Advs  Clarke  adopts  the  former  of  tbeae  two  explana- 
T,S).  Thii  inierpreistinn 
ly  aucb  a*  is  suppoaed  by 
HOH  ID  attend  the  use  of  the  word  with  tcgsid  to  the 
(fel  dT  the  aaler  of  Jtalouig  (Numb,  v,  31,  33,  37). 
Btchan  adduen  many  aimitar  instances  [Bitrot.  If,  v, 
U).  We  nuy  also  refer  to  the  margin  or  Heb.  of  Gen. 
ilri,M:  Exoil.  i,&;  Judg.  vjil,  30.  No  further  allusion 
ID  Ibi)  cemnany  in  taking  an  oath  occun  in  Scripture, 

(Sb  HA  or  margin  of  1  Chnn.  xiti.'[,34,  snd  "giring 
tlKh«id,''iChron.ixx,8;  Jer.  1,15;  Eaek.  xrii,  18.) 
SseOATB. 

1  Oor  tramlalion  states  that  "  Iht  koUme  of  Jaeob't 
difl  WIS  out  of  joint  by  the  touch  of  the  angel  who 
wmtlad  with  him"  (Geii.  iixU,  25),  Some,  however, 
fnla  lo  lender  SPv?i  ""  iprainrd  or  wraicierf,  and 
sddan  Jer.  vi,  8;  Erek.  xxiii,  17, 18.  The  Sept.  ren- 
der* il  ini  irafir^n  to  rKarat  rou  fiqpuv ;  the  Yu)g. 

■Kb  wiiH  belter  suits  ver.  31,  where  we  find  Jacob 
Hufitg  on  his  ihigh ;  see  Geseniua  on  ibx.  The  cus- 
lom  of  Jacob's  ileacendatits,  lounded  upon  Ibia  incident 
il  lecordrd  in  ver.  B2,  which  has  been  thus  translateil 
'Tbcnfuie  the  children  of  Iirsel  eat  not  of  the  nervi 
Nishe,  which  is  upon  the  hollow  of  the  thigh,  unto  ihu 
dsT:  because  he  struck  the  hollow  of  Jacob's  thigh,  or 
ib«DcneNBsbe(3ept.T-Ai'ivpD>-,Vule.wrTU).  Th( 
Ires  derivation  of  tbe  word  ni33  is  considered  by  Dr 
Fnni,  in  his  CaaeontaiKt,  In  be  atitl  a  secret ;  hut,  along 
with  Geseniut,  be  understands  tbe  nerve  itself  lo  be  ihi 
wUufK  nerrr,  which  proceeds  from  the  hip  to  the  an- 
cle. Thia  fier^-e  is  still  ex tracteil  from  the  hinder  litobi 
by  tbs  Jew*  in  EngUnd,  and  in  other  countriea  wheri 
pivpetly  qualified  persons  are  appointed  to  remove  il 
(Vns  frutaiatian,  etc,  by  Che  Kev.  D.  A.  De  Sola,  p. 

my 

a.  (pid,  tWt)  The  phrase  "  liip  and  Ihigk"  occun 
is  Judg.  Kv,  8,  in  the  account  of  Samson's  staughlci  ol 
lW  Hhilininea.     Geseniua  translates  Vv  in  this  psssagt 


-be  ante  them  aU."  The  Cbaldae  paraphnst  inter- 
sac  natiag  on  their  legs  (aa  the  wonl  pilS  should  be 
nadned),  tbe  other  on  their  thighs,  as  they  sst  on  their 
tsna.'  Others  understand  that  he  smote  thetn  both 
sa  Ibe  l^ts  and  thigha  Some  give  another  interpreta- 
tion: tmitiii^  oM  tht  thigh  denoteB  penitence  (Jer.  xixi, 
1>),  grief,  and  Dtooming  (Eiek.  xii,  13). 

A  lew  misiraniilalians  occur.  The  word  "  thiKh" 
•liDidd  have  been  translated  "leg"  in  laa.  xlvii,  3,  pi^, 
■riffiot,  iTvni,  In  Cant,  vii,  I,  "The  joints  or  thy 
ibighi,*  etc,  the  true  meaning  is  "the  cHKrure  i/ ihg 
fciss  (L  e.  tbe  drawers,  trouaers)  is  like  jewelry."  Lady 
Wunlry  Uontagu  describes  this  snide  of  female  altire 
<•  '  eoaptwd  of  thin  rosa-oolored  damask,  brocaded  » i  t  li 
'3»afonrr(Litiert,\\,ii:  see  Hsrmer,0«MDm™'« 
X— «• 


II  THILO 

Sang,  p.  110).  Cocceius,  Buxtacf,  Hercenis,  and  Juaiua 
all  adopt  this  explanation.  In  Rev.  xix,  IS  it  is  said 
'-  the  Word  of  Cod  (ver.  13)  hsth  on  his  vesture  atid  on 
hi*  Oiigh  a  namt  lerillat,  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of 
lords."  Schleusner  thinka  Ihe  name  waa  not  written 
upon  the  thigli,  but  upon  the  eword.  Uontfaucon  give* 
an  account  of  several  images  of  warriora  having  iiiacrip* 
tinns  oa  tht  Ihighi  (Atiliqaili  JCxpliquir,  III,  ii,  iiM, 
3C9;  Grupter,  ill,  1489;  and  Zomii  Ojiutaila  S.  S.  ii, 
759). 

Thllo,  JoHbud  Karl,  a  theobgian  nf  Halle,  waa 
bom  at  Ungensalza,  iuThuringia,  Nov.  38, 1791.  While 
a  aludeiit  he  began  to  distiuguii^  himself  by  auperior 
philological  attainment).  He  completed  his  stiuliea  at 
LcipMc  and  Halle,  and  in  181J  obtained  the  post  of  col- 
laborator in  tbe  Latin  school  of  the  Orphanage  at  Halle, 
and  subsequently  that  of  teacher  in  the  Royal  Pedagn- 
gium.  He  remained  in  the  latter  station  Ave  yean,  hut 
joined  to  its  duties  those  of  theological  tutor  in  the  uni- 
venity,  where  he  began  to  deliver  lectures  on  exegeti- 
csl  and  patristicsl  suhjecls  in  1819.  In  IS30  he  visited 
Paria  and  Oxford  in  the  company  of  Geseniua,  and  on 
hia  return  aaeisted  Knapp,  who  afterwatds  became  hia  fa- 
ther-in-law, in  the  conduct  of  the  Theological  Seminary. 
In  1833  he  waa  made  extraordiniry,  and  in  1825  ordina- 
ry, prufeasar  of  theology.  In  1833  he  received  the  title 
of  coDsisIoiial  councillor,  and  in  1840  tbe  badge  of  Ihe 
Order  of  the  Red  Eagle.  Ke  waa  a  member  of  the  Or* 
del  of  Freeoiaaona,  and  temporarily  of  Ihe  direction  of 
Francke's  institntta.  The  lectures  of  Tbilo  extended 
into  the  fields  of  tbe  hiatory  of  doctrines  and  of  the 
Church,  and  into  symbolics  and  palristics.  They  wen 
characterized  by  Iboroughness  of  treatment  and  fulness 
of  detail  sa  welt  aa  aimplicity  of  aiyle;  and  they  came 
in  time  to  be  recognised  and  valued  by  tbe  entire  unt- 
veisity.  The  progress  of  his  researches  led  him  from 
Ihe  study  ofclasucal  antiquity  and  the  Greek  philoao- 
phert  to  the  antiquity  of  tbe  Church,  the  Neo-Platon- 
iau,  and  I  he  Greek  fathers.  Ue  waa  also  led  to  give  at- 
tention to  the  almost  uncultivated  field  of  the  New- 
TesL  Apocrypha.  In  18-23  he  published  ^  c>a  j'f.  TXma 
ApoMtoli,  etc  Tbe  fruit  or  subsequent  labors  waa  ac- 
cidentally lou  in  1838,aalhat  tbe  appearance  of  the  first 
volume  of  his  CoJei  Apoayphia  A'.  r.,etc  was  delsyed 
until  1833.  This  volume,  containing  the  Apocryphal 
g^spel^  proved  the  greatest  lilerari-  pmduction  of  his 
life.  His  plsna  for  the  completion'  of  the  series  were 
only  partially  executed.  In  1838  appealed  A  eta  ApotloL 
Prlri  n  Piiuli,  etc -.—in  1840,  .-(cdi  ApailaL  Andme  rt 
.VaOhia,  flc-.—ind  in  IMi,  Fnigm.  Adaam  S.Joaanii, 
etc  Thllo  also  furnished  a  contribution  to  the  literature 
Dfthe  Old-Test.  Apocrypha  in  Ihe  memorial  written  for 
Knapp's  Jubilee  in  1835,  Sprcimn  ExtrcO.  Criiicamm 
ia  Sap,  BalommtU  (HalLe,  1835).  Various  dissertations 
display  his  acquaintance  with  the  Meo-Plalonisls  and 
the  Church  writers  wbo  followed  in  their  atepa;  e.  g. 
Dt  Colo  Empyrro  CoBUHoUiUiimrM  III  (1839  sq.):- 


.Ifii^  el  Slrlla  Quattiom  (I8S4)  ■.—C>immf«t.  in  Sywiii 
llsmnumlUmitq.).  He  wsslongemployedonacum- 
pleteedition  ofthe  hymns  of  Synesius.  but  did  not  llnisb 
the  undertaking.  This  waa  also  the  case  with  his  last 
Important  work,  tbe  Sibliolhrca  Patram  Grot.  DogmaA 
ea,*  single  volnme,coptaining5. 'IfAtmaniOpeni  liog. 
maliea  Stketa,  after  the  text  of  Honlfauoon,  being  ihe 
extent  lo  which  it  was  published.  Thilo  was  simply  ■ 
student  and  an  inquirer.  He  connected  himself  with 
none  of  the  theological  parties  in  the  Church,  beeanse 

them  all  Nor  did  he  found  any  school,  becsuse  he  was 
unable  to  regard  hia  own  mind  aa  fully  formed.  He 
gave  himself  simply  to  the  nork  uf  inquiry,  and  became, 
in  consequence,  one  of  the  most  widely  and  accurately 
learned  men  of  the  modem  Church  within  the  llrid  of 
his  own  chosen  labors.  He  was,  withal,  a  devout  lover 
of  the  Bible,  a  moat  genial  associate  in  Ihe  IHendly  cir- 
cle, uid  a  profoundly  io'erested  qbaerver  of  all  impor- 


THIRDS  3( 

UntCTCnu.    UediedHar  17,  18&S.    Drfuider'*  du- I 

couree  dcliTend  at  ihe  funenl  ofThilo  wu  publiihed  ■(  I 
HiUe  ia  1858 1  4iid  a  biieC  characltaiialion  of  Tbilo  wu  , 
given  by  Mei«r  in  Itae  Hailudier  Seklvmikalalog  (1858-  , 
M)i  and  (nothcr  in  Ciinr(T^-£ent<>ii  it  (ifgmparl 
(ltMl),ii',2,b3rHeukt    SceHeiiog,K(oi-i;»fyitop.e.v, 

Thilo,  VPllhelni,  >  Gcraun  leuher,  wu  born  )D 
~  the  yeir  1801,  and  died  Feb.  17, 1870,  at  Berlin.  For 
a  number  or  yean  lie  UoDd  at  the  head  of  the  Berlin 
seminary  for  the  education  of  teacherv,  and  publiahed, 
Sptner  uU  KalnJin  {Bttiia,  \»V>)i— Dot  gaMUcht  Lied 
n  (fn-  rra-yrl.  Voltue/iole  DtvfdiUnidt  (ilrid.  1843;  Sd 
ed.  1865)  -.—iMdwig  IMniotd  naei  Ldn  umd  IXcben 
{2aed.lSae^:—LiidamilialiluabeUlGr^cimafAv!arz- 
bars-ltudaUladl.  Em  Batrag  rur  Grtchichtt  iergeitll 
nieAlaag  im  17.  JiiArAwidert  (ibid.  1855)  -^MtlfaichHion 
im  Diaute  m  ititigtr  SchrTfl  (ibid.  1860)  :—PraiMtitdui 
Viiltt$chiiliBetm  nach  Geichidile  vttd  SMtittH  (ibid. 
1867).  See  Zucbold,  Bibl.nH>L  it.  1332;  Lilerariici/r 
Hmdicrittr  fir  doj  fait*oJ:  DotfAita<d,  1868,  p.  GG; 
1870,  p.  486.     Ca  P.) 

Thlm'nattaa  (Joah.  xix,  4S).    See  Tihnaii. 

Thlonvllle,  Councils  of  (Cmdiia  apad  Tktodo- 
Kit-nUam).  Thionville,  now  known  ai  Ditdemko/cm,  ia 
a  town  of  Germany,  in  Lorraine,  aituital  on  tbe  Uoaelle ; 
and  haa  belonged  in  micwHion  to  tbe  counu  of  Luxem- 
burg, to  Bitrgundy,  Auatria,  Spain,  and  Frauec  It  waa 
cededby  the  peace  ufMay  10, 1871,  to  Germany.  This 
town  hu  been  tbe  aeal  o(  three  eouncila. 

LHeld  in  822;  tbirly-lwo  biabopa  Leing  pnseni, 
among  whom  wen  AtUuphiuoTHayencc  and  Ebbo  at 
Rheima.  Four  or  five  articiea  wen  drawn  up  in  defenee 
of  ecdeuantical  perauna  and  properly,  liee  Uanu,  Con- 
cO.  vii,  15IS. 

IL  Held  in  Febiuaiy,  8SG ;  more  than  forty  Inahopi 
being  preaent.  All  xhe  proceedings  againit  Louia  le 
IMbonnaire  were  declared  lo  be  null  and  void,  and  he 
waa  conducted  to  the  cathedral  cliurcti  ofMeti,  ami  sol- 
emnly restored  to  his  rights  and  privilege*,  liiis  done, 
tbe  prelates  returned  to  Tbionville,  where  Agobard  of 
Lyons  and  Bernard  of  Vienne,  who  were  absent,  were 
•olemnly  deposed,  together  witb  Ebbo  of  Kheims,  who. 
being  present,  himself  consented  lo  the  sentence,  and 
icnounced  tbe  episcopsle.    See  Manai,  vii,  1696. 

HI.  Held  in  October,  844,  in  a  ploro  caUed  at  prca- 
enf'JuM"  (Judicium);  Dragon,  bishop  of  Metz,  pre- 
sided. In  Ibis  council  Lothaire,  Louia,  and  Cbarlee 
promiwd  lo  ohaerre  brotherly  concord  among  them- 
selves. Six  anidea  were  drawn  up,  which  the  princes 
promised  to  obaerve.  Tbey  are  exhorted,  among  other 
things,  V>  live  in  unity  and  brotherly  love;  Is  fill  with- 
out delay  Ihe  aeea  which,  owing  M  their  quamla, 

pmpriattog  to  themaelrea  the  property  of  the  Church, 


laronler.  The  fini  meniion  ufsnch  penona  is  in  ll^J, 
in  connection  with  the  AuRiiatixes.  though  this  order 
claims  that  it  was  eslablisbed  much  earlier.  There  are 
third  orders  of  nearly  all  the  principal  orders,  as  of  Do- 
minicans, Minims,  CianDcliles,  Trinitarians,  etc.  Their 
members  lake  the  vow  of  allegiance  to  the  roles  of  the 
order,  with  the  exception  of  thai  of  perpelual  chastity ; 
haie  direclon  and  superiors,  yet  live  in  the  world,  n>ar- 
ty,  and  carT)-  on  biiunesB.  Their  only  distinguishing 
loark  is  a  scapulary  and  leather  girdle,  but  these  are 
often  worn  under  their  ordinary  dress. 

Tblrds,  a  peculiar  arrsngemenl.  under  Mary  queen 
of  Scots,  for  the  support  of  the  I'rotesrani  clergy.  "The 
barnns,"  says  Knox,  "perceiving  that  the  Book  of  Da- 

ticles,  requiring  idolalry  to  be  suppresaed,  the  Kirk  lo 
be  planted  ulth  true  minialers,  attd  some  certain  provis- 
ion to  be  made  tor  them,  according  to  equity  aiid  con- 


)2         THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

adenoe^  .  .  .  Aiid  so  devised  they  that  the  kirkmen* 
(Ihe  former  clergy)  "  should  have  no  intromtsaiiHi  wilh 
Ihe  two  parts  of  their  benefices"  (that  i%  with  two 
thirds),  "  and  that  Ihe  third  part  should  be  lifieii  up  by 
such  men  aa  thereto  should  be  appointed,  for  such  uMt 
aa  in  the  acts  are  mote  fully  expreaaecL"  The  resall 
waathattwotliinlaDf  ihe  beneBcea  were  retained  by  Iht 
popish  clergy,  a    '  '  


The 


d  for  their  auppon,  aod 
Ihe  Burplua  was  to  become  a  part  of  the  revenue  of  tbe 
crown.  Thus  very  little  waa  left  toe  the  minister*  of 
the  Kirii. 

ThlrllraU,CoNKOP,D.D.,an  English  derity man  and 
historian,  waa  bom  at  Slepney,  Mtddleaex.  Fi  b.  11,1797. 
His  precocity  was  so  greal  Ihat  his  father  publiihrd  fur 
bim,  at  the  age  of  eleven,  a  volume  of  hi-  nirapwilBiiuv 
Priinln,  or  £unyi  imi  Fotmt  va  Vni-iuai  SttfaU 
(1809).  He  loidi  the  Craven  and  BeU  scluiUrships  at 
Trimly  College,  Cambridge,  1815;  graduated  as  senior 
chancellor's  medallist,  1818;  became  tutor  and  Itlki*; 
and  waa  caUeil  la  the  bar  in  18Se.  In  1828  he  entered 
the  Cimrch,  and  became  reclor  of  Kir1n--and 


nhe* 


I  examiner  fi>r  Ibe 


claincal  tripoa  at  Cambridge,  classical  e: 
University  of  London,  and  visitor  of  8l.  David's  College. 
Lampeter.  Ha  was  created  bishop  of  St.  David's  in 
1840,  which  oHce  he  resigned  in  June,  1874.  He  died 
July  37,  1875.  He  published  ■  number  of  senDooi, 
charg»,  letters,  addresses,  and  esosys,  which,  wiib  eth- 
er writings,  were  issued  under  Ibe  lille  nf  l.iienrf  sad 
Ttirotogical  ffmasu,  edited  by  canou  Perowoe  (Loiid. 
1875-6,3  vols.). 

Thlnt  (X^S.  li^)  is  a  painfid  nalnral  seuMli»a 
occauoned  by  Ihe  absence  of  moiiiteDing  liquor*  froro  tbe 
stomach.     As  this  seiisalioll  is  accompanied  by  vthe- 

a  moral  sense,  for  a  menial  desire.  a>  in  Jer.iiiSS,"  IVilb- 
bold  thy  throat  from  thirst;  bui  Ihou  aaidsi,  1  kiTcd 
strangers,  and  after  them  wiU  I  go;"  in  olher  wimh. 

indulgence."  Matt,  v,G,"  Blessed  are  ihev  who  iiuapt 
and  Ibiist  after  righteousness."  Psa.  slii'i,  3, "  Uv  ul 
ihintelhfotGud."  The  same  figure  is  empluyeil  ia  Ibe 
discnurse  of  our  Lord  with  the  woman  of  Sanuris. 
"Whosoever  drinkeib  of  the  water  which  I  ahsll  pt» 
htm  shall  never  thirst,"  an  allusion  which  the  wonun 
mistook  as  if  intended  of  natnial  water,  drawn  fn-ie 
siime  spring  possessing  peculiar  piopenie*  (John  iii,14). 
See  UuHOKR. 
Thirl?- niuB  AttiolflB.     See  Artk^uo,  Tub 

TlllKTV-.1iKll. 

Thirtj  Tears'  War,  Thi,  a  German  political  ami 

many.  Austria,  most  of  the  Catholic  prince*  of  Ger- 
many, and  Spain  were  engaged  on  one  side  thnrngbnol, 
but  against  different  antagonists. 

1.  Caaret  qfUU  ICar.—For  Ibe  infloeinea  which  M 
Id  this  struggle  we  must  look  back  lo  tbe  16(h  ccnlatv, 
when  Germany  waa  divided  into  iwu  parties  br  ibt 
Kelormation.  Under  Maurice  of  Saxony,  ProteitaDlinii 
became  triumphant,  and  by  lh«  Peace  of  Aiigsburg 
(1556)  each  Sule  was  allowed  to  prescribe  tbe  Suim  of 
worship  within  ita  bounds,  and  subjecla  were  slloved  to 
move  finm  those  stales  where  their  wonbip  waa  p»- 
hibited  to  thoee  in  which  it  wu  not.  There  still  re- 
mained loany  unsettled  questions  which  provoked  strile. 
To  guard  ogaiuot  Ihe  future  appropriation  of  prelaan 
by  l*rotesiants,  the  Catholic  party,  against  Ihe  pnt?^ 
of  the  Lutheran  memhen  of  the  diet,  inserted  an  articiF 
by  which  all  prelates  who  should  Ihenafter  abjure  Ca- 
tholicism were  to  forfeit  their  benefices.  Another  mat- 
ter of  dispute  was  Ihe  denre  lo  seeora  li»  ProlealaiiU 
the  right  of  worship  in  Catholic  slatea.  The  Csllx-lia 
refused  to  admit  such  an  artic^  and  all  lhat  coahl  bs 


THIRTY  YEAliS'  WAR  3f 

fiijiti  vB  ■  penoiul  decluatioa  u>  thii  effect  Troro 
i\»  uspenn'*  brotber,  Feidinuid,  who  preHded  over  Ihe 
did  U  ADgabDrg.  Under  the  le'tgn  of  Hiiimilian 
(IJtl-76)  thvlesUnliim  spread  iu  BobemU,  Ilungan', 
tod  AusUil  propel;  but  under  his  Micceuur,  Rudolf  II 
(li:6-161i),  ibere  iraa  ■  reaction.  Swayed  by  ibe  J«- 
diu  uid  the  eaurt  of  Spain,  he  proceeded  M  nuriet,  aud 
na  10  abolUh,  fmCeuanc  woiahip. 

^  Fait  Stage  of  tkt  Wur.— Thoroughly  arouaed,  the 
PnteaUnt  princa  formni  the  Evangelical  Union  at  An- 
bam,  in  FrancoflU,  May  4, 1608,  under  Ihe  lead  of  (he 
riMofpalaline,  Frederick  IV.  The  rival  union  of  the 
Callulie  paweia,  under  the  leadership  oT  the  duke  uT 
Binri«,r<iUowed,Julr  II,  1G09.  Tha  Bohentiana  had 
fomd  rnm  Kudnlf  ail  edict  oT  toleralion  {Majatatt- 
inrf),ialy  11, 1609,  which  guaianleed  Ihem  religtoua 
UcRy;  but  hii  aucDeaaor,  Halthiaa,  having  sigiieil  it 
upu  hii  aooeiuun,  appointeil  bia  connn  Ferdinand  uf 
iHnia  his  heii.     Ferdtnaud,  educated  by  the  Jewiu, 

hii  kingilam;  aud  inunediately  upon  hia  acceaiion,  in 
I6li,  peneoitions  begao.  Two  ProteatanI  churebw,  in 
KliwirKrabra  and  Braunau,  havii^  been  pulled  down, 
a  lawHiii  wai  insiuited,  and  decided  in  Tavor  of  the 
Uonaa  Catbolie  authotitiea.  An  appeal  to  the  emper- 
or inlr  elicited  ■  barah  reply,  which  atouaed  the  Prot- 
eiuiiti,  who,  under  Ibe  leademhip  of  count  Thuni,pen- 
ttrued  into  the  Cattle  of  Prague  (Hay  23, 1618),  threw 
tbc  iioptfial  couDciUon  out  uf  the  window,  and  oigau- 
iisl  t  general  riaing.  Tbey  routed  the  imperial  troopa, 
and  irtuaUy  baiee«l  the  emperarin  Tienna.  Frederick, 
wbow  Hole  dliet  were  Bohemiaiia,  Uaraviani,  Huti^a- 
riam,  and  a  PiednMBteae  contingent  of  8000,  waa  op- 
pwd  bv  a  well-appoinled  artny  o(  30,000  under  duke 
Naiimi'lian,  and  toully  routed  at  Weiaenberg,  Not.  S, 
IGJD.  The  Riiliiafy  operationa  at  count  Manafeld  and 
Ckriaian  of  Bmnawick,  and  (he  fureed  ceaaion  of  large 
paumt  iif  Hnngarr  and  TraiuyWania  to  Bethlem  Ga- 
bsr.did  orach  lo  Hjaalize  the  euceea*  of  the  aotagoniatic 
panin. 

i.  Strotd  Stage  of  Ike  Wur^-The  fearful  tyranny  of 
Fsdinand  orcr  all  the  PmteManta  in  hia  dotniniona, 
Hmgatj  excepted,  drovo  them  to  deipair,  and  pro- 
fenged  the  war.  ChriMian  IT  of  Denmarii,  amarting 
under  aome  injuriea  inllined  upon  him  by  the  emperar, 
andaidBl  by  a  Dritiah  aubaidy.came  (othe  relief  of  hia 

tiiwp^  vtd  Oiriaiian  of  Bramwick  and  Hanafeld  reap- 
peared in  Ibe  field.  In  April,  IftH,  Hanafeld'a  army 
wai  nnrly  annihilated  by  Wallenatein  at  Deaaau,  while 
ia  AagniL  Tilly  orerwhelnied  tbe  king  of  Denmark  at 
Laiier.  Thia  victory  was  followed  up  by  Wallenaceiii, 
wbo  drove  Tbe  Danea  into  Jniland  and  extended  hia  o)^ 
eralin  to  the  Baltic  Chrixian  IV  waa  compelled  by 
ibehacc  <K  Lubeck,  Nay  ii,  1029,  tu  withdraw  al(o- 
plber  from  the  contest.  Here,  again,  the  wai  might 
hare  ended;  but  Ferdinand,  oii  Hareb  6, 1SZ9,  issued 
(he  EiHn  of  Btalitution,  ordering  that  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal Huus  aeenlnfzed  nnce  1569  shoidd  be  relumed  to 
tht  Chorch,  and  all  immeiliate  eeea  held  by  I'rMeaianta 
irsarftrttd  (u  Koman  Caihnlie  prelate*.  Brandenburg, 
Kaiony,  Heaae,  Magdeburg,  and  other  atales  proCeated, 
,  baa  tbe  edict  was  eatiied  out  by  force  in  all  the  impe- 
rial citiea;  and  Tilly  was  nnlered  to  move  northward 

•m  (instaTu*  Adotplius  came  to  the  rescue  of  German 
httManlwn,  and  Ihnt  began  tbe 

i.  Tkird  aiiist  k/Uu  ITiir.— Guatavua  landed  en  (he 
idaBd(i(Uaedoni,iu  June,  IflSO,  and  drove  away  the  im- 
pnial  garriaona  from  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg,  where 
be  niiMlated  (he  expeUed  prineca.  He  then  formni 
alliaBcn  with  Heaae,  .Saae-Weinar,  Magdeburg,  and 
Iraaei:  and  was  afterwirdi  Joined  b)'  the  etectora  of 
Bnndiobarg  wkI  Saxony.  With  these  last  alliea  he 
>'<i>>l  battle  with  Tilly  at  BnUenfeld,  Sept.  17,  1631, 
vl  aitriv  annihilated  his  army.  Defeating  lllly  the 
"-lAflm,  April  lf>>  1SS1>  oo  tba  Lech,  Guatavm  and 


Frederick  V  entered  Munich.  Wallenatein  waa  recalled. 
and,  after  a  few  months'  wailing,  the  battle  of  LUMen 
fought,  Nov.  16,  IG39,  in  which  Gusuvua  fell,  but 


a   dereal 


The 


of  Glial 


Adolphus  was  a  severe  blow  lu  the  I'luteatanls,  though 
the  genius  and  indefatigable  teal  of  his  chancellor.  Ox- 
enitiema,  and  the  superior  ability  of  the  Swedish  gen> 
erala,  preaeiTed  the  advantages  they  had  gained,  till 
tbe  cruabing  clefeat  of  Bernard  uf  Weimar  at  Nordling- 
en,  Sept.  A,  1634,  restored  to  (he  emperor  a  preponder- 
ating influence  in  Ceimany.  Saxony  now  made  peace 
at  Prague,  Hay  BO,  16So,  oblaiiiiiig  auch  aatisTactory 
(erms  for  tbe  LutheranM  that  [he  treaty  was,  within 
three  months,  adhered  to  by  all  (he  princes  of  that  sect. 
Tbe  Calv(ui<ds  were  left  to  tbeir  fate.  8we<1en,  how- 
ever, rcaolvi'd  (n  onntiniie  (he  atruggle,  and  Oxenalier- 
na  propitiated  Richelieu  by  giving  him  the  ilirection  of 
(tie  war.  Bailee  led  the  Swedes  into  Germany,  and  woo 
the  great  battle  of  Wiltslock,  Sept.  S4, 1636.  Upon  hia 
death,  iu  1641,  he  waa  succeeded  by  Torstensson,  who 
made  the  Swedish  arms  a  (ernu  throughout  Germany. 
l^iide  and  Turenne  led  the  French  to  victory  over  (be 

serted  by  all  his  allies  except  the  duke  uf  Bavaria, 
whose  territories  were  already  mostly  iu  (be  bands  of 
Turenne  and  WrangeL  Prelimiiisriea  had  been  ar- 
ranged for  negotialion*  as  early  as  1S4I,  but  it  waa  not 
until  UcL  it,  1648,  thai  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was 
conchided  at  HUnster, 

6.  RttvUt  of  ike  Wur,— These,  ecclesiastically  con- 
sidered, were  that  the  poneasioit  of  the  ecclesiastical 
beoeficeawaaplacedon  theliasisof  Jan.1, 1634;  and  in 
tiie  caae  of  the  Palatinate,  Baden,  Uurlach,  and  Wur- 
lembecg,  the  Catholics  were  obliged  to  accept  1618  as 

tniduced  into  Germany.  In  ill  religious  questions  tbe 
Protestants  secured  an  equality  with  tbe  Cathnlica, 
and  gained  equal  weight  in  the  diet  aud  high  courts  of 
the  unpire.  Tbe  Peace  of  Westphalia  (erminated  the 
religious  wan  of  Europe,  and  thus  became  an  important 
landmark  in  its  history.     See  WxaTPHAi,[A.  Pk*ce  or. 

For  literature  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  see  Cust,  Litet 
oflkt  Warriort  oflhe  Thirty  Yrari  Wor  (l-oiid.  1865) ; 
Uanke,  CrsolicAK  WaUrtutiini  {LeifM.  18(>9);  Stieve, 
t'rjpruiiji  Jri  dinetigjiiki-ignt  Kiiri/es  (Jlunich,  1876), 
roL  i;  and  similar  skelchea  bv  Mviizel  (Urislau,  1835- 
39,8  vols.),Flatbe  (1840),  ileb-ld  (  1840),  BarthoM 
(l»4ij,  Hedman  (I8&1),  Klopp  (I8CI),  Hausser  (IS62), 
Giodely  (IVgue,  \VSaj,  Gsrdiier  (loaA.  1874). 

Thia'be  (eiv^q  v.  r.  ei/Jij),  a  name  finind  onlv  Id 
Tob.  i,  2,  as  that  of  a  city  of  Nsphlali  fn.m  which  To- 
bit's  ancestor  hadl)een  carried  captive  by  the  An^'riana. 

is  maintained  by  some  itilerpre(en(Htller,Odusi.  p.^GG, 
947 ;  Relsnd,  Paiail.  p.  108A)  (o  be  the  place  which  hsd 
the  glory  of  giving  birth  (o  Elijah  (q.  v.)  (he  TiMjUe^ 
This,  however,  is,  at  tbe  beat,  very  questionable,  and 
derives  it*  main  support  from  the  fad  that  tbe  word 
emplnyed  in  1  Kings  xvii,  I  to  deiiule  (he  relation  of 
Elijah  to  Gilead,  if  pointal  as  it  now  stands  in  ilic  re- 
ceived Hebrew  text,  signifies  that  he  was  not  a  native 
of  (rilead,  but  merely  a  resident  there,  aitd  came  origi- 
nally from  a  different  and  foreign  ilixirict.  But  it  ia 
also  poraible  (o  point  the  word  so  (hat  (be  sen(ence  shall 
mean  "from  Tiahbi  of  GUead,"  in  which  case  all  rela- 
tion between  tbe  great  prophet  and  Thisbe  uT  Kaphtali 
at  once  falls  (o  the  grouiuL  There  is,  however,  a  truly 
sii^gulsr  vsriatjoo  in  (he  (eats  of  (he  jiaBeage  in  Titbit, 
a  i-lsiioe  at  which  (on  tbe  follnwinu  page)  will  show 
hoii  haiardoua  it  is  (a  base  any  deliiiiie  lupngraphical 

Assuming  that  Thiibe,  and  not  Thihr,  is  the  correct 
reading  of  tbe  name,  it  has  been  conjectured  (apparent- 
ly for  the  first  (ime  by  Keit,  Comm.  ibtr  die  KUnigr,  ^ 
247)  that  it  originated  in  an  einineouB  rendering  of  (lie 
Hebrew  word  ^cni^  which  word,  in  fact,  occurs  in  tb« 


I  KfTtalalx  wbLchl    Out  of  Itaelrlba  Bud 

..  _.  Ibe  rlEbi  hiodicltf     of    Hcphthill 

sf  lh>t  cll)'  wbicb  ie|>vtaJch  la  In  the  npper  ol 

ulled  proiwrlT  Neph-.pnru  ofOtKlFe  ibiive  ih 

■'--"  In  OilDm  nboie  NuHon,  bchtnd  the  >l 

.*    [Mara,  or  Ke-  mad  wbkh   IfHd*  tci 

nf  Nephlhall  in  Ihe   vni,  hndiift  nn 

Ih,  Jndk'.  It,  a.1     K^e  I*ft  hiiud  lbs  cltr 

.  otBephet. 

I.  F.  |>nil>nblT 

H»i..r.  I 

Hebiev  venion  or  tbe  pasuge,  ind  may  be  poioled  ii 
two  waya,  ao  u  (o  meu  either  "  froni  the  inhalNUni 
of,"  or  "  from  Tishbi,"  i.  e.  Thbbe.  The  reverw  luggei 
tion,  in  rcBpect  of  the  ume  word  in  1  Kiiigt  xrii,  1,  b> 
■bo  been  madt.  Sea  Tibhbitk.  BuI  this,  though  rtr 
ingenioni,  and  quiK  irithin  the  bounda  of  poaaibility,  i 
■t  present  ■  mere  conjecture,  since  nniie  of  the  text 
suppuFt  il,  and  there  is  no  other  evideuix  in  its  fsTor. 
No  name  resembling  Thiabe  or  Ttaibe  hu  been  ye 
encountered  in  the  neigliborhood  of  Redet 


r  Neoli-ol 


n  ihe  right  of  Pho- 


e  that  the  i 


pxla — equalled  in 
tbe  sacred  boaka  only  by  the  well-known  description  of 
tbe  position  of  Shibh  in  Judg.  ixi,  19 — can  be  mere  in- 

Tblatla  ii  iba  rendering,  in  Ihe  A.T^  oftwo  Heb. 

■nd  me  (ir.  word:  1. 'n^^.din'ififr,  any  thonir  pbtut, 
e^iecially  of  the  weed-like  aort ;  always  collectively  in 
panllelism  with  y^p,  t&i,  "thorn"  (Gen.  iii,  18;  Hoa. 
X,  8);  2,  ntn,  dtOUci,  a  stronger  or  iaot-liit  thorny 
busb  (SKingsxir,  9;  2  Cbron.  xxv,  18-,  JobxxKt,40i 
eksewhtre  "thorn,"  etc.))  8.  TpifiaXof,  a  lArrr-pnmffid 
thom,  tbe  caltrop  (Matt,  vii,  16;  •■  brier,"  Hel^  vi,  8). 
The  tendency  of  all  vegetation  in  Paleatine  la  nin  into 

trees,  ia  ■  aubjeet  of  remark  to  all  iravellen  (see  Hack- 
elt,  lOuri.  of  Script,  p.  IS6).  The  thistle  (a  commnn 
name  for  various  genera,  especially  Cardmut  ciriiam, 
etc.)  grows  abandanilT  in  most  counlrica,  and  ia  a  amall 
plant;  but  in  the  warm  airofPalesIine, and  in  rich  aoils 
like  the  plain  of  Esdiaekm,  Ihe  lsrp:e  and  luxuriant 
Ihiatle  will  overtop  the  mounted  horaeman.  On  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  Rama,  Hasselquist  {Trawb,  p. 
280)  found  six  different  sorts;  and  in  the  snuih  of  Jo- 
dna,  in  the  conne  of  one  aftemoon,  Heasn.  H'ChcTne 


Onli>ftheclljorBltall 
Is  on  the  ri^t 
>rEdisac.  a  ci^Ijof 

L^d^bi"^ 

leads  to  the  wfal 

lerinrRaphatD. 

lAnotherlf  8.  re*(1>«t- 
briel.  CTdlsCnf,  and  Ra- 
phalm,  Kir  BIhtl,  Edio^, 
nnd  Bj  phi  ill.] ^^ 

and  BoTtar  counted  ten  or  eleven  species.  Hiss  Bran- 
furt  speaks  of  giant  thistles  of  the  height  of  a  nsn  on 
biiraeback,  which  she  saw  near  the  niins  of  Felhaia 
iKffgptim  Srp.  and  Syria*  Skriaa,  ii,  Ah.  CO).  "Tbe 
nHist  common  speciee  of  this  weed  in  Palestine  aie,  fin- 
tubatii  Syriueo,  •  tall  Sowering  pink  thislie  with  pow- 
erful spines  i  Soofymta  maetilalwi.  a  very  noxious  plant, 
with  a  bright-orange  flower;  and  Carthtwait  oryrotttta^ 
another  yellow-ftowering  tb ialle,  whose  formidable  ^iia«s 
inflict  irritating  wounda,  like  tbe  aling  of  a  poiaaiHiaB 
insect" (Trisliam, Nal. Hit. oftke Btbir, p.iH aq.).   See 

TUven,  Stkod  of,  was  held  by  NieraeK,  the  BrM 
bishop,  or  calliolieiii,  of  the  Armenian  Church,  in  A.D. 
696.  It  waa  calleil  chrongh  the  influence  of  the  Penin 
nilet  Cbonoes,  who  ileured  the  aeparaiinn  of  his  Chris- 
tian mbjecta  from  the  Chrisiiana  of  the  Roman  empire. 
At  the  tynod  Ihe  Uonophytile  ayatem  waa  confiratd, 
and  the  anathema  pronounced  on  the  ChalcedooiiD 
council.     See  Keander,  llitl.  o/lit  Cinrdi.  i.  5SS. 

Tbolnck,  FRiioiKicn  At'otisr  GorriiEi 


■t  Breslau,  March  BO,  1 


.  ofGert 

r9,  of  humble  | 


He 


AiaUaD  Thistle  (OtrdHw  A  raMnu}. 


pate  HI  age. 
eonlinned  at  acbool  till  twelve  rears  orage.whea  M 
was  set  to  learn  bis  father's  trade,  which  was  that  of  a 
goldsmith.  It  is  said  that  be  had  till  laie  year*  a  ring 
which  he  himself  had  made.  Still  he  hatnl  tbe  irwie 
so  much  that  he  determined  to  get  back  to  study.  He 
soon  fhuDd  bia  way  id  the  gymnasium,  fn>B  which  be 
graduated  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  H'a  diligence  was  sa 
great  that  he  almost  destroyed  bis  sight,  au  ihaialiiBiea 
be  has  been  on  the  verge  of  blindneaa.  For  a  while  be 
lemaincd  at  ibe  Univetiily  of  Breslau,  hut  afterwardi 
went  In  Berlin.  In  some  way  or  other  a  laite  foi  Orien- 
tal literature  waa  awakened  in  him,  and  he  mughi  fna 
Prof.  Koseganen  (then  of  Ureifswslde,  hat  from  1817 
ull  lgS4  prolnsor  at  Jena),  who  was  a  gnat  Orimtal 
aehnlar.  the  raeana  to  eatry  on  stich  iiudin.  Pielsie 
von  DielE,  another  distinguished  Oricnialisi,  took  such 
an  interest  in  him  as  to  adopt  him  as  hia  son ;  and  when 
the  prelate  died.  Von  Allenitein  eecured  for  him  all  seed- 
ful  suppon.  He  wenl  soon  after  to  Jena,  where  he  Mad- 
ied  under  his  benefaclor,  Kosegarten,  and  gradaated  as 
rlnclur  of  philosophy.  He  alwayi  looked  back  upon 
these  Oriental  atadiea  with  delight,  and  said  on  l)rt.  1, 
1870  (the  evening  before  Ihe  fil\ielh  annivenat?'  of  his 
■ppDintment  asptofesaor),  in  answer  to  a  congratiilaiory 
aililrcBs  fiom  Jena, "  You  may  be  assured,  my  friendi, 
that  when  1  look  hack  apon  these  atadies.  it  is  not  with 
feelinga  like  those  with  which  one  reciillecls  a  fursakra 
witb  those  felt  towards  one  that  still  in- 

ne,  calls  up  a  gnieful  nmembranee  uf 
n  of  Jena,  who  *o  lovingly  encoangtd 
on  in  tbe  path  of  these  studjea."  The- 
progress  in  Oriental  lore  is  proved  by  three  wnrka 
wmcD  he  published,  two  of  which  are  leimed  ptodM- 
tions.  The  first  was  written  in  lt<jl,  from  Turkish, 
Persian,  and  Arabic  MSS..  and  entitled  SnjiimMi  tin 
Tktoiopkia  PerKimt  PaMititlioi.^am  t  MSS.  £i- 
Hinlirea  Rrgia  BrreHatiua  Ftrncii,  A  raHrii,  Ttrririi 
tmil  d  iltiatrairil  (Beiolinl  IBil).  The  eeamd  WM 
more  popular,  and  appeared  in  182S  with  the  title  Ja 
Anikotogji  of  Ihe  Orintal  Hyitic  Formi.  nil  am  latn- 
ductim  tm  Uu  Uyilia  GeatTaUs,atid  lit  Ealtn  m  Far- 


love,  I 


Prof.  Koaegai 


THOLtrCK  S( 

Halar.    Tbe  tliiidortfaeMinirki  ■ppearcd  in  I8!fl,and 

wmmt  of  letiuing—Sptealaiiau  of  tie  L/Jter  Oritnlal- 
Ui  rapiTtiitg  At  Uoclrine  n/lie  Trimly. 

WbUt  ac  Berlin,  tbe  great  ciiiia  in  liii  nligioiu  life 
WB  ■{ifirMching,  and  actuillr  touk  place.  In  ordtri  to 
undHMaod  this,  it  is  necenarv  cirefuU;  to  reaJ  hii 
nA  Sim  and  Reiempliom,  or  Ikt  Trut.  Cotutrratwi  of 
I  Soflie.  This  was  publbhed  in  1825,  and  wu,  in  ef- 
rtci,  a  leTiiUtiDD  of  Db  Wetu'i  Tkrodort,  or  tkt  Contf- 
train  o/'fAt  SfrpHe.  It  JeMnb™  the  oonveraion  of 
nn  jwinK  thenlinn'ns,  Juliiu  and  (iuiilo.M'ha  vtn,  nu 
dMbt,  l)r.  Juliui  Mullci  and  the  writer  himKlf.  Thii 
■ok  da*  Hritiei]  in  ihiee  weeks,  and,  like  maiij  boaka 
■liiien  aff-hand,  il  baa  bad  lemarliabU  auccesa.  Still 
on  insight  into  TboLuck'a  apiritiul  life  is  caught  in 
lib  iddrua  on  the  evening  preceding  the  jubilee  of 
D«HDber,  11)70.  A  few  of  ila  ihaugbts  may  here  be 
retiiulueed,  for  ihey  furnish  the  key  lo  hia  eitriordi 


■oChri. 


"Tli.we  whn 


lie  wiib  mach  \iala.  Uy  cuunce  hna  Iteeu  dealgitaled  i 
mfid  i'f'  atHonft  jftnifh^  1  have  had  uft  merelv  u 
H  like  Apollin,  bal  to  plant  with  Piiul,  aurt  hilrmliii 


tei  ihig  ein  oaly  be  whet 


e"thelpf"^(Si 
God.    NcitbluR 


bu  enr  been  eItsd  tu  ma  Bines  lbs .. , 

Ike  hapd-CD  or  Ore  fram  above.  Finm  tbe 
[«i  1  bare  alwaja  aaked  myseir, '  IfAal  ts 
</■»■'•  itftr  I  e-rald  ueter  pertoade  ui]'»< 
qsittliou  of  kDDwIedge  was  Ihia  end.    Ji 

bi  feiianb'p'wlth  Chrii't,  and  frum  that  tin 
kta  out  tnannt,  end  t^at  U  C^ritt,  and  "^    ' 


when  I  rectiTrd 


...irihnubrac- 
Jnst  then  G^hI 

time  /  ham  had 

mu  adirDi  and  win.    I  <rai  In  mr  elzhteenih  year  when 
Ike  Lord  laTe  nie  my  flrtt  conreru    He  wtii  au  attillery 

i*fer.  aJew,  a  wild  creature,  wlihimt  re-    ' ■-- 

WanMHehalnH  follower  vrChriat  Ihi 


Ti^ilii  whuee  heans  hn™  opened  up  under  ....  

I  can  only  eay  CV  Lird  AoU  d«ne  fl.    In  worklDc  tboa 
•are  «»K  my  life  has  been  one  nf  Joy  r.i  " 


(tomotnlnz.    More  than  nnce  I 
botrr,  and  iitao  In  pHton,  bnt  all 


bt  pmmlMd  u>  cite  np  ctI!  and  eiiler  npnn  a  new  life. 
Aku :  runt  Dt  live  dap  laler  a  card  cnme  Cmin  him  whb 
taij  ibsHi  wiirda— '  Tlu^uct  U  tighinff,  TVioli'e*  li  pray- 
•Mf.  tut  I  am  drinUna  lUe  a  bruit.-  Yet  my  labor  wns 
nntlo  Taiu,  far  be  Is  now  a  unted  preucber  i>libe  Oofpel 
ofChrfcL  And  what  a  Dumber  of  those  who  were  ouce 
DyatadeatabaTC  risen  np  nndcnn  now  aay,  each  one,  Ilka 
■nnvll^ '  I  JhdPtf  but  on*  jHuaun,  and  that  is  Christ,  and 
rtn^  alKU  r  " 

llapfiT  the  Tctenui  saint  and  acholar  who  could, 
gnenoU  (ge,loak  back  upon  auch  labors  1  He  bad  all 
Ike  OKirE  oonfidenee  in  the  power  of  Christianity  frnm 
haling  felt  it  in  hia  own  heart.  When  he  left  the 
fTDniaiuiD  to  enter  the  uniTersity,hia  onlion  was  on 
Tkt  Superiority  of  Moiaianiabnnti*  orrr  Chritlioialy. 
He  WIS  especially  prejudiced  against  experimental 
Ckriicianity,  nhich  was  then  called  Pietism  and  Hysti- 
OHB.  He  thought  il  ehtcked  all  vigor  of  action  and 
fnedniD  of  thought,  and  imprcMed  on  every  counle- 
nance  the  pale  hue  of  death,  and  thai  all  who  adopted 
il  nuB  lum  their  Tiew  frnm  the  baundleas  migniS- 
cnieeof  the  aUny  heavens  and  dwell  in  the  damp  and 
^■o  of  a  catacomb.  Keander  exerted  a  great  influ- 
ence on  biiD  for  goodi  but  it  wa*  especially  bamn  von 
Ksnwiti  who  waa  Che  iostrument  of  his  conversion,  as 
■tU  oa  of  hia  frieiHla  Olahauaen,  Julius  Muller,  and  Rich- 
ard Rotbc 

On  Dec  1, 1830,  Tholuck  passe.1  his  examination  as 
fianiiatr  of  ibeolnsy  at  tbe  Berlin  University.  This 
■■  a  daring  sup,  fur  he  then  suD^red  from  a  complaint 


THOLUCK 

'bkh,  according  to  three  physicians  whom  he  consult- 
1  at  the  raqueat  of  banin  von  Koltwiti,  was  to  end  in 
speedy  death.  But  a  young  physician,  without  curing 
removed  Che  imminent  danger,  and  he  could  go  on 
I  work.  Through  the  consideratencsa  and  liberal- 
ity of  the  Prussian  governmenl,  he  went  to  England  in 
1826,  and  spent  neariy  a  year  there  in  travels  under- 
taken fur  tbe  purpose  of  prosecuting  seicntiBc  re9ea^che^ 
On  bis  return  to  Berlin  in  I82l>,  he  was  called  to  lill  the 
ch^r  ofordinary  theology  at  Halle,  nuule  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Dr.  Knapp.  Nolwiihatandiiig  hia  promotion 
CO  the  position  orexlnordinary  professor  of  theology  at 
Berlin,  so  deeply  was  he  imbued  with  tbe  spirit  and  in- 
terested in  the  prosecution  of  the  work  of  Franckc  at 
Halle  that  the  daily  longing  of  his  heart  was  that  he 
might  be  transferred  to  Ihs  university  founded  by  him. 
"Every  day,"  San  he,  "I  prayed  lo  God  that  be  miubt 
be  pleased  to  call  me  Co  that  place  where,  a  hundred 
yeara  before,  August  II.  Francks  had  built  bis  Orphan 
Asylum,  and  ha<l,by  bis  adilresses  both  from  the  pulpit 
and  from  the  chair,  (-alhcred  a  faithful  community, 
teaching  that  the  Gist  stage  on  the  way  to  the  tree  of 
knowledge  was  by  the  tree  of  life."  His  prayer  was  an- 
swered, the  mantle  of  Fraiicke  fell  upon  him,  and,  by  a 
remarkable  coincideiico  of  Providence,  after  laboring  as 
his  successor  for  more  than  Hfty  yeaiB,  his  burial  took 
plaoe  within  o:ie  day  of  the  160th  anniversary  of  the 
burial  uf  Francke,  and  the  pasaage  selected  as  tbe  text 
of  the  preaclicc  at  the  obsequies  of  Franckc  served  the 
same  purpose  at  tbe  funeral  of  Tholuck — "  Lord,  it  is 
done  OS  thuu  hast  commanded,"  from  the  Gospel  for 
the  Sunday  (June  10)  on  which  Tholuck  died. 

The  Hste  of  things  which  be  foui>d  when  he  went  M 
Halie  in  1826  is  described  by  himself  as  follows: 

"UUnnlverullTkna 

tbroiijrhonc  ihe  ITth  ecu 

the  breadth  of  tbe  country  the  tendency  lo  'ral 
oaU  was  termed,  nbmt  the  lieglnnlngorthe  pr 
tnrr,  had  taken  nu  unciuilested  iinsBCB«lnn  oM 
and  acndemicnl  chairs.  ,  .  .  Al  Balle  chere  bn< 
one  single  man  (Prof  Knnpnl  who.  r«*hl>  tiidH 
crelly  eaonEh,  dared  t-i  tei 
Out  of  niue  hundred  suiden 

vived  by  the  aid  of  n  CbrlsUan  crnitunian,  ueneied  In  ihe 
divinity  of  Christ.  They  wers  called  tbe  'Idiotic  onbo- 
doxi'  they  wers  ibe  few.ibe  Utile  nnea,  Cdnt-hearted, 
weak,  aud  not  gifted,  and  over  agniuat  them  Itae  great 
mnlllinde  nf  the  gifted,  active,  aud  anlduooa  studeiiis. 
The  body  otihs  academic  leachens  In  agreement  wllh  the 
whole  mass  of  Uia  alndenis.  had  sent  n  jietlilnn  lo  tbe 
mlulrter  ofatnte  for  ecclealaallcnl  affuirs  agaiuat  my  ap- 
polnlment  in  aiirofeMurehlpal  Usile.  Thai  wns  tbe  most 
luting  [lerlod  of  ny  life,  in  which  1  learned  seeking  aud 
pnrwitng  love." 

Such  was  tbe  state  of  Germany,  its  Established  Church, 


id  orthodoxy  had, 
dam  III  But  In  Oer- 

Sftii 


Hegel,  who,  as  a  philosophical  lecturer,  had  imbibed 
Christian  principles  in  tlie  religious  atmosphere  of  Bei^ 
lin,  ui^ed  Tholuck,  in  his  parting  words,  that  he  thoiild 
''  deal  a  deaih-Muw  to  the  bald  ralionalism  prevalent  at 
Halle."  I'his  was  no  easy  (sak,  considering  that  Ge- 
sentiiB  and  Wcgscheider  bad  such  wonderfiii  influence 

Tholuck 's  poHtlon  was,  therefore,  at  first  exceedingly 
difficult  in  this  reign  of  rationalisni.  He  was  scouteil. 
hated,  and  ridiculed  as  •  pietist,  mystic,  fanatic,  Phari- 
see, etc  j  but  he  persevered,  and  God  most  richly  blessed 
his  labora.  A.rsdical  revolution  has  been  wrui|gh(  in 
Halle,  BO  far  as  theology  ia  coiicernnl.  The  liev.  I. 
Witte,  one  of  his  pupils,  who  reprcseiiled  him  at  Ihc 
Evangelical  AUiancft  in  1873,  at  New  York,  and  read 
(he  paper  he  bad  prepared  on  Erang^cal  Thtology  in 
GfrmoBtfj  Bay^ 

"We  know  that,  In  a  great  mesanre,  the  wholesome 

to  onr  native  connlry  within  the  In? I  Uny  years  la,  nexi  to 
God's  grsco,  owing  to  ibo  reslless  leal  of  Ihla  'miles 
Chrlsil,  agenuUie  good  knight  wlihont  fear  nod  without 
reproach.  In  dark  and  drenry  days  be  has  rs Han tly  borne 
difgraca  for  Chrlst'a  sake.  He,  n  alncle  tnnii.haa  won  llie 
deld  In  tbe  Dnlvenlty  of  Balla ;  and  all  hia  coHeagaee,  one 


br  nn*,  hnve  beeu  fiirccd  U>  tIiU  to  bli  i 
ChrlitUu  eiier)-)'  ninl  tnowlwlKe.    But,  nw 


iplrlluil  Ulhtr, 

Tholuck  TeriORl  Ihe  pn^betic  wonls  of  Prof.  Krf^l, 
ilnir  tha  aword  of  thi  Spint,  knd  give  bald  ntioMliun 
ill  death-blow  in  the  Univciwty  or  HiUe.  It  wai  oiily 
with  the  chuige  of  govern  ment  tnd  mbiUiy  in  fnuaia 
in  IBM  thit  'Iboluck'a  influence  UMimed  great  dimen- 
tinia.  FredETivk  William  IV  and  the  minialer  or  wot~ 
sbip.  Eiclilioni,  looked  iipnii  hi*  theology  aa  one  which 
ivoiil>^l  all  extrcmea  and  vet  held  Ihe  Tailh  ermly. 
ritej  MHiMdend  it  the  only  juMiGable  rum.  When 
TacBDcIea  wen  to  be  filled  in  the  rruwian  unireiaitie*, 
hia  advice  waa  alwava  rglual,  whether  it  bad  been  rur- 
DiHlly  aaked  or  Tolunlarily  [irupoaed.  Under  the  minia- 
iriVon  Kaumrr.hia  influence  rather  declitied;  but  under 
the  nicceedini;  m  in  later,  Vun  Hllbler,  it  acquired  its  old 
power  and  dimenaiona,  and  many  of  the  ipiNilniiDenla 
oTthat  time  were  auggeated  by  him.  Hia  eameal  la- 
bor for  peraonal  and  experimenUl  religinn  cauaed  him 
lo  view  with  miklnen  imallcr  departurea  from  eccletiu- 
llcal  orthodoxy.  Dirine  tnilh  waa  in  hia  ayea  too  aub- 
lime  to  be  sharply  and  exactly  defined  in  fbrmuln.  In 
hia  True  Coniecralum  of  tht  ScffHc,  he  doea  not  even 
BlitBy  demand  an  eipiwa  belief  in  Ihe  peraonality  or 
God  if  the  aelf-conaciuuaneaa  and  exialence  of  the  Di- 
vine Being  are  admitleJ.  Sleiiily  lu  iiisi.L  upun  creeds 
aeemed  lo  him  ■  departure  from  the  faith.  In  hia  aer- 
moiii  he  deapiaed  all  rhetoric  and  diaplay  of  learning. 
There  were,  however,  flaabes  oT appeal  that  Cut  into  Ihe 
bean  like  lightnings  And  then  his  life,  ao  warm  and 
leinler  and  loving,  made  bim  ■  universal  favorite  with 
hia  aluilents.  It  is  no  wonder  tbni  he  exerted  an  al- 
most faaciiialing  influence  over  them.  Indeed,  he  looked 
upon  peisunal  elTurt  among  students  as  his  peculiar  call- 
ing. Kvcry  day  he  spent  (wo  boura  in  walkinE.  and 
generally  bad  one  or  two  with  him,  with  whom  he 
engaj-ed'  in  pleasant  but  earnest  conversation.  This 
gave  him,  after  a  time,  such  an  extenuve  p«}xbological 
knowlediie  that  he  could  eauly  find  an  entrance  to  t' 
beartxifiliiie  whom  he  would  save.  Tbolucksaid  hii 
self,  in  the  address  which  be  delivered  at  hia  Jubilee, 


iindeula.aa  oppuaed 

wnueivij-uisrebiidataoino  wllha ,      _ 

else  would  rather  bavs  bad  hia  borne.  I  bad  mjr  dellKhl 
In  many  n  spnintliiK  ahoot.  ai 

veloped  flowers ;  bnt  every  hlnaso'm  KriidLiiilly  developed, 
and  in  adifl'eci'ui  perfnnie  nod  color.  Y»,  tbai  la  a  blested 
dellchil  BndliBwbohn»oii«f"ondhi»loTenndhlaple»i^ 
nro  lu  It,  aud  to  whom  Ood  has  gi.en  itae  jim  "f  being  a 
proreaaor,  will  no  lunger  fliid  llie  life  .)f  s  priitawnr  tolieli- 
bor,  hut  raiher  joy  and  pleasote.  And  thus  haie  I  •jjeiii 
niylHe,andnpi.>lhepre«ntdaymyllfeasapriireworhHB 
not  l-eeu  mj-  wink,  but  raiher  mj  lov  and  nij  deltglit. 

•■  Dnr,  at  the  -nine  timet  »>e  life  of  a  profesaor  la  not  all 
pleainro  and  enliTrmsol.  If  npoii  every  word  an  echo 
would  reaonnd  In  the  iiwakeued  heart:  If  npou  every 
warning  aplrlmal  breaih  (ireen  rhoota  wnnld  aprlDR  op ; 
lfonjTery'^l*.t..w»lofH^Blft»ie™w._^ldnmowl^a^te«l,- 

It  doea  not  nlwaya  happen,  f.T  ihere  Hre  also  ihe  aileni, 

again,  hnlDu  echo  reaonnda:  "here  one  can  IhrnH  In  the 
apsdedayafrer  davberiirennyihliig  la  heard  refunding 
nnilprlhe  enrlh.    And  to  Iwsnrroanded  bysncb,  that  vra> 
my  lot  tn  ihe  beLdnnliie- 
"  I  bnve  reeii  ihe  aecrele  of  many  hundred  young  men 


THOLUCK 

With  such  a  lore  for  atudenia.  Dr.  Tholuck  beoDe  • 
vary  pc^ulai  prafessar,  and  atudents  flocked  lo  HaU* 
from  all  parta  of  Ibe  world.     Hi*  tbomugb  knowledsr 

I  English  language  made  him  an  especial  faioriie 
with  American  stuilenls,  large  numbera  of  whom  mat 
~«L     Among  the  luuel  disiinguiabed  uf  ihese  we 

mention  Dra.  Hodge,  Addismi,  Alexander,  t^ntii^ 
H.  B.  Smith.  Park,  and  other*.  I'he  partiality  manilnl- 
ed  for  Tbuluck  by  American  studenia  waa  reciprocated 

m.  He  regarded  tbem  wiih  Tartt  than  ordinaiy 
interest,  ai>d  was  in  the  habit  of  calling  a  nambei  el 

named  his  "  special  pet*." 

■ides  the  English,  be  waa  a  master  of  a  great  many 
languagea,  and  was  only  surpassed  by  cardinal  Ueno- 

He  waa  alao  gifted  with  poelk  gcnins  and  had 
acquired  an  imineuBe  store  of  varied  learning.  He 
was  not  only  a  maater  In  ibeolngr,  but  prufiwudly 
versed  in  philology,  pbiloaophy,  hiniiry,  and  poetiy;  ia 
ancient  and  modem,  Oriental  and  Occidental,  heatlWB, 
Jewish,  Mohammedan,  and  Chrisiian  literamre.  He 
was  a  i-oluminou*  writer.  He  commenced  his  lileraiy 
labors  as  an  author  in  I8SI,  and,  besides  the  works  al- 
ready named,  be  wrote  Conwtninritt  on  the  Kpiitleio 
the  Komana,  the  Hebrewa,  Ihe  Psalms,  Ihe  Uospel  of 
John:  —  a  philoeophico- theological  exposition  oo  T\t 
Stnmm  on  Ilit  Motam—The  CndibUily  o/  lit  Gaifd 
UiMory  (an  antidote  to  Slrmm't  l^'e  of  Ckri^)  —TU 
Spiril  of  Ike  LulAertai  Tktologia—  nf  WitloAtrg  n  lU 
\'ilk  Oafary.-— and  Tht  Aaidndc  Lift  of  IktVilk  Cm- 
Iniy,  In  the  laM  two  productions  he  gives,  moslly  fiDBi 
MS.  sources,  a  very  interening  and  graphic,  but  by  no 


them  1 1 


d  the  pleaani 


"Tbln  then,  la  the  lll«  of  a  student 
not  only  ea*t,>iy-  and  pleaanre-brinc 
atieaTylaak1nya«th,aecktDElovo,  t 
task  when  anch  yonng  men  ate  fonnd 
i>rChrlft,wbuhave  been  awakened  rh 


lionaliam.  We  mention  the  //utri  ofDrToriaii.togeiii- 
tt  with  several  vulumea  of  ^erwoaa,  as  well  aa  nummiat 
articles  publisbeil  in  the  theoli^cal  jounial*  of  Gcf' 
raanv.  He  alao  issued  his  miacellancons  writing*  in 
two  volumes,  and  nrpuhllshed  The  Tiv/  Cotunratmef 
tht  Scrplic  (18^). under  Ihe  changed  title  ofTktlioe- 
IrvK  ofSn  and  Ikt  Propiiuilnr,  in  ISBI.  Most  of  bij 
writings  have  been  IraniJalcd  into  the  more  widtlv 
apoken  modem  languagea  uf  Europe. 

Dr.  Tholuck  waa  akin  an  able  and  (wpular  preacbrr. 
He  breathed  and  exhilHled  Ibe  spirit  of  evBOgelinl 
piety  in  all  the  circle*  in  which  he  moved — dumeuic, 
aocial,  literati',  and  ibeoloKicaL    He  was  simple  and 


dote*.  He  accepted  the  Pruaaian  Union  as  conHilml 
with  the  catholiciiy  of  ChrialiaiiilT,  a*  well  a*  wilh  ilic 
dnctrinea  oflhe  Lutheran  Church  ■■  eet  rurlh  in  hit 
calhidic  symbol,  ihe  AHi/iitlima,  and  hence  never  allied 
himseirwilh  the  sepsratislic  Lutheisnain  their  sllempi 
to  revive  aiul  perpeiuate  Ihe  symbolic  dogmaiiini  or 
Ihe  Lutheran  tlie<ili>Kiana  of  ihe  17lh  century.  Inapile 
of  his  frail  phvHcal  eonslilulion,  he  waa  permilled  W 
profeaaor  Dec. 


]i> 


is  form 


;ed  by  the  | 


r  pupil* 


semi-centennial  3«bilee,  he  rtfrired 

and  Ihe  comparatively  amall  number  of  hia  days  in  which 
he  was  in  the  enjoyment  of  health.  The  perfonnann 
□fao  much  uninlermitled  labor,  and  the  great  age  which 
he  attained,  are  atiribulaUo  lo  hi*  abMemioua  balnts  and 
•yslematic  exercise,  aa  well  as  to  the  cbeerfulnesa  of  div 
position  inapired  by  hia  peraonal  piety,  and  hisexliaei- 


"Thii  Omj,  *t  4  n'clnck  P.  K.,  my  dur  bntbtiid.  Dr.  An- 
rut  ThaliKk,  afln  Itini  mfl^rtiw,  fientlj  enursd  lubi 
ikitblaved  mt  fur  whicb  Iw  h*dl>e«u  lougius  fnim  ibe 
di^  of  bl*  juatb.  Tbrunib  Itie  gncs  of  Qod,  hli  life, 
nblcb  «M  Dflan  thniiUiicd  *tlib  no  eirlj  icnnlimtlun, 
bu  bSMi  prokHij^  In  luderatig^la  aud  Onlirol  laban  la 
tbt  age  <>tKm>t)i-eI|EhI  T«n,  iwn  monUti,  abd  ten  da^i. 
Under  ibe  beaij  pnnunm  ind  |ulnnil  nnilcij  uf  ma  lut 


._.      .  _  »  iheertnl  profcMloi 
lA  tkw  at  approachliiff  deaib :  ' 


/i-». 


;  iknn  ChrUna  ilorb 


h  mg  ■  Atting  cloM  of  a  knig  and  lueful  career  ■ 
■•a  demoted  lo  CbriH.  Tbe  aiim  and  lubatanm  ofhu 
tliAdi«ywulb«l  Jmuilivedanddied  for  the  Mlvilior 
nfiinDen.     Tu  him  u  the  only  HaaUi  he  led  hit  in' 

DOBMnUe  pupils.  Hta  lecture-roam  and  bia  pulpit  wen 
■  Kbonl  of  Chriit.  Herein  lie  his  aignifinnce  and  rami 
ia  the  liiMory  orGeraian  theology  iiid  religioiu  Thi 
.Vn>  York  Oitmer  (Aug.  IS,  IDTT)  thua  Minouneed 
TMnck't  death  tu  its  reiden:  "  The  grealeat  theoloj 
ial  light  of  Germanv  baa  juat  been  extingaiahed 
■hilt  tbe  Lalkrraii  dbttrrer  (Aog.  H,  1877)  wind!  u 
an  tnide  oo  Tholuck  in  the  fullDwing  wonli: 


[hTholi 


ile>l 


lend,  he  i 


It  bU  lectare* : 
KicBlroTiewi;!. 
wtlh  hi*  owu  band 


WP,  like  Abel, 


IDs  I 


ipeaka  In  the 


iVdrnwibualilflln'. 
wxkt  ihrDOEh  the  muoldlng  iDllaanee  eierled  upon  tbe 

Inm  the  luatltDiioiw  of  Kompa :  apenka  thrODgh  ih< 
arrectliio  nfdiictrliialoTthtMlMxr,  exj>erin]entarple1J 
nllfioaa  actlTliy  Id  Iba  Lalberai 
cbarcbet;  ytm.  rpeaka  In  hia  wh 


imed  theotottli 
eak  u  IA<  a(u/r 


■  p.ipnli 


We  bive  not  >>  yet  ■  complete  biography  of  Di. 
Tbohick,  Mho  will  fill  aome  chapter*  in  the  Chunb  hia- 
Io»T  «f  the  I9tb  century.  A  aketch  waa  pnbliahed  by 
Uc.  ScfaaS;  in  hia  Crrmny;  i/i  UoiverwUir;  TUologg, 
•ad  Siligim  (Phila.  1857),  p.  278  aq.  Anolhei  sketch 
i>  giren  in  the  Tknioyiictti  Cimtnal-Lt^^ioii,  a.  y. 
Oar  preami  anide  ii  made  up  from  different  necrolugiea. 
Aa  to  Tholuck'a  works,  it  would  he  uaeleaa  to  trv  to  enu- 
URate  them.  Zucbold  alone  (BUL  Theai.  ii,  tSS2  aq.) 
gina  four  pageat  Hia  Cintimenlaria  bare  been  trana- 
laled  inu  Engliah,  and  n  alao  have  aoaie  others  of  his 
niirka.  The  laat  of  these,  ao  far  aa  we  are  aware,  ia  Hoari 
•■/CkriMiun  Dtvotion  (Edinb.  1870),  ■  work  which  baa 
repeatedly  been  edited  in  Oennany.     (B.  P.) 

Thom'BS  (Bwfuc),  one  of  the  twelve  apoatlea. 
A,D.  87-i9. 

1.  Hit  Yoiar.— This  ia  eridently  a  Gmnaed  fonn  of 
the  Aramaic  X'QKP,  TornS,  which  means  Iht  ftrin  ,■  and 
nit  is  translate  in  Juha  xi,  16:  KX,!4i  xxl,3,oai- 
ce^ioc.  which  haa  patied  into  a  name,  Diigmui  (q.  v.). 

fiwo  which  remiiula  lu  of  the  colloquial  English  ab- 
bnTialion,  viz.  SIXn  and  CXn  (Geaeniiis,  Monvtatmla, 
|i  3M).  Ill  Heb.  alao  (Cant.  Tii,  4)  it  ia  simply  BXri, 
•tim,  aliBoat  eiacily  our  'Tom.'*  The  frequency  of 
tbt  Bame  in  England  is  derired  not  from  the  apoa- 
lla,  but  from  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  Out  of  the 
aigniAcBtiaa  of  thia  name  has  grown  the  tradition  that 
be  bad  a  twin-nater,  Lyua  {Paira  ApatL  p.  27S),  or 
that  be  was  a  twiD-brothcr  of  out  Lord  (Thilo,  A  cM 
Tiamm,  p.  M) ;  which  last,  again,  would  coDflnn  hia  iden- 
tileation  with  Jude  (comp.  HatL  xiii,  6b),  with  whom 
EnatbtOB  expre^y  idcDtilW*  bin  (AM.  £ix<M.  i,  18 ;  ao 


also  tbe  A  da  Tkoma}.  Thia  may  have  been  a  mei 
Gonfuaioa  with  ThaddBua  (q.  t.),  who  ia  tnentioned  i 
the  extract.    But  it  may  alao  be  that  Judas  was  hi 


2.  Bitloiy  and  Ouiraclrr  from  die  fiae  Tetl.~(Wt 
here  chieHy  adopt  Statiley'a  art  in  Smith'a  Did.  of  du 
BSie).  In  the  catalogue  of  the  apostles  he  ia  coupled 
with  Matthew  in  Matt.  x,S:  Mark  111,18;  Luke  vi,  16; 
and  with  Philip  in  Acta  t,  13. 

All  that  we  know  of  hiin  is  derived  from  the  Goq)el 
of  John;  and  this  amounts  to  three  traits,  which,  how- 
ever, ao  exactly  agree  together  that,  alight  aa  tbej  are, 
they  place  his  character  before  us  with  a  preciaiOQ 
which  belongs  to  no  other  of  the  twelve  apuMlea,  ex- 
cept Peter,  John,  and  Judaa  lacarioL  This  character 
ia  that  of  a  man  alow  to  believe,  seeing  all  tbe  difficul- 
dea  of  a  caae,  subject  to  despondency,  viewing  things 
on  tbe  darker  aide,  and  yet  full  of  ardent  love  (or  hia 
Uaater  (aee  Niemejer,  Ckarala.  i,  t08). 

<«.)  The  first  trait  ia  found  in  his  speech  when  our 


Lorddl 


in  JudBB  on  hia  journey  to  Bethany.  Thomaa  aald  to 
his  rellow-diaciple*,  "  Let  ua  alio  go  (coi  i«fi('c)i  that  we 
may  die  with  bim"  (John  xi,  16).  He  entertained  no 
hope  of  hia  escape — he  looked  on  the  journey  aa  leading 
to  total  ruin;  but  he  determined  to  share  tbe  peril. 
"Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  iu  him." 

(fr.)  The  aecoad  occura  in  bia  apeech  during  the  laac 
aapper:  "Thomaa  aaith  unto  him,  Lord,  we  know  not 
whither  thon  goeat;  and  how  can  we  know  the  way?" 
(John  xiv,  5).  It  waa  the  prosaic,  increduloua  doubt 
aa  to  moving  a  step  in  tbe  unseen  future,  and  yet  an 
eager  iiu[uiiy  to  know  how  thia  atep  waa  to  be  taken. 

(c)  The  third  waa  after  the  reaurrectioo.  He  waa 
absent — possibly  by  accident,  perbapa  chancteriatically 
— from  the  first  aaaembly  wben  Jeaua  had  appeared. 
The  others  told  him  what  they  had  seen.  He  broke 
forth  into  an  exclamation,  the  terms  of  which  convey 
In  ua  at  once  tbe  vehemence  of  hia  doubt,  and,  at  tbe 
aarae  lime,  the  vivid  |»cture  that  hia  mind  letained  i>f 
hia  Haster'a  form  aa  he  had  laat  seen  him  lifelesa  on 
the  cross:  "Except  I  see  in  his  bands  the  print  of  the 


my  Qnger  ; 


Ltoftb 


lis  side,  (  w 

lieve"  (oA  jii)  wurrcuow,  John  xx,  SA).  On  the  eighth 
day  he  was  with  them  at  their  gathering,  perbapa  in 
expectation  of  a  recurrence  of  the  viut  of  the  previous 
Week  ;  and  Jeaua  stood  among  them.  He  pronounced 
tbe  same  salutation,  "Peace  be  unto  you;'  and  then, 
turning  to  Thomaa,  aa  if  tbia  had  been  the  special  object 
of  hia  appearance,  uttered  the  worda  which  convey  aa 
strongly  the  aense  of  condemnation  and  lender  reproof 
aa  those  of  Thomas  bad  ahown  the  sense  of  hesitation 
and  doubt :  "  Bring  thy  linger  hither  [ilii— aa  if  him- 
self pointing  to  hia  wounds]  and  see  my  hands;  and 

become  (/i4  yivov)  unbelieving  (dwioroc),  but  believing 
(rivToi)'"  "He  answers  lo  the  words  that  Thomaa 
had  apoken  tii  tbe  earn  of  bis  fellow-disciples  only ;  but 
it  ia  to  the  thought  of  bia  bean  rather  than  tn  the 
words  of  bis  lipa  that  the  Searcher  of  hearts  answers. 
. . .  Eye,  ear,  and  touch  at  once  appealed  to  and  at  once 
aatiafied— the  form,  tbe  look,  the  voice,  the  solid  and 
actual  body :  and  not  the  aensea  only,  but  the  mind  eat- 
iaAed  too;  the  knowledge  that  aearchea  the  very  reins 
and  the  hearts;  the  love  that  ioveth  to  tbe  end.  inKnite 
and  eternal"  (Arnold,  Stm.  ri,  338).  Tbe  effect  on 
Thomas  ia  immediate.  It  ia  uselcn  lo  speculate  wheth- 
er he  obeyed  out  Lord's  invitation  to  examine  tbe 
wounds.  The  impreaeion  is  that  he  did  not.  Ue  that 
aa  it  may,  ibe  conviction  produced  by  (he  removal  of 
hia  doubt  became  deeper  and  sirongcr  than  that  uf  any 
of  the  other  apostles.  The  words  in  which  lie  express- 
ed his  belief  contain  a  far  higher  assertion  of  his  Mas- 
ter's divine  nature  than  is  contained  in  any  other  ex- 
pression used  by  apostolic  lips,  "My  Lord,  and  my  God.' 
Some  have  supposed  that  Kvpio^  refers  to  the  hanan 


THOMAS  3< 

S(jf  Id  ihe  dirine  lutare.  This  U  too  ulificUl.  U  ia 
more  to  tbe  point  U>  observe  the  exict  tttmt  of  the 

then,  my  Lord  and  my  Ciod!"  (It  it  obviouily  of  no 
dogniiiic  impoitancc  whether  the  wnrdi  are  an  addroe 
or  ■  rleacri|)iian.     That  they  nre  the  Ulter  appein  from 

proven  nothing,  bb  thia  ia  used  fur  the  vocal  ire.    At  the 


I  "my    givea  it 

a  being  I  he  last 

c  of  the  guapel 

It  of  ch.  xx\),  Ihua  carreaiwnding 


ia  deeliration  from  il 


incident  related  in  I 
(before  the  aupplemi 

to  the  opening  worda  of  the  pmhiKUe.  ~  i  nus  t^nnti 
wo*  acknowledged  on  earth  to  be  v  hit  John  bad  in  the 
beginnin);  of  hia  goepel  declared  him  lo  be  fmm  all 
eternity ;  and  the  worda  of  Thuraaa  at  the  end  of  the 
Eweniicib  chapter  do  but  repeat  the  truth  which  John 
had  Hinted  bejbre  in  hia  own  worda  at  the  bq;inning  uf 

Lurrl  ^uma  up  the  moral  of  the  whole  narrative :  "  lie- 
cause  ['-Thomaa"  (eii/ia)  a  omitted  iu  the  beat  HSS.J 
thuu  bast  aeen  me,  thou  bast  believed :  bleated  are  they 
that  have  not  aeen  me,  and  yet  have  believed"  (xk, 
29).  Oy  thia  incident,  therefure,  Thoma^"  the  doubl- 
ing apostle,"  is  raiaed  at  once  U>  the  tbeologian  in  the 
original  senae  of  the  word.  "Ah  eo  dubitatum  est," 
aaya  Augustine,  "ne  a  nobis  dubitaielur."  Winer  and 
othera  tind  in  the  character  of  Thomaa  what  they  oon- 
Hder  contradictoiy  traits,  vit  incoiiMderaie  failh 


Wei 


lively  faith  ia  alwaya  neeeiearily 
combined  with  a  aenae  of  iu  importance,  and  with  a  de- 
Mre  to  keep  its  objecla  unalloyed  and  free  from  error 
and  eupcraiiiion.  Chriel  himself  did  not  blame  Thom- 
as for  availing  himaelfofall  poaaible  evidence,  but  only 
pronounced  those  bleiaed  who  woulil  be  open  to  convic- 

be  within  their  reach  (comp.  Nieraeyer,  Atadrmitcit 
Prtdifflfn  tmd  Ridrn,  p.  SSI  sq.).  Monugrapha  have 
been  written  in  Latin  on  this  scene  in  Thomas's  life  bv 
Carpiov  (Helmsl.  1767),  id.  (Vim,  KGS),  Roei  (Budiaa. 
i;B5),  and  Gram  (Norimb.1618). 

[n  the  New  1'esL  we  hear  of  Thnmas  only  twice 
again— once  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  the  seven  disci- 
ples, where  he  is  ranked  next  after  Peler  (John  xxi,  !), 
and  again  in  the  aasemblige  of  the  apoatlea  after  Ihe 
Aacensiun  (Acta  i,  )S). 

S.  Tmdiiiom.—'TYioinat  ia  said  (o  have  been  bom  at 
Anlioch,  and  (as  aboTe  atated)  to  have  had  a  twin-ws- 
ter  named  Lvsia  {Patrtt  Apotl.  ed.  Cateler.  p.  372, 6IS). 
The  earlier  tradiiinns,  as  believed  in  tbe  1th  century 
(Origen,  ap.  Euseb.  HiM.  EeeUi.  i,  IS ;  iii,  1 ;  Socrates,  HiK. 
Jictia,  i,  19),  repteseiil  him  aa  preaching  in  Farthia 
(Clemeni.  Rrrmjn.  ix,  29)  or  Persia  (according  to  Je- 
rome; aeealaaKuGnu^^ia'.£o:Jn.ii,  4),  and  as  finally 
burKdatEdee»(Socralee,//uf./i'criH.iv,lS).  Chrysos- 
tom  meuiions  bis  grave  at  Edessa  as  being  one  of  Ihe 
four  genuine  tombs  of  aposilra,  Ibe  olher  three  being 
Peter,  Paul,  and  John  (Horn,  m  Heb.  26).  With  hia 
burial  at  Edessa  agrees  the  stori-  of  his  aeiirljng  '["had- 
deeua  lo  Abgarua  with  our  Lord's  letter  (Enveb.  Hul. 
EceU:  i,  IB).  Acconling  to  a  lafir  inuliliun,  Thomas 
went  lo  India  and  auffereil  martvrdom  there  (Gregnr. 
Naz.  OtoL  XTtadA  rian.  p.  4S8,  ed.  Par. ;  Ambmsr,  in 
P$a.  xIb,  10 ;  Jerome,  Ep.  148  [59]  ad  Marorli. ;  Niceph. 
Hitl.  Eedf.  ii,  40 ;  A  da  Thomir,  ch.  i  sq. ;  Abdie  IlitU 
Apoil.  ch.  is;  Paulin.  a  S.  Banholomco,  India  Oritnt. 
CktitHana  [Hom.  1794]).  Thia  tradition  has  been  at- 
tacked by  Von  B<ibten  (/in&w,  i,  876  sq.).  The  an- 
cient oingrrgatians  of  Christiana  In  India  who  belong 
tu  the  .Syrian  Church  are  called  Tbomas-Chrittiaiis,  and 
cotiaider  the  apoatle  Thomas  to  be  their  founder  (Pabri- 
ciuB,  Imx  Etakgrlii,  p.  636  sq. ;  Asaemani,  Bffiliolh.  Oritur. 
Ill, ii.43Stq.;  Kilter, £r(UnBdc,V,i,eOI  sq.).  Against 
thia  tndilion  Thilo  wrote  in  hia  edicioD  of  the  Acta 


8  THOMAS 

Tliomir,  p.  lOT  aq.  (camp.  Augusli,  Drnttcir^isteilai,  iii, 
219  sq.).  This  later  tradition  is  now  usually  reganltd 
a  arising  from  a  confusion  wii  h  a  later  Thomas,  a  mia- 
ionaiy  frum  the  Neatoiiana.  Hia  martyrdom  (wbetb- 
r  in  Persia  or  India)  i>  said  lo  have  been  occasinnefl 
iv  a  lance,  and  is  commemorated  bv  ihe  Latin  Church 
0  Dec.2l,by  the  Greek  Church  on  Oct.  6,  and  by  ihe 
ndians  on  July  I.  (For  these  traditions  and  their  au- 
thorities, see  Butler,  Lira  oftht  Saintt.  Dec.  21.) 

4.  The  fatheiB  frequently  quote  an  Erungrliim  item- 
dum  Thomam  and  Acta  TAoour,  the  fragments  of  the 
former  of  which  have  been  edited  by  Thilo,  in  hia  Co- 
dec ApoayjAui  A'orj  Trtamttili,  i,  276 ;  and  by  Tuch- 
endorf,  in  his  Evaagflia  Apoaypha  (Lifie.  IS43):  and 
tbe  Acta  Thoma  separately  by  Thilo  (ibid.  1823);  and 
by  TiachendorT,  in  bis  Acta  Apoaypiu  (ibid.  1851). 
See  APtiCHYPHA;  Thomas, Writikob of. 

THOMAS  (Sl),  CRRisTtAKB  OF,  B  body  of  Syrian 
Chtialuns  dwelling  in  the  interior  of  HaUbat  and  Tnv 
ancure,  in  the  aouth-weeleni  part  of  Kinduataii.  When 
the  Portuguese  landed  in  India  in  the  ]6tb  century, 
they  discovered  what  they  supposed  to  be  a  MesloiiaD 
Church  there,  the  members  of  which  called  themselves 
Christians  of  Sl  Thomas.  They  retained  Ibe  Syrian 
language,  held  the  validity  of  only  two  sacraments,  and 
were  governed  by  bishops  under  a  melmpoliian.  They 
rejecud  the  authority  of  Peter,  and  did  not  enforce 
sacerdotal  celibacy.  They  neither  invoked  saints  nor 
worshipped  imagea.  Theae  churches  were  aoon  aub- 
jeeled  to  aevere  persecution,  and  many  were  forced  into 
Romanism.  The  inquisition,  also,  was  established  at 
Goa.  Dr.  Claudius  Bnchanai)  found,  however,  a  rem- 
nant  of  them,  in  1807,  near  Travancore.  They  atill  re- 
tain some  eccleaiaatical  independence.  According  to  a 
statement  of  some  authority,  the  St.  Thomaa  Christians 
number  TO.OOO  individuala,  and  th«  Syro-UonuD  Cath- 
olics 30,000,  that  ia,  the  party  who  hare  submitted  to 
the  papal  jurisdictinti.  But  the  Church  aervice  in  Sjiiic 
is  not  understood  by  Ihe  people,  who  are  ignorant  and 
prejudiced.  That  their  creed  ia  not  directly  Ktstorian 
may  be  seen  fmrn  the  declaralion  of  the  metro|uiliiaii 
of  Malabar  made  in  1806 :  •"  We  believe  in  the  Faibrr, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  three  persona  in  one  God,  iieitbet 
confounding  Ihe  persona  nor  dividing  the  Botatauce; 
One  in  Three,  and  Three  in  One  I  the  Father  gcneiatcf, 
the  Son  generated,  and  the  Holy  Ghoat  procteding. 
None  is  before  or  afler  Ihe  other;  in  majealy,  honot, 
might,  and  power  coequal;  Unity  in  Trinity, and  Trin- 
ity in  Unity.'  The  metropolitan  disclaims  the  heresies 
uf  Arius,  Sibellius,  Macedllll{u^  Hanes,  Haoianns,  Juli- 
anua,  Nestnrius,  and  the  Chalcedonians,  adding  'thai 
in  the  appointeil  lime,  through  the  disposition  of  the 
Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Son  appeared  on  earth 
for  the  salvation  of  mankind;  that  he  waa  bom  oftbe 
Virgin  Mary  through  Ihe  means  of  the  Holv  Gbwt,  an  J 
was  incarnate  God  and  man.'"  They  believe  that  the 
souls  of  departed  men  do  not  see  God  till  iheJudgmMil- 
day ;  they  allow  three  sacnmenla — baptism,  ordel^  and 
tbe  euchariat;  and  they  alhoi  auricular  confession.  In 
the  consecration  of  the  eiicharist  they  use  small  aiies 
madewiih  oil  and  salt;  instead  of  wine  is  water  id  which 
raisins  have  been  steeped;  they  observe  no  age  f«r«^ 
deis,  but  admit  priests  at  seven,  eighteen,  twenty,  Mc_ 
who  may  marry  as  often  aa  their  wives  die.  Their 
children,  unless  in  cases  of  sickness,  are  not  bipliied 
fill  the  liflielb  day.  Ac  the  death  uf  any  friend  the  re- 
latii.ns  keep  an  eight  days'  faat  in  memory  of  the  de- 
ceased. 'I'hey  observe  the  limes  of  Advent  and  Lent, 
and  many  other  feasts  and  (estiTBla,  but  especially  Ibott 
which  relate  to  ThimiaB— the  Dominea  n  albii,  or  Son- 
day  after  Easter,  in  memory  of  the  notable  conleaisii 
of  Thomaa :  one  on  June  1 ,  which  is  alao  celebrated  by 
Moors  and  Pagans.  The  Church  of  England  Hitooa- 
ary  Society  has  established  among  these  people  an  ex- 
tensive mission,  occupying  two  or  three  ataliona;  and  i 
college  has  been  eatablished  at  Kottayfim  for  tlie  in- 
fer the  miniMry,  wbidi  haa  beta 


THOMAS  3( 

libcnUy  endowed.  See  Eadie,  Eaitt.  Cgdop.  s.  v. ;  Fir- 
nr,  Etfla.  Diet.  •.  t.    Sec  Notomahs. 

THOMAS  {St.),  DAT  OF,  >  feuival  obwrred,  DrcSl, 
ii  sHmaiir  of  TboiDis  ihe  apostle.  It  nw  belJ  ^y  the 
Gmk  Church  on  OcU  6. 

TUOUAS  (Sk),  WsiTDiaB  OF.  These  ace  ai  (-A- 
Inn: 

I.  Thoxs  Acta  {Actt  of  Tiomai),  tra  Apocryphal 
work  which  belong*  u>  a  very  high  antiquity  anil  viae 
gmlly  eslfCDKil  amouf;  the  Gnuuica  and  ManicbiBanB 
(anip.  EuKb.  UiM.  EccUt.  iij,  2a ;  Epiphan.  Uara.  xlii, 
1;li,l;  liii,2,elc).  Augustine  has  undoubtetlly  refened 
laUifm  in  three  pUcvB,  viz.  Can(.>'iHu(.ixii,T9j  Adi- 
wail.  17;  IM  SrriHOnt  Dumiti,  i,  20,  In  the  Hill.  Apoi- 
loL  Abdia,  ix,  1  (F^uicius,  Codtx  Apocryph.  i,  6X9)  time 
Aeii  in  npeciiUy  nferred  lo.  Thev  were  first  eilited 
byThikin  Coda  Apoirryphu,  A'oB.Yrs*.  (Lips.  1832), 
ToLi;  arterwarda  by  Tiicbendorf,  in  Ada  Apoilotarvm 
AfurypkaiWi<LlK,l),p.\9a-3Sii  see  also  the  appen- 
ifii  to  ApoadgpKt  Apocrypha  (ibid.  1S56),  p.  1&6-161. 
(^DHied  with  the  Ada'a  the— 

I  Thoiu  Co.saUMMATIQ  {CoBtammalim  of  Tiom- 
■u),  Bbich,  like  Ibe  Tomier,  was  [be  source  dir  the  llitl. 
Apoil.  Ahdia.  It  was  edited  first  by  Tischendnrl  I'rom 
Bind.  Paris,  of  Che  llth  century,  and  published  in  his 
Ada  Apotlolorui^  p.  23a-243.  Hare  important  than 
ihwisthe- 

S.  Tiioji-B  EvASOBUUH  (Ooipel  of  Thomai).    Nest 

Ireneua  probablr  knew  it  (eomp.  Adc. 
Il«ra.  i,  SO),  while  Oriiien  (H'>^  /  u  Lmxim)  mentions 
the  nme  ciplicitlT;  Pseudo-Origen.  Philosopbirs  (ed. 
EiDn.MiUer.Oxon.  ia&i),p.  I01(comp.p.94),iipeakiar 
iu  having  hern  used  by  *  Gnostic  sect,  the  Naisenet, 
in  the  middle  oT  the  2<lcenturv;  Euseb.(//ur.  £;iMfe).iil, 
iS)  menijons  this  goepel  also,  and  Cyrill.  HieroMiJ.  {Ca- 
ItdL  p.  SS,  ed.  Oxon.  1702 ;  comp.  ibid.  4,  p.  6G)  thinks 
Ihst  Ibis  I'boRias  was  tbe  disciple  of  Manes.  The  ori- 
gin of  this,  19  well  as  of  most  of  the  Apocryphal  gospels, 
amu  be  sought  among  tbe  Unostic*,  and  especially 
aatong  those  who  einhnced  Doceliam  with  regard  to 
the  person  of  Christ;  and  the  very  large  number  of  mi- 
neu Urns  glories  laenlioneit  in  this  gospel,  which  found  so 
nuch  favor  aniong  the  Haniebiean*,  points  to  Ihii  Do- 
cetiim.  AccoriUng  to  Irennus,  loc  til.,  the  author  must 
hit'c  belonged  to  the  Maicueianlc  sect. 

We  have  do  complelo  text  of  this  gospel,  but  frag- 
ISFnls  ooly.  Cotelerius  first  published,  in  the  nol«  Co 
bis  Coaitil.  ApoUoL  vi.  17,  a  fragment  according  to  tbe 
Fariiuan  MS-  of  the  loth  century;  a  larger  portion  was 
pnbliiheil  by  Mingsrelli,  A'uacii  SaeatUa  <t  Opaieoli  Sci- 
atfvCn'(Venet.i;61),xii,7fl-15I>.     riscbendorf  found  a 

to  publish  a  triple  text  in  bis  collection  —  viz.  two 
Greek  and  one  Latin— with  tbe  following  titles:  Owfiii 
'lapnijXlTao  ^ooofov  pijrii  c'c  rd  iroiiutd  ™6  Ku- 
fi-oB.  This  ^ves  us  (he  childhood  of  Jesus  from  his 
fifth  to  his  twelfth  year  in  nineteen  chapters.  £uv- 
7pofi;io  TOii  dyiov  aTooroXou  Sw/ia  ripi  r^c  woiii- 
e^c  iTvoirrpo^^C  roir  Kupioif  gives  in  eleven  chapren 
the  tiuie  from  the  fifth  to  Ihe  eighth  year.  Tradatat 
it  Putriria  Jmt  tcandam  Thomam  gives  in  fifteen 
ehapten  the  time  from  the  flight  into  Egypt  to  the 
eighth  year  of  Christ's  lif&  These  texu  are  publiiheil 
byTiKheiuiurf  in  Vu  Emmgrt.  Apoaypha(U\».  1863); 
Ke  also  the  LXI  Pralepon.  of  the  Apocal.  Apocryph. 
A  Syriac  codex  «>■  published  by  Wright  (Lond.  187a), 
in  bis  Cimtriiiitiimt  lo  ikt  Apoaypkal  Liltraturt  of  Ihe 
.V(v  Tri.,  CoUrelrd  and  Edited /rem  SfriaH  MSS.  u 
(te  BriHa  J/VMVSI.  (K  P.) 
Tliomaa  1  Becket,  of  or  Cahtbbbcbt.     See 

BBCKCI.TlIOMAal. 

Tbomaa  i  Kupia.    See  Kkxfib,  Tiiohab  1. 
See  AqvinAS,  St.  Thomas. 
■  OP  Cst.A!io  was  a  native  of  Celano,  in 


0  THOMAS 

Abruzzo  Ultra  II.  He  is  noted  as  having  written  tbe 
earliest  biography  of  Francis  of  Asiiii,  and  the  hymn 
Oifi  /™  (q,  v.).  Neither  tbe  dale  of  his  biilh  nor  of 
his  death  is  known.  It  would  appear  froai  the  preface 
to  the  biography  that  he  was  eaiiy  associated  with 
Francis,  as  many  of  the  stalementa  are  given  as  based 
on  personal  ohaervation  or  the  authority  ofFrancis  him- 
self. CouT  of  Spires,  the  first  provincial  of  tbe  Order 
uf  Franciscans  in  Germany,  appoinled  him  to  the  office 
of  c«,IOM  over  the  Minorite  eon™ils  of  Cologne,  May- 
eiice,  Worms,  and  Spires,  as  early  at  least  as  1221.  This 
statenMnt  is  questioned  by  some,  because  the  chronicle 
of  the  order  compiled  by  Mark  of  Lisbon  iloea  not 
mention  him  among  the  twenty-five  earlier  and  mote 
important  disciples  of  the  saint,  though  more  obscure 
names  are  (bund  in  chsl  list.  The  biography  ascribed 
lo  him  is  given,  wiUi  notes,  in  the  Ada  ^'irncfurun,  Oc- 
tober, torn,  ii.  There  is  no  proof  either  for  or  against 
his  claim  to  the  authorship,  which  is  nowhere  asserted 
by  himself.  Nor  is  the  bonot  of  having  compoeed  the 
Dia  Ira  secured  to  him  by  any  belter  evidence.  The 
Franciscans  atlrihute  its  composition  to  him,  the  Do- 
minicans to  one  of  their  own  order,  a  Jesuit  to  an  Au- 
gualinian  monk,  a  Benedictine  lo  Gregory  the  Great  or 
ID  St.  Bernard.  Each  of  these  statements  is  artntrary, 
andsomeofthem  cannot  be  true.  Bartholomew  Albiixi 
of  Pisa  was  the  fitst  lo  credit  the  hymn  to  Celano,  in  his 
JJber  Conformilalan  {\SSi)  i  and  his  statement  warrants 
the  conclusions  that  the  hymn  waa  already  at  that  dale 
incorporated  with  Ihe  Missal,  and  therefore  well  known, 
and  that  Celano  was  generally  held  to  be  its  author. 
Wadding,  in  Scriptoitt  Ordiitii  Minoram,  suies  that 
Olano  composed  two  additional  sequences,  the  f'reyil 
Victor  Virtuulit,io  honorof  ScFrancia,and  the5(mc(». 
lalii  Nona  Signa.  See  Hobnike,  KircheTt-  u.  titerar.' 
hill.  Sludiai  {ISib),  i,  31 ;  Hllber,  Drtifacke  Chroaik  d. 
di-o/uojto./"raiu!iife-Oi(nu (Munich,  1686), p.  16;  Wad- 
ding, Annaki  if iwr.  lorn.  ii.  ad  ann.  1222;  Hase,  ^Viini 
p. /t  uui,  etc  (Uips.  1856),  p,  17,  iiole  1 7 ;  Tholuck,  Tf  rm. 
Sckryim,\,ni}i  Daniel,  rAe«ifiir.//simnu/.i,IO»-ISl— 
Eleizog,  Btal-Ena/hlop.  B.  V. 

ThomU  OF  Villjuiova.    See  Viu.ensiivs. 

Thomaa,  Bamabaa,  one  of  Wesley's  early  help- 
ers, was  a  native  of  Cornwall,  England.  He  was  ad- 
mltled  on  trial  bv  tbe  Conference  in  I7G4  and  preach- 
ed in  Wales,  and' was  likewise  stationed  in  Cork.  Ha 
was  named  in  the  deed  of  declaration.  He  at  length 
desisted  from  an  itinerant  life,  and  settled  in  Leeds,  but 
sank  into  obscurity,  and  died  of  a  violent  fever  while 
the  Conference  was  in  session  in  that  city  (1793).  See 
Atmore,  Mdh.  Mtmoriat,  s.  v. 

Tbomas,  BeujRmln  Calloj,  a  Baptist  miseion- 
ary,  was  bom  in  MaMachusetts.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  Univerwly  in  the  class  of  1847,  and  at  the  New- 
ton Thet^gical  Institution  in  the  claia  of  1850.  For 
eighteen  years  he  was  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Uaptist  Missionary  Union,  being  stationed  during  this 
period  at  various  places— three  yean  at  Tavoy,  Bengal; 
three  years  at  Henxadah,  Burmah;  and  two  years  at  . 

a  school  for  the  education  of  native  teachers.  Return- 
ing to  tbe  United  Slates,  he  died  in  the  citv  of  New 
York,  June  10, 1869.      (J.  C.  S.) 

Tbomwi,  Betijamln  Franklin,  chancellor  of 
Brown  Universitv,  was  bom  in  Boslon.  Mass.,  Feb.  12, 
lf<l3,  and  was  a  graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the 
class  of  1830,  having  entered  oillege  «i  the  early  age  of 
thirteen.  He  was  admitleil  to  Ihe  bar  of  Worcester  in 
1834  By  degrees  he  rose  to  an  exten»i»*o  practice,  and 
occupied  a  high  position  among  the  able  lawyers  wilfa 
whom  he  was  contemporary.  For  fouryesrs  (I8M-48) 
he  was  judge  of  probate  for  Worcester  County.  In  1853 
'  waa  appointed  to  a  place  msde  vacant  nn  Ibe  bench 
the  Supreme  Judicial  Onrt  of  Massachusetls,  and 
A  the  office  for  si.t  yesrs  (  1853-M).  Having  re- 
signed his  position  on  the  bench,  he  removed  lo  Boston, 


THOMAS  3 

where  in  his  prafeaion  he  achieved  eminent  Hieecn. 
He  served  one  um  (IS61-6S)  h  >  icpreKnUtive  in 
Qingreu  froin  Ugglon.  He  wae  elected  chancellor  of 
Brown  Uiiivenity  in  1874.  Hi*  death  look  place  at 
Beverly,  MasL,  Srpu  -27,  IS78.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Thomas,  Cllriatiui,  ■  modem  philoaopher,  wai 
bom  at  Lcipaie  in  lS6a,  and  graduated  at  the  Lcipaic 
Univemly.  Reading  PuOeiidnTra  Apology  for  Rr/tel- 
mgllie  Scholailic  Prvmipla  of  Moriib  and  Lav,iie  de- 
termincd  to  renounce  all  implicit  deference  to  ancient 
dogmas.  Drucker  givea  the  Ibltowtng  brier  apecimen 
of  hia  pecnliar  t«nera:  "Thougbt  ariaea  from  images 
impreaeed  upon  the  brain,  and  the  action  of  thinking  is 
periimned  in  the  wbule  brain.     Brulea 


Han  i< 


e  of 


thinking  and  moving,  or  endued  with  intellect  and  wilL 
Han  doea  not  alwayt  think.  Truth  is  the  agreement 
of  thought  with  Ibe  nature  of  things.  The  senses  are 
not  deceitful,  but  all  fallacy  a  the  effect  of  precipitation 
and  prejudice.  From  perception  arise  ideas  and  Iheir 
relations,  and  from  these,  reaaoningi,  U  is  impoaaible 
to  discover  truth  by  the  syllogisiic  art.  .  .  .  Ood 
perceived  by  the  intellectual  sense,  but  by  the  in 
tion  of  the  will^  for  creaturea  affect  the  brmio,  bn 
■he  hearL  All  crestuTt*  are  in  God;  nothing  ia 
rior  to  him.  Creation  is  eitensJOQ  produced  from 
\nR  by  the  divine  power,  Creaturfa  are  of  two  ! 
pBssiv-e  and  aclive;  the  formcT  is  matter,  the  tatter 
Spirit.  .  .  ,  The  human  Boul  ia  a  ray  from  the  divine 
nature,  whence  it  desires  union  wilh  (jod,  who  is  love," 
etc  Th.imui  died  at  Halle  in  I7S&  He  puUished,  J  i 
Immdadion  la  PuJfador/{\&Sl) :— A  D^na  afUit  Stct 
Iff  the  FiaUli:^An  latroductian  (a  Aulic  Platompky, 
etc: — Inlrodutliun  to  RcUvmal PliU'uopkfi : — A  Logital 
Praxii: — Intmtladiim  to  ttornl  PhilotopMyi—A  Curt 
for  [ntgutar  Piulimi  :—Euag  on  Ike  t/alnre  amd  Et- 
tBKx  ofSpiiit,  etc 

Tbomas,  Christopher,  a  Hethodist  Episcopal 
miiiiUer,  was  bum  in  Matthews  County,  Ta.,  Oct  SI, 
1797.  He  was  convened ^n  ISI6,  admiued  on  trial  in 
the  Virginia  Conference  in  IBSI,  and  appointed  (o  the 
Sussex  Circuit.  In  1S24  heatillheldthesamecireuit;  in 
IKU,  Yadkin;  in  la^S,  Salisburv;  in  1827,  Iredell;  in 
1828,  Willlamsburgh ;  and  in  1829,  Newbam,  K.  C,  all 
of  which  appointments  he  flUed  with  atiilily  and  auc- 
eta.  He  died  Nov.  U,  1829.  He  was  a  pUin  man,of 
strict  integrity,  consistent  Chrislianity,  and  highly  re- 
spectable abilities.    See  Slinalet  nfAmmat  CotffiriiKa, 


I,  David  (I),  a  minister  of  ihe  Baptist  de- 
I,  waa  bnm  at  Loudon  Tract,  Pa.,  Aug.  16, 
1732.  In  early  life  he  enjoyed  more  than  ordinary  ad- 
vantajires  for  obtaining  a  good  education.  lie  studied 
for  some  time  at  the  Academy  in  Hopewell,  under  Ihe 
tuition  of  Rev.  Isaac  Estnn,  and  in  1769  receii-ed  the 
honorary  degree  of  A.M.  from  Brown  Univenily.  When 
quite  young  he  began  to  preach.  He  removed  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1760,  and  spent  about  a  year  and  ■  half  in 
Berkeley  County.  He  then  visited  Fauquier  County, 
and  uniier  his  ministry  the  Broad  River  Church  was 
formed,  of  which,  for  ■'  time,  he  was  the  pastor.  Sub- 
sequently, from  this  church,  five  or  six  other  churches 
weto  conotituted.  He  travelled  aa  an  evangelist  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  Btaie.and  his  preaching  was  great- 
ly blessed  in  the  conversion  of  souls.  He  is  said  "to 
have  been  a  minister  of  great  distinction  tn  the  prime 
of  his  Jays.  Besides  the  natural  endowments  of  a  vigor. 
Dus  mind,  and  the  advantages  of  a  classical  and  reflned 
eiiucation,  he  hyl  a  melodious  and  piercing  voice,  a  pa- 
thetic address,  expresure  action,  and,  above  all,  a  heart 
lllled  with  love  Co  God  and  his  rellow-men."  Many  per- 
sons  in  Virginia  had  been  accustomed  to  hear  but  liitle 
evangelical  preaching.  They  were  altracteil  by  the  elo- 
quence ofso  accomplished  s  minister  as  waa  Hr.Thomas, 
and  not  ■  few  who  occupied  high  Mictal  positions  were 
led  to  the  Saviour.     Near  the  close  of  his  life  he  te- 


0  THOMAS 

moved  to  Kentuchj'.  He  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  for 
some  time  before  his  death  was  neatly  blind.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  faithful  servsnt  of  Christ  was  good  and 
permanent.     Sea  Lien  of  Virginia  SofKiit  Uiaitttr$, 

p.6i-aa.    {.r.c.3.) 

Thomaa,  David  (2),  a  Welih  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Cowbridg^  May  19, 1783.  He  gnd- 
usled  at  Wrexham  Academy,  studied  theology  with  Dr. 
Jenkin  Lewis,  and  iunerated  through  the  hamlets  and 
villages  about  Mognr  and  Penywain.  In  ISIS  be  act- 
tied  over  the  pariah  of  ^yolvasnewton,  and  in  1819  re- 
moved to  Nebo.  In  1824  he  took  the  oversight  of  the 
Church  at  Llanvsches,  and  continued  his  misaiooary 
labors  through  manv  neighboring  pariihea.  He  died 
in  November,  1864.  '  His  life  was  oik  calm,  public,  an.1 
unwavering  testimony  fur  truth  and  for  GoiL  See 
(Und.)  Cong.  Year-boot,  1866,  p.  28& 

Thomaa,  David  (9),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  1793.  He  graduated  at  the  Presby- 
terian College.  Carmarthen,  and  was  ordained  in  1^ 
at  Pembnikeahire,  and  ahortlv  afterwards  settled  at 
IVoIton-under-Edge,  and  retained  this  charge  until  the 
clow  ofhis  life.  HediedMan^h28,186l.  His  pieich- 
ing  was  earnest,  faithful,  and  evangelicaL  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  rear-took,  1862,  p.  263. 

Thomaa,  David  (4),  A.B.,  an  English  Congr^a- 
lional  minister,  was  bom  at  Menhyr-Tydvil.  Aug.  IG, 

1811.  He  waa  educated  at  Highbury  College  and  Glas- 
gow University,  where  he  took  the  first  prize  in  Ingic 
He  was  ordained  in  1886,  at  Zion  Chapel,  Bedminiur. 
In  1844  he  settled  at  Highbury  Chapel.  Cotham,  ml 
commenced  that  career  of  spirilual  power  and  miniae- 
risl  prosperity  which  lasted  thirty  years,  growing  more 
and  more  bright  and  beautiful  from  year  b>  year.  Mr. 
Thomaa  had  a  vigorous  intellect,  highly  cultivated,  and 
marked  by  large  intelligence  and  the  purest  taste.  -His 
conversation  on  books,  public  men,  and  human  attain 
manifested  a  oomprehensive  graap,  a  diacrirainatiiig 
touch,  and  no  small  amount  of  genial  hunHr."  He 
died  Nov.  7, 1876.  See  (Lond.)  Cov  rtar-iool,  1876, 
p.  874. 

Thomas.  Bboneser,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbvteriin 
minister,  was   bom   at   Chelmsford,  England,  Dec  it, 

1812.  His  father  was  an  In.lependent  minister,  edu- 
cated at  Hoxwn  College  in  London,  and  was  ordained 
at  Chelmafurd  in  1806,  where  he  remained  as  psstnr  fur 
a  dumber  of  years.  He  removed  to  Cincinnati,  O.,  when 
his  eon  was  but  a  child.  He  waa  engaged  in  preaching 
in  Cindnnali  and  destitute  neighboitiiwds  for  sevFTal 
ytMt^  With  a  view  of  supplying  the  deetilute,  he  or- 
ganiied  a  Home  Evan  gel  isut  ion  Society,  end  was  it* 
agent.  He  accepted  a  call  to  Uke  charge  of  the  Webfa 
Independent  Church  at  Paddy's  Run,  O.  Here  he  et- 
tablished  a  boarding-school,  and  some  of  the  firat  men 
of  the  country  were  his  patrons  and  pupila,  Under  hit 
father's  instruction,  yoiing  Thomas  waa  prepared  for 
college.  He  entered  the  Miami  Univenily  and  grad- 
uated in  1B&4.     He  pnasesaed  powen  of  inind  of  the 

Lghesl  order,  and  his  scholarly  attainments  werenrely 
equalled,  never  surpassed.  Immediately  aHer  his  gnd- 
lion,  be  commenced  teaching  at  Hiung  Sun.  tnd., 
1  anerwanlB  at  Franklin,  0.  When  not  engaged  in 
(caching,  he  pursued  the  study  of  theology.  He  waa 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Oxford  in  1836.  Al- 
though he  had  not  had  the  advantage  of  truning  in  a 
theological  seminary,  there  were  few  more  thoroughly 
educated  in  every  branch  of  theology.  He  waa  c^led 
to  take  charge  of  the  Church  at  Harrison,  and  he  wo* 
ordained  and  inacatled  over  the  nme  in  July,  1837. 
Aner  remaining  in  Harrison  over  two  yeara,  he  waa 
Icon  Church,  where  he  remaittrd 
waa  elected  pnddent  of  Hannrer 
College.  This  position  he  occupied  until  1854.  when 
^pt  the  chair  of  Biblical  lileratote  and 
logical  Seminary  at 


THOMAS  s 

lo  Cbingo,  wti<n  he  migncd,  but  wu  re-eleeUd  by 
Iht  Kw  buinl  al  ila  tint  meeling.  He  accepted  the 
appoiilnwiit,  but  on  arciiunt  of  contiDveny  in  the 
Cbgrcb  in  regard  to  hi*  views  and  thoae  of  hit  col- 
iogiK,  PraTewnr  HcMaMan,  in  regani 


sdfurt 


In  It 


lint  he  HipjiUed  the  pulpit  of  the  fint  Preebyteriao 
ChuTch  in  New  Albany.  In  1868  the  rjikhIi  in  whose 
hoonds  the  Mminary  wai  located  voted  to  ulfei  it  to 
the  UenenI  AraemUy,  and  in  1B&9  it  waa  accepted  by 
ibc  udkl  In  the  tneantime  the  fine  Chureh  of  Day 
UD,  O.  Rare  Dr.  Thumai  a  call,  which  he  accepted. 
Hen  lie  waa  duly  inUalled,  and  enured  on  hii  work, 
■bicb  be  proaecoted  with  energy  and  aucceai  fartweh-e 
nan,  when  he  reatgned  to  accept  the  chair  of  New- 
Toi.r.rHk  and  eiegesia  in  Ldne  Seminary,  Walnut 
Uilli,  Ondnnati,  O.  He  die.1  there  Feb.  2,  I8T&. 
Dr.  Tboinai  waa  a  general  tchiilar.  He  carried  hia 
audit*  outaide  of  the  cvrriculum,  and  wai  at  hnme  in 
biiUiry,  geology,  botany,  eniomology,  mineralogy,  as- 
tnnomy,  and  microacopy.  He  waa  a  model  teacher, 
hii  thurough  knowledge  of  every  department  and  bia 
nnrifiilol  colloquial  powera  coDibin«l  to  make  him  a 
gnat  favorite  in  the  clan-moio.  Aa  a  theologian  he 
wai  ■  HDceTe  and  aound  Calviiiist,  and  he  waa  aa  rich 
io  Chrialian  experience  u  he  was  sound  in  the  failli. 
it  I  pteacfaer  he  waa  popular  and  aucceaaful  in  all  the 
fckborhia  labor.  In  all  that  goes  to  make  up  excel. 
Imcea  in  writing  and  speaking,  he  was  a  prince.  He 
waa  oteemed  and  honored  by  alL     (W.  P.  S.) 

ThoiDBB.  EdiTArd,  an  Episcopal  dei^man,  waa 
bom  in  St.  Stephen's  Parish,  S.  C^  Sep^  38, 1800,  and 
RcdTed  bia  early  education  al  the  giammar-acbool  in 
FlwTiDe.  In  1817  he  entered  the  lophomore  claaa  in 
the  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia,  and  graduated  in 
IB19.  He  livid  in  Cambridge,  Man.,  in  order  to  study 
BiHatrard  College;  and,Hnera  few  iDantha,trBnBretred 


1  THOMAS 

Thomaa  was  a  man  of  good  presence,  fine  addreis,  and 
gnu  leal  and  energy  a*  a  minister.  See  Simpaon,  Cf- 
clop,  of  Mfliodiim,  s.  v. 

Thomaa,  Bnocb,  a  rnsbyierian  minister,  waa 
bom  Dec.  81,  1805,  at  tJt.George'a,  Newcaslle  Co„  Del. 
He  was  prepared  foe  college  at  (he  Phillipe  Academy 
at  Anduver,  Maae.,  under  John  Adama,  principal,  and 
waa  graduated  from  Amherat  College  in  I83B.  About 
this  time  he  united  with  the  S«ond  Preat^lerian 
Church  of  Wilmington,  Del.  He  then  engaged  for  aix 
montli*  aa  anistant  teacher  in  a  aeminary  at  Newark, 
DeL, after  which  he  entered  Princeton  Serntnar.v,N.J., 
and  remained  there  until  near  the  cloae  of  lRB5,wheo 
he  left  because  of  feeble  bealifa.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  Wilmington  Preabytery  Oct.  14, 1885,  after  which 
he  began  lo  labor  as  a  misaionaiy  in  fiockiiiKham  Coun- 
ty, Va.  He  waa  ordained  tine  lalthi  by  the  Liziiiglon 
Preshyteiy  at  High  Bridge  Church,  V*.,  June  17, 1887. 
For  about  a  .    .       -  . 


w  Have 


cuting  hi 


Tsle.  He  entered  the  llieotogical  Seminary, 
New  Tori,  in  1H33;  relumed  tu  hia  native  stale  lu  tne 
fall  of  18^4 ;  and,  in  February,  1826,  waa  ordained  del- 
an  by  biahop  Bowen,  and  became  a  miaeioniry  first 
IS  Fairfield  Diatricl,  and  •rtemanis  tn  Greenville.  In 
April,  18%,  he  was  admitted  to  prieal'a  orden  by  biab- 
^  Bowm,  and,  after  fllling  nut  hia  nnexpired  term  at 
Greenville,  became  rector,  Fel>ruarv,  IB27,  of  Trinity 
Church  on  Edialo  Island.  In  1834  he  resigned  hia 
tharge  on  accAunt  of  ill-health,  and  went  to  reside  at 
Si.  Aognsiiiie.  Fla.,  where  bia  health  so  improved  that 
Ute  reciniship  of  the  Church  there  was  olhred  to  him. 
Htdnlined.and  alter  a  further  residence  there  relumed 
Id  Sonlh  Carolina,  awl  in  1836  accepted  a  call  (o  the  par- 
inti  of  Si.  JnhnX  tterkelev  Counti.  In  the  winlei  of 
Its: -38  the  diacaae  of  which  he  died  (an  affection  of 
the  boweh)  be):an  lo  ahciw  iiaelf,  but  he  continued  to 
labor  vn  until  Slav  24. 1840,  when  he  gave  up  work  cn- 
Urdy.  dying  July  II  of  the  same  year.  A  volume  of 
Sfrinnu  waa  published  after  hiadeath,undeTtheBuper- 
nnanof  hi*  widow.  See  Sprague,  AmaU  oflkt  Amer. 
Ptlpil,  T,  664. 

ntoma*.  En«aBeT,  D.D.,  a  miniater  of  the  Hetb- 
ediat  Epixopal  Church,  was  bom  in  the  State  of  New 
Totk;  received  an  academic  educa^on  at  Caxenoviai 
waa  eoDverted  when  aeventeen;  and  entered  Genesee 
CenhreDce  aa  a  probatiunet  in  I8S9.  He  waa  crans- 
brred  to  Califuniia  in  I8£i,  and  was  paator  one  year  of 
the  Powell  Street  Church,  San  Fnnciacn.  In  1866  he 
was  elected  editor  of  the  Cali fi'i-nii  Ciriitian  A  drarale ; 
aiKl  re-elected  iu  I860  and  18G4.  He  waa  choaen  book- 
sffent  in  1868,  and,  at  the  end  of  hia  four  yean'  term  in 
187J,  was  appointed  presiiiinK  elder  of  the  Petaliima 
Ustriet.  In  the  spring  of  1873  he  waa  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Peace  Commisaon,  and  sent  to  treat 
with  the  Uodoc  Indiana.  On  April  II  the  commiiaion- 
en  titn  decoyed  into  the  Ljiva  Beds,  Southern  Ore- 
G«,  and  Dr.  fboinaa  and  Gen.  Canby  were  killed.    Dr. 


Id  Shilo 


where  hia  Isbora 


gregations  attended  his  minisiiy.  Having  accepted  a 
call  to  Shemariah  Chun;h,  Augusta  Co.,  Va„  he  wsa  in- 
atalled  aa  paator  Dec  1, 1S38.  His  health  having  im- 
proved, and  the  community  having  provided  an  acad- 
emy, Hr.  Thomas  also  cummenced  a  classical  school, 
which  became  in  a  sbotc  time  quite  flunrishing.  Dut  the 
united  duties  of  |<aalor  and  teacher  were  too  nnemus, 
and  he  was,  at  his  own  requesi,  released  from  hia  for- 
mer charge,  Oct.  12, 1848.  This  waa  hia  only  paatoi^ 
charge.  Thenceforth  he  reaiiled  about  eighteen  years 
at  Beverly,  Randolph  Co.,  and  labored  as  a  missionary 

wide  extent  of  wild  and  mouniainoua  couiilry,  preach- 
ing in  court-houses,  JaiK  achonl-houaes,  bams,  and  pri- 
vate houBo,  wherever  any  would  gather  to  hear  Ihe 
Word  of  Cod.  There  waa  no  miniater  nearer  on  the 
west  than  ClarksbLirg,  and  on  the  sonlh-west  Ihan  Par- 
kenburg.  Much  of  Ihe  wide  region  he  tinveraed  wa* 
a  mountain  wildemeas;  often  his  only  road  was  an  ob- 
scure path;  dangerous  riven  were  lo  be  forded;  and 
many  of  the  beat  people  were  living  in  log-catnna,  often 
in  a  single  room.  But  he  enjoyed  the  work,  gladly 
breaking  the  bread  of  life  lo  the  hungry  and  the  starv- 
ing. The  breaking-out  of  the  Civil  War,  in  1861, 
slopped  his  work,  and  liia  migNon  Aeld  became  a  scene 
of  strife.  Having  removed  his  family  from  Beverly  lo 
Craigst'ille.  Aug iiata  Co.,  he  occasionally  supplied,  during 
the  war,  the  chiirche*  of  Windy  Cove,  Warm  Springa, 
and  Lebanon.  Alter  1865  he  preached  as  opportunity 
offered.  He  generally  taught  school  in  Ihe  winter  aea- 
son.  For  several  of  his  last  yean  he  atiRered  severely 
fmm chronic ItiroatHlisease.  HediedatCraigBvillf,Jan. 
25,1879.     (W.P.S.) 

Thomaa,  John  (l),  LLD.,  an  English  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Carlisle,  Oct.  14.  1713;  was  educated  at 
the  grammar-achool  at  Carlisle,  and  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  After  his  graduation  he  became  an  asaiaunt 
at  a  claaaical  academy,  Soho  Square,  Ixindon;  then  pri- 
vate tutor  to  the  younger  son  of  Sir  William  Clayton, 
He  was  ordained  deacon  Hareh  27,  1737,  and  prieat 
Sept.S5.  In  Ihe  same  year  he  waa  presented  by  George 
II  to  Ihe  reclory  of  Blechingly,  and  waa  inaiituted  Jan. 
37, 1788.  On  Jan,  18, 1748,  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
in  ordinary  to  the  king;  April  38, 1764,  he  waa  made 
prebendary  of  Westminster;  and  Dec  13,  1760,  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Geoi^  HI.  In  1762  he  waa 
appointed  aub-almoiier  lo  the  atchbiahop  of  York ; 
and  in  1766  waa  inatitulcd  to  the  vicarage  of  St. 
Bride\  Londoru  He  succeeded  Dr.  Pearc«  aa  dean 
of  Westminster,  1768;  and  in  November,  1774,  be- 
cun*  biahop  of  Rochester.  He  died  Aug.  22,  179S. 
A  valuable  colleclion  of  hia  Sfmiont  and  Chnrgtt 
was  publiibed  by  ttar.  G.  A.  Thomaa  (17B6,  3  vols. 
Sto). 

John  (3),  a  Wslah  Congregational  min- 
n  nt  Carmarthen,  April  13, 181 1.    He  waa 


THOMAS 

mn*ertcditth«*geafeighiern,u]dbec>nie  meffldenC 
teacber  in  rlie  Sibbitb-schoal ;  remofed  to  Newcislle 
ia  laM,  aad,  at  the  request  of  the  Welsh  populalioD, 
became  pastor  of  Chdr  chapel.  He  accepteil  a  call  rrom 
GlyniieaLh  in  185S ;  liui  alter  two  yeari  of  labor  with 
that  people,  under  tnedical  ad^-ice,  resigned  his  charge. 
He  died  Aug.  B,  lS70,  See  (Lond.)  Cuns.  i'tar-bixk, 
18?l,  p.  353. 

ThomBB,  JoshuB,  a  Welah  Conftregatioiial  minia- 
tcr,  was  born  at  Penmain,  Aug.  !,  1803.  At  an  early 
■ge  he  was  the  subject  of  deep  religious  impreauQua,  and 
at  the  age  of  seventeen  Joined  the  Church.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Brecon  College,  and  was  ordained  pastar  of  the 
Church  at  AduUam  Chapel,  Merlhyr-Tydvil,  where  he 
labored  with  zeal  and  energy  for  eleven  veart.  In  1848 
Ur-Thonias  removed  to  CariDaTthenahiie,loUke  charge 
of  the  united  churcbea  nf  Bethlehem  and  Cape  Isaac, 
where  he  labored  for  aix  j-ears  with  much  acceptance 
and  success.  In  1849  he  removed  to  Aberavon,  and 
devoted  himseir  with  indefatigable  leal  U>  the  spirit- 
ual improvement  of  the  people;  and,  in  spile  of  Diany 
difflculties,  succeeded  in  erecting  a  spaciiHis  chapel 
and  gathering  a  numemus  congregatkm.  His  leal 
cbar^  was  at  Aberdare,  where  he  labored  till  his  death, 
Sept.  2,  ISJo.  See  (I^nd.)  Cong,  rear-boot,  1878, 
PL  877. 

Thomas,  RlohBrd  R.,  M.D.,a  minister  of  the  .So- 
ciety of  Friends,  was  biim  in  Anne-Arundel  County,  Md., 
June,  I80S.  "  [laving  received  a  liberal  education  and 
completed  a  course  of  medical  studies,  ha  settled  in  Bal- 

teacbet  of  meiliclne."  In  the  work  of  the  ministry  he 
labored  with  great  diligence.  He  held  many  meetings 
among  other  denominatiuni,  and  preached  with  great 
acceptability.  He  was  a  man  of  pteoeing  address;  and, 
ling  great  vivacity  and  extraordinary  talents,  * 


THOMAS 


eadya. 


cultirati 


He 


died  at  his  residence,nearBiltimure,  Jan.  15,1860.  See 
Aimual  Momtor,  1860,  p.  138. 

Tboma*,  Robert  Jemain,  A.a,  a  Welsh  Con- 
gregational missionary,  was  bora  at  Rhayadar,  Sep^  7, 
1810.  He  matriculated  at  the  London  University  at 
the  age  nf  sixteen,  and  i;aineil  [he  Mills  scholarship  and 
Look  high  honors  at  the  university.  He  was  ordained 
June  4, 1863,  at  Hanover  Cbapel,  and  tailed  the  follow- 
ing mouth  fur  Shanghai,  under  the  direction  nf  thelxxi- 
du»  Misnuniry  Society.  He  waa  ■fterwanls  appointed 
to  the  Pehin  mission,  and  on  bis  way  thither  he  un- 
dertook an  extensive  missionaiy  journey  thmngb  the 
peninsula  of  Cores,  telling  the  glorious  truths  of  the 
Gospel  of  Christ  siid  distributing  copies  of  the  Script- 
urea.  In  IS6S  the  French  admiral  prepared  an  eipe- 
dititin  against  the  Coreans,  and  Mr.  Thomas  was  per- 
suaded to  act  as  an  inlerprctcr  for  the  expedition.    He 

Bible.  Julv,  18HU.     See  (Lond.)  Coag.  Ytar-hook,  1868, 
p.  296. 
ThomBB,  BamnBl  (O.aMethodistEpiscopalmin- 

ofMelhrKlism,  in  the  Slate  of  New  jereey.  He'wasan 
accfptalile  local  preacher  fur  a  number  of  year»,cnlercil 
the  itinerancy  in  1796,  and  Hlled  the  following  slationi : 
In  1796-97,  Haoders  Circuit;  1798,  Elizabethlown  Cir- 
cuit; 1799,  Freehold;  IBOO-I,  Sewburgj  1802,  Bethel; 
1803,  FJiiabethtown;  tS04-Ii,  Freehold;  ISOti,  sitpemu- 
merary  in  Brooklyn ;  1807,  in  New  York ;  1H08.  super- 
annuated, in  which  relation  he  continued  until  he  died, 
in  1812.  Mr.  Thomas  was  a  man  of  much  prayer  and 
diligence  in  searching  the  Scriptures,  stmngly  altnched 
to  the  doctrines  and  diBcipliiie  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Cbnrch,  and  ever  considered  as  a  strict  diwiplina- 
rian.  See  JfinufM  i>f  Ataual  Conftratca,i,1f»i\  Ste- 
vens, llitl.  «f  M.  /■;.  Chai-ch  i  V,  281. 

Thomas.  Samuel  (2),  an  Independent  minister, 
waaborninJorat,Switzerland,inl8ni.    By  his  own  in- 


dustry hi 


It  Laasamte  Acadenv, 

n  18-J5.     After  four  vean 

:r.  Tbomaa  was  elected 


obtained  an  educalioi 
irdained  at  Grancy 
of  usefulness  at  the  latter  place, 
president  of  the  Training  Insti 
for  which  he  was  eminently  riUed,  both  by  his  earliest 
piety  and  varied  gifts  and  attainmenta.  In  IBS6  be  waa 
called  to  the  Church  uf  the  Uratory  at  Yverdun,  where 
he  spent  nineteen  rears  of  useful  la^r,  and  in  I8&E  aet- 
tled  at  Nenfchateli  Hedied  Jan.  12,]SG7.  Hr.  Tbom- 
aa was  a  man  of  inflexible  principles,  yet  of  most  gentle 
and  tender  disposition.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in 
tbe  revival  movement  in  Switierland,  and  showed  him- 
self a  wise  and  expetiencal  counseUor.  See  (Lond.) 
Co<^.  Ytar-bwk,  1868,  p.  297. 

Thomaa,  Samaol  (S),  an  English  Congregaitonal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Pontreyeh,  Nov.  20,  1815.  Ha 
graduated  at  Brecon  College  in  1843,  and  was  ordained 
to  the  pastorate  of  Ebeneier  Chapel,  Newport.  Uniw 
his  personal  superintendence  a  new  chapel  was  creeled, 
and  the  Church  membership greatlv  increased.  InlSGD 
he  removed  to  Bethlehem,  and  labored  with  the  Church 
there  until  his  death,  April  9, 1869.  See  (Lond.)  Comg, 
r«ic-fc»i,1870,p.a22. 

Thoma«,XbOlDlw,aWeliih  Congregational  minte- 
ter,  was  born  near  Carmarthen  in  18S2,  and  was  bnnighl 
up  under  Unitarian  influence  and  educated  fi>r  the  nike^ 
ical  prolesHon;  but  the  love  of  evangelical  truth  in- 
duced him  to  enter  the  ministry.  He  graduated  at 
Homeiton  College,  and  accepted  the  pastorale  uf  Fetter 
Lane  Chapel,  London;  and  labored  also  at  Wellinglmr- 
ongh  thirteen  years.  In  1868  he  removed  to  Beibnal 
Green  Chapel,  London,  and  laboreil  with  them  until  his 
death,  Match  IS,  1861.  Itr.  Thomas  was  a  worker  nf 
the  highest  type,  a 


William  (1),  an  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Bristol,  Feb.  2,  1618,  and  received  his  primary 
achool  of  Carmarlben,  where  his 
grandfather  lived.  He  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  in  1629,  and  removed,  later,  to  Jesus  Collie, 
of  which  he  was  afterwanls  chosen  a  fellow  and  ap- 
led  tutor.  His  ordination  as  deacon 
hrist  Church,  June  4,  1637,  and  as  p 
fnlioniiig.  His  brat  preferment  was  the  vicarage 
of  Pen btyn,  Cardiganshire.  He  became  chaplain  tii  tiie 
eari  of  Northumberland,  who  presented  him  to  the  vic- 
arage of  Laughame,  with  the  rectory  of  LlansadwrhCD 
annexed.  In  1644  a  party  of  Parliament  horse  came 
into  town  threatening  to  kill  Mr.  Thomas  if  they  found 
him  praying  for  the  queen.  They  did  interfere  wiih 
the  service,  but  were  JO  struck  with  bis  composare  and 
patience  that  they  len  him  without  funher  disiurbanee. 
Soon  after,  the  Parliament  committee  deprivnl  him  lA 
his  living  of  Laugharar,  from  which  lime  till  the  Res- 
toration he  endnreil  great  hardships,  being  obliged  to 
tcsch  a  private  school  for  his  support.  At  the  Restora- 
tion, Mr.  Thomas  was  rcinslaled  in  his  living,  and  by 
the  king's  letters-palent  made  chanter  of  St.  David's. 
In  I6GI  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Llanbedr  in 
the  Valley,  Pembroke  County,  aiid  made  chaplain  to 
the  duke  of  York,  through  whose  intluence  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  deanery  oT  Worcester,  Nov.  35, 1666;  and 
waa  presented  to  the  rectory  ofHampton  Lovett  in  1670, 
Here  he  removed  his  family,  quitting  the  living  of 
Laughame.  In  1677  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  St. 
David's,  and  held  the  deanery  of  Worcester  ja  commns- 
ditm.  Having  been  bishop  of  St.  David's  six  I'ean.  he 
was  translated  to  the  seeof  Worcester,  where  he  effect- 
ed several  refiirmi.  He  died  June  35,  1688.  ^hop 
Thoman  pnblisheil.  An  Apologgfor  Iht  Churdi  ofjing- 
land  (1678-79,  8vo);-.4.nM  Srrmon  (!657):-r*e 
Mammmi  i-f  U«righlfountu,  a  sermon.  His  Ijtitr  to 
Ihr  Clrifiy,  and  an  imperfect  work,  Roman  Ororlrt  Si- 
ImctH,  were  published  afler  his  death.  See  Chalmen, 
Biog.  Did.  e.  v. 


ook  place 


■e  he  via  fl^ttA 


Ht 


ity  Colkgr,  Cam- 
bis  muLer'a  de- 
>nlens  *nil  bad  the  living  of 
en  him  hy  ihe  inumt  of 
ru  well  dlApcwed  tuworda 


k^lulJ,  in  Warwickabi 
knl  Somm.  Qu«a  Aniv 
hJD.  bat  he  doFlioed  prefei 
Kiiii)K«ilucalioii<irhi«ramily  beremaved  U>  Worceelei 
in  t;zi,and  in  17^  wu  prCBentnl  Ui  the  reclorv  of  St. 
Nkludaa  in  that  city.  Be  diertJuly  26, 1738.  BeaJdei 
tang  ikillcd  in  Ibe  Gretk  and  Latin  languages,  he  al*o 
muUred  ihe  French,  llalian,  snd  Saxon.  He  publiah- 
Hl,.'lii^ui^iUci  Prioratui  Majtrit  lUaterrna  {ll'ia}: — 
•n  tdiliog  or  ntiqdalr'i  WancKiahixt  (1730) :— and  Sar- 
Kf  "/Ihe  Calh^al  Church  n/  IVoraler  <IT1G}.  He 
inimdediu  hive  published  ■  hiMory  "f  fforce»lenbire; 
lad,  to  gather  material  Tnr  tliig,  viaiteil  everv  church  in 
lt«  cnunly.  To  these  libars  Dr.  Nash  on'ns  himseir 
pfatly  izKlebled. 

ThomaBin  OF  ZiBKi.aKiA  (Z(rU£re). in  Ibe  Italian 
Tml,  arulc  a  IcDgtbv  didactic  pvem  between  August, 
lil&,  and  Maj,  12 IS,  entitled  Drr  wdlMcAe  Gut  (  The 
f'orriiiH  Gatif).  by  which  production  be  began  the  ex- 
■tflried  uriea  of  ethical  poenia  that  dialinguish  the  13th 
eeniin-.  Thomasin  wai  ■  layman,  and  wrote  for  Uy- 
iBai,aBd  with  him  Ijeging  the  distinction  between  a  TC- 
tigiuut  morality  lor  the  people  and  a  theological  moral- 
ity or  the  Church.  Hii  work  is  characterized  by  vi- 
raciiT  and  frracefulneu,  by  clearness  of  expression  and 
■smih  of  feeliDg,  though  not  by  Blbetical  and  lin- 
guiatic  beauties.  Independence  of  thought  is  alao  a 
lading  quality,  and  is  carried  to  such  a  degree  aa  to  de- 
fend the  principle  that  conicienee  is  superioc  to  eccleai- 
sitiul  institutions  of  every  kind.  Thomaain  does  not 
rage  against  the  priesthood  and  the  papacy,  hut  rather 
cswems  ibem  very  bighly  when  they  "bear  the  image 
<if  gcod  docirine;"  but  he  does  not,  on  the  other  ' 


rality. 


n  their 
•r,  was  t 


Hil  object,  in  brief,  was  to  leach  a  practical  a 
ami  his  place  is  i 
ligxios  and  ethic 

iW  affinity  for  Ihe  good  and  the  rijjht,  \s  the  centre  of 
lU  Tinues.  Thia  is  not  the  Coralmlia  of  the  stoical 
Sneca  merely,  hut  a  positive  energy  which  actually 
gim  eBect  to  the  impulses  of  the  heart.  Evil  ia  Vn- 
tfAr.  or  instability.  Among  particular  virtues,  humility 
given  the  Hrat  place.  The  book  existed  in  MS.  form 
"      ■         -     -as  issued  by  Ullckert 


«  ZirUaria 


il  1852, 
the  title  I>rr  wOiiehe  Gait  da  Thumaim 
(Quedlinburg  and  Leips.),  with  notes.  Comp.  the  ex- 
tracts given  in  Geidi.  iL  port.  A'alioaiillittralur,  by  Ger- 
rinus,  and  see  Dietiel,  Ittr  icdttcU  Gail  u.  d.  Moral  dtt 
Ufn  Jahrh.  in  Kiel,  A  Ugrn.  M<>mit$KhT}fl,  Aug.  1862, 
P.S87-7I4.— Henog,  Bral-EmyUap.  a.  r. 

Tbomaaina,  Uottpried,  ■  German  ProtcaUnt  di- 
vine, oa*  bom  in  the  year  1802  at  Egenhaiisen,  in  Fran- 

pacb.  ami  prosecuted  hi|  theologicsl  studies  at  the  uni- 
renities  ofKrUngen,  Itille.and  Berlin.  In  I»i9  he  was 
pnicher  at  the  Church  of  the  llnly  Gliost  in  Xuremherg, 

ibrrc.  In  lfH2  he  was  called  to  Erlangen  as  professor 
i^dugmatics  and  nnivernlv  preacher.  For  more  than 
tUny  y«nhe  flUed  that  chair,anddied  aaaeniorofthe 

Realty,  Jan. 21, 1875.  He  pub]ished,Or^F»(.'  mBri- 
tnii  ur  DagmngaAKUt  det  Slat  Jahrh.  (Nuremh. 


1837):- 


e.  IgU'ji—Btilriigt  up  tiichlicini  Chiilatagir 
(ibid.  tHa):  — />oyaKi/H  de  Oioiirnlia  Chriiii  Adiua 
IliMma  et  Pmgreuioint  inde  a  Confiino'ie  A  ugtulaxa 
•id  Ftrm^ta*!  Mt^at  C(meordi(t  (ibid.  IMC) :— Oot  Bf 
hmttiu  itr  eraitg.-4iirh.  Kirthe  M  der  Contr^mi  wintt 
Pnm^  (Noleffib.  l»ia)  s—ChruH  Ptrtom  Had  ITert. 


S  THOMLINSON 

DarUdhng  der  lalier.  DapaalVc  nm  ifiOflpmit  der 
Chritloloyitnui  (Erlaiig.  1853-61,3  vols.;  !d  ed.  1867): 
— Dm  BfJCamtnUt  der  talher.  Kirche  von  der  Vertdhaung 
uM  die  VertihtauigtlAre  Dr.  Chr.  K.  e.  Ilofmamt  (ibiiL 
1857).  He  aL«  published  several  volumes  ofSermou.- 
— a  practical  Coitimenlury  on  Paati  Kpiitle  (o  the  Colat' 
tiant  (Kriang.  1869),  etc  See  Zucbold,  BOL  ThtoL  ii, 
1337  sq.;  Theobiguchrt  Cnmrmi-Lexihm,  a.  v.;  Uta- 
mriichtr  Ilinidipeuer /lir  dai  kalkol.  IltitlicUaiid,  1868, 
P.1J9;  Henog,  fi<oi-f«<yiijp.s.v.     (B.  P.) 

TtaomaBBln,  Louis  uk,  a  learned  French  divine, 
was  bora  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  Aug.  28. 16J9.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  was  admitted  into  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory,  where  be  remained  as  professor  of  moral  philoa- 
ophy  until  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  divinity  at 
Saumur.  He  removed  lo  Paris  in  1654,  to  bold  confer- 
ences in  positive  theology  in  the  Seminary  of  Saintc- 
Hagloire,  which  he  continued  till  1688.  From  that  time 
he  was  engaged  principally  with  his  writings  until  his 
death,  Dec  !5. 1695.  His  principal  works  are.  Errltri- 
aHieal Diinplme  (reprinted  I725,S voUfoLin  French): 
—  Theological  Dogmai  {1680,  3  vols.  foL  in  Latin):— 
Tradi  on  Ike  Didnt  Offin :  on  Ihs  Ftaif ;  on  the  Fatli ; 
on  Tr«li  nnd  Faltehood,  on  Almi;  on  Trade  and 
Uiury  (all  8vo) : — Tr.  Daipaatigae  del  IHosmi  dual  on 
I'eit  lerri  dimi  loui  let  Tempi  pour  nmnfmtr  CUnili  de 
r£'jrfiM(l703,  3  vola.4to):— also  Diredioni  for  Sludg- 
iag  and  Teaching  FhOniophy  in  a  Chrliliaa  Maimrr 
(Svo):—A  Umerriat  Bebrmt  Glouary  (Louvre,  l(i97, 
fol.):— DuMr((ir>PiUM(AeCoi«alt,inI^tin  (ie67,lto)i 
-Jf>>iwi'rejiurJn(;r(!«(l682,4lo).  UiaUfe,by Border 
is  prellxed  to  his  Hi^revi  GUuiaiy.  See  Chalmers, /fio;. 
DieLwi.;  [look,  Eectei.  Biog.».v.;  Manoe,  Reid'Eneg- 
Idop.^v.;  \iotkT,Nom.Biog.Ginirale,»,v. 

Tbomlsta,  a  name  often  given  to  Ihe  foUowera  of 
Thomas  Aquinaa,  who,  besides  adopting  the  Aristoteliao 
philosophy,  in  oppodtion  lo  Duns  Scotus,  irho  held  the 
Platonic,  also  Uugbt  the  doctrines  of  Augustine  on  the 
subject  of  original  sin,  free  grace,  etc  He  condemned 
the  dogma  uf  the  immaculate  conception,  in  oppontion 
lo  Scotua.  The  two  sects  were  also  divided  on  the 
question  of  the  sacrsnnents.  as  to  whether  grace  waa 
conferred  by  them  physically  or  morally;  the  Thomista 
holiling  Ihe  former,  the  Scotists  the  latter.  Dens,  who 
was  ■  Thnmist,  in  his  theology,  explains  what  it  meant 
by  the  view  of  his  party,  lie  says,  "The  sacramenia 
possess  a  physical  causality,  as  tha  instruments  of  di- 
vine omnipotence,  and  truly  and  properly  concur  to- 
wards  the  production  of  their  effects  on  the  mind  by  a 
supemaluial  virtue  from  the  principal  agent,  communi- 
cated lo  and  united  with  it  in  the  manner  of  a  tran- 
sient action;  and,  moreover,  such  a  causality  is  more 
conformable  lo  Ihe  dedarationa  of  Scciptuie,  and  dem- 
onstrates mure  fully  the  dignity  of  the  aacrament,  and 
the  efEcacy  of  (he  divine  omnipotence  and  of  the  mer- 
ita  of  Christ.  Besides,  they  say  that  thia  is  also  more 
conformable  to  the  seiitimenia  of  councils  and  falben^ 
who.  as  Ihey  explain  Iha  causality  of  the  sacramenta, 
uae  various  aimiliiudes  which  undoubtedly  deaignale 
a  causality  more  than  moral"  On  Ihe  contrary,  the 
SciAisis  icacb  ihat  "  (he  sacraments  do  not  cauie  grace 
physically,  but  morally,  that  is,  they  do  not  produra 
grace  as  physical  causes  do,  but  u  moral  causes ;  inas- 
much as  they  cStcaciously  move  God  lu  produce  Ihe 
grace  which  they  signify,  and  which  Ciod  himself  prom- 
ises infallibly  lo  give  as  often  as  tliey  are  rightly  ad- 
ministered ami  worthily  received,"  etc.  TTic  Thomi^i" 
were  Realists,  while  the  Scotists  were  Nominalisis:  and 
although  the  Roman  see  naturally  inclined  lo  favor 
the  doctrines  of  the  Scotisis.  the  prestige  of  Ai|uinaa 
waa  so  great  that  the  Thomista  ruled  the  theology  of 
Ihe  Church  up  in  the  lime  uf  the  controversy  t>etween 
the  Holinists  (<|.  v.)  and  (be  Jansenism,  when  Ihe  views 
of  the  Scotists  Bubstaulially  prevailed.  See  Aquinas, 
ThohasL 

Thomlliuoil,  JosKPii  Smith,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 


the  Methndiat  Ill|iiKn|Ml  Cburcb,  «u  born  in  Geoige- 
lowi),  Ky^Uarcb  lA,  IB03;  uid,  after  Kmngi  time  at 
the  uddler'a  tiiile,  eiilered  Tniuylvinii  University, 
irhere  he  hclil  ■  liii;h  nnk  u  >  tchiiUr.     Wben  Lifay- 

chciKii  to  leiiiler  bim  the  Hre«liii|^  of  liia  fellaw-Uu- 
denis.  He  gnduated  in  }S'ib,  and  becaimi  proressor  of 
mathemalic*  and  mtunl  philo«|ihy  in  Auguti  a  College. 
Ill  the  name  year  he  wai  admitted  to  the  travelling  cuo- 


deaoon  and  elder.  Having  aerved  a*  profeHor  Tut  aoine 
time,  he  waa  chvaen  president  of  the  AuguMa  College, 
■lid  held  that  offloe  till  IU9,  when  the  iiialiiiitiou  wai 
broken  dovn  by  a  withdrawaJ  of  the  palrunage  or  (he 
Kentucky  Conrerence,  and  the  repeal  or  ilB  charter  by 
the  legialsture  of  the  Slate.  Ue  wu  lulwequeniiy  elect- 
eil  to  a  prore«sor«hip  of  the  Ohiu  Wealeyaii  Uiiiverwty, 
Uelairare.O.,  but  declined  to  accept  it,  tlHiugh  he  acted 
ax  spent  for  the  inititution  for  two  jcara.  He  accepted 
ail  elecliun  la  proleuat  in  the  univeniiy  at  Atheni, 
O.,  and,  having  aerved  iu  thia  capacity  fur  a  year,  was 
chusen  prnideiit,  which  latter  poaition  he  declined  on 
account  of  ill-heallh.  Hia  mind  wa*  »  alTected  by  the 
■udden  death  of  a  favorite  son  that  he  never  fully  re- 
ooveredj  and  ilthough  elected  to  the  prceidency  uf  the 
Springfield  High-achool  and  oT  [hg  Stale  Unirersitv  of 
Indi>na,bedeeUnedbotb.  HediedatKeville,0,June4, 
186S.    SeeSprague,.l>na/(n/'rAe.4ii>r'./Wynr,rii,T06. 

Thom'td  (eofiol.Vulg.  Cu*nl,«{Hirru[.r  <Ireek  furm 
(I  Eadr.  V,  S2)  of  the  liekname  (liltra  ii,  69;  Neb.  vii, 
U)  Taxah  or  Thamah  (q.  v.). 

Thompaon,  Alexander  ScrogE'i  ■  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  Has  bom  April  28,  1834,  at  Biff  ^ring 
(Springaeld),  Cumberiand  C<>.,  Pa.  He  received  hia 
early  educatian  at  Newville  Academy  under  Kev.  Hub- 
ert McCachren,  and  at  ShippeniburK  O-llci^iite  Insti- 
tute under  Prof.  R.  L.  Sibbel.  At  an  early  age  lie  Joined 
the  United  Preabyterian  Cliiircb  uf  Big  Sjiriiig,  near 
Newvilie.  He  graduateil  from  Jeflenuii  O'llege,  Fa., 
in  1S64,  and  aoou  after  entered  Princeton  Theoli^ncal 
Seminary,  N.  J,  There  he  studied  two  years  (1064- 
efi),  and  afterwards  spent  a  third  year  {im6-&)  at 
the  Western  Seminary  at  Alleghenr,  Pa.  Ha  was  li- 
cenaed  br  Kev  Brunswick  Presbytery  April  18,  1866, 
and  supplied  New  Harmony  Church  iu  Uunegal  Pres- 
bytery during  the  summer  i^f  that  year.  He  was  or- 
dained bv  the  Presbytery  of  Allegheny  at  Worthington, 
Armstrong  Co.,  Pa.,  Nor.  20,-1867,  and  on  the  same  day 
iiiaiilled  pastor  nf  Wotthington  Church.  Thia  relation 
ODRtinued  until  hia  death,  which  oocurTed  suddenly,  De& 
4, 1878.     He  was  retiring  in  hi>  maimers,  true' in  hia 

lur.  Huremaiiiswer«buriedstNewvill.',rs.  (W.P.S.) 
Tbompson,  Amberst  L.,  s  yoim^  Omgrega- 
tional  miasioiiary,  was  born  at  Peru,  Jloss.,  in  1834. 
Converted  at  the  age  of  fouriei>n,  he  rc».ilvcd  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  miniitr}'.  TruA-ting  in  I'mvtdence  and 
bin  own  ami,  he  went  through  the  curriculum  of  Honson 

studied  thecilDgr  partly  at  New  Vurk  and  partly  it  An- 
dover,  gradnsting  at  the  Utter  place.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  miMionary  work  at  Amherst  Fcl>.  i,  1860,  and  ou 
the  18th,  in  company  with  cinht  other  misaionariea. 
Bailed  fnioi  Itustun  fur  Urnmiyah,  Per«a,  where  be  ar- 
med July  1.  I)n  Aug.  16  be  was  taken  with  a  severe 
chill,  which  soon  develn|>ed  inin  a  terrible  fever,  complet- 
jng  its  fatal  work  on  (he  25th.  He  aleepa  by  the  aide  of 
Stoddard  in  the  little  mission  burying-ground  in  Ht.Seir, 
Ururatyah,  Mr.  Tliompson  had  ■  vigorous  snd  keen  in- 
tellect, coolness  and  arongcommon-aense,  and  a  brilliant 
imagination.  Aa  a  man  and  a  Christian  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  modeL  At  hia  gradiiaiion  at  Aiidover  he 
delivered  in  essay  on  Congrrffoliomil  C'AuicA  Pnlitu 
Adapitd  to  Farriifa  maionary  Work,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Cong.  Quarterig,  Jan.  1860.  See  C<mg. 
Quar.  Rev.  1861,  p.  67. 


THOMPSON 

Thompaon,  Autliony,  A.B.,  an  English  Congrc- 
gatiooal  minister,  waa  bom  at  AInwich  iu  ISBGl  He 
graduated  at  Spring  Hill  College,  and  matriculated  at 
the  London  Univeraity.  In  1863  he  accepted  ■  call 
from  Douglas,  lale  of  Uin,  and,  full  of  zeal  and  biip^ 
entered  upon  his  labors.  Hia  pulpit  ministrations  wera 
marked  by  many  tokens  of  blessing*.  He  had  «  deep 
consciousness  of  the  responsibl lilies  alleniling  bis  |aM- 
tion.  and  fsllhrullv  fuiailed  the  duties  devolving  upea 
bim.  He  died  A^  6, 1866.  See  (Loud.)  Coi>g.  feof^ 
book,  1961,  ^Sa. 

ThompBon,  Antbony  P.,  a  Methodist  Episcopil 
minister,  was  bom  in  Kentucky,  Sept. !,  1806.  He  bi- 
came  an  exhorta'  In  I8S4,  and  was  aooo  after  licensed  m 
a  local  preacher,  received  on  trial  in  1829,  appointed  to 
Terre  Haute  Circuit,  Indians  Conference,  in  183S,  and 
died  May  19, 18SS.  He  waa  a  young  man  of  excellent 
lalenia.     Sse  Mimila  n/Armuiil  Con/traett,  ii,277. 

Ttaompeon,  Chailos,  a  Preabvterian  minister, 
waa  bom  at  Salem,  N.Y.,  Nov.  26, 1831.  He  waa  con- 
verted in  185B;  educated  at  Honmauth  College  and 
Theological  Seminar;',  Monmouth,  tlU;  licensed  by  Chi- 
cago Presbytery  April  3, 1863;  ordained  by  Honmouih 
Presbyiery  pastor  of  Olena  and  Oqiiaka  churches,  IIL, 
June  17, 1863;  and  died  Dec  SI,  1865.  He  was  a  gMd 
man,  "  walked  with  (rod,'  and  preached  in  ilcmonstra- 
tion  of  the  apiril,  and  with  power.  See  Wilson,  PitA 
HM.  A  tmamie,  1867,  p.  368. 

Thompaon,  Fredetlok  Bordlne,  a  missionary 

in  1810,  and  united  with  the  Church  in  New  Brunswick, 
under  Ker.  Dr.  James  E  Hardrnbergh,  at  the  age  of 
aevefileen.  His  pastor  having  imluced  him  to  prepare 
for  the  miniairy,  he  grailusied  at  Kuigera  College  in 
1831,  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary  in  New  ftuna- 
wick  in  1834.  After  being  settled  as  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Upper  Hed  Hook,  N.  Y.,  from  1831  till  183S, 
he  delermiiieil  to  devote  hiniaelf  lo  foreign  misnonaiy 
work,  snd  was  sent  by  the  American  BoanI  of  Comnis- 
sionerg  for  Foreign  Hissiona,  and  the  Board  of  Yortaga 
Missions  of  his  own  Church,  with  the  devoted  Williatn 
J.  Rohlman,tojDin  the  minion  in  Borneo.  He  Fescbed 
Singspore  Sept.  17, 1838,  snd  labored  at  Karangan,  one 
of  the  two  Biitiona  occupied  by  the  mission  (the  other 
being  Sambaa),  for  aeveral  year^  with  grvat  industry 
and  devotion  Iu  his  work,  among  the  Uvakik  His  Brat 
wife,  f..rmerlv  a  Miss  WyckolT,  of  New  Bmnswicfc,  died 
in  1889.  lnl840hemaniedaSwiaslady,MiMCniiibe, 
a  teacher  in  the  miaslnn,  who  aim  dieil.  in  1344.  In 
1847  a  hemorrhage  of  the  luuRS  compelled  him  to  de- 
sist from  labor;  and,  by  medical  advice,  he  sailed  fvr 
EuTKpc  with  his  moiherkaa  daughter,  to  place  her  wiib 
her  relsiives  in  Swiiieiland,  and  to  try  ihe  benefit  of 
the  change  of  climate  for  himself.  At  fint  he  im- 
pmved,  but  the  disease  urtnmed,  and  he  died  Jan.  IT, 
184a  Thus  endeil  the  brief  career  of  one  whose  |Hny, 
talent*,  and  consecration  bade  fair  to  place  him,  if  he 
had  been  spared,  among  the  reiy  first  of  modem  evan- 
gelisU  10  the  heathen.     He  waa  a  grave,  quiet,  devout. 


Hii 


last  illness  were  bnme  with  pyienl  submission  to  the 
will  uf  (lOil,  ami  with  clear  viewa  nf  hia  acceptance  and 
peace  with  the  Lnrd.    His  labors  among  the  Bysks, 

of  immeiliale  rrsulis;  but  hia  name  livea  in  the  Chunk 
aa  a  power  for  missions,  and  perhaps  in  futore  ages 
Bomeowillenshrine  itafnongherfirstevaiigcliats.  Sse 
Corwin,  Matmolo/tU  H'f.  Ch.  p.  489.     {W.J.  R.  T.) 

TbompBOH,  Oeorge  C,  a  Methodist  Epiacofd 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Nanlicoke,  Liiieme  (X  Pa.,  Jin. 
15, 1817.  He  waa  converted  iu  December,  l8a->,  edu- 
cated atCazcnovia  Seminar^',  licenaed  to  preach  Aiie.  6, 
Oneida  Conference  in  18M 


nlB41,t 


THOMPSON  31 

18,  1846,  at  (be  New  Tork  Lunatic  Aeylum  in  Utici. 
Hii  UlenU  u  ■  miniiter  were  elevaled.  "  In  minialeriil 
libun  he  iru  abiiDiluit,  in  menUl  application  he  wa> 
ctcouTe."  Stailnii/lrin/ArBaialCan/erewxt.iv.ibl. 
Tbompson,  0«org;e  'WaBbtngton,  D.U.,  a 
Presbvterian  divine,  wa»  bum  at  New  Providence,  E»- 
HCa.,N.J^Oct.lO,]819)  can  verted  in  1886;  gradu- 
ated at  Kutgen  College,  New  Bruoawick,  S.  J^  aud  at 
the  Ehrinceton  Theological  Seminar}';  waa  liceiiaed  bj 
the  Pmbyiery  of  New  Brunawick;  ardsined  paator  of 
ttaecliunheaofMifflinibDigandNew  Berlin,  1S42;  be- 
caoie  pallor  oTtbe  Church  of  Lawei  Tuacaroia  in  1847, 
and  renuined  (here  Mventcen  ^ean.  He  died  Jan.  !8. 
1864.  Dr.  Thompeon  had  an  acnie,  ready,  praclicai 
Biiiid.  Aa  a  scholar  be  was  thorough  and  critical ;  hi> 
Ezpotiiorg  Ltdara  on  Danid  and  on  IKe  Romau  dis- 
play  a  vast  amuunt  of  patient  research,  deep  thinking, 
critical  anal3^u,  anil  full  knowle<1ge  uf  the  teaching) 
of  the  Bildt     See  WiliwD,  Prtib.  Uiil.  Almanac,  1865, 

t.m. 

Thovpson,  Jobn.  a  Probyurian  minuter,  wa* 
bora  near  Chamberaburg,  Franklin  Co.,  Pa^  Nor.  II, 
1T7!:  He  received  hi*  literarj'  training  in  the  Kcit- 
IKkT  Academy,  Lexingiun,  studied  Iheoliigy  priraleir, 


a  Preabylei 


n  1799,  ■ 


ordained  by  Wa»hiugioti  Pieebyterj',  O.,  in  1801,  He 
waipaslor  of  Glen  dale  Church,  O-  1801-33)  then  re- 
mated  to  Indiana,  became  a  member  irf' Ciawnirdsyille 
Preabvteii ,  and  labored  as  an  evangelist.  He  died  Feb. 
li,  iBbS.  He  was  an  eanieiit  revival  preacher,  an  elo- 
quent and  Bumaaful  miniBier,  aiid  many  pennns  were 
hopefullv  convened  under  bis  labors.  See  Wilson, 
i'mt. //iif.  ^/moitnr,  I860,  p.  123. 

ThotnpBOn,  Jonftthau,  a  Wesl«-an  Methodist 
prtKher.  was  bum  at  Torhoase,  Haltwhislle,  Northum- 
berland, England.  In  bii  early  life  he  resided  frn-  a 
time  in  Ayr,  Scotland.  He  was  converted  under  Cown- 
ley  at  Newcaatle-upon-Tyne.  In  1786  he  returned  to 
Ayr,  where  be  officiated  as  a  local  preacher,  Irr  1T89 
be  came  out  to  labor  in  connection  with  the  EIriiish 
Cunfereoce,  and  was  sent  lu  the  Inverness  Circuit.    He 

Be  was  inlfned  in  the  same  tomb  that  had  received 

before.  Young  Thompson  was  a  nun  uf  holiness  and 
ouch  prayer.  "His  great  leal  fur  Gnd,  united  with  the 
fervor  and  imprudence  of  youth,  led  him  to  exce 
labor  in  the  work  of  his  great  Master,  which  proved  the 
<iDse  of  fail  death."  See  .VtnWri  n/  Wftlrgun  C<ni/er- 
mca,  1790 ;  Almore,  Melh.  Mrmorial,  a.  v, 

TbompBOn.  Joceph  Pairlsb,  D.I>.,LL.D.,an  em- 
iaenl  Congregational  divine,  was  bom  in  Philsdelphia, 
Aiig.  7, 1819.     He  graduated  at  Yale  0>llege  in  L8S8. 
Afterwards  he  pursued  the  studv  oflheulogy  ii  the  An- 
duver  and  New  Haven  Theological  schools.    In  Novem- 
ber, IWO,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Chapel  Street 
Ongr^alkina]  Cburch  in  New  Haven.     While  occu- 
pying tfau  puailion,  Dr.  ThompaDti  aaiisted  in  eslabliab- 
ing  Tki  S'tie-Er^andfr.     He  published  also,  while  at 
Kew  Haren,  a  Uemrir  nf  Ti<«olh3  Dwif^t.     In  1 846  be 
Wat  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  uf  the  Ilmadwav  Ti 
cnacle  Church  in  New  York  ciiv,  and  was  installed 
the  15th  of  April  of  that  year.    For  some  yean  the  Ti 
emade  continued  to  be  a  great  centre  orr<ligiiiuB  Inl 
est.    The  vast  edifice  waa  often  thronged  by  a  coiig 
gition  oompoaed  of  St  rangers,  young  neu.and  thiM'  h 
had  no  regular  place  of  worship.     The  1'abcnia 
Church   waa   the   mother  of  several   Ciaigregaliunal 
churches  in  Mew  Y'orkund  Brooklyn.    1'he  HiciH     ' 
IRinined  to  sell  the  Tabernacle  in  1866,  and  the 
Aurch  was  built  at  the  inierseciion  nf  lln>Bilway,l 
Avi.and  Thirty-fourth  Street.   This  building  was 
pined  in  1869, and  deilicalnl  April  !4  nf  that  year, 
derlbe  ministry  of  Dr.  Thompson  l lie  society  Hi inr 
nceedingly.     When  the  rhnrch  was  ilpriicaieil  there 
naa  debt  upOQ  it  of  (66,000.     No  peirs  were  sold,  as 


THOMPSON 

B  rraolved  that  there  should  be  nu  private  owner- 
in  the  building.  In  1868  the  society  paid  off 
926,000  of  this  indebtedness;  the  remaining  sum  of 
00  was  paid  in  March,  1864.  Notwiiiistanding  Dr. 
Thompson's  immediate  pastoral  labors,  be  was  always 
busy  with  his  pen.  In  1845  he  printed  a  Memoir  v/ 
David  Hale  (late  editor  of  the  Journal  uf  Coiamercr), 
toiih  Sfledioni/rom  iii  MuceOaiwoia  Wrilinfft—t  work 
which  passed  through  various  editions.  In  1846  ap- 
peared his  Yoms  Mm  Admoiaiked,  afterwards,  in  sub- 
sequent editions,  which  were  nun>erou8,  enlilletl  Lerl' 
ura  to  Yoimg  Mm.  l/inli  to  £Biplogtii  appeared  in 
1S47,  and  another  edition  in  1861.  Slrag  UttHlutimu 
was  published  in  leSS;  and  in  1867  there  was  a  revised 
edition,  entitled  7"**  Belitm'i  B'fvgr.  lie  wn»  one  of 
the  first  editors  of  the  Indrptndtnt,  being  associated  in 
that  aervice  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Storrs  and  the  Kev.  Dr. 
Bacon.  In  \%bi  he  originated  the  plan  of  the  Albany 
Congregational  Convention.  He  alto  servod  as  a  man- 
ager of  the  American  Cmigregolional  Union  and  of  the 
American  Home  Missionary  Society.  In  186'i  he  went 
abroad,  visiting  Palestine,  Kgypt,  and  other  Easlcm 
landib  This  gave  an  Oriental  cast  to  his  subsequent 
studiea  and  writitigs,  aud  be  became  well  known  as  an 
authority  in  Egyptology.  Many  of  hia  writings  upon 
this  aubjecl  ajipeared  in  the  A'ortft  .diiifWetni  Rrrinc, 
the  Btbtwllnea  Aacm,  the  Jourmi  of  the  American  Ue- 
ographical  and  Statistical  Sooeiy,  in  Smith's  Did.  nf 
Ike  Bibtr,  and  the  revised  edition  of  lUtto's  Cyclop.  <•/ 
SiUieal l.iltivltirf.  HepublishedfVjy/i/./'airafKf/^'r*- 
oiT,  in  IHoti.  During  the  Civil  War,  Ur.  Thompson  oc- 
cupieii  a  warmly  patriotic  p<i«lion.  He  did  a  great 
deal  for  the  Clirislian  Commission.  Twice  he  went  to 
the  South ;  he  visited  the  armv  ;  and  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Union  League  Club.  His  son  was  killed  in  the 
service  of  the  couuii^'.  Dr.Thompsnn  published  (ISGR) 
a  souvenir  <if  him  enii<le<l  Tir  Strgfiim',  ilrmorl-t,  tg 
hit  Fathtr.  When  president  Lincoln  was  asiiassinati'd. 
Dr.  Thompson  delivered  a  notable  eulo(,-y  upon  him  be- 
fore (be  L'niiin  League  Club.  In  1872  Dr.  Thompran 
waa  compelled  by  ill-health  to  sever  the  relatinu  which 
he  had  so  bing  maintained  with  the  society.  One 
iiighi,  while  working  in  his  study,  he  imagined  that  he 
lioani  a  terrible  crash,  as  if  the  whole  house  were  fal^ 
iiig.ond  he  remembered  nothing  more  until  he  regained 
ConscimisncsB  at  three  o'clock  in  ibe  morning.  When  he 
resigned  his  pastoral  charge  of  the  Tabeniade  Cbiirch, 
It  maile  him  a  gift  of  930,1)00,  and  individuals  gave  him 
920,000  nwire.  Having  resolved  upon  gmng  abroad,  lie 
look  up  his  residence  in  Berlin,  where  he  devoteil  him- 
self to  study,  especially  in  Egyptology.     During  the 


quest  of  the  Prussian  minister,  he  prepare  and  pub- 
lished a  work  on  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  in 
America;  and  in  the  Centennial  Year  lie  delivered  in 
dilhrent  cities  of  Europe  several  addresses  concerning 
the  Unile<l  States.  Hia  oration  occasioned  by  the  death 
of  Mr.  Bayard  Tayhir,  the  American  minister,  delivered 
in  Berlin,'was  a  beautiful  and  much-admired  production. 
He  had  prepare.1  an  address  to  be  delivered  before  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  ai  Basle,  Switzerland,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  iiereccntioiis  in  Austria.  When  Mr.  Taylor 
died,  Dr.  Thompson  waa  spoken  of  as  hia  successor.  It 
is  known  that  when  the  rumor  reached  his  ears,  he 
wrote  thar  he  could  not  accept  the  p-isitiim,  and  con- 
sidered himself  unBtteil  for  it.  Ho  spoke  eacellenily 
both  French  and  (lerinan,  bimI  he  frei|uently  had  oc- 
casion to  employ  his  accomplishment"  as  a  linguist 
in  the  public  addresses  which  he  delivered  in  Europe. 
Though  always  an  invalid,  Dr.  Thompson's  last  illness 
was  CBusid  by  an  accident  which  ha<l  happened  Co  him 
during  hia  visit  to  London,  when,  while  standing  upon 
the  doorstep  of  a  friend's  house,  lie  was  prostrated  by 
vertigo,  severelv  irijuring  his  heail.  He  died  at  Ber- 
lin, Sept.  20, 1879.  Among  hi-  other  pr-xiurtions  may 
be  noted  The  Cnllrge  at  «  Itflif/iaut  fntlitiUioH  (19n9) ; 
—  Loue  and  Paially  (1860) :  —  BryaM  Urrg  (1868) :— 


THOMPSON 

CXriitiwtHy  and  Emaae^atviB  (1S68)  -.—Tlu  HoJy  Cam- 
foTltr  (1866)  -.—Mm  in  Gautii  and  Geology  (1S69} : 
anii  LifeofChritl  (1875) !— with  ■giejit  vmetj  of  p»i 
phleu  Rod  of  conlributioru  to  periodical  Uteracure.    He 
wai  unilFnlood,  at  bia  Jeath,  ta  he  prapuiuf  a  work  on 
The  lltbreai ia Egypt.    Stw  JV.  r.7ViiHW,S^t.22,1879. 

Thompson,  Joaepli  Rtuaell,  ■  Preabvtemn 
miniiter,  was  born  »ept.  16, 1839.  He  leceived  a  good 
acBilemical  tninins,  graduated  at  Jelfiinoa  College  ia 
1818,  and  at  tbe  Auociatc  ThsDlogical  Seminary  at 
Caiionaburg,  Pa.,  in  1851 ;  vrai  UccDaed  by  tbe  Aaaociale 
Pnabyterv  of  Charlien  ia  1862,  and  otdained  and  in- 
Btalled  paalor  of  the  Mount  PleaunI  Chuich  April  36, 
ISiS.  He  died  Dec  16,  1861.  Hr.  Tbompwn  waa  a 
popular  preacher,  a  conatant  woflcer,  and  a  tender  and 
ihoughtrul  putor.  Sm  Wilwn,  I'rab.  lliH.  Aluumac, 
18C3,  P.3G5. 

ThompBOn,  Ld^b,  a  Pmb)rteriai]  miDlNer,  waa 
bom  at  Volney,  N.  T.,  April  2i,  1830.  After  receiring 
a  claaaical  education,  lie  entered  the  Union  Thealogical 
Seminar;  in  1861,  and,  completing  tbe  eouree,  graduated 
in  1867.  He  was  ordained  and  inslalled  paMor  of  the 
Church  in  Whippany,  N.  J.,  June  9, 1857.  He  rrnuined 
in  this  cbaige  with  great  acceptability  and  nsefulnt«a 

iotu  paper  in  Briclubarg,  N.  J,  He  occupied  thia  poat 
for  two  yeara,  and  then  removed  to  Brooltlyn,  N.  Y.,  and 
became  a  clauical  teacher,  in  the  occupancy  of  which 
potition  he  died,  April  IB,  1878.     (W,  P.  S.) 

TttompBOU,  OtlB,  a  Congregational  minialer,  waa 
bom  in  1773,  and  waa  a  graduate  of  Brown  UniTenity 
in  the  clasaof  1798.  After  hii  graduation  he  wataluior 
in  the  university  for  two  yeara  (1798-1800).  Having 
pnnucd  his  theological  studies  with  Dr.  Emmons,  of 
Franklin,  Maaa^  he  waa  settled  for  life  aa  paaior  of  the 
Congregatiaiial  Church  In  Kehoboth.  For  many  years 
be  received  and  inalrucled  pupila  who  were  looking  for- 
ward to  the  ministry.  He  was  ererywhere  regardeit  ai 
a  profound  theologian,  and  a  man  of  more  than  usual 
ability.  He  published  Kvetal  scnnona  and  discounes, 
and  for  Mreral  yean  was  the  editor  of  ■  Journal  known 
aa  the  Hopkirman  Mtigatiite.  Hediedat  North  Abing- 
ton,  Mass.,  June  26, 1859.     (J.  C.  3.) 

TbompBon,  Robert  Qordon.  a  Freabyterian 
miuixer,  was  born  Oct.  21,  1806,  in  Canemaugh  lown- 
ahip,  Indiana  Co.,  Pa.  Hie  education  preparatory  to 
the  college  was  received  in  pan  from  the  Rev.  Jesne 
Smith,  pastor  of  the  Ebeneier  congregation  in  Indi- 
ana County,  and  in  part  in  tbe  preparatorv  depart- 
ment of  Jeflerwin  College  at  Canonaburg,  'pa.  He 
united,  on  profeaaian  of  hia  faith,  with  the  Chaniers 
Presbyterian  Church,  Washington  Co.,  in  1827.  He 
waa  graduated  from  Jefferson  Oitlege  in  September, 
1830,  and  paaseil  from  college  immediately  into  Prince- 
Ion  Theological  Scmiuarv,  N.  J.,  where  he  spent  two 
and  a  half  years  (1830-33)  in  aludy.  He  was  licensed 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  April  19, 1833 ;  and 
was  ordaincl  by  the  same  presbyter}',  tint  luirla,  in  the 
Great  Valley  Presbyterian  Church,  Oct.  7,  1833.  Mr. 
Thompson  spent  the  Ant  two  years  of  his  miniatry 
(from  June  1, 1833,  to  June  1,  IS35)  aa  stated  aupply  at 
Poundridge,  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y„  where  his  labors 
were  accompanied  by  a  blessed  revival.  Having  ac- 
cepted  a  call  to  Yorklown,  S.  r„  he  was  insUlle.1  aa 
paalor  of  the  Church  at  that  place.  May  18. 1836;  arHl 
after  a  moat  sueceasful  pastorate  of  ten  years,  having 
accepted  a  call  to  TarilTville,  Conn.,  waa  releaseil  Feb.  5, 
ISifi,  and  insulled  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  TarilTville,  March  17,  1846.  1  here  be  labored  with 
ability  and  fidelity  six  and  a  half  years,  when,  his  health 
becoming  impaired,  he  waa  released  bv  hia  prubvlery, 
atpt.  30,  1852,  and  removed  to  Wisconriii.  His  next 
field  waa  Roscoe,  UL,  where  he  preached  as  stated  sup- 
ply from  OcL  21,  1852,  to  Oct.  8, 1851.  From  1855  to 
1862  he  supplied,  for  longer  or  shorter  peiimls,  ss  his 
health  permitted,  tbe  ciiurcbea  of  Rockford,  Roscoe, 


'6  THOMPSON 

Belvidere,  and  Willow  Creek,  UL;  and  JaneaviUe  and 
Brodhead,  Wia.     From  July  t,  1S62,  be  supplied  Wil- 
low Creek  Church  for  two  years,  when,  having  accept- 
ed a  call  from  that  Church,  he  was  installed  aa  pu- 
tor, July  6, 1861)  and  labored  there  very  usefully  until 
he  was  released,  Nov.  16,  1868.    He  next  preached  as 
suied  supply  at  Brodhead  from  Dec.  6, 186S,  to  Oct.9^ 
1871.     A  few  weeks  after  tbe  latter  date  he  removed 
to  Greeley,  CoL,  to  take  charge  aa  paalor  of  ■  nmly 
organized  Presbyterian  Church,  but  waa  nevet  inuaD- 
ed,  although  he  continued  aa  pastor  elect  to  fill  its  pul- 
pit until  March  1, 1877.     From  this  lime  he  was  vilh- 
out  any  charge,  but  continued  to  be,  so  far  as  hit  age 
and  increutng  physical  infiimiliea  would  permit,  ac- 
tive in  laying  the  foundation  both  of  the  Church  and 
of  the  Slate  in  that  new  region.     He  died  at  (;reele¥, 
March  19,  1879.     Mr.  ThompHin's  views  of  truth  wiit 
clear  and  strong,  and  bis  voice  gave  no  unceruin  cound. 
preacher  be  was  solid  and  able,  at  tbe  same  lime 
M  and  atfedionale;  as  a  presb]*ler  he  waa  uasor- 
passed  in  Christian  uprightness  \  as  the  head  of  a  family 
■  B  tenderiy  loved,  and  waa  beloved.     (W.  P.  S.) 
Tbompioii,  Samaal,  a  Methodist  Protestant  rain- 
ler,  was  bom  on  the  rocky  ahorea  of  Maine,  Oct.fi, 
'82;  he  waa  converted  in  1802,  and  at  once  began  to 
preach.    Three  yean  later  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and, 
ir  two  more,  elder.    In  1812  he  waa  located,  and  ia 
6  removed  to  Wbeelirg  Creek,  W.  Va.,  where  he  sprnt 
and  a  half  yeaia,  and  then  withdrew  from  the  Metb- 
it  Episcopal  Church,  and  united  in  the  moreioent 
t  eventually  teaulted  in  the  Methodist.  Protestant 
.irch.     For  fifteen  years  he  labored  to  build  up  this 
I  branch  of  the  Methodist  denomination,  when  frooi 
scientious  impulses  he  united  others  in  rsising  an 
islavery  Church  (the  Weeleyan).     In  1818  he  n- 

Wesleyans  until  1860,when,  learning  of  (be  antislavery 
element  in  the  Hethodiat  Protestant  Church,  he  reunited 
at  Mount  Pleasant,  la.,  and  eontinurd  to  labor 
terestUll  hUdeath,Oct.!l,l867.  See  Bas- 
sett,  HiU.  o/tAt  MttI,.  Prol.  Ckurtk,  p.  SIR 

ThompBOn,  Samuel  R.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  waa  born  in  Weatmoreland  County,  Pl,  March 
16,  1786,  and  carefully  instnicled  in  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion  according  to  the  views  of  the 
Presbylerisn  Church.  In  1801  he  joined  the  Hethodiat 
Episcopal  Church;  was  received  on  trial  in  the  West- 
ern Conference  in  1809;  and  from  that  time  until  I8S6, 
a  period  of  twenty-seven  yeaia,  his  6eld  of  bbot  in  suc- 
cessive years  embraced  Urge  portions  of  ihe  arsies  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  the  whole  of  the  lerrilo- 
ries  of  Missouri  and  Uiinois.  In  all  thia  vast  regioa 
he  first  assisted  to  plant  the  principles  of  the  Uoa- 
pel,  and  sfterwards  continued  to  cultivate  them  with 
the  most  assiduous  labor.  In  1836,  his  health  Tailing, 
he  was  compelled  (o  take  a  anperannualed  relation,  and, 
as  such,  for  Che  next  four  yean  he  served  i  he  Church  in 
■he  statinnsof  Alton,  Vandalis,  Hillsborough,  and  Belle- 
ville. In  1840  he  waa  again  relumed  cflective,  and  ap- 
pointed to  Belleville  station,  but  died  March  19  of  that 
year.  He  was  a  minister  of  fine  abilities,  and  every- 
where he  breathed  the  peaceful  spirit  of  Christianiir 
around  him.  See  J/wWrs  if  Annual  Confrtrnm,  iii, 
316. 

ThompiOn.  Thomas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ialer, was  bom  in  Beaver  County,  Pa. ;  awakeneil  ai  a 
camp-meeting  under  the  preaching  of  Ihe  Rev.  William 
Swayxe;  admitted  on  trial  in  the  Ktlsburgh  Conference 
in  1831,  snd  appointed  to  Leesbyrg  CircuiL  He  labored 
as  follows;  Centreville,  Mercer,  Newcastle,  Richmond, 
Salem,  Lumberport,  and  Grandview.  In  1813  he  be- 
came a  aupemumerary,  and  in  tSlS  a  superannnata. 
He  died  Feb.  13, 1851.  See  MiKLta  af  Annual  Con/tr- 
tmri,  iv,  £02. 


Thompson 


lriUiii,in  IT3S.  H*  w«»  coniefted  r«">B.  "nrt  ">  1^8' 
Iw  nmnieiBjed  hi»  miniilry  tinong  tbc  Mtlhodisu.  In 
i;a8  he  went  to  EngUnd,  and  w-on  teamed  whst  kinil 
of  1  work  it  "M  which  he  had  undertaken.  On  one  m- 
(iiwn,whenMr.Tlioirp»on  wa«  preaching,  s  mob,  inMl- 
puilbriiniiiiMeror  theChurcli  uf  England,  voHe  and 
aniol  bLm  and  the  priiKipal  Ueihodiili  on  bnard  a 
iniuport  which  was  ready  lo  aail  with  a  war-fleet, 
Engiim!  then  bebg  enga^  in  «ai  on  Ifae  Continent. 
Through  the  exenionaof  lady  Hunlinedon,hoHei-er,lho 
pjicniment  ordered  their  relfase.  In  1760  Thomiaon 
WciiTd  in  Scotland,  but  wilh  little  luccew.  After  1782 
be  inrelird  ume  ol  the  principal  circuits  in  England. 
Hit  list  wai  Minchuter.  He  died  at  Birmingham, 
Uiy  1, 1799,  of  a  discau  the  seeds  of  which  had  been 
■own  in  1794  bv  sleeping  in  a  damp  bed — an  in<i 
lim  which  killtd  raanj'  of  tbo  early  M el hodist  preachers. 
Willism  Thompson  was  one  of  ihe  men  who  piloted  the 
baik  of  Ueihodism  through  the  trouUlous  waters  afli 
the  desih  of  the  great  helmnrnan,  Wesley.  He  was 
B>n  of  that  calmness,  sagacity,  and  slaleCTnanlike  cai 
of  mind  which  wera  so  much  needed  at  that  lime,  sn 
which  led  to  his  election  as  president  of  I  he  first  ConfeF- 
taee  (1791)  after  Wealev's  deslh.  He  was  one  i 
mniniliee  appointed  to  convene  with  Kilham.  With 
ibe  endonemenl  of  Benson,  Bradham,  Hopper,  and  oth- 
ers he  sent  out  the  flaHfia  CtTrvbir,  which  marked  out 
I  baiit  for  the  preaervatinn  and  govemmenl  of  the 
fint  Cliurch.  Mather  and  Pawson  coneulled  him 
the  unto  of  the  connection.  He  arbitrated  in  regan 
iht  ■cttltment  of  the  Bristol  disputes  in  which  Ben- 
m  wssembrmled;  he  approred  Mather's  terter 
PrRuOfn;  andbegaveto  Methodism  iladistrict 
ingi  and  Won  of  Paafiailvm.  He  was  one  of  tho 
■blest  speaken  and  closest  reasnners  in  Ihe  BrilishCon- 
f^nc*.  "  Fewer  trace^''  says  Bunting  {in  hU  l.ifi  of 
hi<  father.  Jabei  Bunting,  ch.  vi),  "are  to  be  found  of 
hio)  than  of  any  of  his  eminent  coniempnraries.  Uy 
[■iher  lued  to  speak  of  the  old  man's  gravity  of  speech, 
spirit,  sort  denwanor,  and  of  the  advantages  he  himself 
derived  from  his  example  and  ministry.'  See  Almore, 
Mtlk.  Mimonal,  a.  v.;  lUbuilt*  ofAmainl  C-m/fmctt, 
1799:  Stevens,  Hit.  n/Mtlkodim,  iii,  25,  M.  140:  Jfe- 
«ir  0/  EmtKittr.  ch.  iii:  Smith,  Hit.  o/  WaL  Meth- 
adm,  vol.  i,  ii  (see  Index,  roL  iii). 

Thompaon.  ^KTUllKm  J.,  a  clergyoum  of  the  He- 
fanned  Church,  and  a  clamical  teacher  of  high  repula- 
iiaB,wMbomaEKeadington,N.J.,  HarchS,  ISl^  He 
■at  the  grandson  of  John  lliompsun,  a  Scotch  immi- 
Rrmt  who  waa  killed  by  the  Indians  near  Williamspnrt, 
Pa.  After  gradnating  at  Rutgera  College  in  18S4,  he 
taaght  igcasafully  at  Millnton,  N.  J,  until  1838,  when 
he  began  lo  panue  the  uaual  couiae  of  instrucliun  in 
theThvlogicalSeBinaryoftheUcfarmedChurch.  He 
enitewl  the  ministry  in  l*4i,  and  was  settled  over  the 
eharrhM  of  Ponds  and  Wyckoff,  N,  J.,  fi>r  three  year« 
(1842-45),  when  he  accepted  the  porilion  of  rector  of  the 
Gcammar-siAoel  of  Rutgers  College.  He  held  this  im- 
IWftant  plKM  eighteen  yesra  (1845-68),  when  he  resign- 
ed and  brcame  principal  of  the  Somcrville  Classical  In- 
■Itute.  He  died  in  18S7.  He  wss  a  thorough  stmlent, 
■Ebidar.  and  teacher.  His  standard  of  education  wai 
high ;  his  drill  inctasant,  enacting,  ami  minute.  Hewai 
Bsvet  satisAed  until  his  pupils  had  been  made  fsmiliai 
with  their  subject!.  He  was  also  tutor  in  the  clagaica  in 
Rutgers  College  (1838-4l),during  his  seminsn- couise. 
HoBdred*  of  hit  stutlents  have  passed  BueceHfully  intc 

A  panlvsia  of  the  right  tide,  which  afflicted  him  at  foul 
y*ar>  of  age,  and  during  his  whole  life,  interfere!)  mate- 
rially with  bia  pulpit  efficiency,  but  did  not  affect  hii 
niiee  or  mental  |»wen.  H«  waa  an  enthusiastic  teach- 
er, toawttmM  stem  and  severe  in  diacipliiie,  but  at- 
ways  esoscientiaua,  capable,  and  successful  in  dealing 
with  intrtGgtnt  achidan  who  wished  in  learn.  Hii 
miadwia  dear  and  logically  exact;  hit  knowledge  wai 
■Iwsjs  B  cgomand.     Hii  character  was  distinguished 


7  THONDKACIANS 

for  unyielding  uprightness  and  an  honorable  Bpirit;  bis 
attainments  in  the  sacred  languages  and  theology  were 
large  and  accuiale.     As  a  preacher,  he  was  plain,  with- 

evangelical  in  doctrine  and  practical  in  bis  aims.     See 
Corwin,  MoHuat  n/tht  Rff.  Ch.  p.  492.    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 
Thomson,  Andreir,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
iiiister,  was  bom  at  Sanquhar,  Dumfriesshire,  July  II, 
79,  and  Bilucaleil  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
t  was  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Sprouston,  Roxburgh- 
lire.froDi  1802  till  IBOH  i  afterirards  of  the  East  Church 
of  Perth   till   1810;    snlMCqucntly  of  the   New  Grey 
Friars'  Church,  Edinburgh ;  and  finally  of  St.  George's 
Church,  untilhia  death,  Feb. g,  1831.     Dr.Thomwn  was 
1  of  unconquerable  leal,  untiring  energy,  and  com- 
ing eloquence.     He  attacked  the  British  and  For- 
Bible  Society  for  circulating  Ihe  Apocrypha  with 
the  Holy  Scriptures.     He  opposed  the  abuses  of  Isy 
patronage  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  effectually  de- 
iced  British  colonial  slavery  and  other  erila,  and 
nuch  lo  proiDDle  eilucalion,  tnorality,  and  evangel- 
ical religion  in  Scotland.     Dr.  Chalmera  says  of  him, 
'His  Has  no  ordinary  championship;  and  although  the 


Erapnus 


aU  ki 


every 


them  more  vigorously  than  he  did,nr  who,  with  such  an 
of  might,  and  voice  of  resitllESS  energy,  carried,  as 
I  storm,  Ihe  convictions  of  his  people."  Among  Dr. 
Thomson's  works  are,  Ltdurtt,  Erpotilorj/  and  Priidi- 
al,  m  StUa  Porlioiu  o/Soiplurt  (Edinb.  1816, 2  voU 
:vo)i-SfniK™™/nSJr%(1821,l8mn;I82<,cr.8ro): 
-.SmnoM  OB  Hearing  Iht  Word  (1825,  18mo):— TAs 
Scripture  lliitory  (Bristol,  182(1,  l2mD)i-rAe  Saift- 
are  Hillary  of  tht  lira  TeUammt  {laaiA^T.lima)-— 
Strmoni  <m  Vanom  SvlgrcU  (Eriinb.  1829,  Svo)  i—Doc- 
trine  of  Uraverial  Pardon,  being  Strmoat  icilh  Notet 
(1830,  I2mo).  He  also  published  a  number  of  Cale- 
ioual  and  religious  works  for  children. 
and  edited  the  EdiiJiarg\  ChfiiHan  In- 
(1810  sq.),  and  contributed  to  the  EiMiurgh 
^•adia.  After  his  death  appeared  his  Sermon* 
attd  SacranKHlal  Eihortaliont,  with  Memoir  prefixed 
(1831,  8voi  Boston,  1832,  12mo).  See  Chambers  and 
Thompson,  Biog.  Diet.  o/Kmant  Scolimm.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Ttaomaon,  Edward,  D.D,  a  bishop  of  the  Hetb- 
ndist  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Portsea,  England, 
Ucl.  12,  1810,  and,  wilh  his  father's  Dtmily,  came  lo 
America  in  1818,  settling,  in  1820,  tn  Wooster,  O.  He 
studied  meiUcine  at  the  t'nivcrsily  of  Pennsylvania,  re- 
ceiving his  diploma  when  nineteen  rears  of  age,  aiul 
commenced  his  practice.  In  December,  1831,  he  was 
cunveneil,  and,  although  brought  up  a  Baptist,  entered 
the  Methodist  Epiaci^  Church, and  was  admitted  into 
Ihe  Annual  Conference  in  1832.  After  filling  appnint- 
menta  inKorwalk,  Sandusky  City.Cincinnati,  and  WooB- 
ter,  he  waa  transferred  to  the  Michigan  Conference, 
and  sUtioned  at  Deimit.  From  1838  to  1843  he  had 
charge  of  the  Norwalh  Seminary,  in  1844  he  wss  elected 
editor  of  Ihe  Ladiet'  Repatitory ;  in  184G  president  of 
Ihe  (Jhiu  Wesleyan  Univenity,  where  he  remained  till 
I860,  when  he  was  elecleii  editor  of  the  N.  Y.  Chriuian 
Adeocale  andJoumuL  In  18G4  he  was  elected  to  the 
office  of  bishop,  in  which  capacity  he  made  his  first  offi- 
cial viiit  to  India.  He  died  of  pneumonia  at  Wheeling, 
W.  Vs.,  March  22,  1870.  His  published  worka  are,  Eit- 
ucariomil  Ettas'  (>»*  <^-  by  D.  W.  Clark,  D.D.,  ancia- 
nati,  1868,  12mo)  -.—lAUtrt  from  Europe  t— Moral  and 
Retigiout  Euoft! — /Hogmphieal  and  InciileHtal  Strtci- 
a.  See  Allibone,  Dirt.  ofUril,  and  A  mer.  A  ulhort,  s.  v.  j 
Sim(>son,  Cylop.  of  Melhodiita,  s.  v. 

Tbondraclani,  an  .Armenian  sect,  founded  by  Sem- 
bat  about  A.D.  840,  and  taking  its  name  from  Thon- 
drac,  where  he  esublished  himself.  A  Paulician  by 
birth  and  education,  he  formed  the  tcquaintanca  of 
Medthusic,  a  Persian  physicisn  and  astronomer,  whose 
in&uence  led  him  to  attempt  a  combination  of  Paneelam 


THOB  31 

ind  CbriWianilv,  Tbia  Kct,  thpngh  m«eling  with  no 
faror  rrom  the  bishopa,  continually  revived,  «nd  ipread 
widely  in  Armcnk.  At  one  time  in  particuUr,  ■bout 
A.D.  i(KB,  it  mmde  the  coMt  lUnning  progrei*,  when  it 
wu  Joined  by  biahop  Jacob,  >pirit«il  bead  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Harkh.  He  was  noted  for  the  auaterity  of  hi« 
life,  and  both  he  and  his  folloiren  denounced  the  false 
confidence  wbicb  wai  placed  in  masees,  oblaiions,  alma, 
and  Church  prayers;  and  he  declared  himself  oppoeed  to 
the  animal  sacrifice  in  the  Armenian  Church.  He  was 
taken  by  [he  catbolims,  biatided  with  the  heretical 
mark,  proclaimed  a  heretic,  thrown  into  a  duogeon,  from 
which  he  cscapol,  but  was  finally  killed.  Ittxiy  of  Ibe 
reports  respecting  the  doctrine)  and  morals  of  the  Thon- 
draciant,  coming  as  they  do 
dnubileu  false,  or  at  leaat  exafCKcrated.  See  Meander, 
l/iil.  o/ihe  Chrin.  Ciu'ci,  iii.  6S8  sq. 

TtaOT,  the  go<l  of  thunder,  in  Northern  mythologr, 
was,  next  to  Odin,  the  highest  and  most  feand  of  I' 
godi.  His  parents  were  Odin  aud  Frigga.  His  wi 
were  the  beautiful  gold-haired  Sif,  by  whom  he  t 
two  sons,Loride  and  Mode  j  andthe  Jota  maiden  Jam- 
esxa,  a  giantess  of  such  beauty  that  Thor,  although  a 
awom  enemy  of  the  Jotea,  could  not  refrain  from  mak- 
ing her  his  wife.  She  bote  him  bis  favorite  son  Uagni, 
who  was  most  like  hia  father  in  courage  and  strength. 
Terrible  is  the  flight  of  Thor  through  the  heavens,  roll- 
ing, thundering  behind  the  clouds.  Still  more  terrible  ia 
he  when  he  has  buckled  his  girdle  llegingfaidar  about 
him,  which  gives  him  double  strength.  Thna  ready, 
gns|iing  with  his  iron  glove*  the  hammer  H}iitnir,  hi 
appears  as  au  annihilator  among  the  enemies  of  the  goda 
Thor's  kingdom  i a  called  Thrudvangi;  and  thepaluce  ii 
hia  realm,  Bilnkiniir,  ia  the  largest  that  was  ever  built 
■ud  contains  five  hundred  and  forty  halls.  There  ia  nt 
one  so  wise  as  to  be  able  to  itatc  alt  of  Thoi'a  deeds, 
and  a  day  would  be  too  abort  to  mention  them  all.  The 
moat  remarkable,  however,  are  the  following:  In  com- 
pany with  his  [wo  buclu  and  the  evil  Loki,  he  made  a 
journey.  Towards  evening  they  came  to  a  certain  man 
whoia  they  asked  for  a  night's  lodging.  Here  Thut 
killed  his  bucka  and  ordered  them  to  be  fried,  and  then 
invited  his  host  and  family  to  partake  of  the  repaat, 
warning  them,  however,  not  to  devour  the  banes,  but  lo 
place  them  on  the  apread-vut  hides  of  the  bucks.  Be- 
five  starting  farther  on  hia  journey  the  followi 
iiiK,  Thor  bewitched  the  hidea  with  bia  mig 
mer,  and  the  bucks  immediately  came  to  life, 
young,  with  the  exception  that  one  of  them  Ii 
cause  Thiald,  the  host's  son,  had  broken  '' 


you  perforB? 


iu  order  to  get  at  [he  m 


Now  Thor, 


raged,  threatened  to  kill  the  whole  bmily  i  bu[  he  al- 
lowed himself  (o  be  pacified,  when  the  father  offered 
him  both  hU  children,  Thiaifi  and  HSshva.as  Ber^-ania, 
whom  Thor  carried  away  on  his  journey.  They  lodged 
in  the  iron  glove  of  the  giant  Ulgartstoki,  who  accom- 
panied Thor  under  the  fslse  name  of  Shirner,  and 
•ought  to  dissuade  Thor  from  Journeying  towards  bia 
(UigartsiokiVl  eaatle.  Thi^  however,  was  usetesa,  and 
the  trilling  hindrances  with  which  Utgartaloki  sought 
[0  obstruct  bis  path— fur  example,  tying  together  his 
cloak-sack,  in  which  the  provisiona  were  kept — made 
Thor  the  more  zealous.  Tluir  attempted,  at  three  dif- 
ferent times,  to  break  the  giant's  furehead,  but  without 
Buccess.  Finally  they  separated,  and  Thor  continueil 
his  journey  with  his  bucks  and  servanla.  About  iionn 
be  noticed,  in  a  large  plain,  a  castle  which  waa  so  high 
that  it  was  impoauble  for  Thor  to  look  over  it.  The 
travellers  arrived  at  a  garden  gate:  and  as  Thor  found 
ic  locked  and  waa  unable  to  open  it,  they  managed  to 
get  through  the  apace  between  the  ban.  Inside  they 
found  a  apacioua  hall,  in  which  there  were  scaled  upon 
two  benches  a  great  number  of  gianis.  King  L'tRartslo- 
ki,  distinguished  by  his  height  and  dignity,  sat  in  the 
i-eutrc,  but  be  did  not  even  seem  to  notice  the  slrangerB, 
who  saluted  hiro.  He  only  remarked, "  This  small  fel- 
kw,l[biDk,iBAukathor.    Perhaps  you  are  greater  than 


THOK 


*ou  appear?  What  skilful  t1 
In  this  place  no  oneia  permitle 
diMinguish  himself  in  some  art  or  science."  Loki  an- 
awered  him  that  he  thought  himself  to  be  a  great  ester, 
and  did  not  believe  any  one  waa  able  to  cope  with  him. 
"  We  shall  see  immediately ,"  said  the  king,  and  ordered 
one  named  Logi,  who  aat  upon  the  bench,  to  try  an 
eating-match  with  Loki.  'I'hereupon  a  large  trough 
filled  with  meat  waa  placed  on  the  ground.  At  ooe 
end  of  the  trough  Bat  Logi,  at  Ibe  other  end  Loki :  and 
as  the  former  had  eaten  nothing  for  qntte  ■  while,  be 
devoured  very  much.  But  although  Loki  ate  all  tin 
meat,  Logi,  beaidea  having  eaten  his  half,  devoured  the 
bona  also.  All  were  agreed  that  Loki  had  failol  in 
(he  attempu  "  What  is  that  young  man  able  to  do?" 
the  king  inquired  further.  Thiaifi  answered  he  would 
try  a  walking-match  with  whomsoever  Utgartaloki  de- 
aired.  The  king  went  out  and  cijled  a  young  man 
named  Hugi  to  try  a  runuing-matcti,  pointed  out  ■ 
track,  and  fixed  the  limit.  But  Hugi  was  ahead  in 
three  auccesaive  rounda.  The  king  admitted,  however, 
that  of  all  previous  racera,  none  could  have  beaten 
ThialB.  Then  the  king  aaked  Thor  what  he  was  able 
to  do,  aa  he  had  a  great  name  among  the  Asaa.  Thor 
answered  [bat  he  would  try  his  skill  in  drinking.  Then 
the  king  brought  a  large  bom,  and  aaid, "It  requires 
great  skill  to  empty  this  horn  in  one  drink;  some  hare 
accomplished  it  in  two,  yet  none  have  been  ao  nnskilTal 
as  not  to  be  able  to  empty  it  in  [hree  draughts,"  Tbof 
put  the  bom  to  bia  lips  three  times;  but  when  he  look- 
ed into  the  bom,  he  saw  that  the  water  had  haitlly  ds- 
minished  in  quanti[y.  Thor  gave  it  up,  and  said  he 
did  no[  wish  to  aUempt  it  any  longer.  Thereupon  Ibe 
king  said,  "Now  it  ia  evident  that  your  power  aid 
skill  are  not  so  great  aa  we  supposed,  and  you  will  re- 
ceive very  little  praiae  should  you,  in  utlxr  aiiempla, 
be  again  nnsuccessfuL"  Thor  answered  that  he  waa 
willing  to  attempt  something  else,  and  it  aurpriaed  him 
much  that  what  he  had  done  was  looked  upon  as  a  SBuIl 
affair.  Utgartaloki  ptoposed  [bat  he  should  lift  a  cat 
from  the  ground,  a  feat  which  the  amallest  buy  could 
perform,  and  the  king  added  that  he  ahould  never  have 
proposed  tbia  to  Thor  were  be  not  pcranaded  that  That 
waa  by  no  means  the  mighty  king  he  had  been  tepre- 
■euted.  A  large  gray  eat  was  (hen  brought  forth, which 
Thor  held  around  [be  body  and  atiemp[ed  to  lift  fmm 
the  ground.  But  the  more  he  raised  the  cat  from  lbs 
ground,  the  more  she  would  curve  her  back ;  and.  ahet 
baring  exerted  himself  at  much  aa  pusi'ible,  he  found 
that  only  one  of  the  cat's  furcpaws  had  been  lifted 
from  the  ground.  "Just  aa  I  expected,"  aaid  the  king; 
"the  cat  is  large,  and  Thor  is  much  behind  those  who 
have  tried  to  lift  her  before."  "If  I  am  small,"  an- 
swered Thor, "  I  challenge  each  of  you  to  a  priie-fight, 
because  now,  as  I  am  angrj-,  I  feel  my  entire  strength 
haa  relumed  to  me."  Upon  this,  Utgartaloki  aakl, 
"There  ia  no  one  here  who  would  not  conuder  it  child^ 
play  to  fight  with  you;  however,  call  in  my  old  nnrse, 
who  has  fought  with  more  men  before;  she  will  [Hiib- 
ably  be  his  match."  The  king's  nurse,  Elle,  eaow^ 
and,  however  much  Thor  exerted  bimBelf,  he  waa  not 
strong  enough  to  move  her  one  inch;  and  when  she  ap- 
plied her  atrength,  Thor  fell  on  his  knee,  until  the  king 
separated  them.  AHer  very  hospitable  treatment  and 
a  good  night'a  rest,  the  sirangen  left  the  castle,  much 
chagrined.  But  when  they  were  outride  the  don-,  the 
king  said,  "Now  you  are  out  of  the  caalle,  lo  whidi, 
as  kmg  as  I  bare  strengrb,  }-ou  shall  never  again  be 
admitted,  and  into  which  yon  would  not  have  entered 
had  I  known  Thor's  strength.  Know  now  ihs[  aO 
[hat  has  occurred  was  done  through  witchery.  At  6m 
I  met  you  in  the  foresc  under  the  name  of  Skinwr; 
there  J  fasleneil  your  proviaion  -  bag  with  iron  eord^ 
so  [ba[  you  were  unable  lo  untie  them;   then  you 

with  which  you  struck  at  me  may  be  aeen  in  [he  val- 


THORN  s; 

(ibad  between  you  mai  mc  When  you  aubeequently 
ciDK  lo  my  cutle  ind  niide  your  aueinpta,  I  icleclril 
t  nun  10  e«t  who  ceiuinly  could  ut  more  ihui  eny 
ttha  man,  because  Logi  ia  ■  caniuniing  fire  that  ile- 
nan  wood  and  bunei  and  creiything.  ThialH  ran 
■itta  DO  one  but  my  thoughtt,  and  it  is  eaiy  (o  con- 
Clin  bow  these  reacheil  the  limit  before  bim.  But 
JDU  have  accomplished  something  lupematural,  be- 
rtase  the  hom  which  you  attempted  to  empty  wa>  at 

imae  draughia  of  water  that  the  ocean  Tor  a  great  rtia- 
uaa  beome  dry,  which  i*  tww  called  ebb.  The  cat 
•rbiefa  you  lifted  from  the  ground  waa  the  Hidganl'a 
Serpenl,  and  you  weie  M  strong  as  lo  lift  faer  so  high 
rmm  the  einh  that  only  her  head  and  tail  were  viu- 
tit.  Finally,  the  old  nunc  with  whom  you  wrestled 
wu  Old  Age  itseir,  and  honor  be  to  that  mao  who 
fltiKhea  from  decrepit  old  age  tto  more  than  you.  Mow, 
fiiioeU.  Although  I  have  namerDua  stralagenis  re- 
laainingto  shield  my  cattle,  still  I  hold  it  advisable  that 
yiu  and  I  abould  meet  no  more."  Thor,  very  wroth  lo 
lee  bimaeir  thu*  fooled,  grasped  his  hammer  to  strike, 
boi  immediately  Ulgartsloki  and  the  caalle  became  iu- 
Tiahle,  and  aflnwards  tbey  saw  each  other  a  great  dts- 
laact  apart  on  the  great  plain.  To  seek  revenge  at 
lean  upoD  the  Uidgard'e  Serpent,  'Itmi  Bailed  shortly 
•ncTwarda  upon  the  ocean  with  the  giant  Ymer,  and 
■tnt  out  so  far  that  the  giant  became  afraid.  Then  he 
thnw  the  head  at  a  large  ox,  attached  to  a  strong  rope, 
isu  the  water,  which  the  Serpent  seized  upon.  When 
•be  fdt  herself  wounded,  she  staned  back  with  aucb 
bm  that  Tbor's  hands,  holding  the  line,  struck  against 
the  ship.  He  then  applied  bis  entire  strength,  and 
placed  hi)  foot  so  Hrmly  upon  the  bowom  of  the  boat 
that  it  went  thruDgh,ana  be  Mood  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean.  The  giant  was  very  much  frightened  when 
Thor  drew  up  the  Serpent  by  the  line,  and  gazed  at 
her  with  hii  fiery  eyes,  as  she  aimed  a  stream  of  pui- 
■n  at  him.  Then  Thor  raised  bis  hammer,  but,  be- 
fvie  he  could  strike.  Timer  bad  cut  the  line,  and  the 
Serpent  fell  bach  into  the  water.  Tbor  then  threw  the 
pant  bead-foremost  into  the  ocean,  so  that  his  feet  ap- 
peared above  the  water.  He  then  waded  ashore.  An- 
other deed  was  done  by  Tbor  under  OJwcM  and  Hnig- 
aer.  The  Wenda  also  worabipped  Tbor  aa  ooo  of  the 
highest  godt.  They  erected  to  him  numerous  monii- 
mmta,  cut  from  a  willnw-tree,  which  was 
the  face  of  the  god  without  anv  form.  A  platfo 
Uiill  about  the  '  ~  " 

ibipuporu 

Tbom  i«  the  rendering,  in  many  pavages  of  the 
A.  T,  of  eleven  dllftrent  Hebrew  words 
rslely  only  of  one)  Oreek  words:  but,  as  we  will  sea 
lieki^.  there  are  no  less  than  twenty  -  two  words  in 
theotijcinat  langnages  of  the  Bible  variously  translated 
"tbora,"  "thiallB,"  "brier," etc,  and  siKnifying  thorny 
and  prickly  planta.  Some  of  these,  however,  are  prob- 
sbtyso  inierfireled  only  because  they  are  unknown,  and 
Day  merely  denote  insignificant  sbmbs.  We  have  else- 
■btn  treated  moat  iif  these  in  detail,  and  we  therefnrs 
briefly  recapitulate  them  below  alphabetically,  though 
«e  can  hardly  hope  tu  throw  much  additional  light 
upon  what  has  already  baffied  so  many  inquirers.  Tli 
diOeulty  of  identifying  them  does  not  arise  from  an 
deScieiKy  of  thorny  plants  to  which  the  Biblical  nami 
might  be  applied,  but  from  the  want  of  good  reasons  fi 
(electing  one  plant  tnore  than  anmheri  fur.  as  Cehui 
has  said, "  Fueront  in  Jiidsa  baud  pauca  loca  a  spinis 


Boa  tantum  lacte  et  mrllfjbimt,  sed  berbia  quoque  inu- 
tiGbas,  et  spinis  moltifatiis  panim  infestaia."  As  exan- 
pln,  ite  may  mention  the  genera  of  which  some  of  the 
species  are  thorny,  auch  as  Acacia,  Aatragalua,  Acan- 
ibsdium.  Alhagi,  Kai;onia,  Tribnlu^  Berberia,  Prunua, 
Rii<ias,Crstcgu9,  Sulanum,  Caiduus,  Cnicns,  Onopordnn, 
Errngiam,  Khamnua,  Ziiyphos;  and  of  spedes  which 
■n  named  from  ih  is  eharactcrist  ic,  Anabaais  spinositsi  ma. 


9  THORN 

Paliuras  aculeatus,  Ruseua  aeuleatus,  Fnrakolea  tenacia- 
aims,AriBtida  pungens,  Salsola  echinus,  Rchinnpt  spino- 
sus,  Butiias  spiiioea,  Lycium  spinnaum,  Puterium  spino- 
sum,  Atraphssis  spinosa,  Prenanthea  apinosa.  Ononis 
spinoea,  Sinilai  asper,  Sparrium  ^linosum,  Ziiyphus 
Spina  Cbristl    See  Botamv. 

In  the  morphology  nf  plants  it  is  now  recognised 
that  thorns  are  abi'rtive  or  underelopeil  branches,  and 
in  many  cases  under  cultivation  thcmis  become  true 
branches.  A  spine  or  thorn,  of  which  we  have  exam- 
ples in  the  hawthorn  and  the  sloe,  must  be  distingui^- 
ed  from  the  prickles  {acuiet}  which  belong  to  the  in- 
tegumentary system  of  the  plant,  and  which  are  really 

bramble  and  the  rose,  and  in  the  animal  economy  we 
have  something  analogous  in  the  spines  of  the  hedge- 
'  the  quills  of  the  porcupine.     "*' 


injur 


the  flat  of  the  Almighl 
and  thus  a  blight  passed 
standing  memorisl  of  the  effects 
dared  at  Hrst  to  be  very  good  ? 
lice  that  when  Christ  became  a 


rt««™,,Hy 
this  part  of  creation — ■ 
It  ii  remarkable  to  no- 


what  HI 


m  by  pi 


le  head  of  the  serpi 


The  re 


oval  of  Ih 


ing  in  pain.is  frequently  set  fiirih  by  illuatrationsuken 
from  the  disappearance  of  briecH  and  thoma  (Isa.  Iv,  IS; 
Ezek.  xxviii,24)"  (Balfour,  BbI.  and  Rrlig.  p.  1  I0-1I&), 

Dr.  Thomson  (Jjtmi  and  Bnok,  i,  81)  illuslraies  laa. 
xixiii,  12,"The  people  shall  be  as  the  burning  of  lime, 
as  thorna  cut  upshsll  they  be  burned  in  the  lire,"  by  the 
following  observation;  "Thme  people  yonder  are  cxit- 
tlng  up  thoma  with  their  mattocks  and  pruning-hiK>ks, 
and  gathering  them  into  bundles  to  be  burned  in  these 
burnings  of  lime.  It  is  a  curious  Oddity  to  real  life 
that  when  the  tbome  are  merely  to  be  destroyed  they 
are  never  cut  up,  hut  set  on  Bra  where  they  grow. 
They  are  cuf  tip  only  tor  the  lime-kiln"  (see  also  ibid.  I, 
527  sq.  fur  other  scriptural  allusiuns). 

1.  AsAiiTliA  (aaat>3n)  occurs  in  Halt,  vii,  16;  xill, 
T,  i2;  sxvii,  27 ;  and  also  in  the  parallel  passages  at 
Uark  and  Luke,  and  as  fanning  the  crown  of  ihoms,  in 
John  xix,  2.  5.     The  word  is  used  in  as  general  a  aense 

rect  to  conHne  it  to  any  one  spedes  of  plant  in  all 
the  above  pauoees,  ibongh,  no  doubi,  some  particular 
thorny  plant  indigenous  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusa- 
lem would  be  selecteil  for  plaiting  the  crown  of  thorns. 
Uaaselquisi  aaysof  the  XaUa  PaUanu  Alitmti  kI  Al 
pinus,  now  Zitfphiu  Spiiia  Chrieli,  "In  all  probability, 
this  is  the  tree  which  afforded  the  crown  of  thorns  put 
upon  the  head  of  Christ.  It  is  very  common  in  tb« 
East.  This  plant  it  very  fit  for  the  purpose,  for  it  hat 
many  small  and  sharp  apinet,  which  are  well  adapted  In 
give  pain:  the  crown  might  easily  be  made  of  theaa 
aoft,  miiiid,  and  pliant  branches;  slid  what,  in  my  opin- 
ion, seems  to  lie  the  greater  proof  it  that  Ihe  leaves  very 
much  rewnible  those  of  ivy,  as  they  are  of  a  very  deep 
glossy  green.  Perhspa  Ihe  enemies  of  Christ  would 
have  a  plant  somewhat  resembling  that  with  which 
emperors  and  ii^nerala  were  crowned,  that  there  might 
be  a  calumny  even  in  the  punishment,"  This  plant  it 
the  ntbt  or  dh6n  of  the  Arab*,  which  grows  abundantly 
in  Syria  and  Palealine,  both  in  wet  and  dry  places.  Dr. 
Hookernoticed  a  specimen  nearly  forty  feet  high,  spieoil- 
ing  as  wiiiely  as  a  good  Quertu  iitx  in  England.  The 
arbt  fringes  the  banka  of  the  Jordan,  and  flourishes  on 
the  marshy  banks  of  the  Lske  of  Tiberias;  it  fiirnit 

all  over  ibecounlry.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  six  feet 
or  more,  and  yields  a  slightly  acid  fniit,  about  the  size 
of  the  sloe,  which  is  ealen  by  the  Egyptians  and  Araha. 
Like  its  oognale,  Paliurus,  it  abounds  in  flexible  twigs, 
which  are  armed  with  a  pmfutioii  of  sharp,  strong 


tOilphv  ^plna  Oirim.    (1.  The  mil  plant.    CDcuUiar 
Msm,  flower,  mid  rniit.) 

■  an«  Btnight,  the  other 
n,  Nal.  Hit.  of  the  Hihlt, 
p.VBi).  some,  nawever,  Dive  fixed  upon  Patiunt 
aatltalui,  and  olhen  upon  lA/ditm  horridam,  m  the 
plint  which  TurnUhed  the  thomy  wreath  in  queuion. 
See  Cbown  or  Thorxs. 

2.  AtSd  (TSit ;  Sept.  q  ^voc ;  Tulg.  riammii)  oc- 
eiirau  ■  proper  name  iaUen.  1, 10,  II:  "the  Ihre«hin)(- 
floor  of  Atad."  See  Atad.  In  the  ftUe  iu  Juilg. ' 
14,  16,  Ihfl  alad,  or  "  bnmble,"  i*  called  to  reiKii  o 
tlielieei.  From  Pu.lviii,a  Uta  evideDt  that  lhea/&I 
«u  emplnjed  Tot  fuel :  "  Befora  your  pots  tan  Teel  the 
dioraM."  Alalia  Ki  umilar  to  the  Anbic  avmj 
haagenenlly  been  considered  to  mean  (he  Mme  . 
namely,  a  apedea  of  buckthorn.  Thia  is  ciHiflrnieil  by 
aladmi  beinjc  one  of  the  aynonyme  of  I'AanMirj,  aa  fciven 
in  the  ■upplemenU  to  Dioacoridea.  A  apecies  of  i  ton- 
niM  ii  deacribr<t  both  by  Deloti  and  by  Hauwolfaa  being 
onmiDoii  in  I'alcaline,  and  by  the  laiier  aa  fcrand  eaiie- 
eially  in  Cbe  neigbboThooil  of  Jerusaletn.  It  hia  been 
docribed  by  Alpiniu  aa  having  an  abtuHlance  of  lonf 
branchra,  on  wfaicb  are  found  many  long  and  ver> 
aharp  thoma.  So  Rauwolf,  "It  pula  furlh  long,  slen- 
der, crooked  awitchea,  on  which  there  are  a  great  man; 
long,  Btrong,  and  acute  thoma."  Thia  baa  been  sup- 
posed by  some  (o  he  the  above-nienlioned  true  Christ'i 
th-im,  iUanBHM,  now  Zayphut  Spina  Ckriiti;  but  bi 
othen  the  plant  in  quealion  ia  supposed  lo  be  Cycium 
t'Hrupirum,  or  t.  n/nm  (bux-thom),  both  of  which 
species  occur  in  Palestine  (see  Strand,  Fhr,  Patatl. 
N.i«.  IM.  125).  Dioacoridea  (Comm.  i,  1 19)  thua  apeaka 
of  I  be  prijifofi  "The  rhamnua.  which  aoroe  call;>rr«f- 
phmaim,  others  IneartBilka,  Ihe  Komans  whiu-ihnm 
or  cerkifw,  and  the  Carthaginians  alada,  ia  a  ahnil 
which  growa  around  hedgea:  it  has  erect  brandies  will 
aharp apincs.  like  the  nryuanVAn  (hawthorn?),  but  will 
amall,  oblong,  thick.sofl  leaves."  Dioscoriilea  mention. 
three  kimis  ofrhamnus,  two  of  which  are  idenlilied  bi 
Sprengel,  in  his  Conimnii'ary,  with  the  two  apeciea  ol 
l^eiuia  mentioned  above,  in  his  lliil.  Rri  llnb.,  how 
ever,  he  refers  the  pajivoi  lo  the  Ziispliut  eiilijarit.  Se. 
lkl.ni,  ObKnothna  ik  Pint.  Simj.  tu..  II.  Ixxviji ;  Rau 
wuir,  Traetlt,  III,  viii  j  Alpinua,  Z<B  fbaU.  ^:gyfil.  p.  21 
C'lHU^//Kn>t.i,  199. 

Lyeiim  Earopavm  Is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Riirop- 
and  the  north  of  Africa;  in  the  GrecUn  ialamls  it  ii 
cimmon  ia  hedgw  {Kvi/Uili  Cyinp. i.v."Lydum;"  aei 
alao  the  paawgea  in  Belon  and  Rauwulf  ciled  above).      | 


5.  BabeXm  Ci^';'?, only  in  the  plur.;  Sept.  Bopca- 
vi/i)  occun  in  Judg.  viii,  7,  16,  where  GiitHin  u  de- 
scribed as  saying,  "Then  I  will  tear  your  Aeah  wilb  tilt 
thorns  (iuiim)  uf  lhewildeiiiea*,aiid  with  briiTs  {borla- 
Hfm)."  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  brim,  ii 
applied  to  a  rose  oi  btimble,  ia  ihe  correct  meaning; 
but  there  ia  nothing  Iu  lead  ua  lo  select  any  one  prcln- 
ably  from  among  the  numertnis  thomy  and  prickly 
plants  of  .Syria  as  Ihe  barbmim  of  Scrlptun.  Ruaai- 
mllller,  however,  says  that  Ihia  word  signifies  "  a  Sail,'' 
and  has  no  reference  to  thorny  plants.  It  prubalily  de- 
note* Ihe  sharp  stones  set  in  the  boitooi  of  the  Oriental 
thieshing-aleilge.     See  Bmhr. 

4.  Batos  (4  Baroc,  "bramble  bush,"  Luke  vi,  41; 
eliewhore  simply  "bush").    See  StHth,  below. 

A.  BobhIh  (noxf,  liurally  itiai-Kted,  fivm  CK3, 
lo  ilijJt,  hence  lo  be  morildta;  S^it.  /Jdroc:  Vulg. 
ipinn,andso  the Targ.,STr.,  and  Arab.;  A.V."cockle") 
is  the  naoiD  ofa  plant  or  weed  oI  a  worthless  or  nDiiom 
kind  (Job  xxii,  10).  From  the  connection  in  which  K 
is  Introduced,  it  is  probable  that  some  paiticiilar  aail 

(ckoacK)  in  the  parallel  member.  Flint  pronouncn  it  a 
uaeleas,  noxious,  and  sinnose  herb  of  the  cockle  ordanwl 
species.  Cehius  ^Hirrob.  it,  201)  make*  it  a  poisnnsia 
plant,  ihe  hith  of  the  Arabic  writen,a  species  ofacmlt. 
Lee  {/.er.  s.  v.)  suggests  htralork  aa  the  probable  stdd. 
nym.  Zuiia  gives  JoJcjI,  and  Renan  (Aim  dr  M  ad 
loc.)  ierair.  Tristram  remarks  (A'ar.  Hitl.  o/ihe  HiU', 
p.  489),  "There  is  a  shrub  which  illacka  coni.and  hut 
putrid  smell  (Urrdn  firliilu).  Some  of  Ihe  urasuof 
the  com  plains  have  an  intolerably  fotid  stench,  and 
may  well  suit  ilie  derivation  of  the  word.  Tbe  nink' 
ing  anims  arc  common  in  Galilee."     See  OiCKLa. 

6.  CiiARf  L  (^^^n.  from  an  obsolete  root  ^*:n,  wbic^ 
fleseuius  thinka-l-in,  fo  bunt;  but  Furat  lhinki= 
n^n,  in  tbe  sense  uS  priddng,  and  he  compare!  lbs 
Phmiiician  'i^^n,  i^tpJnv,  Dioscor.  iii,  21 ;  also  the  vol- 
gar  Heb.  B^^ri,  mmlard,  from  ita  smarting  laMr),  i 
prickly  shrub  (A.T."neUles,"  Job  xxz,7:  Prov.  xxii, 


THORN 

i,  2  (whicb  shows  it  h«d  ■  hud  spine);  Ptot.  iivi, 
B;  Cmtii.ii  Ho<.ii,6.  Celsiiui  (ffifro*.  i,  477)  be- 
lievM  rrum  the  liniiLarily  of  Ihe  Arabic  khoMh,  tbat  tbe 
blacklham  {Fruaui  i^calrii)  it  denoted;  but  (his 
1  not  suit  the  poswige  in  Job,  bb  it  ii  ■  glnw-graw- 
ine  tree,"  Perbap«  tbe  terra  is  used  in  ■  wide  sense  to 
signify  any  thorny  plant  of  quick  growlb  in  some  fields 
and  meaJuws.  There  are  two  classes  of  thorny  weeds 
which  choke  the  com-flelda  of  PaWtine,  Ihe  thistles 
and  the  CBilaureai  or  knapweeds.  Tbese  Usi  sre  chief- 
ly of  two  kinds,  both  commonly  called  stir-thislle,  name- 
'  '^e  Cffttauna  caIcUrapa,vh[ch  is  the  most  frequent 
ruublcsome  intruder  in  both  culliiated  and  neglcct- 
rlds  in  Palestine,  ami  the  C.  cemlum,  which  is  even 
formidable     See  TuiSTLX. 


3t;  Zepb.  ii,  9),  perhaps  ■  liind  of  thistle.  Tristram 
msarkt  (S'al.  Hit.  of  Ike  Bibh,  p.  475),  "The  ekatSl 
milil  appear  lu  be  different  fnim  tbe  ordinary  ntflU, 
mce  in  Pnv.  xxir,ai  it  Is  mentioned  along  with 
ItcuiDot  be  aahmblike  the  Ziiyphus  or  the  Faliurus, 
because  it  is  evidently  spoken  of  by  Solomon  a*  a  plant 
of  quick  growth  in  the  com-fieldti  It  must  hare  been 
of  tame  Bzc,from  the  paisage  in  Job,  where  the  oul 
euti  shelter  under  iu  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that ' 
dcsignales  Ihe  prickly  acanthus  {Acaalim  ipiuoia), 
ten  common  anil  trnublesiime  weed  in  the  plains  o 
Pileuine.and  equally  abuniUnt  among  ruins.  We  hare 
often  Men  it  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  choking  the  com, 
ind  reaching  la  tbe  height  of  six  feeL  Ita  sting  is 
hkm  trritaitng  and  unpleasant,  and  well  supports  the 
deriralianorthe  Heb.  word, '  that  which  bums.'"  See 
Strri*. 

7.  GlieuEE  (p'TTI;  Sept.  axavia,  o^C  tKrparfuVi 
Vidg.  jptw,  palivna)  occurs  in  Prov,  nv,  19,  "The 
nr  of  the  sloibful  it  as  a  hedffC  of  Mdtt  (A.V. 
•liamt'),"  and  in  Mic  vii,  4,  where  tbe  A.  V.  haa 
■"brier."  The  Alcxand.  MS^  in  the  former  passage,  in- 
Urprets  the  meaning  thus, "The  ways  of  the  sinthrul 
ire  strewed  with  ihonia."  Celsius  (Hitrob.  ii,  86).  re- 
ferring the  Heb.  terra  to  the  Arabic  chadat,  it  of  i)pii 
iiD  Ihat  some  spinous  species  nf  tbe  lolanunt  is  intern 
ed.    The  Arabic  term  clearly  denotes  some  species  < 

the  S.  SaJnmean  ("apple  of  Sodom').  See  Vink  ( 
SoDoa.  Buih  these  kinds  are  beset  with  prickles,  and 
•MKC  species  of  mlajuin  grow  to  s  considerable  size. 
Tber  are  Tcry  common  in  dry  arid  sitnations.  S,  nine- 
tan,  the  3.  tpuuaum  of  others,  is  found  in  Palestine. 
Dr.  Harris  is  nf  opinion  that  cAAfci  is  the  Colulfa  ipiao- 
«  tt  FonUl,  which  is  called  inUad  in  Arabic,  and  of 
which  there  U  an  engrai-ing  in  HusseU's  Xal.  Uiil.  of 
J  bjtpa,  tab.  5.     See  Bsieb. 

8.CllOikCB    (nil;    Sept.  Stay,  anavia,  at; 
irifii;  Vulg.  paliMiiu.  lappa,  ipuia,  IrAului),  a 

i^  KTBt  thomr  plant,  is  rendered  "  thickets"  in  I 
iiii.G;  "brambW  in  lsa.xixir,  13;  butiisuallveither 
-  thistle,-' a*  in  2  Kinp  xiv,  »;  2  Chion.  xxv,  18 
bMh  which  pasaagei  it  is  spoken  of  u  growing  on  L 
auual;  Job  xii.  40  ("Let  [histlei  grow  instead 

wheal,"  whkh  sbawa  that  it  was  some  ranidk  mat 

ing  ptaat) ;  or  "  ihoma,"  as  in  S  C 


9.  DardIr  O'^'^'J)  occurs  in  Gen.  iii,  18,  "Thnms 
also  and  Ihurln  shall  it  bring  forth  Co  thee ;"  and  again 
in  Hoe.  x,  S,  in  both  of  which  passages  danid!-  is  con- 
joined with  hHi.  The  rabbins  describe  it  as  a  tboniy 
plant  which  they  also  call  accobila.  The  aitib  of  the 
Arabs  is  a  thistle  ur  wild  artichoke.  The  Sept.  and 
Vulg.,  however,  render  danidr  by  the  word  rpi'^oXoc, 
liibulut,  a  callmp,  in  both  panages,  and  Ihis  will  answer 
as  well  as  any  other  tbomy  or  prickly  plant.  See  Tri- 
bol/u,  below. 

ID.  KimObh  (Ois^p)  or  kimmdii  (Oisp)  occurs  in 
Isa.  xxxiv,  13;  Hoe.  ix,  G,  in  both  which  passages  it 
is  spoken  of  as  occupying  deserted  and  ruined  sites,  and 
is  translated  "nettles."  Another  form  of  the  word,  jK»- 
nraiiKn  (^C^p),  occurs  in  Pror.  xxiv,  SI, where  it  is 
used  in  connection  with  ciortif  an  descriptive  of  the  neg- 
lected Seld  of  the  sluggard,  and  is  translated  "thorns^" 
"All  coramenlators  agree  lhat  this  is  the  sting-nettle 
(urtica),  of  which  there  are  se\-eral  varieties  in  Pslcs- 
tine.  Tbe  most  common  is  Urlica  pUaUfera,  a  tall  and 
rigorous  plant,  oden  six  feet  high,  the  sting  of  which  is 
much  more  severe  and  irritalirg  than  our  common  net- 
tle. It  particularly  alTecta  old  ruins,  as  near  Tell  Hum, 
Beisan,  and  the  ruined  khan  by  the  bridge  over  the  Jor- 
dan, and  forms  a  most  annoying  obstacle  l«  the  explorer 

1/ul.  of  iJu  Batf,  p.  474 ).  The  nnlinary  neltla  is  a 
well-known  wild  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  are  armed 
with  stings,  connected  with  a  small  bag  ofiioison;  and 
wlien  the  leaves  sre  slightly  pressed  by  the  hand,  the 
stings  penetrate  the  flesh,  force  in  Ihe  poisun,  and  pro- 


THORN  3f 

duoe  a  iwcllinit  with  a  iharp  buniing  pun.  The  leaf, 
when  wet  or  dead,  doe*  not  poawM  ihi*  poKti.  The 
preaenne  oT  netllea  beukeiu  a  wMU  wd  orglecled  soiL 
See  Nkttlk. 

II.  KftTB  (yip)  occnra  in  aeveral  p»M»g«_of  Script- 
un  (KxnJ.  xxii,  6 ;  Judg.  viii,  T,  16 ;  3  Sam.  iiiii,  6 1 
I^cxviii,  IXi  Iia.  xxxji,  IS;  xxxjit,  I!-,  Jer.  iv.B; 
xii,  IS)  Eiek.  xxTlii,  34;  A.V.  invariihly  "IhornO ! 
in  i.wa  (Gen.  iii,  IH;  Hoa.  x,  6)  it  ia  roeniionnl  along 
with  diirddr,  where  the  two  wards  miy  be  coiwdered 
equivalent,  reapeciivelj,  lo  the  Engliih  lAonu  and  f*«- 
lia.  The  Sept.  tranalatea  it  in  all  the  paaugn  by 
Stav^a.  and  it  prubably  was  uaed  in  a  general  MnK  to 
denote  plants  which  were  thoniT,  nieltaii,  and  indicaliva 
of  neglected  culture  or  deaened  habitationa,  growing 
natnrally  ia  dnert  >ilualian>,and  luerul  only  fui  fuel 
Bat  irany  particular  plant  bs  meant,  the  Onoitit  ipino- 
to,  or  "reu-barrow,"  mentioned  by  llaaaelquiat  (p.2S9), 
may  be  lelected  aa  fully  characteriatic:  "  SpinonMima 
ilia  eC  pemicinaa  planta,  campoi  inlegroa  legit  iGgypti 
et  PalesLinie.  Nun  <luh'iiandum  quiu  banc  indicaFerint 
in  aliqut)  loco  Kiiptoreii  tacri." 


n  only  in  two  paasagea 
■  Kaiialated  "thoni"  in 
Thua  (vit,  18,  iy),"Jehorah  shall  bias  for 
lal  is  in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  riiera  of 
id  for  the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria; 
shall  come,  and  shall  rest  all  of  Ihem  in  the 
desolate  valleys,  and  in  the  holes  of  the  rochs,  and  upon 
all  the  IhoiTu"  ( nrtofmUim ,-  Sept.  paj-di-j  Vulg./rwte- 
nmi).     By  some  this  has  lieen  irani'laled  tmicrt;  but 


Eg; 


apUnt 


:mA  is  evident  from  Iv,  13: 


"Instead  of  the 

laliunca)  shall  come  up  the  lir-Iree,  and  instead  ol  the 

derstood  it  generally  as  I  horn,  shrub,  thorny  shrub,  small 
tree,  or  thicket.  Others  hnre  allempleil  lo  define  it 
jpeeiflcally,  rendering  it  bramble,  while-lborn,  eic.  (C»l- 
sius.  Hirroi.  ii,  190) ;  hut  nothing  cenain  has  been  de- 
termined respecting  it.  Celsius  endeavors  lo  trace  it  lo 
the  same  origin  a>  the  Arabic  naaz,  which  he  states  to 
be  the  name  of  a  plant  of  uhich  the  bark  is  employed 
in  tanning  leather.  The  meaning  of  (he  term,  he  con- 
tinues, in  Chaldee,  is  irifignr,  d'ffftre,  "  In  stick  into"  or 
"fix," and  it  is  therefore  suppnseil  to  refer  to  a  prickly 
or  thorny  plant.    Rben-Melech  says  that  cammenta- 


THORN 

1  explain  naattiu  by  the  Arabic  word  nJr,  wbicli 

the  name  of  a  well-kuoHii  thuray  biuh  of  EaMem 

untries,  a  species  of  ZUyphua.   Tbia,  Sprengel  aiys,  it 

a  Z.  nlgarit,  found  in  many  paita  of  Palaline,  ss  wdl  - 

in  many  of  the  unculiivaied  tracts  of  othsr  Eastern 

iintriea.     Others  supporc  the  spcciea  to  be  the  Kibak 

of  the  Araba,  which  ia  the  Zttijijliu/a/u,  and  coniiderrd 

the  lotus  of  the  ancieniK.    Bui  from  the  context  it 

j  appear  that  the  plant,  if  a  liiyphua,  must  bave 

a  lees  highly  esteemed  variety  or  species,     Bui  in 

and  of  little  value.  Belon  iaya,"I.eB  hayes,  pour  Is 
plus  part,  sont  de  lamaiisquo,  cenoplia  (i.  e.iiiypbi 
species)  ei  rhamnea."  In  Freylag's /I  ruitc  Ltxitentbt 
above  Arabic  word  nam  ia  aaid  lo  be  the  name  of  i 
Ihumy  tree,  common  in  the  Hejsi,  ihe  Lark  ofwhicli 

frice  is  prepared.  This  might  be  a  species  ofaacia.of 
which  many  apeciea  are  well  known  to  be  abundant  in 
the  di^-  and  barren  parts  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. 

13.  Saiub  (3^1;)  occurs  <in  Ihe  plur.)  only  am 
(Eiek.  ii,  U)  aa  a  aj-nonym  of  lalMn,  and  is  thought  by 
many  (Ihe  ribbina  CaMcll,  Fursi,  etc.)  lo  denois  i 
thitiiy  plant  (A.  V. "  brier"),  as  oigiiaie  with  tir;  but 
Celsiua  (_llimli,  ii,  3H)  eunlends  Ihat  it  aimplv  meua 
ifbrb  (frum  Ihe  Chald.  S^C,  to  rnul). 

14.  sex  (7(0,  lilerallyV  thorn-hrdur,  ao  called  ftaa 
the  interlacing  of  the  btiers]  occurs  only  once  (in  ibt 
plur.)  as  a  synonym  offifnfor  a  prickly  object  in  gen- 
eral (Numb,  xxxiii,  bb;  Srpl.  •ncoXoirfc;  Vulg.f^ori,- 
A.V.  "pricks").  It  occurs  in  the  feioiuine  plur.lmi 
auUiArA  (nSlC)  in  Job  xli,  7,  where  it  is  tnniltKd 
"barbed  irons)"  Its  reaembUnce  to  the  .Arabic  dtit, 
Ikom,  sufficiently  iiulicales  the  probalHlity  of  its  meao- 
tng  Bomelbing  of  the  same  kind. 

16.  Skn^ii  (nSO)  occurs  in  the  well-known  paMSRe 
of  Ex«L  iii,  !,  where  the  anget  of  the  Lord  appeaml 
unto  UoMS  in  a  flaming  Are  out  of  the  midal  vf  a  *"  bmir 
(jmM),  and  the  hush  waa  tnt  couBDmed.  It  occais  ak> 
in  ver.  3  and  i,  and  in  Deal,  xxxiii,  IS,  but  with  ithi- 
enee  lo  the  same  event  The  Sept.  Iruislatea  tnii  liy 
/loTOt,  which  usually  signifies  Ihe  miwi,  or  AroiiUc;  B 
in  the  Mew  Test,  ^roc  is  employed  when  refeniDE  lo 
the  above  miracle  of  Ihe  burning  bush.  Briroc  is  like- 
wise used  til  denote  Ihe  tnik  by  Joaephus,  Phdo,  O- 
men^  Kusebiiia,  and  others  (see  Celsius,  llirnii.  ii,fi8> 
The  monks  of  the  monasleri-  of  Si.  Cntherine  ou  llMmi 
Sinai  have  a  species  of  rubus  planted  in  iheir  garden 
near  their  Chapel  of  the  llurniiig  Itush ;  but  this  ciil- 
not  be  considered  aa  any  proof  of  iis  identity  wiih  ihr 
mik  from  the  lillla  attenlion  which  they  have  uwn:- 
ly  paid  lo  correctnesa  in  such  poiiila.  Dove  says  of  ir, 
"Cest  une  esptce  de  Kubu^qai  est  voisin  de  noire  U. 
fralicosiiB."  The  species  of  rubus  (our  WarUerrj)  Sfe 
not  commrin  cither  in  Syria  or  Arabia.  Rabiii  nmcrsi, 
the  holy  bramble.  Is  found  in  Palestine,  and  is  memion- 
ed  by  Dr.  Kussell  as  existing  in  the  ncighborhnnl  of 
Aleppo,  and  Haseelquist  found  a  rubus  among  ihe  niim 
of  Scanderelta,  and  another  in  the  ncighlairhouil  of 
Scide.  It  is  also  found  among  Ihe  ruins  of  Petri  (!) 
(Calcolt).  Celsius  and  olhers  quote  Hebrew  auihon 
as  slating  Ihat  Uount  Sinai  obtained  its  name  from  the 

Sinai  de  nomine  ejua."     But  no  species  of  rubus  senni 

tain.  I'hiswasobBerredbyPnrocke.  He  fount^  bow- 
ever,  on  Mount  Horeb  several  hawthorn  bushes,  ind 
says  that  the  holy  bush  waa  more  likely  lo  have  been  a 


PSthatlheC^oniRMa.1 


di  (BrTonailed  br  *  Briar  Baih  Id  Vndj  Saul,  nsoi 
SlDiL    (Pram  m  pbnt<>|[niph  bj  Ihs  Editor.) 

ndcgTBnit  iin  nvtpUut  voiBinf 


illn."   Dr, 

iTthing  like  proof  in  ravnr  of 
IliH.ofthtHMt, 


A  appeira  to  be  rqiii' 


e  particular  kind  of 
ent  lu  Ihe  Egyptiin 
e  Lho  Acaeiii  iryaL  ui 
irr  in  jn^iilh.  Thi 
nsula  nf  Sinai,  wliict 
lo  hm-e  derivpd  iu 


ninj  from  the  Ki^i  bu 

i;;- 

But  at  the 

■eia 

oeiy- 

ook^ol 

n  be 

the  Arabic 

iml 

whiih 

*  as  ihillak  [q 

v.l) 

nd  the*^«,ai>d 

aalhe 

luur  b 

e  um.  the  baaia  of  the  ide 

nliltca- 

lioa  of  Lhe  Ulter  wi 

h  th 

ta  entirely  f 

ils.e 

pecifll- 

Ir  «  [he 

Srpt.  an 

■oiWU 

.tly 

underatande 

he    uming 

burtwh 

re  been  a 

brarr 

ble-1 

kepUnt;n. 

er.  had 

ilbrai  t 

e  »dl-hn 

hil  yielded 

the 

hillim 

»«»d,w< 

ca.1  «e«n 

reason  Fu 

the  UK  or 

a  pec 

luror 

ine  11  all,  but  ■  low  buah,  probably  one  of  the 
•fftia  of  annual  thorny  plant*  Mill  abounding  on  the 
Dvuntain,  and  which,  growing  in  the  rainy  aeaaon, 
tDiin  dry  and  bate  during  the  auninier.     Hence  the 
■itptiw  of  Mom*  that  tlw  hijjhiy  conibustible  abject 
•u  nut  ciHuuiued.     The  writer  was  itmck  with  th< 

Ij  wt  Etc  to  theae  buabea  aa  he  met  them.  See  Bush. 
16.  SHAxtR  (-i'<?d)  occun  ID  all  Ihe  ume  pawage 
■  the  next  word,  didsilh,  below,  with  the  addition  alai 
o(  [b.  nxii,  13  :  "  Upon  the  land  of  my  people  ahall 
™oe  up  thnrna  (hilrin)  and  britn"  {ihixmir).  It  ii 
vuiooaly  rendered  by  the  Sept.,  x'fwc.  X"/"""!- ^iflpiC. 
«7JJ*»nc.  inpii.  According  to  Abulfadl,  citeil  hv  Cel- 
•iu  (HifTDb.  ii,  IBS),  "the  ^crntiir  of  the  Arabs  is  a 
■Way  tree;  it  U  ■  ipecies  of  Sidm  wbich  does  not 
foiita  fmil."  No  Ihomy  plants  are  more  conspicu- 
««  in  PaleUine  and  the  Bible  lands  than  ditTeicnt 

butSUra,  nk6l,  A'dUo,  which  appear  to  denote  either 
nnctita  or  dillinvnt  ^leciea  of  Paliumi  and  Zitf/phut, 


AUuriM  neuIfBtiu. 

or  different  statea,  perhaps,  of  the  same  tree;  but  it  ii 
a  difBcult  matter  tu  assign  In  each  its  particular  sigiil- 
ficatiun.    Dr.  Tristram  slates  that  "IlieArabsofthe.l.ir-    ' 
dan  valley  confine  the  name  aomtir  to  the  Paliurut  aca- 
&(««*,  or  Christ's  Thorn"  (iVa/.//ur.n/"rAeBi6fc,  p.  428). 

17.  SnaTiTii  (r7Q)  occurs  in  several  passages  of 
Isaiah  (r,6;  ¥11,28^24,30;  ix,18;  x,\3;  xxvii,l),in 
ail  i>r  which  it  is  asaociated  with  aAdtnir,  the  two  being 
translated  llwrni  and  britn  in  the  A.  V.  From  Ihe 
context  of  all  the  passages,  it  is  evident  that  some  weed- 
like plants  are  intended,  either  of  a  thorny  or  prickly 
nature,  or  such  as  spring  up  in  neglected  cultures  and 
are  signs  of  desolation,  and  which  are  occasionally  em- 
ployed for  fueL  Notliiiig  has,  however,  been  ascertain- 
ed respecting  the  plant  intended  br  ihdj/i/h,  anil  conse- 
quently it  has  been  variously  Iranalaleil  in  the  several 
versiunt  of  the  Scriptures.  Gesenins  thinks  it  is  ely- 
inologically  connected  with  the  lAtfCuA  tree  (i.  q.  ^Jl^)- 
See  Shittaii. 

18.  SillCn  (V^C)  occurs  in  Ezek.xxviii,24:  "And 
(here  shall  be  no  more  a  pricking  brier  {titldii)  unto  Ihe 
house  of  Israel,  nor  any  grieving  liora  (tduy  The 
Sept.  here  has  nuAoJ-  and  the  Vulg.  'iff'ttidiniliim.  So 
sIsoSallOn  (Vio)  occnrs  (in  Ihe  plur.)  in  Eiek.  ii.e: 
"Though  brieR<(nmi«i«i)  and  rAutw((ra/A>ni'n)  be  with 
thee."  The  Sept.  and  Vulg.  hero  render  both  words 
vaguely  (rnfhiiarpqaoiHn  jcoi  itriwariiaaVTai,  lacrAfu- 
li  tt  nbctrMartM),  Several  Arabic  words  resemble  it  in 
sound;  a*  ri/,  signifying  a  kind  of  wormwood;  »iflf*,the 
plant  Zillii  Mj/iigrum;  tiJdiA,  the  rpriync  of  the  Greeks, 
supposed  to  be  SaUola  kali  and  S.  Imsui;  lalaloi  lu- 
/oton,  which  signities  the  ikom  of  Ihe  date-tree,  while 
the  Chaldce  word  tiUrld  signifies  a  thorn  simply.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  tiUim  baa  something  of  the 
same  meaning,  as  also  inUimim;  but  neither  the  con- 
text nor  the  etymology  affords  us  a  clue  to  the  particu- 
lar plant,  Trislram,  however,  state*  that  "  Ihe  Arabic 
wnril  luliaon  is  applied  to  the  sharp  piiintH  on  the  ends 
of  the  palm-leaf,  and  also  to  the  buicher's-briHim  {Rnt- 

,  of  Paleatine"  (A'af.  Hiil.  if  lie  Biblr,  p.  43 1  > 


Bntcber'a-broom  (AiMnu  aeiiltatHt] 

19.  SlB  (I"!?)  occi 
taget,  t.  g.  In  EcgIo.  : 
(lirim)  under  ■  pot,", 
(n'rtn)  >h>U  come  up  in  her  pibcea,"  etc ;  Hot.  li,  6; 
Amos  iv,  J 1  Nah.  i,  10.  The  S«pL  and  otber  tranala- 
tionB  bare  employed  words  signifying  tboms  »»  con- 
veying the  nie«ain(!  of  tifini  i  but  tbc  elymology  does 
not  lead  us  u>  select  one  plant  mure  than  another. 

20.  SirpId  (ID'^S}  is  tneiuional  only  once  as  ■  de>- 
crt  shrub  (Isii.lvil3),"And  iniiead  of  the  brier  (rir- 
p&i,  Sept.  nH'iJii.Vnlit.  urlkii)  "hall  come  up  the  myr- 
tle." Though  this  ha*  generallv  been  consideml  a 
thorny  and  prickly  plant,  it  does' not  follow  from  the 
context  that  such  is  necessarily  meant.  It  would  he 
eufficient  fur  the  sense  that  tome  useless  or  insignificant 
plant  be  understoodT  and  there  arc  many  such  in  desert 
■nd  uncultivated  places.  In  addition  to  Fnliurut  car. 
iiiiHi,Urlim,Cin^zn,»pecino(Poliigoriara,oSt'BpkoTiia, 
etc.,  have  been  adduced ;  and  also  Smnii  aralrafai,  or 
bulcherVbroom.   The  etyroologv  of ihe  word  iaobaciire. 

31.  Thisoi/>8  (rpi^oAac),  U't.  IribUm,  ia  fotind  in 
Matt,  vii,  ie,"I>o  men  gaiher  6gnif  Ihiilleif  {rpifii- 
\mr)i  and  again  in  Heb.vi,a,  "But  that  which  beareth 
thorns  and  briei-t  (rpi^Xoi)  is  rejected."  The  name 
was  applied  by  the  Greekg  to  two  ur  three  plants,  one 
of  whicb  WIS,  no  doubt,  aquatic,  Trapn  luilant.  Of  the 
two  kinds  of  land  trihtjt  mentioned  by  the  Greeks  (Di- 
oscorides,  iv,  IS;  Thenphrutus,  //iiT.  Pliml.  vi,  7,  6), 
one  ia  believed  by  Sprengel,  Slackhouse,  Koyle,  end 
others  to  refer  to  the  Trtimlai  lerrrilHi,  Linn.,  the  other 
is  supposed  to  be  tite  Fagoaia  Crttica  i  but  see  Schuei- 


4         THOKN  IK  THE  FLESH 

der't  commentary  on  Tbeophrasttif,  toe.  cil^  and  Du  Ih. 

lin  {Fhi-e  Poiligue  AHeinmr,p.SOb),wbo  identifies  tke 
tritalul  of  Vii^  with  the  Cmlaurra  caldlrapu,  Linn, 
("sur-tbiule").  Celuua  (A/tnoA.ii,  128)  argues  in  fi- 
vur  of  the  Fiigimia  A  rabica,  at  vhich  a  figure  is  given 
in  .Shaw,  7'raF(b(CataL  Plant.  No.  229);  see  alto  For- 
■kal,  floi:  A  rab.  p.  88.  Both  or  nearly  allied  speda 
are  found  in  dry  and  barren  places  in  the  Easi ;  and, 
aa  both  are  prickly  and  spread  over  Ihe  surface  of  ibe 
ground,  they  an  extremely  hurtful  lo  tread  upon.  Tbt 
word  rpi/JoXof  ia  further  iiiterening  to  us  as  being  em- 
ployed in  the  Sept.  as  the  Iranabtion  of  darddr  (aborr). 
The  presence  of  species  of  Iribolut  indicate*  a  dr}'  ind 
barren  uncultivated  soil,  covered  with  prickly  or  tbnfny 
plant*.  The  TViiiffiu  InTesTt-H,  however,  is  not  a  spiny 
or  thorny  plant,  but  has  spines  on  the  fruit.  The  Greeii 
word  means  literally  thrrr-pi-rmgrO,  and  originally  de. 

composed  nf  three  radiating  spikes,  thrown  upon  Ibe 
ground  to  hinder  and  aniiuv  cavalry  (Yeget.  111,94; 
nutarch.  Moral,  ii,  76).     See  Wekd. 

22.  Tsfin  C,;t)  or  TsbnIic  (^JX)  occurs  (only  in  Ihe 
plur.)  in  aeveni  passages  of  Scripture,  as  in  Numb. 
xxxiii,&o;  Josh,  xiiil,  IS,  where  it  is  mentioned  sloDg 
with  lit  (nUisi);  alio  in  Job  v,  5  and  Pror.  ixii,&. 
Both  are  invirlaUy  rendered  "tboms"  in  the  A.  T. 
The  SepU  has  rpi^oXoc  in  Prov.  xiii,  S,  and  flokilii  in 
Numb.  Kxiriii,  ba  and  Josh,  xiiii,  18.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  timtfin  might  be  Ihe  Rhomroii  pnliunii,  but 
nothing  more  precise  has  been  ascertained  respecTinf; 
it  than  of  BO  many  other  of  these  ihoniy  plants;  and 
we  may  therefore,  wiih  Hichaelis,  say,  "Nullum  umile 
tiomen  habrnt  relii|uB  lingun  Orientales;  ergo  fu  est 
Biiiienti,  Celsio  quoque,  fas  sit  et  mihi,  aliquid  igHonn'. 
Ignorantin  profeuio  via  ail  inveniendum  venim,  si  qub 
in  Orienle  qusesierit"     See  also  Thorn-iigdgi:. 

THOUN  IV  THE  Flksii  (<rcvXai('  if  oofwi).  an  in- 
flictiun  ("a  mcaseuger  of  Satan  lo  buffet  me")  Sien- 
tioiied  by  Paul  ■■  an  offset  lo  his  extraordinary  revels- 
lions  (2  Cor.  xii,  7).  The  exprenion  has  called  fnrtli 
»  (see  Ibe 


.'  be  resolced  in 


I.  Spiriluol  Ttmptalinnt, — Many 
the  apostle  refers  lo  diabolical  solici 
ones  Satan»"),  such  as  blasphemon 


iotisC'in 
hough  Is 


r,  Caloviua),  or  remorse  for  hi")  fort 
(Osiander,  Mosheim,  etc),  or — according  lo  Romish  in. 
terpreters  who  seek  a  precedent  for  monkish  legends— 
incitemeniB  to  lust  (so  Thomas  Aquinas,  Lvra,  Bellsi- 
mine,  Eslius,  Com.  k  Lipide,  etc.).  Theite  are  all  nepa- 
not  only  by  their  intrinsic  improbability,  but  by 


the  qualification  "in  the  flesh." 


2.  Pnumal  Hoitii- 

Paul  frequently  ex- 
perienced, especially 
from  Judaiiing  secta- 

eiplanalion  has  been 
seized  upon  by  msni 

(e!g.  ChryTosVm 
Theophy  tact,  (Ecume- 


well  IS  later  ones  (Csl- 
vin.  Beta,  etc.)  ami 
modems  (  Fritivhe. 
Schnder,  el&).  But 
this,  too,  coulil  Itaidlr 
with  propriety  be  <■!!■ 
ed  ■  "fleahlj"  afflie- 


f--    Thh  irf«w  li 

DigiNzedbvCOOglC 


THORN.  COKFEBENCE  OF       385 


THORN-HEDGE 


(■nkalir  ulment.  The  ancients  (Cbr}->n9[am,  Tbe- 
■yliyiict,  (Eaimemaa,  Jerome,  on  GaL  ic,  \i)  menlinn 
iriabcic  but  without  usigiiing  any  ipeciil  giouad  Tor 
iht  anjcclure.  Some  bice  Boppoced  hypocbondriacitl 
mrLatiiilji,  irlijcli,  however  huilly  aDsweni  the  condi- 
ligu  of  >  nokoiti,  wberebj  aeult  mttenag  kbdib  to  be 
inpIJBL  So  of  other  apecoktiona,  for  which  nee  Pali 
.'^aifilit,  id  loc 

On  the  vbole  (remarks  Alford,  ad  he),  putting  to- 
t^ifia  the  figure  hero  uHed,  that  of  a  thorn  (or  a  poiot- 
ri  iiofa,  for  80  aioXoJ'  primarily  ligaifies  [see  Xenoph, 
lani.  T,  1, 5]),  occaaioniog  pain,  and  (be  csAafurfisc,  or 
f^f'titg  (L  e.  perhaps  putHng  to  ihamf)^  it  aeems  qoite 
i>K«taiy  to  iDfei  that  the  apiwtle  alludes  la  some  dis- 
nwn;  and  tedioos  bodily  malady,  which  at  tbe  same 
aw  dOKd  him  mortificaiion  before  those  among  Hhom 
bt  tieroKil  bia  minUtry.  Of  such  a  hind  may  have 
We  the  disonler  in  bis  eyes,  more  or  leu  indicated  in 
Hrenl  passagea  of  his  history  (see  Acta  xiii,  9 ;  xxiii, 
1  <].:  It*L  ir,  14;  ri,  11).  Bat  as  aOectiona  of  the 
no,  bowever  sad  in  their  amsequeiiceB,  are  not  uanal- 
\i  icsrtainly  rot  to  all  appearance  in  the  apostle's  case) 
TOT  painfid  or  diatreuing  in  themselves,  they  hardly 
•rw  op  lo  the  intense  meaning  of  the  phiase.  Paul 
*K  thmfore  probably  troubled  with  some  internal  di»- 
uH  of  which  the  marks  were  et-inced  unly  in  languor 
■1x1  phjBcal  anguish.  There  an  few  who' do  not  thua 
■■  l*ai  aboot  in  their  body"  some  token  of  roorta]  frailty. 

Sm.  id  addition  to  the  monographs  cited  by  Valbe- 
fUnit,  liiia  Prrtgrammatum,  p.  81 ;  and  by  Dani,  Wor. 
«r\  p.  C67,  Bagot,  Tkom  ia  lit  fleak  (Lond.  1840) ; 
/VmsMAvkv,  July,  leea.     SeePAUi. 

Tbam,  COSFKRKNCK  or,  also  known  aa  "  Che  Chart- 
mH-  Coif/iTmet''  (CoUoquvim  Chaiitvlivam),  was  one 
«f  ibow  eflaits  lo  explain  away  the  differences  between 
Ik  aeTFral  bodies  of  Christians,  with  a  view  to  religious 
niiioa,  of  which  the  17th  century  furnishes  more  than 
Mt  example.  It  was  appointed  in  the  city  of  Thotl), 
m  Oanbrr,  1646,  by  Ladislaua  IV,  at  the  suggestion  of 
itH  KeGxmeit  preacher  at  Dantzic,  Bartholomew  Nigri- 
oai  ■bo  had  become  a  Catholic,  and  persuaded  the  king 
ikii  9xb  a  conference  would  be  attended  with  good  re- 
■dIu.  At  this  all  religious  parties  were  to  appear  and 
"nfMiogether  on  religion,  and  come  to  an  agreement. 
Ihi  ibe  aide  of  the  Lutherans,  some  Saxon  divines  of 
Viiitsberg,  especially,  were  inrited  from  Germsny; 
it  iber  were  regarded  as  standing  at  the  head  of  all 
thi  German  theologiaoe.  The  KSnigdierg  divines  were 
amoifanied  and  assisIedbyCalixtus  of  Brunswick,  who 
biJbeen  invited  by  elector  Frederick  William,  His  oon- 
4uci  sod  the  question  cif  precedence  between  IheKdnigK- 
^and  the  Dantzic  divines  occupied  the  entire  time  of 
ibt  omfciince,  which  broke  up  without  any  result,  Nov. 
!1.  li&  The  official  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
r^ienact  are  printed  in  Calovius,  HUtoria  St/ncrtiiili- 
«.  See  tbn  SchTntkh,Kirthaigeich!ehle  leil  der  fUfor- 
aatH.iT,509:Uasheim,£'cc^.//ur.iii,  293,359,373,  note. 

TbomdUca.  Herbert,  a  learned  English  divine, 
*w  educated  in  Triniiv  College,  Cambridge,  an<l  be- 
CVH  pmctor  of  thai  university  in  1038.  In  July,  1643, 
^  vai  admitted  to  the  rector;  of  Barley,  Uertford- 
•liin:  and  in  September,  IMS,  was  elected  master  of 
^i)iiey  CoU^e,  Cambridge,  but  was  prevented  from  oc- 
nipying  thax  position,  ic  being  secnred  by  a  Mr.  Uin- 
''inlL  I^ter  he  waa  ejected  fmm  bia  living  of  Barley. 
Ai  (be  BeetoimlioQ  he  was  replaced  in  this  living,  but 
™)pied  it  oa  being  made  a  prebendary  of  Westmin- 
•ur.  He  died  Jnlv.  1G72.  He  awdated  Dr.  Walton  in 
ibe  edition  of  the  Polyglot  Bible,  psrliculatly  in  mark- 
sad  wnile  several  treatisea :  A  Ducoune  conctnaTig  the 
'ViMCbe  Form  of  tit  Gmtnmait  ofChurchf  (Camb. 
lH],gvo):_j|  DiteouTte  of  Rdigiotu  AttaiAlia  and 
HthMic  Serrict  of  God  (ibid.  1643, 8vo) :  — ,d  Dif 
OMFB  oftkt  Rigktt  of  Iht  Church  at  a  Chnttian  Sluft, 
X— 13 


etc  (I.ond.  1649,8vo)  -.—Jiat  IVeigAH  and  Utamret,  Li. 
IAf.  PraenI  Slate  ofRtUgion  Ktightd  in  the  Balanet,  etc 
(ibid.  1662,  4to)  :-^A  Uifoune  of  the  Forbearance  of 
tht  Pmaltiit,  etc.  (ibid.  1670,  8vo)  -.—Originet  Eccleiitr, 
etc  (ibid.  1670} :— also  his  famous  book,  ,/<n  £>>>^f  ro 
Iht  Tragedy  of  tht  Church  of  Eagbaid  (ibid.  B  parts, 
1670). 

Thora-hedga  (nSilB^,  numk£h;  for  nsibs,  or 
perhs^a  aimply  from  the  inltrlaciry  of  the  briers;  Sept. 
Katniiv,  Vulg.  se/w j),  a  hedge-row  of  thorny  plants  (Mic 
vii,  4),  The  formidable  cliaracter  of  the  tbomy  thick- 
ets in  PaJeiiine  is  noted  by  almoat  every  traveller. 
Near  Jericho  Mr.  Tristram  records  as  the  principal  tree 
"the  Zizgphui  ipimi  Chriili,  growing  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  high,  with  its  subangular  branehea  studded  wilii 
long,  pointed,  and  rather  reflex  Ihoms— a  Ime  wait-a- 
bit  tree.  No  one  can  approach  it  with  impunity  uiilewi 
clsd  in  leather)  and  in  three  days  the  whole  party  were 
in  rags  from  passing  through  the  thickets"  [Ijmdoflt- 
ratl,  p.  SD2).  In  the  same  way  Messrs.  M'Cheyne  and 
Bonar  mention  how  Dr.  Keith  was  baflled  in  his  at- 
tempt to  climb  a  verdant-looking  hill  by  "strong  briera 
and  Ihoms,"  ihroiigh  which  be  foand  it  impossible  lo 
force  a  passage.  They  add,  "Some  time  after,  when 
g  up  the  Bosphorua.  conversing  with  a  gentleman 
1  we  had  met  in  Palestine,  who  appeared  to  be  a 
jfthe  world,  we  asked  him  if  he  had  climbed  Mount 
Tabor  to  obUin  the  delightful  view  from  its  summit.  His 

er  waa,  'No;  why  ^ould  I  climb  Mount  Tabor  to  see 

iDtiyoftbonu?'  Hewaaihusannnintentionalwit. 
neesof  Uie  truth  of  God'a  Word"  (JHution  ofInguiri/,p. 
119).  Such  predictions  as  Isa.  vii,  23, 24;  xxxii,  12-15; 
Hoa.ix,G.acquiieBdditional  force  from  the  inrcumatance 
that  it  is  «o  often  in  the  midst  of  magniflcent  ruins — 
once  pleasant  "  tabernacles" — or  in  regions  which  must 
fonneily  have  been  rich  and  fruitful  fields,  that  these 
choms  and  briers  now  maintain  their  undisputed  and 
OTicnlenC  empire.  Thu^  at  Belh-nimrsh,  the  traveller 
saya, "  The  buildings  may  have  been  extensive,  but  the 
ruins  are  now  shapeless,  and  generally  choked  by  the 
prickly  vegetation"  (Tristram,  Land  of  Iiratl,  p.  622). 
Again,  "We  rode  up  the  GhSr,  through  a  mase  of  zUi/- 
phiu  bush,  which  encamhers  a  soil  of  almost  incredible 
richness;  watered  every  mile  by  some  perennial  brook, 
but  without  trace  of  inhabitant  or  ctthivation.  Now 
and  then  we  saw  a  clump  of  palm-trees,  the  ruined  heap 
of  some  old  village,  or  a  piece  of  a  broken  water-course, 
to  tell  us  that  once  the  hand  of  civilization  waa  here. 
Myriads  of  turtle-dnves  peopled  these  thickets.  We 
put  them  up  absolutely  by  acores  from  every  bush. 
The  nests  of  the  marsh-sparrow  bore  down  the  branch- 
es by  their  weight,  and  the  chirping  waa  literally  deaf- 
ening. The  bushes  and  weeds  were  laden  with  seeds" 
(^id.  p.  570).     In  his  last  words  king  David  compares 

cannot  be  taken  with  bands;  but  the  man  that  shall 
touch  them  muat  be  fenced  with  iron  and  the  staff  of  a 
spear"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  6, 7).  A  traveller  tells  how  out  of 
one  of  these  bushes  of  nubk  he  tried  to  get  a  dove, 
which,  when  shot,  had  fallen  into  it;  "but,  though  I  had 
my  gloves  on,  each  attempt  made  my  hand  bleed  and 
smart  most  painfully,  as  the  Iboma  will  not  yield  in  the 
leasL  I  failed  in  like  manner  when  I  tried  U  cut  a 
stick"  (Gadsby,  tVanderingi,  ii,60).  When  we  remem- 
ber that  a  single  thorn  ia  sometimes  a  couple  of  inches 

appreciate  the  force  of  the  alluHons  in  Mumb.  xxxiii, 
65 :  Prov.  xxvi,  9 ;  E»ek.  xxviii,  24 ;  2  Cor.  lii,  7 ;  and 
we  can  understand  vrbsta  hopeless  barrier  waa  a  "  hedge 
ofthonis"(Prov.xv,19;  Ho».ii,e).  The  nuM,  or  iisj,- 
pAai,  is  much  used  for  fueL  Occurring  everywhere,  it 
is  essily  obtained;  iu  slender  twigs,  intensely  dry,  flash 
up  at  once  in  a  fierce,  brilliant  Hame,  and,  although  very 
different  from  the  steady  glow  of  retem  charcoal,  "  coals 
of  juniper,"  a  successive  supply  ia  anScient  to  heat  the 
kettle  of  the  camping  traveller.     To  ila  rapid  ignition 


THORNHEDGE 


tbe  p 


Tbs  .VhM,  nr  DAem  (Ziii/phiit  ip 
"  BefoK 


I  Ibt 


thorns,  he  ghiU  swrnp  them  aws^  is  wiih  ■  whirlwind' 
(Pu.  Iviii,  9) :  where  "  (he  briKtilneu  of  Che  fUme,  tl 
height  to  which  it  mounts  in  an  ioaUilt.  the  fiirv  wil 
which  it  Mcmi  to  rage  an  all  ndea  of  tbe  veueL  gii 
fnrce  and  even  aublimity  to  tbe  image,  though  talu 
ftnm  one  of  the  coramonest  nccurreiicea  of  the  lowe 
life — a  cottager's  wife  boiling  her  put"  (llonlej.adJoc.). 
Explodiog  so  quickl.T,  they  are  a«  ipecilily  quenched 
(Paa.  civiii,  IS);  and  there  is  small  result  from  their 
nuisy  CKpitation  (Eccles.  vii,  6).  "Kidicute  is  a  facul- 
tj  mach  prized  by  its  pussesaors,  jet,  inlrinsically,  it 
a  sdmU  faculty.     A  scofBiig  man  is  in  no  lofty  mood 


for 


of  tl 


(angel. 


This,  too,  when  bis  scoffing  is  what  we  cailjast 
Mme  foundation  in  tmtb.  While,  again,  the  laughter 
of  fools— cbat  vain  sound — said  in  Scripture  to  resemble 
'  the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a  pot'  (which  thev  can- 
not beat,  but  only  nil  and  b^me),  must  be  regarded 
in  these  later  times  as  a  very  serious  addition  to  the 
aum  of  human  wrelchednesa"  (Carlyle,  UuctUanifi,  ii, 
119).  Dr.  Tristram  further  remarks,  "I  have  noticed 
dwarf  bushes  of  the  tixypkyu  growing  oat«de  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  Kedron  valley;  but  it  is  in  the 
low  plains  that  ii  reaches  its  full  size  and  changes  its 
name  u>  the  cUUim  tree.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
lotus-tree.  The  thorns  are  long,  sharp,  and  recurved, 
and  often  create  a  fesiering  wnund.  The  leavrji  arc  a 
very  bright  green,  ox'al,  but  not,  as  has  been  said,  of  the 
shape  of  the  ivy.  The  boughs  are  crooked  and  irregu- 
lar, the  blossom  small  and  whii«,  and  tbe  fruit  a  bright- 
yellow  berry,  which  the  tree  continues  to  bear  in  great 
profuMon  from  December  1o  June.  It  is  the  size  of  i 
small  gooseberry,  of  a  pleounl,  subacid  flavor,  with  a 
atone  like  the  hawthorn,  and,  whether  fVesh  or  ilried, 
forms  an  agreeable  dish,  which  we  often  enjoyed,  mix- 
ing the  berries  with  bbfn,  or  sour  milh.  There  is  no 
fence  more  impervious  than  that  formed  of  nuhk;  and 
the  Bedawin  contrive  u>  form  one  round  their  little  oorn- 
ptola  with  trifling  labor.  They  Nmply  cut  down  a  few 
branches  and  lay  them  in  line  as  soon  as  the  barley  is 
sown.  No  cattle,  goals,  or  camels  will  attempt  to  force 
it,  insignificant  as  it  appears, not  more  than  a  yard  high; 
and  the  twigs  and  recurved  spines  become  so  interwoven 
that  it  is  in  vain  (o  attempt  to  pull  tbe  branches  aside" 
i.Wnt.  HiH.  Kfihe  Biblf,  p.  429).     See  Thoh?>. 

The  fences  of  prickly  pear  or  Indian  6K(.0punlia  vul- 
ffiirii),  now  Bo  common  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible,  were 
unknown  in  Bible  times,  tbe  plant  having  only  Ibund  its 


9  THORN  WELL 

way  to  the  Old  World  after  the  discovery  of  Aoxtw* 
(Tristram,  Hal.  Hiit  n/  Ike  Biblr,  p.  433).  At  presnii. 
however,  it  forms  the  common  hedge-thoni  uf  Paloiinr. 
especially  in  the  villages  of  the  jiliiii  uf  ShanHi.     It 

as  thick  as  a  man's  body.  The  leaf  is  alu'lded  aiib 
thorns,  and  is  of  oval  shape,  about  ten  inchea  lml■^  six 
wide,  and  three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick ;  the  sinn  and 
branches  are  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  a  cerriin 
number  of  thoM  succulent  leaves  that  gn>w  ii^itilKf 
the  year  after  their  Bnt  appearance,  when  ew;h  is  lukn 
with  fifteen  or  twenty  yellow  blotaoms,  which  are  rtnid. 
ly  oiatared  into  a  sweet  and  refreshing  fruit  of  the  nie 
and  shape  ofa  hen's  egg.    See  Hedge. 

Thornton,  Thomas  C,  D.D.,  ■  minister  of  tbe 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  bom  in  Dum- 
fries, Va.,  Oct.  12, 1794;  graduated  in  his  native  plan. 
and  began  to  preach  when  sixteen  years  old.  In  IHI3 
he  entered  the  Baltimore  Conference;  and  was  trains 
ferred  to  the  Mississippi  Conference  to  take  chsijrc  'if 
Old  Centenary  College  in  1841.  From  some  misundn- 
standing,  he  left  the  Methodist  and  Jciined  the  Pnxn- 
tant  Episcopal  Church,  but  refuted  ortiinaiioo.  iwi  ac- 
cepting the  doctrine  of  uninterrupted  apostolical  sua»- 
sion.  In  1B60  he  returned  la  the  Methodist  Church, 
and  was  readmitted  into  the  Hississippi  CunferCDce  ii, 
1853.  He  died  March  22, 1860.  He  wrote  ThtoLsin,! 
CoUo^uia  and  Slavay  at  it  It  in  ilu  iniifd  Statu,  in 
reply  to  Dr.ChaDning.     See  Simpson,  Cgdop.  of  Hitk- 


ras  a  pupil  of  the  veneral>le 
ras  accepted  at  the  Canferen 
flrst  circuit  an  appointment 


It  Hull 


LIT  that  nor1h-«asteni  ■«■- 
It  London  Circnii  in 
e  Leeds  East  Circuit  in  I«37. 
.fler  a  three  yearn'  locaiioD  ii 


years'  residence  in 
port,  he  was  removt  ' 
1834,  from  thence  ti 
and  ui  Bath  in  1838. 
Bath,  Mr.  Thomton'i 
in  1841  be  became  the  resident  clasucal  tutor  of  the 
first  theological  institute  established  in  Metbodiam. 
afterwards  dividn) 
between  Richmond  and  Didsbury;  and  in  lRt3  he  wtot 


ir  Manch 


He  I 


till  1849,  when  be  was  appointed  e 
Wesleyan  periodicals.  In  1864  Mr.  Thor 
sented  the  British  Conference  at  the  General  Con 
if  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  he  then  pnxvedMl 
0  Csnada,  and  preyed  over  that  conference,  and  abo 
ver  that  In  Esstem  British  America.  On  bu  mum 
home,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  British  CodIct- 
;nce,  but  died  vei7  suddenly,  in  his  prendenrial  year. 
March  6, 1866.  Hr.Tbomton  was  a  man  of  fine  uleoi) 
ind  thorough  culture.  In  early  life  he  bad  giiven  him- 
leir  to  hard  and  systematic  study.  \»  a  ptcscher  he- 
vas  eloquent,  his  style  finished  and  elegant;  as  an  cd- 
tor  he  was  industrious  and  successfuL 

Thomwell,  Jahks  Henlev,  D.D..  LKD..aneiDi- 
lent  Presbyterian  divine,  was  bom   in   Marlburougfa 
District.  S.  C,  Dec.  9, 181!.     He  received  a  good  «»■ 
i-scbool  training;  prepared  for  college  althcChenw 
ilemy,S.C;  graduated  atSouth  Carolina CuUese  in 
;  and  subsequently  studied  at  Hsrvsrd  Univssrj 
and  in  Europe.     Afler  some  attention  (o  the  taw.  be  de- 
voted himself  to  theology,  was  licensed  by  Bethel  P»   . 
Fry,  and  in  1894  was  ordsined  and  installed  pastnr  iif 
Church  at  Lancaster  Coun-bouse.  S.  C ;  and  mm 
alter  the  churches  ofWaxhiw  and  Six  Mile  were  added  ' 
charge.    This  relauonexisted  until  IS7.wb«D  lie 
was  elected  to  the  professorship  of  logic,  beUes-lMtn«. 
1  criticism  in  the  South  Carolina  College,  to  which 
itaphysica  was  soon  added.    In  iheae  deparlaieiit*  be  ' 
taught  with  uncommon  ability  and  soDCeia.    "  In  Atnn- 
'  I  fully  deserves  the  distinguiabed  title  whicb  hii  j 


THOKP,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF    387 


THRACIA 


■dminn  have  long;  b«Mawed  upon  him  of '  Ihe  I.ogi< 
das.' '  In  1840  he  reaiKned  hii  pntrnnnhip,  and  wv 
iiiualled  paMor  or  Ibt  PreabyteTian  Chuicli  *t  Coluni- 
lAa,  S.  C;  in  1S41  became  prorenui  or  aacred  litera- 
IBR  and  evidences  of  Ctirintianil}'  in  Soulh  Caroliiii 
CoU^Ce;  in  1661,  paninr  of  the  (jlebe  Sueec  Church, 


Id  k 


SoDth  Carolina  College;  in  1866  wai  elected  profeuar 
of  Iheologv  in  the  Tbeol<^iad  SeDiinary,  Columbia,  anil 
akD  pwta'r  of  the  Fint  PreabyWrian  Church  of  thai 
place,  in  which  Ubon  be  con  tinned  until  his  death,  Aug. 
1. 1862.  Dr.  Thomweli  publiabed,  Tile  Argumaili  of 
•ViHii  tilt  In/aOibiiits  of  Ike  Church  and  Trt- 
\e  Falieri  on  hrha^'ofthe  Apocrypha,  Die- 
tmiKd  ^  Refuted,  etc  (N.  ¥.  1846).  Tbia  i>  an  an- 
awer  to  a  aeries  or  lelten  by  the  Rer.  Dr.  (afterwarda 
biibop)  Lynch  ou  Che  itupiralion  of  the  Apocrvpha. 


n,  thii  w 


r.  Thorn 


pleta'  {BUL  Btp.  and  Friaa.  Sev.  April,  IMS,  p.  SSH) : 
-Ounwraei  M  TnlJt  (IS55,  ISmo;  1869,  8vo),  deliv 
cml  in  the  chapel  of  the  South  Carolina  College ;  a 
ntk  higblv  GotDmended.  He  alao  pabliahed  aingle 
•ernxHu,  tracla,  aaaajt,  etc,  and  paptra  in  the  Soulhem 
Pntbytrrian  Setieie.  Dr.  Thoniwell  wai  endowed  with 
KeniuaofaiKxaltedchancteri  a  clear,  penetrating,  log- 
ical mind,  which  waa  cultivated  by  ptofound  atudy.  and 
taeataated  to  the  advaDcement  of  learning  and  relig- 
ion. "  Aa  a  pastor,  kind,  affeccjonate,  and  worth;  of  all 
reliancei  aaa  pulpit  oTator,a  nwdel  of  jflowingaeal  and 
fervid  ekiqaence;  as  a  teacher,  gifted,"  Bev,  U.  W. 
Bfccher  aaya  oonceming  him,  "Bv  cnmmon  fame,  Dr. 
Tborawell  waa  the  moat  brilliant  miniater  in  the  Old- 
■chool  Preabyterian  Church,  and  the  moat  btilliant  de- 
tialerin  iu General Aasembly.  Thia  repntatjon  he  early 
(ained  and  never  lost."  8eeWilaon,/>rr>t.  f/tit.  .4inia- 
•oc,  1B63,  p.  309:  USbont,  Diel.  of  Bril.  and  A  mer.  A  u- 
tkoTt,  a.  V. ;  Duycltinck,  CyJop.  of  A  mer.  Lit.  (13(16),  ii, 
334;  La  Borde,  Bat.  of  South  Carolimi  Callt^,  1869; 
Fntt.  Mag.  voL  vii.     (J.  I.  S.) 

Tboip,  CoxBTlruTioNS  or.  Sec  Tobk,  Coiihqii. 
OF,  1368. 

Tbonraldaen,  Albebt  Bkktel,  the  renowned 
Daniah  aculplnr,  waa  bom  at  Copenhagen,  Nov.  19, 
ITTO,  and  waa  (be  aon  of  Gottachalk  Thorwaldaen,  a  na- 
tive of  Iceland.  A  tradition  had  long  been  preserved 
in  bia  ramily  that "  the  godi  had  pmmiied  llan>ld  (king 
Hamld  Hildetand,  who  waa  killed  in  the  battle  of  Bra- 
valla,  in  735)  a  descendant  whoae  fame  ahould  spread 
from  the  extremities  of  the  North  even  to  the  aunny 
legiona  of  the  South."  He  aaaisted  bia  father  (a  carver 
in  wood)  at  a  very  early  age,  and  when  eleven  years 
old  attended  the  free  achoo]  of  the  Academy  of  Arta, 
Copenhagen,  receiving  wbon  aeventeen  a  ailver  medal 
ftom  the  academy  for  a  baa-relief  of  Cupid  Srpoiing, 
and  at  twenty  the  amall  gold  medal  for  a  sketch  of 
//fOxJonu  Drmn  from  Ihe  Temple.  Two  years  later 
be  drew  Ihe  grand  prize  entitling  him  to  Ihe  royal  pen- 
aion.  but,  this  being  then  enjoyed  by  another,  be  was 
obliged  ID  wait  three  years,  during  which  time  he  con- 
linntd  bia  proleaaional  pursuits  and  engaged  in  general 
■tody.  Thorwaldaen  set  out  for  Italy  May  20,  179G, 
arrived  at  Naples  in  January,  1797,  and  reached  Rome 
Usrch  8.      After  struggling  againat  many  dincourage- 

aiid  wide;  and  Chrlalian  (then  crown-prince)  of  Den- 
mart  wrote  him  a  pressing  inrilatioD  to  return  to  Co- 
penhagen, telling  him  of  the  discovery  of  a  white  mar- 
ble quarry  in  Norway.  In  July,  1819,  he  started  to 
make  hia  fint  visit  to  hia  native  land,  and  arrived  at 
Cnpcnhagen  Oct.  8.  He  was  entertained  with  public 
frnia  and  other  axpreniona  of  gratitude  fur  about  a 
year,  and  then  returned  to  Rome.  Tbere  he  remained 
uilil  1838.  when  he  decided  to  return  to  Copenhagen, 
and  the  Daniah  goremment  sent  a  frigate  (o  convey 
him  and  his  worka  lo  Denmark.  In  1841,  Hnding  the 
climala  to  diaagiee  with  him,  he  felt  compelled  to  re- 


turn to  Italy,buC  returned  to  Denmark  in  the  fbllowiiig 
year.  He  died  suddenly,  March  24, 1844.  The  favor- 
ite style  of  Thorwaldaen  waa  bauo-rUitvo,  in  which  he 
was  the  greatest  maater  of  hit  age.  Hia  principal 
worka  are,  Chriil  and  the  Ticdve  Apoabi  t—Proatnoit 
lo  Golgotha: — Tohnlkf  Baptitt  Preaching  in  Ihe  Wilder- 
nta,  in  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  Copenhagen  :~A'ii- 
(ry  tMo  Jenaaiem  :—Rdiecca  al  lie  Well.  See  Engti4h 
Cydop.ofBiog.i.v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hitl.  of  Fine  A  rtM, 

TIioUl  The  Egyptian  deity  of  written  learning, 
the'  author  of  tbe  mystical  treatises  on  medicine  and 
aacred  literature,  called  by  tbe  Greeka  the  Hermetic 
buoka,  and  himaelf,  as  the  author  of  them,  Hermn  Trit~ 
megialiii,  and,  in  hia  character  of  introducer  afsoula  in 
Piychupompos.     He  had  many  names 


1  led 


le  of  a  parity  of 
omcea.  ne  was  eaiiea  on  a  statue  in  the  Leyden  Hn^ 
seum  "He  who  ia  the  good  Saviour;"  and  on  aome  of 
the  funeral  papyri  he  takea  tbe  place  of  Anubis,oreven 
Horus,  with  reapect  to  the  souls  of  the  deceased,  in 
the  Hall  of  the  Two  Truths  it  was  the  dnty  of  Tholh 
Ut  weigh  the  souls  of  the  deceased,  and  to  read  from  his 
tablets  a  record  of  their  actiona  in  the  past  life.  Tholh 
waa  also  the  god  of  all  writing,  and  founder  of  all  the 
sciences.  He  bmnght  to  the  gods  a  translation  of  all 
the  sacred  hooks,  and  he  was  called  the  "  Scribe  of  the 
Gods," and  the  "Lord of 

another  form  the  god 
Tholh  waa  ideatifled 
with  tbe  moon,  when 
he  would  be  represented 
with  the  head  of  an  ibia, 
surmounled  by  the  horns 
and  lunar  disk;  but  of- 
lenlimea  be  was  figured 
with  a  human  head,  har- 
Ing  that  of  the  ibis  as  a 
coiffure,  and  wearing  the 
A  lef  cmwn.  As  Thoth- 
Azah,  or  Thulh  the 
Hoon,  he  waa  generally 
entirely  naked,  and  in  I 
the  figure  of  an  infant  | 
with  thin  bowed  thighs,  -         „,  ,,^    ^ 

poariWy  to  indicate  th^  "I*""  "'^hoth. 

moon  in  its  Gist  quarter.  At  other  times  he  waa  repre- 
sented as  an  adult  man,  bearded,  and  wearing  the  ahoit 
lnin-clolh,nr(Aniri,oftheEgyptiana;  aometimes  he  car- 
ried in  hia  hand  the  eye  of  Horua,  tbe  aymbot  of  the  full 
moon,  the  Caaifa  or  Uui  Bceptre,and  the  crux  aataUt. 
In  his  latter  characteristics  Thoth  was  regarded  as  one 
and  the  same  with  Khoniu  of  Thebea.  Tbe  Cynoceph- 
alua  ape  was  also  sacred  to  the  god  Thoth,  and  hiero- 
glyphically  figured  for  him.  It  waa  Thoth  who  re- 
vealed to  the  initiated  certain  myateiiooa  worda  and 
fonnulaa,  thus  impartjng  a  knowledge  of  divine  Ihinga 
which  waa  supposed  to  elevate  man  to  the  height  of  the 
gods.  Itwasonlynecesaaryto  pronounce  these  formulas 
in  the  name  of  the  deceased  over  hia  mummy,  and  to 
place  a  copy  of  Ibem  by  his  aide  in  the  coi£n,  to  inaure 
for  him  the  benefit  of  their  influence  in  tbe  dangers 

any  one  take  possession  of  the  magic-book  compoaed  by 
the  god  Thoth  before  he  has  been  initiated,  aupeinatn- 

shipped  by  the  Phcenicians,  Scythians,  Germans,  Gaula, 


Hia 


mbol  « 


and  his  festival  waa  celebrated  on  the  Ant  day  of  the 
first  moon  in  Ihe  year. — Cooper,  A  rchaic  Diet.  a.  v.    See 

Thra'cla,  or  Tubace  {Qp^ini),  ooeura  in  tbe  Bible 
'  '    Apocrypha  only  (2  Mace  lii,  85), 
(rail'  iinriiiii'  Dpfcfiv  ric. 
is  incidenlally  mentioned 


THRASEAS  3i 

«|ip«rently  oue  of  the  bodj--gu»rd  of  florgU*,  goTernor 
uf  IduiDBs  uiidf  I  Anliochut  Epiphinea  (comp.  Jowphus, 
tt'ui-.ii.lC,*;  Appwn.ayr.U  C.F.iv,«8).  Thr«cc  « 
this  p«riod  included  the  whole  of  the  countcy  niihia 
the  bouoduy  of  the  Sliymon,  the  Danube,  and  the 
coMtU  at  the  j£gevi,  Propontis,  and  Guxine  (Herod,  iv, 
99;  Hliny,  iv,  IS);  all  the  region,  in  (act,  dow  compre- 
hended in  Bulgaria  aiid  Rumelia.  Under  the  Romans, 
Honia  InCenor  was  «ep«nted  from  it  (l^lemy,  iii,  II, 
1).  lo  the  early  times  it  was  inhalnted  by  a  number 
of  tribes,  each  under  iU  own  chier,  having  a  name  of 
its  otra  and  preserving  its  own  customs,  although  ihe 
ume  general  charaoler  of  ferocity  and  addiction  lo 
plunder  prevailed  throughout  (Herod,  v,  3).  Thucjd- 
iiles  (ii,  97)  describes  the  limits  of  the  country  at  the 
period  of  the  Peloponnesisn  war,  when  ^lalcea,  king  of 
[hv  (Idrysie,  who  iuhabited  the  valley  of  the  llebrus 
(Msrilza),  bad  act|uired  a  predominant  power  ii 
country,  and  derived  what  was  for  those  days  a  large 
revenue  from  it.  Tbi»  revenue,  however,  seems  to  h. 
arisen  mainly  out  of  bis  relations  with  the  (irecli  tr 
ing  communities  established  on  dilfereut  pmnu  uf 
seaboanL  Some  of  the  clans,  even  within  the  lin 
of  his  dominion,  still  retaiiicil  their  independence;  but 
after  the  establishment  of  a  Macedonian  dynasty  under 
Lysimachus,  the  central  authority  became  more  power- 
ful; and  the  wars  on  a  large  scale  which  fnUawed  the 
death  of  Alexander  furnished  employment  for  the  mar- 
tial lendendes  of  the  Thraciana,  who  found  a  demand 
for  their  aervices  as  mercenaries  everywhere.  Cavalry 
was  the  arm  which  they  chiefly  furnished  (see  Hi 
Odj/i,  ix,  49),  the  rich  pastures  of  Rumeiia  attoundiog 
in  borses.  From  that  region  came  tbe  greater  part  of 
Sitalces's  cavalry,  amounting  to  neariy  Hfty  thousand 
(see  Herod,  i, 94';  v,3  sq.;  Tacitus,  .lanaJL  iv,8o;  Hor- 
ace, ^af.i.G;  F\inj,Huf.NaLx\u,3,b,3;  xviii,12,l; 
Justin.  Tiii,S;  Mela,ii,2;  Cellarii  A'orif^ii,  15;  Han- 
nert,  Gtogr.  rii,  1  sq.  1  Gatlerer,  in  the  Cunantnl.  Soc. 
Hotting,  iv  and  V  [  Germ,  by  Schlickborst,  Gtttting. 
laOOJi  Smith,  ZMcf.^CAu*.  (;ca9.s.v.). 

The  onlyother  passage,  if  any,  containing  an  alluiuon 
to  Thrace  W  be  fonnd  in  the  Bible  is  Gen.  jt,  2,  whi 
— on  the  hypotbsMS  that  the  snni  of  Japhet,  who  i 
enumerated,  may  be  regatded  as  tbe  eponymous  repi 
senUtives  of  diffsrent  branches  of  the  Japetian  fami 
of  nations— TVroi  has  by  some  been  supposed  to  me 
Thrace;  but  the  only  ground  for  this  identiAcation  it 
fancied  similarity  between  ibe  two  names.    A  stronger 
likeness,  however,  migbt  be  ui^ed  between  the  1 
Tiraa  and  that  of  the  TyrM.or  Tyrseni,  the  anccsic 
the  Italian  Etruscans,  whom,  on  the  strength  of  a  local 
tradition,  Herodotus  places  in  Lydia  in  the  ante-bistor- 
'cal  times,    Stralw  brings  forward  several  fatis  to  show 
that  in  the  early  ages  Thraciaus  existed  on  the  Asiatic 

furnishes  very  little  help  towanls  the  identification  le- 
ferredto.     See  Ti  has. 

TbraaA'Bfl.  or  rather  TiIraSs'US  (Bfiaaaloc,  Vulg. 
Tkrataai),  the  father  of  ApoUonius  (q.  v.),  Syrian  gov- 
ernor of  CcBle-Syria  and  rhmnicia  (2  Mace  ill.  6). 

Ttarae  (Thirty,  etc.)  (,Shat6ih,  tcbl^,  loiid,  etc.) 
frequently  occurs  as  B  cardinal  number;  tbus,C'3'd  "^13. 
thru  years  (Lev.  xix,  '23) ;  as  an  ordinal,  BiOTljra, 
in  the  third  year  (S  Kings  xviit,  1);  in  cotnbinstioii 
with  other  numbers,  as  n'^'i:;?  uib'^,  thirteen ;  and  it  is 
also  used  in  the  plural  as  an  urdinal  for  thirty.  d-<<r^r 
(1  Kings  ivi,23].  For  other  forms  and  uses  of  the 
wHtda,  see  the  Hebrew  lexicons. 

The  nouns  'd^'S,  ^•'^•S.  and  Ci':bir,  literally,  accord- 
ing to  one  derivation,  a  tkirdi  iuiin,Bre  used  in  tbe  sense 
of  a  commander  or  general,  sometimes  aa  connected  with 
war-chariols  or  cavalry.  Thus  (Exod.xiv, 7)."  Phara- 
oh took  all  the  chariota  of  Egypt  and  captains  (SibVtC, 
third  Bm)  over  all  this  Btmament"  (i^S  Vs),  not,  as  in 


8  THREE 

our  tiandalion,  "over  every  one  of  them;"  SqiL  rpi- 

tiut  txfrdtiu.  So  it  is  said  (iv,  4)  that  ■■  the  cbMW 
of  all  Pharaoh's  captains"  (^ti^C),  or  thin]  men,  wen 
drowned;  St^  Ava^ara^  Tpivrarat^  Vulg.priacipu. 
Tbe  Septuagint  word  seems  chosen  upon  the  aisum^d 
analogy  of  its  etymology  10  the  Hebrew,  gnaii  rpm- 
i7vtirT}{:t "  one  who  stands  third."    According  to  Origeo. 

persons  in  each  chariot,  of  whom  the  first  fought,  the 
second  protected  him  with  a  shield,  and  the  third  guid- 
ed the  horsea,  Wilkinsou,  however,  says,  "  There  were 
seldom  three  persons  in  an  Egyptian  wai-cbari«,  ex- 
cept in  triumphal  proceaaions.  In  tbe  Qeld  each  cot 
had  his  own  c«J  with  a  charioteer"  (Anciaii  Egjipiiaiu. 
i,  3S6).  Jerome,  an  Enldd  xxiii,  aaya,  "  Tniiaiir. 
among  the  Greeka,  ia  the  naiDe  of  tbe  itamd  rank  sfitr 
tbe  royal  dignity."  But  it  is  poasible  that  the  ideal 
meaning  of  the  verb  sAcJ  may  be  to  mis  or  dina,  u 
appears  from  its  share  in  such  words  aa  D^^C.  -ei. 
cellent  things,"  or  rather  "rules  and  directions" (Fn>T. 
XKii,  SO),  and  ^Vts,  "  a  proverb."  from  ^CS,  "  lo  tsle,' 
hence  an  aatiorilaliee  precept.  According  to  thia 
sense,  our  translation  tenders  tbe  word  D^SO  "lord;' 
"  a  lord  on  whose  band  the  king  leaned"  (3  Kings  vii. 
3;  oomp.v,17, 19).  If  the  lallei  derivation  of  Ibe  He- 
brew wotd  be  admitted,  it  will  cease  to  oonrey  any  si- 
lusion  to  the  number  three;  id' which  allnsaon  (ieseniui 
speaks  doubtingly  of  any  instance,  but  which  he  dead- 
edly  pronouncea  lo  be  unsuitable  to  the  first  passes. 
where  Ihe  word  evidently  stands  in  connectiivo  with 
war-chariots  (see  Gesenius,  s.  v.  O^b^).     See  CAr- 

Three  day  and  Ihrte  iiigiu,  "For  as  Jonas  WM 
three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  whale's  belly,  so  sbsll 
tbe  Son  of  man  be  three  days  and  three  uighls  in  tbe 
heart  of  the  earth."  The  apparent  difficulty  in  these 
words  ariaes  ttoai  tbe  fact  that  our  Lord  continued  in 
the  grave  only  one  day  cam|dete,  together  with  a  psn 
of  the  day  on  which  he  was  buried  and  of  thai  on 
which  he  rose  again.  The  Hebrews  had  uo  word  ex- 
pressly answering  10  the  Greek  word  wix-S^p^i'i « 
natural  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  an  idea  which  tbry 
expressed  by  the  phrases  a  night  tmd  11  <£o|r  or  a  day 
iittdamght.  Thus(Dan.  viii,  14),"L'nto  two  thnuMnd 
and  three  hundred  cMnir^  momnjii  (i.  e.  days,  as  it  isia 
our  translation),  then  shall  the  sanctuary  be  ckinaed.' 
Thus,  also,  what  is  called  "forty  days  and  forty  nighu" 
in  G«n.vii.Ii,iaBimply  "forty  days"  in  ver.  if;  where- 
fore, as  it  is  common  in  general  computations  to  ascribe 
a  whole  day  to  what  lakes  up  only  a  part  of  it.  whrii 
this  was  done  in  the  Jewish  language  it  was  necensri 
to  mention  both  day  and  night;  hence  a  part  nf  three 
days  was  called  by  them  three  davs  and  three  niehts. 
We  have  another  example  in  1  Sam.  xxx,  \t,  when 
the  Egyptian  whom  David's  men  found  in  the  Odd  it 
Haid  to  have  etUen  no  brrad,  nor  dranl:  atn/  vattr,  Ikrrt 
ditj/t  and  thrft  raghtt.  Nevertheless,  in  giving  sn  w^ 
count  of  himself,  the  Egyptian  told  them  that  his  mai- 
ler bad  left  him  "because  three  days  ago  I  fell  sick:* 
in  the  Hebrew  it  is  //eU  tick  Ihii  liinl  dof.  that  is, 
this  is  Ihe  third  day  since  I  fell  sick.  Indeeil.  smon; 
the  Hebrews,  things  were  said  to  be  done  iiflrr  Ihm 
diigi  which  were  done  on  the  third  day  (corap.2Chron. 
X.  6  with  ver.  12:  DeuL  xiv.as  with  xxvi,2).  Agree- 
ably 10  these  fonns  of  speech,  tbe  prophecy  of  our  Lord's 
resurrection  from  the  dead  is  sometimes  represented  as 
taking  place  afltr  Oirrt  das'i  sometimes  on  lit  liiri 
Aiy  (see  Wbilby.Maeknight,  Wakefield, Clai1ie,0i( inc.). 
,e  phrase"  three  and  four,"  so  often  repeated  (Amos 
>ans  <i£Hiu&iricr.  anything  that  goes  on  towairb  ex- 
cess. It  linds  iis  parallel  in  Virgil's  wcU-kaowo  wordi. 
0  (erjii*  quater^ur  bfali  {"  O  three  and  four  times  hip- 
py," JEn.  i,  M ;  si>e  also  Odgii.  v,  806). 

Three  has  also  been  considered,  both  by  Jews 


THREE  CHAPTERS 


CliriMians,  ■! 


>  <Uallngiiuh«il  or  myilical  number,  like 
inronh.  oa  Gen.  rxii,  4,  hu  collected 
mmay  inch  initancet,  but  they  appear  In  be  lomewhat 
(■ndfal.  A  ternary  nr  trliui  amtif^ement  of  subjecla, 
hooeTer,  is  very  prevKieot  in  the  Bible  (we  an  auonj- 
mom  monograph  on  The  Triadi  ofScriplare  ^Lyoch- 
tKirg.  1SG6]).     See  NOXBUL 

Ttuea  Chapters  (TVu  Capiiuluj,  the  title  of  ui 
nlicl  published  by  the  eoiperui  Juntiiiiiii.  He  having, 
in  the  y«T  bVl,  been  thocked  by  tome  ot  the  writings 
ufUnKen,  publiahedaa  edict  iii  which  nine  of  cbe  chief 
OriKeiiiBt  error*  were  Mt  furth  and  eondemned,  Origen 
hinuelf  being  iIbo  anathematized.  Theodore,  the  Mo- 
Dopbyaile  tnshop  ofCEMrei  in  Cappadocia,  devised  a 
plan  by  vhich  ta  avenge  the  memory  of  Origen.  and  to 
urengtheo  the  position  of  the  Monophysites.  He  per- 
tuaded  the  eniperDr  that  the  Acephali  might  be  restored 
to  the  Chureh  and  recimciled  tu  the  decrees  of  Chalce- 
ilon,  if  the  writings  under  three  "  heads"  or  "  cha[>tet»" 
which  he  natneU  were  condemned,  and  m>  ceased  to  he- 
come  stumbling-blocka  t«  IheiD  by  seeming  to  support 
the  Neatorian  heresy.  These  were  <l)  the  Epistle  nf 
TheodoTEt  against  the  twelve  anathemas  of  St.  Cjril, 
(i)  ibe  Epistle  of  Ibas  uf  Edeasa  to  Ma^i^  and  (3)  the 
work)  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuesiia.  All  these  writings 
having  carried  weight  with  them  at  the  Council  uf 
Chalcedon,  the  condemnation  of  them  by  Justinian 
wuold  be,  10  a  certain  extent,  a  repudiation  of  that  coun- 
cil, oudao  a  recognition  of  the  Monophysites  condemned 
by  it,  ,*ttracleil  by  the  hope  of  reconciling  the  Aceph- 
ali, and  nut  seeing  these  consdinences,  the  emperor  pub- 
lishal  the  edict  of  the  Three  Chapters,  A.D,  Mi;  giv- 
ing a  prufesaion  nf  his  own  faith,  and  anathematizing 
ihie  three  works  above  named.  The  edict  was  Bal>- 
scriboi  by  the  fiiur  Eastern  patriarchs,  and,  after  aome 
hrsiialion,  it  was  also  assented  to  by  Vlgilius,  bishop  of 
Home,  with  an  added  clause  to  the  effect  thst  in  doing 
»  he  did  not  mnihimn  the  Coundl  of  Chalcedon,  This 
osaenc  he  afterwatds  retracted  when  excommunicated 
hy  a  CDODcil  at  Carthage,  and  in  550  declared  the  Easl- 
rm  biabop*  separated  from  the  communion  of  Bume. 
The  cuodemnaiion  of  the  Three  Chapters,  with  a  simi- 
lar reservaiioo  respecting  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
was,  liowpver,  conflrmed  by  the  fifth  lieneral  l>un- 
dL  A.D.  563,  the  second  Coundl  of  Constintinopta, 
Sec  Mausi,  Conci^  Iz,  61,  181,  1ST ;  MataL  Alex,  r, 
tot 

Tlir««  DenomlndUoiu,  a  name  given  to  the  [n- 
dependenta,  the  Baptists,  aud  the  Presbyterians  at  the 
time  when  these  three  sects  represented  the  great  body 
r/  Engliab  Disienien.  They  were  the  Dincnlets  rec- 
Dgniacd  by  the  Act  of  Toleration  (1  William  and  Uary, 
c  IS),  and  had  tbe  privilege  granted  to  them  of  pre- 
•enuDg  corporate  addntsaea  to  the  aaTereign.— Blunt, 
Mtf.  n/^eel'i.s.T. 

Thrae  Tavenia  (Tpiic  Ta/3<pivi,  Orndsed  Ihim 
the  l^tin  Trr*  7'(ikrBis),aatatian  on  the  Appian  Roail, 
along  which  Paul  travelled  from  PuttwU  to  Rome  (Acta 
xxviii,  15),  The  Roman  CbrisUans  went,  in  token  of 
reapecl,  to  meet  I'aul  at  these  places,  having  been  pmh- 
ably  appriaed  of  his  approach  by  letters  ot  express 
from  >*uteoii  (rer.  13-15)— one  party  of  tbem  resting 
■I  the  Three  Taverns,  and  the  other  going  on  to  Appii 
Foniin,  When  the  apostle  saw  this  uiief|uivocal  token 
ot  respect  and  iral,  he  took  fresh  courage.  There  is  no 
doubt  thai  the  Three  Taverns  was  a  frequent  meeting- 
place  of  (ravellera,  A  good  illustration  of  this  hind  uf 
intemnme  along  the  Apptan  Way  is  supplied  hv  Jose- 
pbu*  <,1  al.  xvii,  12. 1)  in  his  account  of  the  journey  of 
Ibe  pretender  Heml  Alexander.  He  landed  at  Puleoli 
(Diwrchia)  to  gain  over  tbe  Jews  that  were  there; 
and  "when  the  report  went  about  him  that  be  was 
(uming  to  Rome,  tbe  whole  mnitilude  of  the  Jews  that 
*ete  then  went  out  to  tneet  bito,  asetibiog  it  to  Divine 
Ptoridniee  that  be  had  so  uiiexpecledly  escaped."   See 


19  THRESHING 

The  word  rapipva  is  plainly  the  Latin  taitrva  in 
Greek  letters,  and  denotes  a  house  made  with  boards  oi 
planks,  quBKi  traboiu.  Wooden  houses,  huts,  etc,  are 
called  liibtnum.  Thus  Horace,  "  Pauperum  tabernas  re- 
gumc|Belurre»"(CDmi,i,  U,  13).  Itence  the  word  atse 
means  iliopi,  as  distinguished  from  dwelling .  houaefc 
Horace  uses  it  for  a  bookseller's  shop  {Sal.  i,  i,71),«i^ 
for  a  wineshop  (£p,  i,  U,  2*).  The  shops  at  Poroptii 
are  booths,  connected  in  almost  every  case  with  dwell- 
ings behind,  as  they  were  in  London  three  centuries 
ago.  When  eatables  or  drinkables  were  sold  in  a  Ko- 
man  shop,  it  was  called  tabema,  tavern,  victualliiig- 
housc  GrotiuB  observes  that  there  were  many  places 
in  the  Soman  empire  at  this  time  which  hud  tbe  namca 
of  Fo™m  and  Tabenue,  the  former  from  having  siui. 
tvW  of  all  kinds  of  commodities,  the  latter  frun  fumitli- 
ing  wine  and  eaublea.  The  place  or  viltags  called 
"Three  TaTems"  probably,  therefore,  derived  its  name 
from  three  large  inns,  or  eating-houses,  for  the  refresh- 
ment of  travellers  passing  to  and  from  Rome.  Zosimus 
calls  ylTpia  tatntXiin  (it,  10).  Appii  Forum  appesn  to 
have  been  such  another  place.  Horace  mentions  the  lat- 
ter, in  describing  his  journey  from  Rome  to  Brondoaium, 
as  "  differtum  nsntis,  cauponibusalque  malignia"— stuff- 
ed with  rank  boalmeu,  and  with  vintners  base  (Eal.  i,  5, 
3).  That  the  Three  Taverns  was  nearer  Borne  than  Ap- 
pii Fonim  appears  from  the  conclusion  of  one  of  Cicero's 
letters  to  Atlicos  (ii,  10),  which,  when  he  is  travelling 
iBHIh-eaittcardM  trom  Antium  to  his  seat  near  Fatmiie, 
he  dates  "  Ab  Appii  Foro,  bora  quarta"— from  Appii  Fo- 
mm,  at  the  fonrth  houij  and  adds,  " Dederam  aliam 
paolo  ante,  Tribus  Tabemie"  (I  wrote  you  another,  a 
little  while  ago,  from  the  Three  Taverns).  Jusl  at  this 
point  a  road  came  in  from  Antium  on  Ihe  coast,  as  we 
learn  from  (he  same  leuer  of  Cicero  (^Atl.  ii,  IS).  The 
Ilineraryof  Antoninus  places  Appii  Forum  at  forty-ibree 
Roman  miles  from  Rome,  and  the  Three  I'svems  at 
thirty-lhree;  and,  comparing  thiswith  what  is  observed 
still  along  the  line  of  road,  we  have  no  dilEculty  in 
coming  to  tbe  concluNon  that  the  Three  Tavenis'waa 
near  the  modem  Cultma  (see  Smith,  Did.  of  Grtrk 
and  Rom.  Gtog.  ii,  l!2e  b,  1291  b).  In  the  4th  century 
there  was  a  bishop  of  Three  Taverns,  named  Felix  (Op- 
tatus,  lib.  i).  It  has  been  slated  by  some  that  the  place 
still  remains,  and  is  called  Tit  Tavemi.  Thus,  in  Eve- 
lyn's time  (1646),  the  remains  were  "yet  very  faire" 
(Diarie,  i,  13i).  But  recent  travellers  have  been  una- 
ble to  find  more  than  a  few  unnamed  remains  on  the 
spot  indicated (Chaupy,J/auon(r//orao-,  iii, S8S;  D'An- 
ville,  Aaafyie  dt  fltoUt,  p.  196;  Weslphal,  Ron.  Kam- 
pagae,f.69;VieA,WiHaackfif».Brue,\,\,«ib).  See 
Ami  FoRiTH, 

TtlTeclllng(prop.ll}qn;  but  sometimes  ^^^nn,  to 
<rtad  out,  riXoaiiv;  and  occasionally  t33n).  The  He- 
brews made  use  of  three  diOerent  processes  for  separa- 
ting the  grain  from  Ihe  stalk  (comp.  Isa,  xxviii,  37  sq.), 
an  nperadon  always  carried  on  in  the  open  air.    See 

1.  In  the  earliest  period,  and  even  Uter  for  small  quan- 
tities, especially  in  the  former  part  of  the  harvest  sea- 
son, and  for  the  frailer  kinds  nf  grain,  the  seed  was  beat- 
en out  with  sticks  (O^Il,  SepL  po^jifov).  This  was 
a  process  applied  lo  other  agricultural  products  {Jerome, 
ad  lia.  loc  ciL),  as  well  as  to  field  grain  (Judg.  vi,  1 1 ; 
Ruth  ii, IT;  [sa.xxviii,S7;  enmp.Columel.  ii,!l ;  Slra- 
bo,  iv,  201).  It  is  a  method  still  iu  use  in  the  East 
( Robinson,  ii,  660;  iii,2S3).    See  Hah  vert. 

•L  Usually,  however,  homed  cattle  (Mishna,  :Sfrh'(f«, 
V,  H,  OS  still  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria),  seldom  aases 
or  (in  modem  times)  horses  (Shaw,  p.  124;  Bucking- 
ham,  p.  S88),  were  driven  around,  usually  yoked  in  paira 
or  several  abreast,  atut  these,  by  means  of  Iheir  hoofs 
(Mic  iv,  18),  cut  lip  and  separated  the  chaff  and  straw 
from  the  grain  (Isa.  xxviii.  28i  Jer.  1,  11;  IIos.x,  II; 
cump.  Varru,  llr  Re  Rntf,  i,  51;  llit^f^/j.  ^,,^95  sq,; 


TIIIIESHING-FLOOB 


390      TUKESHING-INSTUUMENT 


It  E|{ypt  (WilkinKm, 


Pliny,  xviii,  li).     80  (Ih 
2d  Mr,  i,  «J,  90).     Sm  T 

8.  Tba  ttkuat  cSrcuial  method  or  ihrabiDg  wu  by 
muoi  of  tiimhing-macbiiKe  (y^in  a^lS  [Anb.  ao- 
raj],  or  ■imply  ",'1^0. 1»»-  ^tuTiii,  27 ;  xli,  15i  Job  xli, 
•H;  mliu  Ip^X,  Judg.  viii.T,  !>>(  «e  Uoeit.  rAewur.  p. 
244;rp;/)aAov,ri'iiM;un,Pliny,xviii,72;Tilm3a'>->a}. 
Thne  coniiBCed  sometiiim  of  a  wooden  pUak  (froicu, 
or  traka)  ut  vith  ihup  UoncB  or  iron  poinu,  vtbkh 
wu  dragged  over  the  aheavea  (Rubi,  on  Iia.  xH,  15; 
comp.  Varro,  i,  5!  1  CoIumeLii,ai  1  VirgU,C«ir?.i,164), 
■ometimei  of  a  aort  of  cut  or  wheeled  sledge  {ptoUdlam 
Pheaacam ;  comp.  Jerome,  ad  Ita.  xxv,  10,  and  azeiii, 
27),  Such  a  wagon  is  mentioned  in  Isa.  iiviii,  27  aq. 
(nVss  "ipix  and  nbjr  b»i»).     See  Thrkshino-ih- 

Caule  were  lued  for  thia  vehicle,  as  usually  aliU 
among  the  Arabian!  (WellsUd,  i,  194);  and  the  Mosaic 
law  forbade  the  yoking-ti^ther  of  varioua  kiuda  of 
beaita,  as  weU  aa  the  muxaling  of  the  animals  (Deuu 
XKi-,4:  JiM!phiia,.1fl(.iv,S,2l;  lCor.ix,9;  Talmud, 
Ktlim,  uri,  7;  comp.  iGUan,  Aiiim.  iv,  26),  a  usage 
prevalent  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  other  na- 
tions (Bochan,  Hiena.  i,  401;  comp.  Michaelia,  Mom, 
RechI,  iii,  ISO).     See  Huzzuc 

Thrmhing  is  frequently  employed  by  the  Hebrew 
poets  as  a  figure  of  the  divine  or  proTidential  chastise- 
mrnts,  especially  national  invasion  (lea.  sli,  16;  Jer.  li, 
33;  Mic.  iv,  13;  Hab.  iii,  IS).  Id  one  passage  {Isa. 
Xli,  10),  (he  bruiMd  grain  is  made  an  image  of  the 
captive  Jews.  See  generally  Scholtgen,  rH/una  e( /"ui- 
foi»«^a(ijiiitaW»(Tr.adKb.ni!7;Ups.l763);  Paul- 
sen, Adxiliau,  p.  110  sq.    See  Aobicultuhe. 

Thrertiinf-fltior  ("Hfcs'irHi.iXwe;  Chald.^^X, 
idJdr,  Dan.  ii,  36),  a  lei'el  and  hard-beaten  plot  in  the 
open  air  (Judg.  li,  37;  2  Sam.  vi,  6),  on  which  the 
aheaves  of  grain  (Mic.  iv,  12)  were  threshed  (Isa.  xxi, 
10;  Jer.  li.  83;  MatU  iii,  12;  the  Uishna  remarks  Ihat 


Oriental  Threihlns-flonr. 

rhre'licrs  wore  gloves,  Kriim,  xvi,  6).  so 
liad  frre  play  (Hos.  xiii,  3;  Jer.  iv.  ■ 
II,  lie  A?  Aiul.*i,51,  t.  "Aream  esse  opoit 
miure  loco,  quam  perttarc  possit  ventus'^. 
ruck  is  a  favorite  spot  for 


n,  by  a  man  who  superintended  the  opera- 


a(  a  board  or  block  of  wood,  with 

make  it  rough,  and  rendered  heavy  by  smie 
weight,  such  as  the  pejH>u  of  the  driver,  placed  uli 
it;  this  was  dragged  over  the  com,  and  hastened  ths 
operatiiHi  (ver.  27 ;  xli,  16 ).  The  same  practices  are 
still  followed,  only  mules  and  horses  are  occuionallr 
employed  instead  of  oxen,  but  very  rarely.  Dr.Robiu- 
soa  describes  the  operation  as  be  wimeased  it  neat 
Jericho;  "Here  there  were  no  less  Ilian  live  floors,  iH 
iToddeu  by  oxen,  cows,  and  younger  cattle,  arranged 
ill  each  case  five  abreast,  and  driven  round  in  a  circle, 
or  rather  in  all  directions,  over  the  floor.  The  sled,  or 
sledge,  i*  no)  here  in  use,  though  we  aOerwardi  n 


la  DroKen  up  ana  Decomes  caaS  It  19  occasionauy  turn- 
ed with  a  large  wooden  fork  having  two  prongs;  and, 
when  sufficiently  trodden,  is  thrown  up  with  the  saiw 
fork  against  the  wind,  in  order  la  separale  the  grain, 
which  is  then  gathered  up  and  wlnaowed.  The  whole 
proceas,"  he  adds,  "is  exceedingly  wasteful,  from  the 
traosporution  of  the  com  on  the  backs  of  auimali  hi 
the  treading-out  upon  the  bare  gmuiid"  (firmirolrf,  ii, 
277).  During  this  operation  the  Uohsmmeduis,  it 
generally  obwrvelhe  ancient  precept  of  nu 


ling  tl 


while  I 


ling  ou 


.  the 


11  Ibc 


■m  tightly  m 
zled.    See  Thresh  in  o. 

As  in  the  East  there  is  no  rain  during  the  h■r^'e>t 
season  (Heeiod,  0pp.  658),  the  threshing-flours  were  ia 
the  open  field,  and  were  carefully  selected  and  nuniged 
(Mrgil.Csir^.  i,  17ftBq.;  Failed,  vii,  1 ;  Plinv,//uf.A'at 
xii,32;  xv,8;  xvii,14;  xvUi,  71,  eUx).  the  fannen 
remained  on  the  com-floor  all  night  in  order  to  gusrj 
the  product  (Rntb  iii,  4,  6, 14).  The  thteshing-platt 
was  of  conudenble  value,  and  is  often  named  in  cm- 
nection  with  the  wine-preaa  (Deut.  xvi,  IS ;  2  Kings  vi, 
27;  Haa.ix,2;  Joel  ii,  24),  since  wheat  and  wine  anJ 
ail  were  the  mure  important  pruducta  of  the  land  (Hiib- 
na,  Baba  BeUkra,  ii,  8).  They  often  bore  pailicalar 
names,  as  that  of  Nacbon  <2  Sam.  vi,  6)  or  CbldDn  (1 
Chron.  xiii,  9),  of  Atad  (Gen.  l',  10),  of  Oman,  or  Aiaic 
nab  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  18,  20;  1  Chron.  xxi,  16;  Josephns, 
Am.  vii,  13,1).  See  Thommn,  Land  ami  Boot,  ii,3l4i 
Hackett,  JBiutr.  of  Script,  p.  ISO;  Van  Lennep,  BiU 
iMiidi,  p.  79;  Conder,  Tait-Worl:  in  PainfDK,  ii,  VO. 

See  ABBICUI-TIIRK. 

TbreablDg-inatrament  waa  a  liedge  for  driving 
over  the  sheaves  and  separating  the  grain.  Tboe 
sl«l|{(a,  called  among  Ibe  Hebiewi  by  tbe  general  tena 
D^SplJ,  Sortanfm,  rendered  "briers"  in  Judg.viii,',  16^ 
were  of  two  hinds,  corresponding  respectively  with  two 
words,  the  first  of  which  alone  is  rendered  as  above  in 
the  A.  T.    See  Threshino. 

1.  Mordg  (3^i«,  so  called  from  trUuralag;  i  Sam 


moiuy  happens  in  the  preseni 
day,  on  the  backs  of  camels  anc 
asses,  to  the  threabing-flour.  Oi 
thia  open  space  the  sheaves  wen 
spread  out,  and  sometimes  bealei 
with  flails  — a  methoil  practice! 
enpecially  with  the  lighter  kindi 
of  grain,  such  as  fitehes  or  ciini' 
in  (l9a.xxviii,27)  — but  mon 
gpiierallyby  meai 

side   by  side,  anc 


iked 


ii«^OOgIc 


THRESHOLD  31 

uir,  !i;  1  Chnm.  iii,  33;  la*,  ili,  16;  hj  ellip^ 
riariii,poMnl,Job  KM,2i:  lM.UTiu,27;  Arooai.S) 
■u  ■  ihmhing-iiiiitninieiic  still  in  uie  in  thf^  nunb  of 
FiteHiiw.  Viat.  Kubiiuoa,  irbo  rnquently  uw  Ihis  nu- 
lic  thiotiiag-aledg?,  uyi,  "It  canaiiu  chiefly  uf  (wo 
pUnki  luUned  logcther  aide  by  aide,  and  benl  upwards 
inffOOI;  pwciwly  lite  the  comrnon  >Oine-iledge  of  Neir 
EngUod.  Many  halea  are  bored  in  the  botunn  undcr- 
sHIh,  ind  inU>  tbeu  are  tiied  abarp  fraginenca  o(  hard 
aoDC.  The  machine  ii  dngged  by  oxen  h  they  are 
tlfiven  round  upon  [he  gnin;  autneLiineaa  man  ora  hoy 

tot"  (Ravarcha,  ii,306). 

1  AgaiM  (rnXl,  rendered  "cait"  or  "wagon")  nn 

wheel,  or  roUeiB  of  wood,  iran, 

nd  Joined  together  in  the  form 

of  1  sledge  {tu.  ixviii,  27, 28).     Mr.  Lane  found  it  >tU1 

ui  uae  ID  Egypt,  perhaps  Bomewhat  improved.    He  saya, 


^^ 


Oriental  Wheeled  Threthlng- iledsea. 


'For  the  purpose  of  separating  Ih 


Art,  Ihe  Egyptians  u>e  a  macbine  called  imrag,  in  the 
f"Cni  oT  ■  chair,  which  movea  upon  imilliron  wheels,  or 
cin-ular  plates,  generally  eleven,  fixed  to  three  tbick 
•xk-trets;  fouT  to  the  faremost,  (he  same  number  (a 
the  hindmost,  and  three  to  (be  intermediate  axle-tree. 
This  machine  is  drawn  in  a  circle,  by  a  pair  of  com  or 
bulls,  over  (he  ann' {Hod.  Egj/pliaia,  it,33). 

Thieabold  ii  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  three 
Ileb.*o(da. 

1.  Sapi  (_  E|1^,  ao  called  perhaps  froin  the  attrUioii 
ihrre.Judg.  xix,37;  1  Kings  xir,  17;  Eiek.xl,6,7; 
xliii,§;  Zeph.ii,14;  elsevhere"door"or  "door-poBt"), 
(be  till,  or  bottom,  of  a  door-way.    See  Gate. 

2.  MifilSn  {'\'RVO,  BO  called  apparently  from  its 
jtrmaat  or  itrrteM),  ubciously  to  be  interpreted  of  the 
•iU.  or  bottom  beam,  of  a  door  (1  3am.r,4,S;  Zeph.  i,9; 
Kuk.xlvii,I)i  but  perhapa  meaning  sunietiniea.u  the 
Targum  explains  it,  a  projecting  beam,  or  corbel,  al  a 
higher  point  than  the  threahold  properly  no  called  (Eiek. 
ti,3j  x,4,18).     See  DooB. 

3.  Aiopk  (Tib!*,  only  in  the  plnr.  Aiuppim,  O'DON, 
nllritiDiU!  Sept-  auyayaytiv ;  Vulg.  eftibula!  Neb. 
xU,  25),  a  uorebouae  or  depository  ("Aauppim,"  1 
Chroo.  xxvi.  17 ),  especially  as  connected  with  the 
w(Meniga(«s  of  the  Temple,  bence  called  belh-Anippim 
<ier.  1 5).     See  Aiuppih. 

Throne  (XSS,  Uim,-  Sp6vi>s,  a  imt,  a>  often  ren- 
'derrd  ;  (wioe  UBS,  Uttek,  1  Kings  x,  19;  Job  xxri,  9; 
ChahL  XO7S,  h)ne,  Dan.  t,  20;  vii,  9,  »  called  as  be- 
ing corrrrd,  i.e.  either  the  seat  itself  or  with  a  canopy) 
applies  to  any  elevated  seat  occupied  by  a  person  in  au- 
(bmiy,  whether  ■  bigh-prieat  (I  Sam.  i,  9),  a  judge 
(l^i.rxxii,5),oramilJlar7cbief(Jer.i,151.  In  Neh. 
Ili.  7  (be  lerni  i*  applied  to  the  official  residence  nf  Ibe 
griTemor,  which  appears  to  have  been  either  on  or  near 
(••  the  city  walL  In  the  holy  of  holies,  betwerii  the 
thrrabim.was  the  throne  of  Jehovah,  Ihe  invisible  king 
ufihe  Hebrews  (Exod.  xxv,  22).    See  Pavilion. 

Tbeme  of  a  chair  in  a  eountrywhei*  :tae  usual  poM- 
ores  were  sqaatling  and  reclining  wEa  at  all  times  re- 
garded as  a  symbol  of  dignity  (2  Kings  iv.  10;  Prov. 
i«,  W).  Id  onier  to  specify  a  throne  in  our  seniw  uf  ibe 
iern,itwaa  necwaarv  to  aild  to  Line  the  notion  of  roy- 
alty; htoce  the  frngiient  nrdimnee  iiTsuch  expreiwions 
a*  "the  thmie  uf  the  kinpiom"  ( t>eut.  xvii,  IH;   1 


1  THRONE 

Kingsi,18;  2  Cbron.vii,  18).    The  characteristic  feat. 

throne  was  approached  by  six  steps  (I  Kings  x,  19;  2 
Cbron.  ix,  IH) ;  and  Jehovah's  throne  is  described  as 
"high  and  lifted  up"  (laa.  vi,  1;  comp.  Horn.  Oii)a.  i, 
130;  iv,  ISe;  Curtius,  v,  2,  13).  The  materials  and 
workmanship  were  costly ;  that  of  Solomen  is  described 
asa'-Ibroneof  ivory"  (i.  e.  inlaid  with  ivory),  and  over- 
laid with  pure  gold  in  all  parts  except  where  the  ivory 
was  apparent.  It  was  furnished  with  arms  or  "stays," 
after  the  manner  of  an  Assyrian  chair  of  state  (see  Raw- 
liiison,  Herod,  iv,  15).  The  steps  were  also  lined  with 
pairs  uf  lions,  the  namber  of  tbem  being  perhaps  de- 
signed 10  correspond  with  that  of  the  tribes  of  IsrseL 
As  to  the  form  of  the  chair,  we  are  only  informed  in  1 
Kings  X,  19  that  "the  top  was  rouivd  behind"  (appai- 
endy  meaning  either  (bat  the  back  was  rounded  off  at 
the  (up  or  that  there  was  ■  circular  canopy  over  it).  In 
Ilea  of  this  particular,  we  ace  told  in  2Chron.ix,  IS  that 
"there  was  a  footstool  of  gold  fastened  to  the  throne," 
biit  the  verbal  agreement  of  the  descriptions  in  other 
renpects  leads  to  the  presumption  that  tbia  variation 
arises  out  of  a  corrupted  text  (Thenins,  Comm.  or  1 
Kingt,  loc.  cit.)_a  presumption  which  is  favored  by  the 
fact  that  the  terms  SJSS  and  the  Uopbal  farm  D'^inMa 
occur  nowhere  else.  The  king  sat  on  his  throne  on  state 
occasions,  as  when  granting  audiences  (1  Kings  ii,  19; 
xxii,  10;  Esth.  v,  1),  receiving  bomage  (3  Kings,  xi, 
19),  or  administering  Justice  (Prut,  xx,  8).  At  such 
times  he  appeared  in  hia  roysl  robes  (I  Kings  xxii,  10; 
JonBbiii,6i  Actsxii,21).    Archelsus  addressed  (be  mnl- 


Anjrian  Chilr  of  Slats. 
titnde  from  "an  elevated  seat  and  a  throne  of  gold"  (Jrf 
sepbus,  H'ar,  ii,  1,  1).  A  throne  was  generally  placeil 
upon  a  dais  or  platform,  and  under  a  canopy ;  and  in  the 
sublime  description  of  the  King  of  kings  (Rev.  iv),  this 
latter  is  compared  to  the  emerald  hue  of  the  rainbow. 
In  Kev.  iv,  4;  xi,  IG  the  elders  who  represent  the 
Church  as  reigning  with  Christ  are  seated  on  thrones 
placed  aronnd  bis;  and  in  ii,  IS  Satan  ia  represent-  . 
ed  as  imitating  Ibe  royal  seat  of  Christ.  For  mod- 
em Oriental  thrones,  see  Van  Leniiep,  BMa  Land; 
p.  &43. 

Mr.  Layard  discovered  in  the  mound  at  Nimrfld, 
among  other  extraordinary  relics,  the  throne  on  which 
the  Assyrian  mnnarcbs  sat  three  thousand  yeara  ago.  It 
is  composed  of  metal  and  ufivoiy.  tbe  metal  being  richly 
wrought  and  the  ivory  beautifully  carved.  The  throne 
seems  to  have  lieen  separa(ed  from  the  state  apartuienta 
by  means  of  a  large  curtain,  the  rings  by  which  it  was 
drawn  and  undrawn  having  been  preserved  (A'iji.  md 
Bab.  p.  19S).  Tbe  chair  represented  on  tbe  earliest 
monuments  is  without  a  back,  the  legs  are  tastefully 
can-cil,  and  the  seat  is  adonied  wiili  the  heails  of  ranih 


THRONE,  EPISCOPAL  3( 

The  cuibiDD  ippean  to  bave  betn  of  some  rich  ituff, 
cm^[oidereIl  or  painted.  The  lega  were  screnglbeiied 
'jv  1  croH-bar,  and  frequeotly  anded  in  the  feet  of  a  lion 
jT  the  hoore  <if  a  bull,  either  ot  gold,  ailver,  or  branie 
(A'iwWfA,  ii,  286).     The  throne  of  the  Egyptii 


2  THUGS 

ing  the  »lemn  recital  of  divine  office.  During  man. 
and  on  oecaHona  when  wrvice*  took  place  U  the  ajtar, 
hii  throne  wan  placed  againut  the  north  wall  within  the 
aanctuary.  Moat  of  the  English  thronea  are  of  wood, 
richlT  carved,  while  abroad  thevare  frequently  of  uone. 
At  b't.  Mark'a,  Venice,  the  Cit'heilral  of  Malta,  and  it 
the  Cathedral  of  Verona  ibe  cpUcopil  throoes  are  v! 
irtarble.  At  Ravenna,  Spalatro,  and  Turcello  they  are 
of  aWnater;   at  Sl  Peter's,  Rome,  the   throne   is  of 


t.  Maxim 


AUCieni  tKJl«i«u  .nroue. 

The  throne  was  the  symbol  of  supreme  power  and 
di^iity  (Gen.  xU,  40),  and  hence  was  attributed  to  Je- 
hovah both  in  respect  lo  his  heavenly  abode  (Psa.  xi, 
4:  ciii,l9;  laa.  Ixvi,  1 ;  Actavii,49:  Rev.iv.S)  and  lo 
bit  earthly  abode  at  Jennalem  {jer.  iii,  t7|,  and  more 
particularly  in  the  Temple  (xvii,  12;  Eiek.  xliii,  7  ). 
SimiUrly, "  to  sit  upon  (he  throne"  implied  the  exercise 
of  regal  power  (Deut.  xvii,  18;  1  Kings  xvi,  U;  2 
Kinga  x,80i  Eslh.  i,  2),  and  "  to  sit  upon  the  throne 
i>r  another  person"  succession  to  the  royal  dignity  ( 1 
Kings  i,  19).  The  term  "throne"  is  sometimes  equiva- 
lent io"kingd«m''('2Chron.  ix,S;  Acts  ii,  30;  Heb.  i, 
B).  So.  also, '' thrones"  deagnales  caRhly  potentates 
and  celestial  beings,  archangels  (CoL  i,  16).     See  Seat. 

TMKONE,  Efiscofal,  the  oRicial  seat  placed  in  the 
cathedral,  or  chief  seat  of  a  diocese,  and  occupied  by 

honor  and  privilege  of  all  bishops  fromi-ery  early  timet 
Thus  Eusebiue  cslls  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem's  seat 
dpuvnc  niriiaraXu"Ci  the  apnsiulical  throne,  because 
James,  bishop  of  Jetuaalem,  Brat  sat  in  it.  ll  nas  also 
called  liiiiio,  rvilram;  and  ^povot  i>if<^\oc>  the  high 
ihiant,  becanse  it  was  exalted  somewhat  higher  than 
[he  wstsof  the  presbyters,  which  were  on  each  siiie  of 
it,  and  were  called  the  aecond  thrones.     It  generally 


Stood  at  the  east  end  of  the  choi 
in  churches  which  were  buUl  in  the  fun 
and  were  spsidsL  This  is  still  the  case 
Augsburg.  In  mediaval  times  the  bish 
frr<|iienl1y  the  best  and  most  exclusive 
south  aide,  and  almost  invsHably  occupie< 


n,  the  fii 

ChriMl.  Anliq.  bk.  ii,  ch.  ix,  §  Tt  Lee,  Glou.  nf  Ulais. 
Termt,  s.  v. ;  Walcott.  Saend  A  rtiaoL  a.  v. 

Thmpp,  Francis  Johki'H,  an  Engliah  dergymsn, 
was  bom  in  1827,  and  educated  at  Winchester  Scboul 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a 
fellowship.  He  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  Englanil, 
travelled  in  the  East,  and  became  vicar  of  Batringloii, 
Cunbridgeshire,  where  he  d!ed,tHpi.  24, 1B67.  lie  was 
the  author  of  A  ncieni  Jtruialtm  i  a  A'm  /nrrCi^afiDa 
tnto  Me  Hittoni,  Topography,  and  Plan  ofUte  CiO/,  etc. 
(Cinib.l8&5,llvo):—JntrodiiaioiilolheSliiifyami  ( V 
a/lie  Ptalmi  (1860,  S  vols.  8vo)  -.—TU  ^ons  o/Soagi: 
a  .V«D  Tramilatiim,CoiHmailary,  etc  (1862):— and  Tit 
ilunJn  o/ Human  Sin  at  Bane  ty  CArirt  (three  aer- 
mona).  Me  also  furnished  articles  for  Smith's  Dkl.  of 
Ikt  Biilr,  and  prepared  part  of  ' 
Pentateuch  for  the  Speaitr'a  I 
bone.  Did.  o/BtH.  and  A  mrr.  A  tunort,  s.  v. 

Tlirym,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  a  giant  king  nf 
great  strength,  who,  being  a  boniencmy  of  Thot.wughi 
Xo  deprive  liim  of  his  weapons  in  order  to  make  hint  Im- 
dreadful  for  the  gianta.  He  succeeded  in  robbing  Thor 
of  his  frightful  hammer,  Mjiihiir,  while  Thor  bad  fallen 
asleep.  Loki  discovered  the  thief  and  aonght  to  nqu- 
tiate  with  him.  Thiym  assured  Loki  that  he  did  not 
intend  lo  deliver  up  the  hammer  until  the  beautiful 
Freia  waa  given  him  aa  hia  wife.  When  this  was  ic4d 
secretly  to  Freia,  the  goddess  of  love,  abe  became  » 
angry  that  everything  shook,  and  her  golden  necklace- 
broke  in  twain.  Then  it  aeemeil  aa  if  there  were  aa 
remedy.  Loki,  however,  who  was  always  ready  with 
advice,  proposed  that  Thor  should  dras  himself  ai  Ibe 
bride.  Although  this  plan  seemed  loo  womanish  tsr 
the  mighty  Thor,  he  ncvcrthelesa  decided  to  try  it; 

Loki  as  hia  chambermaid,  to  Thrym.  There  the  tre- 
mendous appetite  of  the  bride  caused  great  astonish- 
ment; but  Loki  knew  how  to  excuse  the  godden  by 
the  pretence  of  an  eight  days'  fast,  to  which  he  laiil 
she  had  subjected  beraelffroni  longing  for  Tbrym.  So. 
also,  her  flaming  eyes  were  cicuaed  from  having  beni 
awake  eight  daya.  TbrvDi's  sister,  more  cautious  than 
the  fat  giant,  wax  suspicioua  of  the  matter,  and  would 
probably  have  delected  the  deception,  as  she  had  drouiul- 
ed  to  see  the  ring  of  Freia;  but  no  sooner  had  Thi}'D 
brought  him  the  hammer  ofThor.ui  dedicate  with  it  lbs 
bride,  than  Thor.  seeing  his  MjOinit,  grasped  it,andtlt- 
atroyed  all  the  giants. 

Tbyga  (Hindil,  Mu^Ho,  "to  dpceive"),  a  rtligiow 
fraternity  in  India,  professedly  in  honor  of  the  goddsa 
Kali,  wife  of  Siva,  who  were  addicted  to  the  commiiul 
of  murders,  and  lived  cbirAy  upon  the  plunder  obiunal 
from  their  victims.  They  were  also  called  Phauigan. 
or  ■' atrangleis,"  from  the  Hindustani  phaTai,^  "nnmf." 
The  proceedings  of  the  Thugs  were  generally  th«e: 
banding  together  in  gangs  of  fmm  ten  to  fifty,  sni 
Kinietimes  as  hiKh  as  three  hundred,  they  assuraeil  ibe 
appearance  of  unlinar}'  traders ;  travelling,  if  abit,  us 
horseback  with  tents  and  other  comforts;  if  not  iIjIs 
to  travel  in  this  manner,  they  assumed  more  humble 
characters.  Each  gang  had  its  jVmaJdr,  or  lesder;  lis 
.Turn, or  teacher;  its  jurAn^.or  entrappers;  its  Uidlfix^ 
or  stranglers;  and  its  /ii5A<ini,  or  grai'CMliggers. 


iba  Itty  round  one  iboat  lo  uadeit4ke  ■  Joumey,  en- 
ilMTaml  to  iuaiauaie  themKlrH  ialu  hii  confidcDce. 
Thn  EhcB  pnqioMd  to  bim  to  tnvd  in  theii  oompinT, 
uDdrr  ilie  |riea  of  Hfrtj  or  Tot  Chs  uke  or  toaety,  or  «1k 
(ullDwed  hiH,  waiting  for  an  opponuniEy  to  murder. 
Tbst  tu  grneralty  accompluhed  bv  thruiving  a  doth 
aniuii<llbeneckarBTic[im,diubling  him  by  uranguU- 
tiiiii,BiH]  then  iaHictJng  tb«  (atalinjiuy.  Aller  tbe mui- 
•ia  im  pcipetrated,  the  body  iru  niutiialed  and  secretly 
iuiwd,  w  a*  to  mike  deuclion  the  more  difficult.  The 
<nnih  «r  diriding  the  plunder  mcdu  to  have  been  to 
ai»|iK)priaie  odo  third  to  tbeir  goddeaa  Kail,  one  third 
t-  ibe  oidowa  aiMi  orpbana  of  the  aect,  idiI  Ibe  remaiu- 
•ki  u  the  pannen  in  Ibe  uuasinalioii. 

The  Thugs  had  rm  their  patron  goddeia  Devi  or 
KiH.inwbuK  uaioe  I  hey  exercised  their  piufeuimi,  and 
<<•  vhom  iliey  aacribed  Ihcir  origin.  Fonnerly  they  be- 
litved  K«!l  waiMed  them  by  devouring  the  bodies  of 
itirii  ridimt;  but  tbrongh  the  curioaity  of  one  of  the 
pnfmioti  wbo  pried  into  the  proceedings  of  the  god- 
dea,  Ibt  beoEne  diipleaaed,  and  condemned  them  in 
fuiare  to  bury  their  vidiDU.  She,  honever,  presented 
ber  ounhippeis  with  one  of  her  leeth  for  a  pickaxe,  a 
lib  Tor  a  linife,  and  the  hem  of  her  lower  garment  for  a 
mutt.  Thepickaxevaa  regarded  with  the  highest  rev- 
tmm  by  the  Thugs;  it  was  made  with  the  greatest 
die.  consecrated  by  many  and  niiiiuiely  regulated  cer- 
«DuD>n;  intnul«d  to  one  selected  for  tbii  dignity  on 
aaawnt  of  hi>  ahre*-dne«^  cauiiun,  and  sobriety ;  and 
Has  nlKnilicd  to  special  puriOcatiuns  each  time  after 
it  had  been  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  grave. 

Id  honor  of  tbeir  guardian  deity,  there  ia  a  temple 
dedicated  at  Binilachu],  near  Miraapur,  tj}  the  north  of 
Bengal.  When  abont  to  go  out  upon  a  murdering  eic- 
p«litioo,the  Thugs  betook  themselres  to  the  temple  of 
the  godden,  presented  their  prayers,  supplications,  and 
■•ffrringi  iher¥,  and  vowed,  in  the  event  of  success,  to  oon- 
wrrali  to  her  service  a  large  proportion  of  the  booty. 
.Si.  implicit  was  their  trust  in  Kail  that  no  amount  of 
iiiirfatlune,evei]  death,  could  make  them  waver  id  their 
fiiih  in  ber.  All  the  evil  that  befell  them  they  attrib- 
vml  10  t  want  of  futhful  observance  of  all  the  divinely 
appointed  rules  of  theii  singuiiury  crafL  After  every 
munlerthey  performed  a  special  solemnity  calleil  T'rrjwni, 
Ibe  principal  feature  of  which  consisted  in  addressing  a 
-prayer  to  the  godden,  and  in  making  the  murderers 
partake  of  gtmr,  or  oousecrated  sugar,  the  effect  of 
ohich  WB9  believed  to  be  irregittible.  Another  feast  ob- 
served by  the  Thugs  throughout  India  is  Kuriar  Kiima, 
«  A'ofr.  It  is  »!»u  in  hon.ir  of  Kail,  and  the  requisites 
for  its  ceMuation  are  gnats,  rice,  ghee  (butter),  apices, 
and  •pirils.  The  superstitions  of  the  Thugs  are  all  of 
Hindi)  origin:  but  iher  are  also  adopted  by  the  Mo- 
hammedana,  who,  while  stout  adherents  to  the  tenets 
■of  the  KoTin,  yet  pay  divine  honors  to  the  Hindi!  god- 
deo*  of  destruction.  This  inconsistency  they  sometimes 
ftoHirile  bv  identifving  Kalt,  whose  other  name  is 
BhavBiii,  «ith  PatiM,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed, 
and  wife  of  Ali.  and  by  saying  that  Falima  in\-ented 
ihr  uw  of  the  noa«  to  strangle  the  great  damon  Ku- 
kuthljdana. 

At  various  periods  steps  have  been  taken  by  the  na- 
tive anl  English  governments  lo  suppress  the  Thugs,  hut 
n  i>«uly  since  IH31  that  energetic  measures  have  been 
ailiipted  by  the  British  authorities  tncounleuct  the  evil. 
Thn  has  bpeo  uircessfully  accomplished  by  captain 
Ufifrwanis  Sir  William)  Sleeman,  who  secured  the  ar- 
mt  of  every  known  Thug,  or  relative  of  a  Thug,  in  In- 
dia. They  were  coloniied  at  Jubbulpote,  where  tech- 
nical raicnction  was  afforded  them  and  their  children. 
Thnr  deaoendants  are  siill  under  govcmment  supen'is- 
Vdi  iMn.iod  the  practice  of  Thuggee  has  become  ex- 
tincL  Fm  a  fuller  account  of  the  Thngs  the  reader  is 
reCsfrtd  U.  Slceinan,  RamafTtma,  or  a  Vucabularg  a/ 


THUNDER 

Iht  PeaUar  Language  utd  Ig  Ma  Tluigt  (1836) ;  Ta*.- 
■  r,  Tht  Cm/taioni  qfa  Thug  (Lond.  1868) ;  Thomto'ii, 
'JuHralioru  of  tit  Hiltoty  and  Practictt  of  the  Thagi 
bid.  1887). 

TbumbatHlI,  in  ecclesiastical  nomenclature,  ia  ■ 
ng,  set  with  pearls  and  rubieB,or  a  rich  ornament  worn 
V  the  bishop  over  that  part  of  the  thumb  of  his  right 
ind  which  had  been  dipped  in  the  chrism,  or  holy  oil. 

:rve  his  garmcnla  from  stains.  It  was  removed  at  that 
part  of  the  service  when  be  washed  his  hands.  This 
ng  was  aucieiitly  called  a  "poucet." 
Thtim'mlm.  See  Urih  and  Thumhim. 
Ttatmder  (prop.  09*1,  rdam,  0porrii ;  occasionallv 
[Exod.  in,  38,  29,88,84;  xix,  16;  xx,  IS;  1  Sam.  ri'i. 
10;  XII,  17,18;  Job  xxwiii,  26;  xxxviii,  2B]  tip,  i>«, 
roiee,  as  an  elliptical  expreiaiun  for  Jthorak't  mice 
[Psa.  xxix,  8  sq.,  etc] ;  so  also  in  the  plur.D^^ip,  linn- 
deri,  Exod.  ix,  23,  etc;  which  is  likewise  elliptical  for 
ruU  ™™  of  God  [ix,  28]}  once  [Job  xxxii,  19 
(23)]  erroneously  in  the  A.  V.  for  n^J?,  raamih.  a 
ihadderiag,  I  e.  probably  the  mant  of  a  horse  as  brist- 
ling and  streaming  in  the  wind).  This  sublimeat  of  all 
the  extraordinary  phenomena  of  nature  is  pottioaUy 
represented  as  the  voice  of  Uod,  which  the  waters 
obeyed  al  the  Creation  (Psa.  cir,  7 ;  comp.  Gen.  i,  9). 
For  other  instances  see  Job  xixvii,  4,  5;  x1,  9:  Psa. 
,  18;  and  especially  ch.  xxix,  which  contains  a 
magnificent  description  of  a  thunder- storm.  Agree- 
ably to  (he  popular  speech  of  ancient  nations,  the  poet 
cribes  the  effects  of  lightning  to  the  thunder,  "  The 
lice  of  the  Lord  bieaketh  the  cedars"  (ver.  G;  camp. 
Sam.  ii,  19).  In  Jer.  x,  13  the  production  of  rain  by 
;htning  is  referred  to :  "  When  he  ultereth  his  voice, 
ere  is  a  multitude  of  waters  in  the  heavens,  be  mak- 
eth  lightnings  with  (or  for)  rain."  See  Raih.  Thun- 
der is  also  introduced  into  the  poetical  allusion  to  the 
paieage  of  tbe  Ked  Sea  in  Psa.  ixxvii,  18.  The  plague 
of  hail  on  the  land  of  Egypt  ia  very  naturally  repre- 
sented as  accompanied  with  "  mighty  thunderings," 
h  would  be  /irmiJfy  irtcidental  to  tbe  immense 
agency  of  the  electric  fluid  on  that  occasion  (Exod.  ix, 
22-29,  83,  84).  It  accompanied  the  lightnings  at  the 
giving  of  the  Uw  (xix,  16;  xx,  18).  See  aL«  Put 
Ixxxi,  7,  which  probably  refers  to  the  same  occasion, 
■■  1  answered  thee  in  the  secret  place  of  thunder,'"  liter-  < 
ally, "  in  tbe  covering  of  thunder,"  OSI  IfOS,  L  e.  tbe 
thunder-clouds.  It  was  also  one  of  the  grandeurs  sl- 
iding tbe  divine  interposition  described  in  2  Sam.  xxil, 
;  comp.  Psa.  iviii,  18,  The  enemies  of  Jehovah  are 
reatened  with  destruction  by  thunder;  perhaps,  bow- 
er, lightning  ia  included  in  the  mention  of  the  more 
pressive  phenomenon  (1  Sam.  ii,  10).  Such  means 
are  represented  as  used  in  the  destruction  of  Senna- 
cherib's army  (Isa.  xxix.  G-T;  comp.  xxx,  SO-88). 
Bishop  Lowlh  would  understand  the  description  as 
metaphorical,  and  intended,  under  a  variety  of  expres- 
rive  and  soblime  images,  to  illustrate  the  greatness,  the 
auddenneo,  the  horror  of  the  event,  rather  than  the 
manner  by  which  it  was  effected  (new  transl.,  and  notes 
lid  lof.).  Violent  thunder  was  employed  by  Jehovah 
as  a  means  of  intimidating  tbe  Philistines  in  their  at- 
tack upon  the  Israelites,  while  Samuel  was  offering  Ibe 
bnml-aflering(l  Sam.vii,IO;  Eeclus. xlvi,  17).  Homer 
represents  Jupiter  as  interposing  in  a  battle  with  thun- 
der and  lighming  (/fiarf,  vili,  75.  etc.;  xvii,694;  see 
alsoSpence,  A>fym«(u,Dial.xiii,21l).  The  term  thun- 
der was  transferred  to  the  war-shout  of  a  military  leader 
(Job  xxxix,  1b\  and  hence  Jehovah  is  described  as 
"causing  bis  voice  la  be  heard"  in  the  battle  (Isa.  xxx, 
30).  Thunder  was  miraculously  sent  it  the  request  of 
Samuel  (I  Sam.  xii,  IT,  18).  Il  is  referred  to  as  a  natu- 
ral phenomenon  subject  to  laws  originallv  appointed  by 
the  Creator  (Job  xx\-iii,  26;  Xixviii,  2a';  Eeclus.  iltii. 


THUNDEli  3J 

17):  aad  ii  introduced  in  nn'[mi(Ra\-.  It,  S I  vi,  1 ;  viii, 
b;  Xi,  19;  xiv,  2;  xvi,  Itl;  six,  6;  Eachei  [Apoc]  xi, 
5).  SoiQRev.x,3,i,'''ev«nthuiiderB."  See  Sevks,  Ii 
is  adopted  u  ■  on^iaruoii.  Tbui "  u  lighuiing  ia  seeo 
before  Che  thundei  La  heard,  bo  mndeMy  in  ■  penua  berore 
he  ipuks  recommends  him  lo  the  fsvor  of  the  auditotB" 
(Eccliu.xixii,10;  Itev.  xix,6,etc).    Tbe  tuddea  ruin 

of  thunder  (Ecclus.  xl,  13) ;  but  see  Am«ld,  ad  he.  One 
of  the  aubliioest  mdiipkori  in  the  Scripturea  occurs  in 
Job  ixiri,  U, "  Lo.  these  are  parts  of  his  wafs;  but  how 
little  ■  portion  is  heard  of  him  [y^W,  K  mere  whisper] ; 
but  the  Ihundtr  o(  his  power,  who  can  understand?" 
Her*  tbe  whisper  nnil  the  thunder  are  admirably  op- 
posol  to  each  other.  If  the  former  be  so  wun.ierful  and 
overwhelming,  how  immeasurably  more  so  the  latter? 
Id  tbe  sublime  description  uf  the  war-borse  (Jubicxxii), 
be  is  saiil  to  perceive  the  battle  afar  off  "  by  tbe  thunder 
of  Che  captains,  and  Che  shouting"  (ver,  ib).  That  part 
oftheilescTiptian,  batterer  (vet.  19).  "hist  thou  clolhed 
hia  neck  with  thunder?"  appears  to  be  a  mistnuislaCian. 
To  the  class  of  mistranslations  must  be  referred  every 
inatauce  of  Ihe  word  "thunderbolts"  in  our  version,  a 
word  which  corresponds  to  uo  realitv  in  nature.  See 
Thundkkbolt. 

It  is  related  (John  xii.  28)  that  Jesus  said, "  Father, 
glorify  thy  name.  Then  came  there  a  voice  from  heav- 
en, saying,  I  have  both  gloriHed  it,  and  will  glorify  it 
again."  Some  of  the  people  that  stood  by,  but  had  not 
bean)  Che  words  distinctly,  aaid  it  had  "thundered,"  for 
Ihe  voice  came  from  heaven;  others  who  bad  caught 
the  words  supposed  that  Gcxl  had  spolien  to  Jesus  by 
■n  angel,  conformably  to  the  Jewish  opinion  that  God 
bad  never  spoken  but  br  tbe  ministry  of  angels.  Per- 
haps, however,  thunder  attended  the  voice,  either  a  lil^ 
tie  before  or  after ;  comp.  Exod.  xix,  16, 19 ;  Kev.  iv,  6 ; 
vi,  1.     See  Batii-Koi. 

Thunder  enters  into  the  appellative  or  samame  given 
by  our  Lord  to  James  and  John — Boaiiergea,  o  timv. 
tiioi  /Jpovrqc<  "y»  Mark,  "aons  of  Chunder"  (iii,  17). 
SclileuHier  here  understands  the  thunder  of  elo- 
quenceasinAristoph.(.4olar.&30).  VirgUapplies 
a  like  figure  lo  tbe  two  Scipios,"  Duo  fulmina  belli" 
(.en.  vi,  843).     Others  understand  Che  allusion 
to  be  lo  the  energy  and  courage,  etc.,  of  the  two 
apostles  (Lardiier,  Hul,  nfUie  ApoilUt  and  Eeiai- 
gUiM,  ix,  1 1    Suicer,  Thaaunu,  s.  r.  Spovri)). 
TheophylacC  says  they  were  so  called  because 
they  were  great  preachers  and  divines,  wc  ffT'- 
Xotiipvtai  ttti  SfokoyacBTdToot.     Others  sup- 

apoitles  to  call  lire  from  heaven  on  the  inhoapii- 

certain  ahm  our  Lord 
UoANCRau. 
In  a  physical  point  u1 


Tarily  of  its  occurrence  duriug  the  su 
in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  countries.  From  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  -Seplemher  it  is 
hardly  ever  heard.  Itobinsi>ii,  indeed,  mentions 
an  iiittniice  of  thunder  in  the  early  pare  of  Slav  i 
{«Mf«rr*M,  1,430). and  Kuasell  in  July  {Alriipi,  \ 
ii,2f<»);  bucinvachcaaeitissucedtobeamost 
unusual  event.  Hence  it  was  selected  by  Samuel 
M  a  striking  expresMon  of  the  Divine  displeasure 
towards  Che  Israelilea :  "  Is  it  not  wheat  harvest 
to-day?  I  will  call  upon  the  LonJ.and  he  shall 
send  Chunder  and  rain"  (I  Sam.  xii,  17).  Kaiii  in 
IS  deemed  as  extraordinary  as  >n 


4  THURIBLE 

in  tbe  month  of  May,  witnessed  a  thunder -tloriD 
in  the  mountaiiia  of  Huab,  near  tbe  Dead  Sea.  He 
aaya,  "  Before  wa  had  balf  ascended  the  pasa,  bowev"!. 
there  came  ■  shout  of  thunder  from  tbe  deote  doud 
which  liad  gathered  at  tbe  summit  of  the  gorge,  ta\- 
lowed  hy  a  rain,  compared  to  which  the  gentle  shuwen 
of  our  mare  favored  clime  are  aa  dew-drops  to  the  over- 
Sowing  cisCem.  The  black  and  threatening  claad 
soon  enveloped  the  mountain-tops,  the  lightning  liv- 
ing across  it  in  incessant  flashes,  while  the  loud  thun- 
der reverberated  from  side  to  side  of  tbe  appsUing 
chasm.  Between  the  peals  we  soon  beard  a  roaring 
and  continuous  aound.  It  waa  the  torrent  frun  the 
rain-cloud,  sweeping  in  a  long  line  of  foam  duwn  the 
steep  declivity,  bearing  along  huge  fragments  of  ruck, 
which,  striking  against  each  other,  sounded  like  mimic 
thunder"  {ErpaOioti,  p.  353).     See  Liuhthibg. 

Tbtmd«rbolt  (~^'7,  rahrph,  a  fiitmt,  or  ''coal,' 
CaoLviii,6;  hence /^Afnio^ ;  Og. for  arnnr,  Psi. Iixvi, 
3 ;  oifirtT,  DeuL  xxxii,  24).  la  accordance  with  ttw 
popular  Dolioo,  "hot  thunderbolts"  (Psa.  Ixiiiii,  18, 
D^BIC^,  8q)t.  ry  irtfir,  Vulg.  t^")  means  "lighloinpi." 
"Then  shall  tbe  righc-aiming  thunderbolts  go  idsroair 
(Wisd.  V,  21),  ^oX.iie  aarparir.  "  flaahea''0T  "MrtAet 
of  lightning.".  "Threw  sCones  like  thundeibolls"  (i 
Mace  i,  16),  avyiapaiviMiav.  The  word  oonveyi  an 
allusion  to  tbe  mode  in  which  lightning  strikes  tbe 
earth.    See  Liohtmno. 

ThondeilnE  Lesloa.    See  Lkoiok,  Tiiihdeh- 

Thnraiil,  a  name  given  by  Tertullian  to  tbowwha- 
Bold  frankincense  to  heathen  temples,  and  whose  bon- 
nese  could  not  be  free  from  tbe  imputation  of  idolatiy, 
because  it  furnished  what  waa  iiecesaarT  lo  tbe  wnt- 


Thnrlble,  a  censer  used  in  aome  of  the  sCTvices  of 

tbe  Koman  Catholic  Church,  made  of  metal,  muallT  in 
the  form  of  a  vase,  with  a  cover  perforatwl  to  allow' the 


ing  incense  to  escape.  It 
is  usually  carried  by  thrr* 
chains  which  are  auachd 
In  pointa  around  the  luwr 
portion,  while  a  founb  ii 

tbe  above,  being  united  to 
Che  ring  or  handle,  and  i> 

the  upper  portion  or  out- 


■.t  (Pror. 


i,l).«i 


he  had  never  witnessed 

of  June,  or  in  July  {Com 

Ihe  same  observations  apply  equally 

der,  which  is  rarclv  unaceompaniefl  i 

(Ku»ell,  i,  7-';   ii;  Mft).      Lieuteuaui 


la  that  j 


er-flll:  %.  Coppar^ll. 


re  tm\r. 


e  Btb  o 


y  thiiriblei  w 


nvHily  iDtd  mi 
joined  by  tbe  «uthority  of  the  lociil  aynuds.  Al  Koae 
ihere  in  thunblea  of  gold  in  the  rreuurj-ofihe  Churcb 
i4  S(.  JohD  Latcnn,  repulad  l«  h»ve  been  given  by 
Uie  emperor  Consunline.  There  ia  an  old  silver  len- 
r*t  II  llouriin,  more  Chan  twelve  at  MiUn  Citbedral, 
«ven  •!  Meti  Othed™!,  four  of  nilver^ili  <[  Notre 
DiiM,  Firiii,  of  the  14th  century,  and  aome  reraBrka- 
ble  specimena  at  Rheima  and  at  Trevea.  There  are 
a  Tea  examples  atiU  in  use  in  England,  and  Mveral 
■1  ibe  Soulb  Renunglon  and  the  Bniiab  Muaeum  and 
in  private  oallecliona.  The  thurible  ia  uaed  at  high 
miM,  at  veapera,  at  ibe  benediction  with  the  blessed 
lammenl,  al  funeral),  puUic  thankagivings,  etc  It 
baa  often  been  used  in  the  Church  of  England  aince 
ihe  Reformation.  See  Lee,  (Haa.  of  Liturs.  Ttrmi, 
iv.;  l'arlier,Cto«.ci/;1rcAi(«*.».T. 

Tlrailfer  (t»«nK-6rarcr),  the  ministering  attend- 
ant in  tbe  Roman  Catholic  Church  whoae  duty  it  ia  to 
cany  the  thurible  or  cenaer  and  swing  it  at  the  appoint- 
ed lime  during  aenrice.  He  it  ordinarily  a  cboriater 
ur  acolyte,  but  ou  t;reat  octaaiona  a  suhdeacon,  deacon, 

Thnilficati,  or  ThnrlfloatAres  (mcaue-ofam), 
Dames  fijr  those  who,  during  the  pagan  persecutions, 
coDaented  lo  offer  frankincense  an  an  altar  dedicated 
to  an  idol,  in  order  In  escape  torture  or  death.     This 

Chnrch :  and  it  was  not  till,  by  long  penance,  they 
hail  girrn  uiiaraciory  pmof  of  Borrotr  for  their  crime 
■hat   they   were    readmitted.      See   Lapsed^    Libeii- 

ThtuinglB,  CouKciL  of  (OnaettHun  ijuiatiiiaibar' 

in     llOS     by     the     emperor 
Henry,  who   bad  lately  tuo- 


'5  TBYATIRA 

Congren  in  Frankfort,  Germany.  During  the  remainder 
of  hia  life,  he  labored  four  yean  each  at  Vaaaalbomugh, 
Searspoil,  and  Liichtield,  Me.  He  died  at  the  latter 
place,  May  7,  1866.  Dr.  Tburaton  was  a  man  of  emi- 
nent piety,  an  earnest  speaker,  and  no  mean  theologian. 
In  1819  he  declined  a  profeuorahip  in  Bangor  Thechig- 
ical  aeminaiy.  and  in  1863  wished  to  decline  the  de- 
gree o(  D.D.  from  DartrDOoth  College.  He  published 
twenty-two  aermona,  aome  in  pamphlet  form  and  some 
in  period icala i—Croirrt  in  Graft. —Hittoni  of  Win- 
Ihrop  (il7  p-p.y.^LtUrrt  of  a  Fatlar  to  a  ««i.-_aDd 
newspaper  articles  without  number.  See  Cot^.  QimT- 
Icrly,  lS67,p.8i3~S28. 

Thyati'rft  (Bvanipa  [rd],  Vulg.  ctrtfoi  Thj/alire- 
Bomm),  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
seven  Apocalyptic  churches  (Kev.i,  11;  ii,  18).  It  was 
situated  nn  tbe  contiiies  of  Klysia  and  Ionia,  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  river  Hyllus,  and  at  the  northern  eit- 
Cremity  ol  the  valley  between  Mount  Tmolus  and  the 
southern  ridge  ofTemnus.     It  was  founded  bv  Seleu- 


|)ulBli 


<  of  tbe  I 


the  sequel 

of  the  destruction  uf  the  Persian  empire  by  Alexander. 
The  original  inhabitants  had  probably  been  diatribuied 
iu  hamlets  round  about  when  Thyatira  was  founded. 
Two  of  these,  the  inhabiunls  of  which  are  termed  Areni 
and  Nagdemi,  are  noticed  in  an  inscription  of  Ihe  Ro- 
man limes.  According  lo  Pliny,  it  was  known  in  ear- 
lier times  by  the  names  Pdopia  and  Euh^jna  ^Hitt. 
Nai.  V,  29).  The  Roman  road  from  Pergamoa  to  Sar- 
dis  passed  through  it.  Tbe  resources  of  the  neighbor- 
ing region  may  be  inferred  both  from  the  name  Eahip- 
pia  and  from  the  magnitude  of  the  booty  which  was 


on  Armed,  i 


Ihe  heresy  of  the  Nicolaitana 
the  clergy)  wai  condemned. 

Tharofatary  ( iwHur- 
irartr},  a  priest  who  bears  tlie 
censer  during  the  aervioes  of 
Ibe  Greek  Church.  He  also 
anisu  the  officiating  prieat  to 

iMul<.and.diiring  Ihe  anthem, 


Tbtuvdar  (Anglo-Saxon 
Tkor$-ibits.  i.  e.  Tbor'a  Day), 
the  lHa  Joiii  of  tbe  Roman 
calendar,  and    aacred,  in    the 

Nonbem  mytbokigy,  lo  Thor.  It  is  called  in  German 
lioutrrilag,  thunder  day.  In  the  early  Church,  An- 
Kuitine  complained  that  some  of  tbe  Cliristians  per- 
sisted in  keepitig  Thundsy  as  a  bolyday  in  honor  of 
Jupiter. 

THCRSDAV  or  THB  GiuuT  C&Mon,  an  Eastern 
phtase  for  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday. 

Thurston,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Gwrgeiown,  Mass.,  Feb.  6, 1779.  He  was 
Ibe  uncle  of  the  Rev.  R  a  Thurston  and  half-brother 
of  the  Rev.  Stephen  Thurston,  D.D.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1S01,  and  was  ordained  at  Win- 
Ihrop.  Me.iu  Ifl07.  where  he  remained  pastor  unlil  1861, 
wiih  no  inlerminion  except  the  year  in  which  ho  was 
BgHiiEir  the  .American  AnlisUvery  Society  (lS3T),aud 
the  lour  monilia  in  IBSO  when  he  attended  the  Peace 


carried  otF  in  a  fatty,  conducted  Jointly  by  Eumenes  of 
Pergsmos  and  a  force  detached  by  Ihe  Roman  admiral 
from  Cane,  during  the  war  against  Antiochus.  During 
the  campaign  of  RC.  1 90,  Thyatira  formed  Ihe  base  of 
the  king's  operations ;  and  alter  his  defeat,  which  to<>k 
place  only  a  few  miles  lo  the  south  of  the  city,  it  sub- 
mitted, at  the  same  lime  with  its  neighbor  Magnesia- 

rilory  made  over  by  them  to  iheir  ally  the  Pergameiic 
aovpreifin- 

DiirinR  the  continuance  of  the  Atlalic  dynaaly,  Thy- 
atira scarcely  appeara  in  history;  and  of  Ihe  various 
inscriptions  which  have  been  found  on  the  site,  not  one 
unequivocally  belongs  to  earlier  times  than  those  of 
the  Roman  empire.  The  prosperity  of  the  city  secma 
to  have  received  a  new  impulse  under  Vespasian,  whose 
Bcquainlance  with  the  Rasi,  prevlnfidy't^Sitabuniing 


THYATIRA  at 

Ihe  imperial  tlimiir.  may  have  directed  hU  atlention  u  | 
the  derdu|idieiit  or  (he  roiourcei  of  the  Aaiatic  cities. 
A  bilingual  iiiKri|itiun,  iu  Gniek  and  Lalio,  belungiug 
to  Ibe  UlMr  pan  of  hii  reign,  ibows  him  to  bave  re- 
Btoisl  the  ruida  ill  the  damaia  of  Thyitira.  From 
otbera,  betweea  ihii  time  and  that  of  Caricalla,  there 
is  evidence  of  the  eiiuence  of  many  corporate  guildi  in 
(he  city.  Bakers,  putters,  tanners,  weavers,  rubemakers. 
and  dyers  (gl  (3a#«ie)  are  epecially  mentinned.  Of 
these  last  there  is  a  notice  in  nu  less  tban  three  inacrip- 
tioll^  BO  that  dyeJDg  apparently  fanned  an  important 
part  of  the  industrial  activity  of  Thvatira,  as  it  did  of 
that  of  Colossie  and  Ijiodloea.  With  thin  guiid  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Lydia,(he  aeUei  of  purple  Muffs 
(jTop^updiruAif),  from  whom  Paul  met  with  so  favora- 
ble a  reception  at  Fhilippi  (  AcW  xvi,  14),  was  cunnected. 
The  country  around  this  city  is  fertile  aiul  well  watered, 
abounding  id  oaka  and  acacias,  and  in  its  numberleaa 
streamlets  an  fuund  tbe  leeches  used  in  medicine 
throughout  Austria  and  Ihe  eau  of  Europe  in  general. 
The  mode  of  taking  tbem  is  curious:  a  iiumber  of 
children  ue  sent  to  walk  barefooted  among  the  bruuka, 
and  come  back  to  their  employers  with  Ihcir  feet 
covered  with  leecbea.  The  waters  here  are  laid  to 
be  to  well  adapted  for  dyeing  that  in  no  place  can 
(he  scarlet  cloth  out  of  which  feziea  are  made  be  so 
brilliantly  or  so  permanently  dyed  as  here.  The  place 
still  maintaiiu  ita  reputation  for  this  manufacture,  and 
large  quantities  of  scarlet  clotb  are  sent  weekly  to 
Smynu. 

Thyatira  ia  a(  presen(  ■  populous  and  flourishing 
'   '^' *ji  eigb(  thousand,  and 


rriting 

Armenians  (he  Armenian  characters.  There  are  nine 
mosques  and  one  Rreek  church.  It  exhibits  few  r^ 
maioB  of  antiquity,  save  fragments  built  into  tbe  walls 
»r  housea.  'fhere  ia,  indeed,  an  ancient  building  in  a 
very  ruinous  condition  at  a  little  distance  from  tbe 
city,  to  which  tradition  baa  given  the  name  of  tbe  Pal- 
ace of  the  Cteaara;  it  ia  impoaaible  to  determine  either 
III  date  oi  ita  purpose.  But  though  there  is  little  that 
can  be  identified,  yet  far  miles  around  Thyatira  are 
'■      ■      '      '        of  sarcophagi,  capitals  of 


6  THYATIRA 

Cbuicb.  See  Pbboamos.  Now,  at  Pergamoa,  Ibe  Ba- 
laamiles,  who  taught  precisely  the  doctrine  here  aUrib- 

laiUns  (q.  v.).  We  are  not,  therefore,  at  all  to  be  Bar- 
priaed  at  finding  a  party  espousing  and  endeavoring  to 
propagate  umilar  sentimencs  in  Thyatira;  but  it  wnuU 
be  a  misersble  literalism,  and  contrary  to  the  whole 
genius  of  the  Apocalyptic  imagery,  to  suppose  the  lead- 

JczebeL  We  can  only  understand  by  this  a  pcrsoD 
holding  aubslantially  (be  aame  relation  to  Ihe  offidal 
head  of  (be  Church  io  Thyatira  which  Jezebel  of  old 
did  IO  Ihe  king  of  Israel ;  that  is,  ■  party  that  ought  ta 
bave  been  in  subjection  usurping  it,  for  wicked  purposea. 
over  the  proper  ruler.  For  this  tbe  leader  is  severely 
rebuked,  and  the  heaviest  judgments  threatened  both 
against  him  and  the  usurping  party  unleaa  they  re- 
penL  There  was  Mill,  however,  a  faithful  portiop 
who  stood  aloof  from  the  licentious  teaching  which 
was  propagated.  To  them  tbe  Lord  turns  with  wonlt 
of  encouragement,  and  exhorts  them  to  hold  fast  what 
they  had  received.  There  ia  a  small  error  also  in 
the  text  at  the  commencement  of  this  address.  It 
should  he  "  But  unio  you  I  ssy,  the  rcM  in  ThyatiTa:' 
thcee,  namely,  who  reeiated  the  pollution.     The  re- 

unlo  you  I  say,  and  to  the  rest,"  aa  if  both  partita 
were  alike  call«l  to  continue  steadfast.     See  Joe- 

The  principal  deity  of  the  city  waa  Apollo.  iTat> 
shipped  a>  Ihe  aun-god  under  the  surname  Tyrimnaih 
I  He  was  no  doubt  introduced  by  Ihe  MacediHiian  ool- 
onista,  for  the  name  is  Macedonian,  tine  of  the  Uiree 
mythical  kings  of  Hoccdonia,  whom  the  genealogigls 
placed  before  Perdiccaa — the  first  of  the  Temenidn  that 
Herodotus  and  Tbucydides  recognise— is  so  called ;  the 
other  two  being  Carama  and  Canas,  manifestly  impo^ 
annitions  of  the  cAie/and  the  tribe.  Tbe  inscriptioni 
of  Thyatira  give  Tyriranaa  the  titles  of  irparolic  end 
rpowirmp  ^i6s,  and  a  special  priesthood  was  attached 
to  bis  service.  A  priratees  of  Artemis  is  also  men- 
tioned, probably  the  administtatris  of  a  cult  derind 
from  the  earlier  times  of  the  city,  and  similar  in  iu 
nature  to  that  of  the  Ephesian  Artemis.  Another  to- 
perslition  of  an  extremely  curious  nature  which  eidsteJ 
at  Thyatira,  seema  to  bave  been  brought  thiiher  by 
some  of  the  corrupted  Jews  of  the  diapei«ed  ti" 


cotun 


oughs,co 


ir  wella,  and  auch  purposes. 
Tbystiia  was  never  a  place  of  paramount  political 
importance,  and  hence  her  history  i>  less  interesting  to 
Ihe  classical  aludent  than  tliiMe  of  Ephesua,  Sardis,  and 
Pergsmns,  which  were  the  capitals  of  great  kingdoms. 
Her  cliief  hold  on  nur  consideration  is  that  at  Thyatira 
was  sealed  one  of  those  churchea  to  which  the  Spirit 
sent  prophetic  messages  by  the  beloved  apostle.  The 
nestage  itself  is  one  of  peculiar  interest,  but  presenting 
at  the  same  time  a  remarkable  difficulty.  Afier  much 
ciiiamendatian  on  Ihe  virtues  and  progress  of  the  Church 
— or  the  elder,  pastor,  bishop,  or  angel — the  epiatle  con- 
tinues,"  Notwithstanding  1  have  a  few  things  against 
thee,  because  thou  sufierest  that  woman  (or  as  the  cor- 
rect text  has  it,  thy  wife)  Jezebel,  which  calleth  her- 
self a  pn^helesB,  Iu  teach  and  to  aeduce  my  servants  lo 
cumm  it  foruication,  and  to  eat  thingssacriticed  unto  idols" 
(Kev.ii,  20),  This  is  followed  by  threats  of  judgment 
upon  herself,  her  lovers,  and  her  children.  Thetmeslian 
naturally  arises.  What  party  is  represented  by  this  Jeze- 
bel? To  understand  thia  mesuge  rightly,  it  will  bave 
to  be  borne  in  mind  that  Thyatira  woa  very  near  Per- 
gBmoi,and  that  the  latter  was  by  far  the  more  important 
city,  and  probably  possessed  the  more  numerous  Church; 
the  influence  and  example  of  Pe^amos  would  be  like- 
ly to  have  a  great  influence  on  Ihe  smaller  city  and 


Persiar 


dChal- 


aonal  illiis 


V  Xakiai: 


B  designated  "  Ihe  Cbsldasui'i 
iripi^Xoi:).  This  lends  an  ad- 
the  above  passage  (Kev.  JLtO, 
iply  a  form  of  religion  that  had 
become  condemnable  from  the  admixtnre  of  foingn 
alloy,  latber  than  one  idolalrous  ab  initio.  Now  there 
ia  evidence  to  abow  that  ta  Thyatira  there  was  a  great 
amalgamation  of  racca.  Latin  inscriptions  are  frequent, 
indicating  a  considerable  intiu.t  of  Italian  immigrania: 
and  in  some  Greek  inscriptions  many  Laiin  words  art 
introduced.  Latin  and  Creek  jiames,  too,  are  found  ac- 
cumulated nn  the  same  individuals,  such  as  Titos  An- 
toniuB  Alfenua  Arignotua  and  Julia  Severina  Sttatonicis. 
But  amalgamation  of  different  races  in  pagan  nations 
always  went  together  with  a  ayncretism  of  dilTcrent 
religions,  every  relation  of  life  baring  its  religious  sanc- 
tion. If  tbe  aibyl  Sambatha  was  really  a  Jew«s,  lend- 
ing her  aid  to  this  proceeding,  and  not  disrounteninced 
by  the  authorities  of  the  Judan-Cbiistian  Church  at 
Thyatira,  both  the  censure  and  iu  qualiDcalion  btcoBC 
easy  of  explanation.  It  seems  also  not  improbahle  tbat 
the  imagery  of  the  description  in  Rev.  ii,  18.  u  •!;•«• 
rorc  6^a\fiov^  avroh  wf  fkoyut  Kai  oi  irJfc(  aiti^ 
iifioiDi  ](aXrDXi^<ii<^,  may  hjave  been  suggested  bv  tbe 
...         ■  i^nf 


a  parallel  cai 
■ "  ti  have 


THYINE  WOOD 


397 


TIARA 


fiifan  ol  >  ilriScxiioD  of  Rome,  of  Hadrian,  uid 
ibt  impCTul  bmilT.  (iini«s  were  celebrated  in  boc 
■t  Tnimiui*,  of  Hcrcuks,  «nd  of  the  reigning  empw 
IID  ibe  coini  before  tlie  imperial  times,  the  heads 
bKbB9,Dr  AtbciiLand  of  Cvbele  are  also  found;  t_ 
the  imaiption*  ouly  indicate  a  cult  of  the  last  of' 


Coin  oTTbTatlra. 

See  Strabo,  xiii,  4 ;  Plinv,  ffiil.  Nat.  T,  SI ;  Uvj, 
iiiTii,8,:i,  44;  Polrbiiu,  iri,  1;  xxxii,  26;  ^lian, 
lor.  0WE.  zii,  85;  Bbckh,  Ituer^  Grac  Thfotir.,  eft- 
IKcialh  Xoa.  UM-3t99;  Jabknuki,  Be  EccUtia  Thga- 
ara>i'(FTaiK<iC  ad  T.  1739);  Sloacb,  Atitiq.  T/iyaliren. 
iZaolL I7«3);  at>auMaD,GriteliaJa»l,iUl7U;  Srobo- 
ii,8nmCkMrciao/Anailiior,p.4etq.;  Bacber,/>(K- 
mm  ^d  Sam  Ckardut  (Bridgcpoit,  1861),  p.  187  aq. ; 
■d  the  intka  dted  DndeT  Abu  HinOB  and  Rcvua- 


nj^iae  Wood  ({uXov  Seimv;  Tulg.  Kgmm  thy- 
on)  acan  mce  in  Rev.  xriii,  12  (margin  ■'sweet" 
[nnd]),irben  ii  v)  mentioned  aa  one  of  the  valuable 
■niela  of  oixiuiietce  that  aboald  be  found  no  more  in 
Babrlon  (Bone),  whose  fall  ii  there  predicted  by  John. 
SnnBiachw  and  the  Tnl);.  ilwi  understand  ii  to  be 
annt  br  the  algum-tniea  of  1  Kingn  x,  II.  There 
cm  be  little  dunbt  that  the  wood  here  spoken  of  ia  that 
of  the  Ttnya  ariicalaia,  Dtt  Foot,,  the  CalHtrit  quadri- 

'  ■      '  Host  of  onr  mulera  are 


lenlal  wood-work  of  their  Tillas,  and  at«o  for  lablea, 
'la,  and  vessels  of  different  kinds.  It  waa  also  fn- 
lit  (£lian,  Var.  flitl.  v,  S).  It  is  noticed  by  most 
ient  sathon  from  Che  time  of  Theophrastua  (Pluti/. 
;  se«^liui,  .4itm.ii,  11;  Strabo,  iv,  SOS).     Ii  was 

Theophraati  est  ilia  citrus,  qam  diretu  mama  dabal 
"  'liter  lautisuma  opera"  (CelfDDS,  fiieniAsf.  ii, 

IS  prodneed  only  in  Africa,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Hount  AtUs,  and  in  Granada, "  citrum,  aibotem 
Afticn  peculiarem  esse,  nee  alibi  nasci."  It  grew  to  a 
goodly  Rzp,  "qoamm  amplitude  ac  radices  estitoari 
possum  ex  orbibus'  (Ptiny,  HiiU  Nal.  liii,  Ifi).  Fah- 
uloun  price*  were  given  for  tables  and  other  orna- 
mental furniture  made  of  citrus -wood  (see  Flinr,  fur. 
cil.). 

This  cedar  or  cilron-wood  (Coflifru  juadriraleU,  the 
Thuja  artiailala  of  Liniueus)  is  a  native  uf  Mount  At- 
las, and  uf  other  uncultivated  hills  on  the  coast  of  Afri- 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
In  Che  kingdom  of  Morocco,  according  Ui  Broui- 
,  this  tree  produces  the  Sandarach  resin  of  com- 
merce. Captain  Cook,  in  his  Skrlrlia  in  Spain  (voL  ii), 
brought  to  light  the  fact  that  the  wood-work  of  tbt 
roof  of  the  celebrated  moeque  now  the  Cathedral  of 
Cordova,  built  in  the  9lh  ceiilur)-,  is  of  this  wood;  it 
hsd  previously  been  thought  to  be  that  of  the  larch, 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  Spanish  wurd  oirrce,  which 
is  applied  to  the  wood  of  Calliiris  gaadriailru  in  Spain 
and  Bsrbary,  to  the  Latin  word  larix.  "  By  a  ungulat 
coincidence,  the  subject  has  been  undergoing  investi- 
gation about  the  same  time  in  Africa.  Ur.  Hay,  the 
British  consul  aC  Tangiers,  had,  by  tracing  Cl)e  Arabic 
etymology  of  the  word  aCtiet  (no  doubt  al  an  or  era), 
by  availing  bimaelf  of  the  botanical  rcaearcbta  of  the 
Danish  consul  in  Morocco,  and  by  collating  the  ac- 
counts uf  tile  reddent  Moors,  made  nut  that  the  aUrct 
was  the  Thuja  arliculula  which  grows  Dn  Mount  Atlas. 
In  corroboration  of  bis  views,  a  plank  of  its  limber  was 
sent  to  London.  This  plank,  which  is  in  possession  of 
the  Horticultural  Society,  is  one  fool  eight  inches  in 
width.  The  Cordova  wood  is  highly  balsamic  and 
odoriferous,  the  rnn,  no  doubt,  preventing  Che  ravages 
of  insects  as  well  as  Cbe  influence  of  the  air"  (Loudon, 
A  rionL  iv,  2468).  The  wood  is  dark  nut-brown,  close- 
grained,  and  is  very  fragrant  (Tristram,  f-'at.  JlitL  •>/ 
the  BibU,  p.  40!).  L«ly  CakolC  (Scr^M.  Htrtvl,  p.  2) 
regards  it  as  the  almug  (q.  v.)  of  the  Old  Test.     See 

Thym,  Johamn  Fhiedrich  Wiuieui,  a  Proteatant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  Berlin,  Sept.  6, 176H. 
and  died  there  May  21,1803.  He  wrote, />e  i^ila  3/oni 
a  Philone  Cxucripta  (Halle,  1796) :— Temie*  ewer  hi- 
ttoritch-hiliichni  DariUSang  der  jOiL  Ltkre  eon  tinfr 
Fortdautr  nach  *ni  Todt  (Berlin,  1795)  -.—ThtoL  Eacf 
Uop.<i.  MflhodiAogie  (Halle.  1797)  :^//irtort<eA-fcT- 
titcha  l^rbudi  der  Homilriii  (ibid.  1800).  See  FUret, 
Bibl.  Jad.  iii,  430 :  Winer,  Handbaeh  dtr  theol.  IMtratur, 
1,2,474,604;  11,48,59,312,802.     (B.P.) 

ThjTStl  (fliipupoi,  rIoOT-keeptrt),  a  lower  order  of 
the  clergy  in  the  Greek  Church,  which  was  done  away 
with  from  the  lime  of  the  Council  of  TtuUd,  A.D.  692. 
—Bingham,  Chrin.  AMiq.  bk.  iii,  ch.  vi,  §  1. 

TbyaiBBterlnm  (Gr.  Bvataariipuiv.  altar-paii),  a 
word  usually  applied  lo  the  allar  itielf.or  the  Lord's  ta- 
ble; yet,  in  SOI  ■ 


.e  rails. 


used  II 


Tfarloa-tre*  (CUUMi  foaA-fsoMa}. 

baOiar  with  the  "arbor  vila,"  Tiuja  ocddentalii, 
oaiBMa  in  oar  shnibberies.  Dosely  alUed  to  this— in 
the  saiDe  cyrrcaa-Uke  divisioD  of  the  Conif^ns;  indeed, 
imttl  laltty  indoded  in  the  genua  Thuja— ia  the  tree  in 
qoescion.  This  wood  waa  in  tonriderable  demand  by 
the  Romans,  being  much  employed  by  them  in  the  or- 


raCher  another  n 


n  Acadian  mythology,  the  goddess 
the  creation.  She  waa  a  form,  or 
me,  of  the  goddess  Tihamta  (the 


le  of  the  pope's  triple  ci 


TIBERIAS 


■lutiul  runetiona.  It  is 
([old  clolh,  encircled  by  tl 
JBud   crow)   or  gold   on 


bv  pope  DBinuut  II. 
A.D.  1IM8.  Pope  Jobn 
Xin  Drat  girded  it  with 
a  crown  pope  Boai- 
face  VIII  added  ■  hc-  ' 
niid  crown  in  1299;  and 
p»l>e  Benedict  XIII 
■.(.led  the  third  jn  ISA!,, 
nlthoiigh  Bonie  ascribf 
ihp  Istler  10  Urban  V 
(1362-70).  The  liars, 
when  used  u  an  im- 
perial portion  or  drew>. 
hail  at  the  bottom  of 
it  one  golden  circle  of  a 
crown -like  ehape.     See 


t  stood  on  the 


iriu,2,S),  it 

nd,  and  w««  riewed,  Ibere- 

ong  them  almoet  as  ■ 


Tibe'riaa  (New  Teat,  and  Jinephiu  T.^uic.  Tal- 
mud K^'^sa),  the  most  important  citj'  nn  the  Like  of 
(ialilee  in  the  time  of  Chriil,  and  the  only  one  that 
has  lurvived  to  modem  times,  Mill  retaining  the  aame 


I.  Origm  and  Early  AuocialioHi.—Tbe  place  i«  flrat 
mentioned  in  the  New  Test.  (John  vi,  1,  23 ,  ui,  1), 
md  ihen  by  Josephus  (^nf.  xviii,  2,  3:  War,  ii,  9,  1), 
who  states  that  it  Has  built  by  Herod  Antipaa,  and  waa 
named  by  bim  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberiua.  It 
waa  probably  not  a  new  town,  but  ■  restored  Dr  enlarged 
one  merely;  (or  RaUalA  (Josh,  xix,  35),  which  is  said 
In  the  Talmud  (Jeniaalem  MrgiUak,ful'OU  comp.OthD, 
Arr,  /tubb.  p.  7£S)  to  hare  occupied  the  same  position, 
lay  in  the  tribe  nf  Naphtali  (if  we  follow  the  bounda- 
ries u  indicated  by  the  clearest  paisagea),  and  Tiberias 
appears  to  hare  been  within  the  limits  of  the  same 
tribe  (Matu  iv,  13).  If  the  gravea  mentioned  by  Joae- 
phus  (A  al,  loc.  ciu)  are  any  objection,  they  must  mili- 
tile  aeainsl  this  aasumplion  likewise  (Lightfoot,  Cho- 
r-y.  Cmf.  c  72-74).  The  same  remark  may  bo  made 
rei<pecting  Jerome's  statement  that  Tiberiaa  succeeded 
lo  the  place  of  the  earlier  Chitmrrtlh  [Pnamotlicon,  e.  v.) ; 
but  this  latter  town  has  been  located  by  some  farther 
north  and  by  others  farther  south  than  the  site  of  Ti- 
berias. The  tenacity  with  which  its  Roman  name  has 
adhered  to  the  spot  (see  below)  indicates  its  entire  re- 
ci  instruction ;  for,  (generally  speaking,  foreign  names  in 
■be  East  applied  to  towns  previously  linovtn  undernames 
derived  from  the  native  dialect — as,  e.  g.,  Epiphania  for 
llamnuuh  (Josb.xix,36),  Palmyra  latTadmor  (3  Chron. 
viii,  4),  I'wlemais  for  Akko  (Acts  xxi,  7)  — lost  their 
foothold  as  soon  as  the  foreign  power  passed  away 
which  had  imposed  them,  and  gave  place  again  in  Che 
original  appellations. 

Tiberias  was  ihe  capital  of  Galilee  from  the  time  of 
its  origin  until  the  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  II,  who 
changed  (be  scat  of  power  back  again  to  Scppboria, 
where  it  had  been  before  the  founding  of  the  new  city. 
Alany  of  tbe  inhabitinis  were  IJreeks  and  Romans,  and 
foreign  customs  prevailed  there  to  such  an  extent  as 
|i>  giTe  offence  to  the  stricter  Jews.  See  IIkkohian. 
Ilerod.  tbe  founder  of  Tiberias,  had  passed  most  of  his 
early  life  in  Italy,  and  had  brought  with  him  thence  a 
iSAte  for  the  amusements  and  magniAcent  buildings 
ivlih  which  he  had  been  familiar  in  that  conntri'.  He 
hnilt  a  stadium  there,  like  that  in  which  Che  Roman 
yoiiih  trained  themselves  for  feats  of  rivalry  and  war. 
He  erected  a  palace,  which  he  adorned  with  figures  of 
animals,  "contrary,"  as  Jnsephus  says  {L\ft,  §  12,  IS, 
&4),''to  Che  law  of  our  countrymen,"  The  place  waa  so 
much  the  leae  attractive  to  the  Jews,  because,  as  the 


a  bigb  cap  of    aan' 
with  a  mound   site  oi  an 

polluted  and  forbidden  locality,  iioenas  was  one  oi 
the  four  cities  which  Nero  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa  (JosephuB,  Wur,  m,  13,  2).  Coins  of  the  nty 
of  Tiberiaa  are  still  extant,  which  are  refened  to  the 
timea  of  Tiberius,  Trajan,  and  Hadrian. 


of  Tiberias. 


2.  ScnpfHraf  MeRtinn.^\i  is  remarkable  that  the 
liospels  give  us  no  information  that  Che  Saviour,  wba 
spenc  »o  much  of  his  public  life  in  Calilee,  ever  visited 
Tiberias.  The  surer  meaning  of  the  expreanon,  "He 
went  away  beyond  the  sea  of  Ualilee  of  TibrTiaB,'in 
John  Ti,  1  (WEpav  r^  SaXnomje  r^v  roXiXnmc  r^ 
Ti^piaitoc))  >■  not  that  Jesus  embarked  from  TiberiM, 
but,  as  M^er  remarks,  that  he  croiaed  from  Che  weal 
ride  of  Che  Gaiiiaan  ta  of  Tibtriai  to  Che  opposite 
side.  A  reason  has  been  assigned  for  this  singular  fad, 
which  may  or  may  not  account  for  it.     Aa  Herod,  the 

in  this  city,  the  Saviour  may  have  kept  purpoaely  any 
from  it,  on  account  of  tbe  sanguinary  and  artful  (Luke 


i,  32) 

Luke  xxiii,S,thal  though  Herod  had  heanl  of  tbe  fame 
of  Christ,  he  i>ever  saw  him  iu  penun  until  they  metal 
Jerusalem,  and  never  witnessed  sny  of  his  miracles.  It 
is  possible  that  the  characcer  of  tbe  place,  so  much  like 

he  who  was  sent  to  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel 
performed  so  little  Ubor  in  its  vicinity.  The  head  of  the 
take,  and  especially  the  Plain  of  <;ennaaret,  where  tbe 
papulation  was  more  dense  and  so  thumufchly  Jewish, 
formed  the  central  point  of  his  Galiliean  ministri'.  The 
feast  of  Itemd  and  his  courtiers,  before  whom  tbe  daugh- 
ter of  Herodias  danced,  and,  in  fullllment  of  the  tetrarch's 
raab  oath,  demanded  the  head  of  the  dauntless  reformer, 
was  held  in  all  probability  at  Tiberiaa.  the  capital  of 
the  province.  If,  as  Josephus  mentions  (^M.  xviii.S, 
2),  the  Itaptist  was  imprisoned  al  the  time  in  the  castle 
of  Mschierus  beyond  the  Jordan,  the  order  for  his  exe- 
cution could  have  been  sent  thither,  and  the  bloody 
trophy  forwarded  to  tbe  impbcable  llerodias  at  the 
palace  where  she  usually  resided.  Gams  ( JoAomei  ier 
Tauftr  im  GrfSvgnUi,  p.  47,  etc)  suggests  thai  .Tohn, 


nnlined  ii 


aslle, 


passages  already  referred  lo  are  the 
New  Test,  which  njcniion  Tiberias 
n  vi,  I ;  xxi,  I  (in  both  insiancn 
ike  on  which  the  town  was  siln- 
wbere  boats  are  said  lo  have  cnsie 
from  Tiberias  near  to  the  place  at  which  Jesus  had 
miraculously  supplied  Che  wants  of  the  muliilude. 
Thus  Che  lake  in  the  time  of  Chiist.  among  its  other 
appellations,  bore  also  that  of  the  principal  city  in  the 
neighborhood;  and  in  like  manner,  at  the  present  day, 
Hakr  TSbarifA,  "Sea  of  Tiberias,"  is  almost  the  only 
pr  which  it  is  known  among  the  inhabitaala 

JntM  /mpunumv.— Tiberias  has  an  inler- 
lory,  apart  from  its  strictly  Biblical  aaeoda- 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  wars  between 


of  tbe  ro 
3.  /Ml 


TIBERUS  398  TIBERIAS 

in.  I ;  li/t.  §  6  iq.).    The  Sinbedrim,  lubaequtnllT  to  '  original  iite,  except  that  it  ia  couflaed  to  ni 
tbi  tiUorJenudem,  after  ■  lempociry  sojouni  >l  Jam-    its  than  those  of  the  orig-'     '    '' 

oia  and  Sepphoria,  became  flied  there'aboul  the  middle    phus  (Li/t,  §  65),  Tiberii  _  _    . 

utibejd  century.  Celebrated  acbools  orjewiih  learn-  60  from  Uadara,  and  ISO  fcoiD  Scythopolis;  according 
inp  dmiriibed  there  through  ■  succeuion  of  several  cen-  la  the  Ta]iiiud,  it  was  13  Roman  miles  from  Seppharis. 
iiriH.  The  Hiahna  waa  compiled  at  this  place  by  the  The  place  is  four  and  ■  half  hours  from  Naiarelh,  one 
jmat  rabbi  Jadati  hak-Kodeab  (A.D.  190).  The  Haao-  hour  from  Mejdel,  poseibly  the  ancient  Migdala,  and 
nb,orbodjurtfaditiona,«'hichhaamnsiDittedtheread-  ]  thirteen  honn,  by  the  ahnneal  route,  from  B&nias  or 
iep  rf  lh<  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Test.,  and  preserved,  i  Casarea  Philippi.  Near  Tabarl eh,  about  a  mile  farther 
tn- Deana  of  the  vowel  sfilem,  the  pronunciation  of  the  aoutb  along  the  ehore,  are  the  celebtaled  warm  baths, 
liFbRir,Driginale<l,iDagTeatmeasure,atTiberiaa.  The  which  the  Roman  naluraliiis  {Hiiny,  fliif.  A'ul.  v,  15) 
(•Im  paned,  under  Constantine,  into  Che  power  of  the  reckoned  among  the  greatest  knuwii  curioeitiea  of  the 
ChriHiaitt;  aDdduriogthe  period  nftheCmaades  it  was  !  world.  The  inleimediate  space  between  ihese  baths 
luu  and  won  repeatedly  bj  tbe  different  combatants.  ',  and  the  town  abounds  with  the  trsces  of  ruins,  such  aa 
Niia  that  time  it  has  been  possessed  successively  by  |  Cbe  foandadons  of  walla,  heap*  of  alone,  blocks  of  gran- 
rrniaDs,  Arabs,  and  Turks;  and  it  contains  now,  under  .  ile,  and  the  like;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted,  therefore, 
ibeTortdah  rule,  a  mixed  population  of  Mohammedans,  that  the  ancient  Tiberias  occupied  also  this  ground,  and 
Jtwi,  and  Christian^  varioualy  estimated  at  <rom  two  was  much  more  exunute  than  ila  modem  successor. 
Ii>  li>ur  Ihousand.  The  Jews  constitute,  perhaps,  one  '  From  such  indications,  and  from  Che  explicit  teatimony 
Ibarth  of  the  entire  nnmber.  They  regard  Tiberias  as  of  Josepbns,  who  sayi  (.'Inf.  xviii,  S,  S)  that  Tiberias 
me  of  Ihe  four  holy  placea  (Jerusalem.  Hebron,  Safed,  i  was  near  Ammatu  ('A/ifxaovt),  or  the  Warm  Baths, 
an  the  others),  ia  which,  as  they  say,  prayer  must  be  i  there  can  be  no  uncertainty  respecling  the  iilentifioa- 
•iftred  without  ceaainfi.  or  Ihe  world  wouM  fall  back  in-  :  tion  of  the  site  of  this  impoiuni  city.  (See  also  Ihe 
luiiUy  into  chaoa.  One  of  their  singular  opinions  is  '  Mishna,  Shabb,  iii,  4 ;  and  other  Talmudical  passages  in 
ibai  the  HeMiah,  when  he  appears,  will  emerge  from  thai  Ughtfuot'a  t/ora  Hfb.  p.  133  sq.  Camp.  Wich  man  ns- 
viieii  of  Ihe  lake,  and,  landing  at  Tiberias,  proceed  lo  j  bauaen,  De  J'itrmlt  Tibrriemibui,  in  Ugolino,  Thrinur. 
Safed,  and  there  establish  bis  throne  on  itut  biglieat  |  lom.  viL)   These  springs  contain  su1phur,ialt,and  iron; 


Town  Hud  Lake  <•(  Tiberj'ii,  ftom  tbe  Snntb-wasl. 

aummit  in  Galilee.  In  addition  to  Ihe  language  of  the  ]  and  were  employed  for  medicinal  purpoaes.  See  Ham- 
particular  country,  aa  Poland,  Germany,  Spain,  from  j  math. 

which  ihey  or  their  families  emigrated,  most  of  the  It  Bloodancient1y,as  now,an  tbeweatem  >hore,>bout 
Jrtn  here  apeak  also  the  Kabbinic  Hebrew  and  modem  |  two  thirds  of  Ihe  way  between  the  northern  and  soutb- 
Aiabic.  They  occupy  a  quarter  in  the  middle  of  the  i  era  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  There  is  a  margin  or 
i"wn.  adjacent  to  the  Ukc;  just  north  of  which,  near  ■  atrip  of  land  there  between  the  water  and  Ihe  steep 
Ihe  •bote,  ia  a  I^tin  convent  and  church,  occupied  by  a  hills  (which  elsewberc  in  that  quarter  come  down  so 
i"liUry  Italian  monk.  There  is  a  place  of  interment  boldly  to  the  edge  of  the  lake),  about  two  miles  long 
near  Tiberiaa,  in  which  ■  distinguiaheil  rabbi  is  said  and  a  quartet  of  a  mile  broad.  The  tract  in  question 
to  be  buried  with  t-t.OOO  of  hie  disciples  around  him. .  la  somewhat  undidaling,  but  appraximalcs  to  the  char- 
Tl>e  grave  of  the  Anbian  philosopher  Lokman,  as  acler  of  a  plain.  Tiibarleh.  the  modem  town,  oceufues 
burckhatdt  ataUa,  was  ptdnted  out  here  in  the  Uth  the  northern  end  of  this  paralklogram,  and  the  Warm 
c^ury.  Baths  the  southern  exiremily;  so  that  the  more  ex- 

1  PmMM  iBkJ  Pntad  CowIWm.  — As  above  inti-  tended  city  of  Ihe  Koman  age  must  have  co^xred  ail, 
ttaiij,  tbe  ancient  name  has  (orvived  in  that  of  Ihe  I  or  nearly  all,  of  the  peculiar  ground  whose  limiu  ara 
nodos  Ttluriih,  wbieh  oecupica  uDqueationably  Ihe  i  thus  clearly  dehned. 


TIBERIAS,  SEA  OF  41 

The  prewnt  TOtarleh  h»  a  rectBiigulmr  furm,  ia 
guudol  by  a  Uroiig  will  un  the  tind  side,  but  ia  left 
entirely  open  lowinla  l)ie  aea.     A  Tew  pilm-treet  siill 

once  idomcd  IbU  garden  of  tbe  Promiaed  Land,  hut 
they  ira  greBtly  iurerior  in  >iz«  and  beauty  to  those 
Men  in  Egypt.  The  oleander  glowa  profusely  here, 
■ImoaC  rivalling  Chat  flawer  ao  much  admired  aa  found 
an  the  neighboring  Plain  of  Genneaarel.  The  people, 
as  of  old,  draw  their  aubsialence  in  part  from  the  adja- 
cent lake.  Tbe  apecucor  fnim  bis  poaition  beie  com- 
mands a  view  of  almoflt  the  entire  expanse  of  the  sea, 
except  the  southern  part,  which  is  cut  off  by  a  aUght 
projection flf  the  oaasl.  The  precipices  on  the  opposite  ' 
side  appear  almost  to  overhang  the  walet,  but,  on  being  i 
approached,  are  found  ifl  stand  back  at  some  distance,  ao  | 
B3  to  allow  travellers  to  pass  between  them  and  the  wa- 1 
ler.  The  lofty  Hermon,  the  modem  Jebel  exh-Sheihh,  | 
with  its  glistening  anow-heaps,  forma  a  conspicuous  ob-  ! 
ject  of  the  landscape  in  the  noith-easL  Many  ruch- 
(ombs  exist  in  the  aides  of  the  hilts,  behind  the  town, 
tome  of  them,  no  doubt,  of  great  antiijuity,  and  con- 
strutted  in  the  best  style  of  such  monuments.  The 
climate  here  in  the  warm  season  is  very  hot  and  un- 
healthy; but  most  of  tbe  tropical  fruits,  as  in  other 
pans  of  Che  valley  of  cbe  Jordan,  become  ripe  very 
early,  and,  with  induatry,  might  be  cultivated  in  great 

This  place,  in  common  with  many  oChen  in  Galilee, 
suffored  greally  by  an  earthquake  on  New-year's-day, 
1S37.  Almost  every  building,  with  the  exception  of 
the  walls  and  some  parts  of  the  caatle,  was  levelled  to 
the  ground.     The  inhabitanta  were  obliged  to  live  for 

least  seven  hundred  of  the  inbabilanis  were  destroyed 
at  that  lime.  The  place  has  even  yet  not  fully  recov- 
ered from  the  disaster. 

Tiberias  ia  fully  described  in  Raumer'a  Piitdtlina,  p. 
125;  Robinson's  £(Ui«i/AcHarcAe>,ii,  380  tt].;  Porter's 
Haadbook,  p.  421sq.;  Thomson's  LwvfiW  Suojt.ii,  71 
iq. ;  aiid  most  books  of  travel  in  Palestine. 

TIBE'RCAS,  TiiK  Sba  of-  (.)  SnXriffmi  rflc  Ti^pia- 
ioi  i  VulR.  ii«i«  Tibttvuiu).  This  term  is  found  only  in 
John  xxi,  I,  the  other  passage  in  which  it  occurs  in  the 
A.V.  (vi,  1)  being,  if  the  original  is  accurately  rendered, 
"  the  sea  of  Galilee,  of  Tiberias."  John  probably  uses  , 
the  name  as  more  familiar  to  non  •  reaidenta  in  Pal-  j 
estine  than  the  indigenous  name  of  the  "  sea  of  Gali- 
lee," or  "sea  of  Geimesarel,"  actuated,  no  doubt,  by 
the  same  motive  which  baa  induced  him  so  constantly  , 
lo  translate  (he  Hebrew  names  and  terms  which  be  ' 
luet  (such  as  Kahbi,  Rabboni,  Messias,  Cephas,  ^loain, 
ere.)  into  the  language  of  Che  Gendles.    See  Gaulb^ 

Tibe'rlua  (Ti^Jipioc).  in  full,  Tiberius  Clal-dics 
Nkfio  Cksak,  the  Roman  emperor,  successor  of  Augus- 
tus, who  began  to  reign  A.  D.  14.  and  reigned  until  37.  He 
was  the  son  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  and  livia,  ami 
henceastepsonof  Augustus.  He  was  bom  at  Rome  Nov. 
16,  aC.  46.  He  became  emperor  in  his  Bfty-flnh  year, 
after  having  dislingiiiahed  himself  as  a  commander  in 
varioua  wara,  ind  having  evincnl  taleiua  of  a  high  order 
as  an  nralor  and  an  administrator  of  civil  aflkirs.     His 

H.n<K  by  Horace  (r.^-rn.  iv,  4, 14).  He  even  gain^  the  ' 
reputation  of  possessing  the  sterner  virtues  of  the  Ro- 
man character,  and  was  regarded  as  entirely  worthy  of 
the  imperial  hoiiors  lo  which  his  birth  and  supposed  ' 
liersonal  merits  at  length  opened  the  way.  Yet  on  be- 
ing raised  to  the  wipreme  power,  be  suddenly  became, 
or  showed  himself  to  be,  a  very  different  man.  Hia 
subsequent  life  was  one  of  inactivity,  aioth,  and  self-in- 
dulgence. He  waa  despotic  in  his  government,  cruel 
■ml  vindictive  in  his  disposilinn.  He  gave  up  the  af- 
falrsiif  the  State  to  the  vilest  favorites,  while  he  himself 
wahowed  in  the  very  kennel  of  all  that  was  low  and  de- 


lO  TIBNI 

end  vices  which  can  be  offered  is  that  hia  disgust  of 
life,  occasioned  by  his  early  domestic  troubles,  loay  hate 

died  at  the  age  uf  seventy-eight,  after  a  reigu  of  twenty- 

our  knowledge  respecting  him  are  Suetonius,  Tacilus- 
(who  describes  his  character  as  one  of  aludied  dissimu- 
lation and  hypocrisy  from  Che  beginning),  AiauJ.  ch. 
i-vi;  Vea  Paterc  ii,  H,  etc.;  and  Dion  Cass.  ch.  alvi- 
jclviiL  Sea  Smith,  Did.  iff  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  s.  v.-. 
and  the  monogr^bs  on  Tiberint  in  German  by  Frevtap 
(Bert.  1870)  and  Suhr  (Uiid.  1873),  aud  in  English  by 
~      'sy  (Loud.  1878). 

will  be  seen  that  Cbe  Saviour's  public  life,  and 
of  tbe  introductoiy  events  of  tbe  apostolic  age- 
have  fallen  withm  the  limits  of  bia  admiuisln- 
The  memorable  paaaage  in  Tacitua  (AiBuJ.n\, 
44)  respecting  the  origin  of  tbe  Cbiiatianaect  plaars  the 
crucitixionofthe  RedeemeranderTiberius:  '-Ergoabo- 
lendo  rumori  (chat  of  his  having  set  fire  to  Komel  Nern- 
subdidlt  reos,  ec  quaaiciisimia  pmnia  affecia,  quus  per 
flagitia  invisoa  valgus  Cbristi 
nominis  ejua  Christui  Tiberio 
torem  Fontium  Pilatum  sappiicio  alfect 
monograpks  cited  by  Volbeding,  Inder 
p.  95;  see  also  Chrestl's).  In  Ijike  iii,  I  he  is  termed 
Tiberius  Cnar;  Johtt  the  Baptist,  it  ia  there  said,  began 
his  ministry  in  theJt/lscBfijrfarof  his  reign  (^/jomi.). 
This  chronological  mtation  ia  an  important  one  in  d*- 
lermining  the  year  of  Christ's  birth  and  eotrance  on  bis 
public  work.  See  Jesiis  CHRia-r.  Augustus  admitwd 
Tiberius  to  a  share  in  the  empire  two  or  three  Tean- 
before  his  own  death;  and  it  is  a  question,  iberefureH 
whether  the  jj/lwufA  gtar  of  which  Luke  speaka  ahouki 
be  reckoned  from  tbe  time  of  the  copartnership  or  froin 
that  when  Tiberius  began  in  reign  alone.  The  fsraifT 
ia  tbe  computation  justified  by  other  data.     See  Chko- 


C'olu  ofAntioch  with  Ibe  Head  ofTIberina. 


NOLOOT.  The  other  pasaages  in  which  he  is 
under  the  title  of  Cssar  offer  no  pointa  of  personal  alls- 
sion,  and  refer  to  him  simply  as  the  emperor  (Matt-  iiii. 
IT.sq.;  Markiii,  14  sq.;  Luke  xi,  22  *q. ;  xu)i,isq.; 
John  xix,  IS  sq.).     See  Cksar. 

Tib'hath  (tteU  TibcliatM',  rnz^,  ilaaglOrr  or 
[FUrst]  txtearimi;  SepL  [repealing  the  preposjlioa], 
MoTaffii;  Tolg.  Thiiali),  a  city  of  Hadadeter,  kinf 
of  Zobah  (I  Chron.  xviii,  8),  which  in  2  Sam.  viii,  8  it 
called  Betar,  probably  by  an  accidental  transpontkni 
of  the  first  two  letters.  If  Atam-Zobah  be  the  CDanirr 
the  F.upbntes  and  Ode-Syria,  we  must  loo*  !•' 
Tibhath  on  the  eaalem  skins  of  the  Antilibanw. « 
luation,  the  Jebel  Shabshabu  and  the  Jfl*l 
Rieha,  But  Furst  (//fS.  Ux.  a.  v.)  thinks  that  "tlw 
city  rA(i6o(a,in  the  north-west  of  Mesopoumia(Plifi.''. 
HiiL  Km.  \i,  30),  or  the  place  BijhiSi  of  Arrian  (in 
Stepb.  Byt),  which  lay,  according  to  the  Pentmgrr 
Tabkt  (  xi,  a  ),  south   of  Nialbia,  may  refer  to  Ilii' 

Tlb'ni  (Heb.  Tibni',  "ISn,  perhapa  iHfiHgei0 ;  Sepw 
tiofiyii  Josephu^  BalSvaieti  Ant.  viii,  12,  i;  \<ik- 


TICKETS  OF  MEMBERSHIP      401 


TIGLATH-PILESER 


n<M),  (be  ilxth  king  of  Inael,  B.C  936-921.  After 
Smri  hid  burned  himwlf  in  his  pakw,  then  wu  i  di- 
vttion  in  the  northern  kingdom,  htif  </S  tbe  people  ful- 
lowing  Tibni  Che  aoD  of  (Mail  h,  and  half  following  Omri 
( I  Kkogt  sTt,  31,  Si ),  Omri  wu  the  choice  of  the 
■nii7,  Tibni  wu  probably  pac  forward  by  tbe  people 
■jfnraah,  which  wm  then  besirgcd  by  Omri  and  bis 
heat.  Tbe  Mroggle  between  llie  contending  faccioiu 
lancd  four  years  (comp.  TCr.  16,  !S) ;  bat  tbe  only  rec- 
ord of  it  ia  given  in  the  few  wotiIh  of  the  biatorian- 
"Ttae  people  that  followed  Omn  prevailed  againM  tbs 
people  that  followed  Tibni  the  aoo  of  Ginalh;  ao  Tibni 
died,  ami  Omri  rngned."  The  SepL  add*  that  'I'ibnl 
WI.1  i>raTely  jfrcDiiiIrd  bv  hin  Imuher  Juram.  But  Jnae- 
pliBi  knowB  nolliliif;  nf  ihis  apocryphal  addilion.    Se« 

ISR.tKI.,  KmODOV  OF. 

TlokeU  of  MambATBhlp  {English  Wealeyan). 


The  p. 


noft 


memberthip  in  tb«  Me Ihodiit  society,  Wesley  decided, 
in  IT43.  to  meet  and  talk  with  every  member  once  in 
ihnc  months.  If  considered  fit  and  proper,  every  mem- 
ber received  a  ticket.  This  i|iiarterly  ticket,  with  tbe 
member'a  name  written  upon  it,  and  ngned  by  the  min- 
uter, enables  such  a  one  to  obtain  everywhere  the  priv- 
il^^  of  DKntberahip.     When  a  member  of  the  aociety 

moval."  Mgned  by  the  minialer,  intnxliicea  him  or  bet  to 
the  minialer  of  tbe  circuit  to  whicb  either  goea.  Hiiiia- 
leri  must  not  give  ticketa  to  those  who  have  ceased  to 
meet  in  clan.  All  the  financial  questions  are  explained 
ID  those  who  are  eeekiog  to  Join  the  society,  and  notea 
of  admisaioii  on  trial,  with  a  copy  of  the  "  mles,"  are 

iKer  haa  pnner  (o  withholil  his  ticket  nntil  he  baa  con- 
versed privately  with  tbe  ofF^nderi  if  not  satisHed,  he 
most  inform  the  party  that  he  may  appeal  to  the  leaders' 
merting.  Bat  he  must  report  the  case  Nral  to  the  next 
weekly  meedngorministera  in  tbe  circuit, and  then  to  the 
leaden'  meeting.    See  Simpson,  Cgdep.  nf  ifetAodim, 

Tl'dal  (Heb.  rWo/',bj7Fl,ifShemitic=/ear[Ge- 

Bcaiua]ornminrni  [FllTst];  buC,according  toLenotmant, 
koaiX\t^=^grvat  am;  SepL  Bap^oA  v.  r.  OoXya;  Jo- 
aapbto,  edJoXof,  AiA.  i,  9,  1;  Vulg.  rAtuiii/}, the  luC 
named  (Geo.  xiv,  1, 9)  of  the  three  aubordinate  "  kings' 
who,  in  ooofederation  with  Chedorlaomer,  attacked  and 
defeated  the  rebellious  princes  of  the  Sodomitic  pentar- 
chyin  the  days  of  Abraham,  Racir.  2070.  He  ia  called 
"king  of  nations"  (B7ia,^nyini), which  Symmach us  in- 
terpret* £cy(A(inu,  and  olhen  Co/ifH,  both  on  reryalen- 
RawUnson  suggests,  r 


,a(^. 


',66, 
hejuiUy 


Dott).th»t  the  name  is  probably  Turatiian;  b 
remarka  that,  from  the  title  given  to  Tidal, " 
able  to  uriderstand  that  he  waa  a  chief  over  various  no- 
madic tnbea  to  whom  no  special  tract  of  country  could 
be  aaugned,  nnce  at  different  timea  of  the  year  they  in- 
habited dlffrrant  portions  of  Lower  Mesopotamia.  This 
i*  the  ease  with  the  Arab*  of  these  pacta  at  the  pteaent 
day."    See  Chbdoiclaoxkii. 

Tldhu-.    See  Pihk. 

Tisdebaik,  la  Chinese  anil  .Tapanese  mythology, 
was  one  of  the  head  deiliea,  who  ia  uid  In  be  in  the 
icmple  of  Oaaka.  It  ia  unknown  what  this  deity  rep- 
rtsenced,  nnleta  the  description  of  the  imsge  permits  a 
Mnjectart  Tiedebaik. a  powerful  fnur-amied  giant,  with 

*d  dita*  npon  ■  figure  whose  homed  bead  and  dragon 
tail  chaia^eiiie  it  aa  an  evil  deity. 

Tl«rO0.  the  aerriee  for  the  third  hour,  or  nine  o'clock 
in  (he  morning,  in  the  early  Church.  See  Matin  i 
Noxn;  V'npKHa. 

TlnolUta,  tbe  aaaDa  given  to  the  third  order  of 
Minim  (i^  v.). 


Tlffln,  EnwAno,  H.D„  a  loco!  preacher  in  tbe  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Carliale,  Englandr 
June  19,  1*66.  At  an  early  age  he  commenced  the- 
atudy  of  medicine;  removed  to  the  United  Stale*  \n. 
1784,  and  settled  iti  Charleatown,  Jellerson  Co.,  Ta.,. 
where  he  became  ■  piacticioner.  In  1790  he  entered 
the  Methodist  Episei^Md  Cburch,  and  was  ordained, 
deacon  by  bishop  Aabnry,  Nov.  19,  1T92.  In  1796  Dr. 
Tiffin  took  up  hia  reddence  in  Cbillicothe,  in  the  Urri- 
lory  north-west  of  the  Ohio  River,  where  he  continueih 
tbe  practice  of  medicine,  and  preached  regularly  on 
Smulaya.  In  die  autumn  of  1799,  Dr.  Tiffin  wa*  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  terriloiial  legislature ;  in  18DS  he- 
was  chosen  a  delegate  from  Roaa  County  to  the  conveii- 
don  which  adopced  the  flist  constitution  and  ti>rmed  a 
state  government  Xat  Ohio,  of  whicb  convention  he  wa» 
elected  president.  In  1803  he  wsa  elected  the  lirst  gov- 
ernor. At  the  seauon  of  the  legislatnre  in  1806-7. 
goremor  Tiffin  was  chosen  United  Statea  aenalor,  but 
resigned  March  8,  J809,  on  account  of  the  death  of  his- 
wife.  The  same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  legiilalure 
and  chosen  speaker  of  the  Honae.  Tbe  next  real" 
(1810)  he  waa  returned  to  the  House  of  BepresenU- 
dvea  and  elected  speaker.  He  was  selected  by  presi- 
dent Madison  a  commiaaioner  of  the  General  land  Of- 
floei  but,  not  enjoying  the  society  of  Washington,  he- 
exchanged  olHces  with  Josiah  Meigs,  surveyor-generah 
of  pobtic  land!!.  He  look  up  bis  lesidence  in  Chilli- 
eothe,  sdll  attending  to  ministerial  duties.  He  helA 
the  office  of  surveyor-general  for  itearly  fiheen  yeata^ 
when  he  obtained  leave  to  retire,  July  1,1829.  He  riieif 
Aug;9  oftbesameyear.  Threeorhis5niBa>i<,|ireachedi 
in  1817,  were  published  in  the  Ohio  Canftratr  Offrriug,. 
(ISGl).  See  Sprague,  ^nnub  o/'Ute  Jmrr./'ujptr,  vii. 
205. 

TlE'Utta-pUA'nar  (  Heb.  Tlglath-  FiU'tr,  r\in> 
-icsin,  2  Kings  irt",  29i  xvi,  lOj  or  briefiy  TigUiik' 
Pde'ier,  10^9  riit},  vet.  7),  or  (less  correclly)  W- 
gaU-pOK'^  '(Heii!  TOgali'  /Wte'aer,  iDKjbp  r»^P.- 
1  Cbrao.v,6:  2  Chron.  xxviii,  20)  or  l^efly  Tilgiak' 
i^e'an-,  ^Slbl  n>Vn,l  Chron.  V,  26),  an  Asqnrian 
king.  The  SepL  Gmcizes  the  name  9akyad^\a- 
aafi  (r.  r.  BakyaXfckkaaip,  'A\yaSft)tXaiTap,  'AyXdS- 
^oXXaoao),  Josephua,  l}(yXa^a\ainraprit  (All.  ix,  12,. 
3),  and  the  Vulg.  Thtglalh'PhuUuar.  The  monument- 
al name  is,  according  la  Rawlinson,  Tukulti-pal-iir/i ; 
acconlirg  to  Oppert,  7^jUii(-/w/-(uar  (ke, -asiur);  ac- 
cording to  Hincks,  TiUal-pal-iiri ;  according  to  others,. 
Tiffuili-pal-ttira.  The  signification  of  tbe  name  is- 
somewhst  doubtful.  M.  Oppect  renders  it,  "Aduiado- 
[sit]  miu  Zodiaci,"  and  explains  "  the  son  of  the  Zodi- 
ac" as  A'in,  or  Herculea  (EzpidHian  SmrUifiguf  n  Mi~ 
topolamit,  ii.  BSZ).  It  would  seem  ta  signify  "  worship 
of  the  son  of  Aseur,"  perhaps  as  a  royal  subtiquei. 
The  Assyrian  king  of  this  name  menlkined  in  Scripture 


•t  II.  Bl 


it  king 


throne  about  B.C  1130. 

of  whose  reign,  or  a  portion  of  it,  two  cylinders  are 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  (Kawlinson,  Aitdait 
Hoaarchia,  ii,  62-79),  We  here  oiiLlense  all  the  in- 
formation accessible,  from  whatever  miurco,  coiicernini; 
the  later  monarch  of  this  name. 

1,  BiUieal  Stutomnirs.— Tiglath-pileset  is  the  second 
Aasyrian  king  mendoned  in  Scripture  as  barioR  ciiine 
into  contact  with  the  Iscaelilea,  tbe  first  being  I'nl 
(q,  v.>  He  atUcked  Samaria  in  tbe  reign  of  Pekah 
(RC.  756-T36),  ou  what  ground  we  are  net  told,  but 
probably  because  Pekah  had  withheld  his  tribute,  and, 
having  entered  his  terriloriea,"tooklion,  and  Abet-belb- 
maachab,  and  Janoah.  and  Kedesh,  and  Hazor,  and 
Gilead,  and  Galilee,  and  all  tbe  land  of  Naphtali.  and. 
carried  them  capdve  to  Asnrria"  (2  Kings  xv,  29) :  thus 
"  lightlv  afflicting  tiie  land  of  Zebulun  and  the  land  of 
Napblaiii"  (IsB.  ix,  1)  — tbe  most  Dortbcm,  and  so  the 
most  exposed,  portion  of  tha  ceuntrj-.     Tbe  date  of  Ihia 


TIGLATH-PILESER  4( 

iiivurian  canaoC  it  preunt  be  lixed ;  but  it  was  ippir.  ; 
viiily  muiy  yean  afterwards  tbat  Tit;lalh-pUeMt  made 
It  B^cutid  expedilioa  into  theae  parts,  which  had  more 
iraponant  reaulta  tbau  hii  furmer  one.  It  appears  that 
after  Che  date  of  his  lint  expedition  a  dose  league  waa 
f.imied  between  Reiiii,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  hav- 
ing fur  iM  special  object  the  humiliation  of  Jiidna,and 
intended  to  further  geiierally  the  intsreata  of  Che  two 
allies.  At  dist  great  succeasea  were  gained  by  PeJiah 
and  his  confeilence  (2  Kings  xv,  37 ;  2  Chron.  xxviii, 
■H-O) ;  but  on  thdi  proceeding  li>  aciAck  Jetuaalem  it- 
self, and  to  thraaten  Ahai,  who  was  then  king,  with 
depiwlion  frooi  his  throne,  which  they  were  about  to 
tcive  to  a  pretender, "  the  son  of  Tabeal"  (laa.  vii,  6),  the 
Jewish  monarch  applied  to  Assyria  for  assistaoce,  and 
Tiglath-pileser,  consenting  to  aid  him,  again  appeared 
-at  the  head  of  aii  army  in  these  regiona.  He  flrsC 
marched,  naturally,  against  Damascus,  which  he  took 
(2  Kings  xvi,  9),  raiing  it  (according  lo  lus  own  state- 
ment) to  the  ground,  and  killing  Rezin,  the  Damascene 
monarch.  After  this,  probably,  he  proceeded  to  chas- 
tise Pekah,  whose  country  be  entered  on  the  ourth- 
«asl,  where  it  bordered  upon  "  Syria  of  Damascus." 
Here  he  overrau  the  whole  district  lo  the  east  of  Jor- 
-daii,  no  longer  "lightly  afflicting"  Samaria,  but  injur- 
ing her  far  "  morr  .yrvrotuly,  by  the  way  of  the  sea, 
in  Oalilee  of  the  Gentitea"  {laa.  ix,  1),  carrying  into 
captivity  "the  Keubenites.  the  (ladita,  and  the  half 
tribe orMBnBBseh"(lChron.v, 23),  who  had  previously 
held  this  ofiuntry,  and  placing  them  in  Upper  Meso- 
poiamia  from  Harran  to  about  Nisibis  (ibid.).  Thus 
Ibe  result  of  this  expedition  waa  the  absorption  of 
the  kingrlom  of  Damascus,  and  of  an  important  por- 
tion of  Samaria,  into  the  Assyriaii  empire ;  and  it  fur- 
ther brought  the  kingdom  of  Judah  into  the  conditioD 
of  a  mere  tributary  and  vassal  of  the  Assyrian  moo- 

Berore  retntning  into  his  own  land,  Tiglalh-pileser 
had  an  interview  with  Ahaz  at  Damascus  (2  Kings 
xvi,  10).  Here,doubtleB^wassettled  the  amount  of  trib- 
ute which  Jiiiliea  was  to  pay  annually;  and  it  may  be 
suspected  that  here,  too,  it  was  explained  to  Ahai  by 
his  suzerain  that  a  certain  deference  to  the  Aaayrian 
guds  was  due  on  the  part  of  all  tributaries,  who  were 
u:iually  required  lo  Mt  up  in  their  capital  "  the  laws  of 
AssbuT,"  or  "altars  to  the  great  goda."  The  '^allar^ 
which  Ahaz  "saw  at  Damascus,"  and  of  which  he  sent 
ibe  pattern  to  Urijah  the  priest  (ver.  10, 11),  has  been 
conjectured  lo  have  been  such  a  badge  of  subjection; 
but  it  seems  to  have  t>cea  adapted  only  ont  of  love  for 

This  is  all  that  Scripture  tells  ns  of  Tiglalb-pileser. 
He  appears  lo  have  succeeded  Pnl,  and  to  have  been 
succeeded  by  Shalmaneser;  to  have  been  contemporary 
with  Ke:in,  Tekah,  and  Ahaz;  and  therefore  to  have 
ruled  Assyria  during  the  latter  half  of  the  8lh  century 
before  our  nra.     .See  AsxrntA. 

2.  .IfnniiaienJnt  ftminii.—Frora  his  own  inscriptions 
we  Icam  that  his  reign  Insled  al  least  seventeen  years; 
that,  besides  warring  in  Syria  and  Samaria,  he  attackeii 
Babylonia,  Media,  Armenia,  and  the  independent  tribes 
in  the  upper  regions  of  Mesopotamia,  thus.  like  the  other 
great  Assyrian  monarchs,  warring  along  the  whole  fron- 
lierof  Che  empire;  and,  Anally,  that  he  was  (probably) 
iiotalegilinialeprince.butausurper  and  the  founder  of 
a  dynasty.  This  last  fact  \»  gathered  from  the  circum- 
slsni-e  that,  whereas  the  Anyrian  kings  generally  glory 
in  their  ancestry,  Tiglath-pileser  omits  all  menUon  of 
liis,  not  even  recording  his  fnther'a  name  upon  his  mon- 
uments. It  accords  remarkably  with  Che  statements 
i.f  Berosus  (in  Euseb,  Chroa.  Can.  i,  4)  and  Herodotus 
(i,  S3),  that  about  this  time,  i.  c.  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
8th  century  B.C,,  there  was  a  change  of  dynasty  in  As- 
syria, the  old  family,  which  had  ruled  for  620  (52fi) 
years,  being  supeiseded  by  another  not  long  before  the 
accession  of  Sennacherib.  The  authority  of  these  two 
wiiters,  combined  with  the  monumental  indications. 


2  TISLATH-PILESER 

justilies  us  in  concluding  that  the  founder  of  the  lower 
dynasty  or  empire,  the  lint  monarch  of  the  new  king- 
dom, was  the  Tiglath-pileser  of  Scripture,  wboee  dale 
must  certainly  be  about  this  time,  and  whose  monu- 
ments show  him  lo  have  been  a  self-raised  sovereign. 
The  exact  date  of  the  change  cannot  be  poaiiively 
fixed;  hut  it  is  prebi^  marked  by  the  {era  of  Nabu- 
nasaar  in  Uabylon,  which  synchronizes  with  B.C.  747. 
According  lo  this  view,Tiglath-|uleser  reigned  certain- 
ly from  ILC.  747  to  730.  and  possibly  a  few  years  longer, 
bdng  succeeded  by  Shalmaneser  at  least  aa  early  aa 
725.  Id  the  Aasyiian  Chnmologkai  Canon,  of  which 
there  are  four  copies  in  the  British  Museum,  all  luoic 
or  leas  fragmentary,  the  reign  of  Tiglath-pileser  si 


r»{se. 


Alhtnii:am,tio.  1812,  p.84).     Rawl 

lation  places  his  accession  in  744  {ibid.  Aug.  23,  IS6S). 

See  SllALUAMBSBR. 

The  circumstances  under  which  Tiglath-pilea 


good  authority ;  I 


litioo  on  the  subject 
WDien  seems  to  uesen'e  mention.     Alexander  Polyhis- 

tor.  the  friend  of  Sylta.who  had  access  to  the  writings 

tinucd  from  Ninus,  its  founder,  to  a  ce'nain  BeleOs'(Pul), 
and  Chat  he  was  succeeded  by  Bel^taras,  a  man  of  low 
rank,  a  mere  vine-dresser  (^irrocpyoc),  who  had  tbe 
charge  of  tbe  gardens  attached  to  die  loyal  palace. 
llelStaras,  he  said,  having  aa|uired  Che  sovereignly  in 
an  exwaordinaiy  way,  fixed  it  in  his  own  family,  in 
which  it  continued  to  the  time  of  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh  (^r.  Hitl.  Gr.  iii,  210).  It  can  scarcely  be 
donbted  Chat  BelStaras  here  is  intended  lu  repreacnt 
"nglsth-pileaer,  Beltilar  being,  in  fact,  another  mode  of 
expressing  the  native  Pal-lnravt  PaOi-ttir  (Opperi), 
which  Che  Hebrews  represented  by  Pileaer.  Whether 
there  is  any  truth  in  the  tradition  may,  perhaps,  be 
doubled.  It  bears  too  near  a  resemblance  to  the  Ori- 
ental stories  of  Cyrus,  Uyges,  Amasia,  and  others,  lo 
have  in  itself  much  claim  to  our  acceptance.  On  tbe 
other  hand,  as  above  mentioned,  it  harmonizes  with  ihe 
remarkable  facC— unparalleled  in  the  rest  of  the  Aa^rrian 
records — that  Tiglath-pileser  is  absolutely  silent  oo  Ihe 
Bubject  of  his  ancestr}',  neither  mentioning  his  father^ 
name  nor  making  any  alluuon  whatever  lo  his  binh, 
descent,,  or  parentage. 

Tiglath-pilcser's  wars  do  not  generally  appear  to 
have  been  of  much  importance.  In  Armenia  he  re- 
duced the  rebel  princes,  and  afterwards  conquered  the 
city  of  Arpad  after  a  year's  resistance.  In  Babylonia 
he  took  Sippara  (Sepharvaim)  and  several  places  of  len 
note  in  the  northern  portion  of  tbe  country:  but  be 
does  not  seem  to  have  penetrated  far.nr  to  have  cooM 
into  contact  with  Nabonaaaar,  who  reigned  from  B.C 
747  lo  733  at  Babylon.  In  Media  and  Upper  Heaopo- 
lamia  he  obtained  certain  successes,  but  made  no  per- 
manent conquests.  It  waa  on  his  western  frontier  only 
that  his  victories  advanced  the  limits  of  the  erofnrt. 
Among  the  conquered  cities  appear  lo  be  reckoned  M& 
giddo  (Magidu)  and  Dor  (Duru),  both  oonnecied  with 
Manasseh  (Manatsuab).  Before  he  left  Syria,  Tiglath- 
pileser  received  submiasiou,  not  only  from  Ahaz,  but 
from  tbe  kings  of  the  neighboring  couDtriea.  He  re- 
cords his  taking  trilnite  fTnm  a  king  of  Judah  called 
Vahu-khaii— a  name  which  might  represent  Jehoahaz; 
but,  as  shown  by  the  chronology,  it  probably  stands  (or 
Ahaz,  whose  name  may  have  been  changed  by  his  Aa- 
ayrian suzerain,  u  bappened  afterwards  to  Eliakim  and 
Zedekiah  (2  Kings  xxiii,34-,  xxiv,  17).  The  destruc- 
tion of  Damascus,  tbe  absorption  of  Syria,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  Assyrian  influence  over  Jndsa  are  tbe  chief 
events  of  Tiglath-pileser's  reign,  which  seems  to  have 
had  fewer  external  triumphs  than  those  of  most  As- 
syrian monarchs.  Prnbabiy  his  nsarpation  was  not  en- 
dured quite  patiently,  and  domesric  trouble*  or  daugen 
acted  as  a  check  upon  hia  expeditioiu  againat  (omga 


TIGKE  VERSION  4( 

No  pibc«  or  gnU  building  can  be  uciibed  lu  tfais 
liiiig.  tlu  alibi,  vhich  are  tolerably  nuoieruue,  bIiuw 
ihii  he  iniBt  bave  buili  ar  adorned  a  lesidence  at  Ca- 
Uh  (?  Kimrfid),  where  thej  were  round ;  but,  ta  they 
<rnr  npt  discovered  ia  litu,  we  cannot  laj'  anything  of 
ilK  Fdifice  U  which  they  originally  belungeJ.  They 
tfUDurksarwanloadersceaient:  anil  it  is  plain  that  the 
bier  kioga  purpoaely  injured  themj  for,  not  only  ia  the 
•  niingonen  erased,  but  the  slaba  bare  been  torn  down, 
liruteD,  and  used  aa  building  materials  by  Esar-haridon 
m  Lhe  gnat  palace  which  he  erected  at  Cilab.  the 
■nuthera  <a[Ntal.  The  dynasty  of  Sargon  was  boilile 
In  ibe  fint  two  princes  of  the  Lower  Kingdom,  and  Ihe 
(HUlt  of  their  hostility  is  that  we  have  fat  less  monu- 
mtnial  knowledge  of  Shalouuieaer  and  Tiglath-pileser 
than  ol  various  kinga  of  the  Upper  Empire.    See  NlM- 

liee  Rawlinaon,  Aadnil  MoaardiU*,  ii,  127-182; 
Xa\lh,Afiriafrim  Iht  Moiaimtiai,^.!! sq. (Am. ed.); 
Jon.  Sae.  IM.  April,  1864,  p.  35S.     See  Israbl,  Kikq- 

Tlei£  VersloD.  Tigre  is  a  language  spokf 
ihmghout  Easlem  Abys^niai,  from  tbe  eastern  banks 
1.4'  (be  River  Tacaue  to  tbe  Sboho  coualry,  which  sep- 
antes  Aby aainia  from  the  Red  Sea.  Consequently,  tb 
T^gn  a  spoken  throughout  Ave  degrees  of  latitude,  bi 
innning  Ihrve  days' joumer  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  by 
l^ifiuUliaii  airraunttng  to  about  three  millions.  T1i 
(binctets  of  the  Tigre  alphabet  are,  like  Ibe  Amhaiii 
vfEthiopic  origin.and  the  Tigrii  language  itaelf  is  moi 
dcnely  related  to  the  Etbiopic  than  Ihe  Amharic  i 
any  other  dialect  of  Abyssinia.  Tbe  first  attempt  i 
iniitlate  the  Kew  Teal,  into  that  language  was  made 
br  lu  Englishman  named  Nathaniel  Pearcc 
yur  1819.  He  bad  acquired  varied  and  ex 
binoation  by  oonitant  wanderings  through  va 
Ines,  and  had  rended  fur  fourteen  years  in  Abyssinia. 
Hr  iranalated  Uark  and  John;  but  as,  owing  to  hit 
mtkis  batata,  he  had  never  acquireil  skill  in  form. 
iag  the  Ethiopic  characters,  he  waa  obliged  to  wriM 
his  translation  in  Bomin  characters.  His  US.  is  in 
the  pnssession  of  tbe  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  ^ 
it  hi>  never  been  published,  and  its  comparative  value 
is  uill  iinascenaiued.  In  1^1  part  of  Luke  was  trans- 
liwd  by  Mr.  Kugler,  a  missionary  of  the  Church  His- 
sirmary  Societ]- :  and  after  hia  death  the  work  was  eon- 
linied  by  Mr.  Isenberi;,  of  the  same  society,  who,  at  hii 
detth,  in  IWtS.  left  a  revised  manuscript  copy  of  the 
four  gospels.  This  HS.  having  been  put  into  tbe  hands 
vl  ibt  Rev.  Dr.  Krapf,  the  colleague  of  the  deceased  in 
AbrsHnia.  an  application  was  made  at  once  to  tl 
niitfe  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
<tit>  tianslalion  printed.  Dr.  Krapf,  who  is  well  versed 
ID  the  .\fricBn  languages,  accompanied  hia  appticati 
with  I  cummendiiinn  of  the  character  of  Mr.  Isenbe^ 

|*iiie  of  an  edition  of  Ihe  four  gospels,  and  Ibus  for  t 
Gm  time  ■  portion  of  the  word  of  (Sod  was  publish 
in  tbis  vimaciilar  in  1865.     Since  that  time  nothing 
(urther  has  been  done  towards  completing  tbe  New 
Tea.     aetBi/Jto/£crryLinil,f.60.     (a  P.) 

Tt'gilM  (Tiypic :  Vulg.  Tgffri,,  Tigrit)  is  used  in  the 
Srpi.  as  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Ckiddikti 
<''3^  among  Ihe  riven  of  Eden  (Gen.  ii,  14),  and  if 
iliFte  dsKribed  (so  aooie  tender)  as  "  running  eastward 
IB  Asnria."  After  this  we  hear  no  mure  of  it,  if  we 
eKept'onedoabiruI  dlitsion  in  Nahum  (ii,6),until  the 
Captivity,  when  it  becoroes  well  known  to  the  prophet 
baniel,  who  had  to  cross  it  in  his  journeys  to  and  from 
buaa  (Sbu!>han).  With  Daniel  it  is  "  the  Great  Rivet' 
— b'^in  "nt)l  —  an  expression  commonly  applied  to 
Ibe  Enphraiea;  and  by  its  side  he  sees  some  of  hi! 
■MM  impofunt  visions  (Dan.  it-xii).  No  other  nien- 
tiooof  the  Tigris  seems  to  occur  except  in  the  Apocry. 
phal  biAk\  and  there  it  is  unconnected  with  any  real 


TIGRIS 

lory,  as  in  Tobil  (vi.  I],  Judith  (i,  6),  and  EccleMM- 

us  (xxiv,  !£5).  The  meaning  and  various  forms  of 
Ihe  word  have  been  considered  under  HiUDKKEt.  (q.v,). 
It  only  remains,  therefore,  in  the  present  article,  to  de- 

ibe  more  particulariy  the  course,  character,  and  bia- 

ical  relations  of  tbe  stteiin. 

1.  The  Tigria,  like  the  Euphrates,  rises  from  two 
principal  sources.     The  most  distant,  and  tberefiir< 


«  ur. 


long.  39°  20'  nearly,  a  liute  to  the  aouth  of  the  high 
DMuntain  lake  called  Utiljik,  or  tiiilenjik,  in  the  penin- 
sida  formed  by  the  Euphrates,  where  it  sweeps  round 
between  Palou  and  Telek.  The  Tigris's  source  is  near 
the  south- western  angle  of  the  lake,  and  cannot  be  more 
than  two  or  three  miles  from  the  channel  of  the  Ku- 
phrales.  Tlie  course  of  the  Tigris  is  somewhat  north 
iftflr    pursuing  this  dire 


niles,  it 


round  to  Ihe  tt 


descends  by  Argbaui  Maden  upon  Diatbekr. 

by  a  bridge  of  ten  arches  ■  little  below  that  city  (S\e- 
buhr,  Vogoge  m  ^  ruiie,  p.  326).  It  then  turns  audden- 
ly  to  the  east  and  flows  in  this  diteclion  past  Oeman 
Kieui  to  Til,  where  it  once  more  alters  its  course  and 
takes  that  aouth-castcrly  direction  which  it  pursues, 
with  certain  slight  variations,  to  its  final  junction  wilb 
the  Euphrates.  At  Usman  Kieui  it  receives  the  sec- 
ond, or  F^len.,  Tigris  which  descends  from  Niphates 
(the  modem  Ala-Tagh)  with  a  course  almont  due  south, 
and,  collecting  on  its  way  the  waters  of  a  large  number 
of  streams,  unites  *tth  the  TTgris  half-way  between 
Diatbekr  and  Til,  in  long.  41°  nearly.    The  courses  of 

ly  150  and  100  miles.  A  little  below  the  junction,  and 
before  any  other  tributary  of  importance  ia  received, 
the  Tigris  is  160  yards  wide  and  from  three  to  four  feet 
from  the 


much  w 


la  the  1 


cbantiel  ordinarily  holds  (L«yard,  Xinrreh  and  llubj/Um, 
p.  49).  This  brsncb  rises  near  Billi,  in  northern  Kui^ 
distan,  and  runs  at  first  to  the  nonh-east,  but  presently 
sweeps  round  to  the  north  and  proceeds  through  the 
districts  of  Shstlak  and  Boklan  with  a  general  wester- 
ly course,  crossing  and  recrossiug  the  line  of  the  38th 
parallel,  nearly  to  Sert.  whence  it  flows  south-west  and 
Bouih  to  TiL  From  Til  the  Tigris  tuns  southwanl  for 
20  miles  through  ■  long,  narrow,  and  deep  gorge,  at  tbe 
end  of  which  it  emerges  upon  tbe  comparatively  low, 
but  sliU  hilly,  country  of  Mesopotamia,  near  Jezireh. 
Through  this  it  Hows  with  a  course  which  is  south- 
aoutheast  to  Mosul,  thence  nearly  south  lo  Kileh-Sher. 
ghat,  and  again  south-southeast  to  Samara,  where  the 
hills  end  and  the  river  enters  on  the  great  alluvium. 

and  Baghdad  a  considerable  bend  is  made  to  the  east; 
and,  after  the  Shat  el-Hie  is  thrown  off  in  lal.  32^  30', 
a  second  bend  is  made  to  the  north,  the  regular  soutb- 
easterly  course  being  only  resumed  a  titllc  aboi'e  the 
32d  parallel,  from  which  point  the  Tigris  runs  in  a  tol- 
erably direct  line  lo  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates  at 
Kumah.  The  length  of  the  whole  stream,  exclusive 
of  meanders,  a  reckoned  st  1146  miles.  It  can  be  de- 
scended on  rafts  during  the  flood  season  from  Diarbekr, 
which  is  only  160  miles  frotu  its  source:  and  it  has 
been  navigated  by  steameiB  of  small  draught  nearly  up 
to  Mosul  From  Diarbekr  to  Samara  the  navigation 
is  much  impeded  bj-  rapids,  rucks,  and  shallows,  as 
well  as  by  ariiliciBl  bundi,  or  dsma,  wiiich  in  ancient 

poses  of  irrigation.  Below  Samara  there  are  no  ob- 
structions ;  the  rivet  is  deep,  with  a  bottom  of  suit 
muil,  the  stream  moderate,  and  the  course  very  mean- 
dering. Tbe  average  width  of  the  Tigris  in  this  part 
of  its  courae  is  200  yards,  while  its  depth  is  very  con- 


TIGRIS  4 

lU  middle  ind  luwsr  coiine,  no  fewer  thin  five  impor- 
uuit  iribuUrie*.  Tbew  *n,  [he  river  of  Zaklco,  or  EMt- 
gtn  Kliabar,  Ibe  Great  Z«b  (Zab  Ala),  the  Leuer  Zab 
{Zab  Asfil).  Che  Adhem,  and  the  Diyileb,  ■ 
Uyniles.  All  then  riven  flow  from  the  high  range  of 
Zagroa,  which  ahuti  in  tba  HeBopotamian  valtey  on 
the  eaBl^  and  il  able  (u  auilain  bo  large  a  namber  of 
ftreat  itieains  rroin  ita  inexhauMible  aprings  and  abun- 
•lant  anows.  From  the  w«C  the  Tigris  obtaina  no  trib- 
utary o(  the  uligheat  importance,  for  '  "'  ' 
which  la  aaid  to  have  once  reached  it, 
■alt  lake  a  little  below  Tekrii.  lis  volume,  bovrever, 
n  ciHitinually  increaiing  as  it  descends  in  consequence 
of  the  gieit  bulk  of  water  brought  into  it  from  the  eatc, 
particularly  by  the  Great  Zab  and  the  Diyaleh;  and 
in  ila  lower  courae  it  ia  aaid  to  be  a  larger  Wraun  and 
to  cairv  a  greater  body  than  the  Euphratea  (Cbeaney, 
KupkraUi  Exptdiivm,  i.  63). 

2.  The  Tigris,  like  the  Euphrates,  ha*  a  flood  sea- 
Kin.  Early  in  the  month  of  March,  in  conaequence  or 
the  melting  of  the  anows  on  the  southern  flank  of  Ni- 
pluitea,  the  river  riaea  rapidly.  Ita  breadth  gradually 
increasea  at  Diarhekr  from  100  or  120  to  250  yards. 
The  Btreim  ia  awiR  and  turbid.  The  rise  continuGii 
through  March  and  April,  reaching  its  full  height  geii- 
erally  in  the  first  or  second  week  of  Bfay.  At  thb 
time'  the  country  about  Baghdad  is  often  extenaively 
Hooded,  not,  however,  so  much  from  the  Tigris  as  from 
ihe  overHuw  of  the  Euphrates,  which  is  here  pour  ' 
into  the  eastern  atream  thnnigh  a  canal  Farther  iloi 
the  rirer,  in  the  territory  of  the  Bcni-Lam  Arabs,  be- 
tween the  82d  and  Hist  parallets,  there  is  a  great  an- 
nual inundation  on  both  banks.  About  the  middle  of 
.Mav  the  Tigris  begins  to  fall,  and  bv  midsummer  il 
■    ■  ■  ■  ■      ■      In  October  and  Ni 


.d  fall  in 


4  TIKKUN  SOPHEKIM 

the  level  of  the  waten  far  the  sake  of  irrigation;  bu 
they  would  undoubtedly  have  also  the  effect  aicribed 
to  them,  unless  in  the  spring  flood-time,  when  tbey 
might  have  been  shot  by  boats  deacendiog  the  river. 
Thus  there  may  always  have  been  ■  certain  amoanl  of 
traffic  down  the  stream ;  but  up  it  trade  would  acaroehr 
have  been  practicable  at  any  time  farther  than  Sanun 
or  Tekrii,  on  account  of  the  natural  obatrnction*  and  of 
the  great  foite  of  the  stream.  The  lower  part  of  Ihe 
course  was  opened  by  Alexander  (Atrian.  rii,  7);  and 
Opia,  near  the  month  of  the  Diyaleh,  beonie  theoft- 
forth  known  as  a  mart  (I/nropui'),  from  which  the 
neighboring  distiicCa  drew  the  merchandise  of  India 
and  Arabia  (Strabo,  ivi,  1,  3).  Seleucia,  loo,  whicli 
grew  up  soon  sfter  Alexander,  derived,  no  doubt,  a  por- 
tion of  ila  prosperity  fhxo  the  fadlilict  for  trade  (rffeied 
by  this  great  stream. 

i.  The  most  important  notices  of  the  Tigris  lo  be 
foaud  in  the  dasair^  wrilera  are  the  following:  Sinbo, 
xi,  14,  8,  and  xvi,  1,9-IS;  Arrian, /'>pnt.4fac  vii,  I; 
Pliny,  IliiU  Sat.  vi,T.  See  also  Smith,  Wrt.  a/  Cr. 
and  Rom.  Gtog.  a.  v.  Atnong  modem  wriinv  nav  be 
mentioned  LayBrd,.ViaerFjt<iaiJ  BatgUm,  p.  *»-bl,'tU- 
476;  Loftus,  VhaUaa  cad  Sutiioia,  p.  B-S|  Joan,  in 
TraiaacliimioftktGtog.SociifBombiai,-vii.'a;  LvDch, 
in  yDUni.  0/  Gtog.  Soe.  vol  in ;  BawlioBDii,  Utro^twi, 
i,  662, 563.     See  Eui^batks. 

Tikkfln  Soph«tlin  (B^nBiO  1ip^f^}>  ™  ^"™- 

dnlioriM  of  lie  ScribH,  refer  to  eighteen  alterations  which 
the  scribes  decreed  should  be  introduced  into  the  tat, 
in  order  to  remove  anthropomorphianu  and  other  in- 
delicate expressions.  Tbeae  eighteen  emendations,  or 
'"O'B  n  "<,  are  as  foUowt^  acconliug  to  Ihe  otdei  of  Ibe 
Hebrew  Bible: 


laignifii 


I   onn^s  ijiib  ^^^y  •>: 


The  water  of  the  Tigris,  in  ita  lower  course,  is  yel- 
Inwish,  and  ii  regarded  a>  unwholesome.  The  atream 
abounds  with  flah  of  many  kinda,  which  are  often  of  s 
large  «ie  (see  Tobit  vi,  1 1,  and  cump.  Strabo.  xi,  14, 8). 
Abundant  waler-fowl  float  on  the  walera.  The  banks 
are  fringed  with  palm-trees  and  pomegranates, or  clothed 
with  jungle  and  reeds,  the  haunt  of  the  wild  boar  and 


!,  where,  n>r  the  orlglnsl  reading,  mm 

and  Jebovab  tttU  sfgod  babit 
ibrahnm,"lenowaqb«iltnied,bjthedeeroBof  thr«crlbr» 
-TUthmSoplitrtn.mn-'  "Job  1135  IJTtS  Bm3)l\ 
and  Abraham  sUIl  sCanf  before  Jehovah,' beciBM  liap- 
esred  utfenalrB  to  say  that  the  Deity  stood  bcfun  Abn- 

%  NoiDb.  i1,  IK,  where  Mom*  addrwvea  God,  "Kill  ne. 


3.  The  Tigris,  in  iu  upper  course,  anciently  ran 
through  Armenia  and  Assyria.    Lower  down,  f^om  about 

rated  Babylonia  from  Susiana.  In  the  wars  bet 
Ihe  Romans  and  the  Parthiins  we  And  it  coDStJIutiiig 
for  a  short  time  (from  A.D.  114  to  117)  the  bou  ' 
liue  between  these  two  empitea.  Olherwise 
scarcely  been  of  any  political  importance.  The  great 
chain  ufZagros  is  the  main  natural  boundary  between 
Western  and  Central  Aina;  and  bet'ond  this  the  next 
defensible  line  is  the  Euphrates. '  Historically  It  ia 
found  that  either  the  central  power  pushes  itself  weat- 
ivnr<i  lu  that  river,  or  the  power  ruling  the  west  ad- 

The  Tigris  ia  at  present  heller  filled  for  purposes  of 
irsllic  than  the  Euphrates  (Idyard,  Xinecrh  inid  liak/- 
lim,  p.  17S) ;  hut  in  ancient  times  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  much  used  as  a  line  of  trade.    The  Assyri- 

ans  probably  floated  down  it  the  timber  which  they 
were  in  the  habit  of  cutting  in  Amanus  and  Lebanon 
tf  be  used  fur  building  purposes  in  their  capital;  but 

icrranean  and  the  Persian  Uulf  was  by  the  Euphrates. 
According  to  the  historiana  of  Alexander  (Airian,  Krp. 
/Ifrj-.  vii,  7;  eomp.  Strabo,  xv,8,4),  the  Persians  pur- 
piisely  obstructed  the  narlgation  of  the  Utwtr  Tigris  by 
a  aeries  of  dams  which  they  threw  across  from  bank  Co 

such  trade  as  there  was  along  il*  courae  proceeded  by 
land  (Strabo,  ibid.).  Il  is  probable  that  the  dama  were 
in  reality  made  for  another  purpose,  muDely,  to  laiae 


at  1  may  n 


iwlth 


!ioDvlBlieaiIviai,lsal- 
e*U"(TS^a),heeaMe 
bed  m  the  Deit^ 
original  leadinfi.  "Let  her 


a,  4.  Numb.  Ill,  IS,  where  tb 
noi  be  as  one  dead  wJha  pnKwdNl  from  the  womb  of  tv 
mother  (13aM),  and  half  of  ow  flesh  03^031  *"  to"- 
enmed,"  Is  changed  to  "  Let  her  nol  be  a*  one  dMd-kn. 
ichKh  wAm  ft  proimdi  from  the  womb  of  Us  mother  (lOK) 
k»  half  of  fM  flesh  (111131  consumed." 

f.  1  Sam.  Ill,  IB,  where  Ihs  original, "  for  hU  sobs  cBiaed 
Ocd'  iC^nbK)— the  Sept.  has  It  stUI  Q.i.— Is  ahind  to 
'■  for  his  sons  cnraed  UemaslM"  (Snb),  beeaoas  It  was 
too  offensive  to  say  that  Ell's  sous  cnrsed  Ood  wllhaoi 
being  reprimanded  by  Iheir  bther. 

t.lSam.Iv<,ll,where"inII0sllanw«UMi«iH-or<J3l 

I  msde  to  read  "u^  GM  Iwl  ril  np  qmcttn-pJIJX- 
The  aavenlj  probably  read  ■<''»3,  for  Ibej  IranslaM  h  tf     i 

r.  1  Kings  xll,  M,  where  -to^UGBd  O^rtKik  O  land 
.  and  Israel  went  lo  Itrlr  God"  lITlbMb)  li  (ivni  "(i 

ur  Eenti  (^^tnttb)  ...  to  tVfr  UMt"  (libnub),  be. 

use  the  eeparailon  of  Israel  froRT  the  house  of  David 
ura*  regarded  as  a  neoeasaijlrauslllonto  Idolatry:  i 
"    iked  npoD  as  leaving  Ood  and  Ibe  aaactnary  fa 

irship  of  Idolatry  In  tenia. 

t.  2  Chron.  X,  IS  concerns  the  parallel  passage,  whi 

I.  Jer.  11, 11,  where  "mg  glory"  (^T1~3}  read*  "IMr 
l>>ory"  (IliaS),  because  tl  *a*  too  ofhnslve 
Ood'a  glory  was  changed  Ibr  an  IdoL 

rill,IT,whan"n|rnOB«-'PBM>Ucb 
*'{BB»). 


TIKVAH  4C 

ll.BM.Iv,T,<rhBraUieninBChinBe  Ii  made  ■>  In  S. 
tlH«b.l,l!,wb«B"t»iKnli«tiiij«"(nian  Stbjljcon- 

aZidi.  11.  «.  when  "m(n*  eys"  (-J^S)  I>  variod  bj 
•t«»]Pe"03^S),ti>a»oldloogro».iiinnihrupomoTTihl»iii. 

M.  MiL  1,  II,  who™  "  jan  io.*»  im"  pniK)  1»  chiiagwl 
U''jonipike«r'('>^''X|:  naHuulnia. 

IS.  Pu.  ctI,  so,  where  Ibe  ume  alUraUon  la  made  aa  In 
«  nd  IL 

I*.  Job  vU,  n,  where  "a  bnnleii  to  t/at'  Cy^^f)  1> 
(huied  U  "  lo  nyit/"  C^f)-  That  '^1^7  wia  iba  ortg- 
!m]  reading  wc  aec  alao  from  the  Sepk  c'lu  M  hi  rsi  fop- 

idemned  G«r  (HK 
idtoUieT"CDDdeinDed  Jofr"(3^^R  rtt). 

1&  Um.  III.  I>,  where  "oiol  IkiKCwI  aOl  noum  «wr  n<" 
i^iCBI  '■^9  n^SniJ  reada"«idm)iain(t<tAti»UsI>n(k- 
m  ■(-  I-V09}  ^Vv  n^IDn^).  becapH  of  tbe  remark  tbnt 
Ood  will  monm. 

Thcae  c^iteoi  dtcreet  of  lie  Sopkerin  ait  enumer- 
aied  in  rbe  Maaora  Magna  aa  Numb,  i,  1,  and  on  Pu. 
cvi,iO;  ibey  are  also  giTen  in  the  book  Ocklak  ve-Och- 
Uik,  p.  37,  113  (ed.  FrenedoTlT,  Hanover,  1864).  The 
whole  qoeatiun  un  these  Tikhirv  Sophfrim  ia  diacuned 
l-t  Pinsker  in  Khtrtm  Ckmtd,  in,  53  sq.  (Berlin,  1866) ; 
<Mf;et,l'rtcknJi  imdUrUrnt2ioigaKUrSibd,p.a08e(i. 
<Brolaii,lSa7);  Vitdtil,  De  EntendatianSna  a  Sophfrim 
ia  IJbri,  Saerit  Vrltrit  Talammli  Propaiilu  (Vratiala- 
>iiF.1869).    SeeOcLAH.    (B.P.) 

Tlk'vali  (Heb.  Tiieak;  ni|3Pl,  a  eord  [aa  in  Joah. 
ii,lS,!l],OTAi)^[n  often]],  the  nameaftwo  laraelites. 

l.(arpt.Scuau<  v.T.e(R>uav;Vtdg.rA<ciia.)  The 
aan  oT  Harhaa  and  father  of  Shallum,  which  laM  waa  the 
hiubwid  of  the  prophelcH  Kuldah  (Z  Kinga  xxii,  14). 
EC  ante  £32.  He  ia  elaewhen  (2  ChroD.  zxxiv,  22) 
called  TiiVATu(c|.  v.). 

2.  (Sept.  Utcovi  ».  r.  euui ;  Vulg.  riant.)  The  fa- 
ibetorjahaaiah,  which  latter  waa  one  of  the"rulera'' 
apfxrinicd  to  tarry  out  the  dirorce  of  the  Gentile  wivea 
after  the  Captivitf  (Ein  x,  16).    B.C.  468. 

Tlk'vath  (Heb,  text  Toka-hatk,  nn^TB,  inatg. 
ToOath-,  rrr^ri,  auaahUlgt  [Gesen.],  ir  firmtu 
[Font]  1  Sept.  ^asoBaSr  v.  r.  eicui'  and  KodouoX ;  Yulg. 
ntmink),  the  father  of  Shlllum  (2  CbroD.  xxxiv,  2S) ; 
claewbera  (2  Kinga  xxii,  14)  called  Tikvah  (q.v.). 

Ta     See  Tab  Tiu 

Tila  <n!sViUn«U,>a  called  from  the  iciifui  rUv), 
■trict  (Eiek.  IT,  l),a8elaewhere  rendered.  See  Bbick  ; 
TiLiKO.  The  above  paaaageilluatimtea  the  uae  of  baked 
clajrfbr  the  detineation  of  figures  and  written  characters 
aiaoDK  the  aDcient  u^wa,  eapeciilly  the  Egyptians, 
Aasrruns,  and  Babykmiana.  Not  only  were  ordinary 
buikling  bricka  atamped  with  the  name  of  the  founder 
ti  Ibe  ediOce,  n  well  aa  with  other  devices,  but  clay  (or 


stone)  "cjlindera,"  as 
Ihey  are  now  cidleil, 
covered  with  the  m 


giving  tbe  history  of 


UoD  or  the  propbetB 

ed  by  tbe  recent  dis- 
covei;  of  whole  libra- 
ries of  Awyrian  liter- 
ature in  tbe  form  of 
small  inscribed  tablein 
of  clay,  which  conuiii 
writing  and  pictorial 
r^tesentatioDs  of  the 
most  interesting  chsT' 
soler.    When  the  clay  Aaayrlnn  Clar  Tablet 

state,  in  its  mould  oi  frame,  the  cbaiaclera  were  put  upon 
it,  perhapa  in  some  instances  by  a  stamp,  but  usually  by 
means  of  a  sharp-edged  bronze  style  about  a  foot  l'>iig, 
each  character  being  traced  separately  by  baud,  as  we  use 
a  pen.  After  llic  completion  of  the  writing  or  pictures, 
the  clay  was  baked,  and  such  was  the  perfection  of  the 
ifacture  thst  many  of  these  articles  have  been  pre- 
d  from  decay  for  three  thonaand  years.  Tlier  vary 
br,  owing,  i>  sotne  suppose,  to  the  varying  Itiiglh 
ae  they  were  in  the  kiln,  while  others  think  ibat 
coloring  matter  must  have  been  mixed  with  the 
clay.  They  are  bright  brown,  pale  yellow,  pink,  red, 
aiid  a  very  dark  tint  nearly  black.  Usually  the  cylin- 
ders found  are  of  a  pale  yellow,  and  the  tableta  a  light 
red  or  pink.  Some  of  them  are  unglazed,  and  oth- 
ers are  coated  with  ■  hard  white  enamel  It  is  Irom 
these  long-loat  records  that  auch  details  are  in  pmcees 
of  decipherment  aa  are  given  in  Smith's  Chatdaan 
Account  of  Genttii,  and  other  works  of  recent  Aaayii- 

TILE,  IN  Architecture,  is  a  thin  plate  of  baked 
clay  used  to  cover  roofs.  In  England  there  are  hut 
two  kinds  of  tiles  in  ordinsiy  use,  plain  tiles  and  pan- 
lilea.  The  former  of  these,  which  are  by  far  the  com- 
monest, are  perfectly  Sat ;  the  latter  are  curved,so  that 
when  laid  upon  a  roof  each  tile  uverb|is  the  edge  of 
the  next  to  it  and  protects  the  Joint  from  the  wet. 


AnclcDi  Brick*.    (Prom  the  British  Mnseiim.) 


The  Ron 


Pan-tHes. 


It  tiles  turned  up  at  tbi 
a  row  of  inverted,  semi-cylindrical  ones  ov 
to  keepout  the  wet.  Id  the  Middle  Ages  t: 
lensively  employed  in  England  for  coverin 
though  they  aeem  always  to  have  been  a 
inferior  material  10  lead.  It  does  not  app< 
but  Hat.  plain  tiles,  with  auch  others  as  w< 
for  the  riUgei,  hips,  and  valleys,  were  used. 
tiles,  or  crest,  formerly  also  called  ro«f-lila 
times  made  ornamental.  It  is 
backs  of  dreplaces  formed  of  li 


■ejt,  are  constructed 


flrepUce  in  the  h>ll 

Glazed  decorntiTe  lilcs  vttre  Ri 
for  p»ving  Mcred  edifice*.    They 
«d   NorniMi  tilei,  pouibly  from   [ho  supposiiion  thai 
(hey  were  originally  made  in  Nurmaiidy  ;  and,  conaid' 


luiLej,  OifordihlM. 

by  the  aide  of  tbe  larger  I  queCry  in  stone,  few  exampli 
It  of  Cilee.  of  lime;  tpecimeiM  may  be 

iently  much  uaed  '  the  altar-r 


TILE 

been  warn  away,  the  while  clay,  which  b  of  a  lot 
compact  quality  thin  the  red.  has  fallen  out  and 
left  the  deaign  hollow,  wj  that  an  impreuian  or  nib- 
bing may  readily  be  taken.  It  appears  prubiUc 
that  the  uriKinuf  the  fabrication  of  decorative  pare- 
□leiita  by  tbe  jirocesB  which  baa  been  described  is 
to  be  sought  in  the  mediEval  imitations  of  the  Ks- 
miti  mueaic-work  by  means  of  colored  Bnluiaiices 

ive  escaped  tbe  injaries 


Noitl 


specim 


style  . 


it  present  the  ft 


most  ancient  being  apparently  of  ihc  13tb  century. 
The  name  of  encaoMie  has  also  been  givtn  to  these 
tiles,  and  it  would  not  be  inappmpriflie  were  it  not  ap- 
plied already  u>  denute  an  antique  process  of  art  of  a 
perfectly  different  nature;  whereas  a  method  wholly 
distinct,  and  peculiar  to  the  glazed  tiles  of  the  Middle 
Ai;e«,  was  commonly  adopted  in  Northern  Europe.    The 

most  commonly  employed  may  be  thus  described;  The 
thin  squarea  of  well -compacted  clay  having  been  fash- 
iunetl,  and  probably  dried  in  the  sun  to  the  requisite  de- 
gree, their  ordinary  dimension  being  from  four  to  six 
inches,  with  a  thickiiesa  of  one  inch,  a  stamp  which 
bore  a  design  in  relief  was  impressed  upon  them,  ao  as 
la  leave  the  ornamental  pattern  in  eavelto.  Into  the 
hollows  thus  left  on  the  fiice  of  the  tile  clay  of  another 

laid  or  impressed.  Nothing  remained  cicepi  tu  give  a 
richer  effect,  and,  at  the  same  time,  insure  the  perma- 


ith  a  thin  surface  of  metallic  glaie,  which,  being  of  a 
ighily  yellow  cnlor,  tini^d  the  white  clay  beneath  it, 
id  imparteil  to  the  reil  a  more  full  and  rich  tone  of 
ilor.  In  the  snccess  of  this  simple  operation  much 
'pended  upon  thi».  that  the  quality  of  the  twn  kinds 
•if  clay  that  were  u.wd  should  be  as  nearly  similar  as 


IS  liable  I 


ban  the  red,  the  » 

in  the  other  case,  the  desi>rii  wi 


different  color.  A  careful 
dispoution  of  the  ornaoie 
the  original  intention  wa 


was  more  firmly  held  toi^iliet. 
e  deficiency  of  wliite  day 

;lenif;n  left  hollow,  and  not 
ual  proceBB.  with  clay  of  a 

will  frequently  show  that 

:es  also  present  tbemselres 

and  not  the  pattern,  being 


very  frequent  where,  the  pn>t 


rved  tl 
■cting  glaz, 


Cjinierljnr)'  Cnthedrsl. 

Among  the  earliest  specimens  of  glaied  tile)'  may  b* 
mentioned  the  pavement  discovered  in  the  mined  pri- 
ory churcli  at  Castle  Acre,  Norfolk,  a  portion  of  which 
is  ill  the  British  Museum.  These  tilea  are  omaaieDttd 
with  scutcheons  of  arms,  and  on  some  appears  the  nane 
"Thomas:"  they  are  coarsely  executed,  the  caTitiaan 
left,  and  not  flUed  in  with  any  clay  of  diflSerent  color. 

A  profusion  of  good  examples  still  exists  of  linile 
tiles,  and  sets  of  four,  nine,  sixteen,  or  a  greater  num- 
ber of  tiles,  forming  by  their  combination  a  cmnplne 
design,  and  presenting,  for  the  moot  part  the  chinc- 
teristic  style  of  ornament  which  wai  in  vngut  at  esth 
Bucceaaive  period,   but  examples  of  eenenl  amngr- 


TILENUS 

^  belongtdto 


riih  the  it 

tiU! 


"FUl 
buildtng-accounla  nfcM' 
iJet,  but  these  were  for 
the  GrepUce  only.    The 

roams  bcnrded. — Psrlie  r, 
Giou.o/Arcliilm.r^y. 
Uoit  of  the  tilF9  ill 
Engluid  were  made  in 
the  county  of  Worms- 
found  ill  aliDOM  every 
I  iiatish  church.     Ocm- 

J  were  altenulely  raised 


ere  fuund 

I  Abbey, 

P  and  have  been  recent- 

'  reproduced,  and  laid 

ffure  tfae   high -altar. 


s  16th  < 


inly 


nnrcta,  Uirordihlre. 


oil-dDth  or  carpeting;  and  the  intention  nT  producing 
richunv  of  effect  by  carrying  the  omameatal  deflign 
[hroughout  the  pavement  without  any  intervening 
•paces  hat  been  wholly  fruaualed.    Sufficient  care  haa 

nngement :  it  ia,  however,  certain  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  plain  [ilea,  black,  white,  or  red.  were  introduced, 
and  aerved  lo  divide  the  varioui  portioua  which  com- 
poaert  the  general  deaign.  Plain  diagonal  bands,  for 
iouance.  arranged  fretwiM  intervened  between  thecom- 
partmenta,  or  panels,  of  lilea  omanienled  with  deaigns: 
ibe  tdain  anil  the  decorated  quarries  were  laid  alter- 
aiices  longitudinal  bands  were 


wl  in  on 

hich,  being  unifomily  spresd  over  a  large  sur- 
in  some  mnlern  pavements,  pmluces  a  cnnfuseil 
than  a  rich  effect.  It  haa  been  auppnaed,  with 
irobabiliiy,  that  the  more  elaborate  pavements 
served  for  the  decoration  of  the  chair,  the  chan- 
immediate  vicinity  of  an   altar,  while  in  the 


I  or  other  part*  of  the  eh 
s  of  plain  tiles,  black,  while,  or  red,  were  u: 
Dyed.  It  mav  also  deserve  notice  that  in  a 
'  instance  when  the  ornamented  tiles  have 
enially  discovered  or  dug  up  on  the  ait«  of  a 
'      1  reason  to  suppose  a  i 


oaicil  r.bric  h 


adnmment  of  tnmba  on  the  Ginlinent ;  and  this  cu 
has  likewise  been  restored  in  England.  .Since  the  i 
ufaclure  of  tila  haa  been  carried  onl  sn  efficieiii 
Woroestemhire,  their  use  haa  been  common  for  al 
sUned  churches  in  that  county.     Mnilem  specime 


hie  in 

a, v.;  WalooM,*ic>lrcAa!oi.a.v, 

TlleDns,  Dakikl,  a  learned  French  dirine,  waa 
bom  at  Goldberg,  in  Silesia,  Feb.  4,  IMS,  and,  going 
Ut  France  about  1B90,  was  naturalized  by  Henri-  IV. 
First  distinguishing  himself  as  an  opponent  of  the  ten- 
ets of  Arminianism.  he  afterwards  enlisted  on  the  aide 
of  the  Kemonatrania.  His  principal  controversy  was 
with  Peier  Uu  Moulin,  which  was  carried  on  with  »> 
much  leal  that  their  friends,  among  whom  waa  Janii« 
I  of  England,  interposed  to  reconcile  them.  Tileiiii" 
hail,  before  this,  been  appointed  by  Marvchal  de  BuiiiK 
Ion  professor  at  the  College  of  Sedan,  but,about  1619  or 
1630,  was  obliged  to  resign  on  account  of  his  senlimeiiu. 
He  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  on  his  property. 
He  afterwards  had  a  personal  controversy  with  Jubii 
Cameion,  divinity  profetaor  at  Saumar,G<nieeming  grace 
and  free-will,  which  lasted  Hve  days.  An  accimiit  of 
this  was  published  under  the  title  of  (7ojiufiD>nr»'  Tih- 
Snme  time  after.  Tile 


D  the  S 


the  Presbyterian  and  commending  the  PLpiscopal  fun 
of  the  Keformeil  Church  as  established  in  Kiiglsiii 
This  greatly  pleased  king  James,  who  invited  Tilrnu 
to  Englanil,  and  oflereil  him  a  pension.  Tileiiiie  ai 
epted  the  offer,  and  retumeil 


I  or 


tie  his  affairs 


I  the  peoiile  of 


Ang.  I,  IIH3.     His 

ing  the  RcfDrmed  Church  of  France,  and  he  wrote  sev- 
eral books,  the  lilies  of  which  are  given  in  Brandt's  ffwr. 
■■/Ihe  BrfoniMilim  and  Quick's  Si/midicon.  See  Cbal- 
niers,  Bixg.  Diet. ».  v. :  H.icf.T,  Xoue.Jii.^,  peniraU,  a.  v. 


TILGATH.PILNESER  4( 

Tirgath-pUne'aer  (1  CbroiLT,  6, 26;  i  Cbroo. 

jcxviii,  20),    See  TiGi^TH-piLoaES. 

Tiling  {nipaivtSi  poUtry-teart,  hence  >  loof  lilt; 
ramp.  Xenoph.  Mem.  iii,  1,  7).  The  rendering  of  Che 
A.V.  «t  Lake  V,  19,  "through  the  tiliug"  {Jul  nSf  «- 
eaiiur),  occaBioiia  diSicuIiy  whrn  we  Tcmember  th«C 
houaes  in  Paleadiie  are  not  covered  with  ^lei,  u  they 

Hence  naay  have  miggesteJ  that  Lake,  being  a  natire 
probably  of  Antioch,  u«ed  the  word  "  tile"  in  the  gen- 
eral «nse  of  roof-material  (Eusebiua,  Biit,  Ecda.  iii,  4; 
Aetomt,Fn^lo  Com,on  Sl.]UallkeK,va,i;  Conybeare 
und  Howaon,  St.  Paul,  i.  36'),  Aa  to  the  particular 
|)art  or  aubstance  thui  "broken  up,"  moM  inlerpretera 
liBve  thought  that  it  waa  the  layer  of  atickSibnith,  and 
tiard-nilled  clay  which  conetitulc«  the  ordinary  flat  roof 
-iir  an  Oriental  bouH  (Anindell,  Trav.  in  J  nil  Minor,  i, 
171;  Russell, /tbjipo,  1,35),  which  Dr.  Thomson  aaya  he 
liaa  often  seen  thus  removed  for  lelting  down  grain, 
Kiraw.  or  other  anicles  (/.tmd  and  Boot,  ii,7).  But  this 
■operation  would  bave  raised  an  inlolerable  dnst,  such  as 
4o  drive  the  audience  entirely  away.  Some  suppose, 
therefore,  that  it  was  merely  the  scuttle  through  which 
the  paralytic  waa  lowered  (Lightfoot,  fforar  tfeftraioi, 
-ad  toe.),  an  explanation  that  scarcely  meeta  the  terms 
•of  the  narrative.  It  probably  waa  the  awning  (Shaw, 
TranU,  p.  211)  or  rather  board  or  leafy  screen  over  the 
gallery  or  interior  veranda  (Kitlo,  DaOg  Bible  llluH. 
art  loc),  which  was  easily  removed  and  aa  eaaily  re- 
placed.   See  House. 

TUlag«  ^rop.  rni*5S,aioAU,l  Chron.x»Tii,26i 
Neh.  X,  87,  iBori,  i.e.  "service"  or  "  bondage,"  aa 
■where  rendered;  so  oocasioually  nas,  to  " till,"  " lill- 
eth,"  "tiller,"  etc,  lit.  KOrher;  bat  "'"'3,  »(r,  Prov.  xii 
23,  means  faUow  gnrnmi,  as  elsewhere  rendered).     See 

AllMCVI.VVRH. 

Tillamont,  LohIb  Stibastian  Lb  Naik  de, 
yreiich  divine  and  scholar,  was  bom  in  Paris,  Nov.  30, 
1637,  and  at  the  age  of  ten  yean  entered  Che  famous 

nemiiiaty  of  Port-Royal.  He  soon  manifested  great 
Jiciency  in  the  atudy  of  history,  and  at  the  age  of  e 
xeea  began  to  read  the  fathers,  the  lives  of  the  apoatks, 
jtnd  their  succeasors  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  dnw 
vp  for  himself  an  account  of  early  ecdeaiasUcal  history, 
.in  the  manner  of  Usher's 'I  tmib.  When  twenty-three, 
iit  entered  the  Episcopal  seminary  at  Beauvais,  where 
he  remained  three  orfour  years,  and  then  went  to  reside 
with  tlodefroi  Hermant,  ■  canon  of  the  Cathedral  uf 
Ueanvaia,  with  whom  he  remained  five  or  aii  years, 
lie  I  hen  returned  to  Paiia,  and,  after  receiving  the  oth- 
■ir  iinlers  of  the  Church,  was  ordaineil  priest  in  16T6 
■ml  settled  at  Tillemont,  whence  he  took  his  name 
About  this  time  he  was  employed,  aking  with  M.  di 
Sacy,  on  a  Life  t^Sl.  Ijatii,  and  two  yean  after  irav. 
-elleil  in  Flandera  and  Holland.  Returning,  he  contin- 
Jied  his  studies,  and  in  1G90  began  to  publish  his  Hit- 
■larg  af  Ihf  Kmperori,  To  a  complete  knowleil;^  uf 
ct'uleBiaatical  biat«ty  he  Joined  an  exemplary  humility 
Aud  regularity  of  conduct ;  and,  regardless  of  dignities, 
wishett  for  nothing  but  retirement.  The  practicing  of 
waichinga  and  austerities  brought  upon  him  a  disease, 
«f  which  he  died  Jan.  10.  1698.  He  piihlishe<l,  /.' 
ii/ihe  fiaperon  (1690-1701,  6  vohl.  «o):— .i/f«w 
pour  lei-vir  a  tlliitoiTe  L'lxlrjiuiligae  da  lix  pmn 
SHcUs,  etc.  (1693,  16  vola.4to):  —  and  supplied  i 
teriala  for  several  works  published  by  others :  Life  nf 
SI.  Loaii.  begun  by  De  Sacy  and  finished  and  publtsh«l 
by  La  Chaise;  Liret  nf  SI.  Athaaatiai  and  Si.  Baiil, 
by  (i.  Hermant;  Lirti  af  TerluBiaH  and  Oi-igm,  by 
Forse,  under  the  name  of  La  Moihe.  He  Uft  in  MS.  a 
Memoir cnncenang  WiUinm^ Saint- Anu>ttr,miii\e t)ii- 
pula  between  the  /lomiBicaai  and  tie  Uidreriili/ : — Life 
*f  liabilla,titleT  of  Su  LooU:—Remarit  oa  lie  Breria- 
rinrfMatiMondParit.—A  Lrnradfortht BrnHaryof 
£«reax!—aaA  Hitlorr  of  lie  Sicilian  Kingt  ofAujon. 


TILLOTSON 

Tillemoct.  Ffeire  Ls  'Sws  ds,  brother  of  iht 
preceding,  was  bom  in  Paris,  March  8.%  1640.     Having 
choaen  the  ecclewastical  profession,  he  entered  at  Si-Vic- 
Paris ;  but  retired  to  La  Trappe  in  1C68,  being  en- 
)ured  with  the  austerities  of  that  order.    He  was  tor 
ng  time  subprior,  and  died  there  in  1T13.   His  works 
Enaide  [Ilitloire  de  lOrdrt  it  Cileanx  (9  vols.  12(no): 
lomHia  nir  Jiremie  (2  vols.  8ro),  a  French  tranila- 
I  of  St.  DorotheuB  -.—RHaHom  dt  la  Vie  el  de  la  Mart 
de  Pluiievri  Riliffieux  dr.  la  Trappe  (6  vols.  12mo),  etc. 
TUlet,  JitAN  Du,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in  Paris 
about  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century;  and  by  the 
inflneiice  of  bis  brolhei.  the  earl  of  Drussibre  (hinnelf  a 
learned  historiographer),  he  became  prothonolary  of  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  rewarded  him  with  the  bish- 
opric of  Saint-Brieuc  in  IbSS.    The  following  year  he 
exchanged  this  pee  furthatofMeaux.    He  died  atPaiii, 
Nov.  19, 1670.     He  waa  the  author  of  many  works  on 
French  Church  history,  fur  which  see  Hoefer,  A'oac. 
Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

TUllngbaat,  Nictioi~ts  Powsti,  an  Episcopal  der- 
gyman,  was  bom  in  Providence,  B.  1.,  March  3, 1817. 
He  was  fitted  lor  college  chietiv  bv  Mr.  (afterwanii 
Prof.)  G.  W.  Keely,  of  Waterviile  Colkge,  and  was  giad- 
uated  trom  Brown  L'niverMty  in  the  class  of  1837.  On 
leaving  college,  he  went  to  Society  Hill,  S.  C  when  be 
spent  two  years  in  superintending  the  education  of  a 
nephew  (1837-39).  The  next  three  years  ( 1R39-42),  be 
punned  his  theological  studies  at  the  Theological  Seun- 
nary  at  Alexandria,  Ta.,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and 
presbyter  in  the  same  year  (1812)  by  bishop  Meade,  and 
became  aswstant  minister  of  the  Monumental  Church, 
in  Richmond,  Va.  lie  remained  here  bnt  a  short  time, 
being  called  to  the  teclorship  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
■t  Sodety  Hill,  where  he  continued  his  moat  accepu- 
hie  servicea  for  two  years.    Failiti) 


ing  eighiei 


in  Europe.  After  his  relum,  he  did  not  settle  for  two 
or  three  years,  but  supplied  pulpils  in  Washiitglon, 
Marblebead  (liTass.).  and  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  IStS 
became  rector  ofSt.John'a  Church,  in  (ieorge town,  D.C, 
where  be  bad  a  happy  and  usefijl  ministry  for  nearly 
twenty  years  (1S48-67).  A  severe  injury  which  be  lui- 
laiiied  in  Omtun,  Conn.,  which  made  neceasan-  the  am- 
putation of  a  limb,  so  affected  his  health  that  he  was 
unable  again  to  settle  as  a  minister,  although  be  oAi- 

the  seclusion  of  his  atudy  lie  apeni  much  time  engaged 
in  congenial  studies.  He  made  a  translation  of  a  large 
part  of  Cicero's  De  Ogiciit,  and  also  translated  fimu  the 
(ierman  some  things  in  which  he  waa  jnteieeled.  He 
died  near  Philadelphia,  Aug.  7, 1869.     (J.  C  S.) 

TiUotaon,  John,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  waa 
bom  at  Sowerbv,  Vorkahire,  in  October,  163a  He  en- 
tered Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  April  23,  1647,  and.  grad- 
uating in  1650.  was  made  a  fellow  Ln  1661.  He  left  a>l- 
lege  in  1656,  and  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  Edmunl 
Prideaux,  Cromwell's  atiomey-genenL  Receiving  hi) 
first  impression  among  the  Puritans,  he  was  led  to  con- 
formity bytheworksafChillingworth  and  the  infiuence 
of  Kholan  with  whom  he  had  become  intimate.  Be 
submitted  to  the  Act  nflTniformity  in  l<i62,  and  became 
curate  of  Cheshiint,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  was  chosen 
(Dec.  16)  minister  of  St.  Mary's,  Ahlermanbnry ;  but.  de- 
dining  this,  was  presented,  in  June,  1663,  to  the  rectory 
of  Kiddingt«n,  Suflijik.  His  rei>idence  there  was  shon, 
he  being  made  preacher  of  the  .Society  of  Ijncoln'e  Inn 
on  the  26th  of  the  same  monlh.  In  1664  hewaaappoini- 
ed  Tuesday  lecturer  at  St.  I^awrence's,  in  the  Jewry,  and 
was  now  recognised  aa  a  distinguished  preacher-  lie  re- 
ceived his  degree  of  D.D.  in  1666,  and  in  1666  prtadifl 
the  sermon  at  the  consecralinn  of  Wilkins  to  the  tHsb- 
opric  of  Chester.  In  ISiO  he  waa  madea  prebendaryof 
Canterbury,  in  1672  was  advanced  li>  a  deanery  of  ibal 
Church,  anil  in  1673  was  preferred  to  a  prebend  in  tb( 
Church  of  St.  Paul.     IVhen  a  dedaralion  ,W  libeiij  of 


TILOX  41 

cnucitcice  ttu  |»bluh«d  in  1672,  with  >  riew  to  in- 
dii]^  ibe  papiMs,  TilloUon  lud  the  clergy  were  direcud 
br  th«r  bWiopa  to  pre»cb  a^insi  popeiy-,  uid  when 
uchbiibop  Sbekton  adviwd  with  tbe  clergy  ■■  to  what 
rrply  be  ibould  mike  to  the  king  if  hu  majcfty  ahauld 
d)MppniveCbeirc»une,Dr.Tillotnn  iug);«Mcd  th'u  in- 
ner: "Since  hii  majcMy  profaned  tlte  ProUMaat  re- 
tigioii,  it  nnld  be  ■  thing  witboac  precedent  tb*t  be 
dwuld  forbid  bia  clergy  preicbiog  in  defence  of  it."  On 
April  J,  1680,  be  preached  before  tbe  king,  at  Whitehall, 
I  wraMn  on  J«h.  xxiv,  IS,  in  which  be  expreeKd  a 
■uiiinKnt  of  inlolertuice  that  eipoaed  bim  to  heavy 
IHuur^  He  was  afleiwarda  admitted  inlo  a  high  de- 
gree of  eonfldence  with  king  William  and  queen  Maiy; 
vaa  ifqiuintHl  clerk  of  tbe  doaet  to  the  king,  March  27, 
1689;  indwai  authorized,  in  Auguat,  by  the  chapter  of  bia 
ciU)«<Iral.U>  exercise  vchiepiacopal  jurisdiction  over  the 
piDTinceafCanlerbm?,  Saocrod  having  been  suspended 
tor  refilling  the  new  oath.  Hia  ambition  bad  never  ex- 
tetided  further  than  to  derire  tbe  exchange  of  his  dean- 
By  ofCanlerbuiy  for  that  of  St.  Paul's,  which  waa  grant- 
ed him  in  SeptetDber.  Tbe  king,  howeTer,  nominated 
him  lo  tbe  archbiihopric  of  Canterbury,  April  23, 
(BdhewaicoiiMicnUid(Uay3l)inBawChurGb.  The 
real  nf  hii  life  was  apent  in  laboring  for  the  f  ■  •-• 
Church  aod  the  reformation  of  all  abuM*  ■ 
dergy.  He  died  Nov.  24,  16M.  He  publiihed,  Tht 
Suit  t/FiiilA  (166«,  8to),  and  nveial  volumes  of  Ser- 
mat,  A  colleclivc  edition  of  hii  works,  254  Jcrmom, 
R»U  ofFailk,  and  Pragtrt,  oompoted  far  his  use,  etc., 
was  published  in  1707  (3  vols.  foL).  There  have  been 
bier  editions  both  nf  his  oomplele  works  and  of  selec- 
tioiH  tbenfrum.  Hia  WorU,  with  L^t  by  Thomas 
Biicb,  D.D.,  were  published  by  Ravenet  (1762,  3  voK 
foL).  See  Chalmert,  Biog.  Diet,  k  v.;  AUibone,  Diet. 
e/Hrit.  tnd  A  mer.  A  uUiorl,  B.  V. 

niOD  (Heb.  DMTg.  Tibm',  V^")?;  text,  Talim' 
V'sin,^  [Slmonia]  or  amm  [Gewnuu] ;  Sept.  eiXiuv 
r.  T.  'Inbr;  Tulg.  Tkiion),  the  last  Duned  «f  the  four 
''■iioa''orSbidun,>de*cnMlant  of  Jodah  (1  Chn>D.iv, 
20).     HC.  peibap*  eir.  1618. 

Tllton,  Albert  Tnwnwa,  ■  Baptist  minister, 
WW  bocD  in  Deerfleld,  N.  H.,  Oct.  15,  1S09.  He  wia  a 
gradDUearWaleiriUeCiiU>«einthecbuaofl8S6.  He 
taughi  the  next  two  years,  drat,  in  Toonahend,  Yt, 
where  be  waa  the  principal  of  an  academy  in  that  place, 
and  then  in  Boone  County,  Ky.  For  four  years  (IS37- 
41)  he  waa  the  principal  of  a  Baptist  institi 
Fnnklin,  liid.,  which  became  Franklin  Cnllege 
In  l(MI  he  was  ordained  ai  an  evangelial  at  Franklin, 
■ad  preached  in  two  or  three  places  in  Indiana.  He 
■u  paMur  ot  Ihe  Baptist  Church  in  West  Waterviile 
fur  Ittii  yean  (IM4-46), and  (br  the  next  three  years  be 
iup[>lie.1  two  or  three  churchn.  In  IS19  he  relumed  to 
Franklin.  InJ.,  where  he  died  8epL  26, 18ia     (J.  C.  S.) 

Tllton,  DBTld,  a  CoDgregalional  toinutcr,  wa< 
bddi  at  <slImanloo,  N.  H.,  July  6, 1806.  He  itudied 
'  ibeoloKy  one  year  in  private,  and  one  year  at  tbe  Ait- 
dorer  Theological  Hemtnary,  and  waa  ordained,  Oct  14, 
IStS,  over  the  Congregational  ChoRb  in  Edgartown 
(Ifatiha^  Vineyard),  Han.,  where  he  remained  three 
yeaia.  He  waa  inaUUed,  Aug.  12,  1840,  pastor  of  the 
CoDtpegalioDal  Church  in  Lanearille,  Gloucester,  Masa., 
but  in  the  q>ring  of  1860  he  removed  to  North  Chelsea, 
tlaaa^and  wi*  employed  aa  a  eanviauDg  agent  for  tbe 
Cat^rrfatiamalitt,  and  f«  various  publishing  bouaea.  In 
IM2  be  rmoved  lo  Wobum.,  Maaa„  where  ha  died,  Feb, 
10, 1869.      See  Obitwary  Raord,  YaU  CoUtst,  1869. 

TUton.  ITatllM).  a  Unitarian  miniater,  waa  a  g 
oate  of  Harvard  College  in  1796.     He  waa  ordained  as 
paur  of  the  Church  in  Scarboraugh,  Me.,  December, 
1800,  and  died  in   1851.     See  Sprague,  J  Rnnfi  "/'he 
A  ntrieam  Pu^,  viii,  209. 

Tlnus'ns  (Ti/uloc),  Iktber  of  the  blind  brgHac 


TIMBREL 

by  Christ  (Hark  x,  46),  the  eon  bdng  thenca 

called  BartinuBoa  (q.  v.).     aC.  ante  29. 

Tlmbeilnke,  John  W.,  a  miniater  in  the  Hetbod- 

t  Episcopal  Church,  Sooth,  waa  Iraniferml  from  the 

innetaec  to  the  Fkrida  Conrerence  in  1S67,  and  waa 

DC  lo  Jiekaonville)  in  1858-69  lo  Tampa;  in  1860  lo 

Femaodina,     Id  1861  be  waa  appointed  Sunday-school 

ag«Dt;  but,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  he  was  ap- 

pmDted  fliaplain  to  the  Seoond  Florida  Regiment,  in- 

whicb  capacity  be  labored  till  hia  death,  at  Weal  Pcnni. 

Va.,  March  S,  1862.    See  Mantfef  of  A  mual  Coi/ertKtt 

o/ikr  if.  E.  CiHiri,  SouiA,  1862,  p.  4ia 

Timbrel  (qn,  i6pl,,  Exod.  xt,  !0i  Jndg.  zi,  84;  2- 
Sam.  vi,  6;  I  Chron.  xili,  8;  Job  xxi,  13;  Psa.  Ixxxi. 
2;  cxiix,  8;  cl,  4;  elsewhere  rendered  ".tabret;"  al»>- 
the  eagnale  verb  C{6^,  laphdph,  Psa.  lxviii,25:  ren- 
dered "tabor,"  Neb.  ii,  7:  ripitavav,  Jud.  iii,  71. 
The  Heb.  word  is  an  imitative  one  occurring  in  many 
languaRCa  not  immediately  connected  wilh  each  other. 
It  is  Ihe  same  as  the  Arabic  and  Persian  Sif,  whicb  in 
the  Spanish  becomes  adu/e,  a  tambourine.  The  root. 
which  signidee  to  iral  or  strike,  is  found  in  tbe  Greek 


Span,  (umior,  Fr.  lambour 
aurrt,  limbrel,  tamboarine, 
lap,  and  many  others.  It  is  nsual  for  elymolngista  ti> 
quot«  likewise  the  Arab,  fimfriir  as  the  original  of  f<ini- 
boar  and  labor:  but,  unfortunately,  the  tiaiiur  ii  a  giiitarp 
and  not  a  drum  (RusaeU,  Alrppo  [2d  ed.J,  i,  152).  Tbe- 
parallel  Arabic  word  is  MM^  which  denotes  a  kind  of 
drum,  and  is  the  same  with  the  Babb.  Heb.  luUa  anii 
Span,  atabal,  a  kettle-dnim.  The  inMmment  and  Ihe- 
word  may  have  come  lo  oa  through  the  Saracens.  Itv 
old  Engiiah  lotDr  waa  used  for  anv  drum.  Thus  Rob. 
of  Gloucester  (ed.  Heame,  1810),  p.  B96'. 

So  grel  Dolse  that  Crlstennien  al  distourbed  inn." 
In  Shakespeare's  time  it  aeema  to  have  becume  aninatru- 
raent  of  peace,  and  is  thua  conlraaled  with  the  drum : 
"1  have  known  when  there  was  no  music  with  him  but 
the  dniiD  and  fife ;  and  now  had  he  rather  bear  the  lubnt- 
and  the  pipe"  {Much  Ado  aboal  Nothing,  act  ii,  sc.  S).. 
Taboyrtl  and  tabourint  are  diminutives  offuW,  and  de- 
note the  instrument  now  known  as  the  lambouriiK: 
■■Or  Mlinoe's  whistling  lo  bis  tabtmret, 
Belllug  0  laughter  fur  s  cold  meal's  Dieat" 

{IIall,Si<.lT,I,Tg). 
TabrrI  ia  a  eontiaction  of  tabaurrl.     The  word  ia  re- 
tained in  the  A.V.  from  Coverdale'a  tranalation  in  all 
passages  except  Isa.  xxx,  82,  where  it  is  omitted  in> 
Covenlale,  and  Ezek.  xxviii,  16,  where  it  is  rendeivd 

The  Heb.  tiph  ia  undoubtedly  Ihe  instrument  de- 
scribed by  travellera  aa  the  du/or  di/ot  the  Arabs.  Ir. 
was  useil  in  very  early  times  by  the  Syrians  of  Padan- 
aram  at  their  merry-makings  (Gen.  xxxi,  27).  It  was 
plaved  principally  by  women  (Exod.  iv,  20;  Judg.  xi, 
34:  I  Sam.  xviii,  6;  Paa.  Ixviit,  25  [26])  aa  an  acr^rni- 
paiiimeiit  to  the  song  and  dance  (comp.  Jud.  iii,  7),  and 
appears  to  have  been  worn  by  them  as  an  ornament 
(Jer.  xxxi,  4). .  The  l/lph  waa  one  of  the  inatrumrnio 
played  by  the  young  prophets  whom  Saul  met  on  his 
return  from  Samuel  (I  Sam.  x,  5),  anil  by  the  Levilis 
in  the  Temple-band  (2  Sam.  vi,  5;  1  Chmn.  xiii,8}.  It 
accomjianied  the  merriment  of  feaata  (Isa.  v,  13;  xxiv, 
H),  aiul  the  Joy  or  triumphal  processiuns  (Judg.  xi.  34 ; 

warriim  reluming  fnim  vtctiiry,  and  ia  cverj-where  a 
■i^ii  of  happiness  and  peace  (J»b  xxi,  12;  Isa.  xxx.  iii; 
-kr.  xxxi,  4).  .So  in  the  grand  triumphnl  cntriufGixl 
into  his  Temple,  described  in  strong  flgurr«  in  Pi>a. 
Ixviii,  the  proceaainn  is  maile  up  by  Ihe  siii^fni  who 
marched  in  frunt,  and  Ihe  playen  on  airiiigeil  instru- 
ments who  brought  up  the  rear,  while  on  either  aide 
danced  the  young  maidena  with  ibeir  timbrels  (*cr.  21k 


TIMBREL  4 

The  puOKt  of  Ewkiel,  xxviu,  13,  ii  obscure,  and 
■jipean  to  hive  be«n  ttiiy  cormpud.  Iniuad  oT 
^^9n,  "  thy  Ubrets,"  Ihe  Tulg.  and  Tug.  read  ^}^^, 
"  thy  beaulv,"  which  ia  Ihe  remleriog  adapted  iaCover- 
-dale'f  and  Craamei'a  Bible.  The  Sept.  aeemi  lo 
(ead  TJS^Pl,  a*  in  ver.  IS.  If  the  ordinary  lei 
juloptcd,  there  is  no  reason  Tar  taking  t^rh,  aa  Jerome 
lafofttu,  in  the  aente  of  the  Mtliogora  gem,  "pilaqiu 
"See  Tabrtt. 

■a  used  in  the  feasta  of  Cybelc 
(Kerod.  iv,  76),  and  <■  uid  (o  have 
been  the  invention  of  Dionraus  and 
Rhea  ( Eiirip.  ttaccA.  59).'  It  »ai 
played  by  women,  who  beat  it  witb 


<he  |>alnia  of  their  hands  (Ovid,  itel.  iv,  29),  and  Juve- 
nal (^'uf.  iii,  64)  altribulea  lu  it  a  Syrian  origin: 
"Jam  pridcm  STma  In  Tiberim  dcflBilI  Oronlca 
Et  IbiKuam,  et  morer  bi  diim  tiblcliie  churdia 
Obllqnnit,  oucDiJU  geiitUia  tympana  tiecam 

In  Ihe  same  war  cbe  lator  ig  said  to  have  been  inln>- 
-duced  into  Europe  by  the  Cruaaders,  who  adopted  it 
from  tbe  Saracens,  to  whom  it  was  peculiar  (see  Du 
-CinKe'snote  on  De  Joinrille's  Hitl.da  Roi  Saint  Louii, 
l>.  61 ). 

The  autbot  of  SUIla  naggOborim  (c  2)  gives  the 
-Greek  /ci/ifiaXm'  as  the  equivalent  ottSpli,  and  says  it 
was  a  hollow  baain  of  metal,  beaten  with  a  etick  ofbnua 

The  difotibe  Arabs  is  described  bv  Ruuell  (Aleppo 
fUled.],  p.94)  aB"ahoop(»oineIiniMwith  pieces  of 
4>raBS  Hxed  in  it  to  make  a  jingling)  over  which  a  piece 
-uf  parchment  i«  distended.  It  is  beaten  wilb  the  fingers, 
and  la  the  true  tympanum  of  the  aocienls,  an  appears 
fnim  its  rigure  in  several  relievoa,  representing  the  or- 
giex  of  Bacchus  and  Ktes  of  Cybele."  The  sanie  instru- 
ment WB9  used  by  the  Egyptian  dancing-wumen  whom 
HsHclquist  saw  {Tntvdt  [ed.  1766 J,  p.  B9).  In  Barba- 
ly  it  is  ualled  lar,  and  "  is  made  like  a  Move,  eunsistiiig 
<u  Isiilore  [Or^.  iii,  SI]  describes  the  tympanum)  of  a 
rim  or  thin  hoop  of  wood  with  ■  skin  of  parchment 
stretchcil  over  the  top  oTil.  This  serves  Tor  the  lati  in 
all  their  conccna,  which  they  accordinjfly  touch  very 
artfully  with  their  Hngers,  or  wiih   the  knuckles  or 


Egyptian  TsmlHniriue. 


0  TIIIE 

Time  (the  proper  and  usual  rendering  of  P.7,  #1 
[later  ^^T,  zni^].  a  general  word,  Gr.  ^(povoc,  tpaa 
of  duration;  while  Tsio,  iao6d,  mifiof ,  lignifiea  »jixti 
time,  either  by  buman  ordivine  appointment,  or  the  nat- 
ural seasons).  A  peculiar  use  of  the  term  oocura  in  tlie 
phrase"atime,tiniea,andahalf''(Heb.O^S^Q  IS^Q 
ixni,  Dan.  lii,?!  Cbald.  sb^5  T^IV.  1?^. '".  *»; 
Gr.  taifti(  sai  taipoi  Kai  ^fuov,  Re'v.  xii,'l4),  in  the 
conventional  sense  of  tint  gran  and  a  in//"  {see  Jose- 
phua,  War,  i,  I,  1).  The  following  are  the  rv^ular  di- 
vLiioiiB  of  time  among  the  Hebrewa,  each  of  which  ia- 
variably  preserves  its  strict  literal  sense,  except  wbers 
explicitly  modifled  b     "'      *  .      .       ™ 


re  treat  them  severally  but  logethi 


,n  the  order  nf 


everal  ■ 
tnore  detailed  information.     See  CiiHO>ioi«(!T. 

1.  Year  (nSC,  so  called  from  tbe  dun^  of  tbc  aea- 
Bons).  The  yearsof  the  Israelites,  like  thoae  of  tbe  mod- 
em Jews,  were  binar  (Rabbinical  tljsin  '3t),  atSbi  d 
8  h.  48  min.  88  sec,  consistini;  of  twelve  (unequal)  lu- 
nar months;  and  as  this  falls  short  of  the  true  r 


lonth  hi 


iLI3b. 


n.i8» 


see),  they  were  obliged,  in  order  to  preserre  tbe  re 
larity  of  har^-est  and  vintage  (Kxod.  xxiii,  16),  to  sikt 
a  month  occasionally,  so  as  to  make  it  m  the  avera^ 
coincide  with  the  solar  year  (Rabbinical  H^nn  riZ), 
which  has  B6&  d.  e  h.  4S  min.  4S  sec  The  method  of 
doing  this  among  Ihe  very  ancient  Hebrews  ii  entirely 
unknown  (see  a  conjecture  in  Ideler,  Cironal.  i,  490 ;  an- 
other in  Oedner,  JotI,  p.  218).  The  Talmudisis  find 
mention  of  an  intercalation  under  Hezekish  (2  Cbt-m, 
;(]ix,ii;  see  Mishna,/'frae*.iT,9),  but  without  fouods- 
tion  (see,  however,  on  the  reconcilement  of  the  lunir 
with  tbe  solar  year,  Galen,  Commail.  i,  in  Hippoc  £pi- 
dem.  lOpp.  ed.  KUhn.  liii,  23]).  Among  tile  later  Jewr 
(who  called  an  intercalated  year  n^3^713  ms,  in  dis- 
tinction from  a  common  year,  or  riI3"\1DB  rBC),  an 
intercalary  month  was  inserted  alUr  Adar,  and  was 
bence  called  Te-dar  (^^X1),  or  second  Adar  (^]X  ^nsi) 
(Mishna,  fduyoilji,  vii,  7;  see  tbe  distinct  inns  of  tbe 
Gemarisls  in  Reland,  A  ttlig.  Satr.  iv,  1 ;  conp.  Ben- 
David,  Zur  Berrcin.  u.  Ouch.  d.  jSd.  Kalimd.  [  Beri. 
IHIT];  Ideler,  ul  tup.  p.  537  sq.;  Anger,  D«  T'tp.im 
Ari.Ap.Riilionf.i,St  sq.).     The  intercalation  (^13^;) 

luk  never  to  add  a  month  to  the  sabbatical  year. 


It  usually  ' 


.  oblig. 


thiid  Ti 


The  Israelitish  jrear  began,  as  the  usual  eaumeratioa 
of  the  months  shows  (Lev.  xxiii,  34;  xxv.S;  Numb, 
ix,  II;  2  Kings  itxv,  8;  Jer.  x\xix,  !i  comp.  1  Mace. 
W.&i;  x,2l),wilh  AbiborNisanCseeEslh.iii.Tl.Mib- 
ment  (Exod.xii|!),  which  had  a  retrospective  refinwc 
(u  the  departure  out  of  Egypt  (ix.  31 ;  see  Kihr,  Sym. 
Mit.  ii,  639).  Yet  as  we  constantly  find  this  artinee-  . 
ment  spoken  of  as  »ftttat  calendar,  must  Rabbinical  snd 
many  Christian  scholars  understand  that  the  ritS  \tm 
began,  as  with  the  modem  Jews,  with  Tisri  (Octobrrk 
but  the  eedrtiotlifiit  year  with  Niiin  (HishnB,AMil 
llntk-ihai>ah,i,  I;  comp.Jo«ephus,.4iir.  1,3,8.  Seeilw 
KnsenmllUer,  on  Exod.  xii,  i;  Hiuig,  Jeta,  p.  335; 
KeySarth,  ChfViol.  Saira,  p.34  sq.).  But  this  dislinp- 
tion  is  pmbably  a  post-exilian  reckoning  (Hlvennek 
argues  against  its  inference  from  Eiek.  xL  1),  Khieh 

Inrned  exiles  in  Palestine  (l^irn  iii,  1  sq.;  N'eh.vii.73: 
viii,lBq.)i  and  later  fell  into  harmony  with  tbe Seteueid 
a'ri,  which  dated  from  October  (see  Uenfev,  Komtlr- 
n'lm.  P.21T;  and  comp.  1  Mace  iv, 63;  x.ii;  I  Mace. 
XV.  37).    Yet  this  has  little  countenance  ftnra  Ihe 

(Uv.  xxiii.  34;  Numb,  xxix,  1-6),  which  has  iu  Iht 


TIME  41 

Vgnic  Iq^ialstioD  certainly  ■  diSercnC  import  frDin  Ihe 
fiiUiiniad  ordinuice  (kc  Ytiemoet,  ObierT.  Mite.  p.  284 
«|.;  V,tt^t,Dt  F<tU>  Ckngorii  [Duisb.  ITOOj  timi  in 
bii  EmniL  A  out]).  Sec  New  Hook.  Nor  do«i  the 
eicptaNoD  "io  the  end  of  the  ye«r"  (fJlEn  nsxiBi 
vilb  refcrBH:^  to  the  Fewt  of  Tabeniidn  (Exod.  xxiii, 
(S).  faror  ihii  ucomptian  (see  Ideler,  p.  493).  Other 
fumtgta  addnocd  (Job  xxix,  4;  Joel  ii,  25),  u  well 
B  ibe  coaiDin  at  many  other  nations  (Cradner,  ut  ttip. 
p.  109  aqOiBre  a  very  precuioiu  argniiient.  Neveithe- 
laa,  it  is  dear  tbat  even  in  the  pre-exilian  period  of 
Ibe  iheocraey,  Ihe  autumn,  as  being  Che  close  of  the 
Ttai'i  labor,  was  often  regarded  among  the  aKruian 
pnpuiatioo  as  a  teimioal  date  (Ideler,  ChronoL  \,  i93 
•q.;  ve  Dmde,  ^  «Du /ud  u  .4  Bf i;. /Uiu'.  [Lips.  1766 1 
■lerely  Rabbinic] ;  Selden,  Dt  Anna  dvili  Vttl.  H^. 
[Ldod.  1644;  also  in  DgoUnD,  Tkaaur.  xvii]  ;  Nagel, 
Dt  Caleadario  Vttl.  Ehr.  [Alldorf,  1746]).     Se.vtTarth 

(■lemtbe  Israelites  reckoned  by  lunar  monlbi  (Z«ficAr. 
iL<leiittclL<MrgaiLGrtrllKh.u,iiitq.).  The  prevail- 
ing belief,  however,  Ibat  Ihey  had  from  the  first  such  a 
itar  has  been  of  late  combated  by  Bdttcber  (Frob.  alt- 
iM(.&*Wrtfr«ar.  p.283;  Dt  In/eru,  i,  lib^  aai  Cnd- 
wT  (Joti,  p.  -210  aq.),  and  most  stoutly  by  SeyfTanh 
{CiroaoL  Satra,  p.  26  iq.).  Credaer  holdB  that  the  Is- 
rwhte*  originally  had  a  sotir  year  of  thirty-day  months, 
and  that  this  was  (nchanged  for  the  lunar  year  when 
lite  ihree  great  fesliTala  were  accurately  determined, 
Lt.  about  the  time  of  king  Heiektah  and  Josiah  (on 
Ibc  contmy,  see  Von  Bohlen,  Gma.  p.  1U5  sq. ;  fienfey 
and  Stem,  Ctbtr  die  MoKoltnamai,  p.  5  aq,),  Seyffarlh, 
Iwwecer.  asciibeg  the  solar  year  (o  the  Jews  don 

A  neU-deSoed  and  univenal  Era  was  ank[ 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews.  National  events 
wDHtimea  dated  from  tbe  departure  out  of  Eg^'pt 
ltiDd.Kix,l;  Nnmb.iuiii.aHi  1  Kings vi,  1),usuaUy 
Imin  the  aceosian  of  tbe  kings  (as  in  Kings,  Cbron., 
and  Jer.t,  later  from  tbe  beginning  of  the  exile  (Eztk. 
uxiii,  il  1  xl,  I).  Jeremiah  reckons  the  Capdvity  ac- 
aicdiag  to  the  years  ofNehochadnezzar  (xxv.l;  Ui,  12, 
n  Mi.Xbat  Eieldel  (i,  I)  otherwise.  Tbe  po«t-exilian 
booka  date  according  to  the  regnat  yean  of  the  PeivaD 
oaaten  of  Pakuine  (Ezra  iv,26:  vi,  16;  vii,  7  sq.; 
Neh-ii,];  V,  4;  xtii,  6;  Hag.  1,1,2,11;  Zech.  vii,  1). 
But  as  Syrian  vassals  the  Jews  adopted  Ibe  Greek  (1 
Nacc  i,  10)  or  SeleocLd  kts  ( ni'^SIT  ;'^JV,  ara  con- 
traoaam,  since  il  was  used  in  contracts  generally,  Arab. 
brryaiJk  dku-Uarfim),  which  dated  from  the  overthrow 
ef  Babylon  by  Seleucuj  Nicalor  I  (Olvmp.  cxiii,  1), 
and  began  with  the  autamn  of  RC  3i2  (see  Ideler, 
«iaJi.d.CkromiLi,*ii').  This  reckoning  is  employed 
m  the  books  of  the  Haccabecs,  which,  however,  singu- 
liriy  differ  bv  one  year  between  themselves,  the  second 
busk  being  about  one  year  behind  the  first  in  its  dates 
Icmp.  1  Hacc  vi,  16  with  2  Hacc  si,  21 ;  I  Mace  vi, 
3)  with  2  Mace  xiii.  I);  from  which  it  would  seem 
thai  Ihe  author  of  2  Uaoc  had  a  diflerent  epoch  for  the 
«.  iSelenc  from  the  author  of  I  Mace,  with  tbe  lat- 
ler  of  whom  Joaephus  agrees  in  hii  chronology.  Inas- 
Doefa  as  1  Mace,  always  counts  bv  Jewish  months  in 
Ibe  Seleucid  lera  (i,  57;  ir,62,  69;  vii,  43;  xiv,  S?; 
in,  14),  and  these  an  computed  from  Misan  (x,  21 ; 
xvi,  I4)^tbe  second  book  likewise  counts  by  Jewish 
mcothifi,  18;  x,  6;  xv,S7:  on  the  conlrary  li.  ai)— 
■e  Diiaht  (appose  that  Ihe  fonner  begins  the  Seleucid 
en  with  tbe  .spring  of  aC.  312,  while  the  latUr  be- 
gbs  ii  with  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (Pelav.  Ra- 
<aur.  X,  46;    Prideaux,  ii,  267,  etc.),  a  conclusion  to 

np.  p.  a31  sq. ;  Wieseler,  Cluonol.  Ss/noptit,  p.  451  sq.). 
ftTuiWemadorf  objects  (/>(/■«(!  .Macttift.  p."       ' 


infer 


1  TIME 

UmMTin,  Dt  iEra  Sdtudd.tl  R^uta  Ssrvt  Sucauiime 
(Kil.  176'2).  Still  another  national  reckoning  is  given 
ill  1  Uacc  xiii,  41  sq.,  namely,  from  the  year  nC  ibe  de- 
liverance  of  tbe  Jews  from  the  Syrian  yoke,  i.  e.  seven- 
teen ler.  Selene,  or  from  the  autumn  of  RC.  143  (Jo- 
sephua,  ilnr.  xiii,  6,  6),  and  this  nra  appears  upon  Sa- 
maritan coins  (Eckhel,  Doctriaa  Kumar.  I'rlt.  L  iii,  463 
sq.).  On  other  Jewish  nras  see  the  Mishna  (Gtltia,  viii, 
6).    SeeYiiAR. 

'  2.  Afimtk  (CnH,  lit.iMW,  sc.  moon;  seldom  and  more 
Aramaic  nn^,  the  moon).  The  months  of  the  Hebrewis 
»BStatedabove,werelunaT(asappeaT«from  the  foregoing 
names),  and  began  from  the  new  moon  as  oculariv  ob- 
served (the  [synodic]  lunar  month  has  26  d.  12  'h.  44 
min.B  [strictly  2.82]  sec  [Ideler,  CArono^i.  48]).  This 
is  certain  from  the  poet-exilian  period  (Miahna,  Roih 
Haih-Mkamth,  i,  &  sq.),  but  for  pre-exilian  times  various 
conjectures  have  been  hazarded  (see  above).  The  length 
of  the  lunar  month  in  tbe  later  period  depended  upon 
the  day  when  the  appearance  of  tbe  new  moon  was  an- 
nounced by  tbe  Sanhedrim  (see  a  similar  reckoning  in 
Uacrob.  8al.  i,  16,  p.  273  ed.  Bip.),  which  thus  made 
the  month  either  twentv-nine  days  (^0*1  is^,  i.  e. 
iSorf)  or  thirty  days  (It%n  tj'in,  i  e.^hU),  according 
as  tbe  day  was  included  in  the  following  or  the  pre- 
ceding month.  The  general  rule  was  that  in  one  year 
not  less  than  four  nor  more  tban  eight  full  months 
could  occur  (Mishna,  j4  riicA.  ii,  2).    The  final  adjust- 

tion  (~.13">5),  so  that  whenever  in  the  last  month,  Adar, 
it  became  evident  that  the  Passover,  which  mutt  be 
held  in  the  following  month,  Nisan,  would  occur  before 
harvest,  L  e.  not  at  the  time  when  the  sun  would  he  in 
Aries  (JosephuB,  AvL  iii,  10,  6),  an  entire  month  (Va- 
dar)  was  interjected  lietween  Adar  and  Nisan,  consti- 
tuting an  intercalary  year  {ni319i3  njB,  which,  bow- 
ever,  according  to  the  Gemara,  did  not  take  place  in  a 
sabbatic  year,  but  always  in  that  which  preceded  it; 
nor  in  two  successive  yeaiB,  nor  yet  more  than  three 
yeam  apart).  See  Anger, /)e  Ttmp.in  Ad.  Ap.Salvmt, 
p.30sq. 

Prior  to  the  exile  Ihe  individual  months  were  usual- 
ly designated  by  numbers  (the  twelfth  month  occurs  in 

2  Kings  XXV,  27;  Jer.  Hi,  31;  Ezek.  xxix,  1;  comp.  1 
Kings  Iv,  7);  yet  we  find  also  the  following  names: 
Ear-monlh  (3^3Kn  OTTl,  Exod.  xiii,  4;  xxiii,  16; 
Deut.  xvi,  1,  etc.),  corresponding  to  the  later  Nisan; 
Sloofo-moBlh  ^^■!  [orl"'»]  tinh,  1  Kings  vi,  1,87),  tbe 
second  montb;  Baia-taoatA  (^ns  n^;^,  vi,  38),  the 
eighth  (connected  by  Benfey,  p.  182,  with  the  word 
^S,  Vss ;  ■*e  ^e  Talmudie  interpretation  dted  by 
him,  p.  16)  i  Frethtl-memth  (D'')r»n  nn;^,  viii,  2),  the 
seventh ;  all  of  which  seem  to  be  mere  appellatives 
(see  Benfey  and  Stem,  Deber  £t  Mmaliaamtn  taigtr 
lUlen  Vilhrr  [  BerL  1886  ],  p.  2).  After  the  exile  the 
months  received  the  following  names  (Gemara,  Paath. 
xciv,2;  Targ.  .Siioit  on  Esth.  iii,7  sq.;  comp.  Mishna, 
Shftul.  Iii,  1)  !  1.  Ifiiaii  (^^-S,  Neh,  ii,  1 ;  Esth.  iii,  7), 
the  first  montb,  in  which  the  Passover  (q.v.)  was  held  (and 
in  which  the  vernal  equinox  fel],JoBephu8,j4flf. iii,  10,6), 
corresponding,  in  general.to  our  April  {Ideler,  CtrDtiof.i. 
491),  and  answering  ( Josephus,  ..1  nH  iii,  10,  6 ;  Ifor,  v, 
8,1)  to  the  Macedonico-Syrian  J^an/Ain«,also  (,4ti*.ii, 
14,6)  to  the  Egyptian  month  /■tnrniuljii,  which  last, 
however,  was  March  27-April  25  of  the  Julian  calen- 
dar (Ideler,  uf  tup.i,H3):  2.  /yor  (I'Et,  Targ.  on  2 
Chron.  XXX,  2) ;  3.  SiVAi  (•,1"B,  Esth.  vi'li,  9 ;  £«oiiaX, 
Bar.  i,  8}  1  4  Tommiz  (T^IBP) ;  f>.  Ab  (3!;) ;  6.  Elul 
(^!1^K.  Neh.  vi,  IS;  'EXouX,  1  Mace,  xiv,  27}.  the  Ust 
month  of  the  civil  year  in  the  posi^xilian  age  (Mish- 
na, Si^KtlA,  x,  2;  ^ruiBi,iii,7);  7.  TwAri  C-iSP),  in 
which  the  festivals  of  Atonement  and  Tabernacles  felt 


TIME  4 

uinoit) ;  8.  IHarchttlam  ("Jcnia, 
Moaouov  or  MapirairiiiT),  Joeephui,  Ant.  i,  3,  3))  9, 
Ki^tB  <^^D3,  Neb.  i,  1 ;  Zech.  vii,  t ;  \aa\iv,  1  iiwx. 
1,54);  10.  rciefAtPSa.EHh.ii.ie);  U.  Slub&t  (p'ZV, 
Z*ch.  i,  7;  ra;3rir,  1  Mwjc.xvi,  U);  12.  Addr  (I^X, 
E»th.iii,7!  viii,I2;'A;dp,BM«K.sv,37}i  IS-Vt-Addr 
(TIXl!  itriclly  Va-Adar,-nvyi,ot  KCtmd  Adar  (y^'K 
••iV  or  nij'jrs).  Occ»wonsliy,  boweTer,  the  montKa 
were  newlv  numbered  in  the  poaC-eiUiiD  period  like- 
wiK  (Hag',  i,  1;  ii,  1  sq.;  Zech.  i,  1;  vjij,  19;  NeKvii, 
73;  vilL,3,  H;  D»n.x,4;  I  MMci]i,3,B4(  x,21;  xiii, 
61).  On  the  origin  and  signification  of  those  names, 
see  Benfey,  op.  ril.  p.  21  sq. ;  Geseniiu,  TAeiaar.  p.  702, 
917.  From  tbe  fact  that  the  seconil  Ijook  of  Maccabees 
and  JosephuB  teeknn  iccotding  U>  the  Syru-Maccdoniui 
nanths  (Diaieurui,  XaiUhlaii,  etc)  it  does  not  folluw 
that  tbe  Jews  aikpted  this  caleiidai  in  the  Seleucid  at% 
In  2  Mace,  the  Egyptian  months  (Epiphi,  PacAm)  are 
namoL  See  Pott,' in  the  Hal/.  Lil.-Zril.  1S39,  No.  46- 
60  1  Carpiov,  Appar.  p,  866  sq. ;  Michielis,  Commtal. 
1763-63,  Oblal.  p.  16  sq.;  Langhausen,  I>t  Mfnte  Veil. 
Hrhr.  Laaari  (Jen.  1TI3;  also  in  Ugoiino.  Tlwtaw. 
3tvii)i  Ideler,  CAronor.  i,448>q.,  S09Bq.  See  Month. 
8.  Wttk  (SWD,  lit  «rmnfl.  This  division  of  the 
synodal  lunar  month  into  aeren  days  (whence  the  Heb. 
name)  early  prerailal  among  the  Israelitea,  as  among 
other  Shemitic  people  and  the  Egyptians  (Ideler,  Chro- 
nol.  i,  178;  ii,  473);  but  only  among  the  Israelites  was 
this  arrangement  associated  with  coamogony,  with  law, 
■nd  with  religion  itself,  sn  as  to  enter  into  real  civil  life 
and  form  the  basis  of  tbe  wboia  cycle  of  featirals.  See 
Sabbath.  But  ordinarily,  dai  a  rather  than  weeks  (as 
also  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans)  constituted  the 
conventional  mode  of  computing  time  (biit  see  Lev.  xii, 
5:  Dan.  x,  2  sq.).  In  tbe  poat-eiilian  period  the  reck, 
oning  by  weeks  became  mote  customary,  and  at  length 

enumerated  alter  the  furmida  iv  pa,  or  vpury  sofj- 
^nrmv.  or  aafiliirov,  etc  (Mark  xvi,  2,  9;  Luke  xxiv, 
1;  Acta  XX,  7;  1  Cot.  xvi,  2;  see  Eplpban.  Har.  Ixx, 
12;  aoalso  in  Chald.  with  xram  or  Kri21D;  see  Otbo, 
Ltr.  Rubi.  p.  273.  The  word  'jfjaoftni' does  not  occur 
in  the  New  TesL ;  see  also  Ideler,  CArancT.i,  481).  The 
astronomical  derivation  of  the  week  naturally  f^rows 
out  of  the  obvious  fact  {CAroKoL  i,  60)  that  the  moon 
changes  about  every  seven  (properly  seven  and  three 
eighths)  daya,  so  that  the  lunar  month  divides  itself  into 
four  qiisrtersL  Hence  nations  which  have  no  historical 
relation  in  this  respect  nevertheless  agree  in  theobtter- 
vance  (  Ckroaol  i,  88  ).  The  daj-s  of  the  week  were 
named  long  before  the'Chriitian  sera  on  regular  aslni- 
logical  principles  from  the  seven  planets  (Lobeck,.4(rfa"- 
pAuni.p.933«q.),which  (according  lo  Dion  Cass,  xx 
18)  was  an  Egyptian  invention.  Thev  began  with 
urn's  day  (Saturday),  inasmuch  as  Saturn  waa  the  o 
most  planet;  but  amnng  tbe  Jews  this  day  (the 
bath)  was  the  last  oftlie  week,  and  mi  the  Jewiah 
Christian)  week  commences  with  Sunday.  But 
heathciush  names  were  never  in  general  use  among  the 
Jews  (see  lUhr,  5jnniD/.ii,  585  sq.).  Weeks  or  hepuds 
of  years  behing,  amoitg  the  Jews,  to  pn^hetical  poetry ; 
hut  in  one  instance  they  occur  in  a  litenl  sense  in  prose 
(Dan.  vu,  24-37),  as  also  among  the  Romans  such  nn- 

/»t  Die  Xal,  xiv).     See  Whek. 

4.  /Kiy  (Dl^,  BO  called  from  its  hrat:  ip'pn).  The 
civil  day  (i'ii;^34/iEpD»>,  2  Cor.  xi,  2-'i)  was  reckcmed  by 
the  Hebrews  from  sundown  to  sundown  (Lev.  xiiii,  82); 

the  moon's  course  ( Pliny,  ii,  79;  TaciU  Gfna.  e.  xi: 
Ceiar,  BrU,  Gall,  vi,  18;  Isidore,  t^rt^.v.SD;  Censorin. 
Hi):  but  before  the  %xile  they  seem 


n..t  to  have 

portions  beyond  the  ni 


nral  divisions  of  momi 


i(~i;3; 


2  TIME 

see  (he  definition  for  the  Temple-service  in  tbe  Mishiu, 
Taiaid,  iii,  2),  noon  (B^^riX,  Gen.  xliii,  16;  Desu 
xiiTiii,29;  ooiDp.Di»n  sin.Gen.  xviii,  1 ;  1  Sam.  li, 
II;  and  D^in  ^^33,  Ptov.  iv,  18),  and  eTeoing  (31:; 
comp.  also  b|l|3,  tbe  morning  and  evening  breea  i, 
which  were  in  genera!  uae,  as  among  the  modem  Arab* 
(Niehuhr,  BedoHin,  p.  108  sq. ).  During  tbe  exile  the 
Jews  appear  U>  have  adoptal  the  divirion  into  regular 
houre(Chald.  nsi^)(Dan.  iv,  16;  v,G;  2  Esdr.  vi,  34). 
as  (according  to  Herod,  ii,  109)  the  twelve  huun  of  the 
day  oiiginatedamong  the  Babylonians;  and  in  the  New 
Test,  tbe  hours  are  frequently  enumerated.  As,  hov- 
ever,  eveiy  natural  day  of  the  year  was  divided  into 
twelve  hours  (John  li,  9 ;  see  Ideler,  ChnmoL  i,  84  6q.  i, 
they  must  have  been  unequal  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  since  in  the  latitude  of  Palestine  the  longest  sum- 
met  day  lasts  from  about  four  A.  M.  to  eight  1'.  M, 
(Mayr,  Sett,  iii,  IS),  being  about  four  honia  longer  than 
the  shortest.  The  hours  of  the  day  (for  those  of  ihe 
nightjsee  Nioht-watcb)  were  naturally  counted  froqi 
sunrise  ( cock-ctuwing,  ISSTI  nx^^p,  was  a  desigiu- 
tion  of  time  obeeri-ed  in  the  Temple,  Mishna,  Tamid.  i. 
2);  whence  the  third  hour  (Matt,  sx,  S;  Acts  ii,  15) 
corresponds  about  to  our  nine  o'clock  A.M.  (the  time 
when  the  market-place  was  full  of  men,  xXii3i>i>ga 
liytpa;  see  Kype, Obmrur.  i,  101  sq. ;  also  the  Gist  hour 
td' prayer,  Acts  ii,  I&);  the  end  of  the  aiz(A  hour  (MaiL 
XX,  5;  John  xix,  14)  to  midday;  with  the  deiwMl  hour 
(Malt.  XX,  6;  Hark  xv,  34)  the  day  inclined  to  a  ck« 
and  labor  ceaaed  (see  also  John  i,  40 ;  iv,  52 ;  Acts  iii. 
1 ;  I,  8).  There  were  three  daily  hours  of  prayer- 
morning,  noon,  and  night ;  besidea,  there  is  occasjoiially 
mention  of  prayer  four  times  a  day  (Neb.  ii,  3):  Iwt  a 
quarterly  division  of  the  day  (aa  inferred  by  Lhcke.  Jeli. 
ii,  756)  ia  not  cerUin  in  the  New  Test.  Yet  it  is  fme- 
what  doubtful  whether  the  evangelists,  John  at  leaM.  al- 
ways reckon  according  to  the  Jewish  hours  (Clriicw. 
AdJmiH.  xix,  14;  Michaelis,  in  the  Hamb.  verm.  Ait/i- 
olhek,  iii,  338  sq. ;  RetUg.in  the  Stud.  ¥.  KriL  1880,1. 101 
sq.;  Hug,iQthefrri6u.^Zeiyie*r.v,90«q.).   S«Dav. 

6.  Hoar  (Chald.  nSC;  tir.  wpa).  The  Oiindal 
Asiatics,  especially  Ihe  Babylnniana  (Herod,  ii,  VS, 
Vitruv.  ix,  9),  had  from  early  times  sundials  (AonJuiri" 
•of'in'a)  or  shadow-measures  (  Pliny,  xxxvi,  IS);  anl 
hence,  from  the  intercouise  with  Babylon,  this  mFfnl 
contrivance  may  have  been  introduced  into  Palestine 
even  before  the  exile.  At  all  events,  aomething  of  the 
kind  seems  to  be  meant  by  the  "degrees  cd'  Aim" 
(THil  ri^SS,  Isa.  xXKViii,  8;  comp.  i  Kings  ix.9V 
either  an  obelisk  which  cast  its  abade  npoa  the  steps  of 
the  palace,  or  perhaps  a  tegular  giHXDon  with  dq:n«» 
marked  on  it  (Targ.  Jonath.  X-<5IE  pM;  Symmachuv 
iipoXoyiov ;  Jetnrae,  Hnmlifiiiiia :  see  Salmas.  A  d  .Soli*. 
p.447Bq.:  MKTtiBi.Abhandl.r.d.Sotaienahrr%ilrr.11lm 
[\je\pt.i777]:t,}»oI>rHoi-ol,niiiVeU.Seielkrricii[Amtt. 
179T]).  The  Romans  after  V.  C  595  used  waier-:k*t» 
(i*piyrfr(p,Vi(rav.  ix,  9;  Pliny,  vii,  60)  for  the  wairh- 
room  of  post-courses  (Veget.  jftt  iii,  8)  and  for  reeu- 
lating  the  enniinitance  of  speaking  (Ptailo,  0/^  iu  &97: 
Becker. r>'ii/ji»,i,  187).  Whether  Ibis  practice  preraik^l 
among  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ,  we  know  not 
(Zeltner,  IJe  llonlogio  CaiapAa  [  Altdoif.  1791  ],  dues  not 
touch  the  point);  but  they  could  not  have  been  ikhit- 
rant  of  some  means  uf  measuring  lime,  whether  dial*  or 
waler-clock^  since  the  latter  are  in  Sequent  use  in  ifie 
modern  East  (Niehuhr,  Reii.  ii,  74).  For  a  peeuliarde- 
vice  for  dividing  (he  hours  menlioned  by  the  Tslmod- 
ists.seeOtho,  I>f.  AaU.p.282;  see  also  idekr,r)r(inL 
i,  230  sq.     -See  HoUB. 

See,  generally,  Ulmer,  ^ 
(Altdorf.l846)5  W8lch,r..t 
micHin  (Gntl.  1786);  Itincks,  .Iwviif  Kgyptiita  Y"i 
and  Monlhi  ( lynd.  1865);  id.  Aiffro -  fiiriflo^ 
ifeaaif  "/  Time  (ibid.  eod.).     See  Calb!«d*r. 


Tdlmdario  Vett.  Kbrfr 


TIMES,  REGARDER  OF  41 

Times,  Bsoabdbr  of.    See  Obsebvkb  of  Tihes.  ' 
Tlln'iia  (Heb.  Tiami,  73ari,  rttframt),  the  name 
of  I  wooMD  uid  *ba  of  *  mui. 

1.  (Sept.  6a/ivd.)  A  oancabine  or  Kliphu,  nn  of 
Emu,  uid  by  him  mother  or  Amalek  (Gen.  xxxvi,  12; 
lunied  [»pp«rently  only]  in  1  Chron.  i,  36  [by  an  ellip- 
■u]  uaiDnarEliphaz);  probably  the  same  u  the  8i»- 
l«  of  Loud,  and  daughter  of  Seir  the  Hoiile  (Uen. 
lUTi,  32;  1  ChroD.  i,  39).  aC  conndetablv  poat 
136S. 

2.  (Sept.  eaiutvaT.r.  eaifidv;  A.  V.  " Timnah," ) 
The  firU  nmed  of  the  Euuilfl  "dukn"  or  sheiks  in 
Uutmi  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi,  40;  1  Chnm.  i,  61).  B.C. 
kng  pool  1963. 

Tlm'nali  (Heb.  Tismah',  Tnvv\,ponionj,  the  name 
or  several  place*  ia  Paleatine,  which  appears  in  the  orig- 
inal, either  aiinple  ni  oompoundetl,  in  several  funna,  not 
alwiya  ■ccuratfly  reprHiented  in  the  A,  V,  We  treat 
Udder  Ihia  head  only  the  aimple  name,  re«erviiig  the 
Tuiii|)»unds  (at  a  separate  article.    8ee  alw  TutXA. 

1.  The  place  near  which  Tamar  entrapped  Judah 
inu  inieTCOuree  with  her  (Uen.  xxxviii,  12,  13,  U; 
Heb.  with  n  directire,  TimsMai,  HPSBPli  Sept. 
ttofivd;  Vuljf.  TArnmuaia;  A.V."to  Timnath").  It 
had  a  road  leading  to  it  (vet.  14),  and  aa  It  lay 
on  high  gmuitd  (ver.  12),  it  probably  waa  the  aame 
with  the  Timnah  in  the  mountain  district  of  the  tribe 
sf  Judah  (Josh.  XT,  57;  Sept.  Baiiva  v.  t.  ea/iv^a ; 
Vulg.  riuntm).  As  it  lay  in  the  tame  group  with 
Kaon,  Ziph.  and  Catmel,  soath-east  of  Htbmn  (Eeil, 
Coanamt.  ad  loc),  it  may  perhaps  be  identical  with  a 
niaei]  site  upon  a  low  hill  on  the  west  of  the  road  be- 
tweoi  Ziph  wd  Caimel, "  called  f/m  rl-A  mod  ('  mother 
oT  the  pillai*).  Foondationa  and  heaps  of  stones,  with 
•ooie  cisIeiDB.  eoTer  a  small  tract  of  ground,  while  two 
oi  three  coarae  columns  mark  the  ule  probably  of  a  vil- 
lage church,  and  give  occasion  for  the  name''  (Kobinson, 
BM.Sa.u.  192;  comp.p.S29>. 

2.  A  town  near  the  north-west  border  of  Judah,  be- 
tween Beih-ahemesh  and  Ekron  (Josh,  xv,  10;  Sept. 
Mill  T.  r.  Ndtsc;  Vatg.  Tkamna).  It  is  ctoabtleee  the 
same  with  the  place  of  the  same  name  in  Dan  (Josh. 
lii,  4JI.  Heb.  with  H  paragogic,  rimndlAoil,  nPSVh; 
SepL  Bafiva;  Tolg.  Themna;  A.  V.  "Thimnathali"), 
vhich  lay  in  the  vicinity  of  Ekron;  and  likewise  with 
the  residence  of  Samson's  first  wife  (Jndg.  XJT,  1,2,6; 
Heb.  likewise  with  n  appended ;  Sept.  Bafiva^a ;  Vulg. 
Tkammallui:  A.T.'-'Umnalb;"  Joaephus,  eaiiva,Aat. 
T.B.S),  which  lay  on  the  PhiUs^ne  edge  of  the  Shephe- 
lah  (judg.  xjv,  1);  and  tmth  are  therefore  the  same 
place  thai  was  invaded  by  the  Philistine*  in  the  lime 

(2  Chron.  xnviii,  18;  Sept  eaftva;  Vulg. 
'  this  last  date  it  had  subaibs  adjoining 
l"villages~);  and  in  Samson's  day  it  contained  vine- 
yirds,  haunted,  however,  by  such  savage  animaUi  as  in- 
dicate that  the  population  was  but  sparse.  It  wai  on 
higher  ground  than  Ashkelon  (Judg.  xiv,  19),  hut  lower 
thai  Zorah,  which  we  may  presame  was  Samson's  start- 
ii4;-point  (xiii.  25).  After  the  Daniles  had  deserted 
their  oripnal  alh>Iment  for  the  north,  their  towns  would 
saiunlly  Tall  into  the  handa  of  Judah,  or  of  the  Pbilia- 
lioei,  a*  the  cuntinoal  struggle  between  them  might 
hapfien  to  fluctoale.  In  the  later  bislory  nf  the  Jews, 
Timnah  most  have  been  a  conspicuous  place.  It  was 
tmified  by  Bacchides  as  one  of  the  most  important 
military  posts  of  Jndna  (Ba/ivaSa,  I  Mace  ix,  60),  and 
ii  hecacoe  the  head  of  a  district  or  loparchr,  which  was 
(ailed  af^er  its  name,  and  was  reckoned  the  fourth  in  ol- 
der of  importance  among  the  fourteen  into  which  the 
■bole  country  was  divided  at  the  time  of  Vespasian's 
inraeion  (finju«i,  Josephaa,  War,  iii,  3,  6;  see  Pliny, 
T.  M).  F.usebios  and  Jerome  (_0»/>phuI.  k  v.  Ba/iva, 
''Thamna')  confoand  it  with  (he  Timnah  of  Judah's 
BdrnUDre  with  Taoiar,  but  say  that  it  siill  existed  as  a 
large  tillage  near  Diuspulis  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem. 


3  TIMNATH-HEUES 

According  to  Schwair  (Palal.  p.  106),  it  is  likewise 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud  (So/oA,  tol.  10  b).  The  mod- 
em represenutiveorall  these  various  forms  of  the  same 
name  is  probably  Tibneh,  a  deserted  village  about  two 
miles  west  of  Ain  Shems  (Betb-shemeah),  among  the 
broken  undulating  couiiti)'  by  which  the  central  mouit- 
Uins  of  this  part  of  Palestine  descend  to  ihe  maritime 
plain  (Robinson,  Bibl.  Rtt.  ii,  Zii ;  Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  ii,  S61). 

Tlm'natb-be'res  (Heb.  Timndih  chim,  ri'cn 

D^n,  Timnah  of  Ilera :  Sept.  ea/iroSuptt  v.  r.  BoV- 
fiiSikp  (wc ;  Vulg.  Thamaalmrr  !  Judg.  ii.  9),  or  Tlm'- 
ti«tli-«e'rah(Heb.7'i™id(A.^*rae*,n^D~PSiin,7'ii«. 
nak  of  atroh  ,■  SepL  BaiivaSvapd  and  6npva3aaxoi:, 
y.  r,  Baiivaaapax  snd  enjj^njTTpqt  or  Oniivaiava- 
Xripa;  Vulg.  Thamnali  Saraa  and  Thatanalh  Sort; 
Josh.  KJx,  5;  xxiv,30;  Josephus,  ea;i»i..Jnr.  T,  1,29), 
the  name  (varied  only  by  the  iransponiion  of  the  last 
two  consonants  nfthe  latter  part)  by  which  the  city  and 
burial-place  of  Joshua  was  known.  Tht.  Jews  adopt 
Hertiaa  the  real  name;  interpret  it  to  mean  "the  sun;" 
and  see  in  it  a  reference  to  the  act  of  making  Ihe  sun 
stand  still,  which  is  to  them  the  greatest  exploit  of 
Joshua's  life,  as  tliey  sute  that  Ibe  figure  of  the  sun 
(Irmunath  ha-thrret)  was  carved  upon  the  sepulchre 
(Kashi.  CDinin«n/,  ad  loc.).  Others  (as  Furat,  i,  442), 
while  accepting  Heres  as  the  original  form,  interpret 
that  word  as  "  clay,"  and  as  originating  in  the  character 
of  the  soil.  Others,  again,  like  Ewald  (Gach.  ii,  347, 8) 
and  Bertheau  (OnJudffa),  take  Serah  to  be  the  orig- 
inal form,  and  Heres  an  ancient  but  uninlenlional  error. 
It  was  the  spot  which  at  his  own  request  was  presented 
to  Joshua  after  the  partition  of  the  countrv  was  com- 
pleted (Jo«h.  nix,  60),  and  in  "  the  border"  of  whicli  he 
was  buried  (xxiv,  30).  It  is  specified  as  "in  Mount 
Ephraim  on  the  north  side  of  Mount  Gaash."  Timnatb- 
serah  and  the  tomb  of  its  illustrious  owner  were  shown 
in  the  time  of  Jerome,  who  mentions  them  in  the  £pi- 
lapkium  Paula  (§  18).  Beiond  its  being  south  of  Sbe- 
chem,  be  gives  ito  indication  of  its  portion,  but  he  dis- 
misaes  it  with  the  following  characteristic  remark,  a  fit- 
ting tribute  to  Ihe  simple  self-denial  of  the  great  soldier 
of  Israel :  "  Satisque  mirau  eat,  quod  distributor  pnsses- 
sionum  sibi  tnontana  et  aspera  delegissel.''  Hebrew 
tradition,  in  accordance  with  the  shove  Rabbinical  inler- 
pretarion,  idenlifles  the  place  with  Kr/ar  Chern,  which 
is  aaid  by  rahhi  Jacob  (Carmoly,  lliniraira,etc.  p.  1N6), 
Hap-Farcbi  (ABher,^™^;  o/ TWr/o,  p.  484),  and  other 
Jewish  travelers  down  to  Schwara  in  our  own  day 
(Paletl.  p.  151).  to  be  about  five  miles  south  of  Shecbem 
(Nablfls).  This  is  doubtless  the  present  Kt/r-llaril,  or 
Krfr-HarU,  which,  however,  is  more  nearly  double  that 
distance  S.S.W.  of  Nablfls.  The  modem  viltage  haa 
three  sacred  places— one  of  Nebi  Nfln,  i.  e.  Ihe  tomb  of 
Nun;  the  second.  Nehi  Lusha,i.e.  the  tomb  of  Joshua; 
and  the  third.  Nehi  Kifl,  i.e.  the  tomb  of  the  "division 
b>-  lot"  (Conder,  Ttni-Work  in  Palat.  1,78).  Another 
and  more  promising  identification  has,  however,  been 
suggested  in  our  own  day  hy  Dr.  Smith  {BibL  Sacra 
[1H43],  p.  ITS  sq.).  In  his  journey  from  Jifna  to  Mej- 
del-¥aba,  about  six  miles  from  the  former,  he  discovered 
the  ruina  of  a  considerable  town  by  (he  name  of  TiineA 
on  a  gentle  hlil  on  the  left  (south)  of  the  road.  Oppo- 
ule  the  town  (apparently  to  the  south)  was  a  mncb 
higher  hill,  in  the  north  side  of  which  arc  several  ex- 
cavated sepulchres,  which  in  size  and  in  tlie  richness 
and  character  of  (heir  decorations  resemble  the  so-called 
"Tombsofthe  Kings"  at  ■Jenisalem.  The  mound  or  tell 
stands  on  the  suutb  bank  of  a  deep  valley,  surrounded 


oak-tree,  called  by  the  natives  Sheik  et. 
chief,  the  servant  of  God."  South  of  tbe  i 
side  is  hollowed  out  with  many  tombs,  mt 
are  choked  up.  One  of  these  has  a  porch  w 
pilaaten,  and  along  the  fa9ade  are  over  t 


TIJINITK  41 

nkrhea  tar  I*mp«;  the  irailing  bougba  of  the  biubes ' 
above  bang  down  picturesquely,  »nd  h«lf  cover  the  tn- 
li*ncf.  Within  are  three  Ixkim,  or  cella,  and  through 
I  he  central  one  il  iaposailile  la  creep  inloa  aecondchRm- 
ber  with  only  >  single  grave.  Uiher  tomb*  exist  Tar- 
thereaat,one  having  a  sculptured  fa^de;  but  the  tomb 
■leacribed  is  the  one  popularly  aupposed  to  be  that  of 
Joshua  (Conder,  ul  np.  p.  22H).     See  Jobhita. 

Tim'nite  (Heb.  Timni;  ^l^n ;  Sept.  Baiivaiaios 
V.  r.  Baitvi),  a  liesigiiation  of  Somson'a  enn's  father-in- 
law,  from  his  residence  in  Tiiunah  (Judg.  xv,  S). 

Tl'mon  (Ti/iiiiv,  a  commoti  Greek  naine),lbefoanh 
named  of  the  seven,  commonly  called  "deaHrns"  [see 
Dkacon],  who  were  appointed  to  act  as  almoneiB  on 
the  occaNon  of  complaints  of  putialitv  being  raised  by 
the  HelleniaticJewsat  Jeniaalem  (Actsvi.S).  A.D.i9. 
Like  hia  colleBguca,  Timon  bears  a  Greek  name,  from 
which,  taken  ingetber  with  the  occasion  of  their  ap- 
pointment, it  has  been  inferred  with  much  probability 
that  the  aeveii  were  themselves  Hellenists.  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  him  with  certainty;  but  in  the  5y- 
luipna  de  Vila  el  Morte  Prophetaram,  Apoilolonim,  rt 
IHicipiditruin  Domini,  ascribed  to  Dorotheus  of  Tyre 
(BUL  Mar.  Patrvm,  iii,  149),  we  are  infortued  that  he 

loRue  of  whom  is  ■  mere  congeries  of  New-Tot. 
namea),  and  that  he  afterwards  became  bishop  of  Bob- 
rra  (?"Bn>traArabum''),  where  he  sulTered  martyrdom 

TimOthatUia,  a  section  nf  the  Alexandrian  Mo- 

nophysites  (q.  v.),  so  named  from  Timntheus  JElatua, 
a  bitter  opponent  uf  rhe  canona  of  Chalcedon.  During 
the  patriarchate  of  Prnierius,  Timolheua  established 
schiamatical  assemliliea  in  Alexandria,  having  persuad- 
eil  a  few  bishops  and  monks  to  join  him  in  his  secession 

of  the  emperor  Marcian,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  con- 
secration from  two  heretical  and  exiled  bishops,  and 
Proteriua  was  murdered  by  the  partisans  of  the  usurp- 
ing patriarch  on  Gooil-Ktiday,  A.D.  457.  After  main- 
taining his  poMiion  for  three  years,  he  was  banished  to 
the  ancient  Cherson,  near  Sebastopol,  but  was  recalled 


patriarehal  Ihtone  of  Alexandria  in  470.  The 
of  TimotheuB  and  his  party  went  the  full  length  of  ex- 
treme Eutvchianism.  In  some  fragments  of  a  nark  of 
his  which'still  exist  (Mai,  Nora  CoUtd.  vu,ab,  277, 
304, 305),  he  is  found  saying  that  the  nature  of  Christ  is 
oneonly— that  is,divine;  that  in  the  Drat  surting-puint 
of  conception  by  his  toother  he  had  one  substance  with 
human  nature,  but  that  he  was  not  bom  of  the  Blessed 
VirRin  in  the  ordinary  way  of  birth,  or  her  virginity 
could  not  have  been  preserved.  This  form  of  ICutychi- 
anism  thus  repudiated  the  reality  of  Christ's  human 
iwture.  and  was  practically  identical  with  the  opinion 

Tlmo'tlieUB  (Ti>iiiJioc.  honoring  God,  a  fre<iuent 
name  in  CJreek  and  Roman  history;  see  Athen.x,4l9; 
xiv,626;  Livy,  xlii,67;  Hiny,Tii,67;  xxxiv,  19,84: 
XTXvi,  4,9),  the  name  of  three  Jews  (auch,  at  least,  by 
aasocistion). 

1.  A  "captainof  [he  Ammonites"  (I  Mace  v,  6),who 
was  defeated  on  several  occasions  bv  Judaa  Maccabsus 
(ver.6,11,84-44).  &C164.  He  was  prob^ly  aGreek 
adventurer  (comp.  Joeephus,  ArV.  xii,  K,  I )  who  had 
gained  the  leadership  of  the  tribe.  Thus  Josephus 
[ibid.  xiii,ft,  1,  quoted  by  Grimm,  On  1  IUaa:,e,S)  men- 

Rahbah"  in  the  lime  of  Johannes  Hyresnus. 

3.  In  2  Hacc  a  leader  named  Timocheua  is  mention- 
ed aa  having  taken  part  in  the  invauon  of  Nicannr 
(viii,30i  ix,  3).  RC.  163.  At  alatertjmehe  made 
great  preparations  for  a  second  attack  on  Judas,  but 
was  driven  to  a  stronghold,  Gazara,  which  was  stormed 
by  Judas,  and  there  Timotheus  was  taken  and  slain  (x. 


4  TIMOTHY 

24^7).     It  has  been  supposed  that  the  events  recorded 

Mace.  V,  6-3,  an  idea  rendered  more  plausible  by  the 
similarity  of  the  names  Jaier  and  Gaxara  (in  Lai.  Ua- 

iier,  Jaure,  Gazara).     But  the  name  Timutheut  was 

Ammunitish  leader  Iras  not  slain  at  Jaier  (1  Mac&v. 
34)  1  and  Jailer  was  on  the  east  aide  of  Jordan,  while 
Gazara  was  almost  certainly  the  same  aa  Gezer.  Sev 
Gazaba;  Jaazsil  It  may  be  urgetl  further,  in  sup- 
port of  the  aubstantjal  accuracy  of  2  Hacc.,  that  the 
second  campaign  of  Judas  against  the  flrst-oamed  Timo- 
theus (I  Slacc  V,  •i7-U)  is  given  in  2  Maoc  xii,  2-M 
after  the  account  of  the  captnie  of  Gazara  and  the  death 
of  (he  lecond-named  Timotheus  there.  Weroadorf  as- 
sumes that  all  the  differences  in  the  uarralirea  are  blun- 
ders in  2  Mace.  (_Df  Fide  I.i6r.  Mace.  §  lix).and  in  this 
he  is  followe,!  by  Grimm  (On  3  Uaec  i,  34, 32).  But. 
if  any  reliance  is  to  be  pUced  on2Hacc_tbe  differences 
of  place  and  circumstances  are  rightly  taken  by  Pairi- 
cius  to  mark  different  evenU  {De  L&r.  Mace  %  iiiil, 
p.  269). 

3.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Tihothi  (q.  v.), 
the  special  follower  nf  Paul  (Acts  xvi,  1 ;  xvii,  14,  etr.'l. 
He  is  called  by  this  name  in  the  A.  T.  in  every  rase  ex- 
cept -2  Cor.  i,  I ;  Philem.  1 1  HebL  xiii,  38,  and  the  epis- 
tles addressed  to  him  (1  Tim.  i,  2, 18;  vi.aOi  i  Tim. 
1,2% 

Tim'otb;  (Ti/io9(oc,  i.  e.  Timotkait  [q.  v.],  as  the 
name  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  Acts  x*i,  I ;  xvii,  14, 15; 
XYiii,a:  xix,22;  xx,4;  Rom.  xvi,3Ij  I  Cor.  iv,  17; 
xvi,10:2Cor.i,I9:  Phil  i,  I;  li.lS;  CoLJ,  1 1  1  Th(«. 
>,  1;  iii, 2, 6;  2  Tfaess.  i,  1),  one  of  the  most  intereeliiq: 
of  Paul's  converts  of  whom  we  have  an  aocounl  in  ibe 
New  Test.  Fortunately  we  have  tolerably  copioui  ilc- 
tails  of  bis  history  and  relations  in  the  frequent  nfrr- 
encea  to  him  in  that  a[in»tle's  letters  lo  the  varini« 
chure1>es,aswellasiii  those  addressed  lo  him  persuuaUr. 

1.  ffii  Early  tift.— The  dtsdplo  thus  named  wbj>  iKe 
aon  of  one  of  those  mixed  marriages  which,  though  nn- 
rtemned  by  stricter  Jewish  opinion,  and  pladng  their 
offspring  on  all  but  the  lowest  step  in  the  Jewish  scale 
of  precedence,  were  yet  uot  uncommon  in  the  later  pe- 
riods of  Jewish  history.  The  children  of  these  aiu- 
riages  were  known  as  iikinuerfm  ("  baatarda'^,  and  stml 
just  abore  the  Nethinim.  Thi>  wax,  howevn,  onlera 
pariha:  A  bastard  who  was  a  wise  student  of  the  law 
was,  in  theory,  above  an  ignorant  high -priest  (Gtn. 
HieroB.  lloragoU,  foL  84,  in  Lightfoot,  Hor.  H<4.  in 
Matt-xxiii,  14);  and  the  education  ofTitnothy  (211111. 
iii,  lb)  may  therefore  hare  helped  to  nvemmie  the 
prejudice  which  the  Jews  would  natnrallj  havesgunn 
him  on  this  ground.  The  mother  was  a  Jewess  bat 
the  father's  name  is  unknown:  he  was  a  Greek, Le.t 
Gentile,  by  descent  (Acts  xvi,  1,  3).  If  in  any  sense  a 
proselyte,  the  fact  that  the  issue  of  the  marriage  dU 
not  receive  the  Ngn  of  the  covenant  would  render  it 
probable  that  he  belonged  to  the  cUss  of  half-oonren*, 
the  so-called  PR>selytes  of  theGate,  not  Iboseof  Righi- 
eousneas,  if  such  a  class  as  the  former  existed.  Sre 
PROBXLVTK.  The  absence  of  any  personal  alluHon  lo 
the  father  in  the  Acts  nr  Epistles  suggests  the  inftiem* 
that  he  roust  have  died  or  <lisappeared  during  bis  ion'» 
infancy.  The  care  of  the  bny  Ihua  devolved  upon  hii 
mother,  Eunice,  and  her  mother,  Lens,  who  are  bnili 
menWoned  as  sincere  believers  (2  Tim.  i,  S>  Cndet 
their  training  his  edncation  was  emphatically  Jewitli. 
"Fmm  a  child''  he  learned  (probably  in  the  Sept.  vn- 
sion)  to  "  know  the  Holy  ScripWrea"  daily.  The  lao- 
guage  nf  the  Acta  leaves  it  uncertain  whether  Lysin 
or  Derbe  was  the  reiudence  of  the  devout  family.  The 
latter  has  been  inferred,  but  without  much  likelibnod. 
from  a  possible  construction  of  Acts  xi,  4,  Ihe  focmtf 
from  xvi,  1, 2  |see  Neander, /^laic.  Mad /.**.  1,288;  .«- 
ford  and  Huiher.  nil  loc).  tn  either  ease  the  absence 
of  any  indication  of  the  existence  of  a  synagogue  maka 
this  devout  consistency  more  oolii'  j 


TIMOTHY  41 

ttdnk  hen,  u  mt  Philippi,  of  tbc  few  devout  women 
gang  Tonh  to  Ibeir  diily  wonhip  it  lume  river-side 
tniMT  (ConTtmra  ind  How»n,i,Sll).  The  rewling 
*a^  nmv  in  i  Tim.  iii,  I4,idcipudby  Lichnunn  ami 
TKbendorf,  inilictln  thmt  ii  wu  (t-ni  them  ■<  well  u 
rival  the  iposiJe  Ihat  The  yonnf;  diaciple  received  hii 
liru  impieuiufl  of  ChriMian  truth.  It  would  be  iiit- 
onl  thil  a  character  thua  FaahionMl  ihould  retain 
tbrpughuul  KHnMhtng  oT  ■  femiTiine  piety.  A  coiiiti- 
tuiion  Tar  from  robuat  (1  Tim.  v,  'iS),  a  morbid  ahrink- 
Ing  (iMD  uppuiition  and  mponaihllily  (iv,  13-16 ;  v,  20, 

tan  (i,  1),  ■  tendency  to  an  aacetic  rigor  which  he  had 
aotUrtnglh  to  bear  (I  Tim.  v,2S),umted,u  it  often  i>, 
Kith  a  temperament  expoaed  to  same  riak  (aee  the  elabo- 
rate diaaeruiioii  De  HfttTipaa!^' Etri^/iiait.by  Bu«ua, ' 
ia  Haae.  Tlittaanu,  voL  ii)  from  "vouthful  luAta"  (2 
rim.  ii, «)  and  the  softer  emotiona  (1  Tim.  v,  2)— these 
wt  may  well  think  of  as  chsracteriiing  the  youth  as 
[hey  afterwanls  characterized  the  man. 

%  flit  Ctmrrrtion  and  Ordtnaliimy—Tite  arrival  of 
Paul  and  Bamabaa  in  Lycaonia  (Acts  xir,  6)  brought 
ihe  mnaage  of  glail  tidinfn  to  'Hmothy  and  his  miitb- 
w.anJlbey  received  it  with  "unfeigned  faith"  (2  Tim. 
i,&).  A.D.  44.  If  at  Lvaira,  as  seema  probable  from 
t  Tim.  iii,  11,  be  may  have  witnessed  the  half^nm- 
(ileled  sacrifice,  the  balT-flniiihed  minyrdom  of  Taul 
lAOs  liv,  19).  The  preacfaiRK  of  the  apoaile  on  hit 
retum  from  his  short  circuit  prepared  him  for  ■  life  of 
uSering  (ver.  22).  From  that  time  his  life  and  edu- 
ailoD  must  have  been  under  the  direct  auperiiilend- 
a(c  of  the  body  of  elders  (ver.  23),  During  the  inter- 
val of  ihm  yean  between  the  apoatle'a  lint  and  second 
joameys,  tbe  youth  had  gnatly  matured.  Hia  leal, 
prubaMy  hia  asceticism,  became  known  hath  at  Lystra 
and  lennium.  Tbe  mentioD  of  the  two  churches  aa 
Huited  ID  testifying  to  his  chancier  (xvi,  3)  leads  ns  to 
believe  that  the  early  work  was  prophetic  of  the  later, 
that  he  had  already  been  emplni'ed  in  what  was  after- 
wards In  be  the  great  labor  of  his  life,  as  "the  menen- 


.fthe. 


1  that 


for  that  office  which  detei 

who  had  Ihe  deepest  insight  into  character  and  spoke 
with  *  prophetic  utterance  pointed  to  him  <1  Tim.  i.  18; 
iv,  U),  aa  others  had  pointed  before  to  Paul  and  Bv- 
ubaa  (Acta  xiii,  2),  as  specially  fit  (or  the  misoionary 
woHt  in  which  the  apoatle  was  engaged.  Perwiial  feel- 
iag  kd  Paul  to  the  same  conclusion  (xri,  3),  and  he  I 
■aa  mlemnly  aet  apart  (tbe  whole  assembly  of  the  eld- 
eis  laying  their  hands  on  him,  as  did  the  apoatle  him- 
self) to  do  the  work,  and  pombly  to  bear  the  title,  of 
evai^st  (1  Tim,  Iv,  U;  2  Tira.'i,  6;  iv,  h).  Iconium 
has  been  suggeatcd  by  Cunybeare  and  Huwson  (i,  289) 
•ilhe  pnbable  acein  of  the  ordination. 

A  great  obstacle,  however,  presented  itself.  Timo- 
thy, tboogb  inheriting,  as  it  were,  from  the  nobler  side 
(Wettstno,  ad  loc,),  and  therefore  reckoned  as  otte  >if 
the  seed  oF  Abraham,  had  been  allowed  to  grow  up  Id 
the  age  of  manbood  without  tbe  sign  of  circiimciuon, 
and  in  this  point  he  might  seem  to  be  disclaiming  the 
Jewish  blood  that  was  in  him  and  choaaing  to  uke  up 
hit  position  as  a  heathen.  Had  that  been  his  real  po- 
■ilion,  it  would  have  been  utterly  inconsistent  with 
Paul's  principle  of  action  to  nrgo  on  him  the  necessity 
of  circumcision  (1  Cor.vii,  18:  Gal.  ii,a:  v,  2).  As  it 
was,  hia  condition  was  that  of  a  negligent,  almost  of  an 
spoHate,  IsTseUte;  and,  though  circumcision  was  notb- 
tng.  and  aacircDmcinon  wa*  nothiu);,  it  was  a  sertnus 
ipiestioa  whether  the  scandal  of  such  ■  poiution  should 
be  allowed  to  fmstnle  all  his  efforts  as  an  evangelist. 
The  fact  that  no  offence  seems  to  have  been  felt  hith- 
erto it  eiplsined  bv  the  predominance  of  the  Gentile 
tkment  in  tbe  churches  of  Lycaonia  (Acts  xiv,  27). 
But  hi*  wider  work  would  bring  him  intfl  contact  with 
tke  Jews,  who  had  already  shown  themselves  so  ready 
In  tttadi.  and  then  the  scandal  would  come  ouL  They 
•night  loleraie  a  heathen,  as  such,  in  Ihe  synagogue  or 


6  TIMOTHY 

the  church,  but  an  uncircumciscd  Israelite  would  be  to 

their  feelings,  making  no  sacrifice  uf  principle,  the  apna- 
tle,  who  had  refused  to  permit  the  circumcision  of  Ti- 
tus, "look  and  circumcised"  Timothy  (avi,S);  and  then, 
as  conscious  of  no  inconsistency,  went  on  his  way  dis- 
tributing Ihe  decrees  of  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  the 
great  charter  of  the  freedom  of  the  I  lentiles  (ver.  4). 

companions.  Not  since  he  parted  from  Baniabas  hact 
be  found  one  whose  heart  ao  answered  to  his  own.  If 
Barnabas  had  been  as  the  brother  and  fKend  of  early 
days,  he  bad  now  found  one  wbom  he  could  claim  an 
his  own  by  a  spiritual  parentage  |2'I1m.  i,  2).  Me  calls 
him  "son  Timothy"  (I  Tim.  i,  18);  "mv  own  son  in 
the  faith"  (ver.  2) ;  "my  beloved  son"  (i  Cor.  iv,  17); 
"  my  workfellow"  (Rom.  svi,  21);  "  my  brother"  (which 
is  probably  the  sense  of  Tifiiiitoc  D  d^cX^  in  2  Cor.  i.  I ). 
3.  HuEeaKgttiilicLaiortinidJBHmt]i$. — Continuing- 
his  second  missionary  tour,  Paul  now  look  Timothy  with 
him,  and,  accompanied  by  St]vanu«.and  proliablv  Luke 
alao,Joumeyed  at  length  t«  Philippi  (Aclsxvi,  12)',wher» 
[he  young  evangelist  became  conspicuous  at  once  tor  .his 
filial  devotion  and  hia  seal  (Phil,  ii,  22).  His  name 
iloes  not  appear  in  the  account  of  Paul's  work  at  Thes- 
salonica,  and  it  is  posuble  that  he  remained  some  rime 
at  l>hilippi,  and  then  acted  as  the  messenger  by  whom 
the  members  of  that  Church  sent  what  they  were  able 
to  give  for  the  apostle's  wants  (iv,  IB).  He  appears, 
however,  at  Benea,  and  remains  there  when  Paul  and 
Silas  are  obliged  to  leave  (Acts  xvii.  M>.  eoing  on  af- 
terwards t..  join  his  master  in  Greece  (1  Thest  iii,  2). 
Meanwhile  he  is  sent  back  to  Thessalonica  (ibid.),  s.< 
having  special  gifts  for  comforting  and  teaching.  He 
returns  from  Thessalonica,  not  to  Athens,  but  lo  Corinth, 
and  his  name  appears  united  with  Paul's  in  the  openiiig^ 
words  of  both  the  letters  written  from  that  city  to  the 
ThessalDnians(l  Tbes*.i,  1;  2Thes8.i,  1).  Dr.  Words- 
worth infetB  from  2  Cor,  ii,  1 1  and  Acts  xvjii,  5  that 
Timothy  brought  contributions  to  the  support  of  the 
spoetle  from  the  Hacedonian  churches,  and  thus  re- 
leased him  from  his  continuous  labor  as  a  tent-maker. 


angelist 


When  we  again 


(2  Cor,  i,  19),  and  on  him,  probably,  with  m 
lions,  devolved  Che  dutv  of  baptising  the  new  converts 
(I  Cor.  1, 14).    or  the  iiext  lour  or  Hve  years  of  bis  life 
we  have  no  record,  and  can  infer  nothing  beyond  ■ 

:ive  service  as  Paol's  companion. 

with  him,  it  is  as  being  sent  on  in 
anvance  wniie  ine  apostle  was  contemplating  the  long 
joumev  which  was  to  include  Macedonia,  Achaia.  Jeru- 
salem, and  Rome  (Acts  nix,  22).     A.D.  64.     He  wa> 

ways"  of  the  apintle  (I  Cm.  iv,  17).  We  trace  in  the 
words  of  Ihe  "  father"  an  anxious  desire  lo  guani  Ihe 
son  from  the  perils  which,  to  his  eager  but  sensitive 
lemperament,  would  be  most  trsdng  (xvi.  1(1).  His 
through  the  churches  which  he 


hadb< 


italin 


id  this  * 


exerciung  the  gifts  which  were  after- 
wanls  to  be  displsyed  in  a  still  more  responsible  ofGc*. 
It  is  probable,  from  the  passages  already  referred  to, 
that,  afler  accomplishing  the  special  woili  assigned  l» 
him.  be  returned  by  the  same  route  and  met  Paul  ac- 
cording 10  a  previous  arrangement  (ver.  11),  and  was 
thus  with  him  when  the  second  epistle  was  wiilien  lo 
the  Church  of  Corinth  (2  Oir.  i,  1).  He  telums  with 
the  apostle  lo  that  cily,  and  Joins  in  messages  of  greet- 
ing Co  the  disciples  whom  he  had  known  personally  at 
Cnrinlh  and  who  had  since  found  their  way  lo  Rome 
(Rom.  xvi,  21).  He  forms  one  of  the  company  of 
friends  whn  go  with  Paul  to  Philippi  and  then  sail  by 
themselves,  wailing  for  his  arrival  by  ■  different  ship 
(Acts  xi,3-fi).  Whether  he  continued  his  journey  lo 
.rernsalem,  and  what  liecame  of  him  during  Paul's  im- 
ptisonmenlat  CcMrea.sre  points  on  which  we  must  re- 
main uncerUin.    The  language  of  Paul's  address  lo  lb* 


TIMOTHY 


liis 


U>  Iwly.  He  muU  hmve joinpil  him,  however,  »pp»renl- 
1}-,  K<oii  after  bia  orrival  in  Rome,  and  hu  with  him 
when  Lhe  epistles  to  th?  Philippiuit,  to  the  Cnloniina, 
anil  to  Phil«nan  wen  writMn  (Phil,  i,  1  j  ii,  19 ;  Col.  i, 
1 :  Philetn.  I).  All  (he  indications  of  this  period  point 
to  incessant  mimionarr  (wtivitj-.  Aa  brfore,  n  now,  he 
In  to  precede  the  penoul  coming  of  rhe  ipoatle,  inapecu 
inc,  adviMng,  reporting  (Phil,  ii,  19-23),  caring  eapecial- 
\y  for  the  Macedonian  churchea  as  no  one  else  could  care. 
The  (pecinl  measages  of  greeting  sent  to  him  at  a  later 
4iate  (2  Tim.  ir,  21)  ahow  that  al  Rome  also,  an  else- 
where, he  had  gained  the  warm  aOectton  of  those  among 
whom  he  ministered.  Among  thoae  moK  eager  to  be 
thus  remembered  to  him  we  find,  according  to  a  fairly 
supported  hypothesis,  the  names  of  a  Roman  noble,  Pu- 
dens  (q.  v.),  of  a  future  hishop  of  Kume,  Linos  (i|.  v.), 
and  of  the  daughter  of  a  British  king,  Claudia  (WiU- 
iams,  Claudia  and  Padau;  Convbeare  and  Howson, 
ii,  501 ;  Alford,  Kfurtut  m  Grrrk  Tril.  ill,  104).  It 
is  intereating  to  think  of  the  young  evangelist  as  hav- 
ing been  the  inatniment  br  which  one  who  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  fathonileBsimpurity  of  the  Roman  world 
was  called  to  a  higher,  life,  and  the  names  which  would 
-otherwise  have  appeared  only  in  the  foul  epigrams  of 
Martial  (i,  B2;  iv,  IS;  v,4S:  xi,  63)  raised  lo  a  perpet- 
-uil  honor  in  the  Mlolacions  of  an  aposUilic  epistle.  An 
article  ( Tlity  of  Catar'i  Hautrkold)  in  Jounu  <•/  Chut, 
and  S'icrtd  Philology,  No.  a,  qucsdons  this  hypothesis, 


o  the    Alexander — to  oppose  ai 


heathen  cl 


I  thev 


of  Pud 


read  Coo  many  al 


■.t  the  n 

.     On  the  ot 


I  of  character.    Fodens  tells 


"Oh.tl 
7, 29).     He 


4«gs  him  to  correct  Iheir  tdemishes. 
autograph  copy,  then,  do  youV"  {vil,  II).  The  slave 
En-  or  RucolpoB  (Che  name  is  poasiblv  a  wilful  distoi- 
ti»n  of  Eubulua)  doea  what  miglu  Ik  Che  fulfUment  of  a 
Christian  vow  (Acts  icviii,  18),  and  this  is  the  nccaaon 
-of  Che  suggestion  which  seems  mtwE  damnatory  (Martial, 
v,4H).  With  this  there  mingles,  however,  aa  in  iv,  IS; 
vi,  5S,  the  language  of  a  more  real  esteem  than  ia  com- 
mon in  Martial  (comp.aome  gnod  reraarlu  in  Galloway, 
A  Clnygnan'i  iiolidayi,p.a6-49). 

To  the  close  of  this  period  of  Timothy's  life  we  may 
probably  refer  the  imprisonment  of  Heb.  xiii,28,and  the 
trial  at  which  he  "witnessed  the  good  confession"  not 
worthy  to  be  likened  to  that  of  the  Great  Confeasor 


before  I'ili 


B(IT 


vi.  IB). 


le  genuii 


Uymenieus,  PhileCiu, 
him  (i,20:  lTim.ii. 
I  beloved  teacher  wit 
no  longer  honored  as  it  had  been ;  Che  strong  aflectian 
of  former  days  bad  vanished^  and  "  Paul  the  aged"  bad 
become  unpopular,  lhe  object  of  suspicion  and  dislike 
(comp.  Acts  IX,  S7;  2  Tim.  i,  16).  Only  in  the  oai- 
rowed  circle  of  Che  faithful  few— Aquilai,Priscilli,Hait, 
and  others— who  were  siill  with  him  was  he  likely  u 
find  sympathy  or  support  (iv,  19).  We  cannot  wondn 
that  the  apoetie,  knowing  these  trials,  and,  with  hii 

them  his  own,  shoidd  be  full  of  anxiety  and  fear  for  hia 
disciple's BCeadfastnese;  thatadmonitions, appeals, warn- 
ings, should  follow  each  other  ill  rapid  and  vehement 
aucceaaian  (1  Tim.  i,  IH;  iii,  l&i  iv,  14;  v,  21;  vi,ll). 
In  Che  second  epistle  to  him  this  deep  personal  feeling 
utters  ilaelfyet  more  fully.  The  friendship  of  twenty 
years  was  drawing  to  a  cloee,  and  all  memories  cornMO- 
ed  with  it  thnmg  upon  the  mind  of  the  old  man,  ehw 
ready  lo  be  ottettd :  tbe  blamelesi  youth  (2  Tim.  iii,  Ibl 
the  holy  household  (i,  6),  the  solemn  ordinaciott  (rtr.6\ 
the  tears  al  parting  (ver.  4).  The  last  recotded  wotdi 
of  the  apostle  express  the  earnest  hope,  repeated  yet. 
more  eimeatly,  that  he  might  see  him  once  again  [iv, 
9,21).  Timothy  is  to  come  before  winter,  to  bring  with 
him  the  cloak  for  which  in  chat  winter  there  mwld  be 
need  (vcr.  13).  We  may  haiard  the  conjecture  that 
he  reached  him  in  time,  and  Ctiac  the  last  hounoftbe 
teacher  were  soothed  by  the  presence  of  (be  disdple 
whom  he  loved  so  truly.  Some  writers  have  even  ana 
in  Heh  xiii,  28  an  indication  that  he  shared  Paol't  im- 
prisonment, and  was  released  trom  it  by  the  death  cl 
Vao  (Conybeare  and  Howson,  ii,  602 ;  Neander,  PJIoB. 
and  Lril.  i,  652).    Beyond  this  all  is  apociypbal  and  iio- 

4.  Zj^FwIury  JVoftDM.— Timoctay  continued,acoaidiiig 
to  the'oldcraditions,to  act  as  bishop  of  Ephesus  (Eiiaeb. 
HiM.Eccla.u.\,i,1;  Conit-HpoM.  vii,4e)  see  Unge.A 
fin.  Epiicopo  F.phrt.  [lips.  1756]),  and  died  a  martji't 
death  under  Domitian  or  Nerva(Niceph.fft«.iielttiii, 
11;  Photius,  Coii.  2:64).  The  great  festival  of  Anhhi 
(the  larofwyiav  of  that  godden)  led  him  ut  pnUK 
the  license  and  frenzy  which  accompanied  iL 


Tbe  I 


ir  of  the  whole  o 
i,  612). 


e  later  dace  of  the  two  epistles  addressed 
him  (see  below),  we  are  able  to  put  together  a  few  n 
lices  as  Co  his  laier  life.  It  follows  from  1  Tim.  i,  8  Chat  | 
he  and  hia  master,  after  the  release  of  the  lalier  from  , 
his  imprisonment,  revisited  lhe  proconsular  Asia;  that  i 
the  apostle  Chen  continued  his  journey  lo  Macedonia, 
while  the  disciple  remained,  half  reluctantly,  even  weep- 
ing at  the  separation  (2  Tim.  i,l),  at  Kphesus,  to  check. 
if  possiUe,  the  outgrowth  of  heresy  and  licentiousness 
which  had  sprung  up  there.  The  time  during  which 
he  was  thus  to  excrciae  auCliorily  as  the  delegate  of  an 
■pusCle — a  vicar  apostolic  rather  Chan  a  bishop — was  of 
utiL-enain  duration  (1  Tim.  Iii,  14).  The  position  in 
which  he  found  himself  might  well  make  him  anxious. 

rule  presbyters,  most  of  whom  were  older 


part  of  the  Acta  ( Olshaosei, 


ing  theory  as  to  the  inlerreniDg 
period  of  hia  life  has  found  favor  with  Calmet  (a,  v."Ti- 
molhee"),  TillemonC  (ii,  147),  and  olhen.  If  he  cootin- 
ued,  according  to  tbe  received  tradition,  Co  be  biahsp  of 
Epheaua,  Chen  be,  and  no  other,  must  have  been  tbe 
"  angel"  of  that  Church  to  whom  the  message  of  Rer, 
ii,  1-7  wss  addressed.  It  may  be  urged,  as  in  some  de- 
ifirroing  this  view,  chat  both  the  praise  and  tbs 
iiJsme  of  Chat  message  are  such  as  harmoniie  with  the 
impressiona  as  Co  the  character  of  Timothy  derived  fna 
the  Acta  and  the  Epistles.  The  refusal  to  acknowirdfe 
the  self-styled  apostles,  the  abhorrence  of  the  deedi  of 
tbe  Nicolailane,  the  unwearied  labor,  all  this  btluip 
to  "the  man  of  God"  of  Che  Pastoral  Epiatlei.  Norii 
the  fault  leas  characteristic.  Tbe  strong  language  <i 
"    "  '    would  lead  us  to  expect  that  tbe  tempu- 


tioo  of  such  a  man  would  be  to  tail  ai  _ 
of  biB"GiBt  lDve,''the  lealof  bis  finitfatth.  Tliepnai- 
If  (iv,  12),  to  assign  to  each  a  stipend  in  pro-  ise  of  (he  Lord  of  the  churchea  is  in  substance  the  siiK 
tbst  implied  in  the  langiuge  of  the  apostle  (J  Tim. 
4-li),  This  conjecture,  ic  should  be  added,  has  bees 
Bseil  over  uiinoCiced  bymosCofthe  recent  cwnmenia- 
rs  on  the  Apwalyi-se  (comp.  Alford  and  Wordswonh. 
r  (.«■.).  Trench  {S. r-,,  Ckurclia  o/^iia,  p.  B4)  mi- 
isls  the  "  angel"  of  lii-v.  ii  with  Timothy  as  an  "etr- 
r  angel"  who,  wiili  the  genCiatioD  (o  which  he  bi" 


portion  la  his  work  (v,  17),  to  receive  and  decide  o 
charges  that  might  be  brought  against  them  (ve 
20),  to  regulate  tbe  almagiving  and  Che  sislerboods  of 
tbe  Church  (ver.  3-10),  to  ordain  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons (iii,  1-13).  There  was  the  risk  of  being  entangled 
in  the  disputes, prejudices, covetousneBs,sen3ua1iiy.of  a 
great  city.     There  was  the  risk  of  injuring  heallh  and  , 


TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO   417   TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO 


kmETd,  b*d  pMsed  iwaf  when  the  Apacalypie  wu ' 
wiiutiL  It  muat  be  remembtreil,  however,  thai,  ac  the 
liawoC  hul'i death, TiniDth J  wu  still"  voung,"  prob- 
acy DM  man  than  thirty-flre;  that  be  miglit,  there- 
ion,  well  be  living,  nen  on  the  luuniplion  nf  Che  later 
dale  oT  the  Apoealvpae,  and  that  the  traditions  (rateant 
jainraii)  plaix  hia  death  after  that  date.  Benge]  ad- 
niu  thii,  but  ur^rea  the  ohjectian  thai  he  waa  not  the 
tBbop  or  any  angle  diocese,  but  the  luperinfencient  of 
oaoT  diarcheg.  Thin,  however,  may  in  iu  turn  be 
nvened  by  the  answer  that  the  death  of  Paul  may 
have  made  a  great  dilfererce  in  Ihe  work  of  one  who 
had  bilbnto  been  employed  in  travelling  aa  bia  repre- 
■nratire.  The  special  charge  committed  to  him  in  the 
PaMonI  Eputles  might  not  nn naturally  give  fixity  to 
■  life  which  had  previoaily  l>een  wandering. 

An  adilitinnal  fact  connected  with  ^he  name  of  Tim- 
otliy  >>  ihat  two  of  the  ireatisea  of  the  Pseudo-Diony- 
Mas  the  Aioijiagile  are  addrpsaed  lo  him  {Dt  Hierarch. 
Call  I;  c»mp.  Le  Nourry.  IHiterl,  c  ix,  and  Hallfljx, 
Qoeir.  if  in  Higne'i  eilitinn). 

&  Lilrratart, — In  aildition  to  Ihe  works  above  cited, 
■ee  KliuOng,  l)t  Tim.  Maprvfi.  (Vitemb.  1713) ;  Seelen, 
ft  Tim.  Co"/'«ore  (Lubec,  1733) ;  Haiudorf,  IM  Oi-di- 
inimr  Tim.  (Viirtnb.  \7bi};  WiUAiu,  MitotlL  Sacr.  ii, 
OS;  alaohisKnmr.  ■4mi/.  |i.SI6Bq.i  Mosheim,  £Mrt/. 
fldral.  At.  <m  riin.  (Hamb.  1754),p.4  sq.;  Bertholdl, 
taint,  vi,  349  iq. ;  Hevdenretch,  f.ften  d.  Timolitui,  in 
TtKhimer'a  Mtmorabi  VJll,  ii,  13-76;  Erans,  Script. 
Bios.  VOL  i;  Lewin,S/.PW  (see  Index);  Plumptre.Bi- 
Ue  Edtcator  (see  Index);  and  eapecially  Ilowson,  Com- 
famimtr-fSI.Piiul{}jmi.\tri\'i,ch.jai.     See  Pauu 

TmOTHT.FiBSTEpisTLBTO.  This  is  the  fittt  of 
the  K-ealled  Pailarat  EpMtt  of  Paul,  and  therefore  in 
Dealing  it  we  shall  adduce  many  pointa,  eapedalty  those 
letaiingto  iuaulhenlicicy,  etc,  which  are  applicable  to 
two,  and  indeed  to  all  thrve,  of  them.     See  I'aI'l. 

I.  A  atioriSip. — The  question  whether  tliese  epistles 


in  the 


of  Eusebius,  who 

iXoyovpiiv.    The  catalogues 

Council  (3M),  of  Cyril, 


of  Aihanasiiusofihe 

oT  Epiphanius,  and  of  Jerome  cnntam  tnem,  and  ascnoe 
rbea  in  the  apoalle^  Keroiniscencea  of  I  Tim.  occur  in 
Otia.Koai.(£pul.i  Cor.  nv);  "  Let  us  draw  nigh  to 
bia:  .  .  .  lifting  up  pure  and  undoHled  hands'  (eomp. 
iria.ii,8);  in  Polvcarp</lrf/'*Vfi>ipeB.c.4>!''The 

bnught  nothing  into  this  wodd,  and  can  carry  nothing 
out,  let  ua  put  on  the  anoor  of  righteouaneas"  (comp.  1 
Tlm.vi.T.  10):  and  in  Ihe  letter  of  the  Church  at  Ti- 
eiina  and  Lymii:  "But  the  fury  of  the  enemy  chiefly 
Ml  m  Attaluf,  a  'pillar  and  ground'  of  onr  Church" 
(Fj»biDs,  fliil.  EcdtM.  V,  I ;  comp.  1  Tim.  iii,  16).  To 
t  Tun.  Ignatius  seems  to  allude  when  he  writes  ID  Poly- 
orp  (c  6), "  Pleaae  him  whose  snldien  ye  are,  and  fVom 
whim  you  nceivepay'  (eomp.  2  Tim.  ii,  4);  and  Poly- 
i^arp  {Ad Philif^>fii.  c  ft):  "He  has  pmmiseil  ua  thai  if 
we  walk  wnnhilv  of  him,  we  shall  reign  wilb  him" 
(aHiip.i  Tim.  ii.  11, 12).  To  the  eptstle  lo  Tilus  Igna- 
tioa  aUsdea  (.4  d  rmU  c  3) :"  Whose  behavior  is  itaelf 
I  ETtat  lenon  of  instmclion."  (The  word  for  "  beha- 
vior," ttrraaTtifia,  occura  in  the  New  Test,  only  in  Tit, 
iL3).  UkewiBeaem.ltoni.(>^.l!}:"YewerereMly 
brevervgood  w»rk'(conip.Tit,iii,  I).  To  I  Tim.  we 
have  direct  testimony  in  trenmii  {Adr.  Hib:\,1,1): 
"They  Intmduce  rain  genealogies,  which,  as  Ihe  apos- 
4e  ian,  ■  miniilet'  qneationa,  rather  Ihan  godly  edify- 
iac  which  is  in  failh"  (comp.  I  Tim.  i,  4) ;  in  Clem. 
Akx.  {Strum,  ii.  383):  "Concerning  which  Ihe  aposile 
wriUofj  ■y^  '  O  TimolJiv,  keep  that  which  is  commil- 
ud  to  thee"  (comp.  I  Tim.  vl,  W,  21);  and  in  Ten  nil. 
{ft  Pnuaip.  J7<mf.  c.  2fl) :  "  And  Ihia  word  Paul  ha» 
iwd  to  Timpthr, '  O  Tinwthy,  keep  Ihe  depoiit'  "(comp. 
X.-14 


ibid.).  To  a  Tim.in  IrenBus  (.4*.  Bar.  iii,8,B)  :"The 
apuMles  delivered  Ihe  episcopate  lo  Unus; . .  .  of  which 
Linus  Paul  makes  mention  in  those  epistles  which  he 
wrote  10  Timathy"  (comp.  2  Tim.  iv,  ai);  and  in  Ter- 
tulL(£«it7i.e.lS):  "Exulting  (i.e. Paul)  in  the  prospect 
of  il,  he  writes  to  Timothy, '  I  am  poured  out  as  adrink- 
oflfering;  and  tbe  lime  of  my  departure  is  al  hand'" 
(comp.  2  Tim.  iv,  6).  To  tb*  eptalle  to  Tilus  in  Ire- 
HBUB  {Ade.  Hot.  iii,  3,  4):  "The  apostles  would  not 
even  in  word  communicate  with  those  who  adulterated 
the  tnith,  as  Paul  says,  'A  heretic  after  the  fini  admo- 
nition reject,  knowing  that  such  a  one  is  perverse'" 
etc  (comp.  Til  iii,  10,11);  in  Oem.  Alex.  (Ad7«im.ad 
Cmr.  p.G)i  "For  as  tbaC  divine  apostle  of  the  Lord  says, 
'The  saving  (trace  of  God  hath  appeared  unto  all  men,'" 
etc  (comp.  Tit.  ii,  11-18);  and  in  Tenull.  {Dr  Prtri.  e. 
S):  ''Paul,  .  .  .  who  suggests  that  'a  heretic  alter  tbe 
fint  admonition  it  to  be  rejected  as  perverse' "  (comp. 
Tit.  iii,  10).  See  also  Tertull.  (Ad  Urorm,  i,  7),  Ire- 
ama(Adp.  Birr,  iv,  tS,  3 ;  ii,14.8).  Paralleliama,  im- 
plying qnotalion,  in  aome  cases  with  close  verbal  agree- 
ment, are  found  likewise  in  IgnatiuB,^<f  ifo^.  c.  t*  (I 
Hm.  i,  4);  Polycarp,  c  4  (comp.  I  Tim.  vi,  7, 8) ;  Theoph- 
iluB  of.tnliuch.  Ad  AuloL  iii,  VM  (comp.  I  Tim.  ii,  I, 
2).  Later  testimony  is  so  abundant  that  it  is  needless 
to  adduce  it.  Thus  the  external  teelimnny,  indirect 
and  direct,  lo  tbe  three  e{MSIles  is,  so  far  as  the  Church 
is  concerned,  as  strong  as  lo  any  portion  of  Scripture. 
It  must  not  be  concealed  thai  they  were  rejected  by 
some  of  the  Gnostic  heretics,  as  Marcion  and  Basilides 
(see  TertulL  Adv.  Mar.  v,  21 ;  Jemme,  Prolog,  ad  Til.). 
Tatian  accepted  the  Epistle  to  Tilus.  but  rejected  Ihoae 
10  Timothy.  The  conlenla  of  Ihe  epistles  sulilcienlly 
account  for  the  repugnance  of  the  Gnostic  teachers  lo 
admit  their  genuineness.  Origen  mentions  (Commtnl. 
ia  Matl.  p.  117)  some  who  rejeeled  2  Tim.  on  account 
of  Ihe  allusion  to  Ihe  apocryphal  story  of  Jannes  and 
Jambrea  (iii,  S),  which  they  considered  unworthy  of  an 

The  Paatoral  Epistles  have,  however,  been  subjected 
lo  a  more  elaborate  scrutiny  by  Ihe  criticism  of  Ger- 
many. The  flnt  doubts  were  uttered  by  J.  C  Schmidl. 
These  were  followed  by  the  Stttdtchrribm  of  Schleier- 
macher,  who,  assuming  the  genuineness  of  2  Tim.  and 
Tilus,  undertook,  on  that  hypothesis,  to  prove  Ihe  spu- 
riousnea  of  1  Tim.  Bolder  critics  saw  ihni  the  pu«- 
tion  thus  taken  was  untenable,  that  the  three  epistles 
must  stand  or  fall  tngether.  Eichhom  (£)nfnr.iii)  and 
»e  Wetle  {Einleil.)  denied  the  Pauline  authurahip  of  aU 
three.  There  was  Rlill,  however,  an  atlemin  lo  main- 
tain Iheir  authority  as  cmboilying  Ihe  substance  of  the 
apostle's  leaching,'or  of  letters  written  by  him,  on  the 
bypolhesEs  that  they  had  been  sent  forth  after  his  death 
by  some  over.zealous  disciple,  who  ivished,  under  the 
shadow  of  his  name,  to  attack  Ihe  prevailing  erroia  of 
the  time  (Eichhom,  ibid.).  One  writer  (Scholl,  hagoge 
llitl^tril.  p.  324)  ventures  on  the  hypolhesis  that  Luke 
wasthewriler.  BtMt^DietogmamdtnPaitoral-BTiefe), 
here  as  elsewhere  more  daring  than  oihen,  assigns  them 
to  no  ejvlier  period  than  the  latter  half  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury, after  the  death  of  Pulycarp  in  A.D.  167  (p.  IBS), 
On  this  hypolhesis  2  Tim.  was  Ihe  earlieei.  1  "Tim.  the 
latest  of  Ihe  three,  each  probably  by  a  different  writer 
(p.  72-76).  They  grew  out  of  Ihe  stale  of  parlies  in 
Ihe  Church  of  Home,  and,  tike  the  Gospel  of  Luke  and 
the  Acts,  wvre  intended  lo  mediate  between  Ihe  extreme 
Pauline  and  the  extreme  Petri ne  sections  of  ihe  Church 
(p.  hS).  Surling  from  the  data  supplinl  bv  the  Epislle 
lo  the  Phitippians,  the  writers,  (Irtt  of  2  Tim.,  Ihen  of 
Ulus,  and  lastly  of  I  Tim.,  aimed,  by  the  insertion  of 
personal  incidents,  messages,  and  the  like,  at  giving  lo 
their  compilations  an  air  of  verisimilitude  (|).  TO).  It 
will  be  seen  from  Ihe  above  statement  that  ihe  qoea- 
lion  of  authorship  is  here  more  than  usually  imporlanU 
There  can  be  no  siduiion  as  regards  these  epistles  like 
that  of  an  obviously  dramatic  and  therefore  legitimate 
personation  of  characler,  auch  at  is  possible  in  rela- 


TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO    418   TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO 


don  lo  tha  suihunhip  of  Ecduiaatei.    If  the  Putoral 

u>  pi»  as  such,  Hid  tbe  onimiu  dtcipiaidi  would 
then  in  iu  moat  flagrant  funn.    Th«y  would  btve 
take  their  place  with  Che  Pseudo-Clenientine  Homili 
or  Che  pKutto-Ignntian  EpiMlo.     Where  we  now  i 
Che  traces,  full  of  life  and  inlereat,  of  the  obancler  of 
"Paiilthe  a)(ed,"  linn,  tender,  zealous,  loving,  we  ehould 
have  to  recojtniee  only  the  tricki,  Bometimes  akiirul, 
sumetimes  clunuy,  of  wiine  unknown  anddishoneM  con- 
CruvenialiiL     Conwquencea  lucli  as  iheae  ought  noC,  it 
a  true,  l«  lead  uo  In  suppreaa  or  dUlort  one  iota  of  evi- 

amining  the  evidence,  noc  in  admic  conduaiona  that  are 
wilier  Chan  the  premises,  nor  to  Cake  the  premiaes  them- 
selves for  granted.  The  task  of  eiaoiining  is  rendered 
in  some  measure  easier  by  the  fact  that,  in  tbe  judgmenc 
of  niiisC  critics,  hostile  as  well  as  rrienril)',  the  three  Pas- 
toral Kpistles  stand  on  the  same  ground.  The  inlerme- 
diaie  hypotheses  of  Schleiermacher  (tupra)  and  Cred- 
uer  (Kialtit.  tni  .V.  T*.),  who  looks  on  Titui  as  genuine,  2 
I'im.  as  made  up  out  of  two  genuine  letters,  and  1  Tim. 
as  altogether  spurious,  may  he  dismissed  as  individual 
ecceniriciiiea,  hardly  requiring  a  separate  notice.  In 
dealing  with  ohjecrions  which  take  a  wider  range,  we 
are  meeting  those  also  which  are  confined  ia  one  or  two 
out  iifihe  three  epistles. 

(I.)  Objediata  It  that  EpitlUi  ia  GtueraL—Ttie  chief 
elemenls  of  the  alleged  evidence  of  spuriousncaa  ii 
three  Psstoral  Epistles  may  be  arrangeil  as  follow; 

1.  !.aa!iuiigr.~The  style,  it  is  urged,  ia  different  from 
that  of  the  acknowledged  Pauline  Epistles.  There  it 
less  logical  continuity,  a  wane  of  order  and  plan,  aubjecti 
brought  lip,  one  afler  the  other,  abruptly  (Schleiermach- 
er). Not  less  Chan  flfly  words,  moal  of  them  striking 
and  cbaraclerisiic,  are  found  in  these  epistles  which  a 
not  found  in  Haul's  writings  (see  the  list  in  Conybea 
and  Howson,  App.  I,  and  Huther,  Emltil.).  The  fo 
mula  of  salutation  (k''P>Ci  tXtoc,  ('p^i^),  balf-technical 
words  and  phrases  like  tioiiina  and  its  cognates  (1 
Tim.  ii,  aj^iii,  IS;  vi,  fi  et  oL),  TiafiaKaTaiipai  (i,  " 
:he  frequently  recurring 


iCaX.lT0C(IT 


1;  2  Tim 


,11), 


vovta  as  the  distinctive  epicheC  of 
true  teaching — these  and  others  like  tbeoi  appear  hei 
for  Che  first  lime  (Schleiermacher  and  Baur).  Some  of 
these  wotils,  ic  is  urged,  ^vipavv,  Jiri^i 
fu[  airpiioiToi',  belong  lo  the  Giiosdc  terminidogy  of 
the  U  centur}-. 

On  the  other  side  it  may  be  said  (I)  that  there  Is 
test  so  uncertain  aa  Chsc  oflanguage  and  style  thus  ■ 
plied ;  how  uncertain  we  may  judge  from  Che  fact  that 
Schleiermacher  and  Neander  lind  no  stumbling-blocks 
in  2  Tiro,  and  Tims,  while  they  detect  an  un-Paiili 
character  in  I  Tim.  A  difTerence  like  chat  which  roarks 
the  speech  of  men  divided  from  each 
may  be  conclusive  against  the  iilencity  of  aulhonhip; 
but,  short  of  that,  there  ia  hardly  any  conceivable  diver- 
gency which  may  not  coexist  with  it.  'I1ie  style  of 
one  man  ia  stereotyped,  formed  early,  ami  endi 
The  ienlcncea  move  after  an  unvarying  rhyihm;  the 
same  words  recur.  That  of  another  changes,  more  or 
less,  liom  year  li>  year.  As  his  thoughts  expand,  Chey 
call  fur  a  'new  vocabularj-.  The  last  works  of  aiich  a 
writer,  as  those  of  Bacon  and  of  llurke,  may  be  florid, 
redundant,  figurative,  white  Che  earlier  were  dmotl  mea- 
gre in  their  simplicity.  In  proportion  aa  the  man  is  ■ 
solitary  thinker,  or  a  strong  assertor  of  his  own  will,  will 
he  tend  10  the  former  state.     In  proportion  to  hU  power 

with  others,  will  be  his  tendency  lo  the  latter.  Apart 
from  all  knowledge  of  Paul's  character,  Che  alleged  pe- 
culiarities are  but  of  little  weight  in  Ihe  adverse  scale. 
With  that  knowledge  we  may  see  in  thero  tbe  nstarol 
result  of  tbe  intercourse  with  men  in  many  lands,  of 
that  readiness  lo  become  all  things  to  all  men,  which 
could  hardly  fail  lo  show  ilaelf  in  speech  as  well  as  in 


action.  Each  group  of  his  epistles  baa,  in  like  maniKr, 
its  characceristic  worda  and  phraser  C^.)  If  Chis  is  inie 
generally,  it  is  so  yet  mote  emphacically  when  tbe  cir- 
cumstances ofaulborsbip  are  different.  The  language 
of  a  bishop's  charge  is  noC  that  of  his  letters  to  bis  pri- 
vate frienda.  The  epialles  which  Paul  wrote  to  the 
churches  as  societies  might  well  diS'er  from  those  which 
be  wrote,  in  Che  full  freedom  of  open  speech,  Co  a  famil- 
iar friend,Cohisawn''tme  son."  Ic  is  notsCrange  that 
we  should  find  in  Ihe  latCer  a  Luther-like  vehemence  d 
expression  (e.g.  ataviTrfptavitiruv,  1  Tiro,  iv,  S;  lia- 
rapa-rpifiai  Su^apfiivi^v  df^puruv  row  iwi',  vi,  6j 
aiatjpfvjikiia  a/xapriai^^STim.  iii,  6),mised  Bometimcs 
with  words  tbac  imply  that  which  few  great  men  bate 

aC  least,  for  sacire  (e.  g.  ypauiuQ  ^iuSout.  1  Tim.  ir, ; ; 
^\vQpoi  teal  irtpitpytH,  v,  18;  rfrv^rnj,  vi,  4;  yatm- 
fKC  ^lai,  TiL  i,  12).  (3.)  Other  letters,  again,  were  dic- 
tated to  an  amanuensia.  These  bare  erer^-  appeannre 
of  having  been  written  with  hia  own  hand,  and  tliiican 
hardiy  have  been  withouC  its  influence  on  their  wile, 
rendering  it  leas  diffuse,  the  tcansiliona  more  ahrupi. 
the  treatmenCof  each  aubjectmore  conciae.  In  tliis  re- 
spccC  ic  may  be  compared  with  tbe  other  two  auli^rsph 
epistles,  Chose  to  the  Galatians  and  Philemon.  A  Vbl 
of  words  given  byAlford(vol.iii,iVufn7.ch.  vii)  sboisa 
"      "         '  iblance  between  the'tinc  of  these  mo 


and  tbe  Pastoral  Epistles.  (4.)  Ic  may  be  » 
to  whawver  extent  a  forger  of  spurious  epistles  wooW 
be  likely  to  form  his  style  after  the  )tallem  of  the  m> 
ogniaed  ones,  so  that  men  might  not  be  able  to  distin- 
guish the  coiintcrTeiC  from  Ihe  true,  to  thst  exlenl  ttat 
diversity  which  has  been  dwelt  on  is,  within  the  limiii 
that  have  been  above  stated,  not  igainsl,  but  for,  the 
genuinenesB  of  these  epiaclei.  (6.)  Lastly,  there  ia  tbe 
positive  argument  tbac  Chere  ia  a  large  common  cle- 
ment, both  of  jhnughCs  and  words,  shared  bv  these  epis- 
tlea  and  the  others.  The  grounds  of  faith,  ihe  law  of 
life,  the  tendency  to  digress  and  go  off  at  ■  word,  the 
personal,  individualiiing  affection,  the  free  reference  lo 
his  own  sufferings  for  the  truth,  all  these  are  in  both, 
and  by  them  we  recognise  the  identity  of  the  writer. 
The  evidence  can  hardly  be  given  within  tbe  limits  of 
this  article,  but  its  weight  will  be  felt  by  any  careful 
student.  The  coiiicidcncea  are  precisely  those,  in  iwai 
inaCancea,  which  the  forger  of  a  document  wuuhl  hart 
been  unlikely  to  chink  of,  and  give  but  seamy  support 
to  the  pen-else  uigenuity  which  sees  in  Chese  tesem- 
blauces  a  proof  of  curopilation,  and  therefore  of  apuii- 

2.  A  naehnmitm.— It  has  been  urged  (chiefly  by  Eich- 
hom,  Eialeil.  p.  31&]  against  Che  recepCion  of  tbe  PaUonl 
Epistles  tbac  chey  cannoc  be  titled  into  the  records  of 
Paul's  life  in  the  Acta.  To  this  there  is  a  thttvfoM  an- 
swer. (I-)  The  diDiculty  has  been  enormously  exsggei^ 
Bled.  If  the  dales  assigned  to  chem  muai,  to  some  ex- 
tent, be  conjectural,  there  are,  at  least,  two  ht-polbesn 
in  each  case  (u/i't)  which  rest  on  reasonably  gni>l 
grounds.  (S.)  If  the  difficulty  were  aa  great  as  it  is  said 
10  be,  the  mere  fact  that  we  cannoc  Itx  tbe  precise  date 
of  chree  letters  in  the  life  of  one  of  whose  ceaseiisE  la- 
bors and  journeyings  we  have,  after  all,  but  fragmen- 
tary reconla,  ought  noC  Co  be  a  stumbling-block.  The 
hypothesis  of  a  release  from  Che  impiisonmeDt  wlih. 
which  the  history  of  the  Acts  ends  removes  all  difScul- 
and  if  ibia  be  rejected  (Baur,  p.  67),  aa  iCaelf  iwt 
resciiig  on  sufficient  eiidence,  there  ia,  in  any  caae,  a 
gap  of  which  we  know  nothing.  It  may  at  least 
I  to  be  a  theory  which  explaina  phenomena.  (S.) 
Here,  aa  before,  the  reply  ia  obvious,  that  a  man  com- 
posing  counterfeit  epistles  would  hare  been  likely  to 
make  them  square  with  Ihe  acknowledged  records  of 
the  life. 

3.  Eecbiiatlicitm. — The  Ihree  epistles  present.  It  il 

id,  a  more  developed  aUte  of  Church  organiiation  and 

doctrine  than  that  belonging  to  Che  lifetime  of  Paul. 

(1.)  The  rule  that  the  bishop  ia  to  be  "  the  husband  of 


thiotht,  FinsT  epistle  to  419  timothy,  first  epistle  to 


OK  Kite'  (1  Tim.  iii,  S|  Tit.  i,  6)  indicates  tli«  Hrong 
oppoilioii  to  second  nunisges  which  chincleriied  the 
Sa«niurF(Baur,  p.  118-120),  (S.)  The  "younger  wid- 
(rn'  ot  1  Tim.  V,  1 1  cuinot  poeaibly  be  lilerall.v  widowi. 
Kihc*  werp,  Paul,  in  idviting  them  to  marry,  would  be 
ucluiliiiii  them,  accanlitig  lo  the  rule  ot  I  Tim.  v,  6, 
fnim  all  chance  of  sharing  in  the  Church's  bounty.  It 
fclloirs  therefore,  that  the  word  K^i  is  meil,  aa  it  was 
in  ibr  £1  anturv,  in  a  wider  sense,  as  denoting  a  cuuse- 
cnird  lire  (Raur,  p.  43-49).  (A.)  1'he  rules  atrKting  the 
nUlion  of  the  bishops  and  elilen  indicate  a  hierarchic 
dtishipDieiil  characteristic  uf  the  I'etrine  element,  which 
btrame  dominant  in  the  Chuich  ot  Rome  iti  the  post- 
spiMnlie  period,  but  foreign  altogether  to  the  genuine 
epistles  ol  Paul  (Baut,  p.80-8»).  (4.)  The  term  aiptt,- 
[<ic  is  used  in  its  later  sense,  and  a  formal  procedure 
agaiost  the  heretic  is  recognised,  which  bekmga  to  the 
M  BsitDrj'  rather  than  the  flrst.  (S,}  The  upwsrd  prog- 
leia  rnxn  the  office  of  deacon  in  thai  of  preabyier,  im- 
plitd  in  1  Tim.  ill,  IS,  belongs  lu  a  later  period  (Uaur, 
lee.  dl.).     (&)  On  2  Tim.  i,  6 ;  ti,  9,  see  below. 

It  is  not  ditfictilt  to  meet  objections  which  contain 
•0  large  an  element  of  mere  arbitraty  assumption,  (1.) 
Adniiiing  Baur's  iiitcTT>ret»ion  of  1  Tim.  iii,  2  lo  be 
Ibc  right  one,  the  rule  which  makea  monogamy  a  con- 
dilion  of  the  episcopal  office  is  very  (sr  removed  from 
ibe  hsish,  sweeping  censures  ot  all  second  marriaj(eB 
which  w«  6nd  in  Athenagoras  and  TertnUian. 
There  ii  not  a  rfiadnw  of  proof  that  the  "younger  »id- 
DVs"  were  not  liierallv  such.  The  x'ip'"  of  the  Pastor- 
al Epistles  are,  like  those  of  Acts  vi,  1 ;  ix,  39.  women 
n  the  alou  of  the  Church,  not  necesssrilv 
or  engaged  in  active  labors.  The  rule  Ax- 
ing the  age  of  aialy  for  admisskm  is  all  but  conclusive 
■gainst  Baur's  hypolheais.  <S.)  The  use  oriirincawM 
and  wpfi^irrtpot  in  the  Pastoral  Epistlea  as  equivalenl 
(Tit.  >,  6,7).  and  the  absence  of  any  inlennedi ate  order 
between  the  bishops  and  deacons  (1  llm.  Iii,  1-8), 
<)Diie  unlike  what  we  And  in  the  Ignaiian  Epistles  and 
other  writings  of  the  2d  cenlury.  They  are  in  i  ' 
aitieenient  with  the  language  of  Paul  (Acts  xi.  1 
PhiLi,  1).  Few  fealuresofthese  epistles  are  mom 
ing  than  the  abaeoce  of  any  high  hierarchic  sy 
(4.)  The  word  aiptriaif  has  its  counterpart  in  the 
out  of  I  Cor.  xi,  19.  The  sentence  upon  Hymt 
sud  Alexander  (I  Tiio.  i,W)  has  a  precedent  in  ihai  of 
1  Ciir.T.&.  (5.)  The  beet  inlerprelers  do  not  s 
1  Tim.  ill.  13  the  Iranulion  from  one  office  to  another 
(niap.FJlicol1,aiJia<%,andseeDEACOM).  If  it  is  the 
tbe  asaumplion  that  such  a  change  is  foreign  to  t 
apastolic  age  is  entirely  an  srbitrsri'  one. 

4.  //frrnojasy.— Still  greater  stress  is  Laid  on  the  i 
dieations  of  a  later  date  in  the  deacriptiona  of  the  fa 
teocbera  noticed  in  the  Psslnml  Epistles.     These  poi 
it  it  said,  uumiatakably  lo  Marcion  and  his  foUowe 
Id  the  dvTiSiiriti'  rqs  ^i>?uvu//av  y>w(»iiic(l  Tim. 
M)  there  is  a  direct  reference  lo  the  tresliu  which 
wrote  under  the  title  of'Ai^iJiviiCi  setting  forth  the 
raauadirtion  between  the  Old  and  New  1'tst.  (BauT,  p. 
16).     Tbe  "genealogies"  of  1  Tim.  i,  4i  Tit.  iii,  9  ' 
like  manner  point  to  the  mns  of  the  Talentinians  a 
Ophites  (ibid.  p.  12).     The  "forbidding  to  many,  a 
CDBinaiidiDg  lo  abstain  fVom  meats,'*flti  In  to  Msrcio 
syMem,  n»t  to  that  of  the  Judsiiing  teachers  of  Par 
line(tUif.  p.24).    Tbe  assertion  that  "the  law  is  goc 
(1  Tim.  i,  X)  implies  a  denial,  like  that  of  Marcion, 
iltdivina  aulborily.    The  doctrine  that  the  "  resurrec- 
tion was  pMt  already"  (2  Tim.  ii,  IH)  was  thoroughly 
I  ioaslie  in  its  character.    In  his  eagemesa  in  find  to. 
kens  of  a  later  dale  everywhere,  Baur  sees  in  the  wtilei 
ur  these  epistles  not  merely  an  opponent  of  (inoslicism. 
bat  one  in  part  infecinl  with  their  leaching,  and  appeal) 
to  the  doitdngie*  of  1  Tim.  i,  17;  vi,  16,  and  their  Chri» 
lobigi'  ihruogbout,  as  having  a  Gnoatie  stamp  on  then: 

CanfHlly  elaborated  aa  this  pari  of  Banr**  attack  hat 
ban.  It  is,  parbapa,  tbe  weakest  and  moat  capricious  of 


all.  Thefalieteachen  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles  are  pre- 
dominantly Jewish,  voiioliiainraXot  (1  Tim.  i.  7).  be- 
longing altogether  to  a  diSerent  school  from  that  of 
Harciun.  giving  heed  to  "Jewish  bbles"  (Tit.i,4)  and 
"diBpuieaconnectpdwiththelaw"(iii,9),  Ofallmnn- 
ilroutiea  of  exegoia  few  are  more  wilful  and  fantastic 
than  that  which  flnda  in  voitotiiatrKtiXoi  Antinomian 
teachers,  and  in  fax"'  fopiiroi  Antinomian  doctrine 
(Baur,  p.  17).  The  natural  suggestion  that  in  Acts  ii, 
30,81  Paul  contemplates  the  rise  and  progress  of  a  like 
perverse  teaching;  that  in  Col.  ii,  8-2H  we  have  the 
same  comlnnatioii  of  Judaism  and  a  self-stvled  v>>H<ri{ 
(1  Tim.  vi,  20)  or  ^otofia  (CoL  ii,  8),  leading  In  a  like 

both  of  the  speech  and  the  epistle  as  spurious.  Even 
the  denial  of  the  resurrection,  we  may  remark,  belongs 
as  naturally  lo  the  mingling  of  a  Sadducsan  element 
with  an  Eastern  mysticism  as  to  the  leaching  of  Hat- 
cion.  The  self-con tradiclory  hypothesis  that  the  wril- 
er  of  1  Tim.  is  at  once  the  strongest  opponent  nf  ihe 
Unnstics,  and  that  hcsdopts  their  language,  need  hsrd- 
ly  be  refuted.  The  whole  line  of  argument,  indeed, 
flrst  miarepresenls  the  language  uf  Paul  in  these  epis- 
tles and  elsewhere,  and  then  assnines  the  entire  absence 
from  Ibe  Ist  cenlury  of  even  the  germs  of  Ihe  teaching 
which  characterized  the  Sd  (camp.  Neander,  PJtaia.  vnd 
Ltii.  i,  401 ;  Heydenreich,  p.  64), 

(II.)  Bptcial  Oljeaioni  to  the  FirH  Epitllf.  —  Tbt 
most  prominent  of  these  are  tbe  following:  I.  That  it 
presents  Timolhy  in  a  light  in  which  it  is  ineonsislenl 
with  other  notices  of  him  in  Paul's  epistles  lo  regard 
him.  Hers  he  appears  aa  tittle  belter  than  a  nnvice, 
needing  inslruclion  as  lo  Ihe  simplest  aHatra  of  ecclesi- 
astical order;  wheieos  in  Ibe  Firat  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, written  earlier  than  this,  sre  find  him  (ir.  IT) 
deacribed  by  Paul  as  "  My  beloved  son.  and  faithful  in 
tbe  Lord,  who  shall  bring  you  into  remembrance  of  my 
ways  which  bo  in  Christ,  aa  I  leach  everywhere  in  ev- 
ery Church ;"  and  in  1  Thess.  i,  1-3  we  are  told  ihst 
the  spostle  lisd  sent  liim  U>  Thessalonica  to  escabliah 
the  beliereta  there,  and  to  comfort  them  concerning 
their  fsiih.  If  Timothy  was  so  well  able  lo  regiiLale 
the  churches  at  Corinth  and  Thessalonica.  how,  it  is 
asked,  can  it  be  supposed  that  a  abort  while  afterwards 


d  requii 


for  his. 


duct  as  this  epistle  contains? 
plied,  (1}  that  in  visiting  Corinth  and  Thessahinica 
Timothy  acted  as  the  spostle'a  delrgate,  and  had,  doubt* 
less,  received  from  him  minute  insltucliona  oa  to  how 
he  should  proceed  among  those  to  whom  be  was  sent; 
so  that  Ihe  alleged  difference  in  the  cireumstances  of 
Timothy  when  sent  to  Corinth  and  when  left  in  Ephesua 
disappears;  (2)  that  it  does  not  necessarily  fallow  from 
the  injunctions  given  lo  Timolhy  in  this  epistle  Ihst 
the  writer  n^garded  him  aa  a  novice,  for  Ihey  raiher 
respect  the  application  of  general  principles  to  peculiar 

a  novice  would  require;  and  (8)  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten 
that  tbe  apostle  designed  through  Timothy  lo  present 
to  the  Church  al  large  a  body  of  inalniction  which 
should  be  useful  to  it  in  all  ages  of  its  exiatrnce. 

2.  It  is  objected  thsl  after  the  Church  at  Ephesua 
had  enjoyed  the  apostle's  instructlona  and  presidency  for 
three  years  it  could  not  have  been,  at  the  lime  Ibis 
epistle  is  supposed  lo  have  been  written  by  Paul,  in 
such  ignorance  of  ecclemsslical  arrangemenla  si  the  in- 
Junclione  here  given  would  lead  us  lo  suppose.  But 
what  is  there  in  the  epistle  that  neceasitales  Fiuh  a 
supposition?  It  contains  many  directions  toTlmi>thy 
how  he  sliould  conduct  himself  in  ■  church,  some  of 

Ihore  is  nothing  that  leads  to  tbe  concluaion  that  Ihey 
were  aU  inteniled  for  the  benefit  of  tbe  Chureh  at  Eph- 
esu^ar  that  Ihe  state  oflhatChuTch  was  auch  as  lo  le- 
quire  that  injunctions  of  Ihis  kind  ehoold  be  given  for 
its  sake  alone.  Timothy's  sphere  of  evangelifijc  cffim 
cjElcuded  greatly  beyond  Epheaus;  and  Ibis  epistle  war 


TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO   420   TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO 


dcMgoed  at  once  lu  guide  him  u  to  whit  he  « 
do  in  tbe  churchea  which  he  might  be  called  U 
ulate,  ind  to  supply  hii  autbority  (at  so  doitig. 
aiilea,  doa  it  nut  uatunlly  occui  that  such  minui 


K>  in  full  harmony  with  the  apoatlt  Paul's  teaching 
i>  acknawted){ed  epiitles  (comp.  Rum.  sii;  E|i1i.r 
ri,  etc);  uid  if  in  this  epiule  there  is  no  Hmul 
«itiuii  uf  the  Goapel  Kbeme,  but  rather  a  dmlling 
•-    bpuii  practical  dutiea,  tbe  reanun  otay  eaiiily  bv  found 
iu  the  peculiar  character  of  this  ai  ■  putoral  epinlt 
— an  epistle  or  offlcial  conudli  and  uthMtatiDU  to  ■ 


■  of  Chris 
I.  De  Wetle  si 


■nily. 


strange! 

lowing  1 

4.1c 


This  may  be  seen  t 

mages:  i,  ]S;  i 


■  reference  In 

,13;  vi,  12. 


>e  ful- 


b  alleged  that  the  writer  of  this  epislk  has 
made  such  a  mistake  as  Paul  could  not  have  made  when 
be  clwMB  Alexander  with  Hvmetianis  (I  Tim.  i,  20)  as 
a  false  Christian,  whereas  we'  know  fium  a  Tim.  iv,  14 
that  he  was  not  a  Christian  at  alL  But  where  i>  liie 
shadow  of  evideuce  that  the  Alexander  mentioned  in 
1  Tim.  i,  SO  is  the  same  persanwitblhe  Alexander  men- 


Paul's  day.     Boi 
;e  present?    The  sb- 


tinned  in  2  Tim 


14?    Waath 


Is  suppose  a  blander  where 
t  writer  speaks  of  one  so  called  es  a  heretic  simply  be- 
ause,  in  other  paasages,  mention  is  made  of  one  so  call- 

d  who  was  not  a  heretic?    Nothing  cau  be  more  obvi- 


might  have  been  twenty,  known  to  the  apostle  and 
Timnihy ;  and  that  of  these  two  one  was  a  heretic  and 
UoubleTortheCbnichat  Epbeius,  and  the  other  prob- 
ably ■  heathen  and  an  enemy  uf  the  apostle. 

6.  In  1  Tim.  i,  SO  mention  is  made  of  Hymeneus  as 
■  heretic  whom  the  writer  makes  Haul  say  he  had  ex- 
cam  municateil;  but  this  is  a  mistake,  for  in  !  Tim.  ii, 
17  we  Hiid  Hymeneus  still  a  member  of  the  Church  at 
Ephetus.  and  such  a  mistake  could  not  have  been  made 
by  Paul.  Here,  howerer,  it  is  assumed  without  proof 
(I)  Ibat  the  Hymensus  of  the  one  epistle  is  the  same 
as  the  llymeiiKUs  of  the  oiheri  (2)  tbat,  being  the 
same,  be  was  still  a  member  of  the  same  Church ;  and 
(3)  that  it  was  impossible  for  him,  though  excommu- 
nicated, to  hare  returned  as  a  penitent  to  the  Church 
and  again  to  have  become  a  plague  to  it.  Here  are 
three  hypotheses  on  which  we  may  account  lor  the  fact 
referred  to,  and,  until  they  be  all  excluded,  it  will  not 
fallow  that  any  blunder  is  chargeable  upon  the  writer 
of  this  epistle. 

6.  lnlTim.vi,13  tbe  writer  refen  to  our  Lord's  good 
confcsaion  before  Poiilias  Pilate.  Now  of  this  we  have 
a  record  in  John's  Gospel;  but,  as  ibis  wss  not  written 
in  Paul's  time,  it  is  urged  that  this  epistle  must  be  as- 

that  may  appear  to  be  in  this  remark  by  tlie  consider- 
alion  that  all  the  prominent  facts  of  our  Lord's  life,  and 
especially  the  circumstances  of  his  death,  were  (amiliar- 
ly  knuwii  by  oral  cummuiiication  to  all  the  Christians 
before  tbe  gospels  were  writleik  Though,  then,  John's 
gospel  was  not  extant  in  Paul's  time,  the  facts  reconled 
by  Jbhn  were  well  known,  and  might  therefore  be  very 
naturally  referred  (o  in  an  epistle  from  one  Christian  to 
another.  Of  our  Lord's  confession  before  Pilate  we 
may  readily  suppose  that  Paid,  the  great  advocate  of 
the  spirituality  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom,  was  especial- 
ly fond  of  making  use. 

timents  in  favar  of  the  law  which  are  not  Panline,  and 
teaches  the  efficacy  of  good  works  in  such  a  way  as  to 
be  incompatible  with  Paul's  doctrine  of  salvation  by 
grace.  This  assertion  we  may  safely  meet  with  a  paint- 
ed denial.  The  doctrine  of  this  epistle  concerning  the 
law  is  that  it  is  good  if  it  be  used  fafiifiuc,  as  a  law, 
fur  the  purposes  which  a  moral  law  is  designed  tn  serve; 

Romans  and  Galati 


ioXovo 


De  Wette  si 


■e  of  the  word  u/iaXuyuu 

something  in  accordance  with  orthudox 
lis  is  true;  but,  as  technical  ironts  are  finl 
pruper  sense,  and  as  the  pniper  sense  of 
liiC  perfectly  suits  the  paMa;:e  in  iiueniou, 
asnn  for  supposing  any  such  later  asagt  a 
ggests.  BMides,  his  argument  lelk  Iwih 
ways,  for  oiw  may  as  well  aseen  that  the  ecclesiaMical 
usage  arose  fMm  I  he  leriDS  of  this  passage  as  affinq 
that  the  terms  of  this  paaaage  were  borrowed  fcDn  ec- 
clesiastical usage. 

9,  The  writer  of  this  epistle  quotes  at  a  pari  of 
Scripare  a  passage  which  occurs  only  in  Luke  x,  7; 
but  as  Luke  had  not  written  his  gospel  at  the  tiait 
Paul  is  supposed  to  have  written  this  e|>istle.  and  as  it 
is  not  the  habit  of  the  Mew-Test,  writers  to  quote  ftUB 
each  other  in  the  way  they  quote  fmro  the  Old  Tat, 
we  ate  bound  to  suppuae  tbat  Ibis  epistle  is  the  pmduc- 
tion  of  a  later  writer.  Hut  doa  this  writer  quote  Lide 
X,  7  io  the  manner  alleged?  The  paseage  referred  to 
is  in  V,  IS,  where  we  have  first  a  citation  from  D«L 
XXV,  4,  introduced  by  the  usual  formula, "  The  Script- 
ure saiib;"  and  then  tbe  writer  ailiK  as  further  cm- 
Qrmatory  of  his  position,  the  saying  of  our  lunf  whidi 
is  supposed  to  be  quoted  from  Luke's  goapcL  Now  it 
are  not  bound  to  conclude  tbat  this  latter  was  adduced 
by  the  writer  as  a  part  of  Scripture.  It  mty  be  re- 
garded as  a  remark  of  his  own,  or  as  aume  proveibial 

which  he  confirms  the  doctrine  he  is  establishing.  We 
are  under  no  necessity  to  extend  the  formula  with 
which  the  veiae  is  commenced  sn  as  to  include  in  it  oil 
that  the  veiae  contains.  The  Ear  by  itself  will  not  ji»- 
tify  this;  indeed,  we  may  go  further,  and  affirm  that 
the  use  of  mi  alone  rather  leads  In  an  oppiwle  conda- 
sion,  for  had  the  writer  intended  the  latter  clause  to  be 
regarded  as  a  quotation  from  Scripture  as  well  as  the 
former,  he  would  probably  have  used  some  soch  formula 
as  Eoi  woAiv  (cump.  Hcb.  ii,  13). 

10.  De  Wotie  maint^ns  that  the  injunction  in  v,« 
is  BO  much  beneath  the  dignity  of  an  apostle  that  we 
cannot  suppose  it  to  have  proceeded  from  such  a  writer 


kI  than  it 


y  injun 


d  tbroi 


impatible  with  the  a 


snjoi. 


1  for 
hu(y,  just,  and  good,  ai 


lealouB,  and  active  preacher,  whom  he  esteemed  as  bis 
own  son,  ■  careful  regard  tn  his  health ;  tbe  more  es- 
pecially when,  by  acting  aa  is  here  enjoined,  he  wmild 
vindicate  Christian  liberty  from  Ihoae  ascetic  rcMrainO 
by  which  the  false  teachere  sought  to  bind  it? 

(111.)  Sprciiil  Objreiv/fu  Io  (Ae  Seromt  Epitllr.—Ot 
these  the  most  weighty  are  founded  on  ttie  assumption 
that  this  epistle  must  he  viewed  as  written  during  the 
apostle's  first  impritionment  at  Rome ;  and  as,  for  n^ 
sons  to  be  subsequently  slated,  we  do  not  regard  this 
assumption  as  tenable,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  otcn- 
py  spaoo  with  any  remarks  upon  them.  We  may  leave 
imnuticed  also  those  objections  to  this  epistle  which  an 
mere  repetitiuns  of  those  urged  against  the  first,  and 
which  admit  of  similar  replies. 

1.  In  iii,  11,  the  writer  enumerates  a  series  n(  pu- 
secutiaiu  and  aiHictions  which  befell  him  al  Aniinch. 


TBIOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLK  TO    421    TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISriJE  TO 


leoniinB,  tad  l.yitzt,  at  whicb  he  aajr*  Tlmothj  knew. 
Would  1**111,  it  u  uked,  in  inakiDg  aucb  an  enumen- 
liso.  hite  oommiued  Che  mUuke  or  lelierTing  tu  pene- 

wilh  TimMli}',  and  have  uid  noLbing  uf  tlioae  wbich 
he  endund  nbtfquentty,  and  uf  wbicfa  Titduchy  miuf 
half*  known,  while  of  the  former  he  imyAf  lie  if[iiorantV 
But  lh«Te  is  no  miMake  in  the  mittec.  Paul  baa  ocea- 
nm  to  refer  to  the  kdowledge  Timuthv  had  nf  his  euf- 
fitiiigi  for  the  Gospel.  Of  ttaeae  HinH  bad  occDrred 
before  Tiraolbv's  connecckin  with  him,  while  nthert  had 
oeeaired  while  Tiniothy  was  hii  companioo  and  fellow- 
mSaa.  Of  the  Uuer,  therefore,  Paul  make*  ito  ape- 
aSc  men  tioix,  feeling  that  to  be  unneceaBary ;  but  of  the 
fonner,  of  which  Timothy  could  know  only  by  hearuy, 
bn  of  which  he  no  doubt  did  know,  fur  we  cannot  oun- 
ceire  that  any  interesting  point  in  Paul's  prerioua  hi»- 
tory  would  be  unknown  to  hi»  "dear  aon  in  the  faith." 
ha  maket  apedflc  enumerstion.  Tbi*  fully  accounta  for 
hii  Mopping  abort  at  the  point  where  Timutliy'a  per- 
anual  experience  could  amply  supply  the  remainder. 

i.  The  declaration  in  iv,  7,  etc,  is  incompatible  with 
what  Paul  aajs  of  himteir  in  PhiL  iii,  12,  etc  But  re- 
spect nust  be  had  to  the  very  dilTenuit  circumstances 
in  which  the  apostle  was  when  he  wrote  these  two  paa~ 
■ages.  In  the  one  case  he  rieired  himaelf  aa  still  en- 
gaged in  active  work,  and  having  the  prospect  of  ser- 
lice  before  bim;  in  the  other  he  regards  hiniself  as 
Tsy  near  to  death,  and  shortly  about  to  enter  into  Ihe 
preaence  of  bis  master.  Surely  the  same  individual 
night  in  the  rormet  of  these  cases  speak  of  work  yet  to 
do,  and  in  Ihe  tatter  of  hia  work  as  done,  without  any 
eontradiction. 

3.  In  i,B  and  ii,  3  tbere  are  pointed  allnaions  to  ec- 
rlnsiiliral  ceremoniea  which  betray  a  later  age  thin 
that  at  PauL  This  is  said  without  reason,  the  lay- 
iug  -  on  of  handn  in  the  conferring  of  a  x^ptoif  >><» 
alingethei  an  spnslnlic  usage',  and  the  heating  of  Paul's 
ducitinea  was  what  Timothy,  as  hia  companion  in  trav- 
el, eoold  easily  enjoy,  withnut  our  needing  to  suppose 
that  tbe  apoaUe  ia  bete  represented  as  acting  Ihe  part 
«r  pnfeasar  in  a  school  of  theology. 

Full  paiticulaiB  on  Ihia  discuBeion  will  be  fouml  in 
the  introduc^ona  of  Allbrd,  Wordsworth,  Hutber,  Da- 
vidson, Wiesinger,  and  Hug.  Coni'beare  and  Howson 
(App.  I)  give  a  good  tabular  aummaiy  bath  of  the  ob- 
jections to  the  genainenesB  of  the  epistles  and  of  tbe 
aaiwen  to  them,  and  a  clear  statement  In  favor  of  the 
iMer  •late.  Tbe  most  elaborate  argument  in  favor  of 
tbe  eariier  is  to  be  found  in  Urdner,  Hiiloiy  of  ApotL 
and  Kiciag.  ( Worki,  vi,  31^-875).  See  also  the  intro- 
ductions uT  Hiinlein,  Michaelis,  Eichhom,  De  Wetle, 
Bettholdl,  Cueiicke,  Schott,  etc ;  Schleiermacher,  UAer 
ia  mgtmatalai  ertttm  Urirf  da  Pimbu  im  dm  Timo- 
ttiH,  rn  krititeltri  Smdidirnim  an  J.  C.  Gau  (  BerL 
ISOJ,  ISmo)  1  Planck,  Brtirrhaigm  fiirr  d.  triles  Aiu- 
Ik.  Brirf  an  d.  Tim.  (GSII.  I80H,  8vo);  Beckhau^ 
^ptfiwa  Oba.  Cril.-errgrt.  de  VocalmUt  hirai  Xeyo/u- 
mC  in  I,  ad  Tim.  Kp.  Pouiimi  oAciu,  A  Klimlia  tjut  nUtii 
itraknUibui  (Lings,  1810.  8vo);  Dirtius,  De  Tempore 
^m  prior  Pauli  ad  Tim.  t:pitr.craralatiHBeral\B2B. 
*vo>;  Olio,  Die  grtekicklL  Verkahmue  der  PtiU.-Brir/e 
(Ldp.  I860, 8ro). 

[L  Dale. — The  direct  evidence  on  Ibis  point  ia  ven- 
dilht.  (a.)  i,  3  implies  s  journey  of  Paul  fhim  Ephc- 
■a  in  Hacefkinia,  Timothy  remaining  behind,  (ft.) 
rbe  •>;«  of  Timothy  is  deacribed  as  voinrc  (iv,  13). 
(tl  The  general  resemblance  between  tbe  two  epistles 


re  been  inainlained  as  ful- 


«  hypotheaes 
Hllag  these  conditions. 

1.  Tkejoamry  in  qiittlion  koM  heen  leohrd  upon  at  aa 
ureeordtd  epitode  in  Ihe  Iwo  j/eart'  leork  at  Epheiui 
(leu  xia,  10).  This  conjecture  has  the  merit  nf  bring- 
iaf  Ibe  epistle  within  the  limit  of  the  authentic  records 
<d  PanTa  lih,  but  it  has  scancly  any  other.  Against 
il  n  nay  aige  that  a  Jooniay  to  Macedonia  would 


hardly  have  been  passed  over  in  alienee  either  by  Luke 
in  the  Acta,  or  bf  Paul  himself  in  writing  to  Ihe  Co- 
rintbiana.  Indeed,  Ihe  theory  of  anrecorded  trarela  of 
this  kind  is  altogether  gracuicons.  There  is  no  period 
after  the  formal  appointment  of  Paul  as  a  mistionaiy 
during  which  it  was  possible,  so  fully  have  we  the  itin- 
erary of  the  apostle ;  unices,  indeed,  it  be  Ihe  long  resi- 
dence  in  Ephetus,  that  favorite  resort  of  thecrisu  as  to 
imaginary  joumeya;  and  so  entirely  was  Paul  occupied 
with  local  labors  there  that  it  ia  wholly  excluded  even 

'i.  Thii  journey  kat  betH  identified  icilk  Ihe  jouraeii 
lifter-  lie  tumvU  at  Epkeait  (Acts  xjt,  1).  Against  ihia 
cnnjecture  is  the  palpable  fact  that  Timothy,  instead  of 
remaining  at  Ephesus  when  Che  apoetle  left,  had  gone 
on  into  Uucedonia  befure  him  (xii,32).  The  hj-poth- 
eua  of  a  piianble  rptnm  is  traversed  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  with  Paul  in  JUacedonia  at  the  time  when  2  Cor. 
was  written  and  aentoff.  To  obviate  this  objection,  it 
baa  been  anggeated  that  Paul  might  have  written  tbia 
epistle  immediately  afler  leaving  Epheaue,  and  the  seo- 
ond  to  the  Corinthiaiia  not  before  tbe  concluding  period 
of  hisatay  In  Macedonia;  so  that  Timothy  might  have 
visited  him  in  the  interraL  This  appears  lo  remove 
the  difficulty,  but  il  does  so  by  suggesting  a  new  one; 
for  bow,  nn  this  suppoaitioo,  are  we  to  account  for  the 
apostle's  delaying  so  long  to  write  to  the  Corinthians 
aHer  the  arrival  nf  Titus,  bv  whose  intelligence,  con- 
cerning the  sUte  of  the  Connthian  Church,  Paul  waa 
led  to  address  them  ?  It  may  be  asked,  also,  if  it  be 
likely  that  Timothy,  alter  receiving  such  s  charge  as 
Paul  givea  him  in  this  epistle,  would  ao  soon  have  left 
Ephesus  and  follnwed  the  apostle. 

An  attempt  has  been  nuide  by  Otto  <_Die  gackicklL 
Vrrkab.  p.  23  sq.)  to  avoid  Ihe  difficulty  in  1  Tim.  i 
by  translaCing  it  ihus,"As  I  in  Epbesus  exhorted  Ihee 
to  stand  fast,  so  do  thou,  as  tbou  goest  to  Ufacrdonia, 
enjoin  on  some  not  to  silhere  to  strange  doctrines,''  etc. 
The  passage  ia  thus  made  to  refer  to  Timothy's  going 
to  Macedonia,  not  U>  Ibe  apostle's,  and  the  occstiim  of 
bis  going  is  referred  to  the  jonmev  menlinned  (Ada 
xix,31,33),wilhwhich  the  visit  10  Corinth  mentioned 
(I  Cor.  iv.  17  i  xvi,  10),  is  made  to  synchronixe.  The 
dale  of  1  Tim.  u  thus  placed  brfore  that  of  1  Cor.  AU 
this,  boviever,  rests  on  a  renderinR  of  1  Tim.  1,8  which, 
in  s|iiie  uf  much  learned  dis(|uiviliou,  ita  author  has 

S.  Tke  Journey  in  giutlioB  km  btm  plaetd  in  lAe  in- 
Irrviil  belicetu  Povti  jirit  and  tecond  impritanmmli  at 
Some.  In  favor  of  this  conjecture  as  compared  with 
the  preceding  is  the  internal  evidence  of  the  contents 
of  the  epistle.  The  errors  againat  which  Tintolhy  is 
warned  are  present,  dangerous,  porlentons.  At  the  lime 
of  Paul's  visit  to  HUeius  in  Acta  xx,  i.  e.,  accnnliiig  to 
those  hypotheses,  subsequent  to  Ihe  epistle,  Ihrv  are 
still  only  looming  in  tbe  diatsnce  (ver.  30).  All  Ibe 
circumsuncea  referred  to,  moreover,  imply  tbe  prolongeil 
absence  of  the  apostle.  Discipline  had  become  lax, 
heresies  rife,  the  economy  of  Ihe  Church  disordered. 
It  was  necessarv  to  check  the  chief  offenders  bv  Ihe 
sharp  sentence  of  excommnnieaiion  (I  Tim.  i,' SO). 
Other  cburches  called  for  his  counsel  and  directions, 
or  a  sharp  necessity  took  him  away,  and  be  hastens  on, 
leaving  behind  him,  with  full  delegated  authority,  Ihe 
disciple  in  whom  he  most  conSded.  Tlie  language  of 
tbe  epistle  also  has  a  bearing  on  Ihe  dale.  According 
to  Ihe  two  preceding  hypotheses,  il  belongs  to  the  same 
periods  aa  1  and  3  Cor.  ami  the  Epistle  lo  the  Komana, 
or,  at  the  latest,  lo  Ihe  same  group  as  PhillppJans  and 
Ephesians;  and  in  this  ease  ihe  differences  of  style  and 
language  are  somewhat  difficult  to  explain.  Assume 
a  later  date,  and  then  there  is  room  for  the  changes 
in  thought  and  expression  which,  in  a  character  like 
Paul's,  were  to  be  expected  as  Ihe  j'eara  went  by. 

The  objections  to  the  poaitioD  thua  assigned  art 
the  following:  (I.)  The  aecond  imprisonment  itself  u 
noC  a  mailer  of  history.    We  have  ebewhere,  however. 


TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO    Ki   TIMOTHY,  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO 


Biiduoed  the  evidence  ■■  being  entirely  Mdificlory. 
Sec  Paul.  (2.)  Aa  the  evidence  th«t  the  ipaatle  took 
Bucli  ■  joumey  between  hie  flnt  iiid  MCund  impriMB- 
ineiu  19  purely  hypothetinl  and  inferentui,  it  oiufit  be 
■dmitled  Ibit  the  hypgtheiit  built  upaii  it  is  to  the 
date  or  Ihis  epialle  rests  it  the  IkM  ml  wmewhtt  pre- 
carioiii  Krounds.  On  the  other  hind,  we  know  thil  the 
•poatle  did  purpose  extended  toun  uii  hia  coDtemplaled 
relean  Tmni  the  first  ini])risoiiinent  (Kom.  xt,  S8,  24), 
and  that  theae  embraced  Asia  Minor  (PhUem.  S2),  as 
well  ai  Crete  (Tit.  i,  5).  (fl.)  ThU  hypoiheaia  ia  directly 
ai>p<»eil  to  the  Mlemn  declaratian  of  Paul  to  the  elders 
of  the  Church  at  Ephesus  irben  he  met  Ihem  at  Mile- 
ti>m, "  I  know  that  }'e  alt  shall  see  my  face  no  more" 
(Acts  XX,  25),  ror  it  assumes  that  he  did  we  (hem  acain 
and  preacheil  to  them.     But  Paul  iris  not  infallible 

he  did  reviut  Ephews  (2  Tim.  w,  Vi;  comp.  IS, 20).  <4.) 
It  is  opposed  by  what  Paul  says  (ver.  12),  from  which 
we  leuti  that  at  the  time  ibis  cpislle  was  wtiuen  Tim- 
othy was  in  dinger  of  being  despised  aa  a  youth ;  tiut 
this  could  hardly  be  said  of  him  qftrr  Piul's  first  im- 
prinoumenC,  when  he  must,  on  the  loweat  computali 
bai'e  been  thirty  vein  of  age.  In  reply  W  this,  it  is 
sufilcient  Ui  say  that  this  was  young  eiKHigh  (or  one 
who  was  io  exercise  authority  over  a  whole  body  of 
bishop-preabyters,  many  of  them  older  than  himself  (t, 
1).  (£.)  This  hypnthens  seems  tt>  assume  the  posaibi' 
ity  of  churches  remaining  in  and  amuitd  Ephesua  in 
state  of  defective  arrangement  and  order  for  a  greab 
length  of  time  than  wa  can  believe  to  have  been  the 
ease.  But  arguments  of  this  kind  are  highly  inaecure, 
■nd  cinnot  weigh  af;ainst  historical  statements  and  in- 
ferences. On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  decidedly  incline 
to  this  portion  fur  the  journey  in  question. 

The  preciae  date  of  the  Snt  epistle  we  have,  never- 
theless, no  raeina  offixing.  In  fhiL  ii,24  the  apostle 
expressei  a  hope  of  visiting  that  Church  shortly.  Car- 
rying out  this  intention,  he  would,  after  his  libemion, 
prCMxed  to  Miceilunis,  whence  we  must  auppnae  him 
pasnng  into  Asia,  and  visiting  Ephesus  (A.D.  60). 
Tbt^nce  he  mav  have  taken  his  pmpneed  journey  lo 
.'tjiain  (Rom.  xv,  24,  28),  unlets  he  look  advantage  of 
hia  proximity  vo  the  West  lo  do  ao  direct  from  itome. 
Al^er  this,  and  not  long  before  his  martytdom  (A.D.  64), 
this  epistle  seema  to  have  been  written. 

llLPlact. — Inlhisrespectiisin  regard  to  time,  I  Tim. 
leavea  much  to  conjecture.  The  absence  of  any  local  ref- 
erence but  thit  in  i,  S  suggeala  Macedonia  or  some  iKich- 
boring  district.  In  Amd  other  HS.S.in  the  PeahiU>,Ethi- 
opic,  and  other  veraiona,  Laodicea  is  named  in  the  inscrip- 
tion is  tbepUee  whence  it  wis  sent:  but  tbia  appears  lo 
have  grownoutofatraditionil  belief  resting  on  very  in- 


itible  w 


which  baa  been  adopted  above)  thi 
fened  in  in  Col.  ir,  IS  aa  that  from  Laodicea  (liieophyl. 
ad  loc.).  The  Coptic  version,  with  aa  little  likelihood, 
states  that  it  was  written  from  Athens  (Kuther,  EMeil.'). 

IV.  Objrrl  and  C™«ai**.— The  design  of  the  flrat  epia- 
tie  is  partly  to  instruct  Timothy  in  the  duties  of  that 
office  with  which  he  hid  been  intrusted,  partly  to  sup- 
ply him  with  OTedentials  lo  the  churehes  which  he  might 
visit,  and  pirtly  to  furnish  through  him  guidinee  to  the 
churehes  themselves. 

It  mav  be  divided  Into  Ihm  parts,  exclusive  nf  the 
intMduction  C>,  1,3)  and  the  conc1unan(vi,  20,21).  In 
the /I'Sf  of  these  parts  (i,  8-20)  the  ipostle  reminds  Tim- 
othy generally  of  his  functions,  ind  especially  of  the 
duties  he  had  to  dtacharge  in  reference  to  certain  filae 
teachers,  who  were  anxious  to  bring  the  believers  under 
the  yoke  of  the  law.  In  the  ncotui  (ii-vi,  2)  he  gives 
Timothy  particular  inslructiona  concerning  the  nrrletly 
conducting  of  divine  worship,  the  quililieations  of  bish- 
ops and  deacons,  and  the  proper  mode  of  behaving  him- 
aelf  in  i  church,  in  the  third  (vi,  9-19)  the  apoetic 
discourses  against  some  vices  to  which  the  Cbiistiuis 


V.  Stntetan  aMJ  OAarocfmMict.— The  pecBliaritk* 
of  language,  aa  far  aa  they  alfect  the  question  of  author- 
ship, have  already  been  noticed.  Aasuming  the  geon- 
ineiieea  of  the  epistles,  so  .... 


m  both  re 


Uiced. 


1.  The  ever-deepening  sense  in  Paul's  bean  of  tbe 
Divine  Hercy,  of  which  he  waatbe  object,  as  shown  in 
the  insertion  of  iXtuf  in  the  salutatiooa  of  both  epistles, 
and  in  the  ri\ij^-  of  1  Tim.  i,  IS. 

2.  The  greater  abruptness  of  tbe  second   epinle. 

jecta  carefully  thought  out.     All  speaks  of  strong  over- 
tkiwing  cmotton,  tneaiaries  of  the  past,  iitxicties  abuut 

S.  The  absence,  aa  compared  with  Paul'a  other  «]»• 
ties,  of  Old-Teat,  references.  This  may  connett  itttU' 
with  the  fact  juat  noticed,  that  these  epistles  an  not 
argumentative,  possibly  also  with  the  request  for  tbe 
"books  and  parehmeuts"  which  had  been  left,  behind  (1 
Tim.  iv,  18).  He  may  have  been  separated  for  a  lime 
from  tbe  'ap&  ypaiiitara,  which  were  comoioiily  his 
companions. 

4.  The  conspicuous  position  of  tbe  "  fiuthful  aayii^sT 
as  taking  the  place  occupied  in  other  epUtles  by  tha 
Old-TesI.9criptnrea.  The  way  in  which  Ibne  ue  died 
is  luthoritative,  the  variety  of  subject*  which  they 
cover,  suggest  the  thought  that  in  them  we  have  speci- 
mens of  the  prophecies  of  the  Apostolic  Church  which 
had  most  impreaaed  themaelves  <in  the  miiidurtbeapoa- 
tie,  and  of  tbe  disciples  generally.  1  Cor.  xiv  shows 
how  deep  a  reverence  he  was  likely  to  feel  for  auch  afir- 
itual  utterances.  lu  1  Tlui.  ir,  1  ve  bave  a  diatinct 
reference  tu  them. 

5.  Ilie  tendency  of  tbe  apoatle's  mind  to  dweD  more 
on  tbe  onivenality  of  the  redemptive  work  of  Christ  (1 
Tim.ii,3-6i  iv,IO)i  hisstmngdesire  ihst  all  the  teach- 
ing of  bis  disciples  shoukl  be  "soiuid"  (uyiuiswvcFo), 
commending  itaelflo  minds  in  ■  heillby  state;  hiffeal 
of  the  corruption  of  that  teaching  by  morbid  subtletiesi 

6.  The  importance  atlacheil  by  him  to  the  piaciicd 
details  of  adminiatriiion.  The  gathered  experience  of 
a  long  life  hid  tiught  him  that  the  life  and  welUwing 
of  the  Chiircb  required  these  for  its  safeguards. 

7.  The  recnrrence  of  doxok^ies  (I  Tim. i,  17;  Ti,Ii^ 
16:  i  Tim.  iv,  18),  aa  frum  one  living  perpelaally  in  the 
presence  of  God,  lowborn  the  language  ofadontiaowM 
as  his  natural  apeecb. 

VI.  Cawnnruriei.— The  fulhiwing  are  the  exegeliESl 
helps  on  bol)i  epistles  to  Timothy  exclusively ;  to  a  lew 
of  the  must  important  of  which  we  prefix  an  isteriik: 
Megander,  Exparilio  [includ.  Tit.]  (BasiL  1686,  Bvo); 
Wittich,  tjpoii/io  (Argent.  1642,  gvo) ;  ArtDp<eus,5aa- 
lia  (Stuttg.  1646;  fiaaiL  1646, 8va)  i  Calvin,  Cammala- 
riut  (Genev.  1548,  410;  in  French,  ibid.  166S,  foL;  in 
English  by  Tomaon,Lond.  1679, 4to;  bv  Pringle.  Edinb. 
I86G,  8va);  Alesiua,  DitpUnlio  (Lips.  1560-61,  i  vdL 
Bvo);  D'Espence  [Rom.  Cath.],  CommtalaTa  (Ist  ^ 
LuieUI661,rol.;  l668,8vo:  9d  Ep.  Par.  1564,ri>L);  Ma- 
jor, iVwrmtioafs  (Vitemb.  15ea-S4,avols.8vo)i  Hvper, 
CommnlaTXta  [includ.  Hl  and  Philem.]  (Tij-ur.  1581,  . 
fol.);  Magalian  [R  C.].  C«mmf,U«Hi  [includ.  Til.] 
fLugri.l609,4lo)i  Sotlo[R.C.j,t>'w»n>«(iHis  (includ. 
Tit.]  (Par.  1610,  fol.):  Stewart  [K.  a],  Ciimmatarut 
(Ingobt.  1610-11,2  v(^  4ln) ;  Weinrich,  ComnaUnnmi 
(Lips^  1618, 4to) ;  Sculletua,  ObitTTalioitH  [includ.  Tit. 

■  '>hilem.]  (Francnf.  1684;  Viiemb.  1630, 4lo);  C*iv 
hard.'IdisatarioBu  (Jen.  164S,  1666;  Upt.  1712,  4i<>); 
Nethen,  Di^wlatin  (Ultrsj.  1865, 4to);  Uabert  [lt.C], 
ExpotUio  [includ.  Tit.  and  Phikm.]  (Par.  1656, 8vo); 
"lilW,  ExpontioK  [French]  (Genev.  1669-61,3  voh. 
o);  Cocoeius,  Comnmlariin  (L.  a  1667,  4lo);  Gsc- 
in,0(7innn9r(Levd.  1706, 1719, 4Io);  Hnlse, (Jdpnnp 
(liotierd.l727.4to);*Mo*heim,£'i-iMiwv(Uamb.i;U, 
Zachariii.  £rtf^.{).,eips.l75G,8vo)[  H*m>,  £f^ 
ISul.  (GOtr.  1796,  8vo)  i  •Hevdenrsicb,  Ert!'-  ^■—'■■* 
Til.]  (Hidim.  l»26-28,  2  vo'la.  8™];  F' 
dud.  Tiu]  (Tub.  1631,  8vo);  Blum 


2.  On  theolhtr  hdid.lhciUfficiiltiealjingin  thewi 

afthiasHDi  insuperable,     Huji'sreuaningaaaunieeth 

*    epiHIe  must  have  been  wriiten  in  Ibe  rarlg  part  i 

ipoHte's  impriiannient,el>e  Timothy  rould  not  ha 

iposilion.     But  rh 


w  toUin 


inftn 


TIMOTliy,  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  423  TIMOTHi',  SECOND  liPlSTLE  . 

ac(Beri.l88T.8i«));I.ea,C(n»i«(uri<if(Up&lS3T-49, 
S  •ob.  8va)i  M>tlhie«,  ErtlSr.  [inchid.  Til.]  (Rreifaw. 
1«4II^  Sto);  Hack  [H.  C.],  Crnmalar  [indnd.  Tiu] 
(Tab.  IMl,  flvo) ;  •Scharliiig,  Umrriuci.  etc.  (from  the 
Dniiih,  Jen.  1846,  Sva)i  Piterwn,  Conmottary  [inciud. 
Tii.](Land.l«(<,  ISno);  Rudow,  l>e  Or^iw,  etc  (Uut- 
liDg.  1S62,  Bvt>>;  ■Ellicotl,  Commtnlary  [inelud.  Tit.] 
(Load.  1856:  Bunt.  1866, Sro);  URngM. Die  J nkl„-»; 
e(c(Uub.l8&6,8vr>);  Vink(,J(ut»Knltii9n(Utr.  IB6S, 
8vo) ;  'Ottn.  />>-  I'friaUnuK,  etc  (Leipa.  I8G0.  6v<>)  i 
Bwk,  ErUir.  (Leipa.  1S78, 8vo). 

On  the  JiiH  epiMie  alotie  there  are  the  Mlowinf;- 
Cnciger,  Comtmnranui  (Argent.  1540,  Svo);  Phvgio, 
&j)i~rto[inc]ud,Uvit.](Ba.iL154a,4to;  1596,8v<.); 
Vnutor.  Dulrtbuliimri  (ibid.  1563;  Lipa.  1618,  8vo); 
Hdaacthon,  Enarralio  [includ.  !  Tim.  i  and  ii]  (Vi- 
ttmh.  1561,  8ra) ;  Heaaela  [R.  C],  Commailariui  (La- 
TUL  15CS,  8va}:  Chvlreiu,  EaarraHo  (Francof.  1569, 
Sro);  DiitKiu,  Comnoifiiriu  (Gener.  1578,  8to);  Di- 
buil,  Conmm'ai-uii  (HanoT.  1G98,  8to>;  HeeiHtbrer, 
CmwataHxi  [includ.  Eph.  and  PbiL]  (Norib.  1628, 
4is);  Scfamid,  ParapkratU  (Hamb.  1691,  1694,  4la>: 
rittKhinanii,  Commaitarvit  (Tub.  1796,  8vo)i  Paulua, 
bt  Ttmport,  etc.  (Jen.  1799,  4to);  Schleiermacher, 
Smitekr.  etc.  (BerL  1807,  8ro) :  Planck,  jBRwrit.  etc 
(GetM808,8vo)!  Ii«lihaus,i)i!airni*£yofi.etc.(Ung. 
iSlO,  8vo)j  WegBcheider,  iVUdr.  (Gijll.  1810,  8vo); 
C<iniiH,Z>e  7'nivwrr,elc(Ben)L18!S,8ra).    See  Epia- 


ONn  EFrKTl.K  TO.    Thii  roUom  im- 

in  ibe  New  Teet.    The  qDeMiona  of 

tylc  have  already  been  coiiaidered 

of  the  first  epistle,  Ibe  chnnjologi- 

dtfficijt  w  answer  aaUibt^- 

UjHIt. 

I.  0a<r.— It  is  certain  that  the  second  epistle  waa 
■ritlen  while  the  author  was  a  prisoner  (i,  8,  16, 17;  ii, 
9;  iv,  31),  at  Rome,  we  may  (tut  the  present)  asuime ; 
bat  the  question  aritea,  waa  it  during  bis  fint  or  hii  sec- 

I.  In  (Ivor  of  the  first,  the  most  weighty  consid 
lion  Irises  out  of  the  fact  that  the  apostle  appear 

kI  the  same  indiriduols  as  his  companions  when 


MPpiSt 


bad  when  he  i 


Iki  to  Ibe  Ephnians,  Philippians,  and  Calosaiana,  and 
that  to  Philemoo,  which  we  know  were  written  during 
hi>  Hnt  inipnsiHinienC  at  Rome.  "At  the  beginning 
of  the  im  prison  men  t,"  nya  Hag,  who  has  very  forcibly 
Kited  this  argument  in  favor  of  the  earlier  hypothesis, 
'when  the  Episile  to  the  Ephcaians  was  written,  T 
thy,  who  waa  not  one  of  Paul's  cvrnpaniona  on  the 
•gc  to  Italy  (Acts  xiTii,  3),  was  not  with  him  at  Rome; 
for  Paul  doe*  not  add  his  name  in  the  addre» 
which  the  epistle  commences,  aa  he  always  did 
Timnthy  was  at  his  ude.  TiiDotby  a^rwards  ar- 
rired;  aitd, accordingly,  at  the  outlet  of  the  epistles 
the  Colossian*  and  PhileiDon,  his  name  a[^)ean  wi 
the  apnsiJe'a  (CoL  i,  1 ;  Piiilem.  I) ;  secoiidlv,  Luke  w 
in  Peul's  company  <0>L  iv,  U ;  Philem.  34) ;  thirdiv, 
«ariiK>alikewi«»i(h  him  (CoL  iv,  10;  fhilem.  24); 
fourthly,  Tyehicua  was  then  Paul's  ^inEoific  and  let- 
ter-bearer, and,  in  particular,  was  sent  la  Asia  (Eph.  iv, 
SI ;  Cul  iv.  7. 8).  All  Ihcw  circnmalances  ate  present- 
ed toview  in  the  Second  E;HSIIe  to  Timothy.  (l)Tim- 
Mhy  waa  not  with  Paul  at  Hist,  but  was  suninioned  to 
hu^e  (3Tim.il',  9,21);  (3)  Luke  waswith  him  (ver. 
II):  (S)  ba  wishes  Hark  to  come  with  Timathv,so  that 

in  the  course  of  his  im- 

II);  (4)  Tychicus  was  with  him  in 
the  caftacily  of  letter-bearer,  and,  in  panicnlar,  was  sent 
la  \m*  (ler.  13).  Now.  in  order  lo  auppoee  that  Paul 
wmtc  this  epistle  to  Timothy  duiing  a  second  impris- 
onntent  at  Rome,  we  must  anume  that  the  circum- 

•tanrwofboth  were  exactlr  ■'— -••■-.     We  must 

aliD  MHBH  that  Paul  U  he  latter 

pan  ifStn'*  reieni"!  ftienrls 


how :  (1.)  When  Paul  wipte  lo  the  Gilnwians,  the  Phi- 
ipi^ana,  and  Philemon,  Dennas  was  with  him;  when  he 
wrote  Ibis  epistle  lo  Timothy,  Demas  had  fuTsaken  him, 
haring  loved  this  present  world  and  pine  to  Thessa- 
'     'o  (iv,  10).     (3.)  When  Paul  wrole  lo  the  Ephe- 
IS,  Coloasiins,  Philippisns,  and   Philemon,  he  waa 
in  good  hopes  of  a  speeily  liberation  from  his  impris- 
ent;  when  he  wrole  this  episile  to  Timothy  he 
lost  all  these  bopea,  and  wis  Inticipsting  dealh  ■■ 
'  at  band  (ver.  6-8).    (8.)  At  the  lime  this  epistle 
written  Paul  had  been,  if  not  oftener,  at  least  once, 
before  the  bar  of  the  emperor,  when  he  had  offered  his 
apology  (ver.  16).     (4.)  Tyehicuh  the  bearer  of  the  let- 
ten  lo  the  Coloesiins,  had  been  detpitcheil  from  Borne 
bffore  this  epistle  to  Timothy  was  wriilen  (vet.  12). 
(6.)  At  the  time  the  epistles  to  the  Coloseisna  and  Phile- 
islarchns  wis  with  Paul;  by  the 


1,  AtlBll 


A  lefl  V 


1.1  (ve 


11).    All  these  drcumsunces  forbid  our  supposing  that 
this  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  written  before  the 
epistles  above  named ;  that  is,  in  the  early  part  of  Pmra 
Arst  imprisopment  at  Rome. 
Shall  wc,  then,  iieign  the  epistle  to  a  later  period  of 

ties.  Before  we  can  admit  it,  we  must  suppose  that 
Timothy  and  Mirk, who  did  not  accompany  Paul  to 
Rome,  hid  shortly  aKer  followed  him  thither,  and,  after 
remaining  awhile,  left  Paul,  and  were  again  reijueBted 
by  him  in  this  epistle  lo  return',  that  during  the  inter- 
val of  their  absence  from  Rome,  Paul's  first  trial  hart  oc- 
curred; and  that,  yet  even  before  he  had  so  much  as 
appeared  before  his  Judges,  he  bad  written  to  his  friends 
iu  terms  inlimating  his  full  confidence  of  a  speedy  re- 
lease (PhiLi,  36;  ii,34;  Philem.  33).    These  ci 


It  then 


which  seem  lo  present  insuperable  difficul- 
tiea  in  the  way  of  the  supposition  that  this  epistle  waa 

account  in  the  Acts,  was  of  a  much  tniklet  kinil  than 

In  the  farmer  cose,  he  waa  permitted  to  lodge  in  his  own 
hired  house,  and  to  receive  all  who  came  to  him,  being 
guarded  only  by  a  single  soldier',  in  the  latter,  he  was  in 
such  close  confinement  that  Onesiphurus  bad  no  small 
difficulty  in  finding  him;  he  was  chained,  he  euffered 
evil  even  unto  bonds  as  a  malefactor,  his  friends  had 
mostly  deserted  him,  ind  he  hid  narrowly  escaped  de- 
struction from  the  Roman  tyrant  (i,  16-18;  ii,  9;  iv,6, 
7,  8, 18).    (3.)  In  iv,  13  he  requesta  Timothy  to  bring 

which  he  hid  left  at  that  place.  Ifwe  suppose  theviut 
here  referred  lo  the  same  la  that  mentioned  in  Acta 


t,  5-7.  w 


lude  tbat 


been  allowed  b*  the  apostle  lo  lie  at  Troas  fur  a  apace 
of  at  least  yean,  aa  that  length  of  timeelipaed  between 
the  visit  to  Troas,  meotioned  by  Luke,  and  Paul's  firat 

imprisonment  it  Rome.  Thia  ia  surely  very  unlikely, 
IS  the  documents  were  plainly  of  value  to  the  apoxtle; 
and  if  by  ^niXoi^c,  in  Ibis  paasage,  he  meini  ■  chak 


might  1 


■nofse 


the  apostle's  time 


little  improbable. 
ing  left  Tropbimus  sick  al 


It  Miletus.     N 
1, 16,  fur  subsequent  to  that  Tiophimua  wasw 


TIMOTHY,  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO   424 

Piul  at  Jenisal«in  (AcU  xxi, »}.  It  rollows  that  Paul 
mute  have  vLsiud  MilctuBataautwequentperiod;  liuthe 
dill  not  visit  it  oil  liii  way  rromJenualcoi  to  Rome  an  the 
occasion  or  his  first  imprisonment,  anil  this,  lliCTEfure, 
HcoDgly  farora  Ibe  hypnthenis  of  ii  joiuney  aubecquant 
to  that  event,  and  immcdialdy  antecedent  lo  the  writ- 
ing of  tfait  epUtle.  The  attempt  to  enfeeble  the  force 
"  ■  ■  '  V  tmulating  a^riKiwor,  "Ihet)  left,"  etc.,  and 
**  _  it  uf  meieenKere  from  Epheiiu  coming  lo 
visit  Paul,  ii  ingenioiiB,  but  can  hanlly  be  ailmilted,  u 
DO  louiid  interpreter  would  rurcihly  supply  a  nubject  (o 
a  verb  where  the  context  itself  nntiirolly  suppliea  one. 
(4.)  Ill  ir,  20,  the  »po«tle  »ay8  "  Erastua  abode  in  Cor- 
inth." Sucb  language  impliea  that  shortly  befura  writ- 
ing thii  efuatle  the  apoMic  had  been  at  Corinth,  where 
iKleftEnutus.  But  before  his  Hrat  imprisonment  P  ' 
bad  not  been  at  Corinth  (or  several  yean,  and  dur 
tb«  interval  Timnlby  had  been  with  him.so  that  he 
not  need  lo  write  to  him  at  a  later  perioil  about  l 

exprcHes  the  fact  that  Erastua  was  then  reaidiii);  at 
Corinth,  without  necessarily  implying  that  Paul  bad 
left  him  there;  but  would  the  apootle  in  this  case  have 
iiaed  the  anrist? 

3.  It  thus  appear?  that  the  number  of  apecial  names 
and  incidents  in  the  second  epistle  make  the  chroooliigi- 
cal  data  more  numerous.  W'e  pni[Hise  here,  by  way  of 
summary,  and  in  part  rerapilulalion,  to  bring  them,  u 
far  aa  possible,  together,  noticing  briefly  with  what  oth- 
«l  Tacts  each  connects  itself,  and  to  what  conclnsion  it 
leads  as  to  tb«  conflicting  theories  of  an  earlier  and  later 
dale,  (A)  duringthe  imprisonment  of  Act!  z'xviii,  30,  and 
(B)  during  the  second  imprisonment  already  spoken  of. 


A  parting  npparei 
-■-■a  ofA«-- 


the  niHMtle  even  by  the  dls- 

(I,  lit}.    Nothlni!  In  the  Acts  liidlcntea  any- 

iMIWe  Ihe  (mpAiHiDBieut  of  Atts  iivlll.  Ml. 

Acts  xix  and  ix,  and  not  Ium  ibe  laniDnKe 

-J  to  the  Ephwinnf.  spejika  vl  geuersl  and 

TeelkMi.    This,  1  heretire,  so  fur  oa  il  goes,  innst 


BverjUiIng 
or  the  Bpli 

BtroDg  alTeelkMi.    Thls,il 
ba  placed  on  the  side  <■?  K. 

9.)  The  position  ofPnnl  as  (nfbrlng<i,  It),  In  b.>nds  {II, 
»),expw!ll"a"lheiini«of  hli  deparmrs"  (lv,<).  forsaken 
b  almost  all  (Tsr.  It}— not  qnlte  decisive,  but  lending  li> 
Bmlhgrthan  A.  The  lanimiiiieotibeei^ftles  behnijilDg 
lo  the  first  imprlsonnwul  rmnry,  li  Is  tma,  bonds  (Phil.  I. 
13,10;  Eph.liri:  vl,ta],hnllun1lnflbenitheap»»tlel. 
Borrounded  bymanr  h-lends,  and  labopefol  aiidconadent 
orrelen*e(PhiLI,l»:  Phllem.tS). 

(4.)  The  mention  of  UnaslphDms,  and  of  services  ran- 
deisd  hjr  him  both  at  Rome  and  Ephesns  (U  la-IK)— nut 
decliivs  again,  but  the  lone  Is  rmhgr  ihnt  ofa  msu  look- 
Inic  back  on  a  past  period  of  his  life,  and  the  order  of  i  he 
names  aagi^ta  lbs  ihunKhl  of  lbs  nilulstrnilous  at  Bi^e- 
sns  being  mbsMiient  Ui  those  at  Rome.  Pwslbly.  tim, 
the  meiiilon  nf'lhe  hiinsehold." Instead  of  Unesiphorns 
hlraseir.  maj  Imply  his  desih  In  the  Inlervnl.  This,  there- 
bire.  tends  to  B  mher  than  A. 

(S-lllieBbaDdonnientorPiiDlhyDomaailv,!!)}— slrong- 
Ij  In  fHvor  of  B.  Oemne  wiis  wlih  Ihe  ap>ii-lle  when  Ihe 
spittles  lo  the  0>l<>e-iHi»  (W,  14)  and  Philemon  (M) 
were  written,  t  Tim.  must  thereKira.  In  all  probnblfliy, 
have  been  Hrilteii  atler  tliein:  bni  if  we  place  It  any- 
where In  the  fltstlmprlmmnuiBt.we  iireallbnl  enmiielled, 
by  the  meullon  ol  Murk,  fur  whose  cnmlno  the  npostle 
asks  In  S  Tim.  It,  11,  and  who  Is  wlih  bin  Tn  C<il.  Iv,  in. 
to  place  It  at  an  sarlisr  age.  The  ab-ive  qnallhlng  words 
'"  ^11  but")  might  hare  been  oinltl«l  bni  f.ir  lbs  Kiel  Iha' 


lauds  aacldedly  to  B, 
(B.)  Mention  of  Tychlcns  aa  si 
-  -nnuocted  wlih  Eph. 


RDuears.  as  coauocted  will 
fivor  o?A,  vet,  ss  Tychlcoi 


Ephesns  (iv,  11) 
.  .  .W:  Col.iv,I,ln 
f^^rnr  of  A,  vet.  ss  Tychlcas  was  conlliiDallv  employed  on 
suedal  missions  of  this  kind,  tnaj  Just  as  well  fit  In  with  B. 
(8.)  The  request  that  Timnlby  wonld  bring  the  cloak 
and  l>i>oks  Irlt  si  Tmas  (Iv.  19).  On  the  aHumplion  of  A, 
the  last  visit  of  Paul  to  Troas  wonld  have  been  at  least 
fonr  or  Are  years  before,  dnring  which  there  wonld  pmb- 
ahly  hare  lieou  opiiori  unities  eniiu^h  far  his  reRalnins 
what  he  bad  len.    lu  thai  cose,  loo,  the  clrcumitaiices  of 


TIN 

the  request  more  than  hnlf  Implies, 
his  must  be  reckinied  at  lu  riv<.r  ol 
"Aleiauder  the  covipenunllh  did 

Died  by  Demetrius,  ri 


sans  represented 
the  otber  bai 
hypothesis  of 


Oalboholt. 
did  me  uadi  nil.' 

ufJuanpponA.  Oo 


'bat  wsa  pmbable  enough,  a  reoewMlioaillll]'. 
(11.)  The  abandonment  ofihe  apostle  in  bia  OrMdeltTice 
^i■^,«U^i..).  and  his  dellvemitce  '•It>m  the  month  of  iIk 
linn"  (Iv,  if,  IT)  niB  In  ss  a  possible  cuixingenCT  witb 
either  hTpothesls,  but,  like  tbe  nieuiion  of  Demss  la  Qi, 

of  the  other  epistles  wriiun  from  Rome. 

(it.)  "  Brastusabode  at  Corinth,  but  Tmrhlmos  I  Mist 
HlleluB  sick"  (iv,»0)_lsn?u"2e,  as  in  (i,,  lmp)>lii(  > 
com  liars  lively  recent  rlili  i<>  both  places.    It  li  •ofict, 

then  TrophlmUB  had  not  been  loft  at  Ml  rins,  bat  M 
gone  on  with  Psnl  to  Jemsslem  (Acts  ui,  U),  smi  the 

tlraeBtllieawi«ile'(tb'ld.  »i',  4).    "" ' ''"- 

Acts  uvll  is  parely  arbitrary,  a 


(IB.)  "Hasleu  to  come  before  wint 
the  presence  of  Tlnuthy  in  Phil.  1, 1 
1  might  ba  regarded  as  the  conBeqiienc 

as  shown  In  (SJ  and  (A),  there  are  almu 
cnllles  In  supposing  Ihls  eplslle  to  fas 


Ha.    Wlihnni 
the  abwu 


CoL  I,  I :  PbiW 
ofihl*:  baiibn, 
llosnpenblediB- 

ndens.  IJnn>.  aad 


belong  VI  the  same  perlud.  s 

Urmed!''wor'si'kiiowlng'Tfm'^"  and'lhla  \m^^  Ul^ 
least  pnibsble,  tbnt  be  had  already  been  at  Rome.  Jiad 
that  tills  letter  to  him  wns  cunseqaeuily  later  tbsn  ihose 
to  Ihe  Phlllppluiis  and  Coloaslaue. 

On  tbe  whole,  it  is  believed  that  the  evideira  pre- 
ponderates iltongly  in  favor  of  the  later  date,  and  IbU 
the  epistle,  if  we  admit  its  genuineness,  is  theiefore  s 
strong  argument  for  believing  that  Ihe  imprisonment  of 
Acta  Mviii  was  fulloweil  by  a  period,  (liM  afieneTed 
activity,  and  then  of  suffering. 

II.  Plan.— On  this  point  the  second  epistle  is  tne 
froni  the  conflict  of  cnnjeclures.  Wiih  Ihe  sdilsirrK- 
ceplion  of  Beiticer,  who  aui^gests  Oeaares,  there  is  a 
oofunuHS  in  favor  of  Rome,  and  everything  in  tbe  cir- 
cnmatances  and  name*  of  the  episde  leads  to  the  Mim 
conclusion.  We  may  suppose  that  Panl  was  appre- 
hended at  Nieopolis  (I  Tit.  iti,  12),  and  Ihenoe  convey- 
ed to  RniTve,  where  this  epislte  was  written,  shortly  be- 
fore his  death.  Where  Timothy  was  at  the  lime  it  b 
impassible  to  say ;  most  probabty  at  Ephesua. 

III.  Ohjec<  and  Contnlt.—Tiw  icagn  of  the  second 
epislleis  partly  to  Inform  Timothy  of  the  apostle's  itr- 

warning  voice  against  thp  errors  and  delosiona  which 
were  comip^ng  and  ilisturbing  the  churches. 

It  coDMSts  of  an  inscription  (i,  1~6V,  of  a  Krirs  nf 
exhortatinna  to  Timothy,  to  be  failbful  in  bis  seal  kn 
sound  doctrine,  patient  under  aflliction  and  persecatinn, 
careful  lo  nuinlatn  a  deportmeni  becoming  his  office, 
and  dilieenl  in  bis  enileavors  to  counteract  the  DDhaU 
lowed  effima  of  Ihe  false  teachers  (i,  6:  iv,  3);  and  a 
conclusion  in  which  Paul  requests  Timolhy  to  visit 
him,  and  sends  the  salutalions  of  certain  Christians  st 
Rome  to  Timothy,  and  those  of  the  apostle  himseirto 
some  believers  In  Asia  Minor. 

IV.  rniRBailnriM.— The  following  are  the  sptriil 
exegeiical  helps  on  the  whole  of  the  seoinil  tpiitle  ex- 
clusivelv:  Barlow,  ErfOtOim  (  Lond.  1031,410-.  1«S!, 
fbL)  1  Hall,  ConamUnry  [on  ch.  iii  and  iv]  (ibid.  lffi«. 
fol.);  Feufking,  ia«»r„lin  [inelud.  2  and  (John) 
(Vitemb.  1706,  f.d.);  Brtickner,  CinHMMorAs  (H^iv 
1829,  8vo).     See  Epistlk. 

Tin  (b->na,  bfJil.  from  ina,  lo  diril,.-  so  called  sp- 
parenlly  from  iis  separation  as  an  allag  [laa.  i,2£]i  Sepb 


TIN  4i 

lantrtpaii  Yu]g.  tUnmim).  Among  t1i*  vjuiooi  DWl- 
■b  fboad  iiDorg  the  apoilaarDie  Miitiaiiite*,  lin  Uenu- 
Dmlsl  (Numb,  xxxi,  22).  Il  nu  knuwii  lo  ttie  He- 
imw  DHUl-workera  u  an  atlot-  of  other  Tnetals  (In.  i, 
ti:  Eul(.xsii,18,M).  Tbctnaikeu  nfTynwerc  aap- 
pficil  >ilh  it  by  the  ihip*  of  Tinhish  (Eiek.  icxvii,  Vi). 
Ii  »  osnl  fiir  plummeU  (Zcch.  ir,  10,  mirg. "  «tnne  of 
(■n,'  u  the  Heb.  is),  and  wu  ao  plentirul  u  tu  fumiah 
ike  itriur  oT  llcdeiuscicut  (xlvii,  18)  with  a  figure  by 
■hick  to  exjire**  the  wealth  of  Solumon,  whoni  he  apoe- 
uvphiit*  thiu:  "Thou  didM  gather  gdd  at  (m,  and 
diibt  multiply  ailver  aa  lead." 

Id  the  Homeric  tiiDea  Ihe  Greeka  were  familiar  with 
it  Twenty  layeie  oT  tin  were  in  AganKDinon'a  cuiran 
giieohimby  Cinyrea  (Homer, /j:  u,  SS),  and  tcenty 
liiiMa  iif  liii  were  upon  hia  ahield  (tUi  ii,&4).  Copper, 
tin.  and  gold  were  uaed  bv  Uepluealua  in  welding  the 
■  ihield  of  Achillea  '{ibid,  iviii,  474),     Tbfl  feSKX 


■iihe  ' 


eyard  in  the  d 


lidil  (t6vi574).  The  greaves  of  Achillea,  made  by 
UepliBlua,  were  or  tin  beaten  fine,  cloac-fltling  to  the 
Timh  (Md.  SIS ;  xxi,  593).  Hia  ahield  had  two  folds, 
itlaren,Dr  tin  between  two  outer  lays™  of  bronze  and 
tn  inner  layer  of  gold  (Oid.  xx,  !71).  Tin  was  naed  in 
Knmwotiiig  chariota  {itid.  uiii,  608),  and  a  cuiraaa 
•rbmue  overlaid  with  tin  ia  mentiuned  (ibid.  661). 
No  lUuaioD  to  it  ia  luuiid  in  the  Odt/uti/.  The  melting 
of  tin  in  a  amelling-pot  is  mentioned  by  Hesiod  {Thtog. 

Tin  il  not  bund  in  Paleatine  (Kitto,  Phi/i.  Hil.  of 
ni^.ch.iii,  p.luiii).  Whence,  then,  did  Ihe  ancient 
Hebrewi  obtain  that  aupply?  "Only  three  countriea 
aie  known  lo  coutain  any  considenble  quantity  of  it: 
Spain  and  Portngal,  Cornwall  and  (he  adjacent  parte  of 
Dcvooihire,  and  the  iaUnda  orjunk,CeybHi,  and  Banca, 
in  the  Stnita  of  Malacca"  (Kenrick,  Phiadaa,  p.  £12). 

niim  in  the  ialand  of  Pancbaia,  off  Ihe  eaat  coaat  of 
Arabia,  bot  the  melal  waa  not  exported.  There  can  be 
Utile  doubt  that  the  minca  of  Brilain  were  the  chief 
•onns  of  aupply  lu  the  ancient  world.  Mr.  Coole]-,  in- 
deed, writea  very  pouiively  {Mariline  and  Inland  Dii- 
m"fj,i,iai),"  There  can  be  no  riifficuUy  in  delermin- 
ing  the  counur  from  which  (in  first  arrived  in  Kgypt. 
That  metal  haa  been  in  all  ages  a  principal  export  of 


riipdai 


who  foul 


n  the 


nppliea  of  Rome  flowed  chiefly  through  that  channel 
The  tin-minei  of  Banca  are  probably  tbe  richeM  in  the 
worid;  but  tin  was  unqueationably  brought  froiD  the 
West  at  a  later  perind."  Bot  it  has  been  ahown  con- 
dosivelr  by  Dr.  (irorgc  Smith  (Tke  Cauilrridtt,  Lnnd. 
1863)  that,  BO  far  from  auch  a  atatement  being  Jualifled 
hj  the  authority  of  Arrian,  the  facta  are  all  the  other 
way.  After  examining  the  commerce  of  the  ports  of 
Abyi^ii,  AratNa,  and  India,  it  ia  abundantiy  evident 
thai. "  initead  of  its  cnming  from  the  East  to  Et^pt,  it 
haa  invariably  been  exported  from  Egypt  lo  the  Easl" 
(p.  a).  With  regard  to  the  tin  obtained  from  Spaii 
shbnngh  tbe  metal  was  found  there,  il  doea  not  a|ipei 
to  have  been  produced  in  sufficient  qnantiliea  In  supply 

the  Plmnidan  markets.    Poridoniua  (in  Stixbo, "" 

rtliifa  that  in  the  country  of  tbe  Artabri,  in  I 

e  unnh-wect  of  the  peninsula,  ibe  ground  was 


and  white 


Id  (mi 


vet),  which  were  brought  down  by  Ihe  livere;  but  th( 
qoamity  thna  obtained  could  not  have  been  adequate  tc 
tbe  demand.  At  the  present  day  Ihe  whole  surfacf 
bond  lot  mining  in  Spain  is  little  more  than  a  aquart 
mile  (Smith,  Catileridri.  p.  48>.  We  are  tberefon 
driven  lo  eoiictuile  that  it  waa  ftom  the  Casailetide^  oi 
tin  diauicia  of  Brilain,  that  the  Phmnieiana  obtained 
tbe  great  bulk  of  ihia  commodity  (I.cwis,  //ur. 
ny  o/dt  AUr.  oftht  Amc  p.  4&1),  and  that  thi 
teae  by  tbe  direct  voyage  fiiim  Gadea.  It  ia  liui 
K  a  Ula  period  (Strabo,iii,14T)  tin  was  conveyed 
X„i4a 


TINDAL 

lid  to  Marseilles  by  a  thirty  days'  Joomev  (Diod.  Sic. 

3);  butSirabo(iii,  175)icllsustbBtthePhcemciaiw 

alone  carried  on  this  iralSc  in  former  times  from  Gadea, 

iceatJDgthe  passage  from  everyone)  and  that  on  one 

occaakiii,ithen  the  Romans  fallowed  one  of  their  veneln 

in  onler  to  diicover  the  eource  of  supply,  tbe  master  uf 

]  ran  upon  a  shoal,  leading  those  who  fnlloueU 

deatruction.     In  course  uf  lime,  huncvcr,  Ihe 

Romans  discovered  the  paessge.     In  Eiekiel,"  the  trade 

n  ia  attributed  to  Tanhiah,  aa  >tlie  mcrchaiil' fur 

the  conimodity,witlioutany  mention  of  the  place  whence 

ured"  (fiouiieridfi,  p.  74) ;  and  it  ia  after  the 

time  of  Julius  Cataar  that  we  fint  hear  of  the  overland 

trafflc  by  Marseilles. 

Fliny  (vi,S6)  identifies  the  rauiferoi  of  the  Greeks 
with  the  {jui^n  aUmrn  or  coniiiilun  of  Ihe  Romans, 
which  is  our  fin.  Slarnium,  he  aays,  is  obtained  from 
an  ore  containmg  lead  and  silver,  and  is  the  first  to  be- 
come melted  in  the  furnace.    The  etymotogy  of  cnaai- 

Anbic  term  kaidir.  From  the  fact  that  in  Sanscrit 
koMtira  aigniflea  "tin,"  an  a^ument  has  been  derived 
in  favor  of  India  beitig  the  sooice  of  tbe  ancient  sup- 
ply of  thia  metal,  but  too  much  atresa  most  not  be  laid 
opon  it  See  Lkad.  Tbe  name  of  souse  metal  haa 
been  read  in  tbe  Egj'ptian  acnlpturo  as  Uuuil,  which 
may  refer  lo  "tin."  The  Hebrew  word  tefera  to  its 
principal  use  in  making  bronze,  which  waa  the  case  at 
a  very  remote  period  of  Egyptian  history.  A  hionie, 
appaimtiy  cast,  haa  been  found  bearing  tbe  name  of 
Pharaoh  Pepi  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  who  reigned  cer- 
tainly five  centuries  before  the  Exode.  In  Kgypt  and 
Assyria  bronia  was  generally  made  of  ten  or  twenty 
parte  of  tin  to  eighty  or  ninety  of  cupper,  and  then  ap- 
pear U>  have  been  the  same  proportions  in  Grecian  and 
Roman  manufactoiea  of  a  later  age.  Wilkinson  aup- 
poaea  tbat  the  beautiful  articles  of  workmanship  fre- 
quently found  in  England,  which  have  neither  a  Greek 
nor  a  Roman  type,  were  probably  firat  introduced  by 
thia  trade.  One  apedmen  of  manufoctuied  tin,  now  in 
Ihe  Truro  Hnseum,  haa  been  discovered  in  England, 
which,  OS  it  differe  from  thoae  made  by  the  Romans,  is 
supposed  to  be  of  Phonician  origin.  It  is  nearly  three 
feet  long  by  one  broad,  and  three  inches  high  {Aac 
Egyptiaju,  ii,  184  aq.).    See  HcrAL. 

TlDCtlon,  a  name  applied,  In  the  early  Church,  to 
theriteofbu/ifinn. 

Ttndal(l),  Mattbevr,  one  of  the  succeaaors  of  To- 
land  and  Shaftesbuty  in  the  school  of  English  deiata  or 
freethinkers,  waa  bom  at  Beer-Ferteia,  in  Devonshire, 
about  1667.  He  waa  educated  at  Lincoln  and  Exeter 
colleges,  Oxford;  look  his  A.R  in  1676;  shortlv  after 
was  elected  fellow  of  AU-Soubi',  and  was  admitted  doc- 
tor of  laws  at  Oxford  in  1686.  He  retained  hie  fellow- 
ship during  Ihe  reign  of  James  11  by  professing  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith;  he  aflerwaids  ncanted,  however, 
and,  adopting  revolutionary  principtea,  went  to  the  olher 
extreme,  and  wrote  against  the  nonjurors.  He  now  be- 
came an  advocate,  and  sat  as  Judge  in  the  court  uf  dele- 
gates, with  a  penaion  from  Ihe  crown  of  £200  per  an- 
nam.  Some  time  afterwards,  connderable  attention  waa 
drawn  to  him  by  his  work  entitled  Tke  Rigklt  nflht 
Chriniaa  ClkiinA  (1706-7,  8vo),  and  the  ensuing  con- 
troversy; bat  the  production  which  has  rendered  his 
name  a  memoTsble  one  was  hia  Ciiiilianily  at  01<I  ai  Ihe 
Ciruhm  (1730),  which  provoked  replies  from  Dr.  War- 
burton,  Uland,  Foster,  and  Conybeare.  Dr.  Sliddleton 
endeavored  to  lake  a  middle  cnune  in  this  controversy, 

answer,  though  its  very  exislence  seema  to  have  been 
forgotten,  waa  that  emboilied  in  tbe  Apptol  at  William 
Law.pahliahed  in  1740.  rindal's  line  of  argument  was 
mainly  coincident  with  ghaflesbury's,  that  the  immuu- 
ble  principles  of  faith  and  duly  must  be  ftiund  within 
the  breaal,  and  thot  no  external  revelation  can  have 
any  aulhoritv  equal  to  the  iutenial :  thia  he  supported 


>r  lie  Freethinier'i  Iliad 


TINDAL  4 

by  mncb  leaniiiiKUld  ahaworatgumOTitito  wbich  War- 
builoa  thoughl  he  h*d  replied  by  the  moM  of  learn- 
ed evidence  conuined  in  bis  Ltgcdiim.     Williini  L**, 

niakinK  no  account  of  lilersry  evidence,  replied  by  his 
masii-riy  development  of  Ibe  philaaopby  of  the  bll  aiid 
final  recovery  nf  mankind!  ■  book  remarkable  for  clrise 
argument  awl  fur  iu  many  tine  illuatraliona,  but  now 
obaolele  in  certain  fundamental  principles.  Tiiidal  died 
in  London,  Aug,  16,  1733,  and  wai  interred  in  Clerken- 
well  Chnich.  Mr.  Tiiidal  also  wrote,  A  n  Euay  nacei-K- 
iag  the  Poair  of  lie  Magilralt  and  tie  RigkU  iffMini- 
kM  M  MaOeri  o/BeKgiim  {Land.  ]697,evD):— .4  J>t- 
fmce  of  lie  Sighf  a/lie  Ciritti-a  Ckurch  (ibid,  1709, 

2pt«.8vo):— r*e  XiiiMm  Kinrfica/ed  (ibid.  17 

ITI-,!)  ■.—  WarvrilhfTietlentft,  —  "-  '^--"■-' 
(ibid.  1732, 8vo),  a  burleaque  poem. 

Tiadald).  Nicholas,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  bom  in  Devonihire  in  1687 ;  graduated  A.U.  frum 
Exeter  College  in  l71S,Bndwas  cbcMnfelbw  of  Trinity 
College.  He  entered  holy  ordera  and  became  vicar  of 
Gnat  Waltham,  Embx,  and  rector  of  AlveiMoke,  Hamp- 
ebtre.  In  1740  he  oblaiued  the  living  of  Colboume, 
ble  of  Wiifhi,  and  »aon  after  became  chaplain  ofGreen- 
wich  HoepitaL  He  died  in  1714.  Among  hii  worki 
are, /I  Guide  lo  ClauUnl  I^anrng  {Umi.  1765, 12nio) : 
—a  tranalation  of  Rapin't  flatory  of  Knglaitd,  with  a 
CoMmualiiM  from  1688  lo  lie  Accaiion  «/ George  II 
(1744-17,  In  weekly  Noa.) !  —  .1  irtijuif t»».  Sacred  and 
Pn/oM  (Lend.  1727,  4to-,  in  Noa,  never  completed), 
roL  u  See  Allibone,  Atcf.  (jfBril.  and  Aiur.  Autiort, 
■.  T, ;  Darling,  Cgdnp.  Biilioff.  «.  v. 

Tlndale.  Wiluah.    See  Tvndaue,  William. 

TlngBt&d,  JoHAN  Adolf,  a  Protestant  divine,  doc- 
lor  of  theologv,  and  bishop  of  Streogniia,  in  Sweden, 
where  he  <lied  Dec  10, 1S27,  is  the  author  of  I)e  Ona  el 
CognUione  Linguarum  Oi-ienlaliuia  {(Sreifiwalde,  1768) ; 
—A  nimtideeriionrt  Piilologiart  tl  Ci-itica  iid  ViUKiniu 
Jlabaaiei  (Upsila,  nSb):~Sup}ilemmlorum  ad  Lerit 
Hii>r.SfeammiAcademica(;ib\A.\l^y.—DeU>iftaai: 
Skrifirr  of  gamia  Trttamenlete  I'ropittrr  (SlrengnSa, 
1813)  -.—Klagean^er  a/Propitt  Jerttaia  (ibid.  1820):— 
PliillareR  Pn>Jo/rtr>alln.  (3d  ed.  ibid.  ItilS)  ■.—Piilol. 
AniiUlrbimge  Sfrtr  Urddda  Siatiea  i  gdmia  Test.  Gnmd- 
iprai  (ibid.  1824).  See  Winer,  Saodbuci  drr  lieoL  Li- 
teralur,  i,lW,2W;  ii,e04j  FUrst,  SiM.  ytut  iii,  482 1 
Steinschneider,  Bihliogrofi.  llamSMci,  No.  SOI  1  (Leipa. 
1859).     (B.I'.) 

Tlnlcar,  REimEN,  a  miasionaiy  of  the  Preabylerian 
Church,  wu  bom  at  Chester,  Mate.,  Aug.  6,  1739.  He 
received  a  Rood  preparatory  education;  graduated  at 
Amherst  Colle|[e  in  18:27,  and  at  the  Anbum  Theolog. 
ical  :!^miniry  in  183U;  and  in  November  of  the  same 
vear  waa  ordained  by  the  Mountain  Anocialion,  with  a 
view  lo  his  becoming  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Board  at  the  tSandwich  Islands.  He  reached  the  island! 
at  a  somewhat  critical  perioil,  but,  in  spile  of  all  misl- 
ing  difficulties,  the  cause  of  the  Gospel  was  rapidly  ad- 
vancing. In  1834  it  was  resolved  lo  publish,  in  the  na- 
tive Unguage,  B  aemi-monlhly  newspaper  devoted  lo 
the  interests  of  religion,  and  he  was  appointed  lo  con- 
duct iu  In  1838  he  dissolved  his  rebiiions  with  ihe 
board,  and  established  himself,  with  the  approval  of  his 
brethren,  at  Koloa,  on  the  iilaml  of  Kani,  where  he  la- 
bored unlil  he  departed  fur  his  own  couniry  in  1840.  In 
Sepiember,  1846,  he  was  insulleil  pastor  of  the  First 
PresbyierianChurchinWesltield,ChauUuquiCo.,N.V„ 
where  be  continued  to  labor  till  near  the  close  of  his 
life.  He  died  Oci.  36, 1854.  Mr.  Tinker  was  an  elo- 
quent iweacher,  a  acir-sacriHcing  misaionary,  and  a  fast 
and  flmi  friend.  Aller  his  death  appeared  SermoBi  by 
Rtv.  Reahen  Tinier,  ifiuionaiy  at  the  Snadvnci  ItlaniU ; 
with  a  Biographical  Sketch  by  H.  L.  P.  Thompmn,  D.D. 
(Buffalo,  1856.  ViiDO).  See  Sprague,  A  anaU  o/rit  A  mer. 
Falpil,  iv,  770;  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A«- 
(Ao«,a.v.    (J.LS.) 


la  TIPHSAH 

TiiUM(orChlpp«wa]tBn)V«nloii.  This  lan- 
guage ia  quite  diSerent  from  that  wbich  is  called  Cbip- 
peway  or  Ojibbeway;  it  is  spoken  iu  the  Hudsoo's  Bty 
Territory,  near  Fort  Simpson,  and  over  a  vast  tract  cj 
country  eastward  of  the  Kocky  Mountains.  The  Kev. 
W.  W.  Kirkhy,  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  hta 
trsnslated  Ihe  gospels  according  to  Mark  and  Jotii, 
which  have  been  printed  in  the  syllabic  characier,  uiU 

since  1870.     (a  P.) 

Tluabemetli.    See  Mole;  Swam. 

Tintoretto,  //,  or  Giacomo  KoBuari,  a  diilia- 
guished  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Venice,  acconiine 
to  Ridolfl,  in  1612.  After  being  intlmcled  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  design,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Tiiisn,  wiib  whnai 


.  being  jrataus  uf  bis 
talents  and  progretSL  He  was  not  diamnragrd,  biit  re- 
solved lo  become  the  head  of  a  new  schuoL  Over  hit 
iloor  he  wrote,  "Michael  Angelo's  design,  and  tbeeiikir- 
ing  of  Titian."  He  made  a  special  study  of  light  end 
■hade,  and  of  the  human  fomi  both  by  living  mwHU 
and  by  anatomy.  Though  he  puesesued  many  excel- 
iencea,  his  sovereign  merit  consisted  in  Ihe  animation 
of  his  Hgurea.  He  flourished  for  a  long  period,  ami  re- 
tained his  powers  to  a  gr«at  age,  dying  at  Yeniec  ia 
1694.  His  three  greatest  pictures,  acconling  Id  bis  own 
estimate  and  that  uf  others,  are.  Tie  CmrvfHoa,  iu  the 
Cullege  of  San  Kocco;  Tie  iMtt  Sapper,  now  iu  ike 
Chureb  of  Sanu  Haria  della  Salute;  and  II  Srreo,<x 
the  Venetian  SUve,  condemned  to  martyidom  by  Ibe 
Turks,  invoking  Ihe  protec^u  of  St.  Marl.  Some  irf 
bis  works  are  of  enormous  aiie,  Ihe  Craeifitiim  bong 
forty  feet  long,  the  liratlilte  itonUppiiiif  tie  GM» 
Calf  and  Ihe  Lait  Judgmenl  each  about  hiit  liM 
high.  One  of  his  last  productiotu  waa  his  Paraditii, 
in  Ihe  hall  of  the  great  council-chamber  of  San  Mircu. 
Tintoretto  wrought  so  fast,  and  at  so  low  a  price,  ibst 
few  of  Ihe  other  painlera  in  Venice  could  secure  em- 
ployment. The  churches  and  halls  of  the  riiAreul 
communities  are  overloaded  with  hia  piDduciioaa.  Stt 
Spooner,  Biog.  Did.  of  lie  Fine  A  ns,  s.  v. 

Tiph'sali  ( Heb.  Tipiiaei;  np^p,  from  HOB,  U 
ford,  this  being  Ihe  usual  cnnsing-iitace  of  tbe  Eu- 
phrates [Strabo,  ivi,  I,  21];  Sepi.eai^sd  v.i.Oipiia; 
Vulg.  Thapiin,  Thojaa)  is  mentioned  in  1  Kings  ic, 
34  as  Ihe  limit  of  Solomon's  empire  towards  tbe  Fd- 
phrales,  and  in  2  Kings  xv,  16  it  is  said  to  have  bten 
attacked  by  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  who  "muls 
1'iphsah  and  all  Ihal  were  therein,  and  all  the  eoaas 
thereof,"  It  is  genersUy  admiiteil  Ihal  ihe  town  ia- 
tended,  at  anv  rale  in  the  former  passage,  is  thai  vhicta 
the  Greeks  aiu)  Komans  knew  under  the  name  nrriqi- 
lacai  (tJii^coc),  situated  in  Northern  Syria,  on  the 
western  bank  uf  the  Euphiali3<,  not  far  ablive  Carche- 
mish.  Thapsacus  was  a  town  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  Ihe  ancient  world.  Xenophnn,  who  saw  ii  in 
the  time  of  Cyrus  Ihe  younger, calls  it  "great  andpius- 
perous"  (fuyaKu  coi  ti-faiiimv,  AnrA.  i,  4,  II  ).  It 
must  have  been  a  pitce  of  considerable  trade,  the  lanil 
traffic  lielwecn  ICast  and  West  passing  ihmugh  it.flnc 
on  account  of  its  ford-way  (which  was  the  luwesi  upoo 
the  Euphrates),  and  then  on  acoount  of  iis  bri<lp 
(Strabo,  xvi,  I,  23);  while  it  was  likewise  ihe  poiiil 
where  goods  were  both  embarked  for  transport  down 
the  stream  (Q.Curt.  x,  1),  and  also  disembarked  fmn 
boala  which  had  come  up  it,  to  be  conveved  on  to  tbdr 
final  destination  by  land  (Strabo,  xvi,  S,  4).  Il  is  a 
fair  conjecture  tliat  Solomon's  occupation  of  the  place 
was  connecled  with  his  eflbna  to  esiabltsh  a  line  of 
irade  with  Central  Asia  directly  acroaa  the  contiHOI, 
and  that  Tadmor  was  intended  aa  a  reating-plam  on 
the  journey  lo  Thapsacus.  Thapsacus  was  [he  place  at 
which  armies  marching  east  or  west  usually  emssed  tbs 
''  Great  Kiver."  It  was  there  tbat  the  Ten  Thouwnd 
first  learned  tbe  real  iDtenlioot  of  Cyrui^  and,  conBol- 


TIPPBXSKIIICH  4! 

itf  to  »id  bim  in  hiB  cnlcrpriw,  paisEd  tfae  slremni  I 
(Xtospb.  Amib,  i,  1,  11).  There,  (oo,  Darius  Codo- 
Duuiaa  cnnaeil  od  bii  flight  frum  laBiu  (Arriin,  Exp. 

atdt  his  pHWOgt  >[  the  ume  puinc  (iUd.  iii,  T).  A  | 
biidgc  of  bniu  wu  usually  mainiaiacd  at  the  place  by 
ibf  Fenian  kinga,  which  of  couree  wu  broken  up  when 
daagcr  thrBatened.  Even  then,  however,  tlie  atreRin 
eouU  in  general  be  forded,  unlvaa  in  the  flood  aeaaon. 
ThB  i>  dear  from  the  very  oaoK  of  the  place,  and  h 
(ODtiniKd  by  niodem  rewaiclies.  When  the  nativea 
told  Crrufl  Ibat  [be  Mream  bad  acknowledged  him  as 
iu  hill)!,  baring  never  been  Inrded  until  his  array  wadeil 
thnugb  it,  they  calculated  on  his  ignorance,  or  thought 
he  WHdd  not  examine  too  strictly  inia  the  giaundwork 
of  a  eomtdimenl  (aee  Xenoph.  Anab,  i,  4,  11).  When 
Greek  iscendencf  and  enterprise  succeeded  tu  Peraian 
rule,  Thapaacus  rose  into  still  greater  importance,  an<l 
embraced  both  si>lei  of  the  river— whence  it  receiveil 
tbenims  <ii  AmphipolinVliiiy,y,i\). 

It  has  generally  been  sui>p(Med  tbat  tlie  site  nf  Tbap- 
Mcui  wu'ihe  modem  Orfr  (D'Anville,  Rennell,  Vaux, 
etc).  Bui  the  Euphrates  expedition  proved  that  there 
Is  no  ford  at  Oelr,  and,  indeed,  ahaweil  that  the  only 
Ion]  in  Ibis  patt  of  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  U  at 
Aar^,i5miles  below  Balis,  and  165  above  Delr(Ains- 
Tonh,  Travtlt  u  lit  Truck  oflkt  Tn  TKomand,  p.  70), 
Tbis,  then,  must  hare  been  the  poaitjim  afTbapucus. 
Here  the  river  is  exactly  of  the  width  mentioned  by 
XenophoD  (fodr  stjidea,  or  eight  hundred  vanla),  ami 
■     ■      ■        ■     Br  of  1841-42    ■ 


Enphniea  ii 


enly  » 


T(*. 


"The 


I  spot  full  of  beauty  and  niajest; 
IU  onam  is  wiae  and  its  waters  generally  clear  and 
Una.  Iu  basks  are  low  and  level  to  the  lelY,  but  un- 
dulate geutJy  to  the  right.  Previous  to  arriving  at 
tbupalM,  Ihe  course  of  the  river  is  southeriy,  but  here 
it  tarns  to  (be  east,  expanding  mora  like  an  inland  lake 
than  t  river.and  quitting  (as  Pliny  has  described  It)  the 
Pslmyiean  suliludn  for  the  fertile  Hygdonia"  (iMA). 
A  paced  causeway  is  visible  on  either  side  of  the  Eu- 
phraltt  at  Suriyeh,  and  a  long  line  of  mounds  may  be 
tneed,  disposed,  something  like  thoM  of  Nineveh,  in 
the  form  of  an  irregular  parailelogram. 
pnbably  nark  the  site  of  the  ancient  c 

Tlppelafcirch,  Fhiedrtcti  von,  a  Proteetant  the- 
okgian,  was  bom  at  Riinigsbcrg,  March  b,  1802.  Fol 
a  Dumber  of  years  be  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Piussiaii 
anbaaudor  in  Rome,  was  in  1837  called  lo  Giebicben- 
Mein,  near  Halle,  and  died  in  the  year  1866.  He  pub- 
liibnl  sermons  and  other  writings,  for  which  see  Zuchold, 
BiUkth.  Thnl.  i'l.  IS4I  (  Winer,  Handbuck  drr  liroL  Li- 
Itralar,  ii,  106,  804;  Uanck,  Tkiolog.  Jahntbrnckt, 
60t    (RP.) 

Tlppttt  (La^  Liripifium),  a  narrow  garment  or  ci 
eiing  tot  the  neck  and  shoulden;  a  kind  of  hood  wi 
over  the  shoulders,  which  waa  fastened  round  the  neck 
by  a  bng  pendeut  appendage  called  the  liripoop.  Thin 
litier  portion  wa*  irenerally  dropped  during  the  [6lh 
eentirr^%  and  only  the  hood  was  worn.  The  liripoop 
linicen  in  Ihe  bat-bond,  and  is  used  at  funerals.  The 
tipfiet  <if  (he  simiiee  had  rounded  ends,  to  dixingnish 
it  frum  the  squared  lenninatiunB  of  the  stole;  they 
■ere  worn  banging  down  in  front  by  canons,  but  by  i 
Duaika  behind,  bv  way  of  diitinclinn.  The  tippets  clis- 
sppeared  from  tlie  bood  in  the  time  of  Henry  VII.  The 
■DiDner  of  wearing  the  modern  bood  or  the  literate's 
lin^  over  the  back,  depending  from  the  neck  by  a 
ribbon,  is  a  corruption,  and  a  practice  eminently  nu' 
meaning.  See  Lee,  C4«i.o/£»(iiiy.  r«Tiu,s.  v.;  Wal- 
iau,Sacrtd  ArckaoLi.v. 

TipataC  an  officer  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench, 
Htending  the  judges,  with  a  wand  or  staff  of  office 
■Vpn'  ■■ilh  silver,  lo  take  priaonen  in|o  custody.  A 
BDilar  officer  waa  attached  ta  the  aneient  Siar-cham- 
teCiKm. 


7  TIUATHITE 

Tlra  ia  the  name  for  a  Buddhist  tetnplc  in  Ja[>b,'. 
It  is  usuallj  built  on  riung  ground,  constructed  ul'  Llic 
best  cedars  and  6n,  and  adunied  within  with  mauy 
carved  images.    In  the  middle  of  the  leoiple  stands  an 

Tul  candlestick  with  periumed  candles  burning  before 
it.  Kflmpfer  9aya,"The  whole  empire  is  full  of  these 
temples,  and  their  priests  are  without  number.  In  and 
about  Uiako  alone  there  are  S893  (emplea;  and  37,093 
nujUu,or  priests." 

Ti'ras  ( Heb.  Ttrra',  O^^B,  Sept.  etipoc ;  Vulg. 
Tiirtit),  Ihe  youngest  snn  uf  Japheth  (Gen,  x,  3).    IJ.C 
2514.     As  the  name  occun  only  in  Ihe  elbnologicsl 
table,  we  have  no  clue,  so  far  as  the  Bible  is  concerned, 
guide  uM  as  to  the  identification  of  it  with  any  par- 
rnlar  pi.pplp.     Anrienl  authorities  generally  fixed 
Ihe  Tiriirintii,  un  presenling  the  doieat  verbal  ap- 
pni.\imatian  tuthe  name  (JoMphus,^Hr.  i,6, 1;  Jerome, 
"m.  r,  2;  Targums  Pseudojon.  and  jeius.  on  Gm, 
^1.;  Targ.  on  1  Chron.  i,  5};  the  occasional  rende> 
Pfrtiii  probably  originated  in  a  corruption  nf  the 
inal  text.      The  curre^iondence  belwetn    nract 
Tirol  is  not  so  complete  as  to  be  convincing;  the 
gentile  form  epa{,  however,  brings  them  nearer  togeth- 
er.     No  objection   arises  on  ethnological  grounds  to 
pladug  the  Thracians  smnng  the  Japhetic  races  (Bo- 
cbarl,/';lr(&^,ili,2;  Michaelis,,S'pic:iJ^y.i,a6Bq.).   Their 
predsB  ethnic  poMiion  is,  indeed,  involved  in  great  un- 
certainty;  but  all  autlioriiies  agree  in  their  general 
Indo-European  character.     The  evidence  of  this  is 
circumstantial  rather  than  direct.     The  language  has 
disappeared,  with  Ihe  exception  of  Ihe  ancient  tisrnes 
and  Ihe  single  word  6riu,  which  forms  the  terminstion 
of  Mesembria,  Selymbria,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  signify 
"town"  (Strabo,  vii,  319).    The  Thracian  slock  was 


[he  Daci,  each  of  whom  inherited 
the  old  Thracian  tongue  (ibid.  BOS).  Bui  this  circum- 
stance throws  little  light  on  the  subject;  for  the  Dacian 
language  has  also  disappeared,  though  fragments  of  ils 
vocabulary  may  puaaibly  exist  either  in  Wallachian 
dialects  or  perhaps  in  llie  Albanian  language  (Diefen- 
Lach,  Or.  A'ur.  p.68).  Iflirimm's  iitentificalion  of  the 
llrtiE  wiih  Ihe  Goths  were  established,  the  Teutonic 
affinities  of  the  Thrsciana  would  be  placed  beyond 
qiitMii}n{GHek.d.ileulieh.Sp-:'i,iTS);  but  Ibis  view'does 
not  meet  viilh  general  acceptance.  The  Thracians  are 
associated  in  ancient  history  with  the  Pelasgians  (Strabo, 
ix,  401),  and  the  1  roj>n^  with  wbom  they  had  many 
names  in  common  (ibid.  xiii,A90)i  in  Asia  Hinor  they 
represented  by  the  mthyniatis  (Uerod.  i, 


ii).    Tbi 


nclusi 


they  belonged  tu  tlie  Indo-European  family,  b 
it.     Other  expUnsti 


neb  of 


have  been  offered  of  the 
notice  the  AgalAs/rti,  the  first 
part  of  Ihe  name  {Affa)  being  treated  as  a  prefix  (Kno- 
bel,  VoUariaftt,  p.  129);  Taunu  and  the  variotu  tribes 
occupying  that  range  (Kalisch,  Comn.  p.  £46) ;  Ihe  river 
Tipii4  (Dniester),  with  its  cognominous  iphabilants  the 
y  j.T(«  (Hftvemitk,  Eattil.  ii,  231 ;  Schultbess,  Farad. 
p.  194)  I  and,  lasltj,  the  maritime  Tgnhtin  (Tuch,  m  Gm. 
be  ciL).    See  ETHNooRArHT. 

Tl'rBthite  (Heb.  7tr<i(i','l^;^n,  pa  trial  from  some 
unknown  ri^^ln,  Tira^  [a  gate  (Gexenius)  or^biure 
(FUrst)] ;  Sept.  'hpyaSui/i  v.  r.  eapjaaup  and  TaSiip ; 
Vulg.  cunni(f«),  Ihe  designation  of  one  of  the  three  fam- 
ilies of  Scribes  residing  at  Jabez  (1  Chron.  ii,  55),  the 


passsg. 

is  hopelessly  obscure,  and  it  is  perhap 

ible  t. 

discover  whence  these  three  families  d 

heir  n 

be  n 

mes  in   true  Shemllic  fashion,  interpre 

id  (3'!<ri) ;  snd  Shimeathitcs 


bM*iiw  tbty  TMd«  thunaelTOi  bMtd  (sa^)  id  naiUiig 
the  law." 

Tlie  (in  aid  Engluh  woid  for  dnising  the  head, 
■ec  Plumptre,  Bibie  Educator,  W,  211)  ■>  UMd  (both  u 
a  verb  and  a  douh)  lo  trantUw.in  Ihe  A.T^  three  He- 
bceir  word!  and  one  Greek:  3^^  (in  Hiph.),  W  make 
good,  i.  &  omaoieut,  ec  tbe  head  (S  KiDgi  ix,  BO); 
1MD,  prfr  (Ewk.  xiiv,  28),  a  tuTbm  ("bonnet,"  etc.); 
I'lTIl!,  lahardn  (I««.  iii,  18),  rrwomf*  ("ommnienl," 
Jiid^.vii,21,26);  prpo  CJud.i,B:  xvi,  8),  a  im/i»  or 
head-band.  See  Hiijui-iiiuiaa.  The  third  of  theee 
Urou  probably  repieaenta  a  pendent  disk,  worn  by 
women  on  the  head,  and  nmilir  articles  are  still  hnng 


Horiern  Egrplli 


LodT'i 


Kki  among  the  Arabs. 
nniament  Tormed  of  a  thin  pUle  of  gold, 

h  fanciful  work  or  Arabic  words,  and  h«T- 
jng  about  seven  liLlle  flat  pieces  of  |^1d  called  bark  at- 
tached to  the  lower  part;  or  it  it  ooropused  of  gold 
with  diamonds,  rubier"  eic.  (Lane,  Jfoif.  Eggpl.  ii,  401). 
Lieut.  Conder  thinks  that  the  "round  tires  like  tbe 
Tnnon"  of  luiah  were  like  the  Mrings  of  coin  which 
furm  pare  of  the  head-dren  of  the  mudem  Samaritan 
women  (Tenl-Work  in  Paltt.  ii,  2-14).  Sea  Ornament. 
Tlrlu'lEab  [many  nVAcifaiA]  (Heb.  Tii-hu'ta*, 
npn^ri,  of  Ethiopic  derivation ;  Sept.  Bapata  v.  r. 
Bapaia  and  Oapa ;  Vulg.  nanKa"),  a  kinj;  of  Cush 
(Sept.  ^offiXe^  Af^itiiriiii',  A.V. "  king  of  Ethiiipia~),  the 
opponent  of  Sennacherib  (2  Kings  lix,  9j  Isa.xxxvii, 
9).  While  the  king  oT  Anyria  was  "warring  against 
Uhnab,"  in  the  south  uf  Palestine,  he  heani  of  Tirha- 
kah'a  advance  to  Hght  him,  and  sent  a  second  time  Is 
demand  the  surrender  of  Jeruulem.  This  was  neartht 
cloae  of  RC  718,  unless  we  suppose  that  tbe  expedition 
took  place  in  the  twenty -fnurtit  instead  of  the  four- 
teenth year  of  Ueiekiah,  which  would  bring  it  to  RC 
703.  If  it  were  an  expedition  Isier  than  thi  -  -  -  - 
tbedi 


II  befgre  D.C. 
But.  if  tbe  reign  of  Hinas- 


G9T,  Heiekiah't  last  yea 
aeh  is  reduced  to  thirty- 
respeclively  B.C.  cir.  69S,  689,  and  678,  and  these  num 
hers  might  hare  to  be  slightly  modilled  if  the  Used  dati 
of  tbe  capture  of  Samaria,  RC.  720,  be  abandoned.  See 
Hbzeiiah.  Wilkinson  supposes  <i,  IS8]  that  Tirha- 
kab  occupied  the  throne  of  Eeypt  from  &C.7I0  la  689. 
Rawlinaon  givea  tbe  date  RC  690  (Hrrod.  i,  S93).  Dr. 
Hincks,  in  an  elaborate  article,  argues  for  this  latter 
date,  and  supposes  Tirhakih,  after  a  reign  over  Egypt 
of  twentv-aiiE  vears,  to  have  retired  to  Ethiopia  K.l~ 
664  (Juu'm.  o/'Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1864).  See  ClmoHOLOO 
According  to  Manetho^s  epiioraists,  Turahot  (Tapi 
Ktic),  or  Tnrhos  (Jtaptiii),  was  the  third  and  last  kici 
of  the  XXVth  dynasty,  which  was  of  EIhiopian^  and 
reigned  eighteen  (AlV.)  or  twenty  (Eus.)  yeai^  From 
one  of  the  Apis-Tablets  we  learn  that  a  bull  Apis  was 
bom  in  his  twentv-sixth  year  and  died  at  the  eni'  ' 
the  twentieth  of  Psammetichus  I  of  the  XXVIth 
nasty.  Its  life  exceeded  twenty  years,  and  no  Apis  is 
■lated  to  have  lived  longer  than  twenty.jiix,  1'aking 
that  sum  as  tbe  most  probable,  we  should  date  Tirha- 
kah't  aeoeasion  B.C.  cir.69S,  and  aaalgn  him  a  reiim  of 
twenty«x  years.  In  tbia  caar  we  should  he  •'I>liii¥t1 
M  take  the  later  reckoning  of  the  Khlical  events,  H«rc 


TIRHAKAH 

:  (iir  the  possibilily  that  Tirfaakah  ruled  over  Etbi- 

befuie  heeuming  king  of  Egypt.    In  connectioo 

...  .  this  theory  it  must  he  observed  that  an  earlier 

Ethiupiaii  of  the  Haute  dynasty  is  called  in  the  Bible 

"So,  king  of  Egypt,"  while  this  ruler  is  called  "  Tiih*- 
kah,  king  of  Ethiopia,"  and  that  a  Pharaob  is  qwkco 
of  in  Scripture  at  the  period  of  the  latter,  and  also  that 
Herodotus  {iii,  HI)  repreaenU  tbe  Egyptian  oppooepc 
of  Sennacherib  as  Selhos,  a  native  king,  who  may,  bow- 
ever,  have  been  a  vaaial  under  the  Ethiopian.  See  Sa 
It  is  deserving  of  remark,  and  strongly  favors  tbe  view 
of  those  writers  wbo  maintain  that  during  oemidet- 
lAIe  periods  Ethiopian  dyiuuUea  ruled  iii  Egypt,  Ih 


hakah  it 


Ethiopians  that  we  read  in  Scripture  as  baring  mainly 
furnished  the  boats  which  marched  to  battle  out  ef 
Egypt.  While  Shishak  is  called  king  of  EKyn^  hb 
aimv  is  declared  to  have  been  composed,  not  uf  Egyp- 
tians, but  of  Lubimt  and  Sukkima  and  Ethiopians  (I 
Chnm.  xii,  8),  We  subaequently  read  of  Zersh  tbe 
Ethiopian  leaiUng  an  armv  of  Ethiopians  aud  Ijibims 
against  Aaa  (xvi,  8).  We  now  find  that  while  Pharanh 
of  Egypt  may  have  made  great  promises,  it  is  the  Ellii- 
opian  king  tirbskab  who  ahwe  brings  an  arm*  into 
the  field.  In  the  reign  of  Pharaoh-nechu.  the  Egyp- 
dan  army  seems  to  bare  been  mainly  composed  of 
EtbiapiaiisandIibyBni(Jcr.xlvi,9).  The  natural  io- 
fetenoe  is  that,  daring  this  kmg  period.  th«  militaiT 
power  of  Egypt  was  at  a  low  ebb.  At  the  time  wesiv 
now  speaking  of,  Rawlinson  suppoaes  Egypt  to  have 
been  subject  to  Ethiopia  (Herod.  i,S9i).  In  this  he  B 
itot  quite  coriKt,  bowever.  Egypt  miv  have  baen  in- 
;rength  and  spirit,  but  it  was,  at  least, 
'  .ha  time,  though  it  may 
have  fallen  eoon  afler  under  the  power  of  tbe  Ethiofi- 
an  king.    That  "nrhakah  was  actually  king  of  Egypt 

ing  in  Scriptare  to  prevent  our  supposing  that  be  be- 
came so  subsequent  to  the  perind  when  it  speaks  of  him. 
Indeed,  in  the  position  in  which  it  places  him,  at  tbe 
head  of  a  large  amiy  in  Egypt,  with  no  Asmrrian  ene- 
my to  dread,  it  pictures  a  siluslion  which  wouki  tempt 
an  ambitious  soldier  to  extend  bis  power  by  delhruniiig 
imwiule  monarch,  such  as  the  !%•- 


■r  Upper 


(i.  IS8-I42)  B. , . 

Egypt,  while  Settaoa  held  the  sovereignty  of  the  hi 
country;  that  he  came  to  the  F-gypttan  throne  rithat 
by  legal  succession  than  by  usurpation :  and  that  he 
did  actually  ligbt  againM  the  army  of  Sennacherib,  and 
overthruw'ii  in  battle.  Scripture,  however,  eipmaly 
ascribes  the  overthrow  of  tbe  Assyrian  to  the  supernat- 
ural inlerpOMIJonofGod  (S  Kings  xix,  85).  Herodotus 
(ii,  141)  does  not  mention  Tirbakah  at  all,  hut  only 
•peaks  of  tbe  king  of  Egj-pt,  and  mentions  the  over- 
tlinrtv  of  the  Aaayriin  army  veiy  much  in  tbe  way  that 
crafty  priests  might  pervert  the  actual  ocraimnce  aa 
roconled  in  Scripture.  It  is  quite  possihle  that  Tirha- 
kah  may  have  led  his  army  in  pursuit  of  the  Assyrians 
after  their  mysterious  midnight  ovenhrow ;  may  bare 
captured  prisoners  and  treasure  i  and  this  wiwld  be 
quite  sufficient  grouiul  fur  any  successes  ascribed  tn 
liim  on  the  Theban  sculptures.  If,  a>  is  probable,  he 
bKBme  king  of  all  Egypt,  thete  seems  strong  reaann  for 
agreeing  with  much,  at  least,  of  Slrabo's  account  of 
him  (lib.  xv)  as  having  extended  his  conqueais  into 
Europe.  The  Aiayrian  power  was  effectually  checked 
by  the  ruin  of  its  army  and  Ibe  ilivisionB  of  its  reign- 
ing family.  At  the  bead  of  a  great  army  which  had 
come  forth  to  fight  tbe  Assyrians  and  now  found  ilwlf 
without  a  foe,  there  is  every  reason  wby  Tirhakih  mar 
have  extended  the  Egyptian  power  as  far  as  any  Egyp- 
tian king  before  him.  If  Tirtiakah  did  come  into  ac- 
tual collision  with  tbe  Aasyrians  at  or  near  PeloriniB  is 
Egypt,  as  many  wrilen  maintain,  it  must  hare  been 
upon  another  occasion  than  that  mentioned  in  Script- 
ure (see  Joaephut,  ^nf.  x,  1, 4).    It  is,  however,  own 


TIRHANAH 

ptnbabl*  that  Scripture  hu  sketcbed  in  a  hw 
tht  emitt  msltei,  lod  ibat  the  vuiatione  fcoin 
Ihc  t(r«ct  of  ignonnce  or  deaign.  The  invauon 
ayria  haJ  probably  Egypt  and  E(bL>pia  u  its  ull 
oblKt,  but  in  Ibe  account  of  Scripture  tbe  Aaiyiian 
ban  plainly  «u  only  on  ill  way  lo  iba  accomplinhmeai 
ef  iu  puipaae.    See  Sennachkru. 

Tbe  name  of  Tirhakab  in  »riilen  in  hieroglyphio 
TtAarha  (or  Coptic  Tuitha).  HU  ucceurul  upponiioi 
lo  the  power  of  Asiyria  i»  recorded  on  the  walk  of  i 
Tbtbaa  temple,  Tor  at  Medinel  Hibu  ire  Che  flgure  am 
the  name  ot  this  iiing  and  the  captives  he  cmk  (Tre 
*<">^m>'<i)-^l>  At  JebelBetkd,orNapala,becon' 
Hrucled  one  temple  and  part  or  another.  VI  tbe  eventi 
of  hia  reign  little  elae  ii  known,  and  the  account  ol 
Uegaathenca  (ap.  Strabo,  xv,  686,  where  he  ia  called 
"  Trarhm    the    Klhiopian,"    TiapiMv 

J^         AlSioif/),  that  he  rivallnl  Setottrii  a> 


ached  the  Pi  III 


nf  Hei 


!m-1\  "     '"'^  "  ™'  "upported  by  other  evidence. 

1^*1  "     It  IB  probable  that  at  llie  vloae  of  hia 

\  ^  /  K      reign  be  Tiiund  the  Aityriana  too  power- 

^^         ful,  and  retired  to  his  Ethiopian  dominions 
HjKOjlTpliic  See   WUkinaon,  Anc.  Egjipt.  i,  HO    aq.; 
om?h"Sb   B'"6«l'.  fli".  «/  t^ispt,  ii,  26a  «i.    See 
Ethiopia. 

Tliba'nah  [many  Tir'lumaK\  (Heb.  TirdutnaX', 
™'37^/'"™'-  ^P*'  Bopxovd  v.i.Qafaiii  Vulg, 
Tkarami),  aeconil  named  of  tbe  lOur  tons  or  Caleb  the 
Hesimile  by  hia  concubine  Maachah  (I  Chnin.  ii,  48). 
&C.  appueiitly  eir.  IBIS. 

TirU  (Heb.  Tirrga',  VC^yei,fear;  Sept.  Tiptd 
v.T.  l>i|pui';  Vulg.  Tiiria),  third  named  of  the  four 
uta  of  Jehalelecl  of  the  tribe  ofJudah  (1  Chion.  iv,  16). 
aC  appatently  dr.  1G18. 

TtrlDUa,  Jacob,  a  Jouit,  wu  bom  at  Antwerp  in 
the  year  1580.  In  1600  he  entered  tbe  Order  of  the 
Jeauiti,  wan  appointed  proremr  of  e^egeeia,  Hiperior  of 
the  Dutch  Hiarion,  and  died  July  U,  I6B6.  He  pub- 
Uibed,  BMia  Magma,  cum  CommnUariit  Gogaeri,  tjtii, 
Ktmicliii,  n  Tirimi  (Pari^  IGiS,  &  voli.  foL)  :-Con>ioi- 
(oTHf  H  Sacrum  Sergjtmram,  fim  CAromca  Sacro  ae 
Ptvligomemt  lie  Aolifint  PimdmbaM  rt  Uoi^tit  ac  (fc 
JfrnmrtM  dt^ae  CMmvffrapiia  Trrra  Simela  (Antw. 
168i,3voli.foL;  l«S,roL;  Lyons,  1664)  Venice,  1688; 
ADgiinrii.  1^04).  See  Winer,  tfimdA.  drr  Ihrol.  IMrrn- 
mr,  i,  1X6,  188;  ii.804;  Ywnt, BiU.  JtuLm,Vi2;  ThtoL 
Cairtrtal-Ur.  a.  v,     (R  P.) 

TlrSnds  (nrxrlg  kritd  iftmiliy,  a  nami 
given  to  calrcMamrat  (q.v.). 

Tironeaiana,  or  Co-ioheoation  of  Ti 
order  of  mimka  waa  foonded  at  Tiron,  neir 
1109,  by  Bernard  d'Abbevilk.  See  BehmabI 
Thrfint  riHinastery  WIS  ihandoned  in  1114,  i 
"       ■    cr  Tiron,    It  waa 


final 


id  before  Ion 


the  01 


1  the 


was  tbe  Klf-denial  uf  tbe  monks  that 
•t  limra  they  werv  hardly  supplied  with  the  neceiuries 
of  life,  one  luaTof  bread  being  deemed  sufficient  for  the 
daily  portion  of  four  men.  Notwithstanding  these  an- 
Kfiitieai  the  number  increased  in  three  years  to  fire  hun- 
drtd.  ind  the  faine  of  Bernard's  sanctity  hid  ipread  to 
fcreigii  cuuuirieo.  Henry  I  uCEnglaiul  sent  Ibe  monas- 
Iiry  an  annuity  of  fifteen  marks  of  Hirer  in  perpetuiiv, 
Uwdea  660  marks  yearly  dunng  liis  life,  and  built  a 
migniflcenl  dormitory.  The  king  of  France  gave  lo  it 
allihe  ItrrilafyorSavigny.  Thiband  deBlios  present- 
ed it  with  two  prioriea,  and  built  Ibr  it  an  infinnary. 
Honey  and  other  valuable  gifta  were  oR^rtd  at  its 
ahrine.  and  at  the  death  ot  its  founder,  in  1 1 16,  it  was 
in  a  moM  Oounihing  ooodition.  At  the  time  of  its 
gnalesi  pru^iehty  there  were  under  jta  control  eleven 
ahb«ri,fcriy-four  pTkiti*i,and  twenty-nine  parishes, 


!9  TIRZAH 

scattered  over  France,  England,  and  ScolUnd.  In  I62> 
the  Abbey  of  Tiron  waa  added  lo  ilie  poasesuwia  of  tbe 
Congregation  of  SU  Maur,  and  from  that  time  the  Ti- 
mnesians  ceased  tu  exist  as  a  aeparale  urganiialioii. 
See  Helyut,  Ordra  Rtlu/Uux,  iii,  6:4. 

Titoah.    See  Wink 

TirBCh,  LioivLu,  a  Uerman  scholar,  apparently  of 
Jewish  exiractiun,  who  lived  in  the  18th  century,  is 
the  author  of  IHutiialio  J»  C/laraderum  Antijuanm 
apad  Urbraot  imlt  t'ulram  Uia  (Prague,  1768)  :—f'un- 
JtimtKla  Lingaa  Saaela  (ibid.  1766') -—t/and-l^xihrn 
dn- jilditiA'laUcirH  Spruthr,  etc  (ibid,  1778)>-Di»- 
leilalio  Je  Tabrmaraloivin  Ftriii,  proat  olim  a  Jadaii 
gnta  nnl,  iodteqae  o/nmlar  (ilrid.  1778)  -.—Diiietiatio 
an  Ijagaa  Hibraiea  Omnium  Aatiqaitmui  Pnmaeut 
H-Orada,  etc  (ibid.  ITiS) -.-Grammatica  Ilrbr.;  acce- 
da  S^thbiii  Vocam  Irrrgiil.  3.  S.  Ordae  A  Iphab.  (iiAA. 
17S4).  See  FUrat,  BibLJad.  iii,  ISt;  Sleinschueider, 
BOIiogr.  Hmdh.  s.  v.     (II,  f.) 

TtiBtav'tha  [most  Tir'iharha]  (HeU  always  with 
thcarUcle,4o(-ri"n*(U*u',  XPtj^nn;  hence  the  Sept. 
give*  the  word  'AStpvaoia  [v.  r.  'A^paaSa],  Ezra  ii, 
63;  Neb.  vii,  66,  and  'AprnpoaoSa,  Neh.  x,  1 ;  Vulg. 
Atirrialha),  tht  title  of  the  goveniur  of  Judna  under 
the  Persian^  derived  by  fleaenius  from  the  I'erMan  root 
ton*,  signifying  "atem,"  "severe."  He  compares  the 
title  Gr$lreiigtr  Utrr,  formerly  given  lo  tbe  msgiitralea 
of  the  free  and  imperial  citiea  of  (termany  (comp.  alaa 
our  eK|ire8«ion,"nioat  drtad  soverf ign"), '  It  is  added 
oa  a  title  after  Ibe  name  of  Nehemiah  (riii,  9;  x,  I 
[Heb.  £J} ;  and  ocoun  also  in  three  other  places  (Eira 
ii.  68,  and  the  repelition  of  that  account  in  Keh.  vii, 
66-70),  wheie  probably  it  ia  intended  to  denote  Zerub- 
babel,  who  had  hekl  the  office  before  Nehemiih.  In 
themarsinorthe  A.V.(Eiraii,G8:  Neh.  vii,  66;  x,  I) 
it  is  rendered  "gnvenior;"  id  ezplinalion  justified  by 
Neh,  xii,  20, where  "Nehemiah  tbe  governor,"  DTIBri 
(PidiSX,  probably  ttom  tbe  same  root  aa  the  wor«  wa 
write  ^rAo,  or  pasha),  occurs  inalead  of  the  more  usual 
expreeaioii"NehemiahtheTir«batha."  Thiaword,nni, 
is  twice  applied  by  Nehemiah  lo  himaelf  (v,l4,  lg),aDd 
by  the  prophet  Haggai  (i,  1 ;  ii,S,SI)  to Zerubbibel.  Ac- 
cording lo  Geaenins.  it  denoiea  the  prnfect  or  governor 
of  a  province  of  less  extent  than  a  salrspy.  Tbe  word 
is  used  of  oflceis  and  i^vemors  under  the  Assvrian  (S 
Kings  xviii, -24 1  Isa.  xxxvi,  9),  Babvlonian  (Je'r.  Ii,57; 
K«k.  xxiii,  6,  £3;  see  also  Ezra  v.  8,  14;  vi,  7;  Dan. 
iii,  a,  8,  27;  vi,  7  [tieb.  8]),  Median  (Jer.  Ii,  28),  and 
Persian  (Eath.  viii.  9;  ix,  B)  monarchies.  Under  thia 
last  we  And  it  applied  to  the  ndeis  of  the  provinces  bor- 
dered by  tbe  Euphrates  (Ezra  viii,  86;  Neh.  ii,  7,  9; 
iii,  7),  and  to  tbe  governors  of  JudEa,  Zerabbabel  and 
Nehemiah  (comp.  Hal.  i,  8).  It  is  found  also  it  an 
eariier  period  in  the  times  of  Solomon  (I  Kings  x,  16;  3 
Chnn.  ix,  14)  and  Benbsdad  king  of  Syria  [1  Kings  xx, 
!4),fnim  which  hut  place,  compared  with  oihcis  (S 
Rings  xviii,  24;  Isa.  iixvi,  9), we  find  that  military 
comroanda  were  often  held  by  Ibese  governors;  the 
word,  indeed,  is  often  rendered  by  the  A.  V..  either  in 
the  text  or  the  margin,  "  captain."  By  thus  briefly  ex- 
amining the  sense  iif/'rcAdA,  whicb  (though  of  course  a 
much  more  general  and  less  distinctive  word)  is  given 
as  an  equivalent  lo  Tinha/liS,  we  hive  no  difficulty  in 
as  to  the  general  notion  implied  in  il. 
lufflcient  inrurmaliun  to  cnabk:  us 


explsin 


detail  in  what  ct 


_  lisheil  tbe  Tir- 
thalhafromolhersof  ihe  same  dan,  gnveruora,  captains, 
princes,  nders  of  provinces.    See  OovxiuiuB. 

Tlr'aab  (Heb,  Tin-h:  nx^ri,*/^*/ ;  Sept.  Stpaa 
v.T.  [in  the  case  of  Nu.2]  ©i^Ao  and  Bip/iH;  Vulg. 
ThtiMii),  the  name  of  a  woman  and  also  uf  a  place.  Sn 
alsnCvpRias;  Tizite. 

1.  The  last  named  of  the  lire  daiighlers  of  Zehjphe- 
hadjoftbe  tribe  of  Manasseh,  whose  case  orJgiualed  the 


TIRZAH 

Ipir  that  in  the  event  of  s  man  df  ing  without  nude 
■lie  bia  propcrtj'  should  ptua  lo  bU  daughtera  (Numb. 
xKvi,S3;  xxiii,  I;  sxxtI,  11  [where  ahe  'a  named 
onil]  ;  Jrwh.  xtIi,  S).     3ee  Zblophkhad. 

2.  An  ancient  CansanilJsh  cily.whose  king  is 
menled  imoiig  the  twent}--one  ovenhrowh  in  the 
quest  of  the  counWy  (Josh,  jtii,  84).     From  that 
nothing  is  heani  of  it  till  »ttcr  the  disruption  of  Israel 
andjudah.    It  then  reappears  as  a  mralcity — the  resi- 
dence of  Jeroboam  (I  Kings  sir,  17;  Sept.  Zopi^ii,  i.  e. 
r  Zuredd),  aud  of  his  succevora,  Bawha  (kt,  SI,S3), 
Elah  (xvi,  B,  9),  an.l  Zimri  (ver.  15).     '  '      '    ' 


oval  sepiUchTea  oi 


.e  ever.  6),  . 


all  tl 


II  kingdom 

sriehed  in 

hiug  continued  to  reaide 

ira  he  left  it  to  his  s 
b  Iq.  v.),  at  that  (Ime  raised  to  the  viceroythi 
and  removed  lo  ■  new  city  which  he  built  and  nam 
Shomion  (  Saoiaria ),  and  which  conUnued  to  be  t 
capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  till  its  fall  Once,  a 
once  only,  does  Titxah  reappear,  as  the  seat  of  the  co 
spiracy  of  Menabem  ben-Gaddi  against  the  wretched 
ShalluRi  (!  Rings  xv,  14.  IG) ;  but  as  aoou  aa  hi 
had  proved  succesafnl,  Menahem  removed  the 
his  government  to  Samaria,  and  Tiizah 


uughou 


n  tlie  Son^  of  Solomon,  where  the 
juKtaposition  nfJeruulcm  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  esli- 
matiun  in  which  it  was  held -"  Beautiful  as  Tinah, 
comely  as  Jeruaslem"  (Caul,  vi,4).  The  Sept.  (rfJorin) 
and  Vulg.  (luarti)  do  not,  houever,  take  lirUSh  as  a 
proper  name  in  this  passage.     Its  nccurrence  here  on  a 

Song  of  Songs  wBS  the  work  of  a  writer  belonging  to 
the  iiOTthern  kingdom.  But  surely  a  poet,  and  so  ar- 
dent a  poet  as  the  anthor  of  the  Song  of  3ong^  may 
lla^■e  been  sufHciently  independent  of  political  conBidir- 

said  lo  be  out  of  the  country  of  a  native  of  Judab — for  a 
metaphor.    See  Cahticliui. 

Eusebius(I?niunaff.  e.v.Biipa[Xii)  menlions  it  incoD- 
neclioiiwith  Meiiahem,  and  idenliHes  it  vritb  a  "village 
of  Samaritans  in  Batanata."  There  is,  however,  nothing 
in  the  Bible  tn  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  'Hnah  of 
the  Israeliiish  munarchs  was  on  the  east  of  Jordan.  Jo- 
sephuB  merely  mentions  it  (eap<hi,.4fK.  viii,  13,  6). 
is  nowhere  slated  to  what  Iribe  this  town  belonged; 
but  Adrichnmini  {Tiral.  T.  S.  p.  74)  and  others  place 
it  in  Maiuuaeh.  Ughtfout  (  Choragraph.  Ctnl.  e.  88 ) 
seems  lo  suspect  that  Tinah  and  Shechem  were  the 
aaiae;  for  he  says  that  "if  Shechem  aud  Tiraah  were 
not  one  and  the  same  town,"  it  would  appear  that  Jero- 
boam had  removed  when  his  aon  died  from  where  he 
was  when  hi  lirst  erected  his  idols  (comp.  1  Kings  xii, 
2b\  xiv,  17).  It  does  not  appear  lo  be  mentioned  by 
the  Jewish  lopognpbera,  or  any  of  the  Christian  travel- 
lers of  the  Uiddle  Ages,  except  Brocardus,  who  places 
"Thetsaonahigh  mounuin.ihree  leagues  (buce)  from 
Samaria  to  the  east"  (Dticripiio  Terra  Sand,  vii,  13). 
This  is  exactly  the  direction,  and  very  nearly  the  dis- 
tance, of  TeUizuh,  a  place  in  the  mountains  north  of 
KablOs,  which  wai  viaited  bv  Kobinson  (£fU.  Rn.  iii, 
302)  and  Van  de  Velde  in  1852  {Syr.  tad  Pal.  iii,  384). 
The  town  is  on  in  eminence,  which  towards  the  east  is 
exceeilingly  tofly,  though,  being  at  the  edge  of  the  cen- 
tral highlands,  it  is  more  approachable  from  the  west. 
The  i^ace  is  larise  and  thriving,  but  without  any  obvi- 
ous marks  uf  anti(|uity  {R<*>inaon,  Laltr  Stt.  p.  302). 
Lieut.  Conder,  honever,  suggesls  the  identity  pf  Tiizoh 
with  a  "mud  haiulel"  called  Teiaiir,  twelve  miles  east 
of  Jeba,  which  he  found  to  have  been  once  a  place  of 
impoitance,Jud|:;ing  from  the  numerous  rock-cut  sepul- 
chres burrowing  under  the  houses,  the  fertile  lauds  and 
fine  olives  around,  and  the  monument  of  good  masonry, 
apparently  a  Roman  tomb.    The  position  is  beautiful, 


to  TISCHENDOIiF 

and  the  old  main  road  leads  lo  tbe  place  from  Shecbcm 
(Tear- Work  in  PaUtt.i,  108). 

TlBohendoit  Lobeoott  Friediiicii  Consta-'ttik 
vox,  the  most  prominent  scholar  in  the  department  of 
New-Test,  paleography,  was  burn  Jan.  18, 18IG,  at  Leo. 
genfeld,  in  Saxony.  Having  been  prepared  at  tbe  gyoi- 
naiium  at  Plauen  for  the  university,  he  entered,  at 
Easter,  1^4,  aged  nineteen,  the  halls  ofLeipsic.  Here 
(iottfried  Hermann  and  Ueorg  Beuedict  Winei  wen 
among  his  leachere.  At  the  close  of  1836  be  recflvnl 
a  priie  medal  for  an  essay  on  Dodraia  PiiuK  ApoHaH 
(U  IV  JUoiiit  Ciriiii  SaXufadoHa,  which  he  published 
at  Leipeic  in  1837.  A  second  prize  was  awardeil  to 
bim  in  tbe  year  IS38  cm  Dupulalia  de  Ckrii/o,  Pom 
Vila,  rivt  de  Loco  Erang.  Joaim.  c.  ri,  cr.  51-59,  Dmt 
Sacra  Potitimuni  RaHont  habUa  (ibid.  1839).  At  tbe 
same  time,  he  took  hit  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy. 
In  18J0  he  published  Dianiatio  Cntiai  tt  Kitstiet 
dt  Et.  Malt.  c.  xir,  16  ij.,  and  was  promoted  as  licen- 
tiate of  theology ;  in  tbe  same  year  he  qualiAed  a 
privat-docent  of  theology  by  publishing  Dt  StcaiU' 
nitiu  goat  dicant  Nod  TalaBKnli  RaHoat  PotiiHamm 
Aabila  ScAoliii  (ibid.;  reprinted  in  the  Prolegomena 
to  the  Greek  Testament  published  in  1811).  In  this 
essay,  aa  Kahnis  rightly  remarked,  he  gave  lo  tbe 
world  the  programme  of  his  theological  future.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1889,  he  began  In  prepare  a  critical  haiid-edilion 
of  the  (ireek  New  Test.,  which  was  published  in  IWl 
under  the  title  AWkin  TatamaUKm  Grart:  Trrlm 
ad  Fidem  A  tOiguoram  Talium  Rtam.  Bmrm  Appara- 
turn  CrU.  una  cam  Variii  lAcUonibut  Elsrv..  Knapfm, 
5cJo&u,i:ucjinwamfti^'Hiin(, etc  (ibid.).  Inl840Tiscb- 
endorf  went  to  Paris.  The  library  there  contained  a 
celebrated  palimpsesL  A  manuscript  of  the  Kble  than 
earlyin  the  5ih  century  had  been  cleaned  offinihelitb 
ccntury,and  used  for  writings  of  Kjihratm  Syrus.  What 
no  mortal  had  been  able  to  do  before.  Tischendoif  di.l, 
and  with  the  aid  of  chemical  reagents  he  comiilcidy 
realored  the  original  text.  The  University  of  Brnlaa 
acknowledged  his  merit  by  bestowing  on  him  tbe  title 
otdoctor  of  theology.  Meanwiiile  he  also  collated  the  . 
Paris  naaiiuscripts  of  Philo  fur  Prof.  Grossmano  at  Utp- 
sic,  aud  tbe  only  remaining  manuscript  of  the  tiOth  book 
of  llie  Basilicas  for  Dt.  Heimbach  at  Jena.  F.  Kdoi, 
tbe  publisher,  bargained  with  TiscbendorT  for  a  reiasne 
of  bis  Leipaic  edition,  which  appeared  at  Palis  in  MHi: 
and  then  abbe  Jager,  a  professor  in  the  Sorbonne,  b^ged 
bim  to  edit  a  Greek  text  that  should  coiilbrm  as  itaarly 
as  possible  ro  the  Vulgate,  which  was  also  published  in 
the  same  year.  In  1841  and  1812  he  vUited  the  libra- 
ries in  Holland, London,  Camhridgcand  Oxford.  Early 
iu  1843  he  left  I'sria  for  Home,  on  the  way  working  fear 
weeks  on  the  Coilex  £  uf  the  gospels  at  llasle.   In  Italy 

best  possible  manner.  When  his  Italian  researches  wore 
completed,  he  prepared  to  start  forhisfinu  Kastenijiwr- 
ney  in  1844,  which  he  repealed  again  in  1853  and  I8a9. 
On  his  third  journey,  in  1859,  he  discovered  Ihefaniwii 
Coda  Sinoiliau.  After  his  return  he  was  nu>le  ordi- 
nary professor  of  the  Leipeic  University,  and  a  special 
chair  of  ifacied  paleography  was  made  for  him.  Fma 
this  time  on,  he  spent  Itie  remainder  of  his  life  m 
publishing  the  results  of  his  amassed  materials,  coUerl- 
odon  his  dilTerent  journeys,  of  which  we  shall  speak  fui^ 
therein.  On  May  5, 1876,  he  was  seized  with  apoplexy; 
he  recovered  sotnewbat  from  the  attack,  but  in  Nnveia- 
ber,  1874,  the  malady  grew  worse,  and  on  Dec  7, 1871, 
he  passed  away.  His  funeral  took  place  on  the  IMi. 
at  which  Drs.  Ahlfeld,  Kahnis,  Lutbardt,  and  ulhen 
made  addresses. 

Probably  nu  theologian  ever  received  so  varied  awl 


so  many  signs  i 
was  marie  a  Russian  noble,  a  Saiciin  priv; 
knight  of  many  orders,  doctor  of  all  ncadei 
and  member  of  an  indefinite  number  of  sociei 
in  1855,  king  Friedricb  Wilhelm  IV  of  Prua 
of  the  present  emperor  oT  Germany)  said  lo 


He 


TISOHENDORF  4i 

in  indcitiiMd  la  ditcovMiea;  wbei«T«r  tbty  are  po»- 
■iUc,  (Iwre  )ou  are  to  tpike  them,"  he  onlj'  proved 
bioBcIf  *  Hue  prophet  1  uiU  iinly  a  mm  of  lucb  un- 

Tivhtodurf  coulil  achieve  what  he  bniught  about. 
'What  WelUiein  and  Beugel  begaD,"  said  hi)  colleague 
Lu[|iinlL.  "what  Hug  aiid  LacbTninn  carried  un,  he 
bnnijjhi  nearly  lo  cumpleliun  in  a  way  which  leave*  the 
Uburs  iif  his  iiredecesson  far  behinii."  And  "  whoever," 
■klKalmis,''!!!  [he  future  ouutripB  him  will  do  it  only 
HI  ihe  mad  which  TincbeudDrT  marked  out;  whocTer 
Dieimnei  him  wiUdoaooDly  by  the  weapona  which  he 
hiimrirbasfumiihed."  Compbini  basbeen  madBof  hia 
cliinge*  of  opinion,  ■  reading  not  onfrequently  being 
onfidentlyreject- 


fil  in  the  m 


Butt 


encea  in  the  eaae  were  conitanily 
incrwiiu;  in  iiunibeT  and  cleanim?  A>  the  illuairi- 
naKholaruid  in  bialaat  will,"l  hive  Bought  no  other 
lim  than  truth;  to  lier  I  have  always  uucondilionBUy 
bcwcd  tbe  knee."  No  pride  of  opinion,  no  leal  for  con- 
ainencT,  was  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way.  He  waa, 
dnibtleai.  uncnnacioualy  biaraed  in  favor  of  the  aulhori- 
IIB  be  bimaelf  bad  brought  lo  light!  but  bis  purpose 
*••  to  lei  forth  the  exact  tent  of  the  original  without 
ngitd  to  dogmitic  or  pefsonai  eonudenlions. 


^r™ 


orka.     Besid. 


9St  importai 

thoHaiitadv  mentiooed,  ihev  are,  in  chronological  order, 
I'lflln  Kpkr'ami  Syri  Ratnptut  {Uft.  l»43-45, 3  Tola.): 
—Hmnmla  Surra  Intdiia  iter  Rrliquia  Amiqaiuima 
TrzlmXaH  Talam.  Graci,  etc.  (ibid.  1846)  •—IJt  lirae- 
lilBrrmprrMareltiibntmTrinitilu(MA.l8tl):—Eviul- 
^*im  PalaliiHiiH  iKtdilam  tint  Krliquia  3'exttis  £mit- 
grlimm  iMlim  OHtt  UiiTVti.  rtrri  tx  Cod.  Patatiuo  Pur- 
ftra  krrLvp.Chr.  Baculi  (ibiiL  1847) :— A'dphm  Tfl. 
firm-,  (ibid.  1850;  Sd  ed.  I862,»nd  often)  i—rrtui  Tel. 
(inrrjmrta  I.XX  Inlrrprrlti  .•  Trxtlim  VaL  Romioaiai 
orndbliu  tduKt,  etc.  (ibid.  ISaO,  2  voU:  3d  ed.  1866; 
3ded.lB60;4thed.I»j9;6lbed.l880)i-eadET^nna<i- 
■uactA'.  7'.La«uK/n/r>prKf//(n-u>>ynu>(ibid.l8oO;  2d 
td.  1£M)  !—Dt  Emagtlionits  Apcergpluiram  Origmt  H 
ln,ele.(U*gK,\S6l):—AclaApoHolonimApiKrsipha 
(lips.  ISUilli—Sfmipiit  KransrUea  (ibid.  1861;  Sded. 
I»»J ;  nL  ii  emend.  1864 ;  ed.  iii  emend.  187 1 ;  tranal.  into 
Tamid  by  11.  Scbaiu,  IVanquebor,  186e)i-t7nfac  Cla- 
TdtMliaaa  me  Epitlita  Paali  (hma  Gr.  tl  Lai.  a  Cod. 
/Vtrw.  CfMnn'no,  etc  (ibid.  i>i(ri):  — Ktrimgrtia  Apo- 
rrfptin  (ibid.  1«M)  :~S.  T.  TriylaUiim,  Gr.  Lai.  Grrma- 
■^,rlc.(ibid.l8&4;  2d  Cvl  I860);— jV.  Z'.Ciwm;  JidUio 
A  airkmica  (ibid.  1856,  and  ofieii)  ■.—MoauiiaUa  Sacrii 
Imdila:  NoBa  CoOrrlio {\^b-~li,i  viAa.y.—PUiHi circa 
CI,riM<im  Jadiao  ipiid  Lucii  Afferatur  tx  Adit  Pilali 
rdjid.  iSa):—Amcdola  Sacra  tt  I'rofana  tx  Oritnlt  tt 
OrriAMt  ^  tfcria,  etc  (ibid.  1866;  U  ed.  1861):— ifer- 
■■  Patlm-  Graa.  (itrid.  1856)  —N.  T.  Gr.  tl  Lal„  ex 
Trijiaitii (ilaX  18&8) :— A'.  T.  Grac:  Edilia  Srptima  Ot- 
tica  ifajvT  (ibid.  ISSS^and  £dilia  Seplima  Crilka  Mi- 
mr  (ibiiL): — Xiililiii  JidiliiHHI  Cudiai  Sitliorum  Sinai- 
liri  A  ttpiejii  Imperalorii  A  lexandri  II  SuKxplie  (ildd. 
18W)  ■^Oiblionm  Coitst  Sinailicai  PetropalUanu;  etc. 
(PMropoli,  186!,  4  vol*,  fol.) :  —  A'.  7".  BimtiHai'a  tice 
S.  T.  m  Epiiliibt  Bamaia  rt  FragmttHt  Patlorii 
(LipL  1868);— .V,  T.  Gract  tt  Gtrmamce,  ex  Triglollil 
(ibid  1861):— A".  T.  iMIine:  Textvm  HUrongmi  Nalalt 
ClrmaHima  Leetione,  etc  (ibid.  1864)  -.—N.  T.  Gr.,  tx  Si 
•olwo  Codia  Cmniun  Antiqiiiiiinio  Valicana  itemgue 
EbtiiHimaljTtimefi'otala  {ihii.ie6i)i-  '" 
dn  want  Eeangelifit  vrr/atilt  (ibid.  1866,  and  often). 
Of  this  liule  book  there  ara  three  French,  English,  and 
Aiierion  mnslation*,  two  Swedish,  and  one  each  of 
ttoiiah,  Dutch,  Italian,  RoHian,  and  Tuikitb ; — Apoca- 
Ift""  Apoerypia  Mont,  t'idra,  Paali,  Johaiaiii,  etc 
(ihid.l8S6)i— .V.  T.  Vaiictmum, pott  Angtii  Mai  alio- 
Tmfw  Ittprrfectot  Laborei  ex  ipio  Codict  ididil 
IKI) ;  -~  Apptmlix  Codiam  CtUttrritiionim  Sii 


1  TISHBITE 

Vatieaid  Akxandrini  (ibid.  lS(!J):~PUtonea  tnedila 
Altera,  etc  (ibid.  1868) :~A'.  T.  Gr., ad  Aniijuiti.  Tttttt 
dnwo  Btc,  Apparatun  Crifictm  Oriaii  Sladio  Per/tctum 
(ibid.  1869-72, 2  Tola.) ;  tbe  third  voL,  containing  Prole- 
gomena, ii  row  in  preparation  by  Dr.  Oscar  Gebhardt; 
—rlitNew  TetaKtrnl!  lit  Aulkniied  t'iffliih  Vtrtiun, 
icilh  lntmduaiom  and  I'aruu  PtadinffiJ'rom  Ihe  (Am 
mart  Ceiebraltd  Mamacriplt  oflht  Original  Greet  Text 
(ibid.  1869) ;  46,000  copies  were  sold  in  the  6nt  year  :— 
—Appitidix  A'ori  Ttttam.  Valirani,  etc.  (ibid.  1869):— 
Cimlalio  Crilica  Cod.  Sin.  cum  Tattu  EUeeinano  Vatic. 
etc,  (ibid.  1869):  — RMpotua  ad  Caluimnai  SovuMai 
(ibid.  1870)  -.—Die  SinaibOel,  etc.  (ihid.  1871):-A'.  T. 
Grace,  ad  Anti^iitinoi  Ttilet  detuo  recamil:  JCditio 
Crilica  Minor  td.  tiii  Migore  Detumpta  (1872),  vol.  i : 
—Clemenlit  Romaai  EpiOula  (ibid.  I87S)  -..-BiMiu  Sa- 
cra iMlina  Velerit  Teilam,  I/irrnrnfmo  Inlerprele,  etc 
Editionem  instituit  sua«ire  Chr.  Car.  Jos.  de  Bunsen,  Th. 
Heyae,  ad  finem  perduxit  C.de  T.(ibid.  1878):— JV.  T. 
Gr.,  ad  Edilionem  man  eUi  C'H.  Majortm  amforma- 
vil,  Lectiambuigue  Sinoilieit  tt  Valicanii  item  Jflawiri- 
(fflu  intlnxil  (ibid.  1878);  — ttter  Pialntonin  Btbr. 
algae  Lai.  ah  Hierrmifmo  ex  Htbnro  Conrerim.  (im- 
sociau  Opera  edd.  C  de  T.,  S.  Bar,  Fr.  Delitzscb  (ibid. 
1874).  From  the  rich  material  left  behind,  we  may  ex- 
pect Mill  other  worka.  Besides  these  works,  we  must 
mention  bis  Keiie  in  den  Orient  (Leips.  1846,  2  vols.; 
Engl,  transl.  by  W.  L.  Shuchard,  Traeelt  in  lie  Kait 
[Lond.  1847]):- ^m  dtm  hfiligen  Landt  (ihid.  1862; 
transl,  into  French  aiid  Swedish)  ■.—Rrchrniciii/}  itber 
meiae  hamUchrifllicken  Sludien  au/neiner  v:iuruichnf}- 
licAen  Seiie,  published  in  tbe  JairUieirr  der  Lileralur: 
— and  papers  in  tbe  A  laeigi-Blull.  The  Leipiiger  Re- 
perloiiun  da-  denltchen  nod  aatlanditcJitB  Liltralur, 
the  A  agibarffer  A  Ugemeine  Zeitung,  Ihe  Straptum,  and 
Stadien  and  Krilikm  also  contain  a  vast  amouut  of  in- 
formation from  his  pen.  as  may  be  seen  from  the  list  of 
TiscbendorTs  writings  furnished  by  Mr.  Gregory  for  the 
Bibliol/ieca  Siara,  1876,  p.  188  sq. 

See  Tulbeding,  Comlanlin  Titckendorf  in  ttimr  S6- 
jdhttgrn  mHemckaJilichen  Wirkiamkril :  Lilerar.-hit- 
lor.  Skiiit  (Leips.  1862)  -,  Beilogr  xur  allgemriaen  eran- 
gelitch-lulheritchen  Kirdirmrilmig,  1874,  No.  60  (ibid.) ; 
.4  m  Barge  and  Grabe  da  Dr.  TheoL  Comlaatin  Titdm- 
dorj":  fun/  Rtdtn  and  A  niprackrn,  wix  tinra  Riick- 
Hick  aaf  da*  Ltbtn  and  tinem  Verzeichmtt  tdmmllicker 
Dructaerke  da  Vertlorbentn  (ihid.  1876);  Ahbol,  TAt 
late  Pro/enor  T^ucAenifer/' (reprinted  from  Iba  L'nila- 
rvtn  Rarita  and  RiHgiout  Mai/atme  for  March,  1876) ; 
Gregory,  TitckendorJ',  in  BHiioth.  Siieni  (Anduver, 
1876),  p.  163  sq, ;  Tkeologiickei  i'mverutl-ljT.  s.  v.j 
LUeraritckrr  Hiardtceitrr  Jilr  dot  kalkolitcke  Deuiick- 
bmd.  1876,  p.  417  sq.i  Zuchold,  Uiblioth.  Tkeulog.  ii, 
ISil  sq.     {B.  P.) 

Tiacber,  JoHANM  Fbiedhicii  WiuiKui.a  German 
Protealant  divine,  was  born  at  'I'aiilschrn,  near  Torgau, 
in  Ihe  year  1767.  In  1792  he  was  calleil  In  the  pastorate 
of  hia  native  city;  in  1794  he  was  appointed  superin. 
tendent  at  Jlllerbi^ ;  four  years  later  he  was  called  to 
Plauen,  and  in  1828  to  Pima,  having  in  the  meantime 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  in 
the  latter  place  in  1842.  He  published,  Sckolia  in  Ija. 
Gal.  Hi,  1-20  (Witlenb.  1802)  -.-Pegcholorjitclu  Predigl. 
entuiiirfe  (Leips,  1795) ;- We  HaupHIUcke  der  ckriM- 
lithm  Rtligion  (33d  ed.  ibid.  1852):— /Jul  Chritlenlkaia 
in  den  Haapltliidm  unerer  Kirche  (2d  ed.  ibid.  1837): 
—  t'eJer  dut  mtnichlicht  Iltn  and  trine  Eigtnkeiltn 
(ibid.  1829-48, 4  vols.),  sermons :— Oic  P^fiickl  der  Kirtk- 
tithlait  aat  den  Getetlen  der  SttlnJelire  bnrieien  (ibid. 
1836) : — and  ■  number  of  other  sermons  andessavs.  See 
Zucbold,  BOL  Tktoloff.  ii,  1343;  Winer,  llandbuch  dtr 
IktoL  Liltralur,  1,262;  ii,  161,  197,  228,  SH,  321,334. 
(R  P.) 

Tiah'blte  (Ileb.  Tiikbi',  ^SSiri,  apparenlJy  a  gen- 
tile adj. ;  Sept.  ^(a^HriK ;  Viilg.  TheMlei),  the  constant 
deaignation  oflbe  prophet  Elijah  (1  Kings xvii,  li  xii, 


TISIO  4! 

17,38;  2King>i,3,8i  ix,  36).     The  fullowing  «spU- 
niliniis  hsve  been  given  uf  thitobKure  e|)ilh«C: 

1.  fhe  name  naturslly  poinu  to  «  pUce  called  Titk- 
kih,  Tukbth,  Tithbi,  or  rithcr  perhipe  Tnhtb,  n  the 
reBuknce  of  ihs  propbel.  Indeed,  Ibe  vord  ^asrs, 
nliicli  r.illuwa  it  ill  1  Kinga  xvii,  1,  Mid  which  in  the 
received  Hebrew  text  is  >o  puiiiled  u  to  nwui  "  fram 
the  resi.lenw,"  may,  without  riolence  or  grammiliial 
imprupriely,  be  pointed  ifl  retd  "  from  Tinhtri."  This 
litter  reiuiiiig  appetra  to  h«re  been  foUowed  by  the 
Sept.  CV«i.  o  eKr/3«'njc  i  ix  Bta^iiv),  Joacphiu  (_Aiil. 
viii,13,2,TuXiuce(o,3«njf),  end  thoTurg.piginri^, 
"  rrnoi  out  of Toshib") ;  and  it  hu  the  support  orF.wald 
(GrKh.  iii,  468,  note).  It  is  alio  supported  by  the  fact, 
which  seems  to  hare  escaped  notice,  that  the  word  does 
not  in  this  passage  contain  the  ^  which  is  present 
each  Olio  of  the  placet  where  Stiin  is  used  as  ■  m( 
appellative  noun.  Had  the  1  been  pment  in  1  Kings 
xvii,  I.  the  interpretation  'Trom  Tisbbi"  c 
•n  proposed. 


raing,  h 


uEli- 


lot  necessary  to  infer  tl 
was  itself  In  Gilead,  as  Epipbauius,  Adrichomius,  Cas- 
tell,  anil  ntben   have   imagined;  for  the  word  3C' 
which  in  the  A.  V.  is  renilered  by  the  general  term  " 
habitant,"  has  really  the  special  force  of  "  resident" 
even  "stranger."    This  and  the  fact  that  ■  place  with 
a  similar  name  is  not  elscKhere  mentioned  have  induced 
the  commentators,  geographers,  and  ]eKici>gniphen,witli 
few  exceptions,  to  adopt  the  name  "Tishbite"  as  refer- 
ring to  the  place  Tiiisim  (BivjBq)  in  Naphlali,  which  is 
found  in  the  Sept.  text  of  Tobit  i,  S.     The  ditHculty  in 
the  way  of  this  is  (he  great  uncertainty  in  which  the 


sufficient  to  destroy  any  dependence  upon  it  as  a  topo- 
graphical record,  Bltbough  it  bears  the  traces  of  hi 
originslly  been  exiremely  minute.  Bunsen  (BikUtii, 
noli  tn  1  Kings  xvii,  1)  suggests  in  support  of  the  resd- 
ing  "  the  Tishbiie  from  Tishhi  of  Gilead"  (which,  how- 
ever, he  does  not  adopt  in  his  (est)  that  the  place  msy 
have  been  purposely  so  described,  in  order  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  town  of  the  same  name  in  Galilee. 

2.  But  ^SSrin  has  not  always  been  read  as  «  proper 
name,  referring  to  a  place.  Like  ''SlCnS,  though  ex- 
Bctly  in  reverse,  it  hu  been  pointed  so  as  ti>  make  it 
mean  "the  stranger,"  Thii  is  done  by  Hichaelis  in  the 
text  of  hit  interesting  Bibd  /S>-  UastUiUnt—"  Dtr 
Fremdling  Ulia,  einer  ran  den  Fremden,  die  in  Gilenl 
wohnhafl  waten;"  and  it  throws  a  new  and  impressive 
air  around  the  prciphel,  who  was  so  emphatically  the 
champion  uf  the  God  of  Israel  But  this  suggestion 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  adopted  by  any  other  in- 

The  numerical  value  of  the  letters  ■'aOD  is  712,  on 
which  account,  and  also  doubtless  with  a  view  to  its 
cnrreapondence  with  his  own  name,  Elias  Levita  entitled 
his  work,  in  which  713  words  are  explained,  Srphtr 
ruUa(Ba[tulncci,i,  140  b).     See  Kujah. 

TiniO  (orTiti).  Bbnvenuto,  called  //  Garafnlo.  an 
eminent  painter  of  ihe  Ferrarese  school,  was  born  in 
1481,  received  his  flrst  ediicslion  under  Dumenico  fa- 
netii,  then  stuilied  with  Niccolh  Soriani  at  Cremona,  and 
next  under  Boccaccio  Boccaccino.  He  went  to  Home 
in  1499,  where  he  remained  Bftecn  months,  and  then 
travelleil  through  various  Italian  cities,  intending  to 
settle  down  at  Rome.  Persuaded,  however,  by  the  so- 
licitations of  Panetti  and  by  the  commlssionB  uf  duke 
Alphonso,  be  remsined  ill  his  native  place,  Feirara. 
His  ilealh  took  place  in  1559.  The  works  of  Tisio  are 
extremely  valuable,  and  scarcely  to  be  fuund  outside  of 
Italv.  Among  them  we  note,  Murder  of  Ike  lanocmtt, 
Rnurrtction  of  Lazaru;  and  Talaag  af  ChrUl,  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Francis  at  Fetrara ;  St.  Petir  Martyr,  in 
the  Church  oTthe  Dominicans;  VitUaiiono/tht  Kir^in, 


TUll,  or  rather  Tisiial  (i-ll^n,  from  llCn,  lo  hjis), 
rat  the  Rabbinical  name  of  the  first  month  of  the  civil 
and  the  seventh  month  of  the  ecclesiatticil  year,  in 
ich  fell  Ibe  festival  of  Atonement  and  that  of  Tsbir- 
:le«.     In  I  Kings  viii.  2  it  is  termed  the  month  of 
kanun,  that  is,  the  month  of  streaming  riven,  which 
are  filled  during  this  month  by  the  autumnal  rains.    Il 
correiponilt  with  our  September-October.    Tlsri  is  me 
uf  the  six  names  of  months  found  in  Palmyrene  inscrip- 
tions, which,  with  other  evidence,  renders  it  very  prob- 
able that  the  Jewish  names  of  months  form  a  membet 
in  a  gi«Bt  series,  which  were  extensively  in  use  in  ihe 
eastern  parts  of  the  world  (see  Benfev  and  Stem,  Vria 
lUf  Mmaltnamm  eimifer  alien  VsUer  [Beriin,  ISSH]). 
See  Month. 

Tl'taa  (TiroP,  usually  in  the  plur.  Tirowc,  of  un- 
certain derivation).  These  children  of  Uranus  (Heaven) 
and  Gala  (Earth)  were  [tee  Titasks],  according  lo  iba 
earliest  Greek  legends,  the  vanquished  predecessnn  at 
Ihe  Olympian  godt,  condemned  by  Zeus  to  dwell  in 
Tartarus,  yel  not  without  retaining  many  relics  of  ihcir 
ancieut  dignity  (£sch.  Prom,  find,  passim).  By  Itttt 
(Idtin)  poeu  they  were  confounded  with  ihe  kiodttd 
GigaMu  (Horace,  Oda,  iii,  4,  42,  etc.),  as  the  uidi- 
tinnsof  the  primitive  Greek  faith  died  away;  andboili 
terms  were  transferred  bv  Ibe  SepL  lo  the  Rephaim  sf 
ancient  Palestine.  See  Giant.  The  usual  Greek  m- 
deriiig  of  Rtphcdm  is  indeed  Viyavrn:  (Gen.  xiv,  i\ 
Joth.  xii,  4,  etc.),  or,  with  a  yet  clearer  rvfeitnce  to 
Greek  mythology,  yq^fviTc  (  Prov.  ii,  18;  ix,  18)  and 
3ia^iixai(Symmach.;  Prov.  ix,18;  xxi,  16;  jobiivi, 
6).  But  in  i  Sam.  t,  18,  22  "  the  valley  of  Rephaiia' 
is  represented  by  17  mXiic  rvt-  nriivwir  instead  off 
roiXac  Tiv  ^lya.vTu^'  (1  Chron.  xi,  15;  xiv, 9,  IB);  sod 
Ihe  tame  rendering  occurs  in  a  Hexapl.  text  in  2  Ssn. 
xxiii,  13.  Thus  Ambrose  defends  his  use  uf  a  dtiaial 
allusion  bv  a  reference  to  Ibe  old  Latin  version  of  2  Sam. 
V,  which  preserved  the  Sept.  rendering  (De  Fidr.  iii,  1, 
4, "  Nam  et  gigaala  el  calltm  Tiliaunn  pmpbelici  str- 
monit  serict  nan  refugil.  £t  Esaiaa  Shrme  . . .  diiii*). 
It  can  [herefore  occasion  no  aiirprise  that  in  iheGm^ 
version  of  the  triumphal  hymn  of  Jndilh  (xvi,  T)  "Ihe 
sons  of  the  Titans"  (uioi  Tiravwi-:  Vulg.jiln  Tiat; 
aid  Lat.jUi'i  Dalian;  /.  Ttla;  f.  ttUaloram)  aisndi 
parallel  with  "high  giants,"  u4*l^oi  HyavrEf,  when 
the  original  text  probably  had  0*'KB^  aud  C^^aL 
The  wonl  has  yet  another  intemiing  point  of  connec- 
tion with  the  Bible;  for  it  may  have  been  fiom  smh 
vague  senie  of  Ihe  struggle  of  the  infernal  and  celestial 
powers,  dimly  shadoweil  forth  in  Ihe  clasncsl  myth  of 
the  Titans,  that  several  Christian  ft  thert  inclined  to  the 
belief  that  Tutco'  was  Ihe  rnyatic  name  of  "ihe  bessl' 
indicated  in  Rev.  liii,  18  (Irenieus,  v,  3D,  3,  "  Divineo 


Tit&uds,  in  Greek  mvlhology,  were  the  childrenef 
Uranus  and  Gain.  Then-  were  twenty-two  of  them- 
namely,  Ocesnus,  Oalajut,  Adamus,  Uphion,  Anytus, 
Cieus,  Andes,  Hyperion,  CTiu^  Uiymbrus,  Japeiui, 
.Ggton,  and  Kronut  (Saturn) ;  Tethys,  Khea,  Themis 
Mnemosyne,  Fhobe,  Dione,Thia,  Thrace,  Eurypbaesst 
They  represented  the  powers  of  nature  at  anciently  tad 
still  engsged  in  wild  combat.  Uranus  had  thrown  hit 
first  sons,  the  Hecatonchircs  (Ihe  fifty-armed),  Brians 
Coitus,  and  Gyat  (also  Gyges),  and  the  Cyclops  Arps, 
Steropes,  and  Brontes,  into  Tartarus.  Gala  becnae  an- 
gry on  this  account,  and  incited  Ihe  Tiiincs  10  ichel 
against  their  father,  and  for  this  purpoae  gave  to  Kranu 
a  hook,  with  which  he  emasculated  him  (Uimnut).  All 
save  Oceonut  participated  in  the  reb^lion.     Unnia 


TITHE 


le  piDing  in  Tirtanu  liberated,  and 
Knout  ackDonledged  u  ruler,  who,  however,  lubJeGtcd 
■gunthoKwfaohadbMD  Ubenlcd  [o  the  tortuieiofTar- 
t(ni>,vith  the  HecunDchiret  as  tbEit  giuitds.  Tiune* 
WH  also  the  name  or  the  divine  bcinga  deaceoded  rrom 
tlie  Tiunen,  XHiietiaiea  called  Titanides,  aa  Prometbeua, 
Becata,  Laiaiia,  Pyirba,  Helios,  and  Selene.  The  aame 
Tilau  baa  become  ver^  common  to  designate  the  god 
of  tba  sun.  A  peculiar  saying  was  that  Bacchua  waa 
um  arander  bj  tbe  Titanei.  Bacchua  is  here  repie- 
soited  la  be  the  power  or  Tcgelition,  which  ia  braken 
bv  the  Blaoic  powen  of  Ihe  iuremal  region. 

Tltbe  {•\TS'>'B,maiaer!  Sept. and  Mew  TeM.&con), 
OBOKOBilly  littrrov  at  txiSUarov;  Vlllg,  dmma;  plnr. 
nri^SO  :  at  fucaroi ;  dedma ;  from  ^'^7,  "  ten  ;" 
TaiEUm  X'^DSS,  K^09  yo  nn),  the  Until  part  both 
of  the  prodoce  of  Che  Und  and  at  the  increase  of  Ihe 
Jock,  enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  law  W  be  devoted  by  er- 
nj  IsiHliU  to  the  servaola  of  the  sanctuary,  and  lo 
the  boapitable  meals  provided  on  the  festivals  for  the 
poor  sad  ne*dv(Uv.iicvii,S0-8S;  Numb,  xviii,  21-82 1 
Deoi.  lii,  5-l«!  Kiv,  2S-29-,  unvi,  IZ-U),  (The  fol- 
knriug  treatment  of  the  subject  telstea  lo  Jeiriab  titbt* 
bnn  Biblical  and  Rabbinical  sources, 

L  Tlu  Motak  loa  rttpfcting  TMa.  —  'lhe  Ant 
•aacUnent  respecting  tithes  ordaina  thai  Ihe  tenth  of 
all  pnduce  and  of  all  animals  ia  to  be  devoted  lo  the 
Lsd;  that  the  predial  or  vegetable  tithe  may  be  re- 
deemed if  one  Sl\h  is  addedla  its  value;  snd  that  the 

taken  as  it  comei,  without  any  selection,  and  with- 
M<  attempting  to  effect  any  change,  else  the  original 
uimal  anil  the  one  aubalituled  fur  it  are  both  forfeited 
u  the  aancluarv  (Lev.  ^vii,  80-SS).    In  the  second 
■eation  of  the  tithe  it  ia  onacled  that  it  ia  to  be  given 
to  the  Levitea  of  the  rtapective  diatricta  aa  a  remuni 
tieii  fix  their  services  in  Ihe  sanctuary,  aince  they  * 
eidodeil  from  sharing  in  the  division  of  Ihe  iani; 
Caoaan;  that  they  are  allowed  to  conaume  the  ti 
wherever  they  pleaie  (a'ip'D*b33),  and  that  from 
titbe  ihus  received  they  are  to  give  a  tenth  to 
Aaroniiea  or  priests  (Numb,  xviii,  31-S3}.    In  the  tbini 
kgislalion  on  this  point  it  ta  further  c< 
the  Inaelites  are  to  tithe  Ihe  produce  of  the  soil  every 
ytar;  that  thia  vegetable  tiihe,  together  with  the  Srst- 
liags  of  the  Buck  and  herd,  ia  to  cunatilute  the  social 
■oil  festive  repast  in  Ihe  place  of  the  sartctiiarv 
m  ease  the  lanctuary  ia  loo  far  off,  the  tithal  pro* 
u  be  converted  into  nKioev,  which  ia  to  be  taken 
aetropolia,  and  tbere  laid  out  in  food  for 

ia  this  social  meaL  It  ia,  nareover,  ordained 
u  the  end  of  evety  third  year  this  vegetable  titbe 
{TWaVi  -it;»)  is  not  to  be  taken  to  the  n1etrDpoli^ 
bu  is  lo  cotkstitule  boapitable  and  charitable 
bsoK,  to  which  the  Levjic,  the  stranger,  the  fatherleas. 
Bad  the  widow  are  to  be  invited  (Deut.  xii,  6-7,  17 
iiv,n-}9).  The  triennial  converxion  of  the  second  oi 
vegetable  tithe  into  emertainmenis  for  the  poor  is  agaii 
eajaiDcd  in  isvi,  12-IE>,  where  it  ia  alao  ordered  that 

that  be  has  ooDacicDliDusly  performed  Ihe  tithal  corn- 
It  will  be  seca  that  ihe  book  nf  DeuUtonomy  only 
nenliona  the  aeeaod  or  vegetaUe  tithe  as  well  as  its 
tiinntial  convRaion  into  Ihe  poor  lithe,  omitting  allo- 
gMktr  the  Srst  or  Levilical  tithe;  while  the  books  of 
Leviticus  and  Numbers,  which  diacuas  the  Levilical 
tithe,  paaa  over  in  silence  the  second  or  feast  tithe. 
Tlkja  has  ^ren  rise  U>  varioua  theotiea  among  modem 
(riliaL  Thus  Ewatd  will  have  it  that  the  Deuteron- 
•aiiK,  niiiog  during  the  period  of  the  Jewish  monar- 
t^i  when  the  Leritical  lithe,  as  enacted  in  Leviticus 
aiil  NoBben,  could  ito  longer  be  coullnued  aa  a  regular 
~*'  ~  ~  «  of  tb*  new  taxes  imposed  by  the 


TITHE 

vereigns,  endctToted  to  bring  the  tithe  back  to  its 
iginal  form  of  a  Toluntarv  offering  {Dit  AUerlhSmrr 
da  Valta  Itratl,  p.  346).     Knobel  (Coininfli/.  on  Im. 
419,690)  regards  Deut.  xii,  6, 1 1 1  viv,2:-29i  xxvi, 
12,  as  proceeding  from  tbe  later  Jehovislic  legislator 
lived  towards  the  end  of  Ihe  kingdom  or  Judah, 
■ho  substituted  for  the  older  Eluhistlc  annual  veg- 
e  and  animal  titbe,  which  was  no  longer  practica- 
ble, Ihe  triennial  vegetable  tiibe  which  was  to  be  de- 
0  the  Levitea, 
together  with  the  stranger,  widow,  orphans,  and  poor, 
invited.     Kshop  Culcmo  (JTht  Paaateuck 
and  Ikt  Book  of  Joikita  Critical^  Examine,  ill,  476), 
iho  also  regards  Ihe  enactments  in  Leviticoa,  Numbera, 
nd  Deuteronomy  as  referring  to  one  and  the  same 
itbe,  flnda '*lhe  moat  complete  contradiction  between 
he  two  seta  of  laws."    Against  these  theories,  however, 
I  to  be  urged  that— a.  The  tithal  enactment  in  Deuler- 
whnlever  to  do  with  the  one  in 
therefore  neither  in- 
le  iL     b.  The  Deuter- 
!  and  force  of  the  Le- 
the Sited  income  of  the  minislfrs  of  the 
designs  Ihe  second  tithe  to  be  in  force 
by  its  side.     This  is  evident  trom  the  fact  that  Ihe 
book  of  Deuteronomy  (x,9;  xii,  19;  xiv,  !7,  29),  like 
the  bouka  of  Leviticus  and  Numbers,  legislates  upon 
the  basis  of  Levities]  poverty,  and  frequently  refera  lo 
the  care  to  be  taken  i>l  the  Levitea.    Now  if,  according 
tn  the  abore-ilamed  hypothesis,  »c  are  to  regard  the 

ins]  Lovitical  tithe,  we  are  shut  up  to  the  prepoeleroua 
conclusion  that  the  only  provision  made  by  the  Deulet- 

ycare.  c.  Tbe  mention  of  tbe  aeooud  lithe  by  Ihe  Deu- 
temnamist  akme  ia  owing  lo  the  fact  tbat  it  is  connect- 
ed with  Ihe  fixing  of  the  central  sanctuary,  the  ritea 
atid  regulations  of  which  ho  alone  discuaace.  if.  The 
post-exilian  praclice  of  the  Jews  shows  beyond  Ihe 
shallow  of  a  rluubt  Ihat  Ihe  nation  fur  whom  iheae 
laws  were  paaaed  undersltxHl  ihe  ei 


DeuK 


Ih  the  first  or  Levilical  tithe  enjoined  ii 
viticns  and  Numbera  (Tobit  i.  7;  Josepliiis,  AM.  iv,  8, 
8,  ii;  Ulshna,  ttaair  Sheni).  This  also  sets  aside 
the  objection  urged  by  eome  that  a  double  lithe  would 
be  too  heavy  and  nnbearable  a  tax.  For  if  tbe  Jewa 
did  not  liDd  it  ao  in  later  times,  when  under  the  rule  of 
foreign  aovereigns,  and  paying  heavy  raiea  to  them, 
surely  they  couhl  not  have  found  the  double  tithe  too 
grinding  an  opprouoD  during  tbe  independence  of  the 
State,  especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  second 
lithe  was  devoted  to  festive  repasts  of  the  respective 
families  at  which  the  Leritcs,  the  strangers,  ihc  wid- 
oWB,  orphans,  etc.,  were  simply  guests. 

From  all  this  we  gather;  I.  That  one  tenth  of  Ihe 
whole  produce  of  the  soil  was  to  be  assigned  fur  Ihe 


of  tl 


is  the 


nth  lo  God  for  the  use  of 
the  high-priest.  S.  That  ■  lithe,  in  all  probability  a 
leconii  tithe,  was  lo  be  applied  to  festival  purposes.  4. 
That  in  every  third  year  either  this  feuiral  tilhe  or  a 
thii-d  tenth  was  to  he  eaten  in  company  with  Ihe  poor 
and  tbe  Levitea.  The  queation  thus  ari>iea,were  Ihere 
lirm  liihes  taken  in  this  third  year,  or  is  Ihe  IhinI 
tithe  only  the  second  under  a  different  descriplionV 
Thai  tbere  were  two  yearly  tilbcs  secma  dear,  both 
from  the  general  tenor  of  the  dircctioiiB  and  from  the 
Sept.  rendering  of  Deul.  ixvi,  12.  Itui  it  must  be  al- 
lowed that  the  Mint  tithe  is  not  wiihnut  support,  a. 
Josephus  distinctly  says  that  one  tenth  was  lo  be  giv- 
en to  the  prieeia  and  Levitea,  one  lenth  was  to  be  ap- 
plied 10  feasts  ill  the  melropal■^  and  that  a  tenth  be- 
sidea  these  (rpinji'  wpuc  nuraJc)  waa  every  third  year 
to  be  given  to  tbe  poor  (Am.  iv,  8,  8,  22).  b.  To- 
bit  says  he  gave  one  lenlh  to  Ihe  priests,  one  lenlli  he 
sold  and  spent  at  Jerusalem,  i. «.  commuted  according 


TITHE  ' 

to  Drut.  xir,  34,  35,  «nd  tnother  teoth  be  give  awi; 
(T'ibic  i,  T,  8).  f.  Jerome  u.ra  one  tenth  wu  given  ti 
(he  Leviles,  <iut  of  which  Ihey  give  one  tanlh  to  thi 
prieau  {itvnpoittani);  ■  weond  tithe  waa  applied  t 
leatival  purposes,  anil  a  third  was  given  to  the  poo 
(WT-^xoA'ani)  {Com.  m  Eitk.  xh,  i,  585),  Sptnce 
tbinka  Ihere  were  three  litbes.  Jenningii,  with  Mede 
thinks  there  were  Mil;  two  complete  tithes,  bat  tha 
in  the  third  year  nn  aildicion  of  some  sort  was  mad 
(Speneer,  J)t  l^g.  Iltbr,  p.  737;  Jennings,  Jeuriih  Am 
p.  183). 

On  the  other  hind,  Maimonides  says  (he  (hint  am 
aixtb  fears'  second  tithe  was  shared  between  the  poo 
and  the  l^Tile^  i.  e.  (hat  (here  was  no  third  tithe  (De 
Jvr.  Faup.  \%  i).  Selden  and  Hichaelia  remarl  ' 
the  burden  of  three  i  ithes,  liesidea  the  Hrst-fruili, 
be  excessive.  Selden  thiniia  that  the  IhinI  year's  lithe 
denotes  only  a  different  appUcalion  of  the  second,  or 
feMival,  lithe,  and  Michaelis  that  it  menit  ■  surplus 
afiei  the  consumption  of  Ibe  reatiral  tithe  (Selden, 
0«  Tilhfi,  ii,  IB;  Michaelis,  Lairi  of  Mok,.  §  193, 
iii,  ]  43,  cd.  Smith).  Against  a  third  tithe  mav  be  add- 
e.1  KeUnd,  A«l.  Hfbr.  p.  859;  Jahn,  AkI.  §  389;  God- 
vnrn,  Moifi  and  Aaron,  p.  136,  and  Carpoiv,  p.02l,63J: 
Keil,  HAL  Arck.  §  71.  i,  837;  Saalwhlltz,  ilebr.  ArcKi, 
70;  Winer,  A«){wDr(n4:B.v."Zehn(e.'' 

Of  these  opinions,  that  which  maintains  three  sepa- 
rate and  complete  tithings  seems  improbable  as  impos- 
ing an  cxceasive  burden  on  the  land,  and  not  easily  rec- 
onciliblc  with  the  other  ilirectiouB;  yet  (here  seems 
no  reason  for  rejecting  Ihe  notion  of  two  yearly  (ithes 
when  we  recollect  the  especial  promise  of  fertility  to 
the  sot]  conditional  on  observance  of  the  commanc^  of 
the  law  (Deut.  xsviii).  There  would  thus  be,  (I)  a 
yeariy  lillie  for  the  Levites;  (3)  a  second  tithe  for  the 
festivals,  which  last  would,  every  (bird  year,  be  shared 
bv  the  Levites  with  the  poor.  It  is  this  poor  man's 
tithe  which  Michaelis  thinks  is  spoken  of  as  likely  to 
be  converted  to  the  king's  use  under  Ihe  regal  dvnasty 
{I  Sam.  viii,  15, 17;  Michaelis, /^ir.  of  Moia,  i,  399). 
Kwald  thinks  that  under  the  kings  the  eccledasMcal 
lithe  system  reverteil  (o  what  he  supposes  to  have  been 
its  original  free-will  character. 

II.  Cbiuificniion  of  and  Lnlrr  /.fgiilalion  upon  fht 
Tbhfi.—lt  will  be  teen  from  (he  above  description  that 
the  tithes  are  divisible  into  four  classes.  As  the  anxi- 
ety (o  pay  them  properly  called  forth  more  minu(e  defi- 
niriiuis  and  fur(her  expansions  of  the  Pentateuchal  en- 
acirnenla,  we  shall  give  the  most  important  practices 
which  obtained  during  the  seconit  Temple  in  connec- 
tion with  each  of  these  four  classes  oT  tithes. 

1.  neF,rriliail,orJir$f,mAf(X\6if}  "liBSn).  This 
lithe  was  paid  after  both  the  first-fruit  (O^'ltai)  and 
the  priestly  heave -olFering  (n^(^n)  had 


hich,  tl 


>t  fixed  in  the 


e  fiftieth  of  the  produce 
(comp.Exnd.  xxiii,  19;  Deuu  xxvi.  I,  etc;,  with  Mish- 
na,  Biklmrin:  Numb,  xviii,  S;  Deut.  xviii,  4,  with 
Mishna,  Temmoth,  iii,  7 ;  iv,  B;  Maimonides,  lad  lla- 
t'hfziihi,  Ifitchoth  Maihamih  Anjint,  ri,  3).  As  the 
MiMBic  law  does  not  dcKne  what  things  are  subject  to 
this  lithe,  but  simply  says  that  it  is  to  coriMst  of  both 
vegetables  and  animals  (Lev.  xxvii, 30  sq.),  the  Jewish 
canons  enacted  that  as  to  the  produce  of  the  land 
"whatsoever  is  esculent,  though  still  kept  in  the  fielrl. 
and  derives  its  growth  from  the  soil,  is  (ithable;  or 


lien  frar 


the  o 


ion  of  its  growth,  though  left  in  the  Held  to 
SIM.  is  titliable,  whether  small  ot  great; 
!ver  cannot  be  eaten  at  the  banning,  bat 

la  ripe  for  food"  (Mishna.  MaairTolh,  i,  1). 


«  TITHE 

not  condemn,  but,  on  the  contrar}',  said.  "These  oogtit 
ye  to  have  done"  {Hatt.  xxiii,  33;  Luke  xi,  43;  comp. 
Mishna,  Maafroth,  i,  3-H}.  The  animals  subject  W 
this  Levitical  tithe  are  still  more  iiujefinilely  described 
in  the  Pentateuchal  statute,  which  simply  saya, "  As  ta 
all  Ihe  tithe  of  herds  and  flocks,  whatsoever  pasaeth 
under  Ihe  rod,  Ihe  tenth  ahall  be  holv  unto  ibe  LonT 
(Uv.  xxvii,  33).  It  will  be  s»n  that  this  Uw  doa 
not  say  whether  the  tenth  is  lu  be  paid  of  the  newiy 
bom  animals,  whether  it  includes  those  newly  pur- 
chased or  exchanged,  whether  it  is  payable  if  a  man 
has  less  than  ten  cattle,  or  at  what  age  of  the  aaimsli 
the  tithe  becomes  due.  The  spiritual  heads  of  the  peo- 
ple had  theicfote  most  minutely  to  define  these  poinia 
so  as  to  make  the  tithal  Uw  practicable.  Hence  the 
following  canons  obtained :  Ail  animals  are  tiibaUs 
except  those  which  are  born  of  heterogeneous  copula- 
tion (comp,  Deut.  xiii,  9),  which  are  damaged,  which 
have  cumc  into  Ihe  world  irr^ulaily,  or  which  are  be- 
reaved of  their  mother;  which  have  been  purchased  or 
received  as  presents.  They  are  only  tithable  wb« 
there  are  ten  newly  bom  of  the  same  kind,  so  that  the 
offiipring  of  oxen  and  small  cattle  must  not  be  put  to- 
gether to  make  up  the  requisite  number,  nor  arc  even 
those  to  be  put  together  which  are  bom  in  diHerent 
years,  though  they  belong  to  the  same  kind.  Sheep 
and  goats  may  be  tithed  together,  provided  they  have 
all  been  burn  in  the  same  season  (Bliahna,  ficJuioM,  ii, 
3,  4).  The  tithing  is  (o  Uke  place  three  times  in  the 
year,  about  fifteen  days  before  each  of  the  three  great 
festivals  — viz.  {a)  on  the  first  of  Ktsan,  being  fifkeen 
days  before  Passover;  (6)  on  the  first  of  Sivan,  being 
only  five  days  before  Pentecost,  because  the  soiall  num- 
ber of  animals  bom  between  these  two  festivals  cooH 
not  suffice  for  the  celebration  of  Pentecost  if  the  second 
tithe  term  were  to  be  Oftetn  days  before  this  festival; 
and  (e)  on  the  twenty-ninth  of  Elid  instead  of  the  ftnt 
of  Tisri,  which  is,  properly  speaking,  Hfleen  da.vs  be- 
fore Tabemscle^  because  the  drat  of 'I'isri  is  th^  Feast 
of  Trumpet^  or  New  Year.  See  Festiv*i,  Tbow 
which  were  bom  in  Ihe  month  of  Elul  weit  tithed  br 
Ihemset ves(ibid.';atAAait-&A<mu«,  1,1,  with  ficlsn^i. 
ix.  5,  ti).  On  each  of  the  three  occasions  the  herds  of 
every  owner  extending  over  a  pasture-ground  not  ex- 
ceeding sixteen  Roman  miles  were  collected  t<^Etlia 
into  one  fuk),  while  those  beyond  the  prescribed  litnio 
formed  a  separate  lot.  In  the  pen  wheivin  the  herd 
wan  thus  gathered  a  small  door  was  made  which  only 
admitted  of  one  animal  going  ont  at  a  time,  ami  tbe 
owner  placed  himself  at  this  narrow  opening,  holding 
a  rod  or  siaff  in  his  baud  wherewith  he  coiuiled  each 
animal  as  it  made  its  exit  from  the  fold  till  he  came  to 
the  (enlh,  which  he  marked  with  red  color,  saving, 
"This  is  the  tithe''(ibid.  itaterofA,  X,  7).  Tbeoom- 
land  "  whatsoever  piuttlh  under  lie  rod"  (Lev.  xxvii, 


83)  w 


I  thus 


rerally  < 


3.    The  priallg  <ilhe,  also  called  tilie  of  Ikr  ti/lu 

(^igsan  1030,  ^t?:r^>i  lo  ^tor?,  Numb.sviii,as)i 

lie  heare^offering  of  ihe  iMt  ("ijoj^  rO^^FI),  oxap- 
Xht  nfnwri  (P''''Oi  ^  Mom,  Mat.),  or  tivnpotaarai 
(Jerome,  on  Eidt.  xln).  This  liihe  had  to  be  sepa- 
rated by  the  Leviie  from  tbe  tenth  he  bad  received 
from  the  Israelite.  It  had  to  be  given  to  the  pricata  in 
Jeruaalem  (Neh.  x,  88)  before  Ihe  Levite  could  use  tin 
rate  paid  to  him.  It  had,  moreover,  to  be  a  tenth  part 
of  the  very  tithe  which  the  Leviles  received,  and  waa 
therefore  subject  to  the  same  laws  and  regulatitna  to 
which  the  Levitical  lithe  was  subject.  After  ihe  Bab- 
ylonian cap)ivitr,  when  the  Levitical  tithe  was  divid- 
ed (see  below),  this  so-calleil  lilkt  of  tilhet  ni  1 1  wsiilj 
caaaed.  Hence  the  priests,  instead  of  receiving  a  lentil 
of  the  Levitical  tithe  as  heretofore,  took  tbeii  shste  di- 
rectly from  the  people  (Heb.  vii,  5).     See  ScniBE. 

3.  Tht  leand  tithe  (^JC  *^ipi;p,  tivripoiitini). 
This  festival  tithe  could  not  be  soh).  nor  given  or  re- 
ceived as  a  pledge,  uor  lued  as  weighr.  nor  exchanged. 


TITHE  4! 

bM  might  be  gircn  awij  ■>  ■  preHtit  (Hishiu,  Maaier 
Sina,i,  I).  If  (he  diMance  to  (he  nilional  unciuiry 
■uKgrut  Mio  pncludc  Ihe  pOMibility  of  conveying 
ii  ID  kind,  it  miitht  tie  cuiiverted  into  ipecie,  aiiil  (he 
gumy  could  only  be  expended  in  the  meuopolis  in  or- 
iliiunr  artidea  of  food,  ilriiik,  and  <an(ment  fur  the  fe>~ 
liril  iDtila  DC  faiival  sKiifioes  whidi  were  ei(en  «t 
Uhw uoil npuu (D'C^C  'nz^MJ.iJ:  iii,2;  CAa- 
p^*,i,3).  There  wen' Morehuiioea  (niscV,  riisis) 
ill  one  pirt  uf  the  Temple,  under  the  auperiiitendence 
of  ynnW  and  Levile*,  in  which  (he  tilhe  wu  kept  <2 
ClHui.  xxxi,  Il-Mi  Neh.  x,  38,  S9;  xi\,  41;  xiii,  12; 
Jiaephu^jtii/.  ix,8,8). 

4.  Tie  lrieiimal,or pooT,lilU  (^»  ^l^^p,  WTt^eli- 
«tn»),  siM  dlted  fi<  rAinJ  ririf  ('^'■bc  -bxs,  q  rpf'- 
ni^Kanj,Tubiti,7;  JowphuB.jln/.iv.BiMj.Jiid'Ae^re- 
iwi/  lirkt  (jturipov  irifirarev,  Sept^  Deut.  xxvi,  IS), 
beniiK  it  wiB  pmperly  the  ucond  (l(he  converteil  in(o 
ilw  gnor  ii(hr,  (a  be  gii'en  to  ■ndeonsumed  by  (ha  poor 
■t  bvme,  itiitead  of  conveying  it  to  the  metropolw  (u  be 
nten  by  the  owner.  Aa  every  Mventh  year  was  i  fal- 
low year  not  yielding  a  reguUr  harreaC,  it  wan  enacted 
that  Ihe  aeconil  tilhe  ahoulri  be  eaten  in  Jeniwleni  by 
(he  owner  thereof  and  his  giiesta  In  Ihe  first,  Mcond, 
foiiM,  and  fil^h  yean  of  the  aeptenuial  cycle,  and  be 
given  (0  the  poor  in  the  third  niid  teventb  yeara.  It 
vill  (hiu  he  aecn  (hat  (he  whole  Rries  of  (axea  reached 
ill  complriion  >I  (he  end  of  every  third  and  aeventh 
fear,  or  on  the  eve  of  Panovet  nf  the  fourth  and  eev- 
eMh  yeara.  Hence  it  is  (ha[  the  third  year  it  deoomi- 
nated  lit  gfor  of  lithe  (iqsisn  rSti)— L  e.  when  all 
(he  lithea  bad  taken  their  rounds  (Deut.  xxvi,  12),  and 
not  becauK,  ai  aome  crities  will  have  il,  Ihe  annual 
lilbe  of  the  earlier  legiilator  waa  afterwards  changed 
by  (he  Deuteronomin  inlo  a  triennial  tithi 
loo,  the  qiiritual  head)  of  Ihe  Jewish  people  in  and  be- 
lon  the  time  of  ChriM  cuiuiiiuied  and  denominated  the 
PiepantioD  Day  of  Paaaover  of  the  fourth  and  Kvenlh 
yean  a  day  of  searching  and  removal  (^^73)  in  accord- 
■nn  with  Deut.  xxvi,  12  (« ishna,  UaoKr  Sktm,  v,  6), 
when  every  Israelite  had  to  separate  all   the  tithes 

Tears,  but  which,  either  Ihroitgh  negligence  or  through 

At  (he  evening  aaerificc  ou  the  last  day  of  Paiaover, 
erny  pilgrim,  befon  preparing  tu  return  home,  had  to 
oflet  a  pnyer  of  confeaNon,  in  accordance  with  ver.  IS. 
At  this  coofestion  (^1^^)  is  an  expansion  and  trariition- 
aleipdaitian  of  ver.  13~1S,  which  accounts  fi>r  ihe  Chal- 
dee  and  other  versions  of  ihe  passage  in  question,  we 
pre  it  entire;  "  I  hare  renwred  the  hallowed  things 
(iMD  (be  house"  (L  e.  (he  second  (t(he  and  (be  quadren- 
nitl  fruit  [Lev.  xix,  28,  etc]) ;  "  have  given  it  to  th( 
Levite' (i.  e.  the  Levilical  tithe];  "and  also  given  it' 
ILe.ibepriesily  ofleringand  Ihe  priestly  tithe)  "to  th« 
■ranger,  to  the  dKherleas,  and  to  the  widow"  (i.  e.  the 
poor  tithe). . .  "  from  the  house"  (L  e.  from  the  dough 
[cump  NumbbXr,  IT,  eic.])  "according  to  all  thy 
b  thou  hast  commanded  me"  (i.< 


6  TITHE 

aimuch  as  the  poor  tithe  took  (ta  place  (Maimonidea, 

/ad  llu-Chrtaka,  /litcholh  MaHiutmlh  Ayim.  vi,  4). 

The  poor  could  gu  into  a  Held  where  Ihe  poor  tithe  waa 

lying  and  demand  of  the  owner  to  satisfy  their  wanl& 

The  minimum  qnanlily  to  be  given  to  them  was  de- 

flitedasfolhiwa:  If  the  tithe  be  of  wheat, }  cab;  barley, 

ab;  sfieU,  1  cab;  lenten-Sgs,  1  cab;  cake-figs,  the 

ightofSducli;  wine,  |  log;  (ul,}log;  rice,  ^  cab; 

L'es,  1  pound;  pulse,  3  cabs;  nuts,  10  nuta;  peaches, 

b  peaches;  pomeijmnates,  2;  citrons,  1;  and  if  of  any 

other  fruit,  it  shall  not  be  less  than  may  be  sold  for  tuch 

I  as  will  buy  food  sutBcient  for  two  meals.    If  the 


e  befiire 


le  drst). 


inusgntsed  thy  cnmmaiidmei 
kind  lur  ihe  o(her,  the  cut  fur  Ihe  standing, 
inc  bt  the  cut,  the  new  for  the  old,  nor  Ihe 
new).  X  [  have  not  fargoticn'  (i.  e.  to  tbanli  thee  and 
10  rrnember  thy  name  thereby).  "I  have  not  eaten 
thneof  in  my  mourning  ...  I  have  not  given  thereof 
In  the  dead*  (i.  e.  for  coffins,  shrouds,  or  mourners).  "1 
hste  heirkened  to  the  voice  of  the  Lord  my  <ioir  (L  e, 
htve  taken  it  id  (be  chiacn  saiwtuary).  "  I  have  done 
all  (hat  Ihoa  hast  cotnmaniled  me"  (i.  e.  have  rejoiceil 
■Bd  cawed  others  to  rejoice  therewith),  etc.  (Alishna 
Mman  Skua,  v,  10-13).  In  the  two  years  of  the  sep- 
totnial  cydt,  when  the  seomd  lithe  waa  converted  iiiK 
the  punt  lUhe,  there  waa  tio  additional  se«ond  tithe,  in- 


[o  give 


Ihem  BO  that  they  may  divide  it 
The  owner  may  only  give  one  hal 
own  poor  rclatires,  and  the  other  he  must  distrihuie 
ig  the  poor  generally.  If  a  loan  and  womau  ap- 
ply logether,  the  woman  is  to  be  satisfied  Am.  Ku 
debts  are  allowed  to  he  paid  oat  of  tfie  poor  lithe,  nor 
a  recompense  tn  be  made  for  benefits,  nor  captives  re- 
deemed, nor  is  it  to  be  ilevoted  to  nuptial  feasts  or  alms, 
nor  is  it  to  be  taken  out  of  Palestine  inio  a  foreign  land 
(Maimonides,  ibid,  vi,  T-IT).  Though  no  lillics  were 
paid  in  Palestine  in  the  sabbatical  year,  when  all  was 
in  common  [see  Sabbatical  Veab],  yet  the  land  of 
Egypt,  Ammon,  and  Moab  had  to  pay  them  for  the 
support  of  the  poor  of  Israel,  because  the  Sabbath  of 
the  aoil  was  not  observed  in  these  coimlries,  while  (he 
Bahvlunians  had  to  pav  the  second  tilhe  (Mishna,  i'li- 
dalm.  iv,  S ;  Msimonide^  Jad  Ua-Chnaka,  llitcholh  Ma- 
liamilh  iln/ini,  vi,B). 

III.  Or^  and  Obmrimx  oflkt  Tithtt  /.ok.— With- 
out inquiring  into  the  reason  for  which  the  iiumbei 
(en  (q.  v.)  has  so  frequently  been  preferred  as  a  num- 
ber of  selection  in  the  cases  of  tribute-ollFcrings  (Pliito 
derives  iiga  from  iixviiai  [/>e  X.  Orac.  ii,  1B4]).  both 
sacred  and  secular,  vuluniaiy  and  compulsoij-.  we  may 
remark  that  the  practice  of  paying  lilhes  obtained 
among  different  nations  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
Thus  the  andent  Phcenicians  and  Ihe  Carthaginians 
sent  tithes  annually  to  the  Tynan  Hercules  (Dtod.  Sic. 
XX,  14;  Justin,  xviil,  7)  I  the  southern  Arabians  could 
not  dispose  of  their  incense  before  paying  a  tenth  there- 
of to  the  priests  at  Sabola  in  honor  of  their  god  Sabis 
(Plloy,  llitl.  Nat.  xil,  82) ;  the  ancient  Pelai^ians  paid 
a  tithe  of  the  produce  of  the  soil  and  the  increase  nf 
their  herds  to  their  deities  (Dionys.  Italic  i,  19, 23,  etc); 
and  the  Hellenes  consecrated  to  their  deities  a  tenth 
of  their  annual  produce  of  the  ami  (Xeiioph.  IftUm.  i, 
7.  10),  of  their  business  pro«ts  (Herod,  iv,  I&2),  of  coii- 
Aarated  estates  (Xenoph.  Ittlbv.  i,T,  10),  of  their  spoils 
(Herod.  V,  77;  ix,  81;  Xenoph.  .rfnai^  v,3,4; //ftfn.iT, 
8,21;  DinLKc  xi,33;  Pausan.  iii,  IH,  5;  v,  10,4;  x, 
10, 1;  rdf  Jdtiirnc  rwv  ir(fM]ii>'D/uriii>>  j-oi^  dtoic  ki- 
Siipovr;  Harpocration,  s.  V.  dinarEfFitv;  and  Knobel, 
Conmml.  on  /.ft,  rxrii,  SO).  Among  other  passage* 
the  following  may  be  cited!  1  Uacc  xi,  35;  Herod,  i, 
»9;  vii,  132;  Diod.  Sic.  v,  42 1  Pausan.  v,  10, 2 ;  Justin, 
XX,  8;  Arisl.  (Foip.  ii,  2;  Livy,  v,  21;  Polyb.  ix,  39; 
Cicero,  IVrr.  ii,  3,  6,  and  7  (where  lithea  of  wine,  oil, 
and  "minuliB  frngen"  are  mentioned);  Pro  f^,  ManiL 
G;  Plut.^9«.ch.xix,p.3S9:  Plin.v, //uf.  A'of.  xti,  14; 
Macrob..Var.  iii,6i  Hoae, /nscr.Cr.p.215;  (iibbon.iii, 
SOI,  ed.  Smith;  and  a  remarkable  inilaiice  of  fruits 
tithed  and  olTered  (o  a  deity,  and  a  feast  made,  of  which 
the  people  of  the  district  partook,  in  Xeimph.  A  nab.  t, 
3,  9,  answering  thus  to  the  Hebrew  poor  man's  tithe- 
feast  mentioned  above. 

In  Biblical  history  the  two  prominent  instances  of 
earty  occurrence  are;  1.  Abram  presenting  the  tenth 
of  all  his  property,  according  to  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
versions  of  lleb.  vii,  and  Itashi  in  his  Oimmrnlaiy, 
but,  as  the  passages  themsclreB  appear  to  show,  nf  the 
spoils  of  his  victorv,  to  Melchiiedck  ((ien.  xir,  20; 
Heb.  vii, 2, 6;  Josephus,  .4nr. i,  10, 2;  Srlilpn, ^nJ-ilia, 


ch.  i).  2.  Jacob,  tfter  hii  rinoii  at  Loz.  devotirg 
(eatb  of  all  hia  property  to  God  in  ease  he  should  n 
torn  home  in  ntety  (Oe'ii.  xxviii,  SS).     I'beae  in>un« 


b«irw 


o  the  ai 


ic  tithe  ajatem.  'Vben  can 
therefore  be  iio  doubt  that,  like  many  other  I'entateu- 
cbal  ordinance!,  the  inspireiU^ulatoi  adopted  the  lithal 
law  into  the  divine  code  because  be  Tound  that,  with 
•ome  modiAcaCions,  thin  primarily  vulunUry  tax  xtu  a 
proper  stipend  Tur  tbe  aervanta  of  tbe  uncliur}'.  and 
that  it  would,  at  the  tame  lime,  be  a  means  of  promnling 
pilgrimage  to  the  nitional  MiMtuary  on  the  great  fei' 
tivals,  and  social  intercourse  between  the  rich  and  ihc 


During  the  inon 
theraBelres  (1  Sim. 


irchy,  the  payment  nf  tilbea  was 
ms  that  tbe  kings  claimetl  them  for 
riii,  14,  lf>,  17i  with  1  Maccii,3a). 


ligion  by  the  pious  llezekiah  (3  Cbron.  Jtxxi,  G,  6, 12] 
and  after  Ibe  retitm  of  the  Jews  from  the  Dabyloniai 
caplivily  (Neh.  x^  38;  xii,  14;  xiii,  5,  IS),  when  mate 
rial  alleratiniis  and  modiKcations  were  made  in  tbe  lith 
■1  law  owing  to  the  altered  state  of  the  comntonwealll 
and  to  the  disproporiion  of  the  Levitea  and  laymet 
Only  341  or  360  Leiites  returned  st  lint  from  tbe'  Bab- 
ylonian ciptiTity,  with  about  37,319  laymen;  while  with 
Eira  only  88  Leviles  came  back,  with  1496  laymen! 
and  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  Ihat  tbe  urns  dispro- 
portion continued  among  those  who  returned  afterwards, 
as  well  as  in  the  gradual  and  natural  increase  of  Ibe 
nation.  There  were  thus  97  laymen  to  1  Levite,  white 
the  tithe  of  9  laymen  amounted  to  as  much  as  was  left 
for  each  private  family;  and  if  we  take  10  laymen  to 
1  Levile,  as  the  latler  had  to  pay  a  tenth  to  tt  prieu, 
the  tithe  when  duly  paid  hy  all  the  people  yielded  ten 
times  as  much  as  the  Leviies  requireil.  On  the  other 
hand,  Ibcrc  were  in  Judna.  after  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, a  diaproportionately  large  number  of  priests,  since, 
cxeluaire  of  tlioae  who  hail  no  register  (Eira  ii,  B3), 
4289  of  Ibem  came  with  Zembbabel— i.  e.  twelve  or 
thirteen  times  more  than  Leviles~and  two  whole 
families,  iKsiJea  aeparale  indiviifuala,  came  with  Eira. 
These  could  not  poaaihly  have  aubaialed  upon  Ih  Ugal 
dua  (Kelt,  x,  36-^9).  In  additinn  to  the  miserablv  pro- 
vided prieata,  there  were  Ibe  612  Nethiiiim  who  came 
back  with  Zerubbabel  and  Ezra  (Ezra  ii,  68;  viii,  W; 
Neb.  vii,60),  for  whom  no  provision  whatever  existed. 
Ezra  had  therefore  In  take  the  superabundant  tithe 
from  the  Iievites  for  the  support  of  tbe  priests  and  the 
Nelhinim.  Hence  Josephus  dislinctly  tells  us  that  tbe 
priests  received  litbea  in  later  times  (LfA,  lil  AuLxi, 
5, 8{  XX, 8,8;  9,2;  Apii>n,i,22).  Il  ia  tbisdistribudon 
of  the  Levitical  tithe  between  the  priesia  and  the  Le- 
viies which  ia  evidently  alluded  to  when  the  Talmud 
says  Ihat  Eira  liantferred  the  tithes  from  the  Levitea 
to  Ibe  prieata  as  a  punishment  (or  their  tardiness  in  re- 
turning from  exile  (/frMu&ufA,  26  a;  CAafin,l31  b;  Yt- 
hiniorA,8Gb;  Satah.V  b),for  it  could  not  possibly  mean 
that  be  took  ike  «>hoU  tithe  away  from  the  Levi  lea, 
Hnce  that  would  be  at  variance  with  other  records  (camp. 
Ezra  x,  88,39;  Neh,  xiii,  10, 13;  Tobit  i,  7,  with  Tdj- 
t^holh  on  KtthtAoth.  26  a),  and  woulil  leave  the  Levitea 
wholly  unprovided  fur,  arid  vi«t  the  good  Lcviles  who 
did  return  with  the  punishment  deserved  by  those  who 
remained  behind.  It  ia,  moreover,  owing  to  this  distri- 
bution of  the  Levitieal  tithe  cOected  by  Ezra  that  the 
tithe  was  afterwards  divideil  into  three  portions,  one  of 
which  was  given  by  the  owner  lo  his  friends  tbe  priests 
and  Levites,  the  other  was  taken  lo  tbe  Temple  alore- 
house,  and  the  third  portion  was  distributed  in  Jerusa- 
lem among  the  poor  and  the  needy  rAoicrim  (D^^an) 
^iloctors  of  the  law  (Jcniaalem  Solai,  ix,  II ;  Jcmaa- 
lera.»facutrS*flii,v,IB;  Babylon  Oiamort,  S6  b). 

The  lioard  appointed  Co  walch  over  the  tilhea,  ss 
well  as  the  stnrehnuses,  which  alnuidy  existed  in  Ihe 
time  of  Heiekiah  for  the  recepiion  of  the  tithee  (2 


IB  TITHES 

Chron.  xxxi,  U-H),  were  now  bet 
ever.  To  achieve  the  purpose  intended  by  Ezra  ia 
the  new  division  of  the  liihe,  it  was  absolutely  ueees- 
sary  that  the  collection  and  the  distribution  thereof 
stxiuld  take  place  under  the  careful  superintendence  of 
a  body  coosiating  of  both  priests  and  Levites.  Sudi  a 
board  was  therefore  duly  appointed,  and  il  was  ordun- 
ed  that  at  least  one  portion  of  the  tithes  should  be  tak- 
en to  Jerusalem  lor  tbe  support  of  the  ministering  Le- 
vitea 

During  Ihe  period  of  sacenlotal  degeneracy  and  Gre- 
cian ascendency  in  Palestine,  Ihe  tilhea  were  again  dis- 
continued; but  at  the  rise  of  Ihe  I'hariaees  tbe  strict 
payment  of  ■  tenth  was  made  one  of  tbe  two  easeniial 
coodilions  exacted  fiom  every  individual  who  dniied 
to  become  a  cAiiMr  p3n)  =  membeT  of  tbia  amcia- 
tion.    The  reason  for  tbia  ia  given  in  the  article  riuB- 

17.  LiVerufHrr.— Hisbna,  traclatea  MaamMk,  Uaa- 
srr  Shtni,  and  BtboTolk,  ix,  1-8;  and  tbe  Gemans  m 
thcae  Miahnas;  Maimonides,  liid  lla-Cituika,  HtlriaA 
/tfitlhaaalh  A  yim,  vi,  1-17 ;  UilclMh  Maattr  aiid  Mao- 
ftr  ShtHi;  Selden,  Tic  Hiitory  of  Tilitt  {S6\») ;  Hoi- 
liiiger.  t>r  Decimit  JaArorum  (ll  B.  1713) ;  and  other 
moni^rapbs  cited  by  Vulbeiling,  fiidex  Programmalvm, 
p.  170;  Spencer,  De  fjgUmi  llibi-aoraai  (Cantabrim, 
1727),  lib.  iii,cx:  ii,T20,etc.;  Michaelia,  Conn&ta- 
rittonthe  £<iids  o^.I/ojh  (EngLtranaL  London,  1SI4), 
art.excii,iii,MI,elc;  Herzfeld,  C>'(*c^ dr*  VoUxt  Itrad 
(Nordhausen,  186j),  i,62  sq.,  188  sq. 

TITHES  (Angkr-Saion,  faoTjIu,  a  laUk).  a  tenth  part 
of  the  produce  of  the  land,  which  by  ancient  usage,  and 
subsequanlly  by  law,  is  set  aside  for  Ihe  support  afibt 
clergy  anil  other  religioua  uses.  In  Ihe  Christian  dis- 
pensation the  very  circumstance  of  the  existence  of  ibe 
clergy  is  supposed  by  many  to  imply  a  certain  fixed  ^n- 
vision  for  their  maintenance.  This  obligation  has  beea 
put  forward  in  eockaastical  legidation  from  tbe  earliot 
period.  The  Apostolic  Canons,  the  Apoatolic  Conttiiu- 
lions,  St.  Cyprian  on  Ihe  Vnilsp/tht  Cturol,  and  the 
works  of  Ambrose,  Chrysoatom.  Augustine,  and  the  oth- 
er fathers  of  both  divisions  of  the  Church,  abound  with 
allusions  to  it.  In  Ihe  early  Christian  Church  the  cus- 
tom of  consecrating  to  religious  purposes  a  tenth  of  tba 
income  was  voluntary,  and  it  was  not  made  obligator* 
until  the  Council  of  Tours  in  667.  The  second  Counol 
of  Macon,  in  683,  enjoined  the  payment  of  tithes  under 
pain  flfexcommunicalion ;  and  Charlemagne,  by  his  ca- 
pitularies, formally  established  the  practice  within  tbasa 
portions  of  the  ancient  Roman  emfure  to  which  his  legis- 
lation extended. 

The  iutroducdon  of  dthes  into  EngUlnd  \t  ascribed  lo 
Ofb,  king  nf  Mercia,at  the  dose  of  the  8th  century:  and 
the  usage  passed  into  other  divisions  of  Saxon  England, 
and  was  finally  made  general  by  Ethelwotf.  They  were 
made  obligatory  in  Scotland  in  the  9lh  century-.  Hid  not 
long  after  in  Ireland.  At  first  the  choice  oftbeChnrcb 
lo  whom  a  person  paid  tithes  was  optional,  hut  by  a  de- 
cretal of  Innocent  III,  addressed  to  the  archhiahop  </ 
Canlerbuiy  in  1200,  all  were  directed  to  pay  In  tbe 
clergy  of  their  respective  parishes.  According  l»  Eng- 
lish law,  tithes  an  of  three  kinds— predial,  mixed,  and 
personal.  Predial  tithes  are  those  which  arise  imne- 
distely  from  the  ground,  as  grain,  fruit,  herba,  eU; 
Mixed  tilhea  are  thoae  piticeeding  from  Ihinca  nourish- 
ed by  the  earth,  aa  calves,  lamba,  pigs,  milk,  cheeae, 
eggs,  etc.  Penional  tithes  are  those  ariainp  from  the 
proHla  of  personal  industry  in  the  piirauit  of  s  tnAt, 
profession,  or  occupation.  The  latler  were  cenerally 
paid  in  Ihe  form  of  a  voluntary  offering  at  Easier,  or 
aome  other  period  of  Ihe  year.  The  law  eiempied 
mines,  quarries,  wild  animals,  game,  Ash,  and  also  tame 
animata  kept  for  pleaaure,  and  not  for  uae  or  praAt. 

AnnlherandamorearWtrarvdislinclionisintooiwtf 
and  nnnrf-the  Aral 


TITIAN  41 

B  ill  personal  uvl  mixed  titho.  The  gmt  lithea  oT  ■ 
puiih  bclongFd  (o  the  rcntur,  and  the  smstl  tithes  lo 
Ilw  v'lCMi.  Tithei  were  oiigiDillT  paid  in  kind,  u  [he 
unihtbeattbe  tenth  lamb;  but  the  inconTenience  and 
tnuhlc  invcilved  in  thia  mode  cf  payment  led  to  the 
irinpiion  of  otbf  ■     '  ■ 

iln  payment  of 
tfaclul  produce,  oc  by  a  money  payment  mutually 
i;;ncd  Dpon;  by  a  partial  BUbetitution  ot  payment  or 
kbor,  ti  vhen  a  peraon  contributed  a  amaller  amount 
of  piwlDce,  but  free  from  the  enpenae  of  barveating, 
etc;  or  by  the  payment  of  ■  bulk  lum  in  redemption 
of  the  inpual,  either  fur  a  time  or  forCTer,  ae  the  case 
nigbi  be, »  that  the  bind  became  tithe-free.  By  1 
K]iitbeth,c  19,  and  13  Eliubeth,  c  10,iuch  alienationi 
of  tiihe-pajmeDt  were  teatricted  to  a  teiro  of  tweutj- 
one  rein,  or  three  livM. 

UiiKioatly  convenu  occupying  landl  in  England  paid 
tilbatolbe  parocbial  clergy:  but  by  a  decretal  i>(  Pat- 
cbal  II  they  vete  exempted  ftom  auch  payments  in  re- 
jtanj  lu  lande  heM  by  themaelTel  in  their  own  occupa- 
tinL  This  exemplion  waa  confloed  by  anbaequeiil  lei"- 
BlMiioB  la  the  (bur  ordera,  TempUra,  Hospiiillera,  Cis- 
Eerciana,  and  PremonatrateDsiani,  and  af^er  ih«  fourth 
Cnuicil  of  Lateran,  A.D.  1216,  only  in  respect  of  lan<1i 
bdl  by  them  befoTB  that  year.  At  the  Reformation 
nuDTof  the  forfeited  Church  landawhen  sold  were  held 
frMoflilhes. 

Thtae  partial  eiemptiana,  and  the  fact  that  the  tithes 
were  a  tax  for  tbe  uippart  of  tbe  clergy  uf  the  Estab- 
liibed  Chorcb,  made  it  very  unpopular  with  thoae  who 
were  obliged  to  pay,  and  especially  so  lo  Diseenten.  A 
meanire  of  oommutatian  became  absolutely  necesaarv, 
bsl,  although  recommended  ae  fat  bacli  as  1822,  did  not 
becofoe  Uw  until  1838.  Various  statutes  for  England 
or  Ireland  have  aittce  been  enacted  regulating  the  pav- 
■Mnt  of  tithes  (6  and  T  William  IV,  c.  71 ;  7  William 
IVandl  Victoria,  c.  69;  1  and  2  Victoria,  c  64;  9  anil 
t  Victoria,  c  33;  and  6  and  6  Victoria,  c  M).  Tbeir 
object  for  England  is  to  Hubstitute  ■  money  rent-charge, 
•airiag  on  a  acale  regulated  by  the  average  price  of 
frsbi  fin-  seren  years  for  all  the  other  forms  ofpayment. 
In  Ireland  the  aettlement  waa  effected  by  a  commuia- 
tkm  of  tithe  into  a  moncv  reiil-cbaige  three  fourths  the 
fbcmei  value.  The  Disestablishment  Act  of  1869  abol- 
iibed  aihes  and  created  a  common  fund  for  the  support 
of  itK  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  tad  clergy.  In 
Fruice  tithes  wm  abolished  at  the  Revolution,  and  this 
example  was  followed  by  tbe  other  Continental  coun- 
iriH.  In  the  Canadian  provinces  of  Quebec,  tithes  are 
Kill  collected  by  virtue  of  the  old  French  law,  yet  ill 
fbrce  there.  In  tbe  United  Statea,  titbea  are  exacted 
by  the  Mormon  hierarchy.  See  Bingham,  CArut.^nti;. 
bk.v.eh.T,SIsq. 

TltlBD,  or  TtziAHO  Vecei.uo,  one  of  the  grealeat 
ofllaHan  painters, 
nul-piinten,  waa  bom  in  (he  tertitoiy  of  Venice,  at 
Cspodel  Cadore,  in  I4TT.  His  early  passion  for  art  was 
eaiefiilly  cnlilvaled  by  his  parents,  who  placed  him  un- 
der the  instruction  of  Antonio  Rossi  nfCaiUire.  At  the 
■genflen  years  he  was  sent  to  Trevigi,  and  became  the 
pupil  of  Sf'ba-itiano  2uc«ati.  He  studied  in  the  school 
of  the  Bellini.  Hnt  with  Geniile  and  afterwanis  with 
Giorinni,  wiih  whom  he  was  feltow-pupll  with  Gior- 
H™:.  hi)  own  future  tivaL  On  the  death  orCiorgioiie, 
Tiiiin  rose  rapidly  in  favor,  atid  was  soon  anerwattli 
inviiri  [0  the  court  of  Alphonso,  duke  of  Ferrara.  Ir 
"~   "    "  '~    ■  e  employed  him  to  decnrati 


if  the 


ndl-chamber;  ai 


n  1530  h 


Bulngna  and  painted  a  portrait  of  Charles  V,  who  had 
■se  '0  be  crowned  by  pope  Qement  VTI.  Abiiut  this 
»  he  was  invited  to  the  court  nfthe  duke  of  Mantua, 
id  in  IM3  he  met  pope  Paul  III  at  Ferrara,  by  wl 
■  wu  invited  to  Rome,  but  was  obliged  10  decline  by 
Sinn  of  previous  engagements  with  the  duke  of  Ur- 
-  He  sent  to  Rome  in  IMS, 
matts  of  great  distinction,  s 


TITLE 

chael  Angelo.  Declining  tbe  office  of  the  leaden  seal, 
1ie  relnmed  to  Venice,  only  to  receive  an  invitation  from 
I'harlesV  to  visit  the  court  of  Spniu,  and  reached  Madrid 
in  15fia  Here  be  became  a  gentleman  of  the  emperor'a 
bedcbamber,  acount  palatine  of  the  empire,  received  tbe 
Order  of  St.  Jago,  and  had  bestowed  upon  bim  an  annual 
of twohundred  ducata.  Afleriresidenceorihree 
yeara  at  Madrid,  he  ictumed  to  Venice,  which  he  soon 
left  for  Innspmck.  Reluming  again  to  Venice,  he  cun- 
led  there  until  bis  death, of  the  plague,  Aug.  !7, 1676. 
There  is  no  tiat  of  tbe  works  ofTitian,  and  it  would  not  be 
in  tiay  task  to  make  one.  One  of  his  grandest  achieve- 
lenls  is  tbe  Auumpliofi  ofiht  Virym.     From  1630  to 


0  the  n 


tl  of  his 


J/iirtyr;— Victory  of  Ike  Vmrliaiu  nvtt  tht  Jmaaria  i 
— and  81.  SAfutiaa.  Other  noted  paindnga  are,  ^  n  ^  n- 
RuacMfiim  (IE37):— Z)««M  o/the  Holy  GkoH  upon  tke 
Apoitifsilbi])  ■.—Siurifiao/Abrahan  (eod.)  --David 
and Galialh(in>d.):~I>ealhqf  AM  (coi.) -The  Virgin 
(1543); — Sat  Taiano  (eod.).  Among  the  religious 
worka  which  he  executed  for  Philip  II  of  Spain  arc, 
TkeLat8vppa-—ChriMi»Ae  Garden:— SI. Uarga- 
rd  icilh  the  Dri^im; — and  a  Marijirdom  nf  San  l.o- 
raao.  The  Academy  of  Venice  contains  his  Auiimp- 
tion  and  Frttmialion  oj"  lie  Virgin,  and  the  Manfrihi 
Palace  in  the  aanie  city  Tit  Enlombmnil  o/Chriil.  In 
the  Esciirial  is  a  Lail  Svpptr,  upon  which  he  labored 
seven  years ;  in  the  Ufflii  Gallerj-,  A  Virgin  owl  CliHd 
KilA  Sainli;  and  in  the  Vatican,  CiriH  Cnitcvrd  tnfA 
Tionu.  See  Northcote,  Life  of  Tiiiim  (Lond.  1880,  2 
vols.);  Crowe  and  Cavalcaaeae, Li/e  o/THkm  (1876); 
Spooner,  Biog.  Dia.  o/lht  Fine ArU,t.v. 

Title  ia  the  rendering  in  the  A.V.Dr*4>S,(njnia,a 
pUlar  or  dppua  set  up  aa  a  sepulchral  sign,  S  King* 
xiiii,  17,  or  aa  a  "waymaik,"  Jer.  xixi,  21^  "sign," 
Eiek.  xxxix,  15;  and  of  riVXoc,  Lv.  lilubi;  a  tablet 
with  a  nipertaiptiai  (Jobn  six,  19,  SO),  set  up  by 
Filate  over  Christ's  cross  (q.v.). 

TITLE,  in  the  canon  law,  is  that  by  which  ■  derio 
holds  his  benefice.  In  Church  records  and  deed^  it  ia  a 
Church  to  which  a  cleric  was  ordained,  and  where  he 
wiu  to  reside.  It  is  alao  applied  to  a  cure  of  souls  and 
a  ministerial  charge.  Augustine  say*  that  the  title  of 
tbe  cmaa  was  wnllen  in  Hebrew  fur  Jews  who  gloried 
in  God's  law;  in  Greek,  for  the  wise  of  tbe  nations;  in 
Latin,  for  Bomsns.  the  eonqueiort  of  Ihe  world.  Hence 
churches  were  called  lUln,  not  only  becauoe  the  clergy 
took  titles  tVom  them  which  flxed  tliem  to  particular 
cures,  but  as  dedicated  to  the  Crucilied.  The  appella- 
tion is  first  used  by  the  Council  of  linga  (G73}.  A  lUU 
waa  also  a  right  to  aerre  aome  Church  from  which  an 
ordained  clerk  took  his  titbi,  a  name  derived  from  the 
title*  of  the  martyrs'  tombs,  at  which  sen'ice  was  origi- 
nally said,  and  so  called  for  tbe  reaHiiis  given  above,  or 
the  fiscal  lilitbii  which  marked  buildiii);a  belonging  to 
tbe  sovereign,  and  thus  also  churches  dedicated  to  the 
King  of  kings.  The  earliest  title  was  St.  Pudentiana, 
now  called  Si.  Praxedea.  The  Human  cathedral  had,  in 
143,  a  title  or  parish  chureh  attached  to  it  by  pope  Fiua 
I.  The  Council  of  Ijiteran  (1179)  enforced  ordination 
on  a  distinct  title. 

TITLE  fo  orfjrri  in  Episcopal  churches.    Tbisiabeat 
explained  by  quoting  tbe  83d  canon  of  tbe  E 
Church  of  England : 

"It  has  been  long  rince  pnivMed  hj  m 


il  fntheis 


"nid  be  admitted,  either 


"rdtog  V. 


ireth  lini>o.l- 
■ume  eccleil- 
:  or  (»)  xbnil 


thiit  cither  he  Is  pn>vided  ofsuina  church  within 
diocese,  where  he  may  attend  the  cnre  of  iiuulp, 
some  minister's  phice  tacanl.  either  in  Ilie  t 
chnrch  ot  thai  diocese,  or  In  eome  other  colleelsl 
therein  also  slluale,  where  be  mnji  execute  his  n 


right  Msftillnw:  or  (S)  « 
liege  111  CnmbridKi  or  Oi- 

of  Wuwn  ihsVgB  '-  -■■■--  -'"•- 


or  li)  (hat  be  Is  a  tettoit,  or 
cnndncs  or  cheplnln  In  »inii 
fnrd :  it  (0)  except  ha 

niilventrilea:  or  (T)  eicept  bf  tl'ie  bliihaphliiiKirthiiti 
nr<liiiti  bim  mlnlelur  he  be  abiirtlT  after 


p,  being  RHitt' 


le  abiirtlT  after  to  be 

IT  perauii  Intn  tha  mln' 
I  aria  irureeaid,  thea 
¥lih  nil  IblnKB  neceui 
erliiailcal  ll»liig;  and  I 


givliil 


In  the  ProwaUnl  Epiaiopal  Chorah  »f  the  Uniteil 
SUK«,  canon  19  of  1832,"of  Ihe  littea  of  Ihoae  vfho  are 
to  be  oidained  prieBts,"  declarai — 

"No  pemn  (ball  be  ordnliied  prieat  Dolata  be  aball 
produce  to  Ihe  bixbop  a  utlafMtnr)'  carlHIiMte  from  aniiie 
chnrcb,  pndsh,  or  iniurregntloii  that  he  ia  eDvagad  with 
them.aud  that  ibeTwIll  receive  him  u  their  mlnleter:  or 
niilcBg  he  lie  a  inluloiiary  under  the  ecclealniilcal  aatbnr- 
lly  of  the  di.iceae  to  which  be  beloiigx,  or  In  the  emjiloy- 
ment  o(  inme  mlulonary  gocleir  recagiilHd  hj  ibe  Oen- 
eral  Cniiveiitlou :  or  nnlen  he  be  engaged  aa  a  profCHor. 
intiir.  or  Inatraetor  or  jouth  In  ii una  college.  aoiileTny,  «r 
•ither  Hmbmry  arieanilug  duly  lueorporalad"  {Digal  of 
Ckc  (AnuDu,  p.  ^. 
SeeEden,  rAwiWrf.a.v.i  Hook,  CAurcA  iKcf,  a.  v. 

TltUe  (diminutive  of «),  an  old  Eiigliidi  v(<.r.l  »!((■ 


17).! 


cnderin);  fDmfioia,a  /■"ie  Kom,  hence  tpovd 


il;*of  an  isUnd,  Philostr.  Vif.  S<tph.  i,  t'i.  2);  in  the 
Kew  Teat,  the  apex  of  ■  Heb.  letter,  anch  as  diMiit- 
guiahea  H  froiii  ^,  3  from  '3,  i.  e.  the  aligbteia  diilinc- 
tion  (no  Philo,  ia  Flaix.  p.  984  b).     See  Jot. 

Tittmann,  Johann  Anguat  Helnjlch,  a  Ger- 
man divine,  was  bom  at  Langenaalia,  Aug.  1, 17T8,  He 
atuilieil  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipnic,  and  in  179G  became 
one  of  the  theoloKica)  profeamre  in  the  latter  oftheM 
i>iiiver»itiea.  He  died  Dec.  30,  IS31.  Hia  wrilinRH  are 
^u^1enJu^  and  belnns  to  variaiia  departmenls  of  aacred 
adence.  The  following  only  need  to  be  apeeitieil  here; 
TheiAog.  EHcgkiip.  (179S):—D*  -Sjnwnjnni.  A',  T.  (1829), 
the  second  part  of  which  woa  edited  alWr  hia  death  by 
Beeher  (1S32);  tbe  whole,  with  anme  appended  diracr- 
tslioni,  translated  into  English  by  Craig  ( tMib.  Bib. 
CabiaU  [1833-37,  3  rola.]);— and  hia  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Test., "ad  ftdem  optimorum  librotuto  re- 
cena."  (1820-24).  Hia  polemical  writinf^a,  in  which  he 
labors  to  reconcile  theology  with  philosophy,  and  ro  de- 
fend evanf^.lical  tnith  against  ntionaliaoi,  are  Ihe  must 
valmble  prmluctiona  of  hia  pen. 

Tlttmann,  S<u:l  Cbrlatlan.  fatlipr  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  bom  It  Giossbardau,  neat  (irimnia,  Aug,  30, 
1744.  lie  was  appointed  deacon  at  l.nngenBalui  in 
1770,  professor  of  ibeology  and  pn»-rat  at  Wittenberg 
in  1775,  anrl  general  superiiiiendent  there  in  1T84,  In 
1789  he  was  nia<le  KirchtitriUh  and  super!  iitemlent  at 
DreHleii,  and  died  there,  Dec  6, 1830.  He  waa  a  man 
of  cultured  and  elegant  rather  than  powerful  mind, 
and  was  deeply  imbued  with  pinna  teeliug  and  evangeli- 
cal sentimeiil.  These  eharaclerislics  are  apparent  in 
his  Mthlrmala  Sacra  net  CothbibiI,  Krrgrliro-crit.- 
dpsnalicui  in  Evaag.  Joamai  (Upa.  1816),  a  work  full 
of  i;ood  ihiiughui.  good  sense,  and  genuine  piely.  but 
delicient  in  critical  aciimeii  and  eitegetical  ability. 
It  bos  been  translated  into  English,  atid  forms  2  Tola, 
of  the  FMiA.  nib.  Cabimi.  In  his  Opaicvlu  Thtoln- 
giea  (Itl03)  are  some  disaertatioiia  t>r  an  exegetical 
character.  Perhapa  bis  beet  nurh  ia  his  Traclalai  de 
Vealgiii  GnosticBtiim  ia  N.  T.friuira  Quatitit  (Lips. 


18  TITUS 

Church  of  Rome  adopts  Ihe  same  custom,  anrl  ha<  liiah- 
ope  ofTanus,  Ephesus,  Aleppo,  elc  This  Churvli  lia> 
229  titulare.  The  primitive  Church  made  it  a  law  Uiat 
no  one  ^ould  be  ordained  at  Urgi^,  but  ahould  have  i 
speciUc  charge.  "This  rule  concerned  bishopa  as  well  at 
Ibe  inferior  clergy ;  for  the  naUaleneain  of  laler  ages,  a> 
Panormita  colls  titular  and  Utopian  bisbopa,  were  rarely 
known  in  the  primitive  Cbarch." 
Tltllliu,  the  Latin  name  given  to  early  chorcbni, 

ed  over  the  graves  of  martyrs.  See  Mahttii  ;  Me^u. 
The  tituli  of  tbe  Middle  Ages  were  parish  chorcher  uu- 
der  the  care  of  preabylera,  who  look  their  titka  livea 
them.  Why  they  were  called  tiluli  ia  not  exactly 
agreed  among  learned  met).  Bamniua  aaya  that  it  is 
because  they  had  the  aign  of  the  erosa  upon  them,  by 
which  sign  or  title  they  were  known  to  belong  to  Christ. 
See  TiTi^ 

Tl'tua  (Grnciied  Tiroci^einnmon  Latin  name, eg. 
of  the  celebrated  Roman  emperor  whoae  liiumpbal  irch 
[([.  v.]  still  standi  in  Kome ;  once  in  the  Apocrvpha  [i 
Mace  xi,  34]  of  a  Roman  ambasaad.ir  to  the  Jews  [bh 
MAMLiua]),  a  noted  Christian  teacher,  and  feltow-loboT- 
er  of  Paul  He  was  of  Greek  origin  (pussllily  a  native 
of  Antioch  ),  but  was  converleJ  by  the  apoeile,  wba 
therefore  calls  him  his  own  son  in  the  faith  (lial.ii,!; 
Tit.  i,  4).  This  ia  all  that  we  know  of  his  early  history. 
Theiclliowing  iaan  accountof  hia  later  movements  and 
•f  the  epistle  to  him.  King  ( Who  tcai  St.  Tilm  f  [Diib> 
Bn,  1863, 8vo])  tries  lu  ideolif}'  him  with  Timothy. 

1.  ^oarcea  of  hfimatim ^ot  tnaterials  for  the  bi- 
ography of  this  companion  of  Paul  must  be  drawn  en- 
tirely from  the  rwlices  of  him  in  (he  Second  Epistle  la 
the  Corinthians,  the  (ialalians,  and  to  Titiis  himMlll 
combined  with  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  He  is 
not  mentloneil  in  the  Acts  at  all.  The  reading  Tirw 
'loucrroD  in  Acta  xviit,T  ia  l«o  precarious  for  any  inler- 
ence  (o  be  drawn  from  it.  Wieseler,  indeed,  lava  snrae 
alight  alreis  upon  it  {CkroaoL  da  apotl.  Zai.  [Giitt. 
1848],  p.  tot),  but  this  ia  in  ninnectinn  wiih  a  (heoty 
which  needs  every  help.  As  to  a  recent  hypotheaii 
that  Titus  and  Timothv  were  tbe  same  person  (Kii^ 
Wko  Kiu  Sl.TUial  [Dublin,  I8S3]),  it  is  certainly  io- 
genious,  but  quite  untenable  (see  3  Tim.  iv,  10).  Tbs 
aaote  may  be  said  of  Ibe  suf^^ion  of  Miircktr  (Uti- 
ning.  1861),  that  TituB  of  Ihe  episilee  is  tbe  same  po- 
soii  with  Silvanus,  or  Silos,  ofihe  Acts  although  tbeieit 
nothing  that  absolutely  forbids  such  an  identiAcatiun. 

3.  //is  KaoKB  Jovmtyi. — Taking  the  pasaagFs  in  tbe 
efMStles  in  the  chronological  order  of  the  events  reffrred 
to,  we  turn  Hrsi  to  Gal.  ii,  1, 3.  We  conceive  ihe  juor- 
ney  maUiaiKd  here  to  be  identical  wilh  that  (reenrdtd 
inActs  xv)  in  which  Paul  and  Bamoliaa  went  fnan 
Antioch  to  Jerusalem  to  the  conCerenc*  which  was  to 
decide  the  qnealion  of  the  necessity  of  circumciHon  la 
the  Gentiles  (A.D.47).  Here  we  see  Titus  in  rk«!  a» 
sodation  with  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Antioch.  He  g«a 
with  them  to  Jerusalem.  He  is,  in  foci,  one  ofthe  Tint 
aXXoiorActsnv,3,  who  were  deputed  toaccompanviheB 
from  Antioch.  His  circumcision  wos  either  not  infill- 
ed on  at  Jerusalem,  nr,  if  demanded,  was  firmly  re^iiud 
(_OBt  '^vaytaa^  mpiTfiii3^rai).  He  ia  very  emphat- 
ically spoken  of  OS  0  Gentile  ("EXAi)!'),  by  Mhicli  is 
most  probably  meant  that  both  his  parenta  were  Gen- 
tilea.  Here  ia  a  double  canCraat  from  Timothy,  who 
was  circumcised  In'  Paul's  own  directions,  and  one  of 
whose  parenta  was  Jewish  (xvi,  I,  3 ;  3  Tim.  i,  6;  iii. 
15).  'riluB  would  seem,  on  the  occosion  of  the  coondl, 
to  have  been  specially  o  representative  of  the  chunk 

It  ia  to  our  purpose  to  remark  thai,  in  Ihe  poMig* 
cited  above,  Titus  ia  so  mentioned  as  apparently  to  iia- 
pty  that  he  had  become  personally  known  to  the  Gala- 
lian  Christians.  Thla,  again,  we  combine  with  two 
other  circumstancea,  viz.  that  (he  Epistle  (o  the  Gila- 
liana  and  the  Second  Epistle  to  Ibe  Corinthians  weia 


ptobibly  wriitcn  within  ■  few  inoDlha  of  each  oChn 
[«*  Uautians,  EpisTut  to],  and  bolb  during  tbs 
ami  JoufDcy.     Fidui  the  latter  of  these  two  epiMlea 


<,J).t 


/of  Inn 


peciFd  lu  meet  Titus  (2  Cor.  ii,  IS),  who  had  been  wnt 
OD  a  mission  to  Corinth.  In  Ibis  hope  he  was  diup- 
puinted  [*m  Troas),  but  iu  Maccdpnia  Tilug  joined 
faim  (Tii.  6, 7,  1S-16>.  Hera  we  begin  to  lee  not  oiily 
Ihe  abore-mentionHl  fact  of  the  mUaion  or  this  di>ci(ile 
toCoriath,and  the  strong  penonal  affection  which  sub- 
Mted  between  him  and  Paul  (ic  rp  rapovai^  oirou, 
Tu,  7),  but  also  aome  part  of  the  purport  uf  the  miuion 
itself.  It  had  tereieiice  to  the  immoralities  at  Corintti 
tebuknl  in  the  fini  epiule,  and  lo  the  effect  oT  that 
B  Church.  We  Iwm,  fur- 
Bo  far  successful  and  satis- 
fictoty:  liyayycKKuy  r^i-  v/iuv  iiri1t6ii)iilv  (ver.  7), 

vracoqii  (ver.  16);  and  we  are  enabled  also  to  draw 
Erhd  the  chapter  a  strong  conclusion  regarding  the 
varB  leal  aud  sympathy  of  Titus,  his  grief  fur  what 
was  evil,  bia  rejoicing  over  what  was  good :  rp  rapa- 
tXi/aii  ^  TapMcXiidi}  if'  iiftii'  (ver.  7);  ai^viravrai 
ri  mvtia  oBrar'  a-ri   a-nrrixv  lifuiv  (ver.  13);  ti 

IS).  Hut  if  we  proceed  further  we  diacern  anntlier 
pan  of  the  misaion  with  which  he  was  inirusted.  This 
had  referepce  to  the  collecliun,  at  that  time  in  progress, 
"■  '  '  IB  of  Juiliea— rnSiij  irputi'llDli'rD, 
ch  shows  that  he  had  been  active 
lattei,  while  the  Oirintliians  ibem- 


viii,  G,  a  phrase  whit 
and  zealous  in  the  m 


itaUe  funds  is  also  proved 


gather 


III  •  if  his  integrity 
'  ufiac  Tiroc,  xH, 
IB),  and  a  Uatenien't  that  Paul  himself  had  sent  him  on 
the  errand  (nnpariXwo  TiVov,  ibid.).  Thus  we  are 
piepared  for  what  the  apostle  now  proceeds  to  ilo  after 
hit  tncouraging  conversations  with  Titus  regarding  llie 
CoHothian  Church.  He  sends  him  back  from  Mace- 
donia to  Corinth,  In  comj^ny  with  two  other  irust- 
wnnby  Christians  [see  THuriiiML'B ;  Tvciiici's].  bear- 
in;;  the  second  epistle,  and  with  an  earnest  request 
"•*  {Ttafoia^iam,  viii,  6;  r^v  irapdcXqirii',  ver.  17)  that 
ht  would  see  to  the  oompletiun  of  the  coUeciion,  which 
be  bad  zealously  promoted  on  hi*  late  vi«t  (Vvn  co^wc 
rpoftiip^oTo.  oiiriac  "■'  iwiTtkiof,  ver. 6), 'Htus  him- 
self bcuig  in  nowise  bicltwanl  in  umlertaliiiig  the  com- 
mission. On  a  review  of  all  these  passages,  elucidating 
as  they  do  the  characteristics  of  the  man,  the  duties  he 
itiachirgeil.  and  his  close  and  faithful  co-operation  with 
Paul,  He  sec  bow  mncb  meaning  there  is  in  the  apos- 
tle's sbon  and  foidble  dcMriptinn  of  bitn  (Eir<  iiirip 
Tinm,  toiyminif  i/iic  "H'  "C  v/tac  ffwwpyoc,  ver.  38). 

All  that  has  preceded  is  drawn  fVom  direct  state- 
ment* in  tbe  epistles;  but  by  indirect  though  fair  in- 
ference we  can  arrive  ai  something  further,  which  gives 


IS  of 


the  cluee  conneclhui  of  Titus  with  Paul  and  the  Cnrin- 
thian  Church.  It  lias  geiierallv  been  considered  doubt- 
fsl  who  the  Jf.X«o>  were  (I  6>r.  xvi,  11, 12}  Iliac  to<ik 
the  tint  epistle  to  Coriiilli.     Timolhy,  who  had  been 


^.-WbT 


1  Cor.  Kvi, 
(ver.  IS), 

Thrre  can  he  liule  doubt  that  the  messengers  who  took 
ihsl  dm  letter  were  Titus  and  his  companion,  whoever 
■hat  might  be,  who  is  mentiimed  with  him  iu  the  sec- 
end  letter  (Uaptra^iaa  Tirov,  coi  mrariaTuka  Tvr 
iiiXfor,  2  Car.  xii.  tS).  This  view  was  held  by  Mac- 
bnght,  and  verv  clearly  set  lorth  by  him  ( Traial.  nf 
Uk  Ai«,bikcul'i:i>inla,vilk  Conm.  [Edinb.  1829],  i, 


9  TITUS 

461,674;  ii,!,7,l!4).  It  has  been  more  recentlv  given 
by  Prof.  Stanley  (CorinrAiau,  Sd  cd.  p.  348,  492),  but 
it  has  been  workei]  out  by  no  one  so  ebkboralely  as  by 
I'rof.  Lightfoot  iCamb.  Journal  of  Ctauicai  uad  Sitcrrd 
PkOoloffs,  ii,  201,  202).  There  U  some  danger  of  con- 
fusing  rUm  and  the  brotkir  (2  Cor.  xii,  18),  i.e.  Me 
bit/hrra  iif  1  Cor.  xvi,  11, 12,  wlio  (according  to  tliis 
view)  took  tbe  first  letter,  with  Tilui  and  Iht  Imlhen 
(2  Cor.  viii,  16-24)  who  look  the  second  letter.  As  to 
the  connection  between  lbs  two  contemporaneous  mis- 
sions of  Titus  and  Timotheus,  Ibis  observatiun  may  be 
made  here,  that  the  difference  of  tbe  two  errands  may 

characters  of  the  two  agents.  1(  Titus  was  the  firmer 
and  more  energetic  of  the  two  men,  it  was  natural  to 
give  him  the  task  of  enfarcuig  the  apostle's  rebukes, 
and  urging  on  the  flag^iig  business  ol  tbe  collection. 

A  cnnsideiable  interval  now  elapses  before  we  come 
upon  the  next  notices  of  this  disciple.  Panl's  first  im- 
prisonment is  concluded,  and  bis  last  trial  is  impending. 
In  tbe  interval  between  the  two,  he  and  Titus  were  Ut- 
gether  in  Crete  (dirfXiwi*  m  iv  Kp^rp,  Til.  i,  5),  We 
see  Titus  remaining  in  the  island  when  I-anl  left  it,  ami 
receiving  there  a  letter  written  to  him  by  the  apn-ilc 
From  this  letter  we  gather  the  following  biographical 
details:  In  the  first  place,  we  learn  that  he  was  origi- 
nally converted  through  Paul's  instmmentality ;  Ibis 
must  be  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  yvqeini'  tUvih; 
which  occurs  so  emphatically  in  the  opening  of  the 
epistle  (ver.  4),  Next  we  learn  the  various  particulars 
of  tbe  responiihle  duties  which  he  had  lo  dischatf^  in 
Crete.  He  is  to  complete  what  Paul  had  been  obliged 
to  leave  unfinished  (iva  rd  XfijriiiTa  (iri^io(*S<iitp,  ver. 
6),  and  be  is  la  organize  the  Church  Ihruughnut  Ihe 
island  by  appointing  presbyters  in  everj-  city.  Sec 
Goktyna;  LA&.BA.  Instructions  are  given  as  to  the 
suitable  character  qf  such  presbyters  (vci.b-9);  and  we 
learn,  further,  that  we  have  here  the  repetition  of  in- 
structions previously  fumislicd  by  word  of  mouth  (iv£ 
(fui  001  iuTat^iaiv,  ver.  b).  Next  he  is  \a  control  and 
bridle  {iwuiToiuafiy,  ver.  II)  the  restless  and  mischie- 
voiiB  Judaizers,  and  be  is  to  be  peremptory  in  so  doing 
((XtyX'  ""''^•c  diroru/iwt',  ver.  IS).  Injnnctiont  in 
the  same  spirit  are  reiterated  (ii,  1, 15;  iii,8).  He  is 
to  urge  the  duties  of  a  decorous  and  Christian  life  upi'n 
the  women  (ii,  S-S), some  of  whom  (irp«r^i;n-,vet.S), 
possibly,  bad  something  of  an  oIBcial  cbaracler  (coXo- 
iiZaaicttKBUi;'iua  oufpofifuxn  rdc  vtoc,  ver.  B,  4).    He 


itcbful 


ct(ver.7);h 


impress  upon  the  slaves  the  peculi 

turbulence  (iii,  1),  and  also  all  wild  theological  specula- 
tions (ver.  9) ;  and  to  exercise  discipline  on  the  hereti- 
cal (ver.  10).  When  we  consider  all  these  particulars 
of  his  duties,  we  sec  not  only  the  confidence  reposed  in 
him  by  the  apostle,  but  Che  need  there  was  of  determi- 
nalion  and  strength  of  purpose,  and  therefore  the  prob- 

banced  if  we  bear  in  mind  his  isolated  and  ansupported 
poHlion  in  Crete,  and  the  lawless  and  immoral  charsc- 
ler  of  the  Cretans  themselves,  as  testified  by  their  own 
writers  (i,  12, 13).     See  Ckete. 

The  notices  which  remain  are  more  strictly  persoiisl. 
Titus  is  to  hiok  for  the  arrival  in  Crete  of  Artenias  and 
Tychicus  (iii,  12),  and  then  he  is  lo  hasten  (mcoiiaaov) 
to  join  Paul  at  Nicopolis,  where  llie  apostle  is  proposing 
In  pass  the  winter  (ibid.).  Zenas  aud  Apollos  are  in 
Crete,  or  expected  there;  for  Titus  is  to  send  them  on 


irj™ 


.  {ver.  13).  It  is  observable  that  Titus  and 
t  brought  iiiio  juxtaposition  here,  as  they 
■  in  the  discussiiiii  of  the  mission  from  Ephe- 
nth. 

rementa  of  Paul,  with  which  these  later  in- 
to Titus  are  connected,  are  considered  else- 
See  Pai'l;  Timothy.     We  need  only  observe 
t  there  would  be  great  difficulty  in  inseitiug 


TITUS 

the  viuts  lo  Crete  md  Nlcopolis  in  mny  of  the  JourneT* 
nconlcd  in  tbe  Acu,  to  ny  nothing  of  the  other  objec- 
tions lo  giving  the  ppistle  an;  date  Btileriot  lo  tbe  voy- 
age to  Rome.  See  Trrira,  Epibtlb  to.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  amnging  these  drcum- 
ttinces,  if  we  luppose  Paul  to  have  tnvelled  and  writ- 
ten after  being  liberated  from  Rome,  while  thui  we 
gain  the  Tiinher  advantage  or  an  explanaUun  nf  what 
Paley  haa  welt  called  the  affinity  of  thii  epistle  and  the 
ftnt  tn  Tiniuthy.  Whether  Tiius  did  join  the  apoatlt 
at  Nicopolia  we  cannot  tell  Bat  we  natnraUy  odnned 
the  mention  of  this  place  with  what  Paul  wrote  at  nc 
gnat  interval  uf  time  afterwards,  in  tbe  lait  o(  the  Pas- 
toral ICpistles(Tr'raCEi'c  AaXfiaria>',2Tim.iv,IO);  fui 
Datroatta  lay  to  the  north  of  Nicopolia,  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  it.  See  NicopoLia.  F  '  * 
whale  seatenee,  it  seema  probabte  that  this  disciple  bad 
been  with  Paul  in  Rome  during  his  flnal ' 
but  this  cannot  he  asserted  confidently.  I'he  tni 
words  of  the  apostle  in  thii  passage  might  seem 
ply  some  reproach,  and  we  might  draw  frnm  them  the 
concluiion  that  lltus  became  a  second  Demas:  bu 
the  whoIe,thi5  seems  a  harsh  and  unnecessary  judgn 
8.  TradiHonars  Clott  of  kii  Cor«r.— Whatever 

of  truth.     Titus  is  connected  by  tradition  with  Da 
tia,  and  he  is  said  lo  have  been  an  object  of  much 
erence  in  that  region.     This,  however,  nay  simply 
result  nf  the  passage  quoted  immediately  above:  ai 
is  observable  that  of  all  the  churches  in  modem  Dal- 
matia  (Keale,  Ecrlttiologieai  Kola  on  Ditlm.  p.  176) 
not  one  is  dedicated  to  him.     The  traditional  cor 
tion  of  Titnawith  Cret«  is  much  mare  specific  and 
aunt,  though  here  again  we  cannot  be  certain  of  the 
facts.    He  is  said  to  have  been  permanent  trishop 
the  island,  and  to  have  died  there  at  an  advanced  age 
(Rusehi■l^  liiit.  Etxiti.  iii,  4,  2 ;  Theodoret,  Ad  '  ~' 
iii,  1(  Cnml.Apoit.v\i,i6;  Jerome,  Hd  TO.  ii,  7;  Isi- 
dore, Vil.  Sanrt.  87).    The  modem  capital,  Candia,  ap- 
pears to  claim  the  honor  of  being  fall  burial-place 
(Cave,  ^poaColiei,  1716,  p.  43).     In  the  fragment  De 
Vila  ft  AcHm  7t(i,  bv  the  lawrer  Zenas  (Fabricius,  Coif. 
.;1|wc.  .V.  r.ii.sai,  832),Titue  is  called  bishop  of  Gor- 
tyna;  and  on  the  old  sit«ofGortyna  is  a  ruined  church, 
of  ancient  and  solid  masonry,  which  bears  the  name  of 
Sc  Titus,  and  where  aervice  is  occaaionally  celebrated 
by  priests  from  tbe  neighboring  hamlet  of  Metropolis 
(yalkener,  AoRniu  tn  Cnlr,/roni  a  MS.  HitUry  nf  Can- 
dia, (y  OnofSD  Brlti,  p.  23).     The  cathedral  of  Megalo- 
Castron,  in  the  north  of  the  island,  is  also  dedicated  to 
this  saint    Lastly,  the  name  of  Titas  was  the  watch- 
word of  the  Creuns  when  they  were  invaded  by  the 
Venetians;  and  the  Venetians  themselves,  aller  tbeir 
conquest  of  the  island,  adopted  him  to  some  of  the  hon- 
or! of  a  patron  saint;  for  as  the  response  after  the  pray- 
er for  the  Doge  of  Venice  was  "  Sanete  Marce,  tu  nos 
adjuvB,"so  the  response  after  that  for  the  dake  of  Can- 
dia was  -  Sanete  Tite,  tu  nos  adjuva"  (Pashley,  Trawit 
n  Crttt.  I,  6,  175).    The  day  on  which  Titus  is  com- 
memorsled  is  Jan.  4  in  the  Latin  calendar,  and  Aag. 

We  must  not  leava  unnoticed  the  striking  though 
extravagant  panegyric  of  Titus  by  his  successor  in  the 
■ee  of  (>ete,  Andreas  Cretensis  (published,  with  Am- 
philochiua  and  Methodius,  by  Combefis,  Pari^  1644). 
This  panegyric  has  many  excellent  points,  e.  g.  it  incor- 
porates well  the  more  important  passages  from  the  Sec- 
ond Epistle  lo  the  Corinthians.  The  following  are 
stated  as  facts.  Titus  is  related  to  the  proconsul  of  the 
island!  among  his  ancestors  ire  Minus  and  Rhada- 
maothus  (oi  U  Aiot).  Early  in  life  he  oblainsacopy 
of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  learns  Hebrew  in  a  abort 
rime.     He  goes  to  Juiliea,  and  is  present  on  the  occa- 

before  that  of  Paul  himself,  but  afterwards  he  attaches 
himself  closely  to  the  apostle.  Whatever  the  value  of 
theae  alatemeats  may  be,  the  following  description  of 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO 


Se«  Walch,  Dt  Tito  Vira  ApolUie.  (Jen.  1741 ;  aba 
inbisMucctfun.,Sacni[Am».1744].p.T0eaii.);  How- 
eon,  Companioiu  of  St.  Faul  (Lond.  1871),  ch.  v. 

TITUS,  Epistle  to.  Thii  is  the  third  of  the  so- 
called  Pastoral  Epistles  of  Paul,  following  immedialely 


I.  A  alhenlieils. — 


nothy. 


respect  there  are  no  apedal- 
hieb  require  any  very  elabonla 
treatment  diaiioct  from  the  other  Pastural  Lellers  of 
Paul.  See  Timothy,  First  Episnji  TO.  Ifthoaetwo 
were  not  genuine,  it  would  be  difficult  confidently  In 
maintain  the  genuinenns  of  this.  On  the  othei  bind, 
if  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  are  received  as  Paul's,  Ibeit 
is  not  the  slightest  reason  for  doubting  the  authorship 
of  that  to  Titus.  Amid  the  various  combinations  which 
are  found  among  those  wbo  bave  been  sceptical  oo  the 
subject  of  the  Pastoral  Epiatlea,  there  is  no  inatjuKe  of 
the  rejection  of  that  before  us  on  the  pari  of  thoee  wbo 
have  accepted  the  other  two.  So  far,  indeed,  as  these 
doubta  are  worth  considering  at  all,  the  argument  is 
more  in  favor  of  this  than  of  either  of  those.  Tatiao 
accepted  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  and  rejected  Ihe  other 
two.  Origen  mentums  some  who  excluded  !  Tim.,  bat 
kept  1  Tim.  with  Titus.  Schteicrmacher  and  Newidcr 
invert  this  process  of  doubt  in  regard  to  the  lelteia  ad- 
dressed to  Timothy,  but  believe  that  Paul  wrote  ttta 
present  letter  to  Titui.  Credner,  Ion,  believe*  it  to  be 
genuine,  though  he  pronounces  1  Tim.  to  be  a  forgery, 
and  2  Tim,  a  compound  of  two  epistles. 

To  turn  now  from  opinions  lo  direct  external  evi- 
dence, this  epistle  stands  on  quite  aa  firm  a  ground  ai 
the  othen  of  Ibe  pastoral  group,  if  not  a  Bnaer  ground. 
Nothing  can  well  be  more  explicit  than  the  quotations 
and  references  in  IreriHia,  C.  Hara.  i,  16,  S  (ere  Tit.  iii, 
10);  Clem.  Alex.  :nn>iii.  i,  S50  (comp.  Tit.  i,  IS),  and 
iii,  3, 4  i  by  TertulL  Dt  Prater.  Har.  t.  6  (cnmp.  Tit.  iii, 
10, 11),  and  .4(ii'.  J/ui-c.  v,  21:  and  by  Oiigen,  in  many 
places  (Lardner,  Woria,  vol.  ii,  8vo) ;  to  say  nothing  of 
earlier  allusions  in  Justin  Martyr,  Z)iaJl  c  7V}pl.47(Ber 
Tit.  iii,  4),  which  can  hardly  be  doubted ;  Theoph.  .4i 
Avtol  ii,  9S  (see  Tit.  iii,  G);  iii,  126  (see  rer.  1),  wbicb 
are  probable;  and  Clem.Rom.2  Cor.  i  (tee  ibid.),  which 
is  poSHble. 

As  to  internal  features,  we  may  notice,  in  tbe  fbit 
place,  that  the  Epistle  to  Titus  has  all  the  characteris- 
tica  of  Ihe  other  Pastoral  Epistles.  See,  for  instanoe, 
■marut  i\6yos  (iii, S], iiyiarvoma  tilaaicakia  (i,!>:  u, 
1;  comp. i,  13;  ii,8),i7u^po>'Elv, (rw^u*', awfpoiwf  (i, 
8;  ii,5,6, 12),  (rwr4pui|,-,<ru>r4|].  (!«::»(>,  3,4;  ii,  10,11, 
IS;  iii,  4,5,7),  'lovlainoi  /(uSoi  (i,  14;  comp.  iii,  9), 
.■m^rivHo  (ii,  13).  ,bci^,m  (i,  I),  Aioc  (iii,  5:  in  i.  4 
the  word  is  doubtful).  All  this  Unds  lo  show  thai  this 
letter  was  written  about  the  same  time  and  under  simi- 
lar circumstances  with  the  other  two.  But,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  this  epistle  has  marks  in  its  phra<«olney  and 
style  which  assimilate  it  to  the  general  body  of  lb* 
Epistles  of  PauL  Such  may  fairly  be  reckoned  the  fol- 
lowing: rtip{rfnnTi'iiinaTii&riviyil^i.,9):  tbe  quota- 
tion from  a  heathen  poet  (ver.  12);  the  use  of  afon/ioc 
(ver.l6);  tbe"gtnng  olTat  a  wonl"  (owr^fwi .  ..  in- 
f&vri  yip  . . .  auirlipiot  •  ■ .  ii,  10,  U) ;  and  the  modea 
in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  atonement  (ver.  IS)  and 
of  freejustilicalion  (iii,  5-7)  come  to  Ibe  surface.  As  lo 
any  difficulty  arising  from  suppond  inriicationa  of  wi- 
vanced  hierarchical  arrangeraenla,  it  is  to  be  observed 
Ihatinthis  epistle  wpfvyjiirffwc  and  Jwisroirot  are  used 
as  synonymous  (iva  raraarjtvft  rpiaffirripait  .  .  . 
ill  yip  rh/  trioKomf.  ...  i,  S,  7),  Just  aa  they  are  in 
the  address  at  Miletus  abont  the  Tear  A.D.  65  (Ada  xx, 
17,  28).  At  Ihe  same  time,  this  epistle  has  fcatorw  of 
its  own,  especially  a  certain  tone  of  abrupiness  and  ae- 
verity,  which  probably  arises  partly  out  of  the  drcnm- 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO  4 

I  ol  the  CreUn  popuUdon  [ice  Crkte],  p»nly 
ibechuacter  orTiluabimwU'.   If  all  Ihew  tbin^p 


ecu  the  > 


y  of  ir 


imHir. 


r  ur  ih«  !■ 

ca,founiJed  upmi 

"rt^Lning^'if 
.riiwn  («e 


Ta  the  objecdons  of  the  Ueimui  critu 
flit  diffirally  of  uceiUinine  the  proper  t 
tk,  the  best  reply  will  be  fumlBhed  by 
jombk,  wben  iiid  when  the  epiule  v 
bek^y,  but  nvra  sbould  we  fiil  in  t) 
lUiDgc  were  we  W  rellDquiih  our  conviction  of  the  lu- 
ihtntkity  uf  an  uicient  writing  aimply  beeauar,  poaww- 
inG  vtty  imperfect  information  as  la  many  parts  of  Che 
alltged  author's  biatory,  we  were  unable  to  aay  with  cer- 
lainiy  wbcn  he  was  in  drcumauncee  to  compoae  it. 

IL  />urr.— The  only  circunistaiu:es  stated  in  the  epis- 
tle itself  calculaled  to  aid  ua  in  determinin);  this  ques- 
liuu  are,  that  at  the  time  it  waa  written  Paul  had  re- 
cailli  Tisiied  Crete  (i,  A);  that  he  was  about  to  spend 
■be  winter  in  Ntcopolia  (iii,  I3)i  and  that  Apnllos  was 
slout  to  visit  Crete,  on  hia  way  to  aoma  oLhPT  [dace 
(rcr.  IS).  1  here  are  three  hypotheses  that  have  been 
IbfOKd  in  order  to  meet  thea«  facta,  espwially  the  tlrst, 
umcly  Paul's  visit  to  Crete. 

1.  We  leam  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apnsilca  that  Paul 
TiamI  Crete  on  bis  voyage  to  Ri 


which 


impitibabllity  of  h 
auppoae  I 


expecting  to   apend  the  em 

place  it  out  of  the  queatinn 

this  visit  he  refen  in  this  epistle.     As  this  is,  however, 

tb*  only  visit  reconleil  by  Liilie,  in  rejecting  it  we  are 

fncfd  to  suppose  another  visit,  and  to  And  aoine  period 

in  the  sposile'a  life  when  it  was  probable  that  such  a 

2.  It  has  been  thought  by  Hug  that  the  period  re- 
ftrred  to  in  Acta  xviii.  18, 19  admila  of  our  placing  this 
fisit  10  Crete  within  iu     Paul,  ai  that  liroe,  was  on  hia 

or  other  landed  al  Epfaeeua.  This  leads  to  the  HUf;e»- 
tioo  that  the  apoetle  must  either  voluntarily  have  de- 
|iarted  from  the  usual  coune  in  order  to  visit  some  place 
lying  between  Corinth  and  Ephrsuai  or  that  lie  oiusl 
haie  been  driven  by  atrna  of  weather  from  the  couiae 
be  meant  to  pursue.  In  either  case  the  probability  of 
his  TudliaR  Crete  at  that  time  is  strong.  We  find,  from 
the  above  atatenwnt  made  by  Paul  in  tbti  epistle,  that 
ApoIkH,  if  at  this  lime  on  bis  way  fmm  Ephesus  l» 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii,  1*,  '27 ;  xix,  1),  was  to  touch  at 
Cme;  which,  it  has  been  aaaumeil,  renders  it  not  Im- 
pnbable  that  it  was  customary  fur  ships  sailing  between 
theae  two  pofU  In  call  at  Crete  by  Ibe  way ;  and  Paul 
nay  have  availed  himself  of  this  practice  in  order  to 
vinl  Crete  before  going  lA  Paleatine.  Or  he  may  hare 
•ailed  in  a  ship  bound  directly  from  Curintb  to  Pales- 
tine, and  hirebpen  driven  out  of  h'ls  course,  sbipwrecli- 
ed  on  Crete,  and  obliged  to  sail  thence  to  Ephesus  as 
his  only  remuning  method  of  geldng  to  his  original 
destination — a  supposition  which  will  not  appear  verv 
inprohaUe  when  we  remember  that  Pant  must  hare 
•aBered  aeveral  shipwrecks  uf  which  Luke  gives  no  ac- 
coinit(!Cor.  xi,-26,36)i  and  that  his  getting  to  Ephe- 
sus oa  hia  way  from  Corinth  to  PaleMine  is  a  fact  for 
which,  in  some  way  or  other,  we  are  bound  to  account. 
{Paul  evidently,  however,  took  that  route  as  the  only 
one  of  general  travel,  there  being  no  vessel  saili 


b.)     Itw, 


It  Hug  supposes 

ia  have  been  adduced 
Mber  (sets  above  referred  to  as  mentioned  in  the  cpia- 
Ue  iiaeir,  via.  the  viait  of  ApoUos  to  Crete,  and  Paul's  in- 
UntioB  Id  winter  al  NicoiM^h  From  Acta  zii,  1  we 
lean  thai  dorinn  the  time  ApoUos  was  residing  at  Cor- 
ini^  wbtsce  ha  had  gone  from  E|>heMvs  Paul  was  en- 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO 

gageil  in  a  tour  through  the  upper  coasts  (rii.  Phr^gia 
andGalatia;  com  p.  Acta  xviii,  23),  which  ended  in  his 

apostle  had  been  at  Jerusaletn  and  Antioch  (vcr.  22). 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  Paul  left  Antioch  much  about 
the  same  lime  that  Apolloa  reached  Corinth.  But  Apol- 
los  went  to  Corinth  from  Ephesus,  Paul  went  lo  Jerusa- 
lem from  Ephesus.  At  thia  city,  therefore,  they  may 
have  met;  and  before  leaving  it  Paul  perhsp  wrote 
this  epistle,  and  gave  it  to  Apullua  to  deliver  to  Titus  at 
Crate,  on  hia  way  lo  Corinth. 

Further,  Paul  went  up  to  Jerasaleoi  to  keep  the  feast ; 
after  which  he  riated  Antioch,  and  then  travelled  for 
some  considerable  dme  in  Upper  Asia.  He,  therefore, 
ia  supposed  to  have  spent  the  winter  somewhere  in  Aaia 
Minor.  (On  the  contrary,  he  acems  to  have  rapidly 
passed  through  that  region.)  Now  there  was  a  town 
named  NicDpoliji,  between  Antioch  and  Tarsus,  near  lo 
which,  if  not  ihrougb  which,  Paul  must  pasa  on  his  way 
from  Antioch  to  Galatia  (Strabo,  xiv,  466,  ed.  Casaubon, 
fol.  1587).  Bfay  not  this  hare  been  the  very  pUce  re- 
ferred lo  in  Til.  iii,  127  In  such  a  locality  it  was  quite 
natural  for  Paul  lo  desire  lo  spend  the  winter;  and  as 
Titua  waa  a  native  of  Aaia,  it  would  be  well  known  to 
him,  especially  if  he  knew  what  route  the  apostle  de- 
aigned  to  pursue.  All  this,  it  is  held,  supports  the  hy- 
pothesis that  Paul  wrote  this  epialle  befure  leaving 

Another  circumatauce  alleged  in  faror  of  this  bypotb- 
esis  ia  the  close  resemblance  in  sentiment  and  phrawul- 
ogy  between  this  epistle  and  the  Sr«t  EpislJe  to  Timo- 
thy. This  resemblauce  is  so  close,  and  in  some  panic- 
nlare  so  peculiar,  that  we  are  naturally  led  lo  cuuctude 
that  bolh  must  have  been  written  while  the  same  lead- 
ing ideas  and  forms  of  expression  were  occupying  the 
apostle's  mind.  Now  the  First  Epiade  to  Tiroolhy  it 
held  by  the  maintainera  of  this  theory  lo  hare  been 
written  after  Paul  had  left  Ephesus  tbe  second  time  lo 
go  into  Macedonia,  that  is,  about  two  years  and  a  half 
after  the  period  when  Hug  supposes  the  Epialle  loTilni 
la  have  been  written.  To  some  ihis  may  appear  too 
long  a  time  tu  justify  any  stress  being  laid  upon  the 
aimilarity  of  the  two  epistles  in  this  queiiion  of  ibeir 
respective  dateai  but  when  it  ia  remembered  Ihalduring 
the  interval  Paul  hail  been  dealing  at  Ephesus  with 
very  much  the  same  class  of  persons,  lo  whom  a  great 
part  of  both  epistles  refer,  anil  ihat  both  are  addrcsseil 
to  persona  hoUling  the  Bame  peculiar  oSce,  the  force  of 
this  objection  will  be  weakened. 

Against  this  date,  on  the  contrary,  may  justly  be 
ailduced  the  many  precarious,  and  (as  above  seen)  some 
pceitireh'  inaccurate,  aaaumptiona  necessary  to  its  aup- 
pori.  The  main  objection,  however,  ia  the  exceeding 
improbability  that  Paul,  while  on  his  way  from  Cor- 
inth to  Palestine,  which  he  was  in  haste  lo  reach  bv 
a  given  day  (Acts  xriii,  18,  SO,  31),  could  hare  foniid 
lime  to  BUip  at  Crale,  found  numerous  cliurehes  there 
(Tit.  i,  b),  and  leave  Titus  in  charge  of  them.  Nor 
have  we  any  evidence  that  on  the  voyage  in  qucslion 
Paul  was  accompanied  by  Tilua;  nor  yet  that  the  indi- 
viduals mentioned  in  Hi,  13, 13,  were  at  that  time  so  In- 
cated  with  reference  lo  Paul  and  Tiiui.  For  these  and 
other  reaaona,  this  bypoihesis  must  be  discarded  as  too 
pniblematlcal  throughout. 

of  the  writing  of  thia  epistle,  tbe  following  scheme  of 
lining  up  Paul's  morementa  ^er  his  lirst  imprisonment 
wiUsalisfy  all  thecondidonaof  thecaae;  We  may  aup- 
poae him  (poxailily  after  accomplishing  hia  long-pnijeci- 
eil  risit  to  Spain)  to  have  gone  lo  Kpbesua,  aiul  taken 
voyages  from  thence,  Srst  to  Macedonia  and  then  lo 
Crete  1  during  the  former  to  have  written  the  First  Epis- 
ile  to  Timothy,  and  after  returning  from  the  latter  lo 
have  written  the  Epistle  lo  Titus,  being  ai  the  time  of 
despatching  it  on  the  point  uf  starting  fur  Nlcopolis,  to 
which  place  he  went,  taking  Miletiia  and  Corinth  on 
the  way.    At  Ntcopolia  we  may  conceive  him  to  hava 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO 

been  flrully  apprehended  and  taken  to  Rome,  whence 
wnrte  tlie  Secund  EjiUtle  to  'I'imothy,     Other  poeai 
ciiniliiiiBtiuns  may  be  Ken  in  Ititka  {lima  Apoitoli 
(tl  Ihe  end  of  hia  edition  of  the  flora  Pimlma,  p.  ^ 
301)  and  in  Word«worlh  (Wowi  Tnlantnl,  iii,4m,42l). 
It  \i  an  undoubted  miatake  lo  encleavor  la  insert  Ihia 
e)jiiule  III  any  period  of  that  part  at  VavVt  life  oliieh 
nLi-iirilcil  in  lh«  Aeia  of  tbe  Apmllea.     There  i>  in  tb 
wriiini;  that  iiuinieUkable  difference  t>f  Hyk  (u  con 
inreil  «ith  the  earlier  epiulei)  which  auociatea  Ihe 
I'lUtoral  l.euera  with  one  another,  and  with  Ihe  I. 
period  iif  Paul')  life;  and  it  Beeaia  atrange  that 
siiould  have  been  ao  slightly  observed  by  good  scholars 
and  cjtaci  chnimiloguts,  e.  g.  Archdn.  Evana  {Scripl. 
Iimi-  iii.3-J7-3S3)  aiid  Wieaeler  (Chranol.drt  opot.  Zeil- 
all.  329-355),  who,  approaching  the  aiibjecc  in  very  dif- 
fcrviit  wars,  leree  in  holding  the  foregoing  theory  (No. 
'  2)  thai  this  letter  waa  written  at  Ephcaus  (between  I 
and  2  Dir.),  when  the  apostle  waa  ill  ihc  early  part  ofhia 
third  missionary  Journey  (Acts  lix).   See  Paul;  Tr- 
ill, Hftign  W  ConlenU.— The  Uak  which  I^ul 
ciimmilteil  to  Tilm,  when  he  left  him  in  Crete,  was  one 
of  iiri  small  cliffliiiUy.     The  character  of  ihe  people  waa 
uiiiteady,  inainccre,  and  quarrelsome ;  they  were  given 
tu  gr«ilineas,UcenIiousnesB,  falsehood,  and  drunkenness, 
ill  no  ordinary  degree;  and  the  Jews  who  had  settled 
amnngthem  appear  to  have  even  gone  beyond  the  naiives 
in iminnrality.  AmongauchapeopleitwasnoeaayotBcc 
which  Tilus  had  to  sustain  when  commisiioned  In  carry 
forward  the  work  which  Paul  had  begun,  and  lo  set  in 
onler  ihe  affiiira  of  ihe  cburehet  which  ha<l  arisen  there, 
especially  as  bcTelicaJ  leachen  had  already  crept  in 
among  them.     Hence  Paul  addressed  to  him   ' ' 


n  of  whli 


•liwbarge  wilh  success 
■piHiinicil.  For  this  reason  the  apostle  dilates  upon  tbe 
periiinal  qualificBCions  of  Church  ofHccrs  and  members, 
and  Ihcir  runctions,  with  Biu;h  local  alluBiona  as  rendered 
these  ilireciiuns  eBpecially  pertinent.  After  the  intru- 
diietory  salutation,  which  hag  marked  peculiariUei  (i, 
1-4),  f itiis  is  enjoined  lo  appoint  suiuble  presbyten  in 
tbe  {.'retail  Church,  and  specially  auch  aa  shall  be  sound 
ill  duclrine  and  able  In  refute  error  (ver.  5-9).  The 
at>i"ilG  then  piues  lo  a  description  of  ihe  coarae  char- 
anil  Ihe  mlwhief  caused  by  Jadaizing  error  among  the 
(;iirl>ilans  of  the  island  (vcr.  10-16).  In  opimsiiiun  to 
thi<.  Titua  is  lo  urge  sound  and  practical  Ohrisliaiiity 
on  all  classes  (ii,  1-0),  on  the  older  men  (ver. !),  on  Ihe  ! 
olik-r  women,  and  especially  in  regard  to  their  inHuence 
over  ihe  younger  women  (ver.  3-5),  on  the  younger 
men  (ver.  6-8),  on  slaves  (ver.  9, 10),  taking  heed  mean- 
while Ihat  he  himself  is  a  pattern  of  good  vrorks  {ver.i). 
1'lie  grounds  of  all  this  are  given  in  the  free  grace  which 
trains  the  Christian  to  self-denying  and  active  piety 
(vcr.  II,  12),  ill  Ihe  glorious  hope  of  Christ's  second  ad- 
vent (ver.  13).  snd  in  [he  atonement  by  which  he  has 
piircbaseil  us  to  be  his  people  (ver.  14).  AH  these  les- 
sons Tims  is  to  urge  with  fearless  decision  (ver.  16). 
Nf'Kl,  obedience  lo  rulers  is  enjoined,  with  gentleness 
and  rorbesraiicc  lowatds  all  men  (iii,  I,  !),  these  dulies 
Icing  again  rented  on  our  sense  of  past  ain  (ver.  8),  and 
on  the  gift  of  new  apiritiial  life  and  free  justillcation 
(ver.  4-7).  With  these  pmctical  duties  are  coiilnated 
thKne  idle  speculations  which  are  to  be  carefully  avoid- 


.«,9);. 
ively  heretical,  a  perempiorj-  charge  ia  given  (i 

ychieiis  may  be  expected  at  Crete,  and  on  the  ar- 


nT^tus 


o  Join  Ihe 


B|Hi»[le  at  Nicopolia, where  he  intend*  to  winlerj  Zenas 
■  he  lawyer,  also,  and  Apollos,  lie  to  be  provided  with  all 
ih'it  is  iicce»ary  fur  a  journey  iirprospeel  (ver.  12, 13). 
Filially,  before  the  concluding  messages  of  salutation, 
an  admonition  is  given  to  the  Cretan  Cbrislians,  thai 
ihev  give  heed  to  Ihe  dulies  of  practical  useful  piely 
(v^.  Ii,  16). 


i2  TIZITE 

IV.  OmiiiKiiraTTu.— The  following  are  Ibe  special  ex. 
pgetical  helps  on  the  whole  of  this  episile  exclusively: 
Hegander, /JTkinriu  [inclnd.  Tim.]  (DasiL  I636,Svo); 
Willich,A'i7»n<to(lii)«.1540,Sva);  Hoffmann, CoHMflt- 
tanai  (Frcft.  1541,  8vo);  Culmann,  Sola  (Norib.  16(6, 
8ro) ;  Alesius,  Kxplicatio  (Lips.  16.50,  Bvo) ;  Espenatos 
[Kom.CHlh.],Com>wMu>iu((Par.l6eS,8vo>:  Hannin^ 
i>;»«fio(Marp.l58;,  1G04;  Vilemb.  I6l0,»vn);  Bbo- 
domann,CoinmB>(ari(u(Jen.l697,8vu);  Mag1ian[R.C], 
ComimlaHiit  (LugiL  le09,4to);  Sollo  [K.C.],Cait- 
morfan"m[includ.Tim.]  (Par.  l6tO,f<>L);  Tavlor.OMt- 
mcarury  (Camb.  1612,410;  1668,foL);  Seullelin, Otsrr. 
raiimfi  [includ.  Tim.  and  Pbilem.]  (Frcft.  Uiit;  Tf 
lemb.  1630,  410);  Goupil  [R.  C],  FaniphraiU  (Par, 
ie41,8v0);  Daille,^cmoHj[Fr.](ibid.l6i6,Svo);H>- 
bert  ^  R.  C. },  Kiporiiia  [includ.  Tim.  and  Philen.]  (ibid. 
1666, Hvo);  Wallls,  £37»n1'o(Uxoii.  166T,flro):  Ftthl, 
HrpoiiHo  (Host.  1692, 1700,410);  Rappoll,  Oitnatiant, 
(inhia  t>pp.  i.781);  Ilreilhaupl,  £rrrcAnf»  (HiLUDO, 
4to)i  Outhof,FmUiian'iig<AmbI.17l>4,4to};  Zenlgiav, 
CommnlaHut  (Arg.  1706.  4to);  Gebhanl,  PurofiAraiD 
(Grvpb.  1714,  4lo);  Knehnen,  Vrrldaanng  (Uii.  t7M, 
4lo)i  Vllringa,  rnJ/u.irt«^  (Fraiiek.  1728,  4lo);  Ram- 
bach,  ErUinng  [includ.  GaL]  (Gies.  1739,  4lo);  Tan 
Haven,  ronmnlai^  (Hal.  1742, 4lo);  Hurler, Coshh- 
ImiOM  (Schafh.  1744,  4lo);  Mosheim,  Ermmg  (cd. 
Von  Einaai,Stend.l779,4lo):  Ktliiiil,  £i}>Iiniric  (lipt 
1788,  4lo);  Van  den  £ss,  Con/iwi'fto  (L.  a  IS2i.Hv«)i 
Patei»n,CoiR«WBrory(indud.'I1m.](Lond.lB48,18iiio); 
V,n,bKO,Cimmatary  (ibiil.l860,l2ma).    See  Efistul 

TltUB.  UsbopoF  BoHTRA.  In  Arabia,  was  driven  froB 
his  see,  under  Julian,  A.D.  362:  Klumed  under  Valia- 
tintani  and  died  about  A.D.  871.  He  wrule  Coin 
Uauickaot  Lib,  III,  which  is  extanl  in  a  l^tin  iniiiia- 
la^on  in  BOIinlh.  Pair.  lorn.  iv.  A  discourse  On  (fa 
HnmcJifi  o/  Putai,  Greek  and  Uiin,  and  a  Cdjbimsib^ 
oil  /.iitr,iii  Ijaliii,  have  been  publbhed  under  his  mjm, 

Herzog,  Rrat-EtKykiop.  s.  v. 

Tltoa.  Fi-AVii;s  SabTkub  ViisrASiIsrs,  emperor  of 
Home,  was  the  eldest  sun  uf  Vespaaian  and  Flavia  Do- 
mililla,  and  was  bom  at  Home,  Dec  30,  A.U.40.  11a 
le  court  of  Nero  with  liritaiiaicB^ 
and  hence  acquired  some  false  mural  principles  which 
afterwards  led  him  iiilu  many  exceswa.  He  was  ia 
charge  uf  a  legion  of  Ihe  Koman  furcea  in  the  lau  vsr 
if  the  Jews,  aiul  on  his  falher'a  elevation  lo  tbe  impe- 
rial throne,  he  proseculed  Ihe  war  lo  a  luecessful  dusc, 
sharing  the  honors  of  a  triumph  join ily  with  Ve^iaiiaD. 
On  bis  own  elevation  to  the  ihrune,  he  refomidl  hit 
hiUta,  and  became  celebriled  fur  bis  virtues  and  pi^ia- 
lariiy.  UediedSept.13,  A.D.  SI,  in  the  third  year  of 
hia  reign.     Hia  career  is  given  by  ihe  aucieul  hiiuiii- 

Jens  by  Joeephus.     Uunngraphi  on   him  have  baea 
'    Utinby  Jung(i;6l),aiidinFiciichbyBal- 


ind(l8 


Tl'slte  {Heb.  Titif,  "X^P.  patrial.  is  if  frw 
unknown  place  or  person  called  Tin ;  Sepu  Aimt 

Ihe  brother  of  Jcliael  and  Bon  of  Shimrt,  one  ofl 


l^blit  on  the  Arcb  [q.  t.)  of  Tllni  »t  Rome  r 
To'ah  (Heb.  To'adi,  niti,  lorfy ,-  S*pl.  Booi  v,  r. 
BcuiH  uu  Sdi ',  Tulg.  TtoAu),  »n  of  Zuph  and  fslher 
of  Elitl  ID  Ibe  genealugy  of  Heman  Ihe  Levicicil  muai- 
oui  (1  Cbron.  vi,  M  [lleb,  191);  etoewhere  csllcd  by 
Iht  similir  name  Toiiu  (I  Sam.  i,  l),or  lb«  different  one 
(I  Ch^.I^.  vi,  26)  Nahath  (q.  v.).     See  Samuki. 

Tob  (Heb.  TOi,  3ia,  sood,  M  eY»rj-ii'liere ;  3*pt. 
Tii)l;  Vulg.  Tob),  ibe  name  of  ■  tegiun  or  iliBiricl 
(T^S;  Scpt-yij:  Vulg.Wrro;  A.  V. " lai.d")  intowhich 
Jrr>l"h«l>  withdraw  «heii  exp*!l«1  from  home  by  hii 
l«ir-braihran  (Judg.  si,  3),  and  where  he  remsined,  it 
ilx  had  i>r  a  bind  of  TrefbouCen,  till  he  was  broughi; 
b«k  by  Ihe  tbeika  (Cipj)  of  Gilead  <ver.  6).  The 
Mrniire  implie«  that  the  land  ofTob  waa  not  far  di»- 
iiBifmnj  Giludi  at  the  aame  lime,  from  the  nature  of 
ilx  tuf,  it  rnuu  have  lain  out  towatda  the  eastern  dea- 
tfii  It  ii  undoubtedly  menlioned  again  in  2  Sam.  i, 
6. 1^  u  one  of  tbe  petty  Anmilish  kingdom!  or  >lale« 
which  Hippnrifd  the  Ammonites  in  their  great  cnnflict 
■iih  David ;  but  in  that  pauage  the  A.V.  preseiiu  ibe 
Mine  (iyciu/iin  as  iBBToa  (q.  v.),  I  ' '"  " 


n  Heb 


r  idioi 


of  Tub."  Afler  an  immenae  inten-al  it  appears  again 
fT«^op  or  Tov^r)  in  the  Maccabaau  hir-t«rj-  (I 
Hta.  1, 13),  and  wia  then  the  abode  of  a  coniuderable 
&<lnnv  of  Jena,  numbering  at  least  a  Iboutand  males. 
See  ToBit  In  3  Mace  xii.  17  lis  poaition  under  the 
nne  Tt'Biezn  (q.  v.)  ia  delined  rerj'  exactly  aa  at  or 
near  Charax,  T50  aUdia  from  the  strong  Iowa  Caspi^ 
though,  n  the  position  of  neither  of  iheu  places  is 
knmm,  we  are  not  thereby  aaaialed  in  the  lecove 
Toh.  The  Targnm  and  Abarbanel  render  it  simply 
*E<>od  land."  while  Eimchi  and  Beii-Geraon  look  upon 
T.jb  ai  Ihe  name  of  the  lord  or  owner  of  the  land.  Eu- 
ttbiiu  and  Jemme  make  it  a  country,  but  aay  nothing 
'if  in  situaiiuii  (0*™<M(.  a.T.).  Ptolemy  iCtogr.  v,  19) 
DfDiioiis  a  place  called  ^aijia  as  lying  lo  the  wuth- 
■«  «l  Zutah,  and  therefore  possibly  lo  the  eaat  oi 
w»ih-«««  of  Ihe  country  of  Ammon  proper.  In  Steph- 
•nu*  of  Byzantium  and  in  Eckhel  (Dodr,  Numm.  iii. 
Hi)  the  iiaraea  Tabai  and  Tabnti  occur.  'I'he  name 
T-a  I>«i6t  (  Burckhardt,  Sgria,  April  25),  or,  as  it  ii 
jivBi  by  the  latest  ejqiloter  of  those  Tegioni,  Trll  DiiU 
(Veusteiu,  J/i^),  attached  to  a  rained  site  at  the  Boulh 


cjireseDtlog  hts  Trinnpliil  Car.    (Bee  p.  Ml.) 

indoTthc  Leja,«  few  miles  nonh-west  of  Kenawat,  and 
ilso  that  of  £,V/-AiA,  some  twelve  hoitra  east  of  (he  moun- 
:ain  El-Kulcib,  are  both  aiiggestive  of  Tob.  Accord- 
ing lo  Schwan  (Paltil.  p.  !00)  the  Talmud  identi- 
fies it  with  a  Gentile  town  called  Sanl^a  or  ChrpAim, 
the  aoulh-eaat  shore  of  Ihe  lake  of  Tibe- 
.  perhaps  the  Hippot  (q.  v.)  ao  often  menlioned  by 

Tob-Bdonl'j«h(Hcb.r(<i^ibR9aA,m3i-iK  ais, 

good  ia  A  donijah ;  ScpU  Tm^aiorias  v.  r,  Tviffnlufitia  ; 
Vulg.  rAtiifi^ontiu),lBBt  named  of  llie  nine  Levitea  sent 
'eboehaphat  thniugh  Ihe  cities  of  Juilah  to  leach  the 
to  Ihe  people  (2  Chron.  ivii,  B).     aC.910. 
'obey.  Zalmon,  a   Baptiat  minister,  waa  bora  in 
folk,  Conn,,  July  27,  1791.     Hia  parenu  were  Con- 
[stionalisU.     He  pursued  hii  collegiate  studies  for 
me  at  WiUiama  College,  and  then  became  a  mem- 
of  Brawn  Univenily,  where  he  graduated  in  the 
class  of  1817.     In  Ihe  fail  of  Ihia  year,  he  waa  ordained 
tba  work  of  the  ministry  in  Canaan,  Conn.,  and  in 
!  follow  ingaprinfcbeca  me  paator  of  the  Baptiat  Church 
at  Fruit  Hill,  Providence,  K.  l.,where  be  remained  Ave 
vears  (1818-23).     He  became  pastor  of  Ihe  Fourth  Bap- 
tist Cburch,  Providence,  Sepl.  2,  1B23,  where  he  contin- 
ued for  about  ten  yean  (1828-38).     DuiinR  this  period 
he  fraiernized  chiefly  with  the   Freewill  Baptists,  the 
Church  of  which  he  waa  pastor  largely  aympalhixing 
with  him.     After  being  disconnected  with  the  regular 
Baptisla  for  several  years,  he  relumed  to  that  body. 
His  subsequent  pastorales  were  in  Bristol,  K.  I.,  for  ihree  - 
years;  Colebrook,  Conn.,  for  five  year»;  and  Pawtuxet, 
K.  1.,  for  seven  years.    In  the  spring  of  1851  he  removed  lo 
Warren,  B.  I.    He  preached  aa  occauon  ofTcred  in  and 
around  Warren  for  several  yean.     He  died  in  Nnrfolk, 
Cunn.,  where  he  was  visiting  hia  relatives,  Sept.  17,  IS^B. 
See  Bei-.  Dr.  H.  Jackson,  Funrrol  Srraim.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Tobi'ah  (Heb.  roWyoA',  njaia  [once  n;at3,Neh, 
ii,  itl'].gBodtita  ofJihoi-oh ;  Sept.  Tw/3iaf  v.r.Tu/Jirfl ; 
Vulg.  Tobiii,  TMai),  Ihe  name  of  two  men.  See  also 
Tobias;  Tobuaii. 

1.  A  person  whose  "  children"  were  a  family  that  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabcl,  but  were  unable  to  prove  their 
connection  with  Israel  (Ezra  ii,  60-,  Neb.  vii,  G2>  B.C 
ante  606. 


TOBIAH  4' 

2.  A  bue-born  tllr  of  tha  Simiriuiu  who  pUfcd  a 
roiitpicuoiis  part  in  tlie  ruicoioua  npposilion  made  by 
SwibalUt  Ihe  Uoabite  and  hia  adherents  tu  the  rcbuild- 
iDg  of  Jciasnlem  under  Neh«miiih,  B.C.  HO.  With  an 
alTeclatian  of  Koni,  aftei  the  maniKr  of  Ktmus  in  the 
Koman  legend,  they  looked  on  the  conuructiona  of  the 
lum  hopeful  and  thriving  Jewa,  and  ountcmptuouily 
■ud,''£ven  if  a  fox  go  up,  be  will  break  down  cheir 
alone  will"  (Neh.  W,  B).  The  two  racee  of  Moab  and 
Amrnon  found  in  theH  men  fit  reprewnlalira  of  that 
berediUry  hatred  to  tlie  laiaeliies  which  began  before 
the  entrance  into  Canaan,  and  waa  nut  extinct  nhen 
the  Hebrews  had  ceaaed  W  exist  ai  a  nation.  The  hor- 
rible Moty  of  the  origin  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammon- 
■ica,  aa  it  waa  told  by  Ihe  Hebrew*,  ia  an  index  of  the 
reeling  of  repiilaiun  which  must  have  existed  between 
tbeae  hostile  famitiea  of  meu.  In  the  digniSeil  rebuke 
or  Nebemiah  it  received  ita  higheat  expression  :■"  Ye 
have  no  portion,  nor  right,  not  memorial  in  Jenisalein'' 
(Ik,  20).  B>it  Tobiah,  though  a  sUre  (ver.  10, 19),  un- 
less this  be  ■  title  of  qipmbrium,  and  an  Amosonile, 
founii  means  lo  ally  himself  with  a  priestly  family,  and 


aughier  i 

'i,lS).    He  himself  was  ih 

I  son  of  Arab  (ve      " 


17),  ar 


these  family  relations  created  fo 
among  the  Jews,  and  may  have  bad  aomeching 
with  the  aleni  meaaurea  which  Em  found  it  nect 
to  take  to  lepreH  the  intermarriages  with  foreignen. 
£ven  a  gnmdson  of  the  high-priest  Eliashib  had  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Saubillat  (liii,  28).  In  xiii,4  Elia- 
■hih  is  said  to  have  been  allied  to  Tobiah,  which  would 
Imply  a  relalionahip  <if  some  kind  between  Tubiab  and 
Sanballat,  though  ita  nature  is  not  mentioned.  The 
evil  had  spread  so  far  that  the  leaden  of  the  people 
were  compelled  to  rouse  their  religious  antipathies  by 
reading  from  tbe  law  of  Moses  the  strong  prohibition 
that  the  Ammonite  and  Ihe  Hoabile  should  not  come 
into  the  oongregatipn  of  Gnd  forever  {ver.  ]).  Ewald 
(Coot,  ir,  173)  conjectures  that  Tobiah  hail  been  a  page 
("slave")  at  Ihe  Persian  court, anil, being  in  favor  there, 
had  been  promoted  lo  be  satnipof  the  Ammonilea,  But 
■talmastseema  that  agsinit  Tobiah  there  was  a  stronger 
feeling  of  animosity  than  against  Sanballat,  and  that 
this  animosity  found  expression  in  the  epithet  "Ihe 
■Uve,"  which  ia  attached  to  his  name.  It  was  Tobiah 
who  gave  venom  to  the  pitying  scom  of  Sanballat  (Neb. 
iy,  8),  and  provoked  the  bitter  cry  of  Neheraiah  (ver.  4, 
6);  it  waa  Tobiah  who  kept  up  communications  with 
the  fictions  Jewa,  and  who  sent  letters  to  put  their 
leader  in  fear  (vi,  17,  19);  but  hia  crowning  act  of  in- 
■ttlt  was  to  lake  up  his  residence  in  the  Temple  in  the 
etiamber  which  Eliashib  had  prepared  for  him  in  delU 
■nce  of  tbe  Moaiic  statute.  Nehemiab'a  patience  could 
no  longer  contain  itself. "therefore,"  he  says,  "I  cast 
forth  all  Ihe  household  atuff  of  Toluah  oul  of  the  cham- 
ber," and  with  this  Bummary  act  Tobiah  disappean 
liom  bisury  (xiii,T,  8).    See  Nkhkhiah. 

Tobiah,  bbk-Elikxhr,  a  Jewiah  writer,  who  flour- 
iibed  at  Msyence,  A.D.  111)7,  ia  the  author  of  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Peniateuch  and  tbe  live  Hegilloth,  L  e. 
the  Sung  of  ^ngs,  Kuth,  Lamentations,  Eccleaiaales, 
■nd  EalbcT.  This  commentary,  the  proper  title  of  which 
it  Ltbich  T-i  (31B  n73)-in  alh.«on  to  hia  name,  as 
■a  evident  from  the  quotations  made  by  Aben-Eira 
■od  Baahbam^biit  which  is  erroneously  called  xrppB 
or  Etn^aiT  iUipOB,  canaiala  both  of  excer^its  from  the 
ancient  expository  works, such  as  Sipkra, Sipkrr,'riin- 
chuma,  etc,  and  of  an  allempt  at  a  grammatical  eipla- 
nation  of  the  lexL  A  portinn  of  il,  embracing  the  com- 
mentaries on  LevitJciiB.  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy, 
waa  first  published  at  Venice  in  1M6.  With  a  Latin 
translalion  it  waa  republished  in  Ugolino's  TMeiaurui 
AaliguUalum  Sacrarum  (ibid.  1764-69),  voL  xv,  xvi. 
Excerpts  of  the  cammentaries  on  the  five  Uet^lloth  were 


4  TOBIT 

published  hv  A.  Jelliiiek(Leips.l8&6-SS).  The  wink 
MS.  is  in  the  Bodleian  Librarv  at  Oxford  (Cod.  Uii  \Hy 
SeeFllrst,SW./ud:iii,4^;  GfMz,  GoA  d.  Jwin.^\, 
169;  Kitto,  (>:inp.  B.  v. :  Ethcridge, /sfnHL  (o //rJu/.il. 
tralurt,  p.  233,  406 ;  De'  Kussi,  Ihzienario  Slorira  (G«- 
manlrBnBl.),p.314i  Zaat,GotltnLVortrSgi,f.f3i.ai. 

(a  P.) 

Tobi'aa  (Tw^nc).  the  Greek  (arm  of  the  nsw 
Tobiah  or  ToUJuk,  a*  it  occura  of  two  toen  in  tbe  Apoc- 
rypha. 

1,  The  eon  of  Tobil,  and  cenltll 
book  of  tbat  name.    See  Tout,  Book  of. 

2.  Thefather  of  HyrcaDus,BppareDlly  B  man  afpi 
wealth  and  reputation  at  Jeruaalem  in  the  time  vTSe- 
leucuB  Phibpalor  (!  Hacc  ii 
the  high-priestly  schism  which  happened  afierwudt 
[see  MeHkLaUS],  "  the  sons  of  Toluas"  took  acoo^ 
ous  part  (JosephuB,  jIW.  xii,  6, 1).  One  of  these,  J 
seph,  who  raised  himself  by  intrigue  In  high  favor  wl 
the  Egyptian  coun,  had  a  son  named  Hyrcanus  (ibid. 
i).  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  ia  the  Hyrcanoi  i 
ferred  toin^Macciii,  11;  andit  ia  notimpmiUelliat, 
for  some  unknown  reason  (as  in  the  caae  of  the  Hacc*. 
bees),  Ihe  whole  family  were  called  after  their  grasil- 
father,  to  the  excluuon  of  the  father'a  name.     On  lit 

sive  generations  makes  il  more  probable  that  the  Hjt* 
canua  mentioned  in  JosephuswBsa  nephew  xf  lb*  Hn- 
canua  in  2  Mace  (comp,  Ewald,  Cue*,  d.  I'oOn  lirail, 
iv,309;  Urimm,^dJfii«:.lDc.cit.). 

To'tde,  Ihe  name  of  a  district  (rd  T«j9r'o«  v.r, 
Tuvffiou:  Vulg.  loca  TiMm),  where,  in  the  lime  of  Ibt 
Maccabee^  waa  an  extensive  colony  of  Jews  (1  Usctv, 
13);  probably  identical  with  the  land  of  Tob  (i|.t.) 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  Jepbthah  (Judg.  xi,  3.^). 

To'blel  (Tw^qX,  for  Heb.  bxisiu,  ^oadsfsi  <if 
God;  comp.  fobatl),  the  father  of  Tobit  and  grsBd- 
father  of  Tobiaa  (Tobit  i,  1). 

Tobi'Jata  (Heb.  Tobifai,  n^^n  [once  (Zech.  vi,  10) 
in  the  prolonged  form  Toliiifa'hi,^11>in3], goodxai ^ 
Jthovai),  the  name  of  (wo  men.  Sec  also  Tobub; 
Tobias. 

1.  (Sept.  TwjBioc,  but  aome  M3S.  omit;  Tulg.  Tls- 
ti«i.)  The  eighth  named  of  the  nine  Leviies  sent  I7 
Jehinhsphat  lo  teach  tbe  law  in  Ihe  cities  of  Judah  (t 
Chron.  xvii,8).     RC.910. 

2.  (Sept.  oi  xpqoifioi  airiiii  Vulg.  Totiai.)  Sec- 
ond named  of  Ihe  three  or  four  representative  men  li 
the  Jewish  caplivea  in  the  lime  of  Zechariah,  in  whose 
presence  Ihe  prophet  waa  commanded  to  take  cmwiunf 
silver  and  gold  and  put  them  on  tbe  head  of  Joshua  Ibe 
high-priest  (Zech.  vi,  ll\  11).  RC  GI9.  RnscDmliUa 
conjectures  that  he  wan  one  of  a  deputation  who  came  op 
to  Jerusalem  from  the  Jews  who  siili  remainul  in  Bsbv- 
lon  with  contribulions  of  gnid  and  silrer  fur  ibe  Tciii- 
ple.  But  Maurer  considers  that  the  offerings  were  pre- 
sented by  Tobijah  and  bis  companions,  because  Ihe 
crowna  were  commanded  lo  be  plsced  in  the  Temple  ss 


To'bit  (Sept.  Tiu/5f».  To.,3i.V,  T«;S>>;  Vulg.  7b- 
binMi  VeL  Lat.  Tobi,  ThoU,  Tobu),  the  sun  of  T.^bid 
and  father  of  Tobias  (Tobit  i,  1,  etc.).  The  name  ap- 
pears to  answer  tii  ^S^lS,  Tobi,  which  ooeurs  frequently 
in  later  times  (Fritische,  Ad  Tat.  \,  1),  and  not  (as 
Welte,  KinkiUmg,  p.  66)  lo  rV^V^,  Tobiok ;  yet  in  thai 
case  Tu/liV,  according  to  Ihe  analogy  of  Aipff  Ci?\ 
would  have  been  the  more  nainial  fiirm,  Tbe  etymoU 
ogy  of  tbe  Bonl  is  obscure.  ligen  iranslaltfl  il  rimply 
'- my  goodness ;"  Fritzsche  rq^nlait  as  an  abbreriatioo 
of  ni3is,  comparing  MiX^i  (Luke  lii.  34,  »•),  "ptn. 
eto.  {Ad  Tob.  loc.  cil.).  The  form  in  the  Vulg.  is  trf'' do 
weight  against  the  old  Lalio,  except  so  far  as  it  abaws 
tbe  reading  of  the  Chaldaic  text  which  Jerome  used,  in 


TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 


Book  or. 

TOBITpBooK  OF.one  of  thedeulefo-cinoniMlbooki 
(fihc  Old  Twt.,  »Unding  in  moat  «ditioiu  of  the  orig- 
ioil  brlveen  the  Epiatle  of  Jenmuih  and  Ihe  Boole  o( 
Jndilh,  but  ill  the  A.  V.  belween  i  Eolr.  uid  Judith. 
Uii  chieB^  iiiteragling  fur  ihe  iniight  which  it  give* 
■  into  Ihe  •upemiiioui  Dotione  of  the  Jchb  during  the 
ptnid  of  the  Apoci^'phi, 

L  Tiilt.—ln  the  Greek  the  book  ii  called  simply  To- 
lil  (T»^r,  Tw^r}  is  the  old  MSS,  At  ■  later  lime 
Ibeapcning  worda  of  the  book,  Bi/?\oc  Xiywv  Tu^r, 
■m  taken  u  ■  title.  In  Latin  USS.it  is  tct'lert  ^E-iu, 
Ufer  Tiobu,  Liber  TMa  (Saiialier,  p.  706),  fabil  ft  To- 
iiiiL  LAfT  ulrvayue  TMa  (Friizn:he,  Liiilal.  §  t).  In 
tin  A.  T.  it  ia  aupcticrilied  "The  book  of  the  words  of 
Tabit,  eu^,  who,  in  the  time  of  Enemessar  (Shalmane- 
■s),  king  of  the  AsayrUru,  wa»led  captive  nut  of  Thia- 
(c,  which  ia  at  the  right  haod  of  Kjrdioa  of  Nephlbalim 
in  Galilee,  *l»>e  Aaet."  The  word  Tobit  ia  probablf  a 
Hdmw  (bnn  r'^IB,  ligDirTing  ^oodieai,  ■  name  Tec7 
narraliTa  of  virtue  auffering,  yet  re- 


IL  i)aig»  md  Caatoit»-The  object  of  thia  book  ia 
Uahow  that  God,  in  hia  myateriooa  providence,  permits 
ton  calamities  tn  befall  the  moat  pioua  and  Unil-fearing 
in  the  very  act  of,  and  apparently  for,  obeying  hia  com- 
maodinents,  but  that  be  at  the  same  lime  exerciaes  a 
^itciil  care  over  them  in  the  midst  of  their  suffer- 
io|^  vouchsafe*  them  a  happy  iisue  out  of  all  [heir 
tiials  and  hoida  them  up  to  the  world  at  large  as  pac- 
urna  of  patience  under  tribulations,  aa  such  who  have 
been  deemed  worthy  of  being  tried  and  puriOed,  and 
■ho  have  demonstrated  that  the  eflectiul  and  fervent 
pnyer  of  ■  "lighteoua  man  availeth  much."  The 
Birtbod  adopted  hy  the  writer  for  working  out  thii  rte- 
ugo  will  be  aeen  from  Ihe  fallowing  analyaia  of  the 
boikitwU: 

Tobil,  a  Jew  of  the  Irihe  of  Naphlali,  who  atrictly 
obaerred  Ihe  taw  and  remained  faithful  to  the  Temple- 
aeiviot  at  Jenualem  (i,  4-6),  waa  carried  captive  to  Aa- 
arria  by  Shalmanesrr.  While  in  captirity  he  exerted 
binuelf  to  relieve  hia  countrymen,  which  hia  favorable 
pofiiion  at  eoort  (AyopaariK.  i.  18, "  purveyor")  enabled 
him  10  do,  and  at  this  time  he  was  rich  enough  to  lend 
leu  talenta  of  silver  to  a  countryman,  tiabael  of  Rages, 
in  Ucdia.  But  when  Sennacherib  aucceeiled  bis  father, 
ShalmaneaeT.  tbe  fortune  of  Tobit  was  clianged.  He 
waa  accused  of  burying  the  Jewa  whom  the  king  had 
put  to  death,  and  waa  only  able  to  lave  himself,  hia  wife, 
Anna,  and  hia  son  Tobiaa,  by  llight.  On  the  accesaiou 
of  Enr-hadduu,  be  was  allowed  In  return  to  Nineveh,  at 
tbe  interctHiun  of  his  nephew,  Achiacharus,  who  occu- 
lted a  high  place  in  the  king's  household  (i,  22) ;  but 
bi>  iral  f»r  faia  cuunlrymen  brought  him  into  a  atian|ce 
mialuTiune,  Aa  he  lay  one  night  in  the  court  of  his 
house,  being  unclean  iVunt  having  buried  a  Jew  whom 
hia  aon  had  found  atrangled  in  the  marhel-place,  apai^ 
mwa"  routed  wim  dung  into  hiBeyca,"and  be  became 
blind.  Being  thus  disabled,  he  was  for  a  time  support- 
ed by  Achiachania,  and  after  bis  departure  (read  tiro- 
pil4it,  ii,  10)  by  the  labor  of  his  wife.  On  one  occasion 
be  faiaely  aocuan)  her  of  stealing  a  kid  which  had  been 
added  to  her  wages,  and  in  return  she  reproached  him 
wilh  tbe  tuserable  iasue  of  all  his  righieoua  deeda. 
Grieved  by  her  taunts,  he  prayed  to  Gud  for  help ;  and 
it  happened  that  on  the  same  day  Sara,  his  kinswoman 
(vi,  10, 11),  the  only  daughter  of  Hague],  also  sought 
bdp  from  MaA  againat  the  npToaches  rif  her  father's 
bouBcbuld.  For  seven  young  men  we<lded  to  her  had 
prriabed  on  their  mairiage-night  by  the  power  of  the 
evil  apirit  Asmodaeus  (q.  v.) ;  and  she  thought  that  she 
abontd  "bring  her  father's  old  age  with  sorrow  unto  the 
graW  (iii,  10).  So  Baphad  was  sent  lo  deliver  both 
tna  llwit  tniubka.     Id  the  meantime  Tobit  called  lu 


6  TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 

mind  the  moner  which  be  bad  lent  to  Gabael,  and  de- 
spatched Tobias,  with  many  wise  counsels,  to  reclaim 
it  (ch.  iv).  On  this  Raphael  (under  Ihe  form  of  a  kins- 
man. Asanas)  olTered  biroself  as  a  guide  lo  Tobias  on 
his  journey  in  Media,  and  Ihey  "  went  forth  both,  and 
tkt  ifonnif  mttn's  dog  wilh  fAon,"  and  Anna  waa  eumforled 
fur  the  absence  of^her  son  (ch.  v).  When  they  reached 
the  Tigris,  Tobias  was  commanded  by  Raphael  lo  take 
'-  the  heart,  and  liver,  and  gall"  of  "  a'liah  which  leaped 
out  of  the  river  and  would  have  devoured  him,"  and  in- 
structed how  to  use  Che  flnt  two  against  AamodBos,  for 
Sara,  Raphael  said,  waa  appointed  to  be  his  wife  (ch.vi). 
So  when  Ihey  reached  Ecbatana,  they  were  entertained 
by  Raguet,and,  in  accordance  with  the  words  of  the  an- 
gel, Sara  waa  given  to  Tobias  in  marriage  that  night, 
and  Asmodsus  was  "driven  to  the  utmost  parts  of 
E^pl,"  where  "the  angel  bound  him"  (ch.  vii,  viii). 
After  tbia  Raphael  recovered  the  loan  from  Gabarl  (ch. 
ix),  and  Tobias  then  returned  with  Sara  and  half  her 
father's  goods  lo  Nineveh  (eh.  x).  Tubil,  informed  by 
Anna  of  their  son's  approach,  hastened  to  meet  hitn. 
Tobias,  by  the  command  of  the  angel,  applied  the  fish'* 
gall  to  his  father's  eyes  and  resloreil  liis  sight  (ch.  li). 
After  this  Raphael,  addreaaing  lo  both  words  of  goo*l 
coansei,  revealed  himself,  and  "  Ihey  saw  him  no  more' 
(ch.  xii).  On  this  Tobit  expressed  his  grsiilude  in  a 
fine  psalm  (ch.  xiii)j  and  he  lived  to  see  ihe  long  pros- 
perity of  his  son  (xiv,  I,  2).  After  hia  death  Totnaa, 
acconling  lo  hia  instruction,  returned  to  Ecbatana,  and 
"  before  he  died  ho  heard  of  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,' 
of  which  "Jonas  the  prophet  spake"  (xiv,  lfi,4). 

III.  Haloiicol  and  Rrligiout  CAiirortfr  n/lie  Boot.— 
I.  There  are  three  theories  about  Ihe  reality  of  this 

(I.)  The  o{Hnion  that  this  book  records  proper  his- 
tory was  universally  held  by  the  Cfarisiiaii  Church  up 
to  the  time  of  Ihe  Reformation,  and  has  even  since  been 
maintained  by  bishop  Gray  {A  Kfy  lo  Ihe  O.  T.  p.  620, 
etc.,  ed.  1B57),  Welle  {Evdtil.  p.  84  aig.),  Scholi  (A'l'n- 
Ul.  ii,  M4  aq.),  and  moat  Roman  Catholic  writeia.  In 
support  of  thu  opinion  may  be  urged,  a.  The  minute 
account  which  it  give*  of  Tobit'a  tribe,  hia  pedigie^ 
place  of  birth,  tbe  time  in  which  he  lived,  hia  family, 
his  condition  and  employment,  bis  captivity,  poverty, 
blindness,  recovery,  age,  death,  and  place  of  burial  (i,  I, 
19,20,21;  ii,IO;  xi,l3:  xiv,  11-13);  ».  Tbe  exactneaa 
of  the  historical  remarks  about  the  Assyrian  kings  (i,  2, 
13,  15,  21),  without  ileriviiig  Ihe  names  'EMfit'nrapoc 
(  =  ShBlmaneeer)  and  Zox'c'ovuc  from  the  Old  Test., 
as  well  as  the  correctness  of  the  geographical  iHtinla  (i, 
14;  il,2lt  iii,7;  vi,  1,  II);  c.  The  impoasibiliiy  of 
tracing  Che  main  features  of  the  narrative  to  any'oiil- 
Test.  prototype,  and  of  explaining  them  un  the  hypoth- 
esis of  Hclioo.  Tlie  obscure  place  Thiabe  is  given  aa 
Tobit'a  place  of  birth  (i,  2),  and  many  minute  particu- 
lars of  his  life  are  described  which  have  in  themselves 
nothing  whatever  to  do  wilh  Ihe  plot,  and  which  can 
only  be  accounted  for  on  Ihe  reality  of  the  evenla.  On 
Ihe  other  hand,  Ilertholdt  (A'intnr.  §  6TE>>  baa  given  > 
summary  of  alleged  errors  in  detail  (e.  g.  i,  1 , 3, "  Kaph- 
lali,"  comp,  wilh  2  Kings  iv,  29;  vi,  9,  Rages,  said  lo 
have  been  founded  by  SeL  Micalor),  but  the  question 
tnniB  rather  upon  the  general  complexion  of  Ihe  bialori- 
than  upon  minute  objecliunn,  which  are  ollen  captious 
and  rarely  sali)faetnr>-  (cnoip.  Welle,  t'iiUil.  p.  W-W). 

(2.)  The  opinion  that  it  is  a  moral  flelion  was  Aist 
thrown  out  by  Luther  {Varrtde  au/i Bach  TMa  [Bi- 
ble, ed.  1534]),  and  baa  since  been  maintained  by  Kai- 
nold((■■™rlr.i,7^G),J;A.Fabriciu^Bltddens{Wi»f.A•c- 
dti.  ii,489),  Haul  Ftt(^iu^  F.icbhom  ( Einttir.  p.  i»l  aq.), 
Dertholdt  (iwfcif.  v,24TT  sc;.),  lie  Wetic  (AVn/oV.  §  309), 
Oulmaun  {Die  Apohyitkin.  p.  143),  Ewald  {Grx-h.  d.  V. 
J.  iv,  233  aq,),  Fritaiche  (Kan'j'f-  "tgtt.  Ifarulb.  e.  A 
ApahyphtH,  ii,  14  sq.),  Davidson  (Tht  Ttxl  of  the  O. 
T.  Comukrtd,  p.  10Dl),Vaihinger(in  Henog's  Rtal-Bn- 
(yitliip.  s.  v.  "Tobiaa"),  OrHU  {Gttck.dtr  Judm.  iv,  180 
[2d  cd.  1666]),  etc     In  support  of  this  opinion  it  ia 


TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 

urged— n.  Tbe  namlivg  ia  completely  iaolatnl;  and 
tbough  the  evenU  pretend  to  have  occurreil  brfure  and 
ihunly  after  the  fill  of  Nineveh  (aC  60G),  no  al 
doeiimenl  written  at  a  later  period  refera  to  them. 
bears  a  Wrong  likencu  Ifl  the  tilea  of  the  ThouMnJ  inut 
Oat  fiighli.  Kith  the  olivioui  exception  that  I 
hii  a  eonsiderable  acquaintance  andaympathi 
nrritinKH  of  the  Old  Test.  He  write*  in  a  pleaiing  Uyle, 
and  with  a  icood  deal  of  power.     But  he  ia  clearly 


tant  points  both  of  fact 


r  the  holy  ni 
d  |>rinci|de.  Tobit' 
age,  oil  wue  a,  wno  aiea  aiier  mm,  and  that  of  hit  anti 
are  much  beyond  tbe  ordinary  Limit  u{  M 
day,  and  bring  ui  back  to  the  Cimea  of  the  patriaTuhi. 
He  waa  flfty-eighC  yean  of  age  when  he  lost  his  right, 
in  the  reign  of  Eaai^haddon,aiicl  lived  onehundcedyeara 
after  that  time.  Nnw.ir,  accurdiujtlo  Rawlinaon,  E«ar- 
Uaddon  began  to  reign  B.C.  680,  Tobit  muiI  have  sur- 
vived the  fall  of  Nine\;eb  <aa6!a  or  606),  of  wbich  he 
iimade  topropheay  (xiv,4j.  He  also  takea 
of  Sirgon,  who  cornea  in  between  Shalmauege 
nacherib.  He  removea  lii  Klymaia,  and  yet 
Mineveh  (li.  16),  ihou|;h  lie  does  not  inlini 

home.     b.  The  name  Tobit  does  not  occur  in  the  Old 
Teat.,  and  belongs  to  a  later  age.    c.  The  funn,  spirit, 

late  period.  The  <loclrine  of  good  and  evil  spirita  (ii 
8;  vi,  14;  viii,Bi  xii,  15),  the  ascription  of  human  lusl 
to  spiritual  beings  (vi,  14),  the  notion  oT  the  seven  prei 
ence-angels  bringing  tbe  prayers  of  the  pioua  before  Ih 
Divino  throne  (xli,  12,  15),  the  marriage  inatrumei 
(rrains),  and  the  legal  benediction  pronounced  ov< 
the  nedded  pair  (vii,  13,  U},  are  of  pnal-Babylonian  oi 
igin.  d.  The  stories  of  he  angel  Kaphael  in  a  huma 
form  giving  a  false  account  of  himself  aa  being  a  kini 
man  of  Tobit  [v,  1!),  of  Tobit  becoming  blind  in  both 
eyes  by  the  falling  of  some  dung  of  sparrows  (ii,  10 
and  of  the  marvelloiia  Aah  (vi,  3~Ci)  are  beyond  all  ma 
ler  uf  fact.  The  modes  of  repelling  evil  spirits  an 
curing  blindneaa  betray  a  superatitioua  or  trilling  mini 
The  angel  is  made  (o  feign  himseir  a  man,  a  Jew  of 
family  known  to  1'iibit,  and  to  be  the  voucher  for  tli 
false  eharms  which  are  introduced.  Although  the  c> 
tiaordinary  character  of  the  details,  as  such,  is  no  ol 
jedion  againat  the  reality  of  the  occurrencCH,  yel 
may  be  fairly  urged  that  the  character  of  the  alleged 
miraculous  events,  when  taken  together,  is  alien  from 
the  general  character  of  such  events  in  the  hialorical 
hooka  of  Scripture;  while  there  is  nothing  exceptjonal 
in  the  circum^iances  of  the  person^  as  in  the  case  of 
Daniel,  which  might  serve  to  explain  th 

(3.)  The  view  that  the  narrative  is  based  iipnn  a  real 
occurrence  preae-rved  by  tradition,  but  poetically  embel- 
lished to  suit  the  spirit  of  the  time  iu  which  it  was 
written,  is  maintained  by  Amald,  Dereser,  Ilgen,  Kei 


6  TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 

iaiic  of  Eastern  looiattce,  and  appears  again  io  the  Biik 
of  Judith.  The  writer  in  composing  his  story  neciMa- 
rily  observed  the  ordinary  form  of  a  historical  namiivc 
i.  The  religious  character  of  the  book  is  one  of  its 
most  important  and  intereslifig  feaxires,  inasmuch  ■>  it 
shows  the  phases  of  faith  which  obtained  prior  in  lbs 
advent  of  Christ,  and  explains  many  points  in  the  Wir 
Test.  Few  probably  can  read  the  book  in  the  Srpi. 
text  without  assenting  to  tbe  favorable  Judgment  uf 
LuttVET  on  its  meritj).  Nowhere  else  is  there  pmerved 
so  e»]plete  and  beautiful  a  picture  oT  the  domestic  life 
of  the  iiewB  after  the  Ketum.  There  maybe  si-nptoma 
of  a  tendency  to  fonnal  righteousness  of  workr  out  sa 
yet  the  works  are  painted  aa  aiiringing  from  t  liring 
faith,  .  The  devotion  due  to  Jerusalem  is  united  with 
definite  acts  of  cbiirity  (i,  6-8)  and  with  the  prospect 
of  wider  blessings  (xiii,  II).  Tlie  giving  of  aloM  ii  not 
a  mere  scattering  of  wealth,  but  a  real  senice  of  Isre 
(1,16,17;  ii,l-7;  iv.T-II,  16),  though  at  times  thecal, 
phasis  which  is  laid  upon  the  duty  is  exaggerate.!  (a> 

writer  WHS  placed  (xii. 9;  xiv,  10).  Of  the  apedil  pre- 
cepts one  (iv,  Ifi,  o  fiistii'  fiticivi  roi^oiK')  coniaiu  the 
negative  aide  of  the  golden  rule  of  conduct  (Milr.  vii, 
12),  which  in  tbis  partial  form  it  found  among  the  OMi- 
itni  of  Confucius. 

-  But  it  is  chiefly  in  (he  exquisite  lendemen  of  [tie 
portraiture  of  domestic  life  that  the  book  excels.  The 
parting  of  Tobias  and  his  mother,  tbe  consolitioa  at 
Tobit  (v,  I7-2S),  the  alTeclion  of  Ragnel  (vii,  4-K),  tbe 

tum(ix,4;  xi),  and  even  the  unjust  auspiciouancia of 
the  sorrow  of  Tobit  and  Anna  (ii,  1 1-14)  are  piinttd 
withasimpliciiy  worthy  of  the  best  times  of  tbe  patri- 
archs. Almost  every  family  relation  is  touched  uprat 
with  natural  grace  and  affection:  hushaiul  ami  irilt, 
parent  and  child,  kinsmen,  near  or  distaut,  masiei  aod 
servant,  are  presented  in  the  most  varied  action,  and  al- 
ways with  life-like  power  (i,  2! ;  ii,  10,  13,  U ;  t,  II, 
le,  17-22;  vii, e-8, 16;  viii,4-8;  x,  1-7;  si,  1-13;  xii, 
1-5,  etc).  Praver  halbws  the  whole  conduct  nflih 
(iv,  19;  vi.  17;  viii,  b-S,  elc)i  and  creo  in  diMroa 
there  is  confidence  that  in  the  end  all  will  be  well  (iv, 
S,  14,  19),  though  there  ia  no  clear  antunpalioa  ufa 
future  personal  existence  (iii,  6). 

The  most  remarkable  doctrinal  feature  in  tbe  bookii 
the  prom inenc*  given  to  the  action  of  spirits,  who,  vKile 
they  are  conceived  to  ' 


ra(A. 


isflecr- 


imbellisl 


that  the  Midraih  Tan- 
an  independent  veraioii 
IS  traditionally  hsndeil 


cSiujui  (pericope  15">IJtn)  gii 
of  it,  seems  to  show  that  it 
down  from  the  lime  when  I 
It  ia  quite  pussiblc  that  some  real  occurrences,  pi 
by  tradition,  fiirniahed  the  basis  of  the  narrativi 
does  nut  follow  by  any  means  that  the  elimini 
tbe  extraordinary  details  will  leave  behiml  pure  his- 
tory (so  Ilgen).  As  the  boi.k  aund*  it  is  a  diatinctly 
didactic  narrative.  Its  point  lies  in  the  moral  lesson 
which  it  ronveya,  and  not  in  the  incidents.  The  inci- 
dents fumisb  lively  picture*  of  the  truth  which  the  au- 
thor wished  to  inculcate,  hut  Che  lessons  themselves  are 
independent  of  them.  Nor  can  any  weight  be  laid  on 
the  minnle  exaclneaa  with  which  apparently  unimpor- 
tant details  are  described  (e.  g.  I  be  gencalogv  and  dwell- 
ing-place of  Tobit, i,  1,2;  the  marriage  festival,  viil, 20; 
xi,  18,  19,  quoted  by  Ilgen  anil  Welte),  as  proving  the 
reality  of  the  events,  fur  such  )>articularitj  ia  charactcr- 


ifeated  oiilv  by  tli 
will  (Raphael,  xii,  IK).  Powers  of  eiil  (fai^HW, 
■nvtuna  irowfptlt'.  iii,  tf,  17 ;  vi,  7, 14, 17)  are  represent- 
ed as  gaining  the  means  of  injuring  men  bf  sin,  while 
thev  are  driven  awav  and  bound  by  the  exercise  nf 
faith  and  prayer  (viii,  3,3).  On  the  other  hand,  Ka- 
phael Climes  among  men  as  "the  healer"  (comp.  DiO- 
mann,  /)iu  Bach  llemch,  c  30),  and,  by  the  miasion  of 
Gnd  (iii,  17 ;  xii,  18),  restores  those  whose  good  aciioM 
be  has  accrctly  watched  (xii,  12, 13),  and  "the  remem- 
brance of  whose  prayers  he  baa  brought  before  the  Holy 
One"  (xii,  12).  Th'ia  ministry  of  intercession  is  daa- 
where  expressly  rect^ised.  Seven  holy  allgel^  of 
whom  Kaphael  is  one,  are  specially  described  as  Iboat 
"  which  present  Che  prayers  of  the  saints,  and  which  gv 
inandout  before  the  glory  of  God"  (xii,  I&).  It  isehar- 
aeteriilic  of  the  some  sense  of  the  need  of  some  Iho^ 
to  interpose  between  (lod  and  man  that  singular  promi- 
nence is  given  to  the  idea  of  the  glory  of  God,"  befun 
which  these  atchangela  appear  aa  priesta  in  the  holieit 
place  (viii,  16)  xii,  15);  and  in  one  pasrage  "  tbe  angd 
of  (iihI"  (V,  10,  SI) occupies  a  position  closely  resembliag 
that  r,r  ihe  Word  in  the  Targuma  and  Philo  {DtMA 
Auiii.  %  13,  etc).  Elsewhere  Idcssing  is  rendered  to  "all 
ic  boly  angels"  (xi,  11,  tiXoyniiiKH  as  contrasted  wilk 
'Xi-yilTuf ;  comp,  Luke  1,  42),  who  are  theroieltea 
'     ''  "the  elect"iD  the  duty  of  praisingfiodfcr- 


«(vii 


,16). 


TOBIT,  BOOK  OF  4< 

ThnnMOiini  of" tbe  elect"  point)  to  ■  wconddoc- 
uinil  fctlara  of  tbe  book,  wbich  it  shirei  with  Baruch 
limn  at  the  Apoctjphil  writing*,  the  firm  belief  in  i 
glDTJoiu  rHtor&tion  of  the  Jewish  people  (xiv,  fi ;  xiii. 
»-18).  But  ihereMoralioniwnteinpUtediinRtionaliSnil 
rnntlie  work  of  ■  unireraal  Saviuur.  The  Temple  ia 
liwrihed  u  "  ooiuec»ted  and  built  for  ill  agei"  (i,  4), 
iufFUii  are  "an  everlasting  decree" (ver. 6), and  when 
ii  ii  imored  "  the  stree la  of  Jeninlem  shall  aay  .  .  . 
Savd  be  God  which  hath  extolled  it  fareTer"  (xiii, 
K).  In  all  there  ia  not  ibe  aligbteat  trace  of  tbe  belief 
m  I  penonal  Meanah. 

CuBpariaoua  hare  oAen  been  made  between  the  Book 
ofTobii  and  Job,  but  from  the  outline  which  ha*  been 
(irtn  11  is  obTioua  that  the  resemhiauce  is  only  luper- 
Adil,>haughTubit  ii,14waa  probably  auggeited  hj  Job 
U,9.  ID,  while  the  diSerences  are  such  aa  to  mark  dia- 


nGod,  ii 


Ua  nliauce  on  his  final  judj^ment,  and  then 
altlT  relieved  by  Divine  tnterpueition.  In  Job  the  real 
riHitlict  is  in  tbe  aoul  of  the  sufferer,  and  his  relief  cornea 
ilknglhwithhurDilialionandrepentance(iiHi,6).  Tlie 
o«  Inik  leachc*  by  great  Ihoughta  i  the  niher  by  clear 
Buinrn  translated  iuio  uiuchiiig  inddenla.  Tlie  con- 
trast ofTobii  and  Judith  ia  Kill  more  inalrucl'tve.  Theae 
took*  pimenl  two  picturea  of  Jewish  life  and  feeling, 

ally  illuMratiTe.  The  one  represents  tbe  exile  proaper- 
tn  and  even  powecTul  in  a  strange  land,  exposed  to 
Midilen  dangen,  cherishing  hia  national  tie«,  and  look- 
ii^with  anshaken  love  to  the  Holy  City,  but  still  mitn- 
Ir occupied  by  the  common  duties  of  social  life;  the 
dlier  ponraya  a  time  of  reproach  and  peril,  when  na- 
linnal  independence  was  threatened,  and  a  righteous 
tanae  seemed  to  juBlifj  unscruputoua  valor.  Tbe  one 
prn  (he  popular  ideal  of  holineafl  of  living,  tbe  other 
olcaorai^  in  dariiiK'  f^^e  one  nfleclaihe  current  feel- 
iif  at  Ibe  cloae  of  the  Tersian  rule,  the  other  during 
tbe  Miogglea  for  freedom. 

IV.  Original  lAnguap',  Vmmt,  ConOtim  of  the  Trrl, 
nc—l.  The  whole  complexion  of  the  book  shows  that 
it  is  of  Palestinian  origin,  and  benc«  many  have  a»- 
umrd  thai  the  languages  in  which  the  traditional  story 
■SI  lint  written  down  were  Hebrew  and  Aramaic.  In- 
ilecd.  Jeiufne  lells  us  that  he  made  his  Latin  venioii 
frooi  the  Anunaic  in  one  day,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
Jew,  wbo,  being  skilled  in  both  Hebrew  and  Chalilee, 
(bctateil  in  him  the  import  ihereof  in  Hebrew  ("lixlgi- 
tii,  ui  Librum  Chaldiea  aermone  conacriptum  ad  Laii- 
nomiiyluiD  irabam.  librum  ntiqne  Tobimi^uem  Helmei 
de  istakigo  divinaium  Scripiurarum  secantes  bis  qua 
Hagiugnpha  [Apocrypha]  memoranl,  maneiparunl. 
Feci  saiis  rieMderiti  vestro,  non  tameu  meo  alndio.  .  .  . 
El  quia  ricina  est  Chaldcorum  lingua  aermoni  Hebra- 
ioD,  itriuaque  lingun  peniasimum  loquacem  reperiens 
nniuitdiei  lahorem  arripui,  et  qaidquid  ille  mibi  Hebra- 
iot  Tetbii  expreaaii.  hoc  egn  aecilo  notario  aennanibua 
Lsiinia  expowi'  [Prof,  h  re*.]).  This  has  been 
thnaght  to  be  corrobartied  by  ihe  fact  that  some  of  the 
dilSwltiei  in  Ibe  Greek  text  can  be  removed  on  the 
auppoaiiion  of  a  Hebrew  original.  Thus  irxroi'  rafit 
oproDC  0DU  Itri  riv  rafev  ruv  iuaiaiv  (iv,  17),  which 
has  no  sense,  seema  to  be  a  mistranslation  of  n^19 
Cp-TXn  3^p3  7iani;  the  transl«tor,by  a  transpo- 
sition of  the  last  Iwo  letters,  having  read  "I3p3  inatead 
of  a-^pa,  and  ^B3J  instead  of  nitt),  as  ia  evident  from 
tbe  antithetical  clause,  "and  give  it  not  tu  the  wick- 
ed," ia  haramny  with  the  iradilional  injonelion  ^IDK 
^"■37  '1311  "^  p^Xnnh,  ilitnol  latefiil  to  Ura^h- 
ea  tit  luadi  of  lie  irontgnfor.  So  also  eoi  ibkiyriti 
T«^'a(  r^v  yvfoiica  ofirou  (i>t  6)  nuy  be  accounted 
lot  on  Ibe  aappoajtion  that  it  is  a  mialransUtion  of  the 
Hebfew  irO»  PX  JVSna  T'an  The  correct  ren- 
dtiingofitrequirea  that  ntherGabael  should  be  taken 


7  TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 

aa  the  lubject— i.  e. "  onj  Ae  (i.  e.  Uabael)  fo'itfed  roiua 
leith  hit  ui/V"— or  that  both  Tobias  and  his  wife  should 
be  the  subjecl— i.  e.  "and  Tobias  and  hU  wife  saluted 

See  also'  v,  11, 12, 18 1  Ti,9;  and  for  the  Hebraizing 
acyle,  1,1,13;  iii,6;  v.Uj  xiv,  19 ;  13eVlnt«,Einttil. 
%  aiD;  G^ti,  CfKhickU,  iv,  4Ge  (2d  cd.)- 

On  the  oCbei  hand,  auperioi  clearness,  simplicity,  and 
accuracy  of  the  Sept.  text  prove  conclusively  that  Ibia 
ia  nearer  the  original  Iban  any  other  text  which  ia 
known,  if  it  be  noi,  as  aome  hare  supposed  (Jabn  and 
Fritzsche  doubtfully),  the  original  itself.  Indeed,  the 
argumenta  which  hare  been  brought  forward  to  show 
that  it  is  a  tronaUlion  are  far  from  concluuve.  Tbe 
supposed  contradictjons  between  different  parls  of  the 
book,  especially  the  change  from  the  Hrst  (i-iii,  G)  to 
the  third  person  (iii,  7-iiv),  from  which  Ilgen  etideav- 
ored  tu  prove  that  the  narrative  was  made  up  of  dia- 
tinct  Hebrew  documenu,  careiesaly  put  together,  and 
afierwarda  rendered  by  one  Greek  Iranalatur,  are  ex- 
plicable on  other  groundsj  and  the  alleged  mistranala- 
lioos  (iii,  6i  iv,  19.  etc)  depend  rather  on  errora  in  in- 
terpreting the  Greek  text  than  on  errora  in  the  lexl  il- 
aelf.  The  alyte,  again,  though  harsh  in  parts,  and  far 
from  tbe  claasical  standard,  is  not  more  so  than  aome 
boi^  which  were  undoubtedly  wriiten  in  Greek  (e.  g. 
the  Apocalypse);  and  Ihere  is  little,  if  anything,  in  it 
which  points  certainly  to  the  immediale  influence  of 
an  Aramaic  text,  (i,  i,  ti'c  rdaac  rdc  /fi-inc  rofi  olu- 
voc;  comp.  Eph.  iii,  21 ;  i,  22,  ^c  Auripoci  iii.l&,iMI 

3,  rpBaiSiTO  ^o^Uiai,  etc)  To  this  it  may  be'add- 
ed  that  Origen  was  not  acquainted  wiih  any  Hebrew 
original  (A>.  ad  Afric.  13)  i  and  tlie  Chaldeecopy  which 
Jerome  used,  as  far  aa  ita  character  can  be  ascerlained, 
was  evidently  a  later  version  of  tiiesliry.  On  the  oth< 
er  hand,  there  is  no  internal  evidence  against  the  sup- 
position (hat  the  Greek  text  i*  a  Iranslalion.  Tbe 
Greek  oOeiB  some  pcculiariiies  in  vocabulary:  i,  n,irpw- 
roxDUpia,  i.  c.  q  airapxii  rmv  novpwi',  Deut  xviii,  4; 
i,  I,  (iiroirpnrifn^ni ;  i,  il,  ItKayiHT'O  ;  ii,8,  orpayyo- 
X(Hii,etc:  and  in  construction, xiii,7,(iyaXXia(t9atr4v 
firyakuiCvvrp' ;  nil,  4,  taaiotmSa'i  nvt  {  vi,  19,  Tjoomi- 
yiii-  rii-i  (inlrans.)  i  ver.  6,  iyyiUiv  it,  etc.     But  Ibeie 


whole,  so  far  alike  lliat  it 
suppcae  llial  all  were  ilerivcd  from  one  u'rilten  original, 
which  was  niodilteil  in  the  course  of  translation  or  iran- 
scriplion. 

BeHdea  the  Greek  text  of  ihe  Sept.  which  was  adopt- 
eil  into  this  version  because  ii  was  that  of  the  Greek 
Church,  there  is  n  recension,  one  fragment  of  which  (i, 
1-ii,  2)  is  contained  in  Ibe  Cud.  Sinoiiicut  (or  Cod.  FrtJ. 
jJuprutamu,  ed.Tiscbendorr[I*ips.  1846]),  and  another 
(vi,  9-xiii)  in  ihe  Uat  three  MSS.  (44,  106,  107)  of 
Holmea  and  Parsons. 

Of  Utin  translations  we  have  the  ante-Hieronymian 
version,  which  was  first  pulliahed  by  Sabatier  {Biblio- 
i-uiH  Sacntram  Lalina  Vtrnonu  Anliqiia,  1743)  from 
two  MSS.  of  the  8ihceniu  IT,  and  which,  according  to  Ihe 
investigations  ofFritiache  (p.  lOsq.),  is  mostly  made  from 
the  recension  of  the  Greek  lext,  but  partly  (vi,  15-17 ; 
vii,  13-18;  viii,  14-17i  xii,  6-9,  11-22;  xiii,  6-18)  also 

ure  of  both  lexio.  In  this  edition  of  the  Vtlm  Laliiu; 
Sabalieralaa  published,  in  Iheform  of  notes  and  as  vari- 
ous readings,  two  othercndd.,  one  being  of  Ihe  same  age 
aslheMSS.oriheante-llieronymia»venion,beJoMging 
to  Ihe  library  of  SLGermanus  (No.  lo),  and  concluding 
(xiii,  12)  wiih  Eijilkit  Tvbijailvi;  and  the  other  belong- 
■    the  Vatican  (No.  7),     The  lext  of  the  laller  dif- 


fers u 


iaily 


on, though  e 


TOIilT,  BOOK  OF  41 

mart  fluent  in  Btvic,  u  well  M  more  cxplidt  in  iu  nn- 
deriiifcs,  aiiil  It  is  tu  be  repetled  that  it  hu  survived  as 
*  fragmcnl,  coiiwiiiinB  only  i,  1-vi,  12(0tM:  l^or. ii, 706). 
I  here  also  existed  untber  Latin  venion,  al  i>  eTiileiit 
tiotn  tbe  quolsiioD)  of  Ibis  book  contained  in  the  Spec~ 
uiaii  at  Augustine,  which  Angebi  Mai  hit  pnbiished 
{Spidleffiuin  Romaaomin,  ix,31--2>).  Ai  to  the  Vulgate 
Ldiin  venioa,  Jerome  (elti  us,  at  we  have  eeeii,  that  he 
mule  it  in  one  day  from  ihe  Syro-Chaldaic  It  dilTera 
very  materially  from  tbe  fireolt,  and  i»  evidently  derived 
from  a  different  form  which  this  traditional  atory  as- 
Himeil  in  a  diOerenC  part  of  tbe  country.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  text  in  thia  recenuon  ia  very  aifaitniy,  aa 
might  be  expected  from  the  above  account  which  Je- 
nnie gives  of  the  mode  in  which  It  was  made;  and  it 
ii  of  very  little  critical  value,  for  it  is  impoaaible  to  dis- 
tinguish accurauly  the  diffeieiit  elemenis  which  are  in- 
corporated in  it  It  is  evident  that  in  this  proceae  J»- 
rome  made  some  use  of  (he  Old  Latin  version,  which  he 
fulluwa  almost  verbally  in  a  few  places:  iii,a^;  iv,6,7, 
II,  23,  etc;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  venion  seems  to 
be  an  Independent  work.  On  the  whole,  it  is  more  con- 
cise than  llie  Old  Latin;  but  it  conl^na  interpolations 
and  changes,  many  of  which  mark  the  asceticism  of  a 
taie  ago:  ii,  12-14  (parallel  with  Job);  iii,  17-23  (ex- 
pan^oa  of  iii,  14);  vi,  17  sq.  (expansion  ofvi,  18);  ix, 
11, 12;  xii,18  ("etquia  acceplus  eras  Deo,  nccesse  Cult 
ut  lentatio  prabaret  te"). 

I'he  Syiiac  version  a  made  from  tbe  two  different 
recensions  of  the  Greek;  i,  1-vii,  9  bdng  a  tranitation 
of  the  common  Greek  text  of  the  Sept.,  while  vii,  10, 
etc,  is  fcjm  a  text  represented  by  the  above-named 
three  MS3.  (44, 106,  107)  of  Holmes  and  Parsons,  ac- 
cording to  tbe  marginal  annotations  in  Usher's  MS. 

Neubauer  has  lately  discovered  a  Cbaldee  version 
among  the  HSU.  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  which  may 
prove  to  be  a  copy  of  that  to  which  Jerome  refers  as 
tbe  basis  of  his  venion. 

There  are  tour  Hebrew  veralons  of  this  booh,  the  one 
drst  published  in  Constan^iiople,  1517;  then  with  a 
Latin  translglinii  by  Paul  Fagius,  and  adopted  in  Wal- 
ton's Polgglal  (Lond,  1657),  vol.  ir.  It  is  a  free  trans- 
lation of  the  ciHnmon  Greek  text,  made  by  a  learned 
Jew  in  the  12lh  century.  The  second  is  that  first  pub- 
lished with  a  Latin  translation  bv  Sel>astian  MUnster 
(Basle,  IM2;  then  again  in  lM9,'l5-'>6, 15C3},  and  has 
■bo  been  inserted  in  Walton's  Polygiol.  This  Hebrew 
venion  in  more  in  harmony  with  the  Vtlut  I^liaa ;  and 
the  author  of  it,  who  was  a  Jew,  is  supposed  lo  hare 
liuiirished  in  the  Sth  century.  The  third  Heljrew  ver- 
sion was  made  from  tbe  common  Greek  t^xt  bv  J.  S. 
FrUnkd  (Leips.  1830) ;  and  the  fourth  is  by  J.  Sieben- 
berger— it  was  published  in  Warsaw,  Ift40,~  with  a  Ju- 
daio-Iierman  translation,  a  Hebrew  cammenlaty,  and  an 
elaborate  Hebrew  introduction. 

As  to  the  versions  of  the  Reformation,  Luther  made 
his  translation  from  the  Vulgate ;  the  Swiss-Zurich  Bi- 
ble (1531)  is  also  from  the  Vulgate.  Coverdale  (ISSa), 
as  usual,  followed  the  Zurich  veruon  [see  Covkeiualb]  ; 
and  be  again  was  followed  bv  Matthew's  Itible  (1537), 
Lord  Cromwell's  Bible  (1533),  Craumer's  Bible  (1540), 
and  the  Bisho[is'  Bible  (15G8).  The  Genevan  version 
(1660)  is  the  first  maile  from  the  Greek,  and  our  present 
A.  V.  (1611),  as  in  most  cases,  followed  tbe  Genevan  ver- 
aion,  though  this  was  interdicted  by  James  L 

3.  The  first  complete  edition  of  tlie  book  was  by  Ilgen 
(flit  Getch.  Tobit  .  .  .  mil  .  .  .  einer  Eiideil,  vtruhn 
[Jen.  1800]),  which,  in  spite  of  serious  defects  due  to 
Uie  period  at  which  it  was  publiithed,  contuiis  the  most 
full  discus^on  of  the  contents.  The  edition  of  Fritzsche 
(^Errgel.  llanjb,  [Lerps.  1853],  vol.  ii)  is  concise  and 
acholarlike,  but  leaves  some  points  without  illuslralion. 
In  I'.ngland  the  book,  like  the  rest  of  the  Apocij-pha, 
acems  to  have  fallen  into  neglect. 

V.  Author,  Dale,  andPtact  e/ Conpoiiti(m.—M  xii, 
20  tells  lis  that  Raphael,  before  his  disappearance,  com- 
manileil  Tnblt  and  his  son  Tobias  to  record  the  events 


8  TOBIT,  BOOK  OF 

of  their  lives;  and,  moreover,  since  ToUt,  in  the  Int 
three  chapters,  speaks  in  the  Drst  person,  while  (ch. 
xiii)  his  prayer  is  introduced  by  tbe  statement  Koi  Th- 
ff'iT  lypa'^  rpoaivx'ii'  I't  ajtM.iaaii'  rai  ilmy;  the 
Church  universal,  up  to  the  time  of  tbe  Refonnaiioa, 
believed  that  Tobit  himself  wrote  this  book  (RCdr. 
GOO)  as  far  as  ch.  liv;  that  liv,  l-ll  was  written  by 
his  son  Tobias;  and  that  xii,  12-16  was  added  by  tbe 
editor  of  this  document  immediatelv  after  the  death  of 
Tobias.  This  opinion  is  shared  by  bishop  Gny,  Pli- 
deaux,  and  others,  who  mudlfy  it  by  submitting  that  it 
was  compiled  from  the  memuin  of  Tobit  and  Tobin; 
while  Ilgen  maintains  that  i,  Uii,?;  xiii,  1-8,  wen 
written  by  Tobit  in  Assyria,  B.a  609 ;  iii,  B-xii,  2-tI : 
xiv,  1-15,  were  written  in  Palestine,  RC.  dr.  JSO;  aad 
that  from  these  two  Hebrew  documents  the  Cbaldee  ver- 
sion was  made  B.C  cir.  120,  which  Jerome  tianilaM 
into  Latin.  Modern  critics,  however,  conclude,  from  the 
whole  complexion  of  the  t>ouk,  ils  angelology,  theology, 
etc,  that  it  is  a  post- Bab vlonian  production,  and  thai  it 
was  written  by  a  Palestinian  Jew.  But  these  eritio 
differ  very  materially  about  the  precise  date  when  the 
book  was  compiled,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  IbUowing 
Ubie: 

The  Catbollc  Church— blsbop  Oraj,  llceu.  ...B.C.nMH 

Ewsid .....:,. .7. MS 

Henfeld «» 

BerthuldU BM» 

BIcbborn A.D.  » 

Fabrlclna !«• 

Grill 110 

But  though  internal  evidence  leaves  it  beyond  tW 
shadow  of  a  doubt  that  the  book  was  cora[aleit  afla 
the  Babylonian  captivity,  vet  the  arguments  adduecd 
by  Gralz  (Gachichlr,  iii,  466,  2d  ed.)  lo  prove  that  it 
was  written  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  aid 
during  the  persecutions  of  Hadrian,  are  incondusin. 
The  reference  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  (xiii,  10, 
16;  xiv,  4)  is  designed  to  refer  to  what  took  place  is 
the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  when  Nebuchadnezaar  took  Jen- 
salem  and  burned  tbe  sanctuary  (2  Kings  xxv).  Tbe 
other  remark  of  this  learned  historian  —  via.  (bat  ibe 
bread  of  heatheos  (nfn-oc  riav  l3vaiv=W'^^3  rtl),iif 
which  Tobit  speaks  (ver.  1,  10),  was  Hrst  iuterdicnd 
shortly  before  the  deslruction  of  the  Tem|de  bv  Tiiui-' 
is  based  upon  restricting  the  term  dprottomiintlhnBJ, 
whereas  it  signifies  ./AHf  generally,  and  this  was  pro- 
hibited long  before  the  Christian  Era  (cump.  Dan.  i,  i). 
Indeed,  the  book  is  siugularly  devoid  of  the  slringrnl 
Halacbic  expansions  of  the  Mosaic  enactmeiiu  whirk 
obtained  in  later  times:  it  contains  no  allusion  whatever 
lo  the  rewards  in  a  future  life,  and  has  no  reference  lo 
the  party-strifes  which  were  so  rampant  at  ihe  time  of 
Christ,  traces  of  which  might  naturally  be  expected  in 
it  if  it  had  been  written  in  or  afler  the  time  ofChriiL 
It  is  therefore  roost  probable  that  the  book  was  written 
aC  cir.  250-200. 

TI.  Caaanidlj/  and  Authorily.^-ljkt  the  other  dnt- 
lero-canonieal  books,  Tobit  was  never  included  in  ttw 
canon  by  the  synagt^e.  This  is  established  beyoml 
the  shad'ow  of  doubt,  not  only  from  the  list  of  the  llebrra 
Scriptures  given  by  the  Jews  themselves  in  the  Talmod 
<Ba5a  Bathra,  14),  bia  from  the  oldest  catalogues  of  Ihe 
canon  funiished  by  Christian  fathers,  auch  as  Mdiio, 
Origen,  etc.  Ind«d,  Origer  disaucily  slates  that  nei- 
ther Tobit  nor  Judith  was  ever  received  by  tbe  Jews  u 
Sacred  Scriplnie — 'E^pnloi  r^ji  Tw^ip  oi  ^Htrai  (,fy- 
ad  A/lie  §  13 ;  comp.  fle  Onfl.  i,  14). 

It  was,  however,differeDt  in  the  Greek  Church,  when 
the  text  of  the  Sept.  was  received  as  cinonicaL  Then 
appears  lo  be  a  clear  reference  to  it  in  tbe  Latin  vensna 
of  the  Epistle  of  Folycarp  (c  10,  etmnaijnia  de  metk 
«6era(;  Tobit iv,  10;  xii,9).  InaachemeoftheOpIiiM^ 
if  there  be  no  corruption  in  Ihe  text,  Tobias  apfieois 
among  the  prophets  (Iren.  i,  30,  II).  Forming  pan  of 
the  contents  of  this  venion,  Clement  of  Alexandria 
quotes  Tobit  iv,  15;  xii,  8,  as  taken  from  q  Tpo^ 


TOBIT,  BOOK  OF  4' 

BiT^re  (Strom,  ii,  fO,  139).  But  Ihougb  Origcn  bim- 
Kifalnoqiiatetl  it  taScripliirt,yelnii  nnlKd  br  Cbru- 
liui  unong  such  u  were  read  id  the  catechu  menu,  and 
coBlaiiu  a  plainer  ami  leaa  elevated  duclrine  ( In  A'unti. 
Bamil,  XI).  Even  Alhanasiui,  nhen  writing  wiihaul 
tDjcHiical  regard  to  the  canon,  quotes  T<^it  ai  Script- 
on!  (Ipni  f.  ^rvBi.  §  II,  ic  T'TPO"'".  Tuliit  xii,  7); 
bgl  whtn  he  give)  ■  rormal  liit  uf  the  ucrcd  book^  he 
ddiniidy  exclude*  it  from  the  canon,  and  places  it  with 
other  Apocrypha]  book)  among  the  wriiinga  which  were 
"Id  be  resil  by  those  who  wfte  hut  Jual  entering  on 
Cbtisttan  leaching,  and  deairoui  to  be  inatriicced  in  the 
niln  of  piety"  (Kp.  Fat.  p.  1177,  ed,  Migne).  This  dia- 
liactian,  however,  between  ccHtomeul  and  apociyphat 
■fterwatda  diuppeared,  to  a  great  esteiil,  in  the  Greek 
C)>URh,asiiaeearroin  thefact  that  Bar- HebneuB  places 
Tvbit  anong  the  sacred  books  in  hU  Nomocanon  of  the 
Aniiochenian  Chorch  (Mai,  Script.  Vtll.  Sova  CoUatio, 
53;  comp.  Fritzache,  p.  IS). 

lo  the  Latin  Ctaarch  Tobit  was  regarded  with  greater 
aacndnew.  Cyprian  oflen  quotes  it  as  Uohi  Writ  (Dt 
Optrt  ft  Kleemottfnu  Libgr).  HiiaTy  cites  it  to  prove 
the  iniercc*sion  orangela(/iii'(o.crxu-,  T),wid  tells  us 
Ibal  soow  Christians  added  both  Tobit  and  Judith  to 
the  other  two-and-twenly  canonical  bocki  to  make  up 
their  anon  of  fonr-and-twenty  books  (/Vol,  hi  Pia.  m), 
Locircr  quotes  It  as  authoritative  (Pra  Alhan.  i,  871). 
Aupi«iD«  includea  it  with  the  other  Apocrypha  of 
the  Sept.  aowng  "the  books  which  the  Chiiatian  Church 
TMetrea"  (Dt  Dodr.  CkriH.  ii,  8).  This  is  expressed 
Hill  Dwre  distinctly  in  the  Sprcalum  (p.  1127,C.,ed.  Par. 
ISSfi):  "Kon  sunt  omiltendi  et  hi  [libri]  quoa  quidem 
ante  Salratoris  adventum  constat  esse  conscriptoK,  sed 
tea  Don  receploa  a  Judris  recipit  tamen  ejusdem  Salvs- 
taris  eodeaia."  The  preface  from  which  these  words 
are  taken  ia  followed  by  quotations  from  Wisdom,  Ec- 
desiasticus,  and  Tobit.  In  this  Augustine  was  followed 
by  the  mass  of  the  later  Latin  fathen.  Ambroie,  in 
esptdal,  wrvte  an  essay  on  Tobias,  Creating  of  the  evils 
of  auuy,  in  which  hes[Teaks  of  the  book  as  ^'prophetic" 
in  the  strongest  terms  {Dt  Tobia,  I,  1 ;  comp.  Haam. 
vi.  ty.  Jemne,  bowever,  followed  by  Rufinus,  miin- 
laineil  the  purity  of  the  Hebrew  canon  of  the  Old  Test., 
and,  as  has  been  seen,  treated  it  very  summtrilv. 

The  third  Council  of  Carthage  (A.D.  S97),  Inno- 
cent I  (lOo),  and  the  conncib  of  Florence  {1499}  and 
Treat  (1546),  declared  it  canonical.  Indeed,  in  the  old 
Uoman  Uisal  and  in  the  Miasal  of  Sarum  there  is  a 
pnpcr  mass  of  Baphael,  the  archangel,  and  it  is  ordered 
ia  Ibe  preEstory  rubric  tbat  the  office  be  celebrated  fur 
pilgrims,  travellers,  sick  persons,  and  dtcmoniics.  This 
it  followed  by  two  short  prayers,  one  addreased  to  God 
and  the  other  to  Raphael  (comp.  Aniald,  Dittrrlalicm  on 

As  to  tbe  Rerormed  Chnrcfa,  though  Luther  was  the 
Ural  who  separated  tho  deutero-canonical  from  the  canon- 
ial  books,  vet  he  entertained  tbe  highest  opinioD  of  the 
book  of  Tobit,  "  If  it  ia  history,"  says  tbe  great  Re- 
fsnDfr, "  it  ia  fine  holy  history;  but  if  fiction,  it  is  indeed 
tight  beautiful,  wholesome,  profltable  Sctiou,  and  play 
of  an  ingenious  poet. ...  It  is,  therefore,  pruStahle  and 
good  Ibr  us  Christians  to  read  this  book  as  the  produc- 
tion nf  an  excellent  Hebrew  poet,  who  treats  not  on 
frimk-ua,  but  solid,  mattem"  (Vonrrfe  sum  flirc**  T^Aia, 
in  his  iransUiioo  of  Ibe  Bible,  ed.  1534).  In  the  Angli- 
can Cborch  tbe  book  of  Tobit  is  looked  upon  with  still 
greater  favor— iv,T-16  is  quoted  in  the  llomitin  as  the 
ouuel  of  (he  holy  father  Toby  (On  A  Im-drtdi,  pu  i) ; 
iv,  10  ia  cited  as  a  le»on  Unght  by  "  the  Holy  Ghnt  in 
Scriptun"  (ibid,  pu  ii) ;  and  xii,  8  is  adduced  to  show 
that  the  angel  Rapbael  told  Tobias  that  "fasting  used 
wiib  ptayer  ia  of  great  etEcacy"  (fl/  Fotthg,  pi.  ii). 
HsMBges  of  Tobit  are  also  incorporated  in  the  liturgy  i 
iv, '.4  is  among  the  passages  osed  at  tbe  offertory ;  iii, 
3.aeoonUng  to  the  Latin  Tulgale,  is  introduced  into  Ibe 
liiany;  ti,  17,  according  to  the  Vulgate,  is  alluded  to  in 
theptttacc  la  the  Marriage  Service;  while  in  the  praj'Cr 


9  TOBLER 

following  tmnedlately  after  tbe  vetaide*  and  ropoaaes 
in  the  same  service  in  the  First  Book  of  Prayer  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  the  fullowinf;  sentence  is  used;  "And  as  thou 
didst  send  ihe  angel  Raphael  lo  'I'hobie  and  Sara,  the 
daughter  of  Raguel,  to  their  great  comfurc,  so  vouchsafe 
to  send  thy  blessing  upon  these  thy  servants"  (Parker 
Society's  e.l.  p.  131). 

VII.  Cammntaria The  following  are  Ihe  special 

exegetical  helps  on  this  Apocn'phal  book :  Vagiut,  To- 
bia Liber  (Isny,  IMS,  4toj  also  in  Ihe  Lond.  Po^^, 
lfi67,fol.);  Mllnster, ■■313  IpD (Basle,  1512, 1649,1566, 
1568,  4to;  also  in  Walton's  Polyglof);  DruHus,  Tobiof 
Grace  (Franeck.  1691,  Bvo;  also  in  bis  Criliat  Sncm); 
SenariuB,  /n  i:>5rDt  Toiia,  Jadilh,rir.  (Haini,lS10,  foL); 
Drexe!,roiHU/«uMra(i»(Mun.  leil,  ISmo);  Sanctiu^ 
In  Lihoi  Ralh,  Tobtai,  etc.  (Lugd.  1628,  fnl.) ;  Justinian, 
TMru  IBnUralvi  (CoL  1629,  fuL) ;  Van  Msnden,  T-Mom 
/WiiKatus(Anlw.l681,foL);  Bf flXoe Aoyaiv Ta^ir, etc. 
(in  the  eda.  of  the  Apocrypha,  F.  ad  M.  1664, 1T57,  Svo; 
by  Augusti  [Lelps.  1804,  8ro] ;  Apel  [ib.  1386,  8vo}) ; 
Celada,  Conmnitariat  in  Tob.  Ilia.  (Lugd.  1644,  foL); 
Anon.  TMt,  Judith,  tt  Elhtr,  arte  Eipticaliam  (Paris, 
1688,  8*o);  Van  der  Hanit,  jfMiffma  Tobia,  etc. 
(Hehnst.  1728,  4to)i  Aden,  njSIB  "IDO  (Amsu  1786, 
8vo);  Sahatier,  Librr  Tobit  (in  the  Vtlu$  {jMina  [Par. 
1751 ,  fol.],  vol.  i) ;  Seller,  Fifd.  Hb.  d.  B.  Tobiat  (Munich, 
1780,  Bvo);  Le  Cleic,  lAbtr  Tobia  (Par.  1785,  8vo); 
Bauer,  Dat  B.  Ti^iat  erUSit  (Bramb.-Wllrtib.  1787, 
1793,  ISmo) ;  Eichbom,  Utb.  d.  B.  TobUu  (in  hi*  Bi- 
biiolhtt,  ii,  410-410  [  Uips.  1737-1800  ]  ) ;  Ilgcn,  Sir 
Grtcb.TabTi (,Jim.iSW.S<to):  HSpfner, //ufoHti  Tobia 
Grace  (Vilemb.  1802,  4to)i  Dereser,  Tobiat,  Judith  u. 
tMh.  trUdit  (Frankforl-on-the  Uain,  180S,  I8BB,  8vo); 
Paur,  Dai  B.  Tobiai  bearbeilrl  (Uips.  1817,  Sro);  Van 
Ens,  Liber  Tobia  (Tub.  1822,  Svo) ;  Krknkel,  Dm  B. 
rAo«  (in  hia  D-isi^nX  B-a^nS  [Uips.  I880,8vo]): 
Siebenberger,  n^-jrj  '■^n  (Heb.  translatiini  and  com- 
meoury  [Warsaw,  1839,8vo]):  Gutlmsnn,i)>e  Jpob-. 
<Ju  A . r.{AUona,  184l,evo) i  Ciltadini and Boltari, fLAri 
ii  Tobia.Giitdilta.t  Etler  (ye».\9U,S\ay,  FritzKhe, 
Die  Bicker  Tobi  vndJaJilb  (voL  ii  of  I  he  Kangrf.  extg. 
//fliHA.[Leips.l863,8ro])iKeusch,DuiA.ri>iiiuent/£r[ 
(Freib.  1857,  8vo);  Sengelmann,  Dta  B.  TobU  erkUirl 
(Hamb,  1857,  8vo).     See  AraCRiriiA. 

Tobler.  Titus,  a  German  writer  known  for  his  re- 
searches  in  Palestine,  was  bom  June  25, 1806,  at  Stein, 
in  tbe  canton  of  Ap|)enieU,  Switzerland.  He  studied 
at  Zurich  and  Vienna,  was  promoted  as  doctor  of  medi- 
cine in  WllrtUirg,  and,  after  spending  a  time  in  Paris, 
returned  in  1827  to  bis  native  place  and  settled  there  as 
a  physician.  In  1835-86  he  trat-elled  in  Palestine  for 
mere  medical  purposes  (corap.  Ltiitttite  tai  Mtrrgadand 
[Zurich,  1839,2  vols.]), but  he  soon  became  so  inlcresled 
in  the  lopugraphicu-geographical  eiploration  of  Ihe 
Holv  Land  that  he  undertook  a  second  Joumev  in  1845. 
See  his  fiwAfrjlem  (.St.  Gall.  1849)  ;—i>Juflm«Jenua(<m 
(1860) :—Cai^Aa  (1851):— ZMe  SOoakqiaUt  md  dtr 
0f»r7s(lB52):_O™t«a«iTOMJen(*ii»,(1858,2ded. 
1856)  : — and  especially  Tupogritphie  ton  Jenaalem  tr. 
HMAi  Umpebungm  (Derlm,  3853-54,  2  vols.) :— £nf ro^ 
nr  mtdidn.  Topagraphie  run  Jeivmlrm  (ibid.  I85G). 
He  undertook  a  third  journey,  and  published  as  the  re- 
sults, PUmographit  vwi  Jenaaitm  ((Jot  ha,  1868)  ■.—Driiie 
Wandrrtmg machPaiaitina (ibid. lUbS).  Inl865hewent 
for  Ihe  fourth  time,  butonaecoiintof  Ihe  cholera  he  soon 
returned  and  published  A'uzuiWA  in ralSiluia,iwiil  An- 
hang  dir  airrlen  Wimdemng  (Berlin,  1868).  Betide* 
these  works,  he  puWished,  />f  hfit  Saiiclii,quaperaiidii- 
lavil  A  Uonut  ^/a^^gr  c.  a».  670  (Su  ( JalL  1868)  -^Tkea- 
dbn'cui  de  Lotit  SancHi  (ibid.  1366):  — fiitU^mpUa 
Geographica  Palenina  (Ijtipt.  \96':'):~l>trgro—eBlrtii 
(frr /.nfeuKr  mitifn  6'ivcAni  in /'u/riruHt,etc.(St.Gal]. 
\.(nQ):—PalttiMa  Dricripliomt  tr  SaaUa  IV,  V,  tt  VI 
(ibid.  1869) -.^Detcripiimf I  Tirra  Sancta  «  Sarvlo 
VHI,  IX,  XII,  ft  A  r  {Leips.  1874):  — ft 


TOCHEN  a 

Geiyr.PaleMliia<aAiino  CCCXXXlIlntqmadAmatm 
Miptetinn,  1B76>  Tubler  ilied  Jan.  21,  IBTl,  at  Mu- 
iiicli.  The  inlerentiiig  lile  uf  thii  mui  will  be  round  in 
Heim'a  Dr.  Tilut  TMtr,  drr  PaUututi\fahra-!  Am  ap- 
pmellitchaLtiaubild:  AuiA  fta»dMAri/)(icA«n  QutliiK 
ftfurirfrf  (Zurich,  1879).     (R  P.) 

To'olien  (lleb.  Te'hen,  15ri,  laik  or  mtanit  [•»  in 
Eiek.  V,  18;  xlv,  II];  Sept.  eondv  v.  r.  eoxK""! 
Vulg.  TAiirfm),  one  of  the  towns  in  tbe  tribe  of  Simeon 
(I  Chron.  IT,  32) ;  pcobiblf  the  ume  elsewhere  (J»h. 
XV,  24)  called  Tklem  (q.  v.)  or  Tblaim  (1  Sam,  xv,  4). 

Todd,  D«Tid,  ■  Congregaliorul  miniiter.  w«  bom 
at  Weet  Hanorer,  Pl,  Nuv.  5, 1821.  He  left  home  at 
ilw  afit  of  Itlteen  to  attend  [he  preparatot^-  «chool  of 
Uberiiii  C<iUe);e.  After  iiiiinliing  his  collegiate  Mudiea 
there,  he  entered  the  theolngical  Jeparlment,  and  pasacil 
thniudh  the  prescribed 


■I  lUin< 


Bupplyiii) 


liurchen 


.    [nthneplaeM 

be  gatherett  permanent  conKretcaliima  and  orcauizqd 
churcheg.  He  wai  onbined  at  Victoria,  Aug.  18, 1847. 
In  1849  he  went  tu  Ilurraii  County,  ami  took  charge  of 
a  ConErcBalioiial  Church,  where  he  labored  with  sucoeBS 
inilil  Iti63,  when  be  aceeprcil  a  call  to  I'iiie  It1u(r>,  Ark. 
He  raDuiued  there  until  IHtiS,  when,  hia  health  failing, 
he  fuund  it  iieceasary  lu  return  to  hii  Northern  home. 
(Ill  hia  return  he  rc«ime<l  his  work  aapaitor.  and  Bnish- 
cd  hi»  course— a  faithful  pailor  and  an  excellent  preach- 
er, held  in  high  esteem  bv  the  Chnrch  and  community. 
lie  died  at  Uninville.  III.,  Aug.  10, 1874.     {Vf.  P.  S.) 

Todd,  Heniy  John,  an  Kngliih  clergyman,  waa 
bom  in  1763,  awl  educated  at  Hertfunl  College,  Oxfonl, 
whence  he  proceeded  as  A.M.  in  178G.  He  became  a 
minor  canon  ofCaiiterbury  Cathedral  noon  after.  In  1792 
he  waa  presented  to  Ihe  vicarage  of  Milton,  near  Can- 
terbury, and  aume  yean  later  lo  Ihe  rectory  of  All-hal- 
low's, Lombard  Slreet,  Lnmlon,  He  was  aj^inled  by 
the  archbishop  keeper  of  the  ttSil.  at  Lambeth  i  and  iu 
1S20  he  was  presented,  bv  the  esrl  of  Bridgewater,  to 
the  rectory  of  SeltringMn,  in  Yorkshire.  In  1830  he 
was  collated  by  the  arebbishop  of  York  lo  the  prebend 
of  Huihwiito  in  I  hat  cathedral  church;  and,  finally,  in 
1832,  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Cleveland.  He 
died  at  Sellringlon,  Yorkshire.  Dec.  24, 1845.  He  wrote, 
Soma  AcPouat  a/lit  Itcaai  of  Citlfiary  (Cam.  1793, 
8vo);— Cotu^ue  of  Bookt  in  lU  Liirarg  nf  Chi-iit 
Church  (ilMd.  l«02,8vo):— Cu(oiiy»e  of  Iht  ArcHrpa- 
eopal  Maaaicriplt  ix  Ihe  tMirarg  at  Lambrlh  Palact 
(Lond.  1812,  tol):— Original  Sin,  FrttiriU,  Rtgfima- 
tion,  Failh,  ttc.,  la  Uaintaintd  n  Cirfatn  Dtdaraliuiu 
^our  Rrformen  (ibid.  1818, 8vo) :-  Vin£eatim  n/. 
Atilharmd  Tramhahm  and  Traailalon  of  tht  Bible 
(Ibid.  1819, 8vo)  i—Obifriruliont  on  ikt  Mtlricat  Veriiotu 
of  Ihe  PialiHi  nrndr  by  SlemhoU,  Ifoptim,  iiwi  olhert 
(ibiiL  1819,  8vo;  1822,  8vo)  -.—MtiMiiri  of  Ihe  Life  (mrf 
Wrilinst  of  ihe  Hight  Hrr.  Biian  Wuftim,  Bithop  of 
CheHer  (lUd.  1821,  1  ™ls.  fivo):— Mmml  of  (.Vwt 
ilSS.,  Chief n  BiUical,  etc.  (ibiil.  182^  Hto):— .4  rcA- 
li4hop  Craamer't  Defence  of  Ihe  Itodrim  of  Ihe  Sacra- 
mmf,icith  a  ViitdiciitioH  of  Ihe  .Attlhor  tif/niatt  Lioffattl, 
Milaer,iadBllller  (ibid.  1825.  Kvo)  ■.—OfConftmoa  md 
AbiiAitiim,iaidlhet<ecnegofCoafritiaBtjAaA.Wili,»\-«): 
-Lift  of  At-cUathop  Cranmer  (ibid.  ta3l,2  vols.8v..) ; 
— /I  ufAnfte  .1  cmoirf  of  our  A  alhorittd  Tranlalvm  of  ihe 
Bible  and  of  Iki  Traailaloit,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Mallon,  1834. 
!2mo;  LoiuLIS3&,8va).  Sixl-:HglithCfeiop.giig.».\:; 
Allibone,  Dkt.ofBrU.  and  A mer.  A ilhoit,  i, v. 

Todd.  Hnsb.  a  Icanied  Eni;li.b  divine,  was  bom 
at  Blencow.  Cumberland,  in  IG68.  He  became  a  char- 
llv  achoUt  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1C72 ;  fellow 
of  Univeivity  College,  Dec  23,  I67B;  AM.  and  chap- 
Uiii  to  bishop  of  Carlisle,  July  2, 1S79.  In  ICSS  he 
was  appmnled  one  of  the  four  canon  residenliaties  of 
Carlisle,  and  the  same  year  oblsinert  ilie  vicarage  of 
Stanwix,  which  he  resigned  in  1688.    He  leagued 


residentiary  ship  in  1T20,  and  died  in  1728.  beinr  vinr 
of  Penrith  and  rector  of  Arlhutet.  He  piitili-)inl, 
DeKriptim  if  Smtdrn  (1G80.  IbL)  —Ure  of  1-ion.ai 
(1684);— &mon  (1707,  4to) !  — tfemi™,  etc  Ii;H, 

Todd,  Jame*  Hentborne,  D.D.,  an  Irish  dergy-  . 

man,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  April  23,  I8U5;  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,and  became  a  feUuw  there  iu  1831.  He, 
WIS  also  regiua  profesour  in,  and  librarian  of,  ihe  L'ui- 
ver»ity  of  Dublin ;  ireasurer  and  precentor  of  St.  INu- 
rick'D  Cathedral,  and  president  for  live  rears  (the  una] 
term)  of  the  Koyal  Irish  Acailemy.  He  was  one  of  Ihs 
fuundera  of  the  Irish  Arcbsulogical  Society.  Hitdeaih 
luok  place  June  28,  1869.  He  publiihed,  lliiloriail 
Tiiblelt  and  Medaltimj,  etc  (I8-.».  r.  4io)  :—Ditamnii 
OH  Ihe  Pmpheciei  rdaling  lo  A  nlichritt  in  Ihe  H'riiwjw 
of  Daniel  and  Si.  Paali  Dontllen  Lrdnrt  (DubL  IttIO, 
8vo;  i8i2,8vo) -.-Six  Ditcounei  OH  Ihe  Prapheda  re- 
lating lo  Anlichriti  in  the  Apoeali/pte  of  St.  John ;  0m- 
ellen  Udare  (itud.  1846, 8va)  -.—Ktnarla  on  Ihe  Ihmat 
Dogma  of  hfaUiiililg  (ibid.  1818,  8vo) :-Uiitonail 
Memoir!  cfthe  Siiceeuort  of  St.  Patrick  and  ArMiih- 
optofArmaffh  (.ibid.  1861,2  rola.8vo).-—7'4e  WoUeif 
MSS.preierced  in  Ike  Ltbraiy  of  Trinlf  Ctllrgr, 
DuUia,  etc  (Land,  and  Camb.  1866,  8vo).    Sec  .Uli- 

<ne.  Die'.  ofBi-il.  and  A  mer.  A  alhort,  a.  r. 

Todd.  John  (O,  a  Presbyterian  miniiter,  waa  a 
graduate  of  Nassau  Hall  in  1749,  and  waa  taken  on  trial 
by  the  Mew  Brunswick  Presbytery.  May  7, 17».  lie 
waa  licensed  Nov.  13,  and  went  to  Vi^linia.  A  call  vat 
laid  before  the  Presbytery  May  22, 1751,  and  be  wosh- 
dained  on  its  acceptance.     He  waa  installed,  by  Ilan- 

er  Presbytery,  pastor  of  Providence  Chureh  in  Luuiai 
County,  Va.    Davies  delighted  ii 


friend,  relying  on  hi*  judgnwnt  ja 
cases  of  importance.  Todd  wrote  lo  WhiieAeld  in  175^ 
unt  of  the  wonderful  work  of  Unl  in  bu 
congregation.  CoL  Gordon  aaid,  after  bearing  him,  tkit 
he  "  never  heard  a  sermon, but  one  from  &Ir.  Davin,  viib 
more  allention  and  delight."  He  obtained  fiuii  (be 
Kev.  Dr.  Uordon,  of  Stepney,  near  London,  scienliAc  a^ 
paritua  atHl  valuable  books,  which  be  gave  loaid  Tnit- 
■ylvania  University  in  founding  a  schooL  He  was  a 
man  oTgreatpietr,  and  eminently  useful  in  rdirvingthe 
Church.    Ue  died  July  27, 1793.    (W.P.S.) 

Todd,  Jobn  (2),  D.D.,  an  eminent  Conjrregilional 
minister,  was  bom  at  Kniland,  Vi.,  Oct.  9, 1800;  piito- 
atcd  at  Yale  College  in  1822,  spent  funr  years  at  tht  Ad- 
dover  Theological  Semlnarv,  and  waa  onlained  and  stt- 
tied  at  Urotrn  in  1827.  He  was  settled  over  the  Ed- 
wards Chureh,  Northampton,  Ma«a.,  in  I83S;  Ihe  Flrx 
Congregational  Chureh,  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  in  1830;  snJ 
Ihe  First  Congregational  Cbnrch.  nitsaeld,UBiia.,fniia 
184etoI872.  HediediuPittsHeht,Aue.24,18:3.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mount  HoU-uke  Female 
Seminary,  and  for  sei'erai  years  president  of  the  tnM« 
of  Ihe  Young  Ladiea'  liialiliite  of  Piltslon.  His  Atptt 
nf  D.D.  was  cimferred  upon  him  by  Williams  CdIIm:*  in 
1845.  The  fullowing  are  some  of'bis  numemua  pubhn- 
tinna :  Leclmn  la  CkiUren  (Norlhamplon,  1834,  lEmot, 

Mmval  (ibid.  1835,  )2mo>;— /n.A-j;  Rervm  (iUiiL  tCM. 
4to):  — Jt'iiUuM-irAoo/  Teader  (ibid.  I83(i.  l2moj>- 
Trulh  Mmie  ShnpU  (ibid.  1839,  18mo)i-nr  I'm"!! 
if.m  (ihhi.  1843,  Wma):~Simple  SMektt  (PitisCrU 
1849,  2  vols.  16mn)  -.—Slorirt  on  Iht  Shorirr  O'leriim 
(Northampton,  1850-61,  S  voU  IHmo);— r*/  OoKjter 
lit  Srhoot  (ibid.  18M,  I2mn)  ■.^dartlieni »«  ihe  Lirei  of 
Ihe  r.ilrimrhi  (iUd.  185S,  I8mo)  i-QneilionM  on  Ihe  iJf' 
of  .Motet ;  QseiHaiu  on  Ihe  Boolt  ofjathua  ™d  J'4" 
(ibid.  lH!i3):-The  BHie  Compomm  (Phila.  ISmo):- 
Fulare  PuniihmenI  (  N'.  Y.  l«Ga.  »itno):-IIiM  In^ 
Th,Hi-)hlt  for  ChiiHiant  (ibid.  1867,  12m'0:— H'osiin'i 
Riyhit  (ibiiL  1867.  18mo.  27  |L):~Witf>  o»d  Tkorg*" 
far  ChriMiant  (Lond.  1869,  12mo):— OW-/ot*>i»^ 
Lirei  (1870).     See  Allibone,  Dia.  ofBril.  tmd  Amr 


TODD  4i 

iiUorf,  «.  V, ;  Johi  TudJ,  flu  S"»y  of  hit  i-ifr,  etc 
(K.  V.  1876,  l6mo). 

Todd.  Jonathan,  ■  0>ngTPgaliun4l  minister,  waa 
bora  ill  New  Haren.  Coim.,  Marrh  20,  t'  13,  ami  yrado- 
■tdl  al  Yale  Colkge  in  l7S:i.  After  Muijying  theulogy 
■  ffw  nionili),  he  commenced  preaching,  aiid  was  aeltied 
■t  Eaw  liuilfurd,  Coiui^  Oct.  24,  KSS.  During  1760  ami 
I7i>l,  a  pe*[i)«ai-e  prerailed  among  bia  people,  taking 
aff  many  oT  hti  ■iibBUnlial  rrienda  and  supponera.  He 
cmiiniitd  his  lai>ora  until  the  laat  vear  of  his  life,  which 
nded  Feb.  £4,  1791.  Mr.  Todd 'piibliibed  a  Srrmnn, 
Yevtg  Pfople  Waivtd  (1740) :— AV«riim  Sermon  (1749) : 
—  Hveral  memorial  wniMaa  and  pamphieti.  See 
Spngue,  .4  maU  of  Ike  A  met:  Pulpit,  i,  a»3. 

Todd,  Nathaniel,  a  Hreebyterian  miniWer,  nu 
biiniatlEi>wley.biiMxCo.,Han.,Jan.S7,1780j  gradn- 
■led  at  Itrown  Uiiiveniiy  in  ScfHember,  1800;  aiudicd 
ibeolugv  privalelv :  wag  licenwil  bv  Philadelphia  Prea- 
byWry.'Oct.  19.  Itl03;  onlained  pwilor  of  Che  Preabyte- 
rian  Churtli  in  ikhenectady,  N.  V.,  in  IBOS,  where  he 
laboiHl  with  great,  aucces*  for  aeretal  rein.  He  wai 
alWwanls  leacher  and  paMor  at  Woodburj',  N.  J,; 
thence  >ncce«iTely  principal  of  an  academy  at  Weat- 
cbnter,  Haniiburg,  Lebanon,  MiSliitbnrg,  and  Beaver, 
1^  and  for  many  yeanoraclanicalKbooI  in  Allegheny 
QiT.  Pa.  He  »|>enl  the  greater  partof  hia  life  in  teach- 
inf^  ami  died  JuIt  8,  I8fi'.  See  Wilwu,  PreJi.  Uiit. 
Jlwiun-,  IS68,p.is2. 

TodroB,  BKN-Jusin'n,  tia-Lkvi  Abulafia,  a  cele- 
bnteil  Cabtliu,  wu  bom  in  1284  at  Toledo,  and  died 
about  130^  He  occupied  a  higb  poailion  u  phytician 
and  financier  in  the  court  of  Sancho  IV,king  orCaalile, 
and  waa  ■  great  favorite  of  queen  Haria  de  Molina. 
When  ihit  myal  pair  met  Philip  IV,  the  Fair,  king  of 
Franct,  in  Bayuiine  (1290).  he  formed  one  of  the  cor- 
irge;  and  Ills  advocacy  of  hii>  lhcD>ophy,aecuted  fot 
Ibe  doclrinea  of  the  Cabala  a  kiiidty  reception  from 
the  French  Jens.  Hii  writings  on  the  Cabala  are,  ^n 
Krpoailion  nf  iht  TulauuUc  llagadolh,  entitled  131X 
TCin: — A  Comrnmlart/  na  Ptalnicxix:—A  Commta- 
tOTf  OH  ilie  Pmlottvci,  in  which  he  propounds  (he  icn- 
eu  a(  the  Cabala.  These  works,  however,  have  not  yet 
been  publish ed.  SeeGrHlz,(;nicA.(/.jH(b7i,rii,204  iq.; 
SttinHhneider,  CilaL  L&r.  Ilebr.  in  Bitl.  BodL  3G77-- 
aeSU;  De'  ll<i«i,  J>iiion,trio  Sloiiee,  p.  SIS  (Germ, 
tranil.):  (iinaburg.  The  KaUaluli,  p.  Ill;  fan),  BibL 
Jmd.  iii.  4iS.     (U.  P.) 

TosBT'mah  (Heb,  Tiigarmah',  niz'^yipi  [briefly 
rrs-J7,  (ien.  x,  13],  of  uncertain  derivation;  Sept. 
Utpjaiiii  V.  r.  n/pynfin,  etc ;  Viitg.  TAogai-mn  ),  third 
named  of  ihe  three  sons  ofGomer  (the  son  or Japheth), 
hii  briMlien  being  Aslikensi  and  Kiphalh  (Gen. x.  13; 
IChrnn.i,G).  aCpobl25l3.  The  deBcemlaiilsofTo- 
gatmah  are  tneniioneil  among  the  merchants  who  traf- 
BcLed  with  Tyre,  the  house  nf  Togannah  being  said  to 
trade  "in  its  fairs  with  horses,  ami  horsemen,  and  mules'' 
(Kitk.  xxvii,  14).  Thevars  named  with  Persia,  Ethio- 
pia, and  Lib>  a  as  followers  of  Gog,  of  the  land  of  tla- 
gng.  Ihe  chief  prince  ofMeshech  and  Tubal,  or,  us  jl  may 
btreoilercil  (making  Ihe  Hebrew  AwA. lor  chief,*  proper 
name,  as  ii  is  in  tlie  Sept.  'Puf,  ami  is  the  Jews  say  it 
ought  to  be  rendered),  Ihe  prince  of  Rosh  or  Riiss.  Ue- 
sbech  or  Moehk,  and  Tubal  or  Tobolsk  (iixviii,  fi.  G). 
•ii)ipnat(l  by  some  to  mean  the  prince  or  power  of  Rus- 
sia, the  title  of  the  emperor  of  Knaaia  being  prince  or 
emperor  of  Russia,  lloacow,  and  Tobolsk.  Togarmah 
uaaid  to  be  of  Ihe  north  qnarTFrs,  and  Gog  is  rtpresent- 
<il  as  a  guani  to  it,  poasibly  professing  to  guard  it,  or 
offering  to  it  a  pmteclorate  (ver,  7).  The  Jews  say 
that  by  Togamub,  or  the  houM  of  Togarmah,  we  are 
10  wtdenland  the  Turin.  Torgima,  therefore,  as  it  is 
given  iu  the  Sept.  (am]  in  some  lleb.  MSS.  n^jnlD). 
hat  btcn  thought  by  many  to  mean  Tari-otnSi',  or  the 
Turkoman  hordes  from  nhuiD  the  Turks  have  sprung. 


TOGGENBURG  WAR 


e(x. 


was,  according  to  Strabo  (xi,  13,  9,  iS9),  dis- 
tinguished by  the  production  of  gouil  horses  (eomp. 
Xeuoph.  .4>uift.  iv,  I>,24;  Henid.  vli,4»).  The  coun- 
tries of  01~'S  and  ^;^  (MiMMit),  and  also  i'.n,  were 
contiguous  to  Togarmah  (Josephus,^ii/.  i,  1,6),  The 
name  itself  may  posMbly  have  icfeience  to  Armenia, 
for,  acconling  to  Grimm  {<;etci.d,<kuliiA.8pr.a,Sib), 
Togarmah  comes  from  the  Sanscrit  (o<tu,  "tribe,"  and 
j|  ma = Armenia,  which  he  further  connects  with  Ker- 
mino  the  son  ofUannus.  The  most  decisive  slalemeut 
leapecting  Ihe  ethnographic  relation  of  the  Armenians 
in  imcienc  literature  is  furnished  by  Herodotus,  who 
says  that  they  were  Phiygian  cutonists,  that  Ibey  were 
armed  in  the  Phrygian  fashion,  and  were  associated 
with  Ihe  Phrygians  under  Ihe  same  commander  (Herod. 
■i,  73).    The  remark  of  Eudoius  (.Slepli.  Hyi.  a.  v.  'Ap- 


ia) 11 


tthe  A 


.  respecta  in  linguage  (rp  ^wvp  iroXXd  ^puyi- 
iovat)  tends  in  the  same  ilireclion.  It  is  hanlly  neceft. 
sary  to  understand  the  statement  of  Herodotus  as  im- 
plying more  than  a  common  origin  of  the  two  peoples; 
for,  looking  at  the  general  westward  progress  of  the 
Japhetic  races,  and  on  (he  central  position  which  Ar- 
menia held  in  reganl  to  their  movements,  we  should 
rather  infer  tliat  Phri'gia  was  colonized  from  Armenia 
than  vice  vtrM.  The  I'hrygiana  were  indeed  reputed 
to  have  had  their  first  setllementa  in  Europe,  and  Ihence 
to  have  crossed  into  Asia  (Herod.  vii,;a);  but  Ihii  must 
be  regariled  as  simply  a  retrograde  movement  ofa  sec- 
tion of  the  great  Phrygian  race  in  the  direction  of  their 
original  home.  The  period  of  this  movement  is  fixed 
subsequently  to  the  Trojan  war  (Strabo,  xiv,  680), 
whereas  Ihe  Phrygians  appear  as  an  important  race  in 
Asia  Minor  at  a  far  earlier  period  (id.  vii.  321 ;  Herod, 
vii,  S,  1  [ ).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  were 
once  the  dominant  race  in  the  peninsula,  and  that  they 
spread  weslivard  from  the  confines  of  Armenia  to  the 
shores  of  the  ^lEgiean.  The  Phn'gian  language  is  un- 
doubtedly to  be  classed  uiih  the  Indo-European  fam- 
ily. The  resemblance  between  words  in  Ihe  Phr%-gian 
and  Greek  tongues  was  noticed  by  the  Greeks  ihem- 
■elvea  (Plato,  CratgL  p.  41U),  and  the  inscriptions  still 
existing  in  (he  former  are  tiecidedly  Indo-European 
( Riwlinsun,  /terod.  i,  G6G  ).  The  Armenian  language 
presents  many  peculiarities  which  dlalinguiih  it  from 
other  brandies  of  Ihe  Indo-European  family ;  but  these 
may  be  accounted  for  partly  by  the  physical  character 
of  the  country,  and  pnnly  by  the  large  amount  of  for- 
eign admixture  that  it  has  experienced.  In  spite  of 
this,  however,  no  hesitation  is  fell  by  philologists  in 
placing  Aimeninn  among  Ihe  Indo-European  languages 
(Pott,  flym.  Fonei.  introd.  p.  82;  Diefenbach,  Orv/. 
Kiirop.  p.  43).  With  regard  lo  the  ancient  inscriptions 
at  Wan,  aome  doubt  exists;  some  of  them,  but  appar- 
ently not  Ihe  most  ancient,  are  thought  to  bear  a  Tu- 
ranian character  (Layard,  iVin.  oiii;  Bah.  p.  402;  Raw- 
linsoii,  //fiW.  i,  652) ;  but,  even  were  this  fully  cstab- 
Turanian  cbarncler  of  the 


IS  they  I 


y  liave 


foreign  coiu^nenira.  The  Armenians  themselves  hare 
associated  the  name  of  Togarmah  with  their  early  his- 
tory in  that  thev  represent  the  founder  of  llicit  race, 
Haik,  a*  a  M>n  of  Thorgom  (Moses  Choren.  i,  4,  9-11, 
See  Moses  Ch.irenensis,  Bitloi-ia  A  i-mni.  lib.  iii,  A  men. 
tdidil.  IjiI.  trrt.  mtlitqat  illuUr  \V.  et  G.  WhUtonii 
[Lond.  1736]);  Heeren.  Jdrm,  i,  1,  SOo;  Michaells, 
SiHcUegi'imaei>graphia,'\,S}-'i9;  Klaproth,  IVanff,  ii, 
G4.     See  Arukmia. 

Toresnbtirg  War,  the  name  given  to  an  out.break 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics  in  Toggenbnrg  (or 
Tockenbunt),  a  district  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  Switz- 
erland. The  dispute  between  the  Toggeii burgers  ond 
the  abbot  of  St.  Gall,  Leoilegar  Hllrgiseer,  appeared  at 


TOHir  4i 

Cnt  la  be  pai«ly  poliliol,  and  raUlcd  mainly  in  the 
Ubor  in  roBd-buJlding,  which  the  abbot  had  eiitirceil 
upnn  tho«  under  hujuriadictlon.  At  flral  even  emb- 
olic localitiCB,  Mich  m  Scbwyi,  look  pan  wiih  the  'titg- 
gmbari^n  ageinit  tbe  abbot,  without  reganl  Ui  eccle- 
■iaatical  diflcreticca.     But  the  conCeuioiiil  diflerencei 


mledto 
;ially 


Hen 


I,  the  roajority  wets  C«lholiq«, 
1709,  (hey  clo«e<l  the  church  asiiiint 
tne  evangelical  party,  and  the  mult  waa  a  sc^uCle,  in 
which  many  were  wounded.  Alarmed  il  this  treal- 
ment,the  Protestant!  sought  shelter  inthr  neighboring 
churchea,  but,  encouragnl  by  tbrir  neighbors  of  Ober- 
Klatt,  Ihey  letumed  in  a  week  in  Hcnnau,  and  sought 
10  enter  the  church.  The  Catholic  priest  nfuaeil  them, 
but,  seeing  the  lYolestanta  anembled  in  Urge  numbers 
in  the  churchyani,  counselled  submission.  But  the 
Protestant  minister  was  at  Ibis  moment  felled  to  the 
earth  by  a  alone,  and  a  aevere  Mruggle  ensued.  The 
nriest  was  nughty  handled,  but  was  rescucil  by  a  mem- 
IwT  or  the  council,  and  one  nC  liia  fullowen  killed.  The 
Refonoed  preacher,  a  native  of  Basle,  was  recalicd,  and 
a  citizen  of  Zurich  aubstituted,  who  was  obligeil  to  dis- 
j^iiise  himself  fur  fear  of  the  Catholics.  The  Catholic 
priest,  after  an  absence  ofaix  weeka,waa  reuoretl  In  his 
parish,  uniler  tbo  protection  of  the  abbul.  The  diOer- 
ent  cantons  now  t«uk  sides  with  the  conlendiiig  parties, 
and  party  feeling  ran  veiyhigh,  Attempla  were  made, 
however,  at  mediation.  An  snembiy  was  held  at  Ba- 
den, Hay  S9,  ITOS,  arbitrator*  were  appointed,  and  pro- 
eeedinga  begun ;  but  all  in  vain.  In  ihe  springof  1718 
the  war  broke  out.  It  began  in  Tnggenburg.  The 
city  uf  Wyl,  lo  which  the  forces  of  the  abbot  had  re- 
tit«d,waa  captured;  Ibe  commander,  Felber,waB  most 
ahockingly  mangled  by  his  own  people,  and  his  corpse 
was  thrown  into  tlie  Sitler.  Nabholi,  at  the  head  of 
the  victors,  marched  to  9l.  Uall,  and  seized  the  Thurgau 
and  the  Rhine  valley.  Ueantiine,  the  theatre  of  the 
war  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Heuss  and  the  Aar. 
A  murdcroua  conflict, "  the  battle  of  the  bushes,"  gave 
the  flemese  a  bloody  victory.  The  city  of  Baden  sur- 
rendered to  Zurich,  and  was  allowed  to  retain  its  Cath- 
olic wiirship,  but  did  notdaie  to  interfere  wiih  the  erec- 
tion of  a  Keforned  Church  outside  of  Ibe  walls  of  the 
city.  Through  the  interference  of  pope  Clement  IX. 
the  Bn  of  war,  which  seemed  about  to  be  exlinguiibed, 
was  again  stirred ;  and  while  tbe  govcmment  waa  hesi- 
uiiDg,  the  Catholic  eanlona  of  }»hwyz,  Unteiwalden, 
and  Zug,  to  the  number  of  4000,  stormed  the  village  of 
Sina.  Bloody  battles  wen  fought  in  the  vicinity  of 
I^ke  Zuricb,and  at  Bellenschanlze.  lu  Lucerne,  the 
goveniroenl  waa  compelled  by  an  upriaing  of  the  people 
to  enter  inio  the  war.  The  Catholic  parties  lo  the  war, 
about  12,000  strong.  assemUlcd  at  Mury.  The  Bernese 
were  encamped  at  Vilmergen,  and  the  great  bailie  was 
foughtonSt.Jamea'sDay,July85,i     '  


X  P.M., when  tl 


■V  of  th 


Mefnrai 


complete.  The  peace,which  was  concluded 
at  Aanu,  provided  religious  libertv  for  ToK^ubur):. 
See  llagenbach,  /liu.  of  the  Church  in  tht  16lh  and  19rA 
Cf«l.  i,  S4  sq. 

To'lin  (Heb.  To-cha,mn,  toKlg;  Sept  eoo.'.  v.  i. 
9oa(!  Vulg.  7'Ao*K),  son  ofZuph  and  falber  of  Elihu 
among  the  ancestors  of  Samuel  <l  Kam.  i,  1);  probablv 
the  aame  elsewhere  called  Toah  (1  Chnin.  vi,  34)  o'r 
NAHATH{q.v.)(ver.2S). 

ToTf  (Hdk  ToV,  ^sh  in  Sain.,  but  in  Chron.  Tfii. 
Ileb.  Tou',  *SFI,  both  meaning  irringi  Sepl.  eo«ii  or 
»<toi>  V.  t.  emi  and  ewii  Josephus,  eaivoii  Vulg. 
rAoA),  the  king  of  Hamath  on  the  Oronies,  who,  after 
the  defeat  of  his  powerful  enemy  the  SiTian  king  Had- 
adeier  by  the  army  uf  David,  sent  hia  sun  Joram,  or 
Htdoram,tocongratulate  the  victor  and  dnhim  homage 
with  presents  of  gild  and  ulvcr  and  brass  (;2  .Sam.  viii, 
9,10;  1  Chron.  xviii,  9,  10).  aC.  I03G.  "F.-r  Had- 
adeter  had  wars  with  Toi,"  and  Ewald  {titKh.  ill,  199) 


•  2  TOLAND 

conjectures  that  he  may  have  even  reduced  biaitot 
slate  of  vassalage.  There  was  probably  some  pulicy  in 
the  conduct  of  Tui,  and  hia  abject  may  have  betn,B* 
JnephuBsaysit  waa  (.4ar.vii,  6,4),  to  buy  [iff  Ihe  con- 
queror wilb  the  "vessels  of  ancient  workmantbip' 
(orEMi  TtK  ap^aioi  atraattv^i)  which  he  presented. 

Tokeiu  {Ifuira),  bits  of  lead  or  of  pewter, or 
card^  given  lo  the  members  of  a  Chureb  in  fuU  osn- 
munion,  which  Ihey  hand  to  the  elder*  as  they  sp- 
pnach  Ihe  Lord's  laUe.  The  object  is  to  keep  mi 
those  who  are  not  known,  or  who  arc  under  scandaLei 
for  other  reasons  are  deemed  unworthy.    See  Tessu« 

To'Ia  (Heb.  Tola',  ;bin,  a  team,  aa  in  Eiod.  ivi, 
20 ;  Sept.  HaiXa  v.  r.  Q^l,  etc ;  Vulg.  Thola),  the  umc 


1,  The  flnt-bom  of  laaBchar  (Gen.  xlvi,  18;  1  fSima, 
vi,  I).  B.ai866.  He  had  six  sons  (vii,  3),  who  bf 
came  piogenilors  of  families  known  odlecliv^v  as  tha 
Tolaiiea  (Numb,  xxvi,  23),  and  thcae  in  David's  Efaat 
mustered  n,aM  valiant  soldiers  (1  Chron.  vii,  i). 

2.  Judge  uf  larael  afur  Abimelech  (Judg.  x,  1.1), 
He  is  dcBciibed  in  that  passage  as  "  the  aon  of  Poali, 
the  aon  of  Dodo,  a  man  of  Issacbar."  In  Ihe  Sept.  and 
Vulg.  he  ia  made  Ihe  son  of  Abimelech 'a  uncle.  Duda 
(wn)  being  considered  an  appellative:.  Bnt  Gideeo, 
Abimelech's  father,  was  i  Hanassite.  Tola  judged  Is- 
rael for  twenty-three  yean  {O-C  IS19-129G)  at  Sbaiail 
in  Mount  Epiiraim,  where  he  died  and  was  buried.  Jo- 
wphua  doea  not  mention  him  (^n/.  v,  7,  6);  but  (at 

there  agree,  his  name  seems  lo  have  faUcii  out  of  oaf 
copies.     See  Ji:Ik>b. 

To'Ua  (Heb.  rotrf',  niin,  birth;  Sept.  eJtiit 
V.  r.  OouXaifi),  one  of  the  towns  in  Ihe  tribe  of  SimeaD 
in  David's  lime  (I  Chron.  iv,  29);  probably  Ibe  mm 
elsewhere  ^oab.  jiv,  SO)  called  Ei.-toi.ad  (q.  r.). 

To'lalte  (Heb.  TnlaV,  "riin,  patronymic;  Sq*. 

eoXaf  1  Vulg.  ThiMtri),  (he  general  name  o(  the  dc- 

Bcendania  uf  Tula  (q.  v.)  the  ion  of  Issacbai  (Nunh 

i,  2S). 


Toland,  Joii!i,nnenfthefoui 
'as  born  Nuv.SU,  IBeVcr  lG:o,in  i 
lUBOflreland.     HisChristian-na 


of  modem  driMn, 
oat  nunhemislh- 
'as./inwJaMai; 
out  at  Bciiooi  niB  master  ordored  dim  lo  be  called  John, 
which  name  he  retained  ever  afier.  From  the  icbMl 
at  Redcaaite,  near  Londonderri-.  he  went,  in  1687,10  tbe 
College  of  Ulasgow,  and  afler  three  years'  day  tboe 
vinled  (he  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  «b 
made  A.M.  in  June,  lliM).  He  afterwards  went  to  lbs 
rnlversity  of  Leyden,  where  he  was  generously  wp- 
ported  by  lome  eminent  Dissenlera  in  England.  Altn 
a  residence  there  of  two  years,  he  returned  lo  England, 
and  went  lo  Oiford,  which  place  he  left;  in  ie9&.a»l 
went  lo  London,  whence  he  returned  lo  Ireland  in  1697. 
l)ul  so  Blrong  waa  the  feeling  aroused  by  hisdeiuiciw- 
ilona  and  his  own  imprudent  conduct  that  he  Buw  le- 
inmed  to  L/nidon.  He  accompanietl  the  eari  ofHac- 
cleaOeld  to  Hanover  in  1701,  and  also  made  an  excat- 
niou  to  Berlin,  at  which  latter  place  be  remained  fcr 
Hime  lime,  and  then  returned  lo  Kngland.  In  (ba 
spring  of  1T07  be  again  visited  (lerraany,  Holland,  els, 
rcacliing  England  in  1710.  He  died  at  I'utney,  near 
t.nndon,  March  II,  1TS3.  Of  his  many  treatises  we  no- 
tice, Chriluimlg  not  MfUnvnit  (Loud.  IS9G,  gvo), 
which  eliciled  at  leaat  liftv-four  repliesi— .4a  .IpoJdjji 
fur  Mr.  TiAmd  (ibid.  169i)  -.—Amgninr,  or  a  Drfita 
ofMiUou-t  Life,  eic  (1699,  8v,>);  tbisatlack  upon  Ike 
canon  of  the  New  rest,  was  aiiawered  by  Samuel  Clark, 
Jeremiah  Jones,  Stephen  Nye,  and  John  Richsrdsiin  >- 
Trids  Slalfi  {llOby.~DiittriatioiK$  Aim! 


«{l-0 


0)  i-A'o» 


mai  (ibid.  I7IN,  8v..) :— //Hfory  ifllu  />r¥K{i  (H«n- 
Tose,  1814,  8vu).  etc.  See  Allibnne,  ZMcf.  ^AriC  oad 
Imtr.  Authiirt,  s.  v.;  Chalmers,  Air^.  Dia,  B.V.;  O*- 
imp.  RfT.Jnm,  1868. 


TOLBANES  4( 

Tol'buM  (Sept.  ToX^wjc,  Vulg.  Toa<uu\  a 
camipt  Urscized  form  (1  Eidt.  ix,  25)  for  Ihe  Mine 
TkLEM  (q.  V.)  oT  tbe  Hebrew  text  (Ezn  z,  S4). 

Toledo,Cousc(iaoF(CrjB(»(iiiiiirofaoioim).  These 
alunc■l^  of  which  there  were  twenty-fuur,  were  held  in 
tbe  diy  of  Toledo,  in  the  province  of  the  Mine  n«roe, 
inSpwn.  Tale<ti>  is  the  Mat  oran  archbiahopric;  baa 
t euhnlral, rounded  in  iJaS,aiid  enmpleied  in  1492;  a 
riiiindling  hospirsl,  rounilcd  by  cardinal  Klenduu  in 
I4M:  iiid  a  tbeulu|rical  Kiniiiar}'. 

r.  'I'be  First  Cuuiicil  nf  Toledo  wa«  lield  on  SejK.  i, 
400, under  Pa«fnnn«,tbe  bithop.  The  rcawn  fiir  assem- 
IJiitf  thij  CDUiicil,  which  cmsiateil  of  nineteen  hishope, 
■H  ihe  tisubles  and  diuurbances  cauKtl  by  the  berecy 
of  the  rriariUianisu,  which  ipranj  up  lowanla  the  cloM 
if  the  4th  century.  Nineteen  biahops,  from  all  Che 
Spanish  provinces,  attended.  Many  nT  the  lect  of  the 
PrKillianiua  who  pre«ented  thcmaelvea  were  received 
t«k  into  communion  with  the  Church  afier  having 
)l)iiiied  iheir  errur&  In  thin  council  the  bisluip  of 
IbHoe  is,  for  the  flm  time,  spoken  of  eimply  by  the 
liiteof-pope."     Twenty  canons  were  also  publiabed. 

L  Permiu  to  admit  motried  men  tu  the  oOce  of  dea- 
roil,  uniTided  tliej  will  observe  conllnm«. 

nbdenwN  a  ninn  who  has  publicly  done  |ienancc,  and 
rnniwrleii  tain  adintnlatntFoii  of  that  olHoe. 

4.  KiiBcte  Ihsl  a  anbdewiDIi,  inat/yin[  n  aetund  lime, 
tkall  he  lednced  to  the  lank  of  poner  or  reader,  and  shall 
■M  be  iiermitisd  lo  read  Ihe  Oosiiel  or  eplnlle :  ehonld  be 


is         TOLEDO,  COUNCILS  OF 

>a  againat  those  who  deny  the  proceiiBion  of  .the  Holy 
Ghoat  from  the  Father  and  Ibe  Sun,  and  those  who  le- 
fuae  to  anatherastize  the  Council  of  Aiimiiium. 
!.  DlreclB  Ihat,  according  tu  the  king's  writ,  Ihe  Con 


i  ob-erved  bj 
rcllMl  biihiipa,  |>rlel■t^  and  deacmii',  when  recuuciled 

'  OrdeJ^Mhaiwrna  p^llffl.  o'f  lluty  Scriiilnre  thall  be 
id  diitlj'  at  ihe  tables  of  prleala,  to  iirereut  idle  eouver- 

.\  and  11.  Relate  lo  penitence.  Fnrbid  lo  reconcile 
thnm  peunnce ;  forhtil  the  prleel  lo  iidnilt  to  peiinnce 
tbont  first  coiLliit;  .ilTihe  hakof  Ihs  penlient,  it  a  oiau, 

14.  Irlfrl)!^  Jaws  to'hsve  Chrisn'oil  women  for  wives  or 

'«ii  lo  a  nen  ly  fonnded  choreh. 

la.  Forbids  tu  as;  snjlhlng  bnt  paalma  lit  Ihe  miiernls 


cbe  aubacripi 
Ibe  law  <ir  com? 


aauij 
It>i 


-ss 


-6,  lod'  U>eti  be  ndmlited  to  lay  ec 
till  pi1c-iB  anil  clerks  who,  bavin) 
in;  cbunU  lu  tonu  ut  eunntiy, do 

I  clerks  wbose  wlvea  dn  not  lead  i 


It  P.wblds  a  clerk 

nnrcb,  bnt  who  do 
rJitKT  leeelTS  tbe  bo 

,  li.  Orders  'that  an 

'Chorcb  as  ^nil  . 
I.  Biummnulcaies 
t:  bul  pern' 

V.  Roliicla  1 


lu  so.    Allows  ' 
brif  n  to  Ibe  bli 


tfi^li'b 


of  Tuledo  was  held  Hay  1 

lirleen  bishops  only  appear, 
will  m 


Deuce  ahall  be  degraded,  shut  np  in  a 

ilabop  III  appraprlnie  lo  btmaclf  tha  rev- 

ch  or  chapel  I"  bla  diure«e,Biid  declares 

that  they  behHiR  to  Ibe  mlulaierluK  pi'le'-i. 
See  Uanai,  v,  1603. 

VI,  The  Sixth  Council  of  Tuledo  waa  held  in  CIO; 
Aurosius,  biahop  of  Toledo,  presiding  over  tifteen  bish- 
upa.  The  primacy  of  the  aee  of  Toledo  over  all  the 
churches  of  Canhageiia  was  established,  and  aubae- 
quenilv  coiifinned  bv  an  edict  of  king  GuiMlemar.  Sea 
Hansi,'v,IC!0. 

VII.  A  national  council  was  held  in  this  city  on  Dec. 
9,  033,  auembled  from  the  whole  ut  Spain,  and  iliat 
part  of  Gaul  which  was  in  subjedion  lo  the  Goths;  \ri- 
dore  of  Seville  preaidc<t,  sixty-nix  archbishopa  and  liii<h- 
opa  being  present  i  aiHing  them  were  the  metropolitana 
of  Narbonne,  Merido,  Braga,  Toletln,  and  Tarragona. 
Seventy-five  canons  were  published. 

1.  Contaliis  a  profesf  Ion  of  falih  iipiin  iheenh)ecc  of  the 
Blessed  Trinity  and  Ihe  incnnuii' 
S.  Dlr«       ■        ■ 


,    .  tueeudad 

flfhop  al  Kaaier,  In  order  Is  receive  it  hom  blm. 
A.C<meiLii,\.iai. 

il.The  Scconit  Council  ofTiJedo  was  held  about  447, 
auring  Ibe  popedom  of  Leo  I,  aeainat  the  rriscillian- 
iith  Nineteen  btehops  attended,  who  condemned  Ihe 
hwesy  and  the  followeni  of  Priscillian  in  a  fotmulary 
nfCuthdiiected  againat  alt  herertca,lo  which  eighteen 
naiheinaa  are  aUached.  See  Miiui,  CimciL  iii,  1465; 
BaFeiiii«,ann.447,§l-,etc. 

IIL  Tbe  Third  Council  of  Toledo  was  held  May  17, 
Ul;  Mnnlantis,  bishop  of  Toledo,  presiding  over  seven 
oihtr  bisbopa.    Five  canons  were  published. 

1.  Belaie*  to  Ibe  Irealnnenl  ofchlldreii  olfcreil  by  Iheir 
pamu  !.>  bo  brooght  np  fur  li..ly  orders,  Otliera  relnie 
lu  the  contlnetice  of  Ibe  clergy,  the  preaeriatluD  of  cnurcn 
pfnpin.,  etc 

la  thiieaiincil  Toledo  ia.for  the  flnt  lime,  spoken  of 
as  a  Betmpnlitan  see.     See  Minsi,  Cok^  iv.  1734, 

IT.  The  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  waa  held  May  8, 
iSS;  Uander,  Ihe  primate  of  Seville,  presiding  over 
Krenty-two  lushops,  from  Iha  different  provinces  un- 
dtt  tbe  rule  of  king  Reccaredua,  who  attended  in  per- 
«n.  Eight  deputies  were  also  present.  The  main 
otgeft  of  llie  cnnncil  was  to  confirm  the  conversion  of 
lbs  Goths  who  had  abjured  Arianism,  and  wlio  here 
(tsented  a  confeasion  of  faith,  in  vthich  they  declared 
tkeif  anent  U>  the  first  four  cecumenical  eonncila,  and 
anaihematiied  Ihe  principal  ermis  of  the  Arian  party. 
Iwenlv- three  canons  were  published,  and  as  many 
tfMhfm-  AattUA,  as  againat  other  hereaies  and  evil^ 


same  manner  of  celebraihii. 

8.  Orders  thai  a  luilliiDHleiiniidl  shall  b 
Ifpofslble:  albarwlseaenancll  IneiH-li  p 

4.  Relatea  lo  Ibe  nruper  ■""^-  ■■' 

Is  of  some  length.   It  »td 


d  llie 

held  aiintinlly. 


the  dwin  rliiil  eicepi  one;  Ibut  Ibe  uiEhiips  ahall  enier 

iir  their  coiifeFrnilon :  ihen  the  priests:  after  them  ilie 
deocons.wiio  are  urtlered  m  alsnd  lo  slEht  of  the  blah- 
ops:  and,  lant  ofnh,  the  lally  and  noiarlea.  This  done, 
tlie  diKir  is  directed  tu  lie  slim,  aud  slleitce  and  devuilon 
eiil'ihicd  Dpun  all.  Then  the  arcbdeacnu,  sisudlng  np. 
shall  bid  them  pray:  niMm  which  all  shall  prostrate  lliem. 
aelvea  upon  tbe  llaor,  ai-d,  after  privnie  prayer  mingled 
with  subs  and  tears.  nnriMiiie  bbhcipi'RfiaUrlM  niiaiid 
any  a  prayer,  lu  wbhii  a,,  ahall  ree pond  Amen.  All  hav> 
ins  rieen  up  and  tnkeu  tlielr  placer,  a  di'scun  In  on  nib 
staiitl  read  the  caiiniis  rehitlii!:  lu  Ibe  hiddliig  of  euauclK 
and  the  melninollun  shall  liivile  Iba  Utabopa  In  pnveed 
to  bnaineaa.  It  M  forhldilen  (u  proceed  to  another  mai- 
ler until  the  llnl  has  baendisp-wed  of  Anyclerkor  hly- 
mandetlrlMjctoappealUi  the  council  Is  enjuiiied  to  men- 
lion  bla  cunae  t»  ihe  metropollinn  archdeacon,  who  shall 
declare  II  to  tbe  eonndl.  No  bishop  la  allowed  to  leave 
tbe  avimd  helbre  the  otliera,  nor  Aall  Ibe  conocU  be  die- 
sulved  until  everylblne  Is  aetlled, 

D.  Dlreela  that  nteiropnlllana  shall  consnit  tngethei  be- 
fi.re  Epiphany  concern  lug  Ihe  proper  time  fut  celebratinc 
Bvler:  uiid  ahall  alguliy  Iheir  deiermluatluu  to  their  ml 

^"i'mirnves  of  leaving  the  flnealloii  ahont  single  and 
iriiie  Immeralon  open ;  hnl  orders  alugle  Immeraion  to  be 
priictlreil  ihmuEbooI  Hiuln.lu  prevent  wh lam. 

7  Orders  that  the  Fiiaalon  lie  prenclied  on  Hood-Fri- 
day, and  Hint  the  people,  in  iin  nnaible  ti.lce,  n^k  fi'rglt^ 
-.,_.__._,"  ,.,".,j-.  .1...  being  Ihetebr  purlHed 


TOLEDO,  COUKCILS  OB'  4! 

B.  Dcurlici  'if  tbe  Eotter  comraanlcin  (hiwe  irbii  bresk 

ui^tlx  In  favor  at  Mii  mid  nick  ponoiiB  iiud  children. 
8.  Ritl'ilm  to  tbs  bencdtctlun  of  tba  cuidlcr,  etc,  on 

in.  li  directed  xcnlnilaii  sbDte  tben  urcTaleiit  In  maiiT 
chunbm  lu  wlilcb  Uie  L<ird'ii  Prnter  WW  *nld  on  anDdnyi 
oiilyi  anter»  all  clerk*  In  itiiy  It  dull]'  at  tbe  ufflcc.  eliber 
npciilf  or  firlvaWI/. 

II.  Tnrbld*  to  iIiir  Ibo  Hnllelnjnh  dnring  Unt. 

11.  Ordan  Ihiil  ininiedUiolv  nfierlhe  epbtlo  lbs  inapel 
Fbniib]  be  reiul.  irtakli  ih.Hild  l«  r,.ll,>w«l  by  (he  triudx. 
which  In  Bums  chnrcbea  nare  Impruperlj  hue  oCter  tbe 

IS.  Condemn! IhaoplnloaoribOMWbo deemed  linrimi; 
In  ilud  bymni  comuiiaed  by  men  In  bojtor  uf  the  iipiHflleif 
mid  minyni  on  nccouul  of  their  not  belnc  IBkeu  onl  ut 
Holy  Scrlpmro  nor  nutborlied  by  crndlllnii. 

11,  Order*  Ibat  the  Ciiutlcle  BmedicUs  Opera  Omnia  be 
runs  OD  Sundaya  and  teoil-dayi  at  innu  ut  the  eutrunce 
uf  toe  chiiueel  (in  pulpiU]. 

lA,  Urder»,iinder  mliioreicoRiniDnkatioii.lhiit  at  the 
end  nt  eacb  pealm  aball  be  auiiG  "  OUiry  nrtd  luiior  be  In 
the  Father,"  eic..  and  not  merely  "  Glory  be,"  etc. 

the  Inriilrminn  of  ihe4|>"c*lyn»e,  and  al9.>iliof»  wbu  te- 
ri»a  In  rand  it  In  cbarcb  froni  B;i»iar  tn  Panlecoil. 

1>.  Eiinnieralo  Ibe  ca««*  lu  wbleb  perauua  mny  not  be 
mlniilled  tn  boly  urdera. 

K.  U  direclod  nicalniit  (gfinmnce  lo  the  clergy;  re- 
qnlre*  Ibem  lo  be  acquainted  Hllh  Holy  Scrlpiure  and 


TOLEDO,  COUNCILS  OF 


•ball 


II  whan  ibe  prl 

as.  "turbid. "tJe 
thnn  one  Ibinl  of 
dlocew. 


to  ilie  blFbou  of  ibeir  manner  nf  cele- 
Bce  and  ndmlnlaterliiE  boly  buptlBm. 

llieieTeuueorthechurcbeiirilblu  bli 

. ..  _ Iblrty  yenra'  poenvinn  pbali  i^lie  to  a 

fbo|i  lawful  right  over  ■  Cbarcb  illnaied  tn  Ibe  dioceae 
anolberhlahnpiriu  Ihe  tame  pnnfow. 
St.  Forbid*  the  deacnna  to  preiend  lo  the  privilege*  of 
I*  urlasthuod  and  to  alt  In  tbe  drat  pincee. 

Forblda  (bem  In  wear  two  *t»lM,  which  it  declare* 
...  ....      --'LA  bltbOpOT  prloHl^  dlrfvIH  them  ro 

the  left  eboiildei 


to  ba  nnlll  fnr  area  n 

vrenr  the  atole  over  the  ifit  anoiuaer ._ 

clean,  and  not  worked  with  cohwa  or  with  gxlil, 

41.  Order*  all  clerk*,  n*  veil  a*  iUb  prle^Ia  and  deacmiB. 
M  •have  tbe  aniira  crown  at  tba  head  imd  to  leayo  bat  n 
•light  rim  of  hair  In  Itw  bitm  of  n  circle. 

M.  Orders  Ihnt  a  clerk  lonnd  phtnderlng  a  tomb  ha  de- 
pnaed  from  eirery  •cclealaalleal  rank  and  olBce,  uud  enl>- 

Gl.  Piirlilda  Mebopn  lo  lll.iraal  mnnk!.  but  grants  In 
them  iho  enerrlw  nf  their  canoiilcul  anthoriiy  over  them, 
■ucb  ns  cihorLluj;  iheni  to  obmrve  n  gnna  and  holy  iirn. 
tnniliiiiliii;  iibljniB  and  other  ulBceo',  currecllDc  Ibote  who 
lnOiuEetKernlea.etc 

K.  EiinclB  Ihat  moiiki  brsfiklog  ihe  monulle  auta  in 
order  to  marry  and  aatUe  in  Ihe  world  ahall  be  brongbt 
biick  and  pnt  to  penance. 

EI.  Forbid*  lo  compel  Jaw*  to  iimnna  Cbrisliaiiltyj 
with  regnrd  to  Ihe  oumpnlsory  ennvemlnu*  nnder  king 
tHsbertus,  It  nllnwa  that  they  aliDDld  coiiiiune  to  be  con- 
•Idoted  m  Chririlane  becanre  they  had  received  bnptlim. 


LO  the  Jew*,  and  lo 


TheCdlowingalner* 
who  bad  apoainilied  lo .. 

ThetOlhand  rollowlngelgbt  relate  lo  It 
•'    '■— ■■ '—I  air  who  contplcc  ai 


&nathoBi«tttea  airt 


See  Hansi,  t,  1700. 

VIII.  Tbe  Kit-hth  Council  of  Toledo  wa«  heUI  in  638, 
uiiilcT  king  Chinlilo,  Eugenius,  liiahup  of  Toledo,  pre- 
siding! twenty-two  Uiahop*  in  all  were  preaent.  Nine 
canons  were  piitiliahcd,  of  which 


-  -nnday.  In  which 
irved  lu  the  witk  Bj 


«  thel 


IB  three  ft 
my  diiy»  i 


All  the  other*  relate  lo  the  prince  and  the  urcngl lien- 
ins  of  liis  powen,elc     See  Manai,  v.  li.So. 

IX.  This  council  waa  held  Jan.  9.  63B.  untler  »ln, 
melropnlitan  of  Narixiiinc,  in  Ihe  second  rear  of  [he 
reicn  uf  king  Chinlila.  Fifty-two  Spanish  and  (iallic 
liiahop*  were  preaent,  either  in  peraun  or  by  deputy. 
Eighteen  canon*  were  publiihed. 


I  roue  wilboi. 


l»  Ibni  fin'  the  ftitnre  nn  kliig  should  ascend  the 
n  TOW  Ml  defend  the  Catholic 

1.  Orders  that  person*  who,  after  havinj  h«u  admit- 


perform  Ibelr  « 
Fleury  obaerve*  tl 


Mansi 


1740. 


X.TtaeTenth  Council  was  held  about  G46,  under  king 
unintuuinthus,  by  twenty-eight  biibopa  preeeni  lal 
tbe  deputies  of  eleven  who  were  absent.  Six  casus 
were  publiahed. 

t.  Allows  the  bishop,  or  any  other  priest  wbn  amy  be 
prei«iil.  lo  complete  Ibe  celebration  of  Ihe  aaered  n^ 
lerles  when  the  celebmling  prleel  Is  unable  to  pnxMd 

ihniugh  skkneasi  ekcomn — ■ •"■ "- "■■ — 

•neb  tame,  leave  the  celeb 
ebraie  aner  > 


.  This  council  was  held  in  C63,  ander  Oronlius  of 
la;  the  king.  Resesuin thus,  being  ptewnl.  and  fit 
0  bishop*,  with  the  deputies  of  ten  absent.  Tht 
•  tread  hia  profeeaion  of  failh,  in  which  he  acknowl- 


Condemna  nil  persons  jcn  11  ty  of  ■Imany. 
Condemns  thn#e  who  rnrvaks  Ihe  epiMopal  «t  HCV- 
1  afflcetipon  preleit  of  having  1>nu  admitted  totndi 
olBce  nnwIlFlngly:  orders  those  who  fo  relani  Isla 
Horld  and  marry  to  be  sbal  np  for  life  in  snionaKery. 
Forbids  to  ordain  Ignorant  clerk!. 
Eiclodes  from  the  Easier  cotiinmnlon  and  fron  tbe 
liege  of  eating  meal  tut  twelve  mouibi  ihoH  wba 
k  Die  I.eni  r»t. 

canons  of  a  Ibrmer  co 


the  Jews. 

Beaides  the  Inshopa  and  deputies  present,  we  And  unaog 
the  aignatun*  thoee  often  abbots,  the  archpiiest  of  To- 
ledo, and  giiteen  counts.  Allcr  the  aulMcriplioos  ibere 
i>  a  *yiuKUI  decree  concerning  the  dispoaiiioo  vt  ibe 
king's  property,  aod  an  edict  of  tlie  king  cotiSnniog  iL 
See  Manai,  vi,  Sdi. 

XII.  The  Twelfth  Council  of  Toledo  was  held  Sev.  i 
655,  Eugeniue,  the  archbishap,  presiding ;  sixteen  biih- 
o])B  attended,  and  aeventeen  canona  were  publuhtd, 
moat  of  which  lend  to  repress  the  abuses  committed  1^ 
bishop*  it)  the  adminiatration  of  Church  property. 

II.  Forbids  In  confer  orders  upon  Ihe  sieves  of  tbe 
Church  except  they  have  been  drai  wt  free  by  ihe  bliboti- 

IS.  Orders  that  uewljr  bnpllied  Jews  shall  •bow  then- 
•elves  In  the  assemblies  of  Ilia  Cbrlitlnne  on  all  JewUi 


See  Manai,  vi,  451. 

XEII.  Held  Dec  1,656,  under  licccaauinthus'.  ticai- 
ty  bishop*  were  preaent,  among  whom  wen  Eupinim. 

of  Seville :  and  SI.  Fmctuosus,  the  metropolitan  of  tVa- 
ga ;  Bve  biahop*  who  were  absent  sent  ileputiei.  Sercn 
canons  were  published. 

).  Order*  Ihnt  the  Fen^t  of  tbe  Annnnrlnllnn  shall  in 
nitiirebekeptoD  Dec  13,  becnore  thiit.  fnllini;  In  Unt.ll 
Interlbred  with  tbe  fasi,  and  oftau  with  the  celebntlos  nf 
Oood-Fridsy. 

3.  Forbids  Metaopa  to  presant  ebDrches  lo  their  reliUoa* 


after  they  have  atlalned  ten  years  of  o^  wliboai  thdr 
"  T.'FuJbld*  to  sell  Christian*  to  Jew*. 
See  Manai,  vi,  459. 

XIV.  HcUlNov.7.C73,underkineWamla:set^ 
teen  bishop*  <among  whom  was  Quiiil  iu*  of  Toleilo),  ibe 
depiilieaoftwoolhereiand  six  abl>ols  were  present.  In 
tbia  council  the  division  oF  the  country  into  dioceses  *m 
made,  and  aixteen  canons  of  diadpline  wen  pulduJud. 

t.  Orders  all  the  hiehope  of  Ihe  province  In  conCim  lo 
the  order  and  rlinni  la  «tt  lu  Ihe  metropolitan  Chunk. 

4.  Forbids  to  snlTer  priesia  who  are  at  variance  to  tf 
proach  I  tie  altar  ot  to  receive  their  otbrlngi, 


TOLEDO,  COUNCILS  OF         455         TOLEDO,  COUNCILS  OF 

4.  D«prina  nclMlMtlci  who  Iske  put  Id  tfaejadgmsnl 

$.  Enact!  pciHltiea  In  he  cnrorced  nnilnst  priegU  nhn  ' 
dcBund  ■  Tm  for  cliTli>iei<liiK  or  tut  [he  cbrlBmi  orden  ' 
btabops  ID  pnuieli  (iicb  ulTeDden  under  pain  ot  Butpcntlgn. 

11.  rorbid-  personi  p. •■  -^•'-  -  '~~"  • ■ 


„„.mrtli. 

14  Onkn  thai  mnM  ihall  nCTer  b«  celebrated  bjr  one 

See  Maiiii,  vi.  539. 

W.  Hel.l  Jan.  9,  681,  under  king  En-igius..  JiiliBn 
of  Tii^eila  pfesided  at  ihe  head  of  Ihirty-four  bi»hop«, 
■moflg  whom  were  the  metropalitang  of  Seville,  Driga, 
and  Merid*.     Thirieen  ciiiuiu  were  published. 

1.  Appm*ee  of  the  reelHOmlon  of  king  Wambn,  who 


int.  darlne  ibe  Ibm  dnvi  preceding  the 
y  eiHiiicI),  and  duHue  which  n  alrlct  luc 
leerved,  uolliliic  'ball  be  dlMaaeed  whkh 

tlc^  dluljiilne. 

B,  Orden  [but  blebnpa.  fullnwliig  ihe  eiimple  of  our 
Lord,  shall  observe  Ihe  ceremony  of  wiuhiug  fte  feet  of 
■"■B  poor  on  Holy  TTmradoy. 

i,  Coudeiiiii*  to  eicomniunkalhin  niid  perpetual  Ii 


L  Declun 


bUhop  f 


._  .<]  be  unll  0 
a  Mule  I  own  In 


d  <iild  Ihe  com 
he  Immediate  i 
'  Herlda  igaliis 


which 
fnrther  delay  lo 


xenerallT  Rirblds  to  conKcrnle  n  blah< 
ba*  not  hlibeitu  hiid  a  biFbiip. 

•.  Eoact*  tbat.  lu  order  to  prerent  any . 

milux  up  the  Tocant  bluhopric',  li  ihall  ba  Iswfal 

kin;  (ball  cbooie.  without  prfjndlce,  boweier,  to  the 
tighis  nt  the  pravlnce. 

Id.  CoDflmit,  nllb  the  klni-'e  cnneent,  Ihe  prltilege  of 
■ayloDi  loiboee  who  take  ierii|[e  lu  achnrcb.or  uiywberf 
irlibin  Ibirtj 


1.  Orden  the  abulltion  uf  every  re 


ur  uiywbere 
liKrj. 


Dturld 


See  Uand.  ri,  I'^l. 

XVI,  Held  in  November,  683,  under  kitig  Erviglus, 
■ho  waj  presenl;  forly-eight  bUhop*,  four  of  whom 
were  melropuliiaiu,  attended,  Julian  uf  Toledo  presid- 
ing. Twelve  otion>  were  published,  Ibe  Nicene  Creed 
having  been  flrvt  read,  which  from  ihU  lime  woa  aung 


geruna  IIIdi 
«Maii 


i,lS53. 


h»p>),ln  llmeofdao- 
.  r^.. }  public  penance  wlih- 

;leuc«  occn^Dg  them  of;  any 


;arlly. 


nf  Ibe  <inh 


XVIL  Thia  council  was  held 
Leo  H.  umlei  king  Er.-igiu>,  in 
piuve  the  Si^lh  CEcumenicil  Council  held  at  Canatanti 
nople  against  llie  Stonathelitea;  seventeen  bishops,  te 
deputies,  aud  six  abbots  attended.  In  the 
the  bishops  to  Leo  Ibey  make  no  men"'— 
ocumenical  council,  saying,  in  canon  'i 
cne  (bM  tbU  council  (the  tSeveuth  <E< 
rank  after  Ihef^uncil  DfChalcedon  in  honor,  place,  and 
order.      See  Mansi,  vi,  1278, 

XVIIL  IteldUay  11,688,  under  king  Egicl.Juli 
of  Tuleilo  presiding  over  sixty  lH>hDp^  in  order  to  c 
plain  c«nain  expressiuns  tnade  use  of  in  a  coiifesN 
of  faith  drawn  np  by  the  Spanish  biriiops  some  yei 
beTore  which  had  given  offence  lu  pope  Denediet 
These  expresaioua  related  to  the  two  wills  in  our  1/ird 
Jteus  Christ;  and  it  was  decreed 
Christian  iriilh  lo  mainiain  that  in  (iml  llie  will  pro- 
ceed* fiom  Ihe  will— *■  vnluntatem  ex  voluniaie  procc- 
derr.-      Sec  Hansi,  vi,  I2»l. 

MX.  ThU  council  waa  held  l[ay  3,  093;  composi 
of  Afiv^nine  biahops,  Hve  abbola,  and  ilie  deputies  < 
Ibree'biahops  atAeenl;  there  were  also  present  the  kin, 
Eei«a,  and  sixteen  lords.  In  this  council  the  decisii 
of  Ihe  previous  cfiundl  concerning  the  prucession  of  il 
will  from  the  will,  ond  of  the  essence  fnm  the  csacnc 
in  (iud  was  further  explaiped.  Twelve  or  thirteen  cai 
urn  Kere>  published. 

«.  Rclniei  m  lh«  conduct  of  some  pifeils.  who,  liinri 
-      ■  ■  —  -  le  for  the  nnrmise  In  the  huly  euchii- 

_    iselveewllh  offering  an  Ihe  holy  Irible 

n  bread  col  into  a  rooiid  form.    The  canon  ordert 

that  the  braad  used  at  the  altar  shall  ba  made  axprassly 
(.•I  that  pnrpotc 

*.  Kvooininnleiited  fin-  Ufa  and  deposed  Slal 
ToWAo.  convicted  of  eoiisplrlnR  against  the  p 
klOG  Bflea  Hud  bis  ftmllT, 

fiecll*aai,Ti,IS37. 


If.  con  ten  ted  th 


K 


the 


prlsoomeut  prlesu  who,  from  n  vile  and  wicked  i 
.1 —  .1..0  ^j,  ihe  oBce  of  Ihe  maaa  fur  tlie  deat 

-dec  by  so  doing  lo  cnose  their  death. 
See  Mansi,  vi,  1361. 

XXI.  Thia  coundl  was  held  Nov.  Bl,  1324,  by  John, 
archbiahop  of  Toledo.     Eight  canons  were  published, 

the  preface  to  wbich  it  is  ordered  that  they  shall 
be  observed  logelher  with  thoec  which  the  legale  Will- 

i.bisbnpof  Sabino,hadniade  in  theCouncil 

of  Valladolid  (1322).  These  canons,  among  other  Ihingii', 
order  biahops  to  attend  the  synods, and  relate  lothecon- 
ict  and'drea*  of  clerks;  forbid  priests  lo  demand  any- 
ing  for  masses  ssid  by  them,  but  allow  tliem  to  receive 
iluntaiy  offerings;  foibiil  lo  say  more  than  one  mass 
aday.eiceptonChrtalmas-dav.   SeeManM,xi,17l2. 

XXII.  This  was  held  in  1339  br  iEgidiu^  archbisb- 
I  of  Toledo,  six  bishops  being  present.  Fire  canons 
Ere  published. 

•L  Forbids  lo  ordain  nny  Illiterate  person. 

9.  Pnitldes  that  in  Ciithedral  nr  collegiate  chnrcbvs 

me  pbiill  be  compelled  to  study  ibeoloEV,  ibeeonou  biw, 

id  the  liberal  arts. 

6.  Orders  nil  teclora  to  keep  a  list  of  such  of  their  pa- 
rl«hlnners  as  are  of  age.  in  order  to  effect  Ibe  obeerrallon 

ntrtasque  sexas." 
See  Mansi,  x\,  1869. 

XXIII.  (Also  called  Cou.tciL  of  Aebhua.)  Held 
Dec  fi,  1473,  in  the  borough  of  Arenda,  by  Alphonso  de 
C&rille,  archbishop  of  Toledo.  This  council  wu  numei- 
ously  attended,  and  twenty-nine  canons  were  published. 

I.  Orders  that  provincial  connclls  shall  be  held  blennl- 
allv  and  dloceeau  synods  aunuslly. 

X.  Order*  cnrates  lo  iueiiucl  Iheir  flocks  In  tbs  prluci- 
palsTtlctes  of  belief 

"   •■-■-'-■-  ■-  promote  to  holy  orders  persona  Ignorr' 


4.  Forbids  to  receive  n  clerk  from  n 

other  dloeesBwitb- 

out  Icttcia  from  hi  a  hlfbop. 

K  and  a  Helaie  to  the  dress  of  bleb 

red  and  sreen'allk. 

I.  RelutBS  to  the  proiwr  obwrvance 

S.  Forbids  eccleslaxtics  to  wear  mn 

riling. 

e.  Orders  the  panlahmeul  of  lucoiit 

leniclerks. 

in.  Forbids  to  admll  to  parochial  c 

bishou  ulnill  thluk  Hi  to  dispense 
11.  lulllcts  a  pecnnlary  duo  upon  ecclesiastics 

times  in  the  year  ni  the  lensi,  aud  blaho|ii  ihrea 
la.  Forhidaall  preachluvwIihoDI  the  bl>ho|i'i 
14.  Enacts  penalties  to  be  enforced  HgnliiFt 

the  minor  orders  who  do  not  wear  tbs  clerical 

19.  Forbids  ecclesiastics  lo  furnish  soldiers  to 
imrnl  li>rd  except  Ibe  klug,  or  lo  accept  of  In 

10.  Forbids  Ihe  celebration  of  maTrlngesal  on 


•  neclBCles,  etc.,  and  singing  suiigr,  and  nilerlng  profane 
dlnciuines  In  chitrctaes. 
m.  IMrects  that  per>oDi  dybi^  of  wound*  received  In 

they  may  hnva  received  tbe  sacrament  of  penance  berme 
death. 

II.  Bxeommonicales  Ih<ise  ivhn  himlir  the  clercy  fMm 
receivlDi-  tithe  and  eiijoyini;  Ibeir  prl>'lle|,-er.  cic 

ta.  Orders  that  seulcnce*  of  eiconnniinlcatlon  pm- 
uonnced  hi  anyone  dlnreaefhall  lienbserveil  In  all  others. 

M.  rat)  under  nn  Inierdlct  ilie  place  from  which  Buy 
clerk  hu  been  forcibly  expelled.  ..... 


TOLEDO 

».  Forbid!  mj  ton  of  Tm  on  atcoa 

eruodil  csnnmL 

as.  ProTldM  r<>r  Ilia  pabllcniluD  «I  I'uu. 
ceuQ  ijnodi  lud  In  caihednl  chorcbu. 
See  Muui,  xiii,  1448. 

XXIV.  Held  SepL  8, 166A.  Christn 
vd,  biihop  of  Corduvi,  was  railed  iipii 
account  of  b'u  being  the  uldeal  biahop 
The  biahops  of  SLgiienQa,  Segurii,  I'olen 


oCol 


0>mi 


coded, tt 


ia,  Cucufa,  ai: 
■IKcd.    Thn 


nit  the  decree  ufT 
litiag  to  Ibe  celebtaliuii  uf  pruviiidal  aynods  wu  read  j 
alio  ■  profeaaicHi  o(  Taiili  vitiicb  was  aigoed  by  all  prea- 
enL  In  the  aecoiKl  leHiuD  thirty-one  artidea  or  rel- 
ormatiou  were  publiahed  niiting  to  Inshupa,  curalea, 
offlcial%  praetors,  renidence,  iiid  divine  aen'ice.  In  Ibe 
third  aesaion,  held  March  -io,  lirenty-cight  articla  were 
drawn  up,  and  the  decreea  of  Trent  relating  tomidence 
were  read.  Biahnp  were  directed  not  to  admit  id  tbe 
iitnaure  those  whu  bad  no  heiiedcea  immediilely  in 
view.  Kulea  were  laid  down  to  guide  curate*  in  preach- 
ing and  inalnicting  their  people,  etc.     See  Maiisi,  xv, 

Tolado (French  7'oJp'),FraiiOlaOOd0,a  S|>ani«h 
canliiial,  was  bom  at  Cordova,  Nov.  ID,  1532.  Hia  edu- 
cation wu  gained  at  the  Uiiiveraity  uf  ^lamanea,  and, 
after  receiving  hia  degree,  he  taught  pbiUuupby  ju  the 
name  iiutitiiliiin.  In  1558  he  joined  the  Jeauita,  and 
waa  sent  to  Kume  tu  tench  tlieolugy.  l^ui  V,  admiring 
hia  eloquence,  secureil  liis  services  aa  preacher  in  ordi- 
nary, and  Tuleilu  held  tlic  puaitiuii  uuiler  fuur  succeed- 
ing popes.  At  the  same  lime  he  waa  *»uncillor  ot  the 
[nquisition,  and  was  cmpliiyed  in  many  eoclcMsstical 
embassiea.  Amungoihen,1ioweiit  to  Germany  to  urge 
a  league  with  I'olaiid  at;aiiut  the  Turka.  Uement  VIII 
gave  him  ihc  cardiiial'a  hat  in  I&93.  Toledo  jJied  il 
Kome,  Sept,  14,  laSfi.  Hia  work*  ate  chicHy  comioeii- 
lariea :  /•,  Joaimu  Evamfflium  (Kome,  1588)  :-/ii  Xll 
Capita  Etang.  icuada  Luctim  (Venice,  1001,  fuL)  -.—In 
Kpuiolaai  Paali  ad  Ramumt  (Rome,  leoi,  iu<)  -.—Sum- 
Hill  Caiuum  Cimteieilia  (ibid.  lOD-i-,  Lvoiis,  IKM>,  4tu). 
See  Anionio,  BiU.  HUp.  Kona;  Ue  I'hou,  Hitl.  tui 
/•tm/i.— Hoefer,  A'our.  Bioy.  GiairaU,  a.  v. 

Toledo,  Rodartgo  da,  an  eminent  Spaniih  eecte- 
aiastio,waa  born  al  Kaila,  in  Navarre.  ^x>ut  IITU.  He 
waa  aent  ia  Paria  to  cumpleie  his  education,  and  nil  liis 
return  he  atlacheil  bin)$cir  to  Sanchu  V,  king  nl  Na> 
varrc,  by  whom  lie  was  emploved  to  negotiate  a  peace 
>vith  Alfonao  VIU  of  Castile.  '  I'rooiring  the  lavor  of 
Alfoiuw,  he  was  apiiointed  by  him  biahnp  of  Sigueuia, 
and  waa  alWwards  made  arvbljisliop  ik  Tuleilu.  He 
sboiAd  great  leul  in  the  Treqiieut  wars  with  the  Moors, 
orten  directing  in  iienon  inroada  upon  the  Muhammedan 
territory.  Nor  did  he  have  any  leu  zeal  fur  learning ; 
be  persuaded  Alfanu  tu  found  ihe  Univemly  of  I^ilen- 
cia.  At  the  Fourth  Lalcran  Council  he  nut  only  ha> 
[angued  the  fathers  in  elegant  Latin,  but  K'ined  aver 
the  secular  nobles  ami  amluiasailurs  by  conversing  with 
each  of  tbern  in  liii  nnrther  luiigne.  lie  died  in  France 
in  Vii'i,  alter  attending  tlic  Council  of  Lruiia  OHivnked 
by  Innucent  IV.  Ho  WMIo  several  hiaturical  works, 
most  uf  which  ara  still  uneditcU    His  Ittram  ia  lliipa- 

able  pcoiluct inn.  Itwaiiaub>vi|UCUIIypul>liiilH.'d  in  acol- 
lection  entitled  llitpimiii  IUuiliiila,hv  AiHlrras  .Schoii 
(Frankf.  ItVU-S.  4  vols.  (»\.\  He  also  wrote.  Ililnrii, 
j4ra&iiin.  publiahed  in  vuL  ii  of  Amlreas  Schntl's  cullec- 
tian(ltiOa);  and  subsequently  (lU^.i)  by  Erpriinius.  aa 
an  appendix  tn  hia  llttlaria  Siiiiirniini  nf  <;eorgiu4  EU 
macin.  He  wnito  a  hiatory  of  the  Ostnigotlis,  of  the 
Huns,  Vandals,  Suevi.  Alans,  and  Mlingi,  piiblislied  by 
R.  Qell,  ill  the  colleciion  entitled  Strum  lli$pa>iit<h- 
ran  Seriplorn  AUqaol  (Frankf.  1^79,  S  vols.rul.)  i-also 
HrrriartHm  Kedftu*  C-ili-Mca,  and  othera  atill  uned- 


6  TOLEDOTH  JESHU 

Jmi).  Under  this  title  a  Jewish  apoai'pbal  woik,  ar 
rather  libel,  ia  extant,  purporting  to  give  the  hiatuir  of 
Jesus.     It  lint  became  known  to  Chriatians  in  the  llkh 

IS  not  known.  In  reality,  we  have  two  such  boi>ka,each 
called  Toltdolh  JnAu,  not  recensiona  of  an  earlier  teI^ 
but  independent  collections  of  the  stories  circulaling 
among  tbe  Jews  relative  to  tbe  life  of  ChriM.  The 
name  oS  Jtiui,  which  in  Hebrew  iaJotlma  in  JtAotita, 
is  in  bolji  contracted  Lito  Jaku  by  tbe  dropping  of  an 
A  in,  13^  for  S^O^  Eliaa  ui  rishbi,  a.  v."  Jeihu,"ai.vi, 
"  Because  the  Jews  will  not  acknowledge  him  to  be  the 
Saviour,  they  du  not  call  him  Jeshua.  but  reject  the 
Ain  and  rail  him  Jeshu."  Kabbi  Abrahaio  feriiu^H 
Farrissol,  in  hia  bo.>k  Masgtn  Abrahoai.  c  fH,  lavi, 
"  His  name  was  Jnbua,  but  as  rabbi  Mo>ca  llaimonidti 
haswritlen  it,  and  as  we  Hnd  it  thruughout  the  Talmud, 


e  carefully  left  out  the 


Jeahu.  Tbey  h 
A  M  DccBuse  he  was  noi  able  tu  save  nimseit.'  uy  omit- 
ting ibe  .4111,  the  Cabalists  gave  a  sigoilicaiiDn  to  tbe 
name.  In  iu  curtailed  fonn  it  is  composed  of  the  IH- 
leiB  Jod,  Shin,  Vav,  which  ate  Uken  tu  stand  lor  m'' 
•a^'■Z^^  IStS,  i.  e.  "  his  name  and  remembrance  ikBll 
be  extinguiahed."  Ihia  is  Ihe  leaaon  given  in  tlw 
TaUdolk  Jtihu. 

The  TokJoli  John  was  known  to  Luther,  wbo  loii- 
denaeil  it  in  his  Sehem  llata^onu  (aea  hia  Wait 
[llemberg.  I56C],  v,  509-^5),  aa  tlie  following  paaai^ 
(p.  bib)  will  show :  "The  proud  evil  stnrit  carries  on  lU 
aorta  uf  muckcry  in  ibis  book.  First  he  mocks  liod.  Ibe 
Creator  uf  heaven  amt  earth,  and  hia  Son  Jeans  Chrin, 
as  you  mav  see  for  vMunelf.ir  you  believe  as  a  Chriuiaii 
(hat  Chri>t  is  the  Son  of  UoL  Next  he  mocks  us,  lU 
Chrialendom,  in  that  we  believe  in  such  a  Son  oflM. 
Thirdly,  be  mocks  hia  own  lellow-Jews,  telling  ihna 
such  disgraceful,  foolish,  senselesa  affairs,  as  of  hnH* 
dnga  and  obbage-slalkn  and  aucb  like,  enough  ic  make 
•II  dogs  bark  themselves  la  death,  \t  Ihey  could  nmln- 
atandit,atsuch  a  pock  uf  idiotic,  Uiialering,  raging,  mm- 
twusical  folds.  Is  not  that  a  mastertiiece  uf  muckerv 
which  ran  thus  work  aU  Ihree  at  once?  The  (unrtk 
mockery  i>  this,  that  whoever  wrote  it  has  made  i  Anl 
of  himself,  as  we,  ibank  GoiU  may  aee  any  day."  Vol- 
taire also  knew  the  work;  for  in  his  IjrIInt  i<irk$J<Bfi 
{(Eiit.<>,  i,  69,  p.  SG)  be  say^  '■  \^  TvMat  JadtM  at  k 

noire  religion.  C'est  uiie  vie  dc  Jesus. (nirisl,louW 
conlraire  >i  nos  Saints  Svangilei :  elle  panit  itre  da 
premier  siecle,  et  m^nic  tcrite  avant  lea  evangiln." 
lie  evidently  seema  to  identify  this  work  with  the  MK 
menlioneil  by  Jualin  Martyr  in  his  colloquy  with  Try* 
phon,  xvii,  iOS.  Of  Ihe  two  widely  diSering  itcrn- 
sions  of  this  bonk  of  unknown  »tthorabip,  the  6m 
editiou  was  publislied  liv  Wogcnseil,  in  his  Triu  IgKa 
»if<unE,«(c  (Altdnrf,  IG81)i  Ihe  second  by  HuUrich,at 
Un-ilen,  in  170a,  under  the  title  llitlai-ia  Jnehaa  .Vmo- 
ivBi',  (I  Jadau  hbii/ihrmt  Cortupta.  Neither  can  boaK 
of  an  antiquity  greater  than,  at  Ihe  onlside,the  Ijik 
century.  It  Is  difficult  m  say,  with  certainly,  which  ia 
the  earlier  uf  the  two.  PmlHhly  both  came  into  ok 
about  the  same  time;  the  aecotul  certainly  in  Gemoany, 
for  it  speaks  of  Worms  in  the  Cerman  empire.  Actord- 
ing  to  the  lirsi,  .leans  was  honi  in  Ihe  year  a(  Ihe  wodd 
D.C.  910,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  JanoBos 


ILC.  Ill 


-79)! 


1  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Proaelyte.  L  e.  I(,C,  70-1.  A 
cumparisin  nf  both  shows  so  many  gruss  anachninims 
aa  III  prove  that  tliey  were  drawn  up  at  a  very  laie  claUi 
and  bv  Jews  singularly  ignorant  of  tbe  chroooVigT  "f 
their  hislury.  As  to  llie  coDlenla,  its  lilaspheDUes  an 
tun  gross  and  grMcMque  In  need  further  notice.  Being 
a  Ule  and  detestable  compilation,  put  logelbrroat  <t 
IVagmenury  Talmudio  legends,  all  respecuble  Jen 
iheniMlves  have  regarded  it  aa  utterly  coutemptible. 

Besidea  the  editiuns  of  Wagcnseil  and  Hutdricb.  M* 
Clemens,  Wr  gthcirngthaUtum  adtr  j 


TOLERATION  4; 

pKnia  Ertagrlitit   ( Stnttg.  1850 ),  pt.  T ;  Mm,  Die 

L'nluili  iaihaKirT  vmI  jiidisdur  SchriftittUtT  dtr  tier 
tnlr*  eirialiriat  Juhrhimdrrle  iiberjtsm  unddie  enlBi 
CiriMirm  (Uin«.  1864),  p.  137  bj.;  Bving-GoulJ,  Tke 
lettnd  lloiiilr.  Goipdi  (LoncL  1874),  p.  67  tn.;  De' 
Hont,  bizivnario  Slia-ico  (Ueim.  uaosl,),  p.  316  sq.  See 
JmsCKKIST.      (U.I'.) 

Toleration 


A  Sjjpr..' 


le  Chur 


I,  as  ihe  depotit/iry  *nd 
uiiiot  briug  «■  ■■ 


TOI-LNER 

led],  W  Neh.  r,  4)  ii  Mricdj  ■  Ux  tot  puling  along 
ighwiyorotberthoroiigbrare^  SecTAHj  Tributk. 
In  tbe  KoRian  period  laxn  were  cullecud  along  tbe 
'tor  along  the mvigilile  walara  by  llie/ioj(t(otw,or 
im-hou«e  ntficon.  There  waa  alwi  a  class  uf  publi- 
wbo  had  houKsorbooibs  built  ToTtbcm  at  thefvut 

wliere  they  tooh  toll  of  [iiiswiigere  Ihat  went  to  and  Tro. 
For  Ibis  piirpoK  lliev  used  lickels  or  Hals,  ivbicb,  ivhen 
laid  luU'oi 


le  Cbun 


which  it  boldi 


tbal  il  IB  not  required 
bi  bdiend  as  an  article  op'tbe  faitb,  or  be  thought  req- 
Biale  or  uecewary  to  ulralion,  which  u  not  read  in 
Udy  Scriptute  or  may  not  tie  prored  thereby.  But  if 
my  Biao  profna  what  in  deariy  contrary  to  that  which 
tbe  Church  bu  laid  down  aa  an  article  of  the  faith, 
iben,  in  the  Churcb'a  view,  he  pmfeiaee  what  ii  con- 
tniy  to  the  Scripture,  and  there  can  be  do  warrant  for 
•Honing  that  which  i»  contrary  to  Scripture.  The 
Cborch,  however,  while  refuging  any  allowance  to  error, 
miy  refrain  from  deiiondation  and  pereecuiion  of  those 
who  profen  and  maintain  erroneous  doctrine). — Uooh, 
(iarol  Z>trf.  1.  v.     See  PebseCUtiON. 

TOLERATION,  Acts  op.  Trevious  to  1868  the 
■Utuu  law  of  Ureat  BriUin  {Ke  35  Elii.and2!  Car.  II) 
forbade  the  public  exercise  of  any  other  religion  than  that 
of  tbe  Church  of  England.  The  Toleration  Act  (I  Wia 
•nd  Mary,  c  18)  freei  from  the  penalty  of  nonconformity 
ibiHe  who  lake  the  oaih>  of  all^^nce  and  lupremicy, 
and  wbo  subacribe  the  declaration  againat  popery  of  80 
Car.  II,  ii,o.  I,  reserving  in  force  35  Car.  II,  c.  2,  and  18 
Car.  II,  c  I,  the  acta,  that  is,  for  preventing  dangers 
which  may  happen  from  popish  reensanu,  and  for  pre- 
■ening  the  iiing's  penon  and  government  by  disabling 
papisu  froin  sitting  in  ParliacnenC.  It  did  not  relieve 
Diiwolrr)  from  such  previous  acta  as  required  memben 
af  town  corporations,  and  all  persons  holding  office,  un- 
der Ike  crown,  to  receire  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
upper  according  to  the  usage  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  were  continued  in  force  until  1828,  when 
they  were  repealed  by  the  9  Geo.  IV,  1 17,  I'reacbera 
taking  the  oaths  and  subserilnng  Che  Articles  of  Keli 
ioD,  except  xixir,  ixxv,  xxxvi,  and  the  clause  of : 
receding  Ibe  power  and  authority  of  the  Church,  arc 
Freed  fmm  Che  penalties  of  the  Acts  of  Nonconfonnity 
snd  Biptlst  preachers  are  excused  the  part  ofArdivi 
loucbiog  infant  baptism.  Quakers,  upon  making  a  dec- 
Uniiunoffidelity.andsubecribing  a  profession  ofChris- 
"    '  '  'ic  oaths  and  enjoy  Ihe 


9  of  uth< 


nisH 


It  DissenLin 


o.IlI,e. 
iflten  sod  Bcbaultnasten  are  exempted  trii 
scripiinn  to  the  articles  on  making  and  si 

I'ftriid.aiid  are  rsccirtdaathe  nileofducUii 
tin,     Bv  the  53  Geo.  (II,  c  106.  the  provisions  i^  the 
Act  of  Will  and  Mary,  also  those  of  9  and  10  Will.  Ill 
respecting  the  <lenial  of  the  Trinilv.were  repeated,  thi 
footman  lav  with  respect  to  impugning  the  doctrine  o( 
tb.  Trinitv  not  being  altered.     By  the  52  Geo.  IK.  c 
lii,  IlK  rive-mlle  and  Conventicle  acts,  and  an  Act  re. 
luioKio  Quaker*  (13  and  UCar.  U.c.  I),are  repealed: 
sUreligionsaaaemblies  of  fewer  than  twenty  perH>iis  be- 
tooie  lawful  wiibouC  registration;  those  of  more  Lb 
iwnity  persons  arc  to  be  registered  and  cerlitied;  ani 
hoe  uf  twenty  pounds  is  laid  upon  Ihosewhodii'lurha 
looKrtgatinn  (usemUed  for  worship.     By  9  (ieo,  IV. 
17.  the  Test  and  Corporation  acU  are  repealed,  aim 
dedantion  subsliiuleil  in  lieu  of  the  sacramenial  t< 
Sm  Blunt,  Hill.  ojDon.  s.  v. ;  Hook,  Church  Diet.  s. 

Tolet  (or  Toletantia).    See  Tolkdo. 

ToU  <n^l3.  Ezra  iv.  M,  or  [Chald.J  n^fio,  iv,  13  j 

Ti^  24,  triitit  [so  called  frum  being  measuied  or  appor- 

S.-16' 


ither  side  that  it  might  appear  he  had  paid.  On  tl 
■rete  written  two  great  letters,  larger  than  those  ineom- 
non  use.  Uodem  Oriental  usages  illustrate  Ibe  cus- 
om  referred  to  in  llatl.  ix,  9.  Arriving  at  Penepolis, 
Mr.  Morier  observes, "  Here  is  a  station  of  rahdari,  or 
toU-gathererg,  appointed  to  levy  a  toll  upon  knjllakt,  or 
caravans  of  merchants,  and  who  in  general  exercise 
their  office  wiih  so  much  brutality  and  extortion  as  to 
be  execrated  by  all  travellers.  The  collections  of  the 
'  "  ire  fanned,  consequently  extortion  ensues;  aud,  as 
of  the  rabdars  receive  no  other  emolument  chau 
they  can  exact  over  and  above  the  prescribed 
dues  from  the  traveller,  their  insolence  is  accounted 
nd  a  cause  sufilcienlly  powerful  is  given  for  their 
!nce,on  the  one  hand,  and  the  delestation  in  which 
they  are  held,  on  the  other.  Baf-^h  means  the  place 
of  ttibule;  it  may  also  be  rendered  the  receipt  of  cus- 
tom, and  perhaps  it  was  from  a  place  like  this  that  our 
Saviour  called  Matthew  to  follow  him."  See  Custom, 
Receipt  or.  At  Smyrna  tbe  miiifi  aita  in  the  house 
allotted  to  him,  as  Malibcw  sat  at  the  receipt  of  custom 
(or  in  the  cuatom-houae  of  Capernaum),  and  receives 
the  money  which  is  due  from  various  persons  and  com- 
modities entering  the  city.  "The  exactions  and  rude 
behavior  of  these  men,"aayB  Mr.  Hartley,  "are  just  in 
chstacler  with  the  conduct  of  the  publicane  mentioned 
in  the  New  Test.  When  men  are  guilty  of  such  con- 
duct aa  this,  no  wonder  that  they  were  detested  in  an- 
cient times  as  were  the  publicans,  and  in  modem  times 
aa  are  the  mirijts,"     See  Publican. 

Tdllnai,  JoiiANN  Gom.iEB,  ■  German  theologian, 
was  bom  Dec  9,  ITJ4,  at  Chariot tenburg.  He  com- 
pleted hia  studies  at  the  Orphanage  and  (he  University 
of  Halle  under  the  guidance  of  Baumgarten,  Knapp, 
Michaelia,  Wolff.  Weber,  and  Meier,  and  then  became 


pnva 


In  176 


professor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at  Frank- 
forl-on-ihc-Oder.  He  delivered  four  lectures  each  day, 
wrote  numerous  learned  books — his  practice  being  to 
write  upon  one  wbile  dictating  to  an  amanuensis  the 
contents  of  another,  so  that  two  were  in  procefs  of  si- 


it  relations 


iih  hU 


Durini 
Exirei 


wben  about 
possible  for 


h  of  his 


lid  the  pulpit,  and  re 
preach;  and  upon  these  followed 
ig  cough,  to  which  he  finally  suc- 
cumbed at  the  age  of  forty-nine  \tttt.  He  died  Jan. 
20, 1774,  while  uttering  the  wocil  "Overcome." 

Of  Tcillner's  writings,  the  folbwing  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  aa  of  chief  importance;  Otduntra  pon  tier 
mahrm  DehraH  in  d.  dagm.  Thtohgit  (I7£9)  -.—Gnind- 
m'u  dfr  dagm.  Thrulanie  (17G0)  ■.—(Jraudi-itt  dtr  Moral- 
Tllfotfffie  {1773)  !~Gnindriii  drr  DermairaUk  (1773): 
^Unindiiu  der  Pailorat-Thfotogit  (1778):— Tier  tlai- 
tige  Hihoimm  Ckritii  (177^) -—Tlifologiieh'.  VnUrai- 
cAm^n  (1773).  He  occupied  entirely  onhoitux  ground 
ill  Iheul<)g>',  Chough  the  ethics  of  Christianiiy  held  the 
foremost  place  in  his  thoroughly  practical  mind,  and 
tde  far-reaching  conceasiona  to  rational- 


ism.   Wilt 

was  independent,  and  with  referenci 


I  of  faith  hia  pc 


TOUASINI  41 

tiona  of  his  time  be  Mood  midway  betirwu  the  ex- 
tremes The  Khool  of  Spener  ■nd  Fraocke  hail  gml- 
ually  come  to  anume  ■  poeition  of  boatilitr,  or  nl  leut 
indifTerence,  towanls  scifiice,  and  ovet  against  it  st.md 
the  Bcholaxic  or  pUiUiHipliicaJ  school  of  the  Wuir- 
flan  type,  which  undertook  lt>  demoiutrate  everything 
(nathemadnilly.  Tiillncr  regarilcil  both  extremes  as 
ovenlniiued,  and  aibpted  llie  tcimlific  method,  which 
regardeil  all  dugHMtic  truths  as  constituting  a  tUaee, 
L  e.  a  learned  and  comprehensive  knowledge,  and  which 
attempted  ■  iogtcai  explanation  of  ei-ery  tenet  without 
the  employment  of  any  illnstrat ions  whatsoever. 

IMtTOtiat. — Hambei^r,  Grlrhiia  DtalidilinuS  (viilh 
the  flfst  supplement  by  Meiisel);  Alensel,  Ijxihm  d. 
Ituttchta  Schri/iUiUtr  nam  John  1750-iSOO!  Hirsch- 
ing,  Hiit.-tk.  Ilavdbuch  UrShmttr  u.  daJac.  Pmftaorrn 
(fe.  18(CTJoAr*Bndn*.  (Uips.  1818),  XIV,  ii;  Wetaru. 
Welte,  Kirden-fAX.  i.  v. ;  Heraog,  ReaUt'iiq/klDp.  i.  v. 

Tomaelni,  Jacopo   PiUFpO,  an    Italian    prelate, 
was  twin  St  Padua,  Nov.  17, 1597;  instructed  by  Bcne- 
(tetti  of  l.eEiiano ;  afterwards  entered  the  congregation 
of  the  regular  canons  of  St.  George,  in  Al^aj  and  r 
ceivcl  the  degree  ofdoctor  at  Padua  in  IBIS.    He  we 
to  Rome,  wliere  he  was  cordially  received,  especiallv  I 
Urbsn  VIII,  who  would  have  appointed  him  to  a  bis 
opric  in  the  island  of  Candia.     At  his  own  request,  lli 
was  exchanged  for  the  see  of  Oiu  Nuova,  in  Istcia, 
which  he  waa  coneecrateil  in  1642.    There  he  reiaaini 
until  his  death,  in  IGM.    He  wrDte,/tfuafiiu«  Viromm 
Ehiffui  /ronitajr  Kromalu   (Padua,  1630,  Ho;  &'       ■ 
l6iiy.-riliH  Licittt  PalurtHvi  (ili'id.  1680,  4to)  -.—Pe- 
(mroiii   ReJicicia  In/tgrnnt  Pnda   Crltirrrim  Vilam 
lmnib«' .  E-  r  Cahtlit  Kxkibm  (ibid.  1  G3S,4  to)  -—CUiiit- 
lima  Famina   Cattamtra   FiJetii   I'mfla   Kputiila 
Oiulioart  PoiUiuaa  (ibid.  1636,  Umo):—De  DomriU 
ue  Tab^ii  VmirU,  etc.  (Utin.  1639,  4to } ;— Auuia 
Cerala  KpiKola,  cam  .Voria,  etc.  (Padua,  164(1,  ]2mo); 
—BUAialheca  Palaciiia   JUanuicripta,  etc.  (ibid.  16'~ 
ito):  —  Biitwlhtca    Vtnria   Mamicriiila,  etc.  (Ul 
1650,  4 In). 

Tomb   l.'S-''}},  a  lumutvi.  Job  ^xi,  32;   elsewhere 
"stack"  or  ■'  shock"  of  com ;  riifoe,  ^ifqfia,  or  pvjfiAtie 
usually  "  sepulchre"}.     The  most  euiispiciiuns  objects 
Palestine  to  this  day  are  its  lombt,  calleil,  acconling 
the  person  commemoraieil,  or  the  [luipose  of  commei 
oration,  hhrr,  or  Bunar,  at  arly.     One  does  not  fli 
this  to  be  the  ease  throughout  Kumpe,  where  tombs  a 
not  usually  conspicuous;  hut  in  Egypt  and  Syria  thi_ 
meet  the  eye  in  all  directions,  and  are,  with  ■  few  excep- 
tions, Mohammedan  erections.     In  l^vpr,the  tombsof 
its  ancient  kings,  and  the  more  modern  litmbs  c 
Mamelukes,  are  very  remarkable  and  interesting.    In  (he 
Sinailic  <lesert  there  are  sume  interesting  Rraveyards, 
dotteil  with  unhewn  stones  and  adomeil  with  the  j 
or  broom;  and  one  of  these  places  of  sepulture  is  known 
as  Turlict-es-Valilld,  the  graves  of  the  Jewa. 

llardu,  the  "tomb  of  the   prophet  Aaron," on  li 
Ilcir.     But  soon  alUr  entering  Palestine  you  Hnd  t 

Abraham  and  the  pstriarchs  in  the  well-known  OB 
Machpelah,  marked  or  rather  cuncealetl  by  a  M< 
mosque.  On  one  of  the  eastern  billa.  seen  frou 
heights  above  Hebmn,  ynu  have  the  tomb  of  Lot;  far- 
ther on,  the  tomb  of  Rachel;  and  then,  as  you  approach 
Jerusalem,  the  lomb  of  David,  outside  the  modem 
and  the  tomb  of  Sanniel,  ou  a  height  above  Uil 
some  seven  miles  to  the  nnrlh-weiit,  greets  your  eye. 

menls  in  all  pnailions — the  lomb  of  Jonah  near  iudi 
and  even  the  tomb  of  Abel  a  little  farther  north ! 

Uetidea  these  cniisjiicuous  objecis,  there  are  others 
less  visible,  but  quite  as  remarhable.  At  Hebron  there 
is  Ibe  Jewish  hurj-iug-ground  covered  with  large  slabs, 
and  curious  tombs  cut  in  the  rock,  with  Wuli  on  all 
■ides,  which  ate  probably  patriarchal,  or  ai  least  Jewish, 


TOMB 


Around  Jerusalem  there  ai 

m  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  their  siie,  Iheir  pe- 
ar structure.     See  Jhhubalrh.    Almoai  all  ofibrss 
Jewish,  and  give  u*  a  good  idea  of  "  how  the  man- 
of  the  Jews  was  to  bury."    Whoever  oouhl  aSerd  it 
chose  the  redi,  not  the  earth,  for  the  covering  irf  hia 
anil  preferred  to  have  his  body  depneiied  on  a 
clean  rocky  shelf,  uot  let  down  into  and  covered  orer 
'   the  soil.    Hence  our  ideas  of  burial  are  not  tlu 
as  those  of  the  Jews.     Acconling  to  tis,  there  is 
.'B  the  letting  down  into  (he  earth ;  according  to 
them,  there  is  the  taking  posseasioD  of  some  stony  cban- 
fi.r  the  last  sleep.     Hence  the  --'- ■"     '' 

h  him  by  baptism  into  death"  i 


e  early  Chris 


>  of  Hell 


II  the  I 


mbol  of  Lip 


a   teber,  or   liurying-plsc«,  in 


ihoica  of  our  kebers  bury  iliy 
dead."  After  this  there  is  frequent  mention  of  these 
sepulchres,  and  some  of  them  are  specially  singled  out 
for  notice.  Yet  Machpelah  was  the  moat  memorslilrj 
and  we  know  not  if  ever  a  lomb  waa  more  touchiagly 
and  poetically  described  than  by  Jacob  on  his  deatb4ed 
ill  Egypt,  when,  looking  back  on  the  land  from  wbick 
he  was  an  exite,  the  land  of  his  fathers'  sepulchres,  bt 
points  as  with  his  Huger  to  the  welt-known  patiiaiebal 
burying  -  place  —  "There  they  buried  Abraham  sail 
Sarah  his  wife;  there  they  buried  Isaac  and  Kebeksh 
his  wifei  and  there  I  buried  Leah"  (Cen.  xlix,  31). 
We  have  also  Kibroth-liataavah,  the  grave*  of  Inst,  in 
(he  wilderness  (Numb,  xi,  34);  the  tomb  of  Joash  is 
Ophrah,where(iideon  was  buried  (Jiidg.viii,  82);  tin 
tomb  of  Mauoah  between  Zorah  and  Eshtaol,  wbrte 
Samson  was  buried  (xvi,  31};  the  tomb  of  Zctiiiah  (or 
her  husband)  in  Bethlehem,  where  Asahel  was  burird 
(2  Sam.  ii,  83} ;  the  tomb  of  Abner  in  Hebron  (iii,  fi; 
iv,  12) !  the  lomb  in  Giloh  of  Ahiiiinphei's  father,  irhere 
bis  suicide  son  was  buried ;  the  paletnal  and  matttnd 
tomb  in  Uilead,  in  which  Ilarzillai  sought  burial  (xii, 
37);  the  lomb  of  Kish  in  Zelsh,  where  the  bonn  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan  were  depowted  (xxi,  14);  the  ton* 
of  the  old  prophet  in  Ueihel  (1  Kings  :[iii,8D)i  the 
tomb  of  Klisha,  probably  near  Jericho  (2  Kini^sxiii, 
21);  the  tombs  of"  the  children  of  the  penple,"in  the 
vallev  of  Lhe  Kednm  (xxiii,  6);  the  tombs- in ''ttie 
Mount,"  near  Bethel  (ver.  16);  the  lomb  or  toinbarf 
David  (Kch.  iii,  16);  the  lomb»  of  the  kings  (i  Chmn. 
xxi,  90).  The  New-Test,  references  to  "tombs"  art 
chiefly  in  connection  with  the  Lord's  burial  His  tomb 
is  called  sometimes  rnfor  (Malt,  xxvii,  61).  smMiiiDM 
liv^lia  (Luke  xxiil,  fiS},  and  sometimes  fii^fiiiop  (John 
xix,41). 

At  this  day  the  tombs  of  Syria  are  either  like  our 
own,  underground,  as  at  Hebron,  Tiberias,  ami  ihe  val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat;  or  in  artiOcial  excavallnni  in 
the  rock,  as  in  the  ridge  south  of  Jerusslem  (Acel- 
dama), the  tombs  of  the  prophets  on  Olivet,  the  lomtis 
of  (he  kings  and  judges  north  and  north-west  of  the 
dty;  or  entirely  above  ground,  as  the  tomb  of  Rachd, 
of  Absalom,  of  Samuel,  and  of  Joseph. 

All  (in  Jewish  agea)  who  could  bear  the  cost  »«a 

the  case  of  Joseph  of  ArimathsB.  This  is  evident  fnm 
aiich  a  passage  ai  Isa.  xxii,  16.  addressed  to  Shebna  the 
treasurer,  "  What  hast  thou  here,  and  whom  hast  tbna 
here,  that  thou  hast  hewed  thee  out  a  tpulckn  hat, 
as  he  Ihat  heuteth  him  out  a  sepuh:hTe  on  high,  that 
gravelh  an  hiUiitalioii  for  himself  in  a  rock?"  It  a 
Buppofdl  by  Lowth,  Scott,  Alexantler,  etc.,  that  Sheb- 
na  was  a  foreigner,  and  that  the  questions  tehat  and 
whom  refer  to  this,  implying  Ihat  he  had  oo  right  to 
such  an  honor.  It  was,  perhaps,  peculiarly  a  national 
privilege,  so  that,  as  no  Uentile  could  inherit  the  land, 
none  could  obtain  such  «  place  for  a  tomb  as  ha  eouU 


TOMBS  4 

ollhUowri.    The  qu«Mion  then  wi)oWb«,"Wh«  con- 

bnel's  npfciil  priTile|{ea?''  rosnibly,  hoHcvec,  he  wu 
imly  R  pVTwin  vriuw  origin  frum  ■  diiUnt  part  of  the 
owiDlTi',  >iid  uf  uiigudly  principle!,  who  vainly  thoiighi 
to  (Mablinh  lut  iiinuelr  a  name  and  ■  pbce  iu  Jeiu- 

The  laige  tomb*,  such  aa  ihoae  of  the  kings  ami 
julgcN  hai-e  no  imcriplinni;  but  the  Sat  uonFii  in  Ihe 
valley  of  Jehoahaphit  have  their  epilaphi,  some  of  con- 
aUeralile  length  in  Uetaew,*iitb  the  title  II^X  at  Ibe 
lop,  that  wiinl  meaning  originally  a  cippui  or  jullar  (2 
Kings  xiiii,  17 ;  Eiek.  xxxix,  15),  and  in  Tilmuiljcal 
Hebrew  denoting  a  aign  or  mait  (Levi,  I-myua  Saera, 
voLt,  ».v.;  Catpiov,  iVofa  OB  6'ooifi™,  p.  GIB),  This 
last  writer  tells  ui  Ibal  the  use  of  such  a  mark  was  spe- 
dally  to  wam  off  passers-hy  lest  Ihey  should  contmct 
uncleanneaa  by  touching  the  grave.  For  this  end,  also, 
ihe  tombs  were  whiteivashed  every  year  nn  the  Iblhof 
Adar  (Lamy.  Apparalut  BMicat,  I,  xiv).     See  Skp- 

Tomba,  John,  a  Icarnetl  Bapii>tdivine,waabamai 
Btwdlev,  III  Worcestershire,  in  16U3,  and  graduaml  at 
Uagdaleii  Hall.  Oxford.  There  he  gained  such  ■  dis- 
linctiun  for  ability  and  learning  tbat  he  was  appointed, 
in  1624,  catechetical  lecturer,  which  position  he  held  for 
about  seven  yean.  He  then,  we  may  ptesnow,  look 
onim  wid  went  lo  Worcester,  and  after  that  to  Leumiii- 
aur,  Henrurdsbire,  uf  which  he  had  Ihe  living  Being 
oUigril  lo  leave  it  in  lfi4 1 1^-  the  king's  wldjen,  he  went 
to  UrisiaU  where  the  patliantentary  general,  Fienne^ 
gave  hini  the  liiing  of  All-Saints'.  I'he  next  year  he 
removed  lo  Londcii,  when  he  made  known  hjs  scrupjea 
respecting  infant  baptism;  aiul  not  only  matle  no  con- 
verts among  the  dergy,  but,  being  appointed  preacher  at 
Kenchureli,  bis  roiigregaiiiin  refused  him  both  hearing 
wh)  sii|wii<l.  He  acce|ileil  a  call  Trom  Temple  Church, 
where  he  rcmainul  fiiur  yean,  when  he  was  dismissed 
fur  publishing  a  trealiM  on  iiifsiit  bapiUm.  AOer  ihia 
be  weiU  to  Ucmllcy,  ami  there  rormed  a  Uaptist  church, 
wbilr  he  coiilinned  minister  nf  the  pariah,  and  had 
also  Ihe  parsonage  of  lias  given  to  him.  This  last 
be  re^ignel  ui,  being  made  master  of  Ledbury  Ho*- 
piial;  and,  hia  parishiunert  at  Bewdley  having  f<ir- 
■aken  him,  he  waa  restored  to  his  Hrst  living  at  Len- 
mioater,  and  ihrae  two  he  held  till  Ihe  Refurmation. 
He  died  at  Salisbury,  May  22,  1678.  lie  published 
many  tracta  agaiittt  infant  baptism,  Ramanistis  and  So- 


Tombstone  is 

to  mniiKl  the  pasK 

T-bv  that  a  person   \i  buried  be- 

neath.      In  the  earli 

»l  ages  a  Leap  of  stones,  or  ■  .in- 

gle upright  .i"i.e,s 

ch  as  the  nvoAfr,  seems  lo  have 

markol  the  rcstiog-pUce  of  the  dead.     AmonK  the  ear- 

Iv  Uiilona  the  cmra 

oeh— thai  is,  two  or  thn»  stones 

standing  nprifiht. « 

h  one  or  more  across  them  on  the 

with  them  was  the  s< 

mplest  ofall  itnictures,  Ihe  mouiid 

of  earth. 

When   the  Roma 

>  came,  thev  brought  over   with 

them,  among   other 

enslomi,  their   mules  of  buriaL 

QmHdering  the  lim 

e  of  their  occnpallon,  the  remsina 

of  their  tombs  belonging  to  this  period  are  not  so  uu- 

iMTuus  aa  roighi  be 

expected;  but  still  there  are  aer- 

eraL and  in  most  eai 

ies  they  eonsiscol  of  a  single  stone 

of  the  heaihea  gmls, 

A  few  instances  of  stone  coffins 

et  this  period  hare 

been  fouDd,  a*  at  York.     To  this 

<opkaffiu  is  uannlly  apidieiL 

The  Saxan  marks  iif  interment  were  prolubly  moar 
of  earth  only;  and  it  isonly  by  Ihe  nsiuTrofllie  poIU 
or  Oder  insplementa  and  articles  of  ilrcH  fuund  in  i 
gn«o<  that  tho  burial-places  nfthe  Sainiis  can  be  d 
liBgiiiihnl  fnim  those  of  the  Britims.  Of  course  amu 
the  bier  Sa.^oD*.  when  CbritliaDily  prevailed  and  th 


TOUBSTONE 


Bomsn  CoHln,  Vor: 


re  buried  in  the  churcli-yanl,  more  Usting  memoriala 
re  erecteil,  though,  wilh  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  a 
'  doubtful  fragiDcnts,  we  have  no  examples  to  re- 


:s  throughout  the  Middle 
n  following  the 


The  sepulchral  mon 
.^gea  were  of  great  imi«nance  irom 
point  of  viewi  and,  while  we  find  th 
prevailing  style,  we  frequently  find  al 
was  lavisbed  the  most  elaborale  work  possible.  The 
examples  which  remain  lo  us  are  those  which  were 
placed  wilhin  the  church.  No  duobt  there  were 
many  tombs  of  no  mean  design  or  work  placed  in 
the  church -yard,  but  they  hsve,  fur  Ihe  must  part. 

Of  Ihe  former  we  have  many  of  the  12lh  century 
(some,  perhaps,  of  Ihe  llih).  The  covers  of  these  were 
at  first  simply  coped,  afterwanls  frequently  oniamented 
with  crosses  of  various  kinds  anri  other  devices,  and 
sometimes  had  inscriptions  on  them;  suiiseipieuilythey 
were  sculptured  with  recumbent  figiiies  in  high-relter, 
but  still  generally  diminishing  in  width  from  Ihe  liearl 
to  the  feet  to  fit  the  coffins  of  which  ihey  fotmeil 
the  lids.  Many  of  the  figures  of  this  periuil  represent 
knigbis  in  armor  with  their  legs  cnxeed;  tlwae  are 
Buppnaed  lo  have  been  either  Templars,  or  such  aa  had 
joined,  or  vowed  to  Join,  in  B  crusade  (u  the  Holy  Land. 
The  figures  usually  hail  ciiuipies,  which  were  often  rich- 

which  ran  along  each  side  of  the  efllgv,  the  whole 
worked  in  the  same  lili>ck  of  stone.  This  hind  of  tomb 
was  sometimes  placed  beneath  a  low  arch  or  receaa 


Tomb,  Watarperry.OxfoTdrlilratClr.  UO(k 


TOMBSTONE 

Jurmed  vitbin  tha  subMince  of  the 

chutch  will,  usiully  kIwuI  seven  feet  in 

length,  and  not  more  Ihmn  three  feet 

above  the  colHn,  even  in  tlie  centre. 

Thete  uchca  were  at  HrM  Kmicircukr 

or  Mginenliil  at  the  cop,  irterwirdi 

obtusely  pointed;  they  often  remain 

when  tha  figure  or  brav,  and  perhsps 

the  colBn  ilaeir,  his  long  disappeared 

and  been  forgoltcn.     On  many  tombe 

oTtbe  ISth  century  there  are  plain  ped-  F 

iment-ahaped  cunopiu  over  the  heads 

a  pointeil  trefoil-arched  receai.  Towints  the  end  of  the 
ccnlurj',  these  canopies  became  grailually  enriched  with 
crorkfls,  tlnial*,  and  other  architeclunl  delaili. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  1  the  tomba  of  penons  of 
rank  IwjnD  to  be  nmamtnled  on  tha  aide*  with  armo- 
rial  brnriiigs  and  amall  iculplured  statues  within  pedi- 
laeiiial  canu|nei]  recesses ;  and  fmm  then  va  may  pm- 
grcasively  trace  the  peculiar  nuiiUira  and  enrichments 
of  every  style  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  up  to  the 
Reforro    ' 


Allar.or  tablet 


iba,  called  by  Leland  "  high  tomba," 
jies,  are  cunKiinii  during  the  whtile 
of  the  14th  century.  I'heie  sometimes  appear  beneath 
splendid  pyramidicil  cant>pieB,  as  ths  lumb  of  Edward 
11  in  Glaiicesler  Catlieilral,  Hugh  le  Despensei  and 


TOMBSTONE 


lat  QravestODa,  Gieat  KilloB.Oifurdshlra. 

Sir  Guv  da  Brian  at  Tewkesburv;  or  flat  trKooiw.  is 
the  tombii  of  Edwinl  III  and  Richard  II  it  Wairnin- 
sur,  and  Edwinl  the  Black  Prince  at  Canlerbui;'. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  13th  cenlur;  the  nutora 
commenced,  and  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Ulh  prevail- 
ed, af  inlaying  flu  siune  with  brasseaj  and  sepulcliTa] 
inscriptions,  though  they  had  not  yet  become  genersl, 
are  mure  frequently  to  be  met  with,  'llie  sides  of 
thCHC  lotnbs  ire  mmelimes  relieved  with  niches,  lur- 
mounted  by  decotatfil  pediments,  each  containing  s 
small  sculptured  figure,  sometimes  with  arched  psnels 
fliled  with  tracery.  Other  lambs  abwut  the  same  peri- 
ml,  but  more  freqiienity  in  the  I5th  century,  were  dee- 
orated  along  the  sides  with  brge  square- panelled  ren- 
partments,  richly  fuliated  or  qualreloiled,  and  contsin- 
itig  shields. 

Many  of  the  tombs  of  the 
15th  and  lEth  cenlnrirs  spptsr 
beneith  ircheil  recesses  fixed 
in  or  pnijecling  fmm  the  wall, 
snd  enclosing  ilie  tomb  on 
ides.     TliM 


uctedso 


0  form 


later  perind.  These  csiiopies 
were  sumelimes  of  carved  wnd 
of  very  elabarite  wotkmsB- 
ship ;  and  sometimes  the  altar- 
Inmb  of  an  earlier  date  wis  at 
a  later  period  enclosed  wiltila 
■  screen  of  open-work,  with  a 
groined  stone  canopy,  and  sa 
upper  story  ofnoud.  furminp;! 
mortuary  chapel  or  ehaiitn-,  st 
the  shrine  of  St.  Krideswide  st 
Christ  Church,  Oxford. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  ISlh 

generally  of  a  similar  rhirac- 
ter  to  those  of  the  preceding 
age;  but  alabaster  slsbi  wilh 
figures  ou  ihem,  cut  iu  oMUne, 
were  frequeiilly  used.    The  il- 

eirred  in  bidil  relief,  were  ilss 
rrcquenlly  of  alabaster,  which 

Derbyshire.  Towirdslhe  mid- 
dle of  this  centDiy  the  Ilaliia 
■lyle  of  architecture  bsd  comt 
into  general  use :  Wsde'i  mon- 
ument, in  SkMichael't  Uhurch, 
Coventry,  15A£,  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  tiie  mixture  of  the  twe 
Styles  which  then  prevsiled. 

In  the  two  followine  cenl»- 
riee  eveiy  son  of  barbariam  was 
iplrDduoed  on  funeral  hwdb- 
manta:  but  the  ancient  siyla 
lingered  lonj^r  in  some  plsoi* 
than  in  oihora.  Ilie  romb  of 
Sr  Tbnnils  t'ope,  fuundet  «C 


Bredon,  Wi>rt«»ler»hlre, 


Trinity  CuUcge,  Oxford  — who  died  in  1558— ii 
chipel  of  thit  society,  aliaws  (he  »ll»r-tomb  in  il 
lued  fomi,  tftn  the  true  mn  o(  Gothic  uchitecture 


1  fae*d-i 
a;  but 


.1  CUM  much   decayed  by 
a  chiefly  used  in   modem 


^,  there  ii  no  reuan  to  eiippoae  but  lliHt 
Ibey  were  very  nunwreiis.  One  at  Temple  Bnier  is 
tmihablr  of  the  mh  century;  anothei  at  Lincoln  is 
ptobablv  of  the  13th.  A  Tety  "irople  example  From 
Eindboroagli  charch-yanl  is  pomibly  of  the  IBth  cent- 


Handborougli,  Oxfordiblre. 

Tomliue,  Georoe,  D.D.,  an  English  pieUtc,  the 
UD  or  (ieorRD  and  Suaiii  Pretvnian,  waa  bom  at  Buiy 
Sl  Edmund's,  SufTulk.  Oct.  9, 1760.  lie  was  educated  at 
Uury  Schuol  and  at  rembroVe  Hall,  Cambridge,  where 
Ik  look  hia  A.R  de|;re«,  and  was  senior  wrangler  in 
17;i.  Tlie  roll>nrin|r  year  he  wu  elected  a  fellow  ot 
hbooUrge,  and  was  immediately  appointed  tutor  to  Mr. 
riit,  Detweeu  I7T3  uid  ITTb  be  was  ordained  deacon 
and  prieit,  and  in  the  Utter  year  proceeded  A.M.,  bc- 
cnaingin  liSt  roodcratororihe  univeruty.  He  became 
private  aecreury  to  Hr.  Pitt  when  the  titter  was  made 
ehancellor  of  the  eichequer,  in  1782.  [n  this  year  he 
wia  collated  to  the  rectory  of  Corwen,  in  Mrrioneth- 


TONGAN  VERSION 


TomltnaDD,  Oaorge,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of  tbc 
aiurch  of  Eiinland,  was  educated  at  Sl.  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  from  which  he  graduated  in   1822. 

Uatthew'd  Chaiiel,  Spring  Oardenis  Westminster,  he  was 
nominated,  in  IM2,  to  the  bishopric  of  Gibraltar,  which 
extends  over  Slalia  and  the  neighboring  islands.  Be 
died  at  Gibraltar  in  1863.  See  -4nwr,  Qaar.  Church  Rtr. 
April,  1SG3,  p.  154. 

Tomlinion,  Joscpb  Smith,  D.D^  a  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episco|ial  Church,  was  bum  in  George- 
town, Ky.,  March  lb.  1802.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Transylvania  Cnirersily,  and  was  licensed  to  preach 
before  his  graduation  in  1825.  lie  waa  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  of  Augusta 
College  the  same  year,  and  also  admitted  to  the  travel- 
ling connection.  In  due  time  he  was  ordained  both 
deacon  and  elder.  After  having  served  some  time  as 
profeasor  of  Augusta  College,  lie  was  chosen  its  presi- 
dent, and  held  the  oflDce  until  the  iiiiliiution  ceased  to 
exist  in  1S19.  He  was  subsequeiil  ly  elected  to  a  pro- 
feiBOnhip  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyau  University,  Delaware, 
Or,  but  did  not  accept  it,  though  he  acted  as  agent  for 


1  stall 


le  bishop 


idtlic 


in  West 

if  audi 

1787,  wasadvana 

deanery  of  St.  Paul's,  when  he  cei 

rttaiy  to  Mr.  Tilt.    In  1813  he  refused  the  see  of  London, 

■■d  continued  bishop  of  Lincoln  over  thirty-two  years, 

btiae  Innslaied  lo  the  sec  of  Winchester  in  July,  1820, 

inwiiich  heoonliniieH  till  the  time  of  bis  death,  Nov.  14, 

wa.     Ilia  publications  are.  EUmrnli  ofCkrvUan  Tht- 

olfjf  Cl"99.  2  voU.  8vO!  republished  in  IBeditions):- 

tiftMm  -iflKt  XXXIX  A  nida,  with  an  AkouM  o/ 

Bi^Tmuialicmi  of  tht  BOU  and  Lilunjs  (Oxf.  1835, 

"— ■m/^CaUmim(,hmd.  1811,  8vO)  4lh 


fessorship  in  the  Ohio  Univeniiy  at  Athens,  and  ader 
a  year's  service  was  chosen  its  president.  This  he  de- 
clined becauae  of  ill-health.  Subsetguonlly  hewas  elected 
to  the  presidency  of  the  Springfield  Iligh-schnol  and  of 
the  Slate  University  of  Indiana,  both  of  which  he  de- 
clined under  the  conviction  that  the  state  of  his  body 
and  mind  disqualified  him  for  them.  Hedied  at  Neville, 
O.,  June  4, 1858.  Dr.Tomlinson  was  a  man  of  supe- 
rior accoDiplishmenU;  as  a  preacher  and  pulpit  orator.  . 
his  high  reputation  was  well  foundeii ;  and  bis  religious 
life  was  pun  and  consistenL    See  Sprague,  A  miali  of 

Tomina*!,  Gil'seppk  Maiua.  a  learned  Italian  car- 
dinal, and  son  of  Julius  Tommasi,  duke  of  Palma,  was 
bom  at  Alicala,  Sicily,  Sep).  14, 1G49.  He  entered  the 
society  of  the  Thealiiies,  and  canlinal  Albani,  when  lie 
became  pope,  appointed  him  first  qualificator  of  the  Holy 
Office,  then  cousultot  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Kites, 
and  lastly  cardinal  (May  18, 1712).  This  Inst  honor  he 
did  not  long  enjoy,  as  his  death  occurred  Jan.  I,  ITIS. 
In  iha  Vatican  and  other  libraries  Tommau  discovereil 
many  mainiscripts  of  importance  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
lorv,  and  publiahcd,  OiHai  SaaammlorBm  Songnla 
Amu  Vrlnuioru  (1G80,  4to),  a  collection  of  MSS.  ;— 
ntapo<iio>-ia  ft  Aalip/umaria  (1080).  See  Chalioers, 
Biog.  Dirt,  ».  v. ;  llocfer,  Noav.  Biog.  Gia/ralr,  s.  v. 

Tongan  Teraloil.  The  Tonga  dialect,  belonging 
to  the  Polynesian  or  HaUyan  languages,  is  spoken  in 
Tonga,  or 'i'ongatalwo,  the  largest  of  I  he  Friendly  Islands. 
In  18S0  it  was  estimated  to  contain  OOOO  inhabiunls,  of 
whom  cuuHderably  more  than  half  ha<l  been  converted 
la  Christianity,  the  Prntestatils  among  them  numbering 
5000,  As  early  as  1797  the  London  Miseionaiy  Society 
had  sent  nine  missionaries  to  that  island,  but  they  had 
to  give  up  that  suiioa  on  account  of  the  ferocious  dis- 
posiiiun  of  the  natives.  The  agent*  of  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society  were  at  length  enabled,  in  182G.  to 
settle  peaceably  in  Tonga,  and  ihey  now  extend  the 
blessings  of  Christian  instruction  to  all  the  islands  of 
this  archipelago.  At  first  only  detached  portions  of 
Scriptures  were  translated  into  Tniigan,  until,  in  the 
fearl847,  the  version  of  the  New  Test,  waa  completed, 
and  an  editipn  of  4000  copies  left  the  miwiiHi  press  at 
VavBU.    A  new  edition,  consisting  of  IU,UOO  cllpiF^  was 

lion,  inoih'er  of  10,000  co(;ics  was  undertaken  in  IBfiO, 
under  the  eililorial  care  of  Ihe  Rev.  Thi.maa  West,  In 
the  same  year  Ihe  prtpofatioi;  tijr  t(ai)4alji|g>  pcinling, 


TONGS  U 

«!&,  or  the  OIJ  Taument  ww  comniencei],  wbich  wta 
cnmpleted  i>i  JUBS.  A>  Lo  [he  results  of  Ibe  duwmiiii- 
tioii  of  Ihe  Wunl  of  God,  we  miy  noiiee  that  up  in 
Mtrth  31, 1S89, 8E>,2;S  copies,  eiiher  ill  [un  or  in  whole, 
oereciicuUieil.     (IL  T.) 

Toagn  is  ihe  rendering,  in  the  A.  \%  of  tiro  Heb. 
wunlt:  1.  e7n;S^'a,  mtaadta'yin  <1  Kings  vii,  49;  3 
Clir.in.  iv,  21 ;  iM-'vi,  G),  or  D^rtjsb^,  inoUiicAu'yi«t 
iKiod.  xxv.Sfi;  XKvii,S3[-'snuffere"]-,  Kurali.  iv,  9), 
biiih  rniiD  n^^,  lo  laht,  and  Ngnifyiiig  prop,  piiiari, 
eitliei  for  lioUling  enals  or  for  trimming  a  kmp  [see 
Snuffkiis]:  and  2.  "U^^  nuiafi&l  (Ina.  xKv,  12),  an 
OK  (().  V.)  (as  rendered' in  Jer.  x,8),  from  TX^,  lo/rll  a 

Tongne  (*ili^,  IiutAt,  ^Xaimra)  is  used  in  Scripture 

1.  Ic  ■uad^  liltratln,  fur  the  human  («ngue  (Judg. 
vii.fij  Jobxxvil.4:  Pu.xxxv,29;  xxxix,  l,3i  li,14; 
ixvi,  17;  Prov,  xv.ai  Zech.xiv,  12;  Mark  vii,  33,  85 1 
Lukei.fil;  ny'i.-U:  Rom.  iii,  13;  ICor.  xir,9;  James 
i.SSiiii,  5,6,8;  1  i'«t.iii,  10;  Rer.xri,10|  Eccles.  xrii, 
<;;  IV'IhI.  x,31:  2  Hacc.  vii, 4) ;  and  ao  fur  tb«  tongue 
of  Ihe  <lng  (l>sa.  Ixviii,  S3), of  [he  viper  (Job  xi,  16),  of 
iiliits  (Itatueh  vi,  H);  the  tongues  of  Ihe  seven  brethren 
cut  out  (-2  Mace,  vii,  4, 10;  comp.  l>r<iv.  x,  20). 

Variuus  explanations  have  been  offered  why  (in  Ihe 
passage  lirst  cited  above)  Gideon's  three  humlieil  fol- 
liinera  should  have  been  selcclal  because  they  lapped 
water  out  of  their  haudi^  standing  or  perhaps  moving 
iHiward,  while  they  who  stayed  and  "boweil  down  to 
drink"  were  rejected.  Josepliua  says  that  the  former 
thereby  allowed  their  limorousness  and  fear  of  being 
overtaken  by  the  enemy,  and  that  these  poor-spirited 
men  were  chosen  on  purpoie  lo  illustrate  the  power  of 
■  God  in  the  victorj-  (.1  m.  v,  0, 3). 

On  Mark  vii,  33, 3A,  Dr.  A.  Clarke  offers  iJie  Interpreu- 
liun  that  it  was  the  deaf  and  stammering  man  himself 
who  put  his  own  liiigerj  into  his  ears  to  intimsle  his 
deafness;  spat  or  emptied  his  mouth  that  the  Saviour 
might  look  at  hit  tongue;  loDchd  his  own  tongue  to 
intimate  that  he  could  not  speak ;  looked  up  to  heaven  ' 
as  imploring  divine  aid;  and  gruaiied  to  denote  his  dis- ' 
tn»  under  his  affliction;  and  that  our  Saviour  simply 
said,  "  Bo  opened"  (  Conimtniitiy).  This  explanation  1 
•cnainly  clears  the  pasuge  of  some  obscuritiea. 

James  iii,  8,  Dr.  Macknight  transUtea,  "liut  the 
tongue  of  men  no  one  can  snbdne;"  thst  is,  the  tongue  I 
of  other  men,  fur  the  apostle  is  exhorting  tlie  Christian  I 
III  subdue  his  own  (eonip.  ver.  IS),  lie  obaerree  that ' 
(Ecumenius  read  the  passB^n  inlermgatively,  as  much  ' 
as  tn  say,  '■  Wild  beasts,  binla,  serpents,  murine  animal*,  I 
hive  been  tamed  by  man,  and  can  no  man  lame  the  , 

2.  It  is  pertonified.  "  Tnto  me  every  tnnguo  shall  I 
swear."  that  is,  every  man  (Isa.  xlv.  23;  comp.  Rnm. 
xiv,  11 ;  I'hil.  ii.  11;  Isa.  liv,  17).  The  tongue  is  said  ' 
to  rejoice  (Acts  ii,  26) ;  lo  me.litaie  (I'm.  Iii,  2):  to  hate  ' 
(Pruv.  xxvi,  28) ;  to  be  bri<lle<l  (lamea  i,  26) ,  to  be  < 
tamed  (iii,  8:  comp.  Ecclos.  xxviil,  18,  etc).  It  iaapos-  I 
tmphiied  (I'si.  cxx,  3). 

3.  [t  is  useii  by  larltrngmy  f.ff  speech  generally,  "  Let ' 
us  not  hive  intnni;uennly"(l  Johoiii,  18;  cnmp.  yXussi] ' 
fiXac,Theogn.lxiii,  18;  Jobvi.80;xv,6;  Prov.vi,24); 
''a  s->[t  tongue,"  i.  e.  soothing  taiiguige  (xxv,  Ifi);  "ac- 
cuM  not  a  servant  to  his  master,"  literally  "hurt  not 
H'ilh  thy  tongue"  (XXX,  10);  "the  law  of  kindness  a 
in  her  t^ingne,"  i.  e.  ap«ecb  (ixxi,  26 ;  Isa.  iii,  8;  1,4: 
Wild,  i,  6).  On  the  "  confusion  of  tongues,"  see  Babel  ; 
I^TiixoLoar;  Lakouaok,  etc 

4.  For  aparficufir  Jua^rT^ordialect  spoken  by  any 
particular  people.  "Every  oiw  after  his  tongue" (Gen. 
X,  6,  20, 81) ;  so  also  in  Deul.  xxviii,  49 ;  Eslh.  i,  22 : 
Uan.  i,4;  John  v,2;  Acts i,  19;  ii,4,e,It;  isn,14;  I 
O>r.xii,I0!  xiii,1:  iiv,2j  Rev.  xvi,  16). 

b.  For  ihe  peoptt  speaking  ■  language  (Isa.  Ixvi,  IS ; 


2  TONGUE 

Dan.  iii,  4, 7,  etc.;  BtT,  v,  S;  vii,B; 
G;  xvii,  I&). 

0.  It  is  lueA /guralietlf  fur  anytl 
tongue  in  shape.  Thus,  "a  wedge  of  goU,"  literally 
a  "  tongue"  (Jofdi.vii,  21,24;  yXwmra /iia  yova^ ;  Vulgi 
irgula  aarta').  The  French  still  say,  ua  fui^  d'gr, "  a 
liiile  tongue  of  goU'  whence,  by  corruption,  our  wiml 
"ingot."  "The  bay  that  looketh  southward,"  11  itrslly 
'■tongue"  (XV,  2;  sviii,19);  "a  tongue  of  ere"  (lia.  r. 


24;  I 


:i,16). 


Some  of  Ihc  llebreo  idiom*,  pkrata,  ele^foniHd 
ot  this  word  are  highly  expressive.  Thus,  "an  eiil. 
speaker" (Psa.cxl,  II ;  VD^  0''K,  UleiaUy  "a  msn  of 
tongue;"  comp.  Ecdus.  viii,8,  and  see  Eccle*.  i,  II, 
Hebrew,  or  margin);  "a  froward"  or  rather  "(slit 
tongue"  (Pniv.  x.  31;  nisorin  ^'ioV,  "a  tongue  of 
revolvings'');  "awbatesoaielongue"(Pniv.xv,4;  KB*ta 
*|ilS3,  literally  "the  healing  of  the  lungiie."  reconcilia- 
tion, etc;  SepLiame  T^wcniC,  lingtia  pliieabUit):  "a 
b«ckbiting  tongue" (Prov.  xxv,  23 ;  IPO,  secret) ;  "sliiir 
orspeech"(Exod.iv,  10;  ll'C^  Va3,  literally  ••  heavy 
of  tongue,"  unfit  to  be  tn  onmr,  fipatOykwvat;  <"•>• 
irasi  Ecclus.  iv,  29);  "Ihe  tongue  uf  the  ■tammersr' 
(Isa.  xxxii,  4),  i.  e.  nide,  illiterate  (comp.  xxxv,  6;  oi 
Isa.  xxviii,  11,  see  Lowth).  In  xxxiii,  19,  it  ineaiii  a 
foreign  language,  which  seems  gibbertHh  to  those  wba 
I  do  not  understand  il  (cnmp.  Eiek.  iii,  6);  "the  tongue 
;  of  the  learned"  (Isa.  I,  4),  L  e.  of  the  insirnctor.  The 
I  lexicons  will  point  out  many  other  instances. 

8.  Some  milvphorieal  expressions  are  highly  rigtiiA* 
cant.    Thus,  Hoa,  vii,  16, "Ihe  rage  of  Ihe  longue,"Le. 

!  verbal  abuse;  "strife  of  langues"  (Psa.  xiii.  20); 
'  ''scourge  of  the  tongue"  (-lob  v,  21  [seeEuu^iuTioiij; 

derous  tongue" (Ii, 3);  on  the  phrase  "strange  lun)tM* 
I  (tsa.  xxviii,  11),  see  Lowth,  notes  on  ver.  9-12,  and  af- 
j  icrwards  the  vivid  renderingoftheTuLg.t  "toilipwiih 
!  the  tongue"(Kccln*.xx,  18;  xxv,  8),  Le-use  inadrer- 
tent  nr  ungiianleil  speech;  "they  bend  their  longiva, 
'  Iheir  bows,  r»r]iea"(Jer.ix,  S),Le.  tell  determined  sihI 
malicious  falMhoods;  "they  sharpen  iheir  longMs' 
(PBa.civ,B),Le.  prepare  culiingapeechei{cump.lvii,4), 
"to  smooth  the  tongue" (Jer.  xxiii, 81), empW  fialln- 
ing  language ;  "  lo  smite  with  Ihe  tongue"  (Jer.  xiiii, 

tongue,"  alluding  lo  ■  punishment  for  false  wiineas;  '■to 
lie  in  wait  with  the  tongue"  (EoJua.  r,  14);  "to  stirk 
out  the  tongue"(Isa.lvii,4), i.e.  to  mock;  "agaiiui  aiiy 
of  the  children  of  Israel  shall  not  a  ilog  move  his  longne" 
(ExoiL  xi, 7),  Le.  none  shall  hurt  them;  buIbothSept. 
and  Vulg.  have  "  not  a  dng  belonging  to  the  childm 
of  Israel  shall  bowl,"  which,  as  opposed  to  the  "gml 
cry"  in  Egypt  over  Ihe  first-born,  means,  not  one  of  Ihe 
children  of  Israel  shall  have  cause  lo  wail  (Josh,  i,  21 ; 
Judith  xi,  9).  "To  hide  under  the  tongue"  mesusto 
have  in  the  mouth,  whether  spoken  of  hidden  wicked- 
ness (Job  xx,  12;  comp.  Psa.  X.  7)  or  delicious  Isnpnga 
(Cant,  iv,  II);  "the  wonl  of  God  in  the  loiigus'  de- 
imtea  inspintinn  (2  San.  xxiii,  3);  "to  divide  tbt 
tongues  of  the  wicked"  is  to  raise  up  dissensions  Bnmng 
Ihem  (fsa.  Iv,  9;  comp.  S  Sam.  xr,  84;  xvii,  H,  lfi> 
"  The  longne  cleaving  lo  the  palate"  signilies  probasd 
attention  (Job  xxix,  10)  or  excnsive  thirst  (Lam.  ir, 
4;  comp.  xxii,  16);  "to  cause  Ihe  tongue  to  cleave  to 
Ibe  palate"  is  to  inflict  supemalural  dumbness  (Esek. 
iii,  26;  Vt*.  cxxivii,  6).  To  gnaw  one's  tongue  is  a 
sign  of  fury,  despair,  and  torment  (Rev.  xvi,  10). 

9.  Some  beautiful  tompariumi  occur.  "  An  evil  tongae 
is  ■  sharp  sword"  (Psa.  Ivii, 4) ;  "the  tongue  of  the  wiss 
is  health" (Prov.  xii,  IQ ;"  like  choice  silver"  (1,20),  i-t. 
his  words  are  solid,  valuable,  ^neen. 

10.  The  rim  of  Ihe  tongue  are  specified  in  great  va- 
riety :  flatieTy(Psa.  v,9:  I>rov.xxviii,BS);  backbiting 
(PsB.  XV.  3),  literallv  "run  about  with  the  longtM" 
(Prav.Kxv,23);  deceit (I'sa.l,  19);  unreMiained qieeeh 


TONGUE 


463       TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


(lxiui,9);  lyingO^K.S);  "alyingtoDguebaUthlhciM 
Uii[maBictcdbvit"(Pniv.xXTi,28;  romp. Tacit. ^^. 
^'PrDprium  huDMUii  ingeDii«t,odiue  qoem  lawru'% 
"  Tbcy  bare  Mugbt  their  tongue  to  apeak  lies,  and  i 
IbeniKlTe>tcicommilimquity"(Jer.ix,I>)— words  whic'b 
bfaatirullf  illiuCnte  the  Tact  [bat  Talsehixid  and  vice  a 
aMaataial,but  ate  a  restraint  and  cnmpulsion  upon  db 
on:  ■'doable-tanked" (1  Tim. iii,S).JfXorar,uviugai 
thing  to  Ibii  mail  and  another  to  that  (comp.  Ecdua. 
S,  14 :  xxviii,  13).  The  retribution  of  evil-npealien 
irpcneuled  ai  brought  oii  themnlvea  (Paa.  Iiir,  8). 

II.  The  Tirtuom  lues  of  the  tongue  are  apedHed: 
''ke«(iing  the  tongue" (Pm.  xxxiv,  i3i  1  Pet.  iii,  10 
Pmv,  iiti,  23);  "ruling  the  tongue" (Etdua.  xix,  6: 
Jinxai,  SG);  the  origin  of  tbe  rigbt  anit  wrong  use  ol 
tbe  tongue  inced  to  tbe  heart  (Halt.  xii,a4). 

I&  Uistnuulationa:  as  "holding  tbe  tongue;"  tb< 
Hebrevsbad  no  sueb  idiom  (Psa.xxxix,3;  Eedus.xz 
I,T:aimp.tha  Bible  and  Pia^vr-boolt  version  of  HabI 
i.  13).  In  Eira  ir,  7,  "the  Sj'rian  tongue,"  litenlij' 
"  in  Striae"  (£sth.  vii,  4).  Our  mistraiiatition  of  Prov. 
iTi,lha9  milled  many:  "  The  preparations  of  tbe  heart 
in  man,  and  tbe  answer  oT  tbe  tongue,  in  from  tbe  Lord ;" 
Htttallf,''Of  loanara  tfaedi«poutiDniorthehe«n,but 
a  hearing  of  the  tongue  ii  of  the  Lord." 

13.  The  iDiraciilotu  giji  qflmtgaet,  as  well  as  ita  cor- 
responding gift  of  interpreutiou,  baa  been  the  subject 
of  ino  opinions.  It  was  promised  by  Christ  to  believ- 
ers: Ihev  shall  speak  yXwrnnicEaivaicCMariixvi,  17); 
and  fuifiJIed  at  Pentecost,  when  the  apostles  and  tbeir 
companiuiu  "began  to  ^leak  iripaic  /Xusuaic" (Acts  ii, 
*,ll.  cunip.Actsx,46;xi<(,6;  lCor.xii,SO;  xii-,2.S9). 
Id  tbelul  passage  we  bare  "to  pny  in  a  tongue" (ver. 
H),  "to  speak  words  in  a  tongue" (ver.  19),  "tongues" 
(I  Cor.  xii,10,!8;  xiii.S;  xW,  23,  QU).  The  obvious 
explanation  of  most  of  these  passages  is,  to  speak  in 
atitr  lieaig  latigiiaget,  the  supematural  acquisition  of 
wbicb  demonstrated  tbe  tratb  of  tbe  Goapel,  and  waia 
iMana  of  diSitiing  it.  Some  versa  in  I  Cor.  xiv,  how- 
ner,  bare  given  riac  to  tbe  notion  of  a  Mraage,  ecualic, 
inapirad,  unearthly  language ;  but  these  bU  admit  of  a 
different  solntian.  In  ver.  S,  "be  wbo  apeaketh  in  a 
tongue"  evidently  means,  be  wbo  speaks  some  Toreign 
living  language ;  tbe  supplied  word  ''  unknown"  in  tbe 
A.  V.  is  needloa,  and  misleads  the  English  reader.  It 
is  further  said  that  "he  edifietb  bimseir  (which,  aa 
Uackoight  joitly  pleads,  required  that  he  should  an- 
denund  himself),  and  edlBetb  tbe  Church  also  if  an  in- 
terpreter were  present  (ver.  38).  The  apostle  says  (ver. 
14),"  If  I  pray  in  a  tongue,  my  spirit  prayetb,  but  my 
nndentanding  is  unfnutful,"  wbieh  words  in  English 
seem  lo  intimate  that  tbe  speaker  might  not  understand 
himself;  but  the  woniB  i  Ii  voic  fiou  signify  "my 
iwum^  (comp.  ii,  1 6 ;  Vulg.  "sensum  Domini"),  or,  as 
Hammond  and  Scbleusner  say,  "my  racnliy  of  think- 
ing upon  anil  exploiting  to  others  the  meaning  of  what 
I  utter" (comp.  ver.  15,  J9),ihongh  in  ver.  15  some  lake 
Tipv»t*»a  dodBBi  comnodi,  and  render  "  Ibat  others 
may  undentand."  Tbe  key  to  the  difficulties  of  tbia 
snt^ect  is  the  supposeil  absence  of  an  inspired  interpret- 
er (rer.  38),  in  wbicb  ease  tbe  gift  would  not  be  projKo- 
bit  to  the  hearen.  The  gift  of  tongues  was  to  cease  (I 
Cor.  xtii,  8).  Iren«us  testifies  (v,  6)  tbal  it  subsisted  in 
tbe  Church  in  his  time.  When  Paul  sayi,  that  though 
be  should  speak  with  tbe  tongue  of  men  and  of  angels, 
it  would  be  nothing  without  charily,  he  nsea  a  sup- 
poaol  hyperbole;  u  when  we  say,  angelical  beauty,  an- 
gelical Foioe,  etc,  e.  g.  "  1  would  have  eveiy  one  aet  a 
doe  value  on  the  gift  of  tongues;  but  though  a  man 
pomesacd  the  most  exquisite  elaqnence,  this  inestimable 
gift  would  be  of  little  uae  to  him,  as  to  aalvBtion,  if  he 
be  wubout  charily."  See  Macknigbt,  A'o(ea  on  1  Cor. 
lit;  UiHiaiuen,<7on«n«:Da^alt  B,4;  Neander,  tftM, 
eflke  ApotUMe  Agr,  and  in  BibL  RipoM.  iv,  S49,etc; 
Stcacb,  ArJuetU.  (Earn.  N.  r.  p.  93;  Gataker,  ad  M. 
itataiLp,13D;  and  EmeBii,In-.  reeitn.  Cr. /Uer.  p,6& 
See  SnimjALGirni 


TongUM,  CosFusiOM  OF.  The  Biblical  account 
of  tbia  ii  given  in  the  uaual  antliropomorphic  style  of 
Scripture  in  Gen.  xi,  1-S,  and  bas  been  the  ocestion  of 

much  discuasioa  and  speculaliun.  To  inquire  into  tbe 
data  of  this  part  of  Genesis  would  lead  ns  into  a  long 
discussion:  it  may  be  sutHcient  to  express  an  opiniuii 
«,  12  perhaps  (strangely  ignored 


"),a 


to  an  age  much  before  that  uf  Muses.  See  belnw.  We 
propose  under  tbe  preKiit  head  lo  treat  the  subject  un- 
der two  aspect^the  historical  and  the  lin)tu"stic.  refer- 
ring the  reader  to  other  and  kindred  aitidea  fur  fur- 
ther details  on  Ibis  disputed  question. 

I.  The  fiiotf.— The  part  of  the  narrative  relating  lo 
the  present  subject  thin  commence*:  "Ami  tbe  whulf 
earth  [or  land,  y^St]  was  of  one  language  [ot  Up, 
nDD  ]  and  of  one  speech  [  or  m>rdr,  C^l^^  ]."  Thr 
journey  anil  tbe  building  of  the  tower  are  then  related, 
and  tbe  divine  determiiintlmi  to  "confound  their  lan- 
guage that  they  may  nut  understand  one  another's 
apeech."  Tbe  scattering  of  the  builders  and  tlie  dis- 
continuance of  tbe  building  of  the  city  having  been  nar- 
rated, it  is  addeil,  "Tberefuro  is  the  name  of  it  called 
Babel,  because  the  Lord  did  there  confound  the  lan- 
guage of  all  the  earth,  and  [oryui]  frum  thence  did 
the  I^rd  acattec  them  abroad  upon  the  face  of  all  the 
earth"  (Gen.  xi,  1-9). 

1,  Ciarnclr.r  afiht  In/Kelioa. — An  orderly  and  peace- 
ful dislribution  and  migration  of  tbe  families  descended 
from  Nosh  had  been  direcud  by  divine  authorily  and 
carried  into  general  eflecu 


Diild  n 


I  rebcllioi 


party,  having  discovered  a  regiim 
mined  ti>  remain  in  iu  Tbey  built  their  houses  in  con- 
tiguity, and  pmceedeil  lo  the  other  method  described 
forguanling  against  any  fun  her  division  of  their  com- 
pany. This  was  au  act  of  rebellion  against  the  divine 
government.  The  omniscient  anrl  righteous  God  there- 
fore friistrateil  it  by  inllicling  iipnn  tbem  a  remarkable 
affection  of  the  organs  of  speech,  ivhich  produced  dis- 
cord and  separation. 

At  the  same  time,  we  cannot  dogmsiicallyafflim  that 
this  infliction  was  sbsolntely  and  visibly  miraculous.  It 
is  an  undeniable  character  of  the  scriptural  idiom,  cs|>e- 
cially  in  the  Old  Test.,  that  vetbs  denoting  dir/ft  effi- 
ciency are  used  when  only  meduile  action  la  to  be  under- 
atood,  or  permission,  or  iledaratinii.  Instances  are  nu- 
merous, e.g.  "God  caused  me  to  wander"  (lien,  xx,  IS) ; 
"I  have  made— given —Bust sined"  (xxvii,  87);  the 
"hardening  uf  wicked  men's  hearts"  (EkchI.  vii:  Isa. 
vi,etc.)i '  I  will  come  upinto  the  midst  of  them"  (Exod. 
xxxiii,  5).  All  audi  declarations  are  perfectly  true. 
The  luanitely  Wise  and  Holy  and  Powerful  work- 
eth  all  things  acconling  to  the  counsel  of  his  own  will, 
as  much  when  bis  operation  is  ihmiigh  tlie  instrumen- 
tality uf  rational  creatures  luid  the  frre  exercise  ofiheir 
own  faculties  as  when  there  is  a  miraculous  inierven- 
liofl.  Sbuckford  inclines  at  least  lo  the  opiniun  that 
the  whole  was  tbe  result  of  natural  and  moral  second 
causes,  fuiailing  the  purposes  of  the  Moat  High  (Cormid. 
nf  Hill,  i,  133-135).  This  view,  however,  does  not 
seem  lo  meet  adequately  the  judicial  character  of  Ibc 
passage. 

inHicted  on  the  builders  of  Babel  amounted  to  a  lo*^  or 
even  a  suspension,  of  articulate  ^icccii.     The  desireil 

ent  of  those  dialectical  ilifTerencea  of  language 
which  are  constniitty  in  process  of  production,  but 
which,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  require  time  and 
variation*  of  place  anil  habits  lo  rench  Buch  a  point  uf 
maturity  that  people  are  unable  lo  understand  one  an- 
other's speech.  Tbe  clemenu  of  tbe  one  original  lan- 
guage may  have  ri-msined.  but  so  disguised  by  vsria- 
lions  ofpronuiiciation,  and  by  tbe  introduction  of  - 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OP      464      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


Eom>nDittoiii. 

TCCLioaorihB 

unintelligible  to  the  remainder,  anil  yet  < 

ricncF  euIGces  to  show  how  campletely  evea  diolecticil 
dilTerences  lender  Krangen  unintelligible  to  one  aii- 
nthet;  and  if  we  further  take  into  eoiuidera^n  thedir- 


!.  Dalt  of  the  /iKvlnif.— Tliis  U  not  deflnitelf  given 
in  tbe  ucred  narraUves.  IW  many  iatetptvlen  it  is 
thought,  that  we  cannot  uti-irictorily  place  it  »  earl}- 
■«  at  one  hundred  years  after  the  Flood,  u  it  ia  in  the 
connnonly  received  chronology,  and  hence  they  are  in- 
clined to  one  ofthe  larger  systerna—tlwC  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  which  givealiTe  tuindrcd  and  thirty  years,  or  that 
of  Jmephiia,  adopted,  with  a  little  emendation,  Iiy  Dr. 
Uales,  which  givea  mx  hundred  years;  and  thus  we 
have  at  leaM  Ave  centuries  fur  the  intervening  period. 
Prof.  Wallace,  in  his  elaborate  work,  makes  it  more 
than  eight  centuries  (_DuKHa(i<m  oh  th<  Tnu  Agt  of 
lie  World  and  the  Chranologg  la  the  Chrittian  ^ra 
[18H],  p.  298).  Wa  see  no  reaaon  to  depart  from  the 
usual  view,  countenanced  by  the  position  of  the 
dent  in  the  context  and  the  express  indication  in  Gen. 
xi,  2  ("as  they  journeyed  from  the  east"),  that  it  look 
place  not  vary  long  after  the  Deluge. 

S,  Exlent  of  the  CofoMnipAc.— Upon  th«  qnetlion 
whether  all  of  mankind  were  engaged  in  this  act  of 
concerted  disobedience,  or  only  a  part,  we  confess  our- 
selves  unable  to  adduce  irrefnigable  evidence  on  either 
side,  but  we  think  that  there  is  ■  great  prepanderanoe 
of  argument  on  the  part  of  the  latter  siippoution.   The 

favoring  the  former;  hut  the  extreme  brevity  and  in- 
sulated character  nf  these  primeval  fragments  forbid 
OUT  arguing  from  the  merejujttaposition  of  the  first  and 
the  second  sentence.  It  is  a  common  tdiom  in  Hebrew 
that  a  pronoun,  whether  separate  or  suffixed,  stands  at 
tbe  introduction  of  a  new  subject,  even  when  that  sub- 
ject may  be  different  and  remote  from  the  nearest  pre- 
ceding, and  requires  Co  be  supplied  by  the  intelligence 
ofthe  reader  (see,  e.  c-,  Psa.  ix,  13  [12] ;  xviii,  lo  [14] ; 
xliv,  8  [!] ;  Ixv,  10  [9] ;  cv,  S7}.    So  far  as  the  gram- 


suppose  that  Noah  and 
Shero,  and  all  others  of  the  descendants  of  Noah,  were 
confederatea  in  this  proceeding.  Hence  the  opinion 
has  been  maintained,  more  or  less  definitely,  by  many 
critics  and  expoalMrs  that  it  was  perpetrated  by  only  a 
part  of  mankind,  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  the  posterity  of 

nf  Nimrod,  who  (Gen.  x,  10)  is  declared  lo  have  had 
Babel  for  the  head  place  of  his  empire.  The  latter  part 
of  this  position  is  asserted  by  Josephus,  and  the  whnle 
by  Augustine  and  other  ancienta.  Of  modem  writers 
who  have  maintained  this  opinion,  we  may  specify  Lu- 
ther, Calvin  (by  apparent  implication),  Cornelius  a  La- 
pide,  Donfrire,  Poule  (in  his  Etigtith  A  tmolatiom),  Pat- 
rick, Wella,  Samuel  Clarke  (the  annotator),  Henry  (by 
implication);  narratives  derived  from  Arabian  andHin- 
dd  sources,  in  Charles  Taylor's  lUvtlratiiMu  qfCulaal, 
frag.  fi-2S;  and  the  late  Jacob  Rryant,  who,  though  loo 
imaginative  and  sanguine  a  theorist,  and  defective  in 
his  iinowledse  of  the  Oriental  tongues,  often  gives  us 
valuable  collections  of  facts,  and  sound  reasonings  from 
them.  A  considerable  part  of  his  celebrated  work,  the 
Analgia  of  Aadml  J/y'tofoffji,  is  occupiwi  with  tracing 
the  historical  vestiges  of  the  builders  of  Babel,  whom, 
on  grounds  of  high  probability  at  least,  he  regards  as 
Cuthitea  (assumed  to  be  a  dialectic  variety  for  Cush- 
t(es),  tbe  defendants  of  Cush,  the  son  of  Ham,  but 
with  whom  were  united  many  diswisfled  and  apostate 


individuals  of  tbe  branches  of  Japbeth.     Dr.  Doig,  in 

the  article  "Pbilologv,"  in  the  Eacydop.  BrUmiaca 
(7th  ed.  I81S),  has  entered  at  some  length  into  this 
question,  and  arrives  at  the  following  codcIuwhi^ 
"From  these  circnm stances,  we  hope  it  appears  thai 
the  nhole  mass  of  mankind  was  not  engafced  in  build- 
ing the  tower  of  itabel ;  that  the  language  of  ^  the  ho- 
ifounded  upon  that  occasion,  and 


Hair 


e  dispersion  ti 
id  ofthe  I 


families  who  had  joii 
Meverthelen,  as  this  was  the  hrst  occurrence  or  any  dia- 
lectical variety,  it  is  properly  given  by  tbe  sacred  wrilet 
as  tbe  initial  point  of  that  wide  ethnic  divei«ly  of 
tongues  which  has  since  gradually  apread  ov«-  the  eanL 

4.  Tract*  of  Ike  finaU.— (I.)  Jfo«iunoi(ot-The  hi*- 
tory  of  the  confusion  of  languages  was  pmerved  at 
Babylon,  as  we  learn  by  tbe  leatimonies  of  clsisical  ud 
Bahvlonian  authorities  (Abydenua, /Vopii.  Atit.  Crx; 
[ed-'Didot],  voL  it).  Only  tbe  ChaldaanB  themsclret 
did  not  admit  tha  Hebrew  etymology  of  the  name  of 
their  metropolis ;  they  derived  it  from  Battel,  the  don 
oTfl  (KronoB,or  Satumus),  whom  Diodorus  Sicolos 
states  to  have  been  the  planet  moat  adored  by  Ibe  fiabr- 

The  Talmudists  aay  that  the  true  ail*  of  llie  lawer 
of  Babel  was  at  Borsif,  tbe  Ureek  Bora)nia,the  Bin 
Nimrdd,  seven  miles  and  a  half  from  HilUh,  &W,  and 
nearly  eleven  milca  from  the  nortbem  ruiaa  of  Babr- 
loD.  Several  passsges  stale  that  the  air  of  Bonippa 
makes  forgetful  (n3Ba  *1^1X,  <iHr  moiUact);  aod 
one  rabbi  says  that  Bor«f  is  Bulsif,  the  confusion  of 
longuesCfle7MAi/Aft(ii6<i,foi.42,p.l).  The  Bahylonisp 
name  of  this  locality  is  Uarsip,ar  Uarzipa,  which  veei- 
ph»in  by  "Tower  of  Tongues,"  The  Freuch  expediiion 
to  Mesopotamia  found  at  the  Birs  NimrQd  a  clay  ake, 
dated  from  Bariip  the  SOth  day  of  the  Gth  month  ofthe 
IGth  year  of  Nabonid,  and  the  discoveri'  conGimod  tbe 
bypothesis  of  several  travellers,  who  had  supposed  tbe 
Birs  Nimrbd  to  contain  tbe  remains  of  Borsiiipa. 

Boraippa  (the  Tongue  Tower)  was  formerly  a  saboib 
of  Babylon,  when  tbo  old  Babel  was  merely  reatricMd 
to  the  northern  ruins,  before  the  great  extension  oTlkf 
city,  which,  according  lo  ancient  writers,  was  the  gresl- 
est  that  the  sun  ever  warmed  with  its  besma  Ntbo- 
chadneziar  included  it  in  the  great  drcumvallalioiiof 
480stadei,  but  left  itout  ofthe  second  wall  orseOstada; 
and  when  the  exterior  wall  was  deatro)'ed  by  Dsriui, 
Borsippa  became  LidependenI  of  Babylon.  The  histnh- 
cal  writers  respecting  Alexander  state  that  Bunipfi* 
had  a  great  sanctuary-  dedicated  lo  Apollo  and  Arttmii 
(Stiaba,  xvi, '89;  Stephanas  Byi.s.  v.  Bup«irirn),sitd 
the  former  is  the  building  elevated  in  modem  lima  on 
tha  very  basement  of  the  old  tower  of  Babel. 

This  building,  erected  by  Nebucbadneuar,  li  tbt 
same  that  Herodotus  describes  as  the  tower  itfJupilef 
Belui.  In  the  Exptdtlton  en  iletopotanit,  i,  208.  there 
is  given  a  description  of  this  ruin,  proving  the  identilv. 
This  lower  of  Herodotus  has  nothing  la  do  with  the 
pvramid  described  bv  Slrabo,  which  is  certtinly  to  be 
seen  iu  the  remains  called  now  Babil  (the  Hu>elhbeh 
of  Rich).  The  temple  of  Bonippa  is  wriUtn  with  SB 
ideogram  {iit-zi-da),  composed  of  the  signs  fur  haum 
and  tpirit  (aninia),  the  real  pronunciation  of  which  wis 
probably  larakh,  tower. 

The  temple  oonstMed  of  a  large  substructure,  a  Hade 
(six  hundred  Babylonian  feet)  in  breoilth  and  seveiiiT- 
live  feet  in  height,  over  which  were  built  seven  other 
Btagea  oflwenty-flve  feet  each.  Nebuchadneuat  gives 
notice  of  this  building  in  the  BoiHppa  inscription.  He 
named  it  the  temple  of  the  Sevnt  Ligkn  of  At  Eani, 
I.e.  theplanela.  The  lop  was  the  temple  of  Nebo,  aod 
in  the  substructnre  (t^iir)  was  a  temple  conseeraled  to 
the  god  Sin,  god  of  the  monlh.  This  building,  owo- 
tionedin  the  Hast  India  House  inseriplion  (eoLiv,Lfil)> 
is  spoken  of  br  Herodotus  (i,  18],  etc). 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      46S      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OK 

Btn  fuUoiTs  the  Dunippi  in*cription : 

"Nibnchodoiioi^r,  kluEorBnbTloD,  ihepherd  of  hi 
pto,itb<i  mtais  ibe  Imoiutiible  alTeciInn  of  Mernriiirl 
Ib«  nlKtalT  ruler- einlli II g  Nebo;  tba  mvlur,  Ihi 


in  to  ibe  ordsn  ot  the  lit);!i»l  ai 
I  met  Iba  1\>war"cl<le«t  hiu  uINsbopallauar,  Uag  al 
Veuf.  Merodaeh,  lh< 


^iiittrucl  hta  bulldlDE.    Mebn, 

^     jaciflbeheavennuilUieaiinti, 

nu  cbDHcd  inj  tiaiidi  \v\th  ihc  Bceurre  of  JdbiIMp 

"ThsTfmiuld  )■  Ihe  leiopls  ut  Ow  hnTan  sod  Iba 
artli,  thfl  aeai  of  UarudACb,  ihB  cbkf  of  tbe  goAt ;  the 

ID  Ibe  toTja  of  ecnpolj,  niLb  Phlntu^  gold. 

"Ths  Tower,  the  eiemnt  hnnite.  which  1  founded  aod 
bail),  t  bive  cnmulalad  lu  masulllceiice  wUb  all«er,  goJd, 
sibar  melnla,  PMue,  enamelled  l>rlclu>,  flr,  and  pine. 

■'Tbe  aret,  which  ii  the  hini«  of  tha  eirtb'*  hnM,  the 


highlj  eialtad  lia  bead  wl 
19,  this  ed 


the  SeiTFii  UghU  of  iiin  jwirin,  ine  nmiL  micieui  moiiQ- 
■Mll  of  Bunlupa:  A  furmer  kluR  bollt  It  (IheT  reckon 
(attgr-lwo  ajcea),  bnl  be  did  not  cumpleta  lu  liaid.    Sinat 

rnmiity  tlUir  wrdt.  Since  tbnt  lime,  the  e.irlbqunke  and 
tkaibnDder  had  di^md  iu  iiin-dried  cliir :  the  brlcka 

had  beeu  acnttend  III  hei>|>».    Merodacta.  the  Kreal  lonl. 

tke  alle,  nor  did  I  take  awaj  (he  foandaUoD-itone.  In  ■ 
£inni»ie  innnib,«a  iiD>uh:lona  dii;,!  nudertiMk  to  band 
portlcne  aroniid  tbe  cmde  brick  Diasaea,  and  the  uuia^ 
of  bnmi  bricka.  I  Adapted  the  clrcnlu.  1  put  tbe  In- 
■eriptian  of  mr  name  In  Ihe  Kitir  of  the  portico*. 

"I  Mt  mt  hand  lu  flulsb  It,  and  to  exalt  It*  bead.  At  It 
bad  been  in  lunner  llmcf.  en  I  foaiided,  I  made  II ;  aa  it 
bad  Iweo  In  aoclent  dura,  an  1  exalted  1u«n<"]nlt. 

propliloa*  lo  UT  irorka  to  malntalu  nitnnthoiitT.  Grant 
H  a  lire  nulU  Ihe  remiiteal  lime,  a  aevetifold  proeeDf. 
tbe  aubilllT  nt  n;  thmiie.  the  vlcmr;  of  nj  >word,  tbe 
peciAcallon  o(li>ee,  Ihe  tr.nnipb  over  the  landal  In  the 
cnlomnt  of  thr  cterna]  [able,  that  dica  tbe  deatlniea  of 
the  beaireii  and  of  the  earth,  bleaa  the  canrae  uCmir  dairg, 
lOMTibe  the  fecnndltvormTrnce. 
■•lmlLiie,0  Menirfacli   ■'         ■'  


bnlldinc 


„  .       engiheo 
le  klni^repalrer, 


mf  anthoritj.    «ni  Nol 
mnaln  hefure  tbj'  Rice  1" 

Tbiialluaion  to  Ihe  Toweror  the  Tongan  is  the  onl^ 

»  Mitopctamif,  i,  !08). 
and  not  menlv  a  Hebrew  one, 
rhaterer  to  doubt  of  the  exUt- 
ace  of  the  sun  Kory  at  Babylon.  The  niina  of  the 
biUding  elevated  on  the  spot  where  the  Itory  placed 
Ibe  tower  of  the  dinperajon  of  tongue*  have  therefore  * 
BOR  molten]  orif^n,  bul  inleieat,  iievertheleas,  by  their 
KopeDdoti*  appearance.     See  Babki.. 

(Z.)  /fii/aricaL—The  InlloHing  are  the  principil  pa*- 
■gtaofandent  authors,  rcacued  from  the  wreck  nf  lime 
bTthequotslionaorjDKphuaaml  Eusebiiia.  [tscaice- 
Iv  need  be  aaid  that  we  do  not  adduce  ihcK  fragments 
M  iBtboritiea  in  any  other  ae nse  than  that  they  repeat 
the  traditional  narracivee  which  had  deacended  Trom 
Ibe  nmoteatantiqaity  among  the  people  to  whom  they 
rdale.  The  "  Sibyl"  cited  by  Josephus  is  the  Bclitioni 
appellitioD  of  iwitw  onknown  author,  probably  about 
the  Id  century  RC.  Alexander  Comeliu*  Polyhiator 
BoDTiibed  about  one  hundred  yean  before  Christ.  Eu- 
polnnu*  waa  probablv  an  Anatic  Greek,  two  or  tliree 
nolnrie*  earlier.  Aliydeniu  (if  he  vat  Pahephatiis) 
lited  ID  the  rniddle  ofthe  4th  century  B.C. 

"i>iocenilDG  thl>  tower,  and  tbe  discordance  of  Inn- 
naire  amonc  men,  the  Sibyl  also  makes  mention.  aayloK 
thoa:  'All  men  havlni  one  InoKnngc,  aome  of  them  IiuiU 
a  very  hl^h  tower,  as  If  the^  propoaed  by  meaus  of  It  to 
cllnb  lo  heaven;  but  lbs  e"'''S  ^j  ecndliig  atorma  of 
wind,  overthrew  tbe  tot —  — ''  — — '^  — ^ '  -  — 


td  Ballon'"  tfosephiif, 


le  city  a 


The  Sibyl  here  quoted  nuy  be  that  very  ancient 
'  otily  to  which  we  have  obecure  refer- 
s  (in  Ibe  diaconrae  of  Theopbilu*  lo  Aulolycua;  in 


nnder Polyhlslor—a mail  ofibe  highest cetcbrl» 
Its  and  Bttatnmenta,  In  the  e^llniatlou  of  Ihoee 
vho  are  Ihe  moat  profanudly  and  accuratety  leam- 
ihe  following  pasaiKe:  ■Eiipolenins,  In  bis  bonk 
HE  thaJewtof  Awyrl»,»ay«  tbaiihecityuf  Bab- 
1  flrsi  liiillt  by  those  who  bud  been  preserred  from 
m-  ihat  they  were  Kianta  [the  Greeks  used  Ibia 


;* 


..ryglva 


d>J:  that 


mighty  power  from  Oi>d,  and  cou'eqneutly  the  glaiita 
Mere  scnLtered  abroad  over  the  whole  eanb'"  (Kuseblu*, 
'^apar.  Srang.  col.  IMS). 

"  Pnribar,  with  reapect  to  the  nenallve  of  Hoses  con- 

rniiig  the  bnlldliis  of  Ihe  tower,  and  how.  (Tom  oiiH 

o-ns,  ihpy  were  ci 

e  axe  of  many  dli 
(Abydenns],  In  his  b 


s,  the  aothor  before 

his  conarniatli.n  In  tbesa  words !  "There  nri 
say  lliat  tho  flrst  men  spraogonc  of  the  earti 
boasted  of  ibrirslrength  andsliB:  that  they 
onsly  maintained  thamaelTea  lo  be  snperlnr  I 
that  tbey  erected  a  hrfty  tower  wkera  dow 
then,  when  It  had  been  carried  on  almoat  m 
winda  came  lo  aulal  ihe  gods,  and  ot 


I  Babyt'ou ; 

inhrew  the 
*ere  called 


called  Babylc 


ngbt  bythegodat 

iwliTch"t'i  . 

bylon,  ou  nc/rDDut  or  Iba  conrusliigof  Ihe 

with  respect  to  speech ;  for  the  llebrew* 

cull  coiifualou  Baber"(Bllseblus,PnejMr.£iiaii7.  Ii.  14), 

Abydenna,  the  Grecian  historian  of  A«>)-ria,i9  known 

lo  us  only  by  citations  in  Eueebi us,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 

and  Syncellu*,  but  they  confirm  bis  respectability  a*  a 

On  the  event  under  discuaaion,  see  Che  Latin  mono- 
giaph*  by  Linck  {Vilerab.  IBM),  ZobeU  (ibid.  1064), 
Schroeder  (Uraning.  176!),  Kanne  (Norimb.  1819),  and 
in  English  by  Wetlon  (Land.  1732) ;  alao  the  literature 
cited  by  Darling,  Cyclop.  BiHiag.  coL  179, 180. 

II.  PhUologUol  and  EtknoUnjical  Connderalbmi, — 
The  unity  of  the  human  r»n  is  moat  clearly  implied, 
if  not  poutively  aaserted,  in  the  Mosaic  wriiings.  The 
general  declaration  "So  God  created  man  in  his  own 
image, . . .  male  attd  female  created  he  them"  (Gen.  i, 
27)  ia  limited  ai  to  the  mode  in  which  the  act  was  car- 
ried out  by  the  subaequent  natrativo  of  tbe  creation 
of  the  protoplast  Adam,  who  stood  alone  on  tba  earth 
amid  the  lieaBia  of  the  Held  until  it  pleased  Jehoi'ah 
to  create  "an  help  meet  for  him"  out  of  Ihe  very  eub- 
«unce  of  hia  body  (ii,  22).  From  Ihi*  original  pair 
aprang  the  whole  antediluvian  papulation  nf  the  world; 
and  hence  the  author  of  the  book  of  Oeneaia  conceived 
the  unity  of  tbe  human  race  to  be  of  the  most  rigid 
(—not  simply  a  generic  unity,  nor,  again,  wmply 


y  (for 


nay  not 


plurality  of  original  ce 
ciGc  baaed  upon  a  numerical  unity,  the  epeciea  being 
nothing  else  than  tbe  enlargement  of  Ihe  indiviiluaL 
Such  appears  to  be  the  natural  meaning  of  the  flrst 
chaplen  of  Genesis  when  taken  by  themselves;  much 
more  so  when  read  under  Ihe  rvUecled  light  of  the  Mew 
Test. ;  for  not  only  do  we  meet  with  refcrcncea  lo  Ihe 
historical  fact  of  auch  an  origin  of  Ihe  human  race — 
e.  g.  in  Paul'*  declaiation  that  God  "  hath  made  of  one 
blood  evei7  nation  of  men  to  dwell  on  all  tbe  face  of 
the  earth"  (Acta  xvii,  S6)— but  the  same  ia  evi.lently 
implied  in  the  numerous  passage*  which  represent  Je- 
sus Christ  as  Ibe  counterpart  of  Adam  in  regard  lo  Ihe 
univeiaality  of  hia  conneclioii  uiib  the  human  race 
Attempts  have  iudeed  been  made  lo  show  that  ihi. 
idea  of  a  plurality  of  original  pairs  ia  not  incon«MenC 
with  the  Moaaic  writings;  but  there  ia  a  wide  diatinc- 
tion  between  a  view  not  inconsistent  with,  and  a  view 
drawn  from,  Ihe  words  of  Ihe  author:  the  latter  is 
foanded  upon  the  facis  he  relates,  as  well  as  bis  mode 
of  reeling  them ;  the  former  lakes  advantage  of  Ihe 
weakneasea  arising  out  of  a  concise  or  unmelhoiliral 
atyie  of  composilion.    Even  if  Buch  a  view  could  be 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      46« 


D  reference  to  ihe  lumtiTe  of  the  original 
creition  of  man,  U  muM  ineTiMlily  ful  in  reffreDcs  lo 
the  hiatury  of  the  repopiiUtiou  of  the  wartd  iu  the  pmt- 
di1uviBn»ge;  fur,  whi lever  objections  may  be  mnle  to 
the  liisLoricA]  accMncv  of  the  history  of  the  FLood^  it  ia 
at  all  events  clear  that  the  hi>tnrian  believed  in  the 
universal  dentruclion  uf  the  human  race,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Nnah  and  his  family,  and  consequently  that 
the  unity  of  the  human  race  was  ance  more  reduced  to 
one  of  a  numerical  cbiracier.  To  I^uali  the  historian 
traces  up  the  vhole  postdiluriin    population  of  the 

them  <iu  the  whole  esrth  overspread"  (Gen.  ix,  19). 

Unity  i>r  language  it  assumed  by  the  sacred  histori- 
an apparently  as  ■  condlary  of  the  unity  of  race.  No 
explanation  is  given  of  the  otijpn  of  speech,  but  its  ex- 
ercise is  evidently  regarded  a*  cneval  with  the  creation 
of  matL  No  support  can  be  obtained  in  bthalf  of  any 
ihcorv  on  this  subject  from  the  Hm  reconled  instance 
<if  iu  exercise  ("Ailaio  gave  names  to  all  cattle"),  for 
the  simiile  reason  that  this  notice  is  introiluelory  to 
what  follnws:  "but  fiT  Adam  there  was  ni.t  found  en 
lielp  meet  for  bim"  (Gen.  ii,  SO).  It  was  nut  so  much 
the  intention  of  the  writer  la  stale  the  fact  of  man's 
power  nf  speech  as  the  fact  of  the  inferiority  of  all  oth- 
er animals  to  him,  and  the  eonsequent  necesMty  for  the 
creation  of  woman.  The  proof  of  that  inferiority  ia, 
indeed,  most  appropriately  made  to  consist  in  Ibe  au- 
thoritative osugument  of  names,  implying  an  act  of 
reflection  on  their  several  nalutes  and  capacities,  an<l 
a  recognition  of  the  offices  which  thej  were  designed 
to  nil  in  the  economy  of  the  world.    The  exercise  uf 


e  of  re 


le  miod  (Xoyoc  iytia^ 


ward  expression  (\vyac  wpofopitaf)  is  fully  recognised. 
Speech,  being  thus  inherent  in  man  as  a  reflecting  be- 
ing, tvu  regarded  as  handed  down  from  father  to  son 
by  the  same  pmcesa  of  imitation  by  which  it  is  still 
perpetuated.  Whatever  divergence*  may  have  arisen 
in  the  antediluvian  period,  no  notice  is  taken  of  them, 
inasmuch  as  their  elTects  were  obllleraleil  by  the  uni- 
venni  catastrophe  uf  the  Flood.  The  original  unity  of 
speech  wai  restored  iu  Noah,  and  wouhl  naturally  be 
retained  by  his  descendants  as  long  as  they  were  held 
together  by  social  and  local  bonds. 

The  confusion  of  lunguca  and  the  dispcninn  of  na- 
tions are  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  as  cantemporaneoua 
events.  "  So  the  Lord  scattered  them  abroad"  is  stated 
as  the  execution  of  the  divine  counsel  "  Let  us  coii- 
foiiud  Iheir  language."  The  divergence  of  the  various 
families  iniodislincttribea  and  nations  ran  parallel  with 
the  divergence  of  speech  into  dialects  and  lan^ages, 
and  thus  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  la  posterior  in 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 

arising  out  of  the  differeneea,  the  other  out  of  the 


of  the  differeneea,  the  other  m 

reaem ounces,  01  existing  languages.  On  the  one  band, 
it  is  urged  that  the  differences  are  of  so  decisive  uil 
specifle  a  character  as  to  place  the  possibility  oTa  okii- 
mon  origin  wholly  out  of  the  question;  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  resemblances  do  nut  necessitate  the  tlie- 
ory  of  a  historical  unity,  but  may  be  aatialact«tilT  ac- 
counted for  on  psychological  principlen.  It  will  be  nit 
object  to  discusa  the  amount,  the  value,  and  Ibe  proba- 
ble origin  of  the  varieties  exhibited  by  languages, with 
a  view  to  meet  the  flratclaaa  of  ubjecl  ions.  But,  before 
proceeding  to  this,  we  will  make  a  few  remarks  on  tbc 

lify  any  conclusion  that  might  be  drawn  fmni  the  other, 
A  psycbologtcal  unity  is  not  neeesaarily  opposed  10 
a  gendlic  unity.  It  ia  perfectly  open  10  any  Ibeorirt 
to  comlnne  the  two  by  assuming  ibat  the  laiiRume  of 
the  one  protoplast  was  fuunrled  on  atrietly  iwychol^ical 
principles.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  a  paychohjgical 
unity  does  not  neceaidtaie  a  geiitilic  unity.  It  pemiiis 
of  the  theory  of  a  plurality  of  pnitopbuts,  wbo.unln' 
tbe  influence  of  the  same  psycbolngicul  laws,  anired  at 
similar  indepciidenC  rrsulu.  Whether  the  pheflame- 
na  of  language  are  consistent  with  such  a  tbeofv,  n 
think  extremely  doubtful;  certainly  they  cannot  fur- 
nish the  basil  of  ii.  Tbe  whole  i|ueatioD  of  the  origia 
of  language  lies  beyond  the  pale  of  historical  prwif,  and 
any  theory  connected  with  it  admita  neither  of  being 
proved  nor  disproved.  We  know,  as  a  matter  of  (act, 
that  language  la  communicated  from  one  geoeiaiion  la 
another  anldy  by  &rce  nf  imitation,  and  that  there  la 
no  play  whatever  fur  the  invenljve  faculty  in  refeieooe 
to  it.  But  in  what  manner  the  substance  of  Ean^age 
waa  originally  produced  «      ' 


d  again< 


n  onginl 


;nPn>t 


Agassii  cumparea  aimilarities  of  language  w 
of  the  eriea  of  animals  (Von  Bolilen,  iMrod,  A>  Cat  ii, 
378),  he  leaves  out  of  conaideralion  the  important  fact 
that  language  is  not  iilentical  with  mund,  and  that  the 
words  of  a  rational  being,  however  originally  produced, 
are  perpetuated  in  a  manner  wholly  distinct  fmen  ikal 
whereby  animals  learn  to  utter  their  cries.     Norilws 

lerv  of  its  origin  1  for,  though  a  very  large  number  of 
words  may  be  referred  either  directly  or  mediately  to 
the  principle  of  onomatopoia,  there  sre  other*— oi,  fur 


u  the  e' 


curded  ii 


ciith  chapter.  Both  passages 
sirlcration  in  any  disquisition  on  the  early  f»rti 
the  human  race.  We  propose,  therefore,  to  iiu^ 
the  Hrst  place,  how  far  modem  reaearchei  into  the  phe- 
nomena of  language  favor  the  it 
a  time  when  "  the  whole  earth 
language  1  and.  In  the  aecond  place,  whether  theelhno- 
liigical  views  exhibileil  in  the  Uosaic  (able  accord  with 
the  evidence  furnished  by  history  and  language,  both 
in  regard  10  the  special  facts  reconled  in  it  and  in  the 
general  scriptural  view  of  a  historical,  or,  mure  properly, 
■  genlilic,  unity  of  the  human  race.  1'hese  questions, 
though  independent,  yet  exercise  a  reflexive  influeiKe 
on  each  other's  results.  Unity  of  speech  doea  not  nee- 
eaaarily  involve  uuity  of  race,  nor  yet  rice  rrrsa ,'  but 
each  enhances  the  probability  of  tbe  other,  and  there- 
fore the  argumenu  ilarived  from  language,  physiology, 
and  history  may  ultimately  fumith  a  cumulative  amount 
nf  probabUity  which  will  fall  but  little  below  demon- 

<A.)  The  advocate  of  the  hiatoricalunity  of  language 


do  not  admit  of  stKh  an  explanation.  In  short,  Ihii 
and  other  similar  theurie*  cannot  be  reconciled  wilk 
tbe  inUmate  connection  evidently  existing,  between 
reason  and  speech,  which  is  so  well  expre«d  in  the 
Greek  language  by  the  application  of  the  term  \i- 
yof  tA  each,  reason  being  itothing  else  than  iuwaid 
speech,  and  speech  nothing  else  than  outward  reaHn, 
neither  of  them  posseswng  an  independent  eiiiteim 
without  the  otber.  As  we  conceive  that  the  ptydio- 
logical  as  opposed  10  tbe  gentilic  unity  involrei  qoes- 
tions  connected  with  the  origin  oT  language,  we  caa 
only  aay  that  in  this  respect  it  falla  oulaide  the  rai^ 

Heveriingto  the  otberclasa  of  objections,  we  procetd 
Co  review  the  extent  of  the  differences  observable  ia 
the  languages  of  t  he  world  in  order  lo  ascertain  vhetli' 
er  they  are  such  as  to  preclude  the  poaaibilityof  aconi- 

pcrfect,  both  from  Che  magnitude  of  the  oubjecl  aod 
also  from  the  position  of  the  linguistic  acience  itsdf, 
which  as  yet  has  hardly  advanced  beyond  the  stags  of 
infancj-.  On  the  latter  point  we  wouUI  observe  llisl 
the  most  important  links  between  tbe  various  langusge 
families  may  yet  be  discovered  in  language*  that  an 
ither  unexplored  or,  at  all  evento,  unplaced.  Mtaa- 
vhile.  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  tendency  of  all  lia- 
I  tbe  direction  of  unity.    Aheady 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      467      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


tiinnti  gniK,  in  *gr,  and  in  eragnpbical  pontion  u  { 
SuiscriC  111(1  Enelioh,  Celtic  and  Qreek.  It  hu  done 
th«  ume  Tar  other  groupB  of  Langua^ea  eqiLall^  widely 
HtendBl,  but  prewnling  leaa  opporlunitiea  or  iuvetti- 
gWHin.  It  bas  recognispd  affiniiiea  lieltieen  language! 
whicb  the  ancient  lireek  ethnoloptt  would  have  claiaed 
uiidtr  the  head  of  "  baibarian"  in  reference  lo  each 
other,  and  even  in  many  iiiatancea  where  the  modem 
philoIifUt  hai  aniicipiLed  no  lelalioiialiip.  The  lines 
of  dtMsvet}',  tbercrure,  punt  in  one  direction,  and  Ta- 
vgt  the  expectaliwi  that  the  varioiu  familiea  may  be 
conbiiied  by  the  discovery  of  connecting-link)  intu  ■ 
Hni{k  family,  euoipreheitilinft  in  >U  capaciuus  boxim 
all  ihe  langua^^  of  the  world.  Hut,  should  aitch  a 
mull  never  be  attaineil,  the  probability  of  a  commou 
unKln  would  Hill  remain  unsbikea;  for  the  failure 
uroukl  probably  be  due  In  the  abnence,  in  many  claaaea 
uhI  ramiltea,  o(  that  chain  of  historical  evidence  which 
in  the  caae  of  the  liido-Kurupean  and  Shemitic  families 


irprogrm 


relhref 


phtMogbn  II 


nany  lauguagea 

mcienc  literature,  exiata  to  uipply  the 
materlalfl  for  comparative  atudy:   in 
n  only  be  by  liboriau*  research  into 
eiiuing  dialecia  that  the  original  forms  of  woida  can 

with  wbich  time  bai  obecared  tbem. 

In  dealing  with  the  phenomena  of  langaaji;e,  we 
(iHNld  duly  conaider  the  plastic  naiure  of  the  material 
mil  of  wbich  it  it  formed,  and  the  numeroua  iufluenoea 
ts  which  it  ia  auhjecL  Variety  in  unity  ia  a  general 
taw  of  nature,  to  whicb  even  the  moat  atubbom  phya- 
reaily  obedience^    In  the  caie 


ibevi 


pa,  the  working  of  ei 


t  we  miglit  a  prton  eapect  tt  to  a 

e  Srat  place,  it  is  brought  into  clo 
ipirit  of  man,  and  reflect!  with  atna 
lleaa  varialiona.  adapting  ilaelf  to  tl 
h  feeling,  (he  designation  of  each  o 


«,  auch  aa  peculiar 


«.hject  to 
a  of  the  organ 


eilernal  inUi 
uf  Bpeech,  thi 

gvognphical  position,  or  of  hibiu  of  life  and 
Itooi  of  an  accidental  character.  In  the  third  place, 
it  b  generally  affected  by  the  alate  of  intellectual  and 
agcial  culture  of  a  people,  as  manifested  more  especially 
in  (he  presence  or  absence  of  a  standard  literary  dialect, 
tnd  in  the  proceaies  of  verbal  and  syntactical  sir 
which  again  react  on  the  very  cure  of  the  wo 
produce  a  variety  of  sound-mutations.  LastI; 
aubjected  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  time  and  use,  t 
aiing,  aa  ia  an  old  coin,  the  anginal  impreta 
Wiml,  reducing  it  in  bulk,  producing  now  combinations, 
and  occaaionally  leading  to  aingular  inlerehanges  of 
Muod  and  idea.  The  varieties  resulting  from  the  mod- 
ifying inSuenees  above  enumerated  may  be  reduced  to 
two  claacs,  according  aa  they  affect  tlie  formal  or  the 
radical  elonents  of  language. 
(L)  Widely  as  language*  now  difler  from  each 

■be  eipresaion)  out  of  wbich  they  have  sprung  appears 
u  have  been  iu  all  caaee  the  same.  A  aubatratum  of 
•ignifteant  monoa^'lUhic  roots  underlies  the  whole  alruct- 
ure,  upplying  the  maleriata  necessary,  not  only  for  or- 
dinary predication,  but  also  for  what  ia  usually  termed 
the  "  growth**  of  language  nut  of  its  pritnary  into  ita 
msec  complicated  r>imu.  It  is  necesury  to  point  Ibis 
Mt  clearly  in  onler  that  we  may  not  be  led  to  suppose 

tndiMd  with  any  greater  viialiiy  than  those  of  another. 
Koch  a  dlalinctioti,  if  it  existed,  would  go  far  to  prm'c 
a  aptdOe  difference  between  Unguogea,  which  could 
hantly  be  racockciled  with  the  idea  of  their  common 
crigia.    The  appearance  o[  vitality  aiisl 

•BBiipglalaMi  of  the  imU  by  the  human 

MiUatu  in  the  loMs  thMudrti. 


1.  The  proofa  of  this  original  equality  are  fumiahed 
by  the  languages  themselves.  Adopting  for  tbe  present 
the  threefold  morphohigical  claaailicalion  inio  isolating, 
agglutinative,  and  inflecting  languages,  we  shall  flud 
that  no  original  element  exists  in  the  one  which  does 
not  also  exiai  in  the  other.  Wiih  regard  lo  the  isolat- 
ing class,  the  terms  "monoayltabic''  and  "radical,"  by 

character.  Languages  of  this  claas  are  wholly  unsus- 
ceptible of  grammatical  mutations;  there  is  no  formal 
distinction  between  verb  and  noun,  subaiantive  and  ad- 
jective, preposil  ion  and  Gonjunclion ;  there  are  no  in- 
flections, no  case  or  person  terTniiialiona  of  any  kind; 
the  bare  root  forma  the  sole  and  whole  substance  of  the 
language.  In  regard  to  tbe  other  two  clasaes,  it  ia 
necessary  to  establish  the  two  distinct  points— (I)  that 
the  formal  elements  represent  roots,  and  (!)  that  the 
roots  both  of  the  formal  aud  the  radical  eletnenta  of  the 
word  are  moTiosy liable  Now  it  may  be  satisfactorily 
proved  by  analyais  that  all  the  component  parts  of  both 
inflecting  and  aggluti native  languages  are  reducible  ID 
two  kinda  of  roots,  predicable  and  pronominal— the  for- 
mer supplying  the  msterisl  element  of  verbs,  substan- 
tives, and  adjectivesi  the  laller  that  of  conjunclions, 
prepontions,  and  particle* ;  while  each  kind,  but  more 
poniculariy  the  pronominal,  supplies  the  formal  eleoien  t, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  lerminallons  of  verbis  substan- 
tives, and  adjectives.  Whether  the  two  classes  of  roots, 
predicable  and  pronominal,  are  further  reducible  lo  one 
class  is  a  point  that  has  been  discussed,  but  has  not  as 
yet  been  established  (Bopp,  Compar.  Oram.  §  1Q&; 
Itluller,  Lrctura,  p.  S69).  We  have  further  to  show 
that  the  roots  of  agglutinative  and  inflecting  languages 
are  monoayllsblc.  This  ia  an  acknowledged  characiei^ 
iatic  of  the  Indo-European  family:  mooosylUbiam  is. 
indeed,  the  oidy  feature  which  ils  roots  bave  in  coin- 
tnon ;  in  other  respects  they  exhibit  ever;  kind  of  va- 
riation, from  a  uniiiteral  root,  auch  aa  i  (trr),  up  >o  com- 
binatluns  of  five  letters,  such  as  lamd  (icimdire),  tbe 
total  number  of  admissible  forms  of  root  amounting  to 
no  leaa  than  eight  (Schleicher,  S  '206).  In  the  Sheroil- 
it  family  monosyllabism  ia  not  tpiima/arrit  chancter- 

liibit  biai'ltabism  with  such  remaiksblc  uniformity  that 
it  would  lead  to  ihe  impression  Ihat  the  roots  also  must 
bave  been  bis)-ilablc  The  biayllabiam,  however,  of 
the  Sbemiiic  aiem  ia  in  reality  trlconsonsnlalism,  the 
vowels  not  forming  any  part  of  the  essence  of  Ihe  toot, 
but  being  wholly  subordinau  to  the  consananla.     It  is 

riconsonantat  root  may  be  In  certain  combinations  uni- 
syllable  But,  further,  it  ia  more  than  probable  that 
the  triconsonautal  baa  been  e^'olved  out  of  a  biconso- 
nantsl  root,  which  must  necessarily  be  iinisyllatHC  if, 
the  coiwoiisnts  stand,  aa  they  invariably  do  in  tihemitic 
roots,  at  Ihe  beginning  and  end  rif  the  wunl.  With  re- 
gard tg 


thesa 


olatingand  inflcciiu, 
ing  OS  it  does  an  intermediate  place  between  those  op- 
posite poles  ill  Ibe  world  of  language. 

3.  From  iheoonslderation  of  the  crude  materials  of  lan- 
guage, we  pass  on  to  the  varieties  exhibiicdin  its  struct- 
ure, with  a  view  to  ascertain  whether  In  these  there 
exiata  any  bar  lo  the  idea  of  an  origiiul  unity.  (I.) 
Iteverting  to  the  claasiHcation  already  noticed,  we  have 
lo  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  principle  on  which 
based  is  Ibe  nature  of  Ihe  connection  existing  be- 


I.    In 
arc  kept  wholly  distinct!  relali 
by  juxlaposilioii  or  by  ai'nia 


HI  of  Ihe  roota.  In  ibe  aggluti- 
la  the  relaltonal  demenu  are  attached  to  tbe 
ir  predicable  theme  by  a  mechanical  kind  of 
he  individuality  of  each  being  preserved  even 
ibined  state.   Iu  Ibe  iuSecting  ctoii  tbe  June- 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      468      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OK 

Other  meiubera  with  ■  decided  impreiB  of  indiridoililf. 
The  inreience  to  be  dnwn  from  the  number  awl  lAw 

nther  than  olliemiK,  to  [ha  theory  of  »n  oripiul  Mri- 
ly.  Starling  frum  the  t»mt  common  ground  of  bhw- 
syllabic  imts,  each  lanKnage- family  liaa  carriHl  oul  it* 
own  ipecial  line  of  development,  following  an  eriginal 
impulie,  the  eiiiMS  and  nature  of  which  muu  rcmun 
probably  forever 


pared  to  a  chemical  combination,  the  predicable  aiul 
relational  elementa  being  lo  fimed  together  aa  t»  pre- 
•ent  the  appearauce  of  a  Bin|;le  and  indivisible  word, 
[t  ia  clear  that  there  exi<)s  no  iimipsrablc  barrier  to 
nriginal  nnity  in  these  differences,  from  (he  simple  fact 
that  ei'ery  inflecting  language  must  once  have  Iweii 
aggliitinaiive,  and  every  agglutiiialive  linguago  once 
iiolHiiitg.  If  the  predicable  and  relatioiul  elenwnta  of 
an  isalaiing  language  be  linked  figelher,  either  lo  the 
eye  or  the  ear,  it  ia  rendered  agglutinative;  if  the  ma- 
terial anil  formal  parts  are  pronounced  as  one  word, 


,if  ni 


poiation,  the  lanfruagi 
second  place,  it  shnulii  tie  noted  mat  t 
are  not  separated  Frnm  each  other  by 
"     ,    Not      ■     ■ 


iflecling.     (3.)  In  (he 

nat  thew!  three  claaae* 

sharp  line  of 


the  quality  predominant  in  each  other,  bjt,  more 
each  gnduaies  into  iia  neighbor  through  its  bord' 
membeti.  The  isolating  languages  are  not  wholli 
lacing:  they  avail  themselves  of  certain  words  ■ 
lational  particles,  though  these  still  reUin  elsewhere 
theit  independent  character;  they  also  use  composi 
though  not  strictly  compound,  words.     The  agglutii 

Turkish  classes  of  the  Ural-Altaian  family  are  in  o 
tain  instances  inflectional,  the  relational  adjunct  bei 
fully  incorporated  with  the  predicable  stem,  and  having 
undergone  a  large  amount  of  attrition  for  that  purp 
Hot,  again,  are  the  inflectional  languages  wholly  int 
tional;  Hebrew,  forinstance.abounds with  agglutinai 
forms,  and  also  avails  itself  largely  of  separate  parti 
far  the  expression  of  relational  ideas ;  our  own  I 
guage,  though  classed  as  inflecllnnal,  retains  nothing 
more  than  the  resiiges  of  inflection,  and  lain  many  re- 
spects as  isolating  and  ju:ttaporitional  as  any  language 
of  that  class.    While,  therefore,  the  classiAcation  holds 
good  with  regard  In  the  predominant  characters  of  the 
classes,  it  does  notimply  diOerencesof  a  ipeciflc  natur 
(3.)  But,  further,  the  morpholoKical  vaitelie*  of  In 
guage  are  nnt  conlined  to  the  exhibition  of  the  sing" 
principle  hitherto  described.    A  comparison  between 
the  westerly  branches  of  the  Ural-Allaian.  on  thi 
hand,  and  the  Indo-European,  on  the  other,  belonging 
respectively  tn  the  agglntinatire  and  inflectional  claw- 
es,  will  show  that  the  quantitative  anwunt  of  synthesis 
is  fully  as  pmminent  a  point  of  contrast  as  the  qualj 
latire.     The  combination  of  primary  and  subonlinate 
terms  may  lie  more  perfect  in  the  Indo-European,  but 
it  ia  more  exten^vely  employed  in  the  Ural-Altaian 
family.    The  former,  for  instance,  appenda  to  its  verbsl 
stems  the  notionsof  time,  number,  person,  and  ncci 
ally  of  interrogation;  the  latter  further  adda  an 
indicative  of  negation,  hypothesis,  causal  ivenesss,  re- 
flexivencss,  ami  other  similar  ideas,  whereby  the  word 

former  appends  to  its  substantival  items  sufflxes  of  cue 
and  number;  the  latter  adda  governing  particles,  ren- 
dering them  post-positional  instead  of  pre-positional, 
and  combining  them  synthetically  with  the  predicable 
stem.  If.  again,  we  compare  the  Shemilie  with  the 
Indo-European  languages,  we  shall  find  a  morphdog- 
ical  ilixlinctinn  of  an  equally  diverse  character,  tn  the 
former  the  grammatical  category  ia  expressed  by  inter- 
nal vowel-changes,  in  the  latter  by  external  suAlxes, 
So  markeil  a  distinction  has  not  unnaturally  been  con- 
stituted the  basis  of  ■  chusiHcalion,  wherein  the  lan- 
guages that  adopt  this  system  of  internal  flection  stand 
by  themselves  as  a  separate  class,  in  contradistinction 
to  those  which  either  use  terminalioiial  additions  for 
the  same  purpose,  or  which  dispense  wholly  with  jitflec- 
tional  forms  (Bopp,  Compar.  GramA,  102).  The  angu- 
lar use  of  prefurmativea  in  the  Coptic  language  is,  again, 
a  morphological  peculiarity  of  a  very  ilccidal  character. 
Even  within  the  same  family,  say  the  Indo-Kuropean, 
each  language  exhibila  an  idiosyncrasy  in  its  morpbo- 
kigicat  character  whereby  it  stands  out  apart  from  the 


ijeclure.  We  cat 
ceive,  iiMieeo,  in  a  general  way,  the  adaptation  o 
tain  IWms  of  speech  lo  certain  statee  of  society, 
agglutinative  languages,  for  instance,  seem  to  bt 
cially  adapted  to  the  nomadic  stai 
'  "   ■  '  '     hich  they  ■ 


ilion  would  be  facilitated  betweei 


.^''poliii. 


languages  deriv< 
uniformity  and  solidity  from  the 
of  Central  Asia,  wbich  have  in  all  age 
proper  habitat.  So,  again,  the  inflection 
culli*al«d  iliDught  and  social  orginitali 
guage*  have  hence  been  termed  "  state* 
Heino^llabisin,  on  the  other  hand,  is  pr 
suited  to  the  moat  primitive  stage  <if  thought  and  in- 
ciely,  wherein  the  family  or  the  individual  is  the  oind- 
ard  by  wbich  things  an  regulated  (Mailer,  Philai.  iif 
Hul,  I,  285).  We  should  hesitate,  however,  to  prw 
this  theory  aa  furnishing  an  adequate  explanation  of 
the  dilTerenees  obsen'able  in  language-familie*.  The 
IiHlo-EuMpean  languages  attained  their  high  argaaia- 


■s  those  wherein  thcaggli 
ured,  and  we  should  raihi 
the  language  and  the  higher  social 
as  the  concurrent  results  of  a  higl 


languages  were  noit- 

iposed  to  regard  both 

of  the  fonari 


St  betwe 


n  the  SI 


in  to  the  varieties  of  stuU 
'  degree  of  analt^  will 
I  and  class,  nr  between  fn 


i  not  admit  of  ei- 
planalion  by  a  compaiison  with  others.  The  alMim 
of  all  grammatical  forms  in  an  isolating  langiiif^  m- 
cessitatea  a  rigid  cnlloeation  of  the  wokIh  in  a  ttnteiMC 
aceonling  to  logical  principles.  The  same  law  [nevsilt 
to  a  very  great  extent  in  our  own  language,  wbcnin 
the  subject,  verb,  and  object,  or  the  subject,  cnpuls,  ami 


![  exhibi 


T  hold  th 


being  easily  brought  into  harmony  with  tluit 
law.  In  the  aggtulinarive  language*  the  law  of  ar- 
rangement is  that  the  principal  woid  shouhl  come  \tn 
in  the  sentence,  ever^  qualifying  clause  or  wnni  |ire> 
ceding  it,  and  being, is  it  were,  susulned  by  it.  Tb( 
syntactical  is  thua  the  reverse  of  the  verbal  sirurlure. 
the  princi|>al  notion  taking  the  precedence  in  ihe  latin 
(Ewald,  Spradnc.  A  biandl.  ii,  29).  There  ia  in  ihiaBOth- 
ing  peculiar  to  this  class  of  languages,  beyond  the  great- 
er uniformity  with  which  Ihe  arrnngcmenl  is  ailliend 
to :  it  ia  the  general  nile  in  the  classical,  and  the  oca- 
HOnal  rule  in  certain  of  the  Teutonic,  languages.  Ia 
the  Shemitie  family  the  reverse  armngement  prevail!: 
theqnnlifyingadjectivea  follow  the  noun  to  which  tbfT 
belong,  and  the  verb  generally  stanila  lint;  shore  tm- 
fences  are  necessitated  by  such  a  collocation,  and  hence 
more  room  is  allowed  for  the  influence  of  emphasit '» 
deciding  the  order  of  the  sentence.  In  illustraiian  sf 
grammatical  peculiaiiliea,  we  may  notice  Ihsl  in  the 
agglnlinaiive  class  adjectives  qualifying  substanlini. 
or  substantives  placed  in  apposition  with  sobstanliiei, 
remain  iindcclined;  in  this  case  the  process  msy  be 
compared  with  the  formation  of  compound  words  in  ibe 
(mlo-European  languages,  where  the  final  member  slxnt 
is  inflected.  So.  again,  the  omiasioii  of  a  plural  temias- 
tion  in  nouns  following  a  numeral  may  be  paralMed 
with  a  similar  usage  in  nur  own  language,  wbr      l» 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      469      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


Imn" pound"  and  "head"  ire  UMd  CDllecdvel/  ■ftera 
suiMnL  We  may  ngiin  cite  the  peculuc  niiniier  of 
uprewDg  the  genitive  in  Hebrew.  Tbu  u  effect- 
ed by  one  of  (be  two  fulloxiiig  metbodB — plieing  tbe 

tililire  pronoun  with  a  prepoMtiou  befure  tbe  gnvernod 
caie.  Tbe  Snt  of  IheaepncsiKB  appears  a  Uringe  ill- 
vcnim  or  Ihe  laws  of  Un|;i»ge;  but.  an  enamiiiaiitin 
inUi  Ihe  origin  of  the  ailjiincu,  whether  prefixes  nr  af- 
HiH,  uBHl  in  other  languages  fnr  the  indiratioii  of  the 
gniidre  will  ahow  that  tbe?  have  a  mora  iutimale 
oiniKelion  with  the  governing  [hail  with  the  governed 
wimLand  ihat  they  are  generally  resolvable  iiila  either 
nlaiive  or  personal  pranouns,  which  serve  tbe  nmple 
IwrpoH  of  cunnecting  the  two  words  together  (liamett, 
£myi,  p.  2J4-227).  The  unu  end  may  be  gaineil  by 
cuiUKCIing  Ihe  words  in  pronunciation,  which  would 
1ml  to  a  rapid  utterance  of  the  first,  and  conse(|ucnily 
In  tbe  changes  which  are  witncued  in  tbe  tialat  tvn- 
^ncltt  The  wciind  ur  periphrastic  proceaa  i»  in  ac- 
eonlsDce  with  the  general  method  of  expmuiug  Ihe 
geniiiie;  Ibr  the  eipresaion  "tjie  Sung  nhicb  it  U> 
SoIodod''  strictly  answeii  to  "  Soloimn's  Song,"  the  j 
rrpmiDling  (according  to  Bopp'i  eiplanaiiun)  a  cum- 
bimion  of  the  deisDniiiraliTe  (t  and  the  relative  yii. 

Bbown  10  be  consistent  nitb  unity  of  law,  and  that  they 
ilHrcfore  furnish  no  argument  against  a  common  origin. 
1.  Lastly,  it  may  be  sbown  that  Ihe  varieties  of  lan- 
giuge  do  not  arise  from  any  constitutional  inequality 
uf  villi  euergy.  Nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the 
compensating  power  apparently  inherent  in  all  lan- 
guage, whereby  it  Snds  the  means  of  reaching  Ihe  level 
•it  the  human  sfiirit  through  a  fsithrul  adherence  to  its 
own  guiding  principle.  The  isolatinglanguacea,  being 
ihut  out  from  (he  maniroUl  advantages  of  verbal  com. 
piisiiion,  attain  their  nbject  by  muliiplieil  combinations 
uf  rsdical  sounds,  assiiUed  hv  an  elaborate  lyetein  nfac- 
'  ' '  'lis  manner  the  Chinese 
vocabulary  fully  equal  to  the 
and  though  this  mode  ofdevel- 
id  ilKlf  to  our  notions  as  the 
miMellWliTe  that  can  be  iloviied.  yet  it  plainly  evincea 
a  bigli  Huccptibility  on  the  part  of  the  linguistic  fse- 
iillv,  and  •  keen  perception  of  the  correapondence  be- 
tween Mund  arvd  sciibg.    Nor  does  the  absence  of  in- 

drikate  shades  of  meaning  in  a  sentence;  acompensat- 
iiig  raoiim  is  found  partly  in  a  multiplicity  of  aub- 
•iiliaiy  terms  expressive  of  plurality,  motion,  si 
etc,  and  partly  in  strict  attention  to  syntactical  arrsnge- 
oaiL  Theagglulinalive  languages,  again,  are  dclicieiit 
in  niaipaund  words,  and  in  this  respect  lack  the  elastic- 
ity ami  eipanajveneH  of  the  Indo-Kutiipean  family;  but 
they  are  eminently  synthetic,  and  no  one  can  fail  tc 
admire  the  regularity  and  salidity-with  which  ita  wordi 
an  built  up,  suffix  on  suffix,  and,  when  built  up,  an 
saKittd  with  ■  uniformity  of  lint  by  the  law  <if  vowel- 
barmooy.  The  Shemillc  languages  have  worked  out  a 
difltnnt  principle  of  groKth,  evolved,  not  improbably, 
in  Ihe  midgi  of  a  conflict  between  the  systems  uf  pretix 

M  both  ritrcmitlcs,  was  precluded  from  all  external  in- 
craanit,  and  was  farced  back  into  such  chsnges  as  could 
be  effected  by  a  modiScation  of  iu  vowel-sounds.  But 
whairiii  may  be  the  origin  of  the  system  of  internal 
inlbciion.  il  mutt  be  conceded  that  Ihe  results  are  very 
eftctive,  u  regards  both  economy  of  material  and  sim- 
.    pliciiy  and  digniiy  of  stvlc. 

The  mult  of  the  foregoing  obscrvalloiis  is  In  show 
that  lilt  fumul  varittiea  of  btngiiage  preseni  no  obsta- 
cle la  tbe  theory  of  a  cocnman  origin.    Amid  these  va- 

ia  the  grigiaal  material  out  of  which  language  was 
lbniKd,in  the  stages  offumalioa  through  which  it  has 
lisaaail,  in  ibe  general  principle  of  r 
■Ks,  and,  UitlT,  in  Iha  spirit  ar 


tbe  development  of  Ibeae  various  formations, 
result,  tbougb  it  does  not  prove  Ihe  unity  of  la 
n  respect  to  its  radical  elements,  nevertheless  t 
slablish  the  a  priori  probability  of  this  unity 
til  ooiinected  with  the  forms  of  language  maj 


origni  U 


ir  arbitr 


1  of  them 


surely  favors  tbe  presumption 
would  extend  to  the  formation  of  the  roolH, 
e  the  very  core  and  kernel  of  language.  Here, 
lighteipect  lofind  the  operation  nf  fixed  laws 
kind  or  other,  producing  results  of  ■  uniform 
character;  here,  loo,  actual  variety  may  not  be  iocon- 
ustsnt  with  original  unity. 

(II.)  Before  entering  on  tbe  subject  of  the  radical 
identity  of  languages,  we  must  express  our  conviction 

as  to  tbe  possibility  of  establishing  it  by  proof.  Let  us 
brielly  review  the  difficultiea  that  beset  the  question. 
Every  word  as  it  appears  in  an  organic  language,  wheth- 
er written  or  spoken,  is  resolvable  into  two  distinct  ele- 
ments, which  we  have  termed  predicsblc  and  formal, 
the  flrst  being  what  is  commonly  called  the  root,  ihe 
second  the  grammatical  termination.  In  point  of  fact, 
lenta  consist  of  independent  roots;  and 
tbe  radical  identity  of  two  languages, 
it  must  be  shown  that  they  agree  in  both  respects,  that 
is,  in  regard  both  to  the  predicable  and  the  formal  roots. 
As  a  matter  of  experience,  it  ia  found  that  Ihe  formal 
elements  (consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  pronomiiml 
bases)  exhibit  ■  greater  lenaclly  of  life  than  the  others; 
and  hence  agreement  of  inflectional  forms  is  Justly  rt- 
gardal  as  furnishing  a  strong  presumption  of  general 
radical  identity.  Even  foreign  elemenls  are  forced  into 
the  formal  mould  of  the  language  into  which  they  are 
adopted,  and  thus  bear  testimony  to  the  original  char- 
acter of  that  language^  But  though  such  a  formal 
agi'eemcnt  supplies  the  philologist  wilh  a  most  valuable 
iiiBlrument  of  investigation,  it  cannot  be  accepted  as  ■ 
substitute  fur  complete  radical  agreement;  this  would 
still  remain  to  be  proved  by  an  independent  examina- 
tion of  the  predicable  elements.  The  diflicuUics  con- 
nected with  these  latter  are  many  and  varieil.  Aa- 
sumlng  that  two  langaagea  or  langnage-families  are 
under  comiuirisoii,  the  phuuolngical  laws  of  each  must 
be  invesligateil  in  order  to  arrive,  in  the  first  place,  at 

they  occur,  and,  in  ilic  second  pbice,nl  the  corresponding 
forms  in  the  IsiiKuago  Kbich  conslilules  the  other  mem- 
her  of  comparison,  as  has  been  done  by  (iiimm  for  the 
Teutonic  as  compared  with  the  Sanscrit  and  the  classical 
languages.  The  genealogy  of  sound,  as  we  may  term 
it,  must  be  followed  up  by  a  genealogy  of  signitlcalion, 
a  mere  outward  accoiilance  of  sound  and  sense  in  two 
terms  being  of  nn  value  wbalcver,  unless  a  radical  affin- 
ity be  proved  by  an  indcpeudent  examination  of  Ihe 

quiml  bow  far  tlie  ultimate  acconlance  of  sense  anil 
sound  may  be  the  result  nf  oiiomalt>pa:ia,  of  mere  bor- 
rowing, or  of  a  possible  mixture  of  languages  on  equal 
terms.  Tbe  flnal  stage  in  etymological  inquiry  is  to 
decide  Ihe  limit  to  which  cuuiparison  may  be  carried  in 
Ibe  primilive  strata  of  language — in  other  words,  bow 
far  ronis,  as  ascertained  from  groups  of  words,  may  be 
compared  wilh  roots,  and  reduced  lo  yet  simpler  ele- 
menlaiy  forms.  Any  fisw  in  the  proceeaes  above  de- 
scribed will,  of  course,  iuvslidala  the  whole  result.  Even 
where  the  philologist  is  provided  with  ample  maieriala 
for  inquiry  in  stores  of  literature  ranging  over  long  pe- 
riods of  time,  much  difficulty  is  extirrirnccd  in  making 
good  each  link  in  the  chain  of  agreement ;  and  yet  in 
such  cases  Ihe  dialectic  varieties  have  been  kept  wilh- 


ary  language, 


It  by  II: 


a  lite 


impressing  its  autboriuiive 
as  secured  both  ibcir  general 

(he  case  with  Ibe  gvuersl  mass  uf  language* 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      470      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


ill  the  worlil,  the  dilHcultiea  »n  iiiflnitelf  increu«l  by 
(be  combined  effecia  of  a  pruliflc  grnwth  or  diilectic 
loimt,  iiid  *ii  abuiica  at  lU  mcana  of  truing  out  their 
pragrcn.  Whether,  under  tbtw  circuiDUtncpa,  we  may 
teuanably  expect  lo  ettabliiih  a  radical  unity  of  lan- 
guage is  •  queatinn  which  each  person  mult  decii" 
himseir.  Much  may  yet  be  Uoiie  by  a  larger  inriu 
and  ■  scientiHc  aoalyiia  i>f  linguigca  [hat  are  yet 
paratively  unknown.  The  tendency  hitherto  hu 
to  enlarge  the  liinii«ofa"family"  according  as  thoele- 
menta  of  affinity  have  been  recognised  in  outlying  mem- 
ben.  These  liioita  may  perchance  be  still  mora  en- 
larged by  the  discovery  of  connecting-links  between  the 
languiige-rBinilies,  whereby  the  cri-erii  of  relationship 
will  be  modified,  and  new  elements  of  internal  unity  Ik 
discovered  amid  the  mmifotd  appearances  of  external 


Meanwhile  we  mnst  content  ourselves  w 
the  present  poaition  uf  the  linguistic  scienc 
ence  u  this  important  topic.  In  the  drst  place,  the 
liido-Earopean  languages  have  been  reduced  to  an  ac- 
knowledged and  well-deSned  relationship :  they  form 
one  of  the  two  families  included  under  the  head  of  "in- 
fleedonarin  tbe  morphological  classification.  The  oth- 
er family  in  (his  class  is  the  (su-called)  Shemitic,  thi 


fined,  ii 


IS  it  may  be  extended  over  what  are  termed  the  sub- 
Shemitic  languages,  including  the  E^ptian  or  Cnplic 
The  criteria  of  the  proper  Shemitic  family  (i.  e.  the 
Aramesiri,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Elhiopic  languages) 


ough,    t 


n   betw. 


n  the 


Shemitic  and  the  Egyptian  is  not  definitely  established. 
Some  phitologiats  are  ioclined  di  claim  fur  the  latter  an 
Independent  pnsition,  intermediile  between  tbe  Indo- 
European  and  Shemitic  families  (Dunsen,  PAil  oflJul. 
i,  185  sq.).  The  aju^ntinalive  languages  of  Europe  and 
Ana  are  combined  by  Prof.  M.  Muller  in  one  famUy 
named  "Turanian."  It  is  conceded  that  the  family  bond 
in  this  case  Is  a  loose  one,  and  that  the  sgreemetit  in 
Toota  is  very  partial  (/>clurM,  p.  290-292),  Many  phi- 
li^gists  of  high  standing,  and  more  particularly  Pott 
(C/'^nrA.if.mmscA.  A(Mfm,p.232),dcnythG  family  re- 
Ulionshtp  altogether,  and  break  up  the  agglutinative 
bngiiages  into  a  great  number  of  families.  Certain  it 
ia  tliat  within  the  Turanian  circle  there  are  languages — 
anch,  fur  instance,  as  the  Ural- Altaian— which  show  so 
close  an  affinity  to  one  another  as  lo  be  entitled  to  form 
a  separate  division,  either  as  a  ramily,or  a  sublirinon 
oTa  family;  and,  thb  being  the  ca»e,  we  should  heutale 
lo  put  Ihem  on  a  [>arify  of  footing  with  the  remainder 
of  the  Turanian  languages.  Tho  Caucasian  group, 
■gain,  dilfeTS  so  widely  from  the  other  members  of  Ihe 
family  as  to  make  the  relationship  veiy  dubious.  The 
monosyllabic  language*  of  Suoth-eaateni  Asia  are  not 
included  in  the  Turanian  family  by  Prof.  M.  Muller 
(_Uclurn,  p.  290,  828),  apparently  on  the  ground  that 
they  are  not  igglutinilive;  Initas  the  Chinese  appears 
lo  be  connected  radically  with  tbe  Burmvw  (Humboldt, 
lWirhif.1.  p.  868),  wiih  the  Thibelan  (/"AiV.  "/  Ifitt  i, 
89J-395),and  with  the  Ural-Allaian  language*  (Schol I, 
in.4M.,4ft.a!ri:iSG1.p.lT2),  it  seems  to  have  a  good 
title  lo  be  placed  in  the  Turanian  lamily.  With  regard 
U>  the  American  and  Ihe  bulk  of  the  African  languages, 
we  are  unable  lo  say  whether  they  can  be  brought  un- 
der any  of  the  heads  alreaily  menlioneii,  or  whether  they 
Bland  by  themaelvea  as  distinct  families.  The  former 
are  referred  bv  wrilers  of  high  eminence  lo  an  Asiatic 
Dt  Turanian  origin  (Dunsen, /■*.(.  n/ ffiif.  ii.  111;  La- 
tham, .Vita  ami  ku  Mtgral.  p.  I8C);  Ihe  latter  to  the 
Shemitic  family  (Lai ham,  p.  148). 

The  problem  that  awaits  solution  is  whether  the  wt- 
eral  families  above  specified  can  be  reduced  to  a  single 
fkmily  by  demonstrating  their  railical  iilcnlity.  It 
would  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that  this  identity 
ahcinid  be  coexten<<ive  with  the  vocabularies  of  the  va- 
rious languages;  it  would  naturally  be  confined  to  such 
>and  objects  as  arc  common  to  mankind  generally.  I 


Even  within  this  circla  the  difficulty  of  proving  the 
identity  mar  be  infinitely  enhaiiceil  tw  the  abaenee  nf 
malcriah.  There  are,indeed,  buttwofamilieninwhick 
these  materials  are  found  in  anything  like  safficiene^-. 
viz.  the  Indo-European  and  ihc  Shemitic,  and  eveu 
these  furnish  us  with  no  historical  evidence  as  lo  iht 
earlier  stages  of  their  growth.  We  find  each,  at  ibe 
most  remote  literary  perioil,  already  exhibiting  its  dis- 
tinctive character  of  stem-  and  word-furmation,  leaving 
us  to  infer,  as  we  beat  may,  from  these  phenomena  the 
processes  by  which  they  hod  reached  Ihil  point.   Hence 

and  the  eittent  of  the  radical  identity  will  depend  vety 
much  on  the  view  adopted  as  to  these  earlier  pmnssMi 

ogr  propounded  by  the  analytical  school  of  Hebm 


3t  regard 


large  amount  of  radical  Identity ; 
as  established  the  prepositional  force  of  the  initial  let- 
ters, as  sUled  by  Oelitzsch  in  bis  Jahaiim  (p.  IGG,  ITS. 
note),  still  leas  the  correspondence  between  these  sn.1 
the  iniMal  letters  ofGrcek  and  Latin  words  (p.  l'0-t7;>. 
The  striking  unifonijity  of  bisrUabtsm  in  the  i-eibsl 
stem>  Iji  explicable  only  on  the  assumption  that  a  liiiiflF 


9  the 


dthe   t 


groups  of  wnrds  differing  slightly  in  form,  and  bavin!! 

this  principle  was  one  not  of  composition,  but  nreupl»>- 
nism  and  practical  convenience.  This  pmnnipiigo  t, 
still  further  favored  by  an  analyus  of  the  lelien  form- 
ing the  stems,  showing  that  the  third  tetter  is  in  many 
instances  a  reduplication,  and  In  others  a  liquid  a  nsal. 
or  1  sibilant,  introduced  rilher  as  the  initial,  the  mediil, 
or  the  final  letter.  The  Hebrew  alphabet  admits  of  t 
claisiiicitiou  based  on  the  radical  character  nf  the  kitFr 
according  to  its  pnsition  in  tbe  stem-  The  efliwi  vl 
composition  would  have  been  tn  pnuluce.  in  the  Itr* 
place,  a  greater  inequality  in  the  length  of  the  wur.k 
*n  the  second  place,  a  greater  equality  in  tlse  we 
of  the  various  organic  sounds.  | 

Many  supposed  Instances  of  etvmological  comsp'inil-     i 
ce  hare  been  falsely  based  on  the  analytical  lenni. 
It  there  atill  exists  a  considerable  amonnt  of  raiticil 
Identity  which  appears  lo  be  above  suspiciim.     Uadct 
PHliOTj>ot,  Coi«p.ni\TivE,  we  have  given  a  list  of 
terms  In  which  that  ideiillly  is  manifested.     Artei  if- 

agrcement,  there  still  remain  many  inatance*  wbich 
)l  poiHbly  be  explained  on  the  principle  of  gao- 
maiopceia.  and  which  would  tberefure  seem  to  bs  ibe 
ion  inheritance  of  the  Endo-European  and  Sboa- 
imiliet.  Whether  thisogreemeut  is,asRtnBnne-  I 
gcsta,  the  result  of  a  keen  susceptibility  of  the  ononuii- 
poetic  faculty  in  the  original  IVameraof  thewonhC''. 
Cia.  i,  1S5)  is  a  point  that  can  neither  be  proved  mr 
di^roved.  But  even  if  it  were  so,  it  does  not  Wl»« 
that  the  words  were  not  framed  before  Ihe  sepaniim 
of  the  families.  Our  list  of  comparattra  words  mijhi 
have  been  much  enlarged  if  we  liiad  included  compati- 
sous  based  on  the  leduction  of  Shemitic  mot)  to  >  la- 
syllabic  form.  A  list  of  such  words  may  be  fouml  in 
beliusch,  Jet^unm,  p.  177-180.  In  regard  lo  proaHn 
and  numerals,  the  Identity  is  but  partial.  We  msTdr- 
tect  the  1  sound,  which  forms  the  distinctive  souadsf 
the  second  personal  pronoun  in  the  I mlo- European  lis- 
guages,  in  the  Hebrew  attai,  and  in  Ihe  persunsi  If*- 
roinationaof  the  perfect  tense;  but  tho  n,  which  islM 
prevailing  aonnd  of  Ihe  first  personal  pronoun  in  ik 
former,  is  supplanted  by  an  n  in  the  latter.  The  iianiw-  ■ 
als  «*«*  and  fhtta,  for  "six"  and  "aeven."  accord  mrt 
the  Indo-European  forms:  those  repreeenling  theusn- 
bers  from  "oi>e"  to  "five"  are  possibly,  though  nfliert- 
dently.  Identical  With  regard  In  the  other  lanKusfs- 
familie^  it  will  not  be  expected,  after  the  obserrstioBs 
already  made,  that  we  shoulil  alicmpl  Ihe  pmof  vf  Ihar 
radical  identity.  The  Ural -Altaian  langoages  han 
been  extensively  aludied,  but  are  hardly  ripe  for  ess- 


.TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      «1      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


puuoD.  Ooeauond  rcHmbUnccs  hare  been  delected 
u^runnuiu]  formt  and  iii  rbe  voobuUrieti  but  tfae 

ilu  toalu  or  a  more  PTteniled  reKatch  intn  tbji  and 
<clin  regions  of  the  world  urknguige. 

(H.)  We  pus  on  ui  the  Mcoiiil  [loint  proposed  foi 
eocBidemian,  viz.  [he  ethnological  rieira  eipresscd  in 
the  Bible,  iiid  mure  particularly  in  ch.  i  of  Gencw, 
■hkli  lecorda  the  diaperniH)  of  natiooa  conaequent  on 
tke  confuHon  of  longiiFt. 

(i.l  The  Mosaic  table  does  not  profess  to  describe  the 
pracfMnf  the  dispersion;  but,  aMuming  that  ditperuun 
••i/ciif  iictompli,  it  records  the  ethnic  relations  exist- 
ii^  between  the  various  onions  affected  by  it.  These 
rtlatimv  are  expressed  under  the  guise  of  a  genealogy, 
tlie  etbooU^ol  character  of  the  document  is,  however, 
dear  both  fiom  the  nanies,  anme  of  which  are  gentiUe 
ill  (uriD,  as  Liidiii),Jebiuile,etc^  others  geographical  or 
luciL  as  Hitraim,  Sidon,  etc..  and,  again,  fium  the  for- 
Butifv  which  concludes  cacb  section  of  the  aubject, 
"after  their  families,  after  their  tongues,  in  t)ieir  coun'- 
tricMiHl  in  their  nations- (ver.fi, 30,31).  Incidentally, 
the  iible  is  gci>GTa[ihical  as  weU  as  ethnological;  but 


:  o( the  ] 


^ufdesi 
It  hu 


..by 


piirrly  geographical,  and  this  idea  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 
hniml  by  the  poeaibi  lily  of  explaining  the  namrs  Shem, 
Hiin.and  Japheih  on  this  principle,  IheHrstdgnirying 
llie'^liish"  land*,  tb*  second  the  "hot"  or  "low"  lands, 
■»!  the  thini  (he  "broad."  undetined  regiona  of  the 
nnnb.  'I'he  three  families  utay  have  been  so  located, 
mil  such  a  circumstance  could  not  hare  been  unknown 
10  the  writer  of  the  table.  But  neither  Id  temal  nor  ex- 
ternal evidence  salkfaclorily  prove*  such  to  have  been 
(be  leading  idea  or  principle  eoilKHlied  in  II.  ft>r  the 

time  .fistricla  of  Ihe  west  and  n.prih-we«[,  while  Ihe 
Sheniies  pme  down  into  the  piuin  of  Mesopotamia, 
aail  the  Hamilen,  on  ihe  other  hand,  occupy  the  bigh 
iHkb  of  Canaan  and  Lebanon.  We  hold,  therefore,  the 
^■f^phical  as  subordinate  to  Ihe  ethnographical  ele- 
iDHir.and  avail  ourselves  of  the  former  only  as  an  in- 
arumcnt  for  the  diacovcry  of  the  latter. 

The  general  imngemcnt  of  the  table  is  as  fullows: 
Tbe  whole  human  race  is  referred  back  to  Noah's  three 
nM.Sheni.Ham, and  Japhetb.  The  Sbemile*  are  de- 
■ribcd  last,  apparently  that  the  continuity  of  the  nar- 
rative may  not  be  further  disturbed ;  and  the  Hamitea 
stand  next  to  the  Sheraileh  in  order  to  show  that  these 
were  more  diisely  related  to  each  other  (han  to  the 
Jiphtthius.  The  comparative  degrees  of  affinity  are 
tiptessed.  partly  by  coupling  the  names  together,  as  in 
the  cares  of  Elishah  and  Tsrshinh,  Kittim  and  Doilanim 
(rer.  4),  and  partly  by  representing  a  genealogical  de- 
sernt.  as  when  the  nations  just  mentioned  are  said  to 
be  "sons  of  Java n."  An  inequality  may  be  obseneJ 
in  the  length  of  the  genealogical  lines,  which,  in  the 
(ase  of  Japheth,  extends  only  to  one,  in  Ham  to  two, 
inShem  to  thre&  and  even  fourd^rees.  This  inequal- 
iiT  dearly  arisea  out  of  the  varying  interest  taken  in 
the  several  lines  by  the  author  of  the  lable,  and  by 
Iboie  fnt  whciee  use  it  was  deugned.  We  may  lastly 
otnerre  that  the  occunenee  of  Ihe  same  name  in  two 
of  (he  liitx.  a*  in  thecaaes  of  Lud  (ver.  13, 2i)  and  Sheba 
(ter.T.JSl.pnatihlv  indicates  a  fusion  of  theracea. 

".  The  identiAcalion  of  Ihe  Biblical  with  the  histor- 

■ank.pariiculariy  where  the  names  are  not  subteqaently 
BMiced  in  the  Bible.  In  these  cases,  comparisons  with 
aDciFiil  or  modem  dedgnaiiDns  are  the  only  moutce, 
and  where  the  desigtiation  ia  one  of  a  puvely  geogtaph- 
tal  character,  aa  in  tbe  eaaa  of  Riphath  compared  with 
Upti  Honte*,  or  Mash  compared  with  Maiim  Mons, 
treat  doubt  must  exist  aa  to  the  ethnic  force  of  the 

aacupied  the  aame  district.    Equal  doubt  ariies  where 


names  admit  of  being  treated  as  afqwilatives.  and  so  of 
being  tranaferred  from  one  district  to  another.     Recent 

many  instances,  thrown  light  on  the  Biblical  titles.  In 
the  former  we  find  Meshech  and  Tubal  noticed  under 
the  forms  ifiatai  and  Tuplai,  whilB  Javan  appears  aa 
the  appellation  of  Cyprus,  where  the  Assyrians  first  met 
with  Greek  civilization.  In  the  latter  the  name  Phut 
appears  under  the  form  of  Aiunf,Hittite  as  KAifu,Cush 
as  KtnA,  Canaan  as  Kamiaa,  etc. 

1.  The  list  of  Japhethites  contains  fanrtcen  names,  of 
which  seven  repreitent  independent  and  the  remainder 
affiliated  nations,  as  follows; 

(I.J  Oomer,  connected  BtbnlcnllT  with  Ibe  CimtufTii,  dm- 
M  (I),  and  Cmnn,:  iind  gengriiplileiillj  with  Crinta. 
Associated  wlili  Oomer  are  Ihe  Ibree  followlnc  ■■ 
(a.)  Afhkenni,  Eeuenlly  compsred  with  LiUie  Atea- 
ni'iu  In  Bithynla.  but  by  Knobel  with  the  tribe  .1  soii. 
At,  or  Omla  In  Ihe  CsDcaelnn  dieltlct.  On  lbs 
wbole.  WB  prefer  Ilsrse's  sncgesllon  of  a  Conner- 
tlnn  between  Ibli  nnme  and  that  of  the  Axmua, 
■  -  nbe  JSmtntu  I'oi 


tuUi  Htms. 
(ti Togarmalf, nodoubtedly  An 


(II.)  Hagog.  Ihe  ScutMant 
lIll.)Mfidal,HBJta. 

(It.)  Jnvan,  the  loniini;  as  a  general  appellation  for  lbs 

Hellenic  nee,  with  whom  aie  nrsocliiied  ihe  font  tot- 

lowlna: 

(a.)Ellthnh,  Ihe  .£cllani.leFBprobsbljlden  tilled  vrllb 

lb.)  Tiirphlib.  at  a  Ister  period  of  Blbllcnl  hlBloiT  car. 

taliilj'  Idenllcsl  wllb  TfarfnWF.  In  8p>lu,  to  which, 

howoiBt.  there  are  objections  ns  regsrds  the  labia, 

Kinlj  from  the  too  exrended  aren  ihnu  given  tit  ibe 
nenlc  world,  aud  partly  beciip»e  Tiirtersna  waa  a 
Phonlclan,  and  couteqneDily  not  a  Jniihetle,  setlle- 
nieul.    Knoliel  eonparea  the  Tffriinl,  Th/rrhini,  aud 
Tutei  ofltalj:  bnl  this  Is  precarions. 
<c)  Kllllm.  the  town  Olium  In  Cjptat. 
(d)  IKHJanitn,  the  Amfofltof  IllyrisaudHTsiN:  00- 
dtma  ia  aometiincs  compared. 
(V.)  Tnbnl,  the  1'ibartni  In  Ponine. 

(Tl.)He>becb,ibe  JfosrkilD  tbenorth-weileni  pari  of  Ar- 
(vll.)  TIras,  perhaps  Tkntfa. 

2.  Tbe  HamiLic  list  contains  thirty  uames,  of  which 
three  repreaent  indepeudeatand  the  remainder  affiliated 
nations,  as  follows: 


£uMnna  or  Khuiiilaa.    With  Cii>h  ■ 

(a.)Seba,lheSnr    ' 

(6.1  Uavllnh,  the 

{e.)9nolah,iheli. 

(B.)  Raamnh,  the  lown  Khtpma  on  the  sniilh-esBlem 

coast  orArahin,  wlih  whom  are  nraoclated: 

(a.)  Sheba,  n  trihe  pmbaDly  oiiinecled  elhDlcally 

or  commercially  wllb  the  one  orihewims  name 

aliendymeiit  lulled,  but  louled  on  Ibe  west  const 

nf  Ibe  PBtsinu  Oiilf. 

(b.l  Dedsii.  alH>  on  Ibe  weal  coast  nf  ihe  Persian 

Gulf,  wheie  the  name  perbaps  dill  survives  In 

((.)  Snhieclinh,  iierhnps  Ihe  lown  Sttmydate  on  the 
const  of  Itae  lodlnu  Ocean  enttword  of  the  Persian 
Oolt 
I/.)  NImrort,  n  perwmal  and  not  b  eeoKTSphlcal  name, 
Ihe  repre.entiitlve  of  Ibe  Esileru  CtipbTtee. 
.)  Mlzralm,  Iho  Iwo  Mir,;  \.  e.  Upper  and  L..wer  Kgjpt, 
with  whnm  ihQ  followiuir  feven  are  connected: 

a  tribe  allied  In  the 


^mltlc  Liid 


idlBlriel,'' 


lb.)  Ana mim.  according  lo  Knobel.  II 

the  DrUa.  which  would  be  defcrflie 

thelemi*animiAilorlHnnnM(,"ii 

converted  by  the  Itebrews  Into  Ai' 
(c.j  Nnphtiihlm.  vnrloaply  eiplnlueil  ns  the  people  of 

.\VjiWA(«,  L  e.  thenotlheni  coast  disirici  (Itochnrtl, 

nnd  ns  Ihe  worshippers  of  Phlhah,  menulug  the  In- 

(d.)  Palhrnslm,  Uiiper   BirTpl,  Ihe  nsme  being  ex- 
plained as  meaning  In  the  Egyptian  "ihs  south" 

(1.)  Casluhlm.  Coatiu  Hona,  Cu^attt,  and  Cassfun, 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF       472      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


ctuIwnM  nt  lh«  Be!M  (Ktmbsl) :  tiM  OoUMmt,  __ 

ftiirdiiijT  u>  Uiictunt«bDL  Ihla  kanllkBlf. 
(/.)  Cs^icirini,  miwt  pnihnblr  tba  dlitrlct  ahnnt  Oip- 

tM  In  Vwtr  Egjjit  [Kt  CiniToil:  tbe  bUind  of 

UreMiiccordlDKio'AHuyin'MuriiciitkgiCiippiidiicIa 

acciitdLuc  to  the  older  uiterprBlen. 
{ff.)  Phut,  Iba  PitU  or  Ibo  Sgrpll'n  tnKrIpllnni 

(lit)  Cauun,  Uw  mtijmpbleiil  p«{itan  orwblcb  citllt  tc 
no  naurk  Id  IbTa  plice.  Tbe  nnnie  bu  iMan  inrloiial 
expliined  w  meiiuiuc  (be  "I<in"  limd  »r  ib*  conil  dli 
trlcL,nrtbe"diih]«ciriu"lbnalcDedIi}Ciinoan  pereni 
allr  (0«n.  Ii,  W).    To  CtDaan  belong  tbe  (gllowtni; 


(i.)TbeOlrKaalte,tbe<nineMiheOlrKUhltea. 

(/.)  The  HI  vita,  viirhidilj  «n|g|iied  lo  mean  the  oc- 

lu  "Tlll«aea"(aewnlo'i).  '  " 

(;.)  Tbe  ArGlle.urjrai,  Dotth  of  Tripoli*,  at  tba  root 

<A.)  Tlw  Sliitte,  of  Sin  or  Stniu,  plocu  In  tbe  LbI)»- 

(f.)  TKe  Arradlte,  of  A  radtu  on  lb«  cnaat  nf  Phiralcli. 

{ I.)  The  Zeninrlis,  of  fjfnwa  no  ibe^Elentberar. 

(t.)  The  llnoiathlle,  or  Hamath,  Ibe  clvwlcal  i^'^'Aa- 


ted[ribta,ufnllowi 

Inni,  Iba  trib«  Elynutl  and  Ibe 

laiiM. 

,Bi>har,  Atturia  belween  (be  Tlgrl*  and  U><  range  ol 

Arpbaxnd,  Arrapachtlii,  io  Nortbern  AHjrria,  wlib 

1.1  flalab,  ■  p*ra>inn1  nml  alio  ■  Keocnplilcal  lllle, 
leopla  rejireaanled 


eating  a  mik 
ilrn :  Salnb'i 


illirallun 


ul  Iba  p 


Md.e. 


lofll 


jceoRrnphlcall^  tbe  difti 


e  Euphru 


dEMr' 


'i>r  thliTiraucb  ot  the  Staeiiiltlc  famllr,  and 
(d.)  J"ktiin,  renrefeiiiinc  eeuerilly  the  inhalilintitt  nt 
■-■• '■- -IB  folluwiug  thirteen  aona  of  Juttao, 


niUa,  inlih  tbe 
(a.)  Almodnd,  pmbabl; 
Jfiirfnrf. 


Salapeni  In  ] 


(OUninrmavath.iri 

(rt.)  Jeri,h. 

(e. )  Mudiintm,  (he  AdnmlUt  o 

(t)  D|a'l.  ™V™d  M  ^"r'"^' 
In  Sualh  AiabUi,  na  baling  b< 

(g.)  niitlab. 


(J.)  Shebn,  the  Sotsf  uf  »Miib-watIeni  Arabia. 

■bnnl  Maria  ba. 
(k.>  Uiihir,  pniiiably  Jdaiw,  on  thaionthern  coul. 

(L)  ll^ivihih.  t^ie  Olflrlcc  JfAnuIun  in  the  uonh- 

vfstorYcmen. 
(m.)  Jobab,  piiMlbljibe.fchiridrof  PIoIbrit(vI, 

T,  W.  tor  which  Jubabila  may  oileinallr'faaTe 

(It.)  Lnd,  i.'cuemlli'  cciniiired  with  Liidia,  lint  explained 

In  mill  abum  Palefii'i?,i-ach  aathe  Amalekltea,  Iteiiha' 
Ile«,  Einim.  etc.  U'e  ciihiiot  consider  either  uf  tlie-e 
view*  ai  well  e»tab11»hed.  Lydia  li-elf  lay  beyond  the 
hiTlii.ii  of  the  Mooaic  table;  m  lu  tbe  fthemlllc  ori- 
gin of  lu  pupnlutlon,  onmctlng  n|>liiloua  are  enter- 


io»aaf£aiidu 
I  for  SMria  ai 


iMmd,  iht 

d  Northern 


le-firt/norPtiilernr, 

lat  beet  connected  with  (he  ni 

to  a  diftrlcl  narib  of  Lake  Men 


<if.)  ICaab,  JvoKiu 
There  ia  ^t  one  n 


e  notJCMt  in  the  ta 


n  tbeH 


itPhL- 


of  Hunitic  deaeenL  Tbe  (svt 
uted  In  Ibe  A.  V^"oat  of  whom  (Caalnhim)  c«nF  Pbi- 
lialim"  (Ter.  14),  would  naturally  imply  deaceat ,  but  tlia 
Hebrew  text  only  wamnta  the  conelmion  that  ibe  PhU 
liHinei  iojoumed  in  the  land  of  (he  Caaluhim.  Ko(- 
wiihitanding  thia,  we  beliere  the  intention  of  the  au- 
thor of  tbe  table  to  have  been  to  alBrm  the  Hamitic 
origin  of  the  Phltiatinea,  leaving  undecided  tbe  panic- 
nlar  branch,  whether  Caaluhim  or  Caphdnim,  witb 
which  it  waa  mora  immediately  conaeeled. 

eluding  Philiatim,  would  Ihua  amount  to  ae*eDly-oiM, 
which  waa  raised  by  patriatic  wriura  to  acventT-m. 
Theae  talali  afforded  scope  for  numerical  compaiimi, 

languages  to  be  found  on  tbe  earth's  aurface.  Itiiartil- 
leaa  (o  >ay  thai  tbe  Bible  itaelf  fumiahaa  bo  pwuid  fur 
Buch  calculationa,  iuaamuch  aa  it  does  not,  in  any  can, 
apecify  the  nurabcrL 

b.  Before  prooeedinK  further,  it  would  ba  well  to  dia- 
euM  a  qneatiun  materially  affecting  the  historical  valK 
of  the  Uoaaio  table,  vie  the  periud  to  vrbich  it  rertn 
On  this  point  very  rarioua  opiniona  are  enleitaiiwiL 
Knobel,  conoeiring  it  to  repreeent  the  commercial  ge- 
ognphv  of  tbe  Phientcians,  aasigna  it  to  aboot  B.C 
1200  {VOlherl.  pL  4-9),  and  Renan  aupporu  tbit  vita 
(//ur.  Ghi.i,V)),  while  othen  allow  it  no  hitcber  an  aa- 
tiqui  ty  than  the  period  of  the  Babvlonian  captivity  (T« 
Bnhlen,t;«i.ii,i07;  Winer,  Ar<ifr.ii,6S&).  lounul 
evidence  leada  ua  to  refer  it  hack  to  the  age  of  Ahrahan 
on  the  following  grounda;  (I.)  The  Caiiaenile*  wcie  at 
yet  In  undisputed  poneeajon  of  Palealiiie.  (S.)  ThePhi- 
lialinea  bad  not  concluded  their  migration.  (3.)  Tjn  la 
wholly  unnoticed,  an  omiaaion  which  cannot  be  sail*- 
factoKlv  accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  It  ia  incloded 
onder  the  name  either  of  Ueth  (Kitubel,  p.  323|  or  <if 
Sidon  (Von  Bohlen, il. 341).  (4.)  Yariotis  placaucb 
aa  Simyra,  Sinna,  and  Area,  are  noticed  which  boJ  falbn 
into  inaigniHcanca  in  later  times,  (b.)  Kittim,  nhieh 
in  the  age  of  Sotomoa  waa  under  PliaBiiician  dominioii, 
is  assigned  to  Japhath,  and  the  aame  may  be  asiil  of 
Tnmhiib,  which  in  that  age  undoubtedly  releired  to  Ibe 
I'hsniclan  emporium  of  Taiiatui,  whatever  may  hiit 
Ireen  itaeariier  aigniSeance.  The  chief  objectiun  to  m 
early  a  date  ai  we  have  ventured  (41  prnpooe  ii  the  no- 
Jladal.     The  Aiyao 


■s  this  n 


hiator^'  appears 


Ita  dnal  settlemei 
900  (Rawiinson,  Hnvd.  I,  4M).  But.  im  tbe 
hand,  the  name  Media  may  well  bare  belonged 
district  before  tbe  arrival  of  tbe  Arj-ati  Hedes,  w: 
it  were  occupied  by  a  tribe  of  kindred  origin  la 
or  by  Turaniaiisi  and  tliia  probablli       ' 


aa 


id  by  II 


«ofaMediar 


Dabvlon,  as  reported  br  Bemsua,  ao  earlv  as  the  jiih 
century  U.C  {ibid.  I,  4S4).  Uttle  diffici^ty  wnulil  be 
found  in  oasigning  so  early  a  date  to  the  Medea  if  ibe 
Aryan  origin  of  the  allied  kinga  meniiiined  in  lietk 
xiv,  I  wore  thoroughly  e«tabliaheil,iii  accordance  wLih 
Keiuin'svieir(f/Hl.<;«H-l.61):  on  thia  puinl,  bowevtr, 
w«  have  our  doubts.    See  UiMisia. 

c.  The  Mosaic  table  ia  auppiemented  by  tlbnolnpcal 
notices  relatini;  to  the  various  divisions  of  the  Terachila 
family-  These  belonged  to  the  Shemitie  divijim.  beinK 
descended  from  Arphaxad  through  Pckg,  wilh  wbon 
the  line  lerminaleB  in  the  table.    Ucu,  Serug.  and  Ns- 

form  the  intermediate  links  between  Pekg  saJ 
Terah  ((Jen,  xi,  18-35),  with  whom  began  (be  more- 
that  terminated  in  the  occupation  of  Canaan  ami 

Ijacent  districts  by  ceifain  branches  of  tbe  family. 

iriginal  aeat  of  Terah  waa  Ur  of  the  Chaldeet  ^fa. 

thence  he  migrated  to  Haron  (ver.  SI  \  whrrt  a 

n  of  his  descendants,  tbe  lepreaenlalivei  of  Sf 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      473      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


bar,  tmuioeil  (ziiT,  10 ;  xxvii,  U ;  xxix,  *  *q.),  while 
■be  too  bnitcho,  re|im«ited  by  Abraham  and  Lot, 
IbF  ■»  of  Hiran,  cnwNd  Che  Euphrates  and  aettled  in 
tJ!in*an  and  tfae  iiljaceni  ilutricta  (xii,  A).  Ftom  Lot 
•praajE  the  HMtrilea  aiid   Ammontiei  (lix,  30-88); 


(■ 


nuj-h  h 


<n  Itbmi 


:t,  13),  the  iH-aelim  through  Iiuc  and  Jacob,  the 
EdomiiH  tbruugh  hue  and  Emu  (ch.  xxi[vi),and  cer- 
tain Arab  trib(«,  or  whom  the  Midianit«*  are  the  moat 
oKBpicunus,  through  the  loDa  of  bit  concubiue  Keturah 
(axv,  l-i). 

The  niMt  important  Keographiol  queelion  in  con- 
nection with  the  Tenehiia  concema  their  ari{(iaal  ut- 
tlemeni.  The  preKoce  of  the  Chaldeea  in  Ilabylonia 
■la  aubeequent  periwl  oTacripIund  hiatoc^  has  led  to  a 
•Dppoeition  that  ihev  were  a  llatnilic  people,  origiaally 
beluneinjc  to  Babylonia,  and  thence  transplanted  in  the 
Ttb  and  Hih  centuries  tu  Korthnn  Avyria  (Rawlinaon, 
Hrrod.  i,  319).  Oibera  think  it  more  oonuatent  with 
the  general  direction  of  llie  Teracfaita  movement  to 
Ittik  Tor  L'r  in  Nurthem  Mesopotamia,  to  the  cut  or 
Haian.  That  the  Chaldeea,  or,  according  to  the  He- 
neighborhood  is  indicated  bj  the  name  Chewd  as  one 
oT  the  sons  ot  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii,  21),  and  poniblr  bv  the 
nuneArphazaditKir,  which,  Bccording  to  EHald(Cnal. 
i.  ST8),  means  "  nmreas  of  the  Chaldees."  In  classical 
timei  we  And  the  Kaadim  still  occupying  the  moun- 
tains ailjacenl  to  Arrapachitis,  the  Biblical  Arpachsad, 
under  the  names  Ckaldiri  (Xenoph.  Aitab.  iv,  S,  1-4) 
and  Gordyrti  or  Cardncki  (Stiabo,  xvi,  747),  and  here 

KtiL  The  name  Kasilim  is  expltined  by  Oppert  as 
moaning  "  two  livers,"  and  thus  as  eqnivaleul  to  tbe 
Hebrew  Nakaraim  and  the  classical  Maopotama  {Zrii. 
i-marg.  Go.  xi,  137).  We  receive  this  explanation  with 
resrrre;  but,  so  Tar  aall  goes,  it  favors  the  northern  lo- 
ealitr.  Tbe  evidence  for  the  antiquity  of  the  southern 
seulement  is  lessened  if  the  term  Kiiidai  dues  nut  oc- 
eor  in  the  Asavrian  Inscriptions  until  the  9th  centurj- 
&a  (Rawlinwn,  i,  449).  But  whether  wa  conceive  the 
original  seat  of  the  Chaldeea  to  have  beeti  in  the  north 
ot  in  the  anutb,  they  moved  almig  the  couise  ol  the 
'nf:ris  nntil  tbey  reached  BabyUm,  where  we  And  them 
dnmiiiant  in  the  7tb  ceuluTy  RC  Whether  Ibey  first 
entered  thisouonlry  »s  mercenaries,  and  then  conquered 
their  employers,  aa  soggested  by  Kenan  (//iif.  Ofn.  I, 
$§),  most  remam  nncettain ,  but  we  think  the  aoggea- 
tion  supported  by  the  circumstance  that  the  name  was 
■Iterwards  trsnaferred  to  the  whole  Babylonian  popula- 
tion. The  aaccrdoUl  chancier  of  the  Chaldeea  ia  cer- 
tainly difficult  to  reconcile  with  this  or  any  other  hy- 
potheais  on  the  subjecu 

Reluming  to  the  Tenchltes,  we  And  It  Impossible  to 
dcllne  the  geographical  limits  oftheir  selllenieuts  with 
pfcciaton.  They  intermingled  with  the  preriuusly  ex- 
isting InhatMtanla  of  the  cnnntriea  intervening  between 
(he  Ked  Sea  and  the  P.nphraies,  and  bence  we  And  an 
ArarD,  an  Ua,  and  a  Cheseil  among  the  descendants  of 
Nahor  (<len.  Kxii,}T.!2),a  Dedaii  and  a  3heba  among 
those  of  Abraham  by  Keturah  (xxv,  3),  and  sn  Ams- 
Ich  among  the  deM^danls  nf  Esau  (xxxvi,  12).  Few 
of  the  numerous  tribes  which  sprang  from  this  stock 
attaineit  historical  celebrity.  The  Israelites  must  of 
course  be  excepted  from  this  description;  so,  alsu,  the 
NabaihBans,  if  they  are  to  be  regarded  aa  represent- 
ed bv  the  Kebaioth  of  the  Bible,  as  to  which  there 
b  su'me  dnnbt  (Quatrem^re,  Milanffft,  p.  59).  Of  tbe 
fest,  the  Moabitea,  Ammonites,  Midianites,  end  Eilom- 
ilf*  an  chiefly  known  for  their  hostilities  with  tbe  Is- 
raelites. In  whim  they  were  close  neighbors.  The  mem- 
nvy  of  the  westerly  migration  of  the  Israelites  was  per- 
fwtnaled  in  the  name  Hebrew,  as  referring  to  their  res- 
idence beyond  the  river  Euphrates  (Joah.  xxiv.S). 

d.  Besi'dea  the  nations  whose  origin  is  accounted  for 
Id  the  BUile,  we  find  other  early  populations  mentioned 
ta  the  enars*  of  tbe  history  without  any  notice  of  their 


In  this  category  we  may  place  the  Horim^ 
occujaed  Edom  before  the  deacendanta  of  Esau 
(Dent,  ii,  11,  32) ;  tfae  Amalekitcs  of  tbe  Sinaitic  pen- 
insula; tbs  Ziuim  and  Zamiummim  of  Pema  (lien. 
xiv,  5;  Deul.  ii,  S0)|  Ibe  Rephaim  of  Bashan.  and  of 
the  valley  near  ileruaalem  named  after  them  (Gen.  xiv, 
6;  SSam.v,  18);  the  Emim  eastward  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(Gen.xiv,6),  the  Avim  of  the  southern  Philistine  plain 
(Dent,  ii,  33);  and  the  Anakim  of  Southern  Palestine 
(Josh,  xi,  21).  The  question  ariaes  whether  these  tribe* 
were  Hamites.  or  whether  they  reprtaented  an  earlier 
population  which  preceded  the  entrance  of  tbe  Matnitea. 
The  latter  view  is  supported  by  Knobel,  wbo  regards 
the  msjority  uf  these  tribes  as  Shemites,  who  preceded 
the  Canaanites,  and  commonicaled  to  them  the  Shem- 
ilic  tongue  (7oIirrf.  p.  204,  S15).  No  evidence  can  be 
sdduced  in  support  of  this  theory,  which  waa  probably 
suggested  by  the  double  difficulty  of  accounting  for  tbe 
name  of  Lud  and  of  explaining  the  apparent  anooialv 
of  the  Hsmites  and  Terschilrs  speaking  the  same  laii- 
guage.  Still  leaa  evidence  is  there  in  favoi  of  (he  Tu- 
ranian origin,  whicb  would|we  presume,  be  assigned  to 

accordance  with  a  current  theory  that  the  fini  wave  of 
population  whicb  overspread  Western  Asia  belonged  to 
that  branch  of  lbs  human  race  (Rawlinson,  Htrod.  i, 
645,  note).     To  this  theory  we  shall  presently  advert; 

fragmentary  populations,  that,  aa  Ihey  iiiWtmingled 
with  tbe  Canaanites,  they  probably  belonged  t»  the 
same  stock  (comp.Numb.  xiii,22;  Judg.  i,  10).  They 
may,  perchance,  have  belonged  to  an  earlier  migration 
than  the  Canaanilish,  and  may  bave  been  subdued  by 
Ibe  later  eomera;  but  Ibia  would  not  necessiiiie  a  dif- 
ferent origin.  Tbe  names  of  these  liibea  and  of  th«r 
abodes,  ai  instanced  in  tien.xiv,  G;  Deut.  ii,  23;  NumbL 
xiii,  22,  bear  a  Shcmitic  character  (Ewald,  Grtch.  i, 
Sll),  and  the  only  objection  to  their  Canaanitisb  origin 
arising  out  of  these  names  would  be  in  connection  with 
Zamiummim,  which,  according  to  Renan  {llitl.  Oin.  p. 
35,  note],  is  formed  on  tbe  same  principle  as  the  Greek 
j3ap0apBt<  and  in  this  caae  implies,  at  all  events,  a  di- 
alectical difference, 

(II.)  Having  thus  anrreyed  the  ethnological  alale- 
menis  contained  in  tbe  Kble,il  remains  for  natn  inquire 
how  far  they  are  based  on,  or  accord  with,  physiological 
or  linguistic  principles.  Knobel  maintains  that  the 
threefold  division  of  the  Hoaaie  table  ia  founded  on  the 
physiological  principle  of  color,  Shem,  Mam,  and  Ja- 
pheih  representing  respectively  the  ted,  black,  and 
white  complexions  prevalent  in  the  different  regions  of 
the  then  known  worid  (  ydUtn.  p.  11-18).  He  cUims 
etymological  support  for  this  view  in  respect  to  Ham 
■  dark")  and  Japhelh  (  =  "fair^,  but  not  in  respect 


iShen 


1B  adduc 
«  of  color  were  noted  in  ancient  I 


le  fact  that  such 
The 


I  conceive  that  the  princi- 
ple of  classiflcalion  would  be  embodied  in  two  of  the 
names,  and  not  alio  in  the  third :  the  force  of  sucb  evi- 
dence is  wholly  dependent  upon  its  uniformity.  With 
regard  to  the  actual  prevalence  of  the  buea,  it  is  quite 
conaistent  with  the  phyBcal  character  of  the  dialricta 
that  the  Hamites  of  tbesouthsbonld  be  dark, and  the  Ji- 
phethitea  of  the  north  bir,  and,  further,  that  the  Sbein- 
iles  should  hold  an  Intermediate  place  in  color  aa  in 
geographical  pootion.  But  we  have  no  evidence  that 
this  distinction  waa  strongly  marked.  The  "n^ness" 
expressed  in  tht  name  Edom  probably  refcrreil  tn  the 
soil  (Stanley,  SiB.uwi/'iitp.S;)!  the  kiylAnruifi  Afare 
,wss  >o  called  ftt>m  a  peculiarity  in  its  own  lint,  arising 
from  tbe  presettce  of  some  vegetable  substance,  and  nut 
because  the  red  Shemilea  bordered  on  it.  Ilie   bisck 

name  Adnm,»t  applied  to  the  Shemilic  man, is  ambig- 
uous,  from  its  reference  to  soil  as  well  as  color.  On  the 
other  band,  Ibo  Phamician*  (aaagming  tbem  to  bav* 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      474      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


ruehed  tbe  HediMrranun  •eabnwd  Man  the  ubie 

WM  compiled)  we.-e  ao  cilled  from  Ehrk  red  hue,  and 
yet  »n  pLicvd  in  [he  Uble  arDong  the  Hamite*.  The 
■igument  ilriwn  rruta  tbe  reil  hue  of  (he  Egypiun  de- 
ity Typhaii  ii  of  lillle  value  uutil  it  can  be  decixively 
pnveilthat  thedeitrin  question  repreaen ted  the  Shem- 
iua.  Thi9  ia  auerud  by  Ueaan  (//u(.  Gin.  i,  B8),  who 
fluilaraei  Knobel's  view  w  far  aa  tbe  Shemitea  are  cod- 
cetned,  though  be  does  not  accept  hia  geueral  Ibtary. 

The  lingiiiatic  difficultiei  cnniiectcd  with  the  Mosuc 
Uble  are  very  canBiderahle,  and  we  cinnat  pretend  to 
unravel  tbe  tangled  akeiii  or  cuiiQicting  opinion!  on  the 
■ubjecl.  The  primary  difficulty  ariaea  out  of  the  Bibli- 
cal narrative  itaelf,  and  in  cunaei(uent]y  of  old  alandiug 
—the  difficulty,  namely,  of  Bccounting  fur  tbe  evident 
itily  of  laUKuage  spokea  by  the  Sbemitie  Tenchile* 
'    "'  " '""1.  Modem  linguiaticreaearch 


noved  tli 


I  diffleully.   Tbe 


»  hitherto  oBered  aa 
namely,  that  the  Tenchitea  adopted  tbe  language  of 
tbe  Cansanitea.  or  the  Canaanitea  that  of  the  Terach- 
ile* — are  bolb  ineansiatent  with  tbe  enlarged  area  which 
Che  language  ia  fouod  to  cover  on  each  aide.  Setting 
•aide  thequeationofthe  high  improbability  that  a  wan- 
dering nomadic  tribe,  auch  aa  the  Terachitea,  would  be 
able  lo  impose  ita  language  on  a  aettled  and  pawerful 
nation  like  the  Canaanitea,  it  would  still  remain  Ui  be 
expliine<l  how  tbe  Cnsbitea  and  other  Hamitic  tribe*. 

of  language. 


hand,  u 


called  8 


Isngiiago  were  really  Hamitic,  we  have  to  explain  the 
exCeiialun  of  tbe  Hamitic  area  over  Aleaopotamia  aiid 
Assyria,  which,  accunling  to  the  table  and  tbe  general 
opinion  of  etbnulogiita,  belonged  wholly  to  a  non-Ham- 
itic  population.  A  further  question,  moreover,  arisea 
out  of  this  explanation,  vii.,  What  waa  tbe  language  of 
the  Terach  ilea  before  they  aaaumed  Ihia  Hamitic  tongue? 
This  qucBlion  is  anawered  by  J.  (i.  Milller,  in  Heraog's 
Real-£aiyttiip.  niv,  238,  to  t  he  effect  that  the  Shemiles 
originally  spoke  an  Indo-European  language — a  view 
which  we  do  not  expect  to  see  generally  adopted. 

Keatriciiug  okinelvci,  fur  the  preaeul,  to  the  lioguiatic 
question,  we  must  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  there 
u  a  well-deBned  Hamitic  as  well  as  a  Shemitic  claaa  of 
languages,  and  that  any  theory  which  obiitenlei  this 
diatinciion  must  fall  to  tbe  ground.  Tbe  Hamitic  type 
is  most  highly  developed,  aa  we  might  expect,  in  the 
eounlry  which  waa,  par  excetleaet,  the  land  of  Ham, 
vii.  Kgypc  and  whatever  elemenia  of  original 
with  tbe  Shemitic  type  may  be  detected  by  pi 
glsta,  practically  the  two  were  aa  distinct  from  each 
other  in  historical  times  as  any  two  languagea  could 
possibly  be.  We  are  not  therefore  prepared  at  once  to 
throw  overboard  the  linguistic  element  of  the  Mosaic 
table.  At  Uie  same  time,  we  recognise  iheexl 
liculty  of  explaining  the  anomaly  of  Hami 
apeaking  a  Sbemiiic  tongue.  It  will  not  suOl 
in  answer  to  this,  that  these  tribes  were  Sher 
again  the  coneclneas  of  the  Mosaic  table  te  v 
by  tbe  dilTerences  of  social  and  artialic  cultii 
distinguish  tbe  Shemitea  proper  from  the  Pbieniciana 
a  Shemitic  tongue.    ""     ' 


rizcd  b 


fslmplici 


:o  patriarchal  wi 
the  Phdiniciaua,  on  the  oilier  hand,  were  eminently  t 
commercuil  people :  and  the  Cushites  are  idenlilied  witli 
tbe  mauive  arcbit«ctural  ereciinna  of  Babylonia  au<i 
South  Arabia,  and  with  equally  extended  ideaa  ol  em- 
pire and  locial  progresa. 

The  real  quealion  at  iasue  conoenin  the  language,  noi 
of  the  whole  Hamitic  family,  but  of  ibe  Canaanitea  and 

lions  have  lieen  oRered — such  aa  Kntibd's,  that  thoy 
acquired  a  Shemitic  language  from  ■  prior  population 
represented  by  the  Kepluim,  iiuzim,  Zamiummim,  eic 
( yoltert.  p.  ai.")) ;  or  Bunaeii'a,  that  they  were  a  Shemilk 


in  Egypt  (/•iito/ffut 
i,  191)  — neither  of  which  ia  aatiafactory.  Wiib  n- 
ganl  to  the  lall«r,  the  only  explanation  to  be  oOvreit  is 
that  a  Joktanid  immigration  auprrvened  on  tbe  ongi- 
nal  Hamitic  population,  the  result  being  a  combinatioa 
of  Cushilic  civil iiatiun  with  a  Sbemiiie  language  (Ke- 
nan, HiMt.  Gin.  i,32j).  Nor  is  it  unimporUnt  to  mHHioa 
that  peculiarities  have  been  diacuvered  in  the  Ceahil* 
Shemiticof  Southern  Arabia  wliich  anggeat  a  close  affin- 
ity with  the  Pbteniciaa  forms  (iMif.i,3  ID).  We  are  not, 
hawei'cr,  without  expectation  that  time  and  rneardi 
will  clear  up  much  of  the  myelery  that  now  eoHfafB 
tbe  subject.  There  are  two  directions  to  which  we  may 
hopefully  turn  for  light,  namely,  Egypt  and  Babylmiia, 
with  regard  to  each  of  which  we  make  a  few  remarks. 
1.  That  tbe  Egyptian  language  exhibita  many  ttrik- 
ing  pointa  of  reaemblance  lo  the  Shemitic  trpe  is  sc- 
knowledged  on  all  sides.  It  ia  alio  allowed  that  ibe 
resemblancea  are  of  a  valuable  cbaracier,  being  obatrva. 
ble  in  the  pronuuna,  numerals,  in  agglutinative  funnain 
the  treatment  of  vowels,  and  other  such  pointa  (Renaa, 
//iMi.  Gin.i,M,8a).  There  ia  not,  however,  an  equal  de- 
gree of  agreement  among  scbolara  as  to  the  deducuoos 
to  be  drawn  from  lliene  resemblances.  While  many  nc- 
ognise  in  them  the  proofs  of  a  substantial  identity,siid 
hence  reganl  Hamjliam  aa  an  early  atage  nf  Shemilim, 
DIheradenv,  either  on  general  or  on  special  grounds,  Ibt 
probability  of  auch  a  connection.  When  we  find  Kich 
high  authoritieaaalJunaenou  tbe  former  aide  (PiiLo/ 
flul.i,ia6-l89;  ii,8},andRenan(f/it(.(;i'n.i,SG)oniht 
other,  not  to  mention  a  long  array  of  acfaolara  who  hare 
adopted  each  view,  it  would  be  preanmption  dogmaii- 


c  language  by  a  Hamitic  race  la 


«nt  countriea,  we  Ond  anpk 
tbe  inscriptions  receuily  dii- 
of  which  baa  not  yet  yieMtd 
undisputed  resulu.    The  Mosaic  Uble  places 'a  Shenilic 

Babylon.  The  probability  of  this  being  elhnicall.v  (si 
opposed  to  get^rmphically)  true  depends  partly  on  the 
age  assigned  to  the  Uble^  There  can  be  no  question 
that  at  a  late  perioti  Assyria  and  Elam  were  hekl  by 
non-Shcmiiic.  probably  Aryan,  conquerors.  But  if  we 
carjj-  the  ubIe  back  to  the  age  of  Abraham,  the  ok 
may  bare  been  different ;  for  though  Elam  ia  regarded 
as  elymologically  identical  with  Iran  (Kenan,  UiiL  Gin, 
i,  41),  this  ia  not  oancluaire  aa  lo  tbe  Iranian  chancur 
of  the  language  in  early  limea.  Sufficient  evidence  is 
afforded  bv  language  that  the  basis  of  tbe  population  ia 
Assyria  waa  Sbemiiic  (iiiJ.  i,  70;  Knobel,  p.  lM-ia6)i 

belonging  more  especially  10  Ibe  neighborhood  of  Sum 
may  ultimately  esublish  the  fact  of  a  .Shemitic  papa- 
Intion  in  Elam.  The  ptesence  of  a  Cushitic  pupulaina 
ill  Babylim  is  an  opinion  very  generally  held  un  lin- 
guistic grounds;  and  a  close  identity  is  aaid  to  exiM 
between  the  old  Babylonian  and  the  JUairi  language 


iitj-pei 


II  livint 


disttictof  Hadramaut.in  Southern  Arabia  (Renan. //>A 
Gta.  X.  60).  In  aildition  to  the  Cushilic  and  Shemitic 
elementa  in  the  population  of  Babylonia  awl  the  ad- 
jacent dialricia,  the  preaeiice  of  a  Turanian  elcmeni  has 
been  inferred  from  the  linguistic  character  of  the  early 

that  the  ethnology  of  the  counlriea  iu  quotion  is  con- 
siderably clouileil  by  the  undehned  use  of  the  teraia 
Turanian,  Scythic,  and  ihe  like.  It  ia  frequently  diA- 
cult  to  decide  whether  tbeae  terms  are  used  in  a  liiH 
guislic  sense,  as  equivalent  to  ngglaliialivt,  or  in  BQ 
ethnic  tense.    Tbe  presence  of  a  certwn  •mount  <f 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      475      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


n  the  rotmet  do«  not  iDTcIre  iu  pre»- 
«KE  ill  lh«  litter  Miue.  Tha  ukl  Bubylonian  uid  tiiui- 
(uiui  iiiKriptioaa  may  be  man  ■ggluliiiatife  Ihaii  the 
luei  unes.  tail  litis  it  niily  ■  pruof  of  [faeii  bebnging  to 
III  eulier  Mage  of  Che  Uugiuge,  ind  don  not  of  iuieir 
imlicue  a  fiireigii  population;  >iHi  if  Ibew  euly  lit\iy- 
kdun  iajcriptiitiii  grAduate  into  tliB  Sbcmitic,  ta  ia  os- 

(KiwliQiaii,  UttoJ, i, 4ii,Hb),lhe  jireaenceoriiii  ethnic 
'furaDiinum  caunut  puaaibly  be  inferred.  Added  to 
thti,  il  i*  inexplicable  bow  the  preaeiice  of  a  larj^ 
Scjihic  population  in  tbs  Acbiemenian  perknl,  to 
■hich  muiy  uf  the  Suaiiniau  iuKription*  belong,  cuuld 
cwape  Ibe  iiiriice  oT  hiMuriwH.  The  only  tkythic 
irilin  noticed  by  Herodotui  in  hi*  nview  ot  the  Per- 
sun  empire  lire  the  I'anhiaD*  anil  Che  Sacn,  the  Tonuer 
oT  Hham  are  known  U>  have  lived  in  the  north,  while 
the  liner  probably  lived  in  the  extreme  eui,  where  t 
oaDorial  of  them  in  atill  Hippoaed  to  exist  in  the  name 
Stiilam,  npretenting  Ibe  ancient  Sicaslene.  Even  with 
rrRinJ  to  these,  Scythic  may  not  mean  Turanian;  fur 
Ihcy  miv  have  belunged  to  the  Scythians  of  bitkiry 
(ihe  SkakKs),  for  wbom  an  lodo-Eiiropean  origin  is 
cUimed  {ibid,  iii,  197).  The  impreesiun  cuiiveyoi  by 
(be  toppoMd  delccliun  of  mi  many  heterogeneiius  ele- 
n»ti  in  Ibe  old  Babyliiatan  tongue  (Mil,  i.  ii'2,  iU, 
&l6,nalci)  u  uot  favorable  to  the  general  results  uf  the 


of  Nortfaem  A«a,  whether  Indo-Enropean  or  Turanian, 
Tubal  and  Meahech  remain  to  be  considered:  Knobel 
ideiitUiea  these  respectively  with  the  Iberians  and  the 
Ligutiana  (p.  111,119);  anil  if  the  Fiimisb  character  of 
the  liasque  language  were  eatabliebcd,  he  would  regaid 
the  Iberians  la  certainly,  and  Ibe  Ligurians  as  probably, 
Turanians— the  relics  of  the  first  wave  of  populalion 
which  is  luppoaed  to  hive  once  overspread  Ibe  whole 
"   "      "  of  which  the  Finns  in 


ving  repreeentativea,  The  Turanian  characler  of 
no  lliblicil  races  above  mentioned  bu  been  otber- 
mainlained  on  the  ground  of  (he  identity  of  the 
s  Meshech  and  Muicovile  (  Rawtiuaon,  Bo-ad.  i, 
662). 

(III.)  Hiving  Ihui  renewed  the  ethnic  relations  of 
the  nitioiiB  who  fell  within  the  circle  of  the  Mosaic 
table,  we  propose  to  cast  a  glance  beyond  its  limiti,  and 
inquire  how  fir  tbe  present  results  of  ethnological  sci- 
ence support  the  general  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  human 
race,  which  underlies  the  Hosiic  system.     The  chief 


With  rrgin)  (a  Arabia, 
that  the  Hosaio  laUe  is  con 
The  Cushitie  element  has  lefi  memorials  of  ita  presence 
in  tbe  HHilh  in  the  viM  ruins  of  Hareb  and  Sina  (Ke- 
nan, Hut.  Gta.  i,  SIS),  ai  well  is  in  the  indueitce  it  bis 
exercised  on  tbe  Himyaritic  and  Hahti  lingniges,  is 
ompared  with  the  Hebrew.  Tbe  Joklanid  element 
furms  Ibe  basis  of  the  .tribian  population,  the  Shemitic 
chinctei  of  whose  language  needs  uo  proof.    Wiih  rc- 


reofai 


'  linguii 


liwis  of  the  Anlrians  themselves, 
quired  bow  fic  the  Japhetic  stock 
itic  cbiricceriuicB  of  the   Indo- 


iMlf,  into  tbe  ei 
Ibe  eastern  into  tbe  Indiin  md  Iranian,  and  the  weet- 
HTi  into  the  Celtic,  Hellenic,  Illyriin,  Il  alien,  Teutonic, 
iilavoniin,  and  Lithuanian  classes,  we  are  able  to  isaign 
Usdu  («bJm)  and  Togarmah  {Arnumu}  to  tbe  Irani- 
u  clMi;  Jarin  (/onuh)  and  El'ishah  (.fefion)  to  the 
Hellenic;  (;DiTiercunJectutilIy  to  the  Celtic;  and  Dudi- 
nim.  ikn  conjccuirally,  Iu  ibe  lUyriin.  Accoriling  t» 
itie  old  interpreters,  Ashkenai  repreients  Ibe  Teutonic 
clav,  while,  iccnnling  to  Knobel,  the  Italiin  would  be 
nprtacnted  by  Tirshish.  whom  be  identities  with  the 
Kiniacins:  the  Slavoniin  by  Mlgog;  and  tbe  Lithuani- 
an pewbly  by  Tins  (  yoUfrt.  p.  68,90.  ISO).  The  same 
writer  also  idcntiHei  Kiphslfawith  tbe  Uiuls,  as  distinct 
from  Ibe  Cymry  or  Gomer  (p.*o)!  while  Kiilim  is  re- 
ferred by  him  not  ifflprubably  lo  the  Carians,  who  at 
one  period  were  predominant  on  Ibe  islands  adji 


.r(p.t« 


The  ei 


e  identilic 


rcngth,  but  in  no  inslince  approaches 
lleynml  the  general  probability  that 
the  main  branches  of  the  human  family  would  be 
nsenied  in  the  Ho«ic  table,  wa  regent  much  thit  has 
been  advanced  on  this  subject  as  highly  precarious.  At 
the  lame  time,  it  must  be  ooiioeded  that  the  oubject  is 
an  0)1(0  one  I  and  that  as  there  is  no  possibility  of  prov- 
ing, so,  alio,  ihrteisnoneul'd  tsprov  ing.  the  correctneM  of 
tbeaeoanJeclureiL  Whether  the  Tunnian  family  is  fiirly 
reimwtitcd  in  tbe  Hnsaic  Uhle  may  be  doubteil.  Those 
who  advocate  tlie  Mimgotiiii  origin  of  tbe  Scythians 
wdbU  naturally  rr^ird  lligog  is  the  representative  of 
tliis  Iimily:  and  even  thoic  who  dissent  frum  Ibe  Mon- 
tlnlian  iheety  may  uill  not  unreasonably  conceive  that 
tbt  liUe  HifD(  applied  broadly  lo  all  ihe  tuiinkd  iribcs 


mind  for  ascertaining  tbe  relalionibip  of  nations  is  lan- 
guage. In  its  general  result!  this  instrument  is  lboT< 
oughly  IruBlworthy,  and  in  each  individual  case  to 
which  it  is  applied  it  fnmi^es  ■  strong  prima  Jade 
evidence;  but  ili  evidence,  if  unsupported  by  collateral 
proofs,  is  uot  unimpeichibie,  in  consequence  of  I  he  no- 
menius  instances  of  adopted  linguogea  which  hive  oc- 
curred within  bisioricil  times.  This  drawback  to  Ihe 
value  of  the  evidence  of  language  will  not  materially 
affect  our  present  inquiry,  inasmuch  as  we  eball  confina 
ourselves  la  much  u  possible  lo  the  general  results. 

The  nomencbture  of  modem  ethnology  is  not  iden* 
tical  with  that  of  tbe  Bible,  pirtly  from  tbe  enlarge- 
ment of  the  area,  ind  pirtly  from  the  general  adoption 
of  language  as  tbe  basis  of  classification.  Tbe  term 
Shemitic  is  indeed  retained,  not,  however,  lo  indicile  a 
tbe  use  of  langniges  illied  to 


tbit 


hichw 


also  finds  a  place  in  modem  eth- 
nology, hut  as  lubordinite  to,  or  co-ordinate  witb, 
Shemitic  Japhetic  is  superseded  miinly  bj  Indn- 
Ifuropean  or  Aryan.  The  virioua  iiatious,  or  families 
of  nalions,  which  Qnd  no  place  under  the  Biblicil  titlea 
■re  classed  by  certain  ethnologists  under  Ibe  broad  title 
of  Turanian,  while  by  olben  cbey  ate  broken  up  into 

1.  Tbe  first  branch  of  our  subject  will  be  to  trace  the 
extension  of  the  Shemilic  family  beyond  Ibe  limits  as- 
signed to  it  in  Ibe  Bible.  The  must  marked  charac- 
teristic of  this  family,  as  compared  with  tbe  Iiulo-Eu- 
ropem  or  Turanian,  ia  ili  inelasticily.  Hemmed  in 
both  by  nilunl  barriers  ind  by  the  superior  energy 
and  expmsivenese  of  the  Aryan  and  Turanian  races,  it 
retains  lo  tbe  present  day  Ihe  ilalui  gun  of  early  limes. 
The  only  direction  in  which  it  has  exhibited  any  teu- 
ilency  to  expand  bas  been  about  the  shores  of  the  Med- 


ic bruicb  of  tbe  family,  via. 
the  Pbanicians,  and  to  a  single  phase  of  expansion, 

uf  Shemitic  presence  in  Cilicia,  which  was  connected 

by  languige,  is  attested  by  exislini;  cuius  (Ueseuiu^ 
.Vm.  Phan.  iii,  3) ;  in  l>a«phylia,  Pisidia,  and  Lycia. 
parts  of  which  were  occupied  by  ihe  Solymi  (Pliny,  v, 
24 ;  Herod,  i,  173),  whose  name  heirs  a  Shemilic  char- 
acter, and  who  are  reported  to  have  spnken  a  Sbemilio 
lotigue  (Euscbius,  Pnep.  Er.  ix,  9),  a  alitement  con- 
firmed  by  the  occurrence  of  olher  Shemitic  names,  such 
as  I'hcenix  and  Cibilii,  though  ihe  subsequent  pre- 
dominance of  in  Atyin  population  in  these  same  dia- 
tricl*  is  itleated  by  the  existing  Lyeiin  iiiscriptionai 
igiin  in  CBris,tboiigb  the  eviilencc  arising  out  of  the 
supposed  identity  of  thc'iiames  of  Ihe  gnds  Osogo  and 
Cbtj'saorem  with  Ibe  Qeetioi  in<l  X|ivaiip^ar.Siiicboni> 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      4 

Uhan  ii  called  in  qanlion  (Renin,  Hut.  Gin.  \,  49) : 
anil,  laxly,  in  Lydia,  it  hen  Che  deieendanla  of  Lud  are 
lociteil  by  many  autboritiei,  and  when  the  preri* 
or  a  Shemltic  language  i*  aaaerted  by  Kbolara  of  the 
highest  auniling,  anionic  whom  we  nay  apAcify  Bunn 
and  Lauen.  in  apiCe  of  cakena  of  Lhe  conumporanei 
preKDce  of  lhe  Aryan  dement,  as  inwanced  in  ibe  nai 
Sardia,  and  in  spice,  alin,  or  the  hialorical  noticeaof 
ethnical  connectiDD  with  Myiia  (Herod.!,  171).  Whei 
er  the  Shemites  erer  occupied  any  ponion  at  ttie  p)au 
of  Aaia  Minor  may  be  doubted.     In  tbe  opinion  of  the 
ancient!  tbe  lat«r  occupant*  of  Cappadocia  were  Sy 
iana,  diatinguished  from  tbe  loan  of  their  race  by 
■■  ■         ■  ■  'lenCB  termed  LrHcoiyri  (Strabo,  x 


y  the  ( 


e  kings  a 


512)1  but 

of  Aiyanism  afforded  by  the  na 
<leitie%  a*  well  aa  by  the  Peraian 
ion  {ibid,  xr,  783).     If,  therefore, 
cnpted  this  district,  they  muat  >oon  hare  been  brought 
under  the  dominion  of  Aryan  conqueron  (Diefenbac! 
Orig.  A'Bi-n/j,  p.  44).     The  Phtenldana  were  ubiquitoi 
on  the  islands  and  shore*  of  the  Mediterranean :   i 
Cypma,  where  thpy  htve  left  tokens  of  their  preaeni 
at  Citinm  and  other  places;  in  Oelei  in  Malta,  wh«ra 
they  were  the  original  aetllcrs  (DiiHl.  Sic  r,  12); 
the  nuinland  of  GreBce,  where  their  presence  ii  1 
tokened  by  the  name  Cadmus;  iu  Samos,  Sane,  a 
Samothrace,  which  bear  Sbemilic  names;  in  In*  a 
Tenedoa,  once   known  by  the  name  of  Phanice; 
aioily,  where  Panocmu^  Motra,  and  Solatia  were  She 
itic  settlements ;  in  Sardinia  '(ibid,  r,  85) ;  on  tbe  easti 

of  Africa,  which  was  lined  with  PUmnician  colon 
from  the  Syttii  Major  l/>  the  Pillara  of  Hercules.  Tliey 
n)ij4t  also  have  penetrated  deeply  into  the  interior, 
Judge  from  Stnibo'a  statement  of  the  destmction 
three  hundred  towns  by  the  Pliaruaiina  and  Nigritij 
(Strsbo,  xvll,  826).  Still,  in  none  of  the  countriea 
have  mentioned  did  they  supplant  the  original  pof 
laUon ;  they  were  conquerors  and  aeltlen,  but  no  m 
than  this. 

The  bulk  of  the  North  African  tanguagea,  bath 
ancient  and  modern  times,  though  not  Shemitic  in  i 
proper  aense  of  the  term,  re  far  resemble  Ibat  type  ai 
have  obtained  lhe  title  of  aub-Shmiitic.     In  the  north 
the  old  Numidian  laiiguago  appears,  f>om  the  preva- 
lence of  the  syllsble  Uat  in  the  name  MoMtyKi, 
be  allied  to  the  mcHlern  Berber;  and  the  same  cnncln- 
aion  bas  been  drawn  with  regard  to  the  Ubyan  tongue. 
The  Berber,  in  tnni,  to'^'ctbei  with  the  Touarick  and 
the  great  body  of  tho  North  African  dialects,  is  closely 
allied  to  the  Oiptic  of  Egypt,  and  therefore  falls  under 
the  title  of  Hamitic,  or,  acconling  to  the  more  usual 
nomenclature,  sub-Shemilic  (Renau,  Hitt,  Gin.  i,  201, 
302).     Southward  of  %ypc  the  .Shemitic  type  is  repro- 
duced in  the  majority  of  the  Abyssinian  languages,  par- 
ticularly inthcUheex,and  in  a  leas  marked  degree  in  the 
Amharic,theSaho,and  theGalU;  and  Shemitic  influ- 
ence may  be  traced  along  (he  whole  east  coast  of  AfKca 
as  far  as  Moiambiqus  (.«*  i.  336-340). 
languages  of  the  interior  and  of  the  south,  there  appears 
t<i  be  a  conflict  of  opinions,  the  writer  from  whom  ' 
have  Juat  quoted  denying  any  trace  of  resemblance 
the  Shemitic  type,  while  Dr.  Latham  a-iserts  very  co 
Bdently  that  cunnecling-linka  exist  between  the  su 
Shemitic  languagirs  of  the  north,  tbe  Negro  languagea 
in  the  centre,  and  the  Callre  languages  of  iho  south: 
and  that  even  lhe  HnltenEot  Uncage  is  not  so  isolated 
as  has  generally  been  supposed  (.VouaiiiJAu  MigraU  p. 
134-148).     Bunsen  supports  this  view  so  far  as  the  lan- 
guagea ncKth  or  the  equator  are  concerned,  but  regards 
the  southern  a*  rather  approximating  to  the  Turanian 
type  (^PhiL  of  Hill,  i,  178;  it,  20).    It  is  impossible  as 
yet  ui  form  a  decided  opinion  on  this  large  subject. 

A  question  of  coasiderable  interest  remains  yet  to  be 
noticeil,  namely,  whether  we  can  trace  the  .Shemitic  fam- 
ily bock  C>  its  original  cradle.    In  the  case  of  the  Indn- 


6      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 

European  family  this  can  be  dotie  with  a  high  degree  nf 
probabilily;  and  if  an  original  unity  existed  betwrni 
these  stocks,  the  domicile  of  the  one  would  neemuik 
be  that  of  the  other.  A  certain  community  of  idea 
id  posBblv  tbe 


t  in  the 


if  thedirenionin 
which  tbe  primeval  abode  Lay  (Renan,  flisl.  Got.  ],i'{). 
The  position  of  this  abode  we  aball  deacribe  presently, 
2.  The  Indo-Euiopean  family  nf  languages,  as  at  jms- 
ent  constituted,  conusta  nf  the  folkiwing  nine  clasta: 
Indian,  Iranian,  Celtic,  Italian,  Albai>ian,  Greek,  Tea- 
tonic,  Lithuanian,  anil  SlaviHiian.  U«ngtaphicallr,itKae 
classea  may  be  grouped  together  in  two  di visions.  Eatt- 
era  and  Western ;  the  former  comprising  tbe  first  iwo, 
the  latter  the  seven  remaining  cUssos.  Schleicher  di- 
vides what  we  hate  termeil  the  Western  into  two,  the 
South-west  Eurepean  and  the  North  European;  iu 
Che  former  of  which  he  places  the  Greek,  Albsgisii, 
Italian,  and  Celtic;  in  the  latter,  the  Slavonian.  Lithu- 
anUn.  and  Teutonic  (Compfad.  i,  5).  Pnif.  M.  MOUet 
combines  the  Slavonian  and  Litbuanian  dasaes  in  tbe 
Windic,  thus  reducing  tbe  number  to  eight.  Thiss 
classes  exhibit  various  degrees  of  afflnity  to  each  other, 
which  are  described  by  Schleicher  in  the  rollowing  oud- 
nei;  The  earliest  deviation  trota  the  common  language 
of  the  family  waa  effected  by  the  SUvono-Teuunic 
branch.  After  another  interi'al  a  second  bifurcation  «■ 
curred,  which  separated  what  we  mav  term  the  Gneco- 
Italo-Cetlic  branch  frem  the  Aryan. '  The  fonwr  btid 
together  for  a  wbile,  and  then  threw  off  the  Greek  (in- 
cluding probably  the  Albanian),  leaving  the  Celtic  and 
Italian  stilt  connected:  the  final  division  of  the  Islier 
two  lank  place  after  aoothei  considerable  ioterraL  Tbe 
Brat-mentioned  branch  —  the  SI avono- Teutonic— re- 
mained intact  for  ■  period  aomewhat  longer  iban  that 
which  witnessed  the  second  bifurcation  of  the  nr^inal 
stock,  and  then  divided  into  the  Teutonic  and  Slavonn- 
Lithusnian,  which  btter  Anally  bmke  up  into  irs  in> 
component  elements.  The  Aryan  branch  uniilariy  htU 
together  for  a  lengthened  period,  and  then  bifurcaltil 
into  the  Indian  and  Iranian.  The  conclusion  ScbUiektr 
draws  from  these  linguistic  affluiliee  is  that  the  awe 
easterly  uf  the  European  nations,  the  Slavoniini  inl 
Teutons,  were  the  first  to  leave  the  oommon  bome  af 
the  Indo-European  race;  that  they  were  followed  by 
the  Celts,  Italians,  and  Greeks ;  and  that  the  Indian  ad 
Iranian  branches  were  tho  last  to  commence  Ibeir  mi- 
gratinna.  We  feel  nnable  to  accept  this  cnndi««i, 
which  appears  to  ua  to  be  based  on  the  aasuniptian  Ibat 
the  antiquity  of  a  language  is  to  be  measured  by  itssp- 
pmximalion  to  Sanscrit.     Looking  at  the  )TeoqnphiaI 

classes,  we  should  infer  that  the  most  westerly  were  ilH 
earliest  immigrants  into  Europe,  and  therefore  pn^sblr 
the  enrliest  emigrants  from  the  primeval  seat  of  tbs 
race;  and  ne  believe  this  to  be  conHrmed  by  Ungaiilic 
proof!  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  Celtic  as  compand 
with  the  other  branches  t^  the  Indo-European  family 
(Bunsen, />«(!.  o///uf.  1,108). 

The  original  seat  of  the  Indo-European  race  was  aa 
the  plateau  of  Central  Aaia,  probably  In  the  westmid 
of  the  Bolor  and  Mustagh  rsnges.  'Ilie  Indian  branck 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  alupea  of  Himalaya  by  (be 
geographical  alluaions  in  the  Vcdic  hymns(Mililer.f.«- 
urt*,  p.  201);  in  condraiation  of  which  we  may  addaei 
the  circumstance  that  the  sole  ti«e  for  which  the  In- 
dians have  an  appellation  in  common  with  the  westtn 
natioDS  is  one  which  in  India  is  found  onlv  on  the 
•outhem  slope  of  that  range  (Pott,  Ktyn.  /'onot.  i,  1 10). 
The  westward  progreaa  of  the  Iranian  tribes  is  a  matter 
of  history,  and  though  vre  cannot  trace  this  progRV 
back  to  ita  fountain-head,  the  locality  above  mentioned 


Ar)-a 


IS  and  with  the  physical  and  geographirsl  requirt- 
ofthecase  (Renan, //iar.  Csa.  i,  48 1 ). 
:  routes  by  which  the  various  western  braochM 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      477      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


RKhed  iheii  reapectivs  localities  on  only  b« 
und.  We  maj  mppoH  Ibtca  to  have  eua 
ooBed  the  plateau  of  Inn  uDlil  they  reached  Aimeaia, 
vhtocc  Ibey  mif^hc  Tullaw  either  a  northerly  coune 
tcnu  CaucaKu.  and  by  the  shore  of  tlie  Black  Sea,  or 
■  direet  wnterly  one  along  tbe  plateau  or  Aaia  Minor, 
irkich  Beenu  desiintU  by  nature  la  be  the  bridge  be- 
Ketn  the  two  continenti  ot  Europe  and  Aua.  A  third 
inite  haa  been  aurmiaed  fur  a  portion  or  the  Celtic  Btocli, 
^  along  the  nurih  coast  ot  Ahica,  and  acroaa  tbe 
Stniu  of  (iihnllar  into  Spain  (Bunaeii,  PAiLo/  Uul.  i, 
l«)ll  


liek)fi|!,roT 


iresence  ot  tbe  Celts  in  that 
lich  i>  certainly  difficult  to  account  fur. 
of  the  aereral  migrBtiona  are  again  very 
jr  of  conjecture.  The  original  moremenls 
e  moat  part,  10  the  ante-hialorical  age,  and 
u  more  than  note  the  period  at  whicb  we 
Gnl  enoounter  the  aeveral  nationa.  That  [he  Indian 
A/yana  had  reached  the  tnnuth  of  the  Iiidui  at  all  erenta 
befure  ac  1000  appeari  from  the  Sinacrit  namea  of 
the  aniclet  nhich  SoloaKm  imported  from  that  country. 
Sk  I»»ia.  The  preaence  of  Arrant  on  tbo  Shetnitic 
fntnlier  iaaa  old  aa  the  compoNtion  of  the  Mosaic  table ; 
and.  according  to  loine  autboritiea,  is  proved  by  the 
namei  of  the  confederate  kinga  in  the  age  of  Abraham 
(<;ta.  xiv,  I ;  Heiian,  Him.  Gin.  i,  Gl).  The  Aryan 
Hcdo  are  metiiioaed  iu  the  Aaayiian  annala  about  B.C. 
900.  The  Greek*  were  aettled  on  the  peniiiaula  named 
after  theoi.  aa  well  at  on  the  ialanda  of  the  ^gean,  long 
befbte  the  dawn  of  hialory,  and  the  Italiana  had  reach- 
ed their  quarter!  at  a  yet  earlier  period.  The  CelM 
had  reached  tbe  west  of  Europe  at  ab  evenlB  before, 
probably  very  lung  before,  the  age  of  Hecatnua  (B.C. 
HOO):  liie  latest  branch  nf  thia  atock  arrived  there  about 
that  period,  according  to  Bunsen"s  conjecture  (PUL  of 
Htt.\,  I5S).  Tbe  Teutonic  migration  followed  at  along 
interval  after  the  Celtic;  Pytheaa  found  them  already 
mted  on  the  ahorea  of  the  Baltic  in  the  age  of  Alt 
der  the  (ireat  (I'liny,  xxxvji,  11),  and  the  terra  $i 
iiaelf,  by  which  amber  wi«  deacribed  in  that  dii 
bckN^(olheni(IHelenbach,Or^A'HrD/i.p,359).  The 
earijest  hiitorical  notice  of  them  depend)  on  the 
taken  of  the  nationality  of  the  Teulonea,  who  ac 
panied  the  Cifnbri  en  their  aautbem  expedition  in  B.C. 
113-102.  If  Ibeae  were  Celtic,  aa  ia  not  uncnmmoiilt 
thuaf-ht,  tben  we  muit  look  to  Caaar  and  Tacitus  fui 
theeattieMdeflniteuoticcanf  tbeT'eulonic  tribea,  Tbi 
Slaronian  immiKration  waa  nearly  contemporaaeuut 
•riih  (he  Teutonic  (lIunMn,  i>AtL  n/ ^'u'-  i|73):  thii 
Kock  can  be  traced  back  to  the  VmeA  or  Vtmda  ol 
Northern  Uermany,  Sni  nteiilionetl  by  Tacitus  (firrm 
M),  fnnd  whom  the  name  Wati  is  probably  deacended. 
Tba  dntgnation  of  SUtti  or  Sdari  ia  of  comparatively 
late  date,  and  applied  apeeially  to  the  weatem  branch 
of  the  Slavonian  stock.  The  Lithuanians  are  probably 
npmented  by  the  Galinda  and  Sudatt  of  Ptolemy  (!*' 
S,  Jl),  the  names  of  which  tribes  have  been  preseiv 
in  all  a^ea  in  the  Uthuanlan  district  (Diefenbach, 
Wy,  They  are  frequently  identlAed  with  the  ^il\ 
and  it  ia  not  impoasible  that  they  may  have  adopt 
the  title,  which  wasa  geographical  one  (=thef(u(mer 
tbe  .Cicui  of  Tacitus,  however,  were  Oermana.  In  the 
above  Malemenia  we  have  omitted  the  problematical 
identificatinna  of  the  Nurthem  etocka  with  the  earlier 
nationa  of  history :  we  may  here  mention  that  the  Sla- 
mnians  are  nut  unfrequenllr  n^arded  ai  the  represent- 
aiina  of  the  Scvthinna  (Skolota)  and  the  Sarmatiani 
(KnobeL  roU»rt."  p.  G9).  The  writer  whom  wa  have 
Joal  dtci)  also  endeavors  to  connect  tbe  Lithuanian! 
with  tbt  Affatbyrisi  (p.  180}.  So,  again,  Grimm  traced 
tka  Teatoaie  atock  to  the  6e(«,  whom  he  identified 
with  the  Ootha  (CeadL  d.  datic*.  Spr.  i,  178). 

It  may  be  aaked  whether  tbe  Aryan  race  were  the 
llra(.40uera  in  tba  lands  which  they  oeeapied  in  histori- 
cal linn,  ot  whether  they  superseded  an  earlier  popu- 
laltOB.    With  regard  to  the  Indian  bnnch  Ibis  ques- 


tion can  be  answered  decisively:  the  vestiges  of  an 
aboriginal  popnlatioo,  which  once  covered  the  plains  of 
Hindoalan,  still  exist  in  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
peninsula,  aa  well  aa  in  isolated  localities  elsewhere,  aa 
instanced  in  the  case  of  the  Brahus  of  the  North.    Kot 
only  this,  but  the  Indian  class  of  languages  poaaeaaes  a 
peculiarity  of  sound  (the  lingual  or  cerebral  conaonants) 
'  '  *  '   supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  tbia  popn- 
d  to  betoken  a  fusion  of  the  conqoeron  and  the 
conquered  (Schleicher,  Compmit.  i,  Ul ).      Tbe  lan- 
lages  of  this  earlv  popuUtion  are  classed  as  Turani- 
I  (Muller,  Ltd.  p.' 899).     We  are  unable  to  find  de- 
cided traces  of  Turaniaas  on  the  plateau  of  Iran.     The 
of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  were  Scythi- 
id  so  were  the  Partbians,  both  by  reputed  descent 
(Justin,  ili,ll  and  by  babiis  of  life  (Strabo,  li,  fil5)i 
1  cannot  positively  assert  that  they  were  Turani- 
lasmuch  OB  the  term  Scythian  was  also  applied, 
the  case  of  the  Skolotii,'to  I ndo- Europeans.     In 
the  Caucasian  district  the  Iberians  and  others  may  have 
in  early  as  in  later  limes;  but  it  ia  dif- 
rl  the  enlangtement  of  racea  and  lan- 
guages in  that  district.     In  Europe  there  exists  in  the 
present  dsy  an  undoubted  Turanian  papulation  eaal- 
ward  of  the'  Baltic,  vii.  the  Finni  who  have  been  located 
there  certainly  since  the  lime  of  Tacilns  (Cmn.46),  and 
ptubahly  at  Bu  earlier  period  had  spread  more  to 
nuthwanl,  but  had  been  gradually  thrust  back  by 
the  advance  of  tbe  Teutonic  and  Slavonian  nations 
(Diefenbach,  Or^.  Earop,  p.  !09),    There  exists,  again, 
the  South  a.populalion  whose  language  (the  htuqar. 
,BB  it  is  entitled  in  its  own  land,  the  futtoro)  preaenta 
imerous  points  of  sfflnity  to  the  Finnish  in  i*ramiDar, 
.ough  its  vocabulary  is  wholly  distinct.     We  cannot 
nsirler  the  Turanian  character  of  thia  language  aa 

tbe  ethnic  affinities  of  the  early  Iberians,  who  are  gen- 
erally regarded  as  the  progenilors  of  the  Basquea.  We 
have  already  adverted  to  the  theory  that  the  Finns  in 
ihe  North  and  the  Baaqncs  in  the  South  are  the  sun'tv- 
ing  monuments  of  a  Turanian  population  which  over- 
ipread  the  whole  of  Europe  befure  tbe  arrival  of  tbe 
Indo-Europeans.  Thia  is  a  mere  theory  which  can 
neither  be  pnived  nor  disproved. 

It  would  be  difBculi,  if  not  impoauble,  to  asaign  to 
the  varioua  aubdiviaiont  of  the  Indo  -  European  atock 
their  respective  areas,  or,  where  admixture  has  taken 
place,  their  relative  proportions.  language  and  race 
are,  aa  already  olnerved,  by  no  means  coextensive.  The 
Celtic  race,  for  instance,  which  occupied  Usui,  Murthem 
Italy,  large  ponions  of  Spain  and  (iermany,  and  even 
penetrated  acmaa  the  Hellespont  into  Asia  Minor,  where 
it  gave  name  In  the  province  of  Galatia,  is  now  repre- 
■  •■        ■    ■     -ly  by  t[      •     ■      - 


among  whohi  Ihe  Webh  and  Ihe  Gaelic  or  Erse  lan- 
guages retain  a  lingering  existence.  The  Italian  race, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  must  have  been  well-nigh  an- 
nihilated by,  or  absorbed  in,  the  overwhelming  masses 
of  Ihe  Northern  hordes,  has  imposed  its  language  out- 
side the  bounds  of  Italy  over  the  peninsula  of  Spain, 
France,  and  Wallachia.  But,  while  the  races  have  so 
intermingled  aa  in  many  instances  to  lose  all  trace  of 
their  original  individuality,  the  bmad  fact  of  their  de- 
scent from  one  or  other  of  the  bnncbes  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  remains  unaffected.  It  ia,  indeed,  im- 
possible to  affiliate  all  the  nation*  wboae  names  appear 
on  the  roll  of  hiatnry  to  the  existing  divisions  of  that 
family,  in  oonseqiience  of  Ihe  absence  or  Ihe  obscurity 
of  etbnn]n)pcal  criteria.  Where,  for  insunce,  shall  we 
place  the  languages  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricu?  The  Phryirian  appraxiraates  perhaps  to  the 
Greek,  anri  vet  it  dilTers  from  it  maUrially  both  in  form 
and  vocabulary  (KanlinKin,  lltrnd.  i,  6e6) ;  still  more 
is  this  the  rase  with  tbe  Lycinn,  which  appears  to  pos- 
aeas  a  vocabulary  wholly  distinct  fmm  its  kiiulred  lan- 
guage* ((Kd  i,  689, 677-679).  The  Armenian  ia  ranged 
under  the  Iranian  division ;  yet  this,  a*  well  as  the  Ian- 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF      478      TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


tla±fc<!  of  the  Caucuiia  099et«s,irbcee  imlli^ncuu  lunie 


n  the 


tring  t. 


ItfOriffM  Europ^  p.  51), 


■ra  equally  pcculUr  (Uierei 

PaMing  to  Ihe  weMward,  w«  encounur  me  i  nriciaiia, 
nputeil  l>y  Henxlntua  (*,  3)  the  moM  powerful  nitioii 
in  Che  worlil,  tint  liulUiu  exapuil;  yet  but  one  word 
of  theit  Ungmge  (4ria="iowQ'')  his  turriTwl,  and  «ll 
hulurical  trace*  of  the  people  have  beetr  obliterated, 
[t  is  true  that  they  are  Tepreaenled  in  later  timei  by 
the  (leliB,  anil  these  in  turn  by  tb«  Doci;  hut  neither 
of  these  ran  be  tracked  either  by  history  or  language, 
unless  we  amepl  Cirimm's  more  than  duubtfiil  identi- 
fication which  would  cannoct  them  with  the  Teutonic 
branch.  Tlie  ruinsiiis  of  the  Scythian  lanf-uage  are 
Mifficient  to  establish  the  lodo-Eurapean  aHiiiitiea  of 
that  nalion  (Ranlinson,  lltnid.  iii,  196-303),  but  insuf- 
ficient u>  assign  to  it  a  deflnile  place  in  the  family. 
'i'be  Scythians,  as  well  as  moat  of  the  nomad  tribes  a>- 
■ocialed  with  them,  ara  bst  to  the  eye  of  the  ethnolo- 
eist,  having  been  eillker  absorbed  into  other  nalionali- 
lies  or  swept  away  by  the  ravage*  of  war.  The  Sai^ 
malte  can  be  traced  down  to  the  laiygea  of  Hungary 
and  I'odlacbia,  in  which  latter  district  they  survived 
ur  era  (3mith,  IHrl.  ofGeog. 


and  tbeu 


({uage  prMwi 
ooncluiion 


The 


I  dilferent  khid:  material* 
_  in  tbiicate,  but  no  definite 
It  been  drawn  frum  them.  The 
ii>  use  this  tongue  (the  iSib/Mfarvs,  as  they  call 
themselves)  are  generally  regarded  as  Ihe  representa- 
tives of  the  old  Ulytians,  who  iit  turii  appear  to  have 
been  closely  connected  with  the  Thncians  (Stnbo,  vii, 
315;  Justin,  xi,  1),  the  name  Danlani  being  found  both 
in  lllyria  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont;  it  is  not, 
therefore,  improbable  that  the  Albanian  may  contain 
whatever  vestiges  of  the  old  Thracian  tongue  still  sur- 
vive CDiefeiibach,0.t^.AMn7..  p.  68).  in  the  italic  pe- 
ninsula the  Etniscau  tongue  remains  as  great  an  enigma 
as  ever :  its  Indo-European  character  it  supposed  to  be 
csubliibed,  together  with  the  probability  of  its  being  a 
mixed  language  (Bunsen,  PML  ofUtMl.  i,  86-88).  The 
result  of  researches  into  the  Umtnian  language,  ai  repre- 
•entetl  in  the  JCugulniie  tablets,  Ihe  earliest  of  which 
date  from  about  lJ.C«>ai  into  the  Sabelliau,  as  repre- 
sentee! in  the  tablets  of  Velletri  and  Amino;  and  into 

cideil  their  rx'siciuu  oa  members  of  the  Italic  class  [ibid. 
i,  90-Kl).  The  same  cannot  be  assertfd  of  Ihe  Mesapi- 
an  or  lapygian  language,  which  sunda  apart  from  all 
neighboring  dialect&  Its  Indo-European  character  is 
afflrmed,  but  no  ethnological  conclusion  can  as  yet  be 
drawn  from  the  scanty  information  alRirdcd  us  {Md.  i, 
1)1).  Ljutly,  within  the  Celtic  area  there  are  ethnolog- 
ical problems  which  we  cannot  pretend  to  solve.  The 
Ligiirians,  for  instance,  present  one  of  these  probtemat 
were  they  Celts,  but  belonging  to  an  earlier  migration 
than  the  Oils  of  history?  Their  name  ha*  been  refer- 
red to  a  Welsh  original,  but  on  this  no  great  reliance 
can  beplace<l,  as  it  would  be  in  this  casca  local  {=con*(- 
nirn)aud  not  an  ethnical  title,  and  might  have  been  im- 
poaed  on  them  by  the  Celts.  They  evidently  hold  a 
posterior  place  to  the  Iberians,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
said  to  liave  driven  ■  section  of  this  people  ncroat  the 
Alps  into  Italv.  That  Ihev  were  distinct  from  the 
Celts  U  a>MriaX  by  Strabo  (ii,  l»l),  but  the  diatinc- 
lion  may  1i:ivc  been  no  greater  than  exists  between  Ihe 
BtitiMh  uiiil  ihe  tiselic  branches  of  that  race.  The  ad- 
mixture of  the  Celts  and  Iberians  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula 13  again  a  somewhat  intricate  question,  which  Dr. 
ijatham  attempts  to  explain  on  the  gmnnd  that  the 
term  Celt  <Ki\raO  really  meant  Iberian  (Eilm.  of  Eur. 
p.  35).     That  such  questions  as  these  shouhl  arise  on  a 

tj  forms  no  ground  U)t  doubting  the  general  conclusion 


of  the  European  tf. 
3.  The  Shemitii 
afccr  all,  hut  an  ini 
face;  the  large  are 
numerous  groups  c 
the  Pacific  in  III 


It  ethnologically  fur  the  pupulatiua 

nsigniricant  portion  of  the  earth's  hi- 
reaa  of  Nortliem  and  Raatem  Ana,  the 
I  of  islands  that  line  its  coast  and  Mud 
direction  of  South  America,  and,  again, 
of  America  itself,  stretching  writ 
nigh  from  pole  to  pole,  remain  tube  accounted  for.  His- 
torical aid  is  almost  wholly  denied  to  the  ethnologiia  la 
his  reeearehes  in  these  quarters;  physiology  and  lan- 
guage are  his  only  guides.  It  can  hanlly,  theref4>n,be 
matter  of  surprise  if  we  are  unaUe  to  obtain  entaintr, 
or  even  a  reasonable  degree  of  probalnlity,  oii  tbii  (sn 
of  our  subject.  Much  bos  been  done;  but  far  more  re- 
mains to  be  done  before  the  data  for  forming  a  conda- 
sire  opinion  can  be  oblatiicil.  In  Asia  the  languajin 
fall  into  two  large  classes — the  monnayllsbic  and  the 
agglutinative.  The  lormer  are  represented  ethirali^ 
cally  by  the  Chinese,  the  latter  by  the  various  natiou 
claned  together  hy  Prof.  tl.  Mnller  umler  the  cominn 
head  of  Turanian.  It  it  unnoccssary  for  us  to  disnn 
the  correctness  of  his  view  in  regarding  all  these  nalioiit 
as  members  of  one  and  the  same  family.  Whelberwe 
accept  or  reject  bis  theorj-,  thefactof  agrodatioii  oflin- 
guittic  lypet  and  or  connecting-links  between  the  riii- 
ous  branches  remains  unaflecled,  and  lor  our  pfesoit 
purpose  the  question  is  of  comparatively  little  tnoment. 
The  monnayliabic  type  atiparently  betokeni  the  eariini 
movement  from  the  common  home  of  the  human  no', 
and  we  sliould  therefiire  assign  a  chronological  priority 
10  the  settlement  of  the  Chinese  in  the  east  aiidsMth- 
eaat  of  the  continent,  'i'be  at^lutinative  languagnfall 
geographically  into  two  divisiims,  a  Xorthrm  and  Sooth- 
em.  The  Northern  ciMitistaof  a  well-defined  group,  w 
family,  designated  by  German  ethnok^sta  the  Unl- 
Altaian.  It  consists  of  Ihe  following  Are  hranrhtt. 
(1.)  The  TiinguMan,  co\-ering  a  large  area,  call  of  tbe 
river  Venisei,  between  I^ke  Baikal  and  the  TimginlDi, 
(2.)  The  Mongolian,  which  prevails  over  Ihe  tirest  Des- 
ert of  tlolii,  and  among  the  Ktlmucks,  wherever  then- 
nomad  habits  lead  them  on  the  steppes  either  oF  Ad> 
or  Europe,  in  the  latter  of  which  they  are  found  aboot 
the  lower  cunrae  of  the  Volga.  (3.)  The  Tarkiih,aiv- 
ering  an  imioense  area  from  the  Mediterranean  in  Ibt 
south-weat  to  the  river  Lena  in  the  north-past;  in  En- 
rope  spoken  by  the  Osmsrli,  who  form  the  govemiBi 
class  in  Turkey;  by  the  Nogxi,  between  the  Ct^uin 


le  Sea  of  A 


isCsua 


(4.)  The  Samniedic,  on  the  coast  of  the  A 
between  the  White  Sea  in  the  west  and  the  rivet  Am- 
ban  in  the  east.  (B,)  The  Finnish,  which  is  spokeii  by 
tbe  Finns  and  Lapps;  by  the  inhabitants  of  Esthoait 
andLivoniatathesouthof  the  Gulf  of  Finland;  brvs. 
rious  tribea  about  the  Volga  (the  Tcheremiisain  sad 
Monlvlnitns)  and  the  Katna  (the  Voiiaka  and  I^raii- 
ans);  aiKl,  Lutlv,  hv  the  Sltg;-an  of  Hungarv.  The 
.Southern  branch  is 'subdivided'  into  Ihe  follnwing  liiar 
classes;  (I.)  The  Tamnlian,  of  the  south  of  llindoilaa. 
(!.)  The  niiotlya,  of  1'hibel,  the  tub-  H  imalayan  di«ri« 
(Nepsul  and  Rholan),  and  the  l.ohitic  languages  tsst 
of  the  Urahmapootm.  (3.)  1'he  Ta1,  in  Siim.  Lam, 
Anam.  and  I'egu.  (4.)  The  Malay,  of  the  Malay  pei>ii>- 
sula,and  the  adjacent  islands;  Ihe  latter  being  tbe  <1Tif^ 
iual  settlement  of  the  Malay  race,  whence  tliey  iprtail 
in  comparatively  modem  times  to  the  mainland. 

The  early  movenKnls  of  the  races  representinf  thne 
several  divisions  can  only  be  divined  by  linguiaie  to- 
kens. Prof,  U,  Hllller  aa^gna  to  the  Nonhem  Iribis 
Ihe  following  chronological  order:  Tungntian,  Monjjs- 
lian,  Turkish,  and  Finniah ;  and  to  Ihe  .Southern  riiviiHC 
Ihe  following:  Tal,  Malav,  i)hoil>'s,  and  Tanalim 
(Phil,  of  If  ill.  I,*SI),  Gei^aphlcaily  it  appears  mere 
likely  ihst  the  Malay  preceded  the  TaT,  insuniKh  ti 
Ibey  occupied  a  more  southerly  district.  The  later 
movementa  of  the  European  branches  of  Ihe  Nsttben 
division  can  be  traced  hiatoricalty.    Tbe  Tnikisli  iws 


TONGUES  OF  FIRE  4 

Iheit  mMcrty  migration  IVom  tht  neigh- 


id  of  the  Alui  rt 


^ofoilTK 


in  ih(  6ih  Lhey  hid  reachnl  the  Casplin  and  the  Vol- 
p\  in  llie  Itlh  anil  I'Jlh  Ibe  Turcnmins  took  posaes- 

cm  A.va-,  iitnut  Che  miildle  iif  Che  14th  they  cnased 
From  Asii  Minor  into  Europe ;  luiil  in  Che  middle  of  the 
HAh  thcr  had  eiutilished  themaelrea  at  Constantino- 
pit.  The  Finnish  race  is  luppoKd  to  have  b«n  orig- 
inill]T  settled  about  the  Ural  range,  apJ  Ibence  ID  hare 
mi^aied  nestcard  to  Ibe  ahorea  nT  Che  Baltic,  which 
Ihtr  had  reached  at  a  period  anterior  to  the  Christian 
mtt;  in  iheTtb  century  a  branch  pressed  aouthward  to 
tbe  Danube,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Bulgaria, 

lionil  uliience.  The  Ugrian  tribe^  who  are  the  early 
npmentalives  of  Che  Hungarian  Magj-am,  approached 
Eumpe  Trum  .Vnia  in  the  fith  and  settled  in  Hungary  in 
the  9th  century  of  our  nn.  The  central  point  from 
■hich  Ibe  various  branches  of  the  Turanian  family  ra- 
diiled  would  appear  '     '  ...,.■,.      —. 

leganl  tn  the  etbiioloi 

ur  bat  little.  The  language!  oi  tne  lonner  are  gener- 
ilicHipposed  10  be  connected  with  theMatay  clauCBun- 
n.fJiJ.n/y/ii/.ii,  lU)i  biiC  the  retaIiDna,boIh  linKuis- 
tic  and  ethnological,  existing  between  the  MaUy  and  the 
Uack.orKq^Lo,  population,  which  ia  found  on  many  of 
Ibe  pHips  of  islanil^  aiv  not  well  defined.  The  approi- 
iroiiion  in  language  i>  far  greater  than  in  phyak>li^;y 
{Luham,  £Mayi.  p.  313,  218;  Uamett,  £>«^,  p.  310), 
ind  in  certain  cases  amounts  to  identity  (Keimedy,  £.- 
uji,  p.Si);  but  the  whole  aubject  ia  at  pctaeut  involved 
in  etnoiriir.  The  polyaynthetic  languagea  of  North 
Anetica  are  regarded  as  emanating  from  the  Mongolian 
Dork  (Banien,  I'hU.  of  Itul.  ii,  1 1 1),  and  a  cloae  afflnicy 
a  laid  u)  exiic  becween  Che  North  American  and  Ihe 
Eamlcbadole  and  Corean  languages  on  the  opposite  . 
c»Uof.\na  (Latham,  .IfnniinrfiSii.V^ci'.  p.  t8£l).  The 
omeliHion  drawn  from  this  would  be  that  Cbe  popul.i-  | 
Cian  of  America  entered  by  way  of  Ikhring'a  Strait. . 
Other  Ihenriee  have,  however,  been  broached  on  this  i 
■ul^t.  [t  has  been  conjectured  that  the  chain  of  id- 
inds  which  alretches  acrosa  the  Pacific  may  have  con-  ' 
ducted  a  Malay  population  to  South  America;  and,  I 
iRtin,  an  African  ori)^n  baa  been  claimed  for  Che  Cariha 
of  Cfiiiral  America  (Kennedy,  Kuns:  p.  lOO-iaa).  In  ! 
cimcti^nn.  we  may  ufely  assert  that  the  tendency  of 
•U  elhnuliigical  and  linguistic  research  is  Co  discover  ; 
tbe  eltmenls  nf  iinitv  amid  Ihe  moat  striking  external 
wieiin.  Already  the  myriads  of  the  human  race  arc 
massed  together  into  a  few  large  groups.  Whether  ic 
■ill  ever  be  possible  lo  go  beyond  chis,  and  lo  show  ibe 
hisniical  unity  of  these  groups,  is  more  than  we  can 
uDdenalie  to  say.  But  we  entertain  Che  firm  peraua-  '■ 
Bon  that  in  their  bmad  reiulta  theae  acience*  will  yield 
an  increasing  leslimony  to  the  truth  of  the  Bible. 

IIL  The  authorities  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  arti- 
cle art,  MQlier,  f^dHrn  on  the  Sdenre  of  language 
tmi):  Bunsen, /•Mosopty  <  AiKory  (1854,  3  vok); 
Raian,  Hiilairr  Giniralt  <lu  ttmgaa  Simitiquei  (3d  ed. 
\m)!  Knobel,  Vulierln/d  dtr  Grruiii  (IXSO);  Uum- 
boLIt  (^W.  von],  Urber  iHa  VertchU^fithrit  dei  mmtch- 
lidtr-  .■ipruchbuiin(_183G):  Deli Czxch,  JrsAu run  (I868J1 
TrauaciioKi  n/ lit  I'kilotogwal  Soaftg ;  Rawlinsun, 
Urmhi«t  (IRdS,  4  vols.);  Pott,  Elymologuc&e  Far- 
idujn  <IS33)i  Gamell,  ftuif  (1869);  Schleicher, 
Cimpm^arndtrterglnchaulm  Grammalii  (1861);  Die- 
Unbtch,  Or^iBH  Earopta  (eod.l;  Ewald,  ^pmcticu- 
•oKJa/tltcAe  Abtondluiyni  (lft62).    See  Ethnology. 

TllNGUeS  OF  Ferk.  In  the  account  ofthe  firetde- 
•mil  of  tbe  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  apostles,  it  ia  staled 
(Acta  ii,  3  )  that  "  there  appeared  unto  them  cJorm 
Utgtriata/^reituiiifpillafiivai  f^iaaat  ijnfi  impoc), 
•ad  it  sat  upon  each  of  them."    "  They  were  appcar- 

Wn;  HOC  eonllucnC  into  One,  but  distributing  them- 


r9  TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 

wlvea  on  Ihe  aasembled.  Aa  only  tinutar  to  fire,  they 
bore  an  analogy  to  e^rfsc  phenomena:  ibejr  tongue- 
like  ahape  referred  aa  a  tign  in  that  miraculous  apeak- 
init  which  ensued  immediately  after,  and  the  fire-like 
form  to  the  divine  preaenee  (comp.  Ezek.  iji,  2),  wbich 
was  here  operative  in  a  manner  an  entirely  peculiar. 
The  whole  phenomenon  is  here  lo  be  understood  aa  a 
miriculoiu  operation  of  God  mantfetting  himself  in  Ibe 

the  effusion  of  tbe  SpiriC  was  made  known  as  <Ji'nnr,  and 
hia  efficacy  in  Che  minds  of  those  who  were  10  rec«vc 
him  was  enhanced"  (  Meyer,  ad  lnr. ).  See  Thilo,  Dt 
iMgatM  /gnilit  (\'ileh.  1676).     See  Fibk;  Torouk. 

TONGL'E.S,  Gift  of.  This  uas  an  endowment  Brat 
imparted  lo  the  apostles,  and  apparently  to  all  Ihe  at- 
sembled  disciples,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  afterwards 
continued  to  Ihe  Chrislians  during  the  sposlulic  age. 
John  Ihe  Baptist,  himself  a  burning  and  a  shining  light, 
had  cescifled  of  Christ,  "  He  that  cumelh  after  me  is 

he  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire," 
After  Jeaua  bod  been  crudAed,  and  before  he  ascended, 
he  breathed  on  hia  diaeiples  and  said,  "  Ileeeive  yc  the 

have  been  precioua,  but  il  was  only  the  eaniesi  of  the 
inheritance,  and  not  Ihe  entire  futfliment  of  John's  pre- 


I ofthe  I 


eigiit;  tbe  disciples  showed  tl: 
favored  with  the  full  baptism  ofihe  Spirit.  "When 
they  were  come  together,  lhey  asked  of  him,  saying, 
H'iit  thou  ac  this  time  restore  again  the  kingdom  to  Is- 
meir  This  question  implied  entire  confidence  in  the 
power  of  Chrlal,  but  it  evinced  no  clear  conceptions  of 
Ihe  spirituality  of  his  reitfn.  Fil>y  days  after  the  crud- 
Gsion  the  promise  of  the  Father  had  its  aecomplinhment, 
and  the  disciples  recdved  ■  special  power  when  tbe 
Holy  Ghost  came  upon  chera.  Why  was  hope  so  long 
deferreil?  There  was  wisdom  in  this  delay,  as  indicat- 
ing divine  presidency  and  dirrcCloii  in  Ihe  ordering  uf 
the  evenC  If  Che  apostles  were  to  be  excited  and  be- 
sliried  merely  by  Ihe  dire  experience  they  hsd  passed 
through,  the  effect  on  natural  principlca  should  have 
been  speedily  consequent  on  Cbe  cause.  I'tocraslina- 
Cton  was  calculated  to  sober  tumulluous  passion,  sud  to 
restrain  imperilling  enterprise.  In  this  view  the  de- 
scent ofthe  Spirit  received  confirmation  from  occurring 
after  a  considerable  inlerval  of  Innquillilyand  inaction. 
The  specific  dsy  bad  also  its  signiflcance.  I'entecosc 
was  the  feasC  of  fint-fruils,  the  commencement  and  the 
consecration  of  the  harvest:  and  ic  formed,  ihertfore, 
the  fitting  moment  for  the  formal  introduction  of  that 
work  of  Ihe  Spirit  by  which  was  to  be  secured  the 
spiritual  barvesc  of  Chrisc's  linisbe^l  work.  It  bad  also 
come  to  be  regarded  as  commemorative  of  the  giving 
of  tbe  law  from  Sinai — ihe  magnificent  initiation  of  the 
Mosaic  economy — and  the  periwl  of  tbe  latter  event 
must  certainly  liave  coincided  very  uearly,  if  not  abso- 
lutely, with  that  ofthe  other  (Exod.  xix,  11).  Then 
God  spake,  and  the  mountain  burned  with  fire.  Tbe 
season  ao  regarded  woa  suitable  for  the  inlroduciion  of 
another  and  related  era,  tbe  inauguration  ofthe  Gospel 
economy :  and  anew  God  reveal*  bimself  by  analogous 
roanifealations.  "Suddenly  there  came  a  sound  from 
heaven  as  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind,  and  it  filled  nil  the 
house  where  they  were  sitting."  This  sound  resembled 
theroar  ofthe  tempest;  but  instead  of  proceeding  from 
any  point  of  the  compass,  iC  descended  from  heai-en. 
Here,  as  in  tbe  wilderness,  was  Che  voice  of  God,  a  voice 
full  of  majesty.    '■  And  there  appeared  unto  them  cloven 

Here  we  have  the  fiery  attribute  of  Sinsi.  But  now  it 
takes  the  form  of  loiignes,  to  denote  that  GckI  while 
speaking  was  endowing  with  speech,  and  thnC  Wn  voice 
like  echoing  thunder  would  multiply  itself  through  the 
reverberating  mi'dia  on  which  it  fell.    The  tongncs 

noc  informal.    As  happens  nich  Ihe  variable  flames  n' 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF  il 

1  farnace,  the  gleiming  poinU  may  have  bun  unequal- 
J7  nuiDFroiu.  No  one  had  all  tongue*  ill  bit  girt;  p«- 
hapa  na  two  Ebe  ainie  tonguea,  but  in  every  caie  then 
was  a  plurality.  The  geneToI  aubject  hu  already  been 
CDiisideted  under  Holt  Sfibit,  Baptism  of,  and  cer- 
tain aspecia  ot  it  under  the  foregoing  beading,  and  un- 
der Spiritual  (iirra.  We  here  give  (in  addition  to 
particulars  elMwhen  treated)  a  more  detailed  Tien  of 
the  linguiitic  phenoineuau  iuvolved. 

I.  P/ui"liif)iail  fiUerprtttiUmu  oflht  TVm,— rXcSrra, 
or  y\uiaaa,  the  won!  employed  throughout  the  New 
Test,  fur  Ihc  gift  now  under  caniideration,  is  used  in 
three  senses  [see  Tos due],  each  of  whiuh  might  be  the 


w  [see  Tos due],  each  of  1 
%  and  each  accordingly  baa  fon 


1.  Itprimariljaiidliierdlyaignifiea  the  bndily  organ 
of  speech.  Eichhornand  Bardili  (cited  by  B)eek,,SluDLu. 
Arril.l829,p.8sq.).>iul  to Bome extent  llunaen(//tp}MV 
lui,  i,  9),  atarling  frum  this  signiHcaiiKii,  see  in  th 
called  gift  an  inarticulate  utterance,  the  cry  uofa 
ereawre,iii  whichthetonguemoTUwhilethelipi  refuse 
tbeir  office  in  making  the  aoundt  deHnite  and  disti 

This  interpretation,  it  it  beliered,  doea  not  ncc 
crmditiun  of  answering  any  of  the  facta  of  the  Now 
Tes^,  and  errs  in  ignoring  the  more  prominent  meaning 
of  the  word  in  later  Greek. 

2.  The  term  yXSiaaa  may  stand  for  the  uae  of  foreign 
words,  ini|iarted  and  half  naturalized  in  Ureeli  (Arislntle, 
Rhel.  iii,  2, 14),  a  meaning  whicli  the  wonla  "gloee"  anc" 
"  glossary"  preserve  for  us.  Keek  himself  (ul  lap.  p.  83; 
adopts  this  second  meaning,  and  gives  an  inleresiin^ 
collection  of  passages  to  prove  that  it  was,  in  the  titDf 
of  the  New  Test.,  the  received  sense.  He  infera  fton 
thia  (hut  to  apeak  in  tongnes  wia  to  use  unusual,  poetic 
UnsKBge;  that  the  speakers  were  in  •  high-wrought 

terms.  In  thia  view  he  had  been  preceded  by  Emesti 
{Opatc  riualog.i  see  ifornin^  Waldi,  iv,  101)  and 
Henler  {Dit  Gabe  der  Spradte,  p.  47,  70),  the  latter  of 
whom  extends  the  meaning  t«  apecial  myatical  inter- 
pretation* of  the  Old  Test. 

Thia  interpretation,  however,  though  true  in  aome 
of  its  conclusions,  and  able,  so  far  aa  they  are  concerned, 
111  support  itself  by  the  authority  of  Augustine  (camp. 
De  Otn.  ml  lit,  lii,  8,  "  Liiiguain  esse  cum  qui*  loquatur 
nbecuras  et  myalicaa  tigniflcationes''),  appears  faulty,  as 
failing  (1)  to  reci^^ise  the  fact  tliat  the  sense  of  the 

han  by  iu  meaning 

phenomena  of  Acta  iL 

3.  The  vonl  yXMva,  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  after  the 
pattern  ofihe  corresponding  Hebrew  word  (*'itcV),ata ads 
for  "  speech"  or  "  language"  (Gen.  i,  6 ;  Dan.  i,  4,  etc). 
The  received  tmditional  view  atarta  IVom  this  meaning, 
and  sees  in  the  gift  of  tongnea  a  distinctly  linguisti 
power.  It  commends  itself,  aa  in  thia  respect  starting 
at  least  from  the  right  point,  and  likely  to  lead  us  to 
the  truth  (comp.  Olihausen,  Stud.  n.  Kril.  1829,  p.  638). 
Variations  aa  well  as  objections  and  difficulties  arising 
from  thia  interpretation  will  be  considered  below. 

II.  niitory  and  frpbinatiim  0/ Ike  Bibtkal  Occiir- 
rtiiat. — The  principal  passages  from  which  tve  have  to 
draiT  our  conclusion  aa  to  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the 
gift  in  question  are  (1)  Mark  xvi,  17 ;  (2)  Acts  ii,  1-18 : 
X.  4G:  xii,6i  (S)  1  Cor.  .tii,  xiv.  Besides  these,  we 
msy  derive  some  light  from  later  allusions  incidentally 
made  to  these  phenomena.  IVe  here  consider  them  in 
their  chronological  order,  with  such  inferences  as  are 
■uggested  by  them. 

I.  The  ptomiaa  of  a  Dew  power  coming  from  the  Di- 
vine Spirit,  giving  not  only  comfort  and  insiglit  into 
troth,  but  freeh  powers  of  utterance  of  some  kind,  ap- 
pears once  and  again  in  our  Lord's  leaehini^  The  dis- 
ciples are  to  lake  no  thought  what  they  ahall  speak,  f»t 


10  TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 

tha  ^irit  of  their  Father  shall  speak  in  Ihem  (Halt,  x, 
19,  £0;  Hark  xiii,  II).  The  lips  of  (ialibsan  peaaanla 
are  to  speak  freely  and  boldly  before  kingi.     The  ooly 

yield  themselves  altogether  to  the  power  that  works  on 
them.  Thus  they  shall  have  given  to  them  "a  ntootb 
and  wisdom"  which  no  advemry  shall  be  able  "  to  gain- 
say or  reaisU"  In  Hark  xvi,  17  we  have  a  mote  defi- 
nite term  employed:  "They  shall  speak  with  new 
tongues"  (Eaivoic  yXumfaii).     It  can  hardly  be  qoca- 

the  disciples  should  speak  in  new  languages  which  they 
had  not  learned  as  otlier  men  learn  them.    The  pmm- 

nature  of  the  gift  or  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  to  bt 
employed.  It  was  to  be  a  "sign."  It  was  not  u  be- 
long to  a  choaen  few  only — to  apoatlea  and  evan^liSk 
It  was  to  "follow  Ihem  that  believed" — to  be  amonf 

above  the  common  level  of  their  lives,  and  bcvugbl 
them  within  the  kingdom  of  find. 

3.  The  wonder  of  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  1  -IS) 
ia,  in  its  brood  features,  familiar  enough  to  us.  The 
days  since  the  ascension  had  been  spent  as  in  a  cease- 
less acataiy  of  worship  (Luke  xxiv,  53).  Theuoehmi- 
dredaod  twenty  disciples  were  gathered  together,  wul- 
ing  with  eager  expectation  for  the  coming  of  power 

gifu  of  ulleraiice.  The  day  of  Pentecost  hail  tonw, 
which  they,  like  all  other  Israelites,  looked  upon  as  the 
witness  of' the  revelation  of  the  Divine  Will  given  on 
fiinai.  Suddenly  there  swept  orer  them  "  the  sound  at 
of  a  rushing  mightv  wind,"  such  aa  Eaekiel  had  heard 
in  the  visions  ofCid  byChebor  (Eiek,i.34:  iliii,J), 
at  all  times  the  rect^niaed  svmbolofa  spiritual  cnalive 
power  (camp.  Kxxvii,  1-14;' Gen.  i.2;  I  lung*xii,ll: 
2  Chron.  v,  14;  Psa.  civ,  S,  4).  With  this  there  was 
another  sign  associated  even  more  closely  with  their 
thougbtaoftbe  day  of  Pentecost.  There  sppearedamo 
Ihem  "  tongues  like  as  of  tire."  Of  old  the  brightnea 
hail  been  seen  gleaming  through  the  "  thick '  cloud* 
(Exod.  xix,  18)  or  "  enfolding"  the  divine  glory  (Eiek. 
1,4).  Now  the  tongues  were  distributed  (_liniufK- 
^fi(vai),  ligliting  upon  each  of  them.  The  ouiwird 
symbol  was  accompanied  by  an  inward  change.  They 
were  "  Oiled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,"  as  the  Baptist  and 
their  Lord  had  been  (Lulie  i,  15;  iv,  1).  though  Iber 
themaelves  had  as  yet  no  experience  of  a  like  kini 
''  They  began  to  speak  with  ntlier  tongues  as  the  Spirit 
gave  them  utterance."  The  narrative  that  rollowt 
leaves  hardly  any  room  for  doubt  that  the  writer  meant 
to  convey  the  iinptesiuon  that  the  disciples  were  htani 
to  speak  ia  languages  of  which  they  had  no  colloquial 
knowledge  previously.  The  direct  statement,  "  They 
heard  them  speaking,  each  man  in  his  own  dialect,"  (he 
long  list  of  nations,  the  words  put  into  tbc  lips  of  the 

ries  ofBleek,  Henler,  and  Duiisen  without  a  wilful  dii- 
tortion  of  th 


Havini 


Hi  the  faci 


nthisi 


What  view  are  we  to  take  of  a  phen< 

hiuiand  exceptional?    Let  ua  first  cunuder  what  view* 

men  have  actuslly  taken. 

(I.)  The  prevalent  belief  of  IheChurch  has  been  that 
in  the  pDiitccostalgift  the  disciples  received  asupemst- 
urat  knuwleilge  of  all  such  langusges  as  they  needed 
fur  their  work  at  evangelists.  The  knowledge  was  per- 
manent, and  could  be  uaed  at  their  own  will,  as  if  it  had 
been  acquired  in  the  common  order  of  things.  With 
this  they  went  forth  to  preach  to  the  nations.  DiSer- 
ences  of  opinion  are  found  as  to  apecial  point*.  AugM- 
tinc  thought  that  each  disciple  spoke  in  all  languages 
(fM  FfHi.  Apatl.  clxXT,  3) ;  Chrysostom  that  each  had 
a  special  language  assigned  tn  him,  and  that  this  was 
the  indication  of  the  country  which  he  na*  called 
to  evangelize  (Horn.  <a  Act.  h).  Soma  thonght  tfaat 
the  number  of  languages  spoken  was  seventy  or  seven- 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF  41 

(i^Sre.  iltn  the  noinbcr  of  the  hd>  of  Noah  (6«n. ' 
i)  or  [he  Knu  at  Jacob  (ch.  xlvi),  or  one  hnndred  and 
mBCT,  aft«i  that  of  the  ililciples  (comp.  Baroniiu,  ^n- 
■aL  i,  197).  MfMC  wen  agreed  io  Hein);  in  the  Pent«- 
coiul  ^ft  [he  inillheaia  to  the  confusion  of  tongues  at 
Briiel,tlic  witnesi  of  a  mloied  unity.  "Plena  lin- 
gaarain  diaperait  bomiiiea,  dunum  linguarum  dispenoa 
in  BDnm  populum  collegit"  ((irotiua,  ad  Inc.). 

Wt  notice  iiicideniallT  that  paralteli  have  beet) 
n^bt  in  Isnelitiih  hiXuTy.  For  example,  tbere  had 
b«n.  it  Has  laid,  tiinguei  of  fire  on  the  original  Pente- 
OMt  (Schneckenburger,  Btilragr,  p.  8,  referring  to  Bu»- 
tori,  l)e  Sfmiff^  and  Philo,  Dt  I)tcat.).    The  later  nb- 


la  ofa 


of  fire."  Kicodemua  ben-Gorion  and  Jochaiuui 
Zachai,  men  of  great  holinesa  and  nrigdom,  vent  into  an 
apprr  chamber  to  expound  the  law,  and  the  house  be- 
KID  ro  be  full  of  tn  (LighifooC,  //ui-m.  iii,  U ;  ScbSH- 
^n.  Hot.  Ilfb.  in  Ad.  it).     Again,  with  regard 


,tph™ 


e  that 


tbere  are  aaalogie*  in  Jewiah  belief.  Every  vord  that 
vent  finth  from  the  mnulh  of  (iod  on  Sioai  was  aaid  to 
h«Te  been  divided  into  the  seventy  languages  of  the 
lODSormen  (Wettatein,  O-  AeUii);  and  ibe  611M-1I0C, 
[be  echo  of  the  voice  of  God,  waa  heard  by  ever;  man 
io  Ua  own  tongue  (Schueckenburger,  BeUrdgf).  So, 
aitegarda  the  power  of  speaking,  there  waa  a  tradition 
that  the  great  rabbins  of  the  Sanhedrim  could  apeak  all 
the  aeieiiiy  language*  of  the  world. 

Tbelbllawing  are  aome  of  the  direct  aisumenta  urged 
bifavoruTa  literal  view  of  the  Pcnlecostal  endow oieni 
"(a)  The  power  in  question  was  vittaalty  promised  I 
the  aponles  by  the  very  duty  assigned  them.     The 
were  enjoined  to  'go  and  leach  all  nationa,  bapcizin 
Umd  in  the  name  nif  the  Father,  and  of  the  San,  and  c 
Ibc  Holy  Ghost.'    They  were  to  be  wilneasee  for  Chri 
'in  Jerusalem,  and  in  all  Judna,  and  in  Samaria,  an 
10  the  utlemxMt  parts  of  the  earth.'    But  how  coul 
ibey  iasmct  remote  tribes  whose  phraseology  was 
BaM  to  them.  unle«  Ihey  were  divinely  qualilied  for 
Ibe  work?     (A)  This  power  was  in  keeping  with    ' 
mwioo.     The  old  economy  was  eharacteristictUy 
uluiie.    It  addressed  the  eye,  and  made  an  impression 
by  its  superb  ceremoniaL     The  Christian  dispeni 
was  to  be  simple,  and  its  itrength  wnuld  lie  <■ 
preaching  of  the  word.     To  speak  with  other  tongues 

exigency  which  rendered  it  appropriate-     Judarsn 
local— made  purpnaely  restrictive  to  preclude  am 

oiidtr,  and  what  could  better  symbolize  it  in  Christian 
igency  than  a  competence  to  instruct  the  whole  < 
ti>  be  month  and  wisdom  to  all  ita  inhabitants?  (c) 
We  uerer  read  of  foreign  tongnes  creating  any  impedi 
Dent  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  or  requiriug  laboriou 
application  for  the  acquisition  of  them.  If  we  tool 
uiLo  modern  miaionary  reports,  we  meet  with  a  great 
deal  about  leaminK  the  iaiigiiigeg  of  natives.  Wh; 
is  there  nothing  of  the  kind  in  the  New  Teat.,  unlit 
became  they  were  acquired  supemalurally  ?    (d")  Tli 


ixplici,. 


allowi 


of  no  <.i 


bk  at  most  of  expressing  themselves  in  Greek,  Latin, 
■nd  Hebrew;  and  a  multiludeofrnreignere  from  a  great 
nany  regiona  heard  themselves  accosted  is  in  the  land 
of  their  bdnb.  If  the  apostles  spoke  Just  as  they 
hare  been  expected  to  speak,  and  with  no  mon 
pats  of  exprefBton  than  suited  their  condition  and  his- 
locy.why  should  any  astonishment  have  been  produced 

IbuDded,  and  they  were  all  amazed  and  marvelled. 
menlT  at  the  doctrines  propounded,  but,  apeciScally, 
because  every  man  heard  them  speak  in  h' 
tnute.    How  cauM  GaliUaans,  they  ashed, 


TONGtJES,  GIFT  OF 

Widely  dilTused  as  this  view  of  the  Pentecostal  gift 
baa  been,  it  has  been  thought  by  some,  in  some  poiuta 
least,  that  it  goes  beyond  the  data  with  which  the 
)w  Test,  supplies  us.  F^ch  instance  of  the  gift  re- 
corded in  the  Acts  connects  it,  not  so  much  with  tin 
workof  teaching  as  with  that  of  praise  and  adoration; 
not  with  the  normal  order  of  men's  lives,  but  with  ex- 
ceptional epochs  in  them.  (In  the  first  instance,  how- 
ever, the  gift  certainly  was  largely  instrumental  in  the 
conversion  of  hearers;  and  even  among  the  Corinthiana 
[1  Cor.  xiv,  16, 17]  the  utterance,  when  properly  inter- 
preted, was  a  means  of  general  edification.)  It  came 
and  went  *a  the  Spirit  gave  men  the  power  of  utterance 
— ill  this  respect  analogous  to  the  other  gift  of  proph- 
ecy with  which  it  waa  so  often  associated  (Acta  ii,  16, 
17;  xix,  6) — and  waa  not  possesaed  by  them  aa  a  thing 
to  be  uaed  this  way  or  that,  according  aa  they  chose. 
(It  appears,  however,  that  even  the  prophetic  afflatna 
was  amenable  to  the  subject's  will  [I  Cor.xiv,  33],  and 
the  gift  in  queation  was  Io  be  voluntarily  exercised  or 
forbome  [  vcr.  S8-30  J.)  The  speech  of  Peter  which 
follows,  like  most  other  speeches  addressed  to  a  Jerusa- 
lem audience,  waa  Bpoken  apparently  in  Aramaic  (Bnt 
this  does  not  prove  that  I'eler  always  spoke  in  that 
language.)  When  Paul,  who  "spake  with  longnea 
more  than  all,'  was  at  Lyttra,  there  la  no  mention 
made  of  his  using  the  language  of  Lyeaonia.  It  is  im- 
plied, however,  that  either  he  or  Luke  understood  it 
(Acta  xiv,  II).  It  is  rarely  implied  in  the  discusuon 
of  spiritual  gills  in  1  Cor.  xii-xiv  that  the  gift  was 
of  this  niture,or  given  fur  this  purpose.  The  objection 
that  if  it  had  been,  the  apostle  woald  surely  have  toM 
those  who  possessed  it  to  go  and  preach  to  the  outlying 
nations  of  the  heathen  world,  instead  of  disturbing  the 
Church  by  what,  on  this  hypothesis,  would  have  been  ■ 
needless  and  oSensivs  ostentation  ( comp.  Slanlev,  Co- 
•vUltiaia  [2d  ed.],  p.  261),  may  readily  be  met  by  the 
consideration  that  Corinth,  as  a  seaport,  waa  almost  as 
much  a  polyglot  community  as  Jerusalem.  Without 
laying  much  stress  on  the  tradition  that  Peter  was  fol- 
lowed in  his  work  by  Mark  aa  an  interpreter  (ipfiijttv- 
tik)  (Papiaa,  in  Eusebiua,  H.  E.  iii,  30),  that  even  Paul 
was  accompanied  by  Tiius  in  the  same  character— 
"Quia  non  poluit  divinorum  aensuom  majcslalem  digno 
(>ned  eloquii  aermone  explicare"  (Jerome,  quoted  by 
Estius  on  2  Corinthimi  ii)— they  must  at  least  be  re- 
that  the  age  which  waa  nearest 


e  phen 


la  did  n. 


.  Uke  ll 


Lve  done  who  lived  at  a  greater  distance. 
The  teatimony  of  Ireiueus  {Ado.  liar,  vi,  6),  sometimes 
urged  in  support  of  the  common  view,  in  reality  decides 

It  is  also  affirmed  that  within  the  limits  assigned  hy  the 
providence  of  God  to  the  working  of  the  apostolic  Church 
such  a  gift  was  unnecessary'.  Aramaic,  Greek,  Latin, 
the  three  languages  of  the  inscription  on  the  cross,  were 
■      -■  ...  (.^^ 


9  New  'fesl 


r  the 


cliurchca  of  the  West,  fur  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  for 
Ponlua,  Asia,  Phrygia.  The  cniiqiiesta  of  Alexander 
and  of  Rome  had  made  men  diylollic  to  an  extent  which 
has  no  parallel  in  history.  But  it  is  one  thing  (o  speak 
in  a  language  imperfectly  acquired  by  speaker  and  heat- 
er, yet  foreign  to  them  both,  and  a  very  different  thing 
— and  one,  we  may  add,  hi^jhly  important  for  the;Kr- 
nmal  influence  requisite  to  c'ospel  conviction— Io  be 
able  Io  convene  fluenily  in  the  native  tongue  of  the 
congregation.  The  objection  thatwe  have  no  evidence 
of  any  actual  use  of  the  voluntary  power  of  foreign 
langtuiges  by  the  apostles  in  propagating  the  Gospel  is 
merely  negative,  and  cannot  stand  in  the  light  of  the 

ly  incnnclusive  is  the  ohjeclinn  against  iht ptyciologi- 
ea!  character  of  the  miracle  of  a  sudden  importation  of 
a  language  not  learned;  for  it  lies  with  quite  as  much 
force  against  the  communication  of  the  knowledge  of  a 
future  event,  and  indeed  it  would  forind  not  only  all 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


.isclisBurobJi 
Ch*t  tbeir  essence  Kems  to  lie  in  a  erypto-ntLonaliatic 
spirit,  wbicb  really  oppoaea  tfae  miraculaus  tltogether 
and  seeks  an  every  occidon  to  expUin  Scripture  prod- 
igies by  natural  causes.    See  Miracu:. 

(2.)  AccordinKlj'i  ■ome  inlerpreure  hive  advinced 


Ua  nfth 


angiHg  tl 


I  Ihe  imprenioii 


le  miracle.    It  lay 
stoweil  on  the  apcskeni,  but 

on  the  hearpre.     Wonis  which  the  dalilsan  disciplea 
utiereil  in  their  unii  iniigue  were  heanl  by  thoM  wbo 
listened  as  in  iLeir  native  speech, 
adr^leil  by  Gregnry  of  Nyssa  (De  Spir.  Sand.),  dis- 
cussed, but  not  accepted,  by  Cregory  of  NazianzMni 
(Orul.  c.  xliv),  and  reproduced  by  Erasmus  (ad  Inc.). 
A  modification  of  the  same  theniy  is  presented  by 
Schneckeaburger  (^Beilidge),  and  in  part  adojited  by 
Olshiusen  (^hc.cil.')  and  Neaiider  (Pftim.  a.  Ltii.'i, 
lb).    The  phenomena  of  somnambulism,  of  the  so- 
called  mesmeric  stale,  are  referred  tn  as  aiialngous. 
The  speaker  wa«  m  rapport  with  his  liearers;  the  lat- 
ter shared  the  tboughia  of  the  former,  and  so  beard 
them,  or  seemed  l»  bear  them,  in  their  nitn  Innguo 
There  are  weighty  reisoiia  against  this  hypothi 
(a)  It  is  at  variance  with  the  lUaiinct  atalement 
Acta  ii.  i,  "  They  began  tn  speak  with  other  Icngu 
(6)  It  at  once  multiplies  the  miracle  and  degrades 
character.     Not  tha  one  hundreil  and  twenty  disciples, 
but  [he  whole  multitude  of  many  thousand^  are  in  this 

self  with  the  work  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  following  en  in- 
tense faith  anil  earnest  prayer,  but  is  a  mere  physical 
prodigy  wrought  upon  men  who  are  altogether  wan  tins 
in  the  conditions  of  capacity  fur  such  a  aupeniatural 
power  (Mark  svi,  17),  (c)  [t  involves  an  element  of 
falsehood.  The  miracle,  on  this  view,  was  wriuglit  l<i 
make  men  believe  what  was  not  actually  the  fact,  (if) 
It  is  altogether  inapplicable  lo  the  phenamena  of  1  Cur. 

(3.)  CriticB  of  a  negative  school  have,  aa  might  be 

expected,  adopted  the  eaaier  cuune  of  rejecting  the 
narrative  either  altogether  or  in  part.  The  atatemenla 
do  not  come  from  an  eye-witiieas,  and  may  be  an  eiag- 
gerated  report  of  what  actually  look  place — a  legend 
with  or  without  a  liiatorical  foundation.  Those  who 
recognise  such  ■  groundwork  see  in  "the  rushing 
mighty  wind,"  the  hurricane  of  a  thuKder-atorm,  the 
fresh  breeie  of  morning;  in  the  "tonjnies  like  aa  of 
Ore,"  the  llashinga  of  ibe  electric  fluid ;  in  the  "  apeak- 
inj;  with  tongues,".the  loud  screams  of  men,  not  all 
GalllKaiis,  but  coming  from  many  landt^  overpowered 
by  strong  excitement,  speaking  in  mystical,  figurative, 
abrupt  exclamations.  Thev  see  in  this  "the  cry  of 
the  newborn  Christ endom"'(Bunseti,  Hippo^gOu,  ii,  13 ; 
EwaRtiescA. /sr.vi,  IIO;  Bleek,  ^.  nf. ,'  Herder,^. 
rit,).  From  the  position  occupied  by  these  uriters  such 
a  view  WIS  perhaps  naturil  enough.  It  is  out  of  plice 
here  todiacnsa  in  detail  a  theory  which  postulates  the 
incredibility  of  my  fact  beyond  the  phciinmenal  laws  of 
nature  and  the  falsehood  of  Luke  aa  a  narratiir. 

(4.)  What,  then,  we  finally  inquire  under  the  ease 
in  question,  are  the  fafts  acliially  brought  before  us? 
What  inferences  may  be  legilimatelv  drawn  from  them? 

(u)  The  utterance  of  worda  by  the  disciples  in  oth- 
er  languages  than  Iheir  own  Galiliesn  Areinoic  is,  as 
baa  been  said,  distinctly  asserted. 

(i)  The  words  spoken  api>ear  lo  have  been  primari- 
ly determined,  not  by  the  will  of  the  speakers,  but  by 

tongue  of  fiame  was  the  symbol  of  the  "  burning  fire" 
within,  which,  aa  in  the  ease  of  the  older  prophets, 
could  not  without  iutemal  viideuce  be  repressed  (Jer. 
IS,  9). 

(f)  The  word  used,  airo^i-fyio^i,  not  merely  ka- 
\tiv,  has  in  the  Sept.  a  special,  though  not  an  exclu- 
sive, Bisocialion  with  the  oracular  speech  of  true  or 


2  TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 

false  prophets,  and  ippaars  to  imply  some  pecuUar  and 
pTobsbly  impasuoned  style  (comp.  I  Chron.  xxv,  1; 
Ezek.  xiii,  9;  Trommii  Conpaiduar.  s.  v. ;  Grutius  and 
^Vettstein,  ad  loc.;  Audrawea,   irAiCnuday  Struau, 

(d)  The  "touguai"  were  used  as  an  insiniment, not 
simply  of  teaching,  but  also  of  imise.  At  Snt,  indeed, 
there  were  none  present  to  be  uughU  The  disciples 
were  by  themselves,  all  sharing  equally  in  the  Spirit'a 
gifis.  When  they  were  beanl  by  utbeii,  it  was  chiefly 
aa  proclaiming  the  praise,  the  mighty  and  great  wurfcs 
of  God  (firynXtis).  Whit  they  uttered  was  not  n 
much  a  warning  or  reproof  or  exborution  aa  a  doul- 
ngy  (Stanley,  ItK.  at. ;  llaumgarten,  Apotlrtgrtdi.  }  1). 
The  assumption,  hoiiever,  appeare  unwarraiiie<t  ihsi 


(e)  Tboae  who  spoke  them  seemed  to  other*  lo  be 
under  the  influence  nfsome  alruiig  excitement. ''full  c( 
new  wine."  They  were  not  as  other  men,  or  aa  ihcy 
themselves  had  been  before,     t^me  recognised,  indeed. 


19  iirktipoiaht  ir:n 


roe)-iheall 


lit  self-same 


ciples  (^■lr\i^o^aav  ir>^u/iaroc  ayiov),  it  is  to  coointt 
it  with  "  being  drunk  with  wine,"  lo  associate  it  with 
"  paalms  and  hymns,  and  spiriinal  Bongs.** 

{/)  Questions  as  to  the  mode  of  operatii'n  of  a  power 
above  the  common  laws  of  bodily  or  mental  life  lead  us 
to  a  region  where  our  words  should  be  ■-  wary  and  few." 
There  is  ■  risk  of  seeming  to  reduce  to  Ibe  known  or- 
der of  nature  that  which  is  by  confession  above  and  be- 
yond it.  In  this  and  in  other  caseai  however,  it  msy 
lie  possible,  without  irreverence  or  doubt — folioninglbe 
guidance  wbicb  Scripture  itself  gives  us— to  trace  in 
what  way  tb«  new  power  diil  its  worit,  and  brought 
about  such  wonderful  results.  It  must  be  renemliered. 
then,  that  in  all  likelihood  umilar  words  to  those  which 
liiey  then  uttered  had  been  heard  by  the  disciples  be- 
fore. At  every  feast  which  Ibey  bad  ever  attended 
{torn  Iheir  youth  up,  they  must  have  been  brought  mto 
contact  with  o  cmwd  as  varied  aa  that  which  was  pre*. 
euton  the  day  of  Pentecost,  the  pilgrims  of  each  nalioD 
iting  their  praises  snd  doxologies.  llie  difierence 
(hat,berore,  the  Galilean  peasants  Itad  stood  in  thai 
crowd  neither  beeiling  nor  undemtaiiding  nor  remeoi- 
bering  what  Ihey  heanl,  still  less  able  to  reprndme  it; 
they  had  the  power  of  speaking  it  clearly  SDd 


burst  of  pnisei 


freely. 

{ j)  The  gift  of  tongues,  th 
ia  deUnilely  asserted  lo  be  a  fuinimmt  ot  tne  prenictua 
of  Joel  ii.  J8.     The  twice-repeated  burden  of  that  pre- 
diction ia,  "  I  will  pour  nut  my  Spirit,"  and  the  eDeet  on 
thoac  who  receive  it  ia  ihst "  tliey  shall  prupheoy."  We 
msy  see,  therefore,  in  this  special  gift  that  whiA  ii 
analogous  to  one  element  at  least  of  the  xoofiirea  of 
the  Old  Test.;  but  the  element  of  teaching  a.  as  as 
have  Been,  not  prominent.     In  I  Cor.  xiv  the  gift  d 
tongues  and  rpafitriia  (in  Ibis  the  New-Test,  sense  <^ 
'    -  ltd)  are  placed  in  direct  eontran.    We  are  led, 
look  for  that  which  more  peculiarly  ao- 
giU  of  tongues  in  the  other  element  o( 
prophecy  which  is  included  in  the  Old-Test,  use  of  the 
onl;  and  this  is  found  in  the  ecstatic  praise,  the  baot 
song,  which  appeara  under  that  name  in  the  twv 
alories  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  x,  5-iS;  xix,  20-34),  and  is 
e  services  of  the  Temple  (I  Chron.  xxv,  8). 
(K)  The  other  instances  in  the  Acta  offer  eiseniislly 
e  same  phenomena.     By  implication  in  xiv,  lft-l>, 
by  express  statement  in  i,  47;  xi.  16, 17;  xiz,  6,il  bc- 
'  critical  epochs,  at  which  faith  is  at  its 
highest,  and    the   imposition    of  the   apostles'  bonds 
'    lught  men  into  the  same  state,  imparled  to  them  the 
ne  gift,  as  they  had  themselves  experienced,    tolhii 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


TOLW 

i.  The  fint  epistle  u>  the  Corinthtani  nipptim  fuller 
iUM.  The  spiriluil  giru  mre  cluaiOed  and  cumpmred, 
■mnged,  ■ppaniul}',  iccunLing  to  their  worth,  placed 
lUHlcr  r«g(Uation.  Thit  fact  is  in  iueir  sigiiiBcuit. 
Tkough  reeogDiaed  u  cmning  from  [he  one  Divine 
SfHrit,  they  are  not  Iherefuie  esenipted  from  the  oon- 
ini  'if  min'i  maou  and  oonacietice.  The  Spirit  icla 
tbnngh  the  ealm  Judgment  of  the  apoatle  or  the 
Church,  not  IcH,  but  more,  Buthoritatirely  than  in  the 
noM  rapturoua  and  wonderful  utteraneea.  The  facta 
wbich  may  be  gathered  in  this  caae  an  briefly  Lhew ; 

(t.)  The  phenomena  of  the  gift  of  longuea  were  tioL 
oaifined  to  one  Church  nr  aection  of  ■  Church.  If  we 
tad  them  al  Jeruulem,  Epbeaua,  Corinth,  by  implica- 
tioa  at  ThcHalonica  aba  (1  Thcaa.  v,  19),  we  may  well 
bditre  that  chey  were  frequently  recurring  wherever 
the  Bpirita  of  men  were  paaaing  through  the  name 
•Ugn  ofeipcfienctL 

(2.)  The  compariiun  of  gift*  in  both  the  liala  gi-rta 
br  l>aiil  (I  Cm.  xii,  S-10,  W-tO)  plicea  that  of  tongues, 
aad  the  interpreution  of  tongues,  loweat  in  the  scale. 
They  are  not  amanK  the  greater  gifta  which  men  are 

life  quickened  into  expression  where  before  it  had  been 
dad  and  dumb,  the  apostle  could  wish  that  "they  all 
tfalie  with  toDgus"  (ibid.),  could  rejoioe  (hat  he  him- 
■etr  "ifialie  with  tongues  iDoce  than  they  all"  (ver.  IS). 
It  was  good  w  have  known  the  working  of  a  power 
railing  Ihem  abnve  the  common  level  of  lh«r  conscious- 
M<^  They  belonged,  however,  to  the  childhood  or  the 
Christian  life,  not  to  its  maturity  (ver.  20).  They 
brought  with  them  (be  risk  of  disluriiance  {ver.  28), 
The  onlvsafe  rule  fur  the  Church  was  not  tu  "forbid 
then''  (ver.  SS),  not  to  "  quench"  them  (1  Theas.  v,  19), 
Ian  in  so  doing  the  spiritual  life  of  which  this  was  the 
tia.  ouerance  should  be  crushed  and  extinguished  too ; 

(8.)  The  main  characteristic  of  the  "  tongoe"  (now 
aisd,asit  were,  technically,  without  the  epithet  "new" 
or  "otber")  ia  that  it  is  unintelligible  unless  ■■inter- 
preled"  (tapfitirtooiiia,  lo  triadale  in  course).  The 
man  "spMks  mysteries.'' prays,  blesses,  gives  thanks,  in 
ibt  longue  (iv  rviii/tart  as  equivalent  to  iv  yXcwrnp,  I 
Cot.  lir,  15, 16),  but  no  one  undersMnds  him  (liicoufi). 
He  can  faanlly  be  said,  indeed,  to  understand  htnselC 
The  x-Mvpi  in  bim  is  acting  without  the  co-operation 
vf  ihe  nis  <ver.  11).  He  speaks  not  to  men,  but  to 
hiDMiraDd  taGna(coDip.Chrysostffan.35,m1  Cor.). 
la  spite  of  this,  however,  the  gift  might,  and  did,  con- 
tribute to  the  building-up  of  a  man's  own  life  (t  Cor. 
liv,  4).    This  might  be  (he  only  way  in  which  some 

lifs  or  the  dulness  of  a  furmsl  ritual.  The  eciCiuy  of 
sdoration  which  seemed  tu  men  madness  might  be  ■  re- 
frtsbraent  unspeakable  lo  one  who  wsi  weary  with  the 
nbtlt  questionings  of  Ihe  intellect,  to  whom  all  famil- 
isr  anil  intelligible  words  were  fraught  with  recollec- 
tions of  contRiveiiial  bitterness  or  the  wanderings  of 
doubt  (camp,  a  passage  of  wonderful  power  as  to  Ibis 
usa  r>rihe  gift  by  [rving,tfiiriiia^  Wutel>,v,li). 

(4.)  The  peculisr  nature  of  the  gift  leads  the  apostle 
into  what  appears  at  first  a  contradiction.  "Tongues 
an  far  a  sign."  not  tu  believers,  but  to  those  who  do  not 
believe;  yet  the  diect  on  onbelieven  is  not  that  of  at- 
iriKling,  bat  repelling.  A  meeting  in  which  the  gil^ 
of  (onguea  was  exercised  without  restraint  would  seem 
10  a  heatben  visitor,  or  even  to  the  plain  common-sense 
Christian  (the  iiiitnjti  the  roan  without  a  x^"!"')}  '■" 
beanaaseinbly  ofatadmen.  The  history  of  Ihe  day  of 
PentKosl  nay  help  iia  U>  explain  the  paradox.  The 
tongues  an  a  sign.  They  wilneas  that  the  daily  cx- 
ptiisaee  of  men  is  not  Iha  limit  of  Ibeir  spiritual  pow- 
en.  'nier  disturb,  startle,  awaken,  are  given  (I'v  ri 
InrX^TTuSai  (Chrytost.  Jfosi.  B6,  ui  1  Cor.),  but  tbey 


IS  TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 

are  not,  and  cannot  be,  the  gioundi  of  conviction  and 
belief  (so  ContL  Apoil.  c  viii).  They  involve  of  neces- 
sity a  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  between  the  un- 
dersianiling  and  the  feelings.  Therefore  it  b  that,  for 
those  who  believe  already,  prophecy  Is  the  greater  gift. 
Five  clear  words  spoken  from  the  mind  of  one  man  to 
the  mind  and  conscience  of  another  are  better  than  ten 
thousand  of  these  more  stonUng  and  wonderful  phe- 
nomena. 

(&.)  There  remains  the  qnestion  whether  these  also 
were  "tongues"  in  the  sense  of  being  languages,  of 
which  the  speakers  had  little  or  no  previous  knowl- 
edge, or  whether  we  are  to  admit  here,  though  not  in 
Acts  ii,  the  theories  which  see  in  them  only  uniuual 
forms  of  speech  (Bleek),or  inarticulate  cries  (Bunsea), 
or  all  but  inaudible  whisperings  (Wieseler.  in  Olshausen, 
ii<f  loc).  The  question  is  not  one  for  a  dogmatic  asser- 
tion, but  it  is  believed  that  there  is  a  preponderance  of 
evidence  leading  us  to  look  on  the  phenomena  of  Pen- 
tecost as  representative.  It  must  have  been  Iroro  them 
that  the  word  tongue  derived  ite  new  and  special  meati- 
iiig.     The  companion  of  Paul  and  Paul  himself  were 

probable  that  the  gift  vrould  manifest  itself  in  the  saoK 
format  Corinth  as  at  Jerusalem.  The"divers  kinds  of 
tongues"  (1  Cor.  xii,  28),  t'he"lonffufi  ofmen"  (xiii,  1), 
point  (o  differences  of  some  kind,  and  it  is  at  least  easier 
lo  conceive  of  these  as  differences  of  language  than  as 
belonging  to  utterances  all  equally  wild  uid  inarticu- 
late. The  position  maintained  by 'l.ightroot(//ar«.n/' 
Gntp.  Bit  Alii  h),  ihat  the  gift  of  [ongiies  anuUtrd  in 
Ihe  power  uf  speaking  and  understanding  the  true  He- 
brew of  the  Old  Test.,  may  appear  somewhat  extrava- 
gant, but  Ihe  re  seems  ground  for  believing  that  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic  words  had  over  the  minds  of  Greek  con- 
verta  at  Corinth  a  power  which  they  failed  lo  exercise 
when  translated,  and  Ihat  there  the  utterances  of  Ihe 
tongues  were  probably,  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  that  lan- 
guage. Thu8,lhe''Haianalha''of  1  Cor.  xvi,  22,  com- 
pared wilb  xii,  S,  leads  to  the  inference  that  the  word 
had  been  spoken  under  a  real  or  counterfeit  inspiration. 
It  was  the  Spirit  that  led  men  to  cry  ^4 Ha,  as  their  rec- 
ognition of  the  fatherhood  of  Uod  (Rom.  viii,  li;  GaL 
iv,e).  If  we  are  to  attach  any  definite  meaning  to  Ihe 
"  tongues  of  angels"  in  1  Cor.  xiii,  1,  it  must  be  by  con- 
necting it  with  Ihe  wnnls  surpassing  human  ullerance 
which  Paul  heard  as  in  Paradite  (2  Cor.  xii,  4),  and 
theae,  again,  with  the  great  Hallelujah  hymns  of  which 
we  read  in  the  Apocalypse  (Kev.iix,  1-6;  .Stanley, tw. 
eit.i  Ewald,  6>)cA./(''.vi,117).  The  retenliDU  of  other 
words  like  Hoaanna  and  Uabaoth  in  the  wonhip  of  the 
Church,  of  the  Greek  formula  of  the  Kyrie  Eleison  in 
thai  of  Ihe  nations  of  the  West,  is  an  exemplification  of 
(he  same  feeling  operaling  in  other  ways  after  the  spe- 
cial power  had  ceased. 

(6.)  Hera  also,  as  in  Acts  ii,  we  have  lo  think  of 

acierizing  the  exercise  uf  the  "tongues,"  The  analo- 
gies which  suggest  themselves  to  Paul's  mind  are  those 
of  the  pipe,  the  harp,  the  trumpet  (i  Cor.  xiv,  7,  8). 
In  the  case  of  one  "singing  in  ihe  spirit"  (ver.  If>),  but 
not  with  Ihe  understanding  also,  the  strain  of  ecstat- 
ic melody  must  hsve  been  all  that  (be  listenere  could 
perceive.  To  "sing  and  make  melody"  la  specially 
characlerisiic  of  those  who  are  Ailed  with  the  .<tpirit 
(Eph.v,l9).  Other  forms  of  utterance  leas  distintlly 
musical,  yet  not  less  mighty  lo  stir  the  minds  of  men, 
we  may  trace  in  the  "  cr*-"  (Rom.  viii.  IB:  Gal.  iv,  6) 
and  the  "ineffable  grr>aningi!"(Kom.  viii,  2G)  which  are 
distinctly  ascribed  to  ihe  work  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  To 
those  who  know  the  wonderful  power  of  man's  voice,  as 
the  organ  of  hia  spirit,  the  strange,  unearthly  charm 
which  belongs  to  some  of  its  less  normal  stales.  Ihe  in- 
fluence even  of  individual  words  thus  uttered,  especially 
r''  a  lanpMCC  which  is  not  that  of 

p.  H  liar.  Dtac  CoBua.  in  1  Cor. 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


take  iu  place  miang  the  meaiu  by  which  a  maa  "  built 
up"  hia  own  life,  and  might  contribute,  if  one  wtn  pie*- 
ent  to  expound  his  utienncea,  to  "edify"  othen  also. 
Neaniler  {Pflani.  u.  Ltil.  i,  16)  refen  to  the  eHecl  pro- 
duced by  the  preaching  of  SU  Bernard  upon  hearers 
who  (lid  not  unilerstand  one  word  of  the  Latin  in  which 
he  preached  {0pp.  il,  119,  ed.  Mabillon)  u  an  iratance 
ofthli.  Like  phenomena  are  related  of  St.  Anthony  uf 
Padua  and  St.  Vinoenc  Ferrer  (Ada  SanOanm,  June 
'U  and  April  fi),  of  which  this  ii  probably  the  eiplana- 
tion,     (Comp.  alw  Wolff,  Carv  PhiMog.  in  flop.  Tul., 

(7.)  Connected  with  the  "  tongue*,"  there  was,  a»  the 
words  JuH  used  remind  us,  the  corresponding  power  of 
interpretation.  It  might  belong  lo  any  listener  (I  Cor. 
xiv,  27).  It  might  belong  to  the  speaker  himself  when 
he  returned  to  Ibe  onlinary  level  of  conscious  thought 
(ver.  13}.  Iu  function,  according  to  the  view  that  has 
been  here  taken,  must  bare  been  twofold.  The  inter- 
preter had  Bnt  Co  catch  the  foreign  words,  Aramaic  or 
others,  which  bad  mingled,  more  or  less  largely,  with 
what  WIS  uttered,  and  then  to  find  a  meaning  and  in 
order  in  what  seemed  at  first  to  be  without  either;  lo 
follow  the  loftiest  flights  and  moat  Intrlcata  windings 
nf  the  enraptureil  spirit ;  to  trace  the  subtle  associations 
which  linked  together  words  and  thuughta  ibal  seemed 
at  first  lo  have  no  point  of  contact.  Under  the  action 
of  one  with  this  insight,  the  wild  uKerancea  of  the 
"tonguos"  might  become  a  Ixeasure -house  of  deep 
truths.  Sometimes,  it  would  appear,  not  even  thia  was 
puaaible.  The  power  might  be  simply  that  of  sound. 
As  the  pipe  or  harp,  played  boldly,  Ibe  band  struck  at 
random  over  the  strings,  but  with  no  tiaaTiiki)i  no  mn- 
sical  interval,  wanted  the  condition  of  distinguishable 
melody,  so  Ibe  "  tongues,"  in  their eMremest  form,  passed 
beyond  the  limits  ol^  interpretation.  There  might  be  a 
strange  Bwfulnes^  or  a  strange  sweetness  as  of  "  the 
tongues  of  angels  {"  but  what  it  meant  was  known  only 
toGod(ver.7-ll). 

(8.)  It  is  probable  thst,at  this  later  period,  and  in  the 
Corinthian  Church  (which  appears,  from  other  indica- 
tions, to  have  been  a  decidedly  seiuuous  one),  the  gift 
in  question  bad  somewhat  degeneraUsi  from  its  Pente- 
costal purity  into  a  demonstrative  form,  iu  which  the 
human  Taney  and  nervous  susceplibilily  had  given  a 
looser  rein  to  the  external  nunifeatations  of  what  was 
essentially  and  truly  a  divine  impulse.  The  history  of 
modem  religious  eitcilemenCs  affords  abundant  iUustra- 
tioD  of  this  tendency. 

i.  As  lo  other  indications  in  eariy  times  we  may  re- 

(1.)  Tmjes  of  the  gift  are  found,  as  has  been  said,  in 
the  epistles  to  the  Romans,  the  Ualatians,  the  Rphe- 
sians.  From  the  Pastoral  F.pislles,  from  those  of  Peter 
and  John,  they  are  altogether  absent,  and  this  is  in  it- 
self significant.  The  life  of  the  apostle  and  of  Ibe 
Church  has  passed  into  a  calmer,  more  normal  stale. 
Wide  truths,  abiding  graces,  these  are  what  he  him- 
self lives  in  and  exhorts  nihers  to  rest  on,  raUwr  than 
exceptional  ;t<ipiofiara,  bnwever  marvellous.  The 
"tongues"  are  already  "ceasing"  (I  Cor.  xiii,  3),  a*  a 
thing  belonging  lo  the  pasL  Love,  which  even  when 
"tongues"  were  mightiest,  he  had  seen  to  be  sbove  all 
gifts,  has  become  more  and  more,  sU  in  all,  to  him. 

(2.)  It  is  probable,  however,  Chst  the  disappearance 
of  the  "tongues"  was  gradual  As  it  would  have  been 
impossible  to  draw  the  precise  line  of  demarcation  when 
Che  vpo^TiTfia  of  the  s|>ostolic  age  passed  into  the  ii- 
iaeiaXia  that  remained  permanentlj-  in  the  Church,  so 
there  must  have  been  a  lime  when  ^'  longues"  were  still 
heard,  thmtgh  less  freqiieutlv,  and  with  less  striking  re- 
sulla.  The  testimony  of  Ir^nieus  {Ade.  Har.  v,  6)  that 
there  were  brethren  in  Ws  lime  "who  had  prophetic 
gifts,  and  spoke  through  the  Spirit  in  all  kliids  of 
tongues,"  though  it  does  not  prove,  what  it  has  aome- 


H  TONGUES,  GUT  OF 

lime*  been  allied  lo  prove,  the  permanence  of  the  gift 
in  the  individual,  or  its  use  in  the  work  of  erangeliiing 
(Wordsworth,  (7>ijlc«sii),musl  be  admitted  as  eviilenca 
of  tbe  existence  of  phenomena  like  those  which  we  have 
met  with  in  the  Church  ofCurinib.  For  the  moat  part, 
however,  the  part  which  they  had  filled  in  the  worship 
of  the  Church  was  supplied  by  the  "  hyroiu  and  spiritual 
songs"  of  the  succeeding  age.  In  the  earliest  of  these, 
distinct  in  cbaracter  from  either  the  Hebrew  paalms  or 
the  later  hymns  of  the  Church,  marked  by  «  strange 
mixture  of  mystic  names  and  half-coherent  thoiigbta 
(such,  e.  g„  as  the  hymn  with  which  Clement  of  Alei- 
Ilojayuiyiit',  and  the  earliest  Siliylliiie 


originally  ahuwt 
268). 

After  lhi^  within  the  Church  we  lose  nearly  all  tracci 
nf  Lhem.  Tbc  mention  of  tbem  by  Eusebius  (Conm. 
u/'sn.z/n)isvsgQe  and  uncertain.  The  (one  in  which 
Chrysostom  speaks  of  them  (Cumm.  n  1  Cor,  rit)  it 
that  of  oite  who  feels  the  whide  subject  to  be  obscure, 
because  there  are  no  phenomena  within  his  own  expe- 
rience at  all  answering  lo  it.  The  whole  lendency  of 
the  Church  was  lo  muntain  reverence  and  onler,  and 
to  repress  all  approaches  to  the  ecstatic  state.  Thoee 
who  yielded  to  it  took  refuge,  as  in  the  case  nf  Tenul- 
lian  (infra),  in  seds  outside  the  Church.  Symptoms 
of  what  was  then  looked  upon  as  an  evil  showed  ibem- 
selres  in  the  4lh  century  at  Constanliimple — wild,  inar- 
ticulate cries,  wonla  passionaie  but  of  liti  Ic  meaning,  al- 
most convulNve  geslures — and  were  a>et  by  Chri-stMom 
with  the  sternest  poaeiblereprDur(//oin.ia/Ai.ri.3[ed. 
MiKne,vi,10O]). 

It  thus  appears  that  the  miraculous  gifta  of  the  Gist 
days  bestoweil  upon  tlie  Chutcb  for  a  dp^il«  pnrpoae 

the  apostles  and  (hose  who  bad  learned  Christ  fiom  tbcir 
lipa  bad  fallen  asleep.    Among  these  supernatural  posr- 

those  new  tongues  first  heard  in  their  strange  sweelno* 
on  that  Pentecostal  morning,  needing  then  rko  inter- 
preter; those  longiies  which  during  Ibe  iHtlh-thmea  of 
Chris^anity  gai-e  utterance  to  the  rapturoua  joy  and 
(haiikfulnesaofthe  first  believers.  They  were  a  power, 
boweveT,which,  if  misused,  might  lead  men — as  histoiy 
has  subsequently  shown — inlnconfusian,  feverish  dreanw, 
and  morbid  imaginings,  a  condition  of  thought  w 


nuld  ut 


□  aod 


duties  of  their  several  callings- 
unreal  and  unhealthy.  Therefore  that  chapter  of  aa- 
creil  history  which  tells  of  these  communings  of  men 
with  the  unseen,  that  beautified  with  unearthly  gincy 
the  lives  ofthe  brave  wiuteases  who  first  gave  up  all  fur 
Christ,  was  closed  up  forever  when  the  "tongues"  had 
done  their  work  (see  De  Wetle.  Apa^ttfinrh.  p.  23-36). 
IIL  Ancim  and  Mnden  Qaati-raralirU.  —  A 'mv\a 
question  of  deep  interest  presents  itself.  Can  we  find 
in  the  religions  history  of  mankind  any  facta  analogous 
to  the  manifestation  of  the  "  langues /"  RecognLtini;, 
as  we  do,  the  great  gap  which  separate*  the  work  ofthe 
Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  from  all  otheis,  both  in 
its  origin  and  its  fruiu,  there  is,  it  is  believed,  no  lea- 
aon  for  rejecting  the  thought  that  there  might  be  like 
phenomena  standing  to  it  in  the  relation  of  foreshsilon'- 
intpi.  approximations,  counterfeits.  Other  yapiofiartt 
ofthe  S|iiril,»isdom,  prophecy,  helps,  governments,  had, 
or  bare,  analogies,  in  special  stales  of  men's  spiritual 
life,  at  other  times  and  under  other  conditions,  and  ■> 
may  these.  The  three  characlerislic  phenomena  arc, 
especially  in  ils  Corinthian  phase,  as  has  been  seen — (a) 
th«! 


usges  which  the  speaker 


TONGUES,  GItT  OF 

I.  Tbc  hialory  at  the  Old  T«l,  proenU  lu 
■DIM  ioituice*  in  which  the  gift  or  prophecy  hi 
cnDiMauaeDI'  af  Ifais  afttare.  The  word  iuciudei : 
thing  mflre  Itiui  the  utterance  of  ■  distinct  meui 
4ii>d.  Saul  and  hit  menengen  come  under  the  ] 
sf  the  Spirit,  and  he  lien  on  the  Rnrntid  all  i 
MHpped  of  his  kingly  armor,  and  joining  in  th( 
chant  of  the  company  of  propheti,  or  pouring  ui 
ovn  utterances  to  the  sound  of  their  mniic  [1  San 
U:  cotnp.  Stanley,  loc  dl.). 

t.  We  cannot  exclude  the  falae  prophets  and  i 
eraorlsraeJ  frain  the  range  of  our  iiH|uiry.  Aa  th 
Ihflf  work,  dreaa,  preteniauna,  were  cuunurfeils  of 


a  ■Xher  t 


'hicb  reKDibled.ni> 


■17" 


Anil  here  we  have  diitinct  records  of  atrange, 
!r<oua  intonations  The  venliiloquiit  wizatdg  (al 
rrpipt>9iH,oii«  rqc  'aiXias  ^fovair)  "peep  and 

"  (Iu.viii,  19).    The  "voice  of  one  who 


M{S«pt. 


fantiliar  apirit"*  comes  low  out  oT  the  ground  {: 
The  false  prophets  liniulale  with  their  Iongu< 
k/JaXAovroc  rpof^tlat  j-Xuffintf )  the  low  v( 
which  the  tnu  propheta  announced  that  the  Lord  had 
spokeB  (.JcT.  iiiii,  31 ;  comp.  Geaenins,  Tittaur,  s.  T. 

3.  The  q^iotation  by  Paul  (I  Cor.  xit,  21)  rrmn  1m. 
xaviii,  1 1  ("  With  men  of  other  tongues  [iv  IrtpafXiiir- 
ffiMc]  and  other  lipa  will  I  ipeak  unto  this  people")  has 
■  sigoiScanDe  of  which  we  ought  not  to  lose  tight.  The 
common  interpcelation  sees  in  that  passage  onJy  a  dec- 
laialion  that  those  who  had  refuMd  to  liuen  to  the 
propheta  should  be  Isught  a  sharp  lesson  by  the  lips  of 
•lien  ean(|u(raia.  Ewald  (PropJui,  ad  toe),  dissatisfied 
with  this,  sees  in  the  new  teaching  the  roice  of  thunder 
striking  t*rtot  inui  men's  minds.  Paul,  with  the  phe- 
nomena uf  the  "tongue*' present  to  his  mind,  saw  in 
them  the  fullllnKnt  of  the  prophet's  words.  ThoK  who 
turned  aside  frum  the  true  prophetic  message  should  be 
left  to  the  darker,"  stammering,"  more  tnygceriDuiutler- 
■sces,  which  were  in  the  older  what  the  "tongues" 
*ece  in  the  later  Ecdeaia.  A  remarkable  parallel  to  the 
text  IhBS  intetpreled  is  found  in  HiM.ix,T.  There  alw 
the  people  are  threatened  with  the  withdrawal  of  the 
troe  pmpbetic  insight,  and  in  its  stent  there  is  to  be 
the  wild  delirium,  the  ecstatic  mtdneat  of  the  CDUnter- 
feit  (eump.  especially  the  Sept.,  6  rpapiinis  o  iraperrnf- 
»C.  dv9fiurac  "  s-HO/Inro^opoc)- 

4.  The  history  of  heathen  otades  presents,  it  need 
hardly  be  said,  eismples  of  the  orgiastic  state,  the  con- 
dition of  the  iiivTit  as  distinct  from  the  irpo^^nic,  in 
which  the  wisest  oT  (ireek  thinkers  recognised  the  lower 
type  of  inspiration  (Msto.  rtiwB..  72  b ;  Bleek,  tor.  r*.). 
The  PythoiKss  and  the  Sibyl  are  aa  if  possessed  by  a 
power  which  they  cannot  re«st.  They  labor  uuder  the 
■Qatoa  of  the  gwL  The  wild,  unearthly  sounds  ("  nee 
moTtale  sonans*^,  often  hsrdlycaheteni,bufMfroni  their 
lips.  It  remsined  for  interpreters  lo  collect  the  scattered 
uttHmnoes,  aiHl  to  give  ihen  sh^  and  meaning  (Vit- 
pI,,««.ri,4S.9«sq.). 

b.  Hon  distinct  parallels  are  found  in  the  accounts 
of  the  wilder,  more  excited  KCts  which  have,  from  time 
ti>  time,  appeared  in  the  bisinry  of  Chriatendom.  Ter- 
luUian  ( />e  ^  aim.  c.  9).  as  a  Mnnunist.  clsims  the  "  rev- 
elaiioniiai  chsrismsta"  ss  given  In  a  sitter  of  that  sect. 
They  came  to  her  "  inter  dominies  snlemnia ;"  abe  was, 
"per  ecstasin,  in  tpiritu,"  oonversing  with  angels,  and 
with  the  Lord  hinticif,  teeing  and  hearing  mysteries 
("MCTanKnta"),  reading  the  beana  of  men,  prescribing 
(mndiea  for  those  who  needed  them.  The  muvemcnt 
of  the  mendicant  orders  in  t'lS  ISth  century,  the  proph- 
esi'ioica  of  the  ISth  in  England,  the  early  history  of  the 
Asci plea  of  Genrge  Pox,  that  of  the  Jansenists  in  France, 
tbc  revivals  nndrf  Wnley  and  Whitefleld,  those  of  a 
Ut*T  dale  in  Swwien,  America,  and  Irel- 
Msnoei,  beta  fruitful  in  ecstatic  pb 


5  TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 

less  closely  resembling  those  vhich  we  are  now  eonald- 

6.  The  history  of  the  French  propheti  at  the  eotn- 

meneement  of  the  18th  century  presents  some  fscts  of 
special  interest  The  terrible  sufferings  caused  by  the 
Uevocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nintea  were  pressing  with 
intolerable  severity  on  tbe  Huguenots  of  the  Cevennes. 
The  persecuted  Aocka  met  together  with  every  feeling 
of  faith  and  hope  strung  to  its  highest  pitch.  The  ac- 
customed order  of  worship  was  broken,  and  laboring 
men,  children,  and  female  servants  spoke  with  raplui- 
ous  eloquence  as  the  messengers  of  God.  Beginning  in 
1686,  then  crushed  for  a  time,  bursting  forth  with  fresh 
violence  in  1700,  it  toon  became  a  matter  of  almost  En- 
ropesn  cel<  brity.  Refugees  arrived  in  London  in  1706 
claiming  the  character  of  propheta  (Lacy,  Crg/nm  Iht 
Dtterii  Peyral.  Pailurt  in  tie  Wildtmat).  An  Eng- 
lishman, John  Lacy,  became  first  a  convert  and  then  ■ 
leailcr.  The  convulsive  ecstatic  utterances  of  the  sect 
drew  down  the  ridicule  of  Shaftesbury  (On  fnlAuuina). 
Cslamy  thought  it  necessary  to  enter  the  lists  against 
their  pretenMons  {Caveat  agaiiut  Ikt  Knp  PropAtit). 
They  gained  a  distinguished  proselyte  in  Sir  R.  Bulkley, 
a  pupil  of  Bishop  Fell's.  With  no  inconHileraUe  learn- 
ing, who  occupied  in  their  prncredinga  a  position  which 
reminds  us  of  that  of  Henry  Drummond  among  the  Ibl- 
loweis  of  Irving  (Bulkley,  Df/mae  of  Ikr  Propheti). 
Here,  also,  there  was  &  strong  contagious  excitement. 
Niclmlson,  the  Baxter  of  the  sect,  published  a  confession 
that  he  bad  found  himself  unable  to  resist  it  (Fahrhood 
oftke  Nta  Fropkttt),  though  he  afterwards  came  to 
look  upon  bit  conipaniona  as  "enthuaiaalic  impoalots." 
What  is  spedally  noticeable  is  that  the  gift  of  tongue* 
waa  chumed  by  ibem.  Sir  R.  Ilulkley  declares  that  he 
had  heard  I^i^  repeal  long  seiileiices  in  Latin,  and  an- 
other i^ak  Hebrew,  though,  when  not  in  the  Spirit, 
they  were  quite  incapable  of  it  (A'dnofirr,  p.  92).  The 
characteristic  thought  of  all  the  revelations  was  that 
they  were  the  true  children  of  God.  Almost  every  or- 
acle began  with  "My  child!"  u  its  chatacleriatic  word 
(Peyrst,  i,  286-818).  It  is  remarkable  that  a  strange 
revivalist  movement  was  spreading  nearly  at  the  same 
time  through  Silesis,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was 
that  boys  and  girls  of  lender  age  were  almost  the  only 
subjects  of  il,  and  that  they  loo  apoke>and  prayed  with 
a  wonilerful  power  (Lacy,  Bdatioa,  etc.,  p.  81 ;  Bulkley, 
yarratire,  p.  4B). 

7.  The  ao- called  Unknown  Tongues,  which  mani- 
fested themselves  first  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  and  ailcr- 
wsrds  in  the  Caledonian  Church  in  Regent  Squsre,  pre- 
sent a  more  striking  plienomenoo,  and  tlie  dsia  for 
Judging  of  its  nature  are  more  copious.  Here,  more 
than  in  most  other  cases,  there  were  the  conditions  of 
long,  eager  expectation  fixed  brooding  over  one  central 
thought,  the  mind  strained  to  a  prelemalursl  tension. 
Suddenly,  now  from  one,  now  tram  anociier,  chiefly 
from  women,  devout  Imt  illiterate,  mysterious  sounds 
were  heartL  Voices  whidi  M  other  times  were  haTSh 
and  unpleasing  became,  when  "unging  in  the  Spirit," 
perfectly  harmnnioua  (Carilale,  yarrative,  in  Hominy 
Walt*,  ii,  871,  872).  See  the  independent  testimony 
of  archdeacon  Stopfiird.  He  had  listened  Co  the  "un- 
known tongue,"  and  bad  fmind  it  "a  sound  tuch  aa  1 
never  heard  before,  unearthly  and  unaccountable."  He 
reaigniseil  precisely  the  aame  smindt  in  the  Irish  re- 
vivals of  1869  (Work  and  Coanltnroric, p.  11).  Those 
who  tpoke,  men  of  known  devotion  and  scuteness,  bore 
witness  to  their  inability  lo  control  themselves  (Baxter, 
SarraHrr,  p.  fi.  9, 13).  to  their  being  led,  they  knew  not 
how.lo  tpeak  in  ■"triumphant  chant"  (tAtnL  p.46,81). 
The  man  over  whom  tliey  exercised  so  strange  a  power 
has  left  nn  record  hit  testimony,  that  lo  him  they  ts>in 
eil  to  embody  a  more  than  earthly  music,  leading  lo  tbe 
iKliefthal  ihe  "tongues"  nfilie  apostolic  age  had  been 
at  the  archetypal  melody  of  which  all  Ihe  Church's 
chants  and  hymnt  were  but  faini,  poor  echoes  (OU- 

■ilnl,  Lift  of  Inins,  ii,  208).    To  those  who  wcm 


TONGUIS,  GIFT  OF  4i 

vilhout,  on  IhB  other  luDd,  they  wemed  but  in  unin- 
lelligible  ftibberith,  Ihe  yellt  uid  ginmi  of  madmea 
(newaptpen  of  1S31, /mhiih).  Somfiimes  it  wh  u- 
Krtetl  Lhit  fngmenu  of  known  Jinggageii — S[>inii>h, 
Itjdiin,  Greek,  Hebrew— were  mingled  io|;il)iFt  in  Ibe 
utterances  or  those  who  ipoke  in  the  puher  (Baxter, 
Karralicf,  p.  133, 134).  Sometimet  ii  wu  but  ■  jargon 
of  mere  Kiuadi  {tilid.).  The  apraket  u-iii  commoulj  un- 
able to  inteipret  wbit  he  uttered.  Sometimea  Iha  ot- 
t\ct  waa  undertaken  by  another.  A  cleai  and  int«rnl^ 
ing  auiDmary  of  the  hiatury  of  Ihe  whole  morement  ia 
giien  in  Mra.  Oliphanl'if^e  n//rrBiff,xiiL  iL  'Ihoee 
who  with  lo  trace  it  through  ill  ilii  Magra  mnM  be  re- 
ferred u>  the  Mven  volumes  uf  the  iloiiii*s  Wald,  and 
eapecially  to  Irvine"!  aerirt  of  papers  on  Ibe  Giftt  of 
the  tipiiit  in  voia.  iii,  iv,  and  v.  Whatever  other  ex- 
planation may  be  given  of  the  facta,  there  eiiala  no 
gnmntl  for  imputing  a  deliberate  impoMure  to  any  of 
iheiierKUUSwhoweremoftconiipicuooiin  the  movement. 

8.  In  certain  excvptional  alalea  of  mind  and  Irady 
the  powcra  of  memory  an  known  u>  receive  a  wonder- 
ful and  abnormal  atiength.  In  the  delirium  of  fever,  in 
the  ecalaay  of  a  trance,  men  apeak  in  their  old  age  lan- 
guagea  which  they  have  never  heard  or  tpoken  Noce 
their  earlieit  youth.  The  accent  of  their  common 
speech  ia  altered.  Women,  ignorant  and  untaught,  re- 
peat long  sentences  in  tireek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew,  which 
they  had  once  heard,  without  in  any  degree  under- 
standing or  intending  to  remember  ihem.  In  all  such 
cases  the  mari'ellous  power  ia  the  accumpaniment  of 
diaeaae,  and  passes  away  whin  Ihe  patient  returns  to 
his  usual  state,  to  the  healthy  equilibrium  and  interde- 
petidence  of  the  life  of  sensation  and  of  thought  (Aber- 
erombie,  iHlrUeciunt  Poweri,  p.  140-1*3;  Winalciw,  Ob- 
icure  Dittufi  of  the  Brain,  p.  837,  SCO,  374  \  Walton, 
Pnacipln  and  PracHa  of  Phytic,  i,  128).  The  medi- 
eval belief  that  Ibis  power  of  speaking  in  tongue*  be- 
longed to  tboee  who  were  poeseised  by  evil  ipiiiu  rests, 
obviously,  upon  like  pycholi^cal  phenomena  (Petet 
Martyr,  Lod  Commuattji,  10;  Bavie, />icr.  s.v."Gran- 
dier"). 

Wo  refer  to  the  above  singular  phenomena  of  modem 
times  nol  as  genuine  samples  of  the  scriptural  i^ouota- 
lia,  but  as  illustrating  some  of  the  phyaical  and  mental 
lymptoma  with  which  they  were  accompanied.  In 
many  instances,  no  donhl,  the  Biblical  facts  have  been 
merely  imitated,  and  in  othera  they  have  exervised  un- 
conacioualy  a  reproductive  power.  See  Wiewler,  in  Ihe 
Stodu.ATrif.  1338,  iii,  703:  tS39, 11,483;  iii, 75S;  1848, 
iii,  659  sq.;  1847,  i,  65j  also  the  mnnrignphs  cited  by 
Volbetling,  Inda  Prngrammatum,  p.  78. 

IV.  This  subject  is  not  merely  curious  anil  intereat- 
ing,  but  full  of  practical  moment.  1.  It  nhowa  how 
well  the  Gospel  message  was  accredited  in  its  fint 
promulgation.  It  fixes  attention  on  the  high  cnnae- 
quence  uf  preaching  the  Gospel;  uf  declaring  il>  mes- 
sage with  a  gluwiiig,  burning  eameatneM,  and  of  ob- 
taining the  live  cual  which  ia  to  kiwlle  the  heart  from 
off  God's  altar.  2.  Inasmucb  as  the  tongue*  of  fire  ap- 
pear to  have  rested  on  private  Christiana  at  well  as 
apostles, and  on  women  as  well ' '--•—- 


Church,  form 


by  shav 


The 


ntruduoed  at  the  end  o( 
the  SLh  centut]'.  At  an  earlier  periud  it  was  censured 
as  unbecoming  ^iritual  persooa,  on  the  ground  of  it* 
being  among  the  tokens  of  penance.  Albaapinms 
notea,  "  It  waa  cuatomaiy  to  use  shaving  even  to  baM- 
nesa,  and  ^iriiikling  the  head  with  aahe*,  as  n^at  of 
luirrow  and  repentance;  but  the  priest*  uf  God  weic 
not  lo  be  thus  treated ;"  which  abowa  that  the  aocitnt* 
then  knew  nothing  of  this  aa  a  ceremony  belonging  to 
the  ordination  or  life  of  the  clergy.  Tlie  ancieui  ton- 
Ambrose,  and  othen,  equally  inveigh  agaiiiat  this  aa 
a  ceremony  of  the  prieata  of  Isia;  it  was  only  an  obli- 
gaiiun  on  the  monks  and  clergy  to  wear  decent  and 
(hurl  hair,  at  ia  evident  from  all  the  canons  that  ap- 
point iu  The  unsure  in  early  times  waa  called  coma 
i:lmealit,  and  the  clergy  corimati,  nol,  however,  from 
Ihdr  shaven  crowns,  but  from  the  form  of  the  ancieiit 
tonaure,  which  was  made  iu  a  circular  figure  by  culling 
away  the  hair  a  little  from  the  cruwn  of  the  head  and 
leaving  a  cdrde  hanging  duwnwarda.  At  Gnt  the  low- 
eat  church  servanta  wore  Iheir  hair  abort  a*  a  maifc 
of  servitude,  and  the  mtHika,  out  of  hamility,  imitated 
them,  and  in  the  6th  cenluiy  the  clergy  ulapled  lb* 
fiuhioD. 

Tbefom  of  the  tonsure  varied  in  diSerent  chan:he% 
td  the  varietica  of  it  an  of  some  historical  intentt. 
That  of  the  Roman  Church,  called  Ihe  " 


ceplior 


of  Ihei 


ability  lo  speak  for  God,  to  let  no  corr 
lion  proceed  out  of  their  month,  but  ibat  which  ia  good 
lo  the  use  of  edifying,  that  it  may  minister  grace  unto 
the  hearers.  3.  At  the  same  time  we  are  warned  that 
the  tongue  might  be  bad  in  its  integiily  while  the  flie 
was  wanting  or  feeble.  Paul  himself,  tbongh  avowing 
thai  he  could  speak  with  tongues  more  than  Ibey  all, 
felt  the  need  of  being  prayed  for  by  saints, "  with  all 
prayer  and  supplication  in  the  Spirit,  that  ulterance 
miehi  be  given  him,  that  he  might  open  his  mouth 
boldly  to  make  known  the  mysteiy  of  the  Compel."  4. 
We  Irani,  Anally,  fiom  the  apoalle  thai  faith,  hope,  and 
charity  were  belter  Ihan  this  physical  ' 
having  a  more  abiding  cbancter. 


of  ahav 


iirll  ■! 


lefun 


u  Italy, 


back  of  [he  head,  so  that  tl 
or  cmwn  of  hair.    This  wi 

Gaul,  and  Spain.  In  the  Scottish  (or  Irish)  tonaure, 
which  waa  in  use  in  Ireland,  in  North  Britain,  and  in 
those  parts  of  Germany  in  which  the  Irish  miaaioDariM 
had  preached,  the  entire  front  of  the  head  waa  ahaved, 
leaving  il  bare  as  far  back  aa  tbe  line  frum  car  to  eai. 
This  lonsure  was  called  "the  tonsure  of  James,"  and 
Bumeiimes  of  "  Simon  Ihe  Magician."  The  Urceks  and 
other  Otientala  ihaved  the  whole  head.  The  uippoecd 
derivatjon  uf  the  Irish  furm  uf  lonsure  from  the  apo*- 
tdic  liiue*  led  tu  iu  being  held  both  in  Ireland  and 
Britain,  as  well  a*  uthei  churches  of  Iriata  foundatioo, 
to  be  (rf  the  moai  vital  importance,  inaooiuch  that  the 
intniductioii  of  Ibe  Bomaa  form  was  almost  the  occ*- 
sion  of  a  schistn. 

As  to  the  tigfijicatiim  of  tbe  lonsare,  tbe  catechism 
ofthe  Council  of  Trent  says  that  il  was  inieoded  to  rig- 
nify  that  the  raiuiaters  of  religion  are  in  all  things  so  I* 
comport  themselves  as  to  cairv  about  Ihem  tbe  tigon 
and  likene»!  uf  Christ.  Anthony,  arcl.biahop  of  V»»- 
ence.  says,  **  The  shaving  on  the  upper  [lart  uf  ihe  bead 
signitles  that  tbey  ought  lo  have  a  mind  free  for  the 


lings. 


they  ought  nt 

be  involved  in  worldly  maltera,  which  are  iteugnalcd 
by  the  hair.  But  tbe  cut  of  the  hair  in  furm  of  ■  citde 
deaignates  the  royal  dignity  which  tbry  have,  and  be- 
cause they  ought  to  regulate  Ihemaelves  and  uthen  ao- 

of  tbe  head  by  the  lonsure  is  entar>:eil  as  the  penan 
rises  in  eodeuaalical  dignity.  Ori^-iiially  the  tunsuia 
waa  merely  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  iniiialion  in  or- 
ders, and  waa  only  perfoimed  in  ihe  act  nf  admiiiisto^ 
ing  the  higher  order;  but  about  Ihe  7tb  century  it 
came  lo  be  uaed  as  a  distinct  snd  independeot  ent- 
moniat;  and  a  question  ha*  been  raiaeil  whether  it  I* 
to  be  considered  in  itself  as  an  order,  ami  lo  be  added 
to  the  list  of  wbal  are  called  "minor  orders,"  Tha 
now  received  opinion  of  Catholic  writers  is  that  lonsnn 
is  not  an  order,  but  only  a  preparation  fur  orders.  Con- 
cealment hail  already  been  forijidden  in  Edgar's  cama, 
and  by  Anselm,  in  1102;  and  Peckbam,  iti  r231,  cam- 
plains  that  tha  clergy  covered  it  out  of  aight  with  hair 
lice*.    See  Bingham,  CkriO.  Aiij.  bk.  vi,  cb.  iv,  §  1^ 


TOOKE  4f 

IT;  TU,iii.9  6;  Wiieaa,8ae.Artiaol.t.'r.;  Wetiet 
B.  Welte,  KinAnt-r^. «.  v. 

Tooke,  JoiiM  HoiuB,  an  Ensliali  clergyman,  the 
•n  of  John  Home,  was  bora  in  Wtttjniniter,  June 
Jj,  1736,  and  wan  ediicaled  at  Weslminslet  and  Eton 
•cboots  and  St.  Juha'e  College,  Cambridge,  graduating 
in  17i8,  He  beoinie  an  luher  in  ■  achool  at  Dlack- 
bcath,  took  orden,  and  aerved  as  curate  in  Kent.  In 
1760  he  Teeeired  prie«t'«  order*,  and  for  three  yean  had 
cha^e  of  the  uhapelry  of  New  Brentford.  After  going 
M  France  >•  travelling  tutor  to  the  aon  of  Mr,  Elwea,  of 
Beikabire.  he  ralunied  in  1767  and  took  an  active  inter- 
ot  in  polities,  laboring  to  Hcure  the  election  of  tiia  IVtend 
Wiftea  Inm  Mid.lleMx.  He  became  (1769)  one  of  the 
bunden  of  the  "  Society  for  Supporting  the  Bill  of 
Bighta,''but  quarrelled  with  Wilket  and  was  attacked 
by  Jnnins,  hut  >ucce»rully  defended  himself.  In  1779 
he  rormally  reaigned  hi*  living,  rteaigning  to  itudy  law, 
and,  rendering  great  awUlance  to  a  Mr.  Tooke  of  Pur- 
ity, in  Surrey,  was  made  bv  him  liie  heir.  He  changed 
hii  name  to  Tooke  in  llSt,  and  received  XBOOO  from 
the  property.  He  opposed  the  American  war,  and,  ac- 
eoaing  the  king'a  troopa  of  barbarously  murdering  the 
American*  at  Lexington,  was  convicted  of  libel,  and 
aentenced  to  one  year's  impriaonnienC  and  a  fine  of 
fSOO.  When  releiued,  he  applied  for  admiwion  to  the 
bar,  but  was  rejected  on  the  ground  of  being  a  cler- 
gyman. In  1790  he  was  defeated  as  a  candidate  for 
Parliament,  ■urt  in  1794  was  tried  for  higli-treaKin,  but 
WW  acquitted.  Defeated  again  in  1T96,  he  succeeded 
in  1801  in  being  elected  m  the  House  of  Commons  for 
[he  homugh  of  OM  Sirum;  and  retained  his  seat  till 
(be  di»()luli»ii  iu  iXOi,  the  deciHon  of  Parliament  (that 
DO  one  in  priest'i  aiders  could  be  a  member)  disqualify- 
ing him  from  uiLing  again.  He  retired  to  WimbieCon, 
where  he  died,  March  18. 1812.  Mr.  Tooke  published, 
Tkr  PriUioH  «/<b.  EnglMman  (1765)  i-Sennoa  {before 
1773):-/-t//o-  to  JokH  Duimmg  (1778,8vo):— i««<r  to 
lord  AMmrUm  (1782,  8vo)  i-'Eirta  TlnpUvTa,  or 
lit  Drtrtioiu  of  Psrltg  (1786,  8vn):— and  other  paro- 
phlcu.  See  UXVOiar,  i)iel.  of  Brit,  and  AmtT.Autiior; 
s.r.;  Chalmers,  fiio^. />>«'.  a.  V. 

Tooth  ("i^,  •**>,  Wotic>    The  Hebrew  word  la  by 
some  derived  from  TtVC,  "  to  change"  or  "  repeat,"  be- 
cvise  the  teeth  are  changed, or  lepJaced  by  others;  but 
it  better  conies  from  '^d,  to  iharpm.     So  likewise 
Gicek  iioit  is  —i'*  *"  be  quau  Hevt,  from  Uv/, 
(•!:'  aitd  the  L^tJn  dau,  quasi  tdat,  "eating." 
the  three  worda  are  probably  all  primitivea,  and 
latur  two  at  least  are  etymologically  connected  v 
the  English  tooO. 

L  la  the  jw^Inr  thia  term  occun  flrat  with  refei^ 
eaee  to  the  literal  member  itself  in  man,  the  loaa  of 
which,  by  violence,  is  specified  by  Hoaee,  in  illustia- 
tioo  of  hi*  law  concerning  lattona,  "loath  for  tooth'' 
(Eiod.  xxi,  M).     This  outrage  occurring  between  free- 

«>  admitted,  like  other  eases  of  maiming,  moat  proba- 
Mt  of  a  pecuniary  compensation,  and  under  private  ar- 
■  nuigement,  unleas  the  injured  patty  prove<l  exorbitant 
inhiideniand,  when  the  e*Be  was  referred  to  the  jadge, 
wha  Bccma  addtened  in  DeuL  xix,  SI.  The  Targum 
of  Jooalhan  renders  the  words, "  the  price  of  a  tooth  for 
a  tooth,"  in  Exod.  xxi,  ^4,  Lev.  ixiv,  SO,  and  Deal. 
xix,  il  (comp.  Joseph  us,  AnI.  iv,  8,  SB,  and  see  th 
PimuiQCEitT  in  this  C^c/ripiKiHi) ;  but  ifa  master  inflict- 
ed this  in«p«»ble  damage  upon  a  servant,  L  e.  alave,  ■ 
(ithar  «es,  he  waa  punished  by  the  absolute  lose  of  t 
slave's  aerricea  (Exod.  xxi,  37).  The  same  law  ap- 
plied if  the  aUve  was  a  Gentile,  notwilhtUnding  the 
national  gliiMf  of  the  Jewish  docton  (Selden,  De  Jurt 
AV.et  Cob  iv,  1,468).  Out  Lard's  comment  upon  tl 
law  (UatL  T,  88),  which  waa  much  abused  in  his  tin 
(Honie,  IMnxL  ii,  877, 6th  ed.),  prohibits  no  more  thi 
MaUaHoH  upon  the  ujarrr  (ry  woy^pif},  not  aueh 


TOOTH 

M  of  our  innocence  as  may  eons'iat  in  words,  bat 
lie  rtetiigr,  and  especially  with  such  a  dispoution 
Lasted  the  aggressor,  with  impetuous  rage  or  ha- 
tred.    His  exhortations  relate  rather  to  those  injuries 
1  cannot  be  redressed  br  the  magistrate  or  by 
course  of  law ;  these  we  should  bear  rather  than  resort 
renge  (see  Rasrnnillller.Gtotius,  awl  Whitby,  od 
lac).     Indeed,  the  hermeneutics  of  our  Lord's  precepts 
lis  Sermon  on  the  Mount  require  much  koowlrdge, 
:,anddiscrimination,inoRler  to  avoid  tprima/ade 
iiiterprelation  of  them,  which  has  often  been  given,  at 
riance  with  his  intention,  subversive  of  the  ptinciplea 
natural  Justice,  and  productive  of  false  ideas  of  Chris- 
in  duty. 

In  Psa.iii,T  we  have  -n^,  for  the  human  Jawbone; 
r  that  of  an  aas  (Judg.  iv,  15-17,  aiayiva, "  maxillam, 
c.  mandibulam ;"  which  becomea  ^POiS  In  ver,  19, 
t6v  XixKov  riv  i"  rp  oiayiSvi,  "molarem  dentem  in 
muiila  a^i")  [see  Samson];  and  for  that  of  levia- 
than (Job  xl,  U,ri  jtiXoe,  masCTUum).  See  Jaw.  A 
"broken  (or  rather  "bad,"  ns^,  that  is,  decayed;  Vulg. 
(joti  putTvIiu)  tooth"  is  referred  to  iu  Prov.  xxv,  19,  as 
fumisbing  an  apt  dmilitude  of  "conBdence  in  an  un- 
faithful man  in  ths  time  of  tnuhle."  "The  teeth  of 
beast*," or  rather  "tooth," Iti, is  a  phrase  expieswvB  of 
devasution  by  wild  animalsf  thus, "I  will  send  the 
tooth  of  beasts  upon  them"  (Dent,  xxzii,  34),  niana'^D 
(iUDvrac3ilpian',(lBitotk<liartim,'CiHnp.2  Kings  xvii, 
25). 

The  word  is  sometimea  used  melapboncally  (br  a 
sharp  cliff  or  summit  of  a  rock  (Job  xxzIz,S8);  thuS) 
"  The  eagle  dwelleth  and  abideth  upon  the  tooth  of  the 
rock,"  5bD"'jtj"i5  (tT'  ijoxv  rirpasiinaecaiU  rupi- 
6u).  So  also  (1  Sam.  xiv,  4),  "a  sharp  rock  on  the 
one  side  and  a  sharp  rock  on  the  other  side,"  73S>T'^1E^ 
(bioit  irirpac,  faiui'  M  moAtm  dailiam  topiili) ;  these 
eminences  were  named  Bozei  and  Seneb. 

II.  Tkbth,  D^V,  aAmna'yitn  (fiiivTti),n  found  in 
tbe  dual  number  only,  referring  to  the  two  tows,  yet 
used  for  the  plural  (1  Sam.  ii,  13).  Tbe  word  occurs 
first  with  reference  to  the  literal  organs  in  man  (Gen. 
xlix,  12), "  His  teeth  sball  be  while  with  milk,"  which 
the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  understand  to  mean  "whiteness 
greater  than  milk"(q  yoXa,  focfc  coiufuitDrvi ;  Numk 
xi,BS|  Prov.  X,  26)  Cant.  It,  2;  vi,6).  Although  B^td 
be  the  general  word  for  (ecth,  yet  the  Hebrews  had  ■ 
distinct  term  for  tbe  mnUn.or  jsw  teeth,  especislly  of 
the  larger  animals;  thus,  nisltria  (Job  xxix,  17;  Pat. 
Ivii,  4;  Prov.  XXX,  14t  Joel  1,6);  and  by  tnntpoaition 
niS^io  (Psa.  Wiii,  6,  jiiiXai,  moia  and  molaTri).  The 
apparaU  teeth  of  the  leviathan  (SV^'  itftiuiii)  are, 
however,  called  O^tp  (Job  xli,  14).  Ivory,  "elephanta' 
teeth,"  1  Kings  X,  22,  iaMmplyS^Std  (Sept.omits;  Vulg. 
datlft  titphanlonan')  i  dau  in  Latin  Is  sometimes  so 
used.  In  2  Chron.  ix,  21  the  word  is  O^SITip  {iSotmc 
JX(^ovriiM(,e6Hr),  where  I'D  evidently  denotes  a  tooth; 
but  the  signiScation  of  the  latter  part,  D'Sn.  is  un- 
known, and  Geeenius  thinks  that  the  form  of  the  word 
may  be  so  corrupted  as  to  disguise  its  original  meaning. 
Hay  it  not  be  of  foreign  origin,  imported  with  the  ma- 
terial from  Ophir?    See  Ivobt. 

In  other  pasugea  the  reference  to  teeth  is  metaphor- 
ical;  thus, "  a  flesh-hook  with  three  teeth,"  that  is,  prongs 
(1  Sam.  ii,  18).  See  Hoox.  "  The  teeth  of  linns"  is  a 
symbol  of  the  crueltv  and  rapacity  of  the  wicked  (Job 
ir,  10).  "  To  take  one's  flesh  into  one's  teeth"  signiflei 
Xt.  gnaw  it  with  angnish  (siii,  14 ;  comp.  Rev.  xvi,  10). 
"The  skin  of  his  teeth,"  with  which  Job  sa}**  he  had 
"  escaped"  in  his  affliction,  is  understooil  by  the  Vulgate. 

of  the  lips "derelicta  sunt  caulummodo  labia  circa 

denies  meoa;"  but  Gescnius  understands  it  as  a  prover- 
bial expression,  meaning,  I  have  scarcely  a  sound  tpet 


TOFAKCHY  41 

in  my  bodj.  "  To  tdiiu  upon  the  jaw-bone"  and  "  10 
btttk  the  teetb"  wan  to  diignce  uiil  to  disable  (Pu. 
iii,7i  comp.  Uic.vi,13;  1  Kings  xx,B&;  Lam.  iii,  30). 
Tbe  teeth  of  calumniators,  etc,  are  cumpaied  to  "  apeais 
Ud  arrows-  (Psa,  Ivii,  4;  comp.  1  Sam.  ilx.W,  3).  To 
bnak  the  teeth  ur  such  persops  meuii  to  disable  Ibem 
(Psa.lviii,6).  Tu  escape  tlie  malice  of  enemies  is  called 
■n  "escape  from  their  leeth"  (cixiv,  6;  Zecb.  ii,  7). 
Opprusion  is  compared  u>  "jaw-teeth  like  awurda,  anil 
grinders  like  knives"  (Prov.  jtxx,  14).  Beautiful  leetb 
are  eompaied  to  "sheep  newly  shorn  and  washed"  in 
Cant,  iv,  !j  vi,  6;  but  the  remaining  part  of  the  com- 
poriBon, "  whereof  everj  one  beareth  twius,  and  uone  a 
barren  amung  them,"  is  much  better  rendered  by  Le 
Clerc, "  all  uf  them  twins,  and  none  hath  lotthia  fellow." 
"To  break  the  teeth  with  p-avel  stones"  is  a  moat  hy- 
perbolical metsphor  fur  inflicting  ihe  harshest  disap- 
piriaUnent  (Lam.  iii,  16).  "Iron  leelh"  are  the  symbol 
ofdestnictivepower  (Dttn.vii,7, 19).  A  nation  having 
the  teetb  of  lionB,and  Ihe  eheek-teelb  of  a  great  lion, 
denotes  one  which  devour*  with  irresistible  force  (Joel 
i,S;  comp,Ecclui,ixi,2;  Rev.ix.B),  "Propbelswho 
l^te  with  (heir  leetb,  and  cry  reaoe,''are  greedy  and 
hypocritical  prophets  {Mic  iii,  6).  "To  take  away 
Uood  out  uf  the  month,  and  abominations  fium  between 
the  teeth,"  means  to  rescue  the  intended  victims  of 
cruelty  (Zech.ii.i).  "Cleanness  of  teeth"  is  a  periph- 
rasis  for  hunger,  famine  (Amoa  iv,  G;  Sept.  j'Ofi^- 
aeitbv  Kayrwv ,  Symmachus  and  Theoilolinii,  la^n- 
(KBpiv).  (htadiiag  of  teeth  means,  properly,  grinding 
the  teeth  with  rage  or  despair.  Tbe  llebrew  word  so 
icndend  is  pnn  (Job  xvi,  9;  Lam.  ii,  16;  Psa.  iixv, 
16;  xnxvii.lJ;  cxii,  10);  it  is  invariably  rendered 
the  SepU  /}(iux«.  and  in  the  Vulg,  infrtmo'j'rtmBjrrn 
(see  also  Acts  vii,  M ;  Ecclus.  U,  2).  In  (he  Kew  TeH. 
it  is  saidof  the  epileptic  child  (Mark  ix,  IS),  rpi^ci  roiS 
hiavTaf,  Urida  denlihiiM.  The  phrase  u  ffpir/iiit  rui 
itovTmiv  is  in  the  Vulgi(e  "stridor  dentium"  (Matt. 
vili,I2;  xiii, 42,60;  xxii,  13;  xxiv.Gl;  xxv,30;  Luke 
xui,  W),  Suidas  deSnes  Ppvy/idc '  rpm^Ac  MnVTun 
Galeu,  u  dwD  nvv  ituvrair  mjicpouofuvwv  ^o^i 
Tbe  phrase  "lest  thou  gnaih  thy  teeth" (Ecclus.  xxi, 
"     ■"  "      "Tocastinthe 

soch  idiom),  rignifying  to  np-oacA;  thus  "the  thieves 
who  were  cruciSed  with  Jeans  cast  the  same  in 
(«etb,"  (^I'fifov  airav  (Halt,  xxvii,  44;  Vulg. 
prnperoioHl  ei;  compare  also  the  Bible  and  Prayet- 
bo(«  version  of  Psa.  xlU.ll).   ni<S''D,"a  sharp  thresh. 
Ing  instrument  having  teeth,"  literally  "edges"  (Isa. 
zli,  15).    Ilie  action  of  acids  on  the  teeth  ii  referred 
to  in  tbe  proverb  "the  fathers  have  eaten  sourgrspf 
and  the  children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge"  (Ezek.  nvi 
S);  fyo/tfia(rav,i>iifu;nifninr  (Prov.x,26). 

Toparcby  [roirapx'i'igoremmenl  of  a  duLrvl), 
term  applied  in  one  passage  of  (he  original  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha (1  Uaccxi,2S)  taindieate  three  districls  to  which 
elsewhere  (x,  30 ;  xi,  34)  the  name  rouiic  is  given,  as 
also  in  Josepbus  (.4nr.  xiii,  4, 9).  In  all  these  pasrages 
the  EngUsh  version  employs 
The  Ibree  "  (oparchies"  in 
('Afoiptf((i),Lydda,and  Kamath.  They  had  been  de- 
(aehe<1  from  Samaria,  Penea,  and  (ialilee  respectively, 
■ome  time  before  the  war  between  De meirius  Soter  and 
Alexander  Bala.  Each  of  the  two  belligerents  endeav- 
ored to  win  over  Joiuithan,  tbe  Jewish  high-priest,  to 
their  side,  by  allowing  hiai,amani;  other  privileges,  tbe 
aoverciicn  power  over  these  dirtricis  wilbout  any  pay- 
ment of  land-lax.  The  ntnation  of  Lydda  is  doubtful; 
for  Ihe  tuparcby  Lydda  of  which  Pliny  tpeski  (v,  14) 
is  siiualed  not  in  Penea,  but  01 
Jordan.  Aphcrima  is  considered  by  Grotiu*  ta  denote 
the  region  about  Bethel,  captured  by  Abijah  from  Jero- 
boam (2  Chron.  xiii,  19).  Ramath  is  probably  (he  fa- 
mous stron|;hold,  the  desire  of  obtaining  which  led  (o 
the  unfortunate  expedition  of  the  allied  sovereigns 


duty  would  be  (o 


(oparchies 
far,iii,3,6). 

The  "loparchiea"  seem  to  h 
the  modem  Turkish  agalikt,  a. 

of  that  functionary  as  the  ago 

»llect  the  taxes  and  administer  jusuce  m  au  cases  al- 
Tecting  the  revenue,  and  who,  for  Ihe  purpoae  of  enforc- 
ing payment,  would  have  the  command  of  a  small  mil- 
itary force  He  would  thus  be  the  lowest  in  the  hie- 
rarchy of  a  despotic  administralion  to  whom  traupa 
uld  be  intrusted;  and  hence  the  (aunt  in  t  Kinn 
iii,  24,  and  Isa,  xixvi,  9  (Sept.) :  wit  dmwvfii^- 
rpovuixBv  (rn?,  "captain^  roiropxnp  ivit,Tir 
JdkXb*  ruu  KupiDii  fidv  Tuiy  tXjixiiTiiii-i — "Hnw  wilt 
thou  renst  a  single  topaieh,  one  of  Ihe  vcri-  least  uf  mj 
lord's  slaies?"  But  the  esaenlial  charanir  of  the  lo- 
parch  is  that  of  a  fiscal  officer,  and  his  military  eliaroc- 
■llogether  subordinate  to  his  civil.  Hence  the 
is  empUiyed  in  (ien.  xli,  34  for  the  "oScot  orsr 
ud"  (Tpj,  "nvereeer'^,  who  were  inttruded  u 
buy  up  the  flOh  part  of  the  produce  of  the  soil  during  lbs 
In  Dan.  iii,  8,  TheodotiM 
ise,  making  it 
satraps"  (!t^|B';i7Cnt*,"wise'^,siKlibe 
English  version  renders  Ihe  original  by  "princesf  but 
the  original  word  here  is  not  the  same  as  in  Dan.  iii.  1. 
~T,  and  vi,  7,  in  every  one  of  which  caae*  a  suboidinsic 
inclionary  is  contemplated. 
Topas  (rn^n,pildaJk',  apparently  of  non-Heb.  Mj- 
loloKy:  Sepl.TOiriiCioi';  Vulg.  (iipaiiBs),  a  gem  which 
'as  the  second  stone  in  the  first  row  of  the  high-prietl's 
breastplate  (Exod.  xxviii,  17 ;  xxxii,  10).  It  was  »« 
>f  Che  jewels  that  adorned  tbe  apparel  of  the  king  tl 
Tyre  (Eiek.  xxviii,  13);  it  was  the  bright  stone  Ihtf 
ninth  foundation  of  the  heavenly  Jeniia- 
20).  In  Job  xxviii,  19,  where  witdm  ii 
1  precionsanicles.il  is  said  lhat"ihepih 
(ioA  of  Ethiopia  shall  not  equal  it."  It  is,  according  it 
most  ancient  ver^ons,  the  (opsz  {touiiZivv  ;  Josrphui, 

scribe  lu  being  of  a  golden  yelh>w  color  (Sirabo,  ivi, 
770;  DiDd.Siciii,39);  while  Pliny  (//ur.  AW. xxirii, 
32)  suies  that  its  color  is  green.  The  topat  of  tbe  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Komans  is  generally  thought  U  be  oar 
chryanlile,  while  theii  chrysolite  is  our  lopox.  Chryso- 
lite^ which  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  olivine  and 
peridot,  is  a  Nlieate  of  magncNa  and  iron ;  it  is  so  scA 
as  to  lose  its  polish  unless  worn  with  care  (MiicheU  sod 
Tennant,  Miseratogy  and  CryilaUograpliy.  p.  512).  Set 
Chrysolite.  Bellermann,  however  (,iAt  trim  nd 
namiRin,p.39),conlendB  that  tbe  t(^>ai  and  Ibechryi- 
a)i(e  of  (he  ancients  are  ideniical  with  Ihe  stooes  de- 
noted by  ibeae  terms  at  the  present  day.  The  topai  is 
a  precious  sluna  having  a  strong  glass  lustre^  lis  pn- 
vailing  color  is  winp-yellow  of  every  degree  of  shade. 
The  dark  riiade  of  (bis  color  passes  over  into  iimfi™ 
reit,andsnme(imes,sllhouKh  rarely,  into  lilac;  tbeiiak 
sliadc  of  the  wine-yellow  passes  into  gtayinh,  and  (iod 
yellow isli -white  into  (jro'nish-Khile  and  pale  green,  Oo- 
cal,  and  celadnn-green.  It  may  ihus  be  diScull  to  de- 
termine whether  the  pilduh  in  (he  high-priest's  breast- 
plate was  the  yellow  tnpax;  but  thai  it  was  a  lopsi 
there  is  liille  reason  U>  doubt.  In  the  passage  ci(ed 
from  Job  tiie  pi/dak  is  connected  with  Cush;  and  as  tbe 
name  Cush  includes  Suutberu  Arabia  awl  tbe  Aiahiaa 
Gulf,  the  intimation  coincides  with  llie  siaiemeat  tl 

from'  the  Topaz  Island  in  the  Red  Sea  (//ist.  A'ur. 
xXKvii,8;  comp.  xi, 29),  whence  it  was  probably  broi^l 
by  the  PhiBnicUns  (comp.  Eiek.  xxviii,  IS).  See  EtHI- 
OFIA.  Pliny  adds,  in  explanation  of  the  name,  thai 
island  where  Ihese  precions  stones  were  procuied 
■  ■  ■     fogs,  and  was, ;' 


.'(?)- 


h  may  be  Rmariied  ttaac  Boblen  Nfks  th«  origi 
of  the  Hebrew  word  in  the  SinKriC  lingDige,  i 
which  pila  means  "  ydlowiih,"  "  pile  ;*■  and,  u  Gi 
toiia  nniirlia,  the  Greek  rmrajjov  iUelf  might 
■Km  lo  cane  from  the  Hebrew  n*i&3  bf  Iraiupon^on 
inu>  nrjt  (TAudur.  p.  1101).  3e«  Bnuniui,  Dt  I'l 
aiti,  p.  SOS;  (lofmann.  Mineral,  i,  8»7;  Pireiu,  Com- 
aeM.  n  Jui,  p.  3S3;  Ritter,  Erifomib,  ii,  6711.  See 
Gdl 

To'phel  (Heb.  id  ^Ori,  moriar;  Sept.  To^'X ;  Tulg. 
TlopM),  a  plan  menlioned  in  Deut.  i,  1  ai  a  boundary 
(?  on  ibe  N,  E.)  of  the  greai  Sinaicic  deaert  of  Paran. 
li  hw  iherefora  been  with  great  probability  identiSed 
■ilh  r>>/tbA  (comp.  Schwan,  FaiatL  p.  210)  on  a  wady 
of  tlie  aame  name  running  north  of  Bozra  towards  the 
rnnh-weat  into  (he  Ghur  and  aouth-ettt  corner  of 
Dnd  Sea  (RobinaDn,  BOL  Sa.  ii,  ^TO).  Thii  latter  is 
a  Dou  fertile  region,  having  many  springs  and  rivalets 
fiowiog  into  the  Ghor,  and  large  planlatiuni  of  fruit' 
tiett,  whence  figs  are  exported.  The  birditiiHa,a  kind 
of  partridge,  is  found  there  in  great  numbers,  and  the 
•tanbock  pastures  in  herds  of  forty  or  Sttv  together 
<Bun:llhIrd^ffa^Zdlld;p.405,«>6).  Tha  l^rook  Tufl- 
kh,ai  it*  imcnediate  neighborhood,  ia  still  the  rMog- 
□iied  bouDdary  between  Edom  and  Hoib  (Tristram, 
latdo/lfoab,p.b7J. 

To'pbat  (Heb.  To'phuh,  rtn,  MpitUf,  as  in  Job 
Srii,  6;  L  e.  atomijudiit,  or,  perhaps,  fibce  of  barmg: 
J«r.  Tu,3S  [second  time];  xii,  II,  13(  with  the  art., 
SKiDg«ju[iii,10["Topheth"]i  Jer. vii,8I,3Ji  jtiii,6, 
U,  H;  once  TopMttli;  nRSn,  Isa.  xxi,  38;  Sept.  Tu- 
fii,  tofii,  and  eofSa ;  Vulg.  TuphU,  TopMeth),  a  plu» 
near  Jeniulem,  where  the  ancient  Caaaanites,  and  af- 
terwards the  apoataie  laraeliiea,  made  cheii  ehildreo  lo 
pass  Ihmagb  the  Are  to  Moloch  (comp.  Psa.  cvi,  88; 
Jer.  vii.31).  It  is  Hrat  menlianed.  In  the  order  of  time, 
by  lualsh.  who  alludes  !«  it  ai  deep  and  large  and  hav- 
inic  •"  abundance  of  fuel  {xit»,  8B).  He  here  evidently 
calk  the  place  where  Sennacherib's  army  was  destroyed 
To|>het,by  a  melonymy;  for  it  was  probably  overthrown 
at  a  greater  distance  from  Jerusslem,  and  quite  on  the 
opposile  «de  of  it,  since  Nob  is  mentioned  as  the  last 
■align  from  which  the  king  of  AMvria  should  threaten 
Jenualeni  (x,  32),  where  the  prophet  seem*  lo  have 
given  a  very  exact  ehorographical  description  of  his 
march  in  order  to  attack  the  city  (Lowlh'i  Trand,  notes 
HI  XXX.  33).  In  tbe  reformslion  of  religion  by  king  Jo- 
■ah,  he  caused  Tophetb  to  be  defiled  in  order  to  lup- 
prcB  idolatry  (S  Kings  xxiii,  10).  The  means  he  adopt- 
ed for  ttaia  purpose  are  not  speciAed,  whether  by  throw- 
ing all  manner  of  61th  into  it,  as  well  as  by  orerthrow- 
iag  ih«  altan,etCnaa  the  Syriae  and  Arabic  versiooa 
•too  to  understand  it.  Tbe  pniphel  Jeremiah  was  or- 
dered by  God  to  announce  ftom  this  spot  (xii.  It)  the 
spproaching  captivity,  and  the  destruction,  both  by  the 
siege  of  the  city  and  by  faniine,  of  so  many  of  the  peo- 
ple, whose  carcaaes  should  be  here  buried,  as  that  it 
should  "no  more  be  called  Tophel,  nor  the  valley  of  the 
sooof  Hinnam,  but  the  valley  of  slaughler"  (vii,SI,B!; 
iii,e.  11-14).  In  all  tucceeding  ages  blood  has  flowed 
there  in  streams;  corpses,  buried  and  unbiiried,  hai 


only  the 


p  the  hollows;  and  it 
the  audem  gardens  and  terraces  there  lies 
debris  of  the  city,  bul  the  hones  and  duat  oi  miuiana — 
Bofaana,  Peruana,  Jews,  Greeks,  Crusaders,  Moslems. 
Once  tbe  royal  mune  grove  where  Solomon's  ungers. 
with  Toioe  uid  instrument,  regaled  the  king,  the  cnurt, 
■Dd  [be  city;  then  the  Temple  of  Baal,  tbe  high-place 
of  Holoeli,  THoniuiing  with  the  cries  of  burning  infants ; 
Ihn  (in  aymbol)  the  place  where  is  the  wailing  and 
Eoaihing  of  teeth.  Once  prepared  for  Israel's  king  as 
OK  of  hia  choicest  villas ;  then  d^aded  and  defiled  till 
X.-16" 


:  becomes  tl 


TOPLADY 

I  place  prepared  fi 


the  King,"  at  the 

soonu  OI  wnose  lau  ine  nations  are  to  shake  ( Ezek. 
xxxi,  IB) ;  and  aa  Paradise  and  Eden  passed  into  Baby- 
lon, so  Tophet  and  Ben  Hinnom  pass  into  Gehenna  and 
the  lake  of  fire.  These  scenes  seem  to  have  taken  hold 
of  Milton's  mind ;  for  three  times  over,  within  fifty  lines, 
ha  refers  to  "the  opprobrious  hill,"  the  "hill  of  scandal," 
the  "otTensive  mountain,"  and  speaks  of  Solomon  mak' 
ing  his  grove  in 

"  The  pleasant  ri 
AndWack  *  " 
See  UBHBTtlJA. 

The  nanM  Tophet  was  commonly  suppoaed  to  be  de- 
rived from  ISphjOr  drum,  from  the  drums  used  to  drown 
the  cries  of  the  children  when  made  to  paai  through  the 
fire  to  Moloch.  This  was  a  received  Jewish  opinion. 
But  there  are  other  derivations;  that,  for  example,  of 
Jerome,  who  from  the  root  lo  open  (HTiIl)  ascribes  to  it 
the  sense  of  taliludi ;  of  Roaenmllller,  who  connects  it 
with  a  different  root  (riB'<),  and  takes  it  to  mean  pieai- 
anlnai ;  of  Gesenius,  who,  from  a  Peruan  root,  finds  the 
sense  of  injkmmg,  burnins :  of  SSdiger  (in  Geaen.  The- 
niifr.9.T.),whotakesit  in  the  sense  of  jWA,  a  view  sub- 
stantially concurred  in  hy  D<ittcher,  Hitzig.andTheniua, 
though  derived  in  a  dilTerent  manner.  This  it,  perhaps, 
■       -lemoatdi- 


>robable  c 


rectly  appHci 
1,80,85;  PaneduB,/) 

Tophet  lay  somewhere  east  or  south-east  or  Jerusa- 
lem, for  Jeremiah  went  out  by  tbeBuo-gaLe,or  east  gate, 
t«  go  to  it  (xix,  2).  It  was  ill  "  the  vallev  of  the  son 
of  Hinuom"  (vii,  31),  whieb  is  "  by  the  entry  of  the  east 
gate"  (xix,  3).  Thus  it  was  not  identical  with  Hinnom, 
as  some  hare  written,  except  in  the  sense  in  which  Par- 
adise la  identical  with  Eden,  the  one  being  part  of  the 
oilier.  It  was  in  Hinnom,  and  was,  perhaps,  one  of  its 
chief  groves  or  gardens.  It  seetns  also  to  have  been 
[lart  of  the  king's  gardens,  md  watered  by  Siloam,  per- 
haps a  little  lo  the  south  of  the  present  Krket  el-Ham- 
ra.  The  New  Test,  doca  not  refer  to  it,  nor  the  Apocry- 
pha, nor  yet  Josepbus.  Jerome  is  the  first  who  notices 
it;  but  we  can  see  that  by  his  time  the  name  bad  dis- 
appeared, for  he  discusses  it  very  much  aa  a  modem 

fruitful  spot  ill  Hinnom,  watered  by  Siloam,  where  be 
assumes  it  was:  "Delubrum  Bsal,nemus  ac  lucus,Silae 
fontibtis  irrigatus"  (in  Jrr.  rii).  Eusebius,  in  his  Oao- 
maitieas,  under  the  word  Ba^,  says,  "  In  the  suburbs 
of  AiUh  is  still  shown  the  place  so  caUed,  to  uhich  U 
adjacent  the  fuller's  pool  and  the  potler'a  field,  or  the 
parcel  of  ground  Acbeldamacb.''  Many  of  the  old 
travellers  (see  Felix  Fabri,  i,  391)  refer  to  Tophet,  or 
Toph,  as  they  call  it;  but  they  give  no  informadon 
as  to  the  locality.  Every  vestige  of  Tophet,  luma 
only  guess  at  the  spot; 
yet  the  references  of  Scripture  and  the  present  feat- 
ures of  the  locality  enable  us  lo  make  the  gueaa  with 
the  same  tolerable  nearness  as  we  do  in  the  case  of 
Gethsemane  or  Scopus.  For  an  account  of  the  modem 
aspect  of  the  place,  see  Robinson,  StKarcha,  i,  30!  sq. ; 
Kitto,  Phgiical  HiiloTy  of  Palatine,  p.  122  sq.  Sea 
Jebi;SAi.eii. 

Toplady,  AuoDHTUS  Mortaoue,  an  English  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  at  Faraham.  Surrey,  Nov.  4. 1740,  and 
received  his  rudimentary  education  at  Westminster 
.SchooL  It  being  necessary  for  bis  mother  to  vi«t  Ire- 
Und  to  pursue  sonw  claims  lo  an  estate,  he  accompanied 
her  there,  and  waa  entered  at  Trinity  College,  IJublin, 
from  which  be  graduated.  He  received  orders  June  6, 
1 762,  and,  after  some  time,  was  inducted  into  the  living 
of  Brosdhembury,  Devonshire  i  but  on  account  of  his 
health  settled  in  London  in  I  '7b,  where  he  ofBeiated  in 
the  cbapel  of  the  French  Calvinists,  Leicester  Fields. 
He  died  Aug.  II,  1778.  and,  agreeably  to  his  own  re- 
quest, was  buried  in  Tottenham  Court  Chapel.  The 
fame  of  Mr.  Toplady  rests  chiefly  upon  his  controversial 


TOPOGllAPHICAL  TERMS 

writings  ngaiiiac  the  Methodtit*,  and  a  few  hjrmu, 
Agiiiut  Weilejr  he  may  be  uiil  la  have  had  ■  conflnn- 
ed  aniipathr,  and  eTHployeil  ridicule  aa  well  as  argiiment 
in  upiHMJug  hit  opiniDns  and  conduct.  He  publiibed, 
Tie  Doarim  of  A  Uolule  PrrdaliHotion  Slated  and  Ai- 
aertaf  (Und.J769;  N.y,i;-S;  later  editions)  ;-Lttfer 
to  JtW,  /«*■  WaUy  (1770):- Mart  Wort /or  Reu. 
Join  Wtdrs  iy}l%*yay.—Halorie  Proof  of  At  Doc- 
lrinalCalrviumoflhe  Church  of  HiigUaid  (1774,2  yo]ti. 
8vo):—ne  ScUau  of  Ckrittiim  ami  PKiioKiplucal 
Nnxm/g  Auerted  (177&,  8vo),  in  nppoiilion  la  John 
Wesley'!  rnicf  on  that  Bubject:—Co/JFfli"Ro///ynuu/or 
Pidiic  and  Privatt  Won/up  (1776, 1787, 12mu):_Zlj- 
iiig  A  roteal  (I77B),  eti^  He  was  fur  some  yean  editor 
of  Tht  Gotpd  ttagazine.  His  worki  were  published 
after  hia  death  by  hia  executor  (1783,  Svo),  with  an  en- 
brged  Mfaoi,  (18:25,6  vola.  Bto).  One  of  hia  nioM  Ccl- 
ebiated  hymnii  ii — 


III,  IS:  ] 


le  bide  i 


Hiriu 


See  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amtr.  Aaliori,  a,  r,; 
Tyermati,  Life  and  Timet  of  John  Wrthy,  iii,  1B9, 190, 
210;  Belcher,  aiHorkal  Skricha  of  /Ifiimi,  p.  348- 
S50;  Christopher,  I/gmn-Kii-ileri  and  their  ffgnmi,  p. 
16-49. 

TopoBTapbloal  Tanns.  We  have  had  contin- 
ual occaaion  in  this  Cgclopadia  to  point  out  the  gteat 
accuracy  with  which  thise  are  uaeil  in  the  original  lan- 
giiageaof  the  Scripture,  especially  the  Hebrew,  a  11  hough 


490      TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 

(Dan.III,1).-'|ili<DurMHnpDtanili-(Biek,IU.tt,t4:ilU. 
i;  xuTil,  1,1;  prubnbly  the  aamaaa"  plain  otSblsw.' 

t.  IffaWr  piBJ^a),  dome  or  Ubie-land.  qwclOodlr  of 
ttvs  plateau  or  Honii(DenL  111,  10:  Ir.U:  Jo«b.  illl,l,K 
,,  „. .  —  .J,  I  Klnju  II,  lS,Ui  gChron.  nvi.  l»:  J«- 
itl,8,SIJ. 

('Jl'^llil,  *  fiU,  •pwlflcallj  tbs  paatnn  ■  land 
alone  the  MedlleVrineaa  (Jorh.  Hi,  I*  j  Cant,  ti.t:  lu 
iiiiTl,>:  iii>,lilxT,l),parhDpa[halorOllead(IChr(n. 

S.  S/upMOh  (nbsd).  a  lav  enutrf.  apeciacall;  lbs 
marlllms  plain  <"»hl,"  Deal.  1,  T:  Joah.  i.  40:  1  KInci 
I,  IT:  !  Cbnni,  I,  IS:  "Talbey."  Juab.  Ii.  1:  xl.t.  Iti  lii. 
a-.  IV,  IS:  Judi.  I,  »!  Jer.  mil.  Mi  "plain. "  Jar. Iril. 
SB;  Ofcad.  I>:  &ch.»il,I;  "low  plntB^''l  Cbnid.  ar.i. 

'■8ephelii,"irfiict'Kll,J»>.  p  •      ■ 

«.  JMMr  OB""!),  a  aildenum  In  the  aeiiw  of  ■■  opMi 
tract  oT  nnnccupled  coiumnn.  Id  Kcoenil  a  "de?«n*  oi 
"wilderneBa"<Blc>d.  Ill,  1:  v,  B:  ulll. 
Dent  mill,  ID:  ICtarou.  uvl,  Id:  J.>b 
I:  Jar.  ixv,  H.  etc):  tpeclllcnlly  ibai 
mill.  IS,  It,  etc:  "••Hiib,"  Pfo.  In.,  m;  vunKumo 

II  whkb  eilend  Into  Palesilln*  (Osn.  xil,  U:  Juah.  rill. 
IB:  Jadg.  1,19). 
10.  .IroMA  <ri3^7}.  n  d«(rt  as  anch.  eliher  senenltj 

S"wllderne«,"  "d(i»ri,'or"'plBln,"Jol)  ixl*,»i  inli, 
:  laa.  mill,  «i  hit,  1,  O;  il,  I;  ill,  l«:  11,1;  Jcr.il, 
S:  T,e;  ivII.S;  1,1):  II.  U;  AmiM  vl,  U:  Z*cb.  ilv,  I0-, 


innib.Ti.1: 
,B:  laLin. 

Ilnal  iNaaib. 


to  preaent  a  genera] 
details  to  the  reipec 
been  done 


iiiLJer  the  present  head 

eh  wrme,  referring  for 

:iive  ariicips.     Much  hat  already 

lireclion  by  Dean  Stanley  in  Ihe 

oa  Sinai  and  PaleUitie.     Sec  Gt- 


L  TraeU  (Inclndlug  eipeclilly  depraaalons,  levela,  and 

I.  inut  Ip-aS),  a  taUey,  nsed  in  gsneral  (Nnmb.  ilv, 
M:  Joab.viil,i'3:  illl,l»,il;  Jiidg.  I.U,M!  v.  10;  I  Sam. 
Tl,l3[BeIh>hanie>ta]:  «  anm.  irllV,  ia("dale"|:  1  KInva 
XI,  as:  1  CUrun.  ili,  IB;  Jsr.  iil,l3:  ml,W!  ilvlLB: 
ilvin,  S:  iDi.  4:  HIc  1,4):  or  K|>eclacnllr  "viile  of  Std- 
dlm"  (Q«ii.  Ill,  t,  S,  101,  "raller  of  Shaveb"  (ver.  IIJ, 

loli'MJosh.  i.'lS},  ■•  ikllej  i>l 


Isa.  ivll,  ft),  ■■valtov 

tI.W;  Tit.  1.8.  IS;  Hna.1,  ti  pr-ibablyalan  IS 

7 :  I  Chr..n.  i,  I), "  Tallex  of  Keils"(jMb.  ITlll, 

iBy.ifBetb-reholi'Mver.  M)," vatlsi or r  ■-"■■■ 
•  11-  ..i.?H."T«lleyr.tlt«r«ch«b''tllCI 


illejorAJ*- 
1:1.111. 14: 

xvll,  !•:' Jndg: 
Ian  1  Bam.  iixl. 


bnsliipiiat''  <J.«I  III,  ill), 
"  Beth-enek"  (J»ab.  iii.  n 
t.  Oty  (»'»  or  "1),  a  ratti 
naed  nnerally  (Pra.  Hill. 
ll.SS:  Baek.  T'  "  -"  ■- 
mvl,*,Si  M 
Hoob  (Numb. 


XTll, 

ily'TalieyofJe: 

ralley"), 
IIII.4:  Isa.  iiTlll,],!;  il,4:  Jer. 

Z.-chi.  ilv,  4,  6j'.  and  s'pecHlcally'  of 
Deiu.lii,  «l;  (v.4«:llIiT,«).hin- 


2  K\ag^ 

iiill.'3»ijirob.f»ii!iia,'l,fl':  ar«)"Talley-EBle/'»Chroii; 
iitI.S;  Nell.  II,  is.  IB;  111,  lll.Jlphtbah-sl(J.».ll.  Ill,  14, 
tl),  Zebolm  {1  Sam.  illl,  IB;  comp.  Neb.  il.  B4),  Salt  ei 
Sam.  Till,  11;  SKIngixlT.Ii  1  Chnin.iTlM.  Ii;  ICbron. 
IIV,  11;  ri>B.ll.tll^),ZaphnUiah(l<:hraD,  IlT,10),Obar- 
aablm  {I  Chron.  Iv,  U;  ''craft-meu,"  Neb.  il.  Sft),''pa»- 
saagsn"  (Eiefc.  iiili,  ID,  Hamon-gi>iE  (ler.  II,  IC),  Al 
(JoOi,  Till,  1},  near  Ihe  Jordan  <1  K1»eb  II,  10),  Oedur  (I 


4.  MtUutlM  (nVxS)  a  dsll  (Zeeh.  I,  S). 

D.  /tttdA  (HSpa),  a  broad  plain  hetwasn  monnUliis, 
BiedKenornlly  (llant.  Till,  T;  il,  II;  Pm.cIt,  8;  I»a.  ill, 
IS;  lilll,  14;  xl,  4,  "plain"!:  speclflcany  "vallst  of  Jort. 
eho"  {Dent.  hiIt.  B),  "TMllsy  of  Miineh"  (Joeh,  H.S), 
"TKlley  of  Lebanon'  (ver.  II :  ill,  T).  •■Tsllej  of  Medd- 
do"  <S  Chron.  xiiv,  n-.  Zeeh.  ill,  IK,  "iilaln  of  Quo" 
{Nab.  Tl,  *),  ■'  plain  uf  Atbu"  (Am  n  1, 8), "  plain  of  Dai«" 


plains' 


.r  (in 


■  •lt.l« 


,1,3;  lSam.Ixiil,U; 

; ' "  ctaampalEn,''  Dnt. 
'■Belb-anUh,"!!. 
1.1  Ihe  OUr  or-iha 

"    lb  (Numb,  oil,  1: 


utI,  S,<U;  ml,  t«:  mill,  48,48, 

IS:  Uoui.xiili.l.S;  J.wh.iillt.St, .     .    . 

ID:  I  Kind's  iiT,E:  Jer.  mli.ft:  111.  8). 

II.  JttMmdti  Cis^lth),  a  ■>uC^  eltber  t«n»rallj  (tapa- 
daily  of  Ihe  "  wilderii  w"  of  the  wandering,  DeoL  nill. 
lu;  f>ta.liT|[i,T:-'deH!n."Pu.liivlll.  40:  cvl,  1t;ln. 
lllil.  It.  iO:  "  ■iillTarT."  Pmi.  ctII,  <),  nr  tiiecltleallj  lbs 
barren  tract  on  both  sides  of  Ihe  Dead  SeaCJerblnwi,' 
Nnmb.  Ill,  M:  xilll,  K;  ixilll,4i;  1  Sam.  xilli.  1*,M; 

tl.  Klkhlr  C^ZI).  a  einU  (primarily  and  oftaa.  a  am 
or  ton/),  epMlflrs*lly  (A.  V.  always  "  plain")  tht  floor  ^ 
the  Talley  Ihmngb  which  tlis  Jordan  runs  (t  Sam.  Iiill. 
a:  1  Kings  >ll,4«;  »  Chron.  It, IT;  Neb.  III.  K;  liUW. 
or  the  onrislbalfiiTmerlj  existed  lu  (tbe  soniberniiarinfl 
itlOeli.  xiil,lfl,ll.l»:  111,  II, »,»,»:  DenL  mli.  J). 

U»  dlstlncU>e  Itiiin  Ihe  aboTS  ate  iba  lerma  OiIMk 
(ri^^^l),  ttrOa,  nsed  in  Itaa  general  aensa  of  BDniis* 
("  borders,"  Juab,  xlll, »;"  cooMa,"  Joel  111,41,  or  Ibe  wia* 
Inga  otthe  Jordun  ("  horde™,"  Jofh.  nil,  10,  tl ;  "aig«- 
try,"  Eiek.  xItII,  8):  iTom^I  (SIJ^S),  a  part,  empkiTeil 
(beeldaa  Its  uh  ni  a  pmpsr  name)  In  tbe  general  slpifl- 
catlnn  or  swell^nlllvaied  region  ("ft-nlimi  ileld."lsL  i. 
8;  '■  frnUrm  place,"  Jer.  iv,  M;  "  plentiful  Beld."  laa-Hl. 
ID;  Jer.llTill.lB;  "Cannal,'!  Xlng>  Hi,  «3 ;  In.  lur.l, 
I4);SiBiW(rvii9),a™N«(nmfr*eld,""ooniiiry,""laod-); 
SlmlmMh  (nic^lT),  highly  cuUlTnint  tea  C'lleMs''  of 
□omorrab,  Denl-mll.S!;  Kldron,!  Kings  iilll.t;  Jer. 
mi, 40:  Heshhun.  laa.  ivl.  8;  comp.  Hab.  Ill,  IT);  JM 
(^SN).  a  TModdv,  employed  as  Ihe  name  of  a  plan,  and 
usnidly  In  composition;  Hearth  (1^^701,  so  apsn  trad 
(■' meadows"  of  Olbesh,  Jo dg.  xi.  BB:  perhaps  for  71^13. 
a  «H,-  by  others  read  3^7^. /ram  O-  wsMi  CUU* 
inpVn).a  (smooth)  pM  of  groiiud  (often  In  general  as  a 
"  p<iril'ann.  In  conoecilon  with  Saddh  ("  piece,"  ■'  panxl,' 
etc.)  orwlihonl  It  ("field,"  "piecs^"  "plot."  etc.);  Jfa- 
phih  (riDl),  a  Mfht,  only  of  Dor  ("bvrden,"  Jest. 
Il,  S;  ■■ci»wt,"ili,  48;  "region,- 1  King*  It,  11),  or  . W- 

xvll,  IDi'ciUM  I^Sni.  a  dfsIrM  [lit.  at  inea*nmd  by  a 

lion,"'or  "const,"  J'wb.iTll.B,  If;  iti,»,  1»:  Zeph.il.  ^ 
t,  T),  especially  to  An-^ih  ("  region"  or  "conntij,"  Dent 

tl,  KlnaUona  (consldersd  as  tnchi  withont  reftoenB  to 


TOPOGRAPHICAL .  TERMS   491   TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 


■on):  alMlolheHDendtHckboncorhiglilandof  Fklra- 
iliM,nrnWn(Ub,Biihnlm,elc,iDpaTtteD[u(A.V.-'maun- 
taln,"  "manDl,"  "hUl ')'  Ucculoiullj  Ui«  cobhiM  tarm 
mrpHorlinjlB  employed  (nmilly  with  ihe  mrt.),  ea- 
DKlillT  "lUi  reftMBeB  to  tbi  well-kuowo  fmliiencB  of 
Uit  ranw.  -nie  raUDwiiiE  «n  tli«  rirlona  ctcTattoci  to 
■bicb  aar  ir  appllBd:  Abirlni.  Amima  (Cuit.  W,  Bl.  An- 
ni,  BuUta.  BuI-UecnuHi  (Jiidg.  Ill,  Si  aimp.  Joab,  xlll, 
t),  Beibcl,  Beilwr  (Ukiii.  II,  T),  (larmel,  EUiit.  Bmek  (Joab. 
II. 1. 1«),  Bubriio  Uv,  n,  Owub,  lierlilin,  OIIIhm,  Qllud. 
IbUik  (lU  Ilk  Here*  (/ads- 1,  U),  Uaraun.,  Uor,  Hureb, 
JOTlm  iJiiib.  IT,  IB),  Ulivut  <Zwb.  xIt,  4;  IbB  word  1> 
n.l  DKd  111  ■  Smri.  IV,  SO).  Hlur  (Pm.  iIII,  Oh  Uorliib, 
»Eb.>,  PaniD  (DeOL  nUlC,  1),  l>Bnilm  (IiL  iirlll.  vl|, 
Suiirf*  U  Sings  ivt,  S4),  Selr,  Sapb»r  <Oen.  x,  BO),  Bl- 
n>l.  Sloii  (Sliioii  ur  Sb«iilr,  all  inina*  r»r  Hermoii.  Deal. 
Ill,*;  IT.M),  Shnpbcr  (Notnb.  uilll,  tn,Ti>>tur,  Ztlm^n 
Undr  li,  48).  Zemarntm  («  C'hniD.  illl, «),  ZIod.  Than 
tit  >1h)  Um  nuonialDa  itt  ihe  Amnrlie^  i>r  the  AciuJtk- 
IM  IJnila-  ill.  IH  of  Kphnira,  "t  BaHD.  nf  Iirut,  uf  Ju' 
dik,  orNapbUll,  and  of  Baihao  (P«L  lITill,  IB). 

Tba  tollawXas  labordlujala  ternia  are  applied  lo  pan* 
or  biiiDm  oT  mnnuulDa  In  pennulflcatlon  of  tbe  homnu 
fniH :  AW  (aX~i),  *«<'.  iba  top  (Ocu.  vlll,  G  j  Biud.  xli. 
M;  Deal.  izHT.l:  1  Kliiga  xtIILMJ:  Ainitk  (PISTK), 
Mn,  perb.  Mnw  pr,>]eclloD  on  tba  HimDilt  (Joib.  ill.  Ml ; 
fatUf^  (qnS),  the  ikMiUtr,  lh«  liruv  (Deal.  XI1III.II1 
toth.  II.  8, 10'  itKI,  L«)  ;  Tiad  (IX).  the  «da  or  blll-alnpe 
(lSuu.ii!ll,Mil8ain.  itll,  B4)!  KMMA  (n^lpX).  (elw 
or  fiimtn.  I.  e.  baiw  (Juab.  Ill,  11, 18)  ;  IWla  {sVx),  a  H», 
i  t.  apiir  (e  Hatn.  itl,  13) ;  SluUm  (D3'^),  boct,  i!  e.  rear 
|ShKhe<n):  An,mainn^}}).abotr,l.t.'lxail\i,U):  Ytn- 
UA  <ns-i^),  UtirM.  e.  receaoea  (<>t  UoDnt  Ephnilni,  Jndc 
iti.t,rsVotL<baiioi>,SEIn£aili,»i  Ian.  iiit1II,U). 

L  OOiM  instil,  a  hltt  (u  In  the  A.  V.  InTariablf),  Ihe 
Anbic  JeM,  Iba  euniraan  dealgualluD  til  Ina  Imp.irlaul 
or  Indiildaiil  eniKisDeeai  applied  (twldet  lUgeneral  oh) 
U'Ooa  (Ira.  siil.t:  BHk.  xiilv,!*),  and  to  lb*  follow- 
ln>[^  lb.  hill  nf  ibe  A>i»klDi  (Joab.  r,  B),  of  Pblnebaa 
|iilT,m,uril<>reh(JadK.Tll,ILnfll*c)illata(19aai.ixlll, 
l»:  iiVl,I),<ifAniiDabjiliani.ll.«>,oraanb(Jer.iiil 
Sfi:  alan  an  eleiiiBut  ul  tba  pruper  oaoiea  Olbsab,  Geb 
or  Qaba,  and  OlbeoB. 

S.  7»  (bn).  *  Utlact  (tba  Arable  7VU),  Is  a  dlmlnnllT 

illi.ll-.*  Joab.  Vlll, M:  Jer.iii.18;  xUx.S):  oflen  an  ele- 
ment u/  proper  Damw,  an  Tel-Ablb,  Tet-Hanba,  l^l-Ua- 

■rha  l»o  following  are  ralber  approprladnna  ofappella 

elevated  ^ruand ; 

L  fiv*'^  o'  rather  Anp-PitgAh  (for  It  baa  the  art 
m^DIll,  tile  kflg)U  Knmp.  KugL  "tbe  panimll"),  wii 
prulmhlj  the  rained  edn  "t  Ibe  lable-lind  of  Moab  wber 
It  anJdeoIr  bnibe  down  Into  Ibe  decUilly  lownrda  tbe 
I>«dBea(NDin1i.iil,»^  iilli,l4:  Debt.  UI.IT;  ixi 

fi.  ciplKt  ^^i).  a  awelling  mouiid  lao  of  l^mor^ 
will,  a:  1  atn.  V.  C,  ate.),  la  applied  to  Bllalin'i 
dam  near  Jerltbo  O  KiBxa  v,  M),  elHWhere  (wll 
di«Mfaleir«pil"iiori>a.iiill,  14:  Hie.  It, 8)  aud  every- 
where with  ihc  art,,  to  (he  alopIoR  (oOEne  uf  Moant  Ho- 
rlubwiibe  ).>D'b(XUbruii.xiTll,liixilll,  14;  Neb.  Ill, 
M.<I;  xl.IlV 

Tbe  riilliiirlnB,  Kkewlie,  are  lalher  derlgnatlntii  of  por- 


Tbera  icnialn  tba  two  diatlnctira  terms  for  a  MOD* 
nimineiice,  with  Ibeii  couciimltaiita: 
IS.  T»er  (laX),  Cbald.  HUd  Arab.  TW,  a  rock  or  oat- 
«ndlDi  block  of  atone  wbelhei  Bied  or  bonlder.  ot  tre- 
qnent  ocontrence  (A.  V. ■■rock"),  bulb  llteralljr  (Dent. XT, 
&:  t  Kings T.SS.gie.) and HgDratlvely  (Pea.  iiil.l;  lill, 
-  etc),  nod  In  oul;  a  few  ciiMa  nlbrilng  to  [be  belglil  0/ 
le  ruck  (Niimli.  xilll,  I ;  Pwi.  Ixl,  i,  etc.) ;  in  one  cata 
learning  tbe  dlpiilT  of  ■  proper  name.  I'l/rt.  It  l>  >pe- 
ciOcally  applied  in  Bomb  (Bxod.xvll.S).  the  rock  ofOreb 
(Jndg.  tU.  b:  laa.  x,  H|,  and  la  an  alemeiil  of  the  namee 
Ualkatb-bauntim  {t  Sam.  11,  IB),  and  Beib-enr  (Joab.  ii. 

In  connection  witb  n''r  twice  occnra  Ihe  peculiar  term 
XiJcrik  [l-l^p}),  aha<(or"c]eft"(Eiad.  iiilll,Ki  lea. 
Il.«!.         '■■ 

11.  Stia  (rbD),  a  eUfpr  abrnpt  and  eleviled  rock,  eepe- 
clallT  In  peniiinlUcatlou  (Paa.  ivlll.  1 1  xUi, «,  etc.).  and  aa 
-  riDelwIth  nDr(P'a.  iiii.t,  B:  liivlll.  IS.  I«:  Isb. 
...  __.  eici.  In  itie  A.  *".  It  l«  loueely  rendered  "niok." 
*-su)jie,"  etc  iL  Is  apnllrd  jreneraUj  to  Ihe  tpol  In  Ka- 
deab  whence  Uoaea  brunght  forth  water  (NnmC.  xx,  5, 10, 
11;  Neb.  ii,  IG:  Pan.  liivlll,  I«;  comp,  YVBr,  In  Biek. 
ivtl),  10  Ibe  rock)  of  Eiam  (Jiidg.  iv,  S.  II),  RlmmoD  (xx, 
40),  and  3e]a-ham-niah1ekoth  (l^m.  xilli,  >8) ;  nlso  aa  a 
ur,>iwr  name  to  ftrf.a  (with  tbe  art.,  i  KInga  xlv.  T :  » 
Oiroii.  ii>.  12:  and  prob.  Jndg.  I,  S«;  wltbunt  Ibe  ait., 

ill  eiclnalTB  connection  wItb  Sfbi  nra  fuDnd  Ihe  follow- 
lE  descriptive  temu:  Cliatartn  (0^1311),  eAoanu  (Canl.  II, 
U;  Jer.  xlix,  1«:  Obad.  » 1  Sefyh  <q^JO),  a  rbjt  (Jiidg. 
a,  11 ;  laa.  It,  «  i  Ml,  Qi  litektiih  (n'nX),  a  baid 
spot,  aa  tbe  anminlt  of  a  ruck  eipoaed  lo  Ibe  drying  ann 
-  Iv.lB:  Eak.iilT,I,8:  iit1,4.14);  J>-«i* (p">pS), 
IBI1  or  Oaaare  [laa.  vll,lt;  Jer.  iill.4!  itI.  10);  nod 
SMn  (^D),  a  toMk  or  aharp  edge  or  end  of  a  crag  (Job 
iixli,SSi  I  Bam.  xlv,  4,5):  also  aa  ■  proper  name  (tII, 

I.  PLHHiig  (lacladlng  the  Tallej  or  bed  thrangb  which 
II  ciwrHe):  ufttaerelhellrattwoarelbB  muel  general  and 
distlucUrelr  descriptive. 

I.  A'sfedr  C^ril),  a  pereDniatrf«<r(aB  almnsi  alwajrs  ren- 
deted  In  ibe  A.  v.),  ibe  Arah-nnAr;  naed  geiierallr  In  tba 
poetical  liooka  ot  vralercooraea  and  ot  tbe  sea  (Job  xIt, 


jpeciflci'illji  ti>  alime  o 


IS  of  hi 


m  I  he  nil 


«.  JTaoUA  (n^S^\  an  nassnt  or  rise,  naed  (besldei 
ennmna  nwHDliig.Jndi^vlll,  IBIorseveiallocalllle*;  ttaal 
nf  the  BciHplnns  <Nnm^  xxxiv.  4;  Joab.  it.  (.,  Jndg.  L 
M).o<AdDmraini(Josh  iv.T:  ivlil.  ITI.  ofOur  («  KlDea 
li,ni.  of  Zli  t»t:hr,.".  II,  lit>,  of  Lohlth  flsn.  iv.B:  Jer. 
IlTliL  «.  uf  Belbboron  (J.ata.  i.  IS),  of  Olivet  (t  Mace.  Ill, 
1«;  conii-lHam.  iT.3u),aud  Saol't  cltji  [ptutiiblr  Beth- 
MMnI  (I  Snot- ii.  Ul- 

T.  MtrM  (^Hs),  a  iCwMM  or  (all,  applied  (liealdes  Its 
general  ore.  m'ic  1, 4)  to  iba  decllvKT  ofihe  Jordan  rnlley 
(Jiwh.  ill,  B>,  of  Bel  b  boron  (i,  IB;  1  Kacc  III,  M),  oT  Ho- 
mnalia  (lar.  xlHIl,  B),  and  OIlTel  (.arJ^uic.  Lake  xli, 

■n. 


a.  Slitphl  (*Bd),  a  ton  spot  on  a  bill  ("high  place. 
nnmb.  xilll.  b':  laa.  xI1,1(!  iIIx,*;  Jar.  Ill,  I, II :  Iv.ll 
Tll,»:  ill.U:  xlT.fl. 

t.  Artlt  t7»1S),  a^raa^p*™  <"tll«f,"  Job  iii,  «). 

la  ttnttb  O^ttS).  ■  Mu/  or  Inaceeaslble  aieep,  as 
••relh(e"<l  Bam.  1X11,1:  Pea.  XTlll,t:  laa.  iiv,]!,eic.! 
«tDi  tba  art.,  a  |>an1enlar  torlreaa  orKoab  (Jer.  xlrill.  I 

ll.K«fMn.CO'>»?).trii^orronghlaolBled"rock»"(Job  I  Water  (111,  1,  IB),  or 
zxa,  *i  Jet.  I*,  n).    Dance  the  Bfrlac  name  tV]iAiu.  1 1),  an' 


10,  IB,  1' 

'll'l,  1:  ili,6.Y 


Eiod.t 

lir'i'Vl.  1,0: 
«,U:  xllll,  Si 


1, 1,  B;  111,  l&U:  I,  U,  10,  Hi  ixxll,  «,U:  xllll,  S:  JJnn. 
i,4i  Zeph.  Ill,  10).  especially  tbe  Enpliralea  (laa.  vll,  10: 
Jer.lLI^:  Hlc^  1.  If :  Zech.  Il,  loi,  .ir  tbal  In  ^inDeC- 


Tlgrla(Aram-N■har■lm,Oen.XIiT.10;  Dent. 

, ..  .-Jg.Tll.itt  Paa.  li,  llUe:  1  Chnn.  xlx,  O),  bat 

ever  the  Jordan  (uukss,  perhaps,  that  or  the  Dead  Sea 


belnlended  In  Psa.  ItI,  «;  liilr,  IS;  Hab.  Ill,  8,01:  and 
wlib  tbe  art.  It  apeclpcall;  designates  ihe  Enpbratea. 
either  alone  ({^en.  ml,  «:  mil,  IT;  Biod.  xxlll,  11; 
Niirah.  11II.E;  iilv.Si  Juah.xxl»,  a.B,l*,]6:18am.x. 
l«l  1  Kings  It,91,  J4:  xlv,  IG;  1  Chroo.  1,  48;  xix,  1(:  » 
i-hron.  Ii.  M:  Neb.  ll.T.B:  lll.T:  Paa.  lxxll.8;  liii,  lli 
laa.  vlll,  T:  ilJS;  iivlUl:  i1tII1,18:  Hi,  IB;  and  ao  In 
ihephraaein  Ezra,  "beyond  tba  river")  or  with  tbe  name 
lidded  lUei:.  11,14:  iv,  18:  Dent.  I,  T;  il,  «4i  J<Mb.  1,4: 

Ivll'rBrJer.'il>M,a.lO);  while  In  tbe  plural 'H''a^r: 

(pM^lx'xxli,'»!  cmtll,"  Im"iIIt'k;  i*T"»['EiIt 
xxxl,*,lB:  Noh.1,4;  11.01. 

The  following  are  ilie  terms  which.  In  the  Imagery  of 
the  East,  are  applied  10  Ihe  Tarloua  parte  of  a  river; 
rcl<l(T),a"band"ors<if>,elIher  right  ur  left (Nnmb.  Ill), 
W;  Dent.  H.  81;  Jndg.  il.M);  SOpA^  (In^lf),  a''llp"or 
hrink  of  1  rtTSr  or  of  the  sea  ((}en.  xill,  11 :  ill,  8,  IT: 
Bl'<d.ll,l;  vll,lB:  iIt.BO;  Deut.  11,80;  It,48:  Joeb.  xI. 
4:  Iil,li  illl,>,ia;  JudE.Tll,  li,K,  1  Sam.  ilil,  Oi  1 
Klnm  Iv,  tO:  Ix,  «ft:  1  Klnga  11,18;  1  C'hr.m.  vlll,  IT; 
BmLiItII,  4,1,  ItiDiin.  ill.S;  and  ao  of  Ibe  molten  aea 
<>f»ilomou'>1Vniple.l  Klnga  vll,ia,M;  a  Chrou.  It,  l); 
Latkin  (^iti^),  a  "longna"  or  tat  (J,«h.  it,  t.  0:  iviU, 
1»;  laa.  x<,  IS),  (MMk  (nill).  iaatt  ("flhe  Jordan,  Joab. 
111,11;  It,  IB:  1  Chroii,  xll,  IS;  or  of  Ihe  Enpbraies,  laa. 
Tlll.t):  ffoMh  (nXI?),  Ihe  extreme  limit  or  and  (1  Bam. 
xlv.in.  whether  of  ,'  river  (Joab.  it,  B;  xvili,  1»),  of  itas 
lake  (Namb.  xiiIt,  S  ;  Jo-b.  xv, 
r  (Oeii.  ilvll,  11 ;  Sxod.  xill,  tO; 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  TEEMS      492      TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 


Mamb.  nilll.  IT).  ■  moanulD  (Eud.zli,l>;  JMh.xrlll, 
W),  iiiid  a  lowQ  (»er.  IB-,  l  Bam.  xl*,  ») ;  JfooMi-  03^9' 
orXaiardJi<)T1390),  i/)>nt<u  at  lbs  J>in3tia,  Jmb.  11, 
I;  jBdK.  Itl,  IsVi'l.O.Oi  lheJ«bbok,0«n.  iixll,«!  or 
tba  Anion.  1h-  xv\,  1),  sod  »  a  jwu  bstwMii  bllli  {« 
Ulcbmub,  1  Bboi.  xUl,  n:  ilT,  41  U*.  i,  Mi  Jar.  II, 
It). 

1.  Xd-iAal  pnj],  ■  br»i  or  (umn 
Anblc  Badv,  tigul^iig  bolh  tbe  un 


mUi  open  md  rannlnj  '^•,'^"^"7  ^^^b"**^^',?^ 


luwinic  plicca ;  •)im>lr 

N;  lli,  T.1  XXll,  IBj.l 


Of  local  nn: 

byi 

I!an 

ri- 


1M^),  DDce  (Ecclee.  xi 
1  i>rup«flr  a  canal  (p«r 
ird),  apecincally  >  branch  of  Ibe  : 
icid.  vil,l»:  Till,  8:  1  King!  Ill,  ■ 
1.  luvill,  «:  I>a-  vll,  18;  xlK,  t, 
»:  Buk.  iili,  8.4,0.10:  iix,  1 
tba  Nile  lueir  (Ir  --  -'—    "— 


i:  Ills  applied 
.r  (Gen.  xitI, 
,U:  xnll.R), 

Nl.  11, 
Kaiia 
;tI1Ij4 

lam.  XT.'wn 
m.  ixllf,  U;  I 

™1^"kxI».™I 
13),  or  ablUlm 

or  lemponiT 

e  (lo  In  ihe 


|)Iled,  la  Ibe  nalore  of  a  proper 
«ainra  of  anTlDcalLLT)  in  the  Ril- 
lin,  a  tltj  "f  Siraeun  (Joaf  — 


Ain,  a  land- 
's p;i"e«lil«  (Nomb.  xxii.,  11)!  Ilf  (i«  i*Ba,  t.» 
(Joah.  XV,  M-.  coinp.  Ota.  iii-ltl.  14,  Sl)i  U» 
aprlDg  ut  Jeirml  (1  Sam.  iilx,  1).  i>r  Harnd  (Jadg.  ni,  1), 
tbe  draioii  •priiia  (Neb.  II.  IS),  of  Bliur  (fiaii.  itL  T)  :  bIm 
En.d<irrBii-^laiDi,  Bii-gnunim,  Bii->t>dl,  Eu-bnddDb,  En- 
bak-kore,  EO'baior,  Bn-mliilipah.  Eu-rimnum,  En-rocel, 
_      .      ....    „..  . ■■  BDcf ^i.on. 

Oi  Till,  t:  Le<.  xl,H; 

IS:  tUI,  M;  ix>,  «*: 

■■■      -    Joel  111,  18[ 


,"l"SO),  a  /mmWiH  i 


"«p^og^' 


Ph. 


1  King* 


InxTll,  T;   cl*.  W)s   hioce  (topograpblullj)  i 
iraMrad  bj  ijwlDga  ( "  foODtalu,"  lost  "     ' 

iTill,  B:  i  Chrun.  rail,  4;  "well,"  .«».  »."..  wi  - 
SInga  HI.  IS.  IB). 

«.  KoMd  (KXiw,  8  mra  or  upring-head  ("ipring,- 
I  King*  II,  «1  Im.  ill,  IS;  1*111,11:  "w 
Cbmn.  ixill,  SO;  '■  waWr-aprlngt," Pw.  ci 


;  Jer.  II,  U;  Pto.  ■ 


_.„,  ...    ..  ., -ll'l5."lf|l8,«l,21,'il!M;'Tlli; 

8,B.il:  TTII.B:  I.a.  iilll,  B,  10;  Jor.  i  tI,T.  8:  E«k 
«it  8,  (1 :  Amoa  Till.S ;  li,  B :  Z«b.  i,  11),  •ud  In  Daniel 
(ill,  ^  a,  T)  Ibe  river  Ulal,  a  limllar  almvial  iiraam. 

4.  ahicMT  (Tind),  a  "  black"  or  (urMl  itreara.  aa  awol- 
len  or  discolored  b;  Bbowan,  ellber  geiierallj  iIni.  nil!. 
8-  Jer.  11.18)  or  tpeclllcallr  (tbe  Balm,  Josb.  ill,  M :  and 
perbipa  Ihe  Arlab,  xllt,  8  :  1  Cbrou.  ilil,  B). 

B.  PiUv  (SbD),  a  eAonnal,  a  poetical  term  tor  the  dlvlB- 
lone  or  a  ettiam  (Paa.  i1tI,+),  aocb  oa  Ibe  gnlllea  at  Keu- 
beo  (Jadg.  T,  l^  IB),  the  5oMlvl.!,m.  of  an  IrripjlloB 
■  treaiQ  iPsa.  1. 8),  cnolraired  witb  Jubat  (laa.  xii,  is],  or 
wllh  Hiehal  (Job  ".  IT),  or  BTen  tbe  dew  (Paa.  Iit, 


Job  II.  IT),  or  I 
8.  JfiMi  (^3'^),  a  Tivultt  (3  Si 


ITll,  80). 
r.  TWldft  m^SEl),  a  tondnU  or  trench  for  wi 
or  poured  out  fur'lrri^;al1oj,  inch  aa  a  dllcb  (I  King.  ITjjl, 
8i.M.  88),  an  aqnednci  (8  Kln^a  »|'H'.^1J  '^i'jhl?'.^!;, 
(Eiek.  ixxl.'4). 


'Ingdai 


iTlli.MKot  for  i 
la  rainfall  or  lla  elTecta  m 


a.  OMMm  (OtiJl,  a  atoiatr.  I.  e.  anddeD  and  beavj  ral 
as  It  ordlnarllT  falla  In  the  Baat. 

S.  arm  (Btl).  a  aiwm  or  Tiolenl  and  overwhelmln 
raln(a.|{.JnbixlT,ai  Iaa.xxT,4:  nrlll.li  Hab.  111,11] 
eomp.  Mati.  t1I,»I). 

IOl  ^mMI  (531''),  roMl  (93;),  or  (7MI  (b31X  nr  b3!t), 
■  AaAM  or  overflow  or  gtreo'ina  from  rain  hta.  in,  Vi; 
lilv  4  -  Jer.  ITll.  9) :  beuce  tbe  Ulal  llaeir,  aa  liable  to  auch 
iDqndallons  (Dan.  Till. 8, 8. 8). 

11.  iphik  (p^BK),  an  ouOnirtl  or  creTaiM  In  Ibe  bankt 

to"aiij'aiin>a'a'"nti-h'(JobYi.  is;  Pia.'i)lPl:  Cam.  v, 


»;  1 


t.  Tl,  8 :  : 


I :  Joel  I, 


,etc). 


19.  A'otWlbfl),  affwft(ni7,Betea»(jDbiiiTl,«8:  I 
xlT,  S),  brookleta  (Paa.  liivlll,  IS:  Ptot.  t,  IS,  el"  ' 
tba  aea  (Biod.  XV.  81. 

18,  SAibWlal*  (PSaC).  i  fva  alrsam  (P»a.  Uli. 
ba.  iiTil.  IB). 

14.  SOtti  (IDX),  *  rapM  (Nnmb.  ul,  IB ;  Jtuh. 
ill,  8)  -.  In  the  p'lur.  e^peclallv  tbe  Inmbllng  tV 


h.xll. 


'rtoni'"thB  niuii  of  i"lag»h  (Dent.  Ill, 
-     till.  80). 

Cjaii).  a  poetical 


apparently  for  i 
_  1.  lull.  S;  Proi 

ioTM:  Dan-li,'»8:  xl.K;  Nab,  I,  9). 

1«.  JfaMill  {^^39),  a  dfiuffe.  aa  of  the  neeomnTatlon  o 
watora  In  tbe  iky  (Pml  xili.  10).  and  eepedally  Noah' 


B.  Sail*!*  iPiis).  ioflJnjorbobblliiB  'pringa.  need  oaly 
rihoaaglTBubTHleb  toAcbMb  (J"Bb.  II.  I»:  Jndg.l, 
n ;  and  In  tbe  ahorler  rorm  Qal  1^1),  a  Aaop  or  iprlig 
;anl.  It,  IS):  hence  blllnir  uf  tbe  aea  (Pea.  itlli,!;  evl, 
i\  In.  ilTlll,  IS:  Jon.  11,  8,  etc). 

(.  M<Mi6a  (S««l.  a  tuthing  aprlni;  ("aprlng.-ta. 
XTT.T;  llii.lO:  ■'f»nntn1n."Ecclea.ill.C). 

The  following  repreaent  {moallr  arllAcI^  eallecliosa 
r  recepladea  of  water : 

1.  Bttr  (-iIta).ai«li(aaeieriwh»ro!n  theA.T,,ex[«(it 
'ptt"ln  ,"'--- -     - 


«T)dni[ 


Id  f  lei  dim 
:ia1lj  named  (( 


a  parpetnl  PD]h 
•   "0,11. 


iiamee  Beec-Tabal-rol' beisr.9heha.  Beeri'ili-beoe- 
Jukam,  BeiM-uth,  Beer-ellni,  Baiilulh-beer,  BFtuihab,  ail 
berutb iiL    C"Bnaiewlthibl»le 

Sir  (i»3  or  ""3),  a  cWm  (*.V,  ufoallj  "ptfar 
;!1"),  whether  dug  {Dent,  vl,  II;  Kind,  iil,  88;  » 
>n.  iivl,  10)  or  billt  (laa.  iIt.  18 :  Jer.  li,  II).  >■« 
whelher  eniptT  (and  »o  oneu  naed  fr-r  "  dongeoa."  Oea. 
XXXTll.  80;  ill,  14:  Exod.  ill.  80;  1  Sam.  illl,  1(:  1 
~  m.  xiUl.  80:  1  Chron.  il,  88:  Jar.  ixxtII.  It:  xitrUI, 
v:  Zecb.li.ll^  oraaarecepliielBofjprinf  orralnwiler 

Sea.  Til,  IS;  Ira.  xIt,  IS;  Jer.  *l,T[KeIbm:  Euk-xxrl, 
etc^),  S|>ecli1  datema  of  thla  kind  arc  ei<meiio(* 
mBDiloiiad,  Bi  lliej  are  next  In  Imporlnncc  to  Fprlnn  II 
Ibe  Bait;  ibm  in  Bwhii  |1  Sam.  ili.  881,  of  SIrah  aim 

III,  801,  .if  r ...    -...- 

pah  (Jer. 


BrrttAh  (Ha^Bl,  n  pwl  In 


■  run.  ii.  II 
■*)• 
'nily  rendered  la 


Ulbeon  (!  Sam.  11,  1B|.  Ilabro..  (ii,  IS).  Hamarln  (1  KInga 
nil.  »»),  llohlan  (Cant  tII.  *\  and  MTeral  bi  lemf 
lein  e  s  Ibe  miner  (8  Klllin  ITill.  11  :  laa.  tII,  8;  IIITl, 
B).  the  fiwer  (xxll.  01.  or  oCl  (Ter.  II).  the  king'-  {Keli.  II, 
14:  E«le*.  II.  •).  aiiolber  (Neb.  III.  10).  Slloam  (Ter.  U: 


Jubn  li.  T), 

10.  Miktili  |n^p13l 
water  for  Irrtgnilini. 


,r  lari 


laelebt 


'Katherint;  1omther."0en.  ^ 
.  III.  m;  ■' plenty  [of  water],- LaT.  it 
S«;  "dlteh,"lPH.  iil.ll). 

11.  Agi™  in>»l.  a  peai  of  piagiianl  water  (Eiod.  ill. 
18:  Till,  B:  "ntioiiling  wnter."  Pan.  cill,  8S;  oil,  8: 
hence  "  leedV' which  abonuded  Id  each  recepladea.  Jer. 
11,  Bi). 

18.  KmKh  IPHS),  rnU  or  wells  In  botes  doe  tn  water 
abeep  ("eoitaees.^'Zepb.  II.  8):  and  eo  likewisa  JliNl 
(m:0),  apliforlheBameparpo«("iui!t,"**r.  81. 

IB.  Matitabln  (B'3K^B),  rrnuiAa  fur  watrrlng  aalnab 
(JndR.  T,  II:  conip.bBn.ixlT,  IS.  80,44.  »,alc.V 

The  following  are  not  employed  nlib  topoenpklul 

14.  <m  (31)  or  (MM  (tt^K),  a  dir  - '  bb 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS   493   TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 


m,  H 1  Euk.  ilTli,  11) ;  hCDce  Q«blin,  a  pUca  n«ar  J*- 
niilem  (1"-  «.  "D- 

It.  PAekath  (nl^V),  a  AdUoh,  nwd  M  s  trap  ("pll,"  1 
SuLiTll,  «:  xvltl,  11:  In.  iiIt,  II,  18:  Jer.  ilvlii,  <3, 
tt:  "buWTer.  17;  "(DiK,"  Lam.  Ill,  4T^    Akjii   Lu 

la.  SUebUA  (THti)  or  SAtuMk  (nmO),  a  i>KM,  poal- 
jDll/  lued  (Tarlnonrjr  reiidereil  Id  the  A.  V.,  Pa*,  ii,  IBt 
Pfoi.  «vl,SI:  Jer.  Il,«i  itHI.  M,  elt). 

II.  fluButto  lys^l),  ■  deep  helt  at  niDkMi  ilua  (Bcdu. 


mid  Ihslr  connections.    For  Ihete 

llwK  reallT  la  bDl  ooe  Hcb.  tana. 

1,  Yivt  (S*<),  *aa  (aa  alYmji  rendered  la  Ibe  A.  T.  ex- 
cept when  nred  fur  "went"),  Inclodlni;  likei  and  ai- 
paDMi  u(  riieiei  applied  apeclnll;  ui  Ihe  Uedltei 

IwlUi  the  art.,  J.>»h.  «,  <f:  « ■' -"-  "" 

^aiicta.  aa,';irrMt.^'^  '!.?'"'!■.  IT 


!■  «itb  otber 


Djill.iu  U  nni  w'Mt,  OB  lu  Eerpt  [Siod.  1. 1»],  Arabia 
[mil.  Ill  iiiTlil,  lil),  iboRedSca.thatof  Cbliiiierelb, 
Ibe  Dead  Sen  l"BKlt  sen,"  '■•aa  oftba  deaen,"  "eastern 
aea"l;  alen  llike  tbe  Arab.  fioAr)  of  ureat  rlrera,  ai  the 
HUB  iJer.  III.  s:   Nah.  111.  %:   Eiek.  mil,  S),  the  Ea- 

Ctea  (I'a.  utII,  1 ;  Jer.  ll,a«),aiiBll]r  of  Ihe  luver  In  the 
pie  (1  Klugs  IK,  IS  1  1  Ctarun.  itIII,  SI.  Connecled 
■lib  1km  are  ibe  r.>lluwlug; 

X^ub-ilt(  (y^^S),  a  to!/ ("bmchet,"  Jnds.  T,  IT). 

CMjik  Pliri),  a  ifcorf,  or  rather  perhapa  cdh  (eomp, 
"Baira").  aa  a  leiKr  romi  of  Ibe  prscedlni  ("baveii," 
Oen-ilii,  Wi  ■■■lde,''DBOt.  I,  t\  "coaate,"  Joalj,  li,  1; 
-tb.ire,"Jodg.T,n(. 

JfiitAftj innO),  aportor''haTen-(PiB.cTil,  MX 

lyim  (0*M),  ulaniU,  or  the  dlatanl  aborea  of  tbe  Uedl- 
toranean,  which  seemed  aach  to  the  Hebrews  <lBa.  ii,<l: 
mil.  S,  «:  KMk.  UTII.  «i  Jer.  II,  10,  etc.). 

IToHs  of  the  sea  are  rsproenled  (bealdea  Oal,  above) 
bj  Bail  Psn),  )ll«nillr  ("waiB,"  Paa,  iclll,  g)  i  MiMAr 
(n3^Q),  an  everHAsfmfrtfr  (metaphor,  '^ware,'^  E  fiam, 
Illl,S!  Psa.IIII,T:  "bDlow,"  Jon,  11,S);  B<mdh{nii^), 
aUik  pliu,  niaallr  on  land,  bill  put  (Job  Ix,  8)  fLr'a 
ridceoftheaea. 

1.  r<r*AiH  (O^nri),  the  diep,  n  poellcat  word  toi  ocean, 
correspondlDg  (0  our  ^'maln"  (Oen.  vlll.  i;  Jiib  xit)II, 
14:  iu»m,  •,  80;  Prov.  vlll,  SI,  K:  Biek.  mtI,  1»: 
mi,  lb:  Jem.  II.  •:  Hab.  III.  11:  ftillj -'tbe  ereat  deep," 
Oen.  itl.  11;  Pa^  uol,  Ti  laa.  II,  10,  Amcia  vii.  I): 
non  rarely  anjr  other  xrwt  maaa  of  walen  <ag  those 
Rnerlng  tbe  earth  at  Creatine,  Oen.  I,  1 ;  Pda.clT,!:  or 
Iha  tnbterranean  waters,  Oen.  illi,  W;  Dent,  iixlll,  IS: 
aba  Oooda,  Job  ill,  SI :  Paa.  iDI,  I ;  Eaek.  ml,  4).  la 
■he  plnral  (pS'Onn)  It  dealcnalea  either  the  anrges  iitthe 
a*t  (Biod.  xIt,  ^S;  Pta.  mill,  T:  IiiyII.  IS;  liivlll, 
Ui  ctI.  R:  ProT.  Ill,  tO:  *lll,  i*;  l<a.  Lxlll,  IS),  or  IM 
,„  .    .....  ».     .     — i^iii  j),   ■-      " 


I  of  the  c 


b{liif,M),«««i"PPljofai 


<Daat.  till,  Ti. 

TtteM  are  snch  fentanB  as  ubrlnnslT  aOMt  the  char- 
acter or  (be  coonlry  for  pnrpoaes  ol  ocinpatloo,  bol  not, 
Uhe  Ibe  foresoloE,  of  a  petmaieiillT  eveullal  natora, 

L  /nCwiiardncTDdlnit  nalnral  cavlLlea  and  En'ttoe). 

I.  IMnM  (ri^^p>,  a  OK  ("bole,"  Isa.  i1,  Ift;  "den," 
mil,  14 ;  Jsr.  •)>.  tl),  Arab.  Mtjliarah:  used  aa  a  proper 

oTInoilltj:  nfAdnllsmd'sum,  xill.  liiSam.  iiltl."tS), 
Xakkadah  <Jo>b.  T,  IS.  etc).  Eiigedl  [1  Sam.  xilv,  t), 
Obadlab  (I  Klan  xiil),  4>,  Zuar  (lien,  ill,  M),  Mach- 
pelah,  Borah  (1  Slugs  ill,  »). 

1  Chbr  pin  ot  nh)  aud  CA'r  pTI),  a  (lots  It)  the 
•anil  or  nnk 
Qor-1in;^dEiid. 

t.  jr«*IU<U<n^n^),  a^Asnire  or  cavern  (Isa.  11,  IR). 

4.  JTMWdk  <mnia),  a  kurrew  or  bldlng-place  (Jndfl. 
At). 

II.  avBjIclainnclndlDgobtscte ofaalarel growth, encb 
■a  ci>Da[dcnoaa  and  endnrlng  vegetatlOD). 

1.  r<lar  (^^,  B  M—t  or  dease  growth  of  trees,  but 
ocaiBlmallTaiblek«toDl]r(1sa.ixl,lS).  lathe  hlatorical 
bonka  II  Is  Ibe  nsnal  name  lijr  iha  wooded  Iraele  of  pal- 
•etlH.whetbBreiiat  or  west  of  iha  Jnrdaii ;  namelv,  Ibe 
'■B>n>t  M  Harelh-'  {1  Sam,  xi"  m  ■'">.  fortet  of  Lsba- 
noo"  (I  Klin  ni,  I :  I,  II,  •■  V».  "  Ihe 

iraad  or  ^iliralin''  9  «ir  'i  Joeb. 


ZTlI,  1{L  18:  1  Bam.  ilv,  U,  M:  1  BInga  !1,  U).  In  the 
poetical  parta  of  Scrlptnre  it  often  nccnra,  and  la  Irana- 
lalod  "  K)test"  (bni  "wood"  In  Deot.  Hi,  0  i  1  Cbn.ii,  x.l, 
SS:  Psa.  IIXT,  IS:  Imlli.  14r  icvi,  11;  cxiilll,  S; 
Bccles.  11,  «;  Cant.  II,  9;  Isa.  vll,  t;  Eiek.  nlv,  W. 
MIc.  vll,  14),  It  forme  »h  element  ..f  tbe  names  Klrjatb- 
»rlm  and  Monul  Jearfm  iJoah.  iv,  lO).  In  two  luia- 
ttea  (1  aam,  iIt.  ST:  Cant,  v,  1)  the  word  la  applied  to 
a  kou^i-amili,  which  Is  Ibe  frequent  prodncl  of  fureati. 

1,  OArati  (dnhj,  a  umd,  I.  e,  a  thick  growth  of  veg«- 
Utlon,  whether  In  a  tingle  tree  or  in  a  copae;  Ibna  la 
Buk.iixl,  Sit  le  Died  Tor  tbe  thick  foliage  ("sbroud") 
of  tbe  cedar;  alaewhere  fur  a  limited  piece  of  wooda 
("foreal*,"  t  Cbmn,  iivll,  4:  "bongh,"  Isa.  xvif,  >i 
"wood  ofZiph,"!  Sum.  nlll,  IS,  IS,  iC  It). 

I.  PartUt  (Sn'^Q),  a  Peralao  word  for  a  |Mirt  or  planta- 
tion of  timber  ("rorest,"  Neh.  II.  S)  or  ftnlt-trees  <" or- 
chard," Bccles,  II,  S ;  Cant  1>,  IS>. 

4.  Ittt  {yf),  H  trn  In  the  widest  sense,  whether  an  lodi- 
fldnsl  one  (Oen.  ),  as;  11,  IS;  DenL  ill,  i;  Joeb.  x.  IS 
(ciimp,  Acisi.BS);  Isa,  Til,  t,  etc)  or  "wood"  aa  lie  prod- 
net  (Bind,  vll,  W:  Lev.  li,  SE;  1  Bam.  tI,  14,  etc.); 
hence  "limber"  (I  KInga  v  0,  etc),  or  a  jdece  rs'ldt," 
Nnmb,  IV,  n ;  l  Kings  ivli,  ID) ;  somellmea  as  wrongbt 
[■'stiiir"  of  a  ipear.  f  Sam.  vll,  1;  "handle"  of  an  aie. 

The  miial  Important  oreenonilljnsednaniea  of  parHco. 
lar  species  iifireeeare  the  fnl1..wlug,  which  dn  not alwara 
seem  to  be  Dsed  eiacll/  or  dlBtliiclTvely : 

B.  M  III  some  of  Its  varlona  fgrma  (all  from  biSt,  hi»,  or 
SSX,  to  be  Uiong),  which,  according  to  Oeaenlns,  are  nsed 
IhiiS!  Esl  mar  I*  ellher  aa  i«t  or  a  Uribinth;  wher« 
A  lOn  Is  opposed  bi  El/ih  (ss  In  Isa.  t1,  IS ;  Hub.  It,  IB). 
Ihe  rr>iiner  la  tbe  ook,  Ihe  latter  the  iBrebiolh;  on  the 
other  baud,  all  the  words  appear  to  be  Inlercbangeable.for 
the  aame  tree  irhlch  la  AUin  (Jcfh.  ill,  SS)  le  alao  iMn 
(Jiidg.  It,  hi  while  ibnt  which  la  Slbn  ("  plain,"  ii,  B)  la 
flkewlae  Blih  (Gen,  xixv,  4)  and  A  IMh  (Juab,  ixiv,  it). 
The  f  .llowlug  are  the  several  terms  and  their  nppllca- 

Byl  (b«»).  In  the  elng.,  occnri  ontr  Id  the  comblnaUon 
El-parao  (Oen.  ilv,  4) ;  lu  the  masc.  pltir.  Bj/tlm  (C^^K 
or  Dii»  of  a  collection  of  tnes  ("onka,"  lea,  i, »'; 
"trees,"  lil,  B;  Eiek,  ml,  U),  and  tbe  proper  name 
Ellm  (from  Ihe  sevenljr  palma  there.  Bxod.  xv,  »I;  xvl,  1 ; 
Mnmb.  mill,  »,  IB).  Tbe  fern.  plur.  Kj,IOih  (Plb^)  or 
SyiAlh  (rb-"i(i,  as  a  proper  name  Elolh  or  Blatb,  pr.iba- 
b)y  refer*  to  the  palm-RroTB  at  Akabah  (Dent.  II,  S:  1 
Klngalx.**:  3  Kings  ilv,  M;  xvl,  fl;  S  Chron.  till,  II; 
iivl.S). 

BMh  (nsX),  deatgnaled  s  notable  tree,  perhaps  lb« 
terebinth  ("  oak,"  Qen.  mr,  4;  Isa.  I,  SO;  Eaek.  vl,  1!; 
"elms,"Hos.lv,  18:  "toll-lr*e,"l6a.  vl,  ISj  with  (he  art., 
Jnritt.  vl,  H.ISi  «  Sam.  xilil,  »,  11^14: 1  KInra  1111.14! 
"Kfth,"18am.xvll,i,lS;xil.»X  «•        •      . 

JT^Un  0^^'K),  a  slmiUir  notable  tree,  perhaps  tbe  oak 
{■■plaln-of  Mureh,  Oen.  xil,  Si  Dem,  xl,  SO;  of  Uamra, 
Oe...  nil,  19;  ilv.  IS:  ivill,  1 ;  of  Zaaualm,  Judg.  Iv,  II ; 
of  the  pillar.  Ii.  S;  of  Mouuenlm.  Ter.  81:  of  Tabor,  1 
s™.  X.  t),  and  also  stands  aa  a  proper  name,  KIou  (Joab. 

nan  {'}>''»),  a  great  tree  (Dau.  iv,  10,  II,  14,  »,  IS,  M). 
Jli'dft(n^9),an>arkedtree|"oilt,"JoBh.xilv,tt),asa 
pro]!.  nsme'AIIAb-mi^leh  ("the  king's  onk,-  ili.  W). 
AlOn  (Vi6<],  the  same  ("oak,"  Oen.  iii,  8 ;  Isa.  xIlT, 
lecllnii  withEMA.Ii 


I;  ofBi 


a,  il,  IS 


"  LU,  ■,..„«„, ,..uM..,,„u.*iiv'6)  .iiid'Altun- 

uanalm  (Jodi-.  Iv,  11),  ur  simply  Allou  (Joeh.  ili,  SS). 

S.  Hihil  (iCtJ).  pr.>b.  the  lamamk  ("  tree,"  I  Sam.  ixil, 
C;  mi, IS;  •■Kruve,"OBn.  1x1.8). 

I.  AilurM  in^VK),  randBred  In  tbe  A.  V.  "grove,"  was 
so  IdolatronaitsBfffor  pillar  of  Aalarle  (Jndg.  vl,  »B-«I), 
whlch,onHecniiiiiiifltBhelshI.wnaplnuiedlnthBgroanJ, 
DeuLivLtl;  aa  nl  Simiiirlu,  1  Klnus  ivi.Rl.:^:  S  Klugi 
X,  10;  nil.  IS:  ot  Bethel,  iilil.  IB;  at  Ophrah.  Judg,  vl, 
ttl;  and  even  at  Jerasalem,S  Kings  III. 'ai;. Illi.  fljbi 
In  the  plnr,  O^-^OK,  Baal's  tij^fi,  I  Kings  iIt,  U,  etc.); 
and  hence  Ihe  godde«a  herself  (iv,  18.  eic). 

Among  other  species  of  trees  thnt  srem  tn  have  given 
Damea  tii  lucalillec  we  ineiitiiin  AfmtnAn.  the  inimeuraii- 
aie;  L'i,tbealm.iud;  niniar,  Ihe  palm:  ShilUh  (In  <he 
plnr.  fihfrilniljthe  acacia :  l^buth  (or  I.lbnah),  Ihe  white 

Mil,  HnmniiUrwTturuilnclndi'iisie'-ldeiicesord'i^enceal, 
whether  cullectire  or  indlvldaal,  pnbllc  or  private. 

1.  It  (^•'S)  or  At  pJ),  n  rifj/  (as  atwa^s  rendered  In  Ihe 
A.  V,,  except  "I0WD,''lii  Deal.  I11,S;  kSam.  xvl,  4;  xxlli, 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS   494   TOPOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 


1;  ixril.bi  R*lh.lx,>:  Jcr.xlx.lt;  "  cuarl,"  in  t  King* 
ir.41,il«li[DiiIi»*ri>rtlfled  place (z,tSi  xvi\,»:  xtltLS; 
I  C'bnin.  jV.  B,  aK.),  inch  u  a«raatl«n,  Dunirii,  Jericho. 
<[C.e>i«iiilljiin]ledclU*i(aeD.ziill,ia,  18i  zkiIt.W, 
li;  Jii.^.vllt,n,  i,4iJndg.  1(1,1,1 1  Roth  III,  II T I  Sam. 
iitll,1ilKIuinlMBixilT,10:lChr<>D.ili,«tSCbniD. 
vin.  S,  etc).  Id  ci>iitra9t  irlih  mlien  (Lei.  iit,  tt>,  SI ;  1 
S»in.  tI,  IS) :  liDl  Id  <Hie  uue  (Deal.  111.  B)  ire  taan  "  dm- 


I,  13,  n)  or  Ar-Moi 

IV.  1). 
».  «*iT«U(m-Jp|.« 


(Numlk  ixl,  t9i  nil.  Ml  IH. 
««,  KpparanllT  Iba  uclent  {hCDCa 


_..ji.ll,M!  ill.l:  1  Kings  1,41.4a: . 

W,  10,  lit,  1>,  to,  to,  1«,  «ll  word  r.ir  ■  cKy  (NaiDb.  xil,  «S ; 
I^w.  Ixvlll.l:  lu.ixv.D.opeclallrln  Lhe  pmper  iiBmee 
Klijaib,  KlijRUHlm,  KliJHlR-arlM,  Kldnlh-hiii'ith,  Klr- 
Jam-lenrlm,  KlriaUi-ariin,  KHiith.biiJ,  KlrliiUi«eplier, 
kiiJHth-unnab,  Kerlolh.  and  Kartell. 

1.  PtrcadH  fnj^a,  oulj  wUh  the  plor,  PariSth,  piTHB, 
anil  the  cnDecIln  Ptmin,  ^Mig,  or  Arul,  '■THD).  an 
unvnlM  town  or  opeD  vlllBn  'i/  coiirideralile  fUte  and 
cliurocter  (Usui.  Ill,  6:  1  Ssm.  tI,  IS:  E»Ih.  Ii,  It:  Eiek. 
iiivlii  11;  Zech.  11,4;  hoi  "litlaEn"  In  Jade,  r,  T.  II: 
Hull.  III.  14,  nieaiiA  chlift),  aud  In  the  daalgiuiaoD  ut  the 
Per1ulief,orlnhAbltanla<jr(ipeii  Tll1iii[<a. 

4.  Sati*>lrpfI),iikan>Mar«iia11c->llecll«norb(nae* 
("yIIIiX)^,"  1  Bnm.  tI,  18:  1  Cbron.  xiili,  Ki  Cam.  ril, 
II),  iKciinchlellTlD  combiDBtlon  aaapmper  iinme:  Che- 
lihar-hn- Am  menial  (jMh.  inltl,  14),  CbephlnU  (Ix.  IT),  Ca- 
phar-iaba  (1  Mace  tII,  SI),  CspeTniam,  and  dibdj  TbI- 
mndlc  plicea  (Cnphar),  like  the  Arab.  JT^fr. 

5.  CItaltSr  psn),  a  vlUagi  (llierallj  an  endoaara),  orlg- 
IdbIIj  a  "  conn"  ur  vestibule  In*  of  Iha  TiheniacK  Ei„d. 
iitII,9  etc.;  i>r  Temple,  I  Klun  tI.M;  1  KIiie*  izl.GT; 
of  a  pBlacr,  xi,  4;  Eaih.  I,  6:  Jet.  xxxd,  t«;  cnnip.  M: 
priion,  Neh.  III.  SSi  Jer.  nil.  (.etc.:  or  even  of  h  cnm- 
mon  hODH,  t  Siim.  ivIU  IS),  bat  Cap<>KrBphlcnllj  deaJEUat- 
Ing  a  pernauent  Bcdawlii  eucampmeDt  of  lenl-clolhe 
•pread  uier  stnue  Italia  (Oeii.  xxt.lti  li>*.  illl,  11).  inch 
as  ihe  Baierim  diralt  in  (Deal.  II,  tS).  It  appaan  ei>|>e- 
eliilljr  In  the  pnuer  nnmea  Brnemth.  Uniur-^ddar.  Haiar- 
enan,Haiar-EBddah,llaur-hBt-lla>n,Hauir-abnal,IlHOi)^ 
vn'nh  <nr-aii>lml,au(l  (In  n  *I1gbU]rchaii|,'ed  tinm,C)iaMr, 
11311),  Haior. 

a.  Cliandh  (mn),  in  the  pinr.  (CAae^It,  tvn),  a  leut- 

precclln^.  sa  uul  belui  fBminiided  hj  onr  defence 
r'l<)w:i.-^Nlinib.iiih,  4l:  Jiwb.  lill.BO:  1  Klnga  Iv.ia; 
IChnin,  il,  M;  "Hiivuth,"  Dent.  111.  M;  Jodg.  Iv.  HI. 


Akel  |^nN),Dr"tent."   For  all  ibeae  Ibe  g< 

ftiviU  <r«73).  a  Aoiug  (as  almnat  aloajs  rendered  In 

tliin  (verj  genersllr  la  tmUt  [trnin  n^]  uf  auhatou 
.li^rlaK  bnt  tKCuiouallj  a  rrslle^  alrDctnR,  Oeii.  i 


xvlll,  a 


ISam. 


,1;  Jab 


m  appear*  n-nm  the 
•I  the  letter  called  from  It,  3,  which  repreaenis  the 
lidea  ufa  hoDsa.  the  utherb«in|i  left  open  Tut  a  dnor- 
The  mnln  eleineiil  ul  the  drmer  and  mnst  endar- 
Iheae  erectlom  1«  duumed  bj  the  »iird  Kh-  O^p, 
te  oilb  KtTjah  aboTS).  n  mil  (asnfa  hunee.  Kheibt 
.ir  or  inieriiir  ' "    ■  " 


a  liince 


I  a  ibe  dist 

tbla  last  la  CAondA,  nSiri:  tee  Joah.  II, 
oecnr  together),  which 
Kir  (hnth  In  M.uib,  Itn 

T,  11:  J<ir.  ilvMI,  91,SC;  andlDAieTi 
■■  -;:  Amifll.r-  '-  " 


ce  the  aide  at  an  nlur.  Lev, 
e,Nnnil        


aOnlltw,  all  dennilng  Mmglli  of  dafbDce  Ibm  Bant]),  i 
term  i>r  later  Hebrew  (tor  the  acrupnil*  BdhilnlDg  the  THn- 

fh9,Neh.l1,8;  tILIi  or  tbe  Temple  Itseir,  I  Chrun.iili, 
,  1»)  c)r  Chaldale  UM  (Ibe  Perrtan  "- "  ° ■  - 

Neb.  1,1;  B«h.l,liil,a    "' 


ai  vill.^;  I 


U:  Iia.  ziT,  t:  Jer.  rvil,  tl:  Amoa  1,4;  II,  1,  etc.). 

10.  nrdA(m'^).aBedawlnfiai(b(Oen.iiT,l(;  ttsBli. 
izil.lO;  "paince.-Kiak.  iiT,*). 

11.  Mauar  nXSO),  a.ftTtre«,  comrannlf  ued  with  h 
("reac»dcilT."Niimb.iiill.n,M:  Josh. i, SO:  xli.X: 
I  Sam.  tI,  18:  3  Kings  111,  1«:  i,  1:  itII,  »:  xilll,  8:  1 
Chnin.  XTil,  1«):  gndi  as  Tjre  Moth,  xli,  »:  i  Btm. 
iilv,  I),  rnqneiii  In  tbe  poetical  Ixiolcs  ('■  fiHtreai,"  nr 
"dfl/enced  c!it."  Pta.  Iiilx,  40i  Ita.  ivll,  3:  Jar.  1,8: 
Nsh.  111.  It,  tie.),  as  well  aa  In  the  hlatoriral  ('■nrnni- 
bold,"  Nanb.  lill.  18:  1  Klnce  till.  11).  Uignate  ia  Bit- 
tsr«n  ("alro.ighi.1d."  Zoch.  ix.  It). 

11.  MaMr  nlTO)  or  MUmirih  (rmXO),  ■  /bri  (A  V. 

Chron.  H,  lOlor'nltb/i-  ((lii.  It':  xl,  B, 'in.ll.9t:  iilL4: 
ilv.a).  ID  denote  Ibe  fortlOed  losusorJudab  and  Benja- 
min, once  (Zech.  Ii,  a)  T^re :  andieapecinlljin  thep-iell. 

w«^k-,■'or"r..n,"ileuLn.l».K^:IIrili.^«t^.x»llJ 
Mah.  Ill,  14, air.).  A>  a  proper  nnme  (1  Klne*  ilx,  M:  In. 
xxxvll,  »i  xil,  ■)  Maior  seems  la  deoule  Bgrpl  |Xia- 

The  remaining  terms  are  rnther  dealgiiBtlona  nf  lain- 
porar;  and  DBInral  ptulMllou  thsb  artlBclal  and  aeilkd 


18.  Mail  fl^fO),  » tInmffluM,  mth  as  a  "rock"(Jodt. 
tI,  M),  elsewbera  pocticsllj  as  In  altrlbntlve  for  miUtarjl 
atrtngth  t'*fi>rf,"  "Ibrtress,"  "atronehold."  "atrenfih," 
Psa.iiTll,  1 :  sDCb  a*  Tjra,  Isa.  xilllT4, 11, 14:  or  B^pl, 

14.  Mail  (1i;^)  or  MvaOl,  (TK^^V),  a  secnre  dwfbiv 
Bfa«,as  orjeboTab  (at  Sblloh.i  Sam.  II.  n.ai:  st  Jere- 
aalem,  r>a.zirl,B:  lirlil.S:  Ixxvl,  I):  and  t.i  aden  (ofa 
lliiQ,J<.bxuvllt,4n:  Psa.clT,K:  CaDt.1v,8:  Nab  II,  II, 
It:  Amnsii1,4:orotbwbBB*t,Ji>bxiiTil,S:  Jar.  11,11: 
i,«l  xllx.SS:  11,  ti). 

IB.  JVrls^  <1X^)  or  JfstnddA  (n^X^),  a  lair  {tten 
Ihe  Idea  i>r  h.intlngh  prop,  of  wild  beaila  and  hence  nF 
birds  (Job  XX1I1.W:  Jer.  xlrlll,  41 :  Kiek.  itII,  Ml :  he- 


.Ileal  books  ('      ..  

. jiieetlua  with  £H(>  and  n'r;  and  liipa. 

iphlcalljr  aiiplled  to  the  hill  forte  of  JndB*  ("boM,'*! 


■defe 


§am.iili,4,B:xilv,t9:  ti 

»ll,8.ie;  '•fort,"Kiek.iiilli,ST:  "*lnmghoW,"Jiid«,?l. 

i;  1  Sam.  iilll,14,lll.S«>,e>1i«lallT:aoD  ("hold," tSsa. 
MT:  1  Chrun.  il,  18:  "fort."  t  Sam.  v,t:  "cotl*,- 1 
Chron.il.O,  I;  " iiirongholil."  asani.  v. I). 

18.  an  (T^b)  or  HuUdA  (nsD).  a  baoik  or  caniipr  "f 
leaf;  bonghB.  aa  a  habltalloo  foreman  .*■  beaal  ("bomli," 
Let.  »ili.  4t,  4a:  Heh.  riil.  14,  IS,  18,  IT :  Job  uH,  «; 
Jon.lT.S:  "i>nvllli>.I,''Psi<.IiIi,«):  '-oKtagc,"  Iaa.i.8i 
"Itberi.nclc,^'  lv,8).>Dch  a*  Jacob  conr inicled  (Oen,  ill. 
Ilk  and  the  Itraelller  occnpled  dnrlug  llie  Ftwlral  uf 
"  Tnbemaclef"  (Lev.  iiill,4a.ln  commemnntlnn  nf  Ihtir 
drtt  sliippliig.place  out  of  Egrpt,  "aDtnitb,"  Bind.  ilH, 
»>).  and  hence  applied  to  the  retreat  of  tbe  11,hi  ("drn,'' 
Pm.i  t:  "covert."  Joliuiilll.  40:  Jer.nv.K),  andla 
Jemtilein.  Jeboiab'r  retreat  (Psa.  lixvl,  tl.  to  military 
ienis("ient."t  8sni.il.il:  "psvilion  ■' 1  Kings  n.  11, 
"*'        ' "    tbecloods  ("  laliemacle,"  Job  nivl,  H;  "p^- 


;Ti{on/ 


■111,11). 


MIMr  (nni^p),  a  BHTt  or  biding-plua  (A.  T. 
"t^ret"  place,  etc),  once  (Isa.  Iv.  8,  "covert")  UliUr 
(nlFlsni.  M  >  rhelier  from  tbe  elemrnta  (lea.  Iv.  4),  or 


Kinx 


;;i' 


IKlug 


llryMl  l^3''ni.  n  potott  or  large  edillce  for  rajaU]' 
(Prov.  XII,  tii:  laa.ixili,!;  Dan.  1,  4,  etc.),  espMlallr 
the  temiile  of  Jehovah  ni  JernuilamjlKlnEt  iilv,  IS:  1 
Cbroii.  111.  IT:  JfM.eS:  Hag.  11.18:  Zecb.  tl.  14,1B:  else- 
where dlatlngnlrbed  l>j  the  ei^tbet  "  ho1>,"  or  deitoled  by 
"Lord's  hon»e");  and  so  of  the  tabernacle  prevl,i.i*lj  (I 
Sam. !,»:  lii.B:  Pia.  v,8:  poet Icnl If  Ibr  the  heavens,  il. 
4,  etc),  apeciacall;  for  tbe  holy  place  (I  Kit 


VaU 


with  tbia  wbole  suhjecl,  we  may  add 

that  we  have  had  frequent  illustrations,  in  tbe  iptnen 
with  which  |!eograpliical  natnea  are  given  in  Ibe  Bibl& 
of  that  nice  aeiiw  of  locality  which  a  simple  pwpte 
cajiecially  one  of  nomadic  inatincta.  invariably  eibibiri. 
Indeed,  the  whole  Hebrew  lanRnam  ia  an  exemplilM- 
tion,  particularly  in  the  varied  import  of  the  niailr 
lyiionomDiia  mota,  which  nnfnnunately  iba  Jeai(«» 
eetierally  fail  accuratelv  to  diBline.iiBli,  uf  the  clow  ob- 
8.  SfrdAtn^^S),  Bcffad(I(Dwordofwideetfmo]Dglcal  |  aerruiGe  of  all  phyiicil  tntil*.    In  liV'  —  -•  -^ 


TOR 


496     TORGAU,  CONVENTION  OF 


MTiptioiu  of  Incilitr,  which,  lo  B  Tnodem  OcddenUl, 
often  w«in  vague  uicl  euuil,  are  genenlly  found,  when 
cuffullf  Kiiiiiicd,to  be  lemukably  preciu  and  graphic, 
■  fact  which  later  traveUere  an  beginning  [o  ippred- 
■u.  Insiince*  of  Ihit  abound  in  tbt  dooms-day  book 
of  J«hiu,  and  many  of  them  w*  hare  pointed  out  un- 
dtr  Lhe  art.  Tkibc.  A  qneitioa  of  much  practical  im- 
porunee  ha*  arisen  respecting  (be  liats  of  towna  id  the 
rarinuj  Iritwa  ^ven  in  that  bodi,  whether  they  are  ar- 
ranged in  geographical  order.  The  premmption,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  minute  cbaracler  of  the  delineation,  «vi- 
deoliy  copied  from  gome  memorandum  of  Hirrej,  ia  in 
ttror  of  auch  accuracy,  and  [bis  ia  conflmed  l^-  'b« 
(Kt  now  well  recogniaed  by  cummenlatora,  that  the 
lilt  of  nations  mentioned  in  Acts  ii,  9-11  proceeds  reg- 
ulatlT  rrom  the  East  to  the  West.  Lieut.  Conder,  in 
hn  papers  in  the  Qaar.  Repuiii  of  the  "  Pal.  Exi^or. 
Fund,"  bases  many  of  hia  proposed  identifications  of 
places  on  this  theory,  which  ha  elaborately  defenda. 
We  are  inclined,  however,  to  doubt  its  Iruatwaithiness 
tor  that  purpoM,  *■  the  Oriental  mind  is  not  so  uni- 
formly methodical  at  this  riew  implies;  and  we  hare 
Ibnnri  very  frequent  reaaon  to  depart  fram  such  a  rule 
in  the  imiicatians  of  identification  that  we  have  pointed 
eit  under  the  rarioua  places  named. 

Tor.    Sea  TuBruc 

Torah  (fully  AfofibeA  Sfyier  TorSh,  IDS  n:Oa 
n^n),  or  TrtaUt  of  lie  Lav,  is  a  Tslmudie  tfesliae 
totilsining  enactments  as  lo  the  msnner  in  which,  and 
the  materia]  on  which,  the  law  is  lo  be  written.  The 
Hre  chapters  of  which  this  treatise  conuat  are  full  of 
information,  especially  the  flrst  and  fourth  i  the  TiinneT 
omiaining  aome  notice*  concerning  the  Sept.,  the  latter 
banr.i;  on  the  sacted  texL  As  tu  the  Sept.,  see,  under 
■hat  bead.  Taiamiic  A'titica  amarnBig  Iht  SrptiiaginI,  m 
thb  Cfrl.^.  The  fourth  chapter  gives  the  passages  in 
whkh  the  word  DTlbst  denotes  the  Deity  or  has  a  dif- 
fenotrignlOcation.  ThesedilTeTencesarealaonottcedia 
correct  edition*  of  the  Hebrew  lent  by  the  worda  tnp 
and  bin,  L  e.  holy  or  profane,  thus  enabling  tbe  atadent 
at  owe  to  discern  whether  Q^nbx  should  be  translated 
God  or  fodt,  arjadga,  etc  This  treatise  hu  been  ed- 
ited, with  ail  others,  by  Klrchheim  (Frsnkfort-on-the- 
U^n,  l&St),  under  tbe  title  map  mrSCS  r3S 
ri^ifflll^;  also  with  the  Latin  title,  Stpltm  Libri 
Tabuidid  Parti  l/itromlfnulaiii  fuoj  nmc  prinuim  sr- 
narhsi  KS.  e   BiUivllMa  ClaHuimi  Cai-moHi  vtidil, 

etc    (ar.) 

Totch  la  the  occasional  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
^0^,  Li/^id  (Zech.  xll,  6),  which  usually  aignifiea 
(and  la  translated)  a  Jos^,-  and  so  Ao^iTiic  (John  xvlli, 
aV  In  Nah.  ii,  3  [  Heb  4 1  It  represents  n^b^.pe&rfrU, 
which  rather  signifies  Iron.    See  Stiei.    The  dbtinc- 


Hodem  Orisnisi  Torches; 


.  FerMSD ;  1.  A 


lion  in  the  East  between  a  torch  and  a  lantern  (q.  v.)  la 
nut  very  marked,  aa  both  are  often  but  torms  of  fitm- 
beauB.  See  Lamp.  A  flaming  torch  is  sometimes 
{[uoted  by  the  prophets  as  the  ■^'mbul  of  great  anget 
and  destructiou  (Zech.  xii,  6).  So  also  Isaish  (vit,  4) 
compares  Beiin,  king  of  Syria,  and  tbe  king  of  Israel, 
two  bitter  enemies  to  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  to  "two 
tails  of  smoking  firebrandB."    See  Firebraki). 

Tordasillaa,  UoaEs,  a  Jewish  writer  who  flour- 
ished in  lars  at  Avila,  in  Spain,  is  the  author  of  ^T9 
n]1^Kn,inwhich  he  critically  examines  135  passsges  of 
the  Old  Test,  regsided  by  the  Christians  as  Messianic. 
Thiawoik  originated  through  a  controveny  which  he  had 
had  with  a  Jewish  convert  at  Avila;  and,  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  congregation*  of  Avila  and  Toledo,  he  collected 
all  the  material,  which  he  laid  ilown  in  hit  n^'QX  flS, 
forming  the  second  part  of  a  work  bearing  the  general 
title  -^Tin  b,  the  first  part  of  it  being  entitled  "^IS 
nin.  See  FUral,  BiU.  Jud.  iii,  436;  De'  Bosu,  Dkio- 
Borio  Slorico  (Germ,  traiisl.),  p.  817  sq.,  and  SOIiolL 
Jud.  A  afiotrM.  p.  26.     (R  P.) 

Torgmu.  CosvBMTio!!  OF.  Among  the  German  Re- 
formers there  was  considerable  difference  of  opinion  on 
various  subjects,  which  opinions  were  advanced  and  sup- 
ported with  great  warmth.  All  good  men  friendly  to 
the  new  Church  were  desirous  of  a  termination  of  so 
many  bitter  contests,  because  It  was  manifett  that  the 
papists  turned  them  to  their  own  advantage.  After  an 
unsuccessful  endeavor  to  bring  about  a  settlement  of 
these  controversies  by  a  conference  at  AllenLurg,  it 
was  thought  best  that  a  formula  or  book  should  be 
drawn  up  by  wise  and  moderate  theologiana,  in  which 
these  controversies  should  be  examined  and  decided. 
James  AndreB,  a  theologun  of  Tubingen,  was  appoint- 
ed la  this  work  In  i6I>9.  This  business  was  bsatened 
bj  the  conduct  of  Kaspar  Peucer,  son-in-law  of  Uelanc- 
thon,  who,  with  olbera,  endeavored  in  1670  to  aliolish 
throughout  Saionj  the  doctrine  of  Luther  retpeciing 
the  Lord's  supper,  and  introduce  instead  that  of  Cal- 
vin. In  1571  tbej  explicitly  declared  their  dissent  from 
Luther  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  supper  and  the 
person  of  Christ;  and,  the  belter  to  accomplish  their 
wishes,  they  Introduced  into  the  schools  a  catechism 
drswn  up  by  Pezel,  and  favorable  to  the  doctrine  of 
Calvin.     Accordingly  the  eli 


yle.1 


n  1B74, 


Calviniats, 
as  iney  were  generally  called,  he  treated  them  iriih  se- 
verity, imprisoning  some  and  banishing  others.  After 
various  consul tni ions,  James  AiidreS  especially,  in  a 
convention  of  many  dii-ines  assembled  at  Torgau,  by 
order  of  A□g^Btu^drew  up  the  treatise  designed  to  bring 
peace  to  the  Reformed  Church, and  which  received  the 
name  of  the  Book  of  Torgau.     This  book,  after  bring 


TORIBIO  4 

exarDioed  ind  amended  by  muiy  theologUiu,  ith  iRiin 
■ubmitled  lo  ceruiii  select  dirinen  usembled  *t  Get- 
miny,  and  reaulUd  ia  tbe  famout  Fomula  of  Concord 
(q.i-.).  HeeXotbeini, Enltnutiiail  fluloiy,V,'ia,lSl  an- 
Torlblo,  Alfonso  HoHanovEJO,  Sl.,a  Spanieh  prel- 
Ue.  wu  bom  al  Hayorga  in  1638,  and  Hudied  at  Valla- 
doLid. giving  him >e1f  meanwhile  to  the  moat  aiutere  Ibrm 
or  reliKioui  lire.  Ftddi  thig  he  was  called,  in  l67o,  to 
the  Cullege  of  San  Salvador.  In  1680  he  was  made 
arcbbisbup  of  lima ;  he  waa  mniecrated  at  Seville,  and 
immediately  departed  Tor  Peru.     He  entered  Lima  May 


He  I 


angelirt 


id  did 


la  power  to  elevate  tbe  Indians,  who  became 
much  attached  to  hioi.  His  liberality  wu  great,  and 
crowds  of  poor  people  would  wait  at  liia  door  for  alms. 
His  knowledge  of  the  language  rendered  access  to  Che 
people  easy,  and  hii  labors  were  incwsiut.  But  the 
fatigue  of  hii  long  Jnumejs  and  the  warm  climate 
pruved  fatal,  and  Toribio  di«l  dnriog  bia  third  episco- 
pal tour,  March  23. 1606.  He  was  beatified  by  Clement 
XI  ill  1879,  and  canonized  in  1736.  See  Prescott,  Con- 
qiiatn/Ptru,lv,a;  Pine]o,Vida  de  Dm  Toribio,  Arxo- 
bitpo  de  Lima  (Madrid,  1668).— Hoefer,  Noue.  Bio;;.  Gi- 

Tor'mall  (Heb.  Tormah',  n^'^n,  dtctU;  Sept.  tv 
itpti^y  V.  I.  fitrd  fupuv;  Vulg.  duni)  iiccurs  only  in 
the  margin  of  Judg.  ii,  SI,  as  the  alternative  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  which  in  the  test  is  given  as 
"priifiij-."  By  a  few  commentaton  it  has  been  conject- 
ured that  the  word  was  originally  the  same  with  Ani- 
Duh  (q.  T.)  in  ver.  4l,one  or  tbe  other  having  been  cor- 
rupted by  tbe  copyists.  This  appears  to  have  been  first 
started  by  Kimchi.  It  is  adopted  by  Junius  and  Tre- 
mellina;  but  there  IS  Utile  to  be  said  either  for  or  against  I 
it,  and  it  will  probably  always  remaia  a  mere  conjeci 

ToTtneotOT  (^noawor^c,  Halt,  xviii,  S4)  iignifle 

aaviXi^.  which  in  its  passive  rarm  meant  to  be  tosaed 
aa  by  the  waves  of  Ibe  sea.  Torture,  Judicially  applied, 
must  be  distinguished  IVom  punishment,  however  cruel 
and  barbarous  it  may  be;  whether  it  be  capital,  as  im- 
palement or  crucifixion;  or  secondary,  as  the  putting- 
out  of  tbe  eyes,  or  any  other  kind  of  mutilaiion.  For 
torture  wu  not  intended  to  act  rstally,  nor  was  it,  when 
BO  denominated,  intlicted  aso  part  of  a  J  uriicial  sentence. 
Sec  ToBTtfnE.  It  wss  usually  employed  lo  extort  con- 
fession or  evidence,  as  when  Claudius  Lysias,  the  chief 
captain,  commanded  Paul  to  bo  brought  into  the  castle 
and  "examined  by  scourging"  (Acta  xxii,  24).  In  the 
text  first  cited  it  is  used  as  the  means  of  obtaining  pay- 
ment of  a  debt.  The  "tormentors"  there  referred  lo  are 
the  jailers,  who  were  allowed  to  scourge  and  torture 
the  poor  debtors  in  tbdt  care,  In  nriler  to  get  money 
from  them  for  the  grasping  credilon,  or  else  to  excite 
tbe  compawiun  of  friends  and  obtain  the  amount  of 
the  debt  friim  them.  In  early  tiroes  of  R.>me  there 
were  certain  legal  tortures,  in  the  shapt^,  at  least,  of  a 
chain  weighing  fifteen  pounds,  and  a  pittance  of  food 
barely  sufficient  to  sustain  life  (see  Arnold,  Uul.  nf 
Hoint,  I,  ISC),  which  the  creditor  was  allowed  to  apply 
to  the  debtor  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  him  to  rernis; 
and,  no  doubt,  they  olien  did  not  stop  here.  The  inci- 
dent was  one  with  which  the  hearers  of  our  Lord'a  par- 
ables were,  no  doubt,  familiar,  and  its  introduction  here 
shows  how  savafte  and  tyrannical  was  the  spirit  of 
the  age.  It  is  no  small  mark  of  the  mild  and  equi- 
table spirit  of  the  legislation  of  Moaes  that  it  did  not 
recofrnire  the  use  of  torture  in  judicial  trials.  See 
CoBPOBAL  Infuctions.  Fot  the  "torment"  or  fjon- 
ponitm  of  2  Mace  vi,  19,  28,  see  Exbcvtion;  Puhibh. 


16  TORRENTIUS 

Torqaenutda  (Lbl  Turrtarpiala),  Jnan  de,  a 
celebrated  Spanish  Dominican,  was  boin  at  Vsllidolid 
in  1388.  He  became  a  friar  in  1403 ;  accompanied  bit 
superior  to  the  Council  ofConstance  in  1417;  griduilnl 
from  the  University  of  Paris  in  1424 ;  Uught  tbcnlogy 
there;  was  admitted  doctor  of  the  Surboune  in  UH; 
and  was  successively  chosen  prior  of  Ibe  Dominican  con- 
vents ofValladoUd  and  Toledo.  In  1431  be  was  tml 
by  pope  Engeuius  IV  to  the  Council  of  Basle,  where  be 
strenuously  supported  the  court  of  Rome,  and  contrib- 
uted to  the  condemnation  of  tbe  doctrines  of  WycliSi 
andHuss.  He  attended,  in  1439,  the  Council  of  Floreocs 
as  papal  commiasary,  and  was  foremost  in  drawing  uf 
the  "  articles  of  reunion"  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  and  received  from  the  pope  the  title  of 'de- 
fciuler  of  the  faith."  He  was  created  cardinsi  Dh.  18^ 
1439;  and  in  the  year  fullowing  attended,  in  the  pnpe't 
luime,  the  Council  of  Bourgrs,  where  he  kept  the  Firndi 
prelates  on  Ibe  side  of  the  pope.  He  became  biibop 
ofPalestrinam  t46e,and<jfSalHnainI4e4.  His  death 
took  place  at  Bome,  .Sept.  26,1468.  His  principal  <cDrb 
are,  MtdUaliotia  Joaimit  dt  Tantcrtmala,  etc  (Rnme, 
14a7,ruL;  Augsburg,  1472,  M.;  and  many  later  edition)): 
— Quaitionet  Spirttuatid  Cnnqirn  Dtlidtu  Frafiralti 
niper  ffranfffiw  (Rome,  1477,  (bL;  Nuremburg,  1478)! 
—CommaUani  ia  Dtatlum  Graliani  (Lvons,  1519,  6 
vols.foL;  Venice,l678i  Rome,IT26).  Many  olbtrof 
his  writings  remain  unpublished.  See  Uoefer,  A'wk. 
ning.  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Torqnemada,  Tomaa  d«,  the  Gist  inquiutgc 
general  of  Spain, was  horn  in  1420,and  was  a  tDonkoTlht 
OrJerof  St,  Dominic  at  Torquemada,^in,  and  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  Santa  Crax  at  Segovia.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  inquintor-geMTit  in 
14SBi  and  confirmed  in  that  post  Oct.  17  of  that  year 
by  pnpeInnocentVlll,who  gave  him  the  title  of  "mn- 
feasor  of  sovereigns."  In  the  couise  of  sixteen  years  be 
gave  to  the  Hames  no  less  than  eight  thousand  eight 
hundred  victims,  beudes  executing  nearly  as  many  in 
effigy,  condemning  ninety  thousand  to  perpetual  impris- 
onment and  other  severe  punishmenls,  and  cipeliing 
from  Spain  above  eight  hundred  thousand  Jews,  la 
his  later  years  his  authority  was  curtailed  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  four  colleagues  by  onler  of  pope  AleisB- 
der  Vt.  He  died  at  Avila,  SepU  16.  H98,  See  Hoefet, 
Nout.  Bieg.  GiniTate,  a.  v. 

ToiTO,  Lkuo  DELT.A,  professjT  in  the  Rabbinic  Col- 
lege at  Padua,  was  bom  in  the  year  1804.  Whensix- 
leen  yearn  of  age  he  was  teacher  in  Turin,  and  ia 
laifi  he  was  appointed  preacher  there.  When,  in  1B27, 
the  Rabbinical  school  was  opened  at  Padua,  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  its  prorenora.     He  died  July  9,  1^ 


n  German,  Italtai 


French 


a  roiolit 


,Sprcdiio, 

SeiKllicil  dtUe  Conjagiavmi  Ebraidit  fromdo  I 
ifctf /I  nalojiu,  etc.  (Padua,  1828)  :—C>B9«f  Wso™  jrtfi 
>H  Padora,  con  Aanoliaiam  (ibid.  IBai) -.—DtUa  Sod- 
alila  dfUii  Ltgpe  Hotfiica  (ibid.  lSae):—Dtlla  CmA 
lione  dtgli  t'brti  totto  t  Imptrio  Gtrmonieo  wt  ifidia 
Ero  (iWd.  1S42) :— Biinr  b,  I  Salm  VolgariaaU  «i 
Teilo  Maoortlico,  rrl  lUailrali  con  A  rgommti  e  .Volt  (Vi 
enno,  1846);— ni3:<  ^p-^S,  Stntmt  dei  Pudn.  yaetii 
Tradiaimit,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Padua,  1 862).  See  FUisl,  Mi 
./ud.iii,43o  sq.;  iUyxTiiag.BiUiodirtjiidiKlitrKa»- 
iitrtiiaer,  in  HomUtliicha  u.  tilcrariidiei  BaUall  ta 
the  second  voL  (Berlin,  1S7!),  p.  58;  Servi,  in  Eduta- 
ton  UradUieo,3tAj  15,1872.     (R  P.) 

ToirantlBS  (ron  ier  Bttai),  LxviTica,  a  Fleio- 
ish  Roman  Catholic  divine,  waa  bom  at  Ghent  in 
162a.  Educated  fint  at  Louvain,  he  went  thrnce  lo 
Bologna,  in  order  to  study  civil  law  and  antiquities. 
There  he  so  distinguished  himself  by  bis  skill  in  po- 
lite lileraiurp,  especially  poetry,  that  he  became  known 
to  the  literati  of  Europe.  He  took  holy  onlera,  and 
was  at  length  raised  to  tbe  br'  werpi 


TOBREY  41 

Hcnc*  be  wsa  iTimlated  to  the  metropolitwi  church 
of  Mechlin,  where  he  died,  in  1696.  Torrenliui 
ItKiDded  I  college  of  Jeauils  at  Louvain,  to  which 
be  left  hii  libiu]',  coina,  etc.  Besides  Lalin  Poena 
(Antwerp,  ISM;  printed  b»  Plan  tin),  he  wrote  Cam- 
«  SattoBiia  (Ifi93}  and  l/eixut  (1G08, 


l.«). 

Torrey,  Joaepb,  DJ}.,  a  Caagregailuial  divine, 
■•«  bom  at  Rowley,  Maaa.,  Feb.  2, 1797 ;  and  Eradualed 
■I  llantnouih  CoU^  in  181S.  After  auidjnng  theol- 
•gv  at  ADdover,  he  became  in  1819  paator  of  a  Coiigie- 
gaiiooal  Church  at  Koyalton,  Vt.  In  1827  he  accepted 
the  piDfessonhip  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  University 
ofrennont,  which  position  be  retained  until  1842,wlieD 
he  wa*  cbosen  profeasor  of  intellectual  and  moral  phi- 
loeophy.  Thii.cbair  he  occupied  until  his  death,  at 
Boilington.Vt.,  Not.  2G,  1867.  He  waa  president  of  ibe 
Bnirersity  from  1863  to  1866.  Mr.  Turtey  was  the  iii- 
tbor  of  a  posthumous  volume  of  i.<c(iirei.' — A  Theornof 
.4r(  (1876):— editor  of  ibr  Semaitii  of  I'raidaU  Jaina 
Mank  Cl»^'):—SfUcl  Semunu  o/  Prtti(laU  Worthing- 
Um  Smith  (1861);  to  both  of  whicb  he  preaxed  care- 
Fully  prr  pared  il/mun'ri :— and  tranalaior  of  Neander'a 
Gaieral  Hiilory  of  ike  Chriiiian  Retigim  and  Chiirtk 
(Boston,  18M,  5  vols,).  See  Allibone,  Dic(.  of  Bril.  and 
A  ivr.  A  ulAort,  a.  v. 

Torrey,  Reaben,  a  Congregational  minister, 
waa  bom  at  Weymouth,  Mass.,  April  3, 1789,  and 
was  a  graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the  chus  of 
IBIS.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  I8I7  by  the 
Khode  [aland  Congregational  Conaocia^on,  and, 
while  pursuing  his  theological  studies,  preached 
more  or  less  in  different  places.  He  was  ordained 
in  May,  18-JO,  and  became  pulor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Eastford,  Conn.,  where  he  remain- 
ed for  twenty  years  (1820-40).  On  r«i|tningi  *"> 
acted  as  a  supply  of  the  pulpit  of  the  Church  in 
North  MansGeldi  Conn.,  for  two  vears  (1S4I-4S), 
and  for  the  next  Ave  years  (l84i<-48)  waa  pastor 
of  iheChurch  in  Prot>pect,Conn.  Subsequently  he  J 
waa  pastor  for  seven  or  eight  years  of  tlie  Church  ; 
in  North  Madison,  Conn.,  and  in  18A2  removed  to 
Elmwood,  a  pan  of  Providence,  K.  1.,  to  ulie  charge 
o(a  Church  newly  formed  in  that  section  of  the  city. 
His  pastorate  viih  this  Church  continued  for  eight 
years  ( 1862-60).  The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
spent  in    Providence,  where   he  died,  SepL  22,   1870. 

(J.  as.) 

TonlBiBno,  Pibtro,  *  celebrated  Italian  sculptoi 
wu  bom  at  (lonnc*  about  1472.  He  studied  the  a]i 
tiquiiiea  ia  the  gardens  of  Lorenio  the  Msgnilicent  i 
companv  with  Michael  Angelo;  but,  becoming  jealuu 
of  the  growing  distiiiclinn  of  the  Islter,  he  assanlle 
him  so  violently  that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Florenci 
He  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  employed  by  pope 
Alexander  VI;  but  he  afterwards  gave  up  bis  profes- 
aion,  and  became  a  soldier  under  the  duke  of  Valentino, 
and  also  under  Titelli  and  Ben  de'  Medici.  He  again 
returned  to  his  profesainn,  and,  executing  several  bronze 
figures  for  anine  Florentine  merchants,  accompanied 
tbem  to  England.  He  was  employed  by  Henry  VIII  in 
ereciint;  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
which  was  completed  in  1619,  and,  it  is  supposed,  tlie 
tDtDbofMargaret,counte«sofRichmond,  in  Henry  VIl'i 
ChapeL  He  left  England  finally  in  1619,  and  visiter 
Spain,  where  be  executed  several  pieces  of  sculpture  for 
convents,  etc.,  and,  amnng  others,  a  group  of  the  I'trjBt 
tad  lafiitU.  Th  is  was  so  beautiful  that  the  duke  de  Ar- 
etm  cooiinissioned  him  to  make  a  copy  of  it,  ptumbing 
liberal  payment.  Disappointed  in  receiring  a  large 
quanti^  of  copper  coin,  amounting  to  only  ttiirty  duc- 
ats, he  aeiaed  a  mallet  and  shivered  the  work  into  s 
thousand  pieces.  The  duke  accused  him  to  the  Inquisi- 
lioo  as  a  aacrilegioas  heretic  fur  destroying  a  tigure 
eflhe  Holy  Virgin.  Torrigiano  was  condemueii,  but 
avoided  the  ignominious  end  which  awaited  him  by 


>7  TORTOISE 

starring  bimseir.  He  died  in  1622.  fyet  Spoaatr.Biofi 
Dict.ofFimAra,t.v. 

Tortoise  (3X,  liSb,  so  called,  according  to  Gese- 
nius,  from  aoviHg  tloalg;  Sept.  i  tpoKoitAos  6  xtp- 
iraisc ;  Vulg.  crocodUBij  occurs  only  in  Lev.  xl,  29  as 
the  name  of  some  unclean  animal.  Bochart  (//wroz.ii, 
463)  with  much  reason  refers  Ibe  Heb.  term  to  the  kin- 
dred Arabic  diutb,"t,  large  hind  of  liiard,' which,  from 
the  description  of  it  as  given  by  Uamir,  appears  to  be 
the  Piamvwiauna  jctucua,  or  Moiafor  ttirrtlru  of 
Cuvier  {Rigae  Amm.  ii,  26).  This  lizard  is  the  tcnran 
d-lturd  of  the  Arabs,  i.  e.  the  land-waran  {V.vamu 
nTtnariaty,  in  contradistinction  from  the  trtiran  ei-bakr, 
i.  e.  the  water-lizard  [JUenilor  NUaticui).  It  ia  cimmon 
enough  in  the  desens  of  Palestine  and  North  Africa. 
It  ia  probably  the  tpOKoiiiXot  ^tpontoc  of  Herodotua 
(iv,  192)  and  Dioscortdea  (ii,  71),  or  perhaps  their 

land-monitor  {Piammoiaumi  icincai)  ia  a  lizard  three 
or  four  feet  in  length,  which,  living  in  the  sandy  and 
rocky  wastes,  aubsists  on  the  beetles  and  other  small 
animala  that  are  found  in  such  arid  aitaaliona.  It  ia  of 
■  yellowish  or  dusky  tint,  with  tlarker  green  spots  and 
bands,  and  with  yellow  claws.  Tristram,  however, 
thinks  the  animal  in  question  is  the  "  Uromailix  tpi- 
ngxi,  a  large  species  of  lizard  very  common  in  the  deo- 


UromtM^  gpiniptM^ 
pnd  sands  orifonh  Africa  and  Arabia, 
known  in  the  Judtean  witdemesa,  living 


t  ita  aaaailant.     Ita  cc 
nkward  gait,  lu 


ead  from  side  to  side 
as  it  walks.  It  rarely  bites,  but 
when  it  does  so  nothing  will  induce  it  to  relinquish  its 
);rasp.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  beetles,  but  will  atlack  larger 
animala,  even  chickens,  when  in  confinemenL  It  ia 
eaten  by  the  Arabs"  (.Va'.  Iliil.  of  Ike  Uibie,  p.  266). 
See  Lizard. 

The  same  Hebrew  word  SX,  liib,  is  trantlaud  "cov- 
ered [wagons]"  in  Numb,  vii,  3,  and  the  same  idea 
Mems  to  be  prominent  ui  Isa.  Ixvi,  20,  where  our  trans- 
laton  have  rendered  it  "litters."  According  to  Uese- 
nius,  it  means  in  both  these  passagra  a  sedan  or  palan- 
quin (so  called  from  being  gently  borne).    Sec  LiTTttn. 

Several  kinds  of  tortoise  inhabit  Paleaiinc  and  the 
surrounding  regions.  Among  the  land -tortoises  the 
bordered  tortoise  (TVrtudo  fBarjrinodi),  pri>l»bly  tho 
YfXwi'i)  Xifioara  of  Ariatolle— a  little  species  closely  re. 
sembling  the  common  T.  Ci'czcu— replaces  this  Istter  in 
F.gypt  and  the  coast  of  Barbary;  and  a  near  ally,  T. 
Miiuriltmiai,  extends  throughout  North  Africa  and 
Western  Asia,  from  Algiers  to  the  Caspian.    Beside* 


TORTOSA,  COUNCIL  OF         498 


TOSAPHOTH 


lhM«,  Kvetal 
oubloaine 


»  (£my.. 


It  Capita). 


Bibte  Animi 


ter»  of  (bow  regions,  and  «re  puticulir- 
to  hnrvn  wBilinj;  or  drinking  (we  Wood, 
p.  507  »q,).  See  ZooLOOi. 
TortoBa,Couscii.or(Ciiiii?i/i'ioiiOfrtH«m«).  Thi" 
lUDcil  wu  held  in  Tortosa,  R  Mthednl  city  ofOMlo- 
li,  Spain,  in  1429,  by  Peter,  cardinal  de  Foix.  AU  the 
relaies  and  many  eccleUBitiu  of  the  kjngdoini  of  Ar- 
jini  anil  Valencia,  and  of  the  ptineipality  of  Calalo. 
Ia,altended.  The  liing'aleltcn-palent  cnnllnning  the 
lierties  and  immuniliH  oTlha  Church  were  read,  and 
t  the  end  of  the  Tourth  sesuon  twenty  canons  ireie  ap- 
ruved  and  publiaheit. 
4.  Urdeis  ttiiit  sIL  lieneBcad  clerki  and  ecclotlaatlca 


■.rniepartofth 
llflua  fn  ardsr  t 


within  elt!htdn;a  after  thslrblrlh,  in  nrdeilbal  [bey  D 

IS.  Fiirblds  the  deleialei  of  the  holj  lee  to  ao  beyi 
IhelrcoiDiniwIoii. 
See  Manai,^onci'^  lii,  WS^Landon,  Stanual  ofCouit- 

Tortnre  (I^t.  toiyatrr,  lo  twial)  is  pain  inflicted  a 


terealwi 


dbylo 


:e  been  deemed  mure 
valuable  than  tbat  of  freemen.  Any  one  might  g 
up  hia  alare  to  lorliire,  or  demand  that  of  hia  oppoui 
and  a  refuul  tn  do  »  waa  conaidered  aa  a  Mrong  pre- 
*iimption  againat  a  penon.  No  free  At(  ' 
examined  by  torture,  and  it  waa  not  inflicted  upon  Ro- 
man freemen  or  citiiena  until  the  time  of  the  empemrs. 
Then  it  waa  Kimetime*  inflicted  upon  even  freemen  to 
extract  evidence  of  the  crime  of  laia  nuijalat,  and  thus 
it  became  a  part  oftheCkHlEof  Juatinian.  Hence  it  was 
adopted  during  the  Uiddle  Agea  by  all  European  Uatea 
in  which  the  Roman  law  waa  made  the  baaia  of  legia- 
lalion.  It  waa  adopted  early  and  extensively  by  ' 
Italian  municipalitiea.  In  (iermany  elaborate  acini 
lua  fur  ita  infliction  existed,  not  merely  in  the 
of  Ihefeodal  castles,  but  in  the  vaults  beneath  tne  town- 
halls  of  Nuremberg  and  Ratiabnn,  where  the  various 
implcnicnla  used  are  yet  tn  be  seeiu  It  continued  lo 
lie  practiceil  in  the  priaoiis  of  Uermanv  until  they  were 
vi^lie^l  by  Howard,  in  IT70.  It  ceased  to  be  a  part  uf 
the  Judicial  eyslem  in  France  in  1789;  and  in  Scotland 
it  wag  still  in  frequent  uae  after  llie  Restoration,  and 
was  only  alwliahed  br  7  Anne,  c.2l,  aec  6.  In  Bunia 
it  was  done  away  with  in  1801.     In  the  United  Stalea 


The  first  instuice  we  have  of  ita  uae 

n  England  ia  in 

i3IO,  in  aid  of  the  ecclesiastical  law,  d 

ring  the  strug. 

gap,- and  using  up 

gle  between  popo  Clement  V  and  the 

remptara.     Ed- 

had  left.    Out  of 

ward  II,  when  requeated  to  aanctioo  the  inBicti^n  of 
torture  by  the  inquiaitois  in  the  caae  of  eetuin  Tem. 
plan  accused  uf  hereay  anil  apustasy,  at  fltu  refused, 
but,  on  ■  remanstraoce  by  Clement,  he  referred  the  mat- 
ter to  the  council,  and  on  the  recommendation  of  tha 
council  the  inquisitora  were  auihorized  to  put  the  ao- 
cuseil  Co  torture,  but  without  mutilation  or  terioua  in- 
jury to  the  penon  or  eflusion  nt  bluod.  During  the 
Tudor  period,  the  council  aaumir]  the  power  of  direct- 
ing torture- warrants  to  the  litutenanta  of  the  Tows 
and  Dtber  i^cera  against  state-priaunen  and  occaaion- 
allralso  agunat  pervona  accuaed  of  other  aerioos  criiaet 
Under  James  I  and  Charles  I  torture  was  less  renned 
to,  and  onlv  in  state-trials.  It  waa  inflicted  for  the  IsM 
time  in  Mav,  1640.  The  worst  application  of  tortui* 
was  found  in  the  hands  of  the  Inquiaition.  In  1!8} 
pope  Innocent  IV  called  on  the  aecidar  powers  to  put  to 
the  torture  persona  accused  of  heruy  in  order  loeitrKl 
conf^iona  against  themselves  and  others.  The  nens- 
sity  of  secrecv  in  the  proceedings  led  to  its  extensive 
adoption,  and  to  leflnementa  of  cruelly  in  ita  use  befiot 
unknown.    See  lH«ti 


TlH 


Is  of  to 


ebeen  m 


las  the  usual  inatrument  of  torture 
Romana,  who  also  made  use  of  the  r7«ifJr«^ 
pright  rack,  with  pincers  added  to  tear  the 


n  the  aouth  of  Eumpe  as  early  as  tt 


ledukc 


of  Exeter,  constable  of  the  Towc 
the  tifoiite  French  instrument  of  torture.  In  this 
rings  of  iron  were  passed  around  the  legs,  and  wooden 
wedges  driven  between  them  and  the  fleata  until  the 
muBclea  were  reduced  to  jelly.  Among  oilier  means 
of  torture  were  the  "  thumb-screw ;"  "  iron  gauntlets  ;* 
the  "little  ease,"*  narrow  cell  in  which  the  prisonet 
was  confined  for  several  days,  and  in  which  the  ooly 
porition  possible  was  one  which  cramped  every  muscle: 
the  "scavenger's  (properly  Skevingion's )  daughter,' 
the  invention  of  Sir  William  SkevingtOD,  an  inatniineot 
which  cam presaed  the  body  so  aa  to  start  the  blood  fma 
the  nostrils  and  often  from  the  bands.  The  torture  by 
water,  crucifixion,  the  faatening  of  limbs  to  tires  whicll 
were  forced  into  proximity  to  each  other  and  then  sot- 
fered  toflyapBrt,and  pouring  melted  lead  into  the  ear% 
are  a  few  of  the  means  by  which  punishment  has  been 
inflicted. 

See  Banium,  AmmiRtini  at  U  U  (index);  Jardine, 
Oh  tkt  Vt  of  ToTiare  n  the  Crimiiat  Late  ofEtigUni 
(Lond.  1S89,  8vo);  Maclaiirin,  Ittiiaductioit  lo  CWnuul 
Triali;  Nicolas,  8i  la  Torturt  tU  un  Moyrn  Sir  i 
rir\fitr  Itt  Criiurt  Stcrtti  (1681,  ISmo) ;  Reitemaicr, 
Sur  la  QaalioH  da  Itt  Grra  tt  Iti  Smmaiiu:  Mitlcr- 
maier,  Dot  dtutidit  StrafrtrfahrtH,  vol.  L     See  Toa- 

Torwood HzCOmmnnicatlOD.  Aftertheskir- 
miah  at  Airsmoas  and  the  execution  of  Cameron.  Cargill, 
during  a  fleld-preaching  at  Torwood,  near  Stirling,  pub- 
licly excommunicated  (he  king,  the  duke  of  Voik,  the 
duke  of  Uonmouth,  the  duke  of  Lauderdale,  the  dnka 
oT  Rothes,  General  Ualaiel,  and  Sir  George  Mackeniie. 
Acconlinj;  to  tradition,  Rotbea,  during  a  dangeroua  aick- 
nesa  the  following  year,  sent  for  some  of  the  Presbyterian 
ministers,  and  in  a  fit  of  remoiae  confessed  the  juslica 

them." 

ToaapboUi  (riBSin)  denote*  those  adHHomi  oi 
lUppUmntan/  fflouei  to  Rashi'a  (q.  v.)  commentary  no 
the  Talmud  which  are  found  along  with  the  latter  in 
every  edition  of  the  Talmud.  The  disciples  of  Rashi, 
when  they  found  that  their  master's  expositions  could 
be  extended  and  improved,  set  about  this  work  of  ex- 
ely  after  his  death,  Ailing  up  every 
p  every  acrap  which  their  search^ 
reverence  for  him,  they  would  aot 


499       TOULOUSE,  COUNCII^  OF 


dawmiiutcd  them  PIEQir.  aiUilioni,  tni  bencc  Die; 
wot  cilkd  TomphUU.  The  QrM  Touphisu  wen  bia 
tn  wm-iD-Uw,  K.  Meiei  ben-Simuel  anil  Jehudah  ben- 
Nuhan.  Ihe  latier  ealleil  by  way  of  ■bbreTiatioi]  Atan, 
■:^i-^n3  12  mini  ""a^i  bii  tbree  grandaona,  B. 
Jauc,  aSamud,  and  R.  Jacob  Tarn,  «ona  of  K  Meier,  who 
an  mp»ctiTely  called  from  their  iiiiii«liffi*iB«,Da"'"i  = 
T'XO  ',3  pnx^  S  !taiibam  (q.  v.),  and  R.  Tarn  (q. v.) ; 
and,  lastly,  R.  laaac  ben-Aiher  of  S|iire^  ctUad  Ribo, 
ltV^=nOSt  -,2  pns^  ^a"',  alao  ■  relallve  of  Raihi. 
The  laUa  is  called  n'^fiQim  373,  or  the  Toaapfaiil 
kot'  Hejcin'-  Bewdea  theM.  we  meniion  Joaeph  Porat, 
Bon  of  SuDuel  ben-Meierj  laaac  beii'Samael  of  Doni- 
paire,  alio  called  lauK  tbe  Elder,  a  nephew  of  U.  Tam ; 
SwBDcl  ben-Natrooal,  called  RutUml,  uad ;  luac 
b<o-Mordecai,ofAug«burg;  Isaac  Ualabaiibeii-Jacol 
Prague,  etc  Thev  are  enumerated  by  Zona  in  his  . 
GadiicliU  md  Ltirralur  (Berlin,  1846,  p.  29  sq.),  wl 
tbe  ttiideiit  will  find  all  necesiary  infonnalioo.     (B.  P.) 

ToBi.  JosKfH,  a  Roman  Calhalic  tbeologii  , 
born  in  the  vear  18-24  at  Witachein,  in  Styria.  In  ISie 
he  irceived'holy  orders,  and  in  1858  he 
at  Vienna  as  doctor  of  theology.  .  In  thi 
waa  called  «a  pivTeaaor  of  dogmatics  lo  Grail,  where  be 
remained  until  Ibe  year  1868.  He  then 
and  lectured  until  the  vear  1871,  when  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  St,  Stephen's,  and  died  May  1*,  1B76.  He  pub- 
Bshtd.  iMtvrrt  on  (Ac  Sylialmt  Errtmrn  ofOit  Papal 
Eacyrl.  dattd  Dtt.  8,  1864  (Vienna,  1866):— P<*er  Rt- 
BguMuUj^sheit  mij  Winemckafl,  Darvmamui  mi  dot 
Vripnag  df  Mauchra  (GrSU,  186A).  Comp.  LUtra- 
TiKAtr  Uondatiirrjiir  dai  bilhoL  Dadieldand,  1866,  p. 
69,  tG3;  lB7fi,p,252.     (R  P.) 

ToBtado.  AijOnso,  a  Spanish  prelate,  waa  bon 
Madrigal  in  1400.  He  slodied  ac  Salamanca,  am 
the  age  of  twenty-two  received  hia  degree.  He 
dected  to  tbe  chair  of  ibeoloey,  and  soon  gained  a  wide 
r^uiution.  In  1431  hewaa  sencto  the  Council 
and  by  aoine  of  his  utterances  attracted  the  attention 
and  condemnation  of  the  holy  see.  In  1443  he  waa 
ordered  to  appear  before  an  assembly  of  theologians  at 
Kenna,and  was  convicted  of  unsound  doctrine.  On  his 
Rlum  to  Spain,  through  tbe  intercession  of  the  king,  he 
receieed  the  bishopric  of  AviU,  and  waa  also  member 
ofthc  Council  of  Castile.  Ha  died  near  Avila  Sept.  8, 
1455.  His  works  are  nomerous,  and  a  large  number 
were  published  at  Tenice  in  1547,  24  Tola.  foL;  they 
a>nnst  of  mystical  eottimentariea  on  the  lives  of  the 
Kble  and  on  Uatthew.  Besides  these  are  CuntBtario 
KArt  EatMo  (Salamanca,  1606) :— Con/fnonoHo  (Lo- 
gnita,  1620).  See  Viera  y  Clarijo,  Elogio  de  Aionio 
Totlado;  Antonio,  BUi.  Hup.  Krfu*.  —  Hoefer,  A'oub. 
Biog.  OfniraU,  a.  T. 

Total  Abatinencs.    See  Teuferasce. 

ToQ  (1  Chron.  iriii,  9,  I0>    See  Tol. 

Toole.  CocsciL  <w.    See  Tomi,  Couhcil  or. 

Toolmio,  JoeHUA,  D.D^  an  English  Unitarian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  London  Hay  II,  1740.  Educated  at  a 
Diaaenling  academy,  he  became  minister  of  a  Dissenting 
congregation  in  Colyton,  Devonshire,  i 
Bspiist  congregation  in  Taunton.  Aflerwards  headopt- 
(d  Unitarian  views  from  Harvanl  College  in  1T94,  and 
in  1804  was  cho»n  one  of  the  ministers  of  ibe  Uni 
conpregalion  at  Birmingham,  formerly  presided  oi 
Dr.Prieatley.  Here  Dr. Toolniin  continued  tolab..  .._ 
til  his  death,  July  S3, 1816.  He  was  an  able  preacher 
and  an  iadoatnous  writer.  He  wrote,  Stmumt  lo  Youth, 
etc  (HonltOD,  1770,  l2mo;  2d  ed.  Taunton,  1789,  8vo); 
—Mtaoin  nf  F.  Soeinut  (Lond.  1777, 8rn)  ■—DaiTla. 
ti/monOt  EvidoKa  ofChruftottilg  (1786,  8vo)  —Ri- 
tiiw  nflkt  lAft  f/Joka  BiddU  (1789,  8to;  I;9I,  Bro): 
-/fu(Otyo/(iSirowio/ra«Di(oii(i791,       '        ' 


(1810, 8vo);—SiitorKai  VvB«Bq^(Ae  Pro(«f  out  Witntfera 
in  En^rmd  ttnder  King  WiBiam  (1814,  8vo) : -besides 
single  sermons,  works  on  baptism,  etc  See  AUibone, 
Did.  nfBtil.  and  A  mir,  A  uthori,  t.  v. ;  Darling,  Cydop. 
Bibliotfl  a.  V. 

Tonlooas,  Codkcils  or  (Coiici'fiuin  7'oJotaniim). 
These  councils  were  held  b  Toulouse,  a  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  departmeot  of  Haute-Oamnne,  and  situ* 
led  on  the  Garonne.  It  has  in  it  tbe  very  remaikabla 
Ihurah  of  St.  Semin,  a  masterpiece  of  Romanesque  ar- 
chitecture, recently  restored  by  Viollet-Ledue.  The 
Church  of  tbe  Cordeliers  was  erected  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  destroyed  by  fire  in  1871. 

I.  The  flnt  Council  of  Toukmse  was  held  Sept.  IS, 
1066,  eighteen  Uahops  being  piestnL    Ran  baldus,  arch- 
bishop of  Aries,  and  FOntiua,  archbishop  of  Aix,  pre- 
sided.   Thirteen  canons  were  putiliahed. 
1.  Forbids  slmonr. 
S.  Forbids  anr  fees  for  contecrstlng  a  Church. 

4.  Forbids  all  bDrine  mid  telllnK  DfCburcb  prerernisoL 

5.  Enacts  ttiat,  If  s  clerk  have  aDtered  npon  tbe  monaa- 
ic  stale  lu  order  ti>  obtain  an  sbbacj,  he  iball  be  com- 
pelled to  contlnne  the  rellKlooa  Ufa  hot  shall  be  entirety 


>r  St.  Benedict  In  lh( 


ihstthelrniDnkBfolIoi* 
muuner  of  life,  fMvd,  d 

srlnn  icBnriarnUt)  Ihete 

:ted  by  his  own  blt^up. 
celibacy  upon  priests,  dea 
'--•—'-'  dlgnltlesi 


erks  holding  eccleslaaileal  dignities  i  olTeuders 

£  Forbids,  under  pain  of  aicommunlcalloo,  lay  per- 
ms to  apply  Cbnrch  property  K,  tbelr  own  use. 
t.  Forbids  Ibe  laliylu  plunder  ibeefltoctaofdeadnsrsasa. 
10  and  11.  Setalc  lo  Ibe  payment  of  Church  does  and 
thea. 

IB.  Forbids,  nnder  pain  n(  eicnmmnnlcatlon,  all  Inler- 
.jorse  witb  heretics  and  eicrimmnn tested  pertons.  nulesa 
fnr  tbe  purpose  of  coiireniug  tbem  and  bringing  them 


In  t1 


purpose  of  conrerl 
im  Ibelreill  ways, 
incil  Berenger, 


.  of  Karl 


ir  IlilnKe. 
directed  i 


of  archbishi^  G 

ing  him  of  giving  away  the  lands  appertaining  to  the 
Church  of  Narbonne  lo  those  who  had  home  arms  for 
bim.  Tbe  event  of  hia  complaint  ia  unknown.  Sea 
Manu,  C<meU.  ix,  1084. 

II.  The  aecoDd  council  waa  held  July  IB,  1119,  pope 
ilixtus  II  presiding,  aasisted  by  his  cardinals,  and  the 
ihops  and  abbots  of  I^nguedoc,  Gascony,  and  part  of 

boylDg  ind  selling  of  holy 

)f  Peter  de  Bruit, 

ar  aoltaorl- 
plety,  cou- 

prlestbood,  and  other  eccloilastlcnl  of- 
— — ••Irecls  that  they  ahall  be 

canons,  and  other  clerka 

who  quit  theli  

See  Mann,  x,  866. 

III.  Held  in  llSl, convoked  by  the  kings  of  France 
and  England,  who  were  present.  One  bundled  bish- 
ops and  abbots  of  the  two  kingdoms  attended,  and  aol- 
emnly  recognised  Alexander  111  aa  pope,  to  the  exclu- 
luon  of  Victor  II.     See  Maasi,x,  1406. 

IV.  The  Fourth  Council  of  Toulouse  was  held  in  Sep- 
tember, 1229.  The  archbishops  of  Narbonne,  Bordeaux, 
and  Auch  were  present,  with  many  other  bishops  and 
abtxJta,  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouae,  with  several  lords, 
attended ;  also  the  aeneachat  of  Carcaseone.  and  the  two 
conauls  of  Toulouse.  Forty-lire  canons  were  publish- 
ed for  the  extinction  of  hereay  and  the  re-esublishment 

The  lint  Ave  enact  that  tbe  arebl>lsbopi.  bishops,  and 
exempted  abboU  shall  appoint  In  every  parlsb  a  priest 


md  two  ' 


•  laym. 


Uy  and  minnletj  to  search  for  here- 

tlca  In  houses,  caves,  and  every  place  In  which  they  may 
he  hidden!  and,  having  taken  prtcaotlons  that  those 
whom  they  bnve  discovered  shall  not  escape,  to  report 
tbe  hct  to  ttie  bli^hop,  the  lord  of  tbe  pince,  or  his  bnllilL 


t.  Ordera  tbot  tba  hanu  In  vblch  idt  becetlc  sha 
dl«iivered  be  destroyod. 
a.  Foibide  tn  paniitb  inr  ana  u  ■  heretic  berun 


1.  Orders  Ibni  hercilci  w 


ihelrdreu:  toAiit  lo  1 


_1.  Ordem  tb»t  incb  a»  pretend  to 
fear  uf  dcatb,  or  from  aur  otber  motive,  absll  tM  ibDt  np, 
in  order  Ihal  Ihej  may  iie»er  ogiln  cornipt  othr— 


may  liefer  omln  corrapt  othnri. 


op*u  pro  I 


i>  heretic 


IS,  Requires  gU  persom  srrLved  ot  years  ordiBCTBllon 
-to  conreae  to  Ihelr  ovtd  priest  tbree  llmee  a  year,  and  to 
recelie  the  boly  cooiinniiloii  at  CbrlBLmRo,  ECaaier,  and 
Whttanntlde ;  those  wbo  neglect  to  do  «o  lo  be  conaider- 
•■1  IS  herelica. 

L  Forbids  the  laity  to  have  Id  tbeir  poiieaalon  soy 
y  of  the  boolu  i>r  the  Old  and  New  Teat,  except  tbe 
Iter  and  Biich  porMiiDS  ot  them  as  am  contabied  In 
the  BrcUty  or  tbe  Houri  of  the  Bleued  Virgin; 
Btrictly  forbids  "■ '■-  '-  ■'--  -■-'- 


85T,."; 


ctly  forbids  Ibeee  works  In  the  inlenr  tnngno. 


w  his  vli 


_     _  mchnrchnn  SuDday. 

M.  Declam  the  fiillanlug  lo  be  (tttlral  days,  viz.  all 
Snndaygi  Chrlatmns-day ;  liaita  ofSt.  SiBpban,  St.  Jobo 
the  Bvangellet,  the  Huly  luDocenu,  St  Sylreaier,  ihe  Clr- 
cmaclsloD.  the  Epiphany;  f^aata  ot  the  Pniilleatliiu,  Ihe 
AnnanclatloD,  Ibe  AisniDptlaD.  md  the  Nativity  of  tbe 
Blutetl  Virgin  Mary :  Eaarer ;  the  two  dayB  after  Easier ; 
the  three  Rogation  dayi;  Whll^noday!  the  tmi  days  nf- 
ler  WtallrSanday :  feuls  ot  the  NatlVitr  ot  St.  John  the 
BapilBt,  and  the  Invanlloa  nod  Bica1iatli>n  of  the  Holy 
Cross;  the  faaata  of  tbe  twelra  nunstlea;  feaats  of  61. 
Hnry  Mnganlene,  Bt  Lawrence,  St.  Harlln.  8l  Nicholas, 
and  the  Dedication  of  St.  Michael ;  aiid  the  fsDala  of  tbe 

bon  ™chtircbes  hove  been  ballt. 

4t.  Forbids  wonien  posteued  of  cnitles  and  other  for' 
tided  places  to  marry  men  ivho  are  eoemles  to  the  lullb 

i.  Forbids  lodges  to  recelie  bribe*. 

U.  Orders  that  connael  be  provided  gialis  for  the  poor. 
SeeUansi,  xi,43ci. 

V.  This  council  was  held  in  Hay,  1690,  by  tbe  car- 
dinal de  Joyeuae,  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  assisted  by 
the  bishops  of  St.  Pupoul,  Rieux,  and  Laraur,  and  Lhe 
deputies  of  the  bishops  or  Lonibex,  Patniers,  Mirepoix, 
SDd  MoniBubaii.  Various  regulations  were  made  relat- 
ing to  the  dutiea  of  biahops,  chapters,  Iwnellced  clerks, 
prieits,  and  others ;  they  alao  embrace  the  following  aub- 
jecu:  the  holy  sacramenta,  relics,  iadulKcncca,  festi- 
vals, vowa,  acoiinariea,  bospicala,  excom  muni  cations,  res- 
idence, etc— Mansi,  xv,  1378.  See  Landon,  Manual  o/ 
CoHonft, s.  v.;  HagenhMCh,  Hut. n/Doc(Tvia,i,\A3. 

Toup,  Jonathan,  an  Engliib  clergyman  and  emi- 
nent critic,  was  bom  at  St-Ives  in  December,  1713;  and, 
after  a  iirepiiatoty  education  in  that  town  and  at  the 
school  of  Mr.Gumey,orOt.Herrvn,  removed  to  Exeter 
Colkije,  Osfonl,  where  he  took  his  deEiw  of  A.R  Hia 
:ived  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge, 


175 


rfSl. 


n  1774  he  was  installed  prebendary 
Exeter.  In  177G  be  waa  instituted  lo  tbe  vicarage  ot 
St.MerrA-n's.  llediedJan.  19, 1785.  Hia  classical  pub- 
licationauccupy  the firat  rank:  EmaidaliaBei in Suidam, 
etc(Lond.l766,8vo;  pl.ii,  I764,8va;  pt.iii,lTGG,8i'n): 
—Epitluia  Crilica  ad  CtkUrrimum  Vima  Guliilmum 
Epitopun  Ghixsliirai'm  (ibid.  1767,  Svo)  ■—Cura  Po- 
iterioretttive  AppfniHcaJa  yotttrumalqve  Emeadiitionfim 
in  TheocrUam,  Oxonii  miperrime  publicalum  (ibid.  1772, 
4to) ; — D.  ljr>tigi«i  Omnia  qaa  txlata  Gr.  rt  UtI.  rtim- 
mil,  etc  (Oxon.  1778,  8to,  with  Uter  editions),  See 
Aliibone,  tHa.  of  Brit,  and  Ama:  A  ulAoii,  a.  v. ;  Chal- 
mers. Kios.  Did,  a.  v. 
Tonra6l7,  HuNORrf,B  French  Roman  Catholic  ili- 
■  e,  was  bom  Aug.  28, 1658,  at  At 


hia 


>n  from 


inly  p, 


Douay,  in  IG93  professor  a 


10  TOUKNON 

in  1716,  devoting  himaeir  entirely  lo  lileraiy  pimuili, 
and  died  Dec,SS,  1729.  He  publiabed,  FnrltciioMt  Tie- 
etogiea  de  ifyterio  Trimlaltt  (Paris,  1726) :— /Vofie- 
(iones  Thiol,  de  Eccht.  Chriti  (ibid,  eod)  -.—PraUrtioatt 
Tktol.  de  Sarramaaii  in  Goitre  (itid.  roi.y.—Pntitt- 
tiona  ThtoL  de  Sacramalii  BaplUna  rt  C-iafirmatiamt 
(j.hi±l777):~Praletfii>net  Tieol.de  Auguit.iiaiAariiliiE 
Sacramenlil  (ibii.  1729):  — Pralertioiia  ThtoL  de  So- 
cramaitit  Pmtitealia  et  Extrtma  Undiouit  (ibjiL  17:28). 
Sea  Winer,  licadbuch  dtr  liroL  Litcrana;  i,  420, 449, 150, 
463,457,460,461;  Theohgiichet  VmorrtaI'Lex.  t. 'r.; 
Zedter,  Umctrial-Ltx.  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Tonmeinliia.  Bkn^  Jobhfh,  a  French  Jesiiii,  was 
bom  April  26, 1661,  at  Rcnnes,  of  a  noble  family,  la 
1680  he  entered  tbe  Order  of  the  Jesutta,  became  a  nxwli 
in  1696,  and  lectured  on  philosopbv  and  Ihcologv  till  be 
was  called  to  Paris, in  1701,  to  edit  the  so-called  Mimoiia 
de  Trivoux.  In  1718  he  waa  appointed  librarian,  and 
died  Hay  16,  1739.  Ilia  numeroua  writings  are  con. 
taincd,  for  the  moat  part,  in  the  Afimoirn.  He  aln 
edited  /.  ,S.  MtHockii  Brecit  Biptuilio  Sentui  /.ileraSt 
Tvtiiu  Saiptara,  tx  Optima  A  NCtorihia  per  fjnfana 
arietta  (Paris,  1719,  2  vols.  foL).  See  N'iceron,  Mi- 
vunrrSf  xlii  \  CtiaufTeiH^,  Diction,  A.  v. ;  Biog.  Cnieersal- 
/,a.B,v.i  7'lUo%.^n't'cr*a^Z.e£.a.v.i  Winer, //omBi 
der  litoL  Literatur,  i,  188.    (B.  P.) 

Tonnieiuc,  Nioolab  lb,  a  French  divine,  waa 
bom  at  Rouen,  April  30, 1640,  and  waa  wnt  to  tbe  Jea- 
uita*  College  at  Paris.  He  completed  bis  philosopbicd 
studies  at  the  College  de  Grassiua,  and  waa  appointed 
vicar  of  St.  fitiennedeaTormeaent  at  Rouen.  In  I67S 
he  gained  tbe  prize  given  by  Ihe  French  Acsdetnr; 
and,  reflecting  upon  Ihe  inconsiderate  manner  in  which 
be  had  engaged  in  all  Ihe  duties  of  Ihe  priesthood,  he 
renounced  it,  but  was  afterwards  persuaded  lo  resume 
the  sacred  functions  by  M.  de  Sacy.  His  talenta  pro- 
cured him  a  beneflee  in  the  holy  ehap«l  and  the  pii- 
ory  of  Tillers,  which  tbe  archbishop  of  Rouen  esv* 
him.  He  apent  hia  last  jeara  at  his  priory  or  Villeis- 
sur-Frire  in  Tardenois,  in  the  diocese  of  Soissona. 
His  death  occurred  suddenly  at  Paris,  Nov.  28,  168& 
The  principal  among  hia  numeroua  works  an,  La 
Vie  de  Jitui-Chritt!  —  f.a  MrHUare  Maniirt  dEw 
tmdre  la  MtHn  —  L'Amie  Ckiiiinaie  (Palis,  168S, 
13  vols.  t2mo)i — s  French  translation  of  Ihe  Roman 
Brmory  (4  vols.  Bvo).  An  Abrid^menl  n/ tie  Prin- 
tipat   Tktological  Trtaliti  (4to}   is  also  ascribed  la 

Tonraon,  Cbarlea  Tliomaa,  Mitillard  df,  an 

Italian  cardinal,  was  bom  at  Turin  Dec  21.  IG6R  H< 
received  hia  education  at  the  Propaganda  at  Rume.  when 
he  subsequently  taught.  He  waa  made  chamberlaio  of 
bonar,and  in  liOI  was  raiaedto  '     "     - 


och,  ai 


with  tl 


regulating  Ihe  sAairs  of  tbe  Church  in  China  and  the 
Indies.  In  1702  he  departed  on  hia  enterprise,  touched 
at  Madagascar,  and  the  following  year  reached  Pondi- 
cberry.  When  he  reached  Canton,  he  collected  theroia- 
sionaries,  told  the  abject  of  hia  coming,  and  ordered  thai 
all  tracea  or  Ihe  heathen  worship  should  be  reowred 
from  Ihe  churchos  and  houses  of  the  native  Chriatiau 
The  emperor  was  highly  incensed.  He  joined  the  mis- 
nonaries  against  Toumon,  and  sent  him  lo  Macao,  where 
he  waa  imprisoned  in  the  Convent  of  the  Jesuits.  H( 
died  June  8, 1710.  .See  Paseionei,  Sfemorie  Sloricit.^ 
Hoefer,  A'our.  Biog.  Grnirale,  s.  v. 

TonmOD,  Francois  d«,  cardinal  iTOitia,  was 
bom  at  Toumon  in  Ht^.  At  tbe  age  of  twelve  he  look 
the  habit  of  tbe  regular  canons  of  St.  Augustine  at  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Anthony  in  Dauphinv.  Francis  I  gave 
him  the  Abbey  of  Chaiae-Dieu,  and'  in  1517  made  him 
archbishop  of  Embrun.  In  1526  he  became  arebbitfiap 
of  Bourges,  and  from  that  lime  his  honors  increaaed 
with  every  year.  Fmncia  I  loaded  him  with  benefioea 
and  offices,  and  employed  him  in  political  and  eccleaiaa- 
tical  intriguea    In  1530  be  waa  created  cardinal  '~' 


TOURS,  COUNCILS  OF  5i 

mm  iftet  rose  [o  the  dignilf  o(  dem  of  the  College  of 
CiBliiidi  He  WBS  oDe  of  ihc  principsl  ncgoIiBlora  of 
the  Tmtv  of  Mwliid  in  1626,  ana  wu  icCively  engagal 
in  bringing  about  the  Puce  of  Cambni.  During  the 
qiuml  between  Henry  VIII  of  Eugland  ind  the  holy 
Me.  Tagtoon  proposed  coiiceniona  lo  Clement  VII, 
vliicb,  if  they  hid  been  complied  with,  Hould  hive 
preiented  the  whole  Befommion  in  Edgluid.  When 
Chirlei  V  invaded  Pmyence,  Tounton  ww  made  lieu- 
ItDUil-genenl  of  the  French  army,  and  directed  the 
openlions  of  the  war.  He  represented  France  at  the 
Conference  of  Mice,  and  ill  1638  tigned  the  treaty  which 
gire  France  ten  years  of  peace.  Toumoa  waa  a  hitter 
(nemy  of  refunn  in  whatever  shape  it  might  come,  and 
Kained  his  reputation  by  hii  Moody  attacks  upon  heresy. 
The  leirible  peiaecotiDn  of  the  Vandoia  «aa  in  great 
pan  of  bis  instigUioiu  At  the  death  of  Francis  [  he 
fell  out  of  fiTot,  and  under  Henry  II  was  obliged  to  re- 
tinn  to  Hume.  In  his  new  diocese  of  Lyons  he  carried 
«a  >  fearful  persecution  aKiinat  th»Calviiiists.  At  the 
dcuh  of  Henry  II  be  retnnied  to  France,  and  waa  called 
to  the  councils  of  the  queen  mother.  Hia  appearance 
vas  the  signal  for  new  rigors,  and  he  endeavored  u> 
obtain  the  retnm  of  the  Jesuits,  to  whom  he  gave 
his  college  of  Toumon.  He  had  great  influence  over 
CbarlealX,  and  what  terroramay  not  be  due  to  this  fact? 
Toomon  died  at  the  abbey  of  Saint-6ermain-rJe>-Pre> 
April  a,  lb6i.  He  had  lillk  time,  among  his  political 
tbir\  to  attend  to  letter^  and  le<t  no  works  behind 
bim.  SeeFleury-Temat./VuMJuCunfHiu/iieT'aHmon,- 
L«  Tbaumassifere,  flul.  du  Bmy;  De  Tbou,  Uitl.  lui 
TfiKfi.— Hoofer,  Nom.  Eiog.  Giniralt,  a.  v. 

Tonn.  CoDSClLS  or  (Concmum  TaroBat).  These 
couiKils  were  held  in  Tours,  department  of  Indre-et- 
Loirc,  France.     It  is  the  seal  oT  an  archbishopric,  and 


TOURS,  COUNCILS  OF 


married  b 

•.n  that  monks  who  leave  th 

rry  »bsl1  be  separsled  from  I 

pennnu:  aud  that  the  aid  of  ibe  e 

.... J  . ,„  to  gj^pj  [1,1, 

Iks  Bhall  fn 


.  .  _   Lreiited  ._ 
IT.  Orders  thi 


ring  Ih 


Irmonsileryln  or- 
cnlnr  powers  shall 
K  the  three  Roga- 


»s;;i, 


1,  thro 


le  ofWbltsnn  week;  from 


Eptlibany  to  Lent,  three  dujs  In  each  week, 

billij  to  be  need  at  the  hoV  office,  besides  those  ofBu  Ai 

i7,  beclatt 
\Bffi.  but  erea  as  heretics. 
See  Mansi,  v,  8fit. 

HI.  Held  in  813,  by  order  of  Charlemagne,  for  the 
purpose  of  re-establishing  ecclesiastical  disdpLne.  Fif- 
ty-one canons  were  published. 

1.  Orden  the  people  lo  be  faithful  to  the  emperor,  and 

1.  Ordere  bishops  to  give  ihemselrei  lo  the  stndy  of  tbB 
BolfScclptnres,  eapcclally  or  the  eofpelt,  and  epistles  of 
St.  Paol.  and  to  try  to  leim  tbem  \>i  heart. 


alofSLO 


wlthth 


bMuiy.    It  formerly  coniained  the  celf  brated  caibedral 
orst.HirtinofTours.which  was  destroyed  in  1793,  and 

I.  The  first  council  was  held  Nov.  IS,  461,  hv  St.  Per- 
pelnuB,  archbishop  of  Toun,  aniited  by  nine  bishops. 
Ttiineen  canons  were  made  for  the  restoration  of  the 

I  and  S.  Eujoln  cellbacT  upon  blsbops,  priests,  and  dea- 
t  too  great  fn- 

Ikal  sts™"""  "  "      Me  "  o  renounce      o        ea  as- 
•.  li  directed  B£B< list  those  who  marrr  or  offer  violence 

lo  vinrins  consecrated  In  God. 
I.  Scnrnmnnlcalei  ' 
&  Condemns  those 

».  Deprives  ofcon 


hops  who  get  pnseesxloi 
ho  promote  the  clerks  o 


10,  Declares  ordlnatloDS  made  co 
bsnnIL 

It.  CoDdemns  endeilastic*  who  leave  their  own  Chnrcb 
SDd  Ko  to  aniither  dincese  wllbout  their  blehop's  lesie. 

IL  CondemDa  clerks  who  teave  their  dioceses  to  travel 
wilbonl  letters  from  their  blebop. 

M.  Cundemus  usury  In  clerksi  allows  other  bnnlneFS 

Uann  adda  to  these  Ihirteen  canons  six  others  {Cim- 
oL  iv,  1049). 

II-  Held  Nov.  17,  666;  convoked  by  order  of  king 
Chariben,  and  composed  of  nine  bishops,  among  whom 
were  GeTmanui  of  Paria,  Pnetextatus  of  Rouen,  and 
Enphronius  of  Tours,  who  preuded.  Twenty-seven 
canon*  were  published. 

IL  Forbids  to  pUee  the  bod*  of  Jesoi  Christ  upon  the 
■Iisr  after  any  fastalDn,  and  ordera  that  It  shall  be  placed 

4.  Forbids  Tarmen  to  corns  cloee  to  the  altar  with  the 
clerks  doring  ihe  antes:  bnl  allows  them,  and  women 


It  be  obliged  lo  wander  abunt 


at  they  ahal!  preach  frequently  1  Ihat 
and  siraugere,  affiirdlug  tb 


T,  Forbids  priesl 
■11  immodest  eihil 
9.  Fiirhlde  prleM 


m  both  bodily  at 
St  plays  aiid  hiri 


le  divided  l>etweea 


U>  take  care  thu 
idmlniite 


lo  eat  and  drink  In  tavertie. 

0  givo  the  veil  to  young  widows, 

e  <if  [heir  sincere  love  of  a  religion* 


-acted  I 


>  bold  pi 


adini! 


in  Son  days. 


GO.  Orders  nil  pers-ma  to  comninnicnie  at  least  thrica 
a  year,  nntess  hindered  by  some  great  crimen 
SeeMan9i,vii,l!Gg. 

IV.  Held  in  1DG6,  by  llildebrand,  the  Roman  legate 
(afterwards  Gregory  Vll),  and  cardinal  Ueraldua.  In 
this  council  Berenger  was  called  upon  to  defend  his  opin- 
ions ;  but,  not  being  able  to  do  so  satisfaclorily,  he  re- 
tracted, and  made  a  public  confesaion  of  the  true  faith, 
which  he  signed ;  whereupon  the  legates,  believing  him 
to  be  sincere,  received  him  into  communion.  See  Man- 
si,  ix,  1031. 

V.  Held  in  1060,  by  cardinal  Stephen,  the  Roman  leg- 
ate, and  ten  bishops.  Ten  canons  were  made ;  the  first 
four  condemn  umony. 

a  nw.iHni4tiistthn*i>1ilHhnps,  priests,  and  deacons  who, 

ltd  ofNIchoIss  II,  remsed  to 

from  the  eiercife  of  Ihcir  fuDciions,  beiuj; 


iltboDKh  swan 


See  ManBi,ix,  1108. 

VI.  Held  in  Lent,  1096,  by  pope  Urban  II,  who  pre- 
sided. The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Clermont  were 
confirmed.  The  pope  received  into  favor  king  Philip 
(who  had  been  excommunicated  for  foreaking  llerlrade, 
his  lawful  wife),  upon  his  humbly  making  saUsfaction. 
SeeManai,  x,G01. 

VII.  Held  May  19,  Iie3,in  Ihe  Church  of  St.  Maurice, 
by  pope  Alexander  III,  assisted  by  seventeen  cardinals. 
There  were  also  present,  besides  Louis  TH,  king  of 
France,  one  hundred  and  twenty-ruur  bishops,  four  hun< 


TOURS,  COUNCILS  OF  6( 

dred  ind  fburuen  ibbou,  mi  an  immenM  mnlcitnde 
or  Dthen,  buLh  ecdcuutic*  ■nd  lain.  Thete  pnlalet 
were  uaemblcd  from  ill  the  provinces  in  ■ubJKtion  to 
the  kings  at  Fruue  and  England;  nme  few  of  them 
■lga  were  Ilaliaiu,  who  had  declared  for  Alexander. 
Among  (he  English  prcUtet  wu  Thomaa,  archbiahop 
of  Canlerljury,  who  wai  receiveil  by  (he  pope  with  ex- 
tnordinaiy  IwDora,  all  (he  canlinala  preaent,  except 
two  in  iminediate  atundance  upon  AleianUet,  being 
•eiit  beyond  the  city  walU  to  meet  hiio.  The  aich- 
biahuporCantctburyutoii  the  right  hand  of  the  pope, 
(he  Brehbinhiiii  of  Vork  on  (he  left.  The  iinmedii(« 
object  of  the  council  wu  the  coademna(ion  of  (he  ajn- 
oda  of  I'iui  and  Lodi,  convuked  by  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick.    Ten  canoua  were  published. 

t.  Coudemnn  sanrj  among  the  clergy. 

4.  Ig  directed  agaliiBt  the  Aiblgenwa,  ind  birbLds  ill  In- 


wllhthem:  f 


hS«"w  " 

DecliregsU  nrdinai Ion ■  made  hiOctavlinn 
trellu  or  KhluiutJci,  to  be  udII  and  Toid. 


cliilglen  In  order  tu 
'11  law. 
Octa>linnf,iDdoth- 


aeeMangi,x,141' 

Vm.  Held  Jiins  10, 1286;  Juhel deMayenne,archbiili- 
op  of  To un,  presiding.    Fourteen  oinona  were  published. 

I.  Forblils  the  eniuder*  or  other  Cbrlstlani  in  kill  or 
lijnre  the  Jews,  or  to  plocder  or  Ill-ate  them  In  any  wny ; 
abi)  orders  (he  eeculir  Jcdgei  la  give  Dp  to  ibe  ecclealas- 
IlcslHEitborltlesanj  cm  padera  whom  lUey  may  bare  eel  cod 

I.  Orders  thsi  all  wills  ahallbeiHit  Into  (ho  hand*  tit 
the  blihop  or  bla  arobdeacun  wKliln  (an  days  alter  [ha 
death  of  tfieleslalor. 

6.  DenoDoresthoH  who  bare  two  wlmllTlDg.dsclarea 
Ibera  to  be  Inramans,  and  orden  that  Uier  thail  be  lied 
op  lu  pnblic,  onlaga  Iher  uin  pay  a  bean  flnei  nrden 
nrlests  to  publlab  erary  Smiday  in  cbarcb  (be  ain  of  hai- 
ls. Orders  the  bishops  (o  Inttnict  and  toproTfde  for  the 
aabslsience  of  [he  new  conveita  tram  Jadsltm  and  heresy- 
See  Manai,  xi,  bOS. 

IX,  Held  in  1289,  by  Juhel  de  Mayenne,  arcfabishop 
of  TourB,and  hia  aulTragans.  Thirteen  canoua  were  pub- 
lished, "with  the  approbalion  of  the  holy  council;"  (he 
use  of  which  expreasjon  in  (his  case  showg  that  the  ip- 
prubation  was  not  confined  to  ihe  pope  and  hla  legates. 


1,  Orders  that  the  bishop  abnil  nppolol 

ire«  repuiHbls  laymen.  In  eiery  itarlsb,  who  > 
*   '     report  bUbfoIlT  caiicemlDg  i"     - 
"■  —    "■ — enlngln  thenelcl 


iidala  I 


montliy,  fallta.  etc..  happening  In  the  neleblMrhoad. 

t.  Forbids  to  recslTO  aDythTnic  for  (he  admlnls[rBtlc 
oftba  eacrsmsDiai  wIlhODl  prelndioe,  huweter,  to  phu 

G  and  S.  Forbid  CDiitaa  snd  rectors  to  eicoDimnnlea 
theli  par4gblunert  of  their  own  nolhurltj. 

li  Forbids  clerks  and  monks  (o  retain  any  female  st 
Taula  Id  Ihnlr  honaet  or  priories. 
See  Manai,  xi,  £65. 

X.  Held  Auk.  1. 1^!>  by  John  de  Mansoreau,  are! 
bishop  of  Tours,  who  presided.     Thirteen  canons  we 

t  and  a.  Are  directed  against  needlesa  Inwanlla. 
%.  F'irbid9  clerk*  and  munkg  (o  rragiient  laverna. 
4.  Biciininiiinlrsiea  those  who  Meiil  or  tear  tha  chare 
books  and  itijure  Ihe  ItimKare. 
B.  Orders  ihe  nliwrrancB  otcnslomary  procesalons. 
.  „.  ..      ..  _  — ._.._jjm  gf  ogurera  according  (o  (I 


lofLj. 


of  tithe. 


!ted  against  Ihoae  who  hinder  tha  paymen 


See  Manai,  li,  1188. 

X  I.  A  general  assembly  of  (he  French  clergy  was  held, 
by  urdiT  »r  l/iuia  X[I,  in  September,  IblO,  un  icoount 
of  the  sent; nee  of  excommunication  patsed  against  him 
by  pope  Julius  IL  The  object  of  the  council  was  (o 
discuss  the  c|uea(inn  bow  far  it  was  necessary  for  Louis 
to  respect  the  spiritoil  weapons  of  the  Church,  when 
in  (he  hanria  nf  an  adversary  who  used  them  only  to 
further  injustice,  and  in  matters  purely  (emporal.  Eight 
questions  were  diacDSSed.     The  following  are  Ihe  moat 

«.  Is  It  allowsble  for  a  pnnce,  In  defaoie  nf  h<*  peiMD 


«.  I*  It  allowsble  for  a  pnnce,  In  d 
Ud  property,  do[  only  (o  repel  InJiiB 


Ihe  obedlen 
3(her  princes  I 

to  withdraw  rtom  obedieno 


2  TOUSSAIN 

bD(  to  aelu  the  Innde  of  the  Chuidi  In  the  pntveailnn  of 
the  pope,  bis  declared  eiieiny,  not  wlib  any  view  of  ra- 
tal ufug  them,  but  only  in  fprder  to  cijpple  the  pope'a  metDa 
orinlurlnghimt    Answer  In  the  afflrautlve. 

''  ilred  onibe  part  of  the  pope,  (o  wlthdrawfcoBi 

war  npun  him,  and  urged  Ihcm  lo 

lemponJ  rigliu 

4.  Tbla  withdrawal  from  oliedianee  being  suppusad, 
hnw  It  (he  prince  to  conduct  himself  with  leganl  U)hii 
■objects,  and  the  prelnlsa  with  regard  la  olber  ccclaL.. 

totlieHeafKonier  Answer:  itlsnecuaary  ln>ac°ta'c!M 
(II  keep  til  Ihe  ancient  common  rightt,  snd  the  PiSEinada 
Bauclinn  taken  (ri>m  the  decrees  of  Ihe  CooacllufBarle, 

8.  irthepope.wltbontany  sltanLlon  tnjaatlee,  nr  ana 
lo  the  spiiearaDce  of  right,  employe  arms  aud  anlOca^ 
and  pDbllihe*  censnres  aealnst  the  prince,  snd  sgilan 
Ibore  whiipnitect  and  delend  him,  ODxh(  (be  ls((srti>bl 
deserted*  Aiitwer:  tbat  such  ceosnres  are  alloctUM 
nnll,  and  not  binding  In  law, 
See  UBiiai,iUi,  1481. 

Xn.  Held  in  September,  1583,Sioiaa  de  Haill«,tbt 
archbiahop,  preuding,  Ihe  bitbope  of  Angers,  Ntnle^ 
Saint- Brien,  Rennes,  and  Quimper,  and  (he  deputia  gf 
those  of  Saint-Mslo  and  Hans,  were  preaent. 

A  pelithtn  was  read,  which  it  was  proposed  to  present  to 
the  kiiiE,  Henry  111,  requetlliig  bim  to  order  (he  pohllck 
lion  iirthe  decrees  oITren(  Vn  his  sUtes;  alao  .Doitar 
petition  to  tbe  pope,  to  Indnce  him  to  remedy  cenahi 

to  be  signed  by  nil  benedced  clerki,  waa  dtawn  np^  and 
rcKUlitlimi  ware  made  lu  prevent  simony.    In  cma*- 
qnence  of  the  appearance  of  the  plapie  In  Tuora,  the  prel> 
ataa  adloomed  (he  conucll  tu  Augers. 
See  Hviai,  iv,  1001. 

TotuL  CouxaLB  or  IConciUam  nUaur,  or  aftt 
Sapimariat),  were  held  at  Tooti,  ■  place  in  (be  diocese 
ofToul. 

L  Tbii  coundl  was  lield  In  June,  859.  Charln  tha 
Bald  and  the  sons  of  the  emperor  Loth*  ire  were  pretenl. 
Thincm  canons  were  published,  of  which  (be  Aim  Imtt 
of  the  reoonciliation  of  Charlea  and  bia  bnuher  Loutb 
The  sixth  relate*  to  a  chaqn  of  (reason  brought  by 
Charles  the  Balil  against  Veiiilon,  Uehop  of  Sent.  Caa- 
gn  8  relalet  to  (he  com  nf  the  Bre(on  biehopa  who  had 
been  guilLy  of  schbm  in  sepsrating  fro(n  their  atetn^ 
puli[an.  The  tenth  contains  certidn  dogmas  relaliig 
(o  grace  (arlginally  put  forth  in  Ihe  flrat  six  canons  of 
Valence,  in  the  Synod  of  Quiercy),  concerning  which 
there  aruae  a  great  contenlion  among  (he  bishop*  pnt- 
ent.  Synodal  lettera  were  addreaaed  to  Tenikm,  the 
Breton  prelales,  and  lo  (hoae  facUous  and  sedidou)  pa> 
suns  whiwe  unbridled  licentlouaneae  had  caused  eitieoi 
dttorrier.    See  Manii,  CouiL  viii,974. 

IL  The  aecond  Council  of  Toua  (alto  callfd  CoactS- 
urn  Tuilaur,  or  TaHiaatue)  was  held  in  S60.  F»ity 
luthapa  from  fourteen  province*  attended.  Fire  can- 
ona  were  published,  directed  against  robbery,  peijury, 
and  other  crimes,  then  very  prevalent.  Although  only 
forty  bishops  were  preeent,  Iheee  canons  are  signed  1^ 
Afty-seren,  the  decreet  of  counols  being  often  imt  1» 
Uw  bithopa  who  were  abaent  for  their  lignature, 

1.  Is  diiHleriagalDsdnvadero  of  rncied  things. 
COn»ecrnied  In  Bod.      '  '      "  "    "f        ' 

5.  On  perjury  and  fslae  wltiieaaei 
4.  Aeiilnal  robbeia  snd  lUhere  giil 


A  qnnodal  let(er  wa*  also  draa 
invaders  of  eccteiiaatical  righia  ann 
plunderers  nf  (he  poor.    See  Hanri, 


ip,  addresacd  I( 

d  propertv,  anil 

i.TOJ. 


Toasaaln.  or  TnsMIiiia,  Damikl,  a  French  Pmt. 
eeiant  minister,  waa  bom  at  Mnnlbelliard,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Donbs,  July  15,  1541.  After  toa>c  edu- 
cation in  hi*  native  place,  Toussain  went  to  Btalc  in 
1555,  where  he  studied  (wo  yean.  He  then  spent  two 
year*  in  Tubingen,  applying  himaelf  (o  belleo-lrltre^ 
phihwophy,  and  dirinity.      Fiodiog  himaelf  indiOier- 


TOW  5< 

tatij  Kqniinted  with  tbe  Freaeh  linguige,  be  went 
Co  Flrii  in  1&&9,  uid,  afLer  i  midena  at  t  year,  weut 
to  Orietna,  where  be  taught  Hebrew  for  »Die  time, 
ud,  being  idmilted  into  tbe  miuiatry,  ufficiited  in  the 
Church  tbere.  While  in  Orluni  he  wu  JVequently  ex- 
fOKii  to  doDgen  uiuDg  out  of  the  war  between  the 
Cubolici  uid  PnXcMcnlt,  but  eacapeil  them  vid  Hnilly 
rMched  Heidelberg,  whither  he  had  been  iurited  by 
Frederick  IIL  llie  prince  irterwardi  emplofed  him 
in  viiiiiuir  the  Keforined  cburcba  in  hi>  dominion!. 
On  the  d«th  of  tbe  elector  in  1670,  hit  sou,  Ciumit,  in- 
Tiitd  I'outuin  to  NeuiUdt,  made  him  ■upeiinlendenl 
tl  the  chkircbea  there,  and,  on  tbe  deatb  ol  Uninua, 
ptoftnor  oTdiTinity.  In  1678  he  preaided  at  a  ivnod 
larabled  by  Carimlr  for  the  purpoee  of  eilabliihin^ 
oonrormity  in  doclrine  and  dlacipliue.  Mid  of  aaaittiiig 
tb*  exile*  of  the  palatinate  When  the  prince  became 
ngtnl  In  liSS,  be  removed  to  Heidelberg,  and  employ- 
ed Tousaain  in  promoting  the  Kefurmed  religion.  In 
1!>86  he  waa  B|:^intcd  to  succeed  Urynsus,  fint  pro- 
ftnuiordivinity  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  16H  waa  oho*- 
SI  rector  of  the  oidTenity.  He  died  Jan.  10,  1602, 
tai  waa  buried  in  the  univeinty  chapeL  Hia  publiab- 
td  wotiia,  in  many  volumea  4lo  and  folio,  are  principal- 
ly commeiitarin  nn  Tarioua  paiu  of  the  Bible,  and  de- 
(rncet  of  particular  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church. 
Bti  life  waa  publiahed  by  hia  eon  Paul  under  the  title 
Vila  fl  ObiiMM  Owntlii  Tuuam,  etc  (Heiddberg,  1609, 
4lo> 

Tow  i«  the  rendering  in  the  A.T.  of  the  Heb.  words 
(1)  r^73,  ueo'mk  (so  called  n  being  ihattn  off  from 
Bai  in  h^tchelling),  rrfiue  (Judg.  zvi,  9)i  (3)  nril^B, 
fiiktik  (taa.  xliii,  B7 ),j(az  (aa  elaewbere  rendered). 


TowbI  (Xii^oi',  for  La^  latnim,  a  Inen  cloth.  Job 

«iii,  4, 6)  was  the  apron  worn  by  lerTants  and  persui 

in  waiting  (aee  Galen,  Dt  Vamp.  Utd.  c  ix|  Sueto: 

Califf.  X).    See  Apkon. 
Tower  is  the  icitdering  in 

tbe  A.  Y.  of  the  following  Heb. 

and  Gr.  words:  1.  inf,  l^n^ 

and  Vna  (Sept.  t  iraX{ic),from 

in?-  'o  "  «arcb,*  "  enploie,"  a 

•torctn- or  watcbert  andfaeace 

Ibe  notion  of  a  walch-tflwer. 

Id  1m.  xxxil,  14  tbe  lower  of 

Opbel  I>  prubably  meant  (Keb. 

iii,  26).     2.  b^JB,  and  V^JB 

«  b"rt    {r'vpjoe\    lanv), 

fmn  bni.  to  "  becume  great,' 

a  lofty  Uiweri  used  sumetimea 

aa  a  proper  notin.     See  U[0- 

Boi.     fl.  n^«  (liTpntntiM- 

Iw),aBtn>ng fortification;  only 

oDoe"  lower"  (Hab.ii,l).    See 

EoTTT.      4.  iti  (dZcoci  ■'o- 

■nu),  onty  in  i  Kings  v,  34.    See  Oran.    6.  HID, 

■mially  'corner,' twice  only  "tower"  {Zepb.  I,  16;  iii, 

S;  ymyia;  angalm).     S.ttafQ   (aninnai  Mptcula), 

■watch-tower.-     See  HuPAil.'     7.  ilifV  (ix''P-'l^" ■ 

rohir),''a  tifuge,"  only  in  poetry.     .See  Misoab.     8. 

niftyoi,  Ibe  general  term  in  the  New  Teat.    See  Fok- 

TIFICATIOM- 

Isolaled  walch-loweiB  or  fortiSed  poela  in  fronlier  or 
exposed  titaatiimt  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  aa  the 
lower  of  Edar,  etc.  {Gen.  jitit,  81;  Uic  iv,  8;  laa. 
xxi,h,8.  Hi  Hab.ii,  1;  Jer.  tI,  37;  Cant.Tli,  4);  the 
lower  of  Lebanon,  perhaps  one  of  David's  "garriaona" 
(MOii,!  8am.  rii,  6;  lUumer, /'uAwr.  p.  29).  Such 
towcra  or  outpoMs  fur  the  defence  of  welta,  and  the  pro. 
laellea  of  llocka  and  of  commerce,  were  built  by  Uiiiah 
b  tb*  iisMure-grounds  (bmAot)  [see  Duxbt],  and 


TOWER 

by  his  sou  Jotbam  in  tbe  fmeati 

(olDruiin)  ot  Judah  (2  Cbron. 
xxTi,  10;  xxvii,  4).  Remaioa 
of  sucb  fortificaliona  may  atill  be 
aeen,  which,  though  not  pcrbapa 
themaelves  of  retoole  antiquity, 
yet  very  probably  hare  aucceeded 
Jcnt  struct  urea  built  in 


Ih*  t> 


e  pUcea  for  liki 


(Kobiiiton,  SiU.  Am.  ii,81,  H6, 180; 
Koberta,  ^tecAu,  pi.  03).  Beaidea 
these  miliuiy  structures,  we  read 
in  Scripture  of  towers  built  in  Tine- 
yarda  as  an  almost  nccesaary  sp- 
penilage  to  them  (laa.  v,3:  Hst^ 
1).  Such  towers  are  still  in  use 
in  Palestine  in  vineyards,  especitlly  near  Hebron,  and 
are  used  as  lodges  for  the  keeper*  of  the  vineyarda. 
During  tbe  vintage  Ibeyare  filled  with  the  penuna  em- 
ployed in  the  work  of  gathering  ihe  grape*  (Kobinson, 
Biii.  ScM.  i,  SttI;  ii,  81;  Uarlineau,  Eait.  Lift,  p.  434; 
De  Saulcy,  TrartU,  i,  646;  Hackeit,  iUutlr.  n/Seiipt. 
p.  16S,  171),    See  LoDas. 

Uural  towers  were  in  all  antiquity  built  aapart  onb* 
fortification*  of  town*,  eepecialty  at  the  comer*  of  Ihe 
walla  and  Ihe  galea  (S  Chron.  liv,  7;   xxvi,  9,  16; 


xii,  fi;  1 


r,  &b,  1 


83,43,  e 


S;  XXX.  SG;  Ezek.  xxvi,  4,  9;  see  Pliny,  //.  A'. 
vi,  23, 1).  Alio  in  Ihe  interior  of  citiea  towers  aerted 
SB  citadels  (Judg.  ix,  46  sq.).  Jerusalem  (q.v.)  was 
especiallv  provided  with  lowen  of  this  deacription, 
many  of  which  had  specisl  names  (Neh.iii,  II ;  xii,38j 
Jer.  zizi,  88,  etc).  Tboae  on  Ihe  walla  and  at  ihe 
galea  were  uaed  for  sentries  (!  Rings  jx,  17;  ivii, 
9;  xviii,  8;  Eiek.  xxvit,  II).  Tiie  Temple  {»  '•) 
wai  likewi**  aupplied  with  numemns  tower*.  The 
"  tower  in  Sibtam  "  (q,  v.)  (Luke  xiii,  4)  was  probably 
some  mural  defence  near  that  founlaio.  Sea  Oat«i 
Wau. 


Ancient  Assyrian*  Attacking  Mi 
Among  m 


!b  TuTTCted  Engine 


:nt  nations,  especially  the  Baby- 
imployed  in  the  «ege  of  cities,  as 
appears  fmn  Ihe  prophet's  account  of  tbe  divinaiiuo 
used  by  the  king  of  Babylon  to  determine  bii  line  of 
march  into  the  kingdom  »f  Judah  i  "At  big  tighl  hand 
waa  tbe  divination  for  Jerusalem,  to  appoint  captains, 
to  open  the  mouth  in  tbe  slaughter,  to  lift  up  the  voice 
with  shouting,  to  appoint  baliering-rams  againal  the 
gate,  and  to  build  a  lower  (Eiek.  xxi,  22).     See  Bat- 

elephania  were  used  to  carry  warriors  in  battle  (I  Haec 
vi,  S7;  comp.  Pliny,  H.  A',  xi.  I,"  lurrigeri  elephsnlo- 
rum  humeri").  In  Roman  aieges  Ihe  tower  (chai,  from 
the  vine-branchee  with  which  it  was  oflen  thatched), 
run  on  wheels  along  an  artificial  causeway  (aggtr),  was 
proverbial  (Luke  xix,  43).    See  Mount. 

In  tbe  %urattve  language  of  Scripture,  towers  ar« 


lu  Uilltiirj  Towen. 


uwd  fnr  deftnJ 


een  •dopled  b; 
Id  far  exceed  the 


dilfcre 


liefly  conlinni  to 
u«  in  Ihe  Middle  Age«  in  Eiig- 
III  (urta  of  Eurup«,  and  more  es- 
)  iif  churches.  Amuiig  ihe  Greeks 
were  emptoyetl  of  various  furms 


lower  of  Aiidroniciii  CyrrheMeii,  called  also  the  Tpmple 
of  the  Winds,  IL  Athens,  is  oc«gon»l;  at  Aulnn.  in 
France,  a  considerable  pan  of  a  large  and  lofty  square 
tower  of  late  Konian  work  esista.  The  tower  fur  the 
use  of  bella  is  supposed  not  to  have  been  uitnxluced  till 
Ihe  Alh  ceulnry,  and  hence  the  lemi  cnaipaiiHf,  applied 
to  the  lulian  lowers.     See  SciittL 

In  the  Middle  Agta  the  towers  of  castles  were  nu- 
meiouB  and  of  sinking  character,  DuriiiK  the  preva- 
lence of  the  S'omiaii  style  the  keep  often  consisted  of  a 
\trf(t  reciaiiRular  tower,  with  others  of  smaller  size  at- 
tached to  the  angles,  and  theae  last  mentioned  general- 
ly rose  higher  than  the  main  building,  aa  at  the  White 
'i'liwer  of  London  and  the  oaatlea  of  Rochener  and 
Uuildford.  The  keep  tower  of  Conisbui^h  Castle,  in 
Yorkshire,  which  is  of  the  latett  Norman  work,  is  cir- 
cular, with  lariie 


t'iallv  ii 


s  ^orm^  often  irr^ular,  apparently 
ao  constructed  a*  being  considered  best  adapted  to  the 
peculiarities  of  Ihe  sites,  and  the  systems  of  defence  in 
use  at  the  periods  uf  their  erection.  Bet-idea  these  main 
towers,  many  olheta,  which,  though  of  less  magnitude 
than  the  keep,  were  often  of  very  cimsiderahle  siie, 
were  empkiyeil  in  different  parts  of  fo^iticalinn^  espe- 
cially at  (1m-  en irance.v  where  the  gateways  were  gen- 
•rally  ttaoked  by  towers  pmjecting  considerably  before 


4  TOWER 

the  tuain  walla;  tbese  were  pierced  with  loop-botea  and 


onlys. 


lations.    See  Tub 

Church-towers  of  all  dates  are  greatly  divenilied,  not 
only  in  their  details,  but  also  in  general  proportions  and 
form ;  they  are  occasionally  detached  from  the  building 
to  which  they  belong,  but  are  usually  annexed  to  it, 
and  are  to  be  found  placed  in  almost  every  pounble  nt- 
uation  except  about  the  east  end  of  the  cbatweL  In 
all  caaea  their  use  was  fur  hanging  the  bells,  and  henee 
the  name  bd/rg.  Ijir^  churches  have  often  aeveral 
toweis,  especially  when  the  plan  is  crucifurm;  and  in 
this  caae  there  are  generally  two  at  the  west  end.  and 

cathedrals  of  Canierbur}-,  Yurk.  and  Lin- 


rdinary  parish  churches  hi 
imples,  w" 


re  there 
II  slory  of  a 


isuilly  hi 


made  to  form  a  porch  w 
ride,  aa  at  Cranbrook,  and  many  other  churches  in 
Kent;  or  on  three  indeii,aaat  Newnham,  Nonliamptoo- 
shire.  In  towns,  towers  are  sometimes  placed  over  pub- 
lic thoroughfares,  and  in  auch  uluations  arc  built  on 
open  arehwsys.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  ctaurch-low- 
en  which  batter,  or  diminish  upward:  these  are  gen- 
erally of  N'urman  or  Early  English  dale;  but  in  hum 
diBtricls,a8  in  Northamptonshire,  this  mode  of  construe - 
Ijon  was  continued  to  a  later  period. 

The  towers  belonging  to  the  style  described  in  the  arti- 
cle Saxon  ARCiitTKcritBit  (q.  v.)  are  square  and  masBTc. 
Dot  of  lofty  proportions,  and  apparently  never  were  pn>- 
viileil  with  stone  slaircaaes.  Some  of  (hem  are  coDDd- 
erably  ornamented,  aa  at  the  churches  of  Bamack  and 
EitI's  Barton,  Northamptonshire;  and  otben  are  very 
plain,  as  at  St.  Michael's,  Oxford,  and  St.  Benet't,  Cam- 
bridge: the  lower  of  the  Church  of  Somptiog,  SuHei, 
which  belongs  to  this  style,  terminatea  with  a  gable  oi 
each  of  the  four  sides,  and  is  aurmuunled  by  a  wooden 
spire;  but  whether  or  not  this  was  tbe  tviginal  fvrai 
may  be  doubted. 

In  some  parts  of  Great  Britain  drcular  church-lowen 
are  to  be  found.  These  have  sometimes  been  assamtd 
to  be  of  very  high  antiquity,  but  the  character  of  tbdr 
architecture  shows  that  they  commonly  belong  to  the 
Norman  and  Early  English  styles.  They  are  buUt  of 
rough  flints,  generally  of  coarse  workmanship,  with  very 
little  amament  of  any  kind,  and  that  little,  for  Ihe  most 
patt,  atfout  the  upper  story :  one  of  the  best  euun|to 
is  that  of  Little  Saxham  Church,  Suffolk,  riain  touixl 
lowers  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  are  of  all 
periods:   the  only  materials  readily  accewble  \iaBg 

ailmilting  of  square 


generally  Vjuare.  and 
uf  rather  low  propor- 
tions, seldom  rising 
much  more  than  their 


ly  provided  with   a 

ried  np  in  a  project-  i 
ing  turret  attached  J 
to    one   of   the    an-  ' 


TOWER  5( 

l*r  exleroiUf ,  but  tbt  foim  ii  not  nnlnqaently  chinged 
towudi  the  lopt  eapecjAlly  if  Lho  turreL  U  cjurieil  up 
tht  whole  twigbc  of  the  tower;  ixxuianiUy  polyguiiHl 
Ndiouui  tawera  are  tu  be  met  with,  u  at  Ely  Cathe- 
driL  Id  Nunoandy  ■  few  exampLea  of  village  cburch- 
tmen  of  this  style  eiLit,  whicb  are  capped  witb  pr- 
tamidal  itune  roofs,  like  low  square  Bpiies,  but  in  gen- 
«iJ  [he  ro-'fa  and  parapets  are  additinns  of  later  date. 
Hiny  Nurman  conrere  are  very  eoniideiably  ornamented, 
the  upper  storie*  being  usually  tbe  richest,  while  otbers 
aie  rery  plain.  (loDd  speeiDiena  remain  at  St.  Alban's 
Abbey :  tbe  cathedrals  of  Norwich,  Exeter,  and  Winches- 
ter; Tewkeibury  Abbey .  bouihwellMiiiMcr ;  tbe  cburch. 
B  of  St.  Peter,  North  am  pMii ;  St.  Clement,  Sandnicbi 
My,  Oxlbnlihite ;  Stewidey,  Buckingbamshire,  etc 

In  Earhf  EngliMh  towers  much  greater  variety  of  de- 
BgD  and  proportion  is  fuund  than  in  tbuee  of  prior  date. 
Tbe  prevailing  plan  ii  square,  but  some  examples  ate 
octagoni],  and  occasionally  tlie  upper  part  of  a  aquire 
tower  is  changed  to  an  octagon.  Projecting  stair-tur- 
reu  are  almoM  univeraal,  though  Ihey  are  frequently  bo 
much  masked  by  buttresses  as  to  be  in  great  measure 
eoneealed.  Many  towers  in  tbii  ity  le  are  of  lofty  pro- 
poniuni,  while  othen  are  low  and  masaive.  The  best  ex- 
amples are  geaerally  more  or  leu  oniamented,  and  some 


—  /ery  materially 
from  Eirlv  English 
oweia.  Many  are 
'ery  lofty,  anil  oth- 
riB  of  low  propor- 
iuna;  aume  highly  ' 
nticbed,  and  some 
.etfectly  plain;  a 
■rge.  anil  probably 
be  greater,  number 
ire  crowned  with 
>arapets,  usually  witb 


■Dddlelau  Staney,  Oifordihire,  eir.  lUU. 
art  very  highly  enriched.  The  belfn'  windowa  are  often 
la^e  and  deeply  reccaied,  with  numeroua  bold  mould- 
ings  in  tbe  Jambs,  and  aometimea  appear  to  have  been 
ciriginally  left  quite  open.  Considerable  variety  of  out- 
line is  produced  by  the  diflerenl  arrangement,  sizes,  and 
ferms  of  the  bultrcaaea  at  the  anglea  of  towen  in  this 
u  well  aa  in  tbe  later  atyles  of  Gothic  architecture,  and 
■omeiinies,  instead  of  butttestra,  small  turrets  are  used, 
which  rise  rmm  the  ground  and  generally  terminate  in 
pinnacles.  Many  towen  of  this  dale  are  finished  at 
the  tap  with  parapets,  some  of  ibem  with  pinnacles  at 
the  a^gle^  a  few  with  two  B*blea,  called  pack-axldle 
n)ufa<as  Brookth<irpe,Narthamplanahire>,a[Kl  many  are 
•urmnonied  with  spires,  which,  although  perhaps  in  the 
majority  of  casea  they  are  nf  later  date  than  the  lower*, 
appear  to  faave  been  originally  contemplated.  Exam- 
ples rcToain  at  the  cathedrals  of  Oxford  and  Petetbor- 
muh;  tbe  churches  of  .St.  Mart-,  Stamford :  Ketton  ami 
Rvhall,  Rutland ;  Loddinglon  a;^d  Raundea,  Nonbamp- 
lonrhire;  Uiddleton  Sioney,  Oxforrlshire,  etc. 

In  the  Drcoraltd  and  PrrpmUculnr  styles  lowers 
dilfci  v«y  considerably  both  in  pmponions  and  amount 
of  eoricbinent,  and  conaiderable  diveruty  of  outline  and 
efleet  ia  produced  by  varying  the  arrangement  and  form 
tf  tbe  Bubordinate  pana,  such  aa  windows,  bultrenwa. 


I    gener, 


Qt  dif- 


.>n  each  of  (he  ai 


lanterns.     Decorated 


.  I  u  ..'  '  1.  _~  Brookthorpe,  NorlbamptoDshire, 
ark,  Nottingham-  eir.  l»M, 

■hire;     Finedon, 

Northamptonshire;  St.  Mary's,  Oxford,  etc.  Perpen- 
dicular lowers  are  very  numerous  in  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  especially  in  Somersetshire.    Among  auch  as 

at  Cautertiury,  York, and  Gloucester  cathfdralu;  and  tbB 
churches  at  Boston  and 


(ilinicestersbite ;    Great 

II  alvern,  VVorcealenh  ire ; 

Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford. 

Toirara,  Jiwbfh, 
LUD,  a  Disaenting 
minister,  vas  bom  In 
Southualh,  London,  ia 
1737,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  Ur.  Uoad- 
hy,  printer,  at  Sher- 
borne^ Domelshire,  in 
17M.  He  returned  to 
London  in  176^  when 

and   afterwards   became  j 

iirdained  a  preacher  in 
1774,  and  was  chosen 
pastor  of  a  congregation 
stllighgate.  In  17TS  he 
became  forenoon  preach-  i 
er  at  a  chapel  in  New-  I 
ington  Green.    He  died  ^ 

an  Arian,  though  clow . 
connected  with  the  Unitarians.  He  wrote,  Bfriw  of 
Ihf  amuim  Dodi-imofChrUHmils  (Loud.  1768, 8vo>: 
—  ObureiUiota  m  llumt't  HiMlory  n/  Engliml  (ibid. 
1778,  8vo);— Bri/i«i  Biogmphy  (1766-72,7  voUBro; 
1773-80, 10  vole.  8vo  [vole,  i-vii  by  Towers;  viii-x  by  c 
clergyman])  -.—  Vittdicalioa  nflht  Pr,Ulwal  Opinumt  of 
iMit  (17S2.  8io) :— jWomnri  o/  Frrdrnck  tie  Grrat 
(1788.  2  voK  Svo;  1795,  2  vols.  8vo:— rnirtj  on  PoKf- 


Brlallngton.  Somersetshire. 


TOWERSON 

kal  and  other  8a}gtcli  (179S,  8  Tota.  8n>) :— bedd«a  S<r- 
miHu,  and  udclen  lo  tbe  Btograj^ia  Brilaiaiica.     See 
AltiUine,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Aaier.  A  aihon, 
ling,  Cydop.  Bittiog.  ■.  v. 

ToTveraon,  Uabsikl,  D.D.,  ■  Iruned  Eogluh  di- 
1-inc,  WIS  a  nicive  or  MlridlcKX,  and  became  a 
moner  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1G50,  ithe 
UHik  hia  A.M.  in  1667.    lu  16eo  he  wu  elected  feOatr 
iifAU-Snul)',  and  entered  bolfordenat  about  the  > 
lime.     He  wis  lint  prefeiml'to  the  rectory  of  Wel> 
ill  tlertfonlshire,  and  took  hii  degree  of  D.D.  in  1677. 
An  April,  1992,  be  was  inducted  into  the  living  of  St, 
Andrew  Unilerahari,Lonclon,  to  which  he  wu  pmented 
by  kinR  William.    He  died  in  October,  lE97,aiid  was 
interteil  at  Welirvn.     His  works  are,  .4  Brv/ A  ctoitnt 
of  Some  Kxprruioai  in  SL  A  thamuiui'i  Creed  (Oxford, 
1663,  itoy.—An  Expliealim  <if  llu  Detalogue,  or  Tm 
CommandmeBti,  and  an  Ezplication  of  the  CalecSitm  of 
the  Church  of  Kokand  (Lond.  1676-88,  4  pts.  foL):— 
Of  the  SaeramenU  in  General,  etc.  (iliid.  1686,  Bvo):— 
Of  the  Sacrament  of  Baplirm  in  Partiailar  among  At 
Heathen  and  Jeai,  etc  (1687,  Bvo).     See  Chalmers, 
Biug.  Diet,  ^v.;  Mxbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  aad  Amer.   ' 
thori,  g.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Biihog.  a.  v. 

Towgood,  Kloalab,  an  English  Dissenting 
liter,  was  born  st  Amniniter  in  1700,  l>ccaine  [xstur  at 
Miireton-Himpstead  in  1722,  removed  Co  Creditui   ' 
1736,  and  in  1760  to  Exeter,  where  he  died  in  1' 
He  wrote,  Diutuler-e  Apologg  (Lend.  1789,  Svo) :— i«f- 
eenting  GealUnum'i  Aniwer  to  Ita.  Mr.  While {^^i&^^&, 
6thed.3voli.8vo);— £:wayoaCi<irZu/(171S;  newed. 
lliH,\imo):—DittertaiiiaiMonChritliaitBaptiii»{UtO; 
new  ed.  with  notes,  etc,  IS1&,  ISmo).    See  Allibone, 
Uit.  of  B'-il.  ar<d  .4«m^iirWa,8.v.i  Manning, /.i/e 
and  Wiilingi  -f  Toagood  (I792>)  Skeals,  IltM.  of  Ft 
Chanhei  of  England,  p.  419  sq. 

Tovgood,  Richard,  *n  English  prelate,  was 
mule  Jem  of  Driatol  in  1667,  and  died  in  1688.  He 
[Mililished  a  Sei-mon  on  Adi  vii,8  (Lond.  1676).  See 
Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  AtOkori,  a. 

Town  (not  carefully  diitinguished  in  tbe  A.  V.  from 
"cily,"  wlikh  latter  is  tlie  usual  rendering  of '^'<S,  occi 
aioiially  "town:"  this  litter  is  alw>  the  tniHlaiion,  ■ 
times,  of  n^p,  prop.  •  teaU,  ts  usually  rendered ;  "^Xn, 
"illuge,  as  generally  rendered ;  atMl  so  cu/iq  in  the  New 
TesL  [onee  more  distinctively  nu/idwoXic,  Hark  i,  38] ; 
rS,  a  daughter,  sonetimes  fig.  employed ;  TVfin,  oi 
in  the  phrase  Havotli-jair  fq.  v.];  tlinD,  "unwalled 
lowna,"  meant  tither  open  country).  The  lit 
of  iuch  collective  residence  occurs  early  in  the  antedilu- 
Tian  history  (Gen.  iv,  17).  but  we  ire  not  to  think,  * 
the  cue  of  such  primitive  "dtiee,"  of  anything  mt 
than  ■  mere  hamlet,  the  nucleus,  perhaps,  of  an  eventi 
metropolis.  Towns,  however,  ippear  in  tbe  history 
the  patriarchs  as  strong  central  points  of  the  tgriculu 
ural  tribes  in  nomidic  regions.  They  were  therefore 
enclosed  with  wills,  and  thus  each  town  wai  originally 
»  furtreas  (see  Numb.xxxii,  17;  betice  the  letni '^33^, 
litenUy  a  fort,  applied  tar  i£o™v  lo  Tvre,  Josh.'xix, 
29:  2Sam.  xxiv,7)iBuch  as  the  cities  which  the  Is- 
nelitea  captured  and  demolished  under  Joshua.  Pur 
this  purpose  eminences  ind  hills  (comp.  Mitt,  v,  14) 
were  nsturillyselecteil  as  more  commandin);  and  secure 
sites  (see  Kcinig,  De  Monlibut,  Urbiwn  Aniiquin.  Sedt- 
bui  [Atinsberg.  1796]),  a  precaution  which  Palestine, 
with  its  varied  surface  and  exposed  situation,  especially 
suggested  (comp.  2  Sim,  iv,  6).  We  know  little,  how- 
ever, of  the  exact  irchiieclural  style  of  its  cities,  with 
the  exception  of  Jerusalem.  In  modern  tintes  Oriental 
uiwns  are  built  very  wide-spreading,  and  ofl«ii  include 
extensive  open  spaces,  gardens,  etc  (see  Thevenot,  ii, 
114;  Buckingham. p.95,33o;Tavemier,i, 169;  Rosen- 
mllller,  AforgenL  iv,  895  sq.),  e.  g.  Damascus  (Kiimpfer 
estimates  Ispahan  as  more  than  a  day'a  ride  in  circuit. 


6  TOWN 

AmoH.  Eliot,  p.  168).  Thia  especially  appliea  to  the 
larger  cities  of  Ana,  such  as  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  whith 
endoaed  in  area  <^  many  miles  (see  Bitter,  Erdk.  xi, 
9DS).  The  gatesoflhe  cities  were  closed  (JDab.ii,fiai.i 
Judg.xri,8i  ISim.xiiii,7;  IKingiiv.lS;  PsLcilrii, 
IB,  etc.)  with  strong  folding-doora  (0''nil,  nlri^) 
with  brazen  or  iron  bars  (0"T1''"ia),  and  were  sunnogai. 
ed  by  turrets  (2  Sam.  xriii,  82),  which  were  guarded  by 
sentries  {ver.  24  sq.).    lu  these  the  govemors  and  judges 

(Sn^,  which,  however,  does  not  always  mean  in  opes 
place,  but  sometimea  a  wide  [wXonln]  street.  Gen,  lii, 
2;  Judg.xix,  15, 17,20)  adjoined  (Eirax,  9;  Meh.viii, 
1,  8, 16;  3  Sim.  xxi,  12;  1  Chrao.  xxxii,  6;  Job  iiii, 
7;  Cinb  iii,  2)  where  the  market  wii  held  (i  Kings 
vii,  1 1  camp,  ayopai,  Joaephue,  I^fe,  2£).  The  tmea 
(n'iX«n,Jolisviii,l7;  Iaa.v,26;  Jer.  xxzvii,  21,  etc.; 
C^p;C,Canuiii,3:  Eccles.xij,4,etc;  rXartToi, Halt. 
vl,6;  xii,  19;  Acu  v,  15,  etc)  were  not  so  narrow  (}'N 
aee  araivrot  applied  to  those  of  Jerusalem  in  J«g»> 
phus,H'iir,vi,S,6)  aain  modem  Oriental  towns  (Maun- 
drell,p.l72;  01eariuB,p.291 ;  Rumeggcr.  i,  367 ;  KuUn- 
son,  i,  38 ;  iii,  897),  where,  as  in  Acre  (Mariti.  p.  246), 
scarcely  two  Uden  cimeli,  or  in  Dimascui  (Schubeil, 
iii,  29)  scarcely  ■  single  one,  em  piss  (Burekhirdt,  ^  nA 
p.  151).  The  streets  of  Hebrew  antiquity  (at  lean  in 
the  Urge  tovms)  hid  nimes,  which  were  sometiaxs 
lakrnfromthoseof  the  kind  of  tride  carried  on  in  then 
(Jer.  xxxvii,  2;  comp.  dyopoi,  Joseph  us.  War,  v,8, 1, 
like  modem  ioKiars;  Ku»ell,^i7J7w,i,29sq.;  HunKr, 
i,  245  sq. ;  Arvieux,  i,  56 ;  Ker  Porter,  i,  406, 407).  Tbey 
were  oceisionilly  paved  in  the  later  period  (Jcwphu, 
.4W.xv,9,6;xvi,6.B;ix,g,7)iineirliertimes(conip. 
Isidore,  Orig.  xv,  16)  we  find  notice  of  paving  in  the 
court  of  the  Temple  (2  Kings  xvi,  17).  From  1  Kisp 
IX,  84  II  would  seem  tbit  kings  sometimea  consinteied 
or  improved  certain  iveouea  (comp.  RoeenmUller,  Mar- 
getd,  iii,  201  sq.).  Aqueducts  (n^bjFI)  were  bailt  in  Je- 
rusilem  before  the  eiitc  (2  Kings  xx,  30;  Iaa.rii,S; 
-■•-•■•  9-  for  Hiate's  undertaking  see  Josephus,  .lil, 
,  8,  2;  comp.  ITni-,  ii,  17,  9;  Robinson,  ii,  166  sq.}; 
■  citiee  were  supplied  by  springs  (tee  Josephus,  ^at 
18, 1)  and  cisterns,  the  latter,  at  times,  of  verv  ex- 
pemiveconBtmction(lf<ir,  vii,8,3).    See  Watkr. 

the  varied  oondition  of  citiea  in  pre-exilian 
Palestine  we  have  only  diacnnnected  notico. 
The  oldest  ones  of  the  land  were  destroyed  br  a  nituni 
r  miraculous  comboation  in  Abraham's'  tiRie'(Uen.  xix, 
4  sq.).     During  the  conquM  by  the  [sTKlitn  msny 
rere  destroyed  by  fire  (Josh,  vi,  S4, 26;  xi,  13),  i>ut  liter 
lere  in  part  rebuilt  {Judg.  i,S6;  1  Kings  xvi,  24)  and 
mbellished  (Judg.  iviii,  28;  I  Kings  xii,  85;  xv,  17; 
vii,  21 ;  comp.  2  Chron.  viii,  5).     The  Childiein  invi- 
ion  made  (especiilly  in  the  case  or  Jerusalem)  many 
hangei,  and  during  the  exile  most  of  the  cities  were 
deserted.    The  SyrianwiranndertfaeMaccabeeawuted 
-  destroyed  several  (seel  Mace  V,  44, 66 :  ii,  62).    Otb- 
s,  however,  eapediUy  Jemsilem,  were  furtiSed,  ind 
castles  and  dudeli  were  built  (ver.GO;  xii,  88;  xiii^; 
10;  Josephus,  War,  iv,  7,  2;   Ant.  xiii,  16, 
g  the  Roman  period  ci^es  especially  multi- 
plied, chiefly  under  the  patronage  of  the  Herodian  fam- 
ily; but  many  of  them  were  largely  occuped  bv  Gen- 
res, with  their  beatbenlsh  theatres,  gymnasia,'s«Klia, 
1  temple,  (ibid,  xv,  5,  2;  xviii,  2,  1  ind  B;  xi.  9,  i 
).     FortiBcations  and  (owns  also  iucressed  {HM.  x», 
;   War,  rii,  8,  8).     The  post-exilisn  topographv  of 
Palestine  therefore  exhibits  many  names  of  plain  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Test.;  some  of  tfaem,  howeva, 
may  have  existed  eiriier.    The  diatiiot  of  Galilee  was 
especially  rich  in  towns  and  villagea,  which  ■mounted  in 
■Utotwohundredandfour(tt/-e,4i).    See  pALWintt 
The  names  of  Palestinian  cities  wen  almoat  invaria- 
bly signiAcint,  as  appears  from  tbe  present  situation 
and  conBguraiion  of  tbe  land  (e.g.  Aiu,/<wisAiM,- Bnb- 


TOWN 


,  ,-   Gibeoo,  ttetalion ;   Mizpah, 

Mac-oHi,'  RamRh,  itiglU;  mwiy  of  them,  acconliiiijly, 
lueil  with  the  uticle).  Numb«n  of  thcM  arc  ciini- 
pnuiided,  (.  g.  wiib  n'3  <_ioutt ;  Ke  RiMiger,  Di  A  rnb, 
lAror.  llil.  Jilrrpnl.'p.il'),  n^J  or  n^"ip  (city),  isn 
(Oiurt),  p^5  (valley;,  i3!(  (meadnw),  itta  (mU),  yj 
(■(Hing),  and  in  lh«  pow-cxjlian  periud  with  1||3  (vU- 
b^'C);  [hciM  with  ^79  (Baal)  appear  to  have  beeo  of 
Canunitiih  origin  (lee  Puiofka,  U^  d.  Eimfiau  der 
Gotlinlfit  aiif  OrUmamm  [Beri.  IM'2]).  Some  are  of 
dual  (KiijaChuRi,  Jeruulem,  Dotban)  or  plural  form 
(Kerioili,  Analhotb,  Uebim) ;  in  one  cue  (Belb-horon) 

6evenl  pUcea  of  tbe  ume  name  are  dislinguiflieil  liy 
the  name  of  the  tribe  added  (aeeUalCii,  1,5;  zxi,  11; 
Luke  IT,  3 1 ).  In  U»maa  times,  eipeciiU;  under  the  Her- 
ods,  many  old  name*  were  diiplaced  by  others  of  Creek 
or  Latin  origin  (e.g.  Diwipuli«,Neapulia,5eba>le,C«areB, 
Tiberiaa;  later £liaCapitolina),<omeuf  which  bav-.  "' 
iunived(coinp.Ammi»n.Marcel.xiv,8), while  the 
oflbem  hBTc  again  yielded  to  the  o1derappdUlii>n(ci>nip. 
JoiephuisK'ur,i,l,2;  .In'.xiii.lS.S;  KeReland./'uloif 

IPtimtr.Drirn a/lit  Wai^rias,p.8l).     See  Namk. 

Uii  the  population  of  the  citiea  of  Palestine  nolhin,_ 
defloite  i*  kntiwn,  for  the  niimben  (as  Judg.  xx,  IB)  fnim 
which  an  ettimate  might  te  made  are  in  many  caw 
nipt  (Juscphua's  BtaleiDeiita  [e.g.  Wtii,iVi,3, 1]  an 
p>r:iu<i>;buiHeKiiumer,/'a^f.p.lSOiii.).  .SeeNui 

Adi«iinciian  between  walleil  tuwiia  and  open  villaf^ea 
is  not  unirurmly  mainUined  in  the  Old  Test.,altb 
ill  the  later  period  they  began  to  he  diuinguiahec 
rit^S,  Ezek.  xxxviii.  11 ;  D^^XTI,  Neh.  xi,  36;  camp. 
ri:a,'Munib.  ixi,S6,3!t  Josh,  x'v,  lA;  Judg.  xi, 
]Ieh.u.2&:  CK,  3  Sam.  XX,  19;  see  Ueaenius,  ^ontiin. 
Pian.  ii,  3C3 ;  a  metropolia  or  province  a  cilleri  DJi^i: 
in  ibe  Talmud,  Sfiuu.  Slim,  iii,  i,  etc).  1'he'  ~ 
Te*!^  however,  makes  aucb  distiiieri<H»  (Jluk  i,  88; 
eomi<.  Uaii.  x,  1 1 ;  Hark  vi,  M  [viii,^7] ;  Luke  viit,  IS, 
Sii  Act!  viii,  ib):  mufiq,  e.  R.  Bethphage  (Halt,  xii, 
ii).  Itetbwiy  (John  xi,  I),  Kmmauf  (Luke  ixiv,  18), 
Drihlehem  (John  vii,43);  but  it'^Aic,  e.g.  Natareth, 
Capernaum,  Naiii ;  hot  these  lerms  are  uieil  luoHety,  and 
the  cvmpoutiU  cwfi'iCoAii'  even  occuni.  So,  likewise, 
JoaephuB  uaea  ruAic  ami  cwfitf  almost  interchangeably 
(see  /.i/f,  45;  .4nf.  xi,  6,  Ii),  and  lie  occasionally  em- 
pkiy.  tbe  diminutive  ro\ix<n,  (  War.  W,  2, 1).  In  gen- 
enl,  however,  nv/iij  (village)  chieHy  belongs  to  those 
places  whoae  name  is  com  pun  nded  with  *iB3  (lietvniun, 
Tlenw.  ii,707).  The  Talmnilius  (but  camp.  Mrgiilah, 
1,8;  £rv6u>,T,6)  distinguish  places  llius:  CS'^S, 
with  defencea;  ni-i">y,  towns  witboiil  fiffiidcal 
O-nCJ,  villages  (LightftW,  Hot.  IMr.  p.  S99  sq.).  Be- 
Und'^ve  the  firu  exten«ve  list  of  the  localities  of  Pal- 
teline  (in  hia  PaUaHaa),  which  might  be  greatly  en- 
larged rrom  the  Talmud  (see  Hiiba  Ualkra,  ii  and  iii; 
bahii  MrtliaA.  xi,  6).     See  ToPOdKAtKICAL  TtHMB. 

On  the  municipal  gnvcmmenti'rpre-exiliau  rilcsliue 
DO  ileflnitc  inronnation  remains.  There  were  Judges 
(D'SBB)  aoil  oveneers  (C'^V^)  t>o>h  named  as  offi- 
ter>(Ueut.xvi,18),butth«  latter  title  is  not  clear;  and 
ebewhere  the  elders  appear  m  civil  luthuritiea.  In 
psu-txilian  lintes  the  magistrates  of  Palestinian  cities 
arecalMenuncillnni  (^ouXni,  Josephiis,  /.{/>,  13,18,34, 
tl,m,  at  wboae  head,  as  it  would  seem,  stands  a  ruler 
(aotwi'.  iM.  37 ;  IVar,  ii,  II,  S).  But  rtoin  these  are 
lobediMinguiabed  the  lertilorialirrfMnryoior  lirap\oi, 
who  had  their  seat  in  certain  towns,  and  pniliably  bad 
civil  Jurisdiction  over  a  particuUr  district  (Li/r,  9,  1 1, 
IT;  A^U.  lii,  7.  i).  On  the  civil  law  in  cities  see  the 
Hiihna  (,&mi/dr.  i,  1  sq.).     See  (iovERHMENT. 

The  gate*  of  cities  were  guarded  during  the  day  by 
Mntinel^  who  looked  out  Urom  the  turret  on  the  wall* 


with  a 


TOWN-CLERK 


,11),  a 


ii,«). 


Kighl  patrols  are  also  mentioned  (C 
lighting  the  streets,  however,  there  is  no  trace)  ai  in 
western  towns  (Becker,  Gallui',  i,  383  sq.].  See  Watch. 
Tbe  mile-«toties  (still  extant,  Robinson,  iii,  693)  set  np 
alung  tbe  mads  to  indicate  the  distance  of  one  tnwn  from 
aiicrtherbclongio  Roman  limes  (see  Ideler.in  the .Scftri/?, 
d.  BtrL  A  tad.  13 13,  hisL  class,  p.  134  sq.).  On  this  point, 
and  on  the  geographical  position  of  towns,  there  an 
only  incidental  notices  Id  the  canonical  books  (see  Gen, 
iii,  8;  Judg.  xxi,  19,  etc),  and  clearer  indications  ap- 
pear in  the  books  of  Maccabees,  and  particuUrly  in  Jo< 
■ephus  (see  Li/t,  1  i,  34, 61,  etc,  collated  by  Reland,  Pa- 
lail.  ii,  c  6;  comp.  Mishna,  J/aiu.  Sheni,  v,  S) »  but  it  i« 
not  till  the  lime  of  Euselnus  and  bis  Latin  editor,  Jc- 
mme  (in  bis  Ommatliciiri),  that  we  get  definite  data  on 
these  pointa;  while  the  later  itineraries  (namely,  the 
Ilinerar.  Aiaonini  [not  the  emperor  of  ihat  name]  and 
the  IliiL  HarotoL  [both  edited  by  Westeling,  Amst- 
ITBo,  4lo])  and  Abulfeda  {Talmta  Hyriir)  give  full  and 

supplcmentefl  (and  often  coneited)  by  modem  compari- 
Bons  and  tncasurtmenta.    Se«  Giogiufbt. 

Town-Clerk  {ypamtartit,  a  tcribe,  as  ebewhere 
often  rendered)  is  tbe  title  ascribed  in  theA.V.  to  the 
magistrate  at  Epheaua  who  appeased  the  mob  in  the 
theatre  at  the  Ume  of  tbe  tumult  exciieil  bv  Demetrius 
and  his  fellow-craftsmen  (Acts  xix,3A).    Theotherpii- 

cepl  those  from  the  Vulg.  (WycliRr,  the  Kliemish), 
wbich  render  "scribe.''  A  digest  of  Bi>ckb's  views,  in 
his  StauUluiuMkaUuag,  respecting  the  functions  of  this 
oSicet  at  Athena  (there  were  three  grailes  of  the  order 
there),  will  be  found  in  Smith's  Diet. n/ Clan.  Ant.  t.  v. 
"tirammateua."  Tbe  ypannaTiit, or  "town-clerk,"!! 
Epbesus  was,  no  doubt,  ■  more  important  person  in  that 
citv  than  any  of  the  public  officers  designated  by  that 
teiin  in  Greece  (see  Creawell,  Diutrtaliimt,  iv,' 163)1 
The  title  is  preserved  on  various  ancient  CMns  (Wett- 
stein,  Not.  TeH.  ii,  686 ;  Akermann,  A'uinuinitric  HImm- 
Iralioni,  p.  68),  which  fully  illustrate  tbe  rank  and  dig- 
nity of  The  office.  It  would  appear  Ihalnhal  may  have 
been  the  original  service  of  this  class  of  men,  viz.  to 
record  the  laws  and  decrees  of  ibe  slate,  and  to  read 
them  ill  public,  embraced  st  length,  especially  under 
the  ascendency  of  the  Romans  in  Asia  Minor,  a  much 
wider  sphere  of  duty,  so  as  to  make  them,  in  some  in- 
stances, in  eflbct  tbe  heads  ur  chiefs  of  the  municipal 
government  and  even  high-priests  (Deyling,  Oberr.  iii, 
883:  Krebs,fl«ni*a  Horn.  p.  SB2).  They  were  author- 
ized to  preside  over  the  popalat  assemblies  and  submit 
voles  to  Ihem,  and  are  mentioned  on  marbles  as  acting 
in  that  capacity.  In  cases  where  they  were  aasocialed 
wiih  a  superior  msgintrate,  they  succeeded  to  his  place 
and  discharged  his  functions  when  the  latter  was  ab- 
sent or  had  died.  "  On  the  subjugation  of  Asia  by  the 
Romans,"  saya  Baumslark  ( Pauty,  Enrycttp.  iii,  949  \ 
"  ypofifiariic  "ere  appointed  there  in  the  chancier  of 
governors  of  single  cities  and  districts,  who  even  placed 
their  names  on  the  coins  of  their  cities,  caused  tbp  I'par 
to  be  named  from  them,  and  aometimes  were  allowed  to 


Coin  of  Bphwns  reforrlng  to  the  ■' town -clerk." 


TOWNLEY  fil 

Ciritatuia  Alia  Proeoiuula  (Altdoif,  lT3f>);  Van  Dale, 

Diiitrtal.  v,  42S ;  Spuiheim,  De  Uin  rt  Prait.  Kumm.  i, 
7IMi  Krw-EHglaadtr,  i,  IM;  Lewm,  Si.  Paul,  i,  Zlb. 
See  AsiARCii. 

It  is  cTident,  thereroir,  rrom  Luke's  account,  u  illus- 
Iraled  hi'  ancient  records,  Lhit  [he  Ephesiaii  lown-cleik 
Bcied  a  pare  entirely  appropriate  to  the  cliaracl«r  in 
wliith  be  appears.  The  upeech  delivered  by  him,  it 
may  lie  remarked,  is  the  model  of  a  popular  hironcue. 
He  arguGB  that  sucb  eKcitement  as  tbe  Ephesiaiix 
eTinced  was  undigniSed,  inaamuch  as  they  Mood  above 
ail  suspicion  in  religious  maUen  (Acta  xis,  86,  SG); 
Ihat  it  was  uajuatilialile,Bince  they  could  establish  noth- 
ing igaioBt  the  men  whom  they  accused  (ver.ST);  that 


open  to  them  (ver.  38,  39) ;  and,  finaily,  if  neither  pridi 
luira  sense  orjustice  iTuled  anything,  fear  of  the  Ro- 
man power  should  restrtin  them  frain  such  illegal  pro- 
ccedingg  (rer.  40>    See  Epiiksch  :  V\vu 

To^nrnlej,  JtuuAB  (l),*n  English  clergyman  and 
educator,  was  bom  in  London  in  17IG.    He  was  edi 
cited  at  the  Merchant  Tailon*  School,  and  thence  elec 
ed  to  St.  John's  College,  Oxfurd.     Soon  after  taking  o 
dera  he  wai  chosen  morning  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Cliapel,  and  lectnrer  of  St.  Dunatan's  in    the   East. 
Through  Che  patronage  of  lady  Spencer,  to  whom  his 
wife  was  related,  be  obtuned  the  living  of  SC  Bennett, 
Gracecharch,  London ;  and  afierwards  became  gram- 
mar master  to  Christ's  Hospital    In  17S9  he  was  cho- 
*en  high  master  of  the  Merchant  Tailors' School,  and  in 
1777  was  presented  to  a  lii-ing  in  Wales  by  bishop 
Shipley,  to  whom  he  wu  chaplaiiu    He  died  Julv  15, 
177S.      Besides  his  Hiyh  l.ijk  Btiout  atairt,  a   fi 
(Land.  I7&9,  Hvo)  ;  FaUe  Concord,  a  farce,  (1764, 
iuocessful  and  not  printed);  The  Tutor,  a  farce  (T 
4<o,  unsucceasTuI),  he  published  seven  single  Strmemt 
(lT41-e9,  each  Ito).      See  Chilmera,  Bioff.  Did.  a.  i 
Allibonc,  Du*.  of  Bril,  and  A  mer.  A  vlhori,  i.  v. 

Townley,  Jamas  (2), D.D..Bn  eminent  Wesleyi 
minister,  was  bom  in  Manchester,  KngUnd,  May  1 
1774.    His  early  education  was  received  at  the  schoni 
of  Rev.  David  Simpson  (q.  r.}  of  Maccleslicld.     The 

upon  his  heart  by  the  funeral  services  of  his  lamenteil 
teacher,  resulted  in  tbe  commencement  of  that  earnest 
and  true  Christianity  which  waa  ever  his  beat  idommenl. 
lie  became  a  local  preacher  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and 
in  1796  was  received  ou  probation  as  an  itinerant,  from 
which  time  untinH32  he  futlilled  the  duties  of  his  min- 
ialrv  faithfully  and  with  increasing  honor.  In  1X37  he 
■       '  ■  of  the  Wcsieyan  Mis- 


TOWNSKND 

son  i^lit  Amrs  o/Mma,  from  tbe  3fore  A'rfoolwi  of 

Maimonideg,  excellently  translated,  with  notes  (lOOppkX 
diaaertattona  (nine),  and  life  of  the  author  (ibid.  ttti7, 

i)  -.—Inlrod.  to  Liifran/  lluL  oflki  Bible  (ibid.  IMS, 
I2mo;  N.Y.  1832  [a  kind  of  a  asque]  to  his /lH«iJar(«, 
snd  introduction  to  hia  Biblical  Ltlaahirryi -.-^/nrred. 
Ill  Iht  CriUcal  Sla^  of  the  Old  and  Xew  TnlunnU  (his 
last)  -.—Strmm  (in  the  volume  of  MittrUaneoKM  &r- 
moni,hy  Wesleyons,  published  at  the  Confennco  Office 
[  Lond.  1833]}  -.^Hitloni  a/Mittumi  (valuable  ^-ki-tche* 
published  puathumoualy  in  the  Wtll  ifrJk.  Mag.  i- 1 
IBS4,  an  eameat  of  an  exhaustive  work  to  have  bc<  n 
written  had  his  life  been  spared) ;— various  ortidc*  in 
the  .Vith.  Mag.,  etc 

Dr.  Townley's  fame  rests  upon  bis  B&lical  Lilero- 
rurr,R  work  as  valuable  now  as  it  was  upon  the  day  of 
its  publication,  and  which  the  Ecteaic  Rreine  (ivio, 
386, 407)  affirms  to  be  tbe  most  comprvbcusive  oT  the 
kind  in  the  world.     It  won  for  him  the  doctorate  fna 


y  (that 


ig  the  fir 


such  ■  degree  being  conferred  npon  an  English  Wesley- 
an  minister),  tbe  congratulations  of  the  UiiiveTsity  if 
Dublin,  and  numerous  encomiuma  — slight  ctuDproaa- 
tion,  however,  for  the  immense  labor  it  cost.  For  re- 
views and  notices  of  Ihia  work  see  Mah,  Quar,  Bit. 
Julv,  1843,  art.  ij  October,  1842,  p.  G38;  C*™*.  Rrr. 
[Bapliat], June,  1S44  (by  Dr.Smith) ;  Unk.  Quar.  Hag. 
1832,  see  Index  t  Orme,  Bibliolh.  BOA.  p.  435;  Horse, 
Mrod.  etc  On  the  Lift  of  Dr.  Townlev,  ace  i/««n 
ofEng.  Ccmf.  1834;  Boole,  WfL  ilrlh.  Mag.  Hsy,  188(; 
Heck,  in  Amer.  ed.  of  Bibl.  /.it.  vol.  i :  Smith,  HiH.  of 
lf>t/.ife(A.ii,e49,660;  iii,  I44'14«.203;  Stcvena,  ifiri; 
o/ J/rtAorfisiii,  ii,  79;  ifrt*.  J/off.  1S34,  p.  78, 

Towiil«7,  John  H.,  a  Preahyteiian  mintster,  waa 
bom  in  1817.    In  eariv  life  he  became  a  devoted  Chris- 
tian.    His  career  was  short  but  brilliani.     He  was  li- 
censed to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Elixabelh.  and 
ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Chant 
at  Hacketlstown,  N.  J.    He  remained  in  this  charge 
eight  years,  preaching  with  great  acccptatrility  and  uae- 
fulness,  greatly  beloved  by  the  congregation  and  peopie 
of  the  town.     On  resigning  this  charge,  he  accepted  a 
■\  to  the  Clinrcfa  at  Horristown,  N.  J.     As  in  the  to- 
r  cllarge,  during  his  ministry  there  were  repealed 
pourings  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  which  many  apob 
re  coiivcrled  and  added  to  the  Church,  so  in  thi*.i«> 
ala  followed.     Hia  energy  and  fidelity  greatly  eo- 
ired  him  to  the  people  of  his  charge,  and  gave  pnni- 


His 


y  Societ 


yhichot 


le  Conference  at  Shellicld 
in  182D  he  was  elected  to  the  chair;  he  presided  at  the 
Irish  Conference  of  1830,  and  retired  to  Rsmsgaie  in 
I83S.  This  forced  cessation  from  active  work  was  due 
to  physical  prostration  under  his  great  literary,  mission- 
olBce,  and  presdential  toils,  Disaolulion,  in  fact,  was 
already  in  progress;  it  was  only  *  question  of  time. 
After  B  sickness  of  great  suffering,  the  spirit  of  the  gen- 
tle and  generous  Townley  was  released  in  the  triumph 
of  peace  and  fsith,  Dec.  13, 1833. 

Amid  the  active  duties  of  his  pastorate  and  otTices, 
Dr,  Townley  devoted  himself  to  literary  labors  with  an 
indomitable  perseverance.  Hia  studies  in  Biblical  lines 
made  him  in  all  probsbililv  the  most  learned  man  in 
tbe  Wealeyan  Conference  after  Che  death  of  Dr.  Clarke 
(whom  he  only  sur\'tved  filUen  months  end  a  half), 
particulariv  in  all  relating  to  the  literarv  history  of  the 
Bible.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  works:  BiUical 
Anrodolft  (Land.  18l3,l2mo) i—ttltalTalioai  of  Biblicol 
Lileralare,  exhibiting  Che  history  and  fate  of  the  si 
writings,  including  notices  of  trBnalBtora  and  other 
t  Biblical  schoUrs  (ibid.  1831,3  vo]s.8t-o;  1 


Christ,  his  prompt  aiid  ready  co-operation  in  everf 
good  work,  and  his  ability  and  fidelity  in  llie  disrharga 
of  every  duty  devolved  upon  him,  rendered  his  Ion  pc- 
culiariv  afflicting  to  the  Church  and  the  commuaily. 
He  died  at  Morristown,  FeL  5, 1855.    (W.  P.  S.) 


Townaeod,  Oeorge,  D.D.,  i 


c  Rami 


1842,2 


vo):- 


siastical  history  and  antiquity  (Lond.  1824)  i—Tke  Rta- 


English  divin*, 


Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Ho  became  chaplun  la 
bishop  Barringtun  in  1833,  and  was  lanon  of  Dathan 
from  1825  till  his  death,  Nov.  £3,  1857.  He  was  lbs 
author  of  Thr.  Old  Talonvnt  Arrapgrd  u  Hitioricol  i^ 
Chronological  Ordrr,  on  the  Bant  nf  Lighlfool'i  Ckraa- 
iclt,  etc,  with  copiouB  indexea  (Lond.  1821, 2  vols.8n>)l 
^Thc  Nra  Talament  A'Tongedin  Hitloncul and Cinm- 
ologioal  Order,elc  (ibid.  1825,3  vols. 8vo;  5lh  ed.  IWO, 
imp.8vo;  Amer.  ed.  of  both  the  foregoing,  reviaedbvT. 
«'.  Coit,  D.D.,  Boston,  1887, 3  vols.  8vo) :—  The  Aaita- 
IvrntofUiilon/BgaiiatlhtChiireh  n/'ftoav  (Lond.l8A 
8vo;  new  ed.  IS4a,18ma):— TAirty  SernmioH  josko^ 
Ikt  mott  Inltrfliag  Salgrclt  u  Tlienlogy  (1K30,  8vo)  i— 
Plan  for  A  Boliihing  Plumiitiet  and  A'uK-rendnirr.  etc. 
(ibid.  1838,  8vo):-i(/V  and  DefHur,  fXc.  of  BiOef 
Bonner  (1842,  8vo);  SpiriUial  Communion  rili  Gii, 
or  the  PmiaUach  md  the  Boot  of  Job  A  rrangni,  etc. 
(ibid,  a  vols.roy.8vO!  vol  i  in  1845;  voL  ii,  Ociobw, 
1849)  x—Hiiiorical  Reuarciet  .—EeeUtiaMical  aid  Cif 
il  Hielory,  etc.  (iUd.  1847,  3  vola.  6v>)  -^^ottwil  ef  « 


TOWNSEND  5( 

TWr  M  flalg  in  1SG0>  v>(A  m  ^  Cfoml  of  an  Inltfvitv 
xili  lit  Pope  at  the  Vatican  (18S0, 8ro).  See  Allibaae, 
Did.of  BriLaad  Amcr.  Aiitliort,t.v.;  Dirliug,  Cycfs/i. 

Towoaend,  John,  in  English  Diiaenting  miDU- 
ler,  Ku  bom  Mirch  24, 1767,  in  the  pariah  oT  White- 
rhaptl,  Couniv  of  MiJdloez,  He  was  fduoted  for  ttre 
vnn  (t  Clirix's  Huapitsl,  *nd  wu  (hen  apprenticHl  lo 
hii  falhei.  Having  receiveJ  aame  KligioDS  itoprea- 
uaa  frwn  the  preaching  uf  the  Rev.  Henry  Peckwell, 
lit  oUhviI  biuurlf  u  >  member  at  the  Tabernacle,  and 
a)aiDKnc«il  public  teaching  in  Bome  o(  the  vilUgea 
vtund  LAnilon.  but  aooD  received  an  iiivitatiim  la  lup- 
plj'  ihe  Iiidependeat  meeting  at  Kiii)t)lDn,  where  he 
■u  onlained,  June  1,  ITSL  After  three  years  Hr. 
Toimsenrl  quitted  Kingwon  and  Kltleil  at  Bermond- 
K>,  vbere  he  cammenced  his  official  duties  at  mid- 
nmiKr,  17R4,  and  in  which  ailuslion  he  conlinoed  to 
lti»r  in  his  Mailer's  vineyard  till  the  period  of  hi* 
death,  Feb.  7, 1836. 

Mr.TonDseud  was  one  orihefonnden  of  the  London 
ITwiDiiaiy  Society.  He  also  aided  in  Ibe  furmation 
oribe  Tract  Society,  the  Brrliah  and  Ferdgn  Bible  So- 
iH(y,  Ibe  London  Female  Penitentiary,  the  Irish  Evan- 
pliul,  the  Society  for  the  Conreision  of  the  Jews,  the 
Cwigitgational  School  (raised  entirely  by  his  influence), 
the  Fund  for  the  Relief  of  Aged  Ministers,  and  espe- 
ciillyihe  Asylum  fur  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  which,  if  we 
m  not  mistaken,  owed  its  establishment  chiefly  to  his 
(irniniu.  His  sober,  solid,  Judicious  hints  and  ubser- 
iitiuus  were  always  listened  to  with  profound  atten- 
(i<ui,ind  his  advice,  which  WIS  never  officially  obtruded, 
wu  (Iways  acceptable.  As  ■  preacher  he  was  diiliii- 
piiibed  by  good  sense  and  sound  doctrine,  cammendiug 
hioneir  lu  the  conscience  and  the  heart  by  a  dear  and 
judicioui  exhibition  of  divins  Initb.  His  principal 
wHki  are.  Tkm  SermOM  (]797,8to)  —NiM  Ditcouna 
«  PrautT  (&1  ed.  bond.  1799,  Bto)  -.—Hinli  on  Sundiis- 
icheliiad  Ili»eranl  PirocAin?  (  IBOI,  8vo]:~  single 
atrmau  (1786-1808).     See  Allibone,  I>Kt.  of  Brit,  aad 

Towojsnd,  Joaeph,  an  English  cle^yman,  waa 
a  feilDw  nf  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  studied  medi- 
OM:  at  Edinbni^h.  He  afterwanls  entered  holy  orders, 
•od  became  rector  of  Pewsey,  Wiltshire,  and  chaplain 
In  [ddy  Huntingdon,  preaching  in  her  chapel  at  Bath. 
Be  di«l  in  1816.  He  published,  Etrry  Tnie  CkriUian 
a  ,V(w  Crratare  (Lond.  1765, 12mo);— rAoujAd  dm  Da- 
fotie  and  Free  Gotenmunti  (IT81-9],8vu):— />uwrfa- 
liMOnli€Poor-laKi,fyaWtll-iciikfrlo  ifunjh'a(j(17S6, 
Staf—Olatrralioni  on  Varioai  Plant  for  the  Btiiff  qf 
lit  pBor  (1788,  8vo)  t—Tie  dtaradrr  o/Moft  tjiab- 
IMtdftr  Veraaly  at  a  fliloriim,  etc  (Bath,  1813-16, 
S  vda,  4to) :— besides  medical  and  ecientiSc  works,  aer- 
iMiu,etc  See  MYtbotie,  Diet,  a/  Bnl.imd  Anur.  An- 
rWi,i.T.;  Darling,  Cjefop.i'a^.s.v. 

Towasand,  TboDUW  Stuart,  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  was  bom  in  Cork  il»ut  1801,  and  became  dean 
oTLismore  in  July,  IMS;  dean  ofWaterford  in  August, 
ISMi  hishop  of  Mealb  In  September,  1860  j  and  died  at 
lUaga,  Spain,  Sept.  16, 1861.  He  published  some  edu- 
cuimal  and  religious  treatises.  See  IahuL  AOiai.  1849, 
p.819,10S7;  Load.  Gal.  Map.  1862,  a,  622. 

Townabead.  CHAnwcT  IUri,  an  English  cle^y- 
mu,  was  born  in  1800,  and  was  edncated  at  Ttinitv  Hall, 
Csinbridge.  where  be  gradnite.)  A.R  in  1831  and  A.M. 
in  ISU  He  received  (lie  aniveniCy  prize  for  English 
rtae{Jenualrm')in  !S28.  During  his  last  years  he  lived 
riueflv  at  Lausanne,  .Switzerland,  and  died  Feb.  !6, 1H68. 
He  beqiwathed  to  Charles  Dickens  money,  manuscripts, 
BBy^letlera,  etc,  some  of  which  hedeaired  to  be  pub- 
'HAtd.  Accordingly  Mr.  Dickens  published  in  December. 
iiS3,  KiHtiotu  Opinioiu  of  tlie  Rrr.  diauney  TtmmKnd, 
pobUabed  as  directed  by  his  will  (London,  8vo).  He 
abo  wrote,  Paenu  (ibid.  1B!I,8to):— iVicripft'Ta  Tour 
m  StaliaKl  (ibid.  IB40,  8to)  •.-~FaeU  in  Metmerum 


S  TRACHONITIS 

(ibid.  1810.  Svo)  :—SmnOHt  in  Somrti,  etc.  (ibid.  1861, 
Sva):— lVc7'Am(;iita,inTeTae(ibid.l869,eTo).  See 
Allibone,  Diet,  a/ Brit,  and  Amer.  Auliori,  a.  v. 

To'WBMoa,  Thomis,  DJ>.,  an  English  clergyman, 
wssbomat  Much  Lees,  in  Essex,  in  171a.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  where  be  took  hit  degree  uf  A.M.  in 
1739;  was  ordained  priest  in  1742;  became  vicar  of  Hat- 
Held  Pevercl  in  1746;  senior  proctor  o(  the  university, 
snd  rector  of  Bli[h5eld,Stairurdshire, in  1749;  and  rector 
of  Malpos  in  17.i1,  where  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent. 
In  1781  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Kichmond,  and  in 
17Sil  wan  offered  the  profeaaonliipof  divinity  at  Oxford, 
which  he  decUned.  Me  died  April  16, 179:2.  His  most 
important  works  are  bis  DitCDnrta  on  Ihe  Four  Gotpelt, 
cMiffiy  tnilh  regard  to  the  Ptculiar  Deiign  of  Each,  and 
iht  Order  and  Placet  ui  tehich  thty  aire  Written,  pub- 
lished in  1778,  which  baa  passed  through  three  edi- 
tions; and  his  Dticoarie  on  tie  Ecaa^ical  Hiilorji 
from  the  IrUennenl  lo  Ihe  Raurreetton  of  our  I<inJ(1792). 
His  collected  works  were  issued  in  2  vols.  Bvo  (Lond. 
1810),  edited  by  Ralph  Churlon,  A.M,  See  Allibone, 
Did.  of  Brii.  and  A  mer.  A  ulHort,  s.  V. ;  Kitto,  Cgclop. 
s.  V. ;  Chalmers,  Biag.  Did.  s.  v. 

To>«r,  IlKNBr,  a  learned  PuriUn  divine,  was  bom 
U  North  Tawton,  Devonshire,  in  1602;  was  educated 
at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  was  chosen  fellow  in 
1G23.  Having  laken  orders,  he  was  engaged  in  moder- 
ating, reading  to  novices,  and  lecturing  in  the  cbapeL 
He  was  adverse  to  overturning  the  establishment  of  I  ho 
Church,  and  in  1643  declined  to  be  one  of  the  asBembly 
of  divines.  He  remained  at  Oxford,  where  he  preacheil 
at  Christ  Church  before  the  king,  and  at  St,  Mary's  be- 
fore the  ParlismeiiL  He  was  appointed  in  1646  to  Uke 
bis  d(«ree  of  D.D.,  but  declined.  Dr.  HakeweU,  Ihe 
rector,  having  left  the  college,  the  government  devolved 
on  Mr.  Tozer,  as  sub-rector,  who  manfully  opposed  tha 
illegalityof  the  parhamenlatyvisilaliun,  and  maintained 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  college,  lu  March,  1647- 
48,  he  was  cited  before  the  psrliamentary  visitors  to  an> 
swer  the  charge  of  "continuing  the  common  prayer  in 
the  college  after  the  ordinance  for  the  directory  (the 
new  form)  came  in  force;  also  fur  having  sent  for  and 
admonished  one  of  the  house  for  refusing  lo  attend  Ihe 
chapel  prayers  on  that  account."  He  replied,  in  effect, 
"that  these  matters  referred  lo  the  discipline  of  Ihe 
college,  and  that  they  could  be  submitted  to  no  other 
visitors  than  thoae  mentioned  in  the  statntes,"  mean- 
ing the  biilinp  of  Exeter.  The  visitors  ordered  him 
to  be  ejected,  bnt  Dr.  Toier  continued  to  keep  po«- 
senion  of  the  college  for  aome  lime,  and  they  expelled 
him  from  lbs  college  and  university  in  June,  1648. 
He  refuaed  to  surrender  the  keys  of  the  culJege,  ibere 
being  no  rector  lo  whom  he  could  legsUy  give  them, 
as  a  consequence  he  was  imprisoned.  After  a  while 
he  was  allowed  to  remain  in  his  rooms  in  the  college, 
and  to  enjoy  the  proBts  of  a  travelling  feUowship 
Cor  three  years.  On  Ihe  strength  of  Ibis  he  went 
to  Holland  and  became  minister  to  the  English  mer- 
chants at  Rotterdam,  He  died  there  Sept.  li,  16G0. 
Mr.  Toier  published  a  few  occasional  sermons,  Dirno- 
tiontfor  a  Godlg  Life,  ele.  (1628.  8vo):  — flidu  rt 
facta  Chi-itii  ex  faalaar  Eiangtlittit  coUeda  0^^ 

Ttat^honl'tis  {Tp<iX'"''^'''C)  '*  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures  only  in  describing  the  political  divisicms  nf 
Palestine  at  the  time  of  John  the  Baptist's  first  public 
appearance;  "Philip  waa  then  lelrarch  of  Ituisa  and 
lie  region  (jiufHirt  of  Trachonitit"  (Luke  iii,  1).  Al- 
though Trachonitis  was  a  distinct  and  wvllKlellneil  prov- 
ince, yet  it  appears  that  in  this  passage  the  phrase  "  re- 


gion o 


vider  st 


eluded  t«  .  .         .-. 

siderable  mlBapprehension  has  existed  amonp  geogra- 
pher* regarding  Trachonitis,  and  as  its  exact  position 
and  boundaries  were  first  clearly  asceruincil  by  the  re- 
searches of  recent  writers,  it  may  be  well  in  this  place 


TRAOHONinS 

U>  give  ■  faiief  Titami  at  tba  aDciait  noticcf  of  tbe 
ptorince,  utd  Iben  to  (how  how  Ihey  eui  be  applied  in 
utting  uide  modem  enori  and  catabluhiog  wmct 

JoMpbus  naUs  tint  Ux,  the  ion  of  Anm,  rounded 
Tracfauiiiiis  anil  Damucui,  which  "Uy  between  Pilea- 
tineuiil  C(cle-S7ria''(ilnl;i,6,i).  Hit  next  referenee 
to  it  ia  when  it  wm  held  bj  Zenodonu,  tbe  bandit  chif ' 
Then  ita  iiihabitanta  made  frequent  raidt,  *■  their  >ui 
«eMan  do  siill,  upon  ihe  tcniunies  of  Damaacu*  (At 
XV,  ID,  I).  AugUBtna  took  it  from  Zenodonu,  and  gii 
it  to  Uemd  tbe  Great,  on  condition  that  he  ahould  re- 
pma  the  robben  (An/,  xri,  9, 1).  Herod  bequeathed 
it  to  hia  aon  Philip,  and  hi>  will  waa  condnnnl  by  Ob- 
■ai  {War,  ii,  6,  3).  This  ia  the  Philip  referred  to  in 
Lulie  iii,  1.  At  a  later  period  it  paiaed  into  the  hindi 
of  Herod  Agrippa  (War,  iii, 8, 6).  After  the  conqueat 
of  Ibi*  part  of  Syria  by  Cornelius  PaJma,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  2d  centuiy,we  hear  no  more  of  Trachonilia. 

From  Tsrioua  incidental  remarfca  and  deacriptioai  in 
Joaephus's  wrilinRa,  the  position  of  Tracbonitis  in  rela- 
tion la  the  other  Tranijordanic  prorincea  may  be  aicer- 
tained.  It  ]ay  on  tbe  eaat  of  Gauloniiia,  while  it  bor- 
dered oa  both  Auranilis  and  Balsnsa  {War,  iv,  1,  1 ; 
1,  20,  4).  It  extended  firlber  north  than  tiaulonltii, 
Teaching  to  the  territory  of  Damaacaa  {Atil,  xv,  10,  B, 
and  10, 1 ;  H'ar,  iii,  10, 7).  Ptolemy  locate*  the  Trach- 
onilic  Arnba  along  the  baae  of  Mount  Aluadaniua,  and 
be  includes  this  mountain  in  the  proTince  of  Batinsa, 
orwhichSaccnawas  achief  lown((f«i^.v,lCi).  Sirabo 
Mate*  that  there  were  two  Trachona  (Ivo  Tpaxwvit), 
-  and  he  groups  Dsmaacua  and  Trachon  together, 
states  that  the  latter  country  ia  ragged  and  wild, 
the  people  daring  robben  {Gtogr,  xvi,  II).  Jerome, 
BpeakiuK  of  Kenath,  calia  it  a  city  uf  TTW^honitia 
Boirsb  ((!>n(nnatr.  a.v.  "Canath");  and  tbe  writers  of  the 
Talmud  extend  Trachon  as  far  as  Botrah  (Ligbtfoot, 
0/)p.  ii,  4T8 ;  comp.  Jerome,  Ononuut.  s.  T.  "  Ituiwa ;" 
Reland,  Palal.  p.  109  sq.)- 

From  theee  ilatements,  compared  with  tbe  reinlta  of 
modem  research,  the  exact  podliou  atid  boundaries  of 
this  ancient  prurince  can  be  determined.  It  extended 
lYom  the  aouthem  confines  of  Damascus,  near  the  bank 
of  the  River  Awsj  (Pharpar),  on  tbe  north,  to  Busrah 
(Bostra  and  Bozrih),  on  [he  loiilh.  Boirah  waa  the 
eajutal  of  Auranilis,  and  oonsequently  that  province  lay 
along  the  sonthem  end  of  Trachon.  ,  The  prorinee  of 
Gaulanilia  (now  Jaulan)  waa  its  weatem  boundary.   Ba- 

embrscea  the  whole  ridge  of  Jebel  Haurin,  at  whose 
weatem  baae  lie  the  iplendid  rain*  of  Kenatb,  one  of 
the  ancient  cities  of  Trachon  (Jerome,  Ononuif.  s.  t, 
"Canath,""Kenath"),  Cbniequentlythe  ridge  of  Jebel 
Ilaurfln  formed  the  eastern  boundaiy  of  Trachon,  which 
extended  southward  to  Bnarah  in  the  plun,  near  the 
soulh-weatera  eitremity  of  the  range  (Porter,  Damatcui, 
ii.  S59  sq.;  also  in  Jnt,<-nal  of  Sac.  LO.  for  July,  1SS4). 
The  region  thus  marked  out  embraces  the  modem  dis- 
trict ol  the  £'/riA,  which  may  be  considered  the  nucleus 
of  Trachonitis;  also  tbe  smooth  plain  extending  from 
its  northcm  border  to  the  ranges  nf  KhiyArah  and  M&- 
nia.  The  rocky  atrip  of  land  running  along  the  west- 
ern base  of  Jebel  HaurAn,  and  separating  the  mouniain- 
range  from  tbe  smooth  expanse  of  Auranitis,  was  like- 
wise included  in  Trscboniiia.  Thia  may  explain  Slra- 
bo's  two  Trachona.  In  the  rains  of  Husmeih,  on  the 
northern  edge  of  Lejab,  Burckhirdt  discovered  i  Greek 
inscription  which  proves  that  that  city  was  Phienn,  tbe 
ancient  metropolis  of  Trachon  (T'raieb  m&^yriu,  p.117; 
Me  also  Pr^atir,  p.  xi). 

At  flnl  sight  it  might  appear  aa  if  TratAtm,  or  Tra- 
ctmifM  (Tpa;(uv,  or  tpaxitvirif),  were  only  a  tireek 
name  applied  to  one  of  the  subdivisians  of  tho  ancient 
kingdom  of  Baahin ;  yet  there  is  evidence  to  show  that 
it  is  a  translation  of  a  more  ancient  .Shemitic  appella- 
tion, descriptive  of  the  physical  nature  of  tbe  region. 
Tpajfuv  signifles  rough  and  rugged;  and  T(Mrxm<'XT^i 


0  TRACHONITIS 

■*"«  rugged ie0on''(rpaX^  Ml  v(rpM^tran>[),ai>d 
peculiarly  applicable  to  the  district  under  notice.  Tbe 
Hebrew  equivalent  is  A  ryob  (31^1$, "  a  heap  of  stooe*;* 
from  331=DS'n),  which  waa  tbe  indent  name  of  an 
important  part  of  OS's  kingdom  in  Baahan.  Tbe  iden* 
tity  of  liacbon  and  Argob  cannot  now  be  qoesliooed. 
It  was  admitted  by  the  Jewiih  rabtrins,  for  the  Tar- 
gtima  read  K!13in  (TVuctona)  instewt  of  Oi^R  (At- 
gd)  in  Dent,  iii,  14  and  1  Kinga  iv,  18  (Lighlfoot,  0pp. 
ii,  473) ;  and  it  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  KenMh, 
one  of  the  threescore  great  cities  of  Argob  (1  Chrorvii, 
23),  waa  al*o,aahasbeen  aeen.acily  of  Tnchon.  tu- 
lebiua,  led  doubtlei*  by  similarity  of  namea,  confoandid 
Argob  with  the  castle  of  Ergs  or  Bagaba,  near  iheeen- 
Huence  of  the  Jordan  and  Jabbok.  In  this  he  has  beta 
followed  by  Beland  (Paltut.  p.  969,  gOl),  Sitter  (fot 
tad  Syr.  ii,  1041),  and  even  Robinson  iBibL  Ra.  App.  p. 
166, 1st  ed.).  Nothing  can  be  more  clear,  however,  tbaa 
that  Argohj  a  large  province  of  Baahan  containing  uty 
great  cities,  was  quite  distinct  ftom  Ragaba,  an  obsnot 
castle  in  GUead  (Porter,  Damaiaa,  ii,  271).  Eusebia 
also  confounded  Tracbonitis  and  Itunea  ((htomail.  Lt. 
"Ituisa*^;  a  manifest  error.  William  ofTyregivtsi 
curious  etymology  of  tbe  word  Tracbonitis:  "Videlat 
autCDi  nobis  a  Iraarnibsi  dicta.  Tracones  enim  dimi- 
tur  occultt  et  subterrand  meal  us,  qui  bus  isli  regio  ibm- 
dal~((;rtraZ)ripFr/raiKa(,p.S9S).  Be  this  as  it  may, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  whole  region  sboaadi 

refers  to  the  cavea  in  the  mountains  beyond  Tracboa 
(Grogr.  xvi),  and  he  affirms  that  one  of  them  is  » large 
that  it  would  contain  4000  men.  Travellera  have  vii- 
ited  some  spacious  cavea  in  Jebel  Haortn,  anl  in  lb* 
interior  of  the  Lejafa. 

The  province  of  the  t^o*  (Arab.  "  the  Relrtat'^ 
comprise*  tbe  principal  pan  of  the  Hebrew  Argob  and 
Greek  Trachon.  It  is  ovat  in  form,  about  twenty-two 
miles  long  by  fourteen  wide.  Its  physical  features  sit 
unparalleled  in  Western  Ada.  It  is  a  plain,  but  its 
surface  is  elevated  above  the  surrounding  plain  to  u 
average  height  of  thirty  feet  or  more.  It  is  entitfiy 
compHSd  of  a  thick  stratum  of  black  basalt,  which  sp- 
pears  to  have  been  emitted  from  pom  in  tbe  esnhtB 
a  liquid  slate,  and  to  hive  flowed  out  on  evriy  lidi 
undl  the  surface  of  the  plain  was  covered.  Before  oas- 
pletely  cooling,  it  seems  to  bare  been  agitated  at  by  i 
tempest,  and  then  rent  and  shattered  by  internal  nn- 
vnlsions.  The  cup-like  csvities  lYom  which  the  liquid 
mass  waa  projected  are  at  ill  seen;  and  likewiae  the  wstt 
surface  such  as  a  thick  liquid  generally  assizmes  whidi 
cools  while  flowing.  There  are  deep  fissures  and  ysvo- 
Ing  gulfs  with  ragged  btoken  edges;  and  there  arv  jsgged 
mound*  that  seem  not  to  have  been  sufficiently  bested 
to  flow,  but  which  were  farced  up  by  some  mighty 
agenci',  and  then  rent  and  shatteied  to  ibrir  cenlnt 
The  rock  is  filled  with  air-bubbles,  and  is  slmost  s>  hard 
aa  iron.  "In  tbe  interior  parte  of  the  Lejsh,"  asj* 
Burckhardt,  "the  rocks  are  in  many  places  cleft  ssui- 
der,  so  that  the  whole  bill  appears  shivered  and  in  (be 
act  of  falling  down ;  the  layers  are  generally  boriinn- 
tal,  from  six  to  eight  feet  or  more  in  thickneaa,  some- 
times covering  Ihe  hills,  and  inclining  to  tbeir  curve, 
as  appean  from  Ihe  fiiaare*  which  traverse  the  rock 
from  top  to  bottom"  (rrorrlf  mSfria.p.  11!). 

It  is  worthy  of  note  how  minutely  this  descriptkn 
accords  with  that  of  Jusephus,  who  says  of  the  iubab- 
iUnUofTrachon  thai  it  was  extremdy  dilflcult  tocos- 
quer  them  or  check  their  depredations,  "aa  tbey  had 
neither  towns  nor  fields,  btit  dwelt  in  caves  I  bat  serrcd 
as  a  refuge  both  for  themselves  and  their  flocka.  Tbey 
had,  besides,  ciniema  of  water  and  well-slored  Kranaiies, 


defy  tl 


If  their 


time,  whOl 

within  Ihey  are  incredibly  la^e  and  apadous.    Tbi 
ground  above  ia  abnost  ■  plun,  but  it  is  covered  with 


TRACT 


fill   TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES 


ngpd  Tocki,  and  ii  difficult  nT  uccm,  except  wben  i 
guioc  poiau  oat  tbe  patbL  Tbeie  palhi  da  not  run  in 
■  slraight  caune,  but  have  roiny  wiudingi  and  tunu" 

(^•tjlT,  10,  1). 

The  churocler  of  tbe  iah*bituita  nmvD>  unchanged 
11  the  reaiuiH  of  their  coualTy.  They  arc  wild,  law- 
ba  rabben,  vti  tliej  aBord  ■  raidf  aavlum  In  murder- 
en,  nbeli,  and  outlaws  fram  ever?  part  ot  Syria.  It 
teau  10  have  been  so  in  Okl-Tett.  tiam;  for  when 
AlMlnm  murdered  hie  brother,  he  fled  to  hit  mother'i 
kiadndinGeshut  (apanof  Tracbon),"Bnd«aa  there 
threa  Tcan"  (2  Sim.  zv,  37, 38).    See  Geuhik. 

It  ii  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  great  citiea  of  Ar- 
gokfiaiei]  at  the  tioie  of  the  Kxodiu  for  their  strength, 
fldst  HiU.  The  houHS  in  many  uf  tbetn  are  perfect. 
Tbe  mauire  city  walla  are  standing;  and  the  streets, 
Ihoogh  long  silent  snddeteited,are  in  aoroe  places  com- 
plete ts  thoae  of  a  mnilem  town.  Tbe  city  gates,  and 
tbe  doon  and  roofa  o(  the  housa,  are  all  of  stone,  bear- 
ing the  marks  of  the  moat  remote  antiquity.  It  is  not 
too  mucb  to  say  that,  in  an  antiquariaa  point  of  view, 
Trachon  is  one  of  the  moat  interesting  piDvinces  in 
Psltstine  (Porter,  Batlum't  Giant  Citin;  Barckhardt, 
Tracdt  in  Sfiia;  Graham,  in  the  Journal  of  K.  G.  S. 
ToLxiviii;  and  Cami.Eiiast,  1t<58;  Wetzsteiii. /f«ise- 
ttricAl Her  Uauna  unddie  TraiAiinen),  Such  asdeaire 
to  ODtDpare  with  tbe  above  account  tbe  views  previoiia- 
1t  set  (unh  by  gei^raphera  may  consult  Ligbtfoot,  loc. 
dt. ;  Reland,  Pulatl.  p.  108  sq. ;  Cellariua,  Gtogr.  A  n/.  ii, 
617  tq.    SeeABOOB. 

Tract,  a  paaltn.  or  portion  of  a  psalm,  aong  in  the 
Laiin  maaa  instead  nf  the  Gradual,  on  fixed  daya,  from 
Septuagesima  to  Eaater.afler  (he  Epistle.  At  the  time 
at  which  the  Church  is  commemonting  the  paaaioo  of 
our  Lonl,  this  Tract  u  slowly  chanted  in  lieu  of  tbe  Jay. 
«is  GraduaL  It  is  called  rAe  Trud,  aa  some  ritualiatic 
writers  afflrin,  becanae  it  is  dratm  oat  In  a  alow  and  aot. 
enn  atrain.  It  is  aaid  that  the  paalm  nr  hymn  chant- 
ed by  one  vnic«  was  the  Trati,  and  when  the  singer  was 
inlermpced  by  the  choir  his  part  was  known  as  the 
ttnidr,  and  the  poitiooa  allottal  to  them  were  called 
reepnuarKi.  See  Lee,  Clou,  a/  LUarg.  Ttrna,  s.  v. ; 
Wakott,  Sac  A  rtAmiL  s.  v, 

nvctarlanlnii.  See  Enolmh  CHUnai;  Ox- 
loanTitAcrB:  PuSKTiaw. 

TraotAtor,  tbe  name  given  in  the  early  Cbarch  to 

preachers  and  expoduira  uf  Scripture;  his  sermon  or 

treatise  being  called  Tradatai.     See  Bingham,  CAi-wT. 

Aafif.  bli.siv,  ch.iv,|l. 

Tractktiu,  the  Latin  name  for  a  sermon,  discourse, 

TMCtOri».  a  name  WHnetimes  given  la  the  circu- 
Isr  letten  of  roelropoliuns  summoning  the  bishops  to 
a  cnaadL  These  circular  letten  were  a  legal  summons, 
which  DO  bishop  of  tbe  province  might  disobey  under 
pain  of  BUBpensian,  or  some  such  canonical  censure.  Sec 
Bingham,  CArvt.  Antig.  bk.  ii,  ch.  ivi,  $  17. 

Traota  AHD  Tract  Socikties.  Tbe  term  tmci, 
although  etymologically  signifying  something  drawn 
out  (l^t.  IractHMJ,  has  long  lieen  employed  in  the  Eng- 
lish langua^  to  designsle  a  abort  ot  condensed  treatise 
in  print.  It  has  primary  reference  to  tbe  form  of  pub- 
lication, aud  ia  uauallj  applied  only  to  unbound  eheeia 
or  pampbleta.  Thua,  a  treatise  on  any  topic  may  De 
publiabed  either  in  a  book  or  tract  form,  the  tract  being 
much  cheaper  than  the  book,  but  also  much  more  lia- 
Me  to  be  injund  or  destroyed.  While  many  political, 
acientidc,  ai>d  other  tracts  have  been  published,  yet  the 
vast  majority  of  publicatians  known  as  tracts  are  nf  a 
rdigioBa  cbmracter.  So  generally  ia  this  true  that  the 
weed  tract  need  without  qualiOcation  rarely  suggesla 
any  other  idea  than  that  of  a  brief  religiooa  treatise  or 
appeaL  To  eofne  extent  tbe  idea  has  been  employed 
br  i>ap««aniliata  of  eiror,  hot  tar  more  generally  by 
lovMS  oC  crolli  and  by  pettcnaw''  ~acn 


tot  its  promotion.  Had  only  miscellaneous  tracts  been 
published,  or  had  the  publicatian  of  tracts  on  religious 
aubjecta  uuiy  taken  place  in  an  accidental  or  unayitem- 
alic  maimer,  there  would  have  been  no  occarion  for  thia 

1.  Oeeation  and  Charaela-  <i/  Ihe  Tract  Movtrntnl. — 
There  has,  in  fad,  ariaen  a  great  Christian  enterprise 
having  fur  its  object  the  publication  and  disseminatian 
of  religious  tracts.  This  enlerpiise,  like  the  Gospel  it- 
self' and  other  of  its  auxiliaiiee,  has  frum  small  begin- 
nings grown  to  vast  proportions  and  commanding  in- 
fluence. Althongh  its  hialory  ia  chiefly  limited  to  the 
last  one  hundred  years,  it  has  already  come  to  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  eaidinil  sgenciea  of  Christian  propa- 
gandism,  taking  rank  with  the  missionary  and  Sunday- 
school  enterprises,  and  serving  aaa  powerful  auxiliary  to 
both.  Although  asserting  no  specific  divine  appoint- 
meni,  it  nevertheless  claims  to  be  authorized  by  in- 
spired analogies.  The  sacred  books  both  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Teatamenla  were  issued  and  circulated  as 
separate  uealiaea  or  tractsj  so  that  the  Bible  itaelf,  in 
its  most  approved  modern  form,  may  be  said  to  be  a 
bound  volume  of  tracts. 

The  principle  involved  is  that  of  giving  truth  a  per- 
manent and  available  expreawon  in  written  or  primed 
language,  thus  enabling  it  la  survive  the  voice  of  the 
living  teacher,  and  to  reach  persons  and  places  to  which 
be  could  never  have  access.  God,  from  the  beginning, 
appointed  language  as  the  medium  of  communication 
between  himself  and  man,  aa  well  aa  between  man  and 
man-  He  spoke  lo  our  race,  not  only  through  tbe  hear^ 
ing  of  Ihe  ear,  bnt  also  through  the  perceptions  of  Ihe 
eye,  thus  coosecrating  both  apoken  and  written  language 

law,  he  not  only  provided  for  the  mora!  guidance  of 


legenei 


but  for 


while  he  also  continued  to  teach 
and  admoniah  men  by  the  voice  and  the  pen  of  proph- 
ets and  holy  men  in  successive  periada.  As  a  counter- 
part ufthe  spoken  language  to  be  used  in  preaching,  the 
chosen  disciples  of  our  Lord  were  inspired  to  write  nsr- 
rstives  of  the  life,  miracles,  and  death  of  him  who  was 
the  eternal  Word,  together  with  the  acta  and  letleiB  of 
the  apostles  embodying  the  inatructiona  which  they  had 
pennnally  received  Ihim  the  Lord  himself,  snd  which 
were  thua  handed  down  to  those  who  should  come  after 
them.  Spoken  language  has  the  advantage  of  instant 
readiness,  wherever  there  is  a  tongue  to  speak  and  an 
eat  to  hear.  Il  can  also  be  varied  with  circumsiances, 
and,  adapted  to  the  special  wanta  and  changing  per- 
ceptions of  those  lo  whom  it  is  addressed.  On  tbe  other 
hand,  written  language  is  available  at  all  times  and  in 
all  places.  It  can  be  cheaply  multiplied  and  scattered 
on  tbe  wings  of  the  wind.  Il  also  endures  fTom  age  to 
age,  while  living  apeakers  die.  Great  as  was  the  per- 
sonal influence  of  the  apostles  through  Ihe  agency  of 
spoken  language,  the  influence  of  their  writings  has  been 
inftnitely  greater.  Their  voicea  expired  with  their  nat- 
ural life,  but  their  written  speech  was  immottsL  It  sur- 
vived all  persecullons.  It  became  embodied  in  many 
langoagee,  and  was  difTuaed  in  every  direction.  It  has 
come  down  through  tbe  centuries.  It  has  been  taken 
up  by  the  modem  prinling-preBs,  and  having  been  tranB- 
Isted  intu  hundreds  of  tongue*  and  dialects,  is  now  mnl- 
liplied  more  rapidly  than  ever  before  for  the  benefit  of 
theprescntand  succeeding  generations.  By  ihis  adjual- 
men  t  of  Providence,  the  apostles,  though  dead,  yet  apeak, 

the  world  endures;  and  those  who  read  their  writings 
may  not  only  receive  their  te^chmg^  but  become  par- 
takers and  propagators  of  like  precious  faith.  They 
may  echo  tbe  truth  which  has  made  them  free  in  their 
own  (arms  of  expression  and  with  new  adapiations  lo  the 
ever-changing  circumstances  of  humanity. 

A  peculiarity  of  written  language  is  that  ila  dissemi- 
nation challenges  co-operalinn  from  many  not  called 
10  the  office  of  preaching.     Copyists,  printirs,  purchaa- 


en,  aud  diitribulon  may  in  (heir  uveral  apheies  co- 
operate to  bring  the  truth  of  God  by  meuiB  of  it  intu  con- 
tact with  buman  beartiL     Tba  tract  enterprise,  in  ricl. 

Taried  agencies.     In  orOer  tbBt  ■  religiouB  tract  may  be 


o  labor  with  bia  pen, 


TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES  512  TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES 

be  Hlled  xilh  iucidenia  illustrating  the  uiitity  and  pow- 
>rinicU  as  an  agency  orevangdiiation  and  religiooa 

Jurlging  from  the  reports  and  annila  of  the  various  tract 
liialiona,  no  branch  of  CbriMian  adirily  haa  been 
anifonnif  produetiTe  of  tbe  best  reaulu  thaa  tnc(- 
diitribution. 

While  the  tract  enterprise  may  Ihui  be  spoken  ofia 

separate  character,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  tbat 

leldom  acts  or  Btandg  atone.    Its  moM  approved  model 

action  are  in  connection  with  Church  work  at  home 

eSurt  abroad :  consequently  its  bew  fntiti 

be  round  in  the  great  day  to  have  been 

let  of  many  fonna  of  Christian  adiritr. 

It  may  be  couSdently  urged  that  Christian  work  in  coo- 

lection  itith  the  dm  of  religious  tracts  is  practic^ile  Is 

1  greater  number  of  people  of  erery  age  aiid  citcnm- 

tance  in  life  than  anyother  generally  recognised  a^Boej 

<(  uaefulneH.     Comparatively  few  are  called  to  be  mio- 

stcTB  or  missionaries.     Many  cannot  he  Suiulay-schoel 

teachers.     But  who  cannot  be  the  bearer  or  sender  of  ■ 


ex[iress  his  thoughli 
impresaive.  Then  there  must  be  a  pecuniary  invest- 
ment  for  the  publication  of  the  document  nriiten.  The 
task  of  publication,  although  possible  to  individuals,  is 
beat  performed  by  public  institutions,  like  tbe  existing 
tract  societies,  which,  having  a  corporate  existence, 
live  on  though  their  founders  die.  Such  sodeties  can 
develop  and  carry  out  great  ^sterns  of  effort,  which 
their  projectors  may  only  live  t«  initiate.    Superadded 


a  the  publici 


0  their 


tended 


It  be  co-opei 
agencies  for  their  proper  and  con 
among  readers.     When  this  com; 
moral  and  spiritual  influence  is  appnipriotely  organized, 
tbe  liumbleat  Christian  may  come  into  working 
tions  with  it  and  be  a  helper  to  its  highest  si 
Thenceforward  there  is  a  grand  copartnership 
suits,  in  which  those  who  write,  who  print,  wbo 
late,  and  who  read  may  rejoice  together. 

As  an  illustration  of  tbe  endless  stream  of  influences 
which  may  Sow  onward  from  a  single 
ing  religious  (ruth  in  a  printed  form  t 
the  unconverted,  the  following  facts  are  condensed  from 
authentic  documents.  In  the  latter  part  of  ' 
century,  a  good  man,  known  as  Dr.  Sihbs,  wrote  a  little 
book  entitled  The  Bruitd  Had.  A  copy  of  tbat  book, 
sold  by  a  poor  peddler  at  the  door  of  a  lowly  cottage  in 
England,  was  tbe  agency  of  the  Christian  awakening 
of  Kichaid  Va^ta,  who  was  bom  in  1615.  "The  addi 
tional  reading  of  a  little  piece  of  Hr.  Perkins's  work  O 
Rrpenlance.  borrowed  from  a  servant,"  sal's  Baxter,  in 
sketch  of  bis  own  life,"  did  further  inform  me  andean 
Arm  me;  and  thus,  without  any  means  hut  books,  ws 
God  pleased  to  resolve  me  for  himself."  Thus  brough 
to  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  truth,  Baxtc 
became  one  of  the  most  earnest  preachers  and  prolifi 
writers  of  any  age.  He  di«l  in  1B91,  having  publishe 
mstler  enough  tii  till  twenty-three  large  volumes.  Tw 
of  his  smaller  works — Tke  Cali  In  the  Vitcontttird  an 
Tie  Saimt'  Ettrlatting  Rftl — have  passed  through 
countless  editions  both  in  England  and  America,  and, 
doubdeiu,  will  continue  to  be  widely  read  in  English- 
speaking  countries  while  time  endures.     Of  the  full 


t  her«  and  there  links  in  the  chain 
of  sequences  can  be  discovered.  Philip  Doddriilge, 
when  young,  borrowed  the  works  of  Baxter,  and  in  due 
time  became  the  author  of  the  Aise  rmd  Progrta  of  Re- 
ligion in  the  Saul,  a  work  which  led  William  Wilber- 
furce  to  seek  for  pardon  through  the  Redeemer.  Wil- 
berforee's  Pradienl  Finn  nfCiriiHanili/  was  the  instru- 
ment employed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  lead  to  repentance 
and  a  true  faith  in  Christ  Legh  lUchmond,  the  writer 
of  The  Young  CoHof/er,  Tie  Dairymatt'e  Daughter,  and 
TariouB  other  tracts.  Mr.  Richmond  was  ■  lab 
clergyman,  and  fur  many  yean  a  secretary  of  the  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society  of  London.  His  tracts  above 
nameil  have  been  tianstaled  into  many  languages,  ai 
have  been  instnimental,  under  the  blessing  of  God, 
the  convenion  of  many  precious  mnW  Only  two  da. 
before  his  summoni  to  a  better  world,  he  received  a  le't- 
ter  mentioning  the  conversion  of  two  persons,  o 
them  a  clergyman,  by  the  perusal  of  his  (rae 
Dairyman'!  Daaghltr.  Keariy  half  ■  century  has  wnee 
passeil  away,  but  the  tract  has  lived  on,  and,  by  the  help 
of  printers,  donors,  and  distributors,  has  continued  to  do 
Ita  work ;  while  many  of  those  converted  through  lis 
influence  have  themselves  become  successful  actors 
atatting  agencies  of  influence,  destined  to  work  on  wi  I 


-who,  ii 
sacrifice,  circulate  many  tracts  throi 

iss,  in  public  thoroughfares,  through  the  mails,  sod, 

hat  is  better  than  any  other  way,  by  personal  preses- 

tion? 

The  present  ia  a  reading  age,  and  while,  on  the  one 
hand,  it  is  important  In  antagoniia  the  evils  rrsolciag 
from  bad  reading  in  all  its  forms,  on  the  other  hand 

found  who  will  have  little,  if  any,  good  readia);  tlM 
not  brought  to  them  by  the  hand  of  beneToleiiee. 
ithat  searches  them  out  and  bestows  upon  them  good 
gifts  in  (he  form  of  Christian  tracts  and  books,  aoaan- 
ied,  if  need  be,  with  other  acts  of  kindneaB,wiII  eel- 
I  fail  of  doing  good ;  but  he  who  adds  to  tlie  tract 

greater  good,  and  in  many  instances  secure  an  interna 
such  promises  as  tiiese-'"He  which  converteth  the 
ner  from  the  error  of  hi*  way  shall  save  ■  sool  boa 
ilh"  (James  v,  20);  "And  they  that  torn  many  to 
righteousness  [shall  shinej  as  the  stars  for  ever  aad 
"  (Dan.  xii,  3).     Ministers  of  the  Gospca  esperiall* 
1  consider  it  a  great  privil^e  to  have  provided 
and  ready  to  their  hand  a  targe  supply  of  Christian 
truth   strongly   stated,  neatly  printed,  and   specially 
adapted  to  aid  anil  render  permanent  tbe  veiy  nrii 
they  are  endeavoring  to  do  by  preaching  and  paMnal 
'  '    r.     In  (his  respect  the  publications  ofthe  tract  Hi- 
es become  an  aisenal  filled  with  legitioiaiewcapaa 
ofthe  Christian  warfare,  a  vast  stoic  of  fixed  ammniu- 
tion  with  which  to  defend  (he  citadel  ofChriatian  truth, 
and  to  assault  the  positions  of  the  advemry. 

In  the  pulpit  the  minister  is  chiefly  limited  to  bti 
own  thoughts  and  expressions.  In  the  use  of  mcta  be 
may  avail  himself  of  tbe  best  thoughts,  tlie  largest  ci- 

who  have  used  their  pen  for  the  glory  of  God.  Hb 
own  spoken  words  may  vanish  with  the  brotb  wfaieh 
utters  them.  At  most,  they  are  not  likely  to  be  loO); 
remembered;  bat  the  printed  pages  which  be  scaitets 
may  remain  to  be  perused  when  the  giver  ia  de>il,  and 
may  even  descend  to  coming  generations.  In  preAcb- 
ing,  the  minister  is  limited  to  his  own  peisooal  pSwta, 
and  can  onlv  address  (hose  who  come  (o  hear  him.  In 
his  paa(ural  work  he  is  at  liberty  to  seek  out  the  penfilt: 
and  often  the  present  of  a  tract  or  a  book  will  semrc  foe 
him  the  friendship  and  the  interested  attention  of  those 
who  would  not  have  volunteered  to  enter  his  cnngfrfca- 
t!on.  Betille^in  the  workoflTact-diatribatjoD,B  b>B- 
dred  willing  hands  can  help  him,  and  feet  **shiMl  with 
the  preparation  of  the  Gospel  of  peace"  will  run  for  him 
in  paths  of  duty  farther  and  «fteneT  than  he  with  the 
utmost  diligence  can  hope  to  go  himself.  Minkters 
should  therefore  enlist  their  people  in  the  practical  woik 
of  tract-distribution.    This  i*  to  '       ' 


TRACTTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES  51S  TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES 

cuUling  idigiouB 
-operwion  of  thB 
1750  the  Society 


«afk  to  he  conBned  to  a  few.  Specially  appninled  tract 
omimiireea  and  vialtAra  have  iheir  duties,  vrbich  shoulJ 
neither  be  omitted  nui  excuacd;  yet  no  imiividualahould 
consider  hit  or  her  penonal  reapDniibility  rehcvtti  by 
ihc  olBcial  Bppnintment  of  other*.  The  truth  ia,  that 
in  order  to  ihe  full  accomplitbtiKnt  of  tr«t-iliHribution 

icuenutii:  and  ncciuiaual,  public  *nd  individtial,  eser- 
(ionimiut  be  put  furtb.  The  periodicil  distributio)!  of 
LTicta  lhmut;h  dUtricta  and  towna  ia  rery  important, 
but  It  haa  disadvantagee.  For  inalance,  where  the  dis> 
iricl  ii  large  there  ia  not  time  for  anfficient  personal  con. 
■  h  different  chi  '     ' ' 


Mliiten  I 


Ifth 


Chrii 


s  of  BucK  persona  ahould  girc  them 
ai  tokens  of  fiiendahip,  luid  follow  up  the  gift  with  af- 
fKiiooate  warning  and  entceatr,  the  end  would  be  mure 
effifCtually  gainnl.  Thus  it  ia  that  individual  Chri»- 
liana,  In  their  nvenl  eirdei  of  acquaintoice  and  bitai- 
luHS  hare  ■  work  to  do  ia  Khich  well-aelecled  craeta 
ouv  fumiah  inviIuaUo  liiL 

II.  IliMlviy  of  /ailial  Trai*  Ea/erpritti.  —  Aaide 
from  the  circulation  of  portiona  of  the  Holy  Script- 
urea  in  fragmentary  or  tract  form,  the  use  of  tracts  aa 
an  agency  of  religioua  uwfiilneaa  dalea  from  the  dawn 
of  the  Kefbrmation  in  Europe.  Long  before  the  inrcn- 
liofl  of  printing,  the  early  Eteformen  sent  out  their  little 
tractates  to  awaken  and  inatruct  the  people  who  still  sat 
le  Dark  Agea.    WyclitTe'a  wri^ 


latbe  n 


Hese 


Ml  nore  iban  one  hundred  volumea,  amall  and  great, 
boideg  hi*  translation  or  Che  Bible.  Notwithstanding 
ntany  of  hia  worka  were  burned  and  people  were  forbid- 
den to  read  them  on  pain  of  death,  yet  they  spread  far 
tnrl  wide.  Like  seeds  of  ir^th  borne  by  the  wind,  they 
lodged  on  the  soil  of  the  C<intiiieiit,  and  brou|;ht  forth 
fruit  there  in  aftec-yeara,  Worka  produced  by  the  writ- 
ers of  that  period,  although  exteiuU-ely  useful,  were 
greatly  hindered  in  their  circulation  by  the  size  and  ex- 
(leasiTeneaa  oT  Ihe  manuscript  form  in  which  they  were 

The  invention  of  printing  in  the  IGth  century  re- 
BUTed  many  formidable  obstacles  to  the  dilTusiiiii  of 
iniih,  and  greatly  stimulated  the  literary  eflbrts  of  those 

peared,  and  by  hia  powerful  writings  and  those  of  his 
■Hociales,  millions  of  people  were  led  to  renounce  the 
enura  than  which  they  previously  knew  nothing  better. 
The  efTorta  of  the  Uier  tteformera  are  thus  characterized 
"The  Gospellers  of  these 


II  the  I 


Uttle  books  that  they  be  li 
which  did  infest  the  laml  of  Egypt."  Fox,  the  martyr- 
ologist,  eiulta  over  the  work  and  promise  of  the  art  of 
printing  in  language  like  this:  "Uod  haih  opened  the 
pmi  lo  preach,  whose  voice  Ihe  pope  ts  never  able  to 
■top  with  all  the  puiaunce  of  his  triple  crown.  By  this 
printing,  as  by  the  gift  of  tongues  and  as  by  the  tingii- 
lar  organ  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  doctrine  of  Ihe  Goepcl 
soundcth  to  all  nations  and  countries  uniier  heaven; 
and  what  God  revealed  unto  one  man  is  dispersed  to 
many ;  and  what  ia  known  to  one  nation  is  opened  tn 
alL- 

In  ih*  t7tb  century  several  traces  are  found  of  asao- 
ciatiuna  fur  promoting  the  printing  and  aale  of  religious 
worka,  while  much  good  resulted  from  the  efforts  of  in- 
diriducts,  both  in  F.ngland  and  on  the  ContiiienL  At 
length,  movements  on  a  larger  scale  began  to  be  made 
in  the  line  of  aaaociateil  efforts  for  the  illffuaion  of  truth 
in  printed  form.  The  earlier  organjiatinns  ofthia  kind, 
tbiiogb  not  strictly  tiact  aocieties,  were  preliminar]-, 
auj  in  atxne  aense  intToduclwy,  to  llie  great  institu- 
tions subsequently  formed  fur  the  esdusive  object  of 
ptindng  and  circulating  reljgioua  tncta.  In  ITOl 
ihi  'or  I*mtnoting  Christian  Knowledge  was 

est  <%nglaiid.     In  1742  Ihe  Rev.  John  Wes- 

t'  X.— 17 


Britain,  eommeneed  printing  and  ci 
tracts  by  personal  effort  and  the  c 
preachers  associated  with  him.  li 
for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  tne  roor 
was  organized.  In  ITdG  societies  for  a  similar  object 
were  commenced  both  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  Al- 
though the  three  sucielics  iiaineil  accompliihed  good, 
Cher  did  not  remain  permanently  established,  in  1782 
Mr.  Wesley  institmcd  i  Society  for  the  Distribution 
of  Religious  Tracts  among  the  Puiir.  In  his  published 
proposals  in  behalf  uf  the  aocicty,  he  said,"! cannot  but 
eameatty  recommend  this  to  all  those  who  desire  to  nee 
true  scriptural  Christianity  spread  throughout  these 
nations.  Hen  wholly  una'wahened  will  not  take  the 
pains  to  read  the  Kbie.  Tbey  have  no  relish  fur  it. 
But  a  amall  tract  may  engage  their  attention  for  half 
an  hour,  and  may,  by  the  bles»ng  of  God,  prepare  them 
fur  going  fbrward."  Membership  in  the  society  required 
the  Biibscripiion  of  half  a  guinea  or  more,  for  which  a 
quota  of  tracts  would  be  delivered  yearly.    The  publi- 

ber,  embracing  Alleine'a  ^iuim,  Baxter'a  CaU,  Tra  SAoil 
Sirmaia,  Toktnt/iir  ChUdrfa,  A  »'on(  lo  a  Soldier,  A 
Word  lo  a  SaSar,  A  Word  la  »  Saeanr,  A  Wordto  a 
SabbalS-irealxr,  A  Word  la  a  Dinakard,  tic  It  ia  not 
difficult  to  see  in  the  above  scheme  Ihegermof  the  larg- 

pecially  when  taken  in  connection  with  Mr.  Wesley's 
methods  of  supplying  religious  books  wherever  hit  soci- 
eties existed  or  his  preachers  went,  fully  authorized  the 
following  assertion  uf  his  biographer,  Richard  Watson : 
"He  was  probably  the  Hrsc  to  use,  on  any  extensive 

Hannah  More  appeared  as  ■  writer  of  popular  tracts. 
Her  first  iract,  entitled  William  Chip,  ivas  published 
anonymously.  Having  been  encouraged  by  its  recep- 
tion, she  prepared,  with  the  aid  of  her  sisters,  a  serlps  of 
small  publications,  entitled  Tie  Chrap  Rrpoiilory  Tradi. 
In  a  private  memorandum,  published  after  her  decease, 
she  said,  "I  have  devoted  three  years  to  this  work. 
Two  millions  of  these  tracts  were  disposed  of  during  the 

that  Ihe  glory  is  all  his  own."  From  that  time  forward 
the  number  of  persons  who  made  thenuelves  useful  by 

came  conuUerably  increased.  Among  them  hoiiur^ile 
mention  may  be  made  of  Mrs.  Rebecca  Wilkinson,  of 
Oapham;  Rev.  Charles  Simeon,  of  Cambridge;  and  Rev. 
John  Campbell,  of  Rdinburgh. 

IIL  Trart  Soaelitt  diiliiKlirrly  la-tBOrd-^Th*  lime 
had  now  arrived  for  broader  and  more  thoroughly  or- 
ganized movements  in  behalf  of  the  tract  enterprise. 
The  Rvligious  Tract  Society  of  London  was  initialed  in 
May,  1799.  Rev.George  Burder,  Rowland  HiU,  Matthew 
Wilks,  Joseph  Hughes,  and  others  were  among  its  or- 
ganizers. A  rule  of  the  society,  like  that  of  Mr.  Wei- 
ley  before  noted,  provided  that  ita  membeiship  "consist 
of  [icrsons  subscribing  half  a  guinea  or  upwards  annu- 
ally." The  society  was  placed  upon  a  basis  of  bniad 
catholicity.  Ita  object  was  defined  Id  be  the  publica- 
tion of  "those  grand  doctrinal  and  practical  Ciaths 
which  have  In  every  age  been  mighty  through  God  in 
converting,  sanctifying,  and  comforting  souK  tmd  by  the 
influence  of  which  men  may  have  been  enabled,  white 
ihey  lived.lo  live  to  the  Lord, and  when  they  died  to  die 
unto  Ihe  Lord."  It  is  impossible  in  give  in  this  article 
■  detailed  hisliiry  of  any  of  the  sociclies  enumerated! 
brief  and  general  notices  must  aullice.  But  in  the  brief- 
est notice  of  the  Religioua  Tract  Society  of  London,  it  is 

""       "  faithfully  illuainited  the  cacbidic 


angellci 


ICiplcj 


the  beginning. 
Jews  on  a  grand  scale  and  to  an  unforeseen  extent.  An 
incidental  event  of  the  mont  interesting  character  grew 
nut  of  the  operations  of  Ihc  Religious  Tract  Society  in 
iheihirdTearofitsexistencc.    It  was  no  less  than  the  ' 


TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES   51«  TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES 

preliminu;  >tep  lovrttda  the  Drganizatinn  of  the  British 
■lid  Foieiga  Bible  Society— Ihf  parent  Kble  Society  of 
ibe  world.    See  Biblk  SoctETiES. 

For  B  Kore  of  years  the  buiine«a  of  the  Religions 
Tract  Society  waa  of  such  a  moderate  extent  that  ■ 
■mill  hired  depoiitory  sufficed  fur  its  iranuctjoii. 
From  1820  the  busiiiesa  i&  expanded  aa  lo  require 
the  occupilioD  of  enlarged  premisei  ia  Paternoster 
Row,  where,  in  1843-44,  its  present  oimmudioua  build- 
ings were  erected.  The  design  of  the  anciety  contem- 
plated the  double  purpose  of  sales  at  or  near  cost,  and 
gratniious  distribution.  Both  phases  of  its  work  were 
therefore  limited  to  ita  supply  of  funds.  Its  only  in- 
come, at  first,  was  from  the  (iinuil  subscriptions  of  its 
members.  But  by  degrees,  and  as  necessity  requircii, 
additions  were  made  from  other  sources,  auch  as  congre- 
gational coUectiuiis,  auxiliary  societies,  life  -  member- 
ahipa,  legacies,  and  special  donations.   As  the  operaliona 


jciety  iu 


sried  forr 


were  developed,  including  not  only  sales  through  depus- 
itoriea,  but  t^  hawkers  or  peddlers  througbout  the  prov- 
inces. DonstioDs  were  made  not  only  of  tracts,  but  of  as- 
sorted libraries  lo  soldiera'  bsrraclis,  to  ses-giilng  vessels, 
10  emigrant  and  conviel-sbips,  to  workhouses,  to  coast- 
to  schoolmasten,  and  city  missiunaries,  to  be  used  for 
ing  to  personi  ■      ■      -  -  -     ■ 


rsofih 


ed  only  sixty-six  diflereal  tracts  in  the  ordinary  form. 
Subsequently  it  began  to  enlarge  the  variety  as  well  as 
the  number  of  its  publications.  Broadsheeta,  handbilUi, 
chitdrens'  books,  periodicals  adapted  to  different  ages 
and  classea,  monthly  voluiaes,  standard  works,  am' 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures  came  in  turn  lo  b 
ulariy  aad  conatancly  issued  under  the  imprint  of  tbe 
society.     From  active  work  in  dilTerent  parts  of  Great 

esgn  fields.  Such  an  entension  had  not  been  originally 
contemplated,  but  nevertheless  took  place  in  the  order 
of  l^vidence,  and  became  a  striking  illuitratiuii  of  the 
expanuvc  nature  of  true  Christian  bencTulence.    The 

inforelRn  languages  was  the  obvious  duty  of  Ki^'ing  re- 
ligious tnstructiun  to  a  number  of  priaonera-of-war  cnn- 
dned  in  England  ^  and  the  Hnt  foreign  languiges  in 
which  the  aociely's  Incis  were  published  were  the 
French  and  the  Dutch.  Aa  was  lo  have  been  expected, 
the  foreign  prisoners,  when  released,  carried  more  or  lesa 
of  the  tract*  they  had  received  lo  their  own  counlries, 
and  thus,  lo  some  extent,  createil  a  demand  for  more 


iiieui  iif  Europe,  Wo- 
hammedaniam  to  the  Esat,  and  paganiam  of  variooa 
forms  in  heathen  lands.  It  has  given  a  Christian  liter- 
ature to  nations  Just  emerging  from  barbarism.  Iti 
publications  have  paiaed  ihe  wall  of  China,  and  have 
entered  thepalaca  of  the  Celestial  emperor.  They  hare 
inatructcd  the  princes  of  Burmah,  and  opened  tbe  self- 
sealed  lips  of  the  devotee  in  India.  They  have  gone  to 
the  sons  of  Africa  lo  leach  them,  in  their  bondage,  tbe 
liberty  of  the  Gospel  They  have  preached  Christ  cruci- 
fied to  Ihe  Jew  and  also  to  the  Greek;  while  iu  the  home 
land  they  have  continued  to  offer  the  tmibs  and  oouo- 
Istions  of  religion  to  aoldiers,  to  uilors,  to  prisonera,  lo 
the  inoules  of  boapiials,  and,  in  abort,  lo  rich  and  poor 
in  every  circumstance  of  life.  In  Ihe  year  1M9,  the 
Keligious  Tract  Society  celeb 


In 


sung  e 


public! 


About 


nrrespondence  sprang  i|p  between  Ihi 
eiely  and  representalive  evangelical  Christians  in  most 
of  the  nations  of  Kurope.     Soon  afterwarda  the  enter- 
prise of  foreign  missiuns  began  to  be  eKicnikd  to  va- 
rious pagan  nations.    By  similar  processes,  the  work  of 

largingever  since,  with  a  proapcct  of  continuous  expan- 
sion and  usefulness  in  time  in  come. 

The  Kepons  of  the  society  from  year  In  year  liave  been 
replete  with  intereslingdetails,  not  only  of  progress,  but 
also  of  results;  and  yet  it  may  safely  be  inferred  that  the 
giHid  which  haa  been  directly  and  indirectly  accom- 
plished through  its  instrumentality  has  not  half  been 
told.  Eternity  only  can  reveal  the  full  extent  of  in- 
fiuencea  that  have  been  so  far-reaching,  and  in  many 
insloiuKB  BO  remote  from  ordinary  human  observaiion. 
A  few  items,  condensed  from  the  society's  official  docu- 
ments, may  aen'c  as  panial  indications  of  i  be  magnitude 
lo  which,  from  the  small  beginnings  noted  above,  ir a  oper. 
ations  have  grown.  Tbe  society  bas  printed  important 
tracts  and  books  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  different 
languages  and  dialects.  Its  present  annual  issues  from 
its  own  depositories  and  those  of  foreign  societies, 
Ihrnugb  which  it  acts,  are  about  sixt}--ihree  millions, 
ind  ita  aggregate  issues  iluriiig  eighty  years  past  have 
been  about  two  thousand  millions.     It  haa  co-operated 


large  jubilee  fund  was  raised  to  increase  tbe  usefulueai 
of  the  siicieiy.  A  jubilee  memorial  volume  wai  abi 
published,  setting  forth  in  an  able  and  inlerestin|t  man- 
ner the  history  of  its  Hrst  6hv  Tears  of  work  and  oroe 
ress.     When,  in  ih. 

The  addiiiiHial  tract  societies  of  Crcal  Brilatii,  aside 
from  merely  local  organixalions,  are  not  niimernuB.  Tbe 
following  are  Ihe  principal-.  The  KeligHnia  Tract  and 
Book  Society  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh).  Tbe  printaiy 
organization  of  this  society  dales  back  to  1793.  It  is 
Dot  a  publishing  society,  and  for  many  yean  had  a  feeble 
existence.  About  ISfitl  it  adopted  a  system  of  colponage 
similar  to  thatof  tbe  American  Tract  Society,  and,  since 
I  that  perioil,  has  greatly  multiplied  its  inSuence  and  UM- 
rnlness.  It  embraces  branch  societies  at  C.ksgow  and 
Aberdeen,  and  empluva  aome  two  hundreil  cntponeura. 
Tbe  Sliriing  Tract  Enterprise,  founded  in  IMS,  is  chiefly 
a  publishing  inslitutinn,  iauing  both  tracts  and  period- 
icals. Tbe  Dublin  Tract  Society  issues  uacis  in  Isrg* 
numbers.  TheUonthly  Tract  Society,  London,  was  in- 
arituled  in  IBS'. 

In  passing  from  Great  Britain  to  other  countricii,  lb* 
numheroftract  societies  is  found  lobe  very  great.  For 
the  moat  part,  they  combine  publication  with  distribu- 
tion, receiving  aid  from  tbe  Religious  Tract  Society  of 
London  to  enable  them  lo  publish  tracts  and  bonks  in 
their  several  tocalities.  It  is  therefore  deemed  sufficient 
lo  give  the  title  and  dale  of  organiial  ion,  omitting  de- 
tails of  history  and  atalistics,  although  in  many  inatancea 

Co»vin«Bv  nr  Eitaore.— Tract  SocIsIt  of  Norway  and 
Denmark.  ITRS :  Blockholin  Evaiiiellcal  gorlety,  ISIt;  Re- 
ligions Trnci  Soclenr  of  Finland,  ISIS;  Tract  Society  irf 
CiipaohsEeu,  MK:  BiDtlgartTraciSoclely,  IftlS;  Pnuvlan 
Tmci  Society,  Berlin,  mOi  Tract  Society  of  Wnuperthal, 
IS14:  Lower  Suoot  Tract  Sodeiy.  Hamfmrg,  istii;  Tmet 
Bociety  of  Lolpilc.  18S1 ;  The  Netherlands  Tract  fincleiv. 
ISai  1  The  Belgian  Tract  Sncletv,  IBM ;  The  Belelan  Evnu- 

SMIciil  Society,  1S3* ;  BellcioiisTrscl  Society  otParis.  19M, 
vancellcal  Sodetj  of  Prance.I&!9:  Rellilone  Book  Su- 
rety of  ToDlonse,  ISSC:  Tract  Society  ut  Berne,  ISM: 
Tract  Society  of  Baale,  ISIO;  Tract  Socletlea  of  LsnmiDDe, 
Nro[Cbil(el,and  Geneva,  issa;  Eiaupeliral  Sncleiv  of  Ge- 
neva, 1811 ;  Tract  Societies  of  »i.  OTdl,  Zurich,  snd  Chor, 
tSMi  Tract  and  Book  Publishing  Bonn  of  ibeHeihodlft 
Enlaciipal ChuTch^Bremen,  lesO, 

Ihhii Native  Tract  Society  at  NaEercnil.Travanairc, 

ISSt !  CalcntU  Book  and  Tract  Society.  IMS :  Tract  Socic- 
(Ira  or  Miidrna,  Bellary,  Belganm.  Biimbny.Sarnt,  nud  Be~ 
iinrer.  ISU-M;  Tract  Suclailaa  nf  Banmlme.  Orlssa,  At- 
le|>le,  Chunar,aadQnllnn.lsn-M;  Tract  Sorttltea  «fMli. 
mpore.  Vlsnj[apalBm,Ciiddapah,  Neyiior,  snd  Mangatnn, 
19.^-40:  JnlTiia  Rellglona  Tract  Society,  ISaS;  Tr^r  S<>: 
cielles  of  Ciittii  and  Uolnmbts  ISM;  Oeyinn  Christinn  Tei^ 
Diiciilnr  Kdncatlon  Society  and  Bellirloas  I'mcl  SikIht. 
ISW :  Nnn]i  India  Trscl  Socletv.  Allahiibrid  i  Ponjnuh  f£ 
Mous  BiK>k  Society :  Ths  Cbt^sthn  Union  of  Java,  ISM- 
Trnct8,icleiyoniIiiiiritlnB,lSN:  Burmah  Bible  and  Tnct 

ruiHj — rrojB  the  beginning  DfCbrislIau  mlaslona  la 
China  Ibe  clrcnlsllon  oT  religions  tracts  and  books  haa 
lieen  diligently  profecnted.  To  that  end  nesrly  every 
sepnniis  minsfon  has  lened  as  a  publlihlne  unncy  <■[ 
greater  or  less  exteiiL    Almost  ill  Ihs  mlHloas  ban  re- 


rSAOTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES   51 

nliwt  fnnn  tbe  met  >i>cl(ll«ii  urEiiKlmiil  mid  Anieric 
liil  I..,  IKcir  work  of  pBlillailloii.  lii  ISiS  Ibe  Clbtu« 
Rfll^i  Tract  Snclelj  mia  nrjpiiilied   ■[   Shaughnl 


i  sDii  dilTDalua  oF  C 


dnjnrViinl 
of  Victoria, 


T  Ohriulnn  chnrcha  are  e«Mlilli>bad. 

re  111  proBresi  fur  the  P"p- 

.^._ It  iimUmited  lo  the  »iifloni 

d  br  Ibi  prlucliHil  Bible  nod  Tract  loclatles 

—Tract  Soclelj  cif  8«diiey,  1SS3 ;  Trnct  80- 
Hcnwn'g  Land,  lS3;:h«ll|,'ii>i>a  Tract SiKletT 
S»i  riclorla  Tract  Disttlbnllou  Socte'T. 

aocletr.lBSVi  Wel- 

Aulliary  Tract  SncltiT, 
"■— ■- ---iaij,  IMS. 


NrnZtALt^n.— New  Zcntand  Tr 
Itoeioii  Tmci  Sucleir.  IM" 

SouTB  Arnoi— Ctim 
IW:  Bunlli  AlricnD  LadK 


.^Jamaica  Tract  Societj,  ISBS ;  Nev  i>rOTl 
.  ■wcielT.  lar. 

-Tract  SncislTofOnebeclSMi  Tract  aaclalf 
nf  Kontwal.  18S8;  Religli -is  Tract  8.)cletT  of  T<in>nln, 
1i»l  Rell-HonsTrBCt  SaclmofHaUrni.iaM:  Rellglnng 
-       ~    ■  --    -  ■     Lrf.R,i8aSj  firillshAmerlcaii 

Inllbl,  1S«8. 
uHtTim  STATUS  OF  niiciiinA —  Miiuaebiuetta  Bnclaiy 
in  lit  FnymniUm  nt  Cbiim  Inii  Kiiootsilsca.  IKnS:  Cnii- 
aKIlrnl  Rellzloni  Tract  Society,  ISOT:  VumiDiit  Rellg- 
tnu  Tract  Sodatj,  IMS;  Ths  Pnilbliinl  Epltcopal  Tract 
8«l«tT.  ISM;  New  Turk  Bvlljtiuna  Tract  Snclclj,  1913: 
BTti>n1ical  Tract  Soctelr,  BoauiB,  18IB:  AlbaDj  KeWg- 
loiu  Tract  Soclelf,  laiS;  Ketr  BuElnnd  Tract  Soclviy, 
ISII:  Rellninna  Tract  anlely  of  PhllBdelphta,  1518;  Re- 
tllHig-  Tract  Boclatj  of  Baltlmiire,  1S1I1:  New  Tork  Meih- 
™li«i  Tract  9(Kletr,  ISII;  Bapilai  aenenil  Tract  Socleij, 
I'M;  American  Tract  Soclelv,  Biwl.oi,  ISIA:  Amerlcau 
T™i  SocteiT.  New  Tork.  IMS;  New  York  City  Tract  Si.- 
riaiT.  lan :  Vtw  Tork  City  Mlarloii  and  Tract  fticiely. 
ISti;  WllUrd  Tract  Society, B.wtoii,  ISM-  "—-'-■■"-- 
Society  of  tbe  Cnited  Statu,  Mew  York, 

Itia  not  witbin  tbe  design  ofthia  article  to  (cive  the 
hiaUHyttf  the  tract  ■odetiesenumeratRl;  but  it  is  proper 
to  remark  that  various  modiHcalioni  hive  taken  place 
b  the  title  aail  specific  character  of  aome  of  the  earlier 
everal  inatancea  primarr 
in  the  foiinaliDn  of  more 
allien  hava  continued  iindeT 
li  modified  forma  of  action.  With 
X,  the  tendency  haa  been  to  oen- 
tralize  the  wnrk  of  publication  in  a  few  atrons  aociei  iri, 
uiil  to  multiply  the  agenciea  of  disfribntion  oiilnani 
from  tbe  peat  centres  of  publication.  A  few  exam|>[r> 
oTcnnbinali"!!  and  reconalriiclion  may  be  noted.  The 
New  Eiifclaiid  Tract  Society,  orKanized  in  1SI4,  became 
in  ISiS  the  American  Tract  Society.haring  ita  locatic 
b  BoHon.  The  same  aociety  in  I87S  was  meri^l  i 
ihf  AmericiR  Tract  Society  which  was  ur)^nized  i 
New  York  in  1S25.  Tbe  taat-named  arrangement  wi 
connmmaied  none  too  aoon,  aa  great  conruaion  ha 
ariien  from  baring  two  publiabiiiji  aucletiea  of  the  aan 
(Hporate  name.  Tbe  Baptist  General  Tract  Socielj 
ofiaBiieil  in  Waihinpon  in  1824,  was  subaequentiT 
irtniiETTed  to  Philadelphia,  and  in  )840  became, «'  ~ 
talittted  deaigiB,  tbe  American  Baptiat  Publical 
Society.  The  New  York  Methodist  Tract  Socii 
organized  in  IS17,  aubaequently  became  incorporated 
a*  Ibe  Tnct  Society  of  Ibe  Uethodist  Episcopal 
Cfaoreb. 

As  a  eo«tDteTpait  In  the  above  akelch  of  the  rise  and 
dere li^imetit  of  tbe  Keli|cioiu  Tract  Siiciety  uf  Idndon, 
nd  aa  a  spednten  illustration  of  reaiilta  from  about 
lialf  a  cenlary's  nperationa  of  a  similar  American  or- 
giBixMiaii,  the  fiillowiiif!  facts  are  condenseil  from  offl- 
dll  poUicationa  of  the  American  Tract  Society :  The 
aodety  baa  a  larf^  and  commodioua  buildini;  in  Naaaau 
StieH,  New  Ym*,  with  twenty  stearo-preiHeB,  tena  of 
platea,  and  erery  facility  for 
iiling,  alaring.  and  i>suiti|{  ila 

, number  of  4090  books,  B0,000 

looa,  and  20,000  papers  daily.  It  ia  Iherafore  enabled 
lo  abate,  in  rising  tbe  prieea  of  hooka,  what  otberwiae 
woaU  have  (a  be  added  for  rent  of  buildings  hired,  and 
fee ibepfoOta of  trade.  It  nnmberaon  its  liatabouteOOO 
diMiact  publicaiioiia,  including,  besides  iracts  and  hind- 
UUa  of  raiioui  kind^  i'Hf'  volume*  of  biii[;raphy,  hie- 


5  TRACre  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES 

tory,  and  hel|«  to  Diblical  aliidr.  Among  what  are 
caUed  ita  home  publicaiions,  1684  distinct  issues  are  in 
foreign  Uiiguagcis  vii.  (ieiman,  French,  Spanish,  Ital- 
ian, Portuguese,  Swedish,  Welsh,  Dutch,  Danish,  tin- 
niah,  and  Hungarian,  designed  f»r  immigranla  coining 
to  the  United  Stalea.  Of  its  home  publicaliona  in  tht 
Engliah  language,  28.000,000  volumes,  besides  about 
8,000,000,000  pages  of  iracta,  have  been  inued.  OF  its 
periodicals,  several  of  which  are  illustraied  and  printed 
in  the  highest  atyle  of  typography,  over  5,000,000  an 
isaued  yeariy  to  860,000  subacribers.  Thb  aociety  haa 
become  diatinguished  for  its  fBithful  imd  systematic 
proeecution  of  tbe  work  of  culportage.  By  its  aeenla, 
employed  chiefly  iu  frontier  and  destitute  sections  of 
the  country,  it  has  within  a  period  of  foriv  years  drme 
a  work  eqatX  to  that  of  one  man  for  more  than  6000 
yean^  It  has  sold  more  than  11,000,000  volumes,  and 
donated  3,000,000  10  dealilutc  peraona  and  families.  It 
hoa  made  more  than  12,000,000  visits  to  familieai  in 
aboiit  1,000,000  of  which  no  religious  book  wis  found, 
with  the  exception  of  Bibles  in  about  one  third  of  the 
number.  It  has  thus  done  much  to  meel  the  moral  and 
religioiia  wants  uFour  frontier  population  in  advance  of 
schools  and  churches.  Ii  is  accustomed  to  make  grants 
each  year  of  fifty  thousand  dollara'  worth  of  ita  publica- 
tions for  circulation  in  prisons  and  hospital  in  Sab- 
bath-schools and  mindon-schoobs  in  cities  and  remote 
and  lonely  hamleta,  to  soldiers  and  lu  sailors  on  our  in- 
land waters,  ind  in  hundreds  of  outward-bound  reaaels 
ftit  every  comer  of  the  globe.  The  foreign  work  of  th« 
aociety  haa  btten  ehiefiy  accompliahed  through  dona- 
tions of  money  granted  to  minionariea  in  seventy  dif- 
ferent foreign'  suttions.  Ity  means  of  aome  #700,000 
thus  appropriated,  the  anciely  haa  printed,  in  146  differ- 
ent liiigiugcs  and  dialects,  not  less  than  4211  distinct 
publications,  including  &I0  vnlnmes.  Thus  "fniiis  of 
the  society's  lowing  may  be  found  in  almnat  every  liiid 
—from  Kiuwa  to  the  Cape  of  (i.-nt  Hope,  and'  from 
China  in  the  East  in  Hawaii  in  the  Weal." 

Aaa  atimmiri-  of  ihe  work  accomplished  by  adialrib- 
uling  tract  aociety,  ihe  fultoivittg  itema  are  copied  from 
tbe  Kepuit  of  (be  Ameticin  Tract  Society  for  1890 : 

Time  emplnyed,  niombs C»,«Al 

V„lnmes«old l»,.'Ul,18S 

Volumes  granted ....  B.tM.Sott 

Public  meetluK-  adrirerred,  etc «B,ma 

Pamlllea  dmilmig  of  ull  religious  b<H>ka  ex-i  -,  iu  rTT 

c^ttheBlble T. i  l."*.*" 

Proleaiaul  families  deatlLute  of  (he  Bllte. «§«,nn 

Families  of  Roman  Catholics  vlalted l.TBltfS 

Proteataiit    tiimlllee    babllunlly    DSnlectliiir)  laiaua 

EvaiiKetlcsl  preschlnE T .]  '.»«■»« 

Families  converged  wlib  iiu  peraioinl  relliiioiii  ,  nisua 

oriirnyodwlth .....f  '.'«.»" 

Family  vIsliB.  lS,TT(i.OW 

In  addition  to  the  above  regular  operaiiona,  more 
than  tIB0,000have  been  expended  for  the  erntion  of 
misuon  BUtions  and  chapels.  The  ti'isl  amount  of 
grants  in  puhlicatioiis  for  65  years  amount  to  »a,109,- 
890.84.  The  foreign  grants  in  canh  am..iiut  t.i  8U96,- 
919.93.  Number  of  |iages  printed  since  the  furmalioii  of 
the  society.  9,371,832,882. 

The  detaikd  statiitica  of  the  tract  enterprise  in  iia 
various  forms  of  action  would  fill  many  volumea  with 
facia  of  intense  inieieal,  and  form  a  Just  baiuB  not  only 
of  admiration  for  ita  past  success,  but  also  of  high  ex- 
pedition for  ita  expanding  and  multiplying  influence 

IV.  C'lli'ileral  PuHahinj  Orynniiofionji.— Before  pro- 
ceeding to  cnumErate  the  more  important  of  thein,  aome 
words  orpxplanitinn  seem  nccesaar^'.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  the  tract  enterprise,  various  kinds  of  nritanita- 
tiona  have  been  found  necessary  or  eupcdleiit.  Only  a 
few  have  become  great  publishing  ini-tituliona,  and  no 
other  one  has  attained  such  n  maimitnde  "f  operations 
as  that  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of  Ifliidon.  Nevei^ 
theleaa,  societies  for  the  ethciive  and  appropriate  diitii- 


TRACTS  AND  TRACT  SOCIETIES   5lt 

buliun  of  LricU  hii-e  been  fuund  euentiHl  to  Lhe  abject 

They  have  worked  in 

ve  pmved  iiidiapeiiMlde 


ought  ro  the  eye  ai 


of  Iha  eiiterpriw  u  >  whole, 
more  limilcd  ipheres,  but  hi 
to  Ibe  highest  (orme  ot  met 
when  merely  printed,  bu  ne 
merchmdise.     A  single  tract, 

heart  of  an  interesled  reader,  accompiuneB  more  lo 
Coil  and  humanily  than  miUioiu  of  pages  reiting  upui 
the  Bhelres  of  a  depository.  Societies,  therefiire,  tha 
circulate  reli(;ious  pubUcaliona,  and  apeciiUy  by  th< 
agency  of  ekilful  Biid  syiDpMhelic  Chrietion  worken, 
deserve  high  Tespeel.  Not  all  of  them  bear  the  spe- 
cific tiune  of  tract  sodcty.  Some  of  tbem  have  min- 
gled tbe  work  vf  Bible  anil  tract  distiibuiion.  Some 
have  Bilopicd  colpnruge  as  their  chief  form  of  work, 
while  other*  have  devoted  their  energies  Urgely  lo 
other  foriDB  uf  evangelization.  In  this  Mate  of  the 
case,  it  may  not  be  poaMble  lo  give  a  complete  list  of 
all  the  societies  that  have  been  o^iniied  lo  promote 
the  circulation  <^  religiouB  tncta.  Still  less  possible 
would  it  be  lo  give,  wilhinn  convenient  apaoe,  the  full 
historical  data  of  all  such  iiistilulione.      Fortunately, 

specimen  sketches  like  ihuse  g 
cienily  descriptive  of  all  similar 
auxiliaries,  whether  conducted  on  a  larger  or  SDuller 

As  to  plan  of  organiiation,  there  are  two  classes  of 
tract  and  book  publication  societies.  One  class  repit- 
senta  united  Christian  effort  in  the  sense  of  being 
pnsed  of  the  tnembera  of  different  churches.  The  other 
is  ilenominational  in  the  sense  nf  separate  eh 
lion.  These  two  claasea  of  societies,  though 
from  each  other,  are  by  no  necessity 
They  may,  and  usually  do,  simply  represent  diffe 
modes  of  accnmplisbing  the  same  or  Nmilar  ubjects, 
While  in  England,  owing  to  the  preeminence  and 
of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  denomina- 
n  has  generally  limited  ilself  to  the  work  of 
11,  there  is  at  least  one  important  example 
.if  separate  church  action— it  is  thai  of  Ihe  Wesleyaii 
Methodist  Church.  By  that  body  Ihe  joint  enterprise 
iif  tract  and  bonk  publicalion  and  circulation  has  bcf 
continued  from  (he  rime  of  ils  inception  by  the  Re 
John  Wesley  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  Tl 
piihlicalknu  of  the  Wesleyan  bo<^-raom  embrace 
large  issonment  of  iracis,  ■  variety  of  periodicals,  and 
a  large  list  of  religious  books.  A  due  proporrion  of 
ils  tracts  and  books  his  been  prepared  and  printed  in 
foreign  languages,  in  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the 
'Various  mission  Aelds  of  that  Church.  Book  aflairt 
.constitute  a  standard  topic  of  business  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  tbe  Conference,  which  officially  appoints  a 
publishing  agent  and  the  rcnuisite  editors.  It  also  ap- 
points a  tract  committee  charged  with  Ihe  duty  of  pro- 
motiug  the  circulation  of  tracts  by  means  of  auxiliarj' 
and  loan  aodeties  and  suitable  grants.  As  ■  branch  of 
church  work,  cities,  villages,  and  country  neipihborhoodi 
are  districted  for  cnnsecuiive  anil  periodical  visitation 
bv  tract-distribulota.     in  America,  several  of 


TRACT 

in  embraccil  within  tbe  operationi  of  the 
Keligious  Tract  Sodely  of  Loiulon.  B™des  ihese,  sev- 
eral denominational  religious  publishing  houaea  havs 
grown  up,  in  which  vast  iinmben  of  tracts,  books,  and 
periodicals  are  printed. 

The  oldest  and  latest  of  Ihese  is  the  Book  Concern 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  which  nas  a  direct 
outgrowth  of  Mr.  Weeley'a  pnblicalion  enlerpri-e  in 
Englsnd,  mentioneil  above.     It  was  begun  in   Phila- 
delphia by  official  action  of  Ihe  Churcb  in  1789.  and  is 
moved  lo  New  York,  where  Its  principal  ea- 
tabliihment  has  since  remained.     It  has  branch  pab- 
lishing-houses  in  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  to- 
'ther  with  depositories  in  most  of  the  large  ritiCK 
Corresponding  in  character  to  tbe  above  are  ihg 
merican  Baptist  Publication  Society  and  the  I'rwl.y- 
rian  Boanl  of  Publication,  both  located  in  Fhiladel- 
lia.    All  the  institutions  thus  far  named  pnbliib  dor 
lesa  books  and  tracts  an  the  aobjecl  of  tempetaixe' 
ut  in  1866  the  National  Temperance  Society  was  oc- 
gantECrt  in  New  York,  for  the  express  porpnse  of  pn^ 
Tiding  a  cheap  and  sound  literature  on  all  eubjects  re- 
lating to  theoretical  and  practical  temperance.    The 
National  Temperance  Publication  Hoi.se  may  therefnn 
irobered  among  the  tract  and  book  publishing  in- 
ions  of  the  United  Statea.    Its  publications,  tl- 
■  sin  hundred  in  number,  are  circulated  to  some 
it  through  Sundsy-schoolii,  but  more  extensively 
igli  auxilisr>'  lempenlnce  organiEationi  in  all  pans 
of  the  land.    It  may  thus  he  seen  that  from  small  begin- 
;han  a  century  ago,  a  vast  sistem  of  tract 
iblication  in  Ihe  interest  of  Christianity  hai 
sprung  up  and  spread  abroad  its  infiuence  in  moM  of 
'  e  countries  and  languages  of  the  world. 

V,  The  lileratare  of  the  aubject  is  as  y«  chiefly  to 
be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  rarinu*  societies 
and  institutions  above  enumerated.  The  JsHirr  Mf- 
moriHl  Voliimt  "/  the  Rrliffitiui  Tract  Soei/lf  (Land. 
I860,  TOO  pp.  8vo)  is  a  specimen  of  many  similar  vol- 
umes that  will  hereaHer  be  forthcoming  from  that  and 
other  societies.     (D.  P.  K.) 


n,  althou 
1  Knowledge. 


both  of  tracts  and  books  on  a  sJi 
are  as  thorough  in  the  work  of 

The  Society  for  I*roraoling 
fouiHled  in  London  in  the  early  pan  of  the  pre* 
tury,  deserves  in  several  respects  to  be  clsssei 
i^iiie  of  the  publishing  tract  societies  of  Engli 
issues,  chiefly  on  business  principles,  a  large 
of  books  adapted  to  juvenile,  Sunday-school,  and  po 
lax  reading,  all  of  which  hsve  fi.r  their  object  at  li 
indirect  Christian  influence,  besides  many  thouaandi 
religious  mcta. 

In  addition  to  facta  heretofore  slated,  il  must  be  bimie 
in  mind  that  the  Sunday-school  uniiiiis  (q.  v.)  of  the 
L'nile.1  Slates  have  to  a  large  extciit  provided  the 
Sunday-school  tracts  and  books  used  by  the  diffi 
churches,  and  thus  covered  an  imponant  departi 


TraeUri 


I THK  Times.    See  Pijsetisii. 


Tractns.    See  Tract. 

Tiacy,  Bernard  Deatult  de,  a  French  oaeeiie 
u  rilcr.  was  bom  Aug.  36,  ITSO,  at  Paray-le-Frainl,  near 
Muulins.  At  Ihe  age  of  sixteen  he  joined  ihe  Thea- 
tines.  and  paiwed  his  whole  life  in  retirement  and  piny. 
He  dieil  i»  l'ari^  Aug.  H.  IS'B.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  works  on  practical  religion  and  the  biographiea 
of  sainls,  for  which  aee  Uoefer,  A'onr.  Biog.  Ginirak, 


Tracy.  ■WtUlain,  D.D..  > 

was  bom  at  Norwich.  Conn.,  June  3, 1807.  He  weal  lo 
Philadelphia  and  united  with  the  Church  in  February. 
182T.  Being  induced,  by  tbe  advice  of  Rev.  John  L. 
CranI,  to  study  for  the  ministry,  he  aocordinicly  en- 
tered Williamslown  Academy,  and  from  thence  Williami 
College,  where  he  reiDained  three  years,  but  left  be- 
fore grttduation.  After  this  be  taught  school  ■  year 
in  Lexington,  Ky.  Then  he  spent  a  year  in  Andover 
'ITieological  Seminary,  and  thence  w        ■     -  ■ 


He 


licensed  lo  preach  in  ISBIi,  and  was  ordained  bv  the 
Philadelphia  Presbytery  as  an  evangelist.  Having  ile- 
>'»led  himself  to  the  work  of  foreign  missions,  he  sailed 
for  India,  and,  having  reached  Madras,  he  went  in  the 
Madura  district,  his  Betd  of  Ubor,  in  1887.  He  eMab- 
lished  a  boarding-school  at  Tirumangaliim.  which  grew 
In  a  high.^:cr>de  seminary,  having  fifty  pupils.  Here  be 
spent  Iwenly-two  yean  of  his  life,  and  he  educated  man 
than  250  young  men.  He  prepared  many  text-books 
In  theology  and  science,  and  gave  important  aid  in  revia- 
ing  Ihe  Tamil  Bible.  In  November.  18TT,  his  youni^eat 
son  and  wife  Joined  him  and  his  mother  in  India  aa 
miasiimaries,  to  share  their  labort  and  their   home. 


TRADE  51 

bnt  hii  work  wu  iloiw.  After  th«  Sabbuh  which  he 
•pent  in  tbe  MitcMarj,  hr  vru  Utack«d  wilh  rheunit- 
ie  ena>p»  and  diirrhoa,  which  brought  him  rapidly 
10  the  tDdiiud  bediedatTiaupuvsiiam,Nov.Se,lB77. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Vi»O0.    Se«  HecHAMict  Mkrchaht. 

Tradltlo  (Kt  Bkduitio)  StmBou  Idtlivrrg  nf  tie 
mrd).  These  worda  are  uted  by  ecdc<iutical  writers 
jo  refennce  lo  the  pnciice  geaenlly  idopied  of  re- 
quiring iMpIiied  penuDi  to  repeal  (he  Creed  and  the 
Lord'a  Prayer,  in  which  they  had  previously  been  in- 
slmcled.  la  the  caH  af  infanta  the  ■ponaois  at  flru  re- 
peated theee  rormnlariei  on  behalrorthe  child  Tor  whom 
ihrr  answered;  but  afterwarde,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
ihe'Roniah  Cbareh  b^n  to  dispeiuB  wilh  this  usage, 
and  to  aatiify  itHirwith  the  priest's  repealing  them. 
There  ia  still  a  reoinint  of  this  practice  in  some  coun- 
liin:  tponimrs  are  suhJHied  ti>  a  catechetical  exaio- 
inatioa  by  the   miniNer  preiiuusly  lu  their  adnib- 

Tradition  {-rapiiams),  Jswimi.  The  Jews  pre- 
tend that,  besides  their  written  law  contained  iu  the 
Pentateuch,  God  delirereil  to  Moses  ail  oral  law,  which 
was  handed  down  fruin  generation  to  generation.  The 
varioos  dceluans  of  the  Jewiah  docion  or  prieUa  on 
La  which  the  law  had  «ther  lei)  doubtful  or  paased 


lailen 


Tbey  did  not  coinmit  their  numeroua  tradiliona  (which 
appear  lo  bare  been  ■  Ung  time  in  accumutating)  to 
writing  before  their  wars  axainst  the  Komana  under 
Hadrian  and  ScTcrua.  The  Mishna,  tbe  Uemani,  and 
perhaps  the  Miaorah  were  collecieil  by  tbe  nbbina  nf 
Tiberias  aod  later  schools.  See  Radbi.visu.  Many  of 
(heir  false  tradiliona  were  in  direct  uppoaitioii  to  the 
law  of  God;  hence  our  Saviour  often  reproached  the 
Pharisees  with  preferring  them  to  the  law  itself.  He 
also  gives  acTeral  ioBtaocca  of  their  aupentitious  ailhe- 
fence  to  vain  obeerraHC«s,  while  tJiey  iief^lccted  essen- 
tia] ihioga  (Matt,  xr,  2, 3 1  Mark  vii,  3-13).  The  only 
Way  in  which  we  can  know  aatisfactorily  that  any  tra- 
ditioii  is  of  divine  authority  is  by  ils  baring  a  place  in 
(bose  writings  which  are  generaUy  acknowledjted  lo  be 
tbe  genuine  ptoductions  of  inspired  men.  All  Irodi- 
tiona  wbicti  bave  not  such  authority  are  without  value, 
and  tend  greatlv  to  detract  and  mislead  tbe  minda  of 
Den(!The«s.ii^l6j  iii,6). 

Id  this  respect,  however,  a  notable  division  existed 
among  the  Jews  themselves,  which  has  been  tranimit- 
ted  to  the  modem  represenUlivea  of  the  two  great  par- 
tie*.  The  leading  lenet  of  the  Sadducees  was  the  ne- 
gation of  the  leading  tenet  of  their  i^ponenls.  Aa  the 
Pharioeea  aaaerted,  ao  the  Sadducees  denied,  that  the 
Israelites  were  in  poasesaion  of  an  oral  law  transmitted 
la  them  by  Hose*.  The  manner  in  which  the  Phari- 
aeea  may  have  gained  acceptance  for  their  own  view  is 
netieed  elaewbeie  in  this  work  [see  pHAmsEB};  but, 
far  an  equitable  eatitnale  of  tbe  Sadducees,  it  is  proper 
lo  hear  in  mind  emphatically  bow  destilnte  of  histori- 
ostevidenec  the  doctrine  was  which  they  denied.  That 
doctrine  ia,  at  tbe  present  day,  rejected,  probably  bv  ■!- 
bkM  all,  if  not  by  all,  Ciiristian*;  and  it  ia,  indeed,  so 
fbreigu  to  their  ideas  that  [he  greater  number  of  Chris- 
tians bave  never  even  heard  of  it,  though  it  is  older 
tbaa  Christianity,  and  has  been  the  support  and  con- 
•ulatisa  of  the  jewa  under  a  aerres  of  the  moat  cruel 
and  wicked  pcnecationa  to  which  any  nation  has  ever 
been  oposed  daring  an  eiguat  number  of  centuries.  It 
is  likewise  now  maintained  all  over  tbe  worid  by  those 
who  are  eaOed  the  orthodoK  Jews.  It  is  therefore  de- 
sirable to  know  the  kind  of  argumenls  by  which,  at  the 
present  day,  in  a  historical  and  critical  age,  the  doc- 
trine ia  defended.  For  tbia  an  opportunity  has  lately 
(Men  girea  by  a  learned  French  Jew,  grand-rabbi  of 
■he  dreuweription  of  Colraar  (Klein,  U  Jadiiiimr,  ou 
lu  VMt  <ar  ie  Talmnd  [Hulhouae,  1859]),  who  still 
•ssartatsB  fact  the  exiateoeaofaHutaic  oral  la*.   To 


7  TRADITION 

do  full  justice  to  his  viewsj  the  original  work  should  be 
perused.  Bat  it  ia  doing  no  injustice  lo  bis  learning 
and  atnlity  to  point  ont  that  not  one  of  his  Bigumeot* 
has  a  positive  hislorical  value.  Thus  he  relies  inaiuJy 
on  the  ineoneeivahilily  (as  will  be  again  noticed  in  this 

plicitly  procUimed  the  doctrine  of  a  future  state  of  re- 
wards and  punishments,  or  that  it  ahouM  have  promul- 
gated laws  Icl^  in  such  an  incomplete  form  and  requit- 
ing ■■>  much  expUnalion  and  au  many  additions  as  the 
lawa  in  the  Pentateuch.  Now  aTgumenla  of  this  kind 
may  be  snund  or  unsound ;  based  on  reason  oi  illogicalt 
and  for  many  they  may  bave  a  phlloeuphical  or  theo- 
logical value ;  but  they  have  no  pretence  to  be  regard- 
ed as  hiatoricat,  inasmuch  as  the  assumed  premises, 
which  involve  a  knowledge  of  the  atlributea  c^  the  Su- 
preme Being  and  the  manner  in  which  he  would  be 
likely  lo  deal  with  man,  are  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
historical  verification.  The  nearest  approach  lo  a  his- 
torical argument  is  the  following  (p.  10):  "In  the  Gnt 
place,  nothing  proves  better  the  factuf  ihe  existence 
of  the  tradition  than  tbe  belief  itself  ill  Ihe  iraiUtion. 
An  entire  nation  does  not  suddenly  forget  its  religious 
code,  its  principles,  its  laws,  the  daily  ceremonies  of  ita 
worship  lo  auch  a  point  that  It  could  easily  be  penuad- 
ed  that  a  new  doctrine  presented  by  aome  impostora  ia 
the  tnie  and  only  explanation  of  ita  law  and  has  always 
determined  and  niled  ils  application.  Holy  Writ  often 
represents  Ihe  Israelites  as  a  stifF-nccked  people  impa- 
tient of  the  religions  yoke;  and  would  it  uot  be  attrib- 
uting to  them  rather  an  cxceaa  of  docility,  a  too  great 
condescension,  a  blind  obedience,  to  suppose  (bat  they 
suddenly  conaenteil  to  troublesome  and  rigorous,  inno- 
vations which  aome  petaona  might  bave  wlabeii  to  im- 
pose on  them  some  fine  morning?  Such  a  supjiisilion 
destroya  itself,  and  we  arc  obliged  lo  acknowleilgc  that 
the  tradition  ia  not  a  new  inveniion,  but  that  its  hirth 
goes  back  tn  the  origin  of  the  religion ;  and  that,  trans- 
mitted from  father  to  aon  as  the  word  of  God,  it  lived 
in  the  hestt  of  the  people,  idenliBed  itself  with  the 
I  blood,  and  waa  always  conaidcrrd  as  an  inviolable  au- 
thority." But,  if  this  passage  is  carefully  examined,  it 
will  be  seen  that  It  does  not  supply  n  single  fact  worthy 
of  being  regarded  as  a  prunf  of  a  Mosaic  oral  law.  In- 
dqiendent  testimony  of  peraons  contemporary  with  Mo- 
ses that  he  hail  iransmiltcd  such  a  law  lo  the  Israelites 
would  be  historical  evidence ;  I  he  testimony  of  persons 
in  the  next  generation  as  lo  the  existence  of  such  an 
oral  law  which  their  fathers  told  them  came  from  Mo- 
ses would  have  been  secondary  historical  evidence;  but 
Ihe  belief  of  the  leraelilea  on  the  point  twelve  hundred 
years  after  Mosea  caniiol.  in  the  absence  of  any  inter- 
mediate lestimiiiiy,  be  deemed  evidence  of  a  biatorical 
fact.  Moreover,  il  is  a  mistake  lo  assume  that  tbey 
who  deny  a  Moaaic  nrol  law  imagine  that  thia  oral  law 
was  at  some  one  lime  as  one  great  system  introduced 
suddenly  among  the  lancliles.  The  real  mode  of  con- 
ceiving what  occurred  ia  far  different.  After  the  re- 
turn tnm  the  Caplivily,  there  existed  probably  among 
the  Jews  a  large  bndy  of  customs  and  decisions  not  con- 
tained in  the  Peiiiaieiich ;  anil  these  had  practical  au- 
thority over  the  people  long  before  they  were  attrib- 
uted to  Moses.  The  only  phenomenon  of  importance 
reijairing  explanation  ia,  not  ihe  existence  of  the  cus- 
toms aaiictioned  by  the  oral  law,  but  the  belief  accept- 
ed by  a  certain  portion  of  Ihe  Jews  iliat  Muses  had  di- 
vinely reveslfd  ihore  ciimnma  aa  laws  to  Ihe  laneliiea, 
To  expUin  this  historically  from  written  records  is  im- 
possible, fmm  the  silence  on  tbe  auhjccl  of  the  verr 
scanty  hislorical  Jewish  writing*  purporting  to  he  writ- 
ten between  the  rci  urn  from  theCaptivily  in  BC.  536  and 
period  when  Ihe  canon  was  finally  closeil. 
ibably  could  not  have  been  very  long  before 
of  Anliochus  Kpiphancs,  KQ  IfA.  tor  all 
of  lime,  a  ]vrii>d  ofabnul  three  hundred  and 
a  perioti  SK  lung  as  from  the  acves- 
10  the  pFTMiii  day,  we  have  no  He- 


TRADITION 


bn<r  account,  nor,  in  tact,  my 
of  tba  hiMory  of  tbe  Jew*  in  PaieMinc,  exc«pt  what 
nay  be  canlained  in  the  aliort  wocki  cntilUd  Ein  and 
Nebemiab.  The  laM  named  of  theae  works  does  not 
cttry  tbe  hiMory  much  liler  than  one  bundrtd  yean 
after  the  relum  fmni  ilie  Captivity;  bo  tliat  Ibera  ii 
a  long  and  exLremvly  imporlant  petioil  of  mote  than 
two  uenluriea  and  a  half  before  Ibe  heroic  riting  of  the 
Maccaber*.  during  which  there  a  a  total  abaence  of 
contemporary  Jewish  hiitory.  [n  thia  lieaith  of  bia- 
torical  material*,  it  ia  idle  to  attempt  a  poritive  naira- 
lioii  of  the  citciimilancca  under  wbich  the  oral  law  be- 
came assigned  to  Moaes  a*  iti  author.  It  U  amply  auf- 
ficient  if  a  satisractory  auggestion  ia  maile  aa  to  how  it 
m^f  have  been  attributed  to  Moaei;  and  in  tliii  there 
ia  not  much  diMculty  for  any  one  who  bean  in  mind 
how  notorioualy  in  ancient  time*  laws  «r  a  much  later 
date  were  attributed  to  Hinos,  Lvcurgus,  Solon,  anil 
Numa. 

Under  thia  head  we  may  add  that  it  muat  nut  be 
anumed  that  the  3ad<luc«ea.  because  they  rejrcteil  a 
Uncalc  oral  law,  rejected  likawiae  all  tradition*  and 
all  decisions  in  explanation  or  pnwaKes  in  tbe  Fenlt- 
teuch.  Although  ihey  proteueil  aRiinst  the  aaaenion 
that  such  point!  had  been  divinely  settled  by  Uvea, 
they  probably,  in  numerous  instaiires,  followed  pncti- 
cilly  the  aaine  tiadilion*  as  the  fhaiiaeea.    Sn  Sad- 

TRAOITION,  Christiam.  In  tbe  older  ecdeataati- 
cal  fatbera,  the  words  irapalooit  and  imdiiio  are  used 
to  denote  any  iiiairucliou  which  one  gives  to  anolber, 
whether  oral  or  written.  In  the  New  Teat,  alao,  and  in 
the  clasaical  writera,  xapatmrvnt  and  tradtn  dgnify,  in 
(general,  to  teach,  to  instruct.  In  tJiis  wider  sense,  tra- 
dition was  divided  Into  leripla  and  mm  tcripla  tici 
oralit.  The  lallcr,  Iradilio  orolii,  was,  however,  fre- 
quentljr  called  iradilio,  by  way  of  eminence.  This  oral 
tradition  was  often  appealed  to  by  IrcnKiis,  Cler 
Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  others  of  Ihe  ancient  fathers, 
asa  teat  by  which  to  try  f      ■       ■  - 

teachers,  and  by  which  lo  confute  the  errors  of  the  here- 
tici.  They  describe  it  aa  being 
from  the  mouib  of  the  apostles  by  the 
churches,  transmitied  from  the  apostolic  age,  and  pre- 
sen-ed  in  purity  until  their  owr 

Oral  tradition  is  still  regarded  by  the  Boman  Chorch 
aa  a  principimn  cognoictndi  in  theology,  and  they  at- 
tempt lo  support  Iheir  hypothecs  rtapectlng  it  by  the 
UM  made  of  it  by  the  fathera.  Hnch  dispi 
about  the  degree  of  weight  lo  be  assigned  to  tradition 
gmtrallg;  many,  however,  eoniider  that  this  is  an  idle 
controveny,  and  that  tach  particular  Irai 
be  tried  on  ili  own  grounds.  In  coming  lo  a  clecision 
on  the  merits  of  the  question  respecting  doclrinsl : 
dilion,ei'ery  thing  depends  upon  malting  the  proper' 
tinclions  with  regard  to  linu. 

Ill  the  first  period  of  Chrislianily,  the  authority  of 
the  apoitlea  was  so  great  that  all  their  doctrines  and 
onlinances  were  strictly  and  punctually  observed  by  the 
churches  which  tbey  had  planted.  The  *  ' 
discipline  which  prevaileil  in  those  apostolical  chnrchea 
were,  at  the  time,  justly  considered  by  oi 
purely  such  as  the  a|<osilca  themselves  hail 
eBtabli»l>eil.  Tliic  km  the  more  cnmmon,  as  the  books 
of  [he  New  Test,  bail  iioi,  as  yet,  come  into  general  use 
among  Chrisiian*;  imt  was  it,  at  that  early  perimi,  at- 
tendeil  with  any  special  liability  to  mistake.  In  this 
wsy  we  can  account  for  it  that  Christian  leacheia  of  the 
2d  and  3d  centuries  ap|>eal  sn  frequently  to  oral  tradi- 


TR.\UUCrANISM 


T  been  done  before  to  aposlolical  tradition,  ki 

iapp<i  U 


as.  They  went  so  far,  indeed,  a*  to  appeal  to  tbi* 
Lijon  for  many  things  not  only  at  variance  with 
other  traditiona,  but  with  the  very  writings  of  the  apca- 
tles  which  they  bad  in  their  bands.  From  this  time 
forward,  trad  it  ion  naturally  became  more  and  more  un- 
certain and  suspicious.  No  wonder,  theteforr,  that  we 
And  Augiistiue  establishing  Ihe  maxim  Ibat  it  could  not 
be  relie<l  upon,  in  the  cver-increaaing  distance  from  the 
age  of  tbe  apoatlen,  except  when  it  was  uniretsa]  and 
perfectly  consisleni  with  itself.  The  Beformera  justly 
held  that  tradition  is  not  a  sure  and  certain  source  of 
knowledge  respecting  Ihe  doctrines  of  Iheology,  ami 
that  Ihe  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only  priadpini  ea^ 
notcouK.  See  Knapp,  Chriitian  Tktdogf,  vii,  S ;  Eden, 
Tktel.  Did.  b.v.;  Cunningham.  IfiH.  Thtolagy,  i,  136, 
*80!  Hagenbach,  Hitl.  of  Ooilfinri  {  Index  );  Hook. 
Chatth  Did.  s.  v.;  Milman,  I/iit.  k/ Ihe  Jnet,  ii,  4!; 
Van  Ooalenee,  CknMlim  Dugwalia,  art.  "Faith,  Rule 


imilted  b; 


lin  Ai^ 


)t  expressly  named 


licle  M,  is  not  to  be  undenlood  as  indud 

spect  and  obedience  arc  all  those  cusioni 
nies  in  eslsbliaheri  use  which  are  n< 
in  the  Scriptures,  nor  in  the  wtiller 
the  Church,  but  stand  simply  on  [he  grotnid  of  pi«> 
scription.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  tbe  alleft- 
nate  mode  of  reading  the  Putter,  the  cuMoid  at  bow- 
ing in  tba  Creed,  the  postures  in  various  ofices  of 
the  Church,  the  use  of  a  doxology  and  collects  alter 
a  sermon,  lbs  practice  of  pouring  the  baptismal  water 
upon  the  head,  the  quantity  of  the  elemenla  coDSDined 
in  tbe  eucharisl,  etc.  These,  though  unwritceik,  arc 
not  the  less  obligatory  when  ascertained  to  be  atand- 
ing  customs  of  the  Church.  The  article  ordains  that 
"whosoever,  through  his  private  judgment,  willingly 
and  purposely  doth  (^nly  break  tbe  tradilion*  and 
ceremoniea  of  the  Chiiteh  wbich  be  not  ivpugnaot 
to  the  Word  of  God,  and  be  ordained  and  sfiptored 
by  ooDmon  authority,  ought  to  be  reboked  openly 
(that  othen  may  fear  to  do  the  like)  aa  be  thai  oT- 
todctb  agitfiut  tht  eommaa  order  of  tbe  Church,' 


TraditfilflB  (lurrBufem-i  or  I 
plied  by  the  ancient  Christians  to  1 
livered  up  their  Bible  and  sacred  u 


But  ir 


,e  Chur 


stances  were  far  different.  AAer  the 
of  the  3d  century,  when  the  first  teachers  of  the  apos- 
tolical churches  and  their  immediate  successors  had 
passeil  away  and  another  race  sprang  np,  other  doc- 
trines and  forms  were  gradually  introduced,  which  dif- 
fered in  many  refpccls  from  apostolical  simplicity.  And 
DOW  those  innovators  appeded  more  frequently  than 


"I.  a  name  ap- 
peisons  who  de- 
ls of  the  Church 
See  Bingham, 
Cliritl.AtUig.bii.x\i,ch.\i,%2b. 

Tradnclftniem  is  the  belief  that  the  sonls  of  chil- 
dren, aa  well  as  Iheir  bodies,  are  propagated  fmm  their 
parents,  and  is  opposed  to  Cteationism  (q.v.)  and  tbe 
doctrine  nf  the  Pre-exislenis  (q,  v,).  According  l«  Je- 
rome, both  Tertullian  and  ApoUinaria  were  adrncairs 
of  this  opinion,  and  the  opponenls  of  PelagiaiiisDi,  in 
general,  have  been  inclined  lo  il.  Since  Ihe  Kefunna- 
lion,  it  has  been  mors  approved  than  any  other  in  the 
Lutheran  Church,  and  that  not  by  phUosophers  and 
naturalists  merely,  but  also  by  divines.  Luiher  him- 
self, ihoiigh  be  did  nni  declare  dialiiicily  in  its  favor, 
was  alao  inclined  luwanls  Ibis  theory ;  and  in  the  for- 
mula C'tmrordiir  it  in  distinctly  taught  thai  both  amil 
and  body  are  propagated  by  Ihe  paicnia  in  ordinary 
generation.  What  has  rendered  the  hypothesis  more 
acceptable  to  theologians  is  its  affording  Ihe  eaneat  so- 
lution of  Ihe  doclriiie  of  native  depravity;  and  it  aeems 
In  receive  confirmatiiin  fmm  the  psychological  facta  that 
llie  natural  difpoution  of  chiklrcn  not  iinriequenll;  rc- 
sendiln  that  of  [heir  parenis,  and  that  the  mental  ex- 
cellences and  imperfeciions  of  parents  are  inherited 
nearly  as  often  by  their  children  o  any  bodily  allri- 
buies.  Bui,  after  all  that  can  be  said,  we  must  be  nn»- 
(ent  to  remain  in  uncertainty  rejecting  tbe  subjeck 


TRADUCIANS 


wnh  child,  even  »-  th^ii  knowHl  nol  tbe  work*  of  God 
vlig  nakelli  ill"  (Eccl«.  xi,  5).  See  Birck,  Thral. 
lHet.t.y.;  Delitucb,  Att<L  />is«A<i^sv,  p.  lie-131  j 
Snt^En^mitr,  July,  1866,  p.  «6.     See  SoUL,  UfUGIx 

TiadaclailS,  the  idhennta  orTnduciuiism  (q.r.). 
TiKberoii,  Bartholomew,  >  learned  Engliih  di- 
rin*  at  ibe  period  orth*  llefurmalion,  wa*  bom  st  Com- 
mll  ind  educaifd  *l  OxruM.  either  in  Kxeter  College 
«  K*n  Hill.  He  trii-elled  exKnaivelj  In  Germany 
and  Ilalv,  and.  returning  ro  Enfrlind.  wii  mide  keeper 
oT  the  kinR'i  library.  In  I6J1  king  Edward  VI  confer- 
r«d  on  him  the  deanery  a(  Chichester.  This  be  lost  on 
lilt  tcceaaion  or  queen  Mai^',  andjjuining  the  Engliih 
ciileBin  Gem  any,  wrote  ill  his  icnponanl  worka  there. 
TIk  time  of  hia  death  ia  uncertain.  Traheron'a  work* 
m,PaTan*i:  lib.  i:  — Carminu  in  Morlrm  Ilmrici 
Dwdlai: — Analfiu  Seoparum  JoJiaiarU  CoMm:— 
ExfoaHan  of  a  Pari  ofSl.John't  Gotptl  (1658,  Sto)  : 
—Krpoiilimoftkt  Foaiik  Cii^rro/S'.Jalm'i  Beeda- 
lim  libS7,Sva):  —  An  AHiteer  Madt  bs  Baiikolomew 
Traitnm  to  a  Private  Papiil. 

TiaiU,  RoHSRT,  ID  eminent  divine  of  the  Church 
afScotland,  waa  bom  at  Ely,  May,  1642.  He  wts  edu- 
cated at  the  Univeiwty  of  Edinburgh,  and  punued  the 
adidyof  divinity  with  great  ardor  for  several  yeara.  In 
1656  be  waa  obliged  to  accrete  bimseir,  becauM  aome 
capita  of  Ait  Apologelic  Rrluliun,  etc,  were  found  in  hia 
mother'a  house;  and  the  follow  lug  year,  being  auapeeled 
of  opposing  the  king,  be  waa  obliged  to  Join  hia  father 
in  HuUand.  Ill  1670  he  went  to  Kngland,  and  wi 
dained  by  Presbyterian  diviiieg  in  London,  (n  1677 
Mr.  Tnill  waa  impriaoned  Uit  preaching  privaleli 
■aa  released  in  October  of  the  lame  year.  He  then  lo- 
cated at  Cranbrook,  in  Rent,  but  for  many  yeara  arier- 
wards  wal  paator  of  a  Scotch  congregation  in  London. 
He  was  warmly  attached  to  the  CalviiiiMic  doctrinea, 
an4  look  a  icatoua  concern  in  the  doctrinal  controver- 
rin.  He  died  in  May,  1716.  He  published  a  number 
sflhsriogical  treatiaea  aad  diacouraes,  which  for  many 
veira  were  printed  *«paratelv,  but  collectively  after  his 
death  (Edinb.  1715,  i  vola.  hmoi  17M,  2  vols.  12mo{ 
Glaigow,  1776,  3  vola.  Svo;  beu.  ed.  INOC,  4  vuln.  Bro). 
See  Chalmers,  Bug.  Diet,  u  v. ;  Allibonc,  Did.  a/BiH. 
and  A  •ler.  A  utiort,  a.  v. 

Tiain,  AsTiitu  Savauk,  D,!).,  a  llipiial  divine, 
■as  bom  at  Framinghatn,  Ubsl,  Sept.  1,  IHIS.and  wag 
a  graduate  of  Brown  L'liiveraity  in  the  clasa  of  1833. 
lie  was  tutor  in  the  university  two  yeara  after  his 
gnduatinn,  carrying  on  at  the  same  tioK  hia  theologi- 
cal studies  under  Dr.  Wayland.  In  1836  be  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  BaptistChitrchin  Haverhill, Mass., 


accepted  a  call  lo  the  pastorate  or  the  Baprist  Church 
in  Framingham,  where  he  remained  nnlil  his  death, .Ian. 
2,  iVTi.  Dr.  Train  waa  a  trustee  of  Brown  L'nivereitv 
riMS  184a  tUl  hii  death.     (J.a  S.) 


Trajui,  Marcl'b  Ulf 
thMi  A.D.  98  to  IIT,  iia 


I  of  hi 


ties,  ukI  also  aa  a  general  and  ndrr. 
la  the  history  of  Ibe  Church  through  his  cnniiecliou 
with  the  persecution  of  the  adherents  of  ChriaUanily  in 
hia  time.  At  flrst  loterated  by  the  policy  of  the  Roman 
relen  aa  a  comparatively  feeble  though  deajucable  ex- 
cnannce  on  the  Inathaome  superstition  of  Judaism, 
Christianity  was  forced  upon  the  notice  of  the  emperors 
by  tht  lumnlta  excited  among  the  populace  by  heathen 
piM*U,wba  obaerveil  the  remarkable  progress  of  thai 
bith  with  alarm,  aud  Tn^an  was  iccDrdingly  led  to 


9  TRAJAN 

issue  edicts  for  the  gradoal  sop- 
preaaion  of  the  new  teaching 
which  tranafiirmed  men  into  hat- 
ers of  tbe  gods.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  younger  Pliny  as 
governor  of  Ilithynia  was  com- 
pliealeil  with  matters  growing 
out  of  the  rapid  eitenaiun  of 
Christianity  and  tbe  conaequent 
rage  of  the  heathen  population 
within  hia  province.  He  there- 
foreendeavoredtoenforceagainst 
Chriatians  the  lawa  for  the  sup. 
presHon  of  the  really  dangerous 
tlflarus  (see  I'liny,  Kpiit.  x,43), 
but  found  tbe  complaints  to  be  so 
numerous  and  the  result  of  the 
judicial  investigations  so  unsal- 
isficlory   that   he   referred  the 

inatruellona.     Of  tbe   accuacd, 

any  way  implicated  in  Christi- 
anity i  others  declared  that  Ibey 
had  relumed  to  the  old  faith,  and 
oOered  incense  and  libations  be- 
fore the  image  of  the  empemr  and 
blasphemed  the  name  of  Cbrisu 
Those  who  avowed  themselves 
Cbrisliana  confessed  to  nothing 
of  a  damaging  character.  Tbeir 
offence  consisted  merely  in  meet- 
ing  before  sunrise  of  ■  apeciSed 


the  ssaumplion  of  a  voluntary 
obligation,  under  oath,  lo  eommic 
no  theft,  robbery,  nor  adultery. 


eral    a« 
>uld  b. 


t    deHiiilc    prescr 


He  added  that  scarcli  alii-uld  not 
be  made  for  susi>ectal  persons, 
though,  if  accuseil  aud  convict- 
ed, they  ahould  be  puulalied  un- 
lesa  Ibey  iuterposeil  a  denial  of  ._ 
tbe  charge  of  being  Christians,  TnOau's  Column  tn 
■nd  authenticated  it  by  calling  Rome, 

on  the  gods.    Anonymous  accu- 

aationa  of  any  sort  should  not  be  received.  The  ex- 
ecution of  several  Christians,  among  them  the  aged 
Symeiin,  who  was  the  sun  of  Qopaa,  and  successor  of 
James  at  Jemsalem,  must  be  explained  in  view  of  (he 
fact  that  the  emperor  was  at  the  same  lime  regent  of 
the  Staid  and  chief  priest  (ponli/ex  mnijintii),  and- 
would  consider  it  necessary  to  protect  and  preserve  the 
religion  which  waa  so  closely  interwoven  with  ihe  in- 
letesls  nf  the  Sute.  The  same  idea  will  applv  lu  the 
caseoflgiiatius. 

/-ilrrn/urf— The  principal  sources  for  the  hi^lnn-  of 
Trajan  are  Pliny  the  yciunger.  F.pUlol^.  p«|«clslly  lib.  x, 


TKAMOKTANE  s! 

ind  Pimrggrxcvi  (eii.  Gierig);  INoD  Can.  HaL  Rom.  I 
lib.  IjtTJii  (iiiifijrluiialelv  extanl  only  in  the  exlricl  hy 
Xiphilinug) :  AiireL  Vicinr,  C<ri.  xiti,  1  eq.  and  tlpiluae 
13;  EuCrop.  viii,  i;  Orutiiis,  rii,  2  M(.;  TenulL^^w^ 
t/tt,  c.  1 ;  Euwli,  ttiML  Kcci.  iii,  12  w^\  Juslili»  Apologtt. 
i,  68;  KuAnus,  Hit.  Kcd.  iv,  9.  Utt  Wttcrhuaii  Tra- 
jimai  M  Lurrm  Rrprodadm  ( 1608) ;  Hannen,S«  Traj. 
Imp.  ad  Danvb.  Oeita  (  Norimb.  IT93};  Engel,  Coni- 
iHfnl.dr  Eiptdil.  Traj. ad  D<iiiiil>.ef  Origiae  Valadoivu 
(ViiHieb,  I7W)^  Wolf.  JCinr  mitdt  Sliflung  Tnijim-i 
(IkrI.  1808,  4to);  Francke,  Zur  Gtieh.  Traj.  u.  tiao' 
Zei/gmoam  ((liiitniw,  IdllT);  Baldwin,  t'ammml.  tl 
Edkl.  Veil.  Priaee.  Horn,  de  ChTittUaiU  (  H»L  1727, 
4u>);  BiShmer,  XII  Uwtnil.  Juris  KtcL  AM.  ad  PUn. 
Src.  n  TtrtaU.  (2.1  ed.  iliiil.  1?29),  Martini,  Pnuam. 
CAi'itf idwruw  iu£  /in;ifi.  Rom.  (Hu9I.  1802, 4to)  i  Kopkc, 
IM  Slain  M  Coadil.  C'hruli  tub  Impp.  Rum.  Allriiat 
pot  ChriMl.  Sac.  (BeroL  1828);  Schrockb,  Kii-cim- 
foch.  ii,  320  >q. ;  GiewUr,  KirehrxgetHt.  i,  134  aq. ;  and 
the  monographs  died  by  Vulbeiliiig,  yiufrx  Frogium- 
mn/um, p. 9o, 98.— Heraog,  lttol-£«eytlop.t.v.;  Smith, 
Did.  o/Gr.  a«d  Rom.  Biag. «.  v.     See  PlIhy. 

Tramontane  (aeroaikeoioaiiiai»),%tttm  applied 
by  the  Italian!  lu  Ihoae  dwelling  uurth  iiTtbe  Alpx,  anil 
opedally  to  the  ecclenanliea  ami  profesMm  of  Ihe  canon 
Uw  of  Gernunj  and  France.     8e«  ULTRAMON-rAMb 

Trauo«  (tMrflair,  tctlmy),  a  attpeniaturHl  Male  of 
body  and  miiul,  Ihe  nature  oC  which  has  been  well  con- 
J«cluial  by  I>a(l<lndge,  who  defines  it  "  tuch  a  rapture 
of  mind  aa  fcii'ea  Ihe  iiermn  who  falli  into  it  a  look  of 
aainniahmeiil,  and  reiulerBhim  inBentibleortheeilemal 
o1j]«te  arounil  him,  while  in  the  meanliine  hi*  imagina- 
tion la  agitated  in  an  eilraurdinary  manner  with  aome 
aliiking  acenea  which  pa»  before  it  and  lake  up  all  the 

of  thi*  kind  menlioned  by  Guallehua  in  bit  note  on 
Ada  X,  10  {Piimili/  tirpoiilor.  ad  lew.  note  g).  Slockius 
alaa  ileacrtbea  it  aa"a  Hcrnl  ecsla'y.  iir  rapture  nr  Ihe 

being  siiqiended,  Gnd  reveale  Minething  in  a  peculiar 
manner  to  propbeifiand  apoatlea,  who  are  then  taken  or 
transportHl  out  nf  themeelTO."  The  aame  idea  is  in- 
limaled  in  ibe  English  word  liiiiief,  from  the  Lalin 
IraatUiu,  the  Male  of  being  carried  out  of  one's  self. 

1.  In  the  only  passage  (Nnmb.  xxiv,4, 16)  in  which 
this  word  occurs  in  the  English  of  the  Uld  Test,  there 
is,  at  the  italics  show,  no  corresponding  word  in  He- 
brett,  Mmply  ?B9,  "  railing."  for  wliich  Ibe  Sept.  gives 
tV  iiarty,  and  the  Vulg.  mure  literally  gai  eaiHl.  In  the 
New  Test,  we  meet  with  Ihe  woril  three  limei>  (Acta  x, 
10;  xi,G;  xxil,  17),  the  Vulg.  giving  "excessus"  in  Ihe 
two  former,  "stupor  mentis"  in  tlie  lalier.  The  Greek 
word  fmmiffic  employed  in  Ibese  passages  denotes  the 
?Rect  of  any  pasUoo  by  wbicli  the  thoughts  are  wholly 
Hlisoitied.  In  Ihe  Sept.  iicnrre^mndslo  m;S,  a  "won- 
derful thing"  (Jer.v,S<)).l-n':r."aMnnishment"(Deiit. 
xxviii,  28),  and  nol-r,  n  prophelie  lethargy  or  "deep 
sleep"  (<;en.  ii,  21 ;  xv.  12,  el.'.).     In  ihe  New  Test,  it 

(Uaikv,42;  Lukev,2G;  Acts  iii,  lUJ;  of  lerrur  (Mark 
xvi,e). 

2.  Used  as  Ihe  Greek  wor.1  is  by  Luke  (Acts,  ul  nip.) 
''lhepbywciBn,"and,in  this  special  sense,  by  bim  onlj-, 
in  the  New  Test.,  it  would  be  interesting  to  inquire  wbsi 
precise  meaning  it  had  in  the  medical  terminnlngy  of 
the  titne.  Prom  the  time  of  Ilippocrales,  who  usee  it 
indescribe  the  kissof  conscious  perception,  it  had  pn>l» 
ably  bnme  Ibe  coniwuiion  which  it  has  had,  wiib 
shades  of  meaning  for  good  nr  evil,  ever  since.  Thus 
HeaycbiiiB  giro  as  the  account  of  a  man  in  an  ecstasy 
that  he  is  u  dV  iaorii'  pi^  wv.  Apulelus  {Apulagim 
speaks  of  it  aa  "  a  change  from  the  earthly  mind  (liirir 
Toi'  yiilvaii  fpovqfiaroc)  la  a  divine  and  spiritual  con- 
dition both  of  character  and  life."    Terlullian  {De  An. 


45)  compares  it  to  the  dream-slate  in  which  Ibe  lori 
acts,  but  nut  through  its  usual  itisirumenii^  AuguMioe 
(Cofi/w.  ix,  11}  describes  his  mother  in  ibis  Mate  a> 
"abstracta  a  prKsenlibua,' and  gives  a  description  u( 
like  pbenomeaa  in  Ibe  ca»!  of  a  certain  Bcttitutus  (/K 
CiV.  Dti,  liT,  U). 

8.  We  may  compare  with  these  slalementa  tbe  nKxc 
prcdse  definitions  a(  modem  medical  acience.  Then 
the  ecstatic  tute  appears  as  one  fonn  of  catalepsy,  la 
catalepsy  pure  and  simple,  there  u  "  a  sudden  auapen- 
uun  of  thought,  uf  sensibility,  of  votuntaiy  moiim.' 
"  Tbe  body  continuct  in  any  altitude  in  which  it  Bar 
beplsced;"  there  an  nu  signs  of  any  proeeit  of  thought; 
tbe  patient  continues  silenL  In  Ihe  ecstatic  foriB  el 
catalep^,  on  the  oiber  band,  "ihe  patient  is  hat  to  all 
eitenial  impresuons.  but  wrapl  and  absorbed  in  ame 
object  of  the  imaeinatioii."  The  man  ia  "  aa  if  sui  nf 
the  body."  "  Nervous  and  sosceplible  persona  an  apt 
to  be  thrown  into  these  trances  utidcr  tbe  influence  i( 
what  is  called  mesmerism.  There  ia,  fur  Ihe  moat  pan, 
a  high  degree  of  mental  exciiemeut.     The  patient  n- 


frame  is  that  of  intense  coiilem  pis  live  excitement.  Be 
believes  that  he  has  seen  wonrieirul  visions  and  bfaid 
singular  revelations"  (Walton,  Priiidpla  imd  Pratticr, 
lect.  ixxix  1  Copland.  Biel.  »/  UrdieiM,  e.  v,  '■  Catalep- 
sy"). Tbe  causes  oflbis  Mate  are  to  be  traced  cumnuo- 
ly  to  strong  religious  impiesiions;  but  some,  thuugh.bt 
the  most  part,  not  the  ecaUlic,  phenomena  orcaialepsr 
are  producible  by  the  concentration  of  thought  do  one 
object,  or  of  tbe  vision  upon  one  lixed  point  <  Qnnt, 
Rfi.  xciii.  GlO-22,  by  Dr.  Carpenter);  and,  in  leat 
more  exceplinnil  cases,  like  that  mentioned  by  Augus- 
tine (there,  bowever,  under  Ihe  influence  of  sound, '  sd 


a  caialepiic 


and  that  of  Jerome  Cardan 
have  been  able  to  throw  the 
state  at  will 

4.  Whatever  explanation  may  be  given  of  it,  it  fa 
true  of  many  if  not  of  roiwl,  of  those  who  have  left  the 
sUmp  uftbeirown  cbaracicron  Ihe  religiuui  hittoty  c< 
mankind,  that  they  have  been  liable  to  pass  at  tints 
into  this  abnormal  sUte.  The  union  of  interne  feeling 
Mrorg  volition,  iong-conlinued  thought  (the  cundiiioiB 
of  all  wide  and  lasting  iiiBuence),  aided  in 
by  the  withdrawal  from  the  biwe 


uilibi 


SUppA 


pears  id  have  been  more  ilian  the  ''earthen  TesKl"  will 
bear.  The  words  which  speak  of  "  an  ecstasy  of  artoo- 
lion"  are  often  literally  true.  The  many  viiions—ihc 
journey  ibraugb  the  heavens,  the  so-called  epUefBy  >/ 
Mohammed — were  phenomena  of  this  nature.  Orihiec 
greal  mediieval  teachers,  St.  Francis  uf  Assisi.  SuTbon- 
as  Aquinas,  and  Joannes  Scotus,  it  is  recorded  that  iber 
would  fall  into  the  ecstatic  state,  remain  motionlese,  leeB 

ing  la  consciousness,  speak  as  if  ihey  had  drunk  deep 
of  divine  mysteries  (GualleriuSiOrl.^ar.on  Acta  i,  10). 
Tbe  old  traditions  of  Arisleas  and  Epimenides,  the  ««- 
Hicts  nf  Uunstan  and  Luther  with  the  powers  of  daik- 
new.  Ihe  visions  of  Savonarola,  George  Fox.  Sweden- 
borg,  and  Bohme  are  generkally  analogoua.  Where 
there  has  been  no  extraordinary  power  tu  inflneocc 
others,  other  conditions  remaining  the  aame,  the  pbe- 
nomena  have  appeared  among  whcje  clane*  of  nieo  and 
women  in  pro|niriiDn  as  the  circumstance*  uT  tlieit  liiei 
tended  In  produce  an  excesMve  suscepiibiliiy  to  religiua 
or  imaginative  emotion.     Tbe  bistorj-  of  monaMtc  «- 

amides.  Still  more  noticeable  is  the  fan  that  miDy  of 
the  im^ioruufori  of  Italy  are  ''only  able  tu  exeieiti 
their  gift  when  they  are  in  a  state  of  ecstatic  tnnoe, 
and  speak  of  the  gift  itself  as  something  murbid"  (Cop- 
land, loc.nl.);  while  in  strange  contrast  wiifa  ibcii 
earlier  history,  and  pointing  perhaps  to  a  national  Aw 
acter  that  has  become  balder  and  leas  emotional,  tben 


TRANCE  5! 

b  th«  UMimooy  or  ■  German  phymcian  (Frank),  who 

ud  nuda  catalepsy  a  special  tluily,  thaC  he  had  never 
met  miib  I  nngle  caK  of  it  among  the  Jews  (Copland, 
foteii-r  comp.Mauiy,  Lii  Huffie  tl  FAalrologie). 

i.  We  are  now  able  lo  take  a  true  estimate  of  the 
iiaooaof  Biblical  hiMory.  As  in  other  things,  ao  also 
bwe,  the  pheiiofneni  are  comnign  to  higher  and  lower, 
ui  itiK  anil  raise  gyitems.  The  nature  uf  man  continu- 
ing' th;  ume,  it  could  hardly  be  that  the  ■wrulncaa  of 
ihe  divine  preaence,  the  terrors  cif  divine  jiulgmenl. 


n  of  it 

Kaie.  Whalevei  made  the  impress  of  ■  truth  more  in- 
delible, whatever  gave  him  to  whom  it  was  revealed 
■■art  power  oiei  the  hearts  of  othen,  might  well  take 
iu  place  in  the  divine  eilueatinn  of  nations  and  individ- 
ual men.  We  msy  not  point  to  trances  and  ecstaaiea  as 
pTuofs  of  ■  true  revelatiun,  but  still  lew  may  we  think 
at  ibem  as  at  all  inconsistent  with  iU  Thus,  Ihougb 
we  liive  not  the  word,  we  hare  the  thing  in  several 
dear  iniunns  in  the  Bible.  Some,  perhaps  many, 
Ihiogt  Rcurded  in  Scripture  behing  to  this  supernatural 
uate  rf  traoe*  which  are  not  exprewly  referred  to  it. 
See  the  long  list  of  such  sugiposed  cases  in  Bp.  Law's 
CoMideraiioii  of  Ike  Theory  ofRrligim  (Und.  1820,  p.  85, 
«).  We  notice  here  only  (he  must  marked  examples. 
In  the  Old  TesU  a  stale  of  supernatural  ecstasy  is 
erirteatlr  denoted  by  the  "deep  sleep"  which  feU  upon 
.Uim  during  the  creation  of  Eve  (Gen.  ii,  31),  and  dur- 
ing which,  as  appears  from  the  narrative,  he  was  made 
iwiK  of  the  transaction,  and  of  the  purport  of  the  at- 
leniUot  cireumstances  (ver.  21-24).  See  Hahhiaok. 
Anmilar  state  occun  again  in  the  "deep  sleep"  which 
frtl  upon  Abraham  (iv,  12),  during  which  the  bondagi 
oThiideKcnitanUin  Egypt  was  revealed  to  him.  Poa 
libly  an  the  accounia  recorded  in  that  chapter  occurret 
in  "tision"  (vei.  1-13),  which  ultimately  deepened  intt 
(be  trance  (ver.  12-21),  Comp.  ver.  5,'l2,  where  ho  L 
uld  10  hare  seen  the  stars,  though  the  sun  had  nut  gnni 
doien.  The  apparent  objection  that  Abraham  im 
"bPMght  forth  abroad"  to  we  the  stars  is  only  uf  thi 

Tins  or  Christ.  BaUam,  as  if  overcome  by  the  eon 
unining  power  of  a  spirit  mightier  than  his  own,  "aen 
the  Tiaion  of  God,/uUu9,  but  with  opened  e}*es"  (Numb, 
nil,  4).  The  incident  of  the  ass  speaking  to  him 
itilio  undentooil  by  many  learned  Jews  anil  Chri! 
10  hare  occurred  in  a  vision  (Bp.  Law,  vl  tup.). 

femd  the  magniSeenl  deacriptinn  in  Job  iv,  IE 
Sul,  when  the  wild  chant  of  the  prophets  stirred  the 
•Id  depths  of  feeling,  himself  also  "  prophesied"  am 
down*  (moat,  if  nut  all,  of  bis  kingly  elothinf* 
ihmm  off  in  the  ecstasy  of  the  moment)  "  all  thi 
ud  all  that  night"  (I  Sam.  xix,  24).  Something  there 
>u  in  Jeremiah  that  made  men  say  uf  him  that  he  was 
n  one  that  "  is  mad  and  maketh  himself  a  prophei" 
(Jer.  xxii,  28).  In  Eiekiel  the  phenomena  appear  in 
imire  wonderful  and  awful  forma.  He  Mts  molionlcu 
fur  Kven  davs  in  the  stupor  of  astoiiishi 
•riird  of  the 'Lord  comes  to  him  (Ezek.  iii,  IS).  The 
"  hind  oT  the  Lord"  falls  on  bim,  and  he  too  see*  th< 
'visual  of  God"  and  hears  the  voice  of  the  Almighly 
is  "lifted  up  between  the  earth  and  heaven,"  and  passes 
fivm  the  rivet  of  Chebar  to  the  Lord's  house  in  Jerusa- 

phptic  work  were  revived  in  "  the  apostles  and  prophets" 
i-f  the  Hew  Teat,  >o  alw  was  this.  Uore  distinctly  even 
ihiD  in  the  Old  Test.,  it  becomes  the  medium  through 
■tiich  men  rise  to  see  clearly  what  before  was  dim  and 
doobifal,  in  which  the  mingled  hopes  and  fears  and 
perplexities  of  the  waking  stale  are  dissipated  at  once. 
Tliungh  different  in  form,  it  belongs  to  the  same  class 
«(pheamBeaaaiihe"girtnftongnea,"nnd  is  connected 
'iih  "viuniu  and  revelations  of  the  Ij>rd."  In  some 
am,  indeed,  it  ii  the  chnien  chinnel  fur  such  revela- 
lioiu.  To  the  "  trance"  of  Peter  in  the  city,  where  all 
1  tended  to  bring  the  thought  of 
X--I7* 


TRANI 


of  the  divine  kingdom  more  distinctly  he- 
fore  him  than  it  had  ever  been  brought  before,  we'  owb 

stamped  upon  the  heart  of  Christen- 
dom, that  God  is  "  no  respecter  of  pcraona,"  that  we  mar 

"common  or  unclean"  (Acta  x,  xi). 
To  the  "  trance''  of  Paul,  when  bis  work  fur  his  own  peo- 
ple seemed  utterly  fruitless,  we  owe  the  missiun  which 
the  surtiiig-point  of  the  hiatory  of  the  Universal 
Church,  the  command  which  baile  bim  "depart ...  far 
hence  unto  the  Gentiles"  (xxii,  17-21).  Wisely,  for  the 
must  part,  did  that  apuMle  draw  ■  veil  over  these  more 
mysterious  experiences.  He  wuiilrl  nut  sacriflce  to  them, 
a*  others  have  often  sacritieed,  the  biglicr  life  of  activity, 
love,  prudence.  He  euuld  not  explain  tbem  to  himself. 
"In  the  body  or  out  of  the  body,"  he  could  not  tell,  but 
the  outer  world  of  perception  ha<1  passed  away,  and  he 
had  passed  in  spirit  into  "paradise,"  into  "the  third 
beaven,"  and  had  beard  "  unspeakable  words"  (2  Cor. 
xii,  1-4).  Those  iraneci  loo,  we  may  believe,  were  not 
without  their  share  in  fashioning  his  character  and  life, 
though  nu  special  Ituth  came  distinctly  out  of  them. 
United  as  they  then  were,  but  as  they  have  aeliiom  been 
since,  with  clear  perceptions  of  the  truth  of  God,  wild 
luve  wonderful  in  its  depth  and  tenderness,  with  enei);y 
unresting,  and  subtle  lact  almost  passing  iiila  "guile," 
tbey  made  him  what  he  was,  the  leader  of  the  apostolic 
band,  emphatically  the  "master-builder"  of  the  Cburrh 
of  God  (comp.  Juwett,  FragmoU  on  Ike  Character  of  Si. 
Paul). 

Persons  receiving  Ibis  divine  influence  often  fell  to 
the  eanh  under  its  influence,  as  in  onlinaiy  cBtalepi-y 
(Gen.  xrji,  S,  etc;  1  Sam.  xtx,  24,  Heb.  or  margin) 
Eiek.  i,  28 ;  Dan.  viii,  !8 1  i,  16, 16 ;  Rev.  i,  10, 17).  It 
is  important,  however,  to  observe  that  in  all  these  coms 
the  riMons  beheld  are  also  related ;  hence  such  case*  are 
distinguished  fbom  a  mere  dtHqaiua  anmi.  We  find 
likewise  in  the  case  of  Peter  that  "he  fell  into  a  trance" 
(or  rather  a  "trance  fell  upon  him,"  iiririint>  Jx'  oMv 
itaraaii),  daring  which  be  "saw  a  viaion,"  which  is 
therefore  distinguished  from  Ihe  trance  (Acta  x,  10  g 
comp.  Paul's  trance,  xxii,  17;  2  Cor.  xii,  2,  etc).  The 
reality  of  the  vision  is  established  by  the  coirespondeiica 
of  the  eetni.    The  nearest  approach  we  con  make  to  such 

contemplation  of  an  object  as  to  hise  entirely  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  body — a  state  in  which  the  highest 
order  of  ideas,  whether  belonging  to  the  Judgment  ut 
imagination,  is  undoubtedly  attained.  Hence  we  can 
readily  conceire  that  such  a  state  might  be  supeniatu- 
rally  induced  for  the  higher  purpose  of  revelation,  etc 

ctairruyance,  if  they  serve  no  higher  purpose,  may  as- 
sist our  conceptions  of  it.     See  Yiaios. 

Tranl,  a  name  common  to  some  Jewish  authora,  of 
whom  we  mention  the  following: 

1.  Isaiah  ua,  so  called  ader  his  native  place  Trani, 
a  seaport  town  of  Naplea,  and,  by  way  of  abbrerialion, 
ffiii=T'^,  ftom  the  initials  ■'JSnoT  n^SO^  '"<,  i.  e. 
R.ltniahAt  T'raiti,  flourished  about  A.D.12S2-Ta.  He 
msr  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  school  ofTsl- 
mudical  and  traditional  esegesla  in  Italy.  He  wrote 
not  only  numeroua  annotations  on  the  Talmud,  and  the- 
ological deciidons  (D''pDI))  connected  with  traditional 
Uw,  but  also  tekolia  (D^piQJ)  to  the  Bible,  which  are 
as  followei  Bttlnn  ^p113),  Sihotia  on  Iht  Pmlaltuch 
(I*ghom,  1792)-.— SWrf  Ol^B  •'•\:tp,  AnmHatumi 
oa  Joikna,  published,  with  a  Liiin  Iranslatinn  by  J.  A. 
Steinmeti,  under  the  title  iiiiiw  Commtnl.  tn  Jeiaam 
qurm  ia  Ci~lke  .VS.  BUJ.  Sttail.  l.l/u.  Draci-iplam  et  Ver- 
tione  lie  Xolis  Ilbalratiim,  l-nrtiJe  J.  O.  Abidd  Entii- 
lorum  A'xiimni  lubjrdt  (Lips.  lUiy-.^Amolaliaiit  on 
Judga  and  1  Saniue!,  printnl  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles 
(q.  v.).  Besides  these  published  commentaries,  the  fol- 
lowing annotations  of  TianI  are  in  HS.i  a  commen- 
tary on  Ezra,  Cod.  Opp. ;  a  commentary  on  the  Five  He- 


TUANSANIMATION  6S 

gtllolti  and  D*niel,  in  the  Angelica  at  Rome;  enmmen- 
lariei  on  tbe  minor  prophew,  Pulmti,  and  Job,  to  l» 
rauitd  in  HS.  in  Mveral  EuTDpean  libraries.  See  FUnI, 
BibL  Jiid.  iii,  438  tq.;  De'  Kuui,  IHiionaiia  Slaricii 
(Gemn.  iransl,),  p.  BIS  «4.;  Sleinichneiiler,  C«(o(.«/b» 
Libr.  ^rftr.  6.  BiN.  Bodt.  col.  1389-92;  Kilto,  Cyclop. 
a.  T.:  Griitz,  (Jncli.  d.Judm  (Leipi.  I8TS),  vii,  ITS;  Juat, 
Garb.  d.  JudtiUh.  u,  t.  Sibrn,  iii,  83 ;  Zuuz,_Ziir  Gttth. 
u.  IMrraiur,  p.  58. 
3.  HosBa  DA,  »■■  bam  at  Salnnica  in  1605.    When 

house  of  bis  uncle.    In  the  year  l&SI  he  went  to  Safct 
to  cnnttnuF  his  sludiea,  and  four  yean  later  he  received 
onlinaiion,  and  in  1586  went  to  JeruBalem,  where  be 
died  in  1585.    His  success  in  teaching  was  so  great  that 
ho  was  sivled  "The  Light  of  Israel,'' "The  Sinaite  of 
Uuuut  Siuai  and  the  Upiooler  of  Mountainn,"  because 
be  solved  tbe  difficulties  in  the  law.    He  wrote,  f 
fflis,  on  Jewish  riles,  ceremonies,  praj-ers.  mon 
etc  (Venice,  1576) :— ^CD  n^^p  'o,  a  body  of  Jawi 
laws,  in  which  he  distinguishes  between  the  laws  wr 
ten  by  Hoaen,  those  which  were  iraiiamitted  by  trai 
tion,Bnd  thoHonly  founded  on  the  deciuons  of  the  doc- 
tors:—a  colleclion  of  decisions  in  8  parts,  and  other 
works  of  minor  imporu    SeeFUrst,£iU..'H^.iii,44l  sq.; 
Dc' Rossi,  fiutoiiarta£rurtR>  (Germ.  traniiL), p.  319  sq.; 
Basnage,  fJiHoirr  da  Jutfi  {Taylor's  traiisl.),  p.  703; 
Adanis,//M^.  o/(j1(  Jnc»,  ii,  14;  3Mt,r,ndi.d.Jad>^k. 
V.i.Sfbcn, iii,  139;  Zunz,Zur Crtth. u. Lilnatur, p.219, 
230.    (a  p.) 
TransanlmBtioii.  the  transfer  of  souls  from 

Tianacandeut,  or  Transcendental  (from  ti 

KtKltTf,  to  go  beyond),  words  employed  b.v  var 
schoolmen,  particularly  Duns  Scotus,  to  describe 
conceptions  that,  by  their  univcisaliiy,  rise  abovi 
trantcend  the  ten  Aristotelian  CBleguriea.  Thus,  ac- 
cording to  Scotus,  Ehi,  or  Being,  because  il  is  predi 
of  substance  and  accident  slilie,  ufUod  as  well  as  of  the 
world,  is  raised  above  these  by  indudin);  or  compre- 
hending them.  Again,  the  predicates  assumed  by  Sco- 
tus to  belong  to  E«i,  or  simple  existence,  vis.  the  One, 
the  True,  the  Good—  f/nuni,  Tervn.  fionan— are  styled 
transcendent  because  applicable  to  Hw  before  the  dncrni 
is  made  to  the  ten  clvoes  of  real  existence.  Accord. 
ing  to  Kant,  transcendental  spplies  to  the  eondiliona  of 
our  knowledge  which  transcend  e.iperience,  which  an 
a  priori,  and  not  derived  from  sensitive  reHeciiun, 
Between  the  hitherio  convertible  terms  iranscendenial 
and  [ransoendent  Kant  drew  a  distinction  of  considera- 
ble importance  in  undentandiiig  his  own  system.  By 
the  word  tranuxudtnlnl  he  designates  the  rarfoiii  forms 
categories,  or  ideas  assumed  l»  be  native  elements  of 
human  thongtat)  implying  thai,  although  they  are  nni 
products  of  experience,  they  are  manifested  only  in  ex. 
perience:  such  as  space  and  time,  caiiulily,  etc.  Tlx 
woni  tramceadrBt  Kant  reserves  for  those  among  the 
transcendental  or  a  priori  elements  that  aliogcther  tran 
scen{l  experience.  They  may  seem  to  be  given  in  ex 
perience,  but  ther  are  not  really  given.  Such  are  Ihi 
"Ideas  of  the  Pure  Reason,"  God,  an  immaterial  houI,  etc 
Transcendental  elements,  when  legitimately  spplieii  u 
experience,  as  causality  and  relation,  are  calleil  immn 
nml.  See  Chambrn't  Knct/clnp.  L  v. ;  Fleming  am 
Krauth,  Fottii.  ofPkit.  Sataa,  s.  v, 

Tratuoendeutaliam,  a  name  given  to  some  form: 
of  recent  German  philosophy.  Fichte  taught  a  sub 
jective  idealism,  Schelling  an  objective  iiiealism,  am 
Hegel  an  absolute  idealism— regarding  though)  ami  be 
ing  as  identical.  Nature  is  God  coming  into  wif-con 
scionsness,  tor  be  is  ever  striving  after  self-realiisiiiHi 
"  In  order  to  phjloaophiie  aright,  we  must  lose  our  owi 
peiaonalily  in  God,  who  is  cliieHy  revealed  in  the  act 
of  tbe  human  mind.  In  the  inlinite  developments  ol 
dlTtnlt}',  and  the  inlinite  progress  towards  self-conscious- 


TRANSCENDENTALISM 

■was,  the  greatest  success  is  reached  in  the  eienions  of 
lan  reason.     In  men's  minds,  therefore,  is  the  high- 
nanifeatation  of  (iod.     God  recogiilKs  himself  best 
uman  reason,  which  is  a  consciousness  of  God.    And 
by  human  reason  that  the  world  (hitherto  without 
ight.andsowithoutexiatence,  mere  negation)  comes 
consciousncsa;  thus  God  is  revealed  in  the  vorUI. 
After  arriving  at  an  ideal  Goil,  we  learn  that  phlkaophy 
(ligion  diaw  us  away  from  unr  little  aelvea,  so  that 
!parate  coiisciouatiess  is  dissolved  in  that  of  God. 
jophy  is  religion ;  and  '  true  religion  freea  man 
all  that  is  low,  and  frum  himself,  from  clinging  to 
I-bood  (/cUetl)  and  tubjec^vity,  and  helps  him  to  lib 
God  as  the  truth,  and  thereby  to  true  life."     In  thb 
ilation  of  penonal  identity,  we  must  not  claim  ptop- 
ly  even  in  our  own  thoughts.    Hegel  teaches  thsi  it 
God  who  thinks  in  us;  nay,  that  it  is  precisely  ihst 
hich  thinks  in  us  which  is  Gud.   The  pure  and  primal 
substance  manifests  itself  as  the  subject;  and  'me 
•wledgeoftheabaolule  is  ihe  absolute  itself.'    There 
lilt  a  step  to  lake  and  we  arrive  at  the  tenet  that 
unii'cne  and  God  are  one.     The  Hegelians  alieniii 
dislinguisb  this  from  Ihe  doctrine  of  Spinoia,  but 
ir  distinctions  are  inappreciable;  Iheirscherae  is  pan- 
theism.    And  as  God  is  revealed  by  all  Ihe  phenomena 
of  the  world's  history,  he  is  partly  revealed  by  hkhiI 
action,  and  consequently  by  sin,  no  less  than  by  holi- 
ness.    Sin  is,  therefore,  a  part  of  the  neceasarj  evolu- 
tion of  the  divine  principle;  or,  rather,  in  any  seme 

— there  is  no  sin.  It  was  reserved  for  Hegel  to  shsi- 
don  all  the  scruples  of  six  thousand  years,  and  publish 
the  discovery— certainly  the  most  wonderful  in  the  his- 
tory of  human  research— that  something  and  naibing 
are  Ihe  same  1  In  declaring  it  he  almost  apologists,  for 
Ik  says  that  this  proposition  appears  so  psiadotical 
that  it  may  readily  be  snpposcd  that  it  is  not  serious- 
ly maintained.  Yet  he  is  far  from  being  imlHgiioHa. 
Someihing  and  nothing  are  tbe  same.  The  absolute  of 
which  so  much  is  vaunted  is  nothing.  But  the  concla- 
sion.which  is,  perhaps. already  aniicipaied  by  the  read- 
er's mind,  and  which  leaves  us  inopacilaled  for  con- 
meni,  is  this— we  shudder  while  we  record  il— that  af- 
ter Ibe  exhaustive  abstrscliun  is  carried  lo  infinity  in 
sesrch  of  God,  we  arrive  at  nothing.  God  himself  b 
noiliingr  {Printtloii  £i»iijr»). 

1'hese  svslemi  of  philowphT  in  Gennanv.  "that  aa- 
lion  of  thinken  and  criiic%"  have,  each  in' its  torn,  u- 
lluenced  the  science  of  Biblical  philology ;  and  whelhct 
it  be  the  moralism  of  Kant,  or  Ihe  idealism  of  nchie, 
or  the  deeper  transcendentalism  of  Itegel,  il  mskes 
Scripture  speak  its  own  dogmas,  and  cuiisecratet  th« 
aposllea  the  coryphai  of  its  system.   When  Strauss  wroia 

lion — all  classes  of  her  divines  and  pliilusopkeia,  his- 
torians and  scholars.  When,  as  in  this  work  of  StnuM, 
all  historical  reality  is  denied  to  the  goepcU,  and  ibty 
are  declared  to  be  composed,  itot  of  facts,  bui  ideah  and 
are  affirmed  lo  describe,  not  a  personal  God  or  a  hiilor- 
ienl  Christ,  but  ■  cluster  of  notions  intensely  prevalent 
ill  JinUea;  and  when  it  is  argued  that  the  names  aiwl 
events  occurring  in  Ihe  evangelical  natralioiit  an  but 
symbols  of  inwanl  emotions,  and  the  klasphemit*' sf 
pantheism  arc  reasoned  for  from  the  union  of  deity  aad 
humanity  in  Jesus,  as  shadowing  fuith  Ihe  ideniiiyof 

easily  seen  that  the  author  nses  Ihe  philosophy  of  He- 
gel as  Ihe  great  organ  of  perverting  and  riesecnling 
tbe  records  of  tbe  evangelisio,  especially  of  pBlluti>« 
the  liner  and  more  experimental  portions  of  Ihe  weik 
of  the  beloved  diwiplc.  Weisse,  the  producer  of  s  liiB- 
ilir  mixture  ofbulilneas  and  impiciy,dechiresii  impna- 
sibic  for  any  one  lo  understand  bis  theology  unkss  ha 
have  mastered  his  |<hilo«ophv.  No  one  can  cunpre- 
liend  the  aystems  of  Daub,5chwani,  or  Sehkiermscher 
till  he  has  mastered  the  philueophy  which  lichelling 
propounded  in  his  early  and  adventurous  youth.    "A 


&lc  b< 


TRANSELEMEN  TATION 
tyond  tbe  gnvt,"  Mva  Stnuu,  "  ia  the  li 


ran.  ta  extirpate."  So,  to  tind  a  place  fur  sucb  tbeorio, 
Ibu  aulbor  commeDCed  a  Kriea  uf  wild  and  unjuMifia- 
bl»  lUtacka  on  the  goapeli— Hndiog  discrepaiicieg  where 
ibcr«  are  none,  cmtiiig  exiggeratifins  where  the  nu- 
niive  ii  etay  auJ  simple,  ilcnviiig  tbe  possibility  nf 
niradea,  and  involving  the  wliole  narrative  iu  confu- 
aian  and  tnruery,  in  order  ta  dHtray  iu  histarical  char- 
icler,  lad  render  its  interpretation  possible  only  on  the 
Buppasitioa  of  ita  beiiiK  a  lueleas  and  disconnecled  my- 
Ibulogj.    Whslevet  sophistry  and  pen'erted  logic  could 

cHticiiiii  could  raggeat,  whatever  reasoning  a  clever  and 
fiKinaiiog  philosophy  could  produce,  were  used  to  create 
anri  gamiah  the  new  hypothesia.     The  whule  ayslem  ia 


■adn 


le  elemeiiu  in  one 


irarld,  irapagniiig  (he  revelatioa  already  given,  de- 
lighting ill  every  high  thing  that  exalts  itaelT  againat 
the  knowledge  of  Uod,  and  exuliing  in  withdrawing 
every  thought  ^m  tbe  obedience  of  ChrisL  Well 
rai^fht  Eschenmayei  speak  of  the  "lachariatismui"  of 
llrgelianiam.  Whileitkiaaed,!!  betrayed.and  at  length 
proceeded  (o  the  trial  and  condemnatiun  of  its 
(PUaidNaB,  Aag.lft70.  p.  laey  See  Dituxi  FaM- 
■Bum;  KK-noVALOit. 

Truwelamentatloii  (iraiu 
(enn  used  to  rignify  the  change  of  i 
body  iau  tboM  of  another. 

TnuMflgaratloiL  TheGreek wnni /itrtfiDpfiu3i), 
well  rendered  "waa  truisAgureil,"  iiiKiiillea  a  ckiage  of 
/antot  apptaranct  (iitlU  itvii,-it  Mark  ix,2),andi 
•>  explained  in  Luke  in,  29, "  the  fathinn  of  bii  coimie 
nince  waa  altered.'  This  is  one  of  [he  most  wondeiTu 
incidents  in  the  life  of  our  Saviour  upon  earth,  and  oa 
•o  instructive  that  we  can  never  eahauM  its  lesson? 
The  apostle  Peter,  towards  the  dose  of  his  life,  in  run 
nin;;  his  mindorer  tbe  protrfa  ofChriu'a  insjesty,fauii< 
nnie  so  coDclnaive  and  irrefragable  as  tbe  scenes  whci 
he  and  others  were  with  his  Master  in  tbe  holy  ntoun 
(i  Pel.  i,  18)  as  eye-witnesses  that  he  received  from  Got 
the  Father  honarandglary,when  there camesuch  a  voici 
to  him  frorn  the  excellent  g1ory,"Tliia  ia  my  Iwloved 
Son,  ia  whom  I  am  well  pleased."  The  apoalle  Johi 
likewiae  refen  to  the  convincing  power  of  tbo  "glory' 
exhibited  on  that  occasion  (John  i,  14).  If  we  dividi 
Christ's  public  life  into  three  periods— the  tint  of  mir 
adia,  to  prove  his  divine  miasion;  the  second  of  parilitea 
lainctikatevirtae;  and  the  third  of  suffering,  fi  rat  dear 
ly  Rrealed  and  then  endured,  to  atone  for  sin — thi 

lion  into  tho  third  and  last.  He  went  up  the  Mount 
of  Traufignration  on  the  eighth  day  after 
den  every  one  who  would  come  after  biai  take  up  his 
cnwa,  dedaring  that  his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world, 
that  he  moat  sufTer  many  things,  and  be  killed,  etc 

Tbe  Monnt  of  Transflguration  is  traditioosUy  thought 
to  have  been  Mount  Tabor;  but  aa  this  height  ia  my 
miles  from  Casatea  Ffailippi,  where  Jesus  last  taught, 
it  ha*  of  late  beea  supposed  to  have  been  a  mountain 
Dudi  leas  distant,  namely.  Mount  Hermon.  As  there 
was  an  interval,  however,  of  a  week  between  this  and 
tbe  pracedio);  occurrence,  we  tnsy  Daturally  condude 
■hat  ■  part  of  this  time  waa  occupied  in  the  Journey. 
8m  Tabok.  Tha  only  penona  thought  worthy  IA  aa- 
srend  thia  mount  of  vttion  were  Peter,  Jamea,  and  John, 
three  being  a  competent  number  of  witnesses,  or  they 
being  more  faithful  and  beloved  than  any  others.  What- 
appear  on 


^  of  Jairua'a  daughter, 
Lord's  agony  in  the  garden.  Ttie  discipleH.  in  all  pmb- 
stHtltr,  aicetided  the  mountain  aniicipalinc  nothing 
mora  than  that  Jesos,  as  at  other  times  (Luke  vi,  12), 
would  oonlinae  all  night  in  prayer  to  God.  When  the 
mnaimof  night  dosed  around  them,  they  were  to  worn 


13  TRANSFIGUKATION 

nut  by  th^r  labors  as  to  sink  down  in  sleep,  till  startled 
from  their  slumbers  by  the  glorj'  of  the  Lord  shininj; 
round  about  them :  ia,  as  Jesus  prayed,  the  fashion  of 

the  Bun,  and  hia  raiment  was  white  as  the  lighu  And 
behold  tbere  talked  with  liim  two  men,  which  were  Ho- 
ses and  Ellas,  who  appeared  in  glotj-,  and  spake  of  hia 
decease,  which  he  sbuiddiccumpiigh  at  Jerusalem."  Pe- 
ter's words,  "  Master,  it  is  good  for  na  to  be  here,"  are  a 
natural  expression  of  rapture;  and  his  proposal  to  build 
three  tabernacles  indicated  his  desire  both  to  keep  his 
Lord  from  going  down  to  JcnisBlem  lo  die  there,  and 
to  prolong  the  hleasednus  of  beholding  with  open  face 
the  glory  of  God.  Such  is  at  least  a  plausitde  interpre- 
tation of  hia  lanpiage,  while  "he  wial  not  what  to  say." 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Petor  had  no  thought  of 
tents  for  himself  and  liis  companions,  hia  only  desire  be- 
ing that  the  beatific  vision  might  endure  forever.  While 
be  yet  spake,  behold,  a  bright  cloud  overshadowed  them 
—not  a  black  clouil  such  as  that  which  rested  on  Mount 
^nai,  bnt  B  cloud  glistening  aa  the  Shechinsh  when 
the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled  the  tabernacle,  or  as  the 
doud  that  filled  the  houae  of  the  Lord  when  the  prieata 
were  come  out  of  the  holy  place.  "And  behold  a  voice 
out  of  the  doud" — that  is,  out  of  the  long-estaUliahed 
symbol  of  Jehovah's  presence— "which  said,  This  is  my 
bdoved  eon,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased:  hear  ye  him. 
And  when  the  diedplea  heard  it,  they  fdl  on  their  fsce, 
and  were  si^re  arrsid"''like  Daniel  and  sU  others  who 
have  fell  themselves  entranced  by  revelations  of  God. 
"And  Jeaui  came  and  touched  them,  and  said,  Arise, 
and  be  not  afraid"— showing  such  gentleness  as  proved 
liim  to  be  fitly  named  the  Lamb  of  God.  How  long 
the  gloriBcation  of  our  Saviour  continued  it  were  vain 
to  inquire;  but  it  appears  from  tbe  narrative  uf  Luke 
that  he  did  not  lead  down  his  disdples  till  the  dav  fd- 
lowing  that  on  which  they  had  ascended  the  height. 
As  they  descended,  he  bade  his  disciples  keep  what 
they  had  seen  a  secret  till  after  his  reautrection,  doubt- 
less because  the  whole  viiion,  to  those  who  had  not  seen 
it,  would  have  been  a  rock  of  offence,  appearing  as  an 
idle  tale.  He  also  opened  their  eyes  to  ace  that  Elias 
whom  they  lookeil  for  in  the  future  was  lo  be  sought 
in  the  past,  even  in  John  the  lUptist,  who  was  dothed 
with  his  spirit  and  power. 

The  final  causes  of  the  transfiguration,  although  in 
part  wrapped  up  in  mystery,  appear  to  be  in  part  plain. 
Among  its  intended  lessons  may  be  the  following;  First, 
to  teach  thai,  in  apite  of  the  calumnies  which  the  Phar- 
iaeea  had  heaped  on  Jesus,  the  old  and  new  dispensa- 

author  and  the  restorer  uf  the  old  dispensation  talk 
with  the  founder  of  the  new,  as  if  his  scheme,  even  the 
moat  repulsive  fealure  of  it,  was  contemplated  by  theirs, 
astherealilyofwhich  they  had  promulgated  only  types 
and  ahadowa.    Secondly,  lo  teach  that  the  new  dispen- 
BBtion  was  superior  lo  the  old.    Hoses  and  Elias  appear 
inferior  lo  Jeaua,  not  merely  since  their  faces  did  not, 
far  a*  we  know,  shine  like  the  sun,  but  chiefly  be- 
ar kin  in  preference  to  them.     Thirdly,  to  gird  up 
e  energies  of  Jesus  fiT  the  greet  agony  which  wss  so 

gel  appeared  unto  htm  streitgthening  him ;  as  the  Hoir 

'"     ~  riescende<l  upon  him  in  the  likeness  of  a  dove 

before  his  lempialion  in  the  wildenieai;  and  as,  when 

]evil  left  him,  angels  came  and  ministered  unto 

Fnurlbly,  to  comfnct  the  hearts  of  the  disciples, 

.  being  desiined  losee  ihcir  Master,  whom  they  hod 

left  all  to  follow,  nailed  lo  a  cnwi,  lo  be  Ihemaelvea  per^ 

d  to  suffer  the  want  of  all  things,  were  In 

danger  of  despair.     Bui.  Iiy  being  eye-witnesaea  uf  hia 

BJeaiy,  they  became  convinced  that  his  humiliation, 

:en  though  he  descended  into  the  place  of  the  dead, 

asvohintary  and  could  not  continue  long.    Gating  at 

the  glorifted  body  of  their  Master,  they  beheld  not  onl' 

~  proof,  but  an  express  and  livdy  image,  of  bis  retui 


TKANSFIGUBATION  5; 

wciion,  ucennnn,  and  exaltation  aborc  tbc  heavena. 
An  in  a  proplietic  vinon,  ttiey  behd<l  him  seated  upon 
douda,  and  seen  by  every  cyeaa  the  Jad)^  nf  the  quick 
and  the  dead,  oc  enthroned  in  heaven  amid  the  hint  or 
hi>  redeemed.  Heiiceforlh  they  ceased  not  questionitig 
one  another  wliat  the  liaing  from  the  dead  should 
mean.  Fifthly,  to  teach  that  virtue  will  not  allow  au- 
|>ine  cunteniplatiun,  but  demands  the  exercise  and  ex- 
ertion of  our  several  powen.  To  same  tbis  leaaon  may 
seem  a  retinemeni,  but  it  is  ingeniously  deduced  by 
ScMeicrniacberfrom  the  Tict  that,  while  Peter  yet  spake 

iray ;  as  if  the  aim  were  to  teach 


have  ascended  the  mount 


the  chenib-winga  of 
ilivell  there  in  a  perpeli 

all  monastic  sedusian  thst  we  may  mingle  among  men 
and  do  them  guodj  even  at  the  great  Exemplar  would 
not  let  his  chosen  lepoae  in  rapturous  musings,  and  had 
■carcely  come  down  from  the  mountain  of  his  glory  be- 
fore he  recommenced  his  works  of  usefulntsa. 

The  transfiguration  ii  w  fine  a  subject  for  the  paint- 
er that  we  are  not  surprised  to  learn  that  it  employed 
Raphael's  best  hours,  and  that  his  portraiture  of  it  i« 
confessedly  the  highest  of  all  efforts  of  pictorial  genius, 
llie  original  work,  still  unfaded,  though  more  than 
three  centuries  have  passed  over  it,  hangs  in  th«  Vati- 
can.    A  copy  of  it  in  mosaic  on  a  colossal  scale,  and 
which  might  pass  with  most  men  for  the  original,  fills 
the  head  of  the  left  aisla  in  St,  Pcter'a  at  Rome.    Tl 
design  is  as  ^mple  as  the  arllen  narrative  o(  the  eva 
gelisla.     In  the  centre,  and  in  raiment  white  aa  tl 
light,  is  he,  the  taibion  of  whose  countenance  was  i 
tered.     On  either  hand,  and  Boating  on  the  air,  appe 
in  glory  Hoses  and  Eliaa.    Beneath,  the  disciples,  ove 
shadowed  hya  bright  cloud,  their  hands  shielding  tbi 
dauled  eyes,  are  fallen  on  their  facea,  sore  afraid  of  tl 
voice  proceeding  out  oftbecloud,  but  catching  glimpses 
of  Jesus  transfgured  before 


4  TRANSMIGRATION 

For  monogtapha  on  the  tranifiguralion,  see  Volb6- 
ding,  Imitx  /■ro^uMBinfum,  p.  47 ;  Base,  Ijtat  Jm;  p. 
161;  llagut,0>ilAe7Vua{/^r(Uv>n (Loud.  1840);  Anon. 
Taboi'i  Ttachviat  (ibid.  1B67,  1866);  also  the  (Am.) 
ym-iciU  ituplitt  Qaarttrly,  Jan.  1868.  See  Jesus 
Chribt. 

Tiansflgiuation-  (or  Jeans-)  day  was  kept  in 
the  Wesieni  Church  in  the  time  of  8t.  Leo,  and  in  the 
(ireek  Chunh  about  A.D.  700.  fiv  a  buU  of  (^liilia 
111,  Ube  (or  1457),  it  wai  ordered  to  he  generally  ob- 
served, in  memory  of  the  victory  of  Hunniade*  and  the 
Hungarian  army  over  Mohammed  and  the  Turka.  Id 
the  English  calendar  it  stands  on  Aug.  6.  [n  France, 
a^er  consecmtiun,  the  chalice  was  filled  with  new  wio^ 
or,  as  at  Tours,  received  some  of  the  Juice  of  the  ripe 
grapt*!  and  the  cluslen  are  blessed  in  (iermany  and 
(heEastonlhisday,— Blum, /Krf.o/rA«t«.v.;  Wal- 
cott,  Sac.  A  rciao/.  s.  v. 

TranBitorlum,  a  wnn  for  a  shon  anthem,  or  re- 
spond, in  the  rite  of  Milan,  chanted  after  the  coi 
of  the  priest.— Lee,  Ctoa.  ofLUiirg.  Termi,  a.  i 

Tianalatloit,  Butt-icAL.    See  Vebsions. 

TRANSLATIOtf,  in  tcrirnattieai  ningr,  it 
moval  of  a  bishop  from  the  charge  of  nni 


that  uf  another 
all  hi 


Aller 


™  C-" 


a  bishop  could  Hi 


bishop, 
m  the  year  of  hu  traiul 
lia),  not  horn  that  of  I 
™f«»<™).     Inll 


ipprobation  of  a  provincial 
council.  Some,  indeed,  thought  it  absolutely  unlawful 
fur  a  bishop  to  forsake  his  first  see  and  betake  hinutif 
to  any  other,  because  they  looked  upon  his  consccratiuo 
to  be  a  sort  of  marriage  to  his  church,  aDd  thertline 
looked  upon  his  removal   to  another  sec  as  spiritaal 

Tratiamlgratlou  (a  pottOy  am),  in  the  tbenlog- 


Lsths 


supposed 
death  in 

of  the  Boul  afln 
ubstance  or  body 

than  that 

whic 

upicl  before.  Ths 

basis  of  this  belief  be 
that  the  human  soul 
get  her  with  the  bo.lv 
to  those  nations  whic 

dues  not  peiiih  to- 
il can  bel»ii|;  only 
believe  in  the  io- 

motulitvofil 
as  such  an  idc 
it  U  founded  n 

aouL 

on  a  vague  fear  o( 

death,  an 
on  ethical 

grounils.  and  a  suppuaed  eauiai 
between  tha  and  a  future  Uft, 

the  belief  in 

lious  forms.  'I'he  notion,  daliDg  back  to 
a  remote  antiquity,  and  being  Fpiead  at 
over  the  world,  seems  to  be  anthropolo^ 
ically  innate,  and  lu  be  the  lirst  foim  ia 
which  the  idea  uf  immonaliiy  occomd 

1.  IniUa.^lt  was  in  India,  where  tbe 
problems  of  metaphysics  and  elhict  as 
connected  with  onliilo):y  and  llie  dMiay 
of  the  sold  were  elaborated  to  the  last  de- 
gree on  a  theislic  basis,  that  meteinpsy- 
I  chosis  was  moat  injteniously  and  Mlen- 
sively  developeil.  Tbe  Hiiidfls  believed 
that  human  aouls  emanated  fmrn  the  Sa- 
preme  Being,  which,  as  it  were,  in  aitals 
of  bewilderment  or  furgetfulness  allowed 
them  to  become  separate  existences  and 
to  be  bom 
severed  from  the  real  v 


n  earth.     The   soul  thra 


merged    again    in 
stance  with  which 


TUANSMIGRATIOX  6: 

■n,  it  must  Mrire  U>  free  iUelf  from  ^ilt  and  become 
Sx  foe  iu  huFcnly  career.  Religion  (caches  t1i«C  tbia 
a  done  by  tbe  obwrvuic*  of  religioiu  riui  and  ■  life 
in  coolbnoicy  with  Ibe  preccpu  of  tbe  sacred  books ) 
philowphy,  that  tbe  (out  will  be  reunited  with  Bnh- 
Duii,  if  it  underatanda  the  true  nature  of  the  divine 
taeacn  whence  it  cornea.  So  long,  therefore,  aa  the 
mil  hiB  not  attaiued  this  condition  of  purity,  it  mnsi 
be  bom  igaiD  aflei  the  diaaolntion  of  tbe  body  to 
■bich  it  waa  allied;  and  tbe  degree  of  its  impuritj' 
at  one  of  these  Tarious  deaths  determines  the  exist- 
tnoe  which  it  will  laaume  in  a  lubaeqoent  life.  So 
doaelr  waa  the  account  of  a  aoul's  misdeeds  iiept  that 
it  might  pasa  thouaanda  of  years,  or  tn^M  (rnni),  in 
an  or  other  of  tbe  heavens,  as  a  reward  lor  piod  deeds 
or  (elf^nfliclcd  suffering,  and  yet  be  obliged  to  fetum 
10  earth  or  hell  lo  expiate  as  an  animal,  man,  or  ibernon 
ceitain  aina.  To  us  the  deuils  of  the  soul's  migntion, 
■1  described  in  the  religious  worlcs  of  the  HindQs,  are 
only  intensting  as  they  sOunl  a  liind  nf  atandaid  by 
■bich  the  moral  merit  or  demerit  of  human  actions 
■ai  meawred  in  India  (see  Msnu,  Code  of  Ijiwi,  bk. 
lii).  A  more  general  doctrine  of  Ibe  tranamigration 
c(  aoula  is  haled  by  HindQ  pbil'Wiphers  on  tbe  as- 
unpiion  or  the  three  cosmic  qualities  of  loltien,  i.  e. 
purity  or  goodness;  rq/oi, i.e. Inmbledncia  or  passion; 
sod  lawuu,  i-  e.  darlmeas  or  sin,  with  which  tbe  human 
nul  may  become  endued.  On  this  basis  Manu  and 
mlm  writers  built  an  eUborate  theory  of  the  various 
fiinhs  lo  which  the  soul,  may  be  subjecL  Manu 
itsebrs  that  "souls  endued  with  tbe  quality  of  sa'rwu 
tuain  Ibe  condition  of  deities;  those  haring  the  qusl- 
iiT  of  raj/u,  tbe  condition  of  men ;  and  those  baring 
the  quality  of  taaai,  the  condition  of  beaara,"  Tho 
Buddhistic  belief  in  tnnsmigricion  is  derived  from 
thai  of  ttn  Brahmanie  Hindds,  and  agrees  with  it  in 
principle,  though  it  differs  from  it  in  Ihe  imaginary  de- 
uil  in  which  it  waa  worked  ouu  To  enbrge  here  on 
It  neoessary,  and  yet  it  will  not  be 


n  life;  1 


It  of  Ih 


cornea  the  seed  of  a  new  Ufe,  which  ani 
product  of  the  sunl  of  the  former  life.  This  docma  is 
illuKrated  by  various  similes,  e.g. ''One  lampii  kindled 
ai  another;  the  lighiof  (he  furraer  is  not  identical  wiih 
tlut  of  the  Utter,  but,  neverthelesa,  without  Ibis  tho 
etbei  light  could  not  have  originaled." 

i.  i^jjit— According  lo  the  doctrine  of  the  old  Egyp. 
tiana,  the  human  race  originated  afler  the  pure  gods 
and  apirila  had  left  ihe  earth ;  and  this  tbey  did  be- 
cause the  damoTia,  who  iohabited  the  earth,  had  revolt, 
ed  against  them,  and  tainted  it  with  guill.  In  order 
that  the  demons  might  purify  themselves,  tbe  gnds 
crested  human  liodies,  so  thai  in  them  (hey  might  cn- 
pia(«  their  guilt.     These  earthly  bodies,  united  lo  tbe 

ly  intended  as  ■  mcsiis  of  purifyinc  the  snui.  All  the 
prscepi*  regulating  the  cotirse  of  life  are  laid  ilnnn  by 
(he  Eityptians  fur  this  end,  and  the  judgment  after 
dath  in  the  palace  of  Oidris  decides  whether  it  has 
been  attained  ur  not.  [f  it  has  not,  then  the  soul  must 
retnm  tu  (he  ear(h,  to  renew  iu  expiations,  eilher  in  a 
human  body,  iii  (he  body  nf  an  animal,  nr  in  a  pbinl. 
Mattel  waa  believed  to  be  a  substantial  reality;  and 
the  material  forai  (hat  was  once  united  wiih  spirit  in 
the  one  being  "t  man  was  beliered  to  maintain  that 
ooiuisctioa  BO  long  as  the  raaterial  form  remained. 
Usoae  th*  Egyptian  practice  of  embalming  Ihe  dead, 
to  anW  the  paange  of  the  aonl  into  other  forma. 

3.  iVsJR.-'Tbc  transmigration  of  soula  was  also  a 


;5  TRANSMIGRATION 

tenet  of  the  Pcnian  religion  before  the  time  ofZoroaster, 
and  was  tieriveil,  with  tho  language  of  Aveala,ftom  In- 
dian sources.  Pherecydes  of  Syros,  who  lived  before 
the  age  of  Zoroaster,  laught  the  doctrine,  and  Pythago- 
raa  received  it  in  Babylon  from  the  Magi  (q.  v.). 

4.  /n  Grttcr,  the  doctrine  of  tiansmigralinn  did  not 
become  Ihe  belief  of  the  people,  but  was  coiiHned  to  the 
mysteries  and  tenets  of  philosophers,  who  probably  re- 
ceived it  from  Egypt  or  India.  According  to  some, 
Thalea  was  the  first  Greek  philosopher  who  propounded 
it;  according  lo  others,  Pherecyde^  tho  lencher  of  Py- 
thagoras. It  waa  aubsequentlv  greativ  developeil  Lv 
Pythagoras  ami  Plain.  The  Givek  mysteries  were,  iii 
fact,  not  oidy  n  school  in  which  metempsychosis  was 
laught,  but  an  indispensable  grade  or  lixlge  through 
whicb  all  uf  the  aspirants  must  pass  before  they  eoikd 
be  puriQeil  and  go  on  to  higher  stagea  of  existence. 
In  the  system  of  Plalo  Iransmigralion  had  a  remedial 

a  varied  pnibslinn  of  ten  thousand  }'eara.  The  Epicu- 
reans denied  it,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  generally 
inculcated  aa  one  of  the  deepest  doctrines  of  the  mys- 
teries. The  Neu-Plslonii>t%  who  believed  in  magie,  as- 
sumed the  doctrine  of  metempsvchosis  as  a  natural  in- 
heritance. 

B.  Arnnng  thr  Jmt  the  dnclrine  of  Iransmigraltnn — 
the  Gibpil  fi'tthinanlh — was  (aught  in  (he  mystical  sys- 
tem of  the  Cabala  (q.  v.).  "All  the  soul^"  says  (he 
Zohar,  or  Book  of  Lighl.  "are  subjeet  to  the  trials  of 

ways  of  the  Most  High  iu  their  regard.  They  do  not 
know  how  many  (ninaformstions  and  mya(eriaua  trials 
they  must  undergo;  bow  many  souhi  and  spirits  come 
to  this  world  wilhout  returning  to  the  palace  of  the  di- 
vine king. I'he  souls  mual  re-enter  the  abaohite  sub- 
stance whence  they  have  emerged.  But  to  accomplish 
this  end  they  must  develop  all  the  perfections,  the  germ 
of  which  is  planted  in  them;  and  if  tbey  have  nut  ful- 
filled Ibis  condition  during  one  life,  they  must  commence 
ano(her,B  third,  and  so  fortii,  imtil  they  have  acquired 
the  condition  which  fits  them  for  reunion  with  God. 
On  (be  ground  of  this  doctrine  it  was  held,  for  instance, 
that  the  soul  of  Adam  migrated  into  David,  and  will 
cume  into  the  Meseiab ;  that  the  soul  of  Japheth  is  the 
same  as  that  of  Simeon,  and  Ihe  soulofTerah  migrated 
into  Job.  Modern  CabalisCs— for  instance,  Isaac  Loria 
— hare  imagined  that  divine  grace  sometimes  aaaiata  a 
aoul  in  ita  career  of  expiation  by  allowing  it  to  occupy 
tbe  tame  body  together  with  anolber  soul,  when  both 
are  to  aapplemenc  cocb  other,  like  the  blind  and  the 
lame.  Sometimes  only  one  of  these  souls  requites  Ibe 
SLipiJement  of  virtue,  which  it  obtains  from  the  other 
soul,  better  provided  than  ita  partner.  The  latter  soul 
then  becomes,  as  it  were,  tbe  mother  of  the  other  soul, 
and  beats  it  under  her  heart  as  a  pregnant  woman. 
Hence  the  name  of  gestation  or  impregnation  is  given 
to  this  strange  aasociatinn  of  two  souls. 

6.0/ lie  Druidi,  it  is  told  by  classical  writers  that 
tbey  believed  in  the  Immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  its 
migration  aAcr  a  certain  period  subsequent  to  death. 
Little  is  known  of  the  manner  in  which  they  imagined 
such  migrations  to  take  place;  but,  lo  juilge  fmni  their 
religious  system,  there  can  be  no  dnuhl  (hat  they  lonkeil 
upon  transmigration  as  a  means  of  purifying  the  soul 
and  preparing  it  for  eiemal  life. 

7.  Abnr.— A  very  puciicat  form  nf  belief  in  iranami- 
gration  is  found  in  (^imanic  mythology,  according  lo 
which  the  soul,  before  entering  ita  ilivineaboile,  assumes 
certain  forms  or  animates  certain  objects,  in  which  it 
lives  for  a  short  period— as  s  tree,  a  rose,  a  vine,  a  but* 
terfly,  a  pigeon,  etc 

8.  Anong  <hf  early  CAruftma,  Jerome  relates,  the 
doctrine  of  trannmigralion  was  taught  aa  a  traditional 
and  eaoteric  one,  which  was  only  communicated  to  a  ae- 
lect  few.  Gnostics  and  Msnichteans  welcomed  il,  and 
the  more  speculative  or  mysiieal  of  Ibe  Church  fathers 
foifiid  in  It  a  ready  explanation  of  the  fall  of  man  and 


TRANSPORTATION  5i 

the  doctrine  of  evil  apiril).  Thia  conriilcraUe  Hep  b>- 
wuxl)  reconciling  the  existence  of  suffering;  with  that 
of  ■  merciful  GikI  wis  dialiiictly  net  forth  by  Porphyry 
and  Origen,  and  paafted,  id  all  probability,  with  all  the 
strange  heresieB  or  "  lUuininalioii,"  through  such  intti- 
tutioiu  u  the  Caiiene  House  of  Sight  and  the  Knights 
TempliTB,  into  the  wild  doctrines  of  the  obscure  sects  of 
the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe.  The  Taborius,  an  extreme 
branch  of  the  Hussites,  are  said  to  have  accepted  the 

One  great  philosopher,  at  least,  of  modem  times,  G.  E. 
Lessiiig,  accounted  for  human  progress  by  a  apecies  of 
transmigration.  He  aigues  that  the  soul  is  ■  simple 
being  capable  of  inflnite  conceptions,  wbich  are  obtain- 
ed in  an  inflnite  soccessian  of  lime.  The  order  and 
measure  of  the  acquiution  of  these  conceptions  are  (he 
senses.  These.at  present,  arc  Are;  bat  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  they  have  aloays  been  the  ssmc.  Nature, 
itever  taking  a  leap,  must  have  gone  through  all  the 
lower  stages  before  it  atriTed  at  that  which  it  occupies 


it  accessible  li 


with 


which  it 

will  be  future  stages  at  which  the  soul  will  have  as 

many  senses  ■*  correspond  with  the  powers  of  nature^ 

9.  Modtm  SuDo^i.— Probably  the  lowest  fonus  of 
this  belief  are  those  found  among  some  of  llie  tribes  of 
Africa  and  America,  which  hold  that  the  soul,  imraedi- 
Btely  niter  destlj,  must  look  out  for  a  new  owner,  enter- 
ing, if  need  be,  eren  ihe  hotly  of  an  snlmal.  Some  of 
Ihc  Ariiuans  assume  that  the  sotd  will  choose  with  pre- 
dilection the  body  of  a  person  of  similar  rank  (u  that  of 
ils  former  owner,or  a  near  relation  of  hia.  They  thcre- 
frirc  frequently  bury  their  deail  neat  the  bouses  of  their 
relatives  in  order  to  enable  the  souls  of  tbe  former  in 
occupy  Ihe  newly-bom  children  of  Ihe  latter,  and  Ifae 
princely  souls  to  re-enter  Ihe  princely  family ;  and  some- 
times holes  are  dug  in  the  grave  to  facililale  the  soul's 
i'gress  from  it. 

In  North  America  some  tribes  slaughter  their  cap- 
tives to  feed  with  their  blood  such  sonls  in  suspense. 
The  negro  widows  of  Matamha  arc  especially  afraid  of 
ihn  souls  of  their  husbands;  for  at  the  death  of  these 
ilicv  immediately  thmw  themselves  into  the  water  lo 
liniwn  Ibeir  husbsnds'  souls,  which  otherwise,  they  iro- 
ugtne,  would  cling  to  Ihem.  The  natives  of  Madagas- 
car seem  to  huve  invented  a  kind  of  artificial  transmi- 
^ration;  for  in  the  hut  where  ■  man  is  about  to  die 
they  make  a  liuhi  in  the  roof  in  order  to  catch  Ihc  out- 
going soul  and  to  brcstho  it  into  the  body  of  onother 
man  at  the  point  of  deal  h. 

See  Mettrnpischoiii  hy  a  itodern  Fj^hagorean,  in 
Hhiehnood'i  Mag.  xix,  SIl ;  Cmi/eiiioni  of  a  Miltmp- 
n(dii«ian,in/"ra«r's  J/'<S).sti,49S;  Blunt, i^tcf  of //ii'. 
Theology,  s.  v.;  Chamhrra'i  Eiieyclop.  s.  v.;  Delitzsch, 
Sibliail  Pn/ckology,  p.  Mi;  Gardner,  Failhi  af  Ihe 
IVoriii  Henilrick,fAHwi.i«i/j,-  Hardy,  BwiWSum,  an. 
"  Metcmpsycliosis ;"  Ucberweg,  llitlort/  af  PAilomphg 
(sec  Index). 

TransportatlOD  is  a  term  used  in  Scotland  for  the 
congregation  to  another. 

TrBOsubstatltlatlOD  (chnnyr  n/tHb§linief),  a  won! 
applied  tn  the  allcgeil  conversion  or  change  of  the  suk- 
slance  of  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  eiicharift  inio  ibe 
body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Chriat  at  the  time  Ihe  uHkiai- 
ing  jiriest  utters  the  words  of  cnnsccralion. 

T.  The  rn-m^Prohably  the  first  to  make  use  of  the 
woiti  traiuvtiraiiliatio  was  Peter  Damin  {ErpotOin  Cim. 
Miu.  cap.  vii ;  Hai,  flrripl.  Vrl.  AW.  CoiL  Vf,  ii,  aia), 
A.0.9H8-ia;3;  though  similarexpressiims, such  safiinM- 
ilio,  had  previously  been  emphiynl.  Ill  osc  was,  how- 
erer,  limited,  and  in  Ihe  13th  cenluiy  was  becoming 
very  rare.  Its  first  appearance  as  a  term  accepted  and 
recognised  by  the  Church  is  in  Ihe  first  of  Ihe  Streni^ 
Contlilutioiu  presenUd  to  the  faunh  Council  of  Lateran 


6         TRANSUIJSTANTIATION 

(1215)  by  Innocent  lit,  and  ladily  sdnfricd  bv  thai 
council  The  term  thus  adopted  by  the  Weslem  Church 
has  ils  counlerpait  in  Ihe  Kaalem  Church  in  Ihc  term 

MrfoatiotU  (MtTovsiWic),  which  was  foraiallT  adopt- 
ed, in  the  "Orthodox  Confession  of  Failh  of  the  Calho- 
lie  and  Apostolic  Church  of  the  Katt,'  in  IMS;  and  in 
xvii  of  the  Coun^l  si  Deihlehem,  ur  of  Jemaolewi, 


11672. 
The  Chur 


of  England  n 


ipted  the  word 
" Iransubstantiation"  in  any  formal  document;  and  at 
the  same  time  that  Ihe  Council  of  Trent  was  BxbiB  H 
upon  the  Latin  Church,  the  sacred  synod  of  the  English 
Church  was  declaring,  in  Ihe  S8th  art.  of  Religion, "  Pa- 

Uleris  probari  non  potest,  sed  aperlis  Scriptune  verbis 
adversatur  et  multarum  superstitioiium  dedit  ocorii-- 
nem'  (A.D.ie52).  This  part  of  Art.  xxviii  now  stands  in 
English  in  the  following  form :  "  TransubsUntiatioB  (.ir 
Ihe  change  of  the  tubslance  of  bread  and  wine)  id  llie 
■tipper  of  the  Lord  cannot  be  proved  by  Holy  Writ,  but 
is  repugnant  to  the  plain  words  orSctiplnre,Dvenhrnw- 
eth  the  nature  of  a  sacrament,  and  hath  given  occasiua 
to  many  luperslitinns"  (A.D.  1A71). 

II.  The  Loarme.—\n  the  Confession  of  the  Syqori  of 
the  fourth  Latenn  Council,  transubsiantistion  is  thus 
deOned ;  "Tliere  is  only  one  univenal  Church,  beyimd 
which  no  man  can  in  any  way  be  saved.  In  wbich  Je- 
sus Christ  is  himself  the  priest  and  sacrifice,  whose  body 
and  blood  are  really  conlained  in  the  sacrament  of  the 


eforr 


d  wine,  being  1% 


ilimfialtd,  the  bread  iiHo  the  body  and  i 
blood,  by  divine  power."  Bv  the  institution  of  Corpus 
Christi  Day  by  pope  UrUn  IV  in  liM  and  pope  dem- 
ent V  in  1811  at  the  Syno<1  ofTienne,  ihe  doctrine  hi 
question  was  expressed  in  a  liturgical  farm  and  its  pop- 
ularity secured.  Henceforlh  Ibe  saeiifiee  of  the  mass 
furmed  mole  than  ever  (he  centre  of  the  Catholic  ritual, 
and  reflected  new  ginry  upon  ihe  priesthood. 

The  change  efiecKd  by  Iransubslantiation  is  dedared 
to  be  so  perfect  and  cmnptete  thai,  by  ennneclion  and 
snul  and  divinity  of  Christ  niexisl 
blooii  under  Ihe  species  of  tiread  and 
wine ;  and  thus  Ihe  elements,  and  every  particle  Ibeie- 
nf,  contain  Christ  whole  and  eniire — divinity,  humanity. 
soul,  body,  and  hl.iod,  with  all  their  compDuenl  paitL 
Nothing  remains  oflhe  bread  and  wine  except  the  aoci- 
ilentB.  The  whole  God  and  man  Christ  Jesus  b  ooa- 
tiined  in  tbe  bread  and  wine,  and  In  every  panicle  ef 
the  bread,  and  every  drop  of  the  wine.  The  natnnl 
result  nf  such  a  doctrine  is  Ihr  elevation  of  Ihe  HoWSir 
adoriiion,  a  praclice  unknown  till  Ihe  rise  of  transnb- 


viih  hi 


It  is  claimed  by  Ibe  advoraies  nf  trnnBubstanliaiieti 
that  it  had  Ihe  belief  and  approval  of  the  early  fathers 
of  Ihc  Churcb.  Bingham  {Christ.  Aniiy.  bk.  xv,  ch.v, 
§  4)  asserts  that  "  the  ancient  fathers  have  declared  as 
plainly  as  words  can  make  it  that  Ihe  change  made  Id  the 
elements  of  bread  and  wine  by  consecration  is  not  such 
a  change  as  destroys  their  nature  and  substanoe,  bet 
only  alien  their  qualities,  and  elevates  ihem  lo  a  spirit- 
ual uae,  as  is  done  in  many  other  ronsecialions,  whne 
the  qualities  of  things  are  much  altered  without  any 
real  change  of  substance.''  We  give  some  extracts  fnxu 
the  authorities  quoted  by  Bingham.  Thus  Gregory  i-T 
Nyssa  (De  Bapl.  Chriili.  iii,  869),"Tbis  allar  belue 
hIiIcIi  we  stand  is  but  common  slone  in  its  naluie  .  .  . 
hut  after  it  is  consecrated  lo  Ihe  service  of  GoA,  and 
has  received  a  benediction,  it  is  a  holy  uble,  an  im- 
maculate altar,  not  tn  he  touched  by  any  but  Ihe  priests. 
and  that  with  the  greatest  reverence.    The  bread  ah» 

Aed  by  the  holy  mystery,  it  ia  made  ond  called  the  body 
nf  Christ."  C^ril  of  Jerusalem  (Caledt.  .Vgti.  iii.  Dsle 
S), "  Beware  thst  )-ou  lake  DDt  this  oinlnieiu  lu  be  hue 
ointment;  for  as  the  bread  in  Ihe  euchariil,  afler  the 
invocation  of  Ihe  Holy  Spirit,  is  not  mere  bread, bat  Use 
botlvof  Christ,  so  this  " 


TRANSCBSTANTIATION 


gneeorCbruCuiil  the  Huly  Spirit,  wliu  by  hit  prewnee 
■nd  divine  nalun  makes  it  efSciicioui.''  Chryiualom,  in 
,  hu  ramaiu  Kpullt  to  Caiarivt,  expluniiig  tbe  two  nat- 
uns  at  Cbritt— tbu  be  bad  both  ■  humui  and  s  divine 
■ubUancx  in  reality — uyt,  "A*  the  bmd,  befure  it  is 
MncUlied,  is  callr<l  bread, but  after  tbe  diviae  grace  hu 
aanctJIinl  it  by  the  medUlion  of  the  prieit  it  is  no 
lan|[cr  called  bread,  but  (ligniBed  with  the  iiarpc  uf  the 
body  of  the  L>rd,  though  the  nature  of  bread  remain  in 
i>,  and  they  are  not  taiil  to  be  two,  but  one  body  of  the 
Sun;  ■>  here,  the  dirine  nature  residing  or  dwelling  in 
Ibe  human  body,  ihey  both  isgetber  malie  one  Son  and 
one  Penan."  When  this  passage  was  flrU  produced  by 
Peter  Martyr,  it  was  looked  upon  as  ao  unanswerable 
that  the  Kmnith  Church  declared  it  lo  be  a  fDrgeTy,aiid 
it  was  stolen  Trom  the  Lambeth  Library  during  the 
ni^  of  queen  Hary.  Tbeodoret  plainly  says  that  the 
bread  and  wine  retxain  still  in  their  own  nature  after 
consecration.  Auguttine,  inatructing  the  newly  bap- 
tiied  rcapecting  the  sacrsment,  tells  them  that  what 
they  saw  upon  the  altar  was  bread  and  the  cup,  as  their 


iread  is  ( 


body  uf  Christ,  etc  Answering  an  objection,  supposed 
to  be  urged,  that  Christ  had  taken  his  body  to  heaven, 
Augustine  replies  "These  things,  my  brethren,  are 
therefore  called  sacraments,  because  in  them  one  thing 
is  seen  and  another  is  understood.  That  which  is  seen 
bu  a  bodily  appearance;  that  which  is  understood  has 
a  spiritual  fruit."  He  also  says  that  "this  very  bread 
and  wine  are  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ;  CDnsequently 
it  could  not  be  his  natursi  body  in  the  substance,  but 
only  ucramentally.  The  natural  boity  of  Christ  is  only 
in  hearen,  bat  the  sacrament  has  the  name  ofhis  body, 
because,  though  in  outward,  visible,  and  corporeal  ap- 
pearance it  is  onlv  bread,  i-et  it  isaltrndedwiih  a  spirit- 
oal  fmit."  [tidore,  bishop  of  Seville  (A.D.  030).  speak- 
iDgorcbc  rilesortbeChnich,  says,  "The  bread,  because 
it  nouriahes  and  alrengthetis  our  bodies,  is  therefore 
called  the  bodv  of  Christ ;  and  the  wine,  because  it 
creates  blood  in  our  flesh,  is  called  the  blood  of  Christ. 
Noir,  these  two  aia\fi»  are  visible,  but,  being  sanciiOed 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  become  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  body"  (pe  Kccitt.  0^.  i,  18).  From  the  lirae  of 
'  is  doctrine  had  been  the  subject  of  angn' 


le  of  ill 


opponci 


able  achulastic  writer  Duns  Scotua,' 

maintained  in  the  llth  century  by  Derengariui  and  his 

IlL  AripiiHtnU. — The  doctrine  uf  tmnsubatanlialion 
is  defended  by  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  words 
apokm  by  our  Lord  at  the  last  suppcr,'>This  is  my 
bo<1y,''''Thisis  my  blood."  From  these  words  it  is  ar- 
gued that  there  is  the  real  tiodily  presence  of  Christ's 
boily,  which  it  accounted  fur  by  the  miracle  of  a  change 
of  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine.     In  answer,  it  is 


I.  The  » 


iCfur 


if  this 


"  the  r, 


waa  changed  into  a  ttrptat'  (all  the 
Um  b^ug  present),  not  net  rena ;  ao  that  by  Roman- 
tsle'own  account  it  isCbriat's  body  and  blood  that  are 
cAnnffpd  into  hrtnd  and  teitu, 

Wbeiever  a  miracle  waa  wmnght  in  the  Old  or  New 
TeM^a*  in  the  instance  above  alluded  to,  or  in  the  turn. 
ing  at,  the  water  into  wine  at  Cana,  such  change  was 
obrioos  to  the  sours.-  the  appeal,  in  raci,f»r  the  real- 
ity of  the  miticle  it  lo  the  senses;  while,  therefore,  we 
mif^ht  admit  that  if  a  Romish  priest  were  to  sssert  that 
We  bad  omrerted  our  Saviour'a  bwly  into  bread  and 
wine,  he  waa  safe  ssfarat  the  senses  go, we  ^ould  hold, 
prr  mtra,  that  if  be  professed  to  have  tume.1  bread 
■nd  wine  Into  the  bndy  and  blood  of  Christ,  that  bodv 
•nd  UooU  ought  (o  be  cles-  We  bail 


!7  TRAPP 

bread  atul  wine  ir/br«  the  consecradoni  we  hare,  aa  to 

inHe,  bread  and  wine  aflrr.  In  the  whole  history  of 
miracles,  nothing  of  this  sort  has  ever  been  known;  nor 
can  we,  uwler  such  clrcumetaiKes,  admit  that  the  al- 
leged change  has  taken  place.  Suppose  Aaron'a  rod 
to  have  remained  still  with  all  ihe  atlribiile*  nl  a  rod, 
could  Pharaoh  and  his  court  believe  it  to  be  now  a  ser- 

2.  The  late  origin  of  the  doctrine  of  transubslan na- 
tion has  been  alleged  as  one  reason  for  its  rejection,  and 
it  is  certainly  a  point  worthy  of  considerable  iifitice. 
If,  however,  il  had  been  as  early  a>  the  superstitious 
veneration  for  relics  anil  images,  it  woubl  have  been  but 

3.  It  must  be  evident  lo  every  one  wbn  is  ttot  bliiideil 
by  ignorance  and  prejudice  that  our  Lord's  wonts, "  This 
is  my  boilyi'sre  mere  flguralive  expressions;  and  that 
they  were  no  more  likely  tn  be  designed  to  be  received 
literally  than  the  declnralions  made  by  our  I^rd  that  he 
was  a  "vine,"  a  "lamb,"  a  "door,"  a  "way,"  a  "light." 

4.  Besides,  such  a  transubstantiation  is  so  opposite  to 
the  teatimony  of  our  senses  as  completely  tu  undermine 
Ihe  whole  proof  of  all  the  miracles  by  which  God  has 
conflrmed  revelation.  According  to  such  a  transubstan- 
tiation, Ihe  same  boily  is  alive  and  dead  at  once,  and 
may  be  in  a  million  afdilTerent  places  whole  and  entire 
at  the  same  instant  of  time;  accidents  remain  without 
a  Bubstance,  and  substance  without  occiilenta;  and  a 
part  of  Christ's  boily  is  equal  to  the  whole.  It  is  also 
contrary  to  the  end  uf  tbe  sacrament,  which  is  to  repre- 
sent and  commemorate  Christ,  iKit  to  believe  that  he  ii 
corporeally  present  (1  Co(.  ist,  24,  lb). 

6.  The  practical  evil  oflbis  and  of  oonsubslanliation 
(q.  v.)  is  that  it  leads  tn  the  paying  divine  aduralinu  to 
a  bit  of  bread,  and  Ibe  stilt  more  noxious  supcistirion 
of  thinking  that  Christ's  Ixtdy  con  be  received  and  act 
like  a  medirine  on  one  who  is  "not  considering  the 
Loid's  boilv,"as,e.g.,an  infant,  or  a  man  in  a  sute  of 
insenribilitv. 

fiee  jaunt.  Did,  of  niit,Thfol.K.-e.i  Gardner,  niiTiU 
o/IIU  World,  8.  V. ;  Bingbam,  Cirul.  A  nliq.  (see  Index)] 
Brown,  Comprsdium,  p.GIS:  Coscn,  On  Trantuhtlaalia- 
f>iHi(IS58);  Hagenbach,/fi>r.'i/'/loMnVs(eee  Index); 
Hil!,AVu*  MooalicUm  (Lond.  IS67);  Kidder,  ,l/r«. 
litih,  iii,  80;  Knott,  On  iht  Suppa-  nfoar  fj>,-d  (I8JB); 
Smith,  A'rror*  of  lAe  Church  o/ Ajme,  diaL  fl ;  Thitl- 
wail,  Trtnuubilanliation:  What  It  Itt  (l)Mi9);  Van 
OoatenKt.Chri»t.Dogmal.(fiix  Index);  Watson,  SfWi- 
cat  Did.  s.  V. 

Trap  (llii^ia,  noieaJ,  Josh,  xxiii,  18,  a  smre,  aa  . 
elsewhere  rendered ;  riBbn,  naUcddnh,  Job  XTiii,  10, 
a  Kooie :  n^nt:;,  maihrhUh,  3ei.  v,  26,  a  datroytr,  as 
elsewhere;  and  so  3qji>a,  Kotn.  xi,  9,  liL  the  cAiue), 
See  HlNTiso. 

Trapp,  John,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  bom  in  IGOI, 
and  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  waa  school- 
master  at  Slrstford-on-Avon  and  vicar  of  Weaton-on- 
Avon  frem  1634  until  his  death,  in  1669.  Ha  wrote, 
Ood^i  LotfTolmu  (Lond.  1687,  Uoy.—Throiogia  Thto- 
loflU  (IMl,  8vo)  1— ComnentariM  on  thtScriptum,  to.: 
SI.JabnlitEra«ffelum64fi,*toy,  AU  Iht  KputUi  ainl 
Iht  KtrelalioiiK/SI.Jaia  (IG47,4to;  !d  ed.  1649,  ilo); 
AU  lie  A«  TulimtM  (1647,  2  vi.ls.  4lo;  new  ed.  1668, 
imp.  8vd);  Pralateich  (16.i0,  4t<];  2d  ed.  IS54,  4lo); 
Jnihua  to  2d  CAronicIra;  Proetiit,  EecUHatltt,  and 
Stmgi  nf  Solomoa  <1660,  4lo);  Tit  Titeire  Uinor 
I'nphtU  (16H,foL>;  Exi-a,S'fkrmud,,Eaher,JiA,md 
Iht  Pialmi  (16.56,  fol.;  2d  al  1657.  fol.);  Prartiit  to 
Dmirl  (1666,  foL)  — all  published  together  in  1662  (S 
voli  foL).  Sec  Allibone,  Did.  of  BHI.  aad  Amo:  Alt- 
r*on,s.v. 

Ttapp,  Josepb,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Cherrington,  GloiiccMershire,  in  November,  1679. 
Educated  at  flrst  by  his  father,  he  was  afterwards  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  master  of  New  College,  Oxford, 


TRAPPISTS  52 

Dnd  in  1695  entered  Wwlham  College  in  tlie 
same  city.    He  wu  chuaen  a  felluw  of  hi* 
collfge  b  1704,  anil  <int  pinremr  of  poetry 
ill  17DS.    In  1709-10  he  icled  as  manager 
tut  Dr.  Sacbercnlt  on  hit  memorable  trial, 
enij  ill  1711  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Sir 
GiiiaUiitiiie  Hhipps,  lord  chancellor  of  Ire- 
land.    In  1720  he  was  presented  lo  the  rec- 
Kiry  <il  Uaimtzey,  Wiltshire,  which  he  re- 
iii;;i>ed  ill  1721  fur  the  vicarage  orilie  unil«d 
luirishes  of  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street, 
and  (St.  Leonard's,  Foster  Lane,  London.     He 
received  hia  degree  of  D.D.  from  Oxford  in 
February,  1737.     He  was,  in  1733,  preferred 
til  ihc  rectory  of  HarlingCon,  Midillesex,  by 
lonl  Holiiigbruke,  whose  chaplain  he  had  pre- 
vionsly  been.    In  1734  hewaa  elected  one  nf 
the  joint  lecturers  of  St.  S[aTtin's-in- the- 
Fielda.    lie  dietl  *t  Harlinf-ton,  Nov.33,IT47. 
)lr.  Ttapp  was  a  hard  student,  and  published 
iiuroeroua  works,  viz.,  PralfOiotifi  PofHcir, 
etc.  (Oxon.  1711-19,  3  vols.  Svo),  being  his 
Lalin  lecturea  aa  profeasor  of  poetry: — A  t 
Prrtirtaliet,  rtx.,  in  several  discourses  (col-  I 
lecled  in  17X3,2  vuls.sn).8vo):— 7Ae.^>>ri(I| 
n/  I'l'i^  Tranilaled  into  Blade  Vertt  (1718,  ^ 
2  voli,  4to)  i—Er^malory  ffola  on  the  Finn-  ^ 
Gofptlt,  etc.  (1747-48,  2  vols.  8va;  Uxfuril,  I 
1775,  Svo;  1805,  Bto):— beaides  poems,  aer- 7 
mons,  Iheolugical  tracts,  etc     See  Chalmen,  " 
Biy.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Alliboiie,  Did.  of  Bnf.  and 
Amrr.Aulioii.s.v. 

Trappista,theTnembersofa  monastic  Older  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  which  ia  characterized  by  the  exlrenie 
austerity  of  its  rule.  It  bid  its  origin  in  the  Cistercian 
abbey  irf'  La  Trappe  in  Konnandy  during  Ibe  abbacy  of 
Kaiici'  (q.  v.).  This  prelate  had  been  grossly  addicted 
to  sensual  pleasures,  and  had  also  evinced  considerable 
fondness  for  scholarly  purauils;  but  bis  conscience  be- 
came awakened,  and  he  was  transformed  into  an  intense 
ascetic  He  renounced  all  the  benefices  he  poonCMed 
except  that  of  La  Trappe;  and  when  he  had  repaired 


buildings 
lofiti 


He  i 


duceil  a 


mbet 


;t  BenetUctines,  and  beci 
regular  abbot.  In  1G7&  he  causcl  the  members  of  the 
order  to  renew  their  vows,  and  impmed  on  Ibem  the 
Bililiiinnal  obligation  IB  preserve  unchanged  all  his  ar- 
rangements and  rules. 

This  immutable  rule  obliges  the  Trappisla  la  sleep 
on  a  bed  of  straw,  with  pUiow  also  of  straw,  placed  on 
a  board  and  covered  with  a  blanket.  They  must  rise 
at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Eleven  hours  of  Ibeir 
day  are  devoted  lo  prayers  atui  masses,  the  remaining 
hours  u>  hani  labor  performed  in  strict  silence.  ScJen- 
tiRc  puisuila  are  forbidilen.  Tlic  Trappist's  thoughts 
ate  to  be  directed  only  lo  repentance  bikI  death.  His 
only  speech,  apart  from  hymns  and  prayers,  is  the  re- 
sponsive grcrliiig  "Memento  mnri."  He  maintains  a 
coneiant  fast  in  the  plainiieis  mid  frugality  of  his  ruoil, 
which  is  servfd  upon  ■  bare  table.  After  supper  and 
subarquent  relii;ious  meditations  and  exe^ci^e^  belabors 
for  a  lime  upnii  the  grave  he  is  to  occupy  after  death, 
■lid  then  retires  to  rest — at  eight  o'clock  in  summer 

brothers,  professors,  and  frirtt  dmiait,  i.  e.  temporary 
associates.  Its  garb  coiisistB  nf  a  long  mbe  with  wide 
sleeves  of  coarse  grayish-white  wool;  a  black  woollen 
cowl  with  two  strips  a  foot  wide  which  reach  down  lu 
the  knee;  ■  hmad  girdle  of  black  leather,  from  which 
are  suspended  a  rosary  and  a  knirp,  symbols  of  devo- 
tion and  toil;  and  wooden  shoes.  In  the  choir  a  dark- 
brown  mantle  with  sleeves,  and  a  cowl  of  like  color,  are 
worn.    The  lay-brothers  wear  gray  habits. 

Ranee's  immoderate  austerity  occa^oned  the  death 
of  a  number  of  monks,  and  bmughl  upon  him  the  cen- 
sure of  many  critics.    Hia  aversion  to  literary  employ- 


Trapplst  Uouk  and  Nuu, 
mcnta  was  also  condemned,  among  otben  by  Mabilluo 
in  the  TraUi  da  iludn  MmaUigm  (1691). "  The  order 
did  not  spread  betond  its  original  limila  until  after  the 
founder's  death  (Oct.  12, 170U),  and  has  never  becooH 
verj-  elrong  in  its  numbers.  A  female  branch  was  in- 
sliluled  at  Ch>cet,  France,  in  1705,  by  princess  Louiae 
de  Conde.  Tbe  revolution  expelled  the  Trappuis  from 
France,  but  they  establlslied  ihemaclvea  in  Valuinte, 
Freibuiirg,  Swiizerlanrl,  where  a  monaster}'  founded  by 
Augustine  I'Eatrange  (1791)  was  mode  an  abbey  by  Fiut 
VI,  and  Augusline  placed  at  iu  head.  Again  assailed  liy 
the  French  and  compelled  to  Dee,  tbe  Trsppists  found  a 
temporaty  home  in  Poland.  They  were  evei^whera 
disliked,  however,aiid  fuutid  no  settled  home  until  after 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1S17,  when  they  re- 
covered their  original  abbey  of  La  Ttappc  Other  sta- 
tions were  establislied,  among  Ihem  a  female  cunveM 
near  London.  In  18A4  a  papal  decretal  consulidated  Ibe 
Trappials  into  a  Covgriyalvm  dti  Rtliginx  Citlerdau 
de  S.  D.  Se  la  Troppt.  Tbey  possess  setilementa  in 
Algiers  and  Korth  America,  but  are  chiefly  liiund  in 
France.  Ste  tbe  A  Ujrtii.  Dumtt.  Kirchrvzeiivi^,  18S1, 
p.  1424;  18H2,  p.  90, 119;  1838,  p.  14G4;  1635,  p.  1087; 
Chateaubriand,  I'ie  de  Sunci  (Par.  1844)  ;  Ritaerl,  OrJm 
H.  Trappiilen  (Darmst.  1888). 

In  1861  Muard  founded  an  order  of  Trappist  preach- 
ers in  Che  bishopric  of  Sens,  who  eaiablislied  thcmaelvM 
in  a  convenl  near  Avallon.  Tbey  observe  the  Trappiat 
rule  and  wear  tbe  habit  of  the  order,  but  by  dispeiiaatioo 
are  allowed  lo  break  the  vow  of  silence  and  serve  the 
Church  by  preaching.  Sec  Drr  KathUik,  Sept.  1B51, 
p.239s(|.;  IleiTOg,  A(af-A'R(jiiU[i|i.s.v.;  il elyol, (Trdm 
IttiigUttx,  8.  v. 

TtbbIe,  Joiih,  I  Sahhaurian  Puritan,  was  a  native 
of  Someiaetshire,  and,  after  being  a  scboolinaslei  nniil 
lie  was  thiny-four  yeara  of  age,  became  ■  preacher  in 
London  about  1617.  He  was  at  flrat  refused  ordination 
by  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  but  "  afterwanla  got 
orders  and  began  to  vent  his  opinions."  He  enjoined 
severe  asceticism  upon  his  followers,  inducing  them  to 
fast  three  days  at  a  time,  alleging  that  the  third  day's 
fast  would  bring  them  lo  the  condition  of  justified  ointa, 
according  lo  the  promise  "afier  two  days  he  will  revive 
us;  in  tbe  third  day  he  will  raise  na  up,  and  we  shall 
live  in  bis  sight"  (Hos.  vi,  1).    Among  olher  precepia 


TltASKITES 


•trictJ;  enfoned  by  Tnak  w 

b.T  tbc  law  of  Scriplure,  liai 
vitw  by  tbe  argumenri  nf  IL 
■cribeil  to  bit  follnwew  cere 
dirm  uiil  domeaiit: 


ciiag  cTtrythiDg 

ion.    Tnik  pre- 
ceremonid  ciutoma  reipeciing 
;  reqaircd  Jewish  urictnea  jii 
tlie  DbHrvanoe  iir  .■luiuuy;  aiid  Fvenliullyadapted  3al- 
nidiy  as  the  ISabbaih.     On  April  1, 1634,  the  commit 
Bonen  for  «ccle«a9Licil  causa  ordered  tbe  prosecution 
or  all  »parttiU9,  tiovelisu,  and  aeclaries,  amoiig  wbam 
the  Traskisis  were  named.     Tnuk  wm  bniughl  befun 
tbe  Sur-cfaanber,  wbeie  bis  Judaiiing  opinions  and 
practica  were  refuted  by  bisbop  Andrewes,  and  he  v 
put  ID  tbe  pUlory.     He  ia  said  to  hare  afterwards  : 
canted  bia  eiron,  but  became  an  Antinomian  before  1 
de»b,  the  date  of  which  is  not  giren.     Hia  followi 
betcau  to  be  called  Seventb-day  men  about  Lba  yi 
1100.      Tbe  puUisbed  works  of  Traak  are,  Sermon 
Mart  zti,i6  (Lon<i.l6\b,8ro):  —  Trtalite  of  libm;/ 
fivn  Jmdamt  (1620,  Ito)  -.—Poatr  a/Praichiag  <ie'23, 
Bto):— rA«  Tnu  Gotpel,  etc.,  from  Hie  RrpToacI,  of  a 
Xrm  Gotpd  (l636,aRi.  I3mo).     See  Paget,  HeraiosT,'- 
p*>(l6Bi,p.l61,lS4);  Baker, Citrmtcfe,' Fuller, CAurcA 
Hiitory  njr  Great  Brilain;  Brook,  Purifmu .-  Chamber- 
laio,  pTntl  Slate  e/E<^and/or  IT03.p.25S.— Dlunl, 
Diet. o/ 5«r»,  s.  v.(  AlUbooe,  DH.  of  Brit.  mdAr- 

n«aklteB.    See  Trabe,  John, 

TranthKiii.  tbe  name  of  an  aurient  Tyrolese  ( 
Oywhichfumisbedtwo  representatives  to  the  episcopal 
sOcs  in  the  Chureh  of  Rome.    The  former  of  these 
IweDty-Orst  bishop  of  Vienna,  and  died  in  I'Oi     The 
latter,  Joiiaks  Joseph,  Caaat  TruulhiHia  and  FuUJxH- 


n  ITM  It 


kd  (and  posuhly  at  Rome  and  Sienna), 
and  pIOT(l•^  and  in  17i>l  wjis  made  prince-archbishop  of 
Tienna.  He  issued  a  pastoral  letter  in  which  be  urgrA 
hb  clergy  to  prefer  the  presentation  of  neceasary  truths 
to  that  of  merely  useful  truths  in  their  sermons,  and  re- 
BMOStraled  against  the  excessive  zeal  expended  in  the 
prsaehiug  of  the  merits  of  sainta,  wbile  but  little  alten- 
tioo  was  Riven  to  the  prvachinx  ufihe  merits  of  Christ. 
Ha  also  condemneil  the  iiitniiluction  r.f  odd  or  laiigbtble 

l[ieai  exciLeiiienl,aiid  calleilfurtb  a  number  of  aiuilngel- 
ical  and  polenijcai  LraeU,  which  are  enumerated  in  Act 
HiM.  AVct  xviii,  1008  sq.;  Heinsius,  KirchetAitl.  iv,8i 
a).:and  Henke,  A'i>dbnjirsr4.v,393  sq.  Many  Trot e 
tints  SDSpected  that  the  archbishop  bad  understated  tt 
leoelB  of  his  Church  in  unler  to  win  over  uniiifornK 
?l<]tesianti<,andnisiiy  Romanists  charged  bim  with  hai 
iug  begun  the  belrival  ofthe  Churcb.  Both,  howeve 
were  mistaken.  Trauthwn  was  influenced  by  the  "er 
UghteuDteDt"  of  his  time,  but  was  none  the  less  a  leatoi 
appotter  of  the  Church  of  R-ime.  His  letter  was,  hos 
ern,  productive  of  no  special  minlte.  Uaria  Therei 
appointed  him  chief  director  of  studies  in  the  Universit 
of  Vienna  ami  director  of  the  Theresiinum,  and  pO| 
Benedict  XIV  made  him  canlinil  in  1766.  He  per- 
suaded tbe  curia  to  mluct  the  number  of  festivals  in 
hi)  dioceir.  He  died  March  10,  1767.  His  pailnral 
kiter  has  been  translated  into  many  langiiieog.  See 
Vnn  Einem,  Vtn. oner  rolUl.  Kirchngetch.  rf.  18.  Jahi. 
lLnps.i;saaq.),i,Ii54,&90:SchTHckh,K:im(nu;uet.vii, 
309-313;  r.tbtad.CartU-aUiLie.JaAryiii.iea.-lier- 
aog.  Rml-Eitr^tiop.  s.  r. 

TraveUiDS  (pmp.  some  fomi  of  niN,  ardeh,  es- 
pfcially  TVyn,  oriach,  a  traveller ;  fern.  Itn^M,  ortdilik, 
i  "  traTemng  company"  [f.en.  mvii,  2a  i'lsa.  xxi,  IB], 
Le.aifin'<iii)inthe  East  is  still  much  more  cumbersotne 
than  with  OS,  since  it  is  almost  exclusively  undertaken 
Mlely  on  errands  of  bnsinea,  and  rsnly  for  purposes  of 
pkasare.  Its  laboriousness  is  partly  nccasioncd  by  the 
lanilt  and  desert  natuTC  of  the  country,  wbicb  often  re- 
gret way-nuriti  to  be  aet  np  fi'r  guidance  (Arrian, 
£*tti.  Ala,  T,  Se) ;  pwlly  by  the  bad  and  neglected 


!»  TREASXJRE 

rtiada  {comp.  Philo,  Opp.  it,  GTS),  especially  in  winter 
[see  RoAi>]:  partly  by  tbe  general  abseuce  of  proper 
liolels  [see  Inn]  ;  and  paillv  bv  the  bands  of  roU>ers 
who  infest  the  couniri-  iu  general  (comp.  2  Cor.  xi,  26), 
See  RoBBBB.  Oimmerce  (q.  v.)  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  caravans  {q.  v.),  which  carry  all  necessaries  with  them, 

(see  Wellsted,  Reitm,  p.  227). 


(see  Olivier,  Voyage,  vi,  329  sq.).  In  \ 
guide  is  usually  employed  (comp.  Numb.  x,31),  and  a 
beacon-fire  as  a  siandanl  by  night  (see,  generally.  Jahn, 
ArchaaL  I,  it,  17  sq.).  Single  travelleis  in  the'interiot 
of  the  well-inhabited  couutry,  or  in  Palestine  proper, 
usually  ride  upon  asseB(l  Sam.xxv,20,12;  2Sam.xvii, 
23;  rKingsii,40;  2  Cbron.  xxviii,  15;  comp.  Luke  x, 
34};  loutisls,  however,  and  tlieiks,  upon  horses;  and  in 
some  instances  wajinns  were  anciently  used  as  rehiclea 
(1  Kings  xii,  IB;  2  Kings  xix,21;  ActBviii,28)  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  Ibe  country.  Most  persons  went  on  fixit 
(comp.  John  iv,  6)  and  carried  their  most  essential  sup- 
plies with  them  (Jurtg.  xix,  18  sq^  i.  e.  n^pn,  Matl.  x, 
10),  likewise  a  tent  (q.  v.)  itnder  which  to  encamp  if  in 
a»>Iitwyregion(Dion.i-a.HaLTiii,3).  Glovesaremen. 
tioned  in  the  Mishna  (Chdim,  xvi,  6)  as  travelling  ap- 
paratus. The  JewB  Journeyed  to  the  great  festivals  in 
caiaranh  (Luke  ii,  42,  44)  with  song  and  rejoicing. 
Single  travelleis  usitally  found  a  ready  hospitality  (ex- 
cept among  the  Samaritans  towards  Jews),  and  event- 
ually khans  (q.  v.)  were  established  along  the  highways, 
especially  for  non-Israel ilfS  (see  Reisegger,  ff(uni,iit,62 
sq.).  Travellera  of  distinction  were  often  welcomed 
with  torehlights  and  great  ceremony  (2  Msec,  iv,  32), 
and  for  princes  the  roads  were  frequentlv  repaired  (Psa. 
Ixviii,  b;  Isa.  xl,  8;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  18;  Arrian,  Ahr.  iv, 
30;  Josephus,  War,  iii,6,2>  Alan  on  deraning  they 
were  dismissed  with  an  honorary  procesiiiHi  (s-fiori/i- 
irtiv,  ActSKxi,5;  iMifcerF.Cicem,  tVir.  J/ii/.  xviii)  and 
many  ceremonious  attentions  (Acts  xv,S;  Knm.  xv,  24; 
I  Cur.  xvi,  16,  8  John  6).  Samaria  was  ai-oided  as  a 
route  by  the  Jewh  The  Galikeaiia,  in  vinling  the  fes- 
tivals at  Jerusalem,  usually  went  along  the  Jordan  or 
through  Perna  (Luke  xvii,  II;  John  iv,  4;  Josephwi 
Ant.xXti,  I).  See  SaMARItaK.  Jimnieying  on  the 
Sabbath  was  forbidden  in  postexilian  times  (see  Jose- 
phus, Am.  xiii,  8,  4).  See  Sabbath-i>av's  Juibkrv. 
On  account  u(  the  h^at  travel  was  sometimes  punueil 
by  nighu  (See,gr.,..rally,  Hackelt,  ;tfBs>r.  of  Script. 
p.  12-16.)    SeeJouRNXT. 

Travis,  Gxobge,  an  English  clergj'man,  vtaa  a  na- 
tive of  Rnytoii,  Lancashire,  and  was  educateil  at  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford,  He  became  vicar  of  Easlham  and 
rector  of  Hendley,  Cheslnre;  prebendary  of  Chester  in 
1783;  and  arehdcacon  nf  Chester  in  IT86.  He  died 
Feb.  24,  ITST.  He  published,  iMItri  to  Edward  GAbon. 
etc,  in  defence  of  1  J..lin  6,  7  (Chester,  1784,  4toi  cor- 
rected and  enlarged,  ITM,  8i-u).    See  AUibone,  IHa.  of 


Rrit.ai 


I  ulhori.  I 


Treaaare  (prop.  ^SX,  M  kaurd.  ^aaopii).  in 
Scripture  ugniOes  anything  collected  together  in  stores, 
I  treasure  orcorn,of  wine,  of  oil;  treamiies  of  gold, 
silver,  brass;  treasures  of  coined  money.  Snow,  winds, 
rain,  watera,  are  in  Ibe  treasuries  of  Uu<l  (1^. 
V,  T ;  Jer.  Ii,  IG).  We  read  als..  of  a  treasure  of 
good  work^  treasures  of  iniquity,  to  lay  up  treasures  in 
'n,  to  bring  forth  good  or  evil  out  of  the  treasures 
e  heart.  Jos^h  told  hia  brethren,  when  they 
their  money  relumed  in  their  socks,  that  GikI 
riven  them  treasures  (Cen.  xliii,  2S).  The  king* 
ilah  bsd  keepers  of  their  treasures,  both  in  citv 
ountiy  (1  Chron.xxvii,  2d;  3  Chron.  xxxii,  2^, 
and  tlie  places  where  these  magazine*  were  laid 
TO  called  treasure-cities.  Pharsnh  compelled  the 
Hebrews  to  build  him  treasure-cities,  or  magazines 
(Exo<Li,II).  Tbe  word  irtasurea  is  often  naed  to  e.t. 
anything  in  great  abundance,  "  In  Jeaus  Chrlr* 


TBEASUBEK 


TREE 


>a  of  vrudom  and  knowledge' 


ue  hiddf  n  ill  tbe  i 

(CoL  ii,  8).  The  i 
in  iu  treiaariea  underuanding,  tbe  knuwledge  uf  re- 
ligion, etc  Paul  (Kocn.  ii.  6)  *peakii  of  heaping  up  > 
treasure  of  wrath  againit  the  day  of  wrath;  and  the 
prophet  AnuH  uya  (iii,  10)  they  trcuure  up  iniquity, 
they  lay  up  iniquity  ai  it  were  iu  a  UorchooM,  which 

of  iin[wety  or  iniquity  (Pror,  x,  2)  ejcpms  ill-gotten 
ricliea.  The  treaeurci  of  iniquity,  uys  the  wiie  man, 
will  eventually  bring  lUi  profit :  and,  in  the  aanie  »nae, 
Chriat  call*  the  riches  of  iniquity  mamnion  uf  unriglit- 
eoiuiiew,  an  estate  widiedlr  acquired  (Luke  xvi,  9). 
(impel  faith  ia  the  treasure 'of  the  just;  but  Paul  savs, 
"  We  have  this  treasure  in  eanhpii  vessels"  fi  Cor.  ir, 
T).  Isaiah  says  of  a  good  man,  "The  fear  of  the  Loril 
is  his  itcasDre'  (xxxiii,  6).  On  the  Scriptore  allu- 
sions to  "  bid  treasures"  see  Thurtucm,  Land  and  Boot, 
i,  1D5  sq.;  FrefOian,  llattd-book  «/  BibU  Maaneri,  p. 
S50  sq.    See  Stobs. 

Treosnror  (technically  Heh.  and  Chald.  *i^Jl,  gu- 
Mr,S.in  i,  8;  vii,!l;  Chald.  also  IS*!:,  jiiJMr,  Dan. 
iii,  S,  S;  improp.  'iSO,  toiin,  Isa.  xxii,  15,  an  auodnlr, 
L  e.  the  king's  intimate  friend),  an  important  officer  in 
all  Oriental  courts  See  Kino.  In  Dan.  iii,  %  3,  the 
Chald.  ^TJI^K,  adurgaitr  (Sept.  rl-pavvot,  A.  V. 
"judge"),  occurs  among  the  titles  of  Babylonian  royal ' 
officers,  and  has  (perhapa  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
word  to  the  (ireek  yaC,a)  t>cen  thought  by  some  to 
Toean  the  officers  of  the  Turkish  court  and  govemmeot, 
now  called  dfJ>erilar»,v'ho  have  tlie  charge  of  the  re- 
ceipts and  disbursenjents  of  the  pvUU  treasury,  tie- , 
■eniiu  and  others  conceive  that  the  word  means  ckv-/-  | 
judgri  (ftora  ^^X.  maipafictiil,  and  1^^»3,  ircidm'); 
but  Dr.  Lee  seems  to  prefer  seeking  its  meaning  in  the  I 
Persian  ndar,  fire,  and  gtaar,  passing;  and  hence  con- 
clndes  that  the  aiargnztriit  were  prohably  ofBcen  of 
stale  who  presided  over  the  ordeals  by  Are,  and  other 
matters  connected  wilh  Ibe  government  uf  Sabylon. 
See  JuTicE. 

TRr..\S[JRETt,  EocLBSiASTlCAL,  the  keeper  of  the 
treasures,  c  g.  the  munimenta,  aacrcd  vessels,  relics,  and 
valuableaof  a  church, cathedriO,  or  reiiKious  house.    He 

charge  of  the  sacrislyi  wilnrer.as  providing  the  eucha- 
rislicelcmenla  and  canonical  bread  and  wine)  malrirulai; 
ai  keeper  of  the  inventory:  conifrt  in  France  and  (ier- 
tnanyt  ctuTai  and  n'mefi'arcA  in  Italy;  and  in  the  Greek 
Mcnopi^iz.  Thecustoshad  charge  of  all  the  conlcnli 
of  the  Church,  but  at  length  became  superintendent  of 
deputies,  discharging  his  penoual  duties,  and  at  last 
look  the  title  of  treasiirer,as  having  charge  of  the  relics 
and  valuables  of  the  Church.  He  is  the  Old-English 
eyrcieard  and  mediieval  perpetual  larriiion,  and  now 
represented  by  the  humbler  wxlon.  Every  necessari' 
for  tho  Church  and  divine  service  "ras  furnished  by 
him.  The  old  title  of  cusrni  descended  before  the  Idth 
century  lo  his  church-service. 

In  order  the  treasurer  usually  aucceeiled  the  chan- 
cellor, and  had  a  stall  appointed  to  himself.  His  dlg- 
uitv  waa  founded  at  York  in  the  lllh  ccnlury;  at 
Chichester,  Lichfield,  Wells,  Hereford.  St.  Paul"*,  in  the 
]2ih;  and  at  5(. David's  and  XJandalT  in  the  13th.  It 
has  been  commonly  preservcil  and  exercisdl  since  the 
Rcformation.botb  hi  English  colleges  and  cathedrals,  hnt 
has  fallen  into  disuse  at  York,  Lincoln,  and  Lichfield,  and 
at  Exeter,  LlandaT,  niid  Amiens  is  held  by  the  bishop. 

The  monastic  treasurer,  or  iarmr,  received  all  the 
rents,  was  audittir  of  all  the  officers'  iccnnnis,  paymai>- 
terof  wages,  and  of  the  works  done  in  the  abbey.— T^c, 
GloM.  of/Muiy.  Trimi,  (.  V. ;  Walcol t.  Sac.  A  rekcrol.  t.  v. 

Treasury  (usually  na^K,  oiiAr.  a  coUtctiwi,  often 
rendered  "treasure:"  somelimes  Heh.  E^TJl,  swuiiim 
[Esth.  iii,  B;  if,  1],  or  Chald,  liHIj.  jnuin  [Eira  v, 


■tore  or  depoait). 
xxviii,  11,  tbe  treasury 
of  the  Temple  is  calleil  t]T31,^nzdt,-  and  meana  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  the  Kop^avas  of  Hate  xxvii.  6, 
namely,  the  hoard  of  money  contributed  towards  tbe 
expenses  of  tiiat  edifice.  The  same  thing,  or  perhaps 
rather  the  pUce  where  the  contribution-boxea  for  thia 
purpose  were  kept,  is  dcBignaled  in  the  New  TetL  as  the 
yajof uXorioc  (Mark  xii.  41;  Luke  xxi,  1 ;  John  viii, 
20),and  so  likewise  Josephus  {A  if.  xix,  6, 1 ;  War,  v,  5, 
2), after  tho  Sept  (Neh.it, 3-;  xiii,4,6,8;  Eath.iii,9). 
According  to  tbe  rabbins  this  treasury  waa  in  the  court 
of  the  wDinen,  where  stood  thirteen  chests  called  tm*p- 
til  from  their  form  or  funnel-shaped  mouth,  into  which 
tbe  Jews  cast  their  oSerings  (comp.  Exod.  xxx,  13  sq.). 
SeeTEMPlli 

Tr«at,8A)iUEi,a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Hilfotd,  Conn.,  in  1647  (or  1648),  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1669.  He  was  ordained  and  settled 
at  Easlham,  Plymouth  Cobny,  in  1G72.  Suoii  after  faia 
settlement  he  studied  the  Indian  language,  and  devoted 
lo  the  Indians  in  bis  neighborhood  much  ofhia  time  and 
attention.  Through  bis  labors  many  of  the  savages 
were  brought  into*  stale  of  civiliaation  and  on1er,and 
not  a  few  of  them  werecunvetted  lo  Ihe  Christian  faith. 
In  1693  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Incieaae  Mather,  in  which 
lie  states  that  there  were  within  the  limits  of  Eait- 
ham  five  hundred  adult  Indians,  lo  whom  be  had  for 
many  yean  imparted  the  Goapel  in  their  own  language. 
He  had  under  him  four  Indian  teachers,  who  read  in 
I  separate  village*  on  every  Sabbath,  excepting  every 
-  fourth,  when  he  himself  preached  the  senuons  wbich 
I  he  wrote  for  them.  He  procured  schoolmaslera,  and 
j  persuaded  the  Indians  to  choose  from  among  themselvei 
six  magistrates,  who  held  regular  courts.  In  1700  be 
.  began  to  serve  the  new  sett^ent  of  Truro,  and  per- 
formed pamchial  duties  luiiil  a  chureh  was  established. 
After  having  passed  near  half  a  century  in  the  most  be- 
levnlent  exertions  as  a  minister  of  the  Gnspel,  he  died. 
Msrch  18,  1717.  He  published  the  CDn/>Bnm»//atr<k 
in  the  N'ausct  Indian  lsngna)<e,and  an  Ettelion' Smv>» 
(1713).  SeeSpnigue,AHB,.t»»/'.<D>cr./h(^,i,183. 
Treaty.    See  Alliance. 

TrecSnum.  an  anthem  sung  after  tbe  communion, 
'  before  the  Gth  (»nti.ry,  in  honor  of  the  Hrdy  Trinity; 
called  by  this  name  in  Gaul.  Some  lliink  it  was  the 
Apoatlei'  Creed.  lu  the  Greek  Church  there  is  a  con- 
fetsioii  of  Ihe  Holv  Trinjtv  sung  afker  the  Hagm 
Hagiou.  Ihe  latter  Tonn  is  nientioneil  by  Cvril  of 
Jerusalein,  Uaail,  and  tile  Muiarabic  ami  Gillican  liu 

Trediaohl,  Nicholas,  an  emitient  ecclesiastic,  was 
a  native  of  Sicily,  born  towards  the  close  of  the  Hth 
cen  tur}',  and  became  otke  of  the  nwit  celebrated  canoniua 
of  his  tjme.  He  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Basle,  in 
which  ho  took  a  prominent  part,  and  was  tnadc  a  car- 
dinal by  Felix  V  in  1446. 

Tre«,  prop.  yS,  Ai  (liylpov),  which  also  signifies 
isnod  (Ci'Xoi') ;  in  Jer.vi,6,  the  fern.  nX7.  f/ioA.  is  used. 
Besides  this  generic  term,  there  also  occur  peculiar  words 
of  a  more  distinct  rignification.e.g.^C;!t,»M(l  Sooi. 
xxii.G;  >xxi,IB;  "grove"  [q.  v.]  in'uen.  xxi,  BSl. 
which  is  thought  to  denoie  the  tamaritk  or  ebe  lite 
IrrfiiiUh:  b^!t,«fi((Isa.lxi,3;  Ezek.  xxxi,  14);  Chald. 
■;V»,»Mn(Da"n.iv,IO«q.),prob.theoali(q.v.);1TnTy, 
if!  *«d(Sr  ("goodly  tree,"  Lev.  xxiii,  40),  nbst  yT.ifs 
ah/Ui  {"thick  tree,"  ver.  40 ;  Neh.  viii,  Ifi),  and  bitX. 
liM  ("shady  tree,"  Job  xl,  21,  22),  which  designaic 
rather  vigomns  trees  in  general  than  apeciSc  varieties. 
See  TABeHSACLRfl,  Fmtival  oc.  For  ■  list  <rf'  all  (be 
kinds  of  trees  (including  shrubs,  plants,  fruits^  etc;)  m«n- 
linned  in  Ihe  Bible,  see  Botant.  See  Taylor,  Tna  of 
Senpmi-e  (Lond.  1843). 


TREE  OF  LIFE 


for,  had  thty  bMd 
allovted  10  reuin  ibe 
wuflbetreeoflire, 


I  miaery.    SeellUlter, 

Aiiort   Bon  tt 

1  if  alt,  et  Aii.   Vila 

\  (U[».1J66);  JauiiL 

tj'Snc.Ul.Oct.lS6-2; 

Jan.  and  OcL  1861 

I  Sec  Edkn. 

Tregell«B,8Au- 


m  Aivyri 


ing  dniTD  Painu  of  a  B»l«Eed  dtf. 


In  Eastern  countries  trees  are  not  only  gnccfnl  oma- 
menis  in  the  Undicapf ,  but  aasential  tu  tbe  comfort  and 
•apporl  of  tlie  inhabitanta.  The  llebrenri  were  forbid- 
den  ta  destniv  the  fruil-treea  of  their  enemiea  in  lime 
of  war,  "for  Che  uce  of  the  Held  it  man's  lite"  (DeuC 
IX,  19,20).  Trees  of  any  kind  are  not  now  very  abun. 
danl  in  Palestine.  Some  trees  are  foiiiiil,  bv  an  exim- 
inuion  of  tbe  inteniil  zones,  to  atlain  lo  a  very  long 
age.  There  are  some  in  eiistenL-e  nhich  are  staled  to 
hiTe  attained  a  longevity  of  three  ihiitnand  years,  and 
(or  some  of  them  a  still  higher  antiqnity  is  claimed, 
lodividual  trees  in  Palestine  are  often  no'table  fur  bis- 

Soot,  ii,  151).     See  Allos-bachi,thi  Meonenim. 

TREE  OP  l.iPisetc.  Whatever  may  bare  been  the 
frame  and  texture  of  Adam's  body  while  In  Eden,  it  is 
certain  that,  beiiii;  "of  the  earth,  it  was  earthy,"  and 
was  thus  lialile  to  disease  and  exposed  lo  decay;  Just 
as  his  soul,  at  the  same  time,  was  liable  to  the  greater 
evil  of  temiitatiiin  by  b^g  exposed  to  the  power  of 
tbe  templar.  Heitce,  while  "every  tree  of  the  garden 
was  given  for  food,"  the  tree  of  life,  in  the  midst  of  the 
garden,  was  provided  by  Infinite  Wisdom  as  the  ap- 
pointed anliduie  of  disease  orilecay  of  the  body;  while, 
at  the  same  time,  the  enjoyment  of  spiritual  life,  or  the 
indwelling  of  ilie  spirit  of  Qod,  and  the  riuht  of  access 


of  life,  t 


nnnalitv,  were  ct 


dilioiicl  on  our  6nt  lurenta  not  eating  the  forbidden 
fruit  of  tbe  lr»  uf  knowledge  ((ien.  ii,a-IT).  The  va- 
rious references  to  the  "  tree  of  life"  evidently  consider 
it  to  have  been  the  divinely  appcnnted  medium  for  se- 
curing the  immnrtalitv  of  our  first  parents  (Prov.  iii, 
18:  xi,30;  Eiek.  xlvii'.lBi  Rev.ii,7i  xxii,9,  U).  See 
Re<necciu^  ^ -I  rtoiv  Vila(yftuKBt.]'-l2).  See  Lire. 
Tbe  im  ••/the  kRualedgt  of  good  and  tail,  of  which 
they  were  forbidden  to  eat  under  penalty  of  exciuon 
from  the  tree  of  life,  and  consequent  death,  which  also 
occupied  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  garden,  was  the 
divinely  appiinteil  test  of  good  and  evil,  the  means 
whereby  <)n4  would  try  and  prove  the  faithfulness  and 
obedience  of  nur  lint  parents.  It  was  the  test  of  mnral 
good  and  evil.  i.e.  of  holiness  and  sin,  and  of  consequent 
hspinness  or  mi-u-ry  (Uen.  iii,  1-34).  When,  through 
ths  inuigatioii  <if  tlic  tempter,  the  flrst  human  pair  dis- 
tei^nled  the  command  of  their  Oeator  and  partook  of 
the  fruit  of  the  prohibited  tree,  they  lost  the  indwelling 
oftbespirit  oftiiKl,  andforleited  the  right  of  access  to 
the  me  of  life.  On  that  day  the  sentence  of  death 
was  awinleil  lo  the  guilty  pair.  They  were  now  dead 
in  the  eye  of  the  divine  law,  and  the  same  condemna- 
tion paaed  upon  the  whale  race  of  man.  By  paitak- 
init  of  the   furbiilden  tree,  they  ot>tained  an  experi- 


eofii 


iliMinctinn  betw< 


>  icbnlar,  was  bom  at 
Falmrmth,  Jan.  30, 
1813.  After  receiv- 
ing an  education  at  the  Falmouth  Classical  School, 
he  was  employed  in  the  iron-works  at  Neath  Abbev, 
Glamorganshire,  18-^8-S4,  and  became,  in  1836,  a  pri- 
vate tutor  in  Falmouth.  Devoting  liimself  to  the 
study  of  tha  Scriptures,  he  visited  the  Continent  sev- 
eral timea  for  the  purpose  of  collating  the  principal 
uncial  MS3.  At  Kome  he  was  permitted  to  see  tbe 
Vatican  US.,  but  not  to  copy  it.  He  received  his  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  from  at.  .Andrew's  University  in  ISCiO, 
and  in  1863  received  •■  ■  ainiuol  pension  of  one  hundred 
pounda.  Of  Quaker  parentage,  he  became  asaoriated 
with  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  was  an  active  philanthro- 
pbt,  and  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  company  on  the 
revision  of  the  A.  V,  of  the  Old  Teak  Dr.  'Tregelles 
died  at  Plymouth,  April  34, 1875.  He  published,  ICng- 
liihmaa'i  Grttk  Coneoitluaet  Id  lieXea  Tnl.  (1839,  imp. 
8vo;  Sded.lB14,imp.Bvo;  /nifrz  Ko,  1843,  imp.  8vo)  :— 
KagHihrnaa'i  HftitiB  and  ChaUUt  Cimcordance  lo  Iht 
Old  Tat.  (1843,2  vols.  imp.  8ro):— Boot  of  Rirelalum 
in  Cmi,  etc.  (1 844. 8vo)!—6V»mi««'«  /Irbrrte  and  C/ial- 
dte  Uxkaa  lo  Iht  Old-Teil.  Scnplairi,  etc  (1847,  itoj 
last  ed.  1867,  4to):— ffnnai'ti  on  Ike  /Vn^iArtic  tuioits 
o/Ihe  Boot  of  Dimifl  (1847,  Svo:  4th  cd.  with  notes, 
and  Dffeux  of  Iht  A  uHtenHnlg  nf  Ihr  Bmk  of  DmUl, 
also  published  separatelv,  lf&'i,li\o):—B"okofRei!tla- 
lion,  TranOalrd  from  the  Aucieat  Grtdi  Text  (1848, 
12moi  \iS6,Vlmo):—Protpfchu  of  a  Crilieat  Edilim 
o/'fAeCrwib  A'ncretr.,  etc.  (Plymouth,  1848,  l!mo):— 
Onlhe  Original  iMngiia'jrofSI.'MallkeK'iGoapriiiJaidL. 
l%fil,e\-o'j:—The Jamtmli:  Mn'rffu(,etc(l85l,8vo): 
—Lettare  on  lie  l/ttioric  Kridnce  of  Iht  Aalionhip, 
n'c,  of  Iht  Boott  of  ike  Ifev  Tnl.  (I8AS,  small  8vo)  :— 
//tadi'of/IfbrriBGnimnHir(lSai,Bvo):~AnAeeoanl 
of  the  Prinled  Tett  of  the  Grerk  Se«>  Tcsf.  etc.  (1854, 
8vo)  -.—Tke  Gmk  Xtm  Tffl.  Edited  from  A  nctenl  A  u- 
Ihoritift,  etc.  (1857-73) ;  this  last  is  considered  his  most 
important  work  -.—Codex  Zaegiilhim  (1861,  small  foL) : 
— CiuKHi  ifuraloriaiiBi,  earliest  catalogue  of  books  of 
the  New  Test.  (Camb.  and  Loud.  I8G8,  ^ta).  For  fuU 
description  of  works,  see  Alliboiie,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
.4  mer.  A  ulhori,  s.  v. 

Ttelmyraay,  Sir  Hairjr,  an  English  baronet,  was 
bom  in  1756,  and  was  educated  at  Christ  Cbureh  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  was  in  succcssicm  a  preacher  among 
the  Methodists,  then  served  a  Presbyterian  congrega- 
tion at  West  ly>o,  Cornwall,  and  ofierwarda  seceded  to 
the  Rational  Dissenters.  Retnndng  to  the  Church  of 
England,  he  ohuined  a  rectory  in  the  west  of  England, 
and  was  made  prebendnry  of  Exeter  in  1789.  Accord- 
ing lo  Alliboiic,  he  din!  a  Roman  l^iholic,  at  lAVcmo, 
llsly,  in  1834.  He  published  a  sermon  on  1  Cir.  iii,  9, 
At/iniilert  Laborer!  logelhtr  tcilh  God  (I,ond.  177S,  4to>. 
See  Lond.  Gaxl.  Mag.  1834,  i,  653;  AUibone,  Diet,  nf 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  utkan,  a.  r. ;  Darling,  Ci/iiop,  Bibliog, 


TRELAWNEY  B; 

Tr»Ik17Dey,  Sir  Joiiattian,  ui  English  biTDnet 
•nd  preUce,  bom  in  1348,  wu  ordained  binbop  of  BriUol 
in  1686,  tndsUIcd  to  Eieler  in  1689,  and  Ui  Wincbes- 
tec  in  1707.  He  ww  one  of  [be  Mven  biabopa  mmmit- 
ted  CO  ihe  Tower  In  tbe  reign  of  Jamca  II.  Hii  duth 
occurred  in  17ZI.  He  published  ■  aermoa  on  Joih. 
^xui,e,S,TlunhginiigjBr  Victory  (Land.  1702,  4to): 
—CuuHoit  agamM  Fait  Dodrint  (17M,  12mo).  See 
LomL  Gal.  Mag.  1827.  ii,  409;  SlaU  TritiU  (Howell'i 
ed.),  lii,  18!,  187;  Allibune,  Did.  of  Bnl.  and  Amtr. 
A  WAon,  •■  V. :  Derliug,  CyrAy.  Bibiiog.  ■.  t. 

Tr«mel)ltu.  EMHANvaL,  ■  learned  Pratesunc  di- 
vine, w»  bom  It  Femra  in  lolO.  By  birth  ■  Jew,  be 
wu  educated  in  the  Jewiah  fiilh;  but  he  wi*  convert' 
ed  lo  Chrixiuiily  by  the  leicfaing,  it  is  laid,  of  cudi- 
ttal  I'ule  end  11.  A.  Fliminio.  Through  the  influence 
nf  Peler  Mirtyr  he  aoon  irter  joined  tbe  ReTunnMion 
party,  and  became  an  active  propagalw  of  their  riewi. 
Having  left  Italy,  he  viriled  Ueinuny  and  England, 
where  be  lived  in  intimacy  with  arcbblabopa  Cnuimer 
and  Parker,  and  for  name  time  aupported  biiDMlf  by 
teaching  Hebrew  at  Cambridge.  Un  tbe  deUh  of  Ed'- 
ward  VI  be  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  remutied 
leaching  Hebrew  at  Hombach  and  Heidelberg.  He 
waa  next  invited  to  oocnpy  the  Hebrew  chair  at  Seiian, 
where hedied In  1680.  Hia  workaaie:  finfimmru  Amji. 
Htb.  (Witienb,  1541) :— .T*  Mi^na  -|l)n,  Imlialio  Eltc- 
far«niZ>o>ni>n,acatecbiiim  in  Hebrew  (Par.  1561, 1563; 
Straab.  1654;  IjR-ji.  Ibil) —Gram.  Chald.tt  Syr.,  ^.n- 
axed  to  Inltrprrlalio  Sgr.  K.  T.  ffrbraicit  Typit  Dr- 
KrijXa  (Pat.  1669>:-OiWui  aacra,  tice  Libb.  Cmm>. 
Latin  rtcaa  ix  litb.  FutU  (FnncoC  1679;  I«nd.  1680). 
SeeFUnt,jStU.Jiid.  iii,44S;Kitta,CVc(i7i.a.v.;  Sieln- 
echneider,  BSiiogr.  Handback,  p.  140;  Kalhar,  IirntI 
tad -lit  Kirtit,  p.  73  sq.;  Wolf,  Bibt.  Htbr.  I,  iii,  4,  No. 
17971  Butters,  Emmaaail  Tremrlliat  (ZweibrUcken, 
1S69);  DelitZMh,  SaiU  oaf  llognang  (Eriangen,  1866), 
tv,28aq.;  Da  Costa, /tror/ und  (As  Gcnftla,  p.  4GS  «q. ; 
Ad«m«,//ifW.yi!/"*ArJnr..ii,7l.    (B,  P.) 

Trencb  (pro|>.  n^FH,  tieilSh,  1  Kings  xviii,  82, 36, 
SB,  ■  diaitml,  or  "conduit,"  as  elsewhere),  ■  kind  of  ditch 
cut  into  the  earth  for  the  purpose  or  receiving  and 
draining  the  water  from  adjacent  parts.  Something  of 
thia  kind  was  (he  trench  cut  by  tbe  prophet  Elijah  to 
contain  the  water  which  he  ordered  to  be  poured  on 
his  sacrifice  (rer.  32),  and  which,  vhen  fllled  to  the 
brim  with  water,  was  entirely  exhausted,  evaporated, 
by  the  tire  of  the  Lord  which  conaumed  the  sacrifice- 
See  Eluah. 

rirncA  (b^n,  al(]r/,2Sam.xx,l5,a  waU,Tampan,or 
bulwark,  as  elsewhere  rendered ;  ^SSiJ,  mag&l,  1  Sam. 
XKvi,  5,  7  1  or  n^l?^,  maguldh,  xvii,  80,  a  wagon-ru*, ' 
hence  a  defence  formed  by  tbe  vehicles  of  an  army; 
Xapat.  Luke  :(ix,  43,  a  mound  [Lai.  catfum]  for  block- 
ading a  besieged  city,  riinned  of  tbe  earth  thrown  nut 
«f  a  moat  and  stuck  with  ahsip  acicka  or  paliaades)  is 
also  a  military  term,  and  denotes  one  description  nf  the 
approaches  to  ■  furtilied  town.     They  were  ancienlly 

In  secure  the  besiegers  against  attacks  from  them. 
Trenches  cuuUI  not  be  cut  ill  a  ri>ck ;  and  it  b  probable 
that,  when  our  Lord  says  of  Jerusalem  {LuVe  xii,  43), 
'-Thy  enemies  thoU  ciistatnnch  about  thee," meaning. 
"  they  shall  raise  a  wall  of  enclosure,"  he  foretold  (vhat 
the  Jews  would  barely  credit  from  the  nature  of  the 
case ;  perhaps  what  Ibey  considereil  as  impossille :  yet 
the  iinividence  of  God  has  so  ordered  it  thst  we  have 
eviileuce  to  this  fact  in  Joscphus,  who  lays  that  Tiius 
exhorting  his  soldiers,  they  surrounded  Jerusalem  with 


12  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

philosopher,  was  bom  at  Eulin,  near  Lubecli,  Nov.  M, 
1802;  and  waa  educated  at  the  g>'mnaHun)  of  hia  native 
town,  and  at  the  universities  of  Kiel,  Leipsic,  and  Ba- 
lin.  From  1826  to  1833  he  was  private  tutor  in  the 
family  of  poai muter-general  Von  Niglct,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  appointed  professor  exlrwirdinoiy  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin.  This  position  was  exchanged,  in 
1837,  for  that  of  professor  in  nrdinaiy.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Beriin  academy  in  1846,  and  was  its 

1347  uniil  hia  death,  Jan.a4, 1872.  "On  that  very  day 
ilie  Journals  announced  hia  decoration  by  Ihe  king  as  ■ 
knight  of  tbe  Order  ofMerit,  for  his  eminence  in  Bcienoe 
and  art,"  "  The  foundation  of  Trendelenburg's  doctrine 
is  essentially  Platonic  and  Aristotelian."  He  terms  his 
philosophy  the  "  organic  view"  of  the  world ;  and  accord- 


>  the  hi 


higher  stages,  and  necessarily  involved  in 
er.  The  soul  is  the  self-realizing  idea  of  (nan.  God  is 
Ibe  unconditioned,  not  directly  demiinstrable,  but  im- 
plied, with  logical  necessity,  in  the  whole  fabric  of  tbe 
universe  and  of  human  thought.  Among  Trendelen- 
burg's works  are.  Eltmntla  Logica  ,4  riitotdica  (Berlin, 
1837;  6th  ed.  \W»):  —  Logitdie  Unlomchmgn,  (ibid. 
1810;  iiti.\«-,(i):—EriauttrvngaiziidtniatmnUendtr 
STiilot^tdm  logit  (2d  ed.  IMl) :  — !faiiirrtr/U  auf 
dim  Grvade  dtr  Ethii  (2d  ed.  1868).  Sec  Boiiitz,  Zar 
Eri>men,iiganF.A.T<-aMaiburg(BeiUn,lS72j;  Bra- 
laictiv]i,  Ado^f  Trradflnlmrg  (ibid.  1873);  Pcantl.  (;«- 
daehtmtirtde  avf  F.  A.  TrrndtUtAnrg  (Munich,  1873); 
Uebcrweg,  Uitl.  o/Modrm  PkiL  (see  Index). 

Trendelenbntg,  Johaim  OAorg,  a  German  pro- 
fessor of  aadent  languages,  was  bom  Feb.  32,17&7.  Fol 
a  number  of  years  he  was  professor  of  languages  at  ihe 
academic  gymnasium  in  llantiic,  where  he  died  March 
11, 1826.  He  publiahed,  Frim  l.iini  Haccabaon,m  Ci->e- 
ci,  Tnlaiaim  I'rrnow  Sf  riaco  Ctilatio  InMiila  (reprint- 
ed in  Eichhnm'a  Rrprrloiiam,  iv,  69)  :—ChrrtUmalkia 
Flacitma,  tirt  Lod  IllaUrtt  ex  Flatio  Jottpio  Drimi 
tt  Aniiaiidctriioiiibut  lUvilroti  (Lips.  llgS)  •.—Ckrrtlo- 
mathiti  HexapLirit  (ibid.  1794) :— Connimfii/ia  in  I'tria 
Koritiima  Daridii  2  San.  xriii,  1-7  (Gott.  1779)  -.—Die 
trtlHi  Avfimgtgrindr  drr  itbr,  Spraeie  (Danlzic,  1784). 
See  FUrst,  Biil.Jud.  iii, 443;  Winer,  //andback  da-  IkeA 
Liltralar,i\,m!.     (R  P.) 

Trent,  tiik  Council  op  {CondUim  rrvfatfumi), 
was  held  in  Trent,  a  city  of  Tyrol,  Austria,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Adige.  It  has  a  cathedral  biult  entirelv  of 
mathle  in  the  Byzantine  style.  In  the  Church  of  St. 
Maria  Maggiore  are  the  jiortraits  of  the  memben  of  the 
oouncil,  which  was  helil  in  this  building.  This  couoal 
was  first  convoked  June  S,  1636,  by  pope  Paul  HI,  lo  be 
held  at  Usntua,  May  23, 1537.  Subaequcntlv,  the  duke 
of  Mantua  having  refused  to  permit  the  assembling  of 
the  council  in  that  city,  the  pc^  prorogued  the  meet- 
ing to  November,  without  naming  any  place.  After- 
wards, by  another  bull,  he  prorogued  it  till  May,  1538, 
and  named  Vicenu  as  the  place  of  assembly ;  nomi- 
nating in  the  meantime  certain  cardinals  and  prelates  to 
look  into  [he  question  of  refurm,  who,  in  consequence, 
ilrew  up  a  long  report  upon  Ihe  subject,  in  which  they 
divide  Ihe  abuses  needing  correction  into  two  heads: 


a  wall  in  the  space  of  lli 


hough  XY 


a  had  pronounced  it  impon 
valladon  prevented  any  escape  from  the  city,  and  de- 
terred from  all  atlempts  at  relief  bv  succors  going  into 
it.    SeeSiEOE. 
TrendeleDtnug,  Filedilch  AdolC  ■  German 


rchofftlini 


When  the  time  arrived,  however,  not  a  single  lushop 
appealed  at  Vicenxa;  whereupon  the  pope  again  pro- 
rogued the  counciltnEasicr,  1639,  and  subsequently  for- 
bade its  assembling  until  he  should  signify  bis  pleasure 
upnn  the  subject.  At  last,  at  the  end  of  three  years,  in 
the  year  1542,  after  much  dispute  twlwreu  the  pope, 
■  he  emperor,  and  the  other  princea  in  ibe  Komao  com- 
munion aa  to  the  place  in  which  the  council  shonld  he 
holdeii,  the  pi^'a  proposition  that  it  should  take  place 
at  Trent  was  agreed  to;  whereupon  (he  buU  was  pub- 
lished. Hay  22,  convoking  the  council  to  Trent  on  Nor. 
1  in  that  year.    Subsequently  he  uamed,  es  his  kgUM 


TRENT,  COraCn.  OF  633  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


ii  (he  couDcU,  urdioil  John  del  Monte,  biiliop  of  Pal- 
Dtrioa ;  the  cudiiul-priMt  of  SiiaW-Crout,  Mircelliu 
Ceninna ;  Mid  the  cardinal-deicon  Regiuild  Pole.  Uow- 
tvtr,  difflcultie*  aroK,  which  caused  the  opecing  of  ihe 
cauitcil  to  be  further  delated,  and  the  first  meeting  wu 
nx  held  until  December,  1545.  The  greaL  impoiUnce 
iiF  Lhii  council  in  the  history  oftht  Kerannatian,uid  in 
Rorsui  Catholic  doctrine  since,  justifies  an  unusualljr 
Tull  treatiDent  of  it  here. 

Stuion  I  (Dec  13,  l&lo).  — When  the  coancjt  wu 
DiniHl  there  were  preaeiU  the  three  legates,  lour  arch- 
lH>hop>,  and  twenty-two  bUhopa,  in  their  pontifical  reat- 
meiiti.  Man  Tas  Slid  by  the  cardinal  d(l  Honte,  and 
( srmiDn  pitached  by  the  bishop  of  Bilon te ;  after  which 
ibe  bull  given  NoF,']9,loM.  and  that  orFebrmiy.lMo, 
wen  leail,  and  cardinal  del  Mnnt«  explaioed  the  ob- 
jrtti  which  were  proposed  in  assembling  the  council, 
vii,  the  extirpation  of  heresy,  the  re-establishment  of 

the  trituration  of  peace  and  unity. 

On  Dec  IH  and  22  congregations  were  held,  in  which 
BiH  diKussion  anne  about  the  care  and  order  to  be  ob- 
wned  br  prelates  iu  their  life  and  beharioi  during  the 
ciHinca 

On  Jan.  b  another  congreaa  was  held,  in  which  cardi- 
nal del  Uonle  proposed  that  the  order  to  he  obaerred  in 
tniiilncting  the  business  of  the  council  should  be  the 
anM  with  that  at  the  last  Council  of  Lateran,  where 
■he  eximination  of  the  different  matters  had  been  in- 
inuled  to  different  biaho|B,  wtau'for  that  purpose  bad 
bren  divided  Into  three  cUssea;  and  when  the  decrees 
tfliiing  to  any  matter  had  been  drawn  up,  they  were 
lobmitied  to  the  consideration  of  a  general  congrega- 
tion; HI  that  all  waa  done  without  any  disputing  and 


:  Myle  ( 


in  this  cc 


rilling  ;- 


Rfntation  abot 

tlie  Jecrtea.  'ine  pope  naa  iiecreeiL  tnat  tney  snoujd 
ran  in  thli  form,  ''The  Holy  (Ecumenical  and  General 
t,  the  Legates  of  ilie  Apostolic  See  pre- 
(iallican  biihop^and  many  of  the  Span- 
urusanii  itaiiani,  inHAtedthat  the  words  "representing 
the  UniTeraal  Church"  ahiiuld  be  added.  This,  however, 
the  l^ates  refused,  remembering  that  auch  had  been 
ibe  raiiD  uml  in  the  cnimclU  of  Constance  and  Basle, 
ind  fearing  lest,  ifthia  addition  were  made,  the  rest  of 
tlie  foin  of  OinsUnce  an.l  ISa»le  might  foUow,  viz., 
" which  derives  its  power  imme<<iatcly  from  Jesus  Christ, 


dignit) 


apnng  the  pope,  is  bound  u 

vie 

1  ubedience.- 

5fmoa//(Jan.7,1546).- 

At  I 

is  session  forty 

three 

pnlates  were  present.     A  hi 

1  was  read  prohibiti 

gthe 

praetors  of  absent  prelafe«  tn 

■me 

also  another,  e 

hort- 

ing  all  the  faithful  then  in  ' 

rent 

to  live  in  the  fear  of 

The  learned  were  exhorted 
(0  give  their  attention  to  the  question  how  the  risinf; 
beraies  could  be  best  extinguished.  The  question  about 
the  nyle  of  the  cnunctl  was  agsin  raised. 

In  the  following  congregaiioii,  Jan.  IB,  the  same  ques- 
IMB  was  again  debated.     Nuthiiig  was  settled  in  this 

which  of  the  three  subjecu  proposed  tn  lie  discussed  in 
the  council  (viz.  the  extirpation  of  heresy,  the  reforma- 
tion of  discipline,  and  the  restoration  of  peace)  should 
be  first  handled.  Three  pieUtes  were  appointed  to  ex- 
snioe  the  procuration  papen  and  excuses  of  absent 


lo  the  next  congregation  the 
■biect  to  be  lint  proposed  '      ' 


in  the 


._ ^._, council  were  resiimL,.. 

— '  wished  that  the  question  of  reform  should  he  lirsi 
opned;  others,  on  the  contrary, 
tiona  nlating  to  the  faith  demai 

A  third  party,  among  w' 

biibop  of  Feltri,  asserted  tnat  tne  lwo  qnesiions  oi  ooc- 
trisc  and  reformation  were  inaeparahle,  and  must  be 
mated  of  together.    This  latter  opinion  ultimately  pre- 
niled,batai     ' 
Bdividad  tt 


u  Thomas  Campeggin 


iBciiflheasscmhIywB 
irrivcd 


In  the  eongregatioD  held  Jan.  21,  the  party  in  favor 

of  entering  at  once  upon  the  subject  of  reform  was  much 
increased,  but  the  three  legates  continued  their  oppoai- 
tion  to  their  scheme.  Subsequently,  however,  they  pro- 
posed that  they  should  always  take  into  conaideratioD 
together  one  subject  relating  lo  the  faith  and  one  le- 
laling  la  reform,  bearing  one  upon  the  other. 

On  the  24th  a  curious  iliapnte  arose  aboot  the  proper 
seal  for  the  use  of  the  council.  Some  desired  that  a 
new  seal  shimld  be  made ;  but  the  legates  succeeded  in 
having  the  seal  of  the  first  legate  attached  to  the  i^m* 
odal  letters. 

^uiuui  ///  (Feb.  4, 1546).— In  this  sefinoa  nothing 
was  done  except  to  recite  the  Creed,  word  for  word. 

In  a  congress  held  Feb.  22,  the  legates  proposed  that 
the  council  should  enter  upon  the  subject  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures;  and  four  doctrinal  articles  were  presented, 
extracted  by  Ihe  theologians  from  tbe  writings  of  Ln- 
iher  upon  the  subject  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  they  af- 
firmed to  be  contrary  to  tbe  orthodox  faith. 

1.  That  all  Ibe  i 


oneht  10  be  received  Into  ibe 
thai  the  BpttUe  to  the  Hebrew 
Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  Ihe  S 


II  of  Iba  Old  Test.;  i 
leBplMleaFJan: 


s,  the 


tfuiiu,  Lim  Bplstle  of  Jnde,  and  the  Apocalypse  should  be 
erared  from  tbe  eaoon  of  tbe  Mew  TesL 

4.  That  Billy  Scrlplnre  Is  easy  to  he  nnderstood,  and 
clcnr,  and  that  no  ginv  or  commentary  Is  needed,  but  only 
the  Spirit  of  Jesns  ChrlsL 

The  first  two  articles  were  debated  in  the  four  follow- 
ing congregations.  As  to  the  first  orticle,  the  congre- 
gation came  lo  the  decision  that  tbe  Christian  faUh^ 
contained  partly  iu  Holy  Scnplure  and  partly  Cn  the 
trailitioiiB  of  the  Church.  Upon  the  second  article  much 
discussion  arose.  All  agreed  in  receiving  all  the  bouka 
read  in  the  Roman  Church,  including  the  Apocryphal 
books,  alleging  the  authority  of  the  calaloguea  drawn 
up  in  the  councils  of  Idodicea  and  Carthage,  and  those 
under  Innocent  I  and  Gelasius  I;  hut  there  were  four 
opinions  as  to  the  method  to  be  observed  in  drawing  op 
Ihe  catalogue.  One  party  wished  to  divide  the  boobi 
into  two  classes — one  containing  those  which  have  al- 
ways been  received  without  dispute,  the  other  contain- 
ing Ihose  which  had  been  doubted.  T'he  second  party 
deured  a  threefold  division  i  I.  Contauiing  the  un- 
doubted books;  2.  Those  which  hail  been  at  one  lime 
suspected,  but  since  received;  3.  Those  which  bad  nev- 
er been  recogni9ed,a5  seven  oflhe  Apocryphal  books,  and 
some  chapters  in  Daniel  and  Esther.  The  third  party 
wished  that  no  distinction  should  be  ma<le:  and  Ihe 
fourth  that  all  tbe  books  contained  in  the  Latin  Vulgate 
should  be  declared  lo  be  canonical  and  inspired. 

The  discuatuon  was  resumed  on  March  8,  but  not  de- 
cided: the  membeiB,  however,  unanimously  agreed  that 
Ibe  traditions  of  tbe  Church  are  equal  in  authorily  tu 

ti)  the  fallowing  congregation  it  was  decided  that  the 
catalogue  of  the  books  of  Holy  Scripture  should  be 
drawn  up  without  any  of  the  proposed  distinctions,  and 
that  they  should  be  declared  to  be  all  of  equal  author- 

'The  authority  of  the  Latin  Vulgale  (decUred  in  the 
third  article  to  be  full  of  errors}  came  under  conudera- 
lion  in  subsequent  congregations,  and  it  was  almost 
unanimously  decUred  lo  be  authentic  With  regard  to 
the  fourth  article,  it  was  apcrced  that  in  interjireling 


dbytl 


le  fa- 


thers and  of  Ihe  Church. 

Seision  IV  (April  8,  I54G).— Belween  sixty  and  sev- 
enty prelates  attended  this  session.  Two  decrees  were 
readi  1.  Upon  the  canon  of  Scripture,  which  declares 
that  the  holy  council  receives  sU  tbe  books  of  the  Old 
andNewTeat-aswellosall  the  traditions  of  the  Church 
respecting  faith  and  morals,  as  having  proceeded  froai 
the  lips  of  Jesus  Christ  himself,  or  as  having  been  dl»- 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF  534 

ved  in  tbc  Catholic 
1  and  (bat  it  loaka 
•.a  Word  with  equal 

>r  Rome,  and  as  tbey 


taletl  liy  the  Haly  Spirit  and  pi 

Cliurch  by  a  cuutinued  aucceti 

upon  both  the  wriuen  aiid  uuw 

reapecL    After  this  ilie  decree  e 

ceived  ■«  caiioaicnl  Ijy  (be  Cliur 

are  fuuud  in  the  Vulgate,  and  ai 

Cum  tu  acknowledge  ibem  u  uch,     Tbs  second  decree 

declare*  the  ■uibenticity  ot  the  Vulgate,  rucbid*  all  pri- 

Taie  interpretation  of  il,  and  order*  that  no  cofitt  be 

printed  or  circulated  witbout  autborily,  under  penally 


of  Hue 


IS  relating  (o  lec(- 
n  were  diacuned ; 
idenee  of  bishopt. 


u  Holy  Scripture  and  preachi 
alao  those  ariaing  from  the  noii-ret 
After  this  the  quealion  or  original  *i 
uderatioii,  aiid  nine  articles  taken  from  the  Lutheran 
hooka  ireie  draivii  up  aod  offered  far  examination,  upon 
vhicli  some  diacuuion  took  place.  U)tinia(«ly.  how- 
ever, a  decree  wa>  dnvn  up  upon  the  subject,  divided 
into  Are  canons. 

1.  Tunis  oribe  pennnsl  sin  of  Adam. 

«.  or  the  iroutmlscliiu  or  ibst  sin  tu  bis  poslertty. 

1.  or  Itn  rained;,  i.  v.  boly  bnplliiu. 

D.  or  the  concupiscence  wlilcb  still  remalna  In  tbosa 
who  hsTO  been  bniitlied. 

A  great  dispute  arose  between  the  Franciscans  and  Do- 
mlnicani  oniceming  the  immaculsle  conception  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  Franciscans  insisted  that  she 
shouM  be  specially  decUred  lo  be  Tree  from  the  taint  of 
original  sin;  the  Dominicans, on  the  other  hand,  tnain- 
tained  that,  although  (he  Church  lisd  luierBlnl  the  opin- 


I  ofoi 


A  decree  of  rcrunna- 


ii  session  the  de- 
cree concerning  original  sin  was  passed,  cDntaiiung  the 
lire  canons  mentioned  above,  enforceil  by  anathemas. 
Afterwards  tbe  falhers  declared  that  it  was  not  their 
intention  to  include  the  Virgin  in  this  decree,  and  that 
upon  thii  subject  the  constitution*  of  pope  Sixtus  T" 
were  lo  be  fi.llowed,  t  bus  leaving  tbe  immaculate  cu 
ceplion  an  open  question. 

Ill  a  congregation  held  Jutie  18,  they  proceeded 
consider  (he  questions  relating  to  grace  and  gooti  works. 
Also  the  subject  uf  rcMdence  of  bisho[>s  and  pistnrs  wni 
discussed.  The  cardinal  del  Monte  and  Bmue  o(  the  fa- 
thers attributed  the  heresiea  and  disturbances  which 
had  arisen  to  (he  non-residence  of  bishops,  while  many 
of  (he  bishop*  maintained  that  they  were  (o  be  attrib. 
uled  lo  the  multitudes  of  friara  and  other  priiileged 
persons  whom  the  pope  permitted  to  wander  about  and 
preach  in  spite  of  the  bishops,  who,  in  con>ei|tiei 
could  do  no  good  even  if  they  were  in  residence. 

In  the  congregation  held  June  30,  twenty-five  nxk 
professedly  drawn  up  from  the  Lutheran  writing*  on 
subject  of  justification,  were  propoicl  for  examinaii 
Some  of  theae  article*  seem  well  lo  liave  merited 
Judgment  pa*9ed  upon  them;  thu*,  among  others, 
:1are*  that  repentance  for  post  sin  Is  altogether 


necessnrir  ir«i  .  _  _. 
T.  The  l^aroT  hell  leftBln, 
S.  <;iiiilr|[|ini  arialiifffHiin 

ror.  psst  sin  maki 


ing  that  n 

IS.  No  *l-  . 
14.  Pnllh  m 


nllfe. 

and  make*  thf 

nteilliniion  np. 

erenl  sinner. 

til:  the  only  sin  Is  nubellen 
nmi.ndeil  m>r  rorbldde- 
rree  from  Ibe  precepti 
kalii  order  to  1w  mved 


to  destroj  (he  Ibrmer,  ■ 
At  thialime  the  three  ambasaattoiB  of  ihi 
•rrived— Til.  Durs^,  Ligni^res,  and  t^er 


of  which  he  en(rea(ed  the  council  tn  suffer 
be  made  upon  (be  privileges  of  the  kingdon 
of  Fiance, 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

congregation  held  Aug.  20,  the  subtect  ofJutiA- 


'  of  Lull 


held  Aug.  30,  tb( 
warmly  diicusaed,  a 
onceming  free-will  a 


Ipiedeai 


lotthy  of  ce 


writings  of  Luther  oi 
Autttburg;  but  eight  attidea  were  drawn  up  lor  exam- 
inalionrromtbewiitingsoflhe  ZwingUans.  L'ponanme 
of  Iheae  there  was  much  difference  of  opinion.  By  ihe 
advice  of  (he  bishop  or  Sinsgaglia,  tbe  canon*  drawn  up 
embodying  the  decrees  of  the  council  were  divided  into 
twoaeta — one  set,  which  they  called  tbe  drtrrtt  afdor- 
Irini,  contained  Ihe  Catholic  raitli  upon  the  subjects 
decided;  the, others,  called  nmoHS,  stated,  condemned, 
and  anathematiied  the  doetiiiies  contrary  to  that  faiih. 
These  decree*  were  mainly  composed  by  cardinal  Sainie- 
Croix,  who  beatowed  inHnile  pains  upon  them  :  at  less* 
one  hundted  congregations  were  held  upon  Ibe  sal>jeT(. 
Afterwsrd*  tbey  retume<l  to  tbe  consideration  of  tbe  re- 
form of  the  Church,  and  to  the  question  about  episcopal 
reddence-  Moat  or  the  ibeologians  present,  (specialhr 
the  Dominicans,  maintained  that  residence  «a*  a  mat- 
ter not  merely  canonically  binding,  but  of  divine  injunc- 
tion. The  Spaniards  held  the  same  opinion.  The  leg- 
ates, seeing  that  the  discussion  tended  lo  bring  the  pa- 
pal autbority  and  power  into  question,  endeavoird  in 
put  a  stop  to  it. 

Stirim  VI  (Jan.  IB,  1647).— In  this  session  the  decree 
conecming  doctrine  was  read;  il  contained  sisteen  chap- 
in  and  thirty-three  canons  against  heretics. 

■        '  -        -  :-   ip^liy 


peclallj  thiit  the  slniier  Is  Jnitlfled  by  the  grace  or  Ood. 
^ren  to  bitn  Ihroogh  tbe  redemption  ofJe^Ds  Chrlet: 
and  when,  acknowlodglng  ibeir  diifnloeH  and  lllled  with 
*  salntary  tearolGiid'iJuBtlce,7ettrnstliig  (o  bit  mere;, 
Ihey  coucelve  hope  and  coufldenc*  Ihnl  0«3  will  be  fi<*or- 
able  to  Ibem  Tor  the  sake  ot  Jesni  Christ,  and  therenpon 
begin  to  love  bim  as  Ibe  oiili  snnrce  of  nil  rlgbleoneneso, 
and  tu  tnm  Rom  their  sliia  tbrongh  tbe  hatred  which  Ihey 

which  all  rami  iSel  botore  b'aptiVmj  In  short,  wEeu  tbey 
rcHtlTs  lo  be  bnptlied,  tu  lead  a  new  life,  and  to  follow 
the  coniniKDdmeiitB  or  Ood. 

AHer  this  tbe  decree  eiplalns  Ibe  oalnre  and  effecis  of 
JnsllncntlOD,  (uyliig  that  It  does  not  consist  merely  In 

reiiewsl.  That  the  An!  cause  orjusllilcsdnn  Is  the  eloiT 
ofO.>d  sudor  Jesus  ChrlM  mid  etemsl  life:  tbe  <£iiM 
cnnsB  la  Ood  hlmseli;  who,  of  his  mercy,  fieely  washes 
nud  tancilfles  by  the  senl  and  nnctlon  ol'lhe  Holy  Spirit, 
who  1*  the  pledRe  nfour  luberllance ;  the  nurttoHiwt  an* 
Is  our  Lord  Jesus  Cbrlst,  bis  lielored  and  only  Bon  ;  Ihi 

which  no  one  can  be  JnMlfled ;  and,  finally,  the  faniimt 

rlgtateoDsness  by  which  he  Is  riKhleous  tu  blmselt  boi 
thni  by  which  he  makes  ns  ilgbteuns;  I.e.  with  which  be- 
ing eiidned  by  him,  we  heeoBie  retiewed  lu  out  hearts,  sod 
nre  Dot  merely  acninnied  ligbieons,  bnt  ore  made  really 
tu  by  recalvlug,  aa  It  were.  rlRhleoutoeia  In  onreelre^ 
each  according  to  tbe  measure  filven  to  ns  at  tbe  will  of 
Ihe  Holy  Spint  Bud  In  pfporthiu  to  the  uroner  dlnw- 
elllon  and  eu-uperntion  or  encb.  Tbns  tte  elnner,  by 
means  of  (bl«  tneffable  Brace,  beconies  tnily  rlshleiiiiF,  a 
friend  of  Qod,  and  au  Gclr  ot  everlasllng  life:  and  It  ii 
Ihe  Holy  Spirit  wbo  works  thb  marrellous  change  In  him 
by  lUrmlDg  holy  habit*  In  his  henrt— habits  of  faith,  hope, 
and  cbaritt— which  nnlle  him  cionely  to  Jesns  CbHil  and 
make  of  him  a  HnlT  incnber  or  bis  body ;  bnt  nu  mu, 
altboDgh  lusltOed,  w  tu  tninclne  himself  eiempt  from 
tbe  obserrnlion  otOod'f  cmmiiiidiiieiilP.  Mo  man  msy 
dore,  under  iialD  of  aiiathemn,  hi  ntier  tnch  a  raih  untiou 
ns  Ihal  It  is  Iinpostlble  for  s  inan.even  niter  la stificntluii, 
to  keep  tiod^  ci'mmaudmenie ;  eluce  Ood  commiuds 
nothing  Impossible,  bnt  wlih  the  cnnimandment  he  desiivs 
....... ..  ...-. ... ..  -,(,|j|,  (^  jijf  uainfn]  aimigib  we 


otdo. 
may  preen n 


subject  that 


eubjeci 


.  bimseirofb.  .  „  ..      _„ 

her  of  Ihe  elect  nnd  predestinnled  to  eterusl  life,  as  It 
bnvlng  been  Josllfled,  II  were  Impossible  to  commit  sin 
a);alo,nr,  at  least,  asicnillng  Into  sin  after  jnitiflcsUon, 
he  mnst  of  necesslly  be  rsued  oxain ;  that,  without  a 
special  reve1alioufromaod,li  isinposstble  In  ' **' 


.  II  also  teacher  Ibe  I 
uceming  which  il  declares  (h* 
M  end  shall  be  eared :  thnt  no  oi 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


<  b«  JuMlfled  nitati 

met,  lu  n-liicti,  tbnmgh  ihe  nuiiii  at  JcaiM 
nay  recoretlnv  gratis  vlikli  (h«j  kavB  Itifli 
IE  pnipar  inMbiHl  iiT  recover;  fi)r  tbnae  wba 


M."    uenceu uws  tbnt  Ike  repeutniice  ufaCbrlMlB 

bllcu  Idui  aln  iner  bapllini  it  tu  be  clenrrj  diaUngiiiit 
ed  rmin  ibe  rtpentiiiin  nxjnlred  at  boly  baptlgm  t  fur  I 


bl"  fin.  ■■  least  In  vlll.  and  Ibi 
III::; tber  wllb  ancb  Mllittkclluu 
of  fe<iin(,  nln>i.g[vinK,  prnjei 


■btulnlioa  i>f  tbe  print, 

etc.  Nnt  that  aDylbluc 
oblBiulnti  Ibe  rsnilnd.ni 
■a  (In,  wbkb  it  remitted 
t  nf  [fennnce  (ur  by 


BDcb  nUefoctlnn 
nlnnj*  renililed  la  tbe 


ucTameiu  wbere  it  n 
iltHChed  to  >1u,  vrhicb  m 
raided' 


Ond  tut  (he  bleisInK  vblch  Ibe;  baire  received,  bnve 
Erie T«i  tbe  Unly  Spirit  and  prnfimcd  the  temple  »I  God. 
Thli  eniee  i>r]usilllc»iiiin  may  he  loat-iiol  untj  thrcmnh 
tbe  'Id  uF  inAdellt*.  hj  which  bllh  lifeir  in  Inet,  bnt  alio 
by  eierr  kind  ol  luurtal  aln,  even  lbuii][h  riillb  be  not 
l<ni. 

Theu  cfaaptara  were  accompanjed  by  thirty-three 
cuion^  irbich  aaalbematize  Ihine  who  hokl  the  opin- 
ioni  spewed  in  them  coniraiy  lo  the  leoor  of  the  tloc- 
tritie  cuntiineil  ia  Ihe  chaplera. 

Besiilen  (hi)  dKree,  anoUier  was  puUiahcU  in  th'ia  we- 
liun,  Ftlatini;  tii  the  Keforniition,  containing  fire  chap- 
Un  upnn  the  subject  of  rcMilencE. 


ii-reilden 


Dlly,  belnff  nbaent  f)tr  ell  i 


-no«^r-' 


crbehlbdlg- 

inll  he  deprived 
...  .jst  If  he  remain 

. „  .._ ...-  , ja  abnii  lone  anoiher 

ronrib:  IbHt  If  bin  absence  be  prolouged  beyond  lbie,the 
■Htni|H>llMD  aball  be  nbllced,  nnder  poin  ol  balD|[  tnler- 
dkled  rnim  enieiiuc  tbe  cbnrch.  tn  prcKciit  bliu  to  llie 
pope,  whii  ehall  eliner  pnnlih  biiii  or  give  b1*  cbnieb  lo 
■  m»rr  wnrlby  ahepberd :  thai  if  ll  be  the  metrouiilltiiM 
klinrcir  who  li  lu  binli,  Ihe  oldeal  of  hie  aulTniKnnB  aball 
be  ohilued  lo  preieui  bim. 

Tt»  decree  Ibensoea  on  to  trentnr  Ihe  refiirm  ofecclo- 
■la.iin.  imtbHcalnr  and  regnlnr;  ofilie  vlFlinilon  ofrbnp- 

'     a  bishop  i)t  Ibe  place, 
ongrcgation  ««  hchi. 


ber,  their  neceauly,  excellence,  the  manner  in  which 
Ihey  cnnfer  grace,  which  they  decUmI  lo  be  <x  operr 
opfrnfo,  i.  e.  tbai  the  aaenmenu  cnnfer  grace  upon  all 
thoae  rrcipientiwho  du  not,  by  modal  sin,  ofler  *  liv  lo 
iu  receplian ;  e.  g.  grace  ii  conferred  by  baptism  upon 
infanis,  although  they  bring  ivitb  ihcm  no  pious  aSec- 
tionii.  They  aleo  drew  up  ■  ilecree  declaring  that  the 
;•  ought  always  to  be  admjnialered  gratui- 


AlWr  this  ibe  qneatioii  of  reronnation  wai  diKUSsed ; 
■OMiig  other  things,  it  was  debated  whethcri  plurality 
of  bencllce)  requiring  residence  ia  forbidden  by  Ihe  di- 
vine law. 

Srtriam  VII  (March  3,  1M7).— In  this  acsuon  the 
Ihlny  canons  above  noted  relating  lo  tbe  sacraments 
were  reul,  toKClher  with  the  accompanying  anaihemao. 
AmnnK  the  Ihirleeii  on  the  •acramenls  in  general  were 
the  fulli>wiT)g : 


i  TRENT,  CX>UNCIL  OF 

I.  Analbemaliiei  th<wa  wbn  mnlntsln  Ihat  Ihe 


re  wurlii  lb 


^  Asitbemalli 


auoLber 
J  deny  [I 

•  Ihore  nbodeny  tl 


own  proper 
llsm,  ordara. 


nay  preach  Qud>  word  and  »d- 


1.  AuBibemnilies  tbnec  who  ssHnthal  real  and  natural 
itt  Itnme  does  not  teucb  lbs  Hue  doctrine  on  the  subject 


ho  maluialu  Ibat  baptlem  ia 

LO  maliiiain  that  Ihe  bnptlnd 

eep  tbe  law  i>f  Ood. 

vbo  maluialu  Ibat  (In  after 

thn  ninlntnln  that  apoatates 


„_ln  bapllied. 

11.  AnalheniHlliea  Ibore  who  nialntaln  that  no  one 
on)!bt  to  be  bantlied  aniil  be  is  of  the  aee  at  which  our 
Lord  was  l>ai>ilied,  or  at  the  point  of  death. 

IS.  Analbemallvea  those  who  deny  that  hapliied  tDfiLDte 
are  not  to  he  reckoned  among  tbe  laiihfiit. 

baptlied  iu  Infiiucv  sbonid,  wbeu  thry  ri'rae  of  ace,  be 
aaked  whelhor  they  are  wilUuj  to  ratify  Ibe  ptomlse 

Secondly,  the  decree  of  reformation,  containing  flf- 
teen  chapters,  relatire  to  the  election  of  biebops,  plural- 
ities, PIC,  was  passed. 

In  a  congregation  which  followed,  Ihe  question  of 
transferring  the  council  to  some  other  place  waa  dis- 
cussed, ■  report  having  been  circulaleil  that  a  conta- 
gious disease  had  broken  out  in  Trent. 

S'oum  VIII  (March  II,  IMT).-In  this  session  ■  de- 
cree was  read  trauHferring  the  council  to  Bologna,  which 
was  a|i|)toi'ed  by  about  two  thirds  of  ibe  assembly;  ihe 
real,  who  were  mostly  Spaniards  ocoiher  aubjecis  of  ihe 
cn]|>emr,  strongly  opposed  tbe  translaiion.  The  emper- 
or complained  much  of  the  transfer  nf  the  council,  ami 
oniered  Ihe  prelates  who  had  opposeil  it  to  remain  at 


ibich  III 


I-  dill. 


/A'  (April  2i,  1M7).— In  llie  Arst  session  held 

at  Ttologna,  the  legatee  and  thirty-fiuir  bishops  were 
prescul.  A  decree  waa  read  postponing  ail  business  to 
(lie  ne\I  session,  to  be  held  on  June  !  ensuing  in  order 
10  give  time  for  ihe  prelates  to  arrive. 

S'mm  X  (June  %  164T}.~-Al  this  sessinn,  however, 
iliere  were  but  six  archbishops,  Ihitly-six  bishops,  one 
aUmt,  and  two  general*  ofordeis  present;  the  rest  con- 
liiuiin^  lo  sit  at  Trent.  It  was  deemed  ailviiiable  tn 
pnmigiie  ihe  sctsinn  lo  Sept,  16  ensuing;  but  the  quar- 
rel between  the  p 


penilnl  f.nr  four  yeara  in  spile  of  the  si •!! citation*  made 
liy  Ihe  lierman  bishops  to  the  pope  that  Ihe  sessions  of 

In  1549,  i'aul  III  diefl,  and  the  cardinal  del  Miuile 
having  been  elccteil  in  his  place,  under  ilic  name  of  Ju- 
lius III,  he  issued  a  b<dl,  lUied  March  M,  \&a\,  direct- 
int;  Ihe  rc-esiablishment  of  the  CouiuHl  of  Trent,  and 
naming  as  his  tegales  Marcellua  Creweniin,  canlinol; 
Sebaalian  Pighino,arehbishupurSiponto;  and  Aloysius 

Sruim  XI  (May  1,  Ifl5l).-The  next  sesHoii  was 
held  at  i'renl,  when  cardinal  Cresccnlin  caused  a  decree 
lo  be  read  lo  the  elTcct  that  the  council  was  reopened, 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF  5: 

Dnd  tbit  the  next  mi^d  chould  be  bdd  on  SepL  1  fol- 

Staiiim  XII  (Sept.  1, 1G51).— Ip  Ihis  K^on,  an  ex- 
hortsLion  <vu  resd  in  the  name  of  the  pre«denu  of 
tbe  council,  in  which  the  power  ind  aulbority  of  mcu- 
meaicil  councila  were  e%toUeil;  then  (alluwed  ■  decree 
JecUnng  that  the  subject  of  tbe  eucbarist  abauld  tie 
Ireated  of  in  the  next  BcenoD.  Afterwards,  the  cail 
of  Uonlfort,  ambuudur  from  tbe  emperor,  demanded 
to  be  admitted  to  the  council,  wbicb  was  agreed  to. 
Jamea  Amyol,  the  ambaaaador  of  Henry  II  of  Prance, 
presented  a  letter  from  bU  master,  which,  after  aonie 
opposition,  wai  read ;  it  explained  why  no  French  bish- 
op had  b«n  permitted  to  attend  the  couiidL  After- 
wards, Amyol,  on  the  part  of  Henry,  made  a  formal  pro- 
test atcainstthe  Council  of  Trent,  in  which  he  complain- 
ed of  the  conduct  of  Julius  111. 

In  the  congregation  followini;,  the  question  of  the 
eochariat  was  treated  of,  and  ten  articles  aelected  from 
the  doctrine  of  Zwingli  and  Luther  were  proposed  for 


1.  That  the  bodf  and  blood  of  Christ  are  present  In  tbe 
encharlst  only  In  a  llrnre,  not  reallj. 
1.  lliBtihe  Lord's  body  lseateo,Dotsacnaiental1y,l>nl 

only  spiritual ly  and  by  blth. 

B.  That  no  iraniobitaDllatlon  lakes  place  In  tbe  encha- 
rlst, bnt  a  byposlailc  onion  of  the  boman  nature  of  Christ 
vllh  the  bread  nad  wiue. 

4.  That  the  encharlst  ma  instllaled  far  the  remission 

0.  That/eiuaChrlstln  the  encharlst  <■  not  tflbeadored, 
and  Ibnt  to  do  so  Is  to  commit  idotalry. 
6.  ThHl  the  huly  aacramaut  ooKhi  not  to  be  kept;  aud 


alued  the  some 

nler  In  enmmni.. 
ilanlarj,  and  that 

>fpregatioa  the  question  of  reTorai  was 


0.  That  faith  alone  to  required  in  i 
e;  Ihnt  eonfesslan  onght  to  be  t 
nmonlon  at  Baiter  Ig  nut  necessary. 

nolher 


diacuwed,  the  subject  of  episcopal  jurisdictioi 
brought  forward,  and  a  regulation  drawn  up  concern 
ippeala.  No  appeal  from  the  juilgmcnt  of  the  bishop  and 
his  ofBcials  was  allowed,  except  in  criminal  caoefc  with- 
out consnl  ting  with  civil  judgments;  and  even  in  crimi- 
nal cases  it  was  not  permitted  to  appeal  fmrn  inter- 
locutory Mntences  until  a  deAnitive  sentence  had  been 
paaaed.  The  andent  right  of  the  bishops  to  give  sen- 
tence in  the  prorincial  synods  naa  not,  howerer,  re- 
stored. The  power  was  left  to  the  pope  of  judging  by 
means  of  commissioncni  delei^atnl  in  partibai. 

Stuion  Xlfl  (Oct,  11,  1551).— The  decree  concern- 
ing the  euchariu  was  read  Sept.  IB,  and  was  cniiained 
in  eight  chapters. 


16  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OP 

To  this  decree  there  were  added  eleven  eanona,  anatb- 
itiziDg  those  who  held  certain  heretical  dactrinea 
tbe  subject  of  the  holy  eucbarist,  and  espedaily 

those  contained  in  the  lea  arddes  proposed  for  eiaini- 

atiou  in  the  congre^tion  held  Sept.  3. 
Tlns.caa.l  condemns  the  optr 


St  contained  In  art.  > 


mUlned  li 


oin  mined  Ic 


u.  ^  thai 


ondenins  I  hate  who 


lUined  In 


Afterwarda,  a  decree  of  reformation,  containing  nght 
chaptera,  was  read ;  tbe  subject  of  it  wai  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  bishops. 

In  a  congregation  held  after  this  sesaion,  twelve  ar- 
tides  on  the  subjects  of  penance  and  extreme  nncliim 
were  examined,  taken  from  the  writings  of  Luther  and 
his  diaciplea,  In  a  Bubsequent  congregation  the  de- 
cree* and  canons  upon  the  subject  were  brought  for- 
ward, together  with  a  decree  in  llfteen  chapters  on  le- 

Sfoioa  X/r(?<DV.2a,  Ifial).— In  thusesaioD  the  de- 
cree upon  penance,  in  nine  chapters,  was  read. 

t.  Status  that  onr  Lord  chiefly  lustltnted  the  aocrasMBt 
nr  penance  when  he  breathed  upon  his  diiidptes,  eaylnc 
"  Receive  ye  the  IIolj  Ghost,"  etc ;  and  tbe  conndTcvii- 
demns  thore  «ho  r^fe  to  achnowledee  thai  by  tbese 
words  our  Lord  ci^mmnnlcaied  to  his  apostles  and  ta 
iheir  snccesSDrs  lbs  power  of  remitting  or  retalDlux  sins 

the  priest  eicrtlaas  the  fane- 


and  virtue  resides,  is  cnntnlned  In  the  words  of  the  atwi- 
InUon  proDnunced  by  the  priest.  "Bga  te  nb»l>n."eie.: 


4.  Tbe  conncll  deflnes  eonlrition  to  be  an  in* 

row  mr,  aud  haired  at,  the  slu  committed,  actomjiaiited 
liy  B  arm  resnlnllim  to  cease  from  '•  '-  • "''■■-  — 


«ompaiited 
.    wTibtv- 


's  that 


I  or  th 


ead  and 


Is  verily,  renlly, ,  - 

specie;-  of  ibete  sensible  objects;  Ihnt  It  ,-  ~  >-. <^u- 

w^ilch  our  Lord  Inslllnted  the  holy  snrrnment:  thai  the 

liial  tilnod,  togpilier  with  bis  snni  and  his  divinity,  to  he 
]irc>eni  under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine  after  conse- 

8.  That  each  kind  conlslns  the  s,-ime  ns  they  both  lo- 
geiher  do,  for  Jeins  Christ  Is  entire  nnder  the  S|>ee1os 
of  bread,  nnd  under  the  smnllest  pnitlcle  of  thnt  species, 
as  rIso  under  ilie  species  of  wine,  and  under  the  smallest 

id  and  wine  there 


from  the  fear  (Vt  pnulshment,  the  conudl  declarer  it. 

It  be  accompanied  by  n  hope  of  fiirelveiwss,  and  excludes 
the  doire  tocoDimllsIn,  lilsa  gift  of  Ood  and  a  motion 
iif  the  Holy  Spirit  i  aud  thai,  far  from  rendering  »  ■"-"  • 
hypocrite  and  s  greater  sinner,  It  disposes  blm  {d 

loiiblsin  the  grace  of  Ood  In  the '  -*-— 

EL  The  decree  Iben  Koes  ou  ii 
of  confessing  every  mortal  sin  n 
aminatlon.  can  be  bronghi  to  i 
gnrd  to  venial  sins.  It  sUfes  Ibnl 
euary  to  confess  Ihem,  and  that 

the  power  i>f  binding  nnd  IchHiln^ls,  t>y  Christ's  appniut- 
meut,  In  the  priest  ouly;  thai  this  power  coubIms  not 
merely  [u  dKlOrfnirlhe  remlsalrin  of  sins,  but  <u  thejodt- 
diil  act  by  wbieh  ihey  are  renliied. 

T.  Aa  to  the  reserved  eases,  It  declane  It  to  be  Impoi- 
Innl  10  the  maintenance  of  good  discipline  (hat  oerula 
atrocious  crimes  should  not  he  absolved  by  every  prieM, 
bnl  be  resented  liir  the  first  ■■rder, 

>.  Thai  we  can  make  sallsbcllon  to  Ood  by  se)f-'m- 
posed  inIllIHloa^  and  by  those  which  Ihe  priest  prescribes, 
AS  well  as  by  bearing  pntlently  and  with  a  penlteutlal 
K]ilrli  Ihe  lemporal  sorrows  and  affllclions  wbicb  Ood 

In  conrnrmity  with  this  decree,  fifteen  canons  were  pub- 
lished, condemning  those  who  maintained  the  opporite 
[loctiines.  After  this,  tbe  decree  upon  the  subjeel  of 
extreme  unction,  in  three  chaplers,  was  read. 


deb,  by  dll1j;tnl  self-cI- 

it  Is  not  abaolntely  a"^ 
hey  may  b«  eipialed  in 


lUthfnl  toiheboly 


id  change  of  the  who 


iblpofLatrialsrtghtlyrenderedby  the 


ire  sre  Ibiee  modes  of  commnnlcnllnir— (1) 
f,  BS  In  the  case  otsinnerB;  ffl)  splrltnally.  as 
receive  ouly  In  will  and  by  fHlih;  (S)  both 
F  and  splrlinally,  as  lUey  do  who  actnally  re- 
th  Ritth  and  proper  dlspueliiona. 


that  this  UDctlon  was  appolDted  by  onr  L 

rrrrommendcd  to  tbefnllbrathyJamea.: 

jofit  islnslnnatedbyJIark.    Thst  Ihe  ma 

I  of  ineaacrnneni  Is  the  oil  dinceerated  by  the  bishop,: 
hat  lis  form  consists  In  ihe  words  prononnced  when 
innlrin  Is  applied :  thst  Its  eUbct  Is  to  wipe  iint  rh* 
nnliis  uf  sin,  and  to  reassnre  nnd  comfort  the 
lick  person  by  eidtlng  wllhin  him  a  IVilI 
3od'B  mercy,  and  sometli — ■-- 


nfthei 
9  thoKWho  are  In 


of  the 
irettis  bwOrhoflb* 


ibis  t 


.    That  this  aacrii 


linlsK 


jnngerorde 
Ivu  ft  again. 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


IT  cuioiii  OD  the  Nib- 


<6hjf, 


Christ, 
tiia  RoiDHa  rite 


(djrKe,  HOT  rlrallBin,  Hum 

ni;  be  Kt  al  iiaogbi  wtlbuni 

ofwlioin  Janiea  apeak),  Are  nld  per>ouB,aDd  Dot  jnieau. 

After  ihii  the  qnettion  of  reroim  came  beTora  them,  wtd 

bnrtccn  cbaplen  upon  the  aubject  of  episcopa]  juriidic- 

bHi  Men  publiabed. 

I.  FnrUdii  the  granting  of  dlspeneitlons  and  pemla- 
(low  br  the  coorc  of  Roma  to  ihe  prqlndke  of  the  blab- 
Qb'B  antbority. 

1,  Forbids  bisbopa  in  partOul  tnfideUum,  npno  the 
lueopb  of  Ibeir  pHTl1et{«p,  to  urdain  aof  out  noder  anj 
pnUit  wilboal  the  eipnaa  permiaaloo  of,  or  letter  dla- 
Blpaorr  teota,  the  onUbarj, 

&  OtTea  blabnpa  poirai  to  anapend  cterka  ordaload 
viiboot  proper  eiamlnnUuD  orwltbont  Ihelr  llceiiK, 

i.  Ordgra  tbat  all  accnlar  clerka  wbnieTer,  and  nil  reg- 
DlanlWIng  oni of  tbelrraonaatTlea, ahall  be  a1  wan. nod 
Id  »II  caMa,  anbject  tn  the  correction  of  the  blibop  lu 
wboaa  dtoceao  thei  are,  nnlwllbataudlng  »uj  privllejjen, 
eieinplloB,  eic,  wbatmieier. 

i.  Onlen  all  clerkr,  nnderpilii  oranapenilon  nod  dep> 
riratloa,  lo  near  the  habli  lulled  to  ibgit  order,  and  ror- 
Uda  Ihem  tho  luo  of  abort  gaimeuta  aud  Ereen  Bud  red 

;.  £uacU  that  a  clerk  nlUrof  TiilDntarj'  hnmlclde  ahall 
b(  deprired  of  all  eccleeToatlcal  orderg.  beneflcea,  etc 
B.  Checba  the  Interference  of  prelatci  In  tbe  dioceiet 

I.  Forbldi  Ihe  perpetual  nnlun  of  two  charcbea  aUoated 
la  dlffemnl  dloceae*. 

lOv  Dlrecla  tbat  beueflcea  belouglnE  to  the  regnlaTa 
■lull  be  Klren  to  regnlara  only. 

n,  LJlrecia  that  ua  one  aball  be  idmUt«d  to  the  rellg- 
Irnii  life  who  will  uot  priiiniie  lo  abide  In  the  conTCnl  Tn 
tnlijRllan  lo  tfae  fupetlnr. 

It.  DeeUrea  thai  (he  right  of  pntmnage  eaa  be  glien 
onlj  lo  Iboae  nho  fiave  built  a  uaw  chatch  or  chapel,  or 
Hhu  endow  oue  already  hbllt. 

19.  PiTblda  all  patruna  lu  make  Ibelr  preaenlatlun  to 

be  Told. 

In  ■  eoDgregation  held  Dec  28  the  sKniment  of  or- 
den  waa  conaidemt,  and  twelve  artictea  taken  frnm 
ihe  Lulherao  wrilin({>  were  produced  for  e»arnination. 
SubMquenilj  eight  canons  were  drawn  up  condemning 
H  heietica  Ihoae  who  Diilntaiiied  the  following  pmpo- 
ailiana:  1.  Thai  orders  is  not  a  true  aacramenL  2.  That 
Ihe  printbood  is  the  only  order.  S.  That  there  ought 
lo  be  DO  hierarchy.  4.  That  the  conaeuC  uf  the  pe<iple 
it  nectwary  to  the  validity  of  order*.  6.  That  ihere 
ii  no  viaible  priesthood.  6.  That  unction  in  unnecesaa- 
TT.  7.  That  this  uciament  does  not  confer  the  Eloly 
Spiril.  8.  That  (nahops  are  not  by  divine  appoint- 
■enl  nor  superior  to  prieala. 

Siuio%  X  V  (Jan.  26, 1»2).^In  tbis  session  a  decree 
waa  read  to  the  eOiKt  that  the  decrees  upon  the  sub- 
jtct  of  the  Mcrifice  of  Ihe  maaa  and  the  tacrament  nf 
order),  which  were  to  have  been  read  in  ihb  seuiun, 
WMihl  be  deferred  uiilil  Uarcb  19  under  the  pretence 
that  Ibe  pTDl«M■nL^  lo  whom  a  new  safe-condui't  had 
been  granted,  might  be  able  to  attend. 

In  the  following  cungregation  the  suhjecl  of  mar- 
riage waa  treated  of,  and  Ihirty-lbree  articles  thereon 
were  submiued  for  examination. 

The  diapuiea  which  arose  between  the  ambaiaadois 
uf  the  emperur  and  the  legates  of  the  pope  produced 
iDuiher  ceMation  of  the  counciL  The  Spanish  bishops 
and  those  of  the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  aa  well 
aa  all  who  were  subjecta  of  the  emperor,  wished  to  con- 
tinue th*  council;  but  Ihoae,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
wete  in  the  iuUmta  of  the  court  of  Home  did  all  ihey 
could  lo  prereot  its  canlinuaoce,  and  were  not  sorry 
when  the  report  of  ■  war  between  the  emperor  and 
Maurice,  eleiSor  of  Saxonj,  caused  most  of  the  bishops 
lu  hsTe  TtenL  In  tfaa  meantiroe  some  Froteatant  llie- 
■ih<f(<aDs  arrived,  and  urged  the  ambaasulora  of  the  em- 
fnt  10  obtain  from  ihe  falben  of  Che  coundl  an  an- 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

certain  propoaitioni,  and  lo  induce  Ihem  In  en- 
gage in  a  conference  with  Ihera;  both  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  legates,  upon  various  pretexts,  eluded. 

iSufion  XFJ  (May  28, 1552).— The  chief  part  of  Ihe 
prelates  having  then  departed,  Ihe  pope's  bull  declar- 
ing the  council  to  be  suspended  waa  read  in  this  sea- 
aion.  This  auspension  lasted  furaearlv  ten  yean;  but 
on  Nov.  29, 1660,  ■  bull  waa  published  by  Piiia  IV  (who 
aucceeded  lo  the  papacy  upon  the  death  of  Julius  111, 
in  1556)  for  the  reassembling  of  the  council  at  Trent 
on  tbe  following  Easier-day;  hut  fram  variona  causes 
the  tec^ning  A  the  council  did  not  lake  place  until 
tbe  year  1562. 

StuUit  XVII  (Jan,  18,  1662).— One  hundred  and 
twelve  bishops  and  several  theologians  were  present. 
The  bull  of  convocation  and  a  decree  for  tbe  continua- 
tion of  the  council  were  teadj  Ibe  words  "propunenii- 
bna  legatis"  inserted  in  it  passed  in  apilc  uf  the  oppo- 
siliou  of  four  Spanish  bishops,  wbo  represented  that  Ihe 
clause,  being  a  novelly,  ought  not  to  be  admilteil,  and 
that  it  was,  moreover,  iiyurious  lo  tbe  authority  of  (ecu- 
menical councila. 

HI  held  Jan.  27  Ihe  legates  propnaed 
>f  the  hooka  of  heretica  and  tbe  in- 
sweiB  to  them  composed  by  Catholic  aulhors,  and  re- 
quested the  fathers  lo  Uke  into  their  consideration  Ihe 
construction  of  a  catalogue  of  prohibited  works. 

.^ruion  XVill  (Feb.  26, 1662).— In  this  session  the 
pope's  brief  was  read,  who  led  to  the  council  the  caic 
of  drawing  up  a  list  of  prohibited  hooka.  After  this 
a  decree  upon  the  subject  of  the  books  to  be  prohibited 
was  read,  inviting  all  persons  interested  in  the  ques- 
tion to  come  to  the  council,  and  promising  Ihem  a  hear- 
ing. 

In  congregations  held  on  March  2, 3,  and  4,  they  da- 
liberated  about  granting  a  eafe-conduct  to  the  Proies- 
tanls,  and  a  decree  upon  the  subject  was  drawn  up. 

On  March  11  ■  general  congregation  was  held,  in 
which  twelve  articles  of  reform  were  proposed  for  ex.- 
aminaljon,  which  gave  rise  to  great  dispute  and  were 
discussed  in  subsequent  congregsliana. 

SatioB  XIX  (May  14, 1662).- In  this  sesuon  noth- 
ing whatever  pasaed  requiring  notice,  and  the  publica- 
tion of  Ihe  decrees  was  postponed  to  Ihe  following  ses- 
sion. Immediately  after  this  session  (he  French  am- 
hassadon  arrived,  and  their  instructions  were  curious, 
and  to  the  fallowing  eOect: 

me  which  had  taken  place  abonld  not 

"  ----^- ■  butihiil  Ihe  pope 

_  , ._ 0  decision  of  the 

Thot  thej  sboold  begin  wllh  the  reform  of  the 

Chbrch  In  Us  head  and  iu  ItsmemberSi  as  hudboen  nron)- 
Ired  at  Ihs  Oinndl  of  Constance,  and  lo  that  of  Ba>-1e, 
hni  nevarcomnleled.  Thai  annates  abonld  b«  abnlisbed : 
thai  all  archiilabops  and  bishops  ebimhl  ha  obliged  In 
residence;  that  tbe  council  sboDld  make  arrnnKemeula 
with  respect  to  dlapenaoOons,  eo  aa  M  remove  the  uecei- 
■ • — -"  —  lo  Rome.    That  the  »iKth  canon  irfChal- 


Thal  Ihe  dt 
lj«  rei«rved  fur  ihe  pope'* 
-■--'■'  ■■ ipelled  to  - 


.  uf  naeless 


On  Mav  26  a  congregation  waa  held  to  receive  the 
anibasHdor  of  Fmnee.  The  Sieur  de  Fibrac,  in  Ihe 
name  of  the  king  his  master,  in  a  long  discourse,  ex- 

pmmising  Ihat  Ihe  king  would,  if  needful,  support  and 
defend  them  in  the  enjovment  of  their  liberty. 

SrttioH  JirX(JDne4,i662).— In  Ibis  session  the  pro- 

by  ribrac  in  the  last  congrcgaiion ;  after  which  a  de- 
cree was  read  proroguing  Ihe  sestion  t<i  July  16. 

In  Ihe  following  cungrcgstion  five  ariiclca  upon  the 
subject  of  Ihe  holy  euchirist  were  proposed  for  exam- 

1.  Wbelher  the  folihfnl  are,  by  Qod'a  command.  obHged 


i.  WUelher  the  n 


IB  Christ  Is  received  entire  nnder  out 
n  whlcb  induced  Ihe  Chnrcb  t( 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF  5; 

give  Ibe  CKinrnunioii  lo  the  litlj  under  ana  kind  only 
eifll  .ibllK"!  hir  uoi  i.i  EMiH  ib«  cap  to  miT  onef 
4.  Ujiuii  wbai  coiidUVinis  tbe  cn|)  •bnnid  be  iwnnUIed 

der  jeam  ufdiKTEiimil 

Tbe  quention  ebuut  the  obligBtion  ot  renileiuK  wu  alto 
■giia  moutedi  biit  tbe  caidiiial  of  Mantua  otijecteil  to 
ita  diaciiWDn  aa  entirely  alien  frnm  the  aubjei'l  berors 
them,  promising,  at  tbe  aame  tiiDp,  that  it  aiiould  be 
diacuaied  at  a  Oiling  waaon. 

In  aubeequent  coiigrrgatiaiis  held  from  the  9th  to  the 
ISd  or  June  the  eubject  o(  the  five  artjclet  waa  diseoaaed. 

In  ■  congregation  held  July  14  the  decree  in  four 
chaptcn  oa  the  communion  wan  examined. 

Stoion  XXI  (July  16, 1I>6S).— The  four  chapun  on 
doctrine  were  read,  in  irhicb  the  council  declaredi 

That  iieitherlnjmen  nor  occle«la8tlcii(n..tti.ntecrii11iig) 
are  biiund  by  nwy  diilnc  precept  li>  receire  [ha  mieramcut 
o[  tbe  enchnrlet  In  boih  kindai  that  Iho  i-uOclencT  «t 
commDDlnii  in  one  kind  canuni  be  donbied  wiihoiit  In- 
jorr  In  Ikllli.  Further,  tbnt  the  Cbnreb  liiia  iilwnja  p<is- 
■MMdtlie  power  of  estnbUthlngnndchnngliiii  In  thedla- 
peDBHiloD  of  the  uenmeiita  (without,  however,  lutetfer- 
\De  wiib  eafeDllalr)  iieeordlng  •*  «h*  hna  lodged  tn  be 
moat  condnclte  to  ihe  honor  due  In  llie  holjr  Mcrameni, 
and  lo  ihegiiod  of  Ibe  recipient!,  taking  Into  acconnt  the 
dlverrlilei  of  place  and  CDnJnnciDre:  lhiiC,nlihnugb  Jeans 
Chrlat  IneiliHled  and  gave  to  bla  apoatlea  the  rncrameiit 


ir  kind  ieim  C 


and  that 


coDvejed  b]  the 


i»  received  whole 


I  or  dlKr 

Fourcanonain  conformity'  with  thia  doctrine  were  then 
ie  blthrnl  are 


laity. 


_.  __^ _     _„.j   ,„__    jr  Lord  la  received 

entire  aiider  each  »|iefles. 
1,  AKulo't  ihnH  «hn  maintain  Ihat  Ihe  encharlst  I* 


A  rew  daya  arter  thi*  Muion  the  Julian  hiahopa 
ceived  a  letter  rrom  the  pope,  in  which  he  declared  t 
he  wai  far  from  withing  to  hinder  Ihe  liiacuntan  of  the 
questiou  concemiuK  (he  nature  of  ihe  obligatian  Ii 
blence;  that  hede^red  Ihe  council  lo  enjuy  eiiiire  free- 
dom, and  that  ever}'  one  ahould  apeak  acconling  as  hia 

he  wrote  to  hia  nuncio,  Vitconti,  bidding  him  take  •«- 
cure  meaaurea  fur  itifliug  Ihe  diacusaion,  and  ror  lend- 
ing it  to  the  holy  bfc  for  deciMon. 

Ill  the  congrcgatiniw  held  alter  Ihe  tvrenty-fint  aea- 
rion,  the  qucKlion  waa  concerning  the  eacridce  of  Ihe 
maa);  and  all  the  theologians  agreed  unanimously  Ihi 
the  mass  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  true  saciiHce  under 
tbe  new  covenant,  in  which  Jesus  Christ  is  offered 
der  the  aacramental  apecica.  One  i>r  their  irgumenta 
was  this,  that  Jesua  Chiiit  was  priest  aDer  Ihe  order 
of  Melchiieilek :  the  latter  offered  bread  and  wine 
that,  conseiiiienlly,  tbe  priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ  in- 
cludes a  BscriHcr  or  breail  and  wine. 

In  a  congregalion  held  about  Aui;.  18,  Ihe  archbishop 
of  Fraguo  presented  a  letter  fn™  tlic  empemr,  in  w"  '  ' 
he  matle  eament  cntreatiea  that  Ihe  cup  might  be 
ceded  to  Ihe  laily.    This  delicate  lubject  was  reaetred 
for  special  conaideralioii  in  a  subsequent  congregation. 

The  decree  on  Ihe  subject  of  the  sncriAceoniie  mai 
being  ROW  completed,  the  members  began  next  tn  coi 
aider  the  subject  nf  communion  in  bi>lli  kind!'.  Tliree 
opinions  principally  prevailed  among  the  prelates:  1. 
To  refuse  the  cup  entirely ;  3.  To  grant  it  npon  certain 
conditions  lobe  approved  ofby  theciniiicil;  8.  To  leave 
the  seiilemcnl  of  the  matter  lo  the  pope.  The  Spaii- 
iah  and  Venetian  bishops  supported  llie  Hret  opinion. 


e  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

Among  thoee  who  were  inclined  to  grant  Ihe  cop  wen 
cardinal  Madrucio,  the  bitlinp  of  Uodena,  and  Gaspaid 
Capal,  bishop  of  Leira.  But  among  the  strongest  ad- 
vocatea  for  granting  tbe  petition  was  tbe  biahop  of  Ibe 
Hve  CbnrchM,  who  implored  the  prelatea  lo  have  con- 
paaaion  on  tbe  cliurchea,  and  to  pay  some  regard  to  ihe 
preasing  entrtatiea  of  tbe  emperor.  On  the  otbei  hand. 
the  patriarchs  of  Aqoileia  and  Venice,  and  the  laiin 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  were  in  favor  of  refusing;  iht 
latter  maintained  that  by  giving  way  to  Ibem  Ibe  pto- 
ple  would  be  rather  cunflrmed  in  ibe  error  of  auppotini; 
that  the  body  only  of  our  Lord  is  contained  under  Iht 
specks  of  bread,  and  Ibe  blood  only  under  that  erf'  wine ; 
that  if  Ihey  gave  uay  now.  other  naiiona  would  teqnire 
the  same,  and  they  would  go  further,  and  would  ne»l 
require  the  abolition  of  images,  at  being  an  occasion  of 
idolatry  to  llie  people.  Other  bishops,  supporting  ibi* 
opinion,  reminded  Ibe  assembly  that  the  Church  had 
been  led  lo  forbid  tbe  nte  nf  Ihe  cup  from  a  fear  lest  ibe 
consecrated  wine  should  be  spilled  or  turn  sour,  and  that 
the  former  accident  could  hardly  be  prevented  wbni 
Ibe  holy  aacrament  was  carried  lung  distances  and  bir 
bad  paths.  The  archbishnp  of  Hossano,  Ihe  bishopiiif 
Cava,  Almeria,  lmolB,and  Rieti,  with  Richard,  ibbet  of 
Preval,  at  Genoa,  were  also  among  those  who  spoke  ia 
favor  of  absolutely  refuang  the  cup.  On  Ibe  eve  of  IW 
•second  session  a  decree  passed  by  which  it  wm 
the  pope  lo  act  aa  be  thought  best  in  Ihe  matter, 
Ihe  numbers  tieing  ninety-eight  for  the  decree  and  Ibir- 
•eight  acainst  ik  The  diaciianon  lasted  adtogcibtt 
>m  Aug.  15  to  Sepl.  16. 

Sruion  XXU  (.Sept.  IT,  1662).-One  bundled  aod 
^hcy  prelates,  with  Ihe  ambaisadors  and  legaln,wtn 
eseni  at  this  session.  The  doctrinal  decMe  tosching 
e  BacriflccDrthcflia»,in  nine  chapIera,'waB  pubtitbcd. 
was  ID  the  fulbiwing  effect: 

1.  Allhonith  onr  Lord  once  otfered  himself  to  Ootl  Ita 
iihar  b7  diiug  n|Hiii  Ihe  allnr  of  h!r  cma.  In  order  is 
itniu  thereby  eternal  redempllon  for  n>.  nevenlielrH, 
nee  his  nclesih-Kid  did  nut  cense  at  hie  desib.  In  dkIr 
...ni  he  mVhl  leave  with  bla  Church  a  virlble  mcrilrc 
(such  IS  the  nature  nf  mau  reqnlres),  by  means  olwh:c)i 
the  bloody  sacriSca  of  the  ernn  night  be  lepresenied  si 
-he  last  supper,  on  the  same  ntgbl  thai  be  was  betnftd, 
n  Ibe  einallnn  of  hie  oOlce  ns  a  priest  (brever  sRci  At 
irder  of  Uelcblaedek,  he  offered  hta  body  and  blood  To  tbi 
fmher  nnder  the  (pedes  of  bread  and  wliie,  and  eareita 
ipoallea;  and  by  these  word*,  "This  do  bin- 


lembraiii^  nf  m 


^  '  he  comuian 
le  like  I 


IS Ihe  C 


ir^I  who  once  offered  bltOKlT 

.., Jheddlne  of  his  blonfl  H  w»- 

Uilued  nud  Immolnled  wliboni  the  effusion  of  bloo^  la 
tbe  hntyeocriacsofihe  mnns,  IhU  lailer  eacridce  Is  iitli 
pmpltlali'ty,  and  IhM  by  it  we  obinln  mercy  and  IBkIw- 
»t*t;  since  It  ia  the  earns  Jeens  Thrist  who  was  nlhiei 
upon  Ihe  cross  who  la  sllll  nffered  by  the  mlplHiy  n(M> 

Eriesti,  the  luily  dinranre  being  In  the  wuowr  nf  nltr- 
ijr.  And  the  mass  mny  be  offered,  not  only  fbr  ibe  tias 
nud  wauls  of  Ihe  railhfnl  who  are  alive,  but  also  for  tbots 

S.  'Allbongh  the  Church  aoniellmentelebniio  niBiteihi 
honor  and  ft  nienory  of  the  siiliits.  the  *ncriflc«  Is  still  t* 
fered  tn  Ond  Rloiw,liir  she  only  ImpUires  ibclr  protFcilna. 

4.  The  Chnieh  hir  many  nse*  past  his  esiabllsbrd  itr 
sncredcannn  of  the  masa,  which  Is  pure  and  free  fninn- 
ery  error,  and  eoninlns  iiotblug  which  Ie  not  coniliwol 
with  bollneSB  and  plely,  being  In  tratb  composed  fnn 
onr  Lord's  words,  the  imdlilous  of  ihe  Dpi4tlcf,  oiid  iht 
plone  InetltntlouB  of  the  hnly  pc    - 

5.  The  Church,  In  order  ihe  b 
esty  of  *o  grant  n  sacrlOce.  ha 
loms-SBch  as  snyliig  so 


rnditloaortbeap 


•.  Althongbjt  la  to  bii^desiied  Ihi 

Ihe  proper  minisist  is 
ot^nioed  Ihat  t1 
oni  blessed  Lord 


ilrltsallr. 
in  which  llie  prleel  oaly  cob- 


ned  tror. 
Is  nililun 


the  priest  shall  nil 

»nse  both  bk»d  Kt* 
i  aacted  myalery.  by  Ibt 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

i.  Attlionsb  Ibe  mi 


Hlioiwb  I 


.,.  ._.  ...,„ ■  mneh  In  eiltj  Iha  mo- 

Sen  dill  not  Jndge  il  rlghl  llinL  11  ebrinld  be 

In  the  TulKar  lo>ii»e,Bu3  ICe  Runmn  ChDrcb 

pnHnad  ihD  a»:  neTFrthelinf ,  the  clergT  ehonld  at 
t^  Mud  etpeclnlly  on  festlriln,  aipbln  to  tha  people 

AnilbemilLies,  Id  otue  caiionp,  all  Ibfuie  it  bo  deny 
nfflnoiilveof  iwalifeorthe  thlneen  nrlkic)  prnpoHd 
bacuDZrecnlloD  Itollun-lnglhalu'f        ' 
Irt,  M,  lath,  nnd  '■••  "  ■""■  " 


IB  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

the  legaUs  received  inatTuetinns  on  no  acconnt  to  per- 
mit it  to  be  brought  to  a  ilecision.  However,  in  aub- 
■«)i<ent  congregatiana  tba  dinputa  waa  renewed  with 
warmtb ;  in  the  congregation  of  Oct.  IS,  the  archbiahop 


ihl-l: 


h,  Ith,  lllh,  Btb, 


Tbcfl  followed  X  decree  concerning  what  shonld  ba  ob- 
KTiTil  or  aroided  in  ttie  celebration  of  oubb; 

Blftinp?  were  iirdered  lo  forbid  nnd  abollah  ererftblnK 
whlfli  bud  been  Introduced  thronnh  ainrlce,  Irrereraiice, 
iitiapcntlilon,iiicti  n>  pecuniar]' agrMimanM  for  ttae  Brat 


;  ngabniid  and  Dnkninrn  prieata  WH 
r.ite,  ilaa  iboaa  wbo  were  itntiiriniia 
aa  were  to  ba  aihl  lu  |irlrau  t 


ofGrai 


1  upon  I! 


lofth 


ttHftf  aboDld  Ixt  III  fiiinre  obaerfed,  under 
aad  eteh  |rr«a(er  pen  ul  ties. 

pcnuuB  whi>  p-tf^M  tba  qDnllUcalloMa  req 

1  Penaitu  hl^hnpa  [n  ippropiiale  the  thli 
rertnua  nr  tb*  prelwnda  In  nay  catbedral 
etnn^h  f->r  dully  dlatrlballun*. 

t.  U«-)nrei>  that  ni>  una  ander  Ibe  rank  i 
:«in  tbechnpler;  that  all 


II  have  no  effect  ni 


t-^aeuib 

buteieiiiaed 
tl..q.lv. 
«.  TrealB  irfibe  care  tobenbaened  In  proving  wf  I  la. 

aaperiiM- jndBea  nb:*!  iibi«rve  itaa  countlln'lon  of  Iiimi- 
cent  |V  besinnluj;  "  Aamano,"  wbetber  lu  lecelvlni  ap- 
penli  nr  LTnntink'  urohlbllliina. 

&  Order,  mat  bFabnpi.  n<  Ibe  delesalea  nf  Ibe  holy  eee. 
aball  he  the  eiecntnrs  of  all  pl»ui-  clfo,  whelher  by  will 


lainHdlale  protactioD  of  tbe  t 


iililea.  except  tboa*  i 


_.«  of  «n»  PBcred 

boaad  lo  sijk  Rcomnt  of  their  ndnilnlalrnltnn  yenrly  to 
Ike  nrdlnary.  auleaa  the  orlglunl  Fuundallan  require  them 

fnttitd  ihem  the  eiatc'ae  lif  their  nDre  In  Bccle>ln'>tlral 
]>.  Bnaeia  petialilea  ngalnnt  tbnpe  nho  uanrp  nr  keep 


lea   relating  In  ihe 

ight  ariicles  on  the 
wbject  of  tbe  tacrameml  nfordtn.  Thia  occupied  many 
oiTigngations.  in  one  of  which  t  larce  number  of  the 
imlaiei,  chieHy  Spanianli,  detnantlnl  that  there  ahoulil 
<>r  iildrd  to  Ihe  seventh  canon,  onnceming  tlie  inalilD- 
lioii  of  biahopo,  ■  dame  declaring  the  epiacopate  to  be 
[>f  divine  right.  An  attempt  wai  made  lo  atiHe  the  dis- 
rmion,  bat  John  Fonacca,  ■  Spaniah  theolofnan,  among 
■Hhen.  enirrod  boldly  upon  the  aubject,  declaring  that 
itwainoliiiHl  couMnot  be,  forbidden  to  apeak  upon  the 
niaiier.  He  mainiained  that  biahope  were  ioatitnted 
by  J«uaChri>t,inil  Ihna  by  iliiune  right, and  not  mere- 
ly bj  a  riiiht  conffrrcd  liy  ihp  p.>pe.  The  diMuaaion  of 
Ibi*  qnislioii  pruveil  hi)flily  iliMgrecable  >I  Komo,  and 


lion  of  biibopa,  and  iheir  aiiperiority  to  prie«a,jur, 
riiw.  The  aame  view  waa  taken  in  Ihe  following  con- 
gregation by  the  archbishop  of  Braga  and  the  biahop  of 
Segovia;  and  nn  leas  than  lifty-lhree  prelates,  out  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-one  preaent,  voted  in  favor  of  the 
recognition  of  the  divine  inatitulion  and  jurisiliction  of 
biabnpa.  According  to  Fra  Paolo,  the  number  amounted 
to  flfiynine.  The  dispute  waa,  however,  by  no  me«nt 
ended.  On  the  2(hh  the  Jeanii  Lainez,  at  Ihe  instiga- 
tion of  the  legate*,  delivered  a  powerful  speech  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  view  taken  by  the  Spanish  biahiipa,  deny- 
ing altogether  that  the  inMitulion  anil  Jurisdiction  of 
were  of  divine  right.  However,  powerful  aa 
ipeech,  be  waa  answered  by  (he  bishop  of  Paris 
>n  effectually  that  the  legates,  to  their  great  discompos- 
ure, aaw  Ihe  viewa  of  the  Spanish  prelates  gain  ground. 
The  Utter  then  declareii  fonniitly  that  unless  Ibeir  de- 
mand were  granteil,  and  the  order  and  jurisdiction  of 
bishops  declared  in  the  canon  In  be  Jvre  diviiiOj  they 
would  thenceforth  abaeut  themselves  from  all  the  coa- 
eregations  and  sessions. 

In  Ihe  mean^me  Ihe  cardinal  of  Lorraine  arrived  at 
Trent  with  several  Fri-nch  prelates,  ami  waa  received 
with  honor.  In  n  congregation  held  Nov.  !3,  he  read 
Inbliiy  the  letter  of  the  king  of  France  to  Ihe  council,  in  which 
he  strongly  urged  them  to  labor  sincerely  to  bring  about 
a  soiiiul  reformation  of  nbu-ies,  and  to  restore  itn  pristine 
glory  to  the  Catholic  Church  by  bringing  back  all  Chris- 
tian people  (o  one  religion.  After  Ihe  lei  ter  was  finished 
the  cardinal  delivered  a  apeech,  strongly  uivinR  (ha 
neccBHty  of  proceeding  apeedily  with  the  work  of  refor- 
roalioii,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  Du  Ferrier,  the 
king's  ambassador,  who  spoke  hit  mind  freely. 

All  this  time  ao  Utile  pregress  bad  been  maile  witb 
the  canoiiB  and  decrees  that  when  Nov.  36,  the  day 
fixeil  for  hobliiig  Ihe  twenly-lhird  sernion,  arrived,  It 
waa  found  necessary  lo  prorogue  il.  After  thia,  in  th« 
following  cungregationa,  Ihe  subject  of  the  divine  tight 
of  biahopa  was  again  discnaseil,  when  the  French  tnahopa 
declared  in  favor  of  the  viewa  held  by  Ihe  Spaniards 

At  Ihe  beginning  of  the  year  1563  the  French  am- 
bassadors presenied  their  nrlii-les  of  reformation  under 
thirty-two  heads.      Their  priiici|ial  demands  were  aa 


nr  collsglnle 
>r  anbdencon 


T.  ^nt  nn  cnratea  ihonld  I 
rL-rg  of  good  character  nnd  nb 

9.  ThntblshopB.eithBr  pereo 
ireach  on  every  soiiday  nud  fi 

in.  Tbat  all  carales  ahonld  di 


ddes'&ntl 


pnfflcien 


ludlen. 


IS.  Thai  Incapable  bishops,  abbots,  and  cnnilea  shonld 
esign  ihelr  lieneilcet,  or  appoint  coadjuin™. 

14.  That  all  pluralliles  nbiilever  should  be  nliollshed. 
vllhont  any  conslderatlmi  orcoinpailblllty  or  Imximpaii- 

la.  Tlint  steps  shonld  be  taken  to  provide  every  bene- 
Iced  clerk  with  a  reveDne  snlDcleiii  lo  mnlutiilii  Iwn  ci- 


I.  That 


e  jioonlj 


vnlg.ir  toiiBiie 


IS.  Tbattheaiicienic(ecr«Liil»i>fpopeLei)iiiidnelnBlnB 
on  conrninnion  In  Imlh  kluda  aboold  be  re-vstHbllFbed. 

1*.  That  Ihe  efflcncv  of  the  i-nnmnienlB  Fbmilil  nlno  ba 
eiplnlned  to  the  people  bcBire  ihrlr  nilmiuli-imilon. 

M.  That  lianeDcu  ehoald  he  inferred  by  talshopa  within 
riimnnlhsi  afterwbkh  time  they  should  devoVva  to  Uw 
immediate  SHperlnr.  and  saigmdually  to  Die  pope. 

tt.  Tbnt  Ihey  should  abollib,  as  contrary  to  Ibe  canons, 
nil  expeclallveii,  regtewlona  (retumins  tuabeneBce  which 
baa  been  once  resigned).  resl|;nailfli>s,  etc 

or  souls,  originally  Intended  by  Ibe  faoudatlon,  which 
hud  been  ■cpninTed  from  them,  and  assigned  to  perpelnal 
vlcjirs  wbh  in  lae  ruble  plitnnces. 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

n.  Thnl  bl>h<>)i*  (bnnid  tnke  In  tannd  do  mitU 


bV  Tb.l  dloceun  i 


beaiL  Lunad,  and  Ihvii 
liuuB  Bhanld  M  ddlred    : 
'ho  drair  back  rnnn  rs-    ' 

llld  Dl  iMft  '  I 


i40  TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

'    kingdom,  u  well  «  Scotland,  back  to  the  Bomm  ob*> 

All  [his  time  Ihe  oontot*  iboDl  the  intilutim  lad 

I     juriadictiDn  of  biihopa,  and  Ihe  divine  oblif^tion  otnt- 


Iten,  iihI  bring  thin; 
It  ■lu^thcr  all  naii 


i.  ThslMrentBmiiVauiiuliniiningeecoiilractcdlij'lhelr 

B.  Thnt  H  niHii  max  mniry  a^aln  dnrlnpi  (he  life  ot  bla 
firet  wife,  dlTurced  on  Hcconiu  of  tmlcatlon. 

*.  Tbnt  polrf!ini7  It  ntlowed  In  Chiialiana,  and  [lint  to 
tnrbM  mardiiKeg  at  certnln  iwB>dU!<  li  a  bealben  •aperad- 


a.  Tbat  mariiDKe  ts 


K  preferred  U>  the  Mate  of  il 


1  Tbat  prieata  In  lbs  Wntem  Cbnrcb  ma;  marry,  nat- 
wtlhi'tandlniilbelrTow. 

T.  Thai  Ihe  deireee  uf  «>nMii|;nlnltT  aud  afflnltT  Inld 
down  III  Uv.  irfil  are  to  be  nbaetred,  and  on  olhero. 

8.  Thnl  Ihe  ctisnleaiice  orcautee  relallDg  to  mnrrlaKM 
belouga  111  Itae  aecaliir  prIiicB". 

Theaa  aniclea  were  diacuiiaeil  in  spTeral  cangrenaiiona. 
The  aixlh  anicle  came  under  coiitiJeration  March  4; 
■II  agreed  in  coiidemning  it  ai  heretical,  but  they  were 
diridcd  upon  the  (jronnda  of  their  opinion.  Thequea- 
tion  was  afterwards  discuased  vhether  it  was  idviaable, 
under  the  circumiUncea  or  the  tlmea,  to  remofe  the  re- 
■triclion  laid  upon  the  clergy  not  to  many ;  this  waa  in 
coDaequeiice  of  a  deniaml  In  that  effect  made  by  the 
duke  of  Bavaria.  SirunR  oppoaition  waa  made  to  thia 
demand,  and  many  blamed  the  legate*  Tor  permitling 
the  diKiiision.  and  luainlainMl  thai  if  th'ta  license  were 
granted  the  whale  eccleaiaslical  hierarchy  would  Talt  to 
pieces,  and  the  pope  be  reduced  to  Ibe  sim^e  condition 
of  trishop  of  Rome,  since  the  clergy,  having  Iheir  alfec- 
tioiia  act  upon  their  faniiliea  and  country,  would  be 
inevitably  detached  from  that  close  dependence  upon 
Ihe  huly  Bee  in  which  ita  preaent  strength  mainly  con- 


In  the  meantime,  the  cardinal  of  Mantua  had  died, 
and  the  pope  deiipalcheil  twn  new  legates  to  the  council, 
carlinal  Morone  ami  cardinal  Naragier.  The  French 
conlinued  their  importuniliea  on  Ihc  eubjecl  of  rcfnrma- 

another  by  the  le)niea.and  ihuamuch  time  was  wasted. 
In  a  eongregation  held  May  10,  a  letter  from  the 
queen  of  Scoli  waa  read,  in  which  ahe  expressed  her 
sorrow  that  ahe  had  not  one  Catholic  prelate  in  her  iln- 
miniona  whom  she  coiUil  send  to  Ihe  council,  and  de- 
clared her  delermination,  should  she  ever  attain  to  the 
eiown  of  England,  to  do  all  in  her  power  lo  bring  that 


is,wbose 

Uptrfle*. 


m  evnode  elionl 

iclsl  sjn I >d«  every  three /ear 

The  pope,  in  order  lo  elude  the  difficulty  in  which  he 
was  placed  by  tbe  demand  of  the  Spaniab  aud  French 
biabopa  that  tbe  divine  right  of  biahopa  ahonld  be  in- 
aerted  in  tbe  seventh  chapter,  sent  ■  form  for  the  ap-  prelates,  beaides  the  1<^1*»  and  other  ecdesiasi  i 
proval  of  the  council,  in  which  it  was  declared  that  preaent,  with  the  ambaaaadon  of  France,  Spain 
"Irisbopa  held  the  principal  place  in  the  Church,  hut  in  nL  etc  The  wnnnn  wu  mrMi-hrA  hv  ihr  hL 
dependence  upon  the  pupe^"  Thia,  however,  did  not 
meet  with  approval,  and,  after  a  long  contest,  it  waa 
agreed  to  etate  it  thua,  Ibal  "tbey  held  the  principal 
l^ace  in  tbe  Church  ttndtr  the  popty"  instead  of  in  de- 
pendence upon  him.  However,  a  still  waimei  coni«t 
arone  upon  the  chapter  in  which  it  waa  said  that  the 
pope  had  authority  (o  feed  and  govern  Ihe  Univenal 
Cburcb.  This  the  Gallican  and  iSpanisb  biabopa  would 
by  no  means  consent  to,  alleging  that  the  Church  is 
the  Drat  tribunal  uiHler  Chriat.  Acoonlingly,  they  in- 
sisted that  llie  words  miirrrtaieccletiat,"^  churches," 
abould  be  aubstituted  for  Umrrrum  Eaitaam.  The 
Galileans  even  more  strenuously  denied  that  "the  pope 
possessed  all  the  auth»rily  of  Jesus  Christ,"  notwith- 
standing all  the  limilatiooi  and  axplanationi  nhicb 
were  added  to  it. 

On  Feb.  6  the  legate*  proposed  for  consideration  eight 
articles  on  the  subject  of  marriage,  extracted  from  so- 
called  heretical  books : 


Paris, 

After 

Morone  and  Ni 
read,  together  with  i 
duke  of  Savoy,  and 


>  act  as  legates  for  the  popf  itn 

letter*  ofthe  king  of  Polsnd,  Ihe 

queen  of  Scotland.     Lastly,  the 

'n  up  during  the  past  corgiegi- 

tion  were  brought  before  the  council.    The  decree  apoa 

the  sacrament  of  orderB,in  four  chaptera,  was  read,aHd 

eight  canons  on  tbe  sacrament  ofonlera  were  publiibd^ 

hich  anathematized, 

1.  Those  who  denj  a  visible  prlefthood  In  the  Church, 
t.  Tbose  who  malDMin  that  the  prleatbood  Is  the  ddIj 

S.  Those  who  deu;  that  nrdlnatlnn  Is  a  tme  sncnmnL 


4.  Thnsi 


of  reformatioD,  which  Iht 
e  examined ;  and  dating  tbe  dit- 
received  from  the  king  of  Fnac^ 


B.  ThosL  _ 

*.  Those  who  deny  ibat  there  la  a  hlerarthy  eompinei 
iirblahopa,prleat*.aiid  ministers  In  the  Catholic  Cbnrtb. 

I.  Thasewbodenylbesapertorlly ofhisbopstoprioOi. 
or  that  Ibeyalnna  can  perform  certain  fnucIloDs  vhld 

Klesta  cannot,  and  those  who  malnuin  tbat  ordera  taa- 
rred  witbont  the  coneanl  of  Ibe  people  air  void, 
e.  Those  who  denv  that  bishops  called  by  the  ailharirr 
of  Ihe  pope  :«u(  a'lriir^fati  Amumf  nmCfilcis  oMuauoidr) 
are  tme  andlawfnl  bMop*. 

After  this  the  decree  of  reformation  was  read,  caUaia- 
ing  eighteen  chaptcni,  on  the  reaidence  of  bi^Mja,  sad 
on  other  eccleaiastical  alfkin. 

In  tbe  following  congregationa  the  decrees  concetn. 
ing  marriage  w 
agreed  that  the 
binding  upon  the  cler 
Moreover,  twenty  i 
legates  proposed,  n 

in  wbich  he  declan 
meaaure  of  ecelaiastical  reform  proposed  in  these  aiti- 
cles,  and  his  extreme  diaaatisfaetioa  at  tbe  cbtpttr  ia- 
lerfering  with  the  lighu  of  princeat  Shortly  afier.  niae 
of  tbe  French  bishops  returned  hcane,  ao  that  fwuuts 
only  remained. 

On  Sept.  32  a  congregation  was  held,  in  which  tbt 
ambassador  Du  Ferrier  spoke  en  warmly  of  tbe  utter  ii>- 
nufficieney  of  the  artielea  of  reform  wbicb  Ihe  legates 
had  proposed,  and  of  their  conduct  altogelher,  that  Iht 
congregation  broke  op  suddenly  in  some  confusion. 

To  fill  up  the  lime  inlervcning  hefore  the  twenly- 
fourth  session,  the  subjects  of  indulgences,  porgsurT, 

diicuation.  in  order  that  decree*  on  these  matters  mi|^ 

StitioH  XXIV  (Nov,  II,  156B).— In  tiiis  ansion  Iht 
decree  of  docliine  and  the  caouns  relating  to  tlie  urn- 
ment  of  marriage  were  read. 

After  eslahllshlnE  the  Indlseolnbillty  of  Ihe  manisn 
tie  by  Unly  Scrlpun,  tl  adds  that  Jenia  Christ,  by  £li 
passion,  nieriled  Ihe  grace  necesaary  to  conOrm  and•aB^ 
lify  (he  nnlon  belwiit  man  and  wifa.  That  Ibe  apatlt 
menua  na  to  uiideniaDd  ihls  when  be  snys, "  HiHhsa«4 
loveyour  wives,  as  Jesua  Christ  Inred  Ihe  Church:"  sad. 
shortly  aner,  "This  eacmmaiiils  greai;  I  speak  of  Jsasi 
Christ  and  (he  Cburcb."  Uaniage,  Doder  t^e  Oond.  >• 
declared  to  be  a  more  excellent  stale  than  ibal  of  mar- 
ring nnder  the  fanner  dlspeuaalioo,  on  acconiii  otxw 
grace  conferrsd  by  it,  and  that,  accordingly,  1  ha  holy  ■■ 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


hinuClH*  IboH  n 


o  maliiulii  Ihit  msrrligv  I: 
a  nalntnln  ibst  polyiam;  I 


a'l 


L  ihtit 


niiliwral  ™ly  within  the  deeteei  npeciBod  In  I^vlttcos. 
L  AnitihcmitliH  ihoH  «hn  detijr  thill  ibe  L^bnrcta  bu 

itol)  broken  by  heresy,  lll<niidiict,  nr  volnularj  ibieiice 
..D  eiUier  ilde.  ^         ^ 

«.  Antllrtinnllies  tho«  who  denj  lint  n  mnrrinm  ctin- 
tncleil.  but  ""i  consiinimalod.  It  Kuuiilled  bj  ellher  uf 
In  that  the  Chnrdi 


«r,  In  li..Mlng  il»t  Ibe  m«rrUge 

lie  Is  Kill  brokeu  by 

■^"Tih        .l«,tho««bor.a 

ittia  that  the  Chiircb 

(m  In  Kpirnilng  murrledperwiiB 

.r*  lime  111  panlcular 

UlnihaLmenlNhol]' 

orJers  Of  i/enoat  who  bax  t»keii 

herellglou.vow,inw 

■K..,b™..,»«™.i»- 

alnialn  tbat  the  mar- 

11.  AmiheirmilMs  ih.im  who  hm 

iiialn  that  It  la  inper- 

tlill.ffli"  lo  forbid  mairlngei  at  eerU 

mm  of  malrlmoiiKI  «n«ei  does 

not  belons  to  ibe  ee- 

dnlutlcil  nntbuiitlca. 

wu  pablUhed  reUt- 

palillJih  ihe  na.nei  of  the  pjirlle*  h 
rln»  on  ibtee  ciiiwcntl»o  feMlvnl 

bTchnrXdiT^U™^ 

•.lemn  mus :  ordon  Ibat  tw»  or  t 

oil  at  Ihe  uarTl«|n,  and  deciarci  u 

murrliige*  10  lie  n all 

resence  of  the  dergy- 

Dian  of  Ibe  parish  or  iifaome  olher 
ninlon  orOiat  of  the  ordinary. 

pri«-l,haTlnghl.per. 

In  fme  respects  relaxed,  1.  e.  ihe 

rl-ae  beiwfpn  n  godparent  imd  i;.i 

ch^fliid  ifae  nnrents 

«f«isitodchlld»iii>  ^ored;  »r*. 
«.n  uTminiHtcriiii!  bapllMn  and  th 

"'3  and"''Al1""rifor  to  Ibe  rein 

Mtlim   of  iha  Impedl- 

""Th.!™  -ho  wllhillT  conlrocl 

mnrriace  within   the 

TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 

Iba  doctrine  nf  ibe  Ghnrch,  the  consent  of  tbs  tlUbera,  and 
-ie  decrees  i>f  ibeeonnclla:  ui  teacb  Ibem  that  the  salute 
ITcr  u|>  iirayen  for  men.  aud  that  It  la  aiefill  to  Invoke 
lem.  and  lo  hate  rKConrre  to  Iheir  pnijere  and  help.  It 
inher  condemn*  thoee  who  maintain  thai  the  aaluta  In 
wt  oiiKhl  not  to  be  Invoked,  ihnt  thej  doi 
len,  thai  It  la  id.i1»tr7  to  invoke  r-  "-■' 
.  Uuly  Scripture,  etc.,  and  that  . 
imb*  oD|;bt  not  to  be  venerated. 

On  theeubject  of  imai^ea,  Che  council  teuhei  that  tbose 
of  our  Lord,  Ibe  Bicwwil  Virfiii,  and  of  ibp  ssinla  «r«  lo 
be  placeil  iu  churches;  ihat  they  ought  to  receive  due 

I  them,  but  because  honor  ia  tbua  reflecUd  upon 
whom  they  reiireaenl.  By  means  of  these  repre- 
sentations the  poflple  ate  inslructed  in  the  myeWric* 
of  the  faith,  and.  by  I  bus  Kting  the  gooil  deedi  of  Ibe 
aiinta,  are  led  lo  Ueas  liod,  and  endeavor  tbemselvea  to 


uniliibiied  degree*  are  aenienc^d  to  be  separated  wlihoni 
•ii^h'ipe  of  obtaining  BdlspeuM I  IniK 

the  woman  raThibed  while  rhe  remalna  In  his  p'lwer :  If, 

ri™l&e''r/Jl-her,  anfl'all  aiding  aud  B>lettluir,  to  be 


_.„ ^.. sr  Ibree  monlllons 

UI  be  driren  -Hit  of  the  diocese  iinleta  they  Dlwy. 

»  Fnrblda  all  maslara,  in«l«irales,  etc.,  under  annth 
enu.ln  compel  those  nnder  l&elr  control  to  marry  agalns 

IB.  Condrrai  Ihe  ancient  pmblbltioai  to  celebrnle  mnr 
Wclneedny  aud  tlie  octave  of  Eniler. 
After  thi«  a  decrw,  containing  Iwenty-one  artiejn,  upon 
Ihe  leform  of  the  clergy  was  read,  spiting  forlh  the  duty 
if  biilHips  to  visit  their  dioceee*;  10  preach  in  person  ui 
bydeputy;  relating  to  dispensalhinsisacrament^visita- 
liiHii,  plurali  tied,  etc 

Sruioo  XXV  and  bit  (Dec  3  and  4, 1668).— At  Ihii 
■euiua  the  decrees  concerning  purgatory,  the  inroci- 
tini  of  uinu,  and  the  worship  ofiinigei  and  relict  weir 
read. 

1.  O/ParMirry.—OtdtTtt  that  the  Catholic  Ohnreh,  K.l- 
hning  Boly  Sciipmte  and  tmditlon,  bas  always  taiiRhi, 
and  still  leacbea,  that  there  t*  a  purgatory,  and  that  tbf 

Itina  otibe  ftiltbhil  and  bj  ihe  sacriflce  of  the  mass. 
Order*  all  bisbopi  to  teacb,  and  to  cause  lo  be  taught,  ihr 
Ine  doetrlua  on  this  subject. 

t.  (V  1*<  rmcntliM  of  Savtl*.  -Ordert  bisbopa  and  nib- 
en  coDEamed  In  the  teaching  of  iho  people  to  Instrncl 
-'-  ■  ig  Ihe  InTncatlno  of  aalnls.  the  honor  dnt 

and  the  lawful  use  of  Images,  according  ID 


I  likewi 


analbematize  all  who 


The  council  Iheii  proceetis  I 
hold  or  teach  any  contrary  doclrine. 

Laatly,  in  order  to  remedy  alnisea,  il  declaiei  tl 

any  scriptural  painling  the  Di  '  ' 
under  my  ftgure,  the  people  shouli 
tu)t  intended  that  the  Divinity  can  ue  vxn  u.<  uiuiuii 
eyes;  further,  that  all  things  tending  la  aupertti lion  in 
the  invocation  ofjaintB,  Ihe  \Torehip  off-"-  -'" ' 


>e  warned  that  it  i« 


the  fight  use  of  images  ehi 
should  be  taken  n< 

admitted  withont  the  bishop's  consent,  and  that  any 
other  abuset  should  be  rectified  by  the  bishop  and  pro-  ■ 

Thee*  decrees  were  followed  by  one  of  reformalion, 
consiating  of  twenly-IHo  chaptens  which  relat«  Iu  the 
r^ulai  clergy.  After  tbia  aiiolhet  decree,  in  twenty- 
one  chapters,  on  geneial  reformation,  was  read. 

A  decree  was  also  pnbli»hfd  upon  the  subject  of  In- 
dulgences to  this  effect,  that  the  Church,  hiring  re- 
ceived from  Jesus  Chriat  the  power  lo  grant  indul- 
gences, and  having,  through  all  ages,  used  that  power, 
the  council  declares  lhat  their  nse  shall  be  reuined  as 
being  very  salutary  to  Cbrintian  persons  and  approved 


ic'ils.     It  11 


baa  no  power  lo  grant  then 


SI  the  Church 


Church  be  adhered 

10,  and  that  they  be  granted  with  care  and  moderation, 
forbidding  all  trafflcking  in  them. 

Further,  the  conncil  eslionwl  all  pastors  to  recom- 
mend toihe  nbserrance  of  all  the  faithful  whatever  had 
been  ordered  by  (he  Church  of  Home,  established  in  this 
or  in  anyone  of  the  cjeciimeniial  councils,  and  lo  im- 
press upon  them  eapecially  the  due  observance  of  the 
fsMs  ami  festivals  oftbe  Church. 

The  lisl  of  books  to  be  proscribed  was  referred  lo  the 
pope,  as  also  were  the  catechism,  missal,  and  breviaries. 

Then  the  secretary,  sundiiig  up  in  the  midst  of  the 
assembly,  demandeil  oftbe  fathers  whether  they  were 
of  opinion  lhat  the  council  should  be  conclud< 
the  legates  ahouhl  reqiie^ 


ofth 


The  a. 


the  exception  of  three.  The  cardinal- 
presideut  Morone  then  dissolved  the  assembly  amid  loud 
acclamations. 

Ill  a  congregation  held  on  the  following  Sunday,  the 
fathers  affixed  their  signatiires  10  the  number  of  two 
hundred  and  flfly-fire— vis.  four  legalcs,  two  cardinals, 
three  patriarchs,  twenty-fli-e  arcbbiahopa,  one  hundred 
and  sisly-eight  bishops,  lhifly.ninc  proctors,  seven  ab- 
bots, and  several  generals  of  ruiiera. 

The  acts  of  Ihe  council  were  conflrmed  by  a  buU 
bearing  <lale  Jan.  6,  I5i!4.  The  Venetians  were  the 
first  10  receive  the  Triitentine  dccreea.  The  kings  of 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  I'oland  also  received  them 
in  part;  and  they  were  published  and  recclTed  in  Flan- 
ders, in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  an<l  Sicily,  in  part  of 
Germanv.in  Hungary,  Austria,  Dalmatia,  and  some  part 


TKENTAL 

at  fioulh  Ainerio,  alu  imimt;  Ihe  Uironil 
Cliurclies  orEiijiluiil.  Irclaml,  i^iUnd,  Kuui 
ilyrii,  Ecyjit.  elc„  reject  tUe  aulhority  of  Ibia  cuuiiciL 

In  Friiice  Ihc  Cuuncil  »(  Trent  it  received  generiUv- 
u  lo  iluclriiie.  but  not  aliogethcr  aa  to  riucipline.  Va- 
liaus  regiiUi tons  which  were  deemed  incvnipMiblewiili 
the  iiut;eii  cifibG  kinj^m,  the  libertie*  of  the  (iillican 
Church,  ihe  concordat,  and  the  just  autliority  of  the 
king,  were  rejected  (eee  Maiwi,  CoticU.  xir,  T26 ;  Lindon, 
Manual  a/ Cuiaidit,  (.y.). 

lAltraiurt.—  l'ite  hi»tnry  at  the  Council  of  Trent  »a» 
writieii  chiefly  Uy  two  able  and  learned  Catholic* — Fri 
l'aok>  Sarpi.iif  Venice,  ail  almoBl  nemi-Protatant  iDonk. 
Iiloria  M  CoHnlio  TriJenlao  (LomL  1619;  trandatioiia 
in  French  and  German ;  EngL  trantL  by  Brent,  ibid. 
1673),  in  opposition  to  the  papal  court,  and  (againu 
him)  cvdiul  Sfuna  raltavicino.  Itloria  dd  ConciUo  di 
TrtBlo  (Rome,  iC5C-67, 2  vote.  foi.). 

The  caiinnt  and  decree*  of  the  conndl  were  fim  pub- 
liihed  by  Pant  MinuUiu  (Kome,  1564),  and  often  >ince 
in  different  laiigiiaget.  The  beat  La^n  edition  ii  bv  Le 
Plat  (1779),  and  by  Schiille  and  Richter  (Leipt  lti53) ) 
and  the  beU  Engliih  edition  ia  by  Kev.  J.  Walerwortb, 
with  a  //ufory  o/llu  Council  (Lond.  1848).  The  Cale- 
eliam,  an  aulboriied  Bummary  of  the  faith  dnwn  up  by 
order  of  the  council,  appeared  at  Rome  in  1566.  The 
original  acta  and  debate*  of  the  coDncil,aa  prepared  by 
ita  general  secretary,  biahop  Angelo  HaaiarelU  (6  vola. 
large  foL),  were  depoaiied  in  the  Vatican  library,  and 
remained  there  nnpubluhed  for  more  than  three  hun- 
dred year*,  until  they  were  brought  lo  light,  though 
only  in  part,  by  Aug.  Theiner.  in  Ada  Gtnvini  SS. 
(Eeum.  Condtii  Tridailm  nuse  primum  inlrgrt  tdila 
(Lip*.  187*.  2  vola.).  The  most  complete  collection  of 
the  official  documenu  and  private  reporla  bearing  upon 
the -council  ia  that  of  Le  Plat,  iIomim.ad  Hitlor.  Cone. 
Trideijl.  (Lovan.  1781-87, 7  vola.).  New  maleriala  were 
biouRlit  to  light  by  Mendham  (1804  and  1846)  from  the 
M8.  hipturv  bv  cardinal  PaleotW :  by  Sickel,  .1  cfmiriiabi 
am  mtm-ek/iiiche*  Ardicm  (Vienna,  1872);  and  by 
Dr.  DoUingtr,  Ungtdrudde  Brrickle  and  Tagrbiichrr  tur 
Gachichir  dii  Cow.  ran  Tnnt  (Nordlingen,  1876,  3 
plB.).  Among  I'roleaunt  hiatoriana  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  are  SaliK(l74l-46,3vo1<.)i  Daiie(]846)i  Bnckr 
lev  (LiHid.  1862):  and  Bungener  (Paria,  1854;  Engl, 
tranal.  N.  V.  1855).  On  the  TridenUne  atandanla  aee 
.Scbair,  /lulory  of  lU  Cretdi  of  Chiiilatdom  (1876),  i, 
90  aq.  .See,  in  general,  alao  Cunningham,  //uT.  Thtol. 
(aMlnden);  Hagenbach,?i>(.q/'Z>ocrrMr»(aee  fndex); 
Muahnm,  Eedtt.  Hill.  voL  iii  (Index).  In  particular 
Me  Tht  Counal  of  Trtnt  and  iU  Pivceedimil  (Preib. 
Board  of  Publication.  I'hjla.  1895,  l8mo);  PalUvicJtbo, 
lliH.iiii  Cone,  dt  Trmit  (Slnnlnuee,  1844, 8  volt.  8rn)i 
Dupin,  nitt.  da  Crmc.  dt  TivUe  (Uruaaeks  1731,  3  vob.. 
4to)i  Salig.  VolUl.  IIUl.  in  Tr.  Cimc.  (HaUe,  1741,  3 
vola.  4lu) ;  Couraver,  llitl.  de  lii  Rrtr/ition  du  Cune.  dr 
Trrolt  (Amti.  1750).     See  CovsciLa. 

TTental.an  ofllce  for  the  dead  in  the  Latin  Church, 
conelaling  of  thirty  naneaon  thirty  conaecnlive  dajt. 

Tr«palluiil,  a  name  j^vrn  (n  the  rack  ttaed  r»r  ex- 
Council  ofTaTT«gnna,prc«bTiereBrcl  deacon*  were  fc.r- 
liirlilpn  to  *tand  at  the  Trepslium  while  pcttnna  nerc 
ii>rt»nK).  Sec  Diugham,  CAriM.Hnft;.  bk.  xviii,  ch.v, 
§34. 

TrS»p«M(OT;JX,jui((,-  woponTM/ia)  ia  an  oBence 
committed,  a  hart,  or  wrong  done  ti>  a  neighbor:  and 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  error  or  idip  nibet  than  of 
deliberate  or  groaa  ain.  Under  the  Uw,  the  delinquent 
who  had  treapaaaed  waa  of  ennrae  bourtd  to  make  aatia- 
faction;  hut  an  offering  or  oblalinn  waa  allowed  him  to 
reconcile  himaelf  to  the  Divine  Gnvemnr  (Lev.  ¥,3,1.1). 
Our  Saviour  leachea  u*  that  whoever  doea  not  forgive 
the  tretpanea  of  a  fellow-maii  againat  himaelf  ia  not  to 
expect  that  bis  Father  in  heaven  will  forgive  hi*  Ircs- 
paaaea  (Uait.  vi,  14, 15). 


42  TKEUENFELS 

i  TreapMB-offeiing  (B1CX,  aihim,  once  [Lev.  vi, 
j  A]  fem.  n^CK,  which  properly  denote*  the  aa  of  tre>- 
)  pata,aa  elaewhere).  Ibit  sacrifice  was  offered  for  indi- 
'  viduala  only,  and  chiefly  for  mcb  tnn^retnont  aa  were 
not  puniafaable  by  the  laws  of  the  Stale  (rii.  19).     The 

\.  A  iretpatt-offering  waa  brought  when  a  peiaon  did 
not  inform  of  a  crime  commiited  by  another  (v,  I); 
when  a  person  had  touched  any  unclean  object,  and 
hod  omitted  the  aacrilice  of  puri6cation  (ver.  2,3); 
when  a  person  hail,  through  forgetfulnesa.  neglected  Id 
fulfil  hit  rath  vow.  In  each  of  these  cawa  the  offenng 
waa  a  ewe  or  a  ahe-Roat ;  or,  if  the  tacrificer  were  poor, 
it  might  conutt  of  doves  or  fine  flour,  withonl  oil  and 
incense  (ver.  4-lB).  "L  When  a  person  had,  through 
mlalake,  applieil  lo  a  common  purpose  anything  which 
had  been  consecrated  lo  a  holy  use  (ver!  10,  16;  xxii, 
14),  or  had  in  any  way  violated  an  engagement,  or  de- 
nied atolen  property,  or  concealed  any  loat  thing  which 
ha  had  found.  In  Iheae  cases  the  offering  was  a  rani, 
and  the  rotonltion  of  the  alienated  propertv,  with  one 
flRh  of  the  value;  in  the  former  case  to  the  priest,  in 
the  latter  to  Ihe  owner  ot  hia  heirt  <vi,2-7).  8.  When 
any  person  had,  through  ignonnce.done  aomelhing  for- 
bidden, Ihe  victim  waa  ■  ram  (v,  17, 18).  4.  When  ■ 
man  had  a  criminal  connection  with  a  belmlhed  fit- 
male  tiave  (»iit,  aO-H),  or  had,  in  later  llmet^  con- 
tracted an  idolalrout  marriage,  Ihe  victim  was  a  ram 
(F^ra  X,  19).  So  alao  a  N'aurite  who  had  contracted 
defilement  by  touching  a  dead  bn<ty  (\iimb.  vi,  9-Il\ 
and  a  leper  who  had  been  healed,  were  to  bring  a  lamb 
foratretpaat-offeringCLev.xiv,  ia,S4).  In  thia  olRt- 
ing  the  victim  was  ahiin  on  Ibe  north  side  of  tbe  alior, 
the  blind  sprinkled  mundit,and  tbepleoetoffatbunied 
upon  i(.     See  Six-opvebiko. 

Among  Ihe  Hebrews  lrespatB-oirerings,lil[e  all  olbet 
expialory  sacrificet,  were  aymbolical  represenutiont  of 
the  great  work,  for  tbe  editing  of  which  the  Hetriak 
waa  promised  In  falln)  man  (Psa.  xt,  6, 8 ;  Heb.  viii,  8 : 
ix.H,!6,S8;  x,  6, 10).  As  it  wat  Ihe  deaign  of  tbe 
Hoaaic  law  lo  remind  tbe  Hebrews  tliat  they  wete 
guilty  of  sin  and  liable  lo  death,  to  every  tacri6ce  wat 
a  memorial  of  ibi*  mournful  Iruth,  at  well  aa  a  type  of 
tbe  work  ofnur  Redeemer.  When  a  Hebrew  had  com. 
mitted  a  treapbaj  against  the  divine  taw,  previdiug  the 
tranagretaion  wat  such  aa  admitleil  an  eipittion,  be 
had  to  offer  Ihe  requisite  sacrifices  before  be  cnnld  be 
restored  to  his  civil  privileges.  With  tbn  ■  men 
worldly-minded  Hebrew  was  content ;  but,  oa  no  men 
animal  aacriflce  could  make  atonement  for  sio,  to  tbe 


vpc  of  something  sp 


s  had  ui 
It  that  h 


onlye: 


iiaL     It  re 


inded  hi 


I  divim 


deserved  death  and  si 
directed  him  to  the  need  of  a  sacrifice  for  sincere  God 
would  forgive  his  tranagreasion  i  and  it  assured  him 
that.  Just  as  by  sacrifice  he  had  been  restored  lo  hn 
civil  and  political  rights,  so  by  falib  in  the  great  tao- 
riOce  for  tin  on  the  part  of  the  lamb  of  God  might  b« 
be  realored  lo  the  divine  favor,  and  to  a  place  in  that 
spiritual  kingdom  nf  which  tbe  Hebrew  nation  was  tb« 

ype.    See  Pmopitmiort  SACntiFicxa. 
Trenenfela,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  ralibi  and  doctor 

if  philosophy  of  tleimaiiy,  wat  bom  at  Detmold  in  Ibe 
year  1818.  After  viailing  the  gymnasium  of  that  place, 
.'ent,  in  18ST,  to  Hanover,  where  he  tiudied  under 
\dler  (now  chief  rabbi  of  England).  In  1889  he 
pursued  a  cmirtenf  ttudiei  at  tlie  Bonn  Unireruty,  and 
rompleled  his  Rabbinical  education  at  Frankfort.  In 
1844  he  was  appointed  labbi  at  Weilbiirg,  in  Nanau, 
and  in  I860  he  waa  called  to  StcCtio,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  30, 1879.  He  piiblished,  KISIt  ri-<C!l^=,  oder  die 
kiriiu  Gtnaii  md  die  nwA  rsrAonrfeiMH  Sruduliett 
dtrtlbm, griiciiicli  und  deutfct,  aad  mf  Aiuitrbaffm, 
'     the  IMrralHiH-ilt  dri  Orinlt,  lM9,Tio.  129:— Uttr 


TREVES,  COUNCILS  OF         643 


TRIAL,  FORENSIC 


Jim  AMOiMM  de*  FUtnut  Jotephut  (1843).  But  his 
littnrv  aciiritv  wu  cbieflv  dispUveil  in  ihe  Jiriirti- 
tinit  'W.«:knad,rij),  which  he  pulil'i»hed  iu  eonneclion 
■ithDr.M.KahnieT.     (E  P.) 

Tiavea,  C<>uiicir.s  of  (6'aiict^iiim  Tmirfuij,  take 
tlwir  nicne  rrom  Treves,  ft  (own  of  Rhenish  rruwii,  ill 
■hirh  ihey  iren  held.  The  town  U  utuileil  on  the 
h|;ht  bulk  or  the  UoMlle,  iiul  had  in  1871  ■  poptilaliuii 
of  i\Mi-  It  ■>  B  decayed  place,  iiuleil  for  ila  ultra- 
montiuitm.  The  cathedral  coiiuin>  miiiy  relica — the 
principal  one  being  the  Holv  Cnal  of  Treves — and  Ro- 
man Rouinii.  ft  hua  prieativ  Kminaty,  a  f^viDuaBium, 
a  Mbnry  of  100,000  vulumea,  a  muwum  full  uf  vahiable 
■ntu|yitie*  —  includiiig  the  famona  Cixke  Aurtat,  or 
HS-uTlhe  G«pel  in  guld  Ictieni,  presented  to  the  Ab- 
bry  of  St.  Haximin  by  Ada.iisterDrCharleniagne. 

I.  The  Firat  Council  wa>  hehl  in  M8.  The  legate 
Marinui,  the  stcbbUhup  of  Treves,  and  several  bishops 
bete  excommunieated  Hugo,  cuuiit  of  X'tnt.  and  two 
prNended  bishops,  made  by  Hugii.the  pseudi-archbisb' 
gp  eT  Rheims.     See  Mansi',  Cunc^ix.OSI.    See  Inokl- 

il.  The  Second  Council  itaa  held  in  1548  by  John, 
cmintoriMnilMiurg.Brchbiihup  of  Treves,  who  presided. 
T«i  cbaplera,  and  a  decree  against  che  eoneubiiiary 
clcrjty,  were  published.     See  Manai,  Cwdi.  xiv,  G06. 

III.  The  Third  Council  was  heUI  by  John,  archbishop 
oTTreve*,  in  1549.    Twenty  canons  were  published. 

I.  Porblda  Ui  bellere,  hold,  or  leach  au;  inker  Ihan  Iha 
BuiHD  dncii ' 


were  to  bejudgea  in  all  the  cities,  whose  duty  it  was  l« 
exercise  Judicial  authority  over  the  sunuunding  neigh- 
borhood. Weighty  causes  were  suhmiileil  to  the  tn- 
preme  ruler.  Originally  trials  were  even-where  sum- 
mary. Mceea,  iu  his  laws,  did  not  establish  any  mora 
formal  or  complicateit  method  of  procedure,  lie  was, 
nevertlieless,  iiixiuus  that  strict  justice  should  be  ad- 
ministered, and  theretbre  frequently  inculcated  the  idea 
that  (jod  was  a  witneu  (Exod.  xx,  21 ;  xxiii,  1-9; 
Lev.  xix,  \b;  Deul.  xxiv,  14,  15).  In  ancient  tiisei^ 
the  fonim  or  place  of  trial  was  in  the  yiiln  of  citiea 
(Gen.  xniit,  10;  Dent,  xxi,  <9).  In  the  trial  the  ac- 
cuner  and  the  accused  appeared  before  the  judge  or 
judges  (xxv,  1),  and  both  the  implicated  parltcB  stood 


«.  Ofpi 


10.  Pro'ldei  fbr  leuwiiliiic  ihe  n 
ilTes  a  list  or  tliose  which  •■hHll  In 
11. 11.  oribe  re)lj[lona  uiid  ihelr 


inra  be  dniy  said  i>T  clerks,  an< 
-■  ■■■  —  "-na  In  tbs  cl-'- 

>r  fsBLIfalf, 


snd  oihcrsorilw  clarg<,  shall  be  supplied  with  B  copy  of 

3(«  Manai,  xiv,705. 
Tr«Te«,  Hoi-Y  Cuat  of.    See  Hoi-t  Coat  of 

Travett,  Rissbli.,  D.D.,  a  clergFroan  of  the  Prot- 
tiUnt  Episcopal  (%urch,  waa  a  native  of  Mew  York. 
He  was  ordained  in  1811,  bi'caiDe  profeasor  of  languages 
ill  !it.  James's  College,  Klaryland,  in  1843,  and  occupied 
the  Hme  position  in  Sl  John's  College,  Aiina|tDlis,  Md., 
being  elected  thereto  in  1855.  SubsequenHy  he  be- 
came  rector  of  Su  Jama's  Church,  North  Salem,  N.  J.,  a 
pintion  which  be  held  at  the  limeofhiadenlb,  March  8, 
1865.     SeeHBKT.Qimr.C-AHrcA  Arr.July,18G5,p.S2l. 

TriaL  a  tarm  used  in  Scripture  only  in  Ihe  sPnae  of 
litliig  (oaoally  some  form  of  \n^,  fon/iq  or  joai/iiovi 
bat  once  n^p.  Job  ix,  33,  elsewhere  "  temptation" 
(((.v.l;  anil  ao  nipa.  Heb.  xi,  SSi  T/'pawic, "  flery 
iTial,"  I  Pet.  ir,  \i,  lit.  Aurin'sg.  as  elsewhere  rendereil), 
tu  denote  painful  cttcumsiances  into  which  persons  are 
brooght  by  dirine  Pnividence  with  a  view  lo  illnstrate 
the  perfection!  of  Goil,  bring  to  light  the  real  character 


e  thin 


e  influen 


temporal  suffering,  which  ahows  the  tran^toiy 

and  Bucanain  tenure  oT  all  earthly  advantages,  to  pru- 

note  their  eternal  and  *[Hritual  intereata.    See  Teiipt. 

TRtAl^  Cni/RCH.    Sec  ExcoHnuNiCATroN. 

TRIAL,  PoREitaio  (denoted  in  Heb.  by  yt,  to  hold 
a  coart;  while  SBtn  is  the  tnlmce  rendered  by  ihc 
Jodfc,  wbelher  favorable  or  adverse,  both  terms  being 
uio^jr  rendered  "Judgment"  in  the  A.  V.j  Gr.  tfii<nt\ 
Oiiginatly  tbe  hMd  oTihe  familrwasthe  umpire  among 
Iha  Hebrew*,  with  the  power  of  life  and  death  (comp. 
DnLi,)*),  Later  tbe  elden  (q.v.)  succeeded  to  a 
BnOu  aathnitj.     According  Co  tbe  Hoaaic  law,  there 


(vi,  68)'. 


V,  87-40 1  MatU 


Hint.  The  witneMM  were  examined  aeparately,  but  the 
accuaed  person  had  the  liberty  in  be  present  when  they 
gave  their  lealimony  (Numhera  iixv,  80;  DeuU  xTii, 
l-16i  Mark  xxvi,  59).  The  sentence  was  pronounced 
■oon  after  ihe  completion  of  the  examination,  and  Iha 
criminal,  niihiiui  any  delay,  even  if  the  ntTence  was  ■ 
capital  uue,  was  laheii  to  the  place  of  punishment  (Joah. 
vii,32;  1  Sam.  xxii,g;  1  Kings  ii,!S),  See  L'Empe- 
rear,  De  Lryiiui  Ittbraoram  Forrtaibai  (Logd.  16B7)  i 
Ziegler,OeJ«n6v»,?H(iForuw  (ViUmb.  1684);  Benny, 
CWin^iaIC«feo/-Jini'((LoHd.l880,l!nio).    SeeJimoK, 

The  following  remarks  respecting  cenain  special  in- 
stance* of  Judicial  proceedings  in  the  New  Teat,  are  oal- 
culated  to  act  them  in  their  true  legal  light. 

i;  The  trial  of  nur  Lord  before  Pilate  was,  in  a  legal 
senae,  a  trial  for  the  offence  lata  majririiliM — one  which, 
under  the  Julian  law,  following  out  Ihat  of  the  twelve 
tables  {Digril,  ir,  1,3),  would  be  punishable  with  death 
'Luke  xxiii,  -2,  38;  John   xix,  IS,  15).      See  JatW 

Cmkibt. 

i.  The  trials  of  the  apotlles,  of  Stephen,  and  of  Paul 
before  the  high-priest  were  conducted  sccording  to 
Jewish  rules  (Aclsiv;  v,'jr:  vi,l2,  xxii.30-,  xxiii,!). 
See  Stki-iiek. 

8.  The  trial,  if  it  may  b«  an  called,  of  Pan)  and  Silaa 
at  Philippi  was  held  before  tbe  dniiinvin,  or.  as  they 
are  called,  orpariiro',  pnetors,on  the  charge  of  Innova- 
tion ill  religion — a  crime  punishable  with  banishment 
or  death  (Acts  xvi,  19,  32).    See  Skrgkast. 

4.  The  iiitemipled  trial  of  Paul  before  Ihe  proconsul 

charge  of  ihe  same  kind  (Arts  Tcviii,  13-17,  see  Cunv- 
lieare  and  Howsnn,  i,  49-2-490). 

6.  Th*lrialsofPaulalC»area(AclBxxiv,xxv,ixTi) 
were  conducted  acconling  li-  Roman  rules  of  judicature 
of  which  the  pmcnratora  Felix  and  Feslnswere  the  i*o- 
ngnised  adminlstralom.  (I.)  In  Ihe  first  of  these,  before 
Felice,  we  observe  ('>)  the  employment  by  the  plaintilh 
of  ■  Rotnan  advocate  lo  plead  in  Idtiii  [see  Oratoh]; 
(*)  the  pnalponement  (rmplinlio)  of  the  trial  afler  Paul's 
■    •      Smiiti,  Did.  of  Cliitf.  A  «Hg./i      ■■  ■   ■    - 


(c)  i: 


>  freed 


cnsed  q 


>  kepi, 


pending  the  decision  of  the  judge  (Acts  xxiv,  23-!6> 
(!.)  The  second  formal  trial,  before  Fesiu!>,  was  proba- 
bly conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  ihe  former  one  be- 
fore Felix  (ixv,  7,  8),  but  it  presents  two  new  fealures: 
(n)  Ihe  appeal,  njiittlalio  or  /irorocofia,  to  Cssar  by 
Paul  as  a  Roman  citizen.  The  right  of  appeol  odpnpu. 
fun.  or  lo  the  tribunes,  became,  under  the  empire,  trans- 
ferrecl  to  the  emperor,  and,  as  a  citizen,  Paul  availed 
himself  of  the  right  lo  which  he  was  em  illed,  even  in 
the  case  of  a  provincial  governor.  The  effect  of  the  ap- 
peal was  to  remove  Ihe  case  at  once  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  Ihe  emperor  (see  Ouivbeare  and  Itowsnn,  ii,  SGO; 
Smith,  «t  fi'p.  a.  v.  "Appellalio;"  It^^f,  xlix.  I,  4). 
(A)  The  conference  of  the  preruralorwith  "the  ronncil" 
(Acis  XXV,  la).  This  coiineU  is  usually  explsin«l  to 
bsve  consisted  of  the  ascessors,  who  sat  on  the  liench 
with  the  pmtor  as  consiliarii  (Sueton.  I'ift.  3P    Groliiia, 


TRIAL  SERMON  54 

Oh  Adi  xxc;  Conybeare  and  Howaon,  ii,  S58,  361). 
Bat,  be«d«  [he  nbeence  of  any  previous  mf  ntion  ufuiy 
■iiK*son  (aee  below),  the  mode  urexprewion  iriiUaXq- 

tion  of  cvnferencG  witb  the  depuiiea  from  the  Sanhe- 
drim (rii  OKji/}.)-  VxnVi  >p|ieil  would  probably  be  in 
Ihe  Latin  iangusf^,  and  would  require  explaLtalJon  on 
the  part  of  the  judge  to  the  depuiaiiuii  of  accuien  be- 
fore he  carried  into  effect  the  iiieviulle  reault  of  the 
appeal,  viz.  the  dismiaaal  of  the  caae  su  (at  at  they  were 


It  Ephctus,  iu 


crnteA.     See  1 

j«d 

and  av^irraroi.  The  fotmei 
silting,  of  prurincial  citizens  form  in];  the  eonrentuii.  out 
of  which  the  proconsul,  livSuiraroc,  selected  "judices" 
to  Bit  as  hie  asaessoi^  The  nvSuraroi  would  (hua  be 
the  judicial  tribunal  composed  of  the  proconsul  and  his 
aasessors.     In  the  former  case,  at  Csurea,  it  is  difficult 


imagine 


ouldbi 


pnvincial  aaaeuora.  There  the  only  elasa  ufmen  qnali- 
Hed  fur  such  a  function  would  be  the  Human  officials  at- 
tached to  the  procurator;  but  in  I'nicnnsular  Asia  such 
assemblies  are  well  known  to  have  existed  (Smith,  Z>i«. 
o/Claa.  .*n(ij.  B.  V.  "  Provincia"). 

Early  Christian  practice  dlBCounf^  resort  to  heathen 
tribunals  in  civil  nutters  <1  Cor.  vi,  1).     See  Pukish- 

Ttial  Soimon.     See  Tbmls. 

Trlala.'Ihe  name  given  in  ecclesiastical  diction  to 
those  discourses  delivered  before  the  presbytery  by 
students  who  have  finished  their  eourse,  and  are  seek- 
ing to  be  licensed  to  preach.  These  discourses  arc  a 
aermon,  a  lecture,  a  hotnily,  an  exegesis  or  exercise  with  ' 
allllilion^  and  a  thena.  There  are  also  examinations 
oil  syslcmalic  theology  and  practical  piety,  on  Church 
history,  and  on  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

Trlansle  ControvBMy,  Thh,  was  a  dispute  oc- 
casioned by  The  Tria,^,  a  book  by  Samuel  Whelpley 
(IBIS)  aganisC  limited  atonement,  inability,  and  imme- 

Albert  Ramesand  nf  Lyman  Beeeher  Rir  alleged  heresy, 
and  Hnally  la  the  disruption  of  the  I'Tesbylerian  Church 
in  1837.  'See  Hagenbach,//Mf.n/'itort,'ii,442. 

Tribe  (TTUp  and  U3lp,  both  originally  meaning  a 
rod  or  branch  i  ^uX^)  is  the  name  of  the  great  groups 
of  families  Into  which  the  laroelitish  nation,  like  other 
Oriental  races,  was  divided.  The  modem  Arabs,  the 
Bedawin,  and  the  Berbers,  and  also  the  Moors  on  rhe 
northern  shares  of  Africa,  are  still  divided  into  tribes. 
The  clans  in  Scotland  are  also  analogous  to  the  tribes 
of  the  andent  Israelites.  The  diviaii>n  of  a  nation  into 
tribes  diSkn  from  a  division  into  casti«,  since  one  is  a 
division  merely  according  to  descent,  and  the  other 
superadds  a  neecsnty  of  similar  occupations  being 
prevalent  among  persons  connected  by  consanguinity. 
There  occurs,  however,  among  the  Israelites  a  caste 
also,  namely,  that  of  the  Lcvites.  In  (ien.  xlix  the 
tribes  are  enumerated  according  to  their  progenitors; 
viz.  ],  Reuben,  the  flnt-hom ;  %  Simeon,  and  3, 1.evi, 
insirumenlB  of  cruelly;  4,  Jutlah,  whom  his  brethren 
riuUl  praise:  5,  Zebuinu,  dwelling  at  the  haven  of  the 
sea;  6,  lasachar,  Ihe  strong;  7,  Dan,  the  judge;  8,  Gad, 
whom  a  troop  Bhallovercomcimtwhoshall  vanquish  at 
last;  g,  Ashet,  whose  bread  shall  be  fat;  10,  Naphlali, 
giving  goodly  wonls;  lI,Jaseph,the  fruitful  bough ;  12, 
Benjamin,  the  woK:  all  these  were  originally  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel  (see  Allin.  Pi-ophtewt  ofthe  Ttrrlrr  Tribri 
[Lond.  1S&6]).  Inthisenumcralioiiitinrcmarkablethal 
the  subseqnenl  division  ofthe  tribe  ofjosephinlo  the  two 
branches  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  is  nofyel  alludetl 
to.  After  this  later  division  of  the  very  numerous  Iribe 
of  Joseph  intothetwobranchesof  Kphraimand  Manas- 
seh had  taken  place,  there  were,  strictly  speaking,  thir- 
teen tribes.     It  wsa,  however,  usual  to  view  them  as 


TRIBE 

comprehended  under  the  number  twelve,  which  WIS  lb« 
more  natural,  since  one  of  them,  namely,  the  caste  of 
the  Leviles,  did  not  live  within  such  exclusive  geo- 
graphical limits  as  were  assigned  to  the  others  afla 
they  exchanged  their  nomadic  migrations  for  settled 
habiislions,  but  dwelt  in  towns  scattered  through  all 
the  other  twelve  tribes.  It  is  also  lemarkable  that  the 
Ishmaelites,  as  well  as  the  Israeliteo,  were  divided  into 
twelve  tribes;  and  that  the  Persians  also,  according  id 
Xenophon  iCyropadui,  i,  2,4  sq.),  were  similarly  di- 
viiled.  Among  other  nations  also  occur  eihnob>Eial 
and  K^grsphical  divisions,  according  lo  the  number 
twelve,  from  this  we  infer  ihat  Ihe  number  twelrc 
was  held  in  so  much  favor  that,  when  pnasible,  doubt- 
ful cases  were  adapted  to  it.  An  analogous  case  we 
find  even  at  a  later  period,  when  the  spiritual  pmgeiu- 
tors  ofthe  Christian  ^u6cDf  tiXof,  or  the  apoMlrs,  vbo 
were,  after  the  death  of  Juda^  the  election  ofMatthis^ 
and  the  vacation  of  Paul,  really  thirteen  in  nomlier, 
were,  nevertheless,  habitually  viewed  as  twelve;  sotliat 
wherever,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  any  diriaion  was 
made  with  reference  to  the  apostles,  the  number  twelve 

hallB  of  theological  libraries,  or  lo  the  great  baneh  sf 
costly  wines  in  the  cellar  of  Ihe  civic  authorities  st 
Bremen.  Concerning  the  arrangement  of  these  iribn 
on  their  msrch  through  the  wilderness,  in  tbeii  to- 
campmenis  around  the  ark,  and  in  Ibeir  occupation  of 
the  land  of  Canaan,  see  the  cognate  articles,  such  H 
Exo[)E ;  Ehcaupmemt  ;  GENiULOOIKa ;  Lcm^ 
W.i.Nr>iiiiiKO;  anil  the  names  of  tbe  sevNal  tribes,  Vt 
confine  ourselves  here  la  two  points. 

■.  Thr  "  /.orf  THbei."-TWui  has  been  an  inexhsoiti- 
>f  theologico-historical  charlatauism,  on  wbieh 
there  have  been  written  sa  many  volumes  ihat  it  wnoM 
be  ilifilcult  to  condense  the  conlradictory  opinions  ad- 
vanced in  them  within  the  limits  of  a  mnderaie  article. 
Suffice  it  to  lay  that  there  is  scarcely  any  human  rare 
Ml  al>)ect,  forlorn,  and  dwindliii|[.  located  anywbeie  br- 


Ible: 


leChini 


suied  to  be  the  ten  tribes  whici 
from  history  duiing  and  after  the  Uabylan 
[f  the  books  written  on  the  ten  tribes  cnntained  nniH] 
truth,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  where  Ibey  are  not. 

The  truth,  however,  of  Ihe  matter  seeiDS  rather  to  he 
as  follows.  After  the  division  of  the  Isnelites  anila 
.leraboam  and  Rehobosm  into  the  two  klngdomi  tf 
Judsh  and  Israel,  the  believers  in  whom  the  feelings 
of  ancient  theocratic  legitimacy  and  nationality  pre- 
dominated,  and  especially  the  priests  and  Levites,  ichs 
were  connected  by  many  ties  with  the  tanctuaiy  at 
Jerusalem,  hail  •  tendency  to  migrate  towards  Ibe  rii- 
ible  centre  of  their  devotions;  while  those  menbtn  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  who  had  an  individ- 
ual hankering  after  the  foreign  fashions  adopted  in 
Samaria,  and  Ihe  whole  kingdom  of  Israel,  had  a  tcD- 
dency  externally  to  unite  themselrea  to  a  stale  sf 
things  corre^KHiding  with  their  individuality.  Afut 
the  political  1^1  of  bolh  kingdoms,  when  all  the  prind- 
pat  families  connected  with  Ihe  poeoessian  of  the  sol 
hod  been  compelled  to  emigrate,  niost  Israelites  wko 
had  previously  little  feeling  for  theocratic  nation^ 
grailually  amalgamated  by  marriages  and  other  on- 
nections  with  Ihe  naiions  by  which  they  were  «m- 
rounded ;  while  the  fonoer  inhabitants  nf  the  kingdtn 
ofjndah  felt  their  nationality  revived  by  Ihe  veij'ikli- 
rivation  of  public  worship  which  they  suflered  in  fu^ 
eign  lands.  Many  ofthe  pious  members  of  those  trtbn 
which  had  (ormeHy  constituted  the  kingdom  of  Iind 
undoubtedly  joinod  the  reluming  colonies  which  pn>- 
ccmieil,  by  permission  of  Ihe  Peiuan  monarchs,  lo  tbt 
land  of  their  fathers.  However,  these  former  mem- 
bers of  the  other  tribes  formed  so  decidedly  a  roinorily 
among  the  members  ofthe  tribe  of  Judah  that  btue- 
forth  all  believers  and  woishippen  of  Jebo*ah  wot 
called  C^^^n^,  'loi/Saioi,  Judai,  Jews,    Thus  it  caiiw 


TEIBE  6 

10  p«H  that  the  beat,  iltbougb  amklter,  portion  of  the 
ten  iribn  ■miigimated  wiib  the  Jews,  tutus  or  wbum 
prMcrred  their  genetlogiea  till  alUr  tbe  deatruetion  oT 
Jeninlern ;  while  the  larger  proportian  ot  the  ten  tribei 
■DUl^^fnaled  niih  the  Gentiles  ot  Central  Asia,  to 
whom  Ihey  probably  imparted  some  or  their  notion! 

pure,  propagated  to  distant  regions  by  the  great  ni- 
tiunsi  migralions  proceeding  Irani  CcDlral  Asia.  We 
are  elail  (o  find  that  this,  our  historical  conviclioi  * 
alvj  been  adopted  by  the  rhbI  learned  among  the 
IhrmselTea  (see  Juat,  A  Ugnttiat  GftdiUhit  da  itratU- 
fiioba  roifaa  [BarUD,188aj,  1,107  Bi^Ueaq,).  See 
C&rriviTir, 

If.  Bouiidaty-liaa  of  the  Tribtt  /cfanTijfedL—This 
topic  baa  uauallv  been  abandoned  bv  commentalora  as 
hopeksa.  Keil^CmmtB./.  on  Jo»*.)' is  really  the  only 
one  *bo  has  aerioitsly  grappled  with  its  difSculliea, 
aome  of  irhieh  eren  be  is  compelled  to  pronounce  in- 
•nluhle.     Sec  each  tribe  in  its  aJphabetical  place. 

nnlh,  being  tbe  son i hem  iHinndary 


'  the  tnns-Jurdan 

lerlver  AriiuD(IVni1yel-HAieb)i>N  theDeadSciii  then> 
oDg  tbe  Amon  tu  Ar.«r  C"  -  "  ■-  -'"  ■"-  ■■-- 
oog  Ihe  M 


oridsry  ol 


monri  » 
nclDded. 


tribes  (whk _  -.  „. ,,...,     _.   

Isod  stralching  essmard  froni  Jordan  tiM.  H.  being  thai 
eoulalninic  Medaba  and  DIbon  [Illi,  «])  (uortta-easterlT 
(long  Ihe  Wady  Bakhelleh  lo  Lejaml  i  thence  nbmg  the 
eaium  hnnndsiy  of  the  trsos^Jordaiitc  tribes  (east  ••?  the 
rolna  oFBI-Uerrf)  i  then  with  sn  Inclloatlon  weal  of  north 
■,.  ••  In  erclude  Jaier  (Ter.  Wi  (9elr>,  nlao  IU1>bai]|.Bm- 
3.  xl,  I)  |io  a  point  lielow  Jeheiha  which  was 
n.bably  heiog  the  JotdMhah  <>t  the  Oadlfes, 
.........  uaII,  SB);  ibeuceeuilrelyaoiiihofQIIesd  (Jo>h. 

liil,  SS>  (directly  wwl,  down  the  wadle*  Nnnr  nnd  Hes- 
hiDl,  eicludlDg  Beih-hamn  (Beli-bnrsn)  (Ter.SI)  and 
Atruih-atanphau  (Dear  Jierjakkeh)  (Nnmtk  luil,  tS>,  bnt 
luclodloE  Herbbnn  ( Hesb&n ),  Elesleb  (BI-'Al),  Btunoth 
(oKnp.  ^,  1*,  W)  (probably  Jehel  Hnmeh).  and  Nebo 
(now  disnxered  In  Jebel  NebaJ  <Tixlt.  n :  J<wb.  Ill),  IT]  i 
ibence  amtherly  akmg  the  Jordan  lo  the  place  of  begio- 

1  Sod.— On  tbe  anntb,  (OlliiwlDg  the  norlbero  line  ot 
Renben  fnnn  ibe  Jordan  tii  Iha  enaleru  bonndary  of  the 
innsjnidanlc  tribes  (nt  Jebelbn) :  thence  north  byeaat 
al.iiit  tbe  eastern  boniidsry  of  the  inina.Jordsnlc  irlbaa 
(unnod  the  Durthem  hruw  of  Jebel  Zerka)  (to  a  point  np. 

Exile  Jerash  [Oenist]  between  Jebel  Zerka  sud  Jebel 
inimfkn);  Iheiice  In  n  norlh-wsslerlT  direction  Bcto» 


Oiior,  a(ii«iKi«of"Pal.K»ulor.PnDd,"p,88«i.i  April, 
lST*,p.S8,eg:  July,18T4.p.r»a 

On  the  north,  begmnlng  at  tbe  northern  bay  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (which  t.^rnied  the  eastern  bonndnry),  where 
the  .l.irdaii  empties  Into  It  (>e«  tbis  whole  line  In  Josh. 
IV,  O-IS,  sud  iuTerrely  In  itIII.  1<-!0I  ;  nbllooely  BCroaa 
the  plsln  ol  the  Jordnn  to  Betli-hoglata  ( Aln-haJIs), 
thence  to  Beth^raboh  (si  flrsl  Inclnded.  bnt  snerwnrdi 
exclnded)  llieuce  slinstBd  pnibnbiy  ai 


HiiJIa) 


.1  place. 


eolly 


?idr;? 


Wsdy  Dabni-)  i 
(wblcb  must  ihererore  be  plscedon  tbe  west  side  olWndy 
bsbDB  [near  Its  bead;,  whicb  last  the  bonndary  cnwred, 
as  eipreend  by  coming)  from  the  vnlley  ot  Achor,  tbenca 
northward  Kiwnrda  01^1  or  Oellloth  (which  Isaiplalntd 
aa  being  In  front  of  the  aacent  to  Adnnmlm  (apparently 
lying  nu  tbe  hllla  ■kirtlug  Ihe  Jordan  Just  west  of  Oil»>l, 
to  wliich  tbe  access  woiila  be  by  tbe  •alley  on  the  sonlli 
side  ot  Jebel  «I-Fh«cs:  Adnmmlm  Iprobsbly  nt  ed-Dem 
near  es-Snmreta]  being  further  described  as  lylog  on  the 
south  Bide  or  the  " rrver,"  pmhublr  Wndy  Ketl);  thence 
ID  tbe  waters  of  Bii^hemeth  (probably  Ihe  "  foanlaln  of 
the  BpDstles,"auibe  road  between  Bethsiiyand  Jerlchoh 
Iheiice  (ncr.™  the  M.mnt  i.t  Olives  by  way  of  Bolhanyl 
to  B>i-roget  ( Ibe  well  or  Job  >iear  Jemsalem ) :  thence 
aroDiid  lEc  valley  nt  Iliunom  {bnt  at  ■  later  dale  ncroas 
Hnunt  Moilah,  which  David  pnrchased,  and  north  of  Jo- 

dah),  ihroDgh  the  vnlley  flfOihon  lo  the  bill  si  its  norih- 
wetlem  end,  bonudlog  the  pliiin  or  valle;  ot  Rei>liulni 
WHI  uf  Ihe  city :  Ihanca  aloug  tbe  ridie  or  this  eisvnud 
ulnin  or  "hill''  In  the  tonntAn  of  Nenbloab  Iprobabiy 
'AIn  Yalo  In  Wady  al-Werd,  which  lasi  It  probably  ro(- 
lowed  alter  cniasing  the  "glnnls'  plain;"  bir  It  mnat 
bave  beni  conelderably  bi  the  tonlb,  since  It  paased  uenr 


.  .  sepnlchre,  now  Enbbet  R. , 

<d  Belhlebem  [1  Sam.  i,  11) ;  ibenc 
._  ant  Bphron  (lying  consldersbly  n 
:lnliy,  slUiongb  among  Its  "dHes''  m 


rthward  ol  this 


r,»«,»0)(Mshneh),w 

-'  •' -oth  (»e»  of  ". 

Item  boondsr 


le  sea  or  Uunereth  (sea  ol 


ir.  «T),  with  tbe 


valley  between  Jebel  Zerkn  and  Jebel  Kstk 
plain  lying  east  of  the  Istler) ;  thence  north. 
Ibe  banDdary  of  the  trans.Jorda»lc  tribes  (I 

es-Znmle,  and  psrtly  serosa  the  plain  or  the 

— '-  along  Ihe  uma  booudsry  wl""-  -  ■ 

'-  cnrve  III  rough  lb'  "'- 

e  Hannin},  in  aa 


ka.wlthihi 
ipterty  aloni 
I  direct  llo< 


lerlr  cnrve  ihroagb  Ibe  pinlii  otBaah 

C.e.the  Hannin},  in  aa  lo  Include  Bdr.. 
nu  or  Dera)  (Ter.  SI),  nod  so  on  nonh-w 


^^ordanic  t 
xnlv.S);  tbi 


faermnD  range  lo  lis  Junction  wiib  Wndy  el-Teimal  Bns- 
.the"entrauceinloHBmaib''(Nnnib. 
Ban  las  audits  brook),  through  Ihe 

-- ipperJunlHi.,andlbesaivoraaille«, 

lo  Iheplace  of  beginning  (ver.  lU-lJ). 

4.  JiUtaK  —On  the  s.iulb,  the  sonlherly  bonndary  of 
Canaan,  beglnntng  on  the  border  ot  Bdl^^l.  at  the  snnth. 
era  bay  of  the  Dead  Sea.  sontbwnrd  (along  the  Qhiir)  past 
the  ascent  or  Acrahbloi,  near  Ihe  dCFert  o?  ZIn  (Ibe  Wndy 
t|.Jelb  or  Ibe  Arabah).  lo  the  vicluliy  or  Kadeali-barnea 
(Ain-weibeta  or  Ain-hai>b)  (Josh.  XT,  I^;  Nninb.  xxitv. 

b-madsry  of  Canaan  (perbaps  thrungb  Wady  Pikreh ) 
(vbei*  we  nay  aaaign  a  location)  t«AdnrotElniat-addnr: 
theoce  weaterly  nronnd  (perhipa  by  wadlea  Maderah  nnd 
Marreh)  to  Knrkiu  (parkapa  In  this  latter),  then  iilli 

BiKlciii  ElDSal :  thence  iiorih. westerly  (perhaps  by  Wady 
eo-AUia)  iu  "Ihe  river  of  Betpffor  El-Arlsh).  and  sn  i>ii 
lotbeMedllermnean.wtalch  fbriud  Ihe  western  boundary 


vlcinliy,  slUiongb  nmong  Its  "dHes''  may  properly  hnva 
been  reckoned  K trial b-^srlDi:  tfals  line  bring  probsbty 
carried  thnniEh  Wady  Bllllr,  ihan  by  Wody  Sntif,  di>a 
nonhl  to  Kli}slb-Jearlm  (otherwlMi  Baalib  or  Kiijnih- 
baal)  (now  Ruryet  el-EDab);  Ihence  west  lacroM  the  In- 
Urrenlog  valley  occupied  by  the  Beul-inellk  in  Ibe  dl- 
reclloii  of  Vtlol  lo  Ibe  rldk-e  ot  Seir  Iperhapa  Indicnled 
"  '■  hence  (eoiitB-WBBIBrfy  along  Ibis 
them  spur  cnlled  Mount  Jeariin 
(just  across  Wndy  ObHrab),  where  Is  located  (Keala,  the 
repiesautnilve  of)  Chesal.m  (or  Cbesnlioih);  ihence  (still 
keeping  sootb-wealerly  ainiigibe  saina  range  oT  bills,  be- 
tween Zanoab[Zannn),  and  £irah[Saral,  the  last  ot  which 
was  arterwards  assigned  In  Dno,  wlib  several  other  cllles 
Ol)  tbia  part  or  tbelianndary  [Josb.  ill.  It  aq.J)  to  £n- 
sbemeeh  (or  Ir^heineah)  (now  AI»4henM);  theoce  (a 
llllla  a.mtli  of  Wady  Snrsr)  near  Timnath  (Tlhneh)  and 
Bhrou  CAklr)  (Iha  laat  three  lowua  being  dusliy  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  Dan),  and  so  on  to  Iho  Mcdllerra- 
nean,pasalngsncceMiTe1y8hleron(perhape  Beii-slt),  next 
Mount  Baalsh  (possibly  Tell  Hermes),  and  llnaily  Jabueel 
(elsewhere  Jabneh  Enow  Yebon])  (but  eveniunily  dertrl- 
liiK  the  Nsbr  Rnblu  a  little  beyond  lis  Jnnctfou  wiib 

luclude  Oedern^  [Oheternh],  lint  exclude  Jabneb  and 
Bene-bemk  (Burks],  rescbiui;  the  sen  by  Wsdy  Burnt). 

Of  Jndah  only  are  there  any  di^Ilocl  and  regnisr  snb- 
dlvltions  given  (lor  Kelt's  nrningemenl  of  Ibe  l.>wns  of 
Simeoii  in  r..nr  gronns  BCCordiuB  to  Joeh.  xv,  Sl-«t  (Can- 
mmt.  nd  Inc.]  Is  not  Jiistllled  by  the  jiirallel  passage  {Josh. 
-*-  Ml.nor  by  iheannloKy..reouniorntlonluihecn«i 
._...■. '-"vIsioHsotJnclnhtiv.SS-OT]  Bud  Benjn. 


>r  ibe  others 

nin  fivlll,  ti-t 
"nod"  being  oi 


only  b< 


locality],  nor.  dually,  wiib  

,  ir  Ihe  siies).     The  irintbernmoM  seel  Ion 

(strelchiog  apparently  entirely  across  rrom  tbe  Dend  Sea 
to  Ihe  Mediterranean)  const Ituied  tbe  lerrlt'iry  o[  Slmsim, 
Inclndlng  (as  appears  from  a  comparison  ofJusb.  xv,  tl-81 
witb  III.  1-S)  twenly-nlne  (strictly  twenty-six)  cities 
(namely,  Kabieal,  Bdar,  Jagor,  Eloati,  Dimonah,  Adadah, 
Kedeah  tKsdesta-bameat,  Baior,  tbe  twofold  town  Iib- 
nan-Zlpb  [Zephatb]  with  lia  neighboring  mln^  Bormah 

BHasar-addar],  Telam,  Bhema  <ir  Shebs  [Haaar-sbnil]. 
oladab,  Heebinon  lAamonJ,  Belb-pale^  Ueer^heba,  the 
iwlii-towus  Bealoib  or  Balab  [Itamatb-nekebj  and  Us. 
JothJah.bBBlabDrBaalath-beur[Lebl],Ilm,Aiem,EliDbu], 
ChasllorBeibut.ZiklacMadniaiinnbnrBeih-marenboili. 
-      lalmah  or  ElBiar-snsah.LebaoIh  or  lt>iIi-lel>aoth,8hil- 
or  Shnraben,  and  lb*  donble  town  Aiu-rlmnion  ur  Bif 
non),  besides  three  Tillages  dependent  upon  two  t^ 
.  e  (namely,  Hainnbadailnh  nnd  Keiloih-heiron  or  Ha- 
lor-amBm  [belonging  to  Ha aorproper),  and  llniar^nddab 
(to  HaaBrabiiall),  and  In  adnllion  two  or  Ibe  towns  In  ibe 
plain  (namely,  Ether  and  Ashsn),  with  others  dnnbltesa 

.      Bute  Mctions— tbe  drsl  compri-lng 

(originally)  rourleen  towiu  (Qcdernh  and  Oederoinalm  bf 
Ine  Ihe  same),  sitnnlad  In  tlie  north-weiteni  corner  »r  the 
tribe;  tbe  second  cimiprlBlii"  sixteen  towns, all un led  Im- 
mediately south  of  Ibis,  ill  Ifae  western  part  ot  Ibe  Irlbt; 


or  ihe  irlbe, 
I.>  Jtriiralec 
PliillKilne 


compcWDf 


nil  oriba  pr«edlug. 

!  r»ad  Irodlntf  fnin 
_ .  ,^3  Mnrlb  ci)inpni[ii|[  Hi 
owDh  BUniiud 
ibeKedlii  - 


(tm  lit  wblch,  u  aboTC, 

'    ibllWB  iTingop  Die 

the  middk 


Ave  princlpil 
TEkruii  bcliis  rcallj 

.  _„    — -siTghnuTj 


ilineb  In  tbe  "  vnlleT").  Tlie  hTftalKUi 
lutur.'  WD*  llbewtH  >ulidWI<led  inU 
Drfl  coDlalnlUit  •teren  chlit  lowiil.  alli 
urderorSineon  In  tb«  middle :  tbeaccut 
chief  diler,  lUiuied  ImimHllnlel]'  nun 
III  Lhe  wHitlieni  ptrl  of  Iha  irlbe  imni 
ilnl  ciinulnliig  ten  metroiHillInn  lourn 


Iha  niTihern  bonndarTi  and  ihe  drib  conialulDg  aniy  i«> 
nwiropulltii]  iindin,  aliniied  In  lbs  norlbam  uiedinl  an 
■lie  batwcen  Ibe  buU-oimed  gninp  and  ihe  vallej  dialiici 
Ths  ninalniiis  diatricia  ambiaced  tbe  deiart  tract  nr  •'  wll 
-  alMis  Ibe  DBnd  »ea,  and  tnclndad  aii 


lb  SelU) 


|Beih-araliablJeliiKlnB«Uaniln|.  Tberenar 
ili»i  In  Ike  Saptuaglul  (at  »er.  ns)  of  eleven  ejil 
Tekoab,  Belblaheai,  Phacnr,  Kinm,  KpIkd.Ti 
Kaieiii,  aalllm,  Beiher,  mid  Meuuctiab),  pnibn 


le  third 


aalllm, 

uaDDlua  icil, 
'rdaHdlUnnb.. 
md  dalllm  beli 


Talam,  Saria, 


iblyre 


I  a  pint 


,  and  wunid  liidiciire  n  ^mnp  beiweeii 
ichliiE  to  JsnHalam  iKdIud, 
ijamrnj. 
D.  .'fimeon.^Tbla  Irlhe  had  a  pnrllnn  eat  nlT  rrom  Ibe 
nbiivekmndedtenitorirorJudablJMb.ili,  1-S},enibnic- 
luE  aome  reieiitean  nr  tmreul  jclllea  (accnrdliiE  na  we  nuke 
eeverni  In  tbe  Hat  Idenltcnt  nr  dlflbtcm),  nf  wbkh  nnlir  two 
»r  three  hnTs  bean  located  villi  nnjr  decree  or  deflnllenna. 
uanieW.  Be«-aheba  Ipmbablr  Bli-ee-Saba),  Hnludah  (i>e^ 
haps  (i-Mlll.  and  Bi>rinBh  (iir  Zephatb,  pneflbl;  reprereiit- 
ed  liv  Ibe  naaa  ea-Sara) :  itala  marb  •inly  la  nldeut,  Ihm 
-  winlh  nr  Jndah.and  we  thall 
■    -    clirwedrawtbe 


dli 


•reFiire  piMbablT  be  nnt  far  rron  eorrecl 
ildliiE  tine  beiweeu  Judah  SDd  Knenn     .  .    . 
<m  the  Dead  Sen  at  Haaaada.  np  Wadr  Sebbeh,  Ibei 
maa  In  Ibe  eame  direction  Itom  Sbdell.  Jnal  aonih     . 

'     BdJattlrl'AltlrMaUwJiiBClliniorWadir 

Wadj Kholllt  ihence  — "  '- — 

.irmerotlhevawadled. 

lU  oT  Judah !  tbencc  weal  by  innlh  {Blioig  Wadr 
ti>  tbe  Medltarrauaan,  a  abort  diatauce  auntli  or 


=>IB|OhDIL.  .. 

fl.  Bei'iimto.-Oii  Ihe  iiorlb.  ri.ltewliiK  the  bonndi 
pbraini  (Josh.  xvl.  1-S,  «,T;  ivlll,  Il-IBI,  beglnninc 
arclan  npptialle  Jericho  IpmbnblT  at  the  month  of 
n.»ini..hi.  ih«ice  (acniM  tbe  plain  of  [be  Jordan 

liorlhward  or  Jerichr  '        '*' ' 

(ea-Siiinmhl, 


'7.ei 


elude  ^1 
(ifer.l«b]rlhe« 
II  iiwrliaiw  B*e 
directhni)  Ihniit 


el-AIn, 


»t(l.e 


,,e.-.. 

ewi)  or  Jerl 
Kill,  I"  * ' 


rrof  Betb-iiveiilBenl-ailliiiMiTlll,  lih  Uiat  eileDde 
■    '  '^-toihehlllrreMlonofBei'     ■-  ■  ■■    -  -      -■ 


thiit  anpeate  to  applj  na  well 
we<-t  ^ebel  Knranlnl  (Ml. 


elliiri,l)-i 


rifr, 


:r1pllo 


et-T^ijibeh)  and  Opb- 


_  _. ._..  I  iMl.Qi 

pun  of  which  Iha  line  wonid  |ui 
elude  (ivlll,  a,  H)  Upbrab  Iperb  ... 
nl  IprobnblT  jlrni)  Iprobably  op  Wady  el-Aiaeb)  Ha  It  a>- 
cended  Wad;  llablr,  paaalng  Nnarah  (x>l.  I,  Nnaratt 
NaaniB)  on  Iha  wnj,  which  la;  eaat  of  Beih-el  (1  Chrot 
Til.SSI|perbapaalel-IIeJanleb|:(WmBetbeHni.wBelili 
(whicb,  beinu  iDclnded  In  Benlamtii,  tbe  expreailoD  1 
Ihe  aide  of  Lni  w.athward"  iJoah.  «rlil,  W]  moH  be  In- 
terpreted aa  ludlcatlD)!  that  Ihe  Hoe  rnit  beiwHu  Betli-el 
on  the  (oMh  and  the  iiDcleut  alle  of  Lni  n  Utile  lu  ihe 


.ed  In  J.vb.  I  ., 

IcInliTl  the  Hue  paaw 
— '" •■  weal  nf  Bin 


<n  Ihe  (OMh 

''le  two  apoia  oen 

nUbmigb  occnpyiDg  Iha  anii 

{atrectlT  •onlh-n-nt  alona  lb 

IBeenith]),  pa«<^li>g  ArcbRall 

-  ■ Vadilarl, !-  -  ' — 

I  ot  Betb- 

ontheni  eMrtralir  of  Ihla  part  of  iha  I 
alia  and  UBiijamln  (that  bead  Ihe  eaetl, 
.boron  Ihe  npper  (Ter.  BI,  and  weatoTNa 


iMaltnated  perbapa  at  Ibe  mined 
Itarolh  (called  aMi  Alamtb-adar 


tadnE  the 
^dB^nnte<L 


■oDihl  ITer.  Tit  IndlcillaiiB  that  all  poll 

(for  hnl  one  place  of  ihe  nane  aeeme  w . 

(lncelheBBdeMr1ptlii™|Tar.B,0lB«iclnnK,  Tiara 
puns  lit  Ibe  anine  acmtbarn  kmndarji  or  E|ilira(n  (the  Ural 
IW"  cUwea  of  »er.  •.  and  tbe  whole  of  ver.  S,  howoter,  re- 
fer tolhenonbem  border.as  Kell.ln  hi*  0>inn«n<..ndmlta, 
althonsb  be  eouleMea  binweir  nuable  to  clear  np  ihe  dlffl. 
cDliIca  'ir  the  mw«iE«L  reckooad  Brat  [rer.  0,  t  latl  cUaae] 
westward  m  Belh-horoii,  nnd  Ibeiica  back  n|;nln  (ver. '] 
iiiiire  nilnnteir  iirei  Iha  tame  Una  and  eaalward  lo  lh( 
Jordan)  direcilj  anat  ot  Belh-boron  (donbtleas  tbe  Atarn, 


of  Wadi  SnlelniDO, 


.._,  Snlelman,  >o  «*  to  Inclade  Cbaphlrah  (xtllV.  H) 
(probabl)'  KeSir,  aeai  Ibla  road),  oppoalla  the  hill  abvet 
deecrlbed  (ver.  14,  where  tba  aiprtaalon  rendered  "evia- 


1;]  direction),  and  amlD  Bnatb-eaaierl]r  to  Kbjalb- 
I  (ibn*  rormlnn;  Ibe  wetlcrn  aide),  where  It  Jalned 
nndary  of  Jodah.  which  II  n>llowed  back  lo  tbr  Jor 
id  ao  Dp  to  Ibe  point  ot  beglunliig. 
lownBorthlitrlbaannmemedluJoab.ivl11.ll-M 
'  to  ba  daased  nnder  two  ;^uenil  aectlon* — Ibt 
In  ver.  tl-M  lying  nurtb  and  etH  at  Jemuleei, 
the  fourteen  oibera  iiccupji  the  mure  aouthem  lad 


lea,  Kliiath-hiarlm.  waa  renlli 
nita  ot  the  ni(|olnlns  Irtbe,  Jiid 
[.  OiHi.— Tbl*  Irlbe  wna  bonod 


IhjtbeMedllemiwtn 
f  Judah  oo  Ibe  BDolb, 


BenJimlB  on  the  eial,  and  Epbralm  on  Ibe  nnnh.  CHw 
Danilea  alio  eonqnercd  from  tbe  Cnuaniiiiefi  Leehrn  i>r 
Laleb,  In  Iha  eilrene  norlbern  pan  n[  Pnlertlne.  oilhla 
tba  boundi  of  Hanaireb  eaat,  ai>d  retnlned  It  under  the 
iiama  of  Dan.)  The  onlvpnnlon  onldatiiiard  1*  Hie  nurtb- 
era  bonudarr,  which  will  be  cnn^ered  under  fjiAnha. 

B.  Sphralm The  Hedltecmnanii  waa  tbe  neeiem  and 

(ba  Jordan  tbe  eaalaru  honndnrj.  Tbeanalhem  bonsda- 
n  haabean  already  defliied  from  tbe  Jordan  weatwaidii 
nir  ai  Atarotb ;  rrom  ibis  point  It  |>a»>ed  walward  (lotbt 
JaSh  road).  In  the  rlclnitj  of  Japbletl  (iicrhape  Bliaalad 
at  Batl-Cnla :  bat  tbl*  wnrd  vbonld  prohaMr  ba  rendeied 
"  the  JaphleUlei,"  1.  e.  Binll*  nt  Jaiihiat,  a  deKeadabl  at 
Aaher  (ICbmti.  ell,  n,  ni,  nitbunib  It  ia  diOcnit  lo  a- 
plain  their  aliiteOGe  In  ihia  loealkn),  to  Belh-boron  Ik* 
nether  (Joah.  xtI.  t):  Ibeuce  more  iioriberlj  (I.  c.  In  a 
saiiaral  nartb-weateriy  dIrecIkiBl  lo  Ibe  MedllerraBeall 
TprobablT  along  Ibe  Jaffa  road  to  Wady  Bndrt^aai 
ihence  nuttb  on  tbe  irealerD  brow  of  Ihe  hill*  loVidt 
el-Aii]eb,  trblch  li  mar  naiurnllj  h:ive  r.llnHed  wratwaiA 
to  tbe  aea ;  forll  eidnded  BBarolb  (Unlnt),  Jebi>d  rVrbk 
dleb],  and  Japbo  (Jopp*).  xli.  U,  W.  bni  uicladed  B«t- 
boron  and  (leMr  [Afin-chnrhebl,  nl.  SI.  M],  paMii<E  no 
Ibe  wBj  Oeier  (ivl, »]  weal  of  Belb-el  <l  ChttHi.  dl,  tS  [iba 
other  pasaagea  whan  It  I*  nealloned  do  not  help  loll 
Ihe  iocailQ  mora  dannlleljr] :  laleljr  Ibuiubt  to  bate  btri 
toniid  Id  Tall  Jaicr).  The  remainder  of  ihe  deeCripiiM 
or  the  •ombeni  bonodar]'  (Jneh.  xvl.  B,  last  cIihm  ord,  aad 
whole  or?)  la  Uiaaanieaa  that  or  Benjamin  im  Ibe  nonk. 

Thenorthern  bouudarjr  (ihe  account  In  J.irti. Ill,  7,  wllk 
the  aicepilon  uf  the  Aral  name,  mnat  ba  traufpeeadauu 
tu  cnnnect  Immedlaiely  with  ibe  dwcrlpUon  or  Ihe  eooih 
border  In  rer.  S),  beginning  ill  the  Jordan  (probabl;  ii  ibi 
mciulh  '>r  Wndy  Fni-alll,  pa>*ed  wealward  (np  Ibii  wady. 
olherwlae  called  Wady  If  udadlreh.  or  Bnrabek)  to  Taa- 
nalh-ehllob  (ver.  *)  (probably  Ibe  praaent  Alii-Farla): 

Beind  d.TBffoe  (or  Atiir)  nieiiLloix 
eiiBtuf8becbam)i  theuce  nnnberly 
t:  ivll.IManparenllyntthalnlerM 
WndvTnbaF):  Iheuce,  wlih  ■  nori 
■-■--- (Ihld.^lprobabl.irepraaenled  by  Iha  modern  Ya^J; 


a  ftlchmelhi 
lion  or  tbe  II 
ih-we*IcriT  CI 


'ajSl.'fheMe^i"1l 
>'uo  d<>~iii>I  iha'piwnt  Nnbr-Fnlalk,  which  1*  the  piiaci^ 
lal  maraby  ilreani  In  that  legluul. 
«.  Jfonanvk  Wtt—Tttt  bnundarlaa  nf  tbia  Irlhe  ar* 
[Iven  with  great  IndlatlDctneas,  and  nnat  be  In  part  col- 


md  Ii 


from  the  coDttguoni  pnrtlona  urSiAniim,  Ai 

Ptum  the 


dilloii  to  Ita  pniuar  lerriuirr  (Joah.  xrli,  II).  Ptutn  ih 
Med  I  terrnnean,  the  northern  boondan',  beulnulne  al  Oi 
mel  (for  Dor,  belnw  ranml,  la  latlnded  [ibid. :  xO.  WJl 
and_folk>wlng_the  arin  iit  the  monnliiiii  (probably  tl": 


the  KlBbnp  [Kahr-et-MakntlahD  timlb^BMerir  laa 

"  '  Tdl-al-Kamou),  and  ibaiKC  ' '"    -"-- 

clofCly  M>  ■■  tn  thro*  the  nl 


(Teil^l-Kamou),  and  IhaiKC  kmini:  ibe  ini>eB- 
•■••■«  clofCly  M>  ■■  tn  thro*  the  plain  or  Bednrkia 
ily  within  I>iadiar(pan.  Ills,  U]^,  ■    -- 

—"  "■"—'-•-'■■  KejjBi 


.,  ^. .^ Inclad* 

tth.  xvli,  II)  Ueciddo  OaJJiid),  Ttanuh  (l^'aDhkl,  bat 
a*  to  eiclnde  (iti,  II)  Bii-canuim  (Jenin) t  tbente  (vltk 
Baharpenm)duenorih(Da  ihe  weal  brow  orMu^Qllbw 
■ud  Utile  Uermon),  ao  a*  Ki  locloda  Bn-diir  (BeM) 
(xvll,  ID,  bnt  not  Jainci  (Zerin),  nor  Che>nliaib|IkHl). 
nor  SbBiiem  (Solam)  (kIi,  I«),  nor  Tabor  <v*r.  tl) :  tbear* 
(wllh  iinoilier  fban>  corve)  (onlb-eael  (pn'bably  A-" 
WadyOakab),  aoutolDCluda  Beib-rhenu  (Belaan)  <i<>l< 
II).  to  the  Jordan,  which  rnriued  the  eastern  bonndiry. 
~  ~  li  hemmed  Id  on  ihe  tinlb 

reel  br  Aahar,  and  on  ibr 
ily  (he  Jordail  Ba  a  nalBW 


bj  HanarKh  WeaL  on  tbe  < 
north  bj  Zebniun,  feavlns  ni 
boundnrr  on  Iha  enri  (Joih.  x 


Diidarlea  an  deflullely  laid  down  ( 


TRIBE 

iclinhil  >l  •  plnce  ollsd  Sorld,  irbkli  la  nnwhe 
DHotiiHKd  lu  Scriptnre,  but  whicb  in  bere  d»crl 


L'lf. 


Dsbentb  ■iid  f  xubii,  mid  DiihIItiib  Ibc  »>nUiern  btiuii- 
A.tjCruc  iha  uucUiani  llu«i>>ul>HqDeii(I;dCiKrtbBd):  all 
■bleb  detail!  ndiii  u>  tone  apiit  nbuai  midway  on  ''^ 

Dortbern  side  i>ribc  liUlu  nt  Ewiraelun  (pmbabl;  Iht  ... 
iaiiiii  ib«  "  Honnt  iif  Pnd|i<uill>in,'  uear  «]-JlEirsitb,  iiu 


(prrliip*  tha  pmwiit  i 


biUwKlat 


ra  J..k' 


..., „ ., , i.Ft'blsh.ih. 

ib.ir  <IkMili  aud  Dubenlli  (DaharMil  (laiviiii.-  Ihese  Id 
■Hctaar),  ra  ■*  .111  tbe  vtj  tu  inclnda  Ja)jbU  {YaM  (-il- 
jiied  nil  higher  i;nnirid) ;  Ibaiiee  (northward)  raclu;:  ibc 
VI  III  OlUith-heuhar  (or  Qath-beiihcr,  a  Klnit  liv.  -ai 
ii<1-»ah«l)  (Included  wiihlu  ZebulBii)  and  Iiub-kailii 
'     u  Keft  Kaiiuxii  dnsllj  <u  re^iAi 


11 II  IK)  e 


Dim 


r  Mnmon  llut  jmtaiHt  U  Srah  (■•  Klnimnn-r 

[(lb")  <lheIuniHrani»ierln)[danbl)«wliiRni 

Klitwr  puulblrt'i  Hlnrlii.lbaiiamctaiUMrenllj'baiug 
imelaled  a*  adjaraiil)  (and  ejcclodiug  both  Iheva,  u 


i*  Ehe  dMcrl^liiu  a^l«i 


tsibennnliDrKlini 
Jaa  [IChr<>ii.*l,T;,  wi 
■Piareuit;  Itklllu,  In 


-,, tmrtberu  Imanda- 

iMmpauetb  It  [Hii 

"■      "'  "'        '    rderpuwed 


1  likewiae  lucludeg  Tabor,  I.e. 

iilinheni  border  of  Iniichar  termlnaiFd  bx  ibe  jonlin 
|J»ti.  Ill,  M],  and  ibe  border  orNaphiall,  aa  II  Included 


■fin  hare  uwMd  up  |.>  ihli  tui 
W«l7  BeeOiiil,  tnrnlnir  IM'  ' 
"Md.)B.ilil 


,  ---jp)  "o 

jkok  (TakOk),  and,  paHlnK  (ap- 
pimtl  J  west)  Hl.iui  Wadf  aelameb,  hi  aa  tu  luclnde  Uiiu- 
DerboD  Imrbniir  DeIr  UaDnnta),  aiid  munliiii' ((onlb-w Sf II 
Id  the  nlle;  iif  Jiphlhah^l  (nnibablr  marheil  bj  the  inod- 
•m  Jebt),  when  tL  mM  Ibe  b>itd«t  of  Aahar  (ver.  SI). 

Ill  tbe  eunnMratloii  of  the  biirderauil  lutetlor  liinruaur 
tbiiirlbe  (Juab,  ill,  lO-lSJiiuelrerneimiwUtnuclileg  only 
an  nwmed,  all  c.ibara  (Knralah,  Jokneam,  Cbldoib- 
labur,  Dabenlta,  Itub-kndii,  and  Jlphlhab-el)  btfn|[  alt- 
utad  oDialda  ibe  binudary  Use. 

li.  Jklar.— Tbe  dcMaiiitluii  ofthe  biHindar]!  (Jorta.  ilz, 
11-M)  begina  wlib  a  eenenil  KUtement  of  Kvi;r»1  towiia- 
be!kaih  (iierhapa  UkrBlb),  Hall  (perhnpn  Alia),  Beien 
(petbapi  el.II.iiwh),  AchMiapb  (pr.>MblT  Keufl,  Alaui- 
■nelecb  (prubahlr  aonie  place  »n  the  Wiidv  al-MelcK), 
Asiad  (perhaps  Shefn-aiBiir),  and  Mlgbal  (probably  Hia- 
inHltr-aa  Ijinir  near  [he  bonier,  which,  cruiwliiir  Cannel, 
nadwd  to  ShThor-Ubnath  (parbape  Wadr  Mllheh),  liiai 
■b-Te  Dor  (aee  ivU,  11),  leaTln<i  I11  Maubull  [be  dtjr  nl 
Helrpb  (pruliablr  Betiiirii  Ibeu  nlamiiia;  eoatward  the 
BiDe  line,  pflnaiug  Belb^ilanHi  (pnibablT  Un](b>  and  ihe 
dtrarZcbDtnn  (now  AlldA)  m  far  aa  Slpbihah^l.  -  " 
;Md  ihii   laai  vallej  niinhward   put  Ueih^einek 


nb.Uii 


-  „ \\j  dCTcrllwd  ( HebroB  [I.e.  AbdoiiJ, 

nniioi,  aod  Kanah),  ran  eait  of  north  (rionbi- 

them  bonhdarr  abont  i>p])oailte  flldon,  wbere 
iclnilliig  tbe  Pliiaiildan  Mk-i»Hi>t)  It  mnied 
irl;  (aa  tbe  weaieiu  border)  paet  Tfre  a>  far  aa 


Ih  tbe  rceanltalatlOD  of  the  clilea  ot  I 
iii,«-»q,t«ientT-twDnietriip.illi<i>it<>wi 
HIM,  three  othera  (Jiphlhah^l,  HLil»u,  u 


I.  Saphlali  wai 


It  beiug  bi 


d  bji, 


trihe  (J.-tb. 

nlj  lire  leik- 

'H're]  belne 

i...H_  iCarniel  and 

4«r,  Zebi 


d  veti,  HDd  extended  at  liir  as 

Oalitee,  Ibe  Jotditn.  tra  or'Uernm,  and  the  Dnn^Kun 
ruad.  Mien  ding  to  Jndnh-npon-J.irdau  frelL  Naby  aidi- 
hndo),  and  InclndlDE  B<^ih->>lieni«h  (Medlet  ea-Sbelms) 
iJotb.  III.  W).  The  iHinherly  llnilta  of  thla  tribe  are 
■tated  In  ih«  nnenij  h«niiitarle<  of  Pnlaailne  (q.  ».),  iHld 
down  la  Nnmli.  xxilv,  t-ll,  aa  >i>lbnn:  A  line  Ihxn  the 
Medlierraneu  n  Xea  cruraing  llw  moa  nial  o^raiin  (Leban  on, 
ot  Ita  oOUiooI  UemUHi),  and  liiMncccllili;  the  ''entrance 
'  (Col»^Trls  or  the  rallefof  the  Laoniea)  ap- 


£1°tljM 
ll.«.fl.irKn" 


ha)},' and  an  bii  wair  of  Hniar^nni 
1  ■  be  edm  of  ihe  Uanran.     Prom  1 

TD  boniidar;  beat  aonthwnni  (ro 


mcce»1«1j  Shriibam  (perb 

B<u)-giid  In  Joata.  i\  IT)  at._  _ ... 

HamuOi,  bnt  a  much  man  auniherlir  place),  eaal  ofAli 


ml  being 


17  TRIBUTE 

(perbipi  Ibe  apring  ot  Tell  ei-Kadi),  and  an  <in  down  tn 
the  aei>  ill  Galilee.  Tbe  aciwuni  In  Kick,  xlvll,  11-lT 
(wklch  li  etldentlra  eopTurihal  lu  Nnmbera)  conialoe 
the  Billowing  ■ddiii.mUuuwg:  UathbiD,  Beiutbab,  Sib- 
mlm,  and  Haiar-baiilcnn,  which  (at  leaat  tbe  middle 
twii),  rtuni  tbeir  (Moclalloii  witb  Uaniatb,  appear  (In  tlila 
vBgoe  eiiDmeraliou)  to  bare  been  aimated  bejrond  the 
bunndi  or  tbe  Oriental  Pruuileed  Landaltoeeiber. 

In  tbe  am  uf  the  clliea  ennntenied  lu  counection  with 
Iblgirtbe,  nineteen  netrapolilan  toHrns  oul*  are  Inclnded, 
fli-eofthe  namee  (Allou-taaualni,  Adkmt-nckeb.  ZlridEm. 
ler,  Hamnatb-rakknth,  and  Mi[;dal-el-li 

Jordan)  Ijing  oulaide  tbe  border.    See  P.tMTiiiii. 

TrlbfiliM.    SeeTHosH. 

Tilbnlation  px,  ^\i^,t,  both  literally  signifying 
prtttvrt  or  aUaila)  ejcpreuifa  in  Ihe  A.  V.  much  tbe 
game  as  Iroahln  or  Irial,  iinpartin);  afSiclire  diipenia- 
tiona  to  whicb  ■  penwn  is  auljected  either  by  way  of 
puniabmeiit  (aee  Judg.  x,  11;  Matt.  xxiT-,  21, 29)  Ronw 
ii,  9,  2 1'heta.  i,  6)  or  bj  way  of  trial  (see  Jubn  xri,  S» ; 
l{oin.v,ei2Thei>9.i,4> 

Tribtlr(C(M<rf(i««i  rriiurenatj.CouiiciiaoK.  Tri- 
buT  waa  a  rural  rcaiileiice  neat  Uayeiice,  where  several 
Church  councils  wm  hel>l. 

I.  The  Hnt  council  was  held  in  895.  Turentytwu 
bithopa  wire  |iresenl,  LicluiUng  Halbo,  arcbliiabop  of 
Hayenw,  Herman,  archlnahnp  of  Culuciie,  and  Hat- 
bode,  aiclibinhup  orTreres.  King  Aniulphu*  also  at- 
t«niled,  M-ilh  many  of  the  chief  lotda  of  hia  kingdom. 
Fifty^iglit  canoDS  n-ere  publiahed. 
>LD«1iirei  thai,  wlib  Ihe  klH|.''a  cnnsent.  It  Is  ordered 


the  bishiin. 


<  iioblei  s 


lo  manner  of  dlfpoatng  iif  the  pecn 

_ 'ot  wounding  aiirl»t:  If  the  latiei 

dTed,  tbe  whole  belonged  tonilm ;  If  he  died. ! 


'■itK 


Into  three  parts,  one  for  ble  cbarch,  oua  for  hla 
■■nop,  and  one  for  hla  relationa. 
B.  IniHnBsaraTeiirB'penance  for  kllllnga  priest,  duriug 
'talch  time  Die  penitent  might  not  eat  menl  nor  drink 
ioe,  eicrpt  on  Sundajrs  andftalliiBlp.  A  t  the  end  of  ibe 
re  yean  be  might  be  admitted  Into  ibe  Church,  bnl  not 
>  mminniiinn.  until  tbe  eiplnlbni  of  other  Ave  year^ 
a  faat  three  davs  In  tbe  week. 
n  of  the  Coniicltof  Carthnce  which 
ennou  Ihnt  a  niDDop  »ball  not  be  deineed  by  fewer  iban 

bj  fewer  than  tbrcv. 

11.  Restrlcit  tbe  solemn  cetebratlon  of  baptism  lo  Kaat- 
eraiid  WblisiiDltdi. 

IS.  Orders  tbe  division  of  lithe  Into  fbur  portions;  1, 
tot  Ibe  bishop;  S,  tor  the  clerk;  &,  fur  the  poor!  and,  «, 
fiir  the  hhrlc. 

IB.  OrAeie  that  tbe  dead  be  bnrled.  If  nosalble,  nt  the 
GMliedral  church;  if  not,  at  Ibe  church  iwIodi^iib  lo  n 
nonaalerr.  In  order  that  ther  might  benefit  by  the 
pmjiers  ot  tlie  moiikHi  oibentlie  In  the  church  to  which 

lo.  Proves  from  Bcrlptnre  that  no  lite  maT  be  taken  tui 
burials. 
IT.  Porhlds  to  bnrr  laTinen  wllbin  tbe  church. 
IS.  Forbids  chalices  and  pnlsns  of  wood. 
1«.  Orders  that  wnier  tie  mlied  with  the  wine  In  Ibc 


!e  the  d< 


bofCbristlnn 


See  Mansi,  ConciL  ix,  488. 

ir.  Tbe  second  council  conrenecl  in  Ociolwr,  1076. 
The  pape>  legates,  with  several  German  lords  and 

ing  the  deposition  of  the  emperor  Henry  JV.  in  con- 
sequence of  which  he  passed  into  Ilaiy,  and,  atler 
tbe  moat  bnmiliatine  cnnceasinns,  oblaineil  absolution 
ftom  tlM  pope,  Joii.  2a,  1077.  See  Muiiti,  Concii.  x, 
86G. 


TtibUta  (prop.  DO.  *Jpi.t),  an  impost  w 

prince  or  stale  agrees. 

>r  is  com^iciled,  lo  pav 

er,  as  the  purchaBc  of 

peace  or  in  token  of  ,ie 

In  Ihe  Scriptures  we 

find  three  forms  of  thi 

ment.    See  Tax. 

I.  A'nd-rt-Tbe  He 

ereignChanlJod;  and 

nExod.xix,l2.l5,w« 

were  required  to  pay 

ribiile  unto  (he  LnnI,  t 

offering  of  hair  a  abc 

k«l  to  "  make  au  alou 

TRIBUTE  6i 

their  wuls."  The  nitire  king*  and  judge*  of  tbs  He-  I 
lirewa  dill  not  exact  tribule.  Solomon,  indeed,  at  Ibe 
begiiiiiiiig  or  bia  reign,  levied  tribute  from  tb*  Cinawi- 

iif  Israel,  aud  compelled  1  hem  lohard  lervitiide  (1  Kiug» 
ix,  21-33;  2  Chron.  viii,»);  but  the  ebildren  of  Israel 
were  exempted  from  that  impoat,  and  employed  in  the 
more  lionurable  depanmenta  and  officn  of  his  kingdom. 
Towarda  tbe  end  of  bia  reign,  hoiverer,  be  appean  lo 
have  imposed  tribuU  upoii  tbc  Jews  alio,  and  to  have 
i-i>inpe11ed  Ihem  In  wiiTk  upon  the  public  buildinga  [1 
Kiii(;>  V,  13, 14;  ix,lbi  xi.il).  Thit  bad  the  effect  of 
(rradually  aliciialiiiK  their  miiula,  and  of  producing  that 
discontent  which  atterwarda  reaulted  in  open  revolt  un- 
der Jeroboam,  auii  uf  NehiU  "'IXv  father  made  our 
voke  grievous,"  aaid  Ibe  Isnwlile*  lo  Rehoboam ;  "  now, 
ihererore.  make  Ihou  the  grievoua  aervice  uf  thy  father 
and  hia  heavy  yoke  which  he  put  upon  us  lighter,  and 
we  nil)  serve  tliee"  (xii, 4).    See  AesRaauEJiT. 

U. /■'orrtgn.  —  The  Ismelilea  were  at  varioua  times 
anhjected  tu  heavy  taxes  and  tributes  by  their  couquer- 
ora.    After  Judna  waa 


msnd  of  AugustuH,  in 
ariler  that  he  might 
more  correctly  regulale 

ed  (JosephuBi^Rf.  xvii, 
lb).  Tbia  waa  a  capi- 
tation-tax levied  at  so 
much  a  head,  and  im- 
pnned  upon  all  males 
rr..m  fourteen,  and  all 
ftmales  from  twelve,  up 
ui  sixty-Hve  yeara  of 
age  lUlpian,  Digtil.de 
£■..»«■*.  lib. iii;  Fischei 

lie   Xiiaitm.  Count).        .,,„„,^    ™.  «.„■,► 
S«  Taxino. 

K  the  levyinR  of  tbia  tribute,  Judas  tbeUan- 


18  TRIBUTE-MONEY 

xrii,  24).  After  the  destmclion  of  tbe  Temple  it  WM 
■equeatTRted  by  Teapaaian  and  bia  ancceaaon,  and  trana- 
ferred  lo  the  Temple  of  the  CapiloliQB  Jupiter  (JoM- 
phui,  War,™, 6,8).     SeeTuirLX. 

The  explanation  Ibua  given  of  the  "  tribute' of  HatL 
xvii,  24  is,  bevood  all  doubl,  the  irua  MW.  To  aappoaav 
with  ChrysoBtom,  Auguaiine,  Maldonatua,  and  otbtn, 
that  it  waa  the  ume  as  the  tribute  (cqi'Ooc)  paid  l«  the 
Koman  emperor  (UalL  xxii,  17)  is  at  variance  with  the 
distinct  atalcmenu  of  Juscphua  and  the  Hiahna,  and 
takei  away  the  whole  signiflcance  of  our  Lord's  words. 
It  may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the  full  ai^if- 
icanca  of  thoae  words  ia  adequately  brought  out  in  tbe 
popular  interpretation  of  them.  Aa  explained  by  moM 
commenUtois,  they  are  simply  an  asaettion  by  out  Lord 
uf  hia  divine  Sonahip,an  implied  rebake  of  l*elerfar  fiir- 
gettiug  the  truth  which  he  bad  so  recentlv  confrnad 
(compL  Wordawoith.  Allbnl,  and  othen):  "Tha  are 
the  children  (vloi)  free;'  Thou  haH  owned  mo  aa  tbe 
Son  of  the  Living  God,  the  Son  of  the  Great  King, 
of  the  Lord  of  the  Temple,  in  whose  honor  men  pay 
the  Temple- tribote;  why.  forgetting  this,  dost  thou  id 

ger?  Thia  explanation,  however,  bardiy  does  justice 
lo  tbe  tenor  of  the  language.  Our  Lord  had  not  been 
present  at  tbe  preceding  Passover,  atid  had  therefurc 
failed  to  pay  the  tax  at  the  regular  time  and  place. 
Hence  be  was  wailed  upon  in  Galilee  for  that  purpoat, 
with  aome  apprthenaon,  perhaps,  on  the  pan  of  the 


might  ei 


In  bia 


..<.  Th.  A»I 


mof  ll 


:  Jews,  I 


a  foreigner,  that  it 
waa  a  token  of  serritudr,  and  that  the  Jew*  were  not 
allowed  lo  acknowledge  any  for  tlieir  master  who  did 
not  wonihip  the  Lord.  They  boasted  of  being  a  free 
nation,  and  of  never  having  been  in  bondage  to  any 
man  (John  viii.SS).  These  sentiments  were  exiennve- 
ly  promulgated,  but  all  Ihejr  elforu  were  of  no  avail  in 
realraining  or  mitigating  Ihe  exaction*  of  their  con- 
querors.    See  Judas. 

The  Pbariaees,  who  *DDf;ht  lo  entangle  Jema  in  hi* 
talk,  sent  unto  him  demanding  whether  it  was  lawful 
to  give  tribute  unto  Ctesar  or  imt;  but,  knowing  their 
wicked deaigni,  he  replieil,"  Why  lemptye  me,  ye  byp- 
ocrilea?"  "Render  untn  t^mar  the  things  which  are 
Osar'a,  and  unlo  Und  Ihe  things  that  are  God's,"    See 

Tbe  apostks  Peter  and  Paul  severally  recommended 
submieainn  tu  the  ruling  powen,  and  inculcaleil  iheiluiy 
of  paving  tribute,  "tribute  lo  whom  tribute  ia  due"(Kom. 
xiii.  1-S:  I  Pet.  ii,  13). 

III.  Tie  Trmple  TiiL-The  pavnient  of  the  half- 
shekel  (  =  half  »^ofo-  =  two  drachmae)  was  (aa  hsa  been 
kaid  above),  though  resting  on  an  ancient  precedent 
iKxnl.  XXX,  IS),  yet,  in  lis  character  as  a  lixed  annual 
rsie,  of  late  origin.  It  wa*  proclaimed,  according  to 
RHbbinic  ni1es,aa  tbe  lataf  .4dar,  began  lo  be  collected 
nn  the  l&tb,  and  waa  due.  at  latest,  on  the  1st  of  Nisan 
iMishno,  ^JejtoKn,  i,  7;  StirenhiiaiiiK.  p.  SW,  ZSI').  It 
waa  applied  to  defiay  the  gent  -  .    — 

pie,  the  ■  ■  ■ 

w'hkI.  sI 


j  Juat  claim  to  exemption,  not  a*  an  alien,  but  preciady 
because  he  was  a  member  of  the  theocratic  family  io 
I  the  highest  sense.  He  was  exempt  on  ttie  bnad  «H^ 
i  Btitiiliiinal  ground  that  a  king's  aon  bekmgi  lo  the  isval 
household  /or  whom  tribute  is  collected,  and  nol'ly 

Temple  aervice,  Jesos,  who  waa  Ihe  son  of  the  Lord  of 
Ihe  Temple,  could  not  be  required  to  contribute  to  that 
expense.  Peter  ia  cvnplcd  in  the  payment,  but  not  in 
the  exemption;  at  leatl,  not  on  the  same  ground  pre- 
cisely, but,  if  at  all,  on  the  genera!  principle  of  associa- 
tion with  the  royal  family.    See  Tkiblte>moxet. 

Tiibnte-monej  (^F^pnjjiov),  Ihe  1'emple-i*x  lev- 
ied upon  all  Jews  (MatL  xvii,  34),  and  likewise  (Ei^r- 
sot')  the  money  collected  by  the  Romans  in  payment  of 
the  laie*  imposed  upon  the  Jews  (xxii,  19).  The 
piece  shown  lo  our  Saviour  al  hia  own  request  (in  tbe 
latter  passage)  was  a  Roman  coin,  bearing  the  image  of 
one  of  Ibe  Cosars,  and  must  hare  been  at  that  time  cur- 
rent in  Judas,  and  received  in  payment  of  Ihc  tribote, 
in  common  with  other  dcacriptiona  of  money.  There  i* 
no  reason  lo  auppoae  that  the  Iribnle  waa  collected  cx- 
clueively  in  Roman  cainB,oTthatlhe  Iribule-money  wa* 
a  descriptinn  of  coin  dilferenl  from  (hat  which  was  ia 
general  circulation.     See  Pknnv. 

As  regarde  the  half-ahekel  of  silver  paid  to  tbe  Lord 
by  every  male  of  Ihe  children  of  Israel  as  a  rausotn  for 
hia  soul  (Exod.  XXX,  IS,  15),  colonel  Leake  says  **  that 
it  had  nothing  in  common  with  Ihe  tribute  paid  bj-  the 
Jew*  to  Ibe  Roman  emperor.  The  tribute  waa  a  dena- 
rius, in  the  English  version  a  penny  (Ualt.  snii,  ITi 
Luke  XX,  !4) ;  Ibe  duly  to  Ihe  Temple  was  a  didnch- 
mon.twoofwhich  made  a  ■later.  U  appears,  then,  that 
the  half-sheVel  of  ranaom  liail  in  Ihe  lime  of  our  ttav- 


nmg 


to  the  Temple,  and  two  of  their  didracbma  formed  a 
stater  of  the  Jewish  currency."  He  then  auggms  tbat 
the  slater  was  evidently  Ihe  extant  "tibekel  Israel," 
which  was  a  tetrsdrachmof  the  Ptolemaic  scbIf,  though 
generally  below  the  standard  weight,  like  most  of  the 
extant  specimen*  of  tbe  Plolemiea;  and  that  the  di- 
drachinnn  psid  to  Ihe  Temple  was  IbetTfoce  of  the  same 
monclBTy  scale.  "Thus."  says  he,  "  the  duly  to  the 
Temple  was  converted  from  Ihe  half  of  an  Attic  to  the 
whole  of  a  I'l'dcniaic  didrachmon,  and  Ihe  tax  wa* 
nominally  raised  in  Ihe  proportion  of  about  lOo  to  6C; 


TKICERIUM 

iMt  pnbibly  tba  valoa  of  tUrer  had  tilka  u  much 

Jew»  (bould  hiTc  reriTed  Cbc  old  name  abekd,  and  i 

plieil  it  (o  their  aaur,  and  equally  no  that  they  Bhould 

baTc  adopted  the  scale  of  the  aeighboring  opulent  and 

powerful  kingdom,  the  OKHiey  of  v  ' '  '    ' 

long  been  in  the  habit  of  emplai 

tiimala  llelt/niea,  p.  t,S).    See  Didbicox. 

Trlceilnm  (r/xcqpiai'},  a  three-biaiKlwd  taper,  •■ 
aiianged  that  the  wicka  nf  each,  though  diitinct,  Lleui 
into  one  flame.  With  thia  the  Oriental  biabops  ligi 
the  book  of  tin  goipela  during  certain  aervioea  of  the 
Greek  Church. 

TriobotomT'  (lirtrfijd  diririaii)  ia  the  theory  ac- 
cording to  which  man  is  dirided  into  thrae  pans— inA)', 
tittl,  and  ipiril,  Thie  is  though  t  by  many  to  be  the  apo«- 
lolic  daaaiScalion  of  our  nature  <ITh«a.v-,  23).  Gener- 
ally aoul  and  body  are  oppoied ;  but  ■pint, »  con OaMed. 
ia  the  higbeet  portion  of  our  nature,  allying  it  to  (iod, 
atid  on  which  hia  Spirit  worki.  Soul  |ln  the  German 
aniar}  ii  the  lower  portion,  the  region  of  appetite,  In- 
•doet,  and  uf  much  buides  vihich  we  have  in  common 
with  the  lowei  crratiou.  Tbii  iilea  tbrowi  light  on  meny 
puaage*  of  Scripture.  The  body  mediatea  between  the 
aoul  and  the  external  world,  the  anul  between  the  apirit 
■jid  body,  and  the  apirit  between  both  and  God.  Thia 
riew  of  human  nature  would  have  prevaUed,  had  it  not 
been  ao  keenly  oppoaed  by  TettuUian,  and  »  alighted 
eren  bj  Auguidne,andhad  not  ApoUinariaadoptedit  to 
illuaCraie  hia  enoneoui  view  of  our  Lord'i  nature.  He 
deaied  apirit,  in  thia  human  aeiiae,  to  Chrul,  but  held 
ihat  iia  place  waa  occupied  liv  the  Uivioe  Spi 
waa  held  by  Uther,  aa  ii  atill  'ia  by  the  more  «v 
eal  part  uf  ihc  Lutheran  Church.  The  KefonDer 
ever,  did  iwC  oanoider  spirit  and  aoul  a>  diflem 
Manoea,  but  only  a*  different  auribute*  or  operat 
the  aaiii«  apiritual  eaaenee.    See  Soi'l;  Sfirit. 

Tridautlna  <n/  or  h^oagiag  lo  TraOj.  Tl 
is  applied  to  the  celebraled  council  of  the  IStb  ceoiury, 
and  t4  thai  part  of  rhe  Church  Unirenal  which  accepts 
(be  decrees  aad  canona  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.v.). 

Trldantlno  Prolcwaion  or  Faith,  or  the  Crred 
vfPimt  /  r,  is  a  aummary  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Coi 
dl  of  Trent,  luggeateil  by  that  council,  prepared  bi 
eolkge  of  eatdiiiala  under  the  auperviiion  of  pope  1' 
ir,  and  iHued  by  hiin,  Nov.  13.  [564.     It  consisu 
twdve  articles,  including  the  Nicene  Creed  (q.  v.),  and 
ia  put  in  the  furm  of  an  individual  pmreasiun  aud  tiA- 
emnoath.     It  ia  required  of  all  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
and  public  teachera  in  aeminarifia,  cc^eges,  and  univt 
ridea.    It  is  alas  used  for  Proteaunt  conrerta  to  (he  B 
man  Catholic  Church,  and  hence  called  the  ■'professii 
of  ooarcrta."    The  10th  article  reads,  "  I  acknowledge 
the  boly  Catholic  Apostolic  Boaan  Church  as  the  moth- 
er aad  oiiatnaa  afall  churches;  and  I  promise  and  sweat 
true  obedience  lo  the  biahup  nf  Kome  as  the  lucceaaoi 
of  S(.  Pe(ef,  prince  of  the  apostles,  and  aa  the  vicar  of 
Jeaoa  Christ'    See  Latin  text  in  the  two  papal  bulli 
of  Nor.  13  and  Dec  9, 1664,  and  in  Denzinger's  Enchi- 
ndiim,f.tn-i»ii  alaoa  history  of  thii  creed  by  Uoh- 
oifc^  UrbuMdU  GetekitMt  <kr  Fnfario  Fiia  Tridat- 
tim  (Greibwald,  l9St\    Bee  Tbevt,  Con: 

Trlsonlal  VUltation,  a  viiitation  which  is  held 
once  in  three  years.  In  England  it  ia  the  custom  lo 
hold  apiacopal  viaitationB  at  such  interrala. 

Triors,  EocuniABTiotu  A  parliamentary  oidi- 
oanee  waa  paased  in  16M  appointing  thirty-eight  com- 
miasiooera  to  the  office  of  frvrr ;  they  were  chosen  bv 
Cnoiwell,  and  sat  al  Whitehall.  They  were  mostly  In- 
d«pSDd«its,tboogb  sons  Presbi-teriana  were  joined  with 
thfia.  They  were  appointed  to  try  all  ministers  that 
ame  for  institution  and  ipdodion,  and  without  their  ap- 
inval  none  wen  admitted.  The  opinion  nf  Baxter  is 
that  ihey  were  of  aaaentlal  service  lo  the  Church.  He 
Mys  thaj  aared  many  oongngations  frooi  ignorant,  un- 


9  TRIM,  COUNCIL  OF 

gndly,  and  intampaate  teachera  —  men  who  deatgned 
nothing  fnorc  in  the  ministry  than  to  repeat  a  sermon 
as  ceaden  say  their  prayers,  and  to  patch  up  a  few  good 
words  together  to  talk  the  people  asleep  on  Sunday,  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  week  go  with  them  to  the  ale-house, 
and  harden  them  in  their  sin;  and  that  sort  of  mlniaters 
who  either  preached  against  a  holy  life,  or  preached  as 
nun  that  were  not  acqnsinled  with  it.  They  had  pow- 
er to  eject  scandalous,  ignorant,  and  insufficient  minis- 
ters and  school  maaura, 

Trlglaud,  Jacob,  a  Dutch  theologian,  waa  bom  at 
Haarlem,  May  8,  1662,  and  died  at  Uvden,  Sept,  22. 
1706,  Hi»writiNgaaIe,/Ji^sfrt^^A»%K^>p(lifoigsnnl, 
Conlinau  Dtfauioam  JMrgrilalU  Codicil  SacH  adrtr- 
rai  Kuperri'  in  mm  Cfiunrai  (hejdfn,17»3)  ■■—Diatribt 
lieSttta  Kiitirvnim(\l>iA.ro±;  Germ. tranat. bv FUtat, in 
UttraturbL  dn  Ori,.u.,  1843,  c.  12,  20,  .19,  768, 778,794, 
817)  •.—DUtrfatiotif  Theohgica  ti  I'hituiogica,  SgUept, 
Hf  a  Oratimiim  Aead.  (Delft,  1728):- TVws.  Scrip- 
tonm  iUvitr.  de  TriUu  Judrrorum  Seetii  Syntagma  n 
quo  N.  Strarii  (Hayence,  1604).  />rvrit  (Franecker, 
160B-6),  Jot.  SeaUgtri  (ibid.  1606)  OjmicuUi,  ipia 
eo  PerYiwH/,  etc.  (ibid.  1708)  :—0H7jBtf.  II  dt  OrigvK 
SaaijicionimfJjtyia\,\li^'):—DtJoirpkoPatriarria 
n  Saari  Bori  Hierogti/pk.  ab  jSgjfpliii  A  dorato  (ibid. 
1706).  See  fUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  447;  Winer,  Handb. 
dtr  tifoL  LiUra/Mr,  t,  29,  139,  442,  616,  823.     (a  1'.) 

Trlglaw,  in  Slavonic  mythohig}-,  waa  the  supreme 
god  oftbeServiaiis,Weiida,Polea,  partly  also  of  the  Ru- 
geu  islauden,  Pomeranians,  Pnnaians,  and  Lithuaniana^ 
He  was,  aa  his  name  indicates,  triple- beaded,  and  there- 
fore represented  the  Slavonic  trinity.  'Itte  priests  pro- 
claiaied  Triglsw  aa  the  unseen  supreme  soreteign  of 
heaven,  earth,  and  the  infernal  regioua.  He  waa  rep- 
resented veiled,  in  the  greatest  temple  at  Stettin,  as  a 
celebrated  man  with  three  heads.  A  large  army  of 
priests  served  him,  and  taught  that  he,  being  long-auf- 
tering  and  kitid-heatted,  veiled  hia  face  so  as  not  to 
•eethe  eril  deeds  of  men,  and  seldom  made  his  sppear- 
anee  on  earth,  but  taught  hia  priests  his  will  and  com- 
mands, and  by  tneana  of  his  holy  black  steed  he  dis- 
tributed oracles,  etc  This  steed  governed  by  his  hoofs 
the  whole  papulation,  and  no  one  would  hare  dared 
to  do  anything  to  which  it  did  not  give  favorable 
aigna.  His  temple,  nude  of  huge  wooden  posts  cor- 
eird  with  cloths,  contained  the  largest  part  of  all  the 
spoils  of  war.  Vast  riches  were  heaped  up  here,  and 
the  superstitious  dread  of  the  people  was  a  surer  pro. 
taction  than  marble  or  granite,  perhaps,  would  have 
been.  The  destructive  catnpaigiia  of  Henry  the  Lion 
were  the  means  nf  destmying  all  these  temples,  and 
dcatd  to  the  world  the  iiiq)ection  of  the  idola  of  their 
godh 

Trim,  CoUHCiL  oif.  Trim  is  Ihe  county  town  of 
Heath,  ntuated  on  the  river  Boyne,  about  twentr-aev- 

school,  besides  other  public  insiitutioos;  a  handsome 
Roman  Catholic  chapeli  [he  remains  of  Trim  Castle; 
and  the  Yellow  Tower,  a  part  of  St.  Uarv's  Abbev,  re- 
built by  the  De  Ucys  in  the  I3ih  century. 

The  council  was  held  on  the  Sundav  after  .St.  Mat- 
thew's Day  (1291).  Nicholas  N'Mmissa.  archbiahnp 
of  Armagh,  presided.  The  fwir  srcbbishopa,  all  the 
suffragan  biabops,  all  the  cathedral  chaptets,  by  their 
deputies,  and  the  other  orders  and  degrees  of  the  clergy*, 
unanimously  agreed  in  this  synod  tu  maintain  and  de- 
fend each  other  in  all  courts,  and  before  all  judge^  ec- 
clesissticai  or  secular,  against  all  lay  encroachments 
upon,  and  viiilations  of.  their  rights,  liberties,  or  cus- 
tomi ;  and,  further,  amply  to  indemnify  those  uf  their 
mesiengera,  executors  nf  their  orilen,  etc.,  who  might 
receive  h-ssor  damage  in  the  performance  of  their  duty. 
Other  articles  of  agreement  were  drawn  up,  pledging 
them  lo  mTilunl  co-operation  in  enforcing  sentences  of 
exoommuiucation,  etc  See  Hant,  IlUl.  n/  i/u  JriU 
Ciunh,  p.  17. 


550       TRINITARIAN  BROTHERS 


mmmsr,  Sarah,*  mloiu  prnnwUr  of  rcligiovi 
tducstion  in  EncUnil,  wu  bom  It  Ip«iTich,jHkt,  1741. 
StM  wu  carefuily  cdncilcd,  and  white  ■  nudent  of 
l.niHliin  puaed  her  lime  in  the  aociely  of  Dr.  Johnson. 
Ur.  (iiTpTv  Shiriw,  lull  olhfr  eminent  penuna  in  the 
lilerary  wi.riil.  In  her  TUriing  ehe  wm  dirpcted  Lj  her 
bilwr.  Becuruing  m  molher  uf  ■  Itigt  fimily  iif  diil- 
ilini.  bei  current  u!  tliought  wm  turned  tu  edixalion. 
>)(  eipf rienerd  greu  tuctttt  in  the  p)in  oTedimt- 


M  her  o> 


Tillv  wi 


b)nung  to  oihers,  uhI  Ibi*  Ant  induced  he 
in  author.  She  atreniinudy  oppOMd  the  current  m' 
FreiKh  and  German  iii&leUly  and  a  lax  eduealioti  in- 
dependent of  the  liisliiiy  sud  tnilhi  of  revelation.  She 
■••  «Im  an  early  promoter  and  (uppuncr  of  Sundijr- 
ichoolii.  She  died  Dec  15, 18I&  Of  bei  werkm  we  re- 
fer tu  the  liU  Uindon  edttkui:  Atridgwuml  oflkt  Nne 
rtU.(ilSi&,  l9>ao)-^AIiridgmm  nflh*  Old  Ttt.  (IWiO, 
l'imu):—IMp  lo  l/ir.  Vltaraid  in  Ihr  Sladf  vf  lln  Hotg 
ScriiHura  (IH1&,  Bvo;  2d  ed.  1850,  !  vol*.'  IZmo)-.— 
A'tw  uwf  Comprthnnn  Ijotmu  on  Ikt  Sat  Titl.  (1MB. 
I8mn}:— A'eur  amd  Cm^rrtmrin  L/rnom  m  lit  Otd 
rm.  0M9.  18"o)  --Pruytrt  aad  UrdUalumt  (1W2, 
I3mai  ided.  18C0):— Socmf  J/ur«y  [1782-85,  G  vol*. 
I2mo;  LMl-49,  2  Tnls.  \imo).—Smfl>m  Cuttriitm 
(1861,  i  vol*.  I2ma)  .—TU  Eeamowiy  ofCluaily  (!T86i 
reviled  1801)  ^— aud  many  other  wurkt  on  hixur}',  edu- 
caliui,  etc  See  Chilmen,  Biog.  Did.  *.  v.i  Ambooe, 
Uia.  o/  Uril.  ami  A  ma:  A  viketi,  a.  r. 

MmDSll,  Chabl^  biahop  of  Norwich  and  Win- 
chester, wa*  burn  at  Riptnn-Abboii,  England,  Dec  37, 
1663.  He  graduated  with  honor  at  Wiochnter  Col- 
leee.  and  in  168M  h»  appwiiied  preacher  at  Rollk  In 
IHDl  be  was  iiuualled  |irelieDdiry  of  Norwich,  in  IBM 
)irp>Piited  br  the  earl  uf  SiinderUiid  to  the  rectoey  of 
Budiiiglan,  and  io  16UI  iuHailed  archdeacon  nf  Norfolk. 

queen  Ain?.  Hiving  ho  parochial  dutr  in  l'06,  he 
for  HMK  lime  took  charR*  of  St.  Gile*'*  pariah,  Nor- 
wich; and  in  Octulier,  ■•06,wMin>lituledlaSLjBiii«*'ii, 
WeMBiitMcr.  In  Janoirv,  IT07,Ur.TrimneU  was  elect- 
ed biihop  of  Noiwich,  and  in  AuKii*t,  ITil,  b*  wat 
Iranaleired  to  lb*  bishopric  of  Wincbeaier.  He  died 
Aug.  ib,  1723.  He  bad  a  very  leriou*  lum  of  mind, 
and  pertoimed  the  doty  of  erery  italiuD  wilb  the  )(Teai- 

grett  tDodcnttau  am)  finnnew  of  (pint.  "He  wu  a 
liiver  nf  peace  and  onler  bMh  fmm  Judgment  and  in- 
eKnilion;  and,  being  a  nnecre  friend  to  the  ChHrdi 
of  England,  he  conalanlly  avowed  thoM  principle!  of 
■oleraliun  and  indulgence  which  make  ihai  Church 
Ibe  glory  of  the  Kerurmitioo."  Biahop  Tricnnell  puk 
liahed  fincen  >in|;le  Strmoiu,  LtlUn,  Ckargn,  eta 
(1697-1716). 

Tilne  Baptlam.  A  node  of  adminBtering  the 
•acntaent.  which  waa  ao  onivenial  in  tbe  piimkire 
Church  ihaC  sonie  entertain  nodonbl  of  ila  being  de- 
rived from  apmiolic  Indilion.  The  perwa  baptised 
wu  thrice  immersed,  or  water  waa  thrice  poared  on 
htm,  in  the  name  of  the  three  permna  of  the  Codhead. 
Tbe  reaun  of  trine  baplian)  waa  manifen:  Ihe  three 

PeraoiM,  although  Ihe  hapliam  waa  only  our,  in  Ihe  nan: 
of  the  iiiMlivideil  Onilheid^''nno  bipliun  fur  the  ri 
miuion  of  sina.'  Tbua  in  baptism  ihe  nnilynf  Ihe  D 
vjneNacnreand  I  he  diMlncUon  of  tbe  three  I'enona  are 
clearly  implied  and  net  forth.  The  8rM  who  departed 
fmni  ihia  nuge  waa  Kunomioa  the  Aiian.  Trine  bapliam 
was  according  10  the  Hftieth  apoalolical  canon,  the  biahop 
or  prea'hyter  who  bapliied  with  one  immeniiin  being  oi^ 
dercd  to  be  dcpoaeil.     In  the  (ith  and  7ih  eentnries  one 

ti\t  the  ordinary  mk  of  ihe  Church,  the  Uooneil  of  Tnle- 
dti  (A.D.  GB3.  canim  6)  allowing  ainRle  immeniiHi  in 

•nly  a  (hurt  period,  the  early  unge  being  reatond,  and 


itmiining  Ibe  rule  of  the  Weatem  Clivreb.  Sni^ 
been  lolhoriied  by  the  Eman 
Church.  Sn«lml,Din.iifDocl.mdmil.Tluti.i.y.; 
Lindon,  ifiunnii  ofComtiU,  p.  681. 
Trine -Ood  Controvoray.  In  lb*  ehnreliea 
er  which  HincmaT(q.r.),  arcbliiabop  of  Rbeima,  pie- 
aided,  he  Ibrtwde  Ihe  ainging  of  the  lut  word*  of  a  very 

thee,  trine  Deity,  yet  one,  we  aak") — on  the  gronnd  that 
■  ■  I  plinueiilngy  auhverted  the  airaplictty  of  the  Diriao 
lure,  and  implied  Ihe  exiatence  of  Ihrrt  Gedi.  Tbe 
ledicttne  monka  would  not  obey  this  mandate  of 
icmar;  andone of ibeir number, Hair*tnDii>,wroteia 
euee  uf  a  rriiH  Deil]/.     Gedeacbaktia,  hcKiing  tf  tUl 

he  defended  the  canoe  of  hia&^llov-Bionka.  For  ihiihe 
used  by  Hincmar  of  Trilheiam,  and  waa  onfM- 
book  writLea  eipreialy  im  that  porfiBi*.  Bat 
ilmvcray  aoon  aubeidcd-,  and,  in  apitc  eflJiae- 
fona,  the  wordi  retained  Ibeir  place  in  thehyMa. 
See  Huaheim,  Ci.  ilil.  hk.  v,  ch.  ii,  p.  M. 

Trlaltarimn  Brotbors,  or  Okder  or  thk  Hoct 
Hoi.T  TaiiirrTyurUc  KtdtmpHon  e/Cuptirrt,  waa  faat- 
ed  by  St.  John  ef  Hat  ha,  who  was  bom  at  Fanem,  Fnr- 
etiee,  in  IIM.  When  he  lint  celebrated  divine  aerrin, 
after  hit  oidinalion,  he  behcM  a  viaien  of  an  angel  in 

banda,  crnaaed  over  each  oilier,  rcfted  on  the  headi  of 
two  akvea  who  knelt  on  each  aide  of  him.     He,  with 

tBtion  of  a  new  order  for  the  redeinptien  af  aUreK 
ThcT  went  to  Roaie,  and  recriTed  Ihe  approval  of  laoo- 
cent'lll  in  1 19B,  They  anamed  the  while  habit,  kar- 
ing  on  the  breait  a  Greek  cmaa  of  red  and  blBe.  Tliey 
relumed  to  France,  mil  meived  train  Gaucher  de  Cba- 
tiDnn  linda  in  the  province  of  Valuio.  The  pope  ato 
gave  Ihemat  Rone  the  chureh  andonnvent  of S.  Maria 
della  NaviceUi,  on  tbe  Honle  Cel».  Ilourina  III  cod- 
Omed  Ibeir  rale,  and  in  1267  Clcawnl  IV  approved  of 
their  lulea  permitting  ilien  to  purchaat 


id  Hfty  cc 


Thev  bad  al 

in  France 


II  Spwa. 


England,  flfly-lwo  ui  Inland,  be>id( 
Tortugal,  Italy,  Saxony,  Hnngar>-,  and  Bobemia.  In 
IW4  Ihe  Barefboled  branch  of  thit  order  wa>  befron  by 
Jean  Dipliaie  de  la  Conception  in  the  cOBTciil  of  Valde, 
Spun.    UewafKraBtedabuUbvClemeDtTlIIuilitt 


.dbyGooglc 


TRINITARIAN  SISTERS         51 

to  Ntibluh  1  nform  in  big  order  ind  lead  them  back  to 

]iUced  [bcnuelvn  und«  the  pn>(«ctinn  of  St.  lUdcgiiti- 
di,qMen  of  Ctoihure  Vof  Fnncc,wha  ■fteiwirda  took 
ibe  nligioBi  habit  and  foundcil  *  monaMery  at  Foiciera. 
?M itaaoa,Ug.nf  Momutic  0Tdat,f.2Vi  v\.;  Migne, 
DicL  da  Ordra  Rrlig.  a.  v. 

Tiinitailui  Blatera.  Thii  order 
Tal«ieciiiiei5,uiiI(»nsIiIut«iaconTenl 
rccdrHl  letters  patent  from  Louis  in  1 
rtgistcred  in  Parliament  in  Jinuarj 
ttbliihed  too  honpilala,  which  were 
Ibe  can  of  aged  men  and  n-oioen.  They  hare  beer 
qaile  flooiuhing  lincc  1837.  See  Higoe,  Dicl.  da  Or- 
iraSdig.%.v. 


u  founded  at 


,  1728.    They 


Trinity.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  tb«  god- 
had  indiulea  the  thiM  following  paniculan,  viz.  (u^ 
Then  i*  only  one  liod,  one  divine  nature;  (fi)  but  in 
thii  divine  ---  —  ■'--■    ->•■--      -        .  «  .. 


Spr,  and  Holy  Gbort,  i 


a  three  (iuli|ect*  or  persona); 
■in  (t)  loeae  mree  nave  equally,  and  in  common  with 
aoe  another,  the  nature  and  perTection  of  lupreme  di- 
rinity.  It  waa  the  custom  in  former  times  for  theolo- 
ipauatobleadtheirown  apeculitioniud  those  of  olhen 
with  the  statement  of  the  Wble  doctrine.  ICiscustoro- 
ary  now  to  exhibit  Gist  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  Bible, 
and  aflerwards,  in  a  Mpant«  part,  the  speculations  of 
the  leanied  respecting  it. 

L  Tkt  Biblical  OoerrMt— It  has  alwaya  been  aUowed 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  not  fully  revealed 
Mbre  the  time  of  Christ,  and  ia  clearly  taught  onlv  in 
iheNewTcM.  Tet,  while  it  ia  true  (1)  that  if  the  New 
Test,  did  not  eaint  we  could  not  derive  tbe  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  from  the  Old  TeaL  alone,  it  is  equally  true 
(1)  that  bv  the  minaer  otGod'a  nvelation  of  himself  in 
the  OU  f  ML  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  more  full 
disdoanre  of  hia  nature  that  waa  afterwards  made.  But 
|3)  mpeetiDg  the  intimate  connoctinn  of  these  persomi, 
n  rnpecting  other  distinctions  which  belong  to  the 
<loctnneortbe  Trinity,  there  is  nothing  said  in  the  Old 
Tm.  While  in  each  particular  text  allusion  ia  made 
1"  a  trinity  or  plurality  in  Ood,  yet  these  texts  are  so 
niinv  in  number  and  so  various  in  kind  that  they  im- 


1  TRINITY 

ia  indicated  in  Ibo  Old  Teat,  though  it  is  not  fully 

developed  or  clearly  delined. 

(I.)  The  texta  of  the  Old  Tat.  may  be  arranged  in 
the  following  claase* : 

1.  Thoae  giving  the  names  of  God  in  the  plural  furm, 
and  thus  seeming-Io  indicate  a  plurality  of  his  nature, 
of  which  C^rYil^l,  ■'J'TX,  O^'Cnp  are  cited  as  examples; 
but  as  these  maybe  only  the  pluralit  nuyalalimi  of  the 
Oriental  languages,  they  afford  no  certain  pn-of. 

2.  Texts  ill  which  God  apeaka  of  himself  in  the  plural. 
The  plural  in  many  of  these  cases  can  be  accoiiiued  for 
from  the  use  of  the  plural  nouns  D^n^X.  -71^,  etc 
Philu  thinks  {De  Ojiif.  .Vuwtf,  p.  17)  that  in'  the  ex- 
pression "  Let  us  mske  man"  <Gen.  i,  W),  God  addresses 
the  angels.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Hebrew  fur  kings 
to  speak  of  themselves  in  the  plutal  (1  Kings  xii,  9;  2 
ChiOD.  X,  9;  Ezra  iv,  18).  In  Isa.vi.B  God  a8ks,who 
wiU  go  for  us  <43^),  where  the  plural  form  may  be  ex- 
plained either  as  the  plaralit  auytMiaiKiiM,  or  as  denoting 
an  assembly  farconsulta^n. 

3.  Texts  in  which  TTn-^  (Jehovah)  is  distinguished 
from  CnliS  (Elohim).'  These  texta  do  not,  however, 
furnish  any  dedaive  proof;  for  in  the  simplicity  of  an- 
dent  style  the  noun  is  oDen  repeated  instead  of  using 
the  pronoun;  and  sa,yri>'a  JtinvaA  may  mean yron 
Aiauf^,  etc  Further,  the  name  D'^nliX  (Elohim)  is 
aomeiimes  given  to  earthly  kings,  and  does  nut,  there- 
fore, necessarily  prove  that  the  person  to  whom  it  is 

4.  Texts  in  which  express  mention  ia  made  of  tbe 
aam  of  God  and  of  tbe  Hotg  Spiril, 

(o.)  0/  Ihe  Son  nf  God.— The  prindpal  lait  of  this 
class  is  Psa.  il,  7,  "Thou  art  my  son;  this  day  have  I 
begotten  thee;"  comp.  Psa.lxxii,l;  txixix,37.  This 
Psalm  was  understood  by  the  Jews  and  by  the  writers 
of  the  New  Test,  to  relate  to  the  Messiah.  But  the 
name  ,Soii  o/God-Kta  not  unfrequently  given  lo  kings; 
it  is  not,  therefore,  aomea  iMienlia,  but  digniralii  M<$ti- 
amt.  The  passage  would  then  mean,  "Thou  art  the 
king(Hnaiah}  of  my  appointment;  this  day  have  1  de- 
clared thee  auch."  In  this  psalm,  therefore,  the  Messiah 
is  rather  exhibited  as  king,  divinely  sppointed  ruler  and 
head  of  tbe  Church,  than  as  belonging  tt>  the  divine 

(6.)  OflU  ffols  Spirif.— There  are  many  texts  of  this 
class,  but  none  from  which,  taken  hy  themselves,  the 
personality  of  the  Hdy  Spirit  can  be  proved.  In  these 
texts  tbe  term  Holg  Spiril  may  mean  (1)  the  divine 
nature  in  general;  (3)  particular  divine  attributes,  as 
omnipotence,  knowledge,  or  omniscience!  (8)  the  divine 

16,  "X'nd  now  Jehovah  (the  Father)  and  his  Spirit 
(Holy  Ghost)  hath  sent  me"  (the  Messiah),  is  supposed 
to  teach  tbe  whole  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  But  the 
expression  "  and  his  Spirit"  is  used  by  tbe  prophets  to 
mean  the  dirrtt,  iamediale  command  of  God.     To  say, 

as  to  say,  the  Loid  hatb  sent  me  by  ■  direct,  immediate 

6.  Texts  in  which  thrtt  persons  are  expressly  men> 
Uoned,  or  in  which  there  is  a  dear  reference  lo  tbe 
number  rArn  (Numb.  vi,!4;  Psa.  xixiii,  6;  Isa.vi,B). 
But  the  repetition  of  the  word  Jtiorah  in  the  one  text 
is  not  an  undeniable  proof  of  the  Trinity;  and  in  the 
other,  the  vordn/'hiimoiilk  means  nothing  more  than 
his  eomoiattd;  and  in  the  last  text  the  threefold  repeti- 
tion of  the  word  *o/p  may  have  been  by  three  choirs,  all 
uniting  in  the  last  words,  "The  whole  earth  ia  full  ofthy 
glory." 

Thua  it  appeare  that  none  of  the  passages  cued  from 
the  Old  Test,  in  proof  of  the  Trinity  are  coneluivive  when 

they  are  all  Mken  loccther,  they  convpy  the  impresaicm 
that  at  least  s  plurality  in  the  godhead  waa  obscurely 
indicated  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 


I.     The  t 


>t  And  in  the  Old  Te^  clur  o 


'idnl  in 


111  Iluly  Spirit  are  mentiooed 
ID  conneciioD,  aiiJ  tliose  ia  nbich  these  three  aubjecti 
■re  meationed  Bepanlcly,  and  in  which  their  nature 
and  mutual  rditiun  are  more  panicularlj'  descritied. 

I.  The  Snt  clasB  of  texts,  uken  by  itKlf,  prorea  only 
ibit  there  are  the  three  subject)  naoied,  uid  that  then 
It  the  Father  in  cer- 


cliCeni  from 


prove,  by  itaeir,  that  all  the  three  belong  necesaarily  to 
ihe  divine  nature,  and  poieeM  equal  divine  honor,  la 
proof  of  Ihii,  the  second  class  of  lext*  muU  be  addnoed. 
The  followiiig  texts  are  placed  in  thi»  class: 

Matt,  xviii,  18-20.  Tbia  text,  huKerer,  uken  by  it- 
eelf,  would  not  prove  decisively  either  the  ptrtonnUly 
of  the  three  suhjecu  mentioned,  or  iheir  tqaali/g  or  di- 
vinbs.    For  (a)  the  aubject  into  which  one  is  baptized 


irily  a  pertotij  but  may  h 


ligioa,     (i)  The  person  in  whom  one  is  baptized 
□eceesarily  (jod,  aa  1  Cor.  i,  IS,  "  Were  ye  baptized  in 

aubjecta  does  not  prove  their  ptrnmalUg  or  tqaatilj/. 
We  gather  one  thing  from  the  text.  via.  that  Chrial 
considered  the  doctrine  respecting  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  aa  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  his  religion, 
becaiue  he  requires  all  his  followen  In  be  bound  to  a 
profesaiun  of  it  wlien  adoiitttd  by  baptism  into  the 
Church. 

1  I'el.  i.  Si  "  Elect  according  to  the  foreknowledge  of 
<iQd  the  Father,  through  sanctification  of  the  Spirit, 
unto  obedience  and  iprinkliiig  nf  ibe  hinod  uf  Jesus 
Christ,"  Proin  what  is  here  said  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it 
does  not  oeceasarily  fallow  that  he  is  a  personal  subject; 
□or,  from  the  predicate*  here  ascribed  to  Christ,  that  he 
is  necessarily  divine.  This  paiaage,  therefore,  taken  by 
itself,  is  ioauffieient. 

2  Cor.  liii,  14,  "The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jeaua  Christ, 
and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  communion  of  the  Huly 
Ghost,  be  with  you  all."  Here  we  might  infer,  from 
Ibe  paralieliam  of  the  third  member  of  the  passage  with 
the  two  former,  the  ;wr»om((irjr  of  Ihe  Holy  Spirit;  but 
we  could  not  Justly  infer  that  they  possessed  tqual  au- 

John  xiv,  26  ofleni  three  different  penonal  subjects, 
vix.  the  Comforter,  the  Father,  and  Christ ;  but  it  is  not 
■ufKcientiy  proven  from  thia  passage  thst  these  three 
subjects  have  equal  divine  honor,  and  belong  to  one 

Malt,  iii,  IS,  17  has  been  considered  a  very  strong 
proof-uxt  for  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.     But 

voice  of  the  Father,  the  symbol  of  Ihe  Holy  Spirit,  and 
Christ,  yet  noihing  is  here  said  respecting  Iheir  nature. 

1  John  v,T,  8  are  generally  admitted  to  be  spurious; 
and,  even  if  allowed  to  be  genuine,  ihey  do  not  deter- 
mine the  nature  and  essential  connection  of  the  three 
subjects  mentioned. 

2.  We  now  turn  to  the  second  class  of  lextB,riz.  those 
in  which  ibe  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  (ihost  are  separate 
ly  mentioned,  and  in  which  their  nature  and  mutui 
relation  are  uughl.  These  texts  prove  (a)  thai  the  .So 
and  Holy  Spirit,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Nei 

and  (A)  that  the  three  subjects  are  petsonal  and  equal. 

(1.)  Thi  Dtiiyqflkt  folio-,— When  the  term  FalhiT 
is  applied  to  God,  it  often  design^ lea  Ihe  whole  god- 
head, or  the  whole  divine  nature;  as  Bibt  i  Oorqp, 
1.  Ct^.  viii,  4-6 ;  John  xvii,  1-3,  He  is  often  calleil 
Scu£  (Be  riariip.  i.  e.  6(o£  u  tlarqp'  "^  ^(^  <>C  'vi 
narqp,aBGBl.i,4.  All  the  argumenls,  therefore,  which 
prove  the  existence  at  God  prove  also  the  deitv  uf  the 
Father. 

(2.)  Tht  Dtilg  of  Chnl.—lo  prove  Ihe 
Christ  we  present  three  claases  of  texts. 


2  TRINITY 

(a.)  The  foUowing  are  the  principal  t«xta  in  wbid 
divine  names  are  given  to  Christ: 

John  i,  1,  i.  Christ  is  here  called  a  A^a;  (tb« 
Word),  which  signifled  among  the  Jews  and  other  an- 
cient people,  when  applied  lo  God,  aenfikiitg  bf  vkidt 
God  rtreatt  kimttlflo  am,  and  make*  known  lo  iben 

will  la  men  were  called  by  the  HeUeuials  \iyot.  It 
was  probably  on  this  account  that  John  declared  Jraiia 
lo  be  Ihe  Logos  which  existed  Iv  apx9<  that  Ikt  Lagti 
vKU  tcilh  GodjUii  fht  Lvgot  vat  God.  In  tbi*  psssage 
Ihe  principal  proof  does  not  lie  in  the  word  Adyof,  uur 
even  in  the  word  BirJc,  which  in  a  Larger  sense  is  oftm 
applied  lo  kings  and  earthly  rulers;  but  to  what  ia 
predicated  of  ilte  Adyoc,  vii.  that  he  existe'l  from  elei- 
nily  with  God,  that  the  world  was  made  by  l.im.rtc. 

John  XI,  !t>.  Here  Thomas,  canvioerd  at  lart  that 
Christ  was  actually  risen  from  the  dead,  thus  addiesst* 
him,  "Hy  Lord  and  my  God."  This  must  not  htcm- 
sidered  an  exclamalinn  of  surprise  or  wonder,  as  sumt 
I  liave  understood  it ;  for  it  ia  preceded  by  the  phrase 
-'—y  ai'iTif,  "he  said  this  to  him."  Thomas  probably 
^mbereil  what  Jesus  bad  oflen  said  respecting  his 
superhuman  origin  (v,  S,  10,  IT),  and  he  now  saw  it  all 
confirmed  by  his  resurrection  from  the  dead. 

PhiLii,  6,"Who,  being  in  the  form  of  Cnd,  Ibont-ht 

not  rolibeiy  to  be  equal  with  God."     There  it  ia  said 

uf  Christ  (hat  he  is  i<ta  Biif,  f>ro  itgvolU ;  not  d/imoc 

S(<fi,  risTJSiOt,  ^OEiEtXot,  tbaSii  Dea — terms  sppUtd 

by  Homer  to  kings  and  heroes.     The  term  iiroc  OHff, 

the  contrary,  is  never  applied  (n  a  finite  or  crrsKd 

ing.     Hence  the  Jews  (John  r,  18)  considered  it  as 

blasphemy  in  Christ  lo  make  himself  laov  Qnfi. 

John  X,  28-30,  "  I  and  my  Father  are  one."  Thne 
words  are  not  to  be  undenlond  to  denote  so  much  aa 
equality  of  nature  as  unanimity  of  feeling  and  purpose. 
Still  tbe  passage  is  quite  remarkable;  because  Chritt 
professes  lo  do  his  work  in  cdikshhi  irtlA  his  Fsiher; 
'  '  at  is  more  thsn  anv  man,  prophet,  or  even  titpl 
■  said  in  Ihe  Bible  to  do.  That  being  one  with 
God,  Iherelbre,  which  Jesus  I 
sometbing  pecidiar 
a  being  of  a  highei 

Tit.  ii,  13,"  We  expect  the  ginrions  appearance,' ttc 
111  this  passage,  since  rou  is  omitted  tiefore  viurqpet, 
bolh  fuydXov  etoii  and  vtarlipos  must  be  construed  in 
apposition  with  'Iqaoii  Xpurrou.  Moreover,  IxifavnB 
is  the  word  by  which  the  solemn  comiug  uf  Christ  ii 
appropriately  designated. 

In  some  of  the  texts  in  which  Cbriat  is  railed  Ihe 
5>M  n/Go/l,  Ibe  name  is  used  in  three  different  lensn 
—[I  J  Mesuah  or  king,  a  title  very  commonly  given  W 
Ihe  Mesdab  bv  the  Jews  (see  Ualt.  xri,  18;  Luke  ix, 
20iMatLxxvii,10;  Luke  xxiii,36:  see  also  Hark  liii, 
32;  1  Cor.  xv,  SS);  [2]  the  higher  nature  of  Oiriit 
(Johnv,17sq.;  x,30,S3:  xx,31;  Rom.i.8.1);  {8]  hi 


'h  belongs  lo  faim  only  as  ha  ii 


livine  attributes  and  works  are 


called  the  Son  of  Goil  (Lnke  i,  S&).  to  designate 
the  immediate  power  of  God  it     ' 
duction  of  his  human  lulure. 

(6.)  Texts  in  which  d 
ascribed  lo  Christ,  ll  i 
prove  that  all  the  divine  attributes  are  ascribed  le 
Christ.  ThMe  attributes  cannot  be  separated;  and  if 
one  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Christ  in  Ihe  Bible,  the  con- 
clusion is  inevitable  that  he  must  poness  all  the  mt. 
The  following  altribuies  and  Wortta  are  distinctly  »■ 
cribed  10  Christ  in  Ihe  Scriptures: 

[i.)  Elrmilg  {3ohn  i,  1 ;  viii.&8;  xvii,  6;  Col  i,  IT). 

[ii.]  Crrolvm  md prittrvotim  nflkt  world  (John  i, 
1-8,  10;  Col.  i,  Iti;  Heb.  i.  10  [where  Psa.  cii,  M  is 
quoted  and  applied  lo  Christ] ;  ii,  ID). 

[iii.]  ttnavHtswe  is  ascribed  to  Christ  (niU.iii, SI); 
onutsnaiM  (Halt,  xi,  27}.  He  is  described  as  the 
trarcher  nfhiarti.  ete.  (1  Cor.  iv,  5), 

(c,)  Texu  in  which  divine  honor  if  '    "  '» 

Christ.     The  following  are  the  prinri-  a 

class:  John, V, 38, "All  men  aboiild  b^ 


TRINITY  6i 

u  they  honnrihe  F«tlierf  Acti  i,  !4i  vji,  69;  !  Cor. 
lii,  S,wbcn  Cbtiac  is  ■pprotched  in  pnveri  inJ  ihoM 
ia  nhieb  tbc  ipmtlei  n(tr  lo  Chriit  [he  texts  of  the 
Old  Tfsi.  that  tpfk  o(  the  booor  ind  wonbip  of  God, 
e.S.Heb.i,6  rrooi  ru.xcvii,7;  (bo  Rom.  xiv,  11  rtoiu 
la.  «lT,  a  i  PhU.  ii,  10;  2  Cor.  T,  B-ll ;  2  Tim.  it,  17, 

(3.)  Tbe  third  point  in  the  dtKuuinn  of  thii  doctrine 
ii  the  perWHulity  anil  divinity  of  the  Huly  Spirit ;  fur 
>  full  divuninn  of  wbich  Me  Holt  Ghobt. 

IL  Hiilory  of  tkt  ZhMrvu.— Keipecling  the  mamrr 
in  which  tbe  Father,  the  Son.  and  the  Boly  Ghoat  make 
«ne  God,  the  Scripture  teacbe*  nalhing,  aitico  the  tub- 
plained  ID  HI.  It  is  therefore  to  be  expected  that  theo- 
k^iaoa  ihoiild  diObr  widely  in  their  opiaiont  te^wcting 
it,  and  that  in  their  attempt!  to  illuMnte  it  they  ■hoald 
bars  puraued  yarioua  metboda. 

\.Al  Held  iy  Ike  Prbmtire  Chriitiaiu.—foi  the  first 
age  tbe  Scripture  is  sufficient  evidence  of  the  Chris- 
tian^ practice.  For,  not  Co  inaiat  upon  the  precept  of 
hiKWriiig  tbe  Son  as  they  honored  the  Father;  or  the 
fom  of  baptism,  in  which  they  were  commanded  to 
juiu  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Gbott  in  one  act  of 

bdiertd  in  the  Father,  let  reference  t>e  made  only  to 
ihdr  example  and  practice.  Stephen,  the  protomartyr, 
■hen  he  was  sealing  his  eoHfesaion  with  his  Uood, 
ptared  ta  Christ,  "Lord  Jeaus,  receive  my  apiriC,''and 
"Lnd,  lay  not  this  un  to  their  charge"  (Acts  vii,  59, 
fiO).  Paul  asMrts  that  he  baptized  only  in  the  name 
«f  Cbiijt  (1  Cor.  i,  13).  Notice  alaa  his  conatant  use 
of  the  name  of  Christ  in  inrocalion.  There  it  the  well- 
kiwwB  fact  that  the  eariy  belierers  were  known  as 
thoH  who  called  on  the  name  of  Christ  (Acta  ix,  14,21 ; 
lCor.i,a;  2Tim.ii,W). 

:.  ,li  Httd  in  Ike  ^  and  Sd  CoKvriu.— Towards  tbe 
end  of  tbe  lat  oenlury,  and  during  the  2d,  many  learned 
mm  came  over  both  from  Judaism  and  paganism  to 
Chrittianity.  These  Imiujtht  with  them  into  the  Chris- 
daa  achooli  of  theology  their  Platonic  ideas  and  phra- 
Kology,  and  they  especially  lioiTowed  from  the  phi- 
lompbical  writings  of  Pbilo.  As  was  very  natural, 
tbey  eonlined  themaelTee,  iu  their  phiioaopbiaing  re- 
•pectiBg  the  Trinity,  prindpally  to  the  Li^oa;  connect- 
ing tbe  sane  ideas  with  the  name  Xd^de  as  had  been 
doae  before  by  Philn  aiHi  other  Placoiiists.  Differing 
on  several  smaller  points,  they  agreed  perfectly  in  the 
following  geiMral  views,  viz.:  tbe  Logos  existed  before 
the  creation  of  the  world;  be  was  begotten,  however, 
by  God,  and  aent  forth  from  him.  By  this  Logos  the 
Keo-Platonists  nnderttood  the  infinite  underitaBiiiiig  of 
Cod,  belonging  from  eternity  to  hia  natare  as  a  potntr, 
bot  that,  agreeably  to  the  divine  will,  it  began  to  exitt 
ouof  the  divine  nature.  It  la  therefore  difl^nt  from 
God,  and  yet,  as  h^otten  of  him,  is  entirely  divine. 
By  means  of  this  Li^oa  they  supposed  that  Uod  at  Brtt 
ernted,  and  now  preaervet  and  governs,  the  universe. 
Tbdr  views  respecting  the  Holy  ^irit  are  tia  leas 
deaily  expresaed,  Ihoagh  most  of  Ihem  considered  him 
ling  frnn)  the  Father  and  the  Son, 


It,  divii 


Then  philoaophieal  Christ! 

rimai  of  the  Son  and  Spirit,  ann  ineir  iiiTine  oriKin, 
thaB  Ihdr  equal  dtilg  with  the  Father.  JuBtin  Msr- 
ivr  eipready  declares  that  the  Son  is  in  Qod  what 
the  understanding  (voti[)  it  in  man,  and  that  the  Holy 
^iiit  it  that  divine  power  lo  act  and  execute  which 
Plato  calls  ooer^  With  this  representation  Theophi- 
1bi  of  Antioch,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen  sub- 
ttsntiallv  agrve-  According  ro  Tertollian,  the  penons 
rt  the  Trinity  are  i/radut,  Jifrnta.  tpedn  vmvt  Dri. 
Thu  we  find' that  fhe  belief  in  the  aubordinatlon  of 
the  Son  to  tbe  Father,  for  which  Arianitm  is  the  later 
name,  was  commonly  received  by  mnat  of  those  fathen 

the  phikaofiby  of  Plata.    Another  claM  of  levned,  pbi- 
X.— 18* 


13  TRINITY 

loaapbiiing  Chrittiani  aabstitnted  another  theory  on 
the  subject  of  the  Trinity,  which,  booerer,  was  none 
the  less  farmed  ratber  ftoin  their  philosophical  ideas 
than  from  the  instructions  of  the  Bible.    Among  [be 

writers  of  this  class  waa  Praxeaa,  of  the  2d  centuiv,  who 
contended  that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  were  not 
diatinguished  from  each  other  aa  individual  anbjects; 
but  that  God  waa  called  Falker,  so  far  as  he  was  crea- 
tor and  governor  of  the  world;  Son  (Aoyoc),  so  far  as 
be  had  endowed  the  man  Jesus  with  extraonlinaty 
powers,  etc  He,  in  accordance  with  this  view,  denied 
any  higher, pTtr^xiiting  nature  in  Christ;  and  with  him 
agreed  Artemon,  Noetus,  and  Beri'llus  of  Bottra.  3a- 
belliua  regarded  the  t«rms  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit 
aa  merely  describing  different  divine  uoria,  and  various 
modes  of  divine  rtxdalion. 

In  Che  following  table  the  writers  of  the  first  three 
centuries  on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity  are  ranged  ac- 
cording to  Iheir  opinions : 


Clemsna  AteiaDdrlnna. 

Tartu  II  Ian. 

Origeii. 

Dliiuveiot  Aleiandrinna. 

DtunjilDa 


Berrllns  of  Boatra 


Among  the  terms  introduced  in  tbe  discussion  of  tbe 
doctrine  of  tbe  Trinity  during  this  period  tbe  following 
are  (he  most  common,  vii.  (1.)  Tpiaj,  introduced  hy 
Theophilui  of  Antioch  in  tbe  2d  century,  and  often  used 
by  Origen  in  the  Sd  century.  Tertuliiim  translated  it 
into  Latin  by  the  word  (rutftu,  of  which  the  English 
word  it  an  exact  rendering.  (2.)  OMa,  vv6irTaaiQ. 
These  terms  were  not  sufficiently  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  the  Greek  fathers  of  the  2d  and  Bd  cen- 
turies, and  were  often  used  by  them  as  entirely  synony- 
mous. By  the  wont  {nciaramt,  Che  older  Greek  fathen 
understood  only  a  really  existing  subject,  in  opposition 
to  a  nonentity,  or  to  a  merely  ideal  existence;  in  which 
sense  they  also  not  unfrequeniJy  used  the  word  oivia. 
(3.)  PtTtoaa.  This  word  waa  first  employed  by  Tertul- 
lisn,  and  Ly  it  be  means  an  iadtridiial,  a  single  being, 
distinguished  from-  others  by  certain  peculiar  qualities, 
attributes,  and  relations;  and  so  he  calls  Pater.  Pilins, 
Spiritus  Sanctut,  tra  prnana  (three  persons),  at  the 
same  time  that  he  ascribes  to  them  unilai  luitlaiiluE 
(unity  of  aiibatance),  because  they  belong  to  the  divine 

We  call  attention  lo  the  following  a  shedding  light 
upon  the  practKt  of  tbe  Cfaurch  during  this  [wriod. 
Pliny,  a  judge  under  Tr^an,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
2d  century  cook  the  confesaiona  of  some  accused  Chris- 
tians, and  aaya,  "Tbey  declared  that  they  were  used  lo 
meet  on  a  certain  day  before  it  was  light,  and,  among 
other  parts  of  their  worship,  ung  a  hymn  to  Cbrist  as 
Iheir  God."  Polycarp  (Ep.  ad  PhUip'.  n.  1!)  joins  God 
the  Father  and  the  Son  together  in  his  prayers  for  grace 
and  benediction  upon  men.  Justin  Martyr  answering, 
in  his  Sfcond  Apologt/,  the  charge  of  atheiam  brought 
against  them  by  the  heathen,  answers, "  That  they  wor- 
shipped and  adored  ttill  the  God  of  righleousnesa  and 
bis  Son,  as  also  the  Holy  Spirit  of  prophecy."  Athe- 
nagoraa  answers  the  chai^  of  atheiam  after  the  same 
manner.  Similar  testimony  is  aRbnled  by  the  wrilingi 
of  Lucian  the  heathen,  TheophQus  of  Antioch.  Clement 
Alexandrinus,  Origen.  Novaiian,  and  others,  illuMnting 
tbe  practice  of  the  Church  in  paying  divine  honora  lo 
the  Son  and  Holy  Sfjirit. 

3.  The  TrtHils  at  Hrld  »  tht  ilk  Cnfur^.— It  had  al- 
ready been  settled,  by  many  councils  held  during  the 
8d  century,  and  in  the  symbols  which  they  bad  adopted 
in  opposition  to  Sabelliut  and  Paul  of  Samosata,  that 


TRINITY  5i 

[he  Father  must  be  regarded  w  reallg  di<tingiiuh«d 
from  tbe  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spiril  u  diilinguiBbed  from 
both.  Tbe  reUtion,  however,  of  the  three  peiwiu  of 
[he  Trinity,  ind  tbe  question  in  what  ihe  dicUitctioD 
between  them  properly  consiUi,  not  hiving  been  dis- 
cuseed,  these  ■ubjecta  were  left  uDdelermined  by  the  de- 
dnonii  of  eouucils  lud  aymhoU.  Different  opinioiu  pre- 
vailed, and  learned  men  were  left  to  expreaa  tbemaeire* 
according  to  theii  convictioos. 

Origen  and  bU  followen  msintuned,  againit  the  3a- 
belliann,  that  there  were  in  (iod  r^i;  iiroaTamii;  (thr«e 
persona),  hut  fii'a  oiiala  (one  subatance)  common  to  the 
three.  Few  had  as  yet  taught  the  entire  igaalili/  of 
these  three  peisone,  but  had  allowed,  in  accordanoe  with 
their  Platonic  principles,  that  the  Son,  though  belong- 
ing to  the  divine  nature,  was  yet  tubordinste  to  the 
Father.  In  the  beginning  of  the  4tb  century,  Aiei- 
ander  of  Alexandria,  and  Albanauus,  hia  aueocBaar,  at- 
tempted to  unite  the  hypotheses  of  Origen  and  S^I- 
lias,  thinking  that  the  trulh  lay  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes. AthanasiuB  stated  the  peiaonal  distinction  of 
the  Father  and  the  Son  to  be  that  the  former  was  a*A- 
out  be^mnns  and  unbegoftrnt  white  the  latter  was  rier- 
nallnbeffoaen  by  the  Falhet.  and  equally  eceroal  with 
Ihe  Father  and  the  Spirit. 

Arias,  about  SM,  disputed  the  dncttine  Uught  by  Al- 
exander, VIE.  if  Tpiaii  fioi-ata  Hvai,  and  bo  favored 
the  Sabellian  theorr.  As  the  controversy  proceeded, 
lecbred,  in  opposition  to  Sabellius,  that  there 


otonlyth 


:n  God,  bi 


unequal  in  gtnry  (ioKa-t  ovy  ofioini) ;  ■>">>  tbe  Father  ' 
■lone  was  supreme  Cod  (SyiyvvTO^),  and  (Sod  in  *  | 
higher  sense  than  the  Sonj  that  the  Son  derived  his  ( 
divinity  from  tbe  Father  before  Ihe  creation  of  the 
world,  and  that  be  owed  his  existence  to  the  divine 

sense  inferior  to  that  in  which  the  Father  is  so.  In  op- 
position to  all  the  Ariaii,  and  various  other  theories, 
Alhanasiusand  bisfbllowerszealouslycontended.  They 
B(H.-ceeded,  at  a  general  council  at  Nice  in  S25,  in  hiv- 
ing a  svmbol  idr^Md  which  was  designed  to  be  thence- 
forward (he  only  Btandard  of  orthodoxy.     This  symbol 

381,  under  llieodoeius  the  Great.  The  disUnctions  es- 
tihlished  at  Nice  and  Constantinople  were  often  re- 
enacted  at  various  succeeding  councils.  Many  urged, 
in  opposition,  that  trUiieum  (q.  v.)  was  tbe  inevitable 
consequence -of  the  admisBOn  of  these  distiaelions,  but 
they,  nevertheless,  remained  in  force.  The  council 
adopted  the  word  ofiaDfviocCeonsDbManlialily).  explain- 
ing themselves  thus:  TheSonw*snotCTOaled,buleter- 
tully  generated  from  the  nature  of  the  Fsther,  and  is 
therefore  in  nil  respects  equal  to  him,  and  no  more  dif- 
ferent, as  to  nature,  from  God  Ihtn  a  human  son  is  from 
his  father,  and  so  cannot  be  separated  from  the  Father. 
All  that  they  meant  to  leach  by  the  use  of  this  word 
was  tliat  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  had  the  di- 
vine nature  and  divine  perfections  ao  in  common  that 

sertitig,  however,  that  there  were  three  Gods:  in  short, 
that  in  the  Godhead  there  were  Irri  duHrcli,  unilalt  u- 
lenlia  amjandi.    See  Ckeeh,  Nicbxe. 

The  ciararterilia  by  which  Ihe  persons  of  the  Trin- 
ity may  be  distinguished  from  each  other  under  this 
view  belong  In  two  classes. 

(I.)  /nfrmaf  ("characterea  intctni").     These  are  dis- 

three  persons  in  Ihe  (ioilhead  to  each  other,  and  indi- 
cating the  mode  of  the  divine  existence.  The  follow- 
ing distinctions  are  derived  from  the  names  Falher. 
Son,  and  Spiril,  and  fVom  aome  other  Bible  phraseology: 
(a.)  Tbe  Father  gnttraUt  the  Son,  and  mitt  the  Holy 
Spirit,  geaemt  f'iliun,  tptral  Spirilum  Baaciiim ;  and 
possesses,  therefore,  as  his  personal  attributes,  ^flvroh'o 
adira  and  ipiralio  Ofliva.  (t.)  The  Sun  is  gmerolrd 
by  Ihe  Father— /■i/.i  r$t  gnrrori  nos  gmrrarr.  The 
Son,  therefore,  possesses  as  his  personal  attributes  jifta. 


4  TRINITY 

lio,ffaieralii)  pattira !  and  also,  aa  he  is  auppcMd  to  anil 
the  Spirit  in  conjuoction  with  the  Father,  tpiralio  ac- 
lira.  (c)  The  Holy  Spirit  neither  generates  nor  is  gen- 
erated, but  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son — Spi- 
rilla Samiiii  at,  ntc  gnerare  ate  gratrari,  spd  procr- 
dert.  In  regard  to  the  Holy  Spiril,  there  was  iwthinii 
decided,  during  the  first  three  centuries,  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  respec^ng  bis  natiue,  the  cbvvcteriuic*  of 
bis  person,  or  hia  relation  to  the  Father  and  the  Sobl 
Nor  was  anything  more  definite,  with  rvgaid  to  his  nat- 
nra  and  his  rdation  lo  the  other  persons  of  the  Ttiniir, 
than  what  has  already  been  stated,  established  by  the 
council  at  Nice,  or  even  by  that  at  ConstSDtinople.  T" 
believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost — rb  aiv  llorpi  Koi  Tiifi  crvfi- 
rpoaicBvoilinmi,  and  it  roS  Iliirpoc  icwmnviiuror — 
was  all  that  was  required  in  the  symbol  ihire  adopted. 
But  there  wero  many, especially  in  the  Laiin  Cburrh,  who 
mainlained  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  proceed  fims 
the  Father  only,  but  also  from  the  Son.  They  appeaird 
to  John  xvi,  13,  and  to  the  texts  where  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  called  Ihe  Spiril  nfChriM,  e.  g.  Rom.  viii,  9i  To  this 
doctrine  the  Greeks  were,  for  the  moat  part,  oppceed,  b^ 
cause  they  did  rot  find  that  Ihe  New  Teat,  ever  ex- 
pressly dedared  that  tbe  Spirit  proceeded  from  tbe  Son. 
It  prevailed,  however,  more  and  more  in  Ihe  l^tin 
Chureb;  and  when  in  Ihe  5tb  and  6th  cenluriea  tbe 
Ariana  urged  it  as  an  argument  against  the  eqnaliiy  of 
Christ  with  the  Father,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded 
from  the  Father  only,  and  not  from  the  Son,  the  CathiK 
lie  churches  Iwgan  to  hold  more  decidedly  thai  ihe  Uolr 
Spirit  proceeded  from  both,  and  insert  the  adjunct  FiK- 
oque  after  Patrt  in  the  8yJ)iitun  Xieamz-Comlamtiao' 

(2.)  Ezltnat  ("  characteres  eilemi^.  TheM  are 
cbaracleristies  of  the  persons  of  the  Trinity  arising  tnn 
the  worjti  of  the  Deity  relating  to  objects  exirinaic  u> 
itself,  and  called  Optra  externa,  noe  ad  aira.  They 
are  twofold;  (u.)  Opera  Dti  aeawmica,  those  inatitu- 
tiona  which  tiod  has  founded  for  the  salrstion  of  ibe 
human  race.  The  Falitr  kd(  hia  Son  to  redeem  mm 
(John  iii,  16,  IT),  and  gi>ea  or  sends  the  Holv  Spirit 
(xiv,  !6).  The  Son  is  seni  from  the  Father,  elc,  and 
sends  the  Holy  Spiril  from  Ihe  Father  (xv,  26).  Tbe 
7/uJf  Spirit  farmed  the  human  nalure  uf  Christ  (Lake 
i,  8&)  and  anointed  it  (Ads  i,  SB),  i.  e.  endowed  it  with 
gifts;  and  is  scni  into  the  hearts  of  men,  and  carries 
them  Torward  towards  monil  perfeelinn.  (b.)  Opera  Dri 
aUrSmliea,  such  divine  works  as  are  common  to  (be 
three  persons,  but  which  are  frequently  ascribed  lo  one 
of  the  three.  To  tbe  Father  are  ascribed  the  deoe*  Is 
create  Ihe  world,  the  actual  creation,  and  the  pR«erT>- 

and  govemnient  of  tbe  world  are  ascribed ;  also  tbe  rais- 
ing of  the  dead  and  judgment.  To  tbe  Holy  Spiril  ait 
ascribed  the  immediate  revelation  of  Ibe  diriiie  will  ip 
Ihe  propbels,  ibe  continuation  of  the  great  work  of  aal- 
vatioD  commenced  by  Christ,  and  the  commntUGBiioo 
and  application  to  men  of  the  meana  of  gnee. 

4.  Hiitorg  f}'  Iki  Dottrime  ma  Ike  Rrfarmaliem.- 
Neariy  all  the  writers  upon  the  subject  of  the  Trinity 
unce  ihe  Reformation  belong  to  some  one  of  the  generil 
clasiea  already  mentioned.    We  pteaent  several  tbeo- 

<l.)  Some  have  attempted  to  Jlluslrate  and  rxplaia 
this  doctrine  by  philosophy ;  and  not  a  few  have  goee 
so  far  as  lo  think  they  could  prove  the  Trinity  a  prinri, 
and  ihat  reason  alone  furnishes  suBicient  arguments  fbr 
its  truth.  Othen,  again,  looked  to  reason  for  nothing 
more  than  an  illustration  of  this  faclor  of  the  divine  ei- 
istence.  In  the  Utter  clase  may  be  placed  PbiUp  He- 
lancthon,  who,  in  hisZori  T'Am^o^tci,  t bos  explained  ibe 
Trinity;  "Clod  from  his  infinite  underetaiiding  produca 
thought,ii>hichistheima^of  himaelf.  TothiBlhoui;hi 
he  imparted  prrtonal  existence,  which.  Ikearing  the  im- 
press of  the  Filher,  is  his  likeness  tzd  Tesemblinceand 
hence  called  by  John  Xdyoc.  This  illnstration  of  ihe 
Trinity  was  received  without  ofiemw  ot  suspicioa,  mtil 


TRINITY  6( 

Ik  hoo*  wbicb  hirlu  bcaetth  it  »u  detected  lod  «■- 
poKd  br'Fbcim.  The  tal«t  atUmpt  to  espUin  Ibe 
Trinitj'  in  tbii  muiDet  may  be  round  in  tbc  Berlaer 
MoKtitteiii/y,  Sept.  1790,  §  180,  ia  an  utide  written 
by  Scbwib  111  Stultgan,  vba  ntm  to  the  ■ccidenu  of 
tftet,  rix.  tengtb,  breadth,  lod  tbickneaa,  u  *o  iUustra- 
tisn  (/  tbe  Triiiilf.  AoionB  thiMe  wbo  tuppoeed  tbit 
(be  Trinity  etould  be  OMlheaiitiedl.v  piaved  were  B«r- 


■  Sftlrma  TiKiJogieHmt 
feter  I'oim.ind  D4hee,wba  publinbed  ui  enay/iifWi 
PUraHlat  Pmomaram  m  DritaU,  .  .  .  Mnitdo  Uatia- 
maHdortm,  DtmoiulnUmr  (LeovwdiB,  ITSfi,  8to). 

(1)  Utben  hcve  ezpniaed  tbeowlrea  ■>  baldly  an 
Ibe  ■iliJKtsftbe  Trinity  tbit  tfaejt  h»>  Memed  ta  ip- 
imuaue  tawardi  trilieum;  m  which  dtn  we  m>y 
iHuioB  Uatibew  Gribaldiu  of  Padua,  in  tbe  16tti  CBi- 
UHy,  wha  muatained  that  tbe  divine  natura  oonaiNed 
oTlhiee  equally  ewtnalapiritu,  between  «boaii,bavever, 
be  adaiocd  ■  diuiuctioa  iu  n^iect  to  rank  and  perfec- 

1  have  indioed  to  adopt  the 
"         ■  (q-  v.), 

Gntius,  Silta  Saermf  Stepbm  NyC  Dadnite  of  He 
TUmif  (Loud.  1701).  In  thia  cUm  «c  place  the  bv- 
path»u  of  Le  Uerc,  [hat  the  Father,  San,  and  Hol.r 
Spiiit  deaiguale  the  different  aodtficationa  at  the  di- 
viae  ■silerataading,  and  the  plana  wbicb  God  fonna. 
Thi)  ii  tbe  errui  into  wbicb  Weigel  and  JaiMb  Bdhme 
fen.  llany  of  lite  modern  Geman  theolosiina  have  an 
explained  the  Trinity  as  Is  loae  tbe  idea  of  three  dirioe 
pa-tau,  Taz  which  Ihey  hare  aubatituled  either  three 
diainct  powrrt  or  atlriitla  (aa  Neier,  Seller,  Claudiua, 
aad  TaHner),  or  a  threelohl  agoKy  in  God— (hre«  eternal 
aetiou  diMinct  rnim  each  other  (a>  S.  G.  Scfal^l,  Kant, 
Tuftrank.  Uauh,  ScheUtnt;,  De  Wette,  end  Feader). 

(1.)  The  A  rian  theory  hiai  alao  found  adTOcatca  among 
PNtHUiit  theohigians,  eipedally  Ch«e  of  the  18th  een- 
iiiTT  (c.  g.  Whwton,  Harwnod,  and  Wettatein) ;  but  the 
ayXen  which  hag  met  with  the  aoM  approbation  ii 
IbM  More  reOaed  aubordimuioniflii  laaght  by  Samuel 
OiiHie,  SerifUmn  OaelrvK  iftkt  Trimlf  (Land.  171^. 

(^)  Tbe  Soeiaiaiu  or  Photinaiu.  Tbe  (ODRden  of 
(bit  *nn  were  Lcliu*  Sodnus  and  hie  nephew  Fraatai 
Snini  (<|.  y.\  who  l/mngbt  over  ennsitlerable  numben 
to  their  doenine  in  Poland  and  TrantylTinia. 

(t)  A  Bew  theory  on  the  Trinity  wu  propnied  by 
D>.  UrlaperKer,  Ksnif/amtrt  SyUTH  w«r<  Vorfro^ 
raaCsMea  fnynn^iril  (AagibofK,  l777,8ro).  He  eci- 
dearored  to  uuiu  (he  three  theoriea — the  Aritn,  Sabel- 
haa,  aad  Nicene — by  making  a  dintinction  between  (ri- 
lilatatnaialu,  the  inleraal  threelold  diKinciion  neces- 
■riJy  beloBgiag  to  tbe  dirim  nature,  and  trnitiu  ato- 
•ouica,  tbi  thiee  pcnona  rerealad  to  oi  in  Ibe  work  of 

It  i*  proper  to  uy  that  "  the  coaduaina  ii  obi'loui 
thai,  while  we  are  taught  by  the  Scripture*  to  beliei-e 
in  three  equal  suljeeta  in  the  Godhead,  who  are  de- 

Bcribnl  a*  perwnt.  we  are  atiU  unable  to  determine  In 

Tine  uiore  an  in  enmmon  that  then  ie  only  one  GatT 
(Eaapp.  Ckriti.  TknAigf,  %  S^-^^).     See  Paiuon. 

IU.  Fntrlie.il  VtArn  of  Ikt  CkritHam  Oodrim  of  lit 
Tntkf. — The  idea  of  a  triune  being^Father,  Son,  and 
Udy  GbOBl — i*  nut  by  any  mean*  Id  be  eotiMdered  aa 
Mpuau  bom  that  of  ihe  nalun  and  attribute*  at  God. 
Thia  apparent  iriihcism  eaa  be  eonaidered  aa  the  oart- 
danoa  or  uue  deiam,  and  aa  a  aafejcuard  in  the  moat 
noaeotnua  queationL  Polytheiam,  panthriacn.  and  dib^ 
aliim  hare  been  to  aome  eitent  enployed  to  riviry  and 
piore  tbe  Imtb  of  relJRioBi  but  we  wmild  preMnl  the 
practical  adraolagea  of  the  ihictrine  of  the  Trinity  in 
qaiua  diflerent  vaaner:  not  aa  aerviog  merely  to  prate 
anutber  propoailwn  without  being  alao  true  in  ilaelf,  but 
aasiliBg  ua  ia  arriving  at  the  knowledge  of  Gad>  nat- 
■n  with  an  ef&eacy  which  ia  eaeentially  inherent  to  ila 
•lifertiTe  and  permanent  reoogniliDD.  God  may  be  eon- 
■derrd  ciiher  aa  not  tnie  or  lofty  enough,  or  not  good    i 


and  bolyenoogh,  or  not  eaten ti ally  active  enough  j  Iheaa 
may  be  eonaidered  Ibe  poaaible  faidta  of  a  given  Hyatem 
of  deiam.  So  tang,  tben,u  it  diiuinguiihes  only  between 
Gud  and  the  woriil.  and  not  between  God  himaelf,  it  nt- 


I  abaolute  being.  An  ab- 
aolute  taf^uard  against  atheiam,  polylheiam,  panthe- 
ism, or  dualiam  cannot  be  found  except  in  tbe  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity;  fur  the  diuinetion  ex  I  King  between  tbe 
Divine  Being  and  tbe  world  is  better  made  and  obaerved 
a*  an  absolute  one  by  those  who  worabip  the  triune  God 
than  by  (hose  who  dn  not.  Thuae  moDotbeiatic  ayalema 
whlcb  were  the  moat  sLrpnuouily  opposed  to  the  idea 
of  a  Trinity,  such  aa  Judaiam  and  Mohamrnedanitni, 
have,  hy  n^aaoB  of  their  drynea*  and  emptineaa,  led  to 
the  gruaaeM  pantheism. 

From  the  dortriiH-  iliat  tbe  Word,  who  waa  God,  be- 
came fleah,  foUowB  tbe  uaeeaiity  of  cunaidcring  God  «* 
persnnallr  united  with  ainleaa  humanity,  but  attiieaaiDe 
time,  also,  Ihe  nnesaity  of  drawing  a  clear  diuinaioa 

Faith  in  the  everlaatiiig  holy  lore,  which  ia  God,  can 
only  be  rendered  Iheoretically  and  practically  perfect  by 
the  knowlRlge  of  tbe  perfect,  elerual  abject  of  the  self- 
conBdousaeaa  and  luve  of  God ;  L  e.  by  the  thought  of 
the  love  of  God  for  hia  only  begolMn  Son.  Finally, 
the  idea  of  the  fulneaa  of  God's  crearivc  and  imparting 
nature  can  only  be  preaerred  frum  diminithing  Ly  the 
Trinitariui  doctrine  of  a  Holy  Ghnst.  Wbttever'ditS- 
cultie*  may  result  from  tbe  Cbriatian  idea  of  diflerent 

personality  of  the  divine  eaaeuce,  the  apparent  canln- 
dietion  ia  yet  susceptible  of  a  solution;  even  when  we 
do  oat  conaido'  that  the  PrimiliTe  Church  did  not,  fur 
a  long  time,  recognise  these  three  persona  bat  aa  only 
iiionjrtc,  iri-oiTrdodc,  etc. 

The  Latin  Cburcb  alone  has,  aince  Augiailine,  aanc- 
tiooed  tbe  eipresaion  pmonia  in  tbe  Sj/tdxAuni  Qti- 
amque,     Auguatine  himself  aaid,  yet,  "  Tres  peraotue,  si 

tial  to  ainititute  the  perfect  personality,  and  empluy  the 
nelaphyaiesofeonsciouaaesaas  an  ana  logical  proof  there- 
of (see  Scbndder, (7^l«r>d,  drd  ^eu/JtcAr  Gftprddu  iLiL 
Prrtaim  d.  GatUuU  [1834],  i).  Othera  refuse  to  recog- 
niae  the  real  personality  of  Gnd  in  any  but  one  of  the  so- 
called  hypoataaai  namely,  iu  Ihe  Lngna,  the  San.  Sueli 
it  Swedenbnrg.  Others  alill  hold  peculiar  opiniona.  At 
any  rat«,  we  ate  obliged,  accordintr  I"  the  clear  tense  of 
Scripture,  to  seek  not  oidy  the  Trias  in  the  subjectivity 
of  tlie  representalion,  nor  exdutively  in  the  econotny  of 
revetatioii,  but  also  recognise  that  immediate  faith  does 
here  contain  within  itself  the  germ  of  endless  apeculi^ 
tion;  not  only  becauae  erery  theiilui^cal  ayaten  of  an- 
tiquity, from  the  time  when.ai  redeciing  te<>oaiai  it  mae 
above  tbe  myths,  shows  certain  higher  tbeogonicsl  ideas 
(in  Ihe  aenae  in  which  Nitzach  faaa  preaenied  it  iu  a  hii>- 
lorical  and  critical  manaor  in  hia  Tilni  ^rud  ch.  i),  nor 
merely  becauae  the  Christian  theolc^ana  of  all  timea 
have  made  a  certain  rational  underttanding  of  tbiamya- 

tjally  neceaaary  lor  tbe  IIJI>lical  theolofnan  to  reoognite 
in  tiie  notion  of  the  Logoa — who  ia  with  God  and  is 
God,  the  prKteative  image  of  God,  the  inmost  spirit  of 
God  who  knew  God— the  element*  of  estential,  imnia- 
oent  Trinity.  For  thoMt  only  ntain  the  trace  of  Bibli- 
cal thuoj^ny  who,  in  all  attempts  at  cxplsining  it,  keep 
in  view  the  notion  of  the  aclf-kDowledge  and  self-love 
of  God,  or  of  the  diatinction  between  Ihe  Kir-conceBling 
and  self-revealing  Gnd.  Twesleii  has  Islteriy  greatly 
perfected  the  philosophy  nf  the  doctrine  of  tbe  Trinity, 
both  in  ill  history  and  ia  its  esseiicct  fini  by  placing 
tbe  Trinity  wirra  riiv  riiroraXt^Mt  rpairoi',  aa  subni^ 
dinate  to  the  antlugical  and  pbilosopbical  interpreta- 
tion; but  then,  again,  Kari  rponov  uiraplivit,  and 
ahowa  the  connection  between  imh  inteqirelaliuns.    In 


nUNITY  (HEATHEN  NOTIONS)  666 


TRIPOLIS 


nite,ind  thU  be  flnda  in  the  primordial,  cm  lit*  tbooght 
ofGod.  BulrevelBtionc»nnolt«kepUceexceptW*»rds 
diuerning  beings,  uid  finite  beingi  cannot  know  God 
Mvc  through  God.  Thii  trgumenc  proeniB  the  three 
Dolioiu  ot  (lad,  Lngts,  and  Spirit,  yet  lumiing  ilill  but 
one  godhead.  Such  u  God  reTealu  hinuell',  Hich,  how- 
ever, he  ii.  Thia  ieada  ni  to  ruolher  courideration,  rii. 
that  the  tgo,  in  order  to  powtw  a  real,  liiiiig  penooali- 
tv,  tnuat  not  oiiLv  become  dually  contradiMinguiihed 
WLtbin  iueir,  but  alio,  by  a  tblrd  procen,  reflectively  act 
on  ilMlf  u  a  third  ubjeci,  and  be  cunnoui  ot  iUelC  u 
being  a  perfect  image  uC  mIC  Thit  manner  of  treating 
Ihiit  myitery,  by  analogy,  is  neither  accidental  nor  gra- 
tiiilour,  nnce,  according  to  Scripture,  hunin  nature  is 
■Ian  analogous  ID  ilie  dirine.  TertuUian  md  Augustine 
hid  themeetve*  ntablished  llieir  theories  alicady  on 

IV.  LiteratKn, — This  ia  immenwly  copinm.  Wa  can 
bare  refer  milj  to  a  few  leading  auihorilin.  S«  Baur, 
Hil.n/DoOHiun  BuTris,  Tht  Tri«ils  (Chicago,  1874) ; 
Cunningham,  Hiil.  Thf<Jogj,  i,  2S7 ;  Lsmsnn,  Origin  of 
Trmlji;  Leasing,  Dni  ChritlailkUBi  ii«d  die  Vmainfl 
(Berlin,  l7M,8vo);Marheinecke/;riiwtt'Amdrr-cArurJ: 
XJc^iB,  p.129,370  (il)id.I8l9) ;  Uatiison,  Tht  TrMly  md 
J/oibnt  Ariamfm  (18mo);  Uonu.  Cmtmenlai  " 
bcim,  Lriai  Sernfl  (HelnuU  1748,  Bra);  H( 
torital  DtTthpmait  b/  tit  Triniiy :  Neaiider.  ii,  S, 
891 ;  Sailer,  T/ieorit  dn  Weim  (  SpotU*,  1781,  8to) 
Walch,  HiMOTin  Cotllrovtrna  Gntamai  Ijilaonm- 
qttt  dt  ProBuiiome  Spirilla  Smeli  (JenB,  17£1,  8to) 
Ziegler,  GaekieJiltaticititlaitg  da  Dogma  mn  ktH^m 
GoMl.  For  further  literatore  sec  BibUml,.  Sac  (1844- 
TS),  index  to  vol.  i-xxx ;  DaniK,  WSrtrtimek  dtr  IkmL 
Liltratar,  a.  v. "  Trinitttt-."  Darling,  t'gdop.  BOSag.  coL 
£68. 1446.  i719-lT'»i  Poole,  ladtx  (o  Ptriad.  Lil.  s.  v. 
"Trinity." 

THINITY.  H(ATMKN  NonoHa  of.  In  exiniiniiiK 
the  varioua  heathen  phibwDphies  and  mythologies,  we 
find  clear  evidence  ufa  belief  in  ■  eenain  sort  of  trinity, 
and  vet  something  very  different  tttia  the  Trinity  of 
the  Bible. 

In  the  Egyptian  mylhotogy,  the  pnwera  of  the  Sn- 
preme  Being  as  the  producer,  the  producing,  and  the 
produced  were  symbolised  hy  deities  who  were  respec- 
tively father,  mother,  and  child  of  each  other.  " 
Egj'plian  town  had  ita  local  triad,  but  the  mo« 
was  the  great  Theban  triad  of  Amen-ra,  M 
Rhousn.  Sometimes  the  king  taimaelf,  ai  a  god.  made 
the  third  member  of  the  triad.  These  combinations  of 
divine  pn^rties  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  dog. 
ma  of  a  trinity  either  of  creator,  preMrver,  and  destroy- 
er, as  in  Hinda  mythology,  or  nf  Creator,  Kedeemer.anc 
SanctiOer  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  Bahylnnian  my- 
tholeigy  oO^  a  trinity,  each  raember  of  the  triad  hav- 
ing his  own  wife  or  conaort.  At  the  heart  of  this  trin- 
ity Blands  Anu.  representing  abstract  divinity.  He  ap- 
peals as  an  original  principli  .  '  .  ' 
pod  (if  time,  and  the  world— uncreated  matter  issuing 
Ttim  the  fundamental  principle  of  alt  ihings.  A 
panion  deity  with  Ann  ts  Ilea,  god  of  the  sea  and  of 
Hades.  He  isloni  of  generation  and  of  all  human  be- 
ings; he  animated  matter  and  rendered  it  fertile,  and 
inspireil  the  univene  with  life.  The  ll 
tbi>  triad  WM  Bel  (Elu,  Enu,  Kaplu), 
and  ruler  of  the  ori^niied  universe.     There  were  alan 


becoming  mure  and  more  defined  in  character, 
turning  a  decidedlv  sidereal  aapect. 

Tlie  system  of'fUio  may  be  thus  Mated:  God  1 
prwluced  the  ideal  wntld.  L  e.  his  infinite  undenland 
conceived  of  the  eilslcDcc  of  the  worhl,  and  li>rmed 
planofctMlioa.  Tt«  rni'worlrt  was  then  formed  after 
this MriI world a»  ils model;  and  this  waa done' 
ing  the  aoul  of  Ihe  world  with  matter,  by  wh 
world  became  an  animateil.  sensitive,  rational  i 

loiil.     The  three  principles  oC  Plato  were  (a) 


preme  God,  whom  he  cilia  tlariip  \  (by  the  divine  nn- 
dentand ing,  which  he  calls  tHiiit,\oyos,rtiTJip,wfiai 
id  (c)  the  soul  of  the  world.  These  views  ara  denJ- 
lert  in  bis  Timaiu,  etc  The  Neo-Platoniata  eageriy 
abnced  these  ideas  of  Plain,  and  during  the  Sd  anil 
I  centuriea  seemed  to  labor  to  outdo  one  another  in 
[plaining,  defending.and  more  fully  developing  them. 
hey  not  only  widely  diSer  from  I^to,  but  often  die- 
;ree  among  themselves  in  their  mode  uf  thinking  and 
their  pbraseukigy. 

While  the  Jews  who  mided  in  Palestint  were  aalja- 
Oed  with  their  Phariaao-RabbinK  tbedogy,  and  looked 
'  ~  their  Uesaiah  aa  a  religiooa  reformer,  this  waa  noi 
case  with  those  residing  elsewhere,  who  had  been 
educated  under  the  influence  oTthe  Grecian  phikaophy. 
These  abandoned  the  eapeclation  of  a  fulun  Hwiah, 
or  regarded  his  kingdom  as  entirely  of  a  moiml  nature^ 
Among  them  the  theory  of  the  X070C  is  toond  a*  early 
the  lit  ccDUir]-.     The  \6yot  they  ngarded  sa  ex- 

'ongh  whom  God  made  all  thinga.  See  Knapp, 
Chria.  TkroL  p.  14li  sq.;  Lenormant,  Chald.  Magic, 
;  %m\ih,Ckald.Ata,iiwlofGaitni:  Tbiduck,  Ma 
tptrytlatitt  TriniiaiiUkrt  dtr  maun  OritMakn  (Beilin, 
1826.  8vd). 

Trinity,  FBATSRitnr  or  th^  a  religinaB  aocielT 
instituted  al  Rome  by  I'bilip  Neri  in  IMS.  Tb^  bad 
charge  of  tbe  pilgrims  who  were  constantly  coming  10 
Rome  frnm  all  parts  of  the  world.  Pope  Paul  IT  gave 
them  the  CThurch  of  St.  Benedict,  near  which  Ihcr 
built  a  large  bosjHial,  and  in  which  there  waa  alao 
a  college  of  twelve  priettt  for  the  iDstmctiou  af  |nl- 

TrtnltT  8tiiid«r,  the  octave  day  of  the  feaai  of 
enlecoaL  Tbe  intrndnction  of  thia  day  into  the  ca^ 
idar  is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  it  being  eaub- 
lished  by  pope  Benedict  XI.  A.D.  180&.  It  ■  probable 
that  the  aeal  of  many  Christians  againet  Ihe  oae  of 
image!  in  the  8th  and  ftth  centuries  nay  have  been  iIm 
flisl  cause  of  the  appointment  of  a  distinct  day  tax  medi- 
tating upon  the  nature  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  ■oity.  or 
the  one  tiue  God,  ai  distinguislied  from  all  tdols.  Tbe 
leasoii  for  its  late  introduction  is  tfaal  in  the  creed  at 
the  Church,  and  in  its  psalnu,  hymns,  and  doxologies, 
great  prominence  was  given  to  this  doclriue,  and  it  waa 
thought  that  there  waa  no  need  10  set  apart  a  panieolar 
day  Ibt  that  which  was  done  every  day. 

TripbTaltei  <fr«n  T^it.lArte,  and  fvmf ,  matKTrr), 
thcM  divines  who,  at  the  rnHtteealb  and  flneenth 
councils  of  Toledo,  A.D.  6M,  688.  carried  theii  oppa- 
siiion  to  Ihe  Monophyules  and  Uonoihelitea  10  such 
an  extreme  that  they  declared  a  belief  not  oaly  in 
Christ's  distinct  divine  and  homsn  natum,  but  ate 
In  a  third  oalan  reaolling  (rom  the  union  of  lh» 
two, 

Triplat  a  window  of  three  ligbt&  Many  wich 
occur  in  the  First  Punled  style,  the  oentie  light  be- 
ing usually  longer  or  more  elevated  than  tbe  two  aid* 
lighla. 

Trlp'ollB  (q  TpimXif),  the  Grreh  nane  of  a  cily 
of  great  commercial  Importance,  which  terml  at  oua 
time  as  ■  point  of  federal  union  lar  Aradus.  Sidnn.  and 
Tyre  (hence  the  name  lit  lltrtrfaid  aly),  which  each 
had  here   its  special  quarter.    What  i 


it  was  Kadflit,  ami  that  ihia  was  reallv  the  place  cap- 
tured bv  Necho,  of  which  Hemdoina  speaks  (ii, !»;  iii, 
b).  Kadytis  is  tbe  Greek  liirm  of  ihe  Syrian  Crrfaijlii, 
"  ihe  holy,"  a  itame  of  which  ■  relic  siiU  aeema  l»  snr- 
rive  in  the  Mahr-Kadiab,  a  river  thai  nms  IhmaKh 
TVintiaUi,  the  modem  repRSenlaiive  ofTripolia.  All 
ancient  federations  had  for  their  place  of  meeting  aoaa 
spot  consecrated  to  a  common  deity,  and  just  to  the 
smiih  of  Tripolts  was  a  promontoiy  which  went  by  tk* 
nameofUtoiJ  wpaaaiirov. 


TRIPOLI8  6) 

(I  wu  It  Tripolii  that,  in  ibe  jear  aC  861,  the  pUn 
■u  omcoeuJ  far  (he  luauluneoua  renjlt  of  the  Vhw 
Diciu  atia  iiirl  Ihe  PersiiD  depcmJeociei  in  Cyprua 
■giiiut  Lhe  Pfniiii  king  Ochua.    Although  aided  by  a 
letg^it  with  Necuuebiu,  king  of  Egypt,  this  aiiempt 
CiiLtil,  ami  in  Ibe  Mquel  a  great  part  uf  SJdon  wai 
burned  and  the  chief  ciliiens  deitmyed.    Perh*pl  the 
imponance  of  Tripoli!  wa*  iiicreaied  by  Ibia  miaTortuiie 
of  its  iiei|i;hlior,  foi  aooD  aftar.  when  Alexander  invaded 
Alia,  it  appean  w  a  port  of  the  lint  order.     Alter  lhe 
battle  of  isus,  aome  of  tbe  Greek  uScer*  in  Dariiia'a 
aerria   retrealed  thither,  and   not  only  found  ship* 
oinogh  to  carry  themaelvei  and  eight  thouund  aoldien 
away,  but  a  number  dtbt  and  above,  which  they  bumed 
iiiurder  lo  preclude  the  victor  rroni  an  immediaie  pur- 
•uilofthem  (Atrian,  ii,  13).     The  dM ruction  of  Tvre 
by  Alexauder,  like  that  of  Sidou  by  Ochna,  would  n 
iindly  tend  rather  to  increaae  than  diniiiiiah  the  imp 
lance  of  Tripolis  aa  a  commercial  porL     When  Den 
tritti  Soter,  the  son  of  3eleucu^  enoooeded  in  wrewi 
Syria  fniBi  the  young  >nn  of  Anliocbua  (UlC.  LGl),  he 
Landed  there  and  maile  the  place  the  base  of  bis  opera- 
tiooi.    It  it  thia  circumatanee  to  which  alluaion  ia  made 
in  tbe  only  paauge  in  which  Tripolia  ia  mentioned  in 
thr  Bible  (2  Mace  xiv,  1).     The  prosperity  of  the  ciiy, 
an  far  a*  appears,  continued  down  lo  the  middle  of  the  i 
6(K  century  of  the  Chrittian  nra.     Dionyaius  Perie-  ; 
get™  applies  to  it  Ibe  epithet  \irapii¥  in  the  Bd  cen- 
tury.    In  tbe  Pmiii^r  Tablt  (which  probably  was 
compiled    in    tbe   reign   of  tbe   emperor 
Thaodoeiua),  it  appeara  on  the  great  road 
akniR  Ibe  coast  of  Phoenicia,  and  at  Ortho- 
•ia  (tbe  next  station  lo  it  northwaida)  the 
roads  which  !cd  respectively  into  Mescpo- 
lamia  and  Cilicia  branched  olT  from  one 
aaolher.     The  pooieatinn  of  ■  good  bat- 
bor  in  so  impottant  a  point  for  land  traffic 
doabtieas  combined  with  the  richiieea  of 
tbe  neighbor 


Uolaa  of  Trl  polls. 
Triptyoll,  a  picture  with  two  rolding-doofa,ael 
over  altara.  The  centre  panel  Qsually  cuntaius  tbe 
chief  aiibject.  In  tbs  illustration  (from  tbe  pencil  of 
Mr.  A.  Welby  Pugin)  the  triptych  is  a  kind  of  cup- 
board with  fulding-doon,  containing  a  throned  figure 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  crowned,  and  holding  her  divine 
child  in  her  lap.  A  figure  uf  Peter  on  one  aide  and  of 
Paul  on  the  other  are  painted  on  tbe  inner  panela  of  tba 


in^  tbe  original  choice  of 

poaea  of  trade  establi 
ffreat  Phtenii " 


£ach  of  these 
held  a  portion  of  Tripolia  autrounded  by  a 
(unified  wall,  like  the  Western  nations  at 
the  Chiaese  ports;  but  in  A. O.  648  it  was 
IbhI  in  ruins  by  tbe  terrible  earthquake 
which  happened  in  the  month  of  July  of 
that  jear,*iid  overthrew  Tyre,Sicloii,  Be- 
tTbia,  and  Byblua  as  wclL  On  tbii  occa- 
sioBihe  appearance  of  the  coaatwas  much 
altered.  A  large  pordun  of  the  promaiito- 
IT  Tbeuprosopon  (which  in  the  Chriatian 
lima  bad  its  naiDe,frooi  moilvea  of  piety, 
ehangHl  lo  I.ithoprDsapon)  fell  into  the  aea, 

luted,  oeated  a  new  port,  able  to  contain  a 
(DiHideiable  number  of  large  vessels.  The 
inoeat  Tripolia  was  finally  destroved  by 
'  a  wlian  El-Mansflr  in  A.D.  1289,  a    - 


Duple 


er  a  pott.  El-Myita,  which  ia  perhaps  on 
the  aiie  of  the  ancient  Tripolia,  isa  (mall  fishing  village. 
Tard>alfts  contains  a  population  of  fifteen  or  aixteen 
tbovsand  inhabitants,  and  is  the  centre  of  one  of  the  four 
paihalica  of  Syria.  It  exports  silk,  tobacco,  galls,  and 
oil.  grown  in  the  lower  part*  of  the  mountain  at  the  foot 
of  «bich  it  standa,  and  performs,  op  a  amaller  scale,  lhe 
pan  which  was  formerty  taken  by  Trip<ilit  as  the  entre- 
pot (oi  the  productions  of  a  moat  fertile  region  (Diod, 
■'mc  xvi.  41 1  Strabo,  xri,  2;  Yossius  ad  Mdam,  i,  12; 
ThH>pfaar>es,  Ckra«ogrophia.  sub  anno  604S).  For  the 
aodrmplaccaeePocwke,  ii.  146tq.t  Mauiii1reI1,p.26; 
Bun:khardt,pi.lCSsq.;  Porter, //«ii(ffloot.p.64S;  Uade- 
ker,  Piilritint,  pL  609  ao.  (where  a  map  is  given).     See 


Trlqnatral  (iltrtt-ainKTtd),  a  censer  oaed  by  bisb- 
ip  Andrewes,  in  which  tbe  clerk  put  incense  at  the  read- 
ns  of  tbe  HrBt  leason. 


tiam,  lhe  lAnl'B  aupper,  and  abeolutian.  This  apin> 
ion  wat  held  by  some  Lutherans  at  Leipaic,  snd  was 
authoriis lively  set  forth  as  a  doctrine  of  the  Cburvb 
of  England  iu  the  JiuliluOm  of  a  Chruliau  Mam 
(1662). 

Triasgion  (Tpiaayiov,  lirice  ko!^)  was  so  called 
because  of  the  thrice  repealing  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord 


TRISANTIA  SI 

God  of  hoMs,"  in  imiUlidn  of  the  wnphin  in  the  virion 
of  I«uah.  The  origiiul  of  Ihiii  b^ron  «u  "HoIt,  hoir, 
boly,  Loni  Coil  ofhoau!  hparcn  and  unh  ire  full  if 
Ibv  glory,  who  tn  liletwd  farever.  Aman."  Tbiu  it 
IB  'ill  Lbe  Coni/ilulioiu,  anil  frequently  in  CtiiyHalam. 
Artentarda  (he  Cburch  added  lorae  wordi  to  it,  and 
ung  it  in  this  form:  "A^iof  6  4fcoci  uyiog  iaj^vpo^t 
uTiuC  iSdi-aroCt  i^i^aov  4f  "f  ( "  H^'y  '^"'i  '"'')' 
Mighty,  holy  Innnonal,  have  mercy  upon  in").  The 
hymn  ii  attributed  to  the  putiiarch  Proclua,  in  the  4th 
century,  TheodoAiLiEi  the  younger  ordered  it  to  be  ning 
in  the  liturgy,  nfler  hii  viaiuii  af  a  child  chanting  it 
during  an  earthquake  at  Conalantinople.  Later  atill.  by 
Aiuutauua  the  emperor,  or  by  Peier  Enipheua,  biihup 
of  Antioch,  the  following  viorda  were  addeil:  o  nvupti- 
iiit  li  qpof  C  Ihat  waa  crucified  for  us").  Thia  wia 
dona  to  oppoee  (he  hereay  of  the  Theopaacbitea  (<]•*•), 
which  was,  in  eSbct,  to  aay  that   the  whole  Trin- 

to  the  whole  Trinity.  To  avoid  thia  inconvenience, 
Calandio,  bishop  of  Antioch,  in  tbe  lime  of  Zeiio  the 
emperor,  made  another  addition  to  it  of  the  worts 
"Chriac  our  King," reading  it  thiia:  "Holy  God,  holy 
UighIy,holy  Immortal,  Christ  our  King,  that  waat  cru- 
clAed  for  us,  have  mercy  on  ua."  These  wlditiona  occa- 
aioned  much  confliHun  in  the  Elaaum  Church,  while 
the  ConstaniiiHipoliuiia  and  Wesiem  Church  Ktiffly  re- 
jected then).  It  was  chiedy  auiig  in  the  middle  vt  tbe 
communion  service,  though  somelimea  it  waa  used  on 
other  occasiona.  After  the  preface  ibis  hymn  was  al- 
ways sung,  and,  according  to  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Chrys- 
oatom,  and  the  second  Council  of  Viison,  also  at  all 
masses,  matin  lenten,  or  of  ibe  dead.— Bingham,  CjiriN. 
JiiTi;.  bk.  xiv,  eh.  ti,  ^3. 

TilaanUB,  a  medieval  term  for  (1)  a  cloister,  or 
(2)  a  place  of  retreat  for  religious  persons  where  medi- 
tations are  made.— Lee.  CfoM.o/ Z,*Br5.Tfr7iii,s.v. 

TlisCiUdje,  ■  sect  of  Sabellian  heretics  meniioneil 
by  PhiUster  (liar,  c  xciii),  Augustine  (,Har.  c.  Ixniv), 
■lid  Prxtlrstinarus  {Htrr.c  Ixxiv)  as  maintaining  the 
o)Hnion  that  tbe  divine  nature  ii  composed  of  three  parts, 
one  of  which  is  named  tbe  Father,  the  second  pan  the 
Son.andlhe  third  IheHolyGbosti  andlhat  ' 
of  these  three  parts  constitutes  (he  Trinity.  Philaster, 
ill  condemning  this  heresy,  uses  eipreMiona  very  i '  " 
to  some  in  the  Athanasian  hymn,  "  Ergo  est  vera  pi*- 
anna  Psiris  qus  miait  Filinm,  et  est  vera  persona  qua 
■dveni(  de  I'atre,  et  enl  vera  persona  Spiritus  qute  a 
Filio  et  Patrc  missa  cat." 

Tritbetm  (LaU  Triilum{at\  Johann,  a  German 
historian  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Trittenheim,  near 
Treves,  Feb.  1,  146:2,  being  the  only  son  of  John  of 
Heiilenberg  and  Elizabeth  of  l»n(>way 


cntereil  the  Benediciine  abbey  al 
where  the  next  year  he  was  electeil  abboi,  and  admi 
iitered  its  iffkira  with  great  xeaL     lu  1506  he  e 
changed  this  position  for  a  similsr  one  in  the  abbev 
Wllrabiirg,  where  ho  remaiiieil  till  his  dcalh,  Dec.  27, 
!&[<!.    His  manv  Icanicd  wriliii(;s  are  enumerated  in 
Hoefer.  Aour.  H'iog.  Giairair,  0.  V.     The  principal  ones 
■re.  Df  Sci/HoribtiM  Ecdrriiiilini  (IVfi)  -.—Folggraphia 
{lbl8):-Sltiiographia  (1531). 

TiithalstS,  a  sect  which  appeared  in  tbe  Gth  cen- 
tury-, and  which  lauRht  that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit 
were  Itrte  coequal,  distinct  lieings,  united  by  one  com- 
rrvoii  will  and  purpose.  This  sect  was  divided  into  the 
Pbilupnnists  and  Conniiites,  according  to  the  names  of 
their  reapeciive  Icadera,  who  agreed  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  three  Perwns  in  the  Gwlbead,  but  diflered  in  some 

ing  made  this  change  in  (he  doctrine  of  the  Triniiy. 
Ihey  made  another  change  answerable  to  il  in  the  form 
of  baptism — baptiiing  in  (he  name  ofihree  unnriginated 
principles,  as  three  Son^  three  Paracletes.  As  a  conse- 
qtience  of  asserting  thre«  unbegotlen  principles,  they 


TRIUMPH 

three  Fathers,  three  Sons,  and  three  HolyGhort% 
which  WIS  a  Trinity  of  trinities 

Cyril  of  Jeruaalem  (^Caltdt.  c  xri)  attributes  tbe  ori- 
gin of  Trilbeism  in  ila  bmwlest  form  to  Harcion.  and 
Hilary  (Dt  Synod,  xxii,  5S)  aHociatea  it  with  tbe  her- 
esy of  Pholinus.  The  Tritheisu  of  the  6th  century  did 
not  hoM  tbe  o|Hnion  in  its  broad  form,  and  would  have 
shrunk  fnwn  any  such  sUtement  as  chat  (here  are  Ihrre 
Godi.  I'he  Tri(heiHn  of  tbe  6th  cen(ary  was  revived 
by  Roscelin  in  the  Iltb,  and  his  Nomiiialisiic  opinion 
the  name  God  is  the  abstract  idea  nfa  genus  con- 
ing the  three  Persons  called  Fa(ber,  Son,  and  Huhr 
Ghost  was  opposed  by  Anselm  (De  Fidr  Trhiitiil.  elc), 
and  was  condemned  by  (he  t^oundl  of  Soissone,  A.D. 
1002.  Ill  1681  (he  beresv  was  revived  bv  Dr.  Sherlock 
(^  Vindiealitm  a/He  borinnt  oflkt  Jl'ofy  mrf  t'err- 
UoKd  Tria/f).  Inasermon  delivered  before  (he Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  (IGEMi),  the  preacher  mBin(a>ned  (he 
theory  of  Dr.  Sherlock  (hat  "there  are  ihree  infinite 

the  three  Persons  in  the  Trinity  are  Ihree  disliiid 
infinite  minds  or  spirits,  and  three  individual  aub- 
stanccB."  These  propositions  were  condemned  by  tbe 
authorities  of  (he  university.  The  ^leculadou  of 
Hutchinson  in  the  last  century  was  very  similar  in  it* 
higical  consequences  to  that  of  the  older  Trttheiiti. 
9ee  liinghaniiCAiul.^nli:;.  bk.  xi,  ch.  iii,  j4j  Blunt, 
DKl.o/atcU,Kv. 

Triamph  (usually  lbs  or  y^S,  3pin/t/3t^).  Al- 
most all  ancient  nations  celebrated  success  in  wai  l>y  > 
triumph,  which  generally  included  a  gorgeous  procn- 
sion,  a  display  of  captives  and  spoils,  and  a  aoleiDO 
thanksgiving  and  sacrifice  to  tbe  gods.  Among  ih« 
Egyptians,  the  triumph  of  a  king  reluming  from  war 
was  ■  grand  solemnity  celebrated  with  all  (be  i-viDp 
which  the  weal[h  of  the  nation  could  coomaud  (Wii- 


Trllilnpbnl  Pmcmlon  of  Rnmetes  111. 
kinson,  Jnc.  Kfispl.  i,  277  sq.).     The  Assyrian  sculptum 
abound  with  similar  representation!.    See  Si^nnachk- 

The  Hebrews,  under  the  direction  ofin^ired  proph- 
e(s,  celebrated  (heir  victories  by  triumphal  proceisions, 
the  women  and  children  dancing,  accompanying  (heir 
steps  with  various  musical  instruments  (see  Judg.  xi. 
S4--B7),  and  singing  hymns  of  triumph  (o  Jehovah,  the 
living  and  true  <!ud.  The  song  of  Uoees  at  the  Red 
Sea,  which  was  sung  bv  Miriam  ro  (he  spirited  sound  of 
the  timbrel  (Exod.  iv,  l-il),  and  Ihat  of  Deborah  on 
(be  overthrow  of  Barak  (Judg.  v,  1-31  ),  are  majenic 
examples  of  the  triumphal  hymns  of  the  andrnt  He- 
brews. Triumphal  songs  were  uttered  for  the  living 
(1  Ssm.  xviii.  6-8;  2  Chron.  XX,  2I-2S)  and  elegies  for 
the  dead  (2  Sam.  i,  17-27;  2  Chron.  xxKv,  25>  The 
conquerors  were  in(oxica(cd  wi(b  joy,  and  tbe  shont  of 

11;  lii,  7,8;  Ixiii,  \~i;  Jer.  1,  2;  Eiek.  vji,  7;  Kah.  i,' 
16).  Monumenta  in  honor  of  victory  were  erected,  and 
the  arms  of  (he  enemy  were  hung  tip  as  (n^hies  in  tbe 
temples  (1  Sam.  xxi,  9;  xxxi,  10;  3  Sam.  viii,  13;  2 
Kinga  xi,  lU).    Indignities  to  priaonets  formed  a  lead- 


AnclBDt  AMxrUu  Klui  in  Froceuiun  after 
iflg  fcalDK  o(  triumphs  imong  ancient  nitiona  general- 


Ij;  induoonelhcAnyriiiu 

[«<E«),.i.d  killing,  e.p« 
priiM«..     Se«  CAPtrvH.     To 

nd  Bibflo 
cli  u  nui 
ully  in  Cb 

ming,  blinding 
cue  or  rebel 
f«,.  upon  the 
he»d  or  nack 

f    barbarous, 


I     monumental 

I    liiiuity;  and, 
■*-  foUowina  the 


:    liiiuity, 

■-  following  the 

mpect,  we  And  Joshaa  ordering  the  five  kings  of  ifae 
C■uanile^  who  bad  uken  reOigv  in  ■  cave,  to  be 
bnugiit  out  that  hiB  captains  might  come  one  arter  an- 
iKher  and  put  their  Taot  oa  the  necks  nf  the  prostrate 
princes  (Joab- 1,  U).    Liurall/  this  usage  does  not  ap- 


pear to  have  been  moch 
practiced  bj  the  covenant 
people,  but  it  rorma  the 
ground  of  many  liguntire 
repreaentations  lit  the  pro- 
phetical Scriptoree  (Pu. 
cx,l;lBB.b[,UjICor.xr. 
86).    See  Foot;  Neck. 

Among  the  Greeks,  it 
does  Dot  appear  that  tri- 
umphs were  accordeil  (o 

conquerors  occuionally 
entered  their  natin  cit- 
ies attended  by  I  heir  vic- 
torious soldiers  bearing 
branches  ol  palm,  tiuch 
processions  became  veiy  common  under  the  successors  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  particular!  J  the  9e1eucide  of  Syria 
and  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt,  who  are  generally  believed 
to  have  been  the  inventoraof  the  toga  palnmra,  or  robe 
adorned  with  representations  of  palm-tites  iulerwoven 
into  its  fabric  It  is  clearly  to  the  Uneco-Syrian  form  ' 
of  triumph  that  the  apostle  John  alludes  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse, when  he  detcribes  those  who  had  oreteome  by  the 
lilood  of  the  lamb  sUnding  "  before  the  throne,  clothed 
with  iwbea,  and  palms  in  their  hands"  (Rev,  vii,  S> 

Next  to  the  Egyptians,  the  Romans  were  chief 
among  ancient  nations  in  allributiag  importance  to  a 
triumph,  and  exerting  Ihemsetve*  to  bestow  a  gorgeous 
brilliancy  upon  the  iriumphil  proeesuon.  The  highest 
honor  which  could  be  bestoweil  on  a  citizen  oi  magis- 
trate was  the  triumph  or  solemn  proceasion  in  which  a 
victorious  general  pagaed  from  the  gate  of  the  city  to 
the  CapttoL  He  set  out  from  the  Campua  Martins,  ami 
proceeded  along  the  Via  I'riumphalis,  and  from  thence 
through  the  most  public  places  of  tbe  city.  The  streeta 
were  strewn  with  floweia,  and  the  altan  smoked  with 
incense.  Fint  went  a  numerous  band  of  muuc,  singing 
■nd  playing  triumphal  aonga;  next  were  led  the  oxen 
to  be  sacriliced,  having  their  homs  gilt  and  their  heads 
adorned  with  fillets  and  garlands;  then  followed  the 
spoils  taken  from  tbe  enemy,  carried  in  open  wagons,  or 
on  a  specie*  of  bier  called ,/<ivf  rum,  srouiid  which  were 
iplayed  the  golden  crowns  sent  by  allied  and  tribu- 


urysl 


I  of  the  1 


vooden  frames;  and  images  or  representa- 
tions ol  the  conquered  countries  and  cities  were  exhib- 
ited.   Tbe  capUve  leadera  followed  in  chains,  with  Lh^ 


Boman  Triumph. 


,ab,GoOgIc 


TRIUMPHUS  5( 

cbildien  and  «tlendanl>;  tttez  the  optires  oiiDe  Ih« 
lictora,  having  their  fuces  wrealbcd  wiib  burel,  follovr- 
ed  by  •  greet  comp»rj'  ut  muiiciana  and  danceri,  diesKd 
like  BUyn,  ind  weaKng  crowni  of  guld;  in  the  midit 
or  wham  wu  ■  puitomime,  clothed  in  >  Temde  gub, 
whose  burioeH  it  wu  with  his  lootui  iDd  gestuiea  to  in- 
Bult  itie  vinquiahed.  A  long  train  of  penoni  Tullowed, 
onvinKpeifumes;  after  whum Mine  tbegei]enl,drea*- 
ed  in  purple,  embroidered  with  gold,  wearing  a  crown 
of  laurel  on  bia  bend,  holding  a  bianch  of  laurel  in  bia 
right  hand,  and  in  hi>  left  an  ivory  aceplre  with  an 
eagle  on  the  tcp,  bia  face  painted  with  vermilion,  and  a 
golden  ball  hanging  from  bia  neck  on  bia  breast.  lie 
atood  upright  in  a  gilded  chariot  adorned  with  ivory, 
drawn  by  four  white  horaea,  attended  by  hia  relations 
and  a  great  crowd  of  citixens,  all  dutbed  in  while.  It 
was  creditable  to  Roman  morality  that  a  public  olave 
accompanied  the  conqueror  in  hia  chariot,  to  remind 
him  of  the  TiciBsitudea  of  fortune,  and  to  preaenc  to  him, 
ia  the  midit  of  all  bia  glory,  the  remembnuca  of  the 
varied  changes  and  chances  of  mortality.  I'he  oon- 
'    hildren  sometimes  accompanied' himi  and  some- 


Kiby  It 


ants  and  military  tribunes 
The  conaula,  aeoaton,  and  other  magistrates  followed 
the  general's  chariot  on  foot;  and  the  whole  proceaiioa 
waa  doacd  by  the  viclorioua  army,  drawn  up  in  order, 
crowned  with  laurel,  deoaral«d  with  the  gifts  which 
they  bad  received  for  their  valor,  and  wnging  their  own 
and  their  general'a  praiaea.  See  Smitb,  IHel.  of  Ctaa. 
Aaliq.  a.  v.     See  Titus  lEmptror). 

Paul  makes  frequent  alluatona  lo  such  triumphal  pro- 
ceHianB(CoLii,  15i  £ph.iv,8),witb  which  he  compares 
the  triumphs  of  Christ's  followers  in  spreading  abroad, 
*in  everr  place,  the  perfume  of  the  goapel  of  salvation 
(2  Cot.  ii,  1*-I6>  Our  Savlour'a  triumphal  entry  into 
Jemaalem  (Mall.xxi,  1-9)  waa  a  token  of  his  royal  cbar- 
iCter  (aee  the  monographs  in  Haae,  Ltben  Jau,  p.  181). 

Trlumphos,  AuovaTiNtis,  an  Aiiguatinian  hermit- 
monk  who  was  a  native  of  Ancona,  attended  the  Uiii- 
veraityof  Pariafor  ■  time,Bnd  was  preaeut  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Lyons  in  IS74.  He  alao  sojourned  at  Venice  while 
engaged  in  the  publicatinii  of  several  small  books  in 
honor  of  the  Virgin,  and  at  Maplea,  where  he  became 
the  favorite  uf  kinga  Charlea  and  Robert,  and  where  he 
died  in  1328,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five  yeara.  A  num- 
ber of  published  and  unpubliaheil  worka  from  bia  pen 
are  vet  exunC  We  noxe  one  On  tie  tkrltiiatrical 
Poarr,  addressed  to  pope  John  XXI((AugabDrg,  1473} 
. — A  Commenliiiy  on  the  I^rdt  Pfayrr : — CommenlM  Of 
the  Art  Maria  and  the  Magmficat  (Rome,  1590,  1592 
1603) : — a  Alilltloquium  from  the  worka  of  Augustine 
unfinished  bv  Triumphua,  but  completed  by  the  Angu» 
linian  Barlbolomew  of  Urlnno  (Lyons,  Ibba).  Of  un 
publiahed  writings  we  mention,  i'oiir  itooti  on  Iht  Sm- 
Itnati  —  On  tie  Holy  Ghoil,  a  polemic  against  th< 
Greeks; — On  the  SjnrOuat  Hymn  i — On  At  Enlraact  into 
the  Land  n/ Promiif  :—0n  lAe  Knoteledge  OTid  Facultitt 
of  the  Snul:— Theorem  mprdi'i^  the  Retvtrectim  of 
the  Dtad  :—ljj>oti/iom  of  t'leitet  and  all  f-'ew-Tt  ' 
Boolai—DucavrHt  eflheLont:—OnlheSainn:—l 
tie  Moralia  of  Si.  Grrgoiy,  See  Pamphilius,  Chri 
ErHiiil.  S.  A  uguil.  p.  48  i  Cave,  Snytt.  JCcd.  Hut.  Lit. 
(Gen.  1720) Henog,  Rcol-Encytlop.  a.  v. 

Trivet,  NiCH0i~i9,  sn  English  Dominican 
was  bom  at  Norfolk  about  1258.  He  was  educi 
Oxford  and  Paris,  and  became  prior  of  Engliah 
of  his  order.  He  died  in  1328.  Hewastheaul 
Anmilti  Sex  Rrgvm  Angtia,  cum  Contiauatioiie  u 
Miiriiaalhituu  Chimicon.  etc  (Oxon.  1719-22,  2  vola. 
Svir).  He  lell  many  HSS.  on  varioua  subjects  of  phi 
losophy  and  theology,  as  well  aa  a  Comtnenlai-if  on  Sen 
tea')  TragtdUi,  etc.     See-  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  a.  v. 

TiIvuIeI,  the  name  of  several  cardinals  of  lulian 
extraclioD,  hut  of  French  aasocialion  in  the  diplomatic 


nJe.s. 


Uoftheitagc.    S*«  Hoefer,  A'our.  fiu^  CM 


1.  Aoosntio  was  the  nephew  of  AntoDio  (1);  b^ 

me  deacoD  in  1517,  archbiahop  of  Heggio  in  1520,0x1 

successively  biahop  of  Bubbio  (1619-21),  'I'ouIod  (1521), 

Asli  (1623),  Bayeui  (1529),  and  Brugnato  (1535);  and 

died  Bl  Rome,  March  30, 1 548. 

a.  toTosia  (I)  naa  bom  at  Milan  in  January,  1457, 


diplom. 


of  Coma 

n  1487   an 

d  cardinal  in  IML 

Ue  died  at 

Rome,  March  13. 1606 

3.  AST 

osio  (2),  u 

phew  of  (be  following,  waa  made 

of  bis  unci* 

Agoslino  01  bishop 

of  Toulon  ia 

cardinal  in 

1557.     Ue  died  June 

26,1539. 

4.  Sc* 

BAMICCCO, 

learned  lawyer,  was  made  pio- 

fesaorofc 

Paviain  1491,  and  L 

a  1499  cWD- 

seibr  of  Louia  XH.  He  became  cardinal  in  1517,  biah- 
op of  Coma  in  1508,  and  afierwarda  of  1-ucenu  (1522- 
26).  He  died  at  the  monastery  of  Maguzuno,  ntar 
VerDna,Aug.9, 1627. 

Tro'aa  (Tpuit).  The  city  fmi^  which  Paul  fint 
sailed,  in  consequence  of  a  divine  intimatioo,  to  cany 
the  Uoapel  frooj  Aaa  to  Europe  (Acts  xvi,8, 11) — wbeie 
be  Tested  for  a  short  time  on  the  northward  toad  frnn 
Ephesus  (during  the  next  missionary  Joumev),  in  Ibe  . 
expectation  of  meeting  Titns  (2  Cor.  ii,  12, 13) ;  where, 
on  the  return  aouthwarda  (during  the  same  miaionnr 
journey),  he  met  those  who  bad  preceded  him  fraia 
Pbilippi  (Acts  xx.  5. 6),  and  remained  ■  week,  the  don 
of  which  (before  the  joumey  lo  Ashis)  waa  marked  by 
the  raialng  of  Eutycbua  from  the  dead  duiing  the  piQ> 
Iracted  midnight  discourse  ;  and  where,  after  an  inler< 
val  of  many  years,  the  apostle  left(dnring  a  journey  tbs 
details  of  which  are  unknown)  a  cloak  and  some  books 
and  parcbmenu  in  the  house  of  Carpus  (2  Tim.  iv,  1S|— 
deserves  the  careful  atleni  ion  of  the  aiudentof  tbeNn 
Test.,  and  ia  memorable  as  a  relic  of  Ibe  famous  city  of 
Ttoy. 

The  full  name  of  the  city  was  Alaandria  Tnm 
(liry,  XXXV,  42),  and  sometimes  it  waa  called  Hnpli 
Alexandria,  oa  by  I'liny  (//iff.  Nat.  v,  38)  and  Sirabs 
(iiii,593),  aometlmes  simplv  Troas  (as  in  the  New  Test. 
aiidthe,1nr.7lin.  See  Wee>eting,p.334}.  The  furmn 
part  of  the  name  indicatn  the  period  at  which  it  wsi 
founded.  It  was  Hnt  built  by  Anligoiius,  under  the 
name  of  Anligonia  Troai,  and  peopled  with  the  inhsb- 
itanta  of  some  neighboring  cities.  Aftcrwarda  it  wsi 
embelliahed  bj^  Lysimachus,  and  named  Alexandria 
Troaa.  Its  situation  waa  on  the  coaat  of  Hyiia,  oppo- 
lite  (he  Boulh-east  extremity  of  the  island  of  Tenedia. 
The  name  Troad  strictlv  belonga  to  the  whole  dicaic( 
around  Trny. 

Under  the  Romans  it  was  one  of  Ibe  most  important 
lowna  of  the  province  of  Aaia.  It  waa  the  chief  ptaol 
of  arrival  and  departure  fot  (hose  who  went  by  sea  be- 
(ween  Macedonia  and  the  weitetn  Asialic  dis(iic(s;  and 
it  was  connected  by  good  roads  with  other  places  on  Ibe 
coast  and  in  the  interior.  For  the  latter  see  Ihe  naf 
in  Leake'a  A  lia  Minor,  and  in  Lewin'a  SI.  Paul,  ii,  81. 


TROGYLLIUM 


Fxtcnt  oft.he  eltj  in  tbe  tj 


Raini  or  Ihl  OTmiiulaia  It  Troi 
The  rormer  eannot  be  bttUt  iUaitnt«]  than  by  Paul'* 
two  Toya^es  bet««n  TrcMi  and  Philippi  (AcU  xvi,  It, 
1!;  XX,  fi),  one  of  which  wu  actymplishcd  in  iwndiiTS, 
th«  other  in  flvF-  At  this  time  Alexandria  Trtaa  nraa  a 
aloma  with  the  Jin  llalkvM.    This  ativnc  Ruman  con- 

pecaliar  feeling  connected  with  the  place,  in  coiuequence 
of  the  legend  of  their  ori(;iii  fmm  Tmy.  Suetoniiu  tellt 
na  that  Julina  Oeut  had  a  plan  at  maliinR  Troai  the 
leat  of  empiie  (Oh.  T9).  It  may  perhaps  be  inferred 
rrom  the  worda  of  Horace  (Com.  iii,B,67J  that  Au^^itua 
had  aorae  aueh  dream*.  Even  the  modem  name  t^ki- 
AoinfaU  or  £Ui-/Canioii{  C  OM  CoDitan  tinople")  aeeiDB 
U  cammeinoiale  the  thouKht  which  wai  once  in  Con- 
Hantine'a  mind  (Zoaim.  ii,  80;  Zonar.  xiii,  S),  who,  to 
oat  Uibboii'a  worda,  "  before  be  gave  a  juM  preference 
to  the  tituation  oFByianLium,  bad  conceived  the  design 
of  erecting  the  aeat  of  empire  on  lliis  celebrated  ipot, 
fniin  which  Che  Romans  derived  their  fabuloiu  origin." 
Tbe  ruina  at  Eild-Slamiil  are  considerable.  The 
moat  coTupieuoua,  howei'er,  especially  the  remains  of 
the  aqueduct  of  Herodes  Atticiis,  did  not  exiat  wheii 
Paul  was  there.    The  walls,  which  may  represent  the 


mile  from  eau  to  weat,  and 
neatly  a  mile  fium  north  to 
south.    The  harbor  (Cony- 
beare  and  Hnwson,  SI.  Paul, 
i,-283)  is  still  distinctly  trace- 
able in  a  basin  about  400  feet 
-    long  and  200  broad.— Sn)ith, 
Descriptions  in  greater  or  lesi 
detail  are  given  by  Pooocke, 
Chandler,  Hunt  (in  Walpole'a 
Mmunri),  Clarke,  Prokesch, 
Richtar  (M'ui{/uArt«i,p.4C2), 
Olivier,  Fellows,  and  the  la- 
tet  travellers  mentioned  in 
Jfurruy'i  Handbook  for  TuT- 
i»)rta.4na,p,15a-]69.    The 
vicinity  has  recently  become 
noted  for  the  discover)-  of 
what  are  presumed  to  be  the  ruins  of  ancient  Tmy  at 
HiuTlik  by  Sehliemann  (TVoy  and  ill  Rtmaim  [Loud. 
1H7S]).    Seeal«>MacUren,i'MM0/rn>y(Ediub.lB63}; 
Meyer,  Gach.  ton  Troai  (Leips.  1877). 

TrOBjl'llnm  {Tpuyu^Xiov},  the  rocky  extremi^ 
nf  the  ridge  of  Mvcale,  which  is  called  thus  in  the  New 
Teat.  (Acts  xx,  I&)  and  by  Ptolemy  (r,  2),  and  TrogUi- 
um  (Tpcuyi'Xiov)  by  Strabo  (iiv,636).  It  is  directly  op- 
posite Samos  ((|.  v.).  The  channel  ii  extremely  narrow. 
Stnbo  {(oc.  at.)  makes  it  about  a  mile  broad,  and  (hii 
is  cnnfinned  by  the  Admiralty  charts  (IbBO  and  15U). 
Paul  sailed  through  this  channel  on  his  way  to  Jeniaa- 
lem  at  the  close  of  his  thiid  mismonary  journey  (Acts 
IX,  16),  The  navigation  of  this  coast  is  intricate ;  and 
it  can  be  gathered  fVom  ver.  6,  with  aubeequent  notices 
oflhedayaapent  on  the  voyage,  that  it  was  the  time  of 
dark  moon.  Thus  the  night  was  spent  at  Trogyllium. 
It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  a  little  to  the  east  of 
tbe  extreme  point  there  is  an  anchorage  which  is  still 
called  St.  Pauft  Port.  Pliny  refers  to  three  small 
ialands  lying  about  Tmgyllium,  and  namra  tbem  Sanda- 
lion,  I'siion,  and  Argennon  {llitl.  S'al.  v,  37).  The  port 
when  Paul  anchored  la  generally  coaaidered  to  be  that 


;i,:cc  ..Google 


TROKI 

it  had  warn  n  jauntily  since  the  icvfTal  of  Ictt«m 
The  Council  of  Trent,  while  reviewing  every  anide 
of  Koman  thealoftj,  haring  tlated  ia  its  canooa  the 
fundamental  articles  of  Chrialian  fkith  with  a  cleir- 
nen  that  wu  indeed  much  needed,  gare  airict  iu- 
atrucliocutD  all  the  licensed  preachen  of  their  Cbunb, 
and  so  enabled  I  hem  la  iMume  a  new  a|>peirance  of 
sound  faith,  at  least  in  those  particulan  which  wootd 
contrast  nut  oiilj'  with  iheir  fuimer  heterodoxy,  now  to 
be  concealed,  but  with  the  open  heterodoxy  of  certain 
fugitive  Italian  rmleslanis.  These  persons  found  eon- 
genial  society  among  the  Jews  in  Poland,  who,  while 
heruicilly  adhering  to  the  letter  of  ihe  Mosaic  law, 
had  nevertheless  not  accepted  the  more  fully  unfuhled 
verity  of  Christian  revelation.  Heretics  they  wen 
in  theayeorRonie,a]id  thepeneculioo  that  haunted 
them  drove  them  al  once  into  the  arms  of  the  Polish 
Karaites;  for,  like  Ihem,  and  even  more  than  they, 
these  protesters  against  Rome  hated  tradition  and  ill 
human  authority.  Like  the  Karaites,  the;  were  alur- 
dy  Honolheiata  in  tlie  same  narrov  sense.  They  oat- 
ran  Arius  in  the  race  of  unbelief.  Their  own  SociiM 
left  hit  name  to  a  sect  just  as  Sadok  had  left  his:  and 
Socina,  with  hii  principal  fullowers,  chose  Poland  to 
be  at  once  their  asylum  and  their  citadeL  From  that 
time  it  became  the  centre  of  Socinianism  in  Europe. 
In  Poland  the  Jew  and  the  Chrintian  both  enjoyed  re- 
ligious lilMrty,  and  for  once  the  moat  oithndox  of  the 
laraeliles  and  the  least  orthodox  of  the  Christians 
ciiuld  ftatemiie  on  oar  point,  and  on  only  one."  Ooe 
of  those  Jews  was  Isaac.  He  was  biougbt  up  in  the 
study  of  Talmudism  as  a  branch  of  Jewish  leaminft. 


e  Kani 


I  of  Trogjlllnm  and  111  Adlolnlug  Islands. 


sheltered  by  Sandaliun ;  but  the  port  DDW  known  aa  tha 
Pert  of  St.  Paul  is  that  protected  by  the  island  of  Nero, 
the  ancient  Argennon  (Lswin,  ai.  Paul,  it,  89).    See 

Tron,  Bamn«),  a  Swedish  prelate,  waa  bom  Hay 
2S,  1706,  at  Saint  Schedwi  (Dalecarlia),  b«ng  the  aon 
of  a  paitor.  He  studied  philoaophy  at  the  Unirersity 
of  Stockhulm,  and  became  succemively  grand  almoner 
of  the  king  (April  2*2, 1740),  president  of  the  consistory 
(Jan.  S,  174!).  Iriahup  of  Westerls  (April  2S,  I7GI),  and 
archbishop  of  Upsida  (Kov.  8,  1757),  where  he  died, 
Jan.  18, 1764.  He  was  a  teamed  and  eloquent  preacher, 
and  left  many  funeral  discourses,  etc 

TroQ.  Uno,  a  Swedish  prelate,  son  of  the  forego- 
ing, waa  bom  at  Stockholm,  Feb.  24, 1746.  After  a  brill- 
iant courae  nf  study  at  Upnla.  and  exlenuve  travela  in 
(iermany,  France,  and  England,  he  became  successively 
almoner  of  the  regiment  (1773),  preacher  in  ordinary  to 
the  king  (I77&),  bishop  of  Linkoping  (1T64),  presi- 
dent of  the  consistorv  of  Stockholm  and  archbishop  of 
Upsala  (Aug.  30, 1787),  wheie  he  dietl,  July  27,  IS(e. 
He  wrote  several  historical  sketches,  for  which  see  Hoe- 
fer,  A'onr.  Biot/.  Ginirolt,  a.  v. 

Trokl,  Isaac  bkn-Ahraiiam,  a  Jewish  scholar,  who 
derived  his  name  from  hia  native  place,  Troki,  a  town  in 


the  Ku.<. 


the  period  in  which  thia  character  lived,  Poland  was  not 
only  the  seat  of  Jewiah  teaming,  but  also  the  acene  of 
action  of  the  dilTcreiit  sects  to  which  the  Refonnation 
gave  rise.  "  In  the  earlier  years  of  the  religious  Refur- 
mation  of  the  10th  century,  the  scepticism  which  had 
prevailed  so  generally  in  Rome  and  the  Italian  state*, 
chif  Hy  among  the  higher  clergy,  and  perhaps  most  in- 
tensely in  the  highcM,  tainted  the  Italian  mind,  and  im- 
parted a  peculiar  stamp  of  heterodoxy  to  the  adherents 
ofthe  Reformation  in  that  country.  The  court  of  Rome 
bad  aagaciouslr  put  off  the  garb  of  pagan  laxity  which 


quickened  and  elevated  under  the  impulse  of  persecu- 
tion. Young  Isaac,  to  whom  Hebrew  was  venucular, 
was  also  liberally  educated  in  the  Latin  and  Polish 
languages.  In  these  languages  he  read  the  chief 
GDntrovenial  writings,  aa  Ibey  were  issued  by  their 
eminent  nuthora,  against  the  Chuivh  of  Rome.  He 
carefuDy  studied  the  Catholic-Polish  veiiion  of  the 
Kbie,  made  by  Leonard  from  the  Vulgate,  which  a|i- 
peared  in  Cracow  in  1661,  and  again  in  ls7Ii  and  1577; 
the  Calvinisiic-Polith  version,  called  the  Radiivil  Dtbl<-, 
and  published  in  1563 ;  and  the  Sodnian  version,  made 
also  from  the  original  texts,  by  the  celebrated  Simon 
Budny,  which  was  published  at  Nieawici,  in  Utbuania, 
in  IfiiO;  as  well  as  the  writings  of  Nicholas  Parula, 
Hartin  Chechowia,  and  Simon  Bndoy,  the  heads  nf 
Uuiurianism  in  Poland.  At  all  these  secU,  who  differ- 
ed from  each  other  on  almost  every  other  point,  agreed 
in  their  attack  upon  the  Jews  and  their  faith,  Ihe  rabU 
set  to  work  on  a  confutation  of  Christianitv.  He  read 
Ihe  New  Test.,  in  Budny's  veraion,  with  the  cool  aiut 
orderly  habit  of  a  hard-workint(  etudenl.  Even  pas- 
sage on  which  he  could  fix  a  doubt  or  haiard  a  denial 
waa  marked  as  it  stands  in  Ihe  sacred  book,  and  fur  Ihe 
purpose  of  controversy.  The  entire  elock  ofanli-Cbtis- 
tian  cavils  with  which  educated  Jews,  at  least,  an  fa- 
miliar, comtrined  with  the  objeeliona  of  the  Sociniana, 
were  brought  to  bear  on  ibe  New  Teat,  by  direct  attack 
on  all  the  leading  aentencea  in  relation  to  the  person, 
life,  and  minittri'  of  Christ.  The  work,  written  in  He- 
brew, under  the  title  ofCotyfnmi(ioiift/'(ic/'ai(*,  pun 
m^'SM.  and  which  has  a  world-wide  celebrity.  Isaac  fin- 
ished ill  1593,  when  sixty  years  of  age.  The  work  ia 
inleresliiig  fur  its  quotations  from  some  little-known 
Christian  and  polemical  wotks  in  Ihe  Polith  language, 
and  because  it  has  been  made  nae  oThy  eriltcal  writer* 
upon  Ihe  New  Test,  from  Voltaire  to  Strauss;  for  tbe 
former  st  least  acknowledges,  in  hit  Mtlaagn,  ill,  S«4: 
"  II  a  raisemble  loules  les  dilGcult^  que  tee  incnUslea 
ont  pradigudes  dcpuit. . . .  Enfin,  incrMulea  les  plus  de- 
termines n'ont  prtsqne  rien  aU<^gu£  qui  ne  eoit  dan*  oe 
remparl  de  la  foi  du  rsbhin  Issac"  The  book  it  divid- 
ed into  two  parts — the  liiM,  which  is  devoled  to  an  ex- 
amination of  Ihe  ohjectioni  raised  by  Chnslians  agaimt 


TKOLLE 

Jadma,  utd  which  i*  rabdivided  into  BRy  cbapten, 
divtiSK*  reiy  minutely  the  int^retation  or  the  Mes- 
tiinic  puHgm  ut  Ibe  Old  Tfat.  ancl  iheir  appUcitiD 
Chrin  u  the  pmlicted  McMiah ;  vhile  the  tecond  pait 
ii  tiktn  up  wiLh  ■  critical  examinalion  of  the  ttate- 
nBiti  nude  in  the  aundry  boolii  at  the  Nev  TeaU 
Tniti  dial  in  1594.  Hi*  work  wu  flnt  pubUsheri  b; 
WigMwil.  iriih  a  Uiin  tniitUlian.  in  bii  collection  of 
rb  firry  Darli  of  SiOan  (7riu  Igtita  Satema)  (Alt- 
duf,  1681),  rnin  ■  US.  obtained  fram  m  African  Jew, 
■bich  wu  impctfecL  A  reprtnt  uf  Cbis  vitiated  t«it 
■iibadt  [he  Latin  tranilation  appearetl  in  Anuterdim 
In  i;i7,  and  in  Jeruaalem  in  1845.  The  beat  olition, 
bwerer,  ii  that  edited  by  ralibi  D.  DeutKb,  with  a 
GfTinaD  iniiilatiiin  (Sahran,  18G6).  Iktiilet  thja  G«r- 
lun  traodlaiion,  there  is  another  by  H.lieiliiig  (Hamb. 
lGil-33).  It  wa«  tranalaled  Intv  :jpiiii«b  by  Iubc 
iihii,  and  into  Italian  by  H.  Luzzatto.  The  work  haa 
■U>  bun  lefiiifd  by  Muller,  CoafMaHo  Liiri  Chauk 
Emtaa,  comprised  in  his  Judairmvi  a  RulAiaonKa 
ScrifHi  Da/dm, tlc„  Rtfulalut  (ibid.  ISM);  by  Gou»- 
•H,  Ttraia  Contnmru.  adtertut  Judaoi,  Oppoiiliu  ft. 
Inac  Ckiitui  F.ntana  (Dordrecht,  I68B'),  wbich,  how- 
em-.wai  not  utisfactory  to  the  duke  Loui*  of  Orleina 
(d.  lisi),  who  wrote  inntber  refutation;  by  Gebhard, 
Cr^nm  Loai  If.  T.  Va^eala  adetrnii  Chiimi  £inii- 
«■  (Gnifiwatde,  1699);  SIoct,  EBaigtli*iA«  Glaubau- 
b-aft.  Orym  dal  Wtrk  Chiuut  Emuaa  (TUb.  1708); 
MidbyKid'ler  [Bp.],in  iua  DenaitlraUa*  of  tht  Mtt- 
aak  (2d  ed.  Loiid.  17i6)L  See  Wolf,  BihL  Htbr.  iv,  639 
■(. ;  Uoefer.  Sour.  Bwy.  GMratt,  xivi,  10  j  Flint,  BiH. 
Jti  ii,  13M;  jii,  448,  De'  Roaii,  Diaanario  Slorico 
(Genn.tni]iL),p.S20«q.|  id,Biiliolk.AiilickrMana,p. 
ii  aq.:  Kitto,  CyJop.  l  v.  ;  Sceinsehneider,  CalaL  Ubr. 
Il*r.  u  BiU.  BodL  coL  1074  aq.,  and  his  Jtmitk  liler- 
attn,  p.  Sli  I  Etberidge,  Imrod.  to  Btbr.  ZiC  p.  444 ; 
Role,  Hi^.  of  lilt  KaraiU  Jevi,  p.  170  iq. ,  Basoige,  Hut. 
ia  Jvft  ^Taylor'i  tiand.),  p.77S ;  Geiger,  Itaak  Troii, 
rUApolopet  da  Jaibnlh.  am  Ende  da  \Blat  Jahrhdl: 
(Bn>lathl853i  reprinted  in  hiaJVodiprlEWJaie^cAri/Ini, 
iii,  178, Berlin.  1876)^  ii.  fnAa jududier  Vertkeid^mg 
frgta  linMlidie  A»grifft,  in  LiebermaDn'a  Kaltader, 
1854;  GTUi,Gadi.d.Jiidtii,ix,i2li  Ki-;  Becker, in 5a<W 
rw/ffo/saaif  (ErUng.t870),rii,  154  sq.;  FUnt,  ii 
■ame  quarterly  (ibiiL  1871),  viii,  224  aq.     (B.  P.) 

TroUe.  Gl'btavus,  a  Swediib  prelate,  descended 
fmn  a  noble  Danish  family  named  Er^  waa  bum 
iht  rime  uf  the  15lh  century,  and  became  archtuhop 
nr  L'psala  Oct.  30,  1514,  but  waa  beaieged  in  his  palace 
by  an  old  family  enemy «  and,  although  reinfon^  by 
the  interdict  and  troops  of  pope  Leo  X,  he  at  length  fell 
in  battle  on  the  island  of  Fionia,  and  died  at  Goltorp. 
near  Sl«wick,  July  II,  1A35.  For  the  detaila  of  hii 
unny  career  aec  Koefer,  jVoar.  Biog,  Ginirair,  s.  v. 

Tronun  ( Van  dtr  Tromneit,  Lat.  TVoniniiM),  Abba- 
RAX,  a  learned  Pruteatant  divine  of  Holland,  was  bom 
11  lirouingen,  Aug.  28,  lii38,  and  studied  the  clanics, 
phikwiphv,  and  theology  in  that  university.  He  trav- 
eled tbrnigh  (Germany.  Switzerland,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, and  ou  hia  relam  was  appointed  curate  at  Haren. 
In  1671  hn  was  invited  to  the  pastorate  of  Gruninfcen, 
aud  cootintKd  there  until  his  death.  May  29,  1T19. 
John  Hartinius,  of  Dsnliic,  having  begun  a  t'oacor- 
data  of  tie  Old  Tninme»t  in  Flemish,  Tromm  com- 
ported it  (Amsterd.  1684-92,  S  voU  fi.L).  He  also  pub- 
Hihfil  a  Urtrk  CoKeordoKet  oftht  Stplmgiitt  (Utr.  1718, 
2  Tols.  foL),  which  haa  remained  a  standard  work, 

TranoMo,  Iionla,  a  Swiss  divine,  was  bnm  at 
Geneva,  Dec  4, 1S29.  otid  after  studying  theology  there 
and  It  Sanmur,  be  travelled  abroad  and  then  became 
preacher  at  Lyons  in  1654.     In  1661  he  was  made  pro- 

17(11    He  waa  noted  fur  his  mildneaa  during  the  Cal- 
linistic  oontnn-eisy  of  his  time. 

TroDchlQ,  Th«odot«,  a  learned  Swin  divine, 
^her  of  the  prtceding,  waa  bom  at  Geneva,  April  17, 


18  TROPHIMUS 

1582.     He  was  well  educated,  visited  foreign  unlveni* 

ties,  and  on  bis  return  to  (ieneva,  in  1606,  he  gave  sucb 
proof  of  hia  learning  that  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
the  Hebrew  language.  He  was  made  minister  in 
1G08,  and  created  rector  of  the  unlveruty  in  1610.  tn 
16tB  be  waa  promnted  in  the  prufessoiship  nf  divinity, 
He  was  sent  from  Geneva  to  the  Council  of  Dort,wheTa 
he  dispUyed  hia  great  knwaledge  in  divinity,  and  a 
moderation  which  was  highly  applauded.  For  several 
of  his  works  see  Hoefer,  Nma.  Biog.  GtHiralt,  a.  v.; 
Herzog,  Reat-EiKj/dop.  a.  r. 

Troop  is,  in  the  A.  V.,  especially  emplnyed  as  the 
rendering  (sometimes  "band,"  etc.)  o( -l>i11,  geditl, 
which  means  a  marauding  party,  in  the  forays  for  which 
Palestine  haa  atwavs  been  notarious,  especially  beyond 
theJaniaD(Gen.xUx,19;  1  Sam. iii, S3 ;  xxii,30i  xxx, 
8;  Jobxii,12;  I^xviii,29;  Jer.xviu,32;  Uoa.vi,9; 
vil,l;  Uicv,!). 

Tropse*  (Tp6waia\  the  name  of  churches  erected 
in  honor  of  martyn,  or  dedicated  to  them.  The  leasou 
of  Che  name  ia  found  in  the  reported  appearance  of  the 
cross  to  Constantine,  and  in  the  labarum  on  which,  ac- 
cording tu  Eusebius,were  inacril)ed  the  words  roii  araw- 


,.1, 


9Kr,  are  verses  sung  before  1 
They  are  a  kind  of  prose, 
e,  though  unfettered  by  any  recog- 


Tropes.  or  ae 
Gospel  in  the  mii 

in  a  species  of  vr 

nisedlaw  of  metre,  mey  were  introouceo  at  tne  cjose 
of  the  9lh  oentoiy.  Four  only  are  found  in  the  Soman 
miiaal.    See  Satavtcc. 

Tropb'lmiu  (Tpa^iiof,  nuirilioia)  a  Hellenistic 
Christian,  who  with  others  travelled  with  the  aposilc 
Paul  in  the  course  of  bis  third  misuonary  journey,  and 
during  part  of  the  route  which  he  took  in  returning 
from  Macedonia  towards  Syria  (Acts  xx.  4).  A.D.  54. 
From  what  we  know  concerning  the  collection  whicb 
was  going  on  at  this  lime  fur  the  pour  Christiana  in 
Judsa,  we  are  dispoaed  to  connect  bim  with  the  buai- 
ness  of  that  contribution.  Both  he  and  Tychiciia  ac- 
companied Paul  from  Macedonia  as  far  as  Asia  (ajpf 
Tijs  'Amuctoci*.),  but  TychJcus  seems  to  have  re- 
mained there,  while  Trophimiii  proceeded  with  the 
apostle  to  Jerusalem.  There  he  was  Che  innocent  causa 
of  the  tumult  inwiiich  Paul  was  apprehended,  and  from 
which  the  voyage  to  Rome  ultimately  resulted.  Cer- 
tain Jews  from  (be  dictrict  of  A^  saw  the  two  Chris- 
tian miaaionsriea  together,  and  tappottd  that  Paul  had 
taken  Truphimut  into  the  Temple  (xxi,  27-29).  Fnim 
this  passage  we  learn  two  new  facta,  viz.  that  Trophi- 
mua  was  a  Gentile,  and  that  he  was  a  native  not  aim- 
ply  of  Asia,  but  of  Ephesus.  A  con^denble  interval 
now  elapse^  during  which  we  have  no  trace  of  eithei 
Tychicuaor  Trophimuii;  but  in  the  last  letter  written 
by  Paul,  shortly  before  his  martyrdom,  from  Rome,  he 
mentions  them  both  (Tvx>kuv  ait'umtKa  lis  'E^caot-, 
2  Tim.  iv,  12;  Tpi^fiai'  diriXijrov  iv  MiXitri^  aaii- 
vavrro,  ver.  20),  From  the  last  of  the  phrases  wc 
gather  aimply  that  the  apostle  had  no  long  time  before 
been  in  the  Levant,  that  Trnphimus  had  been  with 
him,  and  that  he  had  been  left  in  inHrm  health  at 
MiletuB.  or  the  further  details  we  are  ignorant ;  but 
this  we  may  Bay  here,  that  while  there  would  be  con- 
siderable dUHcully  in  accommodating  thia  passage  U 
any  part  of  the  reconleil  narrative  previous  to  the  voy. 
age  to  Rome,  all  dilGcuhy  vanishes  on  the  supposition 
of  two  imprisonments,  and  a  journey  in  the  Levant 
between  them.    Trophimus  was  no  tliiubt  at  Miletus 

most  certain  that  he  was  not  left  there.  The  theory 
also  that  he  was  left  there  on  the  voyage  to  Rome  is 
preposterous;  for  the  wind  forced  Paul's  vewwl  tii  run 
direct  fram  the  south-west  comer  of  Asia  Minor  tn  the 
east  end  of  Crete  [xxvii.7).  We  miv  add  Ihst  when 
Trophimus  wss  lelt  in  sickness  at  Miletus,  whenever 
that  might  be,  he  was  within  easy  resch  of  his  home 
friends  at  Kphesus,  as  we  see  from  xi,  17. 


TROPICI 


S64        TEOYES,  COUNCILS  OP 


Stinify  thlnka  tbit  Trephimiu  <•■■  one  of  ths  Iwa 
breltirEn  wbo,  wiLh  Titut,  convejed  Ihe  3e<»nd  EpiiLle 
to  the  CoriiUtUni  (2  Cor.  viii,  16-M).  "Trophimug 
was,  tike  Titui,  one  of  (he  few  Uentilo  wbo  aceom- 
pBiiied  the  ipoillej  an  Epbeaian,  and  Ihenfore  likely 
Lo  hii-e  been  sent  by  the  ipoade  from  Ephcsus  with 
tbeflnt  epistle,  or  to  have  accompmieil  hioi  from  Ephe- 
Biu  now;  he  was,  aa  is  implied  of  'tbis  brother,' whote 
praise  was  in  all  tbe  churches,  well  known ;  so  well 
known  (bat  the  Jews  of  Jau,  [Hiuor?]  at  Jeruulem 
immediately  recognised  him ;  he  was  also  especially 
connected  with  the  apostle  on  Ibis  veiy  miasion  of  the 
collection  for  the  poor  in  Judna.    Thus  far  would  ap- 

XX,  i  it  also  appears  that  ba  was  with  Paul  on  his  re- 
turn fram  this  verv  visit  to  Corinth"  {CommBOary  on 
Cariathiam,  2d  ed.  jk  493). 

The  traditional  story  ChM  Trophimm  was  one  of  the 
seventy  disciple*  is  evidently  wrong;  but  that  part  of 
the  legend  which  states  that  he  was  beheaded  by  Nero's 
orders  is  posubly  true  {MmoL  Gr,  iii,  67V 

Troptcl  are  those  who  expUia  away,  by  Ogun- 
live  interpretations,  texts  of  Scripture  which  Catholic 
faith  and  tradition  require  to  be  otherwise  interpreted. 
Athanastus  (Ad  Scrap,  i,  2, 10,  !t)  give*  the  name  Tro- 
piei  to  tbe  Pneamalomarki  (q.  v.)  in  so  marked  a 

Dane  of  Chat  sect.  For  example,  they  argued  th 
1  Tim.  V,  21  the  name  of  the  Holy  Spirit  would  i 
rally  foUow  the  names  of  Father  and  Son,  that  the 
"elect  angels,"  tropically  taken,  includes  the  Holy  Spir- 
it, the  inference  being  (hat  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a  created 
angel,  ThewordTropicihasbeenu»Fd,again,byCatb- 
olicwritcTsto  describe  thoae  who  err  regarding  the  holy 
sacraments,  and  explain  as  mereflgnies  the  words  of  oi 
Lord  in  John  iii,5i  Ustt.xTi,M. 

Tropltae  frfiairhai)  were  a  sect  of  heretics  wl 
held  that  our  Lord  acquired  a  body  of  Hesh  by  conve 
sion  of  the  substance  of  tbe  godhead  into  the  snbstam 
of  Hesh ;  an  opinion  which  aime  in  the  latter  time  i 
the  Arian  coutroversy  among  those  who,  maintaining 
the  tnie  divinity  of  the  Son  of  God,  anil  rightly  desir- 
ing to  nuintain  his  ■inlesaness,  were  perplexed  by  tbo 
erroneous  assumption  that  the  human  body,  ai  such,  a 
and  cannot  but  be  tbe  seat  of  sin.  To  avoid  the  im- 
piety of  attributing  a  sinful  body  to  our  Lord,  they  de- 
vised the  tenet  that  the  body  of  Christ  is  consutntan- 
liil  with  his  divinity,  which  psases  into  the  soiaewhal 
more  deBiiil«  pmpaaition  that  the  substance  of  the 
Word  is  converted  into  the  substance  of  flesh,  and  that 
the  flesh  being  in  the  form  of  man  is  thus  called  hu- 
man. This  heresy  was  first  dealt  with  by  Athanasius 
(Epitlle  lo  KpiMtlui),  A.D.  370.  Apollinaria  was  at  the 
hea<lor  those  who  denied  the  true  incarnation  of  Christ, 
asserting  the  general  proposition  that  the  Son  of  Go<l 
did  not  assume  that  which  In  man  is  the  seat  n(  sin ; 
and  varied  applications  of  this  pn^iosition  were  made 
by  his  followen.  A  belief  in  tbe  possibility  of  the 
conversion  of  the  godhead  into  flub  almost  neces- 
sarily presupposes  the  reception  of  the  Cabalistic  doc- 

anasius  remarks  that  Valenlious  fancied  tlic  Sesb  tu 
be  a  part  of  Deity,  an<1  so  concluded  that  the  passion 

that  the  heresy  is  confuted  by  Tertullian.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Cbslcedon  determined  that  tbe  two  natures  in 
Christ  are  united  irpiimat. 

Tropologlcal  Imterpbetatio.i  is  where  a  maral 
slgniflcation  is  given  to  a  passage.  An  illustration  will 
explain  this  senne-  In  Dent,  ixv,  4  we  read,  "Thou 
shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  com." 
Paul  (I  Cor.  ix,  9)  quotes  this  precept  of  the  law,  add- 
ing the  comment,  "  Dutb  God  take  care  for  oxen  ?  Or 
saiih  he  it  altogether  for  nur  sakes?  For  our  sakes,  no 
duobt,  this  is  written."— Blunt,  Did.  of  Dodrwa,  s.  v. 
Sm  Usmienedticb. 


Troale,  Council,  or  (Comdliinn  7 

held  in  TnHle,asreoll  village  near  SoissoDS,France.  It 
assembled  June  26.  909,  Heriv^  archbishop  of  Shcdna^ 
preuding.  The  decrees  of  this  cvuncii  are  signed  by 
twelve  prelates,  and  are  contuned  in  fifteen  chaptas) 
they  are  in  the  form  nlber  of  long  exbortatioos 
than  of  eaaoni,  ahowing  the  pldable  Gonditkn  of  tha 
Church. 
1.  0(d«*  doe  nspMt  to  tbe  Chnrcb,  to  clerks,  ind  t* 


a  the  relbrm  of  at 


sa  In  mouastte  Inttltb 


"CT." 


dlreclsd  against  those  wbo  refasa  tithe. 


0.  Forbids  prlesti 
10.  KxbnnaallCI 

■7,   " 


re  women  In  their  hon 


Forbids  pMjBrr  and  onth-bresklng. 

Is  directed  nealnsi  naaslnnate  aDdllthrlons  persKii. 
.o.  AnBlnst  liars  and  homicide*, 
li.  Denoancen  ibaM  who  plimdar  lb*  propttly  of  WA- 
ops  atier  their  daatb. 

slain  from  sin  and  to 

See  Uansi,  CdhsJL  ix,  B3D. 

TrCMt,  Habtih,  piDfeaaor  of  Hebrew  at  Wiltea- 
berg,  where  he  also  died,  April  8,  I68li,  was  bom  « 
Hoxter  in  the  year  1588.  He  published,  Crtmuifita 
ffeftraiHi  Piricir7-.afi»(HafHiB,ie27,and  often);  excerpu 
from  his  grammar  wers  published  by  Baldovlus,  Gei*. 
lius,  Mittemacht,and  Uylius  :—Dupatatia  de  Mtlat^m 
Pmaoram  Hdiraorvm  Gentrali  (Wittenberg,  1631);— 
Novum  Ten.  Syr.  nun  Vmiom  LaUna  a  Dittnii  Eii- 
tioj^mt  RtcmntHin.  Accattnutinfititmjfatitmarari- 
oMit  Uetiottit  oolUOa  a  St.  TV.  (Cilthen,  162]).  8ss 
Fursl.  BibL  Jud.  iii,  4i9 ;  Winer,  HamOHt*  der  limi 
Liltralur,  i,  do ;  ii,  808 ;  Steinschneider,  BOliog.  Btmi- 
hccA,p.l4l.    (EF.) 

Troth  (Imth),  a  vrord  occntring  in  tbe  Prayer-book 
only  in  tbe  marriage  service,  thus,  "And  thereto  I 
plight  thee  wytrvth,^  that  Is,  "thereto  I  most  BolenMk- 
ly  pledge  thee  my  tralh  and  liiMxrity."  Near  the  end 
of  tbe  same  service  the  minister  says  that  the  penons 
now  married  hare  "pledged  their  Iroli  each  lo  other,' 
i.  e.  have  promised  to  be  true  and  failh/tit  to  each  oth- 
er.—Stanton,  Did.  o/lkt  Church,  s.  v. 

Trongh  CiStO,  thSkrlh,  from  Fl^ti,  to  rfriti),*  v» 
sel  of  wood  or  stone  for  watering  animals  (Gen.  xiiv, 
20;  XXX,  38).  See  WxLL,  But  in  Exnd.  ii,  Ifi  a  dif- 
ferent term  (::n'^,i-ifAu/,<Viim  theideaofjJoieii^;  "eil- 
ler,''Gen.  XXX,  38,  41)  is  employed  for  the  same  thing. 
See  also  KNiuiiiNii-Tttoi^OH. 

TtOj,  Johd  Tkokas,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prdale,  WH 
bom  near  Pnnerstown,  in  the  county  of  Dublin,  and  U 
the  age  of  fifteen  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  a 
Dominican,  and  finally  rector  of  St.  Clement's  in  thtt 
city.  Id  1776  be  was  elected  bishop  of  Ossory.  Ib 
January,  1779,  he  promulgated  very  spirited  cifcdIsis 
against  the  outrages  of  tbe  Whiteboys,  and  in  Octoba 
excommunicated  them.  In  1786  he  was  promoted  ts 
the  see  of  Dublin.  In  November,  1787,  he  issued  hi 
pastoral  directions  to  his  clergy,  in  which  be  strictly 
probilHted  the  future  celebration  of  midnight  massea. 
Id  1793  he  published  Pailoral  Iiulnictunu  m  Ih 
Dalia  a/  Chritlian  Cilaau.  He  died  May  11,  1811. 
See  D' Alton,  MaiHiir$  ^  (As  .4  rcUiakepi  of  Dttlm, 
p.  480. 

Troyes,  Councils  of  {Cimdiiam  Trieauamm),  w« 
held  in  Troves.  France,  a  dty  wbich  has  a  splendid 
Gothic  catheilral,  founded  in  120B;  the  Church  of  31. 
Urban;  the  Church  of  St.  John,  in  which  HcDry  V  ef 
England  was  married;  the  Church  ofSaiDte-Hadekiati 
containing  a  stone  rood-loft  of  gitat  beauty;  audi 
public  library  of  110,000  volamcA 


TRUBER  &< 

L  Htld  On.  U,  867.    Aboot  twenty  biilwpi,  rrom 

tbt  kingdonu  of  Cbsrlei  and  Loctaaire,  were  pretenl, 
wlB  wniit  ■  long  lelltr  (o  pope  NicholM  I,  in  which 
[bej  gilt  tbe  butoi)'  oT  the  ifTui  of  Ebbo,  and  uF  Che 
priMta  whom  he  had  ordained.  They,  moreover,  be- 
migbt  llie  pope  not  to  inUrfeie  with  the  rule  iaid  down 
bv  hi*  predecemr,  and  no[  to  pennic,  in  future,  the 
deposition  of  any  Inahop  without  the  inlerventiou  of 
it\t  holy  lea.  Thia  waa  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
eiplH  dT  the  falae  deerelala  of  Itae  pope^  See  Hausi, 
CimciL  liii,  868. 

IL  Held  in  8TS,  by  pope  John  VIII,  who  pretided 
DTR  thirty  biahopa.  The  former  had  come  into  France 
lOBcape  fiDin  the  rinlenee  of  Lambert,  duke  of  Spolet' 
u.  In  the  flrat  leBaion,  the  pope  exhorted  tbe  bishopa 
10  eenpuaionate  the  injiirica  which  the  Haman  Church 
ktd  wfTerrd  from  Lambert  and  hia  accomplices,  and  to 
c  them.     The  prelatea,  however,  declined 


In  11 


Btued  by  L-ambert,  after  which  the  council  declared 
him  to  be  worthy  of  death  and  anathema.  The  arch- 
bjahop  of  Ariea  preaniled  a  petition  againat  tuahopa  and 
priesu  leaving  one  Church  for  another,  and  also  a^ainit 
ptnuiu  denertJDg  their  wivea  in  order  to  marry  other 
■wKn.  In  the  third  aeaaion,  the  hishopa  declared 
tbetrconasit  to  tbe  pope^a  propontiona.  Hincmar  of 
Idiui,whD*e  eyea  had  been  put  out,  preacoted  a  com- 
ftlaiat  againat  hia  uncle,  and  demanded  to  be  Judged 
according  to  tbe  canons.  Hincmar  of  Rheitns  rtquiieil 
tka(  tbe  cauM  migbl  be  delayed,  to  gire  him  lime  to 
reply  to  the  complaint.  Further,  the  aentence  of  con- 
drmuaiioD  pawed  againat  Formotu),  formerly  bishop  of 
Pono,  and  Gregory,  a  nobleman,  waa  read,  anatbema- 
6nag  ihem  without  hope  of  absolution;  aa  also  were 
■be  canoDs  forbidding  tbe  translation  of  bishopa,  viz. 
Ibgae  of  Sardica,  Africa,  and  of  pope  Leo.  Seven  ean- 
ms  were  pobUshed. 
1.  Older*  that  temporal 


luded  Luther'*  catechism^ 


heirp 


laalloDS  against 


I.  Porblda 

HL  Rdd  in  IIM,  by  tbe  legate  Richard,  bishop  of 
Albattn,  whom  Paschal  [l  had  sent  into  France  to  absolve 
hiiig  Philip.  The  council  was  very  numerous,  and 
anoDg  tha«e  preasnt  wc  And  Ivo  of  Chartrea.  Hubert, 
birfiop  of  Senlis,  accused  of  rimony,  cleared  himself  by 
nalh.  The  election  of  the  abbot  Godefrui,  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Amiena,  to  the  bishopric  of  that  lown  waa  ap- 
proved, and.  In  apite  of  the  abbot's  reaiaCanee,  he 
«aa  compelled  to  conacat  to  it     See  Haosi,  ConeU,  z, 

m. 

ir.  Held  in  1  lO;,  by  pope  Paachal  II,  who  preaided. 
Tbe  main  object  of  tbia  council  was  to  excite  Ihe  leal 
cToKii  for  the  Crusade,  besides  which  sentence  ofei- 
emiiHioicatioD  waa  deiiouneed  againil  those  wbo  should 
riulste  the  Trrue  of  God.  The  freedom  of  eleelkms 
of  bi(ho]i*  was  asaeited  and  ealablished,  and  the  con- 
iltainatiDn  of  investitures  repealed.  Several  German 
bishops  were  on  rajioua  accounts  auspended,  Manai 
(CmoLx.TM)  adds  five  canons  to  those  usually  atlrib- 

l  Otders  thai  any  one  recefvlnB  Inveatltnro  at  the 
huiU  n(  a  layman  aball  Iw  devised,  ns  well  aa  the  par- 
HOB  ..rdil  iiing  or  consecrating  him. 

T.  Held  Jan.  IS,  11S8,  by  Ibe  legale  Matthew,  bish- 
op af  Albano,  assisted  by  tbe  archbishops  of  Rheima 
and  Sens,  ihirteen  bishops,  and  by  St.  Bernard,  ttt.  Sie- 
pha,  and  other  abbota.  A  rule  waa  draon  up  for  the 
Order  of  the  Templars,  ini^tuled  in  HIS,  prepared  by 
autbatity  of  the  pope  and  of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem, 
la  this  council  tbe  white  dress  was  given  to  tbe  Tern- 
l4aii.    See  Uanu,  CowriJ.  X,  922. 

ftabeT,  pRiMua,  a  notable  personage  in  the  Refor- 
taatisn  in  Germany,  waa  conaecraled  to  the  priesthood 
bj  Petn  Baoomua,  bishop  of  Trieste,  and  took  charge 


TRUCE  OF  GOD 

of  the  parish  of  I^ek  in  1&S7.  In  1531  he  became  a 
canon  of  l*ibach,  where  the  new  doctrine  was  already 
promulgated,  and  soon  aflernards  he  took  grsimd  in 
opposition  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  assailed 
by  the  clergy  and  the  government,  but  protected  by  the 
nobles  until  [540.  Bishop  Bonomus  then  called  him  to 
Trieste.  In  lUT  (he  bishop  of  Ubach,  Urban  Tex- 
tor,  procured  an  order  for  the  appRhenaiun  of  Truber.  in 
consequence  of  which  the  tatter  was  compelled  to  flee. 
He  found  a  new  parish  at  Rotbenburg  in  the  following 
year,  and  while  there  he  entered  into  wedlock  with  a 
woman  named  Barbara.  From  165S  to  1560  be  was 
pastor  at  Kempten.  As  early  as  1550,  or,  perhaps,  ear- 
lier still,  Truber  had  endeavored  to  minister  to  the  needs 
of  biseountrymen  by  preparing  translations  intheWend- 
ish  dialeet  of  an  Abaxdariam  and  a  catechism,  which 
were  printed,  with  Latin  letters,  at  Tubingen.  Tbe 
proaecudon  of  his  plsns  waa  made  passible  through  Ter- 
gerius  (q.  v.),  who  induced  duke  Christopher  of  Wur- 
temberg  lo  psy  for  the  printing.  In  1555  the  Wendlsh 
Goipf!  of  St.  Mallhrw  appeared  in  print,  and  in  1556  tbe 
other  historical  books  of  the  New  Test.  Romans,  both 
epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  and  Ualstians  were  published 
in  1661.  A(tervariouBricisaitudeB,Truberoblained  the 
pariah  of  Urach,  where  the  famous  baron  Hans  Ungnad 
became  his  patron  and  enabled  him  lo  establish  his  own 
preas  lor  the  printing  of  Slavic  books.  The  types  used 
werebothUlaguliticandCytillic.  SeeGu 
accounts  of  Che  prinling-offlce  are 


support,     Its  publ 

tbe  A  agtbarii  Con/isnoa,  and  the.<;wfas3r,Melsncthon'a 
i,oci  Commiata,  the  WUrumberg  Church  DitapKm,  tbe 
Baitfieivm  Chritti,uii  spiritual  hymns:  but  Che  eutei^ 
prise  was  not  remunerative,  and  was  abanrloned  aoon 
sAer  tbe  death  of  baron  Ungnad  in  I5&4.  Truber  posa- 
ed  the  last  twenty  yeara  of  his  life  in  charge  of  the  par- 
ish of  Deredingen,  near  Tubingen.  Two  days  before  he 
died  he  dictated  to  his  amanuensis  the  rinsing  sentences 
for  his  translation  of  Luther's  Haatpottittr.  He  died 
June  28, 1586,  aller  a  brief  illnew,  and  in  the  seventy- 
eighth  year  of  his  age.  See  Sillem, /'n'iniit  TnAir,ier 
Rrfermtlar  Kraint  (Erlsng.  1861);  Schnurrer,  Sta- 
vitchtr  aschrnimck  m  WUHrnibirff  (Tub.  1"99);  and 
particularly  Herxog,  Heal-EniyUnp,  xxi,  s.  v.,  where  • 
much  more  complete  and  somewhat  divergent  skclch  of 
Ttuber's  career  is  given. 

Tnibl«t,  Nicholas  C.  J.,  a  French  ahb^,  of  tempo- 
nry  fame,  was  bom  at  Sc  Halo,  in  December,  1697. 
There  are  no  memoirs  of  his  education  or  early  prog, 
resa,  but  it  appean  that  he  was  treasurer  of  the  Church 
of  Nantes,  and  afterwards  archdeacon  and  canon  of  St. 
Maki.  His  irreproachable  conduct  and  agreeable  man- 
nen  procured  him  very  general  esteem  as  a  man,  but  aa 
a  writer  he  never  ranked  high  in  public  ofnuion,  and 
though  ambitious  of  a  seat  in  the  French  Academy,  did 
not  secure  that  honor  until  1761.  He  died  in  March, 
1770,  at  his  native  place.  HJa  principal  works  are,  Ki. 
sou  dt  Liniratun  tt  dt  Moralt  (i  vols.  l2mo):— Fa- 
aiffgri^s  de$  Somli: — Mhaotrti  paur  itrrir  a  Tlli»- 
toire  de  Meuinrt  dt  la  Molle  tide  Fonlrwllf  (Amst. 
1761).  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  JuutTHtt  da 
SauBBi  and  Juamal  Ckrilifn.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet, 
s.v.i  Kotttiifiuiiv. BiBg,Giiiirait,t.y. 

Trace  of  Ood,  a  scheme  set  on  foot  by  the  Church 
in  the  Middle  Ages  lor  the  purpose  of  quelling  tbe  vio- 
lence snd  preventing  the  frequency  of  private  wars,  oc- 
casioned by  the  fierce  spirit  of  barbarism.  It  was  Hist 
proposed  at  the  Council  of  Charroux  in  rtWl,  adopred  by 
the  Council  of  Orleans  in  1016,  and  by  Ihe  Oumcil  of 
Umoges  in  1081.  In  France  a  general  pr'ai^  mA  wsaa- 
licm  from  hostilides  Inok  place  A.D.  IM-J,  an.)  contin- 
ued seven  yea(^  through  Ihe  eflliriB  .if  Ihe  bishop  of 
Aquitaine,     A  resolution   was   formed    [hat   nn    man 


Duld, in 
riea  during  the  s> 


t  for  celebrating  the 


TEUE  5( 

gnu,  r«ativ>lB  of  the  Charcb,  or  (torn  the  ereninf  or 
Tfaursdiy  in  e«ch  w«k  lo  the  morning  orHoniUy  in 
the  week  enauing,  the  intervening  daya  being  conae- 
cntffil  S3  particularly  holy— Thursday  ae  itae  day  of  our 
Ijord'a  iscenBioii;  Friday  aa  that  uf  hia  Paauon;  Sat- 
unlay,  when  he  rested  in  the  grave ;  and  Sunday,  the 
day  of  bit  resurrection.  In  1034  it  was  oppueeil  liy 
the  biahopofCambray.  Latrril  wat  extended  lo  near- 
iv  all  the  more  irnportant  fsalfl,  feaata,  and  holy  aeaaona 
of  the  Cburch.  Enghuid  (IM-i)  and  Italy  adopted  Iha 
cualam,  which  was  furtber  conHnned  by  the  aeeoiid  and 
third Lateraneouncil8(A.D.I189,t  179).  Aehangeiutbe 
diaposiliona  of  men  so  sudden,  and  one  which  proposed 
■  resolution  ao  unexpected,  was  conaidered  aa  miricu- 
lous,  and  the  respite  from  hostilities  which  fulluwed 
upon  it  was  called  the  "Truce  of  God."  Thia  cessatiun 
from  hoalilitjea  during  three  complete  daya  eveiy  week 
allowed  a  coniiderable  space  for  the  pasaions  of  the  an- 
tagonista  U>  cool,  and  for  the  people  (0  enjoy  a  respite 
ttom  the  calamities  of  war,  and  lo.take  measures  for 
their  awn  security.  Tbe  triumph  of  legal  over  feudal 
govemment  enntnally  did  away  with  the  institution 
and  the  necessity  fur  it.  See  Trench,  Midiaral  CAarch 
Biitorg,  PL  424  sq. 

True,  CiiARLEa  K.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist 
Epiacnpal  dirine,  waa  bom  in  Portland,  He.,  Aug.  14, 
1809.  I'he  family  aftcrwarda  remored  to  Boalon.  He 
graduated  at  Han'ard  IJniversity  in  1882,  having 
been  converted  at  the  Easlham  camp  '  meeting  while 
connected  with  that  college,  and  immediately  com- 
menced preaching  in  the  vicinity,  being  among  the 
first  Methodist  preachers  at  the  opening  of  denomina- 
tional services  in  Newton  Upper  Falls,  established 
through  the  fsilhfnl  endeavon  of  Marshall  S.  Rice. 
His  early  efforta  awakened  great  attention.    Hia  per- 

■ddreaa  graceful,  and  bis  discourses  orien  very  eloquent. 
He  entered  the  Mew  Englsnd  Conference  in  1SS3,  was 
an  agent  of  the  New  England  Education  Society  in 
18S4,SMd  became  the  Brat  principal  of  the  Armenia  Sem- 
inary in  1H3S.    He  entered  the  New  York  Conference 

conference  and  in  hia  charge  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in 
the  antislarer;-  controversy,  having  early  taken  very 

transferred  tu  the  New  England  Conference,  and  ata- 
tioned  at  Lynn.  He  remained,  filling  appointmenit 
with  much  accepcablenesB,  in  Boston  and  vicinity  until 
1849,  when  he  was  elected  professor  of  intellectual  and 
moral  science  in  Wealeyan  University.  He  became 
again  a  member  of  the  New  Tork  Coiirerence  in  I8G0, 
but  re-entered  the  New  England  (conference  in  1S66. 
From  IHTO  to  1873  he  was  a  financial  agent  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  University,  and  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
East  CnnferencB  until  hia  death,  which  occurred  sud- 
denly, June  '20,  1878.  During  his  Ust  years  he  was 
oiinnecled  with  one  or  two  of  (he  charitable  societies 
whose  offices  are  in  New  York  city,  and  supplied  the 
pulpits  of  charges  in  the  NewY'ork  East  Conference  not 
fardistant  from  hia  home.  Dr.  True  wrote  a  text-book 
upon  kigic,  and  several  Interesting  volumea  of  a  histori- 
cal character.  He  wia  a  man  of  fine  abilities,  an  origi- 
,iuil  thinker,  with  marked  repoae  of  mind  and  manner, 
self-reliant,  and  with  just  enough  eccentricity  to  give 
an  original  flavor  to  hia  opininns.  He  was  a  good 
preacher,  at  rimes  powerful  in  discourse,  and  particular- 
ly effective  in  exhortation.  See  Mmiittt  ef  Amaiat 
Ctm/trmte;  1879,  p.  30  sq. 

True  Reformed  Dntob  Chnrcb  is  an  organi- 
zation which  grew  out  of  the  secession  of  the  Kev.  Sal- 
omon Froeligh,  D.D:,  In  1822.  He  was  a  professor  of 
theology,  a  man  o(  erudition,  and  pastor  of  Ihe  two 
congregations  of  Hackensack  and  Schralenbnrg,  N.  J., 

minHlinn  of  difficulties  of  long  standing,  in  which  he 
was  Bubjected  to  censure  for  aggression  upon  a  neigh- 


boring Church.  He  refuaed  to  submit  tti  the  anthon 
tiea  of  tbe  Cburch.  A  number  of  disaflecud  mini*. 
tera  luiited  wilh  bim,  together  with  porUoiis  of  their 
churches.  The  grounds  alleged  for  iheir  separaiinn 
were  that  Ihe  Dutch  Church  had  becoine  erroHout 
in  doctrine,  lax  in  discipline,  and  corrupt  in  practice, 
ibles  produced  by  Ihii 
Tbe  "Tnie  Re(bnM4 
Dutch  Church"  retains  ihe  standards  of  Ihe  Cliurrh 
which  it  left,  and  declares  that  it  akme  keeps  Ibno  in 
their  purity.  It  holds  no  fellowship  with  anyelherilr- 
nominaiion,  refuses  to  co-operale  with  the  benerohiit 
religious  iiistitutiona  of  Ihe  age,  and  ia  generally  aLii- 
nomlaii  in  sentiment  and  practice.  The  cfaurchrs  «f 
this  sect  are  less  than  twenty  in  number,  small,  fnUc, 
and  dwindling  away  with  the  sur^-ivor*  of  the  orijpnal 
strife.  They  are  located  in  New  Jersey  and  New  Yt^k. 
For  full  accounts,  reference  is  made  to  their  pamphlet 
entitled  ReaMoru  Aiiignrd  bf  a  A'anrfifr  of  Miniim, 
JilJeri,  and  Dtaamtfor  Dfflarng  Thn»$tlni  H/  Tm 
Refotvud  Dulrh  ChurtA  m  Ihr  Vmird  Statu  nfA  metke. 
See  also  Corwin,  Manitid  o/lht  Rrf.  Ck^rck  a,  A  mtrica! 
Taylor,  Jnnoij  o/Ciiiau  and  Tcinrriip  o/ BrTsrn,Trrj 
full  and  accurate.     (W.J.  R  T.) 

Tmllo.  CoticciL  OF,  the  tume  by  which  the  null 
Council  of  CoHSTAHTiicor't.K  (q.v.)  is  called,  from  Ihe 


of  the  palace. 
Tnmibnll.  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Congireitimal 

minister,  was  bom  in  Hebron,  Conn.,  Dec.  19,  17^ 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  17fi9.  and  was  otdaiMd 
December,  1760,  paatnr  at  North  Haven,  where  he  re- 
mained until  hia  deAh,  Feb.  2,  ISSO.  He  publiihid,.! 
Diiami-K  Dflirrrrd  al  Frrrmmi  Mrtlag  (1773):— J 
PUa  ia  Vmdiealum  of  Ihe  Comiccrtnif  TilU  lo  Ikt  Cat- 
Ittltd  lJX»<it  lyiag  W'tl  o/He  Ptvrnct  o/AVa-  lori, 
A  ddratd  lo  lit  PubUe  ( IT76)  ^  J  a  Appeal  to  fjlr  Ptt- 
lie  reapretisg  JHeora  (1786)  —Aa  Addrrtt  <m  FamHi 
Retigum  (1807)  -.—Ticrlct  Ditamrtn  on  Uu  Dkim  Ori- 
gin of  Ihe  Saiptarei  (IStO)  -.—A  Gntral  Hifloiy  ofik 
Umttd  Slain,  etc  (eod.)  -—Tko  Pampiltli  «  tit  V- 
lav:fxi\itfa  of  Man-ywg  a  W^fe't  SiHrr  (eoi.)—A 
Complrlt  IlittoTj  if  Connrdicat  (3  vols,  1797,  1818)^ 
and  several  occasional  Senamu.  See  Spragne,  jlMob 
oflheAmt>:Pyliiit,\,f/M. 

Trumbull,  Robeit,  D.D.,  a  distingniahed  lla|i(ia 
miniMcr  and  scholar,  waa  bom  in  Whitebum,  Unlith- 
gowahite,  Scotland,  Sept.  in,  1809.  He  was  btwgtit 
up  as  a  Preabyterian.    Having  graduated  ai 


w  Univi 


eolngical  leclun 


I>ra.  Chatmera  and  Dick  in  Eilinburgh,  hiv 
hia  fellow-studema  Itubert  Tollok,  Ihe  author  of  Iht 
CuB'M  of  Time.  While  punuing  his  theologicsl  Mud- 
ies,  be  changed  his  sentiments  on  Ihe  subject  of  Chrii- 
tiaii  baptism,  and  connected  himself  with  a  Bipliit 
Church.  For  a  year  and  a  half  he  preached  in  Wot- 
mancocte,  Wotcesler^ire,  England.  In  1833  he  ame 
to  this  country,  and  for  two  years  waa  pastor  of  tbs 
Secnnd  Baptist  Church  in  Danbury,Conn„>hen  he  wti 
called  to  the  pastorale  of  the  First  Baptist  Chun-b  is 
Delroit,UIcb.,  where  he  remained  two  yeani,  and  itm 
became  pastor  of  tbe  South  Baptist  Church  in  Hanfnnl, 
Conn.  In  all  these  churches  hia  labors  were  gmilv 
blessed.  For  two  years  he  continued  in  Harif«nl,>nd 
then  accepted  a  call  in  1889  lo  what  ia  now  the  Harraid 
Street  Church  in  Boaton,  where  bis  six  yean'  (183!)- 
45)  ninialiy  added  greally  to  the  strength  nf  tbe 
Church.  In  July,  1845,  he'  returned  to  Hanford,  t« 
lake  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  First  Bapliii  Chnrch  is 
thai  city.  Hia  coimection  with  Ihat  Church  aa  itamia- 
ister  conlinued  for  twenty-four  yette.  "Under  his  ea^ 
nest  and  faithful  ministry  the  Church  enjoyed  a  iikc**- 
aion  of  revivala  andconatant  acceasions.  till  itbecainein 
numbeiB,  beneficence,  and  inHuence  one  of  the  ationpsl 
in  the  denomination."  The  unusuatlv  long  pasinnK 
of  Dr.  TmmbuU  closed  in  1869.    It  wr-  "»'  >><•  wiA 


TRUMP  1 

■gkin  ta  becotat  ■  permanent  pulor.  For  more  than 
t"0  years  he  preached  in  New  Haven,  aupplying  the 
pulpit  of  a  minion  chapel  in  Dwiglit  Street  one  year, 
and  another  year  preaching  in  a  chapel  in  the  north- 

ISI!  aecretary  or  the  Connecticut  Uaptiit  tlon  vent  ton. 
Ill  this  capacity  he  aerved  Tor  I  he  remainder  of  hi*  life, 
perfbrnoing  a  wurii  for  the  ree1)le  Baptist  churchea  in 
CoDiiecticut  the  value  of  which  caonot  be  avereaiimited. 
I)ii  memoiy  ii  cheriihed  with  warm  aflVctian  in  the 
cooimunity  and  alate  which  he  n  long  bleoed  by  hia 
Chriuian  minialry.  For  a  Ultle  more  than  live  yeara 
he  devoted  hinwelf  with  great  zeal  to  hii  work,  and  aaw 
it  abundantly  lueceurul.  He  died  at  Hartford,  Kov. 
30, 18T7.  Dr.  Trumbull  wai  a  voluminaiia  writer,  cun- 
atdering  the  amount  of  miniit«rial  work  he  perfornied 
durinn  hi*  life.  Among  hia  publiaheJ  writiiiga  were 
thi  Allowing :  Olfmpia  Atorala  (IMa}:_F('wt'(  Vilal 
C4rtKMA%— a  Irandation  (1846) :— CemuJ  ofScolhmd 
(J8I7):  — /"b^  Wriltn  of  Frmn  aad  Svi/Krland 
(1»48) ;— COiwt  of  Italg  {ii&):—Tkeopk<n3,  or  (A< 
Mwn/alalumofGodvtCkriimabiy.—  Viiin'tMital- 
Laitt  (ISoJ)  —Hft  PidMrei  (1857).  He  edited  *lw 
•ir  William  Hamilton'a  DUaiuitau  on  Phiiutopky,  Lil- 
etaturt,  and  Unictnilj/  Rr/orm.  Ha  wM  the  editor  of 
the  CkrUrian  Rrriew  fat  two  j'eara.  See  CAruHan  See- 
rttary,  Nov.  38, 1877.     (J.  C  3.) 

Trump  (loXairE,  1  Coi.  xv,  32;  1  ThoK  iv,  16). 
See  Thumpet. 

Trompet  i«  in  ibe  A.V.  uaualLy  the  rendering  of 
one  or  the  otbei  of  Ibe  two  Hebrew  words  detaikd  be- 

fcacntativc  of  the  fulbwing:  b3H-,yoi«/,  Exod.  lix,  IS. 
tbtjubOtt  (q.  V.)  trumpet;  SipFI,  Utk6,i,  Eaek.  vii,  14, 
prnpi.  the  Uoina^  t>f  the  tnimpet.      See  I'miMPin^ 

I.  n^X^:irt,  el>aUolKrak  (Sept.  aiiXirirf  .Tulg.  luba), 
pmb.  ail  onomitopoelie  word,  like  the  LaU  iaralaiUiira, 
ffom  the  quivering  reveifoeraLioD  of  ita  sound,  waa  the 
Umv^l  trumpet  (Jonephua,  Ail.  iii,  1!,  G;  Jerome,  ad 
Hoi.  V,  8;  Duxtoif,  Ijt.  a,  v.),  anJ  is  the  term  used  in 
Numb.  s.  3.8,9,10;  xxxi,  6;  2  Ktngi  xi,  14  ('-trimp- 
cter,"  in  6iBl  uccurreRoe);  xii,  18;  1  Cbron.  siii,  8; 
xv,34.3Si  xvi,6,4!;  S  Chron.  v,  12,  I3i  xiii,  12,14; 
zv,U:  xi,!8i  xxiii,I3:  xxix,!6,  27,28;  Eiraiii,10: 
))ch.xii.S6,41;  I>sa.  xcviii.S;  Hoa.v,8.  There  were 
originally  two  such,  which  the  priests  used  on  festive 
<ia:aaiwiB(Numb.x,Zsq.;  comp.xxxi,6;  2  Kings  xii, 
13).  Uter  (in  David's  Ume)  the  instruments  were  of 
a  richer  character  (I  Chran.  XV, 24;  xvi,42;  2  Chrun. 
T,  13  sq.;  xxix.  30;  for  a  conjecture  aa  to  th«r  funn, 
*e«SaiDmeT,fiUiL/4Mawfj:i,31)aq.>  Similar  ones  were 
employed  in  the  year  of  Jubilee  (3  Kinga  xi,  14),  and 
for  popular  praclamaiions  (Hoe.  v,  8);  mmp.  RoselliDi, 
J/oRain.II,iii,83;  Wilkinson,  ii,  263.  The  form  of  this 
Immpet  ia  indicated  in  ibe  aculpture  on  the  Arch  of 


17  TRUMPET 

Titua  at  Rome  (aee  Reland,  5po(iu  TtmpU  Hieni.  p.  184 
sq.)  and  t>n  coins  (Friihlich,  AnaL3j/r,  prulfg.  p.  80,  pL 
18,  Ag.  17  ant  18), and  il  ippeara  to  have  emitted  a  clear, 
■hrill  tone  (comp.  Foakel,  i,  KO),  adaplvd  id  an  aluruni 

(rpn).       See  MUBlCAl,  iNSTRUllEItTli. 

2.  -'^^'a,  ihopiar  (Sept.  usually  aiiXiriy(,  Vulg.  foic- 
ctnu),  waa  the  curctd  trumpet  tir  horn  (Lat.  liluui)  for 
■igiiala;  and  is  the  word  elsewhere  remlered  "trumpet" 
in  tha  A.V.  ("comet,"  I  Chron.  xv,  38;  3  Chron.  xv. 
14;  I^xcviit.6;  Hua.v,8).  It  waa  aounded  in  tho 
veai  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  ixv,  9;  the  Talmiidic  New-vear's- 
day,  Hialina,  ffoiA  kaik-Shanak,  iii,  3),  in  battle  (Job 
xxxix.26[28];Jer.iv,S;  vi,l),«ndliy sentiuebi(EMh. 
xixiii,  6):  and  had  aloud  (In.  Iviii,  1)  lone  like  a  thun- 
der-peal (Exod.  lix,  IS,  19).  Some  writers  fail  to  dia- 
linguisb  this  from  the  preceding  kind  of  trumpet  (Cred- 
ner,7oe^p.  IGl  sq. ;  HolTmann,  in  Warnekrot,  llehr.Al- 
Irrlh.  p.  698  sq,);  both  iiiBtru  nielli  a  are  itsuicd  in  the 
same  connection  in  1  Chren.  xv.  28;  2  Chron.  xv,  14; 
Psa.  XGviii,6;  Hoa.  v,8  (see  Zoega,  Dt  Biinina  [Lipa. 
1713]).  Jerume(on  the  passage  last  cited)  clearly  dis- 
tinguishes the  ilioptSr:  "  Buccini  pasioralis  est  el  cor- 
nu  ntcurro  elBcitur,  unde  et  proprie  Ilebraice  loiihar, 
Gnace  nparivt)  appellstur."  According  to  the  Misbiia 
(ii(  lup,),  however,  the  tknptdr  was  aometimee  alraight 
and  at  others  crooked  (see  Doughtiei  Analrcr.  i,  99  aq.). 
Curved  hotiu  (as  of  oxen  or  sheep)  are  still  cnramon  in 
the  synagogue  under  the  aame  name  (n^^B^O);  ac- 
cording to  the  Geman  (SiiM,  sixvi,  I),  "IB"iO  origi- 
nally denoted  only  the  curved  horn,  and  not  until  the 
downfall  of  the  Jewiah  polity  was  it  confounded  with 
the  n^xixn.  The  aeconil  Temple  contained  thtrteen 
boxes  (in  the  court  ofthe  women),  ihaped  like  (straight) 
trumpets  (shopharoth),  for  the  depouiion  of  alma 
(Hiahna,  .S'tclxi/.  vi,  6).  The  bum  with  which  tl>e 
year  of  Jubilee  waa  ushered  in  is  technically  called  <aa 
above  observed)  Vaii.fully'isi'n  1^15  or  bii'n^Slti 
(Josh,  vi,  4  sq.)  i  and  the  force  of  breath  required  to 
sound  it  is  denoted  by  the  term  T^tj^,  to  draw  oat  (aea 
Winer's  Simonia  Lrx.  p.  S94, 5S4 ;  cnmp.  Gt^set,  KalhoL 
Mat,  i,  107  sq.).    See  Cohnbt. 


As  above  intimated,  the  Lord  commanded  Mnscs  to 
make  two  trumpets  of  beaten  «lver,  for  the  purpose  of 
calling  the  people  together  when  they  were  to  decamp 
(Numb.  x).  They  chiefly  used  these  trumpets,  how- 
ever, to  proclaim  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year,  the 
beginning  ofthe  sabbatical  }'ear  (Lev.  xxiii.24;  NumI). 
xxix,  l},and  the  beginning  of  the  Jubilee  (Lev.  xxv,9, 
10).  Josephus  says  {Ant.  iii,  13, 6)  that  iliey  were  near 
a  cubit  long,  and  Chat  their  tube  or  pipe  was  of  tha 
thickness  of  a  common  ftute.  Their  mouths  were  no 
wider  than  Just  admitted  to  blow  into  them,  and  their 
endt  were  like  those  of  a  moilem  trumpet.  There  were 
originally  but  two  in  the  camp,  though  ifterward*  a 


TRUMPETS,  FEAST  OP 

great  number  wen  made.  In  the  time  of  Joehai 
Here  wven  (Joah,  iii,  4),  and  at  the  dedicalioD  of  the 
Temple  of  Solomon  there  vere  i>ne  hundred  and  twenty 
prieatB  that  uunded  trumpets  (2  Cbron.  v,  12).  The 
fulliining  particular!  concerning  the  use  of  tnimpeta  in 
(lie  Temple  will  be  uBerul,and  ore  collected  cbiefly  from 
Lighlfout'a  TtmpU  Sertiet,  The  tnimpeta  wen  Bound- 
ed exclusirely  by  the  prieata,  who  aloiHl  not  in  the  Le- 
vities) ehuir,  but  apart,  and  oppoaite  to  the  Leviiea,  on 
the  other  aide  of  the  altar,  both  partjee  lookinK  toward* 
it— the  prieata  on  the  weatside  and  the  Leviiea  on  (he 
east.  The  trumpet*  did  not  Join  in  the  concert,  but 
were  aounJed  during  certain  regalated  pauiea  in  the 


blowing  with  th 
then  I 


r  tiumpete  waa  flrat  a  long  plain  btait, 
iiaveni:g»,  and  then 


ong  plain  blast  again, 
blow  but  theee  three  bUata  went  together.  .  .  .  The 
Jews  do  eipreea  these  three  aevenl  aoundingi  Ibat  they 
made  at  one  blowing  by  the  worda  (traoalated)  'An 
alarm  in  the  midat,and  a  plain  note  beTore  and  after  U;' 
which  our  Christian  wrilera  da  moat  commonly  expreaa 
by  liiralanlara,  though  thai  word  aeema  to  put  the 
quavering  aound  before  and  after,  and  the  plain  in  the 
tnidat,  cuulrary  to  the  Jewiah  deacriplion  of  it."  See 
New  Ykab,  Fbbtivai,  or. 

Ill  additica  to  the  sacred  tmmpets  of  the  Temple, 
whoae  use  was  restricted  to  the  priests,  even  in  war  and 
in  battle,  there  were  olhera  uaed  by  the  Hebrew  gener- 
als (Judg.  iii,  £7).  Ebud  aounded  the  trumpet  to  as- 
semble Israel  against  the  Hoabites,  whose  king,  Eglun, 
be  had  lately  slain,  tildeon  took  a  trumpet  in  his  baud, 
and  gave  each  of  bia  people  one,  when  be  aasaulted  the 
Hidianitea  (vii,  i,  16).  Joab  Bounded  the  trumpet  aa 
B  algnal  of  retreat  to  his  soldiera,  in  the  battle  against 
Abner  (2  Sam.  ii,  SB),  in  that  agaioat  Absalom  (xviil, 
10).  and  in  the  pursuit  of  Sheba,  sun  of  Bichii  (<tz,32). 
See  War. 

Ill  Matt,  vi,  2  we  read, "  When  thoo  doeat  thiiie  alms, 
do  not  sound  a  trumpet  before  thee,  as  the  hypocritea 
do  in  the  aynagoguea,"  and  moal  expositors  have  regard- 
ed this  as  an  expresaion  derived  by  an  easy  metaphor 
from  the  practice  of  uung  the  trumpet  to  proclaim  what- 
ever waa  about  to  be  dune,  in  order  to  rail  attention  to 
it  and  make  it  exCensively  known.  Others,  however, 
refer  it  to  the  trumpet-ahaped  boxes  in  which  the  alms 
were  deposited  (aee  above),  and  which  gave  a  ringing 
sound  as  the  coin  was  dropped  into  them.    SeeTuiPut. 

TRUMPETS,  Feabt  of  (njfl-in  d't",  Numb,  ixix, 
1 :  Sept.  ^iiipa  mjiiaaiac ;  Vulg.  <liri  tiaiigoi-it  rt  lubu- 
nni  nsS^n  lilST,  Lev.xxiii,84;  finj/iiKniwov  anX- 
riyyuv;  tiibialam  inantrialf  dangmlSiui  tabii :  in  the 
Miahna,  nj^n  tiR"i,"the  beginning  of  tbeycar^,  the 
feaw  of  the  new  moon,  which  fell  on  the  Brst  of  Tiari. 
It  differed  from  tlie  ordinary  festivals  of  the  new  moon 
in  several  important  particulars.  It  was  one  of  the 
sevendayaof  Holy  Convocation.  See  Fkast.  Instead 
of  the  mere  blowing  of  the  trumpets  of  the  Temple  at 
the  time  of  the  offering  of  the  sacrifices,  it  waa  "a  day 
of  blowing  of  truin|>ets."  In  addition  to  the  daily  sac- 
ri&cea  and  the  eleven  victims  offered  on  the  first  of 
every  month  [see  Nkw  Moos],  there  were  offered 


young 


buUiwi 


itemed  tneal-offeringti,  and  a 
offering  (Numb,  xxix,  l-fi).  The  regular 
fering  was  thus  repeated,  with  the  exce 


It  is  said  that  both  kind 
the  Temple  on  this  day,  the 
and  the  coniei  ("iBIO  or  " 
I  child,  might  bl 


impet  were  blown  in 
It  trumpet  ("■^SSH) 

Et(KeUni 


Carpzov,  II.  425;  Boih  Aath-Shan.  i,  -2).  When 
lival  fell  upon  a  Sabbath,  the  irumpels  were  I 
the  Temple,  but  not  out  of  It  (AosA  hath-Siai 

SeeJuDiLKE. 


18  TRUST-DEEDS 

It  baa  been  conjectnred  that  Psa.  Ixxxi,  one  oT  the 

•ongs  of  Asaph,  was  composed  expmaly  for  the  FcaM 
of  IVumpets.  The  paalm  is  used  in  ibeaerricefaT  thai 
day  by  the  modem  Jews.  Aa  tbe  third  vem  ia  im- 
deredin  (heSept.,theTulgale,andttie  A.V.,thiawwild 
seem  highly  probable — "Blow  up  the  trumpet  in  ibe 
new  moon,  the  time  appointed,  on  our  solemn  least  day.* 
But  tbe  best  autboritiea  understand  the  word  tranalattd 
>>»moon(ni^3)lomean/Hain«>a.  Hence  the  psalm 
would  more  properly  belong  to  the  service  for  one  of  ibs 
festivals  which  take  place  at  tbe  full  mooii,  tbe  Paiaa. 
ver,or  the  Feast  of  Tabetnacki  (Geaenius,  rilcH<fr.a,r.: 
Roaenmllller  and  Hengstenbeig  oh  Pm.  Ixxii). 

Vsriou*  meanings  have  been  assigned  to  the  Feast  of 
Trumpets.  Malmonides  considered  that  its  purpoeewaa 
to  awaken  the  people  from  their  spiritual  slumber  to 
prepare  for  the  aolemn  humiliation  of  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, which  followed  it  within  ten  days.  This  a»y  n- 
ceive  some  oounienance  from  Joel  ii,  16,  "  Blow  iba 
trumpet  p^ili;)in  Zlon, sanctify  a  faat.caUa  aolemn  as- 
sembly." Some  bare  suppneed  that  it  was  intended  to 
introduce  the  seventh  or  sabbatical  month  of  the  year, 
which  waa  espedelly  holy  betause  it  was  the  seventh, 
and  because  it  contained  the  Day  of  Atonement  and  the 
Feast  of  Tabemaclea  (F^Eiu^  n  Lev.  xxiii,  U;  B«i- 
totf,  Sj/n.  Jud.  c  34),  Philo  and  some  early  Cbristian 
writers  regarded  it  as  a  memoiiil  of  the  giving  of  tbe 
law  on  »nii  (Philo,  C>pfi.  T,  46,  ed.  Tauch.;  Badl,tB 
Fia.lxxxi;  Tbeadorct,Qiia<r.xxxiinI«.).  Butlbtn 
seems  to  be  no  aufficieDt  reason  to  call  in  queatioo  tbe 
common  opinion  (rfjews  and  Christ ianh  that  it  was  tbe 
fefciivaloftheNew-year's-dsyof  the  civil  year,  the  first 
uf  Tisri,  the  month  which  commenced  the  sabbatical 
year  and  the  year  nf  Jubilee.  If  ^e  New-tnoon  Feeti- 
vsl  waa  taken  as  the  consecration  of  a  natural  dirisico 
of  time,  the  month  in  which  the  eanh  yielded  the  last 
ripe  produce  of  the  aeaNin,  and  began  again  to  taOiB 
■fed  fur  the  supply  of  the  future,  might  well  be  regaid- 
ed  aa  the  fint  month  of  the  year.     Ilie  fact  thai  Tisii 

suggested  the  Ihooghl  of  commemorating  on  this  day 
the  finished  work  of  creation,  when  the  sons  of  God 
shouted  for  joy  (Job  xxKviii,  7).  The  Feast  of  Tnimp- 
els  thus  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  anniversatv  of  lbs 
birthday  of  tbe  world  (Mishna,  £ai4  haih-Sh'aii.  i,  1; 
Uupfeld,  De  FtH.  iltb.  ii,  IS;  Duxlorf,  Sgn.  Jud.  e.  i*i. 

It  was  an  odd  fancy  of  the  rablnna  that  on  this  day, 
every  year,  God  judges  all  men,  and  that  they  pass  be- 
fore him  as  ■  Sock  of  sheep  pass  before  ■  shephsd 
(Rorf  *c«A-S*«ii.  i,  2).    See  Nbw  Ykah- 

Tniit  IN  God  signifies  confidence  in  ot  depend- 
ence upon  him.  This  trust  ought  to  be  —  I.  SiiH 
cere  and  unreserved,  not  in  idol^  in  men,  in  laknn^ 
riches,  power,  in  ourselves  part  and  in  him  part  (Piov. 
iil,&-i5);  !.  Universal  —  bodv,  aoul,  circumstantis  (1 
Pet.  V,  7)1  8.  Perpetual  (Isa.  ixvi,  4);  4.  With  a  live- 
ly expectation  of  bia  bleaaing  (Mic  vii,  7).  Theenonr- 
agementwe  have  to  I  rust  in  him  arise* — 1.  From  his  lib- 
erality (Rom.  viii,  82;  Psa.lxxxiv.  II);  3.  His  abilitr 
(James  i,  17);  8.  Uia  relationship  (Psa.  ciil,  18);  4.  His 
promise  (Isa.  xxxiii,  IS);  6.  Hi*  conduct  in  all  ages 
to  those  who  have  truaied  liim  (Gen.  xlviii,  IS,  IS; 
Psa.  xixvii,  26).  The  happiness  of  those  who  tniN 
in  him  is  great,  if  we  consider,  1.  Their  safety  (ciir, 
I);  2.  Their  courage  (xxvii,  1);  S.  Their  pruit 
(Isa.  XXVI,  8);  4.  Their  chancier  and  fniitfulntas 
(P*a.i,8);  6.Theirend(xxxTii,STi  Jobv,26).    Sea 

Tnut-daedB  are  forma  of  conveyances  of  teal  et- 
late  specifying  some  trust  for  which  the  property  is 
held.  At  an  early  period  of  hia  hialory  Wesley  pub- 
I  a  model  deed  for  tbe  aetltement  of  chapels,  to  the 
that  the  Iruateex,  for  the  lime  being,  ahouM  per- 
mit Wealey  himself,  and  such  other  penon*  r-  ' '-" 

from  time  to  time  appoint,  to  bare  tbe  tf 


TRUSTEES  £ 

[KOBuc*,  U>  prueb  theKin  God'i  word.  After  his  deMli, 
ind  Ihil  of  Chirln  We«ley  and  WiUiun  Grimtliaw.lbe 
chipeb  were  la  be  held  in  tnut  Tor  Lhe  aale  dm  of  auch 
ptiwiu  u  might  be  ippainted  ii  cbe  yeirly  cwnfe 
of  the  pivple  called  Meihulisu,  provided  Chat  lbs  uid 
ptruna  preached  no  other  doclrinea  than  [base  coQtain- 
•d  in  Wealej'a  Noitt  on  Iht  Nta  Tal^  and  in  hii  ' 
rolames  ot  Strmont.  TbU  waa  followed,  oa  Fe 
ITU,  by  llie  Drrd  of  Dtdaraiiim,  exptainiiig  Ibe  < 
■■ytarly  conference  of  the  |ieciple  called  Uelhoi 
Tkii  MwJ  o/  DtttaraliiiR  u  recogiiiecd  in  the  trust- 
dMdioTall  (be  chapeli  built  by  ibe  Weilcyans.  In  th( 
lleihodut  Epiaoopal  Churcb  it  ia  directnl  that  the  M- 
luwing  tnut-clauae  ihill  be  inaerted  in  each  deed:  "In 
inut,itiatuid  pccmiwa  ahall  be  lued,  kept,  maintained, 
and  diqweed  of  u  a  place  of  divine  wiirghip  Tat  tlie  uae 
nr  the  miuiatry  and  n>embership  uf  the  Methodist  Epi 
ciiful  Church  ill  the  Uiiiteil  State*  uf  America;  aubject 
10  the  discipline,  usage,  and  mininlerial  ippoinli 
of  said  Chiirch,  ca  from  time  to  time  authorized  and  de- 
clared by  the  (ienenlCoiirereuce  ursairl  Church,  and  the 

iiHireaitiiale.  lnir[Ut,thatsaidpremiBes>hallbe 
kapi,  and  maintained  aa  a  place  of  reaidcnce  for  th< 
and  occupancy  of  the  preachers  of  the  Methodiat  [ 
CDpalChurch  in  the  United  States  of  America  who  i 
fiwn  time  to  time,  be  stationed  in  uid  place;  aubje 
Ibe  naage  and  diKipline  uf  aaid  Church,  aa  from 
U  time  luthorized  and  declared  by  the  General  Confer- 
tme  of  aaid  Church,  and  by  the  Annual  Ginfeteoce 
■itbia  nbose  bounda  aaid  premia«it  are  aituate." 

Tituteva  are  Church  olHcen  appointed  for  the  . 
poae*  of  holding  the  le^al  title  to  Church  property,  ami 
vf  taking  care  tbereof.  In  the  different  branches  of 
lldhodism  there  are  tame  diBerencea  of  provioion,  but 
in  (!*neral  principles  they  are  the  same.  In  the  Meth- 
odiat Epiacapal  Church  the  Ducipliae  says,  "Each 
boin]  oFtnutees  of  our  Church  property  shall  conaiM  of 
not  le«a  than  three  nor  more  than  nine  peisona,  each  of 
whom  ihall  be  not  lesa  tbiii  twenty-one  yeara  uf  ikc, 
two  thirds  of  whom  ahill  be  members  of  the  HetbodiaL 
Episcopal  Church."  Where  theChuich  hasnut  i«ceiveil 
a  legal  act  of  incorporation  or  charter,  and  where  the 
la*  of  the  ataie  does  nni  specify  any  particular  mode  of 
election,  "*  the  trustees  sre  elected  annually  by  the  Fourth 
Quanecly  Conference  .  .  .  upon  the  nomination  of  the 
preacher  in  charge,  or  the  presiding  elder  of  (he  diitticL 
Where  the  iCate  or  territory  diiTcU  the  mode  of  elec- 
tion, that  mode  must  be  atrictly  observed ;  and  where 
chtrteis  of  incorporation  are  obtained,  they  specify  the 
par^cutar  qualifications  and  time  of  election  of  these 

The  Inisteea  have  the  charge  of  all  repairs  to  be 
nude  on  Church  piopeny,  and  of  all  Snancial  matlen 
penaining  to  its  pmervatioti ;  are  directeil  by  the  Dw- 
eiftiHe  to  make  an  annual  report  to  the  Fourth  Quarter- 
ly Conference  of  the  aonant  and  value  of  the  property, 
expenditum  and  liabilltica,  etc. ;  and  are  held  amena- 
ble to  the  [Juanerly  Conference  for  the  manner  in  which 
thev  perform  their  duty.  By  the  action  of  the  General 
Coafennce  of  1876  irusues  are  forbidden  to  "mortgage 
or  encumber  the  real  estate  for  the  current  expenses  of 
(he  Church." 

TRUSTEES,  GmnH*!.  Board  OF.  The  General 
Ginrerence  of  the  UethiKligt  Episcopal  Church,  in  1864, 
apfninled  a  commitue  of  seven  to  report  s  plan  of  trua- 
lieahip.  The  report  of  the  commitlee  waa  adopted,  and 
is  Bubstantialh'  the  aame  at  the  neclion  of  the  Ditc^inc 
oa  that  subject.  The  General  Conference  appointed  a 
bnatd  whose  headquarters  should  be  at  Cincinnati,  and 
which  was  incnrpurated  with  Che  title  of  "the  Board  of 
Tttalees  of  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodiu 
EfDcofMl  Charcb  in  the  Unit-^  «•••••  "  -rul  its  chsr- 
let  WW  leeerded  July  1 1, 1^  'e  DU- 

dpbr.-The  dotr  of  the  b  trust, 

faelbtbsMOt  of  IbaUM  any 


Jfl  TRUTH 

and  all  donations,  bequests,  grants,  and  funds  in  trust, 
etc,  that  may  be  given  or  conveyed  to  said  board,  or  lu 
the  Methoilist  Episcopal  Church,  aa  such,  fur  sny  be- 
nevolent object,  and  to  administer  the  said  funds,  and 
[he  proceeds  of  the  same,  in  accordance  with  the  dicec- 

Tnitll,  conformity  to  fact. 

1.  It  ha*  been  dittioguished  by  most  pAUompliical 
writer^  according  as  it  re*pecta  being,  knowledge,  and 

(I.)  Fersfdj  ratii,  or  tmlh  of  the  thing.  The  founda- 
tion of  all  truth  is  in  trith  of  being  — that  truth  by 
which  a  thing  is  what  it  is,  by  which  it  has  its  own 
nature  and  properties;  and  has  not  merely  the  appear- 
ance, but  reality,  of  being.  Philoaophy  is  the  knowl- 
edge ofbeing;  and  if  there  were  no  real  being— that  ia, 
if  truth  could  not  be  predicated  of  things— there  coidd 
be  no  knowledge. 

(2.)l'eril(Uct>^iDn><,ortmthofknawledge.  Tmth, 
aa  predicated  of  knowledge,  is  the  conformity  of  oat 
knowledge  with  the  reality  of  the  object  known;  for,  as 
knowlnlge  is  the  knowledge  of  something,  when  a  thing 
is  known  as  it  is  that  knowledge  is  formally  true.  To 
know  that  lire  is  hot  is  true  knowledge.  Objective 
truth  is  the  conformity  of  the  thing  or  object  known 
with  true  knowledge. 

(3.)  Vtriliu  ngni,OT  truth  of  the  sign.  This  conaista 
in  its  adequaleness  or  conformity  to  the  thing  signified. 
The  truth  and  adequacy  of  ugns  belMig  to  enunciation 
in  logic. 

3.  ^nntf  i)tc  tm  th  consists  in  the  conformity  of  thoughts 
to  things;  and  sioriil  tmlh  lies  in  the  cortespondence 
of  words  with  thoughts;  while  lOffiBat  tmth  depends  oa 

8.  Truth,  in  the  strict  logieiil  sense,  applies  to  propn- 
titions,and  nothing  else;  and  consists  in  the  conformity 

In  its  tlj/motogicol  sense,  truth  signiAes  that  which  Iha 
speaker  bfiieca  to  be  the  fact.  In  this  senae  it  is  op- 
posed to  a  tit,  and  may  be  called  ntoroL  Truth  is  not 
unfrequciitly  applied  to  arguments,  when  the  pn^r 

The  use  of  truth  in  the  sense  of  r«i%  should  be  avoid- 
ed. People  apeak  of  the  rrulh  or^My  of  facts ;  where- 
as, properly  spesking,  they  are  ei''  ' 


IT  false. 


e  known  inilepen- 
».ly 


true;  are  those  the  oppoule  of  which  is  inconceivable, 
cuntradictory,  impossible.  CoMn^jKnf  truths  are  those 
which,  without  doing  violence  to  reason,  we  may  con- 
ceive to  be  otherwise. 

b.  AtiBluie  truth  iathe  knowledge  of  Cod,  the  ground 
of  all  relative  truth  and  being.  All  relative  truth  is 
partial  because  each  relation  presupposes  something 
'  '  :h  is  not  relative.  As  to  us  relative  truth  is  par- 
in  another  sense,  becaose  lhe  relaliuns  known  to  us 
are  ifltcled  by  relation*  which  we  da  not  know,  and 

incomplete  as  a  whole  and  in  each  of  its  parts.    At  the 
me  time,  relative  knnwicilge  is  real  knowledge;  and 

lat  it  is  partial,  it  would  be  strictiv  true  so  far  as  it 
>es.  SeeHlunt,Z>icr.o/»uf.riieoJ:a.v.)  Fleming,l''o- 
ib,  of  Phili*!-  ScUncfii  a,  v. 

6.  In  Scripture  lanf^age,  eminently,  God  is  truth; 
at  is.  in  him  is  no  fsllacy,  deception,  pervervencas,  etc. 
Jeau*  Christ,  being  God,  is  also  the  truth,  and  is  the  true 
0  God.  the  true  representative,  image,  character, 
Father.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  the  Spirit  of  truth, 
ommunicatea  truth,  who  maintains  the  truth  in 
beliei'erB,  guide*  them  in  the  truth,  and  wbo  bale*  and 
punishes  falsehood  or  lies,  even  to  the  death  of  the 
tratugressor  (Psa.  xxxi,&i  John  ziT,6, 17;  Acu  v,  S, 
itc). 
Especially  ii  truth  a  name  given  to  the  reUgion  of 


TKYPHJ5NA  6i 

Jesoi,  in  (^posilion  U  that  oC  the  Jew  and  thit  of  the 
heathen.  Ai  contnMed  with  Che  Jewiih  n-mem.  it  wu 
ihe  "  truth"  in  the  Mine  of  "reality,"  as  dL«iingiii>hed 
from  the  "embleina,''  ij-idImIii,  repreeenlatiuna,  of  that 
reality;  from  the  "shadow  of  gocMl  Ihingi  In  come," 
enntained  in  the  Levitical  law :  in  thi*  aeiise  it  b  that 
the  apoMle  telln  us  "  the  law  was  niv-en  by  Moaea,  but 
grace  ami  ft-u'/i  cmme  by  Jeaus  ChriU."  As  coninuted 
with  pagaiiisni,Chrialianity  waa  trvlh  opposed  Ui/iiUt- 
hood.  The  heathen  mylliDlogy  not  only  was  not  (me, 
but  was  not  even  aupiuted  as  true:  it  not  only  deserved 
no  faith,  but  it  demanded  none.     Jeeui  inaugurated  a 

nottaconroriD  tuits  institutiuns,  but  to  "believe"  and  to 
to  let  tbeir  actions  be  agiHsble  to  truth :  nothing,  then, 
was  more  nilursl  than  that  ChriHisnity  should  receiTe 
names  expressire  or  this  grand  peculiaritr,  cl«  frtilk 
and  Ike/aHh.  See  Wbatel)-,  Eiiaf  m  Diffitatlia  of 
St.  Paul,  eumy  i. 

Tryplue'n*  (Tpifmva,  lumrtoui},  a  jnnoa  men- 
tioned ill  connection  with  Trj'phoaa  (q.  v.),  the  two  be- 
ing Christian  women  at  liome,  who,  among  those  that 

city,  receive  a  special  salutation,  and  on  tbe  special 
ground  that  thev  are  engaged  there  in  '*  labonng  in  the 
Lord-(Koin.xv"i,ia),  A.D.  58.  They  may  have  been 
sillers,  but  it  ia  more  likely  that  they  were  fellow-des- 
cone68es,and  among  the  predecmora  of  that  large  num- 
ber of  official  women  who  ministered  in  the  Church  of 
Bome  at  a  later  period  (Eusebiu^  HiH.  t'teL  ri,  4S) ;  for 

time  occupied  in  Christian  serrice  (rdc  toriuiani), 
while  the  saliitadun  to  Perais,  in  the  satne  verse,  ia 
connected  with  past  aervice  (4"|;  Icorlaaiv'). 

We  know  nothing  more  of  these  two  aiater-workera 
of  the  apostolic  time;  but  the  name  of  one  of  them  oc- 
eun  curiously,  with  other  names  familiar  to  us  in  Paul's 
epistles,  in  the  Apociyphal  Acli  of  Paul  and  Thtda. 
See  TiiucLA  Leoknd.  There  Tryph>^na  appears  as  a 
rich  Chriuian  widow  of  Aniioch,  who  gives  Thecla  a 
refuge  in  her  house,  and  sends  money  to  Paul  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor  (see  Jones,  (7n  (A<  Ciinon,  ii,  871,  B80). 
It  in  impossible  to  discern  any  trace  of  probability  in 
this  part  of  the  tef^d. 

It  iaan  interesting  fact  that  the  columbaria  nfCie- 
sar's  household'  in  the  rijriKi  CWuii,  near  Ihe  Porta  S. 
Sebtsliatio,  at  Kome,  con  tain  the  name  Try  phcna,  as  well 
as  other  names  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  Philologus 
and  Julia  (ver.  16),  and  also  Amplias  (ver.  S).  See 
Wordsworth,  rour  ia  llaig  (I86!i),  ii,  173. 

Trypho,  an  eminent  man,  who  waa  seiied  as  a 
Chrialian  and  imprisoned  at  Nice,  about  A.V.  oO,  in 
company  with  anolher,  named  [(espicius.  They  were 
Bonn  after  put  lu  the  rack,  which  they  bore  with  admi- 
rable patience  for  three  hours,  and  uttered  Ihe  praises 
of  tbe  Almighty  the  whole  lime.  They  were  then  ex- 
posed niketl  to  the  severity  of  the  open  air,  which  be- 
numbed all  their  limbs,  as  it  waa  in  the  very  depth  of 

Ti7'phoiI  (Tpvfuv,  a  not  unfrequent  Rreek  name 
of  the  later  age),  a  usurper  of  the  Syrian  throne.  His 
proper  name  was  DiodblHt  (Rtrabo,xvi,  S,  10;  Appian, 
Sjr.  68),  and  the  surname  Tryphon  was  pven  tc  him, 
or,  according  la  Appian,  adopted  by  him.  after  his  ac- 
ceniun  to  power  (Livy,  EpU.  liii,  Iv).  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Csriana,  a  fortified  place  in  the  district  of  Apa- 
mea,  where  he  was  brought  up  (Strabo,  lot.  ri'.).  In 
the  time  of  Alexander  Balaa  he  was  attached  lo  Ihe 
court  (Appian,  loc,  al.,  toiKot  Tvv  ^aiXimv;  Diodor. 
Fr.  xxi,  ap.  Mllller,  llitL  Gr.  Frogm,  W,  IT,  (rrpnTjf- 
yit\  lHsccxi,39,rwf  vdpd'AAtJ.);  hut  towards  the 
dose  of  his  reign  he  seems  to  have  joined  in  the  con- 
spiracy which  was  set  on  fout  to  transfer  the  crown  of 
Syria  to  Ptolemy  Philometor  (ver.  13;  Diodot.Joc.  cir.). 
After  the  dcAlh  of  Alexander  Balas  he  took  advantage 
of  the  unpopularity  of  Demetrius  II  to  put  forward  the 


TSINNIN 

aims  ofAnKochas  VI,  the  young  son  of  Alexander  (1 
■cc  xi,  39),  &a  143.  After  a  time  he  obtained  tke 
ipport  of  Jonathan,  who  had  been  alienated  from  De- 
etrius  by  his  ingratitude,  and  Ihe  young  king  WM 
crowned  (B.C.  IM).  Tryphon,  however,  soon  revealed 
his  real  designs  on  the  kingilom,  and,  fearing  the  oppiK 
sition  of  Jonathan,  he  gained  possession  of  his  penm 
by  treachery  (  xii,  39-M),  and  after  a  short  time  pit 
him  lo  death  (xiii,  i»).  As  the  way  now  seemed  dim, 
he  murdered  Anliuchus,  and  teiied  the  supreme  power 
(ver.  31,  32),  which  he  exercised,  as  far  as  he  was  sbkv 
with  violence  and  rapacity  <ver.  34).  His  tyranny 
again  encouraged  the  hopes  of  Demetrius,  who  was  eo- 
gagetl  in  preparing  an  expeililion  against  him([LC 
141),  when  he  was  Uken  prisoner  (xiv,  1-8).  and  Try- 
phon niained  the  thnme  (Justin,  xxxvi,  1;  Dioditf. 
L^.  xxii),  till  Aniiochus  Vll,  the  brother  of  Deme- 
trius, drove  him  lo  Dora,  from  which  he  escaped  to  Oi- 
thoaia,  in  Phoenicia  (1  Mace  xv,  10-14;  37-89X  Rt 
139.  Not  long  afterwants,  being  hard  pressed  bvAa- 
tiochus,  he  committed  suicide,  or,  according  lo  otbir 
accounts,  waa  put  to  death  by  Antiochua  (Strabo,  dv, 
5,  3;  Appian,  Syr.  68,  'kyrioxos—KTUvu  .  .  .  tif 
worif  noyXif).  Josephiis  [Ant.  :(iii,  7, 8)  adds  thsl  ks 
waa  killed  W  Apamea,  the  place  which  he  made  hi* 
headquarters  (Strabo,  xvi,  3,  10).  The  authority  ef 
Tryphon  waa  evidently  very  partial,  aa  appears  fiaa 
the  growth  of  Jewish  independence  under  Simon  Hso- 
cabaus,  and  Strabo  describes  him  as  one  of  the  cluef 
autbon  of  Crlician  piracy  (lir,  S,  S).  His  name  oo- 
curs  on  tbe  coins  of  Aniiochus  TI,  and  be  also  atmct 
Sec  AimocHva ;   Don- 


Coin  of  Trypli..!.. 

Trypfao'sa  (Tpv^aa,  laxvi-iuut),  a  Christian  Is- 

by  Paul  (Rom.  xvi,  19).    AD. 


Taab.     See  Toktoisil 

Tsablans  (from  ttas,  a  tot()  were  those  who  wco 
shipped  the  heavenly  hosts,  that  being  one  oribeeailical 
forms  in  which  idolatry  appeared.  This  species  otidiil- 
at rj' 6 rst  prevailed  in  ChaldEa,  whence  it  spread  overiU 
the  Eul,  passed  into  Egipt,  and  thence  found  its  way 
intn  Greece.  The  sun,  moon,  and  each  of  the  stsrs  was 
believed  lo  be  a  divine  intelligence, 


men.    See  Sabians. 

Taabiu.    See  Htesa. 

Taaphtaaphab.     See  Willow. 

Tacblmer.    See  Tzschirnkr. 

TBCllOniabolt>l  (or  rather  Tchemoba),  s  Rundan 
sect,  the  members  of  which  refuse  lo  take  an  oath,  hoU 
it  unlawful  to  shave  the  beard,  and  do  not  piay  for  the 
emperor  and  imperial  family  according  to  tbe  prescriM 
form.  They  have  many  things  in  common  irith  tbt 
other  sects,  and  believe  that  the  end  at  tbe  world  is  la 
hand.    See  Rissian  Sects. 

Taeba.    See  Sabaoth. 

Tsebl    See  Roe. 

Tselataal.    See  Locdbt. 

TsephB.     See  Cockatkick. 

TaephaTdea.    See  Fma 

Taeri.    See  Balm. 

Talng-CliamnD-Kewni,  or  rea-sscf  of  Cbo* 
(q.v.). 

Tsltmln.    See  Taoan. 


TSIPHONI  5 

MpbonL    See  Audkr. 

Iiippor.     3ec  Si'ahhow. 

Tiliah.     See  Hobnet. 

Tdmpb  Cq^-i""S),  or  oMip-am,  n  a  dbdiiUe  mie 
uoitding  10  which  virioui  wonlii  in  rormed  ihrui^h 
Id?  cbinge  of  aiir  wonl  into  olhen  by  ihc  tniupoailiun 
ofibccompoiKiit  tettera.  Thiu  n^SX^Z, "  id  Ifae  be- 
jjianiig.'  hu  beeu  anii(raiiutiieiJ  OX  n**^?,''!  core- 
niiilof  fire.-io  Kccoidwith  Deut,  xisiii.  2,"frani  his 
lighL  hjnd  went  >  6tiy  law  Tot  them."  [n  a  CibaliWic 
Imk  enlitted  CJip^r,  upward!  of  Mvenly  coinbina- 
tinni  III  Lhia  iiingle  word  are  formei)  by  R.  Simeon  lien- 
Jucbii.  The  Cabaiiati  aay  that  becauae  the  Hebrew 
Ittten  are  •piritiwl,  aad  ^mple  AgurFs,  they  can  (here- 
MitMcoiatrued  in  different  way*-,  but  thu  can  be  done 
in  aiiy  tanfEuage.  Thiu  Herbert  aiiafframalized  the  Vir- 
gin .lir«r|f  into  .4  my,  B>  Ken  in  the  following  two  lioea: 
"How  well  herniiDMan  .tmudnth  preHiit. 
In  whom  the /.onl4^*«(i  did  uitch  tall  tent  1" 
(RP.) 

Talylm.    Sm  WiLnutMKus,  Biasts  or. 

TaonlcllBpB,  a  Thibetan  refarmer  and  monk,  waa 
born  A.D.  1355,  in  the  diurict  of  Amdo.  He  urictly 
jimbibitei]  ordiuary  tricka  and  pretended  miraclea  of 
chirlaunUm,  and  united  anil  reconciled  the  dialectical 

publi^ed  mou  coinprehenaire  wurka.  Hininnovaciona 
■He  never  uniTenally  acknowledged.  His  foUowen, 
hasFver.  called  Grlutpa,  or  Gailaupa,  mn  the  most 
niunenHu,  and  wear  a  yellow  gatb,  the  otben  having 
chmen  ted.     See  Thibkt. 

Taor.    See  Flint. 

Taorf.    See  Baul 

Tnlwl  (Heb.  Tubal;  ^3)n  [bsn  in  Oen.  x,  S; 
£cek.uxii,  26;  xxxii,  Ij.of  uncerum  signidcalinn ; 
Sept.  tto^JtX,  except  in  E^h.  xxsix,  I,  whera  Alex. 
th^P  i  Vulg.  naioJ,  bat  in  laa.  Ixvi,  19,  JIaSa).  In 
the  ancient  ethnological  table*  of  Cieneais  and  1  Cbmn. 
Tubal  ia  reckoned  with  Javan  and  Hnhech  among  the 
Km  of  Japheth  (Obu.  s,  S  ;  1  Chron.  i,  v),  KC  pnat 
1311.  The  three  are  again  aoociated  in  Che  enamera- 
tion  of  the  aoutcea  of  the  wealth  of  Tyre :  Javan,  Tu- 
bal, and  Heahech  bnmght  alavea  and  copper  veaeela 
(o  the  Pbonician  market!  (Ezek.  x^vii,  IS).  Tubal 
and  Javan  (laa.  Uri,  19 ),  Heshech  and  Tubal  (Eiek. 


riil.2,B: 


xir,  I),  a 


Joeephu*(AiU.  i,  S,  I) 
iiteniiflea  the  deacendant*  nf  Tubal  with  the  Iberiani, 
that  ia— not,  as  Jerome  would  undetitand  it,  Spaniards, 
but— the  inhabiunt*  of  a  IncL  of  counlrj-  between  the 
Caipiaa  and  Euxine  teas,  which  nearly  cormponded  to 
the  modnn  (ieorgia.  Knobel  connect*  thi^e  Iberian* 
of  the  Bait  and  West,  and  coniiJer*  the  Tiburtm  lo 
hare  been  a  branch  of  tbia  widely  spread  Turanian 
bmilv,  known  lo  the  Hebrew*  a*  Tubal  (ysOmn/tl  J. 
OfiL. }  tS>.  Bochart  (PAu^,  iii,  l!)~nukes  the  Uoschi 
and  Tibareni  repreaent  Meahech  and  Tubal  These 
two  Culcbian  tribes  are  mentinned  together  in  Herodo- 
tuaon  twooccuion*:  flnt,a*  fnrminfc  pan  of  the  nine- 
ternlh  aalrtpyoftbe  Persian  empire  (iii,  M),  and  again 
■*  being  in  the  army  of  Xerxea  uniler  (he  command  of 
Ariomudui  the  soa  of  Dariu*  (vii,  7S).  The  Hoschi 
awl  Tibareni,  moreover,  are  "constantly  aseodaled, 
umler  the  name*  of  Mvihai  and  Taplai,  in  the  As- 
•yrian  insrriptiona"  (Sir  H.  Rawlinaon,  in  Kawlinson's 
llfr^d.  i,  &S6).  The  Tibamii  are  aaid  by  the  scbo- 
liaK  oil  Apollnniua  Rbodiua  (ii,  1010)  lo  havo  been 
a  Sevihian  tribe,  and  they  as  well  at  the  Huschi  are 
pmbaUy  to  be  referred  to  that  Turanian  people  who 
in  very  early  time*  spread  themselves  over  the  entire 
renton  between  the  Hedilerranean  and  India,  the  Per- 
•tan  <i«lf  and  Ihe  Caucana  (Rawlinaon,  llmid.  i,  hS&). 
In  th«  time  of  Sargon,  according  to  the  iiiscriptinns, 
ABbti^  the  na  of  Khntiya,  wm  hereditary  chief  of  Tu- 


X  TUBAL 

bal  (the  anutbem  alope*  of  Taurus).  He  "  had  cuhU 
vated  relations  with  the  king*  of  Hosak  and  Vaiarat 
(Meshecb  and  Ararat,  or  tlie  Moschi  and  Armenia), 
who  were  in  [¥vo1t  against  Assvria,  and  thus  drew  upon 
himself  Iha  hostility  of  the  great  king  (ifr^i,  169,  noleS). 
In  former  lime*  the  Tibareni  were  probably  more  im- 
portant; and  the  Moschi  and  Tibareni,  Meahech  and 
Tubal,  may  have  been  name*  by  which  powerful  horde* 
of  Scythians  were  known  lo  the  Hebrew*.  But  in  hi»- 
taiy  we  only  bear  of  them  as  pushed  to  the  farthest 
limiu  nf  their  ancient  setUementa,  and  occupying  meie- 
ly  a  strip  of  coast  along  the  Euxine.  Their  neiglibun 
the  ChaldBBns  were  in  the  aante  comlition.  In  the 
lioie  of  Herodotua  the  Uuschi  and  Tibareni  were  even 
more  cloaelv  coiineclcil  than  at  a  latei  period,  for  in 
Xenophon  we  Snd  them  separated  by  the  Macrones  and 
MoHiynceci  iA  nab.  v,  5, 1 ;  lluiy,  vi,  4,  etc.).  The  lim- 
iu of  the  tcrrilot}'  of  tbe  Tibareni  are  extremely  diffi- 
cult Id  determine  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  After 
a  part  of  the  ten  thouBand'Creeki,  on  their  retreat  with 
Xenopbon,  had  embarked  at  Cerasu*  (perhaps  near  the 
modem  KensQn  Dem  Sil),  the  real  matched  along  the 
coast,  and  soon  came  to  the  boundaries  of  the  Moasy- 
niBci  (^iui&,  V,  4, 1).  They  iraversed  the  country  oc- 
cup'ieil  by  thia  people  in  eight  days,  and  then  came  lo 
the  Chalybes,  and  alter  them  to  the  Tibareni.  The 
caslemlimiCoftheTibareni  was  therefore  about  eighty 
or  ninety  miles  along  the  couit  west  of  Cetaaua.  Two 
days'  march  thn>ii(;h  Tibatene  brought  the  (Jreeke  to 
Cutyora  (iMi  v,  5,  S),  and  they  were  alu>gether  three 
day's  in  passing  through  the  country  (Diod.  Sic.  xir,30). 
Now  ffnro  Cape  Jasunium  lo  Boon,  according  Id  Arrian 
(Pri-iliL  16),  the  distance  was  90  stadia,  90  more  to  Co- 
tyora,  and  60  from  Cotr  ora  to  lbs  river  Melaulhiua,  mak- 
ing in  all  a  coast  line  n'ri40  stadia,  or  three  days'  march. 
Prof.  Rawlinaon  (Herod,  iv,  IBl)  conjectures  that  Ihe 
Tibareni  occupied  the  coast  between  Cape  YaaOn  (Ja- 
sunium) and  the  river  Melaiithiua  (Melet  Irmak) ;  but 
if  we  folbw  Xenophoi>,  we  must  place  Boon  a*  their 
wealem  boundary,  one  day's  marcli  fmm  Coiyuta,  and 
their  eastern  limit  must  be  aought  some  ten  mile*  aaat 
of  the  Uelet  Irmak,  perhapa  not  far  from  the  modem 
Apur,  which  is  thn«  and  a  half  houti  from  that  river. 
The  anonymous  author  of  the  Periplus  of  the  EuxiM 
says  (SS)  that  the  Tibareni  formerly  dwell  west  of  Co- 
tyota  a*  far  as  Polemonium,  at  the  mouth  of  Ihe  Pula- 
man  chu,  one  and  a  half  milea  eaal  of  FaisAh. 

In  the  time  of  Xenophon  the  Tibareni  were  an  iode- 
pendenl  tribe(^mib.vii,8,2S).  Long  before  this  Ihej 
were  aubfcct  lo  a  number  of  petty  cliiefo,  which  was  a 
principal  element  of  their  weakness,  and  rendered  their 
wiUJugation  by  Assyria  more  easy.  Dr.  Hincks  (qitolad 
by  KswlinBon,//rr>Kf.i,3(t0.note  1)  has  found  oa  many 
oa  twenii  -four  kings  of  the  Taploi  meiitioneil  in  Ihe  iu- 
scriptious.  Thevareuiil  by  Apulloniua  Khodiua  to  have 
been  rich  in  flocks  (H  1^.11,677).  Tbe  tradlc  in  slave* 
and  Teasels  of  copper  with  which  tbe  people  of  Tubal 
supplied  the  markeu  of  TyK  (Eick.  xxvii,  IS)  still 
funlwr  connecis  them  with  the  Tibareni.  It  is  weU 
known  that  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Pontus  Euxi- 
nita  fumUhed  Ihe  most  beautiful  slaves,  and  that  the 
ilave-trafBc  was  an  extensive  branch  nf  trade  among 
lheCappadociana(Palyb.iv,SH,i;  Horace, /T/i.i, 6,89; 
Peraius,  Sat.  ri,  77;  Martial,  £^.  vi,  77t  x,  76,  etc). 
The  capper  of  the  MossyneBci,  the  neighbors  of  the  Tib- 
areni, was  celebrated  as  being  extremely  bright  and 
without  any  admixture  of  tin  (Aristot. />r  JUir.AuKvIt, 
6i)  i  and  the  Chalybe^  who  lived  between  these  tribes, 
were  long  famous  for  their  craft  as  melal-smilh*.  We 
must  not  forget,  loo,  the  copper-mines  of  Chalvar  in 
Armenia  (Hamilton,  Aiia  Mia.  i,  173). 

The  Arabic  version  of  <ien.  x,  2  gives  Chorasan  and 
China  for  Meshech  and  Tubal;  in  Euw.-biu»  (we  Bo- 
chart) Ihev  are  lllvria  and  Thessaly.  The  Talmwliiu 
( l-oBki,  foL  10, 2),  according  lo  Bochart,  dellne  Tubal  oa 
"the  home  ot the  fntun('>p'>^91!t),'' whom  he  ia  in- 


TUBALCAIN 


672  TOBINGEN  school,  THE  OLD 


dined  to  idcDtify  wilb  tbs  Hunt  {Phalrg,  iii,  IS).  The]' 
aay,  perhnpa,  Uke  tbeir  lume  from  (£no«,  Lbe  TDCxlero 
Unieh,  a  town  on  tho  loiith  cout  of  the  BUck  S«a, 
not  fsr  from  Cape  Yufln,  and  h  in  the  immcdiale 
neigbborhood  of  tbe  TibsreuL  la  the  Targum  of  K. 
JoMpb  on  1  ChroD.  (ed.  Wilkini)  K^-'IT-I  is  given 
•a  Lbe  equivalent  oT  Tubal,  and  Wilkina  rendera  it  by 
Bithynia.  But  the  reading  in  this  paauge,  aa  well  aa 
in  tbe  TaiguTnaorJeTUulem  and  of  Jonathan  nn  Gen.  i, 
is  too  doubtful  to  be  folloiied  aa  even  ■  traditiuoal  au- 
tboriiy.    See  ETK.toLoaT. 

Til'bal-oalii(Heb.7'H'ia/A:a'yia,^'<^  b3=<n,  ap- 
parently of  foreign  eCTOiDkigy;  Sept.  o  Saj^iX;  Tulg. 
Tubed  eoSn),  the  aon  of  Lamech  the  Cainiu  liy  hia  wife 
ZiUah  (Gen.  iv,  M).  aC,  cir.  3700.  He  ia  called  "a 
furbiefaei  of  every  cutting  inMrument  of  copper  and 
iron."  The  JcKish  legend  of  later  timeaoasociBtes  him 
with  hia  tather'a  aong.  "  Lamrcb  waa  blinil,"  taya  the 
■lory  aa  told  by  Ba^i,  "and  Tubal-cain  wai  leading 
him;  and  be  aaw  Cain, and  he  appeared  to  him  lilte  a 
'  wild  beaa),  ao  he  told  his  father  tn  dnvr  hi*  bow,  and  he 
And  vhen  he  knew  that  it  waa  Cain  his 


,or,  he  an 


ia  togell 


of  Brentius  and  Jakob  AndreK  was  banning  lo  kxaei 
its  hold  upon  the  times.  J.  W.  Jilger,  lbe  leained  chan- 
cellor (1703-20),  had  \-enlured  upon  (he  innovation  of 
iutrodueinK  a  more  atlrsclive  melhod  in  theology  than 
that  in  vogue.  Pfaff  and  Weismann  also  broke  away 
frum  the  polemical  mellioda  of  orthodoxy,  and  auughl 
to  impart  greater  uaipliciiy  and  life  In  theological  in- 
struction. In  another  direciinn,  the  so-called  ealigl.i- 
enment  or  neology  of  (he  18th  century  waa  gaining 
prominence  and  power,  and  waa  rejecting  nut  merely 
tbe  form,  hat  the  aubacance,  of  tbe  onhodos  teschinp-. 

come  upon  theology  had  ita  origin  in  very  adequate 
could  nut  fully  accept  all  its  results,  aod 


tberefore 


n  tbe  a 


between  them.  So  he  slew  him,  and  hia  wive*  with- 
draw from  him  and  he  conciliates  them."  In  this  story  , 
Tubal-cainia  the  "young  man"  of  the  song.  Baahi  ap- 
parently cou^den  the  name  of  Tubal-cain  as  an  appel- 
lative, for  he  makes  him  director  of  tbe  worka  of  Cain 
for  making  weapons  of  war,  and  connects  "  Tubal'  with 
^ipl,  tabbU,  lo  KOMOn,  and  So  loprrpare  tUI/ulig.  He 
appears,  moreover,  to  have  pointed  it  ^S'lPl,  roAet,  which 
■ecm*  to  biTo  beea  tbe  reading  of  (he  Sept.  and  Joae- 
phus.  According  Co  the  writer  last  mentiotied  (Ant.  i, 
3,  3),  Tubal-cain  waa  distinguished  for  his  prudigiout 

The  derivation  of  the  name  is  ex((emely  obscure. 
Haise  {Enlilecha^m,  ii,  S7,  quoted  by  Knobel  on  <:en. 
iv,  22)  identJIies  Tubal-cain  with  VulcaHi  and  Dult- 
mann  {MytkoL  i,  164)  not  only  compares  these  names, 
but-add*  to  the  comparison  the  TAytvu;  of  Bbodea,  [he 
firU  workers  in  copper  and  iron  (Slrabo,  xiv,  GM),  and 
Dwalinn,  the  dsmon  smith  of  the  Scamlinavian  my- 
tholngy.  Geeenius  proposed  to  consider  it  a  hybrid 
wiirdjcompoundedof  the  Pera.  (i/Mi,  iron  rliig,ut  Koria, 
and  the  Arab,  kaiii,  a  asnlA ,-  but  this  elvinology  is  more 
than  duubtfuL  The  Scythian  raoa  tubal,  who  were 
copperamitha  (Ezek.xiTii,  IB),  naturally  suggest  them- 
selves in  connection  with  Tubal-cain. 

Tnble'nl  (Tou/Jiqvoi ;  Alex.  Ton/Jiivoi ;  Vulg.  Tv- 
biamn).  The  "Jew*  called  Tubieni"  lived  aboutCha- 
rax,  TMstsdia  froni  a  strongly  fortified  city  caHed  Ca*- 
pi*  (3  Mace,  xii,  17).    They  were  daubtlMi  the  same 

ToubioH  (A.V.  "Tobie"),which  again  is  probably  the 
same  with  the  Ton  (q.  v.)  of  the  Old  Test. 

Tubingen  Scbool,  Thr  Ota.  The  origin  of  this 
achuol,  which  became  lo  noteworthy  a  factor  in  the  de- 
vebpment  of  Protestant  theologi'  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  Iflth  century,  is  aaaociateil  chietly  with  (he  per- 
aoiialitv  and  influence  of  G.  C.Stort  (q.  v.),  prufcsaot  of 
theoh^  in  the  Univenity  of  Tubingen,  and,  at  a  later 
day.  I'liurt-prearher  at  Stuttgart,  i'hii  scholar  gather- 
ed about  him  a  number  of  pupil*,  whom  he  impresscil 

live  leamini;  aa  well  as  logical  arrangement  and  ex- 
traordinary cleamesa  of  his  lectures,  and  whom  he  capti- 
vated by  hi*  evident  piety,  dignifled  demeanor,  and  un- 
varying kindness.  Storr's  dominant  elements  of  char- 
acter, whether  as  a  man  or  a  scholar,  were,  however, 
wholly  of  tbe  objective  class.  Hia  piety  was  not  the 
expression  of  profound  religious  feeling,  but  of  rigidly 
eartiett  and  conscientious  principle;  and  a*  his  heart 
lacked  fervor,  so  his  intellect  was  deficient  in  imagina- 
■ion  and  the  true  speculative  quality.  The  age  in 
which  he  lived  was  a  period  of  unrest.    Tho  orthodoxy 


tendingpartjea,soBsto  be  able  (o 
aCance  of  tbe  old  art  budoxtheolugi-while  adopting  nmth 
of  the  methoda  of  tbe  new.  He  endeavored  to  t«ac  fan 
teaching  wholly  on  the  Scriptnrea,  and  for  that  purpose 
brought  together  a  mass  of  isolated  pamges  lo  serve 
as  the  basis  of  his  theology ;  but  he  had  no  concepiion 
of  the  organic  unity  of  Scripture,  of  its  living  combi- 
nation into  separate  principles,  and  of  a  consequent  ge- 
netic  unfnlding  of  scriptural  truths.  Baui  B)tikin|[)y 
remarka  (hat  Storr  recognised  no  canon,  but  only  pas- 
sages, of  the  Scriptures.  His  system  was  funheriBorc 
impaired  by  the  Peiagianizing  tendency  of  h' 


runilamental  dncttines  of  sin  a 


down  the  contrast  betwi 


II  tbe 


grave  concessions  to  neology  wiin  regard  lo  tbe  Oot- 
irine*  of  the  atonement  and  of  the  person  of  Chnu. 
His  great  object  wa*  to  tender  Christianity  plausible  t< 


n  indecision  a 


irabiguit; 


of  m 


rdned.     Gnat 


particular  ideas,  while  the  thought  of  a  connected  and 
organic  system  of  Christianity  has  no  proper  retvgni- 
tion  in  liia  worka.  llii*  di*position  to  expend  ciSiwt 
upon  eiibaniinate  details  is  ^>parent  in  all  his  wotfca, 
and  especially  in  hia  criticism  of  Kant's  Btligiom  fmrr- 
haBr  dtr  O'fiara  drr  iriura  Vtniinifi,  and  in  tbe  w«fca 
he  aimed  against  the  "accommodation  hypotbeBta'  of 
Seniler,  Teller,  and  olhera.  It  waa  hia  miaTorlune  lo 
want  (lie  hialurical  sense,  and  Ihat  attitude  of  imparti- 
ality toward)  doctrine  which  would  have  enabled  him 
to  discover  the  gradual  development  of  «criplural  Imik. 
Hia  s}-stem  of  Christian  dogmaiics  and  ethics  aims  to 
be  simply  a  bnnging-logether  and  connecting  of  tbe 
result*  af  exegeris;  and  ihiaaim  is  realised  by  the  mo- 
saic-like collocation  of  isolated  passages  in  such  a  man- 
ner a*  to  justify  the  above  criticism  of  Baur  ihal  Siotr 
had  no  authorilative  rule,  but  only  a  fragmentarr  view 
of  Scripture.  In  this  way  he  gave  eipiesaion  lo  the 
principle  of  the  authority  of  Scripture  upon  which  be 

The  school  of  Storr  waa,  more  particularlv,  ccmposed 
of  Johann  Friedrich  Flail,  Friedrich  Gottlieb  StlBBkiod, 
and  Karl  Chriatian  Flati,  all  of  ihem  pupils,  successes^ 
and  ill  part  colleagues  of  Sloir  in  tbe  theological  facul- 
ty (for  a  more  particular  notice  of  these  scholar^  see 
the  articles  under  their  names).  The  older  t-lall  was 
an  acute  and  Learned  man,  exceedingly  cousnenttooa 
and  careful,  naturally  cheerful,  but  infimi  in  body  and 
greatly  afilicted  by  repeated  sorrows,  in  conaequtnce  rf 
which  be  developed  a  measure  of  irritability  and  mel- 
ancholy in  bia  ditpositiotu  He  left  leciurea  ou  Clim- 
lian  ethics  and  on  the  Pauline  epistles,  which  were  pub- 
lished from  note*  by  his  pupils.  SUsskind  devoted  his 
scienliflc  sctivity  chiefly  to  the  elucidation  of  funda- 
mental questions  in  doctrine*  and  apologetics  conad- 
ered  with  reference  lo  the  pfailoaophy  current  in  hia 
dav.  Against  Kant  and  Fichte  be  discussed  lbe  c4Bc« 
and  the:  .        .        _ 


His  inveatigationa  ii 


TUBINGEN  SCHOOL,  THE  NEW  57s 


TUCH 


V  of  the  for- 


nich  tha  iilH  of  ihe  posublli 
•t  tint,  or,  in  other  words,  of  tha  remiuion  or 
"nciUBed,  in  a  fr»goient»ry  w«y,  the 
tbeologj  of  Schleiemicher  (tee  Suukiiid,  yermitchU 
Stitriflat,  18S1).  Hit  leading  peraonml  tniu  were  great 
inlellHtoal  peaemtion  and  energy  of  the  will,  united 

MO  of  spirit.  He  wat  a  master  in  loRic,  bold  and  o>n- 
Odoit  ID  debate,  the  dialectician  of  bit  KhooL  Hit 
ability  wat  iK*ertbele*s  impured  by  tbe  lacli  of  ipec- 
■UtiT«  power  and  depth.  Tbe  younger  Flatt  was  rath- 
er a  receptive  thin  an  independently  creative  charac- 
ter. His  earliest  irurli  att«rDpted  to  prove  that  the 
Kantian  theory  of  UuDemeDt,  accoriling  to  which  tbe 
forgireneatof  uni  ii  determined  by,  and  consequent  on, 
the  measure  of  moral  rtromatinn,  is  not  the  only  rea- 
Boaable,  but  also  the  only  allowable,  view  under  the 
Kew  Tent.  Ele  w«»  induced  to  retract  the  teachings  of 
Ibat  book,  and  in  time  became  wholly  identified  with 
tbe  tendency  of  .Storr  and  the  eider  Flalt. 

Tbe  peculiarity  oT  thcw  theologians  Uy  in  the  ab- 
ttract  theism  beyond  which  they  were  not  able  to  ad- 
vaitce  by  reason  o(  tbe  want  of  true  philotopfaical  tetiae. 
They  employed  a  pitiless  logic  to  eipose  the  gape  and 
wealneAWS  o(  transcendental  tpectilation,  but  failed  Ui 
attain  la  a  livinic  apprehenaiun  ot  their  own  theisni; 
and,  while  they  defended  their  theory  of  revelation  with 
tbe  utmost  tenacity,  they  rendered'  thst  theory  Ibor- 
oughlj  inulerable  lo  reason  by  numerous  provisos,  ei- 
plaaalioiH,  and  modiliealiom.  This  criticism  applies 
to  ererylhing  which  ii  peculiar  to  Ibeir  teaching,  am) 
indicates  what  is,  more  than  any  other  feature,  the 
characteristic  nf  their  school. 

Affiliated  to  this  school,  though  leaa  cloaely  tban  tlie 
men  already  named,  was  Ernst  Gottlieb  Bengcl,  pro- 
feasor  of  historical  theolagy  at  Tubingen.  Tbii  scholar 
passed  beyond  the  ordinary  favorable  atlilode  of  the 
Khool  of  .Storr  in  his  fondness  for  SocinUn  views,  and 
waa  also  a   Kantianiiing,  rationalizing  tupranatural- 

he  steadily  refused  to  be  inflnenced  by  any  new  ten- 
dcDcy  which  the  changing  pliiloaophv  of  a  new  nra 
might  bring  to  bear  upon  theological  inquiry.  He 
•carcely  indicated  that  he  knew  of  the  exiilenee  of 
Scbleicrmacher,  and  prevented  the  appointment  of 
Bockshaninter  — who  had  written  an  unusually  able 
woric  on  the  frtednm  of  the  will — lo  the  faculty  as 
the  succeasor  of  the  elder  Flati,  because  of  Bocks- 
bvomer's  departun  from  the  old  plan  to  wbich  Ben- 
gel  was  commitUd.  Other  adherents  nf  this  school, 
as  Sieudel,  Christian  Friedrich  Schmid,  etc,  remained 
more  faithful  to  the  Storrian  ideaa  in  tome  respects,  but 
were,  on  the  other  hand,  ipadually  led  awiy  from  the 
traditional  poBlinn  of  the  Tllbitipen  schvul  through  the 
influence  ofthethenlogy  of  Schleiermacher,  New  men, 
new  tendencies,  uew  methods,  have  taken  the  place  of 
the  old,  not  only  with  respect  to  the  external  fact,  but 
eren  as  regards  the  results  nf  what  was  at  one  time  a 
noteworthy  factor  in  the  devolopmeni  of  theological 
srienoe.  The  Tubingen  school  has  produced,  upon  the 
whole,  efheu  much  less  important  to  such  development 

See    Ileriog,  Rtid-EneyUop.  s.  v.,  and  the  various 


those  di 


Church,  the  Pauline  and  the  Petrine.  Theie  strug- 
gled for  supremscy,  and  the  conflict  was  ■  long  one. 
Peter  was  a  thorough  Jew,  and  hit  ude  predominated 
even  alter  tbe  death  of  the  principal  combatants.  Ju- 
daism wu  the  cradle  of  Christianity;  and  the  latter 
was  only  an  eaniest,  restlete,  reformatory  branch  of  the 
former.  But  it  wat  not  an  offthool  as  yet,  for  Cbrisii- 
anity  was  eaaeiitiilly  Jewish  all  through  its  fint  hitlor- 
ic  period.  The  canonical  writing!  of  the  New  Test,, 
which  contlitute  the  chief  literature  of  the  Arst  two 
the  literary  monunient  of  Christianity 
wat  yet  undevehqied  and  undetached  from  Ju- 
Tbese  writings  are  the  mediaiiiig  Ikrologs  of 
itant  dayt.  The  Petrine  party  wat  very  tlroog 
uniu  ine  middle  of  the  3d  century,  when  it  was  obliged 
to  yield  to,  or  rather  harmoniie  with,  the  Pauline. 
Many  causes  contributed  to  bring  the  two  factions  to- 
gether. There  wu  an  absence  of  growth  quite  incom- 
patible with  their  retpective  strength.  Alone,  they 
were  almoat  unable  to  brave  the  tterm  of  persecution. 
Finally,  for  the  aake  of  aecurity  and  propagation,  they 
laid  down  their  weapons  and  united  under  one  banner. 
From  thia  union  came  the  subsequent  growth  of  Chria- 
tianity.  The  canonical  works  so  much  revered  by  the 
Church  had  tieen  written  in  the  Interest  of  one  or  the 
other  of  these  partio.  Since  the  enmity  has  been  de- 
stroyed, Iheir  literary  productions  mutt  be  considered 
in  the  light  of  hiitory.  The  Church  it  therefore  much 
mistaken  in  attaching  importance  to  tbe  Scriptures,  tot 
they  were  written  for  a  timeserving  eod,  and  are  quite 
unworthy  of  the  interest  which  we  attach  lo  them." 

It  is  obvioui  bow  destructive  to  the  essenlial  faith 
of  Christians  were  these  positions,  and  yet  it  is  wondei^ 
ful  that  they  were  broached  with  ao  much  assurance, 
although  based  upon  so  trivial  a  comparison  of  circum- 
stances. Nevertheleis,  a  numerous  circle  of  diKi|riei 
clustered  around  Beur,  and  they  enjoyed  his  leaderahip 
until  his  death,  in  I860.  But  the  writings  of  both  the 
matter  and  his  school  were  quickly  ansnered  by  the 
best  theologisnt  of  Oermany,  such  as  Thiersch,  Domer, 
Lecltler,  Longe,  Sebaff,  Dlcek,  Hate,  liunsen,  and  1  isch- 
endorf.  Yet  the  effects  of  tbe  insinuation!,  snspiciona, 
and  criticisms  of  Baur  were  fur  a  long  time  a  serious 
hindrance  to  the  iruth.  The  authors  of  the  move- 
ment were  ditciplea  of  tbe  Hegelian  philosophy.  Their 
■im  was  to  explain  the  origin  of  Chrislisnity  by  natu- 
ral causes  alone.  In  this  endeavor  they  but  reproduced 
In  a  new  and  ingenious  form  the  exploded  Infidelily  of 
a  former  age.  And  the  primitive  doctrine  of  supranal- 
iralism  wat  again  defended  by  an  appeal,  as  of  old  and 


t  In  Her 


UCy- 


^piriiia.     See  also  Rationalisji. 

TUerNQEN  SCHOOL,  Thb  Nbw.  A  very  dilfrr- 
eni  Kta  «a>  inaugurated  in  the  University  of  Tubingen 
on  the  appointment  of  F.  C  Baur  (q.v.)  at  professor 
of  tbeDlogy  in  1S2G,  He  began  lo  attack  tlie  objective 
positions  of  Christianity  through  the  Pauline  epistles, 
selecilng  aome  of  these  only  as  aiitbeutic,  and  pointing 
out  alleged  diacrepanciet  between  them  and  other  parts 
of  tbe  New-Test,  history.  His  theory-,  which  I?  summed 
up  In  hit  work  on  the  apottle  Paul,  i^  in  brief.  Ibat,  tak- 
iuK  tbe  epistles  le  tbe  (ralalians,  the  Romans,  and  the 
Coiinthiana  especially  as  guidea,  we  Snd  therein  "ex- 
poseil  tbe  fact  that  there  nere  two  parties  in  the  early 


lis  champion! 
ill  this  contest  were  themselves  unconsciously  infected 
more  or  less  by  the  insinuating  influences  of  the  new 
scepitciam,  and  were  led  to  make  conceasiont  which 
later  and  sounder  theologians  have  seen  to  be  uuneoea- 
sary  and  untenable. 
Meanwhile,  the  attack  upon  the  fundamental  doo- 

ulent  form  by  D.  F.  Strauss  (q.  v.),  on  hia  appointment 
to  the  theological  raeulty  of  Tubingen  in  1S31,  and  cul- 
minated in  hia  famous  Ldien  Jaa,  which  boldly  im- 
pugns the  historical  truth  of  the  Gospel  itself.  For  the 
■liscutsion  of  the  controversy  resulting,  see  Mrriii- 
CAL  Tiikoht.  A  strong  reaction  has  long  since  set  in 
sgainst  these  negative  views,  even  in  Tubingen  itself, 
so  that  what  bas  recently  been  known  as  "Ihe  Tubin- 
gen Iheohigy"  is  likely  soon  to  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 
See  tlursl,  Uul.o/Ralionaliim,  p.  380  sq.;  Cook,  .tfon- 
das  Lntunt,  ter.  i ;  Fisher,  Saptmal,  Origin  of  C/iri*' 
tianiltft  p.  xxxv.     See  NKOLtMr. 

Tncb,  JoHANit  CitmsTtAN  FiiiRi>nicu,  a  Protestant 
divine  of  Germany,  was  boni  Dec.  17,  1800,  atQuedlin- 
preparod  himself  fo 


e  gymi 


1  NordI 


I   1838  I 


TUCHER  8' 

gniges  and  Old-TeH.  «x»gMU.  In  1889  the  Zurich 
Univenity  mule  Uim  licentiate  of  thcologi-,  while  Ibe 
philoBophical  Taculty  of  Ifille  ippoiolcd  bim  eitnordi- 
nuy  piafcasor.  In  1S41  be  wu  oiled  to  Leipdci  and 
wai  made  ordinary  pnifeMor  in  1813,  having  shortly  be- 
Ture  been  honored  with  the  doctoraie  by  Che  Tubingen 
faculty.  In  1S53  he  waa  made  third  pralenoi  and  can- 
on uf  Zeiti,  and  di«J  ai  Snt  profenor,  April  IS,  1867. 
His  main  worit  is  his  ieamed  Comiaaaary  on  Gfnttii 
(Halle,  1838;  9d  ed.  1871).  He  also  published  Com- 
mmtatumu  <U  L^meni  Codia  Pailalmclii  5yri  lUaKU- 
Mcripla  Partkulu  I  (Lips,  1M9)  -.—Commtiitaliima  Geo- 
graphica.  Pan  t,  IM  Kmo  Viit  A  mmadrtrtioHa  Ira 
(ibid.  1846):— Reiae  dc  Shakk  Ibrahi-i  rl-Khijan  d- 
Mfdmidurch  rinm  TIM Palanmu  (ibid.  18M))  -.—Con- 
nuatalio  tit  MacniX^  iv  'Hp^ijXott.  t  Mace,  ix,  i 
(ibid.  1863);— Wb  /limmtl/aJirl  Jrtu  (ibid.  1857);— 
Qumliona  de  Flam  Jotiplii  f-ibrii  /tutoneii  (ibid. 
1853):  — QuaUiona  de  Flatii  Jottphi  loco  B.  J. 
if,  S,  3  (ibid.  18GD).  See  Funi,  BOi.  Jud.  iii,  450; 
Zuchold,  BOL  Thnt.  ii,  1352;  Theol.  Uidrer$at-Lti. 
S.V.;  HiiRenfcld.ZnlicAi^,  1871, pt. iii;  Diestd,C«ct. 
if.  ailm  Talamnli  n  der  chHuL  Kirchr,  p.  618,  648, 
7S0;  LUmiriir^rr  Ilaadwtiitr  Jiir  dai  kalkoL  Dtalick- 
land,  1867,  p.  S66.     {B.  P.) 

Tuchar,  Chsibtopii  Kahi,  Gottlieb  vow,  a  fa- 
moua  jurist  of  Germany,  waa  bom  May  14,  1798,  at 
Nurernber((.  He  studied  juritpindenee  at  Eriangen, 
Heidelberg,  and  Berlin,  and  after  having  occupied 
prominent  positiuiu  in  his  pniresuon,  be  died  at  Berlin, 
Feb.  17,  1877.  He  ia  known  as  the  author  oT  Che  fol- 
lowing hymnological  works:  Srhalz  du  tvangriitchn 
KirchauitKniget,  dtr  MHodU  vnd  Harmonk  nacA,  am 
dm  QufUm  da  16.  und  17.  JuhrhoadtrU  grtdi6pfl,  etc 
(Slutt.  1840)  ■.—Sdialz  dn  eiangtluritn  Kirchageiang: 
I'm  l.JahrAiaderldtr  Jt^ormatioa  (Leipa.  1848,  e  vols) 
(RP.) 

Tucker,  Abtahom,  a  metaphysical  writer,  wai 
bom  in  London  in  1706,  and  was  educated  at  Bishop's 
Slortfutd  Scboal  and  Merton  Collie,  Oxford.  He 
studied  for  a  while  at  the  Inner  Temple,  but  was  not 
admil^sd  to  the  bar.  He  died  in  1774.  He  puhtiahed, 
f'ra-aili,  Fore-knoicMpe,  cmd  Fait;  a  FrajpatBt  bg 
£dicaTd  EtanA  (Load.  1763,  8vo):-J/an  in  QutH  of 
Himttif,  or  a  Dtftnce  o/Ihe  Indicidualilg  ofOit  Unman 
Mind  or  Setf,  etc.,  *y  CufMert  Common,  Gml.  (I76B, 
Std).  His  great  work,  bowerer,  is  TJie  Light  oft^at- 
un  Puriutd,  bg  Edaard  Starch  (1768-78i  Cambridge, 
Haas.,  1831,  4  vols.  8ro,  with  later  editions,  and  an 
abiidgnient  by  William  Hazlitt,  1807,  gvo).  See  Alli- 
bone,  Dia.  of  Brii,  and  A  mtr.  A  athori,  a.  v. 

Tucker,  BUjah  TKT.,  a  ConijTegational  minister, 
waa  bom  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Marcli  61,  1810.  He 
wasronTerledatlhe  age  oftwentv,  graduated  at  Brown 
UniverHtv  in  1838,  and  at  Andovet  Theohigical  Semi- 
nary in  1841,  and  labored  ai  South  New  Market,  KH., 
in  1841  HI.;  Chatham,  Slasa.,  in  1846  aq.;  Easex, 
C<>nn.,inl8a3:(:nBhen. Conn.,  1853-68;  Preaion, Conn., 
1868-65;  and  NnnhSeld,  Conn.,  in  1866,  until  hUdealli, 
July  6, 1866.  Mr.  Tucker  was  a  direcl,  earnest  preach- 
er, and  a  sympalhelic,  watchful  paalor.  Revivals  re- 
sulted from  his  labor*  in  almost  every  field.  See  Cong. 
Qaarlrrlg,  1867,  p.  46. 

Tucker,  EUaba,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Rensseloerville,  Albany  County,  N.  T,  Dec.  24, 
17M.  His  early  education  was  limited.  He  began  to 
preach  in  1816,  and  was  ordained  paalor  of  the  &plist 
Chnieh  of  Coventry,  Clienatigu  County,  N.  ¥.,  Aug.  19, 
1818.  Hen  he  continued  with  great  succeas  until  Aug. 
12, 182?,  when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Fre- 
donia,  N.  Y.  He  waa  afterwards  pastor  of  the  Fir^i 
Baptist  Church  in  Buffalo  from  September,  1831,  until 
October,  1836;  then  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  of 
Bochesler,  N.  V.,  until  May,  1841;  and  of  the  Oliver 
Street  Baptist  Church,  New  York  city,  until  1848.  In 
1861  his  health  bectuoe  Tely  much  impaired,  and  he 


4  TUCKERMAN 

began  travelling  in  the  hope  of  improving  it,  but  died 
Dec  29, 1858.  He  was  the  eldest  of  six  brolhen,  fire 
of  whom  enteted  the  miubtry.  Dr.  Tucker  puhliabeil 
a  Senam  Dtlietrtd  at  Fredonia  at  lit  OrdiMoliim  «/ 
Mr.  Jariut  Handy  (1826).  See  Spragiie,  ^  wiali  of  On 
Amtr.Piitpil,^i,ai7. 

Tucker,  JoBlab,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  dtviw. 
waabom  at  Laugheme,  Carmanhanshire,  in  1711.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxfurd,  and  in  1787 
became  cuiile  of  Sc  Stephen's  Church,  Bristol,  and  was 
subaequently  appointed  minor  canon  in  the  catbedrd 
of  that  city.  On  the  death  of  Hr.  Cateoii,  he  bMame 
rector  of  SL  Stephen's,  and  in  1T68  was  created  dean  of 
Gloucester.  Mr.  Tucker  was  an  able  advocate  of  the 
great  political  questions  of  the  day,  and  was  bold  and 
determined  ia  the  principles  which  he  advocated.  He 
died  Nov.  4,  1799.  He  wrote,  Tht  ElemaUi  of  C<m- 
mere*  and  Tknry  of  Tara  (BristJil,  ITM,  4to):— Sir 
SernuMt  (1772,  ISmo);— four  tracts,  etc,  on  politiesi 
and  commercial  subjects  (Gloucea  1774, 8vo)  ^-bcaukt 
Trtatiiti,  etc.  See  CHialmere,  Biog.  Diet.  a.  v.;  AUi- 
boiie.  Did.  ofBril.  md  A  our.  A  tttion,  s.  t. 

Tuoker.  Levi,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  hon  ia 
Schoharie  County,  N.  ¥.,  July  6, 1804.  He  studied  tbc 
ology  at  the  Hamilton  Institution.gradua  ted  JuneS.lftiS, 
and  on  the  lOthof  the  same  month  wasordainedpasiorof 
the  church  at  Depoeit,  N.  Y.  In  the  summer  of  1831  be 
accepted  a  caU  to  settle  at  Blockley  (now  West  Pbila- 
del[ihia).  Pa.,  where  he  labored  with  great  soccesi,  act- 
ing also  for  a  while  as  agent  of  the  Baptist  Educatinad 
Society  of  that  sute,  until  the  spring  of  1836,  when  he 
removed  to  (^reUDd,0.  After  remaining  there  Rven 
years,  be  was  for  a  while  pastor  of  the  Wasfaingtan 
Street  Baptist  Church  in  Buffalo,  end  on  Dec  29, 1818; 
became  pastor  of  the  Bowdoin  Place  Chnrch,  Bmoo. 
His  health  having  become  greatly  impaired,  he  re- 
signed his  charge  in  September,  1852,  and  XixA.  a  joai- 
ney  to  England,  France,  Italy,  and  Egypt,  whence  be 
retamed  in  the  early  part  of  August,  1853,  and  died 
on  the  23d  of  the  same  month.  See  Sprague,  rfmiib 
ofthtAmtr.  Pulpit,  vi,  786. 

Tncksr  (or  Tooket),  ^7ilUaii],  D.D.,  a  lesntd 
English  divine  of  the  16tli  century,  waa  bom  at  EiHer. 
He  WHS  educated  at  New  College,  Oxford,  and  wai  ad- 
mitted perpetual  fellow  in  1577.  In  1585  he  waa  [««■ 
moted  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Bamstsble,  in  Devon- 
shire. He  was  eventually  made  chaplain  to  qMen 
Elisabeth.  Dr.  Tucker  afterwartb  became  prebendary 
of  Salisbury,  and  took  bis  degree  of  D.D.  in  1594.  Ht 
was  made  caiHin  of  the  church  at  Exeter,  and  waiin- 
stalled  dean  c^  Lichfield,  Feb.  21,  1604.  He  died  at 
Salisbury,  March  19, 1620.  Dr.  Tucker  wu  este««d 
an  excellent  Greek  and  Latin  schoUr.  He  was  aniUt 
divine,  a  person  of  great  gravity  and  piety,  and  wd 
read  in  curious  and  critical  authors.  His  publicalioaB 
are,  Chaivna.  ttra  Rohiliuin  Saialalain  Gratia,  tU. 
(Lond.  1697,  4to),  a  historical  defence  of  the  power  of 
royalty  to  cure  the  king's  evil:— Of  lit  Fabric  of  tit 
Chtirck  and  Chwclmrn't  /.irtap  (ibid.  1604, 8vo):—M- 
gulare  Ctrtamm  cam  Martina  Btanto  Jriuiia  (ibid. 
1611,  8vo),  written  in  defence  of  James  I  against  Bscan 
and  Bellarmine.  See  Chalmers,  Biag.  /)t<Y.  s.v.;  AUi- 
bone,  Dict.nfBril.andAmrr.Auliori.t.v. 

Tnckennan,  JoxErn,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  miniiur, 
waBbominBoatan,Mass„Jan.  IS,  1778,  andgradoMtd 
from  Harvard  College  in  1*98.  After  devoting  hiondf 
to  the  study  oT  theology,  under  Rev.  Thixnas  Thactvr 
of  Dedham,  he  was  ordained  and  installed  as  panur  ji 
Chelsea,  Nov.  4, 1801.     While  at  Chelsea,  his  at 


n  the  wint< 


1-12 


in  search  ofhealth,  but  soon  returned  without  bav- 

:iperieneed  much  apparent  advantage  freoi  fail 

He  revgned  bis  charge   at  Cbelaea  in  1S6, 


TUCKNEY 


ia  farewell  wrraon  on  Not.  4.  Re  imm*- 
diudr  enured  upon  hia  work  u  minuter  it  large  in 
Bnton,  devuciiig  himwlf  to  the  viBiutioa  of  Ihepoor 
and  deuitute  Tir  the  reiniinder  or  his  life.  In  183S  he 
Mgaia  went  to  Europe,  returning  in  the  following  year. 
He  died  in  llafaoa,  wbithei  he  bad  gone  far  hia  health, 
April  90,  1810.  He  publiahed  a  large  number  oT  Str- 
aau,  lAtltii,  Ettay;  etc  (iaOO-88}.  See  Spiague,  Alt- 
Kdi  a/Ute  A  tuer.  Piilpil,  viii,  34a. 

nioknoy.  Anthoxt,  ■  learned  NoneoDformiat  di- 
cine  of  England,  wu  bom  at  Kinon,  Lincolnibire,  in 
SepumlMr,  I&99.     He  waa  matriculated 


CuUege,  Caml 
A.M,in       "" 


i.tge,a1 


yeara  after.      In  1S27  he  li 


ti,  received  hia  degree  of 
college  three 


.    Whei 

ibe  awenibly  of  dirinet  met  at  WeidniinateT,'Hr.  Tuck- 
ner  waa  one  of  the  two  nominated  for  the  county  of 
Lincoln,  and  wu  appointed  minialer  of  Si.  Michael 
Qitrnie'a,  Cheapiide.  [n  1645  he  wia  appointed  maatei 
of  Emanuel  College,  hut  did  not  entirely  rende  on  thia 
emploTnient  until  1618,  when,  being  chtnen  vice-chan- 
cellor, he  removed  with  bia  family  to  Cambriilgp,  and 
look  bit  degree  nf  D.U.  the  year  after.    In  16511  he  waa 

pcufeaBK  of  divinity.  At  the  Healonition  complainta 
were  made  by  roysliala  againti  Mr,  Tiickney,  who  re- 
ticwl  both  poaitiuna  June  2%  1661,  receiving  a  penaion 
of  £100  per  year.  The  rest  of  hia  lifa  he  apent  in  re- 
lirmeni,  moatly  in  Loudon.  Although  appointed  com- 
Dlnianerat  the  SavoyCunferenee,  be  never  attended  it. 
[ii  the  time  of  the  plague  he  lived  alColwich  Hall,  near 
Notlingbam,  where  lie  waa  tranblnl  and  conflned,  but 
was  discharged  in  a  few  moDtha.  Upon  the  |ia»«ge  of 
the  Five-mile  Act  he  removed  to  Oundle,  and  thence 
to  Warmiogum,  Northanipionshire.  After  the  fire  of 
Undon  he  removed  to  Stoclienlon,  Leicettershire,  and 
then  to  Ti>ttenhaiii,  and  in  IG63-7D  to  SpitalyanI,  where 
he  died  in  Fcbruarv.  1070.  He  wrote,  Stntum  on  Jrr. 
tiii,  n  (Land.  l643|4lo)  —Fict  Sernvml  (1C56.  i3mo) : 
—fortj  8trmo*t  (1676,  4to),  publiahed  by  hia  »on:— 
tttlrrt.  etc  See  Cbalmers,  Biag.  fHd.  a.  v. ;  Allibone, 
Atcf.  a/  Brit,  and  A  mtr.  A  alkan,  a.  v. 

Ttldebope,  Archibald,  a  Preabyterian  miiiiiter, 
waiboinatPaiale.T.  Scotland,  Aug.  19,1801;  graduated 
at  the  Uiiireraitj  of  Gbugnw  in  April,  1822;  atudied 
Ihetdngy  at  the  Divinity  Hall  of  the  Helief  Syiuxl  in 
Paialey:  waa  Ucenieil  hy  the  llelief  Presbytery  of  Ulaa- 
gow  in  IW8,  and  ordained  paator  of  liie  Church  in  An- 
nan, in  Dumftieaahire,  Scotlaiul,  Oct.  14. 1834.  In  1838 
be  enigraled  to  the  United  Slalea.  and  became  paitor  ^ 
of  the  Ninth  I>e*bvtcrlan  Church,  Philadelphia,  where 
he  remained  till  1849.     He  die.1  Dec.  6, 1861.     He  waa 

were  apeciallr  aucceeaful  eSiirta.  See  Wilaon,  Prtib. 
IliM.  AlmamU,  1863,  p.  314.  I 

Tndal*.  RiKJAViN  (bm-Jonai)  OF,  the  famoua  Jew- 
iA  traveller  of  the  lit  h  century,  ia  known  for  hia  reaearch- 
e*  on  the  atat<  of  the  rarioui  colunien  of  the  Hebrew 
p»pk,  both  in  the  Eaut  and  in  the  Weat.  From  1 165  | 
tn  1173  be  travelled  in  aeveral  countrict  in  Europe.  Asia, , 
■nd  Africa,  and  puUiihed  hia  rewilla  in  hi*  Uaiaioik,  or 
liijitnirium  n/  tinjaiHi*,  Among  Chrialiani  the  book 
hti  not  been  favorably  reeeived.  In  the  Srat  place,  the 
whole  vi  ita  complexion  ia  Jewiih— recording  in  every 
place  of  hit  arrival  Ihe  crniua,  condilion,  ami  leading 
namei  of  his  nation;  scarcely  ever  noticing  the  objocla 
which  luually  invite  the  attention  of  Uentile  travellera, 
nch  at  cuuomt,  climate,  language,  politica,  hialory,  etc. 
In  the  second  place,  he  commiii  uumeiout  erron  in 
dtlei  and  name*  when  be  doet  refer  uj  (lentile  history ; 
and,  ihinlly,  the  ftnbcr  he  advances  frnm  home,  Ihc 
more  wonderful  are  hia  repona  concerning  the  numbera 
and  wealth  of  the  Jewa.  Theae  coiktiderationa  have  in- 
dtKad  cTery  one  of  hit  tianslaton  to  believe  that  he 


76  TUDOR  STYLE 

never  quitted  Spain,  but  made  a  compilation  of  all  the 
traveller*'  tales  he  could  gather  respecting  fiircign  tanda. 
On  the  other  band, Gibbo[i(iMwr,v,348,Milman'ieii.) 
remarlia,  "The  errors  and  llctiona  of  the  Jewiah  rabbi  are 
not  Bufllcient  grounda  to  deny  the  reality  of  his  travels." 
In  our  days,  however,  deeper  invetligalion  has  certilied 
the  reality  uf  the  voyage,  and  Ihe  actual  tmth  of  many 
of  it*  details,  which  are,  faowerer,  niixed  up  with  much 
that  ia  fabuloua,  and  acoompanieil  by  many  incredible 
tales.  This  curioua  book  of  travels  was  edited,  witb  a 
Latin  inuialation,  by  Ariaa  Montanua  at  Antwerp  ia 
1622,  and  by  L'Empereor  at  Leyden  in  16S3 ;  with  au 
Engliah  translation  it  was  published  in  Purchas's  Pil- 
^'flu(Lond.  1625,11,1487);  by  Harris,  in  CaUtrlumo/ 
Vogagti  and  Travrit  (ibid.  1744-48),  i,  546-555;  by 
Gcrrons  (ibid.  1784);  by  Pinkerton,  in  hia  CoUtetim  t,/ 
Vojuje* and TVawiio/fialKorW  [ibid.  l8l}+-l4),voLvii; 
and  in  Bobn's  Earig  TravrU  in  Piilrilint  (ibid.  1818,  p. 
G3-I26).  The  beat  edition  is  that  of  Asher,  T&t  llmcmry 
of  Rabbi  Benjamin  of  Ttidilt  (IraualBleil.etc.;  voLi,  bib- 
liography and  irantlaliun,  Load,  and  Berl.  1810;  voLii, 
notes  and  essays,  ibid.  1841).  A  Krencb  translation  ia 
given  in  Bergeron,  CoUtcfum  de  Vayagfttfaili  priad- 
paltmaa  tn  Atif,  dam  tri  XII;  Xni\  Xll\tt  XV 
Siitiri  (the  Hague,  1735,  3  voK) ;  by  Batratier  (AmsL 
1784,2  vols.);  another  transL appeared  at  Paris  in  1830; 
a  Dutch  iran^.  by  Bara  (AmsL  1666) ;  and  n  fiernun 
tranal.  in  Jewish  characters  bvArbich(Frankf.-on-thc-H. 
1711).  SeeFlIrst,fiii^yudi,ll7w|.i  De'Rosai,ifizw- 
nariji  Slorica,  p. 321  aq.  (Germ.  transL) ;  GrBti,  Geiek-d. 
Juibm,-r\,  214;  Braunschweiger,  Gfick.d.Jadn  n  d. 
romoH.  Staalta,  p.  164;  Deosauer,  Gnci.d.  Itratliltn,  p. 
SSa,  371-^20 ;  Joat,  Getch.  d.  JudtfUh.  a.  i.  Seilen,  ii,  64 ; 
iii,  363 ;  Dasnage,  Hirloin  dtt  Ju\fi,  p.  617  (Tavkir** 
tnnal.) ;  Da  CoMi,  Iiratl  and  the  GmlUn,  p.  383  aq. ; 
Lindo.  Iliitoryofl^Jmi  tn  Spain,  p. 67;  Fiaa.Sfphar- 
din*,  p.  310  aq.;  Etheridge.  Introduction  to  lltbrrv  IjH- 
eralarr,  p.  259 ;  Adams,  Ilitlary  nf  the  Jrv  ( Boston, 
1812),  i,  238  aq.     (B.  1>.) 

Tudor.  SAI.ATH11IL,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Bedfoid  County,  Pa.,  in  1789.  Convened 
when  a  youth,  he  htbured  as  a  local  preacher  for  eleven 
vears,  and  waa  received  on  trial  in  the  Pittsburgh  Con- 
ference in  1837.  In  1829  his  heatih  declined;  in  1880 
hcwa9asuperanoaale,and  he  died  Nov.  36  of  Ihe  aame 
year.  Aa  a  preacher  he  waa  acceptatde  lud  usefnL 
"  His  end  was  peaceful  and  glorious,"  See  Minutri  of 
A«i«„l  ConftrennM.  1832,  p.  159. 

Tudor  riowor.     See  Ttrnon  Sttle. 

Tudor  Rose.  Aconventional  representation  ofihe 
luee,  found  in  Third-pointed  architectural  work,  both  in 
wood  and  stone  carvings,  adopted  in  honor  of  the  Tudora. 

Tador  Style.  This  name  is  used  by  some  writen 
on  Gothic  architecture,  but  they  do  not  agree  in  the 
application  of  it.  It  ia  variously  employed  to  dewg- 
nate  Ihe  Perpendicular  style  throughout  ita  continu- 
ance—the latter  period  of  this  atyle — and  the  mixed 
style  which  sprang  up  nn  the  ilecliiie  of  Gothic  arcbi- 
teeture,  usually  called  Eliiabethan.    The  term  ii 


cular  K 


only  und 


J  Henry 


Vll'a  Chapel  at  Weatminaler  is  looked  upon  a 
most  perfect  specimen  in  this  atyle.  The  Tudor  ftov 
ia  a  llai  flower,  or  leaf,  placed  upright  on  its  stal 
much  uaeil  in  Perpendicular  work,  especially  late  in  tl 


TUESHIMEL 


itfle,  in  lang  m 
infc  on  comicM, 
■bl^  tn  detail,  t 


backgrouni),  repTUfnting  an  imbas 

ly  kli]gdoni  iiid  also  tho  gud  or  Ihe 

Tnet,  EBPniT  Clacue,  i   Fra 

IVS9  bum  sbout  [745  ■□!!  died  iboi 


eiBmpIn  differ  consider- ' 
leral  tOnx  doa  DM  vary  i 

Lamtuim,  ia  the  name  for 
vhich  are  placed  upon  the 
t  ia  A  drawing,  upon  a  gold 


It  1787,  a 
raU,  a.  v. 


u  the 


which  see  Uuefer,  iVoui^.  Biog,  Gi 

Tufa,  a  porous  stone  (called  IniBfrtiiie  wh«n  com-  j 
paet)  found  in  calcareous  Btrcama,  and  used,  rrom  ita  i 
lightness,  in  riultings,  ai  at  Bredon  and  Canlerbury.       i 

Toff-taffetai  a  kind  of  inferior  ailk  used  in  church- 
banf^ngs. 

Tuiacon,  in  German  mythology,  was  an  earth-Irani 
god,  from  whom  all  Gennanaare  said  to  have  sprung.  He 
was  highly  esteemed  by  his  son,  man.  The  Druids  aacri- 
ficed  human  beinga  to  him.  According  to  the  accounta 
given  by  Oesai,  these  aacriflcea  were  made  not  only  in 
Germany,  but  throughout  the  whole  of  Gaul.  Some 
bold  him  to  be  a  hiaUiricperaon,  others  a  personified  idea. 

Tnlcklyim.    See  Peacock. 

Tokudh  Veralon.  Thi»  version  is  of  a  very  re- 
cent date ;  and  the  Iranslatinn  of  the  four  goapela  and 
the  epiallea  uf  John  into  that  dialect  was  undertaken  by 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  st  the  request  of 
the  Church  Missionarv  Societ;',  anci  was  made  in  Ihe 
year  1872  by  the  Rev.  R  McDonald,  who  hati  been  labor- 
ing among  ihe  people  with  much  aiicceaa.  Astothedia- 
lect  itself,  it  is  spoken  by  a  tribe  of  Indiana  on  llie  rirer 
Yucon,  on  tbe  cnnflnes  of  the  Arctic  region.  Sir.  Mc- 
IXinalil,  who  has  been  laboring  there  for  tbe  lost  sixteen 
years,  bos  reduced  tbe  lanf^age  tu  writing,  and  in  bis 
translating  effbrta  hoa  had  the  assistance  of  a  native 
Christian.  The  ayllabic  characten  which  were  adopted 
in  the  Cree  version  were  first  tried,  but  tbe  unusually 
large  number  orayllables  in  the  language  obliged  the 
translator  to  fall  back  upon  Ihe  Roman  characten.  Tbe 
following,  Ukeii  from  the  report  cf  tbe  Bririsb  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  for  tbe  year  1B78,  will  be  of  interest 
to  the  student:  "The  Tukudh  tribe,  which  is  often 
known  by  Ihe  name  of  LouchrHi,  from  a  peculiarity  in 
the  eyea  of  some  of  the  natives,  is  small,  not  including 
more  than  about  eight  hundred,  nearly  the  whole  of 
whom  are  under  Christian  inslructkin.  Their  numbers, 
however,  are  on  the  increase,  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  some  neighboring  tribes  will  become  incorporated 
with  them,  and  thus  add  considerably  to  the  commu- 
nity. Like  moat  of  the  North  American  Indian  tribes, 
Ihe  Tukudh  Indiana  have  among  themselves  cerlrfn  re- 
ligious beliefa  on  which  it  ia  not  impossible  to  build  up 
the  pure  theology  of  the  Bible.  Tbeir  name  TahuH 
signidea  '  haughty  people.'  When  the  geographical 
poulion  of  Mr.  McDonald's  station  at  Fort  Macpheraon 
is  consiilered,  it  will  not  be  wondered  at  that  these  peo- 
ple are  living  in  primitive  eimplictly.  The  edition  re- 
quested is  to  consist  of  Hve  hundred  copies,  and  some  of 
the  gospels  it  is  proposed  to  bind  separately.  The  ex- 
pense <il  the  work  will  be  large  and  the  readem  few ; 
but  when  a  language  has  been  reduced  to  written  form, 

are  available,  the  committee  deem  it  a  matter  of  clear 
duty  to  go  forward  in  printing  tbe  Word  of  God,  even 
though  but  a  comparatively  small  populalion  may  be 
beneHied  by  their  labors."  According  to  Ihe  report  for 
1879,  about  810  copies  altogether  have  been  circulated 
among  these  people.     (B.  P.) 

TulohatiB,  or  Toloban  BUbopa.  A  tutcian 
was  the  effigy  of  a  calf,  or  rather  it  was  a  stuffed  calf- 
skin, set  up  before  a  cow  when  she  wss  milked,  under 
the  belief  that  the  animal  thereby  yielded  her  milk  more 


IVeely.  Tbe  custom  ba*  bMig  been  diacontiiiued.  Under 
the  regent  Morton,  and  after  1572,  aitempla  were  made 
to  igtruduce  bishops  into  the  Presbyleriau  Church  of 
Scotland.  The  men  who  consented  to  lake  tbe  title  bad 
bound  themselves,  as  the  price  of  their  elevalioni  tn  re- 
ceive oidy  a  small  part  of  the  revenues,  the  rest  eDtng 
to  Morton  and  his  lordly  collesgues.  "'llie  bishop  had 
tbe  title,  but  my  lord'bail  the  milk."  Such  bishopi 
were  calleil  lulchans  by  the  pe<iple.  The  first  tulcban 
was  John  Douglas,  appointed  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrew's. 
Patrick  AdamaiHi,  who  afterwards  himself  became  a  lul- 
cban,  saidin  a  sermon,  "There  be  three  kinds  orbisbops 
—my  lord  bishop,  my  lord's  bishop,  and  Ihe  lord's  bish- 
op. My  lord  bishop  was  in  Ihe  papistry;  my  lord's 
bishop  is  now,  when  my  lord  gets  the  benefice,  and  tbe 
bishop  servea  for  noihing  but  In  make  his  liile  snrc; 
and  the  Lord's  bishop  is  the  true  minister  uf  tbe  gca- 
peL" 

Tnliaso,  in  Prussian  tnythology,  were  prieala  of  a 
lower  order,  belonging  to  none  of  the  three  higher  claas- 
eeof  Grivaitea,  SiggDnes,and  Wurrhaila.  'Tbe  care  of 
Ihe  sick  rested  with  Ihem,  whom  they  either  prepsied 
for  death,  or  Bought,  with  their  scanty  knowledge,  to 
cure  or  to  alleviate  tbeir  sufferings.  They  resided 
among  tbe  populace  in  villages,  and  were  tberefote  ix>t 
esteemed  very  much. 

Tulla  Intoon  and  Haltiorhiii.  According  to  lbs 
Finnish  creed,  each  man  bore  within  bim  from  hii 
birth  a  divine  spirit  who  was  his  inseparable  eompaD- 
ion  for  life.  This  Sjurit  became  more  closely  united  to 
ita  subject  in  proportion  as  the  latter  lore  himself  away 
from  earthly  things  Id  retire  into  Ihe  aanctuary  of  bii 
BouL  The  magician,  therefore,  aspired  to  a  irsnscni- 
dental  ecstasy  (lalln  inloou),  to  a  great  state  of  exclls- 
ment  of  the  soul  (mOi  kalliorhiii'),  in  which  be  became 
like  the  spirit  dwelling  in  him  snd  entirely  idmiified 
with  iu     He  used  artificial  means,  t.  g.  inioiiniii^ 

Lenormant,  Chaldaaa  Mask,  p.  S&4. 

Tnllocli,  James,  a  Scotch  CongregaiionalminiMn, 
was  the  first  Dissenter  who  settled  in  Scutlaiid.  Ue 
wss  tutored  by  Rev.  Mr.  Ewing  of  Glasgow,  and  tai 
out  under  the  auspices  al  the  Society  for  Propagaliiig 
'    Gospel  at  Home.    Mr.Tullochw  '  ' 


Congn 


slChur 


It  Bixtei 


in  establiahiug  new  churches  and  pro[iagsting  Ihe  Git- 
pel.  He  died  Feb.  IS,  1862.  See  (Lond.)  Coag.  Imr- 
booi,l»6t.p.'M7. 

Tnlly,  Oaorge,  an  English  divine,  was  edacaied 
at  Queen's  Colle){e,  Oxford,  and  died  rector  of  Gstenlc 
in  1697.  He  was  a  leslous  writer  againat  popery,  sml 
was  auspended  for  a  sermon  be  preached  and  publishtd 
in  1G8S.  "  He  was  the  first  clergyman  who  suffered  in 
the  reign  ofJsmea  II  in  delence  of  our  religioo  againu 
popish  superstition  and  idolatry."  He  is  bstkiwwo  ai 
the  author  ofiKicourss  on  lir  Carrmnmr  nfllir  Tkimgia 
(1693-94, 8vo).  See  Allibone,  Dul.  of  Srit.  out  Amrr. 
A  ufhon,  s.  V.  i  Hook,  Kedrt.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Tnlly,  Tboinns,  a  learned  English  divine,  wss 
bnm  in  Ihe  dty  of  CariJste  -lulv  S2,  IG20j  be  enlertd 
Queen's  College,  OxfunI,  in  1C34,  snd  obtained  a  felln- 
ship.    In  1643  be  was  created  A.M.,  and  became  m. 


.e  grami 


ool  ai 


11  Glouc 


He  afterwards  relumed  to  his  college,  ai 
nMed  tutor  and  preacher  there.  He  died  Jan.  14,  lelt. 
Tnln,  or  Tuluvn,  ia  the  ancient  and  proper  dia- 
lect of  the  long  narrow  tract  of  land  now  called  Canan. 
situated  westward  of  Mysore,  between  tbe  tange  of  tbe 
WeMeni  Ghauts  and  the' ocean.  Owing  to  ihe  loiig  sub- 
jection of  Canara  to  Kamata  princes,  tlie  Karaata  or 
Canarese  language  is  now  chiefiy  spoken  by  tbe  higher 
classes  in  tbe  province,  while  the  Tulu  aiill  eoniinoes 
the  vernacular  of  the  common  people,  especially  in  Sntitb 
Canara.  In  idiom  and  structure  it  closely  resemble*  iM 
Malsyalim  language,  and  it  is  written  in  the  same  char- 


TUM 


Ktm.  Id  18M  ■  munoDUT  Mitioa  was  otibluhed 
jj  the  Gfrmu  IllunaiMiy  SociHy  it  UuEilare.  Ibe 
cipiul  uT  Ciiwra.  Ill  lt(44  a  tnnaULion  of  ihe  New 
TnL  was  miJe,  vhich  was  tnibliahed  iu  IKii.  See 
BMl  of  Etrry  Load,  p.  IM.     (R  P.) 

Tom.     Among  ibe  Rgyptiana  the  nm  was  roruid- 
eml  in  each  pbaie  a  diDeiml  god.  having  lU  peculiar 

il5  nocturnal  exittencc  wm  ruiii .-  when  it  ihone  in  the 
TiHiidiaii,  it  was  Rai  vfaen  it  prodoccd  and  nourished 
life,  it  was  venerated  ai  Kktptr,  Since,  according  to 
the  E{[Tptian>,  the  night  precedes  the  day,  Turn  was 
■■'■-■         ■        '        ■  '  B  Ra,and  ■    '  - 


(snndered  li 
d  alone  fra 


H  Magic,  p.  81  aq. 


bTBuTch 


inl,  CKal- 


Tomatrarotlg,  in  the  nivtbology  of  tbe  Uarqueaaa, 
iraa  a  godrfeas  who  deacenited  tioca  heaven  and  was 
immediately  made  r|iieeo  bv  the  people,  who  were 
chinned  by  her  beauty.  She  married  tbe  then  ruling 
•orerei^,  and  gave  birth  to  a  aon,  who  was  ^le  to 
^■e^  immediately  after  his  birth. 

Tambl«r>,  ■  name  given  to  the  Tuhkers  (q.v.) 
ID  ridicule  of  their  peculiar  moiions  while  undergoiug 
the  file  of  baptism  by  immersion. 

TuEldley,  Ralph,  an  Engliah  Congregational  min- 
iuer.vasboniat  AlKin.Stafl'urdsbire.in  179S.  He  was 
OMiverted  ander  the  influence  of  the  Diaent«n,  becsine 
intemted  in  Sunday-school  work,  and  at  the  earnest 
•olicilslion  of  the  Church  at  Alton  be  became  their 
paitoT  and  ministered  to  them  until  his  death,  Feb.  72, 
1S63.     3ee(I»nd.)Cffi>?.  r«»^al,ie64,p.S47. 

Tnnic:,  or  Tunicle,  a  term  applied  to  aevenl  irti- 
clea  of  clerical  dress.  (I.)  A  dress  worn  by  tbe  subdea- 
flon,  made  originally  of  linen,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and 
then  of  inferior  silk,  and  natroHer  than  the  dalmatic  of 
the  deacon,  with  shutter  and  tighter  sleeves,  and  devoid 
of  the  Kripea  or  embroidery  of  that  vestment.  For  iomt 
centuiiei,  however,  the  sssimilalian  has  grovn  so  com- 
plete as  to  render  the  slight  difference  between  tbem 
almost  imperceptible.  Biihops  wore  both  the  tunic  and 
dalmatic  at  pouiiflcsl  mass.  (!.)  Tbe  parni  Oinica,  oi 
colli,!  linen  habit  reaching  to  the  kneea,  usctl  at  all  kind) 
of  Krvicea  by  simple  clerks  and  othem;  it  differed  from 
the  rochet,  in  being  fuller.  Amaiarius  speaks  of  a  blue 
Iiinicle  ofjacintb  color,  or  tabvcula,  worn  by  the  "  ' 
(Rupert  says  onder  the  chasuble)  aa  emblematici 
wamleai  robe  of  Christ.     (S.)  A  dreaa  worn  by 

Tiuilol»>ball,  ■  ball  of  crystal  to  which 
•roe  Bllached,  hanging  rroni  the  ihouldeia  of  medieval 

Tonlole-cLeat,  a  cheat  for  holding  tin 
dahnatic,  and    differing  in   ihipe   from    those   cbesis 
onlaineil  the  copes  and  cbssubles 


TqiiIb,  Jewish  Hission  at.  As  earl; 
IB33,  the  London  Society  Tor  the  Propagation  of  the 
lioipel  among  the  Jews  cnmmenced  miniiinary  oper- 
iriona  in  Tunis.  The  first  miaaionarv  ti>  that  place 
ws»  the  late  Be».  I>r.  F.  C.  Kwald,  who  aniied 
ihrre  June  30.  He  found  a  Jewish  population  from 
30.000  to  40,000,  all  living  in  their  nwn  i|uaner.  There 
was  alio  a  large  number  of  Roman  CaihuUca,  who  had 
their  own  church  and  convent,  a  (i reek  community  with 
church  and  ptieat,  and  about  fifty  Protestants  witboiit 
the  means  of  grace.  Mr.  Ewahl  at  once  commenced 
divine  service,  which  was  attended  by  almost  every 
FnHistant.  The  Jews  being  accessible  In  that  place, 
opportwiitie*  were  affordR)  to  the  mistinnary  to  preach 
luilo  ihem  tbe  word  of  God.  The  Bible  in  Hebrew 
■ai  eagcilj  lought  afler  and  bought  by  them,  and  thus 
the  work  could  be  carried  on.  In  1855  Ur.  Page,  who 
■Keeedtd  Dr.  Ewald,  establiahed  a  school  there,  which 
proved  a  great  iqcceaa,  Owing,  however,  to  the  retitoval 
byeboliraof  Ht.  Page  from  tbe  scene  of  his  labors,  mis- 
X.-19 


7  TUNKERS 

sionaiy  operalioos  bad  to  be  so^tended  for  a  time,  to  b« 
resumed  again  in  I8C0  bv  the  Rev.  Ur.  Fenner.  Tn 
July,  1861,  a  school  was  opened  fur  Jewish  boys  with 
six  scholars,  wboae  number  had  increased  by  tbe  close 
of  tbe  year  to  ninety-nine,  all  Jewish  youths  from  seven 
to  eighteen  years  uf  age.  lii  1862  a  girls'  school  was 
atablisbed  through  the  benevolence  of  a  Cbriuianlady 
in  the  north  of  England.  Since  that  time  missionary 
operations  have  been  carried  on  there  regulariy,  ami  in 
spite  of  the  efforts  made  by  the  lsraetiti>h  Alliance  to 

boys  and  306  girls  in  attendance  it  the  minion  schouli 
during  the  year  1878-79.  Since  1862,  1600  girls  and 
960  boyi  have  passed  through  the  schools.  The  popu- 
larity of  these  schools  may  be  best  seen  from  the  fact 
that  a  notice  of  the  opening  of  the  mission-schools  after 
the  summer  vacation  was  put  up  in  the  principal  syna- 
guguea  of  Tunis.  In  connection  with  the  two  day- 
schools,  Sunday-schools  have  also  been  opened  Ihere  of 
late,  betides  a  night-school  which  seems  very  promis- 
ing. Some  years  ago  the  society  built  a  cbapel,  where 
the  Pnteslant  oommunity  of  Tunis  is  now  gathemi 
r^fulariy  for  divine  service,  and  where  the  sacraments 
are  adminisiered.  According  to  the  last  report  for  the 
year  1879,  theve  were  fourteen  persons  engaged  at  this 
station,  viz.  two  ordained  ministers,  a  colporteur  and 
depositary,  a  schoolmaster,  fc)ur  aseiatants,  a  achoolmis- 
trees  and  four  assistants.     (K  P.) 

Toakera  (Grno.  Imim,  "  to  dip"),  a  sect  of  Cer- 
man-AmericBD  Baptists,  called  by  themselves  Bitthir*. 
Their  name  is  somelimea  erroneously  spelled  Dunitn, 
Tbe  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander 
Mack  at  Scbwaizenau,  Westphalia,  in  1708.  Driven 
I  from  Germanv,  some  of  them  emigrated  to  America  in 
[  1719,  and  settieil  in  Pennsylvania.  They  futmed  a  set- 
I  llement  at  Ephrala,  Lancaster  Co.,  under  tbe  director- 
ship of  Conrail  PeyseL  Here  they  built  a  t«wn  in  the 
form  of  a  triangle,  the  houses  being  three  stories  in 
height,  and  each  of  tbem  a  kind  of  monastery.  They 
dressed  much  in  the  style  of  monks  and  nuns,  men  and 
women  lived  in  different  houses,  and  they  used  a  vege- 
table diet,  practicing  coniiderable  mortification.  Al- 
though marriage  was  not  forbidden,  when  couples  mar- 
rieilthey  were  required  to  remove  from  Ephrita.  They 
subsequently  sctiled  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Harjland, Tit- 
ginia,  and  several  other  states.  Their  doctrines  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  Hennonites  (q.  v.),  and  in  dress 
and  manners  they  resemble  the  Friendt.  They  use  the 
kiss  of  charity,  feet- washing,  laying-on  of  hands,  anoint- 
ing the  sick  with  oil :  ire  opposed  to  war,  and  will  not 
engage  in  lawsuits.  They  hold  Inve-feasts,  and  an  an- 
nual meetiug  about  Whitsuntide,  which  is  attended  by 
their  bishops,  teachers,  and  representatives  chosen  by 
the  congregaliona.  Universal  redemption,  though  not 
an  anicle  of  fsith,  is  commonly  held  by  them.  Some 
of  them  are  strict  Sabbatarians,  observing  Saturday  as 
their  day  of  rest.  They  oppose  sUtisiica,  which  they 
believe  to  savor  of  pride,  and,  therefore,  truatwortby 


supposed  to  number  a 

r  quiet  and  peaceable  lives  i 

e  which  was  given  to  them 


100,0(1 


Byr 


It  of  "The 


blished  fuur 

Pnacher,  the  Bnlhrm  at  Work,  and  the  Progrmirf 
Chiuliaa.  This  last  is  publisheil  at  lierlin.  Pa.,  by  the 
liberals  among  the  Itrethren  or  Tunkers;  and  its  posi- 
tion is  defined  (in  the  lidtpradmi  of  May  8, 1879)  as 


ictHue 


e  nre  In  t^ill  accord  with  II 


I  Chnrch  oi 


rion  as  being  worthy  nf  comparison  wlilia  ditiuemjnnc- 
tlon.  In  fact,  we  do  not  reeatd  a  coaroni  one  hundred  or 
flvehnudred>eanold,wbetherlIorl|{laat*d  In  tbe  Church 

Unn"nrBlbk>'chriatlDi<a.  We  believe  In '■iioncnnfomillv 
to  the  world-  fr..m  all  Its  Binful  practices^  bnl  we  hold 


TUNNELL  6! 

iiini  ihe  enrib  1>  the  Lord's  mid  (he  fnlueM  lherti>r,  iXDd 
ib»i  tlie  lun-uii.iiin  Bud  dli'Co»«rteii  of  mnn  nre  aiinplj  ihe 
pindnctH  of  Ibe  wlBdurn  iif  God,  mitl  sbnulil  b«  npplied  bi 
ibF  i.hrlPNin  lo  the  gloilfjlng  of  hi>  luimt,  «b  l»lie<g 
llia[  Ihe  tiiDK  iiowle  uheTi  wi;  (bull  iieiiner  Lii  Ihe  [arbor 
n  liuiidred  yr^n  ugo  ii<ir  In  iho  Hy\m  cif  Ilia  present  age 
M'liiThlplbeFuIher:  biitvrheDlta«  tmc  won>blpprrs  ehall 

dcntnl.butDotlnBlulclm:  wcadvucatedoHconiniuDtoD. 
.•r  Gud  i>  anr  perhcl  liw,  nhicb  ir  we  obey  ws  do  well." 
Sec  Baptists,  Gerhah. 

Tnanell,  John,  >n  eirly  llcthmlial  miniMer,  vas 
iili»uc  tliirtecu  vein  in  llie  work  of  the  miiiuCry;  wu 
tlccied  lu  the  office  of  on  elder  at  the  Christmas  Con- 
ll-rciicc  ill  li81;  travelled  cxicntively  lliToughout  the 
United  Stales;  was  for  yean  tlie  leader  ot  ■  pioiwcr 
lund  oT  prcBL-hen  ainuiig  tlie  llulaton  mounUtns;  and 
dii'il  ill  ureat  peace  near  Sweel  Spiiiigs,  Vo.,  July  9, 
170U.  lie  was  buried  by  Aalniry  »aioHg  tlie  AUrgbany 
l>i.'i);hu,  a  martyr  to  bta  work.  lie  wu  a  man  of  solid 
{lii'ty,  (Treat  ^mplicily,  and  godly  sincerity;  well  known 
anil  much  esleetned  both  by  ministers  and  people  Tor 
hh  inderatigable  labors,  and  his  commanding  talenia  aa 
0  preacher,  iSee  .t/inuff  <•/  Amual  Cu-fntncei,  i,  37 : 
llaiii^  l/Ut.  nfihf  M.  E.  Church,  i.  319;'  Stevens,  HiH. 
ojike M.  /■:. Chui-ci, ii,34, 3M, 99, 43,53, 90, 272,297, 43C 

TuiMtall  (or  Toustall),  Cuthbert,  a  leanietl 
1  burn  at  llalchCunl,  near  Kichmond, 
I'orksliire,  about  1474.  lie  cnieieil  Itoltul  College,  Ox- 
r»ril.  about  1191,  but  auliaequcnily  went  lo  Camlindge 
indbecamca  fellow  of  tiiiiic'a  Hull.  Heaflerwanlswcnt 
:u  I'adua  and  took  the  decree  of  I.I.U.  On  his  return 
;o  Knglaiiil,  archbishop  Warhsm  const  itnteil 


t.iin 


dcdhl 


:o  Hen 


»VIII. 


and  in  December  uf  ilie  same  year  collaled 
rccloryofllanow-on-the-hilt,  Middlesex,  which  he  hekl 
till  lbi2.  Ill  1514  lie  was  installed  prebendary  of  Slaw- 
longa,  Church  of  Linniln,  and  in  Ilie  following  year  ad- 
mitlHl  archileacon  nl'CbesIer.  He  waa  made  maater  of 
the  rolUi  in  I31G.  .'Serving  aa  an  ambassador  to  emperor 
L'hailea  V,  he  was  tcnnrdetl  on  hia  return  (prob,  15I9J 
by  a  atries  of  prefermenia.  In  1.^19  he  was  made  preb- 
endary of  Ituntevanl,  Cbiiroh  of  York;  in  ilay,  IS^I, 
prebendary  of  Combe  and  Honihani,  Church  of  Sarum, 
and  dean  of  Silishuiy.  Ite  was  promoled  lo  the  bish- 
opric of  London  in  1622;  was  made  keeiwr  uf  ilie  privv 
seal  in  1523;  and  in  1525  be  and  .Sir  Itithanl  Wiuglirld 
went  as  ambaaaadors  to  Spain.  In  July,  1527,  Tnnstall 
attended  cardinal  Wolscy  on  hia  embassy  lo  Franco,  anil 
in  1529  waa  one  of  tbe  Engliab  ambaaaadors  emjiloyed 
to  negotiate  the  treaty  of  Cambray.  Uii  liia  return  he 
exerted  himself  to  luppress  Tyiidale'a  edition  i^  Ihe 
New  Teal.  In  1530  he  waa  translatetl  lo  Ihe  blahopric 
of  Durham,  where  he  laid  out  large  anms  in  improvm){ 
Ilia  epiwopnl  bunscs.  At  lirst  Tunstall  fdvoreil  ihe  ili- 
vorceorilenr>'VllI,bulaftcruardseapoiiaedthecaiiseor 


le  Chii 


>tall  re 


omnftnded  this  course  in 
II  preached  at  Durham. 
Bupremocy  in  1533,  in  a  ( 

king  on  Palm-SuiiiUy. 


B  TURBAN 

in  a  veiT  Trierkdly  and  reapeclful  manner,  until  be  dieo 
Nov.  18,  1559.  Tunslall  was  opposed  to  making  Iru- 
BubstantiatiiHi  an  article  of  faith,  and  also  held  the  doc- 
trine ofJuaiiAcaiion  by  faith  only.  Ilia  principal  writ- 
ings aie,  /n  /jmdnn  Malrimomi  (Lond.  l5l8,4to);— £» 
A  lie  tJBppulimdi  (I  jind.  1522, 4lo) ;— Sermoii  on  Kojal 
Saprrmaiy  (l.oinl.  l.'.39,  4io)  :—Ca«/iilalio,  etc  (I'sfif. 
1522, 4lo)  :-^l>e  I'mViire  Cotperit  tl  Btnyiiim  Itowini 
Jrtu  Chri$li  in  Eachuritiii  (Luiet.  1554,  4l»)  :— (.'»»- 
pmdiam  in  l>tctm  LSmu  Ethicarvm  Arutotrlii  (Varit, 
1554,  flvo); — Conira  Impint  Bliitphtmatorfi  IM  Pnr- 
Jtiliaalumu  (Antwerp.  1555,  4tn);— Cm/i^  and  Vmnil 
Prityri  in  EoglitA  and  jMlin.  eic,  (  15Btl,  8vo),  S« 
Chalmen,  Biog.  l>kl.  t.  v. ;  AUibone,  DUl.  n/  Bri/.  ont 

Tunstall,  Jftmea,  D.D.,  an  English  dirine,  sat 
bom  about  1710,  and  eilucaied  at  Su  John's  CuUegp. 
CambridKe,  of  wliiili  be  aaerwarils  becsme  feUow  and 
lulor.  In  1739  he  obtained  I  lie  rcrtory  of  Stunner,  E<- 
aex,  and  two  yean  later  was  elecied  public  oralor  uf  ihc 
univeruly,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  lo  Toiler,  arrh- 
biabop  uf  Canterbury.  In  1744  he  «ascrpaie<l  D.D.  al 
Cambridge;  was  aflerwanls  collateil  to  the  reciorv  of 
Great  Chart,  Kent,  and  to  the  vicarage  of  Minster' Ue 
of  Thanet;  both  of  which  he  resigned  in  1757  for  the 
valuable  vicarage  orRorhdale,  Ijncashire,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  March  2fl,  1772.  Hia  writings 
arc,  Eputoltt  ad  Vinini  Erudilam  Crmj/m  Middlrlim,  ttr. 
(Camb.  1741,  8vo)  —ObitrTatiimM  on  Iht  Prtimt  CoUtc- 
tim  Bf  Epillti  btlvtra  Cum  and  Bnlm :— Sermon  ie- 
/on  Iht  Home  o/ComnoHt  (May  29, 1T4C):-  iMifinr- 
lum  o/  llit  Poirrr  of  ike  Slalt  (o  PnAOHl  CbmdaHm 
Afarriaffa,iitc(\lb6):—MarriagfinS'>evfvSlalni,nr, 
(_l7bb)!  —  /^clam  oh  \alural  and  Hrr-.M  IMigin 
(published  afl«r  his  ilealb,  in  4lo).  See  Chalmers,  itaf. 
Did.  a.  V. ;  EngliiM  Cgdop.  s.  r. 

Tuonela  was.  according  lo  the  Finnish  belief.  Ibt 
river  of  the  country  of  the  dead— l*norroant,  Chali. 
Uoffic,  p.  'J58. 

Tuouiiwas  Ihe  father  of  Kivutar,  or  Kipu-typij, the 
Fiimiih  goddess  of  i]i8ea»cB.—Leiiormaiit,C*nW.i/u5«e, 
p.  259, 

TuquoB,  in  the  mrlholi^iy  of  ihe  HulteDtaI^  la 
Ihe  evil  spirit  causing  harm  and  misery,  fur  whom  dd- 
meroua  sacrifiees  are  oflereil  for  the  puqioac  of  reliedag 
the  Hollentots,  whom  he  is  said  to  pereecule. 

Tuni  (orTurt«),Costsio(CD«™i  rfn  FrrTarn).ta 
Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Ferrara  in  HUG.  He  wm 
a  disciple  of  Galasao  Galasai,  and  waa  conrt-paintet  in  Ibi 
limeofthedukeltanod'Esle.  Hedied  in  1469^  Tan 
worked  both  in  cnl  and  fresco,  and  painted  in  tbe  diy, 
(iolhlc  style  then  prevailing.  Among  his  pointings 
are,  .4  tnuanndon  and  A'tifirify,  in  the  cathedral ;— .4m 
n/'.sv.  fiufdtv.  Monastery  of  San  Gul^ielmo: — Itiyuiaaa 
A'liiirfi,  Church  of  San  Giovanni  :~C'Aiwf/Vinrni$  n  lit 
Garflen,  at  the  Cajipncrini  ;~.Vti<Jaiiiia  trilk  Sai»li,Btr- 
lin  Museum.    t>cc  Mponner,  Biny.  l/isl.  nff'iiK  A  rli,  a. v. 

Tuiban.     Though  it  ia  presumable  thai  in  a  di- 


vnhiation  of  ecclesiaalieal  bcnelices,  and  in  153M  was  ap- 

innii  amliRssadora.  A  new  edition  of  the  English  liible 
ivna  revised  bv  him  and  Nicholas  llealfa,  bisliup  of 
Itiicheiuer,  in  1541.  In  December,  1551,  he  waa  com- 
miileil  lo  the  Tower  on  a  charge  ufmiapriaion  of  irea- 
Buii,  and  alibiiugh  Ihe  bill  was  thrown  out  by  ihc  lloune 
of  IJummons.  he  wsa  brought  before  a  commiSMon  (coii- 
aisling  of  the  chief-jnai ice  of  the  king's  liench  and  tax 
otiiera)  and  dcprive.1  uf  hia  biahopric.  He  continued  a 
prisoner  in  l  be  Tower  during  the  remainder  of  Edward's 
reign.  On  the  accession  of  Mary,  in  1553,  Tunslall  was 
restored  to  his  bishopric,  bnt,  on  account  of  hia 
treatment  of  the  Prolestanls,  was  again  deprivol, 
Ij59.  He  ivaa  commilled  to  the  ciiatoily  of  I'a 
I  lien  in  iio^scssion  of  Lambeth  I'niace,  who  treated 


:e  that  of 


vtine  Ihe  it 
le  cold  uf  w 


ering  for  Ihe  head,  il 


rtescf 

head-dreas  are  ilcsignaled,  but  they  all  apparently  bf- 
kmg  to  coverings  which  were  either  official  or  moely 
omomenlil,  with  tbe  exception  of  those  ua«l  by  the. 
military. 

Ill  ttic  rentateuch  two  kinds  of  bead-roverings  aie 
mentioned  as  fonning  part  of  ihe  priest's  dress,  ibe 
rtl^-a  of  the  high-priest,  and  the  ^73313  of  the  coo- 
former  of  which  wu  probably  a  sort 


e  the  II 


ly  hai 


was  more  probably  a  high  cap  of  a  flower-like  shape. 
such  as  are  ftiund  among  Otienlab  in  the  ptesmt  dar 
(lUihr,  SgmMH  de*  mo*.  Ctili.  »,  GG).     Aa  then  bcW 


Ihf  heail  by  the  people  In  tbe  Mremuii}'  pTHcribnl 
(•1  Che  ilriiiking  of  Ihe  w«lera  of  Jeilousy,  Ibe  priest  ' 
(lirrclnl  to  tuoini  (71E)  the  womaa'i  head — i.  e.  (o  I 
her  bait  fall  down  IookIv  (Numb,  v,  18);  and  in  II 
law  concerning  llie  leper  it  ii  preacribed  thai  hia  head 
■hill  be  loomed  (51*'D);  pliraaeolagy  vrhich 
indicate  ihaC  it  was  cuMomarr  in  tbe  lloiaic 
bind  the  hair  with  a  band  or  titlet,  such  as  ne 

On  the  other  hand,  from  the  Uien  ibat  i 
law  eonctming  the  Naiarile  on  his  aufleiing  hia  locks 
to  grow,  and  an  his  batr  Ihiia  abundantly  grown  being 
tbe  crown  of  Uod  an  him  {Ley.  xiii,  4f>),  il>  aeems  fair 
to  infer  that  the  cropping  of  the  hair,  ami  perhapa  also 
ihediaTing  of  the  head  and  Ibe  wearing  of  some  car- 
ering  (it  may  be  uf  aniAcial  hair,  as  among  the  Egrp- 
liann),  waa  cnmrnon  among  the  people. 

In  the  other  books  the  tcmu  which  occur  designating 
head-drew,  bedilea  those  which  are  rrgi'l,  such  as  *it3 
and  fllTiy  [see  Crown],  and  thoae  which  are  mSifury 
[see  Ahhor],  art  the  folkiwing : 

1.  r^-SX,  Itruipli.  This  term  occun  three  limes  in 
the  Old  ieat.  (Job  xiix,  14 ;  Isa.  Ixii,  3 ;  Zech.  iii,  6). 
In  all  these  casea  the  usage  of  the  word  shows  that  il 
refrre.  not  to  sn  ordinary  article  of  dress,  but  to  one 
which  waa  ornamental  and  for  display.  It  was  prab- 
ibly  a  (urban,  the  word  being  derived  from  ^SX,  to  roll 
rtmmd  or  Kind.  Schrcidet  (IM  t'ln.Mulier.  Iltb.  p.  364) 
tfidearors  to  pn>re  fnHn  the  Arabic  that  this  word 
■Beans  a  narrow  atrip  wound  round  the  head;  but  his 
instances  only  prove  that  Ibe  Arabic  rrin/'and  Itinfa 
denote  a  unaJI  hand,  nr  the  hem  of  a  ifO'mcnt-  In  1*^ 
iii,  a  tbe  fem.  Iiaipiah  is  used  of  a  female  head-ibess 
worn  for  omamenL 

2.  i!<],  pffr.  This  woni  is  used  of  the  head-dress 
iif  ilistinunishcd  persons,  both  male  and  female  (Iso.  iii, 
Vi;  lxi,a.lO:  Eick.xxiv,17,33;  xKv,  18).  In  Exoil. 
xxfix.  28  it  is  used  of  the  priest's  heail-dress,  as  alio 
in  Eiek.  xlir,  18.  In  all  the  other  insiaiicea  it  indi- 
cates an  aiticle  of  holiday  costume.  Saalschlltz  aiig- 
gestii  that  tbe  pftr  waa  probnblr  the  hat  ur  bonnet, 
pn^wrly  so  called,  and  the  'nnifpt  the  oniamcntal  head- 
band wrapped  round  it. 

8,  r^'B^  tirphiritli,  from  1?X,  fo  drdf,  a  rirelel  or 
rfiiiAin  (Isa.  xxviii,6)i  or  it  may  bai-e  been  a  piece  of 
Hue  muslin  wound  round  tbe  turban  fur  ornament,  such 
SI  the  Orientals  still  use. 

*.  n;i^,  Uryak  (Prov.  i,  9 ;  Iv,  9).  Some  regard  this 
•sa  species  uf  fillet  by  which  the  head  was  b«und;  but 
it  probably  means  rather  a  gariand  nr  wreath  of  Howers, 

The  ciaminaiion  of  these  terms  baa  failed  to  convey 
to  lis  any  infurmation  respecting  the  ordinary  every^la/ 
eortamc'for  the  head  of  the  Hebrew  people.'  Probably 
they  were  wont  simply  to  ihrow  some  part  of  their 

pose  themselves  to  Ibe  weather,  or  to  fold  a  piece  of 
ck>th  over  their  heads,  as  do  the  Arabs  of  the  present 
Aty,  reserving  auch  articles  aa  those  above  nameil  for 
hoiiilaT  or  festive  occosirms  (Jshn,  BiblurAe  A  ichSolt- 
jif,  I,  ii,4,pL  116;  Saalachutz, /IrcA.  ifer  IMr.  ii,  W). 


'9  TURIN,  COUNCIL  OF 

ed  some  altar-pieces  and  other  pictures  for  the  church- 
es, the  most  esteemed  of  which  are  in  the  Church  of  La 
Conceiione.  Among  bis  olher  principal  works  at  Komc 
are,  Tit  f'li;/hS  i«to  EgypI,  in  San  Bomualdo;  Tht  Holy 
Famili/,  in  San  Lorenzo;  and  fil.Ciirlo  bonomto.  in  San 
Salrstote.  There  arc  also  to  be  noticed  his  Piiaitm  nf 
the  Forty  Maiiyri,  in  San  Slefano :  and  his  Piria  at  La 
Misericunlia.  Sec  Spooner.  Buig.  IluH.  nfFigt  A  rli,  s.  r. 
Tnrok,  Airriio.xv.  a  AktluKlist  KpiBcnpal  minister, 
was  a  native  of  New  York  State,  an.l  of  Dutch  ilescent. 
■elling  cm 


a  holy  . 


A  de\'oui 


I  his  labors,  subject  t< 


and  successful 

s,  temptations, 


e  been  bom 


Turlblo  (TuniBius),  St.,  is 
Nov.  10,  1638,  of  good  family, 
feclion  distinguished  him  in  early  youth,  lie  was  ed- 
ucated at  Valladolid  and  Salamanca,  was  made  presi- 
dent of  Granada  by  Pliilip  I[,  and  subsequently  became 
arcbbisbop  of  Lima,  in  South  America,  though  still  a 
Isyman.  He  was  consecrated  in  1581,  and  proceednl 
lo  initiate  an  excellent  administration,  during  which 
he  founded  hospitals,  seminaries,  and  churches,  ordercil 
diocesan  and  provincial  sy nods,  travelled  in  Ihe  execu- 
tion of  his  duties  over  the  entire  counin-,  and  displayeil 
great  devotion  during  a  contagious  pestilence.  He  is 
credited  with  the  miraculoua  cure  of  several  persons 
who  were  sick,  and  with  at  least  one  successful  raising 
of  the  dead  to  life.  Me  died  at  Santa,  Nov.  33,  [UOr>. 
body  was  broughl.  undccayed,  to 


laanet  ■ 


lingly  I 


racles.    lie  uos  sc- 
lera bv  Innocent  XI.  and  canon- 
I  in  17-26.     See  Wciicr  u.  Welle, 
Kirehea-Lex.  xi,  330;  lUtzog,  Real- £ticyUap.t.  v. 
Turin,  CousaL  OF  (ConciKum  rurtnoiw),  waa  held 
Turin,  Italy,  in  398,  or,  according  lo  others,  in  401, 


Tnrcbl,  AucBBAsnno.cimed  Vrroimf, »itf>  I.' Orbrllo, 
an  lialian  painter,  was  bom  at  Verona  (according  lul'oz- 
so)  about  1578.  When  a  lad  his  talent  wu  recognised  by 
Felice  Rioeio,  who  took  him  into  his  study,  and  careful- 
ly inslmcted  him.  I.eaving  Ricdo.  he  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  studied  with  Carlo  C^liati,  and  then  procecil- 
ed  lo  llume.  Here  be  made  hia  home  iinlil  his  ilcath, 
in  IfilH.  Turchi  excelled  in  tbe  choice  and  di»iribuiion 
of  h'u  odors,  among  which  he  introduced  a  rinldisli  tint 
wliicli  niieh  eiilirens  his  piciurea.    At  Kome  he  psint- 


prelales.  The  bishopa  of  the  province  of 
Aix,  Proculus  of  Marseilles,  Simplicius  of  Vionne,  and 
the  bishop  of  Aries  were  present.  As  Turin  was  at  that 
time  under  the  metropolitan  of  Milan,  it  is  conjectured 
(hat  Stmplicianua  of  Milan  convoked  it. 

l.The  first  question  setlled  in  Ihe  coimcil  was  that 
of  Proculus  of  Hsrseilles,  who  (alihongli  that  see  was 
not  in  Ihe  province)  desired  to  be  recognised  as  meirii- 
politaii  of  tbe  province  of  Narbonne,  The  council,  r>'r 
Ihe  sake  of  peace,  granted  to  Procuhis  |>ersoiially,  but 
nut  to  his  see,  the  right  of  primacy  which  be  claimnl. 
dedsring.  however,  Ibst  after  hia  death  the  mctrogwli- 
tan  should  be  a  bishop  of  the  province  ilstlf. 

2.  The  council  look  into  cunsideratiun  Ihc  differences 
between  Ihe  archbishoin  of  Aries  and  Vienne,  who  both 
pretended  to  the  primacy  ofViFniiess  (iaul.  The  de^ 
cision  was  that  he  of  Ihe  iwu  uho  could  prove  his  city 
lo  be  the  metropolis  of  Ihe  province  as  to  civil  malten 
■houki  be  considered  sa  the  lawful  metropolitan,  and  in 
Ihe  meantime  they  ware  exhorted  to  Bve  in  peace. 

3.  The  excuses  of  Ihe  bishops  Octavius,  Ursion,  Ke- 
migiiis,  and  Triferins  were  cnnMdereil.  These  prelates 
were  accused  of  having  conlerred  orders  irregularly  and 
uiicanmiically.  The  council  decided  that,  in  this' esse, 
indulgence  should  be  granted  to  the  four  bishops;  Imt 

crees  of  the  Church  should  be  deprivwl  of  the  right  of 
ordaining,  and  of  all  voice  in  sy  nodical  assemblies;  aitd 
that  those  who  should  bo  so  onlaineil  shoidd  be  de- 
posed. This  canon  wss  cuiiSrmcd  in  Ihe  Council  of 
Hiex,  A.D.  4S9. 

Several  other  repidations  relaring  to  Ihe  affairs  of  ihe 
Church  were  also  maile,  and  eight  canons  in  all  pub. 
lislifl.    See  Maiisi,CannV.ii,  1155.— Landan,.VanuoJny 


TURKEY  51 

Turkey  ii  Ihe  lirgeat  MohanimFdan  empire  ot  the 
world,  containing  extenniTe  powMoiong  in  Eutfra  Eu- 
rope, Wentcm  Asia,  and  Norttiem  Africa,  loduding  Ihe 
pruvlnceain  Europe  anil  ACrica  wliich  ate  virtually  in- 
ilepeiidenl,  anil  only  pay  an  annual  Iriliule  to  the  Turk- 
ish government,  the  I'urkinh  empire,  in  1880,  had  an 
area  or  2,302,000  square  miles,  and  47,000,000  inhabi- 
tanu.  In  coiiKqnence  of  tbe  treaty  of  Berlin  in  Ili78, 
Turkey  bad  to  r«eogni«e  Ihe  eiiiire  independence  ot 
KiHimaiiia  and  Servia,  and  la  consent  to  Ihe  occuiMtion 
of  llosiiia  and  lleneguvina  by  ihe  govemmetit  of  Aus- 
tria. Moreuirer,  Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia  bave 
iially  independent  of  Turkish 


kish  gov 


only. 


fully  under  iu  coutniL  In  Africa, 
are  likewiie  independent  in  point  of 
leducting  tbe  dependencies,  the  Turk- 
ish government  at  present  rules  over  ■  tfrritorv  of 
,043,000  square  miles,  wilb  a  population  of  2S,Mo',000. 
n  June,  1880,  Ihe  Supplementary  Conference  st  Uerlin 
ileclared  that  in  order  to  carry  out  tbe  provisions  of  (be 
reaty  of  Berlin  concerning  tbe  rectiOcatian  of  the  fion- 
betureen  Turkey  and  Greece,  Turkey  ought  1o  cede 
iteece  a  territory  containing  about  H"^  square  miles 
■nd  100,000  inhabitants. 

[yarn  bij  the  Ediler.—FoT  The  pnrpoie  ursuHbllne  onr 
readers  1o  anderstand  more  ftiUj  Ihe  pre^nt  eomj^llciiled 
honodflties  of  Turkey,  we  Insert  a  mriu  based  nooa  Ihe 
one  recenllT  (nDed  by  Slsurord,  of  Charing  Cnw,  L->n- 

Itie'RaBSO-Turklsbwar,  Turkey  baa  lust  for  mors  than 


Ibe  (oulh^iKi  from  Turkey.  Uwuls,  iDcliidluii'the 'part 
orCri„iilafonmrlTlnTiirkeT,lusellierwllbUer»guYi»a. 

gulns  a  ijsrl  of  Albania  and 
t  i>in  of  ^oanuniji  (bounded 

■■>■■■ -  """  — "  ^auube)  sdjuiuliig  Befunibu 

(wbkb  Bbs  nlicnOy  bcUl).  !□  Asfs  Kuuls  iSra  scqnirea  • 
illiIHci  of  Ameiiln  adjoining  Biilun.  Besides,  ihen  I* 
created  a  quasMndEtieudenl  dlflMct  of  Easleru  Knomc- 
lla.wliblu  tbe  above  nnrronedlliolUorTntkey.  TBrkc; 
in  Xuriipe  vittnally  uum  cimslsu  merely  of  a  pati  of 
Ruumelfu  snd  a  |Hirt  of  Alhaulii.  Tbe  Istsrtor  ctungn 
In  terrlliiry  and  pouolsllon  made  by  tbe  Brilin  Ireaty  arc 
stated  as  follows  iu  tbe  Loudon  AUimaum.  Ertlinates 
otulber  stailMlclaiu  vary  Ciiuildersbly  from  ibeHflgBtts. 


3~l"— ';S!=1 

it 

S,BOU 

T»,ogo 

1.0«1,«K) 
1.TIS.0IKI 

T*a.(w) 

'ioiooi 
AiLOog 

Si-S 

Ceded  to  Aiisirta,!f..'.'!!'.'.!!;:!! 

"asr  •""'""'""""' 

^,404 
IB.MI 

[ndnded  in  Eastern  Rounieli^i  . 

Hap  of  Tnrkey  in  Europe,  ihoirlDg  Ibe  Tenlloriul  Changes  m 


'•""•^r'.rtttgtc 


liaUitoRo»l».  irwoeitlqd8lhepn)*lin:«"iinleflul(6- 
Ij'  10  b«  occnplcil  by  AuBlria.  aud  BsMero  Kounielin, 
Aen  nnulu  Ui  To^kej  In  Enrol*  ""1)'  '*■''■"  fqtmw 
dIId,  wILh  4,118,000  luhibUnnt*,  i.f  whom  l.BSI.BOO  are 
ll<iliuiined*D>.  In  Armenln  RdhIs  Ukcn  10,000  triatte 
l>>lk^  Willi  ilwDt  B00,«00  InbabllauU.  CJl)^l^^ql^BBled 
w  ilx  kt^f^og  of  Bugljuid,  bai  no  area  ur  tiSS  •'quire 
Diki,  ud  ■bont  WO.Ofil  lDh«blUuls.    Mnnj  iif  Ib««e  oc- 

i(iiliiMr»na  (umcDritiem  will  prribibly  bnve  W  ba  lalien 
poiHulaD  ofbT  fiitce  of  amis.  Greoce  Is  iit  Ihe  preBaul 
BmawaKAnE.  1380)  urepnriiig  lo  d"  so  for  her  share.  It 
taimpoHlblaaciiiiopndlct  wbtt  thslHna  wlllbe.] 

Tbe  fonDCt  yolomM  of  thie  Cgdopadia  liave  speciil 
■rtidaon  Bi'lcabia.Euvi-TjBouiIANM.Servia:  m  ' 
m  ■omc  of  the  Eulem  Churcho  whicb  are  wholly 
chiefly  fbuDd  ioTuikey.as  the  Jacobites,  Nestoiiiakh, 
uid  Harokitks.     In  the  pre«ent  ■rticle,  after  giving 
•uch  prelimiuwy  iiiruraiatiun  ofk  genetal  churactei  u 
ik  inleiue  iDterat  at  preaent  preriiliog  od  the  Oriental 
<|iw>tian  aceou  lo  demand,  wa  treat,  more  ja,-'-  ■--• 
ttlbe  relifiiona  of  Turkey  proper,  »  far  sa  i 
not  yu  been  diKUued  in  the  ^Keiol  articles  » 
just  been  referred  to. 

1.  Gragrophical   atd   Elhnologieal   fealui 
gmgnphical  pogition  of  the  Turkish  empire  is  peculiar, 
■Dd  would,  under  ■  strong  government,  be  m 
ligeoiu.    It  connects  Europe  with  Asia,  Asia  with  Afri- 
ca, the  EaU  with  Ihe  West,  the  Uohammedan  with  the 
ChiiMian  world.     It  bas  an  extensive  »e»o 
a  indented  by  nutnerous  gulfs  and  bays,  and  embraces 
many  excellent  harbor*.     Some  pans  of  this 
infofmer  time*  the  scat  of  a  very  flourisbiug  commerce, 
which  would  undoubtedly  lie  revived  under  favorable 
dicnmuancea.     Almost  the  entire  territory  which  is 
eabj«(  t4)  direct  Turkish  rule  is  noted  for  its  fertility ; 
but  Tuikish  mitTule  bas  not  only  arrmtil,  but  dimin- 1 
iibfd,iu  product! venesa.    By  far  the  grtnier  portion  of 
ib«  Turkish  poaaeasiona  isnituateilin  A^a.     The  Euro- 
pean pnasesHons  hare  always  beeti  much  smaller,  but  as 
ibey  contained  the  capital  and  seat  of  gnvenimenl,  they 
hive  hitherto  been  of  much  greater  political  impor- 
taim.      This  importance  has,  however,  of  late  been 
greatly  reduced  by  the  territorial  losaes  which  Turkey 
hu  tiiDtaineil  by  the  last  Eaalcm  war  and  the  treaty 
nf  Berlin.    The  African  part  of  the  Turkish  empire  coiw 
BiU  tioKat  wholly  of  tributar}'  slatea;  and  the  rarlber 
■be  lerritoiy  of  one  of  these  states,  Egypt,  is  extended, 
tbe  HDaller  becomea  the  holil  the  Turkish  government 
hu  on  it.     Although  ruling  over  porliuna  of  Europe, 
Asa,  and  Afiica,  Turkey  is  leallr  an  Asiatic  power. 
While  the  Turka  ate  the  ruling  race  of  Ihe 
pircihey  constitute  a  majoriiy  of  the  total  |Hq>i<la 
ooly  in  the  Asiatic  poasessions.     Even  Astatic  Tin 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  Uttoman  land,  for  Ihe  bulk 
of  the  people  arc  descendants  of  the  old   Helji 
Tarks  who  hare  been  sulijtcted  by  the  Ottoman  Turks. 
In  Ihe  African  dependenciea  the  Turks  are  hardly  rcp- 
niented  at  all,  aiul  in  Europe  they  are  alirHst  evei 
where  in  ■  mitwrity.    According  lo  an  elaborate  arii 
on  the  ethiiogra|ihical  rela^ona  of  Turkey  in  Pet 
mann's  Gtogrophutlie  MitlhitlHiign,  ISTti,  No.  7,  i 
Turks  are  u>  be  found  as  a  compact  |tofiulal  ion  only 
thiee  sanjak*,  thoee  of  KiiMchuk,  Tulcha,  and  Var 
Tboe  three  aanjaka  formed  part  ot  the  vilayet  of  i 
Danube.    They  are  lees  numeroua  in  the  Khodi 
MiMniains.     On  tbe  shorea  of  the  jEgaan  Sea  and  i 
Sm  of  Msrcnora,  and  on  the  soullneut  ahore  of  the 
Black  Sea,  they  are  greatly  outnumbered  by  Ihe  Greeks, 
opeciilly  in  the  direction  of  CoiMani  inople.     It  is  i 
remaitable  fact  that  all  the  sanjaks  which  contain  (hi 
nxial  compact  Turkish  popnbtion  are  now  subject  ti 
tbe  Kmi-independent  prince  of  Christian  Bulgaria  an< 
to  Ihe  Christian  governor  of  the  autonomous  proiinci 
«f  Eatem  Roumelia.      The  aggregate  number  of  thi 
OHtkaiOi  Turbi  in  Europe,  including  Bulgaria,  Easier 
Kountelia,  Bosnia,  and    Heraegoviiia,  is  estimated    at 
about  3,000,000.      ExclnaiTe  of  Ihera  provinces, 
■bich  Ihe  authority  of  tbe  aoltan  is  not  likely  lo  be 


ITJKKEY 


ver  restorel,  the  number  of  Osmanlis  will  barely  reach 

,000,000  ill  a  total  papulation  of  about  6,000,000.     In 

LSia  the  Turkish  race  it  aupposed  to  number  more  than 

8,600.000  ofa  total  population  of  ]7.000,000t  but  thii 

■  er  embraces  many  old  tribes  who  have  been  totally 

led  and  melted  in  tbe  Turks.     Tbe  Turcomans, 

ive  chtcBv  in  Northern  Mesopotamia,  aud  number 

about  100,000,  Oelung  to  the  same  race  as  ilie  Turks. 

"     [o  the  lime  of  the  late  Eaaleni  war,  the  bulk  of 
the  population  in  the  European  dominions  of  Turkey 
was  made  up  of  five  non-Turkish  tribes— Roumanians, 
Una,  BulgaTians,(ireeka,and  Albanians.   TheKou- 
manians,  who  chiefly  inhabit  the  principality  of  Rouma- 
nia,  where  they  number  about  6,000,000,  have  long  been 
'  independent  of  Turkej',  anil  became  entirely  inde- 
pendent by  the  treaty  of  Berlin.    Only  about  200,000 
in  aubject  lu  Turkish  rule.     Oi'tniile  of  Koumania 
and  Turkey,  Austria  baa  a  Koumaiiian  population  ex- 
ceeding three  millions.     West  ami  south  of  tbe  Rou- 


>f  Ihe  . 


Servians  aiHl  the  Bulgarians.  The  Servians  • 
the  inhabitants  of  tbe  princijialitiea  of  Serria  and  Mon- 
tenegro, and  of  fioania  an<l  Herzegovina.  Both  Mon- 
tenegro (q.  V.)  and  Servia  (ip  v.)  are  now  independent 
Katea;  Bosnia  and  Hera^;oviiia  hare  been  placed  under 
Austrian  administration,  and  are  likely  lo  beconte  emm 
a  part  of  the  Austrian  empire.  In  Bosnia,  the  lauded 
arislocracy,  alier  the  conquest  of  tbe  country  by  Ihe 
Turks,  became  Mohammedans,  in  order  lo  save  their 
property  and  their  privileges,  but  Ihey  conliinie  lo  speak 
the  Servian  language.  Oulelde  uf  the  present  and  fur- 
met  domiiuoiH  of  (he  sulian,  AustriB  has  aSenian  |K>p- 
ulatioii  of  about  4,600,000,  called  Croatiaiia,  Slavonians, 
Ualmatians,  and  Slovenians.  The  large  majority  of  tbe 
Sen-ians  belong  to  tbe  liroek  Oriental  Church ;  but  in 
Austria  and  in  Bosnia  there  is  also  ■  large  Roman  Catb- 
>lic  elcmint.  According  to  a  recent  work  by  Klaic  on 
josnia  (Agtam,  1«7S),  written  iu  the  Croatian  language, 
he  population  of  Bosnia  is  divided,  as  rrgards  the  rc- 
igiouB  denominations,  into — Orthodox  (ireek  Church, 
>4e,B7S,  or  USA  per  cent.;  Mohammedans,  480,696,  or 
16.U  pet  cent.;  Roman  Catholics,  207,119,  or  16.6  per 
;ent.;  and  Jews,  3000,  or  S  per  cent.;  but  in  regaril  to 
'ace,  l,291,ilUS  of  this  population  are  Slaves,  only  2000 
Ostnanii  Turks,  80,000  Albanians,  and  11,000  gypsies. 
■etviana  of  all  the  different  denominations  in  Aus- 
nd  the  foimer  Turkish  dominions  are  only  now 
awakening  to  the  full  significance  of  the  fact  that  their 
common  language  makes  them  joint  members  of  one 
nationality,  and  a  strong  movement  towards  uniting  at 
future  time  all  these  members  into  one  state  has 


anli  Tuil 


.e  Servii 


e  second  Slavic  race  of  European  Turkey  is  the 

Danube,  iheii  Mniiheni  ethnic  boundary  being  a  line 
pasung  through  the  towns  of  Nissa,  I'risrend,  Ochrida, 
Kasioria,  Kisgostoa,  Salonica,  Adriaiiopie,  and  Burgas, 
on  the  lllnck  Sea.  The  number  of  Bulgarians  is  esti- 
mated at  from  three  tu  fuur  millian&  After  four  cen- 
turies and  a  half  of  oppression,  they  were  considered  at 
the  begiiiidng  of  the  19th  century  tbe  most  wretched 
people  of  Kurq)e.  Then  a  marvellous  awakening  be- 
gan. Stt  BULOABIA.  In  spite  of  all  oppression,  they 
laid  the  foundatioD  of  a  national  system  of  educatii>ii, 
and  Te-estaUished  the  independence  of  their  national 
Church.  The  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  March  S,  ItlTM, 
between  Russia  and  Turker,  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Bulgaria  as  ■  tributary  Ottoman  principalilr 
and  a  national  militia.  The  principality  thus  consti- 
tuted would  have  extended  fmm  the  boundaries  of  Set- 
viaand  Albania  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  from  the  Danoba 
nearly  to  the  .Egean  Sea,  taking  in  about  Hfty  milea  of 
the  i£j{ean  coast.     It  would  have  included  all  Ihe  pre- 


liv?  ami  a  hair  mllHoiia.  Uul  tllhough  Iht  llulgamriB 
wnulJ  have  been  iho  ttooiiiiiiil  ran,  ■  eoiuiilerablc 
niimlwi  of  Turks.  Servians,  ami  (ii«ks  kouM  have 
been  merged  in  the  tlul^riaai  maturity.  Tbe  (reaty 
•irUerlin  of  July  13,  1H7M,  ^really  rmidified  ihia  plan. 
I'lic  iriljulary  priiici|iaUly  of  UulKaria,  as  iMnstitulfd 
Ifv  it,  cuiitaiiit  oiilv  83,000  square  miles  and  about 
1^00,000  iiihabiuiiis.  The  UulKarian  dulricia  aoulh 
;,[  ihe  Balkans  were  consiituwil  as  the  autiinoinous 
n  Ituumelia,  Ihe  guvemor  of  Hhkh 


a  Cliri 


A  curiuns  fact  in  Ihe  relation  of  the  different  racea 
that  peu[>le  European  Turkey  is  the  irreEular  maniHT 

caliry,"siys'UBker.inhis  Turliff,"nn  be  fuund  irhei« 
tbe  populalion  la  exclusively  of  Ihe  same  natiotialit r ; 
bul  ■  rival  nice  cni|ii  up  here  and  there,  and  jostle*  it* 
itei);hboTS.  We  fliid.  fur  instance,  ■  quarter  where  Ihe 
majority  of  (lie  pO[Kilation  are  nuti^snans;  but  amoug 
them  inconsiderable  numbers  are Turks,Ure«ks, Circas- 
anotherquarlettbe  majoriiv  are 


Esslern  Itoumelia 

KJO.OUO  iuhabilanli 

riaiis,  150,000  lireck",  and  70,000  Turki     The  tggn- 

jiale  pu|Hilaiiiin   of  itu1|;aria  and   Eastern   Koumelia 

rraches  about  3,000,000,  of  whom  fully  2,500,000  are 

Tlie  Mohammedan  populalion  is  estimaleil  at  from 
800,000  ID  950,000,  but  fully  two  thirds  of  tbem  are  of 
Bulgarian  descent.  Tlie  Itulgwiuw,  generally,  were 
grenlly  dlssatistied  with  Ihe  provisinns  uf  Ihe  Irealy 
of  Berlin,  and  a  strung  movement  began  al  once  for  ■ 
reunion  of  Bulgaria  and  Extern  Koumelia,  which  can 
hardly  fail  to.  be  ere  ]iMg  succewful,  anil  result  in  [be 
emancipation  of  the  entire  Bulgarian  population  from 


irkiih  I  Albanian^  but  they  again  have  i 
it  of  the  ireaiy  powers,  j  Bulgarians,  Wsllachians,  (ireeks.  and  Turks;  and  »  oa 
13.GG4  square  miles  and  '  all  over  llie  country.  Each  of  Ihese  oaliona  has  its 
own  language,  religion,  and  cualoms;  and  it  iherefore 
follows  that  the  difficulty  of  governing  the  man  li« 
in  B  direct  ratio  to  ihe  number  of  races  represented 
iu  il."  This  iiregular  distribution  of  races  has,  hoo- 
ever,  been  considerably  affected  by  the  close  of  the 
Eastern  war,  when,  especially,  large  numbeni  of  Turks 
and  Bulgarians  left  their  endanifereil  homes,  and  em- 
igtaled  to  dislrirts  predominantly  inlutnled  by  core- 
ligionists. The  Auslrian  consul  Sax  fin  Ottirrrriei' 
iichf  MomalackriJifiirJrit  Orient,  1878)  estimales  the 
number  of  ihosc  who  from  the  spiring  of  1877  to  the 
close  of  1878  changed  their  midence  at  more  than  on* 


The  Greeks,  or 


imthern  part  of  European  Turl 


numerical  preponder- 


Soulhem  Uaceiliiiiia.  and  the 
>portant  of  which  it  Crete.  They 
led  among  the  Christian  races  of 
iber  is  estinmled  at  about  1,000,000 
,000,000  in  Asiatic  Turkey.    The 


o  be  annexed  to  the 


kingdom  of  Greece,  and  the  gi 

doni  maile  in  Januai}',  1879,  an  attempt  to  occupy  mese 
ilistricts.  The  attempt  had.  however,  in  be  abiindancil 
at  tlie  requeat  of  the  great  powers.  The  Congress  of 
Berlin  expresseil  a  desire  thai  the  fronlier  between 
Ureece  and  Turkey  should  be  rectitled  to  the  advantage 
of  the  fuimer  power,  and  offered  Ihe  meiliation  of  Ihe 
great  powers  in  case  Turkey  and  Greece  should  be  nn- 
able  to  agree.  As  Ibis  afireement  was  not  reached,  the 
supplementary  congress  held  in  Berlin  in  June,  1880, 
desigiialcd  [he  new  frontier  between  Ihe  two  slates.  In 
Asia,  the  Urceks  are  fast  occupying  ihe  seaports  and 
coast  of  A^a  Minor,  from  which  Ihe  Turks  are  steadily 
retiring  before  them,  and  it  is  believed  by  many  lliat  a 
vip>rou9  Creek  kiiigilom  in  Europe  would  soon  find  a 
legiliinate  Held  of  expansion  along  the  coast  of  Asia  no 


II.  Oiigin  and  PetUieal  Hu/ory^The  Turks  are  litx 
heard  of  in  hislory  when  they  emerged  from  the  n^i-ina 
of  Central  Asia,  and  emigrated,  early  in  Ihe  Cbriidian 
■era,  to  (he  neighborhood  of  Ihe  Aral  and  (Caspian  sea.-^ 
In  the  6[h  century  they  (armed  an  alliance  wiih  the 
Koman  emperor  Justin  II;  in  tbe  7th  they  begsn  to 
leam  the  Slohammedan  religion  at  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens.  After  theit  conversinn  to  Mohaiomedaiiism 
they  rapidly  rose  in  power  ami  influence.  One  branch, 
which,  after  it*  leader,  Seljuk,  received  the  name  of  SeK 
Jukian  Turks,  auhjugaied  a  large  portion  of  i>eniia,  and 
thence  spread  into  Syria,  Armenia,  Geoi^ia,  and  1>iwer 
Egypt.  Under  Malrk  Shah,  the  grandson  of  Seljuk, 
the'  dynasty  of  ihe  Seljukian  Turks  was  in  Ihe  llih 
century  the  greatest  power  in  Asia.  They  gradually 
pressed  their  conquests  to  ihe  West,  and  fivm  this  lime 
a  more  special  and  crying  peisecuiiun  of  the  Christians 
' li,  the  emfare  was  divided 


The  Albanians  occupy  the  coinury  south  of  the  Ser- 
vians and  HulgaTUn^  and  nonli  of  ibe  lireeka.  Their 
numberisolimaled  at  from  1,^00,000  tn2.000.000.  More 
than  one  half  uf  them  have  embraced  Islam,  Ihongh  il  is 
Slid  Ihat  many  of  the  Mofaammedan  Albanians  remain 
sectelly  Chrisiian.  Tliey  are  divided  into  a  number  of 
tribes.  Some  of  the  most  warlike  mountain  tribes  are 
Koman  Catholics.  In  the  fronlier  districts  the  Albanians 
ate  gn-ally  mixed  with  Servians  in  the  north  and  with 
lirei-ks  in  the  south.  They  opjHised  with  great  vigor 
Ihe  ceitsion  to  Montenegro  by  the  Turkish  government 
of  soinediatricls largely  inhabilod  by  Albanians,aiidde.  gins.  Ho  n 
cbred  an  inlcnlinn  to  oppose  no  less  vigorously  the  ces-  I  Sclji 


which  I 


in  the  laih  centniy  by  the  irrup- 
tion uf  Die  Mi>guls  un<ler  Oenghis  Khan.  Then  the 
history  o[  ihe  Ultoman  Turk*  begins.  1'he  first  men- 
tion of  them  is  made  at  Ihe  beginning  of  the  I3lh  cen- ' 
tury,  when  they  em igrateil,  under  Ihe  name  of  Oghon 
Turks,rrom  the  main  body  in  Kliorassan,  Per»a.la  the 
mountains  in  Armenia,  whence  •  part  removed  aiid 
aeltlrd  near  Angora,  slill  acknowleilgini;  the  suzeraintT 
of  the  Seljukian  sultan  of  Iconium,  I'anly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Ihe  Creeks,  partly  at  Ihat  of  other  Turkjiih 
cmin  or  princes,  the  leaden  of  this  band.  Ettoghnil  aixl 
his  son  Othraan,  or  Osman,  gmlually  grew  in  power, 
Ulhman  became  the  moet  powerful  prince  in  Wesiero 
Asia,  anil  from  him  his  fnlluwera  took  Ihe  nam«  bf 
which  this  branch  of  the  Turks  has  ever  since  been  ile»- 
Ignited,  that  of  Ottoman,  or  Osmanli.  Shortiv  before 
thedeaihofOthman,  in  1386,  hi*  armies  took' BionH, 
which  became  the  Asiatic  capital  of  the  Otinmant 
With  Olhman'a  son,  Orkhan,  Ihe  Ottoman  empire  be- 


self  ei 


lely  iml 


r  tb« 


The 

Albaiiiins  are  Ihe  only  one  of  the  Sve  nan-Turkish  na- 
lioiialitiea  of  European  Turkey  which  shows  some  kind 
of  attachment  to  the  Ot  toman  govenimenl.  This  must 
partly  be  explained  by  the  prcilominiiuw  among  them 
of  Mohamincdaiiism,  and  |iBRly  by  their  determina- 
liun  not  to  be  absotbeil  by  Servians  and  Greeks.  The 
lucraauug  consolidalion  of  .Servians,  Bulgarians,  and 


nitan.  though  he  continued  to  bear  Hie  i 
r  emit.  During  hi*  reign  Gallipoli,  in  the 
inKian  Chersonesus,  Ibe  liiW  acquisllinn  of  Ihe  Turfcn 
Europe,  wag  conquered,  >n  18.ST,  ami  all  of  Weslein 
ia  occupieil.  He  impoaeil  upon  the  conquered  Chris- 
faith,  anil  01 


isforceoflhe-laniu 


centurieaconMitutcd  ihe  strength  of  tbe  Otiomanar 


TURKEY 


583 


TUUKKY 


Id  [he  nign  of  Murod  I,  the  »ncc««»r  orOTkbin,  AHri-  I  on  the  north  towards  Hungarr,  uid  in  Utn  timra  to. 
iiuiplewu  taken.  M'hicli  IwcametheEurnpeaii  capital  or  i  wardt  Ruuia,  went  ateadily  back.  The  aucceaaiun  of 
itwOllomans  till  they  captuml  Coii3taniini>|ile.  When  |  (rreat  rulers  was  Btopperi.  The  pDwen  of  the  lultsn 
ibe  Turks  entered  Europe,  the  territorj'  of  the  Greek  l-eome  less,  the  [lower  of  the  pashas  gjeater.  In  I8i2 
ext«ndmft   a  9u]taiiwas,fuT  [he  lirsttiine.murdered. 


Itinopl, 


Tb 


ir.iilMig  from  [ 


Irianople,  and  from  the  Blac 
ipela^.  (u  a  Bmall  part  of  Ihe  coast 
L,  ani)  the  lar^r  portion  of  the  Felu- 
itilk  uf  wliBt  Mibsecjuently  beeaine  Ku- 


:  i*e]oponn 
'  Bosnia  and  the  AJi 
awl  of  the  kinsdnin 

Danube  la  Ailtiaiiople.  twunileil  un  the  east  tiy  tlie  li 
Sea.  The  fmilier  between  Bulgaria  and  Servia 
'"Sinit- 


re  the  ncaiest  Bulgarian  r  the  Turks  wi 
ilier.    At  Ihii  titne  the  power  of  Senia    wilh  the  Chr 

Ml  after  the  death  of  Stephen  Uiishan,  |  The  wars  agai 
r,  and  Buljfaria  began  lii  split  up  iiilo  :  to  tin 
.ingik>niB.     Thus  botli  were  unable  to  .  by  wl 


half  of  the  I7ib  century  the  Turks  began  to  lose  tbeii 
hold  oti  Hungary.  The  battle  of  St.Gotthard,  in  1664, 
was  the  firet  great  overthrow  of  the  Turks  by  land.  At 
the  end  of  the  17lh  century  the  Turks  hail  been  at  war 
with  all  their  Christian  neighbors,  and  they  hsd  Unt 

Sea;  [  land  Ihey  bad^gaineil  I'oiiulia;  they  had  kst,  besides 
ilnponnesuB,  and  Azof.  All  of  these  ler- 
eol'FiKlD]ia,were  given  up  by  the  trea- 
1700.  The  peace  of  Carlowiu,  in  1699, 
1  the  decline  uf  the  Ottoman  power,  and 


■npelled  [< 
ian  powen  of  Europe  on  equal  terms. 
It  Austria,  which,  with  brcakg  from  time 
eofMohacz,  ISJG, 
liished  their  rule  over  Hun- 


gone  oil  since  tt 


e  Bulgarian  city  gaiy.wereendeil  by  i 
III  rhilippnpcilis  was  raken.  About  1371  the  cliief  of  result  was  that  Hungary'  was  freed  fnim  the  Turk,  hut 
the  three  Uulgarian  kingduois,  that  of  Timuvi,  became  that  Seniaand  Bosnia  were  left  in  his  clutches.  The 
liibutiiy.  For  a  while  a  Slavic  cniifederation,  under  frontier  established  by  tliat  peace  has  remained  almnat 
the  Bosnian  king  Stephen,  won  some  successes;  but  in  unchangcil.  The  must  dangerous  nf  all  the  foreign  en- 
<he  great  balile  uf  Ko«»va,  in  13*19.  the  confederate  emiea  nf  Turkey  proved  to  be  Knssia.  The  wars  be- 
Uotnians,  Servians.  Bulgarians,  and  Wallachians  were  [ireen  Uussia  and  Ihe  Turks  began  in  the  middle  uf  [he 
utterly  tiefeated.  Two  or  three  years  later,  Servia  and  |  [7th  century,  and  Ihe  two  countries  have  ever  since  sp- 
WaUachia  became  tributary,  aiul  the  greater  part  of  i  pearal  as  irreconcilable  hereditary  (oes  whose  inter- 
Buigiria  was  conquered.    Murad's  sun,  llajazet  1,  wa»  1  minable  coiiBict  could  only  be  eiiiled  by  the  deetrDctinn 

of  Milan,  and  aisu  the  first  who  attacked  Constantiuo- 1  Turkey  put  on  a  very  di'llnctive  character  when  Peter 
pie.  The  procreas  of  Ihe  Turks  was  arrested  by  Ihe  i  the  Great,  in  IG9G,  took  Azof,  Ihe  ket- of  Ihe  Black  Sea. 
Uunniiig  defeat  which  Ihev  suSered  in  HO'i  at  Angora.  From  the  time  that  Mohammed  the  Conqueror  took  the 
ilthehandorTimur.  the 'famous  Tamerlane;  but  they  I  Genoese  possessions  in  the  Crimea,  the  Black  Sea  had 
rrcovered  their  power  under  Bajazel's  gramtson,  Murad  |  been  wholly  under  Ihe  power  uf  the  Tuiiis.  When 
II  (14il-^i;,  who  conqueteil  Thessaltmica.  Corinth,  Pa-  Azof  fell  into  the  bands  of  the  Russians,  ii  remained 
tiw.  and  a  pan  of  Albania,  which  was  heroically  de-  fur  a  great  time  Ibe  point  of  contention  between  the  two 
(tuted  by  the  great  Sanderbeg.  His  son,  Mohammed  |  countries.  A  new  stage  in  the  hislcny  of  these  warais 
11  |14al-j<l).  coiiquenid  Constantinople,  and  [hereby  de- I  marked  by  [he  famous  [rvaly  of  Kainarjiori774,  which 
itroynl  the  Greek  em|nre.  He  reduced,  in  1469,  Servia  |  emled  (he  first  war  of  Catherine  II  against  the  Turks, 
fiom  a  Iribuiary  principality  to  an  Ottoman  province;  Thia  treaty  for  the  first  lime  brought  the  Ottoman 
in  I4«3  llosnia  was  annexed;  in  1461,  the  Christian  em-  power  into  some  measure  of  dependence.  It  gave  Kus- 
pireiifTrcbizund,inA>ia;  in  1466.Caramania:  inl479.  !>ia  a  Hrm  foothold  on  the  tUack  !Sea.  and  ihe  impnr- 
tbe  PcluputineMiii.  which  at  that  lime  belonged  to  the  '  tint  righl  lu  remnnsirate  in  behalf  of  ^Vallachia  and 
"       '  '  I  \4Sa  Otranto,  in  Italy,  was  captured ;  [  MoUavia,  in  case  of  any  breach  □ 


and  Itie  dcMgii  was  openly  avowed  to  conqi 
Western  Knrupe  and  lu  exterminate  Cbtistianitv.  But 
MDliammeil's  ileath,  in  1481.  put  an  end  to  tliese 
wlieioM;  Otranti)  was  soon  abandoned,  and  no  further 
pnigms  was  ever  made  nest  of  the  Adriatic     The 

abuut  tbe  same  exient  it  had  l>erure  the  late  Hast- 
en war.  In  tbe  whole  of  Ihe  Balkan  peninsula  only 
the  small  mountain  district  of  Montenegro  has  kepi 
iie  uidependence  to  out  own  limes.  Selim  ihe  InHexi- 
ble  <l51i-l9)  warred  against  Mohammedan  enemies, 
•ltd  annexed  Syria  and  Egipi  to  his  dominions.  From 
the  lax  of  a  line  of  nominal  caliphs  Selim  obtained 
a  cmiou  of  his  righis,  and  ever  since  the  Ottoman 
uluns  have  licen  acknowledged  aa  chiefa  of  their  re- 
li^n  by  all  Uussutmane  nf  the  Sunnile  seel. 
iht  reign  of  Suleiman  [[  (1519-66)  [he  empire  attained 
the  greateM  eMent  it  has  ever  bad.  The  larger  por- 
tion a(  Hungarv  waa  annexed :  a  Turkish  pasha  ruled 
It  Ituda:  an<l  ihe  princes  of  TrBiisylviiiia,  Molilavia, 
■ad  U'sllacbia  became  vassals  nf  the  sultan.  Khodes 
■ai  'sken  from  Ihe  Knighls  of  St.  John,  and  a  large 

of  Suleiman  the  decline  oTTurkish  power  began.  The 
reign  uf  Selim  II,  the  Drunkard  (1566-74),  was  marked 
'ly  Ihe  first  great 


the  Tur 
The  I 


■t  Chrl 


It  prominent  fealure  in  Ihe  Turkish  hislnTy 
t  [he  Oitoman  power. 


of  independence  began  ii 

t  local  tyrants  who  defied  Ihe  authority  of  ilie 

,  but  it  soou  became  a  war  of  independence.  In 
be  independence  of  the  country  waa  recognised 
key,  which  was  only  to  receive  an  annual  tribute, 
id  Tit  Slime  time  retained  Ihe  right  of  keeping  garri- 


in  forln 


The 


ilence  liegan  in  IH2I.  Finding  himself  unable  to  sub- 
due both  Greece  and  Servia.  the  aullan  had  to  applv  fur 
help  to  his  rebellions  vaiwal.  pasha  Mehemet  Al'i  of 
During  Egypt;  but  the  outrages  of  the  Egyptians  led  to  an  in- 
terference by  England.  France,  and  KuA'ia.who,  in  Wi', 
in  the  treaty  of  London,  agreeil  to  make  <ireece  free; 
destrnved,  in  November.  I)t27,at  Ihe  battle  of  NsvariiiK, 
tbe  Turkish  and  Egypt  ian  dcel.  and  eompelleil  the  huI- 
tan  to  agree  to  the'  irealv  uf  Ixmdon.  In  Ibe  treaiv 
of  AdriaiKiple  (Ittifl),  1'urkcy  hail  lu.l  imly  to  acknowl- 
edge Ihe  independence  of  Greece.  Ihii  Ihe  almnslcom- 
pleie  iiide|wn<leiic«  of  lluhlavia  aiHl  W.illachia,  whose 
bospoilars  thereofter  held  office  fur  lifeiime.  and  lo 
ceile  several  fiirtresscs  on  ilie  mnsi  of  ihe  Black  Sea 


uterthrow  of  ihe  Turkish  fleet  by  the  fleets  of  Spain 

and  Venice  at  the  battle  of  I^panto,  in  1571.     No  last-    Iroducing  in  . 

ing  tsnqaMits  of  importance  were  made  from  this  time,    the  Janizaries;  but  while  his  reforms  did  little  good 

ouept  the  islanda  of  Cyprus  and  Crete,    The  Tiontier  '  lo  tbe  Christians,  they  set  his  Uohammedan  subjects 


TURKEY 


igiinat  him 


i.  BoBuii 


re  were  Moh 


imnlan  rernlU  in  A1-  ] 


orWeheni 


1832;  but  more  important  wsB  the  I 

AJi  of  Egypt,  who  ooiiquered  Syria  aiid  other  Aiiatic 

very  exiatence  of  the  empire,  when  (1840)  four  of  (be 
tcreit  Chriitiin  power*  of  Europe  coneloded  the  treaty 
of  Buda-l'uth,  and  cumpelleJ  Hehemet  Ali  to  (tive  up 
hU  Asiatic  conqueac  In  the  Crimean  war  (1S5B-65), 
Turkey  would  probalily  have  been  eruihed  by  RiiMia 
lilt  for  the  interference  ut  EnfclaiKl,  France,  and  Sai- 
dinia  in  iu  tMbair.  By  Ibe  treaty  of  peace  in  1856,  tbe 
liowen  which  lignnlii — France,  A usiria,  Great  Rritain, 
l'nia9ia,Ruuia,  and  Sardinia — declared  that  IbeSuUime 
Porte  was  admitted  to  partake  in  the  atlranlatcea  of 
public  law  and  the  European  coneert.  Thi«  concesaion 
waa  made  to  Ibe  Porta  in  recognition  of  ibe  halti-ha- 
fnoyun  (Feb.  IS,  1356),  a  pmcUmatinn  tvhieb  promiaed 
to  the  Christiana  equal  civil  rights,  but  which  the  Forte 
found  itself  no  more  able  In  cany  out  than  ■  preceding 
reriinnatory  edict,  the  kaniskfrif  of  (tuthane  of  1868. 
The  approaching  collapae  of  Turkey  became  more  and 
more  apparent.     Terrible  maiucna  of  Chriuiana  in 

d  Mount  Lebanon  led,  in  tS60,  to  a  French 
la  1S61  HoUUviB  and  WallachU  united 

n  apite  of  the  treaty  of  Pari*  and  uf  the 
pnileat  of  the  Porte,  into  oik  atate,  calleil  Roumania.  A 
powerful  impulse  waa  given  to  the  aspiration  of  the 
Chriatiatis  for  freedum  by  the  oimplele  victory  of  the 
naUoaility  principle  in  Italy  and  liennany.  Aa  the 
Italians  and  Uermans  had  re-eatablished  an  Italian 
kingdocDaud  a  <iernian  empire,  tbua  the  Greeks  of  Tur- 
key expressed  a  wish  for  a  union  with  Greece,  (lie  Ser- 
vians began  to  dream  of  the  re-euablishmenl  of  a  Urge 
Servian  empire,  the  Bulgariatia  of  a  Bulgarian  king- 
dom, the  Roumaniaiiaof  aevering  ilie  last  tie  of  connec- 
tion with  Turkey.  The  first  movement  in  this  direc- 
tion waa  the  insurrection  in  Crete  in  18U6,  which  was 
iQppreued  in  1869.  The  poweis  which  had  signed  the 
treaty  of  Paris  held  a  special  conference  and  recc^iiseif 
the  demands  of  the  I'orie  as  just.  In  1867  the  demand 
of  Servia  that  theTnrkish  garrisons  be  withdrawn  from 
all  the  Servian  fortresses  was  grenled.  In  VTii  the 
sultan  conceded  to  the  khedive  of  Egypt  two  important 
attributes  of  sovereignty,  the  direct  hereditary  succes- 
sion and  the  authnriiat'ion  )o  make  loaiu.     On  July  6, 

gradually  kindled  the  great  Eastern  war.  A  series  of 
joint  steps  were  taken  by  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
lo  induce  the  Porte  to  concede  the  reform  demand- 
ed bv  the  Christian  insurgents.  The  most  important 
were',  the  nnte  of  count  Aitdrassy  of  Dec.  3U,  1879;  the 
Berlin  Memorandum  of  May  H,  1876;  the  Constanti- 
nople Conference  from  December,  1876,  u  Januarv, 
1877 1  and  the  London  Protocol  of  March  31, 1877.  6a 
April  34  Russia  declared  war,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
1S78  Turkey  was  utterly  cnialied.  In  the  peace  of  San 
Stefatw  of  March  8, 1878.  Turkev  had  to  recognise  the 
entire  independence  of  Roumania,  Serbia,  and  Monte- 
negro, Id  cede  some  additional  territory  to  Servia  and 
Hontenegro,  and  to  consent  to  the  eatabtishment  of  an 
iikdepeiident  principality  of  Bulgaria. 


helplt 


te  the  I 


riets  in  Southern  Turkey  was 
promised.  The  intmUiction  of  the  reforms  formally 
demanded  by  the  great  poweis  of  Europe  was  again 
promised,  and  their  execution  placed  under  the  guaran- 
tee of  the  Rieai  powers,  A  few  weeks  before  (.Inne  4. 
1878),  Turkey  had  eonohided  a  secret  treaty  with  Eng- 
land, which  assumed  a  proleclorale  over  the  Asiai  ic  ili>- 
minions  of  the  sultan  as  long  as  Russia  would  not  return 
iu  conquests  in  Armenia.  In  return,  Cyprus  was  placed 
under  Englixh  n.lminialration,  and  the  Porte  pleilged  It- 
self to  cart;  through  administrative  reruniis  in  the  Aai- 


posseasions.    Thus  Turkey  appeared  in  an  entinly 

IB  its  European  posBB- 

of  total  decay.    Among 

—the  Torv  ^^vemiDCDt 

n  behalf  of 


were  concerned,  in  s 
the  European  powers,  oni; 
of  England— occasion  ally  used  its  inSu 
the  Turkish  goTemmenk  The  foU  ol 
try  in  1880,  and  the  access  lo  power  nf  the  Libera]  pai^ 
ty,  which,  during  the  war,  hod  openly  espnaaed  ila 
sympailiy  with  the  Christian  nalinnaliiies  of  the  Bal- 
kan peninsida,  especially  with  the  Greeks,  deprived  the 
Mohammedan  government  of  its  lost  hope.  As  the 
Turks  had  l»en  unable  to  agree  with  the  Greek  gov- 
ernment about  the  prumised  rcciiBcatiun  of  frontier,  tb« 
poweiB  which  had  signed  the  treaty  of  Uerlin  held  on- 
..ther  special  conference  at  Berlin'  in  June,  1880,  and 
designated  the  districts  which,  in  their  opinion,  sbould 
be  celled  lo  Greece.  The  vital  power  uf  Turkey  ap- 
pears to  be  exhausted.  A  coiistituiion  drawn  up  by 
Midhat  Paaha,  and  proclaimed  Dec.  S3,  1876,  which 
promised  to  the  populaiion  very  exleniivc  rights,  failed 
to  maka  any  imptnsion  either  at  home  or  abroad.  The 
Parliament  which  siet  in  March,  1877,  attracted  ntan 
attention  by  ita  novelty  than  by  ita  work. 

III.  Sulumal  ChuraelnriMlia  and  Ourrmmai/al  Pnl' 
iry. — Comparing  Turkey  with  the  other  states  oTCu- 
rupe,  we  are  struck  with  one  veiy  remarkable  distinc- 
lion.  In  all  the  other  counlries  of  Europe  the  bulk  (€ 
the  people  have  learned  ihat  they  have  a  common  coun- 
try, and  Ihal,  however  widely  their  opinions  may  differ, 
and  however  much  tbey  may  dislike  tbe  exiating  gov- 
ernment, they  have  important  intereats  in  commoa. 
The  Turks  have  never  become  a  nation.  Aller  subject- 
ing many  iribes  of  diflerent  race  and  religion,  the  ex- 
clusive aim  of  tbeaullanabasbeen  lokeep  them  in  sab- 
possible.  The  effect  of  Turkey's  rule  basthcrefiire  been 
most  blighting  upon  every  interest  of  her  subiena. 
Morally,  socially,  economically,  and  poliiically,  her  de- 
|ieiHlenciea  have  aniik,  under  the  coinbineil  inSuencv  of 
a  false,  fanarioal,  and  sensual  religion,  a  bigoted,  selfish, 
and  imbecile  regime,  and  an  ignorant,  fatalistic,  Bn>l  ef- 
fete philosophy,  to  the  lowest  |KHsible  point  of  civiliied 
communiiiea.  Corruption  reignsin  even- department  of 
state,  and  supersliiion  in  every  form  of  suciely.  The 
rulingchua,  being  Turks  and  Htalema,  feel  nu  sympathy 
with  the  natives,  who  are  largely  Christian  and  of  differ- 


Turkey  would  have  been  disnaemhervd  long  ago  by  for- 
eign interference,  or  have  collapsed  in  uiier  ruin  by  its 
internal  rollennvss.  England  has  been  largely  charge- 
able for  maintaining,  by  her  diplomatic  policy,  this  eye- 
sore and  bt>it  upon  the  map  of  the  world. 

Several  large  territories  are  but  very  loosely  con- 
nected with  the  empire.  Tunis,  in  Africa,  eonsiders  ii- 
aelf  aa  a  vaasal  state  of  the  sutian,  but  without  any  de>i- 
nile  obligalion,  not  even  that  of  paying  an  annual  Irib- 
ute.  Formerly  there  were  two  other  states  of  this  doas, 
AlgeriaandTripolii  but  tbe  former  has  been  conituered 
liy  France,  aitd  the  Ulter  has  recently  come  uitder  Iha 
direct  autluirity  of  the  sultan.  The  vassal  slates  which 
had  oidy  to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  and  were  otherwiaa 
auI<lnomou^we>c.in  1878,  Koumaniaand  Servia.  in  Eu- 
rope; Samns,  in  Asia:  and  Egypt,  iu  Africa.  In  1878 
Kimmania  and  ^rvia  became  entirely  in<lp|>endeni.and 
Bulgaria  was  erected  into  a  trihutsiy  vassal  stale.  In 
the  autonomous  province  of  Eastern  KrHin>elia,thepow- 


apiminling  a  govcrnnr. 
By  tbe  old  law  ofsuocessi' 

heriied,  according  to  senior 


TUKKEY  5f 

of  Olbman,  spnuig  fniiD  (he  iniperi*!  harem.  The 
Liirm  IB  cunudereil  ■  pmnuiFnt  State  :i-Btili<iiun.  All 
chililren  bom  in  the  barem,  whelhet  ofTipring  of  Tiee 
women  of  of  slaves,  are  1e)('i<io*'<  indafHiual  lineage; 
but  I  he  tulian  ia  succeeded  by  hia  eldest  son  only  v ben 
Ihere  are  no  iiiictes  or  cousins  of  greater  age.  It  hu 
uut  been  the  cusloro  or  the  aultaoa  fuc  sooie  centuiies  to 
CDDtract  reeul"  marriagea.  A  apecial  feature  attend- 
ing  ihe  accession  of  new  sultana  to  the  throne  has  been 
tbe  aliughier  of  brothers  and  other  near  kinafulk  who 
were  feared  as  rivals.  Until  veiy  recently  the  will  of 
Ihe  suUan  was  not  limited  by  any  law.  The  precepts 
of  tbe  Koran  were  regarded  as  tbe  fundamental  law  of 
the  empire.  Thelegiidatireand  the  executive  authority 
were  eKercised  in  the  name  of  the  sultan  by  the  grand- 
Tiiier  as  head  of  the  tempoial  government,  and  (he 
Sheik  cUIslim  as  Ihe  bead  oftbeChurch.  The  consti- 
tuliun  of  1876  pretended  to  make  tbe  sidtan  a  constitu- 
tional manarch,  and  (o  provide  for  the  exercise  of  the 
l^ialadve  and  judicial  powers  after  the  model  of  the 
West  European  alates;  but  the  constilution  thus  far 
(1880)  isalmost  ■  dead  letter.  Serenl  Christians,  how- 
ever, have  of  late  held  Ihe  piMilioii  of  Jlinitter  of  State. 
The  financial  affairs  of  the  government  are  in  a  condition 
of  thorough  and  hopeless  disorganiiation,  and  Ihe  time 
of  Ihe  empire's  complete  dissolution  cannot  be  diManL 

IV.  3toAunmal'imiia,—'tbe  Turks  have  been  a  Mo- 
hammedan people  froni  Ihe  lOlh  century,  and  have  ever 
■inca  been  the  hannei-bearer  amunt;  (he  Mohaoimedan 
su(es.  The  sultan  is  regarded  as  tbe  hcaii  of  the  Snn- 
piie  Mohammedans  [tee  Sl'mhtes],  not  only  in  Turkey, 
but  as  far  as  the  Suniiite  fonn  uf  tluhammedanism  ex- 
tends. Church  and  State  are  so  intimately  united  in 
Turkey  that  (he  judicial  and  tbe  priestly  power  are  vest- 
ed in  tbe  same  officer,  the  (//flwi,  who  regards  the  Koran 
aa  the  sole  authority  for  the  decision  of  ecclesiastical  as 

Turkey  is  imw  divided  iu(o  two  parts— that  of  the  SAcri, 
wherein  all  Judges  are  Mussulmans,  and  that  of  the 
fi'iiimiyth,  composed  of  both  Cbrististis  and  Mussul- 
mans. The  head  uf  all  the  courls  of  the  Slieri  is  the 
Sheik  el-IsUm,  wbo  sanctions  all  tbeirjudgmenis.  The 
judicatory  of  the  Sheri  is  composed  of  a  high  court  of 
appeal  (/I  ii-Wiii^),  divided  into  two  chambers  iSu- 
rfiir),  one  fur  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  one  lor  Asia.  At 
tbe  head  of  each  is  a  cdiMiiibir,  literally  militar>' judge. 
The  c4ti-asker  is  amsled  by  fourteen  honorary  chief- 
jusitcea.  In  the  hierarchy  of  tbe  Ulema  the  mullahs 
rank  next  to  the  cazi-asker,  and  after  them  tbe  a 
TheKrst  in  rank  are  the  moUahs  of  Constantinople,  i 


talfor 


>r,  and  who 

year,  being  la 


ken  in  turn  from  Ihe  bodv  i 
isthemollahofSUmboul.  The 
iwcond  in  rank  is  the  i/rt'fnwr.  icliich  numbers  Hfty- 
•cven  titularies.  The  mollah,  when  on  duty,  serves  for 
only  a  year,  and  then  reloms  (o  tbe  roll"  (Baker,  Tiir- 
tff).  Turkish  educalion,  until  recently,  was  also  in  close 
c»nnec(innwilh  Ihe  State  religion.  It  was  organlzetl ' 
■ulian  Uuhammed  1  (Hai-«1),  the  greatest  anlili 
siaienoaii  (hat  the  Ot(oman  empire  has  produced.  He 
cstalilisbed  elementary  schools  called  nvbrbi,  sca((ercil 
over  his  empire  in  every  town  and  in  almost  every  Mo- 
bamntedan  village,  and  numerous  public  H-ho«ls  or  col- 
leges of  the  hiicber  order,  which  were  callul  mrdrrt$e; 
in  distinction  from  the  mtbitr,  or  elementary  schools. 
The  mnirt*ti  went  through  (en  Tegular  courses  of 
graoimar,  syntax,  kinc,  nietaphysiea,  philijogy,  the  sci- 
encc  of  (nipex,  the  science  of  style,  rhetoric.  KeomelT}', 
and  astronomy.  The  laker  of  a  ilegree  in  (hftw  sub- 
jeda  received  the  (itie  of  lUwiihmmL,  nbich  baa  now 
been  replaMd  by  the  (eim  mfia.  The  degree  en 
him  tu  the  mastership  irf  one  of  tiM  minor  p 
schools  J  but  in  that  cam  he  rennuneca  Che  prospect  nf 
beoKninf  a  member  of  (be  Clema,  «r  of  any  uf  (he 
higher  educuional  appoimmenis.  For  ibis  it  is  nec- 
oaaiy  to  go  throuab  a  still  fnrtber  course  ofBlnrly,  and 
W  iwai  lei-c  Incentives  to  wurli  are 


TURKEY 

given  ID  Ihe  bonon  and  endowments  which  are  cod- 
ferred.  The  Ulema  supplies  all  the  profeasora  of  the 
high-schools,  wbo  are  calleil  BtHifcr™,  and  from  ihe 
onler  are  chosen  all  the  ministers  of  justice,  in- 
ig  tliecft2i-askers,lhe  moUahs,  and  the  cadis.  The 
actual  priesthood  of  Turkey  takes  a  very  inferior  posi- 
II  (he  State.    The  ministers  of  public  worship  are 

lachcra.  But  the  fact  that  the  appotnlments  lo 
Ihe  priesthood  are  alloiud  lo  tbe  hohlen  of  minor  de- 
grees doea  not  mark,  on  the  part  of  the  Turks,  any 
want  of  respect  for  their  faith.  It  only  arises  in  conse- 
quence of  the  legal  profession  being  so  intimately  eon- 
lected  witb  tbeCbureh  as  expounders  of  Ihe  law  uf  Ihe 
Koran  that  the;',  in  fact,  form  the  senior  branch  of 
he  hierarchy.  Dervishes,  or  Mohammedan  tnonk*,  are 
rery  numennis  and  are  divided  inio  a  number  of  sects. 
See  Deuvisii.    The  F(n»i{/',orCbureb  proper(y, which 

md  to  benevolent  fuundsiions,  is  ailmiiiistered  by  a 
ipecial  department  of  the  Stale  called  the  Erkof,  and 

lusUy  belonging  to  such  ecclesiastical  establishments, 
ind  held  and  received  on  their  account  by  Ihe  Evksf; 
and  2d.  Property  owned  by  privalc  persuns,  but  1a|>sing, 
in  default  of  direct  heirs  of  the  onnsr,  to  the  Evkaf,and 
subject,  in  the  meantime,  to  a  small  yearly  contribution 
payable  to  that  department;  but  an  owner  of  Vacouf 
propeitr  having  no  direct  heirs  is  net  debarred  from 
selling  it  (o  a  person  having  such  heiis,  and  so  pr«ven(- 
' :,  for  the  (ime,  from  falling  into  ibe  Evkaf.  By  a 
t  law  a  private  persun  holiliiig  Vacouf  property 
can,  on  payment  of  certain  fees  to  the  government, 
have  it  convened  into  what  is  called  nuUuA,  a  tide 
which  gives  the  holder  Ihe  fee  simple  of  tbe  land,  to  do 
with  i'.  asbe  pleases,  lo  leave  it  by  will,  and,  in  default 
of  his  doing  so,  it  passes  (o  bis  next  heir. 

Trustworthy  statbticson  (be  religious  deDomiiutions 
of  Turkey  cannot  yet  be  obtained,  E.  G.  Ravonstein,  in 
an  article  on  Ihe  papulation  of  Busua  and  Turkey  in 
(he  Joumai  aflhi  Slatiilicat  Soarlg  (Lond.  1877),  esti- 
mates the  Inlol  population  of  Kuropesn  Turkey,  Cxclo- 
sive  nf  Koumania  and  Servia,  but  inclusive  of  Bosnia 
and  Bulgaria,  at  9,661,000,  which  he  dislributea  as  fol- 
lows among  the  religious  dennmi nations: 

Evaors. 

Turkl-h  Mohammedans U4T.B00 

HohsmmedautoroIheruallonnlUiss.  i.4Ig,ll00 

Toinl  Mohammedans 4.W1IWO 

Greet  Choreh *,I«l,«W 

Roman  Calhoitoiir.'.'.'.!!'.'.!"'.!!!''.'.     *m1«00 

Froiesiaula 10,000 

Total  Cbrlettaos 0,00.400 

Gipsies..'..!! _lcn.T(in 

Total »,MO,SI» 

Turks 0.018.600 

Other  Mohammed  BUS 0,Mg,MIO 

Total  Hohammedana ll,nS,SGa 

Greek  Church. 1,*84,8«S 

kI^"  CMh'oiWi.^'!l^";.'.'*i;;!';;    mwoo 

Ma'rc>nlles,eicl^!"'.!!'w.'".''i!.""i.'.'     *Sl|oOO 

Total  ChrWlans 1.611.818 

Jeiides  and  Klallbasbl Ot.ono 

Total iiisS^sM 

A  Servian  Blalistic(an,JakahitHh.^ves  Ihe  following  es- 
timates of  the  population  of  European  Turiiev:  Chrit- 
liioM  in  Turkey  preper,  2,484,.^1 :  in  Easlern  Roiimelia, 
Bfi9.7;6:  in  Biania, 7»0,a76 ;  in  Bulgaria,  l,106,a4e;  to- 
tal. 5.<l'iO,BOI.  Muhamvitdani  in  Turkey  proper,  1.CN8,- 
127;  in  Eastern  Roumclia,  859.464 ;  in  Bosnia,  400,l>3& ; 
iu  Bulgaria,  7C0,2G7 ;  total,  3,403,463.    Jrat  in  Turkey 


prnpcr,  5J,01S;  in  Eastern  Roumelti,  39«9 ;  in  BcMiii*. 
!>»»;  ill  itulx>ria,89i>9:  u>ul,74,914.  Tdm]  pnpulatitni 
of  European  'I'urkey,  8,499,1  TS.  Acconliiig  (»  tliRie  lu- 
thorities,  ttie  iggregaLc  numlwr  of  Mu'  ~  '     ~   '~ 


Greeki.  then  are  Dlh«n  for  the  Annvniint,  United  Ai^ 
11,  L«[ing,  Prot«tant»,«nd  Jei™.     Tbeir  orfpni- 
"      of  Ibe  (>re«ks.    The  wcolai 


snd  Asiatic  TutI 


E)-  may  be  eslii 


mated  at  from 
lofaUilcnoiD- 


loftiieAnT 


!«  Uie  Jac- 


15,7O0,OOO  lu  16,500,000,  tint  of  Chi 
iiiitioiii  at  about  (4,000,000,  that  oi  tne  .tewi  at  ainut 
200,000.  The  aggr^ate  |>.>puUliun  oT  the  African  de- 
penrteiiciea,  owinB  to  the  rapid  expansion  of  the  Ecyp- 
lian  doniiiiiona  of  late  y™r>,wai  estimated,  in  I8W0,  al 
-i!0,500,000,  nearly  all  of  whom,  with  Che  e.iception  of 
the  Cnpia  uf  Egypt,  are  Mohammedann.     See  Moiiam- 

V.  The  Chruliaa  ChurcHti  o/  Turi^ji.- Although  the 
Torka,  after  the  cnnqueet  of  the  Balkan  peiiinsnia,  di»- 
played  all  the  horrors  of  Oriental  de^ntiim,  they  did 
luit  aim  at  the  extemiinatioii  of  the  Cliriatian  relij^no. 
'['here  is  probably  no  country  of  Chriatiaii  Europe  which 
has  not  imposed,  at  sonie  time  in  the  cuu 
nore  severe  penalties  u|>aii  the  profc: 


>f  the  pres- 
ent Christian  populaliun  ofTurkev,  see  above. 

I.  The  Greet  ChanA.—\\'\ien  the  Turks  took,  in  1453, 
possesainn  of  Conatantinople,  the  ruremosi  episcopal  see 
of  the  Eastern  Church  became  aubjeet  to  their  mie. 
The  patriarch  of  Conetanlinople  had  gradually  become 
fur  the  Kastem  Church  what  the  patriarch  of  Rome 
became  for  the  West.    See  Gkruk  Ciiitrcii.     Wbea 

the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and  Conttsnilnoplo  became  a 
lined  fact,  all  of  (he  Orthodox  Eislctn  churcheB  looked 
upon  the  patriarch  of  Conatantiiiople  mif  (lie  irtost  emt- 
nenlbish<i|iortheO(hodaxchurebeB.althou|;hniany  of 
them,  like  (he  churches  of  Hunia,  were  entirely  inde- 


pende 


Chria 


sen  ting  Chris 

(he  prufession  of  Chriatianii 

cit-il  relations,  found  them' 

(he  Turks  did  not  meddle 

the  churches.     The  intluenoe  which  the; 

the  appointment  ut  the  high  di$piitaries  ii 

or  proKlytism,  but  of  grceil.  Tlie  soci: 
which  *u  apuitaiy  lu  inUm  iiivulveil  , 
duced  nearly  the  whole  population  of  All 
(ire  notnlity  of  the  Bosnians,  and  large  ni 


e  done  upon 


■PS  ((reatly  oppressed,  bi 

th  the  internal  alTairs  i 

which  thev  usurped  I 

the  Eastei 


nbcrs  of  the 


0  ailop 

ligion  of  the  oonquerom;  but  (he  immense  majority  of 
the  population  of  the  E»ro|iean  <luniTninn9  of  Turkey 
anil  larire  numbers  in  Asia  con(inued  tu  adhere  to  the 
several  Christian  churches.  As  (he  military  power  of 
Turkey  begnn  to  wane,  Russia,  France,  and  other  powers 
claimed,  and  received  by  treatv,  (he  right  of  protecto- 
rate over  the  Turki^ili  subjects'  professing  the  iiatlmial 
religions  of  the  several  Eiimpean  coimtries.  In  1X39 
(lie  sultan,  bv  the  hari^^heri/  of  flulhane,  pn>rlaime<l 
the  equality  of  Christians  and  Moslems  beG.re  the  law. 

renewed  and  extended  by  sultan  Alidnl-Mejiil  in  (he 
charter  called  ths  Aarfj-Aun'ifHiH,  promulgated  in  Feb- 
nisrj-,  1856.  The  renewal  of  the  charter  was  mentioned 
ill  tile  treaty  of  Paris  as  the  cnnsiili'ration  on  which 


>pe  that  the  Essteni  Roman  empire  iroatd 
be  aided  by  the  Catholic  Church  of  Western  Earope  in 
its  resistance  (o  the  advance  of  (he  Turks,  sereral  palii- 
archs  of  Constantinople  bail  shown  a  readiness  (o  re- 
unite with  Rome.  I'o  the  bulk  of  (he  cler^v  and  the 
laily  Che  idea  of  such  a  reunion  was  extremelf  distoste- 
ral,and  after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  i(  was  en- 
tirely abandoned.  The  sultans  cUimed  the  same  rights 
with  regard  Co  che  appointmenC  of  the  patriarchs  that 
had  been  possestied  by  the  Eastern  »r  Byxintine  emper- 

Genrgius  Scliolariiui,  who  was  elec;ed  patriarch  snon 
aner  (he  conrtuest  id"  Const aniinople.  and  assumed  the 
name  ortieiinadius,  accepted  fmrn  siil(an  Mohammed  II 

showed,  however,  but  lililc  respect  for  the  authority  of 
the  patriarch,  and  Hnally  compelled  him  to  lesien,  not- 
withscnnding  the  peiilions  of  liie  faithful  in  bia  beliolt 
The  next  patriarch,  Joasaph,  was  banished  by  the  sul- 
tan because  he  had  refused  to  acknowledge  ibe  unlaw- 
ful marriage  of  a  Klohammnlan  minister  with  the 
daughter  of  an  A(henian  prince. 


,ving  II 


e  lathd 


ind  g 


pcan  sutes, 

pendent  ami  inviolable 

"fall  religions  denomi 


vof  E 


ti,  promised  ttj 


Ch 


Turkish  con- 

of  civil  rights. 
dell  met  in  1877,  all 
rcligioiuof  the  empire  were  BiirlyrepreB«ii(eiL  Tliua 
mg  tho  deputies  relumed  from  Constantinople  were 
'I'urks,  four  ChriMians,  and  one  Jew;  and  of  (he 
isliaiis,  one  was  ■  llreek,  une  a  Roman  Catholic  Ar- 
liau,  aiul  (wo  Ciregoriaii  Armenians.  In  1X78  the 
ireaiy  of  Dcrlin  (art.  lii)  placed  the  FStnblishmeiit  of 
the  prtnci|ile  of  religious  libetly  (a  i(s  CalUuX  extent  un- 
der Che  guarantee  of  all  (he  great  powers  of  Europe. 
Wlirn  Iho  Turks  completed  (he  conipiest  of  tin  RolkaD 
l>eiilnsula,  they  designated  the  aggregate  of  the  Chris- 
ii:iii  subjects  as  rajiih  (herds),  while  (he  difflrcnt  tribes 
wn  dislinguished  (s  ni'JJrr  (nation).  The  Mohamme- 
dan Turks  were,  however,  so  stnmgly  incUnol  to  con- 
millets  OS  so  many  religious  communions.  Mohammed 
II,  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  niitde  the  |>atri- 
an-b  iif  that  city  the  secular  head  of  all  the  rajah  be- 
longing to  the  Orthodox  Eastern  or  tircek  Church. 
The  civil  rniiciions  of  the  patriarch  were  shared  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  by  the  subordinate  Inshopa.anil  thus  the 
entire  hierarchy  of  the  (ireek  Chumh  a[ipearcd  as  the 

loyalty  of  the  populaliun.     Besides  the  niilUi  nf  the 


the  first  who  olTered  to  the  sultan  one  thou 

Tot  the  patriarchate.     This  money  lor  the  conHrmatioa 

of  the  new  patriarch  is  calleii  iharaliioo  or  priteaiomi 

was  constantly  increased,  aiHl  the  Turkish  guvenimeni 
generally  shoired  a  disposition  to  sell  the  patriarchate 
to  the  highest  bidder,  snd  to  vacate  it  as  often  as  po»- 
Mble.  Unly  a  few  of  the  patriarchs  were  allowed  to  re- 
main in  office  for  a  long  term :  generally,  after  holding 
it  for  a  short  term,  they  were  either  tmnpellcd  (n  retign, 
or  (hey  were  banished,  throttled,  or  degraded.  Tlie 
habit  of  the  patriarch  to  purchase  the  conflrmatitut 
by  (he  sultans  had  a  mnsi  disastrous  inHuenee  ii|>on  the 
Church.  The  Simonislic  corruption  descendeit  from 
the  patriarchs  to  (he  archbishops  and  bishops,  who  had 
to  pay  heavy  sums  for  their  eonnrmatinn,  and,  in  return, 
tried  to  indemnify  (hemaclves  by  extorting  as  much 
money  as  possible  from  their  people.  For  political 
reasons,  the  external  form  of  the  C%utch  was  chanfifed 
aa  lilde  as  posaible;  but  in  consequence  of  the  eorrup- 
lioii  prevailing  in  the  high  places,  the  Churcfa  fell  into 
great  deciy.  'Ilie  lower  clergy,  who  wen  generallr 
destitute  of  a  higher  editcaiion,  showed  but  little  n'm- 
paihy  with  the  ]ieo|Je;  and  when  the  government  con- 
ferred upon  tbem  some  privileges,  Ibey  looked  with  in- 
diffctetice  opon  the  heavy  taxes  which  oppressed  (he 
laity.  Ijtilc  resistance  ww  even  made  hy  (he  clergy 
(0  the  cruel  institution  of  (he  .lanizaries,  a  military 
corps  formed  by  the  children  of  Christians,  who  were 
taken  away  from  their  parents,  eilocated  as  fanatical 
Moslems,  and  uk<1  for  the  compulsory  exIen«on  of  Mo- 
hammedanism. In  some  of  the  provinces  (he  power 
of  (he  Christian  people  to  resist  the  proselyiisra  of  the 
Turks  gradually  relaxed.  Especially  wai  this  tlieca^ 
in  Albania,  whero  the  Christian  populatioi 


TURKEY  5 

fton  3M,000  tu  M,000  iliiring  the  pniud  froni  1620  lo 
16J0.  Among  ihe  apoglalm  were  even  nwii)'  print) 
aod  nuink).  The  HibiHiiieiit  hiMory  of  ih<  Greek 
Cbareb  nl  Turk«y  rioes  iwt  offer  maiiy  poinis  of  gntt 
iflterew.     The  gmwinK  power  of  KiiiMia  extorted  from 

pmniiw  tu  protect  the  Chriuiin  reli^on  and  the  Chti«- 
tian  chunhrs.  and  mwle  il»elf  chieHy  felt  in  behalf 
nf  ilie  coreJiirinniata  of  Riuaia,  the  Orthodox  Eaatem 
Chiircli.  Beitveeu  Coiutantinogile  and  flume  an  entire 
(Mrani;emeD[  continued  ID  eiial.  At  the  befcinninf;  of 
tbe  I7ih  centun^  the  pitnarch  Ne<iphytufl  U  of  Con- 
•uniio-iple  wai  bdiered  la  be  farordile  lo  a  union 
with  Hume;  but  no  formal  negodaliuna  were  opened, 
■ml  »«ie  of  the  following  pattinrcha  oTConsMmincplB 
hM  abi-iin  any  Icaninic  in  that  direction.  All  the  invi- 
laiionn  and  overture!  that  were  made  by  [be  popea  met, 
in  (.'oiKtantinopIe,  with  a  Ann  and  decided  reTuial :  thus 
in  104^,  an  inviutinn  from  Pius  IX,  addreued  to  the 
eniircEaaUm  Church,  fur  a  eoqiorate  union  with  Rome, 
and  another  in  1869,  addreawd  by  the  aame  pnpe  to 
Ibe  lireek  bUhopa  to  attend  the  Vatican  Council,  were 
pnmprl]'  and  flrmlr  declined  In  ConMantinAple  and 
Ihroutrhout  the  Greek  Church.  In  the  Asiatic  part  of 
Turkey  the  patriireh  Atbanaaiua  IV  of  Antioch.  who 
wu  elected  in  16W.  joined  the  communion  of  KniM, 
■ml  »«»  fiiUowed  by  a  part  of  the  clerpiy  and  laily. 
Thui  aroae  the  United  (ireek  Chnnh  of  Turkey  [see 
Ghekk  Chcrcii,  Usitbd],  which,  from  Syria,  spread 
over  all  paruof  the  Turkish  em|iire.  In  the  I6(h  cen- 
tury both  llie  Lutheran  and  the  Calriniatic  theologlana 
endeavored  loeatabliih  friendly  nlaiimia  with  the  (iieek 
Chorth.  and  entered  into  cotreapondence  with  several 
pairiarchi  of  CoostanliiKiple.     The  Lutheran  ait^mpla 

complrtely  gained  over  to  their  bide  one  of  the  moat 
gifted  patriaicbs  that  hare  ever  occupied  the  aee  of 
Cunttaniinople,  Cyril  Lucar  (q.  v.),  who  went  ao   far 

fwiuii  of  laith :  but,  with  iho  vii'lcnl  death  of  the  pa- 
triarch, who  wu  strangled,  and  whose  memory  was  ex- 
ecnlTil  bv  tbo  Oriental  pairiarcha.  Ihi*  attempt,  too, 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  Greek  Church  in  Turkey,  ■■ 
well  ■■  ill  other  counltiea,  has  kc|>t  aloof  from  all  eor- 
ponle  iivfi^ialians  with  Trateuant  churches.  In  the 
19th  century  Ibe  allempta  made  by  the  more  contc^nial 
Anglii-an  churches  of  the  British  tales  and  the  IJnited 
Stales  to  establish  inlercommunjon  with  the  various 
KtiiM>>|ial  cburehe*  of  the  East  led  to  friendly  eorre- 
spiiiHknce  between  the  patriarchs  of  the  Greek  Church, 
on  the  one  band,  and  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
other  Anglican  bishops,  on  the  other.  At  the  union 
conference*  held  at  Itonn,  Germany,  in  IH;4  and  1KT5, 
betwecfl  Urienlil,  Anglican,  and  Old-Catbolic  iheoliv 
giaiMithe  Greek  Church  of  Turkey  wai  ahn  represent- 
ed by  spveral  theologians.     Sea  Kubsia. 

Until  the  MCabliahmentoftheinilependence  of  Greece, 
the  Turkish  smpire  comprised  nearly  all  the  Greek 
churches  of  the  wothl.except  those  of  Kiissia  and  Austro- 
Hangary,  Among  the  bialiops  of  the  Clreek  Church 
the  patriarch  of  CunalantiiHiple  haki*  (he  highest  rank. 
He  alone  is  invested  by  ths  Turkiah  government  with 
the  atiributas  of  civil  bead  of  the  enlire  Church.  In 
reganl  to  eccleaiaatiral  jutinlictii.n,  he  i>,  however.only 
the  head  uf  the  patiiarchaie  of  Constant inople,  the  oth- 
er three  palriarcbs  (of  Aniineh,  Jerusalem,  and  Alei- 
andtia),  aa  well  aa  the  ntelmpulitan  of  Cyprus  ahd  tlie 
abbot  of  Mount  Sinai,  being  imlependcnt  of  him.  1'he 
three  patriarch*  named  receive  in  Iheit  brm',  or  nffleial 
decree  of  confirmation,  the  same  rights  and  privileges 
•s  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople;  each  of  Ihem  has 
hi<  own  patriarchal  synnd,  which  Alls  l)>c  ace 


IJ  TURKEY 

victorious.  The  three  patriarchs  communicate,  nercr- 
thelea^  with  the  Turkish  government  through  the  pa- 
triarch of  Cunstanlinople,  and  are  not  even  alkiwed  to 
come  to  the  capital  withoui  his  permiasion.  1'he  ag- 
gregate lerrilory  of  ihrw  three  patriarchates  is,  how- 
ever, amall,  and  all  the  remainder  of  the  Greek  churcl.es 
orTiirkey  was  until  recently  under  the  immediate  juris- 
dtcliuii  of  the  patriarch  of  Constanliitople.  Ihc  eslab- 
liahmeul  of  the  kingilom  of  Greece,  in  18-il,  vinuslly 
levered  the  connection  of  the  ehunhes  of  the  king- 
dom with  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  on  whom 
ther  had  formerly  been  dependcni.  The  entire  inde- 
pendence of  the  Chnrch  of  Greece  was,  however,  not 
proclaimed  until  IN33,  when  a  syna<l  of  the  bishops  of 
for  this  purpose  at  Nauplia,  and  the  formal 
recognition  of  the  independence  bv  the  patriarch  of 
'■■■■■  ■  nil   1850.     Smis 


irtuslly  as  iiulepend 


1   of  tl 


pslriarch  of  Constantinople 
they  were  of  the  sultan  in  pnliiics.  The  establitli- 
ment  of  their  enlire  political  independence,  in  IS'S,  en- 
tails the  complete  severance  of  their  ecclesiastical  con- 
nection with  Consuntinople.  The  BulgariauK,  »lthou|;h 
agreeing  tu  doctrine  with  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church, 
were,  until  1767,  independent  of  the  Jurisiliclioit  of  the 
patriarch  of  Cunstanlinople,  baring  a  primate  and  pa- 
triarch of  the  national  Bul(:arian  Church  al  Ochrida; 
but  in  I7G7  the  last  patriarch   abdicalnl,  and.  by  the 

arch  of  Constantinople,  the  Bulgarian  Church  was  not 
only  placed  under  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  Ibe  Greek 
patriarch,  but  entirely  denaiionalized.  Their  biihopa 
and  priests  were  dismisseil,  their  seea  and  parishes  were 
occupieil  by  Greeks,  their  mnnasleriea  and  schools  were 
Mixed,  and'  the  levenue*  appropriated  by  the  Greek 
communities:  but  the  greatest  blow  of  ill  was  struck 
in  the  elimination  of  the  Bulgarian  language  and  liter- 
ature from  all  the  educational  eslablishments.  A  strong 
educational  movement  for  re-ntaUishittg  the  rule  or 
the  Bulgarian  language  in  school  anil  Church  set  in 
about  1840.  It  made  at  once  rapid  and  atraily  pmgrrw 
in  the  pmviiice  of  education,  anil  at  Imglh.  in  1870,  led 
to  the  rtorganiiation  of  a  iiaiional  BiilKarian  Church. 
Notwithstanding  the  most  desperate  op|)ot>iiion  to  the 
Bulgarian  movement  by  the  patriarch  of  Conalanlino- 
ple  and  the  Greek  Kaniir,  the  Purle  fouml  it  necessarr 
to  yiehl  to  the  Bulgarians  so  far  aa  lo  issue  a  fimiaii 
which  constituted,  under  the  title  of  Tie  Bu^riiin 
Kxardiatr,  a  oeparaie  epiritital  admi  ' 


g  in 


s  of 


™pt  m 


o  palriD 


■Untinnple  in  appoint  the  patriarcl 
■(*■  led,  fron  IMS  M  1846.  lo  a  vhilcnt  contiovt 
wctn  the  patriarch  of  Conttantinople  and  the 
■nhal  Svuod  of  Jcruial'-'"  !•>  ohicb  the  latict  re 


I  of  Om 


Silistria,  Shumla,  Tiniova,  Sophia,  Vratcha, 
Lovtcha,  Widdin,  Nish,  Kusfenji,  Samakov, Teles  (with 
the  exception  of  about  tweiily  villages  and  three  towns), 
the  sanjak  of  Slivmii  (except  a  few  villages),  the  dis- 
trict ol  Sisnpolia,  the  toon  of  Philippopolis,  the  district 
of  Sianimaka  (wiih  the  exeepiioii  of  a  few  villages), 
and  the  metropolitan  ilii>ce«e  nf  Philippopolis  (except  a 
few  monasteries).  The  Drmsn  further  provided  that 
the  powers  of  the  exarchate  be  defined  by  an  o^anic 
code,  which  was  to  be  in  conformity  on  all  points  with 
the  ealaUlished  lawa  and  religious  principles  of  the  Or- 
ihwlox  Church;  hut  (o  exclude  entirely,  en  the  olher 
hand,  ail  inierference,  direct  or  indirect,  on  the  part  of 

ly  irith  the  election  of  the  exarch  and  the  bithops. 
The  exarch  wa»  to  be  named  by  imperial  lierai.  lie 
u-aa  to  be  bound,  in  conformity  with  ecdeaiastical  rule^ 
In  commemorate  the  name  of  the  patriarch  of  Cimaian- 
tinople.and  (he  synod  of  the  exarchstewas  lobe  boinid 
to  obtain  tlie  holy  mla  in  use  in  Hie  Church  from  the 
patriarchate  of  CoiiHanIino|>le.  Although  (he  patri- 
arch of  Ciinstarxinople  at  first  excommunicated  all  who 
availed  themselves  of  llie  firman  atMl  cnnnecled  them- 
aelvei  with  (he  Bulgarinn  exarchate,  ihe  Isiter  rallied 
more  and  more  all  members  of  the  Orrhodox  Church 
who  were  of  the  ItulgsriaD  nationality.     1'lie  irenty  nf 


TURKEY  £ 

at  a  tribuiary  principality  of  Balgaria,  and  an  autono- 
muua  province  of  Eaaieni  KixiDielia,  in  bolh  of  which 
counCrieilhe  Itulgamiit  ore  ihe  preiluminant  race,  mule 
the  bulk  of  Ihe  Uulgerian  nation  virtually  indepenilent 
of  both  Ibc  sultan  and  the  patriarch  of  CotiBtanlinople, 
and  UHiiut  fail  to  complete,  ere  long,  the  orgaiiiiation 
of  a  national  Bulgarian  Church,  cumprUing  all  the  Or- 
thodox Chriiiians  who  speak  Ihe  Bul({srian  language, 
and  enjo}-ing  an  independence  equal  lo  the 
churches  of  Kiiula,  Greece,  Roumania,  and  Setr 
Jurisdictiun  of  the  patriarch  of  Cunslantinople  is  there- 
by restricted  to  those  Cbristiaus  of  the  Eastern  Octbodux 
Church  who  are  of  the  Uree k  nationality.  See  Russo- 
Ghkek  Chubch. 

The  oSce  of  the  patriarch  ia  inteniled  to  be  held  by 
the  occupant  for  life  -,  but  the  Purte  may  remove  him 
on  account  of  high-treoaott,  and  Ihe  aynod  may  ask  the 

and  of  heresy.  Charges  of  the  first  class  are  very  fre 
quenti  oud  as  it  is  the  pecuniary  interest  of  Turkish  of 
dcisls  to  have  the  patriaichs  removed  aa  often  oi  pos- 
sible, they  arc  always  found  willing  to  co-oper 
removal.  Depoiiliona  of  patriarchs  are  therefoie  very 
freqaent.  The  patriarch  is  asaisted  by  ■  "  tioly  Synod" 
(y(nkui(),which  consists  of  from  ten  w  twelve  metropol- 

arch  has  the  right  to  select  them,  with  tha  exception, 
however,  of  the  metropolitans  of  Herodea,  Cyticus,  Ni- 
comedia,  and  Chalcedon,  who  are  membera  ex  officio, 
and  among  whom,  as  they  are  so  near  (he  capital,  the 
patriarchal  seal,  which  conaiits  of  four  parta,  is  divided. 
As  the  keepers  of  the  patriarchal  seal  must  always  be 
present  in  Constantinople,  the  four  metropolitans  oc- 
cupy a  peculiar  position,  which  the  Porte  recognises 
by  specially  enumerating  them  in  Ihe  berat  of  Ihe  pa- 
triarch.   The  patriarch  has  no  right  to  sei  '   ' 
their  dioceses.    He  may  increase  the  num 
members  of  the  synod,  but  is  nol  allowed  to  reduce 
it  below  ten.     It  is  customary  fiir  eight  of  the 
ropolitans  who  are  members  of  Ihe  aynod  to  be  prea- 
ent  at  Constantinople.     They  are  called  "the  piom- 
Inenl"  (tyiKpirDi ),  and  are  addressed  aa   the  "hidy 
old  ones"  (.iyiDi  yipovrtv).     In  1847,  the  Porte  de- 
sired to  add  to  the  synod,  for  all  queatioiis  not  relat- 
ing to  the  doctrine  or  discipline  of  the  Cburcb,  three 
lay  members-'the  grand  logothete  Arialaichi ;  the  e. 
prince  of  Samoi,  Vogoridea;  and  a  rich  inercham  i 
Chios,  Psychsri,  generally  called  Measeyanij  but  tl 
aynod  nppoaeil  the  plan  »  strongly  that  it  was  aba 
doned  by  Ihe  Port*,     According  to  a  habit  which 
expreraly  reci^nised  by  the  sultan,  all  the  patriarchs 
and  melropfllilaiis  of  the  Eaalem  Orthodox  Church 
who  happen  to  be  present  at  ConsCantinu; 
right  lo  take  part  in  the  debates  and  resolul 
Holy  Synod.     For  questions  of  minor  importance,  es- 
pecially such  aa  relate  to  the  odminlitralion  of    * 
Church,  the  decision  of  Iho  patriarch  and  the  four  i 
tropolilanB  who  keep  the  patriarchal  seal  is  deei 
sufficient.     The  Holy  Synod  is  the  supreme  tribunal 
the  clergy  of  the  Ureek  Church,  and  serves  as  a  c 
of  appeal  from  Ihe  decisions  of  the  bishops.     Witt 
ila  consent,  the  patriarch  con  give  no  decision  in 
elesiostica]  or  temporal  affairs,  and  appoint  no  bishop. 
The  synod  alone  has  Judicial  and  punitive  power  ov. 
Ihe  patriarch ;  and  the  deposition  of  the  patriarch  by  tl 
Porte,  e.tcept  in  cases  of  high-treason,  lakes  pUce  oiil 
at  Ihe  request  of  [be  Holy  Synod,    The  most  importai 
rifthl  of  the  aynod  ia  the  election  of  a  new  patriarcl 
The  synoil  regulalea  and  distributes  the  ecclesiastical 
laxeB,aLid  keeps  Ihe  seals  of  all  the  monasteri 
its  own  seal,  consisting  of  four  pieces,  one  of  which  is 
kept  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  i 
three  by   metropolitana  elected  by  the  syni 
sessiona  of  the  synod  are  gflnerally  held  on 
and  holidaya,  after  divine  service.     Moot  of  its  decrees 
need  for  their  execution  a  finnan  of  the  sultan.    When 
a  new  patriarch  ia  to  be  elected,  the  members  of  tha 


8  TURKEY 

synod,  and  the  archbishops  and  bishops  present  at  the 
lime  in  Constantinople,  assemble  at  the  lynodicoti,  or 
patriarch^s  palace,  which  is  situated  in  the  Fanar,  or 
quarter,  in  order  to  nominate  by  ballot,  in  the 
ce  of  a  commissaiy  of  Ihe  Turkish  govemmeiit, 
three  candidalee  for  the  vacant  see.  All  the  candidata 
moat  be  metropolitans.  As  soon  aa  the  nomination  ia 
made,  it  is  communicated  to  the  repreaenutivea  of  the 
Greek  community,  who  are  assembled  in  the  veatibale 
of  the  synodicon.  This  assembly  designates  by  accU' 
malion,  and  the  shout  of  dfioc  (worthy),  the  candi- 
date of  ila  preference.  The  election,  being  thus  com- 
pleted, the  minutes  are  signed  by  all  present,  and  an 
official  report  is  made  lo  the  Putle.  which  then  tr- 
ders  the  Urat  to  be  drawn  up.  This  official  inof, 
for  which  a  large  amount  of  money  has  to  be  paid, 
enumenlea  all  the  rights  belonging  lo  the  patiiarcb  and 
the  synod.  On  Ihe  day  after  the  election,  the  new  pa- 
triarch officially  visits  the  grand-riiier,  who  preaenta 
him  with  a  magniOcent  suit  of  ctothes,  consisting  of  a 
a^flan  (a  long  silken  robe),  a  cloak,  a  block  capucbosif 
and  a  palriarchat  hat;  moreover, with  a  finely  wroaght 
patriarchal  staff  and  a  white  horse.  The  patriarch  pays 
also  to  Ihe  other  ministers  of  the  Porte  an  offidal  viut. 
Soon  alter  these  visits  follows  the  inthroi 
of  great  simplicity,  which  is  performed  by  II 
iUn  of  Heraclea.  The  ecclesiastical  rights  of  the  pa- 
triarch are  very  extensive.  He  appoints,  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  synod,  all  metropolitans  aud  bishops 
He  has  eupreme  Jurisdiction  in  all  affairs  relating  t« 
nurriage  and  willa.  Complaints  sgmnst  bishopa  can 
be  decided  by  the  government  only  with  Ihe  conenr- 
rence  of  the  patriarch.  The  arrest  of  a  Greek  pielote 
requires  Ihe  conaent  of  Ihe  patriarch  and  Ihe  c<M>pera' 
tionufbisofficen.  He  hasthe  right, wilhoutrestiaint, 
to  excommunicate  any  member  of  the  church ;  to  deny 
eccleuaaticol  burial,  etc.  He  ciijnya  the  privilege  of 
consecrating  the  holy  oil,  and  has  in  all  diociaea  the 
right  of  the  tlaitrtipegion,  i.  e.  the  right,  at  the  fonada* 
tion  of  a  church  or  a  monaatenr,  to  erect  a  croaa  on  ibe 
spot  where  the  altar  is  to  stand,  and  thereby  to  subject 
to  his  conml  such  church  or  convent.  The  civil  juris- 
diction which  the  patriarch  enjoys  as  Ihe  head  of  tha 
"  Greek  nation"  (which  means,  in  Ihe  official  longoage^ 
all  the  members  of  Ibe  Eastern  Church),  is  in  some 
respects  even  mora  comprehensive  because  it  eztenda 
also  over  the  other  patriarchal  dioceses.  This  power, 
however,  is  on  Ihe  wane.  As  has  already  been  im]i- 
cated,  the  non-Gieek  nationalities  have  either  achieved 
their  entire  independence  of  Turkish  rule,  or,  like  (be 
Bulgarians,  have  severed  their  ecclesiastical  conneetioii 
with  the  patriorchofConslanlinoplc,  whose  jurisdictinti, 
ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil,  will  be  restricted  to  Uia 
Church  members  of  the  Greek  nationality.  The  patri- 
arch has  his  own  court,  befora  which  eqiedally  caaea 
of  minor  importance  are  brought,  not  only  between 
Greeks  aud  Greeks,  but  also  between  Greeks  and  people 
ofathcrchurchea,even  betweenGreeksandTurks,  An 
appeal  can,  however,  be  had  from  the  patriarch's  ooun 
to  the  Turkish  conrla.  The  revenue  of  the  patiiircb 
is  considerable.  He  inherits  the  property  of  metropol- 
ilans.  bishops,  priests,  monka,  and  nuns  who  die  without 
legal  heirs.  If  there  are  le^  heirs,  the  peiaona  named 
may  bequeath  to  the  patriarch  np  to  one  third  of  iheir 
property.  Other  sources  of  revenue  are  the  fees  for  or- 
dinalinii,  the  tax  on  Ihe  installation  of  metropoliUna 
and  bishops,  the  annual  contributions  from  the  lushopa 

to  the  patriarch,  smsller  contributions  from  each  pnest 
andesch  layman  of  hisdincese,  Ihe  feesof  his  chancery, 
fees  for  every  marriage  ami  burial,  Mc.  The  patriarch 
hat  the  right  In  have  all  these  duea  collected  by  qwciol 
commissaries,  who.  if  necessary,  can  invoke  the  aid  oT 
the  government  officials.  The  palriatch  it  exempt  fmn 
ordinary  taxes,  but  has  to  pay  a  large  nim  annually  lo 

the  govemmeni  as  a  specisi  tax,  and  to  make  ''" 

presents  to  Ihe  ministers.    The  patriaioh  is  r 


TUUKEY  51 

Ibe  (dmiiiutnitiiin  ut  the  patriarchate  by  a  number  of 
oActrs.  I'bcv  ate  dirided  inio  two  chuin— nne  at  Ihe 
righl,  ami  the  other  at  the  hit.  The  rurmer  conriiu 
of  litn*  BeciiirtiH,  tSMch  uf  m'hkh  embracer  Uve  p«Twiii^ 
oihI  ii  thcrtfure  called  a  rivrnc-  All  ilieae  oSc»  v/tn 
(armtriv  uf  great  iin[iDrtanee, and,  with  tlie  exception 
of  ihiwe  whk'li  requind  an  anlitiatiaii  or  bad  the  Buptr- 
inteiideiice  of  enni-enl>,  were  in  the  banda  of  the  noble 
lireek  faniilio,  the  ao-csUeil  rhanariotet.  The  occu- 
panlt  had  a  tule  at  the  election  and  depoMlion  of  the 
patriarch.  At  pnieiii,  most  of  these  offlcea  ate  mere 
lille&  The  only  officer  who  baa  atilL  an  important  polit- 
ical position  and  conaiderable  infiuencs  i>  liib  grand 
liigoibpu  (jiiyai;  XDyoSinjc),  01  the  grand  keeper  of  the 
•cat  He  ia  elected  by  the  patriarch  tmd  Holy  Synod 
from  among  the  lireek  notatilcs  for  iifelime^  He  ia  con- 
firmed by  the  Porte,  and  can  only  be  remored  by  (he 
coneutTent  action  of  both  powers.  The  patriarchate  con- 
diKta  through  him  all  negotiationa  wilh  the  Pone  re- 
lating to  ita  necuiar  privil^^i  aud  all  the  official  cotn- 
municationafrnm  the  patriarch  to  the  Porte  pass  through 
hia  hands.  He  has  the  right  to  connlersign  all  aynoda] 
rcaolntiona  relating  to  the  appointment  of  mettopolitanfl 
and  iMsliop*,  and  to  receive  iwnain  feea  for  drawing  up 
the  oSciol  documenta.     See  Patkiahchs. 

The  three  patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  Antioch.  and  Je- 
niaalem  are  not  subject  to  the  eccleaiastical  jutisdiclion 
of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  are  nwirdinale  to 
him.  The  trrat  by  which  they  are  appointed  confers 
npoD  them  the  same  rights,  and  eacb  of  (hem  baa  a 
■ynod  which  haa  the  same  rights  aa  the  Synod  of  Con- 
stantinople. They  are  inferior  Cu  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
nan  tinopte  only  in  N  faraa  they  bave  no  civil  Jurisdic- 
tion. The  patriarch  of  Alexandria  haajuriadiction  over 
(be  Gteek  churches  of  Egi'p(,  Libya,  Arabia,  and  Nubia; 
the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  who  teaidea  at  Damascua 
Ibote  of  Syria,  Cilieia,  HesagiotBmia,  Isautia,  and 
Asiatic  province!;  the  patriarch  of  Jcruaalem,  wl 
aides  at  UaUli.  a  suburb  of  Constantinople,  over  those 
of  Paleitiike.  The  aggregate  territory  of  (he  (hrt 
triarchalea  ia,  however,  hnt  small  compared  ivilh 
of  Conalantinople.  Metropolitans  with  auffragan 
ops  are  rare  in  t  he  Turkish  empire.  The  name  n 
piditan  or  archhishnp  is  generally  only  a  (ide  i 
oonfert  a  higher  dignity  than  the  title  biahop,  bi 
a  greater  jurisiltclinn.  The  title  of  metmpoliian 
prciailr  i^ven  to  the  bishops  otthe  provincial  capitals. 
As  bishops  must  be  unmarried,  they  are  generally  taker 


Ifa 


«beo( 


bishop,  he  haa  dm  to  take  all  orders  up  (o  priesthood, 
and  then  ceo  receive  the  episcopal  ordination  only  af- 
ter the  expiration  of  thirty  days.  The  candidate  mnst 
be  thirty  years  of  age,  and  at  hia  ordination  three  biah- 
opa  must  lie  present.  Bishop*  are  bound  to  reside  in 
iheitdioceaea;  and  if  a  biahop  Is  absent  from  his  diocese 
for  more  than  wx  months,  except  it  be  by  order  of  the 
patriarch,  he  is  deposed.  The  bishop  has  entire  control 
of  Ibe  Cliurch  property  of  the  diocese,  and  can  ii 
taxes  npoa  his  dioceaana.  Without  his  permisaii 
convent  can  be  built  within  the  dioceae.  The 
nue  of  iiMlropalitana  ami  biahops  ia  derived  from  the 
same  sourcea  as  thai  of  the  palriareb.  They  rt 
annual  cunlributioni  from  (he  priests  and  (he  lai 
Ibe  diocese,  besides  feea  and  inheritances.  The  ir 
of  many  biahop*  is  considerable.  The  metropoliiana 
and  bishops  have  also  an  inSuemial  position  in  the  po- 
litical administration  of  the  empire,  as  they  are,  ii 


cila,  bv  which  (he  vnlit  of  (he  vilayets  are  a 
In  1886,  palriarch  Gregory  VI  and  the  Holy 
issued  a  circular  in  which  all  bishops  were  requested 
to  establish  in  their  dioceses  an  ecclesiastical 
ut,  after  the  model  of  (he  one  existing  in  Com 
plf,  for  consuhing  or  "  ■  "  i  iTiteree(s  of 
cnta.   AUlbedior 


in*  coiuist  of  ni 


The  cor 

s,  who  are  se- 


lecled  frvm  among  (he  eduea(ed,  vir(uoua,  and  zeahxia 

le  candidatea  fur  ordination,  and  to  inatmct  and  guide 
le  cnnfessora.  A  second  member  has  to  superintend 
le  prinlingand  the  sale  of  books,  the  ecclesiastical  dis- 
pline,  and  the  lives  of  the  clerg}-.  No  bonk  can  be 
printed  without  his  permiuion.  The  tbird  member 
intends  education  and  [ireaching.  The  secular 
clergy  are  mostly  uneducated  and  poor,  and,  to  sup- 
port themselves  and  their  families,  they  often  cany  on 
trade,  culliTa(e  a  fartn,  and  perform  other  maii- 
ibor.  T1ie  parochial  churches  are  maintained  by 
(he  congregations,  and  on  every  Sunday  and  holiday 
collections  are  taken  Dp  for  the  piirpase.  The  to/a 
bacAi,  or  chief  of  the  Congregation,  ailministen  the 
financial  ifMn,  and  has,  in  particular,  to  take  cart  of 
the  support  of  the  priests,  the  churches,  and  (he  schools. 
No  one  can  be  admitted  to  a  male  or  female  convent 
without  on  examination,  or  before  being  ten  yean  of 


there  are  eremites  on  Mount  Athos,  aud  anchorets  in 
Macedonia.    See  Moms,  Eastern. 

The  number  of  metropolitana  and  biahops  who  were 
subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  before  the 
churches  of  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria  hail  sev- 
ered their  connection  with  him  amounlcJ,  according  to 
Silbemagl  {Vrrfiimng  tSmwilirhtr  Kirihrn  dri  Orirntt 
[1865]),  to  181,  of  whom  92  belonged  to  Europe,  21  to 
Asia,  and  18  to  the  provinces.  In  consequence  of  the 
decay  of  the  Turkish  empire,  a  very  large  number  of 
the  dioeeaes  are  now  no  longer  subject  lo  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  patriarch,  which,  ere  long,  may  be  restricted 
(o  the  dioceses  in  which  the  people  are  of  (he  Creek 
nationality.  Under  the  patriarch  of  Antioch  were  12 
dioceses,  and  to  this  |»(riarcbate  also  belongs  the  stch- 
bishop  of  Cyprus,  who  is  exempt,  and  haa  under  his  ju- 
riadiclion  B  sufTragan  biahopa.  Under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  are  14  archbishops  and 
bishops,  under  that  of  Alexandria  4.  The  poputallon 
of  the  patriarchale  of  Alexandria  ia  reported  as  only 
MOO  souls;  that  of  Jerusalem  as  Ifi,000j  while  the  pa- 
triarchate of  Antioch  comprises  S9,000  familiea.  The 
Irital  population  connected  with  the  (itcek  or  Orthodox 
Eas(em  Church  nf  Turkev,  after  (he  grfa[  (erritorial 
cha  u  gea  made  in  1 1«;8,  w  aa  eari  ma  (ed  a  ( 3,800,000  (sed  f- 
pUtonf  Amuat  Cyelopadia,  1878,  art.  "Greek  Chureh") ; 
but  of  (hi*  number  a  considerable  piir(  brlonga  (o  the 
Bulgarian  dioceses  of  Eaalem  Roumella,  which  have  no 
longer  any  ecelesiaslical  commnnion  wi(h  (he  pa(risrch 
of  Constantinople.  Of  the  convents  of  the  Church, 
which  are  still  numerous,  the  moat  celebrated  are  (hose 
on  Mount  Athoa  (q.  v.).  Of  late,  education  baa  begun 
to  make  great  progress  among  the  population  connect- 
ed with  the  Greek  Church.  Two  Iheolngical  seminaries 
have  been  established,  (be  one  on  the  island  of  Chalki, 
nearConatanlinople.and  the  other  at  Jeruaalem;  and  no 
one  is  henceforth  to  be  appointed  as  bishop  who  haa 
not  been  educated  at  one  of  these  inr(i(ulions,  or  is  not 
fully  up  (o  the  standard  of  the  education  there  impart- 
ed. A  flonriahlng  teacheis'  seminary,  according  to  (he 
German  model,  has  been  es(ablished  at  Salonica,  in 
Macedonia.     Sec  Easti^km  CHtRCii. 

a.  The  Armtniitn  Churth,  —  For  more  than  three 
hundred  years  nearly  two  thirds  of  ancient  Armenia 
haa  been  under  the  rule  of  Tnriiey  [see  Armehia]; 
and,  therefore,  although  the  head  of  (he  Church  (the 
ca(bolicns  of  Echmiadzin)  is  now  a  subject  of  Kufeii 
(q.  v.),  the  large  majority  of  the  adherents  of  the  Ar- 
menian Church  are  still  lobe  found  in  Turkey.  Among 
(he  Armenian  bishops  of  Turkey,  (he  patriarch  of  Con- 
alantinople occupies  (he  higheai  rank:  he  is  inferior 
only  to  the  cadiolicos  uf  Kchmiadiin.  An  Armenian 
diocese  was  es[abliohed  at  Constantinople  as  eariy  as 
IBOT.  Archbishop  Joachim,  of  Bursa,  was  raised  to  (he 
rank  of  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  14GI  by  the  aul- 
(an  Mohammed  H.  and  he  was  nt  the  si 


il  the  ci 


Tba 


TURKEY  51 

patriarch  is  eleclctl  by  Ihe  notables  and  the  proininent 
clergymen  tif  Ihe  Armeniaa  communily  n(  Cuuttaiili- 
■iiigile,  aiiil  is  cunflrmeJ  by  (be  Poru. '  i^Dniierly  Ihe 

Arineiiuin  Linkers  had  the  ascenileucy  in  this  aseem- 
Uy;  but  in  IIU9  Kvend  ArmenUii  «D|iinrtl»  of  the 
Tiirkish  (piveninieiit  obiaineil  Ihe  leading  inHuence. 
The  )iatriarch  \t  entirely  dependent  upon  these  laymen, 

Turkish  government,  whenever  they  pleaK.  The  new 
jiairiirch  has  to  malio  a  ptoreuion  of  I'lith,  which  cihi- 
■iats  uf  nine  ariieles,  the  eighth  of  which  denijjiiatcs 
the  palciarch  as  the  vicar  td"  Christ.  The  berut  which  . 
the  patriarch  receive!  from  the  I'orle  confers  upon  lum 
a  direct  power  over  the  prieala  and  laity  of  his  dioce«e. 
Uke  the  catholieos,  he  bas  tlie  riicht  to  urdain  bishops 
and  to  consecrate  the  holy  oil  With  the  exception  of 
■  he  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  he  can  appoint  meirapolitans 
and  bishntia  thmuj;baut  Tiitkiih  Armeuia;  remove,  ex- 
ili>,  anil  recall  them;  divide  or  unite  their  dioceses. 
The  cnlire  prnperty  of  the  Churcb  ii  under  his  control ; 
in  the  adminiitration  of  it  be  is,  however,  limited  by 
the  lay  synod,  which  consists  of  t»eniy  members  eleci- 
ed  by  the  people  and  confirmed  by  the  I'orte.  More- 
over, he  is  oaiisteil  in  the  eitcrcise  of  his  ecclesiastical 
runclions  by  a  clerical  arnod  consislini;  of  his  officials. 
As  he  has  also  civil  jurisdiction,  he  has,  like  Ihe  GrMk 
lutriarch,  his  own  conn  and  ■  patriarchal  prison.  He 
if  the  civil  bead  not  only  of  the  Armenian  iinrion,  hut 
alwi  of  the  Syrian  Jacobites,  All  cnmminiications  be- 
iwecii  the  Turkish  governnKut  and  the  Armenians  pass 
through  bis  hands;  and  e\'en  the  Armenian  pattiarcb  of 
Si)  and  the  bishops  not  directly  subject  to  his  jurisdic- 
liiin  receive  their  berat  thruiigb  him.  Like  the  lirtek 
patriarch,  he  enjoys  a  number  of  honorary  rights  and 
*.xempti"n  fn)m  taxation,  but,  in  return,  has  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  Pone.    His  revenue  consists  cbiet 

liisbopa;  Tees  for  aidiiiation,  for  the  boly  «!,  for  mar- 
riages;  inheritancea  and  donations.  Besides  the  patri- 
arch ofConstantinople,  the  Armenian  Chnrch  of  Turkey 
has  patriarchs  at  Sis.  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana,  at  Jerusa- 
lem, and  at  Aghlamar,  on  the  island  of  Van. 

The  lirst  patriarch  of  Sis  was  elected  in  1140,  when 
the  clergy  of  .Sis.  after  the  death  of  the  calhoUcos  Jo- 
seph III,  feared  lest  the  residenceoflbe  patriarch,  which 

miadzin.  Without  wailing  fora  general  assembly  of  the 
Armenian  bishops,  the  clergy  of  Sis  hurriedly  proceeded, 
conjointly  with  the  pec^le  of  Sis,  to  the  elecliiHi  of  a 
catholicos.  The  bishops  anil  varlabnli  met,  however, 
in  lUI,  at  Rchmiailzin,  and  electcil  as  calbnlicos  the 
mcnik  Kyriakfls,  who  was  almost  generally  recognised 
m  churches.  In  order  to  prevent  n  per- 
e  privilege  was  conferred  npon  Sis 


1  pain. 


e  the  holy  oil  from  the  catholicos  as  a 
sign  of  bis  submisiuon.    The  condition  was  aceepicd, 

cording  lo  a  cunconlat  concludeil  belneen  Ihe  caiholicoe 
of  IJ^chmiad^in  and  Ihe  patriarch  of  Sis,  the  jurisdiction 
of  Ihe  latler  was  in  extend  over  the  Annenian  churches 
';  but,  as  the  bish- 


10  TURKEY 

these  functiorM ;  and  bis  powers  have  been  greatly  cd^ 
tailed,  as  the  patriarch  of  (!>inslantinaplc  calls  him  ts 
account  when  be  pleases.  In  order  to  guard  a*  much 
as  possible  his  own  independence,  the  patriarch  procure* 
from  the  Turkish  gorcrtiment  his  own  Ural,  and  sup- 
ports iu  Constanlinople  an  agent  of  his  own.  He  his 
to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  not  only  lo  the  Porte,  but  to 
I  he  pasha  uf  Damascus.  He  is  elected  by  his  suffragin 
bishops,  and  has  bis  residence  in  the  mooastery  of  St. 
James  at  Jerusslem.  His  income  is  derived  (rom  tbe 
same  sources  as  that  of  Ihe  patriaicb  of  CotutaniinDfila. 
the  piesenls  Trom  the  pilgrims  toJemaalem  cooaliiuling 
an  elcm^it  of  special  importancc- 

In  1114  bishop  David  of  Tomik  made  himself  patri- 
arch of  Aghtamar,  in  Lake  Tan,  and  assumed  tbe  tilk 
eaiholicos.  The  schism  has  continued  lo  tbe  prnenl 
day ;  but  the  patriarchate  is  of  liltle  importance,  since 
its  jurisiliclion  extends  hardly  any  fanher  than  L^kc 
Van,  The  patriarch  is  elected  by  the  bishops  and  cIh- 
gy  under  his  juiisdiclioni  and  is  supported  by  the  ttv- 

The  metropolitans,  or  archbishops,  are  not  distinguish- 
ed from  the  bisbopt  by  any  greater  jurisdiction,  but  only 
by  some  honorary  rights.  The  catholicos  can  only  b* 
elected  out  of  their  number.  Tbe  bishops  are  regulsriy 
elected  from  the  unmarried  vanabeds,  and  only  ooa- 
sloiuilly,  and  by  special  permission  of  the  cstholiena  or 
the  patriarchs,  from  tbe  otonks,  since,  according  to  tbe 
Church  law,  a  monk  is  not  to  become  a  bishop.  Tbe 
bishop  is  generally  electeil  by  Ihe  clergy  ami  tbe  beads 
of  fkmilies,  and  after  the  election  he  is  presented  furnii- 
flrmation  lo  the  catholicos  or  the  patriarchs,  who  appoint 
several  (genernlly  three)  bishops  fur  enaraining  the  can- 
didate. It  is  required  that  he  be  fifty  years  of  agr.  of 
legitimatedescentfnr  three  generations.  oDholh  fsihet't 
and  mother's  side,  aiul  well  verseil  in  the  Holy  Script- 
ures and  the  canonical  law.    Many  of  the  metiupolilani 

there  bold  the  oRlce  of  archimandnle.  Many  of  Iben 
are  at  the  same  time  vartaheda  The  patriarch  of  Coo- 
staniiiio|de,  acconling  lo  the  regulations  made  by  lbs 
provindal  council  on  Nov.  30, 1830.  has  under  his  juris- 
diction 18  archbishops,  or  met ropoli tans,  and  35  bi^tops. 
The  patriarchate  of  Sis  embraces  three  towns  and  fvity 
villages.  Towanis  Ihe  close  of  Ihe  I6th  century  the 
patriarch  of  Sis  still  had  23  archbishops  oiul  bishsfB 
under  his  jurist lictiuii.  The  diocese  of  the  paliiatcb  of 
Jerusalem  embraces  Ihe  ehurcbea  of  Palestine.  Sytia, 
Akra,and  Tripolia.  His  resilience,  in  the  tnonasien' of. 
Mar  Vakubon  Mount  Zion,  was  built  in  the  lllhieii- 
t>iry,  belonged  to  the  Armenians  as  eariy  as  I33M.  and 
has  been  in  their  undisputed  povession  since  IfiUi 
Besides  the  patriarch,  6  bisliopa  and  more  than  lOO 
priests  live  in  the  monastery.  The  tout  number  of 
Huflragan  bishops  is  feponed  to  be  14.  Tbe  diorrse  of 
tbe  patriarch  of  Aghtamar  comprises  two  towos  and 
thiny  villages.  In  the  second  half  of  tbe  17th  century 
he  had  under  bis  jurisdiction  from  8  to  3  bbbopa  n- 


.p  of  Jen 


iself  iwlqienileiit 


mid- 


<llo  of  the  17tb  century,  his  juriailiction  bas  sin 
limited  to  tbe  Armenian  churches  of  Armenia  Minor, 
t:.i)>padocia.  aii<l  Cilicio.  The  patriarch  of  ait  bss  the 
liile  "Patriarch  and  I'rimate  of  Armenia  Minor  and  the 
Armei liana  who  are  in  Cilicia,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  Min- 
inier  of  the  Kight  and  of  the  Throne  of  Si.  Ciregorj- 
the  Illuminator." 

The  patriarchate  of  Jenisalem  has  been  in  existenca 
since  Ihe  middle  of  tbt;  !7th  century,  when  the  calholi- 
coa  Philippos  conferretl  upon  the  archbishop  of  .lenua- 
iem  the  right  ofconwcraiing,  him9eir,tlie  holy  oil;  and 
Ihe  archbishop  cunsequcitlly  assumed  the  title  of  pa- 
triarch, and  began  to  ordain  bishops.  Tbe  patriarch 
uf  Jerusalem,  however,  ceased  long   ago  lo  exercise 


h  the  A 


huirb 


.N  ClIURC 


S.  OlArr  Oivnlat  CA>rcia.~Besides  the  Creeks  aad 
Armenians,  Turkey  has  two  other  Orieinal  churches— 

fully  treated  in  former  volumes  of  this  Cgrlopadia.    S« 
JvtcoDiTKH:  Nestoiiiaks. 

4.  Ti/  Unmn  Ci-liolic  ChxrrA  h  rurjb^.-Theic  an 
only  a  few  tribes  and  congregations  in  the  present  do- 
minions of  the  Turkish  empire  which  have  ijways  beta 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  Tbey  sn 
chiefly  to  be  found  in  Albania.  The  fouttdation  of  oth- 
er congregal  ions  dates  from  tbe  time  of  tbe  cnissda, 
which  established  the  l«iin  Churcb  on  a  peroaiwnl 
baus  in  Syria,  I'alesiine,  and  Cyprus.  The  rule  of  Ihe 
Venetians  in  Ihe  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  tbe  comnwr 


TURKEY  51 

ciil  inlercoDiW!  Iw lw«en  the  Balkan  p«iiiiiui1a  and  the 
Ciiliolic  nalJuni  uf  WcMeni  Kun>pc  incmaed  the  num- 
b^oTI^liii  congtegiliaiu  in  all  the  large  cUiesof  the 
Fmpiie.  Vinally,  tbe  unceasing  cffurts  of  the  numeroui 
miainntriea  which  the  Church  of  Kome  hu  wippvrteil 
ID  all  parts  oS  Ibe  empire  have  wan  aver  rracliaiia  or  ail 


a  Chria 


iMital  peculiar 


ml,  while  they  have  ariopted  the 
doclnne*  or  tne  ttuman  Catfaolie  Church,  lecogiiiae  Ihc 
pope  u  the  head  of  the  Church  UuiveiHl,and  muM  be 
recognised  theixKelves,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  nord, 
'   '      "        n  Cathaltc  Church,  they  appear, 


onseque 


t  (livii 


wrrice  of  a  rite  diSecent  from  the  Lali 
Kmi- independent  division  of  the  Church.  A  correct 
view  of  tbe  actual  strength  uf  the  Kanian  Cathulic 
Church  in  the  Tuikinh  empire  is  beat  obtained  by  rc- 
riewing  Ibe  several  rites  separately. 

The  Latin  millel  embraces  the  Koman  Catholics  of 
all  rites, except  the  United  ArmeniiuB,  who  have  their 
own  dvil  bud.  The  head  of  Che  Latin  laillet  ia  a  lay- 
man, who  has  the  title  VeUi  (representative).  He  is 
aaisled  by  four  deputies  of  tbe  Latin  population,  with 
whom  be  constitutes  a  permanent  council  called  tlie 
Latin  Chancery.  The  fuuctions  of  this  council  are  um- 
ilar  lo  those  of  the  Greek  [uilriarch. 

(1.)  Tkr  Latin  Rile.—\  Latin  patria 


oHBcque 


'  of  the 


ciusades;  The  occupant  . 
pc^.  When  Constantinople,  in  HaS,  became  tbe  resi- 
ikuceof  the  saltan,  the  Latin  patriarchs  transferred  the 
seat  of  the  patriarchate  lo  Venice,  and  sent  t«  Constanti- 
nople u  their  repreieniaiive  a  vicar,  who  for  ■  long  ^me 
WIS  only  1  monk.  When  the  Catholics,  in  consequence 
of  their  increaiinc  number,  applied  for  a  bishi)p,  the 
fropsganda  prevailed  upon  (he  patriarch  to  appoint  an 
Uiistsnt  bishop  for  Cunauntinoplc,  and  to  pay  him  a 
regular  salary.  This  bishop  sometimes  called  himself 
patriarchal  vicar,  sometimes  suffraK""  "^  ^*'^  patriarch. 
Afier  »ome  time,  the  Propafjanda  (bund  it  necessary  to 
appeint,  in  ils  tuni,  an  apostolical  palriarcbsl  vicar. 
When,  after  Ibe  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the  patri- 
arch took  up  his  residence  at  Kome,  and  the  pal riaic hate 
Of  Onutantinitple  became  a  mere  title  u  part^t  i«fi- 
drtiim,  which  was  cnnferred  upon  a  prelate  residing  in 
Rome,  the  apoMolical  vicar  was  invested  with  full  juris- 
diction over  all  Catholics  of  the  Ijtin  rile.  The  popu- 
lation of  his  diocese,  which  extends  over  Thrace  and 
the  oppoeiie  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  is  estimated  at  abont 
[5,U00.  The  larger  portions  of  the  vicariate  apostolic 
(fnimeily  archbishopric)  of  Sophia,  which  had  befci 


npopuli 


It  8000,  B 


the  diitcese  of  Kicopolis,  which  had 
*lH(it3000,arenolonKerunderTurkii>hiule^  Both  tl 
town"  of  Mophia  and  Nicopolis  lie  within  the  new  prii 
ripality  of  Uulfiaria.  A  considerable  purtiun  oftheareli- 
bisbopric  of  Scopia,OT  Usknb,  in  Macedonia  (now  the 
■esieni  part  of  Roamelia)  has  been  annexed  to  Servia. 
The  whole  diocese  numbered  before  the  war  aU>ut  8000 
Cuhulies  of  the  tjltiu  rile.  Before  Ibe  enlar^.'ement  of 
ilie  principality  in  1878,  the  entire  Roman  Catholic  pop- 
alalian,  numberinR  about  4000  persons,  was  included 
in  the  diocese  of  Belgrade  and  Semendris  [see  Skhvia], 
which  belonged  as  a  suffragan  see  to  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  Antivari.  The  two  vicariates  apostolic  of 
Moldavia  and  WalUchia,  numbering  in  1878  an  aggre- 
Eiie  Roman  Catholic  papulation  of  114,000,  now  belong 
IS  the  in<]epandent  sUtc  of  Koumaiiia.  The  two  vi- 
caiisln  of  Bosnia  and  Hetregovina,  which  embrace  the 
entire  Knmin  Catholic  population  in  the  two  provinces 
afifl  wliich  tbej  have  been  called,  wete  in  1S7S,  by  Che 
iruiy  of  Berlin,  placed  under  Austrian  administration. 
The  Catholic  popuUtion  in  these  vicariates  is  numer- 
"u%  especially  in  the  northern  and  nortb-wettem  dis- 
tricts of  Bosnia,  which  before  Che  conqucsc  uf  I  he  conii- 


The  o 


of  this  see  atill  has  tl 


hhp  of 


the  jurisdiction  of  a  foreign  prelate,  a  vii-ar  apostolic 
was  appointed  for  the  Catholica  of  the  Turkish  prov- 
inces. The  Catholic  population  ia  eaiimateil  at  about 
140,000.  that  of  Herzegovina  at  43.000.  In  the  Euro- 
pean provinces  remaining  under  Turkish  rule  the  K<i- 
man  (^Iholic  Church  has  tis  grealeeC  stronghold  in  Al- 
bania. There  are  two  ecclouastical  provinces  in  Alba- 
nia, Antivari-Sculari  ami  Durazzo.     The  latter  lias  no 

diocese  of  Dnrazio.  The  archdiocese  ofAnCivari  and 
tbedioceseofSculari  were  unitedinl8G7,at  which  lime 
they  had  an  aggregate  Roman  Catholic  population  of 
about  33,000.  The  suffragan  sees  of  Antivsri  and  Du- 
razzo are  Sapps,  rulati,  and  Aleasio.  all  in  Albania,  wiili 
an  aggregate  population  of  about  42,000.  Tlie  diocese 
of  Belgrade,  in  Servia,  which  has  already  been  referretl 
to,  also  belongs  to  this  ecclesiastical  pruvince.  The 
island  of  Scio,  ivhich  belongs  lo  Asiatic  Turkey,  has  still 
■n  episcopal  see,  although  the  number  of  Rontan  Oath, 
olics  is  lesa  than  one  thousand.  It  is  a  suffragan  fee 
of  the  archdiocese  of  Naxns,  which  behtngs  lo  the  king- 
dom of  Creece.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  while  ibis  tajaiid 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Venetians,  it  was  very  flour- 
ishing, and  the  Roman  Catholic  population  was  numer- 
ous; but  during  the  Greek  war  of  independence  neatly 
the  entite  Christian  population  was  exterminated  or 
sold  into  slavery.  The  population  of  Cyprus,  which  in 
1878  was  placed  under  English  administration,  baa  Ta|i- 
idly  increased  during  the  last  twenty  years,  and  the 
Rinnan  Catholic  Church  llwre  nnmlwrs  about  10,000 
Catholics  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  rites,  and  8000  Mar- 
onites.  Tbe  nourishing  city  of  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor, 
has  an  archdiocese  with  about  15,000.  nearly  all  of 
whom  live  in  the  capital.    The  archbishopric  in  this 

see  the  diocese  of  Candio.  which,  alter  being  long  con- 
ferred as  a  title  in  parlilmt  iiifidtliHin,  was  resluted  in 
1874.  Besides  these  dioceses,  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
an  archbishop  of  Babylon,  wlio  resules  at  Bagdad.  Fur 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  Jerusalem,  who  were  formerly 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Franciscsn  monlu,  an  arch- 
bishopric was  established  in  1847,  the  ocrupanC  of  which 
received  the  title  of  patriarch.  I'he  number  of  Romsn 
Catholics  in  Palestine  ia  estimated  at  about  16,000.  Two 
"apostolic  delegations"  have  been  ealal Wished, one  call- 
ed "Asiatic  Turkey,"  and  embracing  Mesopotamia,  Kur- 

two  apostolical  vicariates,  Aleppo  and  Asia  tlinnr.  The 
number  of  Koman  Catholics  in  all  these  dioceses  and 
cccleaisstical  ilialricta  is  small,  but  the  bishops  and  the 
comparatively  numeroiia  orders  display  a  cunMileraUe 
activity  among  the  Christians  of  the  Oriental  rites. 
Several  (Catholic  congregilions  have  been  collected  in 
the  commercial  towns  of  the  Arabian  coast.  They  are 
adminialered  by  the  apostolical  vicar  of  Aden.  The 
number  of  Catholics  in  the  African  dependencies  of 
Turkey  ia  small,  but  is  increasing  by  immigration  fmm 
Catholic  countries  of  Europe,  especially  France  and  It- 
aly.   Tlie  French  popuUlinn  reuding  in  Egypt  in  1877 


0  IT.OOI 


le  linliai 


m  Rilt.—Tht  Church  of  Rot 


nf  the  crusadeiL     See  : 


Although 


TURKEY 


592 


were  orginiied  inlo  a  United  ArmenUn  Church,  The 
Mechiurisla  (q.  v.)  hare  gaiii«il  fur  thia  ecckaiuliral 
commDnitir  a  greater  literary  dittinclion  than  can  be 
claimed  by  tnj  other  Orieiilal  cominunion.  In  regard 
to  their  political  righn,  the  United  Armenians  were  Bub- 
ject  lo  the  Jnriadictitm  of  the  patriarch  of  the  National  i 
Armenian  Church  until  pope  Piua  VI[I,  in  .  , 
celled,  with  the  aid  ofFrance  and  Aualria,  in  making  | 
them  independent.  He  erected  at  Conitanlinople  the  ' 
ace  or  in  archbiahnp-primate  fur  the  Catholic  Armeni- 
an^  who  naa  lo  be  immediately  auhjeet  to  Ihe  holy  see. 
At  the  appointment  of  the  Brst  primate  the  pops  ap- 
pear* tu  have  taken  into  conaideralion  the  national 
wishes,  and  to  have  conce<lcd  lo  them  the  right  to  pro- 
pose three  eandidaiei  for  the  vacant  "ee,  from  whom  the 
pope  chose  one.  In  ItMo  the  pope  appointed  Anthony 
llssHun  as  loccewor  of  Ihe  primate,  without  coniullinj; 
■he  nation.  By  a  brief  of  April  30, 1850,  gape  Pius  IX 
erected  the  town*  of  Ancyra,  Artvin,  Broiiu,  ErzrOm, 
Ispahan,  and  Trel>i»inil  inlu  epiMopal  sees  of  ihe  United 
Armeniana,  and  made  Ihem  Buffrai^ans  of  ibe  Armenian 
archbishop  of  Ciinsuniiimple.  The  name  htief  appoint- 
ed the  biihopB  of  these  aec*  without  consulting  the  na- 
tion. The  United  Armenian  nation  gave  iu  consent  to 
the  eatablishment  of  Ihe  sees,  but  refused  lo  recognise 
Ihe  bishopA.  because  Ihey  had  not  previoimly  been  coii- 

in  order  to  prerent  a  schism  i  and  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment, through  [he  mediation  of  France,  gave  to  the  tiev 
bishops  the  necessary  brral.  When  the  pope  estab- 
lished the  see  of  an  archbishop-primate  at  Constantino- 
ple, it  was  intended  to  confer  upon  him  alto  the  secular 
jurisdiction  over  the  Caihi^ic  Armenians!  but  the  Porte 
did  not  recognise  the  primate,  and  clolbed,  by  a  beral 
of  1831,  a  priest  of  the  Order  of  Mechiuritu  with  the 
prv/tdura  nalioaalin.  At  the  request  of  the  French 
amhassador,  afler  some  time,  a  patriarch  was  appointed, 
but  withoutany  ecclesiastical  functions,  and  having  only 
those  secular  ri<;hta  which  are  connected  with  the  uf- 
lices  of  the  (ircek  aiicl  the  Gregorian- Armenian  patri- 
archs. The  patriarch  was  to  be  elected  hy  the  United 
Armenian  community,  and  to  be  conflnned  by  the  Porte, 
He  was  to  be  assisted  by  a  council  of  ailininiatratjon 
consisting  of  twelve  members,  who  were  likewise  lo  be 
elected  by  Ihe  nation  and  to  be  confirmed  hy  the  P<)rte. 
The  brnil  given  lo  Ihe  patriarch  extendeil  his  Jurisdic- 
lion  orerall  the  United  Eastern  churchesi  but.  in  con- 
sequence of  the  religious  conlroreraies  ami  inner  ilissen- 
sious  which  arose,  the  patriarch  lost  Ihe  right  to  repre- 
sent the  other  Catholic  naiionilities  at  Ihe  Porte,  and 
this  right  passed  over  lo  the  eekil  of  the  Latins.  In 
1866  Hossiin,  the  archbishopprimate  ofConslanlinople, 
was  elected  also  patriarch  of  Cilicia,  and  assumed  as 
such  Ihe  name  Anlhony  Peler  IX.  1'hus  for  the  first 
time  the  highest  ecclesiasiicsl  dignity  of  the  United 
Armenians,  the  patriarchate  of  Cilicia,  was  united  in 
one  person  with  the  civil  headship  of  the  United  Arme- 
nian nation  which  was  altacheil  In  the  office  of  ihe  pri- 
mate of  Conslaniiuople.  Simultaneously  wiih  confirm- 
ing Ihe  new  palriareh,pope  Pius  IX, in  July,  18l)7,i»ued 
■he  bull  Rererian$,  which  abolished  the  rights  that 
hitherto  the  United  Armenians  hod  enjoyed  with  re- 
gard to  the  election  of  tbeir  psiiiarch  and  their  bishops, 
and  reserved  for  Ihe  pope  rights  hithcrlo  not  exercised 
by  him.  The  opposition  which  at  once  manifested  it- 
self against  this  bull  led  in  1870  lo  an  open  schism. 
The  opponents  secured  the  assistance  of  the  Turkisli 
government;  Hassun  was  exiled  from  Cnnslaulinnpic 
and  from  Turkey,  and  Kupeljan  chosen  in  his  stead  pa- 
triarch of  the  United  Armenians.  Besides,  a  numl)er 
of  bishops  B}'mpathizing  with  Kupelian  were  appoint- 
etl  fur  United  Armenian  dioceses.  Nntwithslauding  re- 
ppnled  excommunications  by  Rome,  Ihe  party  headed 
by  Kupelian  remained  in  opposition  to  the  pope,  and 
assumed  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Ihe  Old  Catholics 
in  Western  Europe.  The  Kupetians  continued  for  many 
years  to  enjoy  the  patronage  and  active  support  of  Ihe 


Turkish  government,  but  never  aocceeded  in  bringing 
over  to  their  side  the  majorily  of  the  United  Armenian 
laity.  Iu  Itf7()  a  general  amneely,  grained  by  ihe  new 
suIian,Murad,Dn  his  accession  lo  Ihe  throne,  permilud 
Hassun  to  return  to  Constantinople.  The  schism  cod- 
[il  1879,  when  ihe  efforts  made  by 
Ihe  papal  delegates  and  the  ambassador  of  Fnnce  se- 
'  the  Bubmiasion  of  Kupelian  and  Ihe  other  bishopa 
ol  the  opposition,  and  the  entire  end  of  the  schism. 

(3.)  OIktr  Uniltd  OrieMut  «««.— The  Soman  Cath- 
olic Church  has  also  gained  over  Ihe  entire  tribe  of  (he 
Maronile^  as  well  as  portions  of  the  Kesluriaiis  and  the 
Jacobites  in  Asia,  and  of  Ihe  Copts  in  Egi-pL  The 
United  Nestorians  are  generally  called  Chaldeans,  while 
Ihe  United  Jacobites  are  designated  Uuiled  SyriiDi. 
Tliese  United  Orientals  have  already  been  referred  to 
in  the  atticleaMAROMTES;  Cmaldei-iS;  Copts  ;  Jac- 
obites. The  aggregate  number  of  Itaese  religious  de- 
nominations is  not  large.  The  number  of  ChaUleaos 
(inclusive  of  the  congr^ations  in  Persia)  is  estinialtd 
at  from  20,000  to  80,000,  that  of  Ihe  Svriaos  at  fiwa 
9000  10  80,000,  thai  ofthe  Copts  at  10,000.  From  1870 
lo  1879  almost  the  entire  community  of  the  ChaMeiu), 
including  their  patriarch,  And u,  and  all  their  liishaps, 
was  in  a  state  of  open  rebellion  against  Rome.  The  pa- 
triarch deured  lo  extend  his  jurisdiction  over  the  Chris- 
tians of  St. Thomas  b  Rrilish  India,  who,  like  the  Chal. 
deans,  ore  United  Nestorians,  aud  number  about  lOO/mO. 
Rome  objected  to  this,  desiring  the  Christians  of  St. 
Thomas  to  remain  as  hereloforc  umter  Ihe  Jurisdictlui 
of  the  vicar  aposiolic  of  Verapoli,  who  Is  of  the  Ijlin 
rile.  The  Chaldeans,  moreover,  protested  against  a 
Roman  bull,  issued  in  18C9,  which  forbade  the  patriiich 
to  ordain  bishops  without  the  previous  approbation  of 
the  pope.  The  Chaldeans  had  possessed  and  exerciwd 
this  right  from  the  time  when  they  joined  the  com- 
munion of  Kome,  and  Ihey  denied  Ihe  right  of  i  he  pope 
to  abolish  it  without  their  consent.  The  patriarch  and 
Ihe  bishops  long  re^sled  all  Ihe  efforts  made  hy  Brane. 
One  of  their  bishops  viuled  India  anil  prevailed  upon  a 
large  porlioii  of  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  to  place 
themselves  under  bis  Jurisdiction,  and  uilbdnw  fmoi 
that  ofihe  Latin  vicar  apostolic  ofVcrapolL  At  lengih, 
however,  they  relented  in  their  reeisiance;  and,  after  ibe 
death  of  patriarch  Andu,  Ihe  pope  succeeded,  in  1879,  in 
securing  Ihe  submission  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  in  the 
election  of  a  new  patriarch  who  declared  himself  will- 
ing lo  conceilc  all  Ihe  demands  made  by  Rome.  Scs 
TiioHAS  (St.),  CiiuisTiAKa  of. 

(1.)  Ptotalatititm.—'HiK  most  important  Pmtestanl 
churches  in  Ihe  Turkish  empire  are  under  the  care  of 
American  missionary  societies.  The  Rev.  I'liny  Fiik 
and  the  Rev.  Levi  Paisons  were  appirinled  bv  the  Amer- 
ican Board  in  1818  missionaries  lo  Palestine,  and  ar- 
rived at  Smyrna  in  1820.  In  the  next  year  Mr.  Parsons 
went  to  Jerusalem.  A  printing-press,  designed  lo  print 
boohs  for  Turkey,  was  set  up  at  Malta  hy  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Temple  in  1823,  and  was  removed  in  1833  to  Smvna. 
The  Rev.  Messrs.  William  Uoodell  and  Isaac  Kid'wen 
BUtioned  at  lieirflt,  where  Ihey  began  the  Syrian  mis- 
sion in  1828,  and  opened  schools  the  next  year.  In  the 
Ihe  cireulalion  of  the  Scriptures  was  forlud- 


iispended  for 


The  St. 
rs  after 


the  death  ofMr.ndi,!!) 

IBM,  and  the  mission  in  Syria  was  suspended  for  a 
short  time  in  1828.  It  was  soon  resumed:  Ihe  Rev. 
William  Goodell  was  appointed  to  Constantinople,  and 
a  deputation  was  sent  lo  visit  the  Armenian  populations 
oflhe  empire.  Mr.  Goodell  visited  Ihe  Armenian  patri- 
arch and  eccleuaslica  at  Constantinople  in  1S3I,  and 
was  at  first  welcomed  by  thero.  Schools  were  opewil 
near  Constantinople,  and  in  1S34  stations  were  establish- 
ed nt  Trebiioud  and  Rrousa.  The  Greek  and  Armenian 
ccclesiasticB  became  Jealous  of  Ihe  ptogrets  ofthe  mi»- 
Btons,  and  a  strong  opposition  was  instigated  against 
them:  hut  in  183!)  Ihe  new  sultan  made  the  first  of  i 
series  of  concessions  of  religious  libeny.     In  IS*'       •- 


TCRKEY  fii 

Her.  Cmt  Hamlin  opmti  a  achool  at  Bebch,  near  Can- 
UDlinopk,  which  waa  iba  beginning  of  what  is  nuw 
bibctl  Cuilege. 

Chuichn  wen  farniallr  orea°iz*d  at  CnoMantinople, 
Adtbiur,  inil  Trebinnd  iu  1M6.  In  the  iifxt  year  the 
Vmeaunia  ireie  tecogniwd  by  the  government  as  an 
indepenikiil  communiiy,  anJ  in  18S0  they  were  aceord- 
rd  a  chiner,  placing  them  on  the  aame  baus  u  the ' 
Mber  Christian  eommunities  </{  the  empire.  In  1866 
Ihe  Billan  granted,  and  in  1860  formally  procUiined,  the  , 
kiai'liBniinfum  by  which  religious  liberty  and  equal 
righu  wen  cunrerred  upon  all  claaiea.  The  misHOns 
in  Syria  were  traniferred  to  the  Board  nf  Foreign  Mis- 
Bon  of  the  rre*byteri*n  Church  in  the  United  Statea 
at  Amtrica  in  1S70.  The  ehurchea  of  the  American 
Boaid  are  diatributed  through  a  Urritory  extending 
fiDin  Howil,  on  the  Tigria,  to  Honastir,  in  Macedonia, 
Tbty  ire  arranged  into  foni  miieiona,  which  are  known 
ai  tiie  Easteni  Turkey  (Anne nia),  Central  Turkey  (em- 
bndng  the  oountrf  aouth  o(  (he  Black  Sea),  Weateni 
Turkey  (A«i»  Minor),  and  Earopean  Turkey  (CoMtao- 
tinopk,  Eaitem  RouBielia,  Bulgaria,  and  Macedonia) 
miaiom.  and  include  90  churchei,  wiih  9890  mem- 
ben.  The  rreabyletian  Church  haa  19  churcbea  la 
Syria,  Kith  1493  communicanta.  The  Synod  of  the  Re- 
rucnud  IVeabj'lerian  Church  of  North  'America  haa  a 
DiiuunitLatakia,  wiih  17t  memberti  Ihe  Free  Church 
of  SctHland  haa  two  mitsionaries,  with  109  memberi;  an 
imltpendent  Bapiint  missionary  reports  a  few  members, 
ind  the  Friendg  have  146  members,  all  in  Syria.  The 
Ktr.  Samuel  <iobal,  an  agent  of  the  Church  Missionsr)- 
Socieir,  went  to  Palestine  in  IS41,  and  was  aflerwarda 
BpiHunieil  Bishop  nf  Jerusalem.  He  founded  schoola, 
'hich  pasted  in  ISTT  under  the  eonliol  of  the  Chnrch. 
Hitaionary  Society.  This  society  returns  9  ikaliTe 
Protntant  congrrgaliana  in  Palestine,  having  1616 
memben.  Other  aocirtiea  engaged  in  Paleitine  are 
the  London  Jenish  MissioD,  the  Jewish  Missinu  of 
Betlii:,  the  Criicbnna  Minion,  and  the  Kaiserawetth 
Dtsconesses'  AssocislliHi. 

The  Blelhodiat  Episcopal  Church  haa  a  mimon  In 
Bulgaria,  begun  in  1857,  wiiich  incluled,  in  1S89, 1! 
Uatians,lt6TDemben,and  61  probaLioners.  The  Disci- 
pits  of  Christ  appointed  a  missionary  to  Constantinople 
ill  187g.  The  minaion  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  North  America  in  Egypt,  after  twenty-five  yean  of 
derekrpmeni,  haa  9  churches  and  947  communicants. 
The  rtoldMant  churches  have  in  all  in  the  empire  about 
J*i  preach iog-placea,  more  than  100  ordained  miwion- 
atis  with  as  many  churches,  and  about  14.600  com- 

of  London,  the  Established  and  Free  Churchei  of  Scot- 
luid,  and  the  Iriali  Presbyterian  Church  have  stations 

pir,  Salunica,  Ailrianople,  and  Ruslchuk, 

The  Protestant  religions  work  is  suppletnenled  by 
efficient  schoola  of  every  grade.  The  American  Board 
>iu  300  common-schoolst  16  boarding-achools  for  girls, 
and  Vi  seminariea  aikd  training-sch 


»S  TURKEY 

than  British  pupllt.  At  Ihe  Syrian  Protestant  College 
of  the  Presbyterian  HisMon  at  Beirflt  inslnicliun  is 
given  in  the  English  language,  while  the  Arabic  is 
taught  aa  a  classic  The  college  has  a  faculty  of  8 
profeasors,  190  studenCa,  and  a   medical  department 

out  several  graduates,  who  are  practicing  a«  phyuciana 
in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  Koben  College,  near 
Conatantinople,  is  not  immediately  connected  with  any 
'  organiaation,  but  is  under  ProleMantdireciion, 
board  of  tniateea  composed  of  ciliiene  of  the 
United  States  It  has  a  faculty  of  16  instmctors,  in- 
uding  American,  European,  Armenian,  Bulgarian, 
reek,  and  Turkish  professors,  and  regialered,  in  187»- 
1,  161  studenia,  among  whom  Hfleen  nationsliliea  and 
all  the  leligiona  prevailing  in  Ibe  empire  were  represenl- 
id.  Instruction  is  given  in  the  ntual  collegiate  gtodie^ 
ind  in  fifteen  ancient  and  modem  languages.  The  col- 
lege has  a  library  of  6000  volumes.  (>ntral  Turkey 
College,  at  Aintab,  ia  also  an  independent  Protestant  in- 
stitution, in  which  inatruclion  is  given  in  Ihe  branchea 
of  science  and  literature,  tbe  English,  Turkish,  and  Ar- 
menian languages. 

Tbe  American  Board  has  a  preaa  at  Conslantinople, 
and  tbe  Ptesbyteriana  have  one  at  BeirOt,  at  bolh  of 
which  religious,  educational,  and  acienliflc  hooka  are 
published  in  Ihe  languages  of  Ihe  people.  The  Arabic 
Bible  poblisbed  at  BeirOt  i>  circulated  in  all  Mohamme- 
dan countries.  Other  editions  of  Ihe  Uihleare  publish- 
ed in  all  the  languages  spoken  in  Ihe  empire.  The 
whole  number  of  copiea  of  hooka,  tracts,  etc,  printed  at 
the  press  at  the  American  Board  from  Ihe  beginning  of 
its  operations  to  1879  is  2,348,364,  compriaini;  a  total 
of  836,603,988  page^  in  tbe  Armenian,  Armeno-Turkiah, 
Greco-Turkish,  and  Bulgarian  languages ;  ami  the  whole 
number  of  pagea  printed  nn  Ihe  Presbyterian  press  from 
the  banning  la  1889  i'  365,ll!.219. ' 

The  organiialion  of  Pro  teat  ant  churches  baa  been 
generally  confined  to  other  than  Huiaulman  popuU- 
tiuns — chiefly  to  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  and  Armeniana. 
It  waa  until  recently  a  capital  offence,  by  Ihe  Turkish 
law,  for  ■  Moslem  to  become  a  Chtiaiian.  More  atten- 
tion ia  now  given  to  tbe  evangelization  of  the  Turkish 
population;  but  tbe  number  of  Protestant  Turks  ia  still 
verv  insigniBcanl.  The  Pmleatants  have  acquired  a 
■  ■      ■    ■■  ■        ihey 


«  (hat 


jelvB< 


orded 


71  and  cunfldci 
J  pe™ 


:«of  tE 


17,000  pupils;  i 


lun-schoola.Sh  igh-schools, 
snd  3  femsle  ■cminarica,  >  iih  a  total  of  4960  pupils,  a 
nll^^t.and  a  theological  seminar]- 1  the  Reformed  Pres- 
brltfian  Mission  has  669  day-school  scholara ;  the  So- 
ciety of  the  British  Syrian  Schoola  and  Bible  Uiasiun, 
30  wbools  and  8000  schotan;  and  in  Syria  proper,  not 
iHWing  Palestine  or  Asia  Minor,  there  arell,000  chil- 
dren in  evangelical  schools,  of  whom  about  one-half  are 

PrMCMant  schools,  which  are  attended  by  Hohamme- 
dan,  JsHiih,  Druse.and  Samaritan  papils.  The  United 
?>etbyteiianainEgypthBve82schoo1s,with  5601  pupils, 
aiul  hi  (hcnlngicat  students  in  the  training-schools.  The 
English  Cbuich  schools  at  Cairo  and  Damietta  have 
■M  pnpila.  Of  Ihe  Jewish  mistion-achoots,  those  of 
theCtaonh  of  Scotiand  return  1793  Jewish  and  other 


strange  religion.     See  Syria,  Mtssioms  in. 

VI.  Olhtr  Religiotti  Ilraomiaaliofu.—The  most  im- 
portant of  the  other  religious  denominations  of  the 
Turkish  empire  are  Ihe  Jews.  Their  old  native  land, 
Palestine,  is  now  a  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  but  the 
overwhelming  majority  of  its  population  consists  at 
present  of  Mohammedans,  the  total  number  of  Jews  in 
all  Asiatic  Turkey  being  estimated  at  only  50,000.  It 
is  believed  that  Iheir  first  appearance  in  European  Tur- 
key may  have  been  connecleil  with  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  ihe  Ureal,  who  planted  many  colonics  of 
Jews  about  his  empire.  Pbilo  mentions  Jews  in  Thea- 
saly,  Bceotia,  Macedonia,  etc.  Luke  speaks  of  them  at 
Thessalonica  and  Benxa.  The  Jews  have  proliably  been 
settleil  in  Macedonia  from  the  llrst  rmigraiiim  to  the 
present  time.  In  consequence  of  their  c.ipidfion  from 
Spain,  a  large  nnmber  of  Spanish  Jews  sellled  in  Thes- 
salonica. Paul  Lucaa  says  that  in  his  day  ihere  were 
30,000  in  that  city,  wilh  twenty-two  synagogues.  The 
■lescendanta  of  these  Spanish  Jews  spread  Ihroughcut 
the  empire;  Ihey  continue  to  epeak  among  thrmselves 
the  Spanish  language,  but  their  wrillencom'r|<[>ndenee 
is  corried  on  in  Hebrew.  The  great  mass  ..f  the  Jews 
in  Turkey  are  Talmudisis,  but  there  exLita  a  ^mall  sec- 
tion of  Jfurnif«  (q.r.).  The  latter  have  nhnnt  a  hun- 
dred families  at  Has-Kcui,  near  Constantinople!  there 
are  also  many  in  Gnlicia  and  Ihe  Crimea :  but  the  great 
bulk  of  the  Jews  of  this  persuasion  are,  outside  of  Ihe 
Turkiab  empire,  in  tialicia  and  the  Crimea.'   '"i^ibere  i» 


TURKEY  51 

alia  a  eoriooi  Kct  of  Jew*  it  Sdoiiica  called  ifamim, 
which  upiilie* 'lurncMU'  They  Iwliece  in  [he  four- 
weoth  false  MeMiah,  Sabali  Lovi,  who,  lo  »«ve  hit  life, 
became  with  hia  full»wers  Muhammedans;  but  Ihesc, 
again,  hara  ttieir  re1i|;i>iiia  clilTereiiceii,  anJ  are  ilividetl 
into  ibreesecu.  They  are  atiUJewa  at  hear),  but  ihejr 
trifling  with  two  creeilanialiesClieniiteBpiseil  aiiJ  linked 
down  upon.  The;  marry  aniong  ihemwivea  only,  and 
Uve  together  in  a  particular  quarter  uf  the  tnwii.  There 
are  olhcn  of  (he  ume  sect  in  parts  of  Ruuia.  At  Sa- 
lunica  they  are  Mohainmedana  in  public  and  Jews  in 
private  life.  The  Jews  have  no  hierarchy,  but  each 
congregation  is  independent  and  is  govemol  by  IM  own 
chief  rabbi  1  but  they  have  a  reprewiitatiiG  bead  at 
Coiistantinnple, called  the  ldiiiUimi-batii,yftin  is  chief 
of  the  IsraeliliHli  natiiin  in  the  emjiire.  The  khakham. 
bashi  at  Cuiistaiitiiinpie  ha>  a  ourt  or  council  1 
him  ill  administeiinf)  boih  cci-lcniastical  ami  ci 
It  is  dirided,inta  twu  (iart*— lirsi,  ihc  Jfr/liu-i-i 
or  spiritual  council.cotDpoaeili.rBis  grand  rabbins 
■■  its  name  implies,  deals  with  qucstiiniii  rclatiiij 
Jewish  religion;  and,  second.  Ihe  Mt^ia-i-^ 

and  assists  the  Tuikiah  onirls  in  any  question 
ing  lo  Jews.    The  same  organiuiiim  aiipUcs  tn  each 
grand  rabbi,  who,  in  bis  turn,  is  assisted  by  two  « 
councils.     As  the  Jewish  law,  like  I  hat  uf  the  Mi 
medan,  is  explained  by  the  lenchiiig  ofilietacreilboiikii, 
the  establishment  of  these  councils  forina  a  reaily  ni 
ofarrivlngat  a  judgment  on  all  relitfiout  and  civil  < 
arising  in  the  Jewish  community.    The  khakham-I 
takes  rank  immediately  after  ihe  'Jreek  and  Armi 
patriarchs.     The  Jewiah  populalion  of  the  Turkish 
pire  is  estimated  at  ias,000.     'I'he  poorer  are  entirely 
dependent  upon  Ihe  liberality  uf  the  upper  classes  for 
education  and  relief  in  case  of  want,  and  the  obligatiini 
ia  met  in  a  most  commendable  spirit.     They  posscag 
an  inalitution  called  Ihe '  Uiiivenal  Israeliliah  Alliance,' 
which  is  charged  with  Ibe  administration  of  education, 
etc.    In  1875  the  alliance  had  twenty-one  schools 
IhroughnuC  the  empire,  which  gave  instruction  lu  2094 
children  of  both  8e^c^and  of  this  number  809  were  ad- 
mitted gratuitously.     The  teachers  of  these  schools  arc 
educated  in  the  Kabbinicai  Seminary  at  I'aria.  and  they 
give  their  pu|Hia  instrnclion  in  foreign  Unguages  and 
all  the  elements  of  a  lirat'^lasa  education.    The  e* 
menlary  achools,  or  talmaiboin,  are  crowdeil  with  cb 
drcii  of  bfllh  Beses.whii  are  simply  taught  lo  read  a 
write"  (Kaker).     The  esiimati-s  of  ihc  Jewish  popu 
tion  in  the  Turkish  empire  vary  greatly,     it  has 
ready  been  mentinrteil  that  Baker,  in  bit  work  on  Ti 
key,  gives  the  total  nnmber  as  15l«,000,  and  Ihac 
the  Asiatic  poasesuons  thev  arc  aiipiwaiil  nut  to  exec 
£0,000.     The  i^rvUn  sisiisiician  Jaksliiiili  oiima 
Ihe  Jews  in   tbe  immciliate  European  iKmcssiims 

vilavela:  Cunslaiitiiiople,  22,943;   Adrianople,  I3,4!)2; 
Sahinica,  7409;  Mnnastir,  2566;  Kiiasovo,  ISfil:  Yai ' 
ii*,4a8&;  Crele,8200  — loUl,53,OI8.     Tlie  saipe  >l 
lislician  givea  the  number  i-f  Jews  in  Kinimelia 
...      -^  ^  ggjy^  III  Kuignfjg  ,t  89aO_i,iial 


TURKEY,  VERSIONS  OF 

Pbsr*cn>rf.— Since  the  above  was  ia  type,  the  poliiio 
■aiion  of  Turkey  has  undergone  no  material  ching 
The  Turks,  aa  well  as  the  natives,  made  so  mDchi>p(H 
>  carry  ing  out  tbe  pro  visions  uf  tbe  treaty  of  lierlin 
naval  demonsliatioii  by  the  great  Eampean  p 
Arehipelagii  became  necesnary  in  order  tuc 
irtciHter  to  Montenegro  of  Dulcigiui,  a  aeapi 
Albania,  on  the  Adriatic  Uuannbile  both  Gieen  mi 
-key  continued  theit  warlike  aliiluile  and  f«i 
IS,  bath  parties  declining  ihe  medisiioti  »(  the  MbM 

ler  uf  the  conlestanis.  (he  latest  ail vicra<. April  IWI) 

that  a  compromise  of  ihe  boundary  qnesiimi  ■  "  ' 

peaceably  effected  (by  the  absolute  cctsion  lo  iin* 

part  only  of  the  dinpulcil  lerrilury  in  Albania 

Thcstaly,  as  auggesteil  by  Turkey  and  recoroiDcoiM  br 

"he  other  gorenimcata), and  Ihal  Ihua  a  new  Iraw  o 

life,  for  a  ahort  lime,  will  be  granted  to  the  Turkiih  n.: 

Europe. 


Tui 


and  the  Dr 


n  Europe,  :4.9I' 


a  number  of  aecis  peculiar  In 
lent  among  them  are  ilic  Ai 
Hl(q.v.).     The  number  of 


le  Afric 


Vll.  LiltrataTt.  —  For  informalloii  on  the  religioi 
denominalionaof  Turkey,  see  llaker.  yarMiyfbind.  an 
N.  Y.  18TH) ;  Audouard,  IJOrind  H  f  Prii/J-ilu  (Puw, 
l8G7)i  Zur  Ilelle  von  Samo  [a  Slohammedan  dervisl 
prcvioiwlv  an  Austrian  diplumalist  ],  IHr  I'altrr  ih 
o»iH,inu(httt  Rtichtt  [Vienna,  IS");  Uliicini,  fruili 
llularigmiiurki  PopuUiiiooi  ChilUantt dr  hi  Targui 
it  Europe  (Paris,  18C7).     (A.  J.  S.) 


TURKEY,  VKBStoM  or. 

he  Turkish  empire,  but  do 
kev  alone,  as  Ihe  fulhiwing 

ubvtheKcv.  l)r.A.W.n 
and  Careignllible  Society  a 

There  exist  ■  greai  maot 
which  are  used  thrui|>>d 
not  properiy  behMigU.  Tu- 

siofveT«ODa,rumi=h«ti 
omeon,BgtnloflhelJiitUi 

Alhaiiiaii,  filicg. 
Albnnl»n,T,u.fi: 
Araliic. 

A  tmeiihin)  Modern. 

Tuiklrl.. 

Tnrkl-h.  Armenos 
Turkish,  Oiacu- 


(Ireek,  Miideni. 

Hebiew. 

Judttu-Oerman. 


knxw  how  th«r  work  is  appreciated  and  irgankd  br 
scholars  uf  "thet  countrieL  The  Briliik  Qaarltrit  A" 
etnr,  in  ita  January  number,  1878.  aflei  xpeakiug  of  ibt 
work  done  by  Americans  in  Ihe  Turkish  erapin  in  ir- 
apecl  to  exploraliona,  litenture.  and  edacaiion,  mvlii^ 
practice,  and  the  improved  condition  of  woman,  thu 
goes  on  concerning  the  Dible  iranslaliona : 
The  most  Important  conirihnil 


Americana  have  made  lothe  llirratiire  ol  Turkey  it  fi»itH 
In  Ibe  accnraia  iranthiilonB  wkkh  Iher  ha**  made  oTUh 
Christian  Scriiitnrea.  These  iraDslailnns  are  woilk;(< 
special  no1ice,D«caine,aparl  fnnn  lb*  lellgtons  lulacnre 
iif  the  ScripIureB.  they  nre  muking  a  marked  iiiipi»»«i» 

l^irker.  my  years  bl-o  ihere  naa  no  ^toD'oTlkc 
Scripiares  In  any  mte  of  the  modern  Unsuacei  of  iIhI 
cuuiilrv.    Thelukofmnklnu  Ihe.e  traiia&IIJiuiruDflt 


«t  be  bad  to  ibt  ed 
IBclenllj  elegant  ai 


timnd  ofthe  lilernrrexcelleDcei 

The  Aniericnns  may  fslrtjr  clalr, . ^ 

ed  In  IhisdIfBcnIt  laifc,in  respect.  ■)  leaf  t.  In  fiiBrartlK 
tniT»r,>i.t  iii„<rtia»«  ..r  t|M  cimnlrv.    We  ri '     ""  """ 
iblc,  Ibe  Tarklsh.  ai 


We  nfer 
rnirnlsn,  the  Arabic  Ibe  Tarklsh.  i     '   ' 

I'he  Turkish  vertbHiB  have  varied  ai^ . 

rbej  hare  been  prepared  A>r  the  AraKubnih 

or  Ihe  Oamanli  Turk-.    Tin  urroaraitiai  o* 

-■■■-'- "^-tm.!!  (ilK 


.    ITii 


Ilia  entire  Blhle  In  Ihe  Anneni>-1'nrkli>h 


nr  Turkish  wrl 
Ihe  present  Km 
nev.  Dr,  Rlgcs 

ihiil  may  be  pr 


t  Uie%:riptnr«>'lu  Vhe  Arahii-fnrCl*. 
len  with  Ihe  Arahle  chariKler:  while  al 
e  n  pennnueiit  eomniliire,  of  whlcli  Uh 


TURKKY,  VEHSIONS  OF 

Ite.    He  trmnilaliiiD 

<ir^ReT.SIISmftli,D.D.,'ind'Bc''^C  ,      , 

«i  IT*  nxaiEd  bT  in*iiT  who  are  cnpHble  oriadRlii;  Ibiil 
Ibi*  Arabic  wraliui  i.rtho  Scriptnres  Is  wurihr  i.f  tbe 
h^ztacl  pralev,  atid  reflecl*  jnvat  cndll  npop  th«  Hholiir- 
•blp  of  Lhe  [nDtibi.>rs.  The  name  l>  laicl  at  ibe  traudn- 
lioii>  of  the  Bible  Ihat  faarg  been  mndo  Into  m.idem  Ar- 
mciilia  and  lio\etriui  \>j  Ibe  Itev.  Elim  KIccb,  D.D.    W« 

Brgn  la  rcgMil  to  [he  i1id«  «peiit  i<ii  Ibis  branch  of  bis 

la  the  Aimtnlan  and  Bnltsrliu  trsD*l>lb>u<  i^llia  BIbla. 
In  biHh  dues  th«  IraiialaUima  wen  Ural  iHOSd  In  parta  In 
■mill  rdltluns,  liiteiiilcd  parti*  ii>  anppty  tba  exIaUne  de- 
mand and  pnrtlj  b^  H4!nre  crlllclvma  and  to  leaTe  rcxmifltr 
Formtlniia  armne  rmrn  eumtHUlBon  iifthe  dlffertnt  pang 
■■f  Iha  Bible.  In  both  ci>Ka  tbe  whole  Bible  wu  Unall/ 
priuied  In  n  •iui'le  Inipetia)  octnvo  tolame,  wllh  refer- 
»c».  To  the  Arneiinin  BlWe  (luclndlnK  the  two  edl- 
Uiiml  I  tt**<  o"*t  iif  mc  time  bir  Hveu  ytan,  ODd  to  tbe 
Bnll^anaD  morelbaii  hair  urtlnnCH' eleven  jeoni.  How 
loD^  onr  annmitlee  will  liike  lo  cumjilale  the  Tnrklrh 
rtrflon  It  !■  qnlie  ImpoMlble  m  any.  We  spent  n  year  on 
lit  r^r  gwpetf.-  When  we  remember  that  there  trani- 
Uiioni are  111  mnd«  ITiim  Iha  orlKlnul  Hebrew  flud  Greeks 
nnd  vbea  we  remember,  3liu\tbnt  lhe  (rnnaLiilimii.  ulipn 
|]iii  In  their  permiiiieiil  rurm,  bnva  beei 
the  beot  AraHc,  Tnrkivb,  Bnl^iirinn,  and 
HI  nrTnrlnr :  and  whSD  we  recall,  aliui 


TURKEY,  VERSIONS  OF 

'e  Scriiilures  inlo  Turkish.    Tbe  ataflj  of  the 
ilume  wu  not  without  effect  on  lhe  tranilalor; 
i«corded  that  All  Be;  enlerlainnl  thonRhu  of 
iming  to  lhe  Chriuiao  Church,  and  was  only  pre- 
leil  by  ikealh  from  accompliahlng  his  deugn.    When 
venion  wu  corrected  aud  ready  Tut  ihe  press,  it  wu 
sent  by  Warner  to  Leyden  to  be  printed.     It  wae  de- 
posited in  tbe  archives  of  the  uiiiversiiy  of  that  city, 
and  there  it  remained  for  ■  century  and  a  half,  until 
baron  Vun  Diet,  formerly  Ruiwan  ambasudor  at  Con- 
■laniinople,  drew  the  altenllon  of  Europe  to  ihis  luUR- 
neglected  trsnalatian.     He  alTered  his  Mrvices  in  edil- 

eign  Uiblc  Society:  and,  meeting  «iih  preal  encourage- 
nwiit  to  pmsevnie  his  deaign,  Mr.  Diez  immediately  ad- 
dressed hiinseir  to  the  revision  ofihe  Old  Teal.  When 
four  books  of  the  Penlaleucb  were  Terised  he  died,  ami 
the  work  of  revision  was  transferred  by  the  society  to 
Kieffer,  pmreasor  of  the  Turkish  language  at  Ihe  Uni- 
versity af  I'aris  and  interpreting  secretaiy  lo  the  king 
disapproveil  ofthe  plan  pur- 


m]j  of  ihalr  bl;b  schnlanhln,  bn 
WigCKcs  and  aiendfflslnesa  nf  puri 

'inced  that  eeacrnti'ini  of  men  ye 
Ibis  henrtj  commendnthin." 
Thi 


onr  nppreclnllon,  D' 
1  i>r  Iheir  iienwrerln 

L  to 'corns  will  jnlul' 
pcrfrinned  by  thes 


speaks   well 
ican  schtiUn. 
cun£ued  ourselves  in  this  article  lu  ilie  Tarl 
■iuo  properly  hi  called,  and  to  its  Iraiiscriplioa 
Armeniati  and  Greek  characters. 

I.  THrkitb. — Tbe  Turkish  language,  in  its  n 
diileclic  Tsrieiies,  is  more  or  less  diffused  tlin 
rot  r^ona  which  e.\lenil  from 
the  frootietsofChiiiB,  and  from  the  ^orcs  of  Ihe  Frozen 
Ocean  to  Hindustan.  Tbe  tutions  to  which  Ibis  Un- 
giuge  is  veniHcnlar  have  acted  an  important  part  in 
hiMuryi  and  though  their  piiwer  has  nnw  declined, 
iiid  the  Creeceiil  baa  fallen  like  a  star  from  heaven, 
i«t  a  member  i.f  this  rai«  still  occupies  the  thmne  of 
Offlstaniine.  The  peculiar  dialect  of  this  language  to 
■bich  the  name  of  Turkish  is  generally,  by  way  of  pre- 
nniiience,  applied  is  spoken  in  European  Turkey  by 
lhe  Oitumaix  ur  Osmanli  Turks,  and  ia  the  only  Isn- 
guage  which  can  be  employed  as  a  general  medium 
kindreds  of  peo- 


•  hithiheSIoi 
aw  Ihe.' 
tlplubet 


I  Torki 


The 


I  alphabet  is  the  Ouigour,  from 


of  thirty-lhree  leitera,  twenty-eight 
of  Khich  are  Arabic,  four  are  Persian,  and  one  is  pecul- 
iar III  Ibe  Turktih,  Like  most  Oriental  languages, 
Tiiikbli  is  wriiien  and  read  from  right  to  lefL  Two 
vrtnuoa  of  the  Scriplntes  in  kindred  dislecls  of  the 
Turktib  bnguage  appear  to  have  been  completed  about 
the  Mme  period.  One  of  these  venions,  executed  by 
Suioaa,and  printed  in  England  in  1666,  will  be  noticed 
in  the  5a|ipJflnflif,  under  KaraSS.  The  nther,cnmpri3- 
ii«  both  tbe  GUI  and  the  New  Test.,  wag  the  work  of  All 


rather  remarkable.     His 


nime  was  Allienua  Bobowsky,  or  Boboi 
bom  in  PcJand.  in  Ibe  beginning  of  the  irih  century, 
snd  while  a  yoiiih  was  stolen  by  Ihe  Tartar*  and  soM 
•aiitsveinConsianiinople.  After  having  spent  Iwenly 
iian  in  lhe  senglio,  he  publicly  embraced  Hohimmed- 

He  became  first  dragoman,  or  innslitor,  lo  Mohammed 
tV,  and  VIS  said  to  he  thoroughly  conversant  with  sev- 
alrsi  languages.  At  the  suggeatioTi  and  under  the  di- 
nciiati  o(  the  famous  Levin  Warner,  then  Dutch  ambas- 
■hlot  It  Coosloniinople,  Ali  Bey  wis  induced  lo  Irans- 
lut  the  calechiim  of  the  Church  of  England  into  Turk- 
■•b,  snd  afterwards  betook  hinueif  to  ibe  translation  uf 


.r,  parti 


arly  , 


commenced  the  work 
anew,  applviiig  himself,  in  Ihe  Arst  insiance.  to  the  New 
Tes^  He'fullowed  the  text  of  the  US.  implicitly,  with- 
out collating  it  with  the  nriginal  Greek;  and  thus  sev- 
eral errors  in  Ihe  text  were  inserted  in  the  printed  cop- 
ies, which  were,  however,  soon  detected,  and  gave  tise 
to  a  printed  cinitroversy.  The  circulation  was  iinnie- 
diaieiy  suspended,  the  errorg  were  examined  and  cur- 
rectcii  by  asnb-commiliee,  indProf.  Kieffer  commenced 
a  laborious  and  Ihomugb  revi«on  of  the  text  by  collat- 
ing ei'ery  piiitinn,  not  only  with  the  original,  but  with 
tbe  English,  Oerman,  and  French  versionsj  with  the 
Tarlar  of  Seaman,  and  of  the  Scotch  missionaries  at  Ka- 
rass;  wiih  the  versions  of  Erpenius  and  of  Manvn;  and 
with  those  in  the  Limdon  l-olyglnt.  Tbe  revision  wa* 
carried  on  from  1820  to  1828,  when  Ibe  entire  Ilible, 
with  Ihe  embodied  correciions,  was  completed,  and  ob- 
tained the  attestalion  of  the  moat  eminent  Otienialista 
in  F.umpe.  The  Wiirk  was  printed  at  Paris,  and  Ihe 
original  MS.  was  afterwards  returned  Ut  Leyden,  An 
eililioii  of  the  Turkish  New  Test.,  carefully  'revised  by 
Ur.  Tnrabi  under  the  siipeiinlendence  of  Dr.  Hender- 
son, w^os  completed  by  tbe  society  in  IMaS.  A  subse- 
quent revised  edition  was  printed  in  IS6T,  A  new 
venion  was  commenced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schaulller, 
and  the  New  Test,  was  prinUd  in  18G6.  In  18GT  the 
I'salms  fullowcd,  lo  which  were  afterwards  oilded  the 
Pentateuch  and  Isniah.  These  are,  nt  preienl,  the  parts 
published  of  Dr.  SchauSler's  Innslaiinn.  I'he  entire 
Bible  was  completed  in  1878.  "Tliis  work,"  says  the 
^snUd/fiFpoiroflbe  British  and  Foreign  UiLtc  Society 
for  the  year  187B, "  iaoTa  somewhat  extraordinary  ch«r- 
aclcr,  requiting  rare  powers  of  scholarship  fur  iieexecu- 
It  has  occupied  many  years,  and  Ihe  translator 


it  the  n 


inng 


application,  [l  has  been  Ihe  one  thing  to  which  his 
mind  and  learning  have  been  consecrated.  The  ques- 
tion has  been  frequentlv  mooted,  and  is  again  under  di». 
cussion,  whether  a  dislinct  translation  in  Turkish  is  to 
be  publislietl  with  exclusive  reference  lo  the  Osmanlis, 
or  whether  one  and  tlie  same  text  may  not  be  made 
available  both  for  Osmanlis  and  for  other  nalionalitics 
speaking  lhe  Turkish  tongue,  but  reading  their  native 
characters.  The  latter  was  ihe  object  proposed  when 
the  translation  of  Ur.  Schanfiler  was  commenced;  but 
the  views  of  the  iraiwlaiur  became  moillfieil  in  the  very 
early  siages  of  bis  work,  and  he  has  aime<l  to  ailapt  liis 

lievinglhal  the  style  common  In  the  Creeks  and  Arme- 
nians speaking  Turkish  is  loo  coarse  ami  degraded  lo  be 
met  by  a  version  acceptable  lo  the  Oanisnlis.  It  is, 
moreover,allegedthat  the  different  iialionaliiirs  employ 

This  view  does  not  elicit  the  si'mpathv  or  endorsement 
of  many  of  Ihe  misiionaricf,  who  Still  bold  to  the  the'.ry 


TURKEY,  VERSIONS  OF         696 


TURNER 


tlut  one  ttit  iho»ld  suffice  Tot  all  cbnei.  and  thit  twn 
veraioni  vf ouW  be  injurioiii  to  the  uiiu  of  dirine  truth, 
on  Lbe  ground  lh«t  it  mighi,  with  Home  show  of  propri- 
ety, be  objeOeA  lliat  I'ruUManU  li*d  une  Bible  for  (be 
rich  and  learned  and  another  fur  the  poor  and  uoleim- 
ed.  It  ia  further  coplended  that  the  neceniiy  for  dis- 
tinct texts  direg  not  exiat;  that  the  Hyle  of  Turkiah 
■pohen  by  the  Chiistiin  populations  haa  materially  im- 
proved in  dignity,  although  not  level  with  that  of  the 
Osmanlis;  and  that  it  vroulil  be  praeticable  to  educate 
tbem  to  »inething  itill  higher  by  nmns  of  a  version 
of  ihf  ScripCurea  in  piire  idiomatic  Turkish,  without  be~ 
in)!  ™''  '"  '""  '°'^y  ""^  artjdcial  a  nKinld.  In  order  to 
bring  the  whole  question  la  aome  practical  anil  satia- 
factnry  solutiun,  it  is  propoeed  that  a  caramittee  be 
romied.twnipoMdorthebegtTurhish  scholars,  of  which 
Dr.  Schauffler  shall  be  president,  and  to  which  the"  ex- 
amination  of  hia  tranaUtion  shall  be  submilird ;  and  that 
aiithurity  be  given  to  call  in  the  aid  of  auch  liCerBi; 
effendis  'as  may  be  judged  desirable."  The  cnramittee 
of  joint  reviscra  waa  funned;  but,  states  the  Report  for 
1874, "  after  a  short  experiment  the  venerable  translator 
(Dr.  Schauffler)  resigned  his  posi^on  on  the  Board  of 
Keviseis,  and  handeil  over  the  MS.  of  the  Old  TeM.  to 
the  agenta  of  the  British  and  Foreign  and  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society,  at  whose  expense  the  translation  haa 
been  made.  It  is  an  understood  thing  that  the  furth- 
coming Turliish  Bible  will  b«  based  on  Dr.  Schauffler's 
work,  so  that  if  he  should  have  to  regret  that  Cbe  whale 
will  not  be  printed  eiactly  as  it  leaves  hia  hand,  yet  he 
will  enjoy  the  aatisTaction  of  knowing  that  he  hai  cnn- 
iribntHl  in  a  pre-eminent  degree  to  this  work,  which 
was  the  Tondest  object  of  hia  later  yearai  and  that  his 


r  Bltempted— the  translation 
manli  Turkish."     As  to  the 
HUporlof 


of  til 

work  of  the  committee,  we  read  in  I 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Socii 
Ihe  following:  "The  revision  of  the  Turkish  Scriptures 
has  been  completed,  and  the  version  may  be  fairly  con- 
sidered a  new  [rnnslotiun.  The  committee  bepin  their 
woHc  in  June,  lS73,'and  the  last  wnnis  uf  the  Uld  Test, 
were  written  at  eleven  o'clock  on  May  25,  1878,  'I'he 
object  of  the  committee  was  la  produce  a  complete  Bi- 
ble for  the  Turks,  which  would  be  simple  in  language 
and  idiom,  and  intelligible  to  the  uneducateil  and  ac- 
ceptable la  the  leameil.  The  committee  waa  campoaed 
of  the  Bev.  Dr.  Schauffler  (whp  soon  retired  from  Ihi 
committee),  Dr.  Riggs,  the  Rev.  R.  H.  Weakley,  and  th< 
Rev.  G.  F.  derrick,  and  theae  called  to  their  help  (ht 
Rev.  Avedis  Conslantian,  pastor  of  Marash,  and  twi 
Turkish  scholars,  one  of  whom  soon  withdrew,  and  waa 
replaced  by  a  very  learned  man  fram  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris.  One  of  these  Turkish  asHstants  became  a  first- 
fruit  of  the  new  version.  The  New  Te«l,  was  flrst 
printed  (Conitantiiiaple,  1877),  and  a  secnnrl  edition,  in 
smaller  form,  was  ready  in  time  to  send  to  Busaia  for 
the  Turkish  prisoners;  anil  the  print  In;!  of  the  Old  Test. 
was  complvtnl  in  December,  1878.  The  Turkish  gov- 
ernment. Id  prevent  the  publication  of  (he  version,  in- 
sisted that  each  copy  shouUl  bear  the  inprimnrur  of  the 
Imperial  Council  of  I'ublic  Instruction,  so  that  the  cop- 
ies go  forth  with  the  permiaaion  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment; and  what  was  meant  for  a  hindrance  has  turned 
out  to  the  furtherance  of  the  work.  The' American  Bi- 
ble Society  haa  shared  with  this  society  the  Inbora  and 
eupcnses  of  this  great  work."  As  to  the  MS.  of  Dr. 
Schauffler,  which,  as  has  been  sUteil  above,  was  han.ted 
to  the  agents  of  the  British  and  Foreign  and  the  American 
Bible  Society,  the  translator  has  completed  his  final  re- 
viuon.  "  The  parts,"  state*  the  aame  report, "  were  not 
nadv  in  time  to  be  used  by  the  revision  comn ' 
had  *been  intended.  The  MSS.  ofthe  Old  Tcit, 
the  Tentalench  and  luiah  already  pulilished) 
deposited  in  ihc  strong-room  of  the  Ameiici 
House,  New  York,  to  the  joint  account  of  the 
and  Foreign  and  the  American  Bible  Society." 


n.  riintuj(-^nnfli>nn.~This  is,  properly  >pe>kiDg,a 
Turkish  version,  but  printed  in  Armenian  letters,  aiul 

vail  among  the  Armenians  of  Asia  Minor,  A  Turkiib 
version  in  their  peculiar  dialect,  and  wtillen  in  Ibeit 
characters,  was  commenced  in  1815  by  an  Armenian  ir- 
chimandrita  named  Seraphim,  in  conceit  with  anotker 
Armenian.  An  edition  of  five  tlrausand  copies  of  the 
Testament  was  printed  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1819.  Hr. 
I.eevea,  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
devoted  much  time  and  trouble  to  the  preparation  ofa 
revised  edition.  The  work  was  afterwards  taken  up  by 
the  miasionariea  or  the  American  Board  of  Mii«»ns; 
1843  the  entire  Scriptures  were  printed  in 


Smyri 


le  of  ll 


e  been  printeii  ai 


behalf  of  the  British  aiul  Foreign  Bible  Sucietv. 

III.  7u^HIi-(;r«i.—Thi^llke  the  preceding  venicM, 
is  Turkish,  but  printed  in  Ureek  leliers.  In  I78i  tN 
Psaln1^  translated  intu  Turkish  by  Seraphim,  metrDinli- 
tan  of  Kaiamania,  were  printed  in  Greek  letters;  and  is 
1810  a  Turkish  vervion  of  the  Acts  and  Epistka  -■ 

qnence  of  inquiries  instituieil  in  1818  by  Dr.  Pinkenmi, 
respecting  the  stale  of  the  Christian  inbaUtantanf  the 
ancient  Lyilia,  Caria,  Lycia,  Phrygia,  PLsidia,  Ciiicia. 
and  Lycaonia,  it  was  ascertained  that  theae  poor  people 
are  all  llreeks  or  Armenians,  acquainted  with  no  lan- 
guage but  that  of  their  Turkish  mastera.    Aslheywen 


.linoplei 

of  speaking  Turkish  which  prevails  amonj;  the  tiicel 
Christians  of  Asia  Miunr,  Mr.  Leeve«,  agent  oftheno- 
ety,  nnilertaoh  a  new  and  reviseil  version,  assisted  Iw 
Mr.  Christn  Nicolaulea,  of  Philailelphia,  who  joined  Xt. 
Leeves  in  I(U->,  an<1  from  that  period  to  1839  was  usin- 
terrnpteilly  employed  in  the  undertaking.  The  priai- 
ing  of  the  entire  Bible  was  commenced  at  Syia,  and  i<^ 
terwards  tniisferred  to  Athens.  In  I8G5  I'he  Pulms 
revised  with  great  care  under  tlie  editorial  auperioun^ 
ence  ofthe  Kev.  l>r.  Ritn;*,  passed  through  the  pre*. 
and  in  I8T0  the  whole  Bilile,  with  marginal  referenm, 
was  published  hi  Constantinople.  See,  besides  lbs  M- 
Me  nf  Kerry  /.and,  the  Annuiil  Rrpni-fi  ofthe  Britiab 
and  Knreign  and  American  Bible  Societies;  and  Bco^ 
Tke  flWe  Wait  nflkt  WmU  (Lend.  1879).    (B.  P) 

Tnrlnpins,  the  French  name  for  the  BnETHim 
ov  TtiK  FnKK  SPtBlT  (q.  v.).  The  origin  of  the  wonl 
is  unknown,  though  it  is  thought  to  be  connected  with 
woKish  or  prerlatoty  habits. 

Tamer,  Danlol.  an  English  Baptist  minister,  v> 
bora  at  niackwatcr,  Henfunlsbire,  ktarch  1, 1710.  He 
first  settled  at  Reading,  and  after  devoting  aomeyesrsto 
sclwol-ieaching,  became,  in  174fl,  paxtor  of  the  Bapli« 
Church  in  Abingdon,  Berkshire,  which  ponlion  he  tilhd 
till  hia  death,  Sept.  b,  1708.  Many  of  hia  puhlkaliaB 
were  highly  aiq>roved  -,  among  them  were,  CoMpoKJi** 
of  Social  kiligim  (1758,  8vo)  -.—Ltlltri  RtUguti  aW 
Moral  (1766,  Svo)  :—St«Slalioiu  on  Scriplan  (Xinaf. 
1771,  linm)  ■.—MtirT/.ilianl  on  JttUffion  (1775, 8ro);- 
/■jMtagt  on  RtUgio*  (1780,  2  vols.;  Oaf.  1T87,  i  vob. 
lima):  — KTporilioiu  on  ScripiMn  (Lond.  179(1,  Srol 
See  Chalmers,  Bios.  iMe'.a.v,;  iiXWxmt,  DiA  of  Btil. 
and  Amer.  Aulkori.i.  v. 

Turner,  Francis,  an  Enelish  prelate  of  the  17tb 
century,  received  his  educaliun  at  Winchester  Schod. 
graduated  at  New  College, Oxford,  April  U.  1659,ai>l 
In,tk  hie  degree  of  A.M.  there  '  '-ind 

his  dpf^ree  of  D.D.  July  0,  IS  vg 

December  was  collateil  to  th  ii 


£L  Pial^    He  sacceeded  Dr.  DuDnii 


IGTO. 


Jglin'i  Culleg«,  CirDbridgr,  April  11, 
■M  auKk  iWin  of  Winiltiir ;  was  coiuecnled  bishop  of 
IWclaaa,  Nov.  1 1 ;  and  Aug.  23, 1684,  wm  [nnsliled  to 
U»  buhopiic  of  Ely,  He  wm  one  of  the  eix  bishops 
trim  Kiineil  ■nhbiihop  Smcrori  on  May  18,  IG8S,  in  le- 
fiBing  10  reed  the  IkduruliuH  /or  LiUiig  of  Con- 
irvav,  and  with  them  wu  comniUied,  June  8,  to  the 
Tuwer.but  wai  acq«iit«d  on  Ibe  29lti.  Itefiuing  Co 
uke  tbe  o«th  wheu  William  and  Maiy  «BceiHled  the 
ibraiK,  be  waa  deprived  or  bia  bishopric,  and  lived  in 
inirHiwnt  till  hia  deatb,  Nor.  2,  1700.  Me  wrote,  A 
yinhoiiioa  of  the  lale  A  rMithop  Sanerofi  and  hit 
llnlirai,elc.:—Aiumudrtr>u>iu  on  Iht  NattJ  Truth; 
-Utltii  to  tit  CUrggofkit  Dioette:~B>if/  Mtmoiri 
t/ Xiciolai  Femir  (id  «[,  1837,  limo) ■.  —  Strmoiu 
<IGBI-8&).  See  Blin's  Wood,  .4 (Aen.  ftron.  It,  645 ; 
BorMlt.  (JiHi  TiiKfi  i  MacauUy,  l/iil.  of  EayUttid,  ch. 
lir,  xvi,  xvii;  Chnlmen,  Biog.  Diet.  t,v.;  Allibune, 
Dkl.of  Brit,  amd  Amtr.  Aalhor»,uv. 

TnmeT.  Jamas  (1),  a  Presbvt«rian  minister,  was 
bora  in  Bedfoid  Couiily,  Va.,  May 7, 1759.  Hewaacon- 
Tcrud  Li  1789,  Ucenaed  to  preach  in  1791, and  ordained 
■ml  installed  as  cnUcaijue  paator  wirh  the  Rev.  James 
.1ll[<lid,July28, 1792,  ill  whatnas  then  called  the  Peaks 
CiKigrtgatioD.  IleaLio  look  charge  of  the  New  London 
OmgfrBaticMi.  Here  he  spent  the  whole  of  hia  miiiia- 
itriil  life,  and  died,  Jan.  8, 1828.  He  was  exceeding- 
it  atlnctive  as  a  preacher;  a  man  of  real  genius,'  ac- 
kinokdgtd  In  be  unriralled  amuni;  the  clergy  of  Vir- 
ginia iji  his  power  over  the  passions  of  men.  See 
■iVifim,  ArniaU  of  Iht  A  mtr.  Puljnl,  Hi,  iSi ;  Foute, 
Sklda  of  Virginia,  3d  aeries. 

TrnnoT,  Jamea  (2),  an  English  Cunfcr^gational 
>iiiiiUr,wasboniatOldhBm, March,  1782.  Hewasedu- 
caied  at  Rolherham  College,  anil  ordained  at  Knutsfnrd 
in  1IKI8,  which  place  became  thi 
rnions.  He  was  for  yean  aecrelarj'  uf  the  British  and 
Funtgn  Bible  Society  and  Ibe  Cheabire  Union  of  Inde- 
pendent Miniaten.  Hia  jud|[<nent  and  clearness  of 
niikl  were  often  conaiilted  in  private  buainesa,  and  t,Teal 
mn&ilence  waa  reposed  id  him.  He  died"' 
Sk  (Lond.)  Cong.  Yfar-iooi,  1864,  p.  248. 

Tniuer,  Jeaae  H.,  a  Presbyteriaa 
bntntn  BtdrordCiunl}-,Va.,Jan.l,17S8j  waseducateil 
in  lltmpden  Sidney  College^  Va.  I  studied  theology  i 
tni«  Seminary,  i'rince  Edward.Va.;  was  licensed  by 
lliDiiver  l^resbytery  and  onlained  by  the  ume  in  1813 
Ht  began  hia  labon  as  ■  missionary  in  Richmond, Va. 
be  uiloeqiicntly  preached  at  Favetleville,  N.  C;  Man 
chesm,  Va.;  and  in  Hanover  County,  Va.  He  diet 
Harcb  13,  iSCS.  He  was  a  sincere,  good  man,  and  sue 
osful  aa  a  preacher.  See  Wilson,  Pi  r(i.  Hitl.Aliauaac 
l«:,p.4o4. 

TuiiiBr,  JoBBpll  M.  W.,  an  English  painter,  wa: 
bnm  H  26  Maiden  Lane,  Covent  Garden,  London,  Apri 
33, 1775,  He  became  a  student,  in  1789,  of  the  Royal 
Academr,  and  as  early  aa  1799  was  elected  an  aamciale 
of  ibc^demy,  becoming  three  years  after  a  full  acad- 
enicisn.  In  1807  he  was  elected  professor  of  perspec- 
d't, but  failed  on  acCTHint  of  literary  quali' 
inrdled  in  Scotland,  France,  Switzerland,  and  the  Rhine 
enuntrio,  and  paid  three  visits  to  Italy.  He  died  at 
Cbebea.  Dec  19, 1861.  He  bequeathed  a  noble  collec- 
lioa  of  his  irorka  lo  the  nation,  and  they  were  placed 
io  a  room  in  the  National  Gallery.  „  ' ' 

»f«ks  we  notice.  The  fifih  Plagvt  of  Egypt:— Tf«lh 
riigtt  of  Egypt:— K  Holi/  Family.     Ha  also 
pwm,  The   faliaciet  of  fhype.     See  Hmkin, 
y.iilff.;  Tbonibury,  Life  of  Turner  (L.nd.  1862,  2 
Tub.;  new  ed.  18.4). 

TnnMT.  Natliaiil«l,  t  Congt^ational  r 
■iibotnat  Norfolk.  Conn.,  in  1771;  graduated 
iams  Cdlege  in  1798 ;  atinlied  theology  with  Dr.  Cal- 
lui;  wiSDfdaiiiedaTerlheChureb  in  New  Marlborough,   < 


7  TURNER 

o  the  see  of    Maaa.,in  IT99;  anddiedMaySS,  1812.   See Coi^.  ONoro 
^^y,  1859,  p.  46. 

Turner,  Fetar,  an  Engliah  Congregational  minis- 
r,  waa  bom  al  Wolverhampton  in  1808.    His  parents 
were  We^yans,  and  it  was  in  connection  with  that 
body  that  he  began  in  labor,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  as 
local  preacher.    He  coDtinued  a  liberal  and  zealous 
.emher  ofthe  Wesleyan  community  until  184ti,  when  he 
joined  the  Independents,  and  in  IBol  accepted  the  pas- 
of  the  Independent  Church  U  Evesham,  Worcea- 
re.    In  1866  he  removed  to  Southampton,  and 
labored  with  the  CongregationalChurch  until  hia  death, 
July  26, 1861.    Mr.  Tumerwas  very  devoted  lo  his  peo- 
ple and  pastoral  duties,  and  hia  puljut  minislrationa 
were  highly  priied  by  all  who  knew  him.     See  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-buoi,  1862,  p.  367. 
TviUBT,  Samnttl  Halbeait,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
piscupal  clergyman  and  acholar,  waa  bom  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Jan.  2S,  I'BO,  and  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
lenity  of  Pennsylvania  in  1807.    He  was  ordained 
leacon  in  1811,  and  priest  in  1814;  was  pastor  of  a 
:huix:h  at  Chestertown,  Md.,  from  1812  lo  1817;  and 
■as  elecleil  prufessor  oT  historic  theology  in  the  General 
Episcopal  Seminary,  New  York,  Oct,  8, 18ia     He  con- 
tinued iviih  [he  inatitution  during  its  stay  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  and  returned  with  it  t«  New  York  in 
1821.     On  Dec  19  he  took  the  chair  of  Biblical  learn- 
ing and  interpretation  of  Scripture,  in  which  he  contin- 
ued till  his  death,  Dec  21,  l8Gt.     He  waa  alan  profesHir 
of  Hebrew  language  and  literature  in  Columbia  College 
from  1831.    He  was  the  author  of,  ffota  on  lite  EpiUle 
to  the  Romaai  (N.  T,  1824,  8vo)  :-with  Dr,  Whiiting- 
'  im,  Introdvcliun  io  Iht  Old  Talameal,  transl.  from  the 
icin  and  German  of  John  Jahii  (1827,  Svo):— /nlro- 
ictinA  to  Sacred  Philology  and  Interprftadorij  transl. 
i>mtheGermanofDr.G.J.FIanck(E<linb.lS34,12mo)i 
■Companion  to  the  Book  of  (Jenetit  (N.  Y.  1841,  8vo): 
~Biegraphieal  !fotim  of  lomt  of  the  Meet    Diilia- 
guiihed  Bubbiei,  etc  (1847,  12ino)  :  — /'nrnfM  R'fer- 
enon  Itlulralice  of  ihe  Km  TtUament  (1848,  12mo): 
—Eaay  on  Our  LorcTi  Ctinwne,  etc.,  John  vi  (1861, 
12mo):—Thoaghrt  on  Iht  Origin,  Cki/raelfr,  and  Mrr- 
prflation  ofSeriplaie  Pi-ophrey  (1852,  I2niij)  :—Epitllt 
to  the  tfrfifwa,  in  Greek  and   English  (1869.  8vn)  !— 
EpiHii  lo  Ihe  Romant  (1863. 8rn)  :~Ejntllr  lo  Iht  Epht- 
liant  (1856,  Bvo).     See  Autobiography  of  Samurl  II. 
Tamer,  I).D.(\m%  12mo)i  Amer.  Qjiar.  Church  ft™. 
1862,  p,  734;    Allibone,  i>>cf.  o/ frtf.  mui  Amtr.  A u- 

Tuni«i,  Bbaron,  an  English  author,  was  bom  in 
London,  Sept.  24,  1768.  After  many  years'  practice  aa 
an  auoniev  in  the  Temple,  he  retired,  in  1829,  to  Winch- 
more  Ilill^  where  he  reudeil  until  a  few  weeka  before 
Ilia  deuth,  which  occurred  in  London,  Feb.  13,  1847. 
Mr.  Turner  ia  best  known  by  hia  Hiuory  of  England 
from  the  Earlieit  Period  lo  Ihe  Death  of  Elizabeth,  etc 
(Lond,  1799- 1 805).  He  alao  wrote,  l/iilory  of  Unrg 
VIIl,  etc.  (1820,  ila)  ■.—Uitlory  of  Ihe  Urigni  of  Ed- 
aard  VI,  Mary.and  Elizabeth  (1829,  4to) :  — ^ncrcrf 
.Vrdiialioni  and  Deeotiimal  Potmi  ^  a  Liiynian  (1810, 
l2mo):— rAe  Sacrrd  Hietory  ofthe  llWif,  etc  (1832, 
3  vols.  Nvn).  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Bril.  and  Amer. 
A  uthori,  a.  v. 

Tomer,  Thomas,  D.D,,  an  Englbh  divine,  was 
bom  at  SC  Giles's,  Heckfleld,  in  1591.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Si.  John's  CoUege,  Oxford,  and  in  1623  waa 
presented  by  his  college  to  the  vii-arage  of  St.  Gilea's  in 
Oxfiird.  I^ud.when  bishop  of  l.onilon,  made  him  hia 
chaplain,  anil  in  1629  coUaled  him  lo  the  prcbi'iid  of 
Newington,  Church  of  St.  Paul,  and  in  October  followind 
to  Ihe  chanccUonhip  of  the  same  church.  Charles  I 
made  him  a  canon  residentiary,  and  appoinled  him 
chaplains  in  ordinary,  i;i>'ing  him  llie  rec- 


of  M 


TURNER  6i 

be  crowned.  In  1611  he  wm  prerrrrccl  la  Ihe  dun- 
ery  of  Roche«ler,  but  on  ihe  ileMh  of  the  king  he 
wu  Mrippcd  of  hii  iircfermenu  iniJ  tnitcd  wilh  tn- 
dignity.  At  the  Reilonlion  be  ciilerpil  Ihe  iloan«rv 
of  Can(etl>urf,  Augutt,  1660.  He  ilied  in  0>:i»l>er. 
16T2. 

Turner,  WlUlam,  an  niiKliih  dirine,  wia  bom 
near  BnudiiBk.  niiilahire.  Biul  for  enme  time  previou* 
til  enini!  tu  Oxford  he  »■>  an  inniare  of  the  house  of 
Philip  Hmrv,  father  of  Matthew,  the  comtnentator. 
lie  look  his  AM.  al  Kdmund  Hall,  Uxfunl.  June  8, 
IGiCi.  Becoming,  afierwarda.  vicar  of  Walberton,  ill 
SuKMX,  he  reaided  there  in  1697;  but  Ihe  dale  of  bia 
death  is  uncertain.  He  piibltoheil,  ■  l/i4loiy  of  All 
RtUffioBM  (Lond.  1695,  »ro) -.—Compklt  llitlory  nf  Iht 
Matt  RemarkabU  Pntridmm,  etc.  (IG97,  fi.l.).  "This 
euriouB  cnliec'ioii  nnki  wiih  ihe  ttmilaT  peifnmuncet 
of  Clark,  and  Winley  in  hi»  lluloiy  o/lkt  LOlU  Winiil, 
lint  is  luperior  pcrbapa  to  both  in  aelectioa  aod  concise- 

Turnsr,  Wtlllnm  Hiiidl«7.  an  Engliah  Conxre- 
gniicHiil  minister,  wa<  bom  at  Beeitoii,  Leeda,  in  1784. 
lie  vraa  cilncileil  at  Rotherhim  0>lle|;e,  and  became  an 
exceedingly  popular  preacher,  Mr.Turner'a  fiiai  sciile. 
ment  vaa  at  Bury,  and  after  aeven  years'  ellicieiii  wnrk 

and  manly  miniatr}-.  'in  1M<>3  ^rnvms  infimiilies  Icil 
htm  to  mi^ii  the  ataleil  miniilrk'.  lie  vraa  a  iliain- 
teresie^l.  devoted,  and  fiiithfid  miiiiater  ..fChriat.  He 
died  lice  8,  18C».  See  (Lund.)  fuwj.  rfir-boot,  1870, 
p.  324. 

Tarnua.  in  ancient  Italian  mythii]iie.v,  was  the  king 
of  the  Kiituli,  and  a  son  of  Daunuiiand  Veiielia,  who  waa 
a  niece  ofiiueenAmata,  wife  ufLatinus.  Ucrdaughlcr 
Lavinia,  hiving  been  destineil  by  fnie  to  ^ueas,  was 
the  subject  of  diajnitc  between  the  TMJaiis  and  the 
Lalina,in  which  the  former  were  victurious.  Tumnf, 
afler  maiiv  wild  battlec,  wai  flnillv  killed  in  a  duel 
with  j:neas. 

Turpentlne-tres  (j-ipiiavios.Ttpi^vioci  VuIk. 

tn-rbinlliiit)  occurs  ua\y  mice,  via.  in  the  Apocrj-pha 
(Ki-i'lu).  xxir,  16),  where  wiHium  is  compared  with  the 
'' tiirpen line-tree  that  atretclieth  forth  her  branchea.'' 
Tiie  Ttpi^i^ot  or  ri^/jiv3oc  "f  the  Ureekt  is  the 
PiMlwia  ItrrbinrhHi,  ftrrbiiith-li-er,  common  in  Palestine 
and  the  Kast,  mippose.!  by  some  writers  to  repreaent 
tbe  rldi  cn^it)  of  the  Hei^rew  Bible.  See  O.ik.  The 
terebinth,  thongh  nut  generally  an  ciinapiruout  a  tree  in 
Falea^ne  as  aome  uf  the  oaks,  occaMonally  grows  (o  a 


lir^e  aiiM,  See  Robinson  (fliW.  ««.  ii,  IM,  J23),  wM 
ib>i9  speaks  of  il.  "The  bulm"  (tbe  Arabic  iiu»  uf 
the  terebinth)  "  is  not  an  evergreen,  as  often  Ttpreaml- 
e<l,  but  ita  amall  lancel-abaiied  Icnves  fidl  in  ihi 


species  of  turpentine,  with  ai 
or  jeaaimine,  and  a  milil  lagle,and  hardening  gnduilli 
into  a  transparent  gum.  In  Palestine  notbini;  nmu 
to  be  known  of  this  product  of  Ihe  biitm !"  I'ht  lerc- 
ith  belongs  In  Ihe  iiatnrai  order  AiviairdiaCTr,liie 


I  order 


.rally  c 


TniplD  (ot  Tllpll]),a  French  prelate  oftbeStl 
tury,  uf  whose  early  history  nothing  definite  i>  knm, 
waa  a  monk  ofSt.  Denis,  and  became  bishop  otKbdmt 
prubably  in  753,  afler  a  long  opposition  by  Milon.  He  i 
was  one  uf  the  iwel™  French  biahopa  present  in  Tffilii 
the  ci>iincil  called  at  KonK  by  pope  Su-pheti  to  conilcmn 
tbe  antipope  (joiiManiine.  Abuni  7'IG  'I'nriiin  foumleil  i 
chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Denis,  which  afii'rwardt  beciiM 
anabbn;y.  He  di«l  Sept. -/,  DOU.  He  Irfi  agenuincki- 
terto  pope  Adrian  l,aitd  a  mmantiL-  Latin  ClirmUrd 
ihewanof  ChBTlemagne  against  the  Snracena  in  Spain, 
Ihe  anthcnticity  uf  which  has  been  grraitr  doubted,  tl- 
Ihough  avouched  by  a  declaration  of  |>i|ie  Calixtiu  id 
lltL    The  oldest  MSS.  of  it  date  from  the  end  of  iIk 

lUoul  of  Tortoirc  (I096-114&}.  The  Latin  leit  tb 
published  in  1&S4  by  SrhanI,  in  Ida  (Jtrm.ntitmiim  Sf  . 
raw  Vkiimofp-aphi,  and  French  versions  have  appcsTnl  ' 
by  Haguin  (Paris,  lSZ7,4toj  l.vmis.  iaH3,t<ru,eic\B>l 
lately  by  Ciampi  (Fkirence,  IHJ4,wiih  a  iliAcnaii'inin 
the  author)  and  Reilfoiberg  (Bnimcl*.  1K36).  See  lib' 
con  l'a^i^  Dt  Pfudo  TuTjmo  (l>ari\  l«6o). 

Tnrpln,  Thomas  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mini-- 
ter,waabuniii>SumcTw^tCuumy,MLl.,Jnnc30,1BUi  lie 
wasconvertedSept.8,ia-J8;  liccnacl  to  preach  Si^ !:!, 
IHifT  1  admitted  on  [rial  in  tbe  iravclling  connecIiuB  fA. 
7,  IMiS.ann  was  appointed  to  Union  Circuit;  in  llOO.to 
Pendleton  1  in  lSill,to  the  Savannah  miwiuni  in  lO^ 
to  the  Black  Swamp  Circuitj  in  IHIS,  tu  May  and  St* 
Kiver;  in  1834,  lo  the  Wad.-nalane  and  -lohn'a  liiiinl 
mission  and  Orangeburg  Ureuit ;  in  1836,  in  Pee  Iter; 
\n  iai«,  tu  Laurens-,  in  1837,  again  to  P^ndlelon ;  ad 
in  1838,  to  the  Cambridge  and  Klat  Woods  mi^oa. 
where  lie  died,  July  26, 1838.  See  ilinaln  of  Amtal 
Con/ri-nica,  ii,  66G. 

Tnrqnotae.  a  Persian  gem  of  a  peculiar  blnith- 
green  culor,  which  was  very  generally  uwd  in  the  Hid' 
die  Ages  fur  Ihe  adummcnl  of  every  specie*  uf  aerei 

Turret,  Tonret,  or  Tnrette,  a  small  tower:  iU 
name  is  abu  somotimes  given  In  a  large  pinnacle.    Tu- 
ret  a  are  employed  intioihicsrcliileciure  for  various  (or- 
poBCs,  and  are  applied  in  variuua  wavs;  thev  also  differ 
■I' greatly  in  their  forma,  pruporliona,  and  decoiaii'ms. 
many  cnMH  they  are  used  solely  furomamrnt:  Itic^ 
also'oltenidaceil  at  the  angles  oVbui1diiigNeap«ii>llr 
castles,  to  increase  their  strength,  serving  pradicalty  w 
Iiresiws.     Occasionally  they  carry  bells  or  t 
clock,  but  one  of  the  most  common  uses  lo  which  ther 
a  applied  is  to  contain  annrW,  or  spiral  slsitcaw:  f* 
in  purpose  tbey  are  usually  fiiiind  attached  In  chuich- 
lowera,  forming  an  external  project  iun,  which  very  fre- 
quently lerminales  eonsidetably  below  tbe  top  of  ih< 
etj  but  in  some  districts  turrets  irf'this  kind  general- 
ise above  the  tuwer,  and  are  finished  wilh  a  panpti 
mall  gpire.     I'linets  of  all  dales  are  sometimes  pn- 

lingtothe  chanclerof  Ihe  ^icht 


TUUKETINI 

ing  the  InUimlio  Thtvl  Elmchkst,  t 
re|iripted  >t  Eilinburgli  in  1847  sq. 

3.  Jeak  Althomse,  ihc  >un  <if  i'\ 
foil,  \rtit  born  in  1671,  anil  btcanie 
pu|^  ot  ihe  Cartaiin  Chouei  itiil  uf 
Anninitnixiiii!  Ltiuia  Tnuichiii  (i|.  v. 
Geneva.  In  ll>91  he  went  tu  IIuIIbik 
Mudv  church  hintiiry  under  Spaiihi 
and  in  I6di  ho  viaited  £ii);li    ' 


h  Sen 


H.jin 


i«1  l< 


acquired  ihe  IC 
letum  bi  ihe  ( 
•  time  in  l>ari> 
wdety  of  men  like  BoHuet,  Hahlllu 
Halebranehe,  etc.  He  availed  himself  i 
thii  npfwnunily  to  study  Anhic  uiid 
ibe  tuition  uf  the  abbd  LaiigueoK. 
Oeneira  be  waa  received  into  tbe  mi 
ii*i7  St  Ihe  age  of  twcnty-lH-D,  and  hh 
afterward!  inio  ihe  Viiirriib/t  Compiigr 
■    da  PaHrurt.     His  ability  aa  an  oral 

accualnmcd  to  r»lliiw  the  lCn(;1i)h  girn 


Murj'a,  Burerley,  Tnrklhln 

enriched, 


Beckley.  Oxfurdiblre.  & 

Itctuie,  the  upper  part  hfing  the  ma 

PHI  unfrei|uenlly  furmcii  of  cipcn-work, 

■lyle  the  lower  part  i>  ui>u:il1y  square, 

continiml  to  the  tup,  but  tbe  upper  p 

changcil  to  a  polygon  or  circle.    Few  lurreta  oitniAaaie 

teuiii  tlieii  original  terminations  but  they  apppar  to 

hue  been  often  Diiished  wiih  law  rpires,  litlier  aquate, 

nu  In  Ihe  Enrlg  En^ith  and  bilrr  eli  !ea  they  are  tooux 
iiiually  polygonal,  but  are  eumetimes  square,  and  occn- 
uonilly  circnUr.  The  upper  irrniiiiation«  are  very 
TUiona;  in  the  Early  Eiiglich  atyle  fpires  prevail, 
lot  in  the  Dreoroltd  and  Prrptmliciiltir  nut  only  spirei, 
bill  paiapela,  either  plain,  balllemenleil,  panelled,  or 
pierced,  and  pinnacles  ire  used.  Tbe  peculiar  kind  of 
lurreli  olien  found  iltached  lo  small  churches  and 
chapels,  which  have  no  towers  to  receive  the  belli, 
-  Ihe  term  PtU-gahte.     See  Snns; 


The  arrangenieiu  of  his 


Ton-KK. 
Tarratinl,  the  name  of  ■  fa 

ihe  ton  of  a  gonrilonier  of  Luci 

AiDnng  bia  deacemlanu  Ibiee  m 
thi.  place. 
1.  BcsEf>erTO  was  bom  ii 


lily  of  thoologiana  of 
.  was  expatriated  on 


1586  at  Zuric 


il  profmsor  uf  theology  in 
ifilS.  In  1620  he  represented  tbe  Church  of  Geneva 
It  the  national  lynod  of  Alais,  which  iiilroduced  tbe 
dfcrees  of  Dort  into  France,  and  in  the  following  year 
tie  was  sent  to  HolUnd  anil  tbe  cities  of  the  Hansealic 
l.ei|;ue  to  solicit  aid  tuwarda  Ibrtifying  Geneva,  a  task 
In  which  he  was  emineully  successful.  He  died  in 
ICSI,  leaving  In  Ihe  world  a  number  of  sermons  and 
Itieiilni^cal  writings.  See  \^iij  Ai^rm-hitl.  l^xikorij 
»iii.37a;  Senebier,//t(r. /.tf.dr  Ceiwrr,  ii,  130. 

2.  KiUKfOIB  was  burn  in  1623,  became  pastor  of  the 
liilinn  congregation  at  Genevs.  and  in  1653  professur  of 
Hwikigi-.  He  was  tent  lo  Holland  on  a  similar  mission 
III  that  rormeriy  undertaken  by  his  father,  Bencdello. 
He  'is  pinimtarly  known  as  a  lealous  opponent  of  Ibe 
llimliigy  of  Saumiir  [see  AMTBAUT],aDd  defender  of  or- 
thiikiiy  in  the  aenw  of  Dort.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
oriKinitim  of  tb-  "-'"'■-  fTnnsnuuf  (q.  v.)  He  left 
nuoKniiu  wurl'  'ant  of  which,  includ- 


lade 


pri>fettor  nf  church  history,  and  in  1701  became  i 
of  the  BCBilemy.  The  latlcr  honor  was  conferred  upon 
him  ten  times,  to  which  fact  we  are  indebleil  for  len 
important  adilrexsee  iilplivcre<l  on  the  luccenstvc  ilnys 
of  promotion.  He  ridliiwed  Tmnchin,  in  1703,  as  pni- 
fesBor  of  systematic  Ihcolog}'.  I  hough  slill  retaining  bis 
own  (historical)  chair.  lie  wrote  upon  almost  the 
whole  of  dogmiiici,  and  connected  with  these  laboia 
exegetical  lectures  on  parts  of  Ihe  New  Test. 

The  influence  of  Turretini  was  eipecially  apparent 
in  the  management  of  the  enterprise  lo  bring  about 
the  abrogation  of  the  IMcnic  Cotamui  as  a  bind- 
ing formida.  He  kept  il  before  the  Venemblo  Conv- 
pany,  the  council,  and  Ibe  Two  Hundred  iinlil  a  major- 
iry  were  gaineil  over  li>  that  project;  and  he  induced 
Wake,  archlnshop  of  Canterbury,  to  urge  ihc  abroga- 
tion upon  leading  men  Ihmnghont  SHilzcrland.  and 
also  to  persuade  the  king  of  England  lo  address  an  n|>- 
peallo  Ihe  cantons  in  beliairof  the  ume  measure.  He 
wss  alsn  pmmincul  in  pnimolitig  fraternal  rehilians  be- 
tween Lutherans  ami  Keriirmnl  Chiistiani  in  Geneva, 
in  recoguiiion  of  which  fact  be  was  made  a  member  of 
Che  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  and  awarded  a  gold  med- 
al by  the  Prussian  king. 

The  principal  theubigical  works  of  Turrelini,  frnm 
which  his  tendency  msy  most  readily  be  lesnieil,  are, 
Kiibn  Taiiam  pro  .\Mrrala  tl  Purifico  de  Bfiiii  Thnl. 
Jadieu>rttaililHrwUiiiil<TrroUtlanlfCmcordm[\l-l^'), 


faith 


lUl  anicl 

-.xeA.    .Such  articles  he  describes  as  "quorum 

iigue  Ddcs  ad  Dei  graliam  lalutemque  obtinen- 

■xposed  Tur- 

-elini  ID  attack  from  two  dillbrent  direeliuus:  flnt, 
rum  the  Jesuit  De  Hcrre,  Lj-nns,  IT28,  who  sought  Vo 
ihow  that  the  Refurmed  Church  had  no  greater  reason 
o  renounce  the  communion  of  theChnich  of  Kume  ihan 
hat  of  Ihe  Lutheran  Church ;  an<l.  second,  from  Crin- 
mus.  Protestant  pastor  of  lliiineni,  1737.  A  second  and 
note  important  work  i*  his  C'l^rurunrs  tl  IHrmla- 
iiinri  rAnilo^inr.  in  whieb  he  ■lisplaj's  a  liberal  t,i-pe 
if  orthnloxy.  Ho  emphaxizes  the  impnriancc  ofnaiu- 
'al  theolngy  in  i^niiinc  liefunned  fashion,  but  Imlds 
bal  revealed  religion  hni  for  its  object  merely  llie  Mip- 
ilenienting  and  compleling  of  what  natural  rcliijioii 


TUERI 

teaches.  He  roeogniiea  the  existence  of  injitcri« 
revealed  reli);iun,  but  Eaalauaiy  lejecu  fureign  and  icbo- 
laalii:  addiliuni  in  theolngy.  Wilh  respect  la  the  doc 
trine  o(  the  divine  decrees,  he  avoids,  as  he  does  every 
where,  all  extreme  eutement^  but  lays  hold  on  Ih 
elemeiit*  of  practical  utility  in  the  teaching.  Will 
reference  to  the  dootrine  of  Divine  Providence,  he  rep 
reaenled  the  optimiHic  Leibnitiian  theory.  He  ful 
Inweil  that  pbilosoplier  ileo  in  hii  rejection  of  innat 
ideas.  The  Cogitalioaa  contained  much  apologetical 
material,  and  earned  Tar  their  author  an  honorable  place 
among  apoloj^iMa  (see  Pell,  i,'ruyc<np.  p.  391).  The 
form  in  which  his  apologetical  ideu  were  given  to  the 
French  world  of  readcn  by  Vemet  is,  it  should  be 
noted,  revised  anil  altered,  in  the  first  editions  wilh  the 
author's  consent,  as  Yemet  chiimed ;  but  the  improve- 
ment progressed  with  each  sueceMivs  edition,  and  Ver- 
iiet  clearly  reveal*  the  deism  of  the  ISlh  century  in  hia 
work. 

In  1726  Turretial  was  commituoned  to  deliver  the 
ao-eallcd  Ctdltiit  dei  Promolioni,  an  address  in 
French  langiiage,  together  wilh  the  charge  prescribed 
by  the  Uws  for  the  occasion,  when  the  Two  Hundred 
aud  the  General  Assembly  of  citizens  were  to  elec 
principal  magistratea  or  the  State.  The  tirenty-Sve 
addresses  which  he  delivered  tolheae  bodies  were  high. 
ly  commended  because  of  tbe  striking  and  practical 
ideas  with  which  they  were  filled.  He  also  t«ok  active 
part  in  the  improvement  of  the  liturgy,  in  the  ordering 
(if  week-day  services,  in  tbe  publication  of  a  naw  edition 
nf  the  French  New  Teat.  (1726),  in  the  forming  of  a  so- 
ciety for  the  religious  insUuction  of  youth,  aud  fiiinily 
in  the  introduction  of  the  public  confirmation  of  cate- 
chumens. He  rendered  important  services  tc 
churches  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  the  Palatinau 

spondence  with   Switierland,  England,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, eu.     George  II  of  England  and  his  con 
honored  him  with  expressious  of  their  favor,  and 
ployed  him  in  works  of  benevolence.    His  last  y 
were  disturbed  by  the  troubles  of  Geneva  in  I7M. 
died  Hay  1,  1737.    After  bis  death  were  issued  from 
the  press  his  Comnmt.  Theortl.-praet.  in  Ep.  ad  Tha- 
inloaie.  (Basle,  1739):-PraI«<i(mM  on   Komans  li 
(Geneva,  1741): — and  a  tractate  on  the  exposition  of 
Scripture  (Berlin,  1766).     A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  in  Lecuwarden  in  1775. 

aoumi.— Senebier,  IlitU  LU.  di  Gmice,  ii,  EOS;  Sa- 
youi,  Hill,  de  la  LU.  Franc  ii  fElraagtr,  etc  (1858); 
Cellerier,  L'Acadimie  de  Cmiut  (18&&);  Vemel,  Eli^ 
Hi3t<iriq<ir,tur  J.  A.Tar.in  the  BiU.  Rai»afmie,icx\; 
various  biographical  dictionaries)  and  lleraog,  A«iJ- 
i'aejrWop.  s.  V. 

Tnrrl,  in  the  mythology  nf  the  Finns,  was  a  god 
of  war  and  huniing,  living  in  Bleep  rocky  caverns,  and 
was  worshipped  as  the  god  uf  the  nation. 

TuTTigfira  (or  Turrlta)  (Imnei-bearer or  toutred), 
In  Human  myrliulugy,  was  a  surname  of  Cybele. 

TuraBUn  {LaU  Turvllinui),  lloRACK,  ■  learned 
and  indefatiitalile  Jesuit  of  Rome,  was  bom  in  1516,  and 
taught  rhetoric  in  that  city  twenty  years,  and  was  rec- 
tor of  several  colleges.  He  promoted  the  study  of 
belles- lei tres  in  hia  society,  and  died  at  Rome,  April 
6,  1599.  His  principal  works  are,  U/t  of  St.  Fran- 
eit  Xiwitr  (best  ed.  1596.  4io)  .—  Uittors  "/  I^rtllo 
{am):  —  Ti-ealiK  on  Iht  Latin  ParHdii f .— AkiJg- 
mmt  of  Vnirtrial  Uitloiy /.on  Ike  Crralian  to  1538, 
etc  (best  editions  are  those  which  have  a  continua. 
tion  by  father  Philip  Briet,  1618-61 .  the  best  French 
transladons  are  by  abl^  Lagneau,  Paris,  1757,  i  vols. 
12010). 

Turatlne,  a  monk  of  Caen,  in  Normandy,  who,  in 
ISOl,  was  sent  over  to  England  and  installe.l  tirst  Nor- 
man abbot  of  Glastonbury  Abbey.  Through  his  influ- 
ence, William  I  granted  the  abbey  a  charter,  restoring 
its  lost  lands,  and  conflrming  all  its  privileges.    Id  a 


TURTLE 


general  council,  h>  opposed  the  a 
bishop  of  Wells,  aud  was  so  suctesslul  ibst  (ii»  hid  io 
go  to  Glastonbury  and  there  have  decided  the  queHinii 
of  jurisdiction  over  the  two  minor  monasteries,  Uucbd- 
ney  and  Etheling.  Turstine  then  turned  bis  itienliui 
to  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  abbey,  but  by  hia  in- 
troduction of  foreign  praciicea  brought  about  insubordl- 
nation  among  the  monks.  French  soldiers  were  bnaglit 
in,  who  slew  aome  of  the  monks  while  in  tbe  sancUisiy. 
TuntJne  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Normandy  in  dU. 
grace.  William  II  permitted  him  to  return  u>  the  ab- 
bey on  payment  of  five  handred  pounda  in  lilrer,  but 
he  Mcms  not  to  have  sUyed  there.  See  Hill,  EngUA 
Uomailiaim,  p.  247,  248, 252. 

Turtle,  or  Tcbtlb-dovk  (nin,  I6t,  so  called,  M 

flnt  in  Scripture  in  Gen.  xv,  9,  where  Atiiam  is  om- 
manded  to  offer  it  along  with  other  sacrifices,  and  ■iiti 
a  young  pigenn  (^I'll,  s"'^^-  In  l^he  Levitiol  law  a 
pair  of  turtle-doves  or  of  young  pigeons  are  constauly 
prescribed  as  a  substitute  for  those  who  were  too  poa 
to  provide  a  lamb  or  ■  hid,  and  tliese  birds  were  sdnui- 

instance,  the  case  of  a  Naiarile  having  been  accidoit- 
ally  defiled  by  a  dead  \K-.\y,  a  pair  of  turtle-doves  or 
young  pigeons  were  specially  enjoined  (NumK  vi,  10). 
It  was  in  accordance  wilh  the  provision  in  l*v.  xii,< 
that  the  mother  of  our  Lord  made  the  oSering  for  her 
puriOcalion  (Luke  ii,  24).  During  the  early  perioi]  ot 
Jewish  history  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  other  bird 
except  the  pigeon  having  been  domesticated;  and  up  ID 
the  time  or  Solomon,  who  may,  with  the  peacock,  ban 
introduced  other  gaUinaceous  birds  from  India,  it  ■•> 
probably  the  oidy  poultry  known  to  the  Israetiiea.  In 
this  day  enormous  quantities  of  pigeons  are  kept  ia 
dove-cou  in  all  the  towns  and  villaj^  of  Palestine,  and 
several  of  the  fancy  races  *u  familiar  in  ihis  nwDlty 
have  been  traced  to  be  of  Syrian  origin.  The  offrriiig 
of  two  young  pigeons  must  have  been  one  easily  wilbln 
the  reach  of  the  poorest,  and  the  offerer  was  accepted 
according  to  what  he  had,  and  not  according  to  wlul  be 
had  nol.  The  admission  of  a  pair  of  tuitle-dores  n^ 
perhaps,  a  yet  further  concession  to  extrente  povenyi 
for,  unlike  tbe  pigeon,  the  turtle,  from  itsmigratorvns^ 
ure  and  timid  disposition,  has  never  vet  been  kept  in  a 

merousj  and  rcsortiug  especially  to  garilens  fur  nidiSa- 
tion,  its  young  might  easily  be  fnuitil  aud  capUiied  tu 
those  who  did  not  even  posaeaa  pigeons. 


TURTLE  « 

It  U  Dot  improbable  that  the  pilm-dore  {Turtvt 
^gjfpHaaa,  Temm.)  mi}',  in  aoma  moinre,  hire  aup- 
plied  the  sacrifices  in  the  wilderoeu,  for  it  U  found  in 
■raasing  Durobera  wherevei  tbe  pilm-UEe  occurs,  vtheth- 
«r  wild  or  cultiTJled.     Ill  moM     '    '  .  .-    -. 


AfHca 


every  U 


d  elfgin 


e  or» 


e  frequently,  ii 
!  or  mure  wiLh< 
pps  M  Elim  ■  o 


three  pain  of  (heae 
ciDWD  lit  many  of  the  dste-treei 
placed  toother;  and  aport^nien  1 
palm-giove,  bmughl  down  ten  bi 
moving  fmm  tbetr  pnst.  In  auch 
•jiteraiile  supply  uf  these  dovei  may  nave  tieeii  otiaineu. 
From  ita  bibil  uf  pairing  fur  lile  and  iia  fiileliiy  for 
iU  mate,  the  dove  was  a  eymbol  uf  purity  and  an  ap- 
propriate ulTering  (comp,  I'liny,  Hill.  Nat.  x,  bi).  The 
Rgular  mif^iion  of  the  turtle-dove  and  iU  return  in 
spring  are  alluded  to  in  Jer.  viii,  7, ''  The  turtle  and 

oomuig:"  and  Cant,  ii,  11,  12,  "Ilie  winter  is  past .. . 
and  the  voiee  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land."  So 
Pliny,  "  Hyetne  mutia,a  vere  vocalibus  i"  and  Aristotle, 
//u/'.  ^n.iz, 8,  "Turile~daves  spend  the  summer  in  cnld 

vhCTE  (viii,  5)  he  makes  it  hyliemale  (f  uXd).  There 
is,  indeed,  no  more  gralerui  prunfor  the  return  of  spring 
ill  Sledilcrranean  countries  than  Ihe  voice  of  the  turtle. 
One  of  Ihe  first  birds  to  migrate  northwards,  the  turtle, 
wbile  other  songslen  are  heard  chiefly  in  the  morning 
or  only  at  intervals,  immediately  on  its  arrival  pours 
fonli  from  every  garden,  grove,  and  wooded  bill  its 
melancholy  yet  soothing  ditty  unceasingly  from  early 
dawn  till  sunset.  It  is  from  its  plaintive  note,  doubt- 
leasi,  that  David,  in  I'ss.  Ixxiv,  19,  pouring  forth  his  la- 
ment la  God,  oompans  himself  10  a  turtle-dove. 

From  the  abundance  of  Ihe  dove  tribe  and  their  iiD- 
portance  as  an  article  of  fund,  the  ancienls  discriminated 
the  spedes  of  Coiainbidie  more  acturalely  than  of  many 
others.  Aristotle  enumeraici  five  siwcies,  which  are  not 
all  easy  of  identifieitioii,  as  but  four  apeciea  are  now 
known  commonly  to  inhabit  (ireece.  In  Palestine  the 
number  of  species  is  probably  greater.  Besides  the 
rock-dove  (Cniiimiia  lieia,  L),  very  common  on  all  tlie 
rocky  parts  of  the 


It  the 


■II  t 


«  ring-dove  {ColunAn  paiumhui,  l»)  frequents  all  the 
wooded  districia  of  the  country.  The  slock-duve  {Co- 
/■siia  inuu,  L)  isaagenerally,  but  more  sparinglyidis- 
thbaied.  Another  species,  allied  either  to  this  or  lo 
Colnn&i  lieia,  baa  been  observed  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  perhaps  Col.  laiconola,  Vig.  (see  Ibit,  i,  35), 
The  lunle-dove  (_T«mir  aurilui,  L.)  is,  as  has  been 
Mated,  most  abundant,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
■n  allied  species,  the  palm-dove,  or  Eg}'pilan  turtle 
{Turiur  .t:gfpliaait,  Temm.),  is  by  no  means  uncom- 
nton.  This  bin),  most  abundant  among  the  palm-trees 
in  Egj'pt  and  North  Africa,  is  disiinguisbed  from  the 
cofnmon  luttle-duve  by  its  ruddy  chestnut  color,  its 
long  tail,  smaller  uze,  and  Ihe  absence  of  Ihe  collar  on 
the  neck.     It  does  not  migrate,  but,  from  the  umilari- 


1  TUTIANI 

ty  of  ila  note  and  habits,  it  ia  not  probable  that  it 

woa  distingaisbed  by  the  aacients.  The  large  Indian 
turtle  {Turtar  gtlaila,  Temm.)  has  also  been  stated, 
though  witliout  authority,  to  occur  in  Palestine.  Oth- 
er species,  as  the  well-kaown  collared  dove  {Turiur 
riioHa,  L.},  have  been  incorrectly  iodnded  as  native* 
of  Syria. 

The  birds  of  this  subgenus  are  invariably  smaller 
than  pigeons  properly  so  called ;  they  are  mostly  mark- 
ed witii  a  patch  of  peculiarly  colored  tcutellated  feath- 
ers on  the  neck,  or  with  a  collar  of  black,  and  have  of- 
ten other  markings  on  the  smsller  wing-covers.  The 
species  Columba  Tuiiur,  with  several  varietiea  merely 
of  color,  extends  from  the  west  of  Europe  through  the 
north  uf  Africa  lo  the  islands  south  of  China.  The  tur- 
tle-dove of  Palestine  is  specially  Ihe  same-,  but  there 
is  also  a  second,  we  believe  local:  both  migrate  farther 

ing  voice  in  Ihe  woods  announces  the  spring.— Kit  to. 
See  Schlichter,  Dt  Turlure  (Hal.  l7B8)i  Tristram,  Nat. 
Hiil.n/lhe  £tMr,  p.  !I7  sq.;  V/ood,  Biblf  Animali.p. 
119  sq.     See  DovK. 

Tnrtl«,  John,  a  Wesleyan  misaionarj-,  was  bom  in 
tbeCountyofSuflulk,  England,  Juno  9, 1793.  He  was 
convened  in  IBII,  commenced  to  presch  in  1815,  at 
Thelford,  and  in  1817  he  received  his  appoinlroent  for 
the  Bahamas,  W.  I.  His  Brst  circuit  was  Ekutheraj 
next.  New  Providence:  and  afl«r  thai,  successively, 
Turk's  Island,  Harbor  Island,  Abaco,  Jamaica  {1822J, 
AbacD,  Eleuthera,  and  Turk's  Island, where  he  died,  Aug, 
16,  I82&.  BIr.  Turtle  cut  short  his  life  by  his  indefati- 
gable labors.  He  had  naiural  abililies  of  a  high  oriler, 
and  a  spiriliial  Itfeof  beauty  and  consialencv.  See  Ifes- 
lfSaaifrlLMag.l8^,p.2ni  Wt*liyaa  JUi«uta,l6le. 

Tnrtoo,  ThoinaB,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  17S2.  He  be- 
came a  pensioner  of  Queen's  College,  Cambrulge,  in 
1801;  two  years  thereafter  he  removed  to  St.  Catha- 
rine's College  (Iben  known  as  Catharine  Hall),  from 
which  be  graduated  in  tt<05.  In  ISOG  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  bis  college,  aud  in  1807  became  a 


iappoi 


ntedL 


rofm 


ic^  and  in  182(1  accepted  the  college  Ii      _ 
hsm-cum-Trunch,  in  (he  County  of  Norfolk;  but  wni 

election  lo  the  r^ins  professorship  of  divinily.  In 
1830  he  obtained  the  deanery  of  Pelcrborough,  which 
office  he  filled  until  1842,  when  he  was  appointed  dean 
of  Westminster.  In  1845  he  became  bishop  of  Ely. 
He  died  at  his  residence  in  London,  Jan.  7,  1801. 
As  a  f3>uIroverBialisi,  Dr.  Turton  has  been  nrely  sui^ 
passed.  His  taste  in  line  arts  was  exquisite,  and  he 
was  the  composer  of  several  excellent  pieces  of  Church 
music.  S«B  Amtrictm  Quar.  CAardi  Rrv.  April,  1864, 
p.  167. 
Turtoa,  William,  an  English  Wesleyan  mission 


les,  W.  I. 


His 


;r.  His  first  labors  were  on  ihe  island 
r  Antigua.  In  1798  he  received  an  appointment  for 
SI.  Bartholomew  from  the  English  Conference.  In 
1800  he  was  sent  lo  New  Providence,  and  labored  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  on  that  and  adjacent  islands.  He 
died  ot  Nassau,  May  10, 1818,  aged  fifty-seven.  Ho 
was  a  faithful  toiler.  See  Wtilryan  Mtth.  Has.  l^lt 
p.  3, 81;  If eifryan  JfiflUfei,  1818. 

TutBnna.  in  Roman  myl  holngy,  was  a  deily  who 
was  implored  in  limes  of  peril  and  danger  for  help 
and  protection. 

TuOanl,  BAnTOiflMBO,  an  engraver  on  wood,  who 

Gothic  monograni  of  his  initials.  Bartscii  describes 
Didy  one  cut  with  this  mark,  ChrtMl  Smjrd  al  %  Ike 
Jtxi,  in  a  book  {Nuremb.  lolB) ;  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  it  was  engraved  by  Tutiani.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  Ilisl.  of  lU  i'ii'  A  m,  s.  v. 


«02  TWELFTH  DAY  OF  THE  MONTH 


Tntillna,  in  Roman  mrthuln^,  wu  a  goddeia  who 
wu  Mid  to  care  for  the  SelJs  u(  com  and  grain.  She 
had  an  alui  and  a  pillar  in  the  circus— DO  temple,  hoW' 
ever,  as  ilie  could  only  be  wonhipped  in  th«  open  air. 

Tutllo,  a  ninnk  ofS(.  Uall  and  c«Jebr«ted  artist,  waa 
contemporary  with  the  great  Uacherg  Nolker  Balbulua 
and  Radbert  of  St.  Gall,  and  anociated  with  tfaem  in 
rrieiidship  and  in  tlie  work  of  makini;  Si.  Ciall  the  fore- 
moat  Hat  of  the  art!  and  aciencesin  ihcir  day.  He  waa 
of  Agamic  atalure  and  full  ofjuyoua  humor;  ■  magiiltr 
»Bd  pittbi/ltr  according  to  the  nccrulnfcy,  but 


'  \ex 


Drivi 


nature,  he  nevertheleaa 

aetved  his  ptounly  aimple  and  blan>eleM  life.  In  the 
monastery  ilaelf  hii  Htrength  and  geniality  delermined 
hia  pusilion.  He  waa  iti  butler  and  aaeristan,  and  also 
the  lioBt  and  companion  orvi^tiii);  alraiigera,  serving  in 
the  latter  capacity  down  to  A.D.9IJ. 

The  Irish  hishop  or  preibytcr  JIark,  and  bia  nephew 
Hoengal  [the  latter  preferabl}-  called  Uarcellui  by  the 
monks),  rioiled  St.  (iill  in  the  middle  of  the  9ih  cen- 
tury; and  Moengal  instructed  Tulib,  among  others,  in 
(he  art  uf  music  until  he  became  a  protlcient  com- 
n  inMrumentslist  am' 


d  the  h 


He  b 


a  teacher  of  mu«c,  and  in  a  aepante  room  gave  reg- 
ular instruction  to  the  sona  of  tlie  nabitiiy  in  the 
use  iif  stringed  inalrumenta.  Nur  did  he  conllne  him- 
seir  to  sacred  munic  only;  but  his  tineH  laurcla  were 
still  gathered  in  that  Held.  He  imtuted  the  Scottish 
cnatom  of  iiaociating  instrumental  music  with  vocal  in 
Che  n-orahip  of  the  Church,  and  carried  it  further.  Some 
of  the  instrumcnta  uaeil  in  llie  small  chapel  of  Sl  Uall 
are  pictured  in  otd  MriS.  which  are  still  exunl.  Hb 
own  most  eapedal  creation  were  the  >u-calleil  Irojirj,  i,  e. 
ornamental  melodic  addilioni,  with  texts,  to  the  hymns 
of  the  mass,  and  particularly  to  its  Inlroil,  which  were 
intended  to  imparl  a  specliically  festive  character  to  the 
hymns  ftir  festal  daya.  His  Christraaa  trope  Itodie  Can- 
Uinilui  is  well  known.  These  tropes  were  widely  re- 
cvivnl  and  used  throughout  the  Church,  and  were  per- 

cerlun-.  He  also  composed  hvmns  and  litanies  (see 
the  St.' Uall  MSS.Noa.37  and  mi). 

The  genius  of  Tutilo  was  displayed  wilh  equal  force 
in  llie  arts  nf  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  He 
hail  the  inile|iendence  to  work  from  new,  indigenous 
miiliTes  as  well  aa  from  Roman  and  Byzantine  models 
and  nfier  a  traditional  type.  His  fane  extended  wide- 
ly, and  made  it  the  fashion  to  procure  works  from  his 

Metx,  was  wrought  in  so  exalted  a  maimer  aa  to  give 
currency  to  the  report  that  the  Virgin  herwlf  was  his 
instructor.  Of  his  carvings  the  ivory  tables  which 
Charlemagne  kept  under  his  pillow  are  eapecialty  cele- 
brnivd.  They  passed  into  the  hands  of  archbishop 
llniin  of  Mayeiiee,  then  into  Ihote  of  Solomon,  abbot 
of  .'^t.  fiall,  anri  fnim  him  into  t' 
mcinualert-.  One  of  Ihem  was  imi 
per  surface  Tutito  carved  tlie  Virgin  between  f<iur  aii- 
gcK  while  its  lower  surface  receivcil  a  purtnj-al  of  the 
lcgpn<l  nf  Si.  liall,  in  which  the  snint  gives  bread  to  his 
oU'difiit  liear  in  rewani  for  bis  labor  of  bearing  wooil 
for  fui-L  Sinmpf,  the  ancient  Swiss  chronicler,  men- 
tions also  an  astronomical  chart  of  bcaw  upon  which 
the  orbits  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were  beaulirully 
markeil.  as  having  been  one  of  Tiiiilo'a  masterjMecea 
and  as  bring  still  in  existeiirc  in  his  day.  It  is  now, 
however,  lost.  Un  Tntilo's  death  he  waa  hurieil  in  a 
chniH-l  which  was  dedicated  to  his  mcniorv  and  coIIr; 
by  his  name:  and  he  was  venerated  as  a'saint.     The 

of  him  aa  a  saint;  but  his  worship  was  soon  Inst. 

.Vouiw).— Rkkehard  IV  (<L  lOoli).  C-iiat  Simdi  Gat- 
ti.  n'prinled  in  {"ertz,  .I/onuih.  d'erntuiwr,  vol.  ii;  Acx, 
U'-io-h.  d.  Knnhmi  Saad  Uiif/ni  (lAlO),  pt.  i,  p.  gT-lOO; 
HeMt,tt'ii..  JCaalamliatiailt    -    ■   • 


Sdttceit,  in  Theol,  QaannUckr.  )S38,  Ko.  2.  Sh  ilu 
DUmmler,  FonttUmci  d.  Hucko/i  Sakimo  til  »■  C<*- 
Wmz,  p.  114;  Heraug, /fwJ-fKTjnUiip. a.  T. 

Tnttle,  Amoa  C,  a  Preabylerian  minisleT,  was  bm 
at  Uoiickton,  Vt.,  July  38,  1800.  He  parsoed  hi)  |m- 
paralory  studies  in  the  Aca>lcmy  at  Hiddlebuir,  VL; 
graduated  at  Hiddlebury  College'  in  I9il ;  studied  the- 
ology privately;  was  licensed  by  the  Addison  Coaalt 
Association  June  30. 1S29;  ordained  br  an  eodnisxi- 
cal  council  Oct.  30, 18^;  and  became  elated  supply  of 
the  Church  in  Whitehall.  N.Y.,  Sept.  1,  IKM.  In  lOl 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Hin- 
furd,  N.  v.:  in  1830  he  accepteil  an  agency  fur  the  At- 
bum  Thculogpeal  Seminary:  in  1837  became  pastor  el 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Pavetlev>tle,Onai>riagaCo, 
N.r.;  in  1841,  of  ■  church  at  IJveqxiul.  N.T.I  in  I  Ml 
of  the  Cungrt];ational  Church  in  Sherburne,  Cheaancs 
Co.,  N.  v.;  in  1856,  of  the  Chorch  in  Paw  Pa<r,Vu 
Ilnren  Co.,  Mich.:  in  1859,  of  the  Church  in  Lapeer. 
Mich.,  where  he  labored  until  bis  dealh,  Sept.  34,  IKl 
Mr.  Tultle  waa  a  man  of  more  than  onlinary  niiDd.<Kll 
educated,  and  popular  as  a  preacher.  See  Wilaon, /VtA 
Hisf.  A  Imaaac,  1863,  p.  308. 

Tuttle.  Jacob,  a  Presbyterian  ntinister,  was  tat 
at  New  Vernon,  Morris  Co.,  N.  J.,  Aug.  H.  I7H&  !)• 
was  educated  at  the  BloomGebl  Academy,  N.  J. ;  siudiet 
theology  privately;  taught  at  the  Acailemv  at  Jiettai, 
Sussex  Co.,  N.  J.,  from  1817  lo  IBJO;  was  lireiued  to 
preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Jersey  April  i7,  I8»; 
ordained  and  installed  paslor  oF  the  West  Mllliinl 
Church,  Passaic  Co.,  Aug.  U,  I8JI ;  and  t«nur«l  to 
Ohio  in  1832,  where  he  engaged  in  home  miasiooaij 
labors,  planting  several  churches,  and  was  everywbae 
honored  as  a  true  man  of  (iod.    He  died  Jan.  S,  I86& 


r.fuU  r 


hearers,  and  honored  of  Cud.     See  Wilson,  PrrA.  f/tA 
.Almanac,  1867,  p. S24. 

Tattle,  Sama«l  Lavnenise,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bomat  Blnomfleld.  N.J„.4ug.  25,  ISIi.  He 
was  convened  in  1830;  |nirsued  his  academical  stodiea 
in  Newark,  N.J. ;  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jer- 
sey in  1836 ;  studied  theobigy  at  the  Auburn  Semioary, 
N.r.;  was  licensed  by  the  Newark  Preshyten- Oct. ^ 
1810;  ordained  pastor  of  the  Caldwell  Church.  N'.J, 
March  9,  1841;  waa  in  the  employ  of  the  Amerieaa 
Bible  Society  from  1849  to  1854;  became  pastor  of  tlit 
Madison  Church,  Morris  Co.,  N.J.,Jan.  S,  ISM;  agenl 
of  the  American  Ilible  Society  for  Western  New  Toit 
from  18G-2  to  1863;  and  assiataiK  to  Che  secretaries  untO 
his  death,  which  occurred  April  16, 1866.  Mr.  Tottla 
was  an  eloquent  preacher,  'llic  Rev.  Dr.  TayloTi  one 
''*" '     of  the  American  Bible  Sai3ety,gBve  if 


and  minutely  acquainted  wilh  the  historv  and  workini 
of  the  Bible  S<icietT  as  be.  Sec  Wilson,  PrtiL.  Hat. 
J/nonuc,  1867,  p.  327. 

Tuttle.  Tlinottay,  a  Congregniional  roini>ter,itas 
bom  at  East  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.^,  1781.  He  gnd- 
nated  at  Yale  O'llege  in  1808;  studied  theology  <rith 
Rev.  David  Smith  of  Durham,  Conn.;  cotnmtned 
preaching  at  Durham,  N.  Y.;  and  waa  ordained  -irec 
the  Church  in  Lcdvard,  Conn.,  in  1811.  Here  b* 
labored  until  his  death,  June  6,  1864.  Ur.  TullJe  was 
plain  in  appearance  anil  manners,  yet  a  man  of  godhr 
sincerity  aiid  of  considerable  influence.  He  was  iniit- 
■Iructiv'e  preacher.     See  Cong.  Quar.  Hev.  1864,  p.aH. 

Twelftb-day,  (l)  the  feast  of  F.piphan 
twelfth  day  after  Christmas;  (S)  the  old 


TWELFTH  D^T  OP  THE  Month.     Intheevtnii^ 

cn-ice  of  the  CliiiTb  of  England  fur  the  twelfth  day 
1  after  the  second  lesson,  begia- 

'  psalm  for  the  day,  and  woald 
us  occasion  an  nnneccwary  and  iiMless  repetiuon.— 
anion,  Dict.o/lhi  CAurol.a.  v. 


ing-'Go.lbem 


TWELl-TH-NiGHT  6( 

Twelftta-nlgbt,  the  ere  ot  the  reMival  of  the 
Ejiipbany,  »lii<:h  occiire  essclly  Iwdve  d«ji  after  the 
Tost  of  Cbiutmw. 

Tw«lftb-tide.    See  Epifhant. 

Twells,  LeoKARH,  ■  leimeil  Engliah  divine,  was 
educated  at  Jmus  College,  Cambridge,  vrhere  he  pm- 
credcd  A.tt.  in  ITtH.  Iii  1T8.1  the  Univenity  of  Ox- 
furd  conrerral  oii  him  the  degree  uf  A.M.  by  diploma, 
ill  appniiiBlioii  (nvbibly  of  his  Ci-iliml  ExnmmalioH, 
Mc  He  was  it  that  time  vicar  urSuMary'r,  Harl- 
burough,  bi>t  in  1737  was  presented  la  the  united  rec- 
Uiries  of  St.  Klalthew'B,  Friday  SlIee^  and  Si.  Peter'a, 
Cheap.  He  was  also  a  prebendary  of  St.  Psul's,  and 
one  of  the  tectum*  of  Su  DiinttanVin-tfae-Weat.  He 
<li«l  FeU  19,  1741  or  171J.  His  publicatioiu  in  his 
lifetime  were,  A  Ci-ilieal  KxaminaliiM  o/iht  Lale  A'™ 
Tfit  and  Vtrtian  ofikt  TeitaiHtBl,  fa  Greek  and  Eng- 
Htk  (pta.  i,ii,  Loud.  1731;  pt.  iii,  1732,  flvo)-.-^  l^iB- 
diealion  o/UU  Gotptl  of  31.  MallAno  (1785, 8ro)  -.—An- 
nrer  lo  Ike  Inquiiy  inlo  lit  Mraning  of  Dmmouiac*  ia 
Ou  .V*w  Tfit.  ina7,8ro):—AHnemo  Ike  Furlher  In- 
faiiy  (1738,  8io).  After  hia  death,  his  Servumi  at 
Bavke'a  and  ladv  Mofet's  lecture!  were  publithed  for 
tbe  benefit  of  his  family  <17M,  2  voIs.8to).  See  Chal- 
mers,  Hiog.l>ict.a.v.;  AHiboar,Dicl.n/B!-il.rmdA'iier. 
Aiil/lori,t.T.:  Siehol,  W.^iife,,-  ill  I aaHr.n/IMer. 

Twelve.  'I'his  number  was  sacred  among  the 
Jews,  probably  liecause  it  was  that  of  tbe  tribes  (q.  v.), 
or  of  tbe  monlhs  of  the  year,  ot  (as  some  think)  uf  the 
signs  of  the  iodine  It  was  Bvmbidical  of  just  propor- 
tion, beauty,  ami  etability.  It  is  sDmetiiaes  used  in  Iht 
general  aeiiae  of  a  diztni  thus,  Jeroboam's  gatment  it 
uid  to  have  been  rent  into  twelte  pieces  (I  Kings  x\ 
30),  and  Elbha  lo  have  ploughed  with  twelve  yoke  of 


Tw-ftatBO.A 


sr  Dktlrv  Christian,  a  Pmteslant 
..  was  born  April  II,  1789,  at  Glllck- 
stadl.in  Holstein.   Hestudiol  theology  and  philosophy 
at  Kiel,  and  in  1812  went  to  Beriin,  where  be  became      - 
of  I  he  earliest  fullowen  and  an  intimare  penonil  fr 
of  Schleiermacbct.     Kor  some  daie  he  was  prof(«c 
lanfpiage*  in  one  of  the  colleges  at  Berlin,  hut  ill  1814 
he  went  back  to  Kiel  as  professor  of  Ihculogy  and  p 
loaophv.     After  l)ic  death  of  Schleiermacher,  in  IG 
be  -mn  called  to  Berlin  lo  luccecil  his  teacher  in 
chair  of  systematic  divinity.     In  I860  he  was  appoi 
cil  Obtrkirekmralh,  and  died  Jan.  8, 1S7&    As  a  wri 
Twesten  was  the  kaat  ptoliAc  of  all  the  mote  etniaent 
tierman  divine*.    This  was  owing  parlly  to  ■  certain 
timidity  atid  conscientiousness,  and  parlly  to  an  un- 
williugiiess  to  publish  anything  which  he  had  not  first 
thoroughly  searcbeil  and  mastered,  and  for  which  there 
saemed  to  him  no  urgent  need.     He  wrote  an  analyli- 
cal   logic,  ■  critical  edition  of  the  three  (ecumenical 
creeds  and  the  unalleied  Augsburg  Confession,  essays 
tHi  llecciua   Itlyricus,  on  Schieicrmacber'a  Klhia,  etc. 
Buc    hia   main  wotk  is  bis  Vortttungat  iib/r  die  Jlog- 
wmlik  der  nangtludi-lulluriiclieii  Kirche  (Hamb.  1837, 
2  vols.},  which  in  its  uuflnished  condition  baa  great 
■(Hi    almling  excellences;  "for   he   is,  perhaps,"  says 
Schaff,  *"  the  clearest  thinker  and  writer  among  all  the 
Bysteinatic  divines  of  tietoany.     He  possesses  the  gift 
oT  ititiactic  exponitiun  and  analysis  in  an  eminent  de- 
^rrer.      His  learning  is  always  scciirite,  minute,  ami 
thomnghly  digested;  his   style   transparent,  smooth. 
oihI   paltahed."     The  volumes  which  were   publishnl 
onntain  — the  first,  the  introductory  chapters  on    rc- 
|if^an,revelBiton,taspiTBlion,  the  authority  and  inspira- 
tion nf  the  Scripture*,  the  use  of  reason,  the  hiatuii-  of 

trine  of  God,  the  holy  Trinity,  the  creation  and  preser- 
Tation  of  the  worhl,  and  angelology.  As  lo  hia  theo- 
logical Btandpoinl,  it  is,  according  to  Schaff,  "  Sclileicr- 
(Bkcher'a  lyatein  paniag  over  into  Lutheran  orthodoxy 
aiHtet  a  nxiderniud  fomi,arthe  Lutheran  scliol as! icism 
of  tlH  n""-  — --vireil, enlarged,  and  liberalized  by 


TWO 

tbe  acientific  inSuence  of  Schleiertnacher  and  the  loIer> 

if  the  evangelical  union,'    See  Tktol.  Cut- 

vtrial-L<x,».v.;  ZudbiM,  BM.  Thai  W,  1353;  Schaff, 

Gtrmay,iU  C^niKinriu,  etc.,  p.  330  aq.     (a  P.) 

Twlclien,P>Jsv,aPteabvlerianminia[er,wasbom 

Alhol,  Worcester  Co.,  Masa.,  Frb.  25,  1805.    He  was 

educated  at  Washington  College,  Pa. ;  studied  thcok>g]- 

*     luburn  Seminary,  N.  Y, ;  was  liceiueil  by  the  (icue- 

I'resbylerv  in  1836;  and  uai  onlaineil  aud  installed 

pastor  of  the'Presbylerian  Church  in  Wyoming,  N.Y., 

'     1841.    Here  lie'labored  fur  fincenTcota,  until  1856, 

which  year  he  took  charge  of  East  Bethany  Church, 

lere  he  preached  until  hia  death,  Sept.  lo,  I'SOl.     See 

Wilson,  PreA.  Hul.  Aliaanac.  1866,  p.  180. 

Twilight.  Ai£iCAHuKB  L,  a  Congregational  minis- 
r  and  teacher,  waa  bom  at  Corinth,  Vl.,  Sept.  £3, 1795. 
r  his  own  exerlions  he  put  himself  through  Randolph 
Academy  and  Middlebuty  College,  gradualing  in  1823. 
He  taught  four  yeara  in  Peru,  N.  Y. ;  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  presbytery  in  Flattaburg  in  1S2T ;  Uught 
and  preached  one  year  in  Vergeunes,  Vf. ;  and  for  eigh- 
teen years  waa  principal  of  the  grammar -school  in 
ItroH'iilnglon,'Vt.,  and  again  Ihim  I85S  to  1855.  From 
1847  until  1853  he  taught  in  Shipton  and  Hstley,  On- 
tario. Hewasordained  in  BrowniiiBlao  in  1829, and  sup- 
plied the  pulpit  there  for  man  vyeara,  but  wa*  never  a  reg- 
ular preacher.  He  died  June  19, 1857.  Mr.  Twilighl's 
great  work  was  aa  a  leacher ;  in  Ibis  he  was  successful  and 
inlluentiat.  He  pursued  his  purpose*  wilh  uiidevioliiig 
energy,  and  built  up  his  pupils  in  both  cbsracter  and 
knowledge.  He  waa  an  able  and  often  cloquem  preacher. 
See  Cong.  Qfiar.  Ret.  1867,  p.  281. 

Twining.  Thomas,  a  learned  Anglican  divine, 
waa  born  in  IT34,  and  educated  at  Sidney  College, 
Cambridge,  being  contemporary  in  that  university 
with  Gray,  Mason,  aud  Bate,  Mt.  Twilling  waa  well 
versed  in  the  composition,  harmony,  and  histoiy  of 
the  art  and  science  of  music  In  1760  he  took  liia 
degree  of  A.B.,  and  that  of  A.M.  in  1763.  He  be- 
came rector  of  White  Notley.  Easex,  in  1768,  and  of 
St.  Mary's,  (Mchealer,  to  which  he  was  presented 
by  the  biahop  of  London,  in  1770.  He  died  Aug.  6, 
1804.  Sound  learning,  polite  literature,  and  eiqui- 
aite  tastes  in  all  the  flue  arts  lost  an  omament  and 
defender   in  the  death  ot  (his  scholar  and   worthy 

Twlu«,  WiLUAX,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Noncon- 
forming Calvinistio  divine,  was  bom  at  Newbury,  Berk- 
shire, England,  in  1575.  He  was  educated  at,  and  be- 
came aubsequently  a  fellow  of,  New  College,  Oxford. 
He  became  chaplain  to  princess  Eliiabeth, afterwards 
queen  of  Bohemia.  After  this  he  wot  appointed  to  tbe 
curacy  of  Newburv.  In  1643  he  was  elected  pruloculor 
of  the  Westminster  Asaembly  of  Divines.  He  confined 
himself  with  great  thoroughness  lo  the  sludy  oftheoto- 
g\;  and  produced  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
the  following:  VanilU  (1631,  4to):— VVnrfiWa  Graliir, 
Fulrilalu,  ac  Pivridmlia  Dei  (Ams[.  103-2,  4to)  -.—  IHi- 
leiiiitiv  dc  Scitnlin  Media.  Irihil  Librit  aUoIala  (fol.) : 
—Moralilji  n/lhc  Fourik  Comnuitidmnl  (Lond.  1641): 
^Tiealiie  on  Beprobalion  (1646,  ilo):— ftic*n  i>/GoifM 
l^it  In  Vrueli  of  ilircy  ContilenI  vilh  hit  AiKilult 
ll.ilred,  or  RrprobalioH  of  VeueU  of  Wr«lh  (Osf.  1653. 
fol.).  This  work  was  Blrongly  recommended  by  Dr. 
Owen,  Dc  Cauia  Dri  amiru  Pelagiiim,  lie  left  a 
number  of  works  in  MS.     His  death  occurred  July  20, 


Twc.  This  number  is  sometimes  used  in  Scripture 
in  asymbolical  sense :  it  lypiBc*  the  connection  bi'Lwttn 
the  magistracy  and  the  ministry  in  the  persuiig  of 
Moses  and  Aaron;  the  two  8i-*Iems  of  iilulaliy  which 

were  learned  in  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  bondage;  the 
Old  and  New  Tests!;  the  Jewish  and  Clirislian  dispenaa- 
lioiis;  and,amonglheeatlvfatheni.lhedi 


I  lu  introduce  the  Peniaii  duality  into  tha 


TWOMBLT  «l 

Chriatum  ■fMem,  uid  ibay  thercfuK  dscUml  that  tbe 
nurnlwr  Ora  had  ■  more  myitic  unctitv  than  anv  oth- 
er. Tricea  af  ihi«  delusioii  nay  be  found  bo  late  ■■  the 
9tli  ceiiiury  of  the  Cliurcb.     St«  NukiBEK. 

Twombly,  Isr*ei.  S,,  a  Preabytcrian  minialei,  was 
born  at  CharleBtuwii,  Man.,  Sept.  1, 1SI7.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Marion  Uouiiiy,  Ho.;  graduated  at  Lane  Tbeo- 
logicai  Seminary  in  lHa2;  waa  liceoaed  by  Cincinnati 
Preabyiery  the  same  year,  and  ordained  by  Athena  Prea- 
byteryputor  of  the  Church  in  Troy,  0.  He  afterwards 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  FDmeroy,  O^  where 
-  he  died,  Oct- 31,1860.  He  was  a  thorougli  Kliolar.and 
aneameatandimpreauveprcKheT.  SeeWilaoD,  Prab. 
Hill.  Almanao,  lIKi,  p.  198. 

Twynv,  Brian,  a»  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
1E79,  and  admitted  a  scholar  of  Coipua  Cbriati  College 
in  1694.  He  waa  admitted  pTobatianei  fellow  in  1605, 
aud,  entering  into  holy  orders,  took  the  degree  of  II.D. 
in  IGIO.  In  16U  he  waa  made  Gre^  reader  of  bis  col- 
lege, in  which  offlcv  he  acquitted  himaelf  with  credit, 
but  left  his  cotlege  in  1S^.  He  waa  afterwards  pre- 
aonted  to  the  vicarage  of  Kye,  Sussex,  but  paaaed  moat 
of  his  time  at  Oxford  in  reading,  writing,  and  eonlem- 
plation.  He  died  in  SL  Aldate's,Ju1y4, 1644.  He  put>- 
iiahed  Aaliquitalu  Acaienia  Oxoaientu  Apotogia, etc 


(Oxo 


B,4to). 


Tynna,  Council,  or  (_Condtuin  T^anaue),  wag  held 
in  SG7  in  Tyaiia,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor.  Then  were 
(iteaent  in  this  council  Eusebiiis  of  Cssarea  in  Cappa- 
ilDcia,AthBua^naorAncyra,  Pelagiuaof  Laodicea,Ureg- 
ory  Nazianien  the  elder,  and  many  othen  who  had  de- 
clared their  belief  in  the  cousiibaUnliality  of  the  Son 
at  Aulioch  in  S63.  The  letters  of  pope  Liberiiu  and 
the  hishopi  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Africa,  and  tiaul  were  read, 
whicb  had  been  written  lo  wipe  out  the  disgrace  at- 
taching to  them  on  account  of  the  Council  of  Arimi- 
num.  EuBtathiua  of  Sebaate,  formerly  deposed,  was  re- 
established ;  and  a  synodical  letter  written  lo  all  the 
biihops  of  the  East,  exhorting  them  to  testify  in  writ- 
ing their  rejection  of  the  acta  of  Ariminum,  and  their 
adherence  to  the  faith  of  Nioea.  See  Hansi,  CunciJ^  ii, 
886. 

Tychllotun,  the  original  name  of  a  Temple  of  Fort- 
une at  Antioch,  which  was  turned  into  a  church,  and 
called  by  the  name  of  Ignatius  by  Theodoaiua.  See 
Bingham,  ChriiLAMiq.  bk.  viii,  ch.  iii,  §  4. 

Tyobd,  in  (ireek  mythology,  ia  identical  with  For- 
luna  of  the  Roniani.  Pindar  calls  her  a  daughter  of 
Jupiter.  Sbe  poaaessed  at  Thebes,  and  at  numerous 
other  places,  templea  and  monumenta. 

Tjoh«B,  in  Egyptian  niytbology,  is  one  of  the  four 
protecting  domestic  spirits  which  are  allotted  to  each 
human  tcing  during  the  period  of  life. 

TfOh'lCtlB  (TuxiToc  fur  f^x't'-C./u''/"'). »  <»"'- 
paniou  of  Paul  on  some  of  his  journeys,  and  one  of  hu 
jellow-iabarers  in  the  work  uf  the  (>o«peL  A.D.  U-64. 
(1.)  In  Acts  XX,  4,  he  appean  aa  one  of  those  who  ac- 
companied the  apostle  through  a  longer  or  shorter  por-  , 
tion  of  bis  return  Journey  from  the  third  missionary  cir- 
cuit. Here  he  is  exprnaly  called  (with  Tru]>hin>ua)  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor  I'Anavii;);  but  while  Tmphimua 
went  with  Paul  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi,  W\  Tychicis 
was  left  behind  in  Asia,  pn^ably  at  Miletua  ( xx, 
15,  an).  (2.)  How  Tychicus  waa  employed  in  the  in-  ' 
terval  before  Paul's  fltst  imprisonment  we  cannot  tell; 
but  in  that  imptiannmcnt  he  waa  with  the  apostle  agai 
aa  we  see  from  Gd.  iv,  7,8.  Here  he  is  a]«ken  of,  n 
only  as  "a  betnvrtl  brother,"  but  as ''a  faithful  minisC 
and'  fellow-servant  in  the  I,ord;"  and  be  is  to  ttkake 
known  to  the  CuUissians  tbe  present  circumstances  of 
the  a|ioalle  (tA  enr'  J/ii  trovra  yviMpiitii),  and  to  bring 
comfort  to  the  Caloasians  themselves  (iva  irapamtXiao 
rdv  taniiat:  ufi'ui-).    Prom  this  we  gather  that  diligei 


14  TYCHONIUS 

Aaia;  but  from  the  fact  that  of  OneMmus,  who  b  rata- 
tioned  immediately  afterwards,  it  is  said,  oc  imm  i( 
ufiwv,  whereas  Tychicua  is  not  ao  styled,  we  naturally 

(wo  men  were  doubtless  tbe  bearers  both  of  this  letter 
and  the  following,  aa  well  as  that  to  Philemon-  (3.)  Tlu 
language  concerning  Tychicua  in  Eph.vi,!l,2J  isvnj 
similar,  though  not  exactly  in  the  same  words.  Il  ii 
the  more  important  tc  notice  this  passage  carefully,  be- 
cause it  is  the  only  personal  allusion  in  the  epistle,  inJ 
ia  of  some  considerable  value  aa  a  subsidiary  argunKui 

iciia,  who  bore  a  cooimisii'in  to  Colusaa:^  and  who  »u 
probably  well  known  in  variuua  pans  of  tbe  pruviuct 
of  Asia,  would  be  s  veiy  proper  person  to  see  tbe  lettv 
duly  delit'cred  and  read.  (4.)  'I'he  next  references  art 
in  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  the  first  in  chruaological  ordci 
being  TiL  iii,  12.  Here  Paul  (writing  possibly  fniia 
Ephesus)  saya  that  it  u  probable  he  may  send  Tyc 


when  h< 


■rlfgi 


:oNi- 


copolis-  (b.)  In  2  'I'im.  iv,  12  (written  si  borne  during 
the  second  imprisonment)  he  saj-s, '' I  am  herewith  kmI- 
ing  Tycbicus  to  Ephesus."  A't  least  it  seema  natural, 
with  Dr.  Wordsworth,  so  tu  render  nTiantXa.  tbeugb 
Bp.  EUicott's  suggestion  is  also  worth  considering,  tlist 
this  misuon  may  have  been  connected  with  tbe  can}- 
ing  of  the  jtrat  epistle.  (See  their  notes  on  Ihe  pa^ 
sage.)  However  this  may  be,  we  see  this  disciple  at 
the  end,  aa  we  saw  him  at  Ihe  beginning,  oonnecttd 
locally  with  Asia,  while  also  cu-operating  with  Paul 
We  have  no  authentic  information  concerning  Tj'chioa 
in  any  period  previous  lo  or  subsequent  to  these  fire 
scriptural  notices.  The  tradition  which  places  him  it- 
lerwanls  aa  bishop  of  Chalcedon  in  Bithyuia  ic  appar- 
ently of  no  value.  But  there  is  much  probabiliiv  in 
the  conjecture  (Sunley's  Curialhian,  2d  e.1.  p.  493)  that 
Tychicua  was  one  of  the  two  "brethren"  (Tniphimn 
being  the  other)  whi  were  aaeociated  with  Tiiib(iOir. 
viii,  16-24)  in  conducting  the  btwness  of  Ihe  eoUectial 
for  the  poor  Christians  in  Judiea.  Aa  argaments  tat 
this  view  ire  may  mention  the  assooation  witliTVophi- 
mus,  the  probabilitv  that  both  were  Rphcasiu,  Ihe  sc- 
currcncc  of  both  names  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  Tinso- 
thy  (see  2  Tim.  iv,  20),  the  chronological  and  Kei^rsph- 
ical  agreement  with  the  circumstances  of  tbe  third  ait- 
aionsiy  journey,  and  the  general  language  used  irnKWii- 
iiig  Tychicus  in  Culonians  and  Ephesianat     See  Asu; 

TyotlO,  in  Greek  mythology,  wu  ■  demon  aimilat 
to  Conisalua,  generally  found  represented  in  cnmpsny 
with  Priapus. 

Tychoaina,  a  Donatiat  of  the  4th  century,  who  dis- 
played >u  impartial  and  sincere  de^re  lo  arrive  si  tbe 
truth  with  respect  to  the  controversy  between  hia  serl 
and  tbe  Church.  He  i>  described  as  having  been  Iram- 
ed  in  the  Scriptures,  inlerably  acquainted  with  bision 


m  Chris 


■mpathy 


-ofeat. 


of  Ihe  life  and  character  uf  Tychicus.    OIossib  was  i 


the  afhira  of  tbe  Church,  He  n^rded  the  Church  aa 
the  aole  divinely  provided  remeilial  instllui  iini,  inls 
which  ail  men  must  enler  if  they  would  attain  tn  >«l- 
valion;  and  therefore  held  that  the  moral  state  of  Ihs 
memben  cannot  destroy  the  value  and  efficiency  of  ibe 
Church.  He  was  also  ronsialent  in  prolesiins  sgainM 
I  tbe  rebaptism  nf  persons  who  became  Donslisc  Ho 
views  were  attacked  aa  heretical  by  the  EKmalitt  l^- 
menian  (q.  v.),  and  drew  forth  an  episile  from  Auauj- 
I  tine.  T^choniui  waa  accused  of  b«ng  a  Chilian,  hot 
'  the  charge  ia  probably  untrue^  A  single  work  fr>in  lui 
j  pen  remains,  the  Librr  Srpttm  Btgatii,  first  published 
by  GrynMis  (Basle,  1569),  and  afterwards  in  a  briler 
edition  bv  Oallandi  in  the  fliii  Ftl.  Palnm  (Venei. 
1772),  viu,  107-129.  The  worii  is  demgned  to  serve  ai 
a  guide  lo  the  interpretation  ofthe  Scriptures,  anl  some 

the  sixth,  Dt  Xtcaptlulatioat,  which  teaches  ihot  the 
same  thing  b  sometimes  r^>Mt«dly  narrated  or  Ac- 


TTCHSEN  «( 

■fibid,npMitU;  ID  the  Apocilypae,  so  Uut  luceeMive 
Qimtiits  do  not  uecFiiHiil;  ref«r  to  luccuaive  cveou. 
Tbr  book  furnubed  tvdore  of  Seville  the  idea  Tor  hi* 
wotk  Saltiaiaran  Lil/ri  Trt*.  Aa  the  earliat  eBilearor 
10  oDnaruct  a  tbeory  of  Chriililn  hermenputics,  ihe 
*ii[k  cctuinly  deservn  atuntiun.  It  wuuld  appeal 
from  Augustine  that  Tycboniiu  died  about  890;  but 
UeiiDadiiu  {l>t  Script.  Kcdit.  c  IS)  fixe*  ■  later  time. 
GilliuJi  funibhed  a  aketch  of  Tychoniiu  in  Pmltg.  ta 
BlU.  Vrt.  Fair.  VIII,  ii,  6,  aiiU  a  more  careful  iioUce  U 
girai  ID  Tillenii>aC,.l'riBiiirwpourKr[>ira  rUitt.  EccL 
ia  SU  prrmiert  Sutltt  ('id  eJ.  Parii,  ITM),  Ti,81  iq., 
145-150.     See  Heraog,  Hail-EmyUop.  a.  v. 

Tjctwen,  OIbuh  Ctorhaid,  a  Uerman  Tatmudiit, 
wu  bom  Dec  U,  IT34,  at  Tondem,  a  lown  in  Slawick. 
He  Mudied  tbe  clisical  and  Oriental  language!  in  Ihe 
grnnuium  of  Allona,  with  tbe  exception  of  Arabic, 
wbtch  be  acquired  from  ■  merchant  wboae  buaineaa  bad 
uiuHlbiin  to  reude  during  manj  jeara  in  North  Africa. 
He  Anislied  hia  Iheological  coarae  at  Halle,  and  wasaooR 
iftemarda  appointed  a  teacher  in  G.  A.  Fianke'a  Or- 
phanage. While  *a  emplojred  he  learned  tbe  Eiigliab, 
lliiidwtani,  and  Tamil  Unguagea  from  a  mistuonarf 
(Schuh).  Ilia  favorite  atudv,  bowevcr,  wu  the  Rab- 
^nical  Talmud,  iu  nhone  Unguige  he  waa  ao  proScient 
la  10  be  able  to  apeak  and  write  with  great  eeae.  He 
■••,ia  April,  1759,  appointed  mimionary  to  the  Jews  and 
Muhaniinedaiu,  and  [rarelled  iu  that  capacit;  through 
North  Germany,  Pruiiia,  Denmark,  and  S«utony,  but 
viibout  accompliahing  anything.  In  the  synagogue  at 
Aluna  hii  aenaoD  even  earned  for  hiiD  a  aerere  beating. 
In  1780  Tychaen  went  to  the  Univeraity  of  DUUow,  in 
Ucddeuburg,  tawtagittrrlfjaa,  and  remained  there  un- 
til BHtiow  waa  united  with  the  University  of  Rostock 
and  traaaferTed  Ui  tbe  Latter  place,  when  be  likewiie 
remOTfd  thither.  He  died  Dec30,lB15.  TychacD  had 
earned  a  great  reputation,  aa  ia  attested  by  bia  election 
tu  ninnemoa  aucietlea  and  by  many  flattering  lestitno- 
niab;  but  tbii  repulatioa  reapected  aimply  tbe  extent, 
lutl  not  at  all  the  thorougbneaa,  of  hia  knowledge.  He 
ponoaed  aulid  acquirementa  only  in  the  Rabbinical,  and 
joined  with  them  a  keen  eye  and  considerable  akill  fur 
thedeteetkin  ofroreign  written  charactera;  bat  he  was 
deSciciit  in  judgmenl,  ready  to  venture  the  moat  improb- 
able hypochesea,  and  aaxioua  for  notoriety.  He  ia  con- 
HqKally  important  only  aa  a  Taltaudiat,  a  nuraiama- 
Ii«l,and  an  epigrapher.  Hia  controveny  with  Kenni- 
aiit  and  Bayer  directed  attention  to  him  more  than 
any  other  incident  ol  hia  career,  and  it  afforded  evi- 
dence or  all  tbe  train  described  above— bis  wide  learn- 
ing, obatinate  orthodoxj,and  want  of  critical  Judgment. 
In  tbia  dilpiiU  he  wrote,  Tmlamm  de  Vatiis  CotHcum 
llfbr.  Ftt.  TaL  MSS.  Gtaeribia  (Roat.  nn,Svo),  in  aup- 
poit  of  the  Uaaoretic  text  •.—Bfjrrilti  Tmlantx,  etc 
(1774):— anda  (upplement  (1T7G).  He  inniited  that  tbe 
linek  veniona  had  been  made  from  a  Hebrew  text  wriu 
la  in  Greek  charactera,  and  advocated  tbe  no  leaa  ain- 
gnlar  theory  that  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  bad  been 
copied  from  a  Hebneo-Jewish  (Maaoredc)  leit  with  the 
VDvel-point* — tbe  latter  in  IHipvlatio  Uitt.-phil.-eril. 
it  Ptal.  SamariL  etc.  (BUtiow,  176n,  Ito).  In  1779  he 
pobtiahrd  a  work  tn  demonatrale  tbe  apurioos  character 
ofallJcwiih  coina  bearing;  Jewish  or  Samaritan  charac- 
len,  including  thoae  of  the  Haccabsan  period,  which 
drew  lorlh  a  reply  froni  the  Spaniah  Jesuit  Bayer  and 
a  protracteil  diapute.  In  tbe  atudy  of  Arabic 
la  Tyehaen  rendered  real  aervice,  and  began  tbe  aya- 
latic  atudy  o(  Oriental  numiamatics.  He  showed 
iielf  a  maater  in  the  deciphering  of  inacriptiuoa  (aee 
g  d.  artJi.  Sckrifi  anf  d.  r6m,-kaiteTl.  Kro- 
ltt,'m  ib«  MtfU.-Sch>etrui.GtlthTlm Batrdgt, 
1780,  Noa.  42,  45,  aud  Ihe  Interprel.  Intcripl.  Cujfc  in 
Marm,  Tm^  PalHai-ch.  S.  FiUi  CallMra  [  Roat 
17S7]).  Tvcbaenalao  published  editions  of  Al-Uakriii; 
AUMatriii  HiO.  MimtUt  A  rob.  e  Cod.  Ktairiai.  (ibid. 
17)7, 8to):— and  Tradal.dt  Ltyaiilmt  Arab. Famieribui 
«  Vemrrii  (ibid.  ISOO,  Sto).    Hit  EkmailaU  A  rabi. 


5  TYLER 

cun,  etc.,  ia  oT  inferior  value,  as  ia  also  hia  EltmaU.  £g- 
riocun.  See  Hartmann,  Oloiu  Gerhard  Tgetatn,  etc. 
(Bremen,  1818  aq.) ;  De  Sacy,  Biog.  UmamdU,  xlvji, 
130  sq. — Herzog,  Bad-Ewyldop.  a.  v. 

Tyolueii,  Tbomaa  Cbrlatiaii,  a  German  schol- 
ar and  profeasor,  waa  bora  at  Horabyll,  in  Sleawicfc, 
May  8, 1758;  studied  at  Kiel  and  Gtittingen;  tiav- 
ellnl  over  the  Continent  after  having  completed  hia 
studies;  and  became  profeaior  exEraordiniry  of  theol- 
ogy in  GoUuigen  in  1781,  through  tbe  intervention 
of  Heyue,  hia  patron.  In  1T8S  he  waa  made  ordi- 
naty  piureasor  of  pbilosophy;  ISOfl,  councillor;  1817, 
honorary  doctor  of  theology.     He  waa  a  member  of 

entificAiMiciationorGtMtingen.  He  died  Oct.  S4, 1834. 
This  Tychaen,  like  OUua  G.  Tycheen  (q.  v.),  la  whom  he 
was  in  nowise  related,  waa  more  prominent  aa  an  Ori- 
ental and  claeaical  scholar  and  antiquarian  than  as  a 
theologian.  He  composed  forty-three  books  and  eaaaya, 
all  of  which  are  cbaiaderiied  by  learning,  Iborough- 
ness,  and  good  judgment.  We  mention,  D*  Ilnpotiaja 
Chriui  tl  fiatimibiu  dt  Adeeata  Chritli  in  X.  T.  Obviit; 
—DtJottphiAuOoritatert  t'ni.etc.! — Dt  Litleralura 
Helrr.!^l/la1r.Va/icui.Jotlu.ca(Gott.Ua8).  Tha 
dispDle  of  Glaus  Tychsen  with  Bayer  led  him  also  to 
give  attention  to  the  study  of  Jewish  coins.  In  this 
panuit  be  wrote.  He  Numi  Hthnto-Samaril.  etc.,  in 
A'oD.  Commait.  Soe.  Seg.  GoU.  viii,  120  sq.  —De  Autau 
OrioUaL  (1789);—/)*  Numit  Ueamoaontm,  etc,  in 
Nov.  Com-ToL  ziL  He  rurthermore  wrote  Geidiich<ed, 
kAr,  Lileratar  (ibid.).  In  1791  he  became  tbe  collab. 
orator  of  J.  D.  Hichaelia  in  the  Oriental  and  exegetical 
library  pubiiabed  b;  the  latter,  and  his  successor  begin- 


ning w 


He  I 


chaelia'S'tHmn-i.^r  (/ngdeArituii  voL  vi  of  hia  £ii;>- 
;>iein.  ad  Lex.  Heir.  (179!}.  He  edited  vol.  vi  of  Koppe'a 
edition  of  the  New  Test.,  comprising  Galalteaa,  Epkt- 
hant,  and  Thteialoniaiu  (2d  ed.  1791).  A  complete  list 
of  bia  work!  and  detailed  aketch  oT  hia  life  may  be  found 
in  ft'tutr  Ntkrolog  dtr  DfaiKhtn  (1884,  pLii}  Weimu, 
1836),  p.  894-900.— Henog,  Real-EiirykUip.t.\-. 

Tye,  CiiHiBTOFKER,  an  English  musician  of  the  18th 
century,  waa  bom  at  Weatminster,  and  brought  up  in 
the  Royal  Chapel.  He  waa  tnuaical  preceptor  to  prince 
Edward,  son  of  Henry  VHl.  In  1545  he  waa  admitted 
to  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1648  waa  incorporated  a  member  of  the  University  of 
Oxford.  In  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  he  was  organ- 
iat  of  tbe  Koysl  Chapel,  and  a  man  of  some  literature. 
"The  Acts  of  tbe  Apostles,"  act  to  muaic  by  Dr.  Tye, 
were  aung  iu  tbeChapdof  Edward  VI;  bul  the  aucceas 
of  them  not  meeting  (he  expectation  of  their  author,  he 
commenced  the  composition  of  music  to  words  selected 
from  the  Psalms  of  David.  Tbe  former  waa  published 
with  the  following  title.  The  .idtt  nf  tht  AjgxiMtla, 
Iramlalrdinlo  Knglgtht  Mrin,  ttc  (l55S,Bm.8vo>.  He 
alao  compoaed  A  iVotatle  ilitlorye  o/ft'uitagio  a«d  Tra- 
vertari,  ho  Itu  I'ilir/iiU  Ihan  Ptraiavnl  (  Lond.  1689, 
ISmo).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brii.  and  Amrr.  Ah- 
Ihori,  a.  T. ;  Cbalmera,  Biog,  IHcl.  a.  v. 

Tjler,  Bennet,  D.Dn  an  eminent  CongregaUonal 
divii]e,  was  bom  at  Middlebury,  Coim.,  July  10,  1788. 
His  pareulH  were  in  humble  circumatancca, and  be  work- 
ed nil  (he  farm  until  be  was  fiFleen,  when  an  accident 
diaabled  him  so  tbat  it  was  resolved  to  send  him  to  col- 
lege. Hia  own  exertions,  with  aome  asaiatance  from 
Ilia  father,  enabled  him  to  graduate  at  Vale  College  in 
1804  free  from  debt.  He  wss  omened  while  at  col- 
lege in  the  great  revival  o(  1802,  studieO  theology  with 
Rev.Aaahel  Hooker,  and  in  1808  wan  ordained  over  the 
Church  in  South  Britain, Conn.,  where  he  remained  four- 
leen  yeara.  From  1822  lo  18'i8  he  was  president  of 
Dartmouth  College,  also  iierforming  tbe  dutiea  nf  col- 
lege pastor.  Ill  1828  be  succeeded  Dr.  Payson  in  the 
paalorate  of  the  Second  Church,  Portland,  Me.,  where 
he  waa  greatly  beloved.    Dr.  Tyler  was  a  clear,  logical. 


TYLER  6< 

■nd  pongent  preacher,  and  he  •peciilly  delifc^ted  in  doc- 
triiinl  Iherae*.  About  this  time  Prof.  N,  W.  Taylor,  of 
y>lo  Divinity  School,  enounced  view«  which  were  re- 
l^nled  by  many  New  England  theolugians  a>  unsafe 
and  unsounrt.  Dr.  Tyler  wa«  hia  principal  opponent, 
and  the  long  and  able  diacusaion  which  rullowed  belongs 

of  the  Sew  EUven  theolosy  on  the  yoang  preachera  in 
ihe  aUIe.  the  Theolngiol  Institute  of  Connecticut  wm 
founded  at  Eaat  Wiiidaor  in  1833.  and  Dr.  Trier  waa 
shcHcn  ila  president  and  professor  uf  theology.  He  held 
these  positions  untU  his  reaignalion.  July  10, 1857.  He 
died  at  East  Wiodaot,  afUr  only  a  f«w  hoots'  uckneas, 
Uay  14. 1  Hid. 

Dr.  T>  ler  was  ■  man  of  hnmble  and  sincere  piety,  and 
of  a  itenial  and  sympathetic  nature.  In  his  theological 
opinions  he  did  not  embrace  pure  Calvinism,  but  as 
niDdiSe<l  by  Edwards  and  hb  schouL  He  was  in  full 
svmpalhy  with  the  traditional  theology  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  was  a  straightrorward  conlruversialist,  avoid- 
ing metaphysical  speculationi  and  verbal  subllclies. 
In  fc»rmin^  his  ayatem  be  be|^n,  not  with  mind,  but 
with  the  Bible,  and  bs  loohed  fur  no  advances  in  theol- 
ogy except  such  as  come  from  a  richer  Christian  expe- 
rience. His  writings  are  permeated  by  a  spirit  of  prac- 
tical reliaion.  and,  according  to  some,  cheeked  the  in- 
fluence of  Dr.  Taylor's  views.  Dr.Tyler  published  many 
acriDOns  and  controversial  articica  and  pamphlets.  His 
larger  works  are  as  foUowa:  liittury  of  Ihe  titw  Haven 
TheotogyialAHtrttoaClB-gummiWSiy.—ARenieKof 
Dap  OH  Ihe  ^'ill(^mr)■.-jHeI^oiro/l^a.Alatel^^il^ 
tltloH,I>.r>.(,iit.tlfori,lSti,Virna):—yetU(laiff  Remain 
(ibid.  l8tb,limo)!—TkeSafferingt  o/Chriel  Cot^rud 
10  hii  Uuinan  Naliire(S.  Y.  1815)  —A  Trraliee  on  A™ 
Eiglavl  RetioaU  (1846)  -.^f^leri  lo  Ur.  Jtoraoe  Balk- 
iK//oNC«ri(lianA'iir(ur«(1847-48):— /yMfu^e>o«7'im/- 
a^(posthumou^),wilh  a  Memoir  by  Rev.  Nahum  Gale, 
D,».  (hit  son-in-Uw)  (Boston,  1859,  8vo).  Sea  Cong. 
Uuar.  Her.  IBSO,  p.S51  aq.  (by  A.  H.  Quint) ;  \ea-Knff- 
toiifcr,AilBual,1859(hvProf,'lawrence)iAllibone,i)ie(. 
0/  HHI.  aad  A  •ner.  A  ulhsrs,  i.  v. 

Tyler,  Edward  Royall,  a  Caiiitregatiaiial  minis- 
He  was  the  aon  of  chief-juslice  Tyler,  two  of  whose  sons 
became  ministers  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
and  one  in  the  PreabyUrian.  Edward  was  convened 
while  a  clerk  in  a  count ing-bouse  in  New  York,  and 
under  Ihe  ministry  of  Dr.  Spring.  He  graduated  at 
Vale  College  in  1825,  studied  theology,  and  was  ordain- 
ed pastor  of  Ihe  South  Church  in  MidilleCown,  Conn.,  in 
1827.  Here  he  was sueeeasTul  in  building  uplhe  Church, 
but  iU-hcalth  induced  his  resignation  in  1833.  He  waa 
next  pastor  in  Ctdebrook,  Conn.,  1833-34.  Fur  a  year 
Mr.  Tyler  was  agent  of  Ihe  American  Antialarery  So- 
cict>',  and  from  1838  lo  its  disconlinuance  in  1843  he 
was'vdilorof  the  CoimrrtinI  Obiercrr.  In  1>H3  the  A'eio- 
KngtiiRiier  waa  eatabliahed  under  hia  pruprietoi 


id  he  cc 


with  it 


his  death,  except  during  the  periixls  of  his  prostration 
through  iUneas.  He  dieit  Sept.  28,  1848.  Mr.  Ti-ler 
contributed  twenty-two  articles  to  the  first  six  volumea 
iif  Ihe  .Vrir- f;n9/(i>ider  (ape  these  enumeraleil  in  that  pe- 
riodical, vi,607).  Ku  other  publieal  inns  yen,  Sl<wtry 
a  Sin  per  te :—Uclun»  on  Future  I'anithmna  (Slid- 
dlelown,  1829,  l2mo) i-Hufin™  ^/wnj.  Prrfer.ibk  to 
Sin:  a  Sermon  (New  Haven,  \S-i9,  Hyo).    Thia  opp<i3ed 


leoftl 


aldivii 


>fNew 


England,  that  (iod  aomelimea  preferred  sin  lo  holiness 
—The  Doctrine  of  EUftion:  a  Hermon  (New  Haven, 
}83],8vo):— The  CongregalioBal  C'tleehiim  (ibid.  1844, 
IBmo).  Tyler's  writings  are  able,  and  some  were 
thought  at  th«  lime  l«  be  unsurpassed  in  their  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  in  hand.    Many  were  produced  un- 


it the  d 


"Hew 


ire,  by  cnllure,  and  by  the  grace  of  (Iod,  one  of  the 
at  sort  of  men,  in  whom  Ihe  elements  nf  character  are 
nobteil  bv  faith  and  sanclilled  by  devotion.    We  have 


>S  TYMPANUM 

aeen  his  uncomplaining  patience  bia  uniTorm  cheerful- 
neaa,  hia  kindness  and  sympathy,  his  generous  impulwis 
his  childlike  pietv."  See  Nea-Englander,  1848,  p.  m 
sq.  (by  I.  Bacon);  Conj.  Quof.ftffi.  I860,  p,287. 

Tyler,  Jsmea  Endell,  an  Engli^  clerg>in>D,  m 
bom  at  Muiimouih  iu  1789.  He  was  educated  at  Orid 
College.OxfunliWhere  he  became  fellow. dean, and  luUf. 
Presented  lo  the  rectcry  of  St.  Gile»-in-t.bc-Field»,  Loo- 
don,  in  1826,  he  became  canon  residenliarvof  SLPiafi 
in  1816.  He  died  in  1852.  He  wrote,  tudictt  Aaiii 
(Lend.  1824, 12mo) ;— OafiU,  their  Orvpn.  Sattf,  mi 
Hittorp  {l8Si,jKSva):—ConBeriiliom  a/a  Fa'htrrilh 
hit  Chiihvt  (5th  ed.  1840.  S  vola.  l8mo):— /'luuiiw 
Church  Worihip  (1840, 8vo):-^  Falhtr't  LetUriUkii 
Son  on  Con^rmalioH  (1843, 12mu) :-  Worihip  of  the  B. 
V,  Mary  in  Ihe  Church  of  Home  (1844, 8vo)  :—lmapt- 
mrihip  of  lie  Church  of  Borne  (1847,  8vo)^-Jff*o- 
liom/nm  Ihe  Falhrri  of  Ihe  Firtl  Fict  Cenluriei  (IMS, 
2  vols.  l2mo) :  —  Rtdor'i  Addreu  lo  hit  Paridtiarrt 
(1851,  8ro):  — CA'-iCiuB'f  Hope  in  Death:— Sema 
(lSo2,Svo>  SeeAUibone,i)>c(.D/'£rir.aiiil.Ji»T..4a- 
Ihari,  s.  r. 

Tyler,  Jo^epb  D.,  a  clergyman  and  instructor  of 
the  I'roteatant  Episeupal  Church,  waa  bom  at  Bnitltbat- 
ough,  Vu  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1829,  and  pumol 
a  thpid»)-ical  course  at  Alexandria,  Va.     His  oigani  of 

connecifd  with  the  Deaf-and-Dumb  Asylum  at  llanluiil, 
CiHin.,  anil  mibsequenlly  became  principal  of  the  Draf- 
and-Dumb  Inslilution  of  Virginia.  He  die<l  at  Slauit- 
■nn.  Va.,  Jan.  28,  1852.  Ha  waa  an  exocUcut  schotir, 
and  made  aome  graceful  contributions  to  Ihe  liun- 
lure  of  the  dav.  See  Amer.  Quar.  Churth  «n.  18M. 
p.  14-2. 

Tyler,  'William,  a  Congregational  minister,  nr 
burn  at  Atllebotoiigh,  Maaa.,  JaiLT,  1 780,  and  wai  (do- 
cated  at  Brown  University  in  the  class  of  1800.  For 
•oine  time  after  leaving  cullege  he  was  engaged  in  an- 
ular  puniiii*.  Having  decided  to  study  theidn^.ht 
placed  himself  under  Ihe  tuition  of  Kcv.  Dr.  Enumnia, 
of  Franklin,  Mass.,  ami  was  licenseil  to  preach  in  1818. 
He  waa  urdaiiieil  in  1819  as  junior  pastor  «f  Ihe  Coagn- 
galtoual  Church  in  Soulh  Weymonlh,  Mass.,  soon  be- 
coming sole  pastor.  Ha  remained  thirteen  vean  in  Itis 
pUce  (1819-32).  He  removed  lo  South  Hadley  Faib, 
Mass.,  in  1832,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Church  'in  lU 
(1832-39).    For  several  years  he  pcr- 


r  of  Massachuvtl^ 


Uonie  UixMon  Society,  in  the  interior  of 


Northhampton,  Maaa.,  in  1847,  and  became  Iherdiiatsf 
tbe  Courier,  published  in  that  place.  For  several  yean 
be  mided  in  Pawtuckel,  R  I.,  and  repraented  that 
town  in  the  convention  which  met  in  iszis  to  rerise  iht 
State  Oln^•lituIion.  He  removed  lo  AubamdakNam. 
in  1803,  where  he  epent  the  remainder  of  hia  life,  ami 
wherehediedSept.27,1875.  "Hewaswellinslructed.' 
says  PrDr.GamiDell."in  thealogy,and  waa  paniciiliily 
interested  in  local  hi  "  ....  ... 


subjecl 


□ewqiapen."     (J.C.S.) 

Tymptnom,  the  triangiiUr  space  between  the  hor^ 
iiontal  and  aloping  cornices  on  Ihe  front  of  a  pedimoit 
in  classical  architecture;  it  ia  often  left  plain,  but  it 

given  lo  the  space  immeilialely  above  the  opening  ofa 
doorway,  etc.,  in  mediseral  architecture,  when  Ihe  Uf 
of  the  opening  ia  aquare  and  haa  an  arch  over  it;  Ikis 
arrangemenl  is  not  uncommon  in  England  in  Nonnan 
work,  and  on  the  Cniilinent  is  lo  be  found  in  each  of 
the  styles.  Tympanums  of  thia  kind  are  occasionally 
perfectly  plain,  but  are  generally  oniamenteil  with  carr. 
ing  or  aenlpinre.  In  Cuntincnial  work  Ihe  sniijeels  are 
usually  arranged  in  tiers  one  above  amither,  and  uTten 
embrace  a  great  niimlicr  of  figurea.  Also  when  an  arch 
is  surmounted  by  a  gable-mnulding  or  triangular  hoo^ 


TjT'Dpsuoin  "'  UiwiTii;.  EsiCiidiiic,  Ratlaiidahire,  cir 
■DDald,  the  tpace  Included  belwecn  Ihe  arch  anil  Ihe 
iDuakJ  19  tcnned  the  tympmiuai  ot  tbe  gabl?.— Parker, 
diet.  <•/  A  Tckittct.  s.  v. 

Tympe,  Joha:«!(  (iai-rniiiiD,  profemor  of  theology 
■nil  Oriental  Un(;u>gea  at  Jeiu,  wu  bom  in  1699  it 
Bieikrilz,  near  MaK^lelmrg,  and  died  June  38,  1768. 
lit  wrote,  forma  t'ri'borant  Ptrfectorum  IIAriiicoFutOt 
CMduitorua,  Sj/riiiairaiii  algut  A  nibic-ruii  Commu- 
■u  rt  Harmonica  in  TiibulU  Vompta^o  Exkibita  it  De- 
Mirij^a  (Jena,  1728-32)  ■.—/•ngi:  qao  ImSttiiKlan  Anti- 
ftomiH  /Cbraorunt  Sriyiliuiieni  et$t  rtemt  Commaiium 
MoriHiamiwl,  CirHluJim  Dicinamm  Literaram  longe 
PtnuiiotUtiimim  Oalmdit  (ibid.  \'aO):—Ttilaila  Cni- 
otTia  A  ccndualioBit  Il'br.-CkalJ.  lum  Prot.  lum  Mtir. 
(ibid.  1740) : — Cmoeot  Prima  quinqae  Capita  tl  PajietH 
StOi  Ildtraice  a  Sinyttlorum  Vocum  liuliotitai  Graia- 
Maiicwa  Srcmiduia  Prinrijno  Doiaiaiio  ejpo4uU  in 
t'nin  Aiiiliionm  (ibid.  1727):— De  CaUit  Diriao  ad 
aiala  Loea  ttalriclo,ac  (ibid.  niS)  ■.—Scitdiaima, 
fao  lltnada  Hdiiumti  Omconiiiaianm  Ebrao-Chal- 
dciinirun  Chr.  XaUU  Xnciimque  Cane.  Protmmbaim, 
fit  (ibiiUeod.)  -.—Forma  A  rabitoram  Veriomm  Prr/tc- 
tonm  Zle«Ttp(a(ibid.  eod.):— ZJiM,  Tn  UdeD/Kmiu 
A'iriu  Gloria  «  Sanefutiriuin  ante  Cfmecratvmtm 
Aaronii  Fiiete,  adnrtvt  TiilmadiUni  tl  Vtlent  F.hra- 
(tr«n  Ci>mmr<a.aar»  (ibid.  1731.^3),  etc.  See  Flint, 
BiU.  Utbr.n\,VA\'VI\ntr,llandb.dfT  thioi.  £,tr.  i.  115, 
III;  .Steirucbneidei,  i«<i/iu^.  //oni/A.  p.  141.     (B.  K) 

Tyndalo  (or  Tlndol),  Wim.iam,  the  Bible  irans- 
liuv  bhJ  martyr,  was  bom  in  Ihe  hundred  of  Uerkder, 
either  at  btinchcomb  or  North  Nibley,  Cilouceilershire, 
about  the  year  HU  (nr  1477).  At  an  early  period 
he  waa  aent  to  Oxford,  where  he  look  hit  decree, 
■nd  aln>  gavr  inilnKtioiu  in  Maf^alen  Hall.  Kut  he 
left  Oxford  for  Cambridgr,  where  it  is  believed  that 
he  took  ■  decree.  In  li02  he  oblainnl  priesi'a  nr- 
den,  and  in  1508  entered  the  roanaMery  at  Greenwich 
aa  a  friar.  He  aeemt  to  have  already  furmed  the  de- 
nKiii  or  even  to  have  actually  begun  the  work,  of  tnui*. 
latin);  Ihe  New  Teat.,  and  hail  probably  imbibed  antne 
of  the  notions  which  were  be^paniii);  lo  be  circulateil  in 
favor  uf  reforming  the  Chnrch.  In  1522 (or  l5iO)Tyii- 
dale  19  next  found  aa  tutor  in  the  houte  <if  Sir  John 
Wclrh,  of  Little  Sudbury,  not  far  from  Bristol,  vherv  he 
pleached  in  the  Tillacoi  aiHl  Inwna  on  Ihe  Sabbath,  and 
nftm  dl«{>uted  with  neichbcirini;  abbnis  and  other  Ko- 
ini.ih  ecei"i«Min.  Here,  ton,  he  IransUleil  the  Etichi- 
riliim  MUilit  of  Erasmus,  as  a  present  to  hia  host  and 
hia  laiiy,  Hia  free  opinion«  and  diKussions  Boon  got 
him  inio  troublous  examinations  befure  the  popish  dig- 
Ditarirs,  but  no  pcDiHy  was  inflicted  on  him.  He  look 
the  him.  however,  left  the  county,  and  uent  to  London, 
hia  mind  being  ntiw  (ully  occupied  with  the  idea  of 
trantlaiiiiK  the  Scriptures.      He  ><>iii  found,  as  be  him- 


)7  TYNDALE 

he  was  in  return  to  pray  for  the  aouls  of  the 
alderman's  father  and  mother.    Tyndale  on 
leaving  England  went  tine  tu  Hamburg.     It 
is  often  said  that  from  Hamburg  he  proceed- 
ed to  Wilieiiberg,  where  he  met  Luther,  nho 
had  now  thrown  offthe  last  vest Ige  of  popish 
_   thraldom,  and  chat  there  he  complett»l  hia 
f  tranatation  of  tbe  New  I'csl.    The  stalemcnl 
is  apparently  not  correct,  for  during  15'»4  lie 
seems  to  have  remained  at  Hamburg,  anil 
in  1525  he  appean  to  have  been  first  at  (Jo- 
lugiie  and  then  at  Worms.    At  Cologne  Tyn- 
dale seems  lo  have  commenced  to  print  his 
liao.  ""*'  etiition  in  4to,  but  after  ten  ebeeto  were 

prinled  the  work  was  interrupted,  and  the 
translalor  and  hia  coadjutors  betook  themselves  to  the 
Lutheran  city  of  Worms,  where  the  quarto  was  finisheil, 
and  an  oclavo  edition  also  issued  from  the  press  (1S25). 
Tbe  prologue  to  Ihe  quarto  has  been  republished  under 
the  name  of  A  Palkaaj/  to  the  Scripluret.  The  trans- 
lator'a  name  was  attached  to  neither  of  the  two  editions, 
lis  Wkkrd 
ibliibed  in  1527.  Copies  of  these  vcniiHis 
early  found  their  way  into  England.  In  152C  Tunstall, 
bishop  of  London,  fulminated  his  prohibition  of  them, 
and  two  yeara  afterworda  a  number  of  copies  were  ctA- 
lecled,  nay,  some  were  purchased  by  tbe  biahop  in  Ant- 
werp, and  burned  at  St.  PBul'a  Cross.  Warham  aud 
Woliey  were  also  dreadfully  enrage),  and  Sir  Tbomsa 
More  was  employed  to  denounce  Tyndale,  but  his  gen- 
ius was  foiled  in  the  attempt,  and  Tyndale  won  a  vic- 
tory over  Ihe  learned  chancellor.  Of  the  first  ediiion 
only  a  fragment  now  exists,  and  of  Ihe  second  only  two 

wards  printed  at  Antwerp,  and  found  their  way  to  Eng- 
land in  vesKls  laden  with  grain.  Endeavors  were  made 
to  seize  Tyndale  and  punish  all  who  had  assisted  him,  but 
he  removed  to  Slarburg,  in  Hesse,  in  1528,  and  published 
there  a  book  of  great  value— rA^  Obrdienct  of  a  Chrit- 
lian  Man.  The  result  of  all  the  English  opposition 
wu  that,  as  Kox  expresses  it,  "copies  of  the  New  Test. 
'  ick  and  threefold  into  England."    We  lind  Tyn- 


it  Antwerp  in  1529,  d 


culati 


The. 


ing  whir 


of  the  tr 


islator 


■spalac 


»Tps; 


dl  Enftlnnd."  In  Linidon  he  i 
•  preached  at  Su  l)unaion's-in-thc-Wcst, 
rmaii  Humphrey  Aliinmnuth  link  him  undc 


decoy  him  into  England,  but  he  w 
wary  lo  be  so  easily  entrapped,  for  be  well  knew  what 
displeasure  Henry  Vlll  fell  at  his  tract  called  TAt 
■  Prariict  of  Prtliiitt,  and  what  penally  the  royal  indig- 
nation would  speedily  inflict.  After  the  martyrdom  of 
Frith,TyndBle  set  himself  In  nvise  and  correct  the  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Tcsl.,  and  it  was  soon  thrown  off.wlth 
this  remark  in  Ihe  preface,  "Which  I  have  Uoiked  over 
again  with  all  diligence,  and  compared  with  Ihe  Greek, 
and  have  weded  out  of  it  many  fautes."  But  his  ene- 
mies in  England,  whose  power  had  been  shaken  by  Ihe  ■ 
copious  circulation  of  the  English  New  Tcst„  were  Ihe 
more  enraged  against  him,  and  conspired  to  seize  him 
on  the  Continent,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor.  An 
Englishman  named  Philips  betrayed  htm,  and,  acting 
under  such  information,  Ihe  authorities  at  Brussels 
seized  him,  in  the  house  of  Pointz,  his  friend,  and  con- 
veyed him  10  Vilvoorden,  twenty-three  miles  from  Ant- 
werp. Pointz,  who  had  with  difficulty  escaped  himself, 
made  every  eflurt  for  him,  but  in  vain.  The  neighbor- 
ing University  of  Louvain  thirsted  fur  his  blood,  Tyn- 
dale was  speciliiv  condemneili  and  on  Fridav,  Oct.  6, 
1536,  in  vinueofarecentAng^burg  decree,  he  wasted 

Ihe  slake,  he  cried,  in  loud  and  earnest  prayer,  "  Lord, 
open  the  eyes  of  the  king  of  England,"  and  then  was 
first  strangled  and  afterwards  I  ■      —■  -      - 


T  be  n 


wl  a 


■ulh<>riz 


re  abroad,  fur  which  ten  pounds  |  good  his  early  boast  that  ploughbovs  ahould  have 


TYNDAREUS  60 

Word  el  God.  H  it  rrieniti  all  tpttk  of  hii  unit  um-  I 
plicil)'  or  heart,  aiid  cummeiul  hu  aluIemiouB  liabiu, . 
liU  zeil,  iiid  hia  iiidiulry;  while  «vcn  the  imperial  I 
pnicuralor  who  proaecuteil  him  iCytea  him  Attmo  dodtu, 
piai,  el  boaoM.  The  work*  of  Tyndale  and  Frith  were 
cullected  and  publiibed  (Land.  1831,  3  vols.  Svo).  Fur 
iiirotmalion  renpecting  Tyndale,  hii  wtitinga,  and  edi- 
tions or  hia  Iraiislitious  of  the  Testament,  fenlaUucb, 
eiCn  aee  Bliu's  Wood,  Alim.  Omn.  i,  94 ;  Fax,  Adi  and 
Mm. !  ISiag.  Bril. ,-  Walter  and  Offur,  l^fe  of  Tyyialt ; 
Wordaworth,  Ecchi.  Biog.;  Mewoime,  Hm^  BMe 
Tratulalioia  ;  Juhiuun,  Hal.  "/  KmjlUk  Tramlii/ivai 
e/llu  Bible ;  Lewis,  I/iM.  of  Tfunilulioai  of  the  JWWe 
Mo  Engliih ;  Cotton,  Liu  of  FAUiuai  of  Uit  Biile  in 
EnglM !  AiidenoD,  A  muili  oflht  En^M  BiUe ;  Home, 
iRlrod.  to  Sludg  of  the  Bible;  Hi1mic-il  Accoum  of 
EogHtKVernimtofSa-ipliirtiVim.BALBi-il.;  I'  ' 


g(Heb 


SaXiT  is 


dwitha 


m  Bee.  x,  321 ;  < 


V);  .Viirt 


m  Ben.  Ixvii,  3'ii.     For  r.iller  lix  of  I 
liboBe,Dicl.ofBril.aiidAiiKr.Aiilliort,t.v. 

TyndaieiM,  in  (ireeit  myihulogy,  was  the  hiu- 
baad  of  the  renowned  Leda,  and  was  kin;:  in  Sparta, 
from  which  he  was  driren  with  his  brother  Icariua. 
Uerculea  placed  the  fleeing  bmtliers  aj^in  in  pos- 
sesion of  their  kingdom!.  Pausaiiias  aaw  his  grave 
in  Laccdcmonia  before  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Cos- 
metea  (iii,  IT,  i). 

Tyudatldes,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  samaine 
of  the  DioKuri. 

TyndariB,  in  Qreek  mythology,  was  a  surname  of 
Htlrn. 

Tyng,  Duulei  A,  a  clergyman  of  the  Protesunt 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Prince  George  Countv, 
Hd„  in  mHi.  He  grailnated  at  (he  L'liivvrsitv  of  I'eiin- 
SylvanU  in  18*3 ;  studied  at  the  Alexandria  (Va.)  The- 
ological Seminary;  became  deacun  in  1S46  and  priest 
In  1S19 ;  was  flrat  aeltled  as  a  clcr(;yman  iu  Columbus, 
On  and  afterwards  was  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Cincin- 
nati; in  ISM  waa  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Epipha- 
ny, Philadelphia,  where  be  remained  one  year,  rn-ij^n- 
ing  and  organizing  a  new  parish  called  the  Church  of 
the  Coveiunt,  of  which  he  waa  minister  at  the  time  of 
bii  death,  which  occurred  at  Bmokflcid,  near  Philadel- 
phia, April  19, 1858.  See  A  nKrkait  Quai:  Church  Rer. 
1868,  p.  Oil. 

Type.  I.  Aiiaw,— The  Greek  word  tuitoc,  from 
which  our  lypt  is  derived,  denotes  primarily  a  Uoie, 
then  the  marlc  bftbga  Uoa,  then  a  mu-t  or  priiU  if 
OHg  Uad^then  tjigure  or  uui^iand  Anally  a  mouU  or 
modd,  whether  that  be  vieweil  as  the  oriKinal  from 
which  something  else  has  taken  ila  form,  or  as  indicat- 
ing the  form  which  something  not  yet  exii>Iing  may 
asaunne.  In  the  New  Teiu  the  word  uccurs  in  several 
of  these  MnIe^  and  in  some  pas.iagea  wilh  a  ghade  of 
meaning  peculiar  to  itself.  Iu  John  xx,  25  it  'u  nsetl 
to  denote  the  mark  which  the  nails  made  in  our  l^nl's 
hands  and  feet;  in  Acts  vli,  4a  it  means  a  copy  or 
image;  hi  ver.  41  and  Heb.  viii,  6  it  aignifiea  a  model 
after  which  something  is  made;  in  Rom.  vi,  I'  it  de- 
nutea  a  mould  from  which  a  form  is  derived ;  in  ver.  H 
it  conveys  the  idea  of  one  person  presenting  sonic  anal- 
ogy to  another  person;  and  in  several  places  it  means 
an  example  which  others  mav  folhiw  (I  Cur.  x,6,  It; 
Phil,  iii,  17 ;  1  Theaa.  i,  7 ;  3  fhess.  iii,  9,  eic). 

As  used  hy  theologians,  the  wnni  r^;>e  has  recnved 
a  special  technical  meaning  not  exactly  eiguivalant  to 
any  of  these  usages,  though  approaching  to  that  of 
Roro.  V,  14,  where  Adam  is  said  to  be  the  type  of 
Uhriat.  They  mean  by  it  any  object,  whether  office, 
instilution,  person,  or  action,  by  means  of  which  some 
(ruth  connected  with  Chrisiisniiy  was  preOguratively 
foreluld  under  pceeeding  dispensations.  Such  an  ob- 
ject the  apostles  call  a  atfi,  a  shallow  ur  adumbration 
of  that  which  it  indicated  (comp.  lleb.  x,  1 :  CoL  ii,  17). 
This  shallow  became  a  type  because  it  presented  the 
model  or  IF  presentation  of  something  yet  future.    Some- 


IJ.  Eaitdaraetaul  Piiiiciplri.—Ttien!  are  certain  no- 
ms  which  muse  be  assumed  as  lying  at  the  haus  of 
typology. 

1.  Spiritual  tmths,  ideaa,  thoughts,  may  be  repmnt. 
cd  by  material  symbols,  whether  actions,  inititiniuo^ 
or  objects.     This  the  usage  of  all  nsiiuns  eMablisba 

'  lly  waa  this  a  favorite  melhnil  ofcoiDiiw- 

general,  it  is  found  to  prevail  most  in  the  earlier  itsga 
of  a  people's  history,  while  as  yet  the  use  of  nbjtca 
that  appeal  to  the  senses  is  mora  efleciire  than  ihe  ua 
of  written  documents,  Jii  Scripture,  frequent  inuaacn 
occur  of  such  symbolical  methods  of  conveying  idcn; 
'  istance,  the  placing  of  (he  liand  under  ttie  thigb 
of  an  oath  ;  the  boring  of  the  ear  of 
declined  to  avail  himself  of  the  Mcr- 
ty  brought  by  the  year  of  jubilee ;  the  rending  of  ilit 
,{annenls  in  token  of  grief ;  aiid  such  acts  as  ili«e  il 
I,  in  announcing  to  Jeroboam  the  stcesmi 

garment  into  iivelve  pieces  and  gave  to  Jeroboaio  in. 
(1  Kings  ix,  29) ;  that  of  Elisha  when  he  indicated  Is 
■he  king  of  Israel  the  vicioriea  which  by  divine  belp 
be  should  obtain  over  the  Syrians  by  commanding  bim 
to  shoot  an  arrow  from  I  he  window  eastward  alter  he 
bad  placed  hia  hand  on  the  king's  hand  (2  Kings  liii, 
14-19);  and  those  of  Jeremiah  and  Eiekiel  when  ibty 
were  signs  to  the  |>enp]e  (Jer.  xix,  1-11 ;  Ezek.  lii,^ 

i«> 

2.  Such  symbo.ical  representations  may  be  tmplimd 
to  convey  religious  Imlli.  This  usage  we  And  aliols 
have  prevailed  among  ill  nationa,  eapecially  in  Iheesi- 
lier  stages  of  their  history.  Among  the  Jews  il  wsi 
abundantly  used;    not,  however,  according  to  bDmis 

t}-,  but  always  in  obedience  to  ibt 
express  ordinance  of  God.  The  symbolical  obstn- 
anops  of  an  earlier  age  inlroiluced  into  the  service  •>( 
God,  it  may  be  presumed,  were  also  of  divine  appoiai- 
ment,  on  the  general  principle  thai,  aa  God  alone  tan 
deelan  what  worship  he  will  receive,  it  is  only  aa  hi 
appninta  that  any  service  can  he  properly  oflered  to  bin. 
H.  The  true  religion  hasinall  age*  been  essentially  tlie 
same,  so  that  the  truths  symboliaed  by  the  institutxSB 
□fthe  earlierdispensationsare  identical  with  those  mnn 
diieclly  and  fully  made  known  lo  us  under  the  Chrii- 
lian  dispensation.  The  subslaotJsl  identity  of  Ibe  pa- 
triarchal and  Mosaic  religions  with  the  Christian  aiuit 
be  assumed  in  all  attempts  to  argue  from  the  Old  Tot. 
to  the  New,  ur  tice  rthi,  and  will  not  be  ilenied  by  any 
who  receive  iheae  booka  aadivioe.  From  this  it  neen- 
tarily  follows  that  what  was  taught  by  iijr>a£ii>J  unda 
the  ancient  economies  aa  part  of  reli^oiu  truth  will  Ik 
found  identical  with  wbal  is  taught  in  loonlt  under  tbe 

4.  The  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  is  one  resting  oa  the 
facts  of  his  personal  appearance  and  work.  Out  vt 
these  all  its  truths  flow  directly  or  indirectly ;  and  to 
theae  they  all  have  respecL  Hence  the  truths  tai^t 
symbolically  to  the  Old-Test,  saints,  being  identical 
with  those  of  Christianity,  must  alao  rest  on,  and  han 
respect  to,  these  facts. 

&.  A  twufidd  charsclcr  was  thus  of  necessity  ginii 

They  were  primarily  symbolical  of  religious  trwk 
1'hey  were  secondarily  predictive  of  facts  in  the  future 
on  which  theae  truths  rested. 

IH.  yal«>-e  of  rypet.— Proceeding  on  these  data, 
we  may  attempt  to  construct  a  typok^,  the  design  of 
which  shall  be  lo  show  what  are  the  types  in  the  OU 
Test,  and  the  correspondence  between  them  and  tbtir 
antilypea  in  Ihe  New  TesL  The  most  important  sup 
towuds  Ihia  is  to  determine  from  the  preceding  dsia 
what  is  the  proper  idea  of  a  type.  This  we  would  ex- 
press as  follows :  A  type  is  an  instilnle  or  act  appointed 
by  God  to  symbolize  a  religious  truth,  and  lo  pr*^-iie 


Thii' 


le  faUon 


I.  A  type  ia  an  ttutitute  or  act.  We  OM  that  tenm 
in  a  wide  lenM,  uiidcntandiDg  under  ihd  (oimtt  not 
ooij  formal  organizations  and  nligioua  ufficca,  but 
limea,  placea,  iiDplements  of  leligioiu  aervice;  and  un- 
der tbe  lauer  doI  only  riMi  and  cereDMiiiea,  but  ■pecial 
icLi  ur  seriea  of  acrs  determined  by  the  proper  crite- 
riuu  lu  be  typicaL  By  ttaia  defiuiUon,  bawever,  perioni 
■ikd  tAituft  aimply  aa  aucIj  are  excluded.     A  peraon  ptr 

cal  cfaaraoler;  and  cannot  be  tbe  trciOt  or  prefi^rative 
ti)n>,  of  another  penon  or  thing,  mnch  lesa  of  a  fact  nr 
aerit*  uf  facta.  A  pereon  may  auauin  a  t)'pical  office 
or  may  perfoim  a  irpical  act,  and  a  Ibing  may  be  uaed 
ia  a  typical  aervin  or  ceremony,  but  in  anil  by  itaelf 
it  cannot  be  ■  type.  Thi*  seta  aside  a  whole  boat  of 
type*  which  the  ingenuity  of  interpreleia  haa  conatruct- 
ul  out  uf  the  hialorical  penoDagea  of  tbe  Old  Test. 
Thai  many  of  these  suitaiaeil  typical  officea  and  per- 
fumed typical  acts  ia  admitted;  but  that  they  were  in 
Iheoiwlrea  — ill  their  proper  individual  peisonality — 
types  of  our  Lord,  we  cannot  believe.  The  aaaertion, 
indeed,  ia  u>  ua  unintelligible  except  in  a  aenae  which 
would  Ik  profane  and  untrue — viz.  that  their  pecaonal 
character  and  cotvduct  were  ■  repreKnlatioii  of  the  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  our  bleixid  Lord.  It  ia  true  that 
for  this  doctrine  oT  peraonal  lypee  the  autbority  of  tbe 
New  Teal,  baa  been  pleaded.  But  we  are  unable  lo 
find  a  aoliiaiy  inatance  in  the  New  TeaC  of  any  bistori- 
cal  character  menliorte<l  in  tbe  Olil  TeaL  being  broaghc 
forwanl  as  having  been  peiaonally  a  atia  of  Chriat  or 
hi*  work.  In  one  paaasge,  indeed,  Adam  ia  called  a 
rinroc  of  Christ,  but  niirac  ia  not  there  equivalent  to 

waa  Adam  ai  a  ptrion  wbo  wia  Ibe  type  of  Chriat,  for 
the  apoatle  ia  speaking  throughout  that  context  of  our 
flnt  pamit  in  hii  official,  federal,  or  lepreaenMtive  char* 
•cler.  The  wards  of  Peter  alao  (1  Pet.  iii,  21)  have 
been  cited  aa  showing  that  a  aimple  hiatorical  occur- 
rence may  be  the  type  of  a  Christian  truth ;  but,  what- 
evet  the  apoatle  tnay  mean  in  that  paaaage  by  calling 

tioa  by  the' ark,  he  certainly  cannot  mean  that  the  lat- 
ter waa  a  divinely  appointed  prellguralion  of  the  for- 
mer. Tbe  utonet  that  can  be  drawn  from  his  worda 
■a  that  aa  analogy  aubsista  between  the  two,  whereby 
tbe  one  ia  fitted  to  illualrate  the  other.  The  atrongeat 
caae  in  favor  of  the  opinion  we  are  oppoaing  ia  uur 
Lnnl'a  repreaenlation  of  himself  as  the  true  bread  of 
which  the  maniu  waa  the  prefigiiration.  We  cannot 
unilenland  this  as  intimating  leM  ihan  that  the  manna 
wan  ■  type  of  him.     Still  it  waa  the  manna,  not  aa  a 


TYPE 

been  preordained  aa  constituent  partaof  tb«  same 
general  acheme  of  Divine  Providence.    It  la  thiafimt- 
daign  and  thia  preorJsiued  connection  which  con- 
ile  tbe  relation  of  type  and  antitype"  (Marah,  Leel- 
I  on  CriHdm  and  InltrprelalioH,  p.  S74).     By  the 
earlier  lypologiata  this  conditioa  waa  neglected,  and  re- 
semblance waa  made  the  sole  criterion  of  the  relation 
between  an  event  or  peraon  of  tbe  Old  Test,  and  a  fact 
or  doctrine  of  the  New  TesL  as  type  and  antitype.     A 
once  popular  book  written  on  thia  plan  ia  that  of 
H'Ewen,  On  tie  Tgpa  and  Figurti  of  lie  Old  Tftt. 
But  the  principle  baa  been  carried  out  to  the  wildcat 
extent  in  a  work  entitled  The  Tgpitot  Tettimimg  to  tie 
Meuiah,  by  Uicaiah  Hill  (Lond.  1662). 

8.  Each  act  or  institute  designed  1^  God  to  serve  aa 
typical  poeaesaed  a  lynAotieat  aa  well  aa  a  prtdiclite 
character.  Thia  foltowa  from  tlte  poaition  that  a  type 
is  a  aenaible  emblem  or  preHgurative  token  of  some 
apiritual  truth,  which  itself  resta  upon  certain  evenla 
yet  future,  but  of  which  events  a  certain  degree  of 
knowledge  is  poeseaaed  by  those  to  whom  the  type  is 
exhibited.  In  all  >uch  cases  a  twofold  impression  is 
conveyed  lo  the  mind :  in  the  first  place,  that  a  partic- 
ular truth  already  known  is  symbolically  indicated; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  that  those  events  on  which 
that  truth  depends  shall  eeruinly  lake  place.  In  the 
testimony  of  God  concerning  hia  Son  there  are  two 
points — one  of  fact,  and  one  of  doctrine — on  both  ot 
which  we  moac  be  instructed  before  we  can  reallv  be- 
lieve that  teatimony  in  all  Its  fulneaa.  What  Gnd'calla 
us  in  the  Bible  to  believe  is,  first,  "  the  truth ;"  and, 
aecondly,  that  "  truth  aa  it  is  in  Christ  Jesua."  Wilh 
regard,  for  instance,  to  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  the 
atonement,  (here  is,  first,  [he  general  principle  that  auch 
a  mode  of  salvation  is  reaaunible,  practicable,  attd  in- 
tended by  God  ;  and,  aecondly,  the  matter  of  fact  that 
auch  an  atonement  has  really  been  preaented  by  our 
IarI  Jesua  Christ  and  accepted  by  the  Sovereign  and 
Judge  of  all.  Now  it  waa,  of  courae,  the  same  under 
the  Old-Teat,  dispcnaatioo :  there  were  both  (he  docltine 
to  be  announced  and  the  fact  lo  be  predicted  before  a 
complete  statnncni  of  saving  truth  could  be  Uid  before 
the  mind ;  and  it  was  onlv  as  both  of  these  were  appre- 
hended that  the  belief  of  a  "        ■       ■ 


le  people. 


vision  made  by  Gnd  for  the  feeding  oi 

was  the  type  of  Chriat;  and  in  this  dii 

we  find  what  reduces  this  under  the  head  of  piuper 

lype«. 

2.  A  type  is  an  institute  or  act  nppoiiUrd  by  God,  and 
by  him   adapted  to  the  end  it  ia  deugni  ' 


•wingw 


Bihihite 


by  the  misaion  and  work  of  his  Son,  God  coulil  not  only 
predict  il  in  wonls.  but  also  give  by  means  of  aym- 
bolica)  acta  and  inatitntes  auch  represeniatlon  of  it  as 
would,  ill  some  measure  at  least,  hrinK  before  tbe  minds 
of  tbe  ancient  aainls  a  lively  idea  of  it.  Aa  God  alone 
csutd  do  this,  it  is  on  hia  appointment  (hat  the  whole 

other,  M  tbe  term  ia  generally  underalood  in  reference 
to  iieripture,  something  mure  ia  needed  than  mere  re- 
BeohUnoe.  llie  former  must  not  only  resemble  the 
latur,  but  must  have  been  dtnt/itei  lo  reaemble  the  lal- 
Eef.  It  Duac  hare  been  ao  designed  in  its  original  in- 
Mitution.  It  must  have  been  designed  aa  something 
frrparaloTy  to  the  latter.    '■'  "  as  tbe 

•mi^pt  must  >'ave  been  jir  must 


fuU  a. 


ibolofth 
li  presented  to  the 
sign  of  a  great  gei 


Hence 


and  a  prediclion  of  the  fact. 
«  of  the  beholder  an  outward 
truth,  and  a  memorial  that  in 
le  event  on  which  that  truth  reated  would 
take  pUce.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  caae  of  aacriflce, 
[here  were  both  a  aymbol  and  a  prediction.  The  alay* 
ing  of  the  animal  and  the  burning  of  its  tieab  were  em- 
blems of  the  great  truth  that  the  ainner  whose  aubsti- 
tute  that  aninidl  had  become  deserved  death  and  sub- 
sequent agony,  as  well  as  of  the  general  truth  that 
God's  plan  of  saving  men  from  thai  desert  was  by  the 
substitutionary  sufleriiigs  of  another.  All  this,  howev- 
er, would  have  been  of  no  avail  to  the  ain-burdened  Is- 
raelite, who  knew  well  that  no  mere  animal  could  make 
atonement  for  the  «ns  of  man,  had  not  that  act  prefig- 
ured and  predicted  the  great  sacrifice  fur  sin  on  the 
pan  of  the  I.ambof  God.  But,  pointed  forward  to  this, 
his  faith  obtained  an  object  upon  which  to  rest,  and 
he  was  enabled  to  rejoice  in  the  solTition  of  God.  So, 
also,  with  regard  to  the  immediate  consequenceaof  sac- 
riflce.  When  a  Jew  had  committed  a  trespass  against 
the  Mosaic  law,  he  had  lo  oDer  certain  MorlHces  before 
he  could  eiijny  his  civil  and  poliiical  rights.  Immedi- 
ately, however,  on  presenting  these,  he  stood  rrrfm  in 
cnrta .-  he  was  acquitted  of  the  ain  he  hod  committed, 
and  reatorod  to  his  civil  privileges.  With  ihis  a  mere 
coma)  and  worldly  Jew  was  contenL  But  to  the  |noua 
believer  all  this  waa  only  the  symbol  and  typeof  aome- 
thing  apirituaL  It  reminded  him  that  his  sins  against 
God  bod  mode  him  guilty  and  excluded  him  from  the 
divine  favor;  it  directed  him  to  the  need  of  a  sacrifice 
forun  ere  Qod  would  forgive  his  trani^ieaaion  {  and  it 


TYPE 

•Mured  him  that,  jiiat  a: 
stored  to  his  p1»ce  in  ihi 
ucriRce  he  might  be  restoreil  to  the  ilirine  ravor,  and 
U>  ■  place  ID  that  spiritual  kingdom  of  which  the  Jew- 
ish nwion  WIS  the  type. 

i.  Though  rttfiMinix  to  that  wbieh  it  is  designed 
to  prellgure  Joes  not  conuitule  the  only,  or  even  [he 
primary,  copdition  or  a  type,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
must  form  a  very  important  elenacot  ia  the  sdaptiiion 
or  the  type  to  serve  ila  de*igiied  end.  Hence  we  may 
expect  to  And  some  obvious  analogy  not  only  between 
Ihe  symbol  and  that  which  it  ayiiibali£e«,  but  also  be- 
tween the  divinely  appointed  act  or  institute  and  that 
which  it  waa  designed  to  prefigure. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  there  muM  be  a  similarity  or 
analogy  between  the  type  and  the  antitype,  so  there  is 
also  a  diiparily  or  dissimililuile  between  them.  It  is 
not  in  the  nature  uf  type  and  antitype  that  they  should 
agree  in  all  things;  else,  instead  of  similitude,  there 
would  be  idnlittf,  ilence  Ihe  apostle,  while  making 
Adam  B  type  of  Christ,  yet  shoirs  how  inHnitelr  the 
latter  excelled  the  former  (1  Cor.  xr,  47).  So  the 
priests  of  old  were  types  uf  Christ,  though  he  infinitely 
excelled  them  both  as  to  his  own  person  and  as  In  the 
character  of  his  priesthood  (see  Hcb.  vii,  viii,  ix,  i). 
ChryscHlomobaerves{/7'><n.6l,iH(/nL}that  there  must 
be  more  in  the  type  than  in  the  antitype.  Hence  Ihe 
distinction  must  be  obserreil  between  total  and  paiiial 
types.  This  distineltou  CBcumenius  also  draws  in  com- 
iDenting  on  Heh.  vii,  p.  829.  He  aaysi  'O  riiroc  oi 
■aTd  rayra  hot  i'Ti  Tp  riXqSiifi  (Jirci  Jcii  alrrit  d\^ 
Sua  tlipimtmi,  ((■'  roirroriic  /laWoi',  ^  riiroc),  aW 
tiViivac  ix"  Tivit  eni  iWdX/iaro— "A  type  does  not 
express  that  which  it  represents  iu  erery  minute  par- 
ticular, for  then,  instead  of  umilitiide,  there  would  be 
identity,  but  it  contains  certain  outlines  and  asaimila- 
tious  of  the  antitype."  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  ia  Aihom 
vi,  p.  815,  also  observes  on  this  aubjeot:  'O  ri-rot  ait 
dkii5ua,ii6pipuiinr  ti  ^aUov  rqc  ikXifSdVii'  fiaipipii — 
"A  type  is  not  the  very  truth  itself,  hut  its  repreaenta- 


IV.  Briatioa  I 


0  TYPE 

and  a  type — that  the  furmer,  being  merely  doctrinal, 
would  be  exhausted  in  inculcating  a  present  truth, 
while  the  latter  would,  with  the  doccriue,  incorporai* 
a  prophetic  reference  to  some  great  event  yet  to  hap- 
pen on  which  the  doctrine  was  baaed.     See  Pabablb. 

3.  Return  lu  Comparitoit.—T\m  New-Test,  tearhen 
occaiionally,  for  the  uke  of  illustrating  their  meaning, 
introduce  a  comparison,  drawn  frooi  some  well-known 
fact  in  the  history  of  the  Jewisli  people,  between  which 
and  the  point  they  are  discussing  there  eiista  snme  ub- 
riom  analogy.  In  this  way  our  Lonl  makes  use  of  the 
fact  of  Mosea'  erecting  the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wil- 
derness for  the  purpose  nf  iltustraiing  his  own  chancier 
as  a  deliverer,  who  was  to  be  "  lifted  up,  that  whosoever 
betieveth  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  everlast- 
ing life"  (John  iii,  14,  IS).  On  another  occasion  he  in- 
stituted a  comparison  between  bis  own  case,  as  about  to 
be  consigned  for  a  aeason  to  the  tomb,  and  that  nf  Jo- 
belly  of  the  fish"  ftlatt.  xii.  40).  From  this  it  has  been 
hastily  concluded  that  lliese  events,  and  others  alluded 
to  in  the  Kew  Test,  in  a  similar  manner,  were  real  types 
and  preSgurationaofthe  facta  Iheyare  brought  in  illos- 
trale.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  there  is  a  great  dif- 
ference between  a  historical  event — whether  occurriuf 
in  the  natural  course  of  thing*,  or  hy  the  special  int«^ 
position  of  the  divine  power,  and  which  a  subsequent 
writer  or  speaker  may  make  use  of  to  illustrate,  by  com- 
parison, some  fact  or  doctrine  of  which  he  is  treating — 
and  a  symbolic  inslilute  expressly  appointed  by  God  to 
prefigure,  to  those  among  whnm  it  was  set  up,  certain 


n  above  referred  ii 


:e  of  any  expreia  evidence  i 


.mple  bisi 


It  the  ei 


r.    In  the  caae  of  the  brazen  serpent,  iiideeil,  we  have 
le  appointment :  but  aknig  with  the  appointment  we 
:  the  specific  mention  uf  the  purpose  fur  which  it  waa 
ip,  which  was  not  to  leach  any  religious  truths  at 
,  ir  to  form  any  part  of  religious  warshit>,but  simply 
oikfr  Modn  a/  r«[cAuw.— Having   that  it  might  act  as  an  instrument  of  cure  to  the  Isnei- 
re  of  a  type,  we  would  now  point  ]  ites  who  were  bitten  by  the  fiery  flying  serpents.    St* 
mode  of  teaching  divine  truth  ,  Rbazgn  SEUPear.    "  "  •      ■  -  .... 


to  other  modes  employed  in  Scripture  m 

I.   Bdalion  to  Prnpita/.—Type  stands  related 
prophecy  as  its  paralleL     Like  it,  it  teaches  a  presi 
troth,  and  announces  a  future  fulHlment  of  it;  like 
also,  it  has  in  its  capacity  of  a  type  one  definite  mei 
ing  and  one  definite  fulfilment,  to  both  of  which  it  was 
intended  and  de«ij[ned  lo  point.     The  difference  be- 
tween ■  prophecy  and  a  type  lies  only  in  this,  that  the 
former  l«achcs  by  word*,  the  latter  by  things;  Ihe  for' 
mer,  that  is,  by  an  artificisl  combinstion  of  wgns,  the 
latter  by  a  scenical  representation  of  Ihe  whole  truth 
at  once.    A  word  is  the  symbol  of  an  idea;  a  type  is 
the  symbol  of  some  principle  or  Isw,  and  the  preiliction 
of  some  great  general  fact  in  the  economy  of  redemp- 
tion.   Sec  pRorHKCv. 

3.  Relalian  to  /'aruUr. — From  Ihe  word  irnpo/)<iX)| 
being  used  lo  designate  a  type,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
the  connection  between  the  two  is  intimate.  A  type, 
in  fact,  may  be  viewed  as  a  sort  of  acted  parnblr.  l«t 
ui  suppose,  for  instance,  that  our  Lord,  instead  of  de- 
scribing in  wonls  the  conduct  and  circumstances  of  the 
proiligal  son,  had,  by  the  help  of  suitable  .actors  and 
scenes,  made  the  whole  lo  pass  before  the  eye*  and  ears 
of  his  auditora,  (he  lesson  would  have  been  conveyed  to 
ihtm  much  in  the  same  way  as  Ihe  truth  eoncertiing 
t  Jews  by  the  typi- 


cal rites  of  the  Mosaic  ec 


vividly  a  truth,  otiier 
the  minds  of  those  tf 
this  diflerence,  howev 


from  the  w 

significant  nf  mora  than  a  mere  physical  remetly ;  and 
our  Lord's  reference  to  the  event  confirms  ita  higher 
import.  It  ia  also  posrible  that  such  a  thing  as  the 
brazen  serpent  tiagkt  poiaess  a  symbolical  character; 
but  if  any  will  from  this  argue  thst  it  really  had  such  a 
character,  and  that  it  was  a  symbol  of  Christ,  it  will  be 
incumbent  upon  him,  in  the  first  place,  lo  show  some  ev- 
iilenee  in  favor  of  his  inference,  and,  in  the  next,  toes- 
plain  how  it  should  come  to  pass  that  the  express  sym- 
bdieal  antithesis  of  the  Mesaiah,  the  serTxisr,  couhl  Timi 
part  of  an  institute  intended  to  prefigure  his  work  as  the 
Sa\iouTof  men.  As  to  the  case  of  Jonah,  we  do  not  find 
in  it  su  much  as  Ihe  appearance  of  anything  typical; 
and,  indeed,  it  would  have  been  very  Strang  had  God 
caused  the  prophet  to  perform  an  action  typical  of  the 
burial  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  under  circumstances  ia 
which  therewas  no  human  being  to  receive  any  instru» 
tion  by  it  except  himself.  A  type  is  an  acteil  lesson — 
a  viiuble  representation  of  invisible  truths.  To  its  util- 
ity, therefore,  spectators  are  as  indispensable  as  actors; 
and  where  the  former  are  not  present,  lo  say  that  (iod 
appoints  the  latter  to  go  through  iliejr  iHTfurmaiice  is 
to  charge  him  with  doing  somethuig  in  vwii.  See 
Similitude. 

4.  Rilation  to  A  Uegory. — "  An  allegory,"  Bays  bishop 
Marsh, "  according  to  its  original  and  proper  meaning, 
denotes  a  representation  of  one  thing  which  is  intended 
to  excite  the  representation  of  ai;nther  thing."  Adopt- 
ing this  as  a  just  explanation,  it  ia  obvious  (hat  type 
and  allegory  are  closely  allied,  In  both  there  is  an 
original  representation  which  has  a  meaning  of  its  own, 
and  there  ia  the  use  of  that  for  the  purpose  of  calling  up 


blbea 


itl  tbe  conception  of  iDother  thing  uiilogaiu 


riDtr.     The  i 


Tbc*  diBer  in  two  rcspecu:  the  one  U  that  the  Mibjecl 
of  HI  ilkgurv  la  a  mere  hlMurical  e*eat  occurnnf;  in  the 
Miliiiiiy  anirsc  of  lhing»,wher™ia  type  i«an  uloc  iu- 
ailuie  expreasi}-  appuiatal  by  God  to  teach  aome  im- 
p-tlant  truth ;  the  uther  ia,  that  the  aUef(orial  aenae  is 
a  lidiiioui  meaning  put  uponanamiive  Tur  the  uke  or 
omeihing  else,  whereaa  the  eiplanation  ot 


■  trpei. 


totni 


I  only  I 


iililiug  that  meaning.  Tbua  Paul, 
I  unlet  la  enplaiii  the  dnctriiie  of  the  corenaiita.  allego- 
nia  the  anecdote  of  Sarai  and  HagariEoordeil  by  Muaes, 
midiini;  Sarai  repreatnt  tlie  Abrahamic  or  new  or  ever- 
lasting Dorenant,  and  Hagai  the  Sinaitic  or  old  cnie- 
nant  (iM.  ir,  '2i,  'Jo).  In  the  same  var  he  ailegiirizca 
the  Tact  of  the  water  froni  the  rock  following  the  Israel- 
itH  tbroogh  the  wildemefle,  speaking  of  ii  as  repreaenl- 
ing  ChriH  in  [he  blaaings  he  confer*  upon  hig  church 
(1  Cor.  X,  4).  Theae  allegoriiings  (dAAijyopoi'ifMm)  are 
only cumpafiaotia  without  the  form;  and  their  use  isob- 
vioiidy  merely  to  explain  one  thing  by  anuther.  The 
radical  difference  between  the  eipositiun  of  a  type  and 
an  aUfgorical  iiilreprelation  of  history,  is  apparent  from 
the  apoalte  tnakci  of  them  reapectirely 


Hiaal 


I,  by 


,  nothing  ia  built;  whereaa  hi<  lypical 
pluatioiii  are  all  brought  rurward  aa  furming  the  baata 
of  a^nmeiita  addresaed  la  those  who,  admitting  the 
ij-pe,  were  thereby  pledged  tu  the  admiasioD  of  the 
Iniihs  it  embodied.     See  A1.1.SOOBV. 
V.  liUerprttatio»nfJ)fptt.~h»  a  general  rule  it  may 

LO  the  type  (ChryaoM.  ia  Gmt4.  Horn.  3j:  fiif  riivra 
irairii  i¥  r^i  rvwifi-  oiii  ydp  di-  iijj  niiroc  (I'/uXXoi 
TflKrd  t'xiii-  rd  rp  dXqSfif  avft/JoiVotra).  This  fol- 
Ion  ^m  the  nature  of  the  caae.  For  if  the  design  of 
a  type  be  liy  outward  aymbols  to  foreahadow  ajHrilnnl 
truth),  it  fulluwa  that,  in  proportion  as  the  thing  signi- 
Sed  ia  more  valuable  than  I  he  mere  aign,  and  na  ibiiiga 

tcrial  aiHt  tran«Coty,  the  type  muat  be  inferior  in  value 
and  in  majesty  to  that  wliivh  it  it  deaigned  to  prefigure^ 
More  apecific  rulea  having  reference  eapecially  to  the 
Huaaic  ritual  are — I.  The  aymboUcal  ritual,  aa  a  whole 
and  -n  its  individual  parta,  can  set  forth  uiiiy  auch  ideaa 
and  imtha  as  accord  with  the  known,  and  elsewhere 
clearly  announced,  principles  of  Olil-Tesi.  theology.  3. 
An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  outward  ooiistitution  of 
each  lymbrd  ia  an  indispensable  cimdition  of  its  inter- 
pietatinni  for,  aa  the  sale  abject  of  the  symbol  iatocon- 
TeT  tpiritual  truth  by  sensible  repreaanlatiuns,  to  at- 
tempt  to  discover  the  fbrmer  befure  we  underatand  the 
latter  ia  to  endeavor  to  reach  an  end  without  using  the 
meant  3.  The  first  step  in  the  interpretation  of  a  eym- 
bnl  t>  the  explanation  ofita  nnme;  for,  aa  thia  i>  gener- 
ally given  with  a  direct  trference  to  the  idea  aymbol- 
Ueil,)!  forms  of  itself  a  sort  of  exponent  of  the  symbol  to 
■bich  it  is  affixed.  4.  Each  aymbol  expresaea,  in  gen- 
eral, only  <me  grand  ideai  at  the  some  time,  of  course, 
including  all  subordinate  ideaa  that  maybe  involved  in 
IL  Thus,  ill  the  case  of  sacriHces,  a  variety  of  truths  are 
presented  to  the  mind,  but  all  going  to  make  up  the  one 
grand  truth  which  that  rite  symbolized,     ft.  Each  aym- 

differentmay  be  the  objects  with  which  it  ia  combined. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  act  uf  puriAcalinn  has  the  same 
•ynbolical  meaning,  whether  it  is  performed  upon  a  per- 
•0.1  or  an  animal,  or  upon  a  material  object.  G.  In  in- 
Urpreting  a  ayDibot,we  must  throw  out  uf  view  all  that 
a  merely  necesaitated  by  the  laws  of  its  phyajcal  con- 
dition, and  that  does  not  serve  10  help  out  the  symbol- 
ical reprcaenlaiion.  Symbols  hare  often  acceasories  nf 
two  kinda:  the  one  conaiating  of  auch  as  are  in  them- 
adrea  symbolical,  and  which 
total  of  the       "-    ■ 


11  TYPHON 

tmo  the  nataie  of  things,  required  by  the  material  ob- 
jecla  cnmpoaing  the  symbol  for  their  continued  exist- 
eoce.  Tbus,  in  the  case  of  the  candlestick  in  the  >anc- 
tuaiy,  it  was  provideil  that  it  ahould  have  branches  and 
knaps  and  aowen,  and  alio  that  it  should  be  supplied 
with  snuSera  and  snufTdishea.  Now,  of  those  accesso- 
ri«  Che  former  were  not  indispensable  to  its  serving  the 
purpose  fur  which  itwasdesigned— that  of  giving  light; 
but  they,  having  each  a  symbolical  meaning,  added  to 
the  symbolical  effect  of  the  whole;  whereas  the  latter 
were  merely  required  in  order  to  prevent  the  lights 
from  dying  out  for  want  of  cleansing.  Keeping  this 
distinction  in  view,  we  need  not  be  afraid  of  going  too 
minutely  into  the  expUnaiion  of  the  Mosaic  ritual 
Eirer\'thing,  in  fact,  of  which  it  was  composed  was  a 
aymlwl,  with  the  ungle  exception  of  such  things  as  the 
earthly,  phyucal  condition  of  the  substance  or  persons 
employed  tetidered  indispensable.  Nay,  even  these, 
frem  belonging  toa  lypical  institute,  such  aa  the  nation 
of  larael  was,  aci(uired  a  eort  of  aecoiidary  typical  chai^ 

have  for  the  same  reason  a  spiritually  doctrinal  char- 
acter.   See  Stmbou 

yi.  Exampht  of  Tfpei.  —  ln  truing  out  trlia  and 
vhal  typified  or  shadowed  forth  Christ  and  hia  salva- 
tion under  the  antediluvian,  patriarchal,  and  Mosaic  dis- 
pensations, we  must  be  careful  not  to  substitute  theaug- 
geslioni  of  our  own  imaginations  for  the  iniimationa  <^ 
Scripture.  We  must  endeavor  to  leant  the  mind  of  fiod 
as  10  whal  actually  conal  it  1 1  tea  a  type,  either  by  the  ex- 
presa  declarations  of  Scripture, or  by  the  obvious  analiigy 
which  subsists  between  things  uniler  the  Goepel  anil  its 
antecedent  diapensationt.  Thus  guarding  txiraelves,  we 
may  notice  ihe  various  types  by  which  God  wss  pleased, 
St  all  times,  in  a  sense,  to  preach  the  Gospel  10  man- 
kind. 

i.  Among  mdiciJaat  pertotu,  before  the  law,  Adam, 
Enoch,  Nosh,  Melchizedek,  Abraham,  Isaac,  ami  JotLCph 
were  eminently  typical  of  Christ,  but  only  in  certain  re- 
lationi.  Again,  under  the  law,  Mosrs,  Joshua,  Sams-m, 
David,  Solomon,  Elijah,  Elisha,  Jonah,  Zerubbabel,  and 
Joshua  [he  high-priest  were,  in  many  points,  singularly 
tvpesufChrist, 

2.  The  firal-bum,  the  Naiaritcs,  prophets,  priests,  and 
kiugs  were  typical  ordert  nfpeiroti*. 

3.  Under  the  head  of  limgi  tt/piiiil  may  be  noticed : 
Jacob'a  ladder,  the  burning  buali,  the  pillar  of  cloud  and 

and  the  brazen  serpent. 

4.  Atliinu  li/pkiilven:  Ihedcliverance  nut  of  Egypt, 
the  passage  of  the  Ked  Sea,  Ihe  sojourn  in  the  wilder- 
ness, the  passage  over  the  Jordan,  the  entrance  into 
Canaan,  and  the  restoratiiHi  from  Babylon. 

5.  Hila  topical  were :  circumcision,  various  tocriSces, 
and  sundry  puriHcslions. 

6. /'/ncef  fjpicaf  were:  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  cities 
of  refuge,  the  Isbetnacle,  and  ihe  temple. 

The  above  types  were  designed  to  ahaduw  forth  Christ 
and  the  blessings  of  hi*  salvation  i  but  rherc  wereothen 
also  which  pointed  at  our  miscriea  without  him.  There 
were  ceremonial  uncleannesses  1  the  Irproig,  for  initanci-. 
was  a  type  of  niir  natural  pollution. 

See  Michaelia,  Entwarfdtr  tj/piMckm  (ioHrfffrlahrlhtil 
(Giltt.  1763);  Keach,  Tnpologia,  p.  32!i-237;  Suiccr, 
Thnaur.  ii,  l38Ti  Mather,  Tfpt*  oflht  Old  Tttt.  (Lonil. 
[705)  ;  B«hr,  SgmMH  7«  moioueirH  Cltui  f  Heidelb. 
1837,  2  vols.);  Chevallier,  HuUfon  l^clurr  for  \»l(i: 
Pairbairn,  TAc  Ti/pot-gn  of  Scriplurr  {  Edinb.  1854.  3 

Cycl-i>.Hm- 


,v  Itlalcui 


,  Tko.l.  I,.d 


TjfplK)on«=TvpHOM  ((|.  v.V 

TTphon  (Typhnt,  J^ihorm.  Tuphoau,  and  T^illu- 
int\  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  mooKier  of  remote  an- 
tiquity.at  one  lime  thought  10  have  l-ecn  a  destructive 
galeof«ind,it  auotbei  time  represented  as  a  pant  of 


TYPHRESTOS  6 

the  earth,  ejecting  rolcinic  fliiDca.  Homer  plaoei  him 
in  Che  couutry  o(  Arim.  huried  in  Ihe  euch,  which 
Jupiter  strikes  with  lightuiag.  Heiiod  rvpmenu  Ty- 
phaoQ  >Dd  Typhoeua  t»  tiro  different  and  diuinct  tw- 
inge Typlunn  is  the  ton  of  Typhoeiii,  a  mighty 
winJ,  who  wich  Ecliidna  Iwgeti  the  iliig  Ortlinu,  Cerbe- 
nu,  the  Lenucin  hydra,  aud  ChiinBra.  Typhoelu  i* 
the  youngeit  ton  of  Tartama  and  Gu,  with  one  hun- 
dred drfkgan-heails,  frightfully  sparkling  eye^  aad  bid- 
eoiu  vnice.  He  attempted  to  gain  sovereignty  over 
gods  and  men,  but  Jupiter  bound  him  wilh  lightning, 
and  he  now  lies  under  £cna.  In  EKyptiaii  mythology 
Typhon  is  the  Greek  name  fur  the  evil  spirit  refire- 
sented  by  the  i1og->[ar,  origiOBlly  Ihe  influenee  that 
brought  CO  Egypt  the  blessing  of  a  yearly  averflow 
of  the  banks  of  the  rirer  Nile,  without  which  the 
COunUj  could  not  flourish.  When  the  worship  of 
Isis  and  Osiris  came  into  practice,  the  dog-star  was 
designed  lo  be  the  destroyer  of  the  life  of  nature  by 
heat,  and  uow  Typhon  became  an  evil  god,  whose 
names  and  titles  upon  monuments  were  destroyed, 
because  be  was  believed  to  be  (he  enemy  and  per^ 
aecutor  of  Ositis  (q.  v.).     Typhon  owned  Nephtbys 

real  Egyptian  natne  ia  stated  diHarently  a>  Set  or 


TyptotUB  (Gr.  TiriKov),  a  OiMk  term  for  (i)  a 
book  of  rubrics  i  (S)  a  selection  from  (he  Psaltery  (8)  a 
Sunday  service  in  the  Orieiilal  Church. 

Tyr,  In  Nnrse  mylhulugy,  is  one  nf  Che  supreme 
deilies  of  Norlhem  antiquity,  a  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga, 
■ml  brother  of  Thor.  As  the  gnd  of  bold neaa,  wisdom, 
and  strength,  he  was  implored  by  Ihe  Heldians  as  well 
ai  bv  Ihe  Skaldians  fur  hia  favor,  and  was  worshipped 
with  Thor  and  Odin.     AC  the  end  of  the  world  h.       " 


TYRE 

sAola  Tsram,ia  baMeditl.Exeg.ii,  61$  tq,-,Vaka, 
Ha  Paati  fphawt.  (Giyph.  ITBS).     See  Pauu 

TyraillHU,  in  Greek  mythtdogy,  waa  one  of  the 
Pterelaiila,  who  were  slain  in  Che  cuutest  agaiost  the 
suns  ufKlectryon. 

Tyrbenua,  in  Greek  mirthologT,  was  a  aQToame  of 
ApolJo. 

Tyre  (Heb.  Ti6r,  -iix  [or  IS,  1  King*  v,  I  ■.  Pis. 
lxiiiii,7;  lxxsvii,4;  Ezek.  xxvi,  15-.  xxvii,3,S,»i 
xxriii,  12;  Hoa.  ix,  IS ;  Zech.  ix,  3 ;  the  lona  liknria 
found  in  inscriptions,  tjeiieiiias,  Jfofiiiiit.  Pliccn.  p.  261]; 
Sept.,  New  Test.,  Josephus,  and  other  writen,  Tipm; 
A.V.  "TyTU8"[n.v.]in  Jer.,  Ezek.  [usually],  and  the 
minor  prophets  [except  Joel] ;  see  also  Ttrian),  a  cd- 
ehrated  eommetdal  city  of  antiquity  (Josfa.  lix,  39 ;  ! 
Sam.  xxiv,  7 ;  Isl  ixiii,  1 ;  Eitk.  xxvi.  15 ;  xKvii,  % 
etc.),  wtuated  in  Htoinicia,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  tbt 
Mediterranean  Sea,  in  latitude  83°  IT'  N.  (Smjthi, 
J/sdtCeTTanem,  p.  469).  Allbongh  not  the  oUesi.  it  VM 
the  jfieatest  of  the  Punic  cities,  both  in  aiie  and  povct. 

L  7'A«  .VuBv.  — Its  Hebrew  name,  TtSr,  signifies  a 
roct,  which  well  agrees  wiili  Ibe  site  of  .lir.  tbe  mod- 
em town  on  ■  Tucky  peninsula,  fonnerly  an  islaixi. 

city,  in  which  the  first  letten  differed  from  each  otlw, 
(hough  both  had  a  feature  of  cheii  comoKii  pamil: ' 
1»(.  the  Aramaic  word  Tara  (x";a),  whence  the  (irttk 
wonl  7ifrDi.  pmbably  pronounced  7>nu,  which  GsiUy 
prevailed  in  Latin,  and,  with  slight  changes,  in  it« 
mndem  languages  of  the  West ;  and,  2d,  Sura,  or  ^omi, 
which  occurs  in  Plautus  {True.  ii,6,  5Q,  "purpunin  ti 
Sara  tibi  attuli"),and  which  is  familiar  (n  scbtdan 
through  the  well-known  line  of  Virgil,  "  Ut  gemni*  hi- 
bat,  et  Sarrano  dormiaC  oetro"  (_Georg,  ii,  506i  OKOp. 
AuL  GelL  xiv,  n ;  Silius  ItaUcus,  xv,  2Ce :  Juvensl.  x, 
30).  Accurdiug  to  a  paiaage  of  Prubns  (ad  Virg.  (H«rj, 
ii,  11C>),  as  quoted  by  Grote  {ffiM.n/  Greta,  iu,3^\ 
the  form  "  Sara"  would  seem  to  have  occurred  in  ooe 
of  Che  Greek  epics  now  lost,  which  passed  under  the 


hiiuw 

Tyran'mis  IJipawoc,  Kutrtiga),  the  name  of  a 
man  in  whnse  school  or  place  of  audience  Paul  taught 
the  Guspel  for  (wo  years,  during  bis  sojourn  at  Epb»ua 
(seeAc(8xii,9).  A.D.62,63.  The  halls  or  rooms  of 
the  philiisophen  were  called  ^oXni  among  the  la(er 
Greeks  (Liddell  and  Scott,  i.  r.) ;  and  as  Luke  applies 
(hat  term  to  the  aii^orium  in  this  instance,  the  pre- 
BumpCion  is  chaC  Tyrannus  himnelf  was  a  Greek,  and  a 
public  teacher  of  philosophy  or  rhetoric.  He  and  Paul 
muHhave  occupied  the  room  at  different  hours;  wheth- 
er he  hired  it  out  to  the  Christians  or  gave  (hem  the 
use  of  it  (in  either  case  he  must  have  been  fi ' 
them)  m  left  uncertain.  Meyer  is  disposed  U 
that  Tyrannus  was  a  Jewish  rabbi,  and  the  o 
private  synagogue  or  house  for  teaching  (5)^13  f^^?)- 
But,  in  the  first  placc,hisGreek  name,ni 
he  is  not  mentioned  as  a  Jew  or  proselyti 
that  supposition ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  as  Paul  re- 
paired 10  this  man's  school  after  having  been  compelled 
to  leave  the  Jewish  eynag<%ue  (Acts  xi 
denC  that  he  (oak  this  course  aa  a  means 
cess  to  the  heathen ;  an  object  which  he  would  natural- 
ly seek  through  the  co-operation  of  one  of  their  own 

Gentile  adherent  of  the  Jewish  faith.     In  speaking  of 

him  merely  oa  a  certain  Tyrannus  {Tvpavmv  nviq), 

Luke  indicates  certainly  (hat  he  was  not 

Gnu  1  though  it  is  natural  enough  (o  think  Ihsl  be  may 

have  become  such  as  the  reanlt  of  his  acqnain 

Ihe  sposlle.     Hemsen    {Dtr  Apoilel  PauL 

It  (he  idea  that  the  hail  may  have  belonged 


le  of  Hun 


II.  Ancitia  Rtlaliaiu.—i.  Oil  7>r<-.— There  i>  M 
doubC  thai,  previous  to  the  siege  of  ihe  city  by  Al- 
exander the  Great,  Tyre  was  situated  on  an  i^aul; 
hut,  according  to  the  Indition  of  the  inhBln(afi(s,  if  n 
may  believe  Justin  (xi,  ID),  there  was  a  city  on  the 
mainland  before  there  was  a  dty  on  tbe  island;  and  the 
troilition  receives  some  color  ftom  the  name  of  Pslv- 
lyrus,  or  Old  Tyre,  which  was  borne  in  Greek  tiows  by 
a  city  on  the  conllnenc,  thirty  stadia  to  Ihe  SDiiib 
(Straboxii,  11.24).  ButadifQculIy  sriaes  in  suj^vsni; 
that  Patnlyrus  was  built  before  Tyre,  as  the  word  X;rt 
cvidenily  means  "a  rock,"  and  few  persons  who  ban 


s  of  tl 


rived  il 


e  original  proprietor.      See  Seelen,  Oc 


itlu^^le 


poK  ttxt  tay  took  on 

hire  given  riae  in  the 
Dime.  Ta  actpe  thii 
dilBcuIn,  HengUenberg 
DuliM  the  MggeMion 
Ibal  Pibetvrus  meant 
Trre  (liU  funneriy  ei- 


wu  inuixlKccd  lOer  the 


<r  p<utor 

,  by  Seb- 

guiiti  il  rrom  Ibal  putof 

Trre  whici 

beineiixe 

KefZAcAehu 

^  26).     Mo- 

TCn,  jiutlj  deeming  this 

unlikely, 

.t  the  orig. 

poaeBHl  the  iiland  aa 
put  or  theii  terrilarr, 
■nd  nuned  their  cilj 
fnxD  the  characteriitic 
feiluna  of  Ihe  iiltud, 
[hough  the  islwid  iUelf 
wu  Dot  then  inhabited 
{Diu  pionitache  Alter- 
Uaii,II, 1,173).  Thisei- 
pUnation  iapouible;  but 

equally  poauble.  For 
eiimple,  the  PhoniciaB 
name  of  it  n>iv  have 
been  the  Old  City;  and 
thia  may  have  been 
tnndaiHJ  "  Palntynu" 
in  Greek.  Or,  if  the  iiV' 
hatHlanti  of  the  mun- 
lami  migraled  to  [be 
iaiand,  tbey  may  alter- 

Mhrr,  have  given  to  [he  eilj  irhich  thev  led  the  name 
of  Old  Tyre,witliout  ita  being  neceBuri'ly  implied  [hat 
tbe  city  had  ever  bonie  eimply  the  name  of  Tyre. 
Or  lome  aocidenCal  oircamitancr,  now  beyond  [he  reach 
of  <anjeclnre,  may  hare  leil  lo  [he  name.  Thia  again 
would  lally  itith  [he  remark  of  Grote,  who  obaervea 
(lot.  ril.)  t1ia[  perhapa  the  PhiEnician  name  which  Ihe 

reaembUng  Palclyrua  in  sound,  but  not  coincident  in 
meanii^  It  ia  important,  however,  to  bear  in  mind 
■hat  thii  qoeation  regarding  PalWynia  ia  merely  ar- 
chmliigicai,  and  [hat  nu[bing  in  Klitical  hiaiiiry  ia 
affiKldl  by  it.  Kebuchadnexiar  neceanarily  besieged 
the  pnrlion  of  the  city  on  Ihe  mainland,  an  he  had  no 
vnaela  with  which  to  attack  the  iaiand:  bu(  it  ia  rea- 
annahiy  certain  that,  in  the  time  of  laaiah  and  Kiekiel 
the  bean  or  core  of  the  dly  waa  on  the  iaianil.  The 
rily  of  Tyre  waa  conaecraWd  to  HerciiN*  (Melkarch), 
who  wa*  the  principal  gtject  of 


.  (Quii 


rliu»,iv,  2;  Strabo,  i 


67)1   . 


Arriaa,  in  hia  Hitlory,  aaya  that 

■nd  WBi  the  RHMt  ancient  of  all  lemplea  within  the 
fflemary  of  mankind  (ii,  16).  U  cannot  be  doubted, 
therefore,  that  the  iaiand  had  long  been  inhabited. 
With  thia  agree  Ihe  expnanona  aa  to  Trre  being  "  in 
tbe  midat  of  the  ■eaa"(Eiek.xxvii,  35,36);  and  even 
the  [brea[  againat  it  that  it  abould  be  made  like  the 
top  of  a  rcwk  lo  apread  neta  upon  (kw  Dea  Vigilnl», 
Chromotiyie  tk  fHiiMrt  Saintt  [  Berlin.  1798],  it,  3li). 
Aa,  however,  the  apace  on  the  iaUnd  waa  limiteil,  i[  ia 


very  pomible  that  Ihe  population  on  the  mainland  may 
have  exceeded  the  population  cm  the  iaiand  (aee  Mov- 
era,i«;.n/.p.8l). 

2.  Coantflicm  tdth  Sitoit.— Whether  built  before  or 
later  ibiii  PalMyrus.  the  renowned  city  ofTyni,  though 
it  laid  cliima  tu  a  very  high  antiquity  (laa.  xxiii,  7; 
Herod,  ii,  [4 ;  Quintue  Curtius.  ir,  4),  is  iioi  menliooed 
eilher  in  the  /Had  or  in  the  Ot^ttry;  bul  no  inference 
can  be  legitimately  drawn  from  thia  fact  aa  lo  the  ex- 
iatet>ce  or  non-exiatence  of  the  city  at  the  lime  when 
thuee  poema  weiv  compoeed.  The  tribe  ofCanaanitea 
that  inhabited  the  amall  tract  of  coanlry  which  may 
be  called  Pbosnicia  proper  was  known  bv  Ihe  generic 
nameofSidDniana  (Judg.  xviii.T;  laa.  xxiii,  2.  4, 12; 
Joab.  liii.  6;  Eiek.  xxiii,  80);  and  thia  name  un- 
doubtedly included  Tyriana,  the  inhabilants  being  of 
theaame  race,  ami  [he  two  cities  being  leaathan  tweiily 
Engliah  milea  diatant  from  each  other.  Hence  when 
Solomon  aent  in  Hiram  kinf- of  Tyte  for  cedar-trees  out 
of  Lebanon,  lo  be  hewn  by  Hiram 'a  aubjecls,he  remindt 
Hiram  that  "there  is  not  among  us  any  thai  can  akill 
lo  hew  timber  like  the  Sidoniana"  (1  Kinga  v,  C). 
Hence  Virgil,  who,  in  hie  veiy  Hist  mention  of  Carthage, 
expreasly  states  that  it  waa  foinided  by  calonisla  from 
Tyre  (^n.  i,  IS),  afterwards,  with  perfect  propriety 

678:  iv,  54Ii;  aee  Dc3  Vignnlea,  Joe.  rif.  p.  2B).  In  like 
manner,  when  Sidoniana  are  spoken  of  in  the  Homeric 
poems  (IL  vi,  290:  xxiii,  T4B;  Od.  iv,  84;  xvii,  424), 
thia  might  comprehend  Tyriana;  and  Ihe  menUon  of 


TYRE  «] 

the  city  Sidoo,  while  then  it  no  umilu  meutioD  or 
'I'yre,  would  be  fully  scooontedlur— if  it  were  nec«Mry 
(•I  nccDuiit  for  luch  a  circunutance  at  all  in  ■  poem — by 
Sidon's  hiving  been  in  early  limes  more  Souriehing 
than  Tyre.  It  is  worthy,  likewise,  of  being  neled^hat 
Tyte  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch;  but  here, 
ngain,  though  an  inference  may  be  drawn  agaiiiM  the 
imporuiice,  no  inference  cm  be  legitimately  drawn 
againit  the  existence,  of  Tyre  in  the  time*  to  which  the 
Pentateuch  refere.     See  SinoN. 

3.  Gtntral  ChaTacltriitia.  —  Aa  already  intimateil, 
Tyre  waa  compuaeil  of  two  distinct  parts  or  towns  in 
historical  times:  the  otte  siluated  on  the  mainland,  or 
continental  Tyre,  and  one  on  the  island  opjinsite,  from 
four  to  thirty  sudia  (Pliny,  Straha)  distant  from  each 
other.  According  to  Pliny,  the  circumferenoe  of  both 
was  reckoned  It  about  nineteen  Roman  miles,  the  island- 
town  comprising  about  twenty-two  stadia.  The  town 
on  the  shore  was  called  Ptlnlyrus,  not  from  its  having 
been  founded  before  Island-Tyrus— for  this,  indeed,  we 


wrings,  Ilengelenbe^,  etc.)  —  bii 


a  hinh  re 


o  (Etelan 

sler.    Con- 
ipying 


fore  its  much  less  favorably  si 
Blantly  exposeil  to  earthqiiakt 

a  space  naturally  circumscribed,  and  reiiilered  still  more 
BO  by  the  erections  necessary  for  the  purple-fisheries 
and  manuraclcirieii— and  cut  off  from  the  easy  means  uf 
export  and  import  liv  caravans  that  belongeil  to  the  op- 
poaiw  city.  Island- Tynu  was  by  fir  inferior  in  impot- 
lance.  In  bet,  only  one  ((be  western)  pan  of  the  isl- 
and had  been  built  over  up  to  the  time  of  Hiram,  the 
contemporary  of  Solomon— vit  the  "Old  Town"  (rii 
aoTv),  which  probably  served  is  harbor,  ■  place  for  ar- 
■eiiils  and  magazines,  to  Pahetyrus,  that  by  this  Ume 
had  sent  out  colonies  already  to  Titl«ssua  and  the 
northern  coast  of  Libya.  The  other  part  of  the  is!- 
i.M\,  at  rather  a  small  island  by  itself,  which  has  now 
ceased  to  be  such,  and  which  was  tirst  joiiieil  lotheoarv 
as  the  -'New  Town"  by  Hiram,  had  till  ihcn  probably 
been  inhabiteil  only  by  the  priests  sitacheil  lo  the  sanc- 
luiry  of  Melkatt.  UeBides  these  two  there  was  a  thinl 
town  ot  suburb,  the  Eurychonw  (esplanade),  formed  by 
means  of  ■iibstruclions  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  rock. 
Palietyrus,  extending  from  the  river  Leontes  nn  the 
north  lo  the  Raa  el-Aiti  on  tlie  south,  covered  with  all 
its  outlying  parts  the  whole  available  maritime  strip  of 
land,  and  lay  In  one  of  the  moat  fertile  and  blooming 
plains  of  Phoenicia  (comp.  Hol  ix,  IS,  tvnz  nb^PD, 
■'  planted  in  a  pleasant  place ;"  or  William  of  Tyre, "  Fcr- 
lililale  pmeipua  et  amcenitate  quasi  singulirix,  habet 
planitiem  sibi  continuam  divitis  gleba  et  opimi  sidi," 
xiii,  3).  It  waa  watered  by  several  aqueducts,  which 
carried  the  stream  from  the  fuun tain  group  situateil  in 
the  plain  itself  (head  of  the  well,  Kasal-AyiiO,"ot  only 
through  the  whole  territory  of  the  continental  city,  but, 
probably  by  means  uf  subterrnnean  pipes,  also  into  the 
island-city.  Without  this  supposition  it  would  hardly 
be  cralibie  how  the  litter,  which,  up  lo  the  siege  by 
Shalmaneser  (befure  the  8th  cenlui^-),  had  subsisted  on 
rain-water  only  collerted  in  cisterns  and  open  canals 
Ivipayuiyoi)  from  the  Kas,  could  bare  Mood  the  long 
sieges  by  Nebuchadneiiat  (thirteen  years)  and  of  Alex- 
ander, who  naturally  atoppeil  the  overground  supplies, 
without  apparently  once  suffering  from  want  of  water. 
Posubly  we  may,  in  a  certain  annual  rite  called  the 
'■Weililing  of  the  land-water  lo  the  sea-water,"  still 
kept  up  by  the  inhabitanu,  see  a  faint  remiuiKcnce  of 
this  ancient  juncture.  Here  also  stouii  the  ancient  roy- 
al palace  and  the  lirstaanctuarj- of  Hercules,  though  the 
most  celebrated  one  lay  on  the  iaiand  opposite.  The 
hippy  mixture  of  land  and  sea  scenery  thus  eithibiied 
by  the  two  cities  in  the  time  of  their  pnisperity  is 
graphically  described  by  Nonnns,  a  learned  Eg^'ptian 
antideuliigist  of  the  end  of  the  4  th  Christian  century: 


n  and  the  songafbinb 


mong  th 


a;  the  breeie  from  Lebanon, 
wliile  it  cools  the  rustic  at  his  midday  labor,  speeds 
the  sailor  seaward."  ■'OTyma,"e:iclaims  the  prophet 
(Eiek.  ixvii,  S,  etc),  "  thou  hast  said,  I  am  of  perfect 
beauty)  thy  borders  are  in  the  midst  of  ibe  sea,  thy 
builders  hare  perfected  thy  beauty."  The  poets  e^ 
her  "a  virgin  bathing  in  the  sea,  a  Tarte»u»ahip 
swimming  upon  the  ocean,  an  island  on  shore,  ^nd  a 
the  sea  withal,"  etc     Above  all,  howerer,  Son- 


'  primeval  foui 
.  .  gushinf 


a  IndUn  her 


get  II 


It  Ibe 


-"  AbarlHTea,  th 


'The  descriptii 


fertile;  Kallinboe,tht 
ch  and  bridal  one^' 
>  in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekid 

believe  lo  be  its  earliest  coins.  These  ciuns  wen  heU 
to  be  most  probably  of  Tyre  or  some  other  PhiHiidin 
city,  or  powihly  of  Babylon,  on  ntimismatic  criJeim 
alone,  by  Mr.  Burgon,  of  the  British  Museum.  They 
probably  date  during  the  &lh  century  R.C. — they  laiy 
poaidbly  be  ■  little  nkler— but  it  is  most  reasonable  to 
conuder  them  as  of  the  time  of,  and  issued  by,  Darius 
Hyslaspis.  The  chief  ooins  are  octodrachms  of  the 
earlier  PbiEnician  weight,  bearing,  on  tlie  obrerae,  s 
war-galley  beneath  the  lowered  walls  of  a  city,  iiid,ai 
the  raverae,  a  king  in  a  cliariot,  with  an  incuse  gosi  be- 
neath. This  combination  of  galley  and  city  is  eiscilr 
what  we  find  in  the  description  of  Tyre  in  Eickk^ 


Early  Culuot  Tyre. 


III.  niHoty.—l.  The  early  history  of  Tyre  is  so  cos- 

pletety  ahromled  in  mythical  mystery  thai  a  nliDOtl 
reconstruction  of  it  is  next  tu  impossible.  We  hear  of 
kings  of  Pbtenicia  whose  very  names  roneily  prort 
them  to  be  mere  tvpes  of  deitiES,  or  special  tribes,  Hch 
■s  Agenor,  Phienix,  Phalis,  Sidon,  Tetramnestus,  Toi- 
nes.  Strato,  Abdalominus  (a  word  spelled  in  many  diffK- 
ent  wavB,  Ihe  only  reasonable  orthography  of  wbidi, 
however,  must  be  Abd-Alonlm  [  Heb.  Elyonioi], 
O-niis  -as,  "servant  of  the  highest  □ne^or  gudiT. 
Abibal,  howerer,  ia  called  the  first  king  of  Trie,  sod 
the  predecessor  of  Hiram  ( Hierom,  Suram.  etc  ),  iht 
Biblical  Chiram,with  whom,  indeed,  begins  what  Ions 
is  approiirnately  the  historical  period  of  Phoniria.  W« 
have  already  mentioned  the  calamity  in  consequence  of 
which  the  Sidonians,  hitherto  Ihe  mightiest  pnwrraf 
Phoniicia,  were  obliged  to  leave  their  capital  and  sNk 
refuge  in  neighboring  Tvre.  This  took  place  aboal 
ac.  1200,  and  very  soon  after  that  period  Tyre  aanined 
the  hegemony.  Before  the  time  of  .Samuel  we  alieadr 
hear  of  the  princes  (Suffetes)  of  Tyre  oppreasiug  tlM 
Israelites  (Judg.  x,  12). 

In  Ihe  lUble,  Tyre  ia  named  for  Ihe  first  time  in  the 
book  ofjoahua  (xix,  29),  where  it  is  advened  to  a>  a 
fortified  city  (in  the  A.  V. "  the  strong  city"),  in  rtin- 
eiice  lo  the  boundaries  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Nolhii<K 
hiitorical,  howerer,  tuma  upon  this  ■"-•'■ '  Xmj 


TYRE 


du 


TYRE 


ibrii  u  indiapDUble  that  Ibe  tribe  of  Asber  never  poa- 
Ksed  ihs  Tyri«ii  letiitoiy.  Aoconling  to  the  injunc- 
lioiu  ar  the  i'enuwuch,  indeed,  all  Ihe  CiDunilisb  na- 

tbis,  the  Iirieliteii  dwelt  ■miing  the  Sidnniana  or  Phoe- 
lO  were  inh4bitant«  or  tbe  land  (JivSg.  i,  31, 


in« 


telligeiK  race.  Subaequently,  in  ■  passage  of  Samuel 
(S  Sam.  xxiv,  T),  it  ia  auied  that  Ibe  enumerators  of 
the  ceiuiu  in  rhe  reign  of  Dmrid  went  in  purausnce  of 
tbetr  minun  lu  Tyre,  among  other  ci^es,  which  miul 
be  undetaiood  as  implying,  not  [hat  Tyre  was  subject 

liken  of  the  Jews  resident  there. 

2.  But  tbe  first  pasaagea  in  the  Hebrew  historical 
writiagn,  or  in  ancient  history  generally,  which  afford 
ghmpsea  of  the  actual  condition  ofTyre  are  in  the  book 
otSaninel(2Sam.v,  U),  inconnectioQ  with  Hiram 
king  of  Tyre  (  B.C.  9S0-947 )  sending  cedar-wood  and 
sorkoien  lo  David,  for  building  him  a  palace;  and  snb- 

luililiug  ofSulomoii'a  temple.  One  point  at  this  period 
IS  particularly  worthy  of  aileniion.  In  contradistino- 
tioa  from  all  the  other  moU  celebraled  independent 
commercial  dties  out  of  PhisnlciB  in  the  ancient  and 
moilem  world.  Tyre  was  a  monarchy,  and  not  a  repub- 
Uc;  and,  notwithManding  ils  merchant  princes,  who 
might  hare  been  deemed  likely  to  &Tor  the  establish- 
Drnt  of  an  arislocratical  commonwealth,  it  continued 
to  preserve  the  monarchical  form  of  government  until 
its  linal  has  of  independence.  Another  paint  is  the 
•kill  in  the  mechanical  arts  which  seems  lo  have  already 

liisi.m  is  not  specially  m»de  lo  Ihe  excellence  of  the 
TyriauB  in  felling  trees;  for,  Ihrough  vicinity  to  the 
foreau  of  Lebanon,  they  would  aa  naturally  have  be- 
conte  skilled  in  that  art  as  Ihe  backwoodsmen  of  Amer- 
ica. Itut  what  is  peculiarly  unlewotthy  is  that  Tynans 
had  become  wortiers  in  brass  or  copper  la  an  extent 
which  imidies  conuderable  advanceoKnt  in  art.  In  (he 
enameraiiaii  of  Ihe  various  works  in  brass  cieculad  by 
ibe  T^rian  artists  whom  Solomon  sent  for,  there  are 
hiiea,  palm-trees,  oxen,  lions,  and  chetuLrim  (I  Kings 
vii,  13-46).  The  manner  in  which  the  cedar-wood  and 
fir- wood  were  conveyed  lo  Jerusalem  ia  likewise  inUresl- 
ing,  partly  from  the  similarity  of  the  sea  voyage  to 
what  nuy  commonly  be  seen  on  the  Rhine  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  and  partly  as  giving  a  vivid  idea  of  the  really 
sbon  distance  between  Tyre  and  Jerusalem.  The  wood 
was  taken  in  floats  to  Joppa  (3  Chron.  ii,  16 ;  I  Kings 
V,  9),  a  distance  of  less  than  seventy-four  geographical 
miles.  In  the  Medilerranean,  during  summer,  there 
are  limes  when  this  voyage  along  Ihe  a 
been  perfectly  safe,  and  when  the  Tyrians  might  have 
rtckanedoon'Sdenlly.espeeially  at  night,an  light  winds 
to  Gil  Ihe  sails  which  were  probably  used  on  such  occa- 
nons.     FroioJoppatuJeruaalem  the  distance  was  about 

■hole  distance  between  the  two  celebrat^  cities  of  Jetu- 
ailem  and  Tyre  was  nol  more  than  106  geographical,  or 
about  122  English,  miles.  Within  such  a  oomparalively 
■hoti  distance  (which  by  laud.in  a  straight  line, was  about 
iwetily  miles  shorter),  it  would  be  easy  for  two  sovereigns 
to  establish  peisonal  relations  with  each  other,  more  es- 
Teciallyasthenorlhem  boundary' of  Solomon's  kingdom, 
m  one  direction,  was  the  southern  boundary  of  Phreni- 
eia.  Solomon  and  Hiram  may  frequently  have  mel, 
and  ihos  Uid  the  foundations  of  a  political  alliance  in 
personal  friendship.  If  by  messengers  they  eenl  ridilles 
sod  pmblenu  for  each  other  to  solve  (Josephua,  A  nl. 
viii.5,3;  OnLApiim,i,\7\lhey  may  previously  have 
hid.  on  several  occasions,  a  keen  encounter  of  wits  in 
coniirial  inierconrse.  In  this  way,  likewise,  Solomon 
e  become  acquainted  with  ll 


with  tt 


0  poly 


Ihe  strong  affecllon  of  Hi- 
ram fur  David  (1  Kings  v,  1).  However  this  may  be, 
it  is  endent  that  under  Solomon  there  was  a  dose  alli- 
ance between  tbe  Hebrews  and  tho  Tyrianb    Hinm 

and  workmen,  and  gave  him  sailors  for  the  voyage  to 
Opbir  and  India  i  while,  on  ihe  other  hand,  Solomon 
gave  Hiram  luppTies  of  com  and  oil,  ceded  to  him  some 
cities,  and  permiiieil  him  lo  mike  use  of  some  havens 
on  the  Reil  Sea  <ix,  11-14,  26-28;  x,  22).  Under  Hi- 
nm, Tyre  not  only  attained  to  ifa  fullest  glory  and  re- 
nown among  ils  sisler-slates,  but  the  capital  itself,  en- 
larged by  him  into  three  distinct  towns,  received  ita 
Tullest  share  of  palaces,  temples,  and  public  ediliceB,and 
ita  two  roadsteads  and  two  harbora  probably  dale  from 
this  period.  It  is  at  this  period  also  when  the  Joint 
trading  expeditions  to  Ophir  are  recorded  to  have  taken 
pUce,  in  which  the  Tynans  furnished  Ihe  pilots  and 
mariners.  Hiram  himself  seems  altogether  to  have 
beena  very  refined,  pious,  and  peaceful  monarch.  Hard- 
ly any  ware  are  recorded  during  his  lifeiime.and  his  re- 
ported interchange  of  problems  wilh  the  "wisest  of 
mankind"  points  to  his  renown  aa  a  M  ci^rif.  These 
friendly  relations  survived  for  a  lime  the  disaatrous  se- 
cession of  Ihe  ten  tribes,  and  a  century  later  Ahab 
married  a  daughter  of  Elhbaal,  king  oV  the  Sidoni- 
ans  (xvi,  3i),  who,  according  lo  Menandcr  (Joeephus, 
Anl.  viii,  13,  2),  was  a  daughter  of  Ithobaal,  king  of 
Tyre. 

3.  Hiram  was  followed,  according  lo  Henander  (in 
Josephus)  and  TbeophHuF,  by  Balcaslarlus,  whose  four 
•ona  reigned  after  him  for  short  periods.  First  came 
AUIastarius  (939-931),  who,  in  consequence  of  a  palace 
revolution,  was  followed  on  the  throne  for  twelve  years 
by  a  son  of  his  nurse — a  period  of  internal  sedition  and 
general  lawlessness  having  intervened,  during  which  (bo 


n  tells  111 


all  tl 


Sim  of  Baleas- 
tarlus,  succeeded  In  the  govemmenl,  and  ruled  from 
918  lo  907,  when  a  third  brother,  Aslarymus,  was  made 
king.  He  waa  murdered  nine  years  later  by  Phalelus, 
his  youngest  brother,  who,  after  a  brief  reign  of  nine 
months,  was  put  to  death  by  Ithobaal,  priest  of  Astarie, 
in  whose  family  Ihe  kingdom  henceforth  became  be- 
redilary.  This  ithobaal,theEthbBalorScripIure,  whose 
daughter  was  married  lo  Ahab,  is  called  by  Josephus 
"king  ofTyre  and  Sidon,"  a  sign  of  Ihe  supremacy 
which  Tyre  hod  acquired  in  his  day.  The  drought  re- 
ported lo  have  laken  place  in  Judsa  under  Ahab  seems 
la  have  also  touched  PhiEnicia,  and  such  was  Illiobaal's 

followed  by  copious  rains.  It  was  chiefly  before  his 
reign  (898.^)  thalTyrecommenced  to  spread  ils  colo- 
nies as  far  as  Africa.  Spain,  eic — owing,  iu  Ihe  Hist  in- 
stance, probably  to  the  danger  of  life  si 


t  hh 


ry  had  been  plunged 


lo  have  encouraged  colun 
vent  the  overcrowding  of  llie  old  cities,  to  have  built  a 
number  of  new  cities.  Balezor,  his  son,  succeeded  in 
865,  and  was  followeil  by  his  son  Mutton,  the  ofHce  of 
higb-priest  devolving  on  his  second  son,  SichatbaaL 
Mutton  riieit  in  886,  and  left  two  children,  Elissa  (Dido) 
and  Pygmalion,  who  were  to  share  the  kingdom  be- 
tween them,  while  Elissa,  by  her  marriage  with  Uichar- 
haal,  was  to  unite  the  high-priesthood  with  the  crown. 
Til  thia  arrangement,  however,  the  people,  averse  to 
the  supreme  priestly  power,  demurred,  and  Pignialion 
was  declared  sole  king.  F.livn's  huiband  having  been 
killed,  for  the  sate  of  his  iteaaures,  by  the  new  king, 
and  herself  being  deprived  of  her  dominion,  she  ia  aaid 
to  have  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  the  aristocratic 
partv,  and,  in  tbe  ninth  year  of  Pygmalion's  reign,  as- 
siateil  and  fallowed  by  her  brother  Barca  and  the  prin- 
cipal families  of  Ihe  land,  to  have  reached  Carthage 
(New  Town,  Simn  r"ip),  a  colony  founded  aome  time 


before  by  tbc  Sdanuuia  (ibout  RC  818),  and  to  bave 
oompletelyrebaillitindlaid  thefuundation  fori  power 
which  contended  with  mighty  Kome  for  ths  empire  of 
tbe  woTkL 

4.  The  political  existence  ot  Palestine,  Syria,  and 
PtuBnicia,  which,  instead  nf  making  a  Juint  desperate 
■und,  kept  on  intri^ingaud  plotting  against  each  oth- 
er—[>h(Bi]ic<>,  moreover,  beinq  hated  and  despised  by 
her  allies  for  ber  iniiiaitoiia  trade  in  slaves  kidnappei 
among  her  neighboni,  chiefly  in  Juilna  —  was  hence- 
forth doomed.  Fmm  this  time  commenced  denuncia- 
tions, and.  It  fint,  threats  of  retaliation  (Joel  iii,  4-8; 
Amns  i,  9,  10);  and,  indeed,  though  there  might  be 
peace,  there  could  not  be  sincere  friendship  between  the 
two  nations.  But  the  likelihood  of  the  denunciations 
being  fulftlleil  Snc  arose  from  the  progreMive  conquests 
of  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  U  was  not  probable  that  a 
powerful,  victorious,  and  ambitious  neighbor  could  re- 
sist the  temptation  of  endesToring  to  subjugate  the 
small  strip  of  Und  between  the  Lebanon  and  the  sea,  so 
insignificant  in  extent,  but  overflowini;  with  so  much 
wealth,  which  by  the  Greeks  wai  called  Phmiieia.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  the  king  of  Assyria  hsd  taken  the 
city  of  Samaria,  had  conquered  the  kingilom  of  Israel 
and  carried  its  inhabitants  into  captivity,  he  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Fhcenician  cities.  At  this  time 
Tyre  had  reached  a  high  point  of  prosperity.  It  pos- 
seised  the  island  of  Cyprus,  with  the  valuable  nines  of 
the  metal  "copper"  (so  tiamed  from  the  island),  and  ap- 
parently the  city  of  Sidon  was  subject  to  its  sway.  But 
tbeAisyriankingseems  to  hare  taken  advantage  of  a  re- 
volt of  the  Cyprians ;  and  what  ensued  is  thus  reUtedbv 
Menander,  who  translated  Che  archives  nf  Tyre  into  the 
Greek  language  (see  Josephus,  AiAix,  H.'i):  "Eluhens 
reigned  thirlv-eis  years  (over  Tyre).     'I'his  king,  upon 


dally  arrests  the  attention,  that  Tyre,  like  its  spleulU 
daughter,  Carthage,  employed  mercenary  soldiers  (Eiek. 
xivii,  to,  II).  This  has  been  the  general  tendency  in 
commercial  cities  on  account  of  the  high  wages  which 
may  be  obtained  ' 


litersture,  before  ita  sons  founded  a  great  tnonafcbif 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Childiean  empire.     Independently, 

diera,  Ezekiel  gives  interesting  details  rr*peetiDg  lbs 
trade  of  Tyre.  On  this  head,  without  aii<.-niptine  to 
exhaust  tbe  subject,  a  few  leading  points  may  bt  no- 
ticed. The  first  question  is  as  to  tbe  OHiutri»  Criiii 
which  Tyre  obtained  the  precious  metala,  and  it  ap- 
pears that  its  gold  came  from  Arabia  by  the  PerMan 
Gulf  (v,  22),  just  as  in  the  time  of  Soloman  it  came 
from  Arabia  by  the  Red  Sea.  See  Ophir.  Whetbrr 
the  Arabian  merchsnm,  whose  weaiih  was  proverbial  ia 
Roman  classical  times  (Horace,  Od.  i,  29,  l),  obtained 
their  gold  by  traffic  with  Africa  or  India,  or  whether  it 
was  the  product  uf  their  own  countrt',  is  uiMenain:  but 
BO  far  as  the  latter  allenulire  is  concerned,  the  point 
will  prohshly  he  cleared  up  in  the  pnigreas  of  geiijij^cal 
knowledge.  On  the  other  hand,  the  silrer,  iron,  lead, 
and  tin  of  Tyre  came  from  a  very  different  qiiantrof 
the  worlil,  viz.  from  the  south  of  Spain,  where  tbe 
Phtenicians  had  established  their  settlement  nf  Tar- 
■hiah,  or  Tartessus.     As  to  copper,  we  should  have  pie- 


■  (C.p 


»),« 


o»J., 


fleet  against  them,  snd  reduced 
On  the  other  hand,  the  king  of  the  Assyrians  aitavkeil 
in  war  the  whole  of  Phoinicia,  but  soon  made  peace 
with  all,  aitd  turned  back.  On  this,  Sidon  and  Ace  (i.e. 
AkkQ  or  Acre)  and  PaleetTrus  rarolied  from  the  Tyr- 

□p  to  the  king  of  Assyria.  Accordingly,  when  the  Tyr. 
ians  would  not  submit  to  him,  the  king  returned  and 
fell  upon  them  again,  the  PhceniciBna  having  fumiihed 
him  with  sixty  ahipsand  eight  hondreil  rowers.  Against 
these  the  Tyrians  sailed  with  twelve  ships,  snd,  dispers- 
ing tbe  fleet  opposed  to  them,  they  took  Ave  hundred 
men  prisoners,  The  repuution  of  all  the  citizens  iji 
Tyre  was  hence  increased.     Upon  this  the  king  of  the 

river  snd  Bi|uediicts  Ifl  prevent  the  Tyrians  from  draw- 
ing water.  This  con^nued  for  Hve  years,  and  still  the 
Tyrians  hehl  out,  supplying  themselves  with  water  from 
welK"  But  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  Tyre,  as 
well  as  tbe  whole  of  PhiEnicis,  very  soon  waa  made 
tributary  to  Asayria,  like  all  ths  neighboring  countrie\ 
and  the  calamities  brought  upon  them  all  alike  by  the 
uninterrupted  war  expeditions  uf  the  Assyrian  mon- 
archs could  not  but  he  feJr  also  by  the  dependencies  and 
colonies.  These  fell  more  or  less  about  this  time  into 
the  hands  of  new  settlers,  from  whom  sgain  Carthage, 
aomcwhit  later,  wrested  a  part  for  hentclr. 

5.  Afier  the  siege  of  Tyre  by  the  Assyrians  (which 
must  have  taken  place  not  long  after  liC.  72lt,  Tyre 

22;  xxvil,  3;  Ewk.  xxviii,  3-12),  remarkable  for  its 
wealth,  with  territory  on  the  mainland,  and  protected 
by  strong  fortifications  (ver.  5;  xxvi,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12, 
xxvii,  11;  Zech.ix,8).  Our  knowleilge  ofits  cot>di- 
tion  thenceforward  until  the  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
depends  entirely  on  various  notices  of  it  by  ihc  Hebrew 
propheu;  but  some  of  these  notices  are  eingnUrly  full, 
and  especially  the  twenty-seventh  chapter  of  Kzehiel 
fomisbes  us,  on  some  points,  with  details  such  as  have 
scarcely  come  down  to  us  respecting  any  one  city  of  an- 
tiquity, excepting  Rome  and  Athena.    One  point  espe- 


iisj  but  it  is  mentioned  hi 
Javan,  Tubal,  and  Ucahech,  whici 
tricta  on  the  south  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  neighls*- 
hood  of  Armenia,  in  the  southern  line  of  the  Caucssotv 
between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  The  couDiry 
whence  Tjte  was  supplied  with  wheat  was  PaleMine. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  value  of  Palestine  as  a  wheal 
countrj-  to  Tyre  was  greatly  enhanced  by  its  proiimiiy, 
as  there  was  scarcely  a  pan  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  so 
tbe  west  of  the  river  Jordan  which  was  distant  man 
than  a  hundred  miles  from  that  great  commercial  city. 

distant,  but  the  wheat  probably  came 


nnnhen 


:  ofPalesI 


'likewise 


lained  from  Palestine  oil,  honey,  an 
apparently,  notwithstanding  the  abundance  of  grajifs 
and  wioe  in  Judah  (<^n.  xlix,  IIX  The  wine  wa-  im- 
ported from  Damascuh  and  was  calleil  wine  of  llrlbnn, 
which  was  probably  not  the  prwhict  of  the  counlt}-  ad- 
Joining  the  celebrated  rlty  of  that  name,  but  came  fnia 
the  neighborhood  of  Damascus  itself  (see  Porter, //uW- 
bookfor  Sgria,  W,  495:  comp.  Aiheiueua,  i,  &1>  The 
Beitawin  A  tabs  supplied  Tyre  with  Umhs  and  rams  and 
goats,  for  tlie  rearing  of  which  their  mode  of  life  wsi 
BO  well  adapled.  Egypt  furnished  linen  lor  sail^aoJ 
doubtless  for  other  purposes,  and  the  dye*  from  sbdJ. 
fish,  which  afterwards  became  such  a  suun-e  of  {oofit 
to  the  Tyrians.  were  Imported  from  the  PelaponnesM 
(comp.  the  Liieomcat  ptirpuriu  of  Horace,  <M.  ii,  18.  7, 
and  Pliny,  ix,  40).  Lastly,  from  Dedan.  in  the  Vaam 
triiir.an  island  occupied  possibly  by  a  Phcenician  ciJony, 
horns  of  ivory  and  ebony  were  imported,  which  mua 
originally  have  been  obtained  from  jndia  (Ezek.  xxvii). 
See  CoHJiEMCE. 

0.  When  the  iron  grasp  of  Assyria  began  to  relax,  the 
Chaldieo-Egyptian  contest  brought  atill  greater  roinerirs 
upon  that  unfortunate  Svro-rhcenician  coast,  and  Pha- 
nicia,  still  nominally  ruled  by  Tyro.  The  Phoenicians,  it 
would  appear,  hsd  allied  themselves  to  the  Egyptians, 
who  under  I'sammetichiis  had  seized  upon  rhilisiia,aod 
were  about  to  asnst  Pharaoh -N'echo  in  his  further  con- 
quest of  the  Tyro-Pslestiuian  aates.  When,  therefor^ 
at  Carcbemish,  tbe  Egyptians  bad  been  defeated  by  ths 


TYRE 


QuldMiu,  the  UUet  uutantly  rollowed  ap  their  vie- 
lonr  bT  occuprinf  S}-ri>,  I^leiline,  and  Phisnicii, 
■Dvl  aeUing  a  great  number  or  the  inhabiUnti  or  t>i< 
luifi,  (bout  B.C  60a.  A  kigue  having  been  formed 
*«"  yoke,  gave 
■t  them  under 


lOre  detailed  ptedic- 
lei  were  delivered  a  huo- 
r,  B.C.  &88.     Tvre  «u  not 


w  off  Lhe  fon 


riie  to  a  new  Cbaldaar 

Ntbuch*dtwixar(Jer.xiv,22;  XKvii,»!  zlTii,4),whiGb 
coded  wiib  the  ilentruclioa  of  Jeruulem  CB.C.  58B)  and 
lhe  reduction  of  the  Ka-coist,  except  Trre.  For  Ihir- 
ttdi  yean  Nebuchadaezur  b^eged  it  b;  water  and  by 
lutd.  but  wiih  what  degree  of  auccen  i*  Mill  a  matter 
of  debaie.  Hitiig,  Ceaeniiu,  Heeren,  Winer,  Kenrick, 
ind  othera  hold  that  the  sie({e  naa  a  liiilure.  It  la  cer- 
itia  that  the  faU  of  Tyre  is  meniioned  in  no  andent 
hiaopr — neither  by  Jowphiu,  nor  by  the  Tyrian  hiato- 
riiD  Mcnander,  nor  by  Philogtralua.  Berosua,  indeed, 
iCimed  Ibac  Nebuchadaeizar  "gubdued  all  Syria  and 
ItKXnina,"  but  Tyre  la  nut  expieialy  mentioned.  Nay, 
JtiwDe  says  penona  who  had  examined  Greek  and 
Hlianiciau  hislnriei,  especially  the  Hritiugi  of  NiiAUaB 
Dioiaacenua,  Snd  no  mention  of  tbe  aiege  at  all,  but 
the  reply  of  the  father  ia  only  a  retort  upon  tbe  ptrfi- 
Ha  et  madaeia  of  profane  writers.  Jerome's  own  aa- 
■nion  ia,  "  Deu»  pradiierat,  hoc  aufficit,"  The  quea- 
tioD  then  comes  to  be,  whether  the  oracle  of  Ezekiel 
impliea  tbe  capture  of  Tyre.  The  most  graphic  de- 
Kripiiooa  of  tbia  ueg«  arc  found  in  £zek.  xxvi,  7- 
12,17;  xiviii,  2:  xiix,  IS,  etc  Tbe  prophet's  lan- 
guage,"  Son  of  man,  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon, 
fiiwdbu  ariDT  to  seire  a  great  aert' ice  agaiiutTyrua: 
ertiy  head  was  made  bald,  and  every  thoulder  was 
peeled  J  yet  he  had  no  wages,  nor  his  army,  for  Tyrus, 
(at  the  aerrice  that  be  had  served  ajjainst  it.  Therefore, 
thai  uilh  the  Lord  God,  Bebuld  I  will  give  the  land 
o( Egypt  unto  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
he  sball  lake  her  multitude,  and  take  ber  spoil,  and 
tike  her  prey,  and  it  shall  b«  the  wages  for  his  army. 
I  hare  giren  him  the  land  of  Egypt  for  his  latwr  where- 
■iih  be  served  against  it,  because  they  wrought  for  me, 
laitlitho  Lord  God"  (xsix,  18-'20),  would  seem  la  imply 
Ibai  Xriinchadnezzar  had  failed-,  that  his  army  bad  put 
(arih  all  iu  mergies,  till  "  every  head  wai>  1>ald~  by  tbe 

peded"  by  the  hard  labor  of  the  trenches  and  eiege- 
vork,  bat  that  be  had  been  diuppointed  ^  that  he  got 
'Da  ■agea;"  that  the  rich  booty  of  tbe  city  did 
iau>  bis  poaacssion,  and  that  therefore  Egypt  wi 


and  then  deny,  tbe  capture  ofTyre  by  Nebuchaibiezzar. 
The  narrative  of  Heroaus  and  Jerome  ie  accepted  by 
Iloreti  and  Ewald,  the  latter  of  whom  aays  that  Je- 
nxne's  Btatement  "quite  agrees  with  tbe  brief  words  of 
EiekieL"  It  may  also  be  replied,  with  H^vemick, 
Htngslenberg,  Fairbaim,  and  others,  that  the  meaning 
is  that  Nebuchadnezzar,  though  he  took  the  city,  yet 
fniiid  DO  6ttiDg  recompense,  as,  according  w  Jeronw, 
the  inbabilanti  had  removed  all  their  valuable  propert< 
to  the  island.  That  be  took  Palaelyrus  seems  certain 
tlungh  there  is  no  piouf  of  Jerome's  assertion  that,  ii 

In),  ifaat  Tyro  made  subminirin  lo  tbe  Chaldiea 
Hut  of  the  Tyrian  royal  family  resided  afceni 
BBbrlun,perhapa  as  hostage^  and  seversl  of  the 
Hkeil  try  the  Tvrians  at  different  times  and  c 
ver  them.     These  facts  are  pi 


It  Is  plain,  t 


tbeChiidaanco  . 
t  capitulation  as  is  atlmitted  by  Niebuhr,  Dunk^,  Ken- 
nck,aiidathers(N'iebuhr,  &«cA.  .Ixur'5,  p.Siet  Dnn- 
krr. CueLiu  Alltiihttini,\,  Vi'l.  Kenrick, yAamicia,  p. 
MO ;  see  Puaey,  Oa  Draiid,  p.  S88).  Horeorer,  Isaiah, 
in  kii  oncle  against  Tyre,  specilically  declared  that  it 
■bould  be  destroyed,  not  by  the  power  which  then 
bv  the  Chaldeans,  a  people  "foimerly 
X.— 20* 


nf'(xxiii,13> 
;  prophet  Ezeki 
dred  and  twenty  years  ]> 

tiU  the  fifteenth  year  alter  tne  captivity,  BXi. 
lore  than  seventeen  bundred  years,  according  to 
Josephus,  alter  its  foundation.  Its  destruction  then 
■at  have  been  entire ;  all  the  inhatrilants  were  put  to 
;  sword  or  led  into  captivity,  the  walls  mere  razed  to 
s  ground,  and  it  was  made  a  "  terror"  and  a  desola- 
n.  It  is  remarkable  thai  one  reason  assigned  by 
Ezekiel  for  tbe  destniclion  of  this  proud  city  is  its  ex- 
ultation at  the  destruction  of  Jeroaalem.  "  I  shall  be 
■pleniahednowBheislaidwaale"{xvi,2),  Thisdcarly 
idicalea  that  its  overthrow  was  posterior  lo  that  event', 
od  if  we  take  the  seventy  years  during  which  it  was 
predicted  by  Isaiah  (uiii,  15)  that  IVre  shoald  be  for- 
gotten lo  denote  a  definite  term  (which  seems  tbe  most 
natural  sense),  we  may  conclude  that  it  was  not  rebuilt 
till  the  same  number  of  veara  after  the  return  of  the 
Jewa  from  Babylon.  That  it  was  continental  Tyre,  and 
not  insular  Tyn,  which  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged  ap- 
pears from  the  description  of  the  aiege  which  we  have 
given  uB  by  Ezekiel  ^  for  we  find  that  tbe  king  cast  up 
a  mound  against  it,  and  erected  engines  lo  batter  down 
tbe  walls  (Eiek.  xxviii,  8-10).  But  that  the  city  on 
the  island  then  escaped  this  fate  is  manifest  from  the 
Phoanicisn  histories.  But  as  to  the  latter  also,  at  least 
a  show  of  submission,  if  not  a  subjection— leaving  the 
native  sovereigns  on  tbe  throne,  and  their  wealth  and 
naval  power  untouched  —  was  what  Nebuchadnezzar 
gained  when  he  ended  the  "wagelesa"  aiege  (comp. 
xxix,  17).  Once  more  Kebuchadne7Mr  armed,  at  tbeend 
of  Ibis  war,  against  Egypt,  but  Pharauh-Apries,  swift, 
ly  msrcliing  upon  Pbisnicia,  subduing  it  and  destroying 
iui  lieet,  prevented  Ibis  expedition.  In  this  expedition 
Apries  besieged  Sidon,  fought  a  naval  batlle  with  Tyre, 
and  reduced  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  Phieiucia,  though 
this  could  not  have  had  lasting  effects  (Herud.  ii,  IGl ; 
Diod.i,68,  iSaven,  Dai phOnHuelie  Atlenium,ii,4bX). 
Tbe  rule  of  Nebuchadnezzar  over  Tyre,  though  teal,  may 
have  been  light  and  in  the  nature  of  an  alliance;  and 
it  may  have  been  in  this  se»se  that  Merbal,  a  subse- 
quent Tyrian  king,  waa  sent  for  to  Babylon  (Josephus, 
Co»r.  ApiorKi,n).  At  this  time  the  ancient  conatiiution 
of  Tyre  was  changed.  Ithobaal  had  been  followed  by 
Baal,  but  after  Baal  two  judgea  (suffetes)  took  for  a  cer- 
tain period  the  pUce  of  the  monarch.  We  hear  of  in- 
ternal commotions — natural  enough  in  a  countiy  and 
city  upon  which  calamity  after  calamity  bad  fallen  in 
so  short  a  time,  and  the  eilslenc«  of  two  parties  in  tba 
commonwealth  that  looked  respectively  loChaldca  and 
to  Egvpl  could  not  but  foster  those  internal  distensiona. 
In  m,  whUe  Eiromus  stood  at  the  head  of  i.be  Tyrian 
or  Phoenician  affairs,  Cvrus  captured  Babylon,  and  tbui 
became  maatei  also  of  Phtenicia,  which  had  reverted  to 
this  power.  At  that  time  Sidon,  being  made  the  royal 
residence,  again  resumed  the  hegemony. 

7.  During  the  Peisian  domiiiatton  the  Tyrians  wen 
subject  in  name  to  tbe  Persian  king,  and  may  have  given 
him  tribute.  With  the  rest  of  Phisnicia,  they  bad  sub. 
mitted  to  the  Persians  without  striking  a  blow ;  [:erhapB 
through  hatred  of  the  Cbaldeea,  perhaps  solely  from 
mtial  motives.  But  their  connection  with  the  Per- 
king was  not  slavish.  Thus,  when  Cambysfs  or- 
deml  them  lo  join  in  an  expedition  against  Carthage, 
j  they  refused  compliance,  on  account  of  their  solemn  en- 
gak^menta  and  parental  relation  to  that  colony;  and 
I  Cambyses  did  not  deem  it  right  to  use  force  towards 
,  tliem(Herod.iii,19).  Afierwardsthey  foughtwith  I'er- 
,  sia  agniiiU  Greece,  and  furniahed  veasels  of  war  in  tba 
expedition  of  Xerxes  against  Greece  (ibid,  vii,  9H); 
and  Mapjn,  the  son  of  Slrom  the  Tyrian,  is  mentioned 
among  those  wbo,  next  to  the  eommandera,  were  tlie 
roost  renowned  in  the  fleet.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
at  this  time  Tyre  seems  to  hava  been  inferior  in  power 
m  adon.  These  two  cities  were  less  than  twenty  Eng- 
lish milea  distant  from  each  other ;  and  it  ia  easy  lo 


.  or  circle,  of  the  od- 

iimI  up  to  tbe  time  of 

I  the  relation*  belwHn 
iiiguenin  &iid  the  fmi- 


II  king,  diuing  hii 
i>y  Ibe  highly  priieil 


Inek 


ly,  and  (e  tliii  caUoiiiy  add- 
ed galling  meauirei  uid  hn- 
milialiuiu  wiiliuut  end,  ibe 
people  became  *o  esBpenial 

Siiluii'a  leadernliii'.  in  the  tt- 
volt  of  Egypt  Itfaiitl  Arti- 
xerxea  Hnen»>n  and  Ocbiu, 
about  the  mlilille  of  the  liK 


awntry,  and  paniculariy  liir 
Sidon,  irliich,  wealth  and  til, 
was  Aretl  bv  iia  own  inhab- 
ilaiith  Tyreafteniar<la(}50) 

liJ.  after  the  battle  on  tbt 


Hodem  Tyre. 

conceii-e  that  in  the  couise  of  centurie*  their  relative   i 

importance  might  Htictuate,  as  would  be  very  pnnible 
in  modem  times  with  two  neighboring  cities,  such,  for 
example,  aa  Liverpool  and  Manchester.  It  is  possi- 
ble, also,  that  Tyre  may  hare  been  seriously  weakened 
by  its  long  stru^fgle  against  Nebuchadnezzar.  Under 
the  Persian  domininn,  Tyre  and  Sidon  supplied  ceilai^ 
wood  again  U>  the  Jews  for  the  building  of  the  seciind 
Temple ;  and  this  wood  was  sent  by  sea  to  Joppa,  and 
thence  to  Jerusalem,  as  had  been  the  case  witli  the  ma- 
terials for  the  first  Temple  in  the  lime  of  .Solomon  (Ezra 
iii,  7).     Under  the  Persians,  likewise,  Tyre  was  visileil 

uable  inforraaiion  respecting  lis  oiiidition  (Herod,  ii, 44). 
But  the  information  actually  supplied  bv  him  is  scaiitv, 
as  the  motive  of  his  vovat-e  seems  to  have  been  soleSv 
to  visit  the  celebrateil  Ttn.pic  "f  Melkarth  (the  Phie- 
nicinn  Hercules),  which  wss  situated  in  the  island,  and 
was  highly  venerated.  He  gives  nu  details  as  to  the 
city,  and  tnerely  specifies  two  columns  which  he  (ob- 
served in  the  temple,  one  of  guld  and  the  other  of  em- 
erald: or,  rather,  as  is  reasonably  coujt 
~ n,of  green  gliss(Rawl 


,e  Phieii 


over  the  uege  b 
neziar,  the  results  oi  me  iHEe 
by  Alexander  were  dear  tin) 
undeniable.  It  was  tawntiil 
to  the  succesa  of  his  mililary 
plans  that  the  Phicniciin  Best 

that  he  should  not  be  litUe 
throughtheirhnetililyto  hare 

e  and  Macedonia  suddenly  cut  off;  and  be 
'  summoned  all  the  Phoenician  cities  to  lab- 
llle.  All  tlie  rest  uf  them,  including  AtailiB, 
1  Sidon,  complied  wilh  his  demands,  and  lbs 
hole  cities  in  the  Peiaian  fleet  brought  away 
to  Join  him.  Tyre  alone,  ealculaiiug  jmb- 
',  an  the  support  or  Ihiwe  seamen,  refii!r<<  u> 


wall;<;  I 


d  the  a. 


1,82).    Under 


rulen  PhiS' 
I  amount  of  independence,  ir 


able  siege  which  lasted  se 

of  which  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  acnicvemenis  wiucn 
Alexander  up  to  that  time  ha<l  atlenipied.  At  Ibil 
time  Tyre  was  silnaled  on  an  island  t>early  half  s  mils 
from  the  mainland;  "it  was  completely  surrounded hr 
pnHligrriuB  walls,  the  loftien  portion  of  which  on  tbe 
siile  fronting  the  mainland  reached  a  height  not  \m 
than  one  hundred  and  Ofty  feet;"  and,  nolwithaiaod- 
ing  his  peraeveitng  eiforOi,  he  coulil  not  have  sutwed- 
eil  in  his  attempt,  if  the  harbor  of  Tyre  to  the  uoith 
had  not  been  bluckadeil  by  the  Cyprians,  and  I  hit  to 
the  south  by  the  Phienicians.  Moreover,  owing  In  in- 
ternal diaturbances.  Carthage  was  unable  to  alford  iny 
ired  by  Sir  I  abislance  to  its  parent  MMe.  For  seven  months  Tyrs 
1,  Hrrndo-    sustained  one  of  the  most  remarkable  aeges  e' 


»  again  powerful  fleet  at  the  disposal  of  the  immei 
rs,  who  entirely  Uckeii  that  most  vilal  element '  Phoeni 
power.  Together  with  Philistia  and  Cyprus  j  constr 
cotporated  under  Uariiis  Hystaspis  in  the  fifth  '  tbe  m< 


irded  (Il-C,  3321.  PaUet.vrus  having  been  razed  to  lbs 
gmund,  the  island-cily  was  connected  by  the  conquera 
wilh  the  mainland  by  means  of  >  mole,  which,  out 
destroyed,  had  to  be  reconstructed  entirely  anew.  An 
immense  fleet  was  collected,  tbe  ablest  engiiieen  <if 
rus  exercised  oil  their  skill  on  iIh 
battering  and  other  machines;  "hilt 
xon  thepart  of  theTyriaosWHeai 


TYRE  61 

eninin;  u  they  were  aaccesaTul,  and  fearfully  galling 
U  Ibc  bai«g«rs.  At  lait  Tjre  fell  under  ■  rurioua 
double  attack,  and,  provoked  by  their  deaperate  reaiat- 
■nee  eren  after  the  town  wai  already  taken,  the  mI- 

iahabitanta.  In  Eccordiiice  with  the  bubaioue  policy 
of  andenl  limes,  30,000  of  iti  iiibibilanta,  including 
■Uvea,  free  females,  and  free  children,  were  sold  aa  alavea 
{Arriin,  iv,  2i.  9;  Diodoru^  itvii.  *6).  Alexander  ro- 
placed  the  populaiioii  by  new  cobniata,  chiefly  Cirians, 
and  Mon  aigain  the  eicepiiunally  favnrable  poaition  of 
Ibe  place  rt^ned  for  it  part  of  i(a  ancient  prosperity, 
tbouf^h  its  trade  in  amid  to  have  suffered  by  the  vicinity 
ami  rivalry  of  Alesanilria. 

9.  Ftnlemy  hid,  after  Alexmder'a  death,  annexed 
ntamicia  to  hia  kingdom ;  but  when,  in  RC  315,  An- 
tigiiitus  relumed  from  Babylonia,  he  eaaily  enpelleil  hia 
garriion)  from  all  the  Phcenician  citiea  aave  Tyre,  which 
only  aurrendeied  iHer  an  eighteen  muntha'  aiege.  The 
bonndariea  of  its  terriloiy  at  that  period  were :  Sarepta 
u>  the  north,  Ibe  "Tvrian  Ladder"*  to  the  loulh,  and 
Kedee  and  Baka  in  Galilee  lo  the  eaat.  Under  the 
Macedonian  aucceaaon  of  Aleiaiider,  il  ahared  the  fort- 
unea  of  the  Seleucidn,  who  bealowed  an  it  many  privi- 

epuch  with  a  Phcenician  and  Greek  tnacription  (Eckhel, 


Plum.  p.  262-264,  and  Tab.  34). 

10.  Eteyond  this  nothing  parti 

from  thia  time  ft'ith  lo  the  tin 


;  Geaentua,  Monum. 

ar  is  known  of  Tyre 
"  e  civil  wara  of 


ralH  together 
divLlnl  Svri    ' 
amply.     Ty 
palily  Again 


ipire  Phosnicia  hw) 
n  byria  by  Pompey— when  Caauus 
■mall  proviitcca  and  told  them  aep- 
a  ahotl  period  thus  became  a  princi- 

■  ig  of  het  own.     Und.      '      - 


9  TYRE 

iiig  it  he  saya  that  the  circumference  of  the  dty  propei 
(i.  e.  the  city  on  the  peniniula)  waa  Iwenty-twu  stadia, 
while  that  of  the  whole  cic}',  including  Palntyma,  was 
nineteen  Roman  milea  (iriil.  Nal.  v,  IT).  The  accounts 
of  Sirabo  and  Pliny  have  a  peculiar  intereal  in  this  re- 
aped, that  they  tend  to  convey  an  idea  of  what  the  city 
must  have  been  when  viaileil  bv  Christ  (MatU  xv,  21 1 
Mark  vii,  24).  Il  waa  perbapa  more  populoua  than  Je- 
ruulem ;  and  if  so,  it  was  undoubtedly  the  Urgat  city 
which  be  is  known  to  hare  viiiied.  Il  was  not  much 
more  than  thirty  miles  distant  from  Naiarclh,  where 
Christ  Tiuinly  lived  as  a  carpenter's  son  during  ibc 
grealerpartufhia  life  (Matt.  11,23;  it-,  12,  IB,  IS;  Mark 
vi,3).  We  may  readily  conceire  that  be  may  often 
have  gone  to  Tyie  while  yet  unknown  to  the  world; 
and,  whatrver  uncenainty  there  may  be  as  lo  the  ex- 
tent lo  which  thp  r.i^ek  language  was  likely  to  be 
apoten  at  Naiarelb,  at  Type  and  in  its  neighborhood 
there  must  have  been  excellent  opportunitiea  for  con- 
versatiun  in  that  Ungiuge,  with  which  be  srema  to 
have  been  acquainted  (Hark  vii,  26).  At  an  early  pe- 
riod a  Chrielian  community  waa  formed  there  (Acts  xxi, 
S,  7).  It  waa  early  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishopric, 
and  Cassius,  bishop  of  Tyre,  ia  named  aa  having  been 
present  at  the  Council  of  Cnimres  towards  the  cloae  of 
tbe  2d  ceniuty  (ReUnd.  Pulautina,  p.  1054). 

For  a  long  time  'I'yre  relained  her  manufactures 
and  trade,  though  a  mere  ahadow  of  what  theae  once 
had  been.  Chietly  with  regani  to  her  dyeing  proiluce 
Hadrian  granted  Tyre  the  lille  of  metropolis,  and  it 

Once  again  it  was  flred  in  A.D.  1»3,  when 'it  took  part 
with  Septimius  Severua  against  Pesceimius  Niger  in 
their  contest  for  the  crown,  aitd  Severus  gratefully 
beatnwed  upon  the  place,  which  he  peopled  with  his 
third  legion,  Ihe  title  of  colony  and  the  Jus  Italicuin. 

stantine  it  again  equalled  all  the  Esatem  cities  in 
wealth  and  commercial  prosperity.  Jerome,  in  the 
4th  century,  calls  it  the  noblest  snd  moat  beauliful  city 
uf  Ph<enicia,  and  expresiee  his  aaionishment  at  the  ap- 
parent nonfulfilment  of  the  prophecy  which  Ihrealened 
its  eternal  desolation  ("' Nfc iKlificaberu  Blini'  videtur 
facere  quostiouem,  quomodo  nnn  ait  nlificata?  qnam 
'         ~       '        noliilis«rtvam  el  pulcherti- 


a"). 


k  place  the  exlraordlnar 

•hammed  which  has  givei 

enjov  a  kind  of  free-  |  a  new  reli^on  to  ao  manv  millions  of  mankind,     li 

.       „.  _    .    I  .. ^(j  633-6S8  all  .Syria  and  Paleatine,  fron 

'      "     ■    "'.och,  were  conquered  by  the  calipl 

«t  was  so  complete  that  in  boti 

mguage  of  Huhammed  has  almas 

ie  language  of  Cbrial.     In  Syri. 

Ihe  Eaai:  (A.D.  .  there  are  only  three  villagea  where  Syiiac  (or  Aramaic 

'      '   ' '    the  vernacular  language,    in  Palestine  it  is  not  lb 

iguage  of  a  single  n    '  ■  -     • 


__..i;  fer  Josephuamenliona that  when  Cleopatra  preee- 

fA  Antony  to  inclntle  'IVre  and  Sidon  in  a  gift  of  Phce-  ,  the  Dead  Sea 

Dician  anil  Jewish  lerrilorj'  which  he  made  to  her,  he  '  Omar. 

aieadily  rrfuaed,  kimwing  Ihem  lo  have  been  "  free  cil-  |  Ihose 

isafroni  theirance»lijn"(.4B/,xv,4,l).    Sul»eqi 

however,  nn  Ihe  anival  of  Augustus  " 

20).  he  is  said  lo  have  deprived  the 

liberties  for  seditions  conduct  (i^ouXuauro,  Dion  Cas- 


Siill  tbe  pnwperity  of  Tyie  in  the  lime  stranger  who  underslanda  what  is  involveil  in  this  mo- 
of  Augustus  waa  undeniably  great.  Strabo  gives  an  sc-  I  menioua  revolution,  it  is  one  of  the  most  suggestive  of 
rnuni  of  it  at  that  period  (xvi.  2,  23),  and  Hpcaks  of  the  all  sounds  lo  hear  the  muezzin  daily  call  Mohammedans 
great  wealih  which  il  derived  from  the  dyes  of  the  eel-  lo  prayera  in  the  Arabic  language  of  Mohammed  with- 
ebraicd  Tvrian  purple,  which,  aa  is  well  known,  were  in  the  sacred  precincts  where  once  Blood  Ihe  Temple 
extracted  from  sheU-Hnh  found  on  the  coast,  belonging  in  which  Christ  worshipped  in  Hebrew  or  in  Aramaic 
to  a  species  of  the  genua  Uurex.  In  the  daya  of  Kze-  I  (As  to  the  Syriac  language,  see  Porter,  //andbook/or 
kiel,the  Tynans  had  imported  purple  from  the  Pelopon-  Syria  and  FoltttUK,  il,  551.)  But  even  this  conquest 
□caua;  but  they  had  unce  learned  to  exlract  the  dye  did  not  cause  the  overthrow  of  Tyre.  The  roost  essen- 
Ibr  ihemaelvea;  and  they  had  the  advantage  of  having  tiat  conditions  on  which  peace  was  granted  to  Tyre,  as 
ihell-fiah  on  thnr  coast  better  adapted  for  this  purp-ise  j  to  other  Syrian  cities,  were  the  payment  of  a  ptdl-tax, 
oven  than  those  on  the  IjcedipmoniancoaBt(Pau«niBB, 
iii.  21, 6(.  Strabo  adds  that  Ihe  great  number  of  dye- 
ing-worka  remlered  Ihe  city  unpleasant  as  a  place  of 
residence.  He  further  apeak*  of  the  houses  as  conwsl- 
Ing  of  many  stories,  even  of  more  than  in  the  honws  at 
Rame — which  la  precisely  what  might  be  expected  in 
a  prosperous  fonilled  city  of  limited  area,  in  which 
grouDd-rent  would  be  high.  Pliny  the  Kliler  gives  ail- 
diiional  infutmalion  reapecting  the  city,  Ibt  In  dcKiib- 


»  give  1 


and  loiiging  for  three  daya 
wearing  a  peculiar  di 


ry  Moslem 
the  atlmission  of  Moslems  into 
away  with  all  crosses  and  all  sounds  of  bells,  the  avoid- 
ing of  all  inaulling  expressions  towards  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion,  and  Ibc  probibiiion  to  ride  on  horseback 
or  lo  build  new  church™  (see  Weil,  (itKh.  der  Chal^tn, 
i,  81-Sj).  Some  of  these  conditions  were  humiliating 
andneariy  heart-breaking;  butifaubmitted  to,  Ihe  live* 


TYKE  6i 

and  private  property  or  the  inbabitaota  remiined  un- 
uiuched.  NotHlIluiuiiluig  the  establislimeiil  of  an  im- 
perial dyniiig  maiiufacloiy  at  CoiuUnlinople,  Tyre  yec 
teuined  her  ancient  celebrity  fgr  her  purple,  which  wai 
imported  into  Lombardy  at  tbe  time  of  Cliarlenugiie. 
Under  the  ealipha  it  enjoyed  the  benefita  o(  a  mild  and 
enlightened  duminion,  and  during  the  cniaadea  wai 
much  admired  both  for  i(>  nalural  beauty  and  iu  fine 
fdificH  and  iti  generally  proiperous  aqiect.  It  again 
had  at  that  Lime  lo  sustain  a  long  siege,  but  finally  sur- 
rendered (1124),  and  wag  made  an  arcb  bishopric,  be- 
stowed fiiur  years  alierwarda  upon  William  of  Tyre,  the 
chronicler  of  the  crusades.  In  August,  119!,  it  waa 
fixed  as  the  northern  bonndaiy  of  (he  ChriitiaQ  terri- 
tories in  Paleeline,  and  continued  to  flourish,  chiefly 
through  the  Venetian  trade,  as  a  comioercial  city  until 
the  oniqueH  of  Syria  by  Selim  I  in  1616,  from  which 
time  furtii  its  decline,  further  aided  by  the  diacoTeiy  of 
the  New  World  and  the  route  to  Asia  by  the  Cape  of 
Gowl  Hope,  has  been  rapid  and  complete. 

IV.  Promt  ConiUuiL— In  the  first  half  of  the  14th 
centurj'  Tyre  WIS  visited  by  Sir  John  Uaundeville,  who 
la}^  speaking  of  "Tyre,  which  is  now  called  SQr,  here 
was  once  a  great  and  goodly  city  of  the  Chrisliana; 
but  the  Saracens  have  destroyed  it  in  great  part,  and 
Ihev  guard  that  haven  carefully  for  fear  of  the  Cbris- 
lians" (Wright, Eiu-lg TrcmU inpulatiae, p.  141),  About 
IfllO-ll  it  iras  visited  by  Sandys,  who  said  of  it,"  But 
this  once  famoua  Tyre  is  now  no  other  than  a  heap 
of  ruins;  j'et  have  tbey  a  reverent  aspect,  and  do  in- 
struct the  pensive  beholder  with  their  exemplary  frail- 
ty. It  hath  two  harbors,  that  on  tbe  north  aide  the 
fairest  and  best  throughout  all  the  Levant  (which  the 
cursoun  enter  at  their  pleasure) ;  the  other  choked  with 
the  decays  of  the  city"  CFutcha^  Pi^rinu,  ii.  1393). 
Towards  the  close  of  the  same  conlurj-,  in  1697,  Maun- 
ilrell  says  of  it,  "  On  the  north  »de  it  has  an  old  Turk- 
ish castle,  besides  Hhich  there  is  nothing  here  but  a 
mere  Babel  of  broken  walls,  pillars,  vaults,  etc.,  there 
being  not  so  much  as  an  entire  house  left.  Its  present 
inhabitants  are  only  a  few  poor  wretches  that  haibur  iu 
vaults  and  subsist  upon  flabing"  (see  Hairii,  \'<yaffet 
iind  rrucrb,  ii,846).  Lastlv.withoutquuting  at  length 
Ur.  Kichard  Pococke,  who  in  1737-40  statetl  (see  vol.  x 
of  Hinkerton,  V'ogagei  and  Trartls,  p.  470)  that,  except 
snme  janizaries,  (here  were  few  other  inhabitants  in  the 
city  than  two  or  three  Christian  families,  the  words  of 
Hasselquist,  the  Swedish  naturalist,  may  be  recorded,  as 
they  mark  the  lowest  point  of  depression  which  Tyre 
seems  to  have  reached.  He  was  there  in  Mav,  1751, 
and  he  thus  speaks  of  his  visit:  "We  fallowed  the  sea- 
shore .  .  .  and  came  to  Tyre,  now  called  Zur,  where 
we  lay  all  oiElit.    None  of  these  cities,  which  tbnoerly 


0  TYRE 

were  famous,  an  so  totally  ruined  as  this  except  Tmy. 
Zur  now  scarcely  can  be  called  a  miserable  villsg^ 
though  it  was  formerly  Tyre,  the  queen  of  the  sM. 
l/frt  am  oioiif  la  HihabilanU,  Tarkt  and  Ckrittiiai, 
iBko  tiee  hgjuka^'  (  Voi/agtt  and  TraetU  ta  (Ae  Laatt 
[Load.  176tiJ).  A  slight  change  for  the  belter  btgm 
saoQ  after.  Vohiey  sutes  thai  in  1766  the  Metiwileh 
took  possession  of  (be  place,  and  built  a  wall  round  it 
twenty  feet  high,  which  existed  when  he  viuled  Tyn 
uearly  twenty  years  afterwarils.  At  that  time  VoliMy 
eslimated  the  pnpuUtion  at  Hlty  or  sixty  poor  fsm- 

has  been  a  partial  revival  of  prosperity.  But  it  hss 
been  visited  at  different  timn  during  the  last  thirty 
yean  by  Biblical  scholars,  such  aa  Hubinson,  Stsniry 
{Sinai  umf  Pal.  p.  270),  and  Renan  (Ltlitr  in  the  ilim- 
tfear,  July  11, 1H61),  who  all  concur  in  the  account  of 
ita  general  aspect  of  desolation.  Hr-  Porter,  who  re- 
sided severs!  years  at  Damascus,  and  had  means  of  ob- 
taining correct  inform stion,  stated  in  1858  that  "tbe 
modem  town,  or  rather  village,  contains  from  3OD0  u> 
4000  inhabitants,  about  one  half  being  Metawileh,  and 
the  other  Christians"  (HanJboai,  p.  391).  They  sit 
living  among  the  broken  niins  of  its  forTner  nugnifi- 
cence,  eking  ont  a  seamy  livelihood  upon  insigniAcBnt 
exports  of  tobacco,  cotton,  wool,  and  wood.  Tbe  plsoc 
as  it  now  stands  was  founded  under  the  old  name  SAr 
in  1766,  and  suffered  verv  consiilenbly  during  the  earth- 
quake in  1H37.  The  lemsins  of  an  aiKient  cathedral 
church  probably  enclose  the  bones  of  the  emperor  Fieil- 
erick  Barbarossa  and  uf  Origen.  About  one  snd  a  hsif 
mile  distaut  from  Tyre  is  the  soHxIled  Tomb  uf  Hi- 
ram, an  immense  sarcophagus  of  limesione,  popularly 
supposed  to  contain  the  corpse  of  that  king.     See  Hi- 


Tbe  present  city  lies  only 

pon  the  east* 

mp«trf 

heisUnd 

the  island  a 

d  isthmus. 

rhe  housi 

s  are  mostly  mere 

hovels,  one 

tory  hiKh, 

with  flat 

roofs;  and  the  atn 

<,  cr,«krf. 

and  Bithy 

Yet  the  numenx 

us  palm-trees 

and  piids- 

among   the 

ousee  aad 

ga^lens  th 

row  over  the  plain 

an  Oriental  ch 

arm.    One 

accounts  of  its  present  appearance  u  giva 
inson,  who  spent  a  »iabbslh  there  in  IfflS 
ii,  39a):  "I  continued  my  walk,"  ssys  be, 
shore  of  the  peninsula,  pari  of  which  is  now 
except  as  *  a  place  to  spread  nets  upon,* 
n  the  pride  and  fall  of  ancient  Tyre.  Hws 
le  isle,  once  covered  by  hrr  palaces  and  sor- 


alas!  thy 


d  thy 
pilots,  thy 


iKcct.GoogIc 


TYKE,  COUNCIL  OF 


Eks  'the  lop  of 


>  rock.'  The  Kile  tokcna  or  her  more 
r  — ailumm  of  red  and  gny  granite, 
BimeLiina  riirty  or  fifiy  heaped  logelher.  ur  marble  pil- 
lar)—lie  brukeii  Bud  MreweU  bencaih  ihe  wavea  in  itae 
milu  oT  [be  sea;  aiid  the  boTels  tlial  ikjw  newle  upuii 
a  ponioii  of  ber  aite  preaeiit  no  coutridicliaa  uf  the 
dread  decree, '  Thou  ahall  ha  built  no  more.' " 

The  downfall  and  permaiieiu  deaulaliun  uf  T.vre  ia  one 
of  the  (DOM  mcnioralile  accumjilisliineiits  of  piuphecy 
which  the  anoalaoflhe       ''  ' 


theae :  "  Elecauw 


l>  of  ih 


I,  Aha,  it 


Huf  El 


peo- 


ple ;  jghe  ia  tumed  unto  me :  I  *ball  he  repleiiisheU,  iii 
■he  ii  laid  waate"(£iek.  xxvi.i).  "  Uecaiue  thine  heart 
ia  lifted  up,  and  thou  baat  uid,  I  am  ■  god,  I  ait  in  the 
ttat  ofUud.in  Ihe  midu  uf  Ihe  aeu"  (xxviii,2).  "The 
ehililren  alao  of  Judah  aiul  the  children  of  Jeruulem 
hare  ye  Bold  unto  the  tirecUiia,  that  ye  might  remove 
Ihem  far  froni  their  bonier"  (Jtiel  iii,tt). 

V.  I.iirralirt,—See,  in  aililition  lo  the  <rorka  cited 
above,  Cellarii  A''Xif.ii,38l  •<(.;  UengHeiiherg,  Ms  Ar- 
btt  Syiivnua  (.UeruL  I«l2)i  Hhyatt,  l>e  Tgro  (BaaiL 
1716)  j  <Jameii£. /Je  A'lire  Tfria  ^yiU\l.  1714);  titnilh, 
Dia.  afCloM.  Grog.  a.  i'.;  I'imlaii  de  liuasay,  Rreiftciti 
nr  Tgrt  (  Paris,  1SU4 ) ;  Thomaoii,  iMmt  and  B-ok,  i, 
360tq.-,  i;eseniua,Caninnir.cu7eiu.  i,T07aq.)  Wilwi), 
Lamdi  Bflht  Biiir,  ii,  Tii;  Bttdeker,  Patalva,  p.  12li  a<j. ; 
BMgaway,  The  LotiTi  l.a«d,  p.  604  aq. 

TVKt^  CottKCii.  OF.  Tho  Ariana,  through  Euaebius 
of  Nicomedia,  obtained  the  conrocatiun  of  ihia  council 
fiom  the  emperor  Coiialanline,  A.D.  SB5,  under  [iielexl 
of  Iherebr  healing  the  divinona  which  exiited 
Ihe  biahopa;  but  their  real  iutenlion  was  to  i 
Athanauns.  Tbe  bithopa  who  were  aummoneil 
tend  were  aelecled  by  the  Euaebian  parly,  am 
from  Egypt,  Libya,  Aaia,  and  must  of  the  easten 
incea.  The  moat  noted  were  MariuB  uf  Chalcedon, 
Thcognia  of  Nia«a,Ura*c««  ofSingeilunum,  and  Valeaa 
of  Murna;  In  all  about  aixlj  Arian  bishop*  attended. 
lliere  were  alao  a  few  biibopa  preaent  who  were  not  of 
tbe  Ensebian  faction,  aa  Haximua  of  Jeruulem,  Mar- 
tcllua  of  Aiicyra,  Alexander  of  Thenaaloiiica,  etc    Con- 

aa  Iho  event  ahowed,  waa  cumplelely  ili 
Eutebinn  cauae,  and  by  bii  violence  destroyed  all  lib- 
erty uf  debate. 

Alhanaaiua,  cvmpeUed  by  the  order  uf  the  emperor, 
tame  to  the  council,  attended  by  fuity-nine  Egyptian 

No  Bccttaation  waa  brought  agaiiiat  Alhanaaiua  on  ac- 
count of  hi*  faith;  but  be  waa  atiaigiied  fur  having 
killed  a  Meletiwi  biihop  named  Araeniua.  and  fur  hav- 
ing forcibly  broken  iittoa  church  while  lwhynu,a  pre- 
tended  prieiti,  waa  celebraling;  and  fur  having  over- 
turned Ihe  altar  and  broken  The  aacred  chalice.  Ur 
wai  made  to  stand  a>  a  criminal,  while  EuKbins  ami 

Potamon  of  [leradea  made  a  vehement  pr<'leat,  heap- 
ing repruachea  upou  Euaebiui.  From  Ihe  very  Urst  the 
Egyptian  biahops  proiealed  againac  tbe  proceedinga; 
but  their  objectioiia  were  not  heeded.  Sozonien  aayi 
that  AihanasiuB  appeared  frei|uenily  befi 
cU,  aud  defended  himaelf  admirably,  liatening  quietly 
la  all  the  calumnjoua  accuulioiia  brnii 
h  patience  and  w.. 
niea,  nut  cuitenlcd  with  Ihe  charge* 
ilieady  brought  against  him,  dared 
rity,  and  introduced  iotu  th 
n  Ihey  had  bribed 


rl  replying  i 

-ei,  bu  ei 


It  she  I 


leil  w 


ilby  hi 


Thi 


w  charge  was,  however,  Iriumphanily  prot 
for  AlhananUB  having  deputed  one  of  his  priests,  named 
Thimotena,  tn  reply  fur  him,  Ihe  woman,  who  was  ' 
lant  even  uf  Ihe  peraon  of  ■►■-  ■— '■•  "■'■tiop,  misi 
Thimiiiem  for  him,  declr  -■  mai 

kad  offered  violence  Ic  ind 


TYROrffiON 

Neither  were  his  accusers  mare  wcceatful  in  their  en- 
:or  lo  fix  upun  him  the  murder  nf  Arsenius,  who, 
he  midst  of  their  false  statements,  appeared  beAire 
council  alive.  Foiled  in  both  these  infamnua  al- 
pta,  Ihe  Ariani  were  filled  w 


which,  li 


Net' 


were  prevented  by  tl 

■  '  but  the  charge  of  having  broken  the 
being  no  proof  ready,  ami  the  clergy 
ere  the  uffence  was  eaid  to  have  taken 
imnly  sworn  to  the  falsohuoil  of  the 

apul  (in  the  Uareotii),  cumixiwd  uf  the  must  decided  of 

hia  enemies.    In  the  ineaniimcAlhanaaius,  seeing  that 

his  condemnation,  bj-  fait  meana  or  foul,  waa  resolved, 

ithdrew  frora  Tyre.    The  depiiliea,  upon  [heir  return, 

dared  that  they  had  found  tho  charge  comet;  aiul 

upon  this  Btslement,  sentence  of  depoMtioii  waa  pro- 

■unced,  on  the  plea  of  his  having  been  convicted  of 

part  of  the  accusation  brought  againtt  him.     More 

than  finy  bishops  pr<ileste<l  againal  the  acts  of  (hi* 

aasembly.    See  Manii,  ConciL  ii,  43S.     See  Atiiana- 

Xyr'iail  (T^piOf),  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ibe  city 
of  Tyre  (Ecdes.  xlvi,  18).  The  correspaading  Ueb. 
word  Cyt,  Tiori)  u  rendered  by  the  indirect  phraae 
he  A.  V.  (1  Kii^  vii,  14 1  1  Chron.  ixii, 
i,  14;  Ezra  iii,  T;  Neb.  xiii,  16),  and  »o 
likewise  the  Greek  (1  Esdr.  v,  66 ;  2  Uocc  iv,  10 ;  Acts 
iii,M). 

Tyrtmnus,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  friend  of 
Ulyaaea,  with  whotn  the  latter  lived  while  on  his  jour- 
ney from  Troy  to  Epinia  to  consult,  ihe  oracle  about 
tbe  war.  Tyrimmas  had  a  beautiful  daughter,  Erippe, 
whom  Ulyaaes  loved,  and  by  whom  he  begot  a  aon, 

Tjnlna  (i.  e.  **«  Tyitai),  in  Greek  mythology,  waa 
an  epithet  of  Ha-cula,  aa  adored  in  Cyptue. 

TyifinftB  Dsi  (itrm  toUitri  of  God),*  name  given, 
in  the  early  Church,  to  catechnmens.  by  TertuUian  (As 
Pvmtaa.  c  0)  and  Augustine  (iV  Fiik  ad  Caltchu- 
fHfli.  ii,  1),  becauae  they  were  Juat  entering  npoii  that 
slate  which  made  them  anldiers  nf  tiod  and  candi- 
dates of  eletnal  life.  See  Bingham, Ciirur.,4nf>}.bk.x, 
ch.i,51. 

TTIopoMMl  (TupoirmJIv,  Kfl\e  chreie-nahefi),  ihe 
name  of  a  valley  (,'papaQ  in  Jerusalem,  menlioneil  only 
by  Joarpbus,  who  saya  that  the  ciiy  "was  built,  one 
quarter  facing  another,  upon  two  bills,  separated  by  an 
intervening  Talley,at  which  over  agajnat  each  otbei  tho 
houaea  terminated."  Again, "  The  valley  of  tbe  Tyro- 
(iteun,  which,  1  have  said,  divided  the  hill  of  tbe  upper 
town  from  that  of  the  lower,  extended  aa  fat  asSiloam, 
...  a  fountain  whose  waters  are  sweet  and  copious" 
(H'ur,  T,  4,  1).  He  also  lelh  tia  that  the  "other  bill, 
called  Akra,  which  austained  the  lower  cily,"  lav  oppo- 
site lo  Mount  Moriah,  from  which  it  was  separateii  by 
"another  broad  valley;"  and,  fnrther,  that  the  whole 
city,Mtuated  on  these  two  hills,  "lay  over  against  the 
Temple  in  tbe  manner  of  ■  theatre"  (^nf.  xv,  11,  6). 
Nolwilhslanding  this  repealed  and  seemingly  detinite 
notice,  the  position  of  Ihe  valley  is  still  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute. Dr.Hobinson.in  accordance  with  hia  theory  of  ihe 
aite  of  Akri  (q.  v.).Bnd  of  Ihe  tnpoffrnphy  of  sneienr  Je- 
rusalem in  general,  maitilains  that  it  is  the  sniatl  ralli>y 
on  the  north  of  Zion ;  aii<l  the  English  engineers  lisve 
determined  that  thia  chasm,  slthough  noiv  incunMdera- 
ble,  was  formerly  much  ilreper,  being  filled  up  « ilh  the 
rubbish  of  ages.  Moti  archieologists,  however,  have  re- 
garded the  "  Valley  nf  the  Cheesemongers"  as  identical 
with  the  eonspicuouB  and  important  one  leading  fnim 
tbe  Damascus  gi  ..  .  ....i -»=>i         .....,.•.   ... 


icipal  drain  of  L 
city  (Thomson.  ImkI  and  Bov, 
lUm  JirtonJ,  i.  lll>     See  Jkki 


TYKRHENnS  e 

TyirbfinoB,  in  Greek  mjtbology,  vu  a  *an  or 
Hercules  anil  Omphile,  or  s  hhi  of  Telephiu  uid  Uien, 

■lid  >  bralliec  of  Tarchon ;  at  a  soa  of  Atfi  and  Calli- 
thea,  and  biollier  of  Lrdui.  He  is  uid  to  bare  inlio- 
duced  Ihe  un  of  the  greal  lea-ihell  aa  a  trumpet  He 
coUiiiizcd  that  part  of  Italy  Darned  after  bim  at  the  tinie 
urhia  Bigbt  from  Hnonia  becauM  of  uarvalion. 

TyirhiU,  Id  ancieaC  Italian  mytholog}',  was  a  chief 
■hepherd  of  Latinus,  king  or  Ilalv.  Be  waa  tbe  owner 
of  ■  beiuiiful  Ume  deei  wliich  'Siiria  nuned,  bathed, 
and  omimenled  with  llowen.  The  Fury  Alecto,  wni 
from  Tarianu,  chased  this  deer,  »o  that  it  came  within 
reach  of  Aicaniui,  who  wounded  it.  wheteupon  it  fle<l 
tunards  home.  The  angry  shepherd  and  his  suns,  and 
invisibly  the  Furies  also,  luseiobled  the  neighboring  in- 
habiunta,  and  this  was  popularly  aiaigned  ai  the  origi- 
nal cauH  of  the  war  which  ^neas  was  ol>liged  to  cany 
DO  with  the  LalinUnsin  Italy. 

Ty'raB(Tupoc),  the  Greek  fotm  of  the  name  of  two 
places  in  Palestine. 

1.  The  well-known  city  of  Ttrr  (q.  v.),  as  the  name  is 
usually  Angliciied,  but  "Tynis"  in  the  A.  V.  in  certuu 
pasMges  (Jer.  xxv,  22;  XKvii,8;  xlrii,  4;  Eiekxuvi, 
2,3,4,7,16;  xxvii,  2,  3,  8,  S:i ;  xxviit,i,l3i  xxix,  18; 
llus.ix,ia:  Amos  i, 9, 10;  Zecb.uc,S,a;  ZEsdr.i,!!. 
Judith  ii,  28:  lUac£.r,l&;  3  Hacc  it,  18. 82. 44, 49). 

2.  A  place  described  by  Joseplius  allying  "between 
Arabia  and  Judaa,  beyond  the  Jordan,  not  &r  from  the 
cuunir}-  of  Heahbon."  vrhera  Hyrcaniu  built  a  itiong 
castle,  of  a  sumptuous  character,  as  the  centre  of  hu 
power  in  that  region  (/tntxii,  4,  II).  It  has  been  iden-  . 
tilled  in  mi>dem  times  with  the  magniSceiit  ruins  A  rat 
d-Emir,  four  hours  from  Uesban,  which  Trislnm  mi- 
nutely describes  as  currespomiin);  to  the  stitemenU  of 
the  Jewish  historian  {Uiad  ff  lirtul,  p.  629). 

TVRUS,  LAnnER  or.     See  Laddkb  op  Tiri. 

Tyson,  Michaui.,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
b<irn  in  the  parish  of  AlUSaiiils,  Stamford,  Nur.  19, 
17-10.  He  was  educated  at  Benedict  College,  Caoi- 
briil^e,  where  he  receiveil  liii  degrees;  that  uf  A-B.  in 
17t>4,  .\.M.  ill  1767,  and  B.D.  in  i;76.  After  Ukiiig  his 
baclielur's  degree,  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college. 
In  nsa  he  travelled  with  Mr.  (lough  (afterwards  tbe 
celebrated  antiquarian),  and,  after  his  return  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Ihe  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries, and  in  1769  a  fellow  of  the  Roval  Sodely. 
In  1770  he  was  ordained  ileacnn  at  Whitehall  Chapel ; 
and  in  1773  received  the  oIBcially  of  the  archdeaconry 
of  Huntingdon  from  his  faliier.  He  wa^  at  the  same 
time,  bursal  of  the  college,  and  succeeded  to  Ihe  cure 
of  St.  Benedict's  Church,  Cambridge.  In  1776  he  be- 
came Whitehall  preacher.and  In  the  same  year  was  pre- 

Ongsr,  Essex.  He  died  May  3, 1780.  Mr.  Tyson  wrote 
an  ode  Oalht  Birth  o/Ike  Princr  nf  WaUt,  and  another, 
.In  OiU  to  Ptiice.     He  was  also  an  excellent  draughls- 

TyBsena,  Persn,  a  Flemish  painter,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1625;  and,  alter  the  death  of  Kubens  and 
V'andyck,  was  considered  one  of  the  ablest  psinlen  of  his 
lime.  He  was  made  director  of  the  Academy  at  Ant- 
werp in  1661.  "His  compositions  are  copiinis  and  in- 
genious, his  design  more  correct  than  is  usual  with  paints 

ninus."  lfedie'cl,acconlinK  to  best  authorities,  in  1692. 
.\moiij£  his  works  moM  worthy  of  notice  are,  Thr  Marlgr- 
dun  ySl.  Kranliel,  Church  of  the  Capuchins,  Brussels  :— 
TJii  6'rucf|inun,at  Ihe  Church  of  the  Bareroutnl  Carmel- 
ites i-'I'A^  .4  umnpfion '•/''A;  I'lt^HiChurch  of  Su  James, 
Antwerp.    See  Spooncr,  Biog.  Iliit.  of  Fine  ArU,K.v. 

Tsacblniar,  HKi>Hicit  (krrruEB,  a  German  the- 
ologian and  orator,  wits  bom  Not.  14, 1778.  at  Mitweida, 
in  Saxony.  He  graduated  at  Leipsic,  and  in  Februarj-, 
ISOO,  became  an  adjunct  to  the  philosophical  faculty  al 
WiLleiiberg.     His  lectures  were  principally  concerned 


S2  TZSCHIKNER 

with  empirical  psychology,  aud  yielded  fruit  in  th 
works  Ij^im  a.  Emit  nrrka.  Stlbiliaonirr  nriil  AUa^ 
ia.d.adi1»iord  (1805):— f/rirr  iLtaoraL  IwhStrMii- 
mai:—ttviVtrm<ui^tdutft,LTaga>dB>vtdLailrT.  Ht 
was  also  associated  with  Msncbart  in  the  piiblioliiin 
of  the  Nar$  Rrpai.f.  cmfrir.  Piydloli-gir.  In  IMl  Ik 
nckneai  of  his  father  calleil  him  away  rrom  the  DDiro- 
sity.and  he  became  lint  assistant,  and,  alter  Ihe  dectiH 
of  his  rather,  deacon  at  Hitwei<la.  Al  that  tiow  be  be- 
gan a  history  of  apologetics,  but  published  only  one  ml. 
ume  (Leips.  1806).  In  the  same  year  he  was  receirtd 
into  the  theologieal  faculty  at  Wittenberg,  and  in  1N9 
he  removed  to  Leipsic,  wheie  he  remained  onlil  bii 
death,  with  a  temporary  iiitcmiptiiin  occasioned  by  ilw 
war  of  deliverance  from  French  di>miiiaii«i,  in  nhicb 
he  served  as  chaplain  and  gained  ihe  decoraitou  oTtkc 
green  cross  (1813).  The  literary  fruitage  of  bit  on- 
paign  is  contained  in  Ihe  volume  Ufbrr  dtn  ATivj.eii. 
(Leips.  1815).  He  died  Feb.  17, 1823,  ivgretted  by  lb( 
whole  community  of  Leipuc 

Tzschimei's  theologicid  tendency  was  that  known  b 
his  day  as  seathelicism,  whose  aim  was  ihe  reconcilis- 
tion  of  rationalism  and  aupraiiaiuralism.  He  reguiM 
Christianity  as  being  in  its  nature  a  religion  of  Tvaaw. 
though  intnidiu:ed  by  a  supernatural  revelation.  Sre 
hiif/f,  rennd.  dtir^  ftrinhardt  Galbdntt  (Leipi. 
IBI 1),  and  Hrirft  aan  Dtufchen  on  CfcrlfOnfiriHirf,  tit, 
published  bv  Ktug.  His  DogmnlH  (published  b>  Hue, 
Leips.  1829)  is  non-commitial,  and  conieiiiB  iiwlf  witl 
merely  staling  the  ditTerences  of  Ihe  two  greal  oppving 
schouis  of  thought  in  Frotestant  theology  (st*  Kolu, 
Kril.  Prfdigrr-BiUiollut,  X,  1).  He  was  rather  a  bi>- 
lorian  than  a  systematic  theologian,  and  dispoeed  ID 
hide  himself  behind  his  work.  He  added  ihe  two  Knsl 
volume*  ID  Schrdckb's  Cliartk  llitloty  tiitct  Ikr  JT'/sr- 
imition;  hut  hi)  principal  work,  according  (o  hu  eWD 
Judgment,  is  his  Pail  da  Ifeidetahumij  putdished  1^ 
Niedner  (Uips.  IS29). 

The  period  ibllnwing  the  Kapnleonie  wars  and  b^a- 
ning  with  the  Jubilee  of  the  great  Kefi>rmalion  (IHIT). 
developed  Tuchimer  into  a  foremosi  defender  ofPris- 
estantism  and  popular  freedom.  Enthusiasticallr  h>- 
spired  by  the  study  of  the  great  past  of  the  Evangelial 
Church,  he  yet  refused  to  confine  himself  to  Ihe  ktlir 
of  Luther's  authority,  but  insinted  upon  [he  eieiriaref 
the  Protestant  principle  of  intellectnal  libeity.  In  view 
nf  the  fact  that  timid  stalesmen  endeavored  to  reproi 
Ihfl  enthusiasm  of  the  nation  consequent  on  the  deftal 
of  Napi'lenn,  and  that  Bonunista  and  would-be  pervcflt 
to  Bomanism  charged  upon  Protestantism  Ihe  originsl- 
ing  and  development  of  every  levoluliniiary  lendeocy 
and  excess,  he  deiotal  hii  brilliant  diction  and  inciarc 
that  rn-iesl 


lepnii 


iplfs 


pies;  and  that  it  therefore  lends  to  peace  ai 
and  is  more  favorable  to  any  legilimale  form  uf  sellM 
government  than  Romanism.  Numerous  works,  euiK 
of  which  became  famous  and  were  IransUted  into  !i»- 
eign  languages,  were  Ihe  result  of  this  effort — e.  g..  £■- 
Ikolkiimai  u.  frolftintitmui  uKI  drm  atmdpmdlt  At 
Pidita  (1822).  He  also  wrote  in  behalf  of  oppreswd 
Pmtesunts  in  France,  Sardinia,  and  Hungarv  (18*4), 
and  of  the  liberties  of  Greece  (1«2I>  His  Pn-teMsai 
cnnlempnraries,  for  thdr  pan,  gave  him  many  tokens  i/ 
their  appreciation  of  his  labors  in  their  behalf,  among 
them  the  king  of  Denmark,  who  in  182G  conferred  «B 
him  the  Order  of  Dane  brag. 

Tzschitner  had  taken  Rciiihard  for  his  modd  a>  a 
pulpit  orator.  His  sermons  are  occasi anally  models  «( 
pulpit  eloquence.  They  were  carefully  elaborated  and 
strictly  memorized,  sometimes  pervaded  with  a  poetic 
spirit  and  great  freshness,  and  chatacteriied  by  the  fre- 
quent use  of  matter  drawn  from  Church  history.  Hit 
pcisonsliiy,  voice,  and  manner  in  the  pulpit  gsre  kin 
great  power  over  his  audiences,  despite  difficultiei  * 
experienced  with  his  respiratory  organs.  Five 
and  several  separately  published  Sirnioiu  by  Toschin 


UBALDINI 


023 


UBOZE 


r  which  the  Church  exisi 
-SjarC'TEsehirner  all  Hi 

'LiltriUure.—¥ilug,  Taddrmrt  Dotkmtxl, 


(■»  Rcihi,  ^  lup.  ii, 


at  czUdL    Hi*  Tiewl  napecling  Ibt  effect  o(  ntion 
■liftic  priuciplei  upon  the  preacher  are  contained  ii 

the  orticlo  Dan  die  Vtrtdiirdealtat  d.  Doffnun  Sj/iteme  /.ilfro/WT.— Krup,  Taddratn  Dathnal,  etc.  (Leipt, 

Inn  Hbdtnnu  da  Zuitett*  d.  KinSe  iti,  in  Magatin  1BS3);  //.  G.  Tadimr,  etc  (Sd  ed.  ibid.  MUS)  ;  Gold- 

fir  ckrUiL  Prtdigtr,  18S3.     Hia  theory  of  homiletio  horn,  Dr.  H.  G.  Tuckimtr,  etc  (18SS) ;  Kiihi,  KriL  Pn- 

KU  Conh  that  bomilelia  "is  the  art  of  edifying  by  diga-Bibt.l,!,  136;  Titunan,  J/enioria  TiiAinteH{lift. 

meaiu  ofapeech  which  binncHiizea  with  the  foinii  of  182S)i  and  many  ottaen.     See  aito  Htnog.  lUul-Emy 

beanty  and  excitei  into  activity  all  the  faculliea  t(  th«  tiop.  a.  v.,  where  an  extended  list  of  Tucbiniei'a  nu- 

■nd,aubject  to  (be  puipoae  o(  promoting  piety  and  yir-  meroiu  worlu  i>  given. 


UbaldinI,  SoaiB,  archbishop  of  Pitt  In  1S76,  was 
noted  for  hi*  cruelty  a>  a  Uhibelline  chiet  Having 
captured  Ugolino  and  hi*  anna  of  the  oppoaite  party,  he 
itaul  them  up  in  a  room  and  left  tbem  to  die  uT  hunger. 

Ubbonltea.  the  futlowen  of  Ubbo  Pbillipa,  who 
constituted  a  moderate  claw  anwng  the  fanatical  Ana- 
baptists of  licrmany  in  the  ISth  century,  and  originated 
(bout  1634.  Ubbo'wos  bom  at  Leeuwaiden  and  became 
«  Bomiab  prieit,  but  with  his  brother,  Uirk  Fhillipa, 
renounced  tbe  papacy  as  corrupt,  and  joined  tbe  party 
of  the  Anabap^linti,  in  which  bnth  becanie  ieadeta.  I'he 
L'bboniie*  agreed  with  the  Anabaptist*  with  reapect  to 
the  aacramenta,  the  incaniatiun  of  Christ,  and  the  free- 

Chriil'a  kingdom  is  of  tbe  earth  and  that  the  ungodly 
abuuld  be  extirpated.  'Fbey  held,  iiiilead,  that  hii 
kingdom  ia  apititual  and  aubject  to  iwrsecutioiis,  and 
that  it  mudi  be  constantly  renewed  by  regularly  called 
apoatlea.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  divorce,  and 
regarded  theniselve*  as  the  true  Church.  They  denom- 
inoleil  their  meeting*  fur  worship  "adnwnitiona"  and 
their  minialen  "admonishen,~Bnd  they  taught  the  ne- 
cessity to  an  eSecdve  discipline  of  the  rigid  use  of  ex- 
communication. Both  Ubbo  and  Dirk  disapproved  of 
the  fanatical  oiilbieak  at  Mitnater,  and  the  former  ac- 
knowleilged  in  a  public  confessian  that  he  heartily  re- 
gretted that  he  had  permitted  bimieif  to  be  deceived 
anil  that  he  bod  perfiKmed  cousecrations.  lis  eveiil- 
nally  separated  from  the  sect  and  the  party  ho  had 
fiiimded  and  entered  tbe  communion  of  the  Reformed 
Churvh.  He  died  in  1568.  See  Jehring,  GrBitdL  Hi- 
tlarit . . .  drr  Taufgaamloi  aCt-'  MamanHtB,  etc  (Jena, 
i;20>;  Bergiiunn,OerUaiKfAi%W(l{;Uoni(i((itoat. 
178SV-EJeRog,  Reat-EnejUop.  a.  v. 

UlwttllltlB,  Bumamed,  from  tbe  village  of  hisbirtb, 
Df  Ciua/(,waa  a  Franciscan  monk  of  the  13  th  century, 
and  brUinged  to  the  atrict  party  which  inaisted  upon  a 
rigid  obaervance  of  the  vow  of  poverty,  and  regarded 
tbe  life  aiid  work  of  nur  Saviour  as  conatituting  a  mere 
prejiaration  for  a  higher  and  more  perfect  «ra  of  the 
HiilytihoM.  They  also  denounced  the  condition  of  the 
pajiocy  and  of  the  entire  Church  as  being  utterly  cor- 
rupt. Ubertinus  was  a  pDpil  of  Peter  John  Olivi  (died 
1Z971,  who  itood  at  the  head  of  hi*  party.  He  de- 
fendeil  the  tenets  nf  hia  party  in  an  apology  for  Olivi, 
which  is  given  in  Wadding,  Aimatrt  jl/nunim,  etc 
(Koma,  IT33;  inn.  1297),  xiKvi,  S80  sq.,  and  was 
Mvereiy  aaoailed.  Tope  Clement  V  and 
art  called  him  la  account  for  hia  book,  am 
thereupon  reaolved  to  sever  hia  connectii 
order.  Pope  John  XXII  permitted  him  to  enter  the 
Benedictine  convent  of  9l  Peter  at  Gemblours;  bat  the 
'  nonka  refused  to  receive  him,  and  it  il  Said  Chat  he  ul- 
timatelr  became  a  Canhu^n.  In  the  meantime,  pope 
John  had  again  demanded  an  explanation  of  hia  opin- 
iooa  reapecting  the  poverty  of  Jeaua,  etc,  and  Ubertinus 
responded  that  Jans  could  not  be  said  to  have  had 
poaaesaion  nf  property  in  anv  secular  meaning  of  the 
words  (see  Wadding,  nf  np.\i,  S62  sq.).  In  addition 
to  tbe  above,  Ubertinus  wrote  a  tort  of  commentary  on 
the  ApoealypOT.  entitled  TVnctatiu  de  Septan  SlatAu 
ficcJena  (Tenet.  1616).  The  time  and  tnannet  of  hit 
loath  an  Doknowa.    Sea  Henog,  Real-EnegUop. ».  t. 


Ubloty  (Lat.  abi, "  where*^  is  the  pnaence  of  one 
thing  to  aiKither,  or  the  pretence  of  a  thing  in  place. 
The  achoolmen  distinguish  ubiety  as 

1.  Cireataicriplief,  by  which  a  body  i*  so  in  one  place 
that  its  parts  are  anawerable  to  tbe  parta  of  apace  in 
which  it  ia  and  exclude  every  other  body. 

2.  Drfimlier,  as  when  a  human  spirit  ia  limited  or  de- 
presence  to  tbe  aame  pUct,  like  ■  human 


e  Spirit  is  present 


I  Ubertinua 


body. 

3.  RrpUliet,  as  when  tbe  Infinite 
through  every  portion  of  apace. 

This  laat  ia  sometimes  called  Ubiquitt  <q.  v.),  and 
means  the  Divine  Omnipresence.  See  Krauth,  Vocai. 
n/PkiLSde«crl,».\: 

nblqtlltatlatlB  (from  the  teclinical  term  --  ubiqui- 
ty "[q.  v.]),  in  ecclcuasiical  hulory,  a  sect  of  Cbriitiaua 
whith  arose  and  spread  itself  in  Uermany,  and  whose 
distinguishing  doctrine  was  that  the  body  of  Jeaua 
Christ  is  everywhere,  or  in  every  place,  Brentiua,  a 
follower  of  Luther,  and  one  of  the  earliest  Reformer*,  is 
said  to  hare  fint  broacbed  this  error  in  1660.  Luther 
himselT.  in  bis  controversy  with  Zwingli,  had  thrown 
out  some  unguarded  eipressione  that  seemed  to  imply 
a  belief  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  body  of  Christ;  for 
instance,  that  the  man  Christ  fould  be  everywhere  pres- 
ent, not  that  he  was  alicat/i  and  tvtrjpehtre  present. 
He  saw,  however,  that  this  opinion  waa  attended  with 
great  ilifficnllies,  and  particularly  that  it  ought  not  to 
be  made  use  of  as  a  proof  of  Christ'a  corporeal  presence 
in  tbe  eucharist.  However,afler  the  death  ofLulher, 
this  absurd  hypothesia  was  renewed,  anil  dressed  up  in 
a  specious  and  plausible  form  by  Breniius,  Chemnitius, 


I  of  Chris 


ishumi 


•n  of 


the  doctrine 


J.  indeeif,  obvious  that  every  person  who  believe* 
antiation,  whatever  he  may  pre- 
tend, must  be  a  Ubiquilarian.  The  doctrine  again  be- 
came a  subject  of  controveisy  eariy  in  tbe  17th  centu- 
ry, between  the  divines  of  Tubingen  and  Giessen.  the 
former  supporting  the  Ubiqnitarian  theory,  and  the  lat- 
ter earnestly  opposing  it.  The  Ubiquitariana  are  strong 
opponenta  of  the  Catrinistic  and  Zwinglian  theories  of 
the  holy  enchariat,  and  their  dogma  ia,  in  fact,  a  revnl- 
aion  from  them.  See  Bergier,  Did.  de  Thiologit,  a.  v. ; 
Cramer,  Knckirid.  CoMrovtri.  Ubi^uil.  (161S);  Domer, 
PenoB  of  Chriit,  IL  ii,  280  aq.,  422 ;  Mosheim,  Eccki. 
/fuf.V,iii,163*q. 

ITblqulty  (Lat.  abiqar,  "  everywhere")  i*  the  ofnn- 
ion  of  aome  (lerman  divines  that  the  body  of  Chiiat  la 
present  everywhere  by  virtue  of  its  union  with  his  di- 
vine nature.  It  was  adopted  in  1677  as  a  mode  of  ex- 
plaining the  ettcharistic  Presence  by  those  who  com- 
piled the  Formula  of  Concord.  The  party  was  soon  di- 
vided in  opinion,  some  affirming  that  Jesus  Christ  dur- 
ing hia  mortal  life  was  everywhere,  olhers  dating  the 

See  UntoiriTARiAiia. 

Utjlanizn,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  a  domeatic 
god  of  the  Poke,  whom  the  negligent,  laiy  (>oople  au- 
thoriied  to  make  greater  cunvenien<:e^  and  to  whom 
they  intrusted  the  protection  of  their  household  funii> 

TTbose  (Ilbmche),  in  Slaronie  mythologjr,  «m  lb* 


UCAL  6! 

nunt  given  to  the  spirila  of  lh«  deputed,  oho  appett- 
ed  in  the  ftaiiij  circjo  of  their  relitiiet  in  tbe  rorm  of 
diriufa.  They  were  therefore  wonhipped  and  mide 
birmlan  by  being  made  to  eat  uid  driuk. 

U'cal  (Ueb.  Utal',  ^S»,  in  wme  copie*,  VUal-, 
ilK),  According  to  the  ri^-^ived  teil  of  Pros-,  mi,  1, 
tthiel  and  Ucal  miut  be  regarded  u  proper  iiamet ;  and 
if  go,  they  muM  be  the  uamea  of  diadples  or  »na  of 
Agiir  (he  ton  of  Jnkeh,  an  unknown  tagt  among  the 
Hebrews.  But  there  is  gnat  obKurily  about  the  pu- 
lage.  The  SepL  traiielates  roic  riariiovti  t)i<f  *ai 
iraiiofuu;  the  Vulg.,  cum  quo  ttl  Dmt.rt  gui  Dtottcum 

•ome  entent;  the  Targum  reprodncei  Uhiel  and  Ucal 
as  proper  names,  and  the  Syriac  ia  corTup^  LTciI  being 
omitted  altogether.  Luther  reptesenta  the  name*  a* 
LtitJiUI  and  UcAal.  De  VV'elte  regards  them  as  proper 
names,  aa  da  mou  iranslalora  and  commentators.  Ju- 
nius explain!  both  as  referring  to  Christ.  Th«  Sept. 
probably  read  VsXI  is  "•JIBXl",  The  VeneUi-Greek 
has  tat  iTvvqvojtai  —  *|'3X\  Cocceius  oiust  have  point- 
ed the  words  th^^  b=K1  ix  "'P-'SV,  "1  have  laboied 
for  God  and  have  obuined ;"  and  this,  with  rega 
the  tiiM  two  wotds,  must  have  been  the  reading  of  J. 
D.  Michaelis,  who  renders, "  I  have  wearied  myielf 
God,  and  have  given  up  the  investigation,"  applying 


UDALL 


divided.  They  look  th 
native  of  Frieitand,  whi 
1GS7.    In  oanjunclinn  with  Joh 


:  Deity 


imselfw 


u  bIk>  (/Mi 


philosophical  specutali 
compelled  lo  give  op 
SprSche  Sai.  Kinleit. : 
wearied  myself  for  God,  and  have  fainted"  (^3K1)  an 
appropriate  commencement  lo  the  eeriea  of  proveiba 
which  follow.  Hitiig'a  view  is  aiibttantially  (he 
except  that  he  points  the  Ust  won)  ^3K^,  and  renders, 
"and  I  became  dull;"  applying  it  to  tho  dimness  which 
tbe  investigation  produced  upon  the  eye  of  the  mind 
(/««  Spt.  Sal.  p.  316),  Bunsen  {Biielarri,  i,  p.  clxix) 
follows  Bertbeau'i  punctuation,  hut  regards  hs  T.-ixb, 

speaker.  "The  saying  of  the  man  ' I-have-wearicd- 
mvEeir-for-God  ;'  I  have  wearied  myself  for  Oud,  and 
have  fainted  away."  There  is,  however,  one  fstal  ob- 
jection to  (his  view  if  there  were  no  others,  and 
is  that  the  verb  nt<^, "to  be  wearied," nowhere  takes 
after  it  the  accusative  of  the  obji 
this  account  alone,  therefore,  wt 
^nre  explanations.  If  fiertheau'a  pointing  be  adopt- 
ed, the  only  legitimate  translation  of  the  word*  i>  that 
given  by  Dr.  Davidson  (lalrod.  ii,  338), "  1  am  weary, 
O  God,  I  am  weary,  O  God,  and  am  become  weak." 
Ewaid  consideis  both  Ithiel  and  Deal  aa  aymbolical 
names,  emplo)'cd  by  the  poet  to  designate  two  classes 
of  thinkers  to  whom  he  addresses  himself,  or, 
combines  both  names  in  one, "  God-with-me- 
strong,"  and  bestows  it  upon  an  imaginary  i 
whom  he  inltoduces  to  take  part  in  the  dislogi 
name'God-with.me,"'sayBKeil(Hiivernick,A'inIn[.iii, 
412),  ".lenoies  such  aa  gloried  in  a  more  intimai 
munion  with  God.  and  a  bigher  insight  and  ' 
obtained  thereby,  while  '  I-am-strong'  indicates 
called  strong  qiirila  who  boast  of  their  wisdc 
might  and  deny  tbe  holy  Goil,  u  that  both  nam 
probably  represent  a  class  of  freethinkers  who  thought 
Ihemselvea  superior  In  tbe  revealed  law,  and  in  practi- 
cal alheisiD  indulged  the  lusts  of  ihc  flmh."  Both 
names  are  probably  svmbulical,  but  the  exact  impoi 
remains  uncertaiii.     See  Puovunns. 

Ucalfigon,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  an  inhabitar 
of  Troy,  an  elder  honored  In  the  senate.  His  dwelling 
place  adjoiniiiK  the  dwelling  of  Deipbobus  was,  wit 
the  iMter'sf  entirely  deatroyed  by  fire. 

Uckewalllsts,  one  of  the  sects  into  which  the 
Sid  tleminga,  or  strict  Anabaptist  followers  of  Ueni 


I  name  from  Ute  WaBrt,ii 

published  his  sentimeDta  ii 

Leus,  he  propsgatad 

noctnne  oi  uaiversaiism,  in  wnich  he  entertained  a 

rorable  opinion  of  the  etertuil  state  of  Judaa  and  the 

It  of  Christ's  mnnlerets.     His  argument  waa  this— 

at  the  period  of  time  which  extended  from  tbe  liiith 

Chriat  to  the  descent  uf  the  Holy  Gbuet  waa  a  time 

of  deep  ignorance,  during  which  the  Jewa  were  detii- 

'"   '       light;  atid  that,  of  consequence,  the  UDi 

a  which  were  committed  during  Ibu  iiw 

lerral  were,  in  a  great  measura.  excoaable,  and  cmld 

the  aevereat  displays  of  the  divine  juuicb 

[communicated  by  the  Mcnnonitea  of  Gron- 

ingen,  and  banished  from  the  city  by  ila  magislnio^ 

but  settled  down  in  East  Friealand.     This  denonnDa> 

>n  atrictly  adhered  lo  the  doctrine  of  the  Mennoo- 

Udana,  in  Greek  mythology,  waa  one  of  the  (i- 
lowers  of  (DadmuB,  five  of  whom  murdered  each  olhct; 
Ha  was  grandsire  of  Tireaias. 

TTdainSBkr,  in  Nurlhem  mytbok^,  is  tbe  naae 
given  to  that  part  of  the  land  of  the  blessed  wben^ 
with  all  earthly  wants,  all  Borrowa  are  at  an  aKtiWliae 
inhabitanta  neither  sicknen  nor  death  befalla.  Tbn 
place  is  in  poaienion  of  king  Gudmund,  who  was  ndtr 
of  Jotunheim.  From  this  last  fact  it  wotild  skui  tv 
follow  that  Ddainsakr  was  tint  a  paradise  of  the  Aiay 
bat  of  the  former  inhabitaota  of  Scandinavia,  tke 
Jotea. 

Udall,  Epbralm,  a  loyal  Puritan  divine  of  the 
ITth  cenlur}',  was  educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cgm- 
bridge,  where  be  took  his  degree  of  A.B.  in  1G09,  aiul 
that  of  A.M.  In  IGli.  His  only  preferment  appein  to 
have  been  ihecectoryof  St.  Augu«ine'B,WatluigStrr«, 
London,  but  the  time  of  his  admission  is  not  staled.  He 
was  aequeatered  in  1613,  having  declared  openly  for 
episcopacy  and  the  liturgy.  He  died  in  Hav,  \U1. 
Mr.  L'dall  published,  A  Coal  from  tke  AUar;—A  Srr- 
nam  on  Fta.  xxix,  II  (1629.  4io) :— CosuBtfimi  Cim* 
WH  (1^1,  4l<')i  >n  which  be  recommends  rub  anund 
the  communion-table.  See  Allibone,  Z>tcr.  o/ flrir.  aid 
Antr.  AiUkon,».t,;  Chalmers,  BioiF.  DiiT.  ».  v. 

ndall,  John,  a  Nonconformist  divine  of  the  IMk 
century,  was  a  great  sufferer  on  account  of  bis  noocoti- 
focmilv.  He  died  in  Marshaliea  prison  about  the  end 
urib»2.  He  published, 5eniuRi(l&M.89,6T0l).8TS): 
—A  DemmulTiitimo/fhtTrulhii/'liulDadpliKtrliirt 
CkriK  halh  PrrtCTibrd  (1588,  4to),  fur  which  he  *■ 

q^yernny  (Lond.  1693,  4to)t— Jtryo/fAeHu/j  Teosu, 
etc  (Leyden,  1693, 12mu) :  said  lo  be  Ihe  first  Hdirti 
grammar  in  Engli^.  Kespecting  Udall  anil  hii  works, 
see  Fuller,  CAurol/fisfary,'  Uallam,(?uiiMi(H(ioiKiJ/'in. 
ofEa^andi  D'lttml:\\,QuarTtU"fAnlhort;Lmd.QtltT. 
Rrv.  X,  IM;  (Lond.)  CoK,  ifiij.  XXII,  i,  806;  ii,  6!li 
Allibiine,  IHd.  of  Brtl.  and  A  mtr.  A  ulhori,  s.  v. ;  C'lisl- 
mers,  Diog.  Diet.  a.  v. 

ndall,  Nicbolu,  an  Ei^^h  clergymaEiWSsImn 
in  Hampshire  in  l£Oi  |uthen  say  160d);  and  wu  xt- 
mitted  to  Carpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  June  18,  loW, 
where  he  became  ptobalioner  fellow,  Sept. B,  till,  lit 
wrote  verses  for  the  city  of  London  pageant  at  the  a*- 
onalionof  Anne  Boleyn,  May,  1538;  took  orders  in  Ik 
Church  of  England ;  and  was  made  master  of  Eun ' 
School  in  1534.  In  IMS  he  waa  charged  with  complic 
college  chapel  plaU.  and  III 


this  is  said  b)'  some  to  have 
mastenbip  of  tbe  school.  He  was  vicar  of  DrainttH, 
Essex,  from  1637  to  IMi;  entered  the  servka  of  q«iii 
Catherine  Pair;  in  1561  he  b«ame  canon  ofWiudm; 
in  155!  was  preferred  to  the  rectory  of  Calboume.  lik 
ofWigbL  He  was  appointed  head-master  of  Woi- 
minsler  School  in  1550;  and  died,  aocording  to  setae  la- 
thoritiea,  in  December,  1556,  but,  according  to  ■  maoB 


UDINE  «1 

tmi*  aote  oa  ■  copy  of  Bair,  in  1&57.  Udall  wu  [he 
•uihoc  at  Nvenl  Khool-books,  aouie  pocoii,  etc  See 
Miibnat,DiH.o/Bnt.aiidAmiT.AiHkoii,t.T,;  Chtl- 
Biera,  Biog.  DicL  %.  r. 

Udlue,  Qlovuml  da,  an  lulUn  paintn-  (wfao«e 
Eunilv  nime  is  vuioiuly  called  MtBmi,  jVumi  [contno- 
(ioniDf  (Jioraiaii],  noi  Ricaimiloit),  wat  bom  at  Udine 
ptobably  in  14M9.  He  became  a  pupil  and  anerwanlB 
au  Bwialant  uf  KaphaeL  On  Ibe  ucking  of  ttume  he 
fled  ui  hii  nalire  cily ;  was  afurwuila  engaged  by  the 
Medici  in  Floieace;  aud  letumed  In  Rome  in  ihe  pan- 
tilKaie  of  Piue  IV,  where  he  died,  15C1.  He  painted 
ne  lltAg  Virga  and  infaat  Ckriit,  at  lidine ;  iikI  two 
Saipturt  //uforiu,  in  the  archiepiicopil  palace,  Udine. 
See  Spoonet,  Biog.  Hiil.  •>/ Fiat  Aril,  t,  v. 

Udlne,  OlrolMno  d«,  another  painter  uf  Uiline, 
Italy,  Huudiheil  about  1540.  Uitle  ii  known  of  liim. 
There  is  aii  altat-pieee,  The  Coronatimofthe  Vii-gia,  in 
the  Cbiirch  <>(  Sail  ITranccsco,  Udine,  bearing  hia  Mgua- 
ture.     See  Spouner,  fiioj.  Iliit.  of  Finn  .4rti,  a.  v. 

Udlae,  MBTtinO  da,  called  FrUtgrvio  di  San 
Daairllii,m\  Italian  painlet,  was  bora,  according  to  aome 
autburitiea,  at  Udine  about  1480-,  othem  say  at  the 
Caiile  of  ata  Danielio,  about  ten  milea  diuaiiU     He 

dence  at  Udine.  Martiiiu  died  alwut  IbH.  He  eae- 
catad  Diauy  worki  li>r  the  vhutchw  and  public  buildingg 
at  Udine  and  San  Daniellu,  amuiiij  whicli  are,  SI.  Jotph, 
vilk  Ihe  laj'atili  (Jhivt  and  Hi.  JukH,  in  the  cathedral  at 
Udine: —  yirgia,mili ttiertU FmutU  HaiMt  uiKlSI.Julm 
Iht  Baplitl,  an  altar-piece  in  iheCburcbaT^MntaUaria 
di  Battuti ;— eereral  IreKuiiarihe  Life  oj' CKivi.'m  the 
Church  of  Sao  Antanio,  San  Dauiello.  bee  bpuouer, 
Bi«g.  UiU.  ofFint  AtU,  a.  v. 

Udu.  an  Accadian  deity,  and  poaaibly  Ihe  name  with 
the  Ahv  rian  Samaa,  god  nt  the  aun. — Lauurmant,  C'iald. 

ndar  (lAi  dalrueliim),  in  Nurse  mythology,  was  one 
oTtbe  daughters  of  linger  and  Kan. 

Udvarde,  The  Council  of,  waa  held  In  1309,  un- 
der Cliarles  I,  king  oT  lluugacy,  anil  Tliumaa,  archbiih- 
op  of  Strigunia.     It  waa  decreed, 

1.  That  the  aonllcal  aalDiailou  ebonld  ba  mue  oat  at 
atKH]«  or  at  the  cluae  of  Lbe  day, 

1.  That  iho  lubabluuu  ut  Bnda  ib.ralil  poj  Bume  Im- 
poat  ntalch  tiief  had  endeBTored  Lo  evade. 

4.  The  caiutilailuui  u!  cardinal  Uenill  were  read,  aud    i 

■le,  li>  UH  in  hia  u»u  dlocce!  the  iiiber  reKuiuuoui    1 

Ste  Hanii,  Connf.  SuppL  iil,  33j. 

Usberweg;  Fkiedkich,  a  German  biitorian  of 
philcaopbv,  was  boni  iiear  Solingen,  Rhenish  I'nia- 
aia,  Jan.  72, 1826.  He  atudieil  at  (idttiiiKen  and  Ber- 
lin, waa  tutor  at  the  university  from  1M6S  lo  1862, 
and  waa  appointed  ptoreaior  of  philosophy  at  Kiiiii)^ 
berg  in  the  latter  year.  He  died  there,  June  T.  1871. 
He  wrote.  The  Dntlepmnt  ef  CimteiogtiK—  bg  Trach- 
m  (Berlin,  18;i3)  —SfHem  dn-  Logik  uml  Vrtc/iichll 
,itr  L^hen  Letrai  (Bonn,  1867;  Sd  ed.  1868;  Ehr- 
lish  iranal.  by  Thomas  Lindsay,  Lond.  1871):— 6'niiii<- 
rui  dtr  aackicklt  dtr  FiHofnpkin  cm  Thalit  Hi  at(f 
die  GtgBHtaH  (BtAm,  1862-06,3  vula.;  Engliab  transL 
br  Ueo.  S.  Morria.  N.  Y.  and  Lond.  1874,  2  rols.);— 
Uitl.  of  rkUoinpif  (N.  r.  lg7S):— and  other  min.T 

Vm  (Heb.  U4l',  i*mx,  via  n/  God,  accord,  to  Ge- 
ien.,  but  for  A btitl  [U-id  a  falhtr},  accord,  to  Flint ; 
Sept.  Uv^\  V.  r.  t»uifA,Viil|;.  t'r/},  a-'Bon"i>rBaiiiwho 
divorced  hia  Gentile  wi/e  alter  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x, 

U).   ac  laa 

nghelU,  FEiuiii<Atiiia,an  Italian  eccleaiastical  hia- 
lorian,  waa  bum  at  Florence,  March  21,  \bib.  After  pur- 
■uing  h»  atudiea  with  credit,  he  took  tbe  habit  of  tbe 
Cia(crciaii%  and  held  several  honondile  posts  i 


5  UHLAND 

der.  He  wai  appomted  abbot  oT  Tre  Fontane  at 
Some,  procuralor  in  bia  pravince,  and  counsellor  to 
the  Congregation  of  the  Index.  I^ipes  Aleiaader  VI I 
ind  Clement  IX  eMeemed  Dghellii  and  gare  him  a 
leuuon  of  Qve  hundred  erowna.  Ha  refused  offen 
of  Mveral  biahopiica,  He  died  May  19,  1670.  His 
ipal  work  is  lUdia  Sacra,  rite  dt  Kpiitofnt 
t,  ti  Iiuularum  Adjaanliam,  etc  (Rome,  1642- 
62,  7  vols.  fol. ;  reprinted,  Venice.  1717-22,  10  TolB.)t 
— also  Lica  of  Iht  Cardmali  of  tht  Cuttrdan  Oit/tr, 
etc 

Dglada  is  a  festival  of  praying  obaenred  among 

e  Cberemiases,  before  harreMing-time,  aa  an  occasion 

for  asking  the  ^>ecLal  blessing  of  the  gud  Agebeien  foi 


TTgolinO,  B1.AIBI0,  a  Jewish  a 


;ofVen 


1  174 


tbe  title  Thaaunit  A  Hligutialum  & 

StIttlMiHa  Claritiimonim  Viruram  Opu*- 

<ui  FrferKiii  Htbntoram  Mom,  Ltgrt,  Imli- 

l»la,JtiiiiiSacriftCivUallliulrantiir(\'eael.l7H-G9, 

34  vols.  foL).    This  Ttaannu  coutaina  what  the  tiUe 

itcs.   Therepublicofleamingof Ihe  17thaiHl  18th 

rie«  is  here  represented.     The  names  of  Bimlorf, 

Trighmd,  Wiisiius  Uoo-lwin,  llutlinger,  ITeiffer.MiKuni- 

us,  Rhenferd,  Bunfrere,  SeUlen,  Luwih,  Keland,  Huet, 

Bocbait,  CelUirius,  I'rideaux,  Clavering,  Opitx,  Van  Til, 

Carpzov,  Saubertius,  Spencer,  Ueyling,  Wagenaeil.  etc, 

are  found  among  the  contributors  lu  tbe  Tkaimrat, 

which  forms  a  library  in  itself.    IJf  course  meet  of  the 

works  of  tbe  autliors  mentioned  are  published  separate- 

ly,  but,  being  scarce,  this  TktianruM  will  always  be  pe- 

ised  with  great  profit  by  such  as  have  the  good  luck 

>  be  near  great  librariea  which  can  aSbrd  lo  keep  this 

upendous  work  on  their  ahelvel.    Besides  the  scholars 

the  editor  himself  has  largely  contrib- 


0  Ibis 


Hii 


I  uf  the  Talmiidical 
The  following 


ofth 


il.  xiv, 
of  great  importance. 
general  index  of  the  contents ; 


Vol.  T  BU({  vl  relate  1 
Vol. Til,  vlil,  U.X.I 
iicle,  Temple,  priealh 


xiirana-inri^r'i 


Hers  coDoecled  with 
IB  of  Ihe 


P^J 


bnleai 


■vlll.  ilx.  aud  XX  contalu  tra 
III  treats  of  tbe  synsgogiie,  rl 
nil  treats  of  Jewish  sects  nn 


I  nr  Jewish  tbeocncT. 

nnd  xit'll  Ireat  of  Jewish  civil  Inw. 

U  of  Jewlth,  Samartiau,  aud  Pbtenlclan 

ferrnce  lolhe  rile*  of  matrlaite,  diirorce. 

xxlllreal  of  Hebrew  poetry  aud  musical 

lies  to  mourning  and  hnrlal  rites  and 

IS  a  lonrlbid  Index  to  the  whole,  elvbig 
IB,  lAicorom  S.  Scripiurai,  Dii^iOnum  He- 


complete  list  of  lbe  conlenis  of  Ihe  single  vohitDcs  is 

ven  bv  Meusel,  BibliaOica  /titlariai,  I.  i,  118^2; 

d  Darling,  Ctdop.  BMiog.  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ubland,  Lunwio  Johufii,  a  C.ennan  doctor  and 

nfcssor  of  theologj-,  was  born  al  Tubingen,  Mav  16, 

1.^2,  where  he  aim  died,  Dec.  15,  IKI3.     He  wrote, /(e 

llitl. Ralaaraii port  iHlar. Orba  ab  Krila  \ote  rx  Arva 

Hfgne  ad  Ditprrriimem  Unlbim  (Tub.  17111)  —Ur  Or- 

dmr  Viilidnorum,qiia  m  Stdrrim  Propirt.  Xrripta  JCr- 

tiinl,  Chronologieo  (ibid.  17"H)  ■.—Amioli<rioiin  ad  Ijtta 

qaadam  Awvui,  Imprim.  Huloriea   libld.  1779-80):— 

Amiolalitma  m  llatra  Cip.  iii  (ibid.  I7H7);  Cri/).  r,  n, 

'789J;C<rp.r^4-lIi  I1l,IJi(ibid.  IJW);  tVip 


UHLE  6S 

vtit  (ibia.  1791)  i  Cap.  ix  (ibid.  179!)  i— />iucrf(ifw  Ext-  I 
grtica  in  Au^.  ij,  1-9  (ibid.  Ii89).  See  Winer,  Hand-  < 
6u(*  litr  (Aw/.  ti/era«ir,  i,  225-226,  280,  669 ;  u,810; 
Flint,  BiU.  Jud.  iii,  167  tq.    (a  P.) 

Utile,  Ai'GiisT  Ukoeio,  >  Protestant  Iheoluglin  of 
Gennany,  wu  bum  Jan.  16, 1737,  ■[  Brunswick.  He 
Huilieil  tlieology  and  philosophy  at  H«)mMe<1t.  Fur  a 
lime  he  iiislnicud  at  the  Orphanage  in  Bruiiiwick,  when, 
in  i;;o,  he  was  called  aa  pa&tur  ti>  the  Church  of  St. 
^giilius  at  Hanover.  In  1793  llie  learned  ucietj'  at  the 
Ha^e  awarded  to  him  the  second  pri^e  for  hia  diseerta- 
lioii  De  Jim  CkriUo  Vtro  Dei  fUio;  and  in  the  aame 
year  he  was  made  member  of  coniisiory  and  first  court- 
preacher.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  general  superiii- 
tendent,  anil  in  1801  he  was  honored  with  the  doclorate 
by  the  Udttingen  Univerait}'.  lie  died  May  12,  IBM. 
Uhle  wa»  not  only  very  well  acquainted  with  the  ancient 
clawical  wrilera,  but  alio  with  the  writing  of  Hume, 
I{iiberisan,<;ihbun,'rillalwii,Saurin,e(e.  In  philosophy 
he  k'aned  mure  lowards  ihe  ayuem  of  Leibnitz  and  Violt 
than  that  uf  Kant  i  he  was  leas  salisfied  with  Fichte  and 
Schclliug.  Amungthetierman  pulpit  orators  of  the  last 
century  Uhle  holila  a  prominent  place.  For  his  writings, 
see  During,  IhutKhe  Katadrtilntr,  p.  C>5I.     (B.  P.) 

Uhlemann,  Friedkich,  ■  Cicrman  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theoli^v.waa  bom  at  Zeiti,  Nov.  26.  1795,  and 
died  at  Uerlin,  .Viiril  IS,  1864.  He  ia  the  author  oT  lle- 
braueit  SpraMtkn  (Berlin,  lS-27)i— fifcismfu.**™ 
dir  tgriichtn  Sprada  (ibid.  IH29;  2<1  ed.  1867;  Engl, 
iransl.  by  &.  Huichinaon,  N.  Y.  IS&S ) :  — /RMi((tfwn» 
Lingua  iianariUina :  acetd.  Chrtitemalh,  Samar.  mm 
GUiuario  (Lips.  I«37):— /)«  Varia  CiMid  CarOteoTum 
iBltrprtlandi  lUili/mr  (Berlin,  1839 ) :— .4 n/nttui^  turn 
UtbtTKttm  out  drm  DeulmAta  in  dm  IIAraiidie  (ibid. 
1839-41,  2  pis.):— Srnnn  dtr  trtt  SSuleaieii^  in 
Sgrirn  und  irin  HinfluH  avf  dit  vfilert  Verbrttluiig  del 
CiriUnUlitiiM  im  Uriail  (Lrips.  IS46).  See  Zuebold, 
BUd.  ThoiL  ii,  1301;  FUrst,  BibLJaJ.  iii,  457;  Siein- 
ichneider,  hiblioi,.  llaadb.  p.  142.     (0.  P.) 

Ublicb,  Lekereciit,  a  German  sectary,  the  head 
of  the  »-call»l  Lighffritndi  (l.ichlfrennde),  was  bnm 
Feb.  27, 1799,  at  Ktilhen.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle 
from  1817  In  1820  under  Wegschcider,  was  tutor  ac  K<i- 
then,  and  in  1827  he  went  lo  Prussia  as  pastor  in  POm- 
melle,  near  Schonebeck.  In  1841  he  organized  the  lib- 
eral preacbera'  nieelin((s  at  (inadBU,which  floally  led 
to  the  formatinn  of  the  Society  of  the  ProtesUnt 
Friends,  or  [.ichlfrtattdt.  Uhlich  became  the  spiritual 
head  of  ihia  muvcment,  and  soon  obtained  ailherenls  in 
different  countries,  especially  in  the  north  of  Germany. 
He  went  from  place  lo  place  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
siding at  Ihe  meetings  held  by  his  adherents,  until,  in 
184.^,  he  wiu  forbidden  to  leave  bis  parish  without  per- 
mission. In  the  same  year  he  waa  called  to  SUCatiia- 
rine'i  Church  in  Magdeburg,  where  he  went  on  in  his 
luHial  way.  But  his  low  views  of  Christianity  brought 
him  iniocot)flict  with  his  consistory,  until  hewasHnally 
suspended  from  hisollice  in  September,  IB17,  He  now 
led  the  Church  and  put  himself  at  the  beadofa  free  re- 
ligious congreRSlinn  at  Magileburg,  where  he  labored 
until  March  23,  1872.  Uhlich  waa  a  preacher  of  con- 
siderable popular  eloquence  and  managing  talent,  sin- 
cere witlial,  and  of  an  unblemished  character;  but  his 
verylow  views  of  Christianity  Qually  led  him  to  a  phi- 
lanthropico-pantheistic  naturalism,  which  he  presented 
in  ■  popular  manner  \>etatK  his  audience.  Speaking  of 
the  Dissenting  sect* in  Getniany,Dr..Schaff,  with  reganl 
to  the  Lichlfreunde,  Mya,  "U  is  deeply  humiliating 
that  a  BuperOcial  rationalism  which  was  supposed  lo  be 
dead  and  buried  could  create  auch  a  commotion  in  a 
state  like  Prussia,  and  on  the  classical  soil  of  the  Lu- 
theran Keformation.  Blii  the  emptiest  wagons  often 
make  the  ef**'6St  noise"  (Ctrmany,ili  Unireriitin, 
etc,  p.  144).  or  course  it  was  only  a  noise,  and  I 
as  "for  the  development  of  the  historj-  of  doctrine 
Protcstaiit  Friends,"  as  Uagenbach  says,  "  have 


6  CLAI 

a  negative  importance,  and  their  place  is  rather  in  tbe 
transient  story  of  the  day  than  in  the  earnest  hitiay 
ofieligioiu  truth"  (//Mf.n/'iJiicfrvKiiii,  410).  L'iilieh 
wrote  a  great  deal,  and  his  publicalions  conust  mainly 
of  sermons  and  diwouiwa,  for  which  see  Znchold.  BitL 
TAwJ-ii,  1S61  sq.  See  akto  his  ^ufoiMi^iijnlr  (Magde- 
burg, 1872):  Thialogitchti Unii!trtal-Ltx.t.y.;  Niedncr, 
KirciaigachiiAlt,  p.  912  sq.     (R  P.) 

nj«D,  In  HiiHlii  mythology,  was  a  celebrated  kinf 

in  the  dynasty  of  the  Children  of  Ihe  Moon.     He  was 

married  to  Marwa,  who  presented  him  with  twodsugt- 

lers,  Mirkinda  attd  Laahmene,  two  of  Ihe  seven  pria- 

ssea  that  became  Krishna's  llrst  wires. 

Ukko  (the  aRdem  or  konoriMt)  waa  the  chief  god 

ofthe  Finns, "the celestial  old  man," "the  god  offaeac- 

He  was  Ihe  first  of  tbe  trinity  composed  of  hia>- 

sdf,  WiUntim&inen,  and  Ilmaiinen.    He  appeared  mow- 

even  as  a  Itnt  principle,  whence  his  surname  d 

nuJd,  "the  supreme  go<l."     In  case  of  woands,tlie 

secondary  deities  were   resorted  to  for  a  cure;   bat, 

order  to  complete   and   consolidate    the   work  of 

!  kiaer  divinities,  tbe  intenention  of  tikko  wai 

needed.     The  cure  of  a  wound  needing  Ihe  fiirmatim 

w  flesh  was  considered  a  regular  act  of  creatieiiT 

herefore  tbe  help  of  the  creative  power  biniKlf 

was  necessary. 

Ulcknma,  the  great  apirit  of  the  Esqaimani,  a  be- 
ing of  inllnilegAodnese,towhom  they  ■(^yfor  the  sat- 
■jifying  of  all  their  wania. 
nknaz.    See  Ksmaz  4. 

tr'lal  [many  P'fat]  (Heb.  Ulag',  iilS»  [in  piae 
'^OX],  probably  PtUti  Am-Haleih,  L  e.  "pure  waler;' 
tip*,  OiXnt:  TbeodoUon,Ou^X  ;  Vulg.  I'lai)  is  men- 
i  by  Daniel  (viii,  2, 16)  as  a  rivet  near  Susa.  when 
w  hia  vision  of  the  ram  and  Ihe  be-goat.  It  bai 
generally  been  identified  with  the  Kvlirui  of  the  tiitdi 
and  Roman  geographers  (MaTT%  Heracl.  p,  IS;  Aniaa, 
£rp..4tvii,7;  Strabo,xv,3,22;  Ptolemv, vi,3i  Pliny, 
//.  A',  vi,  Sl),a  large  stream  in  tbe  immediate  neigbbnt^ 
hood  of  that  city,  This  identification  may  be  safely  al- 
lowed, resting  as  it  docs  on  the  double  ground  of  tlose 
verbal  reaeiublance  in  the  two  names,  and  complttt 
agreement  as  lo  Ihe  situation.  The  Knbeus  has  hcH 
by  many  identified  with  the  C*ojtijv»,  which  is  an- 
doubtedly  the  modem  Ktrkhah,  an  affluent  of  Ihe  IV 
gris,  flowing  into  it  a  little  below  Kumah.  B}'  otben 
it  has  been  regarded  as  the  ATuroa,  a  large  rii-er  cm- 
siderablv  farther  to  the  east  ward,  which  enters  tbe  Kh«r 
Bamishir,  near  Mohammerah.     Some  have  even  lug- 


1. 1'he  general  grounds  on  which  the  Eulnn  bai 
been  identified  with  the  Choaspes,  and  so  with  tb> 
Kcrkbah  (Solmauns,  lioaenmllller,  Wahl,  Kilto,  etc.), 
are  the  mention  of  each  separately  by  ancient  writers  si 
"the  river  of  Suaa,"  and,  more  espcciallv,  tbe  state- 
ments made  bv  some  (Strabo,  Plinv)  that  the  water  t^ 
the  Eulieus,  by  olbera  (Herod.,  Atheneujs  PluUreh,Q. 
Curtius)  that  that  of  the  Choaspes,  was  Ihe  only  wala 
tasted  by  the  Persian  kings.  Against  Ihe  identMcsliM 
it  must  be  noticed  that  Stribo,  Pliny,  Snlinus,  and  Polv- 
dims  (ap.  Slrabo,  xv,  S,  4)  reganl  the  rivers  as  distinct, 
and  that  Ihe  lower  course  ofthe  KulEus,as  described  br 
Arrian  (Exp.  ,H  vU,  7)  and  Pliny  {  W.  A",  vi,  S6),  is  so* 
as  cannot  possibly  be  reconciled  with  that  of  tbe  K(f- 

2.  The  grounds  for  regardiiig  the  Euleus  is  the  Ku- 
ran  are  decidedly  stronger  than  those  for  identifying  it 
with  the  Kerkhah  or  Choaapes,  No  one  can  compsit 
the  voyage  of  Nearchos,  in  Arrian's  /ndtai,  with  .*r- 
nan's  own  account  ofAlexatider'B  descent  ofthe  Eulosi 
(vii,7)  without  seeing  that  the  Eulma  of  the  nnenB^ 
rative  ia  the  Paaitigris  of  the  or'  '•■  Pui- 


ULAM  e 

6gni  ■>  tbc  Kunn  Is  ilmoM  uniTerull;  admitted.    In- 
iKd,  it  iniy  be  Hid  Dint  all  BCcounU  of  the  linKr  £u- 
tui— those  of  Arri»n,  Pliny,  Polyditiu,  Kid  Ptolemy— 
Idcniiry  it,  beyond  the  possibility  of  mistake,  nith  the 
Wer  Kunin,  iDd  that  »  tti  there  ooght  to  be  no 
itg«enf.    The  difficulty  is  with  re«pect  to  the  t 
EuLnu.     Tbe  Eulsus,  according  to  Pliny,  aurrou 
the  citulel  of  Su»  (vi,  37),  wherea*  ere'ii  the  Dizfu] 
branch  of  Ibe  Kuran  does  not  come  within  six  mil 
Ihe  niinii.     It  lay  to  the  west,  not  only  of  the- Paaiiigris 
(Kuran).  but  also  of  Ihe  Copratea  (tiver  of  Diiful), 
tsrdine  to  Diodorua  (xii,  IS,  10).     So  far,  it  might 
the  Skapar,  bat  (or  two  objections.     The  Shapur  is 
nnaU  a  stream  to  have  attracted  the  general  notice 
gtographera,  and  Ita  water  ia  of  so  bad  a  character  t 
it  could  never  have  been  chosen  fur  th«  royal  Uble 
(GtograpA.  Jount,  ix,  70).    There  is  also  an  important 
nmice  in  Pliny  entirely  incompatihle  with  the  n< 
that  the  short  atraam  of  the  Shapnr,  which  risn  ii 
plain  ibouE  Ave  miles  to  the  N.N.W.urSiisa.caiTb 
true  Euheus.     Pliny  saya  (vi,  31)  the  Eulwii  lo 
Mrdiii,  anil  Bowed  through  Meaabatenft     Now,  tl 
exactly  true  of  the  upper  Kerkhah,  wbich  rises  near 
Hamadan  (Ecbatana),  and  flows  down  the  distrii 
Hahnbadan  (Heaobatene). 

The  result  is  that  Ihe  varioua  notices  of  ancient 
ers  appear  to  identify  the  upper  Eulaua  with  the  upper 
Kerkhah,  and  the  lower  Eulaus,  quite  unmistakably, 
with  Ihe  lower  Kuran.  A  recent  survey  of  the  ground 
has  BOfTgeated  a  aatisfaclory  explanation.  Tt  appeara 
that  the  Kerkhah  once  bifurcnled  at  Pai  Put,  abont 
twenty  inilea  noith-wot  of  .Suu,  sending  oat  a  branch 
which  pBMed  east  of  tbe  luins,  absorbing  into  it  the 
Shapur.  and  flawinK  on  acroea  the  plain  in  a  &S.E.  di- 
■tction  tUI  it  fell  into  Ihe  Kuran  at  Ahwai  (Loflus, 
Ckaidata  awi  Stmaa,  p.  4S4,  Hb).  Thus,  the  upper 
Kerkhah  and  the  lower  Kuran  wen  in  old  times  united, 
and  might  be  viewed  as  furming  a  single  stream.  The 
name  Euhnia  (Ulai)  seems  lo  have  applied  most  prop- 
erly to  the  eastern  branch  stream  from  Pai  Ful  to 
Ahwai;  tbe  stream  above  Pai  Pul  wai  sometimes  called 
the  Eulsus,  but  was  more  properly  the  (^hoaspea,  which 
was  also  the  sole  name  of  Ihe  western  branch,  or  present 
ooune,t>rthe  Kerkhah  from  Pai  Pul  lo  the  Tigris.  Tbe 
name  l^itigris  waa  proper  to  the  upper  Kuran  from  ita 
source  la  jia  junciiun  with  the  Euheus,  after  which  the 
two  iiRfnes  were  equally  applied  to  Ihe  lower  lirer. 
The  Diiful  stream,  which  was  not  very  generally 
known,  waa  called  (he  Copraus.  It  is  believed  that 
(his  view  of  the  river  names  will  reconcile  and  make  in- 
uUigible  aU  the  notices  of  them  contained  in  the  an- 
cient writera.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  water 
wbich  the  IVrsian  kings  drank,  both  at  the  court  and 
when  they  tnvelled  abroad,  was  that  oflbo  Kerkhah. 
taken  pnriiabty  froni  the  eastern  branch,  or  proper  Ru- 
laua,  which  washed  the  walls  of  3uaa,  and  (according 
to  Pliny)  waa  ubbI  lo  strengthen  iu  defences.  This 
water  was,  and  still  is,  believed  to  pnaseea  peculiar  liffil- 
atu  (.Stnbo,  xr,  S,  'ii ;  GtoffrapH.  Joam.  in,  70),  ami  is 
tbougbl  to  be  at  once  more  wholesome  and  more  pleas- 
Sec  Poner,7'roreiii,ii,4IS;  Kinneir,/V»iaH/fnpirp, 
p.  100- 106 :  Sir  H.  Kawlinaon,  in  Gtagiaplt.  Jaunt,  ix, 
B)-93i  l^vard,  ibid,  xvi,  91-04;  Loftua,  Ckaldaa  and 
aaiiaaa,  p.  4i4-43l. 

Vlam  (IIeb.riuiH',nVw;>o(TA,-  SepLOuXn/iv.r. 
occAiionally  A/U/i).  the  nanie  of  two  Hebrewa. 

1.  First  lumed  of  the  two  anns  of  Sheresh  and  father 
of  Deilan  in  the  Uiltadite  posterity  of  Uanasseh  ( 1 
Cbron.  vl,  IG,  17).     RC.  cir.  IGIS. 

3.  The  drsi-boni  of  Eahek  among  the  descendants  of 
king  Saul,  and  Ihe  ancestor  uf  one  hun<lred  and  ddy 
valiant  archen  (1  Chron.  viii,  Bd.  40).     EC.  cir.  b88. 

niber,  CauiTTA!)  Samuel,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian ofGcrniaD}',*aabi>ni  Aug.  36,  1714,at  Landshut, 
in  Sileaia.     He  >'  -u  appointed  pastor 


:7  ULLA 

■t  Heineradorf,  in  Klesia,  in  1787 1  in  1741  he  waa 
called  to  his  native  place,  and  in  1767  la  Hamburg, 
whet^  he  (tied  Aug.  27,  1776.  Ulber  was  not  only  a 
man  o(  great  learning,  but  also  a  good  pulpit  orator. 
His  numerous  writings  are  more  of  an  ascetical  nature, 

are  enumerated  in  During,  tirkhrte  ThtolngtH  Dtultei- 
JuMcft,  iv,  M7  sq.     (EP.) 

Ulenberg,  Caspar,  a  RonMn  Catholic  priest  of 
Germany,  was  bom  of  Lutheran  parents  in  1549,  at 
Lippstadi.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg.  Al  Ologne 
he  succeeded  in  bringing  back  ■  couMn  of  his,  who  had 
become  a  Homan  Catholic,  to  Ihe  Lutheran  Church ; 
but  in  1572  they  both  Joined  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
Ulenberg  was  appointed  teacher  at  Gilogiie.  In  1676 
he  received  holyurders,was*ppaintedpasloratKaiKr»- 
wetth,and  in  1663  was  made  canon  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Swibertua.  From  1593  to  1616  he  atood  at  the  head  uf 
the  gymnasium  in  Cologne,  where  he  died  as  pastor  of 
St.  Cuiiibert's,  Feb.  IB,  IU17.  He  ia  the  author  of  Z>k 
Ptaimm  Daridt  in  alltilrilfiitieht  GaansramtriptbraeAt 
(Cologne,  1582;  fiih  ed.  1709).  See  Koch,  Grttk.  da 
dtuuckm  KircheiUiedf,  ii,  44!  aq.     (R  P.) 

Ulfllaa  (tnphUaB,  Ulfila,  or  Wulfila,  pmb.= 
ViitfiUt,ot  "wolfkiii"), a  Gothic  bishop,  u as  bum  amonK 
the  Goths  in  310  (or  311,  or  313),  and  ia  believed  to 
have  belonged  to  a  family  at  Cappadocian  (Tlirisiiana 
whom  the  Goths  bad  carried  into  captivity  (Philostorg. 
I/itl.  Ecdtt.Vi.i).  Having  mastered  tbe(k>tliic,Greek, 
and  Hebrew  languages,  he  became  bishop  of  the  Goi  hs 
in  341, and  (according  to  AuKenlius)  in  348  settled,  with 
pennisHOn  o(  the  emperor  Constantius,  in  Masinn  ter- 
ritory, near  Nicopolis.  He  propagaieil  among  his  peo- 
ple the  love  of  letters,  formed  an  alphabet  of  twenty- 
four  characters,  baseil  on  the  Greek,  and  translated  into 
Mmao-Gothic  the  whole  Bible,  excepting  Kings.  Ul. 
filas  was  a  semi- Arian,  subscribed  to  the  Creed  of  KImini 
in  359,  nai  at  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  in  300,  and 
died  while  attending  the  <F.cunienica]  Council  of  381. 
Ulfllas's  Bible  was  constantly  used  by  Ihe  (inihic  people 
so  long  aa  they  maintained  their  nationality,  but  in  the 
9th  century  it  disappeared.  In  the  latter  part  of  ihe 
I6lh  centur}',  Arnold  Mercalor  discovered  in  Ihe  Abbey 
of  Werden  a  fragment  containing  tbe  four  gispels.  It 
was  the  so-colleil  Codtx  .4i;;enfrii(,  written  with  silver 
letters  on  purple  parchment.  It  i*  now  preserved  at 
Upsala,  Sweden.  Another  fragment,  containing  nearly 
all  Ihe  epistles  of  St.  Psut,  was  discovered  in  1X18  on 
some  palimpsests  by  canlinal  Mai  and  count  Castiglioni 
in  the  Lombarilian  monastery  of  Bobbio,  and  published 
at  Milan  (1819-39).     See  Gothic  Vkksiom.     Among 

Massmann.  and  Siamm.  A  new  edition  bv  Drnihardt 
appeared  at  Halle  in  187C  See  Dessel.  [■•b'r  dut  l.rbm 
(/<->  UlfibuttitdditBrkthniagdfrGiilhmi\9fa);  Waitz, 
I'^ter  dai  l.ebai  and  dit  Ukn  da  fffilt  (1840). 

UlfmnB,  in  Sorae  mythology,  was  one  of  the  nine 
beautiful  giant-maidens,  and  became  mother  of  the  god 
Heimdal.  the  guard  of  heaven. 

Ulln.  JoHK,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  waa  bom  in  Virginia  in  1792  or  1793.  After 
preaching  len  or  eleven  i-ears  aa  a  local  preacher,  he 
wasadmitledlotheOhioCnnrerencein  1826.  He  died 
of  tbe  cholera,  near  New  Richmond.  I)., . I  uly  13,  1833. 
Success  attended  hii  minialrj-.  See  Jllimlei  n/Ammat 
Confirnmi,  ii,  276. 

mina,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  surname  of  A  polh. 
It  ia  uncertain  whether  he  carried  this  name  as  a  god 
of  deslmction  or  presenation.  To  him  Theseus  made 
an  oath  conditioned  upon  his  safe  return  from  Crete. 

Ul'la  (lleb.  Uaa%  sir.  joie  or  iardn ,-  Hopi.  OXa 
v.r. 'QXii-.  Vulg.OUu),  a  descendant  of  Asher  (perhaps 
the  son  of  Jelher  or  Itbran),  and  Ihe  father  of  four  sane 
cslcemeit  among  thevaliantchiefsof  the  tribe  (1  Chroo. 
rii,  89>    B.C.  apparently  cit.  1014. 


ULLAN  MACHAIT^  OS 

mian  Blachaltie,  in  the  nligian  oftbe  Lamuui, 

wu  a  Beet  calling  tliriDwIvea  tbe  Rtd-coft,  Tti«y  do 
not  rccDffiibe  Ualii-Lamk  u  their  bead,  but  hxie'their 
own  cliief,  tiagiv  Lama.     Tb*  aovereignty  belongt  to 

Ulldra,  in  the  (upsiititioD  of  the  Norw*gian«,w«i 
the  name  of  Ilie  rirer  ileity  upon  vrhooi  de[«ndeil  luc- 
een  and  hlening  in  fiahing.  Hie  ftkVia  wu  lougbt  in 
like  manner  ra  thalof  Nipnu 

trUflr,  in  Knrae  mytb<ilog]r,  wu  tbe  too  of  tbe 
beauiiful   golden -haired    Sif.  wcond   wife   of  Thor; 

UUer  is  renowned  aa  ■  good  protecloi  and  an  ex- 
cellent hunter,  and  willu  upon  acalee,  which  are  iu- 
diapcnaabla  in  Nomy,  with  great  alacrity,  ao  that 
no  one  ia  competent  to  keep  up  with  him,  fur  which 
he  ia  called  Weida  As,  the  hunting  Aai.  In  the 
legend  of  Uller,  that  be  waa  made  iiing  aubaequent 
" It  ftom  Aigard,  erentiially,  '    ~ 


UlLoiaiuii  Karl,  an  eminent  German  dnclor  and 
proleaaor  of  t  heology,  WIS  bom  March  15, 179G,alEpren- 
bach.in  the  Palatinate,  andiludied  at  the  Univenity  of 
Tllbinf^n,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Ubland,  PGzer,  and  Schwab.  In  1819  be  look  his  de- 
gree as  doctor  of  philosophy,  and  commenced  his  pro- 
^■Hunal  career  at  Heidelberg  with  lectures  on  exegeiia 
and  Church  history.  For  ten  yeare  he  stayed  at  Heidel- 
berg and  published  during  this  period,  Dtr  itcrite  Btief 
Petri  iriluck  unlfmcht  (Heiilelb.  1821) :  —  Uiber  dm 
durch  IV.  Fr,  RiKct  ant  armm.  VrhtrKliiinfi  Mtarml 
fftmadUm  driller  Brief  Pauli  an  die  CorinUn-  (ibid. 
1823)  i—Di  llypHilariu  (ibiiUeod.)  i-^Gr^n/  ofNati- 
aiaum  (Darmaiadt,  18SS;  Sd  ed.  1867),  which,  as  Dr. 
SchafT  says,  is  "  ihc  moat  complete  work  on  tbe  life  and 
doctrines  of  this  eminent  divine  of  the  ancient  (irech 
Church,  who,  for  his  able  defence  of  the  Nicene  faith 
and  Ihc  divinity  of  Christ,  was  emphatically  atylcd  the 
'Theologian.'"  In  182(1,  together  with  his  friend  Ui 
breit  (q.  v.),  he  also  commenced  the  publication  of  t 
well-known  Sludiai  und  Krilitm,  which  Itas  been  be- 
fore the  public  ever  since,  and  is  uill  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  learned  theological  JounialsofUeimany.  For 
the  first  volume  of  this  journal  Cllmann  wrote  an  essay 
nalbe  Sinletititin>fJtiHi,vhKb  was  afterward*  printed 
separutclv,  and  published  in  its  seventh  edition  in  1863 
(Engl,  transl.  by  a  Taylor,  Edinb.  1870).  "In  its  im- 
proved form,"  soj^s  Dr.  Sehaff,  "it  must  certainly  b" 
□umbered  among  tbe  tnost  valuable  contributions  l 
the  ■pologeliu  literaliirc  of  tbe  Church,  and  is  betti 
calculat»l,  in  our  judgment,  Co  satisfy  an  inquiring  an 
well-cultivate  J  mind  on  the  elaims  of  our  holy  religio 
y  large  volumes  on  the  evidences  of  CbrJ! 


It  I 


self  foitnil  the  truth,  and  by  which  many  a  thmlcigical 
student  of  (icrmany  has  since  escaped  the  whirlpool  of 
rationalimi  and  pantheism. ...  It  is  impnealble  to  read 
this  book  attentively  without  being  eililied  as  well  as 
instrneled,  and  overwhelmed  with  the  glnryof  the  only 
begotten  of  the  Father  thai  shines  through  the  veil 
of  his  Heah  upon  the  eve  of  faith  and  enlightened  rea- 
son." In  I»i9  L'llmann  was  called  to  Halle,  and  fur 
•bout  seven  years  he  lectured,  besides  Church  history, 
on  symbolica  and  dngmaiice;  and  in  1K30  he  returned 
■gain  to  Heidelberg  as  profeaaor  of  eccleaiaatical  his- 
tory and  Church  couucillor,  and  spent  there  the  best 
years  of  bis  manhood.  When,  in  lHa3,  llllmann  was 
elected  to  the  prelacy.or  the  highest  eceleaiasiical  dig- 
nity of  the  Evangelical  Church,  in  the  granil-duchy 
of  Baden,  be  withdrew  from  the  academic  chai 


ULLMANN 


build  Dp  the  Protestant  Church  of 
I,  which  was  deeply  undermined  by  iheulncial 

.alism  and  political  red  -  republicanism.    When, 

however,  the  liberal  element  became  too  strong,  ht  r»- 
tired  in  1861  from  all  public  affairs,  and  died  Jin.  1^ 
1865. 
Utimann,  starting  fruni  Ibe  school  of  ScbleientiBchn 
d  Neandei,  was  at  lirst  aomewbal  latitudinariin  in 
docliine  and  loo  compromiaing  in  dispoHiion,  but  lis 
grew  with  the  better  spirit  of  the  age  in  onbiKlnij 
and  evangelical  sentiment.  Thus  be  not  only  (oiik 
part,  while  at  Halle,  in  the  efCirts  made  agunsl  tbe 
still  existing  remnant  of  rationalism,  but  abo  used  all 
means  at  the  General  SyncKl.  which  met  at  Cailsndie 
in  IS&6,  to  have  tbe  ralionaliatic  catechism  herttolbre 
in  use  replaced  by  a  better  one  eonstructed  on  the  buii 
of  the  small  Lutheran  and  Heidelberg  catechlHO. 
Similar  reforms  he  introduced  with  regard  lo  the  liiin- 
gy  and  the  common  school-books.  Hal  more  than 
through  hia  ecclesiaalical  refurms,  he  acquired  a  lut- 
ing reputation  by  a  number  of  works  "equally  diiliib 
guished  fur  solid  and  welUliBused  historical  infuimi- 
tion,  comptehenaive  viewa,  calm  and  clear  redectioa, 
dignified  and  concilialing  tune,  and  masterly  po*er  af 
exhibition."  Besides  thnae  already  mentioned,  we  niBt 
his  l/itloriKh  adtr  ^yAwtA  (HaiiiburK,  1838),  in  nbich 
he  brings  out  the  ugniAcatinn  of  Chriat'a  penonalicy 
under  a  historical  point  of  view,  as  an  unaosweiable  a^ 
gument  to  the  infidel  work  of  Strauss  on  the  life  i4 
Jesus  :_Z>a>  Watn  da  Ch>-ulailkimi  (ilud.  ISIS;  iA 
ed.  18G5),  with  a  critical  appendix  on  Feuetbach's  ia- 
famous  book  on  the  essence  of  Christ ianiiy  i—Zir  £f- 
rj/lla  Botlrtao  rjatqut  Dodrma  Cmnrntnlario  ( ilnd. 
1836).  But  bis  main  work,  which  has  assigned  (» Iiin 
a  rank  among  the  first  Church  historians  of  the  prrsmi 
century,  is  his  Rrformrrt  In/on  the  Rr/ormatiim  (ISll- 
42, 2  vols^  forming  also  a  part  of  Clark's  FQiris^  TItt- 
logical  Library),  This  work  "is  certainly  one  of  Ihe 
strongest  historical  arguments  for  Ihe  Kefoimstiw 
that  have  yet  been  ;iresenied.  .  .  .  What  Flaciua  »- 
tempted  in  a  crude  form  in  the  infancy  of  Proienau 
historiography,  and  with  an  unmeasured'  polemical  h>1 
Bgainal  the  Romanists  of  his  age,  Ullmaitn  has  canitil 
out  with  all  the  help  of  OKidem  erudition,  in  the  oln, 
irulh-loving  spirit  of  an  impartial  hialorian,  and  vitk 
full  acknowledgment  of  the  great  and  abiding  metiu 
of  Calholicism  as  Ihe  Christianizer  and  riviliier  odht 
barbarian  luliona  of  Ibe  Dark  Ages.  Willi  him  tin 
Befiirmstioii  is  not  so  much  a  rebellion  as  the  Ih.int 
and  fruit  ralhcr  of  the  better  and  deqirr  life  of  Chris- 
tianity that  slumbered  in  tbe  maternal  boeom  of  aw- 
diieval  Catholidam.  Thla,  it  seems  to  us,  is  Ihe  n>- 
blest  and  strongest  historical  vindication  of  it'  (Sctiall. 
In  these  two  volumes  special  attention  is  paid  to  tk 
German  and  Dutch  forerunners  of  t)ieKeformalionh«B 
the  13th  to  the  l&th  century,  who  are  treated  wilh  ex- 
haustive minuteness  of  detail.  Here  we  find  Irnstwonhy 
and  carefully  sifted  information  on  the  life  and  ihMl- 
ngy  of  John  (ioch,  John  Weasel,  the  Brethren  of  ihi 
Common  Life,  and  the  varioua  schoobi  of  i  he  myMir% 
Ruysbroek,  Susu,  Tauter,  Tbomos  k  Kempis,  tfaeantm;- 
moua  author  of  the  curious  tract  on  German  ihroliigT. 
and  Siaupiu,  the  patron  and  early  friend  of  I.uiber. 
The  latter  and  principal  part  of  the  second  volume  coa- 
laina  the  author's  former  moiu^raph  on  John  Weml 
(Hamburg,  1884)  in  an  improved  form  oliirh  kavis 
but  little  to  be  adiled.  "Bui  the  work  of  Ullmnnn,W- 
though  very  satisfactory  as  far  as  it  goes,  does  tint  s- 
haust  the  general  subjecl,  which  would  requii 


He 


It  Carls 


whole 


>e  Church.    In 
hia  like-minded  colleague.  Iha  learned  Dr.  Biihr.  au- 
thor of  Sfmbolitm  a/  the  Uotaic  Worihif,  he  faith- 


wtbt 


hem  ia,  of  Savonarola  in  lialy.and  of  what  ia  genrnllt 
called  the  Kevivil  of  Letters  and  Claasical  Leamlif 
by  such  men  as  Erasmus,  Keuchlin,  Agricola :  nut  n 
apeak  of  tbe  more  negative  prepatation  of  i  he  Kefont* 
'"    '   "  lof  Ibe  Middle  Ago,  » 


ti  by  the  anii-Catholic  tt 


ULPHIT.AS  61 

I  pKuIljr  Ihe  WililcnMS  •nil  Albigenwa"  (SchalT).  Be- 
'  (iiln  (ii»e  workB  there  are  ■  iiiimbcr  of  etuyi  from  hu 
pn  ID  ibt  Slitdifii  und  /jTri/i^m,  ajid  other  iretttset 
jutJubed  aeparalely.  See  ZuAoU,hibl.Tliiol.ii,lB65 
Mj.;  Htaag,  Rtal-Enrytlep.  s.  v.;  TirologucArl  Cni- 
fnaJ'LenkoKj  ■.  y^i  Schiff,  Gtrniani/,  iU  Umverttiiet, 
«..,  p,  34a  K].!  UevKhUg,  Dr.  Curl  Ctlmatat  (Galh*. 
iaa)\Schtn\t\,AUgemaneliii-<MickeZalKhrifi(im.l), 
]..  H;  (a\.;  Kuru,  iJihi^ieh  der  KackaisadiKliU  <,Ui- 
lu.  1874),  ii,  381  iq.  (H.  P.> 
tnphllas.  See  Ultiiab. 
DIric  OF  AiTOSBiTBO,  ID  llie  10th  century,  occiipiei)  i 
nHtHWthy  pouiion  uiiaDg  bii  conleinponries  both  ■! 
■  prince  iDiI  ■  prelate  He  wu  bum  about  A.D.  890  at 
Augihur);.educuedatSl.Gall,and  ordained  lobisbith- 
opric  Dei.  98,  92B.  In  ■comlince  with  the  cuatom  of 
hi)  lime,  he  fuUuwed  viih  hia  retainera  (he  aundanlB 
of  ihe  emp«runi  Henry  I  and  Otto  L    He  was  inauen- 

itflced  »n  duke  Liutulf  in  9M,  ami  in  the  following 
T(ar  he  won  great  fame  by  aaucceaBrul  defence  of  Au)^ 

buiE  againal  Ihe  Magyara.  He  wai  equally  zealuua  in 
the  ereelion  and  adorning  of  cburchea  and  chapels,  and 
in  the  Teiioration  of  citiei,  caillea,  dwellings,  and  liinda. 
'  '         ■     Ripport  of  inipoi 


Intl: 


.nofhi 


nakejoiir 

III  diipenK  Jiwtice,  conrer  abwilutiim,  and  examine  the 
tAcial  comluci  and  private  lire  of  bis  clergy.  He  great- 
ly iDcnastd  the  Dumber  of  feativala  and  the  pomp  with 
which  they  were  obwrved,  and  he  was  eminently  zeal- 
unB  in  the  collection  of  relica.  He  wa^  in  brier,athor- 
••igh  exponent  of  the  piely  of  hia  ^gt,  and  alio  ■  Ane 
tpccinien  of  Ihe  militant  charchman.  Towards  the 
ckne  1^  hb  life  he  became  more  thoruughir  an  aacelic 
thin  before,  and  aiaumed  the  Benedictine 'habit.  He 
iHed  July  4,  978.  Soon  after  hti  deoeaae,  it  was  re- 
pined that  rnirsclea  were  wrought  upon  peraoiii  who 
viMied  hi*  in^ve.and  hia  memory  and  lemainaweic  ao- 
(•ifdinglT  highly  renenl«d  in  Augsburg  and  vicinitv. 
l'n>v«t'Uerhard,who  hul  been  Ulrica  omsUnt  eom- 
pauiun  io  lh«  cloaiug  yean  of  the  biahnp'a  life,  wrota  a 
Ufr,  in  whicb  many  of  these  wonder*  are  mentioned ; 
'  1  the  biahopric,  Liutulf,  penuaded 


p»pe  J»hn  XT  u 
■hia  effect  was  iui 
at  Ihe  firM  clearly 
ilietr 


Ihe  bi 


vorlhi 


I  of  the  excellencea  of  characlei  in  CbrialiaDs, 
to  a  lajnt-worihjp  establithed  by  decree  of  the  pope. 

L'lric'i  name  is  menlione<l  in  eotinectiun  with  the 
aiitbsnhip  of  aevenl  writings,  but  without  satiBTaelory 
proof.  The  lint  ii  entitled  Kiailao  tMmino  et  Patri  S. 
Sam.  Ltd.  Proatori  V.  [tme  USS.  have  C]  lolii  No- 
■ne  Efnic.  A  moron  ut  FSiut,  Tiatoien  ut  Serrat,  in 
Uaneneel  Dunad,  A  mpliu.  CoOatia,  p.  ii9-ibi.  It 
WBiSiM  printed  by  Fladus  in  1550,  and  afleTwaidi  in- 
■  ■  -his  Calalogui  Talium  Vrriluii*.  The 
1  Sywdalit  Parach.  PrtAgl.  m  Sgmd. 
EtrtUundui,  on  which  comp,  Vogel,  Bulhrriui  voa  Vt- 
rma  (Jena,  1854),  i,  843,  noi«,  Th«  laH  is  an  EpiU.  dt 
Vila  Soiiagi  Epiic.  CmuUmlitiuii.  The  best  source  on 
Ulrie  i*  the  biography  translated  by  Uerhard  (9ttB-993), 
and  published  by  WaiU  in  Himvm.  Scripforf),  iv,  877 
iq.  The  Utter  also  give*  a  list  of  later  and  dependent 
bvH.  Comp,,  in  addition,  Mabillon.  Acta  SS.  Ord.  S. 
Bntd.  Sac.  V 1  and  Braun,  Gttdt.d.BiKltoft  v.  A  ugtbui-i/ 
(Au|^.  1813),  pt  L     See  Henog,  Rral-EiKsldop.  s.  r. 

niiloh,  the  name  of  a  Swiss  ramiiy  nuteil  for  the 
thcvlogical  learning  of  several  of  its  members. 

1.  Jba.1  jAcuL'Efl  (I)  was  bom  at  Zurich  in  I5B9, 
and  died  there  in  1S3B.  He  waseducaled  at  the  schouls 
of  his  own  country,  and  aftcrwarda  at  Middelbiirg,  Lejp- 
(ic.  Wittenberg,  and  Tubingen,  and  occupied  different 
chairs  of  theology  at  Zurich,  where  he  published  vari- 
m  Biblical  and  hialixical  works  in  Latin.  i 


19  ULTRAMONTANISTS 

2.  Jeam  jAcgctu  (3)  was  bom  at  Zurich  in  I6SS, 

•choolB,and  also  at  Uremen,  Kranekvr,  and  Leydeti,  and 
afterwards  occupied  a  chair  in  the  UnitenitT  of  Zurich. 
He  ■ 


e  place, 


tliree  histurical  works  in  Lailn. 

3.  Jean  Gaspak  was  bom  at  Zurich  in  1 
died  there  in  IT96.  He  studied  al  his  natii 
and  al  Utrecht  and  Bremen,  and,  after  tran 
(iermaiiy  and  ihe  Netheriands,  was  engaged  in  ecclesi- 
astical labora  aiid  Orienlil  studies.  Ikeidea  sermona 
rote  one  or  two  historical  works 


4.  Jeam  R01101.PHE  was  bom  at  Zurich  in  1728,  and 
died  there  in  1796.  He  was  prufessor  in  the  gymnasi- 
um there  from  1763,  and  pastor  iu  17(>9,  and  was  eminent 
fur  hispiccyand  public  sentiment.  He  left  several  ser- 
mons and  ascetic  works.    See  Biograpiit  t/i4verirlh,t.\: 

UJilck,  Hkmrt,  a  German  engraver,  who  flourished 
at  Nuremberg  fnun  about  1690  10  Wi».  He  engraved 
some  portraits,  etc,  among  which  were  twelve  ciicular 
prints,  one  of  them  a  Ci-ucifirioa,  See  Spoonet,  flsi^ 
liitl. «/  Fiuf  ArU,i.  v. 

Ulster,  STNOt)  or,  the  chief  body  of  Presbyterians 
in  theNnnborlreluid.  See  Priubvteuiam  CuitKCH- 
118,  No.  7. 

trittmate  Appeal  to  Scbiptitrk  Althobity. 
It  IS  the  opinion  uf  some  persona  that  a  considerable 
portitni  of  the  essential*  of  Christianity  is  not  to  b« 
found  in  Scripture,  but  in  a  supplementary  tradition, 
which  is  to  be  sought  in  the  works  of  those  early  fa- 
Ihen  who  were  orthodox.  Others,  again,  utterly  op- 
pose such  nations;  aiid,  independently  of  the  consid- 


I*  of  > 


Chri*tian'B  bilb  and  hope  become  inaccessihle  to  near- 
ly the  whole  of  the  laity.and  to  mucli  Ihe  greater  part 
nflhedergy,  they  reject  the  syslem  on  it*  own  account. 
They  acknowleilge  the  authority  of  no  privale  individ- 
ual, ancient  or  modem,  in  aqiieation  of  duelrinc.  With 
respect  fur  all  who  are  entitled  to  it,  and  with 


work*,  they  yet  con^der  that, 
nr  of  what  counlry  ihey  majr, 
sue.  Pt^isli  or  Prolestanl.  Ihey 
ihem,  a*  Chrislian*,  in  place 

Church,      See  FAlrn,  Bulb 


a  Ju.l 

be  derived  from  tl 


n  Roman  mytbologt',  wa*  a 


nitor  (the  AtKHger),  ir 
surname  of  Man.  in  whose  honor  a  temple  was  binlt 
by  Augustus  fur  the  revenge  upon  Ihe  murderen  of 
Julius  Cnsar. 

nitratDOiit«niBta  (from  ultrn  moxcet,  "beyond 
[be  mountains''),  the  name  applied  to  those  who  recog- 
nise the  papal  claim  of  supremacy  uver  every  part  of 
the  Church,  aa  well  as  over  every  sovereign  within  its 
boundariea;  and  also,  since  1870,  to  those  who  accept 
the  decrees  of  the  Vaiican  Council.  L'llramonMnism 
dates  from  (Ircgury  VH,  who  propounded  Ihe  following 
claims:  "Qwid  solus  papa  pussit  uti  imperialibiui  in- 
sigiiiis;  quod  solius  psps  pedes  omnes  princi|ie*  deos- 
cuieiuur;  quod  illi  liceat  iroperatore*  deponere;  qnad 
a  fhlelitate  iniquorvm  subjectos  potest  absolvere.'' 
These  views  are  principally  maintained  in  the  Italian 
peninsula,  but  it  is  the  lone  generally  adnpied  by  Eng- 
lish seceders.  The  free  action  of  naiiimal  churches  is 
wholly  superseded  by  such  prelensioun.  The  theory 
has  apparently  grown  up  from  the  feudal  rrlaiiuns  of 
the  papacy  a*  a  temporal  power.  An  as^prtion  of  au- 
thority so  incompatible  with  catholic  lilieriy  aroused 
uppmitinn  on  the  ntlier  side  of  the  Alpn.  in  the  Calliran 
and  German  churches,  and  in  Ihc  Swiss  caninn*.  Uel- 
Inrmtne's  siatements  are  important  as  rcf^anls  papal 
infallibility.  He  seu  forth  the  opinion  of  divines  in 
four  propositions:  (I)  "The  Komiui  ponliff  ruling  anr 


0MA  61 

point,  even  in  in  tecumenical  council,  may  be  guilty  of 
heresy,  and  of  leaching  others  )iere*y~Hhioh  bit  de 
/ado  hippened;"  (2)  "The  Roman' pon^ff  m«y  be 
heretical  and  teach  heresy,  if  he  rule  inyLbJng  ipart 
ihia  haa  happened  de 


Mt 


■■  (3)  " 


,e  pope  ci 


fticl. 


esy  publicly,  even  tliougb  he  rule 
point  on  his  oivii  reaponaihility  ■lone;"  (4)  That 
"  whether  lUe  pop*  am  be  heretical  or  not,  he  can  rule 
ni'tliiii);  heretieiil  as  a  point  to  be  believed  by  the 
vthule  Church."  After  the  Council  of  CnisUnce  the 
question  of  the  direct  or  indirect  power  ot  the  pspM? 
over  stalea  and  aovereigns  became  the  chief  point  of 
dispute,  and  everywhere  assumed  a  national  chaneter. 
Ill  Germany  Febroiiius  (biahup  Hontheim)  wrote  ■  pow- 

the  Conveniiuu  of  Ems,  the  archbishops  of  Mentz, 
Treves,  Culngne,  and  Salzburg  denounced  it.  In  Italy 
ilB  chief  opponent  in  the  last  century  was  Scipione 
Kicci.  bishop  of  I'isinja,  who  convened  a  nynod  in  that 
city,  September,  1786,  anil  promulgated  disclplinarj-  de- 
crees and  a  duclrinal  expo^tiuu  favoring  extreme  (ial- 
licanism  and  Jansenism.  These  were  partially  con- 
Srroeil,  April  23,  1;B7,  by  an  assembly  of  the  bbh'opa  of 
Tuscany,  but  were  condemned  bv  Pius  VI,  in  tbe  dog- 
matic bull  J  urruremjidn,  Aug.  28, 1794. 

The  practical  inHuenee  of  IJIlramonlane  theories  was 
greatly  reduced  during  the  reconsttucliun  of  southern 
Europe  thst  mended  the  career  of  Napoleon  I,  who 
paid  little  reitnid  to  the  papal  claims;  but  the  princi- 
ples ivere  still  maintained,  and  on  the  Bourbon  reslora- 

Anwiig  modern  aasertors  of  the  Ullrainonlane  theory 
the  must  strenuous  are  Engllih  Bomanists,  especially 
neophytes.  Among  Continental  writers  are  biahop 
Ziegler, /(ill  J:iifAu/ucjh!  Glaubauprincip  i  Caroyi.  Bit 
ali<airlisi«,irhr«dt  KircU  ;  Jkr  FaptI  im  Veikatlniii 
turn  Kiiii-'tiiwHUi !  and  the  ihbi  Lamenniis  in  his 
jounul  l.'Avruir.  Perhaps  the  work  of  greatest  iu- 
Bueinx  is  Muhler's  Syi-iboliJt  (IH32}.  For  a  fuller  ac- 
count of  the  cunlruveraies  to  which  tbe  claims  of  ITlira- 
monlauism  have  given  rise,  see  [>uiacl'i.ate  Coici;Er- 
Tios;  iNFALUBit-rri-;  Pafact. 

TTrnd,  in  the  epic  ami  Purinic  roythtriogy  of  India, 
is  one  of  the  principal  names  ot  the  cmisnrt  of  Siva. 
She  is  also  called  Duri^  Dtvi.  Kali,  Parrali,  UkaraHi  ,- 
while  there  are  many  more  belonging  to  her  of  lesa  fre- 
quent occurrence,  as  Kuryuyani,  A  mbilo,  Haimatittii, 
Siva,  etc     She  was  the  yuangcr  of  two  sisters  (Ganga 

ed  thiny-six  thousand  years  in  the  embrace  of  Siva, 
her  husband.  She  wa^  however,  barren,  and  inflicted 
upon  all  the  gods  the  cune  of  remaining  childless.  She 
also  cursed  the  earth,  making  it  constantly  subject  to 
change,  and  (o  be  the  wife  oTmany  hiiebands.  In  great 
anxiety,  the  puds  now  all  tumeil  to  Brahma,  who  prom- 
ised that  heaven  should  not  be  depopulated,  and  that 
Ums'seldeisii<Jer,Ganga,Bhou1d,by  Siva,  become  moth- 
er uf  a  sou  who  should  command  the  heavenly  hosla  in 
the  great  Damon-war.  Thus  it  happened  that  (ianga 
became  pregnant  by  Siva,  and  so  also  Uma,  where- 

curse.    'I'huuRh  the  popular  creed  regarded  lima  far 

wisilum,  yet  the  works  devoted  tn  her  praise  never  fail 
to  enifll  her  also  as  the  person  ideation  of  tbe  highest 
knowledge.  The  myths  relating  to  this  goddess,  who 
is  wurship|ied  in  various  parta  of  India — particularly  in 
Bengal— are  met  with  in  the  great  epic  poems  and  Pu- 
rana.1,  in  poetical  works  such  as  the  Kumarasamhhava, 
and  in  modern  popular  compfldtions.  She  is  as  Kali 
(q.  V.)  the  favorite  divinity  of  the  Thugs.  See  Moor. 
llinda  PuHlhtoa ;  Muir,  Origiiat  Samcril  Ttxti  (Loud. 
1863),  vol.  iv;  the  f/arieama,  translated  by  Langlois 
(Paris,  1834-3S):  and  the  Markandtya  PurAu,  iu  the 
BiiliollKat  lodim,  edited  by  Bev.  K.  M.  Bonegea  (Cal- 
cutta, 1862). 


Kali  (after  tbe  flgnra  In  Coleman's  KytMagf  tf  Oi  Ate- 

UmbracJUum  (n  liillt  ikade),  an  altar  canopr, 
more  generally  called  the  ciioriun  (q.  v.), 

Vmbrelt,  FRTKnmcH  Wilhblh  Cabi.,  an  eminent 


eologyol 


Colha.  He  studied  at 
Gdtlingen,  where  Eichhum  instructed  him  in  OKtntil 
languagea.  In  1818  he  look  his  degree  u  doctor  of  pbi- 
loaophy,  and  commenced  his  academical  career  as  a  pri- 
vate lecturer  at  Gdtlingen.  In  1830  he  was  called  t< 
HeiilelbergBx  professor  uflheolng}' and  philosophv,where 
he  became  i  n  limately  con  nected  w  it  h  L'  llman  n.  Hot  hr,aDd 
othera;  aiid  where  he  also  died,  April  !t>.  1860.  Umlnit 
ponesaed  a  poetical  nature,  and  was,  as  he  himself  ic 
knowledged,  unfit  for  ecclesiasiico- pnhtical  questioM 
His  piety  had  nothing  to  do  with  dogmatical  hainplil- 
ling;  his  faith  in  the  living  personal  God.  as  he  revtsM 
himself  in  Christ,  hit  Son,  and  in  the  immortality— that 


llet 


hhew< 


n  UiUar.Kwi- 


roTum  (d  Oiai-ak  n-  AMfrda  (UotL  IH16);— A'oVi4fc 
del  Kvucn  A:<'»i^,,SrrirttihnN^/'(Gotha,  1818)  i—t:<MiA 
Sfrpliaii  de  Sunam-  Bona  (ilud,  1820):  — ITiis  tbHH 
ZeilgtmSat  Bftraeirungm  rfw  Konigt  vnd  Prrdigm  &»• 
loma,  etc(Hamburg,IMt<)  ■.^SnlamoBt  Lirdnrndtr  LUi 
(Gdtt.  18-:!0;  2d  e<l.  Heiilelberg,  1828);— £ii<iiwin9>« 
d.ii//<u(>4tfd(Heidelberg.  1839):- i)<nSHfA//Mlibil 
1824 ;  2d  Cii.  1882) ;— CommnWnr  iibtr  dit  JiprSctr  Sub. 
viol  (ibiil.  1826) ;  —  Dt  Vrtttit  Trtlajn.  Fi-npkflii,  Of 
rill,  AnIiqaiMi.  Temporit  Oraloribui  (ibid.  IH3ili;-~ 
Chi-iilt.  Erbamng  aui  dm  Pmllrr  (Hambu^.  lH3i:  td 
ci.  1848)  :—Der  Karr*l  Gotirt  (ibid.  1840) ;— ;  ■i„iii»in 
r,.ii<menlar  iiber  dir  Propbrim  da  allm  £hhiJfi  (ibU. 
I  Ml -46, 4  vols.;  Daniel  and  Jonah  are  wanting)  :_Mf 
SSndi,  llritrag  tur  Throlasir  dr$  A.T.  {^i)J\ht,^iiWS'i\- 
llrr  Brir/aa  die  R&mer.  aufdem  Grimde  drs  A.T.  ""- 
i/flegl  (ibid.  1856),  Besides  these  works,  he  wrote  con- 
trihuiiiins  to  the  SluJim  lud  KHIUbi,  Uerzog's  Hfol- 
Kuryiiop.,  etc  See  Zuchold,  BiU.  Tieoloff.  ii.  1367; 
Vnm.hiU.  Jiatiii,  <.')9;  Kit  to,  C^cbp.  b.v,:  Hrmg, 
Ani^-ifiuyMup.  xvi,  628  sq.i  Tkaleg.  UrtiTrnnl-Le- 
s.  V.  1  Schenkel,  A  Ugem.  kinMicke  Zeindtrifl,  I860,  ri, 


UMBUELLA  63 

11  tq. :  MDblhftugo',  in  the  ffnu  tvangel  KinAtntei-  | 

1860.  |>.  54 ;  Winer.  HaadlKrlt  dtr  Iheolog.  LiUralHf,  i,  I 
1I,M2,->06,:{12,21S.215;  ii,36&;  JHa,ttl,Gachiehledfi\ 
A.  T.in  Jfr  rhritll.  Kirehe  (Jens,  1869),  p.  058,  660,6(18  I 
■q^77t,  781 :  Kurti,  Lrhrbock  iir  Kirchmffetehichle  (Mi- 
Uu,18;4),ii,BI6.    (Rl'.)  1 

Umbrella,  in  ecclesiiMicil  ceremony,  ia  borne  over  . 
bnhops  and  priecU  during  nilemn  procpraions  at  coun- 
db,  anil  Bi  other  high  eolemnities,  especially  duiing 
pncTMions  of  the  blessed  nacrament.  The  liane  was  ' 
■bo  applied  to  t  Itiiul  o(  bnUacchiao  o(  nd  velvet,  with 
golden  sumiDit*,  erected  In  1550  oTcr  the  >lMr  of  Win- 
cbcaier  CuUege,  See  Lee,  (iloa.  of  Lilurg.  I'emu,  a.  v. ; 
WilcotI,  Sue.  A  rchirol.  b.  v. 

U'm'mab  (Heb.  Umnah',  n^S,  unum,  aa  ofteu; 
Sept.  'A^>iii  T,  r.  'Ap]£4ij3  or  'Apx"/S.Vidg.  A  nma),  R  lown 
of  the  tribe  of  Atber,  mentimieil  between  Achzib  and 
Aphek  (Josh.  xix,30).  tu  aiie  wu  evidently  unknown 
to  Eusebiiis  and  Jerome  (OnnBiiul.s.  v."Amma"),  Dr. 
Thomson  suggegts  {BUiliolhfta  Sacra,  1865,  ]i.  9ii)  that 
it  mav  be  the  niodeni  village  Aolam,  akuaied  on  the 
coast  abaut  lit-c  mika  E.t4.E.  of  Raa  en-Naknrah,  and 
deacribeil  by  him  aa  a  large  ruin  wi;h  excellent  water 
and  fig-treea  (/.and  nsd  Boot,  ii,  IM).  The  Kffi-  A  m- 
mieiM  su^rgeiled  by  Keil  (CDRunm/.  ad  loc.)  is  quite  be- 
yond Ibe  boondariea  nf  ihc  tribe. 

Umunik,  a  litJe  of  the  Chaldean  goddeie  firlil. 

OmTin.  John  ILihufng,  a  Wclab  Congregational 
minialer.  waa  bom  at  MeMriili.  Jan.  6, 1818,  and  com- 
mencdl  bia  miniatry  with  village  preaching.  Fiiid- 
JDg  Iteltlii'm  a  proaperaiia  Held  for  labor,  he  aeilled  with 
that  i>eople,  erected  a  oimmiidRMia  chapel,  and  bnilt 
np  a  large  congregation.  Kia  nprightnesa  of  character 
and  cunaiiLcnt  walk  iti  life  won  for  liim  •  la^e  circle 
of  true  frienda.  He  die<l  April  11, 1807.  See  (Loud.) 
Cdi^.  ffar^book,  1868,  p.  297. 

Unam  Baiictam  <'Ae  arc  Ao/y,Le.  Church)  Uihe 
name  of  ibe  ramoiia  papal  bull  published  Nor.  ]9, 1302, 

CUTS, "  We  declare,  deHne,  and  pronounce 
to  the  Roman  pontiff  ia  for  every  hu- 


1  UNCIRCDMCISED 

pmach  of  him,  roba  him  ofhia  glory,  ia  a  contradiction 
Ut  bia  will  and  a  contempt  of  hie  authority."  The 
cauaea  of  unbelief  are  Salan,  ignoram-e,  pride,  and  aen- 
Buality.  The  dangerofitia  great;  it  hanlena  the  heart, 
lilla  with  preaumplion,  create)  impatience,  deceives  with 

Nalvraliilic  unbelief  is  that  which  is  indiBerent  and 
opposed  ID  revelation.  The  atibtlirj'  of  Tfiarm  is  the 
luaking  our  reaaon  independent  of  iia  own  iieeda — the  re- 
nunciation of  the  faith  of  reason.  See  Chamock.H'orta, 
ii,  601  \  Case,  SennORt,  aer.  i ;  Porteus,  tirrmmi,  vol.  i, 
aer.2;  Owen, BFoaoni ij^/'in'fA ;  Hamiam, Con^midiuin, 
ii,  !6 ;  Cburchill,  Eitay  on  UnMitf;  Buck,  Thni.  Diet. 
a.  r.  1  Fleming  and  Knuth,  Vaeah.  of  I'kil.  Scirnai.  a.  v. 

Unbloody  Sacrifice,  a  theological  term  to  design 
uale  the  holy  aacritice  of  the  altai. 

UuohBngBablenflSH  of  Uod.  See  Attridctes 
OfGoi>;  ■ 


Uncial  Iiettera — so  called  aa  being  an  inch  (lau 
irtieia)  long — characters  of  a  large  and  round  form  used 
in  aome  ancient  MSS.  The  earliest  form  of  an  alpha- 
bet ia  its  capitala,  and  the  nldcat  Greek  and  Latin  USS. 
are  written  entirely  in  capitals.  Uncial  letlern,  which 
began  to  take  the  pltet  of  capitala  in  the  middle  of  the 
5lh  century,  differ  from  them  in  being  composed  of 
rounded  and  not  atraighi  lines,  and  exhibiting  a  ten- 
dency lowanis  greater  expedition  in  style.  Uncial 
writing  arose  as  writing  on  papynia  or  vellum  bcoiime 
commoD,  the  necessity  fur  more  rapid  execuiion  leading 
to  [he  practice  of  curving  the  linea.  Its  being  mr>re 
easily  learned  than  the  cursive  atyle  waa  pmbnbly  the 
cause  of  ila  becoming  the  favorite  mule  of  writing  buoka 
of  importance  among  the  monkiah  actibca:  while  kga) 
inalni men ts,  which  required  greater  deapalch,  were  exe- 
cuted by  profeaaiunal  scribea  in  a  corrupted  form  of  the 
Roman  cursive  hand.  Uncial  writing  prttailcd  froiD 
the  6th  to  the  8th,  or  even  lOih,  century.  The  follow- 
ing apecimena  of  uncial  Greek  and  Latin  writii>g  are 
from  a  MS.  of  the  fiiur  gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostlea 
in  both  language*,  written  early  in  (he  6lh  century,  and 
presented  to  [he  Univeraity  of  Cambridge  by  Theoihire 
Beza  in  1681.  The  passage  ia  from  John  xxi,  19— "  sig- 
nifying by  what  death  he  should  glorify  Cod." 


CHivieKicuNn  oiioeAMkTcoAOTAcetTONeM 

Greek  Uuctala. 

?iCKiU'iCANJ5S'UAcoojtrei:\ONQR!picAt>iTdcn 


Latin 
man  being  altogether  of  necesNij  for  aalvaiion."  It 
alao  affirm*  that  there  are  two  aworda,  a  apiriiual  and 
material— the  one  lo  be  employed  hg  the  Church,  and 
the  other>r  the  Church  under  the  diivction  of  its  hea.1 ; 
and  that  to  deny  the  ■iibservlence  of  the  latter  to  the 
former  ia  to  maintun  the  doctrine  ortwoprinciplca,nnd 
to  fall  into  the  heresy  of  the  Manictueana.  See  Trench, 
i/tdiaral  Clivn*  Bill.  p.  283. 

Unbelief,  the  refuiung  assent  to  teattmony,  Ibe 
withholding  of  due  belief.  According  to  KanI,  itia  the 
wilhhDldiug  of  assent  to  that  which,  though  objective- 
Iv  inaufficient  aa  a  ground  of  cognition,  is  subjectively 
sufficient  as  a  ground  of  faith.  Moral  unbelief  ia  the 
rejection  of  Ihal  which,  though  we  cannot  Jnou)  it,  is 
yet  morally  neceaaary,  as  failh  in  God,  freedom,  and 
iai mortality.  "  It  includea,"  aays  Dr.  liuyae, "  diaaffec- 
tion  to  Gnil,  disregard  lo  hia  word,  prcjudicea  againat 
the  Bedeemer,  readiness  lo  give  credit  to  any  other 
than  him,  inordinate  love  to  the  world,  and  preferring 
of  the  applauae  of  men  ro  the  approbation  of  GikI." 
"  Unbelief,"  aaya  Charoock,  "  ia  the  greatest  ain,  aa  it  ia 
the  foundation  of  all  ain:  it  was  Adam's  tiret  sin;  it  ia 
a  ain  againat  the  Gospel,  againat  the  higheat  lotimony; 
a  refusal  to  accept  of  Christ  upon  tho  terma  of  the  Gos- 1 
pd.    It  strikea  peculiariy  at  God;  is  ths  greateat  le-  I 


During  the  6th  and  7tb  centuries  a  Iran^tional  style 
of  writing  prevailed  in  Italy,  and  lo  some  extent  else- 
where, in  which  the  letters  approximated  more  nearly 
to  the  Roman  cursive  hand:  thii  passed  by  a  gniiluiil 
transition  into  the  inJRascu/e  manner,  or  amall  hand, 
which,  from  the  beginning  of  Ibe  10th  century,  became 
usual  in  MSS.  See  Silveatre,  Cnietrial  Piiiirmpap/ig 
(iranaLandedithy  Sir  F.  Madden,  Lond.  1850);  Traiii 
de  IHj^/naaii^t,  par  deux  Reli^ieux  li<-neiUctins  (le  la 
Congri^gation  dg  SL-Mau  (Paris,  1756).     See  Maku- 

UnoiroomoiBed  (^^7,  i.e.  having  a  foreskin, 

atpo^variar  txiuv;  and  ao  ispoliveria,  Ikr  prrpuet, 
alone,  foe  '■  undrciimcision"),  a  word  literally  denoting  a 
heathen  among  Ihe  Jews.  Sn  also  it  ia  sometimes  used 
ligiiratively '■oruncircumciscd  lips,"  i.e.  dull  of  speech, 
stammering,  one  whose  lipa  still  have,  as  it  were.  Ihe 
fiiteskin,  and  are  therefore  loo  thick  and  Urge  to  bring 
out  words  easily  and  fluently  (Exod.  vi,  12,  60).  So, 
likewiae,"thdr  ear  is  uncircumcised,"  shut  up  by  a  fore- 
skin (Jer.  vi,  10)  ;  also  "their  uncircumcised  heart,"  lo 
h  the  precepta  of  religion  and  piety  cannot  pene- 
(Lev,  xivi,  41  i  Dent,  x,  16;  Jer.  iv,  4;  Eiek.  xliv, 
9;  laa.  vi,  10;  Acu  vii,  51 ;  James  i,  21 ;  Col.  ii.  IS). 
So,  also,  "the  foreskin  nf  a  tree."  i.  e.  uncircumcised 


ucriUce  K 


Dl]cl«ai)  (ueually  tone  rorm  of  the  verb  XOS, 
which  i»  the  technical  term  fur  earmom'al  poUulioR; 
BtaSiaptOi,  impure;  bul  occisiuiiilly  m*^7,  naked; 
■ert^,  caiiecrared;  n^J.jHlA;  eotnit,  ommuB).  In 
this  aiticle  we  treil  of  food  prahibitdl  by  (he  Muuic 
law,  mcivin);  drAlein«nU  or  the  pertOH  fot  the  rulloH- 
ing  articlr.    See  Clkan. 

The  Jews  were  farbiililen  to  eat  thingi  strangled,  or 
(lead  of  ihemselrea,  or  tbrougb  beiMi  or  birdi  of  prey ; 
whatever  beast  did  not  both  [lart  Che  hoof  and  chew  the 
cud{  and  cettaiii  other  amsller  animah  rated  as  "creep- 
ing Ihingi"  iY':!P)  ■■  certain  claaseii  of  birda  mentioned 
in  Lev.  xi  and  Ueut.  liv,  twenty  or  twenty-one  in  all ; 
wliatcter  in  the  waters  had  not  both  fina  and  acalcBi 
whatever  winged  insect  had  not  beeidea  four  legs  the 
'  0  hind-legs  for  leaping;  bendea  tilings  offered  in 
10  idols;  and  all  blood  or  wbauvet  contained 
■erhaps  the  blood  of  Hfh,  as  would  appear  from 
thai  only  or  beait  and  bird  being  forbidden  [Lev.  i'ii,26]). 
and  therefore  flesh  cut  from  (he  live  animal;  as  also  all 
fat,  at  any  rate  that  disjiosed  in  maaaea  among  Ibe  in- 
testines, and  probably  nberever  disceniible  and  separa- 
ble among  the  fl»h  (iii,  14-IT;  vii,  23}.  The  eating 
of  blood  was  prohibited  evea  to  "  the  stranger  that 
sojoumeth  among  you"  (ivii,  10, 1!,  13,  U),  an  exten- 
sion which  we  do  not  trace  in  other  dieury  precepts; 
e.  g.  the  thing  which  died  of  itself  was  to  be  given 
"untolhestranger  that  isinthygatea'tDeuLxir.SI). 
.  As  regards  blood,  the  prohibition  indeed  daiea  trom  the 
declaration  10  Noab  against "  flesh  with  the  life  thereof 
whii^h  is  the  blood  thereof,"  in  Gen.  ix,  4,  which  was 
perhaps  regarded  by  Moses  as  still  binding  upon  all 
Noah's  deeceiidanls.  The  grounds,  however,  on  which 
the  similsr  precept  of  the  Apostolic  Com leil,  in  Acts  x.v, 
20,  'il,  appears  based,  relate  iwt  to  any  obligation  rest- 
ing stilt  unbroken  on  Ibe  Gentile  world,  but  to  the  risk 
of  promiscuous  oflence  to  the  Jews  and  Jewish  Cbris- 
tiomi,  "Jbr  Hoses  of  old  time  halh  iii  every  city  them 
that  preach  him."  Hence  this  abstinence  is  reckoned 
among  '■necessary  things"  (ri  iiriitniyics),  and  "  things 
offered  to  idols,"  although  not  solely.  It  may  be  pre- 
sumed, un  the  same  grounds,  are  placed  in  the  same 
class  with  "blood  and  things  strangled"  {airi^io^ni 
fil^KoivTun'  tai  aiVarDc  cai  mninvi';  ver.  iS,  29). 

aicainst  "seething  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk."  It  is 
added,  as  a  Snal  injunction  la  the  code  of  dietarj'  pre- 
cepts in  Deui.  xiv,  after  the  crowning  declaration  of 
ver.  21,  "for  thou  art  an  holy  people  onto  the  Lord  thy 
God ;"  but  in  Exod.  xxiii,  19 ;  xxxiv,  36,  the  context 
relates  lo  the  bringing  flnt-fruils  to  Ibe  allar,  and  lo 
the  "  angel"  who  was  to  "  go  before"  the  people.  To 
this  precept  we  shall  bare  occasion  further  to  return. 

The  general  disiinclion  of  clean  and  unclean  isrigbily 
observed  by  Michaelia  {Smilh't  Trasil.  atl.  ccii,  etc.)  to 
have  iis  parallel  among  all  nations,  there  being  univer- 
sally certain  creatures  rcgflrded  as  clean,  i.e.  fit  for  food, 
and  the  rest  as  the  opposite  (comp.  Lev.  xl,  17).  U'iih 
the  i^ater  number  of  nations,  however,  this  is  only  a 
Iradiiional  usage  based  merely,  pertiapo,  either  on  an 
instinct  relating  to  health,  or  on  a  repugnance  which  is 
lo  be  regarded  as  an  ultimate  fact  in  itself,  and  of  which 
no  further  account  is  to  be  given.  1'hus  Michaelts  (as 
above)  remarks  that  in  a  certain  part  of  Ueraiany  rab- 
bits are  viewed  as  unclean,  L  e.  are  advisedly  excluded 
from  diet.  English  feelings  as  regards  the  frog  snd  the 
snail. oontraiinl  with  th(        -■■      ■  ■ 

other  close  paraUel. 


n  between 
n  to  Ni«h. 


UNCLEAN 

^  a  proponion  st 
lisberi  by  Ihat  <«a- 
sumption.  I  ne  ateiary  cone  oi  loe  Egj'ptians,  and  lbs 
traditions  which  have  descended  among  ihe  Arabs,  im- 
fortided,  certainly  down  to  the  lime  of  Huhammed,  and 
in  some  cases  laier.  by  any  legislation  whatever,  lo  fit 
-,  may  illustrate  the  probable  slate  of  Ibt 


If  til 


The  same  personal  inicresi  taken  hy  Jehovah  in  his 
subjects,  which  is  expressed  by  the  demand  for  a  cen- 
mouially  pure  state  on  the  part  of  every  Israelite  ss  ia 
covenant  with  him,  regarded  also  this  particular  detail 
of  that  purity,  viz.  diel.     Thus  the  prophet  (lu.  liii, 

tify  themselves  (consecrate  themselves  to  idolatry),  at- 
ing  swine's  flesh,  and  the  abomination,  aod  the  utouK,* 
and  those  "which  remain  among  Ibe  gnivra  and  lodg* 

of  abominable  things  is  in  their  vessels"  (1>^<  4)-  It 
remained  forahigherlawgiverlo  announce  that  "thete 
is  uotbing  from  wiiliout  a  man  that  entering  into  bin 
can  delile  bim"  (Hark  vii,  16).  The  fat  was  daimd 
as  a  burnt-offering,  and  the  blood  enjoyed  Ibe  higbeM 
sacrificial  esteem.  In  the  two  combined,  the  entire  vic- 
tim was  by  representation  offered,  and  Ut  transfer  riibtt' 
10  human  use  was  lo  deal  presumptuously-  witb  the 
most  holy  things.  But,  besides  this,  the  bhud  wasM- 
teemed  as  *"  the  life"  of  the  creature,  and  a  mysierioaa 
sanctity  beyond  the  saeriHciai  relation  tbeieby  attached 
toil.  Hencewe  read,  "whatsoever  soul  it  be  tbateit- 
elh  any  manner  of  blond,  even  that  soul  shall  be  cat 
off  from  his  people"  (Lev.  vii,  27;  comp.  xvii.  10. 14); 
whereas  the  offender  in  other  dietary  respects  was 
merely  "  unclean  until  even"  (xi,  40;  x vii,  15).    Bk«l 

those  which  related  lo  the  solemnitation  of  a  covenani. 
but  also  as  a  pledge  of  idolatrous  worship  (Psa.xvi,4i 
Ezek.  xxxiii,  25).  Still  there  is  no  reason  to  think  thai 
blood  has  ever  been  a  cummon  article  of  food,  and  any 
lawgiver  might  probably  reckon  on  a  natural  arenioa 
effectually  fortifying  bis  prohibiiion  in  this  resptrt.aD- 
less  under  some  bewildering  influence  of  aupeMiiiin. 
Whether  animal  cjualtties,  grosser  appetites,  aod  inko- 
man  tendencies  might  be  supposed  by  the  Uebma 
transmitted  into  the  partaker  of  the  blood  of  oiiimsl^ 
we  have  nothing  to  show :  see,  however,  Joaepbus,  Ait. 
iii,ll,3.    SeeltLOOD. 

It  ia  nolawortby  that  the  practical  effect  of  the  nde 
laid  down  is  to  exclude  all  the  cartiirora  among  quad- 
rupeds, and,  so  far  as  we  can  interpret  the  nomeoclaiuiT, 
the  nrpU/rrt  among  bird?t  This  suggests  the  qiiediuu 
whether  they  were  excluded  as  being  not  averse  to  hu- 
man carcasses,  and  in  most  Eastern  countries  acting  as 
the  servitors  of  the  battle-lield  and  Ibe  gibbet.  Even 
swine  have  been  known  so  to  feed;  and,  further,  by  Ibot 
constant  runcation  among  whatever  lies  on  the  gioaiid, 

feeders.  Among  fish,  those  which  were  allowed  cm- 
tain,  tinquetllonably,  the  most  wholesome  varietiea,Mn 

Ashing  was  little  practical  by  Ihe  Israelitea;  and  tbs 
Leviiical  rules  must  be  understood  as  referring  httk- 
ward  to  their  experience  of  the  produce  of  the  Kill, 

and  forward  lo  their  enjoyment  of  the  Jordan  and  ill 
upper  lakes.    The  exclusion  of  the  camel  and  the  han 

erally  spoken  of  in  reference  lo  the  semt-barbsmia  de*> 
ett  tribes  on  the  eastern  or  southern  border-land,  sio* 
of  whom  certainty  had  no  insuperable  repugnance  to  hit 
flesh ;  altlioi^h  it  is  so  impotaible  to  subatilute  any  otbat 


UNCLEAN 


enature  Tor  Che  camel  u 

to  eat  him,  eapecUlly  wbi 

iDHt  mach   preferable,  vroiild  be  the  wont  economy 

poaaible  in  an  EaHem  coramiuariit — Ihat  of  deatruy- 

to  ubuin  the  moat  inilitTerent  fooJ.  The  ban  w» 
long  iiu|ipoiied,  even  by  eminent  natunliau,  to  nimi- 
Dale,  and  ccrUinly  was  eaten  by  the  Egyplians.  The 
bone  and  ^he  aw  would  be  generally  apared  from  «milar 
reasons  u>  those  wbicb  exempted  the  camel  A*  re- 
gards other  cattle,  Ihe  young  male*  would  be  those  uni' 
Tenally  preferml  fur  food,  no  more  of  that  Ki  reach- 
ing maiuricy  than  were  needful  for  breeding,  while  the 
•Mpplv  of  milkr  auggeated  the  cnpLoua  preaervation  of 
ibe  remale.  The  dutiea  of  draught  would  require  an- 
other Tute  in  rearing  neat-caltle.  The  laboring  ateer, 
man'*  feliuv  in  the  Add,  had  a  life  somewhat  euuubled 
■ml  aaiiciificd  by  that  comradeahip.  Thug  it  seems  to 
to  >lay  fur  sacriSce  or  food,  aa 


633 

porting  life  a 


n  1  Kings  X 


uugher,  tbe  fleah 


oxen  ia  not  umilar,  as  cattle  of  all  agea  were  u 
the  thmhing-floor  (2  Sam.  ixir,  H).  Many  i 
restrictions  mult  be  esteemed  as  merriy  bated  oi 
or  arbitrary.     Practically,  the  taw  left  among 


was  litely  to 

boraes,  aitd  aaaea.     awn 

■a  nearly  aa  poaaible,  be 


from  a  pmhibition 


ould  pi 


n  propurtlnn  as 
n  filled 

by  other  creatures,  Wunderbu-  ^BiilHc/i-talm.  Mrili- 
cat,  ii.  50)  refen  lu  a  notjun  that  "the  animal  element 
might  only  with  great  circumspection  and  diicietion 
be  taken  tip  intn  Ihe  life  of  man  in  oriler  to  avoid  de- 
basing that  human  life  by  aaptmllation  to  a  bmlal  level, 
ao  that  thereby  the  soiil  niii;ht  become  degraded,  pro- 
faned, tilleil  with  animnl  affrciiana,  and  disqualilieil  fur 

of  a  higher,  nobler,  and  leaa  intensely  animal  organiza- 
tion ■]  clean  and  those  uf  a  lower  and  incomplete  or- 
ganization as  nnclean,"  and  that  the  insectn  pmvideil 
with  four  legs  ami  twonthera  for  leainng  are  of  a  high- 
er or  more  complete  type  than  othera,  and  relatively 

theless  have  been  a  view  current  among  Rabbinical 
■nlhoriiiea.  Aa  regarda  birds,  the  mptorti  hare  com- 
omnly  tough  ami  indigestible  flesh,  and  some  of  iheni 
are,  in  all  warm  countries,  the  natural  scaven^rs  uf  alt 
■orta  of  carrion  andotlal.  Tliis  alone  begets  an  instinc- 
tive repugnance  Inwards  them,  ami  assnciaie*  ihem  wiih 

for  fond  would  tend  to  multiply  various  source*  of  nn- 
deanneaa.  Porphyry  {Absria.  iv,  7,  quoted  by  Winer) 
aays  that  the  Cgiptian  prieata  abstained  from  all  Hsh, 
fkorn  all  quailrupeds  wilfi  solid  boots,  or  having  claws, 
or  which  were  not  homed,  and  from  all  carnivorous 
birds.  Other  curious  parallels  have  been  found  among 
more  distant  nations.     See  Anuiai. 

But  aa  Orientals  have  minds  sensitive  to  teaching  by 
tjptt,  [here  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  ceremonial 
distinctions  not  only  tended  to  keep  Jew  and  Gentile 
apart,  but  were  a  perpetual  reminiler  to  the  fanner  that 
he  and  the  latter  were  not  on  one  level  before  God. 
Hence,  when  that  eoonomy  was  changed,  we  find  that 
this  waa  the  very  symbol  selected  to  instiuci  Peter  in 
the  truth  that  God  was  not  a  "respecter  of  penona." 
Tbe  vessel  liUed  wiib  "  fourfooled  beasia  of  the  earth, 
and  wild  beaala,  and  creeping  things,  and  fowb  of  the 
air,"  was  expressive  of  the  Gentile  world,  to  be  put  now 

their  hearts  by  faith."  A  sense  of  ihis,  their  preroga- 
tive, however  dimly  held,  may  have  furiilled  the  mem- 
ben  of  thfl  privileged  nation  in  their  struggle  with  the 
peneeutionsof  the  Gentiles  on  this  very  point.  It  was 
DO  mere  qaeatioii  of  whicb  among  several  means  of  sup- 


UNCLEAN 

n  chose  to  adopt,  wbi 


liege  by  which  Israel  stood  aa  the 
">d(lMacci,6fl,64;  -2Maccvi 


andtypeofth  '      '  "       '       

18;  vii,  ly     Tbe  same 

of  tbe  Mosaic  regulations,  until  it  was  "  unlawful  fur  ■ 

man  that  was  a  Jew  to  keep  company  with,  or  come 

unto,  one  of  another  nation"  {Acts  x,^};  and  with  such 
intenMty  were  bodges  ofdiadnction  cherished  that  the 

then  was  declared  unUwful  for  a  Jew  to  eat.  Nor  waa 
this  strictness,  however  it  might  al  times  be  pushed  to 
an  absurdity,  without  foundation  in  the  nature  of  the 
case.  Tbe  Jews,  aa,  during  and  after  the  return  tmm 
caplivily,  they  found  the  avenues  of  the  world  opening 
aruund  them,  would  Bnd  their  inlercouise  with  Gentiles 
unavoidably  increased,  and  their  only  way  to  avoid  an 
utter  relaxation  of  their  cede  would  lie  in  somewhat 
Dvcrst raining  the  precepts  of  prohibition.  Nor  should  , 
we  omit  the  tendency  of  ihuse  who  have  no  scruples  to 
""'■"'  '     ■  '       parade  their  liberty 


t  tbe  e: 


n  iricka,  deaigned  to  beguile  tbe  Jew 
a  of  observance,  and  make  him.  un- 
i  ibborred,  in  order  to 


inledly,  partake 
heighten  his  confusion  uy  nension.  une  or  two  in- 
stances of  such  smusement  si  the  Jew's  expense  would 
drive  Ibe  latter  wilhin  the  intreDchments  of  a  univer- 
sal repugnance  and  avoidance,  and  make  him  seek  the 
safe  aide  al  Ihe  coat  of  being  counlpd  a  churl  and  a  big- 
ul.  Thus  we  may  aceounl  for  the  refusal  of  Ihe  "  king's 
meat"  by  the  nligious  captives  (Dan.  i,t>),  and  for  Ibe 
similar  conduct  recorded  of  Judith  (xii,  2)  and  T«bi( 
(Tob.  i,  II);  and  in  a  similar  spirit  Shakspeare  makss 
Shylock  sa.v, "  I  will  not  eat  with  yon,  drink  with  yon, 
nor  |iray  with  you"  [Merdianl  nf  r™iof,  set  I,  sc.  iii). 
As  regards  things  offered  to  idol^  all  who  own  one  God 
meet  on  common  ground;  but  the  Jew  viewed  the  pre- 
cept as  demanding  a  literal  objective  obedience,  and 


IB  hen 


ved 

dolalrous  cottsecration, 

is  onlv  aafetv  lav 

n  to- 

abst 

nence;  w hems  Paul  ai 

monishes  Ihe  Christian 

absu 

do,  "fur  his  sake  that 

showed  it  a 

ndfbr 

sake,"  from  a  thing  said 

to  have  bee 

false  god,  but  not  to  parade  his  o 

tJOUS 

uplcs  by  interroRBiing  the  h 

icher  St  his 

stall.  D 

rlbe 

isKuest-chBmber(ICc 

.X.  25-29) : 

and  to 

give 

been  "compelling  the  Gentiles  lo  live  as  did  the  Jews" 
iiovBniWv,  Gal.  u.  II).     See  Ai.IScema. 

The  prohibit  ton  lo"  seethe  a  kid  in  iu  mother's  milk' 
has  caused  consiriorable  difference  ofojunion  among  cum- 

merely  lo  eiiconrage  the  use  of  olive-oil  instead  of  the 
milk  or  butter  of  an  animal,  which  we  commonly  use  in 
cooken,  where  theOrienlab  use  tbe  former.  This  will 
not  satisfy  any  mind  by  which  Ihe  clue  of  symbolism, 
so  hiimlly  hekl  by  the  Eastern  ilevotee,  and  ao  deeply 
inlerwoven  in  Jewish  ritual,  has  once  been  duly  seized. 
Mere)'  10  Ihe  beaala  la  one  of  the  under-currenis  which 
permeate  that  law.  To  soften  Ihe  feelings  and  human- 
ize the  character  was  the  higher  and  mote  general  aim. 
When  Paul,  commenting  un  a  somewbai  similar  precept, 
says, "Doth  <iod  care  furoxen,orsailh  he  itallogclher 
fur  onr  Bakes?"  he  does  not  mean  to  deny  God's  care  fw 
oxen,  hut  to  insist  the  rather  on  the  more  elevated  and 
more  human  lesson.  The  milk  was  the  ilcstineil  aup- 
oung  CI 


n  kid  destined  liir  the  knife).     No  doubt  ihe  alntiiu'iice 
fmro  Ihe  forbidden  action  in  the  case  of  a  young  creature 

or  whuee  consciousness  such  a  use  of  her  milk  coukl  in 


UNCLEANNESS 


the  practical  <;oiie«|uence, 
or  fLwwhcre  obuiiied, 
frum  being  an  empty  oi 


iia  Uc  ii 


that  milk  miut  b«  faregone 
nld  prevent  the  sj-nipitti)' 

faker  by  repetition,  Tor  want 
ich  lo  illy  itaetf.  And  thua 
ijiteclly  quickening  ivmpa- 


Cimea,      The 

Talniudista  took  «D  extreme  view  of  the  precept,  aa  Tur- 
biddtng  generally  tbe  cooking  of  flesh  in  milk  (Hiahna, 
CAoWn,  viii  i  HoKiiiger,  i*j,.  Htbr.  p.  117, 141). 

It  remains  lu  mention  the  saniUry  upect  of  the  cOK. 
Swine  are  said  to  be  peculiarly  liable  lo  diieaae  in  tbeii 
awn  bodiea.  Thia  probaUy  means  that  tbey  are  mure 
eaailyled  than  nlliet  creatures  to  the  fuul  feeding  which 
prvducea  it;  and,  where  tlie  average  heat  is  great,  de- 
compueitior,  rapid,  and  malaria  easily  excited,  this  ten- 

where.  A  maofl  or  mtzrl,  from  whence  we  have  "  mea- 
.  iletl  pork,"  is  (he  ohl  Engliah  word  for  a  "  leper,"  and  it 
ia  asserted  that  eating  awine'a  Besh  in  Syria  and  Egj'pt 
(ends  to  produce  that  diaordtr  (Banbolinw,  Dt  JUorbit 
£ibl.c.viiii  Wutiderbar,p.fil).  But  there  lean  iiidefluite- 
ness  about  these  asaeniona  which  prevents  our  dealing 
with  itaem  acientilically.  Mtazrl  ur  matl  may  well,  in- 
deed, represent  "leper,"  but  which  of  all  the  morbid 
sympliima  classed  under  that  head  it  ts  to  stand  fur, 
and  whether  it  means  the  same,  or  at  least  a  parallel, 
disorder  in  man  and  in  pig  are  indeterminate  quealiona. 
See  Lkfrr.    'I'he  piuhilHtioti  on  eating  lit  was  salubri- 


in  blood  bad,  no  doubt,  a  similar  leiiden- 

f  animab  dying  oftbemaelvca  needs  no 

case  they  had  died  in  such  a  aiale,  would  dictate  the 
rule.  Vet  the  beneficial  tendency  ia  veiled  under  a  iier- 
emonial  difierence,  for  the  "strauger"  dwelling  with  the 
Israelite  was  allowed  it,  alihongh  the  Utter  was  forbid- 
den. Thiia  ia  their  distinctness  before  God,  aa  a  tialion, 
ever  put  pnitniiienlly  forward,  even  where  more  common 
■Dotivea  apjiear  lo  have  their  turn.  Aa  regarda  the  an- 
imals alloweil  fur  food,  comparing  them  with  those  for- 
bidden, there  can  be  no  doubt  on  which  side  tbe  balance 
of  wholesomencss  lies.  Noc  would  any  dietetic  econo- 
mist fail  (0  pronounce  in  hvor  of  the  Levitical  dietary 
code  as  a  whole,  aa  insuring  the  maximum  of  public 
health,  and  yet  of  national  dietjnctness,  procured,  how- 
ever, by  a  minimum  of  the  inconvenience  arising  from 

Liltralurf. — Bochart,  Iliemtoiam  ;  Forskal,  Dnrrip- 
tionet  A  itintutiumt  ffc,  gutr  in  tttnere  Orientuli  Qbatrva^ 
vif,  with  his /covi  An^n  XaturaUatu ;  and  KosenmUI- 
ler,  Handbueh  <kr  bibL  Alleilhamihimit,  voL  iv,  .\iilural 
Bittorg,  may  be  consulted  on  some  of  the  questions  con- 
nected with  this  sulject;  also,  more  generally,  Hai- 
monides,  De  CSiu  VelitU;  Rcinhard,flf  CibU  lltbiiro- 
rvni  Prohibilii,    See  Fooii. 

UncleauneBS  (chiefly  nstpB,  used  in  the  almost 
technical  sense  of  I^viiical  delilement)  is  the  term  by 
which,  in  the  law  of  Moses,  is  indicated  that  condition 
which  caused  the  temporary  EU9[>ensian  of  a  Hebrew 
man  or  woman  from  religious  and  social  privileges  aa  a 
aubjcct  of  the  Theocracy. 

I.  About  seventy  siwciflc  cases  of  pnaable  uncleaii- 
e  described,  and  others  implied.     Various  moiles 


irted  l< 


The  o 


Jewish  writers  maiie  two  classes,  acconling  lo  the  length 
of  the  ceremonial  suspen^on.  The  ligliler  class  em- 
braced the  instances  of  utideaniiess  for  the  day;  the 
heavier  class,  those  uf  a  longer  period  (f'cnWjii,  in  IJgid. 
XV,  I14S;  Maimonides,  CoatUlvlitmrs,  in  L'gol.  viii,  68, 
where  the  contaminated  of  the  lighter  class  is  called 
m^  \'^3S,iU<iitluvaJidiii;  eomp.Lighlfool, //o™.o/ 
0.  T-iWorJa  by  Pitman,  ii,  IZS];  althoagh  he  gives 
four  classes,  acconling  'o  limel.  Other  writers  (see  Cor- 
nelius h  Lapide  on  Lev.  xv,  22)  make  also  two  classes. 


UNCLEAKNESS 

different  principle:  " Dnplex  fuit  ImmDadittn 
la  erat  peccaium,  i|uia  procepto  Dei  leiila. 
3  immundas.    Talb  eiiam  erst 


Doiily  ailopted— (a) 


err  leper;"  (i)  "Ei-eir  out 
Wboaoevei  ia  defiled  br  tbe 
i).     Tbe  lawgiver,  no  dnubL  ben 
in  Leviticw.  and  uader 
idea  all  the  intisnco  at 


tbe  three  generic  phi 

(1.)  He  begins  with  leprosy,  the  gravest  of  all  in- 
stances. A  minute  diagiwsb  of  this  terrible  malady  in 
its  ceremonial  character,  and  I  he  purificatiun  which  the 
law  prescribed,  are  given  in  Lev.  xili.    See  Ixruaa. 

(!.)  Under  the  second  head,  of  uncleanness  fmm  "  is- 
sues," are  included  all  those  phyaical  emanattona  at 
bodily  diechargea  to  which  either  sex  is  liable.  TImt 
are  described  in  their  several  delaila  in  the  ruQowing 
passages:  [I.]  The  woman's  periodical  issues  in  Ler. 
XV,  19-34,  and  irregular  issues  in  ver.  25-27.  Thoe 
were  alike  unclean  in  tbemselves  (the  former  for  aem 
days,  the  latter  during  the  irregularity),  and  comnHod- 
cated  unclcanness  during  the  day  alike  to  '^wbcMDenr 
tnuched  her,"  "her  bed,"  or  "anything  lliat  she  nt 
on;"  from  which  uncleanness  ihey  escaped  "at  eten" 
by  washing  their  clothes  and  bathing.  Any  man  who 
so  far  forgot  decency  as  to  lie  with  her  and  he  staiovl 
with  ber  menstrual  taint  incurred  an  equally  long  de- 
filement as  the  woman  herself,  and  like  her  commaiD- 
cated  uncleanneas  lo  tbe  bed  whereon  he  lay.  On  the 
day  after  the  cessation  of  her  issue  (the  eighlb)  tbi 
woman,  for  her  purilicalion,  was  to  bring  Ino  mitlt- 
doves  or  two  young  pigeons,  one  for  a  sin-offering  and 
the  other  for  a  bumt-offeHng,  lo  tbe  prieit.  who  was  Is 
make  atonement  for  her  before  the  Lord.  [2.]  Tbe  is- 
aiiea  of  males,  two  sons  uf  which  sre  mentioneil  in  Ler. 
XV,  S,  produced  uncleanness  with  eflecta  precisely  siB> 


,  (se. 

the  place  lo  discuss  tbe  ns 
Michael  is  adducea  atrong  rei 
eral  opinion,  which  denies  Ih 


■  of  II 


4-12).     Thi 


IS  for  ditputing  the  gCD- 


[Smith'alransl.],Brt.cexii).  See  Isbi'k.  Tbe  puriBea- 
tion  prescribed  for  men  under  Ibis  delilemeni  is  id«ii- 
cal  with  that  for  women  (ver.  13-16).  f3.]  StJtusl 
copulation,  including  conjugal  intercourse,  cassed  U 
both  man  and  woman  uRcieanneas  "until  tbe  erea," 
from  which  they  were  to  cleanse  themselves  and  Ibrir 
garmenlB  by  bathing  and  wasbii^  (ver.  16-18).  [4.] 
The  ftnal  result  oCthe  sexual  art  in  childbirth  prodnad 
a  still  more  marked  defllenient  (see  Lev.  xii).  The 
mother's  uncleanness  in  this  her  pirerperal  stale,  «i  the 
birth  of  a  boy,  was  idenliral  in  iluraiion  with  itaai  d 
her  menstrual  issue*.  Seven  days  was  she  uDck« 
(ver. !);  on  the  eighth  the  child  was  circumcised  (vn. 
B);  after  which  tbe  mother  remained  iti  private, ex- 
cluded ttam  the  sanctuary,  during  thiny-thiee  dait 
more  (ver.  4).  This  period  of  Inrty  dayV  defileniegi 
waa  doubled  in  the  case  of  the  biri'b  of  a  maid  cluU 
(ver.6).  The  purification  riles  of  the  iiH>ther,hovem, 
were  the  same,  whether  obser^'ed  at  tbe  end  ofibe  fcrtj 
or  of  the  eighty  days.  She  broughi  a  yeariing  lanb 
for  a  bumt-offering,  and  a  ruuug  pigeon  or  turtle-dne 
fur  a  sin-nffering,  uuto  tbe  priest,  that  be  migbt  nuke 
atonement  for  her  belore  the  Ixint,  and  she  miglit  be 
cleansed.  In  case  of  inability  to  bring  the  lamh,lke 
substilulion  of  another  young  pigeon  or  turtle-dove  if 
the  mother  was  allowed  (ver.  6-8;  eomp.  the  Virpt 
Mary's  humbler  offering  in  her  "low  esutc."  Lakeii, 
22-24).  In  our  general  ariicle  on  the  Law  of  Mnso, 
we  had  occasion  to  remark  on  the  probable  ratstratM 


UNCLEANNESS 


rf  inani  sad  religiooa  nr 


The  havi 


lebyn 


a  by 


oa  tiir  tiuman  rmce  stcnii  mou  unnif[ly  ioi 
rbc  Tact  [hu  tbe  normal  and  inevitable  coDililions  of 
our  iiaiural  lire  are  iffecied  with  uncleaniKa.  The 
limdattuni  urpailiidDn  from  conception  to  partorition, 
10.1  their  remarkable  eulmination  in  (he  binh  of  the  fe- 
male  chiM,  are  wonderfully  sigDiBcant  or  the  oriiiinal 
*-  innsgreoBiun,"  and  uf  woman')  Gnt  and  heavier  abare 
iait  (1  Tim.  ii.l«i  comp.  with  Gen.  iii,  6, 16,17). 

The  two  periixb  in  tbe  mother's  purtScation  are. 
however,  different  in  character.  "  Far  aevea  days,  im- 
nwdiaielr  after  she  i*  brought  in  bed.  the  lies  ^at3 
rmXISi;}.  'in  the  blood  of  her  uncleanneM:  bat  the 
ihree-and-thirtT  tbUowing, n-ma  ■'ffia.'in  the  blood 
of  hei  purifying.'  Although  the  privacy  continued  lo 
(be  mother,  she  was  after  the  aeven  daya  released  from 
(he  ban  of  uncleannas.  and  did  not  cuonnunicate  de- 
Blemenl  to  others  as  In  the  previuua  perioil  of  her  per- 
fect isuUtiuu  and  tUsability.  I'be  old  Jewish  authori- 
ties are  as  usual  very  dag(na(ie  on  the  point;  '  In  Pe- 
aaka,  coL  4,  it  ia  writun,  nins  •■xnz, "  in  the  blood 
of  her  purifying:"  niina  ^053  DT  PrBiD  licBX, 
"  thniigh  she  issue  blood  like  a  flood,  yet  is  she  clean."  * 
Nor  dnih  she  deBle  anvthtng  hv  touching  it  but  what 
u  hn)v"  (Li|{btrooI,£iKJvi((.o«f(f.  tufa  Led.  I'itmauJ, 
xii,37). 

(3.)  Equallv  noticeable,  as  tni^ht  be  expected,  are  the 
traenuf  this  havoc  as  itisplayed  in  the  various  unclean- 
ncMta  of  dratk — the  third  and  last  of  our  chapters  of 
clasafication  \  and  herein  we  recognise  the  deeper  im- 

liviiii;  beings.  "  By  the  law  of  Moses,"  says  Ughtfoot, 
"nuthiiig  nas  unclean  tuba  touched  while  it  was  alive, 

touched,  and  a  woman  in  her  leparatiDni  but  dogs, 
iwiiie,  wo^^l^  etc.,  were  not  unclean  to  be  touched  till 
they  were  dead ;  and  there  were  also  different  degrees 
herein;  wbjle  touching  a  dead  bean  brought  unclean- 
ness  for  ■  day,  touching  a  dead  man  produced  the  un- 
ekanness  of  a  week,"  etc.  (Harm,  of  O.  T.  m  above). 
This  grailation  of  defilement  fiom  cnnlael  with  death 
is  described— (u)  In  Ler.  xi,8, 11,24,  26,  ST,ai-Sfi,S9, 
40;  xvu,  15.  C*)  In  I**-  ^'<''.  *"*  W  I'>  «<""''>■ 
lix,  It,  14,  18.  (</}  In  Mumb.  vi,  9.  In  the  first  of 
thcK  four  sections,  the  uiideanneas  arises  from  the  dead 
bodies  of  aniniala,  Oshei,  binli,  and  reptiles.  It  was  (he 
ihortcM  lu  duration,  Usdng  in  every  case  only  "  un(il 
even;"  and  it  wai  to  be  terminated  uniformly  by  the 
washinKorthedothn.  The  lastalature,  Lev.  xvii,  1ft. 
prescritieil  abludon  of  the  person  also  for  "every  mwI 
(hit  ua(eth  that  which  died  oT  Itself,  or  that  which  was 
torn  with  beas(a.''  In  the  second  seciion,  the  same  de- 
filemenl  is  described  ai>  incidental  (o  the  priests,  no  lets 
than  lo  the  laity,  from  which  they  must  free  themaelvi 
by  ablution.  So  much  for  the  minor  uncleinnesa 
fnim  (he  ilead.  Our  third  and  fourth  sections  oontsi 
the  iiistancet  where  the  major  dissbility  of  seven  days 
u  occasioned  by  contact  with  human  dead;  "Whoso- 
ever loueheth  one  (hat  is  slain  with  a  sword  tn  the 
open  dtlibs  or  a  dead  body,  or  ■  bone  of  a  man,  m  a 
grave,  shall  be  unclean  seven  days."  As  (he  defilement 
wai  deeper,  so  was  the  mode  of  pnrificslion  mora  elab- 
orate and  sulenin.  For  the  details  of  the  ceremony— 
the  sacrifice  of  the  red  heifer  tkilhouc  the  campi  thr 
sevenfold  fpriiikllnR  uf  her  blood  before  the  Ubemacle , 
the  utter  consumption  by  fire  of  the  slain  animal;  the 

naui  (he  gatherhig-np  of  the  ashes;  their  mixture  in 
running  water  fur  "  the  water  of  separation ;"  the  sprink- 
ling of  this  water  over  the  unclean  petaon,  on  the  thin) 
and  the  last  of  the  seven  days;  his  own  washing  of  his 
cluthca  and  bathing  of  his  peraon,  and  his  Anal  clean»ni; 
oothe  cieningofthe  seventh  day—the  reader  will  con- 
■itt  the  IBlh  chapter  of  Numbers.    Our  fourth  section 


15  UNCLEANNESS 

desoibea  the  interruption  of  the  Naiarile's  vow  by  any 
'  n  death  happening  in  his  presence.    This  tnoitali- 

Mt  htm"  all  the  days  of  his  vow  which  hsd  tnn- 
sfHred,  and  required  for  its  own  expiation  alio  the  usual 
hebdomad,  on  the  last  day  of  which  he  was  to  shave 
his  head,Bnd  on  (he  morrow  bring  two  young  {ngeoaa 

1  turtles  to  tbe  priest,  that  he  might  present  them 


t  preserving  th 


fur  the  polluted.    See  P(;iufication. 
3.  A  few  stray  instances  remain  of  a  peculiar  kind, 

which  we  proceed  to  chiss  in  a  supplementary  notice. 
(1.)  Wc  have  then  under  this  head,  first,  the  cases  of 
'    called  official  uncleanness.    [a.  ]  The  priest 
tended  the  holocaust  of  the  red  heifer  was 
rendered  unclean  until  evening  by  the  part  be  look  in 
sacred  rite;  from  this  defilenient  he  purified  him- 
self by  the  washing  of  his  clothes  and  (he  ablution  of 
person  (Nnmb.  six,  7).    This  nncleaniiess  was  the 
re  remarkable  from  the  precautionary  character  of 

priests,  as  far  as  might  be,  from  the 
noniol  polluticni  (see  Lev.  xxi,  1-4). 
\b.\  The  man  (hat  bumeil  the  heifer  was  involved  in 
the  same  defilement  as  the  priest,  from  which  he  was 
also  extricated  by  a  similar  purification  (Numb.'(ix,8). 
[c]  So,  again,  the  nun  who  gathered  the  ashes  of  tbe 
imed  heifer  was  unclean  until  evening;  but  from 
lisability  he  was  released  by  the  lesser  ceremony 
uply  washing  his  clothes  (ver.  10).  Similar  in- 
■  IS  ont  of  official  routine,  00- 
t  Day  of  Alonemenu  [d.] 
The  man  who  dismissed  ihe  acape-goai  was  (o  wash 
clothes  and  bathe  himself  before  returning  to  the 
ip  (Lev.  xvi,  26),  and  a  like  purification  was  re- 
rjuired  of  him  who  burned  the  bullock  and  the  goat  of 
the  sinniffering  (ver.  98).  [c]  Under  this  head  of 
"  '  '  indeaniiess,  we  may  perhaps  place  the  abnormal 
he  Isnietitiah  soldiers  who  slew  the  Midianitesat 
the  command  of  Moses  (Numb.  3xxi,  17).  They  were 
>  seven  days;  purify  them- 
selves on  the  third  and  on  the  seventh  day;  cleanse 
their  raiment,  etc.,  with  either  ftrenr  I  lie  water  of  sepa- 
ition,  as  the  case  miRlit  require,  and  on  (he  last  day 
ash  their  clothes  (ver,  19,  20, 23, 2i), 
(2.)  Destdes  these  cases  of  official  uncleBnnes^  we  find 
ne  instance  laigtneru  occurring  in  Deut.  xxiii,  10, 11, 
which,  with  its  purirtcation,  is  thus  described:  "  If  Iheni 
be  among  yon  any  man  that  is  not  clean  by  reason  of 
uncleanness  that  chanceth  bim  by  night,  then  shall  he 
go  abroad  uut  of  the  camp. ..  but  when  evening  cometh 
he  shall  wash  himself  with  water,  and  when  the  sun  ia 
down,  he  shall  come  into  Ihe  camp  again."  It  may  be 
obsen-ed  that  this  case  Is  not  designated  by  the  usual 
term  UK's:) ;  the  phrase  merely  denotes  its  accidental 
character,  n^r^Ti^pn  "lina-sb. 

(8.)  Our  enumeration,  to  bo  complete,  should  include 
the  aggregate  uncleanness  of  the  priest  and  his  hniwe- 
hold,  and  the  nation  (Lev.  xvi) ;  this  was  expiated  by 
the  grand  ritual  of  the  great  Day  of  Atonement,  for  the 
imposing  details  of  which  ceremony  we  must  lefci  the 
reader  to  our  anicla  on  that  snbjecl. 

8.  Some  few  historical  instances  of  uncteanneas,  and 
more  of  purification,  are  mentioned  both  in  llie  Old 
TesL  and  the  New  Test.  A«  being,  however,  appHca- 
liona  only  of  some  of  the  suiulcs  w  hich  wo  have  given 
above,  we  shall  refrain  from  adducing  Iheni  here,  ex- 
I'ppt  one  case,  which  is  important  because  it  liil  to  ihe 
enactment  of  a  proviso  in  the  Uw.  "Then-  were  cer- 
tain men,  who  were  defiled  by  Ihe  dear)  b<uly  of  a  man, 
that  they  couU  not  keep  (he  Passover  on  that  day." 
They  slated  Ibeir  difficulty  lo  Slosrs  ami  Aaron,  the 
fiirmer  of  whom  referred  it  lo  the  l^iid,  a 


c  Passove 


le  alluxi 
fori 


al  celebi 


6-12).    See  PiasoVM 


,  UNCLEANNESS  6: 

In  contrut  with  this  relief  waa  tlie  inflexible  penalty 
tlirEBteiieil  ■};ainM  all  wilful  neKlecC  oT  Che  various  ritu 
of  pnriAcation  prescribed  in  tbe  law.   The  rulleat  furmuli 


II  Nun 


"Tbe  n 


_  .  irify  himMir; 

goul  Ahall  be  cut  nfffrom  amoui;  the  cungregalion  [or, 
as  it  [iins  iu  rer.  13, 'from  Israel' ],becauK  he  buh  de- 
file.) tbe  uncfuarv  of  the  Lord."     That  thi>  ezfuton 

Micbaelis,  Laai  o/ Atota  [SraitlVa  tran(L],  it,  4B,  .nd 
Keil  fM  GfH.  xvii,  14).  Jehovah,  ibe  iheoeralic  kini;  and 
billy  (iml,  who  baci  his  own  ways  of^cuttingaflf"  iheilii- 

the  rea^ii  fur  i»  iDflietion—"  because  he  halh  defiled 
tbe  uiicluary  of  tlie  Lord."  This  U  in  direct  acconl- 
aiice  with  the  principle  by  which  the  Dirioe  Legislator 
repeatedly  sanctions  his  laws:  "  Ve  shall  be  holy;  for  I 
tbe  Lord  your  Gort  am  holy"{Lei',xU,a,and  freqoent- 
ly  elsewhere),  and  it  was  the  recognition  of  these  sainl- 
ly  duties  which  alwajis  chancterized  tbe  pious  Israel- 
ite. "tiad"{sBys  the  psalmist,  Pss.  lKXxix,7)  "is 
((resilj  la  be  feareil  in  the  asMiubly  o(  the  saints 
[a^Cip,  which  is  likewise  the  word  used  In  the  for- 
inula  of  Leviticus;  the  phrase  D''C^p  3)ip3  also, 
which  occurs  in  ver.  6  of  this  psalm,  is  the  frequent 
(lesiKnition  nf  the  political  organizalion  of  the  Israel- 
ilea],  and  to  be  had  in  rEveience  of  all  them  that  are 
■bout  him." 

The  Uotaic  ritual  on  uncleanness  illuttrates  much  of 
tbe  phraseulug}-  »f  the  Psalms  and  tlie  prophets,  aiid 
(what  is  more)  many  staUmeiits  in  the  New  Tes^  nnt 
only  in  obvious  comparismiB.  as  la  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  but  in  oblique  pbrases,  such  as  in  Eph.  v,  26, 
37,  where  the  apostle,  "  speaking  of  Christ's  washing 
the  Church,  that  he  might  present  it  tu  himself  >  with- 
out spot  or  wrinkle,' etc,  seemeth  to  allude  to  the  Jews' 
exceeding  great  curiouinest  in  their  washinoa  for  pu- 
tidcatioii"  (Lightfont,  wbo  quotes  Maiotouides  in  Mii- 
KW(i,III,iii,29r). 

In  conclusion,  we  must  refer  to  the  notices  of  purifica- 
tion which  occur  in  the  New  Test.  These  are  of  three 
kiiula — (ii)  the  itgitinuile  instances,  such  as  that  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  [Lulte  ii,  22),  tbe  leper  (Mark  i,  44),  Ibe 
Nszarite  (Acts  xxi,  23,  24),  all  of  which  make  express 
rererencc  (o  the  law ;  (A)  the  unanlhotittd  cases,  such  as 
the  traditional  and  I'harisaical  wa>ihit>):i<  of  the  hinda 
(Matt.  XV,  g),  and  of  Utiles,  cups,  ami  platters  (Mark 
vii,  4),  all  which  the  Lord  coitdemned  in  strong  terms 
aa  superstitious  encroschmenta  on  the  divine  law ;  (c) 
the  dnub'fal  cases,  such  as  the  case  of  tboBe  who  came 
141  Jerusslem  to  purify  themselves  before  the  Passover 
(John  xi,  fij),  and  the  discussion  mentioned  iii  John  ill, 
26.  "Their  controversy."  says  LightfiHit,  "was  partly 
about  the  pre-eminence  of  the  .ludaical  washings  and 
the  evangelical  baptism — and  here  tbe  Jews  and  John's 
diwiples  were  at  opposition,  and  partly  about  tbe  pre- 
eminence of  John's  baptism  and  Christ's — and  here  (be 
Jews  would  hiss  (hem  on  in  the  cotilestation"  (IKoiib 
[ed.Fitni«i'j,v,6'> 

4.  Our  object  In  this  article  haa  been  In  collect  the 
tcriplurul  laws  on  uncleanncss  and  puiili 
have  avoided  the  Jewish  Lratlilional  di>cini 
may  be  discovered  by  the  cunous  on  such  si 
careful  use  of  the  iiidexea  to  the  works  of  Uchifoot. 
Schoiigen  f  finnr  /Irb,  H  T'l'inutf. ),  and  Surenhusiin 
(Mvilaia).  Dr.  Wollon,  in  his  work  on  the  Mishna  (I 
lBO-1701.  has  analyzed  the  Stikr  Tahiiroli,  or  Order  of 
Pvrijkaiioat,  which  contains  the  authoii:ted  ttadilion 
on  llie  subject  <>l  our  article.     "In  ihis  onlcr,"  says 

saical  spirit  which  our  blesseil  I»nl  so  severely  repre- 
hends in  HstU  IV  and  Mark  vii  is  plainly 
Been."  Wc  subjoin  the  names  of  the  chief  "  titles"  oi 
sections  ofthisorder:  1.  A>ftin,vetselsi  i.  OhiAilli, ttitu 
— treating  of  pollutions  from  the  dead;  S.  Xfgaim, 
plagues — uf  leprosy ;  4.  Panih,  the  ted  beifei;  5.  Taia- 


UNCTION 

roth,  purifications  —  relating  to  leaser  uncleannoscs 
which  but  but  a  day ;  G.  MUvaolli,  collections  of  vater 
for  the  deauaing  baths,  elc^;  T.  A'sdi/uA,  menstrual  fti- 
lutions;  9.  ZaUm,  men  that  have  seminal  undesD- 
nesses;  10.  T^*iit  Yon,  washed  bv  dav  (see  aboT()( 
and  11.  Kuiiaini,  bands  — ihe  constitutions  in  which 
title  have  no  foundation  in   ibe  wrillen    law.     Sss 

Uncles,  JosirH,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  miuiaitt, 
was  bom  Feb.  17, 1812,  in  Anne  Arundel  Couiiiy,  Ud. 
He  was  converted  when  about  eighteen  y<  an  old :  fi  1- 
kiwed  school-leaching  Cor  some  time  in  Eiisieni  I'ei  u- 
sylvania;  gndualed  at  Alleghany  College  in  ISU; 
labored  two  years  as  professor  of  moral  science  in 
Madison  College,  Unionlown,  Pa.,  and  subsequently  aa 
principal  of  Woodsfield  Academy,  O.,  and  at  Meadvilk 
In  1S4S  be  Joined  the  Erie  Conference,  and  Uborul  suc- 
cessively at  (Jreenvillc,  Randolph,  Forestville.  Portlunl, 
Jamestown.  Silver  Creek,  Northeast,  and  raiiirarilk. 
In  18A4  Mr.  Uncles  was  prostrated  by  disease,  and  le- 
tired  to  Meadville,  where  be  spent  two  years  aa  a  sn- 
perannuate,  and  where,  after  two  years'  labor  at  Sha- 
ron, he  died,  Nov.  12, 1B58.  He  was  devout,  energetic, 
and  eminently  soccesirul.  See  tfimlri  of  A  faiiiiil  Cat- 
firrmn,  ibhV,  p.  19S;  Simpson,  Cfctcp.  of  ilnlmdum, 

Unconditioned  BlecUoii.    See  Et-Ecriax  ta 

ITnotlon  (^ommlmg),  an  ecclesiasl 


M  tiling. 


several  of  these  ct 


leKomi 


I  Calboli 


See  Anoint  I  MO 

1,  C'tKlioH  o/oH  Allar.—7b'n  consists  in  annniing 
with  holy  oil  the  bve  crosMS  of  an  aliar-slab  by  iIk 
bishop  who  consecnles  iu  The  Ldlin  formula  is  s>  Tol- 
lows:  "ConsBcreiur  et  sanctificeiurhocsepulchnim.  la 
nomine  I'atris,  et  Filii,  et  Spiritus  Sancti.  Pax  huie 
domiiL"  Tbisrilehasbeen  abolished  in  the  Chutcbrf 
England  since  the  Reformation.     See  Ciiiitm. 

2.  UneHoH  of  Ike  Boplitrd^Somt,  but  not  all,  of  tbe 
aitcient  ritualists  mention  an  unction  preceding  bap- 
tism, and  used  by  way  of  piepanlion  for  it.  It  via 
calleil  ^"iots  fivertati/  JXoiou,  the  "unction  oflhe  mil- 
tical  oil."  It  was  consecrated  by  tbe  biEhop,iiiih  tbe 
prayer  that  "God  wouU  sanctify  Ibe  oil  in  lb*  iiiw 
of  the  Lont  Jesus,  and  grant  it  spirit  ual^ace  andcffies- 
cioua  power,  Ihat  it  might  be  »ubseri'ient  to  the  remik 
sion  of  sins,  and  Ibe  prvpataiion  of  men  to  nuke  Ihdl 
profession  in  baptisr 


freed  from  all  impiely, 


only  begotten  Son."  Men  were  thus  aiHunlHl  thai  iliey 
might  be  partakers  of  the  true  olit-e-treeiJesusCliristi 
and  the  exorcised  nil  was  a  symbol  of  their  pansking 
of  the  fatness  of  Christ,  and  an  indication  ol  ihe  Higbt 
and  destruction  of  the  advene  power.  See  Itinghiia^ 
Ckiin.  A  utiq.  bk.  xi,  ch.  ii,  $  !,  B.    See  Battisii. 

3.  UneHm  afrkr  CanJIrmrdJ-'Itn*  is  anoinlin;  iriib 
holy  oil  those  confirmed.  In  Ihe  Roman  Church  lbs 
furmuU  runs  thus .  "  Signo  te  aigno  crucis ;  ctfoiiGnni 
te  cbrismate  ssluiis.  In  nomine  Patris,  et  Filii,  (t 
Spiritus  Sancti  Amen."  In  Ihe  Church  of  Eii^wl 
this  rile  was  sboliahed  at  the  Reformatiotk,  and  in  ibe 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church,  as  well  as  the  Protestast 
Epiacc^  Church  of  the  United  Slaiea.  no  unciisn  ii 
now  used.    See  Cokfiiuiatiok. 

4.  y»)Honi/u/>™«.— This  i.  anointing  with  bdy 
oil  a  person  promoted  to  Ihe  priesthood.  Ibis  rile  is 
peculiarly  Latin.  When  using  the  holy  oil,  tbe  hitli^ 
who  onlaiiis  prays  thus:  "Ckmsecrare  et  sanctificsii 
digneris,  Dumine,  manus  istas  per  islam  unctioncm  et 
nostram  benedictionem.    Amen.    Utquscumque  bene- 


UNCTION,  EXTREME  8: 

6re»k  form  Tor  besMwiog  the  pricstbood.    See  Coksk- 

6.  Vnetion  of  the  Siek.     See  ExTBEUS  Unction. 

UNCTION,  Extreme.     See  Kitreme  Unctiom. 

UNCTION  IM  Pbeaciiiso  ii  tbil  gncioiit  uainunce 
oT  Ihe  Huly  Spirit  which  quickeu*  Ibe  menUl  pow»n, 
give«  a  glow  u>  the  feclinga,  and  imparu  such  a  apirit- 
lut  lone  to  ihe  preaching  of  Ihe  Wonl  aa  lenders  ic  elfl- 
(acioiu  in  miking  the  tiuth  convincing  and  authorita- 
lire.    See  Spirit  (Holy),  Baftibii  or. 

XrndBrgird  (uiraCiu>w/ii,  lit.  to  gitd  mifer  the 


ui,  2  Uao 


i,  19;   comp.  ^ian,  V.  B.  x,  22), 
naval  tcmi  employeil  (Acta  xsvii,  17)  to  deeignate  the 
act  uf  pasain^  cabiea  amund  Ihe  middle  of  a  ahip  in  or- 
der (a  strenglhen  it  (no  Pulvbiiis,  xXTii,3, 8;  Appiaii, 
BfO.  at.  V,  91 ;  Plato,  ftp.  jv  616>     See  Ship. 

TTndeihill,  Jakes  Evax,  an  Engliih  Weilejan 
minioiiarv,  was  a  narive  of  Slaffordahire.  He  waa  ap- 
poinieil  to  Jamaica,  \V.  L,  by  the  Conference  of  1817. 
Bis  diligence  in  study  and  knowledge  of  Methodist  doc- 
trine and  discipline  quail  Bed  him  [ogive  instruction  and 
manage  wiselv  the  affain  of  hii  charges.  He  died  uf 
fever  at  Morant  Bay,  Jamaica,  Sept.  21,  1821.  in  Che 
twenty-serealh  year  of  his  age.  He  waa  much  beloveil 
hy  his  people.      See  MiaultM  of  Wakyaa  Cmfm 

nndeisetter  (qn^i  bihtE/iA,a  lAcuUer,  as  usually 
nodered),  an  appendage  lo  the  laver  (q.  v.)  in  the  Tem- 
ple or^luinon(l  Kinicavii,  30,31),  eonibling,  according 
to  Keil  (Common,  ad  tuc)  uf  prupa  running  up  fi 
bed)' of  the  vehicle  and  holding  ihe  baun  betweei 

0nderwood,  Alvan,  a  Congregadonal  m 
was  horn  at  West  Wooditock,  Conn.,  Sept.  8, 1777.  He 
grill uateil  at  Brown  Unirernity  in  lT98,iitudicd  theology 
with  Kev.Dr.Sanger.aiid  waa  onliined  pastor  in  hij 
tive  place  in  I801,diBmissedin  183S,and  thereafter 
plied  for  nearly  ten  yeira  vacant  churches,  particularly 
those  in  Wcstfoid  and  South  Killingly,  end  Anally,  for 
a  year  or  more,  hia  former  charge  in  Woodstuck,  where 
he  died,  ApriU,  I8&8.  He  published  a  fev 
tracts.     SeeCong.  QuirTerfy,  I86l,p.3&5. 

Undervrood,  Heiii7Beinaii,a  Coiigregational 
raniiter,  »on  of  Kev.  Aimon  Underwowl,  was  born  at 
Poughkevpsle,  it.  ¥.,  Dec.  2^,  183U.  He  studied  at 
Ilunsun  Academy,  Mass.,  groilusleil  fmm  Williams  Col- 
lege ill  1862,  and  from  Andovcr  'theological  Seminary 
in  18G5,  afier  having  spent  two  years  in  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary.  He  was  ordained  at  Ringwood, 
JIL,  Jan.  19, 1866,  anil  was  acting  pastor  there  until  the 
lulluwiog  rear,  when  he  began  ^ireachiiig  it  East  Long- 
meadow,  Sliia.,  remaining  two  years.  His  next  Held 
of  labor  was  Marlborough,  N.  H.;  then  Baxter  Springs, 
Kan.  In  1871  he  was  inalalled  paswr  of  the  church  at 
HiUdiurough  Briitge,  N.  H.,  in  which  piwti 
maineil  for  one  year  and  four  mouths.  The  last  charge 
which  he  Klled  was  at  Alguua,  la.,  where  he  bcci 
acting  pastor  in  I8T8,  and  djoil  Sept.  2, 18;o.  See  C'l 
Qnutltrlg,  I8T6,  p.  4M. 

Undervrood,  Joseph,  a  Congregalional  mii 
ter,«as  bom  at  BnulfoTd,Vt„  Oct.  2,  1796.  He  ac- 
quired hia  preliminary  e<1ucaliun  at  Kimball  Union 
Academv  from  1817  to  1820,  and  at  Chesterfield  Acail- 
emv  in  1821,  and  graduated  from  Bangor  I'heolocical 
Seminar)-  in  1824.  Hia  ordination  occutrrd  at  New 
ataarun.Me.,  and  he  was  pastor  (here  from  18!6  M  1831. 
During  1827-SO  he  waa  also  aerving  as  acUng  pastor  at 
Induttrr.  In  this  Utter  oWce  he  served  the  Church  at . 
Nurth  AugniU  from  18S2  to  1833.  He  wni  installed 
pallor  at  WilliamBbui^h,  He.,  in  1833,  and  remained 
there  two  yean,  during  which  lime  he  was  also  acting 
paitor  at  Sebec  The  two  years  following  he  served  as 
a  home  miaeionary  iu  Poxcroft,  Dover,  Atkinson,  Milo, 
snd  Bradford,  when  he  was  reiiutalled  it  New  Sharon, 
Feb.22,1887,renainii>giberetwoandah«lfTears.  At 
Hillport  and  Tetenui,  N.  Y.,  he  was  installed'  pastor  in 


UNIATES 


1843.  As  acting  pastor,  he 
preached  at  Hardwiek,  Vt.,  for  two  years,  and  ihen,  in 
December,  1816,  he  was  insiallcil  there,  continuing  in 
charge  until  Febniar}',  1858.  During  the  following 
year  he  wis  acting  pastor  at  Bu^e,  Vi.;  from  1860  to 
1866  at  Bamet;  and  fmm  1870  to  1872  be  again  served 
the  Church  at  Burke.  After  Ihe  last  date  he  resided, 
without  cba^e,  at  Hardwiek,  of  which  town  he  waa  a 
representative  in  the  Vermont  Legislature  in  1866, 
1868,  and  1869.  He  died  Jut;  27,  1876.  See  Cons. 
QxarieWy,  1877,p.42S. 

Undlna  (from  un(fn,'<wave'0,  in  mediieval  super- 
stition is  B  water-sprite,  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
nymphs  of  classical  mythology.     Paracelsus  has  given 


ened  ti 


>n  Undine,  and  I 
id  the  subject  in  a 


edrich 


de  la  Motie  Vouque  has  tr 
tale  eniitleil  f'ndiiK. 

Uogal'.  Several  of  the  water-gods  of  the  ancient 
Accadiao  mythoUigy  have  names  beginning  with  Un- 
gol,  as  Uagal-abu,"  t\x  king  of  the  wave;"  Ungal-a- 
aUm, "  the  king  nf  the  sea ;"  UngaUariada,  "  Ihe  king 
of  Ihe  river."     See  Lenormanl,  Chald.  Music,  p.  181. 

UnBcban,  John.    See  John,  PntwriiR. 

Unser,  Salohom  Gorrtoa,  i  Pmiestant  divine  of 
Germanv,  wu  bom  April  25, 17B2.  it  Nieder-Pollnitx, 
near  Welds,  and  died  June  16, 1818,  at  Ciilleili,  in  Thu- 
ringii.  He  wrote,  Aimtrhmgrn  iiier  dm  Horn*  oder 
roH  der  Wtaiagung  DaniJt  und  tier  Slartt  Urei  Be- 
wfWt/iir  dit  Gdlllichieil  tind  Mtlinnilal  Jriu  (Leips. 
nM):-De  Audorilale  /jftrorum  V.  T.ta  Famlia  Da 
(ibid.  liSa):— i>M  Schrijiea  dtt  allot  Bvidei,  etc.  (ibid. 
1 787) -.^Dt  Tktradi  Sifonit  Jot.  xi,S,H xiii,  6,  Mono- 
ralit  Paaca  Diip.(M<i.ieo3):—LulieruiAucloiilalaii 
l.ibromia  Moiit  apud  Chriiliaaoi  Viitda  (ibid.).  See 
Fllrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  461 ;  Winer,  llandb.  drr  tbtot.  Li- 
rrniTHr,  i,  820^  ii,81l.     (KP.) 

Ungewittor,  Reinhaiui  CiiRi3TOPH,a  Protestant 
thenlogiin  of  Germsny,  was  born  at  Marburg,  Jan.  2S, 
17IS.  He  studied  in  bis  native  place,  and  when  twen- 
ty-one yean  old  he  publicly  defemled  his  dissenaitno 
Df  Stadia  Proplielieo  lobiit  InililUBido.  AlUr  com- 
pleting his  studios,  he  went  Is  Caasel  in  1736,  and  uiiiil 
the  vear  1778  ho  waa  aclivelv  engageil  in  pastoral  du- 
tiea.  White  on  ■  visitation  in  his  funcliun  a*  superin- 
tendent and  member  of  consistory,  he  was  paralyieil,  and 
was  thus  deprived  of  the  power  of  speech.  .Although 
unable  to  preach,  yet  he  performed  the  duties  cuiniecled 
wilh  his  ecclesiastical  position,  and  died  Dec  31, 1784. 
He  published,  ftVUoniNj  da  Brir/n  da  Miiffeu  Jakob* 
(Laogo.Ubi):—CominailiUiodeTkrtili>soTeminiriSir- 
nmte  (Henifeldiie,i;D&):— KeriacA  emer/teim  Urbtr. 
i^zung  der  beidea  Btvfc  Pitri  und  dtr  drei  Brvft  Jo- 
hamit  (Frankfort,  1757):  — Pmjr'/frn  Sbtr  aiduigt 
Gbmbnaicnkrhtilen  und  l^rbnipjiick'ten  (Casscl,  1780-81, 
2  vols.).  See  Dbring,  Gelehrit  TStohgtn  Dtaltckiaadi, 
iv,  &aisq.    (D.P.) 

Unballowad  ITneB.  In  the  consecration  of  a 
church  orchapel  among  the  Episcopalians,  the  building 
is  aaid  to  be  separated  henceforth  "  from  aU  unhallowed, 
ordinary,  and  common  ascs."  The  word  "  unhaltowed," 
as  here  used,  does  not  inein  ^mply  such  things  as  are 
morally  evil,  impure,  and  conlrwy  to  the  spirit  of  re- 
ligion, whioh  is  the  popular  sense,  but  strictly  all  such 
purposes  aa  are  not  hallowed,  made  sacred,  and  conse- 
crateil  to  holy  purposes.— Stanton,  Dic<.  nfthe  Charck, 

Unlatea  m  Eaalem  Christians  in  external  com- 
munion with  the  see  of  Rome,  and  are  rnust  numerous 
in  those  provinces  which  formeriy  belonged  to  Poland. 
When  Sigiamund  III  was  elected  to  the  cniwn  of  Po- 
land, being  a  zealous  agent  of  the  Jeauits,  he  at  once 
took  measures  for  reconciling  the  Polish  Church  to 
Home.  His  plans  were  so  sitcccssfid  that  (he  arrhbish- 
Dp  of  Kief  summoned  a  synod  at  Brest,  in  Lithuania,  to 


UNICORN  61 

whom  he  prewnled  the  necenty  and  wlwilaBM  of  a 
uniaa  vith  Rome.  The  clergy  faTored  the  project,  but 
it  met  with  a  atrun^c  oppoaiLion  rrom  the  lailT,  and 
ODuld  dot  then  be  carried  into  effect.  At  a  synod  which 
met  at  the  sanie  place  Dee.  2,  l.'>94,  the  archbishnp  and 
•eTCtal  biahupi  gare  their  assent  lo  (he  Kheme  of 
QDiDii  ivhich  had  been  piupoacd  at  the  Council  of  Flor- 
eacCr  thus  recogniatng  the  FUioqUf,  or  double  pruccfluon 
of  the  Niceiie  Creed,  and  acknowledging  the  (upremacy 
of  the  pope.  They  uood  out,  however,  for  retaining 
tbe  use  of  Lbc  vernacular  SlaTOnic  in  the  celebiation 
of  divine  Miviee  for  the  ritual  anil  diaciidine  of  the 
Easiem  Cbuich.  On  the  return  uf  the  bishops  aent  lo 
Borne  to  announce  this  event,  the  king,  in  1696,  con- 
vened the  ayiiod  at  Brest  for  the  publication  and  inlio- 
duction  of  (he  union.  Thi*  was  met  by  a  public  pro- 
teat  on  the  pan  of  the  opposite  party,  which  repudiated 
the  acta  of  the  Uniates,  and  declared  theii  unaltered  at- 
tachment to  the  ancient  Church  of  iheir  couulry  and  to 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Sigismund  deprived 
them  of  their  churches  and  conrenla,  and  forbade  the 
promulgation  of  Ureck  doctrines  in  hia  dominions.  This 
division  of  the  Church  continued  in  full  force  until  the 
pattilioD  of  Poland,  in  1772,at  which  time  between  two 
and  three  miUioiia  of  the  Uniates  gave  up  tbeic  al- 
legiance to  Rome,  and  returned  to  the  Eastern  Church. 
In  1839  2,000,000  more  were  reconciled ;  but  there  are 
alUl  about  300,000  in  Russia  and  3,000,000  in  Autlria. 
See  Krasinski,  Rrform  in  Poland;  Mouravief,  Hiil.  of 
the  Church  n/Iiuuia;  Veale,  Palnarchale  of  Alexan- 

UQlOom  is  the  invariable  but  unfortunate  render- 
ing in  the  A.  V.  of  a  HeU  word  which  occurs  nine  Umea 
in  three  slightly  varied  forma  (Ottl,  rMm,  Numb,  iiiii, 
32;  xsir,8i  plur,  [D->pK-^,rc;»in{n]  Psa.  xxix.fi;  Isa. 
xxxiv,  7;  O^K^,  re^ym,  Paa.  xlii,  10;  D^n,  rrgm,  Job 
x^xix,  9, 10;  and  D^,  r(nt  [only  with  plur.  D^^*^,  re- 
nin], Paa.  xiij,2l;  never  with  the  article;  Sept.  ^o- 
voKfpai^ot  a^pfici  Vulg.  vAnocercu  or  uniivr'nu)  as  the 
name  of  some  large  wild  animal  More,  perhaps,  has 
been  written  on  the  stibject  of  the  unicorn  of  the  an- 
cients than  on  any  other  animal,  and  various  are  the 
opiniouB  which  have  been  given  as  lo  the  cnature  in- 
tended. The  eiymolcigy  of  Ihe  Heb.  term  (acconling 
lo  Geseniua,  fcom  Dtt^=04^,  fo  be  high;  but  according 
to  Fllrst,  from  an  obscure  root  DKn,  to  roat')  aSbida  no 
clear  indication  of  the  animal,  and  bence  we  must  resort 
to  indirect  means  fur  elucidating  the  subject. 

I.  Scriptural  Characffrvlict.—The  great  streiiBth  of 
the  rrfm  ia  mentioned  in  Numb,  iiiii,  22 ;  Job  xxxix, 
11;  his  having  two  homa  in  Deut.xxxiii,  IT;  hiaAercc 
nature  in  Psa.  xxii,  21 ;  hia  indomitable  disposition  in 
Job  xxxix,  9-11;  the  active  and  playful  habits  of  the 
young  animal  are  alluded  to  in  Paa.  xxix,  6;  while  in 
laa.  xxxiv,  6,7,  where  Jehovah  is  said  to  be  preparing 
"  a  sacriHce  in  I3on'Bh,"itis  added, "  Aejsifm  shall  come 
down,  and  the  bullocks  with  the  bulla."  The  following 
ia  ■  close  rendering  of  Job'a  famous  description  of  this 
animal  (xxxii, 9-12): 

"Will  Rerm be diapnaedlo serve tbecT 
Wiiiild  he  perclimii:!;  lodiie  on  1b:i  stall  t 
Canal  thou  He  Reym  In  n  Inrrow  [wllh]  hia  brnldT 


O*")),  n 


UNICORN 

MTia  are  like  the  homa  of  a  mnamr  (^"p 

,as  tbe  text  of  the  A. T.  renders  it,  "the  Imrus 

t."     Tbe  two  horns  of  the  Teem  are  "  the.  ten 

of  Epbraim  and  the  thousands  of  Hanassek* 

tribes  which  aprang  from  one — L  e.  Joseph, 

aa  two  homa  from  one  head.    This  text  pots  a  an«- 

humed  animal  eniireiy  out  of  the  question,  and,  in  no- 

sequence,  disposes  of  the  opinion  held  by  Biua:  {Trar. 

V,  89}  and  others,  that  some  apcciea  of  rhiooccroa  is  da- 

~  >t«d,orthBt  maintained  by  aomewritenthat  tbe  n^ 

identical  with  aome  one-honwd  animal  said  to  lure 

«n  seen  by  iravellcra  in  South  Africa  and  in  Thibet 

(see  Barrow,  Tniceli  in  Sovlh  Afnto,  i,  312-818;  Am- 

oHe  JourmJ,  xi,  164),  and  identical  with  the  veritabk 

licom  of  Greek  and  Latin  writers. 

IJttte,  howei 

eros,for,  even  allowing  that  the  ti 

Abyssinia  (F.  bicomii)  may  hare  been  an  inbabitant 

of  the  wooily  districts  near  the  Jordan  in  Biblical  limes, 

lid  have  been  forbidden  lo  be  sacrificed  by  the  lav 
of  Moses;  whereas  the  rrim  is  mentioned  by  liaiah  as 
ig  down  wiih  bullocks  and  rams  to  Ihe  Lord's  ss^ 
"Umnia  animalia,"  saya  Rvaenmuller  (ScttLU 
:  cit.),  "ad  aacrificia  idunea  in  unum  congregaD- 
Again,  the  akipping  of  (he  young  rrem  (Ita. 
G)  ia  acBrcely  compatible  with  the  habitaof  a  rhi- 
noceros. Moreover,  this  animal,  when  uomoleMed,  it 
not  generally  an  object  of  much  dread,  nor  can  we  be- 
lieve that  it  ever  existed  ao  plentifully  in  the  Bible 


Wilt  Ihnu  trust  III  him.  bee 
Or  lenve  lo  him  thy  labort 


at  lit]  his  force : 


IL  MoJtm  Attrmptt  at  Idealificalioti.—i,  The  rrim 
at  th«  Hebrew  BUjIe  haa  little  at  all  lo  do  with  the  one- 
homed  animal  mentioned  by  Ctesiaa  ^Indica,  iv,  S&-27), 
Mliaa  (,Vaf.  Ann,  xvi,  20),  Aristotle  (ifuf.Anun.  ii,  ! 
S),  Pliny  (H.  .V.  viti.  31),  and  other  Greek  and  Romai 
writers  (Solin.  65;  Kiceph.  //.  E.  ix,  19),  aa  it  eviden 
from  Deut.  xxxiil,  17,  where,  in  the  blessing  of  Joseph, 
it  ia  said, "  His  glory  is  like  tbe  firstling  of  hia  bullock, 


lands,  o 


e  allow 


chart  (AwTDi.  ii,  S35)  contends  that  the  Hebrew 
identical  with  the  Arabic  rim,  which  is  nsuallT 
referred  to  the  Oryx  Itacoryx,  the  white  atilclope  rf 

id  at  one  time,  perhaps,  ar  ~  ~ 
of  Palestine.     Bochait  has  beeo  followed  hi 
ler,  Winer,  and  othen. 

But  with  regard  lo  the  cUima  of  Ihe  Oryx  lauonfr, 
it  must  be  olwerved  that  this  antelope,  like  the  rest  «( 
ttie  family,  ia  hatmleae  unlea*  woundeil  or  bard  prean) 
by  the  bunler;  nor  is  it  remarkable  for  the  possession 
of  any  extraordinary  strength.  Figures  of  the  oiyi 
frequently  occur  on  the  Egyptian  sculptute^  "bciiig 
among  the  animals  tamed  by  the  Eg}'pliaDS  and  kept 
in  great  numbers  in  their  prcsen-es"  (Wilkinson,  At. 
Egypt,  i,  227,  ed.  1854).  Certainly  thU  antclopa  cm 
never  t>e  the  fierce  indomitable  rern  mentioned  in  the 
book  of  Job  (seeLichlenBtein,fi4;if.'<>i'ibpcfiiiri  narJL 
Africa  [BerL  1826]).     See  Antelope. 

8,  Arnold  Boot  {Atiimad.  Sacr.  tii,  8  [Lond.  16*4]), 
with  much  better  reason,  coiijeclure*  that  suiue  fpecin 
of  Urvi,  or  wild-ox,  is  the  run  of  the  Hebrew  ScriiK- 
urea.  He  has  been  followed  by  Schultens  (CuxaiaW.ai 
Jobun  xzxix,  9,  who  tratialates  the  term  by  Bin  V"* 
lri4!  this  Icsmed  writer  has  a  long  and  most  TiluatJt 
note  ou  this  question),  Parkhunt  (_/lrb.  f,rr.  s.  v.  C.t^), 
Maurer  (CDnnwnt. tn  ./a(.  loc  cit.).  Dr.  Harris  (.Vol.  flitf. 
of  Ihe  Bib/e).  and  by  Cary  {Xoitt  m  Jo*,  loc.  cil,). 

Considering  that  tbeiv&i  is  spoken  ofaaa  iwo-boiiH 
ed  animal  of  great  strength  and  ferucity,  that  it  was  ev- 
idently well  known  and  often  seen  by  the  Jews,  that  il 
is  mentioned  aa  an  animal  fit  for  aacriiiciil  purgnee^and 

think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  species  of  wild- 
10,  "Dm 


V  horn. 


to  the  mode  in  which  the  Borate  uae  their  boms,lo«- 
ering  the  head  and  then  Inming  it  up.  But  it  is  impok- 
sible  lo  determine  what  particular  species  of  wild-ox  ■■ 
aigniSed.  At  present  there  is  no  exiating  example  rf 
any  wild  bovine  animal  found  in  Paleatine;  but  nega- 
tive evidence  in  this  respect  must  not  be  inlerpreled  s> 
aifording  IcslimoDy  against  tbe  supposition  that  wild 


TINICORN  o; 

oule  rurmerif  existed  in  tbe  Bible  lands.  The  lioii, 
lor  iiuunce,  wu  once  not  unfrequentl}-  met  wiiti  in 
Fl)tiuiw,  u  ii  evident  fioai  Biblical  alliieionii ;  but  no 

tMoi  liui»'  bones  in  ■  gravel  bed  of  the  Janlin  »nie 
kwjaaago;  and  it  ii  not  improbable  that  same  future 
<:i|iiDrfr  may  succeed  in  discovering  bones  and  sknili 
odomt  huge  extinct  Uru),  allied,  perhaps,  lo  that  gi- 
Riniic  ai  of  tbe  Hercynian  foreau  which  Ctnar  iBrU. 
Gatt.  vi.  liO)  describes  as  being  of  a  suture  scarcely  be- 

min  uo[  beast  should  it  meet  with  either.  "  Ncilwilh- 
Hinding  assertions  lu  the  conlrarv,"  says  CoL  Hamilliin 
Smith  (Kino,  Cgrlop.  an.  "  Keero"),  "  tbe  unis  and  the 
k»n  were  spread  anciently  from  tbe  Rhine  to  China, 
ind  Fiisied  in  Thrace  and  Juia  Minor;  while  they,  or 
illied  species,  are  still  found  in  Siberia  and  the  forests 
Inthof  Surtheni  andSouthem  Persia.  Finally, though 
ihe  buRslo  was  not  Touud  anciently  farther  west  than 
ArKoris,  the  gigantic  6'iiur  (Hibot  gatirut)  and  several 
conveners  are  spread  over  all  the  mountain  wildernesses 
urindiaanil  the  Sheriff  al-Waily;  and  a  further  colouol 
ifKcifsroamswithother  wild  bulls  in  the  vallersof  Atlas. 
W*  figure  BAut  cari/rom,  ■  species  which  is  believed 
u  he  Mill  found  soiith-wesl  of  (he  Imliis,  and  is  nut  re- 
nule  rram  that  of  tbe  Atlas  valleys."   See  Wiui  Bull. 


Wild  Bnll  (Bibot  antfivnt). 


4.  Rii»eU('i'(r7»,ii, '),  Robinson  (fiiM.ffri.ti,4I3), 
tiul  r.eseniiis  (rArHixr.  s.  v.)  have  little  doubt  that  the 
iulIalo(Z{ufr<if«jAi>/nJiu)islher(^  of  the  Bible;  and 
this  opinion  is  shared  by  Umbreit,  HiUig,Ewald,  lleng- 
tIenberg,andDlheTCDmmenlainrs.  Although  the  Oiuw- 
H.  or  tame  buOaIn,  was  not  introduced  into  Western 
Ana  until  the  Arabian  conquest  of  Persia,  it  is  possible 
that  same  wild  species  {Bubalai  arnte,  or  R.  brachgcf 
rw)  may  hare  existed  formerly  •     -  ■     • 


tic'ke<l,and  then  irresistible,  sci  that  Ihey 
could  nut  be  taken  alive— we  can  trace  the 
original  of  tbe  bmiliar  form  that  figures 
in  tbe  English  national  heraldic  shield. 
Aristotle  *nd  Herodotus  follow  Cteass, 
ami  Strabn  gives  the  unicorn  a  deer-like 
betd.  (^[naa  makes  it  a  bnll  with  un- 
divided hoofs  and  a  frontal  bom ;  and  Cie- 
•ar,  who  |.uU  it  in  the  Hercynian  forest, 
gives  iis  ungle  born  palmate  branches  like 
those  of  a  deer.  Pliny  draws  the  portrait 
with  the  greatest  attention  lu  details.  It 
wss  a  most  sarage  beast,  generally  like  ■  : 
borip.  with  the  bead  of  a  deer,  the  feet  of 
an  (iephint,  tbe  tail  of  a  boar,  a  deep  bel- 
tuwing  I'uice,  and  a  sngle  black  bom,  two 
cubits  long,  projecting  from  tbe  middle  of 
its  faiebead.  tiee  tbe  Aim.  and  Mag.  of 
Sal.  nil.  Nov.  18C2. 
Although  tbe  medallic  history  of  the 


kingsafMaeedon(Haretcampius,(;n).//tif.[in  tbe  Dutch 
language]}  furnishes  no  coins  bearing  a  single-homed 
goat,  it  is  s^ll  asserted  by  MslUot  and  others  that  such 


imedib 


appears  on  the  bas-reliefs  <>f  Che  el-Kliiu 
icylinde;  "  '    ' 


posed  10  have  been  the  head  of  a  Macedonian  81 
was  found  in  Asia  Minor,  and  presentcil  to  the  Antiquari- 
an Society  of  London.  If  mysterious  names  were  resolv- 
able by  (he  canons  of  pictorial  deliniliun,  the  practice  of 
imagining  boms  to  be  affixed  to  the  most  sublime  and 
sacred  objects  would  be  most  evident  from  the  radical 
meaning  of  the  word  chemb,  where  the  notion  of  boma 
is  everywhere  blended  with  that  of  "  power  and  great- 
ness." See  Chkhubiu.  Tliere  were  also  horns  at  tbe 
comers  of  allors-'the  beast  with  ten  home  in  Daniel, 
etc.  (ch.  vii).  In  profane  history  we  have  the  goal- 
bead  ornament  on  the  belmet  of  the  kings  of  Persia, 
accordii^  to  Aoimianus,  more  prubsblv  Ammon  horns: 
such  Aivxanilei  the  Great  had  assumed  ;  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  Egypt  and  in  Persia  continued  a  custom 
even  now  observed  by  the  chief  csbouicrs  of  Astiantee, 
who  have  s  similar  rim-head  of  solid  gold  on  the  front 
of  their  plumy  war-caps.  Indeed,  from  early  antiquity 
lireek  and  Ionian  helmets  were  often  adorned  with  two 
horns ;  among  others  (he  head  of  Seleucus  I  (Sicator) 
appears  (bus  un  hia  coins.  The  practice  extendeil  lo 
metal  bonis  being  afllxed  to  the  ma^s  or  chaffmns  of 
war-horses  (hi  coins  of  Selcuciis  Nicalnr)  and  of  ele- 
phanis  (Aniiochus  Soict);  and  Ihey  form  still,  or  did 
lately,  a  part  of  the  barbed  hmse-armor  in  Kajahstan. 
Triple-honied  and  biconied  helmets  are  found  on  early 
Gallic  and  Iberian  coins;  they  were  again  iu  use  dur- 
ing the  chivalrous  ages;  but  the  most  remarkable,  the 
hi)m  of  strength  and  dominion,  is  seen  elevated  on  the 
front  of  tlie  helmet  impressed  on  the  reverse  of  the 
coins  of  the  tyrant  Tryphon,  who,  in  bis  endeavors  lo 
'  ■  '    "    '  * during 


theiE 


e  Maccal 


kelvi 


that  once  belonged  It: 
See  lions. 

'i.  Saailifie  Detnipliotu. — In  later  times  the  fancy 
ran  riot  in  describing  and  figuring  the  unicorn,  and  no 
one  who  atiempled  a  llitloria  yaluralu  thought  hi* 
work  complete  without  full  particulars  cunceming  this 
inleresliiig  beast.  As  some  of  the  descripliuna  of  the 
ancients  were  a  little  inconsistent  with  each  other,  and 
ss  the  maleriats  were  too  valuable  In  allow  any  lu  be 
sacrificed,  different  species  of  unicnm  were  established, 
ill  the  copiousness  of  which  the  most  faslidioiis  stuileiit 
might  satisfy  his  choice.     Thus  ihere  were  the  waM- 

hnofe<l  unicom,  the  sea-unicnm  (not  the  cetacean  so 
nimeil),  the  two-homed  wald-esel  (one  horn  behind 
tlie  other),  and  aeveral  othen,  all  of  which  are  duly 


ITnlcnm  (MJnnccrrM  titm 


.  Coogic 


thia,  nilunluta  blTV  fur 


ne  betii  inclini  _ 
itile  wheat  alM  (m 
t»r  Ann  [Leipa.  1796]).  The  rhi- 
d  Arrica  ibuwtil  tbit  ■  liiiKle  cen- 
.  itwlf  unnilural;  and  the  ducov- 
s  of  thii  buga  picli}-denii  in  the 
e  lailar  conciiicnc  hag  brought  oui 
>  aid  dcMriptiani  which  had  beeo 


noiiary  Campbell  excilcd  much   interest  by  nnding 
borne  TroiD  South  Africa  the  head  of  a  rhiuoceriw  whic' 
came  much  nearer  that  of  the  traditiooary  unicor 
than  anything  a>  yet  known  to  naturaliiti.    It  bore 
aiiigle  uraight  slender  honi,  prujecLing  from  the  face 
lo  the  height  of  three  feet,  with   a  amall  lubercle- 
d  bom  immediately  behind  this.    The  loological 
*  !a  of  Dr.  Andrew  Smitb,  and  the  exploita 
not  a  few   natiircliit  aporunMn  In   the  wild-bei 
regiona  lying  in  the  north  of  the  Cape  Colony,  hi 
nude  as   familiar  with   this   apecies  { ff^iwcei-oj 
mai),  as  well  as  others  with  a  similar  anangement 

in  alms-box  with 


UnlciUlu,  a  Low-Latin  term  for 

TTalfonnity.  The  eccleeiaiiical  u»  of 
is  to  denote  the  me  of  one  and  the  same  fonn 
prayers,  admin islntion  of  sacrsmcnta,  and  other  rites, 
etc,  preecribeil  by  the  Acts  of  L'uironnity.  The  fim 
of  these  was  isaued  by  Parliament  dnring  the  reign  of 
Eluabeth,  and  provided— fur  the  first  offence,  rorfcilore 
of  one  year'i  proflls  and  rix  months'  imprisonment;  for 
the  second  offence,  deprivation  of  all  spiritual  pronso- 
tioos  and  imprisonment  fur  one  year ;  and  for  the  third 

pri»oninencrorlireCseeBlat.l  Elite.  2,§  4-8).  Accord- 
ing to  the  act  pawed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  1662, 
every  person  obtaining  preferment  in  the  Church  nr  uni- 


in  the  Boot  of  Common  Prayer. 

TTnigttUltna  (so  called  from  iu  Srst  word,  teferrii 
lo  Ike  onln-btgontn  Son),  Tiik  But.i.  was  an  instrume 
which  was  issued  by  pope  Clement  XI,  snd  made  I 
appearance  on  Sept.  8,  1713.  It  was  directed  again 
the  French  translation  of  Che  Mew  Test,  with  nnit 
piibliahed  by  Quesnel,  a  celebrated  Jaiisenist.  In  coi 
aequence  of  the  disputes  which  this  book  had  nccasioi 
ed,  ic  had  previously  been  condemned  in  1708 ;  hut,  ih 
step  being  found  ineffectnat,  Clcmeni  proceeded  to  cai 
demn  one  hundred  and  one  propmitions  contained  : 
the  notes.  The  followinR  may  be  taken  as  a  specimi 
of  the  opinions  denounced  by  this  bull ;  "  No  graces  are 
given  except  through  faith."  "  The  reading  of  the  Sa- 
cred Scriptures  is  for  alL"  "  The  obscnrity  of  the  Sa- 
cred Word  is  no  reason  for  laymen  to  dispense  tbem- 
•elrea  from  reading  IL"  "Tlie  Lord's  day  ought  to  be 
sancttHeil  by  Christians  fur  works  of  piety,  and,  above 
all,  fur  the  reading  of  the  sacre<l  Scripture.  It  ia  dam- 
nable lo  wish  to  withdraw  a  Christian  from  this  read- 
ing." This  bull,  procured  by  Louis  XIV  and  the  Jes- 
uits,  produced  great  commotions  in  France.  Forty  <ial- 
lican  bishops  nccepteil  it ;  but  it  was  opposed  by  many 
others,  especially  by  Noailles,  bishop  of  Paris.  Sixteen 
bi'hups  suspended  the  bull  in  their  dioceses.  They 
were  supported  by  the  nniveraitic!  of  Paris,  Rheims, 
and  Nantes,  and  by  the  Paris  faculties  of  Iheulog}',  law, 
anil  sris.  Mapy  of  the  prelates  and  other  peraona  ap- 
pealed In  rain  to  a  general  council,  and  were  for  this 
ren«on  called  AppelUnla.  A  persecution  waa  raised 
agninsi  those  who  adopted  the  principles  of  tbe  Jan- 
senist  Quesnel,  and  manv  of  them  were  obligetl  lo  See 
their  country.  This  bull,  however,  was  overmleil  for 
g.HHi.  It  tendcil  to  conflrm  Protestants  in  their  sepa- 
taiion  from  Rome;  and  it  affords  a  fiill  and  satisfactory 


10  UNION  WITH  CHRIST 

answer  to  the  falsehood  pot  forth  by  popish  priot^ 
that  thev  do  not  hide  the  Scriptures  from  the  puplr. 
See  Blunt,  Did.  of  Thiol,  a.  v.;  Farrar,  Erdt:  Wa.i.  r. 
trofo  Myatloa  (msniail  anion')  is  a  Iheoh^iol 
term  applied  to  thai  iniimste  union  between  God  lad 

See  Hagenbach,  HiH.  n/Doclrina  (1869).  i,  IS8;  ii,  m. 

Vnioa  Amarloan  MstliodlBt  BpUciHMl 

ChuToh,  TiiK,  was  founded  by  Kei-.  Peter  ^Koot, 
in  Wilmington,  Del.,  June,  1818,  and  was  cumpiwl  nT 
seceding  olored  members  of  the  Methodist  Epixofil 
Church.  It  was  chartered  under  Che  Ulle  of  "Tlw 
African  Union  Church,"  which  it  reuined  naiil  iT- 
tet  the  war,  when  its  present  name  was  sdojiUil. 
Originally  the  ministers  sen'eil  withooC  compciuuina, 
and  without  any  limit  to  their  term  of  service.  Tk 
•oeieties,  though  adopting  common  articles  of  reUpiii, 
usages,  and  discipline,  were  disi  incc  from  each  othtr.  la 
1871  a  convention  was  called,  which  adapted  an  ItimraM 
ministry,  limiting  the  pastoral  term  to  two  yeara;  isd 
permitting  compensation.  Tbe  doctrines  are  prtcudy 
thoseof  the  Melliodist  Episcopal  Church,  as  are  al«  the 
general  features  of  the  goTemmenr.  They  have  agtn- 
eral  con ferance, meeting  once  in  foutyeani;  annual rm- 
ferences,  of  which  there  are  now  three ;  quattetlr  om- 
fetenceaj  love-feasts;  and  class-ineelinga.  GeiHralia- 
perintendems  are  elected  by  the  tieneral  Confer 
who  hold  office  for  four  years,  and  are  eligible  t 
election.     The  total  number  of  ministers  in  1890 


u  Ulsti 


9,100  I     IJH  1 


Vnton  WITH  Christ,  that  act  of  divine  gnce  by 
which  we  are  Joined  to  Cbcisl ;  and  is  nnisideied.  1.  Ai 
nrtaat,  or  that  which  waa  formed  fhnn  all  elemin 
(Epb.  L  4)  I  3.  Vital,  ca  tpiritual,  fonned  in  the  mcHKCM 
ofour  regeneraIjoa<Johnxvii,!6;  IJohn  iv,  1!^  It  a 
represented  in  Che  Scripture  by  Che  strongest  cxpiei- 
sions  language  can  admit  of,  and  even  compared  ii>  tbs 
union  between  the  Father  and  Ihe  Son  (John  xrii,  II, 
21,  etc.>  It  is  also  compared  to  the  uniun  of  a  liae 
and  its  branches  (a  v,  *,  5) ;  to  the  union  of  our  food  wilk 
OUT  bodies  (vi,  66,67);  lothe  union  of  the  bod  v  with  tbe 
head  (Eph.  iv,  16, 16);  to  the  eonjui^al  union  (v,!3,3l4i 
lo  the  union  ofa  king  and  bis  sul^tcU(Mati.iiv,34, 
40);  to  a  building  (I  Pet.ii,4,6;  Eph.  ii,  !1, 21).  Ills 
also  leprescoted  by  an  idenlilv  or  sameness  of  sfnril  (I 
Cor.vi,  17);  by  an  identity  oTbody  (lii,  12,97);  by" 
identity  of  interest  (Halt.  XXV,  40;  John  xx,  IT).  Tbii 
union  must  be  considered,  not  asa  mere  mental  union ody 
in  comfort  or  notion ;  nor  a  phyncal  union,  as  betwctfi 
tbe  head  and  the  membeis;  nor  as  an  essential  naiiiai 
ornniou  with  the  divine  nature ;  but  as  a  mvstJcal  usiia 
(Eph.v,S2):  an  honorable  union  (IJohnui,  1,3);  au- 
pematural  union  (I  Cor.  i,  80)-,  holv  (1  John  iii.24)i  iif» 
rguiTy  (John  xv,  4) :  inriolaUe  (B<^m.  viii,  S8, 89\  Sot 
state  it  thua:  1.  A  union  of  natures  (HebL  ii.  It);  3. « 
actions.  Christ's  obedience  being  impnled  id  us,  and  oc 
•ins  reckoned  to  him  (!  Cor.  V,  SI );  8.  or  life  (Col.  iii,tV 
4.  OfM'nttment(2Cor.r,17);  b.  Ofinterest  (Malt.xiT. 
34, etc.);  6.  Ofaffbclion  (2Cor.  v,  14):  7.  Of  mideutt 
(John  xvii.  24).  The  adroBlagu  of  it  are  knowledp 
^Kph.  i,  IH),  fellowstaip  (1  Cor.  i,  9),  security  (John  it> 


UNION  OF  CHURCHES  6 

Afidlj  (1  ret  i,  g),  apirituditr  (John  xr,  8) ;  ind,  in- 
dnd,  iD  Ihe  rich  coiDiDiinicttionB  oT  ipiritiul  bl«ring> 
ben  ml  hflreaTtf  r  (CoL  i,  22).  The  mdatcti  of  union 
vithChriMan:  light  in  the  undeTNanding  (I  PeLil,9); 
■flectioD  b)  him  (JiAa  sir,  31) ;  frequent  oommunion 
with  hiai(l  John  i,8);  delight  in  hit  mtid, ordinincn, 
■nd  pentde  (Pn.  Kzni,  4;  cxix);  subminion  M  hii 
Kill,  and  oanrornuty  to  hii  image  (1  John  ii,  b).  See 
DickiMon,  IaUi^*,  leu  IT ;  Flavel,  MrAod  of  Gracr,  wr. 
};  Falbill,a>r«a)i;  Brown,  Convwni  T,  L 

USIOK  OF  Chdhchiu,  in  En^ish  law,  ia  the  cam- 
biniog  and  conaoliiUdng  uf  two  churches  iniu  one.  Ic 
it  al«  where  one  Church  ia  made  lubject  to  another 
■nd  one  man  ii  rector  of  both,  and  where  a  cauvantual 
Church  ia  made  a  eathedraL  In  the  drx  caaa,  if  two 
Fhurcha  were  lo  mean  that  the  lithea  could  nut  alSird 
■  competent  pcoTidon  for  each  inciirD bent,  the  onlinBiy, 
luuon.  and  incumbenta  might  unite  them  at  cominiiu- 
i(w  before  any  natute  wan  made  fur  that  purpoie;  and 
in  uch  caae  it  waa  agreed  wbicb  patron  ihoulri  preaent 
lint;  for  thoogb,  by  the  union,  the  incumbencr  of  one 
Church  WM  lost,  yet  the  patronage  remained,  and  eacb 
P<tnm  might  hare  a  711UIE  impedil.  upon  a  diuurbance. 
bi  prevnt  it  in  bia  turn.  The  licente  of  the  liing  ia 
DOC  neceeeary  to  a  union,  aa  it  ia  lo  the  appropriation 
ufadroweanni  beeauae  an  appropriation  ia  a  mortnuin, 
and  the  patnma^  of  the  adrowaon  ia  luet,  and,  by  con- 
•equeuee,  all  firal-fiuita  and  tentbaj  wbereaa  in  a  union 
rboK  oonBet|uenc»  do  not  follow.  The  three  atatulea 
in  txiatenoe  relating  to  union  of  churchea  are  the  87 
HeiiT7VII[,c!l;  the  lTCbarleaII,cSi  ■udtbe4ana 
S  WiUUm  and  Uary,  c  12. 

DNION,  ConoBaoATiOKAt.  Conder  >ay<  of  lacb 
sniooa, "  like  recent  formation  of  the  Congregalional 
and  Baptiat  uniona  haa  given  riae  to  the  notion  that 
there  extata  among  the  Nonoonfbrraiita  of  the  preaent 
day  a  diapoaitian  to  abandon  Ihe  principlea  of  atrict  In- 
depeodtney,  and  lo  adopt  a  new  apeciea  of  machinery 
or  orgauixatiuii  mora  nearly  approaching  (o  Preebvte- 
riaoiam.  For  tbia  idea  there  ia  no  foundation.  Tbeae 
unioQa  differ  in  no  other  reapect  than  in  their  more  ez- 
tended  oc  eomprehenaive  character  Irum  the  county 

(lilted  in  both  denominaiiona  for  aimilar  ubjecla.  They 
hare  no  relation  to  a  acheme  of  Church  government; 
tbrir  object  ia  not  to  aet  up  a  Church  or  to  create  a 
juriadiction,  but  aimply  lo  facilitate  a  general  co-oper- 
aiioa  for  common  and  public  objecta  of  a  religioua  nal* 
ure."     See  IicnEFKnnicmL 

DNIOK,  HrniaTATiCAL,  ia  a  theological  term  de- 
Tiaed  by  the  old  divine*  lo  expreaa  the  union  of  the 
human  nature  of  Chriat  with  the  divine  in  one  peraon. 
It  obiat  be  obaerved  that  thia  union  ia  not  conaubalan- 
iUI,aa  of  tbe  three  penons  in  one  Galhead;  nor  phys- 
ical, aa  Boul  and  bodr  united  in  one  peraon;  nor  mviti- 
caUaa  between  Chriat  and  believen;  but  so  that  thi 
manboodaubsiatain  the  aetnnd  perwn,  yet  without  mak< 
ing  snfuHon,  both  forming  bat  one  peraon.     See  Ani- 

AKUIl;    MirfHTATICAI.   UhIOH;    PkBSOH  OF  ChBIBT. 

SaacLLfAss. 

,  belief  in  tbe  unity  of  Ood.    Ir 
tae  it  include*,  with  ■  part  of  Chria- 

MHtam,  JewB,  Hohammedana,  Deiata,  and  all  who  wor- 

■Mp  God  ■■  one.     Pur  thia  nae,  however,  tbe  accepted 

term  ia  iroWinm.   Within  tbe  ranka  1  ' 

the  oane  Unitarian  i*  given  lo  thoae 

dogma  of  tbe  Trinity  in  ita  varying  phi 

told  « tiipeimud  Deity,  whether  Ihree 

uri^  irf  Ood  aa  Creator  uld  -Father,  and  the  created 
nataife  and  aabordinate  ranli  of  Jeaoa  Chriat.    Within 

■go  him  a  pte-exbtcot  and  anperangclic  rank  lo  an  e>- 
linalB  purely  huiaan,  .While  tbe  name  atiictly  tnuchea 
thia  doctrine  onl.r,  it  {*  vitally  related  and  givea  charac- 
latlo  (be  whole  nrMem  of  belief  oonceniing  hutnannat- 

3L- a 


UNITARIANISM 


ul  its  purpnae,  thia  worid  and 
id  the  future  world  and  man'a  deedny. 
I.  Nitloiy  oftiK  Brlir/.—l.  In  Ihe  £arfy  C*h™1_ 
Uuitarianiam  bas  accompanied  Christianity  from  (be 
be^nnoing,  at  least  aa  one  form  or  ita  faith.  Dnltariana 
mainiain  that  their  faith  ia  that  of  the  early  Church  aa 
taught  by  Jeaua  Chriat  and  hia  apoatlea.  They  appeal 
to  Jesua  aa  tbe  aupreme  teacher  of  Cbriatianity,  finding 
in  hia  word  and  character  the  eaaence  of  the  Goapcl. 
They  *tat«  their  chief  teneta  in  tbe  language  of  the 
New  Teat,  without  note  or  comment, "  To  ui  ihere  ia 
but  oneUodithe  Father;''  "Thia  ia  life  eternal  lo  know 
Ibec^  the  only  true  God,  and  Jeaus  Chriat  whom  thou 
halt  BenL'  Tbey  hold  that  Ihe  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
BO  Btartling  to  Jews  trained  in  the  worahip  of  one  God 
and  expecting  a  Meeaiah  of  human  lineage,  would  hare 
required  a  tiaiemeni  more  explicit  than  any  (bund  ia 
the  Bible  record.    They  hold  that  the  doctrine,  at  beat, 


«  and  need,  hi 


„  ,        .  ia  aeparaidy  aban- 

doned by  prominent  Trinitarian  achdara  as  not  expres»> 
ly  teacliing  tbe  doctrine;  while  the  Roman  Catholic  I 
lirildaiton  the  aulhurity  of  tbe  Church,  deeming  it  not 
clearly  uught  in  the  Bible.  ' 

Uiiitariaiia  eonnder  tbe  doctrine  of  tbe  Trinity  a 
grailiial  development,  aa  Uentilea  came  into  the  Church 
and  subjected  the  Gonpel  to  the  in&nence  of  Oriental 
■lieculationi  and  Greek  pbiloaophy,  Thefidlowera  oT 
Zunuuter  and  Plato,  teaching  the  eternal  antagonism 
of  apirit  and  matter,  Hlleil  tbe  time  with  speculation* 
concerning  Giid  a*  a  superior  eaaence  creating  the  world 
by  inferior  diviniiiea.  In  the  Plalonic  duetrine  of  the 
Logua  began  the  gradual  deification  of  Jesua,  eonaum- 
maled  only  by  voiea  of  succeeiuve  coundla  of  Ihe  4th 

the  continued  exiatence  of  faitb  in  the  undivided  nniiy 
of  God.  In  tbe  laiter  half  of  the  !d  century,  Juatiu 
Martyr  Baya,  "  Some  there  are  among  ouraelvo*  who  ad- 
mit that  Jesua  ia  Obriat  while  holding  him  10  be  man 
of  men."  Still  later,  TerliilliaD  aaya,  "Common  people 
think  of  Chriat  aa  a  man.'  About  the  year  ajftTertul- 
lian  waa  hinuelf  the  first  lo  introduce  into  Christian 
theol<4ty  the  word  "Trinilaa,"  Tbe  unity  of  Ond  was 
expressly  taught  by  a  sect  called  the  "  Monarch ians." 
Some  held  that  God  the  Father  himself  was  bom  and 
suffered  in  human  form,  and  hence  were  called  "Palri- 
paaaiana."  Of  tbeae  were  Beryllus,  bishop  of  Bostria  in 
Arabia;  Praxeaa,  who  came  from  Asia  Minor  lo  Rome; 
Noetua,  of  Smyrna;  and,  still  later,  Sabelliua,  a  pmby. 
ter  in  the  Church  about  A.D.  !60,  the  most  origiiial 


The 


very  accurately  to 
known.  He  had  followen  aa  late  aa  the  6lh  century  in 
Mnopotamia  and  in  Rome.  Oibeta  held  that  Christ 
waa  in  nature  purely  human,  but  exalted  by  hia  aupe- 

theae  were  Theodolus  of  Byianlium,  Arlamon  of  Rome^ 
and  Paul  of  Samveata.  Thia  noted  teacher,  biahop  of 
Antiflch  from  the  year  260,  makes  prominent  the  human 
personality  ofChriat,  leaching  that  "Christ  waa  a  man," 
"exalted  10  peculiar  union  with  the  divine  nature  bj 
Ihe  iUumination  of  divine  wiadom."  Depoaed  in  269, 
his  name  became  ■  aynonym  for  heresy;  and  in  the 
next  century  the  celebraled  historian  Eusebiua  conSrma 
the  testimony  that  he  taught  "  that  Christ  waa  in  nat- 

ibuBwent  forward  until,  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen. 
turv,  the  relation  of  God  and  Chriat  had  t>ecome  a  que^ 
tion  of  aubatance  or  reaemblance.  In  the  famoua  tbeo- 
k^cal  struggle  over  the  terms  homo-  and  kemoi-outian, 
whether  God  and  Chriat  were  of  the  latne  or  only  limilar 
nature,  Ariua  maintained  that  Jeaus  waa  a  created  being. 
He  waa  oppoaed  by  the  bishop  Alexander,  aided  by  Ath- 
anaHos;  and  the  controversy  waxed  hot  and  opinion  was 
divided,  un til  Consun tine,  recently  come  to  the  throne  aa 
the  first  Christian  emperor,  aummoned  io  A.D.  S!&  the 


UNITARIANISM  «< 

Council  of  Nice,  io  which  the  ■ngiy  iturm  of  the  thcM 
faoDdied  theologiins  wu  lUiyed  mil  Ariiu  and  hi*  doo 
triae  coDdemncd.  The  hijuriui  EuMbiin  nilreljr  uya, 
"The  emperor  aucceeded  iu  bringing  them  intn  limi- 
Uiitj  of  judgment  and  conrunnttj  of  opinian  on  all 
ooniTDrened  puiiiu."  Far  another  century  cuntroven.v 
conlinned  as  lo  Ihe  Holy  Spirit,  the  double  nature  of 
Christ,  and  Uary  as  Mother  of  God,  all  orwhich  were 
gradually  Killed  by  nujnrity  vetea  ofauoceMive  coun- 
cils, culminating  in  the  Creed  loug  attributed  lo  Atha- 
nasiua,  liut  now  bcliered  lo  have  been  written  a  hun- 
dred yeari  after  hia  death. 

Inturveying  the  opinions  oftheeariy  Church,  it  thus 
becomea  clear  that  Unitariaiiiam  exiued  from  the  be- 
ginning; that  the  belief  in  the  Trinity  and  the  Deity 
of  Christ  waa  three  or  four  centuries  gradually  fonniog; 
that  during  this  period  the  range  uf  opiDluna  ooncerii- 

tbat  two  or  three  hundred  yean  afier  the  death  of  Christ 
it  waa  atill  doubiru),  and  aettled  only  by  the  majority  of 

ence  of  a  newly  conveneil  emperor,  whether  the  Chris- 
tian Church  should  regard  Jeaua  as  a  persiin  in  the  God- 
head, or,  al  the  apoMle  felcr  declared  him,  a  man  ap- 
proved by  aigna  and  wonden  which  Ciid  did  by  him. 
The  Unitarian  deems  Ihe  whole  queelinn  a  comiption 
of  the  pure  Gospel  by  phihuophicsprculation,  and  seeks, 
aa  the  essence  of  Christianity,  the  practical  religion 
tauifht  by  Jesii*  Christ— of  love  to  Gud  and  nun. 

It  may  be  adiled  as  a  fact  uf  inleieal,  Bad  oiie  signifi- 
cant uf  the  aid  rendered  to  Christianity  by  this  branch 
■iriheChurch,thatoneor  the  chief  lights  of  Arianion, 
Ibe  Gothic  UlHIas,  born  near  the  Lower  Danube  at  about 
the  time  of  the  Cuuncil  of  Nice^  and  consecrawd  l>isho|> 
at  Ihe  age  of  thirty,  deToting  hiniKlf  hi  the  religious 
and  social  dereloptnent  of  bis  people,  familiar  with  the 
Ijitin,  Greek,  and  Gothic  languages,  rendered  his  name 
rurerer  Iu  be  honored  by  his  Iranalalion  of  the  Kble 
into  his  native  tongue,  which  at  once  helped  lo  give 
lasting  furm  to  the  Ijiithic  language  and  to  perpetuate 
Chrifltisnily  among  the  Gothic  people.  For  four  cen- 
turiea  tbe  Uolbs  were  accompanied  in  their  migrations 
by  this  lacred  natimial  work,  pottiuns  of  which  still  re- 
main in  the  Univemity  Library  uf  Upsal,  in  Sweden. 
The  sect  of  the  Kesloriana,  also,  who  may  fairly  be 
counted  on  the  Arian  aide,  at  about  the  Tlh  century, 
were  the  fimt  to  carry  Christianity  lo  the  br  East,  into 
Persia  and  China. 

2.  T/m  Rr/ormalim  reveals  Unilarianiim  existing, 
and  awakens  it  to  renewed  life.  It  accompanied  INiit- 
astantism  from  its  cradle,  as  it  had  accompanied  primi- 
live  Christianity.  Before  Luther's  death  it  had  ap- 
peared in  Italy,  Hungary,  Poland,  SwitierlaHd,  Ger- 
many, and  England.  In  the  contest  with  ihe  pope  and 
bis  hierarchy,  the  majority  of  Hroceetants,  absorbed  in 
the  struggle  for  freedom,  accepted,  unchallenged,  as  their 
hereditary  belief,  the  substance  of  doctrine  of  the  Romish 
Church.  Yet  in  every  Protestant  confession  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinitv  ia  reiterated  at  if  on  the  defensive ; 
while  the  testimoiiiea  of  Calvin,  Melancthon,  and  oth- 
en  against  the  Unitarian  heresy  reveal  ita  strength. 
Among  the  many  who,  before  and  after  Ihe  Kefnrma- 
don,  bore  wit i>esn  to  their  faitli  in  persecution  and  death, 
Uniiarianism  has  its  own  list  ofconfewora  and  martyrs. 
In  bishop  Manl's  llalory  of  firland  ia  a  brief  account 
jf  Adam  DiiS;  who  for  his  denial  of  Ihe  Trinity  was 
iHirned  alive,  neat  Dublin,  in  1336.  The  earty  theolog- 
ical teposiloriea  make  record  of  a  priest,  William  Tav- 
lour,  put  to  death  as  an  Arian,  in  EngUnd.  in  1422. 

Conspicuous  amonc  the  Keformers  were  the  Unilari- 
nna  Servetua  anil  the  Sncini.  Michael  Servelus  boni 
•n  ViUantwva,  Aragnn,  in  1509,  the  year  of  Calvin's 
iiirthi  while  studying;  law  at  Toulmise,  heard  of  the  con- 
l<«t,  left  his  home  and  his  pmfesiuon,  and  oniighl  the 
ileformers  (Ecalampadiua,  at  Basle,  Bucer  and  Capito, 
at  Strasburg,  and  Calvin,  at  Paris.  Hia  boU  genius 
pushed  past  them  in  aeekinga  rejuvenated  Cbrialiaiii- 


12  UNITARIANISM 

ty.  SkilledinmalhrmsticsandtheOrientillangiiagFii 
in  law,  medicine,  and  theolng_v,  hia  fearlea  spirit  of  iu- 
quiry  and  eager  (him  fur  truth  gave  the  highest  interesT 
i«  bis  teligioiiB  speculations.  "  VouT  trinity,"  he  de- 
clares, "  is  a  product  uf  subtlety  and  madneoa.  The  Gw- 
pel  knows  nolbinguf  it.  Tfaeuld  fathers  are  stranger* 
to  these  vain  distinctions.  It  ia  from  the  achool  of 
Greek  sophists  that  you,  Athanasius,  prince  of  tiitbe- 
ista,  have  burrowed  it."  Such  aentimeats  provoked  bit- 
ter hoatility,  Zwingli  denounced  him  aa  "  that  wicked 
and  ciineil  %>aniard ;"  Calvin  spoke  of  him  aa  the  "fran- 
tic" Servetus,  who  "boa  thrown  all  things  into  oinfu- 
sion."  When  Servetua  published  hi*  Sertm  Bo-ib  om 
tke  Emtn  ifflht  Trinii),  and  his  ntore  noted  wwk  on 
the  Rtiloralim  of  CkriiHanlg,  severely  e-7tici«ing  Cal- 
vin's views,  his  doom  was  sealed.  Un  hia  flight  from 
persecutors  at  Vienue,  a*  he  stopped  at  Geneva,  Calvin 
caused  hia  arreit  and  trial  The  flames  of  PtoleBtant 
persecution  dismissed  into  eternity,  through  frightful 
agimy,  this  brave  soul  that  dared  assert  the  abaolale 
unity  of  Gnd.  The  leading  Refonnen  expressed  no  re- 
gret, but  silenily  nr  openly  approved  il.  See  SttRVKTi-a. 

Lfelius  Socinns,  burn  in  Siena  in  l53&,ofdiaiii>guished 
anceatry,faniillarwith  Biblical  langnsees, an  aide  critic, 
a  meinbet  of  the  famous  Vicenia  Secret  Keligioiis  Sucie- 
ly  of  Forty,  on  their  diiipetsal  lleil  to  France,  England, 
Pulanil.  and  at  last  lo  Zurich,  where  he  dieil  at  the  age 
of  thirty-seven.  A  student  rather  than  refonner  or 
coiitroverMallal,  he  yet  left  behind  him  a  deep  impre* 
of  his  free  and  original  Ihoughl.  Hia  nephew,  Faualua 
Socinus,  bom  also  in  Siena  in  1589,  waa  expelled  fivai 
Italy  at  twenty,  studied  at  Basle,  visited  t^dand  and 
Traiiaylvania,  where,  carrying  forward  hia  uncle's 
thought  and  work  iiniil  hia  death  in  1604,  he  became 
the  more  active  and  noted  leader  of  Mndnianiam  (q.  v.). 

Leas  conspicuous,  but  with  tlieae,  may  be  named  in 
Cermaiiy,  Cellarius,  Ca|Hlo,  Johami  LMik,  Sebastian 
Frank,  and  the  scholarly  Ludwig  Heiier.oiie  of  the  ear- 
liest, who,  fur  writing  against  the  Deity  of  Chrisi,  was 
imprisoned  bv  the  magiiMrsten  or  Constance,  and  tiilTav 
ed  death  in  Ifi29;  also  Claudius  of  Savoy,Gearge  Blan- 
drala  in  Transylvania,  Gonesius  and  Fsmovius  in  !'■>- 
Uml,  Miephen  Dulel,  friend  and  disciple  of  Serreius 
who,  at  the  age  of  ihiny-aeven,  waa  tried  for  herewf 
ami  burned  alive  in  Paris  in  \M6;  and  John  V^eiiliiK 
lientilia,  who  preached  in  France  and  Switzerland,  awl 
suffered  death  at  Berne  in  IHfl,  Saying,  aa  he  laid  hit 
bead  on  the  block,  "Many  have  aiiffered  for  Ihe  ^luir 
of  the  Son,  but  none  have  died  for  the  glory  ami  ao- 
premacy  of  the  Father." 

8.  In  Itnbf,  before  the  Rehirmation,  the  docliiite  nf 
the  Trinity  encountered  disseni,  the  advocate*  of  which 
were  driven  from  the  coontry,  or  were  attracted  by  tha 
laif^r  freedom  farther  North.  Thus  went  forth  many 
to  Swiuerland. Germany,  Hungary, and  Poland;  among 
whom  were  the  famous  Sociiii  and  ihe  celebnied 
preacher  Bernardo  Uccbino.  Hundreds  also  wae  pM 
lo  death,  among  whom  were  James  PalBoingus,  burned 
at  Rome,  and  Sega  and  Uiiirlanda,  drowned  at  Yeuice. 


e  faith  tl 


t  the 


society  was  formed  in  Vicenia,  of  forty  p- 
enra  and  learning,  diacanliiig  Ihe  Triuiiy,  meeting  in 
secret,  of  whom,  alter  l&M,  many  were  imprisuntit  aot 
others  niffered  death.  FriHn  thai  time  there  hoa  beta 
no  recognised  or  organiied  Unitarian  body  of  ai|f 
strength  in  Italy,  although  it  is  believed  ihtn  an 
many  who  hold  this  faith.  The  advocate  Magnaoi 
hasforyearscnndiidcd  Uuitarianserviceai  Piw.  IV 
astronomer  FJIopanti  has  lectured  in  Itol'igna,  Milaa, 
Borne,  and  tfaplea  upon  Chaniiing,  the  distinguisbed 
American  Unitarian  leader,  of  whum  further  menooo 
will  be  made  below.  Pn>r«Bar  Fenlinando  Uracci- 
forti  has  traneUled  Channiiig'a  worka  into  Italian,  and 
has  fur  years  conducted  Unitarian  servioe  al  Fkrena 
and  at  Reggio,  Professor  Sbarbam,  in  Ihe  ftiriila 
Eur^Hi  of  October,  ISiO,  argues  (hat  Chsnning  sup- 
plica  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  religion  needed  by  Om 


OyiTARIANISM 

cnriag  bMtt  oT  thngblAil  luh-.     He  there  un, 
hare  iDide  choice  of  Chinning  «a  tbs  tddm  elnqui 
wiinm  uid  in  irrerragable  proof  of  the  new  evnluli 
df  Utiiiitian  thought  in  the  world,  and  of  the  nrorm 
which  it  in  piooen  of  initiaiian  in  human  reli({ioiui 


hit  booki,  in  the  nun-el  of  llieir  rapid  diSiuum 
cnmenof  the  civilized  earth,  ia  to  beaeen  the  m» 
niinr)iu  and  triumphant  pwuf  of  the  reality  of  that 
inorement  which  ia  inwardly  trannfonning  European 
■odeiy,  and  briuging  it,  little  by  little,  ti>  wruvhip  un- 
der llie  roof  of  ■  new  lempte,  that  Church  really  cath- 
olic, whnae  frontal  ahall  bear,  without  untruth,  the  in- 
Ktiption  'To  tha  One  God,' which  Uaziiiii  hailcl  on 
tba  fafadte  of  the  Unitarian  churchea  of  Hunicury." 

4.  /a  f'ranet,  repurtiiig  two  million  PmlcManca,  eince 
the  martyrdom  of  Dolei  in  I^ri*,  no  apeciOc  Unitarian 
raorement  hu  been  known.  But  during  the  laM  flOy 
yeata,  in  the  Refotnied  Church,  which  ia  mostly  Trin- 
itarian, haa  beena  growing  liberal  pxrtT;  amongwhum 
the  C-querela,  father  and  son,  Martin'  Paachoiid,  Fnn- 
lane*,  GiUiti,  Vincent,  and  the  present  liberal  Pariaian 
paitar  Augusta  Hide  have  Mibatantially  repreaenleil  Un- 
itarianiain-  Their  papers  were  lurmeiiy  A«  Riformalearf 
and  Li  DitcipleJtJitiUftait  at  preaeiit/xi  /inaunmer. 
Saya  Renan,  in  a  brilliant  eaaay  on  Channing  in  i8G3, 
"Fnace  haa  rejected  Pn>UBUiiti>ai.  She  is  the  n«M. 
onhodoji  country  in  the  worUI.  becauae  ihe  ia  the  moM 
iudifferent  in  religious  matters." 

i.  In  Snri/ttrlamt.  where  Ihe  early  UniUrian  mar- 
tyn  (Hetzer,  at  Zurich,  in  I&-29,  and  Setretua,  at  Rene- 
Ti,  in  15a3}  paid  the  penalty  of  their  Hi-e«,  the  spirit  of 
Ubeny  inXIhureh  as  in  State  haa  prevailed;  and,  with- 
out acpante  formal  otgaiiizati<m,  llnilariao  aentimenta, 
fiHD  the  lint,  have  been  aieadily  held.  The  Swi 
Church  haa  been  com  mi  tied  to  no  dogmalicdeclaratio 
but  onlv  ■*  to  preach  purely  and  fully  the  Wnrd  of  tit 
aa  contwned  in  Ihe  H<4y  Scrlpturea."  The  Genevi 
Cbinvh,  in  general,  denies  the  equality  of  the  Son  wii 
the  Father,  and  Ihe  (kHlheail  of  the  Metaiah.  The  co 
rcspcmilent  of  the  Emnif/rlienl  Chriitndoiit,  Feb.  I,  IS'A, 
aayis  "The  Grand  Council  uf  Dule,  on  the  queati' 
iheDeityofChrisI,onMa.v2,  ia;i,  ileeidedin  the 
aiire  by  a  n>te  of  aiiiy -three  voicea  against  f.irty-eight." 
Biianne  Chastel,  profeaaor  of  eecleaiasiical  history  ai 
Geneva,  ia  among  Channing's  mnat  ardent  admiren 
French  Switiertand  haa  itself  piuluced  two  great  lib 
erala,  Samuel  Vlt>cen(  and  Akxaniler  Vinet,  who  wen 
largely  in  sympathy  with  Unitarian  thought. 

5.  kaUii^  like  dwiwrland  and  America,  alirayi 
hoapit^ile  to  thnae  who  are  exiln  fur  conscience,  hii 
neirer  been  wanting  in  repcesenlativF*  of  a  free  theoki- 
fty.  Of  its  two  and  a  half  million  Proteatanta,  ibnul 
four Bftha  belong  to  the  ReforTDcd  Church ;  which,  again, 
haa  lis  two  parties  of  Orthodox  and  Modems,  ^ncc  the 
burning  of  Flekwyk,  a  Dutch  Baptist,  for  hia  denial  of 
the  Trinity  in  1669,  there  has  been  continued  progreai<. 
In  a  popular  religinus  work  by  Dr.  Matthen,  it  Is  a  sig- 
niScant  fact  that  the  chapter  on  Uud  haa  no  alluaiiui  tn 
the  Trinity;  but  at  the  cluaenccurta  fnot-nolein  which, 
with  the  calm  spirit  of  the  historian  rather  than  that  <if 
the  ooatroveraialist,  he  apeaks  of '-the  antiquated  doc- 
trim  of  the  Trinity."  The  creed  adopted  at  the  Synod 
DfDort  in  1G18  baa  giren  place  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
Bible  u  the  standard  of  faith,  together  with  the  tolera- 
tion anddireraiiy  of  sentiment  which  are  anrv  to  follow. 

T.  Germam/,  that  gave  the  world,  along  with  Luther, 


>I  Uniu 


n  reform 


a  half  oanturieii,  without  any  distinct- 
ly orginiied  Unitarian  movement,  has,  with  it*  noted 
scholaiship  and  philosophy,  produced  all  shades  of  ra- 
tiiinaliaia,  from  extreme  orthodony  to  ejitreme  unbe- 
lief. In  South  Germany,  gOTemmantal  stalistica  of 
1»II  report  Sia,000  Uuilariana.  Says  Dr.  Beard," The 
Trinity  aiibMMa  among  the  learned  of  Uermany  only  in 
name.  The  pairistical  doctrine  hat  been  attenuated  lu 
a  slMdnr  or  reiluc«d  ts  iwihiiisi  U  brought  down  into . 


UNITAKIANISM 


scrtptunl  form  it  Is  abandoned ;  if  converted  into  three 
'somewhats,'  it  is  no  longer  auch  aa  the  creeds  declare 
or  their  ailvocales  recognise.  The  doctrine  once  taught 
and  held  for  an  eaaeniial  article  of  Chrialian  faith  is  vir- 
tually repudiated  and  ailently  diaowned,"  A  translation 
of  Channing'a  complete  worka,  by  Sydaw  and  Schultze, 
was  published  in  Berlin  in  IHSO.  After  that,  the  chev- 
alier Buusen,  in  hia  Gad  ut  ffirfofjF,  speaks  of  Channing 
aa"a  grand  Christian  laint  and  man  of  UihI— nay,  also 
a  prophet  of  the  Christian  consciuusneM  regarding  the 
future."  The  Protealanten-Verein  of  Germany,  estab- 
lished at  Eisenach  in  18G6,  a  free  Union  Aaeuciaiion, 

iied  uti  a  dDgmatic  baala  and  not  profiaseiily  Unitarian, 
welcomes  ami  cherishes  fellowship  and  aympathy  with 
the  Unitarians  of  England  and  America. 

f*.  /•  Palmd  the  Unitarian  faith  early  took  a  flrm 
hold  and  apread  rapiilly,  aided  by  refugees  who  there 

penecution  at  the  start.  In  1539,  in  the  market-place 
in  Craouw,  was  bumeil  Katharine  Vugcl  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  wife  of  a  goldsmith  and  alderman,  condemned 
fiirdenj'ing  the  Deity  nf  Christ  and  affirming  the  divine 
unit]'.  In  1E>I>!  the  Bible  was  translated,  chiefly  by 
Unitarian  scholan,  into  the  Polish  language.  Hither 
came  Faustua  Sucinus,  amund  whom  Hocked  converts 

of  the  nobility.  These,  pmieoled  from  persecution  by 
the  privileges  of  their  rank,  proved  especially  favorable 

seemed  destructive  of  the  traditione  and  prealige  uf  tlie 
Itomiah  Church.  The  prosperous  commercial  city  of 
Uacow,  with  iis  large  printing  establishment  publiahing 
many  of  (be  beet  bunks  of  the  day,  becanw  its  head- 
(luanera.     Here  wat  issued  the  famous  Itacovian  Cate- 

was  afterwards  sigiisUy  bunted  in  London.  King  Sig- 
.ismund  II  became  a  convert,  and  during  his  reign  this 
party  irf  reformers  grew  strong  enough  to  form  a  church 
of  their  own.  For  a  century  it  flourished,  till,  in  1680, 
prince  Casimir,  a  cardinal  and  a  Jesuit,  coming  to  the 
throne,  with  unrelenting  persecution  burned  the  homes 
of  its  adherents,  drove  them  into  aileiH^e,  exile,  or  death. 
So  efieclually  did  he  exterminate  it,  and  irilh  it  the 
spirit  uf  liberty  in  Ihe  atate  aa  in  religion,  that  it  may 
fairly  be  said  that  Jesuit  lynnny  at  once  obliteiated  a 

9,  lit  Trangliiaiiia,  Unitarianiam  was  earliest  de- 
clared by  Francis  David,  first  Unitarian  pastor  andi 
bishop:  and  afterwards  by  Socinm  and  by  tieurgio 
Btandrala,an  Italian  from  Piedmont,  who  became  court 
physician  to  Sigismund.  In  1640  David  preached  to 
a  multitude  in  the  open  sireela  ofThnrda,  asserting  the 
Father  to  be  Ihe  only  God.  By  his  preaching  finm 
place  to  place  Urge  numbem  were  converted,  induiling 
Ihe  king  himself,  and  nearly  the  whole  city  of  Klaunen- 
hurg,  and  many  Unitarian  churches  were  established- 
While  persecution  was  rife  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  Tran- 
sylvania was  early  conspicuoua  for  religious  liberty. 
Finir  forma  of  Christianity — the  Koman  (Jathnlic,  the 
Kvrurmed  Evangelical,  the  Lutheran,  and  the  Unitari- 
an— were  recognised  by  law  with  equal  rights,  with  pen- 
alties for  those  only  who  should  infringe  the  rights  of. 
othem.  Under  this  bmad  lulerance,  Unitarianiam, which 
waa,  indeed,  instrumental  in  producing  it,  gaineda  St  run); 
fuolhold,  which,  under  subsequent  pereeoution,  it  has 
never  wholly  lost,  Unhappilv,  the  eariv  Dderance  was 
of  short  duration.  The  bishop.  Francis  David,  himself 
became  a  martyr  U)  his  faith,  dying  in  prison  in  No- 
vember, 157fl,an  event,  the  lercenteniiry  anniversary  of 
which,  in  1S79,  was  celebrated  in  the  land  of  his  nur- 
tyidom.  The  Unitarians  of  Transylvania  are  said  to 
have  at  one  time  possessed  font  hundred  church  buikU 
il>g^  eleven  colleges,  and  three  universiliea.     Through 

nil  oppression  haa  targely  diapusseseed  them  of  church- 
es, ecbuola,  lands,  and  even  of  civil,  as  well  aa  raligiuu* 


ONITARIANISM  « 

(tgbih  ThevurcrembbedofthciTchoTchn^ which  wen 
■ruMfencd  tii  ihe  Jnuiu.  During  the  picwnl  cenlury, 
they  an  regiiuing  privil«t^  inc)  iitrenglh,  whI  itc  re- 
ported u  having  >  pupuUlion  of  60,U0O,  now  incrcMing, 
with  ISa  churches:  ■  univenity  U  KliuiCDbun;  wilh 
1!  prvSetton  and  aOO  Uudenu;  two  imallei  cuUeKe*  ii 
Thonli  and  St.  Kereucur;  a  newapaper,  Tht  Srtdiow 
tr;  and  muij  diitinguithed  •cholan'aud  liunry  men, 
preachen  and  ciTiliina,  in  their  rank*.  Their  Church 
guvemment  ia  that  or  Epiioipacy,  atmngly  modiOed  by 
Congregadonsliam,  their  piwent  bithnp  being  Joseph 
Ferenci.    A  apecia]  intimacy  or  fellawghip  haa  recent- 

UnitarUna  of  England  and  America.  With  Iheti  aid 
the  tranilatiun  ur  Channing's  writings  haa  been  widely 
circulated  among  the  people  of  Hungary  of  all  wcta. 

10.  Errand,  though  later  than  Ihe  Continent  in  re- 
ceiving the  Unitarian  faith,  wag  vigited  by  Occhi 


UNITARIANISU 


yocinua,ai 


refon 


Asheton  waa  cited 
and  saved  hit  life  only  by  recanting.  Under  a  aimilai 
charge  occiiTred  aeTcnl  martyrdnma.  George  von  Par- 
ria,  a  devout  German  aurgeon,  for  denying  the  Trinity 
waa  burned  at  Smithfleld  in  1551,  iluriiig  the  brief 
Teign  of  Edward  TL  During  the  reigns  of  Mary  and 
Eliiaheth,  Hammont,  Lewea,  K«t,  Wright,  end  many 
uthers  met  a  dmilar  fate.  In  Ihe  reign  iif  Jamea  I,  in 
1611,  the  Unilarian  Bartholomew  Legale  became  the 
last  of  the  Smithfleld  martyra;  and  in  161!,  at  Lich- 
field, Edward  Wighlman,  a  Unitarian  Uaptlat,  waa  Ihe 
lut  martyr  who  waa  honied  for  heresy  in  England. 
In  the  time  of  Cromwell,  John  Biddle  funned  in  Lon- 
don the  llisl  English  Unilarian  Church,  and  gained  the 
title  of  the  father  nf  the  English  Unitarians,  but  pei- 
iihed  in  prison  tot  his  faich.  In  1640  the  synods  of 
London  and  York  deemed  it  worth  while  to  issue  a 
special  canon  against  Sncinianism.  And  in  ISfiS  the 
Kacovian  Calechism,  which  had  been  tranalated  inlo- 
English  and  actively  circulated,  wu  burned  in  Londi 
To  auch  strength  and  influence  bad  Socinianiam  gni\ 
there  during  the  century  that  in  1665  Dr.  Owen  wrii 


,"Thee' 


cityt 


town,  scarce  a  village,  in  England  wherdn  enme  of  thii 
poison  la  not  poured  forth."  Before  the  eluae  of  Ihe 
17ch  century',  London  had  houses  of  Unitarian  worship, 
Hilton  wasanAriati,aa  baa  been  pnn-ed  since  bis  death. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  now  known  10  have  written  anony- 
MDusly  on  the  Unitarian  side.  Locke  wrote  a  work  on 
Tht  RauoiallnttuqfChritliainliftVhXcii  issubstantiallv 
Unitarian.  The  aeholariy  Lardner,  author  of  rArCndi. 
biUlgo/lie  Gaipd  HlMloTy,  one  of  the  ablest  defence*  ever 
written,  held  Unitarian  optniima.  That  these  views  had 
nolably  invaded  the  EsEahlished  Church  is  tesliHed  by 
Painter  in  1705  writing  that  there  were  "  troops  of  Uni. 
tarian  and  Sucinian  writers,  and  not  a  Dissenlet  among 
t^m."  Rev,  Thomas  Emlyn  preached  the  UniUrian 
-IKilh  in  Dublin  and  London.  The  Act  of  Uniformity 
in  1063  expelled  from  the  Church  of  England  two 
thousand  ministers,  mostly  CalTinistic  Presbylerians. 
Free  from  dogmatic  tests,  many  of  these  minisleis  and 
their  followers  gradually  became  Arminian,  and  ulli- 
malely  Unitarian.  After  the  passing  of  the  Tolera- 
tion Act  in  1689  legalizing  Nonconformily,  the  way 
was  opened  by  which  the  prevailing  faiih  largely  pass- 
ed into  Unitarianiam.  Half  Ihe  Unitarian  chniches  in 
England  to-day  are  of  thii  Preibyierisn  origin.  Un- 
til IHIS  Ihe  law  made  it  blasphemy  to  speak  against 
the  Trinity;  but  a  more  mleranl  public  sentiment  had 
long  renilered  Ihe  law  a  dead  letter.  Unilaiianism  as 
an  ni^aniud  moTemenl  was  most  distinctly  iiiiliated 
by  Dr.  Theophilua  Lindsey,  who  in  1T71  inigneil  his 
Charge  in  the  EstaUished  Church  and  became  pastor 
of  a  Unilarian  onngregatinn  in  Emex  Street,  London. 
A  still  mute  important  apostle  waa  the  noted  Dr.  Jo- 
•e|ih  Priestley.  Born  in  I7S3,  educated  a  CalvinisI, 
diaiinguisheil  for  his  scholarship  and  scieniillc  allain- 
Benls,  in  1(65  be  became  pastoi  of  a  small  Dissenting 


while  c 


veUtioii 
tials  of  Christ's  auil 
some  uneu  of  Calvinism,  he  rejected  the  Trinity  and 
vicarious  atonement  as  uiiseripliiral,  wtnte  to  show  how 
these  Aofrma  came  in  as  later  eomiptions  of  priraitire 
Christianity,  and  belrl  that  Christ  himself  cteiined  Is 
be  simply  a  man.  His  views  brought  upon  him  oblo- 
quy and  penecution;  and,  at  the  hands  of  a  mobksing 
his  books,  manuscripts,  and  phikttiphical  insimmnis. 

he  removed  to  America,  gave  omrses  oT  lectures  is 
Phiisdelphia,  wliich  added  fresh  slimnlus  to  the  rising 
Unilarianism,  bat  retired  for  his  clonng  years  to  tht 
small  neighboring  village  uf  North umberland,  wbert 
he  died  in  I8IM.  In  181S  the  Unitarians  were  6nl 
placed  by  law  on  an  ecjualiiy  with  other  Kssmlen. 
For  some  years  sharp  controversy  continued  aa  to  tbt 
proprietary  rights  in  certain  Church  prapertirs  held 
by  them,  hut  claimed  by  orthodox  Disaentetn  ThcK 
claims  were  Anally  silenced  in  favor  of  the  Unitatiaa 
occupants  by  the  Dissenters'  Chapels  Act  of  IBM.  Al 
the  present  lime  there  are  reported  about  860  Unilsri- 
rian  churches  in  England,  mostly  Congregational  ia 
Church  govemmeni,  and  of  which  one  fmrth  have 
been  formed  within  the  last  twenty-flve  yean,  la 
Northern  Ireland  there  is  a  Unitarian  popnlatiai  of 
about  10,000,  still  Presbj-IerisnsinChnrch  govennMnt. 
In  Soitland  there  are  in  Ihe  larger  cities  and  to«u 
about  ten  Unitarian  churches.  In  that  eoontry  occur- 
red Ihe  last  execution  for  blasphemy  against  the  Triu- 
tT  in  the  person  of  a  voting  sludent,  Thoniaa  Aikeo- 
head,  hanged  near  E<linbargh  in  ISM.  The  \r^n 
Unilarian  Church  of  Edinburgh,  originally  Hiictly 
(^Iviniatie,  having  adopted  Ihe  principle  of  free  ii>- 
<iuiry,  t>ecame  Arian  and  Anally  bumaniiarian  imdtt 
Ibe  paaloraie  of  Dr.  Soulhwood  Smith  in  1811.  In 
Wale*  about  thiny-fonr  churches  of  this  faith  an  re- 
ported; and  there  are  several  strong  societies  at  M«- 
treal,  Sydney,  Helboume,  Adelaide,  and  other  plaes  bi 
the  Briiish  colonies  in  Cai>ada,  India,  and  Aiisinlii. 
The  EngliBh  Unitarians  maintain  a  miauunair  tuUrgf 
in  Manchester,  a  Presbyterian  college  at  Carmartbai 
which  wlucate*  Unitarian  and  Independent  minister^ 
and  the  larger  unsectarian  institution  of  Hanchnia 
New  College,  removed  recently  to  London.  Id  tbdr 
interest  are  oofvilucted  several  weekly  teligioos  papcn: 
The  Imguirrr,  TU  Ckrinim  l.\fi,  flit  UuHarkm  Htr- 
aid,  and  the  new  periodical  Tlu  t/odrrn  Rrrirte.  Thfir 
repTTSentative  missiunary  society  is  ihe  Briiiih  snd 
Foreign  Unitarian  Association, formed  in  I^ndon,llsr 
36,1825.  AmongiheleadlngwriteTsnMvbenaaMd(1ie- 
sides,Prieslley,  Ijndsey,  and  Belsham  eariy  in  tht  cen- 
lury),  more  recently,  lievs.  John  James  Tavfcr,  ChaAa 
Beard,  John  Hamilton  Thorn,  and  James  Msniimn, 
one  of  the  greatest  living  exponenta  of  the  higher  phi- 


may  be  truthfully  added  that  the  movement  of  EngU 
Unitarianiam  is  outgrowing  the  l^aliem  and  liieiaGn] 
of  a  philosophy  which  narrowed  its  earlier  faith,  and  is 
reaching  a  broader  and  deeper  spirituality. 

11.  In  America,  Ihe  free  inquiry  and  opes  fidd  <f 
thought  from  the  beginning  have  been  favtirable  I* 
Unitarian  views,  and  the  morement  <«  spiritual  liberty 
found  special  stlmnlusin  the  public  aeotiment  foUmriag 
the  Revolution.  The  Pilgrims,  bringing  (o  Asicrica 
the  parting  iiijonclion  of  their  pastor,  John  Bobinsim,  tf 
Leyden,  thst  there  waa  "mote  light  to  braik  out  ima 
(iod'a  Word,"  organized  the  HiW  Congregational  cbntcta 
in  New  England  at  Plymouth,  Salem,  and  Boston  npaa 
covenants  so  hmad  and  undngmalic  that  these  hate 
required  no  change  in  accepting  the  Unitarian  fajlh. 
Without  doubt,  the  prevullng  sentiment  wm  maialy 

n)inisnisia  inferminglnl  that  grew  imperceptibly,  until 
for  the  lasl  century  nd  ■  faaJT  the  progresa  oT  L'wU> 


T7NITARIANISM  8 

rim  imtiiiienta  maj  be  diatinctl;  tnecd.  Dr.  Ga^,  of 
Hiaghain,  onUincd  in  1717,  ig  auppoaed  ta  hire  been 
ebt  &rat  Amcricui  preacher  or  Uiiiuriauiam.  Befi>n 
(ba  Berolution,  nuajr  lawmen,  pb3-iiic' 
•ad  brmcn  ware  Uniuriami,  acconling  i 
of  tbe  clil«r  pnuleat  Adwni,  hinuelf  ■ 
Dot  tbe  Uitj  only,  but  ro«Q;  or  the  cJ  ^_  _ 
tatann  whom  iru  Hijrhew,  oT  tbe  West  Cliuch,  Goft- 
toQ.  la  1768  tbc  ramoui  Hopkina  prepaml  a  aenaoa 
Mpeciallf  agunu  wbat  he  deemed  the  hereiy  of  tbe 
BsMoa  muiulen.  In  17S3,  under  the  lead  oT  tbeic 
jaang  mintwer,  Ber.  Jamae  Kreeman,  then  icceatlj  oi- 
dained,  tba  BpiBospal  Churcb  or  King's  Chapel  in  Bo»- 
ton  expungod  from  ila  flooi  ofCommm  Prafir  all  ref- 
~  '  \fy  and  tbe  worship  of  Chriit,aiiJ 
It  diMinctivelj  Unitarian  Churcb  in 
Ii«  liuii^  and  Choich  organization  continue 
I  the  preient  time.  Prieatley'i 
g  gB7«  freab  ipipulae  to  thia  faith,  and  the  writings 
of  Lindaey  and  Beliham  found  tbeii  waf  bither.  In  a 
letter  u>  Dr.  Lindaey,  in  London,  Kev.  Jamai  Fmman 
writea  tbat  there  were  "many  churchea  in  which  the 
wonhip  waa  atrictly  UniUrian,  and  aome  of  New  Eng- 
bod'i  moat  eminent  clergyman  openly  arowed  that 
eraed."  In  1801  the  oldeit  Puritan  Churcb  in  America, 
tbe  original  Churcb  of  the  Mayflower,  eiUbluhed  at 
Plymouth  in  I6i0,  by  a  large  majority  vote  declared  it- 
aclf  Unitarian;  and  with  no  change  in  ita  eoTenanl, 
nng  the  identical  sulement  of  faith  drawn  up  by  ita 
I^lgrim  founder!,  it  to-day  accept*  tbe  Unitarian  name 
and  fellowship.  Free  from  re»trainlB  of  dogmatic  croeda 
and  teats,  the  New  England  Congr^atioiial  cburcbea 
were  eapecielly  hospitable  to  inquiry  and  pmgress.  By 
inperceptible  deKreea  change  came.  In  1806  tbe  Uni- 
tarian Hev.  Dr.  Ware  was  made  prufeBsor  of  divinity  at 
Harvard  UDirenity,  Cambridge.  This  fact  excited  np- 
poaition  and  contioveny.  in  1815  a  coulroveny  be- 
tween Dr.  Cbauniiig  and  Dr.  Worcealer  reaulled  in  open 
TUptnre  between  the  Trinitarian  and  Unitarian  Congie- 
galioiialislSL  In  1(116  the  Divinity  School  at  Cambridge 
WBi  cBtabliabed  by  Unitarians.  Harvard  College  waa  in 
their  banda,  and  chiefly  by  their  influence  haa  main- 
tsloed  the  undeoDmioalional  position  whiuh  it  claims 
to-day.  For  ten  yeara,from  1815  to  tS25,  the  Dontfi>- 
Teriy  waxed  hot;  linea  of  leparatian  were  draiin,  and 
eburchei  and  men  took  lidea.  Aa  the  churchea  divided 
tbe  majority  carried  their  name  and  property  to  Trini- 
tarian ur  Unitarian  ranka.  Heanohile  the  seceding  mi- 
noritteaurgaDiwdanewon  one  Bide  or  the  other.  Thus 
tbe  ancient  parishu,  each  coeatensire  with  its  town, 
were  divideil ;  and  in  many  New  England  towns  the  old- 
eat  church,  retaining  ila  anoienl  Congregational  liberty 
and  uaagea,  became  in  faith  and  iellowahip  Unitarian. 

IL  OiyanMatioa  ami  Pramt  CimdiluM, — During  the 
eventful  decade  juat  reviewed,  Bav.  William  Ellery 
Cbanning  (bom  in  Newport,  tL  U  April  7,  1780),  then 
in  the  prime  of  manhood,  with  eariy  ripeness  of  spiritual 
fhiitage,  became,  by  eloquence  of  tongue  and  pen,  the 
couspicuous  leader  ofthe  Unitarian  movemenL  At  the 
stdinaiion  of  Jated  Sparks,  in  1819,  as  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  Church  in  Baltimore,  bia  discourae  expound- 
ing Unitarian  Christianity  made  a  profound  impremion. 

bis  preaching  an  emphasis  of  individualiam  and  apirit' 
oal  liberty.     Never  permitting  himself  tn 
dsniieeuraBect,tobimUat     ' 

"•!"„    

It  and  practical  preac 
be  fearieaaly,  yet  reverently,  sought  the  truth,  brought 
into  ptnmiDeooe  the  spiritual  elements  of  human  nii- 
ni^  subjected  religious  systetns  lu  the  teat  of  the  s<iiir>< 
best  ioslincta  and  aentimenia,  and  made  it  hia  supreme 
aiai  to  kindle  the  a*|Htation  for  holinesss.  Hia  teati- 
■  chiefly  borne  to  the  fktherhniid  of  God  anil 


5  tTNITARIANISM 

freedom  and  the  divine  miidoa  and  aothority  of  Jeans 
Christ,  He  haa  come  to  be  recognised  by  all  lecls  aa 
one  of  the  foremoat  of  American  preachem  and  writcm, 
a  leading  champion  of  religious  and  civil  freedom,  of 
education  aud  philanthropy,  a  seeker  fur  truth,  a  lover 
iif  mankind,  and  a  devoted  advocate  of  Chriadanity.  In 
April,  1880.  the  oenlensry  of  his  birth  was  celebrated  in 
London  and  in  BBveral  ofthe  larger  cities  in  America, 
many  peraona  of  other  denominations  Joining,  and  tht 
cnmer-stnne  was  laid  ofa  memorial  church  at  Newport, 
hia  birthplace.    See  Chakkmo. 

The  division  in  tbe  Church  was  not  of  Unitarian 
aeeking.  The  Unitarian  leadera  were  willing,  in  the 
large  fellowahip  and  free  faith  of  Congregationalism,  to 
maintain  the  unity  of  the  Church  unbroken.  They 
would  have  home  their  testimony  to  truth  as  they  saw 
it.  urging  all  othera  freely  to  do  the  aame.  The  necea- 
Hty  of  separadoii  was  enforced  by  fellawship  with- 
drawn, controverted  opinions  put  forward  aa  tests,  and 
by  chargaa  made  that  rendered  it  impoeaihle  tn  alay. 
After  the  break  had  come,  it  was  with  no  desire  to 
build  a  new  sect  or  to  prolong  the  bitteraees  of  contro- 
versy—  it  was  to  do  their  own  pan  in  the  vineyanl 
that  the  Unitariana  went  apart  and  worked  in  their 
own  way.  But,  from  the  flnt,  their  attitude  has  never 
ceased  to  be  that  Church  unity  is  to  be  found,  not  in 
identity  of  opinion,  but  in  personal  freedom  and  in 
brollierly  lore;  and  they  have  declared  their  readiness 
on  thia  broad  basts  to  Join  in  fellowship  with  idl  who 
claim  la  hold  the  Christian  faith  and  who  prove  tbeir 
discipleship  byconsistent  lives.  In  the  exercise  of  frelK 
dum  there  have  always  been  within  the  Unitarian  fold 

dom  a  few  have  gone  into  the  Trinitarian  bouaehold 
andotheninloapouiion  antichriuian  or  non-Christian. 
On  May  M,  1825,  waa  formed  in  Boalon  "  The  Ameri- 
can Unitarian  Association."  Ita  Brst  article  declaiea 
ita  purpose  to  be  "to  diffuse  the  knowledge  and  pro- 
mote the  interests  of  pure  Christianity."  It  was  incor- 
porated in  1848,  with  the  right  to  hold  trust  funds,  and 
has  at  the  present  time  about  t200,000.  Without  ec- 
desiaalical  authority,  it  is  purely  a  missionary  orgaoi- 


(or  publishing  and  diat 
taining  miasionaties,  aitljng  feeble  churches,  and  plant- 
ing new  ones.  Ila  operations  are  maiuly  in  the  home- 
lield  of  America.  For  forty  yean  ita  activitiee  were 
small,  the  missionary  spirit  of  the  denomination  b«ng 
ihecked  by  dread  ofthe  sectarian  spirit,  and  the  benev- 
olent  gifts  of  the  people  taking  more  the  direction  of 
education  and  general  philanthropy.  But  within  the 
last  fifteen  years  ita  inooma  haa  gteativ  increased,  in 
1866  and  1872  exceeding  «100,000,  althnugh  it  by  no 
meana  receives  all  of  tbe  denominatiooal  gifts  Ibc  ralig- 
ua  miaaionaiy  purpoaeB. 

On  April  5, 1865,  a  convention,  conwating  of  the  pas- 

r  and  two  delegate*  from  each  church  or  |>ariah  in  the 

niurian  denomination,  met  in  Ibe  city  of  New  York 

and  organiied  a  National  Conference, "  to  the  et.d  of 

tbe  denomination  with 

:  cause  of  Christisn  faith  and  work."    Its  preamble 
glared  that  "  the  great  opportunities  and  ileminda  for 

inse  of  tbe  obligations  of  all  disciple*  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  to  prove  their  faith  by  self-denial,  and  by 
the  devotion  of  their  Uvea  and  posaeasiona  to  the  service 
uf  Uod  and  the  building-up  ofthe  kingilom  of  his  Son." 
representative  body  of  paatoia  and  delegates, 
ind  meeting  biennially,  purely  advisory  in  char- 
t  counsel  ami  fellowabip.  Itn  meeiinga  are  held 
smber  at  Sanloga,  open  to  the  public,  and  are 
uteailiiy  increasing  in  the  numhere  attending,  aim  in 
"  in  practical  purpose  and  value.    Since  iis 


previooa  history.   Within  smaller  and  m 


UNITAIMANISM  6- 

territoriol  diatricts  have  bvcn  n>miei<  alio  locil  confer- 
ences with  more  frequent  meeting!,  nhieh  hive  been 
Hiccewiriil  ill  fuMering  felluwahip  and  cn-opentiun,  aiid 


religio. 


I  life. 


Without  other  ecclesiaaticil  auCliorily,  (he  govem- 
meiiC  at  Ibe  churches  ini)  iheir  uugei  ind  modH  of 
wunhip  are  purely  Cuogregalionil.  The  rites  of  bap- 
lisni  and  at  the  Lord's  supper  are  recogniaed  and  ob- 
served, not  as  having  myelic  ralue  or  binding  authori- 
ty, hut  as  havinit  spiritual  worth  iiid  influence.  The 
deuominatimiBl  Ytar-baok  for  1890  reports  407  churches, 
of  which  240  are  in  New  Englamf,  chieHy  in  Mi.«ichn- 
selt^  and  100  mainly  in  the  West;  610  niiiii«ler^  W) 
local  conrerences,  besides  a  number  of  orpiniutiont  of 
purely  beiiei'oleni  aim  and  purpose.  Two  theulogieal 
schools  are  susiaineil— one  at  Cambridge,  founded  in 
)8I(i,  haTiiig  six  pnifesBoni  and  ab-Hii  twenty  srudenta, 
and  alibiat}'  of  ]B,600  volllfne^  while  I  be  larue  Uiiivei- 
ulv  library  of  340.000  vniumes  is  also  'ipen  to  iu  use. 
About  tNO,U0O  have  recently  been  added  ■<■  ilBemlnw- 
tnent  fund  (o  increase  its  corps  of  professors.  The 
Theological  School  at  Meadvillr,  l>a..  wax  formed  in 
1844,  and  has  four  resident  pn<reMnns  18,000  volumes  in 
its  library,  and  about  thirty  students. 

The  periodicils  of  tbe  denominalinn  are  the  Piatn- 
Tian  Recino,  the  CkriMiim  Brgiiltr,  nuw  in  its  Bfty- 
ninth  I'ear;  The  Diiyprvv),  »  Sunday -school  paper, 
all  publisheil  in  Bostui),  while  several  smaller  organs 
an  published  elsewhere.  The  denomination  is  rich  in 
iu  literature,  especially  in  the  direction  of  practical  and 
dei'out  religious  sentiment.  The  works  of  Channing, 
now  widely  circulated  among  English-apeaking  people 
all  over  the  world,  are  trsnslateii  in  pan  or  entire  into 
the  Dutch  and  German,  French,  Italian,  Swedish,  Hun- 
garian, Icelandic,  and  Kuaslan  languages,  l^ere  may 
also  be  inentiimed  aa  leading  [Tnitarian  preocbera  and 
vriteni,  Henrv  Ware  (father  and  son),  James  Walker, 
Theodore  Packer,  Edmund  K.  Sears,  Orrille  Dewey, 
William  H.  Funiess,  Henry  W.  Bellows,  James  Free- 
man Clarke,  Frederick  H,  Hedge,  and  Andrew  P.  Pea- 
body.  Unitarian  writers  are  also  lately  represented 
In  the  walks  of  hist«ry  and  litentnre  in  America  as  in 
England.  It  may  be  added  that  Unitarian  ■eniiments 
are  held  aubsUntially  by  "Universali8ta,""Chriatiana," 
"  Hicksile  Quakers,"  and  "  Progressive  Friends." 

III.  Doctriitai  Vkai.—la  seeking  the  present  form 
of  Unitarian  faith,  it  is  needless  to  reooimt  the  apecula- 
lions  of  earlier  times.  The  teneu  of  Sabellius  and  Paul 
orSamoaata  ami  AriuB,ilBOof  Serrstus  and  the  Sneinl, 
in  their  special  fDrnis  sharing  the  crudities  of  contem- 
poraneous though),  hare  lai)^ly  passed  away.    They 


a  pmgreas ;  and  be- 


UNITARIANS 

Ailing  the  soul  Kir  hia  kingdom  above.     Iliey  nfiu* 
their  belief  iu  liied  e      '      '      '    " 
lusivB  authority ;  because  tbese  ih 

limit  inquiry  and  hi 

of  character,  and  oftu^ 
of  sgnritual  purpoae,  tbe  bases  and  teaia  of 
fellowship.  Yet,  while  refunng  any  authoritative  cned 
atatemeni,  then  is  an  unwritten  conaenaua  nf  faith  in 
which  UnitariansaresuhslanliallysKTced.  Theybelieva 
intheonetiod  as  the  Creator  of  the  universe  and  Father 
of  all  soula;  a  Father  whu  wilta  man'a  welfare,  deairii^ 
that  not  even  tbe  least  shall  perish ;  the  Fatherly  Friend 
in  all  worlds,  who  does  not  wait  for  fotgiTeneas  aod 
favor  la  be  purchased,  but  freely  poon  fiutb  blessing 
on  all  who  will  accept  it;  Father  of  the  nnnr  as  of  (W 
saint,  seeking  every  wanderer  with  hia  pursuing  lore, 
and  punishing  the  erring  not  for  hia  pleasure,  but  foe 
their  protit,  that  they  may  become  partakers  nf  hia  hidt. 
neas.     Unitarians  believe  in  man  aa  naturally  neither 

mined,  but  undeveloped  and  incomplete;  that  be  in- 
herits Cendenciea  to  good  aa  well  a*  to  evil,  and  that 
be  ia  aiiiful  only  aa  he  knowingly  and  wilfuUy  dott 
wrong;  that  he  needs  regenention,  the  nnbldlng  and 
renewal  of  hia  spiritual  nature,  which  be  experience* 
through  obedience  tn  the  truth,  umler  that  divine  in- 
fluence which  is  called  the  Holy  Spirit;  that,  as  a 
child  of  tbe  Infinite,  allied  to  the  Suprei 
by  ilea  that  cannot  be  sundered,  having  in  hi 
spark  uf  divinity  that  ntakes  his  ullimate  redi 
'ingiiishable  hope,  he  yet  needs  ti 


Thev  are  si 


nply 
g  only  in  the 


in  the  line  of  historical  pmgress,  agreei 
single  fundamental  thought  that  <ind  is  one,  and  Jtsiia 
Christ  a  created  and  subordinate  being.  Unitariania«i 
is  characteristically  not  a  Hxed  dcipnatic  atalement, 
but  a  movement  of  ever-enla^ng  bith.  It  welcomes 
inquiry,  prngress,  and  diversity  of  individual  thought 
in  the  unity  of  spirilual  fellowihtp.  With  faith  in  the 
unity  of  iiiiA  aa  its  key-note,  it  asserts  the  unity  of  all 
truth  in  nature,  history,  enperience,  and  the  BiUe;  the 
unity  of  the  Church  as  based  on  character,  not  on  di^ 
ma;  and  the  unity  of  spirilual  life  in  this  world  and  the 
Its  leading  principles  are,  flist,  the  freedi 


'  it :  and,  second,  thai  cl 
Uni(    ■ 


e  highesi 


ruth  ai 


e  life,  I 


if  Chris- 


to  be  the  essence  of  Christianity.  ' 
lianity  to  be  essendally  a  reasonable  religion,  acconjii 
with  tbe  truths  of  naluie,  instructing  reason  and  a 
pealing  to  it  as  interpreter  and  judge.  They  hold  it 
be  a  progrcsive  religion;  that  its  principles,  like  t 
axioms  of  mathematica,  are  elentally  true,  but  that  i 
germs  unfold  with  the  increasing  intelligence  uf  ma 
kind.  Right  belief  they  deem  imporUnt  fur  right  li 
ing,  and  they  emphauze  the  value  of  righteousness 
establishing  the  kingdom  of  Uod  on  earth,  and  ai  alo 


inspired  of  (jod,  b 


which  is 


lught  ai 


to  climb  to  celestial  ■ 
Jesus  Christ,  as  Che  f< 
at  once  Son  of  Uoil  an 
■taphysiea 


with  tl 


birthright  privilege,  he  is  aid* 
nmita.  Unitarians  beliere  io 
r  evangelists  describe  him,  aa 
Son  of  man.     They  care  liui* 


help  for  h 


e,  but  emphasi 


a  word  and  life  aa  a  pradical 
1,  They  hold  that  he  is  not 
us  the  Light  of  the  World,  tb« 
Fountain  of  Uving  Water,  and  the  Brewl  of  Lile ;  au 
Saviour  by  iUusiniling  the  eternal  principlra  of  right, 
inspiring  his  followers  lo  hulineaa,  and  impaning  u 
them  true  life  mure  abundantly:  our  Saviuur  su  lar 
aa  he  leads  and  belpe  us  to  be  large-hearted,  truth- 
seeking,  pule,  loving,  and  devout;  tbat  he  came  iua 
the  world  to  bear  testimony  tn  the  truth, and  was  btr* 

proved  himself  bumanity's  Lord  and  Leader  by  his  di- 
vine helpfulness.  Under  the  influence  of  ekrate4 
views  of  man's  spiritual  nature,  affirming  his  innan 
power  of  apprehending  religious  truth,  Uidlariinimi,  ia 
declaring  the  humanity  of  Chritl.  does  uot  bring  Jeaus 
duwn,  but  lifts  humanity  up.  It  aaserta  that  Jesus  was 
purely  hnnwn  only  (u  show  that  human  nature  itself  is, 
in  the  pbrase  of  Athanaaius,  Aomoautoii,  of  the  aamc 

sion  of  that  divine  humanity  which  is  the  birthri^i 
and  promised  dcMiny  of  all  souli.  While  they  an  jeal- 
ous of  ecclesiastical  authority  or  diclation,  and  perpet- 
ually refuse  to  limit  their  belief  by  formula,  the  Uni- 
tarians have,  in  public  assembly  nf  the  American  Uni> 
tarian  Association,  and  in  representative  meeting*  sf 
Iheir  iMlional  and  local  conferences,  repeatedly  naf- 
lirmed  their  attitude  of  Christian  discipleship.  and 
shown  that  they  h"ld  themsplvia  to  be  a  body  »r  be- 
lievers upon  the  Christian  foundation  and  within  th* 
Christian  Church.  They  deem  tbe  mind  of  Christ  lbs 
best  index  of  Chrislianily.  Fnr  the  source*  of  Uni- 
tarian thought,  therefore,  they  lefer  to  Unitarian  liun- 
ture,  move  especially  to  the  Naw  Teal.,  and  soimiDdy 
to  the  word  and  life  nf  Jmis  Christ.     (R.  K.  &) 

UnltailKiw,  a  general  name  for  thoae  bodies  «f 
proltased  Christians  who  do  nnt  fully  rcengnise  ih* 
equality  of  tbe  lhi«e  Perwns  in  the  Gialhrad.  The 
enenlial  ermn  of  Uuilaiianism,  as  enugelical  Ttia- 


DNITAS  FRATRCM 


6*7  UNITED  BKETHBEN  IN  CHKIST 


iliriam  regard  then,  are  a  denial  (a)  of  tha  true  di- 
*init7  or  Jesus  Chriu;  and  (A)  <rf'  tbe  iaherenc  and 
total  nwnl  depravity  of  hunan  nature.  These  two 
■n  claimed  to  be  not  limply  dogmiu,  but  /acli  ■luuin- 
eil  by  otuervation  ami  history  ag  well  an  by  the  plain 
aud  eonatant  leachiiiga  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  They 
■R  intimately  correlated  to  »ch  other;  tat  if  Cliriat 
'lie  nut  [luly  divine,  then  there  it  no  adequate  at^iie- 

■eutially  a  aitiner,  be  needs  no  such  divine  Saviour. 
Hence  our  Lord  in  treating  with  Nicodeoiui  announced 
the  neeosity  of  a  radical,  moral  change  as  tbe  Snt  and 
all-imporuilt  couditian  of  Chrislianity  (John  iii,  1-13> 
AtooTiUiigl*  the  dootrine  of  a  apiritual  and  rnidament- 
■■  t  wiU  b.  ' 


of  all  evangelical  orthodoxy,  and  those  braiichet  of 
Christendom  who  lay  moat  Mreas  upon  it  pmve  to  be 
the  mou  efficient  in  the  moral  renoratinu  of  mankind. 
llDraanitarianism  alnna  can  never  be  more  than  a  neg- 
ative and  pnwerleae,  became  a  really  false,  view  of  the 
actual  oondition  and  relation  of  the  race  as  respects 
their  Creator  and  Redeemer.    See  Huhahitareans. 

In  the  same  sumaury  manner,  Uniiarians  reject,  as 
being  to  ihem  unphilosophical  and  unintelligible,  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  a  doctrine  which  all.whn 
have  passed  through  the  pangs  of  true  ciintritiun  into 
tbe  jiiys  of  conscious  pardon  and  heavenly  communion 
find  BO  comforting  and  necessary  to  the  explanation  of 
their  own  religious  cxperiencs  (Kom.  r,  1-6;  1  Cur.  ii, 
10-U).     SeeTnlNn-r. 

While  pointing  out  these,  as  we  deem,  radical  deftets 
in  Unitarisnism  a  a  system  of  Christian  faith,  we  nev- 
enheleas  are  bound  to  bear  witness  to  the  literary  cult- 
ure, social  leHnement,  and  moral  virtues  which  Unita- 
rians as  a  body  have  exhibited,  and  to  their  amenity 
and  ameliorating  inBuenca  in  the  defence  of  civil  rights 
and  the  ^neral  cause  of  philanthropy.  These  we  at- 
tribute, bowcver,  not  so  much  to  their  creed  aa  to  the 
hereditoryeDect  of  early  Puritan  training  and  the  pow- 
er ofa  sound  ChriMianitydilTuaed  through  the  commu- 
nity in  the  midst  of  which  they  live  and  operate.    See 

TTnltas  Fratmm.    See  HaRAvi.\Ns. 
United  Anuaoluta,  ■ 

onhndox  Armenians  being  called  GreffT 
Armenian  rite  in  the  Bonun  Catholic  Church  has  one 
patriarch  and  primate  (in  Cilicia),  f'lur  archbishops  (at 
Conntantinople,  Aleppo,  Seleuciaor  Oiarbekir,  ami  Letn- 
berg),  besides  two  h  parliiat,  and  sixteen  bishop*. 
Their  union  took  place  from  1314  to  I3M.  They  num- 
ber same  lOO.OUO,  of  whom  7H,O0fl  are  in  Turkey  and 
Persia  (:ra,000  under  the  archbishop  of  Consuntinnple, 
M,000  under  the  patriarch  of  Cicilia,  and  1000  in  Mount 
Lebanon).  Auatro Hungary,  in  1870,  had  S279  United 
AraMoians:  Russian  Caucasia  and  Siberia,  in  1869,  had 
IS,7^  In  1871  a  very  considerable  pare  of  the  Turk- 
ish United  Armenians  left  the  Rnman  Catholic  com- 
munion and  jnined  the  Old  Catholic  movement,  See' 
Aiuii!iia:(  Cuuhch. 

CTnitecl  Br«thren  In  Chriat,  the  full  tide  of  a 
bndv  of  erangclical  Christians  in  this  country. 

L  Origvi.— In  the  year  1752,  the  Kev.  Philip  William 
Otterljein  (4.  v.),  adislingui"hed  scholar  and  miisionflry 
in  the  (ierman  itefiirmeil  Church,  emigrated  fVnm  Dil- 
lenbefg,  in  tbe  Duchy  of  Xbbuu,  C.ermany,  to  America. 
Niit  long  after  his  arrival  in  his  new  field  of  labui,  he 
became  deeply  imprtsaed  with  the  necessity  of  a  more 
ihoTDugb  work  of  grace  in  his  heart  than  he  had  ever 
before  experienced.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  was  his  first  pas- 
toral charKC,  and,  early  in  hi*  ministry  there,  on  a  cer- 
tain oecasioni  he  passed  from  his  pulpit  to  his  study, 
and  there  remained  in  earnest  prayer  until  God,  in  his 
mercy,  pouted  upon  hit  soul  the  spirit  of  grace  and 
power.  Mr.  Olterbein,  from  this  time  forth,  preochiHl 
with  on  onclion  which  hmUmt  he  nor  bis  people  hod , 


realiied  before.  Having  now  entered,  aa  it  were,  upon 
a  new  life,  he  was  eminently  Bited  fur  a  leader. .  He 
was  calm,  dignified,  humble,  and  devout.  After  six 
years  of  service  at  Lancaster  Mr.  Otierbein  transreiTed 
his  tabors  to  Tulpohocken,  Pa.,  at  which  place  he  intn^ 
duced  evening  meeiiiigs,  and  In  them  read  ponions  of 
the  Uible  and  ex/tarifd  the  people  tu  See  frnm  the  wrath 
to  come.  At  this  time  there  was  not  a  Methodist  socie- 
ty in  America.  The  <^rman  churches  of  the  land,  es- 
pecially, were  annken  in  lifeless  formality.  The  "  new 
measures"  of  Mr.  Otterbein  brought  upon  him  severe 
criticisms,  if  not  actual  persecution. 

While  Mr.  Olterbein  was  engaged  in  enforcing  ex- 
perimental giHlliness  at  Tulpohocken,  the  Kev.  Martin 
Buehm,  a  leoluus  Mennonlte,  was  led  into  the  light  of  a 
These  men  were  ministers  of  churches  wide- 


awakenings  were  now  in  progress— one  under  the  la- 
bors of  Mr.  Otterbein  in  Tulpohocken,  the  other  led  by 
Mr.  Boehm  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa.  During  a  "great 
meeting"  held  in  a  barn  in  that  county,  these  two  min- 
isters met  for  the  flrst  time.  Mr.  Itoebm  preached  the 
opening  sermon  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Otterbein.  As 
the  bean  of  the  preacher  wanned  with  his  theme,  it 
kindled  a  flame  in  the  soul  of  the  other.  At  the  dose 
of  tbe  sermim,  and  before  Mr.  Eloehm  oonld  resume  his 
seat,  Mr.  Otterbein  arose,  and,  embracing  the  preacher  in 

words  aderwarda  suggested  the  name  which  thedenom- 

From  this  time  these  godly  men  became  co-laborers, 
and  travelled  extensively  through  Eastern  Pennsylva- 
nia, Maryland,  and  Virginia.  In  the  meanrime  other 
German  miuislan  or"Uke  precious  faith"  were  raised 
up  through  their  labors,  and  numerous  sodetiea  were 
funned  in  tbe  states  mentioned.  It  seems  to  have  been 
no  pari  of  Mr.  Otterbein'*  puriiOBa  tii  organiie  ■  new 
church.  He  only  sought  to  impreu  upon  the  con- 
*ciences  of  the  people  generally,  and  of  fonnalists  in 
particular,  that  a  vital  union  with  Christ  is  easentiat  to 
a  religious  life.  Piovidence  so  shaped  circumstances 
that  Mr.  Otterbnn,  without  his  own  seeking,  was  placed 


The  eminently  Christian  character  of  Mr.  Otterbein, 
and  his  iisefuhiess  in  founding  this  Church,  make  it 
proper  thai  a  few  sentences  mure  be  written  of  him. 
He  was  bwn  at  Dilleiiberg,  Germany,  March  fl,  17SS, 
and  rewded  in  bis  native  land  twenty-six  years,  and  in 
America  sixty-one  years,  dying  Kov.  17,  ISIS,  having 
continued  his  ministry  to  the  close  of  his  long  life.    He 

pliiliaophy  and  divinity.  He  was  held  in  high  esteem 
by  bishops  Asburi'  and  Coke  of  the  Methodist  Church, 
and  aswsted,  by  special  request,  at  the  ordination  of  the 
filmier.  On  hearing  gf  his  death,  bishop  Asbury  said  of 
liim,  "Great  and  good  man  of  God  1  An  honor  u>  hia 
Church  and  country;  one  of  the  greatest  scholar*  and 
divines  that  ever  came  to  America,  or  who  were  bom 


LB  the  w 


IB  begun  grew  t 


considerable  pm- 
{  iL     Conference* 


pflnions.it  became 

were  therefiire  annuallv  held  for  tnis  purpose,  D^^nnii^ 
at  Baltimore  in  the  year  1789.  In  IBOO  the  societies 
gathered  were  united  in  one  body,  under  the  name  nf 
the  "United  Brethren  in  Christ," and  elected  Mr.  Ot- 
teriKin  and  Martin  Boehm  their  superintendents  01 
bishops.  At  that  lime  there  was  little  uniformity 
among  them  as  to  doctrine.  Some  were  German  Re- 
formeii.  other*  were  Hennonites  or  LuiherBna,and  a  few 
were  Methodists.  In  regard  to  the  mode  of  baptism, 
protiably  to  meet  the  wishes  nf  the  Mcnnonitea,  they 

lions.  From  1800  to  I81^  the  growth  of  the  Cburcb 
was  steady,  but  not  speedy.  Several  new  conferences 
were  fomied,  and  the  work  extended  westward  of  tb« 
Alleghany  Mountains. 


UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST  a^ 

At  ■  conrennce  bekl  in  Ohio  in  I8U  it  irat  Kiolvcd 
to  call  ■  general  council  fcir  tbe  purpose  of  agreeing 
u[»n  anme  ayitein  uf  diKipline.  It  wm  *Ud  deler- 
luiiied  that  Che  mcmlieni  of  thia  cnuncil  ihouliJ  be  elect- 
ed from  among  the  preachen  hy  the  vine  of  the  people 
ihiuughnut  the  wtxila  Churcb.  Uudar  thia  order  the 
HrM  (ieneral  Ccnirereiiee  waa  euoveued  on  Jiue  S,  1815, 
atHo>ii>tPlea«iil,f>. 

II.  />uctr>ii«.— At  thia  omfetence  the  fallowing  aum- 
miry  of  doctriaea  waa  adopted,  and  remaina  uncbanged 
u>  tb«  prwCTl  time ; 

In  tba  uame  of  Qod,  we  declare  and  e<>nre»  heforv  all 
men  ihut  we  bellete  In  ibe  ouir  irn*  Ood,  iha  Father. 
(he  B<ni,  nliri  Iha  HolrGhoal:  IhaL  Iheae  three  art  oue— 
■lie  Paiher  In  the  Suo,  tbe  S.iii  lii  tbe  PuLher,  nud  the 
H"ij  Ohi>gl  eqaiil  In  Bnaaiice  nr  belutt  wtth  bulh;  thai 
ihia  triune  OihI  crenicd  (he  beaTen*  and  Ibe  eertb,  and 
all  Ibai  lu  Ihem  la,  Tlalble  aa  well  aa  Inrlrlble.  a»d  fnr- 
ihenrnire  anatalua,  gureriia,  prolvcu,  and  aiippuTU  tbe 

We  hellere  In  Jeans  Chrlal:  thai  be  la  Tsry  Ood  and 

Ohnetlolhe  Virgin  Mari|,RudwMh«ru»rberi  thHt  he 

la  Ibe  Savionr  nnd  Mediator  of  Iba  whole  hi n  race,  If 

thuj  with  Rill  faith  In  hlin  ao^pl  ihe  grace  imilTered  In 
Janna :  that  Ihia  Jeina  aalhred  and  died  mi  iha  cnm  tor 
us,  was  burled,  arose  again  on  the  tblrd  dai.  aacended 
iiilo  bMTBD,  and  eltielb  on  the  right  hand  of  0<-d.  to  lii- 


fulihfDl,  and  enlda-  them  Inio  alt  iniib. 

We  bellenelii  n  bolj  Uhrtallan  Chnnh.the  commnnlon 
of  >hIu[b,  tbe  raaurrcttluu  uf  tbe  bi-dr,  aud  life  evsrbui- 

Wb  bellBM  that  the  Holjr  Bible,  Old  and  New  Tcatamsnt, 
la  the  word  uf  tiod  i  thni  It  ciiiiiHlua  the  only  iroe  war  ■" 

kuowledRe  a"rd  recelTe  ll.  with  Ibe  luflu'eiin  of  the  Splrii 
ofOod.  aa  the  only  rate  and  KOlde;  and  Ibatwltbnoi  bitta 
In  Je»iii  Cbrlat,  Inie  rapeniaDcc^  fiirKlTaueH  of  sin*,  and 
following  after  Chrtai,  uo  one  can  b*  a  Ine  Christian. 
"-  -'-  ^elleve  that  what  la  cmlBlned  In  ■■■-  "-■- 
:o  nil,  the  fall  lu  Adam,  a  ' 
IS  Christ— shall  be  preached 

B  that  rfae  ordlnancea,  via,  baptism,  and  the 
reincmhriiiice  of  the  anffurluga  nnd  denlb  of  imr  Lord 
Jeans  C^rlat,  are  In  be  lii  use  and  pnctlced  bf  all  Chris- 
tbin  Bucltilaai  and  Ibat  ll  la  liienmbeiit  on  all  ibe  chil- 
dren of  Ood  particularly  to  practice  them:  hnl  Ihe  man- 
ner III  wblcb  oniilit  alwayi  to  be  lafl  In  Ibejndgnieut  and 
DiidersiaiidlniE  oferery  IndlTldnal.  Also  the  eiauipla  of 
washing  liHt  I  >  left  totbeladnmantofemruue,  U>  prac- 
tice oi  not;  but  it  la  not  heamilnii  Aw  anir  ofimr  pnach- 

ent  fnim  their  own,  either  In  pniillc  »r  priTsie.  WIiumi- 
eier  aball  make  hlmHirinlhj  lu  thia  respect  shall  be 
cunaldnred  a  irsdacer  of  hl>  breibien,  nud  ahall  be  au- 

III.  Orgataalion  imd  GoeemHftU. — The  polity  of 
the  Church  ia  outlined  by  the  following  coiulitution, 
eatabliahed  in  IStl ; 

We,  the  memhere  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Breth- 
ren In  Christ,  lu  Ihe  name  of  Ood,  do,  for  the  perl^nluE 
of  lbs  aalnls.  fi>r  the  work  oflhs  mlnfatry,  for  the  edlly- 
Iniflftbebnd*  nf  Cbrltt,  aa  Hall  aa  In  |in>dBCe  and  secure 
annlform  mndo  of  aetlnii.  In  ftilthand  practice,  also  to  d>^ 
flue  tbe  pnwenand  tbe  biialneM  of  quunerlT,  annual,  and 
)Eeneriilcnnlkrences,aaraco;ulsed  by  tbie  Cborcb,  urdaln 
the  follnwlngartlcleeof  eiii     ' 


1.  All  e< 
tnane  nr  repeal  ani  , ... 
eral  omference,  wblch 
the  niemliera  In  erery  cnnierence 
sncleiyi  pmtlried.  bnwetar.  rnch 
In  (hat  capacity  three  yean  lu  ll 
which  Ihey  be'- — 


I  In  a  gen 
elect  so  b] 


ft,  iSeneral  Confarei 


Lo  be  held  every  four  j 


M  considered  members 

I  cnnlkrence  shall  nlao 
fall  the  elders  allGible 


i  1.  The  Reneral  OnntlMVnce  aball  define  lb 

I  i.  Ilie  Oeneral  Cnorereiire  shall,  at  ersry  session,  ele< 
bluhope  from  amnuK  the  eldera  thronghout  the  Chnrc 
who  hnTC  stood  ali  years  In  that  catiacliy. 
■  >.  Tbe  bnalneea  of  each  annual  conference  shall  h 
ir  atrlctly  according  to  Dlaclpllne;  and  any  annnn 
' — " —  - "■ —  -"""  '>ylmpeacli 


)  UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST 

(  *.  No  rule  nr  ordinance  shall  at  any  Ume  be  passed 
in  Fhsuge  ..r  do  away  the  Cnfewloii  ,J  Falih  as  It  ii..w 

npoH  Ihe  rights  nf  any  as  ll  rrlalea  to  tbe  mode  of  hap- 
l^m.  the  sacrDnieni  of  Ihe  Luid'a  aupper,  or  the  Hashinf 

rule  nnde  Ihat  will  deprlse  local 
«  wtlh  eecrel  enrnbin*- 


I  (.  Them  shall 
imicberm  nf  tbe 

I  T,  There  Kha 
Ta.  The  r 


niolnatary  servliode  ba  toleraled  la 

illheltiTloIale. 


iialftad  by 


le  rlgtat  oTapiieal  ah 

«rt.lII.7Se  right.  tlile,li.>< 
ert)',wheihgroiUBUilngln  lou 
legacies,  bequests,  or  donation 

purchase  or  otherwise,  by  ani  iRrpoo  ur  urmior,  i't  im 
nrr.  beiiefll,  nud  behoof  iit  Ihe  Church  -.f  the  United 
Bretbren  In  Chrlsl,  are  hereby  mily  reovjulsed  and  held  to 
be  the  uroperty  of  the  Cburch  afuresaliL 

Art.  IV.  There  aball  be  nn  alteratliui  of  tbe  ForeiaioK 
consilinilon  unless  by  reqaeat  of  two  thirds  of  tbe  abulc 

Hembersbip  in  the  Cbnrcb  ii  conditioned  upon  a  b«> 
lief  in  Ibe  Bible  aa  Ihe  Word  ofdod,  the  expenence  iif 
pardon  nf  ains,  ■  determination  by  grace  and  a  (coud  Ule 
to  save  the  auul,  and  a  pledge  to  ober  the  diacipliH  vT 
tbe  Church. 

Only  one  order  or  minittera  ia  recnf^ised  lir  tfie 
Church,  vit.  that  of  eldcn.    The  biabopa  of  Ihe  Ciiurch 


KiroT 


n  of  fuui 


super- 


intendenta  of  the  whole  Held. 

Her  ecclesiaatical  bodiea  conaiit  of  official  bnard^ 
qaanerly,  annual,  and  general  conlerencea.  The  lalirr 
meet  quadrennially.  Her  officera  are,  au|>eTinteiidcnli 
or  Sabbat  h-echoolai  alewanla,who  attend  tn  iheflnancea 
of  the  churches;  claas-leadera,  or  aubpaslon.  who  bare 
charge  ofclaasea  For  afriritiial  instruction  anil  wunhip; 
preacher*  in  charge,  who  have  tbe  pastoral  care  of  a 
misainn,  circuit,  or  station;  prtelding  elders,  whi>  ira 
elected  hy  tbe  Annual  Conference  from  among  the  vt- 
dained  eldera,  and  who  travel  over  a  certain  number  of 
fields  of  lebur,  preaide  at  the  quarterly  conrerencf*,  and 
ace  that  all  the  laboren  in  their  reapectii^  dixticta 
faithfully  perform  their  duties ;  and  biahopi,  or  Reneral 
auperintendenta  of  the  whole  Church,  who  preude  at  all 
the  annual  and  general  conferencea. 

The  method  irf'aupplying  the  churches  nf  the  denooii- 
nation  with  paatoia  ia  that  kuown  as  "ihe  iiinemt 
Byuem."  Paslor*  in  charge  an  subject  to  rrtnoTal  nr 
reappointment  at  Ihe  end  of  each  oanfertnce  year  by  ■ 
committee  constituted  by  the  Annual  Conference,  cob- 
poaed  of  the  bishop,  the  presiding  elders  of  the  past  and 
Ihe  present  year,  and  an  equal  number  of  local  elder* 
or  preachers.  A  minister  cannot  remain  in  Ihe  aame 
charge  more  than  three  rears,  except  bv  the  CDosent  of 
two  thirds  nf  the  memlien  of  ihe  Annual  Conlereac*. 

Presiding  elden  have  no  limit  aa  to  the  time  tbey 
may  aerve  on  a  dialrici,  subject  only  In  ihe  option  of 
the  Annual  Coiiference.  Kahope  may  be  rep^lected 
everr  four  years  itidrflnitelv  hi-  the  General  Onfrimcr. 

The  General  <;onrerence  of  IH7T  made  prorision  flv  lay 
representation  in  the  annual  conferences, leaving  it  to  tba 
will  of  the  several  annual  cnnferences  to  accept  or  not. 

and  its  inlroduDlion  is  believed  tn  be  advantageous. 

IV.  A'linkra,  Oprmiiotu,  and  SpAtre. — The  aiatiwic* 
of  the  denomination  in  INiy  show  i9  annual  eonfrr- 
eiKea,Smiuinndiatricta,lia5  mini9tera,436&  organiied 
churcliea,  HiMl  meoibera,  12728  hiHiacs  of  worship.  Ut 
parsunagea.  3IIJ2  Sabbath,  schools,  !13,009  «ffic«n%  teach- 
ers, anil  scholan  in  Sabbat h-achoula.  During  the  \tu 
1879  the  Church  contributed  for  Ihe  support  uf  theUus- 
pel  and  for  cniinsclional  purpoeea  4>96i.023.61. 

During  the  pail  thirty  years  the  denominalion  haa 
been  active  in  the  ediicatinnal  wnrk,  and  has  now  (nor. 
Iven  cnllei;rs  and  eeminaries  and  one  theological  scbnoL 
Tbe  latter  ia  li-calnl  at  Daylon,  <).,  and  wholly  under 
the  management  of  the  Genend  Osiference. 

I'he  Miaaionary  Society  of  the  Choreh  ia  tbomdgtily 
organiaed,  and  aiuce  its  origin,  in  1S&3,  baa  gttberH 


UNITED  CHRISTIANS  (119  UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHUKCH 


■nd  expended  for  the  iprud  of  Ihe  Uoipel  narW  two 
millinDi  ordollin.  Th«  miuinnarie*  of  ibe  Churcb  arc 
KitwrHl  aver  miny  portion!  of  Ihe  Uniud  Stale*  lud 
Urcilariu,  in  C»n«il«,  (ierraany,  wid  Wntcm  Afriu. 
There  are  in  tbe  fareiKn  work  68,  in  the  Crunlier  de- 


it  140.  ■! 


aiW 


m  olabliihrd  in 


A  Women*!  Hiioiaiuiy  Sodetj 
'  18(7,  and  hai  IbuiMled  one  miawon  in  iiemiany  ana  one 
inAfricL 

A  Obnrch  Erection  Society  wm  otguiivd  in  IBSS  by 
the  General  Conrerence.  The  object  of  tbia  oigaaiia' 
tion  i«  lo  aid  feeble  churchei  in  erecting  houiea  of  wor- 
■hip.  Already  many  eongregitioDi  bare  been  aaaiated 
by  funda  raiaed  by  tbii  aociety. 

A  Sabbath- acbool  Aiaociation  iraa  catabliahed  in 
1869.  and  galhera  by  aystenatic  annual  collecciun*  a 
liberal  aum  each  year  to  aid  Hiaainn  Sabbath -achooli 
in  all  parta  of  tbe  denomination  and  in  heathen  landi. 
The  Church  i>  deeply  jnlereatcd  in  Ihe  work  of  aaving 

belli  fnimi  them. 

The  liieraiure  of  the  Church  ia  fouiHl  chiefly  in  atric^ 
1y  denominational  booki  and  periodicals  It  haaa  putK 
luhinft  bouM  at  Dayton,  On  under  the  superviiinn  of 
Iba  General  Conference.  Ita  net  capital  on  Iha  lu  ol 
April,  ISM),  waJ>  «IM,e06.IO.  It  ii  out  uf  debt,  and  baa 
a  hanilKima  balance  of  caah  in  tbe  treaauri'.  Il*  pe- 
liiNlical  literature  iaof  a  hiKh  moral  lone,  and  Cfimpares 
wdl  with  the  beat  of  ita  kind  ererywhera.  Tbe  houte 
iiMia  ten  perindicala,  with  an  average  aggregate  cir- 
culation n(  I7i,no0  cnpiea. 

The  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Chriat  is  not 
an  oSahnot  of  any  other  Church  or  chiirchea,  but  beata 
the  impreaa  of  a  providential  upraijdng  fur  the  accom- 
pljibmeiit  of  a  apecial  miaaian.  It  preaenli  no  new  doo- 
iriue,  and  is  dislinguiahcd  mnatlj  an  an  organiiation  in 
which  the  miniatry  and  people  have  an  equal  propor' 
tiun  of  power,  and  the  rulen  hold  ofEce  only  by  the 
authority  and  conaent  uf  tbe  gnvfmed.  Ita  hiatory  hat 
been  marked  by  radical  reformatory  ideaa.  which  have 
duubclea*  in  aume  degree  relarded  iu  growth  in  num- 
"        '  iling  drinka  a>  a  bev- 


"•g^ 


iding  n 


baa  been  mainly  among  tbe  niral 

lawL     Ita  miniuera  and  people  or 

n  the  old  landmarki  of  a  vital  ai 


Ita  Held  thua  far 


jng  upwi  1. 


■  oftt 


I  experimental  rc- 


hidy  beait  and  life.     (W.  J.  S.) 

Unitsd  Cbriatlaiu  or  St.  Thoxas,  a  bndy  of 
Eaat  Indian  Roman  Calhntica,  chiefly  found  in  Travan- 
core,  at  the  aouthem  extremity  of  India.  In  I6t>9  Ihe 
Synod  of  Dlamper  (Udiampenwr)  eompelleil  the  an- 
dent  Church  of  St.  Tboniaa  ChriMiana  to  conform  to 
the  Church  of  Rome,  conceilini  to  them  a  moilem 
Syrian  rite.  In  16S3  nearly  all  fell  away,  but  were 
•uoa  after  induced  in  great  numbers  to  return,  chief- 
ly by  tbe  labora  of  the  Barefooted  Carmelilea.  At 
pteaent  more  than  one  half  are  of  the  I^lin  rite,  but  a 
portion  reuiii  the  Oriental  rile.  They  are  chiefly  In 
the  vicariate  apnatoljc  of  Verapoti  (Latin  rite),  refH-rted 
in  1868  ai  having  195  prieau  ami  2S3,000  membera. 
See  Thomu  (9T.),CHuaTiA!M  of. 

Onltad  Copta  are  thoae  who,  aince  ITS!,  have  ac- 
■cknowleilged  the  authority  oT  the  pope.  They  are  of 
two  rit« — the  Egyptian,  and  the  EthiniHc  or  Abyaain- 
ian-.and  in  Egypt  Ihey  number  13,000.  tn  1865  Ihe 
pope  appoiiiWil  one  of  their  prieau  vicar  apoalolic  and 
biihnp  u  piirlitui.     See  CopTi. 

Unltad  BTanK«llo>l  Churoh,  a  denomi nation 
in  Germany,  funned  in  1817  by  a  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  RafarBied  churchea.  Allempta  at  uniting  Iheae 
cburehaawere  madeaa  early  a*  1529,  whan  leading  Ihe- 
ologianB  of  both  achoula  held  a  conference  at  Marburg. 
Other  eaofersucea  wen  held  K  Leipaic  in  1631,  and  at . 
X.-21* 


Caaael  in  1661.  In  1703  Frederick  I  of  PruaaU  con- 
vened aeveral  Lutheran  and  Rrfurnied  Ihtnlngimi  at 
Berlin  lo  diacuaa  the  practicability  of  a  union,  but  waa 
aucceaarullv  oppoaed  bv  tbe  Lutheran  clergymen.  A 
"  l-lan  of  Union,"  piupiwd  by  iUemm  and  Pfaff,  Iheulo- 
giaiiB  of  Tubingen  (1710-*!),  met  with  little  favor. 
About  tbe  beginning  of  Ihe  ISth  century,  however,  a 
voluntary  union  of  tbe  two  communiliei  wy  ealabliabed 
in  Bome  part*  of  South  Pnuaia,  which  extended  in  IMOo 
to  many  cungregationa  at  Galognc,  Wntiburg,  and  Hn- 
nicb.  In  1810,  king  Frederick  William  look  up  the 
aubjed  warmly,  and  in  I8U  drew  up,  chieHy  with  bia 
own  bandi,  a  liiurgy,  which  wa*  adopted  in  the  Koyal 
Chapel,  and  aulbiir'ized  Hit  uae  elaewhere.  A  royal  pri«- 
lamaciuu  fuUowed,  ilated  Sept.  21, 1817,  in  which  the 
kiiigrequeateil  the  Lutberaniand  the  Kefurmed  thnnigh- 


preaaed  h: 
tionuflhi 


in  of  taking  pan  in 


nity,  a 


Rerormation.  A  aynod  aaMmblol  on  Oct.  1  at  Broilau, 
and  Biiolfaer  aubaequently  at  Beriin:  both  of  them  read- 
ten  and  laity  throughout  Vruasia.     A  general  oaaent 

the  king,  vitOcLBl,  and  not  long  after  it  waa  ordered 
that  Ihe  diatincttve  namea  "Liiiherairand"lteformed'' 
ahoiild  bediButedinallofHcialdi>cumenls,and  the  Unil- 
eil  Evangelical  Churcb  atone  recogniaed  aa  the  naiional 
religion.  It  anon  qiread  beyond  the  boundariea  of  Prua- 
aia,  and  waa  adopted  in  Naoaau.  Hanover,  and  Bavaria 
in  leiS,  in  Heaae-Caaael  in  18-22,  and  in  Wllnemberg 
in  18S7:  but  il  did  not  extend  either  lo  Latheran  Aud- 
tria,  on  the  one  band,  or  to  Calviniatic  Switzerland,  on 
the  other.  Even  in  Pruaaia  the  reviaed  Service-book 
which  the  king  aet  fiirth  in  18S1  waa  rejected  by  many 
congngaiiona,  and  uniformity  waa  far  from  being  eatab- 
liahed  even  within  the  buunda  of  tbe  uniled  bndy.  On 
June  i&,  leSO.thekingdirectad  that  the  Service-book 
ahould  be  need  in  all  chnrches;  but  a  number  of  the 
Lutheran  clergy  refuaeil  to  adopt  it,  and  were  auapend- 
ed,  aone  of  tbem  being  ueatad  with  great  aeverity,  and 

Three  partiea  arooe  in  Ihe  Church.  One,  generally 
called  the  Confeileraltata,  under  the  leoderahip  of  Prof. 
HengaUnberg  and  Dr.Stahl,  maintained  that  the  union 
conaiaied  in  a  mere  exiemid  cnnfederaiion  and  anl^eo- 
liun  to  the  oaine  general  Church  government;  and  that 
individual  churchea  remained  Lutheran,  ReforiDed, 
naind  panv,  commonly  called  the  Cno- 


orUi 


aenauB  party,  took  for  lU  doctrrnal  basis  the  Bible  and 
the  common  dogmaa  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  con- 
fesHona,  Il  controlled  the  theological  facutliai  of  tnoac 
of  Ihe  universitiea,  and  had  among  ita  leading  men 
NilZKh,  Twt-Men,  HulTmann,  Niedner,  Tb.iluck.  Julius 
Mnller,Jaoabi,  Domer,  Langp,Stter,HeTiog,audI{nIha. 
The  ihinl,  or  Union,  party  rejecled  the  authoriutive 
cbaracler  of  ihe  old  aymbolic^  book*  of  both  the  Lii- 
thenn  and  Ihe  Reformed  denomination,  and  baaed  them- 
selvea  on  the  Bible  umply,  claiming,  at  Ihe  same  time, 
Ihe  right  of  subjecting  the  autbeniicily  of  Ihe  Old  and 
Kew  Testa,  to  critical  examinaiinn.  This  party  includ- 
ed nuiny  irftbadjaciple*  of  TUlMiigen,  and  liberal  divinaa 
of  different  ahailes  of  uiduion. 

The  persecution  of  the  "Old  Lulhenns"  waa  kept  up 
until  Ihe  death  of  Fietlrrick  Williaoi.    A  milder  policy 

and  in  1846  tbe  Old  Lutheran*  were  alh)wed  to  organiie 
into  a  separate  communily,  but  did  not  receive  any 
afaant  of  the  public  funda.  In  1878  lawa  were  paned 
aubttituting  the  principle  of  ecdesiatlicol  self-gorern- 
ment  fur  that  of  the  conaiatoriol  administralinn  thereto- 
fore exerciaed  by  the  Slate.  In  January  and  February, 
167a.  provincial  synods  met  in  all  tbe  eight  old  prov. 
incca  of  Pruasia,  and  in  November  and  December  an  ex- 
iranrdinary  general  aynod  met  at  Beriin,  lo  make  all 
tporalioos  for  a  transfer  of  the  government 


UNITED  METHODIST  OHURCH  650  UNITED  SOCIETY  OF  BELIEVERS 


•f  rb«  Church  to  a  i«guUr  genenl  ajnod.  United 
EvMigeli™!  ehunhea  were  iIh  formeii  ill  other  Get- 
man  auies;  in  Nuuu,lHI7;  ihe  Baviiian  I^Utinite, 
18l8iBaden,ltt^l;aii>liiiWUrtetnberg,  1827.  In  Au>- 
(m  and  France  a  riuioD  of  tho  Lulbetan  and  RefuTmeil 
eburche*  baa  el»  many  rrieniti,  but  nothing  pracueal 
haa  been  a«  yet  accompliabcd.  In  the  United  Scata 
a  branch  of  the  United  ETaugelical  Charch  wa*  caMb- 
liibed  at  8t.LouiB  in  1840,  when  aix  German  miniMera 
organ  iied  an  eccleaiaiucal  body  called  Ktangducter  Kir- 
diamerm  da  Wutrm  (Evangelical  Churcb-Uoion  of 
the  M'ew).  Thia  body,  in  1856,  naa  divided  into  three 
diitricta,  and  in  1866  changed  ita  Dame  to  "German 
Evangelical  Synod  of  the  Wnt."  In  t8S4  it  reported, 
at  the  GeiienlAMembly  behl  in  Lnniaville,aa  fuilom 


im     I      MM     I     cn.onn     labonlisn.ontl  al 


TMia  tVifitf  Uh 


Another  branch  aP  the  United  Evangelical  Church  waa 
Gonuituted  in  1848,  under  the  name  of  "  Evangdical 
Synod  ur  North  Aracrica."  In  May,  1869,  it  aplit  into 
two  independent  bodiea,  one  of  which  amimed  thenamo 
"  United  Evangelical  Synod  of  the  Norlh-weat,'  and  the 
other "  United  Evangelical  Synod  of  the  Eait."  Both 
of  them  united  in  187:2  with  the"Geraian  Evangelical 
Synod  of  the  Weat,"c<itiMtt(iting  the  Tounh  and  tilth  di>- 
iricu  of  thia  biidy.  In  1874  the  Church  wai  rtilialrict- 
ed  by  the  General  Cunlerence  held  in  Iniiianapolii  into 
■even  particular  eyiuHU.  It  then  numbered  about  SOO 
minittert  and  40,000  cummunicanu.  The  Church  haa 
a  theological  Mmiiiarv  in  Warren  County,  Mo.;  ai 
er  educational  institution  at  EInthunU,  III;  and  three 
denominational  papera.   Sii!t'Ban»ai,Sigtu<^lht  Timet  i 


to  eatabliab  a  theological  aeminary.  Tbe  Wealeyan 
Methodiat  AHociitioii  retained  iti  aeparate  identity  till 
1867,  when,  by  aniling  with  the  Wealeyan 
became  merged  in  the  United  Methodiat  Free  cl 
The  union  waa  oompleted,  and  tbe  name  adnpied,  in  tbe 
town  of  Rochdale.  Thia  body  is  the  third  in  numerical 
impoctance  of  Engliah  Hejhodiat  denominationa,  having 
its  aaat  principally  in  England.  Only  tbrt«  nf  ita  cii- 
Guita  are  in  Scotland,  and  it  haa  no  Ibming  in  Ireland, 
It  haa  miaainnaiy  stations  in  Jamaica,  Ticloria,  Queen*- 
land.  New  Zealaitd,  Eaatem  Africa,  and  China. 

The  CDuatitution  of  the  body  it  democratic,  the  mem- 
bera  of  ita  annual  aasembly  lieing  freely  cbuaeii  reprr- 

nal  affiun  of  circuiia,  [hey  being  independent,  except  on 
matlera  i>f  connectional  import.    I'he  home  cimiii*  are 

wield  any  important  functimie.  The  Tarioua  Khemca, 
funda,and  inaiiluiions  of  the  tmly  are  intnuled  during 
the  year  tu  cnmmiitees  which  are,  fur  ibe  moa)  pan, 
elected  hnnnally.  It  ia  no  Kilh  the  Cuuiecliiinal  Cmn- 
mitiee  (which  may  be  regarded  as  the  executive  of  the 
biidy),  with  the  Foreign  Hla^onary  Cuoimittee,  the 
Chape]  FutHl  Committee,  Che  SuperannDaiionCommil  tee, 
and  the Book-romD Committee.  AahviUeCullegeiigor. 
enied  by  a  bod)'  of  iruateea  elected  foi  life,  and  a  eita- 
mittee  of  six  elected  fur  three  yean,  but  au  arrangeil 
that  two  retire  eM;h  year.  The  Theological  Imtitufe 
is  goreriied  by  a  biHly  of  truateea  elected  for  life,  and 
nine  other*  cbnaen  ainiually.  The  connectional  officen 
are  the  praiilent  of  the  aaaembiy,  the  conneciinnal  aer- 
reiBiy,  the  connertioital  treasurer,  at 


i  their  alatiatical  report  abowed  aa  fuUowa : 


UlT 


I  Tii,an  I 


I    \Wt   I  KKWI   I  1W.WI 


Heriiig,l7McticAte  d/r  Urcklidim  Uinxurrrmckt  (l.eipa. 
ItlB6-SS,  2  vnlk);  Kahnia,  IliH.  Grrm.  Pmlalimlitm : 
Muller,  />«  maiffitiicie  Unixi  (Leipa.  l8A4)t  Nitiwh, 
Urtlmllnbuc^  der  tttangtliidtm  UtAm  (Boim.  1863); 
Schaff.Cenixny,  iU  TArofi^, etc  (PhiLI857);  Suhl,Ue 
Uikfritdit  Kircht  uwJ  d^  UrAm  (Berlin,  1H58). 

XTnited  Motfaodlat  Fre«  Cbnrch,  an  English 
blanch  q(  the  Methudtau  which  was  formed  in  IHoi, 
when  the  Wesleyan  Methodiat  Aaaociation  and  the 
larger  portion  of  Wesleyan  Keformera  atnalgamateil. 
The  origin  of  thia  Chuidi  daiea  back  to  18:17,  when 

BKCESSION  OR  ASSOCIATE  8TN0D. 


See  Simpnn,  CjcA'p.n/Jferioclum.a.T.     See  Htra- 

Ot>IBl<,  8. 

tTnlted  IT«stotlaD&      See  Chauwaiu;  Nia- 
XTnlted  Original  S«c«aara.     See  PsKaBrrs- 

ta/kS  CUUBCHBB,  h. 

United  FreBbrtorian  Cburch.  The  gene*. 
logical  deacent  of  the  eiiwing  bnly  may  be  beat  es- 
hibitai  by  the  fnllowing  pedigree  [see  Vaaaamaaxa 
Ciii;iiCHi£B,!,14]: 


A.D.iisa. 


A.l>.  1T4«. 


»G 


71.. 


l-llEhl  fenrghera.  New-light  llnrgbare,       ~t       Kew-llsht  Aniihnrghen, 

I.D.  ITM.  ATD.  ItW.  A.D.  IMM. 

Relief  =  United  Seceulon,  PmiM'era, 

Sepnnilcd  from  A.D.  ISiO.  AD.ISH, 

BcoUlah  B-t«bll«h-  „  ^  I   , 

nienl,A.D.  IIM,  Morlimnlana, 

J  A.D.  IMl. 

Cnliad  Freahyterlana, 


=        01d-»aht  AuilbargbCTa. 


A.D.  IS4T. 


Orlgfna 


Oriidn 


SflCeders 


trouble  arose  in  Leeda  in 
of  an  organ  into  Uninawi 
tbe  organiaation  of  the  )*i 
a  aeparate  existence  until  18)16,  when 
merged  in  tbe  denomination  formed  in  tnat  yeai 
known  anbeeqiKnlly  aa  the  Wcsleran  Methodbt 
ciation.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the  formatii 
the  latter  body  was  the  detcrmini 


,lna1  B^l^ehe^^      = 

A.l>.  1S3S.  repreHntlng  A»nclate 

I  STDrKtofA.D.lTS.1. 

Unlled  Orlglnnl  Secoder-,  A.D,  l«*n. 

irge  portion  Jiiiued  the  Free  Kirk,  ItM, 

Ihe  introdudinn       Unltsd  Bece*sioD  Cboroh.  Th^  waa  Ibmed  in 

ChapeL     This  resulted  in    Scotland  in  IBVOby  a  reunion  of  the  Awiciaie  (or  Bw^ 

Methodists,  who  hsd   ghera)  and  the  General  AHOciate(orAnltburgb^}S>'Tk- 

od.     In  1847  it  waa  united  to  tbe  preaent  United  Pn»- 


byterii 


I  Church. 


UNITED  STATES  6i 

Unttod  Statas  or  Amkric.v  ii  ihs  full  title  of 
the  priudpil  lutiun  nu  lh«  WeMern  continent,  oocupr- 
in);  the  whulc  central  portion  of  North  Amrrici.  See 
Ahiuica.  Id  thi*  article  we  propo«e  to  tn*t  our  coun- 
try oolf  in  iu  geoenl  religioui  upecu,  leaving  in  oth- 
er letliuts  to  tbs  Mcular  cvclopntliu.  Fur  the  rvlig- 
iou  belief!  uid  nualonn  of  the  kborigioet,  net  lnoiAna 
(NoKTH  Amuucah). 

L  dan*  Hwtorj,  — 1,  RiSgioia  Ckaradtr  of  tk» 
Orifmal  SrateTt.—Sati  Eiigiaiid  wu  originally  eettled 
bf  the  Puritana  (q.  v.)  rnim  England.  The«  were  a 
Uaml  of  diaeenteri  rnrni  the  faith  anJ  practice  of  the 
Ewabliaheil  Church  of  EnglaiiJ  who  were  pamcuted 


ingrar 


■aful  a 


at  departure,  flnallf  set  nut  from  the  coaM  of  Liocoln- 
■bin  in  the  apring  of  1606  fur  Uoliand.  They  reached 
AtDMenlaiD  in  aafety,  where  they  paaaed  one  winter; 
aid  then  remoTcd  tii  LeyJen.  Here  tbey  enjoyed  thai 
rdigiaua  liberty  fur  which  tbey  were  neking ;  but  they 


ange  pi 


Mill  warm  in  their  hearta  notwitheiamling  their  pem- 
tation  at  liame,  aiul  during  the  ten  yearn  they  remain- 
ed in  Holland  they  became  thoruughly  anxiuua  to  re- 
turn to  the  allegiance  of  their  mother  country.  With 
ihii  deaire  in  their  heana,  they  aeut  Jnhn  Carrer  and 
Hubert  Cuahman  to  Engliiul  to  a^  peiminnn  at  the 
goTerntnent  fur  the  Pilgrim*  at  Leyden  to  wttle  in 
America.      After  Biinie  heaitatiim  on  tbe  part  of  the 

IB  infiinoal  promiM  tliat  he  would  not  dioturh  them  in 
Aaerica  if  they  ibuuld  decide  to  gii  there.  Arrange- 
menta  were  completed  fur  their  remoral  to  America, 
and  they  landed  on  Plymnuth  Ruck  on  Uoiiilay,  Dec 
11  (old  atyle),  1610.  Their  arrival  occurred  in  the 
dead  of  winter,  and  they  were  obliged  duritig  the  long 
and  (erere  naauo  that  fullinred  to  undergo  great  prira- 
ticia  ami  Buffering,  Diiieaaea  eneendereiL  by  the  rigon 
of  the  elimatc  awept  away  one  half  of  their  number. 
But  the  apirit  which  had  brought  the  Pilgrim  Fathert 
to  New  Knglaod  cauied  them  to  remain  undaunted  by 
oppnatiun,  frum  whaterei  source.  Thew  ware  a  vigor- 
all  quaattoni  uf  moralt  and  religion.  They  took  poaae*. 
sm  of  tbe  new  country  and  bold  iL  They  iiicreaaed 
ii  number  anrl  gradually  extended  their  border*  over 
our  prearat  New  England,  and  became  aa  aealoua  fur 
their  religion  a*  had  been  the  Engliab  government  be- 
liife  they  left  Engbnd.  If  the  Church  waa  not  under 
the  Dontrul  nf  the  State,  the  Slata  waa  under  the  control 
of  the  Church  (  for  a  man  could  not  hold  nfflce  except 
he  were  a  member  of  the  Church;  and  religion  lay  at 
the  haai*  of  their  political  ^atem.  Nutwiihatanding 
their  own  Utter  experience  in  their  nlil  bume.  they 
were  intoleiant  of  all  diiaent  in  their  new  abode,  and 

Bgainit  •o-calleil  heretic*.  Pi iritaniun,  however,  ha* 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  fur  gaud  in  the  develop- 
ment of  AoMrican  ingiitutiviia  by  bulding  out  ilernly 
Im  the  light  in  government  a*  well  at  in  private  life. 

Rhode  taland  waa  lettleil  originally  bv  the  Baptista, 
tillDwer*  of  Ruger  WiUiama  (q.  v.).  In  163«,  along 
with  a  few  eompaniont,  Roger  Willienis,  aeeking  fut 
a  lefuge  beyond  the  limit*  of  the  Plynoutb  colony, 
{uuDded  Providence  Plantation,  and  made  it  a  reanrt 
tut  all  the  diatreaaed  and  penecuted  of  whatever  name 
or  bith.  Nutwittutanding  (hi*  liberality  on  the  part 
of  the  rounder,  tbe  colony  wai  •etlled  chiefly  Uy  thoee 
of  the  Baptiat  eninniunion. 

ConneOicui  waa  coiiteated  ground  between  the  Eng- 
liab ■cttlen  of  PlynMiuth  and  the  Dutch  of  New  Neth- 
iilanda.  The  Dutch,  llnding  that  the  Englith  were 
about  to  ealablisb  a  oilnny  in  the  valley  of  the  Om- 
nclicul  River,  built  a  fort  at  Hartford  called  the  Huuie 


il  UNITED  STATES 

of  Good  Hope;  but  thia  wu  not  regarded  by  the  Eng- 
liah  a>  of  any  right  belonging  In  the  Dutch,  and  they 
proceeded  to  lettle  the  a>uiitry  from  Plymouth.  In 
i6BA  a  colony  of  aiity  peraona  left  Boeton  fur  Connect- 
icut, where  thev  arrived  in  due  time,  and  aettleil  at 
Hartford,  Windaor,  and  Wethenfield.  A  little  later 
other  aettlenient*  were  foniked,  and  in  1639  the  tesiliiig 
men  of  New  Haven  adopted  the  Kble  a*  their  political 
conatitution.  At  the  Kcatoraliun  in  England,  Cunnect- 
icut  obtained  a  iu3ral  charter,  and  thua  became  a  cnlo* 
ny  free  and  independent  in  all  except  ilie  name.  Pu- 
ritan inHuenea  wa*  in  the  ascendency,  and  tbe  colony 
enjoyed  great  proaperily  and  freedom  from  invaiion. 

New  York  waa  aeiiled  originally  by  the  Dutch  aa  a 
trading-poU.  A  colony  wa*  planted  on  Manhattan 
Iibtnd  (tbe  preaent  aite  of  New  York  city),  and  the 
vilhige  wai  called  New  Amaterdam.  In  16:01  a  eontid- 
erahie  addition  wu  made  to  the  number*  of  tbe  colony 
hy  the  arrival  of  thirty  families  of  Dutch  Protealaiit 
refugeca  from  Flandera,  called  Wallooiu.  Tbey  came 
to  America  to  eacapa  the  peraecution*  which  they  had 
to  undet^  at  home.  The  aetllementa  were  extended 
rapidly,  even  to  the  preaent  lite  of  Albany.  In  IB'iti 
Manhattan  laland  wa*  purchaaed  from  the  Indian*  for 
larnif-four  dMirt.  There  wa*  a  bond  of  aympathv 
between  the  Walloona  and  the  Pilgrim*  of  llymoutb 
in  that  they  were  alike  refugee*  from  persecution  at 
home,  and,  furthermore,  tbe  Kngliih  remembered  their 
kind  treatment  in  llolUnd.  Viiit*  were  exchanged  and 
a  friendly  inteiooutae  waa  kept  up.  Tbe  Englisb  noti- 
fled  their  neighbora  of  their  own  claim  to  the  territory 
of  th«  Hudson,  and  advited  tbero  to  make  good  tbeir 
title*  by  accepting  deed*  fmm  the  council  uf  Plymouth. 
In  1664  the  Dutch  power  in  America  waa  complete- 
ly broken.  All  the  tetritory  poaamml  by  Holland  in 
this  coutitry  had  been  granted  by  Charle*  II  to  hi* 
brother  Jamea,  duke  of  York,  whn  made  baile  to  ie- 
cnre  the  land  thu*  granted.  A  *i|iiadrDn  was  sent 
against  New  Netherlands,  and  eawly  aubdued  the  coun- 
try. Thereafter  the  country  ami  citv  paaaod  under 
the  natne  of  New  Yorii.  English  aettten  were  brought 
in.  but  they  lived  at  peace  with  tbe  Dutch;  even  the 
strife*  of  the  two  home  gnveniment*  falleil  to  embroil 
the  colouiata  of  New  York  in  a  couteat.  From  the  time 
nf  the  Engliab  conquest  of  the  territoty,  the  Ei^acopal 
Church  waa  eatabliahed  hy  law,  and  wa*  suppocted  by 
the  usual  taxation  and  granta  of  land.  Trace*  of  both 
the  Dutch  and  Engliab  forms  of  worship  are  abundant 
in  New  York  at  the  present  time.  (Dutch)  Reformed 
chuichea  anil  societies  are  numeroua,  aa  also  are  tbe 
Protsatant  EpiacopaL 

New  Jersey  wa*  at  flrat  a  part  of  Hew  Netherlands, 
and  was  settled  by  the  Dutch,  especially  in  the  nnrtb- 
em  pan  ill  the  vicinity  of  New  Amaterdam  (New  York). 
But,  on  the  reduction  of  the  Dutch  power  to  snbmiaaiuii 
to  the  English,  that  portion  of  the  Wrritury  likewise 
passed  under  the  ountrul  of  the  duke  of  York.  It  was 
awigneil,  however,  to  lord  Berkeley  and  3ir  George  Car- 
teret. A  liberal  government  waa  provided,  and  in  the 
flrat  aasembly,  held  in  1668,  tbe  Puritans  were  in  the 
aacenilency,  and  the  customs  of  New  England  were 
largely  adopted  in  New  Jersey.  In  1670  the  colony 
was  divided  into  two  aectjona  by  a  line  starting  at 
the  southern  point  of  land  on  the  east  aide  of  Lit- 
tle Egg  Harbor,  and  extccMling  north-iutTthwest  to  a 
p-iint  on  the  Delaware  River  in  latitude  41°  40'. 
The  territory  lying  east  of  thi*  line  was  to  be  known 
a*  Ea*t  Jersey,  and  remain  under  the  cinitrol  of  Sir 
(ieorge  Carteret:  while  that  lying  between  the  line 
atid  the  Delaware  waa  called  West  Jersev,  and  had 
been  assigned  to  certain  Quakers  (William'  Penn  and 
others)  in  tni*t  for  Edward  Byllinge.  The  wvatern 
section,  being  under  the  control  uf  the  Quakers,  be- 
came a  place  uf  refuge  for  the  persecuted  of  that  name. 

Many  Friend*  fmind  home*  here,  and  — ■-—' 1 

pmaperity.     In  l6Hi  William  Penn 
Quakers  purchaaed  the  territory  of 


UNITED  STATES  6i 

the  hein  of  Sir  Gco^e  Carteret,  anil  eKleniled  their 
control  aver  the  whole  province.  Robert  Barclay,  in 
eminent  Seutch  Quaker,  waa  ctamen  govenioi  Tiir  life, 
and  conunued  to  adminiacer  the  goveriinDeni  until  1690, 
when  he  died.  During  thi*  peri'id  East  Jersey  received 
a  large  acceaaioii  of  Scotch  Quakers,  and  a  eiill  larger 
■cccHJon  of  Scotch  FmbyCeriana.  The  narthem  aec- 
lion  of  the  atate  retainaa  Urge  namber  of  the  tiilkmen 
of  the  early  Uutch  Proteatanis,  while  the  cjntral  and 
■nulbem  purtion*  have  the  deaceudants  of  the  Scotch 
tjnakera  and  Preabyteriana. 

William  Peim  (q.  v.)  wa*  greatly  pleasMi  with  the 
aucceaa  of  the  Quaker  cnloniea  in  New  Jersey,  and  form' 
ed  the  project  uf  eHablinhing  a  fr«  slate  on  the  bauks 
of  ihe  IMaware,  founded  on  the  principle  of  universal 
brotherhood.    After  a  vigorous  effort,  seconded  by  pnw- 

1681  by  which  he  became  pruprielar  of  Pennaylvt 


t*  Hocked  ic 


was  ]iUnned,  the  land  was  purchased  fmm  the  In- 
dians, and  relations  of  frieiidsbip  were  established  with 
[he  aavagea  which  lasted  fur  a  long  period  of  lime.  It 
is  a  pleasure  lo  look  l>ack  upon  the  history  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. It  is  one  continued  nigii  of  |ieace  and  praaper- 
ity,  reanlting  from  the  righteous  principles  upon  which 
(he  colony  was  founded  and  maintaineil.  Immlgralion 
was  encvuraged  by  the  liberal  p-^licy  of  the  prii 


of  (i 


thrifty  people  in  the  w 


KI  tied  to 


e  land.     Ma 


d  fmr 


y  Hugue 


id  Iriidi 


Fiotestanii  occupied  lai»l«  still  farther  west.  From 
these  different  classes  of  emigrautx  have  sprung  the  va- 
rious prevailing  religious  bodies  nf  Pennsylvania;  but 
the  Quaker*  aiHl  l^ermans  have  made  the  deepest  im- 
pression upon  the  country,  and  they  have  had  more  to 

peo|ile  than  any  other. 

Delaware  was  sctllal  by  the  Swedes.  Gusuvus 
Adolphus,  as  early  as  1S26,  had  formfd  a  plan  of  coln- 
niialion,  but  was  pnvenled  from  carrying  it  out  by  dif- 
ricultiee  at  Itome,  and  the  plan  was  put  inin  execalioa 
byOxensliera,  the  Swedish  minister.  In  the  early  part 
of  1638  a  company  of  Swedes  arrived  in  Delaware  Bay. 
1'hey  pixrchaseit  frotn  the  Indians  the  cuuntti'  lying  lo 
the  west  of  (he  bay.  from  Cape  Henlopen  lo  'j'renlon 
Falls,  and  nanwd  it  New  Sweden.  This  territory  com- 
priseil  the  present  slate  of  Delaware  and  a  part  of  Onn- 

duration.  In  I66&  (he  country  was  entirely  subdued 
by  the  Dutch  of  New  Nclherbnds. 

The  cohiny  of  Uaryland  was  founded  as  a  home 
for  persecuted  Calliolics.  Sir  (leorge  Calvert,  of  York- 
shire, England,  a  man  of  liberal  education.  Urge  expe- 
rience, and  a  devoted  Ca(bolic  was  desirous  of  fnumling 
a  colony  which  should  afford  a  home  for  the  persecuted 
Catlndics  of  his  own  land,  and  should  grant  equal  toler- 
ation to  all  creeds,  About  the  year  16110  he  obuined 
from  king  Charles  I  a  charter  for  a  new  colony  on  the 
Chesapeake,  but  died  before  (he  colonitation  began. 
His  son,  Cecil  Calvert,  received  the  charier  June  20, 
163!,  and  named  the  new  province  Maryland.  His 
brother,  Leonard,  was  sent  out  with  the  colony  as  gor- 
emiT.  The  provisions  of  the  charter  were  the  must 
liberal  that  had  yet  been  granted.  Christianity  wai 
(be  religion  of  the  S(ate,  but  no  preference  was  ex- 
presaml  for  any  creed.  Free-trade  was  giuranteed,  and 
arbitrary  taxation  forbidden.  The  power  of  making 
the  laws  of  the  colony  was  conceded  in  the  eulonista  or 
(Iteir  representatives.  Under  these  liberal  provisions, 
and  the  prudent  conduct  of  the  officers  and  the  tub 
(bemselvea,  the  enterprise  was  very  prosperous,  an 
colony  grew  very  rapidly.  Religions  (olerslion 
freeilom  of  oonscience  were  reiterated  in  the  legisl 
uf  the  ooloniat  AssemUy,  and  Marj'land,  along  with 


UNITED  STATES 

Rhode  Island  and  Connedicut,  went  tkr  bejrond  the  otbec 

in  securing  libeny  of  conscience.     In  1G9I  tbc 

if  the    Baliimores  was  ukNi   away   by    king 

William  III.     During  tbe  fulUiwing  year  Sir  Uossd 

Copley  assumed  (he  govemtDent  of  the  province,  and 

reruiution   was  speedily  effected.      Tbe    E|NSO0pal 

lurch  was  established  by  law,  and  mpponed  by  tMX- 

lerai  policv  entirely  swept  away. 
On  April'lO,  1606,  king  Janwa  I  granted  a  patent  to 
I  association  of  nobles,  gentlemen,  and  merchant*  re- 
siding in  London,  called  (he  London  Company,  aaaigo- 
(o  them  all  (be  region  between  the  ihiny-foiinh 
thirty-eighth  degrees  of  nonh  latitude.     The  af- 
fain  of  (he  company  were  intrusted  (o  the  tnatiagetneiit 
'      superior  council,  lesiding  in  England,  and  au  iatt- 
cuuncil,  residing  in  the  cuhmy.     To  carry  out  tba 
ose  for  which  the  charter  was  granted,  a  fleet  of 
B  vessels  was  fitted  out,  (o  be  under  the  cnmmaial 
of  Christopher  Newport.     On  Dec.  9,  ISOa,  Ihe  veasdi 
set  sail,  and  in  May  following  landed  on  the  banlta  at 
the  James  Kiver,  in  Virginia,  fifty  miles  fiuRi  Cbea- 
apeahe  Bsy.    Here  they  immediately  laid  the  foamte- 
lions  of  JameMuwn,  the  oldest  English  aetllemeDt  In 

improvident,  and  dissolute.  While  a  few  were  lalmen 
and  artisans,  the  great  majnrity  were  enrolled  as  gat- 
rJnrun.  John  Smith,  the  beat  and  most  energetic  nua 
of  Che  colony,  was  accused  of  cuns|iiracy  and  sediiiin, 
but  was  able  to  defend  Iiia  name  against  the  accnaa- 
tions.  The  colony  was  urganiipd  by  making  known 
the  names  of  the  inferior  coundl.  and  Ihe  election  vl 
Edward  WingHelrl  as  governor  of  Viiginia.  The  new 
colony  had  a  hard  struggle  fur  its  exigence.  The  hUc- 
neaa  and  diawlule  habits  of  (be  seltlers,  the  (rcacbery 
of  some  of  the  leaders,  and  the  civil  dissensious  whicb 
arose  in  (he  community  threatened  ui  break  up  the  sia- 
ilement  in  the  very  banning.  Itut,  alUr  various  di»- 
ssiers  and  diseoungements,  Smith  was  elected  pf«ai- 
dent,  and  began  a  vigorous  administration  whicb  add- 
etl  new  life  to  the  enterprise.    By  (he  undaunted  euur- 

conragement  given  by  the  arrival  of  new  acceaaiona  t* 

their  number  fram  time  to  tim^  the  colony  wa>  aUe  ta 

'  luiii  iu  eiiateiHx.     The  seulemenu  weie  eitcod- 


liul  tl 


■lony  e 


Kpiscopal  Church  was  eslablished  by  Ifw  and  aa{»- 
pot(ed  by  taxation ;  churches  were  built  in  variona 
part*  of  the  province,  and  remained  for  msity  yean. 
Ahmg  wiih  the  English  revalution  came  religious  in- 
tolerance in  Virginia.  In  March,  1B48,  a  Uw  was  en- 
acted by  the  AMemblj  declaring  that  no  peiaon  who 
did  iMit  asaenl  to  theihKlrinesof  tbe  Established  Church 
should  he  allowed  to  teach,  or  to  pleach  Ihe  Goqn], 
within  the  limiw  of  Vir^iiia.  Their  persecution  of  tbe 
Puritans  within  (heir  borders  brought  upim  tbe  Virgin- 
ians tbe  disltusi  of  (he  colonists  of  Mew  England  (gt 

The  B(  tempt  to 


•ful.     In  II 


leCbo- 


flrst  colonial  settlements  in  North  Carolina 
wan  River  and  Albemarle  Sound.  The  colony  passed 
through  many  vicissitude*  of  fortune,  hut  the  setaleta 
remained  in  possessinn  of  Ihe  territory.  In  ITMan  at- 
tempt was  made  by  Robert  Daniel  to  eatabliidi  the 
Church  of  England.  George  Fox,  the  founder  of  ifa* 
Quakers,  at  one  time  (167S)  made  a  visit  to  the  settle- 
ments of  Carolina,  and  obtained  many  bearers  to  hia  iit- 
atniclioita.  Other  Quakers  came  from  New  England 
and  DeUware,  and  made  (heir  borne*  in  this  coloaj. 
In  1707  a  band  of  French  Hnguenota  were  added  to  the 
settlers;  a  hundred  (icrman  families  from  the  banka  of 
Ihe  Rhine  came  to  And  a  home  on  tbe  bauks  of  the 
Neuae;  and  a  number  uf  Swia*  peasanl*  founded  Ke« 
Heme,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kiver  Treiil.  Little  attoi- 
tion  was  paid  lo  queslions  of  religion  at  Bist.  Then 
was  no  minister  iu  the  colony  until  ITOS,  and  do  chuiA 


UNnED  STATES 


SiHiIbC*rDlin>H>«cnlaniicdinie70,uid01clChir1«- 
lon  fiHiniled.  The  pmant  city  of  Chirlaituii  wu  laid 
uut  anrj  «  beginning  nuda  in  building  uii  vein  laid. 
In  leitti  SiHilti  Cindiiu  begin  tu  rewive  Ihe'HiiguenoU 
(q.  T.)  frum  t'Kiiee,  and  iii  ■  ihurt  time  hid  mnre  of 
ibcM  Frcneb  Tefugwa  thin  any  oihei  Araericaii  coluny. 
Tbe  prupriMiin  (ileJged  them  |iruL«ctuiD  and  citiirn- 
■faip,  but,  owing  lu  ib»  unsettled  comlitiun  of  (heir  po- 
litical plan,  the  Hiit^niHa  wen  kapl  ip  iinpeiue  for 
many  yean.  The  Bnt  general  act  nf  enfranehtaoment 
was  paaaed  in  their  favur  in  Hay,  1691,  and  Iheir  full 
political  righia  were  eaiablialied  in  IG97.  In  IGUb  began 
the  adminiwration  of  John  Archilale  aa  RureriHir.  He 
vaa  a  Quaker  of  diiitinctioii,  and  rulsl  with  such  wiidmn 
and  mudeniion  that  the  euliHiy  ijntatly  piuapered.  He 
•raa  inalruniental  in  pmcuiing  the  piiaage  uf  a  liw  by 
which  all  CbriNians,  except  the  Catholiet,  were  fnlly 
•offanchind ;  and  the  axeeplinn  waa  maile  againU  hin 
cameat  protesL  The  pnticy  iif  3>iiith  C^rulina,  aa  well 
M  that  of  her  nnttheni  aiiter,  had  bern  one  ut  religious 
toleration  and  ciril  libeny;  cuiuei|ueii[ly  no  cliurcb 
waa  catabliihed  by  law,  but  Chriatiaiia  nf  all  ilenomina- 
bona  were  welaamed  to  her  shores.  The  Dutch  came 
from  the  banks  oT  the  Uiulsmi,  the  French  vine-dieaaers 
imc  aent  by  king  Charisg;  CliurcbuMn  and  Diuenten 
from  England,  Irish  peasant^  Scotoh  Presbyterisna,  and 
HugaeiiotSi  all  fuund  a  home  and  welcome  under  tbe 
genial  nun  of  South  Carulina. 

TbQ  cutoDv  of  Georgia  waa  founded  aa  an  aaylam  fur 
the  oppreaaed  poor  of  England  and  the  diatreaseil  I'roi- 
caUnta  of  other  landa.  James  Oglaihnrpe,  an  English 
cavalier  and  meaiber  uf  Pariiainent,  obtained  a  charter 
fnnn  Geiir^^e  II,  by  which  tha  terrilnry  between  the  .Sa- 
vannah and  Altamaha  river*  was  organized  and  granted 

•aa  dateil  jmia  9,  WSi.  and  the 


'     The  orgaiiiiati 
(%leth>irpe,  «l 

Churchuun,  but  mane  nn  nisuttctiini  among  tiie  immi- 
graiiia  who  came.  Swiss  peasants,  Scotch  Higblanilera, 
and  (lerraan  Prutestanta  rmm  Salzburg  came  and  made 
their  home  with  the  English.  Then  came  the  Miira- 
liana  with  their  vital  religion,  and  ihe  Methnliata,  in 
the  peranna  of  J»hn  and  Charles  Wesley  and  (ievrga 
WtiiieOekL  The  labors  of  the  Wrsley*  were  not  \m>- 
<luctiTe  of  any  permanent  results,  but  those  uf  Wbite- 
fleld  were  oxira  aucceAfuL 

Tbe  odntiiution  of  ITliirlda  vai  first  effecteil  in  1560. 
Pedro  He]eiidea,a  Spaniab  aokller  ufa  wicked  diapoii- 
tion  and  evil  hBbita,was  somminloned  by  Philip  II  to 
explore  tbe  oiast  of  Florida,  conquer  the  oHintry,  and 
plant  a  ocdony  in  aome  favurible  alia.  Helendet  ar- 
rived in  aight  of  land  on  St.  Augustine's  day,  but  Hd 
DM  land  until  Sept.!.  The  hartxir  and  tbe  riVer  which 
enter)  it  ware  named  in  honor  of  that  aaint.  On  the 
8(b  of  the  aame  month,  after  the  proclamation  nfthe 
Spaniali  sovereignty  and  the  celebration  or  maaa,  tbe 
fixiudations  of  St.  Augnatine  were  laid.  Tbis  is  the  old- 
cat  town  in  the  Uidted  Slatea.  having  been  foundeil 
•evenUen  yeais  before  Santa  F^,  and  fortj'-two  years 
before  Jamestown.  The  founders  were  Calholica,  and 
their  riaatariUy  leader  was  a  cruel  mnnaler  who  hoped 
ts  regain  the  bvorof  his  countrymen  by  fflardering  the 
iDainbers  of  a  Huguenot  settlement  about  thitty-Sve 
milea  above  tbe  muuth  of  the  St.  John's  Rivet.  The 
work  waa  dotte  in  a  moM  beartleaa  manner,  and  the 
Freocb  aHtleniBnt  entirely 


ently  i' 


■ol.Ker  of  Oaaooiiy, 
It|Htnish  forts  un  the  3^  John's,  capinreit  the  ii 
Jill  afterwanla  hanged  the  princip^  uf  them. 


e  G"nrKe^  i 


UNITED  STATES 


Louia  XTT  of  France,  giving  it  the  ni 
A  settlement  was  allempled  by  Iberville  and  his  fullow- 
en  at  Uilosi,  in  1699.  He  died  befora  tha  project  waa 
fairly  aoeceiarul,  and  waa  succeeded  in  command  by 
Bienrillr,  who  was  driven  from  his  poat  by  the  Indiana 
and  compelled  to  take  np  Ui*  aboile  at  Ihe  present  site 
of  New  Orleana.  Olherssucceeded  Bienrlllein  thegnv- 
emorship  nf  tbe  new  territor>',  but  he  waa  reappoiuieil  in 
1718,  and  began  tu  build  a  town  on  Ihe  site  he  had  for- 
merly selected  as  beadi(iiiners,  and  named  the  city  New 
Orle^  in  honor  of  tbe  Duke  of  Orleans,  la  1713  it 
was  made  the  capital  oftbe  prdTinee,  A  large  tract  of 
country  was  ceded  by  France  to  Spain  in  17IJ2,  aiHi  re- 
mained under  couKol  of  that 


nIBDO,  a 


sold  by  Na- 


poleon Honaparte  to  tbe  United  Sutra  for  eil,!&0,000 
and  the  assumption  of  certain  claims  due  from  the 
French  government  to  dtixens  of  the  United  Slates, 
amounting  to  *3,760,00O.  Thus  waa  purchaaed,  at  a 
coat  of  C1d,000.000,  nearly  all  the  tetriwry  included  in 
the  preaent  ttales  nr  Uiuiuana,  Arkaiisaa,  Uiaaoiiri,  Iowa, 
Minnesota,  Dakota  Territory,  Nebraska,  moat  ufKaiuaa, 
Indian  end  Wyoming  terrilnriea,  part  or  Colorado,  and 
the  urliule  of  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Wsabingtvn 
Territory.  Thii  was  iflerwanta  divided  up  frum  lime 
to  time  la  the  wants  of  the  population  required.  Tke 
Hissisaipfu  valley,  while  under  the  onntrul  of  the  French, 
bad  many  settlements  of  Freneb  Catholics,  which  have 
left  their  imprea*  upon  the  country  to  a  greater  or  leai 

The  first  attempt  to  ooloniie  Texas  waa  by  tbe  French 
under  La  Salle  in  1687;  but  thia  great  explorer  lost  hta 
lire  in  returning  towards  tbe  Miaaiaaippi  during  the 
aame  year,  and  tbe  men  who  were  left  to  bold  tbe  post 
esUbJiahed  were  either  killed  or  driven  away.  In  1G90 
a  trading-post  and  a  misaion  were  ratabliahed  by  the 
Spanish,  and  aubeequenily  other  aettleroenls  were  made 
by  the  aame  power.  Then  in  17B6  a  French  colony 
Trom  the  Ked  River.     But  neitber 


«Span 


la  Unii 


ling  the  1 


the  Rio  Grande,  white  Spain  claimed  it  eaat  as  far  as 

tha  Sabine.  Thii  was  Anally  settled  by  trealy,in  which 
the  United  States  guanuieed  tu  S)uin  her  lerriiury 
west  of  Ihe  Sabine.  Uexico  became  independent  in 
1821,  and  Texas  formed  s  part  of  it,  bnng  united  under 
one  government  with  Coahuila.  But  while  Coahuila 
waa  exclusively  Mexican,  Texas  was  settled  largely  by 
colonials  from  Ihe  United  Stales,  generally  under  grants 
of  land  from  tbe  Mexican  govemmenL  Thus  there  ex- 
isted a  natural  barrier  between  the  Texaiu  and  the  Mex- 
icans, and,  after  much  dissaliaTaclinn  with  the  govem- 
loent  uf  tbe  Utter,  the  former  fought  fur  and  gained 
their  independence  in  1836.  Texaa  was  annexed  to 
the  United  Slates  in  184G. 

Tenneasee  waa  originally  a  part  of  North  Canlina,. 
and  was  settled  mainly  by  emigrants  from  that  Stale. 
Kenlackj  belonged  to  Virginia,  and  waa  settled  like- 
wise by  Virginians.  Tbe  other  Western  Stales  lying. 
eaiC  of  the  Hiiaissippi  were  included  in  the  Tmilmy 
uonk-Mint  of  111*  Ohio.  Tha  Fnnch  under  La  Salle  bad 
explored  this  region,  laid  claim  to  it,  and  established 
trail tiig-posta  guanled  by  fiirts  in  various  parts  uf  it,  but 
they  Snslly  relinquiahsd  their  claim  to  it.  A  consid- 
trable  part  uf  thia  territory  waa  claimed  by  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  New  Vurk,  and  New  England  under  their 
original  lerrilorial  graiila;  but  these  clsima  were  all  re- 
linquished except  i  part  belonging  to  Cunneclicut,  called 
the  Weatem  Reaerve,Bnd  «  Virginia  reservalion,  now  a 
parr  of  Indiana,  each  including  about  8,700,000  acres. 
F.mignliiin  extended  into  this  section  from  the  older 
stalea,as  a  nile,on  the  lines  of  latitude,  although  there 
were  many  exceptions,  snd  oadi  new  aeitlement  par- 
look  of  the  characteristics  of  tbe  region  from  which  it 
peupled.    Tbe  Brst  sstlleiiicnt  in  Obio  vas  at  Ha- 


UNITED  STATES  6t 

rietM  in  IT8S,  fiirnied  by  >  colony  rr«m  New  England. 
Miuiy  huliiies  in  !4uulbtni  Ohiu  wen  Kttled  by  tmi- 
graiits  fnioi  Virginia,  wliilc  the  northern  lecliun  wu 
(wopleil  by  New-tiigUnden.  The  ukdcat  aettlemeiila 
ill  InilUna  yvn  made  by  the  French  al  Vinoeiiiies, 
Oryituii,  aiiil  other  plana  in  that  vicinity,  in  17M. 
Miuliigan  anil  llllnui«,aa  well  ai  WiaconNn  mil  Uinne- 
•iita,  liad  numerous  aeuleinenta  which  were  fomied  by 
tlie  French  Cathiilics  in  the  I61h  and  ITth  centuriea. 
Stibaeqnenrly  Iheae  Mates,  eapecially  Hiehtgan,  Miinie- 

Eiigland  Suie*  aiid  New  Vurk. 

plored  and  claimed 

Uiiileil  SUU*  ga\K 
uniler  the  aulhuriiy  of  thii  guvemiDent  were  made  In 
1K]U-S4  at  Furt  Madi*on,  Burlingion,  and  Dubuque. 
The  inhabitant!  of  Iowa  have  alwayt  taken  high  gniuiid 
ou  alt  qunliuna  of  dri]butlun,eilurj»i>>n,*nd  niunili. 

Thel^iHc  Slepehas  received  il>  pnfiulalion  In  recent 
timei.  'Hie  aouthem  portion  extending  Tar  uiwardi 
I'exaa  wai  formerly  a  Spaniih  poeaeniott,  and  there  yet 
raiaain  many  Spaniard*  and  Hezicaiia  within  those 
aiatea anil  tetriloriOL  The  pupulatianuf  Caliruniiagrew 
lip  Tery  rapidly  alker  the  diacovery  of  giild  in  184W. 
Minem,  apeciilalon,  and  advEnturen  mthed  thither 
fiuoi  all  pans  of  the  country,  and  funneil  a  very  mot- 
ley cniwiL     Many  of  these  temaineil,  but  by  far  the 

ilered  lu  othet  lands.    Oregon  waa  IndiKltd  in  the  Lot 

ieiana  purchase,  and  began  to  be  seliled  by  emigrants 

from  the  States  about  188" 

colony  of  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman  and  Rer.  Mr.  Spaklji^ 

eiiTered  Oregon,  and  iu  IMS  the  emigiatiun 

giun  was  large. 

The  aettlement  of  Utah  constitute*  a  remarkable 
eha|>ter  in  the  histoiy  of  our  country.     The  Mormo 
(q.  v.).  under  the  leadership  of  J  oeepli  iSmith,  made  th< 

Iwly  of  conMderable  numUra;  but  their  theorlea  ai 
habita  ware  distasteful  to  the  people  of  that  state,  ai 
they  were  compelled  to  remove  in  IMO.  'I'hpy  foui 
their  way  across  the  Missiaaippi  into  lilinoia,  whire  th< 
fuiindeJ  tiie  cilr  of  Nauvno.     Here  they  increaseil 

place  also  on  accunnt  of  the  disauisfactiiin  of  the  pc 
pie  among  wbnm  they  tired.     In  I84A  they  rcmov 
beyond  the  Rocky  Huuntaina  tn  the  baain  of  the  Ureat 
Salt  Lake,  and  fuiiniled  Uuh  Terriluri 
a  ay  during  all 


UNITED  STATES 

2.  Sffnit  of  wtort  Rrrml  Imrnigraliom^lhn  United 
Statea  are  peculiar  among  all  the  natious  of  the  eanh, 
la  being  oimposed  of  a  population  entirely  lineign  in  its 
irigin.  Whila  other  countnea  have  be«i  invaded  and 
the  lands  oucupied  by  conquerors,  largely  to  the  excln- 
lion  of  the  naiivea,  yet  the  old  stuck  has  not  been  en- 
irely  rooted  out,  but  has  become  the  basia  of  ibe  auc- 
veding  race,     in  English   history,  the  Anglo-T 


Uiiiu 


e  lived 


linKly.nopo 


New  Heiia 
leuflht 


the 


IB  coloniied  by  the  Spauiards  about 
Jiry.     " 


e  Komau  Catholics  and  many  of  the 
<diaiit>  were  converted  to  that  faith.    The  mineral  wa 
of  ilie  cotiiiiry  waa  diacovered,  the  eoloiiials  opened 
worked  the  mines,  and  enalaved  the  Indians  for  I 
puipuee.     At  length  the  Indiana  shook  off  the  powei 
thriropiireasonanj  drove  the  Spanlarda  fmm  their 
rilory :  but  near  the  chiae  of  the  I'th  century  the  latter 
regained  a  part  of  their  former  power.     In  1821,  aluni; 
wlili  the  rest  of  Mexico,  New  Mexico  became  indepen- 
■deiil  of  Spain,  and  was  a  part  of  that  republic  until  I8U, 
vhen  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  Statea.    The  (lads 
'purchase  waa  edited  in  lBaB,when  it  included  all  of, 
EonaaiHl  part  of  Colorado.     Arizona  was  set  off  froi 
in  ]H6S,and  a  portion  of  Coinrado  in  ttt65.    The  ink 
ilaiitii  are  largely  Mexican,  Spanish,  ami  Indians  v 
an  <ivcr-iiu:reasiiig  number  uf  emigranta  ftun  the  Uiiit- 


ihe  Saxo 


Id  Celtic 


influence  so  far  as  it 


forming  the  Aiiglo-Narman  race  of  Ibe  pi 
in  America  the  aborigines  have  always  been 
treated  as  aliens  and  iutrudera,  and  are  faat  declining 
•ward*  extermination.  The  great  Iwvadth  of  our  un- 
xupied  lands,  and  the  excellent  oppnitunitiea  for  ob- 
liniiig  cheap  homes,  have  rendered  America  a  (avorite 
sort  for  emigrant*  from  all  parti  of  the  woild,  as 
lat  St  the  present  lima  more  Iban  tiiiiitm  jirr  ant.  ri 
iir  pnpuhuion  are  foreign-bom.  The  aggregate  imnit- 
rBtiiinrnHnlS%tol840wa*7M.949;  fmcn  IMl  to  1860 
was  I,7I3,S&1 ;  from  IS61  to  1860  it  was  S,S9«,314:  frcoi 
»G1  to  mid  it  was  i,\9\Abl  i  and  from  1871  to  1BT8  it 
'Bs9,lT7.]D8— making  a  total  of  S,TS1,07S;  in  the  ve« 
ending  June  SO,  1880,  it  was  167,243  peisoiUL  Of  this 
vait  number  about  one  Blih  have  been  from  Ireland, 
one  Ibunh  from  England,  one  tenth  from  Scodand  and 
Walea,  fiiur  flfteeaths  (him  Germany,  one  thirtieth 
from  France,  the  remainder  (nearly  one  sixth)  from 
Scaiulinavia,  Switzerland,  Iialv,  Austria,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal. Russia,  Holland,  Belgium,  China,  etc.  More  Iban 
out  hetntielk  of  this  immigration  has  been  fmm  Roman 
Catholic  ci-unlriea,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  a  large  pr*- 
portion  of  those  fnim  other  countiie*  are  of  the  same 
faith.  Tliu*  we  hare  added  to  our  population  fmn 
foreign  countries  a  Urge  Catholic  element,  besidm  the 
native*  who  are  of  that  faith,  and  ihe  rapid  inctrase  of 
their  fliimben  by  the  ordituiry  meihoda  of  piMpaga- 
tiun.  ,  Among  these  Catholics  have  cone  many  Jrsniis  . 
(q.  v.),  some  from  choice,  other*  because  of  their  e:ipul- 
their  Eumpean  homes,  who  have  uanl  ilnir 
'  eir  power  to  DHiubl  tlie 

of  rureigii  immigriilon  ai>uu  our  iiiniiiuiiuui  ha*  been 
miist  niiiicealile  in  large  cities  and  town*,  ami  in  re- 
spect (o   Llie  observance  of  tbe  Sabbath  aud  lenper- 

a.  DtmHniiuilinmil  Oiynrnuiti'H'.  —  'tbe  early  Cnla- 
n'lMn,  who  liad  never  known  any  othrr  rvlalioii  bettreen 
Ihe  Church  and  Slate  than  Ihe  eontnd  of  Ihe  laiier  over 

iHit  they  aonn  perceived  that  the  liheity  which  ihey 
sinight  was  nut  coiiustent  with  such  auiUul,  ami  ihr^ 
BTsiluslly  sbaiHloiieil  it.  Tbe  eSirt  soon  came  la  be. 
nut  tn  contnil  the  Church  hy  law,  but  to  ematicifMte 
onnacience;  and  at  the  oqcanikaliim  of  ihe  Feitrral  piv- 
eniment  all  were  ready  fur  a  Church  free  frotn  t>iaip 
contnil.  See  Chukch  aUD  Statk.  The  early  sMilen 
of  Virginia  br»i>f;hi  wiih  them  Ihe  Epiacopal  form  <■( 
service  [seeENai.AM>,CHUt(CH  OFl.aiul  it  wsi.  carrit-d 
to  other  pari*  of  the  land.  Out  of  Ihi*  grew  ilie  Pn>i. 
estant  K|MMnpsl  Church  (q.v.)  of  this  i^iiinlry.  Tlie 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  (q.v.)  was  tin  ouigRawih 
of  the  Dutch  srltlemrntsiif  New  York  and  NewJersev. 
The  I'uKtans  of  New  Kngland  maineil  their  peailiari- 
tie*,  which  hate  G»merf.iwn  to  us  in  the  Cungrrpi  ion- 
alisiB  (q.v.).  The  Cresbylerian  churches  (q.r.)  of  this 
country  originatctl  from  parties  of  immigrant*  fmn 
Kngland,  Ireland,  ami  Scotland,  who  settled  within  the 
liinilB  of  variiHis  coUmiea.  Thne  united  siiliaequeiiilr 
according  to  their  ruimer  organiiaiinna  on  Ihe  other 
aide  of  the  Allanlic.  The  Bapiisis  (q.r.)  originated 
mumg  iha  Puriiaiia  and  were  baiiislied  fiom  tbeir 
mulH.  Their  hiitmy  is  well  given  unler  the  appm- 
priale  heads.  Hcihiidiim  (q  v.)  in  ihis  cnnntry  was 
pniiiagainl  by  the  f.ill'iweca  of  Wesley.  I'hrir  aeal 
anil  energy  were  greai,  and  their  growih  rapid  in  cnii- 
•pquriice.  Tlie  Kiinan  Caliiolics  of  UarylanJ  wri* 
fiuni  lin^iHi.lliuseurFturida  from  Spain,  LliDse  of  the 


'y?ipip^^f^?'fi"^^^M[ 


=_lLSji-3»:=ii!  itsi  iUitiAihU.it  i'.t..5i;ai-  «|'— '- 


I  3  I    c-  a     B         •>  3_3  8 g     ^tt     an*     5 _  ess L 

i n i ;: isi i si i ! ii ; i i I i! : ; jM t; c! i ttiiiii i ii M si ■: ::  I ° 


iiiU 


iiiil  i  i!  r  \  iji  jel  li  tJ  i  f  I  j!  ili  ii  I  jtSi  ill  i 


f »'  i ji  >»l:  iJiiS:  ggi  5;i  ;i  ;i  ijBj,:  jjtjti  i  „;i  ,f |i  i 


mimi 


iinnsnijifsniiiijfijiiiiSiSin 


M" 


iiiS^iiii  8iiii  iiWil  M  iitStjisi  Ists:  Sii  iss^  Si5»i  i  5 


WstjjiiiSSi  sK>»?5!  iiiHJitgiiiii  jl'Siiriiiti  i  a 


iStiii: 


!  i  i  3iJ5i  sU  j  i  Ii  li!  ii  H  ^f  .1 


i  ai  at.i  5.t.»l»i  si  .!!  i.i  ii  3:  !t5B.a.53:  iii . 


r?.3_  3t.i   S_  ij.Ki-s     =-essv.=   .«3»_£3  s... — ss     s 


:at!i^iiS!i!SiSii>:i:n.S!i>iJi>S: 


=atitii3iT=i»g:i!*iciiieei-3'l 


itctituSi  »;iS.5i !  ti  iSi  i.ii  StittiiSS;  5i!  iaSi  t8Ui 


»i  »i  liS.ei  tassSai  ji  iii  !i  Si  SSiSSsalii  Wi  t.j.Sitei  ii  I  ■ 


!  ati  i  5a«i  5: !  li  8ai  i  i  8i  si'Sli  aaii  i!i  aaata^a.i 


iiiiMJlHtiiiiiiiinjiSiliitUiljiMli! 


;  ti  t  ii !  ailiili  5ti  i\  tii  ij  Si  ijStJf  laSi  iSi  ai  laagti 
!  Ui  alii  Ssi  iriai  i  tii  ai  si  SiiftS^i  t'ji  BaBaji  aaf  i 
iijiiiiiiiifiiiSiiiiiiijisiiaaSaiiKsSSiiiiiiiis 


UNITED  SYNOD  Bi 

Lake  region  and  the  HiauHip^n  TiUey  from  France. 
See  Roman  Catholic  Church  ■:<  tkk  Uniteii  Statu. 
The  Quaken  (q.  v.)  origintLtd  in  En^and,  >ih1  fuund 
their  n»y  tnumg  the  Anwricui  cojuniiu.  They  fiiund- 
ed  \*ige  and  flourinhiiifc  ooloii tee  of  their  nwn,atid  prop- 
■grued  their  doctrines  with  unprecedented  leaL 

ir.  KcektiatHcal  SlaUtlicM—Tbae  are  giveii  in  de- 
taii  ander  each  deaominacional  heail  in  thia  Cfcb^iailiii. 
Their  aggregates  are  ■ubalanliallr  giien  under  the 
various  denominatioiia  in  this  l^cliipadia,  made  up 
from  the  latest  aece«atble  infDmiatinn. 

United  BjnaA  of  thk  Preibttkrus  CuiiRcn. 
See  Pbesbttkriah  Churches,  16. 

TTnited  Syrians,  one  of  the  Syrian  churches 
which  date*  frum  the  I7t1i  ranlury,  when  a  numenjua 
party  under  Andreas  Achigian.  their  first  patriarch.  •«- 
ced«l  from  the  Jacobitea,  and  acknowledged  the  au- 
thority nf  the  pope.  They  have  a  patriarch  at  Aleppo, 
styled  patriarch  -if  Antinchi  and  archbiahopa  of  Aleppii, 
BabykHi,  Damascus,  and  Seleuda,  beaideaeievcn  liiahops. 
They  numbei  about  30,000.    See  Stuian  CHlittcilBa. 

Unity,  a*  a  philomphical  term,  MgniAei  oimro. 
AriMnile  makea  it  the  element  of  number,  and  defines 
it  as  indiriaiUaneaa.  In  the  Kantian  phitoaophy  it  is 
iledned  aa"that  mental  representation  in  the  under- 
standing by  which  the  manifuld  ia  thought  oTas  link«l 
together."  It  is  by  the  same  authority  elaanded  ai 
(iit<ii|F''''i'"  nnityDralogii^  connection;  and  tfnlAelie, 
ornnity  oT  intentions  in  Uie  concept  of  an  object. 

Aa  ■  theolc^ical  term,  unity  is  employed  to  algni- 
fv  a  oneneaa  whether  of  aentiment,  afl^tiiin,  or  behar- 
ior  (Psa.cKi[Kiii,l).  The  "unity  of  the  faith"  ia  an 
equal  belief  of  the  aame  great  truths  of  God.  and  the 

degree  (Eph.  i<r,  IB).  The"  unity  of  the  spirit"  is  that 
union  between  Christ  and  hla  aainta  by  which  the  same 
divine  apirit  dwells  in  biith,  and  they  have  the  same 
diapositiun  and  aima;  and  that  unity  of  the  aainta 
among  thenwelvee  by  which,  being  joined  to  the  same 
head,  and  liaving  the  same  apirit  dwelling  in  them,  thgy 
have  the  aame  graces  of  faith,  hope,  love,  etc,  and  are 
rooted  and  grounded  in  the  same  diKtrine  nf  Chriat,  and 
bear  a  mutual  alTection  to  each  other.  When  ChriatUn 
unity  i*  apoken  of  in  the  New  Test.,  it  generally  means 
the  unity  of  dispensation  for  the  varioua  claasee  of  i»n- 


le  fold  and  one  Shephe^L 

I  a  phrase  employed  to 


in  Christ." 
It  societies,  but  be- 


UNITV  Of  THE  Church 
denote  tbat  all  true  believera 
The  Church  ia  not  to  be  con 
of  the  common  origin  of  the 

cause  they  were  fomieil  on  common  pnncipiea.  l  nere 
ia  no  necessity  for  a  viaible  head,  as  ii  now  claimed  by 
the  Church  of  Rome,  in  order  to  unite  all  parta  of  the 
universal  Church  into  one  communion;  nor  is  jt  nec- 
essary that  the  whole  Church  shnuld  agree  in  all 
riCea,  ceremonies,  and  obaervancea  in  order  in  the  same 
result.  The  circumatanee  of  ita  having  one  commmi 
head,  Chriat,  one  Spirit,  one  Father,  are  pidnts  of  unity 
which  no  mora  make  the  Church  one  aociety  on  earth 
than  the  circumstance  of  all  men  having  the  same  Cre- 
ator, and  being  derived  fmm  the  same  original  pair, 
tenden  the  human  race  one  political  community.  The 
scriptural  representations  of  thia  unity  of  believera  in 
Christ  ia  thus  aummarind  by  Chrysoatom ;  "  He  is  the 
head,  we  are  the  body;  he  is  the  foundation,  we  are  the 
building;  he  is  tha  vine,  we  are  the  branches;  he  is  the 
biiilegruom,  we  are  the  bride ;  he  is  the  shepherd,  we 
are  tlie  aheep ;  he  is  the  way,  wo  are  the  travellers  i  we 
are  the  temple,  he  the  inhabitant;  he  is  the  Brst-bom, 
we  are  the  bmthers;  he  is  the  heir,  we  are  the  co-heirs; 
he  is  the  life,  we  are  the  living.  These  things  are  man- 
ifestly one."  The  unity  of  the  Church  is  not  so  much 
an  acoonplisbed  fact  aa  the  original  deaign  would  have 
it,  nor  as  moat  be  in  the  fulnre.  The  intimacy  nf  thia 
7  prayer, 


6  UNIVERSAEISM 

in  which  be  aska  that  the  members  of  this  body  may 
be  one,  as  he  and  the  Father  are  one.  See  Neandn, 
Hi1.ttftliiClUinA,i,iaO,l«l;  Hagenbach, //ur.q/-/toff. 
i,l9i;  Bingham,  C«..1n/t;.bk.vi,ch.jii;  bk.xvLeh.L 

UNITY  OF  God  ia  a  term  used  to  denote  tbat  thetv 
is  but  one  Gnd  or  self-existent  being.  The  unity  of 
God  it  ai^ed  from  hia  aelf-existence,  his  independence, 
the  perfection  of  hia  nature,  his  omnipotence,  and  tfa« 
unity  uf  design  in  the  wcHiit  of  nature.  The  doctriiK 
was  lost  sight  of  by  heathens,  and  maintained  by  UnA 
and  in  the  GoepeL  The  Scriptures  make  no  attempt  to 
prvtt  the  doctrine,  but  aaaeit  it  onequivoeally.  See 
Exod.  sx,  8;  DeuL  iv,  86;  vi,  *-,  Fsa.  Ixaxvi.  10;  I 
Cor.  Ttii,  4,  0,  etc  When  the  doctrine  of  the  Tntiitr 
(q.  V.)  was  formulated,  it  became  neeensary  for  iIm 
Church  to  declare  that  this  does  not  conflict  with  the 
doctrine  of  his  unity.  See  Hagenbach,  Au/.n^Aitf.  ^ 
103, 380 ;  Van  Uoaterue,  CiriMtiau  Dofmalia,  i,  ISO. 

UKITY  OP  THE  HvHAH  Racb.    See  AnAM. 

nnlTsnal  Biahop,  a  title  assumed  by  tbe  Bd> 
roan  prelates  succeeding  Gregory  I  (G9O-(i04).  The 
patriarchs  of  the  Eastern  Church,  paniciilarly  John 
Jejiinalor,  had  claimed  the  title  of  ammtiHral  patri- 
arch. This  (iregorr  denounced  at  arrogant  and  antl- 
chrialian.  The  title,  however,  waa  adopted  by  (be  tac- 
cessora  of  Gregory  in  its  original  signiBcalion.  See 
Trevor,  Sow.  p.  IM;  .Schaff,  Har.  of  Iht  CAriniaii 
CAurcA,  ii,S28sq.     See  <£ciiMkKIcalUi8HOF, 

TTniveraftl  Filenda,  a  sect  which  arose  in  Tatea 
County,  N.  Y,  near  the  close  of  ihe  last  century,  pro- 
fessing to  be  followen  of  Jemima  Wilkinsoa  (q.  v.'), 
a  Quake^eB^  who  professed  to  work  minclea.  and  •■- 
turned  Ihe  title  of^the  nnivenal  friend  of  mankind.' 
The  aect  ia  now  almost  exlinrl,and  the  Univenal 
Friends  are  sometimes  called  Ifittnunrtafu  (q.  v.). 

Unlvaraal  Oennan  Library  ia  a  work  began 
in  1766,  umler  the  direction  of  Pmlerick  Nicntai,  with 
about  Hfty  writeia,  afterwards  increased  to  one  bundtnl 
and  thirty.  It  became  at  once  the  pulilic  organ  of  all 
those  who  felt  called  upon  to  lifl  their  voire  agaifiK 
auperttition,  fanaticism,  and  prejudice,  as  well  as  every. 
thing  which  was  spiritually  elevated  or  that  was  relat- 
ed to  a  more  lively  imagination  and  a  deeper  freling. 
It  wai  the  high  tribunal  of  ralionaliam.  Kot  >lu»  tlie 
orthodox,  nur  auppoaed  enthuaiaat*  and  pieiiats,  nor 
Lavaler,  but  Goethe,  and  even  poetry,  and  phiioanpby 
wherever  it  arose  above  arbitrary  and  secular  discas- 
ainn  (eg.  Kaut  and  Kichte),  were  apumcd  by  thia  ii>- 
quiaitcirial  court  aa  fully,  Hailery,  and  secret  JcHjiiian. 
The  much-lauded  tolerance  wat  immediately  converted 
into  intolerance  and  bigotry.  AH  the  arliclea  in  (be 
IMrrary,  however,  were  not  colored  by  Nicolai's  tetpU- 
cism,  for  there  were  abo  many  weighty  opinions  «f 
worthy  BcholartL  The  work  served  an  important  pur- 
pose in  bringing  to  the  kncfw ledge  of  tbe  world  litosry 
productions  (if  value,  and  in  fostering  and  encounging 
a  taste  for  resiling.  See  Hagenbach,  tfutn/'Ulr  CjlirrA 
in  tkt  iStk  atid  ISiA  Caturin,  i,  307  sq. 

Unlvaraal  Rvdamptlon.  See  Atokkkeut; 
Rruehption. 

UnivvnftllBm.  The  ultimate  restoration  of  aD 
tinners  to  happiness  and  the  favor  of  God  ia  maintained 
by  Univeraaliata  (q.  v.)  on  Ihe  ground  that  tbe  Bnal  ex- 
clusion of  any  soul  from  heaven  would  be  contrary  ro 
the  illimitable  luve  of  Gnd ;  that  the  wralb  of  (^  is 
only  exercised  againit  sin — repentance,  even  in  Ihe  fiil- 
ure  life,  bringing  about  a  rrMoralion  Id  his  love.  But 
this  supposes  A  distinction  between  un  and  Ihe  nnner 
which  is  not  only  without  foundation  in  the  Holy  Script- 
ures, but  is  oontrartirlory  to  their  alalementa.  We  arc 
nowhere  told,  as  regards  a  futnre  alale,  that  God's 
wrtlh  against  un  will  onfy  cnniinue  an  long  aa  ain  re- 
mains, bnl  that  the  rianrr  himaelf  who  dira  impctiileiit 
will  be  eternally  punished. 

Agaii^  it  it  asaeited  that  Scripinti  bat  no  plain  dag> 


UNIVEKSALISM 


:>  U  all  u  (0  the  pnmbilicy  or  impnoai- 
Lilky  .if  repenUDOe  after  dath  (i.  e.  in  hell).  Then 
■n  lerrible  threiiU  of  divine  v«ngeanL-e  which  will 
oreruke  the  ungodly;  but  there  are  aame  diiuiiict  iit- 
lerance*  of  ■  hope  embncitig  ill  timei.  exiateiice,  and 
niateg,  and  the  tpeciDc  queation  at  i»ue  duea  not  ae«rD 
to  be  raiaed  by  Scripture.  Such  uUenncea  are  au|>- 
pi-wd  to  be  oiHitaiiied  in  I  Cur.  it,  H-iS;  Eph.  i,  9, 
10;  PhiL  U,  9-11;  CoL  i,  19,  20.  Now  it  may  fairly 
Iw  admitlal  that  the  paasagee  cited  do  appear  to  raviir 
Uiiiveraaliaoi.  and  they  might  have  been  au  undenbwd, 
had  it  been  elaewbere  Uugbt  in  Scripture  i  buElbeyare 
ofnn  veight  wbaterer  ill  uppuailion  to  ita  cleareat  and 
moat  emphatic  dedataliona.  The  apoalle  here  aayi 
that  God  will  be  all  in  all— that  all  things  ihall  be  sub- 
dued  unto  Cbriit,  recAncileil  unto  him,  and  that  every 
totiguc  ahall  confw  that  be  is  Uinl  uf  all     But  auch 

paiaagta  of  ScripUire  which  mnlradict  the  dciclriiie  of 
DuiTenal  aalration,  and  al«  according  to  Bcripiuial 
usage  and  the  meaning  which  can  only  be  given  lo 
many  parallel  paiaages.  For  example,  our  Lord  saya 
that  when  lifted  up  on  the  croaa  (referring  to  the  pres- 
ent efficacy  of  hi*  atiHiement)  he  viU  draw  all  men 
unto  him  (John  lii,  ii).  Nu  declaralinii  can  be  mora 
positi're  and  nneqiiivonl  than  this;  and  yet,  literally 
mideiataod,  it  la  not  meiely  untrue,  but  euntradicluiy  to 
ntber  alaiementa  of  Scripture,  e.g.  that  no  man  can 
ceme  to  Chriat  except  the  Father  draw  him,  and  that 
they  only  ate  drawn  irho  hear  and  learn  of  the  Father 
(iri,  M,  46)— certainly  not  all  men.  Such  ia  the  uaage 
of  Scripture  language;  a  thing  i>  spoken  of  ai  being 
nallj  eUected  to  indicate  the  certainty  of  the  purpose, 
and  that  every  pniviaion  hai  been  made  fur  ita  accom- 
pUahment,  though  erentually  through  man's  sinfulneea 
God'a  benevolence  mav  be  fruatrated.   See  PusoATonr. 

Again,  ChriaC  died  for  all  men,  and  God  would  have 
all  men  U>  be  aaved — atatements  ohvioiialy  leading  to 
the  siippcoition,  at  leait,  that  all  mankind  will  at  laM  be 
Bared.  Tet  in  other  paawgea  of  Scripture  there  in  an 
apparently  iliacordant  alatement  that  Chriat  died  for 
"  many,"  laid  down  his  life  fur  "  the  (heep,''and  the  object 
of  ndemption  ia  aald  to  be  to  "gather  together  in  one 
Uk  children  of  Uod  which  are  scattered  ^roatt"(  Blunt, 
Did.  of  TluoL  a.  v.).  Theae  passage*  are  to  be  recnn- 
eiied  by  the  ready  answer  that  prorinoa  indeed  is  made 
fur  the  aalvatinn  nf  all.  but  iu  actual  effect  will  depend 
upon  the  voluntary  embracing  <>r  rejeeiinf;  of  it  on  Iha 
partormeninilividiially.     See  Kkukhl-tidk. 

Dr.  CfaamiCT'*  arguoienta  in  favor  of  Uiiiversaliam 
ISuUatieu  of  Aa  Urn)  are  theae:  1.  Chriat  died  not 
fut  a  select  number  of  men  oidy,  but  for  mankind  uni- 
versally, and  without  exceplinii  or  Umitation,  fur  the 
Sacred  ^icripturea  are  singularly  emphatic  tn  expreaaing 
tluainith(Johni,  29;  iii,  16,  i7;  Bom.v,  6;  1  Cor.  xv, 
3;  1  Thcaa.  v,  10;  Heb.  ii,  9;  1  PeL  ill,  18:  1  John 
iLS).  3.  It  is  the  purpvae  of  God  according  to  hia  good 
plftiirn  that  mankind  universally,  in  oonsequence  of 
the  ikalh  of  hia  son  Jeaua  Cbriat,  ahall  certainly  and 
Anally  be  aaved  (Kom.  v,  12,  etc;  viii,  19-24;  Eph.  i. 
9,  10;   ir,  10;  CoL  1,  19,  80;  3  Tim.  i,  4),     S.  As  a 


■1  TJNIVEKSALIS'1'8 

16;  Jude  ziiii  Rev.  ix,  8 ;   xiv,  U;  » 


SO).    See 


God  will  sooner  or  later,  i 
(hen 


.  under  a  willing  and  obedient  subjec 


r,  reduce 
DO  to  his 
moral  government  (Paa.  viii,  &,  6;  Matt,  i,  21;  John  i, 
89;  1  Cor.  xr,  W-29;  PhiL  ii,  9-lli  Heb.  ii,  6,  9;  I 
John  iii,  8).  4.  The  Scripture  language  concerning  the 
reduced  m  restored,  in  conaequence  of  the  rDediatory  in- 
terpoaition  of  Jesus  Christ,  is  such  as  leads  us  into  the 
tbougM  that  it  is  comprebensive  of  mankind  univer- 
Mlly  (Rev.  V,  18).  The  qipuuenla,  however,  of  Dr. 
Chamicy  and  this  doctrine  observe,  on  the  contrary 
Hde,  tbat  the  Sacred  Scripture*  expraaly  declare  that 
the  poniabment  of  the  Anally  impenitent  ahall  be  eter- 
nal (Hatl.  xii,  St,  81;  ivii,  8;  xxv,  41,  46;  xxvi, 
M;  Ifark  iii,  39 ;  ii,4S|  Luke  xii,  10;  Eph.  ii,  17; 
I  Thaaa.  i,  9 1    Heb.  L  4.  B ;   x,  36,  S7  ;    1  John   v. 


In  short,  severe  aa  may  seeiD  the  doctrine  of  eternal 

punishment,  and  hgwever  much  we  may  ualuially  wish 
to  avoid  ita  acceptance,  this  ia  not  a  questiun  fur  us  to 
solve  according  lo  our  inclination.  Wa  miiat  ask,  with 
reference  to  sll  mauen  ctmnected  with  the  future  worid. 
What  has  God  revealed?  what  has  ht  declared?  The 
Scriptures  are  the  ultimate  appeal,  and  these  to  caiHlid 
and  thoughtful  minds  hare  ever  been  plain  and  puaitiva 
on  tbe  subject.  Moreover,  the  same  abstract  arguments 
which  are  uTien  adduced  agaiuat  tbe  tvtrlatliiig  punish- 
ment of  nin  apply  to  its  present  punishment,  and,  indeed, 
against  the  fact  of  sin  itself.  If  Gud  lovea  man  and 
loves  holiness,  why  does  he  suffer  him  to  sin  at  all? 
We  are  tbu*  brouifht  back  to  Butler's  immortal  argu- 
menr,  and  constrained  to  bow  to  the  sovereign  will  of 
the  Almighty.  The  fullowing  judicious  remarks  an 
from  Vail  Omtenee,  CMruliuH  Dogmalia,  ii,  488 : 

"TheifnniCf^uorfntnre  pnul»)iinei)t  Is  miiM  dell  ill  telv 
repnnnie^  In  ll<Oy  Scrlptnrg  ni  nhMilnvelf  eiidlera  (Mali 
Ii,4t~a0;  Rev.  ilr,  II,  eic.).  Krau  If  the  word  •ttnul 
diief  nm  In  Itrelfdeimte  shMlnie  eodlefaneis.  It  la  aural* 
a  different  niiiter  wheu  eternni  lalu  \r  wlihont  any  llml- 
tniloti  asaoGlHted  with  eiemal  Ufa  (Malt,  xxv,  4«.  Wa 
will  hera  only  call  ro  mlud  th«  liKt  tliat  Uhim  who  main- 
tain iba  contrary  nf  rwioniiliiulsai  eun  bring  Cirward  aa- 
meriHia  aud  plain  srutemeuta  nf  the  Li>rd  nnd  hta  wli- 
u esses;  at  any  rsle,the  poaslbllliy  uf  an  andleas  mlsatr 
Ii  Rwal  dlxtlnctly  dvcliired  Id  Matt,  xil,  Bl,  n ;  and  sncli 
worda  as  those  ta  Lnkeivt,l«:  Matt,  iiv,  lix  41:  iivl, 
M  conld  hardly  be  vhidlcmed  from  a  chsrge  of  eisgirem' 
tlon  ir  ha  who  spoke  ibem  hnd  himasir  seen  eveu  a  ray 
of  IlKht  In  the  onler  darkness,  aud  been  able  and  wllllDg 
to  kindle  It  befon  others'  ejes.    In  no  case  c»nld  ancba 

but,  viewed  even  psych iihvtcnlly,  Ibla  latter  la  certainly 
and  dospslr,  not  to  say  thsL  the  Gospel  nowhere  opena  up 

talka  nt  hnnrhueM  mnnl  by  no  menos  f>ir|>nt  tbiil  slnfDl 

levs  than  ibe  hlghiut  grace  la  Nridlj  aud  atnbbornly  aat  ac 
□  AtiEhi  In  the  case  here  snppot^d  ;  and  thnt  there  always 
will  be.  nn»>rdlnir  in  the  teschlna  ofScriptnre,  an  eqalla- 
I  rewards  OS  well  as  Id  iBa  uflulab- 

(Luke  III,  4T,  <S:  Rom.  II,  \i  aq.}. 

""  *  ""■  ihemselves  with  iidlmlnn- 
'  '         -  there  still  would 


■Iwaye  lie  a  reinembrnnc 
wonld  be  udiirk  climd  heron 

irsierallydesplsedltlHat[.xl.U;  l]eh.ll,B).  Aatflthe 
heAlhen  and  othen  who,  entirely  wltbimt  their  own  Esnlt, 
' '— ■"  ■'—way  of  111*,  Holy  Berlptara  nowhefeoom- 

„._ ,be  Ihevlr-'-    — ■'' 

While  Ibera 


believe  that  .. 

nl  aUuiB,  be  It 

..  _ _ira  h>  only  one  way  of  salvation  (Acts  Iv, 

19),  the  Herclftil  One  will  make  It  known  lu  men  lu  some 
nay  (1  Pet.  Ill,  !•>.  We  can  safcly  leave  to  0.rf  thejnstl- 
dcatloii,  even  In  thi*  respect,  of  hi*  own  gnvernmeul  of 
the  wiirld:  lint  we  mnst  take  canfiil  heed  that  we  dn  not 
try  to  be  more  merclfnl  Hiid  wig*  than  he  to  whom  aln,  a* 
1<Hia  a*  II  couiliinea  to  be  slu,  Is  ihorongtaly  dnmnabla. 
Evan  In  preaching  ih*  Ou«pal.  Ms  rerranta  are  noitrae  In 
leave  ihls  darker  side  enttralr  Dnmenllnned.  The  staie- 
uieiit  nt  It  should  alwava  beJ<Aiied  wllh  that  ofthe  frleud- 
It  light  of  KTace,  and  let  the  preacher  take  cnre  that  he 
does  not  lead  his  hearers  in  the  way  of  dosualrinii  fear  or 
Dubellevliig  donbt  by  yielding  to  the  deaire  lo  pulut  hell 

aa  black  aa  possible.    The  hesr '•>■ 

oriberinnerlsthstofgo 


irl  of 


,lc^°- 


r  still  CI 


jith* 


See  PuHismfBnr,  Fdtdrk 

nuivenallats,  a  Chriatian  sect  believing  in  the 
Hnal  deatniction  of  ain  and  the  reconciliation  nf  all  aoula 
to  God  through  tbe  Lord  Jeau*  Chriat.  They  claim 
that  there  is  proof  of  the  existence  oT  their  doctrine, 
Univenaliam,  and  of  the  activity  of  its  advocate*  un- 
der varviua  naotes,  from  the  intniduction  of  Chrialiani- 

'  I.  Oiigm  and  //trtoiy.— (L)  In/ormal—l.  h  For- 
Dur  Crartuvi.— The  earlieat  notice*  now  to  be  foun.! 
of  Univi^rsaliam  after  the  ilays  of  the  apoallea  are  in 
the  writings  of  some  of  the  mora  prominent  Qnoalio 


UNIVEKSALISTS  ( 

weU,  u  the  Ituili[li■I1^  Cirpocnluru,  init  Talenlin- 

Ijuis,  abouc  A.D.  IBO.  The  uilimate  puriQcatinn  of  the 
race  wu,  ■ccnrdini;  lo  their  theorieB,  by  meani  of  the 
diiciplinaortheauulxirthe  wicked  through  traiuniigra- 
tion.  Inlhe J>iyffiiK(?r<u^whichippeiRdA.D.IM, 
UDWerMhani  u  luiffht  u  matting  frum  the  piayen 
at  the  iniita  aSectdl  by  the  miaerieii  of  the  damned. 
The  Almigbty  ii  repraenled  at  granting  thii  favor  to 
the  redeemed  on  aoeoant  of  the  great  love  which  be 
bean  to  them  fbr  their  fidelity.  In  195  Cleowns  Alex- 
■Ddrinoa,  who  waa  pnaidenc  of  the  Cal«ehetical  School 
at  Alezandria,  advucaled  Unireraaliani  on  the  gronnd 
of  the  remedial  charactn- of  all  puniahment.  Hit  pupil 
BDd  aoeeeMOT  in  the  achool,  Origen  A[Lamantiiu,faiiiuuB 
alike  fte  hia  learning,  piety,  and  zeal,  uu(;ht  Unit-erul- 
iam  on  the  ground  of  the  eTer-oontinning  freedom  of 
the  wilt,  the  deep  mental  and  ipiritual  anguiah  occa- 
■iiined  by  the  tight  and  knowtedge  of  the  truth  unlil  it 
leada  to  rtpenrance,  and  then  the  harmon*  nf  the  siul 
with  God.  Origen's  poaition,  abilities,  and  uiittring 
effuita  for  the  spread  of  the  Goiipel  gave  him  great  in- 
tluence  with  hia  pupili,  and  with  the  Church  at  large, 

addition  to  hit  poeition  and  work  in  the  achout  of  Alex- 
andria, be  altu  had  care  for  aeveral  yeans,  in  connection 
with  Pamphiliua,  of  Che  cheulugical  achool  at  Ccsarea, 
one  of  whuM  diitingiiiahed  pupili  wan  the  celebrated 
Giegory  Thaumaturgua,  a  great  admirer  uf  hii  maaier'i 
theuriea,andfl>ia1ly,  about  A.D.  2:13,  hia  strong  defender 
aud  ardent  eulogut.  Pan1pllilil■^  and  EuKbiua,  the 
Sni  Church  faiaiurian,  also  defended  Origen'a  dnctrinea 
from  chargea  brought  againU  them  by  the  Weacem 
Church,  and  in  anawcring  the  complaint  Ihat  he  deniMi 
all  futnre  punjahmenc  they  quote  from  hia  wriiinga  in 
contradiction  thereof,  not  only  hia  puaitive  aaaurancea 
of  future  and  severe  puniahment,  but  hia  eqiialty  p«i- 

utwy.  In  A.D.  364,  Tiuia,  biahop  of  Bgatra,  wrote  in 
advocacy  of  (JniTeraallam,  contending  that,  although 
there  are  lormenta  in  the  abyaa  of  bell,  they  are  not 
eternal,  but  that  their  great  aeveritv  will  lead  the  wick- 
ed to  repeuunce  and  ao  (u  aaltation.  Gregory  nf  Nva- 
aa,  A.D.  880,  alao  advocated  Univeraaliam  on 'the  aame 
grouDila.  CoBtempurarv  with  bim  wat  the  Juaily  eel- 
ehrated  defender  or  orthndoxy,  Didymua  the  Blind,  a 
auece«»r  of  Origen  in  the  achuot  at  Alexandria,  and  a 
lealuiu  UniraaaliaL  Prominent  anumg  hia  achnlani 
was  Jerome,  eminent  alike  for  hia  aUliiiea,  hia  incon- 
aiateneiea,  and  inatability,  Univeraaliam  aa  taught  by 
Origen  ji  clearly  and  ably  aet  forth  by  Jerome  in  hii 

biihnp  of  Jeruaalem  at  this  pAind,  waa  alao  an  advo- 
cate of  Univeraaliam  im  Origen'a  [heury.  Another  con- 
tempirary,  Diodorus,  a  teacher  of  great  repute  in  the 
■chool  at  AniiiKh,  and  afterwarda  biahop  or  Jerusalem, 
was  also  a  Itnivenalist,  who,  in  uppoaiiion  lo  the  then 
general  prevalence  of  allegorical  interpreuiion,  atrietJy 
adhered  to  the  natural  import  of  the  t«xt  in  hia  manv 
eommentariea  on  the  Scriptures.  He  defended  Uiii- 
venaliam  on  the  ground  that  the  divine  nierc}'  far  ex- 
ceeds ail  the  eflecca  and  all  the  deserts  of  ain.  Hia  pu- 
pil and  Buccesanr  in  the  school,  Theodore  of  MnpsiieatU, 
A.D.  120,  called  "the  crown  and  climax  of  (he  achool 
orAi>liach,''and  by  the  Neatnriana,  whose  sect  he  found- 
ed, "the  interpreter  of  the  Word  of  (iod,"  and  whose 
writings  were  lext-booka  in  the  achonla  of  Eaalem  Syr- 
ia, was  a  pmmineiit  and  inltiienlial  UuiveraalisL  Hit 
theory  waa  [hat  tin  ia  an  incidental  pan  of  the  devel- 
opment and  education  of  the  human  race;  that,  while 
anrM  art  m<ire  involved  in  it  than  other*,  God  will 
overrule  it  lo  the  flnal  ealabltahntent  of  all  in  good. 
He  b  the  reputed  author  of  the  liturgy  uaed  by  the 
Neatoriana,  a  Church  which  at  one  time  eqaalled  in 
ila  membership  the  combined  adherenta  of  both  the 
Greek  and  Latin  coiDmuniona,  ami  which  haa  had  no 
rival  in  military  leal.  In  the  addresses  and  prayer?  of 
this  liturgy  Univensliam  it  diatinctty  avowed.    The- 


8  TNIVERSALISTS 

odorcC,  A.D.  ISO,  biahop  of  Cypnia  in  Syria,  a  pi^  rf 
Theudure  of  Hupsuestia,  waa  also  a  UnirenaltM,  k^ 
ing  the  doctrine  on  the  theory  advocated  by  tbe  Anti- 
ochian  achouL 

'  For  some  time  prior  lo  tbia,  eenain  opiaiona  of  Ori- 
gen  un  pr»«xialence  and  on  the  salvation  of  the  devil 
had  been  in  dispute  and  pronounced  bcretkal  by  a 
synod;  but  hia  doctrine  of  the  univenal  Halvatinii  of 
the  human  race  had  not  been  involved  iu  thia  ondto. 
nation.  At  a  local  cnnneil  called  by  the  emperor  Jib- 
tinian  at  Constantinople.  A.D.  544,  Origen's  dictrin 
of  universal  nalvation  was  declared  hereticaL  Niac 
yean  later  another  council  waa  held  by  the  tame  au- 
thority at  the  aame  place,  when  aMidemnalion  das  pn- 
nounccd  on  the  Neatoriana,  tltboagh  tbeir  betid'  m 
Univeraaliam  waa  not  mentiafied.  It  haa  betti  coal- 
man to  oUl  Ihia  an  meumenical  council,  but  withsut 
warrant  (see  the  action  of  the  Latin  Church  in  refsang 
to  recognise  it  or  lo  send  a  l^ate  to  il).  DiidetlBa,  ii 
hia  Imtilalti  of  ChriMliam  ntologg,  ader  quntiif  (bt 
decree  of  Justinian  against  Origen,  aays,  "That  ass 
not  the  belief  of  all,  and  in  proponjan  aa  any  ooe  wai 
eminent  in  learning  in  Chrialian  antiquity,  the  Don 
did  he  cherish  and  defend  the  hope  of  the  temunatita 
of  future  tArmentt.''  Drexelius,in  hit  defence  of  cHt- 
nal  puniahment,  gives  thia  IflBtimonj:*' That  God  shoaM 
doom  [he  apoatale  angeb  and  men  at  the  day  of  rttii- 
biuion  to  e[emal  [omtenla  aeemed  so  bard  and  iaendi- 
ble  a  doctrine  to  some  peraons  that  even  Origeo  Ub- 
self,  who  was  mighty  in  the  Sctipturts^  and  m  ks 
famous  for  his  adminble  wit  and  excellent  leamja^ 
'  ■  ■      '     ' '    hook  of  pi '     '  '      ""  " 


both  the  devils  and  [be  damned,  after  a 
of  yesra,  the  fire  having  purged  or  cleansed  tbem  tm 
their  poUuliona,  should  lie  resiored  to  grace  Aagai- 
line  and  othen  set  forth  hia  error  and  condennt^ 
him  for  it.  But,  notwithstanding  their  oondemnatiiia, 
Ihia  error  has  found  a  great  riuuiy  in  the  wotld  wbs 
have  given  it  a  kind  nf  dvil  receplioii.  The  Amii, 
heretics  BO  called,  dispersed  this  error  thnogboW  afl 


The  belief  id  the  inalien- 
able capacity  of  improvement  in  all  rational  bongs,  w4 
[he  limited  dunilion  of  fulure  puniabneat,  waa  ao  gca- 
eral,  even  in  the  West,  and  among  (be  < 
Origen,  that,  even  if  it  may  not  be  said  tc 
without  the  influence  of  Origea's  achool,  it 
entirely  independent  of  hi 


in  sympathy 
of  the  damned  and  their  perpeti 
Hion,  and  thus  do  not  beli 

hy  opposing  the  Holy  Scripui 


{iving  a  milder  meaning  to  those  Ihings  which  they 
■hiuk  are  said  in  Ihem  more  Mnibly  than  tmly.' 

Univeraalism  almost  wholly  diaappeaied  during  tb 
period  known  as  the  Dark  Ages,  although  there  are  ec 
»sional  glimpse*  of  it  even  in  the  mutilated  m»td 
sihich  the  papal  Church  haa  permitted  to  dneeaJ  ti 
■a.  Ill  the  7th  centun-,  Haiimua,  the  Greek  aod 
ind  omfeasor,  taught  Univeraaliam;  in  the  8th,  Osb 
int  of  Ireland  was  depoaed  fhxn  the 
[caching  that  when  Christ  descended  in 
stored  ail  the  damned;  while  in  the  9tb,  Jobn  Seatm 
Krigena,  s  famous  ]>hilnsopher  who  stood  at  the  bead 
I  learned  of  the  court  of  France,  waa  a  bold  dr- 
rof  Univeraalism.  In  the  llth  cenlnry,  tb«  jUbi- 
9  were,  according  to  papst  authorities,  UniTcnat- 
in  the  ISth,  Reynold,  abbot  of  St.  Martin's,  ia 
France,  was  charged  before  a  council  with  V4diiit 
"  that  all  men  will  eventually  be  aaved;"  in  the  ISih, 
Solomon,  Inahop  of  Baasorah,  discusaed  the  qncstiim  of 
universal  salvation,  answering  it  in  ths  affimiaiivk 
The  I/Jlanis  in  the  14th  century  taught  I'niiTisali— 
^hernia  and  Austria;  and  at  the  same  period  • 
council  convenet"  '      " 


UNIVERSALISTS  6: 

buT^,  giT<  judgment  agiintt  (Jnlrcrulimi  u  one  of 
the  henatn  tbeii  taught  in  that  prorinM.  In  the  ear- 
ly pan  of  the  lath  century,  a  wet  called  >*Men  of  Un- 
i)entaDtlin|c"  taught  Univenilum  in  FlmiJera,  iitvo- 
cating  it  on  the  ground  of  the  <}ernian  Hyilici,  a*  did 
Tanler  of  Stnaburg,  and  John  WeanI,  who,  with  oth- 
en,  hare  been  called  "the  Refuroitn  beruta  the  Rer- 
ORDation,"  whoK  writing*  Luther  induttriouily  Uudied 
•ihI  greatly  admired. 

2.  /■  Modtrn  rHKt— With  the  Rerotmatinn,  Uni- 
Tenaliam  made  a  Treih  appearance  early  in  the  leth 
oentuiy,  chiefly  among  Hme  at  the  AnabapliW  eecta. 
The  aeTenteenlh  article  af  the  AuguMine  Conleaiiion, 
16S0,  wai  eiprenly  framed  lu  "eunJemn  the  Anabap- 

poDitftimenla  of  the  damned  and  oT  the  deviin."  Dcnk, 
He«ier.  and  Suni«lau«  Pannoniui  were  the  moK  emi- 
nent defender*  of  (Jiiirenaliun  at  Ihii  period.  Later 
in  the  century,  Samuel  Uuber,  divinity  prufeaeor  at 
Wituobeig,  taught  Univemliim,  it  ii  alleged  by  Span- 
heun;  and  b(ciiHe,uy«Hiwbeiai,  he  would  not  go  back 
la  the  uld  method!  of  Uaehiiif;, "  he  waa  compelled  to 
nliaquilh  hia  office  and  go  into  exile."  Early  in  the 
17th  century,  Ernest  Sunner,  proreasor  of  phikainphy  at 
AUorf,  publiihed  "  a  theolngical  sod  philuenphieal  dem- 
■Miatratiaa  that  the  endleia  puni«hment  of  the  wicked 
would  argue,  not  the  Juiiioe,  but  the  injuuice,  ofliod." 
John  William  Petersen,  at  one  time  court  preacher  at 
Lnliu,  aiHl  aubaequently  Hiperiiitendeait  at  LnnenberR, 
adopted  and  defendeil  UnlvenaliMii  with  weh  leal 
tbM  he  wa*  cited  before  the  comiatoiy,  and,  a*  he  ouuld 
WM  CDuaeiBaliouily  renounce  hit  conriclionn,  ww  de- 
prived of  hii  office  and  furcail  inlo  private  life.  In  hie 
recirement  be  wrote  and  publiahed  thiw  fidio  volumee 
on  Unireraaliam,  entitled  Miattrion  Apotfitaifiufdi 
FaiilSii,  in  which  be  mention*  many  who  bad  defeiidnl 
that  doctrine.  The  volumea  appeared  between  the 
year*  17Q0  and  17ia  They  opened  ■  century  of  *pir- 
ilad  coalnvveny, of  whicb  Hoebeim  aavi,  "The  points 
of  tbeiUogy  which  had  been  oontroverinl  in  the  17th 
century  were  deatined  to  eicite  keener  diapntea  in  the 
18tli,auch*ai  the  (ftnu[^o/AcAeDr]wa/(,aad  ihejiiuif 
rv^druiun  of  aU  itltUiffot  banga  1o  order,  perfection, 
and  happineo."'     Dielelnuir,  an  opponent  of  Univer- 


In  (he  pi 


I  orthodox  Church  in 


nough  w 


laat  oentury  anil  the  beginning  of  the  prment,"  Among 
the  defeoeee  of  Uaiveiiiiliam  contained  in  the  Hnl  vol- 
unw  of  Petersen's  wo'rk  waa  the  Ecrriaitiitg  Goiptl,  at- 
iributed  to  Paul  Siegvolk,  which  waa  but  an  anumed 
name  of  George  Klein-Nicolai,  depoaed  for  hit  Univer- 
mIwd  a>  preacher  of  FriMadorf.  He  publiahed  other 
woaka  in  defence  of  Uuireraaliim,  but  the  moat  rapid 
and  laaiing  popalarity  belonged  to  the  Enrbuiing  Gnt- 
pel,  which  in  foriy-Uve  year*  paased  through  Ave  edi- 
tion* in  Qtraaoy.  In  17«  John  Henry  Heug,  pro- 
(aaaor  at  Stra^xirg,  baving  procured  the  awMance  of 
Dr.  EnMN  Chriaioph  Huchm*n,ChriuiBn  Dippel,  Count 
De  ICaroey,  and  otben,  oommenceil  the  publication  of 
tbe  BtrUbarytr  Biiel,  an  entirely  new  translation 
■od  cnamcniary  of  the  Holy  Sciipturea,  They  made 
Ihenuelvea  familiar  with  all  the  writing*  of  the  Mya- 
I4C*,  and  in  their  great  work  taught  and  defended  Uni- 
vetialLMi  frooi  Che  Mystical  aundpuinc.  Their  work 
flUa  oght  large  fuliu  volumea,  tbe  laat  of  which  waa 
publi*bed  in  IJii.  Strong  peraecution  assailing  them, 
and  no  printer  being  willing  (o  risk  his  olSce  in  dning 
their  work,  they  were  compelled  (a  purchase  their  own 
trpe  and  a  small  press.  When  the  Church  they  had 
cMabliabed  wan  at  last  broken  up  by  their  enemies,  the 
iMiBben  fled  to  America,  taking  their  pre**  with  theui, 
■Dd  it  was  nt  up  by  Chriaiopher  Sower  in  Germin- 
lown,  Pb  One  of  De  Hatoey'*  intimate  friends  was 
Oaocge  Da  BenneviUe,  boni  of  French  parent*  in  Lon- 
doa  in  1700,    Before  he  waa  twenty  jcara  of  age  be 


19  UNIVERSALISTS 

eommeoeed  ptcacbing  in  FrBnce,where  he  was  arreat- 
cd  and  condemned  to  die,  but  wa*  reprieved  on  the  scaf- 
Md  by  Louis  XV.  Making  bia  way  into  Uermsnv,  he 
there  preached  Unlvenalism  aeveral  rears,  and  then 
came  to  America,  tn  1737  appeared  Ludvig  Oeihanl'a 
Cumpittt  Sgilem  of  the  EtrrliiUmg  (impft  uflht  Rabi- 
nitVM  of  Aa  Tiaiigt.tttreUitr  tuitk  the  Batdfu  OppoiiU 
Dadriae  itf  Eltmal  Oiiuufaaa.  The  author  wa*  at 
one  time  prnfeaaor  of  thaolngy  in  the  University  of 
Rostock,  and  hia  publication  called  forib,  aocording  to 
Walch,  no  lees  than  fourteen  volumea  iu  reply.  Jung- 
Stilling,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  ceiitu^,  an  able 
defender  of  Christianity  against  Uerman  raliunalism, 
was  an  anient  and  eminent  Unircrsaiiat.  Fruf.  Tho- 
luek  wrote, in  183^ that  thi*dnctrine"ean)«  particalar- 
ly  into  notice  through  Jung-Stilling,  that  eminent  tnan 
who  wa*  a  particular  instrument  in  the  hand  of  Ood 
fur  keeping  up  evingelical  truth  in  the  latier  part  uf 
tbe  former  century,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strung  pa- 
tron (o  that  doctrine."  Uuring  the  preeent  century, 
(Jniversaliam  baa  tiude  rapid  progress  in  (lennanr, 
Olahauien  saya  of  it  tlut  it  "has,  no  doubt,  a  deep  root 
in  noble  minda,  and  ia  the  exprewiun  of  a  heart-felt  de- 
sire fur  a  perfect  harmony  uf  the  creation."  Dr.  Dwight 
wrote  in  1829  "The  doctrine  of  (he  eternity  of  fut- 
ure punishment  ia  almost  universallv  rejocleii"  Sim- 
ilar testimony  wa*  borne  by  I'lvf.  Sean  in  ISM:  "The 
current  byputbeait  i*  that  in  the  middle  state,  interreo- 
ing  between  death  and  the  reaurTectiim,  the  righteous 
will  gradually  attain  to  perfection;  and  that  to  all  (he 
wickeil,  whether  men  or  angel*,  the  Uoapel  will  be 
preacbeil,  and  that  they  will  ultimately  accept  it  and 

In  Switaerland  Unireraaliim  waa  advocated  in  tbe 
laat  century  by  Marie  Huber,  wboM  ifurld  UwiKukul 
waa  tranalited  and  republished  both  in  England  and 
Ametica.  In  I'M  Fndinand  Oliver  Petitfiierre  pro- 
mulgated Unireraaliam  in  a  work  entitled  Tkim/kU  m 
l&e  IHeiM  GoadBtn,  of  which  aeveral  Engiiah  and  Amer- 
ican ediliona  have  been  publinhert.  Lavater,  the  great 
phyaiognomist,  and  the  intimate  friend  and  correapond- 
ent  of  Jung-Stilling,  waaadnivenalisi.  UtetJ.H.D. 
Zschokke  advocated  Uoiveraaliam  in  hia  atwtdm  der 
Andadil,  Che  rarorile  book  with  the  late  prince  Albert, 
anil  after  hia  death  tranalated  into  English  hy  request 
of  queen  Victiiria  fur  general  circnialiun  among  her 
aubjecta.  In  Prance,  in  the  laat  century,  Kev.  Tbomai 
Cuppe  wrote  in  defence  of  Universal iira.  Later  in  the 
aime  century,  Chais  de  aourcesol  wrote  and  puWished 
in  its  defence.  In  the  preaent  century  the  Cuqueiela— 
father  and  sons  Athanaie  and  ^ienne — have  ailvocated 
it  in  the  pulpit  and  from  the  preaa.  In  Scotland  Kev. 
James  Purve*  wrote  in  defence  of  the  doctrine,  and  ee- 
tahlished  a  Uiiiversalist  society  about  IT'O;  Her.  Neil 
Douglan  founded  another  about  1800 ;  and  within  twen- 
ty-Hve  yean  four  or  Ave  others  were  atarted,  largely 
through  the  inatru mentality  uf  Mr.  Doughua  and  hi* 

either  disbanded  or  merged  in  the  Unitarian  churches, 
which  in  Scotland  are  all  Univenalisc  in  their  viewa  of 
deatiny.  Pmminent  among  the  Scotch  Unitarian  Uni- 
vcTsaiiM*  was  Dr.  T.  Southwood  Smith,  who  puUiahed, 
in  ISIS,  /Oiutnitiota  of  Ike  DMm  Cotxmnoir,  a  book 
that  haa  passed  through  aeveral  eilitiona.  Thoma* 
Erabine,  recently  deceaaed,  waa  alao  an  able  writer  on 
Unireraalism.  At  present  there  are  a  few  distinctive 
I  a  convention  in  Scotland. 
IB  preached  aa  eariy  a*  1782. 
a,  who  had  been  educated  at 
became  a  Univenatiac  H« 
rica,  and  after  being  the  Buo- 
ceasi>r  of  Winch<4ter  at  IHiiladelphii  for  about  eight 
year*,  he  removed  to  Uloucestet,  Mao.,  and  waa  tbe 
aucceawir  of  Murray  for  forry-Sve  ytua. 

In  England  the  Proieetanta,  io  drawing  up  their 
Forty -two  Article*  of  Keligion,  in  1562,  condemned 
UuiveraalisiB.    Ten.yeatt  later,  when  the  eanvocaiiun 


Universaliat  et 
In  Wale*  Univ 
In  1783  Rev.  T 
lady  Kuntingd< 


UNIVERSALISTS  61 

reviial  the  ducuiiia  of  the  Church,  the  number  of  arti- 

cWwu  reducetl  In  thiny-nme.uinitciiig,  amuni;  othen, 
the  one  cnndemoing  UiiiTensliim.  Siiica  Ihal  lime 
UiiiverMlism  hu  iiaL  been  ■  furbiilden  doctrine  in  the 
Church  of  EiiKlind,  but  hu  been  adviioted  and  defend- 
ed by  same  of  the  most  eminent  memben  of  iu  com- 
munion—aueh  menju  Dr.  Heniy  Mare,fiirneurge  Ston»- 
houte,  Bp.  Thomas  Newton,  Ur.  David  lisnlev,  Will- 
Um  Whiston,  Dr.  Thomu  Burnet,  Kevs.  Frclerick  W. 
Riibenwn,  Chirte*  Kin^^ley,  StfpKird  BnKike,  and  can- 
on Facnr,  and  indireclly  by  archliinhnp  Tillotunn.  Tbe 
I'realiyierian  Parliament  of  1048,  which  tempnnrily 
overthrew  E|)iscopacy,  paaaed  a  law  against  allbereaiee, 
punisbiiit;  the  penixterxt  holdera  of  *ome  with  de«th, 
and  ofothecB  with  imprinnmeiit.  "  That  all  men  ihali 
be  saved"  wm  among  the  heieiiea  puniihable  in  the 


le  Indep 


eailed  b 


the  Uw-maker«.  (ierani  Winatanlpy  published  a  work 
in  ailvocacjr  of  Univenaliam  only  i  few  days  after  tbe 
IHWage  of  the  law,  which  wai  •oon  folluwed  by  aimilar 
wurkarroni  hiapen.  William  Earbury  fearlenly  preach, 
cd  Univeraaliam.  RiclianI  Oippin  wu  actire  in  ita  ad- 
vocacy, publiahiuR  largely  ill  ita  expiHilinn  and  defence, 
and  was  several  times  irie<l  for  lila  offence,  tiamuel 
Kichardsnn,  an  eminent  Uapliat,  alno  wrote  srniiiKir  in 
iu  behalf.  Sir  Henry  Vane  (Iha  vonnuer),  membeV  of 
the  Parliament  diuolved  by  Cromwell,  aii.l  in  lOM  gnv- 
cnior  of  Mauactaiiaetts,  wu  a  Unireraalist.  Jeremv 
White,  one  of  Cmmneiri  chaplaini,  preached  Univer- 
aalism,  and  pobliahed  ■  work  which  haa  paKseit  ihmugh 
several  eilittons.  Jane  Lead,  a  Mystin,  waa  the  author 
ofMveral  UniveraaliaC  books.  Henry  Bionke,a  liieraty 
writer,  avowed  his  belief  in  Universaliam  in  his  Fiiol 
a/  QuaUly,  and  in  a  poem  on  the  Messiah.  William 
'    '       ~    '  w  Call,  declared  in  hii  Ltl- 


s  for  I 


s  world  0 


turyw 


some  aftet^ 
tbe  last  een- 
fence  of  Uni- 


id  been  i  preacher  in  White- 
the  doctrine  of  reprobation, 
was  uy  meditation  and  study  led  into  another  scheme 
of  redemption,  aome  of  the  pecidiaritiea  of  which  maj 
be  aaid  to  hive  had  their  origin  with  him.  Aoceptinj 
M  true  the  common  theory  thai  all  men,  having  sinnei 
in  Adam,  justly  inciirreil  eternal  damnation,  and  the 
Christ  had  borne  tbu  iiitliiil«  guilt  and  punishment  ii 
behalf  of  all  who  ihonbl  be  saved,  Kelly  wu  moved  V 
Und,  if  possible,  some  ground  of  justice  in  such  a  schemt 
The  divine  law  explicitly  declares  that  "  the  soul  wbici 
sinnech,  it  shall  die,"  and  that  the  innocent  shall  on 
suOer  fur  the  guilty.  How  could  a  transfer  of  humai 
sin  and  penalty  to  Christ  be  consistent  with  that  law ' 
How  could  it  be  reconciled  with  equity?  The  divine 
sovereigiity,  without  regard  to  inherent  j»W ice  in  the 
plan,  could  not  aecounl  for  it;  fur  the  abwdnleness  that 
could  set  justice  aside  might  Jiiat  as  easily,  and  more 
mercifully,  have  gone  straight  to  its  aim  by  remitting 
instead  of  transferring  sin  and  its  deserts.  Tr>  say  that 
the  sufferings  orChrint  were  merely  ncffpfni  as  satisfac- 
fictian  for  human  deoens,  only  ndminl  u  inch,  by 
God's  sovereign  pleasure,  was  no  aileqnate  explanation, 
aince  they  were  thus  only  ■  flctitioiis,  not  a  real,  satis- 
faction; and,  further,  any  aufferiugs  whalsoerer,  even 
thoaa  of  a  man,  would  have  answered  juM  as  well  u  an 
arbitrary  acceptance  'if  the  cnei|ual  of  <iod.  The  per- 
fect consistency  of  <iod's  procedure,  its  abanlule  harmn- 
ny  with  justice  and  equity,  Kelly  found,  u  he  claimed, 
in  such  a  real  and  thorough  union  of  Christ  with  the 
human  race  as  made  their  acts  his,  and  his  theirs.  All 
men,  he  held,  were  really  in  Ailam  and  ainned  in  him, 
not  by  a  flilitious  imputation,  but  by  actual  panidpa- 
tioo;  equally  so  are  all  men  in  the  second  Adam, "the 

what  they  do  u  is  the  bead  in  the  natural  body  ac- 


UNIVERSALISTS 


itahle  for  the  deeds  of  all 

.  head.    Accordingly  Christ,  in  hi 

wu  truly  guilty  of  the  offence  of  the  hqman  rvce, 

and  (uuld  be,  aa  be  actually  was,  justly  punished  fnc  il ; 

he  race,  because  of  this  anion,  really  snlletvd  ia 

ill  the  penalty  which  he  endured,  and  thus  fully 

satisfied  justice.    There  is  no  more  pDnishmeiil,  there- 

lue  for  sin,  nor  any  further  occasion  for  diclaiinjt 

emands  of  the  law,  except  to  make  men  feel  tbeir 

inability  to  obey,  and  thus  compel  Ihem  to  an  exdo- 

!  reliance  on  Christ  the  head.    He  baa  dueled  • 

iplele  and  Hnished  justillcalian  of  the  whole  woeM. 

When  man  believe*  this  he  is  freed  finm  the  aetus  ■/ 

guilt,  freed  alan  from  all  doubt  and  fear.     Until  be  b»- 

I  it  he  is,  whether  in  this  world  or  in  another,  ub- 

le  condemnation  of  untielief  and  darkoesa,  tbe  oaly 

iliuii  and  defence  of  this  theory,  Relly  wrote  mnd 
published  several  books,  preached  lealously  in  Londoa 
d  vicinity,  and  gathered  a  coneirgalion  in  the  me- 

formed  from  his  c«tigi;tgatloni  bat  both  hare  now 
ceased  to  exist,  u  hu  the  anciety  gathered  by  Win- 
cheater  about  17SB,  and  the  Church  founded  fav  David 
Thorn,  D.D..  in  Liverpool  <n  I^^S.  Tbe  UnirariaM  an 
England  are  all  believer*  In  Univenalism,  aa  aie  alas 
many  of  the  Congregaliiinalista. 

B.  /HAmeriea  Uiiirersalism  la  the  lesolt  of  thepnic- 
lamatinn  ofararietjof  theories,  some  of  (hem  ai  a  vetr 

ilness  of  the  hnman  race.  Sir  Henry  Vane,  u  wu  aid 
above,  wu  a  Uiiivemlisl.  It  is  nut  known  that  while 
in  America  be  made  any  public  avowal  of  that  beliefi 
but  the  presumption  is  that  he  did  not  stand  alooe.  Ia 
July,  liJtH,  Joseph  Galchell,  of  Uarblehrad,  Maa,  wu 
biuiight  before  the  Suffolk  County  Court  fi>r  disoooraBg 
"  that  all  men  should  be  ureil,"  and,  being  cnnricted, 
was  sentenced  "to  the  |Hllory  and  to  have  hie  loogne 
drawn  forth  and  pierced  with  a  hot  imn."  Ur.  (ieoqt* 
De  Benneville,  also  mentioned  above,  came  to  Ainetk* 
in  i;41,  expressly  called  of  Oo<l,  as  he  believed,  ■• 
preach  the  Oospe'l  in  the  New  World.  For  more  Ikaa 
ttfty  years  he  preached  in  various  parts  of  PentMvlvBii^ 
Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  Canilinas.  He  waa  not  an 
organizer,  but  eim|^y  a  preacher,  and  quite  a  ndoni- 
nous  writer,  though  oidy  a  few  of  his  prudiidiofia  wen 
publishHl.  Fur  several  rears  he  was  welcomed  to  tbe 
pulpits  of  the  "  Brethren"  (Dnnken).  It  waa  no  doubt 
at  his  suggestion  that  Siegvolk'a  Korrlatiiig  GiHpfiynm 
translated  into  English,  and  published  by  Christopber 

tlie  Jin-Umyrr  Bihd  had  been  strock  off.  Thu  edi- 
tion wu  reviewed  by  Rev.  N.  Pomp,  a  German  niiiiisier 

er  ainong-the  Uiinkars,  replied  to  Ponip,  defending  Srjf- 
rolk's  views.  This  work  wu  never  piiblishcd,  but  the 
H3.  is  still  preserved.  There  wu  found  among  Dr.  De 
Ilenneville'a  papers,  alter  his  death,  in  1790,  a  Cummim 
lary  on  /At  Apocolfpir,  which  wu  printed  in  G^rnwa, 
at  l^ebanou,  l*a.,  in  1808.  There  wu  also  Vtdfrraaium 
in  Ms  Jipitcapal  CliurcJk.  Rev.  Richard  Qarke,  rector 
of  St.  Philip's  in  Charleston.  S,  C,  from  17b4  to  17W, 
was  a  pronounced  advocate  of  it ;  u  was  Kev.  John  Tr- 
ier, rector  of  the  Church  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  who  wn« 
a  work  in  its  defence,  which  wu  published  by  sione  otie 
to  whom  be  hid  loaned  his  MS.,  about  1787.  Snmc  af 
the  Congregationalists  of  New  England  were  beUercn 
in  Univerealismi  among  them  Dr.  Jonalban  Maybcw, 
minister  of  the  West  Church  in  lliMon  ttom  1747  u 
IT66,  who  diaiincily  avowed  his  belief  in  it  in  >  pub- 
lished Tkanktiiiatig  StrmBk.  Dec  S,  l'62.  Dr.  Chula 
Chaiincv,  minister  of  the  First  Church  in  Boauo  frooi 
I7J7  to  1787,  issued  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject  in  1781; 
which  wu  reviewed  bv  Dr.  Samuel  Mather.  Id  1781 
bis  larger  work  Tit  Sulmilian  o/AU  Mtm  wu  pubU*> 
ed,  a  second  edition  following  in  1787.  Dr.  Jneph 
Huntington,  minister  in  Coventry,  Conn.,  from  1763  I* 


UNIVERSALISTS  6i 

ITM,laft  •  work  in  rai-or  of  Cnivendiam.  entiOed  C<U- 
vwMii  Iiprvred,  wbich  wu  puhliihed  in  1796. 

(II.)  FormaL-ln  ITTO  John  Hurray  (q.  v.),  who  had 
(uroKrly  been  »  Hechoiliat  in  Ireluiil  ind  Bnglinil,  but 
ai»te  rMtiitly  >  convert  lo  Lhe  viem  at  Jamn  Kelly, 

UtiiTviuliam  on  the  Rdlyan  (beory.  After  icinenling 
•  Tew  iretn  iu  Tirioui  parts  o(  ilie  couatry,  fbviii  Vir- 
ICiiiia  to  HamchuMUs,  he  made  hia  borne  in  Uiouces- 
ler,  Uaaa^  where,  in  1779,  he  otgtn'aeA  ■  wiciely  ot  (Jiii- 
verMliWa,  unrler  the  name  of  "The  Independent  Chria- 
lian  Churub."  With  tta«  exception  ot  a  few  months 
■pent  in  the  army,  u  cbaplaiu  nf  the  Rhwle  ItUiid  Bri- 
gade, lie  miniitenil  to  the  aociety  in  Gloucester,  making 
ueeuional  misiionary  toun  through  the  country  till 
1793,  when  he  remnved  to  Boston,  where  ■  aociety  had 
beca  ramied  in  ITHA,  and  lemained  there  a*  its  pastor 
tUl  hia  death,  in  1815. 

In  1781  Elhanan  WincheM«,who  had  been  an  emi- 
neiit  Baptiiit  clergyman  in  Philadeiphia,  became  a  Uiii- 
renuliat,  and  gathered  a  UiiiveraaliM  auciety  in  that 
city,  which  tuok  the  name  of  "  Unireml  Baptiats."  Aa 
■  Bapliat  hit  viewa  were  moderately  Calviiiistic,  if  not 
wholly  Arminiio,  and  hi)  UniTeraalian]  dilTereU  in  liltle 
or  Dothiag  fnio  the  present  tD-eailed  evangelical  doc- 
tiinea,  except  in  regard  tu  the  duration  and  design  of 
luture  puaiahment  and  the  tinal  reetoratiun  ol  all  ioM 
men  and  ingeta.  Firty  thousand  yean,  which  vrould 
bring  in  the  great  jubilee,  was  the  entreme  limit  in  hia 
theory  of  the  punighmenl  uCthe  must  sinful.  Mr.  Win- 
choter  itinerated  extensively,  aa  far  (oulh  as  the  Caro- 
Knas  and  north  to  Massachusetts,  like  Ue  Ik-nneville, 
be  was  fur  a  time  welcomed  to  the  pulpits  of  the  Dun- 
ken,  who,  from  their  Sral  coming  lo  America  in  1719, 
have  been  believers  in  universal  resloratinn,  although, 
in  the  main,  bnlding  it  privauly.    Some  of  their  preach- 

and  defended  in  several  of  (heir  published  wurka,  nota- 
bly so  by  James  Bi.llon,  who,  in  1793,  published  a  pam- 
phlet Bi  Bphrata,  Pa.,  in  which  he  oenaures  the  "  Bcelh- 
ren"  for  not  giving  greater  publicity  tu  it,  auertinK 
that  "the  Uerman  Baptists  (Dunkets)  all  believe  it,' 
About  the  year  17lto  the  Duiikers  became  alarmed  by 
the  preaching  of  some  pemns,  now  unknown,  against 
future  punishment,  and  Hnally  took  action  that  cut  off 
John  Ham,  one  uf  their  preachers  of  this  theory,  and 
his  fulluwera  from  the  Church,  and  foriiaile  the  pmcla- 
maiion  ofUniversatUm  in  any  form.  In  178SMr.\Vin- 
ebesler  went  to  England,  where  he  preached  and  pub- 
lisbed  books  in  defence  uf  his  view)  and  estaUished  a 
snciety.  He  returned  to  America  in  1795  and  died  in 
I79& 

Ointenoponry  with  Hurray  and  Winchester  was  Ca- 
leb Bich,  of  Hassachuactta,  who  gathered  a  Univeraalist 
■•ctety  in  the  towna  of  Warwick  and  Bichmond.  Mr. 
Hieh  may  be  saul  to  have  anticipated  many  of  the 
views  aAerwarda  more  fully  elaborated  by  Uosea  Bal- 
hni,  and  probably  bad  great  direct  influence  in  futniiug 
the  spiiiivns  of  the  latter. 

Id  New  Jersey  several  Baptist  pteacbera  and  their 
congrtgalioiia  became  Univeraalist).  In  Pennsylvania 
there  was  a  congregatiun  of  Rellyan  Univenalisis,  and 
tbe  "  Uiiireraal  Itaiitlsla"  before  mentioned,  in  Phila- 
delphia, while  societies  had  been  organized  in  Bucka 
and  Waahington  counties.  Rev.  Abel  Saijent,  minister 
in  the  latter  locality,  organiied  Univeraalist  churches 
on  the  baata  at  the  distriue  of  tbe  divine  unity,  in  op- 
position to  the  Trinity,  publishing  the  crved  of  those 
<hurches  in  tbe  Frn  l/nirtriai  Magiauf,  edited  by 
him  in  1799-94  Of  the  exisUnee  nf  theMt  churches 
the  Dniversaliata  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country 
were  for  a  Imig  time  ignorant  Rellyaniam  made  but 
liltle  pnigreas,  Hr.  Murray  complaining  In  1787  that  he 
knew  of  but  one  public  advocate  of  Univerulism  in 
Americs  wbo  fully  sympathized  with  bim  in  his  views. 
Tbia'wa*  the  Rev.  John  Tyler  before  it 

Ber.  8o«M  Ballou  eomownced  hli 


11  UNIVERSALISTS 

venaliit  preacher  in  1T90.    Originally  a  Calriniatic 

Baptist,  he  was  a  TriiiiUrian  Utiivenalist  until  179S, 
when  he  avowed  his  belief  in  Unitarian  views  of  Ood 
and  Christ  1  and  in  1805  published  hia  Trcatite  on  Alont- 

aacridce,  contending  that  the  life  and  death  of  Christ 
were  for  the  reconciling,  not  of  Riiit,  but  of  man,  aiMl 
avowed  his  belief  that  the  punishment  of  the  aina  of 
mortality  waa  confined  to  ttiis  life,  and  that  if  punish- 
ment were  experienced  in  tbe  life  beyond  the  grave,  it 
would  be  for  sins  committed  there.  In  1818  he  had 
satiaHod  blmaelftbat  there  la  no  ain  beyond  the  grave, 
and  cnnaei(uentlv  no  punishment  after  death.  By  1S80 
Mr.  Balluu'a  news  were  quite  extensively  held  in  the 
denomination,  and  some  of  the  believers  in  future  limit- 
ed punishment  acceded  from  the  Uiiiversaliat  Coiiven- 
ti.iu  and  established  the  denomination  of  Restoration- 
isD.  Although  this  secession  was  led  by  a  few  emi- 
nent men,  it  was  nut  considered  expedient  nor  in  any 
sense  called  for  by  quite  as  many  and  aa  eminent  b^ 
liever*  in  future  retribution  who  remained  in  the  old 
organization.  The  poaition  of  these  tatter  was  that 
Univenaliam  waa  not,  and  never  Imt  been,  l)>e  belief  in 
no  future  punishment,  nor  the  belief  in  a  brief  or  long, 
continued  retribnlinD  hereafter;  but  the  belief  that  G») 
would,  through  Christ,  in  his  own  good  lime,  "rvstore 
the  whole  family  i>f  mankind  to  holiiiesaand  happiness.' 
Aa  there  had  never  been  entire  unity  of  sentiment  asta 
the  tinM  wban  this  result  would  be  reached,  but  had 
been  tolerance  of  opinion  on  that  aa  on  oilier  difltsrefioes, 
they  aaw  no  occSHon  fur  a  division  nti  account  t^  pres- 
ent differences,  Tbe  "  Reslorationist  Asaaciaiion'  ex- 
isted about  eleven  vears,  iu  last  session  being  held  in 
18)1,  at  which  tim'e  the  publication  of  its  organ.  The 
liflrpemlrHl  CAivtiim  Mtumgir,  ceased,  and  it  became 
extinct  as  a  sect.  Some  of  its  preachers  relumed  Iu  the 
fellowship  of  the  Univeisalisi  Ginventinn,  some  affili- 
ated with  the  Unilariana,  and  olhen  wholly  withdrew 
from  the  ministry.  Mr.  Uall.ni  diedin  1851  Uiaworii 
and  memory  am  held  in  reverent  esteem  by  the  entira 
denomination,  and  by  none  more  ardently  than  by  tbe 
many  who  do  not  aoecpt  hia  theory  of  lun  aiid  retribU' 
tion.    See  Ballou.  ' 

(III.)  ^aarac/ZfuCory.— Dddeiiein,  laHitutiB  Thaa- 
log.  ChriMliiam  (I7H7),  ii,  199,  202 ;  Beni,  Brtriarvtat 
HUI.  KaL  cent,  viii-xii,  c.  8t  Prieattey,  Itil.  of  (^s 
ariMuia  ChinA,  per.  xviii,  lecl.  ix,  p.  IS6.  ia7i  Aaso- 
mani,  BMotkeat  O'vafnlii,  lit,  i,  820,  824;  Du  Fin, 
EccL  //t>r.  voLxii,ch.viii,p.llS,  lib;  Moeheim,  fni 
tliil,  cent.  XV,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v;  cent,  xvi,  aec.  iii,  pt.  ii,  ch. 
i;  cenu  xviii,  sec  20;  Ballou, /InCKnt  HiUory  of  Un- 
mruduM  (2d  ed.  1872);  Beecher,  ^crvtHrof />(K(r>iw 
ofRelnbutioii!  Dumur,  Tnmtlnliaa  of  Dnxdiit'i  Con- 
lultraliimiimaerjutginiO):  Davulson,  TVofuJiiIsnio/ 
GirMlti'i  CompendiuiH  of  EccbnojUait  //iNory  (1849), 
i,  S20,  331 ,'  Augustini  Ettdiiriilion  ad  Laarmtiam,  c 
cxii ;  Olahanaen,  Conn,  m  MM.  xn,  SI,  S2 ;  Law,  Col- 
iKtiBH  o/LtlUn  (1782),  letter  xii,  p.  172;  ^ccounl  of 
lhe  BrrldMrger  Bible,  in  Tk<  CnicertaliU  (Boaton,  Nov. 
S,  1878);  Whittemare,ifO(icrn  llitlory  of  Uimtrtakim 
(ibid.  I860);  Uikita,  HiAofUut  Prol.  Ep.Ch.iHSoatk 
Ciirolma  (1820) ;  Eddy,  Paptri  m  Unietrialul  Coiueit- 
liont  tud  Ci-rtdM,  in  Umetrtaliit  QuatUrlg,  1871-80; 
rhomaa,X  Cratuiy  of  Umutriulirm  i  Eddy,  «S.  Hi*- 
torg  nf  l/aitrrtulitn  in  Glouettltr,  M/um.,  I(i4-1874; 
Wbittemore,  Memoir  of  Hrv.  Ilotra  BuUoa  (4  vola.); 
Life  of  Rev.  Nuliwad  Staiy  (autobiography);  Smith, 
Hiiloriati  Sielehtt  if  naieeriiiliim  in  Ikt  Slate  of  Nea 
York. 

It.  OrganiiaHoa  ami  Goremmnl.—ln  the  eariy  bit- 
tory  of  Uiiiversalism  in  America,  the  first  form  of  or- 
ganiution  waa  simply  into  legal  audeiies;  siterwards 
into  churches  within  the  aocietica.  The  only  eiceiitioii 
to  ihia  waa,  commencing  with  1790,  in  Pennaylvania, 
where  the  Church  became  both  the  legal  organization 
and  tbe  religious  body  of  communicant).  The  Univer- 
salisu  in  Gbuceeter,  HasL,  ttie  first  to  organize,  banded 


UNITERSALIST9  6( 

thfitiwlrm  together  by  ui  if^reeinent  or  uuciation  Id 
IT'S,  wliiuli  th«y  chaiiireil  to  a  charier  of  cumpact  in 
i'Sa,  and  were  iiicorpormieil  in  1792.  llembcn  of  the 
•uciety  and  their  prupercy  l>eiDg  teiied  tar  payment  of 
taxei  lu  [he  dnt  parish  in  liluuueMct,  iha  Univenalisu 

rigliltii  exemptiun  TroiD  uxatiuuTur  the  tuppnrtof  aiiy 
uCher  Chan  their  own  minister.  By  reawn  at  Tarioiu 
deUya  ami  appeals  the  cub  did  not  reach  a  llual  decia' 
i<ni  till  ITSe,  Hhea  the  ngbu  of  the  UuivtruliMa  were 
eataliliahed.  Ueanwhile  congregationa  and  aocietiea 
gathered  in  other  part*  of  HaauchuMtta  and  in  Hhode 
lalaud.deiiirinK  cuunael  and  adrice,  united  with  the 


UNIVERSALISTS 


e  bagia  of  urKaiiii 


'i'h( 


r  of  a 


It  Osfi 

which  w 


reaimiiDeiiiJed  tuthe  sicietiestepreBeiited,  who  were  alao 
teiiuesled  tu  take  on  themaelvn  the  name  at "  Indepen- 
dent Chridiaii  SiKiety,  com  in  only  called  Univeraalian;" 
(u  keet)  up  a  cucrenpundeiice  with  each  other;  and  to 
iiniially,  by  delei;atea,  fur  conrerence.    The  legal 


ritfl... 


^bytl 


.mpIiahoJ  all  tti 


of  till 


•r  17H7. 

In  1/90  the  oungregaiiuui  orgauiied  in  Hbiladelphta  tiy 
Hurray  and  Wiiiclieater  became  nne,  and,  feelinii:  the 

at  large,  issued  a  call  Tur  a  coiiveniiuii,  which  was  held 
iu  Hay  of  that  year  in  Philadelphia,  at  which  time  a 
prufuaiun  at  faith  and  platfurn  at  guverumenl  fur  the 
churctae*  wa*  drawn  up  aud  recoDiniended  to  all  the 
chnrchea  for  their  adoption.  Five  cburcliea  were  rep- 
raieiiial  iu  thia  cooventiiin,  and  aeveu  preachers  were 
in  aueudauee.  The  annual  tneetiiiga  of  ihia  ounven- 
li>in  were  all  held  in  Philadelpliia  j  but  the  distance  fivni 
that  city  tu  New  Kugland  was  so  great,  and  the  incon- 
venience uf  iiialiiu)[  the  juiirney  were  then  so  numer- 
uns,  thai  iu  179!  the  Uiiiveraaliata  of  DuMun  aiked  and 
obtained  permiaaiau  tii  organize  another  cuiiventiim  fur 
the  Eaateni  States.  This  cmiveiilion  held  its  lirtt  ses- 
aino  at  Uxfuril,  MasiL,  in  1793,  and  adopted,  the  fuUnw- 
jiig  year,  the  fhilailelphia  profeaiion  and  idatlorni,  and 
recurameuded  them  u  all  their  churches.  In  tSOS, 
churches  and  asaocialioos  of  churches  having  ' 
and  a  diversity  uf  apeculalive  oianion  previ 
New  KiigUnd  coDveutiou  deemed  it  best  to 
piwiiiile,  on  a  prufearioii  of  Faith,  and  to  esub 
dedneil  nilet  of  giivemnwnl,  ordination,  felluws1ii|i,  and 
diaei|ijlne  for  ilie  use  oT  (hat  body,  'I'his  wi 
plished  ill  1803,  bv  the  adoption  at  the  senio 
WiiichtMf  r,  N.  H^uf  such  defluite  rules,  and  i 
lowing  I'pjfessiou  of  Belief: 

"Art.1.  Webelieve  that  the  Hnl^Scrlptureenr  the  Old 

aiirtNewTesiaineiiUctiuUinBretr'-'  "    '■■---■ 

arG<Ht.aiidarilkedBlj,lnteinil,  ■ 
Kuuklud. 

"ArLi.  We  believe  that  there  la 
Is  Ion.  reiealed  lu  ••iie  Lord  Jeen 
Spirit  ,it  Unica.  wHn  will  lliially  reMori 
ofmenkbid  tohollnesaandlMuplneas. 

"Art.  B  We  liellere  that  h-ilineOT  and  Ime  hsnplnesa 
are  limiiarably  eiiiiiiecud,  aud  Ihst  bellevem  i>ii|[bi  bi  Iw 
careful  to  miriilalii  onler  iiud  pmct' 
theee  iblnt^  are  i^wd  siid  proAoble 

rhii  has  remained  unchanged  to  the  preaent 
The  Pbiladelphia  conveDIinn  ceased  to  exist  in 
but  the  New  England  convention,  though  with  changes 
both  in  form  of  go' 
tu  the  pteaenl,  aii< 
Convention."    It  is  composed  of  clerical  and  lay  dele- 


iiially  engaged  iu  Che  w 


Ihrl't,  by  one  B<.ly 
e  the  whole  ruinlly 


and  discipline,  and  U  the 
cases  of  dilUculLy  between 

dnal  court  of  appeal  in  all 

veiuions  and  parishes,  or  ministeis,  not  olherwiac  set- 
tled by  subordinate  bodies;  but  it  has  no  power  to  in- 

dismisaal  of  a  miuisier  in  feUnwship;  uor  can  it,  under 

ship  from  those  who  are  enivicted  of  oSenoea.    S<M 

Convention;  provide  for  the  eiirorcemetit  of  the  nlei 

unds  for  local  ir 


ind  disciplini 


scates  assocuuuns  still  exist  composed  of  counties  «  at 
neighboring  parishea  exiendijig  over  Largir  terriiofr; 
but,  under  the  present  laws,  these  have  no  ecdesisslital 
authority,  and  are  only  a  medium  of  local  confenDse 
and  encouragement  in  religious  giT>wth.  Parishes  are 
local  legal  organiiaiious  for  the  purpose  of  holding  jkdii- 

tenance  of  religions  wonhip.  Aude  rrom  a  required  as- 
sent to  the  ProfeiBioii  of  Faith,  and  their  obuiniiig  the 
lellowsbipuf  the  StiteConvenlioii,  or.  in  localities  wlifie 
no  such  organiutinn  exl>tis  the  direct  fellowahipof  the 
tieneral  Convention,  all  parishes  are  Congregaliuoal  ia 

the  dvil  laws  of  the  stale  or  tcrrilor)'  where  ihr*  an 
located.  Churches,  with  the  exception  of  those  io  IVan- 
sylvania,  as  before  noted,  are  the  religious  orgaiiieatinoa 
created  within  the  legal  parish.  In  them  the  urdi- 
iiances  of  the  Gnepelare  administered ;  and  the  iHiiposs 
of  their  vKislenc«  is  the  union  of  bclieven  and  the 
[juickriiing  and  increase  of  their  religious  life,  obedinit 
Lo  the  command  of  the  I>ird  and  his  apnetlea.  Sundsi- 
schiHils  are  also  eslsblirhed  in  the  pariahe^  and  sit, 
while  iudepenilent  in  the  managetneiil  of  their  aliaiis, 
chiefly  watched  over  aud  directed  bv  the  Church. 

IIL  ZAKfriBrs.-The  Winchester  Prufotian  (fdm 
above)  is  regarded  a*  a  aiifflcienlly  full  and  ex|ilidt 
statement  of  the  belief  le^uired  in  order  lu  felliniJii|i 
iu  the  Universalist  Church,  and  as  affiirding  (he  gital- 
est  latitude  in  dilTerences  on  all  minor  poinla.    But  a 

venalirta  of  the  present  day  may  be  briefly  setlixiha 
embracing  the  following  particulars: 

1.  0/God.—Thn  he  is  inflnite  in  all  his  perfeaioo), 
the  Creator  and  Preserv-er  of  aU  worhls,  and  of  aU  lbs 
beings  that  inhabit  Ihem;  revealed  lo  man  in  all  Ikst 
nature  leaches  uf  wisdom  and  deaignt  in  consdeoc^ 
which  discriminates  between  light  and  wrong;  and  in 
the  Holy  Scriplurea.  and  especially  in  his  full  perfediia 
in  Jesus  Chriat.  That  it  is  fuiidamenlal  in  the  revela- 
liuii  through  Christ  that  Cod  is  the  Father  of  the  •piriu 


ought  Ui 


aKud 


jt  tu  the  ProfeasioD  of  Belief;  and  no  pariah  I  that  he  aloae  can  lead  n 


and  loving  putjioae  that  their  existence  should  pnm  a 
Una]  and  endless  blessing  lo  I  hem;  and  tint  while  htii 
strictly  just  in  his  dealinfn  with  all,  he  never  luaes  li^ 
of  his  great  purpose  in  their  creation;  and  that,  with- 
out violaiion  of  their  moral  freedom,  lie  will,  tbroi^ 
the  gracious  inSuencea  of  the  Gospel,  subdue  and  via 
all  Miula  U)  holineia.  That  his  guvemment,  laws,  sad 
purpose  are  the  asme  in  all  worlds,  death  in  no  wayrf- 
fecting  his  attituile  towards  men :  but  that  he  is  w  tt 
found  wherever  sought,  and  will  alwaya  accept  and  &» 

i.  O/ChriMt—l-hMt  he  is  not  God,  hut  God',  higher 
and  only  perfect  representative,  sent  by  Che  FsifaerHt 
for  the  purpoiM  of  aflecting  God's  attitude  to  naiLbutsf 
reconciling  man  to  Geid;  that  he  lived,  taught,  wrnuifbt 
miracles,  suffered,  die-l,  and  was  raised  fknm  ibe  dead 
according  to  the  ScriplBtn; 


a  the  Father,  and  is 


UNITERSALISTS  e 

onlj  pntect  way,  tnitb,  uid  Ufa  for  man;  that  he  ia 
Lord  both  oT  the  dead  and  Ihc  liTing,  abta  to  ure  to 
the  attenaoat,  L  e.  in  all  pUcea  and  uiidet  all  clrcuro- 
Mances,  all  who  come  lo  (tnd  bj  him )  and  that  be  must 
nigo  till  eveiy  creature  in  heaven  and  in  earth,  and 
uuder  tba  eanh,  uonfeaaea  him  Lord,  (o  tha  glory  of  God 
Iha  Father,  and  tiod  ia  aU  in  all. 

S.  0/tkt  Boiy  SptHL—ThML  while  U  ia  not  now  la 
be  ezpedad  that  (iod'i  Spirit  will,  at  in  apoatolie  days. 


a  atiU  fuUnied  in  Lhe  aoula 
at  belMTera,  la  wbom  the  Spirit  coma  a>  the  Comforter, 
atld,aa  teMiHed  tu  bv  the  apoatle,  helpa  their  inflrmiliei, 
inapires  their  prayers,  and  poun  inui  their  auula  the 
peai.-e  ur<iud  which  paioeth  all  underslaiiding. 

4.  Of  .ViuL—Thal  "  a  man  ia  the  image  and  ([lory  oT 
God;~  and  that  whalerer  leiidenoie*  may  be  inherited, 
or  by  whatever  siiia  man  may  defile  hinueir,  (he  Si\ ' 
image  ia  never  whnlly  deatmyed,  but  that  under 
can  of  the  appoinled  refiner  and  puriBer,  the  ataina, 
lileoKQi,  and  dnna  can  all  be  removed,  and  the  dii 
likeneai  be  nunireal ;  that  the  humaD  will,  which  c 

the  means  appointed  fat  ita  attainment. 

a.  Q/'^H.^Tbatiliinever  transferable,  but  com 
in  personal  diaobedience  (o  the  divine  law,  and  ia 
greateM  evil  in  the  univerae;  that  no  neceasily  for  i 
laid  on  any  mortal,  yet  that  it  is  incidental  to  the  cai 
of  a  being  who  can  be  drawn  away  of  hia  own  !uau  and 
enriced,  aiid  who  ia  created  with  the  ability  of  chooaiiig 
good  and  evU,  • 

6.  O/B^iearJt  and  /■mutiaaia.— That  obedience  lo 
the  divine  law,  the  attainment  of  holinmi,  piety,  and 
the  Chriatian  gracea,  are  their  own  BKceeding  great  re- 
ward, and  an  manifest  in  the  Kiul'a  conacinusneaa  of 
neamns  to  God  and  of  approval  by  him;  that  punish- 
ment is  in  like  manner  the  natural  fniit  uf  sin,  aliena- 
tion, a  cloud  between  us  and  God,  the  burden  and  aiir- 
rowof  an  tiarecondliation  andenmity.  Thatwhilethe 
reward  ia  iniended  to  keep  na  in  love  with  obedience, 
tha  puoUhment  ia  designed  to  make  ut  feel  that  it  iaan 
evil  and  bitter  thing  lo  ain  againat  God, 


only  in  boli- 


7.  OfCc 
boliiMM  may 


called,  is  the  change  eObcled  in  ibe 
wui  ana  neatt  or  man,  when,  wrought  upon  by  the  gra- 

luves  and  ways,  and,  drawn  by  the  SfHrit  of  Gi 


Intui 


Jury; 


ceaeicy  be  iiiatantaneous,  it  ia  uuly  by  patient 
ance  in  well-doing  that  it  ia  completed. 

8.  OfSaltatioii That  aalvatinn  ia  delivennce  from 

the  practice  and  love  of  sin,  the  bringing  of  the  soul  out 

dienea  to  the  truth,  mil  love  to  God  and  man;  that 
Christ  aavea  when  be  turns  men  away  from  iniquity, 
and  that  hia  saving  work  will  not  he  completed  till  God'* 
law  ia  written  in  and  obeyed  by  every  heart. 

9.  Of  FoTgmma$.~-'\"ht.t  the  fiiTKiveneaa  which  God 
ptnmises  in  all  who  confexa  and  liiraake  Iheir  sins  is  the 
covering  of  past  oBencea  rnmi  aight,  air<l  bringing  them 
no  mote  to  remembrance  against  (hepenitenl;  and  thai 
this  ia  the  forgivenesg  which  Jeaua  leaches  us  that  we 
ought  tn  exercise  towards  all  who  are  peniteut  for  any 
wpmg  which  ihey  have  dune  to  ua. 

10.  0//i>u»nii%.— That  Go<l  has  impUnled  in  all 
men  "the  power  of  an  endless  lire;"  and  that  what  is 
odled  the  murreclion  is  not  simply  the  fitting  of  man 
with  a  spiritual  boily,  hut  also  hia  riaing  up  into  a  pro- 
gteisire  life.  That  death  elTecls  no  moral  change,  but 
that  in  manv  leanecu  lhe  entrance  on  the  life  immor- 
tal 


a  t|{nurance  and  error; 
temptations,  peculiar  to  a  life  in  flesh 
end  bloud,  will  be  absent  from  the  world  of  spirits ;  and 


that  whatever  i 


UNIVERSALISTS 

Ipline  any  may  need  for  patt  offences, 
e  ine  eDecls  of  sin  on  the  suiJI,  will  he  ad- 
love,  aud  will  be  efficacious  for  their  sal- 


IV.  ^si^u  and  IToml^i^-Tbe  usages  of  the  Uuirer- 
aaliat  churches  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  other 
denominatiuBs  that  conduct  their  parish  affair*  on  In- 
dependent or  Congregational  principles  The  following 
art  perhaps  peculiar : 

1.  OnkmUion,  Tranifer,  and  DiieipSna^Fnt  theor- 
dination  ofa  minister,  llie  rule  is  for  the  pariah  desiring 
that  ordination  may  be  conferred  tu  make  formal  appli- 
cation w  the  onnTentionCommittaB  on  I'elliiwahip.Onli- 
iiatiuii,  aud  Uisciplrue,  who,  if  there  ia 


d  call  a 


cnnsistiug  of  ten  oniaiued  ministers  aiul  lay  delegates 
from  ten  parishea,  whi),  on  aaaembling,  organize  by  the 
appointment  of  a  moderalur  and  clerk,  and  pMceeil  lo 
an  examination  of  the  fitness  and  quail Acaiiinu  uf  ilie 
candidate.  If  these  are  fuund  aaliafaclory.therequnilfor 
otdinatioii  is  granted,  and  lhe  pariah  are  authoriisl  lo 

being  done,  Lbe  clerk  of  the  a 
conferred,  whereupon  the  cnc 


il  forwards  to  the  cnn- 


arjur 


a  duty 


on.     On  re- 

•t  request  uf 


been  residing  a  letter  of  iranafer,  which,  if  be  is  in  giiod 
atanding,  is  granted,  and  ia  of  the  nature  of  a  recum- 
mendaiion  to  lhe  convention  into  whose  bonnb  he  is 
removing.  Thia  transfer  it  ia  his  duty  to  present  lo  the 
committee  of  that  coDventinii,  who  thereupon  grsnl  him 

transler,  he  ia  subject  to  discipline  by  the  coireniiuu 
from  which  he  removed,  and  will  in  time  be  dinielkiw- 
shipped  by  hsving  his  nan>e  dropped  from  the  luUtJ 
ministers.  A  miniater  diafellowahipped  for  this  or  any 
other  cause  must,  if  he  desires  Ui  be  reslured  It>  feUnw- 
ahip,  aeek  his  resUirstinn  from  tlie  convention  which 
puninheil  hit  otfenoe ;  but  if  denied  restoratioa  there,  he 
may  appeal  lo  the  General  Convention. 

i.  Tk<  DedicaliM  ycia*™,— When  John  Miimy 
began  lo  preach  in  America,  he  was  frequently  impor- 

iug  that  adiilis  were  the  only  proper  subjecis  for  Chris- 
tian baptism,  he  refuaeil.  As,  however,  he  regarded 
'       ift  of  God  and  memben  of  the  body  nf 


Chris 


would  be  appropriate  and  salutary,  and  originated 
a  rite  which  he  called  the  "deilicaiion  of  children." 
Either  in  lbe  church  or  elsewhere,  as  was  most  am- 
venieni,  parenls  brought  their  children  to  him,  wlin,  if 
infants,  he  took  in  his  aTnis;  ifokler  children,  they  stood 
by  hia  side,  and  he,  placing  hia  hand  on  the  child's  head 
and  pronouncing  its  name,  declared  it  gralefully  re- 
ceived as  (rod^s  gift,  an<l  solemnly  dedicated  to  hia 
Inving  service,  prmiuuncing  on  it  the  bleasiiig  which 


htldren  of  Israeli  "The  Lnnl  hlei 
thee.    The  I^rd  make  hi*  face  ahine  u| 
mm  unlo  thee.     The  Lord  lift  up 


w  and  keep 


Id  give  a 


t  peace. 


ry  generally  observed  among  Uiiiveraalis 
md  Sunday  in  June  being  set  apart  for  it, 
lated  ■'Childien'a  Sunday."  It  is  custom) 
•ccasion  lo  decorate  tne  churches  with  Howi 
lo  very  general  objeciiiin  to  infani  baptism 
imong  Univenaiiats,  baptism  is  in  most  cssi 


a.  Chrithmu,  Eiulrr,  and  J/emoriol.— Christmas  haa 
always  been  a  day  of  specisl  notice  with  Universal- 
ists,  and  of  lata  Easter  ia  appropriately  celebrated.  A 
Sunday  in  Ocluber  ia  set  apart  in  most  Uiiivertaliat 
churchea  aa  Hemorial  Sunday,  the  services  being  made 


UNIVERSAUSTS  e< 

■ppmpriate  to  a  Invlng  Temcnbnnce  of  the  DMmbcn 
cif  the  ChuTch  and  congRgation  who  have  died  during 
the  rear.    On  thii  day  ttM  cbnrctiea  are  decurated  with 

4.  PiAUe  Wonk^—Tht  public  wonhip  of  God  ia 
conducted  bj  tJniveraaliiia  iu  much  the  aame  manner 
m  by  PrDMitaiita  generally.  It  cunsiou  o(  reading  of 
the  Scripuim,  pnyen,  singing,  and  sermon.  A  (ew 
ehurcheg  make  uae  of  a  liturgy,  of  which  aeveral  have 
been  prepared,  but  moM  congrtgatiuDB  hare  an  extem- 
pore service.  Baptism  and  the  Lurd'a  wpper  are  ub- 
serred  in  all  ITniTcruliM  churchn.    The  loade  of  the 

vitation  to  the  latter  ia  aiteuded  to  all  wtio  may  feel  it 
lo  be  either  a  duty  or  a  privilege  thua  to  remember  the 
Lord  Jesus  ChriaU  Sundsyachools  and  ouurerrnce  and 
prayer  meeting*  are  regularly  held  in  moat  uf  the 

V.  SlolufKi.— The  Unirenalists  have  one  Geuenl 
Conrentinn  and  twtnty-roui  aub»rdinate  conventions, 
the  Utter  being  located  in  AlalMma,  Connecticut, 
Georgia,  Illinuia,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky, 
Maine,  UiHBchnsetla,  Michigan,  Minnewta,  Miasouri, 
New  Hampulilre,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohin, Oregon, 
Faunsykania,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont,  Wisconsin,  Cana- 
da, and  Scotland,  Piriah  nrgaiiiiations  exist  in  Cali- 
fornia, Calnradu,  Dakota,  IHstrict  of  Culumbia.  Florida, 
Idaho,  Lnuisisna,  Harrland,  Mississippi,  Nebraska, 
NnRh  and  South  Carolina,  Tenneesee.  Texaa,  Virginia, 
and  WeuVirtrinia.  The  total  Dumber  of  parisbea  ' 
SaS,  with  which  4i,Mlfl  families  are  oonnecied;  7: 
churchea,with  a  membership  nf42,9a2;  Sundav-achoiils, 
099;  leschera  and  pupils.  fi9,633j  church  editlce*,  TB4 
total  value  of  parish  property  above  indebtedness 
•£,417,767;  ministera,  T!4;  lieenaed  lay  preachen,  9. 

The  Geueral  Cnn  rent  ion  ia  incorpuiated  and  empnw 
ered  to  "hold  real  and  personal  eatate  to  the  value  ol 
9600,000,  to  be  devoted  exclusively  to  the  dilTuMun  ol 
Christian  knowledge  by  means  of  miaiioiiaiiea,  publica- 
(ion*,  and  other  agende*.*    The  "Murray  Centenary 
Find,' raised  in  1S70,  and  named  In  honir  of  Kev.Juhn 
Marray,  the  centennial  anniversary  of  whose  comin 
America  was  tbon  observed,  amounted,  at  the  ses 
oTUh  convention  in  1H79,  to  «12],7»4.U.     A-'Mi 
lerial  RdieT  Fund,"  founded  by  the  beqont  of  the 
'  'la  C  Ouan,  amounted  at  the  umc  time  to  98077.94. 


The' 


d  Scholi 


p  Fand,-  c 


gnfn 


tamed  scholanhip  loan*,  annunCed  to  #M8932. 
treasurer's  leoeipu  (h>m  all  aaiircu,  in  1879, 
4I9.M0.74.  The  incnme  of  the  Hurray  Centenary 
Fund  i>  deaigned  to  aid  in  the  edueaticm  of  the  clergy, 
the  circulatinn  of  deiinminational  " 
ehnreh  extcDnon.  Ahont  forty  tl 
abipa  an  continued  in  force  each  year,  aggregating 
nearly  46000.  These  are  expected  to  be  repaid,  with- 
out interest,  at  the  earliest  convenience  of  the  beneHci- 

thuB  returned  ate  invested,  the  income  to  be  appro- 
priated to  future  loans. 

Several  of  the  atata  cnnventiona  an  incorporated, 
and  in  a  few  ^if  them  permanent  funda  are  established. 
Either  at  held  by  the  convention*  directly,  or  by  oi^ 
ganlzaliona  exiiting  In  theirjurtsdictic 

to  missionary  work,  Suuday-acbool  aid,  and  ministerial 
relief,  >i>  t89,.S78.6a. 

The  "  Woman's  Centenary  Association,' 
porated,  was  oi^aniied  in  1869  to  aasial 
the  Hurrar  Centenary  Fund,  to  which  it  contributed 
te^OO0.  'in  addition  to  thia.  it 
«1W,000,  with  which  it  haa  helped  Oillegesand  sch.«la, 
given  relief  to  aged  and  inflrm  mini 
widows,  started  a  Uemorial  Chapel  at  (iood  Luck,  N.  J., 
where  Murray  preacheil  hia  Arst  sermon  in  Amerira, 
and  soppoTted  a  mlMtonary  in  Scotland.  It  has  atao 
pot  in  circulation  9,000,000  pages  of  tracts,  bende* 
large  number  of  denomiDBlioiul  books  and  papera. 


UNIVEKSALISTS 

The  "Univenalist  Hiatorical  Society"  was  organiiH 
1884  lur  the  collectiun  and  preservation  of  facts  per- 
Uinlng  to  the  history  and  conditioQ  of  (Jniveiaalim, 
together  with  bouka  and  papers  having  reference  to  the 
subject.  It  baa  a  libniy  of  over  SOOD  volunx^ 
It  Tufts  College,  College  Hill,  Mass.  The  collee- 
milnacea  a  complete  set  of  the  writings  of  ibe 
Greek  and  Latin  fathan,  many  French  ai>d  Germas 
works,  and  a  neariy  compile  line  of  modem  books  Uiik 
for  and  agaiiiR  the  doctrine  of  UiiiversaliBm. 

Vl.  /<tililtliimi,—l.  Coltryn,  TkfoliykalSdKK'U.tad 
Icadmiei, — There  are  four  colleges,  two  theologial 
:hDols,  and  aix  academies  under  the  auspice*  aad 
patronage  of  Univenaliata.  Tufts  College,  localol  ca 
Oillege  Hill,  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass.,  waa  incorpoiaKd  in 
lHoi,and  opened  for  studenta  in  1866,  Iia  a«eu  an 
abiN>i*l3*3,li89;  number  of  pnifasora  and  leacben,  U; 
ainileuis,  IIKI.  Lombard  Uidveraity,  located  at  UsW 
hutic,  HI.,  wsr  iiieurporaled  in  IW>'2,  and  opened  br 
■ttiileuis  in  1865.  Asset*,  0116.000;  (imfeMnn  snl 
tesL-hers,  II ;  al.Klents,  Gl.  Si.  Uwrencc  Univerwiv, 
•t  Cant.1'1,  St.  Lawrence  Co.,  N.  T.,  wa*  incorporated  in 
1830;  atsetN  tSH.lSO;  pnifesnir*  and  teacher^  7 ;  Ru- 
ileuis.  67,  lliichiel  Collec'e.  Akron,  O-  was  inci'rponltd 
in  1871 ;  assets,  •l)tj,6£0;  pruTesanr*  and  leachpni.  g; 
students,  78.  Sr.  Lawrence  Theological  Sebo.il,  a  de- 
partment of  Si.  Lawrence  Unlversiiy,  waa  opened  in 
1867.  It  ha*  6  profeiMnn  *ihI  14  students.  Tulis  Di- 
vinity Schiml.  a  department  of  1  ufls  Od]^^,  WH 
opened  in  1B69.  ami  haa  II  |>rDressor*  and  37  stwlean. 
Clinton  Liberal  h»tltute,eMabli>he.l  at  Clinton.  OnriJa 
Ca,N.T.,in  1 83 1,  ami  nK»-iiilv  remnvol  lo  Fort  llaie, 
N.  r.,  haa  •lOO.nOO  aaseis,  10  leachcns  and  lODalndeala 
Weslbruok  -Semniary,  Deering.  Mr.,  was  openeil  fv 
ntsin  IB34.  Its  iMHts  are  tl00,0On;  numbrri^ 
teachers,  6;  of  ttudent^  98.  Gn-en  Mountain  Per- 
Academy,  at  .SiHith  WooilsK>ck,  Vt.,  was  npentd  ia 
asselSi'tli.OOO;  leachera,S;  atudenls.33.  God- 
dird  Seminary,  Barre,  Vt.,  was  o|iened  in  1868 ;  susMi^ 
•96.000:  teachera,  10;  student*,  166.  Dean  Acadrair, 
at  Franklin,  Mass.,  wa*  intnrpnraied  in  1886:  ssMti^ 
¥310,000;  teachers,  8;  stodenta,  7a  Mitchell  Seaii- 
nar>-,  at  Milchellville,  la.,  waa  openeil  in  ISTS;  aMO, 
C!6.n00;  teachers,  9;  students,  96.  Total  amooei  ifc 
vested  by  the  twelve  educational  institutiocw,  (1,0% 
350. 

i.  PablMuig  /fause.— The  Univeiaalist  PuUithiBg 
House,  liicsled  at  BoMon,  Mass.,  wiu   incurporatcd  ia 

of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vetmuni,  Maanrhniinti. 
and  Kliude  Inland.  The  net  assets  of  the  bouse,  coe- 
ginling  of  periodicals,  book^  plitet,  etc,  are  dicM 
•31,000.  The  number  of  volume*  which  it  baa  pab- 
liahed,  and  of  which  it  own*  the  title  and  copyright,  b 

periodlcala  puUiahed  by  the  denomination. 

8.  .ViHia>u.--Miaaionary  work  ia  performed  in  tU 


the  convention*,  in  other*  by  mean*  of  local  aiaocia- 
liiHis,  and  in  still  others  by  the  volimtary  labon  of  tbt 
ministiy.  The  only  foreign  mission  i*  the  one  auatdn- 
ed  by  the  Wnman'a  Centenary  AMociatton  in  ScMlmd. 
VII.  Lilrralarr. — American  Univenalist  literaian 
dates  from  the  publication  of  a  translation  of  Krgvalk'i 
Etrerliittnig  G-aptl  in  Pennsvlvanla  in  1763.  Williaa 
Pitt  Smith,  M.D.,  of  New  York,  published  a  maU  book 
entitled  TU  UninrialiM  in  1787.  Joaeph  Young,  H.P, 
also  of  New  York,wnite  and  published  CiUtmum  oil 
Unmrrtatitm  Cimtratrd  in  I73B.  Rev.  Elbanan  Wia- 
chester's  IJialognei  on  Umvtrtol  Ibtloratim,  publiilnl 
in  London  in  1788,  were  republished  in  rhiladelphia  b 
1791.  A  Trrolue  on  AUmemnil,  by  Rev.  Hoaea  BaOna, 
waa  pnbliahed  in  1806^  Since  that  time  the  Uniitt- 
•aliat  preas  ha*  issued  hundreds  of  volumes.     Soma  rf 


□ominatioDal  literature  are. 


UNIVERSALI8TS  6i 

L  In  Polamia!  Smith,  Ot  jyume  Gowmmail;  Bal- 
four, laqtiritt  iaio  lie  ScripluriU  Import  o/lU  Wordt 
SIbtol,  Uada,  Tarlurui,  and  Gihama,  tnd  [he  Wordi 
SiMau  and  Dail ;  Ukuhwo  bamtai  Kzra  StSa  £/;, 
D.D^  and  Aw.  AUl  C.  Thonat ;  DAaU  bettera,  Ra. 
Datid  HoLiia  and  Rn.J.  M.Auttin;  Kogea,  Pro  and 

tiom  iitwiat  Ra.  £.  lUmffitrd  aitd  Am.  J.  S.  diHHHy,- 
IIm  j«T,  Ortgin  and  HiMory  of  Ikt  Dodrint  of  EndUu 
Fniikmnl  .•  Miaer,  Tie  Old  f'orU  Takat ;  Sawytr, 
Emdttm  Pumuimait  n  lie  Vkj  Wordt  o/iU  Aduocaliit. 

iL  Ooariitai  and  Exponiorj ;  Balhw,  Ledurt  Sermont 
tnd  Stleet  StrMM  I  VniuU!Tnon.fiolaoiititP,iralilai 
Cobb,  Con^iend  ofCiriilian  DtBuiili/ ;  Thayer,  Tie  Tie- 
ebgy  of  UmtierialUm ;  WiUiimwn,  RtidinmU  n/Tieo- 
logieat  SeioKt  ind  PiUoiophg  of  Umnnalam ;  Swtre, 

" ivmKardi  'Hiyo,  Tit  Batanot,  or  Moral 

■  Umwtalitm;  Btooki,  Unirertulum  in 
L^e  and  Dodrine ;  Tie  LaleU  Word  of  ITnieeraalum, 
ttiiruen  on^i  by  thirtMn  dergymm. 

Ui.  CommrMariet  .■  Miiilry,  HibUcai  Review  (6  vols. 
on  the  Old  TcM.)  i  Cobb,  ExplanaloTy  ffoleM  and  Pruc~ 
tical  Obeervitioni  on  tie  f/ta  Tat. ;  FaiRe,  Cummeilary 
« lAc  Jftw  Tett.  (except  tba  book  of  ReFeUuon),  6  voIil  ; 
WliitteiDore,  Commenlary  on  lie  Kevdalion  ofSL  Join. 

W.  Worla  n  Defenee  of  Ckiitlianils ;  WinebeMer, 
Stpfy  la  Paine'i  Age  ofRKoon;  Bdkiu,  I,rlttri  in  Dt- 
fatte  of  Ketelalion ;  PickarinK,  l-tcturei  on  Divine  Hee- 
dalion;  Smilb,  Causfe  of  /nfideHlr  Reinoind ;  Thayer, 
Ciriitianitf  agaiait  Iiifideiilsi ;  Williamson,  An  A rgii- 
wtenlfor  Ciriilianilji  and  Sermiau  for  tie  Timet  and 
Ptoplt. 

T.  Practical  Rtdgion  and  Coniotalian :  Chapin,  Z>u- 
cmna  on  Oc  lonf  f  Prayrr,  Leuoni  of  Faith  umI  Ufi, 
Bonrt  of  Comnuaiian,  Tie  Cnxan  of  Tiona ;  Adama, 
Tie  Umrtnaiinnoflier^'rd't  Prayer,-  Btain,ThePat- 
tor't  Beqaeil  (serrDona) ;  Ballou,  Couniei  and  Eaeou 
mail  (diacouraea  on  [he  conduct  of  life) ;  Thomaa,  fit 
Gnrpel  LiOiiyg  (a  prayer-book  Tor  churcheB  and  fami' 
tif);  Huanii,  Jf(ii»ui(aboak  ufdaily  worabip);  Quim- 
by,  Heaatn  oar  HAuie  («  oomfort  to  all  who  mouni) 
Thaycf,  Oeer  tie  Bieer  <■  book  of  eonaoUlion  for  Chi 
■ick,  the  dying,  and  the  bereaved). 

ri.  Hitlory  and  Biograpiy :  Ballon,  A  neitTit  l/iiiory 
of  UnieerialiiM  from  lie  Time  of  lie  Apoitln  lo  tie 
KefarmaliMi;  Whitiemon,  il/odeni  /litloiy  of  Uneer- 
-ilifrnfrfm  (he  Tine  of  lie  Brfannation ;  Thomas,  A 
CnlHry  nf  Unittrtaiitm  in Piiiadrlpkia and Kae  Yori; 
Smith,  IliHorieal  Sketdiet  of  Unieenalim  w  lit  Stale 
of  Xrm  rort :  Life  of  Rett.  Jain  Murray,  commenced 
by  hioiaelfand  completed  bv  hia  wife;  Stone,  Biography 
of  Rev.  EBuinan  WiiuAeHeri  Rogen,  Memoranda ,-  Mr- 
mair  (aulobiography)  of  Ree.  ^'ulkanid  Slarry!  Me- 
moir, of  Ben.  Hoeea  Ballou,  by  MatuHn  H.  Bdlou  (1 
vi>L),and  by  WhitCemote  (4  voU) ;  Sawyer,  Mtwir  of 
Ret.  Slepht*  B.  Smili ;  A  alobiograpig  of  Rrv.  Abel  C. 
Thamiu  ;  Couk  [T.  D.].  Memoir  of  Rev.  Jamee  M.  Cook ; 
BaooD  [  Mr*  E.  A.],  Mem^r  ofRec.  flenry  Bacon ;  Ad- 
ana,  Memoir  of  Rer.  John  Moore;  Killetie  and  Croah, 
Ufi  >/  It"-  ^  if-  WooUy ;  Adama,  Memoir  of  Tiomu 
Vhidemar^  D.l). 

Til  Pnieidiealt :  Tba  flntUnireraaliat  periodica]  waa 
pTDbablr  that  aurtcd  by  Rev.  Elhanan  Wincheater,  in 
Lnodon,  EngUnd,  in  1787,  entiJed  Tie  PiOiiMphian 
Magnxiae.  It  waa  continued  wreral  yeara  by  Kev.  Will- 
iam Tidier,  and  dually  merfred  in  the  Monthly  Repoei- 
lary.  Tbe  dm  American  [Jnivemliu  periodical  waa 
T'jte  Frtt  Pmemaiia  Miigatiae,  publiihed  in  New 
Yorit  and  Baltimore  bv  Ror.  Abet  Saijeni  (179B-94). 
Rev.  John  Humy'a  frienda  publiahed  in  Ikiolon  two 
volnmea  of  a  amatl  magazine  called  The  Berean,  com- 
menoed  in  lOO-L  Several  oihera  f.illowed,  and  fr>m 
cat  tnaiiy  have  been  put  befure  the 


public 
Tbepi 


IS  UNIVERSITY 

(on  in  1819,  aod  the  Utiea  Mogamne,  eammeneed  at 
Utica,  N.  Y„  in  1S27),  publiahed  by  the  Univeraaliit 
INibliahing  Kouae,  Roaton,  G,  H.  Emenon,  D.D.,  ediloi ; 
tbe  Star  m  the  Wett,  eacabliahed  in  1837,  published  at 
Cinciniuli,0.,  J.  S.Cantwall,  D.D.,  editor!  tlie  Go- 
pel  Banner,  atirted  in  ISSS,  publiahed  at  Auguata,  He., 
G.  W.  Quimby,  O.D.,  editor;  (he  Ntie  Cottaani,  cotn- 
menced  in  1847,  publiahed  at  Chicago,  lit.,  edited  by  J. 
W.  Uanvn,  DJ).;  the  A'noAri^ioii,  published  at  Moi^ 
wav,  He.,Rev.  J.  A.Seici  editor;  \his  Atlanta  Umoer- 
AiliK,  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Rev.  W.  a  Bowman  editor;  and 
The  Myrtle,  an  illustrated  Sundav-acbool  paper,  issued 
by  the  Uaiveraalisc  Publialiin^  House,Mra.E.M.  Bruce 

weeks  — the  VmBtridiH  HenM,  at  NotAsulga,  Ala., 
editail  by  Rev.  Jobu  C  fiutrua ;  and  tbe  Guiding  Star, 
an  iUuitrated  Sunday-Bcbo<d  paper,  at  Ciniinnati,  O^ 
Mr&  Caroline  H.  Soiile  editor.  The  SHMlay-tchoal 
Helper,  devDt^al  to  Sabbat  h-aehool  leaching,  is  published 
monthly  hy  the  Uniyersaliat  Publishing  House,  Hiiied 
by  Rev.  O.  L.  Demareau  ManfoiiTi  Magazine,  amj- 
menced  in  18B7,  is  published  loMithly  at  Cbicagr>,  11L, 
Rev.  E.  Manford  and  Hra.  H.  a  Manford  edit[>ra.  The 
UnivernJitl  Qaarterlg,  conimenced  in  1S44,  is  imuied  in 
Januaij,  April,  July,  and  October  bv  the  Universaliat 
Publishing  House,  adited  by  T.  a  f  bayer,  D.D.  The 
Unicenaliil  Regiiter,  a  atatiatical  year-book,  ha*  been 
iwwd  regularly  since  1886;  published  by  the  Uiiiver- 
aatist  Pulilisliing  House,  and  edited  by  Hra.  C.  L.  F. 
Skinner.    (R.  E.) 

nnlTeraallty  op  Gracx,  a  doctrine  iniiDdnced 
into  the  French  Reformed  theology,  under  the  iiitttMOce 
of  John  Cameron,  in  tbe  early  part  of  tbe  I7ih  centurv, 
and  advocated  by  Amyraldita  (Amyiaut),  Placnv,  ami 
rajon.  Cameron  himself  taught  the  impalatioii  of 
Christ's  paiuve  obedience  almie,  and  advocaleit  tbe 
hypothetic  univenalism  of  divine  giace,  which  was 
more  fully  developed  by  Amyraut,  "Tbe  peculiariiy 
of  Amyraldism,''sayi3chweiuir,"iit  in  the  combination 
of  real  particularism  with  a  merely  ideal  universalism.'' 
SeeHagenbach,Zfu<.o/Aic<.ii,181),!75.    SeeAroNE- 

UnlTarwda,  ■  term  used  in  philoaophical  iuigatgt, 
and  divided  into  three  classca,  via.  i 

1.  MelaphyiciJ,  at  "  unlversalia  ante  retn,"  denoting 
those  archetypal  forma  according  to  which  all  things 
were  created.  As  existing  in  the  divine  mind,  and  fur- 
nishing the  pattenia  of  llie  divine  working,  these  may 
be  said  to  correspond  with  the  idem  of  Plato. 

2.  Fiyiieal,  or  "  univenalia  in  re,"  by  which  are  meant 
certain  common  nature*  which,  one  in  theniselvesi,  are 
diffused  over  or  ^lared  in  hy  many — a*  ralionaiily  in 

3.  Logieiil,  or  "  tiniversalia  poet  rem,"  denoting  gen- 
eral notiims  framed  by  Iba  human  intellect,  and  pfedi- 
cated  of  many  things  on  the  gnmnd  of  Itieir  pnaseasing 
common  pmpertic*— as  fiw,  which  may  be  predicated 
of  the  oak,  maple,  bircb,  willow,  etc 

In  ancient  philoanpby  the  uni  venala  wen  called  prrd- 
icailet,  and  were  arranged  in  Aie  classes, genut,  $pedet, 
differentiat  jtroprium,  and  accident. 

In  Che  system  of  Aquinas  universals  are  thus  treat- 
ed: 1.  .4  parte  mentit,  or  a  parte  intetUctia,  involve  the 
theory  that  universals  are  mental  only — subjective,    % 

spund  with  objective  thing*.  See  Krauth  and  Fleming, 
Vocab.  of  POL  Scirnce,  s.  v. 

tTolvaraa.  as  dellned  by  Dr.  Porter  (Human  Intel- 
led,  p.  646),  is  the  oiillective  whole,  the  totality  of  be- 
ing as  a  unit:  Che  world,  in  iu  philosophical  or  nniver- 
aal  sense.     For  its  origin,  see  Ckkation  ;  Wonui. 

TTnlvantty,  a  universal  schonl;  an  assembly  of 
stodenta  of  all  countries,  students  in  every  brani^  of 
learning,  in  one  general  society,  having  their  own  seal 
and  place  of  businesd  Camden  says  the  term  waa  gen- 
erallyaaedintbeTeignoflIeuiylII(of£ngland).  Dot- 


UNKNOWN  GOD  6 

ing  the  iSth  century  there  were  »eTer«l  eminent  nri- 
veniiiei  in  Europe.  Spain  ■»<!  Germany  had  unirer- 
utie>  <ir  acbo»l>  wbere  the  aLiideiiu  fiirmed  pan  nf  the 
corpuntjon.  Parii  ami  EngUnil  hid  univenitiea  ot 
niasien  unly ;  lonie  in  Gertuany  aud  FniuB  wen  or 


Unknown  Ck>cl  iaymaarot  liti'it,  A.  T.  unfufta- 

luiely  "  the  uiilinuwn  (iud,"  inttead  of  "im  unknown 
Uud~J,  the  inieripiiun  <>b*erved  by  Paul  on  (ucDe  site 
coiiaecrated  tu  ■  deity  whuse  name  had  been  luu — a  Tact 
which  tae  ingeniouily  adduces  in  bia  apeech  ber>re  tbe 


w  theii 


to  the  knowiedge  of  the  irueGud  (Act>  ivii.^S).  There 
ii  nu  evidence  that  it  wai  a  apol  deilicaled  Ui  tbe  wur- 
abip  of  Jehovah,  as  Hme  oomnHntaton  have  imagined. 
See  the  monogniphs  cited  by  Volbeiljn;;,  /wJez  Pro- 
gmmauiluni,  (1.82.     See  Altar;  Atiik:)!. 

Viiknoml  TonKUO  (1  Cor.  xiv,  1,  i,  18,  14, 19, 
27j  is  a  gloBS  of  the  A.V.;  fur  the  Unek  hM  simply 
jXiaita,  a  foajroe.  ubriaualy  meaning  a  diSbreiit  living 
language  from  tbat  onlinarily  empiuyed  by  Ibe  sfieaker 
IfXimaa  iripa,  Uark  xri,  17;  Acta  ii,4).  Uihers  uii- 
dentandan  ecsiaiic  uticranee  of  abrupt,  incoherent,  and 
unintdiigiUe  exprcaaiuns  which  nerded  an  iuierpreter. 
See  the  axmographs  cit«d  by  Vulbeding,  Imkx  Pm- 
f/ramimilum,  p.  7a.    See  Sfihitvai.  Uipts. 

nnleaiued  {liypaiiiiaTof.  uidrHrrtd,  Acta  iv,  18; 
ifiaJqc.  amailniclfii,  'i  Pec  iii,  16;  anaiitirrot,  O"- 
tMlortd,tTiai.u,W;  Hiiinic, priea/t,  I  Cot.  xW,l6,2», 
34;  "  ignorant,"  Acta  iv,  IS;  ■■nide.''U  Cut.  xi,  6).  In 
Acta  iv,  IB,  the  Jewish  literati  apply  the  term  To  Pel« 
and  John,  in  Ibe  same  Dense  in  wliich  they  asked,  with 
ngard  lu  out  Lord  himself, "  How  knowelh  Ibis  roan 
leucrs,  having  never  learned"  (John  vii,  16).  In  iiri- 
ther  rase  iliJ  they  meaii  to  say  that  they  bad  been  al- 
tiigHther  wilhiiut  (he  benefits  oT  the  ciimroiHi  edwMtiini, 
wliiob  onmisted  in  reading  and  wriiiiig,  and  in  an  ac- 
quaintance wi[h  the  sacred  books:  but  that  they  were 
Dot  learned  men,  had  not  aat  at  ihc  feet  uf  any  of  the 
great  ducton  oT  the  law,  and  had  not  been  iimtrucied 
in  the  rnvMeries  and  refinements  of  their  peculiar  learn- 
ing and  literature.  An  apoMle  abM  uaea  it  to  dexcribe 
those  who  are  little  acquainted  with  the  mind  uf  Ciiid 
and  tbe  teaching  ufhis  Spirit  (1  Pet.  iii,  IS).  The''un- 
leanted  queHiuot'  raeniiuned  by  Paul  are  those  which 
du  not  tend  w  ediHcaiiun  in  sound  and  sutauntial  re- 
ligious knowledge^    See  Educatiok. 

UnleBvan«dBr«ad(nf'Q,uCivioi'),  bread  baked 
from  unferniented  dough.  The  Uebrewa  early  knew 
the  an  of  raising  breail  by  means  uf  leaven  (^Ki;p, 
yen,  ;i>v;  on  the  varioua  ancient  kinds  uf  this  see 
Pltuy,  iviii,  26)  prepsred  fmn  tlie  dregs  or  yeaat  of 
wine,  or  from  a  mixture  of  Hour  and  water,  which  spon- 
taneously fermeuls  if  allowed  to  stand,  and  which  may, 
either  moist  or  drieil,  be  preserved  fur  a  cmisiilershle 
period  fur  this  puipose  (Mishns,  /Viaci.  iii,  I ;  Cialia, 
i,  7 ;  eomp.  Harmer,  (Msnr.  iii,  66).  Soinriimes  they 
baked  bread  without  bring  leavened,  especially  when  in 
paste  (Gen.  xix.S;  Judg.  vi,  19;  1  Sam.  ](xviii,!4),  as 
the  modem  Bedawin  regularly  ik)  (Arvieux,  iii,  2^7). 
Thit  was  formally  presented  fur  the  paMbal  < 
(riX^  Exod.  xii,  H,  16,  W;  xjii.  S,  S  sq.),  and  thi 
became  a  symbol  of  the  festival  which  thence  was  pnp- 
uUrly  deMgnated  as  "'  the  feant  of  unleavened  hi 
See  PA-isovitn.  In  fact,  the  Jews  were  expressly 
hibiteil  from  all  use  of  leaven  during  the  seven  da 
its  continuance,  and  even  from  having  any  leavi 
their  houses  fur  all  that  time  (Exod.  xi>.  19;  xi 
cnmp.  I  Ciir.  t,  7);  so  that  they  were  uliliged  to 
and  carefidiv  remove  all  traces  of  it  on  the  eve  of  the 
14th  of  Nisan  (see  Pfaek,  i-iii ;  SchHI  Igeii,  Hor.  Hiii. 
i,  698).  They  usually  burned  it  (Peitei,  ii,  I),  but  not 
in  an  oven;  and  were  sotcrupubius  asnoteven  to  allow 
domotic  animals  to  est  it  during  that  period  (ibid.). 
The  sacriflcial  cakes  of  the  meat-utfering  wen  also  re- 


UN  WIN 

)  to  conUin  no  leaven  (Exod.  xsix,  £;  Ltt.  n, 
lumb.  vi,  16, 19;  comp.  Amoa  iv,  6;  Mishna,  S/f 
-,  1 ;  PeiicJk,  i,  6;  see  Otho,  Lex.  Rtibb.  p.  in:  a 
ir  usage  prevsiled  in  the  Human  ritual ;  see  PJi^ 
f.Tc\i,Q,tiatt.  Aiou  11)9;  comp.  Casauboii,  on  Pen.&il. 
tbe  other  hand,  tbe  Pentecostal  loaves,  which 
reproented  the  usual  food  of  men,  were  leavened  <l»v, 
xaiii,  17).  Also  lbs  cakes  which  served  as  a  btrii 
<perfaap*  by  way  of  platter)  fut  the  thaiik-«S«iiig 
were  bak«d  witb  Invcn  (Ler.  vii,  IS).    Hec  Itauuii 

Vn'ul  (Heb.  Umd;  -^7  [but  text  in  Keh.  Um/. 
'it7].  according  to  Geeen.  fur  n|3^  [ilijiTinnJ],  bat  ae- 
curding  to  FUm  for  TIKI'S  [  f/aniA,  tmnt  o/Jfietai]; 
SepL  variously,  Qh  v.  r.'An. 'la»vd,  etc;  Tidg.J4 
f/umn),  the  name  of  two  Uvitea. 

1.  Due  of  tbe  relatives  uf  Heman  who  were  appoist 
ed  door-keepers  and  musicians  to  the  tabernacle  bgr  Da- 
viJ'fl  Chron,  iv,18,ai).     B.a  1048. 

2.  One  of  those  appointed  toasiiDitariervicenilbt 
return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii,9).     aa  hSa. 

TTnnl,  an  archbishop  of  tbe  lOth  century  who  aiah 

in  eslabliahing  Chrisiianily  thrnnghout  the  kingMn. 
He  was  greatly  aided  by  Haralii.son  of  king  Uunn,  soil 
a  convert  to  the  Christian  faith,  although  the  Ving  him- 
self  remained  a  pagan.  &teiifaAa,ai.t.o/H,Cktr<i, 
iii,  288. 

nnnffar.  a  -nry  cnmtnnn  funeral  title  cf  OAit 
(q.  v.),  signifying  the  "Good  Being." 

nnpardonable  Sin,  or  "Sin  against  tbe  Hulv 
Ghost"  (Matt,  xii,  Bl,  82.  and  parallels),  appear*  ia  the 
GiTC  iunlance  tu  have  been  the  ascription  of  the  benri- 
cent  miradea  of  Jesus  lo  Satanic  power;  sod  ii  terM 
to  be  onpardunable  because  it  argued  such  an  utter  pM> 
version  uf  monl  sense  as  tu  place  the  persim  ca^ialile  if 
it  beyond  the  |irnvince  of  divine  grace.  Similar  can 
uf  spiritual  hardening  or  Judinal  blinding  are  elscwhm 
referml  to  in  Scripture  (Eph.  iv,  18, 19;  Ueb.vi.1). 
See  the  Lsiiu  monui^pha  on  the  subject  bv  DeutKlH 
mann  (Viteb.  1668),  Heide^er  (Tig.  1675),  Fautau 
(HaL  1761)^ and  oihan  cited  by  Uaac,  Leba,  Jtn.^ 


ib-L 


e  Blabp 


;  Sin. 


VoBelt.  Samuel  FuKiiBtcH,  a  Protestant  tfanlo- 
giaii  of  Germany,  was  bum  in  174S  at  Daniiic.    He 

studied  theulugy  at  Lei|»ic,  where  his  soquaintsnct 
wiihGrllert  had  the  greatest  influence  nponbim.  Fna 
Lei|wc  he  returned  tn  his  native  city,  where  be  vat 
appointed  rector  of  St.  Mary's.  Fur  twelve  years  W 
labored  as  a  teacher,  when  be  was  called  a*  parnir  tn 
Piaust,  not  far  from  Dantzic  A  few  vean  later  he  w» 
called  to  Gntlland,  where  be  died.  May  1,  1790.  He 
wrote,  Diuerlatio  de  Nalara  Conrratmii  (Gedaai. 
ilS!e):—IliiKr1.dt  Loconm  Vrlrrit  TrUamrpti  n  ,V>nv 
Aca/ntmodatioiu  OriAodoxa  (Lipa.  1766).  Sec  Uirisfi 
Dtvltht  Kantrlrrdntr,  p.  bbt  sq.     (R  P.) 

Unteiberger,  IdNArica,  ■  German  |Hinter.  « 
bom  at  Karales,  in  the  TjTi.l,  in  1744,  Afler  acquiring 
the  elrmruts  ofdeiURn  from  hi*  father,  he  went  laRiHH, 

177G  he  settled  at  Vienna,  and  became  Ibe  favorite 
painter  of  the  minister  Kaunitz.  He  died  in  i:«7. 
Among  bis  principal  works  ore,  the  Itneral  a/lktUelf 
Spirit,  in  the  principal  church  of  Kiinigagraii ;  aul 
Pract  and  Ijorr,  represented  by  a  young  girt  careaing 
a  lamb.  See  Spooner,  Biag.  Ilit.  o/lit  Pirn  .Irfi,  a.  r. 
ITnwIn,  William  JoRnAn,  LLD.,  a  Church  uf 
England  divine,  was  bom  at  Great  C<«Beshall,  Essex, 
Nov.  S9, 1811.  He  was  edinatnl  at  Totieriilge:  pn- 
pared  fur  the  minisiTy  st  Rothwell,  Highbnn-  CoUfge, 
entering  in  1880,  snd  Glaigow  University,  whidi  be 
entered  in  IB3S,  and  where  be  graduated  in  1SS6.  tak- 
ing the  two  degrees  of  bachelor  and  master  of  arts.  Ob 
leaving  Glasgow  be  became  pastor  of  Cutting  Lane 
(iHiwBeanmaat)Cha|«l,Wuodbtidge;  aud  in  1841  isio- 


UNWRITTEN  WORD  «( 

uUt  of  Ihe  independent  Congtegalian,  St.  Helien,  J«r- 
MT.  Ill  both  aiiheraoT  Ubnr  hg  ailnmed  hia  piufo^n 
b*  ths  eoiuutcney  of  hit  life,  aniJ  lienetltnl  hia  people 
In  the  eamMtneas  of  hit  pRachiiig.  Being  eminently 
fitLod  by  hii  ittunmenta  and  prediLectii>nfl  (ur  cduca- 
tkHul  wiirk,  he  wit,  in  ISW,  ippointal  by  the  Cungrt- 
gitinanluiti  prindpil  vT  tbe  Training  InMitutJon,  Snt 
aiaUuhed  in  Lirecpoul  SUHi,  and  afterwards  remivHl 
III  Horoertjin  Colleije.  In  thear  two  placu,  with  qui«t 
indiulry,  unflagging  leal,  cuiitdeutioua  attachment  to 
CoDgre^ffttionaL  principleat  anO  fenrent  JeTOLion  to  the 
Chureb,  he  labored  until  1870,  when  failing  beallb 
oblif^  him  to  relinquish  hi*  bvorita  employment. 
Nuraeroua  worka  useful  for  elementary  achouls  proceeded 
from  hi*  pen;  almau  able  letter  on  £<Iuailiim  Ihe  Work 
o/Uit  People.  Dr.  Uawin 
Baenli<iu.ineaa,  uiLegrity,  h 
•cbuUrihiii,  firm  purpose,  ai 
died  in  1977.  See  Kvimgdicat  Masatim,  April,  1877, 
p.  £23. 

Uturrlttan  Word.    "That  authority  to  which 
tbe  Riimish  Church  could  lay  no  claim  frum  the  purity 

Dark  Age*  by  iu  arrogant  pretenaiuns.  'llie  Scripturca, 
cren  in  (he  L^tin  version,  bad  long  become  a  sealed 
boiili  tu  the  people;  aiul  the  Komin  see,  in  pniportiuii 
as  it  eitleiKleil  ita  supremacy,  iliscouriged  or  pnncribed 

take  the  sense  of  Scripture,  nor  lest  the  preMimptuous 
and  the  perverse  should  deduce  new  ernir*  in  d»ctrine, 
and  more  fatal  consequences  in  practice,  from  lis  di>- 
tnrted  Unguage,  but  in  tbe  aecret  and  sure  cniiscjous- 
nesa  that  what  was  now  taught  as  CliKsIiaiiitv  was  iwl 
IU  be  found  in  the  written  Word  of  Uod.  In  miiiite- 
nanoe  of  the  dominant  system,  tiadtiiun,  or  the  unwrit- 
ten Wont,  was  set  up.  This  had  been  the  artillce  nf 
■•me  of  the  earliest  heretics,  who,  when  they  wrre 
charged  with  holdiTig  doctrines  not  according  to  Script- 
ure, affinnetl  that  some  things  had  been  revealed  which 
were  not  ciimmitleil  In  writing,  but  were  orally  trana- 
mitteil  dawn.  Tile  l*hariseea  before  them  pleaded  (he 
same  BuppoHliti<ius  ■uthoriiy  fur  the  formalitiea  which 
Ibey  added  to  the  law,  and  by  which  (hey  sometimes 
superseded  il, '  making  the  Word  of  Gnd  of  unne  effccf,' 
ss  our  Saviour  himself  repiuached  thpm.  Upon  this 
liround  the  Romith  clergj' jiistilied  all  the  devices  of 
man's  imagination  with  which  they  had  corrupted  the 
ritual  and  the  faith  of  the  Western  Uhurch"  (Southcv, 
Ba,A  ..//he  CAuicA).     See  TitAinriON. 

Unxla,  a  surname  uf  Jwm  in  Roman  mythology, 
was  the  goildess  of  anointing.     The  young  women  in 
e  are  said  to  have  anoinled  the  duora  uf  their  ful- 


n  dwellings 


•ithss 


e  befon 


Unaer,  Johaiik  Atraurr,  a  German  jAysieian,  bom 
April  i9,  I7'i;,and  died  April  2, 1799,  was  d'isUnguiahed 
by  bis  Horkt  on  physiological  and  psycbolngical  sub- 
jects, among  which  may  be  meniiimed,  A  Ntw  Doclrim 
omctriuaHf  tju  MovtmtHttt  of  the  Sunt  tmd  the  imagina~ 
tim—ThoughU  «•  SItip  aid  ltTtiau:—Oii  the  .Vnui- 
(JK  t'uailtin  o/Ammiatd  Bodiet!—Tht.  Phgnologs  "/ 
AmmaltdNat>irr:—»BAPhgtiolngkatHaeariAaH'Ji'!- 
M).    3e«  Hnefei,  Katv.  Biiig.  CiniraU,  a.  t. 

VpanlslUld  { from  mpa,  "  beneslb"  or  "  near;"  m, 
"in:"  and  tad,  "to  ail")  is  the  name  of  those  Sanscrit 
wiiriu  bekiRging  tn  the  Veilic  literature  which  contain 
the  mTstioal  iloctrine  of  the  Hindfls  on  the  nature  uf  a 
Supreme  Being,  its  relation  (o  the  human  snul,  and  the 
pTDcea  of  creation.     The  object  uf  the  Upanisbads  is  to 

to  show  that  this  Snprenn  Spirit  is  tbe  creator  of  the 
world ;  that  the  world  has  no  (eality  if  thought  of  be- 
aida  Bnbuian  |  and  that  tbe  huiMu  toul  is  ideotieal  in 


UPHAM 


natarewiththatsacMSpiritwhenoeUeminatefc  They 
are  looked  upon  as  inspired  writings.  See  UUUer,  Hilt, 
of  Aie.  SaUKtil  Lit.;  liMitjOr^iimt  Saiuerit  Tat*. 

Upfbld.  Ghousk,  H.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  PioteMant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  al  Sheralcy  Green, 
near  Uulford,  England,  Hav  7,  1796.  He  came  lo 
Ameiits  in  I80S,  and  settled  at  Albany,  N.  T.  Id 
ISU  he  giaduateil  at  Union  College,  Scbenectady.  lo 
1816  be  graduated  in  medicine  in  New  York,  and  eont- 
menced  practice  iu  Albany  soon  after.  He  soon,  how- 
ever, entered  upon  the  study  of  theology,  arul  waa  or- 
dained miniuer  in  181tt.  He  was  minister  at  l^naing- 
burg,N.Y.,frum  1818  lo  1830;  rector  or3l.Luke'B,New 
York  citv,  from  1830  u>  1828,  ami  a  portion  of  this  time 
(1S21-S6)  auistant  minister  uf  Trinity  Chur 


r  Su  Tl 


's  Chur 


I,  New  York 


rity,  fro. 


Church,  Pittsburgh,  PM.,from 
1IS2IO1860;  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Indiana  in 
1849.     He  died  at  Indianapolis.  Aug.  38,  1873. 

Upham,  Charles  Wentworth,  an  American 
anthur  and  Unitarian  minister,  was  bom  in  St.  John\ 
N.  a,  Uav  4,  180-^.  He  Kradualed  at  Harvard  College 
in  1821,  and  at  Ihe  Cambridge  Uiviaity  School  iu  1824, 
end  was  colleague  lif  Dr.  Prince,  pastor  of  tbe  KiiM  Uni- 
tarian Church  in  Salem,  from  1824  to  1844.    He  tben 

and  cnga^^  in  various  pursuils.  He  edited  tbe  Ckrit. 
liim  Rrgitfrr,  invelled  as  agent  uf  the  Manaacbnaetta 
Hoard  of  Ktlucaiion.was  member  of  the  HaHachuBKia 
House  uf  KepreseiiLatives  in  1H49,  of  the  Suie  Senate 
from  lSciOtul861,wasmavor  ofSalemin  18o2,member 
uf  Ihe  National  Congress  fnnn  the  Sixth  District  from 
1854  to  I8&6,  State  senstur  in  1868,  and  repreaenutire 
from  1869  to  18U0.  He  died  at  Saiem.  June  16, 1876. 
He  wrote,  Lttltri  oa  lit  U-got  (18-28)  i—Piupheiy  at  on 
Keideace  of  Chriiiwiiiiy  (1836) :  — /.^iJikt*  on  JCilc*- 
entft,  dHBpiitmg  a  Hiilvrf  nf  ihe  Siilm  Delwion  of 
IB92  (1831;  enlarged  ed.  I8H7,  2  vols,  8vo):-iift  of 
Sir  Hrrny  Fam  (in  Sparks's  A  mrr.  Biog.  1SS6)  \-LQ« 
»f  John  V.  Fremont  {»ltli):—Mtmoirt  of  Fraitrit  Pit-  . 
bo(fy  {imS)t— t-ifto/Tiimlhy  Pictrrimg  {1967-72). 

Uphun,  Thomaa  Cogairell,  D.I).,  an  Ameri- 
can divine  and  author,  was  bom  at  Drenkbi,  N.  H., 
Jan.  80,  1799.  He  grwliialed  at  Darlmonth  0>lkg«  in 
1818.  and  at  Andow  llienkigical  »eminary  in  1831, 


In  1828  he  became  associate  pastor  of  the  C 
tionsl  Church  in  Rochester,  N.  K„snd  in  1 836  prufeasor 
of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bowdoin  College,  in 
which  position  he  remained  unlU  I8G7.  He  died  in 
New  York,  April  3,  1872.  Among  his  numerous  works 
mav  be  mentioned,  Miuiwil  of  Peace  (1M3II)  -.—Klrmaat 
of'Me«lidmioK>pht{\.«sa,^\o\».;  sbridged  e<L  IS64): 
—Oailinei  of  Dieordtivt  Mmlal  Aaion  (1840):— £,t/a 
a»J  Allium  Krperienee  of  Madam  CMyon  (1847):— 
f^i/e  ofFailh  (1848)  i—PrinHplei  of  Ihe  Interior  or  Hid- 
den Lift  (eod.)  -.—PhUotopMtal  and  Praaicai  TrroHto 
on  Ihe  Will  (]S60):—Trtatim  on  Uu  /Hrine  Union 
(l«il):—Rrliyumt  Miiximt  (1854):— £,i>  of  Mad>ime 
Calheiine  Adonu  {\%W):^MIfrt,  ^iMiHie,  SocvU, 
and  Monil,  wrillen  from  Kurop,,  Egypt,  and  PalrtHf 
(\Hb7):-~Uelhod  of  Prayer  (1869):— slso  r*e -lisoiKe 
Religion  (published  pnslbumoutly  in  1872). 

Upbun.'WilllBin  D„  a  Baptist  minister,  waa  bom 
at  Weathersfield,  Vi.,  Keb.  IS,  1810.  He  ilevehiped  early 
in  life  B  strong  love  for  literary  punuiita,  and  at  the  age 
ofeiuhleen  he  determined  to  devote  himself  tu  the  study 
of  law.  With  this  object  in  view,  he  entered  Bmwo 
University  in  tbe  autumn  of  1831.  He  seems  to  have 
imbibeil  sceptical  views,  and  with  that  conceit  which 
not  unfreqnenily  accompanies  pride  of  intellect  in  yonng 
men  in  a  cmiise  of  studv.  he  regsTded  Christianity  n, 
oa  the  whole,  hardly  worthy  of  bis  notice.  While  eo- 
gaged  in  teaching  at  Dedham,  Hats.,  the  winter  soe- 
ceeding  his  tntranee  into  oollege,  the  Spirit  of  Ood  u- 


UPHARSIN 

ml*d  his  ■tIMition,  inH,  iftcr  ■  iwrcrc  Mnieglr,  be 
taxpttd  ChriiC  i»  his  SiTiiHir.  Uy  hit  cnnt-enion, 
■II  hu  liff-pUnB  were  chBiiKed,»iil  he  miilvnl  Lu 
devote  hiniHir  lo  the  wK'ice  o!  the  Ltint.  Ha 
became  •  member  of  Ihe  Firat  Bipli>t  Clmrch  in 
Providence,  K.  I^  in  the  fall  of  IS82,  and  the  ChiiTuh 
givt  him  iu  appnival  in  bU  purpuw  to  enter  the 
CbriMuo  minialr;.  Want  dT  meuii  eomptUeil  him 
te  leave  colk^fl  at  'be  cluae  of  bia  •eoMul  year,  and 
he  apent  the  next  three  }'eara  in  teaching  in  Wick- 
ford,  R.  I.     Ilcre  he  labored  not  only  in  hie  apecial 

exialeiice  oT  [he  Church  in  Wickfonl  ii  largely  ow- 
ing to  his  Coils  and  tacriBces.  lie  remuved  lo 
Ludlow,  Vl.  in  I8B6,  and  wu  for  a  lime  principal 
oT  the  Blacic  Hiver  Academy.  He  waa  ordained 
to  the  Goapel  miniatry  in  Ludlow  in  November, 
1887,  and  in  Decemb^  of  the  r»ilowiug  year  be 
became  pastor  of  the  Secund  Bapliw  Chutcb  in 
Townaheod,  Vl.  He  aecured  rrom  the  outlet  the 
aAectiant  of  bia  people,  and  hia  labnn  were  great- 
ly biciaed.  A  few  yean  only  of  aervice  in  the 
cauH  be  aa  much  loved  were  allotted  to  him. 
Four  yean  and  a  few  moncha  be  remained  ill  the 
pattoral  office,  and  then  waa  called  to  a  belter 
world.  Hia  death  occurred  June  80,  1843.  See 
tiaptiit  ifmariul,  ii,  2ti9.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Upbar'slu  (Dan.  v,  2i).    See  Hbhe. 

U'plias  (Heb,  Upkn',  I^Mt,  aignif.  anceitain', 
Sept.  MmfaZ.  'OfdK:  Vulg.  Opkut,  otryiuw),  the  name 
of  a  girfd  regi..n  (Jer.  x,  9;  Dan.  x,  b),  like  Tanbiili 
•od  Ophir  (eump.  Pea.  xlv,  10;  I  Chron.  xxxii,  4),  and 


UPPER  CHAMBER 


the  latter  uame  (ao  the  Targum,  Syriar,  aiid  Theodo- 
(iua).  KUnt,  however,  aiiggBUa  {Hrb.  Lei.  a.  v.)  that  it 
■nay  beoumpoundedof  4X,  ti»ui,and  ID,  piire^nM;  and 
thatiiiiceitiainCercbangedwitbmieba(Pu.lxxii,  16), 

it  aajbeicgardedaa  tbenameofaguldwiab  in  Sun  th- 
en) Aratua.  Iu  reaembianoe  lo  J/upAoi  (Tf  qC;  A.V. 
"  beat")  iu  I  Kjiigi  x,  18  ia  perhape  not  accidental    See 

DpiM,  in  Gnek  mythology,  waa  a  aumame  of  Diaaa. 

nymph  of  Ditua.  Upia  waa,  likewise,  the  name  of 
a  Hyperbofcau  woman  who,  with  Aige,  paid  a  tribute 
to  Ueltis  tur  Uiaoa,  aconrding  to  an  oath  respecting  [he 
binb  of  ApuUoL  Again,  Upia  wa*  tbe  name  uf  the 
father  of  Diana,  husbajid  of  Ulauoc.  l^atly,  it  waa  a 
auruame  of  AVnisn^ 

Uppar  Chambor  (or  Room)  (rn^^  atisSJi,  aa 
in  modern  Arabic;  i  Kings  i,  J;  xxiii,  li;  1  Cbrun. 
xxviii,  11 ;  2  Chmn.  iii,9:  "aummer-parl.^' Judg,  iii, 
28;  "lurClKingaivii,l!l,23;  "chamberover  the  gate," 
2  Sam.  iviii,  3U:  elsewhere  "chamber"  limplv;  ovu- 
yu>v,  Mark  xiv,  15;  Luke  xxii,  13;  irip-fov,  Acts  i, 
18;  ix,  87,  39;  xx,  8),  a  sort  of  guest-chamber  not  in 
common  use,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house,  where  the 
Orientala  received  company  and  held  feaata,  and  where 
at  other  times  they  retired  for  prayer  and  meditaiiun 


Front  View  of  Ihe  Balooy  of  a  "Chamber  on  tbe  Wall' 

(Mark  xiv,  IS;  Luke  xxii,  13).     Amonf;  the  HetRwi 

roofs  of  their  dwellings;  in  Greek  houses  it  occapinl 
the  upper  atory  (1  Kings  xvii,  19,  22;  2  Kings  it,  10; 
Acts  1, 18;  ix,a7,S9;  x,9;  xx,8}.  Kobirnm  dnciibn 
tbe  "upper  room  or  a  reapecuble  houM  at  Hamleh  at  i 
large  airy  hall,  forming  a  sort  of  third  atory  opon  ib« 
Hat  roof  of  the  house"  {HiU.  Ba.  iii,  36).  Jowttt  -k- 
scribea  the  chief  room  in  the  houses  of  Harali  (oppoHU 
Leaboa)  aa  in  the  upper  or  third  stoiy,  secluded,  apaciugi. 
and  commodioua,  "  higher  and  larger  than  those  bekn, 
havio)*  two  projecting  windowa,  and  the  whole  fluw  b 
much  extended  in  front  beyond  the  lower  part  of  the 
building  that  the  ptojeciing  windows  ov^ung  Ibc 
Btieet"  (  Cii-iil.  Ba.  p.  67  ).  From  such  a  ehanbtr. 
Eutyeh^^whowaBsilti^(;on  tbe  window,  or  oo  an  ek- 
valed  divan,  fell  through  the  window  into  the  krm 
(Acta  sx,  6-12}.  la  2  Kings  i,l  we  are  told  chat  Ah*- 
ziah  "  (ell  down  through  a  lattice  in  hia  upper  chamber 
was  in  Samaria."     Indeed,  it  is  likely  that  thoas 


in  tbe  E 


It.  go  in 


h  perfect 


In  2  King,  iv 


(Kitlo,PKr,fiiUF,n 

rious  men  are  charged  with  ainfullv  tnultiplring  cnaB- 
bers  of  this  sort  (Jer.  xxii.  IS.  14).  Aa  apokm  of  br 
the  propliet,  they  would  seem  to  have  he*Ti  botb  Ibtkc 
and  built  liir  the  putposea  of  comfort  and  luxury.  Wi 
tiud  accordingly  frrquenc  mention  made  of  then  in 
connection  with  kings,  who  appear  to  have  oaid 
'iDuaes  for  tbeir  coolness  (Judg.  iii. 
!0;  2  Kings  i,  2;  xxiii.  12).  The 
aummer-hoose  spoken  of  in  Seripi- 
ure  was  very  aeldom  a  aepaiM* 
building.     The  lower  part  of  lb* 


winter-hnnae  (Thoniann,  Lai^  ad 

Boot,  i,  386 ;   Robinaon,  BAL  Xa. 

•    iii.  417).    We  And  the  upper  rooma 

allocated  lo  the  nae  of  those  profib- 


rPSAL  * 

m  aaaant  of  ibett  nse  intl  ooolneM  m  plieci  fbr  u- 
Mreblr  (Aow  i.  !«;  xi,  8),  ■nd  for  nmiUr  reuon* 
tlw  dud  wen  Uid  oul  in  them  (ix,  89).  There  ap- 
pean  to  hare  been  txx  upper  mom  a*er  Ihe  galcwiyg 
oftoirna  (2  3un.iviii,3S),  and  on  tbeii  roori,  u  being 
Ibe  bi^iat  pan  of  the  houst,  iiloUtPoui  worahip  waa 
paid  tu  Bui  (2  King*  xxiii,  12).  In  alluuoo  to  the 
|a(Uo««  uf  Ihe  upper  room,  Ibe  pialmiit  beautifully  de- 
■cribea  Ood  a*  teyiiiK  Ibe  beams  of  hu  tipper  ckiimiai 
in  (he  iraten,  anil  fruni  theoc*  watering  tiie  hilla  (Pu. 
ciT,8,l3).     SeeCuAXBBB;  Uouia. 

UpB*li  a  town  of  Sweden,  forty-flva  milei  north- 
weU  of  Stockholm,  was,  during  tbe  Middle  Age^  the 
urongbolil  uf  paganUm.  It  has  ■  beautiful  Golbic  ca- 
thedral, built  from  I2&8  to  1436.  lu  interior  is  mag- 
niAcent  anil  riehlj  decorated,  but  lie  exlerior  bas  auf- 
hnd  much  from  Hre,  notably  in  the  conflagration  of 
ITOS.  It  ia  the  Aneac  catheilral  in  that  region.  See 
Beamier,  Hut.  oftkt  Church,  iii,  iffi  sq. 

Upton,  Jamek,  a  learned  schoolnuaur  and  dirlne 
of  the  Church  if  EiigUml,  and  editor  afclanical  worioi 
WIS  bom  in  1670,  and  died  in  1749, 

Vt,  the  name  of  a  place  and  of  a  man.  There  ia 
(pparently  do  direct  connection  between  the  titba, 
perhaps  not  even  kinship  of  dialect. 

1.  The  OTif^nil  sea  of  Abraham's  bmtljr,  whence  he 
•Maut  for  Canaan  (Ueo. zi, S8, 81 ;  xt,7i  Neb.ix,?). 

Sn  A-BAHAK. 

L  T)te  NaMt.—TtA»  ia  inTBriibly  "Ur  of  [the]  Chal- 
deea-  (ni?!D?    "HJl,  Ur  Katdim;  Sept,  ^  x^  '"^ 
iMkiidiv;  Vulg.  Ur  CluJiiannm  [but  in  Neb.  igmii 
OnUeonn]).    The  olden  derivation  of  the  word  I^H 
Urimn  the  Heb.  I^St,  or  I^X  Ughl,  in  the  (ense  oTjCm 
(n  the  Targum  and  Jerome).     This  derivation  is  no 
doubt  connected  with  the  legends  in  Ihe  Koran  and 
Tslnud,  which  repreeent  Abraham  as  escaping  by  mir- 
acle from  tbe  ftamea  into  which  Nimnd  or  other  idnl- 
atroua  peraecutom  bad  thrown  him  (see  Wsgrier,  in 
tbe  r*aHir.  ThwL-philoi.  i,  173).     Tariooa  other  ety- 
molngies  have  been  pivposed :  aome  taking  tbe  word  as 
*VI,  a  soaistaiii ,-  some  as  denoting  the  east,  or  tbe  UghU 
ginug  rtgion ,-  while  Ewald,  from  the  Arabic,  makt 
**  pUce  of  ■njnum,"  and  others  took  to  the  Zendic  m 
a/nr(  (Gesen.),  or  the  Saiucrit  ur,  a  bwn,  or  even 
Heb.  1^3,  a  cUf  (Bnnomi,  -VbibkA,  p.  41),    The  ni 
bowcTer,  was  probably  indigenous,  and  belongs  to 
old  Cbaldee  of  the  flnl  empire,  tbe  Assyrian  Urn,  and  Che 
CBDeiform  Hur. 

IL  Sila  PrtpomL^i.  One  tradition  identifies  Ur 
with  the  mndem  Orjah,  in  tbe  nortb-weM  part  of  Heao- 
potsmia.  There  is  some  ground  for  believing  that  this 
city,  called  bv  the  Greeks  Edessi,hail  also  Ibe  name  of 
Orrha  as  early  ■■  the  time  of  Isidore  (ILC.  cir.  1 50) ;  and 
thatiadition  connecting  it  with  Abraham  is  perhaps  ni 
later  than  Ephraem  (A.D.  830-870),  who  makes  Nlmrod 
kug  of  Edeiiia,  among  other  places  {Commeal.  in  Gtn^ 
la  Opp.  i,  68,  B.).  Aoixinling  to  Pococke  (^Dtieriplioinif 
lUt  £a1,  i,  169),  Chat  Ur  is  Edessa  or  Orfah,  is  "the 
■aberaoj  opinion  of  tbe  Jews ;"  and  it  ia  also  tbe  local 
belief,  ss  is  indicated  by  the  title  ■■  Mosque  of  Abraham," 
bonie  bv  tbe  chief  tcligiaua  ediSce  of  ibe  place,  and  the 
darignaiinn  "  Ijike  of  Abraham  the  Behived,"  attached 
to  the  pond  in  which  are  kept  Che  sacred  flsh  (Aina- 
wonh,7VaKb  IB  tie  T'raQt,eu^p.64;  comp.  Niebuhr, 
Fo,.is««^™H*,p.830). 

2,  A  seeond  tradition,  which  appears  in  tbe  Talmud 
•nd  Id  aoBM  of  the  early  Arabian  writen,  finds  V 
Warhi,  Oit  'Om'W  "^  '^'  tireeks,  and  probably  the 
Eredi  of  Holy  Scripture  (called  'Oyjiv  by  tbe  Sept.). 
This  place  bean  tbe  name  of  Hantt  m  the  native  in- 
Kriptions,  and  was  in  Che  country  known  tc  the  Jews 
as  "  (he  land  of  Che  Chaldcanh" 

S.  A  third  tndUioa,  hm  distinct  than  either  of  these, 


OE 

but  entitled  to  it  least  equal  atlenlion,  distinguisbes  Dr 
from  Warka,  while  still  placing  it  in  tbe  same  legion 
~  rnalnfAtialieaiKie'y.x.ii.-^l.naU^).  Tbere 
ittje  doubt  that  the  city  to  which  this  tradition 

called  ffur  by  the  lutives,  and  which  is  now  represented 
by  tbe  ruins  at  Miighar,ot  l/ngJieir,  ou  the  rigbc  bank 
of  tbe  Euphratea,  nearly  opposite  lo  its  junction  with 
the  Shat  el-Hie.  The  oldest  Jewish  tndition  which 
we  ponega,  that  quoted  by  Eusebius  from  Eupniemus 
(Praji.  £«.  ix,  17),  who  lived  about  RG  160,  may  be 
Curly  said  M  intend  this  pUoe;  for  by  identifying  Ur 
(Una)  with  the  Babylonian  city,  known  also  as  C»- 
nurina  and  Chaldaupolls,  It  poiiita  to  a  city  of  Ihe 
Moon,  which  //vr  was — Kamar  being  "  the  moon"  in 
Arabic,  and  Kkaidi  the  aame  luminary  in  tbe  Did  Ar- 

4.  An  opinion  unsupported  by  any  tradition  remaiaa 
ic  be  nolioed.  llochirt,  Calmet,  Bunsen,  and  olhera 
identify  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldeea"  with  a  place  of  tbe  name 
mentioned  hy  a  single  lata  writer  (Ammianus  HirceUi- 
nus)  as  -'a  castle"  existing  in  his  day  in  Eastern  Meso- 
poumia,  between  Hatn  (El-Hadhr)  and  NiaibiB(Amm. 
Marc  XXV,  8).  The  chief  arguments  in  fivoi  of  this 
site  seem  to  be  Che  identity  uf  name  and  tbe  position  of 
the  plice  between  Atrapachiliis  which  ia  thought  to 
have  been  the  dwelling-place  of  Abraham's  ancestiHs  in 
Harau  (Harran),  whitber  be 


itfroi 


Ur. 


be  added  that  Tuch  regards  Ur  as  a  Median 
town  called  Out>n  by  Strabo  (xi,  6V3),  a  view  followed 
to  some  extent  by  Ewald,  Lengerke,Kitler,  and  KnobcL 

111.  FrotMibU  Jdettifixatiim^U  will  he  seen  that  of 
the  fimr  or  fire  localities  Chought  tu  hsve  s  claim  to  he 
regarded  as  Abribim'a  city,  two  (or  three)  are  situated 
in  Upper  Mesopotamia,  between  the  Muns  Masiua  and 
tbe  Slnjar  range,  while  tbe  other  two  are  In  the  alluvial 
tract  near  the  sea,  at  lust  four  hundred  miles  farther 
south.  LeC  as  endeavor  Srst  to  decide  in  which  of  these 
two  regions  Ur  is  more  probably  to  be  sought. 

Thst  Chiliina  was,  properly  speaking,  the  southem 
pan  of  Babylonia,  the  region  bordering  upon  the  (Julf, 
will  be  admitted  by  alL  Those  who  mainuin  tbe  north- 
ern emplacemenC  of  Ur  Vgue  that,  with  the  exlenilaa 
of  ChaklBaD  power,  the  name  travelled  northward,  and 
became  coexleniive  with  Meeoputamia;  but,  in  tbe  fitst 
place,  tbere  is  no  proof  that  the  name  Chaldaa  was  ever 
extended  to  the  region  above  the  Sinjar;  and,ieciH>dly, 
if  it  was,  Ihe  Jewa  at  any  rate  mean  by  Chaldca  exclu- 
sively the  lower  coun tiy,  and  cA  the  upper  Mcenpotamia, 
or  Padan-Aram  (see  Job  i,  17 ;  Iss.  xili,  19 ;  xlili,  14,  etc). 


0  bcliei 


bylonian 


povrer  was  established  beyond  the  Sinjar  in  theae  early 
[imet.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  to  have  been  conllneil 
to  Babylonia  Proper,  or  the  alluvial  tract  below  Hit  and 
Tekrit,  until  the  expedition  of  Chedorlaomer,  which  waa 
later  than  the  migration  of  Abraham.  The  conjectures 
of  Ephracm  Syrus  and  Jerome,  who  identify  the  citlea 
of  Kimrod  with  placee  in  the  upper  Hnopntamian  conn- 
try,  deserve  no  credit '  The  names  all  really  belong  to 
Chaldns  Proper.  Moreover,  the  best  and  earliest  Jew- 
ish authorities  place  Ur  in  the  low  region.  Eupolemus 
baibeen  already  quoted  to  tbiaefhec  Joaeph  us,  though 
lessdistiDct  upon  the  point,  seems  to  hsve  held  tbe  same 
view  (.4  at.  i,  6).  The  TalmudiaCa  also  are  on  this  side 
of  tbe  question ;  and  local  tisditions,  which  may  be 
traced  Iwck  nearly  to  the  Hegin,iDake  the  lower  coun- 
try Che  place  of  Abraham's  birth  and  early  life.  If  Orfab 
has  a  Moaque  and  a  Lake  of  Abraham,  Culba.  near  Baby- 
lon, itnea  by  Abraham's  narne,  as  the  traditional  scene 
of  all  his  legendary  miracles. 

Again,  it  is  really  in  tbe  lower  counlry  only  that  a 
nameciosely  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  nist  isfoun4 
The  cnneifbrm  Har  represents  ^^X  letter  for  letter,  and  ' 


nn 


•niblT,  and  tbe  tiippnaed  Ur  dT  Annnianna  ii  timlnbl* 
Dill  IJr,  but  Ailiir.  Th«  UrchoS  {'O^diJ)  iif  S>iutlieni 
H»i|i<iuniia  (llulem}-,  Geotfr.r.'iO;  c<>ni|i.  Sirabis  XTi, 
1,  b),  iioIeU  by  laier  wrilen  (Cellariiit,  (Ifogr.  ii,  TSOi 
Biiiiumt,  A'urrrA,  p.41,899;,  ii  prulubly  diffcratit  fmm 
tlie  OIif>ii  iif  JnaephD*  and  the  Oupci)  »r  Eiipulet 


«70  UB 

the  real  Cbaldm— tbe  Inw  co 


u  Abraham.     Tradilkn 


The  argument  that  Urabnukl  beemightin  the  neit(h-    both,  but  perbap*  more  iliaiinclly  lo  Warka.     On  tbg 

'    '      •    '  ---       .-.■-....--.  ..  ..  _  ..   j,!^  j,  aeemt  cenain  thai  Warka,  the  iialiTe 

hichwa«  Hanik,npn»tnlt  the  ETCchortiin- 

ly  be  tbe  Ur  uf  the  aame  Imik. 


n>^^U>''*^''<»->i<i'S6«,3tf7),bB>nuweight   eNa,w 


oiiiieeled  with  the  plaoea,  w 


:    Sec  Erkcii.     Mugh 

.    iiameof'i;i-(irtf»r, 

eiitiUeil  to  be  (al  1< 


iaiaually)  ngardetl  t  Iht 


bly  fn™  A 

apkA,!,  an  .^ 

n  of  no  (treat 

city  of  Abraham. 

"^ 

'       - 

on  the  left  bank  oTthe  Tigria, above  Nine- 

If  it  be  objected 

o  thu  theory  that  Abraham,  hi  viag 

veb,  which 

aa  nnly  tbree 

leuen  in  cunimon  with  Ar- 

to  go  from  Muglie 

r  to  Paleat 

ne,  would  not  be  likHy 

phaxad  O- 

3D7»)j  and 

SeniJ  ia  a  na 

oe  which  doe* 

to  take  Haran  (j/a 

rra.)  on  hi.  way,  more  particnlarty 

n«  appear! 

till  long  after  the  Christian 

an  he  miiu  then  ha 

ve  crOBSed  the  Euphnlei  twice,  il« 

ora.    ItUrarelT.irever.t 

morical  gene- 
nothing  aeema 

answer  would  seem 

to  be  that    ' 

iol  inrunna 

tun  tmm  tbe 

that  of  an  Individ 

al.  but  of 

a  tribe  travelling  widi 

alogv;and 

■ertainiv  in  the  nresent  cane 

large  flocka  and  h 

TcKwhOM 

ine  oT  mi|rviion  wvM 

to  have  beer 

gained  by  th 

attempt  to  il 

wLie.  of  paaiurage,  irri 

Oil  the  w 

ule,  therefore. 

ilantolerablv 

bv  the  frieiullv  or 

certain  that 

-UrofiheC  aldeeii- waa  a 

plan  liluatcd 

.irengib,  of  the  in 

bea  already 

Rione  which  had  l 

be  traveraed.     Fear  of  Arab  plan- 

e 

derera  (Job  i.  16>  may  very  p 

robably  have  cauKl  Ibt 

emigranta  to  cmag 

he  Euphra 

e*  before  quilling  Bibr- 

'  M 

ik 

hmia,  and  having  d 

i 

S 

the  left  bank  of  ihe 

stream  u> 

heHelik,  up  which  ihey 

^ 

* /. 

tr 

might  then  pniceed 

attracted  by  ita  excellent  pasuiei^ 

paatnral  tribe  pmcecd- 

leMine  nad  atcend  Ibc 

ide  of  Aleppo,  and  pet- 

1  nearly  UiEUr,II>iTan 

er  route.     Be«iri»,ll» 

/ 

whole    tribe   which 

bam  *»  not  g™« 

to  PaleMine.     Half 

the  tribe  wen  bnil 

onaleHdixanijoiBv 

Dev;  and  with  iben 

thi    qiHWiun     DM 

/ 

have    been,    «hm 

, 

cmJd    ihei-,  on  « 

1 ! : , 

neat     the     liue    of 

occupied   terrilorv. 
They  conld  not  *- 
reetly  ciiwa  the  <^m 
desert  between  IU>- 
.vtnniaandralMin 
Even  caravan*  irav- 

l  \ ' 

;    ohIiBeil  to  take  tbi 

I,'' 

1    route  bv  Harvan. 

1  \\ 

TV.DticriplipiKf 

^ 

lie  Modem  iMnOt. 

— -Ur  or  Hur,  nrw 

V 

if»gMr..v  Vm.il- 

* 

ff*eir,<..hebi.H»fn. 

ed,"  or  "the  mi4l.- 

erofhltinoen.-b>oiie 

of  tbe  m-ft  ancitei, 

it  Dot  r*e  ranet  an. 

dem,oriheChald» 

•naiteahilhertodii- 

covereiU    It  liea  on 

the  right  bank  ofiht 

««*<> 

•dr. 

Euphrale^    at    tht 

tbe    Euphratea   re- 


na  «i 

aim  tbe  Shit  i1  -  Hia  frum  the  Tifiru.  It  i*  now 
iHK  lea  tbin  125  mile*  rmtn  the  eeai  but  then  ira 
eniuiuli  fur  believing  that  It  wu  wicieniLy  a  mari- 
tlRie  biwii,  mJ  that  iu  preaeut  inland  pnsitiun  haa  been 
ciiKtd  liT  the  npid  grawlb  oT  the  alluviuni.  Tbe  re- 
nains  of  the  buiLlin^  an  ^en^nJlTof  th«  ninat  archaic 
chuactM.  Thev  cover  an  ojal  apaoe  1000  yard*  lonR 
hr  800  bmad,  and  coiwlM  principally  of  a  number  of 

tiiln  b  nearly  perfect.  The  rooM  reniirkabLe  building 
ii  near  the  nonhem  end  of  tbe  mine.  It  in  ■  temple 
iifilie  true  fhaldaian  type,  built  in  ■lagiH,of  which  two 
reinain,  and  cnmposed  tif  brick,  partly  eun-bumed  and 

11  in  the  furmuf  a  righi-angled  paralleliigrani,the  lon({- 
Bt  lide*  of  nhich  are  the  iiorth-eaM  and  Knith-weat. 
One  angle  points  due  north.     The  kivrer  itory  in  lup- 

eioptioii  of  thine  at  the  angle*,  eight  feet  wide.     The 
hiiUiiiE  measurealSSfeetinlengtb  and  IS3  in  breadth. 
Tlie  bwer  »tory  ia  twenty-»eren  feet  high,  and  has  hut 
<HK  entrance,  which  ii  eight  feet  wide.     The  outer  nur- 
tia  ia  facal  with  "  red  kilii-baiied  bridu"  tu  a  thick' 
MMuTien  feet;  bit 
Ibt  -bide  interior  is 
<t  un-dnHl  bricka. 
In  each  of  the  angle* 
xf  thia  building,  .ix 
A  inward,  near  thu 


UR 


wai,  coneeminK 
whom  the  early  Bible  criHca  have  in  vaiu  endearore.1 
la  reconcile  contlicliiig  alatemenia.  In  the  book  of 
Daniel  (r,  30)  he  ia  alluded  to  aa  the  king  of  the  Chal- 
dee*  when  Babylon  iraa  taken  by  the  united  armie*  of 
Che  Medea  and  Peraiani,  The  acennnt  of  Beniaus  doea 
not,  hciwever,  agree  with  that  of  Scripture.  It  atite* 
that  Nabonidui,  after  being  utierlj  niited  in  the  open 
plain  by  Cynia.  abut  himielf  up  in  the  city  of  Bonippa, 
but  wai  anin  obliged  tu  aurremler  hia  peraon  to  the  con- 
quemr.  From  Daniel,  theiefure,  we  are  led  to  conclude 
that  Belahauir  was  the  laat  Chaldnan  monarch ;  whila 
Nabuuidua  a  represented  in  the  aame  capacity  by  Bem- 
■ua. ...  Sir  Henry  Rawliiison'*  reading  uf  the  Mugheir 
c.vlinden  entirely  reconcile*  theie  diaciepaacies.  The 
reconi*  diatinctly  atate  that  Bdikaaar  mu  the  tldtM 
Km  nf  Nubtmidiu,  and  that  he  wa*  admitted  to  a  ihare 
iirthegnvernnient"(Loftna,Cj(a'[faa<inif  .;ii/iana,p.lBi 
oimp.  Juai-mil  of  Aiiulie  Saeitif,  iv,  260  aq.).     See 

centnrir^  and  even  after  it  became  aecond  lu  Babylon 
waa  a  great  city,  with  an  eapecially  ai 


Ibe  Mme  purpuae  a* 
pment  depoaiteil  be- 


ihe  Briibh  Muaei 
Tbe    bricka    of    t 


iwsilily  be  the  same 

a.  that  of  Orchamii* 

..f  Ovid  («rf<i«.  iv,  Rn 

il*i).     Ki*  suppuaed 

dite  u  B.a  :i000,  i-r  a  little  earlier.    Tr  wa*  the  capi- 

lea.1t  a<  far  north  aa  NiSer,  and  who,  by  the  grandeur 
of  hia  conitnictiiiiia,  i»  proved  to  have  been  a  wealthy 
and  powerful  priiire.  The  Rreat  temple  appeara  to 
have  been  funmled  by  tbis  king,  who  dedicated  it  to 
Ibe  nuion-giKl,  Hurti,  from  whom  the  town  itself  aeemi 
tri  have  derived  it*  name.  Ilgi,  aon  of  Orukh,  com- 
pleied  the  temple,  a*  welt  aa  certain  other  of  hia  father's 
buitdinxa,  and  the  kings  who  fiiUnwed  upnn  these  eon- 
liiiuaJ  fur  aeverai  generation*  to  adorn  and  beam  ify  the 
city.  The  tableta  of  the  Chaldoana  diacovered  at  Mu- 
gheir are  among  the  moat  intereating  ever  brou^iht  to 
light.  Thtae  reainta  bear  the  name*  of  a  series  of 
kinm  from  L'mkh  (H.a  ti30)  to  Nabonidiis  (.II.i;.  MO), 
thf  iaat  of  tbe  aerie*.  Among  otheni  ia  tbat  iif  Kudiir- 
Biapula,  or  Cheihirlaomer  (Uen.  xiv,  I).  Tlie  temple 
aaa  ilediotol  to  Sia,  ut  "the  mimn,"  which  element 
*a*  iianerred  by  the  (Ireeka  in  the  name  M'tnu,  ap- 
plied by  them  to  the  Hirmunding  regiun.  "  The  cylin- 
'     '     la  of  Hughe ir  are  iiiralualile  ilocitmeiils 

le  great  templa  of  the  moon  at  II  ur, 


The  nocinna  enleruined  of  its  superior  ainctily  led  to 
it*  being  used  as  a  cemetery  city,  not  only  during  tbe 
lime  of  the  early  Chald«an  aiipremacy,  but  throughout 
the  Assyrian  and  even  the  later  Babylonian  period.  It 
is  in  the  main  a  city  of  tomb&     By  far  the  greater 


e  kind  o 


nother,  while  oi 


cloeure  the  whole  space  for  a  distance  of  several  hun- 
dred yards  ia  a  thickly  occupied  hnrial-ground.  It  ia 
believed  that  'Ur  was  for  1800  year*  a  *ile  (o  which 
the  dead  ten  brought  from  vast  distances,  thus  resem- 
bling aiwh  places  as  Kerbela  and  Nejif,  or  Me«hed  Ali, 
at  the  present  day.  The  lateat  mention  that  we  find 
of  Tr  as  an  existing  place  ia  in  the  paaaage  of  Kiipule- 
mua  alreadv  quoted,  where  we  learn  that  it  had  changed 
ita  name,  and  waa  cslle.1  Cvn-ii-inn.  It  probably  fell 
intn  decay  iiniler  the  Persiana,  and  waa  a  mere  min  at 
the  time  uf  Alexamler's  conqiiealx.  Perhapa  it  wa*  the 
Alexander'H  inf'irmants  alluilrd  when 


y  told  hi 


lid  A 


(he  great  marshes  of  the  lower  connlrv 
(Arrian,  Krp.  Atrr.  vii,  ti).  The  nwnnda  that  mark 
tha  site  of  its  great  temples  arc  bare;  tiie  whole  coun- 
try aiDuitd  it  i*  B  diMDal  *wanipi    In  regard  la  'Ur, 


URAETTTR 


672 


u  well  u  lo  B*b]rI(Hi,  the  words  of  luUh  an  ttnc, 
"Tbe  besuLv  or  th«  duldees'  exc«U«ncj'  ahill  b«  u 
when  ticHl  orenhnv  Sodum  ud  Onnumh'*  (xiii,  IS). 
Sh  Lafiui, CAoMaa, ch.  nil;  KawUiuon,  ^nnaiJ  Mim- 
arekU$,  i,  15  aq^  27,  1U8, 163)  ^oiir.  Aiyu'  Gtogr.  Soe. 
xxrii,  186.    Se«  Ciuld.aa. 

2.  <•«!(,  Tr,  li;U  ;  Sept.  'QpA  ».  r.  eipo[^],  etc ; 
Tiiljc-  Ti.)  The  ruhei  of  Eliphtl  or  Eliphalet,  one  of 
I>ii'id'«irriTTTan(IChnin.ii,3b).  RC  inle  1048.  In 
the  piralld  liat  of  David's  wvrion  (S  Sam.  xxili,  U) 
we  have  the  gon's  name  thus  ataMd,"ElipheleL  the  aon  uf 
Ahaabai,llieBDnuftheMaachiChUe,"<vthflUaachatb<lg 
aimplj-,  u  it  ahoulil  doubiloa  be  made  lo  read;  while 
the  above  paauge  atill  more  corruptly  gira  two  per- 
•nn>,"EliphaltheKRiDr  Ur,  Hepfaerthe  Uecherathile," 
wliich  ihould  probably  be  coirectfd  »  as  to  refer  to  one 
iiiilividual,  either  b^  tbe  rejection  of  the  name  Hepber 
altiigether,  or  ita  identlBcaiion  with  one  of  the  piKcd- 
in^;  fiirthe  penonigsi  named  before  and  after  thrae  in 
the  two  Ktwanta  are  evidently  the  latne,  and  the  aiib- 
JoinedtumiifuUbycountiiigtheae  aaone,  SkDavid. 
ITniettlr,  in  Vont  mythology,  denotea  the  entire 
dyiiaacv  >.f  the  Tmlieo,  Thuaeea,  serpent-like  dwath  and 
giantu,  I  he  Jotes,  Schwanelh,  and  Uockelfa. 

TTranlu*,  a  Neaiorian  of  Syria  who  applied  the  pre- 
cepu  uf  Ariatoile  lo  the  Eulychian  conttoreniea  and 
pr»pat{aied  hia  doctrinea  in  Penia.  He  aucceeded  ir 
cvovincing  Choanea  on  many  pirinta,  and  waa  so  popn- 
lar  with  thia  ruler  that  he  always  hail  bim  at  hii  table 
See  Muaheim,  Eed.  Hut.  i,  388. 

UrKnaa  (I^t.  Cafu),  the  AeawR,  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, waa  tbe  progenitor  of  the  whole  Hue  of  Ureciac 
goda.     Hia  flnt  children  were  the  Hecaionchirea  {Ceii' 
limanes).     Afterwanla  he  begot,  thTnu)(h  Uiia,  the  Cy- 
clopA,     These  were  impriaoned  in  Tartarus  beeauae  of 
their  great  strength.     This  ao  moved  their  mother  to 
anger  that  ihe  incited  her  siibaequenily  horn  children, 
the  Titsnes,  w>insC  the  falfaer,  who  drove  him  from 
the  Ibrooe  of  the  earth,  after  Kruniu  (Satumua), 
younger  nn,  had,  with  a  diamonrl  sickle,  disqualii 
bim  for  the  further  production  of  children.     The 
noeived  the  mutilsted  orguia,  which  gave  life  to  Vcnua. 
From  the  blood  which  waa  apilled  there  aprang  the 
Uisnbi,theKu[icii.andthe  Helian  nymphs.    SeeSmitI 
Vicl.  of  tir.  awd  Rom.  Biag.  and  MglioL  a.  v. 

Urban  I,  pope  mm  A.D.  SS8  to  230,  waa  a  natii 
of  Rame,biil  tradition  mentions  nothing  worthy  of  not 
eoiKeming  hint  except  that  be  perauaded  several  Ro- 
mans lo  suDer  the  martyr's  death,  and  waa  Hiislly  mar- 
tyred bimaeir  under  Alexander  tjevenis.  May  S6  ia 
4edicai«d  to  his  celebraiion. 

Urban  II,  pope  from  A.D.  IDAS  to  1099,  previoualy 
named  Odo  of  Lagmf,  was  bom  in  ChatiUon-sur-Mame, 
and  became  succeasirely  canon  of  Kheims,  prior  of 
Clugiir,  biahnp  at  Ostia,  and  legate  to  the  court  of  thi 
emperor  Henry  IV.  In  tbe  latter  alation  he  labored 
^Bdently  lo  insare  tbe  papal  prerofcalive  in  connection 
with  the  loBHlilitn  ooniroveray.  He  followed  Victor 
111  as  pope,  and  lepreaented  the  Gregorian  party  in  hi* 
administration.  He  auoceeded  in  maintaining  hiraaelf 
against  pope  Qemeat  II,  who  was  elected  by  Ihe  im- 
perial party,  and  alao  in  greatly  exUndinK  Ihe  influ- 
ence and  reputation  of  the  papacy  throughout  Ihe  WeaC 
In  10H9  he  convened  a  council  at  Rome  which  de- 
nnoneed  tbe  ban  upon  the  emperor,  his  pope,  and  their 
•dheranta.  At  tbe  Cnnci'uiM  Mrlfilamm,  in  1090,  he 
entincialed  the  decree  that  the  laity  could  ponesa  no 
right  whataoever  against  the  clergv  (»ee  Mansi,  Col- 
/«ftoConei(.xx,c«nnn  ll,7i8  [Venei.  1776]),  He  was 
driven  fnim  Rome  by  the  emperor,  and  compelled  to 
aeek  a  refuge  with  count  Knger,  upon  whom  he  had 
oonfened  the  districts  of  Apulia  and  Calabria.  He 
retaliated  by  renewing  tbe  ban  over  bis  enemy  (1091) 
and  fi-rming  an  alliance  with  Conrad,  tbe  emperor'a 
sun,  who  rebelted  and  made  himaeir  king  of  Italy.    Ur- 


ban retnmed  to  Rome  (lOM))  and  thmi  that  tint  fe 

terfered  most  notably  in  tbe  aShin  of  the  world.    He 

ted   Philip  of  Fiance,  who    had  drivta 

Fuloo  of  Aiijoti.    At  the  Council  of  Clennaat(l(»&)  be 
forbade  the  invealiiure  of  bishops  by  tb«  haoda  id  tbe 
laity  of  any  rank  whalevq,  and  also  the  aaaamption  rl 
'    ilal  obligations  to  king  or  other  layman  by  any  der- 
gyman.    He  was  not  succcasful,  however,  in  compelling 
princes  lo  give  up  their  sovereignty  in  eodcnastKal 
jrs,  and  waa  even  compelled  to  enata  onot  Roger 
iicily,  his  own  protrig^,  legate  to  8idly,  in  ante*  that 
might  be  able  to  enforce  his  decree  wjthuut  alies- 
ating  the  count  from  bis  side.    Tbe  Council  it  Qef~ 
ras  also  speciaUy  important  aa  funiisliing  tkens 
for  the  organiution  of  the  Crumdrt  tot  tlw  odb- 
queat  of  tbe  Holv  Sepukhre.    Urban  delivend  a  Atrv 
"   lolua  for  the  llrat  vnm^\ 
increatrd  his  own  pawn 
that  he  became  able  to  expel  hia  rival  fnxn  Borne  and 
utterly  destroy  his  influence.      Other   coinwUs  wen 
belli  in  France  under  hia  direction,  in  one  of  wbii^M 
Nismes,  he  released  Philip  of  Fiance  fram  the  ban,  in 
recognition  of  his  separation  from  Berirada.     Same- 
thing  of  regard  was  also  paid  by  him  to  the  p> 

In  England  William  Rufus  proved  an  obsUnM 
urnc  to  the  papal  plans,  but  in  Spain  theae  pi 


a  large  ( 

Urtian'a  induence  over  matlen  of  doctrine  was  ksa  jyo- 
uounced  than  over  tiuttera  of  adminiatration ;  bat  ha 
nevertheless  caused  the  teachings  of  llerengar(q.  v.)  ta 
be  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Piacenia,  and  ai  CJer- 
munt  the  practice  of  dipping  the  bread  need  in  tbe  me- 
rament  in  wine.     In  the  latter  council  In  also  pn- 

which  from  that  time  became  pre-emiitently  a  priv- 
ilege of  the  pope.  He  asauied  to  all  Chiiaiiant  wb* 
shuulil  take  up  anus  against  the  inHdels  entire  (bqavt- 
nesa  of  sins,  and  also  blcaseilnce*  and  iiicluMMi  asaoag 
the  Dumber  of  martyn,  if-  Ihey  sbndd  fall  during  (he 
campaign.  The  power  of  the  onmplete  i " 
therefore  based  on  the  idea  of  the  aii 
ofmartvrdom.  Urban  died  June  M,  109a.  See  llu 
ft  JCpui.  Vii.  II,  in  Uansi,  ■(  iMpra,  61:1-719,  and  tbe 
lileratuTs  in  Gieeeler,  Ltkib.  d.  Kirtkngnck.  ii,  1  (Itk 
ed.  Bonn,  1M8),  p.  89  aq.,  BOe^Henog,  Rtal-Eae^^ 

Urban  III,  previously  Lambert  at  RiAttt  CritM, 
of  Milan,  was  archdeacon  at  Bourges  and  later  at  113*% 
archbisbop  of  Milan,  and  cardinal  He  waa  madepsfs 
in  1186,  and  is  noteworthy  only  because  of  his  mno- 
tenupied  and  unprofitable  quarrels  with  Ihe  empenr 
Frederick,  for  which  see  Grria  Trniromm  (Tiev.  im), 
voLi;  and  Gieseler,  p.  96  sq.  Urban  died  Oct,19,llK. 
See  Herzog,  RraUtMiyklop,  s,  v. 

Urban  IV,  pope  fhim  A.D.  1S61  to  1961.naiBad 
JaaA  PoKlabtm,  tbe  son  of  a  shoemaker  at  Tnw*^ 
studied  at  Paria  and  became  canon  of  Tioyia,  aiMl  afto- 
wards  bishop  of  Uege,  Innocent  lY  sent  him  aa  IrgaM 
to  Germany,  and  AJexandei  IV  nominated  hioi  patri- 
arch of  Jenualem.  His  brii 
by  political  agitatioDa  growi  _ 
lo  destroy  the  influence  of  i  he  Sicilian  king  Maabed  ia 
the  allkirs  of  Italy,  and  hia  interference  with  tbe  dis- 
puted sncrriailon  of  tbe  German  throne.  lie  SfipnaiBd 
fourteen  cardinals  lo  serve  aa  conitsellnra,  forbade  tbe 
election  of  Conrsdin,  tfaa  last  repmentalice  of  tbt 
house  of  Hohenstanfen,  to  the  German  thraoe,  aada 
pain  of  excommunication,  and  dted  Richard  of  Cm- 
wallia  and  Alfred  of  Castile,  the  oompetiun  Ibr  ika> 
throne,  to  Rome,  that  they  nrigbt  await  hia  JteiaMi 
He  also  despatched  a  cardinal-legau  to  England  lva» 
aert  the  autlunity  of  the  papacy  in  the  adiainiatnDM 
of  that  country;  and  he  sumtDoned  Manfred  bate*  to 
tribunal,  and  when  that  king  diaceganM  the  iBBMft 


URBAN  V 


I  kiogdaia  to  duke  Chirks  af  Anji 
Uufnd,  however,  i«ut«],  ■«!  Hibjugated  by  force 
■mu  ■  larger  ponien  OS  Che  States  of  the  Church. 
'Jrbin  wta  compellml  to  Hee  Tor  uTetv  to  Orvielo,  and 

.nerw»nl«  to  Penif-iM,  where  he  died.'Oct.  2,  l?64.     He 
u  nouble  fur  having  brougbt  about  a  general  abac 
■niK  of  Ibe  Feast  of  Corpui  ChriMi.     Hia  literary 
mains  include,  besides  a  number  of  bulls,  a  small  collec- 
tinn  uf  Epiilolit.     See  Maiisi,  ConciL  iiiiL,  1078  »q,; 
Gieaeler,  p.  166  sq.;  aiid  Htrzog,  Kfol-Eac^kiop.^ 

Urban  V,  the  lut  uf  the  ATignon  popes,  reigned 
frain  13«3  to  1370.  Ilia  name  via  fVUiiam  Gnnivard, 
and  he  hud  been  i  Benedictine  monk,  abbot 
in  1S53,  uid  al  St.  Victor's,  In  Uaraeilles,  in 
was  rated  as  a  mnt  capable  canonist,  and  bad  officiated 
ich«r  of  canon  and  civil  law  in  Montpellier, 


He> 


itvr 


in  the  pontificate,  and  found  himself  at  once  in  difllcuU 
circumstancei.    In  Italy  BernaboViacnnte  had  rebelled 
and  uken  possession  of  several  cities  belonging 
Chnrch,  whicbconldonly  be  recovered Ihrougb  a 
by  which  the  pope  pledged  himself  Co  tba  payment  of 
a  ransom  amDunting  to  half  a  millinn  gold  flurini.    Eng- 
land had  reTuMd  to  pay  Che  cnstomary  tribute,  and  Ed- 
ward III  had  even  caused  a  very  rendate  denial  of  such 
rerenuea  Co  be  opposed  by  the  Parliament  to  the  pope'i 
demand.    Tbe  Turiia  were  threacening  danger  to  Cy- 
puis.     Urban  sought  to  advance  the  papal  inieresli 
amid  Iheae    complicaliona  by  means  o(  legates,  the 
preaching  nf  a  new  cruude  against  the  Turks,  and 
lemovalof  tbe  papal  seat  In  Rome.    Greatly  to  thedi 
satbfacliun  of  many  cardinals,  tbe  latter  project  was  ei 
ecuteil  in  1307,  llie  pope  leaving  Avignon  April  dO,  and 
reaching  Knme  OcC  IG.     He  was  received  by  qi 
Joanna  of  Naplea.  on  whom  he  conferred  a  golden 
and  a  cnnsecraled  snotd.     The  cmpemr  John  I'sle 
gus  came  over  lo  the  faith  of  Rome  and  promised  fealty 
to  ihe  papal  authority,  OcL  18, 1369.    But,urgtilby  ' 
Krench  cardinal,  the  pope  returned  lo  Avignon  in  Sep- 
lemlier,  1370.     Soon  ifierwards  he  died  (Nov.  13), 
was  buried,  according  lo  his  request,  at  Miiseilles.     Ic 
is  to  be  adde-l  Chat  Urban  cnltivaced  a  atri 
required  bishops  to  reside  in  their  dioceoea, 
ly  combated  tbe  growing  simony  and  accumulation  of 
benefices  in  Che  hands  of  individual  prelatet.     Sevi 
of  his  bulls  conilemn,  in  addition,  tbe  formation  ofuni 
and  the  incorporation  of  benefices.     9ee  Mansi,  xxvi, 
iffisq.l  Gie*eler,ii,3,92sq.,117K|.;  and  Ueraog,  AraJ^ 
t'MyUop.  a. 

Urban  VI,  the  Aral  lo  ascend  che  papal  chair  in 
tbe  period  of  the  "  great  schism,"  was  previously  named 
BorfJWoiBBP  o/  frigmimt,  and  was  a  itaCive  of  the  city 
of  Naplea.  He  became  archUshop  iif  Bar!  ''" 
liregnry  XI,  April  8,  1378,  the  people  of  I 
demanded  an  Italian  pope.  Ho  attemple'l  lo  reform 
the  many  and  scandalous  abuses  which  hi 


!{  the  a' 


of  tl 


d  did 


ops  and  canlinalsi  and 
having  nflended  Ihe  clcrRV,  he  was  unfortunate  enough 
Ui  alienate  the  guud-will  of  many  infiueiiiial  laymen, 
alio,  by  his  haughty  and  arlrilrary  manner.  The  car- 
dinala,  therefore,  proceeded  to  elect  a  new  pope  on  the 
plea  that  the  election  of  Urban  was  not  freely  made, 
but  was  forced  on  che  cardinals  by  tbe  people.  Count 
Ruben  of  Geneva  was  the  new  choice,  and  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Clement  Ttl :  and  as  Urban  retained  a  large 
boily  of  adherents,  the  great  schism  was  ac  once  con- 
tuinmaled.  Urban  was  supported  by  Italy,  England, 
Germany,  and  Poland.  Queen  Joanna  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  hail  acknowledged  him,  but  waa  drii'en  into  an 
alliance  with  Clement  by  his  pride  and  obstinacy;  and 
induced  che  heir  to  her  throne,  duke 


Ctaarl 


of  Dur 


aled  that  prince.    Tbe  cardinals,  who  had  con- 
sfdred  with  Charles  uainM  him,  were  impriaoned  and 


(3  URBAN  VIII 

tortured,  and,  after  a  time,  five  of  them  were  put  to 
,  death.  To  I^diAlaus,  the  beir  of  Charles,  Urban  denied 
the  possession  of  Naples,  claiming  that  ic  was  a  papal 
fief,and  he  orgaiiiied  an  eitpedicion  lo  defend  his  claim  i 
hue  when  his  soldiers  deserted  his  standard,  be  returned 
to  Rome.  October,  I38S,  and  emptoyed  himself  Ihenoe* 
forwaid  more  especially  with  ecclesisstical  afUrs.  He 
ordered  Chat  Che  Jubilee  should  t*  observed  once  every 
thirty.thiee  years,  and  that  its  next  celebration  should 
take  place  in  1390.  He  also  introduced  the  Feast  of  tbe 
ViBiiniion  of  Maty,  and  decreed  Chsc  divine  wonliip 
might  be  celebrated  OD  Corpua  Chiisti  Day,  even  during 
the  enforcement  of  an  interdict.  He  died  OcC  16, 1389, 
as  many  supposed, of  poison.  See  Mansi,  p. 609;  Gie- 
seler,  p.  132  sq. ;  Ilerzog,  Rtat-Enrytlop.  s.  v. 

Urbui  VH.  of  Genoese  extraction,  Chough  bnm  at 
Rome,  was  previously  named  John  Bapliit  Ca$lagnit. 
He  was  archbishop  of  Rosaann,  member  of  the  Omncil 
of  TienE,  repeateflly  a  legace  to  Germany  and  S|inin, 


sthei 


died  twelve 


-softer 


the  election,  and  before  his  consecration,  Sept.  27,  IflOO. 
See  Ranke,  Die  rum.  PapMe,  etc.(BerL  183ej,ii,!19  sq.; 
llenog,  Real-Encytlop.  i,  v. 

Urban  VHI,  pope  from  1623  <o  1G44,  was  a  native 
of  Florence  named  .ifiiJTto  Barberiai,  and  n  pupil  of  the 
Jesuits.  He  developed  a  fondness  fur  poetry,  and  en- 
tered the  service  of  che  curia,  in  which  he  filled  many 
positions  of  great  importance.  His  most  influeniial 
work  was  perhaps  the  prumolion  of  the  restoration  of 
Che  Jesuits  to  France.  After  he  had  become  cardiiial- 
priesl  and  archbishop  of  Spoleto,  he  was  elccied  lo  suc- 
ceed Gregory  XV  in  Che  pontiScate,  Aug.  6, 1623.  His 
tastes  were  altogether  those  of  an  Italian  secnlar  prince, 
and  be  gave  attention  cbieHy  to  the  erection  of  furti5- 
cations,  the  enlisting  of  soldiers,  Ibe  collecting  of  arms. 
tic  Amid  the  complications  of  the  time,  he  at  first 
supported  tbe  intereata  of  France  against  Austria  and 
Spain,  and,  in  connection  with  Richelieu,  was  led  even 
to  che  cultivation  of  relations  with  pMleslants,  ao  that 
he  was  not  in  sympathy  wich  Ihe  Jesuitical  method  of 
enforcing  Che  Eidicc  uf  Restoration  of  1629  in  Germany, 
and  directed  his  legate  to  tbe  Diec  of  Ratisbon  in  16^ 
to  oppose  the  wishes  of  Austria.  Complaints  agsinac 
this  tendency  were  naturally  raised  by  the  Catholic 
princes  aiul  clergy,  and  found  expression  in  the  assem- 
bled Conuilory  itself.  A  number  of  cardinals  even  har- 
bored Ibe  Idea  of  convoking  a  council  in  opposition  lo 
be  pope.  In  1631  he  inherited  the  duchy  of  Urbino, 
ut  thereby  became  involved  in  difficulties  with  tbe 
uke  of  Parma  and  his  allies.  His  nepotism  also  cnn- 
ribuCed  Cowards  Ihe  troubles  of  his  |>untiticalc.  De- 
spite bis  dislike  of  the  governments  which  were  most 
aealoiisly  devoted  to  tbe  interests  of  Rome,  Urban  waa 
iwavcring  defender  of  the  traditional  cheory  of  Ihe 
papacy  within  the  Church  ileelf.  He  gave  effect  to 
luoniimtion  of  the  founders  of  the  orders  of  Jesuits 
and  Oraiorians;  bealilieil  Francis  Itorgia  and  others; 
idded  the  Odicgium  dc  l*rapBganda  Fiile  (also  Collegium 
Urbanum)  to  che  Congregatio  de  Fide  Cathol.  Props- 
ganda;  gave  to  tbe  bull  /n  Cana  Domini  ica  present 
ihape;  abolished  che  order  of  female  Jeeuila;  caused 
the  publication  of  a  new  ediliim  of  the  Breviary;  con- 
ined  Galileo  and  bis  teachingsi  and  in  the  bull  Ue 
Kmianli  declareil  himself  against  Jansen  (q.  v,).  Ha 
le  tbe  clergy  louse  snuff  in  church  on  pain  of  ex- 


Urbi 
erale.     His  poems  coi 


leOhU 


dNew 


III  Hon 


and  in  part  of  hymns  on  tbe  Virgin  nud 
lerent  saints.  They  were  published  in  Aniiverp, 
M;  l'ari>,  1643;  Oxford,  1726.  He  was  also  Ihe  au- 
ir  of  Epigraim  which  were  published  with  comments 
Dormulius  (Rome.  1613).    Urban  died  July  29, 16«. 

See  Simonin,  Sylviw  Urianiana  :  Grata  Urbaai  (Aniw. 

1637) ;  Ranke,  Dit  rim.  PSp^  (Appendix),  iii,  408  sq. 


URBANE  0' 

483  sq.;  Gieulcr,  Lihrh. d. Kirehmgeteh.  (Boon,  IMi), 
iii,  a,  BM;  Henog,  Rtat-ErUfO/p.  a.  v. 

Dr'baae  rHme  Vr'bimi,  others  ffria'M]  or  niher 
Urban  {Oupfiavot,  tiiBciicd  froin  Ihe  Lai.  irt-ftunui. 
i.e.n/tAe  <%,  nr  uriun),  ■  ChrialUn  at  Rnme  ulut^ 
by  Paul  H  hiving  been  hit  aBuclale  in  Isbni  ( riiv 
avvfpiv  if^wv  ti'Xfiiirr^)  in  the  list  uf  thotw  addressed 
(Rum.  xvi,  9).    A.D.  oa. 

UrbaneiueB,  one  of  the  niimenius  small  sects  ot 
the  DanBliiU  in  Numidio,  mentioned  hy   Augiuline 


(C«« 


.TO). 


nrbanla,  OiULio,an  lulisn  painter,  of  Ssn  Daniel- 
le, studied  nilh  Pomponeo  Amolteo,  and  foUawed  his 
manner.  L^nzi  mentions  >  freaco  by  bim  al  San  Da- 
niello  represeiiting  the  Fir^iH  vi/h  the  InfiaU  Cfifist^ 
seated  upon  a  throne,  surrounded  by  Thomas  the  apos- 
tle, Valentine,  and  other  satntis  sipied  "  Opus  Julii  Ur- 
banis, loTi."    See  Spooner, /(i..^.  Wi*. q/*/™ ^ iW, s. v. 

Urblno,  SaldHoti  iiE.s-ABUAtlAU,  ■  Jewish  writer 
who  flourished  in  14X0,  is  the  author  oT  ■  lexicon  on 
tbe  svimnvras  of  the  Old  Test.,  entitled  ISO  Vni!t,7'Ar 
TabrraacU  o/tAe  Congrrgalioii,  in  alluHon  to  Exod.  xx  xii  i, 
7, "  iKcause  therein  are  congregated  exprcssiuiu  which 
differ  in  sound,  but  are  lilie  in  sense"  (n^3  ir'.^H  tX13 

nBbnra  pboi  rnx  nx^ina  n^ian  ^^iai  n;i). 
The  synonyms  are  divided  into  groups,  the  f  Iphabelical 
order  of  which  is  determined  by  its  moat  important 
■rord.  Each  group  commences  with  (he  formula 
ri-.^ni  nmin  iDX  nbl3n,Le.the  woni  which  is 
put  down  is  to  teach,  being  mule  up  from  the  abbrevi- 
ation of  the  title  of  the  work,  viz.  bnxri,  and  U  Ulus- 
trated  by  quotations  from  the  Old  Test,  arid  the  corre- 
•pondiii);  passages  from  the  Targum.  as  well  as  by  quo- 
tations from  Soidii  Gaon's  Arabic  translation  of  the 
Pcniateuch,  the  works  of  Dunash  ibn-Lihrai,  Hai  Uaoii, 
Ibn-(iaiiac1 1,1  bn-Gialh, Nathan  beit-JechieI,ll>n-l)alaiim, 
Nachmaiiides,  Ibn-Saruk,  etc  Tbe  lexicon  was  pub. 
lisbcd  at  Venice  in  1548,  and  is  now  very  rate.  See 
Fllrst,  BM.  Jad.  iii,  461 ;  De'  Rossi,  Daionario  SUria, 
p.  1123  (Germ.  traiisL);  St«nKhneider,  t7u(a%i»  IJbr. 
J/tbr.ia  BSiLBodLjhlSdli  Kitto, Cyci^. s. v. ;  Geiger, 
b:iZdlKiiriftderdatlKi.mor3ttiLGeiiiltek.iLi:ip».l863). 
xvii,82l;  Woll^ fii'U. //«ir. i,  1037, etc    (HP.) 

Urbs  Be&ta  Hiemsalein.  This  rugged  bat  fine 
old  hymn,con]posediniJAficnr>anrAv&n<E,andDf  which 
the  author  is  not  kiiowii.  belongs  to  the  8th  or  9th  cen- 
tury. Trench  calls  i  t "  a  by  mn  of  degrees  ascending  from 
things  earthly  to  things  lieavcnly,  and  making  the  first 
to  be  iiiterpreteis  of  the  last.  Tbe  prevailing  intenlinn 
in  the  building  and  tbe  dedicuion  of  ■  church,  with 
tlie  rites  thereto  qipertainini;,  was  to  carry  np  men's 
thoughts  from  that  temple  built  with  hands,  which  they 
aaw,  In  that  ulbcr  built  of  living  siones  in  heaven,  of 
whivh  this  was  hut  a  weak  shadow."  This  fine  hymn, 
the  first  lines  of  which  run  thus, 

"Ur1»  beiitn  Hierusnlem,  dlctn  pnncls  vlsto. 

8ns  courirnUnr  hi  calls  vlvl>  ex  bipldllins. 
[  sb  mmelts  orUHtn,  vslni  siwusii  nob 
Novii  veiiieiis  e  cib1<.,  nupllall  tbalnmi 

mMltVuri'Sus' 
has  proved  tbe  source  of  manifold  inspiration  in  drdea 

beyond  iw  own.    To  it  v 


«  beautiful 


"O  inntber,  dear  Jemsalem )" 
It  his  also  inspired  some  of  the  ungeis  of  Protestant 
Genniny.   In  the  German  language  we  have  two  r  " 
hymns  which  at  least  had  their  first  motive  here, 
one  is  that  by  Meyfahn, 

"JerDsalem.du  hocbgetMiiite  Stadt ;" 
the  other  by  Kosegaiten, 

"Stadt  Ootlea,  deren  dlimant'nen  RlDC-" 


[n  English  our  hvmo  ia  found  in  Lgra  MyUica  (Load. 
1869),  p.  409 : 

"  Blessed  ellT.  hfliT  Salem, 
Home  of  |«sce.  ij  seers  descried; 


[>riivii 


1  tried; 


BiaogellcL .   , 

As  bar  fellows  deck  n  bride. 
C'>mlDir  newlr  rmmed  from  heaven. 

Wedded" 

As  a  bride  In  I 
All  her  sirref  n:.v<: 
Oolden  rompiru  re 


Our  hymn  baa  been  translated  into  German  by  Sehlos- 
ser,  Kmrock,  Bambich,  and  others.  Tbe  otiginit  la 
givenbvTrcnch,5iicrrd/xif>H/*arf>j',  p.3lli  Bialn. 
A  lawiihlallciHillicha-  l.inhr.  p.  201 ;  Kamboch,  A  kIb- 
logU  driilL,  Gaangr,  p.  179;  Simrock,  l^uiia  Sm,f. 
322.     (tt  P.) 

Uld,  in  Norse  mylbolngy,  was  tbe  destiny  of  tbe 
past,  who,  with  her  two  sisters,  Warawla  and  Skulil,HU 
under  the  tree  Ygdraul,  where  they  daily  lectivr  id- 

UTdabom,  in  None  mythotogy,  is  the  sptinn  of 
tbe  past,  at  which  the  three  deities  sit;  from  which  dtai 
spring  they  dsity  draw  for  themselves  new  wi«dgai,inl 
with  whose  waters  tbev  mcnsten  the  roola  of  the  me 
Ygdrasil. 

Urgel,  Council,  of.  Seo  de  Urgel  is  a  diy  rf 
Spain  on  a  plain  among  the  Pireneeiv  cnntaining  sa 
ancient  catheilral  and  other  ecclesiastical  baildinf^i  A 
council  was  held  here  in  T99  hy  Leidrade,  archbishop  ef 
Lyon^  whom  Charlemagne  had  sent,  tflgelher  with  Se- 
fridiusof  Karbonne.ihe  abbnt  Benedict,  and  sereril  stb- 
er  bishi^i  and  abbots,  to  Felix,  bishop  of  UrgeL  Thi; 
succeeded  in  persuading  him  to  present  himtelf  to  iIk 
kiiij;,  promising  hini  full  liberty  to  produce  in  bis  (n*- 
ence  those  passages  from  the  fatben  which  he  belitrt< 
to  favor  bis  notions. 

Urghler,  in  Thibelan  mythology,  is  one  of  ibe  n- 
prcme  deities  of  the  Laniaitea,  generated  from  a  Sower. 

Urgiafla,  in  Norse  mytbuli^y,  was  one  of  tbe  ibic 
giant  maidens  who  were  mothers  of  HeimdaL 

U'ri  (Heb.  Uri\  ''•\1X,fitry  [comp.  ♦«n™tj),ib« 
name  of  three  Israelites. 

1.  {Sept.  Oiipi  or  OApioc)  The  father  of  Beulnl 
one  of  the  architects  of  the  Eabemacle  (Exod.  xxxi,  U 
XXXV,  SO;  xxxTiii,33;  1  Chnm.  ii,  20 ;  2  Cbron.!,?). 
Ua  ante  1657.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Jodah.  sol 
grandson  of  Caleb  ben-Hezron,  liia  fattier  beioi!  Bo. 
wbu,  according  to  tradition.was  the  husband  of  Uirisn. 

2.  (Sept.  'Aim.)  The  faiher  of  Geber,  Soknni'i 
commissaiiat  officer  in  Gilead  (1  Kings  iv,  19).  B£. 
anu  1010. 

3.  (Sept.  Qioii  V.  T.  'Qlopi.)  One  of  tbe  gatc-k«|i- 
ers  of  the  Temple,  who  divorced  his  wife  after  tbe  tvk 
(Ezra  X,  24).     B.a  45S. 

Utl'ah(Heb.  r.tffaiS',m'i»J{,%*(  [orjti]  o/Jf 
jloea* ;  occaHonally  [in  Jer.  only]  in  the  proloagcd  fans 
Urii/a'Aa,  4n^'14!t;  SepL  usually  Offriac,  and  so  lb< 
New  Test,  and  Josepbus ;  A.V.  in  simie  cases^Ctijali* 
[q.  V.]),  the  name  of  several  Hebrews. 

1.  The  last  named  of  the  principal  thirtr  warriors  ot 
David'sarmy(lChron.xi.41;  2  Ssm.  xxi'ii. 39).  Uk( 
others  ofDavid'sofBcers(ltlai  of  Gath;  Ishbosheik  tbt 
Canaanite,3S«n.  xiiii,e,Sepu;  Zelek  the  Ammoiiitt, 
2  Sam.  xxiii,  37),  he  was  a  foreigner— a  Hitiite.  He 
name,  howevei.and  his  manner  of  ppeech  {xi,  II)  inU- 
cate  that  he  had  adopted  the  Jewish  religion.  He  Hur- 
ried Bathshebi,  a  woman  of  extraordinary  beamy,  tht 
daughter  of  Eliam— possiblv  the  same  aa  the  too  «< 
Ahitbophel,  and  one  of  his  brother  •.fficers  (xxiii.  Mi:  , 
and  hence,  perhaps,  as  professor  Blunt  cuijeclures  [<.'m- 
ctdrnou,  II,  x),  Uriah's  first  aoiuaiutance  with  Btib- 
sheba.    It  may  be  inferred  fnm  Nuhan'a  paraUe  (i 


Sltt.  sB>8)  that  he  wta  pusionaldf  devoted  to  hia  wife, 
and  tb*t  their  union  wu  celebnldd  in  Jcnmlem  u  one 
of  peculiar  tenilenieaa.  He  had  ■  hoiue  an  Jemulem 
umlcnieath  the  palace  (Hi,  2).  In  the  flrW  war  with 
Amman  (RC.  1036)  be  fulloved  Joati  to  the  Mtst,  and 
with  bid)  remaineJ  encamped  iu  the  open  field  (ver.  II). 
He  relutaed  Iu  Jennileni,at  an  order  from  the  king,  on 
(hf  pretei       '      ■" 


it  wife  might  cc 


of  David'*  critDC.  Tbn  iiitg  met  with  in  unexpected 
Dbttacle  in  the  amlere,  joldicr-like  apii" 
all  Uriah'*  oanduci,  and  which  Rivea  <u  a  high  notion 
oT  the  character  and  disci|>tine  of  David'a  ufficcra.  He 
Meadilf  refiued  lo  gu  home,  or  partake  of  any  of  the 
indulgence*  of  domestic  life,  while  the  BTk  and  the  host 
wen  in  booths  and  hia  ramradea  lying  in  the  open  air. 
He  partook  or  the  royal  hogpitality,  but  ilept  olway 
at  the  gate  of  the  palace  till  the  laK  night,  when  ih 
king  at  a  feast  vainly  enileavored  to  entrap  him  by  in- 


.    The  gnldier  waa  01 


le  by  til 


but  still  retained  his  sense  of  duty  aufflciei 
on  sleeping  at  the  palace.  On  the  morning  of  the  tl 
day,  IHviJ  sent  him  back  to  the  camp  with  a  letter 
in  the  story  of  Bellerophon)  cnntaining  the  commi 


such, 


(J-t 


li,  7, 1)  ai 


se  his  deslraclion  in  the  battle.   Josephn 


irary  oBeoce  of  Uriah.  None  sncb  appears  in  thi 
oal  letter.  Probably  to  an  nnscrupuloua  siililiei 
Joab  the  absninto  will  of  the  king  wa*  aulHcieni. 
device  of  Joab  was  lo  obserre  the  part  or  the  wi 
Kabbath-Ammoa  where  tbe  gresteec  force  of  the  be- 
siegeil  was  oongresatsd,  and  thither,  oa  a  kind  of  furlom- 
bope,  to  send  Uriah.  A  sally  took  place.  Uriah  and 
the  officen  with  hioi  advanced  as  far  as  the  gate  of 
■he  city,  and  were  there  shot  down  by  the  archers  on 
tbe  wall.  It  icema  ai  if  it  had  been  an  ntablished 
maxini  of  IsnelitUh  warfare  nut  to  approach  the  wall 
of  a  beneged  city;  and  one  instance  of  the  fatal  result 
was  always  quoted,  as  if  proverbially,  against  it— the 
sudden  aud  igiiomLoious  death  uf  Abimelech  atTbebez, 
which  ::ni  short  the  hopes  of  the  then  rising  monarchy. 
This  appears  from  the  fact  (as  given  in  the  SepL)  that 
Joab  exactly  anticipates  what  the  kinji;  will  aay  when 
he  hears  of  the  disaster.  Just  as  Joab  had  forewarned 
tbe  massenger,  ihe  king  broke  into  a  furious  pasaon  on 
hearing  of  the  kMS,  and  cited,  almost  in  the  very  words 
whicbJoabhadpredicted,thecBMofAbinKlech.    (The 

father  of  Abimelech,  which,  in  the  Sept.,  ta  Ner  instead 
of  Joash.)    The  messenger,  as  iiistmct«d  by  Joab,  calm- 

servant  also,  Uriah  tbe  Hitlite,  is  dead."  In  a  moment 
David's  anger  is  appeased.  He  sends  an  encouraging 
massage  tu  Joab  on  the  unavoidable  chances  of  war, 
and  urges  him  (0  continue  Ihe  siege.  It  is  one  of  Ihe 
toochiiig  parts  of  the  story  that  Uriah  falli  unconscious 
of  his  wife's  dishonor.  She  hears  of  her  husliand's  death. 
Tbe  narrative  gives  no  hint  aa  to  her  shame  or  re- 
mone.  She  "  mourned"  with  the  usual  signs  of  grief 
as  a  widow,  and  then  became  Ihe  wife  of  David  (S  liam. 
11,3;).    See  David. 

2.  A  priest  during  the  reign  of  Ahai  (B.C.  cir.  738), 
whom  Isaiah  took  a*  a  witness  to  his  prophecy  conoem- 
ing  Uaher-shalal-hash-bac,  wiih  Zecbarieh,  the  son  of 
Jebenchiah  {Isa.  viii, !).  He  is  probably-  Ihe  same  as 
Urijsh  the  priest,  who  bui't  the  altar  fur  Ahaz  (2  Kings 
xvi,  IU),  If  thi«  be  so,  the  prophet  summoned  him  aa 
a  witness  probably  on  account  of  hia  official  position, 
not  on  account  of  his  personal  qoalitics;  though,  as  the 
ind'lent  occurred  at  the  beginning  of  tbe  reign  of  Ahoz, 
Uriah's  ineligioua  subserviency  may  not  yet  have  m^n- 
iltsleil  itself.  When  Ahai,  after  his  deliverance  frum 
Reiin  and  Pekah  by  Tiglath-pileaer,  went  to  wait  upon 
hia  new  ouuter  at  Danuscua,  he  saw  there  an  altar 
which  pleaaol  him,  and  sent  the  pattern  of  it  to  Uriah 
at  Jeruaalem,  with  orders  10  have  one  made  like  it 
againK  the  king's  return,    Uriah  lealously  eieculed 


the  idolatrous  command,  ai>d  when  Ahai  relumed,  not 
only  allowed  him  10  offer  sacriSces  upon  ii,  but  basely 
complied  with  all  hia  impious  directions.  The  new  al- 
tar waa  accordingly  set  in  the  court  of  Che  Temple,  to 
the  east  of  where  the  braien  altar  used  to  stand;  and 
the  daily  sacriScsa,  and  tbe  bumt4lferingB  of  the  king 
and  peofile,  were  offered  upon  it;  while  the  brazen  al- 
tar, having  been  removed  from  its  place  and  set  to  the 
north  of  the  Syrian  altar,  was  reserved  aa  a  private  al- 
lar  for  the  king  tu  inquire  by.  It  is  likely.  Mo,  that 
Uriah's  compliances  did  nut  end  here,  but  that  he  waa 
a  conoenting  party  to  the  other  idolatroua  and  sacrile- 
gious acts  of  Ahai  (see  3  Kingsxvi,  17, 18;  xiciii,6,  II, 
12 1  JChrun.  xxviii,23-!fi). 

Uriah  or  Urijah  was  apparently  the  high-priest  at  the 
time,  but  of  his  parentage  «e  know  nothing  ponlive.  He 
probablv  succeeiletl  Auriab,  who  was  high-priest  in  Ihe 
reign  of  Uziiah  (i.r  else  Amariah  III,  otherwise  caUed 
JoChan),  and  was  succeeded  by  that  Azariah  who  was 
high-priest  in  tbe  reign  of  Hezekiah.  Hence  11  is  prob- 
slile  that  he  won  sun  of  the  former  and  father  of  the 
latier,  it  being  by  no  means  uncommon  among  the  He- 
brews, as  among  the  (iieeks,  for  the  grandchild  to  have 
the  grondfalher'i  name.  Probably,  loo,  he  may  have 
been  descended  from  that  Aiariah  who  must  have  been 
high-priest  in  the  reign  of  Asa.  But  he  has  no  reconl 
in  the  sacerdotal  genealogy  (IChron.vi,  4-1&),  in  which 
there  is  ■  great  gap  between  Amariah  in  ver.  II,  and 
Shallum,  the  father  of  Hilkiah,  in  ver.  13.    Josephui, 

father  of  Neriah  (Am.  x,8,U}.     See  Hioh-pkiest. 

3.  Urijah  the  son  of  Shemaiah  of  Kir|ath-Jearim; 
ho  prophesied  in  the  days  of  Jehuiakim  concerning  ihe 
laud  and  Ihe  city,  just  as  Jeremiah  had  done,  and  the 
king  sought  to  put  him  to  death ;  but  be  escaped,  sihI 
Ued  into  KgvpL  His  retreat  was  soon  discovered :  El- 
nathan  and  hia  men  brought  him  up  out  o(  Egypt,  and 
Jeliolakim  slew  him  with  Ihe  sword,  and  cast  liis  Unly 
forth  among  the  graves  of  the  common  people  (der. 
xxvi,  20.23>  ac.  am.  The  story  of  Sliemauh  a|K 
peart  lo  be  qtiaud  by  the  enemies  of  Jeremiah  an  a 
reason  fur  puuing  him  lo  death ;  and  as  a  teply  lo  the 
instance  of  Hicah  ihe  Morosthite,  which  Jeremiah's 
friendi  gave  as  a  reason  why  his  words  sliould  be  lis- 
tened to  and  hia  life  spared.  Such,  at  Icul,  is  ihe  view 
sdopteil  by  RashL 

4.  Une  of  tbe  priests  (being  of  the  family  of  Bakkoz, 
A.  V. "  Koi")  who  Blood  at  lira's  right  hand  when  he 
read  the  law  to  the  people  ("  Urijah,"  Neh.  viii,  4).  B.G 
468.    He  is  probably  the  same  with  the  father  of  Uere- 

building  the  waUs  of  Jerusalem  (Ezra  viii,  03 ;  Neh.  iii, 
4,21). 

ITri'BS  (.0!-piav\  the  Greek  fi.rm  of  the  name  of 
Uruah  the  priest  iu  Eire's  time  (I  Esdr.  ix,43;  comp. 
Neh.  viii,  i),  and  uf  Ubiaji  the  husboad  of  Uathaheba 
(Matu  i,  6). 

U'tttl  (Heb.  tlrM;  hir";>iit,Jre  [or  UgAl']  o/Corf; 
SepL  O^iqX),  the  name  of  three  Hebrews. 

1.  A  Kohatbita  Levile,  eon  of  Tahath,  and  father  of 
Uuiah  (1  ChKHi.  vi,  24  [9];  apparently  the  same  in 
Zephaniah  (ver.  86).    B.Ccir.l&50.    See  Samvii. 

2.  Chief  of  the  Kohatbitea  uf  Ihe  family  of  Korah 
ill  the  reign  of  David,  who  assiiled,  together  with  one 
hiindreil  and  twenty  of  his  brelhren,  in  bringing  up  the 
ark  from  the  bouse  ofUbed-edom  (1  Chrun.  x\;  fi,  ll> 
B.C.  IWS, 

3.  Uriel  of  Oibeah  was  the  father  of  Haachah,  or 
Hichaiah,  the  favorite  wife  of  Kehoboam,  and  mother 
of  Abijnh  ('2  Chron.  xiii,  2).  B.C  ante  973.  In  xi,  M 
ahe  is  called  "  Mnach ah  the  daughter  of  Absalom ;"  and 
Josephus  (.Int.  viii,  10, 1)  eipUins  this  by  saying  (hat 
her  mniher  wna  Tamar,  Abulum's  ilaiighter.  Koshi 
gives  a  long  note  10  the  elTef  I  thai  Mii-haish  wa<  nilleil 
Maochah  alter  the  name  of  her  daiiehter-iii-law,  Ihe 
mother  of  Aaa,  who  wa*  a  woman  of  renown,  and  that 


URil  6; 

ber  fath«'a  uiiiie  wu  Uriel  Atdihikmi.  There  la  no 
iiidiotion,  bowevcr,  IhU  Abulom,  Ukc  Salomoa,  haif 
iiiothei  name,  iltbough  in  tfae  Tirgum  t>r  R.  Jowpb  on 
Chronicles  it  it  uid  thai  the  father  of  Maachah  waa 
called  Uriel,  that  the  name  uf  Abulom  might  not  be 
.    menlioneil.    See  MaAChah. 

4.  LTrirl  is  al»  named  in  the  Apncrfpha  (S  Eadr.  iir, 
I,S6;  T,20i  x,2S)  u  an  angel  or  arehangel;  and  in 
the  book  of  Enoch  he  ia  described  u  "the  angel  of 
thoiHlet  and  lightning"  (ch.  xx),  and  aa  being  "placed 
over  all  the  lights  of  beaTeii"  (luv,  8). 

Uril,  in  Slavonic  ni;rtholi>g7,was  ■  deity  among  the 
Wends,  wonhipped  maiuly  by  magicians  aa  their  pro- 

Uri'Jah  (a.  i  Kinga  xvi,  10,  II,  16,  IS;  J.  Jer.xivi, 

!0,  2I.2S:  c.  Neh.  iii,4,2l).    See  IThiah. 

Ulim  AND  TlIUHUm  (Heb.  Urim  wTlMmaam, 
a'^Tirvy  W^'iX),  the  Anglicised  form  of  two  Hebrew 
words  used  (alwiys  logelher  [except  in  Numb,  xxvii, 
21;  1  Sam.  xxviii.B, where  the  formeroccursalone;  in 
Dent.  xxxiii,8,Ihey  arein  the  reverse  order]  snd  with 
the  article  [except  in  Eira  ii,63;  Meh.yji,  66])  with 
refenoce  to  some  ahecure  mode  of  divination  in  eon- 
nection  with  the  aacerdolal  regalia  (Exod.  xxviii,  30; 
Lev.  Ttii,  8),  but  concerning  which  both  aocieot  and 
modem  inlerprolen  have  grestlj  diffm-d.  The  latest 
elnciilation  of  the  subject  rnajr  be  fuund  in  Stroiis' 
Tabrmaclf  in  llu  WUdmea  (Proiidcnee,  1888),  p.  69, 96. 

T,  Elj/rnoloffical  Iiapnrt, — These  words  are  Hebrei 
plurals,  not  proper  names,  but  appellatives  offrequen 
occurrence  in  ihe  singular.  They  are  generally  oonsid 
ered  to  be  plariilrt  txctUntliiT,  denoting  by  a  metonymy 
the  things  or  mmlca  whereby  the  revelalion  was  j  ' 
anil  truth  declared. 

1.  In  Urim,  Hebrew  scholars,  with  hardly  an  excep- 
tion, have  seen  the  plural  of  -l^tt  (tr,  light  or  firt). 
The  Sept.,  however,  appears  to  have  had  reasons  which 

or  its  cognates.  They  give  ^  JqXiiwie  (Exod.  ixviii, 
80;  Eccbis.  xlv,IO),and  iqXat  (Numb.xxvji,2l ;  DenU 
xxxiii,  8;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  p) ;  while  in  Ezra  ii,  03, 
Keh.  vii,  66,  we  have  reapcclively  plural  and  sing 
participles  of  fwrifw.  In  Aquila  and  Theodotion 
Bud  the  more  literal  ^uria/ioi.  The  Vulg.,  following 
the  lead  of  the  Sept.,  but  going  further  astray,  givei 
doctriaa  in  Exod.  xxviii,  30  and  Dent,  xxxiii,  8;  omili 
the  word  in  Numb,  xxvii,  SI,  paraphrases  it  by  pei 
tacerdotea  in  1  Sam.  xxviii,  6,  and  givea  judicium  in 
Ecclus.  xlv,  10,  as  the  reniUring  of  fijAwvic.  Luther 
gives  LicAI.  The  literal  English  equivalent  would  uf 
course  be  "lights;"  bnt  the  renderings  in  the  Sept.  ami 
Vulg.  indicate,  at  least,  a  craditioiial  belief  among  th( 
Jews  that  the  plural  form,  as  in  Elohim  and  other  tiki 
wo^d^  did  not  involve  numerical  plurality.  Bellarmine 
wishing  to  defend  the  Vulg.  translation,  suggested  the 
derivation  of  Urim  from  n^"', "  to  teach"  (Buxtorf,  IHii. 
de  Ur.  H  Th.). 

2.  Thummim.  Here  also  there  is  almoat  a  amnnm 
■s  to  the  derivation  from  OH  (Jdm,  ptr/tdUm,  eom- 
pitlmta);  but  the  Sept.,aii  before,  nscs  the  closer  Greek 
equivalent  rtXooc  once  (Ezra  ii.  63),  and  adheres  else- 
where to  aKriitia ;  and  the  Vulg.,  giving  prrficlm 
there,  in  like  manner  gives  rrririu  in  all  nthei  pas- 
aagca.  Aquila  mote  accurately  chooses  TAftniau^.  Lu- 
ther, in  his  first  edition,  gave  VilUskeil,  hut  aflerwardi 

What  has  been  said  as  lo  the  plural  of  Urim  appliei 
here  also.  Bellarmine  (ul  1171.}  derives  Tkuranum  from 
yOK,  lo  be  trai.  By  others  it  has  been  derived  from 
DKP,contr.  Din  =  "a  twin,'' on  the  theory  that  the 
groups  of  gems,  six  on  each  aide  the  breastplate,  were 
what  constituted  the  Urim  and  Thummim  (R.  Aiariaa, 
in  Buxtorf,  toe.  nl.).  "Light  and  perfection"  would 
probably  be  the  best  English  equivalents.     The  as- 


URIM  AND  THUMMIM 

aumption  of  a  hendiadyi,ao  that  the  two  words^"  per- 
fect illumination"  (Carpiov,  App.  Oil.  i,  6;  Btthr.Sjai. 
batii,  ii,  136),  is  Hnnecessary,  and,  it  is  believed,  unsouiid. 
"be  mere  phraee,  as  such,  leaves  it  therefore  uncertain 
belber  each  word  by  itaelf  denoted  many  things  of  a 
iven  kind,  or  whether  the  two  taken  together  might 
be  reterred  U>  two  distinct  objects,  or  to  one  and  the 
same  object.  The  presence  of  (he  article  H,  and  yd 
more  of  ihe  demonslrarive  Pit  before  each,  is  rather  in 
favorordistinctnesa.  Thummim  never occura by  ittcU; 
unlenwith  Zllllig  we  Snd  it  in  Pea.  xvi,  b. 

II.  Stripfurul  SlaltmBiU. — I.  The  myslerioo*  wonis 
meet  us  for  the  Brat  time,  as  if  they  needed  no  expla- 
nation, in  tbe  description  of  Ihe  higb-prieal's  apiwel 
Over  the  cpbod  there  is  to  be  a  "  breastplate  of  Judg- 
ment" <  Cfl^Sn  -,G|n,  Sept.  Xoytiov  Kpin^,  Vulg.  n- 
liaaalt  judidi),  of  gold,  scarlet,  purple,  and  fine  lintn, 
folded  square  and  doubled,  a  "span"  in  length  and 
widib.  In  it  are  lo  be  set  four  rows  of  precious  Mooes, 
each  stone  with  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Iirael  engrartd 
on  il,that  Aaron  may  "bear  them  upon  bis  hean,"  See 
Epuod.  Then  comes  a  further  Older.  Insidelhelma*- 
pUte,  a*  tbe  tables  of  the  covenant  were  |dsee<l  inndt 
the  ark  (the  preposition  ^K  ia  used  in  both  cases,  Eiod. 
XXV,  16;  xxviii, SO),  arc  to  be  placed  "  the  Urimand  tbe 
Thummim,"  ^e  light  and  the  perfection;  and  they,  too, 
are  to  be  on  Aarwi's  heart  when  he  goes  in  bcfure  ibe 
Lard(vGr.l&.30).  Not  ■  word  describes  them.  Vhj 
are  men^oned  as  things  already  fiimiliar  both  lo  Hoea 
and  the  people,  connected  naturally  with  the  fao^ 
lions  of  tbo  high-priest,  as  mediating  belween  Jehnrth 
and  his  people.  Tbe  command  is  fulSlled  (Lev.  viii,«). 
They  pan  from  Aaron  to  Eleazar  with  Ihe  ssiTCd 
ephod  and  other  ponlifinUia  (Numb,  it,  2«).  Wbea 
Joshua  is  aolemnly  appointed  to  succeed  the  great  boo- 
lawgiver,  he  is  iHdden  to  stand  before  Elcaiar,  the  priea^ 
"  who  shall  ask  counsel  for  him  after  the  judgmtn)  at 
[Ihe]  Urim,"  and  this  municl  is  to  determine  the 
movements  of  the  host  of  Israel  (xxvii,  21).  In  ilic 
blesungs  of  Moset,  they  ap|ieai  as  the  crowning  gioiy 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi  C  ihv  Thummim  and  thv  Urira  ate 
with  thy  Holy  One"),the  reward  of  Ihe  zeal' which  M 
them  to  close  their  evea  to  everything  hut  "tbe  biwaid 
the  covenant"  (Ueui!  xxxiii,  8.9).  Once,  and  onceoulr, 
are  they  mentioned  by  name  in  the  history  of  the  Jadgn 

nesB,  is  anewereil "  neither  by  dreams,  nor  by  [the]  Urim, 
nor  by  prophet"  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  6).  There  is  no  bnget 
a  priest  with  Urim  and  Thummim  (.Sept.  roi[  fwn- 
Zovn  Kal  Toif  TiKtiois,  Ezra  ii,  G3'.  i  ^rivwt-,  N'eb. 
vii,  66)  to  answer  hard  questions.  When  will  one  ap- 
pear again  ?  The  son  of  Sirach  copies  the  Greek  nunn 
(JqXoi,  ri\i>3((n)  in  his  description  of  Aaron's  gaiments, 
but  throws  no  light  upon  their  meaning  ur  ibrir  oc 
(Ecclus.  xlv,  10). 

a.  Bcsidea  these  direct  statements,  there  are  olbets  in 
idence,  trace  a  reference,  if 


lobolh,a 


le  UriB 


■nnaat 


cisely  of  the  nature  of  those  described  in  Nunh.  xxvii, 
'21  are  aaked  by  the  leailer  of  the  people,  and  ansmerrd 
by  Jehovah  (Judg.  i,  1 ;  xx,  18)— wben  like  quoiiMis 
are  asked  by  Saul  of  the  high-priest  Ahjah,  "wearing 
an  ephod" (I  Sam.xiv,S,  I8)~by  David.as  soon  as  he 
has  with  him  the  presence  of  ■  high-priest  with  Us 
ephod  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  2, 12;  xxx,  7,  8),  we  may  Itgiii- 
mately  infer  that  the  treasurea  which  the  ephnd  c«t- 
tained  were  tbe  condilions  and  mrdia  of  hjs  answer. 
The  questions  are  in  almost  all  cases  strategical, "  Whn 
shall  go  up  for  us  against  the  Canaaniies  Bnt?"  (Judg. 
i,  1 ;  so  XX,  18),  '■  WiU  the  men  of  KeiUh  deliver  me 
and  mymcn  into  the  hand  of  Saul  ?"(1  Sam.  xxiii,  12). 
or,  at  leaat,  national  (3  Sam.xxi,  1).  The  answer  is,  ii 
all  uses,  very  brief;  but  more  in  form  than  a  simpk 
yes  or  no.  One  question  only  is  answered  at  a  time. 
3.  It  deserves  notice,  before  we  pass  beyond  tbe  tingi 


0liIM  AND  THUMMIM  »; 

of  Kriiilura]  diu,  that,  in  khdc  caws  or  deflection  from 
Ibe  euabliiheil  rcliKiaua  order,  we  Und  lh«  ephoi)  con- 
nected not  with  the  Uriin,biit  with  LheTcn[iliirD,vrblch, 
in  the  d«ya  "f  Laliaii,  if  nut  esrlier,  hiil  been  conspicu- 
ous in  Aramaic  worship.  Micih,  Stal  cuiisecrutitig  one 
of  his  own  sons,  and  then  getting  a  Levite  ai  his  priest, 
tnakes  for  him  "  an  ephod  and  lera|>hi>n"  (Juilg.  xvii, 
6;  xvjii,  U,  30).  Thriughoul  the  history  uf  Die  north- 
ern kingdom,  their  prvscnce  at  Dan  made  it  a  sacred 
place  (yer.  3Q),  and  apparently  ticlcnniiied  Jcmbotm's 
choice  of  it  ai  a  saneiuar}'.  'Wlien  the  pn>|ihet  Ho- 
■ea  foretella  the  entire  sweep! iig-a way  of  [be  system 
which  the  ten  tribes  had  chcriabcd,  the  point  of  i 


hall  b 


without  en  ephod,  and  without  tcraphlm"  (Hi 
deprived  of  all  counterfeit  uractes,  iii  order  that  they 
may  in  the  end  "return  and  seek  the  Lord."  It  aeeins 
natural  to  infer  that  the  leraphim  were,  in  Iheae  in- 
stances, the  I inauthuriied  substitutes  for  the  Urim.  The 
infereuce  is  streiiglbened  by  the  fact  that  the  Sept.  uses 

it  usually  gires  for  Urim.  That  the  (eraphjm  were 
thus  used  through  the  whole  history  of  Israel  may  be 
inrerred  from  their  fiequent  occurrence  in  conjunctioo 
wiib  other  forms  of  dinnilion.  Thus  we  have  in  1 
Sam.  at-,  33  " witchcraft"  and  "teraphim"  (A.V."idal- 
atry'').  in  2  Kiuga  iiiii,  34'' familiar  ■pitita,"''wiiard*, 
and  lerapbim'  (A.  V.  "  images").  The  king  of  Baby- 
lon, when  he  uses  diTinatiun,  consults  them  (Eiek.  sxi, 
!l).  They  speali  vanity  (Zech.  x,  2).  See  Tkkapiiiu. 
III.  r*<ir»f*n//«top«/nj,— When  the  Jewish  exiles 
were  met  on  their  return  from  Babylon  by  a  i(ue«tioii 
■hiuh  ihey  had  no  data  fur  answering,  they  agreed  to 
postpone  thcBetllementDfthe  difficulty  till  there  should 
rise  up  "  a  priest  with  Crim  and  ThummitD"  (Eira  ii, 
eSi  Neh.vii,e5).  The  inquiry  what  those  Urim  and 
Thummim  themselves  were  seems  likely  to  wait  as  long 
tijfying answer.   Oneverysidi 


nsufi 


ignorai 


— "Nonl 


at"  {Kim 


re- (An 


I.  Among  these  may  be  noticed  the  notion  that,  as 
HoMS  is  not  directed  to  ntait  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
tbey  must  have  had  a  aupernatural  origin,  apecially 
created,  unlike  anything  upon  earth  (K.  ben-Nachman 
andHottingerin  Uuxtorf.  OtM.ife  l/r.a  rt-in  Ugolino, 
xii).  It  would  be  profitleaa  to  discusi  so  arbitrary  an 
bypuihesia. 

■i.  A  favorite  view  of  Jewish  and  of  some  Christian 
writers  has  been  that  the  Urim  and  Tliummim  were 
identical  with  the  twelve  stones  on  which  the  names 
uf  the  tribes  of  Israel  were  engraved,  and  the  mode  in 

•imullauevuB  or  successive,  of  the  letters  which  were  to 
make  up  the  auswei  (JaOtal  Si/re,  Znliar  ht  Ex/xL  f.  105; 
Maimouides,  K.  ben-Machman,  in  Buxlorf,  loca/.i  Dru- 
slui.inC'if.^ar.an  Exnl.xxviii;  ChrysoBIDm,Uroliu^ 
etoL).  Ja»ephus(.'ln'.  iii,  7,  S}a<lopts  another  fcinn  uf 
the  same  story,  and,  apparently  ulentirying  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  with  the  aardonyxes  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  e|>haiL  says  that  they  were  bright  before  a  vjc- 
torv,  or  when  the  sacriAee  was  acceptalde,  dark  when 
any  disaster  was  impending.  Epiphaiiius  {lit  XII 
Gemm.)  and  the  writer  quoted  by  .Suidas  (s.  v.  'Bfovi) 
present  (he  same  thuiight  in  yel  another  form.  A  sin- 
gle diimond  (lifnfuic)  placed  in  Ihecentreof  the  breast- 
plate prognosticated  peace  when  itwas  bright,  war  when 
it  was  reil,  death  ivhen  it  was  dusky.  It  is  enncluoive 
against  such  views  (I)  that,  wilbnut  any  eviilence,  with- 
out even  an  analoi^y,  they  make  unauttnirized  additions 
to  (he  miracle*  of  Scripture;  (2)  [hat  the  furmer  iden- 
tify two  things  which  in  Exod.  xxviii  are  dearly  dis- 
tinguished; ipy  that  the  latter  makea  nu  distinction  be- 
tween the  Urim  and  the  Thummim,  such  as  the  repeat- 
ed article  leads  us  to  infer. 
S.  A  iheoty  invoking  fewer  gratuitaua  assumptions : 


7  URIM  AND  THUMMIM 

is  that  in  the  middle  of  the  ephod,  or  within  ilt 
there  was  a  atone  or  plate  of  gold  on  which  w 
graved  the  sacred  name  of  Jehovah, 
pkorath  (q.  r.)  of  Jewish  Cabaliits ;  and  that  by  virtue 
of  this,  fixing  his  gaze  on  it,  or  reading  an  invocation 
which  was  alio  engraved  with  the  name,  or  standing  in 
his  ephod  before  the  mercy-seat,  or  at  least  before  (he 
vail  of  the  sanctuary,  he  became  capable  of  prapbesy- 
ing,  hearing  the  divine  voice  within,  or  listening  to  i[ 
as  it  proceeded,  in  articulate  sounds,  from  Cbe  glory  of 
1  he  Shechinah  (Buxtorf.  btcdLT;  Lightlbot,  vi.  378 ; 
Braunius, />e  Fofiru /Mr.  ii ;  Saalachutz,  JrcAootc^.  ii, 
3U3>  A  wilder  form  of  this  belier  is  found  in  the  Cab- 
alistic book  Zohar.  There  the  Urim  is  said  to  hni-e 
had  (be  divine  name  in  forty-two,  the  Thummim  in 

from  the  Jewish  invmaiions  of  books  like  the  Cluviaila 
Salo'amtii.    See  Solomon. 

Another  form  of  (he  same  thouf;ht  is  found  in  the 
statement  of  Jewish  wrilers  ibat  the  Holy  S[nrit  spake 

by  the  Dalb-Kol  {Scdrr  Otaia,  c  xiv,  iu  Braunius,  Inc. 
J  al,\  or  that  the  whole  purpose  of  the  unkttown  sym- 
bols was  "ad  eicciiandam  prophetiam''  (R.  Levi  ben- 
Gershnn,  in  Uuxtorf,  foe  ril.i  Kimchi,  in  Spencer,  ut 
ii\f.),  A  more  eccentric  form  of  the  "writing"  theory 
wa*  propounded  by  the  elder  Carpzov,  who  maintain«l 
[hat  [he  L'rim  and  Thummim  were  two  confessions  of 
faith  ill  Ihe  Mesuab  and  tbe  Holy  Sjurit  (Carpzov, 
App.  Cril.  i,  6). 

4.  Spencer  {Dt  Vr.ti  Th.)  presenu  ai>iiif;ularunion  of 
acutenesa  and  extravagance.  He  rightly  recognises 
(he  distinctness  of  tlie  two  things  whith  others  lind 
confounded.  Whatever  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were, 
they  were  not  the  twelve  stones,  and  they  were  distin- 
guishable one  Stata  the  other.  'Hicy  were  placed  in- 
side the  folds  of  the  doubled  choihm.  Kesting  on  iho 
facta  leferred  to,  he  infeired  (lie  identity  of  the  Urim 

divine  wisdom  accommodated  itself  to  man's  weakncH, 
and  allowed  the  debased  superstitious  Israelite*  to  re- 
tain a  fragment  of  the  idolatrous  system  of  their  fa- 
I  hers,  in  order  to  wean  them  gradually  from  the  system 
as  a  whole.  The  obnoxious  name  of  Teraphim  was 
dropped.  The  (hiiig  itself  was  retained.  The  very 
name  Urim  was,  he  argneil,  ideulical  in  meaning  with 
Teraphim  (Urim  ="light8.  Arcs;"  Seraphim  =  "  the 
burning,  or  fiery  ones;"  and  Teraphim  is  but  Ihe  same 
word,  with  an  Aramaic  siibalitulion  of  P  for  b).  It 
was  (herefore  a  small  image  probably  in  human  form. 
So  tat,  (he  hypothesis  has,  at  least,  the  merit  of  being 
historical;  but  when  he  comes  to  (he 
iracularly,  he  passes 


into  Ibe  mi 


avagant  o 


mediation 


the  high-priest  questioned  it,  spoke  by  the 
•fan  angel. with  an  articulate  human  voice, 
Teraphim  spoke,  in  like  manner,  hy  the  in- 
of  a  dsmoni  In  dealing  with  the  Thum- 
mim, which  be  excludes  altogether  from  Ihe  oracular 
functions  of  the  Urim,  Spencer  adopts  the  notion  of  an 
Egvptian  atchelvpe,  which  will  be  noticed  further  on. 

6.  Michaelis  (/.atrj  of  Mom,  v.  62)  gives  his  own 
opinion  that  the  Urim  and 'I'hummim  were  three  stones, 
on  one  ofwhich  was  written  Yea,  on  another  No,  while 
the  third  was  left,  blank  or  neutral  The  three  were 
used  as  lots,  and  the  high-pricu  decided  according  as 
the  one  or  the  other  was  drawn  ouU  He  docs  not  think 
it  worth  while  to  eive  one  iota  of  evidence;  and  the 
notion  does  not  appear  to  have  been  rnore  than  a  pass- 
ing caprice.  It  ohviously  fails  to  meet  the  phenomena. 
Lou  were  familiar  enoiigli  among  the  Israelites  (Numb, 
xxvi,  flit  Josh,  xiii,  S  sq.;  1  Sam.  xiv,  41;  Prov.  xvi, 
33),  but  the  Urim  was  something  solemn  and  peculiar. 
In  the  cases  where  Ihe  Urim  was  consulted,  tbe  an- 
swers were  always  more  than  a  mere  negative  or  af- 
firmative. 


imiM  AND  THUMMIM  6' 

6.  The  i»njulure  uf  ZUlHg  (Comm.  n  Apoc.  Exc.  ii), 
tlioiigh  idopicil  by  Winer  (Anihc.),  can  bvdiybc  UwkMl 
on  u  more  Mtisfviiig.  With  him  the  Urim  are  bright, 
Lf.  cut  and  puliiheil,  durDonda,  in  Ibrm  like  dicej  the 
'rhuninlim  perfect,  i.  e.  whole,  rough,  uncut  ones,  each 
clue  with  inMriptiona  oT  >ume  kind  engraved  on  il. 
He  BuppoHB  I  hendful  of  these  to  have  been  caiiied  in 
the  pouch  of  Ihe  high-prie«t'B  chaikea,  and  wben  he 
vibhal  r»t  an  oracle,  to  hare  been  taken  out  by  liiin 
■nd  Ihiuwn  on  a  table,  or,  nwre  probably,  on  the  ark  uf 
the  covenant.  Aa  Ibey  fell,  their  poaition,  according  to 
iradiiional  rule*  known  only  lo  the  high-prieally  faml- 
\Kf,  iiidicBled  the  answer.  He  campireB  il  with  for- 
tune-telling  by  cards  or  coflee-giounda.     The  whole 


URIM  AND  THUMMIM 


.  need  hi 


leofpi 


at  once  aibilraiy  and  offeniive.  It  is  at  least  qi 
able  whether  the  Egyptians  had  accesa  to  diami 
knew  the  art  of  polishing  or  enenving  then 
DUHOHI).  A  handfid  of  diamond  cube^laIge  . 
to  have  words  or  monogranis  engraved  on  the 
thing  which  has  no  parallel  in  Ej^ptian  archi 
Dur,  indeed,  anywhere  else. 

T.  The  lalealJewisliinlerpreler  of  eminence  (Kalisch, 
on  A'j-ud.  xxciii,  31),  combining  parts  of  the  views  (3} 
and  (a),  indentifies  ihe  Urim  and  Thummim  with  the 
twelve  tribal  gcmB,  looks  on  Ihe  name  aa  one  to  be  ex- 
plained by  a  hendiadys  (light  and  peifectii'n^  perfect 
illuminalioo),  and  believes  the  high-priest,  by  eoiicen- 
irating  blBthonghlaon  the  allribiiies  they  repreaenied, 
to  havedivested  hinwelf  ofail  teltbhness  and  prejudice, 
and  an  to  have  passed  into  a  true  pmphelie  stale.  In 
what  he  aays  on  tbia  pninl  there  is  much  Ibal  ia  both 
beautiful  and  true.  LighlfiK.t,  it 
Mket>  the  same  view  (ii,  407  j  vi, ' 
shove  in  (3)  converges  lo  Ihe  same  result.    See  Thance. 

8.  Philii,  the  learned  contemporary  of  Joaephus,  rep- 


Aucleii 


Kgyptlsu 


TroLh  Bud  Jnslif 


-[  the  OvddeH 


and  whose  name,  Tbmet,  t)>e  Egyptian  or  Coptic  nme 
of  Justice  or  I'mth  (comp.  the  (ireek  3ifuc).  appears  U 
have  been  the  or^m  of  ibe  Hebrew  Tbuoiniim  — "a 
word,"  he  remarks,  "  accnrding  to  Ibe  Sept.  Iramtalioii, 
implying  truth,  and  bearing  a  further  analogy  in  iB 
plural  termination.''  He  also  remarks  tbic  the  vonl 
Thummim,  being  a  plural  or  dull  word,  cnrreBponda  lo 
(he  Egyptian  notion  of  ibe  "heo  Truths,"  or  lb*  dnble 
capacity  of  this  goddeaa.    "  This  gmbieFa,"  be  says, "  frt- 


eUrim 


«  of  tl! 


>T  powers — JqXurmvn  ini  dX^ciav.  The 
fiiUquolalionis!  Til  2(  Xoyiioctthe  pectoral, or  breast- 
plate); mpa-fiiiror,  furXoiv  cananvdftro,  iiaavt't 
lidaK,'ivai6oiipfTiQijaXiiaT0fepf  (that  they  mighr 
carry  the  image  of  the  two  powcri);  ii]kiuaiv  n  mi 
aXi|3(iav  {IM  Vila  JfofU,  lib.  iii,  p.  162,u3,ed.  Man- 
gev).  He  also  uses  the  following  words  (Oi  Monarch. 
lib.  ii,  p.  B24t  OjV-  "•  S^)=  'Evi  rot>  Xeyiitn,  tirrd 
vpaufiata  carnvoiciXXii,  wpodayopriwv  to  fifv  i!^ 
Xutiv,  t6  i'  oX^3(iov.  This  statement  of  Philo  baa 
been  Ihougbt  by  many  recent  inlerpreleis  to  be  sup- 
ported by  certain  external  evidence.  It  had  been  no- 
licol  by  all  the  old  commcnururs  that  a  remarkable 
resemblance  existed  between  the  Urim  and  Thummim 
of  the  Jewish  high-priest  and  the  ciielom  recorded  bv 
*lian  (  Var.  Nil.  jiv,  847)  of  Ihe  Egypiian  archjudge, 
who  was  always  a  priest  veikerable  fur  age.  learning,  and 
probity,  and  who  opened  judicial  proceedings  by  aus- 
pending,  by  a  gold  cbaio  hung  round  his  neck  (comp. 
Uen.xli,  4*2),  sn  image  made  of  a  sapphire  stone,  which 
wascalleil  ■AXi)SH''.i.e."i™ih,'and  with  which  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  (i,48,7[>)  says  he  loucheil  (irjw'S'ir'o)  'he 
party  who  bail  gained  the  cause.  Certain  Iraces  of  a 
similar  cuslum  among  Ihe  Romans  had  also  been  ad- 
least  she  Ihat  was  called  klaxims.and  who  sat  in  judg- 
ment and  tried  causes  as  Ihe  Vunljfex  ftlsiimus  iliil, 
wore  a  similar  amtprdurak  (Lipaiua,  De  Vrtia  tl  y<i- 
IiMb4  Syntagma  [Anlv.  1603,  ap.  Plant.],  cap.  iilt.). 
Bui  these  resemblances  among  the  Egyptians  were  con- 
sidered lo  have  been  derived  by  Ihem  from  the  Jews, 
in  consequence  of  their  correspondence  with  them  after 
Suliimon's  marruge  wilb  I'haraoh's  daughter  (I'alrick, 
an  i^<il.xxviu,a0).  Sidistqueni  discoveries,  however, 
among  the  aniiqxtlits  of  Egypt  leail  to  the  conclusion 
that  tliese  resemblaneea  belong  lo  a  much  earlier  period. 
Sir  G.  Wilkinson  says  the  figure  of  Truth  which  the 
Egypiian  archjudge  suspended  from  hia  neck  was.  in 
lact.a  repifsentariiin  ofihe  goddess  who  was  wor^ipped 


iHible,ch 


erofTru 


or  the  Oiddess  at  Tnilh' 


Our 


iniblriD  V 


Iheae  EgypUan  antiquities  i 
(Sept,)  interpretalion  at  the  Urim  and  Thumniia, 
as  signiliing  "light  and  truih,"  presenia  a  tiriking 
analogy  to  Ihe  two  figures  of  Rf,  the  ns,  and  Tbine^ 
Irali,  in  the  breastplate  worn  by  Ihe  Egipliaai, 
Here  Thmci  is  repictenled,  as  she  frequeuily  b, 
by  a  single  figure  wearing  two  ostrich  frathtn,  ha 
emblem,  because  all  the  wing- fealhert  of  thii  Uri 
were  considered  of  equal  l^ngtli,  and  hence  meant  tnn 
or  correct"  {Ak.  EggjU.  [Lnnd.  l»ia],  ii,  S7,  e 


of  Throei,  in  Gatttry  «f 
Antvpiiliin,  aelecud  from 
the  British  Museum  by 
F.  Arundale  ami  J.  Bono- 
mi).  Upon  a  view  of  Ihe 
preceding  facts,  even  su 
orthnlox  sn  antiquarian  as 

Hengstenberg  {Kgypt  and 

Ihe  Hook  ofMotrt,  ch.vi)  pig. 


adopts  Mr.  Mede's 


URIM  AND  THUMMIM 

thai  the  Urini  uid  ThuinmiiTi  were  "(bingjwcll  knoirn 
la  the  patriarch*,"  as  divjnelr  appoiiilcd  mcana  < 
quiring  of  the  Lord  (Gen.  x:tv,  ?2,2S),  auiteri  lo  i 
^tine  Mate  of  religUm ;  Ihat  the  originali  were  pre- 
Krv«il,  oi  the  teal  nw  at  leatC,  among  the  Abnhai  " 
and.  at  the  refofmalion  under  Motes,  were  einipl 
reacDibUncea  to  tliem  anonj 


■  pnini 


of  nmilar  nmi»  originally  connected  with  the  ucriflce 
of  animaK 

In  opiHMilion  Ut  thia  view  afi  direct  Egyptian  origin 
of  the  object!  in  question,  it  has  been  forcibly  urgeil 
(1)  that  the  wotd9  Urim  and  Thummim  do  not,  in  fact, 
otaaTnukandJiulice!  (3)  that,  with  the  exception  of 
the  single  and  undialinetive  uteorthelerin"Judgiiieiil 
(3^912)  in  oonnection  with  the  ehiMea,  or  pontiRcsl 
ftrioraU,  there  !•  no  magitlaial  function  of  the  high' 
priest  ill  the  cases  of  contullation,  like  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tian arthjudgr;  and  (3)  thatiifsucb  an  image  wi 
tewled,  it  is  strange  tbal  na  description  i>  given  It 
tify  it,  nor  any  preseriptioQ  made  as  to  ila  form  or  ] 
lire  in  the  Mosaic  account,  as  there  is  of  all  the  other 
aiticles  of  the  priestly  regalia  (aee  Keil,  Commeidary, 
sdloc). 

rV.  Oraeatar  Utr,  —  The  process  of  consulting  the 
Lord  by  Urim  and  Thummim,  and  the  farm  in  which 
the  answer  was  returned,  sre  not  explaini 
ure,  and  all  we  cin  say  on  the  subject  is  fi 
ical  iraditiuiu    The  rabbins  say  that  the  manner 


at),  but  i> 


r,  wbere  be  could  go 

rail  that  divided  the 
sanctuary  from  the  sanctum.  There  be  stood  upright, 
tacing  luwards  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  behind 
him  stood  the  person  for  whom  he  inquired, ' 
line  with  (he  priest,  facing  the  back  of  the  latter,  but 
atliide  the  aaiictum.  Then  the  priest  inquired  of  God 
nnceming  the  matter  required,  in  a  low 
praying  half  audibly,  and,  keeping  bis  eyes  upon  the 
lirevitplale,  he  receired  by  Urim  and  Thummi 
iiKwer  to  his  question,  Haimonides  says  it  w 
liwful  to  inquire  by  this  mode  for  private  individuals, 
bill  only  fur  the  king,  oi  for  him  on 
ofthecongreEition  lay. 

With  respect  tn  ibe  mode  in  which  the  answer  was 
rpurnie-l.  Prideaux,  ami  some  other  Christ 

Iflnl,  stand iuR  in  bii  robes  befure  the  vail,  i 
\Af  annwer  was  relumed  from  within.     Bu 
Sly  that  the  answer  was  given  by  certai 
graven  on  the  stones  in  Ihe  bieastplale  becoming  pe- 
culiarly, prominently  lustrnits,  in  proper  order,  so  as 
be  read  by  the  hrgb-priesi  into  words.     For  instan 
vben  David  inquired  of  God  whether  he  should  go 
lo  oDc  of  the  ciliex  of  Judah  (3  Sam.  ii,  I),  (he  an«  _. 
was,  '■Go  up,"  nS3,  alah ;  the  letters  S,  i,  and  Ft  became 
in  order  prominently  tustmis,  and  thus  formed  the  word. 
ThFse  eipUnitions  evidently  depend  upon  the  Talraud- 
ic  theories  above  recited  as  to  the  form  and  nature  of 
Ihe  objects  themselves.     See  Divinatios. 

V.  Tt/pieal  Siffnificanct The  office  of  the  bifih-priest 

snd  his  dress,  as  well  as  the  tabernacle  anil  its  furniture 
and  service,  were  all  typical  of  Ihe  Christian  diapensa- 
lion,  or  of  the  office  and  person  of  Christ;  in  whom, 
also,  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  as  well  as  the  olher  types 
and  foreahadowings,  were  fulllUed.  He  was  Lighi,rer- 
fwrion,  Manifcsuiioii,  snd  Truth.  He  was  Ihe  "  true 
Light,  ibat  lightelh  every  mail  that  cometh  into  the 
"whr  (John  i,  9).  "  Being  made  perfect,  he  became 
the  Author  of  salvation  to  all  that  obey  him"  (Heb.  v, 
H  Hcwas''Gadmanifeat  intheflesh''(lTim.tii.  IS}. 
>lewsa''the  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life"  (John  xiv, 
<),  and  be  "came'  to  bear  iitness  lo  the  Truth"  (iviii. 


fl  URLSPEKGER 

37>  By  Urim  and  Thummim  a  measure  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  granted  lo  the  Jewish  high-priest;  Christ  is 
a  bigh-priest  in  ubom  are  all  the  gifts  of  the  Holj 
Ghoat  without  measure  (lit,  34).  "He  put  on  right- 
eousness as  a  breastplate"  (Isa.lix,  19);  and  by  his  mer- 
its and  intercesdon  as  our  continual  High-priest,  he  hss 
given  lo  us  lo"  put  on  the  breastplate  of  faith  and  love" 
(1  Theaa.  v,  8).  Some  have  seen  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim the  object  alluded  to  by  John  as  "the  white  stone" 
(J-q^of  Xivtii)  of  the  Chriaiian  myalcries  (Rev.  ii,  17). 
SeeTrrsi. 

VL  l,ileratttrt, — In  additjon  to  the  works  cited  above, 
and  those  referred  lo  by  Winer  IRealaSrUrb.  s.  r,)  and 
by  Darling  {Cgeiop.  Bibtiograpk.  coL  Z3I  sq.),  there  are 
monographs  on  this  subject  in  LaUn  by  Calov  (Viteb. 
167G),  Wolf  (Lips.  1740),  Schriider  (HariL  1741),  and 
Stiebrii  (HaL  liSB);  and  in  German  by  Bellermann 
(Beri.  1BS4)  and  SaalschUtz  (Ktinigeb.  1849).  See  HiQH- 


UiTuB.  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a  eumsme  afJapi- 

Uiiya  (or  OiIbbb)  Version.  Uriys,  the  ver- 
nacular dialect  ofOrissa  (q.  v.),  is  a  tolerably  pure  dia- 
lect of  the  Sanscrit,  possessing  some  Persian  and  Arabic 
terms,  borrowed  through  the  medium  of  the  Hindus- 
tani, with  otheii  of  doubtful  origin.  It  is  closely  con- 
nected with  Bengali,  but  greatly  diSerlng  in  pronun- 
ciation, for  an  elTemlnate  style  ofarticulnliun  is  preva- 
lent in  Bengal,  while  ihe  iubabitnnla  of  {)ri3Sa  have  ■ 
broad  and  almost  rustic  accent.  The  Uriya  has  also  a 
written  character  peculiar  to  itself. 

The  first  veiHon  of  the  Scriptures  in  this  dialect  was 
commenced  by  the  Serampore  roiaaionaries  in  1803,  and 
nu  edition  conaisting  nf  one  IhouMnd  copies  of  the  Mew 
Teat,  was  printed  in  18II.  Tbe  first  edition  of  the  Old 
Test.,  also  consisting  of  one  tbouaand  copies,  was  print- 
eil  in  1819.  The  New  Test,  was  soon  exhausted,  and 
a  second  edition  of  four  thousand  copies  left  the  press 
in  ISi3,  in  the  same  year  in  which  a  mission  by  the 
General  Baptist  Society  was  established  at  Cuttock, 
the  cafNlal  ofOrissa.  In  1S3S  a  second  edition  of  the 
Old  Test,  left  the  press,  together  with  a  sepsnu  edition 
of  the  Psalms.  In  1838  the  Kev.  Messrs.  Sutton  and 
Noyea  unilertook  a  new  version  of  the  Scriptures  in 
Uriya.  Dr.  Sutton  commenced  with  the  book  of  Gen- 
esis, and  when  the  translation  was  compleletl  he  carried 
nn  both  the  printing  and  binding  at  Cultacli.  An  edi- 
tion ofihe  Old  Tesu  he  completed  for  the  Bible  Society 
in  1844.  In  1854  an  edition  of  two  thousand  a^ies  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  from  Dr.  Sutton's  veraion,  was 
issueil  rrooi  the  Cuttack  press  at  the  instance  of  the 
Bible  Society.  In  the  Report  fur  18C3  we  read  that 
the  New  TesL  has  been  revised,  but  the  Old  Test, 
has  been  reprinted  as  before.     Whether  Dr.  Sutton 

The  only  notice  we  find  again  concerning  the  Uriya 
version  Hnce  1863  is  the  autement  mode  in  Oin  Atmiiiit 
Rrport  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  the 
year  1873  that  "the  Kev.  Dr.  Buckley  has  completed 
the  priming  of  a  revised  version  of  ihe  Old  Test,  at  the 
society's  expense,"  From  the  Rrparl  for  the  year  1889 
we  see  that  up  lo  March  Bl,  1883,  the  British' and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  had  disposed  of  4000  Bibles  and  OU 
Teats.,  34,000  copies  of  portions  of  the  Old  Test.,  and 
!000  copies  of  portions  of  the  New  Test-,  or  altogether 
if  40,000  copies,  in  part  or  in  whole,  of  the  Uriya  vtr- 
ion.     (a  P.) 

Vrlsperger,  Johaim  Anguat,  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  con irorersia liar,  was  born  Nov.  2^,  1728,  and 
g  roost  of  his  public  life  was  pastor  and  senior  at 
Augsburg.  He  was  possessed  of  great  learning  and 
enetration,  and  wns  a  fearless  and  earnest  thinker, 
[e  was  also  a  foremost  champion  of  evangelical  truth 
gainst  the  attacks  of  the  philosophical  and  ratloiializ- 
ig  neologies  of  bis  country,  and  contributed  several 
'enchant  works  lo  the  literature  of  that  controversy. 


UKLSPERGEK 

■EDong  them,  Vrriufie  finer  ymaiieii  Balim 
GthriimiMKi  Golirt  (1769-74, 4  pu.  4U>) :— A'x  ngt/aain 
Sgtitmdtr  lirnamgkaltltkm—Tralaat  torn  gdliUcheit 
Eimtilde.  lie  fuunded  the  "  DeuMhe  ChruUDthums- 
GetellKhaft"  (  Uermin  Society  fur  ChiiMianity ),  the 
Idea  fur  which  ho  i«ak  rromthe  British  Socitly  Tor  Pro- 
muling  Christitm  Knuirledge  (fouiided  1698)  uid  the 
Swedish  socUty  "  I>e  Pi<le  et  ChriatianiHno."  The  so- 
ciety wa>  tint  estihliihed  in  Basle,  but  Tailed  U>  uoder- 
Uke  the  work  fur  which  Urlspcrgei  had  called  it  into 
being— the  advocacy  and  deftiice  of  pure  doctrine — and 
devoted  ill  cfforla  rather  to  the  promotion  of  true  piety. 
Though  diuppoiutcd.  Urisperger  gare  his  aen'ices  re- 
peatedly to  the  •odelv.  ami  continued  («  travel  over 
the  Continent  ami  lo  England  in  its  behalf,  until  he 
died  at  Hsmbuig,  Dec  I,  1806.  See  Henog,  SaiU 
t'tKyUop.  e.r.;  but  camp.  Smith's  Hageiibach,  i/ul.  of 
DocJriaa,  §  fflS,  p.  3. 

UrUperger,  Samuel,  a  Protestant  divine  of  Ger- 
tnany,  father  uf  the  preceding,  wu  born  Aug.  Bi,  1685, 
■I  Kirchheim,  in  WUrtembeift.  He  belonged  to  a  Hun- 
garian Protestant  family,  which  with  many  others  nai 
obliged  to  leave  the  country  during  (he  Thirty  Years' 
War.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  where  he  publicly 
■poke  on  Ratio  etjidet  eoUiila  contra  ZacHum  tl  Poirt- 
tam.  lie  continued  hia  studies  at  l^rtangen  from  1708, 
■nd  a^r  ■  ahurt  slay  at  Jena  and  Halle,  he  went  to 
Lcyden,  Utrecht,  London,  Oxford,  and  Cnmbiii^e.  Af- 
ter his  return  to  Germany,  he  was  appointed  pastor  in 
1713  at  Stettin.  In  1714  he  went  tu  Stuttgart  as  court 
preacher  and  member  of  consiHiory.  Deposeil  from  tiis 
office  in  1718,  he  wss  appointed  in  1"20  superintendetit 
at  Herrenburg,  and  ihreo  years  later  he  was  called  to 
Aui^sburg,  where  he  died,  April  21,  1772.  Deaides  ■ 
number  of  sermuna,  he  published,  A«,fakrlirhe  Xaet- 
richi  ron  ifen  itilibsiyitcitn  Emiijrimleit,  dit  itVi  m 
AmrrUa  Hie^r^laufH  iabm  (Halle,  1735  52,  3  v»]s.): 
— A  mriikanitckfa  A  ctf rwerk  Oottea  odfr  xucrriauige 
ffiich-ichint  von  daa  ZuMandt  drr  iron  dtt  laUbur- 
gitchm  Emgranim  eriaulen  Slaib  Ebm-Etfr  (ibid 
1764-66).  Sea  YhtAng,  Gttikrle  TArolagm  DtulieA- 
bimii,  iv,  669  sq. ;  Koch,  Gticll,  dri  dtutKhn  Kircien- 
litdlt,  V,  71  >q.     (U.  P) 

TTrqtiebart,  Joiis,  a  graduate  of  Ihe  University  of 
St-Auilrew's.  Scotland,  and  a  youth  of  singular  promise 
and  piely.was  bum  in  Penh,  June  7,  IMW.  In  April, 
1824,  he  made  a  decided  profeasinn  of  piety, 


tirely  f 


*ofhi 


deemer.  lie  left  Ihe  university  in  1836  with  Ibe  repu- 
tation of  being  by  far  Ihe  most  eminent  of  his  class,  al- 
though then  but  seventeen  yean  of  age.  lie  decided 
lo  become  a  misuonary  to  the  heathen,  but,  on  account 
of  his  ]-outh,  was  induced  lo  wait  a  while  before  enter- 
ing upon  the  arduous  duties  of  that  station.  He  died 
Jan.  10, 1B27,  at  the  age  ufeighteen.  See  bis  Mtmotrt, 
Ltlhri,  and  jitlttd  Stmaiiu,  by  Orme. 

UrqnbBTt,  John  F.,  a  minister  in  the  Hrelhodist 
Episcopal  Church,  Soulh.  was  bom  in  Monignmery 
County,  Ala.,  Sept,  15, 1841,  He  e.tperienced  religion 
when  about  nine  vears  old.  moved  with  his  parents  to 
Mortda  in  1852.  joined  the  Florida  Conrereiice  in  I860, 
and  Ubnred  in  it  faithfully  until  his  death,  Aug.  19, 
1864.  Mr.  Urquhart  was  a  youii);  man  of  lively  spirit, 
redned  and  elevated  by  grace,  and  very  promising.  See 
Miaulti  of  Annual  Con/trencfi  o/  Iht  M.  E.  Ckurdi, 
5oufA,  I864,p.622. 

UraaclUB,  bishop  of  Liugidununi,  in  Jtiesia.  during 
the  4th  century,  is  noted  as  being  a  disciple  of  Arius, 
and  one  of  the  prominent  leaders  uf  tbe  Arian  court- 
party.     See  Neander,  lliil.  o/tke  Church,  ii,  404  sq. 

XTnicInns,  antipope,  was  a  deacon  of  Kome,  and 
claimed  the  election  as  successor  ot  Tiberius  over  Dam- 
asus  (q.  v.),  who  was  elected  (  A.D.  366)  by  a  larger 
parly  of  the  clergy  and  the  Koman  people,  and  was  rec- 
ogidsed  by  the  emperor  Valenliiiian  I,     After  a  pro- 


URSINUS 

r  trscled  conflict,  Unicinus  was  driven  oat  of  Ilslj,ud 
went  to  Colngne^  He  returned  to  Italy  in  381,  and  n- 
newed  Ihe  agitation,  but  was  Anally  banished  by  Uh 
Council  of  Aquileia.  He  is  not  indoded  in  tbe  Usu  of 
popes.    See  lleiiog,  Afuf-fniyt/ap.s.T. 

Vraitw  (Oniia),  tbe  name  of  a  Preach  family  toii 
□ent,from  the  IGth  century,  br  its  services  in  Stat* <« 
Church  and  historical  literature.  Two  oT  tbeoi  an  ip 
propriate  here. 

1.  Jaci)iiks  Jol'vxkrl  DBS,  brother  oT  the  aactrtd- 
ing,  was  born  in  Paris,  Orl.  14, 1410,  and  brcaow  « 
cessivelr  archdeaoan  of  Ihe  Cathedra]  of  I^ris  (1411 
and  arohbiehop  of  Kbeims  (Sept.  25. 1444) ;  but  in  HI 
he  resigned  the  latter  position  in  favor  of  bis  bntkr 
receiving  the  two  diooeses  of  PoitJers  and  Kr^jna.  E 
died  at  Poitiers,  Hareli  12,  1457.  He  vaa  .^vuvid  i 
several  political  and  ecdniastical  uegoiialiuiu  of  d 

2.  Jkan  Jurt-iAt,  (or  JoBirtwI  J/m),  Jr.,  a  imlii 
■nd  historian, was  bom  in  Pari^  Nov.  23, 1388,  aiid.il- 
ler  studying  at  Orleans  and  Paris,  became  riatlir  ■ 
uf  rogue  jurr,  and  enjoyed  aome  minor  offices  i  bin  »l 
driven  into  exile  with  his  parents  in  1418.  In  HU  li 
relumed  as  advocate-general  under  Charles  VII.  id 
soon  rose  through  lower  ecclesiastical  positions  to  it 
bishopric  of  Bcauvais  (1431).  In  1444  he  was  tian 
ferred  to  the  see  of  I^un.  and  in  1449  he  becuit  >re)» 
bisliop  of  Kheims.  where  he  died,  July  14,  1471  H< 
was  engageil  in  several  diplomatic  embaaoea,  and  wmt  | 
a  number  of  ecclesiastical  works,  for  which  see  Hotfit,  | 
A'oue.  Biey.  Giniralt,  a.  r. 

Uralnna,  Johanii  Helnilcb,  a  Protestant  ibro- 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bum  at  Spites,  Jan.  26, 1«M, 
■nd  died  at  Raiisbon,  May  14,  1667.  when  he  kal 
been  auperintcmlent  since  1665.  He  is  the  author  i4 
Analfdorum  Sarromm  Libri  Daodtcin  (Frankf.  1CC»- 
70,  2  vols.):  —  Compndiim  HtMor.  ilt  Ecdeiiar.  Grr- 
minacar.  Origine  H  Proffrttm  at  Ailicmtiamt  Ann 
utqiuad  Carofam  Magmim  (Nuremk  1664):— £«M- 
iMfei  siee  de  Siicrit  Conaonibut  (Krankf.  1659)  i — 5<wnr. 
rancioRUni  jaxla  DirerKU  Tradandi  JUrthodoi  Pimi- 
diqmala  (ibid,  cod.)-  See  Winer,  ll-ndh.  drr  li^l 
LUrralm,  i,  30,  7T8i  ii,  58;  FUrel,  BitJ.  Jud.  iii,4£l 
(B.  P.) 

UralniiB  (BEiin),ZacliailaB,  a  German  tbeolo^- 
an  of  the  16th  century,  the  friend  and  pupil  of  Urkac- 
thon,  the  friend  of  Calvin  and  Peter  Manyr,  and  ocw  i/ 
the  twDauthonofthe//niJraFry  Cu(rrAuin,washonitl 
Bteslau.JulylS.  1631.  He  accompanied  MelancthooiD 
Jloqoy  of  Worms  in  Angtisi,  1 567 ;  after- 


iranis  ' 


d  Calvii 


nd,  fina 


:<  of  his  naiin 
city,  and  became  fourth  professor  of  the  Cotleyia  Prii^ 
Ordimt  in  September,  1668;  but  the  miUn«  of  hi) 
views  respecting  Ihe  eucharisl  having  excited  contn- 
veisy,  he  solicited  ■  release  from  thai  oflice,  which  *ti 
granted  April  26,  l.'iCO.  In  this  dispule  be  wrote  Ibe 
ThrmdtSair<wtr«tiiQ.n  Ttvc<.nail.an.iH»,fi.SSS- 
382).  He  went  lo  Znrich.and  became  the  ompaniaa 
and  pupil  of  Peter  Martyr,  with  Ihe  mult  Ibal  be  dii- 
cnvcred  himself  lo  be  no  Lulheran,  and  i>ot  even  amtn 
Phili|nsf,  but  altogether  a  supporter  of  Ihe  views  o< Cal- 
vin, Ikia,  and  Peter  tlartyr. 

Ursinus  was  soon  afterwards  called  to  the  foOfyin 
Sapialim  in  Heidelberg,  uid  to  ils  duties  afterwards 
added  the  chair  of  dojimalica.  He  began  his  thecdogi- 
cal  prelections  Sept.  1, 1562,  and  in  Ihe  folk.wing  year 
undertook  alto  the  delivery  of  the  Sunday -afteiiwin 
sermon  on  Ihe  catechism.  To  these  various  duties  he 
added  the  formation  of  *  conalitultnn  for  the  chunba 
of  the  Palatinate,  in  which  be  waa  aided  by  CHeiian, 
but  whoM  defence  devolved  on  him  akin&  It  was  in 
Ihe  prosecution  of  this  KOtk  that  be  began  his  arltT* 
literary  life.  He  wrote  a  Vtrtaltcariiaig  againet  criti- 
cisms and  perversions  of  the  Hriddbtrf  Co'eoltm,  wbkh 


tJRSINUS  61 

lonaed  the  principU  rlenient  in  ihe  ne«  eonstitutioa ; 
lu  Aiilieoi-I  auf  rUicker  Thralogen  Cemar,  met  other 
Koriut  When  the  Muitbionii  Oinventkin  grew  out  of 
thna  dbcuadoiis  [aee  Hau[jiiu>^n],  Uninui  was  on* 

bT  hia  readineu  and  keenneu  that  he  ww  one  of  the 
■blBit  di«putants  of  the  time.  The  Wurleiaberi^n 
having  TLola^ed  the  agrvempnl  to  refrain  from  publish- 
ing the  proceed insa,  (he  Heidelbergen  were  olilii^l  to 
reaponfi ;  and  rha  duty  of  correcting  the  perversions 
which  haci  gone  one  befuie  the  public  det'olred  again 
on  Uninns.  From  this  time  onward  he  was  inTolved 
ia  the  controveiaj  about  lbs  conect  interpretation  of 
ArL  X  of  the  Augihurg  Confnrioa,  in  which  the  strict 
Lutheiana  iniitted  that  Luther's  writinffs,  eapeciallv  his 
polemical  writings,  should  be  considered  the  only  guide, 
and  endeavored  to  deprive  all  who  did  not  hold  their 

(d  the  Conftaian  ■■  a  atstemenl  of  their  faith.  Weary 
of  the  enilleai  ilinpiile.  L'ninua  dosed  hi*  ahare  in  the 
n  1566,  with  the  delerm illation 


He 


Hia  I 


19  obligeil  to  aeek  relief  from  exeeaaive  labors 
by  revigning  the  t^hair  of  dogmatics  to  HierDujmua 
Zanchiua,  Feb.  10, 1568.  A  few  montha  later,  however, 
a  new  conHict  clemanded  hia  attention.  Geo^e  With- 
ers, an  Rngtiahman,  had  defended  in  a  diapulation  at 
Heidelberg  the  thesis  that  the  admin iatration  of  eccieti- 
auical  discipline  in  all  ila  extent  belcniga  properly  to 

ganited  prcsliyteriate  ;  and  Olevtan  had  endorsed  that 
opinion,  while  Erostua  opposed  iL     Each  aide  gained 

nenls.  Beta  and  Ihdlinger  were  called  on  fur  advice, 
snd,  eventually,  Ursinua  nas  required  by  the  elector  to 
state  his  viewB.  He  did  this  in  1569.  in  so  cuidid  and 
kindly  a  maimer  aa  to  win  approval  even  from  those 
who  did  not  accept  his  conclusions.  The  elector  Anally 
decreed  the  erection  of  preshvMriea  and  the  elocution 
ofiliscipline. 

The  icraaion  of  the  elector  Louis  ii 
onler  of  things  jn  the  ralatinate,  under  which  Luther- 
aniiin  was  able  t«  reeain  ila  predoininance.  The  Cob 
givm  SaptrnHm  was  closed  in  September,  1577,  and  V 
sinua  waa  dismiased  from  his  poal.  A  profeasonhip 
Laiiuitne  was  at  once  olTeied  him,  but  he  declined  it, 
and  acceptol,  instead,  a  call  toNeuMadl,  where  t' 
nlogy  of  the  Reformed  Church  (bund  a  refuge 
Collf^Hm  lUailrt  CimnirianHni.  He  had  previously 
pobliahed,  in  I.aliH  and  German,  the  confession  of  faith 
appended  to  the  late  elector's  will  (1577),  and  was  anon 
afterwards  commisuoned,  in  connection  with  Zanchius, 
to  draw  up  for  the  Frankfurt  Synod  (September.  1578) 
a  confeaaion  which  ahould  be  accepteil  in  the  Reformed 
churches  of  all  European  countries.  Thu  office  he  de- 
clined on  Ihe  grounda  of  ill-health  and  distrust  of  hia 
ability.  He  began  hia  lectures  on  Isaiah  May  36, 1578, 
and  lubaequently  participated  in  the  conflict  aver  the 
acceptance  of  the  Formula  ConconSe,  having  contrib- 
uted (he  most  powerful  argument  in  qiposition  to  that 
meoaare.     He  die.1  March  C,  1&S3,  at  Neustadt.     '" 


II  URSULA 

vol,  viii!  GiUet,  Cia'o  ron  Crapieim  (Frankf.  18601; 
Henog,  Kuit-Emytlop.  s.  v. ;  Smith's  Hagenboch,  Hut. 
of  DorirvKt,  ii,  §  222,  and  §  223  a,  4. 

TTrstiaT,  in  Chinese  and  Persian  mytliolug}-.  There 
ia  said  to  be  eTvcte<linChiiia,at  Hiaku,  in  a  large  pago- 
da, a  statue  of  a  bull  entirely  of  golil.  If  the  reports  of 
the  Holland  expeditiona  are  true,  it  is  marvellous  what 
a  similarity  there  is  in  the  table  of  this  bull  and  that 
worshipped  by  the  Persians  and  Egyptians.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  in  the  act  of  springing,  with  (he  intention 
of  breaking  an  egg  that  lies  awimmiug  in  the  water 
close  by  a  rock.  The  Chinese,  Egyptians,  and  Peraiana 
agree  in  saying  that  in  this  egg  the  world  lay  hidden. 
I'his  egg  wsa  swimming  aDout  the  water  until  a  n>ck 
appeared  in  (he  water,  against  which  it  leaned  i[wir. 
Then  the  Urstier  came,  cracked  the  shell  with  hia  horns 
and  from  this  egg  there  sprang  the  world  and  all  that 
ia  in  the  world,  and  the  breath  of  the  bull  gave  roan 
life. 

ITralUa  (St.)  tnul  TAc  Eltm,  Thoutond  Vviua. 
The  legend  sU(c»  thst  Ursula  was  the  dsuglilor  of  The- 
onotus,  or  Diognecus,  of  Hritain.  She  was  demanded 
in  marriage  by  a  heathen  prioCB  named  Holofeme8,and 
consented  \o  his  demand  on  condition  that  he  should 
become  a  Christian  and  allow  her  three  yean  before  the 
marriage  in  which  to  make  a  pileiimage.  He  conform- 
ed to  her  will,  and,  with  his  religion,  changed  bis  name 
intoiEtherius;  and  she  took  ship  with  eleven  thousand 
virgins  They  went  first  to  the  port  of  Tila,  in  Haul, 
and  thence  up  the  Khine  to  Cologne  and  Bssle,  aHer- 
wanls  continuing  the  pilgrimage  by  land  as  far  as  Rome. 
When  they  returned,  pope  Cyriacus,  iiith  a  retiime  of 
ciei^,  joined  (he  immense  procession;  and  at  Basle  the 

turning  pilgrims  were  attacked,  while  disembarkii^g,  by 
hordea  of  wild  llumtiih  barbarians  atul  were  all  maiuia- 
crGd,thoughIhebeathenking.Attila(E(iel),admireiUhe 
beauty  of  Ursula  and  deaired  (o  spare  her,  that  she  might 


■rof.  Jun 


he,  with  other  friends  of  the  departed  scholar,  collected 
and  pulilished  many  work*  which,  until  then,  existed 
Olds  in  U.S.,  and  gave  the  author's  name  to  ethers 
which  had  previously  been  anonymously  published. 
The //rvMirr^Ciffn'Auni,  with  nolea,  and  £«fur«<iiif;(e 
Or^aM  nf  A  riilollr,  etc,  were  published  at  Keiutadt. 
Partus,  at  a  later  day,  isauH  a  corrected  edition  of  I 
the  Expotiiiam  of  Ihe  Caltehiim  (Rrem.  1G28.8fo):| 
and  B  complete  edition  nf  Ursinua'a  worka  was  isaued . 
by  ReiKer,  hia  pupU  and  immediate  successor  in  the  I 

-See  Adam,  Vil.  GTman.  Throlngorum ;  Heppe,  Gftrh. 
d.JnliduProlnliinfUmiu;  id.  Dogmatit  d. iltulKh. Pro-] 
lalfOlUnia.  \,  168-160;  SodbolT,  OlfnaiuM  u.  U'liniu    . 
<Elbeifeh],  1867) ;  ia.LtttH<L  Valei-  d.  rt/oTmiii.  Kiivit,  \ 


UliSULlNES 


,l,ly  . 


ere  heavenly  hosu,  equal  in  number  w  cbe  mufdereil 
virgin>,Bppearedaiidpu(  Ibe  birbiriaiis  toflighl.  The 
lielivetHl  inhabi(»nl«  uf  the  city  thereupon  turied  the 
fallen  lalgrima,  end  erected  (o  each  ana  a  slono  bearing 

a  bishop,  who  wa*  in  the  train  of  the  irilgrioH  and  vf  ho 
had  found  a  refuge  in  a  cave  from  the  fate  of  hia  com- 
paniuns.  Soon  afleTwardii  Qemantiiu.  a  pilgrim  from 
Greece,  having  been  urged  in  repealed  dreams,  erect- 
'    imong  the  grave*  in  "  .--      .         - 


place  of  bi 


n  thuu«j 


The 


:y  of  ll 


l)  is  apparent  from  I  he  fact  that  no  oth- 
,  even  [bough  they  Iw  of  the  bodicH  of 
ireii,  can  be  performed  in  iu  billowed 


The  origin  of  Iba  Ursula  legend  i>  prob^l}-  In  be 
found  in  the  ancient  nunyrologiea  and  sainta'  chron- 
iclea  of  a  date  earlier  than  the  ISth  century,  the  legend 
having  bten  current  in  this  form  in  Germany  iince  that 
period,  while  a  somewhat  different  venaon  ha>  prevailed 
in  England.  This  rehearses  I  hat  Maximus,  the  uaurper 
in  Canl  (S83-388)  and  former  commander  in  Britain, 
had  requited  of  king  Dinnotiis  of  Cornwall  a  number 
of  marriageable  girls  for  hia  legionaries,  and 


virgins  of  com- 


mon and  eleven  thousand  of  noble  rank,  among  them 
his  own  daughter  Ursula.  They  were  driven  by  storms, 
"ad  baibaras  insulaa  appulse,'*  and  murdered  by  the 
Huns  and  Picta  (?).  The  earliest  mention  of  any  sim- 
ilar event  is  found  in  the  poetical  martvrologv  (ad 
Oct.  St)  of  Wandelbert  of  PrUm,  who  died  in  STQ  (see 
D'Aohery,  S/ncilra,  u,  &4).  The  manyrology  of  the 
monk  Usuard  of  St.  Germain,  written  about  875,  men- 
tions two  virgins  of  Cologne,  "Blartha  et  Saula.  cum 
aliis  pluribus"(Jcf.i  5d'.[Boll.]  J<m.  7,  61S),  and  vari- 
ous ecelesiaatical  calendars  of  Cologne  of  scarcely  more 
recent  date  mention  eleven  virgins  and  give  their 
re  itself 


buted   t 


t   II  ur 


hurough  discussion 
legend  involves  credible  t 
Heraog's  Jttol-JCiia/tlnp, 
la  Viadiaila,  etc  {Co\.  Iftl7,  foL),  the  most  entensive 
work;  M.Auci.ike  Lib.  X 1 1  3.  Urtuta  Visdit.  (Ha); 
sUoVadian,Or(iMaife  jr/jWtWAvi  Virgiiam  (Vien.lolO); 
Usher  in  A  nliq.  EaJa.  Brilaa.  (I*nd.  1687),  p.  107  sq. ; 
Barrinius,J/arryraf:Aafli.adOct.!l;  id.  ^  mm^M,  ad  an. 
8S3,No.4,etc.',  JameK)n[Mrs.],Z>9rndiiry.4rr,ii,fiO]sq, 
UrBulinBB,  Ihe  name  borne  by  the  nuns  and  The- 
atines  of  a  charitalde  order  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
which  was  founded  Nov,  2.%  IS35,  at  Brescia  by  Angela 
Merici  (q.  v.),  and  became  prominent  among  the  benev- 
olent orilcrs  instituted  in  the  IGih  century  to  impede 
Ihe  progress  of  the  Protestant  Keformaiion.  Their 
originil  rule  did  not  require  ascelical  '  ' 


the   obligation   to   chastity   was   ratlier 

than  imposed.     Bul,after  the  papal  conti 

order  bad  been  obtained  (June  9.  IM4) 

the  rule   be- 

came  more  strict.     Formal  congregation 

were  organ- 

lied,  whose  mcrnbcra,  for  the  must  part. 

ived  logethei 

i,™„.n»     ABlrtk.rk.,h.,„.,™ 

Ixiliie  virgini- 

ty  was  added  to  the  garb.     Mora  exien 

to  iinifurm  and  regulate  the  order  were 

uken  under 

was  from  the 

first  i1«  zealous  patron.  By  the  end  of  the  16th  centu- 
ry the  order  had  become  established  in  France,  and 
rapidly  increased  the  number  of  its  convents.  The  sin- 
gle congregation  of  Paris  possessed  over  eighty  such 
houses.  In  time  this  congregalinn  devised  a  new  rule 
which  was  approved  by  pope  Paul  V,  and  has  become 
the  model  fur  the  rul^  of  the  congregations  of  Bor- 
deaux, Dijon,  and  Lyons  (see  Comlilul.  d.  Religtuui  dr 
S.  t'l-s.  di  la  Covgrig.  lie  Parit,  1648,  and  Ri-jUmtia, 


rs  of  Augustaoa 


URWICK 


167S).  It  adds  to  the  three  K 
a  fourth,  which  requires  tli 
The  garb  coneisia  of  gray  akirl,  black  robe^  Iratliaii 
ginlle  with  iron  buckle,  black  cloak  without  sleevn,  a 
with  short  while  veil,  and  a  Urge  bla^ 


The  Franc 


congregations  or^ 


its  greatest  exienson  the  order  consisted  of  about  tweo- 
ty  loosely  connected  congregations,  having,  perhaps, 


0  20,00 


30  lay-Bitten  I* 
a  convent.  The  Ursulincs  are  distinguished  by  i  cm- 
scienlious  performance  of  the  obligation  tu  inilrurl  The 
young.  In  Italy  and  Switierland  the  eaugrrgaitd  at 
noil-regulated  Ursulioea  compose  i  he  body  uf  Ibe  order, 
anil  they  observe  a  more  ascetical  rule  than  [he  reKii- 
Uted  nuns.  They  devote  eight  days  innnally  tn  ibs 
spiritual  exercises  preacribed  by  Loyola,  Ittc'h  yoiii^ 

ditipense  alms,  a 


der  tbe  direction  of 
the  diocesan  bishops. 
See  Ltt  CkTrnriqurt 
de  COrdre  da  Una- 
Una  (Paris,  1670), 
vol.  ii ;  Journal  da 
lUatlr.  Rtligrvta  de 
rOrdrt  dt  S.  Via. 
iv,  1690;  Mayer,  C- 
iiit-OnfcB  (WUrt- 
burg,16»);  Helvot, 
GachicAlr  aUer  Kto- 
Iter-  u.  RUltr-Ordm, 
iv,  1TB  aq. ;  Crome, 
GadL.  d.  MOnch- 
OnJen,  ch.  iv.— Her- 
zng,  Btal-  EnegHap. 
S.V.  Tbe  flrst  Unsii- 
line  colony  in  Amer- 
ica was  founded  by 
Marie  Gnrirt  at 
Quebec  in  1639;  and 


r  this 


UrsDllua  of  TroU  Riviera,  < 


also  at  Troia  Eivi 
eres  and  Chatham,  in  Canada;  and  in  Ihe  United  Slttts 
at  MorrisanU,  M.  V. ;  at  Cleveland,  Toledo,  and  Fsj- 
eltevilie,  U.;  at  ^riiigOeld  and  Alton.  III.;  at  QAdn- 
bia,Savanitah,  and  Augusta. Ga.;  at  New  Orleaui,  Su 
Anlflnin,  Galveston,  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis.  But  tbcr 
have  ceased  to  exist  in  Italy,  Switierland,  and  Genasni 
since  1(171. 

Umed,  a  title  of  the  god  Bilgi  in  Chaldaan  nr- 
thoh^v,  signifving  "  protector  of  the  house."  Sec  Le- 
normani,CAaW,  .Way.c,p,186. 

Uraker,  in  Chaldcein  mythology,  was  the  nsDi  dl 
a  wicked  ilasmon,  "enormous"  and  "multifold.'  Sie 
Lenormsnl,  ChaUI.  Slagi.;{>.i,  10. 

Uru  Sukbar.  in  Chaldican  mythology,  nss  i  t\i\t 
of  the  goil  Bilgi,  signifying  "  pmteclor  of  ilie  familr.' 
See  Lenormani,  ChuM.  Mogie,  p.  186. 

Urwlck,  WiLLiAH,  D.D.,  an  Iriah  CongregalHiul 
minister,  was  bom  at  Shrewsbury,  Dec.  8, 1791.  Be 
graduated  at  Hoxton  College,  and  settled  at  Sligu:  be- 
came interested  in  important  discussions  with  tbe  Rn- 
mau  Catholic  divines,  and  by  the  brilliancy  of  ha  sr- 
gumenta  and  the  uverponering  force  of  hia  mind  wM 

Gospel  of  Christ.  In  18SG  Dr.  Urnick  accepted  llw 
pastorate  of  York  Street  Chapel,  Dublin,  and  Aamf. 
the  long  period  of  his  public  ministry  was  recogniird 
as  an  able  advocate  of  Ihe  religion  of  Christ.  Me  ni 
intimately  aaaociated  with  the  Iriih  Evangelical  Saci«> 


TTsagers  anh  CoLLicOSea,  two  parties  existing  in 
the  Ctaurch  of  ScolUnd  in  tbe  reigna  of  U«arge  I  aii<l 
Uforge  IL  As  the  biahopi  nho  haJ  Imch  ejected  from 
Ihett  tea  during  the  RcToliitiuii  were  gruliully  re- 
moTed  t>7  deslh,  othen  Kere  consecrated  in  tbelr  stead, 
wiihonl  diocesan  authority,  to  preaerve  the  apostolic 
wnession  until  the  Tutmer  canJition  of  aSaln  ihould  [it 
nstoreiL  On  the  death  o(  bishop  Rnjie  of  Edinburgh, 
in  17*0,  the  last  of  the  old  diocesan  prelates,  it  was  pm- 
posed  that  the  Church  shonld  henceforth  be  governed 
bj  a  ealifge  of  hiahops.  The  proposal  was  supported 
1^  the  lar  party  and  opposed  by  the  clergy.  Another 
atue  of  divisiou  aroas  in  view  of  (be  fact  that  some 
of  Ibe  diocesan  parlf  Tavored  the  adaption  of  certain 
■wpei  iuta  the  Church  of  Scotland  which  had  been 
lately  rerifed  in  England,  viz. :  (1)  mixing  water 
Willi  the  wine;  (3)  coinmeoiurating  the  faitliful  de- 
(wrted;  (3)  the  invocation  in  the  prayer  of  consa- 
cncion;  (4)  oblsiion  befon  adoiinistTation.  Bishop 
Gsdderar,  one  of  the  defetHlers  of  the  utagea,  bi- 
ing  nibBcquently  chosen  (liihop  of  Aberdeen,  tbe 
puty  oppiised  to  the  college  sysleRi  beeaoM  idenll- 
fled  with  tbe  usages.  Heitoe  the  tenni  Uaagen  and 
CoDegen. 

Use,  the  lorn  of  external  worship  peculiar  to  any 
Oiorrh  j   alao  the  ritual  of  a  Church  or  diocese  ir- 
nnged  by  authority  and  generally  followed.     In  E 
land  each  bisbop  fonnerly  had  the  power  of  mil 
aanie  improTements  in  the  liturgy  irf'  bis  Church, 
ptKcesa  of  time  different  ciislonia  anue  which  were  so 
distinct  aa  to  receive  the  name  of  "  uses."    We  thus 
have  the  uses  of  Sarum,  Bangor,  Yorh,  Hereford,  D< 
ham,  Liucoln.      The  Use  of  Sarum  became  the  most 
general.     All  were  practically  abolished  in  the  16tb 


Uaba*,  in  Hindll  mrtholug_v,  is  one  of  the  female 

deiUes  of  the  Vedu— ilie  Dawn.  She  is  represented 
as  possessing  very  pleasing  attributes,  such  aa  the 
brinfier  of  opulence,  the  giver  of  food,  endowed  with 
iuiellect,  truth,  and  the  like. 

Uahar  (or  UsBber),  James,  an  illuMrious  prelate, 
•nd  a  gresl  liiminnry  of  the  Irish  Church,  was  bom  at 
Dublin,  Jan.  4, 1580.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Oil- 
irge,  Dublin,  being  one  of  the  Hist  three  tcholBTB  ms- 
tiiculaCed.  In  1S0I  he  wasordained;  in  lfi03  be  became 
chancellor  of  Si.  Patrick'h  and  soon  after  professor  of  di- 
Tiuityat  the  uuivenily;  in  1019  he  was  made  bishop 
orUeath;  and  in  1624  he  became  archbishop  of  Armagh 
and  primate.  Doting  the  troubles  arising  out  of  the 
war  between  Charles  I  and  tbe  Pariiament,  Usher  had 
to  leave  Ireland,  and  was  subjected  to  much  hardship, 
his  property  being  seiie<l  and  his  revenues  distrained. 
He  obtained  the  see  of  Carlisle  (in  mrHnmdam),  but 
fn>ni  that  but  little  emolument  accnied  to  bim.  He 
sTterwards  became  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was 

with  Charles  at  Carisbrook.  Ko  man  could  be  rnatched 
against  him  in  debate,  and  during  the  Civil  War  he 
preached  many  bitter  sermons  against  the  Independents. 
In  IftlS  he  removed  to  Oxford,  but,  the  king's  power 
declining,  be  retired  to  CardilT  He  was  recognised  aa 
one  of  the  gieatesi  ichoiBra  of  his  time.  Kichelieu  is 
aud  to  have  nffereil  him  a  high  position  in  France.  He 
declined  a  professorship  al  Leyden.  His  bter  vears 
were  spent  in  the  family  of  lady  Peterborough  at~Kei- 
g»le,where  he  died.Marab  SI.'iGSB.     Uahcr 


His 


nia  Vtl.  tl  Nod  Tal.  (1650-54,  foL) 
fame  as  a  acholar  and  a  chronologist,  and  fixed  the  Bib- 
heal  chronology  which  has  since  been  generally  follow- 
ed in  this  country,  and  which  is  adopted  in  the  A.  V. 
He  wnte  also  De  Crmca  LXX.  Vtrtioiie  Sgnlagma ;~  , 


3  USQUE 

Epiilola  ad  L.CnpdiuM  dt  Fiirift  Text.  flAfACtiomlmi 
(IS63)  •.—BrilaimicaniinEctlriuini'iiAaHqiiilala  (1R39, 
foLj  enlarged  ed.  Ili77):— and  a  multitude  of  works  on 
the  ecclesiaalical  controversies  of  the  day,  ami  on  some 
questions  in  theology.  His  library,  for  which  he  col- 
lected books  and  MSS.  from  all  i|uatters,  was,  alter  bis 
death,  presented  to  the  Dublin  University,  where  it  re- 
mains. He  succeeded  in  obtaining  six  copies  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  several  USS.  of  the  Syrisc 
version.  His  collected  works  have  been  edited  hv 
Dr.  Elriiigton  (1847,  IS  vols,  8vo),  with  a  life  of  the 

XTslter,  John  (I),  an  American  Episcopal  mi^ii'lFr. 
was  bom  in  1689;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  i^i 
i;i3;  studi.  il  theology;  went  la  England  for  holy  or- 
ders, and  relumed  as  miisionaiy  of  Ibe  Society  for  Pmp- 
Bgaliiig  the  Gnapd  iu  foreign  Pnrtsi  and  waa  appoint- 
ed to  (be  mission  at  Bristol,  1{.  L  He  died  at  Bri.ml, 
April  30, 1'7&,  aee3prague,^«iaiio/(iU/lnur./>ii/- 
pit,  V,  48 -SO. 

UalieT,  John  (2),sanorthe  preceding,  was  bom  at 
Bristol,  R  L,  I7f2;  graduated  at  Harranl  College  in 
1748;  pracliced  law  for  many  yean;  commenced  read- 
ing service,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1775;  was 
ordained  by  bishop  Seabury  in  1763,  aud  rector  of  the 
parish  until  1300.  He  dieit  July,  ISM.  See  Sprague, 
A  Hoali  of  the  A  mrr.  Pulpil,  p.  49.      ' 

TTbOiU.  in  rhonician  mythutogy,  was,  according  to 
tradilion,  handed  down  by  Sanchoniathon  as  a  brother 
of  Hypsuranius.  who  at  first  protected  his  bo<ly  with 
hides  of  animals  which  he  had  killed;  and  when  rains 
and  winds  came,  and  Are  broke  out  through  friction 
of  the  trees  one  with  another,  he  risked  himself  upon 

tieacheroos  sea.  He  dedicated  two  pillars  lo  lire  and 
wind,  and  sacriSced  the  blood  of  the  animals  he  had 


Us.qne,  Abiiaha)!,  whose  Christian  name  was  0n- 
arfe  PvwZ,  belonged  to  Ihoae  unhappv  Jewish  exiles  who 
were  driven  from  the  Spanlab  peiiinauU  in  1492.  He 
sought  refuge  at  Ferrara,in  Italy,  where  he  established, 
uniler  the  name  of  Abraham  Usque,  a  great  printing 
establishment,  in  order  lo  supply  the  Marranoa  with  He- 
brew books.  He  not  only  edited  various  Rabbinical 
worka,  but  also  published  the  celebrated  Spanish  Irans- 
lation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  entitled  BibUa  ea  Iah- 
yua  Krpnaola,  tnidiayla  Palahrn  por  Puhbra  de  la 
Vtrdadtra  /Mraica,  por  rHHjr  exee/rWej  Urradoi.  Villa 
y  fxananada  pnr  el  Oficio  de  la  /ufvtdiinon,  which  he 
ilwlicated  to  Hercules  H  and  Donna  (iracia  Nasi  (Fer- 
rarn,53l3  =  l&63).   There isagreatdealofdiapule about 

printed — the  one  edited  by  Duarte  Piiiel,  at  the  expense 
of  Gcriiiiinto  de  Tnrjas,  and  the  other  editol  bv  Abra- 
ham U«|ue,  at  the  expense  of.lom  Tob  Athiat  But 
the  ilifflculty  is  easily  removed  by  ideiililiiiiig  Usque 
with  Pinel,  De  Vargas  with  Athias ;  Daarle  Pinel  be- 
ing the  Portuguese  name  and  Abraham  Usque  Ihe.lew- 
ish,  and  so  Gerdnimo  de  Tarjas  being  the  Spaniih  and 


Jom 


b  Atliia 


nubl 


both  were  Harranos,  and  useil  their 
in  the  edition  which  was  primed  for  the  Spanish-speak- 
ing Christians;  while  in  the  edition  for  their  Jewish 
brethren  they  used  their  Jewish  name,  under  which 
they  have  become  known.  Usque,  or  Pine),  began  this 
version  in  1543  and  completed  it  in  1553,  after  ten  years 
of  diligent  labor.  And  though  the  names  of  the  trans- 
lators are  not  given,  it  tteiiig  simply  remarked  "  made 
by  very  excellent  scholars"  ("  por  mny  excelentea  letra- 
(iji"),  yet  there  can  he  but  little  doubt  that  he  waa 
the  principal  anchor  of  it.  He  adopte.1  the  literal  trans- 
lation of  the  Penuteuch  published  in  ihe  Onisianti- 

iple  PenlBleuch  Polyglot  (1547),  which  waa  oommon- 
in  use  by  the  Jews  in  Spain  in  the  middle  of  the 

<th  century,  and  which  is  moat  probably  the  early 
SpaniiA  translation  of  the  Middle  Ages  falsely  altrib- 


USSEKMANN  e 

Dted  to  David  Kimehi  (see  Steiiiubneider,  Jewith  IaI- 
trnturt,  p.  132),  Tb»re  were  two  edition*,  pi<bli»l.ed 
timulcaueoiuly.u  hualreul;  been  iniimiled:  or 
intended  for  the  Jewi^  uid  the  other  wu  fltngi, 
■cqiiiint  Spaiiiah-speaking  Chriiliiiu  witb  th 
Test.  New  editioOB  ufthe  former  ■iimirol  u  Y\ 
1630;  AiTutenl.in,  1611}  Vei.iee,  1617:  iml  wiU 

teh  be>i-lM«el,  AmsterJam,  1630;  with  tables  of  the 
HaphMtoth,  indices  of  chsptera,  Jiidgen,  kings,  ind 
pro|>hels  of  larael  iceordiufi  to  the  oliis  IIO, 
««  with  «n  ebiborau  introduction  by  Gillii  JiH«t  {Ibid. 
IMfl),  and  with  a  new  preface  and  correitiuim  b  " 
deCaiere*(iWd.  1661).  SeeFllmt.BiiiL  Jui  iji.. 
De"  Kiwi,  l>uiBmu-i>  Sloria;  p.  SS4  ((ierm.  (ransL) ;  id. 
Dt  Tiip-gr„pkia  /Mrao-Ftrr<t,'ean,  p.  iS-K ;  Stein- 
KhnriilcT,  V<ilaloff.  LOr.  Hihr.  in  BM.  Bodi.  oi  196; 
F.lhpri.lge,  tVrodaction  to  l/ebmti  Li/ei-aturt,  p.  463: 
Tickiior,  //irto-y  «/  Spimlih  Liifalurt,  i,  i{,  n.ite 
(Amer.ed.);  Finn,  Sjy^ariAi.,  p.  468  »q. ;  Linda,  ffic 
IfTg  o/ikt  Jact  in  Spaia,  p.  861 ;  Da  CoaU,  hnut  and 
HuGBiSiia,f.BHv\.;  Kitlo,  CycV. ».  v, ;  Kaynrling, 
Gfch.  d.  Jadm  in  Porlagut,  p.  268 ;  GrttH,  Gudi.  d.  Ja- 
lin,  ix,  S44  Mj.  1  Hosennillller, //undJuiA^rdii  iiter,!- 
(ur  der  bibl.  K'itik  uad  Exrgnr,  iv,  268  an.-  Simon 
BiitoitrCtit.da  (•'.r.p.811.    (a  P.) 

Uaaermann,  .Cuiliah,  ■  Koman  Catholic  divine 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Sl.Ulrich,in  Baden,  Oit  30. 
1787,  occupied  the  chair  of  theoli^v  at  SaliburK  fr 
176710  1769,  and  died  Oct.  27,  WW*;  aa  doctor  of  theol- 
Ofiy  anil  capilnlary  in  the  mnnislery  of  the  Benedi 
tinee  of  Sanct  lUaaien.    He  i»  I  he  author  of,  Epiteopal 
Wirc^urg.  ivb  Milropcli  Mogiialum  ChronoL  rl  Diplo- 
mat, niuilralia  (Sanct  BUsien,  \lH):~KpiKopaiiu 
Bamterg. . . .  tU—tr.(_ibi<Umi):-SucntKluJiipUcatii> 
Ueorum  quorwulam  Digatinrum  PrtUaltarii  jBoad 
Seiaum  hiHralem,  Moralem,  FoUmicam,  AUtj/aricum 
Aalilogicam  ex  Conlexlu  piittipnt  L"cii  Piiralltlit  i 
Linguii  Adormta  (Unnich,  1767)  ■.—Comptmiiam  Sf»- 
iaxtta  Htbraica.  unu  cum  Aaali/n  /.ibri  Granfoi, 
(SalzUite,  1769),     SeeFllrM,fli4t,/N./.iii,4Cfi;  Wi 
ffnndbuc/i  dtr  iKeoL  Liltralar,i,J79,187.     (It  p,) 

Uat«rl,  LaoKHARD,  a  Swiu  thcolofrian,  wai  bom 
Oct.  12,  1799,  at  Zurich,  He  Mudied  in  bis  nativi 
place,  and  having  been  ordained  in  1820,  he  went  u 
Berlin  to  attend  the  lectures  of  .Schleiermacher,     li 

course  of  private  lectures  on  the  Pauline  epistles.  Ii 
1824  he  waa  calleii  to  Berae  as  pmrrn.ir  ami  director 
of  Ihe  gymnasium,  and  died  there  Sept,  18, 1888. 
combineil  exact  schnlarship  with  philosnpbic  deptli 
acumen.  He  wrote,  Comnmlalh  Ciiliea,iH  gva  Joamu 
Eeimseliam  Genuinum  aw,  rx  CompnruHt  I V  EeoHi/fli- 
Drain  de  Cana  VUima  tt  de  PaaUmt  Jan  Ckruli  Nar- 
Tiilirmihv  OKendUur  (Turici,  18^),  written  against 
Itretscbneider:~£-|i/iiT>nh-/ui^  del  PautimicheB  Uhv 
bturijfri  M  itioim  Verkmimae  zur  btbliiekm  Vngmtlik 
rfnA'mmrafnmfni'j.etc.  (Zurich,  1824;  6th  ed.'l851): 
—Commenlar  iibtr  den  Biv/Punti  nn  die  Galater  (ibid. 
1833).  He  also  published  soma  essays  In  the  SIvd.  a. 
Kiit.  See  Tkrohp.  Unictrtal-lAa.  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  Bibl. 
Thr.dng.\i,  1373;  Winer,  llaudbitch  der  IheoL  /.Ofralar. 
i,  B-2.  SIS,  261,  291 ;  ii,  Kli,     (B.  P.) 

Ustlck,  Hugh  Btewait,  a  Presbvrerian  minis- 
ter, was  bnrn  at  Ul.iominKlmrsh,  0„  Soi.i,  9,  1832.  Hb 
pursued  his  academical  slndies  in  Salem  Acadcrav,  Ross 
Co.,  O,,  and  graduatnl  at  Miami  University  iii  1853. 
He  studied  tbeoKfiy  in  \ew  Albany  Reminarv;  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  Uhilliuithe  PtWhylery  in  1865; 
employed  by  the  American  Tract  Society  during  1856; 
and  ordained  as  pastor  i.f  the  Prcsbi-lerian  Church  ai 
Hamillon,  0„  in  May,  1857.  He  d'ied  Oct.  81,  1857. 
See  Wilson,  Pi™*.  Ilil.  Atiaanae,  1861,  p.  200. 

tfatlck.  Stephen  C,  a  prominent  Rapli'i  Iny. 
man,  son  of  tbe  Kcv.  Thomas  Uitick,  was  biini  iu  Nei« 


•*  USURY 

l-otk  diy  in  1778.  He  was  a  printer  by  .«de,  aad  *. 
voied  bimselr  to  bu  secular  calling  witli  ereat  actiiiir 
Fur  many  yeaia  he  was  a  deacon  in  the  Burliagui 
N.J,  baptist  Church,  and  took  a  deep  intcrst  ia  til 
plans  f..r  religious  work,  both  at  home  and  sbnaL 
F'lr  some  time  his  home  was  in  Wasbingion  D  C 
He  removed  to  Batavia,  O,  in  which  place  he  di«i, 
No>-  11  1837.  Mr.  U.tick  was  one  ofX  t^ 
of  the  Baptist  Triennial  Convention,  formed  in  ISU 
wirb  special  reference  to  carrying  on  (he  wort  of  Im- 
Vf\  "'"""^     See  the  MiitiomiTg  JabOa,  p.  m 

Vital,  in  Chaldran  mythobgv,  was  a  daa  il 
pn-eetiog  genii  with  the  face  of  a  human  btiw 
and  referred  to  in  Eiehiel'a  (i,  10;  x,  U)  risi™^ 
the  nvet  Chebar.     See  Lenomunt,  CkaUma  Maj^ 

Usnard.  a  French  hagiograpber  of  the  Stb  cemair, 

was  a  monk  of  Saini-GenDain-dea-Pr6i  at  Paris.    Ht 

wrote  a  Afnrfjirafc^  under  the  countenance  of  Cliiria 

the  Bald,  which  was  first  printed  at  ihe  end  offi.* 

turn  KarUiomm  (1475),  and  afterwards  aerved  n 

basis  of  the  Manyrohgiim  RomaiMm.     He  ilic4 

.  8,  876  or  877.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gitlnit 


Uanrpatioi 

ranger  who  hi 
derk,  n 


A   BKXRFtcE  is   the  act  (br  ■ 

'  right  to  do  so)  nf  preseatii^  s 
ipon  arfmilied  to,  and  inuitoKJ 
m,  a  Church  benefice.      Anciently  such  an    set  de- 
prived the  legal   palroD  nf  his  advowwm ;   but  dob 


can  displao 
on,  but   the   trae 


Uanxy  {^l^j,  ndOdi,  lit.  a  U/vy,  i.  e.  o 


[Neb.  V,  7, 10]  ttcr,  maektki.  iiU) 

iKo  in  me  A.  v.  in  the  Old-English  sense  of  utfrrof 

money  loaned,  and  not  necessarily  in  the  Ddioai  sad 

later  eignilicatiiHi,  an  unlawful  contrwl  for  tbe  Lian  of 

By  the  taws  of  Moses  the  Israelites  were  forWdden  to 

lake  usury  from  their  brethren  upon  Ihe  loan  of  n»iitr, 

vietiiaKot  anything  else,  not,  it  has  been  <AtKi\tA  It 

Michaelis.as  ifhe  absolutely  and  in  aUoHa  coudetDOed 

the  praelice,  for  be  expressly  pennitted  inleiejt  lobe 

taken  from  strangers,  but  only  out  of  favor  to  th(  pomti 

classes.     In  other  words,  be  did  not  mean  to  repionl 

that  the  Uking  of  interest  for  the  loan  of  nonev  >»  la 

■'  'ifuland  unjust;  but  as  at  that  period  thelmei: 

«  comparatively  a  poor  people  and  strangers  t> 

ee,  they  borroweil.iiol  wiih  a  view  to  p«ifii,biit 

from  poverty,  and  in  onlor  to  procure  tbe  common  we- 

of  life.     It  would  therefore  have  been  a  bud- 

havo  exacted  from  them  more  than  was  lenl, 

The  Israelites  were,  however,  permitled  to  t^e  iisbit 

>m  st^anger^  from  tho  Canaaniles  and  other  peoplt 

devoted  lo  subjection.   This  was  one  of  the  manv  mtan 

ley  adopted  for  oppressing  and  roining  tbe  Canasnita 

ho  remained  in  the  land.     The  Israelites  were  not  i 

immercial  people,  not  were  Ibe  Uwe  and  regulaiioo 

ider  which  they  were  placed  framed  wiib  a  view  to 

icoiirage  them  to  become  such,  but  ralher  to  presem 

Ibera  in  tbe  possession  of  their  family  inherilance^  and 

in   the  cuItiTBltoii  of  a  Mmple,  unostenlatinus,  frugil 

mode  of  life.     Among  ihenwelvefc  ihereforp,  only  wdi 

as  ministered  help  to  the  siniggliog  poor,  and 

,~:..<uui  tide  them  over  trials  and  di9icaltia.waJe«- 

aislent  with  Ibe  qiirit  of  the  old  econoiny;  not  ucta  as 

tended  lo  embairass  their  circumstances,  and  al  Ihdr 

expense  enabled  a  gripiiig  neighbor  to  enrich  himself. 

Tins  last  is  the  only  kind  of  usury  forbidden  in  Uie 

law.and  the  avoiding  of  ibis  ia  sometimes  giveo  among 

the  chataeleristics  of  the  upright  and  godlv  nan  (Paa. 

XV,  6 ;  Jer,  x»,  10),     It  ia  also  that  which'when  pmc- 

liccd  was  denounced  as  a  crying  iuquity,  and  expoMd 


USURY  g 

thoM   who  dill  it  to  jodicUl  coDdemmltian  (Prov. 

Tbc  priclice  of  mortgiging  Und,  Mmetiaiei  at  ex- 
orbitant intemt,  grf'i  up  imong  [be  Jew*  during  the 
Ctptiritv,  in  ilirect  viuklian  of  the  law  (Lev.  xiv,  3S, 
37;  Eiek.  xriit.  S,  13, 17).  We  diid  the  nte  reictaing 
I  in  100  pec  month,  canesponding  u>  the  Rouun  ttnle- 
luoa  irntn*,  or  12  per  cent,  per  annum — a  nu  which 
Niebuhr  conaiden  lo  have  been  bnrrawed  from  ibroad, 
■rd  which  19,  or  hu  been  till  quite  lately,  a  very  luual 
or  even  ■  mini  miim  rate  in  the  East  (Niebnhr,  Hitl.of 
ftow.iii,  57,  EngL  Iransl.;  Vainer,  Trac.  ii,  254,  no«e; 
Chanlin,  Kny.  vi,  l?2);  but  under  TurkUh  mimik  it 
now  often  reaehe*  40  or  50  per  cent.  (Conder.  Ttat 
Work  M  Palal.  ii.  268).  Yel  tbe  law  of  the  Konn, 
like  the  Jewiab,  TorbidH  all  nwary  (Lane,  Mod.  Epypl.  i. 
132 ;  Sale,  Koran,  e.  80).  The  lawi  of  Menu  alk 
and  even  24  per  cent.  19  an  interest  rate;  but,  si 
the  law  in  Egypt,  accumulated  interest  was  not  t 
eeed  twice  the  original  aum  lent  {Lawi  o/.Vcnu 
in),  141,  l&l!  Jonei  (Sir  Vr.],Worti.  iii,  296;  comp. 
Drod.Sic  1,9,79).  Thii  Jewish  practice  waa  annulled 
by  Nehemiah,  and  in  oath  exacted  lo  insure  ila  di 
iiiiuanc(!(Neh.v,3-l3;eon>p.Selden,:>cyifr..Vii(.t  , 
lliiITa)ann,  fjex.  a.  v. "  Uwra").  Our  .Saviour  denounced 
•11  extortion,  and  promulgated  a  new  law  of  love  and 
furhearance;  "Give  to  every  man  that  asketh  of  ihae, 
and  of  hiin  that  taketh  away  thy  gooda,  ask  them  not 
again."  "Love  ye  your  enemiea,  and  do  |([MHl,aiid  lend, 
liojiingfoi-  nothiuK  again' (Luke  vi,30,S5). 

The  practice  of  usury  was  aeverely  censured  by  the 
ancient  Cburch  and  strictly  furbidden  to  tbe  clergy. 
One  law  prohibited  a  usurer  fram  ordination.  Many  of 
Lhe  ancient  canons  condemned  it  in  unmeasured  terms. 
One  of  the  canons  of  Nice  aays,  "  Forasmuch  as  many 
clerks,  fullowins  coveioiuiieia  and  Hkhy  lucre,  and  for- 
I  speak  ol  tbe  right- 


Hl(wl 


ry),  have 


t  hath  n< 


give 


ley  upon  usury,  and 
Uken  the  usual  monthly  increase,  it  seemed  giwd  to 
ibis  great  and  holy  synod  that  if  any  one,  after  this  de- 
cree, shall  be  found  to  take  usury,  or  demand  the  priii. 
cipd  with  hairihe  increase  of  lbewbo]e,or  shall  invent 
any  such  methods  for  dlthy  lucre's  sake,  he  ahill  be  de- 
graded from  his  order,  and  have  his  name  atnich  out  of 
the  roll  of  the  Church."  Tbe  same  practice  is  censured 
by  the  Apoatolieal  Canons;  theCouncil  of  Ellberis;  ihe 
Nrii  and  aecond  councils  of  Aries ;  the  Unt  and  third  of 
Cinbage;  theCnuncilorLaodiceaandorTrullo.  Usury 
waa  of  various  kinds;  aometimes  it  was  called  crtilrti- 
mt,  the  hundredth  part  of  the  principal  being  paid 
every  month.  This  was  allowed  by  the  civil  Liw,  but 
it  waa  generally  condemned  by  Ihe  Church.  Ani.iher 
form  of  usury  waa  called  mcaphm:  that  is,  Ihe  whole 

of  Jualinian  and  reprobated  by  the  Church.  Other  forma 
of  lower  interest  uere  allowed,  aucb  aa  half  or  third  of 
the  centesimal  inlereat.  See  Bingham,  EccL,  Anliq.  p. 
200-201, 1014, etc 

But  the  taking  of  usury  in  the  sense  of  receiving  a 
reasonable  rate  of  inlereat  for  the  use  of  money  em- 
phijeri  in  roercbaiidiie  belongs  to  a  different  category, 
and  is  nowhert  forbidden;  nor  is  it  more  contrary  lo 
the  law  of  love  than  the  plving  of  merchandise  itself 
for  the  Hake  of  gain.  Henn  it  ia  referred  to  in  New- 
Test.  Scripture  as  a  perfectly  undcflood  an<l  allowable 
pra«ice(M«lt.xxr,27:  Luke  xix, 23)— a  practice  which 
the  Jews  of  all  sgea,  from  the  time  of  the  F^xile,  when 
th'v  b^^n  to  be  in  a  manner  driven  to  commerce  fur 
thrit  support,  have  felt  themselves  st  liberty  to  carry 
on.  Thai  it  may  be,  and  often  baa  been,  carried  on  by 
then)  a*  well  as  nthera  in  a  way  far  from  consistent 
with  tbe  gna%  principles  nf  equity,  there  can  be  no 
dnubt;  but  thia  belongs  to  the  abuse,  not  lo  the  use.  of 
the  liberty  in  qiieation,  and  is  to  be  condemned  on  com- 
mercial aa  well  M  moral  groiinda.  Applied  lo  Christian 
uaMs,tbe  apirit  of  iha  old  oiaetmenta  regarding  usury 


15  UTENHEIM 

Hnds  its  fulfilment  in  the  frank  and  timely  ministration 

of  pecuniary  help  from  tboae  who  can  give  it  lo  pemiis 
on  whom  misfortune  and  poverty  have  fallen,  and,  aa  re- 
gards commercial  iransBctions,  in  the  mainteuancs  of 
upTii;ht  and  honorable  dealings. 

The  exaction  of  an  exorbitant  rate  of  intereat  for  the 
loan  of  money  was  flnt  prohibited  in  Kugland  during 
the  reign  nf  Edward  the  LVinfegaar;  but  that  lawia  con- 
aidered  lo  have  become  obsolete,  as  in  H2Q  usury  was 
forbidden  only  to  the  clergy,  and  in  I  IBS  it  was  decreed 
by  tbe  Cauocil  that  "such  of  the  clergy  as  were  usurers 
and  hunter*  alter  aurdid  gain,  and  fur  the  public  em- 
ployment of  the  laily,  ought  to  be  degraded."  In  1199, 
the  lastyearof  the  reign  of  Kicharil  I,  the  rate  of  inter- 
est fur  money  was  restricteil  to 


ifHen 


VIU.  In  ISII,  Philip  [V  fixed  Ihe  interest  that  might 
be  exacteil  in  the  fairs  ol'  Champngne  at  20  per  cent. 
James  I  uf  Arrag-in, in  1242,  Ilxed  it  at  18  percent.  In 
1490  the  rate  nf  interest  in  t'laccntia  was  40  per  cent. 
Charles  V  Hxed  the  rate  of  intereat  in  his  dominions  at 
12  per  cent.  In  l&4ii  ihe  rate  iu  England  was  Uxed  at 
lOperc  -       -      ■  .  -     .         - 


0  per  CI 


1883.  By  3  and  4  William  IV,  c  9H,  bilU  not  having 
more  than  three  months  to  run  were  exempted  from 
die  operation  of  Ihe  laws  against  usut7,  and  by  1  Vic- 
able  at  twelve  months.  By  2  and  3  Victoria,  c  87, 
it  waa  enacted  that  bills  rif  exchange  and  contracts 
for  loana  or  forbearance  of  money  Bbo^'e  £10  shall  not 
be  affected  by  Ihe  usury  liwa.  Five  per  cent,  is  still 
left  as  the  legal  rate  of  inlereat  for  money,  unless  it 
shall  appear  that  any  different  rale  waa  agreed  upon 
-'^-  parties.      In  most  of  Ihe  United  Stales 


leCno 


xpetc 


.1.)  ia  Axed  b; 


s  are  imposed  for  exacting  a  higher 


ntanabaden,  in  HindQ  mythology,  is  the  eldest 
son  of  king  Suayambhu,  the  progeniior  of  the  entire 
generation  of  meru  He  was  married  to  Sunadt,  by 
whom  he  bad  a  aon,  Druwen,  who  ahcady  in  his  lifih 
year  was  a  saint  endowed  by  Vishnu  wiih  wiadom, 
and  ruled  tbe  kingdom  of  his  father  through  a  period 
of  twenty-six  thousand  years,  and  waa  tinally  trana- 
plaiiled  into  tbe  poUr  star. 

nteahelin,  CnmsToi'H  vo:(,  bishop  of  Basle  in  the 
era  of  Ihe  Reformation,  and  an  iiiicoiucioits  agent  in 


10  ai  Strasbiirg,  and  after- 


preparing  Ihe  way  for  tbi 
bom  about  14S0  of  an  anci 
time  became  a  represenia 
(q.  v.).     He  waa  made  a  c 

wards  provost;  became  rector  ol  the  newly  lounded 
Univennty  of  Basle,  maater,  doctor  of  canon  law,  and, 
it  is  Bud,  general  of  Ihe  Onler  nf  Cluniacensians.  In 
A.D.  1600  he  waa  made  adminislrator  of  the  diocese  of 
Basle,  and  in  1502  bishnp.  He  introduced  an  economi- 
cal admi II istroliiin,  which  enabled  him  to  li(|uidate  the 
debts  of  his  dioceae,  and  in  time  to  promote  Ihe  inter- 
eata  of  learning,  bul  which,  to  some  ex lenl,  offended  his 
clergy,  and  caused  tbe  Council  of  Basle  to  suspect  h 


c  dirr 


inn  of  re 


ly  in  the  refui 
biihnp'a  pnuiVi 

cleaiastical  msi 


rights  over  the  town  which  liis  predecesaora 
al^for  money.    This  dilute  ended  eventual- 
■he  part  of  Ihe  town  to  pay  Ihe 
formeii  ilie  last  evidence  of  epis- 


■,  Uicnheim  al 

(he  Coimeil  of  Uasle.  he  fm 
venal  a  synod.  Oct.  23, 15 


end  that  a  purer  life  a 


:  clergy  might  restore 


UTGARD 

thG  Church  to  rttptct  amang  (he  laitj,  ind  might  in- 
troduce a  purer  luorality  aniDng  ■■  ■ 
utea  be  liad  prepared  were  theu  odupLeil;  the  detgy 
promised  In  coiifunn  Ui  ihem,  and  pledged  themulven 
to  huld  l>ri>  sytHHlii  annually,  at  which  reporti  ihouli] 
be  rendered  cimcemiug  their  own  conduct  and  the 
ic  peiiple, 


improv 


«  <leviNd.     Thii 


deavor  was  ueverthelew  fruilleas,  becii 

aiirl  dinibeilicnce  Trom   hii  clergy  aoon  appeared  in 

inception  of  a  new  plan  Tur  rerunning  the  lUucese,  which 
lias  given  this  luihc^  a  uuteworthy  place  among  the 
furcrunnera  of  the  Reformat ii>n.  In  Jbi'l  he  called  Ca- 
pilo  (q.  V.)  to  become  pieacher  in  the  cathedral,  and 
three  years  arterwards  tEculamfHuliui,  neither  of  them 
Tepresentativea  of  rigid  fitimauiBm,  and  both  destined 
•oon  to  become  leaden  in  the  tendency  away  fro 
Kofne.  KrasmMS  was  also  valued  by  the  bishop,  ar 
incited  (June  13, 1617)  lo  make  Buiie  his  home;  ai 
when  Luther  began  his  work,  Utenheim  rpjiiiued  in  h 
boldness,  and  read  his  writings  with  avidllv.  Sii  late 
na  IGI9  Capito  wrote  la  Luther 
upright  bishop  had  promised  a  refuge  to  the  Keformer 
in  case  of  need,  which  bishop  wag  certainly  none  other 
than  Utcuheim.  It  soon  became  apparent,  however, 
that  Luther's  wurk  wan  causing  matr-risl  damage  to  the 
bishop  and  bishopric  j><  Basic,  and  tlie  prelate  there- 
upon began  to  take  retrograde  steps.  He  Hrst  demand- 
ed and  received  a  coadjutor  in  hit  office^  A  public  and 
nntoriouB  riolalion  of  the  fast  on  Palm-Sunday  fumish- 
ed  him  with  a  desired  occauon  to  issue  ■  mandate  for- 
bidding (he  public  mention  of  Luther  and  threatening 
punishment  fur  all  further  iransRressiunB  of  the  law  of 

cuUr  letter  adilreseeil  to  the  bishop,  which  may  have 
Tealraiiietl  the  latter  from  extreme  measures,  hut  which, 
nevertheless,  caused  his  own  expuMon  from  the  town 
SIHH1  after  Easter,  1522.  It  is  certain  that  Utenheim 
alwiiya  remained  accemible  to  the  evangelicals;  but, 
■■n  ilie  other  hand,  he  adviaed  the  Church  of  Zurich  not 
to  risk  the  aecond  disputation  set  down  fur  September, 
13S3,  and  joined  the  association  of  (ierman  bishops  foi 
giving  eflecl  to  the  Eilict  of  Worms.  Me  reuined  thi 
friendship  of  Erasmus  to  the  last,  and  permitted  the 
latter  to  express  his  views  respecting  the  Church  very 
frankly.  Woni  out  with  age,  ill-health,  and  anxiety, 
he  retired  in  ISM  to  BrunlruL  In  Febniai?,  1627,  hi 
asked  to  be  released  from  his  official  duties,  and  died 
March  IS  of  that  year.  See  Sudanus,  Banlta  Saern. 
etc  (Bruntnii,  1668);  OGhs,Gf«fA.  d.  StadI  Batd,  ch. 
Erasmus,  VhUnuo,  Tk.  Mora,  etc;  Scultelus,  ^im 
adAAd\9;  \\'irz,llrli)el.Kin:h.-(;tteLr,Wi;  Wursti- 
•en,  Bfiiirr  Chrimit,  p.  664 ;  Lrlliri  of  Herm.  Busch  and 
tilareau  to  Zwingli  (ed.  Schuler  and  Schulthesa),  vii,  1, 
iaa-197;  Ranke,  DrvUche  Gad.  im  Ztitatltr  d.  Re/or- 
nuitiim,  ii,  518;  Heiiog,  Itben  Orkolampait  (i,  9  eq.). 
Brilia!irz<iTGnck.BatrU{\m^),t.\tARtat-EnqikU>p.i.\.; 
also  Tonjola,  BatUia  Srpalla  Delecta,  Appendix,  p.  2&. 

ntgard,  in  Norse  mythnlogy,  is  the  realm  of  Ui- 
garilaloki,  lying  at  the  end  of  the  world,  and  is  the  land 
of  giants  and  msgicians.  It  became  known  from  Tbor's 
journey  to  Uigard. 

Tf'thai  [many  U'lhal^  {Heb.  Vlhay',  "nir,  help- 
ful), the  name  of  two  HebrewsL 

1.  (Sept.  Tj-wJ;  V.  r.  TiuSi ;  Vnlg.  Olhrl.)  A  person 
(ealled"thesanaf  Ammibud'')of  the  family  of  Pharei, 
who  resided  at  Jetusaiem  alter  the  return  from  Babylon 
(1  Chron.  ii,  4).  aC.  536.  He  is  usually  thought  lo 
be  identical  with  Atiiaiah  (q.v.)  of  the  somewhat 
parallel  passage  (Neh.  xi,  4) ;  but  none  of  the  names  in 
his  ancestry  (except  Pharez)  agree. 

2.  (Sept.  OWal  V.  r.  Of.3,'i  Vulg.  Ulkai.)  First 
named  of  the  two  "sons  of  Bigvai,"  who  returned  with 
scveniv  males  from  BabTlon  with  Eira  (Eira  viii,  14). 
B.C. 4d9. 


16  UYTENBOGAERT 

Vthl  (Ou3/),  the  Greek  form  (I  "BaAr.-na.Wj* 
the  Heb.  name  (Eira  viii,  H)  Utbai  (q.  v.). 

ntUltariaoiun,  a  tenn  first  applied  to  tlie  dec- 
trine  of  utility  <q.  v.)  by  John  Stuart  Hill,  and  tAnfM 
by  very  many  since  that  time.  The  term  B/i%  vb 
lirM  employed  to  distinguish  the  doctrine  tiy  Jetmy 
Itentham.     See  Hill,  UliUlanrntum. 

UtlUty,  in  ethico-philnsnphical  ttrminakigy,  is  Iht 
doctrine  that  actions  are  right  because  they  ire  utetid 
or  tend  to  promote  hapjiinesa.  It  is  ibus'detmnl  br 
Slill  (Gimariamim,  p.  9) ;  "  The  creed  which  accrpu 
as  the  foundation  of  morals  uillity,  or  the  greatot  hap- 
piness principle,  hi>lda  that  actions  are  right  in  pii>pw- 
tioo  as  they  rend  lo  promote  happiness,  wrong  ai  ibty 
tend  to  produce  the  reverse  of  happineta.  By  han*- 
neaa  ia  intended  pleasure  and  the  absence  of  pain ;  k 
unhappineie,  pain  and  the  privation  of  pleasure.*  Tlit 
fundamental  objection  to  the  doctrine  is  thus  staltd  lij 
Dr.  Reid  {Aclict  Fowart,  essay  v,  ch.  v)  i  "AgtHaUe- 
ness  and  utility  are  not  monl  conceptimit,  not  hire 
they  any  connection  with  morality.  Whit  a  ohb 
does,  merelv  because  it  is  agreeable,  is  not  virlae.' 
See  Fleming  and  Krauth,  Varab.  of  rhiU.  s.  v. 

UtInO,  LKONAHtio  DA,  an  Italian  Dominican,  lector 
of  a  gymnasium  at  Bologna,  chaplain  to  Eugene  IT, 
and  provincial  of  hit  order  for  Lombardy,  Aourislitd  b 

and  two  treatises—^  Ijocit  Comminabii$  Frtrdimienm 
and  De  /.tffibai.  See  Uosheim,  Chard  BiMt.  bk.  iil. 
cent.xv,pt.ii,ch.ii, 

UtraqniaU,  a  name  at  first  given  to  all  ihox 
members  of  the  Western  Church  in  the  I4ib  centoiT 
who  contended  for  the  administnilion  of  the  euchuiti 
10  the  laity  nb  ulragae  tpedt,  i.  e.  in  both  kinds.  Tkf 
name  was  applied  especially  to  the  Calixltnea  (i).t.) 
in  the  l&th  centuiy.  See  Fiaber,  Uitt.  of  ilu  Btf. 
p.  17S  sq.  See  Tabobiteb. 

Utreoht,  Peacte  t>F,  Utrecht  is  a  dtj  o(  ibc 
Netherlands^  capital  of  Ihe  province  of  the  bshh  oani^ 
and  noted  fur  tlie  treaties  which  wen  signed  therein 
dose  the  War  of  t  he  Spanish  Succession.  The  pielioi- 
nary  terma  of  the  iieaiy  beiweeo  Great  Britain  md 
Fiance  were  signed  Oct.  8,  1711.  A  congmt  wt* 
opened  at  Utrecht  Jan.  12,  1712.  Arrangetnenis  be- 
tween the  two  powers  were  completed  in  August  of  tb« 
same  year.  Agreement  waa  alsu  nached  with  HoUisd, 
Portugal,  PmsMa,  and  Savoy  soon  afterwards.  Esch 
of  the  contracting  parties  treated  in  its  own  name,  iml 
hence  there  wore  aa  many  as  nine  different  iniiin 
aigned  April  11,  1713.  Hiny  cfaingea  were  made  in 
the  possession!  of  the  powers  named,  and  Praiettautiui 
made  aiibetantial  gain  on  Ihe  coniineiit  ofEunipt. 

nttlSi  in  Chaldsun  mythology,  is  the  generic  Dane 
of  the  inferior  and  malevolent  spirits  properly  ealld 
dsmons.  They  are  said  lo  inhabit  ihe  desert  aadi* 
cause  diseases  of  the  forehead.  See  Lenonnant,  Oof- 
Hnan  Magic,  p.  24  sq. 

Uhb,  in  Egyptian  mytholog}-,  ia  the  name  of  Oa 
bark  or  vessel  in  which  the  image  of  the  deliy  Ri  (llw 
sun)  was  carried  by  the  prieala.  See  tjCnomiaDt,  Chii- 
liaan  .Vi<^,  p.  83. 

fwienon,  CoiniciL  of  (Conci'iiim  Ummtti/ny, 
was  held  in  1B76,  under  Jaroalav,  archbighnp  ol 
Giiesen.  Several  aUiulea  were  drawn  up  fur  ikt 
reformation  of  ecclesiastical  diacipline,  and  a  aBb- 
idy  granted  by  Ihe  clergy  towanb  the  eipcnas  it 
he  war  against  the  Tui^La.  See  Uanii,  CoKaL  li, 
2043. 

UrteobOKaart  {  Uflatiogard,  llynaiqjTon/), 
A!is,aiie  of  the  mosl  prominent  and  inliuenlial  ad- 
herents of  .^rminins,  after  Ihe  death  of  Ihat  tcholsi  t 
leader  of  Ihe  Remnnslrants — an  independent  and  eatnesi 

'  'et  a  moderate  and  eonsideiate  man,  eveiywhtit 
aiiiiug  a  lirm  and  upright  character,  and  incts- 


•uilly  engaged  In  pttmoting  peace  Bmong  the  parties 
of  Praieetanttnn — wu  reEarrted  M  Ihe  sbleM  anil  i 
disliiigaiihed  preacher  of  hi«  time  among  the  Kei 

tb«  application  of  Kholistic  forma,  and  to  base  hie 
codrra  directly  on  the  Scriptures     He  was  bor 
Utrecht  in  IS&7,  aludied  at  Geneva  under  Beza,  ani 
came  paunr  in  hia  native  town  in  1684.     From  this 
post  be  waa  di«miseed  in  1589,  bccHii>e  of  the  moderate 
riene  be  held  reapecting  tbe  already  controverted  doc' 
trine  of  prednlinatian.     in  1590  he  waa  called  to  thi 
Kajtue,  where  he  hecaioe  chaplain  to  the  court  or  thi 
prince   ur  Orange  and  tutor  to  bis  Bon,  and  acquire! 

ins  in  petitioning  the  StatcA-General  to  convoke  a  synod 
at  which   they  might   defend   their  party  and  ' 
against  the  chafes  cnntinually  urged  against  the 


i>  Ihe  . 


:oflh 


Diieil  without  any  relaxation 
of  iu  bitiemess.  Uytenbogaert  carried  himself  with 
dignity  thnuiglinuU  He  delivered  an  address  before 
tbe  Suites,  in  which  he  sec  before  them  the  rights  and 
dntieathey  were  buund  to  observe.  He  showeil  tlie  in- 
admuibility  of  compulsory  uipport  of  a  symbol,  demon-. 
strated  that  theclergy  iiseif  had  uccationed  the  tmuUlcs 

principle  of  Che  independence  of  the  apirilusl  p 
He  demanded  chat  the  States  should  examine  Che  quea- 
tions  in  dispute  Ihemselvea  and  bring  them  to  a  conclu- 
aion;  that  in  the  event  of  a  synod  being  convened  no 
drcisions  shuuM  be  reached  before  the  oppoung  pnrty 
should  have  had  opportunity  to  be  beard;  and, finally, 
that  if  fraternity  between  factions  could  not  be  attained, 
mutual  tatenuion  at  least  should  be  insured.  After  Ihe 
death  ufAmiiuius,  in  m09,Uytenbogaert  was  associated 
with  Episcpiua  in  the  leadership  of  his  party  and  in 
the  Rtmoiuriuace  through  which  they  presented  their 
doctrinal  syMem  to  the  view  of  the  Slates  of  Holland 
and  West  Frleiland  (lElO).  He  accompanied  an  em- 
bassy en  Paris  as  ils  chaplain  about  this  lime,  and  in 
Ihe  fuliuwing  year  participated  with  E]HSCopius  and 
uihen  in  ■  inllaquy  with  their  oppoticnts  at  Ihe  Hague 
in  the  rain  hope  of  securing  peace.  In  1616,  Henry 
Knaeos  entered  legal  complaint  against  him  on  account 
>if  ■  particular^ exposition  given  by  him  of  the  five 
P'ints  of  the  Rtnuxutrmet.  In  1619  he  presided  over 
>  KeuMHistranl  synod  at  Walwyck,  which  fact  intensi- 
fied the  hostility  to  which  he  was  exposed.  He  there- 
upon relireil  to  Antwerp  until  tSii,  during  which  time 
•encencB  of  banishment  and  conBscalion  of  property  wai 
pronounced  against  him,  and  afterwards  to  Rouen,  ii 
trance,  [n  I6*.K  he  came  back  to  Kotlerdam  and  lived 
in  secrecy,  endeavoring  to  secnre  a  revocal  of  his  sen- 
tence anil  siding  with  counsel  and  act  in  the  meaauref 
of  his  party.  His  goods  were  restored  to  him  in  1629. 
and  in  1B<!1  he  was  |>ern]itt«d  to  be  present  during  pub- 
lic worship  at  tbe  Hague.  He  was  even  allowed  tg 
preach  ■  few  limes.  b<it  his  enemies  succeeded  in  com- 
pcUing  him  In  flnally  deusC  from  exercising  the  func- 
tions of  the  ministi)-.  Ue  died  Sept.  H,  lOH.  Hii 
writings  are  chicfiv  in  the  Dutch  language.  Among 
them  are  ■  Ciurek  lliiloiy  (Uotlerdam,  164G):  — a 
Itestise  /*e  Aaclorilalt  Mogul iii<xit  in  Rtbai  A'ccla. 
(ibiiL  1617):— and  a  translation  of  tbe  Con/atio  tin 
thdaralio  ScRlmtia  Patloram.  See  Schri^ckh.aKu/. 
Kirtkaigeich.  til  d.  Rf/ana.  (Leips.  IBtW;),  v,  226-276, 
and  the  literature  Ihere  given;  also  t iieseler, ATiVcilm- 
grxk.  (Bonn,  I8i2),  iii,  21,  38;  Herzog,  Rtat-KneDldop. 

TTytbaiie,  Coksad  Conmus,  a  Dutch  acholar  of 
the  I7ch  wntury,  is  Ibe  author  of  lipsn  -nlia,  Recda- 
tio  PmcUitioiai  list  DiMiertalio  de  Antiquorum  line 
Piaclu  Irgrndi  Ratixme  deque  Vaxdiam  Novitair 
(Ugd.  B«L  I68fl) ;— niTipS  ^ia  n^^P,  De  l-ecHone 
Scr^iliira  S.  Scriploramgue  AnUtnarum  absque  Punelit 


7  UZ 

(ibid.  1680)  —A  nifieiam  hvaHgiaid.  RaM.  Heir,  fire- 
viti.  Fraeeptit  Comprthtmum  Extmptitjue  IU«irrul\tm 
rt  Connlium  de  Sludio  Rabb.,etc.  (ibid.  1682):— .4Mt/- 
cium  CttfptMcendarum  Radiatni  Hebr,  in  Xomiaibut  teu 
DeHcaiia  AbtoliUit  (ibid,  cod.): — Erplicaiio  B.  Mont 
Maimanidii  luptr  Falrum,  i.  Stniorun  Jadaor,  Sen- 
tenliat  complect.  Vlll  Capita,  tibi  Praclara  Malta, 
cum  ill  T^losia  litm  PhUotophia  dodietimt  Expti- 
cantur  (ibid.  I6B3).  All  these  writings  ore  now  very 
scarce.  See  Fllrst,  BOI.  Jud.  iii,  466;  SCeioschncider, 
Bibiiog.nandb.s.\.\  Muller,  ^tOfl  n^a,or  C<Ha%u« 
nf  Ni^reiB  and  Jeieuh  Wo<-k$  (Amsc  1»68),  p.  323. 
(RP.) 

TTe  (Hcb.  C/'w,y>l7,uiii0(&d),the  name  of  three  men, 
and  also  of  a  region. 

1.  (Sept.  OiS;  v.  r.  "Oc,  Vulg.  Vi  or  ffi».>  First 
named  of  the  four  eons  of  Aram  (Gen.  x,  23),  and  grand- 
son ofShem  (I  Chron.  i,  17,  where  the  lineage  la  con- 
densed),    aC.  post  2500. 

2.  (Sept.  or<,Vulg.  Ilua,  A.  V.  "  Hut")  Tbe  oldeM 
of  the  eight  sons  of  Nahor  hy  Mitcab  (Gen.  xsii,  21). 
B.C  cir.  20OO. 

3.  (Sepu  'Qe,  Vnlg.  Iliu.')  First  named  of  the  two 
■nnBOfDisbanthe  Horite  chieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi,  28;  1 
Chron.  i,  12).     aC  post  1950, 

4.  Thk  Lasd  op  Uz  was  the  counlrr  in  which  Job 
Hved  (Johl,  1;  Sept.  AMrinc.  Vulg. //«().  Aa  the  ge- 
nealogical stalemenia  of  Che  Ikwk  of  Genesis  are  un. 
doubledly  eChnokigical,  and  in  many  instances  also  geo- 
graphical, it  may  fairly  be  eurmiaed  that  the  coincidence 

■     ■'       '  -  accidentaljbntpoinw 


le  Shemi 


on  firmed  by  the 


pnchee.    For  in. 


a  certain  locality.  This 
circumeUnce  that  otbi 
covered  between  the  ea 
1  and  '2  have  in  common  the  names  Aram  (comp.  Gen, 
x,S3;  xxii,  21)  and  Mascbab  as  a  geographical  desig- 
nation in  connection  with  Ihe  former  (1  Chron.  xix.  6), 
and  a  personal  one  in  connection  with  the  latier  (Gen. 
xxii,  24).  Nos.  2  and  4  have  in  common  the  names 
Buz  and  Buiite  (ver.  21;  Job  xxxii,  2),  Chesetl  and 
Chasdim  (Gen.  »ii,  22 ;  Job  i,  IT,  A.  V.  ■'  Chaldeans"), 
Shuah,  a  nephew  of  Nahor,  and  Shuhite  (Gen.  xxv,  2; 
Job  ii,  II).  and  Sedem,  as  the  country  whither  Abra- 
ham sent  Shuah,  together  with  his  ucber  children  by 
Kelurah,  and  also  as  the  counlty  where  Job  livett  (Gen. 
xxv,  6;  Job  i,3),  Kos.8  and  4,  again,  have  in  common 
Kliphaz  (Gen.  xxxvi,  10;  Job  ii,  11),  and  Teman  and 
Ten;«nite  (Gen.  xxxvi,  II ;  Job  ii,  1 1).  The  ethnolog- 
ical fact  cmbodieit  in  the  above  coincidences  of  names 
appears  to  be  as  follows:  Certain  branches  of  the  Ara- 
maic family,  being  both  more  ancient  and  occupying  a 
more  nortlieriy  position  than  the  others,  coalesced  with 
branches  of  the  later  Abrahamids,  holding  a  somewhat 
central  position  in  Mesopotamia  and  I'alescine,  and  again 
with  branches  of  the  still  laler  Edomites  of  the  south, 
after  they  had  become  a  distinct  race  from  the  Abra- 
hamids. This  conclusion  would  receive  confirmation 
if  Ihe  geograpbicat  position  of  Uz,  as  described  in  the 
hook  r^  Job,  harmonized  with  the  probabilitr  of  euch 
an  atnalgamation.  As  far  as  we  can  gather,  it  lay  either 
east  or  south-east  of  Palestine  (Job  i,3)  [see  Bkse-Ke- 
i>em]  :  adjacent  to  the  Saboans  and  the  Chaldeans  (Job 

bians,  and  westward  of  the  Euphrates ;  ami,  lastly,  ad- 
jacent 10  the  Edomites  or  Mount  Seir,  who  at  one  pe- 
riod occupied  Uz,  probably  as  conquerors  (Lam.  iv,  21), 
and  whose  troglodytic  habits  are  probably  described  in 
Job  XXX, 6.  T.  Thepoaitionof  [he  country  may  further 
be  deduced  from  the  native  lands  of  Job's  friends,  Eli- 
phaz  Ihe  Teminile  being  an  Idunuesn.  Elihu  Ihe  Buiice 
being  probablv  a  neighbor  of  Ihe  Chaldieans,  for  Buz 
and  Chesed  were  brothers  (Gen.  xxii, 21. 22),  and  Bildad 
the  Shuhite  being  one  nf  the  Bene-Kedem.  Whether 
Zopharlhc  Naamathite  is  10  be  connected  with  Naamah 
>  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  XV,  4t)  may  be  regarded  ai 


UZA  61 

pToblerDBticol :  ir  he  weie,  tlie  cunclusion  would  be  fur- 
thcr  ealablishcil.  From  ihc  »bove  daU  we  inter  thst 
the  litiJ  af  LTz  corTe>i[>oiiil>  to  the  Arabia  Dtttria  <ir 
clusaiul  geographv,  il  ullevenla  to  au  iniich  of  it  u  lies 
north  of  tlie  30th  jisrsllel  o(  latitude,  lliii  diBtrict  h» 
in  all  ages  been  occupied  by  nomadic  tribea,  wbu  nini 
from  the  bordcn  uF  TalMtine  to  the  Euphraiei,  and 
norlbwsrd  to  the  cnntliiea  of  Svria.    See  Job. 

"  The  land  of  Uz"  ia  mentioned  onlj'  in  two  other  pas- 
■ageB  of  Scripture.  Jeremiah  in  one  pauage  (xm',  30; 
Sept.  OEI.Vu's-  ^  t"*")  group  it  with  Egypt,  Philiaia, 
Edom,  Mid  Uoab;  and  in  anuther  he  appears  either  In 
identify  it  with  a  portion  of  Edom,  or  to  affirm  that 
■ome  of  the  EdamiteB  in  hi«  days  iiihsbiwd  Uz  (Lam. 
iv,31;  OK.Hat).  Tbeae  various  italementa  show  thai 
Ux  waa  closely  coiinccled  with  Edom,  and  Ihua  in  gen- 
eral corroborate  the  almve  piisi 


Josephi 


It  Uz  fuui 


Trachonitis  and  Damascus  (/lii/.  i,  6,  i).  The  former 
province  lies  in  Bashaii,  and  extends  as  far  south  as 
Bostra.  It  may  hare  furmed  part  uf  the  land  of  Uz. 
Jerome  appears  to  identify  Uz  with  Damascus  and 
Trachunitis,  following  Josephua  IQuat.  in  Gtn.  x,  ib; 
comp.  OnoBKUl.  B.  v. "  Uz").  Bochatt  makca  an  leas  than 
three  places  of  this  name:  1.  The  CAuTuA  of  Damiscua, 
confounding  the  Arabic  Gkulah  with  the  Heb.  ^17, 
words  which  are  altiigether  dissimilar;  1.  The  region 
of  A  uiHit,  named  from  Uz,  the  aon  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii, 
SI):  S.  UjofEdom.lhebuidoflliepatriarcliJobtOywm, 
i,(jO).  Thereseema  to  be  no  eulScicr.t  authority  for  this 
threefold  division.  The  general  opinion  of  Uiblicai  ge- 
of^raphers  and  critics  locates  "  the  land  of  Uz"  somewhere 
in  A  rabia  Prlrmi.  Whether  the  name  of  Uz  sur< 
to  classical  limes  is  uncertain ;  a  tribe  named  /t'tila 
(A.'airni)  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (v,  19,  S);  this  Bo- 
chart  identifles  with  the  Uz  of  Scripture  by  all 
the  reading  into  AinjiTm  (Fhaltg,  \i,  S) ;  but]  with  the 
exception  of  the  rendering  in  the  Sept.  (Jv  y^pf  r|i 
Ai'mnlt,  Job  i,  I ;  comp.  xxxii,  2),  there  is  nothing  lu 
juetify  such  a  chaiif^.  (iesenius  [Thttaar.  p.  1003)  ia 
eatisHed  with  the  form  ^Esitn  aa  sufficiently  correspond- 
ing to  Uz,  without  any  auch  change;  as  alw  Winer 
(Itrala,  a.  v.)  and  most  others.  See  Spanhetm,  Uiil. 
Jobi,  iv,  10  tti-:  Budilei  HiM.V.  7.  i,  370;  Carpzov,/!!- 
Irod.  ii,  43;  MlUler,  Dt  Terra  J.Ai,  in  the  Tht,.  Vel.  Tm. 
i,  640 ;  Fries,  in  the  Slail.  a.  Kiil.  lUbi,  vuL  ii ;  and  the 
comuiputaiies  on  Job.    See  Arabia. 

Usa,  in  Oriental  mythology,  ivaa  an  idol  of  the  an- 
cient Arnl>iaiis  which  Slohammed  destroyed,  ordering; 
iU  priests  lo  be  strangled. 

U'zal  [moat  U'lot)  (Heb.  Piuy',  ^JlSt,  ili-ong;  Sept. 
EiCof  V.  T.  Eii,  Vnlj;.  Oii),  the  father  of  Pdal,  which 
latter  was  one  of  those  who  aided  in  the  reconatructinii 
le  Captivity  (Nek  iii, 


36).    EC  ai 


:  44C, 


U'sal  (Heb.  t'snC,  itJX,  perhaps  tfxiralt;  Sept. 
Aili,\  and  .iwii-,  V.  r.  Ai^rjX  and  Ai'oqX;  Vulg.  t'ai 
and  llttZitl),  llie  sixth  nameil  of  (he  thirteen  sons  ol 
uolitan  among  the  descendants  of  Shem  (Gen.  x,  27 
I  Chmn.  i.  31).     aC  post  3400.    See  Joktan. 

Abraham  Zaknth,  a  learned  Jewish  »riter,  stales  Iha 
S.mtia.  the  meirc^lia  of  Yemen,  ia  by  the  Jews  called 
Vial  (Uochart,  Opera,i.  114);  and  in  the  A'umii), .4 
(ur  Uzal)  is  said  to  be  the  ancient  name  of  Sanaa  (G 
us,  l,ti.  A  rtA.  B.  v.).  This  was  still  furllier  contirmetl 
by  Niebnhr.who  lieard,when  Iravelli 
same  afatement  made  br  Mohammedan  natives  (^De- 
icriplum  lie  rArabif,  iii,  362).  It  was  originally  Aifidl 
(Ihit-lvlialtian,  ap.  Caussin,  Euai,  i,  40,  note;  Muraiid, 
s.  V. :  Geaeu.  l.rx.  s.  v. ;  Bunaen,  Bibtlictrk,  etc.).  The 
printed  edition  of  the  Mnrdrid  writes  the  name  Ozdl, 
and  says,  "It  ia  said  that  ita  name  was  Vull;  and  when 


le  Abyai 


ived  at 


ttobebi 


lliful: 


»1  San'i."    The  Hebrew  name  probably  appears 


the  A  uiam  (AGoopo  or  hJiZa/m)  of  Plolemy  {Gmgr. 

,  ~),  and  the  ^luurifu  of  Pliny,  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix, 

celebrated  for  its  mynh  (//iff.  Kal.  xii,  86).     See  Etb- 

Sanaa  is  situated  in  a  mountainous  region  in  the  m. 
Ire  of  Yemen,  about  ISO  miles  from  Aden  anil  lOO  fnm 
the  coast  of  the  Rett  Sea.  its  commanding  poaiiiun.  its 
strong  fortilications,  the  number  of  its  moaquea  and  min- 
arets, and  the  size  of  its  houses  render  it  one  of  the 
most  impouug  cities  in  Arabia.  It  has  a  ciiadel  so  the 
site  of  a  famous  l«mple  called  Bcil.Ghumdaii,  said  to 
have  been  fouiidcil  by  Shurabll,  which  was  roiett  bv  er- 
derofOthman.  It  ia  abumlanlly  watered  by  mouDiain 
streams ;  and  the  gardens,  orchards,  and  Aehls  aronnd  it 
are  said  to  rival  in  luxuriance  and  beauty  the  faawia 
plain  of  Damascua.  In  ihc  town  of  Sanaa  then  an 
silll  some  1&,D00  Jews,  while  in  the  various  paru  of  Vt- 
men  their  numben  ate  suppoaed  lo  amount  to  300,000. 
See  Jtichoelis,  £;nc>'J>^.  ii,  104-175;  ranter,  Giogr.af 
AruUa,  i,  143;  Kitter,  A'r^-uiidr,  xii,  815-840.    See 

Kzekiel,  in  bis  description  of  Tyre,  says,  aa  nndend 
in  the  A.  V. :  "  Dan  and  Javan  going  lo  and  /n>  (Heb. 
Mtuia,  blSK^ ;  Sept.  i£  'AeiiX ;  Vulg.  Homl'),  aoc>i|«d 
in  (by  faira;  blight  iron,  cassia,  aiut  calamua  were  in 
thy  iDarket"  (xxvii,  19).  The  structure  of  the  paaasec 
unquestionably  favors  the  translalion,  '^  Dan,  and  Jaran 
of  Ucal  (^TIX^),  conveyed  lo  your  maikeu  wroaglii 
iron,  cassia,"  etc  'lliere  can  be  little  doubl,  thetefuie. 
that  the  prophet  alludes  to  the  great  citj'  orVenen.iiir 
neighborhood  of  which  ia  known  lo  have  been  fannd 
fur  its  spices  and  perTnniea.  This  ^-iew  is  Btreii(;ihtii>d 
by  the  fact  that  Javan  occurs  in  ihe  Ktimit.  and  i*  4iu 
lo  be  a  town  of  Yemeiu  The  expression  Javan  ofL'tai 
is  thus  appropriate,  for  the  latter  was  Ihe  name  of  ibe 
capiialandof  a  district  connected  wiih  it.  The  nson 
Dedan,  Arabia,  Kedar.and  Shein,  following  immediil*- 
ly  in  the  prophetic  narrative,  indicate  the  counirv  to 
which  the  eve  of  the  tacred  writer  was  directed.  S« 
Javan. 

CTz'sa  (Heb.  Utta',  JWT,  uragth),  the  nane  of 
three  Hebrews.    See  also  Uzzak. 

1.  (SepL  "AM;  Vulg.  Oia.)  First  named  of  the  twe 
sons  of  Ehud  the  Bcnjamite,  boni  to  Lira  after  Ibe  re- 
moval of  his  former  children  (1  Chron.  viii,  7),  B.C 
ante  IG13.    See  Siiaiiarain. 

2.  {Sepl.'Of^;  Tulg./lia.)  Apparently  the  pTDjiri- 
etor  of  a  garden  in  which  Manasseh  and  Amon  khc 
buried  (2  Kings  xxj,  18,  36).     B.C  ante  642.     See  bc- 


lon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,49;  Neh.  vii,6l).  RC 
ante  536. 

UZZA,  The  GarDkx  of  (Heb.  />an  Ua&.  VXi  1>: 
Sept.cqa'DC  '0£n;  Vulg.  Aorrai  ,4»0i  Ihe  spot  iuwbi^ 
Maiusieh,  king  of  Judah,  and  bis  sun  Amon,  were  bmh 
buried  (3  Kin!,'s  xii,  IB,  30).  It  was  the  garden  atlach- 
ed  to  Manasaeb's  palace  (ver.  IH;  3  Chron.  sxxiii,  ^), 
and  therefore  presumably  was  in  Jerusalem-  The  foci 
of  its  mention  shows  that  it  was  not  where  the  nsoil 
sepnlchres  of  the  kings  were.  Jmephus  {Ant.  x,  S,  1) 
simply  reiterates  the  statement  of  ilie  Itible.  It  b  ia- 
geniously  suggested  byComelins^Lapide  that  thef^ii^ 
den  was  so  called  from  being  on  the  spot  at  which  I'l- 
zah  died  during  Ihe  reimval  of  the  ark  from  Kiijaili- 
Jearim  lo  Jenaalem,  and  which  ia  known  lo  have  re- 
tained hia  name  fur  long  after  the  event  C  Sam,  vi,  8). 
See  OnKD-Em»i.  't'he  scene  of  Uizah's  death  was  it- 
self a  threahlng-tlaor  (ver.  6),  and  the  change  of  tbe 
word  from  Ihis,  ^rn,  *^S,  into  gta,  '^,  garden,  wmld 
not  be  difficult  or  improbable. 

Bunaen  (BiUlirerk,  nole  on  2  Kings  xii,  18),  mi  Iht 
strength  of  the  mention  of  "palaces"  in  the  aame  pais- 
grapb  with  Qphel  (A.V.  "forta")  in  a  denunciatiuu  it 


It  tbls  « 


>  tb>t  >  palace  waa  ailuatcd 
at  thg  TddC  of  tbe  Temple 
in  all  prababUily  the  palace 

t  ol  Ibe  Garden  uf  Uazah] 


of  Manasseh  and  the 

Us'sah  (Heb.  Uaak',  ms,  tIrmgA,  I  q.  Uaa, 
iiihich  in  afewpaaugea  Mand>iiiMc*il  ofit;  Sepu '0«a 
[and  BO  JoHphni]  r.r. 'A^a;  Tulg.  O&i),  the  name  of 

1.  AHerariteLeTilf,aoii  of  Shinei  (q.  t.)  anil  fiillier 
of  Shimea  (1  Chron.  vl,S9  [HebL  14];  A.V."Uiia"). 
BCantellMS.  For  a  TefuUiion  ofionifl  arUtrary  hr- 
polhean  of  inleqireleni  ou  tbia  genealogy,  aee  Keil  ad 


[if  Abinadab,  in  whose  hoiue  at 
mixd  for  tweniT  yean.     In  2 
in  the  ll^b. 


2.  One  of  tbe 
Kirjalh-Jearim  th 

Sani.(Ti,3  inllieA.v.;  anil  inverse* 
abo)  be  i«  invariably  called  "Uzzahi 
(Kiii.7,  9,  IDatinTBriablyUua."  The  eldest  son  or 
Abinulab  (I  Sam.  vii,  1)  seems  to  hare  been  Eleaiar, 
who  was  conaeeraleil  to  look  after  tbe  ark.  Uuah, 
probably,  was  tbe  Koond,  and  Ahio  (q.  r.)  the  cbird. 
Tbe  Utter  two  accompanied  iu  removal  when  Daind 
Eint  undertooli  to  carry  it  to  Jerusalem.  D.C  104S. 
Ahio  apparently  went  before  the  cart — the  new  can 
(I  Cbrun.  xiii,  7)  — on  which  the  ark  was  placed,  and 
linab  walked  by  ila  side.  The  procearion,  with  all 
manner  of  muuc,  advanced  as  far  as  a  spot  variously 
called  "the  ihreshinfi-rtoor"  (ver,  9);  "the  thtvshing- 
floor  of  Chidon"  (ibid.);  -Ibe  Ihresbing-Soor  of  Na- 
rhnn-(2  Sam.vi,  6,  Sepl."Nachor").  At  this  point— 
perbapa  slipping  over  the  amoulbrock — the  oxen  (Sept. 
"the  calf")  Blambled  (Sep^  "ovenumed  Ibe  ark"). 
Uizah  caught  it  to  piet-ent  iU  falling.  He  died  imnie- 
diatcly  by  the  side  of  the  ark.    His  death,  by  wbalevvr 

that,  in  the  aacred  language  of  the  Old  Test.,  it  is  as- 
cribed direcily  to  the  divine  aiiRcr.  "Tlie  anger  of  tbe 
Lord  was  kindled  againit  Uzzab,  and  God  siDole  bim 
there."  "Forhisern>r."bcn~^S,addithe  Hebrew  text, 
"because  he  put  his  hand  to  tbeatk''(l  Chron.  xiii,  10). 
Jinephus  (Anl.  vii,  4, 2)  make!  the  lin  to  be  because  lie 
louched  the  ark  not  being  a  priest  (see  belnw).  Dut 
the  narrative  se^nis  to  imply  that  there  was  a  tough, 
hasty  handling  of  the  sacred  coffer.  The  event  pro- 
duceil  a  deep  sensatiim.  David,  with  a  mixture  of  awe 
and  trsentment.  was  afraid  to  carry  the  ark  farther;  and 
the  place,  apparently  changing  ilt  ancient  name  [nee 
Uma,  (i.«niiKS  op],  waa  henceforth  calknl  "  I'crei-Ui- 
lah'  (q.  v.).  the  "breaking"  or  "diaaster"  of  L'ziah  (2 
Sam.vi.S;  1  Chron. xiii,  11).    Fiee  Davit). 

Josephusdiatinctlvsavathst  t'izah  wasofaLeviii- 
cal  faaiity  (/Inf.  vi,  1,4).  It  was  because  Abinadab.  his 
father,  was  ■  Lerite,  no  doubt,  that  the  ark  was  taken 
into  hia  house  at  Kirjath-jearim,  as  it  was  aHerwanb 

same  reason.  Nor  can  it  be  veri-  well  understood  how, 
if  .Atnnadab  was  not  a  Levite,  his  son  Eleazar  should 
have  been  consecrated  to  take  charge  of  the  ark(l  Sam. 
vii,  2).  It  is  ponible  thai  Abinailab  (Sept.  'AfuvaXaff, 
Jcwphus, 'AfiifaJa/JDC)  was  the  same  as  .4  ninina<lu&, 
spoken  of  in  I  Chron.  xv,  10  as  one  of  tbe  chiefs  of  the 
Lerites  appointed  by  David  lo  bring  up  the  ark  from 
tbe  house  orObed.edom  to  .lerusalem.  It  ia  most  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  tbe  person  who  had  entertained 
the  ark  at  Kitjath-jearim  alwuld  have  the  honor  of  at- 
tending ila  coming-up  aflerwards  from  the  houae  of 
Obed-eilom  to  Jenualcin;  and  Amminadab  was  a  son 
of  Uuiel,  anil  therefore  of  the  family  of  Kobath.  who 
were  the  peTHviis  appinnied  Iu  bear  the  ark  (vi,  IS; 
Numb,  ir,  15).  Bui  they  were  forbidden  to  touch  Ihc 
ark.  It  was  only  a  priest  of  Aaron's  family,  i.  e.  of  the 
nigb-prieii's  familr,  that  was  allowed 


15).     The  ai 


of  Uil 


9  UZZLA 

the  miniatry,  but,  if  an  irregularity  at  all  in  Ibis  n- 
spect,  the  sin  of  those  who,  being  minislera,  dure  to  ar- 
rogate to  themselves  powers  and  prerogatives  which  be- 
long only  to  higher  officers.— Fairbairn.  The  whole 
proceeding  waa  very  disorderly,  and  contrary  to  the 
distinct  and  far  from  unmeaning  regulations  of  the  law, 
which  prescribed  that  the  ark  should  be  carried  on  tbe 
sbouldera  of  the  Lcvitcs  (Exod.  XXV,  14),  whereas  here 
it  waa  conveyed  iu  a  cart  drawn  by  oxen.  The  ark 
ought  to  have  been  enveloped  in  its  coverings,  and  thus 
wholly  conceatsd  before  (he  Levites  approached  it;  but 
it  dues  nut  appear  that  any  priest  look  part  in  the  mat- 
ter, and  it  would  seem  as  if  tbe  aric  was  brought  forth, 

which  it  had  been  brought  back  bv  the  Philistines  (1 
Sam.  vi,  13-19).     Il  was  the  duty  of  Uzzab,  as  a  Levite, 

10  have  been  acquainted  with  the  proper  course  of  pro- 
ceeding; he  waa  therefore  the  person  justly  accountable 
for  tbe  negleci,  and  the  judgment  upon  him  seems  lo 

lion  to  Ibe  proper  course  of  proceeding,  and  of  checking 
the  growing  diapositiun  tii  treat  Ibe  holy  mysteries  with 
undue  familiarity.  That  it  bad  this  effect  ia  expressly 
stated  in  1  Chron.  xv,  2, 13     See  Abe. 

Us'sAH-slie'tati  (Heb.  l/iun'  Sheliah',  -,;x 
n^Stl^,  tar  [i.  e.  point]  o/  ShtroA;  Sept.  uioi  'OUv  . 
Stnpa:  'Vulg.O»iiKra).a  place  in  the  vicinity  of  Iteth- 
horon,  fouiMled  or  rebuilt  by  Sherah  (q.  v.),  an  Ephraim- 
itesa  (I  Chmn.  vii,  24).  T'be  name  appears  to  indicate 
some  salient  feature  of  the  surface  or  poailioii.  It  baa 
been  thought  to  correspand  with  tbe  present  Btit  Siro, 
which  is  shown  in  tbe  mapa  of  Van  de  Velde  and  Tob- 
ler  as  on  the  north  side  of  the  VVady  Suleiman,  about 
three  miles  soutb-weM  of  Beitiir  et-Tahta.  It  is  n>en- 
tioned  by  Kobinsoii  (in  the  lists  in  Appendix  to  vol.  ill 
of  Bin.  Ra.  [lat  ed.],  p.  120),  and  also  bv  Tobler  {Driltt 
Waadfrmg.  )>.  IBS).  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  tbe 
boundary  of  Rphmim  ever  extendetl  so  far  south,  and 
hence  perhaps  we  shouhl  prefer  Brit  Siroh,  a  village 
with  two  founlaiiiB  in  Wady  Budrus,  two  and  a  half 
miles  east  of  Ikitflrel-Fohka;  or  if  both  these  ideiitiO- 
caiions  fail,  possibly  tlie  itwilem  village  Sajjii,  in  Wady 
Budrus,  about  one  mile  north-west  of  IkitQr  et-Tahia 
(  Kobiuson,  BiU.  Uti.  ii,  2o0), 

Ca'al  (Ueh.  Uui',  '^7,  tinmg  [or  my  ilnaglh,  or 
contr.  for  Uaiah];  Sepll ''oji,  with  occasioiud  v.  rr.; 
Vulg.  Ozt  or  ylzzj).  the  name  of  six  Hebrews. 

1.  First  named  of  (he  «x  sons  of  Tola  son  of  Issachar 
(I  Chron.  vii,  3),  and  father  of  Ave  sona  wbu  became 
military  chiefs  (ver.  8).    EC.  post  1874. 

3.  Second  nsmeil  of  the  five  sons  of  Bela  son  of  Ben- 
jamin, and,  like  the  preceding  one,  chief  warrior  (I 
Chron.  vii,  7).     aC.  post  1874. 

3.  A  bigb-prieat,5aD  of  Bukki  and  father  of  Zerahiab 
(1  Chron.  vi,  5,  6,  ftl;  Ezra  vii,  4),  ac.  eir.  1400. 
Josephus  in  one  passage  {Ant.  r,  II,  S)  gives  his  name 
and  position  correctly  ('Ojlic,  Oiit);  but  in  anuther 
(.Inf.  viit,  t,  3)  he  call*  either  bim  or  bis  son  Joalhaa) 
('IwoJo^oi'). 

4.  -Son  of  Michri  and  father  of  Elah  among  tbe  an- 
cestors of  a  Beiijamile  family  in  Jerusalem  after  tbe 
Exik  (1  Chron.  ix,  8).     K.C.  ante  536. 

5.  Son  of  Batii.  chief  of  the  Lcvilea  at  Jerusalem  af- 
ter the  Captivity  (Neb.  xi,  23).     aC.  63G. 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  tbe  "  course"  aS  Jedaiah  in  the 
time  of  ihe  high-priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xli,  19).  U.Q 
cir.  MO.  He  was  probably  the  same  with  one  of  the 
prieals  whu  sang  at  tbe  consecration  of  the  new  wall* 
ufJerusalem(ver.42). 

Uzzi'a  (Heb.  fi2i>n'.  RVS,  ptoh.  for  l':iuih 
[q.r.];  Sept.  'Oli'a:  V<ilg.  Oiia),  one  of  David's  aub- 
onlinate  warriors,  called  an  "  Ashteralhite"  (q.  v.),  prob- 
ably as  having  come  from  Ashtaroth  beyond  the  Jordan, 
aa  1043,    See  Davi 


C. 


)OJ^.. 


UZZIAH  ai 

Uszi'ah  (Hvb.  Uzcij/ah',  h*)7,  ilrm/th  nfJthovah 
[but  ill  ibe  prolonged  (•nm  Vitijia'ia,  in^T",  except 
ill  2  Kings  xv,  13,  30;  1  Chrun.  vi,  24;  Eua  x,  31; 
Neb.  li,  4j  Hos.i,  1;  Amoa  i,  1;  Zech.  xlv,  e];  Sept. 
iwuslly  'OCi'oc,  but  with  many  v.  it.;  Vulg.  Otiat  or 
Atiai),  the  aaine  of  flte  Hebtewi.     See  alw  UiziA. 

1.  A  Kohetbite  Utim,  too  of  Uriel  and  father  of 
Shaul  among  Samuel's  anceMon  (I  Cbran.  vi,  SI  [  Heb. 
19]).  EC  cir.  1513.  He  i«  apparently  the  lame  with 
AzARiAil  (q.  V.)  the  9i>n  nfJoel  anJ  falherofZepbouiab 
in  the  parallel  lilt  (ver.SU). 

3.  TbefatberorJehnnatban.DaTidVoveneerorde- 
po^lorie*  in  kind  (1  Ctaroiu  xxvii,  26).    RC.  cir.  1058. 

3.  The  tenth  king  orthe  Mparale  kingdom  of  Judib, 
RC.  gO».766.  Like  No.  I  above,  he  ia  wmelimea  called 
AzARiAii  (t.v.).  nyJoiiephti*{'1>i'.ix,  10,  3  sq.), and 
in  the  New  Teat.  (ilut.  i,  8, 9).  the  name  oceun  in  the 
aame  Greek  form  aa  in  the  Sept.  (.'Oiiat).  The  date 
orthe  beginning  of  Uuiah's  leigii  (2  Kinga  xv,  1)  in 
(he  tweiity-aevenlh  year  orjemboani  II  ii  reconciled 
by  Usher  and  others  with  the  watemeDt  that  Uiiiah'a 
bther,  Amaziah,  whow  whole  reign  was  cwenly-nine 

Joasli  (xiv,  [):  and  by  the  suppoaiiinn  that  Jemboam'i 


nned 


Syrian  war,  B.C  835.    Keil,  after  Capellus 

)r  of  the  Hebrew  copyists  for  i^,  1',  or  U^, 

y-seventh  of  Jeroboam  we  Dugbt 


After  I 


n  by  tl 


th,  foul 

E  murder  ol 


:iah,  his 


1  Usiah  wa 


)  and  for  the  greater  part  of  his  reigo 
offlfty-two  yea™  he  lived  in  thefearof  God,  and  ahow-  , 
ed  himself  a  wise,  active,  and  pious  ruler.  He  began 
hi>  reign  by  a  successful  expedition  against  his  father's 
enemie^  the  Edumiiea,  who  bad  revolted  from  Judah  in 
Jehoram's  Itmccighlv  years  before,  and  penetrated  as 
far  as  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Aksba,  where  he  tAok 
Che  imponaiit  place  of  Elath,  furtilied  it,  and  probality  ' 
esmblished  it  as  a  mart  for  foreign  commerce,  which 
Jehosbspbal  bod  failed  to  do.  This  success  is  recorded 
in  2  Kings  (xh-,  22),  but  from  8  Chron.  (xxvi,  I,  etc.) 
we  kani  much  more.  Uzziah  waged  other  rietorinus 
wars  in  the  South,  especially  against  the  Mehunim 
(if.  v.),  or  people  of  Maiin,aiid  ih|  Arabs  of  UutbaaL  A 
foriilied  town  named  Ma&n  still  exists  in  Arabia  Pe- 
trtea,Eoulbafthe  Dead  Sea.    The  sitiiatiun  ofUurbaal 

able,  see  Ewalri,  6>>c«.  I,  321.)  Such  enemies  would 
hanlly  mninlain  a  long  rnuatance  after  the  defeat  of  so 
Ibmiiilable  a  tribe  as  the  Edomiles.  Towards  the  west, 
Uuiah  fiHiglit  witb  equal  success  against  the  Philis- 
tines, levelled  to  the  ground  the  walls  of  (lat  h,  Jabneh, 
atid  Asbdud.  and  founded  new  fortified  dlie*  in  the 
Philistine  territory.  Nor  was  he  less  vigorous  in  de- 
fensive then  ofTensive  operations.  He  strengthened  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  at  their  weakest  points,  furnished 
them  with  formidable  engines  of  war,  and  equipped  an 
•rmy  of  3O7.M0  men  with  the  best  inventions  of  mili- 
tary art.  He  was  also  a  great  patron  of  agriculture, 
dug  wells,  built  towers  in  the  wilderness  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  tlocka,and  culiivaleil  rich  vineyards  and 

worship  of  the  true  Goil,  and  was  much  influenced  by 
Zechariah,  a  prophet  who  is  only  mentione<l  in  connec- 
tion with  him  ('2  Chron.  xxri,  5) ;  for,  as  he  probably 
died  before  llzziah,  he  is  thought  not  to  have  been  the 
same  as  the  Zechariah  of  Isa.viii, 2.  So  the  southern 
kingdom  was  raised  to  a  condition  of  prosperity  which 
it  had  not  known  since  the  death  of  Solomon ;  and  as 
tbe  power  of  Israel  was  gradually  falling  away  in  the 
latter  period  of  Jehu's  dynasty,  that  of  Juilah  extended 
itself  over  the  Ammonites  anil  Mimbites,  ami  other  tribea 
beyundJordan,fmmwhoinUizinh  exacted  Iribute.  Sec 


0  UZZIEL 

2  Chroo.  XKvi,  S,  and  Isa.  xvi,  l-S,  from  which  it  vonld 
appear  that  the  annual  tribute  of  sheep  (2  Kingtiii,4} 
was  revived  either  during  this  reign  or  soon  after. 

The  end  of  Uctiah  was  less  prosperous  ihan  bit  be- 
ginning. Elated  with  bis  sfdendid  career,  he  deter. 
mined  to  bum  incense  on  the  altar  of  <iod,  Inil  was  op- 
posed by  tlie  high-priest  Aiariah  atid  eighty  othttd 
(See  Exod.xxx,T,  B;  Numb,  xvi,  40;  xriii,T.)  The 
king  was  enrsceil  at  their  reaistance,aiid,as  he  pteSHd 
forward  with  his  censer,  was  suddenly  smitten  with  Icp- 
ros}-,  a  disease  which,  according  to  Uerlach  (od  Jw-^ii 
often  brought  out  by  vicdeuc  exeitement.  In  S  Kiagi 
zv,Sweare  merely  told  that  "Ibe  Lord  nnaw  thtkioe, 
so  that  he  was  a  leper  unto  tbe  day  of  bis  death,  asd 
dweltinaaeveral  house;"  but  his  invarion  of  the  prrHi- 
~      '  ""  '       itastmphe  compelW 


»ide  Ol 


was  administered  till  his  death  by  his  sun  Jotbim  u 
regent.  Uzziah  was  buried  "with  his  fitheTs,"ytI  ip- 
pareiitly  not  actually  in  the  royal  aepukbres  (3  Chtm. 
xxvi,  ^).  During  his  reign  an  earthquake  (q.  >.)««- 
curred,  which,  though  not  mentioned  in  the  bistoriol 
books,  was  apparently  veti-  serious  in  iis  oonseqiMHot 
fur  it  is  alluded  to  as  a  chromdugtcal  epoch  by  Aian 
(i,  1),  and  mentioned  in  Zech.  xiv,  5  as  a  couTiiliiiHi 
from  which  the  people  "  il«l,"  Jiiaephus  (.lul.  ii,!!^ 
4}  connects  it  with  Uzxiab's  aacrilrgtout  attempt  usf- 
fer  incense,  and  this  is  likely,  as  it  agree!  with  otbei 
chronulogical  data.     See  Amos. 

The  first  six  chapters  oflsa  tab's  prophecies  belong  Id 
this  reign,  anil  we  are  told  (2  Chron.  ixvi,  !2)  ihsi  s 
full  account  of  it  was  written  by  thai  prophet.  5<oc 
notices  of  the  state  of  Jndah  at  this  time  msy  ibot* 
obtained  from  the  oontemparary  prophets  Hoses  ml 
Amos,  though  both  of  these  labored  more  panindidy 
in  [srael.  We  gather  from  their  writings  (Hos.ir,  li; 
vi,  11;  Amos  vi,  1),  as  well  as  from  the  early  cbaptin 
of  Isaiah,  ibst  though  the  condiiiun  of  the  scotlKra 
kingdom  was  far  superior,  morally  and  rtlicioui^.'i  '• 
that  of  the  northern,  yet  that  it  was  by  no  meint  (iH 
from  Ibe  vices  which  are  ant  lo  accompany  wealth  wl 
ra  conceives  hrifbl 
<  arise  rraniil;is4 
lo  somelhiBg  bt 


hopes. 


ofth 


higher  tl 


brillianry  of  Uuiab'a 
igh  the  return  of  I  he  Israelites  to  "David  their 
king"  can  only  be  adequately  explained  of  Christ's  kio^ 
dom.yet  the  prophet,  in  contemplating  the  condilisn  iJ 

that  there  God  was  really  honored,  and  liinirorship  vis- 
ibly maintained,  and  that  therefore  with  it  wag  bmad 
up  every  hope  that  his  promises  lo  hia  people  would  ■! 
laat  be  fiilliUed  (Hos.  i,  7 ;  iii,  3).  h  is  to  be  obmnd, 
with  reference  lo  the  general  character  of  lltuihi 
reign,  that  the  writer  of  the  second  book  of  t^nnicla 
distinctly  stales  that  bis  lawless  attempt  to  bum  ioccSK 
was  the  only  exception  to  ihe  excellence  of  his  admit- 
istnilioii  (2  Qiron.  xxvii,  2).    See  Jidaii,  Kisodm 

4.  Son  of  Zechariah  and  father  of  Albaish,  the  l» 
a  descendant  of  Perei  tlie  son  of  Jndah  rcudeni  in  Jt- 
rusalem  after  the  Exile  (Neh.  xi,  4).     B.C  ante  oK 

5.  A  priest  of  the  "sons"  of  Harim  who  tenauand 
his  Gentile  wife  married  afler  the  return  from  Bsb;ka 
(Ezra  It,  21).     aa4B8. 

Uwd'al  [some  Ps'iW]  (Heb.  r« W,  is-*;,  ^ 
Mlr«tglh  is  God,  or  perh.  rimply  ilimglh  o/God=t'taii 
[q.  v.] ;  Sept.  'OtiqX  or  'Otd^X,  with  nme  v.  rr, ;  Vulf 
Olid),  the  name  of  six  Hebrews. 

1.  Third  named  of  the  five  sons  of  Bela  son  of  Bm- 
jaroin,  he^ds  of  valiant  families  (1  Chron.vii,  7).  fl.C 
post  1874. 

2.  Last  named  of  Ihe  four  sons  of  KrAa1h(Eii>d.ri, 
18;  I  Chron.  vi,  2),  also  father  of  four  sons  (Einir, 
22:  1  Chron.  xxiii,  12,  20;  xxiv,  24),  and  iinde  'i 
Aaron  (Lev.  x,  4).     B.C  anta  1658,    "■ 


(S. 


I  ciUtd  MCter  liim  (Numb,  ui,  19,  2Ti  1  Cbron. 
i,  23),  Rliupban  bciii);  tbtir  chUr  in  Mdw»'  time 
'      u,  30),  uid  Aromiiiadnb  in  Dariil's  (1  Chroii. 


a  had 


»i-.  10). 

3.  Third  n»ined  of  the  fimneen  "»oiia''of  Hemin 
■ppoiuied  bv  D«viJ  is  Levilical  mudcUns  (1  Chron. 
xxr,4);  Iheume  with  AzaKeki.  <q.  t.)  the  head  of  the 
elevcnlh  band  ororchutral  perfunnen  (ver.  18]. 

4.  Seeonrt  named  of  the  two  »ons  of  Jeduthun  among 
the  Lerites,  who,  in  tbe  dsyi  of  king  Kezeliiah,  took 
■n  active  part  in  deanaing  and  sanctifying  the  Temple 
after  all  Ihe  puUuCiona  introduced  by  Abax  (2  Chnin. 
nil.  14).     RCTM. 

5.  Last  named  of  tlie  four  "  lonB"  dT  lahi,  Kmeonitiah 
cbieftaina  who,  after  the  BUCceasTul  expedition  of  the 


survived  the  preriaiis  slaughter  of  Saul  and  David,  and 
timk  poiscnioii  of  their  couotrv,  and  dvrelt  there  "  unto 
ihisday"  (I  Chron.  iv,  42).     aC  cir.  712. 

6.  A  "san  of  llashaiah,  of  tbe  goldsmiths,"  who  re- 
paired part  uf  the  walls  of  Jenualem  after  the  Captivity 
(Neh.  iii,  8),    aC.  446. 

Uszl'elltB  (Heb.  Vaidi',  '■^XVS,  with  the  art., 
a  patron}'iDii; ;  Sept.  'O^qX ;  Tulg.  OzidiUs  or  OziktU- 
let),  tbe  family  designation  (Numb,  ill,  S7;  1  Chron. 
xxvi,23)oftlie descendants ofUzziel  (q.v.)  thoLevite. 
I  la  David'a  lime  they  nnmbeted  1 12  adult  males  (kt,  10> 


VacAnt  BbBi  the  territory  under  the  control  of  a ; 
bidiop  which  hia  become  vacant  by  the  death  or  ces- 1 
■ion  of  the  episcopal  head.  In  the  anient  African 
Church  it  was  under  the  control  of  an  inveUor  or  inler- 
eruor  (q.  t.),  who  was  required  to  Bll  tbe  vacancy 
irithio  one  year  or  give  place  to  anotber.  But  by  the 
!5ch  cuion  of  the  General  Council  of  Chalcedon  (q.  v.) 
tbe  mdropolitwi  was  required  to  Oil  tbe  vacatit  see 
■ithin  three  months,  if  posuble,  under  pain  of  ecclesi- 
•itical  cetisure.  It  devolved  upon  the  metropolitans 
(n  care  fur  these  sees  during  tbe  vacancy,  bat  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon  provided  that  the  revenues  should 
be  csred  for  by  the  aamBiain,  or  steward  of  tbe 
Church.     See  Bingham,  Chriit.  Anliq.  bk.  ii,  cb.xi; 

Vacant  Simdaya,  in  liturgical  phrase,  are  the 
four  SunJiya  sAer  Ember  weeks  (q.  v.)  which  have  no 
proper  office,  owing  to  the  protracted  service  of  ordi- 
lulion  on  the  previous  night;  Ihe  Sunday  between 
Chrisunaa  and  Jan.  1,  because  preoccupied  with  an- 
other office ;  and  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Advent,  because 
ihc  pope  gave  himself  to  almcgiving,  ai  on  Vacant  Sat- 
urday, the  day  before  Palm-Sunday. 

VaCKDUTl  (GtMciied  ^naynfioi)  is  a  name  ap- 
plied to  wandering  clergymen,  in  ancient  times,  who 
desen«d  their  own  churches  and  would  Sx  on  no  other, 
but  wandered  about  from  (dace  lo  place.  Such  persons, 
harinj-  rKither  ietura  dismissiry  nor  tetters  commen- 
datory, and  to  be  suspecled  either  a»  deserters  or  as 
peni'ni  guilty  of  some  misdemeanor  who  fled  from  ec- 
cltsiisiial  censure,  were  not  allowed  by  the  tows  of 
the  Church  lo  be  admitted  either  to  ecclesiastical  or 
lay  communion.  So  strict  were  the  laws  of  the  ancient 
Chotch  in  reference  lo  the  inferior  clergy  that  they 
might  not,  upon  any  account,  remove  from  the  Church 
to  which  they  were  first  appointed  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  binhop  who  ordained  them.  See  Bingham, 
C*™t-i*tj.bk.vi,cb.iv.    See  Vaoaktes. 

VaoatlOD,  in  clerical  phrase,  is  the  time  from  the 
death,  resiguatian,  or  removal  in  any  other  way,  of  a 
bishop  or  other  ecclesiastical  offlcer,  until  the  office  is 
filled  by  another  person ;  alio  the  season  of  rest  given 
to  a  minislec  during  some  part  of  tbe  year. 

VACATION  Of  A  Bembkice  is  Ihe  act  of  making 
r.  vicaraee,  or  other  ecclesiasiical  Ijene- 
ts  legal 

VACATION  oir  A  BuKOPBic    See  Vacamt  Skks. 

Yoccaro,  Andrea,  an  Italian  painter  who  van 
bom  at  Naples  in  1598.  He  studied  with  Massimo 
SLaniioni,  after  whose  death  he  was  coiwdered  the 
•blest  artist  of  tbe  Neapolitan  school,  and  was  without 
a  rival  nntil  the  return  of  Luca  Giordano  from  Rome 
with  a  new  style.  In  the  contest  for  the  Urge  altar- 
piece  in  the  new  church  of  Santa  Haria  dei  Pianti,  rep- 
lesentiog  the  Virgin  Ubentiug  Ihe  city  from  pestilence, 


Vaccaro  was  successful.  But  Giordano  soon  carried  all 
before  bim  in  art,  and  Vaccaro,  attempting  to  compete 
with  him  in  fresco,  which  he  had  not  studied  in  hia 
vouth,  lost  his  reputation.  One  of  his  best  worlcs  is  a 
Uofy  Family,  at  Naples.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1670. 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Uiil.  oftht  Fine  A  rls,  s,  v. 

Vaocaro.DomBDico  Antonio,  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor and  architect,  bom  at  Naples  in  1G80.  After  receiv- 
ing a  good  education  he  studied  architecture,  and  aitain- 
ed  considerable  eminence.  His  principal  works  are,  at 
Naples,  tbe  church  called  Di  Monte  Calvino,  tbe  Teatro 
Nuovo,  the  Cboroh  of  San  Micheic  Aicangelo,  and  oth- 
er buildings;  in  other  parts  of  Italy, tbe  Tarcia  Palace, 
at  Purtici ;  the  Church  of  Sau  Giovanni,  at  Capua,  and 
others.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  llul.  of  ihe  Fim  A  >ii, 

Vaooary  (Idi.  racca,  "acow"),  an  old  monastic 
term  for  a  cow-house. 

Vach  (Sanscrit,  lyMfot),  another  name  of  5aiw(iiafi 
(q.  v.),  the  wife,  or  fenule  ene^y,  of  the  HindQ  god 

Vaclia*patl  (Sanscrit,  each,  "speech,"  and  pafi, 
"lord"),  in  Hindfl  mythtdugy,  is  one  of  the  usual  name* 
of  VrUtatpaH  (q.  v.),  the  inatmclor  of  the  gods. 

Vaohory-  b  term  frequently  found  in  monastic  in- 
ventories and  domestic  MSS^dcnoiiiig  a  pen  or  enclos- 
ure for  cowa. 

VaoQna,  in  ancient  Italian  mythology,  was  a  god- 
dess of  agriculture,  who  was  worshipped  sfter  barveat- 
ing  time,  and  was  honored  by  rest. 

Vade-meomn  (Let.  racfc, "go,"  and  fmcusi. "with 
me"),  a  book  of  prayers  which  a  person  carries  with  htm 
as  a  constant  compauion. 

Va«ok,  Alardits,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  the  ITth 
century,  is  the  author  of  Tractalui  dt  Priadpio  Friime 
Theologia  Jemitica: — De  Judict  Conlrortrnaram : — 
Contra  Ponlifiaoi  dt  Rtdueenda  Uaioae  Ecdaiailica. 
See  Jficbcr,yl%«nem«  G^ekrita-Lexilioii,9.T.     (B.P.) 

Vaga,  PiEBi.io  DEL,  an  Italian  artist,  was  bom  at.  a 
small  village  near  Florence  in  1500.  His  true  name  was 
PielFo  Bumotacorti,  but  he  was  called  by  the  above  name 
after  Del  Vaga,  one  of  his  instructors,  who  led  him  to 
Rome,  and  introduced  bim  into  the  school  of  Raphael. 
At  an  early  age  he  was  employed  to  assist  in  thedecora- 
tionaof  the  Vatican  (q.v.),  executing  a  number  of  the 
finest  frescos  from  the  de^ns  of  Raphael.  One  of  Ihe 
earliest  works  of  his  own  design  and  execution  was  Ihe 
Crfnlion  of  Ecr,  in  tbe  Cburcb  of  San  MarceUo,  which 
l.anii  pronounces  a  "  most  finisheii  performance."  He 
Bed  from  Italv  at  the  sacking  of  Rome  bv  the  Spaniards 
in  \bil,  and  in  1528  arrive<l,  in  a  stale  of  disireai,  at 
UenoB.whenhe  was  employed  by  prince  Doris  in  deco- 
rating his  magnificent  palace.  It  was  here  that  he 
achieved  his  greatest  distinction.  He  executed  many 
works  in  Lucca,  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  elsewhere.  Late  in 
life  he  returned  t«  Rome,  where  he  was  much  employed 


VAGANTES  6S 

by  che  pope,  Paul  III,  wbo  f^ve  him  an  innuitj  of  three 
hundred  dueau.  About  1543  he  uDdeitooli  tbe  direc- 
tion nf  ihe  paintingB  Tor  the  SuliKegia  [see  VaticanJ, 
but  before  tbo  completion  of  tbia  work  he  died,  iu  15*7. 
See  Spwnet,  Biog.  Hitt.  of  the  Fiat  A  rli,  a.  v. 

Vagautea  (Clemci),  or  Vagi.  Thia  litle  w««, 
ia  the  language  of  Ihe  ancient  canon  law,  appUed  to 
clergymen  who  were  not  employed  in  and  supported  by 
a  deKiiite  office  in  the  Church.  Such  "acephalous," 
wandering  clergj'men  were  at  limes  very  numeroua,  es- 
pecially in  cuunlries  which  were  not  fully  converted  to 
Chriaiiauily.  It  naa  not  always  pouible  to  aaugn  a 
definite  parish  to  the  miaaionary  who  was  aent  forth  to 
labor  among  a  heathen  populalian.  But  the  Vagania 
were  found  aluo  in  Chriatiao  lands.  Somedmes  thcr 
were  pereons  ordained  in  order  to  do  missionary  work 
whom  persecution  or  fear  had  compelleil  to  return ;  and 
often  they  were  impoalora  who  hid  fraudulently  »e- 
cured  ordination  at  the  hands  of  some  careless  prelate. 
This  class  of  persons  was  always  disposed  M  traffic  nitb 
its  ministerial  fimctiona,  not  only  in  Ihe  way  of  aasist- 
ing  regularly  inducted  clergj'men  in  their  work,  for  pay, 
but  also,  and  mucb  tnore  frequently,  by  accepting  ser- 
vice as  chaplains  in  the  retinue  of  nobtea,  and  stooping 
to  the  performance  of  the  moat  menial  and  degrading 
offices.  Decrees  against  such  clergymen  were  issued,  in 
occasional  inatancea,  aa  early  as  the  4th  and  6th  centu- 
ries. The  Council  of  Chah^don  poaitively  prohibited 
the  ordmalio  aUvUla  t.  vaga  (can.  6,  xitpoToviiv  liira- 
Xurwc),  and  the  older  canons  enforced  the  principle 
"Ne  quis  vage  ordinelur."  Complainta  against  the 
Vaganles  became  especially  numerous  iu  tbe  Carlovingi- 
an  period,  and  were  often  renewed.  See  the  CapilaUt- 
ria  of  783  and  794  by  Cbarlemagne,  and  comp.  ConciL 
Mogunt.  An.  847,  and  C  Ticinense,  An.  860,  in  Uaiisi, 
Condi.  Kir,  S06.93St  Agobud  al  Lyani,  Dt  PrivUegia  rl 
Jure  Saccrdoliii  the  Vila  of  tiodehard  of  Hildeaheim, 
iv,  26;  Gerhoh  of  Keicherabcrg,  Libtr  de  Coi-rapla 
EtcUi.  in  Baluz,  Mitcellan.  v,  89  ai).,  and  Tra^ot. 
adv.  Simoniiieoi,  in  Marline  and  Durand,  Tta.  A'db. 
A  Bfoior.  V,  1459  sq.  Bishops  in  the  Church  of  Rome 
are  forbidden  to  confer  superior  orders  on  a  clergyman 
who  has  no  definite  litutui  bftirfirii,  on  penalty  of  be- 
coming personally  responsible  for  his  support  (c  4  et 
16,  s,  lit  Prab.  el  Digmt.  iii,  G;  Cone  Trid.  Sess.  ixiii, 
c  23,  Zle  Rff.).  The  Vaganles  may  now  he  con»dered 
as  having  ceased  lo  exist  in  thai  Church.  See  Bing- 
ham, Or^Eed.  ii,S87  sq. ;  Planck,  Grtch.  <L  ehritll.  Ge- 
KiUchifliBer/.  i,  S75 ;  ii,  100  aq-i  Neander,  CTareA  Hut. 
vol  ii ;  Du  Cange,  Glouar.  JUtd.el  /it/l  Lalunt.  ri,  1S92 ; 
Herzog,  Real-Ksiyldop.  a.  v.     See  Vacantivi. 

VaeimccI,  FiiANCEsco,  an  Italian  painter,  waa  a 
native  of  Assisi,  where  he  flourished  in  ihe  tirst  pan  of 
the  16th  century.  There  are  some  of  his  works  in  Ihe 
churches  of  that  city,  which  Lonzi  Bars  are  "exocuteil 
in  the  spirit  of  the  ijd  masiers,"  i.  e.anmewhil  dry  and 
hard.     Sec  Spooner,  Biog.Iliil.  of  Ihe  Fine  ArU,w. 

Vagranta.    See  Gibovaoi. 

Vagum  Mlniaterinin,  a  name  applied  to  the 
miniater  who  ia  ordained  without  any  fixed  congrega- 
Lion  of  which  to  lake  tbe  oversight. 

Valano  (or  Tajano),  Okazio  (sometimes  wi 
rai'aNi),  an  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Ftorence  about  1550. 
He  resided  a  long  time  al  Milan,  where  he  cxecuieil 
many  works  for  Ihe  churchea  and  for  individuals.  Mcc 
Spooatr,  Hioy.  Hiil.o/Ihe Fiat  Arti,t.v. 

ValL  In  Ihe  A.y.  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  this 
Orthography  is  found  indiacriminately  together  with 
"  veil,"  both  for  the  piece  of  female  apparel  and  for  the 
holy  screen  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Temple.  In  this  an. 
we  propose,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  lo  consider  the 
latter  ooly,  leaving  Ihe  dreaa  for  the  heading  Veii. 

The  word  exclusively  and  invariably  employed  for 
Ihe  "  vail"  between  the  holy  and  moat  holy,  places  is 
ri3*ID, jinr&(rfA,  a  fem.  gerundial  form  from  Ty^B,  la 


VAILL 

dd)ar;  and  hence  ngnifying  teparatiim,  or  acreeiL  Tbe 
Sept.  renders  it  by  EarniriraiT/K7,  which  ia  adopted  in 
New  Test.  (Matt,  xxvii,  51 ;  Mark  xv,  38;  Lake 
i,  46;  Heb.  vi,  IS;  ix,  S;  i,  20).  Joaephua  Ma- 
ploys  {AnL  iii,  6,  5)  tlie  correspond ing  Greek  vob 
mTariTBttniiii.  The  Heb.  lerm  occurs  in  Exod.  ixri, 
31,  S3,  35;  xxvii,  21 ;  xxx,  6;  xzxv,  12)  siivi,  3i; 

iiviii,  87;  xxxix,  34;  xl,  8,  21,  S2,  26:  Uv.  iv,  fi, 

;  xvi,  2,  12,  15;   xii,  23;   xxiv,  2;  Numb,  iv,  i; 

riii,7,  1  Chron.iu,  14. 

We  learn  from  these  paaaagea  (especially  Exod.  xiri, 
31)  that  the  screen  in  question  was  a  heavy  piea  of 
cloth,  composed  of  while  linen  striped  across  with 
woollen  threads  of"  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet,"  either  io  a 
triple  strand  or  more  probably  in  alletnale  bands,  aad 
further  ornamented  with  figures  of  cherubim,  embiuid- 
ered  apparently  with  the  needle,  on  one  or  both  sides, 
wilh  gold  thread.  This  was  suspended  by  meaoi  of 
silver  hooks  and  rods  upon  the  lop  of  the  pillars  jdami 
for  that  purpose  in  Ihe  Tabernacle,  and  doubllesH  like- 
wise in  tbe  Temple.  In  tbe  Herodian  ainictute,  as  ve 
learn  from  the  Talmndista,  Ihe  vail  was  double,  and  tf 
vetygteat  thickneas,soas  lu  hang  vertically  by  its  on 
weight,  and  impenetrably  dnsc  the  interior  from  vie«. 
It  was  this  piece  of  tapestry  that  was  rent  by  the  earth- 
quake at  Chriat's  crucifixion  (Ual  t.  ixviE,  51,  and  paral- 
lels) Id  rignify,  no  doubl,  that  Ihe  way  of  access  to  God 
was  then  opened  to  all  (see  the  monographs  on  t)tt 
eventin  Volbeding,/aiJFzP)'D^aiBnar«M,p.66>  Tlut 
explanation  corresponds  with  Ihe  apostle's  key  lo  tbe 
symbolism  of  the  vail,  which  he  sava  represented  «r 
Lord's  human  fleah  torn  by  tbe  atonement  (Heb.  x.  Wi 
Sea  BraachiuB,  De  Vtlii  Tabenia>.vU  tt  Tm^i  (\'itnnl). 
IJIB).     See  Tabkiusacle;  Tehpi.k. 

Vail,  Sdward  J.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  wa 
bom  in  1811.  He  entered  ihe  New  York  Univeraiv, 
and  after  liniabing  the  course  graduated  in  1»41.  lit 
soon  after  entered  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  aail 
graduBled  in  1814,  In  1S45  he  became  a  autcd  supply 
in  the  Church  at  Oriskany,  N.  Y^  where  be  was  <(- 
daioed.  After  remaining  a  year  al  thia  pUce,  be  le- 
moved  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  where  he  waa  witboul  charge 
until  1847,  when  he  waa  called  to  supply  the  pulpit  or 
Ihe  Church  at  Jameaville,  N.  Y.  In  1848  he  wascalM 
U>  Ihe  pasiorste  of  the  Church  in  Babylon,  L.  I.  Hi 
remained  in  thia  charge  until  1851, when  he  acceptedi 
call  to  Uniontown,  Cal.,  where  he  remained  three  ynn, 
and  removed  to  San  Francisco,  and  was  without  charge 
three  years.  He  waa  then  calleil  to  Crescent  City,  and 
supplied  the  pulpit  four  vears,  when  he  relumed  to  San 
Francisco,  and  died  Nov.  22,  1876.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Vail,  Bolomon  T.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  1814,  in  Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.  Ht 
was  converted  in  1845;  received  ou  Ijial  by  the  Ion 
Conference  in  1849;  and  after  serving  at  Anamosa  and 
Dig  Woods  miasiom,  be  was,  in  1861,  admitted  into  hill 
coimeclion,  ordained  deacon,  and  reappointed  lo  Vif 
Woods  mission,  where  hedied,  July  28, 1852.  Mr.  Vail 
was  intellectual,  pious,  and  a  young  man  of  great  pmoi- 
ise.     See  Jfiiii((un/"^™uu((7onftroKvj,  I852,p.li;. 

Valll,  Joa«ph  (I),  a  Congregational  minbler.vaa 
bom  at  Lilcbfield,  Conn.,  July  14,1751.  He  gradualtd 
with  honor  at  DanmoutliColiege  in  1778;  Btndiedlbesl- 
ogy  privately ;  was  licensed  lo  preach  by  lilchtield  tint- 
elation  in  Ma»,  1779;  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Chufdi 
in  lladlyme.  Conn.,  Feb.  9, 1780,  in  which  reUtioD  kt 
continued  flfty-iiine  years.  He  died  Nov.  21.  IfSi. 
1  le  was  a  good  scholar,  an  excellent  preacher,  and  dis- 
tinguished for  conscientiousness  atkd  untiring  devoud- 
nesa  lo  bis  work.  Beaidea  frequent  contiibutiuH  ts 
periodicals,  he  puhliabed  a  poem  entitled  A'ooA'f  Fltai 
(1796):— another  poem  entiUed  .4n-lrf!frT«  toBfisi*.— 
audanO>ifinu(ionSeraion(1814).  See  Spi«gue,.4«Hili 
o/(Ae  Amtr.  Palpil,i\,W,noix. 

Valll,  Joseph  (2),  D.D.,  a  miniiier  of  the  Coo- 
gregaiional  Church,  sou  of  the  preceding,  was  bm 


VAIIX  61 

•t  Hadljmu,  Conn.,  July  28, 1790.  He  (pivluatetl  frnm 
VaU  College  in  1811,  ani)  imrocdiaCely  bCf^ii  tn  Wach. 
For  six  months  he  wu  principal  of  Moms  Academy 
in  LilchSeld,  Conn.,  ind  far  the  ume  peiiud  hail 
charge  of  a  high-schnui  in  Salisbury,  Conn.  Mean- 
while he  was  studying  theology.  Hig  first  pastonte 
« II  in  Btimficid,  Cunn-  where  he  was  ordained  and 
iiiiiaUed  Feb.  2, 1814.  In  1884  he  accepted  a  caU  to 
I'le  Second  Church  of  Portland,  Ue.,  where  he  was  in- 
stalled OcL  15.  About  this  time  Amherst  College  was 
pecuniarily  involved,  and  it  was  necessary  to  appoint 
sonie  one  to  collect  funds  in  aid  of  it.  Mr.  Vaill  was 
unaDimoiuly  chosen.     Far  a  long  time  he  had  been  a 

again  pastor  at  BrimHeld,  having  ntumed  to  that 
charge  in  1B37,  and  «as  loath  to  accept  the  af^ncy, 
but  dnally  consented  and  removed  to  Somers,  Conn., 
where  he  resided  nine  and  a  half  veam,  and  served  the 
Church  there  as  pastor.  At  the  age  of  sixty-four  he  left 
S-imcrs  and  settled  as  pastor  of  tha  Second  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Palmer,  Mass.,  and  he  remained  in 
this  pastorale  undl  Oct.  13, 
His  published  sermons,  add 
in  number.  His  manner  in  preaching  was  energetic 
and  he  employed  gesture  and  emphasis  effectirely.  Ii 
Brimlleld  and  Someis  he  was  chainnan  of  the  school 
committee.  For  nearly  forty  years  he  was  a  trustee  of 
Montoii  Academy.  While  in  Portland,  he  belonged  to 
coTi>oratiiius  of  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  and  of 
Goiham  Academy.  The  last  year  of  his  life  be  was 
elected  to  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives, 
and  was  named  a  member  of  the  joint  committee  on 
the  License  Law,  belure  which  he  reail  a  paper  on  the 
lubjccu  He  died  at  Palmer,  b'eb.  21, 18l>9.  See  Coag. 
Qliar.  1870,  p.  1. 

Vaill,  'nfilllMn  Fowler,  a  Congregational  min- 
liter,  the  son  of  Rev.  Joseph  and  the  father  of  the  Kev. 
Thomas  Scott  Vaill,  was  bom  at  Hadlyme,  Conn,  June 
7, 1783.  He  was  prepared  for  college  by  his  father,  and, 
mainly  by  his  own  exerlioua,  supported  himself  at  Vale 
College,  where  he  graduated  in  1800.  He  studied  ihe- 
ologv  with  Rev.  Asahel  Hunlier,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1808,  an<l  for  twelve  years  was  pastor  at  North  (iuil- 
furd.  Conn.  In  1820  he  wat  appointed  by  the  United 
Foreign  Misuonaiy  Society  superintendent  of  a  mission 
among  the  Osage  Indians,  then  occupying  the  Arkansas 
country,  where,  amid  trials  mid  hardship,  hope  and  fear, 
he  labi'ired  fourteen  years,  or  until  the  abandonment  of 
the  mission  on  account  of  the  removal  of  the  Indians 
farther  west.  He  returneil  to  New  England,  where  he 
preachetl  in  various  place*,  until  he  accepted  a  commis- 
uon  from  the  Home  Missionary  Society  of  Connecticut 
as  missionary  to  Illinoi^  He  at  once  went  to  Wethers- 
field,  Ill.,«here  he  was  pastor  seven  years,  and  where 
for  twenty-seven  years  he  made  his  headquarters  for 
constant  and  faithful  missionary  liiiL  He  dieil  with 
the  harness  on  at  WethersAeld,  Feb.  34, 18G6.  Mr.  Vaill 
loved  his  work  intensely,  and  his  ardent  piety  carried 
him  forward  in  it  in  labors  most  exhausting.  See  Cong. 
Quiir.  I8G&,  p.423. 

ValllaDt,  Waujiuaxt,  s  Flemish  painter  and  en- 
graver, who  was  bom  at  Lisle  in  IS23,a>id  died  at  Am- 
sterdam in  I677,is  the  author  of  several  prints  of  sacreil 
subjects  frim  various  masten,  for  which  see  Spooner, 
HiU.  Itia.  -fikt  Fine  A  rti,  a.  v. 

Vaingloiy.    See  Vanitv. 

TalragiB  is  a  H  ind&  term  denoting  persons  devoid 
of  passion,  and  applied  to  all  religious  mendicants  who 
pn>res9  to  have  separated  themselves  from  the  interests 
and  emotions  of  the  world.  It  is  used  in  particular  to 
deiignala  the  mendicant  Vauhaaeat  (q.  v.)  of  the  Ra- 

Valaeahika  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  great 
ilivinisns  of  the  Nyiya  school  of  HindU  philos'iphy, 
suTHiog  with  the  Nyaya  ilaelf  In  its  analytical  mtlhoii 
nf  iRsiing  the  subjects  of  hnmin  research,  but  diOeriog 


i3  VAISHNAVAS 

from  it  in  tbe  arrangement  of  its  topics,  and  in  its  doc- 
trine of  atomic  individualities,  or  ritetliat.  from  which 
the  luime  is  d«rired.  KanaiU  (tana,  minute,  and  ado, 
eating)  is  th<?  reputed  founder  of  the  school,  although 
nothing  is  known  aa  to  his  history  or  dale.  He  ar- 
ranges tbe  sabject-malter  of  his  works  under  six  pnif or- 
lAiu,  or  topics,  as folhiwa:  (I)  substance,  (2)  quality,(8) 
action,  (4)  generality,  (5)  atomic  individuality,  and  (6) 
coinherence.  Later  writers  of  the  school  add  to  these 
a  seventh,  viz.  non-existence.  According  to  this  sys- 
tem, undents  nding  is  the  quality  of  soul,  and  the  instru- 
ments of  right  notion  (knowledge  from  the  contsci  of 

the  hesd  orbiuldhi,  or  liiidetstaiiding.  See  BiNiolkfca 
Indica  (Calcutta,  13aO)i  Colebrooke,  MitaU.  Kiiast 
(Ij.nd.  1837),  vol.  ij  MlUler  [Max],  in  Zaiichnfl  dtr 
dealichea  morgenl.  Caelltckufl. 

Valshnavas  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  great 
divisions  of  HindCl  sects,  designating  the  worshippera 
of  Vishnu,  from  which  the  word  is  derived.  The  com- 
mon link  of  all  the  sects  compriseil  under  this  name  is 
their  beliel  in  the  supremacv  of  Vishnu  over  the  gods 
Brahma  ami  Siva.  Their 'difference  consists  in  the 
character  which  they  assign  to  this  supremacy,  and  to 
the  god  Vishnu  himself,  in  their  religious  and  other 
practices,  and  in  their  sectarian  marks.  The  Gillowing 
are  some  of  the  principal  sevisnf  the  Vaiahnnvasi 

I.  The  Rammttjat,  or  tiri  Vauhmtriu,  or  Sri  Sam- 
pradayiiu,  who  derive  their  origin  from  Ramanuja, 
a  celebrated  Tefi>rmer.  native  of  Perumbur,  in  tbe  south 
of  India.  He  wan  bom  about  the  midille  of  the  l^th 
century,  and  is  eonsiilered  by  his  followers  aa  an  incar- 
nation of  Sesh  a,  the  serpent  of  Vishnu.  The  most  strik- 
ing peculiarity  of  this  sect  is  the  preparation  as  well  aa 
the  scrupulous  privacy  of  their  meals;  for  should  the 
meal,  during  its  preparation,  or  while  they  are  eating, 
attract  even  the  looks  of  a  stranger,  the  operation  is  in- 
stantly stopped,  and  the  viands  buried  in  the  ground. 
The  marks  by  which  they  are  distinguished  fmm  other 
sects  are  two  perpendicular  lines  drawn  with  while 
earth  from  the  root  of  the  hair  to  tbe  commencement 
of  each  eyebrow,  and  a  transverse  streak  connecting 
them  acroae  the  root  of  the  nose;  in  the  centre  is  a 
perpendicular  streak  of  red,  made  with  red  Sanders,  be- 
other  marks  painted  on  the  breast  and  arms. 


a.  The 

name  from  Ramananda,  a  descendant  by  disciplcsbip 
from  Ramanuja,  who  probably  lived  about  the  close  of 
the  14th  century,  They  are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
class  of  sectaries  in  Gangetic  India,  especially  in  the 
district  of  Agra,  where  they  constitute  seven  tenths  of 
the  ascetic  population.  They  belong  chiefly  to  tbe 
poorer  and  inferior  classes,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Rajputs  and  militan-  Brahmins.  T'he  most  important 
dlHerence  between  them  and  the  Ramanujas  consists  in 
the  fact  that  Ramananda  abolished  the  distinction  of 
caste  among  the  religions  orders,  and  taught  that  one 
whoquittnl  the  ties  of  nature  and  religion  shook  off  all 
personal  distinction. 

8.  The  Kabir  PaiUkii,  founded  by  Kabir,  the  moat 
celebrated  of  the  twelve  disciples  of  Ramanamla,  be- 
longing, therefbre,  to  the  end  of  the  14th  century.  They 
believe  in  one  (iod,  the  creator  of  the  world,  but  in  op- 
position to  the  Vedania  (q.  v),  they  assert  that  he  haa 
a  body  formed  of  the  five  elements  of  matter,  and  a 
mind  endowed  with  the  three  gimut,  or  qualitic» ;  he  is 
eternal  and  fnt  from  the  defects  of  human  nature,  but 
in  other  respect*  does  not  differ  from  man.  The  pure 
man  is  his  living  resemblance,  and  after  death  becomn 
his  equal  and  associate.  They  have  no  peculiar  mode 
of  ilress  and  the  sectarian  marks  are  not  considered  im- 
portant, though  worn  by  some. 

4.  The  ValLihkticharyai,  or  Ruitra  Sampradagiia, 
founded  by  Vallabha  Swamin,  or  Vallabha  Acharya, 
bom  in  1479.  Tho  principles  of  the  sect,  as  Uid  down 
by  Vallabha,  are  as  follows:  (1)  To  secure  the  firm 
support  of  Vallabhacharya;  (2)  To  exercise  chiefly  tbt 


VAISHYA  6 

worship  or  Eriabna  (incinutian  of  Tishnu);  (3)  To 
fomke  the  miim  of  Vaidik  opinion,  uid  be  a  >upp]iuit 
lo  Krisbnij  (4)  To  sing  pnitet  with^eelings  of  hiiniil- 
icy ;  (5)  To  believe  thil  ViUibha  is  n  (A>;.i,  or  mistreu 
of  Krishna;  (6)  To  awcil  [be  heart  with  the  name 
Krishna ;  (7)  To  ruraake  hig  rommandii  not  for  a  mo- 
ment; (H)  To  put  faith  in  bis  worde  and  duinRa;  (9) 
To  adopt  the  wcietyof  tbegood,  knowing  them  divine; 
ud  (10)  To  aee  not  the  faulca,  but  apeak  the  tniih. 
Tbey  are  very  ignorant  and  superstitioua. 

b.  Tlie  MadiKadarj/ai, or  AoAma  Sampradogm. 
founded  by  a  Brahmin  naoieil  Madhwacharj-a,  who  wu 
born  in  1199.  The  diminguiahing  doctrine  of  this  aecl 
IB  the  ideiicilkationorViahiiiinith  the  Supreme  Soul  aa 
the  pre-existent  cause  of  the  unii-enie;  and  thia  prime- 
val Vishnu  they  affirm  to  be  endowed  with  real  aitri- 
butfls,  and,  although  indefinable,  to  be  moat  eicrellent 
and  independent.  There  ia  alau  a  dependent  principle, 
a  lii-ing  Boui  dependent  on  the  Supreme.  Tbey  deny 
the  abmrption  of  the  human  aoul  inui  the  un'iveraal 
*pirit,and  the  ioaa  of  independeiileiistence  after  death. 

C.  The  ruiAnaBo*  o/Z(o(»o/,  founded  by  Ch^tanya, 
who  waa  bom  at  Nadiya  in  I486.  The  moat  impor- 
n  respect  to  doctrine,  ia  the 


i«  IVeqnent  repetlllon 


ling.' 


8e«  llanw,  Cimeil.  iv,  16T9. 

Vajai'atba  [aome  FoJaa-UtaJ  (Heb.  Fofnatlta', 
^KJV'  '""'*■  ^"'"  ''"'■  '^V'  "wind,"  and  taUu, 
"atr^mg ;"  Sept.  Za/3i,3o!oc,  v.  r.  ZaficvjaSd  and  7  - 
Povli3a>'\  Tiilg.  JnalJia),  laat  named  of  the  lei.  a:m 
of  tlaman  alain  by  Ibe  Jeiva  at  Shuahan  (Eaih.  ii,  9), 

Vol,  AitDBif  n 


dogma  of  bhuiti,  or  faith,  which  they  di 
finitely  more  etBcacioua  than  abatraction,  than  knowl- 
edge of  the  Disine  nature,  than  the  aubjugation  of  the 
pasaiun^  or  anything  deemed  moat  metitorinua.  The 
bhiitli,  or  failh,  comprchenda  five  atagei:  qmetiam,  aa 
thatofaagea:  aervitudc, which  every  votary  lahea  upon 
bimaelf:  friendship  for  the  Deity  ;  tender  affection  fur 
theDeity,o(iheaame  nature  aa  love  of  paienla  for  their 
children ;  and  the  highest  degree  of  aHection,  auch  paa- 
aionate  attachment  aa  the  Gopis  felt  for  their  b  ' 
Krishna. 

Besides  (beae,  there  are  many  otber  sect!  of  leaa  i 
Unee.  Tboreeuumetal^dabovearedividedinloa 
aeclB  or  diviaiona.  See  Wilson,  Sittdi  of  the  Rtlig.  Stelt 
of  lie  Ilimiii,  in  Woria  (Lond.  1862),  vol  i;  Karaandas 
Mnlji,  lliilorj/  oftht  SkI  of  tie  Mahnajat  (ibid. 
Volshya  [)  one  of  the  Hindfl  caatea  aaid  lo 
aprung  from  the  thigh  of  Brahma.  Tbey  are  th> 
duclivfl  capitalials,  and  their  duties  are  lo  keep  i 
carry  on  trade,  lend  on  interest,  cultivate  the  aoil,  and 
tnni  (heir  attention  lo  every  deacriptiou  of  practical 
knowledge.    See  Indian  Caste. 

ValBon,  CotiNCiL  ov  iCaadlium  VofnHi).  Valaon 
ii  a  village  of  France,  in  Vauclure,  Afieen  miles  north- 
eaatorOrangc.ontheOnvSie.  Two  ecdeMaslical  coun- 
cils were  held  there,  aa  follows: 

I.  Waa  held  Nov.  1 3, 442,  under  the  biahop  Auapiciua. 
Necuriua,  biahop  of  Vienne,  waa  preaeni,  and  publicly 
mainuined  that  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  are  hut 
one  nature,  one  power,  one  divinity  and 
canons  were  published. 

I.  Declares  that  II  •ball  not  be  neceaanr 
the  Oullicau  blabopa  hefore  recei'lUR  tben 
Ion.  hnt  that  It  ihall  be  enoQKli  to  he  iiasE 
are  not  eiconimuutcated. 

1.  Declares  that  the  offerings  of  penlienU  dyli 
denlv  without  receiving  ■■- '--   ■  - 

namea  111  lbs  aliara.    It  permiia  ihem  

a.  Order*  pricais  and  deacona  lo  receive  Ihe  holvcbi 
at  Enaler  fn.m  iheir  own  biahop*. 

8.  F.^rbidt  all  intimacy  wllh  the 


»a  or  religion 


eHanai,CnnnV.iii,  1456. 

II.  WashcldNov.6,529.     Twelve 

long  whom  were  St.  Ganarius  of  Ai 

ve  canons  were  puhliebed. 

.  Bnjoloa  that  pariah  priesta  al 

naes  yonng  resden  "■-' ■- 


ned  cbll- 


'S  lull 


being  single),  according  (n  the 

ly:  ihnt  llley  sbnll  provide  f.n 

d  lesch  Ihem  to  chum  the  Paalms,  and  make 
Isndatndy  ihe  Bolj  Scripiniea 
ires  Ihnt  a  prleat  may  preach  In  his  nwn  parish, 
„      -  vnen  be  la  111,  the  daacona  gbRll  road  Ibe  Homi- 
lies iifibe  futhers. 


r,  a  French  theologian,  was  ben 
itoiae.  In  1694  he  was  made  •lee- 
the  Soiboiine,  and  uied  Sepl.  1, 
iperior  of  tbe  Camelile  Order  at 
i«u.  lie  wrote,  J)e  Suprtna  Roman  PmiiiJUu  ft 
Eccktiam  Polt$tale  Ditpulalio  i—ElnKi«,  UirllidtEe- 
daiuUiea  el  Poliliax  Pdrtule  .-CommeUarii  n  Pri^ 
mam  Steimdai  ParliM  tt  Senimlon  Seamla  Poilk 
Bumina  D.  Tioma.  See  JScher,  Alfftmeiaa  Gtliir- 
tm-LaUm,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  Baadlmri  Ar  IktoL  Ultra- 
ftli-,i,B71.     (Rl'.) 

Valadon,  fe  Pire  Zachahik,  a  French  Capuchin 
and  miasioniry,  was  bom  about  IGSO.  He  labond  in 
Aaia  Minor,  but  is  espcciaUy  noied  for  bia  devotion  lo 
Ihe  suffering  people  during  the  plague  at  MaraeiUn 
He  died  in  1746.  See  Michaud,  SiagroiAie  VnaenrSi 
(Paria,  1343-66). 

Valckeuaer,  Lodewuk  Caspah,  a  Frieaian  phiU- 
ogiat,  bom  at  Ueuwanten  in  1716.  He  studied  si  Frm- 
eker  and  Lcyilen :  became  co-reclor  of  tbe  RvmnaHuia 
ofCampen;  prufeesor  of  Greek  al  Franeker(lT4n;  re- 
moved to  Lcyden  as  professor  of  the  Greek  language 
and  intiquitiea,and  died  Ihere.Harch  14,17*5.  Am«« 
his  works  are,  De  A  liitobalo  Ju<im,;—Srlerta  e  Sci'Jm 
I..  C.  Valetaiarii  in  /.ibitit  quoadan  .V.  T^  published  by 
Waaaenbergh  (AmaU  1816,2  vola.8vo). 

ValdOB  (Ital.  V«U(,^),  AlfoDK)  and  Jnan  da, 
were  twin  brothers  from  the  town  of  Cuenca,  in  Csnile, 
and  botn  about  A.D.  1500.  who  in  their  eartv  yearn  be- 
came attached  lu  tbe  Caalilian  court,  and,  at  a  later  tier, 
susUined  relations  of  some  pracdcal  importance  lonanls 
the  Kefonners  of  the  ISth  ceniuiy  and  their  work. 

1.  Ai.l^NSO  accompanied  li 


n  of  tl 


r  Cliai 


Luther.    I: 
writings  al 


i  Declares  Ihnt 


petle,  and  thence  tt 

friends  in  Spain,  in  which  be  Atfn- 
which  the  pope  had  adopted  lowirds 
I  just  witnessed  the  bDming  of  Lutber'a 
■ma  when  he  wrote.     In  16i4  Aifnaa 
aecreiary  of  state  under  the  gtaiii- 
chancelloT  Gatiinara;  and  in  1627  he  began  an  epi.-4e- 
lary  correspondence  witli  Eraamus,  Ibe  great  humairirt, 
hose  writinga  had  shorlly  before  been  comoiilihl  le 
e  flsmes  in  Spain,  and  in  whose  defence  be  ba.1  brr* 
moat  anient  advocate,  aa  againal  Ihe  fanatjca]  mib  of 
:ciled  monks.     In  the  same  year  (1627)  ocrurrfd  tbe 
irming  of  Rome  and  the  capture  of  the  po|>e  bv  the 
iperial  army  under  the  roiisiable  Bourbon;  aiid  on 
Ibis  ex'eiit  Vaides  composed  a  dialogue  interulej  ro  a^ 
forth  the  sentiment  of  the  court  reaiieeling  tie  can. 
iperor  could  not  deny  hia  responiibiliiy  for  the 
catastrophe,  and  his  neerelBry  arennlingly  procMdMl  u> 
'low  that  the  pope  himeelf  had  brought  about  Ihr  dev- 
iation of  his  capital  by  wariike  agitations  ani  dim- 
gard  of  the  sanctity  of  liia  own  word,  anil  aim  b>'  his  re- 
■  E  guided  by  the  warning  counsels  of  Jmlichiui 
hy  the  indicationa  of  IVividenoe.    Thi>ci>Bi- 
gwsition  excited  considerable  interesi,  and  led  ilie  papal 
nuncio  Castiglione  to  lodge  a  complaint  against  its  an- 
ther with  tbeemperoi;  but  Vaides  was  safe  under  the 
proteetioa  of  Ihe  chancellor,  and  Mflcied  no  hans. 


VALDES 

In  laSO  Vildes  wu  prewDC  with  the  court  at 
Diet  of  AugBburg.     The  btaren  of  tbe  ramuus  Pn 
were  rvcomiuenilcd  to  him,  Bmong  others,  and  found 
indioeil  la  promote  b»rinou)'  md  friendlineu  iboTe 
of  bis  associarn.     He  met  with  MeUnclhon  and 
cued  the  r«ligiaii>  siluiLioii,  and  waa  unwearied  in 
work  oCjudiciooa  medtatioii  between  the  heada  of  tho 
contending  parties.   After  the  public  reading  of  the  Caa- 
farioit  be  prepared  a  traiislalion  (or  the  emperor's  use 
(tee  Campeggio,  in  Ummer,  Monam.  Vatic,  p.  45) ;  aiH 
ifierwanla  he  labored  lealomly  to  fumiib  him  wiib  tbi 
fiiUest  inraroiatioD  which  the  Protestaiita  could  ■uppi}' 
in  bebalToftheir  cause.    He  haa,nevenhi' 
p«tedarboMili()'to  the  Rerurmaliun  because  he  judged 
that  tbe  Cimjemm  was  written  in  too  harsh  a  tune, 
TCC  more  because  he  wrote  the  emperor's  letter  of 
gratulation  to  the  Romish  Switur*  (Brussels,  UcL  IbSl) 
OD  the  occasion  of  their  victory  at  Cappel 
Zwinglians;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  llie  nuncio  Ale- 
ander  complains  (ibid.  Dec  80,  II>31)  that  certain  per- 
sons at  court  are  praclically  in  aympathy  with  LutheT 
and  desirous  that  his  cause  should  succeeil,  and  that 
iher  laud  Erasmiit  to  the  skies  unlj-  because  they  ar 
Dot  allowed  to  apeik  thinr  thoughts  respecting  Luther 
AmoDg  these  cuurtiera  Valiles  was  unquestionably  Ihi 
finl.      It  would  seem,  bowerer,  that  Valdes  left  tbi 

Tsce  as  Ui£  as  1533.     He  never  retunieJ  to  Spain,  pos 
Nbly  because  be  could  nut  be  there  iu  safetv.    Francis 
00  Eniinas  (q.  v.)  wrote  t..  Uelancthon  in  1545,  "If  the 
Hcellent  Alfunso  Valdes  bad  returned  to  Spain,  ev 
Uie  emperuf  would  have  been  unable  to  save  him  fn 

ilheis,  wero  preparing  for  him  on  account  of  bis  dno- 


Theti 
.mknoH 


On  Alfonso  Valdes,  see  Kaumer,  Getch.  Earipa't  tril 
<lIo./u4rA.i,264,  Docam.  latdii.  para  bi  lliit.de  Kt- 
paia,  voL  ixiv;  Mllller,  Hill,  am  d.  Priiltllation  u.  Ap- 
pellulioa,  etc  iiroh.llOb'),  p.  18^190;  Saubert,  Wumier. 
mrdi  d.  Aagiparg.  CoHfimm  (Nuremb.  1631),  p.  220. 
(to;  Jonas,  in  Niedatr'i  ZeilKhrift,  1861,  p.  630;  Her- 
luf!,  SnU-EiKgUiip.  Sl  r. 

2.  JuAX  (1)  wa^  physically  and  inullectually,  urik. 


ingiy  li 


d,  liki 


[>,he 


a  dialogue,  publisb- 


>t  came  before  the  p 
ed  anonymously  and,  a 
er'i  pnductioii— probably  in  1529.  His  piece  was  en- 
titled .1  Ditdogut  bttatiai  Mercury  and  Charoa.  It  be- 
gun with  tbe  narration  by  Mercury  of  the  emperor's 
auempt  to  settle  bis  quarrel  with  king  Francis  of  France 
h>  a  duel  (see  La  Fuente, //ur.  ^  /i>/iailii,xii,497sq.); 
but  the  narration  i>  repeatedly  interrupted  by  the  in- 
troduction of  newly  deceased  peiaoiis,  who  enter  into 
the  eoDveraation,  and  through  whom  the  whole  obtains 
apolitical  and  religious  character.  The  general  comip- 
lion  of  tbe  Church  is  censured.  The  ignorance  and  im- 
nunility  of  tbe  clergy  and  tbe  superstition  of  tbe  peo- 
ple are  plainly  characterized,  and  the  Scriptures  and  the 
grace  of  (tod  arc  eiiolled  above  the  adoration  of  relica 
and  the  Virion  Mary.  Tbt  use  of  force  as  a  means  of 
eoorniion  ia  condemtNd.  Part  second  of  the  work  is 
chiefly  political,  and  b  a  sort  of  Anti-MachiaveL 
The  whale  reveals  tbe  limplicity  nf  a  truly  noble  mind 
and  the  tact  of  c  coar^r.  In  1531  Juan  was  at  Rome, 
having  come  thither  from  Maples,  and  was  engaged  in 
the  study  of  natural  history.  He  planned  a  cuUecitou 
of  Spanish  proverb^  and  wrote  a  IHdlitgo  Je  la  f^enffiiii 
<3d  rd.  Madrid,  1860),  which  is  highly  aimmended*  bv 
writers  on  the  literature  of  Spain.  His  chief  interest, 
hovtver,  centred  in  leligious  reform.  For  tl  he  labored 
iimssantly  with  tongue  and  pen,  and  in  iu  interest  he 

eadavoied  to  lay  the  fuundations  of  an  independent 
kiagdom  of  God  without  directly  assaulting  the  Church 
of  th*  State. 
Id  1536  the  emperor  issuad  an  edict  at  Naples  which 


15  VALDES 

forbade  association  with  persons  infected  with  or  sua. 
pected  of  the  Lutheran  heresy,  under  pain  of  death  and 
the  confiscation  of  property.  Alter  tbe  emperur's  de- 
parture, March  S3,  tjie  vteetoy  forbade  the  preaching  of 
Ochino  (q.  v.),  though  be  was  afterwords  induced  to 
permit  its  continuation  to  tbe  end  of  Lent.  But  during 
this  same  Lenten  period  Valdes  had  a  conversation  with 
Uiulla  Goniaga,  the  childless  widow  of  Vespasian  Co- 
loiina,duke  of  Traietto,  who  had  been  powerfully  awak- 
enctl  under  Ihe  preaching  of  Ochiiioi  and  he  had  the 
courage  to  commit  tbe  substance  of  their  conversation 
to  paper,  under  the  title  Al/abrlo  Chritttano  (lat  ed.  in 
Italian  [Venice,  1646] ;  2d  ed.Iulian,  English, and  ifpan- 
ish  [Lend.  I860  sq.].  cuninsting  of  only  150  copies  for 
private  distribulioii).  In  this  dialogue  be  teaches  that 
the  law  shows  what  we  are  to  do,  while  the  liospel 
gives  Ihe  Spirit  by  which  to  do  it.     He  insists  that  Ihe 

dares  that  persons  whose  outward  life  is  entirely  correct 

positions.  Christian  perfection  conusts  in  loving  God 
supremely  and  our  neighbor  as  ourselves.  Monks  and 
non-monks  have  only  so  much  of  Christian  perfection 
as  they  have  of  faith  and  love  to  God.  As  Ihe  (ire  can. 
not  refrain  from  giving  forth  heat,  so  fiilb  cannot  aroid 
the  performing  of  works  of  love.  The  soul  may  have 
full  assurance  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  of  salivation 
in  Christ.  The  eril  of  sin  requires  a  radical  cure,  ap- 
plied at  the  seat  of  the  disease,  and  cannot  be  overcome 
by  any  mere  surface  remedy.  Giulia  insists,  however, 
upon  rules  by  which  to  regulate  the  nse  of  institutions 
of  tbe  Church,  and  Valdes  responds  that  benefit  may  be 
derived  from  the  adoration  of  the  saciamenl,  from  tbe 
reading  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  and  from  the  pray- 
ers in  the  mass:  that  masses  ought  Co  be  heard  except 
when  they  would  interrupt  works  of  charily)  that  the 
preachiug  of  the  Word  should  be  humbly  received.  He 
discountenances  the  repetition  of  a  given  number  of 
psalms  and  pat«mo«ters.  Of  cmifesMon  he  sal's  that 
God  does  not  forgive  sina  because  of  the  confeasion,  but 
because  the  unner  believes  in  ChrisL  The  result  was 
that  Giulia  entered  the  Franciscan  convent  of  Santa  Chi- 
ara,  though  she  did  not  lake  the  vows  of  the  order  nor 
exclude  herself  wholly  from  society. 

It  was  perhaps  in  the  same  year  (15S6)  that  Vahles 
dedicated  to  the  duchess  Gonzaga  hts  version  of  the 
Pso/ms,  after  (he  Hebrew  (a  work  never  published  and 
DOW  lost),  and  in  the  following  year  TAe  KpiitU  to  lie 
RomoHM  and  Tht  Firtt  Epitlk  lo  the  Corinthiaiu  (1st  ed. 
Geneva,  1&56  sq.^  2A  ed.  1856),  which  works  reveal 
faithful  research  and  sincere  modesty  in  the  author,  and 
possess  both  scientific  and  practical  value.  Other  works 
by  Valdes  have,  almost  without  exception,  been  lost  to 
posterity,  the  exception  being  CoBada-azionfi  Diriniu, 
an  Italian  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1550  at  Basle, 
and  translations  of  which  were  made  into  Spanish, 
French,  English,  and  Dutch  during  tlie  16th  and  ITlh 

Juan  Valdes  was  a  theologian  of  the  first  rank  in 
ability,  though  largely  self-trained,  and  though  be  nev' 
er  entered  into  orders.  Sand,  the  eiljlor  of  Che  BiUio- 
litea  Antilrmtariomm  (1684),  places  him  at  tbe  head 
of  his  catalogue  on  the  authority  of  a  passage  in  a  Uni- 
urian  publication  of  1567,  said  to  be  cited  from  Valdes, 
but  which  certainly  does  nut  prove  the  charge  of  anti- 
trinitaiiauism',  and  very  different  sentimenis  are  ex- 
pressed by  Valdes  in  Ihe  A  l/abelo  Ckritl.  p.  37,  and  the 
Conanealni-s  at  Fiiit  Coi-inlkiam,  p.  28J.  etc  tn  his 
Coaiidtntiiowr,  No.  109,  he  confesses  that  the  relalino 

comprebenuon.  In  penioiiai  intercourse  Valdes  pos- 
sessed extraordinary  influence,  especially  among  the  no- 
bles, with  whom  bis  rank  brought  him  into  contact. 

bis  entire  bearing  full  of  charm.  Assisted  by  I'eler 
Martyr(Vermigli)ofFlorcnce,theAagiu.tiniaH  abbot  of 
St.  I'eter  ad  Aram  at  Naples,  and  by  Ochino  and  utbers, 


VALDES  61 

he  vu  Mt  to  beget  such  enthorium  for  the  atndy  ot 

cuuing  Ibe  Pauline  ep»[le«  and  their  moM  difficult  pM- 
uges.  Among  his  friends  weie  alio  the  poet  FUminio 
■nil  the  Kerormer  Pietro  CirnaFcchi  (q.  v.).  Valdeo 
died  in  1540  or  1541. 

See  B(>liiner,  C«n  Biosrajki  lui  f'raltlU  Gtopaimi  e 
Ay<msodi  r<fUeua,  1861,111  the  appendix  to  bia  edition 
of  (he  Comdenaiimet ;  and  id.  in  Hetiog,  RHiUEBiy- 
tlop.t.v. 

Valdes.  Don  Jnan  (2)  he  Leai«  a  Spaniah  paint- 
er, dencended  frooi  an  ancient  hniily  ot  Anuria,  was 
bom  at  Conlara  in  1^0.  He  studied  in  tlie  uhooi  of 
Antonio  del  Castillo,  and  aflerwanli  removed  to  Seville, 
where  he  become  one  of  the  most  diMinguished  paintera 
of  that  city,  lie  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Acad- 
taif  there,  and  at  the  death  of  Uurillo  became  its  pro- 
idem,  and  nas  esteemed  as  the  head  of  his  profeaaion. 
Among  hie  numerous  worka  mav  be  mentioned,  Tie 
TriK^pk  of  the  OoM,at  Seville  ;-rAe  Marlgriom  of 
SI,  ^nJreic;— and  The  Hiiloiy  oflkt  Prophet  Eliot,  at 
Cordova.  He  died  in  1691.  See  Spoouer,  Biog.  Hitl. 
oftiK  FiatAni,t.v. 

Taldea,  i>i>n  Lacaa  db,  a  Spanish  painter,  son  of 
the  preceding,  vasboin  at  Seville  in  1611.  Uevaa  ia- 
stnicied  by  hisfather,and  painled  history  and  poitcaita 
with  cunsiderable  reputation.  Some  of  his  H 
main  iu  the  churches  and  public  ediScea  of  hi 
city.  He  died  ill  1724.  See  Spooaer,fi%.ffur.o/(Ae 
FiM  ArU,l,T. 

Valdem,  i>oa  Bobaitlan  Llahob  db,  a  Danish 
painter,  nourished  at  Seville  about  1660.  He  studied 
uuiler  Francisco  de  Herrera  the  elder;  aided  greatly  in 
estatiiishing  the  Academy  of  Seville,  in  the  presidency 
of  wliich  he  succeeded  Jusu  de  Valdea.  Antong  his 
lupe  hisloiiul  woriis  are  a  Mugdala,  in  the  Church  of 
the  Itecolleu  at  Madrid:— and  a  picture  of  the  Vii-gin 
MurroiiiuitdbySmmtindAiigeU{ieed),ia  the  Church 
uf  St.  Thomas,  Seville.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  oftht 
FiiKAiU,i.r. 

Taldo.    Sea  Waijio. 

Vala.     See  Vali.kt. 

ValeDCe,  COUKCILS  op  {Condlia  VateiUimC).  Val- 
ence is  a  (own  of  Dauphiny,  France, on  the  Rhone,finy- 
seven  miles  south  of  Lyons.  Fire  ecclesisstical  councils 
have  been  held  there,  as  followa : 

I,  Was  hel<l  July  12,  374.  Thirty  bishops  attended, 
of  whom  the  names  of  twenty-two  have  reached  us.  It 
ia  supposed  lo  have  been  a  general  Uallican  council,  or 
at  [east  collected  from  the  chief  part  of  Nsibonncsian 
GsuL  The  object  of  this  council  waa  to  remedy  the 
disorders  which  bail  crepi  into  Ilie  diuiplioe  of  the 
Church.    Four  canona  were  published. 

I.  Forbids  the  nrd< nation 


'd  wldoM 


hniitlsni.  fall  buck  Into  idolatry,  or 
second  linptlsm. 
4.  Orders  that  all  blfhop>,  iirle«ts,  and  deacons  falMlt 

and  DO  escape  ihe  rcspini'ililtliy  nnd  welglii  .'•'—•-    - 
derx.  shall  be,  Iu  fuel,  sn  dei»wrd,  nnd  con: 
gulliy  >if  Ihe  crimes  wherewith  Iheychari^  the 
Sse  Mans!,  CoaciJ^ii,  904. 

II.  Was  held  about  530,  in  defence  of  the 
of  grace  and  free-will,  againw  the  Senii-relag 
Mansi.  C<maL  iv,  1678. 

III.  Woa  held  Jan.  8,  Sod,  by  order  of  ih. 
Lothairc.     Fourteen  binhopa,  w: 


VALENCIA 
eiimea.    Tweaty-three  canons  weft 


It.  Forbids,  I 
r  combats  ti 


oreicammanlcalinn,  tt 
thai  be  who  shall  kiirorwunnd*hls  admu^ 


m  killed  stasll  be  legarded  as  a  suicide,  ai 
a  give  their  c 


Ire  to  complain  ngalnet  Ibei 

n.''Reci.mmet 
«.  Orders  tb> 


oftbeh-n 


:t  Iheli 


b..M>  who  have  been  al- 

wkS^^thSv 

sVnno^ 

Bth  (o  those  who,  after 

The  flTS  ne 
M  and  n. 
emperor  Fre 

or  detpi 

people 

"'if  Bliis'lhBm'hecsnrfBltoinakolbelrrleilallonawiib- 
oHt  burdening  any  one. 

IB.  Orders  the  re-estahllsbmeut  ofNhoola  fur  teochliis 
relliiliin,  Mlersiare,  si^d  ecclesiastical  chsuilug. 

M.  Orders  care  In  the  prBMrrnllon  oflhe  Chnrcb  on». 
meut«,otC',  and  forbids  ibelr  beiog  put  to  toy  hot  tb«ir 

asTFurbids  btthops  to  einrt  their  Tlsltallon  doM  wbaa 
they  do  not  mske  iheir  vMtalluns. 
See  Mansi,  ConciL  viii,  138. 

IV.  Waa  held  in  1100  lo  examine  Ihe  charge  brought 
by  the  canons  of  Autun  against  Korigaudus,  or  Korgaod, 
buhop  of  Autun,  whom  they  accused  of  haringgot  pca- 
aession  of  the  see  by  aimony,  and  of  hatiog  squaodend 
the  property  belonging  lo  It.  The  pope's  legates,  John 
and  Benedict,  cited  the  bishop  tu  appear  at  this  cDiodl, 
in  spite  of  the  piDtest  of  the  canons,  who  declared  that 
the  legates  had  no  authority  tu  take  him  beyond  the 
province,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposiliuii  of  the  archbiih- 
op  of  Lyons,  who  complauied  of  the  legates  banag 
lohen  the  judgment  of  the  case  out  of  his  hsnds,  The 
question  accordingly  came  before  the  coancil,  and  ww 
discussed,  but  the  further  consideration  i^  it  was  re- 

the  bishop  was  siiapendeil  from  Ihe  excrciw  of  sU  kis 
fiinctiono.  Hugo,  abbot  of  FUvigny,  accused  likewna 
of  sitnuiiy,  was  decUred  to  be  innocent.  See  Uaaai, 
C0Be«.x,717. 

V.  Was  held  on  the  Snlimiay  after  the  Feati  of  St. 
Andrew.  The  legates  Peter,  cardinal-bishop  of  Albaoo, 
and  Hugo,  cardinal- priest  of  St.  Sabine,  convoked  tbit 
council,  consisting  of  four  archbishops  and  WUm  biab- 
ops  from  the  provinces  of  Narbonne,  Vienne  in  Diapht- 
ny,  Aries,  and  Aix.     Twenty  -  three  canons  aen  pid>- 

clerks  In  bnlj  orders,  calhedml  cnnniis.  sod 
»d  persona  lo  eierclte  any  secular  nUlM. 
.  ,  Enjoin  tbepunlsbmentandpubllcdeitgaaca- 

eul  of  perjured  uersons. 
9,  IU,  Slid  n.  Relate  to  ihe  tuqulslHou. 

IS.  dives  to  bishops  r- -         -    -  ■ 

-       '— -"-je,  ann,  in  ine  eveni 

n»   neriatnal   Imor!.- 


lunlcsIluiiB  atalBM  tbt 
See  Mansi,  Connf,  ii,  676. 

Taleacla,  Councilor  {Cotiniiam  Vuft^immy 
Valencia  is  a  (»wn  of  S|>ain,  capital  of  the  provion  lA 
the  same  lume,  situated  on  (he  Guadalavisr,  190  miba 
E.S.E.  of  Madrid.  An  eccleaiaalicai  council  was  held 
here  in  624.  under  king  Theodoric  Six  bishops  at- 
tended, and  aix  caniuis  were  published. 

1.  Orders  that,  prevlons  id  Ihe  prerenlalloD  ol  the 
oblallous  o»d  the  dlsmlSFal  of  Ihe  cnlAcbniDen*,  (be 
Gospel  shall  be  irsd  after  Ihe  Bplstle.  In  order  that 


nnd  Aries.     The  object  of  the  council  was  U 


s  of  Lvons,  Vienne, 


cC  of  the  bishop  of  Valetice,who  waa  ac-  I  eplrcop 


words'of  Chrl' 
I    Eihorts  bishops  to  y. 


B  prescbLug  of  I] 


AlniDdinsilnidtnlbalTrniieriia.  in  cun  or  a  biinop 
ij\ng  «ndd«ulr  wilh  im  one  of  Mr  bmlher  l)l«hoi)>  ueiii 
1ili>i,1tiB  intend  tbal  Ihe  body  eliilt  bekepL  nnlll  n  blibn[ 

G  EiceinimDDlcales  TBsiiboud  cl«rkr  wb»  defcn  Ibeb 

V'^orhidB  tn  nrdiln  n  cl«rk  belanelne  lo  ouo'li 
BK.  nnd  ■iiy  pennii  »Jiii«Ter  nba  will  not  pton 


ptomkM  t 


Sae  Uwui,  Cimea.  iv,  1617. 

Valencia,  Fray  Matlas  de,  n  SptmUb  painter, 
<ru  bom  at  Valencia  in  1690.  His  name  was  Ijirenzo 
Cln/'-ion.  He  Uudied  at  Romp,  returned  lo  Valencia, 
afterwanls  went  lo  tJranada,  where,  being  reduced  tn 
I,  he  took  KTiige  in 


or  hi 


cuUectloi 


ture  of  the  Ijut  Supptr  in  the  rereclorv  iif  his 
conveiit.  HewaidrDVfnediu  1719.  See  Spooner, £<<>(>. 
Jliil.  nf  the  Fiat  A  rli,  a.  v, 

Valencia,  Jacobo  Pares  de,  an  anehorite, 
commonly  called  bi«hop  of  Chri«lo]luliUllu^  was  born 
about  1420  at  Valencia,  in  Spain,  whence  he  derived 
hii  name.  He  became  a  hermit  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Augustine,  and  !■  the  author  of  Quirilionfi  Quinfue 
tnMTa  Ju  jam  lie  C/irulo  Bfparatort  Gmtrit  lluntaid: 
—tirpotiiio  Pialmonm  DaMu  (Uyden,  \bli,  ibli, 
1517).  In  hia  Proltg.  tn  Ptalmot,  tract,  vi,  he  give* 
an  imuaing  account  of  the  origin  of  the  vowel-pointai 
'-  Post  coavenionem  Conatantiui  Magni  videnlea  Kabbt- 
nn  omnea  lieniile*  cum  Unta  devotionc  ad  tiilem  Chriui 
couretli  per  loUim  orbem,  et  eccjeaiam  Caiilo  favure  pro- 
tperari  «  etiam  quod  inlinila  multitui 
deiit«  manireiUDi  veriialem  pet  expei 
cula,  pariter  converlcbantur,  et  aic  deflciebant  queetiis 

ecreditua  et  tributa 

tM  magna  mulliludine  congregalu)  Aiisse  apuil  Babylo- 
nLam  Egypti,  qu»  dicitur  CajTB;    ' ' 


VALENTIN 

iuued  againit  monks,  and  military  banda  were  lent  to 
ise  [be  wilderness  in  which  they  dwelt  to  compel 
.  to  enter  the  serrice  of  the  State  and  contribute  to 
ipport     Orlhoilux  bishops  everywhere  were  exiled, 
hiHtoriana   apeak  uf  msiiy  who  were  drowued  or 
otherwise  put  to  death.     Tbe  penecutiun  was  moat  >e- 
i  where  the  emperor  was  himself  present;  and  aa 
operations  of  the  Persian  king  compelled  hii  pres- 
i  at  Aiitioch,  that  province  became  Che  scene  uf  tbe 
It  thorough  and  extensive  petsecutiun.     The  mosi 
rible  incident  uf  the  peraeculion  was  the  destruction 
of  eighty  presbylen  who  had  been  deputed  to  proleM 
against  the  instalment  of  the  Arian  Demaphilusas  the 
Ushop  of  Constantinople,  initead  of  Evagrius,  tbe  choice 
of  the  Catholics,  and  whom  the  prsfect  Metliodina  em- 
barked in  a  vessel  which  he  caused  to  be  burned  an  the 
seat.    Curiously  enough,  the  penecution  resulted 
le  placing  of  Uhrislian  orthodoxy  and  heathen 
superstition  under  the  same  category  of  enemies  to  the 
emperor.     The  heathens  had  appealed  to  an  oracle  to 
obtain  the  name  of  the  next  emperor,  when  Valena  ili»- 
covered  theit  action,  and  at  once  proceeded  to  eiifiitee 
against  them  the  eilicta  of  the  empire.     His  ragings 
were,  however,  brought  to  a  close  by  the  progress  of 
events  on  the  northern  boundary  of  his  State,  where  the 
migrating  nations  involveil  him  in  a  war  which  became 
fatal  to  himself  aud  the  country.     His  army  suffered 
an  unexampled  defeat  near  Adriunople  {.Vug.  9,  379), 
and  he  was  sluii.    During  his  reign  of  fifteen  yean  he 
had  done  all  he  could  lo  intendfy  the  halted  of  religious 
parties  within  the  empire,  and  be  now  achieved  the  uu- 


>e  falait 


supra  qi 


se  Kavi 


loco  vocolium,  quo- 
(Ravaasc 
iflUKisse 


doctore*  eorum.  Addit  bto»  Kabbi 
Talmud."  He  died  Ang.  1,  U91.  See  Jocher,  A 
wima  Gtithrlrn-  LexUam,  a.  v.  "  Perei ;"  fUtit, 
/aiiii,  «6;  i\M\v,  Dt  B3>tionim  TatilHi$  Origin- 
(Oxford,  1706),  Hi,  ii,  442.     (R  P.) 

Valens,  in  Roman  mythology,  according  lo  Cicero, 
was  the  name  of  the  second  Mercury.  Some  declateil 
him  lij  be  the  lather  of  'I'rophonius. 

Valena.  the  lloman  emperor,  the  brother  and  eo- 
Auguslua  of  Valentiiiian  1,  is  important  to  Church  bis- 
torv  as  Ihe  last  piditical  repreaentative  of  Aiiaiiism  in 
the'  East.  He  was  nominated  to  the  throne  by  Valen- 
tinian,  March  iS,  361,  and  assigned  to  the  rule  of  Ihe 
East.  His  flrat  efforts  were  directed  towards  the  secur- 
ing of  his  rule  against  the  pretensions  of  Ptocopios, 
whom  the  late  emperor  Julian  had  selected  to  become 
bii  successor.  It  is  not  certain  that  other  than  politi- 
(sl  motives  were  at  work  in  this  campaign,  though 
Hllman,  baaing  his  remark  on  a  fragment  by  Eunapiua, 
sa;  a.  in  Gibbon,  iMtnc  md  FaU,  iii,  S5, "  It  may  be 
luipected  that  the  heathen  and  i)hilaa(^hic  party  ea- 
pouaed  the  cause  of  Procopius"  (but  comp.  Ammian. 
MarceU.  xxvi,  6-9).  The  next  campaign  of  Valens 
was  directed  against  the  Goths,  who  hsd  operated  along 
Ihe  Danube  in  behalf  uf  Procopius;  hut  before  entering 
on  that  undertaking,  the  emperor  sought  to  conciliate 
Ihe  favor  of  Heaven  by  receiving  Christian  baptism; 
and  as  the  rile  waa  performed  by  Eudoxius,  the  Arian 
Inshop  of  Constantinople,  the  event  became  decisive  of 
lb*  future  course  nf  the  administrollon  of  Valens  by 
identifying  him  with  the  Arian  party  and  hringing 
him  into  direct  conflict  with  the  Catholic  and  semi- 
Aiian  ■ectiuns  of  the  Church  and  empire.  The  Ci.thic 
war  was  successfully  completed,  and  was  follaived  by  a 
ai'stematic  persecution  nf  the  orthodox  and  acmi-orlho- 
dox  parly  throughout  the  East.     A  ^iccial  edict  was 


Coin  of  Valena. 

enviable  distinclloii  of  being  Ihe  first  to  show  to  foreign 

piilitical  history  of  his  reign  is,  upini  the  whole,  given 
with  great  thoroughness  and  fldelity  by  Ammian.  Mar- 
cellinua  and  Zosimus,  while  the  ecclesiastical  may  be 
gathered  from  the  writings  of  Basil  the  Great  and  the 
two  Gregories,  Nyssa  and  Naiianien.  See  also  Tille- 
mont.  Hill,  da  Kmpmuri,  v,  88-89 ;  Gibbon,  M  ivp. ; 
Schkaser,  UnivtrMolhiifor.  UtUrtkkl,  etc,  iii,  2,  370; 
the  ancient  histories  of  the  Church,  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
etc.;  Smith, Mcf.i/Gr. and  Rom,  flioj.s.  v.;  and  Her- 
zog.  Rtat-Katyklop.  a.  v. 

Valentla,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  goddess  of 
health,  similar  to  Hygeia,veneratedby  theeiiy  Ocricu- 
lum,  in  Umbria,  as  a  protecting  goddess. 

Valeatia,  Greoorio  dk,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  waa  bom 
in  lo&l  at  Medina  del  Campo,  in  Ohl  Castile,  and  die<l 
at  Rome,  April  2d,  IG03.  He  is  the  author  of  D<  Rebat 
Fiflei  hoc  Tempore  Controrerria  (Leyden,  1591;  Paris, 
1610,  tahy-.—tX  Trmihitt  Libri  V  (IngolsiadI,  1686)  :— 

Chritli  (ibid.  1687)  -.—Diiput.  de  Lfgiliam  Uiu  Kueha- 
ritlim  in  Altera  lanlam  Spene  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Winer, 
lliindb.  der  lieal.  Ulemlur,  i,  341,  419,  456,  46e,  »53. 
(B.P.) 

Valentin,  Pierre,  a  French  painter,  was  bom  at 
Coulommiera-en-Brie,  near  Paris,  in  IGOO.  He  aiuilied 
painlingiand  went  to  Komc  at  an  early  age,  where  he  re- 
mained during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  painled  the  Mar- 
lyrdom  o/Sll.  Prnctuo  and  MaTtiiaano  (tlionghl  to  be 
his  best  performance): — /Jteollalion  ofSi.Jo&a: — SI. 
Pcler  flflijtnj  Chritt  :~Jii(lilh  icilh  Ike  l/ead  o/  Uoln- 
ftnai :  —The  Judgmm!  (if  Sutomon  .-—and  many  others. 
He  waa  an  artist  nf  great  promise,  but  dini  in  tlieHower 
ofhis  life,  in  1033.  See  Spooner,  fiioj. //itr.o/tiSe /'um 
.4r/.,s.v. 


VALENTINE  61 

ValenUue.  St^  ■  Romin  buhop  (or  preibj'ter), 
«ju  behuded  in  the  reign  of  (he  emperor  ClaudLua, 
A.D.  STO,  and  wu  early  canonized.  He  »  said  M 
have  been  a  man  of  ailmirahle  qualitio,  and  noted 
"     ■  *    ■  .    .     -         „  ,    . .  -^  celebrated  '    ' 


n  tiom  the  fact 


E  Valenti 


D  that 


birda  leleet 
uoh;  by  others,  from  a  practice 
It  Rnman  featiral  of  the  Liiper- 
th  of  February,  of  placing  the 


ealia,  during  the 
names  of  joungi 
drawn  by  younf;  men  aa  chance  directed.  A  similar 
eiiXotu  vraa  followed  throughout  Europe  on  the  ere  of 
Feb.  11  unlil  recently,  the  peraon  choacn  becoming  Val- 
entine to  the  one  cbooaing  for  a  year.  See  Cbambera, 
Book  of  Dayt,  i,  S&5.     See  TALEH-niiL'a,  St. 

Valentiiie,  Cteorg«  M.,  a  clergyman  oftheChuTch 
of  Kngland,  of  xhoee  birth  or  early  life  no  record  re- 
mains, distinguished  himself  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  graduated  at  Trinity  CuUege  in  1829.  He 
was  ordained  in  the  same  Tear  to  the  curacy  of  Vojti- 
iahcad,  ..ear  Bristol,  where 'he  gave  himself  wholly  to 
pastoral  labors  for  eight  years.  In  1887  he  offered 
himaelf  to  the  missiunary  committee,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  sailed  Tut  Bombay,  began  the  study  of  Ihe  na- 
tive language,  and  taught  a  small  English  school  In 
1839  he  was  married.  He  aonn  entered  upon  general 
rainionary  duties,  and  thus  continued  until  his  last  sick- 
ness, which  in  a  few  weeks  terminated  in  his  death, 
July  -23,  lS4e.     See  CkrirHan  Guardian,  1847,  p.  433. 

Valenttne,  JeSBe  M.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodisl 
Episcopal  Church,  South.  His  early  life  is  unknown. 
He  was  tnnsferred  from  the  Tennessee  tn  the  Florida 
Conference  in  1860,  and  served  faithfully  about  one 
year,  when  failing  health  neceisitateil  his  aoperannua- 
tion.  He  tiien  studied  medicine,  and  became  quite  aiie- 
cessful  in  iu  practice.  He  entered  the  army  of  the  Con- 
federates some  lime  in  ISCI,  and  u-a*  soon  after  taken 
sick,  and  died  at  GainsvUle,  Florida,  in  1862.  Mr.  Val- 
entine was  a  graduate  of  West  Point,  a  fine  schDlar, 
eharacteriied  by  strong,  logical  leanoning  poren,  and 
pure  language  as  a  preacher,  and  as  a  pulpit  orator  was 
aorpassed  by  few.  See  Mvmttt  o/Amutii  Conftitnca 
ofU.  E.  Church,  Soslk  (1S62),  p.  410. 

ValentinlHIl  I.  Roman  emperor,  was  the  son  of 
Cotneii  (.ratianus,  and  bom  in  A.D.82I  at  Gbelc 


VALENTINUS 

the  decline  of  paganism.     The  exproaian  rtSgiopofi^ 
I  —  Ihe  rrUgian  of  ptataiUt  —  occurs  fur  the  On 
n  a  law  of  Valeiitinian  of  the  year  366  {ibid.  XTL 
.     Valentinlan  was  also  tolerant  towards  lbs  dit 
ferent  paniea  in  the  Christian  Church,  though  hinielf 
an  adherent  of  the  Nicene  faiih.     See  Ammiao.  Ust- 
celL  vi  and  xxx,  9;  Smith,  IMO.o/Gr.md  Ram-Biif 
V. ;  also  Henog,  Rtal-Emjldcp.  a.  v. 
ValentlniBH  II,  Roman  emperor,  waa  incoHsia  la 
s  brother  U  rat  Ian.     'I'he  only  notcwortby  iocideMrf 
s  reign  which  requim  mention  in  this  place  was  the 
attempt  uf  the  heathen  party,  in  the  year  384,  to  lecov- 
the  poution  it  had  lost.     Symmacbaa,  the  jinr/eOai 
bii,  demanded  the  retraction  of  the  laws  issued  by  Gra- 
in against  paganism,  and  inaiMcd  that  the  re^i^xr- 
bit  should  be  kept  distinct  fmm  the  private  religion  of 
the  emperor.    He  also  asserted  that,  inaamuch  at  naa 
ha>  no  knowledge  of  divine  things,  it  would  tw  best  la 


jf  Valeptlnli 


iIL 


rely  on  the  authority  of  atTtiquityj  that  beatheain 
had  made  ancient  Rome  the  mistress  of  the  world;  aad 
that  the  famine  of  the  year  388  must  be  regarded  sa  a 
consequence  of  the  renunciation  of  the  aodent  religini. 
The  emperor  was  induced,  however,  chiefly  through  tbt 
efTurts  of  Ambruee  of  MUan,  to  reiecl  the  demand.  Be 
was  murdered  by  ArbogaMee,  Hay  16, 891  Ria  malb- 
er,  Justina,  wss  a  lealous  adherent  and  ilefender  ofibt 
Arian  party.  See  Smith,  Dirt,  of  Gr.  and  Bom.  Biif. 
a.  V. ;  and  Hcraog,  Rial-Etyttup.  a.  v. 

VBlentlalan  HI,  Rnman  emperor,  obtaitwd  iwt> 
riely  by  issuing  the  edict  of  A.D,  445,  which  coonib- 
uted  materially  to  the  elevation  of  Ihe  papacy,  ht 
which  see  Ihe  articles  Leo  I  and  Papact.  He  alat 
issued  laws  against  the  Manichaans.     His  mother.  Pla- 


He 


le  throne  inSAI, 


_..  .  ig  associated  his  brother  Valens 

in  tiie  empire,  he  aasumed  the  government  of  Ihe  Wi 
He  protected  the  State  against  the  incurtioiis  of  i 
Germanic  tribes,  simpliHeil  and  improved  the  inter 
■il ministration  of  afTairs,  Bn<1  promoted  the  advancement 
of  Bcience  and  generalculuire,  thereby  winning  for  him- 
self an  honorable  place  in  the  estimation  of  the  world, 
des^Hle  the  cruellies  with  which  his  life  was  stained. 
He  died   N..V.  17,  376.      He  had   been  reared  amid 
Christian  surrouiiUinga,  and  had  drawn  u|h]|>  him  the 
disfavor  of  Ihe  emperor  Julian  by  his  unfaltering  Hilcl- 

ment  he  issued  an  edict  of  universal  tnleralinn  in  relig- 
ioua  matters  (see  0>d.  rArw/.IX.jtvi.  1, 9, ad  A.D.S7I), 
though  he  found  it  necessary  to  pnihibtt  the  oOering  of 
nocturnal  sacriflces,  as  alTording  opportunity  for  polit- 
ical agitations,  and  also  to  forbid  Ihe  practice  of  magic ; 
and  the  execution  of  the  Hdict  ofToleialion  contr" 
greatly  towards  the  advancement  of  Christianity  and 


Coin  orTalenllulaii  III. 
cidia,  administered  the  government  for  bim  until  the 
year  450,  and  afterwards  he  gave  himself  np  wholly  to 
sensual  induigencea,  and  left  the  control  of  affairs  in  the 
hands  uf  a  eunuch.  He  was  murdered  in  45^  See 
SmitYk,  Did.  of  Gr.  md  Bon.  Biog.  slv.;  and  Heinf. 
Rfol-kiuyHop.  B.  v. 

Valenttoiaiw,  the  folhjweia  of  the  Gnostic  bci«ie 
Valenti  nus  (q.  v.). 

ValenUnnB,  St.,  the  reputed  apostle  of  RhMia  aad 
bishop  of  Pasuu,  is  first  mentioned,  ia  an  authedlic 
manner,  by  Pec,  in  the  biographv  of  Ihe  younger  Sl 
Severin,  j  35,  in  Sciiptom  Rrr.  'a  lutriaair.  j,  88.  A 
presbyter,  LncilIu^  is  there  made  to  relate  that  a  Vsl- 
enlinewhowashis  abbot  and  teacher  had  miniMered  ai 
bishop  of  RhKlia  early  in  the  oih  centui>-,  and  had  died 
iuned  I'ear.    Lucillui  was  ac- 


wems  of  Venaiilius  Fortunatus  (cir.  GOO)  it  is  said 
that  a  number  of  churches  of  SuValentinua  were  then 
planted  along  the  Inn.  One  hundred  yean  later  Cor. 
binian  visited  the  greve  of  the  saint,  near  the  CesUe  rf 
Mais,in  the Tymlese  Alps;  andsoonaflrrwardsCinTSO; 
see  Aribn,  in  Vita  Corbin.  18,  in  Heichelbeck,  niHor. 
Frititfj.  I,  ii,  12)  Ihe  Bavarian  dnke  Thassilo  caused  Val- 


VALENTIN  us 


a  leaden  uUet  uii)  lo  have  bten  fouad  with  hia  relica 
wbcD  tbcj  wete  cxbuioed  ran  sorcdj  date  funher 
luek  than  [he  12th  cenluiy.  See  ^c(a  ^'?'  BaOaad. 
■d  d.  7  Jan.  i,  S68 ;  Raileri  Bavaria  aanOa,  i,  82 ;  Reiu 
brrg,  Arirci«)i;eicA.  ZVufieUoixti,  i,  220  iq. ;  comp. 
133. 

Other  Valentinea,  o(  Rome,  lateraaina,  Arrica,  and 
Bdeiam,  are  mcntinneil  in  the  AcUi  SS.  under  Feb.  13. 
Sec  abn  under  March  16,  April  U  and  29,  June  2,  July 
16,  Sept.  29,  etc— Heizog,  Stal-Entytlnp.  >.  v.  It  ia  to 
one  of  these  Utter,  doubtleaa,  that  the  popular  cuitoni 
of  S'.  [VifanTiK't  £uy  ia  la  be  aiugned.     See  Valun- 

Valenttana,  the  Gsosnc.  and  lit  ViJaUiiuatu, 
The  birthplace  and  descent  of  this   most  fsraous  o" 

hill  lesnied  that  Vslentinug  was  an  Egyptiair,  and  ha 
received  a  Hellenic  training  at  Alexandria  {ffar.sxx 
i).  The  opinion  that  be  «as  of  Jevish  extraction  ia 
larc  tnraiise^  He  came  Eo  Rome  in  the  reign  nf  AiiM 
ninm  Pius,  probably  soon  after  A.D.  140,  while  Hyginu 
nu  Inshop,  and  he  remained  until  after  Aiiicecua  su( 
neded  to  the  biahopric  (IrensuB,  iii,  4,  3;  cnmp.  Eiiae 
biin,  n.  E.  iv,  10  sq.}.  Epiphaniua  says  (//or.  xxi 
T)  that  he  mnt  frDin  Rome  tu  Cypriia,  and  there  Hnt 
became  an  open  enemy  to  the  Cbureb  and  the  bead  ofa 
hcreiical  <ecT,  with  which  statement  should  be  oom- 
pired  that  of  Tertullion,  in  Pnacrtpl.  c.  30,  that  Valen- 
tintn  and  Marcion  had  in  the  beKi""i"e  adhered  to  the 
Hihodiit  belief.  TertuUiin  retsina  them  in  full  mem- 
bfnhipwith  the  Rontan  Church  u  late  as  the  bishopric 

The  funher  atoiy  (Adc.  Vulml.  c  i)  that  Valenliiiua 
consciflus  of  his  intellectual  strength  and  oratorical  paw- 
rr,  bad  hoped  to  be  made  bishop  of  the  Chuich,  anc 
had  turned  agauist  the  Church  and  the  irutb  becaaae  f 
CDiifemur  tma  preferred  to  him,  doea  nnt  compel  the  ss- 
nunptioii  that  disappointed  ambition  determined  him 
tu  liccome  a  heretic^ 
The  Val 


nian  ayal 

m 

iavery 

obscure  with 

iletaiK  l> 

URCiie 

si  atructuTe  a 

are  quite 

CI 

aible.     It  CO 

le  procen  sets  forth  an  ideal- 


lerial  coutenl 

sPkromiofntHu 

iitii  view  of  the 

demption  of  the  world.     The  great  firstcBUBe  (;Ji>3oc> 

■powv.  irpoop;^,  xpoirnTi)p)  produced  the  A'oo,  or 

Munogata,  who  became  the  principle  of  all  subiequeni 

eminaliuni  {Apxi  rwv  Tiivnov),  and  who  was  equal 

and  aimilir  bi  the  Father.     The  Moua  alto  manifests 

the  Byihoii,  who  is  otherwise  incnmprehenniblp,  ami  ia 

in  (wmpirisiiu  witb  the  latter  the  revealed  (ioil,  thronjch 

moiiateiL     With  the  Bythia  was  assisted  a  feminine 
principle  {aiiiTfot)  named  Sige  (silence),  thouEh  »ime 

in  himieIC  or  enalted  above  all  nyiygiea;  and  with  the 
Now  was  associated  Truth  (uV^Siia).  These  formed 
a  pnnJuetiTe  quatemily  which  became  the  origin  of  all 
thinga.  Nuns  and  Aletheia  pmhiced  Lok»s  and  Zoe, 
and  l>igaa  became  the  futher  of  tlie  remainder  of  the 
Pleroma.  He  expreaeeil  what  existed  seminalty  in  the 
eoiBciousiieM  of  Noua,  ami  it  thereby  received  life,  ami 
obtained  cimcrete  form,  in  the  nyiygy  Anthropos  (pri- 
nwvsl  man)  and  Eccleeia.  The  qualemity  thus  be- 
came an  ociaTO  (_Ogdoai)i  and  this  Ogiloas,  which  con- 
niiHles  the  centre  of  eonicdevekipmenta,  was  reinforced 
by  a  KTuup  of  ten  mkhu  emanated,  according  to  Irennus, 
from  L>gos  and  Zoe,  and  another  of  twelve  from  An- 
ihioiiDs  and  Ecclfsia,  or.  according  to  Hippnlytus.  the 
ttn  from  Nous  and  Aletheia  and  the  twelve  from  I-ogne 
awl  Zne,  The  derived  mns  were  necessarily  subject 
I,  as  Ihey  could  have  no  other  recognition 


9  VALENTINUS 

of  the  Bythos  than  that  mediated  br  the  Noui,  and  aa 

cessity  caused  them  to  experience  a  fteUng  of  deftcien- 
cy  arid  want,  which  ultimately  found  expresaion  in 
Sophia,  the  last  of  the  female  nina.  She  vehemently 
desired  to  unite  herself  with  the  Uythos,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  Iforoi  (Che  principle  of  limitation  and  diSei^ 
entiation  in  the  Pleroma),  and  thereupon  she  laid  aside 
tbe  thought  (If^/uivic)  previously  entertained  and 
the  paaaiou  resulting  from  her  attempt.  This  ii>3£- 
)it}ais  viv  Tif  jiriyivo/iii'^  ird3(i  became  an  abortion 
(frrpw/ln). "'  furmlesB  being  (i.iuin  ufiop#Dc),piwluced 
without  the  cojiperation  of  the  male  syzygos.  To 
guard  Bgainst  a  recurrence  of  the  unnatural  event,  the 
Father  caused  a  new  pair  of  wins,  Christ  at>d  the  Holy 
Ghost,  to  be  brought  forth  br  the  Nous,  who  restoreil 
harmony  to  the  Pleroma— Christ  by  teaching  the  none 
that  it  muBl  suBice  them  lo  know  the  nature  of  the 
ayzygies  and  the  idea  of  tbe  unoriginateil,  and  that  tbe 
(ireat  Father  of  all  is  infinite  and  incomprebeoaible  aai-o 
as  he  is  msnifested  by  the  Nous  (they  thus  obtained 
a  clear  understanding  of  tbeir  relation  to  the  Father, 
and  learned  that  the  immoilerste  desire  to  be  united 
with  the  Bythos  was  tbrealeninB  lo  tlieir  own  separate 
existence);  the  Holy  Spirit  by  imparting  to  them  real 
and  contentment,  in  giving  Ihem  similarity  of  form  and 
diapoaition,  and  making  each  of  them  lo  be,at  ' 


Thia 


completion  otthe  Pleroma.  The  representation  of  Hip- 
polylus  varies  snnkewhat  from  that  given  above.  Tlie 
emanation  of  the  abortion  fmn  the  Sophia  brought 
confusion,  i  e.  darkening  of  the  intellect  (ay^ui)  and 
formlessness  (_afiopfia),  into  the  Plecnnta.  To  remove 
this,  Christ  and  the  Holy  Ghost  were  produced,  while 
Hon>e,DrStsuroR,  was  brought  forth  to  be  the  guard  and 
protector  of  tbe  Pleroma.  To  celebrate  the  restored 
hirmnny  of  the  Pleroma,  each  nf  the  auns  contribulea 
the  most  beautiful  and  precious  it  cintains  lo  produce 
the  perfect  beauty,  Jesus  the  Soter.  Tliia  forms  tbe 
conclusion  of  the  heavenly  drama;  but  in  the  expelled 
abortion  tbe  condition  for  a  real  world-process  has  beea 
given.     Christ  gives  to  this  abortion  Ibe  form  of  a 


ilrasted  with  Ihe  u 


a  (fiilp 


AcAa. 

nof  of  knowledge.  Con- 
tociwitD  t;tiriBi  naa  given  ner  no  permanent  ability  be- 
yonil  a  confused  desire  for  light)  she  becomes  the  prey 
of  sorrow,  fear,  and  ilespair,  nil  of  which  are  the  result 
of  ayroia,  a  lack  of  clear,  gnoslical  cnnsciousnees.  In 
response  to  bcr  prayers,  the  Soter  .leans  is  sent  for  her 
support  (Paraclete),  and  by  him  she  is  delivered  from 
her  hurtful  af^iions  and  endowed  with  gnoslical  qtial- 
itiea.  She  thereupon  receives  into  herself  the  light  of 
the  angels  who  accompany  the  Soter,  and  brings  forth 
pneumiilietil  fruit  in  their  image.  A  second  process  of 
ipleled  at  this  point. 


le  form 


affections  eliminated  from  t 
the  baas  of  a  further  development,  while  that  tennic 
nsture  itaelf  becomes  the  guiding  princi)ile  of  the  new 
devek>pineDt.  These  eliminated  afl^tions  existed  in 
the  flrst  instances  as  an  ineorpoieal  Afle  (v\ti).  but  were 
soon  incorporated  in  two  sutntances,  tbe  hylic  and  the 
paychical.  Fear  became  specifically  psychiral,  sorrow 
bylical,  despair  dremoniacal;  and  theAcharaoth  thus  be- 
comes the  mother  of  all  living  things  and  the  highest 
coeraical  principle,  and  in  her  is  reftected  the  Ogdoas  of 
the  aortic  world,  which  is  the  prototype  of  the  cosmieoL 
Achamoth  makes  use  of  the  Demiurge,  who  is  the  father 
of  the  paychical,  the  former  of  the  hylical,  and  the  king 
of  nil,  but  whose  merely  psychical  nature  dcprivea  him 
of  the  power  to  comprehend  the  thoroughly  pneumatl- 
cal  purpose  of  the  cosmical  development.  The  De- 
miurge forms  the  entire  visible  world,  and  is  called 
llfidomni,  from  tbe  seven  heavens.  He  it  the  fiery 
r>od  of  DeuL  iv,  24.  because  he,  as  the  principle  ofcos- 
mical  lifb,  at  the  same  lime  represenla  the  might  of 


VALERIAN 


I  out  or  pajrchiul 
and  hylical  elcmenU,  but  he  is  not  iwore  tbu  tbe  pij-. 
chical  hia  implauted  in  it  pneumatical  germa  which 
the  Snphia  designs  for  fiirlher  ilevtlopment.  Such  de- 
TelojiiDGitt  recojvcn  n  deciai^'c  imputse  through  the  iii- 
tetveiitiun  of  the  Redeemer,  wboae  office  it  is  to  »pretui 
giiostical  light  wberever  an;  dSKree  of  receptivity 
fliiiU.  Tbe  Demiurge  bad  promised  hu  people,  the 
Jews,  a  Mesaiah,  ami  in  due  time  causea  faim  to  be 
born  (a  psycbicii  Mcaiiah)  from  Haij-,  through  whom 
be  paises  like  waler  through  a  channel.  The  Meeaiah 
receives  pneumatical  endowmsula  from  the  Sophia,  but 
has  ill  himaelr  na  bylical  elements  wliieb  are  not  capa- 
ble ur  being  Mived.  Hia  paychical  bodj'  is,  hanever, 
■0  marvellously  conitructed  that  it  may  be  seen  and 
touched,  and  that  it  may  suBer.  At  this  point  the 
Valeiitiuians  divided  into  two  achoala  — the  one  of 
which  included  Heracleon  and  Hwlemy,  and  ia  known 
aa  the  IlalMic,  which  held  it  the  paychical  body  and 
eeemed  to  make  tbe  pneumatical  euUowment  dependent 
on  the  Heauab's  baptiim;  while  the  ^  nofoAc  achuol,  to 
which  Axionicua  and  Ardesiaiiea  beiongot,  held  lo  a 
pneumatical  body  funned  by  the  deaceut  or  the  Spirit 
(i.e.  the  Sophia)  upon  Mary  and  tlie  eiuiperalion  of  tbe 
Ueminrge.  The  pasaion  and  cracifixion  of  our  Lord 
liltewiae  receive  a  symbolical  in teqirctation,  though  the 
lieaveiily  Soter  is  not  uaually  allowed  to  participate  in 
them.  The  saving  proccaa  consiaU  in  the  exalcatinii 
or  the  pneamatical  dement  in  man,  and  the  end  of  all 
thiiiga  ia  the  aepanliun  of  the  pneumalical  and  the 
paychical  from  the  hylicaL  Acbamath  la  thereby  fully 
released  from  her  pain,  and  she  retuma  with  the  Soter, 
who  becomes  her  butbaud,  and  with  all  perfect  ] 
mitical  nalurea  who  have  been  married  to  the  aiit;ela 
of  the  Soter,  into  tbe  Pleroma  to  the  eternal  mar 
feaaC  The  l>emiurge,  with  all  righteous  payi 
natures,  is  lifletl  up  to  the  intermediate  place  nei 
but  not  in,  the  Pleroma,  and  aflerwarde  the  concealed 
firca  break  Tanh  and  conauoie  matter  and  tbemaelve 
The  iiilluennt  of  Flalonic  ideaa  is  unmistakabli 
(he  structure  of  thia  system.  Compare,  e.  g.,  the  ci 
^n  or  iiaripitiia  with  Plata's  conception  uf  mattei 
the  p^  uv.    The  kivu/iit  is  cuncvived  of  as  the 

the  ntunistic  character  of  tbe  syalem,  though  all  gn 
involves  the  dualistic  principle  of  coiinecling  with 
preceaa  of  the  absolute,  aa  related  to  tbe  process  of 
world,  a  negation  of  itself,  an  element  of  Sniteneaa, 
of  effecting  the  necesBBry  reconciliation  only  through 
the  development  of  the  world-process. 

See  Itenisus,  particularly  bk.  i  and  ii;  Hippolytua, 
Ada.  //iBr.vi,21  aq.t  Tertulliaii,  jldr.  I'ulmlin.;  Clem. 
Alex.  Strom.,  and  other  vorta,pauim;  Origen,  especial- 
ly u./aitniiuzu>'i  Epipbaniiia,  //ir.  xxxi,  xxxii,xxxvi 
Theodorct,  /lar.  fab,  i,  7 :  »ee  also  Ruddniia,  in  Apiien- 
dlx  to  Infrad.  ad  lliil.  Philot.  £br. ;  Massuel,  in  h-aiaui, 
diss,  i :  Rwwel,  Tbrnl.  Sehriflra  (Iterl.  1S47),  p.  280  aq.; 
Midler,  Ge»ci.  <l  KotimAi^i  MrH,  tiuar.  Ra:  1880, 
p.6t>7aq.;  avdtierzog,Reiil-b'nc!/iiop,i.v.    SeeGNos- 

ValatlBn  (fully  Plblil's  Lictnil's  VALsniANtis), 
Roman  emperor  Trom  A.0. 253  [n  269,  waa  at  lirat  friend- 
ly towania  Christiana,  but  in  207  began  a  violent  perse- 

culi. rihem.which  eonliiiued  lo  the  end  of  his  i   ' 

Its  object  was  chiefly  lo  deatroy  tbe  leaders  of  the  Church, 
eqiecially  the  bishops.  The}-  were  at  tirat  forbidden  I 
convoke  religious  gatherings  under  pain  of  imprisor 
inent  aud  aimilar  punishmenta;  aftcrwarda  were  aer 
tenced.  togel  her  with  tbcir  lay  adherents,  to  the  minei 
anri,  filially,  were  condemned  to  execudon,  in  compan 
with  all  priesta  and  deacona,  while  all  such  aenalnr  , 
knighia,elc.,  as  would  not  renounce  tbe  Christian  relig- 
ion were  ihreatened  with  conltsratiiHi  of  property  and 
loss  of  life.  Tbe  most  noted  victims  of  this  pereecutinn 
were  Sixtus  I  of  Kome  and  Cyprian  of  Canliage,  In 
the  year  259  Valerian  attempted  an  invasion  orthe  Per- 
•ian  kingdom,  but  waa  taken  prisoner  by  Ibe  Sassanide 


VALESIO 

king  Sapor,  and  belil  in  captivity  until  he  died,  ten 
yean  later.  Hi*  son  and  succeaaur,  CaUJeniia,  issued  an 
edict  at  toleration  in  SGO,  which  inaugurated  a  period 
of  forty  yeara  of  comparative  peace  and  rest  for  Chjis- 
tianitv.  See  Cvprian,  £pp.  82.  83;  Euaeblus.  Hit. 
EtxI.  vii,  10, 11 ;  Neander,  Church  Uil.  ad  lot;  -Smith. 
ZJi'cr.  of  Gr.  lad  Rom.  Biog.  a.  v. ;  Uenw,  Rtat-Emrj- 
tlop.uy. 


Valerian,  St.,  waa  a  Irishop  of  Cemele.  ui  the  Mari- 
time  Alps,  now  in  the  aichbiahopric  of  Embnin.  He 
belongeil  lo  the  &th  century.  He  attended  a  ayiwd  u 
Riei  in  439,  signed  [he  address  of  the  Callican  bisbofa 
to  Leo  I  in  461  (aee  Leunia  M.  l7ri/>.  i,  998, 1110  Bq.>,aBd 
took  sides  with  the  monastery  of  Leriiis.  iu  4&4.  in  ill 
diapule  witli  the  bishop  of  the  neighborhood.  Tbe 
year  of  hia  death  is  not  known.  He  left  twenly-DiM 
Sermonn,  or  //omtlfEf,  and  an  Epiiloia  ad  JUowiriot, 
which  were  published  by  Sirmoiid  (Par.  1612)  and  Bav- 
nauld  (Lugil.  1033).  Kaynauld's  editiou  is  given  alio 
in  Millie,  Palrohu.  (Par.  IMn},  lii.  Galland  fumisbMl 
an  iidilitiuual  edition  of  Valerian,  Ingeiher  with  a  Pr- 
Irvi  Chrytobya;  in  the  BiU  Mar.  Pair.  (1774J,  e.  10. 
See  Cave,  Script.  Eccl  Uitl.  Lit.  i,  427 ;  Henog.  RnA- 
t'ncsilop.  a.  v. 

Valetlanl,  Dumkhico  and  Gii-BEPrB,  two  ItalisB 
painters,  brather^  who  Houriabed  at  Rome  about  1730. 
Tbey  were  pujHls  i>r  Marco  Uicci,and  were  jototly  eso- 
ployed  in  decurating  churches  and  other  pablic  buiU- 
inga. 


Valerio,  Samlkl,  a  Jewish  phyuciao  who  Soumb- 
ed  in  the  island  of  Corfu  in  the  lOtb  century,  is  Ibe  auiba 
of  ^^Cn  1^,  or  a  commentary  on  the  book  uf  Esther 
CVetu  158C),  in  which  he  made  use  of  tbe  Tiimad.ii( 
Jewish  and  Cbristian  exegetical  works,  of  the  philo- 
sophical writings  among  Jews  and  Arabs ;  TrTsb  V"^ 
or  a  commenlarv  on  Daniel  (ibid.eod.).  See  Flint.  L 
U.  lUi  OiHw/i,  184n,  coL  66e,  606 1  BOL  Jvd.  iil,  467 ;  Dc' 
Kosai,  Duionario  Slorico  (Germ.  transL),  p.  326.    (B.  P.) 

Taleilua,  a  Spanish  monk  and  abbot  who  flouriib- 
cd  in  Gnlicia  about  68a  His  /.>/e  of  St.  Fntfom  B 
extant  in  Mabillon,  ^cTu  Simdiir.  Ord.  Bard.  torn.  iL 
Some  other  works  exist  in  MS.  See  Hoabeim,  CKarti 
lluloTs,  bk.  ii,  cent,  vii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  iL 

ValeriOB,  Angtistiiitis.     See  Yaueiio  Ago- 

ValeBlBilB,a 

have  been  founde 

an  episcopal  city  apohen  of  by  Epiphauins  and  Nicetn 

as  being  in  "Arabia  beyond  Jordan."     I'hey  wtresinl 

Sl  John  of  Damascua  lo  be  pmtligate  AntincmitBi. 
They  practiced  aeir-mntilalion,  and  enforced  llie  pr*> 
lice  on  all  Ihdr  adherents.  See  Kpiphaniiu,  tit  llxrt- 
nAiit,lriii;  St.  John  of  Damascus,  Df  //irrenfriu,  li-iii. 

Valeaio.  Francesco,  an  Ilslian  painter  and  en- 
graver, flourished  at  Venice  about  1612.    Utile  iskuown 

uf  plates  of  heriliiUs  engraved  for  a  work  enlilled  I&t- 
ilriam  AiKkoitlontm  A'fojrio, by  Jacobus  CavsciAwhieh 
waa  published  at  Venice  in  1612:  His  platea  are  somr- 
timea  marked  Francumi  Valigiiu.  See  %ioooer.  Sio$. 
Ilul.of  the  Fine  Art4,a.y. 


VALESIO 


701     VALLADOLID,  COUNCIL  OF 


Talssio,  Of  Qvannl  Lulgi,  in  luliin  palmer  uid 
uignver,wubani  atBc>log]uiDl5CI.  He  studio]  in  tbe 
fchuul  or  the  C«racci  uid  eiecutetl  geveral  worki  for  the 
churches  of  hit  nitive  city,  luch  la  The  Srouiymg  a/ 
Cirul,in  Lbe  Church  oT  sin  PieLm;  The  AmuHcialiim, 
(I  the  Charcli  of  the  HEudicinti;  and  St.Soth  Curing 
lit  Sid  oftht  Plasue,  ip  the  Church  uf  3iu  Koeco.     " 

where  he  died  in  1640,     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Uul.  ofihe 
FieeArtt,a.v. 

Valftmina  (properlr  Dt  ValoU),  Hbrrt,  a  French 
inliquArian  uid  critic,  «u  bom  in  Paria,  Sept.  10, 1603, 
utd  educated  in  the  Jesuit  College  at  VerdiiTi  and  at  Par. 
ia.    He  rormed  a  cuanectioii  »iih  Petaviui  and  Sirnwad 
which  exiated  while  they  lired.     In  IS'22  he  wen 
Bourgea  for  the  itudy  of  juriapnidence,  and  on  bif 
turn  apenl  seven  yean  in  the  practice  of  law  i  but 
nquently  gave  hlmHlf  wholly  lo  learned  atudiea, 

notes,  uf  the  excerpu  from  Polybiua,  Diod.  Sic^ 
made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Conatantine  Porphyro- 
genilua,  entitled  Ezcrrpla  Po^^  Diod.  3ic,  NicaL  'Da- 
iMit„  App.  AUxanir.  etc  (Par.  1634-48).  Then  fol- 
kwed  hia  valiuible  critical  edition  DfAmniiiinus  lilarcel- 
linua  (ibid.  1636;  2d  improved  ed.  by  bii  brother  Ha- 
drian, 1681).    These  works  so  adrinced  bia  reputation 


bawe>-er,  troubled  with  weak  eyes 
total  blindneaa;  but,  a  reader  having  been  providnl, 
he  was  enabled  (o  prosecute  his  studies  of  the  ancient 
Church  wrilen,  and  he  was  instructed  in  1650  by  the 
French  bishops  to  publish  a  new  and  critical  edition 
of  their  works,  for  which  he  receired  an  annnsl  pen- 
sion of  600,  and  aher  ■  lime  800.  livns.  He  published 
in  consequence,  Eatbii  lliitoria  Ecrietiatlica :  —  De 
Vila  CoaUaidim  Lib.  I  V:—OratioCoa$liMima4  Sane- 
toe: — and  Che  tiealisea  De  DoHaliilii,  De  Aiasliiti, 
De  TrantlaHcm  LXX  /nifrprelum.  De  Rommdi  Mar- 
ryo/o^  (Par.  IIU9, 1678).  Inl660  Louii  XIV  appoint- 
ed ^ijm  historiographer  with  a  salary  of  1200  liTres,and 
cardinal  Haiarin  also  gave  hioi  tokens  of  firor.  In 
1K64,  at  the  ripe  age  of  sixty-one  years,  he  married 
MargareliCbeaoeau.B  young  girt,  and  became  cb«  father 
of  seren  children.  He  continued  to  employ  hii  lime  in 
literary  purauiia  until  he  died,  in  Paris,  Hay  7,  137C. 
His  later  works  included  editions  of  Socratea  and  Sozo- 

the  sixth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Nice  (Par.  1668) ; 
edition  of  Theodorel,  one  of  Evogriua,  with  extra 
from  PhilostorgiuB,  and  of  Theodore  Lector  (ilMd.  1673 ; 
MoKunU  I679t  AniiiUL  1695).  He  waa  planning  new 
editions  of  the  I^tin  historians  of  the  Chrireli  when 
death  surprised  hioi.  In  Burmann,  H.  Viiiet.  Kmend. 
Libr,  <2Hi*;iK  rl  de  Ctitiea  Libi:  Duo,  are  giren  several 
smaller  work*  of  Valtaius,  some  uf  which  had  not  been 
previously  published,  and  also  If,  Valetii  Vila  (Par. 
1677,  by  hia  brother).  In  Paris  (1691)  were  also  pub- 
limbed  Valetiana.     See  Herzog,  Reat'Encyhlop.  s.  T. 

V&lettS,  LOL-ts,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
May  24, 1800,  in  Savoy.  Fur  a  number  of  years  he  was 
chaplain  [o  the  amhasaador  at  Naples.  In  1851  he  waa 
called  lo  the  Lutheran  Church  dei  Vileites  at  Ps^i^ 
where  he  also  acted  as  chaplain  lo  the  dncheia  nr  Or- 
leans, lie  was  soon  called  lo  the  presidency  of  the  Lu- 
theran Cunsistorr  at  Paris,  which  position  he  oceupied 
till  hia  death,  Oct. »},  1872.    (E  P.) 

Talballa.    See  Walrali^a. 

VkU,  in  Norse  mylhotaj^,  was  a  son  of  Odin,  who 
was  destined  lo  reappear  in  the  new  heavens  which  the 
AU-Paiher  should  cnaie  after  the  fall  of  WalbalbL  In 
all  other  reapecta  the  name  remainol  vague,  and  re- 
caved  no  distinct  form  in  the  popular  imaginaliun. 

Vallaro.  Atraartiio,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Leoiaeo,  neat  Venice,  April  8, 1680,  of  a  patrician  family. 


being  nephew  of  cardinid  Karagero,  who  directed  bim 
in  his  studies  at  Padua.  He  made  such  progress  in  them 
that  he  waa  appointed  in  1&56  prufessot  of  philosophy 

at  Venice,  and  in  1562  he  accompanied  cardinal  Nauge- 
[ius,  whose  secretary  he  was,  to  the  Council  of  Trent. 
In  1665  he  succeeiled  :4augerius  as  bishop  of  Verona, 
and  in  1579  pope  Gregory  XIII  sent  him  lo  Dalmatia 
to  vimt  the  ehurchea  there.  In  1688  he  was  made  car- 
dinal, and  in  1586  he  waa  appointed  abbot  of  Forii  by 
pope  Sixtiis  T.  In  1690  he  waa  a  member  of  the  con- 
clave which  appointed  pope  Gregory  XIV.  After  the 
death  of  Innocent  IX,  the  cardinals  contemplated  the 
election  of  Valerius  to  the  papal  throne.  Clement  VIII, 
however,  who  was  elected  in  his  stead,  appointed  him 
examiner  of  the  bishops  and  member  of  the  Cun^n^fta 
Rilavm  H  Itididt.  In  1600  Leo  XI  made  him  bishop  of 
PalealHna.  The  dUBcullies  between  the  pope  and  the 
republic  of  Tenieo  caused  hia  death,  uhich  took  place 
May  21, 1606.  His  writings  arc  numerous,  and  are  enu- 
merated in  JScher,  Alignnrina  Grltkiirn-Lmbm,  s.  v. ; 
see  also  Winer,  llanMnch  dtr  thtolog.  Liltratur,  ii,  61 ; 
Hvefer,  Noia.  Biog.  Genirnlt,  s.  r.     (E  P.) 

Valla,  LoRUNZO,  a  Roman  priest  anil  controver- 
sialist, was  bom  about  1410.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
in  1431,  and  Uiight  rhetoric  and  phiWiphy  at  Pavia 
and  Milan,  where  be  had  bitter  controversies  with 
the  Aristotelian  scliolastics.  In  1443  he  left  Rome 
and  went  Co  Naples,  where  he  was  paironizeil  by  Al- 
Innao  I,  but  for  whose  protection  the  inquisitors  would 
have  burned  him  at  Che  stake.  He  became  reconciled 
to  the  pope,  Nicholaa  V,  by  whom  he  was  restored  aa 
canon  of  St.  John  Lateran.  He  relumeil  to  Rome  and  - 
remained  there  until  his  death.  In  1465.  He  wrote 
many  important  works,  antong  which  are  Dt  Folio  Cre- 
rfitu  el  Ktnenlila  ComtiiHtitd  {Joanlinne  Dtctamatia: — 
Eltgaaliartim l.itgaa Ltaitia  L3>.  VI: — InNotam  Tt*- 
(nmcntuin  Anaolalionee  :—De  CoUalimnhaM  Nori  Tula- 
raenti  .■—yotei  on  Sallust,  Livy,  and  Quintilian:— and 
TrandiUioni  at  the  Iliad,  Herodotus,  ThucydidH,etc; 

His  principal  works  were  published  at  Basle  in  1543. 

Valladlei,  Asdr^  a  learned  French  ecclesiaatii^ 
was  bom  about  I6G5,  at  St.  Paul,  near  Monlbrison,  of  an 
ancient  family  which  look  its  name  from  the  village 
where  it  had  lived.  Having  Rnisheil  his  early  educa- 
tion at  Billom,  in  Auvergne,  he  went  lo  Avignon  to  study 
theology,  and  entered  the  Order  of  Ihe  Jesuits  (I5S6), 
where  he  was  appointed  (o  teach  the  humauilies.  Jeal- 
ousy at  hia  aucceis  in  sermonizing  led  him  to  leave 
Avignon,  and  be  preached  for  a  lime  in  Moiilins,  Dijon, 
and  Lynns.  Henry  IV,  liearing  of  his  talcnt\  calleil 
him  to  Paris  as  historingraphet  of  his  reigu  (I6U&) ;  but 
the  Jesuits  secreted  the  royal  missive,  and  Valladier,  in 
disgust,  led  their  order,  and  went  first  to  Paria  and 
ihence  lo  Rome,  where  he  obuineil  of  Paul  V  letters 
which  secured  him  from  further  persecution  (July,  1608), 
He  preached  in  Paris  bcfocs  the  court  with  great  ac- 
ceptance, and  in  1609  was  appointed  by  cardiiul  Gr^vj- 
hiscauon,and  in  1611  he  received  the  abbey  of  St.  Ar- 
noud.  He  again  became  involved  in  trouble,  however, 
but  in  1621  be  waa  resuired  lo  his  office.  He  died  at 
Hell,  Aug.  la,  IG38.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Becular 
and  religions  treatiaea,  which  an  enumerated  in  Uoefer, 
Nour.  biag.  Gifdrale,  s.  v, 

VaUBdoUd.CouNClI,  of  {CoMilian  apod  Vallemo- 
lelam  or  VaUumOletum).  Valladolid  is  a  well-known  town 
of  Spain  (anciently  called  PiHtia),  capital  of  n  proviitce 
of  the  same  name,  utuated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pi- 
suergo.  An  ecclesiastical  council  was  held  ijiere  in  1322 
by  cardinal  William,  bishop  of  Savina,  and  legate  of 
pope  John  XXII.  A  preface  and  iweniy-sevcn  canons 
were  published  by  his  direction,  and  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  council. 

I.  Orders  tbat  prurlnclal  eoniiclla  be  beld  eveiy  two 


i.  6rdi 


._.,_jBnnnallj. 

cnrates  to  rend  f.iur  times  a  lenr.  In  the 
to  their  parltblouers  the  atllcles  nl  belleC. 


Ihfl  decKlozne,  llie  number  of  tha 

t.  Order*  Ihnt  eanrtljl  and  ftullTBli  be  kept  holy. 

10.  Order*  tbuL  bittaope  ebmll  iMign  timlu  In  paritbee. 

11.  Eicomnm II levies  moDki  irba  tiunduleuUj  evAde 
MTment  uf  tichet. 

IS.  EibnrU  ciin>r«  to  eierelie  hnenluiUtJ. 

14.  Fnrblde  to  preKoc  to  cbnrchee  berora  a  TacoDcy,  or 

Id.  Deckrei  those  to  be  aieoinmiinlcated,fp*DJ^ic(e,  nho 
tu  or  fell  ment  oa  HDj  Ittt-Aij, 

IT.  Ft>tbldBHciilarmeellDEi<iltblDelinrebe*,l!Rln,>(c., 
In  charch '  jurdg,  or  to  tonitj  diiircbea  m  pUcee  of  ds- 


IS  and  !4.  Ebccomi 


.cent :  ilao  ill  wlurdt,  encliMiterf, 


>ud  IbUM  wbo 

See  Mmsi,  CondL  x\,  1E83. 

VoIIbtbI,  Domk:<i<x],  an  ItHlian  antiqauian,  wai 
bora  at  Verona,  Nov.  13,  1702,  end  ntudted  the  hu- 
manities with  tbe  Jeiuili  witb  tiich  auccesa  tbat  at  the 
•ge  of  twelve  be  niainlaianl  a  public  thesLa  on  philos- 
opby.  He  aflerwarda  entered  the  ordtr,  and  appUed 
himself  tu  the  tiudy  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  ecdeaiaMi- 
cal  history.  He  lliially  weol  to  Rome  m  reiiaer  of  the 
ancient  languagea,  and  there  becaiiie  a  noted  authority 
on  the  antiquities  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  ubject  on 
which  he  wrote  sereraJ  worka.  He  ibo  ediietl  the 
Opera  Omnia  of  Jennie  (Terana,  1734,  1!  vols.  fuL), 
and  those  of  TyraniiiM  Rufinus  (ibid.  1746,  4to}.  He 
died  at  Verona,  Aug.  14, 1 771.  See  UoeTer,  A'dmf,  Bioy. 
GirUraU,  a.  r. 

Talle,  Andbr*  hbli-i,  an  Italian  architect  of  the 
IGth  century,  was  bom  it  Fadua.  Hit  principal  work 
was  the  Carthuiian  moniaterf,  two  miles  from  Padua. 
This  structure,  from  its  beautiful  design,  hu  been  at- 
tributed lo  I'lUadio.  He  published  an  edition  of  the 
unprinled  works  of  Palladio,  in  which  be  inserted  fire 
plates.     See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hill,  of  the  fine  Arti,  a.  v. 

Valine,  Qef^trol,  a  French  deist  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  16th  century,  was  the  son  of  tbe  controller  of  Ibe 
public  domain.  He  gave  himaeif  up  to  philoaophicil 
apeculations,  which  ended  in  rejecting  all  religious  be- 
lief. In  consequence  of  an  infidel  work  which  he  wrote, 
entitled  i^i  Biatilude  da  Ckrtttint  (2d  ed.  1770,  8vo), 
be  was  imprisoned,  aud,Drtei  trial,  was  hanged,  and  his 
body  bunied  it  Paris,  Feb.  9, 1674.  See  Hoefer,  A'onr. 
Biog.  Ginirak,  s.  v. 

TalMe  (or  Valte),  Simon,  a  French  engraver, 
Iiaaid  (obave  been  born  at  Paria  about  1700.  He  stud- 
ied under  P.Drevet,  and  executed  several  plates  in  a 
neat  and  tasteful  style.  Among  them  are  [be  follow- 
ing: The  Trajwfigaralim  (Kaphael):--Sl:  ,/DAn  ia  the 
Jiaen  (ill,):— rAe  Flight  iaio  Kggpt  (Carlo  Maratti):  — 
The  Reiui-redion  nf  Liaann  (tiirolamo  HuKiano};— 
The  finding  nf  Hotel  (Francesco  RomazelU ) :  —  and 
others.    S^  Spooner,  Bwg.HUl.  of  tie  Fine  Arti,».  v. 

TaUemont,  PiEiti(sfa£orniuK,aWiii,aFrencb 
writer,  wis  bom  at  Ponl-Audemer,  SepL  10,  I64E>,  of  a 
Norman  family.  He  entered  the  religious  order;  was 
made  doctor  of  theology ;  lived  successively  at  Kouen, 
where  his  peculiar  views  encountered  uppoailion;  at 
Paris,  where  he  superintended  the  education  of  a  young 
nobleman ;  at  Versailles,  as  prior  of  St.  James  de  Bres- 
BuiiBj  and  Hnally  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  be 
died,  Dec.  SO,  1721.  It  is  not  known  for  what  reason 
he  Cookthesumameof  VallemonL  His  writings,  which 
ore  uf  a  philosuphico-religious  character,  are  enumerat- 
ed in  Hoefer,  A'dui^.  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Vallenaia.JohBDDM,  of  Autiin.France,  who  lived 
in  the  ISth  century,  is  the  author  of  Grammalica  Ht- 
braica  (Paris,  s.  a.) : — Opui  de  FriModia  lltbnrcmm  in 
I V  Librot  Ditieim  (ilud.  154S) : 
Acantiiam  Inrenlio;  the  second,  GrtmiiHaI.et  Mvtifi 
Laaii:  the  third,  Rbtlorid  AeemL  Offie.  etc;  the 
fourth,  Kaluml.  AaxnI.  Ijkbi.  Sec  Flint,  fiiU.  Jud. 
iii,  46S ;  Sleinschneider,  BibL  Ilandb.  Ho.  Wbb.    (R  P.) 


2  VALLEY 

Vallaiul*,  Thflophllna,  who  lived  in  tbe  ]7tfa 

century,  is  the  author  of  EniMri&M  Litgira  Samdit  t, 
Ebraa  Grammatiea  (IJpa.  16SI}.  See  FUnt,  BOl.  JmL 
iii,  468 ;  Sleinschneider,  BiU.  Hmdb.  So.  2067.     (B.  P.) 

Vallet  (or  Valat] ,  Guillaiihe,  a  French  engraver, 
wai  bom  in  Paria  in  1636.  After  some  study  of  his  an 
be  went  to  Rome,  where  he  rended  many  yean.  Hit 
plates  were  executed  with  the  graver,  and  his  printt 
poesesB  ooniiderable  nierit.  He  died  in  1704.  Amoi^ 
his  prints  the  followingdeserve  mention:  TluNaliTitj; 
TkeHoiyFamIs;  Mckhiudrkb'-imgingPrtimtiloAbro. 
hami  The  Lail  Supper— aSi  after  Raphael:— Tie  Ualf 
Famtig,  after  Guido,  also  after  Albino:  — and  serenJ 
others.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Bill,  of  tie  Fixe  AnM,t.v. 

Vallette,  William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis, 
ter,  studied  medidne  eaity  in  life;  joined  the  UliDoti 
Conference  in  1839;  was  transferred  luJtockKivetCon- 
ference  in  1S40;  indin  tbefullowinj;  year  waiordaiiwit 
deacon.  In  1846  hemorrhage  of  the  lungs  incapacilaKd 
him  for  further  ministerial  labor,  and  ciused  his  retire- 
ment to  Elgin  as  a  superinnuite,  where  be  spent  ibe 
remainder  of  hts  dav>  in  tha  practice  of  medicine.  He 
diedinlSTl.  See  ^(nufeiD/AiniitifCoii/tmcai,  1973, 
p.  113, 

Valley  (also  Vale),  a  hollow  sweep  of  giannd  be- 
tween two  more  or  less  parallel  ridges  of  high  laud. 
Vale  is  the  poetical  or  provincial  form.  It  is  in  lie 
nature  of  tbe  case  that  the  centre  of  a  valley  sboaU 
usually  be  occupied  by  tbe  stream  which  lonns  the 
drain  of  (he  high  land  on  nlher  side,  and  from  tbis  it 
commonly  receives  its  name.  Valley  is  distingaisbed 
from  other  terms  more  or  less  closely  relaled — on  the 
one  hand,  from  "glen,"  "ravine,"  "gorge,"  or  "dell,' 
which  all  express  a  depression  at  once  more  abripi  and 
smaller  than  a  valley ;  on  the  other  hind,  fn>m  "plain," 
which,  though  it  miy  be  used  of  a  wide  valley,  i*  not 
ordinarily  or  necmaiily  so.  It  is  lo  be  r^reited  ibit 
with  this  quisi-preciuon  of  meaning  the  term  abould 
not  have  been  employed  with  more  restriction  in  Ibe 
A.V.     See  TonraRAPHiCAL  TiCBMa. 

The  structure  of  the  greater  pan  of  the  Hdy  Land 
does  not  lend  itself  to  the  formation  of  rilleys  in  on 
sense  of  the  word.  The  abrupt  trinsitiimsofitscTowded 
rocky  hills  preclude  the  existence  of  any  extended  awnp 
of  valley;  and  where  one  such  dues  occur.ai  at  Hehran, 
or  on  the  snuth-eist  of  Geriiim,  the  irregular  and  uo- 
symmelricil  positions  of  the  encloung  hilb  lob  it  of  Ibe 
character  of  a  valley.  The  nearest  approach  ii  found 
in  the  apace  betneen  the  mounlains  of  Gerizim  and 
Ebal,  which  contains  the  town  of  ^'ab1a^  the  ancieiit 
Shechem.  This,  however,  by  i  singular  clisnce,  is  not 
mentioiied  in  tbe  Ilible.  Another  is  the  "raiiey  of 
Jezreei,"the  undulating  hallow  which  intetrcnes  be- 
tween Gilboa  (Jebd  Fukna)  ind  the  so-called  UlUe 
Hermon  (Jebel  Uuhv).    See  Paljcstike. 

Valley  is  employed  in  the  A-V.  to  reader  the  fidkn- 
ing  Heli.  and  Gr.  words.     Sec  Dalb;  Plaih. 

1.  Biiih (nStJB. from  rgB,  fodearr;  Sep!. niivr) 
appean  to  mean  rather  a  plain  than  i  vallei-,  wids 

closed  by  moan  tains,  like  the  wide  district  between  Leb- 
anon and  Anlilebanon,  which  is  still  called  the  Brh^a. 
It  denotes  a  wide  allurial  boltom,  and  its  leveloeiB  i> 
plainly  referred  to  in  Isa.  il,  4.  It  is  osualtv  rendend 
■^valley"  (DeuU  viii,  7j  li,  1;  xixiv,  S;  Josh,  si,  8. 
17;  >ii,T;  !  Chron.xixT,  23;  Psa.dv,8:  IiLxli,18; 
Ixiii,  t1;  Ezekixxvii,  J,  2;  Zech.xii,  It);  dwwhete 
"plun"  (Gen.  xi,  3;  Neb.  vi,  2;  Isi.  xl,  4;  Eiek.  iii, 
23,23,  viii,  4;  Amos  I,  G).  This  HeU  term  is  iK>lkd 
to  the  fi>llowing  places: 

(1.)  The  VaUty  o/Shinar  OSSID  1^3),  tbe  rid 
plain  of  Babylonia  (Gen.  xi,  2).  'See  Siiinab. 

(3.)  The  Vuliry  ^  Jericho  (in^^  nSpS).  the  Iowh 
end  of  the  Ghor,  or  plain,  Ihraogh  which  the  Jordan 


«  tbc  Dead  Sra  (Dent,  x: 


iv,  8).    See  Jkb- 


(3.)  Tkt  VaBrs  e/ LOamm  (^33^11  r;i?a>  the 
pUio  of  Ctele-SjrU  between  Che  Lebtnoo  and  Anlileb- 
anoa  ranges  (Joah.  xi,  17).     See  Lebanon. 

(4.)  TMe  VaUtf  o/Megidda  (Vl»  nS^a),  ■  p»tt  of 
(be  pUin  of  Eadnelon,  thiDugh  which  Che  Kuhon 
Bowed  (2  Chron.  ixiv,  22;  Zech.  ]tu,  II).     See  Me- 

(o.)  The  VaOtg  a/Mapeh  (rifSTS  P?^?),  the  pUin 
Uthe  Hiunnor  ofGilead,  eutofihe  Jonltn  (Joab.xi, 
4).    SeeMizPEH. 

(&)  Thf  ViJitg  a/Sharm  CiSncn  n7p3),  the  level 
met  aboDt  Jnppi,  Lodi,  and  Ramkb  (N«b.  vi,  2).  See 
Sharon. 

(7.)  Tie  VaUtg  of  Attn  ('^it  nS^^^),  tba  plain 
DanuMXne  Syria  (Arnoi  i,  5),  thought  by  (oiiw  to 
the  aame  as  X<>.  3.    See  Avkn. 

3:  'Emrk  (~ST,  tnta  p^I,  M  k  <{wp .-  Sept.  OMully 
fapay^or  soiXiicoccuionallva^Xui',  nfiov, or'" 
'Afiic;  A.  V.  iiivariibl)'  [except  Gen.  lii-,  17;  1 
iriii,  18]  ■•  valley")  de<igniile«  a  lonj;  broad  iweep  be- 


rallel 


pnceJing  term,  but  greater  than  the  fulluwi 
■nd  Bnaweringquileclmelyto  Che  Weitem  idea  in  geii- 
rral  of  a  raUfy  in  ila  proper  aense.  having  the  idea  of 
Inwneia  and  biradtb  rather  than  precipitateneaa  or  coii- 
finerariit.      It  b  apeciUeilly  ar>p1ieil  to  the  following  lo- 

(1.)  TlieVaUtfe/Adioi-(y\iS  pOS),  a  valley  near 
the  N.W.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (JMh."vii,  24,  261  k 
7;  laa.lKv,  10:  Ha9,ii,  15).    See  AcitOR. 

(2.)  Tht  VaUry  o/Ajalon  f|il>;x  pV3),  m  valley 
ibe  tribe  ot  Dan  (Joah.  x,  12).    See  Ajaia.s. 

(_3J)  TIk  r<i«tj  n///»*roaOi-ian  pas),  the  valley 
in  which  Hebron  liea  (tien.  nnxvil,  14).    See  Hebro!<. 

(4.)  Tkt  Vallry  of  JikoAnplua  (UBsin^  p^?).  the 
valle;  between  Jerusalem  and  the  Mount  of  Olive*  (Joel 
iii,  %  12);  iti  the  ume  connection  called  flgaratirely 
de  talUg  of  lie  dtcmm  (.y^-^nn  ppj,  ver.  14).  See 
Jehoshafhat. 

(5.)  Tie  VaUrg  of  Jarttl  (iw"ip  P135X  the 
em  exteoiion  of  the  plain  of  EMirie'lon  (ja«h.  ivji,  16 ; 
JudK-  vi.  33 ;  Hoa.  i.  fi).     See  JkzREEI. 

(6.)  Tkr  Vallry  of  Kaiz  {Y'37>  pOS),  a  valley  in 
thetiibeof  Beujaniin  (Josh,  xviii.'jl).'  See  Kezix. 

Besidea  the  above,  the  Cenn  ia  eometimn  used  aa  an 
appellative  for  certain  well-known  loealidca,  e.  g.fjle 
BrtBrjr  of  the  <efrpimg  (Vim.  Ix^iv.  6;  A.  V.- valley  oT 
Baka-  [n.t.'\),  tke  vuliey  nf  Uariiu,  (2  Chmn.  K x,  26 ; 
A.  V.  "  valley  of  Beracheb"  [q.  v.U  iht  rnOry  of  the 
«»*  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  19;  xxi.S;  A.  V. "  vallev  of  EUh" 
[c|.  v.]),  (Ae  raOy  of  ipmU  (Joah.  xv,  8;  xviii,  16; 
-valley  of  Rephaim"  [q.  v.],  2  Sam.  v,  18,22;  ixUi, 
13;  IChron.  xi,  Is;  xiv,9;  [at.  xv\i,h),lluvaUfg  of 
Skartk  [q.  v.]  (Gen.  xiv,  17),  or  of  the  kbig  ("dale," 
ibid.:  2San>.xviti,18),rA<iniiffyo/tAf  >Jiiiw;iii'i(Uen. 
xiv.  3,  8,  lOi  A.V. -of  Sliirtim-[q.v.]),<*<  po%  of 
hooUu(Pm.  U,«i  oviii,  7;  A.V."ofSuccoth"[q.v.]), 

8,  Gag  (X«i  or  ""J)  or  Grg  (»•>»  or  tf'l;  plur.  ni»!;3 
and  niM^lifrom  }li^i,lojloie;  Sept.  uaually  fapayOi  ■ 
deep  narrow  ruriae  with  a  (winter  or  perennial)  stream 
in  the  botCom, either becweenhillaOike  the  Ge-Hinnom 
at  Jmualem)  «-  through  an  open  pUin  (as  along  the 
Heditcmnean  oi  in  Hoob).  In  the  A.  V.  it  ia  invarin- 
bly  tendered  "valley"  (in  the  Sept.  occaaionallymiXnc, 
raTif.aiXwi',  and  even  yq).  It  ia  applied  distinctive- 
ly la  tbe  foUowing  localitiei.  SeeolaoAt;  Betii-peor, 
etc 

(1.)  Tie  VaUty  of  /7inun   (OJn  "I,  Jo«h.  xv,  8; 


13  VALLEY 

xviii,  16 ;  Keh.  xi,  80),  or  n/  tie  Am  q/*  Hiaum  (-^^ 
Bin, Joeh. XV, 8 )  xviii,16;  2 King) xiiii,  10 ;  2 Chron. 
xxviii,3;  xxxiii,e;  Jer.  vii,  81,  32;  xU,!,  6;  xxxii, 
86),  tbe  ravine  on  the  louth-weatem  nde  of  Jerulalem, 
whence  the  lenn  tieheniia  (q.v,). 

(2.)  The  Vallef  ofJiphlhah-et  (^X-nP|B7  ■<>),  a  ra- 
vine on  the  boundary  between  Zebulim  and  Aahet 
(Joah.  xix,  14,  37).    See  Jiphthah-eu 

(3.)  The  VaUry  ifZrphaikak  (nnBX  K^£),  a  ravine 
in  Ibe  tribe  of  SitiMoa  (2  Cbron.  xiv'  l(i).    See  Zkfha- 

(4.)  The  I'aflis  o/fi«for  (-lini  X*!}),  another  ravine 
in  Simeon  (I  Cbron.  iv,  89). 

(S.)  The  ValbfOfHamim-gog  (SI*  ^inn  ITt,  Eiek. 
xxxix,]l,  lb),  or  of  tie  Fattayoi  {W^Z'sn  ^l,  \er. 
11),  a  ravine  on  tbe  eaat  of  the  Sea  of  Ualil'ee.    See 

HAHON-OtM]. 

(6.)  TMe  Valleg  of  the  CraJUntfH  (D-VD^nn  ij,  Neb. 
li,  3S;  or  OilB^n  »■•»,  1  Chron,  iv,  14). "k  ravine  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah.     See  Ciiarabiiis. 

(7.)  The  Valby  nf  the  MtuaUum  (^'^Vrv.'i,  Zegh. 
xiv,  h,  or  Q^^H'^Ii,  ibid.),  a  ravine  neat  Jcciualem 
(q.v.). 

(fl.)  TAe  VaUff  of  Salt  (nSB  XiJ).  a  ravine  on  the 
S.W.  ahoie  of  the  Dead  Sea  (2  Sam.  viii,  13;  2  Kings 
.tiv,  7 ;  1  Chron.  xviii,  12 ;  2  Chron.  xixv,  1 1 ;  Psa.  Ix, 
title).     See  Salt. 

(9.)  The  Valley  of  the  ffyenat  {0-53X11  'B),  a  ra- 
vine in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (I  Sam.  x'iii,  IS).  See 
Zkboiu. 

Other  ravines,  such  aa  tit  vttOrg  nfcaion  (lu.  xxii, 
I,  G),  ofilaankltr  (Jer.  vii,  32;  xix,  6),  are  fanciful 
names,  and  still  more  tropical,  the  vallry  if  the  lAadov 
pf  death  (I'M.  xniii,  4). 

4.  Ndchal  (bllj,  from  bnj,  In  nceirt,  or  perhap  to 
jlow;  Sep(.fopoj5or;((i/«ippoin-!  A.  V,  often  "brook.' 

to  Che  Arabic  wady.  It  exprcaac*,  as  no  single  English 
word  can,  the  bed  of  a  stream  (often  wide  and  shelving 
and  like  a  "valley"  in  character,  which  in  the  rainy 
■easnn  may  be  nearly  filled  by  a  foaming  torrent,  though 
for  the  greater  pari  of  the  year  dry),  and  the  stream  it- 
aelf,  wbich  after  the  subsidence  of  the  rains  has  ilirunk 
in  insignificaiic  dimensions.  Many  of  the  waities  of 
Syria,  owing  to  the  demolition  of  the  wood  which  for- 
merly shaded  tbe  countiy  and  prevented  loo  raiud 
evaporation  after  rain,  are  now  entirely  and  constant- 
ly dry.  See  River.  As  Palealina  is  now  empliacieal- 
ly  a  land  of  wadies,  sn  this  HeU  term  is  of  very  fre- 
q'ueiiC  occurrence  in  the  Wble.  Stanley  ( TiiW.  ap- 
pend.) enumerates  fifteen  of  these  ivatcr. courses  or 
totrent-beds :  those  of  (ierar,  of  Eshcol,  of  Zered,  of  Ar- 
non,  of  Jabtnk.  of  Kanah,  nf  Kishon,  nf  Besor,  of  Sorek, 
of  Kidron,  of  (ioash,  of  Cheil t h,  of  Uad  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  5), 
of  Shitlim,  and  of  Rgvpt  (Numb,  xxxiv,  B;  Josh,  xv,  4. 
47;  I  Kings  viii,  65:  2  Kings  xxiv,  7i  2  Chron.  vii.  8 ; 
lea.  xxrii,  12).  This  last  could  not  he  distinguished 
by  a  mere  English  reader  from  tbe  "river  of  Kgypt," 
namely,  the  Nile,  although  in  the  original  an  entirely 
diSerent  ward  Is  used.  This  name  ndchal  is  also  ap- 
plied to  tbe  course  of  the  Gihon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  14), 
and  such  wadies  are  often  mentioneilin  the  txHik  of  Joh 
and  elsewhere  as  characteristic  of  Arabis;  (knoan  iC- 
self  ia  said  to  be  ■  land  of  them  (Deut.  viii,  7).  See 
Ukook. 

b.Hath-ShepheUhiy^VSn:9«\>t.Tl>vi!ii,v.iisiOiyli) 
is  tbe  only  case  in  which  the  employment  nf  the  li-rm 
"valley"  is  really  unfurtnnate.    The  district  to  which 

has  no  reaemblanci 


iweepi  gently  ih 


liny  hun 
II  from  tl 


red  n 


VALLEY-GATE 


ro4 


VAMIS 


It  i>  rendered  "the  vale"  in 
D«iiL  i,  7;  Josh.  X.  40;  I  Kingax,  27;  SChnin.  i,  Ifi; 
Jer.  xXKiii,  18;  luid  "the  vaUey"*  or  "valleys"  in  Josh, 
ix,  l;xi,2,  I6;xii,8:  xv,S3;  Judg.i,?;  jG[.xxxii,44. 
Sec  ShsfheUam, 

6.  In  Ihe  New  Teal-  there  is  little  notice  tnken  of  the 
eiteraal  Teaturea  of  Canaan.  In  Luke  vi,  17  we  rrad 
of  our  Lord  slanding  in  "the  plain,"  roTOf  iriJinif 
(hut  this  should  rather  be  "a  level  place");  and  in  iii, 
0  we  meet  with  "valky,"  ^/ipajl,  fur  M'l,  jny,  in  Ina. 

Valley-gate  (X^Sn  -lyij;  SepU  i  riX^  rflc  fii- 
pafyoi),  an  entrance  at  the  north-weat  end  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  ii,  13 ;  iii,  13 ;  coiiip.  2  Chron.  xxvi,9;  xxxiii. 
II);  probally  corresponding  to  Ihe  present  Jaffa  Gate 
(Keil,  Cammm.  on  .VtA.  ad  loc).    See  JuRUSALiut. 

Vallidre,  Louisk,  Dittiettt  de  la,  one  of  the  rnaida 
of  honor  to  the  duchess  or  Uricana  (Henrietta  of  Eng- 
bnd),  born  in  the  province  oT  Touraine  iu  1644.  She 
became  mistreaa  to  I>Hiis  XtV  in  1661,  and  loved  bim 
sincerely,  though  not  for  his  myal  title.  She  was  bo 
much  ashamed  of  her  equivocal  situation  that  she  en- 
tered a  convent,  from  which  she  was  taken  forcilily  by 
the  king  in  1670,  and  entered  again  by  joining  the  Car. 
'  melila  Order  in  1674  as  Saur  Loaue  de  la  Hutracrde 
{Sister  Louise  of  Mercy).  She  died  at  Ihe  Paris  Car- 
melite Convent  in  17l6.  She  wrote  Ltltrri  and  Rffirc- 
fust  on  tia  Mtrty  nf  God.  She  has  been  a  favorite 
theme  with  poets  and  |jaintere^  Ihe  Maiy  MagdaUm 
SmauiKiag  lie  Worbl,  painted  by  Le  Brun  as  an  altar- 
jdece  for  the  convent  in  which  she  made  her  prufesston, 
has  been  considered  a  portrait  of  her.  Others  consider 
Tie  FrnilaU  Magdalen  in  Ihe  Munich  (ialtery  as  more 
likely  to  be  her  portrait.  A  very  good  picture  of  Ibe 
Saar  Loaia  de  la  Mitraeorde  mav  be  seen  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  See  Jameson  [Mrs.],  Legeadi  n/iie  Morom- 
tic  Ordert,  p.  427. 

Talllscholares  {leholari  o/  the  valley),  an  order 
of  Romiah  monks  collected  by  the  »eAo/Dry*,otfour  pm- 
fessorsoftheolugyof  Paris.  They  were  Aist  called«:j(o- 
laret,  but  afterwards,  retiring  lo  a  valley  of  Campania 
(1234),  Iheir  name  was  changed  to  that  by  which  they 
are  now  known.  This  society  naa  lirst  governed  by  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  but  ii  is  now  united  with  the 
Canons  Regular  afS^Geneviive(q■v.}.  See  Mosheim, 
Nul.  o/lhe  Church,  bk.  iii,  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii.ch.  ii. 

VallombrSaa  (ihadg  ralleg),  a  former  Benedicline 
monastery  in  a  valley  of  the  Apennines,  eighteen  miles 
from  Florence,  founded  in  1039  by  (iinvanni  UuBlberlo 
(q.  v.).  The  present  buildings  were  erected  in  I63fl, 
but  the  establishment  was  Biippreucd  iu  1369  by  the 
Italian  government,  and  the  builUings  converted  into  a 
royal  school  of  foreslry. 

Tallonlo,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  nymph  of 

ValolB,  FtfLix  nK,  a  pious  Frenchman  who,  in  com- 
pany with  John  of  Matha  (q.  v.),  founded  Ibe  Order  of 
Brethren  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  for  Ihe  redemption  of  cap- 
tives, in  the  earlv  part  of  the  ISlh  cenlurv.  He  led  a 
aolitary  life  at  Cerfroi,  in  the  diocese  of  Meaux,  where 
the  principal  house  of  the  sect  still  exists.  See  Jame- 
aon  [Mrs.],  Lege«di  of  the  Moaanic  Order;  p.  217  sq. 

Talpneata,  Pepro,  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Osma,  in  Old  Castile,  in  1614.  He  is  said  lo  have  stud- 
ied with  Eug^nio  Caxes,  whose  style  be  was  Ihe  most 
successful  in  imilaling.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  1688. 
His  principal  works  are  in  the  churches  and  convents 
at  Madrid.  The  most  important  are  a  series  of  pictures 
representing  the  life  uf  the  Virgin,  in  the  Church  of  San 
Miguel  -.-^Tht  Hiig  Fomilg,  in  the  chapel  of  the  Ho»- 
pitaldel  Buensuceso :— ^  pictures  of  the  history  of  S/. 
Clara,  in  the  convent  of  Ibe  Franciscan  Nuns.  See 
Spooner, Piog. Hal. "fihe  Fine  ArU,t.v. 

Valpy,  Edward,  D.D^  a  clergjinan  of  the  Church 


of  England,  bom  In  Ihe  iaiand  of  Jemy  in  1764.  H« 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  took  ordeca 
in  the  Church,  and  was  fur  many  years  asHslant  to  liia 
brutber  Richard  (q.  v.)  in  the  classical  depnrtment  <d 
his  school  at  Heading.  He  became  head-maaler  of  tbs 
grammar-scbuol  at  Norwich  in  1810.  He  held  the  ne- 
tury  of  Thuaiie  and  the  vicarage  of  Su  Harv's,  Wala- 
ham,  Norfolk.  He  died  at  Yarmouth,  April' 1&,  1892. 
His  published  works  are,  t'legatitia  iMftma  (IHtS) ; — 
Creek  TrMamenl  (18IG,  3  vnls.};— 7'Ae  Stpiaagiai  (1819); 
—and  Homer't  Iliad  (1819). 

Valpy,  Rlohaid,  D.D.,  F.RS.,  ■  den^man  of  the 
Church  of  England,  bum  in  the  island  of  Jeraev,  I>ec  7, 
1754.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  tolo^fMa, 
Nurmandy,l764lnl769;  at  the  Southampton  Graniinu- 
schuolj  and  at  Pembroke  Gdlege,  Oxford,  when  b« 
graduated  i^ut  1776.  He  took  orders  in  the  Cburch, 
held  for  several  vears  a  living  at  Burv  St.  Edmiuid'a, 
and  became  rector  of  Stradi>hall,  S^olk.  in  1787. 
From  IT81  to  1 830  he  was  head-master  of  the  celebrated 
school  founded  at  Reading  by  Henri-  VII,  and  compoaed 
fur  that  institution  a  series  of  clasMcal  text-books  of 
consiilerable  reputation.  He  died  at  Kensington,  Harcb 
38, 18S6. 

Vamana.the  fll^h  avatar,  or  incarnation,  of  Yialniti, 
iu  which  he  appears  as  a  dwarf.  Bali  was  ■  pownful 
king  who  conquered  Indra  (q.  v.),  ruled  over  the  Ihra* 
worlds,  and  Ailed  the  gods  uith  dismay  for  tbeir  fut4ire 
prosperity.  Even  Vbhnu  could  overcome  him  only  by 
craft.  While  Bali  was  perforaoing  on  an  eitranrdinarr 
acale  a  sacrifice  in  honor  of  the  gods,  in  order  that  he 
might  gain  still  more  power  by  his  meritorious  actioo 
and  rule  more  widely  than  ever,  a  dwarf  appnwchcd 
him  and  did  him  reverence  Pleased  with  the  ilevuuc 
and  unpretending  manner  of  the  little  Brahman,  BoK 
asked  him  to  demand  a  boon,  bowcrer  costly  it  mi^t 
be..  But  the  dwarf  merely  asked  for  HI  much"  grouud  as 
he  could  measure  with  three  paces.  The  king  tmiUng. 
ly  granted  so  modest  a  request,  although  his  famay 
priest  Usanaa,  suspecting  Ihe  divine  nature  of  the 
dwarf,  strongly  dissuaded  him  from  dcung  so.  Thai 
the  giHl  leaped  up  as  the  mightiest  uf  ihe  boot  oT  bear- 
eu,  and  slrnlc  uith  one  pace  over  the  earth,  with  a  mt- 
und  over  the  intermediate  space  or  atmosphere,  and 
with  a  third  over  the  sky,  thus  leaving  to  Bali  oidy  the 
lower  regions,  which  he  assigned  him  as  his  future 
abode.  The  utterance  of  Bali  in  reference  lo  this  da- 
aster  will  serve  to  show  how  sacred  a  promise  ta  hi4d 
by  the  HindQs  when  once  obtained.  He  aaiil,  "  It  re- 
nowned chief  of  the  gods,  yon  consider  ibe  word  whidi 
I  uttered  to  be  deceitful,  I  now  do  what  is  Hoccre  and 
can  be  no  deception,  place  your  third  step  on  mv  hMd. 
Fallen  from  my  posilion,  I  fear  not  Ihe  inferual  n-gioas, 
or  binding  in  bnnils.or  misfortune  difficult  to  escape,  or 
loss  of  wealth,  or  your  restraint,  so  much  as  I  am  afflict- 
ed by  a  bad  name"  (Muir,  OrigiRal  Santa-it  Ttrtj,  ir, 
128).  For  his  piety  and  promise-keeping  auuiner  be 
was  rewarded  by  Vishnu  with  the  promise  that,  after  ■ 
temporary  residence  in  one  of  the  moat  delightful  places 
orPatala(q.v.),heehouldbeboniaBfndraintbe  mga 
of  the  eighth  Manu. 

The  Vedic  conception  of  the  three  strides  of  Tuhna 
ia  doubtless  the  basis  of  the  idea  from  which   thia 

considered  to  have  been  a  son  of  ihe  same  Eaavapa 
[see  Vabama]  who  is  also  Ihe  father  of  HiranyaViripa 
and  Hiranyaksha;  but  while  their  mother  is  Dili,  the 
dwarf's  mother  is  A  dili  (space) ;  and  as  she  had  preri. 
ously  bronght  forth  Indra,  Vishnn  is  sometimes  called 
Upendni,  or  the  younger  Indra,  As  siui  of  Adiii,  ^~ub- 
Du  becomes  one  of  the  Adilyas.    See  Visitxu. 

Vamia,  or  Vaxnachaila  {le/l-kand  •conliipptrf), 
a  HiiidQ  sect  who  adopt  a  ritual  contrary  to  what,  the; 
dare  publicly  avow.  They  worship  Devi,  the  Sokti  uT 
Siva  (q.  v.).  The  Sakli  is  personated  by  a  naked  fe- 
male, lo  whom  tneat  and  wine  are  offered  and  then  dia- 


VAN  ARSDALE 
ng  the  MIentlanti.    Then  follawa  the  re 


I  of  th«  m 


dra.  Di  gnticulatii; 
DDtiiti;  wilh  the  nwac  Kiiidilous  orgici.  Tbe  memben 
eif  [hii  9«t  are  verv  iiumeruus,  eapecially  among  tb« 
Unbminical  tribe.  Theii  iiiaigni*  an  a  seniicircnlar 
liae  or  lin«a  on  the  forebead,  of  red  unden  ot  venuil- 
»n,  or  a  red  streak  up  the  middle  ot  the  rorehead, 
niib  a  ml  apot  at  the  root  nf  the  nose.  In  worabip- 
ping  Ihty  wvar  a  fneee  of  red  silk  imund  the  Ioidb, 
•ml  dKOtate  themwlvea   with   gsrisnils  of    crimson 

Tan  Atsdale,  Comellna  C,  D.D^  a  Reformed 
(Diiltb)  miniBter  of  the  United  States.  He  graduated 
at  Rul^is  College  in  lK!8,andat  Nevr  Brunswick  Tbe- 
ologieal  Seminary  in  ISBt;  supplied  Central  Church, 
frooklyn,  1838-40;  Soalb  Church,  Brooklyn,  1840-11; 
FirstChorch.Philadelphia,  1841-49;  Greenwich  Church, 
NcwVork  city,  IBoJ-U.  He  died  in  1856.  Hiapub- 
lUhed  works  conaiat  orKrmoni  preached  on  Tarious  Iid- 
panant  public  occasions.  See  Coivrin,  UaMial  of  the 
Rt/.Ck.inAnerica,i.v. 

Tan  Aradala,  MelviUe,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
Diniattr,  was  bom  in  Uuatgomery  County,  ludl,  Hatch 
SI,  1845;  embraced  religion  inhiarourteeiithyear;  stnd- 
Itd  atTbomlown  Academy;  served  aa  a  soldier  in  tbe 
Union  army;  and  in  1867  entered  the  Upper  Iowa  Con- 
ference, Later  he  waa  tranaferred  to  the  Notth-weat 
Indiana  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  but  a  short 
time,  and  then  returned  to  hia  father's  home  in  Thorn- 
Ion,  and  died  Dec  25, 1S75.  See  Mimla  ofAaaaal 
Ca^tnmee*,  1876,  p.  98. 

Van  Andale,  Simeon,  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
fomied  (Dutch)  Cbnrcb,  was  bom  in  IT54.  He  was 
licensed  in  1783,  and  preached  at  Keadington,  N.  J.,  ITS3- 
K&  He  waa  a  powerful  and  polished  preacher,  ardent 
in  piety,  and  untiring  in  all  hia  pastoral  labors,  but  waa 
cut  off  in  tbe  rerv  beginning  of  his  ministry.  He  died 
in  1786.     SeeCwwin,  J/fmuofo/Uc^.  CA.  in.4nier- 

Tanatta,  Sauukl  F.,  a  Preabyterian  minister,  waa 
bom  in  Bridgeport,  Belmont  Co.,  0.,SepL  |-J,  1826.  He 
Mas  cducateil  in  Franklin  College,  New  Athens,  0.,  and 
studied  theology  in  the  Aasociale  Kefiirmcd  Seminary. 
AUegheov,  Pa.  He  was  licensed  by  Steubenville  Prcs- 
Uvterr,  June,  1B55.  He  died  in  Vicksburg,  Miss..  May 
30,  1861.  See  Witaon,  Prab.  HiU.  AUtanac,  1866,  p. 
380. 

Van  Bokkelen,  James  Et.i.isiKJs,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  N'or.  17, 
1830,  aged  tweuty-Sve  years.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
theGsneral  Theological  Seminary,  and  duiinj;  his  short 
miniury  had  charge  of  Grace  Church.Elk  Kidge  Und- 
ing,  Md.,  and  St,  Paul's  Church,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  At  tbe 
lime  of  his  death  be  was  asuatant  minister  of  St.  Timo- 
tby'a  Church,  Md.  See  .4BU!r.  *ior.  Ch.  Ba.  1851,  p. 
639. 

Van  Bnmt,  Rutoebs,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  waa  bom  in  New  York  in  1820.  He 
graduated  at  Hobart  College  in  1 B40.  and  at  New  Bruns- 
wick Theological  Seminary  in  1848,  when  he  waa  licensed 
by  the  clasiia  of  that  institution.  He  preached  at  Ai- 
baDT,K.r.,  1 848-49;  Newark,  N.  J.,  1849;  Smithtown 
ind'CanDel,N.Y.(PreBb}-teTian),  1851-57;  Waterfiird, 
N.  V-  1837-61.  He  died  April  28,  I86S.  He  was  a 
man  of  broad  and  liberal  culture,  a  thorough  student,  a 
pious  and  faithful  minister.  Hia  labors  were  bleated  by 
a  rerival  at  Newark.  See  Corwiu,  Jtfanuii/  of  the  Rrf. 
CLm  America,  A.  r. 

Van  Btinachooten.  Elias,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Refotmeit  (Dutch)  Church  in  America,  son  of  a  farmer, 
Temiia  Van  Bunachoolen,  waa  bom  at  New  Hackensack, 
near  Fiahkill,  K.  Y.,  Oct.  26, 1738.  He  waa  one  of  five 
bmthen,  none  of  whom  ever  married,  nlihongh  all  of 
tbem  lived  to  adult  age.  One  of  them,  while  on  a  vov- 
X.— 28 


VAN  BUNSCHOOTEN 

E  to  the  West  Indies,  waa  killed  by  mutineers,  with  all 
board  except  a  small  bay.  One  of  these  mutineers. 
med  Andeiaon,  after  conviction  in  New  York,  was  ex- 
ecuted upon  an  island  in  the  harbor,  which  haa  ever 
been  called  Aiideraon'a  or  Gibbet  Island,  where 
I  and  other  pirateawere  afterwards  hanged.  There 
also  three  sisters,  all  of  whom  were  muthera  of 
large  families.  Mr.  Van  Bunschoolen  was  educated  at 
Princeton  College;  graduated  in  1768;  studied  theology 
with  Dr.  Hermanns  Meyer.of  Kingston:  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1773  by  the  "General  Meeting  of  Ministers 
and  Elders."  He  aettled  that  year  at  Schagbticoke, 
N.  Y.,  and  remained  until  1786,  when  he  remored  to  the 
Kitlatinny  valley,  which  e.ilends  from  the  Delaware  to 
the  Hud30n,Bnd  became  pastor  of  three  united  churches — 
Minisink,  N.  Y. ;  Magagcamack  (now  Port  Jervis),  N.  Y. ; 
and  Walpack,N.y.  Duringhisministiy  anotberCburch 
was  formed  st  the  Clove  in  17SB  (Dutch  tloop,  a  valley 
iVoFcnby  a  stream).  At  this  place  he  ultimately  located 
hia  home  upon  an  extensive  farm,  tn  1803  a  plentiful 
rerivalblesaedbiafaithful  ministry.  He  withdrew  from 
active  service,  on  account  of  age,  in  1812,  and  died  Jan. 
10,  1815.  Mr.  Van  Bunschouien's  ministry  waa  pure 
and  healthful  in  its  influencea.  He  was  fond  of  booka 
and  of  learning.  He  preached  equally  well  in  Dutch 
and  in  English,  always  from  a  careful  analysis,  but  often 
with  peculiarities  of  thought  which  were  quite  charac- 
teristic, and  uotalwaysin  good  taste.  Hia  voice  waa  full, 
but  not  loud,  and  bis  manner  in  the  pulpit  waa  earnest 
and  impressive,  llewas  very  eccentric  Hewasabout 
six  feet  high,  erect  and  stalely,  and  there  was  "aome- 
thing  about  him  that  reminded  you  of  an  Indian  chief." 
His  general  manner  was  rather  austere,  although  to  in- 
timate friends  he  could  pleasantly  unbend.  Under  his 
ministry  the  very  primitive  and  uncultivated  people  of 
his  extensive  charge,  which  was  fifly  miles  long,  and  in 
a  newly  opened  wilrtemcss  region,  greatly  improved  in 

which  is  attributed  to  his  influence.    He  was  scrupu- 
lously  exact  in  all  his  business  transactions.    Hia  aalary 


ortgaged  his  farm 


deacon,  who  had  collected  hi 


istry  ceased  this  mortgage  waa  foreclosed,  and  the  place 
waa  given  to  the  Church  aa  a  paraonage.  He  owned  a 
mill, and  once  sent  his  negro  servant  on  boraeback  after 
a  creditor,  who  would  not  wait  for  three  ccuta  change,  a 
distance  of  seven  miles,  to  overtake  him  and  pay  his  debt 
in  fulL  He  married  a  couple,  whom  he  had  been  sent 
fur  to  join  in  wedlock,  while  the  Delaware  River,  swol- 
len by  a  freshet  and  bridgeless,  waa  mnning  belweai  him 
and  the  bappy  parties  to  whom  he  could  not  crosa.  In 
his  maiilage  register  he  headed  thedate  column  "Time 
of  execution."  During  hia  laat  iUnesa  he  insisted  upon 
paying  every  one  of  his  nelghboia  who  watched  with 
him  at  nigbt  or  by  day  a  day's  wages  in  silver,  how- 
ever unwilling  they  might  be.  This  was  his  sense  of 
exact  Justice  and  independence.  Inheriting  a  hand- 
some portion  from  bia  father's  estate,  and  by  frugal  man- 
agement acquiring  a  large  property,  in  his  old  age  he 
devoted  an  unusual  proportion  of  hu  worldly  gooda  to 
the  cause  of  ministerial  education.  At  the  suggestion 
ofhialife-longfriend  Dr.  John  H.IJvingaton,  who  wrote 
him  a  memorable  letter  just  when  he  was  about  remov- 
ing from  New  York  to  take  charge  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  in  New  Brunswick,  July  SI,  1810  (L^enfLte- 
ingilon,  p.  250-256),  he  donated  a  large  fu 


le  the  fou: 


gets  {then  Queen's)  College,  to  educate  "pious  j'oung 
men  who  hope  they  have  a  call  of  God  to  preach  the 
Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,"  The  nomination  of  incum- 
bents must  always  be  made  by  the  General  Synod.  The 
manner  in  whiah  this  fund  was  given  waa  perfectly 
characteristic  of  the  donor.  While  the  General  Synod 
of  1814  waa  aitting  in  New  York,  the  venerable  and 
quaint-looking  old  man,  with  hia  broad-brimmed,  round- 
crowned  hat  in  hand,  walked  calmly  up  thn 


VAN  BUREN  ? 

virdi  the  preiidenl'i  aeat,  bowing  u  he  came  up,  and 
Hid,  "Mr.  President,  I  wanl  (a  talk."  Nubodr  knew 
him,  and  the  preadent  aakeil,  "Ara  you  >  member  of 
this  body,  tit  ?"    "  No,  air,"  wu  the  reply, "  but  I  want 


TU* 


memben  bid  ■  right  to  apeak,  when  an  igad  minialer, 
wlio  bad  just  come  in,  recogniaed  him,  and  aaid,  "  1 
move  that  the  Rev.  Elias  Van  Bunacbooten  have  leare 
to  laLk."  It  woA  narried,  and  then  Ihe  old  patriarch 
went  up  to  the  [ireaideni'a  table,  drew  from  hia  pocket 
a  latge  roll  o(  bank-Uilla  and  counled  ibem  — (SOU. 


Then 


B  aatoniabed  aynod. 
ann  asaeu  a  committee  oi  coniereQce  lo  amuige  the 
conditiona.  Subaequently,  by  wiLI,  he  added  other  aama, 
the  whole  being  allowed  lo  accumulate  until  it  leaehed 
#20,000.  Such  ia  the  hiatacy  of  this  endowment,  which 
waa,  so  far  aa  ia  known,  the  jfrtf  one  made 


Wy.ai 


ain\y  tli 


le  liefon 


dChur 


Jhr  ihtolagwal  educoiion,  Xot  a  doUar  of  it  baa  been 
loeL  The  capital  now  aroounu  to  ovei  $20,000,  whik 
the  interest  baa  educated  over  one  handred  and  eicenttf- 
jiw  young  men  for  [he  miiiiatry,  aome  of  whom  have 
been  among  the  moat  eminent  and  uaeful  in  the  aervice 
of  the  Church  at  homeand  in  foreign  hinda,  "And  bvit 
be.  being  dead,  yet  speaketh."  In  HIT  Hr.  Von  Bun- 
Bcboolen'a  rcinaina  were  removed,  by  direction  of  the 
(ieneral  Synud,  to  the  graveyard  of  the  ancient  chnrcb 
in  New  Brunswick,  where  they  lie  beside  those  of  hia 
friend  Dr.  liviiigacon  and  other  profcaaora  of  theology. 
At  the  disinterment  of  hia  body,  a  reiipectable  uncon- 
verted woman  of  his  Church,  who  atoodluoking  on,  was 
au  powerfully  affected  by  the  recollection  of  his  faithful 
led  private  teachings  that,  as  she 


wthe. 


cry  of  a. 


became  almost  hclpleaa  from  the  rush  of  her  feelings  of 
ain  and  rigbleouaneai  and  Judgment  to  coiue;  she  sank 
■Imoat  into  despair,  and  il  waa  nearly  ■  year  before  she 
found  peace  in  believing.    The  very  singular  and  yet 

Tan  Bunaclipolen,  and  which  require  it  lo  be  read  at 
the  regular  meetings  of  the  synods  and  classes  of  (he 
Church, "  not  fur  aggrandizement  ur  self-oatentation,  but 
to  be  an  humble  pattern  to  others."  were  drawn  np, 
doubtleaa  at  hia  auggeatiun  however,  by  the  Hon.  Abra- 
ham Van  Vechteu  of  Albany,  an  eliler  of  the  synod  and 
member  of  the  committee  of  conference.  Tlio  ■'pattern" 
iat  been  nobly  "  followed  by  others."  See  McClure,  in 
the  Neic  Bnmticidc  Rev.  1853;  Todd,  U/e  o/ICtp.  P. 
Labaghi  Gunn,  Life  of  Dr.  J,  U,  LiriiigiloH;  Corwin, 
ifamtal  of  the  Ref.  Ch.  ia  America,  s.  v.  (W.J.  R.T.) 
Van  Bnrsn,  P.  H.,  a  voung  niinislcr  of  tbe  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  Church,  waa' bom  at  Fulionville,  N.  Y.,  J 
1846.  He  graduated  with  honors  at  tt>e  Univereitv  i 
the  Citv  of  New  York  in  1864,  and  at  the  New  Bruns- 
wick Theulogical  Seminarv  in  1867;  was  licensed  aa  a 
minister  in  1867,  and  called  to  the  Church  at  Fteeh<dd, 
K.  J.,  but  waa  prevented  fmni  settling  by  sickiiesti,  and 
died  in  I8G8.  He  had  ma<le  thorough  preparation  for 
the  mlnistr;',  but  be  resigned  himaelf  lo  the  willof  Goil 
and  departed  in  peace.    Uee  Corv/in,  Manual  nftlie  Rrf, 


VANDALS 

and  waa  ordained  and  installed  by  the  Union  PrMbi- 
'  '  divlaionoftbeChurchin  183T-3HhewB 
the  only  member  nf  tbe  rreabytery  who  adhered  lo  tbe 
^bool  side.  Aa  a  result  of  bis  adherence  his  prop- 
■aa  all  taken  from  him,  and  he  waa  reduced  la 
:y.  In  18G7  he  attended  the  meeting  uf  the  Ges- 
eral  Asaembly  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  after  which  he  re- 
moved to  Illinoia  and  had  several  calls  from  cbntchea 
in  that  atate;  but  Providence  having  opened  a  wayfo 
hia  return  to  bis  old  charge  at  Baker's  Cieek,  he  avail- 
ed himself  of  it,  and  retunied  and  resumed  hia  miDiaoa- 
tiuna.  Here  he  renuined  and  Aniahed  his  long  and  ok- 
ful  labors.  Iledied  at  Uniiia,Tenn^NoT.  1,  ISTt.  Set 
Tie  Pi-aJytoioB,  Jan.  25, 1873.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Vance,  Thomaa  P..  a  Methodist  Epiicni^  mini<- 
ter,  was  converted  in  1827,  joined  the  Kentuckv  Cunr»- 
ence  in  1829,  in  which  he  conlinuol  faichfuraiid  •«- 
cesaful  until  his  death  from  bilious  fever,  Oct.  6, 18». 
Sec  Minula  of  Anmal  Ctrnfrrenca,  1836,  p.  348. 

Van  Cleet  CoRNKuua,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  Church,  bom  at  Harlingen,  N.  J^  Sifit. 
IG.  1799.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  IRS. 
and  at  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminarv  in  ISK: 
waa  licensed  at  rhiladelphia  in  I8J6;  misaiimarr  at  Pal- 
atine, N.  J„  in  1826;  at  Manavunk.  fa,  1827  'to  IKf: 
Athens,  1828  to  1H3B ;  New  Hackenaaek.  N.  J.,  1«3  Id 
1866,  and  died  June  13,1876.  He  waa  converted  at  Uh 
age  of  aixl«en,  and  waa  eminent  for  piety  during  hu 
whole  life.  Aaa  preacher  he  waa  faithful,  eanwn,aDd 
impreaaive.  See  Corwin,  Manual  nf  ric  KtfirrwtJ 
Church  m  A  mei-ica,  a.  v. 

Vandalm  ( fanduU,  Waadali,  T~>»fifi)  were  a  Get- 
manic  tribe  which  ranks  with  the  Cuths,  Hendian, 
Kugisns,  etc,  among  the  migratory  hordes  thai 
swarmed  over  the  bounilariea  of  the  devoted  Rmaa 
empire  and  founded  new  states  upon  its  ruini.  Thii 
people  posaeaaes  great  importance,  not  only  tiit  pmeral 
hiatorv-,  but,  by  reason  of  ita  pissionaic  oppontioa  in 
the  Catholic  faith,  for  the  history  of  the  Church  u  weU. 
Their  original  seat  waa  in  I  he  northern  aections  of  tbe 
Kieaengebirge  and  the  modem  Luiatia,  whence  ibey 
burst  forth  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Marcua  Aureliu 
as  the  allies  of  (he  Marcomanni.  Some  yean;  lalettbty 
appeared  on  the  hordera  of  Dacia  by  the  aide  of  t  he  GMh> 
and  Gepide,  but  were  induced  by  the  emperor  Pnba) 
to  setlle  peaceably  in  that  province.  They  were  at  a 
later  day  badly  defeated  by  tbe  Goiha,  aod  given  a  iw- 
idence  in  Fannonia  by  the  emperor  Coutantine,  whert 
they  austained  friendly  relationa  lo  their  neigbbon.  aaJ 
lily  from  the  Viaigoths  in  iia  Arian 


ir  406  tbe  Vandab  laid  aaide  their  peaofid 


withth 


e  of  h 


I  lost  cc 


swept  in  savage  irruption  over  ibe  countriea  of  Wetfna 
Europe.  They  defeated  the  Gauls,  crossed  tbe  Hvn- 
neea,aiul  entered  Spain,  ultimately  settling  in  the  suaib- 
westem  part  of  the  peninsula  (Vandalitia,  Andahtaal 
and  making  it  the  base  from  which  they  carried  barba- 
rous devaaiBliona  into  all  the  regions  accenible  Ui  ibrit 
armies,  the  fanatical  auppreasion  of  the  Catholic  panv 
being  everywhere  a  noliceaUe  feature  in  their  upeia- 
lions.  Tbe  acceasion  of  Genseric  (tiaiaeric,  Geiaerici  <f 
the  sovereignty  in  428  began  a  new  epoch  in  iSeir  his- 
tory. Count  Boniface,  the  Roman  governor  of  Africa, 
having  been  goaded  on  to  rebellion  ibrough  ibe  m    " 


'd  Gee- 


was  reduced  almost  to  a  skeleton.  Uiewtiele  care  after 
converalon  was  aa  lo  huw  he  could  do  the  most  good  in 
the  world,  and  be  determined  lo  preach  ihe  Gospel. 
Folluwiogout  hia  purpose,  be  entered  Wash  inp^on  Col- 
lege, £ast  Tennessee,  from  which  he  graduated,  lie 
waa  prevented  from  entering  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  from  want  of  health,  and  ha  pursued  his  the- 
ological studies  with  a  private  tutor,  lie  entered  the 
ministry  in  I8'28  at  Baker's  Creek  Church,  E.  Tenn., 


aitd  the  latler  lenpnnlni 
by  creasing  over  imo  Africa  with  more  than  Gfly  thou- 
aand  men  in  May,  429.  Boniface  was  a«an  afterward- 
reconciled  lo  the  emperor,  through  Ihe  effuns  ofAui^u^ 
line,  bishop  of  Hippo,  and  thereupon  endeavored  lu  tum 
back  hia  Vandal  allica,  first  by  peiaoaaion  and  aUcrwaru-- 
by  force  of  arms,  but  without  auccesa.  In  435  Ihey  caa- 
clnded  a  treaty  with  Rome,  which  gave  them  Ihe  prov- 
inces of  .Mauritania  andNumidia;  four  years  afitrwanb 
Carthage  fell  into  tbeirhanda  and  waa  made  the  oipitil 


VANDALS  7C 

otlfacir  poneaaiana.    Sicilj.  Sardinia,  Conjo,  Mijorca. 

■nd  Uiiiom  were  included  in  tlicic  empin.  In  465 
Rome  itwir  waa  taken,  [he  ampcror  Maximua  hiUml, 
and  the  cit;  gircn  orer  to  pillage  during  fmirlcen  dflys 
—June  lh-'29.  Many  priwnerti,  among  them  the 
tiDpreaa  Kudoicia  and  her  tvu  diughtcn,  and  many 
tnaHirea  awl  worka  at  art  were  taken  aviav  Ui  their 
Arridan  doRiiniona.     The  empire  twice  ende'avoiwl  to 

Taden— Hnt  in  4liT,  when  a  fleet  aent  against  the  Van- 
daU  was  deatnived  by  Genserio  in  the  bay  of  Cartha- 
gena;  and  agun  in  4G8,  when  an  expedition  aent  from 
the  East,  and  oommanded  by  Heraclius,  encountered  a 
■imilar  fate  ofF  the  city  ot  Dona.  Genaoric  died  Jan. 
la,  477.  L'nder  hii  rule  the  Vandala  extended  their 
dominion)  in  every  direction ;  but,  in  the  pmceas,  con- 
ducted themielrea  Kith  auch  batbirity  in  the  securing 
of  (pail  and  the  deatruction  uf  works  of  art  that  the 
world  fixed  on  them  ita  atigma  oropprobHum,  and  per- 
petoaied  it  Tor  all  time  by  the  eoiniiig  of  the  term  Via- 
liilitn.  Especially  cmel  waa  their  treatment  of  ortho- 
dox Chrisliana  aa  it  ii  deacribed  by  the  contemporary 
biahop  Victor  of  ViUi  in  the  province'Of  Byzacium. 
Not  only  weie  churches  and  othel  buildinga  destroyed, 
but  alto  cities^  field*  and  plantations  were  devastated; 
ilergj'men,  wealthy  laymen,  Bnd  women  of  every  age 
iDd  rank  were  mada  to  endure  every  furm  ofaulTeTing. 

driven  toother  in  the  vicinity  of  fortressoa  impregna- 
ble to  the  Vandal  arms,  and  there  maaaaered  in  order 
that  the  stench  of  the  putrefying  bodies  might  compel 
a  mrrender.  After  the  capture  of  Carthage,  Genseric 
aDDounced  hi*  determination  to  thoroughly  superaede 
the  Catholic  with  the  Arian  doctrine;  and  to  accom- 
plish this  result  he  either  banished  or  enslaved  the  or- 
Ibodox  clergy  and  taity  and  gave  the  churches  to  his 
friends.  Hunneric.  the  son  and  successor  of  Genserio, 
fuUowed  hia  filher'a  example.  The  Catholics  of  Car- 
thage were  at  Hrst  permitte<l  to  choose  a  bishop,  and  se- 
lected Eugenios;  butihe  persecutions  soon  began  afresh. 
Unly  Ariana  were  allowed  to  bold  office  in  the  Sute ; 
and  iBCb  Catholics  as  hod  been  in  official  ainiiona  were 
deposed,  deprived  of  their  property,  and  banished.  De- 
voted virgina  were  tortured  to  compel  the  confeswon 
that  they  had  been  guilty  of  illicit  relations  with  cler- 
eycoea  of  their  faith.  About  five  thousand  Catholics, 
chiefly  clergymen,  were  banished  lo  the  desert,  where 
nany  starved  to  death  and  olhen  died  nf  the  maltreat- 
ment they  experienced.  In  4H  the  African  bishops 
were  summoned  to  meet  the  Arians  at  Carthage,  and  en- 
deavor to  prove  the  Homoomian  creed  from  the  Script- 
ures. No  bishop  tnm  beyond  the  sea  were  allowed  tn 
be  present.  I'tevious  to  the  meeting  of  the  svnoil  sev- 
eral orthodox  bishops  were  scnurg^.  and  the  respected 
and  learned  biahop  Latus  of  Depte  was  burned  at  the 
stake.  In  the  synod  Cyrilbi,  Arian  patfiarrh  of  the 
Vaodals,  presided,  seated  with  his  coreligionists  upon  an 
elevated  throne,  while  the  onbodox  bishops  stood  be- 
fore it  in  the  attitude  of  criminals.  When  they  vent- 
arcd  to  protest  against  this  indignity,  as  also  against 
the  aaiumption  of  patriarchal  functions  by  Cyrilla,  they 
were  each  beaten  with  one  hundred  blows  with  rods. 

oi'mka  who  refused  to  become  Ariana  lo  be  tortured  at 
Carihof^  and  then  taken  on  shipboard  to  be  burned  to 
death  on  the  high  seas — a  plan  which  failed  because  the 
venel  would  ttot  bum,  ao  that  tbe  executioners  were 
obliged  lo  beat  out  tho  brains  uf  llicir  viclims  with 
their  oars.  The  Catholieo,  however,  presented  the  svn- 
oil with  a. clea;  ^.d  concise  atalement  of  their  doctrines, 
which  waa  publicly  read ;  but  no  further  diaeusaion  was 
allowecL  The  king  iaaued  an  edict  which  closed  all  or- 
thodox churches  in  Africa  on  the  same  day,  and  conDs- 
caled  all  the  property  of  the  orthodox,  liir  the  use  of  i  he 
Arian,  bishopa.  Soon  afterwards  a  second  edict  cocn- 
nanded  the  execution  upon  Catholics  who  should  not 
have  accepted  Arianism  by  June  1,  ^>t^,  of  all  the  pun- 


7  VANDERLIP 

ishments  decreed  by  Roman  emperors  against  Donalists, 
Mnnicheans,  and  other  heretics.  After  Hiinocric's death, 
in  48S,a  temporary  lull  took  t>lace  in  the  fever  of  perse- 


nuedai 


onga! 


damund,  occupied  the  th 
came  king,  Sept.  '24,  496,  the  troubles  of  the  Catholics 
began  afresh.  Among  the  sufferers  at  this  lime  waa 
Fulgentius  of  Riispe  (q.  v.).  Upon  Thrasimund  followed 
the  more  tulerant  llilderic.  May  20, 5'£lj  and  upon  him, 
in  MI,  the  usurper  ticlimer,  uncle  ti>  Genseric.  The 
wealth  of  the  Vandala  ami  the  enervating  cUm«le  of 
their  home  had  In  the  meantime  destmyeil  their  tobnst 
character ;  they  had  alao  been  defeated  in  several  con- 
flicts with  theManritanians;  and  were  disunited  among 
themselves.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  ambitions 
empeior  Justinian  despatched  an  army  under  Belisarius 
to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Africa,  which 
defeated  the  Vandal  forces  in  534,  made  a  prisoner  of 
Gelimer,  and  so  completely  destroyed  the  nation  that 
its  very  name  was  lost.  The  Synod  of  Carthage  follaw- 
ed,  in  which  measures  were  taken  with  reference  lo  the 
Arian  bishops  and  persons  whom  they  had  baptized; 
aiid  which  pelilioned  the  emperor  for  the  return  of  ec- 
cleaioalical  property  alienated  from  the  Church  during 

See  CrocopiuB,  Ite  Bella  Vaadaliro  ,•  Prosper,  CtHmi- 
ctMi  Idatius,  Chromooa;  Victor.  Episc  Vilensis,  IHmI. 
Perifrul.  A/,v.  in  Ruinart,  Hul.  Ptrtecul.  yuodtd.  (Par. 
1694;  VeneN  1732,  4to);  Salvian,  Di  Gabfm.  Dei  Lib. 
VII I  Possidon,  Vita  S.  AagaMtim;  V'iln  8.  Falgentii: 
Krentz,  Waadatia  IM.  I  (Fronkf.  1580.  foL);  Gibbon, 
Dteliae  and  Full;  Maiinert,  Gach.  d.  Vandaltn  (Leips^ 
1780);  Papencordt,  Gridi.  d  rondoL  l/emthq/t  in 
.l/i-Ou  (Berlin.  183;);  T^an,  Die  Dmitehcn  v.  d.  Hack- 
banlSmnu  (Munich,  1837);  Schriickh,  Kirdimgeirk. 
xviii,  89-121;  Gieseler,  A'lrcAn^scji ,-  Smith,  iJtcf.  ^ 
Gr,  and  Rom,  Gtag.  s.  v. ;  Heizog,  Rtal-Enq/iiip.  a.  v. 

Vanderiwok,  Jackbon  C,  A.M„  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  in  Lvons,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  8,  IH14. 
He  joined  the  Church  in  IS33;  united  with  the  Black 
River  Conference  in  lt*48;  and  succeasii'cly  served  the 
following  appointments:  South  Canton, Fort  Covington, 
Gouvemeur,  Oswego,  Fairfield,  Geddes,  Fiillon,  Oswego 
a  second  time,  Adams,  and  a  aecond  lime  Geddes.  Ho 
died  at  hisreBidcnceinKulton,May  27. 1860.  Hr.Van- 
dercook  possesseil  a  vigorous  aind  logical  mind,  was  well 
vened  in  logic  and  mental  and  moral  stnence ;  had  a  rare 
power  of  generalization;  and  was  independent,  energet- 
ic, and  faithful  See  Uiaala  of  Amual  Cop/ertimi, 
IS6T,  p.  122. 

Vandeillnda,  Be^jahin,  a  Reformeil  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  born  near  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  in  1719,  and 
waa  the  lirst  person  educated  and  licensed  in  this  coun- 
try by  the  Coitus  lo  preach  the  Gospel  as  a  roinisler  of 
the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  America.  This  occur- 
previous 


The  a 


s  of  a 


learned  ministry  treated  it  as  a  dangerous  in 
beginning  of  revolutionary  prnceedingH,and  of  delectton 
from  the  motherChurch  in  Holland.  His  examination 
waa  sustained,  and  he  was  afterwards  orddned  and  in- 
stalled over  the  Church  at  PaTamu^  M.  J„  of  which  he 
remained  the  acceptable  pastor  for  forty-one  yean — 
1748  to  1789.  He  preached  also  at  a  place  called'ponds ; 
and  two  new  churches,  Kamapo  ami  Saddle  River,  were 
organized  during  his  ministry.  His  wife  was  a  niece 
of  general  Schuyler,  the  Revolutionary  patriot.  He 
dleil  in  1789.  See  Corwin,  Miiimal  o/  Iht  Rrform^ 
Chunk  in  A  mtrica,  p.  500.     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Vanderlip,Et.tAS,aMethodist  Episcopal  minister. 
was  bom  in  1768.  lie  joined  the  Church  in  New  York 
city  when  but  a  yonng  man;  labored  many  years  as  a 
local  preacher;  and  in  1802  was  admilteil  into  the  trav- 

pointed  lo  Piltsliehl  Circuit'     In  IROfi  Klr.  Vanderlip 
located  ill  Albany;  the  fudlowing  year  hclnv^lloi*  "' 


VANDEUMEULEN  « 

Iter  Circuit  I  but  povortj  agiin  obliged  him  (o  locate  in 
IHOS  and  KO  into  Luaineu.  !□  1338  he  1^1111  united 
with  (he  Troy  Conference,  and  wan  nppointeJ  to  Johns- 
town Circuit.  Ill  IBJO  be  was  luperaimualed,  aiid  died 
Sept.  3,  ltl4H.  Mr.  Vaitderlip  wu  dGC|>ljr  pious,  very 
lealons,  aiiil  a  preaclier  of  considenille  abilitv.  See 
Uiaulrto/AHumlCoBjrimett,l8i9,p.3lO. 

Tandeimeulflo,  CoKNiiLiua,  ■  minister  af  the  Re- 
formed (Duloh)  Church,  bom  at  Mindclhaniis.  Nether- 
lands, Dec  15, 1800.  He  Joined  the  Chi-iHrlijIx  Afyt- 
tdivdrae  Kirk  iii  .VntWuii/,  a  bmly  which  had  wpnrat- 
ed  Trim  the  Kalioual  Church.  He  preached  at  Mindel- 
hamig,  KotleriUia,  and  Uuoa  from  1839  to  18-17,  whon, 
owing  to  tlic  peraecutiona  suffered  by  his  Church,  he 
ccai);nted  with  a  lareepart  of  liiscon^p^galion  to  Hol- 
land, Utiawa  Co.,  llich.,  and  fouuded  llie  liourishtng 
village  of  Zeelanil,  where  he  preached  fconi  1847  to  t8u9. 
He  waa  pastor  nf  the  First  Church,  Chicago,  from  1869 
to  1861;  Second  Church,  Uriud  Rapids,  Mich^  rruiiu 
1861  to  1873.  He  died  Aug.  -23,  1876.  See  Corwin, 
Ataaual oflht  R'/oiiatd  CkurtA  ia  A nirica, a,  v, 

Van  der  ScltUUr,  IL,  a  minister  of  the  Kcrnrmed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bum  at  Midwolda,  Netherlands, 
April  17,  1803.  He  studied  under  the  Rev.  Mr.  Knk, 
and  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  the  Church  of  the 
Separared  in  1840;  premhed  al  Hoogereen  from  1840 
[a  1848;  emigrated  to  Michigan  in  1848;  preached  at 
liraafachap  from  1848  to  1860,  and  at  Ooatburg,  Wis., 
rmm  1850  to  186C.  On  removing  to  the  Weal,  he  en- 
tered upon  his  labors  in  the  new  countrj-,  and  shared  in 
all  the  hardships  afWestern  pioneer  life.  He  died  Nov. 
17,  1876.  See  Corwin,  Manual  0/ Ihe  S'/.  Charth  in 
A  meriot,  s.  v. 

Tan  der  Sloot,  FRKnEiciCK  Wiluah,  a  miniHtcr 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  bam  in  Dessau, 
(iermany,  Nov,  11,  1T73.  His  father  was  a  minister. 
Eilucsted  ill  Europe,  he  emigrated  to  the  United  Stales 
in  1801.  Licenseii  and  ordained  in  1802,  he  look  charge 
uf  seven  congregations  in  Lehigh  and  Northatnpion 
counties.  Pa.  In  1811  he  was  called  to  Gemiantown, 
ncor  Philadelphia,  In  I81»  he  removed  to  New  (ioshen- 
hnppen,  Montgomery  Co.  In  1818  he  was  called  to 
Philadelphia,  where  be  founded  Salem's  German  Be- 
furmed  Chureh.  In  1824  he  removed  to  Rockingham 
County,  Va.,  where  he  served  ten  congregations.  In 
18-27  he  became  imstor  of  a  charge  in  York  and  Adams 
counties.  I'a.,  which  he  served  until  his  death,  Dec.  14, 
1831.  He  was  a  Bne  linguist,  a  good  preacher,  and  also 
a  poet,  many  of  his  poems  having  been  published.  Two 
of  hia  sons  entered  the  ministry, 

Tandarveer,  Cynia  G.,  a  minister  of  the  lie- 
formed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  in  New  Ifurlev, 
N.r.,  in  1833.  At  Ihe  age  of  acrenleen  he  entered 
upon  acommereial  career,  which  lasted  four  years;  but 
when  be  found  the  Saviour,  he  gave  himself  to  tbe 
work  of  Ihe  ministry.  He  graduated  at  the  New 
Brunswick  Theol'igic  J  Seminary  in  18&9,  when  he  was 
licensed  10  preach;  became  missionary  at  Havana  in 
1859;  at  Davenport,  la.,  from  1859  to  1861;  chaplain 
in  the  anny  from  ISGI  to  1862;  anil  corresponding  secre- 
tarv  of  the  Board  of  Domestic  tliasions  from  1866  to 
1868.  He  died  in  18B8.  See  Corwin,  Mamal  of  iht 
Rff.  ChariA  in  Amei-kn,t.v. 

Vanderveer,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed (Dutch')  Cliiircb,  was  bom  in  Hunterdon  Coun- 
ty, N.  J.,  May  5, 1800.  He  graituiled  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  18IT,  and  at  the  New  Brunswick 
Tbeolngical  Seminary  in  1822,  when  he  was  licensed  as 
a  minister.  He  was  missionary  10  several  towns  in 
Xew  Torh  in  1823;  pastor  at  Philipaburg, Pa.  (Presby- 
terian), from  1824  to  1827 ;  and  teacher  at  Eaatnn  from 
1827  to  1854.  He  died  in  1878.  His  school  at  Easton 
was  fainoua  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and 
his  pupils  carried  with  them  pleasant  memories  of  their 
intercourse  with  their  teacher.  See  Corvin,  Manuut 
oflht  Rrf.  Churdi  in  Amtivx,  s.  v. 


8  VAN  DOREN 

TandeTTooit,  John  C,  a  miuister  of  tha  b- 
farmed  (Dutch)  Chureh,  was  bum  at  Bouikd  "Btaak, 
M.  J^  in  17i>8.  He  graduated  at  Queen's  College  tg 
1818,  and  al  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  SemiuMy 
in  1819,  when  be  was  liceiiaed  to  preach.  He  pieacbnl 
at  German  Valley  and  -Fox  Hill,  N.J.  (rreabyteriaol. 
from  1819  to  1826;  Basking  Ridge  (PresbvtNtan),  froa 
1826  to  1834;  First  Chureh,  Totowa,  from  1834  lo  1837: 
KiiirlerhiHik,  N.  V.,  from  1837  to  1842;  UellenTille.  from 
1842  t..  1845;  New  Polti,  from  1846  to  1848;  and  S«- 
ond  Church.  Ghent,  from  1848  to  1851.  He  died  Jxac 
21,  1851.  His  piety  was  fervent,  and  he  coatenied  iM 
himself  with  merely  illustrating  biitorical  truth,  b«t 
carried  his  appeals  directly  to  Ihe  bearta  and  coniciencH 
of  his  hearers.     In  moat  of  his  charges  hia  labors  w 


Srt 


Corwiu,  Matmal  o/lU  Rff.  Ckm-ck  in  Jouncn,  a.  t. 

Tandtfrroort,  Paul,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mm- 
ister,  was  bom  in  Uongolis  County,  Va.,  June  19,  I8W. 
He  jaineil  the  Chureh  in  1848.  and  entered  Ihe  Irani- 
ling  connection  in  the  Western  Virginia  Conferenre  ia 
1855.  He  aerveil  the  Church  failhfullv  on  oeven  diUfet- 
ent  cireiiits,  bihI  died  at  Jollytonn,  Pa..  Aug.  26,  I8U. 
Mr.  Vandervoort  was  courteous  and  upright  in  depon- 
ment,  calm  and  firm  in  purpose,  and  practical  and  (cr- 
venl  in  preaching.  See  Minulti  if  A  imiiat  Cmfrmea, 
1866,  p.  47. 

Tandewater,  Albe&tls, a  Refunned  (Dutch) aad 
Presbyieriaii  minister,  was  bom  near  Brunavick.  LI, 
Sept.  21, 1821.  He  received  his  education  preparaioiy 
to  college  at  Ihe  school  of  Dr.  J.  J.  Owen,  in  Oithant 

ruith,wttb  the  Seventh  Preshyterian  Chureh  of  Kn 
York  city,  when  about  nineteen  )-ears  of  age.  He  wai 
gradtiBied  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1840.  and 

enlemi  the    Princeton   Theological  Seminaiy  iu  tlit 

study,  and  una  regularly  graduated  in  1849.  Noi  Imk 
after  he  became  stated  supply  to  the  Church  at  .Mhan. 
Bradford  0>.,  I'a.,  where  he  wasonlaiiied  as  aucvangeliM 
by  the  Susquehanna  Pretbt-ter>-.  Nov.5, 1850,  and  whm 
he  continued  to  labor  until  1854.  He  then  accepitda 
call  to  the  Reformed  Dutch  Chureh  of  Spotswood,  Hid- 
dlesen  Co.,N.J.,whera  be  was  installed  Nov.  1, 1854. 
and  ciiiilinued  tu  labor  very  acceptably  and  usefully 
aver  thirteen  vean,  until  lie  was  relessei'l  bv  the  Claab 
of  Monmouth,  Nov.  5,  1867.  His  neit  charge  wai  tbc 
United  Dutch  Reformed  churches  of  Bl<nlieim  snd 
Brackabecn,  N.  Y'.,  in  the  Classis  of  Schoharie, where  he 
was  installed  Dec.  18,  1868,  and  was  released  March  1. 
1869.  After  this  he  supplied  fur  a  short  time  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Chureh  of  Wolcolt  (now  Fair  Haven). 
N.  Y.,  hut  soon  accepted  a  call  lo  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  of  Oakland  (otherwise  called  Pands  Church), 
in  Bergen  Co.,  N.  J.,  when  he  was  insialled  Uav  21. 
I8G9,  and  released  April  23,  1872.  After  this  be  le- 
uded  about  a  year  at  Piinceton,  N.J.,  without  sptoal 
employmeni;  then  taught  acbool  for  a  short  titoe  al 
YardviUc,  Mercer  Co.,  N.  J.,  after  wbicb  he  taught 
school  and  preached  aa  a  missionary  near  Parmingdak, 
MonmOHth  Co,  While  laboring  there,  bis  efforts  wen 
blessed  with  a  revival,  in  which  about  aeventy  soab 
were  hopefully  converted.  He  waa  then  induetd  to 
remove  to  Uisaouri.  where  he  became  staled  avpjdy  la 
the  Chureh  ofMine  La  Motle,  in  Ihe  Presbytery  ot'lV 
toai,  in  Ihe  autumn  of  1876.  Here  be  was  labwine 
faithfully  and  leakiudy  when  he  waa  summoned  away 
hy  death.  This  event  occurred  Feb.  28, 1879,  at  Hiae 
La  Matte.  Madison  Co.,  Mo.  His  death  was  ■  ve^ 
calm  and  happvnne,  and  full  of  triumphant  faith  in  the 
Snviiiuf.     (W.P.S.) 

Tan  Doren,  luac,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  asd 
Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at  Griggstown,  S.J, 
in  1772.  He  waa  educated  in  the  CoU^  of  New  Jei^ 
■xy,  studied  theology  privately,  was  lictnsnl  bv  the 
ciassia  af  New  York,  and  ordained  about  17M.     la 


VAN  DOREN  71 

leoi  be  Mtlk-J  in  llopeneU,  Orange  C<k,  S.  \\  nbcR, 

duHngm  piMiiTBLe  of  Iweiity-Ihree  year*,  lie  itm  bleoed 
HiLh  eminent  ■ucccit;  tben  lemaved  to  Newark,  N.  J^ 
ud  for  r^ur  ytsn  (IH^~29)  wu  ptiiicipal  of  the  Acad- 
tmy;  Iw  then,  with  liu  eldeac  ku,  ntiblishcd  a  colle- 
giitt  Liuiujte  on  Urvoklyn  Ueighti  (1S29-34)  -.  from 
there  be  i^moveiL  lo  LcxinfTton,  Ky.,  vhere  he  taught 

l>«u  of  the  West.  Hr  died  Aug.  12,  ISM.  He  wu 
ihe  author  of  a  tract  entitled  A  ijummaiy  a/ChriitiaH 
Put),  cotapUeii  from  the  Duuay  Bible.  iSee  VVilaan, 
Prtii.  HiH.  A  Imaaac,  1865,  p.  liS3 ;  Corwin,  Manaul  of 
lie  Rrf.  Ckurck  w  A  mtrica,  s.  v. 

Van  Doren,  tiuttaei  Halsey,  a  Presbytetisn 
and  Rerormed  (Dutch)  miniatei,  was  bom  at  Hopewell, 
Oraiipe  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1808.  He  graduatetl  at  the  C<i1- 
kgeofNew  Jenevin  183l,and  began  his  preparation  for 
the  ministrv  under  the  Kl.  Ker.R.  a  Smith,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
PrMeatant  Epiwopal  biihop  of  Kentucky,  but  was  But>- 
•eqneuily  licensed  by  the  Preabyterian  Church  of  Lex- 
ington, Ky..  anil  orUiined  presbyter  il  Columbia,  Via., 
in  IB^.  He  preached  for  the  Presbyterian  churches 
of  St.  Ejiiiis,  Farmington,  and  Columbia,  Mo. ;  FrcehoM, 
N.J.;  l*iulucah,Ky.i  SpringStreetaodFirtiethStreel, 
N'ew  York  city :  and  New  Vernon,  N.  J.,  from  1834  to 
1871;  then  for  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  churches  of 
UontTille  from  1871  to  1874,  and  Middletown  from  1874 
to  I87&  He  died  in  I8;U.  See  Corwin,  UaKaai  of  Ihe 
&/  CkuTch  u.  AmfTica.  a.  v. 

Van  Doroii.  WilUam.  a  Presbyterian  educator, 
waa  bom  at  Grigguown,  Sumerwt  Co.,  N.  J.,  March  14, 
ISI4.  He  waa  prepared  for  college  in  the  Acailemy  at 
Princeb>n  under  the  tuition  of  the  llev.  Charles  C  Sears, 
andwasgraduated  from  theCollegeofNewJetwvin  1835. 
Ue  united  with  the  Firtt  Presbyterian  Church  of  Prince- 
Ion,  Jiitv  14, 1832.  On  leaving  college,  he  taught  in 
Fkiriila  abc.ut  a  year,  and  then  entered  Princeton  Sem- 
inary in  IS3li,  but,  owing  to  a  failure  of  health,  remain- 
ed only  one  year.  He  wai  never  licensed  or  ordained, 
but  dei'iited  himself  to  the  work  of  education.  He 
waa  a  profeasor  in  the  cullpge  at  Columbia,  Mo.,  and  af- 
lerwanln  in  the  Miaouri  State  University  from  IB37  to 
IH13.  Next  be  bad  charge  of  the  high-achoal  at  Lex- 
ington for  seven  year\  until  I83O;  then  served  as  pro- 
fessor in  Westminster  College  at  Fallon  for  twelve  years, 
until  1W.2.  In  the  latter  year  he  removed  lo  Califor- 
nia, where  he  taught  succesMvely  at  Napa  City,  Stock- 
ton, Visa  I  ia,  and  Watsnnrille,  establishing  an  institution 
of  leaniing  in  each  oflhese  towns.  While  teaching  at 
Watninrille  his  sight  failed  him,  and  for  two  years  pre- 
ceding; hlsileath  his  health  bad  been  steadily  declining. 
At  Columbia,  He,  he  was  ordained  ruling  elder,  and  in 
Ibb  oSoe  hail  faithfully  and  very  osefully  served  Ibe 
churchea  in  the  towns  where  he  subsequently  resided. 
He  died  at  WalsonviUe.  Cal.,  Dec  3, 1877.  (*W.  P.  S.) 
Van  DiioBBen,  Johannes,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  bom  in  1(197,  and  educated  in  I^lgium. 
Afier  ivming  to  this  country  he  went  to  Vale  College 
with  a  commendatory  letter  fi«m  the  patroon  Van 
Rensselaer,  and  was  then  licensed  and  ordained  by  the 
Congngationalists  at  New  Haven.  This  was  made  the 
Dccaaion  of  great  opposition  to  him  as  a  minister.  Kis 
iDOtive  was  to  save  the  time,  trouble,  and  cost  of  a  Jour- 
ney to  Holland  to  procure  onliiiatinn.  The  Dutch  cler- 
gy deaounced  him  as  a  schisms  tic,  the  AoHlerdam  Claa- 
sis  wanieil  the  American  churches  against  bjm,  and  his 
imubles  multiplied  and  lasteit  long.  This  waa  Ihe  Hrst 
ejumple  of  ^^  irregular  ordination,"  as  it  waa  regardecl, 
thai  occurred  in  the  northern  section  of  the  Dutch 
Church,  and  it  waa  the  real  opening  of  Ihe  great  cun- 
troreny  between  the  Ctetus  and  CnnferAiiie  parlies, 
reauliini;  in  the  triumph  of  the  former,  which  was 
the  American  progressive  and  independent  element. 
He  waa  sellJed  at  CLareiack,  Kinderhook,  and  Living- 
ston Manor  from  1727  to  1735;  atNewPaltifn>ml73l  to 
I73a;  at  Aequickanonck  and  Pompton,  N.  J.,  from  1736 


D  VAN  DYCK 

to  1748;  and  subsequently  at  Poughkeepaie,  Fiahkill, 
and  New  Paltz  temporarily  in  1761.  He  was  at  length 
involved  in  other  troubles  and  silenced.  See  Corwin, 
Mmaal  of  ihe  Rtf.  Church  in  Amrrita,a.T.;  Still,. 
IIUI.  DitcouTK  at  New  PaliJ;  Zabriskie,  Oa^rack 
CaUtmiaL  (W.J.li.T.) 
Van  Drleaten,  PetTiiB.B  Refurmcfl  (Dutch)  nin- 

formed  DutchChutehinAlbanyfhim  1712  to  1738.  Un- 
til 1727  be  also  supplied  Kinderhouk.  Mention  is  made 
of  his  services  for  some  time  at  Kindethook  and  Sche- 
nectady. During  his  ministry  at  Albany  a  new  and 
haniliome  Stone  edifice  was  built,  which  stood  ninety- 
one  years  on  Stjte  Street.  He  organiicil  the  imporUnt 
churchesof  Kinderh<x,kin  1712  and  Claverack  in  1716. 
Like  his  predeceswrs,  Slijtapolensls,  Delliu»,nnd  Lydias, 
he  acted  as  B  missionary  to  the  Indians.  In  the  docu- 
mentarj'  history  of  Sew  York,  among  several  petitions 
tu  governor  Burnet  and  his  councillors  from  (his  pas- 
tor, is  one  dated  Sept- 13, 1722,  respecting  bis  labors 
among  the  Mohawks,  asking  protection  and  assistance 
for  himself  and  his  interpreler,  in  which  the  petitioner 
as  "  finding  himself  in  Conscience  throngeil 


might  give  them  repentance  na  by  mcsns  of  the  same 
ministracion  thro'  the  blessing  of  the  Moat  High  has 
been  done  lo  Our  furefatlieta."  This  is  followed  by 
a  "  Lvcence  br  his  Excellencv,"  l«  Mr.  Van  Driessen, 
"  to  Erect  and'bnild  a  meeting'-honse  fur  the  Indians  in 
the  Mohawk's  country,  in  order  to  ye  assembling  of 
themselves  together  fi>r  ye  Solemn  WoishipofGod;  and 
that  upon  any  pstt  of  the  Lands  to  lliem  belonging  as 
shall  be  found  most  Convenient  for  Ihe  purposes  men- 
Cioaed."  The  venerable  pastor  and  niis!tionary  labored 
with  zeal  and  fidelity  among  lib  people  at  Albany  fur  a 
petioil  of  twenty-six  years,  until  bis  death,  which  took 
place  about  Feb.  I,  I7S8.  For  five  years  previously  he 
hud  a  colleague,  llev.  Cornelius  Van  Schie,  nho  bad  la- 
bored at  I'oughkeepsie  and  FishkiU,  1731-38,  when  he 
removed  to  Albany.  He  survived  his  associate  only  six 
years,dyiiig  Aug.  15, 1744,  at  the  age  of  forty-one.  See 
Rogers, //uf.Micntirin-,  p.  20-24;  Uucummlaiy  Hat.af 
rtVm  York,  iii,  91S,  916;  Corwin,  HoRiiat  of  Ike  Rk. 
CkartkmAme>iai.     (W.J.  R.T.) 

Van  Dus«r,  Josefh  F-  A.,  a  minister  in  (he  Meth- 
odist episcopal  Church,  South,  was  bom  in  New  York 
city,  Sept.  14, 1852;  was  left  motherlesi' when  an  infant; 
received  a  fair  academic  educalion  and  a  good  com- 
mercial training;  married  in  early  manhood;  received 
license  to  preach  in  1873,  and  united  with  Ihe  Floriila 
Conference,  and  was  appianled  to  Ihe  Cuban  wor^,  where 
he  workeil  faithfully  am)  beyond  hii  endurance  unlil 
hia  death,  by  lypho-malarial  fever,  June  7, 1875.  Mr. 
Van  Duzer  was  a  man  of  great  energy  and  remarkiUjIs 

the  M.  E.  Church,  Soulh,  1875,  p.  179. 

Van  Dycb,  C.  Z^,  a  ninisier  of  ihe  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  WIS  bom  at  Kinderbook,  N.  Y..  in  1804. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  182G,  and  at  New 
llrunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1829,  when  he  was 
licensed  to  preach;  became  pastor  at  Marblelown,  N.  Y„ 
1829-53;  at  North  Esopua  (Port  Eweii),  N.  Y.,  IB0G-6C 
He  was  converted  at  Ihe  early  age  of  sixteen,  and  was 
a  pious  and  consislent  professor  of  Chrisliinitv  from  1  hat 
time  uniil  his  death,  in  IHGC.  See  Corwin, 'j/uRuttfo/ 
Ihe  Rrf.  Church  in  A  vuriai,  s.  v. 

Van  Djrok,  Hamilton,  a  miniitfr  of  the  Re- 
formeil  (Dutch)  Church,  was  b»m  in  1807.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College  in  IN^i>.  and  at  York  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1829.  He  preacheil  at  Chnmbers- 
burg,  Pa.,  1829-33 ;  and  at  I'raltsville,  N.  Y..  1833-30. 
His  constitution  having  been  broken  donn  liy  severe 

Corwin,  Maituat  of  lie  Rrf.  Church  is  A  mrrica,  e.  v. 
Van  Dyck,  Leonard  B.,  a  Pceabylerian  minis- 


VANDYKE  71 

ler,  wu  educiUd  for  the  aualMrj  of  (he  Rcrormcil 
<Dulch)  Churcb.  Ho  grailiuud  al  Uniaii  Cultege  in 
1824,  nnJ  »t  Now  Urunswick  Theological  Semimiy  in 
J827.  During  Ibe  laiur  part  or  bin  MQiiiiarjr  uuurM  > 
controveny  wm  carried  uu  b«twet;ii  Princeton  and  An- 
ilover  in  regard  lo  the  doctrines  of  tlie  asloU  of  0» 
laontraait,  the  tltmal  gmeratioH  nf  f/u  Son,  and  the 
proceuion  of  tie  Bolg  GAoil.  Young  Vaii  Djck  read 
what  was  said  on  both  aides  of  tbls  conlraversy,  and 
waa  left  in  doubt  as  lo  the  true  doctrine.  In  coqbb- 
quencc  of  hia  uiiKttlcd  opinions  on  these  great  doc- 
he  should  become  Kttled,  and  was  not  rccomniended  for 
liceusure.  Accordingly  he  returned  to  hia  bouse  in 
Coxsackie,  N.  Y.,  and  was  licensed  by  tb'e  preabyleiy  of 
Culumhia,  N.  Y.,  in  1827.  He  was  called  to  the  Church 
«tO»boniviUe(Windhain),(ire«neCo.,N.Y.,andUbored 
there  faithrully  and  successfully  from  1828  until  about 
IttiO,  when  the  ln»  of  his  voice  compelled  him  to  retire. 
Hethentemmeri  U)  bia  native  village,  Coiaackie,  where 
he  died,  Oct.  H,  1877.  See  Curwin,  Manval  o/lhe  Rtf. 
Charchm  Amtrica,^x. 

V<md7ke(Flem.l'(in£y:t),5iVAathon7,aFleni- 
ish  painter,  was  bom  in  Antwerp.  Alarch  22, 1599.  He 
was  the  most  illustrious  pupil  of  Rubena.  He  visileil 
England;  thence  went  to  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Somei  re- 
tunied  to  Antwerp  in  1627;  aeuled  in  England  in  1682, 
was  knighted  bj' Charles  I  in  the  same  ]-ear,and  grant- 
ed a  life  pension  of  £200  in  1633.  He  excelled  as  a  por- 
trait-pain ler,  and  executed  many  "crucifixions,"  "pie- 
tas,"  and  historical  pieces.  He  died  in  London,  I>ec.  9, 
IG41.  SeeCarpei]tcr,jreraoi'ro/£i>*,4.  Fun  Dyck  (Lon- 
don, 18U). 

Van  Dyke,  John  P.,  a  Presb; 


VAN  GAASBEEK 

College,  Oxford,  about  1628;  but  before  m 
need  the  Church  of  England  and  lefi 
ath  of  allegiance.     Ue  travelled  in  i 

land,  and  Swiizerland,  and  comiileied  hia  i 


id  led  hi 


ahomi 


idheu 


isCoun 


■,Pa.,OcM8,l 


Miami  Univeruty  in  1826;  studied  theology  privately ; 
was  licensed  by  Miami  Presbytery  in  182H;  ordained 
bv  Chill icothe' Presbytery  as  pastor  of  West  Union 
Church,  C  in  June,  1829,  which  pastorate  existed  for 
twenty-three  veara;  in  ISS2  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Ked  Oak ;  in  1854,  of  l^rinkfott  Church,  In.L, 
in  Logansport  Presbytery;  in  1856,  of  PleaHant  Kidge 
Church,  O.;  and  died  Aug.  18,  IStiZ.  He  was  an  able 
divine;  in  prcsbyterlal  and  synodical  baliea  he  had  few 
equals ;  hia  preaching  was  eminently  doctrinal,  hut  ar- 
dent and  impreaaive.  See  Wit»on,ft*#4,  tf iff,  .4  immiac, 
1863,  p.  214. 

Tane  (written  also  Fash),  a  pUte  of  metal  turning 
on  1  vertical  spindle  so  as  to  show  the  direction,  of  the 
ivind,  frequently  fixed  on  tile  lops  of 
spires  and  pinnacks,  and  in  other  ele- 
vated positions;  it  is  often  in  the 
Ibrm  of  ■  cock,  and  from  tbii 
cumstance  is  very  commonly  called 
a  Ktatkeraxk.  Vanes  were  in  use  i 
the  times  of  the  Saxons,  and  in  aftei 
ages  were  very  extensively  empioyci 

forms,  which  were  not  unfrequenlly 
heraldic  devices.    During  the  preva- 
lence of  the  Peq)endiciilsr  and  Eliza- 
k  bethau  styles,  flgures  supporting  vanes 
f  were   often  placed  on  the   lops  of 
pinnaclea,  and  in  other  exposed  ait- 
nations;    thcM  were  usually  in  th( 
form  of  small  flngs,  ami  were  some. 
oi??rd,hSl"    ■ ''™«'  P'^"^'  '""'  «  representation 
of  aomc    armnrial    bearing.       Occa- 
sionally   the  vane   was  shaped  like  an   heraldic  de- 
Vane,  Sir  Hesht,  an  English  republican  and  relig- 
ious zealot  of  Ibe  period  of  the  Commnnwcalih,  eldest 
son  of  a  baronet  of  the  aame  name,  was  bom  at  Hwlloi 
in  Kent,  in  ir.I2.     He  was  e-lucated  at  Westminat 
Sctiool,  and  entered  as  gentleman  commoner  Magdalt 


Massachusetts  iu 
great  satisfaction  on  account  of  bis  high  reputation  an] 
social  position,  and  elected  governor  of  the  colonv  in 

1636.  Having  Ukaii  the  part  of  Mrs.  Hutchinaoo  'in  a 
bitter  religious  controversy  then  existing,  he  lost  mtich 
of  his  popularity,  and  failed  of  a  re-eleciion  for  governor 
tlie  fuUowing  year,  lie  was  then  chosen  a  member  of 
Ihe  general  court,  but  returned  to  England  in  August, 

1637.  He  now  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  Chriaiopho' 
Wray  of  Ashby,  in  Lincolnshire;  was  knighted,  and  en- 
tered upon  a  political  career.  Through  his  father's  in- 
terest he  waa  appointed  joint  ireasutct  or  the  naw 
with  Sir  William  Kussell,  and  eiilered  Parliameat  fi« 
Kingston -upon-Uull  in  lUO,  where  be  almost  immedi- 
aiely  joined  Pym  and  Ihe  anti-court  party,  of  which  be 
became  one  of  the  most  vehement  and  resolute  leadeta. 
He  took  an  important  part  in  the  impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford and  Land;  became  sole  Ireasuivr  of  the  new  in 
1642 ;  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  Parliament  in  the  Civil 
War,  to  which  body  he  gave  up  the  fees  of  his  t^ce; 
was  a  member  of  the  WesUniiister  Assembly;  went, in 
June.  1643,  to  Scotland  as  one  of  the  joint  commiaaion- 
eiB  to  negotiate  an  alliance,  and  was  influential  io  »• 
curing  the  adoption  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Cuienani; 
enabled  Roger  Williams  to  obtain  Ihe  charter  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1643;  waa  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  Ihe  Self- 
denying  Onli  nance  in  1644;  opposed  the  terms  of  Eeitle- 
ment  otTered  by  Charles  in  1648;  became  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  State  in  February,  1649,  in  which  poaition 
he  remained  until  Cromwell's  distolulion  of  ParliamcDt 
in  1653.  During  this  period  he  bad  the  direclion  of  the 
navy,  and  important  powers  in  reference  to  Ihe  foreign 
wars  then  in  progress.  Ue  also  enjoyed  the  friendihip 
of  John  Hilton,  who  addressed  one  of  his  sonnets  to  him. 
After  the  diastdution  of  (be  Long  Parliament,  be  retired 
to  his  estaie  of  Kaby  Castle,  where  he  wrote  religiou 
treatises  and  political  pamplikls.  one  of  which  led  u> 
his  imprisonment  for  four  monibs  in  Carisbrooke  Caatle, 
by  order  of  Cromwell,  in  1656.  He  remained  in  oppo- 
sition until  the  deaib  of  Cromwell,  when  he  was  again 
chosen  to  Parliament,  and  became  the  leader  of  ibe  re- 
publican party,  endeavoring  to  mould  the  cammDa- 
weoltb  to  his  ideas  of  government.  Ue  was  one  of  the 
twenty  persons  excepted  from  the  Act  of  General  Par- 
don and  Oblivion,  passed  at  ihe  Kesloration,and  in  July, 
1660,  was  committed  to  the  Tower.    He  was  aflerwards 

casile  in  the  Scilly  Islands,  occupied  in  theological  Mud- 
iea  and  writing.  Oil  June  2, 1669,  be  was  arraigned  for 
high-Ireaaon  before  the  Middlesex  grand-jur^- ;  found 
guilty  on  ihe  6th,  and,  contrarv  to  a  promise  made  hy 
Char]es,was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,June  14. 1662.  His 
iheok^Eieal  writings  were  of  a  highly  mysricol  Ivpe.  and 
of  very  little  value.  He  was  a  Milleiiarian,and  belicred 
or  hoped  that  the  Saviour  would  come  and  eelabltah  a 
6f)h  universal  monarchy,  lliese  views  gave  riae  to  a 
small  sect  known  as  Vanisis  (q.  v.).  See  Knighi,  Lifi 
and  Itfuli  ir.Sir  llnrg  VaBt  (Lond.  1662) ;  Birch,  Urft; 
Ludlow,  MnHoiis;  Sparks,  Aiatficmi  Biogiaphiri,  voL 

Van  Oaaabeek,  Laurrxtius,  a  minister  of  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  Iwm  in 
graduated  from  theUniversiiy  of  Lcvden, 
sailed  from  Amsterdam  tlay  IS,  1678,  ar 
York  Aug.  2 1  of  the  same  year.  He  rea. 
Sept.  8,  and  preached  bia  6rst  sermon  t> 
later.  He  waa  paslor  of  the  Chunh  in 
thai  time  until  February,  1680,  the  date 
See  Corwin,  Afaaaof  o/iit  Hr/.  Clniri  it 


Hollan 

.     He 

,Msy  1 

,)G7<; 

rriving 

nNew 

chedK 

hereon. 

week 

Kingston  frnm 

VAN  HABLINGEN 


711 


VANIAH 


Tui  HarllnEen,  JobonneB  MartinuB,  >  Re- 1 

ronned  (Dutch)  miniiter,  wu  boni  aear  MillBlone,  N.  J., 
in  172-1,  or  Dutch  pirentage.  He  went  to  HalUnd  to 
eMUplete  hii  uadieii  in  one  of  the  univenities,  and  to 
gel  ordination  by  the  Cluaii  uf  Amiterdim,  wbich  wu 
■rcBted  ia  1761.  lu  17G3  be  returned  to  America  and 
took  pastoral  charge  of  the  nniteil  cburcbea  of  Neahanic 
and  8i)urlaiid,  in  Sumenet  Co,,N. J^irhere  he  miniatered 
Ihirty-thne  yean,  and  died  in  1796,  unireraally  beloved 
and  lamented.  Asulftcicut  proof  of  tlie  esteem  in  which 
he  wu  heldiafuuud  b  the  fact  that  his  name  wa^aTler 
hia  death,  given  to  the  village  aiid  church  and  district 
in  which  he  bad  lived  and  labored  w  long,  Sourlatid 
\iaag  chaiiKCd  to  Ilatlingen.  lie  preached  only  in  the 
Dutch  language  unlil  within  I  lew  yean  before  hi* 
death,  vrhea,  to  entiry  the  younger  people,  he  preached 
occwonally  in  Engliah.  He  wai  evangelical,  faithful, 
a  patron  of  learning,  oue  of  the  original  ttusteea  of 
Queen's  College,  and,  in  all  that  ii  known  of  him,  uiie 
of  tbe  beat  of  the  old  Dulfh  miniglcra  of  the  last  cen- 
tnry.  See  Corwiii,  Hatnal  a/tht  Rff.  Churth  in  A  Afr- 
ica, a.  F. ;  Spnguc,  Ammlt  o/lht  Amer.  Palpil,  voL  \x. 
(VI.  J.  K.  T.) 

Tan  Harlinsen,  John  M.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
mioiatpr,  tiepbew  of  the  foregoing,  was  honi  atSourland 
(now  llarliiigen),  N.  J.,  1761 ;  graduated  from  Queen's 
College  in  lidS;  studied  fur  the  miniairy  with  Dr. 
Livingston:  waa  licensed  by  the  Christian  Synod  of  the 
Dutch  Refurmed  Churcbea  in  1786;  and  settled  at  Mill- 
stune  antl  Six  Mile  Run,  N.  J.,  1787-95.  Vtoia  this  pe- 
riod he  waa  without  charge  (1795-18I2J,  probably  on  ac- 
ciHint  nf  his  inanimate  pulpit  deliver}',  lie  was  a  lover 
oCboaka,  and  lived  chiefly  among  them;  acloee  student, 
learoeil  in  theology,  instructive  in  convenatiun,  but  en- 
ctedingly  retiring  and  reserved  in  manner,  and  very  ab- 
sent-minded. While  he  was  without  charge  be  preach- 
ed frequently  for  neighboring  ministers,  biit  liis  chief 
work  was  a  full  translation  of  a  celebrated  Dutch  work, 
I'lM  Jrr  Ktmp  on  Iki  lltiJdberg  Cairckiim  (a  seriea  of 
setmuns,  with  a  valuaUe  historical  introduction,  in  2 
vuls.8va).  Before  tbe  organization  of  the  Theological 
.Seminary  at  New  Brunswick,  he  had  instructed  a  num- 
ber of  young  men  at  his  residence  in  Hebrew  and  eccle- 
Hsstieal  hiatory,  witb  a  view  to  the  minUtry.  [n  June, 
ItXi,  he  was  called  to  the  cbair  of  Hebrew  and  ecclcii- 
astieal  history  in  tbe  new  seminary,  and  accepted  the 
appointment  of  the  Ueneral  Synod  la  the  Hebrew  pro- 
fesBurship,  and  gave  temporary  lessuns  in  history,  lu 
one  rear  (here^r  he  died  at  Millstone,  after  a  brief 
and  Hvere  illness,  June  16,  IB13.  He  waa  i 
ried.  His  meilitative  s[Hrit  anil  devout  piety,  with  his 
love  of  learning,  and  a  aufflciency  of  this  norld'l  good^ 
enabled  him  to  live  much  above  tbe  worid, "  using  it  at 
not  abusing  it,"  ami  devoting  himself  lo  bis  aacred  stud- 
ies. He  preached  biith  in  Dutch  and  tCnj-tish,  and  was 
regarded,  according  to  the  standard  of  his  tin 
prolident  in  Hebrew  and  a  Cbriatiau  scholar  of 
BtlunmenlB.  S(-e  Sprague,  Amali  oflht  A  sur.  Pulpil, 
vol  ii ;  Corwin,  Mataal  oflkt  Rtf.  CkttrA  in  A  merica, 
S.V.     (W.J.B.T.) 

TaD  Htflinont.  Baron  Ftanoia  Msrontins,  a 
Dutch  physician  and  religious  cntbiisiast,  was  bum  in 
ICINi  settled  in  England,  as  the  family  physician  of 
ladv  Couway,  at  Haglev,  and  thus  became  the  assuvjate 
of  ilenrv  Moore  (q.  v.).  He  was  tbe  son  of  the  well- 
knuwD  chemist  Van  Helmoiit,and  gave  himself  to  those 
occulc  meilical  atuilia  which  were  a  passion  with  bis 
htber.  HU  works  were  noted  for  their  eccentricities. 
Hedie<linlG»9.  See  Tullock,  Atfuwif  TAcol.  ta  £'h^ 
fuad  ia  Ifit  iJlA  Cml.  ii,  3'29. 

Van  H«lmont.  Barges  Jacob,  a  Ftemlah  paint- 
er, was  born  in  Antwerp  in  1683.  He  was  the  son  of 
Matthew  Van  Helmont  of  Brussels,  and  was  instructed 
in  hit  art  by  his  father;  but  while  the  father  painted 
markets,  fair*,  shops,  and  similar  leenea,  the  son  distin- 
goisbed  hiitudrfur  religion*  oampoaitions  in  the  great 


tyle.  He  settled  at  Bmasels,  and  w 
if  the  best  Flemish  painters  of  his  time,  although,  from 
veakneas  of  constitutian,  he  never  left  bis  own  couutty. 
Tbe  Triampk  of  Elijah  mtr  ike  PriaU  of  Baal,  in  fhe 
if  the  Carmelites;  the  Sfarli/rdom  ofSI.Bar- 
tixra,\n  St.  Mary  Magdalen's;  and  tbe  Triumph  o/ Da- 
ciil,  in  St.  Michael's  Cburch  at  Brussels,  are  considered 
his  masterpieces.     He  died  at  Bruaaels,  Aug.  !1, 172G. 

Tan  Ho«o)l  Ja:i,  a  Flemish  painter,  was  bom  at 
Antwerp  about  1600.  He  studied  with  ltubens,and  af- 
terwards at  Kome.  He  was  much  employed  by  tbe  em- 
peror Ferdinand  II  of  Italy,  but  eventually  returned  to 
his  own  country,  where  he  died  aboat  IfiaO.  He  waa 
an  admirable  painter  in  portrait  and  history.  Hi*  moat 
famous  painting  i*  the  Chriil  on  f Ac  Cross,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Sauveur  al  Bruges,  aaid  to  be  one  of  the  SDCSt 
pictures  in  Belgium. 

Tan  Hook.  Isaac  A.,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church  in  America.  He  gnduated  at  Colum- 
bia College  in  i;»;,  and  at  New  Brunswick  Theological 
Seminary  in  1819,  wben  he  was  licensed  by  the  CIhshs 
of  New  Brunswicli.  He  was  misaionarv  to  Spotswoud, 
N.J.,18I9-2I;  toStiUwater,N.J.,Beaverl>Bm.Middle- 
town,  KleynF.sapus,andTiasboke.  N.  Y.,it>  inti:  paa- 
tor  at  Fort  Miller  and  Argyle,  1823-24;  missionary  lo 
Wilton  in  1825;  and  corresponding  secreurv  of  the  IViard 
of  Missions  in  lS->7.  He  died  in  1831.  See  Corwin, 
JUanual  of  the  Rff.  Chlirdi  ia  A  nnvn,  s.  v. 

Van  Home,  Abrau,  a  miniater  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutcb)Church,wasboniatWhitehouse,N.J.,Dec31, 
1763.  Hegraduat«datQueen'sCollegeinl787;  studied 
theology  privately,  and  wai  licensed  in  I'SSj  and  be- 
came pastor  at  Wawarsing,  Harbletown,  and  Rochester, 
N.  Y„  1789-95;  and  at  Caughnawaga,  1796-1833.  He 
died  June  8, 1840.  In  1783  be  was  a  commissary  in  tbe 
American  arm]-.  SeeCorwin,J/anuu/o//Aefty:  CAurci 
is  A  meriea,  s.  v. 

Tan  IIoTenbetgta,£ciaoTaNKE.ia,a  Dutch  min- 
ister of  the  Reformed  Cburch.  He  was  ordained  at 
Amsterdam,  April  1,  1T43;  and  preached  at  Surinam, 
South  America,  1743-49.  On  his  wav  back  from  Suri- 
nam to  Holland  in  1749  he  stopped  at  New  York.wbere 
he  would  have  received  a  call  from  the  consistory  but 
for  the  nnsatisfactary  position  he  took  concerning  tbe 
Church  and  ministry  of  New  York.  He  pteacbnl  at 
Livingston  Manor  and  Claverack,  N,  Y„  i;49-fi6 )  and  at 
Itbinebeck  Flats,  175<!-^,  when  he  was  suspended,  but 
coutinueil  to  preach  until  1767.  See  Corwin,  Jtanyai 
of  the  Rrf.  Ckitrch  ia  Ameriea,  a.  v. 

Tan  Huaen,  Stspbkn,  a  Baptist  missionary  among 
the  Teliioguos,  was  bnni  at  Calskill,  N.  T,  Dec  6, 1812, 
and  received  his  education  at  the  Hamilton  Literary 
and  Theological  Instituiiini,  now  tlailison  University, 
He  received  hi*  apixiintment  Aug.  23, 1838.  Ho  did 
not  reach  the  Reld  of  his  labons  Ncllore,  until  March  21, 
1840.  for  several  yean  he  devoted  himself  witb  aeal 
to  his  work  with  but  little  apparent  fruit.  In  a  section  of 
the  1'eluogoo  country  which  has  recently  been  so  won- 
derfully biriseil.  It  waa  a  time  (i>r  seed-sowing ;  at  laac 
the  great  harvest  has  come.  Mr.  Van  Husen's  health 
broke  down  uiidL-r  his  arduous  and  often  discouraging 
labnrs,and  be  rL-tunicdlo  bit  native  counlrv,  Oct.  1,1846. 
He  died  at  lira  tile  borough,  Vt.,  Dec  13, 18M.    (J.C.  S.) 

Tan  Huysen,  ilEiiuANua.  au  American  minister 
of  tbe  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church.     Mis  eariy  literary 
■■  small,  amt  he  served  during  the  Revo- 


lulioi 


\t the  cl 


ightto  enter  ibeminlsirt'.  He  studied 
under  Ihe  direction  of  Dr.  J.  H.  Livingston,  and  wo* 
licensnl  by  the  Clas-is  of  Hackensaek.  K.  J.,  in  1793. 
He  preached  at  HeliierbciTt.  Salem,  and  Jeru*alcm,N.  V, 
179+-182S.  He  died  in  l«3a.  .See  Corwin,  .tfunuu/o/' 
Ihe  R'f  Vhaifh  ia  Amrnca.  s.  v. 

Tani'ah{Heb.r<wynA',n^51,JaSi*pruiM[FUrst]; 
Sept,  Oiotiyia  v.  r.  OuouoMa  and  CUuxdhi,  Vulg.  fa* 


VANIERE  712 

■hi),  an  landiu  of  "the  aoiu  of  Bani,"  who  diToned 
bii  Gentile  wife  mBiried  ifcer  the  return  froca  Babyloa 
(Ezra  1, 36).     B.C  43S. 

Tanldre,  Jacques,  i  celebrated  French  Jeauit  and 
modem  Lalin  poet,  was  bom  it  Caunses,  in  the  diocese  of 
Beziers,  Liiifueituc,  March  9,  IGG4.  He  was  educated 
al  tbe  Jeauila'  college  in  Biiiien.  ami  joinel  the  society 
in  1680.  He  wu  afterwanla  prufeuur  and  rector  of  the 
Jeauit  Bchoola  in  MonlpelUer,  Tgulouse,  and  Auch. 
died  at  Toulouse,  Aug.  22, 1739.  Hia  chief  vrarki 
volume  of  puetical  O/'ujcu/ii ; — a  Dictionary  of  Fuflrj/,in 
Latin: — and  a  Latin  poem  entitled  Fradiam  Rmlicam. 
For  otben,  aee  lioefet,  A'our.  Biog.  Giniralt,  *.  • 

Tanlni,  Luctlio,  an  Italian  philowiilier 
Tinriaann,  near  Naples,  in  1&84.     He  studied  . 
phy,  tbeolcigy,  and  natural  science  at  Kome  and  Padua, 
and  took  huly  otdere.    His  miiKl  was  perrerted  by 
reading  Atistotle,  Avemies,  Cardan,  and  Pomponazzi. 
He  travellal  and  preached  bis  infidel  doctrines  in  Ger- 
many, England,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  France. 
IG17  be  left  Paris,  opened  a  school  at 'rouloiiae,  and 
fused  hia  impious  notioiia  into  the  minds  of  bis  scholi 
on  account  of  which  he  was  accused  of  atheism,  a 
tenced  to  death,  and  bumed  at  the  stake  on  thedavtbe 
sentence  was  given,  Feb.  19, 1G19.     He  published,  Am- 
phithratrum  jEtn-aa  Propidenlit  (Lyons,  \6lb):—Dt 
Admirandit  Kalunt  Rtgina  Dtaqut  Morlaliam  4rca- 
nif  (Paris,  1&IG>     See  \}aianA,  I jiVitrt  la  Hea^tBU 
<£et.  >'unifli(Kull«r<lan),lTI7)!  Kousselol, (£ui 
lunphiqiiridt\'wmiHyitn>,\im)\  Hi«fer,A'oi 

TaD  IihovQD,  WiLLKH,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Dutch 
divine,  was  burn  at  Krssel,  in  North  Brabant,  Nov. ', 
1698.     He  received  his  early  educa^on  at 'S  Hertugei 
boBcb,  first  ill  llie  Latin  achonls,  and  subsequently  at 
tbe  Atbeneeiim  of  that  place.    He  [hen  repaired  to  Ley- 
den,  where  tlie  eminent  professora  P.  Uunnan,  J.  He; 
man,  and  VV.  Senguerd  were  his  instructoni  in  tbe  ai 
cient  and  Oriental  languages  and  in  philosophy,     t 
also  applied  himaelf  Bucccasfully  to  the  study  of  chen 
lairy  under  the  celebrated  Boerhaave.   He  dei-nteii  spe- 
cial attention  to  philtisophy,  in  which  he  attained  great 
proficiency.     In  1720  he  defended  an  essay  l>e  Intel' 
lertu  t'aeallale  mt  Aiiiea.     The  year  following  he 
prepared  another  pbilosophieal  essay  in  Ljit' 
which  he  was  promoted  to  iirtiam  librraliam 
tl  phUoiophia  Aidor.     It  was  bis  puq>use,  hoi 
devote  iiimaelf  to  the  work  of  the  Uuapel  ministry. 
He  attendeil  the  theological  leclnrea  of  T.  H.  Vi 
Honcrt,  F.  Fabriclus,  J.  Marck,  and  J.  Weaaelin 
IT22  he  was  called  to  Ede,  near  Arulieim.    Whi 
charging  liia  ministerial  duties  with  ardor  and  tt 
be  zealously  prosecuted  Ida  studies,    lie  R|ient  a  part 
of  each  year  in  Leyden  to  avail  himself  of  I' 
sily  library.     In  1728  appeared  his  Conjrrtu 
tagkO'Crilko-lhtolugieit  in  J'aalinoruin  J'tlnlof.     Thia 
work  added  to  bis  reputalion.    The  next  year  he  pub- 
lished a  pisc^cal  work  in  Dutch  on  ttte  A  Hand  Ci'-it- 
liaa,  which  passeil  through  aereral  eililiona.     In  1737 
he  accepted  a  pniressoiship  nf  theology  in  the  tluirer- 
sity  of  Utrecht.     This  poaitiiiii  he  held  for  twenty- 
three  years,  with  credit  to  himself  and  with  great  ben- 
efit to  his  pupils.    In  1740  the  aildllional  duty  was 

Durinj;  his  pmfeworata  be  publieh«l  but  little,    lie 
died  Nov.  18,  ITGO,  deeply  lamented  at  Utrecbt.  aa  alau 
in  the  world  of  leilen.     Sea  Glasius,  Godgrlrrrd  A'n/er- 
laad.  li,  103;  also  Burmanni  OniHn  f'yarb.  in  Onl 
GaUrlmi  Irhotii  (Traj.ad  Rh.  I7fl0),     (J.  P.  W.) 

VoniatB  ia  a  name  given  by  Baxter  to  the  Ai 
namians  (i|.  v.)  of  New  England  on  account  of  tbo 
Tor  shown  them  by  ^r  Henry  Vane  (q.  v.),  who  i 
then  goveinnr  of  the  colony  of  Massachnsctts, 

Vanity  (as  a  rendering  of  several  Heb.  words, 
(loraidnjc)  occurs  in  Scripture  only  in  the  Ijitin  sense 
of  tmpliaiis,  aud  is  often  applied  to  this  worl 


VANLOO 

iafacUiTy  (Eccleo,  i,  2);  to  lying  (Paa.  iv,  2);  u>  iiMa 
"*  "   ""^     lit  whatever  disappoints  our  hopn 

(1^.  Ix,  11),  In  ordinary  language  the  lerm  is  applisd 
to  the  man  who  wishes  you  to  think  ninte  highly  al 
bim  than  what  he  really  deaerves.  Hence  the  rain 
man  flatlets  in  order  to  l>e  flattered;  is  always  food  of 
praise;  endearora  to  bribe  others  into  a  good  opinioa 
'  ' '  iself  by  his  complaisance,  and  sometimes  even  by 
good  offices,  though  often  displaj-ed  with  upptctuaaty 
tentation.    See  Pridk. 

Van  Kenren,  BENJAMtN,a  Reformed  (Dutch)  miB- 
tcr,  graduated  at  New  Brunswick  Theological  Semi- 
iiy  in  1H24,  and  was  licensed  the  same  year.  He  be. 
iDie  missions rj'  to  Charleston, Maplelon. and  WffVetka 
N.  Y.,  1824;  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  l826-2Gi  E«>f>uN  llurtej 
ad  Bloomingdolc,  N.  Y.,  IH2C-34 ;  Eso|.us  and  BkNiQ- 
igdale,  1S»4-SG;  Warwick,  N.  Y.,  1836-37;  prwbtd 
IT  the  Presbyterian  Cburch,  1837-56;  and  died  io  18K 
See  Corwin,  Miinuat  o/llte  FUf.  Ckurci  in  A  meHai.  t.  r. 
Van  Kleek,  Richarh  D.,  a  Reformed  (Dntdi) 
minister,  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1822,  and  at 
New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminan-  in  1H35,  who 
he  was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick.  He 
preached  at  Riiitau,  K.  J.,  182G-3I ;  laughi  u  Baakiag 
Kidge  (N.  J.}  Academy,  1831-34 ;  preached  at  (;ans>>- 
hnrie.N.Y,  1884-33;  al  Berne  and  Beaver  Dains,S.r, 
ISS:>^;  Unghtal  KiBsmus  Hall, Flathush, LU IMS- 
60;  in  thegrammar-BChool,  Jersev  Ciiv,  N.  J..  18tiO-70: 
and  died  in  1370.  See  Corwin;  A/i^at  o/ Ot  Of. 
Chareh  in  Amtriea.t.v. 

Van  Iiisfr.  Jolin.  D.D.,  a  minister  of  tbe  Retara- 
ed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bum  near  Neshaiiic.  K.  J- 
Sept.  SO,  1798.  He  grailuated  at  Queen's  Culltse  is 
1810,  anil  at  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  ia 
IHjD,  when  he  was  licensed  by  the  Clasiis  of  Nei- 
Brunswick;  preached  for  the  PresbvteriaD  Chnrch  at 
Mcadville,  Pa.,  1830-23;  Preabvlcti'an  Cburch,  Uend- 
ham,  N.  ■>.,  lS24-2i;  Ref<MiDe.l  (Dutch)  Church,  Be^ 
ington,N.  J.,  182(1-69.  He  died  Oct.  18, 186%  Unriag 
his  ministry  of  forty-nine  years,  about  six  bundndpn- 
sous  united  with  the  Chiircli.  See  Corwio,  Mmuuitf 
Ike  R'f.  Ckaieh  in  A mtriai,  s.  v. 

Van  Iiievr,  Jota  Camion,  at  first  a  minister  of 

the  Reformed  Pnittstant  Dutch  Church,  and  afterwad* 

of  tbe  Preshyierian  Church,  was  bom  in  Middkboih. 

Miildlesex  C».>  N.J.     After  pursuing  his  clatstcal  uad- 

vd  theology  at  the  Theoli^ical  Semituoy. 


V  Bmn> 


IS  lire 


called  to  the  churches  of  Catskill.Leed^  and  Eiskaiim, 
in  the  Claris  of  Greene,  in  1828,  as  oiiUcagiie  m  his 
uncle,  tbe  Rev.  Dr.  Wyckoff;  in  1829  look  tule  cha^ 
of  l.eeds  and  Kiakatiim;  in  1832  accepteil  a  odl  U 
Spotawoal,  N.  3„  where  he  opened  a  clatsical  sch«l| 
and  conducted  it  auecrssfully  for  several  yean  (ItM- 
41);  was  subsequently  rector  of  the  Rutgers  t'oUtgi 
Grammar -school  I  pastor  at  KHanl,  Livin);>tao  Ct, 
N.V,  (1815-49):  prindpalofihCTemple  Hill"  Acai- 
emy  at  licnesee,  Uvingslon  Co.;  pastor  at  Umvelaod, 
N.  Y.;  Stune  Arabia  and  Ejihraiah.  Montgonwn  Oo, 
N.Y.;  Berne  and  Beaver  Dams  (18ji>-61)j  and  tinaOy 
located  in  New  Jersey,  where  he  died  in  1861.  Hi. 
Van  Liew  was  a  *■  man  of  ilecided  mental  abililr.  n 
able  advocate  in  ecclesiastical  trials  and  cDnitDveT<.y.  a 
critical  linguist,  ami  an  excellent  preacher."  See  A'B- 
siHi,  /Vfrf.  WW,  A  /nannr,  1862,  p.  800 ;  Curwin,  Sluwd 
nf  the  ft-/.  Chtnrh  in  A  ariini,  •.  v. 

Vauloo.  Cbatles  Andrfi.  called  the  dtr-ilim 
Ciieh  Vimho,  a  Krencli  painter,  waa  bom  at  Nire  ib 
ITOo.  He  wasdrtt  instrucieil  by  his  lH«iher  Jean  Bap- 
tiste,  whom  he  accompaninl  to  Rome  and  studied  under 
Luti;  visited  Paris  in  1723,  where  he  gained  the  iin« 
prize  for  historical  composilinn ;  went  again  to  lioly  in 
1727,  where  he  studied  the  worts  of  the  masters  mow 
thoTDiighly,  and  took  the  prite  in  design  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  St.  Luke ;  went  to  the  cnuri  of  Turin,  when  h» 
painteil  many  pictures  j  retunied  to  Paris  in  l<34i  woi 


VANLOO  71 

■JmittedtotheAeadeaiyiDlTSG;  lild  wu  knighted b]' 
Looii  XV  in  1763,  uid  graatcd  «  libenl  pensiun  Tor  life 
He  died  ID  1766,  His  principal  works  »re,  Tht  Apolkt- 
Mi*  nf  SI.  IiidoTtj  ia  Rome  -.—St.  Fraacit,  and  SI.  Mar- 
rilo,  ia  the  nme  cil;: — aMriaofuibjeeUfrom  ibiJerv- 
talem  of  Ta»a,ia  lh«  royal  palan,  Turin:— rAc  Mar- 
riogeofiie  rur^iQtheGallerr oribeLoarre.  Hedid 
imponanl  ntrritx  in  nfoitDing  Ihe  affected  and  gaudy 
Mjle  then  prevalent  iu  Ibe  Freacli  achooL  His  country- 
men arc  excraTagant  in  hia  praisei;  butbe  may  juatly 
be  <wn)paiHl  witb  the  beet  of  the  modem  Italian  painc- 
eia.      See  Spoouer,  Biog.  Bill,  of  tit  fine  Am,  a.  v. 

Vanloo,  Jeaa  BapUato,  a  French  painter,  wm 
bom  at  Aix  in  1681.  He  was  inalructed  by  hia  falher, 
and  went  to  Toulon,  wbere  he  executed  aeveral  nrorks 
for  the  cburchea;  but  the  ai^  of  that  place  in  1T{I7 
compelled  him  to  return  to  Aix,  where  he  labored  fur 
Sre  yean  for  amall  cumpenudon.  He  afterwarda  went 
to  Rome  under  the  protection  of  the  prince  of  Catignan, 
where  he  aiudied  the  great  mastere.  Acquiring  coniid- 
eiable  reputalion,  he  executed,  imong  other  works,  Tit 
Santr^^o/'CAruf,  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Monti- 
eelli.  He  next  nent  to  Turin,  wbere  be  distinguished 
himself  bv  paiuliogs  in  oil  and  fresco,  and  acquired  con- 
nderable  wealth.  He  then  went  to  Paris;  lost  hia  furc- 
one  in  the  Hinisaippi  scheme;  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy;  alwprufessur  in  1735;  went  la  London 
ID  1737 ;  and  returned  to  Aix  in  1742,  where  he  <lied  in 
1746.  His  best  works  at  Paris  are,  T/ie  Knlry  ofChritI 
iato  JmitaUm,\a  the  Church  of  St.  Martin  des  Champs: 
— taiX  St.  Ptltr  Dflicrrei}  from  PTiiim,ia  the  Church  of 
St.  Germain  des  Fres.  See  Spoooer,  hiog,  Uitt.  of  tht 
Fine  Am,a.v. 

Tan  M«t«r,  Hbkrv  L.,  a  Baptist  minister  and 
missianaTT  to  Burmab,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.. 
Sept.  31. 1824,  and  was  a  graduate  of  the  Uuiversiiyof 
IVnnsf  Ivania  and  of  the  Hamilton  Literary  and  Tbeo. 
logical  Institute.  He  was  appointed  by  the  American 
Baptist  Misaonary  Union  as  a  missionary  to  Bassein, 
Bormab,  and  was  onlained  Sept.  28, 1848.  Re  proceed- 
ed, immediately  after  hia  oidinatian,  to  the  East,  where, 
for  about  tweniy-lwo  years,  with  but  little  intermiaiiinn. 
be  devoted  himself  to  his  sacred  work.  Uis  health 
failing,  he  relumed  to  bii  native  country.  He  had 
been  at  home  but  a  few  weeks  when  he  died,  at  Mott- 
viUe,  near  Skaneateles  Uke,  N.  X.,  Aug.  16,  1870. 
(J.CS.) 

Van  Mtldait,  Wiluau,  D.D.,  a  bUhop  in  the 
ChiiTcb  of  England,  was  bnrn  in  London  in  1769.  Hl- 
etudicd  some  years  at  the  Merchant Tayion'  School,  and 
then  entered  Queen's  GiUege,  Oxford.  Having  taken 
bis  degree,  been  onlained  in  1788,  and  served  some  time 
as  curaie,  and  afterwards  as  incumbent  of  the  living  i>l 
^adilen,  Northamptonshire  (1795),  he  was  in  1796  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  St.  Msry-le-Bow,  Uheapsiiie, 
I^iidon.  He  also,  in  proceaa  of  time,  obtainol  the  vic- 
arase  of  Farmingham,  Kent.  In  1812  he  was  elecleil 
preacber  of  Lino'lii's  Inn;  in  1813  was  sppmnteil  regins 
profe!4ior  nf  divinity  in  Oxford;  in  lHo  was  eunse- 
eratcil  bishop  of  UaadalT;  and  in  1826  was  transferred 
toDitrham.  Me  died  F'eb.21, 1886.  Bishop  Von  Milderl 
was  distinguiiihed  for  bis  theological  writings,  em' 
iag  bis  BiVflr  leelMrti  (  1802-6  ):— his  Bnmplon  /^vT- 
■r-M  (1814):— his  editiim  of  the  writings  of  Ur.  Wat 
land :— and  his  Sermoru  preached  at  Lindiln's  Inn. 
sras  emiBCOtly  genemu*.  SeeCABi^c*  n/Knglaiid  Mag- 
aimr.  i-  31 ;  Allibone,  Ukt.  n/Bril.  atid  .4  mtr.  ,1  «lh.  s.  v. 

Vuuiel,  an  old  English  term  li>r  a  fanoii  nr  wipiia, 
scHBelimes  worn  round  the  neck  instead  of  the  amice 
(q.  r.) ;  also  osed  fur  the  amice  iuelf. 

TanneSiCouscil-or (Concifinmrni^lcuiii).  Tannes 
U  a  seaport  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Hortrihan,  on  the  south  ooaat  uf  Brittany,  sixty 
ooe  mile*  north-west  of  Nantes.  A  eouncil  was  held 
Iberc  in  465  by  St.  Perpetuus,  the  first  archbishop  of 
TtHin,  who  presided  over  fire  other  bishops.     PstetOM 


to  the  aee  of  Vonoea,  and 
anons  were  pubUsheil  (many  of  which  are  the 
b  those  of  Tours)  A.D.  461.  '  The  following  are 

%.  Bicommoolcnles  IhOM  who  marry  agnlu  after  hav- 
.  ig  diiorced  their  Urst  wives,  iii:leu  It  was  on  ucconut  uf 

T.  Forbids  monks  to  retire  Into  •olllory  cells,  except 
le/  be  men  oftried  virlne.  i>»d  nnnii  couditi<in  tJi<it  they 
eep  witblii  ihe  preclucis  uf  the  abbey  and  under  the  ab- 
oi'iOurlsdicIliin. 

s.  Fiirblds  nhbuts  to  bold  many  monnsteries  or  cells. 

11.  Prohlblis  pricsu,  deaco^^  and  subdeaoins.  who  are 
forblddeu  tn  marrv.  fnini  attending  miicriage  ftstlTBla, 


i.  Forbids  al 
lufdm 


of Ihe > 


Id  Jewish  h»<tlTaK 

ir  thirty  dsy>  ecclMlutlca  gnllly 

days  clerks  who,  living 


H.  Eicommnnleatee  tboM  ofihscterin  who  meddle  In 
diilnstlons.  and  suparstlllDutl;  pretend  to  foniell  IhS 
future  by  chance  readings  of  BolyScripUue. 

These  regulations  are  addressed  to  Viclorius,  bishop 
of  Maur,  and  Thslassiua  uf  Aiigeni,  who  were  un- 
able to  attend  the  council.  See  Bfaosi,  Concif.  iv, 
1064. 

Van  Nest.  Abraham,  an  eminent  Christian  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist  of  t4ew  I'ork.  was  bom  near 
Somervillf.  N.  J.,  Mav  8, 1777.  At  twelve  years  »f  age 
he  left  his  father's  house  and  farm  lo  dweU  with  hia 
brother  in  New  York,  where  bis  subsequent  long  life 
was  spent.  Carefully  nurtured  by  his  believing  par- 
ents, and  converted  at  an  early  age,  he  united  in  the 
communion  of  the  Collegiate  Church,  of  which  he  woa 
a  member  ueariy  sixty  yeai  '  '  ■    - 


Bye 


a  permanent  d 
neral  Synod  ar 


e  Consistory  and  of 
'      '     '         ^mblies 


which  bis  commanding  ii 

fluence  was  always  quietly  exerted.  He  waa  greatly 
prospered  in  buNness,  and  accumulated  a  large  prop- 
erty,withaut  a  atain  upon  his  good  name,  and  be  used  it 
aa  a  ruthful  steward  of  Ihe  kingdom  of  tiod.  He  was 
noted  fur  abounding  liberality  and  for  efficient  services 
in  many  benevolent  institutions.  But  his  chief  sphere 
of  uwfulneas  was  in  the  Church,  as  a  wise  counsellor  and 
willing  servant.  He  was  president  of  the  Board  of  &>t- 
poralion  for  many  years.  As  a  trustee  of  Rutgers  Oil- 
lege,  from  1823  until  his  decease,  he  did  much  to  revive, 
sustain,  and  enlarge  that  institution;  and  his  name  is 
iierpetuated  in  one  of  its  edifices,  V'ub  Sal  Hall,  erected 
in  1842  by  the  efforts  of  Ihe  alumni,  and  devoted  to  the 
Museum  of  Natural  llislory.  Chemistry,  Geolagy,  and 
the  Literary  Sucieliea.  He  did  more  than  any  other 
layman  nf  that  day  to  endow  the  Theological  Seminary 
at  Kew  Brunswick  by  his  personal  labors  with  Vn.  Lud- 
low, fkhoonmaker,  and  Jacob  K.  Ilanlenbcrgb,  aa  well 
as  by  his  Rifts.  For  thirty  years  he  waa  hooorably 
irienlilicd  with  the  politics  and  government  of  New  York 
city — acting  with  the  Democratic  party,  and  alwaya 
maintaining  his  Chrisliaii  jnlegriiy  amid  those  testing 
scenes  of  public  life.  Mr.  Van  Xeiit  waa  of  small  stat- 
ure, with  s  benevolent  and  thoughtfol  conntcnance  and 
entirely  unobtrutive  manner.  His  will  was  strong;  be 
possessed  great  executive  ability,  prudence,  knowleilge 
uf  human  nature,  and  kindness  of  heart.  His  juety  waa 
intelligent,  scriptural,  and  unifurmlv  earnest  and  out- 
spolicn.  He  was  a  man  of  prayer,  "'full  of  faith  and  of 
Ihe  Holy  Chosf."  His  home  was  Ihe  abmle  of  a  prince- 
ly hospilaliI\',  and  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  one  of 
the  few  remaining  landmarks  of  the  wealth  and  liberal- 
ity of  a  generation  that  has  passed  away.  AlBictiona 
and  age  mellowed  his  Chriutian  character  during  the 
Inter  and  quiet  years  of  his  once  busy  life;  and  he 
"camo  to  bis  grave  in*  full  age,  like  us  (bock  of  com 


VAN  NEST  7: 

Cometh  in  in  ita  aeuon."    He  died  Sept.  U,  18C4.    St* 
A  Sftmcrial/or  hit  famtts  (1*11).     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Van  Nest,  Pat«r.  a  Meihodlu  Epucopal  minister, 
naabomin  tklhlehein  tovrnthip,  HitiitinRdun  Co.,  N.  J., 


Ily  WB9.     Being  in  Briilul,  KiigUnd,  he  w 

)[nss  W»rwick,  *  Wesleyan  preacher,  who* 
«  so  puDgent,  iniJ  teemed  w>  personal  li 


joiueil  the  Methnliit  Church,  anil  acquired  Ihe  friend- 
ship of  John  Wesley.  Henry  Moore,  the  biogmphcr 
of  Wesley,  eommiBnioned  him  as  a  local  preacher  ii: 
1794.  In  l'96  he  relumed  %o  America,  atid  nas  re- 
ceived on  trial  in  the  Philadelphia  Conference  the  sami 
year,  and  appointed  Id  .Salem  Circuit,  in  New  Jersev, 
but  did  not  travel  it.  The  next  year  (IT97)  he  wa 
ai^in  received,  and  sent  to  Middletown  Circuit,  Corn 
'  sequent  appuinlmenia  were  as  (ollowa:  in  ITiM 
"'      '       '  spent  (hree  monlhs,  and_ 


.  to  CioloD  Circuit, 
was  then  sen  t  lo  Middlclown  attain : 
ham,  to  form  a  new  circuir;  in  IHOU,  to  Klelcher  (ful 
[Derly  £sse:i):  in  1801,  la  New  London;  in  1802,  t 
Bay  Quinta,  Upper  Canada;  in  IMK),  to  N'iaKsrsj  i 
laiM,  to  Burlington,  N.J.;  in  IHOa,  to  ElizalKthtow 
Circuit;  in  DWG,  to  Samerset,  Mil.-,  in  1H07,  to  llollan 
Purchase  as  raissiDnary;  from  HHW  10  181)9,  lo  Cavn^ 
District;  in  ISlO.toGluuceMerCiiTuit,  K.J.;  from'lHIO 
to  1BI4,  to  East  Jenev  Uislrici :  in  1KI3,  to  Salem  Ci 
cuil;  in  1816, to  Freehold;  in  1817, lu UNgen ;  in  181 
;   from  1819  "     ■"■" 


BU|ier 


tilled 


h,  Oct.  17,  1850.    Ur 


iabora  in  New  ICiiKland,  Can 
d  New  Jersey  wtre  inslmmf 
edsofoouU     From  the  tin>i 

be  effective  until  his  death—a  period  of  about 


le  had  h 


1,  N.  J.,  1 


1  hij-hly  re«(>ecied 
enied.  He  watched  over  Ihe  Chun-h  in  that  plar 
with  exemplary  Adelity  10  the  last.  When  he  was  i 
his  ninety.seciHid  year,  lie  wu  often  seen,  with  suff  i 
hand,  going  about  from  house  lo  house,  and  inqiiirin 
with  great  interest  in  respect  lo  both  the  temporal  an 
spiritual  welfare  of  Ihe  inmates.  His  death  was  tic 
only  peaccrul,bul  triumphant.  See  ilimlr)  nJ'Anaaal 
Confirrnctt,  ir,6tiS;  Spngne,  Amialt  nfl^t  Amrricai 
Piilpir,  vii,  276 ;  Stevenn,  llitl.  o/Ike  M.  K.  Church,  ill 
48.t;  iv,  17,63,267.     (J.LS.) 

Van  Neat.  Hynler,  a  Reformed  {DutehJ  minis- 
ter,  Was  bom  near  North   Braneh,  N.  J.,  Feb.  8,  i;." 
He  studied  privately,  and  was  licensed  in  1773.     I 
was  pastor  at  Shawanpink  and  New  I'altz,  N.  V.,  from 


»  (Hag 


T    of 


Bev,  J.  M.  GoetKhius,  of  Schoharie,  F' 
pastor  at  Shawangunk  and  Uantpimerv  from  17 
lo  1785;  supplied  UiddUburgh  fmrn  1774  lu  178 
Schoharie  frum  1780  lo  1785;  was  iiaMor  at  Jamaii 
Newtown,  Ovater  Bay,  and  Snccess,  L  I.,  fnim  1785 
1T97.  and  at  Schoharie  from  1797  (o  181)3.  lie  died 
Rrnilingtnn,  N.  J..July  9,  1813.  Sec  Corwin,  iluuaal 
of  lie  Rrf.  C/lnrth  in  Anutica,  ^  v. 

Vannl,  Caralier  FranoeacOi  an  eminent  Ital 
painter,  was  bnni  at  Sienna  probably  in  156a,  He 
ceived  Hime  instruction  frum  bit  father  and  aftcrwa 
fiom'his  stepfather,  when,  al  Ihe  age  of  twelve,  be  w< 
to  Bologna  and  studied  uniler  Pasuroiti.  When  ab 
^xleen  he  went  to  Home,  and  became  the  pupil  of 
Giovanni  de'  Vecchi.  where  he  chose  fur  bit  model  the 
works  of  Federigo  Komccio.  (In  leaving  Rome, 
travelled  thmiigli  Lomlianly,  and  on  returning  li>  Sii 
ita  executed  Mveral  works  for  the  churches  and  ci 


i  VAN  NOSTRAND 

rents.  lie  was  then  invited  to  return  10  Rome,wb(Te 
he  was  commissioned  by  Ctentenl  Vlll  to  paint  tlie 
pu:tuK  of  31.  FntrlteiBiiiiffSiinimMasriu.  lliioork 
slill  remaina  on  a  marble  alab  in  St.  Pelrr'a,  Home,  asd 
ia  an  object  of  admiiation.  His  labon  ao  pleaaMi  the 
pope  that  he  made  him  B  knight  of  the  Onler  of  Cbiiii. 
Ilia  principal  works  at  Home  are,  St.  Uidtatl  runfaiil- 
Mff  fht  Rdiel  A  ngelt,  in  the  Church  of  .San  4iiTgurii>:— 

-■la,  in  Ihe  Church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Valicells  :-tDd 

AuviKption,  in  the  Church  of  San  Lnrenzo  in  Uiisn- 

Buttais  best  works  are  lobe  found  at  Sieana,ao«ig 

h  are  ihe  Uurriufft  of  SI.  CufAernr .— the  Maifm- 

-and^f.  linj/mauU  IValtiigOHfAt  Sta.    Healiunb 

culed  a  few  correct  and  spirited  etchings  from  hit  own 

deaignsmvhich  are  highly  esteemed.     Hi- Jini  ai  ainna 

tulGIO.     SeeSpooner,  £i<>sr. //iM.n/ftt  J-i..i  An,,t.^. 

Vaunt,  Capolier  Michael  Angelo,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  17th  centui}-,  was  the  eldest  ion  of  the 
cavalier  Francesco  Yanni.  by  whom  he  waa  inniucled 
in  Ihe  art.  His  bma  mts  chiefly,  however,  upon  hii 
invention  of  a  new  proceaa  of  alaining  maible  in  ioiia- 
lion  of  mmaic.  There  are  some  of  his  paintings  blbe 
churches  and  convents  of  Sienna,  but,  they  are  moiA  ia- 
ferinrtolhebestproductionsofhiafalher.  SeeSpooiMr, 
flics.  RiH.  nftha  Fmt  A  rfi,  &  v, 

Vannl,  CaraUtr  Raflaelle,  an  [talian  painter, 
second  son  of  Fiancetco  Vanni,  was  boni  at  Sieniti  in 
1596.  He  studied  with  bis  father,  who  died  when  Kaf- 
faelle  was  fourteen  years  of  age.  He  afterwards  stuKtd 
at  Rome,  where  he  made  such  progress  as  to  rival  his 
father.  Among  bis  finest  works  are  the  JlinA  o/lht 
I'lT^^  at  Rome:— the  Uarfgrdim  of  Si.  CalltrniK,tl 
Pisa  t— and  the  Proaition  nfour  Sarioar  lo  Calraij, 
at  Sienna.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  St.  Luke  in  1655,  and  was  honored  with  knightbood. 
See  Spooner,  Bio^.  /Jill,  of  Ihe  Fmt  A  rit,  a.  v. 

Van  NieiranhnyBeii,  WiuiEi.Mi'a,  a  minima 
of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  and  tdo- 
cated  in  Holland,  and  called  thence,  in  1671,  to  the  Col- 
legiate Church  in  New  York.  He  removed  lo  Brenkke- 
len  (Brooklyn)  in  1676.  but  continued  to  ofSciiic  fn- 
quently  in  New  York.  He  waa  a  relative  aiHl  ptidecM- 
sor  of  the  celebrated  Rev,  Henry  Selrna.  When  gov- 
ernor Audroa  forced  Nicholaa  Van  Kanalaer  npon  the 
Church  at  Albany  as  colleague  to  Gideon  Schaal^k 
1675,  Van  Niewenhuysen  was  sent  from  New  York  «> 
assist  Ihe  aged  pastor  in  resisting  Ihe  uaurpaiton  uf  the 
civil  power.  Hia  minisliy  in  New  Vork  waa  peactfid 
and  prosperous;  and  there  is  gooil  evidence  in  bbiw> 
retpondenee  with  the  Classis  uf  Amsterdam,  and  in  bit 
controversy  with  Andros  for  the  prerogatives  of  tbt 
Church,  that  be  waa  a  learned,  able,  faithful,  and  jodi- 
ciiHis  minister  of  the  Go^irl.  Utile  more  ia  known  of 
him.  Hediedin  1682.  Hewasof  tbeCocceian  scbwl 
ia  exegesis.  See  Muiphy.^afjloijjj  o/"  A™  A'rllrr. 
lundi,  p.  179;  Docuiiinaary  llitlory  of  Ntie  )'ar^.  iii, 
872-8;5i  Corwin,  ilonaal  aflkt  B'f.  Chvck  (■  Ama- 
ica,».w.     (W.J.  R.T.) 

Van  Noatraod,  Aaron,  a  Pmtestant  Episovpal 
clergyman,  died  at  PainesviUe,  O.,  of  camp  fever.  Feb. 
27, 1863,  aged  thirty-two  yeara.  He  wu  cbapl'i"  sf 
the  lOStb  RegimeniorOhioVolunteera,aiidalih<-  lio* 
of  his  death  was  rector  of  St.  James's  Church  in  l-aniea- 
ville,  which  position  he  had  behl  foi  nearly  thirr  i-ran. 
Previous  to  this  he  had  been  rector  of  Si.  j'ohn'i.  t  huitfc, 
Ovde,  N.  Y.,  for  a  period  of  Sve  vears.  See  .iMrrwni 
Uuar.  Churdi  Ric.  April,  1863,  p.  152. 

Van  Noatrand,  Albert,  a  Methodist  Epivfial 
minister,  was  bom  on  Long  Island,  N.Y-  abuoi  ITJt 
He  Jinned  the  Melhodiat  aociety  in  1785k  si  Seruiinen, 
and  soon  afterwards  begai>  preaching,  which  be  cuntio- 
ued,  wiih  the  appniTSl  of  the  Church,  until  hi>  drat^ 
at  Whit*  Plains,  N.  Y„  September  18, 179S,  Sea  Mim- 
<iM  of  A  «,Bal  Caftmca,  1797,  p.  78 ;  Bangs,  OwL 
of  ih,  M.  E.  ChurtA,  u,  62. 


VANNUYS  »: 

Vaunnys,  'Tamex  Harvky,  ■  PrEsbvteriiii  minb- 
ter,  wu  bom  iu  Franklin,  Ind.,  Dec  IB,  issi.  He  wia 
njucalal  in  Hanover  College;  grw<ualed  at  the  Theo- 
logicd  Srninirv-,  Prinuelon,  N.  J.,  in  1861  i  »b9  licenud 
by  tlw  Donei^ai  Presbytery,  and  went  West;  and  wal 
ordaiiied  bv  the  Rnck  River  Presbytery  in  1863  aa  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  at  Andovcr,  lU.  He  subsequently 
preached  at  Willon  Sintiun  aiid  Sugar  Creek,  la.  He 
died  Not.  23, 1866.  He  wu  n  warm-hearted  ChriMian, 
■nd  wi  earliest  and  very  acceptable  preacher.  See  Wil- 
aou,  Prett.  UuL  Almcmac,  1867,  p.  213. 

Van  Olinaa.  Douw,  a  Kefurnie<i  {Dutch)  mini* 
ter,  vu  bom  at  Charleston,  N.  ¥.,  in  1800.     He  grad- 
uated  at  the  New  Brunswick  Tlieolonical  Seniinsry  in 
1824.  and  was  licensed  to  preach.     He  wu  misaionary 
to  Johnatown,  Uayflelcl.  and    Union,  N.  Y.,  in   1825; 
Palatine    from    ISia   lo    1827;    Haplelonn,  Spraker'i 
Baun,  and  Canajohaiio  rmm  1827  lo  I83t ;  Mew  PalU 
from   1833  la  1844;   and  Caughiiawaea  Ctoni    1844 
1858.     He  died  in  1868.     He  was  Urge  of  stature,  a 
manding  in  appearance,  an  eilifying  and  jnstruci 
preacher,  and  of  great  executive  ability.     See  Cnri 
Hanval  of  Ike  Rrf.  Ckarch  m  A  metica,  s.  v. ;  Wilson, 
Pretb.  Ilitt.  Alnaiuu,  1860,  p.  204. 

Van  Pelt,  Petkb  i.,  D.D.,  a  Heformed  (Dutch)  min- 
iner,  wu  bom  at  Bushwick,  L  I.,  May  27,  1778.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  Cullege  in  1T99,  and  studied 
tbeolt^y  under  Dr.  J,  H.  Liringston,  He  received 
license  to  preach  in  ISO],  and  began 


Stat  en  lalaiid  in 


i1  183S 


wa>  paatoT  at  Fonlbam,  N.  Y..  from  1836  to  1847;  also 
chapUinin  the  war  from  l81Sta  1814.  He  died  in  New 
York,  Jan.  20,  1861.  He  pnbli>hcrl  a  few  sermans  and 
orations  delivered  on  important  public  occasions.  See 
Corwii),  JUitnuat  of  lit  ftef.  CAiird  in  /lBjfi«n,a.  v. 

Van  Raalte.  Ai^bertcs  C,  D.D.,  ■  Reformed 
(Etutch)  minister,  was  born  at  Waarneperveen,  Overys- 
sel,  Holland,  Oct.  17,  1811.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
vcrsitr  of  Leyilen  in  1831,  and  at  the  Leyden  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  1834 ;  was  examined  in  the  Pmvincial 
Svnud  of  the  Hague  in  Uay,  1835;  ordained  for  general 
■en-ice  in  Amstenlara  iu  the  General  Synod  of  the  Sep- 
arated or  free  Kefurmed  Church  of  the  Ketherlands, 
March  4, 1836;  was  miwunary  to  Genemuidcn,  then  to 


Omi 


T(Ore 


el),  fro. 


(Xnielderlaud)  from    1844  i< 


1836  to  1844; 


)  he  came  to 
d,Hich.,frum  1851  to  1867; 
missionarv  for  the  emigration  Held,  Amelia  Court-house, 
Ta.,  rrom'l869  lo  1870;  and  president  of  the  council  of 
Hope  Odiege  froio  1870  to  1874.  He  died  Kov.7, 1876. 
Sec  Corwin,  Uamaal  a/lAt  Rrf.  CAurch  in  ^mertca,^ v. 
Van  Ranalasr  (or  R«iMUier),  NiCHOi.Aa,  was 
ordained  as  a  deacon  by  Dr.  ICarle,  bisbnp  of  Hanim.  anri 
as  s  presbyter  by  the  bishop  of  Salisbury ;  was  cbajdain 
to  the  ambassador  ol  the  Slates-General  at  London; 
minister  of  the  Dulch  Church  at  Westminster;  and 
lecturer  at  St.  Margaret's,  Loathbory,  London.  He 
cstne  to  America  in  1676,  with  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion from  the  duke  uf  York  Cn  governor  Andrus,  with  a 
view  to  a  living  in  one  of  the  Dutch  churches  of  the 
colony;  and  also  laid  claim  to  the  manor  of  Uensselacr- 
wycki  The  guvernor  assigned  him  lo  the  Dutch  Church 
in  Albany,  against  the  protests  of  their  minister,  Gideon 
Schaats,  and  the  people.  They  denied  both  the  valid- 
ilr  of  his  ordination,  which  was  not  a  tenable  abjection, 
aiid  the  right  of  the  English  governor  lo  Intrude  him 
upon  an  unwilling  Chnrch  and  congregation.  A  bitter 
contest  and  trial  at  law  followed.    Dominie  Van  Niew- 

veray.  Van  Kanalaer,  however,  continued  to  officiate 
lot  abmil  one  year.  For  a  short  time  he  was  imprison- 
ed fur  utleraoces  in  his  pulpit,  fur  which  Jacob  Leisler 
(afierwanls  goremor)  and  Jacob  Milbome  brought 
charge*  against  him.  Tbii  litigation  ended  in  the  de- 
feat of  bis  oppasera,and  in  the  reconciliation  ofSchaats 
•nd  Van  Ranalaer.    The  latter  died  aoon  after,  sad  thus 


5  VAN  RENSSELAER 

ended  the  disturbances  of  Church  and  State  produced 
by  his  coming.  He  was  suspected  as  a  papist  In  dis- 
guise. His  widow,  nie  Alida  Schuyler,  alierwards  be- 
came the  wife  of  Robert  Livingslon.  See  Docamenlivii 
Hill.  N.  Y.  p.  872-879.  Corwin,  Mnaual  of  Ihe  R'f. 
Chareh  w  A  meriea,  a.  v.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Van  Benaaelaer,  Cottlandt,  D.I>.,  an  eminent 
rresbvteriandivine,sonofgeneral  Stephen  Van  Rensse- 
laer, was  bom  in  Albany,  N.  T.,  May  20, 1808.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1827,  and  was  Kimitted  to  the 
bar  in  1830;  but  studied  theology  in  the  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary,  N.  J.,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1834,  and  onlained  in  1835  by  West  Hanover  Preidjy- 
tery,  Va.  He  orgauizeil  the  First  I'resbyterian  Church 
in  Rurlington,  N.  J.,  and  was  installed  its  pastor  by 
Philadelphia  Second  I'rcsbylery  in  1837.  He  became 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  BoanI  of  Ejlucation  of 
the  I'reebvterian  Church  from  1846  until  his  death, 
JuIySB,  18U0.  Dr.  Van  Rensselaer  established  in  1848 
The  Frabglrriaa  Traitmy,  a  quarto  publication,  issued 
monlhly.  1'his  jiiumal  was  quite  popular,  but  owing 
to  the  earnest  soliciiation  of  other  pirlies,  at  tlie  end  of 
two  years  it  gave  place  to  Ihe  Ifome  imd  Foreign  jRec- 
ord,  eiiited  by  all  the  secreUrles  of  Ihe  Boards  of  the 
Church.  He,hDwevcr,issued,in  January,185l,the  Dm 
annual  volume,  entitled  Ttt  llomt.  School,  and  Charct, 
a  thick  octavo  pamphlet.  In  18&1  he  also  issued  the 
first  number  of  7'jS<  Pie^iyletiim  Ma^izinei  and  it  WH» 
thus  that,b}-  means  of  all  these,  the  mind  of  the  Chun-h 
became  enlightened  upon  Ihe  subject  of  education.  Af- 
ter his  death  appeared  a  selectitm  from  his  published 
writing*,  under  Ihe  title  of  MiictUanroHi  Srrmom,  Ei- 
»oy»,  and  Addretm,  edited  by  his  sun.  C  Van  Rensse- 
laer (PhibL  1861, 8vo).  "They  bear  Ihe  imprees  of  his 
vigorous  intellect,  and  illustrate  his  vsrinuN  reading,  his 
manly  independence,  his  genuine  patriotism,  and  his  un- 
swerving devotion  to  the  cause  and  kingdom  of  the 
Redeemer."  Hi>  critical  reviews  were  discriminating, 
searching,  and  free  from  partiality,  eminently  readalde, 
and  wholly  Iruslworlhy.  See  Wilson,  PreA.  Iliil.  .4J- 
moniic,  1861,  p.  107;  Allibone,  Z>i'c(.  o/ ArtV.  nnd  ^  mrr. 
AMlhori,».i.i  A'o>fA.4RKr.An.Julv,]eOI,p.286i  Me- 
moir, of  S.  Grelltl  (Pbila.  1860),  ii',  486,  note;  A'cfcrf. 
Mag.ofFor.  LU.  Dec  1860.     <J.  L.  S.) 

Van  Reiua«la«t,  Hon.  Btephen,  a  distinguished 
statesman  and  general  in  the  War  of  1812-15,  patroon 
of  the  manor  of  Kensselaerwyck,  and  an  eminent  Chris- 
tian, was  bnm  in  New  York  city  Noi-.  1, 1764,  and  grad- 
uated  at  Harvard  University  in  1782.  In  178S  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  in  1795,  at  Ihe 
age  of  thirty-one,  was  IJeuicnant-giivemor  and  president 
of  the  Senate  of  his  native  state.  He  held  this  office 
six  years.    From  1800  to  1820  he  was  ofien  a  memixr 


^rnblv. 

He" 


1822; 


president  of  the  Boanl  of  Canal  Cora 
years  before  hi*  death ;  and  was  chancellor  of  the  Board 
of  Regents  o(  the  University  of  New  York  at  his  <le- 
cease.  In  1787  he  began  his  military  career.and  was  a 
major-general  of  Volunteers,  commanding  on  the  Niag- 
ara rronlier,  during  the  Wat  of  IHI2-15  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  honorably  cngageil  in  the  battle  of 
Queenstowu.  Yale  College  conferred  on  him  the  degree 
ofdactDroflawsin  1825.  Henasone  oftheflrstBuatd 
of  Managen  of  the  American  Bible  Society  in  1816,  and 
was  always  foremost  with  its  illustrious  founders  and 
frienda.  In  the  affairs  uf  the  Reformed  Church,  of 
which  he  was  "a  burning  and  a  shining  light,"  he  held 
many  positions  of  great  prominence  and  usefidness. 
With  perhaps  one  exception,  he  was  the  most  wealthy 
man  in  the  ITniteil  Slates,  and  he  dispensed  liii  money 
with  a  munilicence  that  was  worthy  of  his  ancient 
patrimony,  which  embraced  a  territory  of  twenty-four 
miles  square,  having  Albany  as  its  centre.  Fmm  this 
inheritance  hewascalled(Aepa(roon,a  title  now  extinct 
by  Isw  with  "  the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  and  fur  genet- 


Want 


VAN  SANTVOORD  716 

■liana  put  the  only  hcredituy  title  known  among  lu." 
His  privale  influence  wu  imnienw.  He  ao  adminialer- 
ed  his  vut  «.iUtei  u  to  win  the  confidence  nf.the  t«n- 
■niB  and  of  Die  whole  community  in  bU  guilelraa  wis- 
dom and  un9iillie4  and  utuelfiih  integrity.  His  chin- 
tie*  were  coiiiiniiilly  Hawing  out  with  diecriminating 
kindneu  ami  Uiuntiful  benevolence,  yet  silent  and  unos- 
icnuiinui.  As  an  elder  in  ibe  Church  at  Albany,  and 
a  member  af  [he  ccclesiaglical  courts  of  his  dennoiina- 

liberality.  But  he  was  Dot  a  Mctarian ;  he  belonged  to 
the  city  of  Uod.  The  manor-hODse  at  Albany  was  not- 
ed for  bii  princely  hnpitalUy  and  Christian  induenc^ 
"The  guest  who  ciosaed  that  threshold  forgot  that  he 
was  a  stranger;  and,  though  poor,  amid  ill  the  appli- 
ances of  uncounted  wealth,  felt  only  that  he  was  at 
home."  Itis  piety  was  radiant  with  goodness  and  with 
■he  beauty  of  a  holy  life.  Ha  died  suddenly,  at  home, 
Jan.  26, 1»39.  "  In  the  midst  of  his  affectionate  chil- 
dren aiul  near  his  devoted  wife,  wilhin  the  hall  where 
the  servant  of  Uod  and  the  friend  of  man  ever  found  lU 
unfeigned  welcome,  his  venerable  head  fell  upon  hi* 
bosom.  Ha  wan  asleep  in  Jesus."  His  portrait,  admira- 
bly taken  in  old  age,  adorns  the  hall  of  the  Board  of 
Managers  of  [be  American  Bible  Society.  His  memory 
Is  an  inspiration  for  ihe  lovers  of  the  country  and  the 
Church  of  C,o,l  See  Belbune,  Commemoyalice  Sirmon  ,- 
Bogers,  I/itlorieal  Ditaonnt.     (W,  J.  R  T.) 

Van  SailtTOO[d,Coimutts,B  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  bom  in  Holland  in  1697,  and  studied  in 
Ihe  University  of  Levden  under  Ihe  celebrated  Prof. 
John  Uaick,  author  of  Ihe  IHediilbi  Tkrokgia.  He  em- 
igrated V>  America  in  ITIB.  He  was  first  settled  on 
Staten  Island,  over  the  Dutch  and  French  Huguenot 
churches,  to  which  he  preached  in  both  languages  from 
1718  to  1742;  also  for  two  years  (ITSO  lo  17B2)  at  Belle- 
ville, N.J.  In  174!  he  removed  to  Schenectady,  N.Y.; 
and,  after  a  ministry  of  ten  yeais,  died  in  Ubi.  His 
dcacenilanis  in  the  fourth  and  firth  generations  are  still 
repreaenicil  in  the  miiLiiterial  ranks  or  their  ancient  de- 
nomination. He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Mr.  Fre- 
iinghuysen  of  Rariian,  and  was  his  advocate  and  de- 
feiuler  in  all  his  trials.  In  his  behalf  he  published  a 
small  volume,  A  I>iiihyue  betarm  Cottii^rani  and  Can- 
didos.  He  was  a  favorite  pupil  of  his  revered  precep- 
tor John  Harck,  and  tramlaled  his  Cummenrniy  on  Ike 
Boot  nf  Untluliaa,  accompanied  by  a  learned  diswrta- 
tion  nf  his  own,  advocating  a  literal  interpretation  of 
the  E]>iBileB  lo  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia.  It  was 
published  in  Holland,  with  the  high  commendslion  of 
Prof.  Wcssclius.  He  was  paralyied  some  time  befure 
liis  decea.«e,  but  continued  lo  preach  until  he  was  called 
to  bis  everlasting  rest.  See  Brownlee,  /ftiT.  Ditc.  on 
Slatcn  Jtland ;  Tavlor,  A  tmalt  of  ClaaU  af  Bfrgen ; 
Sprague,  AmiaU  of  ihe  Amtr.  Palpil,  voL  ix;  l^r- 
win,  Munaid  nf  Ihe  Rrf.  ChanJi  in  Amrrica,  a.  v. 
(W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Van  SobtVi  Cobkblii'ii,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  min- 
ister, was  bom  ill  1703;  preached  at  Pnughkeepie  and 
Fishkill,  N,  T.,  1731  to  1738;  Albanv,  173«  to  1744;  sup- 
plied CUverack,  1732  to  1743:  and  died  Aug.  16, 1744. 
See  Corwin,  ilaaual  af  Ihe  H'f.  Churdt  in  America, 

Van  Bcboick.  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Monmouth  Ouniv,  N.  J.,  in  171:17. 
He  was  converted  in  November,  INW;  admitted  on  trial 
at  the  fbilailelphia  Conference  in  IMIO;  and  sen-ed  at 
the  following  appointments:  Asbury  Circuit,  IS]  0;  Dau- 
phin. Ittll;  Morris,  1812',  Tieutim,  1813  and  1X14 ;  and 
Duriington  in  1815,  where  ho  died  in  ISIC.  Mr.  Van 
Scboick  was  exemplarj' in  life  and  conversation,  and  was 
an  acceptable  and  a  successful  preacher.  See  HiRHIn 
ofAmaal  Co<^erBia$,  1817,  p. 293. 

Van  Sindeiln.  Ulpiani;s,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  born  in  Holland,  and  emigrated  tn  Ameri- 
ca, being  called  in  the  place  of  Viiicenttus  Anioiiidcs,  in 


VAN  VKCHTEN 

1746,  to  preach  at  Bntoklyn,  FUtland^  Du9bwick,Neir 
Utrecht,  Flatbush,  and  Graveiend,  where  he  ministered 
until  I'M.  and  then  resigned.  In  the  bef^inning  of  tliu 
pastorate  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Johannes  Aruo- 
dens,  a  former  pastor  and  troublemme  spirit,  by  officiat- 
ing at  a  marriage  shortly  after  bis  arrival.  Tbe  quar- 
rel occasioned  considerable  irouble,  but  was  nfUrward* 
forgotten.  He  died  Oct.  1. 1803.  See  Corwin,  Uamaal 
oftktRrf.CharrAia  Ameriai,t.-v. 

Van  Btavoren,  Abraham,  a  Presbyterian  mini*- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Delawsre  in  I82S;  grsdualed  at  llUnoia 
College,  Jacksonville,  IlL.  in  \ibl ;  studied  thedoEj  in 
Lane  Seminary,  near  Cincinnati,  O.;  was  licenaed  b^ 
Qncinnaci  Presbytery  in  \»iA;  and  ordained  by  Schoy- 
ler  Presbytery  as  psrior  of  the  Prediyterian  Chnrcb  in 


Hen 


e  lab 


when  he  accepted  a  call  to  Ihe  Church  st  Montrose,  Lt., 
where   he  labored  earnestly  and  faithfully  until   fai> 

and  useful  preacher."  See  Vi'Htati,  Prrib.  Hitl.  Alma- 
nac,  IBSi,  p.  198. 

Vftiuyckle,  Rel-bes,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mio- 
ister,  was  bom  in  November,  1822.  He  was  conrorted 
in  bis  seventeenth  year,  began  eshoiting  immedialeir, 
and  in  !84B  united  with  the  New  Jersey  Conference  and 
was  appointed  to  Newton  CircuiL  He  was  sent  in  leU 
to  New  Prospect;  in  l84&,to  Sunbope;  in  lS46.to  Bml- 
rvviUe;  and  in  1847  and  1848.  to  Sandv-ston.  Mr.Van- 
>yckleaupennouatedinl849:  in  1862  was  mode  chap- 
lain of  the  United  Sutes  Hospiul  at  Forties*  Monnx, 
Va.;  in  1863  was  again  put  on  the  effective  list,  and 
thus  continued  until  his  retirement,  in  1865.  to  Sparta, 
where  he  died,  March  4, 1867.  Mi.Vonsyckle  waa  sin- 
cere, original,  interesting,  ecbIous,  and  succeasfiiL  Sc« 
.Vmutu  ofAtaoutl  CoofeTaca,  1867,  p. 89. 

Van  Til,  Solohom,  a  learned  Dutch  IbeoloKian.  vm 
bom  Dec2e,l614,atWeesp,nearAmstenlam.ora  fam- 
ily originally  from  the  dueliy  of  Cleves.  He  studied  at 
Alkmaar  and  the  University  of  Utrecht ;  but  an  imped- 
iment in  his  speech  induced  him  lo  change  from  theol- 
ogy to  medicine.  Under  the  advice  of  Burman,  how- 
ever, he  resumed  theatudy  of  theology  at  Leyden  (I66«X 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cocceiu^  and  silopt- 
ed  the  views  of  that  theologian.  In  1GC6  he  becaine 
paslor  of  a  village  in  North  Holland,  and  fur  ten  >-«an 
devoted  himself  to  Oriental  lanRusges,  metaphywcs,  and 
theology.  In  1682  he  was  called  to  Dort  as  pastor,  and 
in  1684  he  added  to  his  duties  those  of  tbe  chair  of  his- 
tory and  sacred  philology.  In  August,  1702,  he  ex- 
changed this  position  for  that  of  professor  of  theology  at 
Leyden.  He  was  long  atnicted  with  gout,  and  died  at 
Leyden,0ct.Si,l71&  Van  Til  was  of  on  aJbble  diapo- 
sition,and  formed  a  large  literary  and  social  circle  of 
acquaintances.  He  wrote  much  in  a  peculiar  and  some- 
what harsh  style,  chieHy  on  scriptural  interpretation, 
inclwling  comments  on  the  Psalms.  Malachi,  and  St. 
Paul's  Epistlea.  See  Hoefer,  Nam.  Biog.  GiuirBb,  a.  t. 
"TiL" 

Vau  ValkeDbiUKti,  Dakiil,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bum  at  Man heim,  Herkimer  Co.,N.y..Jan.  8, 
1806:  went  to  school  at  Hartwick  Academv,  Ois^u 
Co.,N.Y.;  graduated  at  Union  College,  N.T.';  studied 
theology  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminar^' ;  was  licenaed 
by  the  Cayuga  Presbytery,  Jan.  21,  182T,  and  ordained 
by  tbe  Oneida  Presbytery,  July  13,1831.  His  ministry 
of  ihirtv-sis  years  was  demled  to  labors  in  Ihe  church- 
es at  Evans's  MitbL,Richfi<'ld  Springs,  Mexico,  Taberg, 
Eieler,an,lSprinKlield-allin  New  York.  HediedNow. 
24. 18t>4.  As  a  theologian  lie  was  tlioroughly  read,  ays~ 
temalic.  and  able;  as  a  preacher  he  was  faithful. direct, 
ond  clear.  See  Wilson, /"rrs*.  ttisf.^fMoiwr,  1866,  p. 
230. 

Van  Vaobten,  JAtx)D,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  min. 
isterof  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  wsi  bom  at  Caia- 
kill,  N.  Y.,  in  IT88.  He  graduated  at  Union  Collide  in 
1809i  at  tbe  Aswdate  Reformod  Theological  Seminai? 


VAN  VEEN 

in  lfl13|  and  at  New  Bruniwick  Theological  Seminary 
io  1814,  when  he  was  lirensed  by  the  Clusi 
Bniuwick.  He  wai  pastor  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y„  rrom 
lBI5lnl&49,whenhenmoveilUi.Uban}-,anr1empluyed 
his  lime  in  |>reicbing  in  ihe  cily  and  9utmun<(iii){ 
try,  anil  in  literary  work.  In  1868  be  removnl  t 
bum,  wli<re  he  upenl  the  remainder  of  his  Java  ■ 
hii  childnn.  He  died  Sept.  13,  1871.  He  pnb 
MtBoiri  of  Join  M.  Uaton,  V.D.,  S.  T.P^  vtilh  Po 
of  ill  Corrapondemx  (1856),  See  Corwin,  Mataial  of 
tit  Rrf.  Church  in  A  mriea,  a.  v. 

Van  Veen.    See  Vehius. 

Van  Vlane  (or  Vlan),  Francis,  a  Flemish  the- 
ologian, W19  biim  at  Brussels,  Ocl.  S,  1615.    He  studied 
at  the  papal  college  of  Louraln;  was  made  dlrectoi 
the  seminary  it  Uechlin,  minister  at  Bruaaela,  and  pi 
ident  o(  his  alma  mat«r  at  Lonvain ;  but  at  leugth 
ligneil  the  last -named  olBce.     In  1677  he  went  lo  Kt 
on  a  tbeiilii^cal  errand.     He  died  at  Louvain,  Sept  £>, 
Hi33.     See  lilographie  Uainenellf,  a.  v. 

Van  Viane,  Matthew,  brother  or  the  precedii 
also  I  iheiilii^ian,  a  laborious  private  student,  died 
Lxivain  ill  the  pupal  college,  Nov.  16,  IG63,  aged  forty 

Vanvttelli,  Luim,  an  Italian  architect, 
at  Naples  io  1700.  He  first  studied  painting,  but  after- 
wards (;ave  bimself  to  architecture.  He  dengned  sev- 
eral churches  in  Urldno,  ami  mony  other  reliBioua  edi- 
Sees  in  Rome  and  Naples.  His  principal  buildings  are 
the  Auj^istinian  convent  at  Knme,  and  the  palace  of 
Caserta,  near  Naplcfi  He  died  in  Naples,  March  1. 1773. 
See  Tonvitelli,  I'lVu  di  Lavji  Va-wUM  (N'aples,  1829). 

Van  Vleck,  JotiD,  a  llefurmed  (Dutch)  minister, 
was  bom  at  Shawanjcunk,  N.Y.,  in  1828;  graduated  al 
Batgers  College  in  185-2,  and  at  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  Nexv  Brunswick,  X.  J.,  in  1855.  Immediately  b^ 
became  principal  of  Holland  Academy,  which  in  186C 
was  incorponied  as  ''  Hope  Cdlege."  It  ii  localed  ai 
Holland,  Mich.,  and  was  begun  as  a  pamchiil  and  civl 
school  at  a  verv  early  period  in  the  large  colonv  uf  Hoi. 
landen  which  Kitted  on  BUck  Uke  la  \>H1-A»,  undei 
the  leadership  of  the  Rev.  A.  C  Van  Raalte,  D.D.  As  i 
missiunary  of  Ihe  Reformed  Church,  Hr.  Van  Vleck  was 
Ihe  lint  to  preach  in  Eugliah  in  the  colony, 
laid  the  foundatinn  of  the  nourishing  Second  Keformed 
Church  id  that  cilv.  In  18.>9  he  became  principal  of 
the  Academy  nt  KinRMon,  N.  V.;  and  in  \ISiii  oiaumed 
the  pastoral  charge  oS  ilic  churches  of  MiJdleport  and 
Wawaraini;.  iu  Orange  Co.  He  died  March  16,  Xmb, 
of  consumption,  whicli  had  been  long  preying  upon  his 
constitution.  He  was  amiable,  greatly  beloved,  thoi^ 
onghly  Irnntcd,  coiucientiuwi,  spiritually  minded,  a 
scholar,  and  a  Christian  of  exemplary  character 
high  Btlainmenlsinthe  divine  life.  He  was  a  superior 
classical  acholar  and  teacher.  In  the  sacred  langiia){e«, 
especially  in  Hebrew,  he  wai  not  only  a  hard  stu  ' 
but  an  accomplished  exegecicol  writer  and  instni 
Ila  prepared  a  valuable  critical  work  on  Gdhw 
and  another  was  fit  advanced  upon  the  Sang  "fSolo' 
■»■  at  the  lime  of  hi*  death.  But  be  d' ' 
complete  them  for  publication.  See  Corwin,  Manual 
aflkt  Rrf-  Chu'vh  in  A  mtHca,  a.  v.     (W.J.  K.  T.) 

Van  Vleok.  Paulas,  a  Befarmed  (Dutch)  minia- 
ter,  whoee  relation  to  that  body  was  somewhat  irregu- 
lar. The  first  account  we  have  of  bim,  he  was  a  school- 
master and  pnrceator  at  Kindeihook,  N.  V.,  in  17D2,  and 
preaching  occaMonally,  from  which,  on  complaint,  he 
was  matle  to  desist.  He  was  ordained  by  Bemirdus 
Freeman  in  1709  as  chaplain  of  the  Dutch  troop*  then 
proccefling  lo  Canada.  He  waa  paicor  of  the  Low  Dutch 
t:hurch  at  Nesbaminy,  Bucks  Cc  Pa.,  1710-12.  He 
was  accoaed  of  bigamy  in  1712,  and  kit  the  country  in 
17]i.  See  Corwin,  Uaimal  oftht  Htf,  Church  in  vi  wer- 
ie<>,a.v. 
Van  Vllerdsn.  Pbtkb,  «  Dutch  minister  of  the 


717 


VAN  VKANKEN 


Reforoed  Church,  waa  bora  about  1787,  and  educated 
Bt  the  Univenity  of  Leyden.  He  was  the  last  minister 
who  came  from  Holland  to  America  until  Ihe  immigra- 
tion in  1848.     He  came,  however,  bv  wav  of  the  West 

Indies,  where  he  had  been  settled  fur'alime  at  Sl.Cmi.t, 
leaving  there  in  L792.  He  preached  il  Caalsban,  N.  Y., 
1794-1804,  when  he  was  suspended,  but  restored  again 
in  July  of  the  same  year.  He  died  Feb.  il,  IU2I.  See 
Corwin,  Haaual  of  Uu  Rrf.  Chmch  in  A  merica,  s.  v.  j 
Sprague,  ^  iDiair  c/(*i!  .4  mer.  i'«/;iif,  ii,  2U, 

Van  Voorbla,  Stephen,  an  American  minister  of 
the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  I7U5,  and  licensed  by  the 
General  Meeting  of  ministers  and  elders  in  1772;  was 
pastoral  Poughkeepwe,N,y.,1778-76-,8Upplv  at  Dover, 
N.J„  1774;  pastor  at  Rhinebeek  FUla,  N.Y',  177G-»1: 
Fhilipsbiirgh,  Tarrylown,  and  Cortlandvilte,  17S5-8S: 
Kingston  and  Assu'npink,  N.J.  (Presbyterian),  1788-9ii. 
He  dial  Nov.23.1796.  SeeCorwin,JtfaBiHi/o/(AeB'/ 
ChunA  ia  America,  a.  V. 

Tan  Vranken,  Nlcholaa,  a  disiinguished  cler- 
gyman of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  in 
1762  at  Schenectady ;  punned  bis  studies  for  the  min- 
istry with  Dr.Theodoric  Romeyn  and  Dr.  John  II.  Uv- 
in^onj  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1790  by  tlie 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Churches.  Before  enter- 
ing uponpaatoral  work,  he  was  principal  uf  Ihe  Academy 
in  Schenectady,  which  was  the  germ  of  Union  College. 
After  six  yean  of  successful  teaching  in  this  flourishing 
institulion,  he  became  Ihe  pastor  of  the  Dutch  churches 
ofFishkill.  Hopewell,  and  New  Hackensock,  in  Uut«hess 
Co..  N.  Y.  Here  he  spent  his  whole  ministry  (1791- 
1804),  refuung  all  invitations  to  settle  elsenliere,  and 
"serving  his  generation  by  the  will  of  Cod"  until  he 
was  suddenly  called  from  his  labors  to  hi*  reward.  May 
20,  1804.  His  people  were  waiting  his  appearance  in 
church  aa  usual  on  ■  Sabbath  morning  when  tidings 
came  of  hi*  death,  of  a  rapid  and  violent  InUammitory 

fervid,  evangelical  preacher,  whose  labors  were  blesaed 
with  large  addition*  to  his  churches,  and  with  Ihe  cnn- 
fitantly  growing  affection  of  his  devoieil  people.  Hi* 
literary  and  theological  attainments  were  of  a  high  i» 
dcr.  As  a  paator  he  knew  hi*  people  tboroughly,  and 
adapted  himself  to  their  apiritual  wants  with  lutive 
tact  and  spiritual  advantage.  On  communiim  occasion*, 
after  the  old  Dutch  ciutom,  he  gave  Ihe  bread  personally 
to  each  communicant,  and  addressed  Ihem  one  by  one, 
in  Dutch  or  English,  as  be  choee,  with  comfurllng 
words  of  H'ily8cri|iture,or  samepoinleil  sentence  dtleil 
lo  each  caB&  He  was  full  of  genuine  humor,  but  main- 
tained his  dignity,  while  giving  gentle  play  to  his  fund 
of  anecdote  and  mirthful  wit.  He  excelled  inconi-ena- 
tional  talent.  His  manneia  were  engaging,  his  personal 
appearance  very  fine  and  prepossessing,  and  his  social 
qualities  endeared  him  to  all  who  knew  bim  well.  Sec 
Kip.  llUtorical  DiKourf ;  Corwin,  Mannai  of  Iht  R'f. 
Church  in  A«^-ica,t.v.     (W.J.ll.T.) 

Van  Vranken,  Samu«l  A.,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Reformed  (Dutch)  minister,  son  of  the  rgrcgoing,  was 
bom  at  FUhkill,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  20, 1792.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  he  was  sent  lo  New  York  as  a  merchant's  clerk. 
but,  having  become  pious,  he  decided  to  prepaie  for  the 
ministry,  tlradnaling  from  Union  College  in  18IS.  he 
then  slndicil  theology  at  the  Seminaiy  in  New  Bruns- 
wick under  Dr.  Livingston,  and  was  licensed  lo  preach 
in  ISIT.  He  first  willed  in  Monmouth  Ijountv.  N.  J., 
at  Middlelown  and  Freehohl,  1818-26;  and  in  Frcehatd 
aloiTe  from  1826  lo  1834.  His  ministry  of  seventeen 
yean  in  that  county  was  eminently  successful,  and  re- 
oulted  in  friendships  and  blessings  that  have  long  sur- 
vived his  pastorate.  In  1834  he  accepted  a  call  lo  the 
Reformed  Church  in  I>Di>ghkeepsie,  and  Ubored  wiih 
groat  usefulneas  until  1837,  when  he  succeeded  Dr.  Jacoli 
llmlhead  as  pasinr  uf  the  Church  in  Broome  Slrcrl, 
New  York.   After  four  yean  of  service  in  Ihal  important 


VAN  VUANKEN  718 

mctropDlitto  charge,  he  1TM  elected  In  1841,  bjr  the  Gen- 
eral Synod,  lo  the  cbeir  of  didactic  and  poleioic  theol- 
ogy in  the  Theolc^cal  Seminary  at  Kew  Bruniwick. 
He  was  also  cboMn  li}-  the  tniueea  ol  Rutgers  College 
|in>res8or  of  the  evidence)  of  the  Christiaii  reli|cinn  ind 
of  lu)fic  ill  ihst  institution.  Both  of  tliew  offices  he 
lii^ld  until  his  deceaH,in  1801— a  period  of  nearly  twenty 
yeara.  Hi  publi«hed,diiring  his  ministry  in  New  York, 
two  valualile  iliKiissione.  One  i»  a  sermon  eiiiil  led  So- 
riiiiiiniini  Subefriiee  nfChriiOatnly  t  a  eum pact,  learned, 
oiiiquent.  and  popular  piesenution  of  the  acriplural  ar- 
»;ument  fur  the  ilcity  of  Jeans  ChriM(l84l).  The  other 
is  entitled  Whott  ChUdrea  are Evtilkd  In  HopUtmf  In 
it  he  gives  an  cxhaiittive  view  of  the  different  sidea  of 
*   vexed  queminn,  and  advocate*  with  great  ingenn- 


VAN  WINKLE 


re  tlietnaelvea  baptized 
iiant  relations,  and  are  therefore,  ip$o  faclo,  entitled  to 
Iioplitm.  This  work  ncciuoned  a  pmlonged  and  able 
I  liscuMion  between  the  Itcv.  Dr.  Jacob  Van  Vechlen  and 
the  author,  which  war  piibliaheil  in  the  Chrulian  ImtUi- 
fftatrr.  He  was  not  fond  of  appearing  in  print,  although 
his  oceaaional  newspaper  articles,  and  the  little  worka 
above  referred  lo,  gave  good  proofs  of  an  ntnlily  which 
might  have  been  profilaUy  cultivated.  HiB  general 
■      ■  ■  --  led  a  great  funil  of 


learning.  He  wu  familiar  with  the  philosophical  works 
■if  tho  best  metaphysicians.  In  theoliBjy  he  was  "a 
master  in  IsraeL"  His  levliires  fur  the  seminary  cbtsses 
were  written  and  rewritten  Oinx  timea  with  the  utmost 
care.  Of  these  he  read  two  each  yitfk,  the  students 
taking  copious  notes  and  reciting  from  them  at  a  third 
lecture.  Delinitions  and  proof-texts  from  Scripture  and 
Ihec^nu  ai-gamailonim  were  required  to  begix'en  with 
rigid  accuracy.  Failure  here  was  total  failure.  Some 
few  pupils,  not  the  most  industrious  ami  able,  complain- 
ed of  this  exacting  demand;  but  the  resiitla  were  Been 
at  the  annual  examinations  before  the  board  of  superin- 
tendents, and  for  licensure  and  ordination,  in  the  dear, 
precise,  systematic,  analytical  knowleilge,  and  in  the 
ready  scriptural  proofs  and  theoli^ical  training  of  the 
twenty  or  more  classes  that  were  eilncated  by  him  in 
this  department.  His  drill  was  thorough  in  ita  proc- 
esses and  admirable  in  ila  results.  As  a  preacher  he 
was  pre-eminent.  His  majestic  boily,  his  animated  feat- 
ures, his  deep  and  large  bass  voice,  his  solcniHity  of 
manner,  his  |»wcr  of  argument,  his  knowledge  of  the 
Uible  and  of  human  nature,  his  close  dealings  with  con- 
science; bis  pathetic,  tearful. and  Bwe-iuspitiiic appeals; 
his  Christian  experience,  chastened  anil  enlarged  by 
heavy  afflictions ;  •nd,aboveall,his  mauifesi  conv' 


>f  the  ti 


h  that  he  spake  i 


>n  of  the  Hilly  Oue"— all  these, 
combined  with  fulnessol  mailer,  terseness  of  expression, 
richness  of  ntyle,  and  an  individuality  that  marked  the 
whole  man,  made  him  a  prince  of  preachers,  ai>d,  in 
many  respects,  ■  model  to  his  iludcnts.     As  a  pastor, 
also,  he  was  as  truly  a  son  of  consolation  as  in  the  pul- 
|iit  he  was  a  Boanerges.    His  exuberant  tlow  of  spirits, 
his  genuine  native  wit,  his  powers  of  amusemeni 
<pf  playful  mitth,  never  lowered  his  dignity,  but  made 
his  lecture-room  a  frequent  scene  of  pleasure,  and 
iliateil  his  home  with  uncommon  attractions.    Tliere 
was  no  pnifessor  sq  accessible,  so  genial  and  at  h 
with  bis  sludetils.    Yet  no  one  ever  dared  to  step 
the  bounds  of  strict  propriety  in  his  presence.     Hii 
biikes  were  often  treioendous,  but  uttered  in  few  w 
and  aeUom  needed.    In  private  life  he  was  full  of 
shine,  generous,  unausfucioas,  frank,  never  ■  croi 
alwaya  ht^ful.  ■  most  entertaining  talker,  and  an 
ample  of  the  Christian  gentleman.     His  )nety  was 
affecteil,  simple,  chihllike,  trustful,  sympalhelic, 
practicaL    He  never  boasted  of  his  religion,  but 
modest  and  alien  reticent  on  the  subject  in  privati 


irsf.  He  was  a  good  lepresentaiiva  of  BuiiTaB's 
tireat-heart.  Among  the  afflicted,  in  the  prayer-nieel- 
'  ig,at  the  sacramental  table,  and  in  his  pulpit,  his  heart 
as  ever  full  of  Christ.  He  was  no  partisan  in  ecdes- 
ilical  affairs,  yet  necessarily  took  a  leading  pan  la 
lost  of  the  great  questions  of  bis  public  minisriy  in  ibe 
Kefurmed  Church.  He  was  an  effective  advocate,  a 
formidable  anlagouial,  and  yet  ao  fair  and  free  of  mere 
cliquish  prejudices  that  hia  opinions  carried  grial 
weight,  and  his  action  was  generally  approved  bv  its 
quences.  He  died,  Jan.  1, 1861,  after  an  iUnenof 
ine  weekjfrom  congestion  of  the  lungs.  Mubiih 
triumphed  in  death.  See  Coniti,  Manual  of  th  Rt/. 
Ciarch  in  Amtiica,  s,  v.;  Wilson,  Prrib.  Hut.  Altia- 
nac,  1862,  p.  299;  Chrutian  InltUignctr,  Jan.  S4, 18«1. 
(W.J.R.T.) 

Tan  Wagflnen,  John  Hardenbergb,  a  cler- 
gyman of  the  Kcformefl  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  at 
Kochester.  Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y'.,  in  1803.  and  graduiled  it 
Union  College  in  18-i3,  and  at  New  Brunswick  Tb»>- 
logical  Seminary  in  18;!0.  Alieraereral  settlcmenli  In 
Albany,  Schenectady,  and  Columbia  cnuiiiies,  be  finally 
accepted  the  pastoral  care  of  the  thirst  Kefurmed  Church 
>f  Kingstun  in  1841.  where  he  labored  until  hisdeceiw 
in  1844.  He  had  the  true  spirit  of  an  evangelist.  His 
pulpit  taleuts  were  fine,  capecially  in  extemporaDeoni 

was  extensive,  his  mind  active,  his  zeal  untiring.  Pn- 
erful  revivals  attended  bis  faithful  ministry.  Dining 
the  last  three  yean  of  hia  life  at  Kingston,  he  receivtd 
one  hundred  and  sixty-three  into  the  fellowship  of  tlie 
Church.  He  published  but  one  sermon,  a  powerful 
plea  for  the  support  of  the  minbtry.  See  Corwin,  Hem- 
ual  of  the  Rrf.  Church  in  A  lamco,  s.  v.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Van  Wagentti),  Jouatban,  a  preacher  of  tbe 
Baptist  denomination,  was  bom  at  New  Paltz,  UUlit 
Cu.,N.Y.  On  his  father's  side  he  was  of  Dutch  de- 
scent, and  on  hia  mother's  he  was  of  HugtMnot  ttaA, 
Itia  falber  was  a  highly  respected  citizen.  Jonathia 
Dubois,  hia  grandfather,  was  county  judge  and  a  idhii- 
ber  of  the  convention  that  framed  for  the  state  of  Stir 
York  the  constitution  of  184ti.  The  subject,  of  ibii 
sketch  was  fitted  for  college  under  the  tuition  of  Eli- 
phaz  Fay,  and  when  Mr.  Fay  came  to  Waterville  to  as- 
sume the  presidency  of  the  college,  he  eame  with  hiai. 
During  his  college  course,  be  dei-eloped  decided  lite^ 
aiy  tastes,  and  held  a  high  rank  as  an  accnDplisbtd 
writer.  He  was  graduated  in  the  class  of  1845.  F« 
one  year,  184fi-46,  he  was  assistant  teacher  in  the  Vet- 
Subsequently  be  taught  at  Macon  and  Oilumhus.  Mik., 
and  fur  a  time  preached  to  a  Baptist  Church  in  Sbiloh, 
Miss.  He  never  received  ordinalion.  In  cooseqMDce 
of  ill-heahb  he  gave  up  preaching  and  teaching,  aud 
devoted  himself  to  secular  pursuits.  His  death  actor- 
red  at  Kmithland,  Kv.,  in  March,  ISS'i.  See  Obil*ar, 
llrc,>rd»fCoO>-/U«irrr,i^.p.i3.     (J.C.S.) 

Van  Wagenen,  WlUlam  A.,  a  clergyman  of 
the  IVolesiant  Kpiscopal  Church,  dieil  in  New  York 
citv,  Julv  25,  1866.  At  the  lime  of  his  death  he  wu 
Bss'istant  minister  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
New  York  city,  having  been  ordained  deacon  in  1£^ 
He  was  a  graduate  fmm  Princeton  llieologicat  Semt- 
nai^',  and  came  from  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  familv.  St* 
A  iwr.  Qaar.  ChurA  Ser.  Oct.  1866,  p.  487. 

Van  Winkle,  B.  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Sbelby  Coimty,  IlL,  Feb.  1,  IBKL 
He  united  with  the  Church  in  early  lifcf  joined  Ibe 
Southern  Illinois  Conference  in  1858,  and  labored  ac- 
ceptably until  1861,  when  lie  took  a  local  relation,  and, 
entering  the  army,  served  four  rears  as  lieutenant  in  Ibt 
Seven! y-lliird  Illinois  Volunteers.  In  1868  be  wai  it- 
admilled  into  his  cnnference,  labored  in  its  active  riiiks 
until  1877,  when  he  became  supernumerary,  and  in  this 
relation  labored  diligently  until  his  death,  Fcb^  !,  1878. 
Mr.  Van  Winkle  led  a  truly  consdcDttoiu^  earnest,  nir 


TAN  ZANDT  »1 

'  eoaiproiDiauig  ChriUiui  life.  See  JUimila  0/  Annual 
rin/swu,1878,p.a3. 

Tan  Zandt.  Peter,  ■  minbiui  of  th«  RcromMd 
(Dgtch)  Church,  gradual«l  M  New  Brunswiok  Theo. 
Inpai  Semininr  in  1S17,  and  wu  lii^iued  by  the  Clas- 
fi)  of  tifH  Bninsoick;  «u  pulof  at  Schenectadv, 
N.  y.,  1K18-S3 ;  uid  misuoaacT  to  Oakhill,  N.  Y..  18^. 
Hedicdinl865.  SteCvtirin,  if amal  of  lie  Bt/.ChvnA 
u.4w?icn,s.v. 

TaD  Znuren,  Casparus,  >  Dutch  miniMer  or  the 


I  Flitltuida, 


il  Chur 
■I  Flalbush,  New  Utrecht,  Brooklyn,  m 
LI^  ie'T-8£;  and  preached  occuionally  at  UiisOHick, 
Unmend,  Bergen,  and  Stalen  Island.  He  returned  to 
Hollaml  May  17, 1686,  and  pnaclied  at  Uonderach,  1685- 
I'M.or  longer.  In  1695  his  alil  congregitioos  on  Long 
ItliDd  recaUed  him,  but  he  did  not  accept.  See  Cot- 
■in,  Haaaal  n/lie  Rr/.  Church  in  Amtrua,  ■.  v. 

Taia,  in  Nonie  mylhalDgy,waa  the  goddeatoT truth, 
■ho  pteaided  arer  witneoea  and  aath& 

Taraggio,  niACOUO  da  (French,  Jaeqtitt  Be  Vo- 
rafpne),  an  Italian  hagiographer,  waa  bom  about  1 230 
u  Vinggio  or  Varazze,  near  Saroua.     He  became  a 

gnat  repotation  for  piety  and  acience.  In  12G7  he  wan 
cbown  provincial  o(  hi>  order  for  Lombard/,  and  in 
1268  deSnitor,  in  which  capacity  he  raised  the  interdict 
Tnmi  Genoa  and  reconciled  the  Siciliana  to  the  king  of 
Niplei.  In  I'^ee  be  aaaialeil  at  the  Council  of  Lucca, 
and  iu  1290  at  that  of  Ferrara.  In  1292  he  waa  raiaeil 
Id  the  archbiihopric  of  Genoa,  an  office  which  he  ad- 
miiuuered  with  great  moderation  and  yet  diacipline. 
He  died  there,  July  II,  1298,  leaving  many  hiuorical 
and  legendary  worka,  for  which  ace  Iloefer,  A'otiit.  Bi/^. 
Gairak,».-v. 

TaraJia,  the  third  aratar,  or  incarnation  of  Tieh- 
DD,  in  which  he  appeara  aa  a  boar.  It  la  suppoaed  ta 
have  taken  place  at  the  periud  of  creation  when  Ihe 
eaith  was  immened  in  water,  and  Vishnu,  in  order  ti> 
raiae  it  up,  aaaumed  the  form  t>(  a  gigantic  boar.  In 
the  earlier  recentioii  of  the  Ram&gana  (q.  v.)  and  the 
lAiiga-Parina,  the  act  of  aaeuming  the  furm  of  a  boar 
in  order  to  reacue  the  earth  from  its  imperilled  position 
■1  awribed  10  Brahma,  the  creator  of  the  univerae; 
and  in  Ihe  Bbick  Yajurvtda,  where  thig  idea  is  first 
met  with,  it  is  likewise  aaid  that  the  lord  of  crea- 
tion npheltl  the  earth,  assuming  the  form  of  a  boar. 

Dted  to  VUhnu.  Between  both  conceptions  there  is 
ibe  gnat  difference,  however,  that  in  the  former  the 
transformation  of  the  deity  intc  a  boat  has  appar- 
ently a  purely  cosmical  character,  while  in  the  lat- 
ter it  aliegorically  represents  the  eitricuion  of  the 
world  from  a  deluge  of  iniqiuty  by  the  riles  of  religion. 
The  boar  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu  is  a  type  of  the 
litoal  of  the  Vedas.  He  is  described  as  the  aacrilice 
peraoni6ed;  his  feet  being  the  Veilas;  his  tusks,  the 
•acrificiBl  post  to  which  the  victim  is  tiedj  his  teeth, 
the  sacrificial  oflerings;  his  mouth,  the  altar;  his  tongue, 
the  Sre;  his  hairs^  the  aacriflcial  gnn;  his  ei-ea,  day 
and  night;  his  head,  the  place  of  Brahma;  his  mane, 
the  hymns  of  the  Vedas;  his  noatriK  eU  the  oblations; 
his  anoet,  the  ladle  of  oblation;  his  voice,  the  chanting 
of  the  Samarnla;  his  body,  Ihe  hall  of  sacrifice;  bis 
jointa,  the  different  ceremonies;  and  his  ears  as  having 
ihe  pmpenies  of  voluntary  and  obligatory  rites.  The 
above  are  from  the  ri»AaB-/'Bn!Ba,  and  similar  descrip- 
tiooa occur  in  tba  ffarinaiuii  and  elsewhere. 

Id  the  BIkaparala-  Par&ta,  another  legend  is  also 
conoecled  with  this  avatar,  which  stiti  more  distinctly 
pfDVT*  that  it  was  viened  in  a  purely  religious  light  at 
the  Potanic  period.  According  to  this  legend.  Jayu 
and  Vljayo,  two  doorkeepen  of  Vishno,  once  offended 
some  liunia  who  claimed  adtniaaion  to  the  paradise  of 
Vishna,  and  in  conaeqnence  nere  doomed  to  loae  their 
poailini  in  Vlahnn's  beaTcn,  and  to  be  reborn  on  earth. 


latter  * 


9  VARGAS 

They  thus  became  the  sons  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti,  tindoi 
akosipu  and  Hinnyaksha.  The 
to  heaven  to  conquer  the  gods, 
wniie  toe  lormer  remained  and  conquered  the  three 
worlds.  The  god^  thus  threatened  in  their  existeuce 
as  well  OS  dominions,  implored  the  assistance  of  Vishnu, 
who  was  at  that  time  tiie  mysterious  boar,  and  he  slew 
Hiranyaksba.  A  similar  contest  between  Vishnu  as 
boar  and  numerous  dIlMnan^  progeny  of  Dili,  always 
ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  b  also  described  in 
one  of  the  later  portions  of  the  Mahabkarala :  and  it 
rollowB  from  this  and  similar  deeciiptiona  that  this 
avatar  had  lust  its  original  character  and  assumed  that 
the  others — of  representing  the  deity  as  be- 
late — for  the  purpose  of  remedying  moral  or 
religious  wrong,  or  of  deetmying  inSuences  hostile  to 
the  Brahminic  caste. 

Aiuilher  legend,  doubtless  a  late  one,  which  ischieflv 
believed  by  the  Siva  (q.  v.)  religionists  of  Si.utheni  Ii^ 
dia.is  by  uomeausHiflatleiingto  Vishuu.  In  that  ver- 
sion of  the  legend  Brahma  tries  to  reach  the  head  of 


etoftho 


laforra 


TarftDds  was  the  name  of  six  reniai 
dvnastvof  the  Sassanidn.  VaranesV,ot 
(the  wild  ais),  reigned  A.D.  4-20-440. 


uge  in  the  Komai 


of  bis  subjects  to 


itef- 


Vardemau,  Jerkmiaii,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
lom  in  WythD  County,  Vs.,  July  «,  1776.  Hin  early 
ducalion  was  limited.  He  was  ordaiqed  in  1801,  and 
Don  found  himself  called  to  the  supply  of  tmr  churches 
n  Kentucky,  where  he  had  remove)!  some  yean  before, 
n  18(0  he  became  pastor  of  David'a  Fork  Church,  Fay- 
lie  Co.,  and  in  I63U  removed  10  Missouri,  where  he  w 


a  ofcB 


hing  B< 


churches. 


Hen 


an  active  part  in  bringing  the  Baptist  ilenomination  in 
Missouri  into  harmanious  co-operation  in  beneyoletit  ef- 
forts, and  in  August,  1834,  he  presided  in  a  convention 
to  organize  a  system  of  domestic  missions  in  that  Stale. 
In  I8HI  his  health  began  to  fail,  but  he  still  continued 

death,  MaV  28, 1842.  See  Sprague,  A  anaU  o/'lhe  A  lofn- 
aia  Palpil,  vi.iil. 

Varen,  Auoust,  a  Protestant  theok^an  of  Ger- 
many, waa  born  Sept.  20,  1020,  at  Ueken,  and  died  as 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock,  Uarch  lb, 
1684.  He  wrote,  LMio  Aaxdmica  de  Targumim  Oa- 
ttlvii,  Jonalhanit,  tl  to  quod  Extltd  in  Hagioyraphii 
(tbM.  16U):—I>iipatalio  de  Taryvmim  (ibid,  eod.}:— 
Kxfgriit  A  ug,  Confai.  (ibid,  eod.)  : — Ditpulalio  dt  J7«- 
lid  (ibiiL  I6G7) : — Examen  Deotm  Ckaiiielerum  Aftttia 
catOra  AhoTiandem  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Fhrst,  BiblJyd. 
iii,468;  Wmti,  I/imdb.  dn- Ihrol.  Lil.  i,  839.     (R  P.) 

Vargaa,AU6llBO,  a  Spanish  AnguGlinian  etemitr, 
was  a  doctor  of  Paris,  bishop  ofBadaJoa,  and  archbishop 
otSerille,  where  he  died.  1359.  He  published,  Conni,^- 
targ  m  lit  f'iril  Boot  nflht  Stalourt  (Venice,  1490) : 
— QucatKoa  in  Aritloirlit  LibrtH  7>u  is  .4innia  (ibid. 
1566).     See  Mnsheim,  llUl.ofthe  Ciixrol,  bk.  iii.cent. 

Vargas,  Lnta  de,  a  Spanish  painter,  was  born  .it 
Seville  in  1502.  He  studied  painting  in  Italy  fur  near- 
ly thirty  years,  after  which  he  established  himself  in 
his  natire  city  and  executed  numerous  largo  oil-paint- 
ings and  frescos  for  the  churches,  only  vestiges  of 
which  remstn.  Among  hia  admired  works  are,  Adam 
andErt: — Jutit  Bearing  hii  Cnui; — and  fji  Gtntra' 
cum;  all  of  which  remain  at  Seville.  He  hastened 
his  death  by  his  asceiic  luriures,  being  accustomed, 


I  coffin.    He 


Variation,  Right  of  (./ui  I'oruiniA'),  in  cincm 
Uw,  ii  tha  ri);ht  of  a  U<r  patron,  during  an  ealablisheil 
period,  to  suggest  fur  cuiilirmaticni  by  the  proper  eccl(>* 
aiastical  authority  (he  diverBuni  of  a  benefice  already 
presented  to  a  different  candidate.  Clerical  patrons  do 
not  possess  this  right.  Its  exercise  is  entirely  volun- 
tary witb  the  patron,  though  where  the  original  pres- 
entation was  made  to  a  pcmn  nrierwanls  found  lu  be 
ineligible  Of  unwilling  or  unable  to  recei%-c  it,  iwu  pres- 
entation must  lake  place  of  necessity.  When  ■  patron 
sug)^ta  a  second  pcraon  for  presentation  for  reasons 
which  do  nut  affect  the  ocigiiiil  receiver's  eligibility, 
the  question  arises  whether  the  spiritual  superior  is 
obliged  to  disregard  the  latlrr's  claim  for  institution 
(priealice  vaiialion),  or  whether  lie  may  select  the  per- 
son who  seems  to  himself  (he  more  available  candiiiale 
(cumuhilice  variatiaa).      Upon  this  iincBtioti  diverse 


re  given 


y  the  »i 


aiMfion  would  stem  to  have  (he  greatest  sup- 
port in  law.  Ererylhing  in  connection  vrilh  (lie  dis- 
pute depends  on  the  interpretation  o(  ap^H^  x,  De  Ju}f 
P-ili-oaalut,  the  rescript  of  which,  by  pope  Lucius  HI,  is 
as  follows:  "(juum  aulem  sdvocatus  clericum  idonoum 
episco|>o  prcseiitaveric,  el  postulsvcrit  postmodum,  to 
nun  rri*'ur<Tlo,alium,  eequeidoneum,  in  ecclesiam  admilti, 
quia  eoTum  alteri  prteferMur,  Jiidicio  episcopi  credimus 
relinqnendum,  si  laicus  fueiit,  <nii  jus  competiL  pncseii- 
landL  Verum  si  cullrgium  vei  ecclesjutici  penona 
prtesentationem  haberet,  qui  prior  est  tempore  jure  po- 
tior esse  Tidel4ir."  The  disagreement  occurs  on  the  in. 
lerpreution  of  the  italidied  words;  some  understand- 
ing them  as  having  reference  to  the  patron's  action,  and 
others  applying  them  to  the  bishop's  part  in  the  mat- 
ter. The  right  of  »  patron  to  recommend  a  second  per- 
son for  the  presentation,  when  the  person  previously 
recommended  was  a  ctrn'mt  tr/unniii,  is  expressly  con- 
ceded by  the  pope,thi™gh  he  gives  the  bishop  the  light 
to  determine  between  them.  The  extent  to  which  the 
right  of  variation  may  be  excrcisnl  has  also  been  dis- 
cussed, but  without  result.  See  Uppert  and  Weiss, -4  r- 
eAic  d,  /iircKtrtrtiJlUwuifnKii<Ji,  i,  4 ;  Kicliler,  Kirckm- 
ncht  (6lh  ed.),  §  I93i  Lippert,  Vtrmch  finer  hit. 
mal.f:Famciliinff±LfJirfromPalninalei(rtemn,\S29): 
Schilling,  Ihr  'tircAL  Palronal  (Lei|is.  18&1),  and  the 
literature  there  referred  to;  Uerlaeh, />iu /Vovntertons- 
nrcAfau/r/brrwR(RatiBbon,ie.75);  Moy  de  Kons,  ^  r- 
ckiefir  kathot.  KinAtnrtchl,  l8o7,  ii,  413  >q.— Henog, 
Rml-Encgldup.^v. 

Vailck.  Riir>oiJ>Htis  Von,  a  clergyman  of  the  Be- 
foimed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  settled  upon  Long  Inland, 
in  what  is  now  Kings  County,  over  the  churches  of 
Bronklvn,  FlBtla^d^  Bushwich,  Flatbnsh,  New  Utrecht. 
and  (iravesend,  168,'i-94.  With  dominies  Selyns,  r>el- 
lius,  and  Daill^,  he  stood  Arm  against  the  high-handed 
proceedings  of  the  usurping  governor,  Jacob  Leisler, 
and  WIS  obliged  to  Hee  to  New  Cnstle,l>el.  Upon  hii  r 
lum,  in  IG9u,  he  was  charged  with  treasonable  deeigi 
to  rescue  the  fort  from  Leisler,  and  wis  dragged  I 
ormeil  men  from  his  house,  and  imprisoned  in  the  fo 
six  months.  He  was  also  Sned  eighty  pounds  by  a  pr 
tended  Judge.  Lanoy;  sentenced  to  prison  till  the  lii 
be  paid,  and  to  be  deposed  from  the  minislri'.  II 
friend  Selyns  was  refused  as  bis  ball,  and  threaten! 

wss  released,  but  died  of  his  ill-treatment  in  Angual 
1694,  and  the  persecuting  Leisler  was  tleposed  am 
executed.  See  /Jocumfli/iiry  l/iitoiy  of  iirie  Yori, 
ii,  431,  «*;  LHUt  o/Gnalrmn  of  Xtu>  York  (1098) ; 
Cirwin,  .l/(iauu/  -/  iht  R'/.  Church  in  A  rwn'cu, 
(W.  J.  R  T.) 

VariUns,  Aktoink,  a  French  historiognpheT,  who 
was  bom  in  16-24,  and  died  in  Paris,  June  9, 1G96,  is  th 
author  of  lliil.  dfi  Ricoluliom  A  nirra  ™  Kunpt  t 
if aliire  Jn  Rtligitm  (Ptri*,  IG86-*I9,  6  vols.):— Ualoir 


!0  VARIOUS  READINGS 

ia  Wielf/Ummt,  ok  de  la  Ovtrimr  di  IVidr/,  J.  Hu,a 
JirHmt  dt  Pragat,  arrr  aUt  dtt  Gatrra  de  Boiim  ^ 
enonl  ilile.  SatTee  (Lyons.  1682) :— .Voufdis  Aatu- 
tiont  coBlrc  Viirillat,  on  Rentar^urM  Criiigmti  amirr  or 
Ptviie  de  ton  Lirrt  de  ri/aloin  de  rHeriiU  (Aoiand. 
1687).  See  Winer,  llaaJbath  ier  Ihtalog.  Liltratv,  a, 
037,734,738.     {0.  P.) 

VaiionB  Beading*  or  iin  Niw  Tejvrjjnrai. 
By  various  readings  (commonly  abbreviated  r,  r,  for  iht 
singular,  and  for  the  plural  tt.n;)  are  meant  Ibediflti- 
eiices  olMerved  in  different  manuscript  cofues  of  the  BiJt 
Scriptures.  Those  found  in  the  Hebrew  maouscripH  if 
the  Uld  Test,  will  be  considered  below. 

The  writings  nf  the  Mew  Test,  were  copied  by  kind, 
from  the  age  of  the  apostles  to  the  date  of  the  Grsl  prini. 
ing  of  the  Kew  Test.,  a  period  of  about  thirteen  ceniutii'. 
During  that  time  copies  were  greatly  multiplied.  H'lih 
the  utmost  care,  there  would  of  necessity  be  occasiaiiil 
mblakes  in  copying.  The  erron  of  one  manuscriji 
might  be  repeated  in  the  copy  mode  from  il.  and  otbo! 
added,  and  thus  the  number  he  continually  increasing. 

Th«  liabiliiy  to  mistake  was  greatly  increased  by  ihr 
mode  of  writing  in  the  oldest  manuscriptik  What  b 
called  "current  hand,''  in  which  a  long  word  Buy  [t 
written  without  taking  the  pen  from  the  paper,  was  m 
used.  Each  letter,  of  the  size  and  general  shape  of  ssr 
capitals,  WOE  made  separalely  by  itself,  man;  wiib  nm 
than  one  separate  stroke  of  the  pen.  There  wuno  di- 
vision of  words.  All  wen  wriiten  conlinuously  inia 
unbroken  line,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sptcinwm  gitci 
in  vol.  i,  p.  I&5,  and  vcd.  ii,  p.  389  of  this  Cyrinprdia.  At 
the  eye  could  not  readily  distinguish  words  and  clst» 


ing  letters. 

mi  la 

infer 

m.    In  these  chaiKten,  tensed 

uncial,  all  e 

ciipts  dating  pn 

ortoabHiitlM 

were 

n.  and  hence  thev  are  calMoo- 

rial  manuscripts. 

See 

MANCBCBIPTa  0 

r  THiGnn 

TlUTAHKNI 

:  also  Unc 

Far  more 

re  the  rarhre 

called,  writt 

en  in 

hand  from  abou 

luryandon 

Lv,p.T27,a™l 

specimen,  i.i. 

and  4  on  p. 

-28). 

Tbei 

ntheevijBH 

that Ibey  a 

■etrus 

worth 

now  lost,  an 

dcon 

ainre 

dings  of  the  tru. 

texiofoliiiA 

evidence  some  of  them  are  held  in  high  estimation  bi  til 

are  of  great  value  in  deciding  where  ancient  manmcn[i«» 
disagree,  and  also  where  their  united  leilimony  msilur 
just  reasons  be  discredited,  is  held  by  a  highly  inflnm- 
tiol  class  of  critics,  of  whom  Frederick  H.  8criven«i  ii 
the  leading  representative  (see  his  Plain  fmirxidiicliamlo 
Ihe  Crilieitm  of  the  .Yru  Tetl.  [ii  ed.  1874]). 

For  the  history  of  the  text,  and  its  varialioos  in  ana- 
uscripts  prior  10  the  oldest  now  extant,  see  the  arLNiw 
Tiwtaiii£XT;  for  the  theoretic  clasn  Heal  ion  ef  vatio* 
readings  in  exUnt  MS3.,  see  Ihe  sn.  Kkcexsioks.  tl 
is  proper  to  odd  here  thst  the  earliest  of  those  iiiis- 
tions,  however  minute,  are  preserved  in  the  piioMiv 
documents  that  still  remain,  showing  that  ibe  sarnl 
text  has  suffered  no  important  change  that  caimol  mnr 
be  detected  (Weetcott). 

I.  Origin  rmd  Nalare, — Varioiis  readings  have  srism 
from  many  different  causes.  These  have  been  tsnr- 
tained  by  careful  comparison  of  manuscripts.  Tbeysn 
mostly  such  as  might  be  inferred  from  Ihe  nature  (rf  (he 


It  all  VI 
.r  other  «f  it 


causes,  the  knowledge  of  which  often  aids 
ing  what  is  the  true  reading.  (The  matcriabi  fur  ibe 
following  summary  are  derived  in  part  from  Wrsiml'* 
articles  "New  Testamcni,"  §  80-40,  and  "  Lsniniage  o( 
the  New  Teslamenl,"  p.  S 141 ,  §  1-4,  in  Smith,  Dia.  ■/t' 
Bibh  [Amer.ed.J;  Scrivener./afrod.  to  7«r.  (ViLo/ 
-Vew  Ten. ;  Tregclles,  liUml.  lo  Text.  Cril.  ofSeie  Tat, 
in  voLiv  of  Horne'e  /iifn>(fi(e<>oii.) 


VARIOUS  READINGS 

LAaidaitaivtriu.ioTa,oieinU,(imavtrioaB  caiuei. 
(I.)  UctcI;  dericat  errors,  or  tlipa  or  the  pen',  wordi 
fimUled  or  repeated,  miiepeUed  or  putifllly  written, 
Tbis  u  >  niuncrous  cUaa,  iirely  of  viy  imputtince,  (o 
utiich  copfiiu  or  long  documents  are  always  liaUe. 
Pk  pecuUu'  retding  "  how  stntit"  (Hall,  vii,  14)  may 
hace  iriwo,  u  Scrivener  luggeita,  froia  Ibe  omuuoD  of 
ibe  large  initial  O,  reaerved  for  subaeqneat  teviaion. 

(2.)  Enora  ol  sound,  ariaiog  tmai  different  ways  of 
repraentinf;  the  same  aound.  Sucb  are  tlie  changes  in 
the  Men  MSS.  between  i  and  ii,  ai  and  i;  and  in  tbe 
luer  between  qi  and  ii,  «  and  u,  o  and  w,  q  and  e. 
The  inlercbange  of  at  and  i  (pronoonced  alike)  ia  con- 
tinoal;  vrat  and  ctfrr,  tYtrai  and  e^rc,  and  the  liite, 
bdng  lued  indiKriminat^y.  Tbe  Towcb  o  and  u  are 
that  intercbaoged  Bom.  v.  1,  ix'>M"'<  '^  *^  have,"  and 
r^fiiv,  "  let  Di  have."  The  latter  bai  the  weight  of 
MS.  autboritv,  and,  with  Hine  corutnint,  yielda  a  per- 
linent  senK'(Ka  TiHifaeadorf,  A'iw.  Tal.  [8th  ed.]), 
though  the  former  Mema  required  by  the  connection. 
Man  doobtful  ia  Rata,  vi,  15,  where  afiapniaoiuv, "  shall 
wesin?"isfeebly  aapportedj  and  o/inpnjffiif/Kv, " may 
we  lin?"  ha*  abundant  lupporL  Ai  ani  i  are  inter- 
changed Id  Matt,  xi,  16,  where  jroipotc  ia  but  slightly, 
lud  irtpoic  (omitting  avruv)  itroogly,  aopported  by 
aocient  autboritieg.  So  ranatant  is  thia  interchange 
that  the  dilTerenee  in  spelling  hu  no  weight  in  detei- 
mintag  the  true  rorm  of  the  word.  The  pronouiu  viutf. 
ilfia^,  and  their  ca.'ica  are  perpetually  interchanged:  1 
John  L,AfTifi*itvior  hfittiv.  Even  the  readings  ^^efe^ov, 
Luke  XTi,  12,  and  ^/loc,  Acta  xvii,  28,  are  found  in  the 
Coitx  Fafiaotiu. 

(3.)  t"rTnr»H/SisA(.— or  sucb  ermta  a  proliflc  source 
ia  furnished  by  the  ancient  n)oda  of  wtitinK  in  an  un- 
broken line,  without  diviiuon  of  words.  In  the  confused 
sequence  of  letters  thus  strung  logether,  the  eye  would 
not  readily  distinguish  single  words, or  letters  aimitarii: 
form.  Hencearoscfalsediriaionof  words;  similar letten 
interchanged,  repeated,  or  omitted ;  repetition  or  omis^ 

aeoond  repetition  of  tlie  same  let  ter  or  word,  etix    In  soou 
of  tbe  followinic  example*  tbe  MSS.  are  cited,  b;  the  usua 
notation  (toL  v,  p.  7M,f  8  of  this  Cjfdopadia),  showing  ti 
KKue  extent  how  they  stand  related  to  each  other.   Tbi 
rough  breathing  is  added  in  some  case*  to  make  the  fom 
more  readily  understood  i  Mark  it,  G,  iy  irapiirouiTO 
(A,  B,  »),  ovwrp  qroutro  <B",  tf ,  C,  N,  X)  j  Rom. 
9.  i^  vtaurof  (A,  B,  X,  D,  E),  us  iairroi'  (F,  G,  L,  P); 
Mao.  xxi,  18.  navaya-fuv  (B,  K,  L),  i^ayaf^y  ( 
tl',  C,  E,  F,  U,  H,  etc) ;  Mark  viii,  IT,  mivim  <B,  X, 
D,  L,  N),  mvim  m  (A,  X) ;  Luke  vii,  21,  ixafnai 
To^fir(.»-(X",F,L,U);  wilhoQt  ro  repeated.  A,  R 
D.  E,G,H,ete,).    From  such  accidental  repetition  ar 
therabereadinginRer.Ti, 1,8,5,7.    Thetraeread 
ia9imply,"Come!"(tp;(oir),ButiimoDing forth  each  rider 
to  the  serrice  assigned  bim.     The  uncial  text  i 
atandthos;  KAIUEKAIIAOT.     BoftbeApnc 
it  in  ver.  1,  6,7,  tpxov  ta\   iZt  tm  if  on  (in    ., 
There  out  be  do  doubt  that  tai  idt  arose  from  accidental 
repetition ;  for  in  ver.  3,  where  cni  if  ou  does  not  follow, 
loxov  is  nut  fulbwed  by  mi  i^e.    In  the  same  way  arose 
Ibe  cm  ill  of  X,  which  even  it*  partial  discorerer  makes 
no  account  of  here. 
(4.)  IhwaoUlralo 

"     '    a  specific  name.     Wbeti 


121 


VARIOUS  READINGS 


e  cUiM 


ilarity,  and  oi 


:  of  tbe  copyist  may  bi 


eiiil  si 


le  of  lb 


Tipowp^rrm  (A,  C,  D,  E,  H,  K,  M,  R,  S,  U,  V,  Xh  omit- 
ted in  B,  K,  L,  probably  from  having  the  same  termina- 
tion as  tbe  preceding  word.  In  IJobn  ii,  23,  two  succes- 
sive •enlences  both  end  with  uaTtpa  ix"-  The  copy- 
ist, after  tianscribing  tbe  Srst,  and  seeing  at  the  end  of 
tbe  ■  iDod  what  be  had  Just  written,  procenled  with  the 
next  following  words.    Hence  tbe  loss  of  that  genuine 


utterance  of  the  apostle,  in  all  tbe  copies  known  when 
our  current  Greek  text  wat  Tornied  \  and  hence  its 
insertion  in  bracketed  italics,  aa  of  doubtful  authen- 
,  in  the  English  New  Teat.  The  rccoi-ery  of  tbe 
old  HSS.  (A,  B,  K,  C  etc)  ha*  fully  vindicated  its  dUa 
I  its  place  there. 

2.  /ncitfan'iiJ  variations,  peculiar  to  the  age  andronn- 
y  or  mental  habit*  of  the  copyisL  These  are  due  to 
iveral  causes,  chiefly  the  intermingling  uf  ilialecls  iu 
the  toivii  iiaXtKTOi,  the  influence  of  the  Alexandrian 
irsion  of  the  SepL,  and  live  pedantry  of  ^e  Alticista. 
(1.)  Differencea  in  orthoffraphy  nnil  Tiirm*  of  words; 
dialectic  usages  of  the  copyist,  or  possibly  of  tbe  orig- 
rriter:  \cUx,S'),ivarqv{\,S,»,C.VH,ivvnTiiv 
(later  form  in  the  cursives);  Acta  vii, 28,  t^Sic  (B,  X, 
C,  D),  x^tt  (A,  E,  H,  P) ;  Hark  i,  10,  ci^e  (B,  St,  L,  a), 
fiifliiuc  (A,P,r,n)i  Actaii,GI,iiu»(A,B,tt),«x^ic 
B<,  B,  H,  L,  F) ;  Rom.  xv,  16,  roXfiqporfpov  (K,  C,  D, 
E,  F,  U,  L,  P),  roXfiTponpwc  (A,  B) ;  James  ii,  1,  vpoa- 
<uwoXi|/ii(<nit  (A,  B,  K,C),Tpoini>irDAi|i^iaic(K,L,P)i 
Mark  i,27,  oirv^qrEiv  (A,  B,  tt,C  D,G,  L,a),  oi^ijriiv 
(E,  F,  H,  K,  M,  S,  U,  V)i  2  Cor.  iii,  2,  tvyiypajiiuni 
(A,  B, »,  D,  F,  G),  irfitpaiiiuvti  (K,  L,  P) ;  John  x,  22, 
itwaina  (B,»,  D,  L),  t/icnicHi  CA,B*,X);  Acta  xxiv, 
4,  tvno-TTM  (A,  K,  B,  E,  H),  ryicowru  (B>,  H,  P) ;  Heb. 
ix,  IS,  tvUKsii'iin'at  (A,  K,  D,  E),  (ytitaiviOTai  (C,  R, 
L,  P).  These  examples  betray  the  tendency  to  euphon- 
ic change  in  the  uaage  of  tbe  later  MSS.  The  doub- 
ling of  p,  usually  neglected  in  tbe  older  MSS.,  is  a  gram- 
matical correction  in  the  later  ones ;  as  in  Matl.  ix,  3C, 
iptHfUvoi  (B,  K,  C,  D,  L),  ippi/i/Mvoi  (E,  F,  U,  K,  L,  U, 
X>. 

(2.)  Tmit-fuTMi  of  Frrii.— (a.)  Of  the  same  verb : 
Lukei,31,ov\Xi)/itfqj  (A,B,  K,C,D);  James  ill,  l,Xi|fi- 
^oftiSa  (A,  B,  M,  C),  Xij^/iE^a  (K,L,  P) ;  John  ix,  10, 
lytwx^iav  (B,  Vt,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  L,  M,  X),  an,^ 
X^iav  (A,  K,  U,  n) ;  Acts  xii,  10,  nv«^n  (A.  B,  »,  D), 
ijvoix^  (E,  H,  L,  P) ;  Matt,  v,  21,  Eppijdii  (B,  D,  E,  K), 
Efipi^  (X,L,M,S,U,A,n);  ReT.xiv,  IS.aKiiraqooi^ 
rm  (A,  K, C  B),  QvairauouiiToi  (P);  Acts  x,ib,avv>i\- 
Siay  (B,  tt),  mvii'^oy  (A,  D,  E,  U,  L,  P) ;  ver.  89,  a>.»- 
Xav(A,B,!t,C,D,E),owaov(H,L,P);  lJohnii,19, 
^nX^ov  (A,  B,  C),  (iijXJo*'  (K,  L,  P) ;  Luks  iii.  22,  t,v 
tonfiaa  (A,  E,  G,  H,  L,  S,U,  X,  r,  i),  ,vXeiai«a  (B,  S,  F, 
K,  M,  U,  A,  n).  (*.)  Interchange  of  tensea  or  modes 
where  either  might  seem  apposite;  John  vi,37.  Ecpa^ty 
(B,  L,  T,  X),  iKpaZiy  (tt,  D) ;  Luke  xx,  19,  iC^njonr 
(A,  B.  K,  L,  R),  ifitrouv  (C,  D) ;  John  vii,  29,  anarcXEr 
(B,  L,  T),  airfirraXni'  (Ct,  D) ;  ver.  19,  SiSaiiuv  (X,  L, 
T,  r.  A,  n),  ilvHiy  (B,  D,  H,  n^;  Matt,  ix,  19,  ipat- 
XovSti  (tt.  C,  D),  q«.Xev9q<n>'  (B,  F,  G,  K.  L,  S.  U,  X, 
a,  n);  John  iv,  17,  i.m  (B,  tt),  Enroc  (A,  C,  D,  L); 
vUi,  39,  uiray  (B,  St,  C,  D).  e.ttov  (L,  T,  X,  P,  4,  A); 
ii,  28,  axv/uy  (A,  B,  tt%  C,  P),  txmpiy  (»,  K.  L);  viii, 
39,(irTf  (B,tt,  D.  L,T),iir£  (CX,  P,  4,  A,  n);  (c.)  Intei^ 
change  of  the  same  tense  from  ilifTerenl  veriis  of  likt 
signiflcation :  Acts  ix,  26,  Eiriipn^ti-  (A,  II,  tt,  C),  Eirii- 
pnro  (E,  H,  L,  P)  i  Mark  i,  26  (part.),  ^a,cj,cTon  (B,  K, 
L),«pn6«'(A,C,  D,r,A,n). 

(3.)  Of  CDM^i'ins  there  are  some  variations;  as  Malt. 
xxvi,  G2,  iiax"tn}  (A,  B,  tt,  C),  ^nxoip"  (!<',  I>.  r.  4, 
n)  1  Luke  xxiv,  I,  ffaiiwt  (A,  B,  X,  C,  D,  O,  H,  L^ 
j3o&.oc(E,K,P,S,U,V). 

{4.}  Exchange  of  terms  so  nearly  equivalent  as  In  be 
used indifferentiv  in  certain  connections:  Matt.  xii. 48; 
XV,  12;  xvii,  20,  and  six,  21,  Xiydv  (earlier),  iiirEiu 
(later)-,  xxii,  37,  ^i-ni  (eariiet),  (iirEii- (later);  Mark 
xiv.  31,  XnXiii'  (earlier),  XiyEiv  (I'^Oi-'ohn  xiv,  in 
Xtjiiv  (earlier),  XaXi.v  (later).     "     ■  ■ 


VAKIOOT  READINGS  1: 

tyipiiit  uidJit7>p3(ic,MilLi,S4;  ejip^  tai  avaimi, 
XTii,9;  avaffnrvni  lud  ifipS^vat;  Luke  ix,2i;  iiXiiv 
(v  MUebed)  and  oiniX5f,  UhU.  liv,  85;  itXaoi-  snd 
anijXdav,  Luke  xijil,  3S ;  airiXdiiv  ■nd  t |(X&civ.  Acu 
xvi,  S9;  XiyDUffi  uid  luroy.  Matt,  xiii,  '28.  TbcH 
wordj,  so  neatly  equivilenc  in  I  be  coaaection,  migbc 
refliUly  be  confounded  in  copying, 

(&.)  Tbe  ume  i>  trae  of  furms  nearlj  equivdrat  in 
Knse;  assu^Eand  oun,  uic  and  cnSuic,  Acts  x,  47;  luaii 
will  luL-,  John  xix,  14;  Lukv  1,56;  iii£  and uivrip, 3 Cor. 
i,  7;  (it;^  and  (uc>  Luke  xri,  lli;  iii)C<ni  indHncurou, 

ter  in  tbe  oldec  snd  some  of  Ibe  later.  It  i*  true, 
abo,  of  other  equivalents  in  Muae;  as  Jobn  xiT,31,ivc- 
TiOuiTO  (A,  S,  D),  and  tvToXiiy  ilaiar  (B,  L) ;  barinif 
meaning,  they  migbc  easily  be  coufuuoded  in 


VARIOUS  HEADINGS 

U8S.<aDKingtbeniD)  ia  Luke  xii,  M. "  When 

ye  we  [be  doud  ("  tbe  rein-betokening  ckmd,"  I  Kingi 

iiiii,  44)  ri^g  from  the  weat,"     But  the  otuiwcn  of 

le  article  here  ia  atrongly  aueated  by  A,  B,  K,  L,  X.  ^ 

(1 1.)  lo  the  uie  aod  diiuae  of  the  eliaion  Uie  HSS. 

ictuaU :  1  John  ii,  16,  oU  cc  (A,  it,  K,  L),  aXXa  m 

(B,  C);  1  Cor.  vii,  4,  nWa  u  (A,  B,  K,  C),  aXX  o  ( ft 

E,  G,  K,  L,  P).     It  ia  probable  that  Ibe  shorur  elided 

la  that  of  on)  ■;>«cb,  and  puaed  into  tbe  eittier 

language.     Mare  doubtful  ia  the  neglected  at- 

of  muteibernre  the  rough  breathing:  Luke  xii, 

vi.-  (B,  Jt,  T,  X,  r,  i.  A);  (^  uiu  (A,D,K,I, 

n). 


(6.)  Familiar 
apeech,  and  often  panaing  ini 
mon  ia  the  earlier  iVHi. 
Jahuviii,&6,«ii'(il,it,D), 


(crasia)  iboiinding  in  oral 
tlen  language;  com- 
resolved  in  the  later: 
v(A,C,L);  tCor.ii, 
3,  (a/w  [A,  B,  Et,  C,  P),  cni  (fu.  (D,  E,  P,  G,  L);  John 
liv,  16,  M^u  (B.  »,  D.  Q),  IB.  <y<«  <A.  L,  X) ;  t«.  21, 
Kaym  <B,  (t,  V,  G,  L\  .a<  .r-  (A,  E,  II,  K). 

(7.)  Interchange  of  the  minor  connective*  i  Acts  iv, 
14,  Tov  Ti  (A,  B,  K,  D').  TBv  It  (P);  i,  48,  wpmiraiiv 
li  (B,  S,  v.).  rpMTiTaiiv  te  (A,H,L,P);  Mark  i,  28, 
«it  ii^\3i»  (I),  N,  C,  D),  E£qX3E  ^E  (A,  P,  n). 

(8.)  fronominal  formB  iuuned  without  affecting  the 
Hiisei  Matt.  XK,  23,  pov  (after  EUHiT/iarv) i  xix,  28, 
vpac  0>tltr  ttaSuna3i);  Rev.  xiv,  13, /loi  (after  Xtyov- 
0ijc).  Specially  frequent  is  the  insertion  of  ovroc  in 
an  oblique  case :  Acta  xi,  13,  avrv,  (flttvr  iiffoirn),  and 
xii,9  (after  qEoXovSiO;  Hut.  xxv,i,avTuir  (_tfU:i  a-/- 
j-timc),  and  v,  6  (after  otojtijoii-)  ;  xxvi,  17,  auru 
(after  XtyowfC),  and  ixvii,  22  (after  Atyoiroic).  An  in. 
Btructive  case  of  presumed  addition,  but  more  probably 

the  four  preceding  cIanMa,wberc  the  nearer  relalioa  of 


its  omia^on  here,  where  it  ia  required  by  the  more 
mote  relation.    Its  accidental  ot  misjudged  omiss 
being  mote  probable  than  its  unautborized  iuMrlion,  i 
lestimonyofA,  B,K',  D  in  ila  favor  sbould  outweigh 
that  of  tt,  i,  which  yet  determined  Tischendorf  to 
il.     Tregelles  properly  retains  it  here,  and  ai  property 
omils  it  in  tbe  next  clause  (with  B,  D,  L  agsinat  A,  T, 
X),  the  relation  being  already  expTessed.     It  ia  note- 
worthy that  the  whole  pasuge,  as  thus  read,  is  alriking- 
ly  marked  by  Luke'a  cbaiacteriatic  conciseness  snd  pre- 

(9.)  Change  in  Ibe  order  of  words;  a  numerous  claaa, 
as  mar  be  seen  on  almost  any  page  of  Scrii-ener's  AV 
rnia  Tfitamtnlum  (in  the  Cambridge  clasaics).     Many 


tbe  English  phrases  "^iieas  by  name 

^.ncas"  (Acu  tx,33);   "went   up  a 

r"i''hlwi'v"'an 

-  .iraigbiway  went  up"  (Slalt.  iii,  18>. 

"Mo.t"V.htm 

however,  aio  not  easily  accounted  for. 

Such  cases  a 

yti'o/iii'OC  i»  laUTu  and  iv  tavru  yti-o/itMc  (Acl 
11),  and  aimilar  colloquial  phrases,  may  have  been  due 
lo  local  habit  and  usage.  In  the  greater  number,  per- 
haps, tbe  copyist  himself,  after  reading  a  elaiiw,  may 
not  have  recialled,  in  writing  it,  the  exact  onler  of  ilii 
words;  oc  he  may  have  been  unconscioualy  minled  by 
one  occurring  lo  him  more  correct  or  pointed  in  expres- 


0  tbe  ear. 
ground  for  auch  preference ;  as  in  A 


In 


(10.)  The  article,  in  the  use  of  which  the  MS3.  a 
very  fluctuating,  is  sometimea  neglected  or  inserti 
without  apparent  ground.    Significant  ia  the  readii 


(12.)  Err. 


aimilar  conUmctiaa  oflwout- 
ii,  18,  the  fim  (E  (K,L)  for 
XMp.t  (A,  B.  «,  C.  P),  the  copyist  confounding  Che  « 
'uA-  ipyuf  of  the  two  clauBea.  His  blonder  is  perpet- 
laled  in  our  current  Greek  text  through  the  misjudg- 
nent  of  Mill,  whose  long  and  involved  expoutinn  of 
the  meaning  is  its  own  refuution.  The  U  KAISH 
jllAeHKH  of  Colirwui  (1634)  hat  tbe  true  mding, 
Tbe  English  xeraion  here  follows  the  true  reading.  In 
■■      '",  "".  aited."  it  follows  a  false  reading 

(oiraC  litfixtTo)  without  MS.  lutborily,  and  reoeived 
by  Erasmus.  Tbe  true  readiog  isanjE- 
DEitro  (A,  U,  X,  C,  D,  P). 

(13.)  Synonyms,  and  also  words  that  in  cerlaui  cod- 

Malcxx,S4',D/i/iar<»i<  (aD,I,G),  ofSoXfiw*  (XC, 
N).  In  XXV,  16  tbe  reading  "made"  [five  taleou]  ia 
equivalent  in  meaning  to  "gained"  [fire  talents].  F« 
the  former  (Eiroit|aO  are  A,  X,  X,  F,  il,  6 ;  for  the  laua 
{ftipiitm)  are  A>,  tC,  B,  C,  D,  L.  So  likewise  ix,  19, 
DfifiOTui-  (D),  opdaXfiiuv  (all  others);  \i,  I, Saaioar- 
vijv  (B,!(,  D),  iXfiniomiyiiu  (E,  K,  L,  M,  S,  C,  Z). 
But  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  by  the  farmer  the 
Saviour  meant  ofnsjnruii/,  as  implied  in  the  allemoiirt 
reading.  He  first  aMtes  the  general  principle  Ihatgcod 
deeds  ate  not  ti>  be  done  to  be  Ken  of  men,  and  ibea 
illustratea  it  by  the  case  of  oaientatioiis  alma^Ting. 
The  phrase  was  already  a  familiar  one ;  Psa.  cri,  3, '  he 

did  righteouBoess ;''  IJohnil,  29,  "everyone  Ihatdoeth 
rigbteouaness;"  iii,  7, 10.  So  likewite  MBlLzivii,4, 
aidov  (A,  B,  K,  C,  X),;inico>'  <B  ma^.  L). 

(14.)  or  proper  name!  the  variations  in  spelling  aie 
very  fteqnenli  1  Cor,  xvi,  19,  lIpiMa  (It,  K,  M,  P), 
npiaaXka  (A,  C,  D,  E,F,G);  John  vi>,  19,  M«M(C 
(B,K,D,K,L.S,T,X,d,n),  MMnjc  (F.A).  Host 
significant  is  the  variation  in  Acta  xi,  30,  EXXqvac  (A. 
X',  D),  EXXiivioroc  (B,  D',  E,  H,  L,  P)  (oorop,  ri,  1), 
Of  places:  Matt,  iv,  13,  Ka^tapvaovfi  (  B,  K,  D,  G), 
Kartpyaoup  (C,  F^  K,  L,  M,  P,  S,  U,  V) ;  xv,  39,  Ma- 
yaiav  (B,  S,  D),  MajSaXa  (E,  F,  G,  H,  K,  U  S,  U,  V); 
Luke  X,  89,  lipiixv  (B,  L,  X),  Upix-i  (A,  B  ,  X,  C,  D, 
S). 

a.  lalrTUimial  inrialioiu. — Of  these  the  greater  num- 
ber affect  only  the  form  of  tbe  Uxl. 

(1.)  Grimmatioal  CItonffa.—fa.')  In  the  oblique  Cioe 
after  a  preposition,  lo  express  what  was  undentood  u> 
be  the  required  relation:  Acis  ii,  80,  EnSimn  (n  ror 
Spovov  (A,  B,  »,  C,  D),  co^utai  «»i  tov  Sjiowb  {E, 
P) :  Rev.  iv,  2,  ciri  rov  3f»i^>v  xo^ij/tiMic  (A.  B,  XX 
iri  run  Spovao  cn^itfiEVOC  (P);  ver.  9,  lUi^tum  oi 
rw  ipovm  (A,  K),  ta^tuyv  (Ki  nv  iporou  (B,  P) ; 
xix,e,a«-arav^pDfot>(EiiX3c(A,lt,C),fitn>vSp«Mt 
(JriXSf  (tt,  P);  Mark  vii,  BO,  fSi^Xq^n^v  «»i  r«  iXc 
MIC  <A,  N,  X,  r,  n),  ^^\ripttn,v  iwt  njw  tXitip-  (B, 
K,D,L,A>  <i.)Rec(i^ingBeiippoBedtolecism:  Halt 
V,  28,  irA,iir,iTat  aunj*  (B,  D,  E,  K,  L,  8,  V,  V),  in- 


VARIOUS  READINGS  7 

iafitiaai  arriK  (^'f  U) ;  xv,  32,  q^ipoi  rptit  (B,  C,  D, 
F,  Q,  H,  K,L,M,  P,  S,U,V),,,p.pai;  rpttt  (K.E)i 
R*T.  W,  1,  Xiyttw  (A,  B,  N),  \iy«v<ra  («",  P)  i  Tet,  8,  \i- 
rorrtc  (A,  B,  »,  P),  Xtyttvra  (in  (he  ouraives);  ii,4, 
.tn-«-.c  (A.  B.  6<.  C),  (ffr,«o,  (!C,  ft. 

<i>  CAaiffft  Ap«&^  lit  S'lbilance  n/ihe  Text.— A 
cantal  examiiutioa  and  comparison  of  auch  cbangea 
will  probably  lead  la  tbe  cuiiduiioa  thit  (bs  greater 
put  of  them  at  leant  hare  pasMil  rrom  lbs  iiut|;iii  into 
Ibc  body  of  the  text  tbrough  the  want  of  proper  ilia- 
criniinatioii  in  the  cupjist.  In  the  olil  USS.  frequent 
omisMona  in  the  text  are  found  supplied  in  tbe  margin, 
lo  be  iiicorponled  in  the  text  of  the  next  copy  made 
rnim  it.  Thia  beiug  ■  atanding  rule,  whatever  was 
written  ID  the  margin  might  be  IhuB  incorporated  by 
ao  incompeleDtnr  not  mfficienlly  alien  live  copyist.  If 
a  Hntence  Mcmed  incomplete  or  irregular  in  construc- 
lioD,  or  MherwlM  obscure,  inelegant,  or  apparently  in- 
accurate, a  remedy  wai  Miggested  in  tbe  margin.  A 
CDHKpicijiMis  example  occun  in  John  vii,39.  The  whole 
rene  in  the  true  text  reads  thui;  "And  this  he  said 

thauhl  receive;  for  the  Spirit  waa  not  yet,  because  Je- 
ms was  not  yet  gbrifled."  The  brevity  and  partial  ob- 
Kurity  of  the  form  "  was  not  yet"  doulillew  occasioned 
the  marginal  gloss  "  given,"  found  in  one  uncial,  B  (^i- 
tVcvov),  and  the  cnrsive  2M  (taiiv).  This  marginal 
l^iom  becoming  incorporated  with  the  text,  we  have 
"-ihe  Spirit  was  not  yet  given."  The  English  veraiun 
properly  italicize*  ^>m  as  notautheulic  Scripture.  It 
is  not  in  tbe  Kai>^  ^loBiiini  of  Colinxus  (1534).  A 
.itnilar  case  occurs  in  ver.  8,  where  ouiru  (B,  L,  T,  X, 
r,  ^,  A,  not  in  X,  D,  K,  M,  II)  probably  passed  from 
the  margin  into  ibe  lexl.  This  reading,  un  which  the 
tesliiDony  ofMSS.  is  pretty  evenly  balanced,  is  proved 
bv  historical  evidence  to  be  a  corrupLion  of  the  tent 
<w«  'Hschendoif  [8th  ed.] ;  Scrivener,  r«irod.  to  TtxI. 
CHl.  [^d  ed.],  p.  529).  It  should  be  observed,  more- 
over, that  there  was  no  occasion  for  this  qualification, 
f.ir  Jeeus  did  not  go  up  to  the  fcaat  at  ail.  John  vii,  10 
nbnuld  read,  according  to  tbe  MSS.,"But  when  his 
brethren  were  gone  up  tn  tbe  ^ea)^  then  went  he  up 
ilso,  not  openly,"  etc  He  went  to  Jerusalem  ptivale- 
Iv,  taking  no  part  there  in  the  public  festival  (for  he 
oDuldnotbefuund.ver.  11),  and  when  it  was  half  over, 
first  made  h'u  appearance  in  the  Temple  as  a  teacher 
<ver.  14).  In  Mark  i,  2,  tv  Bitma  rui  vpofiiTia  (K, 
»,  D,  L,  a),  tv  roic  irpo#i,r<ue  (.4,  E,  F,  G,  H,  K,  M, 
P,  S,  U,  V),  the  writer  specially  names  Isaiah,  because 
his  language  ideiKifiea  the  promised  messenger  in  the 
pe>wnorJolin,'-lbe  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilder- 
neas."  The  whole  prophecy  was  fulfilled  in  bim,  and 
the  failure  to  see  this,  ita  central  point,  may  have  occa- 
sioned the  marginal  comment  that  passed  into  tbe  text. 
la  GaL  iii,  1  the  explanatory  gloaa  "  that  ye  should  not 
obey  the  truth"  ia  found  in  C.  D°,  E,  K,  L,'P,  but  not  in 
the  oMer  uncials  A,  B,  !<,  D,  F,  G.  In  Rom.  viii.  1, 
"who  walk  ikot after  the  Beah,  but  after  the  Spi[il,"ia 
a  glosg  taken  from  rer.  4  aa  cbaracteriiing  those  who 
are  "  in  Christ  Jesus."  In  Acts  xv,  34, "  but  it  pleased 
Silas  to  atnde  there  still"  (not  in  A,  B,  Ct,  E,  H,  L,  P),  is 
a  marginal  gUm  accounting  for  his  presence  there,  re- 
ferred to  in  ver.  40.  The  doubtful  passage  in  John  v. 
3. 4  is  supposeil  by  many  to  have  been  a  marginal  com- 
ment (lee  a  full  slatemeot  of  the  case,  with  tbe  reasons 
fur  and  against  its  genuineness,  in  SchalTs  edition  of 
Lange's  Coittnoittuy).  To  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
apoule's  language  in  2  Cor.  viii,  4,  we  one  the  perver- 
9ian  of  his  meaning  in  the  current  Greek  text  and  in 
Ibe  English  version.  Tbe  words' inserted  from  tbe 
margin,  ittaaiai  qpiCt  ■■'^  not  in  the  uncial  text  (B, 
».  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  K,  L,  P,  etc),  and  are  found  only  in 
Ibe  coinvea.  In  Mark  vii,  2  the  construclion  (iiiter- 
nipted  br  ver.  3>  4,  and  returned  at  ver.  (•)  aeeuied  in- 


13  VARIOUS  READINGS 

complete,  and  hence  the  marginal  supplement, "  I  bey 
found  fault."  Only  Uu  uncials  (F,  K,  M,  N,  S,  U,  II) 
have  itif^i),arTO,  not  found  in  A,  B,  »,  E,  G,  H,  L,  V. 
In  Matt.  XXV,  G  tbe  original  form, "  Behold,  the  bride- 


;o  ye  oi 


^t  him,"  has  tbe  air  of  at 


cited,  midnight  cry.    The  supplemental  tpx""" 
appears  in  the  later  uncials  C,  X,  r,  II,  and  is  not  found 
in  B,  !t,  C  D,  L,  Z. 

Marked  diversities  in  Hebraislie  and  Greek  phraseolo- 
gy are  noted ;  Matt,  xxi,  23,  (XSon-r  auriu,  irpomjXSov 
avTiii  iilaaieovTi.  and  iXSovrot  avrov,  etc  Here  iht 
Hebraism  is  found  in  later  uncials  (E,  F,  II.  H,  K,  M. 
S,  U,  V),  and  (he  other  in  B,  tt,  C,  D,  L.  Mure  marked 
is  the  Hebraistic  Van  concert,  represented  by  rai  (xv, 
b;  Mark  vii,  IS)  in  (he  same  later  uncials,  and  not  in 
the  earlier.  The  omission  of  koi  makes  the  construc- 
tion casv  where  its  presence  has  caused  much  perplex- 
ity (sec  Meyer:  also  Laiige  [Amer.  ed.],  p.  276). 

Assimilation,  so  called,  of  the  gospels  occura,  especial- 
ly of  the  synoptic  gospels.  This  arose  from  the  habit 
of  noting  in  the  margin  of  one  gospel  the  words  of  an- 
other for  comparison,  illustration,  or  a  more  full  and  sat- 
isfactory statement.  In  Iklatt.  xxv,  IS,  at  (he  close  of 
tbe  parable  of  Ibe  ten  virgins,  the  Saviour  adds,  "Watch 
(heiefure,for  ye  know  not  tbe  day  nor  the  hour."  A 
copyist  added,  most  probably  from  the  margin,  the 

Cometh."  The  words  added  are  not  in  A,  U,  K,  C,  D, 
L,  X,  A,  and  are  found  only  in  C>,  P,  H*.  In  Malt,  ix, 
18  the  Saviour's  assertion  is,  "I  came  not  to  call  the 
righteous,  but  sinners."  To  this  tbe  copyist  added  the 
marginal  gloss  from  Luke  v,32,eii'  furiii'oiai',  found  in 
later  uncials,  but  not  in  B, «,  D,  etc.  In  Luke  xx,  13,  n 
fit  wtipaZeri  ( A,  C,  D,  P),  omitted  B,  K,  L,  was  prob^y 
addedlVDmHat(.xxii,18;  Markxii,lo.  InMarkxiii, 
14, "  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet,"  is  transferred 
from  Unit,  xxi v,'l6.  Luke  xvii,S6,  omitted  in  all  Iho 
uncials  except  D,  U,  was  inserted  from  MatL  xxiv,  40. 
In  MaLL  XI,  22,  "and  lo  be  baptized  with  the  baptism 
that  I  cm  baptized  with,"  in  later  uncials,  but  not  in  B, 
X,  n,  L,  Z,  is  taken  from  Marit  x,  88.  In  Matt,  v,  44, 
"  bipas  them  that  curse  you,  dn  good  to  them  that  hate 
you,"  and  tbe  words  "  them  (hat  despitefullr  use  you," 
are  tnnsfcrre<lfrom  Luke  vi, 27,28.  In  Luke  v, 38,  "and 
both  are  preserved,"  is  from  Matt,  ix,  IT.  In  xxvii,  85 
the  whole  verse,  after  the  words  "  casting  lots,"  is  from 
John  six,  24.  The  same  tendency  to  supplement  one 
account  by  another,  or  to  harmoniie  twi 
the  same  uccuirence,  is  seen  in  Acts  ix,  I 
from  nXiipov  i 
xxvi,  14,  IB. 

Supplementing  of  quotations  from  the  Old  Test,  only 
partially  cited  by  Ihe  sacred  writer:  Mall,  xv,  8,  where 
"This  people  honoretb  me  with  their  lips"  (omitting 
"draweth  nigh  unto  me  with  their  moalh"}  is  the  true 
reading;  and  Mark  i,  2,"shall  prepare  thy  way"  (omit- 
ling  "before  thee").  Scrivener  {Manual a/ frrl.  Cril. 
p.  12)  notes  the  following  aupplementa:  Luke  iv,  18, 
"  to  beal  the  broken-bearled ;"  Acta  vii,  ST,  "  him  shall 
ye  heat;"  Rom.  xiii,  !),"ihou  shalt  not  bear  false  wit- 
ness;" Heb.ii,7,  "anil  didst  set  him  over  the  works  of  . 
[by  hands;"  xii,  20,  "or  thrust  through  with  a  dart." 

Other  supplementary  additions  came  into  the  text 
from  the  margins  of  MSS.  fitted  for  reading  the  church 
lessons,  and  from  lectiimaries,  church  rituals,  and  litur- 
gies. It  was  necessary  to  prefix  to  each  lesson  its  prop- 
er title,  or  an  introductory  dause,  or  the  name  of  the 
person  or  class  addressed  or  speaking.  In  Acts  iii,  II, 
the  liile  of  tbe  lesson,  roll  io3(imit'  ^luXoti,  has  come 
in  place  of  the  original  avTov.  Tbe  latter  is  Ihe  read- 
ing of  A,  B,  [(,  C,  D,  E ;  tbe  former  is  found  in  Ihe 
later  uncial  P  and  in  cursives.  In  Luke  vii,  31  it 
was  necessary  to  prefix  lo  the  lesson  the  introductory 
clause  Ein  ti  6  mpioc;  found  in  cursives  and  the  latei 


VARIOUS  READINGS 

nncUl  H,  irtotlng  in  A,  B,  K,  D,  L,  X,  &.  The  nuue 
of  the  one  mlclrMaed,  oi  apeekiiig,  or  acting,  muu  ofUn 
be  innenet].  Hence  ltf»mi,iii  piece  of  auroc,  MatL.viii, 
6;  lijnoircadded,  iv,  18;  xW.ii;  tranaferreil  from  the 
lut  claim  to  ihe  fine  in  John  i,  14.  In  Acbi  viii.  37, 
withiiiit  douht  I  mai^nal  note  came  in  from  the  btp- 
tiimiil  funnula  of  a  church  ritual ;  wanting  in  the  early 
MSS.  A,  II,  St.  C,  H,  L,  P,  and  feebly  accredited  other- 
wiie.  In  1  John  v,  7, 8,  from  iv  riu  OBpama  to  tv  nj 
■pi  is  now  reganlcd  as  spurious  by  all  textual  critici. 
"They  wete  oii^nally  brought  into  Latin  copies  in 
Africa  from  the  margin,  where  they  had  been  plated  as 
a  pious  and  orthodox  gloss  oo  ver.  8"  (Scrirener,  Jfon- 
ual  of  Till.  Crilidim,  M  cd.  p.  5i6,  who  reviews  the  con- 
trovcTBy  respecting  the  pnssage,  with  a  full  atal«ni 
of  the  eTiclence  on  both  siiles).  In  fttalt.  t-i,  13,  fi 
uri  voe  to  the  end,  the  duxology  is  wanting  in  the  i 
icials,  U,  Bt,  D,  Z  (A,  C  F  are  defective  here). 


724 


VAltlOUS  KKADINGS 


jraptVTi  (fan  slightly  remored  from  the  pre«eiling  lyt- 
lable,tBofl«ainUS.),wilhadisUnctlvwrittena  in  thai 
ij'llalile,  and  the  accentuation  of  cnj  rnpntrt.  The  nail- 
ing is  undiiubtedly  (bat  of  the  ancient  MSS. :  K  raptv- 
n  (=irnp(iTTaij,  A  (C  is  defective  here),  B  of  Ibe 
Apoc,  and  P,  which  have  raptarai.  Erauuis'a  tfVy- 
mistaking  n  for  <  in  irii|>,  and  making  a  fklae  di- 
lon  iif  syllablea,  wrote  rni'irip  frni;  hence  thai 
beasi,  so  lung  the  crv*  udtrprttum. 

Valar. — Only  readings  attested  by  uncial  MSS. 
are  now  recognised  by  most  critic*;  while  other*,  well 
attested  by  the  beat  cnniives,  are  not  taken  into  oc- 
,  these  laur  MSa,  dating  from  about  tlH  lOib 
ry  and  onward,  being  appealed  to  only  as  ronolm- 


T  diplon 


II  the  early 


It  probably  originated 
liturgies  of  the  Church.  The  passage  in  John  rii,  0.1- 
viii,  II,  btBckcted  u  doubtful  in  some  critical  e<liiions 
and  omilteil  in  others,  is  regarded  as  authentic  history, 
the  record  of  an  actual  occumuce  in  the  life  of  Jesus. 
The  qiieatjon  of  its  genuineness  is  fully  discussed  by 
Lange  (Cnnnnrnlaiy,  Anier.  ed.p.  S68-37I,  and  the  chief 
authorities  on  both  ades  are  stated  by  Dr.  SchatT, 
p.  26-;.  The  passage  in  Mark  ivi,  9-20,  omitted  in  B 
(though  a  column  is  ugniflcantiy  lell  vacant)  and  in 
»,  is  found  inA,C,D,li,F,G,H,M,S,U,V,X,r,i,n 
(see  the  full  statement  of  the  question  of  its  genuine- 
ness in  Scrivener,  iHlrod.  to  Text.  Oil.  p.  507-S13). 
"'  '   IS  on  duclrinol  grounds, 


agree.     But  as  the  character  of  s  MS.,  laifd  hv 
parativc  criticism,  ii  often  entitled  to  as  much  conuder- 

prored  will  yet  be  allowed  their  due  weight  claimed  for 
.hem  bv  Scrivener,  t^eir  strennous  and  able  adTorate 
ace  his  Miatual  nf  Text.  CHI.  ['2d  ed.],  p.  K6,  and  ch. 

X). 


It  opini 


onsiderai 


night   indue 


idducei 


among  diScrent  extant  readings, 
reading  ucXqiriav  rou  6(DV  (B,  (t)  fur  (nXirffHiv  ran 
mipiou  of  A,  C,  D,  E.  The  former  being,  as  Meyer  sug- 
gests, Paul's  invariable  usage  (once  Xpiarau.  never  icv- 
pioit).  it  was  written  parallel  with  the  latter  in  the  mar- 
gin, and  thence  passed  into  the  text.  For  the  subeii- 
tution  ofBtoc  in  place  of  vioc,  John  i,  IS,  other  causes 
mav  be  asaigiicd  more  probable  than  a  piirpoeed  change 
of  the  text  from  doctridal  preference  (see  SchaTi  ex- 
haustive note  on  the  passage  in  his  edition  of  Longe's 
Commtnlaiy,  and  Tischcndnrf's  8th  ed.).  Tregellee 
edits  the  reading  Bkkx  Tischendotf,  with  a  truer  criti- 
cal sense  and  appreciation  of  evidence,  retains  the  cor- 
rect reading  uioc.  To  a  reverent  feeling  are  probably 
due  such  variations  as  lu/arif  and  u  irarxip  avrov,  Luke 
ii,33i  liiiin)^  mi  q  fiqrrip  and  d!  7Dv(i(',v 

A  case  nf  special  hiatorieal  interest,  mit  railing  under 
any  of  the  above  c1as«ficatii 
(Engl,  version),  "just  and  true  are  thy  wav^  tboa  King 
of  saints."  But  the  MS.  from  which  the  book  wi  ~ 
printed  (professedly)  reads, "thou  King  of  the  na 
(ruiv  i5viiiv^;  appropriately  hero  (comp.  the 
verse).  ThisisaUio  the  reaiKng  of  A,  B  of  I  he  A  poc.  and 
P  (Porphjrian  palimpsest).  But  It  and  C  read  "King 
eleruHl"  (o.bivcuv,  aa  in  1  Tim.  i,  17),  Ut.  Vulg.  laeuto- 
mm  (Cod.  Am.  calorum).  It  ia  probable,  as  nucgeat- 
eil  by  Tregellea  {TAf  Revrlnlion  ia  Gieel;  K.lilrdfroia 
AnciftU  A ulAoi'i'ui,  p.  Hfi),  that  the  true  reading, 
EeNUN.  was  in  some  MSS.  written  jlieNUN  (see 
above,  I,  2),  then  AIONQN  =  AIUNUN.  Instead  of 
the  true  reading  in  his  MS.,  Erasmns  followed  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Vulg.  reading  laculorum.  ita  MS.  ab- 
breviation tclotuiii  being  easily  mistaken  for  lelorum, 

ihecurrentGreek  leM,Bndoflh6E     '*  ■ 
rest*  solely  un  a  mistaken  abbrevi 
Vulg. 

To  an  error  of  sight  and  oftfocinn  we  owe  that  won- 
derful beast  of  the  Apocalypse  (xvii,  8)  "  lliat  was,  and 


I,  and  yet  is."    The 


MS.n 


vthef 


di*- 


|irnee»s  whereby  we  seek  to  determine  the  eoaipat- 
valiie  and  trace  the  mutual  relation  of  aathoritie* 
sry  kind  upon  which  the  original  text  of  the  New 
Test,  is  based"  (Scrivener,  ut  mp.  p.  162).  It  has  al- 
bcen  employed  to  a  certain  extent  with  hiicbly 
dory  results;  but  its  laws,  and  their  profjer  afw- 
iun,«reyetto  be  fully  developed.     See  CniTwnax, 


lllBl. 


Vamber, — The  number  of  va 


mdin^  is  n«i 

are  estiouted  to  have  been  about  thirty  thousand,  it 
has  been  greatly  increaseil  by  the  numerous  USS.  since 
discovered  and  the  more  thorough  collation  of  tboae 
then  known.  As  it  often  happens  that  of  several  trad- 
ing* one  gives  the  clue  to  the  origin  of  them  all.  rvduc- 
ing  nil  to  one  (Cu«™  of  Cri/idtm,  ii,  2).  so  a  new  read- 
ing may  be  welcomed  as  supplying  that  which  a  soiigbl. 
For  a  leiiig  time  the  utmost  diligence  has  been  uwd  ta 
searching  through  USS.  and  rpcnrding  every  dcTiati<« 
from  a  common  [irinteil  text,  even  to  the  slighint  pr- 

fgld.  Of  these  at  least  a  fifih  part  respect  only  dericd 
errors,  di  (Terences  in  spelling,  in  the  form  of  a  teiiac  or  a 
case,  in  the  order  of  words,  and  the  like;  while  of  doubt- 
ful readings  that  affect  the  sense  the  number  is  far  k*^ 
and  those  that  affect  a  doctrine  or  a  iluty  are  few,  if  any. 
Attention  was  directed  Ui  discrepancies  in  the  M!^ 
oftheNewTcsL  by  the  conlrovemies  between  Kranuaa 
and  Slunica  on  the  respective  merits  of  the  Complotco- 
sian  and  Erasmian  text*.  (For  the  esrlieit  aliosionsto 
them  in  patristic  writings,  see  New  Testahe^tt.  II. 
8,  4,  ^  S).  A  formal  comparison  of  dllferent  readings 
and  tbeir  value  was  first  made,  though  unaatisfann- 
rily,  in  Stephens's  third  or  rm'sl  edition  (IMO).  Hb 
text,  very  negligently  and  often  capriciously  formed,  be- 
cnme  the  current  Greek  text  in  England  and  Aneriea. 
The  Elzevir  editions  (1624,  fol.).  fumed  chiefly  fi«n 
Beza's  and  the  third  of  Stephens,  adding  nothing  sf 
critical  value,  became  the  cuirent  Greek  text  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Various  reading*  of  iIjc  C«frz 
AUxnmlrvnia,  and  «  digest  of  numerous  others  in  Wal- 
lon'.  Polyglot  BiWe  (1GM-67X  are  the  fini  collectim 
of  any  value.  Of  subsequent  contributions  to  trxiaol 
criticism  the  following  may  be  named  as  havinc 
made  epochs  in  the  progress  of  the  science  [for  a  full 
account  of  the  printeil  edition*  of  the  Kew  Tc!^ 
see  Criticism  B];  Mill's  Gmt  Tel.  (1707;  M 
ed.  by  Kuster,  1710),  with  various  readings  from  aO 
sources  then  accessible,  was  the  Rrst  attempt  for  a  cnn- 
plete  critical  apparatus.  Bengel  {y'iti-M)  led  ihewar 
in  the  cla.<isilication  ofMSS.  and  versions,  relying  on  thie 
oiliest  authoriiiea.  Wettslein'a  Sm  TrU.  (17&1-SJ) 
added  much  to  the  materials  fur  textual  ci 


VARIOUS  READINGS 

CKMiiig  the  collffilion  or  virloas  icidinga  rrom 
noi  beTon  or  inip*rf«ilv  mUsWd.     With  the  Ubon  of 
Griabmtt  (SfTabola  Ciiiiea  [1785-93] ;  New  Tett.  [2d 
C(LlT96-tS0e])bf  Kin  Chestrictly  critical  trettmenCoTche 
Lext  itwlr,  th«a  Tar  the  lint  time  corrected  throaghc 
rmin  MSS.  slid  othrr  ancient  suthoritia.    The  Ubara 
of  TiKlien.lorr  (1841-T3)  bive  nude  ■  tww  «n  in  the 
■cicnce.     By  hii  numerous  coUationa  and  printed  lexti 
of  HSS^  wilb  elaborate  prolegomena,  noiea,  and  Tac- 
limilefl — hi*  diacoveiy  of  the  Coda  Sinaiiiciii  and  im- 
perial edition  of  it,  with  BpecimeDa  in  lac-aimile,  prol- 
egomena, and  full  notes,  in  1862,  preceded  h;  ita  beil 
nrpreaentatit-e  in   litliognphed   Tac-Bmile,  the  Codex 
f'riitertco-AygiiUaiuit.viilh  prolegomena  and  illmt 
lii'c  comrDenu,  in  1846;  bii  eight  critical  edition! 
the  .V«  7V>f.-he  has  far  exceeded  all  who  hive  labored 
is  tbia  field  before  him,  and  won  for  himKlf  the 
place  artiuiiy  Biblical  critics. 

On  the  Hibject  of  varioua  readings,  lee  Urieeh 
Sfmbola  Crilica  {176^-93)  and  Proltyomtna  ad  A'or. 
7'itM.  (S.l  ed.  1TM>);  Lwhmann,  Prolq/omtna  ad  Noc. 
Taa.  (  IM-i);  TreK«1ln.  AecouHt  of  tht  PritOed  Tori 
if  Ike  NetB  Tat.  (IBM)  and  htrod.  lo  the  Trxl.  Cril.  of 
Ike  Xae    Trtl.  (I8IK);  Tiachendorf,  Prolfgomma  ad 
.Vor.   ToL  {7th  ed.  1859);   Scrivener,  Plain  Intivd.  ' 
rlu  Crilican  nflhe  Mae  TtU.  (2.1  ed.  1871) ;  Deliliac 
llatdKhrifilichi  FotnU  (1861-ti2)  ;  Conaiit,  Cwjt  Ti 
••fiteAp>Kals!>tr,inH\aBnplislQuarlri-ly,\H7i:  Smil 
><iUp  Itwyiuiiiury (Eng.ed.  1860;  Amer.cd.  1870), p.2125- 
21i8,      (T.J,G) 

VARIOUS  READINGS  or  tub  Old  Ti 
now  univenallj-admitled  that  the  text  of  the  Old  Test. 
haa  not  come  down  to  ui  without  mistakei.     Lili< 
other  ancient  boolu,  the  Bible  baa  autTered  rrom 
crrura  of  transcribcra ;  and  thns,in  the  course  of  repeated 
copying,  n:      _         "        '    ' 
vanoua  rcadinga  came  into  exiitence.   ThcM  varia  ke- 
tioKtm  may  be  assigned  tfl  two  sources.    Tbey  were 
on  intentionally  or  purposely. 

I.  Atxidtalal  MiMabt By  for  the  greater 

accident,  and  a 

1.  Tranacribers  lav  amis,  and  therefore  they  con- 
fuumded  leiun  aimilar  in  sb^ie.  Beth  and  Kaph, 
(iimel  and  Nun,  Daletb  and  Reth,  He  and  Chelh,  are  ao 
like  that  they  were  exchanged.  Thaa,iaNeh.  xii,  S  we 
re«<ln^l3T!,biitinver.Hn-33lO;  lChron.ix,18,^^3T, 
but  Neh.  xi,  I",  1131 ;  Gen,  x,  8,  HE''"!,  but  1  Chron.  i, 
B,  m--l;  Gen.  x,4,0-')in,buHCbron.i,7,nim-li 
XTiii,  13,  S-IXO,  but  2  Sam.  viii,  IS,  Ol^ta,  etc  From 
the  aame  eauie  the  copyiala  trmipatti  lellen,  worda, 
and  aenienoea.     Thua  wc  read, 

Joab.  xxl,  n,  yi^i,  bat  In  1  Chron.  rl,  M,  ^^U 
1  Sam.  t,  1.  inn— ,3,  bat  tn  I  Chron.  Tl.  l»,mn-ia. 
«3ani.xxUI,ai,''Sn-i3n,bntlnlChroii.xl,»3,'^lin3a 
1  SlDS*x.ll.0^3'3^1*.>"itl"S Chron.  Ix, ID, D^aiaVx. 
Fm.  1*111, 4«,  11-^n*1.  bnt  in  fl  Sum.  nil, «,  ^-^in^l. 
"    iTiil,  M,  TViTT-  C*133,  but  lu  1  Sam.  ixli,  BO.  mpl^ 

•i-lsns^,  bnt  In  i  Sam.  ixll,  W,  "13 
'b  is-as"  v**  '""aob  "i-icns"  133, 

CaDip.  alaii  Pm.  ict1,V-1I  with  I  Chron.  it),  SO-Sa. 

Prom  the  aame  eauM  they  omilttd  tellen,  wonia,  and 
aentcDcea,  especially  when  two  periods  nr  clauaea  termi- 
nated in  the  lame  way.  Thus  Keb.  xl,  5,  H'SSa,  but 
1  Chron.  ir,86;  vi,  Ift.n-'lDSi  Pi«,xviu,42, 1I13",hut 
3 Sam. X xii, 42. ^7D^.  Wordswereomiued;  asinlSam. 
i,  5,  where,  after  1^"5S,  probably  6^m31-T3  (Sept.  it 


ir  ongin 


3  traced  back  to  the  following 


15  VARIOUS  READINGS 

irSktut  a&Too  if  'ApuSaifi)  waa  left  onL    The  i 


where.afMtmnao.thewordslX^^l  ",111  ri"3  ixa"*! 
were  omitted,  for  the  Sept.  reads  cui  (I'vqXSov  (I'c  o<aov 
^ayiiv  xai  I'llov.  Tlie  liat  two  examples  of  omiaaion 
bear  the  technical  name  of  o/ioioWXhij-ov. 

2.  TranacribeiB  htard  amiss,  and  fell  into  mbtakea. 
Here  Ihe  same  obaervations  can  be  made  aa  above. 
Thus— 

1  Sum.  irll,  St,  we  And  ilT,  as  to  aerenil  codd..  Instead 

of  no. 

"     iill.ia,  J"",  hm  the  KerF,  SXl. 

»Kingsix,4,-iiyn, -isn. 

Psa.  xcvl.  H,  lhy\  hnt  1  Chron.  xrl,  St,  ]'Vs", 

laa.  1x7, 4,  p^B,  hot  Kerl,  pla. 

To  this  came  rouat  be  aacribed  the  seventeen  identlAca- 

tiona  of  xb  with  lV  noted  in  tba  mai^n  of  tbe  Bible. 

3.  Tranacribers  made  mistakea  from  memory.  Where 
tbe  copyiat  trusted  too  much  to  bis  memory,  he  con* 
founded  synouymoua  tenos,  aa  in  Lev.  xxv,36,  bit  with 
is ;  in  2  Kings  i,  10,  131"!  with  lax""!,  and  Hin^ 
with  ""JTIX ;  or  he  altered  tbe  word,  after  the  more  fre- 
quent forms,  in  parallel  paassgea.  Thua,  in  laa.  Ixiii,  16, 
Bome  have  ^BO  15^3  inatead  of  ^Oa  Cbisa,  be- 
cause the  former  ia  tbe  more  common. 

4.  Tranacribers  made  mialalies  in  judgmnl.  They 
miaspprehended  the  text  before  them,  and  therefore  di- 
vided worda  badly,  misundcistood  abbrevialtona,  and 
blundered  with  regard  to  the  letters  called  cattodet  iiae- 
iirnia,  as  well  aa  mar^nal  notes.  One  word  was  im- 
properly separated  into  two,  or  two  combined  intttone. 
An  example  occun  in  Paa.  xlviii,  15,  where  the  text  haa 
nna  bs  instead  of  Piabs,  aiiio  death  instead  of /or- 
enr.  The  latter  reading  is  found  in  many  MSS.  and 
editions;  Sept.  h'c  ro&c  w'^i^f,  Vulg.  in  UKula.  On 
tbe  contrary,  Iv,  16,  nlO^O",  the  textual  reading,  denot- 
ing (fefo/aluHM,  ia  directed  by  the  Keri  to  be  divided  into 
PTO  '••a\  itt  dialh  aeize.  This  ia  ailopteil  by  many 
MSS.,  editions,  and  old  tranalati.rs,  aa  Sept^  Tulg., 
Aquila,  Symmacbiis,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Jerome. 


letten.  Hence  the  omis- 
iplied,  or  tbe  abbre- 
viated word  wsa  considered  compleic  in  itself.  Thua, 
n^n"  was  ahortened  into  'i  or  "'<.  In  [sa.  xlii,  19,  the 
SepL  has  translated  nin"  1393  by  o  ^oi'Xiic  lum, 
liowing  that  tbey  mistook  '■<  1373  for  11313.  So 
Isoin  Jet.  vi,  11,  mni  nan,/A*/Hf5  </ /eilDEaA,  is 
anslated  by  the  Sept.  Ihiiuiv  fiov,  showing  that  they 
listook  1  Pan  for  Tuan;  Psa.  xxxi,  7,  "PttJO.  / 
half,  all  ancient  ttanslalors  undeivtuod  fur  mT\i  T^'Xit!, 
lhoa,Lord,lial<ttt  and  this  reading  is  found  in  Cod.  170. 
It  ia  well  known  that  the  Jews  did  not  divide  a  word 


nd  of  a  line  too  small  to  contain  the  next 
■ddeil  letters  to  Sll  it  up  and  preserve  tlie  ui 
nnce  of  tbe  copy.  These  m 
were  generally  the  initials  of  tbe  fullowini. 
'l  iras  written  entire  in  the  next  line.  Ignorant  tran- 
cribers  may  have  taken  these  airperfluoiu  letters,  called 
'ustod;!  liofamai,  "  keepers  of  the  lines,"  into  the  UxL 
lliusit  is  thought  by  some  that  in  liia.  xxxv,  I,  the  corn- 
reading  ^311S  mSC"  arose  from  ^3T3  D  MOa", 
by  joining  the  superfluous  13  lo  the  end  of  the  verb. 
Oil  the  other  hand,  tnnscribeis  suspected  the  existence 
if  those  ctitloda  linettram  in  places  where  they  did  not 
iccur,  and  omitted  part  of  the  text.  S»  in  Kxod.  xxxi, 
:  the  word  bs,  "all,"  appears  to  have  been  omitted  b«- 


VARIOUS  READINGS  71 

uiue  or  the  following  Vi^.  The  omirted  word  ia  found 
in  the  oldest  veraong.  Errors  alio  arose  from  takinK 
raargrnil  ■nnoLitiana  into  [he  Cex^  Probably  Isa.  vii, 
17  fumiihes  an  example,  for  the  cUiue  "IIOX  "jbo  PS 
a  unsuitable.  To  such  marginal  annotations  miiat  he 
(scribed  those  passages  in  which  to  one  word  a  seconil 
areven  a  third  translation  isadded.  Thusin  1  Sam.  xii, 
14  the  SepU  reads,  for  linlX^  lA\  tai  ob  tariSaa- 
ffrtuaoc  >iii5t  C"i  "n  liXaaac  Vl^at). 

In  snme  cases  the  H8.  itself  may  have  been  the  cause 
oferron,  be  it  that  it  was  illegible  or  that  some  letters 
were  oblilenilcd.  After  all,  it  taust  be  ohriDua  that  no 
intentional  errors  were  made,  and  tlie  exislenee  of  vari- 
ous readings  is  purely  acciilental. 

U.  tnlftitional  £mir).— After  what  has  been  said,  it 
would  be  useless  to  speak  of  inlailioiuil  errort  were  it 
not  for  the  very  fact  that  Church  flithen,  Hohammed, 
and  scholars  of  renown  have  brought  auch  a  charge 
against  the  Jews.  But  the  charge  has  not  been  substan- 
tiated. Their  venentiau  fur  the  sacred  books  was  too 
great  to  allow  them  to  make  alterations,  knowing  them 
to  be  wronj;.  Josephus  (Cint/.  Apioii.  i,  8)  says,  Toaai' 
TUB  yAp .  oi'viMic  ^q  irapfi|(i]Euroc>  oilri  rpoaStiyai 
n£  ou^ii',  ourf  iftXdv  avruv,  ouri  fiirajfifdi  te- 
Tokp^av;  and  Eusebius  (Prirp.  Enn^.  viii.  6)  dtes 
from  Pbilo:  Mq  pq/id  yf  ouro^/idtov  riv  in'  niiroB 
(Uoses)  yiyftofifiivuy  ncijaiu.  a\\i  t&v  ftvptaat  av- 
ToiQ  anohaytXv  vTOfHivai  ^nrrnv,  q  roic  jini'i'aii  v6- 
fiDic  mi  tSf«(V  iratrria  irtio^qi'iii.  Like  the  Samari- 
tans, the  early  Christians  brought  the  accusation  of  cor- 
rugitiug  the  text  against  the  Jcwa,  But  these  were  not 
competent  witnease*  or  righteous  accnsers.  For  when 
the  Jews  quoted  from  Ihc  Hebrew  Bible  passages  dllTvr- 
Ing  from  the  SepL,  which  some  of  the  fnthers  regardeil 
M  inspired,  it  waa  very  easy  to  say  that  the  Jews  had 
corrupted  Mcripiure  in  such  places.  This  was  all  the 
reply  they  eould  make,  being  themselves  ignorant  of 
th\^  Hebrew  original.  It  was  dilTerent  with  Moham- 
meil(seethe  Koran,sun  i<,73,  ITS-ITH;  iii.lS8;  v,17). 
His  charge  is  equally  directed  against  Christians  as 
against  Jews,  because  of  liis  iuibilily  to  fiiul  aiiy 
port  in  the  Scriptures  for  his  prophetical  pretensio 

The  earliest  among  Christiani  who  made  the  charge 
■gainst  theJews  of  o'TTupting  the  text  waa  Justin  Mar- 
tyr (comp.  Trypho,  e.  71,  72,  73),  who  was  foUowed  by 
Irenxus,  Terlullian,  and  others.  All  these  fathers  knew 
notliiug  of  Hebrew;  they  had  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  Sept.  or  mora  importance  is  the  testimony  of  Ori- 
gen  and  Jerome,  beeauae  tboy  knew  Hebrew.  It  is  true 
that  Jerome,  in  his  Cimanttilary  on  Gniaiiaru  Hi,  appears, 
indeed,  to  charge  the  Jews  with  erasing  the  word  bs  in 
Deut.  Txvii,  afi ;  for  he  aays, "  Incertum  habemui  utnim 
hXX  interpretesaddiderintDeuuxxriiiSS  omnu  homo 
et  in  omnibus,  an  in  veleri  Hebnu  ita  fuerit  et  posi 
■  Judcis  deletum  ail. . . .  Quam  ub  cauum  Samaritai 
rum  Hcbnea  volumina  relegena  inveni  ^3  scriptitm  esse 
et  cum  LXX  inlerprelibus  concordarc.  Fnistra  igitur 
illud  tulcrunt  Jud«i,  ut  vidercntur  csee  sub  maledictn, 
si  nan  posaent  omnia  complete  c|uie  scripts  sunt:  cum 
antiquiorcs  allerius  quoqiie  gentis  litem  id  positum  fu- 
isse  teslenlur."  But  this  charge  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  his  deliberate  opinion,  an  can  be  seen  from 
his  Cammmnry  on  Itniiih,  eh.  vi,  where  he 
"Quodsi  aliquis  dixerit,  Hebneria  libros  poslea  a  Judieis 
ease  ^als■to^  audiat  Origeneni,  quid  in  ocuvo  toIu 
explanalioniim  Eaain  huic  respondeat  quKstiun 
qiK.d  nunquam  Dnminuaet  ApoelDli,qui  csdera  cri 
■rguunt  in  scribia  et  Phariseis,  de  hoc  crimiue,  quod 
crat  maximum,  relieuissent,  sin  autem  dixerint  post  id- 
ventum  Domini  Salvatoris  et  prmlicationem  Aposlalo- 
rum  libros  Hcbroos  fuissc  ralmiiu.  cachinniim  1 
nun  pntero,  ut  Salvator  et  Evaugelista  et  Aposto 
teUimoiiia  protuierinl,  ut  Judiei  pu.^iea  falsaturi  ei 
In  apite  of  this  importniit  tesiimony,  there  ivcri 
wauling  some  who  rencweil  the  old  charge.    Fort 


VAltOTARI 

ng  them  were  Isaac Vo«siH«,W.Whislor,J.MorioiB 
who  again  were  refuted  by  Carpiov,  De  Uuia,  Tti- 
lor,  Boote,  Cocceius,  Grabe,  Trigland,  Bellarmine^  K.  ?i- 
1,  GlasaiuB,  Capellus,  and  a  host  of  others,  who,  exam, 
ig  the  question  line  tisdio  rl  ii-a,  wen  not  apt  to  In 
their  sober  reaaon  run  astray. 

There  are  two  or  three  places  in  which  the  rhargp  of 
intentional  corruption  has  a  plausible  appearsna.  vii. 
Pea.xri,  lOi  xxii,  IT;  and  Zech.  xii,  10;  bui,wiib«u 
entering  upon  an  examination  of  these  passages,  as  be- 
yond the  province  of  (his  article,  we  may  state  that  i 
close  examination  pmres  the  folly  of  the  charge. 

With  regard  to  the  other  ctasaes  of  alteration*  aristnc 
Trom  a  well-meaning  desire  on  behalf  of  the  text.  ■< 
see  no  good  reason  to  doubt  that  tradings  appamulr 
easier  or  less  oi^ectionable  were  occaaionallj  subiiitBtel 
~>r  others;  that  supposed  mistakes  were  rectified:  placn, 
'here  something  at^ated  to  be  wanting,  filled  op;  Bit 
parallel  oaea,  Example 
ii,S,  where,  tor  ^J^am. 
^CCri;  NoailL 


lasBSges  made  contormsblt 
of  this  kind  are  found  in  G 
the  Samaritan,  Sept.,  and  Syriac  hai 
xxvii.  7,  where,  instead  of  Dn^ztt,  rarioua  HSS.  with 
the  Samaritan  read  *,ri''3X  with  the  feminina  aoflut: 
Judg.  xviii,  SO,  where,  for  STCO,  was  put  nenC:  J 
Chron.  ii,  48,  where,  f,.r  lb',  several  MSS.  read  mi-  n 
the  feminine:  fia.  xxxvi.i,  where, for ->=b,muiy  HSS. 
and  versions  read  ^39.  In  like  maoner  1I1S%  in  Deui. 
xxiii,  2,  was  separated  into  ^T  VIV;  ltd  n^  K.  is 
PsB.  xxviii,S,wwi  changed  in  soma  USS.  into  Ifi^b  K. 
the  latter  taken,  perhaps,  from  xiix,  II. 

After  all,  it  must  appear  that  all  readings  iDint  Ir 
ascribed  to  purely  accidental  causes,  such  as  hare  bttii 
enumerated  above.    See  Kiri  axu  Kethib.    <a  P.l 

VarlaniU  is  the  name  of  a  suppoaed  early  heierir. 
titentioned  by  Ittigius  (/<e  Ifaraiardai,  iii,  I,  .^ppni- 


iii)u 


■mg  nan 


n  St.  Matthew.    It  is  thought  the  tr 


is^r- 


Bamplon  {.Klartt,  p.  496. 

Varlet,  Doutntqi;!  Marii,  a  French  prelate,  vat 
bom  in  Paris,  Manrh  lo.  ie7a  Uia  father,  who  nm- 
ually  became  ■  hermit  of  Mount  Valerian,  had  eailv  do- 
lined  him  for  the  Church,  and  he  entered  the  semiuTT 
of  Sl  Msgloire,  where  in  1TD6  he  received  ordinalioa  ind 
the  diploma  of  docloT.  lie  served  soon  after  as  mn'r 
of  Conrtans-Charenton;  but,  becoming  attached  to  the 
doctrines  oflhe  I'ort-RoyaiislEi,  he  opposed  the  bull  l'^- 
fffnitui,  and  in  consequence  left  for  America  in  ITll. 
where  be  instructed  (he  inhabilanu  of  Louisiana.  He 
waa  recalleil  lo  lHurope,  and  appiHnled  bishop  ofAscilao 
and  coadjutor  of  the  bishop  of  Babvlon  (Sept,  17,  iTIKi ; 
I.  19,  1719)  he  sailrj  frar 


,  of  Per? 


posed  by  the  pope,  however;  and  after  scttlinR  io  Am- 
sterdam (1720)  he  flnslly  appealed  from  the  bull  «rtbe 
pope  (Feb.  16, 1723),  but,  nei-ertheleas,  gave  ordinitioa 
lo  four  recusant  ecclesiastic!  at  Utrecht,  publiihiRg  id 
his  defence  iiis  Ajmlogirt  (ArusL  1724-!7).  It;  dieil  at 
Khynwick,  near  Utrecht,  May  14,  1742.  See  lloefn. 
iVoiin.  Biog  Criiernle,  s.  v. 

Varnell.  Joiih  il.,  a  minister  in  the  MethnJi^  Rpi«- 
oopal  Church,  South.  No  record  of  bis  hinh  or  »«It 
life  ia  preserved.  He  was  converted  in  1847.  reoiinl 
into  the  Holston  (East  Tcnn.)  Confeirnce  in  IM»,  w»l 
labored  with  leal  and  fidelity  until  his  death,in  ISX. 
Mr.  Varnell  was  a  devout,  energetic  young  nun.  Siee 
.l/ixKfH  nfAimaal  Cot/cmors,  M.  E.  Ckuni,  ^Mfi, 
1857,  p.  753, 

Varotarl,  ALKasANnito  (/f  Pudoramne),  sn  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Padua  in  ItW.  !>' 
receired  iiistmeiion  in  painting,  and  began 


VARBO 

to  Knil;  ind  imiuu  the  works  of  Titian,  which  w«re  at 
Pidua.  He  wia  lent,  while  young,  to  Venice,  whe 
continued  the  itudy  of  Titiiii  no  uaiiluously  u 
OMMdered  among  the  roremost  oT  liis  disciples. 
pictures  ibuUQcl  in  Venice  and  Csdua,  but  arc  i 
met  with  elsewhere.  The  priuciijal  an.  Tie  Dmd 
Ckriit  (oow  at  Florence) : — The  Sap/iir  at  Cana,  in  the 
chapter  of  L*  Carita  at  Venicci— four  hislflries  of  the 
life  or  3.  Domaaar.  He  died  in  liiaa  See  Spoaner, 
Bios.  ""<■  "f  ""  f™  ^  rU,  s.  V. 

TaiTO,  Marcus  TsRE-iTiiia,  a  learned  Romia  anti- 
quinin,  WHS  bum  in  Ihe  Sabine  town  of  Reate,  RC.  I  IE- 
He  WIS  descended  Trum  an  ancient  Taniily  <i{  genatoriai 
ranli,  and  was  Qru  instructed  by  L.  £Iius,'alUrwards 
by  Antiochus,  an  Academic  philosopher.  Varro  was 
very  prominent  in  the  political  history  of  hi*  time,  ad- 
hering: to  the  cauH  of  Pompey,  and  perrwrming  the  du- 
ties of  general  in  Ijpain.  He  withdrew  from  pubtlc  life 
aller  the  defeat  of  Pumpev,  and  wai  reconciled  l<i  Ctesac. 
He  waa  one  of  the  moit'exlrnordinary  men  tliat  ever 
lired ;  uid  to  be  the  most  learned  of  the  Humans.  His 
learning  extended  to  almost  everi'  depanatent  of  knowl- 
edge. Hia  wrilingB  embraced  grammar,  rhetoric,  poet- 
ry, ueognphj,  history,  philosophy,  jurisprudence,  and 
hubandry,  amounting  in  all  Id  74  different  works,  con- 
taining 620  books,  ITU  of  which  were  in  metrical  form. 
Onlv  two  or  liis  woriu  leoiain,  De  Linffaa  Lalimt  and 
-    '       ~      -  tLibritll.     Ai.gustine  (Oe  Cir*(i(e 


727 


VASHTI 


£n,lit 


Vii)  gi<r, 


pious  extracts.  Vam  distinguished 
orTeligioii — m^tkicalj  which  the  poets  chietiy  use;  phyt- 
ktil,  which  the  philosophers  use ;  and  dcU,  which  peo- 
ples nse.  He  spoke  inpositii'e  disapproval  of  the  myths 
and  legends  of  the  popular  faith.  Augustine  says  be 
went  as  far  as  he  dared  in  that  direction.  The  natural 
philosophy  in  the  various  schools  he  describes  without 
censure.     Civil  theology,  or  that  ordained  by  the  State, 


Vsm 


idRC. 


27.  See  Ueberweg,  ffuT.  ^ /■Aifor.  i,  189 ;  Fisher,  £»- 
gimiiiffi  ofChHiHiails  (N.  Y.  1877), p.  1^)  Smith,  Dicl. 
o/Clau.Bitig.*.v. 

Vartabada,  to  order  of  celibate  priests  in  the  Ar- 
menian Chnrch  (q.  v.),  who  are  attached  to  the  churches 
as  preachers  (the  married  priests  do  not  usually  preach), 
and  from  among  whom  the  bishops  and  higher  clergy 
lie  taken.  It  is  a  degree  of  honor  curresponding  very 
nearly  to  our  doctor  of  divinity,  and  is  given  with  the 
same  soleronitj  as  holy  orders. 

Varty,  Joiiit,  an  English  Congregational  minister, 
wn  bom  in  London,  Nov.  39, 1798.  He  was  educated 
at  Hnxtnn  Academv,  and  ordained  at  Mitcham,  Surrey, 
in  1823.  In  IS39'he  accepted  an  invitation  to  the 
Church  at  Fareham,  and  for  twenty-three  yean  faith- 
fully labored  with  that  people.  Ur.  Varty  was  a  decid- 
ed and  earnest  Christian,  and  n  man  of  strong  piety  and 
large  Chriitiin  inflnence.  He  died  April  IG,  1873.  See 
(bond.)  CoHff.  Vtar-book,  1874,  p.  358. 

Vamna,  in  Hindu  mythology,  is  one  of  the  highest 
and  miW  powerful  ofihegods,  yet  one  of  the  most  va^ae 
and  leatt  known  of  all  deities.  In  the  Vedas  this  divin- 
ity is  often  cnnfounded  with  Indra  and  Agnt.  See  Le- 
normant,  rAiiiiiiB»  .Vo^,  p.  131;  MUller,  (7Ai>u/rDM 
a  GtrBiati  H'orttiop  (see  Index). 

Varna,  P-QiTi)mi.tt'a,  proconsul  ofSyria  for  several 
years  (between  aC.  13  and  A.D.  T),  alter  Sentins  Sauir- 
ninus,  an  oHice  which  he  administered  with  such  rapac- 
ity that  Vellei  us  Patercidns  says  of  him  (ii,  117),  "Asa 
pour  man  ho  entered  the  rich  country,  and  as  a  rich  man 
he  left  the  country  poor."  Some  of  his  governmental 
artiare  rehearsed  by  Josepbus(£,i/V,  11;  /In^-xvii,  5sq.{ 
lriir,j.3I,6;  ii,3, 1;  5,1).  He  subsequently  sustained 
a  notable  defeat  in  Germany.  See  Smith,  Dicf.  of  Ctati, 
Itinj.  K  r.     See  Govebsob. 

Taa  (or  Da  Vaa),  Petkcts,  a  Dutch  minister  of  the 
Befbtmed  Cburch,  born  about  1658.    He  is  oKniiuned 


as  a  candidate  at  Oravelanl,  Holland,  in  1699 ;  pastor  al 
Kingston,  N.y.,froia  lT10tol75«(  and  often  olBciated 
at  Rhinebeck,  having  organized  that  Church.  See  Cor- 
v'm,  Miamal  of  Ike  Rtfurmed  Church  in  Amtriea,*.  v. 

Vaaa,  Gustavus.    See  Gustavub  I  (Vasa). 

Vaaaii,Gioiiaio,an  Italian  author  and  painter,  wii 
bom  at  Arezzo.  in  Tuscany,  in  lbl2.  He  studied  art, 
architecture,  and  painting  practically;  became  the  pu- 
pil and  friend  of  Michael  Angelo;  and  obtained  the 
giatronage  of  such  distinguished  peisons  as  cardinal  Ip- 
polito  de'  Medici,  pope  Clement  Vli,  and  the  dukes  Ales- 
sandro  and  Cosmo  de'  Medici.  He  painted  numerous 
works  in  various  parts  uf  Italy,  among  them  several 
noted  pictures  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and 
in  the  Sale  Kegia  in  tbe  Vatican.  As  an  architect 
Vssari  attained  greater  excellence  than  as  a  painter. 
He  built  the  church  of  Abbadia  in  Arezzo',  a  great  gian 
of  the  palace  of  Julius  111  at  Rome;  and  the  Palauo 
Ufflzi  in  Florence,  cumme<ice<1  in  1561  and  completed, 
after  his  death,  by  AlfiMis.!  Parigi.  This  last  is  consid- 
ered by  critics  to  be  his  beat  architectural  work.  Many 
other  buildings  and  parts  of  structures  are  ascribed  to 
him;  and  lie  was  cbiefly  iustrumental  in  re-establish- 
ing the  Florentine  Acatlemy  of  Design.  He  died  in 
Florence,  Jan.  S7, 1574.  As  a  writer  on  art  Vasari  at- 
tained considerable  celebrity.  He  entered  upon  his 
work  at  the  suggestion  of  canlinal  Famese,  and  subse- 
quently enlarged  the  scope  and  plan  of  his  book.  It  is 
entitled  l-'ife  de'  piu  E<r>rleiiti  PiUori,  Scullori,  t  A  rchi- 

(laao).  In  1556  he  imdertook  a  new  tour  to  prepare 
materials  for  a  second  edition,  which  appeared  in  1668. 

a  recent  one  in  Florence,  in  thirteen  volumes  (1846-67). 
It  has  been  translated  into  English  and  published  in 
Bohn's  Standard  Library.     See  Spoonet,  i«oj.  //«(.  nf 

Vaie.  See  Basih;  BottLB;  Bowl;  Chalice; 
Cup;  Urs,  etc 

Vaaay,  Thomaa  (1),  waa  an  orphan  ward  of  a 
wealthy  and  childless  uncle,  who  disowneil  him  on  Va- 
sey's  becoming  ■  Methodist.  He  began  his  ministrv  in 
1776;  travelled  in  Ihe  Dales  in  1782,  Liverpool  in  1783; 
and  in  1784  be  waa  ordained  a  presbyter  of  Ihe  Church 
of  England  by  Wesley,  and  sailed  with  Dr.  Coke  to 
America,  where  he  shared  the  toils  and  perils  of  Fran- 
cis Asbuty.  He  was  here  ordained  by  bishop  White, 
and  afterwards  retumeil  to  Kngland,and,wiih  Wesley's 
consent,  accepted  >  curacy.  In  I7S9  lie  resumed  Ihe 
itinerant  work,  and  continued  Iherrin  until  1811,  when 
he  was  appinnted  to  perfonn  the  liturgical  services  in 
the  City  Koa<l  Chapel.  In  1826,  with  a  pension  from 
tbe  inwtees,  he  retired  to  Leeds,  where  he  ilied  very 
suddenly,  Dec  S7,  1826,  in  his  eighty-Hrat  year.  See 
Stevenson,  Hiti.  of  dig  Road  Chapil  (Loud.  1872, 
8vo),  p.  162;  Cilg  Road  Magaiiae,  1871;  ITwt  Melk, 
Jfa<7.IH27,  p.14-2;  Mtv,  1830  (portrait);  Stevens, //iiT. 
of  Mtlhoditm,  iii,467 ;  llil.  of  MtUi.  Epuc.  Church,  ii, 
165,  166;  Smith,  IliH.  of  WuL  MUhodiiia  (see  Index, 
voL  iii). 

Vasey,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  Wesievin  minis- 
ter, was  iMim  in  1779.  He  was  converted  in  17!>4 ;  com- 
nrencert  to  preach  in  1801  al  Barrow  and  Epwotth  j  was 
onlained  in  1804:  labored,  among  others,  on  Ihe  Sun- 
derland, Whitby,  Darlington,  and  Colne  (1815)  circuits. 
He  died  of  inHammalory  fever,  May  9,  181H.  Many 
weie  converted  through  his  earnest  and  gmllv  miniatr}-. 
See  ll'r$!.  Mrlh.  Mag.  1820,  p.  401, 481. 

Vasb'nl(Heb.  Viuhiii\^y^^.mgtlrrtigth,t,ttlroiigi 
SepLSm/i;  Vulg.  FuHmi).  thn'Hrst-bom  ofSamuel  ac> 
cording  to  1  Chron.  vi,  28  [lleb.  13]  ;  but  I  .'iam,  viii,  2 
shows  that  Ihe  true  reading  should  be  ''id'!,  "  'he  sec- 
ond," and  that  the  name  of  Joel,  Ihe  eldest  son,  has 
dropped  ouu     .See  Samiiku 

Vaab'tl  (Heb.  VoMhii',  ^Piti^  Vtn.litaaiifvt  worn. 


VASISHTHA  7: 

an;  Sqit'An-iv;  3oiepb<itOia<mi;'Va\g.Vaillii),tite 
"queeu"{nsinr|)  of  Ahuuerm  (Xerxes),  who,  for  re- 
fii»ing  to  >h«w  herself  lo  the  king's  guesH  at  Ihe  royil 
buic|uel,  when  aent  fnr  by  Ihe  king,  incurred  hti  wrath, 
and  wai  repudiaCed  uid  deposed  [Esth.  i),  when  Esther 
wuiubsliluledinberpUce:.  B.C1S3.  HinyatlempCa 
-  bare  been  made  lo  ideiilify  her  with  historical  penon- 
■gea;  as  by  Usher  with  Aloua,lh»  wife  of  Dariiu  lly- 
9las|iis,  and  by  J.  Cipelliu  with  FuryMula,  the  mother 
of  Uchui  j  but.  u  «u  said  of  Esther  (lilia  the  "  three- 
score quceiis"  in  Cuil.  vi,  8,  9;  comp.  Uetod.  i,  136),  it 
is  Tm  mure  prubible  that  she  was  imly  one  of  the  infe- 
rior wires,  digniHed  with  the  lille  of  queen,  whose  luow 
hu  utterly  diuppeared  from  historj'.  Bee  EffTUSB. 
This  view  of  Vashli's  position  seems  further  to  tally  ex- 
actly with  Ihe  narratireof  Ahasuenu'a  order,  and  Vuh- 
ti's  refiasl,  considered  with  reference  to  the  nalional 
manners  of  the  Persians.  For  Plutarch  (Cm^ug.  Pra- 
cepL  c.  13)  tells  ua.  in  agreement  with  Herod,  v,  IS,  that 
the  kings  of  Ferua  have  their  legitimate  wires  to  sit  at 
table  with  them  at  their  banquets ;  but  that,  when  they 
choose  to  riot  and  drink,  they  send  their  wiTCs  sway 
and  call  in  the  conenbines  and  singing-gills.  Hence, 
when  the  heart  of  Ahasuems  "waa  merr;  with  wine," 
he  sent  for  Tashti,  looking  upon  her  only  as  a  concu- 
bine; ahe,  on  the  other  hand,  considering  herself  u  one 

to  come.  Jueephus's  statement  (^M.  li,  0, 1)  that  it  ii 
contrary  10  the  customa  of  Ihe  I^ians  fur  their  wives 
to  be  seen  by  any  men  but  their  own  husband*  ia  evi- 
dently insccnrat*.  being  equally  contradicted  by  He- 
rodoUE  (t,  IH]  and  by  the  book  of  Esthei  itself  (r,  4, 8. 
12,  etc.), 

TaalshthB.  (superlative  of  Sanscrit  vammat, 
"  wealthy'^  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  iDost  celebrated 
Vedic  Rishis,  the  anthor  of  several  faymna  of  the  Rig- 
veda,  and  a  personage  important  in  the  early  history 
of  the  Brahmanic  or  priestly  caste  of  the  Hindfls.  All 
that  is  certainly  known  of  him  is  that  he  was  a  aage  of 
high  repntalion,  and  a  priest  Jealous  of  the  privileges 


,e  positi 
IS  superiority  over  the  i 


»nd,  o 


iliUry  a 


See  Muir,  OHgiial  Santcrit  Tcrli  (Lond.  1S58); 
Huller,  Chipi/rom  a  Gmaan  Worilkap. 

Vasqnes,  Alonao,  a  Spanish  painter,  was  bom  at 
Rnnds  about  1509.     Ue  studied  at  Seville  under  j 
niu  Arflan,  and  acquired  considerable  reputation 
historical  painter.      His  principal  works   are   ic 

le  Barelboted  Carmelites  at  Seville.     He 
It  1616.     See  Spooncr,  Biog.  liitl.  of  the  fine 


VaaqneB,  DIoh^hIub,  a  Spanish  monk,  was  bom 
June  6. 1500,  at  Toledo.  He  was  a  very  learned  man, 
and  one  of  the  first  who  undertook  Ihe  edition  of  the 
BiMia  L'oin/ifuteiuia,  which  cardinal  Ximcnes  proposed. 
He  died  June  1, 1639.  His  writings,  in  Latin  and  Span- 
ish, are  mostly  in  MS.  See  Antooii  Sibliolh.  fliipaiti- 
ra;  tiuidulptiua,  Ut  SOO  Scriplari6ia  A ugmliniiniii ! 
'  Jdchcr,  AUgtneina  GeUhrtafLtrOon,  a.  V.     (B.  P.) 

VasquAB,  OabiiaL  a  Spanish  Jeiuit,  waa  bom 
in  i!ibl  at  Relmonte.  For  twenty-nine  yean  he  was 
professor  at  Alcallt,  where  he  died,  Sept.  23,  ICM.  He 
wrote,  Commnal.  in  Epp.  I'uuli:  —  CommflU.  in  Th. 
Aquiimtii  Tfnologiam: — Afetaphj/s.  Duquitiliftniim  ife 
CbKu  AdoralioKU  Libn  Tna  (Mayence,  1600).  lii 
works  were  published  in  10  vols.  fuL  (Lyons,  ]G20|. 
See  AnKniii  Hibliolh.  Ilitpmica:  M\tfMD\x,  BiUhlhe 
ca  Serijiftii-unt  SocUtatii  Jeiu;  Jitchur,  Al^emriaet  (if 
Idirlfn-I^Oon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

VaaqueB,  Jnan  Bantlat«,a  .Spaniib  painter  ani 
Bcnlpliir,  was  bom  at  Seville  in  (he  10th  century.  Hi 
best  painting  is  a  picture  of  the  Tii;^  iiwf /^n/,  at  ih 
altar  of  the  ('hurcb  of  Our  Lady  ar<iranada.  See  Spoo- 
ner,  Hiog.  IliH.  o/ihe  Finr  A  ru,  s.  v. 

Vaasar,  Jobn  E.,  a  miasionaty  colporteur  of  Ihe 


!S  VASSILACCHI 

American  Trad  Society,  cotamonlv  called  "  Code  Julio 
Vassar."  Vossar  was  bom  Jan.  13,  ISIS,  and  f«  aiaay 
years  was  ruremau  in  the  great  brewery  of  his  CDuun,)fii. 
thew  Vassar,  the  founder  of  the  college  at  PooRbknii. 
sie.  John  was  converted  about  the  year  1313,  win 
he  rejected  on  offer  of  large  wealth  from  his  couiii  tad 
entered  vigorously  into  the  temperance  rtfomi  mnit- 
BienL  He  was  among  the  first  colpnneura  ibe  Tnrt 
Society  sent  to  the  then  Far  West.  If e  b<%aD  lu  la- 
ibout  1S48  in  the  wilderness  of  Illinois,  and  be  ma- 
i  in  that  capacity,  with  slight  inlermption,  miil 


He 


a  for  his 


Thoroughly  armed  with  (joapel  texts,  and  full  of  <ar 
cas  and  utuwlfish  love,  he  preseed  the  trvtb  vpon 
ind  he  was  almost  invariably  received  with  kind- 
ly alL  He  was  equally  at  home  amt>ng  culnmd 
families,  fiom  Boston  to  San  Francisco,  aa  among  nlbet 
classes — farmers,  mechanics,!  umbennen.minen,  Kldiai, 
and  freedmen.  He  was  specially  useful  in  the  lair  ni; 
among  whole  brigades  of  soldiers  in  the  army  br  ■« 
"  Unde  John,"  loved  and  honored  by  alL  He  nu  ok 
held  religious  meelings,  but  he  did  hospital  duty,  dof 
graves  for  the  dead,  and  then  performed  religion  «r- 
and  communicated  with  tbe  relatives  of  ikc  dt- 
ceased.  Once  be  was  taken  a  prisoner  of  war ;  bat,  ts 
escape  hia  ceaseless  religious  importunity,  he  wasna 
set  at  liberty.  His  labors  were  instrumriital  in  Ihe  n*. 
version  of  multitudes.  Vassar  College  is  a  mgoaiKB 
worthy  of  the  memory  of  iu  founder;  but  more  alds^ 
ing  ia  (he  monument  of  the  noble  Christian  deedi  Ititt 
marked  the  life  of  this  honored  and  aucccDful  miiwii- 
ary.  He  died  at  his  home  in  Poughkeepne,  Dtb  t, 
1878.     (W.P.S.) 

Vaaaar,  Mattliair,  a  well-hnowo  layman  sT  ita 
Baptiat  denomination,  and  founder  of  the  college  fur  k- 
irulea  which  beats  bis  name,  was  bom  in  EastDeiehsa. 
Tuddenbam  Parish,  County  of  Norfolk,  England.  Aprd 
29,1792.  In  1796  bisfather  came  to  ADietica,andH>i1i 
up  bia  reudence  at  Wappinger's  Creek,  near  fm^ 
keepsie,  N.  Y.,  where  he  established  a  brewcrr.  Tbi 
enterprise  did  not  prove  successful,  and,  after  ruini 
reverses  of  fortune,  he  became  a  farmer,  in  a  sioall  wsy, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Pougbkeepsie.  The  subject  orihii 
sketch,  then  quite  young,  commenced  the  msnofsOBR 
of  ale  on  a  small  scale.  The  bunneas  grew  on  bit 
hands,  until  at  last  it  reached  such  proporlioni  st  •«■ 
psssed  the  most  sanguine  expectations  of  Ur,  Vsaw. 
For  fifty  years,  until  1866,  he  continued  in  this  bat- 
nesa  and  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  His  mind  wa 
now  much  occupied  with  the  qiiesiian  as  to  the  bM 
disposition  he  should  make  of  hia  great  galna  Bt 
concluded  to  establish  a  college  for  female*  nhere  tha 
npporlunities  for  obtaining  an  education  shooM  be 
equal  to  those  fumished  for  males.  In  1861  he  pn- 
cured  from  the  New  York  Assembly  a  charter  for  Vsf 
sar  College,  and  in  February  of  that  year  he  convtTed 
to  the  board  of  tmslees  bonila  and  securities  to  tbe 
amount  in  cash  value  of  four  hundred  and  eight  tbiia- 
sand  dollars  to  be  used  for  Ihe  purposes  of  Ihe  college. 
tie  also  gave  the  grounds  on  which  the  college  «« 
buili.  The  college  was  opened  in  1865,  and  from  lbs 
beginning  baa  been  largely  patronized.    Tbe  gifts  <( 


Vasailaccb], 


(L-Alitmr,  or  At 
paniter,  was  oorn  in  Ihe  island  of  Mile 
Archipelago,  in  1560.  Ue  was  sent  to 
lile  young,  and  placed  under  tbe  ' 


^vealed  aucb  genius  as  lo  excite  the  jealoury  nf  his 
lasler.  who  dismiiaed  him  from  the  studio  with  ihe 
jvice  that  he  should  conflne  bimself  to  small  paiu- 


VASSOR 
ipgi.    Siiipectiag  the  ce 


II,  uul  SiftiwDund,  li 


sd  great  diMiiic- 
j  doge  and  principal  nobility 
.he  court  of  Spain  by  Philip 
if  Poland,  eanifacly  salicited 


lod  renuitied  in  Venice.  He  executed  many  vnrka 
tit  Ihe  cliurchea  and  othei  public  buildings  or  Venice 
ind  in  ntber  Italian  cities.  Among  hia  best  pmduc- 
tioiu  are.  Abra/uiin  SacrificB^  itauc: — Cilia  Slaj/iiig 
ibel:—tiie  Brazta  Srrpail,  in  the  Church  a(  the  Hiily 
Apostles :— and  the  DatrHcliono/Tray,  in  th«  Sail  dcIJa 
Sctutino.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1629.  bee  Spooner, 
Biag.  Ilitl.  o/Ihe  Fine  Am,  ■.  v. 

Tasaoi,  HiciIEi.  LK,  ■  French  theologian  and  bit- 
corian,  Tor  ■  uumber  of  yeani  a  member  uT  the  Priesta 
of  Ibe  Oratory,  went  to  England  in  1695,  where  he  died 
in  1718,  ifUr  having  joined  the  Protestant  Church. 
He  i)  the  author  of  Traili  Je  la  Munire  iTEximiiKr 
Ir4lHfirfuttiklaI{tligion(_Amat.lG9:).  See  Winer. 
lliadlHcK  Jer  IhtoL  Liltralur,  i,  341,  668;  f  llrst,  BOL 
J^-m,i6'J.     (li-P.) 

Vaosy,  HAasACRK  or.  Vaaay  i*  ■  town  of  France 
in  Hauie-Mame,  on  the  Blaiae,  twenty-eight  miles 

susacre  or  the  Pruteatanta  by  order  of  Uuiac  On 
Sunday  morning,  March  1,  h'i62,  the  Uuke  of  Guise, 
with  a  retinue  of  nobles  and  aoldien,  arrived  at  Vasiy, 
ou  his  ivav  to  Paris,  The  Protentanta  were  holding 
thrir  meeting  in  a  large  barn,  to  which  the  duke  >ent 
gonie  of  hia  soldiers,  who  procoked  a  conHict.  The  rest 
of  the  soldiers  came  to  their  aid,  broke  open  tbe  door, 
daoghtered  a  largo  number  of  the  defenceless  congre- 
^ion,  and  plundered  their  houses.  After  this  bluudy 
deed,  the  duke  was  received  at  Paris  with  acclainaiion^ 
vbite  the  Protealants  throughout  France  considered  it 
a  wanton  and  atrocious  violation  of  the  Religious  I'cace, 
uiil  Hew  In  ariD-s  inaugurating  a  series  of  wars  which 
onlv  teiminated  with  the  accession  of  Henrv  IV  to  the 
ihtone.  See  FUher,  Hiit  n/  Ihe  Jle/orma'rioa  (N.  V. 
I87j),p.267sq. 

Vat    See  WisB-FAT. 

VAT,  a  cistem  or  reasel;  a  Urm  frequently  fonnd 
in  Ihe  inventories  of  religious  bouses. 

VAT  FOB  Hot.Y  Wackk,  a  vessel  for  hoUing  boly 
water  (1.  v.). 

Vatabls  (  Val^i,  VutlrNed,  Guaitftted),  Fras- 
fois,  a  learned  Frenchman,  was  a  native  of  Uamache, 
in  ncanly,  and  served  as  pastor  of  Bramel,  in  Valols, 
until  Francis  I  made  him  professor  of  llebitw  id  the 
newly  founded  Cullvgc  Royal  at  Paris.  He  was  abbd 
of  BL'Uoiaite  when  hr  died.  March  16, 1547.  His  learn- 
in);  was  comprehensive  and  bis  delivery  attractive 
He  may  be  considered  the  restorer  of  Ihe  study  of  Hi 


He  H 


ling  for  publicf 


II  Naluraliii  made  by  him 
'a  appended  to  Duval's  edition  of  Aristotle ;  and  Robert 
Stephens  prinleO  notes  on  the  Old  Test,  said  to  I 
Vauble.nhich  ohtatneil  conaiilerable  fame.  The  notes, 
however,  correspond  in  part  with  those  of  Calvii 
otlur  Pintouant  writers,  and  were  condemned  as  heret- 
ical by  the  doctors  of  the  .Sorbonnc,  thus  involving 
both  S(e[di*iu  and  Vatsble  in  trouble.  Stephens's  Bi- 
ble, allegid  to  be  by  Valable,  contained  Ihe  Vi%ate, 
l^o  Juda's  tnnslation,  and  the  notes  already  mention- 
ed, and  appeared  in  ■  first  edition  in  I545,  8vo,  and  in 
a  second  edition  in  1M7,  folio.  The  IntcBt  eilitinn  is 
ihM  of  Nicholas  Henry  (Paris,  KaS-W,  2  vols.  foL). 
Stephens  pahlished  a  separate  etiilioii  uf  the  bonk  of 
I'lalou  wiih  yet  more  extended  noles  (Geneva,  1.^56  sq,), 
fnim  which  G.  J.  a  Togel  republished  them,  togethi 
■ilh  Dhw  of  Grolius  (Hal.  Magd.  1767, 8vo),  and  the 
1  again  reprinted  in  Ihe  Criiici  Sacri.  They  ai 
'  '     the  grammar  an 


VATICAN 

idioms  of  Ihe  Hebrew  language.  See  tbe  Biographie 
UaictrtelU,  Ixvii,  569  »).;  Jiicher,  Gtlthrlta- Uiikm 
(Col.  1466),  ToL  iv.  The  Utter  refers  lo  Adam,  Vila 
K'-udUorHm ,-  Samarthan,  Elogia  Galloruia ;  Teissier, 
Eloga  da  Savani ;  and  Blount,  Centura  CtM}riitm 
Auaorum,  as  hia  sourced.  —  Herzog,  Real- Lncytivp. 

Tatar,  Johank  Sbverin,  a  Gemun  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  was  born  May  37, 1771,  at  Allenburg. 
He  studied  theology  at  Jena,  but  more  especially  Ori- 
enlal  languages.  From  17E>2  to  1794  he  stuilied  clas- 
il  philology  under  Wolf  at  Halle,  and  was  promoted 
1794  as  doctor  of  philosophy.  In  1796  he  com- 
menced lecturing  as  privat-dncent  at  Jena,  was  made 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  1798,  and  was  called 
to  Halle  in  I8O0  as  profeasor  of  theology  and  OrienUl 
languages.  When  this  university  was  abandoned  in 
1810.  he  went  to  KOnigsberg,  to  return  again  to  Halle 
he  did,  March  15,18^     Vater  belong- 


ed u 


id  his  w 


tafeuch  is  deeply  tainted  by  ri 
but  his  works  deserve  notice  for  their  learning.  He 
published,  Hrbr.  SprachkAre  (Leips.  1797 ;  'id  cd.  1812)  : 
-^KMiwre  iMr.  SprachUhn  (ibid,  1798;  3d  ed.  1816): 
—liar.  Leitbudi  (itud.  I799i  2d  ed.  1809):— //mut 
back  der  hebr.,  igr^  cAuU,  and  anA.  Grammatik  (ibid. 
1802;  2d  ed.  1817) ;— ,4r<ii,  jyr,  and  chald.  Lf/tiuch 
(ibid.  1803) :— ComBtoUor  flfer  dm  Ftatateuch  (Halle, 
1802-5,  3  pis.):— ^mori  Oracufci  (ibid.  1810):— /^fw- 
num  VaiiimU  Alexandiwa  Jobi  nomlurn  lulii  fianii- 
101  SpfcimtH  (  Konigsberg,  1810): — SyneJiroiti- 
Miiche  To/iln  der  KircheagachkhU  (Halle,  1803 ;  filh  ed. 
by  Thilo,  1838):  — A'ircAer^sciicAfa  dtt  18.  ami  19. 
JaArhunderlt  (Brunswick,  1823  sq.,  forming  pis.  v-viii 
of  Henke's  KinAmgeidiichle} :  —  A  ntau  drr  titualta 
/j:irtjie^eKA»c4(s(BerL1820-23,2voU).  S-xThedag. 
Umtenal-Lexiam,*.^.;  Niemeyer's  biography  of  Valer 
appended  to  the  6th  ed.  of  the  SsMhTOnul.  Tufeta 
(1828);  Furst,  BiM.  Jud.  iii,  4C9;  Steinschneider,  Bi- 
Uiagr.  Handbaeh,  t.T.;  Wimt,  Ha«^aieh  drr  thfd.  I.i. 
leraiur,  i,  45, 100,  IIS,  197,  218,  2-23,  228,  370,  388,  406, 
587,544,681;  ii,23,326,S14.     (E  P.) 

VatSa  is  a  lerm  used  among  the  ancient  Romans 
with  the  double  signification  o!  poet  and  prophet,  the 
two  being  regarded  as  identical.  By  a  law  of  Cuiistan- 
tina  in  the  Thtodoiian  Codi,  they  were  reckoned  among 
those  who  practice  forbidden  arts,  such  as  soothsayers, 
astrologers,  augurs,  and  magicians,  and  were  condemn- 
ed to  die  as  guilty  of  a  capital  crime  and  offence 
against  religion.    See  Bingham,  Chriit.  Antiq.  bk.  xvL 

Vattcan,  the  papal  palace  at  Bome,  so  called  from 
its  situation  on  ths  Mons  Vaticanus,  at  the  extreme 
nonh-wescem  part  of  the  city.  It  is  an  immense  pile 
of  buildings,  composed  of  parts  constructed  at  dilFercnt 
rimes,  and  often  without  due  regard  t«  the  harmony 
of  the  entire  structure.  There  existed  a  palace  adjoin- 
ing the  basilica  of  Su  Peter's  pnibably  as  early  as  the 

In  tbe  12th  century  this  palace  was  rebuilt  by  Innocent 
III,  and  in  Ihe  following  century  it  was  enbrged  by 
Nicholas  III.  It  became  the  papal  reHdeiice  on  the 
removal  of  ihe  see  from  Avignon  to  Rome  in  1377, 
when  Gregory  XI  adopted  it  as  the  pontiflcal  palace  on 
account  of  its  greater  security  over  the  Laleran  (which 
had  been  the  residence  of  the  pities  for  one  thousand 
years)  by  the  nearness  of  Ihe  Cnstle  of  St.  Angclo. 
John  XXIII  increased  this  security  by  building  a  cov- 
ered gallery  connecting  the  palace  with  the  castle. 
Nicholas  V,  in  HSO,  began  to  improve  it  on  a  mag- 
nificent scale,  but  died  before  completing  his  design, 
Alexander  VI  finished  Ihe  older  portion  of  the  edi- 
fice nearly  as  we  now  see  it.  No  part  of  the  palaca 
except  the  private  chapel  of  Nicholas  V,  callcil  Ihe 
Chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  is  older  than  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander VI  (I492-1503>.     The  part  coostrucled  by  Alex- 


ander  VI  ii  knovn  u  the  Old  Palace,  in  diadnction 

rnm  the  laler  works.  To  Ibii  Mructure  Sixtiu  IV,  in 
1474,  aildcil  the  Sixline  ChnpeL  Innocent  VIII,  about 
1490,  creeled  the  vUU  Bolvedere,  and  JuHiu  II  (15aa- 
13)  coaiiccled  it  with  the  palace  by  ths  celebraled 
I-ogffia  aud  a  terraced  court.  In  the  ganlena  or  the 
Belvedere,  JuliuD  laid  the  hnindatioiis  of  the  Vatican 
museum.  After  the  death  of  Julius,  Leo  X  completed 
the  Loggia  under  the  direction  ofRaphacL  Paul  HI 
built  the  Sala  Regia  and  tlie  Pauline  Chapel  (1AS4). 
Siitui  V,  near  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  began, 
and  Clement  VIII  carried  w  completion,  a  new  and 
more  imposing  puUce  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  court 
of  the  I/iggia,  which  ia  now  the  ordinatj-  residence  of 
the  pupe  aud  ia  by  far  the  moat  conspicuous  of  all  the 
" "'  uBalteratinniand  improve- 


lug  ponl 


Urbi 


1  VIII 


(IG23-44)  had  (be  celebrated  staircase,  Scala  Kegia, 
cooBtruFttil  from  designs  by  Bernini.  Clement  XIV 
(1769-74)  and  Pius  VI  (i;;5-99)  huilt  ■  new  range  of 
apartmcots  for  the  Museo  Pio- Clemen tino,  Pius  VII 
(1800--23)Bildeil  the  BracciaNuot-o,nmning  parallel  with 
the  library.  Leo  XII  (1823-39)  began  a  series  of  cham- 
bers for  the  gallery  of  pictures,  Gregory  XVI  (1831- 
4C)  completed  these  and  placed  the  Etruscan  MiiMiim 
in  its  present  position.  Plus  IX  (1846-77)  cncluwl  tlie 
Loggia  in  glass,  remored  the  gallery  of  pictures  to  (he 


a  the  B 


ts  formerly  occupied  by  the  pictures  with  IVes- 


graud  gtairosea,  200  smaller  ones,  W  courts,  ai 

The  Scala  Rtr/ia,  the  great  staircase  by  Itemi 
sistaof  two  Highls;  the  lower  decorated  with  lu 
umns,  and  the  upper  with  pilasters.  It  leads  fi 
extremity  of  the  right-hand  portico  of  UeminI 
Sala  Hrffia  built  during  the  pontilicatc  of  Paul  III,  as 


frescos  illustrating  va 


with 
n  the  history  of  the 


popes.  It  also  serves  as  an  ante-hall  to  the  Siiline  inil 
Pauline  chapels. 

The  CaptUa  Sittma,  or  Sixliat  ChiiptI,  is  a  lofty  ob- 
long hall,  146^  feet  long  by  50^  wide,  and  dcconled  vith 
a  series  of  frescos  representing  the  principal  events  ia 
Scripture  history.  It  alio  contains,  on  the  end  wiU  op- 
posite the  entrance,  the  great  fresco  Tit  Lait  Judgmrtl, 
Near  the  Sixtine  Chapel  ia  the  CaptOa  Paolina.ithidi im 
oidy  used  in  great  ceremonies,  chiefly  during  IIuIt  Wttk. 
It  is  noted  for  two  frescos  bv  Michael  Angelo.  71;  fir 
rern™  o/Sl.  Paul  and  the  C'viifirion  n/HI.  PHit.  Tbt 
great  hall  leading  from  the  Sala  Kegia  id  the  Uiggiaiir 
Bramante  is  called  the  Sala  Ih-nilr.  formerly  used  by 
the  popes  for  giving  audience  to  princes,  now  used  te 
holding  the  public  consistories  when  (he  newly  crestni 
cardinals  are  admitted  into  the  sacred  college. 

Loggia,  to  the  left  on  leaving  the  Sala  Ducale.  It  cat- 
tains  numerous  apartments.  The  GaUiry  of  Imcr^ 
tiom  a  a  cnrridor  090  feet  in  length,  coniaiuing  ap- 
wardsofBOOO  specimens  of  ancient  sepulchral  iiucrip- 
tious  and  monuments.  At  the  extremilyofthisgillaT 
is  the  .l/uMo  CiliuranKiii'i,  which  constitutes  (heHcoBd 
division  of  the  gallerj-,  and,  excluwre  of  the  Bratat 
Xuoto,  or  new  wing,  contains  more  than  TOO  speciDMH 
of  ancient  scolptDre,  arranged  in  (hirtv  cumpsrtiiMntL 
The  Bracdo  A'aoeo  was  erected  by  Pius  VII  in  1817, 
and  is  a  Hne  ball  260  feet  in  length,  and  well  lighted  fmo 
the  root  In  (his  hall  are  to  be  seen  the  famiius  nilDS 
of  A  agiuitu  Ihe  A  Ihltit  and  many  others.  The  Jfiart 
Pie-dentnlino,  so  called  from  Demen[  XIV  and  Pjus 
VI,  from  whom  i(  received  its  most  im|»naiil  acrct- 
sions,isthemostnisgnilicent  museum  of  ancient  scul|i<- 
iire  in  the  world.  It  contains  the  collections  formed  br 
Julius  II,  Leo  X,  Qement  VII,  and  Paul  IlL  In  this 
museum  may  be  nameil,  among  others,  Ihe  folkwiDC 
apartments :  Round  VrHibvlf,  Hall  of  Miltogrr,  Cmtik 
di  BrlceJ/rt,  Hall  of  Ihe  A  aimalt,  Giillrjy  .•/  Slatta, 
ll„U  "/  Hf  Mtiiei.  The  GaUeij  o/tkr  funrfftoim  it 
a  Hne  hall  about  300  feet  long,  erected  by  PiusVl.aod 
derivea  its  name  from  several  ancient  carnlelabra  plmrt 
in  it.  It  is  Nluated  on  the  up|)er  floor.  The  firnftm 
J/utfttm, or  Mutto  (iir^riniro,  so  called  fnim  its  fouad- 


VATICAN  COUNCIL 


731        VATICAN  MANUSCRIFf 


<r,  Gregory  XVI,  ii  dfroted  to  t1i«  preaervatian  of  Che 
Einucui  anliqiiiile*  accuinulited  by  hia  predecewon, 
■Dd  u  very  rich  in  apecimens  belonging  u>  thia  depan- 
SMDL  The  E^pliua  MiiKum  ia  enured  from  Che  Mu- 
■en  Cburamonli,  anil  conUJoa  Egyptian  antiquiiiea  ot 
gnat  inlereaL  Frum  the  (iallery  of  the  Cimdelabra 
HI  nach  Ihe  .-Iruui.or  Tapalnei  0/ SapAael.  Then 
csiDo  the  (liiOrFy  o/ihe  itafu,  ■  fine  hall  500  feet  lung, 
and  celebrated  fi>r  ila  aeiies  of  mapt  of  Italy  and  ita  isl- 
and*, painted  fur  Gregory  XIII  (1572-85),  The  Stona 
c/Rapluui  ate  a  aetiea  of  four  cbambera  opening  auc  of 
Ibe  HCiHid  range  of  Log^e,  ao  called  from  the  fact  that 
the  great  nfe-work  of  Kaphael  vaa  the  decoration  of 
ibeir  iralb.  The  ehambera  ate  called  leepectively,  Slim- 
fi  0/  Iht  iHoeadio  dd  Borgo,  Cimrra  ddla  Sf^naluru, 
ShiHia  of  IMiodona,  Saia  of  Comlaniiaf, 

The  fapflia  di  San  Lortmo,  built  by  Nichotaa  T  as 
hi«  private  chapel,  i«  interesting  for  its  frescos  by  Fra 
Angelico  da  Fiesole;  it  U  alto  intereeling  as  being  the 
i>iily  decorated  puttian  of  the  Vatican  oldet  than  the 
time  of  Alexander  VL  The  PiaaaHera,  or  Galiny  of 
PietuivM,  containa  a  amall  Dumber  (less  than  tirty)  uf 
(•icturea ;  but  they  are  among  the  rarest  treaaiiree  ot  art 
10  be  found  in  the  world.  The  TrawjigaralioH,  the 
.l/udoiBui  da  yolifpio.  and  the  Comntunina  nf  SI,  Jtrome 
niT  be  inentioocd  as  esamplea  of  these  rare  works. 

the  IMran,  was  foundeii  by  Nicholas  V  (14*;),  by 
iraiuferring  to  his  nen  palace  the  HS3.  which  had  been 
cnlltcled  in  the  I^Ieran ;  and,  at  his  dearb,  it  is  aaid  to 
bive  contained  9000  MS3.  In  IflOO  there  were  10,660 
U.S.%  of  which  8500  were  Latin  and  2100  (ireek.  It 
received  important  accea^oDS  in  1631,  presented  bv  ihtke 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria;  in  IGaS,  the  library  of  Urbino; 
in  1690,  the  collection  of  Christina,  (|ue«n  of  Sweilen ; 
in  1746,  the  libraiyof  the  Ottobuoni  family.  The  Vat- 
ican Library  is  one  of  the  most  Tsluable  in  the  world, 
(hough  not  verv  large  aa  compared  with  maiiv  othera. 
There  are  25,600  Mi^  and  220,000  volumes. 

Vatican  Council,  the  nineteenth  and  iaai  cccu- 
nenical  council  otthe  Roman  Catholic  Church,  sssem- 
bled  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome  Dec.  8, 18fi9,  and  continued 
nearly  a  year.  It  was  called  by  pope  Pius  IX,  in  the 
iweniy-thinl  year  of  hia  pontiHcale,  by  an  encyclicsl 
•lated  June  29,  1868.  The  attendance  was  larger  than 
on  any  previnua  council  At  the  opening  there  were 
719  preUtfS  frDm  all  parts  of  the  globe,  including  49 
cardinals,  9  patriarchs,  4  primates,  121  archbishops,  479 
bistwps,  57  abbots  and  generals  of  monastic  orders^ 
Thia  number  afterwards  increased  to  764;  but  alter  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco- Pniasi an  war  it  dwindled  dowa 
lu  ks9  than  200.  The  whole  number  of  preUtea  invited 
and  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  council  was  1037.  Of 
thnae  present  a  large  majority  were  Italian,  while  the 
French  and  German  were  least  in  number,  although 
slrongMt  in  learning  and  importance  of  the  dioceses 
tbey  represented.  The  deliberations  of  the  council 
were  conducteil  in  strict  secrecy,  and  the  results  sol- 
emnly prodaimeil  in  fnur  public  seasiona.  The  pro- 
ceeilin^  were  made  public  only  through  information 
ubtaineil  fmrn  members  of  the  council  by  their  friends. 

The  niDiiagemenl  of  the  couiKil  was  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  ibe  pope  and  his  cardinals  and  ailvisers.  The 
proceedings  were  entirely  in  LaUh,  the  official  hiugnage 
dI  ibe  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  subjects  for  con- 
■ideration  were  clasaiHed  under  four  heads,  or  divisions, 
and  each  division  assigned  to  Acoagrfgalio.ar  comrais- 
■ion,  of  twenty -six  prelates,  presided  over  by  a  eaidinal 
appointed  by  the  pope.  The  divisions  wete/aili,^i- 
dfHat,  Trligimii  orderi,  and  rila.  The  decrees  were 
prepared  by  a  eamoiissjon  of  the  most  eminent  prelates 
and  theologians  of  the  Catholic  world,  previous  to  the 
assembling  of  the  council,  in  the  form  of  iciemtita,  or 
prngramnies  {  and  on  the  basis  of  these  the  different 
coamiaioni  presented  decrees  for  the  adoption  of  the 
csuneiL  These  were  discusseil  and  adopted  in  secret 
•Hian  and  the  results  proclaimed  publicly. 

The  chief  object  of  the  council  was  to  protest  against 


modem  inBdelity  and  settle  the  question  of  papal  infal- 
libility (q.  v.).  Tbe  first  two  public  eeasions  were  held 
Dec.  8, 1869,  and  Jan.  6, 1870.  The  third  was  held  April 
24, 1870,  and  it  was  here  that  the  "  decrees  on  the  dog- 
matic conatitution  of  the  Catholic  faith"  were  unani- 
mously adopted.  These  decrees  are  directed  against 
modern  rationalism,  pantheism,  materialism,  and  athe- 
ism, and  proclaim  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  God,  the  cre- 
ation, and  the  relsllons  nf  faith  and  reason.  At  the 
fourth  "solemn  session,"  which  was  held  July  18, 1870, 
the  "  decrees  on  the  dogmatic  constitution  of  the  Church 
of  Christ"  were  adopted  with  two  diaaenling  v 
These  decrees  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  papal  at 
and  infallibility,  and  caused  much  discussion  aim  trie 
departure  of  a  number  of  biahopn  before  the  public  vote. 
The  council  was  adjourned  and  indefiniiely  postponed 
Oct.  20,  1870,  on  account  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war, 
and  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Italian  troops. 

See  Manning,  Ptiri  Pi-iTiUgmm  (Lond.  1870 1  Glad- 
stone, The  Vatican  Dtcrm  (1874);  id.  I'atiamiim 
(1876);  Bacon,  An  Innih  Viae  of  Ihe  Valican  CauncU 
(I87iJ. 

Vatican  Hill.     See  Roxs. 

Vatican  Hanaacript  (1)  (Coubx  Vaticanuii, 
designated  aa  B)  ia  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  valuable 
MSS.  of  the  Greek  Testament,  numbered  1209  in  the 
library  of  the  Vatican  at  Home,  where  it  aeems  to  have 
been  brought  shortly  after  Ihe  establishment  of  the  li- 
brary by  piqie  Nicholas  V  (who  died  in  1466) ;  but  noth- 
ing is  known  of  its  previous  history.  It  is  a  quarto 
volume  of  146  leaves,  bound  in  red  morocco,  ten  and  ■ 
half  incbea  high,  ten  broad,  and  half  an  inch  thick.  It 
once  contained  the  whole  Bible  in  Greek,  L  e.  the  OU 
Teat,  of  the  Sept.  version,  excepting  Gen,  i-xlvi  (the 
MS.  begins  at  raXiv,  Gen.  xl vi,  8],  and  Psa.  CF-cxxxvii, 
together  with  the  New  Test,  complete  down  to  lleb.  ix, 
14,  EoSa;  the  rest  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
four  Pasural  Epistles  (Che  C^atholic  EpUtles  had  followed 
Che  Acts),  and  the  Apocalypse  b«ng  written  in  a  later 
hand.  The  MS.  is  on  very  thin  vellum;  Che  letters 
are  comparatively  small  and  regularly  formed;  three 
columns  are  on  each  page  (except  in  some  of  the  poeti- 
cal parts  of  the  Old  TesL,  which  are  written  sticbumet. 
rically,  and  with  but  two  columns);  each  column  con- 
tains about  forty-two  lines,  and  each  line  from  ^xteen 
to  eighteen  letters,  with  no  intervals  between  the  words, 
a  space  of  half  a  letter  being  left  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
and  a  little  more  at  the  conclusion  of  a  paragraph.  It 
ha«  been  doubted  whether  any  of  the  stops  are  by  the 
6nt  hand;  and  the  breathings  and  accents  are  now  gen- 
erally allowed  to  have  been  adiled  by  a  second  hand. 
This  hand,  apparently  about  the  8th  century,  retraced, 
with  aa  much  care  as  such  an  operslion  would  admit, 
the  faint  lines  of  the  original  writing  (the  ink  whereof 
was,  perhaps,  never  quite  black),  the  remains  of  which 

left  untouched  such  words  or  letters  as  he  wished,  for 
critical  purposes,  to  reject,  and  these  siill  express  the 
original  condition  of  Che  MS.,  being  unaccented.  The 
initial  capitals  are  alio  due  to  the  later  hand,  beiu);  in 
Uue  or  red,  as  also  the  broad  green  bar  Bunnounted  with 
three  red  crosses  at  the  head  of  each  book.  Fewer 
abridgmenta  than  usual  occur.  The  form  of  the  letter* 
points  to  the  4tli  century  as  the  date  of  the  MS. 

The  Ciospela  coutain  neither  the  Ammonian  sections 
nnr  the  Euselnan  canons,  nor  yet  the  larger  cbaplera; 
but  they  are  divided  into  numbered  ttetiani;  Matthew 
having  170,  Hark  61,  Luke  163,  and  John  80.  Those 
in  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles  diSer  from  the  Eutha- 
lian,and  amount  to  79.  Paul's  EpisUea  are  trcateil  as 
one  book,  tbe  secdons  running  on  eoncinninisly.  Thus, 
the  last  section  in  Galaiians  is  numbered  68,  and  Kplie- 
aiaiis  begins  with  70  (showing  an  omission  of  11  sec- 
tions) :  but  after  2  Theualonians  (the  last  division  of 
which  is  marked  93),  Hebrews  begins  with  section  59, 
showing  that  it  once  occujned  the  above  gap  between 


VATICAN  MANUSCRIPT 


HK 


MAKApioCA^NHpo  C,0  y  K  €  H  Of  e  V©  "  ^N 

^      BOya-hXccbcon  c=c=-^ 

KjCI  ^  H  O  A.UJ  jtM^pTtOAti  N  OY  K  e  CT  H 

kAi  e^nj  K  Ae  €Csi.|)JkH  A.O  i,m  tDNOVKeKa^  tee 

^VXHGN-rtUNOMCDICVTpe  c'XHMAJOfTTf 
l^'^ieHTtONOMCOAYXOTM^^'CTHCe 
^   HMepAdCAINYKTO-C 

K^iecTxicbcTos  YAoNTdne<|>y-rcY 

dtttie  Cuda  FoKniniu  (coulalDlng  Psa.  1, 1-Si  //.naiimx  A>i)/i  «r  Inn  hm^tnaii  )>  (JiiiiVn  ustSAv  |  lii  It  rf 


r.j:;':A 


perTecUoD  Dfwblcta  Mtue  urtheetrutg  In  ep«lllDg  and  pnnc 


The  jeakHuy  and  illibenility  or  the  papal  authorities 
hare  gnally  obstructed  the  public  hnuvrleilge  of  this 
valuable  MS.  ImperrecE  coUalinns  were  early  Tnocle  by 
Bartalocci,  cwo  for  Beiulry  (l>y  Mico  ami  ll<i1»tla),anil 
again   by   liirch.     TiachendurT,  Tn>gp1leK  and  other 

than  a  brier  inspection  of  the  MS.  Ac  length  cardiual 
Mai  prepared  clie  New  Test,  in  aeicral  rnma,  nhich 
were  published  after  his  death  (ed.  Vcrcelione,  IS5T,  4 
VDls.4to;  [859, 8vo) ;  but  so  impeifectly  and  uncritical- 
ly that  no  good  repreMntalive  existed  until  Tischen- 
dorf's  revision  (Uips.  18e7,  Svo).  In  1868,  however, 
tbe  Konian  Rnvemmenl  ilaeir  undeilook  a  splendid  edi- 
tion of  the  New  Test,  portion,  with  ao-called  (ac-simile 
type  (originally  cast  fur  Tischendorf's  ed.  of  the  Cod. 
Sin.),  followed  by  >  umilar  edition  of  the  Old  Test,  por- 
tion in  4  rots.  4lo.  See  Tregeilea,  in  tlome'a  lalrod. 
new  ed.  ir,  158  sq.;  Scrivener,  InTrad.  lo  tke  Nta  TrU. 
p,84  9q.;Schnlz,OeCtJiKa/.(Lip«.1827);  Bril.QMar. 
Src.  OcU  1H58;  BtH.  and  Far.  Evang.  Rec.  Jan.  lS59t 
Chrittum  RemfmbranceTj  April,  1859;  ^^dL  u.  Krit* 
1860,  iiL    See  Mamuscbipts,  Bral.icAi, 

VATICAN  MANUSCRIPT  (2)  (Codec  Vatimtm$')  a 
al»  the  copreational  dengnetion  of  the  Greek  MS.  3&4 
of  the  four  gospels  in  the  VatJcan  Library,  usually  de- 
unled  as  S.  The  subscription  savs  that  it  was  written 
by  Michael,  n  monk,  in  tbe  year  949.  It  is  ■  folio  of 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  leaves,  written  in  large,  ob- 
long, or  compresacd  uncials.  The  Epistle  to  Caepianue 
and  the  canons  of  EuaelHua  are  picBxed,  and  it  con- 
tains many  latpr  corrections  and  maiginal  notes.  Birch 
collated  it  with  conaiderable  care,  and  Tischendorf 
and  Tregelles  cur»rily  inspected  it.  See  TregelleB,  in 
Home's  lalrnd.  iv,  202;  Scrivener,  Mrod.  to  Iht  .V.  T. 
p.  116.    Hee  Manitscripts.  Biblicat. 

VatiC&nuB.  also  VagitanUB,  in  Roman  mylhrd- 
ogy,  was  a  deity  who  directed  the  first  lispings  of  liitte 

VaudoiB.     See  Waijiksses, 

Vanghan,  Honty,  a  clergyman  of  tlie  Church  of 
England,  was  bnrn  at  Hitchelmersh,  Hampshire,  Jan,  6, 
ItOHi.  ilc  was  remarkable  from  chlldhooil  for  hia  gen- 
tle maimers  and  amiable  disposition.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  became  a  candidate  for  a  scholartlilp  at  Cor- 
pus Chriati  College,  Oxford  1  but,  proving  unsuccessful, 
be.  after  two  years  of  private  study,  entered  Wadham 
College,  .Subsequently  he  obtained  a  ^holarship  at 
Worcester  College.     An  anient  ambition  for  scholastic 


distinction  was  now  the  most  prominent  fralme  li  hb 
character,  and  by  hia  overwork  he  miile  himself  Bck  and 
brougbt  himself  to  the  vei^  of  death,  which  resulted 
in  his  conversion.  He  returned  lo  college  with  esrafit 
devotion  far  a  ministeiial  preparation.  In  1819  b«  w 
ordained  to  the,  sacred  office,  and  began  hia  lainn  si 
reader  of  the  English  service  at  Uangenny,  a  roomtic 
village  in  the  vale  of  LTsk,  Wales.  Here  be  aim  did 
great  service,  and  ((reBtly  endeared  himself  to  ilie  ?»■ 
pie  as  pastor.  In  1830  Mr.  Vaiighan  was  apfuHiiitd  la 
the  curacy  of  Crickhowell,  Brecknocksbin-.  and  in  VSi 
vicar,  which  office  he  held  during  life.  He  died  Jta. 
21,1837.  Mr.Vaughan  was  a  great  lover  of  childna. 
a  tender  paalor,  an  ablo  and  promising  ruung  prrad- 
er.  He  published  several  Srrmtmi,  and  a  work  wt  Uw 
FruiU  of  lAt  Spi<-U  (Lond.  IMI.Bvo).  See  anin'« 
r;(iar(U<(n,1846,p.4ei,489,&13i  A.aiboat,JHcl.<./Bii. 
and  A  nur.  A  ut&orr,  s.  v, 

Vaugban,  Isaac,  an  English  Congngitioiial  nio- 
ister,  was  bom  at  Uleadless,  March  9,  1813.  He  «■ 
educated  at  RmherhBm  College,  and  in  1833  setiM  M 
Oliiey;  in  ISoO  he  became  pastor  of  the  New  Tilm- 
nacle,  London,  and  iu  1N68  removed  to  UasbanagL 
He  died  July  34,  lfl«6.  Hr.  Vaughan  was  a  clear.  [«<- 
ttcal  preacher;  bis  theology  was  souivd  and  fnlL'S'' 
his  ecclesiastical  priitciplee  settled  and  unoam))C«ai<- 
ing.     See  (Lond.)  Canp.  rear-iool-,  I8(i7,  p.  SS. 

Vangban,  John  A.,  li.I)..  a  denoman  of  Ibt 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  died  at  Philadelphia.  I*!. 
June  5, 1864.  For  a  long  lime  he  was  professor  in  ilir 
Divinity  School,  Philadelphia.  See  A  mer.  Qiar.  Ckvtii 
ffer.July.l8e5,p.823. 

Vangban,  JUartii],  an  English  Weslevan  mioi^ 
ter,  entered  the  work  in  1706,  and  died  ■«uv!4,  IMCia 
tlieeighiy-fiflhyear  of  hiaage.  He  wasa  faiibfulasil 
affectionate  minister,  of  a  retirinf^disposiiiun,  and  cd'fn 
words.     Sea  Minulei  a/lVtil.  Cox/nnves,  1847. 

Vaugbaii,  RobOtt,  D.D.,  an  English  C<iiigre(!»- 
tionat  minister,  was  bom  at  London  in  1795.  He  «*1- 
ied  for  the  ministry  with  Rev.  William  Thiirp.  UesV 
waya  lamented  his  want  of  early  educational  adria- 
tages,  The  self-made  student,  the  self-made  bistcsua. 
became  the  self-made  and  accomplished  thenlnnisn. 
Hia  first  |iastorale  was  at  Worcester  (1819),  where  k« 
labored  fur   '  "      ■■  -  ■■  -     ■-  '- 


Kens 


n  that  he  became  more  e 


ddrcssed  himself  chiefly  U 
culture,  and  by  them  his  ministry  was  highly  appnci- 
ated.  During  his  miniitnlion  at  Kensington,  be  «BS 
fur  six  jeaiB  pmfeBmr  of  modem  history  al  Ihe  bAkB 
UniverNty,    From  I84S  to  18^7  he  held  ihe  pnocipak- 


VAUGHAN 

•hip  or  Lanoahiie  Independeiit  College.  Dr.  Vaughan 
died  at  Turqiuv,  Jun«  15. 1868.  The  rolluwiiig  are  bia 
published  work*;  Tkt  Life  of  Wyclift:^MeBarialt 
of  Oh  Slaarl  J>fiiaflsi:-^Rrligioill  Partiet  in  En^ami: 
-^Caiffrfgaliaiiulim  and  ifodem  Socitlg-.^The  Mod- 
frm  PidpUs—Rtcolalioia  in  EigUik  HiilBry:—mxii  Ue- 
moTid  of  EHgtitk  Xoneon/ormil!/,  Dr.Vaughaii  orig- 
inated anil  edited  fur  twenty  year*  the  BriliiA  Qair- 
lerli/  RtvitK,  a  wi>rk  which  gai-e  CuugreKatiunil  div 
•eiit  a  neir  poajtion  in  (he  literary  world.  "Ili>  zeal  in 
the  cauH  of  eraneelical  truth,  in  tbe  support  of  the 
grrat  doctrinea  of  Chrittian  divinity  and  aionemeni, 
was  rery  great  i  and  not  only  la  a  theologian,  but  aa 
a  Christian,  he  fell  the  ne«d  of  believlnif  tbuse  Uia- 
pel  truths  for  tlie  life  and  comfort  of  his  own  aouL" 
Sec  (Loild.)  Comj.  YtaT-book,  1SG3,  p.  288. 

Tanghai),  Robett  Alfred,  an  Independent  min- 
liter,  son  of  Dr.  K-ibcri  Vaughan,  waa  bom  at  Worces- 
ter, Iinglan4  Mareh  18, 18^.     Ke  graduated  at  London 
ITiiireTMtr  in  l»12,aiid  at  the  Lancashire  Independent 
Cullego  in  IfttS,  then  studied  theology  at  Hille.     He 
was  cuUeaffiie  of  Rev.  William  Jay  aa  pastor  of  Argvle 
Chapel,  Bath,  1848-50,  and   paUor  at   Birmingha 
1850-56.     He  died  in  London,  Ocl.  26,  I85T.    He  pi 
liihe.1,  Tkt  IVilck  o/EHdar  tad  Olher  Poem  Q»U): 
Itourt  leilk  Ihr  Mgilia,  a  Conlnbuliim  to  lie  lliilory  of 
StUgiont  Opiiiont  (18oC,2  vols.): — £uny«  and  Rtmaini 
(posthumouslv,  uilh  a  Memoir  by  bii  father.  1858,  2 
vols.). 

Vaughan.ThomaB,  a  writer  on  magic  and  some- 
time minister  of  the  Church  of  Engltnil,  waa  bom  at 
Newton  Su  Bridget.  Brccknocluhire,  in  1G21.  He  was 
educated  al  Jesus  Gdlege,  Oxford,  of  which  he  subse- 
quently became  fellow.  He  oSeiated  as  rector 
Bridget,  Brecknockshire,  afterwatda  retiring  to  < 
where  he  became  famous  aa  a  disciple  and  t«acher  in 
the  school  of  Onmclins  Agrippa.    He  gare  mos: 

r»nl.  Feb.  27, 1645.  His  principal  works  are,  Anlhropo- 
f'pkia  Thtoniii/iai !  —  Anima  Miii/ica  Abiamdila: — 
TU  Fume  and  Cunfiuion  of  Ihe  R.  C,  eommottlg  of 


TauEb>n,  William  B.,  a  Uethodist  Epiacopal 
minister,  waa  born  in  Sullivan  County,  Tenn.,  May  21, 
IHol.  He  was  convened  in  1873  while  attending  King's 
College,  and  juinetl  Ihe  Virginia  Conference  in  1873. 
Subsequently  ha  entered  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
where  hia  application  as  a  student  brought  on  Ihe  mal- 
ady which  eauseil  his  death.  He  died  in  Carroll  Coun- 
ty, Va..  Feb.  3, 187G.  Few  young  minislen  have  given 
Ereater  hopes  for  future  uaefulneaa  than  Mr.  Vaughan. 
He  wai  earnest,  manlj,  efficient;  ready  for  work  on 
earth  or  for  rest  in  heaven.  See  ilinaiei  of  Annual 
Canfeivieet,  1876,  p.  IG, 

Vaalt  (Kr.  route,  Lat  nJutiii).  The  simplest  and 
most  ancient  kind  used  over  a  rectangular  area  is  Ibe 
(yUndricul,  called  also  a  harrel,  and  sometimes  \cagon- 
raulli  this  springs  from  tbe  two  opposiM  walls,  and 
preoents  a  uniform  concave  surface  Ihroiigliout  its  whole 
length.  The  term  "cylindrical"  properly  implies  the 
form  of  a  segment  of  a  cylinder,  but  it  is  applied  to 
'  B  of  Ihe  same  deacription.    Vaulla  of  ' ' 


char* 


dbytl 


Cjllndtteal  V»alU 


cross  each  oiher  do  nut 
always  correspond  in 
width ;  in  such  eases 
tbey   sometimes   spring 


ic  Romans,  of  which  the  Pantheon  at  Rom 
magniSccnt  example  of  one  hundred  and 
,    The  decorations  employed 


forty- 1 


Roman 

vaulting  consist  cbieSy  of  panela,  ai 
nament  following  the  curve  of  the  arch  :  the  applica- 
tion of  ribs  at  that  period  waa  unknown. 

In  tbe  Norman  style  cylindrical  or  barrel  vaulting, 
as  well  as  gmiiied  vaulting,  is  lued ;  the  former  of  these 
is  either  perfectly  devmd  of  ornament,  aa  in  Ihe  chapel 
in  Ibe  White  Tower  of  London,  or  has  plain  and  mas- 
sive ribs  at  intervals  following  the  direction  of  the  curve 
of  the  arch.  In  groined  vaulting  the  cross-vaulu  are 
not  unfrequEiilly  surmounted,  or  stilted,  when  they  are 
of  narrower  span  than  the  main  vault,  though  some- 
tintes  in  such  cases  they  are  both  made  to  spring  from 
the  saoie  level;  but  in  general  the  parts  of  the  build- 
ing are  so  arranged  that  both  vault*  are  of  nearly  or 
quite  the  same  breadth. 

In  the  Early  Kuglish  style,  when  the  use  of  the 
pointed  arch  was  penoanenlly  established,  Ihe  same 


to  the  vaulting;  i 


at  this  period  were  universally  adopted.  In  hnildinga 
of  Ibis  date  ribs  are  invariably  employed,  especially  on 
the  groins.  The  simplest  arrangement  of  them  con- 
sists of  Ihe  diagonal  or  groin  ribs,  cnws-apringen,  and 
the  longitudinal  and  transverse  ribs  at  the  apex  of  the 

acnplea  are  omitted.  Additional  ribs  are  somelimes 
introduced  between  Ihe  diagonals  and  cross-apriiigera* 
In  some  buildings  in  England,  and  in  many  on  tbe 
Continent,  Ihe  vaulting  iii  constracted  with  the  main 
vault  double  Ihe  width  of  the  cross-vaults,  with  the  di- 
agonal ribs  embracing  two  bays  or  compartments  of  the 
cross- vaults,  as  in  the  choir  of  Csnterbuiy  Cathedrah 

Decorated  vaults,  for  the  most  part.  ditTer  but  little 
from  those  of  the  preceding  style.  Tbe  longitudinal  and 
transverse  ribs  arc  occasionally,  hut  not  often,  omiiled, 
and  the  number  of  those  on  the  surface  of  the  vaulting 
is  sometimes  increased;  and  in  some  examples  ribs  an 


Weslmhister  Abbey,  eir.  1S».  ,  ,  Q I ., 


VAITLTINGSHAFT  1: 

intiDduced  crouing  the  vinlU  in  direcliona  oppodt«  to 
Iheir  curves,  so  u  to  form  in  •am*  degrei  an  appeir- 
utce  or  net-work  upon  them.  The  abort  riba  which 
ooniiect  [he  bouea  *nd  interKctioii*  of  the  principal  rib 
iDd  rid^^e-ribn,  but  which  do  not  IhcmKlrea  either  apiing 
from  an  impost  or  occupy  the  riripe,  are  lenned  litrmM, 
■nd  the  vaulti  in  which  they  occur  liernt  vaulli. 

In  the  I'erpendiculii  ityle  the  general  conitniction 
ia  mucit  itie  aame  as  in  the  Decorated,  but  the  ribs  are 
ofUu  more  numeroua,  and  pendants  are  not  uncomrnun. 
Towanli  the  latter  part  of  this 
style  fcn-uicery  vaulting  wai 
comoHHiIy  inlroduced;  this  has 
na  grcHiu,  but  the  |iendenti\'ea 
■re  circular  on  the  plan,  and 
have  the  same  curve  in  every 
direction,    reaembling    inverted 


Them 


>fthe 


upper  part  of  Ihe  vault,  be- 
tween the  pendentives,  is  iisi 
■Uy  domical  in  conairumioi 
and  frequently  has  a  pendat 
,in  the  centre  of  each  compart- 

Vanltlng  •  abaft,  a  t< 

proposed   by   Prof,  Willis   fo 
■bafr,  small    column,  or    pillar 
wliich   supports   Che   tiba   of  a 
vaulc   .ShaftsofthiakiodsoiTK-- 
times  rise  from  the  floor,  and 

a  larger  pillar,  or  fioni  a  corbel 


r  projecl 


Then 


Vanning -Shan,  Nstley  „,„., 

Abbey,  clr.  law.       I"""  - ,   , 

in  the  example  here  given,  where 
the  ahafl  risn  between  the  apriiigings  of  the  arches  of 
the  nave. 

VavasBenr,  FitAN^oia,  a  Jetuit  of  France, 
ncntly  distinguished  for  his  accomplishments  in  I 
lettres,  was  bom  in  1606  at  I'aray.  He  eiiiered  the  So- 
ciety of  Jeiuils  in  1631,  and  taught  pulite  literature  and 
rhetoric  for  seven  years.  In  1645  he  was  called  lo  Parii 
to  teach  Holy  Scripture,  and  died  there  Dec  10,  1681. 
He  uDderalood  the  Latin  tongue  vert'exactly.  He  wrote. 
Jobui.tice  dt  Palimlia,  Libri  1 1'  (printed  very  often,  last 
edition  lG79i):—Thair$ie(m,  rire  dt  3liranlu  Ckruti, 
IJbri  IV.— Dr  Forma  Ciritti  Di-trlatio, 
works  were  published  in  l"09  at  Amsterdam.  See  Ale- 
gambe,  Biilifiiheca  Scriplorum  Sodtlalis  Jrtu 
Ceniura  I'eltii-iam  Aacfoiuiai  Ada  Erudilorvm  Ltili- 
aorum;  Kireron,  J/inuiiru;  Le  Long,  WWinlAijuf  Hit- 
ioriqut  ill  Franct;  Winer,  Haadbueh  dtr  Ihtal.  Lilera- 
(ur,i,5C2.     (ai*.) 

Tajrer,  Fiun^ois  i>e  i.a  Motiik  t.E.  See  Mothe 
lkVavui.. 

Tajn  (Sanscrit  rn,  "  blow"),  in  Iliitda  mythology, 
■  deity  which  originally  held  an  equal  rank  with  Indra, 
but  which  much  more  rarely  occupies  the  imagination 
of  the  poets  than  Indra  or  Apii.  Sre  Hiiir,  Cnmribu- 
tiottg  to  a  Kvoviedge  tflhe  Vrdlc  Ttrftf/ony  and  Mythol- 
ojs,  in  the  Journal  of  Ike  Royal  Aiviiic  Sorifts,  1864. 

Ve,  in  Norse  mythology,  wax  a  hrniber  of  Vile  and 
Odin,  which  three  together  createil  the  first  parenta. 
Ask  and  F.mbla. 

Veal,  Ei>WAK»,A.M.,an  English  Dissenting 
ter  and  tutor,  was  bom  in  1631.  He  was  educi 
Christ  Church,  Oxford;  went  to  Dublin  and  became 
•enior  fellow  of  Trinity  Ccl]tniii  returned  to  England 
for  ordination;  went  again  lo  Ireland  and  preached  there 
for  several  years;  but  was  afterwards  si  cippnl  of  his  fel. 

the  Unifuimity  Act  he  gathered  a  congregation  of  Dis- 


VECELLI 

tera  at  Wapping,  and  coniinned  to  preach  to  Ihta 

il  advanced  age  compelled  him  to  rengtL     He  m 

a  time  profeasor  of  a  Diasenting  academy,  and  IHJD- 

ed  up  several  excellent  ministers.     He  died  in  ITK 

"  e  Bogue  and  Dennett,  llitlory  of  Diumlen,  i,  JK 

Veaaey,  Thomah,  B.I>.,  a  clerKi'man  of  the  Churdi 

England,  was  bom  in  1753.     No  record  remains  ef  bii 

rly  life.    He  was  some  time  tutor,  and  for  upwardi  c( 

ity  years  fellow,of  St.  I'etet's College, Cambridge.  Al 

e  time  of  his  death,  Hay  2£,  1BS9,  he  was  the  oUnt 

resident  member  of  the  univcrsitv,  and  bad  procrednl 

the  degree  of  A.1I.  in  ITig;  A.M.  in  1781;  and  B.a 

1794.     SeeCAriirimi  ftmnHiranffr,  I8S9,p.376. 

Vecchl,  GiovAKNi  dh',  an  Italian  painter,  was  bm 

at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  in  I5S6.     He  studied  at  Knot 

'  KaiTaellino  delta  Colic,  and  aflenrardi  with  TaJ- 

iuccaro,  who  was  at  that  lime  engaged  in  enbtl- 

lishing  the  palace  of  the  cardinal  Alrssaodro  Farmie  u 

Capraiola.     Here  he  was  rather  ibe  competitor  tbsa 

the  pupil  of  Zuccaro,  and  executed  several   imponaiit 

works.     His  best  productions  are  in  the  palace  at  Ca- 

prarDla,in  the  Church  of  San  Loreniio  in  Damaso.andin 

the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  d'Ara  Cmli.    Among  Ihe  lu. 

e  the  FiMr  Doelart  oflht  Chvreh,  and  several  hi>- 

toties  of  ,SI.  Jrronr.     He  also  frescoed  Ihe  cupola  of  the 

ChiesadelGeaii.     He  diedatRome  in  1614.     SeeSpB- 

ner,  biog.  Hat.  of  the  Fiat  ^  M»,  s.  v. 

Vecchia,  PiExun,  a  Venetian  painler,  was  bora  is 
\(*lh.  He  was  educalci)  in  the  school  of  Aleaundn 
Varotflri  (q.  v.),  but  did  not  follow  the  style  nf  Ibsl 
master.  He  studied  to  imitata  the  works  (^Uio^cnt 
and  Fordenotte,  and  acquired  such  akill  in  this  dirmiiai 
that  his  paintings  have  been  mistaken  for  the  pmdn^ 
lions  of  those  masters,  ei'cn  by  competent  crilio.  St 
also  imitated  Titian  and  other  masters  wiih  great  sera- 
rocj',  on  account  of  which  he  was  often  employeil  in  re- 
storing old  paintings.  He  copied  in  oil  Mveral  <if  ilw 
historical  mosaics  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mark,  VmiR. 
and  painted,  among  othen,  two  altar-pieces  frnm  hit  nsn 
designs  in  tlie  same  edifice,  Tkt  Crarijaiim  and  Chiii 
Driping  tki  Monry-ckaagmfrom  Ikt  Templt.  He  died 
in  1678.  See  Spooner,  flioff. /Tul.o/Me  Fine  AtU,i.t. 
TttCChietta,  Lorkszo  in  Ptnino  (da  Siaa),  sa 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Sienna  in  I4H 
His  pictures  are  characteriieil  by  hardnesi  of  style,  and 
but  few  of  them  remain.  He  probably  studied  snlpi- 
ure  under  Donatelln,  and  gained  great  diatiitctisa  io 
this  department.  He  obtained  Ihe  commission  id  eu- 
cute  the  bninae  tabemacle  of  the  grand  allar  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Sienna,  with  the  marble  ornaments.  The 
lieauty  of  this  work  gained  fur  him  commissions  for  vsii- 
ous  works  in  sculpture  in  the  buildings  of  Sienna,  amoi^ 
which  are  two  statues  of  SI.  Pttcr  and  Si.  Pail,  in  ihr 
Loggia  del  Banco,  delicately  executed:  —  a  staloe  n! 
ChriM,  in  llie  hospital  of  ihe  Scala :— and  several  wotii 
in  bronze  for  the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni,  lie  died 
in  1482.  See  Spooner,  Biag.  Ilitl.  n/iJu  Fiat  Ar1i,i.T. 
VecelU  (ot  VeCQllio],  Frahcesco,  an  Indian 
painter,  brother  of  Titian,  was  bom  at  Cadore.  in  the 
Friuli,  in  1483.  He  was  instructed  by  bis  brother.ond 
showed  such  talents  as  to  excite  Ihe  jealousy  of  Titian, 
who  Is  said  to  have  pers^iaded  him  to  engage  in  othrT 
pursuits.  He  then  entered  the  army  and  led  a  military 
life  until  the  restoration  of  peace  in  Italy,  when  be  rt- 
liimed  to  Venice  and  resumed  painting.  He  now  exe- 
cuted some  al tailpieces  and  portraits  in  the  style  of  Ti- 
tian, poeaeasing  so  much  merit  as  to  excite  the  alarm  o( 
the  master,  who  induced  him  to  devote  his  atlentioo  in 
the  decoration  of  cabinets  with  small  paintings,  for  wbiiA 
there  was  a  great  demand  at  thai  time.  In  1531  he  R- 
linquished  painting  entirely,  and  gave  his  atifntwo  to 
merchandising.  The  duplicity  and  illiberality  ofTiliaD 
towards  his  brother  Francesco  are  denied  by  many,  oo 
Ihe  ground  that  they  are  incredible.  Moreover,  it  i> 
claimed  that  Francesco  was  an  "erratic  and  wayward 
genius"  who  became  dissatisfied  wilh  an  occupation  that 


VECHNEB  r. 

atttiy  gained  him  his  bread,  and  joined  tbe  army. 
Wbeu  the  anny  dUbanded  be  returned  la  paiiuiiig 
igiin  foT  a  time,  then  became  a  mercbant,  aod  flually 
threw  away  his  lime  aad  money  in  tbe  vain  purauit  of 
alchemy.  Hi*  best  vrocka  are.  Tilt  TrantfigariHion,  in 
ibeChurch  of  San  Salvauire  ac  Venice ;— and  TAe  jVuIie- 
iV;,in  the  Church  or  San  (iiuseppeat  Belluno>-be>idea 
MOK  at  Ilia  cabinet  pieoB.  Tbe  lime  or  his  death  is  not 
knQitn.      See  Spooner,  Biog,  lluLnflht  Fine  Ar<»,t,v, 

Vechner,  David,  a  ProleaUnC  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  March  IB,  15M,  at  Frcystadt,  in  Sileria. 
He  aludial  *c  Tariau  unirenilies,  and  waa  appointed 
pnirtasor  of  logic  at  Ueuthen.  For  flre  yeais  he  bad 
to  leave  the  country,  and  after  his  return  he  was  ap- 
poialed  rector  at  Sprottau.  In  1613  he  was  made  dea- 
con at  Garliiz,and  in  1662  piutor  primanat,  anA  died 
Febi  )6,  1669.  He  wrote,  Brtriariun  Gtmaiiia; — 
Spfridion  KU  SporUUa  Texlaum  ecanfftL  Domia.  etc 
See  Funcken,  L^taugachicktt  der  gtUtlichtn  Pfrttmen 
tuGirlitz;  (inaaet,  LautiTier  JUerkwUrdigttiltn;  Wilte, 
Diajinni  Biagrapkicam  /  Jbcher,  AUsemeinei  Gtlchitat- 
LezitoH,t.y.     (R  P.) 

T«ohii«r,  Oeorg,  brother  of  Daviil,  was  b«m  ai 
Fieyauilt  in  1690.  In  1618  he  waa  promoted  as  doctor 
uf  theology  at  Frankfort,  and  acted  for  some  lime  as 
pnHosor  at  the  gymnaaiuui  in  Beutben.  In  1646  he 
»u  called  to  the  pastorale  at  Bcieg,  and  died  Dec  2i, 
1&<7.  He  wrote,  /■o/iu  Pauli  in  2  Cor.  xii.-—Siaui 
Abraia: — ftiyiu  .4Bi'im*  Profaiio  a  DatiiU  facta  tx 
Pwlm,  101,  ele.  See  Witte,  Diariam  Biograpkicum ; 
Mlgrmeimt  lIuUrrucAet-I^nibmi  Jocher,  .1  i^innwi 
Gddirten-Lanton,  s.  v.     (El.  P.) 

Vsda  (from  the  Sanscrit  vid,"  to  know,"  liteially 
meaning  hHHcledst)  a  tbe  general  name  applied  to  Ihose 
ancient  Sanscrit  writings  on  which  the  early  HindCl  re- 
ligion was  based.  The  oldest  at  these  worki  ia  the  Riff- 
Ptda;  iKil  to  it  are  the  Yajur-teda  and  Sa'oa-vedu; 
and  the  latest  ia  the  Alharra-teda.  The  first  thrM  are 
called.  colleclively.lr(ifi,nr"  the  threefold,"  and  all  are 
Ibooght  to  be  divinely  inapired.  F.ach  of  the  Vcdae 
coDsiata  of  two  dislincE  parts — a  SnuAiCa,  or  colleclion  of 
hynnaor  nHtnfn?*,  and  a  Brahmaaa.  A  mon'ra  (San- 
scrit ■•aii^"ta  think")  is  a  prayer,  or  else  a  tbankagir- 
ing,  adoration,  or  praise  addressed  to  a  deity.  If  sitch 
s  msDlra  is  metrical  and  intended  for  recitation  aloud, 
it  ia  called  flic*  (praise);  whence  the  name  Rig-rtda,oc 
the  Veda  containing  aucb  metrical  mantras.  If  it  is  in 
prose,  it  must  be  muttered  insudibly,  and  ia  colled  Yajai 
(gaj,  "aacrifice");  hence  the  name  i'lijur-reda.  If  it 
is  metrical  and  intended  for  chanting,  it  is  called  Sa- 
moM;  hence  tbe  name  Hania-rtda.  No  apeciil  name  ia 
■l^tlied  to  tbe  mantras  of  the  A  Ikana-vidti.  The  Brah- 
■KMfi  (£ni*iiiini  neuter)  designates  that  portion  in  prose 
oTtbeVedaswhicb  con  tains  either  commandments  or  ex. 
ptaoatiDni.or  which  gives  injunctions  tat  tbe  perform- 
ance of  lacriflcial  acts,  explains  tbeir  origin,  and  the 
occaaions  on  which  tbe  mantras  had  to  be  used,  by  add- 
ing illustrations,  legends,  or  philosophical  speculations. 
Tbe  Brafamana  portion  of  the  Vedas  constitutes  th  ' 
sia  on  which  the  Vedic  ritual  reals,  and  tbe  source 
whence  the  VpatoMkadi  (q.  v.)  and  philosopbical  doc- 
Iriiwa  Here  developed. 

Thoi^b  Bnhmanaa  and  msntraa  were  cUimed  at  a 
later  period  oCHinduism  to  have  existed  from  eternity, 

later  than  aome  portion,  at  least,  of  its  Sanhita,  for  it  re- 
Ten  toil;  and.fnim  the  bulk  and  character  of  the  worka, 
they  must  haie  been  tbe  product  of  a  considerable  pe- 
riod of  time.  Tradition  records  that  Vyasa  (q.  v.),  af- 
ter hairing  compiled  and  arranged  the  Vedas,  handed 
each  or  them  to  four  disci  pies,  and  that  these  disciples 
taught  them  to  tbeir  disciples,  and  so  on  down  to  dis- 
tant ages.  Tbns  tbe  mantras  and  Btahmaiuu  passed 
tbroagh  a  large  number  of  schools,  called  $aika$,  and, 
aa  ■  natural  reanli,  discrqiancies  gradually  arose  between 
tbew  •ehwls,  both  as  regaida  the  Vedic  texla  and  tbe 


these  sakhas  did  not  c 
of  the  text  alone,  but  in  the  arrangement  as  wolL  The 
number  of  these  sakbaa  was  very  large,  as  may  be  in- 
ferrod  from  a  atslement  ascribed  to  the  ancient  writer 
Saunaka,  in  which  mention  ia  made  of  five  sakliaa  of 
the  Biff^veda,  eighty-aix  of  the  Xajar-reda,  one  thou- 
sand or  the  Sama-enia,  and  nine  of  the  Atharva-vrda. 
But  of  all  these  schools  \\\KRig-ttda  is  now  extant  only 
in  one,  the  Yojur-mda  in  three  (and  partially  in  four), 
tbe  SiXBui-iitda  in  two,  and  the  Atkarta-eahi  in  one. 
Tbe  MSS.  DOW  in  existence  are  of  no  great  age  or  au- 
thority; and  in  cases  of  disputed  authenticity  appeal  is 
made  (o  tbtpaniUt  of  greatest  repute. 

For  the  religious  ideas  contaiiied  in  the  Vedas,  see 
Hindu  ISM. 

The  social  condition  of  tbe  HiitdAs,  as  lefiected  from 
the  hymns  of  the  Riff-ceda,  is  not  that  of  a  pastoral  or 
nomadic  people,  but  of  a  people  somewhat  advanced  in 
civilization.  Frequent  allusion  is  msde  to  towns  and 
cities,  powerful  kings  and  their  enormous  wealth.  Be- 
«desagricullure,tbey  mention  various  useful  arts,  auch 
as  weaving,  melting  precious  metals,  fshricating  cara, 
golden  and  iron  mail,  and  golden  omamcnte.  The  em- 
ployment of  tbe  needle  and  the  use  of  muucal  iustru- 
menla  were  known  to  tbem.  The  HindOs  of  that  period 
were  fiunUisr  with  tbe  ocean,  and  somelimes  went  on 
naval  eipeditiona.  They  had  some  knowledge  of  med- 
icine, hsd  made  some  advance  in  astronomical  calculi- 
UoD,  and  even  employed  tbe  complicated  law  of  inherit- 
ance.   The  inatitulion  of  caste,  however,  seems  at  that 


Tbe  only  recension  in  wbicb  tbe  Sanbita  of  tbe  Big- 
Btda  has  been  preserved  to  ua  is  that  of  the  Suiala 
school;  and  the  hymna  are  arranged  according  either 
lo  the  material  bulk  or  their  authorship.  According  to 
the  former  arrangement,  the  whole  Sanhita  consists  of 
S  athlatoM,  or  eights;  these  are  divided  into  M  «iUy- 
asai.  or  lessons;  these  into  2006  rargai,  at  sections; 
and  these  again  into  ricAi,ar  verses,  numbering  10,417. 
According  to  tbe  other  method,  the  Sanhita  is  divided 
into  10  ' 


the  former  arrangement.    The  number  of  words  ia  said 
to  be  153,826  in  this  Sanbita. 

The  Brahmana  portion  of  tbe  Riff-vtda  is  preserved 
in  two  works — the  Ai/arti/a  BrahmoHa  and  the  San- 
khasana,  oi  KkanMlaki  Braimana.  The  former  con- 
aiata  of  8  pmuAihu,  or  pentadcs;  each  of  these  com- 
prising 6  adiyayat,  or  lessons;  and  the  40  adhyaysa 
285  khandai,  or  portions.  Tbe  latter  coiiuiiis  30  ad- 
hyayai,  divided  into  a  number  of  iAmidas. 

The  precise  date  of  the  composition  of  the  Rig-veda, 
much  tbe  oldest  of  the  Vedas,  is  not  known.  By  the 
methods  of  modem  criticism,  an  approximate  dale  has 
been  assigned.  Internal  evidence,  based  upon  a  com- 
narison  of  the  older  with  tbe  later  portions,  and  coupled 
■ith  such  facta  as  the  diaperaion  of  the  Arj'sn  race  and 


leofBi 


iries  ac. 

The  Sama-vida  w 


compiled  chiefly  for  Ibe  perfom- 
ance  oi  tnoae  sacnncea  of  which  the  juice  of  the  Sonu 
plant  ia  the  chief  ingredient;  and  of  these  socrificea  tbe 
Jaoliiiloma  b  the  most  important.  At  Ibe  performance 
of  snob  Soma  aacrifices  tbe  versi's  of  the  Siimii^'eda  were 
chanted;  and  tbere  are  special  books  which  teach  the 
proper  rrianner  of  chanting  tbenu  The  Ssnhitn  of  Iho 
Sniaa-ceda  is  preser\-ed  in  two  recenMona,  and  consists 
of  two  parts— the  Chhamloiiranfka.oT  A rchika,  or  I'ui- 
EQrcAitn.and  the  SlaubiHii,  or  Vllaragranlka,  or  ['««■ 
ruTdtika.  The  llrst  port  consists  of  fifty-nine  <fasa/i,or 
decades,  which  are  divided  into  pm]Htlkakai,  o- 
lers;  and  these  again  into  ardhoprapnthaktu- 


le  entire  part  coatiining  tt 


i)  diriiled  in 


The 


Uini  1225  \enei.  The  number  o(  Dnhminu  relatint; 
lu  thia  Veda  it  probably  ten,  iududing  aaeorthe  Uptiai- 
ihudt  and  a  later  Brahmana. 

There  arc  two  Yajiii--i!tdat,  reaulling  froiD  ■  diaaen^ 
Bioii  between  ila  scboolaf  kiiovn  aa  (be  Black  and  the 
Wkiir.  The  Black  Yajar-teda  is  the  older  of  the  two, 
and  lacks  that  cuiDplel«  aeparation  of  the  Sanhita  iDd 
Brahmana  poniona  which  exiiti  in  all  tha  otbera;  but 
thia  defect  is  remedied  in  the  Whilt  Yojarirdu,  The 
conl«nu  ot  Iwlb  ate  aimiiar  in  many  reapeela.  The 
text  of  the  Sanhita  of  the  Slade  i'ajar-vnla  is  exlanl 
in  two  recenaiona,  one  of  which  conriataor?  iUuiiiiai,nr 
books,  comprising  44  piapaliiihii,  or  chapters,  guMi- 
vided  Into  651  anuTutai,  or  sections,  and  cunUininR  2198 
khantlikoi,  or  pnrti.iiiFi.  The  Sanhita  of  the  Wliitr  Yti- 
jar-ctda  exist*  also  iu  two  recensions,  and  contains  40 
ad/ifagai,  divided  into  S03  aMirahu,  and  subdivided 
iolo  19Ta  kkuaditai. 

The  object  of  the  A  iMarta-vrda  is  to  leicb  how  lo  ap- 
pease, (o  bles^  to  ciiraa,  tic  Prof.  Whitney  {Joumiit 
T.  Orient.  Soc.  iii,  306)  sars, "  The  most  prom- 


c  fealur 


>r  this  Ved 


e  pn 


iiouiiced  either  by  the  person  who  is  faimseir  lo 

direcLwl  lo  the  procuring  of  the  grcalesl  variety  of  de- 
sirable ends.  SIosl  frei|»eiilly,  perbsps,  Idiik  life,  or  re- 
covery from  grievoua  sieknesa,  is  the  object  aougbt; 
then  ■  ulia man, such a>  (necklace, is  sometiiDes given; 
or,  in  very  numerous  instances,  some  (dant  endowed 

means  of  the  cure ;  further,  the  attainment  of  wealth 
ot  power  is  aimed  at,  the  downfall  of  enemies,  iucteaae 
in  love  or  in  play,tbe  removal  of  petty  peata,  and  ao  on, 
even  down  lo  the  growth  of  hair  on  ■  bald  luile."  The 
adbFrentf  of  this  Veda  attach  great  importance  to  it. 
They  claim  that  the  other  Vedaa  enable  a  man  to  fulBl 
•.hti-lh'inna.ar  religious  law, but  that  the  Alkarra-trdi 
helps  him  In  attain  molaha,  or  eternal  bliss.  The  text 
of  IliiB  Vtds  is  presen-ed  only  in  the  tteunaka  school 
The  Saiiliiia  portion  conu sis  of  twentyitAiiwdii, or  books, 
some  uf  nhlch  are  divided  into  chaplen,  containing,  in 
all,  one  hundred  and  ten  sectioni. 

Uf  all  the  Vedaa  the  Rig-rrda  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, and  carriea  the  graalest  weight  of  authority. 

The  Jitemture  of  the  Vedaa  is  quite  entenaiv*.  The 
text  of  the  R^-ieda  ha*  been  edited  in  Koraan  charac- 
teraby  Prof.  Aufivcht  (Berlin,  IWl):  in  Sanscrit,  with 
the  commenUry  ofSayaua  (A.D.  1400),  by  Max  Mllller 
(1849-G2)  1  the  text  of  the  Sama-rfd,t  bv  Dr.  J.  Ste- 
venson (Lond.  1842-43)  and  Prof.  Benfev  (Lrips.  I»t8) ; 
the  text  of  the  Ya/vr-rt^  bv  I'rof.  A.' Weber  (Berlin, 
lUiii):  (he  textoribe/ltAiimi-Eediiby  1'rofa.K.Kath 
and  W.  U.  Whitney  (ibid.  tSbS).  Tlie  first  complete 
ttinalatinn  of  the  Rig-vtda  was  made  by  I'rof.  K.  H. 
Wilson  (Lond.  1850-66, 4  vols.}.  See  Knth,  Z'ur  £(/«ni- 
tur  and  Getchickte  Sii  WiSa  (Stuttgart,  lH46)i  Weber, 
Akaiemitdie  Yorlemagm  iifter  mtUscJe  Lilrralargnch. 
(Berlin,  1852) :  MUller,  Hit.  o/ Aneirnt  Samo-U  lAleru- 
,lart  (Lond.  lS69)i  \i.  Chipt  from  a  Ctrmim  Workihof) 
(N.  Y.  1870) ;  Whitney,  Orirtilal  and  LaguiMlic  Sludiet 
(ibid,  18;2>;  Nair.OiiffiwI  S.imenI  Ttxit  (1867-72,5 
vols.) ;  Kacgi,  Dtr  Rtgrtda  (Zurich,  1878).  Fur  addi- 
tional referencea,  see  Hinduism. 

Ve'dsn  (^Tl.I'nidu;  ScpU  omita,  but  some  copies 
have  Aa>',  others  Ailav ;  Vulg.  Dan  il ;  A.  V.  "  Dan 
also"),  an  Arabian  city,  whence  wrought  iron,  eaasia, 
and  calamus  were  brought  to  Tyre  (HieL  xxvii,  19). 
The  Javan  mentioned  iu  the  aame  connection  apparent- 
ly dceignate*  Jawan,  a  lowQ  in  Yemen,  and  Vedan  prob- 
ably refers  to  the  city  and  mart  A  dta,  on  the  southern 
shore*  nf  Arabia,  in  the  province  of  Yemen.  Edrisi  not 
only  meniious  Aden  with  iu  port  on  the  Red  Sea, 
whence  ships  sailed  lo  India  aiid  China,  but  also  enu- 


ualed  on  the  west  a 
b,  Dommands  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Anbia.  a* 
Gibraltar  doea  tbe  Medilerraneait  aiul  a  portion  oT  ibe 
lie;  hence  Aden  has  beon  styled  "the  tiibraltar 
:  East."     It  Ilea  at  the  base  of  a  mountain  which 
to  tbe  height  of  I77ti  feet.     It  waa  called  A<<a 
(Paradise)  by  the  Araba  because  of  ita  splendid  climate 
and  rich  irwle.    The  Iowa  is  in  a  hollow  formed  by  tbe 
vast  crater  of  an  extinct  vokaiio,  and  baa  a  capital  har- 
bor.    It  was  a  dourisbing  entrepAl  in  the  ancient  oim- 
mercial  world,  being  known  to  Ihe  Urceka  and  Komaoa 
'er  the  name  of  JcAina  or  Alkma.     The  town  play 
n  imporlaiit  part  under  Ihe  Itimyaiitic,Abysainiaii, 
Sastunide  dyiiaslies,  was  Inngibe  capital  of  Yemoi, 
the  greatest  emporium  ot  Arabia  for  the  pmdacta 
outbem  A«a  and  Eastprn  Africa.     It  HrsI  b^an  la 
Ine  under  TiiHilsh  rule  (16S8-I630),  and  oDnilnutd 

of  the  English  in  I83B.  It  is  now  a  gtrmig  gatriaon,  ■ 
coal  depot  for  Ihe  Indian  steamers,  and  a  station  of  tba 
Indo-European  lelvgiaph  line.  It  is  rapidly  increasing 
de  and  population.  The  opening  of  the  Suei  O- 
I  18G9  gave  a  aiiong  impetus  to  its  growth,  sa  that 


Tedonga  (from  Vrda  [q.  v.]  and  anga,  "limb*), 
Ihe  name  of  tax.  Sanscrit  works,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  tcacb  how  to  read  and  understand  correctly  the  Vedit 
Icxia,  and  how  lo  apply  them  correctly  tn  sacrificial 
purpoaea.  Their  title*  are  as  foilowa:  (1.)  SUxha,<it 
the  science  of  proper  pron  uncial  ion.  It  explain*  tbe 
nature  uf  lelieia,  accent,  and  pronunciation,  and  la  n- 
cribed  \o  Fanini  (q.  v.).  (-J.)  Chkiaidiu,  or  a  work  oi 
meter,  which  is  ascribed  to  lliigala.  (3.)  I'yakaroha, 
or  grammar,  by  which  naiive  autborilies  uodentaiHl 
the  celebrated  work  of  Ptnini.  (4.)  fiinJta,  or  cx|d^ 
nation,  which  explains  difficult  Vedic  word),  and  is  the 
work  of  Ya^ko,  who  waa  ■  predeceoor  of  PaainL  (&) 
Jj/olitka,  or  aatruiiomy,  the  chief  object  of  which  b  ts 
convey  aoch  a  knowledge  of  astronomy  as  is  m  ii  iiasiji 
for  fixing  the  days  and  honn  of  ihe  Vedic  sacrificeik 
(6.)  Kiilpa,  or  works  on  llie  Vedic  ceretnonial  which 
latize  the  ritual  taught  by  the  Brabmaua  ponioa 
Veda,  but  omilling  all  legendary  or  mystical  <te- 
At  a  later  period  ihcse  works  were  supplemental 
ork*  which  tneiely  describe  the 


Vedaota (Sanscrit  Vtda  [q.v.]  and  amta,"ati^ 
literally  the  end  or  oliimile  aim  of  the  Vedaa)  i*  tba 
second  great  division  of  Ihe  Mimanu  (q.  v.)  school  of 
HJndfl  philoflophy.  It  is  chiefiy  cancenmt  in  the  in- 
vestigation of  Brahmau,  or  the  supreme  spirit,  and  tha 
relation  of  tbe  anivetse  and  Ihe  human  soul  to  it ;  and 
in  contradistinction  from  the  Parmmi-moMta,  at  the 
investigaiionof  the  formerpanof  the  Vedas,it  is  calkd 
(JUina-><tanta,at  Che  investigation  of  the  Utlrr  pan  af 
the  Vetlaa,  i.  e.  the  A  riniyalaii  and  UpainiJi„di  (q.  v.), 
which  iri'tt  of  (tbe  neuter)  Brahman,  ot  ^iipreroe  spirit. 

Tbe  Vcdaiila  endeavors  lo  prove  that  tbe  nuivena 

spirit  or  soul,  which  ia  called  Brahman  «  PaimatiDaa: 
thai  Ihe  human  soul  is  tberefure  identical  in  origin  with 
Brabioan  ;  that  the  worldly  existence  of  the  hummn  ami 
is  merely  the  result  of  this  sameness  between  itself  aad 
the  BupieiSe  spirit;  snd  that  its  final  liberation  or  fire~ 

moval  of  this  ignor*nce,thati9,by  aproper  undemaod- 
ing  of  Ihe  Vedanta  doctrine.  See  Dallantyne,  jl  ^«Ysr( 
im  Ihe  l'tda»ta,rmliraaiig  lU  Tixt  oflkt'v'fdai^a  Sara 
(AUahabad,  1850)  ;  BMiollttca  InJica  (Calcntis,  186S>. 


VEDDER  7i 

Tadder,  Btatitm;  ■  minuUi  of  the  Refotmed 
(Duub)  Church, «»  boni  at  Roturdam,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  IT, 
1777.  Ur  i;nuliuted  it  Union  CoUeg«  in  1799,  and 
baring  ■tudied  cbeology  privatel}',  nai  liceoNd  bjr 
the  Claasi)  of  Albany,  SepL  29, 1801.  He  was  paUorat 
(incnbimli  and  Taghantc,  N.T.,  1803-50;  lupplied  Lin- 
liibgo,  1806-14;  and  waa  pastor  at  Gnenbuib  (Galla- 
tin), 1850-61.  He  died  June  29,  lB7a  See  Cotwin, 
Miuatalofdu  Rtf.  Church  in  Ameriea,  lt. 

Vedel,  NicoL*ra,  a  Pntealant  divine  of  Gennany, 
who  died  in  1642,  at  Franeker,  aa  doctor  and  profesaor 
of  tbeology,  is  lh«  aathot  of  Arcana  Armhnanami 
(Lerdeu,  1632-^4,1  pta.) :— Aotwiofa  Thtoiwjimm  (Ge- 
neva, 1638):— CoBiHMiir.  (fa  Temport  atrbuqae  Epiteo- 
patut  Petri,  KH  fliitoria  Epua^mltit  A  BliocAad  tl  ICi>- 
■HUB  Pttri  Rrftlala  (ihid.  16J4,  lib.  ii ;  Fnneker,  1640). 
3e«  Winer,  Haadlmch  (far  lieolog.  Uttralur,  i,  B6S,  378, 
566.     (R  P.) 

Vedioa.  or  VejoTls,  in  Roman  my  thoh^y,  waa 
an  adopted  ga<I  of  ihe  Tiucina,  of  dangerous  aetivity. 
His  ftightTuI  thunderbolt!  were  preceded  by  deafneaa  to 
thnse  whom  thej  would  strike.  His  temple  was  at  Rome, 
between  the  Carntulium  and  Ihs  Tarpeian  castle.  His 
statue  represented  a  youthful  god  armed  with  amws. 
Hisrealival  waseelebratedbeforeHaichT.  Goata 
lacriHccd  to  him. 

Vega,  Andreaa,  a  Franiiican  of  Segovia,  who 
pinent  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  died  in  1557,  u 
author  of  a  large  work  Dt  Juilificattoae,  printed  at  Co- 
Ini^e  in  1572.     He  also  wrote,  CnntnxnJ.  in  aligaol  Ct 
alii  TridenttidDtcreta:—Ezp<mtio  in  Regubva  S.Fra 
ei*ei! — CddukM.  in  pMoImoi,  etc     See  Antnnji  Bibti- 
flUea   Hiipainea ;   Wadding,  BibliolAtai  Scriptor 
Mimtrrum;  JochrTfAUffemeinaGelthilai-LexikonjX 
Winer,  HaaHmch  der  Iheolog.  LUeratur,  i,  446.     (R  P.) 

Tega,  Christophor  de  la,  a  Spanish  Jesuit, ' 
Iwn  iu  1596  at  Tafalla,  in  Nararre;  Joined  the  Jeii 
in  1612,  and  acted  for  a  number  of  years  as  professoi 
|>hiluaophf  and  moral  theology  at  the  college  in  Ti 
znna;  then  at  Valencia,  where  be  died,  June  IB,  1672. 
He  wrote,  Theologia  Muriana  :—Coininoii.vi L3i.Judi- 
am:—Dt  Maximo  Matorum  Mah:-~Caiiu  Varii  Con- 
fritioiii,  etc     Sec  Winer,  Hatidbuch  ier  Ihtolag.  Lilf 
ru/iir,  1,479 ;  Antonii  SiWio(S*eo  lliipanUa;  Alegambe, 
BiUiolhtca  Seriplorum  Soeitlalit  Jtta ;  i&ctia,  AUg«- 
namaGtldirlm-I.txiim,xv.     (&P.) 

Vega,  EmanQol  do,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  who  acted 
asprufeaaorof  theolugr  atWilna,  in  Lithuania,  and  dieit 
at  Uome,  Jan.  27, 1640  or  I64S,  wrote,  Ot  EudiariMlia : 
-De  Miua  ;—Oe  Cahu  Intagiaam  et  Imocatiom  Sane- 
roruK  ; — Dt  Vita  et  Miracalit  tMlheri,  Calvtm  tt  Brta : 
-De  PrtKCipiit  Fidti:—Dt  Diilnbiuiane  Euehariilia 
nb  Una  Sptcie:—D'/tTuio  jElrma  Ciriili  Generalionii 
Vrrajue  DrUiUit: — Quailiaiitt  SrUcta  de  Libtrtoie  Dri 
tt  IIonnaii,<k  Pmdtiliiialiont.tlt  CmeorJia  SvmmoTum 
mtlri  Temponi  Tltfihgoran  (Rome,  1649).  See  Ale- 
gambe, BiiliolJkeco  Scriploram  Societatii  Jau  f-Antonii 
Bitliolhmi  Hitp-Jniea  ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemana  GeUhrltn- 
I,rxHon,t.v.     <aP.) 

Vaiel.  EuAS,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Germany, 
who  died  as  superintendent  and  librarian  at  Ulm,  Feb. 
23,  1706,  where  be  was  botn,  July  20, 1636,  is  the  author 
of  lliitoria  tt  NecfMiilai  R'formaHooit  Eonngrl.  per 
I-vthtr.  Iiutitvtrr,  a  Scryni*  (loirgii  Piinnp.  Anhall. 
Eipoala  cum  Narratione  dt  Conrtriiont  ad  Salularm 
Aug.  Confttt.  Doclriiutm,  etc  (Uim,  1692),  See  Winer, 
//owtt.  dtr  IhteL  Lileralur,  i,  741.     (R  P.) 

Veil  (or  Vail  [q.v.])  is  an  cssendal  article  of  fe- 
male apparel  in  the  East,     See  Dntisa. 

L  Original  Ttnu. — These  may  be  divided.  For  the  sake 
ofconTenient  and  dear  treatment,  into  several  clanea. 

(I.)  GtmraL—Tht  following  words  (which,  however, 
in  lh«  only  ones  rendered  "vail"  or  "veil"  in  the  A.V. 
at  an  article  of  dress)  may  be  explained  to  be  rather 
thawla,  or  ""anf",  which  might  at  plcasoie  be  drawn 


t?  VEIL 

ovn  the  face,  but  not  designed  for  the  apMial  purpose 
of  veils,  or  for  concealment  of  the  features  alone. 

1.  Mitpdchalh  (PRVSp,  from  nCO,  to  txpand)  de- 
notes the  wide  outer  and  upper  garment  of  a  female 
(see  Schri)der,Z>e  Vatil.  Malitr.  Hib.  c  16),  and  it  ren- 
dered "  vail"  in  Ruth  iii,  15 ;  "  wimple"  in  Isa.  iii,  23, 
It  evidently  was  one  of  the  wrappen  of  difTcrent  kinds 
in  which  the  Eaitem  women  envelop  themselves  when 
they  quit  their  housea.  These  are  of  great  amplitude, 
and,  among  the  common  people,  of  strong  and  coane 
texture,  like  that  in  which  Ruth  carried  home  her  com 
(Ruth  iii,  15).  The  illostradun  will  show  how  sufficient 
tlie  oat-door  veils  of  the  Eastern  women  ate  for  inch  a 
uae.    See  Wuu'Lt:. 


Oriental  Ont-door  Vdls. 

2.  Ra^d  fl^^,  from  1T^,  (o  aron^  out),  rendered 
reil"  in  Cant,  v,  7  ;  "  vail"  in  Iia.  iii,  28,  apparently 

was  another  latge  and  loose  upper  covering,  probably 

Mage  shows  that 
it  was  an  out-door  veil,  which  Ihe  lady  had  cast  around 
lier  when  she  went  forth  lo  seek  her  beloved.     See  Al^ 

3.  Tii'siph  (q-'SX,  from  CJSS,  thought  by  Geseniiia 
:o  be  =  ta5,»o  eoter  up),  invariably  rendered  "vail," 
s  menlioneil  in  Gen.  xiiv,  66;  xKZviii,  14, 19,  under 
sircumstsiices  which  show  that  it  was  one  of  those  am- 
ile  wrappers  which  women  wore  out  of  doora.  The 
itymotogy,  referred  by  some  lo  the  Arabic,  nibdapSca- 
lit,  Buggetta  that  it  was  "doubled"  over  the  ahouldets, 
ir  folded  about  the  body,  iu  some  peculiar  manner  which 
■■-'iguished  it  from  other  veils.     It  is  dear  that  it 


concealed  the  face,  as  Judab  could  m 


;  recognise  I' 


ihe  had  wrapped  benelf  in  tlm'yiph.    See  Kobk. 

4.  Mateik  (RID^,  from  mO,  lo  hide),  invariably 

■ndered  "  vail,"  is  only  used  of  the  veil  which  Moses 

assumed  when  he  came  down  from  the  mount  (Enod. 

33-86).    In  2  Cor.  iii,  13-16  Paul  designates  it 

by  the  corresponding  Greek  word  t^Xv/ipa,  a  coreriag. 

A  cognate  word,  lulh  (HID,  A.  V.  "  clolhei"),  oecuta  in 

Gen.  xlix,  11  as  a  general  term  for  n  man's  raiment, 

leading  to  the  inference  that  the  manih  also  was  an 

mple  outer  robe  which  might  be  drawn  over  the  face 

hen  required.    The  context,  however,  in  Exod.xiiiv 

conciusiva  as  to  the  object  fotwhich  the  robe  was  a»- 

imed,and,  whatever  may  have  been  iia  size  or  form,  it 

lUSt  hare  been  used  as  a  veil,     See  Moses. 

6,  SfaneiaA  (HSB^,  from  T|313,  lo  icrfm)  is  a  gen- 

■"'  '  'iff  of  any  kind  ("  vail,"  Isa,  xxv, 


;  "covering,"  xxviii,  20). 
6,  The  words  D^J"'?  nflDI,  kailh  ij/adyim,  literally 

nderad  by  some  interpreters  "a  veil  for  the  eyes," 
e.  a  mmpble  reil,  to  conceal  Sarah's  beauty,  and  that 
le  might  in  future  be  known  to  tU  as  •  mairied  worn- 


OrlMlil  1 1 

It  Ih*  phrue  "■  CO 


ing  of,  or  for,  the  eyn"  i 


Bipaiiun  for 

■ome  CKult,  in  order  tbil  one  may  ital  Aii  ryo  upon  it, 
conniTe  BI  it,  or  mke  no  more  iiDlice  oCiC:  "Behold, 
thia  (the  lliouund  pieces  of  lulver)  is  to  thee  ■  penally 
for  »ll  which  hm  happened  with  thee  and  befiirc  all  men" 
— a  nompauiilit/n  for  the  wrong  Aljimelccb  did  to  Sarah 
by  forcibly  depriving  her  of  her  Jiberly,  and  a  puliJic 
declaralion  of  hi«  honor  and  her  innocence.  There  can 
be  iHi  doubt  that  the  veil  fur  concealing  tbe  face  ia  of 
vary  remote  aiitiquily;  but  we  have  no  evideuee  that 
it  waa  a  general  article  of  female  attiie  in  the  time  of 
Sarah,  either  in  Egypt  i>t  Paleetine.  From  tbe  monu- 
menu  of  Etcypi,  it  seeou  nut  to  have  been  worn  by  Ihe 
famalea  of  that  naiion,  aa  the  women  in  the  reign 
Phanoha  expo«ed  iheir  facts  and  were  permitted  ax 
much  liber^r  aa  Ihe  lidiei  of  modem  Europe.  Tli' 
cnaiom  wia  not  changed  lill  the  conquest  of  Egypt  b 
tbe  ['eraiam.    See  Covebiiio  of  ths  Eyks. 

7,  The  (Jreek  word  iloaaia.  lictrally  tratialatcd  "po* 
er"  ill  1  Car.  xi,  10,  seema  to  denote  metaphorically 
kind  of  head-gear,  a  veil,  or  Ihe  ancient  ci>uFncA'/(ke 
chief}]  hence  Ihe  emblem  of  subjection  to  the  power < 
a  huiband.  But  tbe  apostle,  in  pointing  out  certai 
irregularities  in  the  Chrialian  aasemblies,  obwn-ea  Ihi 
"every  woman  that  prayelh  or  propheaieth  with  her 
head  uncovered  dishonoreth  her  head,"  i.  e.  her  hus- 
band. Hence,  aa 
her  hiuband,  the  apoatle  enjoina,''For  this  cause  ought 
the  woman  to  bring  honor  upon  her  head  {i.  e.  upon  hei 
husband-)  for  the  sake  of  the  angek,"  i.e.  Ihe  minialera, 
that  they  may  not  be  put  to  Ihe  trouble  [ifadverliuc'c 
anv  such  irregularilies  in  the  anembliea  iif  the  faiiliful 
(ver.a-16).    See  WosAN. 

(II.)  SptciaL — Another  elaaa  of  coverings  which 
alone  offer  any  resemblance  la  the  veils  uaed  among  ni 
■re  those  which  ihe  Eastern  women  wear  indoora,  and 
which  are  uaually  of  muslin  nr  olher  light  texture,  al- 
tached  tn  Ihe  head-dress  and  falling  down  over  the  back 
They  are  of  different  kinds  anil  namea,  some  descend- 
ing only  lo  the  waint,  white  nthera  reach  nearly  to  lh< 
ground.  The  Hcb.  icrma  thai  follow  appear  to  desig. 
nalc  Bome  of  these,  but  they  are  never  rendered  "vail' 

1,  Afiipeti4h  (nnnp'2,  from  HJO,  to  pour  out)  Ir 
uaed  of  the  veils  which  ihe  false  prophets  placed  upuii 
their  beads  (  Ezek.  xiii.  18,  21;  A.  V.  '^  kerchief." ). 
Tlie  word  ia  iindeittood  by  (leseniiis  {Tknaur.  p.  9lib) 
of  ciubions  or  maitreaser,  but  the  etymology  of  it  ia 
equally,  if  not  more,  favorable  lo  the  senae  of  ajfuuwij 
reil,  and  this  acconia  better  wilh  Ihe  notice  that  they 
were  to  be  placed  "upon  Ihe  head  of  every  atature,'' 
implying  thai  the  length  of  Ihe  veil  waa  proportioned 
to  the  height  oflhe  wearer  (Furac,i<i,a.  v.;  Uitzig  ii 
Eiti.  luc  cil.).    See  KuitcillEP. 


VEIL 

2.  Sdal  (plur.  r^alSlh,  TTAs";,  from  iS"^,  to  Jiratr) 
it  used  of  the  light  veiU  worn  by  females  (laa.  iii,  19; 

"  "mufflenT),  wbieb  were  so  called  from  their  ma- 
iling motion.  Tbe  aune  term  ia  applied  in  the  Miahna 
(5al>.vi,  6)  to  the  veil!  worn  by  Anbian  women,  mean- 
ing ■  slender  piece  of  dreas  faaleiked  above  tbe  eyea  in 
-  -''  a  manner  that  one  pan  waa  thrown  over  tbe  bead 
ell  down  upon  tbe  back,  while  Ihe  other  ahaded 
Ihe  face  and  dropped  on  the  breaal;  which  perfaapa  ap- 
proached aa  ne^r  as  any  other  article  ufantiqaity  io  lit 
modern  reiL     See  StUFFUcit. 

rtammih  (HB:!,  from  D^X,  lo  coctr)  u  under- 
Bloodby  tbeA.V.  of'locka'ofh'air  (Cant,  ir,  I,  3;  vi, 
'  a.  xlvii,  S) ;  but  the  conlenta  of  the  paaasgca  in 
I  it  is  uaed  favor  the  aenae  of  veil,  the  wMuen  of 
the  article  being  in  each  case  highly  bom  and  faand- 
•onKly  dreaaed.  As  these  passagea  refer  to  Ihe  eOeci 
of  the  veil  as  connected  with  the  head-dresa,  it  may  per- 
haps have  been  one  of  Ibme  veils  which  bavo  be«i  al- 
ready ilwcribed  aa  a  part  of  in-door  dress,  alihttugti  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  expresaiona  are  almoM  equal- 
ly applicable  lo  aooie  kind  of  alreet-veiL    See  Hcad- 

IL  Utt. — In  ancient  lima  the  veil  was  adopted  only 
in  exceptional  cases,  either  aa  an  article  of  omamental 
dress  (Cane  iv,  1,3;  vi,  T),  or  by  belmthed  maideu  in 
tbe  piTseiice  of  their  future  hiiabanda,  esp«iallv  at  tbe 
time  of  Ihe  wedding  (Uen.  xxiv,  Gi:  xxix,  35)  [» 
Mabriaob],  or,  laally,  by  women  of  loose  character  for 
purpoaei  of  concealment  (ixiviii,  14).  Bui,  gCDemllr 
speaking,  women  both  married  and  unmarried  appeared 
in  public  with  their  faces  exposed  among  the  Jews  (lii. 
Hi  xxiv,  Id  xsix,  10;  1  Sam.  i,  IS).  At  preaeo  I  fe- 
males are  rarely  seen  without  a  reii  in  Oiienul  cnun- 

uiaite  lo  conceal  the  face,  including  tbe  lop  and  back 
of  the  head,  than  other  parte  ot  Ihe  person  (L^ne,  .l/nj. 
^iW-  "t^S)-  Women  ate  even  delicate  about  mpwrinj; 
tbeitbeadsloaphyaician  for  medical  treatment  (ButeelL 
Alfppo,\,i4e).  Iri  remote  diatricis  and  among  Ihe  low- 
er claaaea  tbepractice  is  not  »o  rigidly  enforced  (LaBr,l 
TH).  Much  of  the  Bcnipulousnm  in  respect  lo  tbe  use  ef 
the  veil  dales  from  Ihe  promulgation  of  ihe  Koran,  whidi 
forbade  women  ap|iearing  un\-ei1ed  except  in  Ihe  pm- 
ence  of  their  nearest  relalivea  (Koran,  ixxiii.  55.  X). 
Mohammedaniam  baa  introduced  a  very  marked  ehiagt 
in  Ihia  respect  wherever  iu  influence  has  extended. 
The  change,  as  Mr.  Lane  has  remarked  (loc  dl.\  is  pe- 
culiarly obeen-ahle  in  EgypL  The  iarJb.DT  face-rnL 
■  long  atrip  of  mualin,  concealing  the  whole  «f  the  hct 
except  tho  eye«,and  reaching  nearly  to  tbe  teel.wbUi 
is  now  a  regular  part  of  an  1^-ptiau  lady's  walking  at- 

senled  in  the  andent 
painlinga  and  aculpt- 
urea  of  Egypt,  and 

ferred  not  to  have 
been  woni.  And  if 
not  inEgvpl,alillleaa 
likely  in  Canaan.     It 

is  probable    that   in 


ally  thrown  over  it 

extent  upon  the  face,  J 
was  the  long  phiited  I 
hair,  which   appear*  '_ 
from    the    Egyptian 
remains  to  have  often 

ber  of  airings  of  hair 


mcbingto  the  bottom  of  the  sbonlder-blades,  tbe 
being  left  Inoae,  or  with  twu  or  three  plaits  futen 
gether  it  the  exlremiiy  by  wuulleii  Miiii);!  of  corre- 
•pooding  culur  (WilkinMii,  Am.  Eggpl.  iii,  i>69).  Long 
luir,  perhipi  similarly  dniia  up,  certainly  often  plai'  ' 
waa  uied  by  the  Greek  females;  thus  very  commonly 
'' I  public   Hence,  abo,  Paul  conten  * 


Chur 


r  of  ( 


e  or  thawl  (^prplvn)  drawn 


coTcring  Kemeil  to  become  femtles  in  public  aaKm- 
blie«;  anil  fur  Cbriatiaii  women  to  bare  departnl  in 
Hich  ■  matter  fmm  the  general  practice  of  the  coun- 
tries wbers  they  resitleil  would  ineviubly  hare  brought 
Rptoach  upon  the  Chrutian  Daine.  The  attempt  of 
■ome,  therefora.acCoriutblfldDaoiraa  wisely '" 
teuanced  by  the  spostle  as  implying  aa  aaumptioii  of 
eqaality  with  the  other  sex;  and  he  enfurcea  the  cov- 

tbority  of  the  men  (ver.  6-1d).  The  tame  paasage 
leads  Eo  tbe  concluaioti  that  the  use  of  the  talili  [see 
FbihocJ,  with  which  tha  Jewish  males  cover  their 
beads  in  prayer,  is  a  comparatively  modem  practice, 


VEIL,  ECCLBBIASTICAL 

completely  conceals  every  part  of  the  dresa  ex- 
cepting a  small  portion  of  a  very  loose  guwn  and  the 
face-veiL  The  ladies  of  Syria  often  have  the  veil 
gracefully  thrown  over  the  Umtur,  or  horn  (q.  v.).  See 
Hartmann,  Hebreerin,  ii,  S16  sq.,  034  Bq.,42a  sq. ;  Jibn, 
AnA&>L  1,  ii,  130  sq.;  Thomson,  /.owf  iind  Boot,  i,  33 
aq.  1  Vail  Lennep,  Bibk  LaadM,  p.  5B7.     See  AmiiK. 

VEII,  EocLEaiASTicAi.  Coverings  of  this  liind 
have  been  nsed  in  various  ages  of  tbe  Church  and  fur 
various  purpose*. 

1.  In  the  Ureek  Church  the  nave  wu  separated  from 
the  chancel  by  a  partition  of  lattice-work  with  a  cur- 
tain, and  the  entrance  to  the  choir  wag  by  fuldiug-d<n>rs 
in  this  partition.  The  doors  were  proviiieil  with  a  cur- 
tain called  roraiririKr/ia,  irhlch  was  drawn  aside  dur- 
ing the  celebration  ur  the  euchariit,  and,  in  the  earlier 
times,  during  the  ilellvery  of  a  sermon.  Generally, 
however,  these  veils  were  drawn,  and  concealed  this 
part  of  the  Church  from  cslechumens  and  uubeliereii^ 
and  covered  the  euchariat  during  consecrsiion. 

2.  A  veil  or  curtain  was  hung  in  front  of  the  church- 
door  ill  eariy  limes.     Jerome   tells  us  that  Neputiau 


toseeitiniwpUce, 
8.  Hankers  were  placed  at  I  be  sides  ofthe  altars,  let  down 


g  Lent  when  the  S 


A  Sxrlsa  Veiled  Womnn. 
Inasmuch  as  tha  apostle,  putting  a  bypothetical  ease, 
states  that  every  man  having  anything  on  his  bead 
diahoiiors  his  heail,  i.e. Christ,  inasmuch  as  the  use  of 
the  veil  would  imply  subjection  to  his  fellow-men  rath- 
er than  lo  the  Lord  (ver.  4).  [n  modern  times,  as  al- 
reaily  observed.  Oriental  females  are  vtiled  with  great 
strictueM.  Their  ideas  of  decency  forbid  a  virtunus 
woman  to  lay  aside,  or  even  to  lilt  up,  the  veil  in  the 
presence  of  men.  Tbe  female  who  ventures  to  disre- 
gard this  prohibition  inevitably  ruins  her  cbsracter, 
and  ia  regarded  as  a  woman  of  easy  virtue.  To  lilt  up 
tbe  reil  is  reckoned  a  gross  insult;  ami  when  females 
an  ont  of  doon  propriety  rei]uires  a  man  tu  let  Lhem 
pia  without  seeming  at  all  to  observe  them.  Some 
of  the  Bu^e-vcits  worn  by  mmlem  Syrian,  Arab,  and 
Ef-rptian  ladies  are  mado  of  white  muslin  richly  em- 
broidered with  colored  silks  and  gold,  and  hanging 
down  behind  nearly  la  the  ground.  Sometimes  they 
are  made  of  black  crape,  and  often  ornamented  with 
apangle^  gold  coins,  false  pearls,  etc  The  mere  siie 
and  shape  of  the  veils  differ  in  different  part*  of  the 
East.  Tbe  outer  garment,  when  oBtofdoDis,  is  a  large 
pisoe  of  black  ailk  for  a  married  lady,  of  white  silk  for 
tha  aQmarried;  for  tha  poorer  femalea  white  calico, 


Doreala  and  frontal  veils  were  also  used  at  the  high  sl- 
urs uf  large  churches  until  the  end  uf  the  IStli  century. 
i.  Curtains  of  great  richness  were  used  only  in  Lent, 
e  to  veil  the  altar,  a  second  the  sanctuary,  and  a 
third  the  choir.  They  were  succeeded  by  permanent 
wns;  hence  in  Spain,  as  marriages  were  permitted 
rurbiildeu,  such  seasons  were  called  "  veilings  open 

5.  A  white  veil  or  coif,  called  Bflanten  dommicaiet  was 
■rom  by  females  at  the  lime  of  receiving  the  euchariit 
during  the  Glh  and  <ith  centuries.  These  veils  were  or- 
dered by  tbe  councils  of  Autun  (.^78)  and  Angers. 

6.  The  Ktlamtn  nvpliale  was  always  used  at  the  mar- 
riage ceremony,  and  during  one  pari  of  the  service  was 
spread  over  both  bridegroom  and  bride.  It  was  worn 
by  tbe  bride  as  a  symbol  of  maiden  modesty  and  obedi- 

to  her  husband. 

SL  Gregory  (*40),  given  only  tu  a  woman  twenty-flva 
cars  of  age,  and,  except  in  case*  uf  extreme  sickness, 
,  no  time  but  Epiphany,  an  apostle's  lisy,  or  Low  Sun- 
ij.  The  color  was  sometimes  purple  or  flame-coloc. 
8.  A  doth  called  the  white  btrmi,  shot  with  leil 
iread  in  mentory  of  Christ's  Passion,  was  worn  like  a 
own,  to  preserve  the  chrism,  by  the  baptized,  and  was 
id  aside  with  the  alb.     It  fell  Into  disuse  in  1090, 

al  like  ailk. 


h-mass  the  subdeacon  muffles  hit 
arms  and  shoulders  in  a  scarf  or  veil  in  token  of  humil- 
ity and  reverence  when  he  elevates  the  paten  lo  an- 
nounce the  time  of  communion.  The  priest  akw  used  it 
to  envelop  his  hands  al  ihe  time  of  the  benediction. 

10.  Female  penitents  wore  veils  (the  r<-lamai  pmilni- 
lia)  and  cut  their  hair  short  or  let  it  han^  loosely  aboat 
Iheirshoiihlers.  The  third  Council  of  Toledo  (531)  ex- 
pressly enjoined  the  use  of  these  veils. 

"  "  '  re  also  worn  by  females  at  conflrmalion. 
veil  for  the  head  was  used  by  Greek 
iig  the  prophecies,  in  allusion  to  3  Cor, 

damask  with  fringe,  called  the  civrvA- 
iniT-ctpfA,  was  uied  in  the  latter  half  of  the  ITth  centu- 

at  the  churehing  of  women  in  England. 

14.  Al  Chriitmaa  and  Easter,  formerly,  in  France, 

"ee  veils  were  laid  upon  the  altar  and  then  removed   . 

■he  flnl,  black,  to  represent  the  time  before  the  law; 
the  second,  pale,  to  signify  the  time  of  the  law ;  and 
the  third,  red,  In  show  the  rime  of  grace.     One  was  re- 

ovhI  at  each  nnctum  orChriitriMt. 


VEIL  OF  THE  TABERNACLE    740 


VETTH 


EngUnd  iluring  i«nt  u  cilled  ■  tcU.  It  ugnifled  va- 
riouil^,  according  to  the  different  BDtbi)[i[ieB,"lhF  dark- 
ne»  of  inBdelily  which  covered  the  face  of  the  Jewa 
in  the  Old  Tu>^"  "  the  mouminK  aod  luueotition  or 
linnen  fur  their  uiigodlv  mannen." 

IG.  A  coTering  uf  lilk,  embroidered  and  of  the  color 
or  the  aeaun,  oai  used  fur  placing  over  the  cbiliee  and 
paten  wbcD  prepared  fur  the  Chrialian  aacridce,  and 
for  the  lame  purpose  when  the  aacrifice  ww  completed. 
This  i*  called  the  veil  fur  the  chalice.  The  "white 
linen  cluth"  of  the  Church  of  England  eommuDion-aei- 
vice  ■•  also  called  the  veil  frir  ths  chalice. 

17.  At  Wincheater  CulleBS  a  canopy  of  linaej-wool- 
tey  powdered  with  Man  of  gold  was  used  to  fall  over 
the  pyx  on  Palm-Sunday  and  Cnrpui  ChristL  Thia 
wo*  called  Siodon,  pyi,  or  Corpus  Christi  cloth. 

IH.  A  veil  or  curtain  of  silk,  satin,  velvet,  or  doth  of 
gold  or  silvet  i>  uBeil  (a  eiiclnae  the  tabernacle  for  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  when  reserved  in  the  Boman  Cath- 
olic Church.  It  is  called  Ihe  rtil/vr  Iht  labernaeit,  and 
came  into  use  moU  prohshly  when  the  setting-up  of 
tahernaclea  became  general. 

Tilting  Ihe  eril  is  a  term  osed  to  drsignile  the  act  of 
eonsecrstion  to  the  Church,  when  a  female  takes  upon 
herself  vows,  after  which  she  never  appean  in  public 
unveiled.    See  Nun, 

VEIL  or  THit  Taueii:<,lclb,  Tkuple.    See  Taii. 

Veil,  Da  (also  Datdl),  is  the  name  of  two  Jewish 
le  known  by  their  wiiclnga  in 


the  I 


:ofleai 


1.  Chables  Maria  was  born  at  Meti  about  ISSS. 
He  received  an  excellent  Hebrew  education,  and  em- 
braced the  Roman  Catholic  faiih  about  1656  (7>  His 
learning  and  great  abilities  suun  secured  for  him  a 
high  position  in  bis  Church,  of  which  he  was  a  distin- 
guished preacher.  He  became  canon  Id  the  Order  of 
St.  lienevievc,  was  made  doctor  of  theology  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Anjou,  and  was  also  prior  of  the  monaalery 
in  Metun.  He  devoted  hia  time  lo  the  cTpoaition  of 
the  Scriptnrea  in  the  different  positions  which  he  oc- 
cupied. He  published  in  Latin  a  Commmtai-g  on  Ike 
GotptU  ofUaaheie  and  Murk  (Angers,  I6T2) :— a  Com- 
ttmlaryatlhtSingo/SiM,,  (Pari*,  1673):— and  a  Com- 
moUary  an  Joel  [ibid.  1676).  In  these  writings  De  Veil 
proved  hinucir  such  a  alanch  champion  of  Komanisra 
that  he  was  requested  to  hold  a  controversy  with  the 
Huguenots,  at  that  time  the  great  opponents  of  the  Ro- 
man Church  in  France^  But  hia  diligent  inquiry  into 
the  points  of  difference  between  Romanism  and  Protea- 

the  latter,  and  the  former  foe  become  now  a  friend  of 
the  Huguenots.  Ho  was  obliged  to  escape  from  France. 
In  Holland  he  openly  abjured  Romanism  in  1678,  and 
soon  after  he  went  to  England,  where  he  not  only  formed 
a  friendship  with  men  like  Stillingfleet,  Sharp,  Tillot- 
•00,  Patrick,  etc.  but  also  received  the  appointment  of 
chaplain  and  tutor  to  a  noble  family.  He  now  pub- 
lished new  editions  of  his  commentaries,  discarding 
therefrom  and  refuting  therein  the  doclrinea  of  Rome. 
He  also  published  a  Cammmlan/  on  lie  Hmor  Proph- 
eU  (Land.  1680).  These  commentaries  soon  became 
the  text-books  of  the  clergy  at  home  and  the  Reformed 
churches  abroad.  Dr.Complon,  bishop  of  Lonitun,  en- 
ccHiiBged  him  to  prosecute  hia  Biblical  labors,  and  gave 
him  free  access  lo  his  librari'  at  all  times.  Discovering 
in  this  library  some  works  of  the  Engliah  Baptists,  De 
Veil  inquired  into  the  controversy,  which  reaulted  in 
his  joining  this  denomination,  to  the  Iom  of  all  hia 
friend^  with  the  honorable  exception  of  Tillolaon.  De 
Veil  gave  lo  the  public,  as  the  result  of  bis  rtaearches, 
aCommmfaryDntite^crjCibid.  1684),  in  which  he  de- 
fended the  Baptists'  princifde.  This  commentary  be 
translated  himself  fmm  the  l^Iin  into  English,  and 
publbhed  it  In  1685  (new  edition,  18ol).  De  Veira 
ries  are  atill  very  valuable.  See  Ftlist,  BOL 
rO;  Kilto,  Cjciop.  a.  v.;  Kalkar,  Iinul  u.  die 


Kirchr,p.BS;VoU,BibLBebr.i,im7i  iii,e7S;  ir.SU. 
See  DtivRiL. 

3.  Louis  DE  CoHFikosB,  brother  of  the  rormer,  was 
called  under  Louis  XIH  as  nbbi  to  Compij;gnc,  wlwv 
he  embraced  Chrletisnity,  in  1656.  He  studied  Ibcol- 
ogy  at  Ihs  Surbonne,  and  afterwards  went  lo  Englaml, 
where  he  became  librarian  to  Ihe  king.  He  trapalued 
into  Latin  many  sections  of  Haimonldes'  Jad  Back— 
taka !  the  catechism  of  Abr.  Jagrl,  2^:9  npi  (  Lood. 
1679);  theJulrBduclioBo/AbrabaKtlaLeci/ieai  (Ibid. 
1688).  He  published,  Oralio  de  Origine  it  rrtctHmUa 
Liag.  HAr.  (Iteidelb.  1671).  See  Fllrst,  BOJ.  JinL  i, 
lS4sq.;  iii,470i  Suinschneider,  CotaJs^f  lAbr.  titbr. 
in  BibL  Bodl  p.  2699;  id.  Biiliogr.  Ilamdlmdi.  p.  lU; 
BartolDCCJ,  Bibl.  Jad.  iii,  643 ;  Kalkar,  Itrad  K.  die 
Kirdie,  p.  bi.     (R  P.) 

Vaillodtar,  VAuarnn  Kasl,  a  Pmteatant  thtolo- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Uanh  10, 1769,  at  Nntoo- 
tnrg.  He  studied  at  Alidorf  and  Jetu,  and  waa  m^ 
painted,  in  179S,  preacher  in  bis  native  dry.  He  now 
rapidly  advanced,  and  in  int7  the  Erlangen  Univenitj 
honored  him  with  the  dociorace.  He  dint  April  9, 
1828,  in  his  native  city.  VeiUodter  was  one  of  Iba 
most  prominent  pulpit  orators.  His  printed  senDona  fu- 
cupy  several  volumes.  Besides  seimone,  he  publialied, 
Kommmionbuck  Jiir  gebiUelt  Ckrittnt  (I3lh  ed.  Nu- 
lemb.  1852)  :—/</«<■  Sbtr  Tod  umi  UiHrtHicktrit  (4ih 
ed.  ibid.  1862):— CrArTs  on  Jlfor^ni  u«d  vlkwrf  (4th  ed. 
ibid.  1837).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Thtolug.  ii,  1376  sq.; 
Daring,  Die  deuUclitn  Kaiaelrtdaer  dtt  ISltn  and  \Stem 
Jahrkumbri;  p.  55«  sq.;  Winer,  HmdbiiA  der  liLcaL 
Lileralur  (Index).     (B.  P.) 

T«Id  (K|il3,  nam,  a  toaree,  as  often),  a  mute  (q.  v.), 
aarfsilver(Jobxxviii,l). 

VeltCh,  Eldbidoe  R.,  a  minister  in  Ihe  Method^ 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  lioin  in  Alexandria,  V&, 
in  1810.  Nothing  defintU  remains  concemiiig  his  edu- 
cation, conversion,  or  call  to  the  ministrv.  In  183i  Iw 
entered  Ihe  travelling  connection  in  the  Baltimore  Con- 
ference, and  for  thirty-seven  yean  led  a  devoted,  aidn- 
ous  life,  dying  Feb.  10,  1867.  Mr.Veilch  was  smmd 
and  forcible  in  doctrine  as  a  preacher,  original  ia 
thought  and  expression.  As  a  counsellor  he  was  wiit, 
able,  and  safe.  See  ifimrfef  nf  A  nmat  Ccmfenmea, 
M.  E.  CImrch.  Saulh,  1867,  p.  97. 

Vsttb,  JOKAKH  EhhaHuel,  a  Roman  Catholic  di- 
vine, was  bom  of  Jewish  parentage,  July  10,  I7S7,  a( 
Kutlenptan,  in  Bohemia.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Prague,  snd  continued  the  same  at  Vienna,  when,  in 
1810,  he  embraced  Christianity.  As  a  physician  be  oe. 
copied  the  highest  civic  and  mititari'  porilions,  whiA 
he  soon  exchanged  for  the  study  of  iheology.  Tb* 
learned  professor  of  medicine  became  •  student  of  ib». 
ology,  and  in  18OT  he  joined  the  Order  of  the  Re- 
demptoriats,aud  in  1821  received  holy  orilen.  He  itov 
commenced  preaching,  and  his  church  was  Ibranged 
with  eager  listeners.  But  Ihe  liberal  man,  with  hia 
great  independent  spirit  and  witty  humnr,  did  not  ex- 
actly agree  with  Ihe  strict  order,  and  in  1831  be  was 
appoinled  preacher  of  St.  Stephen's.  Here  he  attracted 
ill  ranks  trf'enciety,  and  exerted  a  great  power.  It  was 
remarkable  how  Veith,  whose  outward  appearance  waa 
Ihe  least  attractive,  inMuenced  sit  classes  of  Tieana  so- 
riclr,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest.  In  1846  bodily 
inlimiiiies  obliged  him  to  retire  from  his  high  position, 
and  in  1847  cardinal- prince  Scbwsnenberg  made  him 
honorary  dean  of  his  cathedral  at  I*rague.  In  iS4S  lb* 
University  of  Vienna  honored  him  with  Ihe  doctoral* 
of  theoh^.  He  died  Nov.  6,  1876.  Beaidea  snn* 
medical  works,  Veith  publiihed  a  great  tDany  hnmilet- 
ical  and  Bacetical  works,  as  IHe  ktiligm  Berpe  (Vienna, 
1833-Se,  2  vols.)  -.—Die  F.metaig  det  Laiona  (ibU. 
\6i-l):—Lfbf«d)ilderaiii  der  Pauumigetniidae  (ibi& 
1880):— At  terlorene  Sohn  (ibid.  1B3S) :— /)m  Vt^rr 
Unter  (Sd  ed.  ibid.  1842) .-— Z/iniBJrfur£<  Vorii-agt  Jir 


VELA  7^ 

Stmt'  M.Fattagt  (Id  *d.  1885-87, 8 TidK.)i—ir<AM«> 
M.  CkriMtaiitam  (ibid.  \ebl):  —  Die  IPbrte  (far  /'ends 
ClriMJ  (ibiiL  1SS9,  etc).  See  Ri«enth«l,  CoHMrfiMa- 
biUrr,  i,  317  sq.  (Scbiffbiiueii,  1B7I ) ;  BtKhl,  Coot.  A 
knikoL  IMtratur  UtuttcAlandMf  p.  4L0;  LiUraritcher 
Hmdveuer  Jikr  dot  talioL  IhultchUmd,  1S76,  p.  532 
■q.;DeliUKb,<Saaiaii/^o^uni;,187T,p.l5Mi.   (B.P.) 

V«la,  CRiaraBAL,  ■  Spaniih  puiiur,  wu  born  at 
Jaen  in  1598.  He  uudied  under  Pablo  de  Ceapedn  tnd 
Tiacciuio  Canliieci,  and  allerwatdi  Mttled  at  Cardora, 
vhfra  he  wu  occupied  in  painting  for  the  churches 
and  conireata.  Host  of  hi*  worka  have  perished,  or 
been  injured  by  unakilful  teatoration.  There  remain, 
bowerer,  in  the  conreni  of  Sl  AuguHJna  at  CordoTa 
a  nrie*  of  the  prophets  by  bim,  well  designed.  In  1668 
be  fell  into  the  well  of  bii  own  house  at  Cordova  and  Mat 
drovaed.   StK&fv>aKt,Biog.Hut.oftht Fiat Am,t.Y. 

Valaaoo,  Dan  AcIbIo  Antonio  Palomino 
DB  Castbo  y,  an  eminent  Spanish  paioler,  was  bora  at 
Bujalauce,  in  Valencia,  in  1S53.  His  parents  remoted 
la  Cordova,  vhere  he  was  educated  tat  the  Church ;  but, 
bariog  a  passion  for  painting  and  some  koawledge  or 
the  an,  he  placed  himself  under  the  inslnicIioD  of  Juan 
de  Taldee  in  1672.  He  became  intimate  with  Juan  de 
Alfaro  in  1673,  and  went  with  him  to  Madrid,  in  I67S, 
to  asust  him  in  Mme  of  hia  work*.  He  was  next  em- 
ployed in  painting  the  ceiling  of  the  Queen's  Gallery 
at  the  Alcazar,  which  he  did  with  so  much  satisfaction 
that  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  painters.  In 
1S90,  on  the  marriage  of  Charles  II,  he  designed  the 
arches  and  other  decorations  for  the  bridal  entry  into 
the  city.  This  conflrmed  him  in  his  office  of  painter 
tu  the  king.  In  1692  he  gare  assislanca  to  Luca  Ciior- 
dano  in  the  great  works  he  was  about  to  execute.  In 
1697  he  went  lo  Talencia,  where  he  executed  some  Im- 
partaot  works,  principally  the  fresco*  in  the  Church  of 
San  Juan  del  Mercado.  In  170S  he  decorated  ibe  Con- 
vent of  San  Eeteban  at  Salamanca,  with  some  frescos 
representing  the  Church  lUililaat  and  Church  TrCam- 
pkomL  In  1715  he  pnblisbed  the  Srit  volume  of  his 
JfuMO  Fictoria,  and  in  17^  the  second  volume.  It  is 
by  thia  work  that  he  is  chiefly  known  abroad.  Among 
the  paintings  not  already  mentioned  are  the  works  in 
(he  Carthusian  Conreni  of  Granada,  Are  pictures  for  the 
grand  altar  at  Cordova,  and  the  hieroglyphics  which 
adorned  the  funeral  of  DoDa  Maria  Luisa  de  Saboya. 
Telaaoo  died  at  Madrid  in  17^  He  is  known  among 
for«gn  writers  chiefly  by  the  name  of  niiamisa.  See 
Spoonet,  Biog.  HuL  oftU  Fim  .4  rto,  s.  v. 

'7elaBCo,  Citatobol  de,  a  Spanish  painter,  was 
a  native  of  Toledo.  He  received  instruction  from  his 
biber,  whose  precepts  he  followed.  In  1696  and  fol- 
lowing years  he  did  some  painting  for  the  archdiike 
Albert  and  Philip  III.  See  3pooner,  Biog.  UiU.  o/lht 
FmtAra,a.Y. 

Velaaco,  Uatlas  de,  a  Spanish  painter,  son  of 
Cristobal  de  Velasco,  was  born  at  Toledo  about  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  17tb  century.  He  was  instructed  by 
hia  father,  and  accompauied  the  court  of  Philip  III  to 
VaUadotii^  where  he  waa  employed  lo  paint  several  his- 
lonra  of  Ibe  Virgin  fur  the  Royal  Nunnery  of  the  Car- 
melitea.    See  Spooner,  Bioy.  Hiil.n/tht  Fmt  Artt,t.v, 

VolaaquBB,  Alk^ahdxo  GonzALEa,  a  Spanish 
painter  and  architect,  was  bom  at  Madrid  in  1719.  He 
siodied  in  the  Academy  of  his  native  city,  anil  made 
Bueb  rapid  progroa  chat  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  in  con- 
neclion  with  his  brother  Lois,  be  was  employed  tn 
paint  (he  decorations  of  the  theatre  of  the  Retiro.  In 
1744  ha  superintended  the  painting  and  sculpture  at 
San  IMefonso,  and  afterwards  was  employed  for  three 
yean  in  nuking  the  plans  and  elevsiinns  of  the  palace 
at  Anujuez.  In  1753  he  was  elected  subdirecuir  of  the 
*-—*"■  J  ■"  the  department  of  architecture,  and  in  1762 
be  was  chosen  Tor  the  same  olfice  in  that  of  painting. 
AiBong  hia  srehitectural  works  at  Msdrid  is  the  mod- 
tntbdng  of  the  church  Lot  Batliau.    He  instructed 


VeldB,  A 


39.    Hee 


It  Dutch  pi 


a  talent  fur  drawing  pictures,  and  wis  placed  under  the 
instruction  of  John  Wynanls.  He  leamed  from  this 
master  to  sketch  from  nature,  and  praciiced  it  all  his 
life.  He  executed  several  works  for  the  Raman  church 
at  Amsterdam,  the  subjects  of  which  were  taken  from  ' 
the  life  and  passion  of  Christ.  Tbe  chief  of  these  is 
the  DtteeM  front  Iht  Crou.  Hit  pictures  are  lield  in 
high  estimation,  and  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  Snest 
collections.  One,  a  HumUainoui  {joailtcnpt,  in  which 
Jacob,  his  Timily,  and  liis  servants  appear  conducting 
their  flock.  auJ  her.  Is.  was  eoM  in  1766  fur  #630,  and  in 
1811  fur  UtiOa.  V.1.1  Jm  Velde  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1672.     See  Spooner,  Biag.  Hill,  o/lht  Fine  A  rli,  s.  v. 

Veil,  BiHisDKTro,  a  Florentine  painter,  flourislied 
about  1650.  Little  is  known  of  him  eicept  that  he 
painted  tbe  Attamon  o/'Citrw',  which  is  placed  at  the 
cnlrsuce  of  the  presbytery  in  tbe  Catbedral  of  Hiiloja,  as 
the  companion  to  the  Pattfootf,  by  (iregorio  I'agaui. 
See  Spooner,  Bioj.  /liiLn/tht  Fiat  Arli,t.r. 

'Velthem  (or  Veltheim),VALiNTni,  a  Prates- 
unt  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Msrch  11, 1645, 
at  Ualle,  in  Saxonv.  He  studied  at  Jens,  where  he 
was  made  professor  of  mnral  philosophy  in  1672,  and 
prefe»or  of  theology  in  16S3.  He  died  April  24,  1700. 
He  was  a  Tolumiunus  writer,  and  a  catalogue  of  his 
writings  is  given  by  JUcher, /t/i^eirwinu  GtltArlm-Ltx- 
ikoK,  B.  v.  See  also  Zeumer,  Vila  Profatonim  Jtaof 
rium;  Pifping,  Afemoria  Theolofforam.     (R  P.) 

VelthaMn,  Johamn  Cabpab,  a  Pmtutant  theo- 
logian of  Germsnv,  was  born  Aug.  7, 1740,  at  Weimar. 
He  studied  st  Giiiiingen  under  Walch,  Uicbaelis, 
and  Heyne.    From  Gottiugen  be  went  as  private  tutor 

Hameln.  In  1770  he  wu  called  as  chaplain  to  London. 
In  1775  he  went  as  professor  of  Ihcolngy  lo  Kiel,  bar- 
ing shortly  before  received  the  doctorate  from  Uoltin- 
gen  on  account  of  his  Of  IjtgOitit  Oiriiat  hand  gua^an 
AtHlrariit.  In  1778  he  was  calleil  to  HelmstUt  as 
professor  of  theology,  general  superintendent,  and  pas- 
tor of  St.  Stepheu't.  At  the  same  lime  be  was  appoint- 
ed abbot  ofMarienthaL    In  1789  he  was  called  to  Rna- 

veratty.  In  1791  he  went  to  Stade  as  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Vetden,  where 
he  died  April  13,  1814.  Velthusen  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  bis  writings  comprise  almost  all  theo- 
logical branches.  They  are  given  bv  Doring,  Dit 
Gdekrtai  Thtologen  DtultcUandi,  iv,  677-682;  Winer, 
Handb.  dtr  tluol.  Ijltratur.  i,  13,  15,  188,  214,847;  il, 
203,  231,  227,  245,  280,  364,  382)  Futst,  BibLJud.  iii, 

471.  {a  P.) 

Venable,  Hbmst  Isaac,  a  PreshyterUn  minister, 
was  bom  June  38,  1811,  in  Shelby  County,  Ky.  He 
was  prepared  for  college  at  Shelby  ville  under  the  tuition 
of  the  Rev.Andraw  Shannon;  graduated  from  Centre 
College  in  1830 1  and,  while  a  student  in  college,  united 
by  pnifesaion  with  the  Chureh  in  Danville  at  about 
eighteen  yean  of  age.  He  then  taught  school  one  rear 
in  Clark  County,  and  entered  Princeton  Seminary, 
N.  J„  in  IS31.  After  remaining  there  one  year,  he 
went  to  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  in  't'irginia, 
where  he  remiined  two  years,  anil  graduated.  He 
was  licensed  by  West  Hanover  Presbytery  April  19, 
1834,  and  waa  ordained  Oct,  10,  1831,  by  the  Transyl- 
vania FrttbyteTy,  Ky.,  as  an  evangelist.  Having  de- 
voted himself  to  the  work  of  foreign  missinns,  he  em- 
barked at  Boston,  Dec  3,  I8B4,  for  Zululand,  in  South 
Africa,  where  he  labored  with  great  earnestness  and 
self-denial  until  he  was  driven  from  his  fleld  by  war, 
when  he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  March,  1839 


VENANTIUS  7- 

He  then  supplied  tbe  Charch  >t  Paris,  IIL,  from  Oct.  1, 
1839,  untU  Dec  1, 1S41.  At  Che  Utlei  date,  he  fpunded 
the  £dgST  Female  Academy  st  Paris,  and  deTol«d  hit 
liioe  BDd  labors  M-hnlly  thereto  unii]  IHoO.  This  acad- 
emy gtew  and  flouriihed,  expanding  into  the  Edgat 
Collegiate  Institute.  From  18a3  to  ISU  he  suppliHl 
the  Church  at  CharlestflO,  lU.;  then  Uaktaiid  (.ither- 
wiae  called  Bethel)  Churcb  fivia  April  1,  I8&6,  to  Haj 
I,  I860.  At  the  latter  date,  having  accepted  ■  call,  be 
waa  insutled  pastor  of  Oakland  Church.  This  relation 
'*      '      J,  because  of  inadequate  support,  April  18, 


b,  after 


sitppli« 


eChur 


o  lHe;,then  Carlisle  and  Clajbonie  ehurch- 
ea  thirteen  months,  and  Yurk  Church  (all  in  niinoii) 
far  one  year.  In  September,  I8T0.  by  eameat  request 
of  Ihe  parties  intereiied,  he  became  principal  of  the 
Edgar  Callegiale  Iiisdiule,  which  he  had  founded  near- 
til,  not  long  before  his  death,  he  vras  compelled  to  de- 
list from  alt  labor.  He  died  at  Paria,  Edgar  Co.,  IIl^ 
Har  U2,  1878.  His  death  was  pev^ful,  Irustful,  and 
without  fear.  He  was  ■  truly  godly  man,  an  earnest 
and  faithful  minister  of  the  (ioepel,  a  true  and  sincere 
friend,  and  universally  eateemed  and  loved  by  his 
breChren.     (W.  P.  S.) 


▼enansl.  A:'tomo  (also  called  Gtnconiii,  Gioraimi 
Ballitdi,  and  FiitTieaco),  an  Ilalian  painter,  was  bom 
about  1627.  He  was  flrsi  instructed  by  Guido,  and 
■hen  cntcml  the  school  of  Simone  CantarinL  He 
painted  two  histories  ol SI.  Anlhoiqi  in  tlie  church  of 
that  saint  at  VrraT-;  and  the  OfKmt  oflkt  Uolg  (7*0** 
in  one  of  Ihe  churches  of  Bidogna.  It  it  Mid  that  he 
was  employed  at  the  court  of  Parma.  He  died  OcL  2, 
1705.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hill,  o/the  Fine  ArU,  s,  V. 

TonatoriuB.  Thokab,  whose  real  name  was  Ct- 
tha\iff,  lakes  rank  as  the  earliest  Protestant  writer  in 
the  department  of  ethics.  He  was  bom  about  1488  at 
Nuremberg,  and  received  a  liberal  education  at  several 
unireraities.  His  earliest  essay  in  literature  was  the 
publication,  in  I6U,  of  Ihe  works  of  Archimedes,  and 
tins  was  fullowei)  in  I&ai  by  a  metrical  uanslBlion  of 
the  Plulat  of  Aristophanes  and  by  an  issue  of  Pirkheim- 
er's  Aanbatit.  After  completing  his  univenity  course, 
he  entered  (he  Order  of  Dominican  monks,  and  ui  1520 
look  up  his  abode  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  gave  him- 
self lealoualy  to  the  work  nf  promoting  the  reformalorv 
movemenU  then  rife.  He  became  preacher  in  the  IIo^ 
pital  and  the  Dominican  churches  in  1523,  and  ten  years 
later  pastor  of  the  Church  of  St.  James.  In  MH  he 
helped  to  introduce  Ouander's  Gtitf  L'nttrrida  ,  .  . 
am  giltWAtr  Sdri/l ;  in  1626  he  participated  in  tbe 
religious  colloquy  which  determined  tbe  case  of  the 
Uospel  in  Nuremberg;  and  in  ISSG  he  began  Ihe  iMue 
of  that  scries  of  theological  works  for  which  he  is  chiefly 
noted  with  the  booh  Axiomala  Rtmm  Cliritlianarum. 
His  next  work  was  a  Dtjryitio  pro  Bnplimo  rt  fide 

(1527).  The  most  important  work  of  Veuslorius  a  Ihe 
Dt  Virtvlt  Chriili'ma  (1529),  iu  three  books.  Its  sUrl- 
inK.^int  is  theOsiandrian  idea  of  faith  [see  Obiamdkr], 
and  the  line  of  its  argument  is  tu  show  that  faith  is  Ihe 
centre  and  sum  of  Christian  virtue  and  the  principle 
from  which  springs  the  performance  of  all  good  works. 
The  success  of  the  work  was  hindered  by  Ihe  dogmatic 
opposition  of  Lutheran  theology  and  the  author's  Osi- 


VENETA  VERSIO 


returned  to  his  Nuremberg  pariah,  and  mnained  ia  lit 
exercise  of  his  pastoral  functions  and  literarv  Inbcn  un- 
til he  died,  Feb.  4, 1551.  See  Will,  jVicman^.  d^sbto- 
I'jsiten,  iv,83  sq.  i  and  an  an.  in  the  ,Sn(<.  ■.  frit,  IMC^ 
No.  i\  also  Henog,  RcaUtMyUop.  a.  v. 

▼enoa,  Hknbi  Fium90IB  i>r,  a  French  Hetxaist, 
was  bom  about  1GT5  at  Pareid,  in  Voirre  (Barat> 
Having  entered  the  monastic  ranks,  he  gradaUed  M 
the  Srabonne ;  and  after  being  preceptor  to  tbe  chiMna 
of  Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine,  be  was  rewarded  br  beir^ 
ajqwinted  promst  of  the  Church  of  Nancy.  He  npet- 
intended  tlie  printing  of  the  jBi51r  of  l>e  Carrittes  (Kan- 
cy,  1738-43, 22  vols.  12mo),  and  added  numenius  diwf 
uiions,  which  were  allerwards  inserted  in  CaloKlli 
BOU  (1748-60,  and  Uter).  He  died  ai  Nancv,  Vor.  I, 
1749.     See  Hoefer,  Nottv.  Biog.  Gntralr,  s.  t.~ 

Vendldad,  in  tbe  Parvee  philosophy,  ia  ibeiwn- 
tieth  notk,  or  division,  of  the  Zendaveeta  (q.  v.).  It  is 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Urmuid  (q.  r.)  at 
Zoroaster  (q.  v.). 

VeDoflCl  {poitonerSjiorrrrrrt)  were  magidsaavk* 
practice  their  arts  against  the  lives  of  men.  In  the  lawi 
of  the  early  ChrisUan  emperors  of  Bume,  which  Knalcri 
indulgence  to  criminals  at  the  Easier  festival,  tbe  Ft- 
tirjici  were  always  excepted  as  guilty  of  to 


t  offenders.     See  Bingham,  Oiruf.  J  srif. 


e  for  it 


blv  the  earliestindependent  Protestant  essay  in  the  field 
ofelhics.  In  1&34  Vcnsiorins  wrote  an  EpiUota  Apolo- 
get.  dt  Soln  Fidt  Juti^ficimlt,  etc,  which  shows  that  he 
had  come  over  to  the  orthodox  Lutheran  view  ofjutti- 
fication,  though  he  still  continued  his  relations  nf  friend- 
ship with  Osisnder.  After  a  temporary  snjoum  at  Ro- 
thcnburg  in  the  interest  of  the  Reformation,  in  1544,  he 


Vensma,  Hbrkan,  D.D.,  a  learned  Dutch  riiiiae, 
waa  bora  at  Wildervank  in  1697.  He  was  meecatiTtly 
pastor  at  Dronrj'p,  and  professor  of  theology  and  oiii- 
veraity  preacher  at  Fraiwker.  He  died  in  1>87.  He 
waa  a  voluminous  writer  in  all  depanments  of  saend 
science.  He  published,  /lufifulioort  Hitloria  Ecdam 
Viltrit  tt  Noti  Trtlimmti  {im):—l>itMcr1atiimim 
Sacranm  Ubn  Tm  {ITS!) -.-Cowiaemanai  ai  Li- 
brum  Eleuliro.^nopliftii:iaa  Afaladiim  {I7!l9'j:—Dimn- 
laticma  ad  LArnn  Gennret  (1747) :—  Connvaforwr  ai 
Pialmoi  (l?62-fi7):— Conmflifartiu  ad  LOrruK  Pn- 
pieliariim  Jemnia  (1765) ;— £*(rti««  A/tidrmir»  ai 
Eackiilrm  {1190) :  ~- Dittertatiom  ad  I'alidiaa  Dt' 
fwfii  Evibltraatica  (1746) :— l7oiiiiimrun'iu  ad  tiaM. 
(1768):— Sn-moaH  Acadmici  tict  Cotmnmlarii  ad  Li- 
bnnn  PropKetianaa  Zaekaria  (1787):— OpuscaJii  Imdt- 
la  (1781)  -—FTtkclioati  dt  Mtihodu  Pmplietica. 

Tenerablfl  is  the  title  given  to  arridmami  in  tbt 
English  Church. 

VENERABLE  Bedi.    See  Dede. 

Veneta  Veralo.  The  Ubrari'  of  St.  Hark'i,M 
Venice,  is  in  possession  of  a  MS.  containing  a  Greek  ver- 
uon,  bv  some  unknown  author  in  Ihe  Middle  Ages, «( 
varioui  books  of  the  Old  Test.-namfly,  the  Pentateai^ 
Proverta,  Ruth,  Canticles,  Ecclesiaste^  Lamentati^ 
and  Daniel.  Tbe  Pentateuch  was  edited  by  Amoim 
( Erlang.  1790-91, 8  vols.) ;  tbe  other  parts  bv  John  Ca^ 
d'Anne  de  Villoison  (Siraab.  1T84, 1  voL  8to).  Tbne 
is  no  evidence  that  Holmes  even  used  it  in  his  editkorf 
the  Sept.  De'  Rossi,  in  his  Varia  /.rciinv.  has  girta 
some  readings  of  it;  hut  so  long  as  the  whole  was  ax 
pnlilished,  no  certainty  tt  lo  its  tneriti  oc  demerits 
could  be  given.  Since  1676  the  entire  versioD  has  bcea 
given  to  the  public  in  the  edition  published  by  Ge^ 
hsRlt.  From  the  introduclion  of  the  editor,  ud  It* 
preface  by  Delitisch,  we  see  that  tbe  trannlatioii  «ss 
made  in  the  14tb  century  by  a  ceruin  Elisena  wha 
lived  at  the  court  of  Klurad  I  at  Brusa  and  Adrianspk. 
The  translator  was  a  Jew,  perhaps  a  Jewish  cmvcrt,  sa 
Gebhardl  thinks.     See  Grukk  VRnaiona. 

The  internal  character  of  the  verwon  sbowa  that  it 
■as  made  directly  from  the  Hebrew.    It  i 


VENETA  VERSIO  74 

TiMi  tint  grow  bactaiiMO*  must  pemde  the  dictioo. 
Tlut  the  MMoretic  test  w«a  the  twiis  of  the  tninsUtion 
omM  be  denieil.  No  itnportwit  nulinga  have  been 
distovered  in  U  which  «re  not  in  exiatiiig  Slesoretie 
H3S.,  DOT  my  pecali«t  to  it  which  are  preferable  Ui  the 
anniDHi  text.  Agieat  meny  variationi  may  be  traced 
to  the  confusion  {rota  the  ritnilarity  of  letters,  othen  to 
the  gnmmalical  ignorance  of  the  translator.  Whether 
the  MS.  he  lued  was  divided  Ihrougbout,  like  our  mod- 
em copies,  by  accents,  or  furnished  throughout  with  the 
premt  rowel  sysleni,  since  there  are  many  departures 
from  the  accents  and  vowel-poinla,  cannot  be  auted 
with  certainty.  That  the  innilator  consulted  the  Sept, 
and  olbet  Greek  vetsione  has  been  shown  beyond  a 
thidoT  of  doubt  by  Gebhardt.  Above  all,  he  followed 
David  Kimchi's  Liter  Ra^cam,  B-'O-lOn  1B0,  which 
beeonralledin  the  interpretation  of  words,  and  to  which, 
at  Gebhardt  sutes, "  pane  omnia  qua  Venet« 
propria  sunt  in  textu  Hebnico  inCerprelando  originem 
trahunu'  Now,  as  D.  Kimchi  ttourished  in  the  13th 
eenlurv,  Davidson's  statement  that  "the  version  must 
be  pdaccd  afler  the  9th  century"  most  be  given  up. 
Whether  the  copy  in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark's  was  cop- 
ied from  another  much  older,  as  Davidson  thinks,  or 
whether  it  is  the  original  ss  presented  by  cardinal  Bes- 
vrion  in  1468,  who,  according  to  Delitzsch,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pletbon,  better  known  as  Georgiue  Gemistus,  a  pupil 
and  friend  of  Elissaus  tha  translator,  will  depend  solely 
span  the  fiut  aa  to  who  the  author  of  the  versLon  was. 
Delitisch  himself  calls  his  hypothesiB  a  conjecture,  or, 
ID  use  bia  own  wonto,  "Jam  animum  despondebam, 
luem  raodeste,  uC  detet, 


IS  niB^^K  ia 


0  legiii 


onjeclur 


how  the  probatultty  of  £ 


He 


lived  ii-  .  ..         - 

Fiankl,  in  reviewing  Gebhardt's  edition  in  Grtti's  Jlfo- 
■utocAW/i,  1876,  p.  872  sq.,  thinks  that  Shemaria  of 
Negroponte  was  the  author  of  the  veision.  Now,  ad- 
mitting this  quid  pro  guo,  the  version  would  still  belong 
to  the  14ih  century,  and  the  probability  is  against  Da- 
viilson,  that  the  copy  preserved  in  9l  Mark's  was  copied 

Poc  the  interpretation  of  the  text  aod  the  history  of 
hermeneutica  the  Veneta  is  very  imporunt.  M  for  the 
linguistic  peculiarities  of  this  version,  it  contains  a  great 
many  words  not  found  in  dictionaries;  Ihus! 

ii.^it=O^F,  EiiHi.  itxyl.(l,ll,SSi  xixv.ll. 

i^p.ig:t-'\»r^.  Dent,  ilv,  E. 
iMfi6^,,!,«=hlS,  Oen.  ZTli,  14 

^^X«M.f=?|'>Sni3,  Gen.  xxi.  ST. 
A,oli*n.«=0">B«  IXp,  Frov,  ilv,  II. 
7»riuiin=n9T119,  Bnth  III,  B. 
*«<uu*.ii.«='ran,  Lav.  atll,  1«. 
h<vi><t«x>='1^1^  Nnmb.  lix,  U. 

.«».«iC-=^""»'30".o«n.  im,». 

t,\o™.«=R""3pn,  lient.  xxdl.ia,SL 
■rii.*.«=3!3''.  Gen.  t^x,n. 
x,Si,«,«=^J'',  0«n.  xnl, «. 

,™i™..w.i=n'iwn,Hoihi*,i- 

^■T^«o(rtB=*TS^3.  Nnmb.  iiil,IWv 
„,«BEl>Tc=ni1in3.Bcclea.il.»i  ill,l. 
ilu^»^a=^iS'a,  Lev.  zxr.  It. 
.,p^ftwT«=31t)n,Prov.vll,]*. 
{-mr'(»'=ITMa.  Kiod.  nvll,  t ;  xxxviil,  »■ 
nrt,~l^iiua=.'1tS,  Dumb,  niv,  >1. 
«.jiopoi.TJ-=bobO,  Prov.  Iv.Sl 
^o«g;.=.^83.  Lev.  III.  i,  10. 


}  VENETA  VERSIO 

^oprn.^<,Ta=a-<i-bx  Lev.  IZVl,  W. 
xii)>iit*"M=^3'  Oen.  xii1,ia. 

4.ix>NM<i=rinBC^,  Lev.  illl,  T,  s. 

a.w'=nm».  Pro».iiYi,S8. 

.l>.l.r<«=T>l!(n.  Gen.  Ii, «. 
Besides  these  words,  the  number  of  which  could  greatly 

of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  especially  of  proper  neuns. 
ThnsN  is  pronounced  like  a  iptridufcm*,  but,  w'  -■■-' 
lowed  by  an  i,  like  a  ^HrttaJ  ofprr.     Thus  -' ' 

a,  a,  "1  ate  like  fi,  t,  >■ 

n  la  mostly  like  a  splrltos  lenlc,  very  seldom  like  a  epl- 

1  Is  generally  =  »,  rarely  =  fl;   Ibna  nWri  =  na«W : 

iis(,"a=/'"W;«- 

n  ie  generBlly=x>  o" »n  also=splrilas  asper,  as  non 

OlST. 

1 1s  l.bnt  i  betoro  "l.as  OiDn"'=li(>i>»«xd(iir. 
3  Is  I  and  X. 
i,0,5=*,mv. 

O  Is  (.  Si  alD=(«aoMn,  qO"'=Hrf<»m. 
5  Is  either  splrltus  lenls  or 
the  middle  of  a  word. 

I ,  and  t,  aa  llffl-'Bs™- 


pls>i 


omitted  when  ID 


It  will  be  seen  that  no  definite  roles  can  be  laid  down. 

TbusSQla  is;Jif)ff(roi:,butD;'1T3iiiJipi(ifiiji  n'istis 
i8(iiwtl/H^i|butD''B'infiB7ra5pi35o<-  TheVenioVe- 
neta  does  not  compriK  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Test., 
but  only  the  Pentateuch,  Proverbs,  Rnlh,  Canticles,  Eo- 
clesiastes,  lamentations,  and  Daniel.  Gebhardl's  Gra~ 
cat  Ventttu  contains  in  the  introduction  all  the  ncMS- 


in  the  so-called  introductions  to  the  Old  Teeu  mu: 
supplemented  from  the  same.     To  give  the  read) 
idea  of  this  version,  we  subjoin  the  following   . 
ptocing  in  juxtaposition,  by  way  of  contrast,  i 
passages  from  the  Sept. : 

Vtntta.  Gan.  II, «  S4 


Ail<  1 

™.^ 

»» 

Mnhfiip>.«-^*i^ 

— ^": 

.^  Tnt  v«  ( 

TWtlT 

li^ 

.»  ui 

"i%S 

tt^r 

&rr:. 

"' 

j?;"' 

,s. ." 

r» 

7a,  "\^.  iTP" 

wfi  ™; 

B 

S 

j£iz 

v.! 

".w" 

t^j. 

tii 

IVi  t!,. 

^,,  lal  i.ip 

>i«ete 

'*? 

*.;..- 

.,io.  „i,i,. 

,:~,-„ ...  a,. 

.pof 

rj,t 

t^:^: 

iS.  ym. 

VENETOGREEK  VERSION      7M      VENI, CREATOR  SFDilTUS 


K". 


Venetua.  Gboro,  >  Luthcnn  tbeologUn  irF  Ger- 
mia)',iTubom>tVeneidig,  in  Pnuaia,  whence  heu  «1m 
called  Kcncd^.  He  Mudied  U  Kdnigabei);  uid  Wic- 
Mnbeig;  vu  promolcd  in  ISfiO  u  doctor  of  theology; 
and  appointed  in  165!  proreuor  of  theology  at  KSnige- 
berg.  Beiug  opposed  to  the  doctriuea  of  Osiander,  he 
bad  Ifl  leave  his  proreasonhip,  and  went  to  Rostock  M 
profeseoT  of  theology  and  paator  of  St.  I^iculaua.  la 
1I>68  he  was  made  supenntendeat  it  Colberg,  in  Pome- 
ad  bishop  of  Ponezan ;  and  died  u  his  episcopal  see  in 
Liebenmnhl,  Nov.  3, 1574.  He  wrote  an  expoaition  on 
tba  Epistle  to  the  RomuiB  in  aennons.  and  ■  paraphrase 
on  the  Lord's  Prayer.  See  Aniuld,  Uiilorie  der  i^n^i- 
Urr/iichm  Vtavtrrildt ;  Fieher,  Thtalnm  Eradilorum; 
KollinB,  BtbKoAiea  KobSium  Theologorum ;  Jocher,  A  U- 
fftnmrt  GiUhrtm-Ltrikon,  u  v.     (&  P.) 

Veueala,  Lorexeo  da,  a  VeDeiiin  painter  of  the 
14th  century,  is  commended  by  Zaneiti  for  hia  altai- 
[uece  in  the  Churcli  of  St.  Anthony  of  Caatcilo,  fat 
which  he  waa  paid  three  hundred  gold  ducata.  Lanii 
•ttributea  to  him  a  freaco,  representing  Daniel  in  the 
Lion't  Dm,  in  the  Church  of  Heiiaratta,  near  Bologna, 
which  appears  to  have  been  completed  about  IS'D. 
SeeSpooner,£ioj.  Ilut.<ifthe  Fine  ArU,h.v. 

VeDDiiano,  Aoostino,  a  celebrated  Italian  en- 
graver, wai  born  in  Venice  near  the  close  of  the  16th 
century.  He  studied  with  Marcaiitnnio  Raimondi  un- 
til the  death  of  Raphael,  in  1620,  when  be  worked  for 
himself.  The  large  print  of  the  Stdeloiu,  or  Butyinff- 
place,  sfler  fiaccio  fiandinelli,  is  his  masterpiece. 
Among  hit  other  worlu  are,  The  Itroflita  Calhenag 
lit  Mama  (Raphael)-— TAe  Four  Kwmgtliil;  and  a 
tfatiril]/  (after  Julio  Romano) :— JfnMocre  of  the  Inatt- 
ocnff  (Bandinelli):— TAc  LaU  Supper  (copied  from  ■ 
wood-cut  of  AlbrechtDUrer,  Nothing  is  known  of  him 
after  1586, 

VeasettiiCB  (Or.  iiai),  the  heaiben  goddess  of 
TBlribution  (Lat.  Juililia),  described  as  the  daughter  of 
ZeuB  (Uesiod,  Op.  26G)  and  ThemU  (TSeog.  9U2)  and 
the  coadjutor  {wapiipac)  of  tbe  fotmer  (Sophoc  (Ed. 
CoL  1384i  Arrian,  AIkt.  iv,  9;  see  Hontfaucon,  Ai^. 
I,  ii,  S).  The  punishment  of  murderers  is  particularly 
■scribed  to  hei;  and,  therefore,  besides  being  the  god- 
dess of  poniabment  in  a  general  sense,  she  is  olten  to  be 
eon^ered  the  aatne  as  Nemesis  or  Vengeance  (Eurip. 
Med.  1S90;  Dion  Halic  xi,37i  ace  Uitscherlich,  ad 
Horae^  (M  iii,  %  32)  Pslaiset,  Obwrv.  p.  347).  The 
word  occurs  in  Acta  xxviii,  4,  but  i  ts  signidcance  is  there 
disguised  in  the  A.  V^  which  renders  it  "justice."    See 

Venl.  Creator  Spliltua  (Cum*,  Crralor  Spirit), 
is  the  beginning  of  a  grand  Pent«costal  hymn,  general- 
ly ascribed  to  Cbarletuagne.    The  original  runs  thus : 
"VanlCrestorSplrllnB, 
Hcntes  loorum  vinita, 

((db  n  cressti  psctora. 
"QulPanditasdleerls 
Delqnadnnnm    *'    '    ' 


Xisplrltallt  UDCUc 


(go  Is.  call  las 


■aomPatiM 

IS  gnttnr*. 

"Acceude  lumen  lenalbiu, 

luFunde  amorem  cordlbaa, 

luflrma  nosiri  caroorla 

Viitnta  Drmans  perpctL 

"Hostem  repellas  longliis 
Pscemqne  dnnre  protlnoiv 

"  Per  It  sclimos.  da,  Pstnm, 
Noecamns  alqiie  Fllinm, 
I'e  nlrinaqnc  Hplrltom 


Nublpque 

Charisma  BanctI  Splritns.]"  | 

This  bymD  holds  s  peculiar  place  among  tbe  irt» 
ures  which  the  ancient  Cbarcb  has  transmitted  loea 
aerrice  of  song.  It  is  not  only  a  precious  heir)o«D,lM 
marks  a  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  whtt.  a 
great  contest  decided,  the  truth  vindicated  enteted  iate 
the  very  life  of  the  Church,  and  rang  forth  in  gtadHoe 
accents  of  praise,  Tberefore  it  ia,  and  ever  will  to- 
tinoe,  the  grand  Pentecostal  hymn-^not  merely  Utm 
ita  coDtenta,  suUime  aa  these  ate,  but  aa  the  earliest  fsll 
expression,  in  tbe  language  of  praise,  of  the  scriptarsl 
doctrine  concerning  the  work  and  the  peiasD  of  ibt 
Holy  Gbost,  attained  after  long  and  bitter  SghL  Bm 
that  battle  has  rolled  away;  not  ctcd  its  most  distaat 
echoea  are  heard  in  the  hymn ;  and  the  V'tm  CrrBUr 
is  not  a  battle-song,  not  even  one  of  victoiy,  but  rf  tri- 
umph and  praise  in  the  enjoyment  of  tbe  fruits  of  tid- 
tory.  Occupying  tbe  roost  adranced  postion.  and,  in- 
deed, the  key  to  the  whole,  in  the  doctrine  of  tbe  ps»- 
ceseioo  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  and  S«, 
holding  it  securely  against  all  adrcrsarits,  the  diueh 
banla  forth  in  prayer  for  hia  coming  and  for  bis  wip- 
ing, and  in  praise  to  his  person,  in  that  grand,  fuU- 
loned  Pentecostal  hymn  of  the  Fori  Crtalor. 

As  already  stated,  popular  tradition  has  ascribed  tbe 
Vera  Creator  to  Charlemagne,  but  this  view  i»  wheBy 
untenaUe.  The1camedMone(7/y>ai>i /.or.  :V(id:^ri.i. 
241)  eUtes  that  this  hymn  existed  in  MSS.  prior  ti>  iht 
date  of  Charlemagne.     Besides,  that  emperor  wss  b» 

Greek-'to  compose  such  a  hymn  in  daasica]  metir.  •> 
strictly  observed  at  in  this  case.  On  the  other  tiaoJ. 
tbe  evidence  in  favor  of  its  composition  by  Gi^corr  ibr 
Great  is  quite  preponderating.  Its  contents  and  iuten 
alike  remind  us  of  this  author.  To  at  least  seven  sot 
of  its  twenty-four  lines  we  can  append  strictly  panBri 
passages  and  eipiessions  from  the  undoubted  wriiingi 
of  Gregory.    Besides,  it  resembles  not  only  in  cbatae- 


!ofce 


n  pecoh 


if  Gregory,  of  which  eight  are  con- 
tained in  the  Benedictine  edition   of  his  WDfka,whilr 

pen.  Again,  the  character  of  prayer  mingled  wiib 
praise,  and  the  classical  metre  with  partial  ibymes,  on 
also  peculiar  to  Grcgor)-,  The  writer  evidently  knew 
Greek,  as  appears  from  the  correct  quantity  in  thtwoni 
Paractitai,  in  line  6,  whereas  it  is  incorrectly  giien  in 
line  26.  Hence  the  whole  of  this  concluding  atania. 
which  fre  have  pot  in  brackets,  is  evidently  a  spoiioas 
addition.  It  is  needless  in  itself,  since  the  doxoki^  is 
already  contained  in  the  four  previous  lines;  and  it  dif- 
fers from  tbe  rest  of  the  hymn  in  its  wrong  mKritea- 
tion,  and  by  its  regular  rhyme.  lastly,  Uiegtay,  is 
bis  hymns,  not  unfrequently  borrows  from  Ambtoae, 
and  this  ia  also  notably  the  case  in  the  ran  CrttMoT. 
Nnt  to  speak  of  several  imitaliona,  lines  16  aod  16  an 
taken  word  for  word  from  a  hymn  of  Amhnse,  tbe  loa 
StdemploT  Genliun  (q.  v.). 

The  historical  position  a(  l^ad  Crralor  in  ngard  la 
tbe  great  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  GhtW 


TENI,  REDEMPTOR  GENTIUM    J45       VENI,  SANCTE  SPIRITDS 


lo  iC  Ancienlly  it  was  >un(;  not  only  at  Whiiaantide, 
but,  u  Mill  in  Ibe  RocDan  Catbolic  Churcb,  on  the  mou 
•olenin  occaiiona — al  Ibe  rlectiun  of  a  pope  and  orbiih- 
opa,  at  the  ooranitioa  of  klnga,  at  aj-Dods,  and  at  tbe 
devation  and  truulitioa  of  the  reiiea  of  aiioCa.  lu 
"man  than  ordinary  worth  tad  dignity"  bivc  been  rec- 
ognUed  bj  the  Church  of  England, "  when,  diamiaung 
•«ery  other  hymn,  abe  baa  yet  retained  tbia  in  the 
officea  tui  the  ordaiaing  or  prinu  and  the  conaecraling 
ofbtabopa."  It  is  certainly  one  of  the  moat  magniHcent 
CMBpoaitioDi,  coingliiig  prayer  witb  praise— grand,  fuU- 
efaarded,  rich  in  tone  and  melody,  and  at  the  aame  time 
■oft,  sweet,  and  touching.  In  a  singular  manner  it  unites 
the  doctrinal  witb  the  practical — the  fuU-roanded  atate- 
ment  of  scriptnial  tmth  with  cooadoua  need  and  Joyons 

This  bymn  has  been  tranalated  repeatedly  into 
liah  and  Uerman.  The  rDUowing  in  English  ia  i 
readeriog  by  an  auhnown  hand,  first  introduced  into 
the  office  for  the  ordination  of  priests  upon  the  revisian 
of  the  litorgy  of  the  Church  of  England  in  1662,  and 
nma  thus: 


:onie^I 
lud  III 


And 


oly  Ghnal 


"Thr  blessed  nnclLon  (rom  sboTS 
Is  comfort,  lire,  and  fire  of  lore. 
Enable  wllh  perpetual  light 
The  duloesa  of  our  blluded  slgbb 

"  Anoint  and  cheer  our  soiled  face 
With  the  abondsnce  of  Ihj  grace. 
Keep  far  onr  foes ;  eiie  peace  at  hoi 
Wtaeie  Ihon  art  guide,  no  111  can  con 


lo  thy  et 


rnal  merit, 
loly  Bplril'  ■• 


Father,  Son, . 

In  GcTOun  it  is  found  in 

lock,  fUinigsreld,  Raroboch,  eta    (E  P.) 

Tenl,  Redamptor  a«lltil1tn  (Come,  Radrtmer 
of  the  natieni),  is  the  beginning  of  the  famoua  Adrent 
hymn  written  by  St.  Ambrose.  It  ia  "  tbe  beat  of  the 
Ambroeian  hymns,  full  of  faith,  nigged  rigor,  austere 
■impUcity,  and  IxJd  contrasts."  The  German  hymn- 
book  ia  indebted  lo  this  immortal  hj'mD  of  SL  Ambrose 
for  one  of  its  cboiceat  treasures:  namely,  John  Frank'i 
Adrent  hymn,  commencing— 

"  KoouD.  Heldenhalland  LSugeld, 
Komm.  fChAnile  Sanaa  dieaer  Welt, 
Laa*  abwirta  Ram  men  delnen  Bcbein, 
Denn  to  wll]  Oott  geboran  aeln." 

x  It  ia  not  a  ttanalation," aays Trench,  but  "(free  recom- 
ponlion  of  the  ariginal,  beside  which  it  is  wetl-nigh  wor- 
thy to  atand."    The  Snt  lines  of  the  original  tun  thna ; 

"Veul.Redemptor  ireiillon, 


Tmctnsqne  Yen  trie  Boralt,"  etc 
It  hn  been  translated  into  English  by  Mrs.  Chailea 
Neale  and  olhera.    The  latest  is  that  of  Dr.  R.  Palmer, 
%iyA  givta  in  SchalTs  Chritl  in  Song : 
"Othon  Redeemer  of  onr  racel 

Come,  show  the  Virgin's  Hon  to  earth  j 

ieHvery  am  ndmlre  the  grace; 

WorlhT  a  Akl  thr  hamanlilrih  I 

Twaa  bj'  no  mortal  will  or  aid. 

Bat  by  tlie  HaW  Spirit's  might. 

That  Saab  the  Word  oraadwaa  made, 

A  babe  T«l  waiting  Kit  tbe  light,"  etc. 


ISth  century.  It  became  belter  known  through  Lu- 
ther'a  tranalation,  ^un  jhnitin  der  lleidat  HtUand  (Eng. 
transL  in  Pick,  Luther  at  a  Hymmit).  It  is  also  fouod 
in  tbe  coUectians  of  Latin  and  German  hymni  of  Biiaa- 
ler,  Kmmli,  Kanigsfeld,  and  others.     (&  P.) 

Vent,  Bancte  Spiiitna  {Comt,  Holg  Spirii). 

This  hymn,  which  Trench  dcclarea  to  be  the  lovelkat 
of  all  tbe  bymna  in  tbe  whole  circle  of  Latin  aacred  po- 
etry, and  which  dean  Stanley  calla  "  tbe  most  beautiful 
of  all  Latin  hymns,"  ia  generally  ascribed  to  Robert  II, 
king  of  France.  Whether  be  really  waa  its  author  or 
not  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  Trench  da«e  not  hesi- 
tate to  ascribe  it  to  him.  But  whoever  waa  its  suchoi, 
the  Cburch  has  reason  to  be  thankful  for  this  precious 
Jewel  of  aacred  poetry.  Thia  bymn,  which  is  appointed 
in  the  Roman  Church  for  Whilaontide,  and  is  contained 
iu  Lutbei'B  form  qf  Ordtnation,  runs  thus  in  tbe  orig- 

"Venl,  Sancle  Splrllos, 
Btemlile  Collins 
LncietniD  radium. 

*Tenl,I.nmenoordln!nj 
"  Conaolator  optlme, 
Dnlcis  bospes  anlmie, 
Dnlce  rerrlgetinmi 

In  lestn  temperlea, 
In  fletu  solstlum. 


Beple  cordis  In  time 
Tnomm  Udell  udl 


Iavq  qaod  est  sordldam, 
Rln  quod  est  arldum. 
Bnus  qnod  est  aauclum  I 


it  lanouldt 


"J>a  tnla  fldsllbns 
In  te  coufldentlbDB 
Sacmm  septenarlnm ; 

Bisaln^l'a'eSlnm''"'' 
Da  perenne  gandlnm.** 

It  has  very  oiten  been  translated  into  English,  and 
one  of  the  latest  is  the  translation  made  by  dean  Stan- 
ley, running  thus : 

'•  Come,  Holy  Spirit,  from  abova. 
And  from  the  realms  of  light  and  lorn 

Thine  own  bright  Tsya  Impart. 
Come,  Father  of  the  fstherte**, 
Come,  Olier  of  all  happiness. 
Coma.  Lamp  of  STery  heart : 
"Othon,  ofeomfiirtetethe  best, 
„...._  ... —  ..  welcome  gnest, 

„  , —  life's  long  care. 

Onr  shadow  from  the  world's  fierce  glaraa 


Nothhig  Is  strong  or  holy. 
"  Wash  out  etch  dark  snd  sordid 
Water  each  dry  and  arid  plnln. 

Raise  qp  tbe  bruised  reed. 
Enkindle  wbst  Is  uild  and  cblll, 
Betni  tbe  >l1ITsnd  slubbi'rn  nil 

Onlde  those  that  gnldnnce  nn 
"Give  to  the  good,  nhn  And  In  th 
Tbe  Splrit-B  prrfkct  lll»rtr, 

Thy  sevBofnld  power  and  lori 


Olva 


ugjtllng 


irengih  lu 


Is  their  rs 


As  this  hymn  has  held  a  place  with  the  most  esteem. 
J  in  both  the  Romish  and  the  Protestant  Church,  il 
tuld  not  fail  that  Germany  abould  also  coatilhaie  hei 


TENIA  r- 

■htm  In  ila  tmuUtion ;  and  thu^  u  ttiiy  x  IMI, 
it  «>*  tniulMed  by  WiUel:  Koran,  heitigtr  Gtitl, 
Kahnr  GoU,  and  bu  evet  liucc  foand  iu  admiren. 

(a  P.) 

Venia  (/uror)  U  an  ancient  term,  »ignifying  ■  mo- 
DUticlokniDfreTErencejKapecc,  or  greeting,  with  which 
■ttangen  and  digniLuiei  were  received  on  viuling  the 


of  the  law 


Venial  3:ii  i*  ■  «n  which,  according  to  the  theol- 
ogy inveuled  by  the  Mhoolmen  and  ailopled  by  the 
Church  of  Rome,  dots  not  bring  apiritual  death,  or  does 
not  turn  it  away  from  iu  ultiowte  end.  Aa  a  violation 
<iiid,  auch  a  sin  is  Bumewhal  aubverrive  of 
nevcitfaelem,  it  is  too  imal]  and  inajgnifi- 
Uy  aubvert  it,  and  ihenfore  pardonable, 
re  divided  into  oAffcHrf  venial  sina,  where 
tne  matter  orthf  sin  ia  very  amall,  and  tut^dine  venial 
aina,  where  the  aiuner  commita  the  Iransgreauon  with- 
out full  adverunce  ut  conaent.  It  ia  certain  that,  u  the 
amallett  aina  contain  in  them  rebellion  agaiiiat  Ibe  en- 
ure mortal,  or  deserving  of  death;  and,  on  the  other 
hind,  there  ia  no  ain  ao  great  that  it  will  nni  be  forgiven 
on  repentance  and  failli  in  the  atoiiemenl.  Hence  the 
diatinclion  between  reaial  wa  and  mortal  una  will  not 
hold.    See  Uoutal  Sin. 

Venice.  Council  op  (Conn/ucn  Vnltam).  Yen- 
Ice  i*  a  fortiaed  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  tbe  piovince  of 
the  same  name,  sitoaled  in  the  lagoons  of  Venice,  on 
raghty  islands,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  An  ecelesi- 
aalieal  council  w«»  held  here  in  1177  by  pope  Alexan- 
der III.  asiialed  by  hia  cardinals  and  aeveral  bishops 
from  Italy,  Germiny,  Lombardy,  and  Tuscany.  The 
emperor  Fredericli,  who  bad  previously  renounced  the 
achum  and  made  peace  with  Alexander,  was  present. 
The  pope  pronounced  sentence  of  excoiomunicalion 
against  all  troubleis  of  the  peace.  See  Uansi,  ConcU.  x, 
1481. — Landon,  J/owoI  of  Cowiciit,  p.  674. 

Venlsr,  Pitrito,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  in 
Ddine  in  the  Utter  part  of  the  Iilh  century.  He  stud- 
ied at  Venice  and  executed  many  works,  both  in  oil  and 
fnaco.  Hia  best  worka  are  said  to  be  aome  frescos  in 
llie  ceiling  of  the  Church  of  San  Jicopo  at  Udine.  He 
died  in  1737.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  llUt.  o/lht  Fine  A  rl; 

Vsnllla,  in  ancient  Italian  mythology,  was  a  uater 
of  Amata  (queen  of  the  Latins  and  mother  of  Lavinis), 
mother  of  Tunius.  She  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
wife  of  Faunua. 

Venison  (^7?  or  FIT'S,  hvaling  [as  often],  hence 
the  product  ofthechase,i.e.  food),  tbe  Sesh  of  any  wild 
animal  (Uen.  xxv,  28;  xxvii,  8-81).     See  UuNTi.ia. 

Venlte  Adorimna  (Oh  comr,  in  m  vorthip)  is 
the  refrain  of  the  hymn  Aiatc  >iilEfei,sung  at  Chrisl- 

:   VtmiU,  "  O, 


*hale  of  the  93th  Psalm.  Ilut 
]g  considered  as  referring  chiefly 
een  omitted  in  tbe  American  re- 
aupplied  by  two  venies  from  Ihe 


Tenlna  (or  Vui  Veen),  Omo,  an  eminent  Dutch 
punter,  wia  horn  at  Leyden  in  156S.  He  received  a 
classical  education,  and  waa  instructed  in  design  by 
Isaac  Nicbolaa,  and  in  painting  by  Jodocua  Van  Win- 


6  VENNING 

gben.  On  account  of  the  civil  wars,  he  retired  to Llegt, 
and,  through  the  influence  of  cardinal  GniAeek,  ba 
went  to  Rome,  where  be  entered  the  school  of  FederuD 
Zuccaro,  at  the  same  time  studying  diligently  the  wofti 
of  the  masters.  He  remained  levenl  yeata  in  Italy, 
and  then  set  out  fur  home.  He  atopped  on  the  way  at 
Virnni  in  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and  at  Uunich 
and  Cologne,  where  be  executed  aeveial  wotfca  fer  the 
duke  of  Bavaria.  On  hia  arrival  at  BruBela,  he  entmd 
into  the  service  of  Alessandro  Fa mese,  prince  of  I^anaa, 
at  that  time  governor  of  the  Netherlands.  He  painted 
the  pottrait  of  the  prince  and  aevcial  historical  nrk^ 
which  established  bis  reputation  as  one  of  ibe  fnrcDiesl 
artists  of  his  time.  After  the  death  of  Fameae,  be  man 
to  Antwerp,  where  be  was  employed  to  rxecule  some 
works  for  the  churches  and  public  edifices,  and  nfieoed 
an  academy  in  which  he  had  the  honor  of  in^>^>ctillg 
Rubens.  He  afterwards  went  to  Bniasels  in  tbe  •errice 
of  the  archduke  Albert,  where  he  renuioed  until  his 
death,  in  1634.  Among  his  most  imponant  paintinHi 
are  tbe  Lait  Svpptr,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp:— 
the  Marriape  of  SI.  CnHurimt,  in  the  Church  of  tbe  Ca- 
puchins at  Bruaselst^the  SmrrettiaTi  n/" Loaorat, at 
Ghent: — and  the  .4 c/oialtoii  tf  tie  Mogi,  at  bugsa. 


He 


among  otliers,  the  IVur  iflht  Balatiaiu,  from  Tadtu 
~lloraa'$EmUemt,mlhOtteTtalmii!—LifiofTkom- 
at  Aglimu; — and  tinbiemt  of  Ijovt,  Divine  ond  Pt^ 
fmt.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  Uiil.  of  lit  Fnu  Ant,t.i. 

Venn,  Homy,  a  jhous  clergi'man  of  tbe  Chnich 
of  England,  was  bom  at  Barnes,  Surrey,  March  S.  I'U, 


a  long  lini 


bad  been  cle^^men  in  tbe  English  Church,  and  waa 
early  destined  by  hit  parents  to  perpetuate  [be  *uc«a- 

.tesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduateit  in  174i; 
he  also  obtained  a  Keeslat  fellowship  in  Jeaoa  College, 
where  he  remaineil  until  1743.  He  look  holy  onten 
in  1747,  but  was  not  yet  converted.  Upon  due  medi- 
tation, however,  he  waa  led  to  see  his  true  condiiion, 
and  sought  and  obtained  rest  far  his  souL  He  iraa 
ever  after  a  pious  and  devoted  Christian.  In  1750  he 
accepted  tfaa  curadea  of  Friday  Street,  Londoo,  asd 
West  Hursley,  Surrey;  and  in  HM  be  was  appointed 
curate  of  Clnpham,  which  he  served  five  yeari,  preach- 
ing the  doctrines  of  grace  fur  which  bis  labors  were  m 
faroous.  He  became  vicar  of  K< 
rector  of  YeUing,  Iluntingdonsli 
at  Clspham,  June  !4. 179T.  Hit 
obscure  country  parish ;  but  Mr. 
students  of  Cambridge,  and  exe 


:raeeld  in  176 


in  bad  a. 


ighly  beiK^ 
ciai  inuuence  in  iniuaing  into  tneir  minus  evangelical 
prii>ciple  and  holy  aspirations.  Such  were  RobinsBO 
of  Leiccater,  Simeon  of  Cambridge,  Prof.  Farriih.  and 
othet^  Among  olher  works,  he  published  TIk  Com- 
plett  Daly  ofMm.or  a  SgtUia  of  Dtxirm/t  and  Prae- 
liail  ChritHamlg  (1763),  a  work  which  baa  obtaiiied 
great  popularity.  Hia  Lift  and  Lrltm  were  puUidted 
in  1S3I,  edited  by  his  grandson,  Rev.  Henry  Tenik  Set 
Chureh  of  England  M/ipiizi«f,  i,S9D;  CAHiiiam  Gtar- 
diait,  p.  401,  441 ;   AUibone,  DicL  of  Brit,  nad  J  awr. 

Venn,  John,  a  cleig}'man  of  the  Church  of  Enf> 
land,  son  of  Henry  Venn  uf  Barnes  (it.  v.),  waa  bom  at 
CUpham  in  176S.  He  was  educated  at  Sidney  Sussex 
College,  Cambridge;  instituted  to  the  living  of  Litlk 
Dunham,  Norfolk,  in  17S3 ;  became  rector  of  Clapham  ia 
1793.  Ue  died  at  Gapbam,  July  I,  I81B.  Hii  SriwwxK, 
with  MtiHoir,  were  published  in  three  lolumes  (IB14- 
16),  He  also  contHbuted  many  valuable  article*  to  Ibt 
CArufAnt  Obtrctr,  and  wrote  sons  minor  worka  Stt 
CiiitUm  Maatver,  1818,  p.  479;  AUibone,  Did.  ofBiH. 
aarl  A  tier.  A  uliort,  s.  v. 

Venning,  Ralph.  ■  NonconfonBist  divine,  was  boan 
■bout  1630,  and  educated  in  Emmanuel  College,  Caot- 
briilge.    He  does  not  aeem  to  have  bad  anj  pi 


VENTmiUS  II 

ia  the  ChDTch,  except  the  lectureship  of  St.  OUve'a, 
Souchwmrk,  rrom  which  h>  wis  ejected  for  Noneonfarmi- 
(y.  Much  of  hii  tiroo  wm  given  to  literuy  punuitL 
Ue  died  Uaich  10,  1678. 

TMltldlUB  (fullr  P.  Vkstidius  Bamus),  ■  Piceni- 
u  who  had  been  uken  laplire  by  the  Konmis,  inil  sf- 
terwaidi  roae  through  niinj  low  empluymenu  to  the 
nnk  of  comul  in  consequence  of  hii  mililar?  aid  dur- 
ing thf  wn  of  the  triumvirite.  He  wu  sent  by  Mare 
Anton?  at  his  legate  into  Asia  (B.C.89),  aud  in  the 
end  took  poaCtHon  of  neariy  the  enliie  country,  defeat- 
ing the  PaTthiuii.  and  Unally  gaining  a  triumph  at 
Bonwi,  aC.  36,  These  exploits  are  recited  by  Jo»e- 
phua  (ahI.  xiv,  15  sq.)  and  the  Boman  historians.  See 
Smith,  Did.  o/  Ctau.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Venttirti,  Gioacchiho,  an  Italian  philosophei  of 
the  scholastic  type,  was  bom  at  Palermo,  Dec  8,  1792. 
He  early  became  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Thestines. 
of  which  he  was  soon  electeil  superior-genenl,  and  held 
■  high  poMtion  in  the  Cbureh.  He  was  a  prominent 
aopporter  of  the  reronni  inaugurated  by  Pins  IX,  and 
a  wann  champion  of  papular  rights.  But  in  philoso- 
phy he  maintained  the  rundamental  idea  of  schotasti- 
eum,  placing  the  authorily  of  the  Cburch  abo7e  reason, 
human  conadettce,  or  any  other  sorereignty.  He  died 
at  VersaiUes.  Aug.  3, 1861.  The  following  are  hia  chief 
works:  Dt  3ielJuidoPkaoiophawii{Wi»y.—I}tlaVrait 
ttdtla  FaktK  PkilaapkU  (185!):— La  Traction  tt 
la  StmipitagiBU  dt  la  FhilotophU  (1854)  -.—La  Raiim 
PUhtopkique  fl  Calholiqiu  {lSbi):^La  PhilaiopkU 
CAn/iniK  (1861).  Sea  Ueberwt^,  Hittory  of  PkUoio- 
?*y.ii,51l- 

Venttulnl,  Oasparo,  a  painter  of  Femra,  flout- 
iihed  about  1594.  He  flnt  studied  under  Domenico 
Uona,  and  then  went  to  Genoa,  where  he  became  the 
disciple  of  Benianlo  CaslellL  He  executed  some  works 
for  the  cbu^(;he^  but  wrought  mostly  for  iudiriduala. 
See  Spooiier,  Biog.  HiiU  o/lkt  Fat  A  rl;  a.  v. 

Veotmllll,  Kail,  a  ProlesUnt  theologian  of  Ger- 
man v  and  doctor  of  philosophy,  was  bom  at  Brunswick, 
Jan.'SO,  177],  and  died  in  18*9.  He  is  the  author  of, 
Gait  der  kritiiditn  Philmopkit  in  BrzirAang  attf  Moral 
K.  Rrliyian  (Aliona,  \l'i6-91):~N<HMidte  GftchiclUt 
in  sraium  PropHtten  can  S'lOfrrlh  (  1800-!,  S  pis. ) : 
—KudUrag  datu  (Copenhagen,  180i) :— GewAicAte  dei 
(7ralrisfnrAinu  in  Ziuanunmhung  mil  der  luifilr- 
lieJirn  GetdiklUe  da  groaat  Proplultn  (ibid.  18U7-9, 3 
Tols.).  Under  the  name  of  Phosphor  he  published  Vvm 
t^igidiot  Sclamdti,  wit  toU/ier  tick  mueriiek  in  dtm 
Sirtilt  der  prtmiiickBi  Rtgierui^  mil  der  r6mitcke« 
Curie  IT  SduiH  galeUl  kal  (Bmnswick,  1839).  See 
Winer,  HandbacA  der  Iktolop.  Littralar,  i,  284,  379;  ii, 
SOS;  Zuehold,  BfM.7'A«>%.ii,995i  Thtologitdta  Oid- 
nrtat-Lrxiitn,  s.  v,     (R  P.) 

VanQlna,  in  ancient  Italian  mythology,  was  a  La- 
tinian  whom  Latinusfmitleisly  sent  to  Diomede,in  Arpi, 
M  secDTe  help  against  fneas. 

Venn*,  the  goddess  of  (sexusl)  love  among  the  Bo- 
mauB,  correiponding  to  Apkrodilt  among  the  Greeks, 
and  in  later  times  confounded  with  the  (Cental  deities 
represented  by  My  litla,Ashtoreth  (q.T.),etc  The  popu- 
lar myths  coacerning  her  nrigin  are  varioua.  By  some 
sheisreprcsentedss  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dionc, 
hat  she  was  puetir-illy  said  to  hare  sprung  from  the 
foam  of  the  sea.  She  became  the  wife  of  Vulcan,  but 
her  amours  with  nearly  all  the  gods  and  with  many 
mortals  wen  the  scandal  ol  heaven  and  earth.  She  is 
depicted  under  varioua  aspects,  but  mostly  those  of  un- 

Al  the  liMliiiii  of  the  world,  called  gtatlrir,  the  Te- 
nos  Urania  of  'he  Boraana  and  Rreeks  was  sometimes 
depicted  as  Androgyne,  aud  even  in  a  manner  still  more 

IhatVenus  was  feminine,  but  powerless  if  alone.  When 
•be  was  delineated  with  a  mural  crown,  the  idea  em- 
bvdied  wu  that  she  became  •  mother  by  her  awa  in- 


VENUS 

It  power.  Her  frequent  symbol  was  the  crescent 
.  See  Qi'KEx  or  H&avkh.  Layard  {Ninntk,  ii, 
346)  idenliSes  tier  with  the  Hera  of  classical  antiquity, 
and  stales  that  among  the  Assyrians  she  sometimes  held 
a  serpent  in  one  hand,  as  in  an  Egyptian  tablet.  As  a 
female  winged  figure,  partly  naked,  and  presiding  over 
generation,  she  is  introduced  into  embroideries  of  robes 
in  the  most  ancient  palace  of  Hinerva.  But  the  ab- 
sence of  ber  obscene  symbols  in  the  Aasyiian  monu- 
ments in  general  is  in  remarkable  conlrast  with  repre- 
sentations in  other  Asiatic  religions.  Rude  images  of 
this  goddess  in  baked  clay  have  been  disinterred  among 
the  ruiua  of  Bagdad  (Layard,  /tufyboii  P-  ^')- 


Figures  of  the  Assyrian  Venne. 

Her  irorship  was  of  genersl  prevalence  among  the 
pagan  nations  of  antiquity,  and  meets  us  at  two  or 
three  points  of  special  Biblical  interest.  It  Was  an  im- 
pure form  of  the  same  worship  which  presented  its  more 
scientific  aspect  in  that  of  the  temple  at  Ephcaua  (q.  t.) — 
the  peisoniScalion  of  the  productive  po»en  of  nature; 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  the  same  reUlion  between 
the  ritea  at  Ephesus  and  Sardis  B»d  those  at  Piphos 
that  exists  even  at  this  time  between  whsl  is  called  the 
right-handed  and  the  left-handed  worship  of  the  god- 
dess Parvati  in  India.  Among  many  proofs  of  this,  the 
image  of  the  idol  Itaelf  mav  be  addueeil.  It  was  not  a 
human  Hgure.  Tadtus  {I'litl.  ii,  S)  descrihes  it  as  con- 
ical, and  states  that  the  reason  why  Venus  should  be 
worshipped  under  such  a  form  was  not  clear.  Haximus 
Tyriiu  (ZMu.Tili,  8)  apeska  of  it  as  a  white  pyramidi 
and  there  can  be  nu  doubt  that  it  was  intended  to  rep- 
resent the  same  idea  as  the  conical  stone  of  which,  in 
later  times,  Heliogahalus  announced  himself  to  be  the 
priest.  Artemis  at  Kphesus,  the  gun  at  Emesa,  and 
Aphrodite  at  Paphoa  were  symbols  or  personiUcaliuns 
of  the  same  attribute — the  universal  mother;  the  plas- 
tic or  all-forming  deity,  and  the  productive  impulse  of 
usture,  were  ell  middle  terms  for  the  diviiii  creating 
energy-.  Unhsppily  the  impurities  of  the  East  were 
transt'erred  to  Psphos  (q.  v.),  and  the  worship  of  Venus 
became  a  scandal  even  to  the  pagan  worliL  The  tem- 
ple St  this  city  was  like  that  of  Astarte  at  Carthage, 
and  the  episode  of  Thammuz  was  introduced  into  the 
myth  with  a  change  of  name  to  Adonis.  It  appears, 
tno,  that  models  of  the  sacred  image  were  sold  at  Ps- 
phos, Just  as  silver  shrines  were  at  Ephesus;  and 
AthenBUs  (xv,  18)  tells  ■  story  of  one  Erostraltis  who 
was  saved  from  shipwreck  through  the  possession  of 
such  an  image. 

VENUS  {Frav),  in  Northern  fable.  In  Thuringu 
then  is  said  to  have  lived  a  feen-queen  named  Fran 
Venus,  who  chose  the  HOrselberg  as  her  province. 
About  her  she  collected  a  ravishing  court  of  joy  and 
bliss,  and  they  who  became  her  subjects  were  over- 
hiaded  with  all  (be  happiness  and  enjoyment  which  the 
mnet  licentious  pswions  might  desire;  but  ibey,  how- 
ever, lost  their  soul's  sslratian  thereby.  Among  the 
thus  living  persons,  the  fabulous  stories  make  mention 


Tstniile  of  the  PMpbliui  Vi 


nptdallf  orooe  TannhHnwr,  ■  wimor,  who,  sfWr  ba 
ing  lived  a  number  of  jean  in  Venuaberg,  waa  audde 
ly  aciud  with  a  fHling  of  npaiitonce,  aiiil  according 
went  lo  the  pope  of  Kome  to  ilo  penance  and  aak  I 
mercy.  The  pope  called  hii  altention  to  hia  alaO',  ai 
■aid  that  when  that  alalT  ahould  again  begin  lo  be 


Tannh 


Tannhuu 


>e  of  a  few  di 
r  bluuoma. 
erj-wbere;  hi 

tbe  Veiiuaberg  a|ipear.    At 


r>  the  stair  began  In  grow 
rben  the  pope  sought  for 
I  he  waa  not  to  br  found, 
Venuaberg,  where  he  will 
iit7(canip.EckhBrdt).  It 
ty  thai  the  flial  ttoriea  of 
ibout  tbia  time,  therefure. 


Veanati,  Hahcello,  an  Italian  painter,  waa  bom 
at  Mantua  in  1616.  Healu<tied  under  Fiorina  del  Vaga 
ill  his  native  city,  and  aftemardH  went  to  Kume,  where 
he  entered  into  the  nervice  of  Michael  Aiigelu,  frum 
whom  he  received  inatniccion.  He  imitated  tho  style 
of  that  gnat  maaler  with  excellent  success,  and  eie- 
«u1ed  many  of  his  designs.  Bcaidea  these,  he  planned 
and  executed  many  works  for  the  churches  of  Rome, 
both  in  oil  and  frescn,  which  are  admired  for  the  grand- 


'  of  tbeii 


e  r>ainter  of  llir 


c(iiaring,and 

Spuoner,  Biag,  IliU.  o/tkt  Fine  A  ni 

Veraclni,  Acobth'O,  a  Floren 
IBth  century,  studied  uniler  Sebastiano  Kicci.  lie  ex- 
ecuted some  worka  for  the  chuicbea  of  Florence,  which 
(gained  bim  considerable  reputation.  He  died  in  1762. 
Hee  Spooner,  Biag.  Hiit.  of  lie  time  A  rU,  a.  v. 

T«nu:lt7  or  God  ia  bia  tnitb,  or  an  exact  cone- 


■pondenca  and  coiifbniiity  between  bia  Word  and  Ui 
mind.  MnMS  says,  "He  is  a  Cod  of  Imih.'  He  B 
true  in  and  of  himself;  he  truly  and  really  exiila ;  bcii 
tbe  true  and  living  (iod;  all  hia  perfections  are  tine 
and  nal;  truth  is  eiaential  lo  him;  it  ia  pure  and  per- 
fect in  bim ;  it  is  the  flnt  and  original  in  bim ;  bs 
ia  the  fountain  of  tiuth;  all   bia  worka  in  creatioB, 


Tetbal  lunplratloiL    See  IiiapiKATi<H<. 

VerbDilc,  Comcae  o?  ( Conalim 
Verberic  ia  in  tbe  diocese  of  Soiaaana,  a  fortified  tows 
uf  Fiance,  department  of  Aisne,  twenty  milea  wutfa-wcM 
of  Laon.on  the  left  bank  of  tbe  Aixne.  Two  eecleaaa- 
lical  councils  were  held  heie,aa  follows: 

I.  Was  held  in  7&S,  by  older  of  king  Pepin.  Thia 
council  waa,  properiy  speaking,  a  nalional  aaiembly. 
Twenly^ne  canuna  were  publiahed,  cbiefly  relating  ta 
tbe  subject  of  maniages, 

1.  DeclHTCB  that  the  matrlagaa  of  relallrea  to  tb«  IhM 
degree  of  coiiaaDgolnlty  are  ntterly  null,  so  that  Ihe  pai> 
Ilea  so  mnnied  are  at  llherly,  after  penance,  to  marrf 
othora.    ThiitthoMwdo  are  relHied  onlyln  ihebanbda- 


iTBied  If  married,  but  be  pi 


1.  Forbids  a  priest  to 
nk.    Furbida  anyone 

1.'  Pemlt»"hr«'pi™ 


{free,  to 


laUne,  n- 


jsbwilDtaly 

nbhced  In  leave  their  ulnce  of  abode  lo  go  lo  llTe  ela*. 
where,  iribeir  wire*  ntuae  lo  co  wlib  then  lOrBOoibar 
reatun  Ibsii  iheir  affecttiin  for  their  Bonn ItTi  or  relallaas, 
or  property.  It  ahall  be  lawFiil  for  lbs  katband  to  Disnj 
ntiulbe^but  0'>i  for  the  wlfC  who  reraatna  behind. 

U.  Ftnblds  blahope,  when  iraTelllug  ont  of  ibelr  owi 


VERBIEST 

prleits,  nnd  orden  tb 

_4lB«d,  ir  thej  bs  rsBllj  waithj  uC  the 
be  nnUloed  again. 
IB.  Alluwi  B  dcgTided  prleal  ta  bapUie  n  ilck  ponoD  tn 

It.  Turblda  cicrki  lo  weiir  arnu. 

I».  Forbid)  married  (Jam  who  an  aiild  Hpiratel;  to 
dUfanBt  Tnuten  to  nrncri  olIierB,  ilibongti  ibey  bsTa  ua 
bopa  otfrei  being  nulled  nniu, 

{),  KnaeU  Ibat  ■  hanbind  wbo  hae  peroillted  hit  nlfc 
tu  Uks  [ba  nil  abilJ  out  miirrj  aiiothsr. 
Sm  Uaou,  Cmnf.  vi,  1656. 

II.  Wa*  held  in  R69,  twenty  bithnpa  being  prewnt, 
with  Chailca  the  Bald.  Uincmar  of  Laon  was  scoued, 
and  apptaled  to  the  pope.  He,  at  the  same  time,  ile- 
mandeil  leave  to  go  to  Rome,  which,  at  the  inatiga- 
linn  or  his  uncle,  waa  reruied,  but  the  proceed' 
againit  him  were  eunpended.  See  Mbdii,  CimdL 
iSST. 

Verbiest,  FKitDiNAMn,  a  BelKian  miaionary 
■stntaoiner,  was  bom  at  Hicihem,  West  FUndens  Oct. 
9, 16^  He  aludied  at  Cuulrai  aiul  Louvain,  and  grad- 
uated at  Seville  In  \Bbi.  Having  entered  IheOrdsror 
the  Jeauita,  he  atudied  aatruimmy  under  Tarqaet  and 
ScbaU.  and  than  set  out  to  preach  in  China  in  1637, 
There  he  underwent  varioui  rurtunea,  travellinK  and 
wiitiDg  aatmnomical  and  iither  woriia,  chiedy  eni[doye(l 
br  the  Chinese  emperur,  until  hia  death,  at  Pekiii,  Jan. 
S3, 1688.     See  HoeTer,  A'uuv.  Biag.  Giniratt,  >.  n 

Vorbrtigfe,  Otto,  a  (lennRa  doctor  and  profesmr 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languagea,  who  flourished  to> 
wards  the  midrile  nrthe  ISih  century  at  Oraningen,  ia 
the  author  of  Diiirrlalio  ile  TriAolomUt  in  t.ibna  JUo- 
mcoi,  etc  (Linden,  II  i»)  ■—Oitenationa  Philulogica 
da  y-minu-a  fMraanr.i  Plarali  .Vuinen>  (GrOningen, 
17801  *l  H.  Erlangen,  1752):— OraUo  de  Slata  Jiida- 
onuH  Ttmpere  Jizilii  Uabglomti  (GrdninRen,  1730), 
See  FurM,  BOi.  Jud.  iii,  47-J  j  Winer,  /lamlb.  drr  IhfoL 
LiLi.  119;  Steinschneider,  ,BiW.  AcmJi.  a.  V.     (R  P,) 

Varbraggen  (orToibTugean),  Henry,  a  Duich 
paiDter,  vaabamat  Uirecht  in  l£88.  He  first 
under  Abraham  BlDemiert,  and  then  treitt  u 
where  he  Uudied  tea  yeara  at  Rome  and  Napic 
aequiml  coniiderable  repntation  there,  and  e: 
aevcral  wotka  for  the  churches,  one  of  the  beat  of  which 
waa  a  Dtpoiilim  from  lh»  Crou,  in  one  of  the  churcbei 
ofMapIea.  He  afterwirdi  went  Id  Hultand  and  settled 
at  Middelbutg.  He  was  admired  by  Rubeni.  He  died 
It  Utrecht  in  1629.  See  Spooner,  Siog.  liitt.  of  the 
FwkA    ■ 

Teibmggeii,  Heniy  Francla  and  Peter,  two 

aeulptoraand  wood-carvera  of  Antwerp,  whoiedate  and 
history  are  not  known,  are  uid  to  have  executed  Ta- 
rioui  excellent  works  iu  the  cathedral  and  churches 
Antwerp,  Mich  aipulpitaandconteaaionalii.  beside*  mai 
carred  decoraiions  in  noble  maiuioiis  of  BelKiuro.    Di 


FineA 


a  England.     See  Spoon e 


■oa.Hi$l.'.flhe 


Verbiyok,  Sajil-rl,  one  of  the  progreseive  clrtgy- 
men  of  the  Kefurmeil  (Dutch)  Church  in  America,  who 
eaubliahtd  iu  imlependence  of  the  Chiircb  in  Miillaiid, 
Mudied  under  dominiea  Leydl,  Uoetschius,  and  Tander- 
linHe.  He  waa  licensed  by  the  Coetua,  or  American 
Clasais,  in  1749,  and  was  settled  at  Tappan  and  New 
Hempstead  (now  CUrkslown),  N.  V.,  from  1750  to  1784. 
He  was  an  antcnl  friend  of  mtristrriR]  education  tn  thii 
winntry.  HiaefTortatoget  a  charter  from  the  governor 
or  'Sew  Jersey  in  1761  fur  an  academy  no  uflWided  many 
of  liis  people  that  they  refused  to  pay  his  salary.  The 
Coiiferenlie  patty  presented  hira  tu  the  Claasii  of  Am- 
sterditn  tei  Mdesiastical  censure,  complaining  that  if 
ha  procured  the  charter  for  an  academy,  it  would  only 
mnlcipiy  Just  lucli  ministers  as  liimself.  But  he  out- 
lired  all  this  and  saw  the  full  fruit  of  his  labon  and 
tbnae  of  his  noble  coadjalon  in  the  establishment  of 
Queen's  Colle|(e  in  IT70,or  which  he  was  one  of  the  Brst 
iruatCM  appointed  by  the  charter  itself.     Such  names 


18  TERENA 

and  services  deserve  remembrance.    Ur.Verbryck  was 

advereariea  in  tbeae  ecdeeiastical  and  educatioual  cuii- 
dicta.  He  died  in  1764.  See  Corwin,  Manual  o/tit 
ft-/.  Church,  s.  V.     (W.  J.  R  T.) 

Vsroell«Bl,  SsBAaTiAHo,  an  Italian  paints  who 
lived  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  bora  aC 
Keggio.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Lionello  Spada,  and  exe- 
cuted some  works  for  the  churches  of  his  native  city, 
but  waa  mostly  employed  by  private  individuals.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.'/liil.  ofUte  Fine  ATU,t.v. 

VeroelU,  Council  op  (^ConcSiam  VeraUmtt), 
YerceQi  ia  a  city  of  Italy,  in  Piedmont,  province  of 
Norara.  An  ecclesiastical  council  waa  held  hen  in 
September,  lOfiO,  by  pope  Leo  IX.  Bishops  attended 
from  various  natiotis.  Berenger  was  cited  to  appear, 
but  refused  to  attend.  Hiaerrora  were  condemned,  anil 
the  book  of  John  Scatua  upon  the  eucharist  waa  burned. 
See  Lanfrinc,  De  Corp.  Dora.  lib.  4;  Mansi,  CoHciL  ix, 
1056. 

Vercellone.  C,\nLO,  a  Roman  Catliullc  divine  of 
Italy,  was  burn  .Ian.  14, 1HI4,  at  Sordevoln,  in  I'ieilniuiiL 
In  IH29  he  joined  the  Barnabitea  at  Turin,  studied  phi- 
Insiphy  there,  and  afterwards  theology  at  Borne.  Ho 
WBsappuinied  presiilentof  the  College  nf  the  Barnabiles, 
and  dial  Jan.  19, 1869.  He  is  well  known  for  hU  crit- 
ical labors  on  the  Vulgate,  and  published,  Varia  Lec' 
liona  Vaigata  Laliaa  Miiilioau  Bibliorttm  (Rome,  I860- 
64,  livola): — Oiufrlaiioni.icciuIeBtKhtdi  Vario  Arya- 
meUo  (ibid.  1864),  with  the  following  contents: 


I.  Dl  n 


Blbllco  C'Hllce  PaUmpseste  d< 


S&ii, 


III.  Del  O.irreltorl  Blbllcl  della  BIbllot.  Vat  p.  BO. 

1*.  ijliidil  ruul  III  Romu  e  Meixl  Uiai]  per  CorreEgare  la 
BIbbIn  Vuluutii  [con  Docnmeutl),  p,  il. 

V.  Snlle  ediilgni  delln  BIbbIa  iulle  In  Italia  nel  Secolo 
XV,  p.  9^. 

vl.  Dsir  Antichlsoimo  Cndlce  Vatic  della  Bibbla  Qna 
<coa  nn  Appendlce  dal  cav,  Q.  E  de'  Ruaal  ad  una  Tavola 

vIlT  Avvertentc  Crillcbe  eulla  Versions  Qreca  deH'An- 
"      Teatnm.  hltsdn  AqDlliLp.  118. 
■   -    -     •■  ■      iBUBIbbln,      — 


I  Ideoloitlfl  delle  Sou,.le  Mndeme,  p,  &». 
SiiiiEi  itlndln  della  Uiiana  PunlcoJCnlcIa,  p.8aa. 
Snila  Itcrliloua  Feolcfi  Scoperta  a  Manlglla  ih 
innnlMS,  p.  811, 
IV.  UlBubaatc 


p.  SSft. 


Scoperta  a  Manlglla  net)' 
Propoalto  dl  un  Bplgrafe  Ostlenae, 


ivl.  Gil  niUmI  Qnatlro  AnnI  della  Vila  dal  Card.  Oerdll, 
p.  MO. 

ivll.  Dl  Alcunl  Scrlitl  Blbllcl  del  L.  M.  DngorelllBarna- 
bita,  p.  SS9. 

iTltl.  Appendlce:  (1.)  Prarntlo  ad  Biblla  Oneca,  ed, 
- —      407,    (».)  PrefailK  ad  Nov.  Testam. 


TfoT.  Testam.  Vnlg.  ed.  Bum.  a 

lAi  Storia  dtir  AduUera  ntl  Vangtlo  di  S.  Gievatmi, 

DiatHadime  Crilica  (ibid.  IS67)  ■—UUei-iori  Sludu  lul 

X.  T.  Greco  ddT  Anticiiiti'ita  Cod,  Vat.  (ibid.  1866). 

(B.P,) 

TardonT  is  an  old  English  word  signifying  haiig- 
ings  for  a  room  or  beil,  on  which  are  represented  tieea, 
I  an  altar- hanging,  powdered 


■n  leavi 


and  fluH 


Terdtin,  CouNCti.  of  {Concilium  Virdunaut),  Vtr. 
in  is  a  town  of  France,  tweniy-eight  milea  nurlh  of 
Bar -le- Due,  on  the  Ueuie,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion. An  ecclesiastical  council  was  held  there  in  No- 
vember. 947,  by  seven  bishops,  who  confirmed  Artal- 
dus  in  the  possession  of  the  see  of  Rheims,  which 
Hugo  disputed  with  bint.  See  Mansi,  CowU.  ii, 
622. 


TERGERIUS 


Cpper  Egypt  to  ttif  W«t,  either  u  the  kiiuwomui  or  { 1U3, 
"      "  '  "  ■  leof  thejci' 


dieiB.  Sbe  Unied  at  MiUn  in  Cbe  hoiue  or 
II  MaximuA,  mnd  Ih«Tv  iFuned  the  fole  of  the  legion, 
U  jieverlbelen,  fullowed  it  to  Helvetia.  She  Kttled 
the  vicinity  of  Suluthurn,  Dbtainiiig  a  iivelihood  by 
noiul  Ubor,  and  aiiling,  not  without  the  perfumiiiig 
rniny  iKonden,  in  tbs  work  of  converting  tbe  Ale- 
■nni.  Her  zeal  in  tliia  latter  work  led  to  ber  impria- 
it  by  a  Kon  '       ' 


cheered  by  a  viiic  from  tbe  aalnled  Mauntiiu,  and  ibe 
prsUii  himgeir  wai  KWd  compelled  (>■  eeek  relief  from 
B  Kveie  illneu  at  her  handa.  After  iibeiaiion  ahe  re- 
nioved  to  tbe  junction  of  the  Aar  and  the  Rhine,  and 
by  her  miracuhnia  power  expelled  every  make  from  an 
iidaiid  wbioh  thew  reptilea  had  ovetrua.  She  died  at 
Zuizach,  near  CoMniu,  where  her  remBiiia  yet  repose. 
Tbe  legend  ia  wholly  dependent  on  the  tboioughly 
mvlbical  tradition  of  Mauritiua  and  the  Thebaic  legion 
(q.  v.).  See  Kettberg,  KirdiageicA.  DtuUdtlandt,  i,  108 
aq. ;  also  Harii/Tol.  \olteri  in  CanisioB,  Ltct.  A  Hliq.  ii, 
3,  p.  170,  and  the  Holland.  ^  cfu  ,S5.  i,  in  each  caM!  un- 
der Sept.  l.-_Hetiog,  Beal-Kaeytlap.  a.  v. 

VsTga,  SoLOHOM  IBM-,  a  Jewiil)  hiatoiian,  irai  bom 
in  Spain  in  IIGO,  where  he  practiced  OKdicitw.  He  ia 
tbe  author  of  n-\'\n''  SSO,  lit  Srrpl't  ofJudah,»Jeir- 
i»h  histoiy,compaaeil  in  part  from  iiriiea  left  by  hiafalher, 
and  afterwards  continued  by  his  »on,  rabbi  Joseph  ben- 
Solnmon,  of  Adrianiiple.  The  book  itaelf  tells  us  that 
its  author  waa  employed  by  tbe  Spaniab  aynagoguea  in 
•ereral  difflcult  negotialions  during  the  later  yeaia  of 
liis  residence  in  the  Peninsula.  We  hare  but  few  par- 
ticulars of  his  life,  after  he  ahared  in  tbe  banishment  of 
hia  brvlbieni  even  the  year  of  liia  death  is  unknown. 
The  Sctpire  of  JadaA,  which  waa  published  first  in 
Adriinople  in  1544,  and  often  aince,  waa  translated 
into  Jewiab-Gcrman  in  IMl.and  ot>en;  into  Spanish 
by  Meir  de  Leon  (Amrlrnlam,  1640)i  into  Latin  by 
Gentius  (ibid.  1661):  but  the  best  translation  ia  the 
German  of  M.  Wiener  (Hanover,  1856,  1866,  2  vols.). 
Eittnicts  in  German  are  alio  given  by  Eiseiimenger  in 
ynmldtektu  JndfiilAum.  vol.  i ;  by  Schudt,  Jiidiicke 
DtahcSTdigkrim,  voL  i ;  and  bv  Zedner,  A  uneaU  hu- 
lorudtr  Sllickf  uvi  Ae&r.  SchrifiMtlttm  (Berlin,  1840), 
p.  96  m.  See  Flint,  BihLJui.  iii,  473  sq.;  De'  R  * 
Dizionario  Slorieo  (Germ.  (r:r!»L),  p.  S26;  Finn, 
phariUia,  p.  4S6 ;  Steinachneider,  JtaM  Lilrraturr, 
p.  S6i ;  Da  CcMs.  lirad  and  lit  GaaOa,  p.  898  aq. ; 
GrWi,  Giich.  d.  Jttdat,  ix,  848  aq.     (B.  P.) 

VorgBra.  JoM,  a  Spanish  painter,  was  bom 
Talenciu  in  17S6.  He  displsyed  fine  artistic  powers  ac 
an  early  aire.  He  atlopted  the  style  of  the  prints  of 
Spagnoletto,  and  atndied  the  works  of  Coypel  and  Paolo 
de  Hatteit.  He  painted  many  portraits  and  numerous 
picl^rea  for  the  churches  otValencia  and  neighboring 
cilita,  in  ihI,  fresco,  and  distemper.  The  moet  noted  of 
hia  paintings  are  the  Conc^iiirm  of  Ihe  Virgin,  in  the 
Convent  of  San  Francisco,  at  Valencia;  and  Tetemadiui 
and  Mentor,  in  the  Academy  of  San  Ferdinando.  He 
was  chosen  director  of  the  Acaileiry  of  San  Carloa,  at 
Valencia,  and  held  tbe  office  unlil  hia  death,  in  1799. 
See  SifooxKt,  Biog.  HiM.o/tic  Fine  Arit,».v. 

VsTgara,  Juan  de,  a  ^tani^  artist,  eon  and  pu- 
pil of  Nicolas,  was  bom  at  Toledo  about  IMO.  He  was 
diaiinguiahed  as  a  painter,  sculptor,  and  irehitect,  and 
anisted  hia  father  and  brother  in  the  execution  of  the 
glass  paintings  in  tbe  cathedral,  which  occupied  about 
forty  jeara.  After  his  father's  death  be  directed  the 
works  in  painting  and  sculpture  in  the  cathedral.  He 
w»  very  intimate  with  F.t  Uudo.  He  died  in  1606.  ^ 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hill,  of  tit  Fint  A  m,  a.  v.  |  ^.^  j'hj" 

Vergara,  Nicolas  de(rAa£(i^), a  Spiniah  paint- !  late  FranciaS|Hera(q.T.)  repeatedly,  with  the  reautt 
er  and  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Toleilo  about  1610.     Hie '  hlmseir  that  he  waa  confirmed  in  his  deiolion  I      ' 
works  are  to  be  found  chiefly  In  tbe  Cathedral  of  Tole-    <ioapel.     He  handed  an  apology  to  the  snBngi 
do,  where  he  directed  the  painting  and  sculpture  trom  .  Padua,  Dec  13, 1548,  in  which,  while  not  expliciil< 


period  of  thirty-two  yean.     He  aliD  tx»- 

%  ot  tbe  puntings  on  glaaa  in  the  aame  edt- 
Bce,  which  were  coutinoed  and  compkled  by  hia  am^ 
Nicolas  and  Juan.  He  died  in  1674.  See  Spooner, 
Hiog.  Ilitt.  of  tit  Fine  ATU,t.v. 

Veiga  (LaU  nr^)  is  a  ifo^af  wood  or  metal,  snr- 
mounted  with  a  figure,  emblem,  or  device,  bomc  before 
a  biabop,  dean,  rector,  or  vicar,  in  enlefing  or  IcaTuig 
church,  and  on  other  public  occasions.  Several  speci- 
mens of  verges  of  the  period  of  the  Restoration,  made 
□r  precious  metals,  exist  in  some  of  tbe  ehnrcbea  at 
London.  The  term  i>  also  ated  (or  a  rod  or  atalT 
carried  aa  an  emblem  of  authofily ;  also  a  atich  or 
wand  with  which  people  are  admitted  tenant*,  bj 
holding  it  in  the  hand  and  swearing  fealty  to  tb> 


Vorger  (ciagifer,  irufnuriHO  is  an  officer  of  tbe 
Church  of  England  and  Continenul  churchn,  who  cai- 
rics  the  verge  (q.  v.)  before  the  bishop,  dean,  or  otha 
dignitary.  On  the  Continent  they  are  aometimea  fan- 
tastically dressed. 

Vsigsr  (or  Vaigler),  db  Uaubenk.    See  Do- 

Vergerina,  Petkr  Paui.  {iIu  romgrr),  an  ItaHaa 
Jurist,  priest,  and  Reformer,  ranks  as  one  of  tbe  moM 
noteworthy  persoaagce  produced  by  tbe  I6tb  ceMuty. 
He  was  bom  of  noble  pareula  in  1438,  at  Capo  dlstria, 
and  was  educated  fur  the  law  at  Padua.  After  gradua- 
tion and  tbe  subeequenl  practice  nf  his  profession  in  dif- 
ferent Itslian  cities,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  was  appnal- 
ed,  under  pope  Clement  VII,  papal  nuncio  to  Gerraaiij, 
tor  tbe  purpose  of  preventiiiglbe  convoking  of  a  nalioa- 


nith  14ilber  and  the  elector  John  Frederick.  His  ae^ 
vices  were  rewarded  with  tbe  dignity  of  titulary  Visbop 
orHadnisium,in  Croalis,  end  afterwards,  in  1536,  with 
the  bishopric  of  bis  native  town.  Tbe  curiooa  feature 
is  mentioned  in  this  connection  ihsl  Veigerius  spent  tea 
yean  in  Capo  d'tstria  before  be  obtained  conaetntioa 
to  the  priesthood  and  the  episcopacy;  and  no  light  is 
thrown  upon  his  occupaiiona  or  the  mode  of  sdminiiler- 
ing  hia  diocese  during  that  period.  In  1640  be  visitsd 
Worms  and  took  part  iu  the  colloquy  there  held,  deliv- 
ering, during  its  progress  (Jan.  1, 1  all),  a  pacific  addnaa 
in  the  interests  of  a  general,  and  against  the  halding  of 

ing  too  concilialury.  He  at  unct  relumed  bome,  and 
entered  on  the  study  of  tbe  writiogs  of  the  Ljitherana, 
in  order  tbal  by  refuting  them  he  might  demuiunrale 
the  Boundnese  of  bis  own  onhodoxy;  but  he  was  him- 
self convened  bv  their  srguments,  and  liia  brotberCio> 
vaniii  BattiBU.iiiebopof  Pola,  came  to  share  hia  vicwa. 
Both  pi 


tes  now  began 

o  bbor  tealously  for  Christ, 

the  people  pu 

licly  and  in  private,  and  arg- 

o  lead  godly  11 

ea.     In  Capo  d'lstria,  parlio- 

ically  prosecuted;  aopersliliona  like  the  invoking  of  the 
aid  of  St.Rocbua  against  pestilence,  and  of  St.  AatboitT 
against  er>'aipelas,were  condemned;  and  traditjonal  b^ 
liefs  like  the  legends  of  St.  George  and  Sl  Chrislopho 
were  declared  to  be  mythical  The  consequence  was 
thai  an  investigation  of  tbe  diocese  wss  undertaken  by 
a  papal  commission  in  IMJ,  and  that  tbe  brothen  Ver- 
geriuB  were  cited  before  the  legate  Delia  Cs9a,patriBrcli 
of  Aqnileia.  They  prolealed  and  appealed  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  then  just  opened,  and  Peter  Paul  placed 
himself  nnder  the  protection  of  cardinal  Uonzaga  of 
Hanluai  but  afterwards  viialed  Trent,  where  hii  request 
to  be  permitted  to  speak  in  his  defence  was  not  allowed. 
'  nd  him  guilty  of  here;;-.  Soon  after- 
Padua,  and  visited  the  unhappy  apo*- 


VERGIL 


le  Reronution,  he  y«t  dedare* 
that  the  truth  miut  be  derended  deaplte  every  iequi  ' 
tioii.     He  then  went  (o  Bule.     His  brother  had  piei 
ously  died,  probably  of  piuiwa. 

The  earlint  Geld  of  PnEcitaDt  labor  for  Tergeriiu 
waa  the  vilUgeg  in  the  Veltlin.  in  the  Griaons,  ami  h 
became  paaior  of  the  little  village  of  ViccaopTana.  Hi 
powerful  termans,  in  aonie  inatances,  led  the  people  t 
inauintanewialy  abolish  the  mau  aod  deatroy  their  im 
■gen.  The  field  «u  not,  however,  commeuiiutale  witi 
his  •lesires.aiidbisutualion  became  unpleasant.  He  was 
obliged  to  take  part  in  n^niiaiinngKiih  the  adherents  of 
Servelusaod  Socinus  amoDK  the  imoiigrBQU  from  Italv ; 
the  region  where  be  labored  wu  predominantly  and  im- 
movably on  the  side  of  Rome;  be  was  dissali«Aed  with 
the  established  furm  of  Kovemment  in  the  Zwinglian 
churches,  and  incurred  the  charge  of  ambilioua  med- 
dling, and  alM  excited  strong  feeling  by  hia  advocacy 
of  the  Calvinian  doctrine  of  the  Lord'a  supper.  In  1658 
a  synod  framed  a  confession  for  the  Grisoos,  and  directed 
that  all  who  would  not  subscribe  lo  its  tenets  tbould  be 
excluded  from  fellowship  in  the  Church;  and,  though 
Vergerius  bad  heen  the  successful  means  of  winning 
eight  congregatioas  from  Home  to  ibe  Gospel,  he  waa 
obliged  to  leave  the  country.  He  Tuund  a  refuge 
duke  Chriuopher  at  Tubingen,  and  in  a  few  montlj 
turned  to  bis  late  home  with  the  title  of  counsell 
that,  pstron,  after  which  he  deflnitely  established 
aeir  at  Tubingen  in  September,  1553.  Tbenccrorward 
he  lived  in  privacy,  except  when  employed  in  some  bold 
niarionary  enterprise  ui  unreclaimed  countries.  Poland 
was  his  favorite  field,  and  was  much  indebted  U  him  on 
account  of  his  eaniesi  evangelical  labors.  He  also  vis- 
ited king  Uaximilian  at  Vienna  in  1658,  and  presented 
him  with  pnclical  evangelical  writings,  and  was  auc- 
eeaaful  in  inclining  bim  to  favor  the  Kefurmatioo.  He 
revisited  the  Gtisons  on  both  evangelical  and  diplo- 
matic mimions,  being  especially  influeutial  in  preparing 
fur  a  renewal  of  the  treaty  between  that  canton  and 
France.  In  addition  te  auch  labora,  he  occupied  him- 
eelf  with  the  writing  of  numerous  works— polemical,  di- 
dactic, and  exegeticaL  Among  other  worka,  he  publish- 
ed the  Bohemian  confeseion  of  1533;  and,  at  about  the 
same  time,  he  showed  inclination  to  connect  himself 
with  the  Bohemian  Church,  having  wiilten  in  I5SI  to 
iu  icniDr,  in  Uule  Poland,  fur  admission  to  its  fetlow- 
ahip.  He  was,  however,  deterred  from  consummating 
the  arrangement  by  an  untrillingneas  to  make  so  impor- 
tant a  ehsnge  at  the  advanced  age  he  had  now  reached. 
His  motive  had  been  the  growing  intolerance  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  which  denied  peace  and  comfort  to  all 
wboheld  the  milder  Melancthonian  vietra.  His  request 
to  be  sent  lo  the  colloquy  of  Poissy  in  1561,  as  Ibe  dele- 
gate of  the  German  cburches,  was  denied  by  the  duke, 
because  the  Council  uf  Trent  would  grant  no  anfe-con- 
doct  unless  Vergetius  shnulil  recognise  the  Romish 
Church.  The  greatest  fault  uf  Vcrgrrius  was  a  dispo- 
sition to  participate  in  every  unclertaking  and  to  aasert 
hia  own  autboriiy.  He  thus  excited  much  opposition 
against  himself.  Many  of  his  coreligionista  of  early 
times,  as  Delia  CoH  and  others,  were  guilty  of  unwor- 
thy aasaulls  upon  him ;  but  many  of  (he  most  prominent 
pcnonagea  of  the  Papal  Church  gave  him  an  excellent 
raputation.  He  died  at  Tubingen  Oct.  4, 1565,  and  An- 
diilt  delivered  a  panegyric  over  his  remains.  See  Sixt, 
P.  P.  VtrgerU;  etc  (Brunswick,  1866);  and  Henog, 
Btal-EmyUap.  a.  v. 

Vergil,  PoLiiKtRK,  a  priest  of  the  Roman  Church 
and  an  ecclesiaatical  historian,  was  bom  at  U rhino,  Italy, 
■bout  1470.  He  acquired  a  considerable  literary  repu- 
Ution  by  his  Praeirbbmim  Libdiui  (1498)  and  Dt  Re- 
turn /naUoriiut  (1499).  In  1501  he  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land hy  pope  Alexander  VI,  to  collect  the  papal  tribute 
called  Peter's  pence,  and  was  the  last  to  hold  that  ofBce. 
Ha  remained  in  England  the  greater  part  of  his  life; 
became  rector  of  Chareh-Langton,  in  Leicestershire; 
•TchdeaeoD  of  Wella  in  1507;  and  a  prebendary  of  Uere- 


il  VERMEULE 

ford  and  Lincoln  the  satna  year ;  then  prebendary  in  St. 

Paul's,  I>indon,  in  1518.  When  he  had  been  in  Eng- 
land nearly  fifty  years,  he  returned  to  Italy,  having  re- 
ceived a  present  of  three  hundred  crowns  and  leave  to 
bold  hia  archdeaconry  of  Wells  and  his  prebend  at  Here. 
ford  during  life.  He  died  in  Italy  about  io5o.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  wrote  several  works  of  value. 
Ria  principal  work  is  a  voluminous  Latin  History  of 
England,  HiMorim  Aiglica  IJbii  XXX  VI  (Baale,  1538, 
fol.).  Two  voluma  of  au  old  English  edition  of  this 
work  were  edited  by  Sir  Henrv  Ellis  for  the  Camden 
Society  (1S44-4G).  The  Agaihynian  Club  published 
(N.  Y.  1868)  a  translation  of  his  De  Rtntm  ImoUariUu, 
by  John  Langley,  with  an  A  Kount  of  lit  A  alhor  anJ 
hit  Worh,  by  Dr.  W.  A.  Hammond. 

Verhagheil,  Pieter  JozEr,  a  Flemish  painter,  woa 
bomBtAerBchoI,SontbBrabuit,aboutl72tl.  He  stud- 
ied with  great  diligence,  and  aoon  gained  the  patronage 
uf  prince  Charles  of  Lurrain&  He  visited  France,  Sai> 
dinis,  and  Italy  at  the  expense  of  the  government;  and 
while  at  Home  he  painted  two  pictures  which  gained 
him  considerable  notoriety,  one  representing  CArut 
Craumtd  wilh  Thorai,  and  the  other  Chriit  milk  the 
Ditciplft  at  Emmaui-  Through  the  fame  of  the  latter 
he  gained  an  audience  with  pope  Clement  XIV,  who 
presented  him  with  two  gold  medals.  He  alterwords 
visited  Vienna,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  empresa 
Maria  Theraa,  lo  whom  be  gave  the  picture  of  Chritt 
at  £minaut.  He  returned  to  Louvain  in  1773,  where 
he  was  honored  by  the  citiuns  with  a  public  reception. 
He  executed  many  worka  for  the  churches  and  conventa 
of  his  country,  and  died  in  1811.  See  Spuoner,  Bioy. 
UaLofUa  Fine  ArU,t.v. 

Terl,  AnTHOMT.    See  Terjub,  Aktoins. 

Teringn,  AjmliEAa,  a  Protestant  theokgiaii  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Herrenberg,  Wurtemberg,  in  the 
year  15&8.  In  1588  be  was  appointeil  deaoon  at  his  na- 
tive place;  was  called  in  1590  as  pastor  to  Chemnitz, 
in  Hungary,  and  in  159S  to  Feldsperg,  in  Austria. 
When  the  Lutherans  bad  to  leave  the  country,  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  hmd;  was  iu  1601  pastor  at  Ro- 
senfeld;  advanced  in  1603  as  superintendent  at  Freuden- 
slailt;  was  called  in  1608  to  Stuttgart;  adraneed  there 
in  1609  as  member  of  consistory  and  eourt-pteacher; 
and  died  as  abbot  of  Alpirspach  Nov.  IG,  I£og.  See 
Firehlin,  Memoria  Thmtogonint  WaitaJitrgeititini ; 
J  liciet,  A  UgtmrvKi  GtlikrU«-l,txiJMR,  1. 1.     (&  P.) 

Terltaa,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  goddess  of 
IrutA,  whom  the  Greeks  called  'AkiiSaa.  a  daughter  of 
Jupiter  or  Saturn.  She  is  also  the  tnnther  trf  Viitoa 
and  Justice.     She  is  represented  as  dresaed  in  while. 

Verjns,  Antolne,  a  French  Jesuit,  brother  of  the 
diplomale  Louis,  was  bom  in  I'arin,  Jan.  32, 1632.  Being 
admitted  into  that  order  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he 
taught  the  humanities  for  some  time  in  Brittany,  and 
then,  by  the  myal  order.  Joined  the  count  of  Crecy  (hia 
brother)  in  Germany  (1672),  where  he  was  useful  in 
diplomatic  services.  The  renuinder  of  hia  life  via 
spent  in  laborious  missionary  work  in  India.  He  final- 
ly died  in  Paris,  May  16, 1706,  leaving  a  number  of  his- 
torical and  other  worka,  for  which  aee  Hoefer,  A'aHc, 
Biag.  Gfnirak,  a.  v. 

Varjna,  FTaii9ola,  •  French  ecclesiastic,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  a  priest  of  the  Oratory,  and  was 
nominated  bishop  of  Graaae.     He  died  Dec  7, 1710. 

VerjUB,  Jean,  a  French  preacher,  brother  of  An- 
toine,  was  early  educated  for  the  Church,  and,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuits,  made  such  rapid  [>rogress  in  hia 
studies  that  lie  was  made  doctor  by  the  Sorbonne  and 
sent  to  Rome,  where  he  was  engaged  in  literarj'  labors 
under  the  protection  of  cardinal  Retz.  He  died  in  Paris 
in  1668,  at  the  age  of  thirty-lhree. 

Vermenle,  CoRimLtiia  C,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Rerormed<Dutch)Church,wasbornin  1786.  He  grad- 
uated at  Queen's  College  in  1812,  and  at  New  Bruna- 


VERMETEK  It 

irkk  Theological  Semiiurj  in  1814;  vti  liceoMd  by 
the  CtiMU  of  Kew  Brunawick  in  1814 ;  «nd  wu  tutor 
in  Rutgcn  CoUeRe,  1812-14 ;  proTftsor  of  languages  in 
Queen'a  CoUege,  1814-15;  and  pastor  at  Harlem,  N.  r^ 
1816-36.  He  dieilJan.  lb,  18611.  See  Corwin,  tf onuoi 
ifflktRtf.ChuTekiH  Amtrita,».v. 

Veiiiiey«n,  Jan  Kobneus,  *  Dutch  painter, 
wa*  bom  at  Bevrrwyk,  near  Haarlem,  in  1500.  He 
«a»  pnibably  iDsCniciHl  by  his  father,  Cornelius,  an  ot»- 
acure  painter.  The  emperor  Charlei  V  appointed  him 
his  principal  painter,  and  be  attended  tbe  monarch  in 
"''  '" *,  lieges,  and  designed  on  the 


It  the  aiege  and  capture 
He  principal  events,  from 
STtoons  for  the  tapatiy 


spot  all  the  memorable 
land.  In  J535  be  was  present 
of  Tunis,  and  made  deugns  oft 
which  he  aflerwarda  executed 
of  the  Eacurial.  But  meet  of 
ecuted  fuc  tbe  emperor  are  itippased  to  have  perished 
in  tbe  coDflagiation  of  the  Prado.  The  Utter  part  of 
hit  life  he  spent  at  Bruasela,  wliere  he  executed  maiiy 
worlis  fur  the  churches  and  public  ediHcet.  These  are 
highly  commendHi  by  Vau  Mander.  In  the  Church  of 
SuGery  are  two  of  his  picloroi,  the  fiatieiXy  and  the 
Remrreaina.  He  was  also  an  engraver,  but  did  not 
achieve  great  distinction  iu  thb  department.  He  often 
receired  the  namei  Jahaana  Barbatu;  Baibalmgn, 
Barbalo,  and  similar  titles,  from  the  fact  that  he  had 
B  veiy  long  beanl,  which  he  is  said  la  hare  cuitii-iieii 
with  such  care  that  it  grew  to  his  feet;  and  the  emperor, 
in  his  meirv  moods,  would  tread  upon  it.  He  died  in 
IS99.     See  Spoonet,  Biog.  Hill,  of  the  Fiat  Ai-U,t.<t. 

Tennlgli  (I^t.  I-Vrmufiiu),  ordinarily  known  as  Pe- 
ter Marlt/T  from  hia  baptismal  names,  was  the  most 
teamed  and  celebrated  of  Iialian  Protestants  in  the 
16lh  centurv.  He  belunged  to  a  patrician  family  of 
Florence,  where  he  was  bom  SepL  8, 1500.    He  enured 


had  destined  him 


It  at  Fiesole  I 


<ie.     His  fall 


le  service  of  the  Sute,  and  di 


:nl5I9 


he  went  to  Padua  to  complete  his  studiea.     He  studied 
Greek  without  a  teacher,  made  himself  acquainted  wiih 

dialectical  ability.  In  tlieulogy  he  pissed  beyond  the 
narrow  limits  of  the  scholastic  curriculum,  and  read  sev- 
eral of  the  Church  fathers.  When  iwenty-six  years  of 
age,  he  was  sent  out  lo  preach  in  different  towns  of  I  mly. 
He  also  lectured  on  literature  and  philosophy  in  vari- 
ous convents  of  his  order.  He  read  tbe  New  Test,  in 
the  original,  and  employed  a  Jewish  physician  at  Bo- 
logna to  leach  him  the  Hebrew  language.  He  became 
abbot  of  Spoleto  and  prior  of  St.  Peter's  ad  Aram  i 
Naples.  Here  he  was  inlrodoced  intu  the  circle  whic 
Juan  Vildps  (q.  v.)  bad  gathered  alKwt  him;  and  lli 
evangelical  influence  of  thit  association  and  of  the  eli 
quent  Ochino(q.v.),  whom  he  met  in  1 539,  decided  h 
future  course.  He  attained  to  faith  in  theJnsllGcalion 
of  man  through  Christ,  and  taught  this  and  other  ' 
triiies  of  tbe  Keformera  in  the  school  and  the  con 
In  1&41  he  was  elected  viutator  of  his  order.  His  s 
n^  in  the  performaaca  of  the  duties  of  that  office 
upon  him  the  dislike  of  the  monks,  and  led  to  his  being 
transferred  to  Lucca  as  prior  of  3an  Frediino.  Hi 
iovited  a  number  of  scholars  who  were  inclineil  t 
cept  the  Gospel  to  aid  in  training  the  novices  joined 
with  them  in  the  study  of  the  writings  of  tbe  ReCom 
era  in  Oemuny  and  Switzerland,  preached  and  taug) 
in  the  same  spirit — as  did  also  his  vicar  and  Don  On 
Btantine,  the  prior  of  Fregionara — and  organized  a  coi 
gn^tion  of  evatigelical  Christians.  At  this  Juncture 
the  l>'C|ui<itiDn  interfered;  several  of  Martyr's  frienc 
were  apprehended,  and  he  fled  to  Switzerland,  pausing 
at  Pina  to  write  1  letter  of  separation  from  the  papacy 
which  he  couched  in  itie  form  of  an  enposition  of  thi 
Apixtles'  Creed.  After  a  brief  delay  he  obtained  the 
situation  of  professor  of  the  Old-Test.  Scriptures,  and 
speedily  obtained  a  high  reputaUon  as  a  teacher. 


2  VERMIGLI 

was  learned,  acute,  clear,  and  predse  in  eiproaioii, 
miU  and  amiable  in  his  manners;  be  possessed  a  pure 
and  classical  Latin  style  and  a  rivid  eloquence.  In 
theology  be  became  a  prooounced  predeslinarian;  with 
respect  to  the  lacnuuents,  he  adopted  the  prevailine 

(S.i.)Yi™. 

In  1547Veniiigli  went  to  England  with  a  view  to  ss- 

given  ■  piofasDnhip  at  Oilurd,  and  began  his  went 
with  a  course  of  lectures  on  1  Corinthians,  which  he 
published  in  1551.  In  this  work  he  discussed  coatro- 
verled  questions,  like  the  right  of  priests  to  marry  and 
the  nature  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper;  « 
the  latter  qitestiun  assuming  a  mystical  union  with  the 
subslanoe  of  Christ,  effected  by  faith  and  involving  M 
physical  contact,  and  yet  so  complete  that  even  the 
Hesh,  man's  physical  nature,  is  strengthened,  and  tbe 
whole  man  brought  into  fellowship  with  the  Lord,  tn 
the  advocacy  of  this  view  be  carried  on  an  extmsire 
correspondence  with  Calvin,  and  engaged  in  repeated 
discussions  with  the  other  Oxford  prufesson,  psrlicu- 
larly  Richard  Smith.  In  lofiO  he  lectured  on  the  Epis- 
tle ID  the  RomaoB,  laying  out  his  strength  on  the  dem- 
onstration of  the  doctrine  of  ptrdestinition,  paiiictiUi4y 
as  against  the  objections  of  Albert  Hghiua^  These  lect- 
ures were  published  in  1558  at  Baale,  and  afterwards 
repeatedly.  The  confcMion  formulated  by  the  Synod 
of  London  in  1653  staled  the  doctrines  of  original  aim 
election  by  grace,  and  justification,  aubstantially  in  har- 
mony with  bis  presentation  of  them.  Bucer  havin);  in 
the  meantime  been  appointed  to  Cambridge,  both  ht 
and  Peter  Martyr  participated  in  the  discussiuiis  of  the 
time  respecting  the  liturgy  of  the  English  Chnnli. 
Vermigli  lost  his  wife  by  death  in  155S,  and  he  wm 
only  restrained  from  returning  to  Strasburg  after  that 
event  by  being  charged  with  a  panicipation  in  the 

of  Maty  to  the  throne,  ho  escaped  lo  the  (^tinmt 
wiih  difltciiliy,  and  was  restored  to  his  former  poniiui 
at  Strasburg,  though  ihe  growing  Lutheran  nairuwneas 
obliged  him  to  declare  his  readiness  to  receive  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  rightly  interpreted,  and  his  determina- 
tion to  avoid  controveisy  respecting  the  Lotd'a  supper. 
In  15Sri  he  wrote  lo  the  Church  at  Lucca  lo  cncoungt 
it  to  Krmness  under  Ihe  tj'ranny  nf  the  Inquisition,  and 
lo  the  Church  in  Poland  an  opinion  respecting  Ihe  con- 
flicting teachings  of  Oaiander  and  Slancarus  (q.  v.). 
The  Lord's-supper  controveny  eventually  compelled 
him  to  seek  a  new  home  in  Zurich.  He  prwched  there 
occasionally  in  the  Iialiiu  Church,  and  oorrrsponded 
with  the  leaders  of  the  Anglican  Church  on  mitten  of 
worship  and  Church  govemmenl.  In  1559  he  pub- 
lished against  bishop  Gardiner  a  large  wurk  entilM 
Dr/nuia  DtH^rina  Vtlnit  el  Apmlalicte  dt  S.  Eatta- 
riiiia  Saeratanilo ;  and  also  againH  Riclurd  Smith  a 
D'fmtiii .  . .  df  Calihola  Saetniotam  tt  Vulit  Momali- 
eii.  In  1660  and  15fil  be  sent  two  circular  lelten,  on 
the  Trinity  and  the  two  natures  in  Chrisi,  to  Poland. 
He  defended  predestuiation  against  Bibliinder  at  Zo- 
rich  1  wrote  a  Wnfojni  dt  Ulraqut  Ckriiii  fiaiura 
against  Brenlios  and  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  ubiquity 

he  received,  for  the  second  time,  an  invitation  to  Hei- 
delberg, which  he  declined;  but  he  attended  the  CoUa- 
quy  of  Poissy,  and  spoke  in  defence  of  Ihe  evangelical 
doclrines  and  alUtude.  After  his  return  to  Zurich  he 
gave  an  ojrinion  sustaining  Zanchi  [q.  v.)  at  Strasburg, 
in  a  dispute  on  predeslinstion  and  the  Lord's  supper, 
which  has  been  justly  regarded  as  the  confessino  of 
Zurich  respecting  these  docrines.  He  was  engaged  on 
a  new  refutation  of  Brentius  when  he  died,  Nov.  12, 
166S.  After  his  death  his  friends  published  bia  com- 
mentaries on  Samuel,  King^  part  of  GeDesi^  and  Lam- 
enUtions,  and  on  Aristotle's  Eliifi ;  also  a  cnllectino  of 
prayen  taken  from  the  book  of  Pialms.  In  1575  Rob- 
ert Haasov,  French  preacher  in  London,  collected  fimr 
bookaof  £«c>Co«Kuna  ftvmVermigli's  puUisbed  wuiks, 


VERMGLIO 


76S        VERNEUIL,  COUNCIL  OF 


L  a.  pasMga  biviog  •  betrinj;  upon  dognutica,  eChici, 
md  polemics  (Lond.  tol).  In  ■  rerised  and  enlarged 
rorm,  tbis  noik  became  one  or  clis  unlet  impoiUnC 
■ources  far  (be  Kaformed  theulogy  of  the  16tb  century. 
See  Simler,  OroHo  flb  Vila  ft  Obilu  D.  Pttri  Martgrit 
(Zuricb,  lo«£,1bi);  SehltMii,  U>m  da  ThtodoT  Uaa 
u.  P.  M.y<niiigti  (Heidelberg,  1807);  Ltben  d-Valer  a. 
Bfgmnder  d.  r^ormirtai  KircU  (filberfeld,  1868),  ToL 
vii;  tierrog,  Beat-£ncyliop.t,v, 

VaiiiilBUo,GiuaBrpK,ui  lulieii  painter,  wm  bum 
■t  Turin  in  tbe  I7lb  century.  Little  ii  known  or  bim 
except  by  bii  wnrks.  Lanii  say>  of  his  pictun  ot  DatM 
m  tic  Ltoa^Den,  in  tbe  Library  della  Pawone  it  HlUn, 
that "  for  correcloesi  of  design,  beautiful  forma,  exprt*- 
■ion  highly  studied,  and  colon  warm,  varied,  and  lucid, 
it  is  one  of  tbe  most  valuable  pictures  painted  at  Milan 
aioce  the  time  of  Uaudeniio  Ferrari."  He  executed 
with  eminent  luccen  teveral  other  worki  for  the  cburcb- 
«•  at  Uitan,  Hantui,  Alexandria,  and  tfovara.  He  en- 
riched the  hackgrouod  of  hia  pictures  with  Sne  archi* 
tectore  and  beautiful  landscapes.  Tbe  latest  date  known 
of  him  is  1S75.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  HiH.  of  Oe  Fine 

VarmlUan  Odd  [in  pause  nets], jjlojin-iiccnrd. 
toGesen.  from  its  veniailor,  but  red  accord,  to  FUrst,  who 
compares  the  Ssnscr.  Am),  prob.  nd  oekrt  (Vulg.  lino- 
pit,  i.  e.  ruhrica  Sinopeniii,  which  waa  tbe  beat  [lliny, 
Hitl.yal.  xixv,i,  ISJ;  Sept.  pXroc,  which  in  Homer 
iai.li.  ruhrica),  or  (according  to  (be  Heb.  interp.) 
uabfir.  This  welUknown  metallic  paint  waa  firat  brought 
into  use  by  the  Phvnicians,  wbo  imported  large  quan- 
tities uf  it  in  the  form  of  a  reddish  aand  from  tbeir  col- 
onies ill  Norlhem  Africa.  Its  bright-red  color  recom- 
mended vennilinn  to  those  who  were  engaged  in  dee- 
orating  temples  (Jer.  xxit,  14)  j  hence,  wbenever  it  was 
mentioned  in  Sctipliire,  it  was  usually  asaocialed  with 
idolatry-  Thua  Ezekiel,  reproving  ihe  apostasy  of  bis 
times,  declares  I  bat  Abcdibah  "  added  to  her  idolatries,  for 
she  saw  men  poitrayed  upon  the  wall,  images  of  Chal- 
dnans  portrayed  with  venniUon,  girded  with  girdlea 
upon  ibeir  loins,  exceeding  in  dyeil  attire  upon  their 
beaiL*.  after  Ihe  monocr  of  the  Babylonians,  even  of 
CbRl.tiea"(.[^")<-"i'i.l4)-  He  adds, "and  she  doted 
□pon  them  aa  soon  as  she  cast  her  eyes  un  them." 
These  were,  in  fact,  the  representations  of  the  Chaldisan 
idols,  which  many  of  the  Jews  were  seduced  into  wor- 
shipping. The  author  of  the.apocryphal  Book  of  Wis- 
dom alsoalloiles  lo  Ibis  eusloro:  "The  carpenter  taketh 
the  very  refuse  of  hia  timber,  being  a  crooked  piece  of 
wood,  and  full  of  koota,  and  can'ing  it  diligently  when 
he  had  nothing  else  lo  do,  and  fasbiuning  it  into  tbe 
iokage  of  a  man,  or  like  some  wild  beast,  Isying  it  over 
Tniliun  and  with  paint,  coloring  it  red,  andcor- 
'eiy  spot  therein"  (xiii,  14).  The  aceuraey'or 
_ihet  is  coiToixinted  by  Ihe  recently  exhumed 
Assyrian  monuments.  IL  Botta  noticed  several  figures 
on  the  walls  of  Khorssbad  yet  reuining  a  portion  of 
the  vermiUim  (Boiiomi,  A'i«FeA,  p.  306),  There  is  in 
the  llriliah  Museum,  among  the  marbles  sent  from  Kim- 
rfld  by  Mr.  Layard,  a  large  alab  with  a  ftgur«  of  the 
king  standing,  holding  in  hia  right  hand  a  itaJT,  and 
resting  bia  left  on  the  pommel  of  his  sword,  stilt  hav- 
ing tb«  soles  of  bia  sandals  cobirrd  red.     See  Color. 

Vaimllya,  laaao  D.,  a  clergyman  of  the  Protes- 
Unt  KpisPopalChurch.dicdalArmonk,  N.Y.,Aug.  34, 
IHU,  aged  forty-five  yetn.  At  tbe  time  of  hia  dealh 
be  wai  rector  of  Sc  Stephen's  Church,  North  Castle, 
K.  T.     aivA  mrr.  Qiuir.  Ck.  Srv.  Oct.  1864,  p.  484. 

Varmllye,  Robert  Oeorge,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  March  !, 
1813.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1831; 
wsB  teacher  In  tbe  college  grammar-schnnl  until  1835; 
clamcal  instructor  during  the  Iwi>  years  frdlowing;  and 
rrom  1837  to  1843  waa  adjunct  professor,  with  Dr.Charles 
bithDn,  of  Greek  and  Latin.    July  2G,  1»13,  be  waa  or- 


enog  e 


dained  paatorof  the  Pieabyteriaa  Church,  German  Tal- 
ley,  N.Y.,and  was  dismissed  ill  1846.  In  June  of  the 
latter  year  he  was  inatalled  over  the  Congregitionol 
Church  in  Clinloo,  N.  Y.,  and  remained  in  charge  uiitU 
1867,  in  which  year  he  became  professor  of  theology  in 
East  Windsor  Theological  Seminary.  He  died  in  East 
Lyme,  Conn.,  July  4,1875.    See  Cor9.(}uur.lg76,p.436. 

Veimond,  Uatthieu  JAOQuita  iiE,aFrencheccIe> 
aiastic,  was  bom  about  1735,  and  was  at  first  ■  surgeon 
in  acoontry  village,  but  devoted  himself  lo  the  study  of 
theology,  sod  in  1757  was  made  doctor  by  the  Sorbonne. 
He  thereupon  became  librarian  of  tbe  college  of  Moiain; 
but  in  17E^  went  to  Vienna  Co  aupennlcnd  Ihe  educa- 
tion of  Marie  Antoinette,  and  after  bet  marriage  with 
the  dauphin  be  remained  her  reader.  He  became  in- 
volved in  the  diamal  Kevolutionary  times  that  followed  i 
and  after  varioua  reverses  died  iu  obscurity  at  Vienna 
at  the  close  of  thai  century.  See  Hoefer,  ffouv.  Biag. 
Gmiralt,  a.  v. 

Tannnle,  C  C.|  a  Preabyterian  minister,  was  li- 
censed in  1814  by  tbe  Claseia  of  New  York.and  became 
paalor  of  the  Cburch  at  Harlem,  N.  T.,  where  he  labor- 
ed until  1837.  He  died  in  1858.  See  Wilson,  Prat. 
Hin.  A  Imraiac  1860,  p.  2IM. 

Vatnaol*  is  an  old  English  term  for  the  Vera  lam, 
or  true  Image  of  our  Lord's  {see  and  features,  as  miracu- 
lonsly  delineated  on  the  napkin  of  St  Veronica  (q.  v.). 

Vemaonlar,  the  dialect  or  language  of  a  country, 
especially  of  the  common  people  as  distinguished  from 
any  tongue  of  Ihe  learned.     The  evidence  of  Scripture 

"  tongues  of  fire"  (q.  v.)  (Acta  ii,  5),  Paul's  injunction  in 
regard  to  public  service  (1  Cor.  xiv,  16),  and  other  pas- 
sages clearly  point  to  the  same  result.  Tbe  Jewish 
Church  waa  careful  lo  make  the  law  and  tbe  prophets 
familisr  by  vernacular  translations  (Keh.  viii,  8),  and 
tbe  practice  of  msking  ttuialatioiis  of  tbe  Scriptures 
into  the  vernacular  of  all  nscions  has  been  practiced 
from  Ihe  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian  Church.  There 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  a  Church  ahoald  em- 
ritual  in  a  dead  binguage;  but  the  Roman  Cath- 


cChur. 


e  in 


litu^iea  to  the  excluaion  of  all  others.  Tbe  Cuun- 
cil  of  Trent  (in  IiG2)  ordsined  ai>  followa:  "Although 
the  mass  contains  much  to  edify  the  people,  the  fstbers 
did  not  Judge  it  right  that  it  should  be  celebrated  in  tbe 
vulgar  tongue,  and  the  Roman  Church  has  preserved 
the  use;  nevertheless,  the  clergy  should  at  times,  and 
especially  on  festivals,  explain  to  the  people  some  pait 
of  what  they  have  read  tu  I  hem."    It  is  worthy  of  le- 

tbe  language  of  the  country  in  which  they  were  first 
uMil;  e.  g.  the  (ireek,  Roman,  Syrisc,  etc  Thcrefora 
the  allusion,  in  the  above  csnon,  to  the  practice  of  the 
fathers  la  rather  unfortunate  for  the  doctrine  of  an  ex- 
clusively I^Iin  riliuL     See  L,VTi?(,  UsB  of. 

TemBt.  Jacob,  a  Swiss  theologian,  waa  bom  at  Ge- 
neva, Ang,  29, 1698,  of  a  family  originally  from  Seync.ia 
Provence,  who  had  fled,  on  account  of  their  religion,  to 
(■eneva  about  1680.  Ha  was  early  left  an  orphan,  being 
tbe  sixth  of  nine  children;  but  under  the  care  of  his 
maternal  ancle,  Daniel  Leclerc,  he  made  rapid  progress 
in  study.  He  spent  eight  years  at  PariB,and  then  trav- 
elled in  Italy.  He  began  his  ministerial  career  in  1722, 
and  served  successively  tbe  parishes  of  Joasey  (1730), 
and  Sacconex  (1731),  and  finally  at  Geneva  (1734).  In 
1737  he  was  chosen  rector  of  (he  .Academy  in  hia  native 
citv,  and  taught,  at  first,  belks-lcurcs  ami  hisiorv,  and 
from  1756  Ihoulogi-.  He  died  t...rc  March  30,'  1789. 
He  wmte  numcmiis  works  of  a  practical  religious  char- 
acter, for  which  see  lloefer,  Nom.  Biog.  Giarralr,  s.  v. 

Vemenil,  Council  op  {Cimcilium  Vrrnrme).  Vet- 
neuil  Is  ■  town  of  France,  in  Eure,  on  the  Avre,  twenty- 
four  miles  south-southwest  of  Evreux.  An  ccck'slaati- 
eal  council  waa  held  here  in  December,  844.     Ebrouin, 


754         VERONA,  COUNCIL  OP 


itcbcbipl^D  oTChirla  the  Bild  ind  blahop  of  Poitien, 
prcdded,«iithTetiilnn,archbiahop<if8eDe.  Twdveun- 
.!..  _j^  ^jreM*d  to  Cbarlea  ihe  Bald. 


reuMM  crime,  elt 

f.  Renews  the  canoD  i 
rallgloDB  who,  andar  pi 
Uksii  ui  wearing  mala  m,,^. 

8,  Dtrecta  ilim  when  blabapa  am  eicnaed  IVora  goina 
ths  farx,  either  by  InflrinllT  or  by  the  klndnnS  of  I 
[HiDce.  tbey  iball  appoint  flt  disd  to  laad  their  people. 

S«e  Uanu,  Coital,  rii,  1806.    See  Vuatvu,  Codkcil 

Venion,  J.  'W.  H.,  ■  Methodut  E[dKxipal  minia- 
Ur,  wa>  bom  in  IndUna,  Dec  7,  1819.  He  wae  left  K 
the  care  of  his  widowed  mother  at  the  age  oraixi  em- 
braced rvlifiiaa  when  very  young;  received  licenae  to 
preach  in  lUSl;  and  waa  adtiiitl«d  to  the  Ulinoii  Con- 
tettace  and  appointed  hi  Canni  Circuit.  lu  I85G  he 
waa  traDefcTTcd  to  the  West  Wiscoiuin  Conference,  and 
appointed  to  Portage  City  Hiaaion.  After  aerving  thif 
Conference  in  aevcral  loinlitiea,  he,  in  IS61,  waa  transfer- 
red bacit  to  the  lllimiia  Cuiiference.  His  laat  chBrge 
was  AugiiMa  Circuit,  where  he  died,  Felj.  13, 1863.  Mr. 
Teinon  waa  a  auperior  preacher ;  manly,  afcreeable,  dili- 
gent, devout.  See  Mttmlei  o/Aimual  Con/errmri,  186S, 
p.33a 

Teraon,  Thomas,  Ber.,  H.D.,  a  Ongregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  Newport,  R.  1.,  Dec  SO.  1797.    F 
Ave  generations  hia  ancealnra  had  been  repreaented 
that  ciiy.     He  graduated  at  Brown  University,  wi 
high  rank  as  a  scholar,  in  the  class  of  1816.     He  coi 
Dienced  and  ptosecuted  the  study  of  taw  for  about  o 
year  in  the  city  of  New  York,  when  ha  decided  to  ent 
the  Christian  ministry.    He  becaoae  a  pupil  of  i 
ebrated  Dr.  John  H.  Hasan,  with  whom  he  re 
not  far  from  two  yeani,  and  was  then  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Church  in  Kehoboth,  Mass.,  where  he  remained 
for  about  aixteen  yean   (1919-85).     Loss   of  Toic 
obliged  him  lo  retire  from  the  pulpit.    He  removed  I 
Kingston,  R.  I.,  aud  fur  several  yean  was  engaged  as 
teacher  of  young  men,  supplying,  as  he  waa  able,  th 
pulpit  of  the  l^ngregalioital  Church  in  that  villagi 
Abandoning  all  hope  of  ever  being  able  lo  preach,  he 
decided  to  study  medicine;  and,  having  fitted  himself 
for  his  new  profession,  he  received  the  degree  of  U.D. 
rroiD  the  Univenil}'  of  Penneylvania  in  1852,  and  set- 
tled in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  where  he  resided  for  aixleeii 
years  (1852-68).    Af^r  a  year  spent  at  the  South  for 
his  health,  he  took  up  hia  residence  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
where  he  rewded  fiir  the  remaining  five  or  t\x  years  of 
bis  life,  rendering  such  service  as  be  was  able,  both  as 
minister  and  phy^cian,  especially  to  the  poor  with 
whom  he  was  brought  in  contact.    He  died  in  Provi- 
dence, May  9, 1876.     The  acquirements  of  Dr.  Vernon 

were  always  genial  and  attractive."  He  waa  a  trustee 
of  Drown  Unirersitr  sixteen  yean  (I844-60>  See 
Ctmg.  Guar.  1877,  p.  427.    (J,  C  S.) 

Vemnll,  Jons,  a  French  refugee,  was  bom  at  Bor- 
deaux in  I5S3,  and  educated  in  the  Univenily  of  Mon- 
tauban.  He  fled  the  country  for  Ibe  sake  of  his  retlg- 
ion;  enured  Magdalen  College, Oxfoit!, in  1608;  and  in 
1626  was  incorporated  niaster  of  arta,  beinc  then  second 
keeper  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  in  which,  Wood  says,  his 
services  wera  valuable.  He  died  at  Oxlbni  in  Septem- 
ber, 1647. 

Venmm,  Council  of  {Conri/iuni  FrnmiM),  A 
council  was  held  in  764  at  a  place  in  France  named  in 
Ijtin  V'tmnn.  Soma  doubt  exists  as  to  its  locality. 
Fleury  and  U  Cointe  say  that  it  is  I'lrmm-mr-Sfine ; 
Pagi,  following  Mabillnn,  says  Vemail-nir-Oite ;  Le- 
beuf  and  Bouquet  mainUin  that  it  ia  a  place  called 
Vtr,  or  Vent,  a  royal  seat,  situated  between  Paris  and 
Compiigne.    See  TEBHevit,  Coumcil  op. 


Tha  council  was  at 

aembled  by  order  of  king  Pepa, 

and  the  bishops  of  all 

the  Gollican  provinces  atteuded. 

Tha  object  was  to 

agreed  lo  remedy  at 

and  to  leave  lesaer  ma 

once  the  moat  grievous  abon, 
tteis  till  a  more  favorable  oppat- 

tuuity.     Tweaty-flve 

1.  Rnacts  thai  no  bishop  shall  hold  more  than  one  «. 
B.  Olvea  lo  the  hlahop  atlthorliT  to  corrwl  both  the  reg- 

4.  Ordera  that  two  sinods  be  holden  annnsllr  in  Frsna. 
B.  Leaves  (u  the  blibnp  the  rororm  of  Ibe  nlltlaiB 
boosM  In  hia  dioeesa.    If  ha  cannot  eOMt  it.  ha  Is  di- 

I.  Forbids  to  erect 

8.  Orders  priests  lo  auand  tha  avnnd  ol 
forbid-  them  V,  bsptlM  or  to  eclebrala  tl 
wlthont  Ibeir  permiHl.m. 

1ft  Forbids  ItlaersDt  bishops  (who  have  i 


1&  Forbids  clerki  in  carry  tbelt  caoae*  before  laytriba. 

M.  Forbids  Simon ^ 
See  Manai,  CoadL  vi,  1664. 

T«[O0cllio.  ANtiRRii,  a  celebrated  Italian  psinlei, 
sculptor,  and  golilsmith,  was  bora  at  Florence  in  lUl 
He  first  distinguished  himself  as  «  goldsmilh  at  Flat. 
ence  and  Rome,  and  then  devoted  himself  to  aculptan 
in  bronie  and  marble.  His  first  work  in  marble  ws*  i 
monument  in  theHinervaat  Rome  to  the  wife  of  Fno- 
CMCo  Tnmabuoiii,  which  ia  now  in  the  FkrenliDe  (ial- 
lery.  His  next  etfurt  waa  a  colossal  bronie  figure  ol 
David,  also  in  Ihe  Florentine  Oalleiy.  Anxiug  his  oili- 
er works  in  this  department  was  the  lacrtdutilii  of  Si. 
Tltomai,  in  the  Church  of  Or  San  Hichele  at  llonate, 
whichwaafinishedinl4^  Vaoari  tells  us  that  be Irll 
nothing  to  be  wished  for  in  this  work.  After  thisTe- 
rocchio  began  to  turn  bis  attention  to  painting.  Ha 
work  in  sculpture  had  made  him  a  good  designer,  asd 
many  pupils  visited  his  academy,  among  whum  wen 
Pietm  Penigino  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  But  tbe  vmk 
of  Da  Vinci  hi  far  surpaned  that  of  Verocchio  ibat  ibi 
latter  relinqoished  painting  entirely  and  devoted  his- 
selfto  sculpture  He  was  engaged  to  cast  anniuestiion 
statue  of  the  celebrated  general  Bartolomeo  Celleoci 
for  the  dty  of  Venice.  He  completed  Ibe  modtLbai, 
ill  casting  the  statue,  caught  cold,  and  dial  in  a  Ira 
weeka(l488),  befaretbestatuewasfiniahed.  Thewok 
waa  completed  by  Aleasandro  Leopardi  in  1490.  Vme- 
chio's  remains  were  taken  by  hia  disciple,  Lorem  di 
Credi,  to  Florence  and  deposited  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Ambrogio.  See  Spooner,  Biag.  /Jot.  of  llu  Fan  Am, 
s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nout.  Biag.  Ginirab,  a  v. 

Vfiron,  FRAKpHS,  a  French  controveraialisl.  wu 
bom  in  Paris  abuut  1576,  of  an  honorable  ramily.  In 
1696  he  was  admitted  lo  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  aad 
applied  himself  lo  tludiea  in  opposition  to  the  KaTorais- 
tiuD,and  he  spent  his  life  in  public  debates  and  wiitingi 
on  that  aide.  He  died  at  Charenlon,  near  Pari^  Dk. 
6,  1649.     I'at  hia  works,  see   Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  tir- 

Verona,  Cotriiini.  of  {ConaHan  Veromttt).  Te- 
rona  is  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  cafHtal  of  the  ptoviixe 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  Adige,  twentv-lwo  mil« 
N.N.E.  of  Mantua.  An  ecclesiastical  council  was  held 
here  on  Aug.  1,  1IS4,  for  the  purpose  of  reconcitiDg 
those  who  had  been  ordained  by  the  antipopea.  Pnf* 
LociuB  III  published  a  constitution  against  the  heretics 
in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  Frederick.  The  obiect 
was  to  repress  the  fury  of  the  Calhari,  Paierini,  and  the 
other  heretica  of  that  period.  In  this  council,  wv  per- 
the  commencement  of  the  system  of  inqaisitiDo. 
the  bishops  sre  ordered,  by  means  of  mmmiaaatiea^ 
form  themselves  of  pereona  uu^tntA  of  bnesy. 
whether  by  common  report  or  privota  tnformatioo.    A 


VEKONA 


dwUoction  ii  dnwn  bftwtcn  Ihs 
Ticted,  tb*  pcnileDl  uid  nlipaed,  and  different  de- 
Bira  or  puaisbnwiit  an  accordingly  awuded.  Aft«r 
all  the  (piritual  peultia  of  the  Church  hive  been 
employed  in  rain,  it  i*  onlered  that  Che  offenden  be 
giren  up  to  Ihn  icfailar  arm,  in  order  that  temporal 
pnnUliiiKTili  maj  be  infliclccL  Bee  Manii,  CoiteU,  x, 
17S7, 17U. 

T«roiia,  Ptb  Olovaiml  da,  an  Italian  mi: 
waa  bom  at  Olivelo  in  U96.  He  b«»me  wlebrated  for 
hia  (lecoration*  of  tbe  ctunra  i 
work  of  wood.  He  practiced 
of  Italy,  including  Rome,  where  he  was  employed  by 
pope  Joliua  IL  At  fint  wooda  of  diDereiil  colon  were 
uaed,  and  large  ediHcea,  colonnades,  and  architectural 
*iewB  were  raprewyileiL  The  art  wu  afierwenls  im- 
proTcd  by  employing  aniSciilly  stained  as  well  as  nal- 
tual  wood,  and  by  adding  figures.  Verona  died  in  lfiS7. 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Bin.  of  the  Fiae  A  tii,  t.  r. 

Ttfrouft,  Jftoopo  da,  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
14tfa  century,  waa  born  at  Verona.    He  is  only  linown 
by  hia  aumerous  freicos  in  the  Church  of  San  Michele,  at 
nu]ua,aameorwhicli  still  remain  entire.    See  Spooi 
Biog.  UitL  oftkt  Fiiu  /4  rU,  a.  v. 

Terona,  Mafieo  da,  an  Italian  painter,  wu  bom 
M  VeiDna  in  1576.  He  studied  under  Luigi  Benfatto, 
bat  copied  the  works  and  adopted  the  style  of  Pau' 
TenineH.  Besides  painting  several  works  fur  tbi 
ehurcbea  of  his  native  city  and  fnr  tbe  CatJieclral  ol 
Udine,  he  executed  many  works  for  the  churchea  of 
Venice,  among  which  may  be  named  two  altar-pieces, 
representing  the  Detctnl /ntai  lit  Crati  and  the  Ka- 
■rrrrfwx.  in  the  Church  ofSan  Marco,  and  CAriitfear- 
img  the  Vmt  and  the  Cnidjaioa,  in  the  Chapel  of  St. 
Isidore  in  the  ume  church.  He  died  in  1618.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Ilitt.  oftkt  Fint  A  m,  a.  t. 

VeronABfl,  AgoatUio.    See  Tuncin. 

Vetonsae,  PanL    See  Paolo  Vbrunesk. 

Veronica,  St.  (also  Btroda,  Brnmirr,  and  Vi 
tScr),  U  described  by  tradition  to  bare  been  a  pi 
woman  of  Jerusalem,  who  was  moved  with  pity  on  be- 
holding the  J>loody  and  perspiring  face  of  our  Lord 
wbeatm  the  way  to  crwaflxion,  and  manifested  her 
Q'Upathy  by  giving  bim  ber  head-cluth  to  wipe  off  the 
perspiratioiL.  In  responae  to  her  kindness,  the  Saviour 
imprinted  his  featurea,  all  distorted  aa  they  were  with 
pain  and  suffering,  on  the  cloth,  and  gave  it  back  lo  her 
lor  ■  mcDNiial  and  token  of  bis  love.  This  is  declared 
to  be  the  origin  of  oueofthe  oldest  of  thoM  repreaenta- 
tiaaa  of  Christ's  features  which  are  ssid  to  have  not 
been  made  with  hands  (t!*i-yic  d^'ipoiroriiroi  3ci'riiic- 
nx),  and  which  have  given  rise  to  the  Christs  of  Cor- 
reggio  and  other  famous  painters  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  also  lo  the  class  of  hymns  which  are  addressed  to  the 
bead  of  Jeius,  e.g.  the  very  ancient  sequence  Saire 
Baera  Fiida,  St.  Bernard's  Soles  Caput  CrutrHalMm, 
Paul  Gerhard's  0  Haupt  roU  Blut  und  Wundm,  etc 

Various  modiBcaliuni  of  the  legend  are;  1.  Veronica 
(or  rather  B^owoj)  was  the  woman  who  hod  the  issue 
^  blood  and  was  healed  by  touching  the  hem  of  Christ's 
garment  (MatL  ix,  SO  sq.).  She  is  said  by  F.usebius 
(//.  E.  vii,  17  sq.)  lo  have  subsequently  erected  s  siatiie 
to  JeSDS  in  her  native  town  of  Pinea^  in  Syro-Phmni- 
eia.  This  is  tbe  sulement  of  John  Malsla,  about  A.D. 
600,  in  his  Chrimngrapiia,  p.  30S.  2.  Veronica  was  a 
niece  of  Herod  the  Creat  by  Salome—an  evident  con- 
loDDding  of  Berenice,  tbe  mother  of  Herodius  and 


cnlptnre  by  Andrea  SacchI  In 


ordered 

Veronica  to  Rome  that  tbe  touch  of  her  sweat-doth 
might  care  his  leprosy,  and  that  when  tbe  cure  was  ef- 
fected she  persuaded  Tiberius  lo  exile  Pilate  in  punisb- 
nenl  for  having  sentenced  Jesus  lo  iteath.    Veronica 
ifterwards  remained  in  Rome  with  her  wonderful  tada- 
■itm,  and  in  her  will  gave  the  doth  to  Clement,  tbe 
lucoeasor  of  Peter,  hy  whom  il  waa  Imnsmilled  lo  snc- 
ceeding  popes.     Tbe  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggioie 
boasted  ita  posseesion  since  pope  John  Vll  ("OS),  but  it 
'■  -nw  claimed  hy  Su  Peter's  at  Rome.     Onlv  persona 
rineely  degree  who  have  been  admitted  lo'ihennh 
itulary  canons  of  St.  Peler'a  are  permitted  to  look 
1  it.     Milan,  and  Jaen,  in  Spain,  however,  both  aa- 
that  tbe  cloth  is  in  their  poaaeasion  (see  Benedict 
XIV  [Lambenini], />(  ScTinim  Dti  Beatifical,  eu. 
" :,  2,  Bl).     Down  to  the  13th  century  the  cloth  itself, 
ad  not  the  woman,  was  called  Veronica,  a  fact  which 
throwB  doubt  upon  the  autbenljcity  ofthe  legend  as  a 
'lole.     Pspebnwh,  Mabillon,  and  others  reached  the 
iclusion  that  Veronica  was  originally  a  comiplion  of 
)  words  (part  Ijitin,  part  Greek)  r'era  icon  {fUi,y\ 
1  signifies  simply  a  true,  aHthattk  IHtntu,  and  many 
idem  critics  adopt  that  view.     Grimm   (_Sape  eon 
Uriprang  der  Cirulatbildtr,  p.  86)  says  that  the  legend 
of  Veronica  is  simply  the  Occidental  version  of  the 
Eastern  tradition  of  Ahgams  (q.v.)  of  Edcasa,  which 
narrates  that  Christ  sent  both  an  autograph  letter  and 
nthentic  portrait  of  himself  to  that  prince.     The 
tionaldwellingnrVeronicainJerusalem  was  shown, 
ted  hy  the  way  from  the  house  of  Mlate  to  Calva- 

e  Bolland,  /)fla  SS.  FeU  4,  i,  449  sq.;   Banmius, 

iL  ad  .4 H.  94,  No.  138;  Gretser,  Sfntnffma  dt  /m.i- 

lu   nen   Mima  FactU   ( IngolsL  1622);   ChilHei, 

fJt  l.mleiM  Chritli  SrpuUhr.  Smalit  Critii  Hitloriai 

(Antv.  1624) ;  Beausobre,  Dn  Imogtt  de  Afaia  Dinar, 

-      the    BiiiiHK  Gnman.  xviii,  10 ;  Tillemonl,  »ti. 

i»»,  i,  471  st|.;  Gieseier,  Kircketgettk.  i,  8(1;  Her- 

EOg,  Real-Eiia^iop.  s.  r. 


VERONICA  (Lot. 


I,  true;   Gr.  ic 


1,  image),  a 


,  who  was  dfscribed  as  "  famu 
t  Joaephi,  et  Dominus  bsjalus 


led  Prounice  or  Berenice  (Let.  VeroKica),  who  had 
been  cured  of  the  issue  of  blood  (Matt,  ix,  iO-H,  and 
parallels),  is  said  lo  hsre  wiped  the  face  of  our  Lord 
when  going  to  the  cruciflxion  by  the  Way  of  Sotrowa. 
Wet  with  blood  and  other  fiuida,  his  likeness  was 
stamped  upon  ita  triple  folds,  and  the  napkin  was 
brought  in  a  wooden  coffer  from  Palestine  lo  Rome, 
and  eventually  placed  by  Urban  VIII  in  an  upper 


VERONinS  7. 

one  of  the  greit  pien  in  St. Peter's 

U  Btill  pr«HrT«d  under  the  chiige  o( 

the  csuddl      It  ii  «xhihited 

the  jeu  10  the  pope,  cardi- 
n«li,  md  faithful  who  are 
placed  in  the  ni 


ie  the  attribute  hu  be- 


e  the  aubjeci 


The  1 


e  haa  taken 
nan  ia  only 
ji  known  ai  Veronica.  There 
If,  or  veil*,  prcMrved 
at  LaoD,  Cologne,  and  Milan.  See  WalcotI,  Aicred  ^4  r- 
<AaBLt.v.;  B*IDMm,Homtanlni  Al  II  Il,p.i9l. 

Veronliu  (Franfoii  Vinm),  ■  French  Jesuit,  waa 
bom  about  1675,  in  Paria.  At  the  age  of  tventj  he 
Joined  the  Jesuila,  received  holy  orden,  and  labored 
■a  a  miauDnar;  among  the  Protestant*  of  France.  In 
1622  he  recei>'ed  permiaaion  to  preach  and  diseuai  in 
the  streets  and  in  market-places,  as  prtdicatnir  du  Boi 
pour  Iti  amtrowrm,  while  the  French  clergy  gaTC 
him  the  Juriadiction  and  an  annual  peniion.  He  died 
aapaiIorinChinnton,Dece,]649.  Ue  is  said  (o  have 
been  well  qualified  for  miisiotiary  work,  but,  on  the 
whole,  he  was  very  moderate.  At  the  colloquy  at  Ca- 
dom,  in  1628,  he  discussed  with  Bochait  and  published 
the  acta  thereof.  Bochsit  alao  published  the  aai 
(Saumur,  1689)  becauae  Vdron  had  falufied  thetn.  He 
wrote,  Mithoda  de  Ti-ailer  da  Conlroctriei  de  Rtligim 
(Paris,  1638, 2  roU) :— Aipfe  de  la  Foi  CalkoUgue  (ibid. 
1646;  Latin  in  Mignc,  Carnu  TAm/oyiiui,  i,  1036  aq.): 
— BaUUm  da  Jaruimtta,  against  the  Jansaoists:— he 
also  published  a  reviiied  edition  of  the  Louvain  French 
Bible  { IG47 ).  See  Schrbckli,  Kirchaigaciichle  tat 
dtr  RrformalioK,  iv,  261 ;  BiofjTaphie  Unwtrtdlt,  a.  v. ; 
Henke,  Catixtui  und  tebie  Zeil,  II,  i,  167  sq.  \  Thtoiog. 
L'Mvtrial-ltriioH,  a.  v.     (R  P.) 

Veipoorten,  Albrooht  Meno,  a  Fioteatant  the- 
ologian of  Uennsny,  was  bom  at  Goiha,  Oct.  18,  1672. 
He  belonged  to  a  Vamiiy  which  led  the  Netherlands 
under  the  persociitions  of  the  duke  of  Alba.  He  stud- 
ied at  Giesaen  and  Wittenberg.  In  1699  he  waa  appoint- 
ed put«r  at  Sonnenberg,  and  in  1708  supeiiniendent  at 
Neuatadt.  In  IT24  he  waa  called  aa  rector  of  (he  aca- 
demic gyninaaium  at  Coburg,  having  received  the  doc- 
professor  to  Dantzic,  at  the  same  time  acting  aa  pastor 
of  Trinity  Church,  where  be  died,  J>ine  8, 1762.  Ver- 
poonen  was  an  excellent  theologiui.  In  numeroue 
I^tin  Iiestises  he  wrote  on  exegesis  and  criticism  of 
the  New  Test.,  on  Church  histoij',  and  pattistics.  The 
main  reaulta  of  his  studies  are  found  in  Fiuciculus  Dii- 
lerlaliorium  ad  Thtologiam  maxime  Extgttieam  tl  Pht- 
lologiam  S(Kram  F/iiiHuHiiiin  (Gedtni,  1789 ) :— Port- 
ftOBrt  Theologia  txArlieiilit  A  ugailaiiaCimfntioiiit,  ed- 
ited by  his  son  (ibid.  1761).  The  number  of  his  largei 
and  smaller  works  amounts  to  aeventy-six,  for  which 
see  Dbring,  GrUlirU  TAeoloffm  Dailiddanit  in  18(n 
tind  I9rni  Jakrkimderl,  ir,  686-688;  the  works  pertain- 
ing to  the  OM  Test,  are  given  by  Fursi,  BOL  Jud.  iii, 
ilb.    (a  P.) 

Ven'OOTteii,  Wilhelm  Patil,  ■  Gkman  theolo- 
gian, son  of  Albrecht  Heno,  was  bom  SepU  4,  [721,  at 
NeustadL  Having  graduated  at  Dantzic  with  the  trea- 
tise De  A  uctore  Stcunda  Teriieqm  Epittola  Johaimit 
(1741),  he  went  to  Jens,  where  he  publicly  spoke  (1743) 
on  Color  lab  Xube  Tommlt  Eia.  xxv,  6,  u  VtrMione 
llitroagmi  Vulsolaque  Obriai,  ad  Tainn  Hebnam 
Raqat  iptim  Xalaram  Kiptniia.  In  the  same  year 
he  went  to  Leipaic,  where,  on  account  of  bis  disaerta- 


VERSE 

Di  Concilia  (Ecaniauoo  SKWtda,  Contlmliiicpoli- 
lam  Prima  (1746),  he  received  the  privilege  of  Itctiir- 
uig.  But  bodily  inflrmities  of  his  father  called  bio 
ime,  where  he  prepared  himself  for  the  mitiisur.  In 
'61  he  waa  appointed  pastor  at  Stublan,  near  Dsnixie ; 
1 176!  he  waa  called  as  second  deacon  to  Danuic;  and 
:  1770  he  waa  placed  at  the  head  of  the  gymnasiaai 
there,  where  he  died,  Jan.  17, 1794.  Beaidea  the  disaa- 
already  mentioned,  he  wrote,  Diti.  Iiimg.  dt 
Habil»  Lfgii  ad  Pamlailiam  el  Fidtm  (pmentrd  to 
the  KOnigaberg  Univereity  for  the  ilegree  of  doctor  uf 
'  ■,inO):—Progr.dt  PriaidiU  Tkeologo  a  llu- 
(xletia  Fetatdit  (Godani,  1770)  -.—Dia.  dt  Rear. 
Impicruai  Mtrilo  Chriili  him  Imptlrala  (ibid. 
1774] :— Z>iis.  dt  Vindidu  Doclrvur  de  Suppliciii  Dnm- 
llernii  (ibid.  1774).  For  his  other  orilingi 
see  Diiring,  Gtkhrte  Tkeologttt  DoUtchkatdi  atlSleinai 
\ile*JakrlMader1,\v,b9im.     (B  P.) 

Venlo,  AnTIMID,  a  Neapohlan  painter,  was  bom  M 
Lecceabout  1689.  After  making conaiderable progm  ia 
he  visited  Venice  to  study  the  coloring  of  lb* 
3  achooL  After  some  lime  he  ivtumed  to  Na- 
ples, where  he  gained  much  notoriety  through  ihe  eie- 
ertain  gay  paintine*.  In  1660  he  psinltd  a 
re  in  IVesco  of  CAitK  ^ni/ifV  rAr  Siot,  in  the 
College  of  the  Jesuits,  which  was  marked  for  its  fine 
coloring.  He  next  went  to  France  and  painlnl  tb* 
htgh-altai-  of  the  Carmelites  at  Toulouse.  Shottlv  afui 
thi*  be  went  to  England  in  the  aerrice  of  Charies  II, 
who  desired  him  to  direct  the  manufacture  of  tapetiiy 
at  Uortlske;  but  the  king  changed  his  mind,  and  Ver- 
rio  was  employed  on  the  frescos  of  Windsor  Cssle. 
After  the  aeccsBlon  of  James  tl  he  was  again  emplavtd 
at  Windsor  in  "  Wolsey's  Tomb-house,"  then  to  be  ^ 
verted  into  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel.  Refuitng  fur* 
time  to  enter  the  service  of  William  III,  be  painted  fi* 
the  nobility,  hut  afterwards  was  induced  to  paint  fat 
the  king.  He  waa  granted  an  snnusl  pension  uf  jfifiO 
by  queen  Anne,  but  died  in  1707.  He  is  described  by 
Walpole  as  "an  eicellent  painter  for  the  son  of  suWetis 
on  which  he  was  employed,  that  is,  witboat  much  in- 
vention, and  with  less  taate;  his  exuberant  pencil  wB 
ready  at  pouring  out  gods,  goddesso,  kings,  empenTH, 
and  triumphs,  over  those  public  surfaces  on  which  tbt 

should  be  sorry  to  ^ce  the  works  of  a  better  oiasMr;  1 
meaneeilingsandstaircases.  The  New  Testament  oriht 

and  marble  columna  and  marble  ateps  he  never  (pareiL* 
VarschotlBtS,  a  sect  that  derived  iu  denamioa- 
tion  from  Jacob  Terachoor,  a  tiative  of  Flushing,  in  Ibi 
Netherlands,  who  in  the  yesr  1680,  out  of  a  pervene 
and  heterogeneous  mixture  of  the  tenet*  of  Cocctiss 
and  Spinoza,  produced  a  new  form  of  religion,  equally  re- 
markahle  fur  iia  extravagance  and  impiety.  His  din- 
pies  and  Tollowera  were  called //eftrrus,  on  account  of  tbe 
seal  and  atuduily  with  which  they  all,  without  distine- 
lion  of  age  or  sex,  applied  themselves  to  the  study  gf  the 
Hebrew  language.  Their  sentiments  were  neuly  tha 
same  as  those  of  the  Hattembti  (q.  v.).  See  Moabciia, 
niel.  o/lkt  Ckardi,  bk.  iv,  cent,  xvii,  §  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii. 

Verachulr,  Johahn  HEiNiiitii,  a  Protesiani  ibes- 
logian  of  Germany,  and  professor  of  Uriental  lanituagi* 
at  Franeker,  who  died  May  20,  18U3,  is  the  author  ct, 
Dutetlatio  dt  Parmomaaa  Onrnlaliiai  mallam  Ada- 
mala,  gun  at  Odarn  in  rjutdrm  tHaerlaliim^i  Phi- 
lohgico-exrgflicii  (Franeker,  1773) ; — IHiitrlalio  Cri- 
tica,  qua  /.tdia  Cudirit  llehrmi  in  Ijko  Celtbri  DnL 
xrvii,  i  Dr/aiditur,  H  Lectio  Samaritan  Texlm  lot- 
quam  Spuria  RejicUur  (ibid.  1767);— ZJusrrfo/iiiwfPAf- 
jDJn^tai-ezc^fHn  (ibid.  1773).  See  Furst,  fiiN.  ^ud^  iii, 
ilb;  Steaixb-aciAw, BUingrophiKkn ltat^.t.v.i  Wi- 
ner, UaiJk  drr  Mrot  LUtraar,  i,2SI.     (R  P.) 

Venii,  aa  a  written  or  typographical  dirtsioo  in  ihc 
text  of  Ihe  Bible,  has  a  hislotical  and  literaiy  iotetcM 
which  JustiSea  its  full  tTalment  here. 


VERSE 

L  /«  JfamMer^pU;— IJndet  thit  bctd  we  oouiIdcT  tbc 
nnnben  of  rbj'thmicil  pusagcs,  the  logical  divliioiu 
ill  the  prow  book*  p«eulur  to  Ibe  veraiuiu,  uid  tbe  lug- 
ical  dit-iuoD*  in  the  nriginal  teiU. 

I.  The  imo  «r«  (etriui,  froro  eerlo,  "  lo  turn"),  like 
tb«'  Greek  trrixoSy  ***  (pplied  by  the  Ronuina  (o  Una 
ill  gcnenl,  whether  in  prou  or  vcne,  but  more  pirtic- 
ukirly  to  the  ihythmioJ  divuuons,  which  genenUly  i 
RMiKed  the  liiie  witb  a  capital  letter.    The  cuatoi 

Uteek^  Kuiniiu,  Anbiani,  and  Hebrews,  The  poetical 
books  (viz.  Job,  Pulma,  l^verb*,  Eccleaiutn,  and  Can- 
tide*),  in  the  oldnt  Hebrew  MS&,  aa  the  Paria,  Bod- 
leian, Cuael,  and  KegiDmonianua,  are  aim  thus  divided; 
and  aome  poetical  paaaagea  in  tbe  bialorical  books  are  iliU 
given  in  Ihia  form  in  our  printed  Hebrew  Biblea.  The 
Alexandrian  MS.,  and  choie  r.{  tbe  Italic  venii 
equally  *o  wrttcea;  and  thia  divlaion  i*  Touiid 
Pialterium  Turicenae,  the  Yerona  and  Sl  Germain  Pul- 
ler*, and  ill  Martianay'a  edition  of  Jerome.  Athana 
applied  the  term  trri'xoC  to  the  panige  in  Pu.  cxix 
"I  arose  at  midnight  to  praiae  thee  tbr  the  Judgment 
or  thy  rigbteonmeat;"  and  Chry aoetom  obaervea,  on  Pi 
zlii,  that  "eacb  Mich  (m-ixoc)  aufflceato  afford  lu  mui 
philoaophT."  He  alao  uaea  the  term  ^foic  in  the  un 
*nue.  The  puetieal  booka  are  sailed  by  Epiphanii 
■be  Ave  (m;(i)pti£. 

It  is  not  imprabable  that  chiadivialon  may  have  con 
from  the  original  author*,  which  the  nature  of  the  bu! 
ject,  and  especially  the  parallelism  of  the  sentena 
■eems  to  require  (ie\i\t,3iicrtdJ.iitraliiii:).  In  the  Cod. 
Alex,  are  equally  divided  in  this  manner  the  sougt  of 
Uoaes  and  of  Hannah;  the  prayen  of  Isaiah,  of  Jonah, 
of  Haliakkuk,  Ileiekiab,  Manasses,  and  Azariu;  the 
Benedicile ;  and  the  aonga  nf  Mary  {Giqt6ko<^,  Simeon, 
and  Zachariabin  tbe  New  Test.;  to  which  is  added  the 
Homing  Hymn,  or  Gloria  in  Excelais. 

2.  A  similar  metrical  division  ia  found  in  the  I^in 
veruon.  Jerome  {Ep.  ad  Sunn,  ft  f'rrt.)  applies  tbe 
term  crriicutat  to  tbe  words  "  graado  et  carbonea  ignis'' 
(Psa.  Kviii,  13),  asdgning  as  a  reason  why  the  Greeks 
bad  not  thia  veraicle  after  tbe  interposition  of  two 
venes,  that  it  had  been  inserted  in  the  Sepc  Trom  tbe 
Hebrew  and  Theodotion's  vertion  (with  an  aiterisk> 
He  also  tibaerves  that  it  was  not  eai 
qnestiun  why  Paul,  iu  citing  Psa. 
veraes  not  found  in  the  Hebrew.  Martianay  remark! 
Ibat  these  eight  tctmb,  which  form  bul  th 
in  the  Latin  psalters,  are  thus  found  in 
psalter  of  the  mHi-q  and  tbe  Italic,  in  tbe  Abbey  of  St^ 
Germain-dea-Pr^ : 
Sapnlchmm  pslens  est  autlnr  eomm 
Llni^ls  Fuia  dolose  ainEiaiit  [Ph.  v,  B). 

O°""m""m.l^ct°ine*0ia'n«rilS(!ln»i 
rum  ad  effinidendum  sa 


7  VERSE 

tien^  the  fauT  evangelist*,  I  COrintbians,  PhiUppiaiii, 
Hmothy,  IJohn,  and  Hebrews.  All  these  paasaj^swill 
be  found  extracted  in  tbe  Vhriilian  A«nein£ran«r,  IS42, 
p.  S7e-68S;  and  although  the  fint  editors  of  tbe  8pte- 
ubim  seem  lo  hare  misunderstood  Augustine's  meaning 
(3imon,  HitL  Criliqvt),  it  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  the 
veraea  in  the  Sptcalum  (one  of  which  was  "  Populus 
ejua  et  oves  pascun  ejus")  were  of  tbe  character  which 
we  are  now  describing.  Jerome  has  not  followed  any 
of  tbe  diviaiona  of  tbe  present  Hebrew  text,  except  in 
thoae  pasaagea  where  he  could  not  well  have  avoided 
it — viz.,  the  alphabetical  diviidon  in  tbe  book  of  Lamen- 
tations, and  the  alphabetical  Psalms;  but  even  here  he 
differ*  fmm  the  present  diviuoos  (Morini  Extre.  BiiL 


Jerome  intToducetl  a  i 


nilar  divii 
of  Cbroi 


U>  the  propbet- 
"       isdivis- 


the  prophetical  books,  applies  the  terms  evia 
ana  mmmula  (or  "  stanaaa"  and  "  hemistichs"),  while  in 
the  Cbronides  he  only  employs  tbe  colon, or  longer  pe- 
riod, "  No  one,"  he  observes, "  when  he  sees  the  proph- 
ets divided  into  verses  (iirtifriu),  must  suppose  that 
they  are  bound  by  metrical  lines,  or  that  in  this  respect 
they  resemble  the  Psalms  and  tbe  books  of  Solomon; 
but  as  (he  works  of  Demosthenes  and  Tully  are  divided 
into  colons  and  commas,  although  written  in  prose  and 

also  distinguished  our  new  version  by  a  new  species  of 
writing."  The  Chronicles,  he  says,  he  divided  into 
memberaof  verses  (/m-wrnimn  coiu), in  order  to  avoid 
an  "  inextricable  forest  of  names." 

The  following  specimens  of  Jerome's  divisions  ara 
from  Uartianay : 

IJob  111.] 
"  Pereat  dies  lo  qna  naius  SD 


ladlcii 


I :  Cona] 


Dies  Ilia  vertatur  li 
iicin  reqnlrat  earn  Ileus  des uper 


m  est  [X,  n. 


didl  Dens  vaster. 


El  erunt  pravH  in  directs, 

Et  retelabltnr  gloi^  DumlnL 

at  Tldebii,  etc 
ToxdleentlBi  Ctama. 
Et  dill : 
QuIdOamnbnr 
Umnls  csro  fanim, 
et  omuls  gloria  eJua  quasi  floe  agil" 
(1  Chnm.  ilv.] 
"UlsllqDogneHlrnmrexTTrluantloBBilDavld.ct  Una 
— difoa.et  artlAces  parletom,  ilgvoroinqDe,  nl  MlA- 

irld  qnod  C(i 


carent  el  dnn 


iillsa. 


Kt  vli    . ,    .  _  ... 

Koneit  iJmiirDelaDlaoCBloaeuramri'Ba.  xixvl,!]. 
We  need  scarcely  add  that  these  eight  atichs,  although 
foond  in  Justin  Martyr,  in  the  Vatican  M3.,  and  in  the 
Tol^ie,  Arabic,  and  Etbiopic  versions,  are  an  early  in- 
terpoUtinn  from  Rom.  iii,  16-lB.  They  are  wanting  in 
tbe  Old.  Alex, 

Jerome  obaerrea  (iVv/ oij  Joi),  that  the  book  of  Job 
eominence*  with  proae,  glidea  into  verse,  and  again  ends 
wlih  a  abort  awona  in  prose  from  the  verse  "  Idcircn 
me  reprehendo,  et  ago  pcmitentiam  in  dnere  et  fax-ills" 
(tbe  form  assumed  also  bv  the  text  of  the  oldest  He- 
brew M.S.S.}.  He  adds  that  then  were  seven  hundred 
or  eight  hundred  verses  wanting  in  the  old  Latin  ver- 
tion  of  this  book,  and  rrukea  mention  of  "  three  abort 
Tcrsea'  in  Eiek.  xxi  and  Isa.  Ixiii.  That  ■  atichomet- 
fical  arrangement  pervaded  the  whole  Latin  Bible  is 
further  evident  from  the  Sprculum  iScHpfun*, attributed 

t•cle1^  ICccle*iast<a,Job,HDsea,Amo«,Micah,Zephaniah, 
M«Uchi,  Is«Uh,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Wisdom,  Ecclcaiaa- 


Accepit  qnoqne  Dtrii  aliaa  mores  In  Jenisalen) :  g»- 

nultqus  alios  etfllini." 
A  division  of  the  prophedcal  books  into  cola,  or  slicha, 
has  been  considered  by  some  to  have  had  its  origin  be- 
fore the  time  of  Jemme.  Eusebiua  acquaints  us  (Hi$t, 
EaJu.  vi,  16)  that  Origen,  in  his  ffrxapla,  divided  the 
Greek  and  other  versions  into  luXn.  which,  however, 
bishop  CbrislophersoQ  (in  Kvnb,  Eci-lti.  Uiii.)  sop- 
poses  to  be  the  GolumuB  conuining  the  diffrrvnt  texts 
into  which  Origen'a  Palgglol  was  divided.  Hesvchius, 
who  died  in  A.D.  43S,  also  publishcil  his  anxi7P"C  of 
the  twelve  prophets,  which  he  calls  an  invention  of  tbe 
rathers,  in  Imiution  of  David  and  Solomon,  who  had 
thuB  divided  their  rhythmical  compositions.  He  ob- 
serves that  he  had  found  a  aimilai  division  in  the  apna- 
tolicat  books.  In  this  case  such  division  must  have 
been  anterior  lo  the  stlcbometiical  edition  of  Eulhalius^ 
if  the  date  assigned  lo  his  publication  be  correct,  vit, 
'  "^  450.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  work  of  He- 
Lu*  was  but  an  adaptation  of  Jerome's  mlii  and 
Hita  lo  the  Greek  texL    This  La  also  the  opinioa 


iifHutiu»7.  EppbuuaM{DeOTlA,Fid.iv)  addi  the 
two  tnokaofWiidoiii  to  the  poetical  books  (bus  irranged. 
B.  We  have  leen  that  Jerome  iniitalet  the  mode  at 
writing  the  works  of  Demosihenei  and  Cicero  in  hia 
tliTiaions  or  Cbrouiclet.  This  custom  or  writing  card 
fftixo^C  appears  to  have  been  usual  among  profane 
wricera.  Jusephoa  obMrves  that  bis  own  Antiguiliei 
conaisteil  of  eiit;  thousand  ari;^Di.  although  in  Ittig's 
edilton  there  are  only  forty  thouaand  broken  lines. 
Diogenea  Laenius,  in  bis  Lint*  of  the  Ph^otophert,  re- 
counts the  number  of  eticbs  which  their  woiks  con- 

what  llie  crrijiai  ri.'allT  were;  some  supposing  them  to 
be  timply  lines,  or  lines  conusting  of  a  certain  number 
of  words  or  letters,  aa  in  our  printed  books,  while  others 
have  tnaintained  them  to  be  lines  of  varied  length  reg- 
ulated by  the  senae,  like  the  ct^  and  commala  of  Je- 
lomo.  thefact  is  that  there  are  MS3.  written  in  both 
kinds  of  verses  orstichs,  with  the  number  of  the  stichi 

called  Ukhomelry,  or  the  enumeration  of  lines.  The 
iniroiluclioii  of  lines  regiilated  by  the  sense  into  the 
New  Test,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  rude  snhatitut« 
for  piucluation.  The  second  mode,  resembling  our 
piinced  books,  is  also  common  ;  it  is  that  adopted  in  the 
Cbtriemagne  Bible,  at  the  cltMe  of  each  hook  of  which 
will  be  found  the  number  of  verses— that  is,  lines  of 
equal  length— hut  without  any  regard  to  the  number  of 

Wo  are  not  aware  at  vhat  time  or  by  whom  slicbom- 
etry  was  adapted  lo  the  Goepela,  but  not  long  after 
the'  lime  of  Euthalius  we  find  it  in  common  use.  The 
Cud.  Deza(C)  and  the  Clermont  HS.(D)  ate  tbuswrit- 
l«n.    The  folluwiug  is  from  C  (John  i): 


Ka<  lariiiiistic  rq  x"r"  tittr-'SA  slleutinm  maoD  poatn- 

Lisset,  dixit,     ' 
a>)pn  [irfpnnXirai.  mi  ol  ^^onMitui  t»  Qiiii— Vlrl  Istra- 

ball  [I.  el  qui  tlnalla  Denm 

'o  ei«  ru  \iiiM  T«>r»,  ■.  r.  \.— Seal  popnll  biijnr,  etc 

Afterwards,  In  order  to  sare  parchment,  it  became 
naual  to  wiile  the  aUcbometrical  books  coalinuoualy, 
Wparating  the  stieha  by  a  point,  but  still  placing  their 
nambera  at  the  end  of  each  book.  The  rollowing  is  a 
apecimen  ftom  (he  Cod.  Cypr. : 


Sometimes,  instead  of  the  point,  the  sticks  commenced 
with  a  capital,  aa  in  the  Cod.  Boenier.,irhieh,  however, 
seems  to  have  bean  wriilen  by  an  ignorant  Irish  scribe, 
unaequainted  witb  the  languages  in  wbicb  the  US.  was 

Ut  non  qusal   ex  necaaaitate  I  em    boDum  loan 
Snl     volDuiarlnm    fhnltan    eulm    Idao     t  prop 


VERSE 

Bleat    me.    IT.  81  anUm    allqirid    Becailt    laall   It 
debet         hoe      mlhl     tmpata     cfo    paalit 

<\  mea     maim       ego       Rddam       nt     tfOt 

dicam      tibi    quod    el     te     ipeum    mihl  drba 

Its  t  nllqoe      frater      ego      tx        frnar       In     Mo. 
CPbllem.  14-W.] 

e  siicha  were  sometime*  very  shorU  aa  in  C-l 
Laud.  (E),  in  wbicb  there  is  seldom  above  one  word  is 
each.  The  Clermont  US.  (D)  containa  ■  list  o(  the 
'  I  in  all  the  Greek  books  of  the  Old  and  New  TMs, 
and  the  StUkomrlrt)  of  Nicephoms  ctmlairu  a  unilsr 

eration  of  the  canonical  bonks— the  antilegomnia 

i  Oid  and  New  Teats.— and  of  i  be  Apocryphal  booki, 
as  Enoch,  the  Tatamenis  of  the  Patriarclui,  etc 

Hug  (/RfrW.)  obsen-rs  that  llie  Cod.  Alex,  migbl 
be  easily  mistaken  (bribe  copy  of  a  aticbotnetrical  ibbii- 
uscript,  from  the  resemblance  of  lis  diviaieoa  to  the 
arixot,  as,  qniwo  It  fuvqt  Aiyovo^  fUH.  ovoent 
riirpi.  3iNTov  cat  ^fi;  l«t  Iheae  occur  only  in  occa- 
sional passages. 

Instances  occur  in  other  MSS.  in  which  the  sianM 
are  numbered  in  the  margin,  as  in  the  Song  of  Ttata, 
in  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  Psalter  of  Sedulius  of  Inli^ 


trslrem      dliectnm 


riihed  in 


tury.     The  i 


Ions  ur  siauzas,  u  iih  a  Koman  numeral  prefixed  to  eadi 
—all  in  the  handwriting  of  Seduliua.  The  Latia  it 
Ante-Hiemiiymian  (Uaolfaucon,  Palaogr.  Grot.;  ite 
Ciruftua  BnHHHtraiictr,  ut  aup.,  p.  687). 

There  is  a  Greek  stichometrical  manuscript  of  Inidi, 
probably  of  the  Ehh  century,  in  the  Bihlioth^ue  da  Ba 

line;  but  there  is  a  Greek  numeral  leller  attached  ia 
the  margin  oppnaile  each  stich,  the  cnumeraiioa  re- 
commencing at  [he  end  of  every  hundred  lilies,  in  tliit 


L  Jndnh 


>.  Aliat,  ai 


I  Beseklah,  kinp  of 


5.  glTO  ear.Ucarili:  for  tbe  Lord  hath  epoken. 

4.  I  have  uiiurtrbed  aud  broDtiht  up  chlldreu.  aad  Ihtr 

6.  hare  rebelled  ■eslnst  ne.    The  oi  kuowelh 

0.  his  owner,  and  the  ass  tala  niaater-a  crib: 

1.  bat  brnal  doth  mit  know,  my  people 

5.  doth  not  OMi>ider.    Otauftal  uoiion. 
9.  apeople  ladau  wUb  lulqnlty,  a  seed 

10.  orerll-duere,  children  tliat  are  cornpters;  tkejkasl 


mitical 


11.  ken  Ihe  Lnrd,  they  bare  p 

■otnked  the  ho 

ba"kwnr<l."TB  wHI  "revo 

they  are  graie 

IS.  Why  rtionid  yc  be  sirleken 

any  motet 

Hug  is  of  opinion  that 

be  stichonteiri 

o  the  I 


punctuation.  Allempti  at  interpunctton  fur  ihe  nka 
of  Ihe  sense  were,  however,  of  much  greater  aDliqoily 

matical  points  are  said  to  have  been  first  intnAdored  bv 
Aristophanea  of  Byaantium  about  two  centuries  brte* 
the  Christian  nra.  We  have  already  seen  thai  inter- 
pUHCIinn  was  in  use  in  U$.S.  of  the  New  Test,  btfcn 
Euihalius,  aa  in  the  Cod.  Alex.  laidotc  of  Spain  in- 
forms us  that  the  only  note  of  division  in  bb  tia* 
was  a  single  point,  which,  to  denota  a  eowtMa,  or  thaal 
pause,  waa  placed  at  the  bottom ;  to  denote  a  mJai,  «• 
larger  pause,  in  ihe  middle;  and  to  denote  a  full  psua^ 
or  period,  was  placed  at  the  top  of  ihe  final  leiirr  of  iW 
sentence.  Manuacripis  of  the  New  Test.,  ax  the  Zntidi 
Cod.  Baa.  E,  bare  come  down  to  na  thua  pointed.  In 
othera,  as  the  Cod.  Alex,  and  Oid.  Epbrem.,  ibe  point  is 
placed  indilTerenlly  at  the  top,  botttmi.  or  middle  of  Ibe 
letter  (TiBcbendorf,  Cod.  Cpkrtm.),  Others,  as  L  uae 
a  eroas  for  the  purpose  of  marking  a  period,  and  CtJh. 
700  nukes  use  of  no  nther  mark.  HopMd,  beaevet 
(jStud,  II,  Kril.),  doubts  ivtielher  the  {Dints  in  CtnLC^ 


VERSE  71 

priB  IN  Dotca  of  tbe  Hichi,  did  deain  any  diiOnction 
bctvtai  giunmidcil  and  olber  interpunctioD. 

Origin«Uy  there  were  no  epacea  between  the  wordi, 
bol  ID  tbe  Stb  01  9lh  century  they  begin  Eo  be  eepa- 
rued  eilber  by  spaces  or  by  paiiit&  About  tbe  ume 
period  the  present  inarki  of  punctuation  began  to  be 
gmluilly  end  imperceptibly  adopted,  and  had  become 
aniTeraal  in  the  10th  century.  Micbaelu  (^Iiarod.  cb. 
xiii)  »ya  "  (hat  Jerume  inliuduced  the  comma  and  co- 
kui"  but  tbia  was  not  lur  the  purpose  of  dividing  aen- 
teoces.  OhLT,  boweier,  in  HiKhai,  of  (he  8th  cen- 
tury, has  the  comma  and  the  point,  and  Cod.  Vat.  S&l 
the  colun.  The  Greek  note  of  interrogation  came  into 
iM  in  the  9tb  century.  Alter  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, the  Aldine  editions  Axed  the  punctuation,  which 
WIS,  however,  varied  by  Robert  Stephens  in  hit  diffei- 
ent  editiona  of  the  Bible.  It  is  ecarcely  necessary  to 
observe  that  the  punctuation  of  the  Bible  posaesses  no 
authority,  and  that  no  critic  hesitates  to  dissent  from 
it.  Tfaflacc«nI3,ortbewrJtJngaard  wpoo^iav, which 
were  already  in  ttse  in  the  Old  Tett-,  were  added  by 
"    ■    "         J  bis  edition,  but  were  not  in  general  use 


beloR 


a  IDth  ct 


4.  The  Hebrew  MS.S.  all  conta 
ion,  marked  with  the  aocent  called  i3lak,  and  the  wjiA 
pank  (end  of  the  verse).  The  word  patut,  plDB,  is 
foand  in  the  Talmud,  where  it  denotes  some  diviaion 
ofthiskiud;  but  whether  the  Talmud ical  ptsutim  are 


identical  with  Ih 


iBcripla  hi 


ly  contested.  It  is  said  in  tract  KidiiuiKia  (xax,  I), 
'Out  raUiins  assert  thatlhe  law  contains  6SS8  [or,  ac- 
cording to  MorinuB,  8888]  ptniHm,"  while,  accordin);  to 
the  diviuon  in  our  Bible^  there  are  a84averKa.  "The 
Pialms  have  eight  more."  There  are  at  present  'iiil. 
"The  Chronidea  eight  less."  This  division  rather  re- 
sembles the  mix<ii  in  the  Sept.,  oT  which  the  ftalms 
contain  6000.  In  the  Mishna  {.*lfgiU<ih,  iv,  1)  it  is  said, 
"  tie  who  reads  the  law  must  nut  read  li'ss  than  three 
petukim.  Let  not  mure  than  one  be  read  by  the  inter- 
preter, or  three  in  the  prophets."  The  passs)^  in  Isa. 
iii,a-5  is  reckoned  as  three  pfjafa'm.  [n  Taut  (iv,S) 
a  precept  is  given  for  reading  thchislary  of  tbe  erea- 
lioj  according  t»  the  parashes  and  the  veiaei  in  the 
law ;  irtd  in  the  Qab.  Talmud  (Baba  Bathra,  iiv,2)  the 
passage  in  DeuL  xxxv,  f>-l3  ia  called  "the  last  eight 
verses  (pnatim)  in  tbe  law."  It  is  et'ident,  therefore, 
that  some  at  least  of  our  preaent  veisea  correspond  with 
the  Talmudical,  The  term  D^I^S^B,  puatim,  is  also 
applied  in  tbe  Gemara,  as  syiiunymnus  with  D^QSK, 
to  reading  leaaons  in  general,  and  sometimes  In  short 
panacea  or  half-Teraes.     But  no  marks  appear  to  have 

weiB  iloubtleaa  pieserred  by  oral  leaching.  The  first 
notice  of  such  signs  is  found  in  ^njiAniin  (iii,7),in  these 
■ordi:  "Ljber  legia,inquo  incisum  est,  el  in  quo  capiia 
inciaorum  punctata  sunt,  ne  leges  in  illo."  No  auch 
marks  occur  in  the  synagogue  rolls.  The  Sept.  and 
Vulg.  differ  both  from  the  Hebrew  and  fRim  each  otber 
in  divisions  of  this  character  (Psa.  xliii,  II,  li;  xe,  3; 
Lam.  iii.G;  Jonabii,S:  Obad.9;  Vulg.CtnUv.i;  Ec- 
cIsiLi,5}.  Tbepuaiinofthe  Talmud,  which  are  there 
said  to  have  deaccnded  from  Moses,  may  have  been 
poiaibly  separated  by  spacea.  From  a  Targum  on  Cant. 
V,  18,  it  appears  (hat  the  decalogue  was  originally  writ- 
tea  in  ten  linea  (binmiH).  All  the  pointed  or  Haeuretic 
HSS.  contain  the  present  verses,  divided  by  the  MopA 
poniip).  We  have  already  referred  to  the  practice  of 
tbe  Hasoriles  in  numbering  iheK  verses,  which  was 
done  at  the  end  of  each  book.  Thus  at  ihe  end  of 
GeneiMs, "  Genesis  has  IA34  vemes,' etc  j  and  at  the  end 
of  the  Fentaleuch,  "The  number  of  versea  {priutin) 
in  tbe  book  oT  Oeuleronomy  ia  956,  in  sign  Vitl  [which 
rapreasnts  tbeaam*  number];  the  middle  verse  is, 'And 
thou  ihatt  do  aecntding  to  tbe  sentence'  (avii,  10) :  the 
Dumber  of  paraahes  is  ten,  and  of  tidarim ' 


9  VEBSE 

and  the  number  of  verses  in  the  entire  Pentateuch  ia 
6!4&[584fi?}.  .  .  .  The  number  of  verses  in  the  Psalms 
is  2527,  the  sign -^I3Kt4,'  the  middle  verse, 'Neverth^ 
less  they  flattered  thee  with  their  mouth'  (Imviii,  HO) ; 
the  numlier  of  tidarim  nineteen,  and  the  number  of 
psalms  160."  1'he  Venice  edition  of  Ben-Chaijim,  fivm 
which  these  divisions  are  taken,  omits  them  in  Chroni- 
cles, but  they  are  supplied  by  two  HSS.  In  the  Fenta- 
leuch the  number  of  veiaefl  in  the  greater  sections,  or 
those  marked  by  B  B  B  and  S  S  S,is  also  indicated  at 
tbe  end  of  each  section,  thus :  "  Bereshilh  has  146  verses, 
sign  n^SlSK;  Noah  has  15S  vencs.  etc.  The  entire 
number  of  verses  is  48,806."  Before  the  Concordanca 
of  rabbi  Nathan,  in  the  16tb  century,  Ihe  Jews  made 
their  references  by  citing  in  the  l>eiiUleuch  the  first 
two  words  of  the  Sabbath  lessons,  making  no  use 
of  the  shorter  tidarim,  or  of  the  open  or  shut  parasti- 
es.  Of  these,  which  are  conliued  to  the  Pentateuch, 
there  are  290  open  and  879  shut.  Of  the  larger 
parashes,  or  Sabt>ath  lessons.  Genesis  contains  twelve; 
Exodus  eleven ;  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy 
ten  each.  Of  the  lesser  nrfurjm  Genesis  contains  furly- 
two,  etc.  These  always  commence  in  the  IVntaleuch 
with  an  open  or  closed  section.  From  Ihe  time  of  car- 
dinal Hugo's  Concordana  citations  begaji  to  t>e  made 
by  chapter  and  letter.  All  USS.of  the  Vulg.  after  Ihia 
period  began  to  be  thus  marked,  and  we  find  Nichulas 
de  Lyra  in  the  14th  century  frequently  citing  them  in 
this  manner.  The  citation  of  chapler  and  vetie  was 
a  Jewish  improvement  of  the  succeeding  century.  See 
ScRimiREB,  Holt. 

The  ancient  Greek  M9S.  which  have  descended  In 

which  have  been  sometimes  called  ari;tai  and  nrsu. 
They  are  regulated  by  tbe  sense,  and  each  constituies 
a  full  period.  They  are  frequently  double  or  treble  tbe 
length  of  tbe  verses  in  our  present  New  Test.,  although 
aometimes  they  are  identical  with  them.  The  Alex- 
andrian, Vatican,  Cambridge,  Dublin,  arul  other  ancient 
HSS.,  all  contain  similar  diviwons.  The  following  ia 
from  Ihe  Cod.  Epbremi  (1  Tim.iii,  li-16) : 


«t\»H»>n  *i 


at  ff]  tfattpitin  t»  ffppM'  ttttai 
..hp.x>»  "  ■»M..i.'   ■r..ri.A« 

II.  /■  t\>  Prhltd  £tUts.— I.  In  these  the  nnmerical 
notation  ia  generally  altiibuled  to  Robert  Stephen, 
or  Stephens  {tliemr).  The  origin  ia,  notwilh- 
atandiug,  invcdved  in  obscurity.  Even  those  who  a(< 
tribute  Ihe  invention  to  Stephens  are  not  agreed  as  to 
the  date.  "  We  are  assured,"  observes  Calmet  (Pn/. 
10  ikt  BibU),  "that  i(  is  Robert  Stephens  who,  in  his 
edition  of  1M5,  divided  the  text  by  verses,  numbered 
as  at  presenU"  This  divuion  passed  from  the  l^tiiia 
to  the  Greeks  and  Hebrews.  "Robert  Stephens," says 
Du  Pin  (/>n%.),"wBs  the  first  who  followed  the  Ma- 
soriles  in  his  edition  ofihc  Tulgsie  in  1516."  "  Vernes," 
says  Simon  {Hiti.  Critiqat),  and  tWst  him  Jahu  (In- 
Irod,),  "were  Gmt  introduced  inio  the  Vulgate  and  mark- 
ed with  figures  by  Robert  Stephens  in  1548."  Hoiinna 
(fxtrdl.  Bibl.).  who  is  followed  by  Prideaux  {Coante- 
/iofl),  attributes  the  verses  to  Valablus,  without  naming 
a  date,  while  Chevillier(//u(.tfef/'npnii,trir)  and  Mait- 
taire  (lliiloi-ia  Slrpianomm')  assert  that  Stephens  di- 
vided the  ohapten  into  verses,  placing  a  figure  at  each 
verse, in  the  New  Teat,  in  I551,and  in  ihe  Old  in  15S7, 
Cbevillier  adds  that  James  Fsbcr  of  Esiaples  had  intro- 
duced the  practice  in  his  edition  of  the  Psalms  primed 
in  1509  by  Henry,  father  of  Robert  Slrphenst  and  he 
is  followed  by  Senouanl  (Jtuu/es  da  ilitimt  [Piiit, 


TERSE  71 

1843]},  in  nippoeing  that  Stepheua  took  his  idet  rrom 
tbi*  very  vtotli.  Bui,  doI  Io  multiply  JnsUncn,  Home 
(^Jalrod.  vol.  ii,  pi.  i,  cb.  u,  s.  iij,  §  1]  gives  tbe  roilow- 
iag  account  ot  their  intnxluclion ^  "Rabbi  Honlecii 
Natbsn  .  .  .  undcrlouk  ■  aimilar  coDcordance  [to  that 
of  Hugo]  for  the  Hebrew  Scripturea;  but,  imlead  of 
adopting  tbe  margiual  letter*  of  Hugo,  ba  maikcd  every 
fifth  veric  with  a  Hebrew  numenl,  tbiu,  K  I,n  6,  etcj 
reuining,  however,  the  cirdinal'a  diviwoiis  into  chap- 
ters. .  .  ,  Tlie  introduction  of  venc*  into  tbe  Hebrevr 
Bible  was  made  by  Athiaa,  a  Jew  of  AmMerdim  [1661  J, 
.  .  .  with  the  Agurea  common  in  uw,exceptthoee  which 
had  previously  been  muked  by  Matban  with  Hebrew 
letter*  io  the  manner  in  which  tbcf  at  prewnt  appear 
in  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  By  rejecting  thett  Hebrew  nu- 
merals, and  subatituting  for  them  the  corresponding 
figures,  all  the  copies  of  the  Bible  in  other  languages 
hive  since  been  marked."  "  The  verses  into  which  the 
New  Test,  is  now  divided  are  much  more  modem  [than 
the  irri;^oi],  and  are  an  imitation  of  those  invented  fur 
the  Old  Teatament  by  rabbi  Nathan  in  the  l&lh  cen- 
tury. Hoben  Stephens  was  tbe  Brst  inventor."  In  an- 
other place  (§  2],  Home  has  observed  that  the  Hasoiites 
were  the  inventors  of  verse*,  but  without  intimating 
that  they  are  the  same  with  those  now  in  use.  Doubts 
were  entertained  on  this  subject  so  early  as  the  IGth 
century.  "  Who  first,"  observes  Elias  Levita, "  divided 
tbe  books  of  tbe  Old  and  New  Testaments  into  n-i^oi  V 
There  are  even  some  who  entertain  doubts  respecting  a 
matter  but  recently  come  into  use,  viz.,  who  the  person 
waswlio  in IroducGd  the  division  ofTerseainto  the  Greek 
and  Laliu  Bibles."  Semriua  (Prolri!.)  makes  tbe  fol- 
lowing altutioii  to  the  circumstance :  "  I  strongly  sus- 
pect that  it  is  far  from  certain  who  first  restored  the  in- 
lermilteddivisioninto  verses.  Henry  Stephens,!  ndeed, 
having  once  come  to  WUnburg,  would  fain  have  per- 

this  distinction  in  the  New  Testament;  and  1  afterwards 
abaer\'cd  this  ssme  statement  in  his  preCtce  to  his  Gretk 
Concordamx,  with  the  addition  Ibat  it  was  on  hi*  way 
from  Paris  to  Lyons  tbit  he  made  the  diviuon,  a  great 
pattof  itwbile  riding  on  horseback"  (inter  efuifoiufuni). 
"  This  msT,  after  all,  be  an  empty  boast ;  but  supposing 
it  true,  as  Catholic*  have  used  the  veruons  of  Aquila, 
Symmachua,  and  Ttaeodotion,  who  were  apoelale*  or  her- 

and,  not  able  to  conceal  his  mHrtiflcstioD  that  the  honor 
should  belong  to  a  Proteelaiit,  he  signiBcantly  observes 
that  Seneca  had  found  tbe  best  scribes  (nolariiy  among 
the  vilest  slaves.  Henry  Stephens,  in  the  preface  tn  his  [ 
Coaeordaace,  thus  expatiates  on  his  father's  invention ; 
"  As  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  had  already  beeu 
divided  into  the  sections  (Imemala)  which  we  call  chap- 
ters, he  himself  subdivided  them  into  those  smaller  sec- 
tions, called  by  an  appellation  more  approved  of  by  oth- 
ers than  by  himself, rcriicfn.  He  would  bare  preferred 
colling  them  by  the  <:reek  Imtmatia,  or  the  Latin  ncft- 
vncala;  fur  he  perceived  that  the  ancient  name  of  these 
•ections  was  now  restricted  to  another  use.  He  accom- 
pli^ed  tbis  division  of  each  chapter  on  his  Journey 
from  Paris  to  Lyons,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  inTer  (jui- 
fondum.  A  abort  time  before,  while  he  thought  on  the 
matter,  every  one  pronounced  him  mad,  for  wasting  hia 
time  and  labor  on  an  unproHlable  a&ir  which  would 


nevi,  he  published  hi*  fourth  edition  of  the  Greek  Te* 
lament,  containing  also  tbe  Vulgate  and  the  Latin  tst- 
with  the  data  in  the  title  jiDL2i,a 


r  for  : 


The  X  has  been,  ii 


quence,  erased  in  nearly  all  the  copies.  In  the  preface 
he  observe*,  "As  to  our  having  Dumbered  this  work 
with  certain  veniclea,  as  they  call  them,  we  have  hetOB 
followed  the  must  ancient  (ireek  and  Ldtin  manuseripu 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  have  imitated  them  tba 
more  willingly  that  each  translation  may  be  mad?  tbe 
more  readily  to  correspond  with  the  opposite  (ireeL* 
ffishopUanh  (notes  to  Michselis),  and  after  hiraBome 
(ill  lUp.),  asserts  that "  Beza  split  the  Greek  text  into 
the  verses  invented  by  Robert  Stephens  j"  but  tbetuhop 
is  evidently  mistaken,  as  Slepbciis's  fourth  edition  ii 
divided  info  these  breaks  a*  well  as  Beza's  (see  tse- 
aimile  in  Chriilian  Jiemnnh-unetr,  ul  sap.).  Eachvene 
commences  tbe  line  with  a  capital,  the  figum  beiii{ 
placed  between  the  columns. 

The  fourth  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  was  fol- 
lowed in  )o6&  by  the  seventh  of  tbe  L^tin  Vulgate,  is 
8vo,  containing  tbe  whole  Bible,  having  the  prcscM 
verses  marked  throughout  with  numerals,  and  the  fol- 
lowing address  to  tbe  reader:  "Hen  ia  an  edition  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate  in  which  each  chapter  i*  divided 
into  verses,  according  to  tbe  Hebrew  form  of  verse^ 
with  numerals  prefixed,  corresponding  to  the  namba 
of  tbe  verse  wbich  has  been  added  in  our  new  and  com- 
plete Concordance,  after  the  marginal  letters  A,  B,C,D, 
E,  F,  G,  that  yoo  may  be  relieved  from  the  labor  tt 
searching  for  what  these  figures  will  point  out  to  tea 
as  with  the  finger."  The  title-page  bears  Sltpbrali 
olive ;  and  the  name  of  the  printer,  Conrad  Badius,  tlic 
son-in-law  of  Stephens,  with  the  date,  B  Uibvt  J^it, 
I&35,  shows  where  and  when  it  was  printed.  It  m 
the  first  edition  of  the  entire  Bible  printed  by  Stephou 
since  be  left  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  text  is  cootio- 
uous,  the  veises  being  separated  by  a  %,  with  the  tg- 
ures  in  the  body  of  the  text.  The  next  edition  of  ibl 
Bible  by  Stephens  is  that  of  155C-&T,  in  S  vols.  foL,<»- 
Uining  the  Vulgate,  the  version  oT  Pagninus,  and  B^t 
Latin  version  of  the  New  Tcst^  now  flm  publlalud, 
The  notes  are  those  commonly  ascribed  to  Vatablos 
with  those  of  Claude  Badwell  in  the  Apoebryphal  hooka 
The  text  ia  brcdien  up  into  divisions,  and  there  is  a  no- 
tice to  the  reader  apprising  him  that  this  edition  «a- 
Uins  the  text  divided  into  veties,  as  in  the  UelRW 

Again,  in  the  preface  to  Stephens's  latin  and  Frtnch 
New  Test.,  published  at  Geneva  in  tS&S,  which  b  ate 
'ided,  but  which  we  have  never  seen  cited,  he 
observes:  "  Et  a  fin  de  plus  aisement  pouoii  faire  la 
dicte  collation  ct  confronlement,  avon*  distingue  toat 
iceluy  Nouveau  Testament  comme  pat  vers,  ■  la  tu^n 
et  manifere  que  tout  le  Vieil  a  este  escript  et  disiingu^ 
soit  par  Moyse  et  les  propheles  compoateurs  et  aa- 


isHeb 


gain  hi 


r;butlo 


dea  dictea  Escriptures,  snyua 
manifere  de  ceus  qui  ont  escript  les  ptemiii 
reBGrpcs,et  les  vieuli  eacriptsde  la  viellen 
laiion  Latine  du  diet  Testament,  qui  de  cbaiqiie  sc 
tence,  on  cbasque  moitij  de  sentence,  voire  de  tout 
les  parlies  d'une  sentence  en  faisoyent  comme  des  n 
sets.  £t  en  la  fin  de  chasque  livre  meitoyeni  le  am 
bre  d'iceulx  veraets:  possible  a  ' 


aill  their  prediction*,  the 
light  than  it  met  with  universal  approbation,  and  ob- 
tained such  authority  that  all  other  editions  of  the  New 
Test  anient  in  Greek,  Latin, Cierman.and  other  vernacular 
tongues,  wbich  did  not  adopt  it,  were  rejected  as  unau- 
thorized.'' Hcnrv  Stephens  had  alreadv  staled  the  same 
fact,  in  the  dedication  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  pretixrd  to 
hia  aecondeilition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (1fi76),  We 
now  proceed  to  Stephens's  own  atatemenl*. 

Cpon  leaving  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  embracing 
Calvinism  in  1651,  in  wbich  year  be  took  refuge  in  Ge- 


n  I'eu. 


apperce 


tronvant  le  conten 
Stephens  adds  that  he  has  alto  given  reference*  u  tba 
verses  in  indexes  and  concordances,  not  omitticg  tbe 
letters  {Ullnaa)  by  which  the  cbaplen  bad  been  di- 
vided by  h'ls  predecessors  into  four  or  seven  parts,  ac- 
cording to  their  length,  for  the  purpose  of  a  coooord- 
ance.  He  makes  reference  to  the  chapters  and  vents 
in  his  HaTTmmia  Etmg^ca,  taken  from  the  werli  of 
Leo  Judah,  and  placed  at  the  end  of  bis  editiou  of  the 
New  Test.  (1551). 

Henry  Stephens,  in  his  preftce  to  bi*  Concgrdnc^ 


VERSE 

■Ut«  tlut  it  «■>  (hii  dirioon  wbich  flnt  nggeMtd 
his  ratbci'i  rertile  miad  ihe  idea  of  >  Greek  and  Lai 

concanlaDCt  Co  the  Sew  TeaL,  in  imiuiioa  of  hi*  Latin 
eocconlancc,  Coacordanlia  £iU.  ulrioijag  Talamtmli 
(vii  CaL  Feb,  1565,  foL);  in  the  preface  to  wliich  he  »y« 
■  e  ha*  followed  (he  Hebrew  mode  of  nomberiiie 


the  T 

hia  brother  pi 


In  i1 


bruac  their  aickle  into 
.  luch  plagiary  from  n 
educated  prinlera,  but  from  tbe  common  herd  of  illi 
ale  publiihen,  wtaom  he  eoniiiiered  u  no  belter  than 
highway  robbers,  no  more  capabli  of  Chrialian  inceg- 
rltj  than  w  many  African  piratei."    "  Whether  his  ap- 
ptehcnaiona  irere  well  founded,"  contiouea  hia  aon,  "  let 
Uh  experienee  of  othen  ulL"    Owing  to  Suphent'B 
death,  in  HkW,  hb  Ceneordaitce  waa  pubUslied  by  Hen- 
17  Supbeni  in  l&M. 

But  it  ii  far  rroin  being  true  that  Stephena,  aa  ha> 
oonmonly  bean  believed,  waa  the  flnt  who  either  fol- 
lowed the  UMorilea,  or  divided  the  ohaptera  into  veraea, 
or  ■tlached  dgures  to  each  vena.  This  had  been  done, 
not  onlv,  in  regard  to  the  Paalmi,  bj  Jimea  Le  F^vre, 
in  bia  'PiaUtrium  Quiiuuplrx  in  1609,  but  tbioughout 
the  Kholt  BMe  by  Sancua  Pagninua  in  1638.  The 
Ptalieriam  was  beaatifiilly  printed  by  Henry,  falber  of 
Robert  Siephenii,  each  verse  commencing  the  line  with 
a  red  letter,  and  ■  number  prefixed;  and  we  may  here 
<^iaerTe  that  the  baok  of  Paalma  waa  the  first  portion 
of  the  Scriptuns  to  which  nnmben  were  attached  bj 
deaignating  each  separate  psalm  by  its  number.    Some 

lieve,  flcat  referred  to  by  St,  Hilary  (_Pra/.),  and  is  < 
in  the  mannaciipls  of  the  Sept.  Whether  they  were 
ao  numbered  at  ihe  Chriiitian  sra  is  somewhat  doubt- 
ful.  In  Aela  xiii,  33,  the  tenmd  paalm  is  cited  by  iu 
number,  but  in  some  of  the  beat  manascripta  the  read- 
ing here  is  the jCiK  paalm.  In  ver.  36  "in  another"  ii 
said  without  reference  in  ita  number;  and  Kuiniil  ia 
of  opinion  that  tbe  true  reading  in  ver.  83  is  simply  iv 
ifiaX/iy."iDa|iaalm." 

In  the  year  1528  the  Dominican  Sanctea  Pagninus 
ef  Lucca  pabliahed  at  Lyons,  in  quarto,  his  accurate 
tranBlaiinti  of  Ihe  lUUe  into  tl»  Utin  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  This  edition  is  divided  throughout  into 
Tcnes  marked  with  Arabic  nuraeralnin  the  margin,  both 
in  the  Old  and  tbe  New  Test.  The  text  runs  on  con- 
tinuously, except  in  tbe  Paslms,  where  each  veiaecora- 
nMoces  the  line.  Then  was  a  aecond  edition,  more 
beaotifully  executed,  but  without  the  Hgures  and  divi- 
aiona,  puUished  at  Cologne  in  IMl,  The  veraicular  di- 
visiona  in  the  Old  Test,  are  pRcisely  Ihe  same  with 
those  now  iu  use — via.  the  Masoretic  Each  verse  is 
aeparated  by  a  peculiar  mark  (fl). 

Masch  (BMiulA.  Sae.),  in  reference  to  Stephens's 
statement  that  he  had  fulluwtd  the  oldest  Greek  man- 
nacripts,  says  that  thia  assertion  waa  made  by  Stephens 
to  conciliate  those  who  were  Uking  all  methoda  of 

quite  dilTerent.  The  reader  will  Judge  from  Stephens's 
preface  la  hia  French  traiulatiDa  above  cited  whether 
thia  assertion  is  borne  out.    Stephens  there  asserts  that 

reckoned  by  whole  books,  and  he  only  professes  la  imi- 
tate them  iupiirf,  as  well  as  the  Hebrew  copies;  which 
he  did  by  making  a  veraicular  division  of  each  chapter, 
and  prefixing  •  figure  10  each  versa  (as  in  Nathan's 
CoKordanoe),  instead  of  adding  the  amciuiu  at  tbe  end 
of  each  book.     Hug  ohaervea  that  it  is  really  true  that 

divided  into  smaller  sections,  which  have  siime  analogy 
In  our  verses,  instancing  the  Alexandrine,  Vstican,  and 

Itia,  however,  only  in  the  canonical  books  nf  the  Old 
Teat,  that  Stephens  follows  Pagninus^  tn  Matthew's 
Itoifiet,  Pagninna  faaa  S77  verses  and  Suphena  1071. 
The  number  of  versea  in  each  chapter  in  Stepbena  la 
often  double,  frequently  treble,  that  in  Pagninua.     In 


1  VEHSE 

John  V,  for  instance,  Pagnlnus  has  7  and  Stephens  S3 
verses.  In  the  deutero-canonical  books,  into  which  no 
Masoretic  distinction  bad  found  its  way,  Slephena  has 
also  a  different  diviuon;  thus  in  Tobit  he  has  292 
verses,  while  Pagninua  baa  but  76;  and  the  same  pro- 
portion prevails  throughout  the  other  books,  only  P»g- 
ninus  has  not  the  third  and  fourth  books  of  F.sdras,  tbe 
prayer  of  Manuses,  nor  the  addenda  to  Daniel 


Then. 


t  editi 


is  Stephens's  eighth  and  last  edition  of  the  Vulgate, 
166&-67,  8  vols.  fol.  This  ia  one  of  the  editions  called 
Vatablna's  Bibles,  of  which  there  are  three,  viz.  Ste- 
phens's nonpareil  (IM6),  his  eighth  edition  of  which 
we  are  now  treating,  and  the  triglot  edition  published 
at  Heidelberg  in  1599,  It  is  the  Bible  which  Horinue 
{Exenit.  HibL),  Prideaux  {Comrct.  voL  i),  and  so  many 
others  conceived  to  have  been  the  flrst  containing  the 
division  of  venea.  Prideaux  observes  that  Valablus 
iDon  aJUr  published  a  Latin  Bible  afker  this  pattern, 
vix.  that  of  rabbi  Nathan  (14G0),  with  tbe  cholera  di- 
vided Into  verses.  "Soon"  after,  however,  meant  about 
0  century;  Vstablus  died  March  16, 1547.     It  is  evi- 

that  Vatablus'a  Bible  was  no  other  (ban  Stephens's 
eighth  edition. 

There  was  a  beautiful  edition  of  the  Psalter  publish' 
ed  in  1I>5G  by  Robert  Stephens  containing  Ihe  Ldtin 
of  Jerome,  with  that  of  Pagninun,  the  numenls  aliach- 
ed  to  each  verse  being  placed  in  the  centre  cidumn  be- 
tween perpendicular  rubricated  linoL  It  ia  entilled 
Liber  Pialnarum  Davidit,  Tralalio  DapUx,  Vnai  H 
.Vova,  Ifae  Poilrrior  Sanciit  Piiffaiiii,  partita  ab  ipto 
Pagnino  Rtcosnila  partim  rt  frxoKiKO  I-'b/oWd,  in  Pro- 
Itctimibai  Entadala  tl  Kxpotiln.  The  title  bean  the 
date  HDLT.,  but  in  the  colophon  is  Ihe  aubscripiion 
"Imprimebat  Rob.  Stepbanus,  in  sua  officini,  Anno 
MDLVH.CaLJan." 

The  form  of  printing  tbe  Bible  in  TeneB,wilh  nu- 
merals, now  became  ealablished.  It  appeared  in  1666 
in  Hamelin's  French  version.  It  found  its  way  tbe 
next  year  into  the  Geneva  New  Test.  (English),  print- 
ed by  Conrad  Badlus,  of  which  a  beautiful  fsc-simile 
has  lately  issued  from  the  press  nf  Mr.  Bagster.  It  was 
adopted,  by  marking  every  6tih  verse  with  a  Hebrew 
numeral,  into  the  Hebrew  PenUleuch,  printed  that 
same  year  (1667)  at  Sabionetla.  In  1559  Henteniua 
intTDdnced  Stephens's  division  and  figures  into  his  cor- 
rect Antwerp  edition  of  the  Vulg..  which  was  follow- 
ed by  that  of  Planlin  in  1669-72,  and  passed  into  the 
Antwerp  Polyglot  (I6S9). 

The  Sixtine  edition  of  the  Vulgale  (1690)  having 
adapted  thia  diviuon,  it  was  continued  in  the  Clemen- 
tine (1692),  and  has  ever  since  been  used  in  all  editions 
and  translations  in  the  Romsn  Catholic  Church.  Hen- 
lenius,  however,  having  printed  the  text  continuously, 
with  the  figures  in  the  margin,  and  a  marii  (thus,  ?  ) 
at  the  commencement  of  eM:h  vene,  this  plan  was  fol- 
lowed in  the  Clementine  and  Sixtine  editions,  in  which 
the  verses  are  marked  with  an  asterisk,  capiub  being 
used  only  at  the  commencement  of  a  period,  while  the 
Protestant  Bibles  of  Basle  and  Geneva  commence  tbe 

Roman  editions  the  only  exceptions  are  the  melrieal 
books  of  I^lms,  Job,  and   Proverbs,  from   the  tenth 

"■  ■  I  division  appeared  in  the  Geneva  (English)  Bt- 
1660  and  1662.  the  Bishops'  Bible  in  1668,  and 
passed  into  the  Authorized  Veniion  in  1611.  Some  of 
the  Protestant  editions  followed  the  Roman  in  adopting 

tbe  beautiful  Zurich  eilition  of  Osiander.  in  which  each 
vene  is  dislinguiahed  by  an  obelus  in  the  body  of  the 
text;  and  it  la  to  ha  regretted  that  this  practice  has 
not  been  generally  oonlluued  either  in  Protestant  01 
Roman  Catholic  Bibles  We  may  add  that  Pagninua, 
Stephens,  Frellon,  and  the  Raman  editions,  all  slightly 
vary  among  each  other,  both  in  Ibe  divisioiu  and  the 


VERSE 


762       VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE 


pUcing  of  the  flgam.  Nor  do  tbe  chaptcn,  owing  to 
a  rtiTeratf  in  ttae  muiuicripU,  iovirUbly  coincide,  i* 
the  venicuiu  diviiiona  of  Che  PuIidb  in  the  Sepl.  and 
VuJg.  are  not  tlvaya  the  ume  with  the  Hebrew ;  Ste- 
pheui'a  figure!  ■omeCimea  occur  in  the  middle  of  ■  vene 
in  the  Romaa  edi^oni. 

The  Komu  edition  of  the  SepC  (1587  and  1589)  wu 
priuwd  wilhout  any  division  or  iigures;  and  the  pres- 
ent nouijon  firat  appeared  in  PUintin'a  edition  of  the 
deuicro-canoiiicil  book*  (Antwerp,  1684),  from  Tobit  iv, 

■dee).  Tbe  Frankfort  edition  of  the  SepL  (1&97)  baa  the 
present  numeration  throughout,  but  without  any  notice 
of  Che  fact  by  the  ediCon.  The  numbers  are  placed  in 
the  margin,  but  each  verse  commences  with  a  capital, 
while  in  Planlio  they  are  aeparated  by  space*  only. 

2.  Having  now  succeeded  in  delecting  the  errors  of 
former  writers,  we  are  arrived  at  the  more  ditBcnlt  task 
of  eliciting  the  trutb  out  of  ao  many  eontradiclury 

do  more  than  oEFer  the  foUowing  view  as  tbe  result 

Bahbi  Nathan  hiring  in  his  ConeorAact  (in  14fiO) 
commenced  the  practice  of  referring  to  a  versicular  di- 
vision of  each  of  Che  Latin  chapters  by  the  cumber  of 
each  Masoretic  verse  in  the  chapter,  Arabic  figures 
were,  after  Cha  example  of  Le  Ffevre's  edition  of  tbe 
Psalms,  afflxed  to  each  verse  by  Pagninus  in  his  Latin 
Bible  in  1&28,  Pagninus  iutniduced  a  somewhat  eim- 
liar  division  into  tbe  New  Test,  and  Apocryphal  books. 
His  system  was  adopted  by  Robert  Stephens  in  the 
New  Test,  in  1&61,  and  in  Che  whole  Bihle  in  1525, 
with  scarcely  any  alteration  except  in  tbe  deulero-ca- 
nonical  books  and  the  New  Test,  wherein  he  introduced 
a  dilTerent  division.  This  diviaion  was  partly  founded 
on  the  practice  of  ancient  manuscripts,  and  was  partly 
his  own.  But,  as  bia  object  was  to  adapt  hia  division 
to  hia  CoHoordaacr  wiChouC  any  referrnce  to  the  sense, 
he  unfortunately  introduced  a  much  worse  diriaion  than 
be  found  in  any  oF  his  modela.  Ic  is  lo  be  lamented 
Chat  his  "  wild  and  indigeHled"  syitem  of  breaking  up 
tbe  text  into  what  appear  to  the  eyes  of  the  learned 
and  to  the  minda  of  the  unlearned  as  to  many  detached 
senlencH  (Michaeli^  Inl'vd.)  has  had  a  deleterious  ef- 
fect on  Che  sense  of  Scripture,  and  perhaps  given  rise 
to  some  heresies  (see  Pr*/.  lo  Bijwp  UayiTi  Grtrk 
Tat.).  Uichaelis  supposes  Chat  Che  pbrise  "  inter  equi- 
tandum"  does  not  mean  that  Stephena  accomplished  bis 
taak  while  actually  riding  on  horseback,  but  that  dur- 
ing tbe  inten'als  of  his  Journey  he  amused  himself  by 

ficscion  of  thsi  of  Pagninus  (see  "  Bible"  in  Taylor'a  ed. 
of  Calmet's  iJiet.),  ii  might  easily  have  been  doue"  in- 
ter equitandum;"  a  phrase  which,  however  we  under- 
stand it,  not  inaptly  represents  the  post-haste  expedi- 
tion with  which  hia  work  was  executed.  Whether  Pag- 
ninus himself  adapted  hia  diviaion  in  the  New  Tesu 
from  manuscripts,  or  what  bis  design  waa  in  introduc- 
ing it,  muac  be  the  result  of  an  inveatigatioa  whit 
cannot  now  enter  upon.  Stephens,  it  is  true,  iKfer 
refers  to  Pagninua's  ayaiem;  but  we  eould  hardly  aup- 
pose  that  he  was  unac(|uaiuted  with  it,  even  had  we  no 
evidence  to  this  effect.  The  evidence,  however,  does 
exist,  for  we  find  that  Stephens  in  1566  had  in  his  pos- 
session two  co[ries  of  I'agninus'a  Bible.  The  preface  to 
bis  edition  of  I(>67  coiiMine  the  following  words:  "  In 
exteriori  autem  parte  inlerprctstinnem  Sanctis  Pagni- 
ni  (quam  potissimum,  ut  maxime  fidam,oinnea  unoore 
laudsnt), crassiorihus litteri* excusam  damns;  sed  banc 
quidem  certe  multis  partihus  ea  quam  in  aliis  editioui- 
bus  habes,  meliorem.  JVaeft  etiin  tamni  duo  a  prima 
iUiui  tiUlione  txHaplaria,  in  quibus  non  solum  typo- 
graphic! errata  nan  paiica.  nee  levia,  manu  propria  ipee 
author  correxerat,  sed  multoa  etiam  locos  diligentius 
acGuratius  quam  antes  examinatos,  recognoverat." 

CroiuB  (Obsena'.')  states  that  he  had  seen  very  a 
cient  Latin  MSS.  containing  Stepheua's  diviaion,  wi 


the  fiiaC  letter  of  each  verse  rubricaled,  biit  be  dot*  bM 
We  believe  this  was  a  biassed  m- 
■ertion.   There  are  Latin  USS.  with  penoda  an  marked, 

they  are  doc  the  same  with  Stephens's  voseb 
There  is  in  the  British  Museum  also  a  MS.  of  part  rf 

Sept.  (lUrL  6021),  dated  in  1647,  which  is  venio- 
lated  throughout,  and   marked  with  figures,  bat  the 

MSS.  are  found  divided  in  the  same  manner  as  (be 
Greek,  one  of  which  ia  Che  Cod.  Utza,  which  was  col- 
lated by  Stephens  for  his  cdiiioo  of  1650.  Dr.  Lu- 
rence'a  book  of  Enoch  is  divided  into  veracf,  wicb  dsb- 
beis  attsched,ss  well  as  into  chspters  called  ib/rJ.  Dc 
Laurence  asys  that  these  divisiona  into  verses  are  arti- 
trary,and  vary  in  the  different  Echiopic  MSS.  of  Enocb. 
The  numbers,  we  presume,  wereaddedby  tbe  trandator; 
By  a  letter  from  I>r.  BandineJ,  keeper  of  the  Bodleta 
Library,  we  leim  chat  that  librarv  poesesses  an  Ethio- 
pic  US.  of  the  New  Test,  divided  into  sections  tai 
paragraphs  entirely  different  from  outs,  not  nombend, 
but  separated  by  a  peculiar  mark.  Tbe  verses  in  the 
Gospel  of  Che  Templars  [see  GoaPELS,  SpUBiotisJ,  ia- 
stead  ofapacea  ur  figures^  are  separaleil  by  ■  botinmlal 
line  [— ]  (Philo,  Cod.  Apot.). 

The  MS.  of  Che  Svrisc  New  Test,  in  Che  British  Ua- 
seum  (No.  7167),  written  at  fieibkuko,  A.D.  7G8  (an 
Wright,  S^er,  p.  661,  note  ),  contains  a  numerical  <fi- 

ed  by  a  coeval  hand  into  the  body  of  tbe  text.  At- 
tached to  each  number  ia  another  in  green,  teferrioglD 
a  canon  of  parallel  passsges  on  the  plan  of  that  of  Eitt^ 
bius,  but  placed  aC  the  foot  of  each  page.  The  eeciisa^ 
which  are  called  rrrna'i  in  the  Cataiogttt,  snd  ban 

Ammonian,  Matthew  containing  426,  Mark  29n,  Luke 
402,  and  John  !71.    There  ia  a  complete  capittdstioa 

also  throughout  all  tbe  bonks,  the  chapters  bring  seps- 
raled  in  the  text  by  a  peculiar  ornament,  with  the  dbb- 
ber  in  tbe  margin :  of  these  chapters  Matthew  hu  % 
Mark  IS,  Luke  2?,  John  20,  Acts  26;  of  tht  Catl»& 
epistles,  James  I  and  [i]  John  6,  and  the  Pauline  ban 
Gwpel  there  ia  a  double  nuniber.lir 


'hich  the  fori 
er  from  the  Acta  to  tbe  end 
The  numerical  diviaiane 


cbqitera  and  n 


Church— tbe  chapters  in  Edward  Vl's  first  Book  li 
Common  Prayer  (1649),  and  the  venea  in  the  SeMck 
Liturgy  (16B7),  whence  they  were  adopted  into  tbe  lot 
revision  (1662).    See  Biblm. 

VERSE,  in  poetry,'  ia  a  line  condsting  of  s  cntsia 
number  of  metrical  ayllablea ;  also  a  separate  diriiiia 
ofa  hymn  or  anthem,  sung  in  divine  service.    SeeTia- 

Vend,  NafcL  Aubert,  Situr  dr,  a  French  contni- 
versialieC,  was  bom  at  Mans  abont  1650.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris,  but  afierwsrds  turned  his  attentioi 
to  cbeulogv.  Having  entertained  doubts  aa  to  (lie 
Trinity,  be'  abjured  Komaii  Catholicism,  on  which  ac- 
count be  was  persecuted,  and  escaped  to  Holland,  Bbeis 
he  waa  enrolled  among  the  citizenaof  Anaterdam,  sbJ 
began  the  practice  of  medicine  \  but  this  proving  in  in- 
aufflcient  support,  he  engsged  in  llterarr  labors.  He 
die<l  in  Paris  in  1714.  For  a  liM  of  his  nummn 
writings,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  doctrinal  and  hittixi- 
cal  and  personal  characier,  see  Hoefer,  A'oirr,  Biog.  Gi- 

Veislcle  iiabriefand  terse  exclamation,  oomnMO- 
ly  consisting  of  a  single  sentence,  with  a  eoirespoot 
ing  response,  which  is  used  in  rsrious  services  of  Uk 
Cliurch,  especially  in  the  Church  of  England;  afao  s 
short  aiitiphnn  sung  towards  the  altar;  also  tbe  prsya 
ut  aoclamacion  aC  the  beginning  of  Che  Hours. 

VeralonB  of  the  Bible,  a  general  name  fur  trans- 
lations of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into  other  language!  thui 
tbe  original. 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE       763       VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE 


i^e  of  Medlii, 


loFEkliltlll.- 


Trine;  S.F<blTl,  (he  ancli 

.rnqil  probuMv  of  Chnldee ,,.— 

lunr  Arsbic  dralwui ;  Ulmjnrlllc.  tbe 
,  Otmri.  or  EIliioi>ic,  non  raptreeded    ,      .        .      .  _. 
icIB.  TigTi  SQd  Ambnric 

U  Indo-Huroptm,  wlib  different  bmiithM:  1,  HmIo- 
■cnlaD,  InclDdfng  tii«  Pinluii,  Puibl<K>,  IMIoocbH,  Kdi^ 
lib,  UhHIdIui,  and  Armeulan ;  1.  Sanscrit,  iDbdlvlded 
...„  ,..  '-QjiugH  of  SHnncritlc  origin,  DB  HlndDWCS, 
&«MmeM.  Urlyn,  NaimteM,  Palpo,  Kamaon 
al,  CmbmnlBD.  D.isurn  or  Jumbo'),  Pmijabn, 
Oocb,  SlndhM,  Cnlcbea  and  Oul«niil«e,  Kdd- 

UahratlH!  (6)  laDziiagn  .'riiidTa  of  doii-Sbd- 

■criUe  orielD.  a>  Tamnl,  TvllnttB,  Cnnaresc,  ClngalsH, 
--'  Maldlvliu :  (c)rade  and  unwrilleu  InogniiKe*  if  Don- 
...  wrllic  orlglD.  Bi  GoDdee  or  Ouandrti  S.  Indo-Eiin> 
pean  langnigea  af  Bnrope.  mbdJrlded  lum  ihe  dtlTsraut 
fiimllla,  OS  Celtic,  Tenloiilc,  Qnco-ljitlii,  Traco-Ulrrinn, 


and^ari^ 


Earupeau,  litclndlng  tba 
I  Id  the  N.'rlb:  the  O 


s;k.'; 


Sbefnltic 


■rblch  nrt  ni 

2  tba  Flnulsn  ana  Biimoieae 

m,„.    „— „_  —  ...-  -.   the  Qeorjflan  and  other  liu- 

■TnaeeHof  tho  CancnutiB  na\i*Di  tbeTnrkLah,  HongalittD, 
no"  I  nud  TuDiTDslfln  famtliei  o?  Ceulral  Asia;  tbe  Japanese, 
,.... , ■■■■■- —aAiin;  audtbeEiiBka- 


I.  Orv/in, — AIUrtheHebren  had  ceased  Co  be  tpoken, 
and  had  become  a  dead  language  in  the  Sd  centum 
fore  Chriai,  and  itill  more  after  tbe  spread  orChrii 
ly,  ttanalatiana  of  tbe  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  the  pre-    I 
railing  laiiguaees  afche  age  became  a  thing  or  ne« 
bnih  ta  Jews  and  Chrisciins,  in  Palestine  and  ii 
«  countriea.    Acconliaglv,  almost  evety  language  then 
current  received  at  least  one  rereiau,  which  became    ' 
r>-clesiastical  Butbarity,  and  was  used  instead  of  t 
original  Hebrew  tesL     In  tbia  way  there  arusc,  alnj< 
contemporaneous]}-,  tbe  Alexandrine   vcrsinn   for   1 
Grecian  and  ^yptian  Jews,  and  the  earliest  Cbaldee   ! 
veiaiona  for  those  who  dwelt  in  Palestine  and  liabylo-    ; 
nia.      After  the  introduction  of  Chriatini     _ 
tiana  adoptcil  at  flrsC  the  Sept.;  but  in  the  2d  century    ' 
there  appeared  three  or  four  otbei  Ureek  veruons  fnim    , 
tbe  hands  uf  Jewish  and  Christian  tmnsUtoia,  the  i 
Ject  ofwhich  was  to  supersede  the  Sept.     In  this,  he 
CTcr,  they  did  not  succeed,  and  these  works  are  n 

DKMtlj'bMC  AboultheMmetime.the  Syrian  Christians   Louchoo , 

made  tbe  Syriae  vcrwon,  and  the  L^lin  Christians  pro-    r'ejp  Sf,^"^'"' ',"  W«*lera  Bnrope.  j  „        u 

curcl  a  Utin  version  of  tbe  Sept,  which  at  the  dose  of    p.^.u^/:;^  ^jT*'  ^^  ^    ^^  "" 

the  4th  century  gave  place  to  the  veruon  of  Jenime,  f.  A/rieaH  Languagu,  viib  fiinr  varieties:  Coptic,  Ber- 
the  present  VuImIc.  After  the  wide  cutenHon  of  the  ber  Nlgri.-Hamiile,  and  Mll^Uamltic  JauptagM,  with 
A^bic  language  in  the  7th  century,  both  Jew.  and  "^'JilliXJ'Llr^ 
Christians  began  to  translate  the  Scriptures  into  Arabic  ]|ea, 
aha — tbe  Jews  out  of  tbe  original  Hebrew,  and  the 

Christians  from  the  SepL  Indeed,  this  latter  is  the  A  different  elaauOcation  ia  adopted  by  A.  H.  Sayce, 
cue  with  all  tratulaUons  of  the  Old  Test,  made  by  the  in  his  Isiroductum  to  Iht  Sciaict  ofLaligvagti  (Lond. 
Cfarislians  into  the  Orienlal  languages.  1880),  ii,  S3  sq.,  foUoKing  the  results  of  Friedrich  MUl- 

In  the  case  of  tbe  New  Test^  there  did  not  for  a  Jong  ler,  in  his  Crandriu  dtr  SprachaiiieaKhaJi  (Vienna, 
time  exist  any  occasion  for  a  translation,  as  the  Greek  1S7G).  The  following  passage  from  Sauce's  work  (_ltK. 
language,  in  which  it  was  written,  was  universally  prev-  cil.  p.  B2)  will  be  of  interest:  "The  test  of  linguistic 
■lent  in  the  civilized  world  at  the  time  of  the  promul-  kinship  is  agreement  in  Blnicture,  grammar,  and  roota. 
gallon  of  the  Gospel.  In  certain  provinces  of  the  Ro-  Judged  by  this  test,  tbe  languages  at  present  spoken  In 
man  empire,  however,  the  Latin  soon  came  into  com-  the  world  probably  fall,  as  Prof.  Friedrich  Mtlllcr  ob- 
mon  use,  especially  in  North  .Africa,  and  hence  tbe  olil  i  serves,  into  'about  one  hundred  different  families,'  be- 
Italic  and  afterward!  the  Vulg.  arose.  Still  earlier  a  '  tween  which  science  can  discover  no  connectinn  ur  te- 
Syriac  version  was  mode  for  the  use  of  the  Oriental  lationship.  When  we  consider  how  many  Ungusgea 
(^ristiaiis,  to  whom  that  language  was  vernacular. '  have  perished  since  man  first  appeared  on  the  globe,  we 
See  PcaiiiTo.  rnay  gain  some  idea  of  the  numberless  essays  and  types 

II.  f^ittrarj  Charaiter. — The  versions  of  the  Script-  of  speech  which  have  gone  to  form  the  language-worU 
area  are  usually  divided  into  the  immtdialf.,  or  thuse  of  the  present  day.  Language  is  the  reflection  of  st>- 
made  directly  from  the  original  text,  and  the  nwHiite, '  ctely,  and  the  primitive  languages  of  the  earth  were  ai 

those  made  from  other  versions.     The  latter  are  also  i  infinitely  numerous  as  the  communities  that  produced 


a  called  dauglUrn  of  the  former.  It  is  only  I  thci 
tboae  of  tbe  flrst  species  which  have  any  hetmeneulical 
value ;  those  of  the  latter  kind  can  only  serve  for  aid  in 
the  verbal  criticism  of  the  verMons  from  which  they 
have  flownl,  and  are  indeed  or  no  special  importance 
even  here,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Sept.,  the  text  of 
which  has  been  so  much  corrupted. 

The  ancient  translatnri  possessed  neither  grammati- 
cal nor  lexicographical  help^  and  followed,  therefore, 
everywhere  exegetical  trsdiiiun.  As  their  object,  too, 
wasalwayaa  practical,  rather  than  a  learned  or  scientific 
one,  they  are  often  apt  to  fsii  in  the  requisite  degree  of 

1  and  impressions  in  thein 

in  regai 
B  CgcUtpadia  {including 


IS  available  as 
regard 


tespecis  exegesis,  bu 

views  of  tbe  age  ant 
See  Ckiticism. 

[II.  Cliitiifiealioii. 
the  Supplement)  thi 
of  all  the  venions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  made  in  an- 
cient and  nKHlem  limes,  under  tbe  alphabetical  order  of 
the  various  languages.  In  general  all  the  tongues  of 
this  "babbling  earth"  may  be  arranged  asfullows: 


colly  ai: 


-Tli"e  « 


irthe'lndoXlililM 


^lilbStlTod' 

■daily  IdsntlCB ,  

dee,  which,  howarer,  bar*  tbehf  represai 


>.  Langnogaa 

Dd'cbal- 

modem 


.So  far 


'ailable  data  allow,  tbe  e> 

iguages  of  the  world  may  be  classified  as  follows' 

(referring  to  the  seventy-sin  beads  adopted),  "though  it 

tion  is  scanty  and  doubtful,  and  languages  here  grouped 
under  a  Bingle  head  may  hereafter  turn  out  to  be  dis- 
tinct and  unrelated."    See  Tonoues,  Conpusion  of. 

IV,  HitHfrg  of  Modtra  £/urr».— At  the  beginning 
of  the  preeent  century  there  existed  a  number  nf  vei^ 
sions,  which  formed  a  stock  for  the  newly  established 
Bible  societies  to  commence  upon.  There  were  trana- 
lationa  into  nearly  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  into  a 
few  Bpoken  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
and  into  fouronly  of  countries  lying  beyond.  Some  of 
the«  old  versions  were  nnt  adopted;  others  were  print- 
ed for  use  ontil  something  belterconld  be  provided— for 
it  is  hetur  to  give  a  starving  man  stale  bread  than  keep 
him  waiting  while  you  are  baking;  and  other?,  again, 
have  been  employed  without  material  change  up  to  the 
present  time.  In  •ome  countries  a  single  version  has 
been  accepted,  as  in  England;  elsewhere,  as  in  France 
and  (iermany,  use  has  been  made  of  more  than  onei 
and  in  eases  where  important  sections  of  the  people 
have  refused  one  version,  it  has  been  the  practice  of 
mnst  Bible  societies  to  permit  them  to  purchase  a  ver- 
uon they  would  receive ;  provided,  always,  that  it  was 
substantially  faithful  and  revealed  clearly  the  way  of 
SalvaUnn. 

New  tranilations  have  been  made  since  1804  in  about 
fico  hundrfd  and  hettOg-nx  lanffuaffa.  To  state  bow 
many  hare  been  due  to  the  labors  of  any  particular 
body  of  miaaioiwries  would  not  be  easy,  inasmoch  ■■, 


YERSWANN  ,      7i 

in  many  cues,  Tuioui  mii^aa  bin  b«ra  engaged. 

The  aaine  difficulty  appliei,  is  a  meuure,  to  (be  work 
oT  the  Bible  nocietieii,  two  or  more  having  often  pub- 
liabcd  in  the  Mme  language.  Still  thsrollowing  may 
be  taken  a>  an  approximate  aUtement,  though  the  cor- 
recmeaa  oflhe  figures  ii  not  gtuuMteed; 
Tba  Briiteh  and  Foreign  Bible  8^>c<et;  hat 

published  or  ualated  to  pabllah  new  n> 

«LiaiB  In .„. .^ 18T  langnosee- 

Tbe  Amerlciin  Bible  Socielir 41         " 

TheNatlonalBlbleSocletvlnScotlud....    B         '• 

Ills  Bible  TranalallDDSoclelT u 

The  Sacistr  tor  Fromallng  ChrlatUu 

Knowledge II 

The  THiiiiarian  Bible  Society 1        " 

ThaNelherlniiilaBlliteSociecy 11 

The  Bible  aocletlei  or  Oermnny  (rit.  Iha 

Pmulan  Bible  Soeloly,  4 :  ibe  Wdneni- 

liarg  BIbIa  6actety,4;  aud  the  Bcemeo 

BlblB8odel*,1> V 

The  Bible  eodelleanrswltieiland S 

The  Bible  aodellea  of  Deunirk,  Sneden, 

and  Norway 0        " 

Many  of  the  above  translalinna  extend  only  to  a  part  of 
the  Scriptutea.  The  entire  Bible  hai  been  rendered  dur- 
ing Ihepreeeiit  century  in  Uiabautjf/))r:;!i«^cm$iia^,  the 
Mew  Teac  into  eighty-four,  and  pans  only  inta  ttgkljf- 
KTta.  It  may  aurprise  tbe  reader  to  leani  that  the  work 
ahould,  in  »  large  a  proportion  of  csies,  be  incomplete; 
but  no  one  will  wonder  who  reallie*  the  prodigioua  labor 
inruli-ed  in  making  a  cranalation  of  the  whole  Bible. 
The  UuriDPse  veiaion  of  Judaon  occupied  nineteen 
j'eara;  the  Bengali  of  Dr. Carey,  at  least  Hfteen  yeara; 
the  Tabilian,  twenty  yeara;  the  Arabic,  sixteen  years; 
the  Turkiab  of  Dr.  SchauSler,  fourieen  yean ;  the  Han- 
dariii  Colloquial  of  the  Old  Teat.,  by  Dr.  Schereaehawsky, 
fifteen  vears ;  and,  after  nearly  forty  yeara  of  atudy  and 
ofmias'ionary  labor,  Dr.  WiUumaon  and  Dr.Rigga  com- 
pleted their  Dakou  venion  of  the  Bilde,  and  one  of  them 
eetimalee  that  he  bas  spent  on  an  average  fully  thirty 
minutes  on  each  verse  h«  baa  translated.  How  could  it 
be  otherwise?  We  can  imagine  the  labor  itwooldcost 
umply  til  transcribe  the  bunk  from  Genesis  to  Revela- 
tion; hut  how  mncb  greater  must  have  been  the  labor 
of  men  like  Eliot  or  Uoffkl,  who  bad  to  note  down 
phonelically  the  words  used  by  the  natives,  mould 
them  by  degrees  into  a  written  Uiigusge,  and  then  cast 
into  that  rough  mould  theelevaled  spiritual  conceptions 
of  the  Bible!  How  difficult  to  find  the  equivalents  for 
tin,  aloHtmeiil,  ngttnmiiitH,  in  languagee  possessing,  per- 
bape,  a  dosen  words  for  murticr,  according  as  mother, 
child,  or  other  relative  ia  de^atched,  but  none  for  ^<rft- 
tiide  oT/orgi^tnett,  because  such  aSections  are  unknown ! 
Considering  tbe  varied  diflicultie*  of  the  work,  the 
marvel  is  that  so  much  baa  been  translated,  and  Irans- 
teted  BO  well  As  language,  especially  the  foreign,  be- 
comes better  known  in  the  course  of  time,  the  necessity 
of  revision  is  fell,  and  by  none  perhaps  so  much  as  by 
tbe  translator  himseir;  and  thus  it  happened  that  many 
versions  wfre  revised  at  different  limes,  in  order  to  pro- 
varying  versions,     (a  P.) 

Versmann,  Ebmst  FniEDnicii,  a  Lutberan  theo- 
logian nf  liormany,  was  bom  July  li,  1811,  at  Tdnning, 
on  the  Eider.  From  1333  to  1837  he  atudied  theoti^y 
at  Kiel  and  Berlin;  in  1840  he  was  made  deacon  at 
Itzehoe,  in  1857  paUor  primaiius  and  provost,  in  1868 
member  of  the  Luiberaii  consistory  at  Kiel,  and  died 
Aug.  2, 1873.  Versmann  bclonfcs  to  the  most  promi- 
nent theologiana  of  Sleswick-Holstein.  Besides  ser- 
mons and  other  iscetical  writings,  he  published  Dai 
LAtk  Jem  in  12  VoTliagea  (lliehoe,  1866).  See  Zuch- 
oW,flair*»/.ii,1381.    (B.P.) 

V«Tt,  Claii>b  dk,  a  French  liturgist,  waa  bom  in 
Paris,  Oct.  i,  1646,  educated  by  the  canons  of  St.  Gene- 
viive  at  Nanlerre,  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict, 
and  became  bishop  of  Gap.  AfUr  travelling  in  Italy, 
he  was  made  treasurer  to  the  Abbe\- of  Qugny,  visitor  of 
the  order,  and  vicar-general  in  1694.  In  1696  he  ob- 
tained tbe  prior7  of  Su  Peter  at  Abbeville,  and  died 


14  VEBVACTOR 

Ibere  Uay  1, 170S.    He  made  the  cerenMMiiea  of  the 

Church  his  particular  study,  and  tried  to  expbuD  then 
both  literally  and  historicaily.  For  hiaworks,B(e  Hoe- 
fer,  A'ouc.  Biog.  Ginimte,  s.  v, 

Vertableta.    See  Vartabeds. 

Vertlcordla,  in  Roman  mythologr,  [a  a  aumiBS 
of  Veiioa,  the  dirKtrii  of  Ike  hearf.  There  waa  a  tern. 
pie  erected  to  her  when  three  vealat  virgina  bad  Ulea 
at  the  same  time,  so  that  she  might  turn  tbe  hearts  of 
women  from  uiicbaslity.  To  dedicate  tbia  temple  and 
to  erect  the  statue  nf  the  goddcs^  there  were  selecrH 

ten.  who  then  named  one  of  their  number  (Sulpicia,  wife 
of  Fulvius  FlaccuA)  for  tbe  performance  of  that  duty. 

Vcrtot,  REMtf  Ai>BERTDR,a  French  historiagrarto, 
was  bom  in  Ibe  Castle  Benneiut,  in  NonDandv.  Not, 
36,  1666.  In  1671  he  >oiued  the  Capuchins,  but.  na. 
able  to  carry  out  their  austere  r^ulationa,  be  joiaei 
in  1677,  the  Premonstratensians  at  Val-Serry,  in  tbe 
diocese  of  Soissons.  In  the  same  year  he  was  caOtd 
to  Premontre,  in  the  dioceM  of  Idons,  as  profcMt 
of  pbilosophy,  but  in  1683  he  went  as  prior  to  Jens- 
val,  in  1687  to  Croissy,  and  in  1893  as  paMor  to  Vit- 
ville,  to  leai'e  it  soon  for  Pari^  where  be  intended  M 
pursue  bis  studies.  lu  1701  be  waa  made  memba  <f 
tbe  Academie  des  Inscriptiona  et  Bellea-lettn*,  and  ia 
1715  historiographer  of  (he  Order  of  Matia,  and  did 
June  16, 1736.  He  wrote,  Hitloii-e  da  CietaKen  Bsf 
pilalieri  de  ^.  Jean  Je  Jimtabm,  opprtli*  dijm  la 
Chetal.it  Wudit.^  Aajoard'hiii  let  CkeiaL  de  Md^ 
(Paris,  1727, 6  vols.).  Belles,  there  are  a  Dumbtr  tt 
diasettationa  published  in  the  Ufmoira  <jr  FAaidam 
del  Inicriptieaa  and  in  the  Jouraat  del  Sarwu.  See 
Wilier,  Handbtich  dtr  Ihtol.  LUrralar,  i,  788;  Jficbt^ 
AUgeiiieimiGtUhrUn.l^xHo»,a.ii.;  Huefer, .Yovr. fwf^ 
GiBiraie,i.r.     (aP.) 

Vertumnua,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  god  of 


oubtful  significa: 


ug.27ir 


that  Pomona,  the  goddess  of  fruit,  was  ihoughl  Is  hive 
been  his  wife.  Some  call  him  giid  of  the  Beaaoni,  «b- 
ers  god  of  trade;  some  say  he  came  frcnn  the  Tnscs>« 
olhers  from  the  Sabiuo. 

Verulam,  Coumciia  of  {Crmritivm  Venilami^M^ 
Verulam.or  Verulamium,  was  an  ancient  town  of  Eaf- 
tand.  County  of  Hertford,  the  site  of  which  ia  mw  ot- 

norlhweU  of  London.  Two  ecclesiastical  CDuwilivett 
held  here  as  follows: 

L  (Called  abnCounci/ a/* 5t..4tt(nu)  Waa  held  AJL 
429  by  SS.  Gennanus  and  Lupus  against  the  Prligin 
beresy.  The  authors  of  this  detestable  heresy,  uriui 
ConBlantius.  came  to  tbe  council  glitlering  with  ponip 
and  fine  dresses,  and  surrounded  by  their  partisans.  Aa 
immense  eoncoutae  of  people— men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren—were assembled ;  leave  waa  given  to  tbe  Pel^i- 
ans  to  speak  (irst,  which  they  did,  and  at  much  lenpt; 
after  which  Ihe  venerable  bishaps  poured  forth,  in  s»- 
swer,  the  torrent  of  their  eloquem-e,  supporting  ttirir 
own  aasertions  by  divine  testimonies.  Their  oppntienD 
testified  by  their  ulence  that  they  could  not  wiihasnd 
them,  and  the  smcmbled  multitude  with  loud  shnol* 
proclaimed  Ihe  victory  of  the  Catholics.  See  Wilkim. 
Condi  1,8. 

II.  Was  held  A.D.  793,  attended  by  king  Offa.  ordh 
bishop  Humbert,  and  a  large  concourse,  before  nhom 
the  foundalioii  nf  the  Abbey  of  St.  Alban  waa  diHonrd, 
and  Ihe  king  recommended  a  Juumev  to  Rome.  8« 
Mansi,C«Ki':xiii,S6l ;  Wilkins,  bv  HaMati  and  SlnUa. 
iii,  470. 

Verractor,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  god  of  ibc 
fields,  who  was  said  to  give  the  fallow  ground  its  fruit> 
fulnesa  again. 


VERY  REVEREND  766 

TaiT  Raverend  ia  *  title  gircn  by  cdNotd  to 
entain  clcr^meo  in  priests'  ardera  who  have  attained 
(o  poHtioiu  of  digoitj.  In  tht  Charcli  or  England  it 
i*  luaally  renrved  Tut  duna  and  prnvoata  or  catliedrala 
and  collegiate  ctiarcbe*.  In  tbe  Anglu-Kooiin  coid- 
piiuuon  it  is  applied  to  canani  of  cathedrals,  to  oerlaia 
doctors  of  diriuity,  and  ocben. 

Vekalia,  Joiin  db,  a  celebrated  preacher  and  doc- 
tot  of  theology  at  Erfurt  and  Wonns,  olten  coiiruund- 
ed  with  John  WeaMl  (q.  v.),  with  whom  he  hetil  near- 
)r  the  aaine  Hnlimenti,  wu  condemned  for  bia  theolog- 
ical opinions  al  Menu  in  H79,  and  cast  into  piiaon, 
where  he  soon  died.  A  Catholic  who  witnessed  the 
trial  aaya  he  advanced  nothing  but  what  might  be  de- 
fended, except  in  icgaid  to  Ibe  prucesaioa  of  the  Knly 
Spirit,  ID  which  be  agreed  with  the  Greeks.  See  Mo^ 
heim,  IIUt.«flU  ChurtS,  bk.  lit,  cent,  xv,  pt.  ii,  cb.  it. 

Teaey,  William,  an  American  Epiacopal  clergy- 
man, naa  bom  at  Bnintree,  Man.,  in  1674.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Hatvatd  College  in  1693,  and  pursued  his  theo- 
logical atudiee  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Uyles,  rector  of  King'a  Chapel,  Boston.  Under  a  call 
from  the  members  of  the  Epitcopai  communion  of  [he 
city  of  New  York,  he  embarked  for  England  in  Ihe 
apring  of  1697  to  receive  holy  orders,  and  was  ordained 
trr-  Dr.  Henrr  Complon,  bishop  of  London,  Aug.  16  of  the 
■WDC  year.  He  returned  w  New  York,  and  was  inducted, 
onder  command  of  the  goremnr,  inlo  bis  olBee  by  Rer. 
Henricua  Selyns  of  Sew  York,  Rev.  Johannea  Pelnie 
of  Kington,  Thomaa  Wenbim  and  Robert  Lurting, 
church- wardens,  in  Ibe  Dutch  Church,  on  Christmas, 
1697.  tit.  Selyni  and  Mr.  Vetey  preached  alternately 
in  this  charch~the  one  in  Dutch,  the  other  in  English 
— for  about  three  months.  Mr.  Vesey  was  married  to  a 
Miss  Keade  early  in  March  foUowing.  MeanwhUe  Trin- 
ity Church,  the  edifice  under  construction  for  the  Epis- 
copal aociety  of  New  York,  waa  approaching  compte- 
lion,  and  waa  formally  opened  for  public  worship  on 
Sunday,  March  13, 169S.  Mr.  Tesey  was  rector  of  this 
Cbarch  from  thai  time  until  he  was  removed  by  death. 
In  1712,  or  about  that  time,  he  waa  appointed  conimla- 
•oiy  to  the  bialiDp  of  London,  which  office  he  also  held 
daring  the  remainder  of  bis  daya,  Hia  life,  combining 
the  two  offices  of  rector  and  commissari-,  waa  a  very  ao- 
tire  and  laborious  one,  and  it  seems  that  the  work  of 
Ood  proapered  in  his  bands.  Ue  was  largely  aided  in 
bia  labors  by  achoolmtaten  and  catechiats  provided  for 
his  assistanoe,  and  by  regularly  appointed  aaaistania  at 
different  periods,  viz.  Rev.  Robert  Jenuy,  Rev.  James 
Wetmorr,  Rev.  Thomas  Calgan,and  Rev.  Robert  Charl- 
ton. Mr.  Vesey  was  a  man  of  eminent  piety  aa  well 
as  industry,  and  saw  the  fruits  of  his  labors  and  exam- 
ple ripen  in  an  abandant  harveaL  He  died  July  18, 
1746,  after  a  miniatry  of  over  furty-^ht  yean  in  the 
same  place.  See  Sprague, 
A  a»alt  a/tSe  A  mtr.  i-ul- 
pit,  T,  13  sq. 

Vealca  Placia  (Uad- 
dtr  o/ojW).anameap- 
plieil  by  Albert  Durer  to  a 
pointed  oval  figure.formed     L 
by   two  equal  circles  cut-   n 
ting  each  other  in  their  B 


VESPERS 

the  Initial  letters  of  the  name  and  titles  of  the  Sav- 
iour, 'liiffovc  KpionJc,  BEoii  Tioc,  Surqp.  This  form, 
however,  ia  by  no  means  always  given  lo  the  aureole, 
and  the  idea  of  any  peculiar  symbolical  meaning  being 
attached  to  it  appears  to  have  been  adopted  almost  ex- 
cluMvely  by  English  antiijuaries.     This  form  is  aome- 

urea,  and  is  extremely  common  in  mediaval  seals, 
especially   thoaa  of  biihops  and  monastic  establiab- 

Vespaafui,  Titdb  Futvitrs,  a  Roman  empemr, 
was  bom  Nov.  17,  A.D.  9,  near  Reate,  a  Sabine  vil- 
lage, where  his  father  was  tax-gatherer.  He  be- 
came a  succemful  soldier,  and  after  serving  in  Britain 
and  elsewhere,  was  sent  by  Nero  to  Palestine  in  66. 
He  began  the  conquest  of  that  ixiuntry  by  the  storm- 
ing of  Sepphoria  and  Jotapata  in  67;  and  in  6lt,  after 
hearing  of  the  revolt  of  Vindex  against  the  emperor, 
he  hastened  the  operations  of  bis  army  until  be  had 
taken  and  destroyed  all  the  towns  in  his  way  before  he 
reached  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem  itself.  At  thia 
juncture  be  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  army  in  Mco^a, 
and  subsequently  by  the  entire  East.  In  71  he  cele- 
brated, in  company  with  hia  sun  Titus,  Ihe  triumph 
which  marked  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Jewiah 
polity  and  nation.  He  afterwirda  sent  Basaiis  to  put 
down  the  last  remnant  of  the  revolt,  and  to  take  meas- 
urea  that  no  towns  of  Palestine  should  be  rebuilt;  but 
he  discountenanced  cruelty  and  the  abuse  of  power  in 
dealing  with  the  subjugated  people.  The  readesa  agi- 
tationa  of  the  zealots  compelled  him,  nevertheless,  to 
put  down  their  rebellioua  spirit  by  force  in  Egy[it  and 
Cyrene,  and  led  to  his  order  that  the  I'emple  of  Onisa, 
near  Leontopolis,  should  be  destroyed.  He  furthermore 
compelled  the  entire  nation  of  the  Jews  to  render  into 
the  Temple  of  Capitoline  Jupiter  a  tribute  equal  lo  the 
tax  they  had  been  accualomed  to  pay  to  the  Temple 


Coin  of  Vaspadan. 
fie  is,  however,  (o  be  credited  with  bar- 


Christianity  waa  made  lo  euirei  persecution  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian  only  because,  and  only  so  far  aa,  it 
was  identified  with  Judaism,  and  its  troubles  cannot  be 
laid  to  (he  charge  of  the  emperor,  though  Sulpidns 
Severus,  in  hia  ChrottUU  (beginning  of  the  Bth  cen- 
tury), decide*  otherwise.  Vespasian  died  June  24, 
A.D.  79,  being  the  second  emperor  of  Rome  to  die  a 
natural  death,  and  the  fliit  to  transmit  the  empire  to 
his  son.  See  the  biilories,  and  Herzog,  Siat-EtK^Uop. 
a.  v.;  also  Smith, Z)irf.o/6y.n«(ftD»i.flioj.  a.  v.(  and 
the  monographs  cilsd  by  Volbeding,  Iiidfx  Frogna- 
■ulHn,  p.  96. 

Veapsral  is  a  division  of  the  antiphonarinm  i»ii> 
laining  the  chants  for  vespers  (q.  v.). 

Vespeim  (evtn-toag ;  LaL  ™pero,  ogicium  rttptrli- 


implight- 


n;  Gr. 


vyy^^iv)   i. 
hour  of  sunset  or 


the  Holy  Trinity  and  the 
Bleased  Virgin  are  sur- 
rouodad  in  the  paintings 
mud  BCulptorea  of  the  Mid- 

^*!!r.K",''"'^T"."  Ve,lcaPlKla.KliCa.hodml. 
jectared  that  it  was  adopt- 
ed fram  the  idcalhatthisflgureia  symbolical,  and  signifi- 
emat.  of  the  Greek  word  ix^vC  (■  J^)i  which  contains 


ng,  being  (he  last  but  oi 
(q.  v.).  In  signiflcance  the  vesper  service  corresponds 
ritb  the  daily  evening  aactifice  of  [he  Old-Teat,  cullus, 
ut  also  with  the  descent  of  Christ  fnm  the  cross,  and 
:  is  supposed  to  coineide  in  time  wi(h  the  hour  when 
(he  Lord's  supper  was  instituted.  From  the  fact  that 
"  is  mentioned  by  the  most  ancient  fathers,  it  is  prob- 
t»le  that  the  custom  of  holding  an  assembly  fur  public 
orsbip  at  this  (Ime  of  the  day  is  ofveiy  high  antiqui- 


VESPERS  tf 

tj.  Iq  the  4th  cetiturf— peib>p4  ia  the  8d — tbeie  wu 
public  evening  aervice  in  the  Eutem  chuicbo,  u  we 
ifarn  rrom  the  ApotliJiail  Corulilutiimt,  Cu^an,  in 
the  beginuiiig  of  the  5th  ceotuiy,  refers  Che  evening 
■nil  noctomal  usemblics  of  the  I^yptiina  to  the  lime 
of  S(.  Mark  the  Evangeliit.  Veipen  in  the  fimt  addi- 
tion to  the  origiiud  three  hours  of  pnyer  knawn  to 
Cypriin — Itniut,  laltti,  and  wnui  (see  Cyptiui,  De 
Oral,  Dominica,  b.  lin. ;  ChrfKHtom,  JJom,  69  ad  Pop. 
Aslioch.;  and  JerDmr,  Ep.  22  adEiatoeh.  C.S7;  comp. 
Dan.  vi,  11 ;  Acta  ii,  Ifi;  iii,  1;  x,  9).  The  monjulic 
tulei  or  the  Gch  and  Tth  centuries  had  already  in- 
creased  tlie  number  of  canonical  hours  or  prayer  to 
eight.  The  original  form  of  the  vesper  service  cooiiit- 
ed  gf  the  tinging  of  melve  psalms.  Thig  number  was 
aL\erwards  reduced  io  seven,  four  of  which  were  assign- 
ed lo  Ihe  vesper  service  proper,  to  he  sung  sntiphotial- 
\y,  and  three  to  (be  Con^iUtoriam.  Benedict  ofNursia 
(q.  V.)  adds  tu  tbtse  psilini  the  reading  of  a  chapter  of 
Scripture,  a  reaponsorium,  the  Ambrotian  bj-mn  and 
ronneclcd  versicle,  Ihe  Magnificat,  and  the  Litany,  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  closing  prayer  as  constant  ele- 
ments of  the  vesper  service.  The  non-mooaslic  liturgy 
of  the  Western  Cbuich  baa  a  aimilariervice,  five  psalms 
being  prescribed  instead  of  four— the  number  having 
reference  to  the  five  senses  in  man,  and  denoting  also 
the  inferior  degree  of  perfection  possessed  by  the  secu- 
lar clergy  and  the  laiiy.  The  Koman  Bretiaiy  makes 
vespers  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  Laudi  (q.v.)  i  five 
psalms  with  anliphones,  a  chapter  from  the  Bible,  a 
hymn,  a  verucle  with  reaponsorium,  Ihe  Magnificat 
with  anliphone,  Ihe  daily  prayers,  with  occaiuonal  com- 
memorationii,  nuffrages,  and  ptvtcn.  Vespers  is  the  only 
portion  of  the  canonically  prescribed  worship  for  each 
day  which  is  constantly  celebrated  in  Ihe  public  ser- 
vices of  the  Komisb  Church.  In  the  evangelical 
churches  voices  have  been  heard  asking  for  a  liturgi- 
cal vesper  service,  particulariy  on  great  occasions,  and 
especially  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  the  demand 
has  not  been  altogether  unheeded  in  many  quarters. 
See  Euangfl  Kucktratitutig,  1S61,  p.  B49  sq.,  4tl7  sq.; 
lleugstenberg,  Vr^ergotletdiemU  (Beriin,  1861)  ;  Die- 
dricb,  Breciariam  (ibid.  8.0.))  Heiiog,  Real-Emy- 
liop.s.v. 

VESPERS,  Sicilian,  a  term  applied  to  the  tnaasacre 
of  the  French  teoidentt  in  Sicily  by  the  natives  nii 
Easter-day,  1282.  The  tyranny  of  the  French  had 
become  intolerable  to  the  Keilians,  and  a  plot  was 
formed  for  their  exlerniination.  It  was  arranged  that 
the  massacre  should  begin  at  the  tolling  of  Ihe  bell  for 
evening  vespers,  and  the  work  was  so  thoroughly  done 
that  very  few  of  the  French  escaped.  Neither  rank, 
age.  nor  sex  received  any  quarter.  It  ia  said  that  pope 
Nicholas  111  was  made  acquainted  with  this  plot,  but 
died  before  its  eicculion, 

VeapillAnil  were  the  undertakers  or  gravedig- 
gers  who  formed  one  class  of  subordinate  sen-ania  of  Ihe 
early  Church,  and  were  so  called  prtdMbly  from  their 
carrying  out  the  dead  in  the  night.  Some  trace  the 
word  to  ruperUri,  the  evening. 

Vessels,  Sacred,  n/lhe  Altar,  is  a  general  name 

of  the  Church.  These  are  more  numerous  in  the  ritual- 
istic churches  than  in  others,  and  anciently  were  held 
very  aacred.  By  the  Council  of  L^odice^  subdeacnns 
were  forbidden  to  handle  the  pUte  or  to  enter  the  sacris- 
ly;  by  the  second  Council  of  Rome,  a  reader  or  oeliariua 
received  a  like  restriction ;  and  by  the  Council  of  Agde, 
a]l  not  in  ordera  were  so  prohibited.  The  principal 
vessels  and  appertaining  aniclea  are  the  following: 
aTnpuUa,  or  vessel  for  holding  consecrated  oil,  or  Ibe 


d  for 


holy 


holding  boming  ino 
the  vessel  for  the  eacnmental  wine  \  ciboTiitm,  either  i 
canopy  over  the  altar  or  a  boK  or  vessel  to  contain  Ihi 
bread  in  the  celebration  of  the  eucbaiist,  corporal,  i 


aquare  plec«  of  cloth  for  holding  the  bod;  of  Chiiit  at 
communion ;  toluinia,  a  dove-ahapcd  vessel  to  coDlaia 
the  eueharist  suapended  over  the  altar  by  a  chain  fnna 


it  holy  communioD;  ioln-tcaler pot,  t 
1  the  hoty  water  i  moKtiraiict,  a  inm- 
parent  vessel  for  showing  ibe  eueharist  in  the  foiu  of 
bread  to  the  people;  paltH,  the  plate  on  which  the 
bread  is  placed  at  holy  communion;  paU,  a  covering 
for  the  chalice  in  certain  portions  of  (he  man;  pari/iea- 
fOr,a  piece  oflawn  or  fine  linen  for  cleansing  thechabc* 
and  paten ;  pyx,  ■  box  or  vessel  in  which  to  preserve 
the  eueharist,  in  the  form  of  bread,  for  the  sick  and  oth- 
er commnnicaois  who  cannot  be  prcaent  In  Ibe  church; 
pyx-doth,  a  doth  or  veil  for  covering  the  pyx ;  Iktriili, 
a  vessel  in  which  incense  is  burned.  See  each  word  i* 
its  place.    See  also  Obbakkkts,  Ecclksiasticai. 

VESSELS  FOB  Holt  Oil.  These,  in  OMdicnl 
churches,  were  arranged  hke  thre«  towers  aronnd  a 
central  crown-topped  spire,  with  which  they  were  «a- 
nected.  Each  contained  a  amall  pbial,  which  could  be 
detached  when  wanted,  and  a  qioon.  One  of  these  phiab 
held  the  oil  for  baptism ;  a  second,  chrism  for  confinna- 
tion;  and  a  thiid,  oil  for  the  sick.  They  were  made 
of  copper  or  silver  gilL  The  onpaUu,  fur  chrism,  wM 
aoraetimes  made  of  ivory  and  crystal,  to  diuingviih  it 
from  the  vessels  conuiuing  the  oils.     Sec  Oiu 

Vesta,  an  ancient  Latin  divinity,  the  Sie-giMm, 
identical  with  the  Greek  Hatia.    She  w^ 


of  the 
the  Sute  K*> 


InuJer.or  tnotbcr.  Each 
community  had  in  putt- 
lie  altar  to  Vesu.  iha 
central  one  (ui  the 
whole  Ijiiiu  people  be- 
ing at  ljDuvtoin,ibuat 
twenty  miles  fnoi  Bat, 
on  the  Apinau  War, 
where  Ihe  Jtoman  na- 
sula  and  other  oSctn 
oAred  aaeriBoo  do  <•■ 
taring  upon  iheii  rf- 
ficeo.  The  Tetia  d 
Rome  had  her  umtik 

of  Ihe  renatei,  ■hoi 
she  was  served  by  Ikt 
ownprieslessestheVa- 
uLs  (q.  v.),  and  whfie 
waa  deposited  the  at 
ebrated  PulUidiam,  « 
slalue  of  Pallas,  tbc 
pledge  of  thesafrlTif 


ibe  hearth  in  the  Temple  of  Veata,  and  was  annoiliy 

the  laurel-tree  which  shaded  her  hearth.  The  HitsB 
ofVesta  before  which  the  devout  Romans  dsili  uai- 
Oced  were  placed  in  front  of  the  doors  of  ihtir  haam 
which,  «ccurding  to  some,  were  hence  called  rrMtla. 
Ad  oath  in  her  name  was  conHdered  most  samd  add 
inviolable.     See  Vest  alia  ;  Vkstals. 

Vsstal  VlrgliiB.     Se«  Vkstals. 

Vastalla,an  annual  fe«tival,held  on  June  9  by  its 
ancient  Komana,  in  honor  of  Vesta  (q.  v.),  on  the  occa- 
aion  of  which  none  but  women  walked  to  the  temple  rf 
the  goddess,  and  that  with  bare  feet. 

Vestals,  in  the  Roman  religiun.  These  maida 
of  Veata  (q.  v.)  were  heU  in  high  ealeem  Bd 


VESTIBULE 


767 


(ojoytd  gresl  privileges.  They  poHcawd,  for  insunee, 
the  right  ID  Duke  >  teuamcnt  w  wion  u  they  Mepped 
into  Ibe  Mirviee  oT  the  gnddeM  (they  were  requireil  to 
be  ten  years  old  upon  entnnce).  Tbey  were  funher 
■llowed  ■  lictOT,  to  mnounce  their  coiniiigi  and  they 
bti  the  right  of  panluoing  ■  CDndemned  criniiiud  when 
thev  met  him.  They  »l»o  mt  in  aeiti  of  honor  it  the 
theatre.  But  they  were  >1ki  snhject  to  very  strict  oh- 
lervances,  aiid  incurred  frightful  punishment*  in  ctse 
of  any  failure.  The  condiliona  of  theit  aocapunce  wen : 
tbey  and  their  patent*  must  be  fie* -horn;  both  par^ 
CDU  were  required  to  ha  living  and  reaiding  in  Italy, 
and  carrving  on  An  honorable  buuineM,  When  an 
election  'was  necessary,  twenty  girls  were  selected, 
who  cast  lota  in  public  meetings.  But  this  was  not 
Dccesaary  when  ■  father  lawfully  offered,  of  his  own 
free  will  and  accord,  hi*  daughter  free  from  all  hodi- 
It  iinperfectiona.  The  number  of  Vestals  was  at  first 
two,  afterwards  four,  and  from  Servius  Tullius's 
riz.  Ten  years  long  they  were  to  learn  the  se 
ten  years  they  were  obliged  to  serve,  and  Wn 
they  were  required  to  teach  tba  probalioneia,  After 
the  espiration  of  Ibis  term  of  years  they  were  permit- 
tad  to  marry,  but  this  was  not  looked  upon  as  honora- 
ble. Their' duties  were,  the  performance  of  the  sacri- 
fice*, care  of  the  sacred  reatibules,  preaervatjon  of  the 
eternal  fire,  and  the  strictest  virtues,  especially  chastity. 
If  the  fire  became  ealinguisbed,  the  guilty  one  was 
beaten  with  switches;  if  one  was  found  unchaste,  she 
was  hutied  alive.  Such  an  occurrence  was  looked  upon 
■a  a  dreadful  sign  of  the  wrath  of  the  gods,  an 
whole  city  went  into  mourning.  The  clothing  i 
Vealals  was  composed  of  a  long  white  dress,  a  priestly 
flilel,  and  a  veil;  still  it  was  not  forbidden  them 
■itorn  theiDselvea. 


Vestibule,  a  bill  or  antechami 


a  house.  This  is  the  Vitruvian  and  the 
inoderu  sense;  bat  the  btler  includes  any  lobby,  porch, 
at  anteroom  through  which  a  larger  apartment  or  n 
boose,  etc.,  is  enter^  Vatibulan,  in  medinvai  Latin, 
ia  also  used  for  the  mliarium,  ut  eeffry,  and  sometimes 
foi  the  nave,  the  nxlMui  being  strictly  the  choir  only. 
The  origiii  of  the  word  is  disputed,  but  it  is  probable 
that  it  Hrst  ugniAed  the  entrance -chamber  to  ibc 
baths,  where  the  clolhea  of  the  bather  were  laid  aside ; 
and  hence  the  entrance  to  a  bouse  or  any  public  cd- 

Temtment.  The,  a  term  usually  applied  to  the  chas- 
nblc,  which  is  the  encharistic  vestment,  and  is  u 


:   Lord's  supper.     In 


maniple.    See 


Vestment  Board  is  a  table  sometimes  placed  i 
the  sanctuaries  of  chiirehea  in  ancient  times,  on  whic 
a  bishop's  vestments  were  placed  before  assuming  then 
and  alter  taking  them  off. 

Vestments,  Clebical,  are  those  official  garmeni 
which  are  worn  by  the  clergy  in  divine  service.  Th 
following  list  comprises  all  the  vestments  in  commo 
uac,  anil  msny  that  have  been  used  uccauonaUy  in  di 
ferent  ages  and  places  i 

1.  The  oU  is  a  Innx  linen  gnrmenl  with  light  sleevei 
and  is  contlDfld  al  Ibe  waist  bj  a  girdle, 
t.  The  Jimues,  or  ofjni-"- —   ■  ' 


was  a  hood  of  thr  i 


wards  bf  niher  distlognlahad  ecclesiastics,  as  a  piot 
anilnst  cold. 
I.  The  omfci,  or  amlctva.  was  an  oblong  piece  ot  line 


wo  full  Ire  pi 

The  Wretto,  or  tarrtw 
'      '     st  all  srodet. 


iwn,  edged  with  a  bem 


I  In  front  of  the  neck. 


II.  Tbe  EossDok  or  jMOeSa  (ptOi;  fur,  the  lining  of  Uw 
garment  sncleuily),  Is  a  garment  which  Ills  Ibe  tiod;  elue*- 

7,  Tbe  cAiuiiMf  WHS  a  circular  or  el llnUcBl  piece  of  cloth 


long  and  [oar  Incbea  wide,  used  Lo  cuuBoe  the  caaaock 

ID.  The  ailDtiiim  was  like  the  tunic,  except  that  It  waa 
wUhont  sleeves. 

11.  Tbe  MM  Is  an  eisct  semicircle,  like  a  eiiiak,  B(- 
ttcBed  lo  which  la  a  hood,  now  Head  merely  for  orni- 

le.  The  eoUa  Is  a  abort  surplice  either  with  or  without 

18.  Tbe  sotel  Is  a  moi 
csuncloos  biiod  attach! 
ordliiaiy  dress. 

14.  Tbe  dnlmoMRt  Is  a  long  robe  with  sleeves,  open  up 
the  Met  abuni  two  feel,  and  wu  fur  msny  centuries  re- 
gurded  ai-  the  peculiar  gsruieni  for  deacims  at  the  Chrla- 
llsn  snrrlace. 

18.  The  jtnJie,  or  rinffultim,  is  a  cord  of  linen,  silk,  or 

Ibe  alb  la  boaud  about  tbe  waist.    It  Id  fasleucd  on  tbe 

15.  The  Boten  Is  n  long  loose  nppergsrment. 

IT.  The  noDil  was  n  mouasilc  covering  for  ihe  head. 

IS.  The  manAib  was  anclencly  a  men  strip  of  very  flita 
llueu  nltnched  lo  tbe  left  arm  of  tbe  priest  wilh  which  to 
wipe  the  chalice  prevlooa  to  ibe  first  oblsiioo,  but  after- 

bv  Ibe  priest  and  bis  mlelanls  si  lbs  Bncharlai. 

1».  The  mUre  was  a  hierarchical  bead-cnvErlng  origl- 
iiallng  w!Ib  tbe  Jews,  end  worn  bT  CbrlslliDa  orcertsln 
sects  from  verv  enrlragee.    It  waa  of  vnrioiu  shapes. 

n>.  The  i-alUim  was  an  ancient  ecclesiastical  vestment, 
muds  of  white  lamb's-woo1,Hleiiir7lngmelropoliticalJuri>- 

VI.  The  ncAsI  Is  n  hockof  fluelnwu  wllh  Itaht  sleevea. 
r  Jaru,  cuuslsied  of  two  bands 
Ing  down  (be  breast  and  Iha 


the  Chnr 


n  tbe  back. 

various  Boris  of  which  are  In  common  usi 

h  n[  Knclsnd. 

ilsir-.,  or  ororluni,  It  a  iiotrnw  band  of  sfll 


ill. 

»,  The  ifaro  Is 

IT.  The  Uppil  la 


b^d'a 


Besides  the  aboTe-naroed  restmenta,  the  following  or< 

amenta  and  appendages  deserve  menlion,u  belonging 
a  the  complete  outfit  of  the  officiating  eccleaiaatic  on 


the  form  i 

1.  'niaiHMaralM^lstbeBame  as  the  •<»«<«■. 

S.  I'bepHCsral  I*  a  aqnan  plate  of  gold  or  sliver,  either 
Jewelled  or  enamelled,  sometimes  worn  by  Englbih  and 
other  bis  bops  on  the  breast,  over  the  chsanble,  at  mass. 

t.  Tbe  fwtaral  anm  Is  a  creaa  easpended  from  tbe  neck 
by  a  solden  chain,  worn  by  Roman  Catholic  bishops  and 
olhem.lndiuiliui-jurlsdlcilon. 

G.  The  ring  wiid  i;rnerally  adopled  abont  the  4tb  cen- 
tury by  hisbnpa,  nUhiingh  someilnies  afti  before  that 
lime.  It  WHS  ilmt  worn  on  the  middle  flugor  of  tbe  right 
hsnd,bni  ufterwanlB  waa  placed  on  Ibe  fuurth  Auger. 

The  foiegning  objects  are  treated  more  fully  under 
theit  appropriate  titles  in  other  pans  of  this  work. 
Illustralions  of  many  of  them  will  be  fuund  under  the 
article  OlCJAMIUiTS. 

Vestments  are  worn  in  Ihe  ritualistic  churches,  such 
as  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Greek,  the  Episcopal  of 
England  and  America,  and  oibeis.  Tliey  belong  to 
bishops,  priests,  tieacona,  subdeacons,  acolytes,  servers, 
and,  in  tbe  Church  of  England,  to  cborislen.  in  the 
English  cathedrals,  and  in  many  of  ibe  parish  churchea, 
the  aingers,  men  and  boys,  are  vested  in  cassoca  and 
surplice,  and  stl  in  a  pan  of  ihe  church  called  inu  chinr, 
between  the  pteibylery  and  the  nave.   Tbe  eucbiiriatie 


VESTMENTS  !i 

TestmenlB  its  the  amice,  (he  alb,  the  nitiuple,  the  ea- 
charistio  stole,  »nci  the  chMuble.  The  deacon  wean 
over  his  sib  a  dalmalica,  and  Che  atibdeacon  a  tunide, 
but  no  clinHible,  which  is  rewrrKl  exclusively  Co  the 
celebrant.  The  deacon  wears  his  stole  arer  the  left 
ahoulder,  with  the  enda  brought  together  and  fastened 
under  the  rigbt  arm.  The  alule  is  not  worn  by  the 
aubdeacon.  In  the  Western  churches  acolytes  at  bigh 
maw  wear  albs  and  amices;  at  low  maaa  when  there 
■re  neither  ministers  nor  chnir,  but  only  a  nngle  priest 

crimson  cassock.  In  (he  Greek  Church  the  priest  is 
alwaya  attended  by  a  deacon  vested  in  alb  and  dalmat- 
ics. When  a  bishop  ia  the  celebrant,  he  wears  a  dal- 
maiica  iu  addition  to  the  priestly  restmeuls,  to  ngnify 
that  all  the  offices  of  the  ministry  are  united  in  his  per- 

In  the  Roman  churches  the  color  or  the  cassock  ia 
for  choristers,  6erven,or  acolytes,  crimson !  for  the  prin- 
cipal acolyte  sometimea  purple.  Subdeacons,  deacons, 
and  prieata  wear  black,  bishops  purple,  and  cardinals 
crimson.  The  pope  alone  wears  white.  The  surplice, 
cutta,  rocbet,  alb,  and  amice  am  properly  made  oT  white 
linen,  though  in  the  Western  churches  all  except  the 
amice  are  sometimes  made  of  lace.  The  maniple,  stole, 
tunicle,da1matjca,  and  chasuble  vary  in  their  colors,  fol- 
lowing tbe  irguma  of  Ike  itiuaai.  The  Koman  ae- 
qiience,  which  is  now  generally  fcdlowed  by  the  West- 
em  churches,  gii-ea  while  for  Chriatmaa,  Easter,  and 
taints'  d»vpi  jmrple  for  Advent  and  Lent;  red  for  Pen- 
tecost and  feasts  of  martyrs;  tiaek  for  Good-Friday, 
and  green  for  ordinary  daya,  The  color  for  frriat,  or 
week-days,  usually  follnws  that  of  the  preceding  Sun- 
day. The  English  or  Salisbury  sequence  diffcra  Ihim 
the  Koman  in  employing  more  colora,  and  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  used.  Brown  or  gray  is  allowed  in- 
stead of  purple,  blue  instead  of  green,  and  yellow  in- 
stead of  white  on  the  feaata  of  confeasors,  According 
to  lliia  sequence,  all  Sundays  at  the  festal  seasons  are 
white,  and  all  other  Sundays  are  red.  Whilfi  Sundays 
are  followed  by  white  ./erioa,-  but  at  seasons  of  Advent 
and  Lent  the  jlriai  are  pnrple;  and  at  tbe  seasons  of 
Epiphany,  after  the  ocUve,  and  Trinity,  they  an  blue 
or  green.  The  Eastern  calendars  are  numerous  and 
complicated,  and  they  do  not  appear  to  recognise  any 
uniform  sequence  of  colors. 

The  origin  of  the  vestments  may  be  attributed  to  ra- 
lious  BourccB.  The  linen  ones,  doubtless,  were  adopted 
by  the  early  Christians  from  the  Jewa;  while  ihe  oth- 
ers were  ailoptetl  from  garments  worn  in  daily  life, 
either  as  the  ordinary  dress,  or  as  the  vestments  of 
kin^  and  noblemen.  In  the  early  agea  emperors  and 
kiii^  vere  allowed  to  wear  the  chasuble,  and  afler- 

ond  when  assisting  at  high-mass.  It  is  thougbt  Ijy  Mr. 
Marriott  (  Vrttiariam  Ckrittiamm)  that  moat  of  the 
vestments  now  in  use  were  introduced  into  the  Church 
during  tbe  period  between  the  9th  and  12th  centuries. 
The  vestments  naed  in  the  Greek  Church  are  the  same 
as  those  enumerated,  but  are  known  by  the  coTreapond- 
ing  Greek  names.  The  alb  is  called  a  ckilomon;  the 
maniple,  an  rpindaiJ^,'  the  stole,  an  oiiirion ;  the  cbaa- 
\\b\e,B,phelanum;  the  dalnuitica,a  stoicharion;  the  pal- 
lium, on  oiHOphonon. 

The  natural  effect  of  the  religious  changes  of  the  16th 
ceniuTj  was  to  put  aude  tbe  costume  at  the  same  time 
and  on  the  same  gruunda  as  the  existing  ceremonies. 
This  waa  done  by  the  diSerent  churches  of  the  Ref- 
ormation in  various  degrees.  The  Calvinisiic  wor- 
ship dispensed  with  vestments  altogether.  The  Lu- 
therans generally  retained  with  the  cassock  the  alb, 
and  in  some  countries  tbe  chasuble.  In  the  Eng- 
lish Church  a  variety  of  practice  has  existed.  The 
disDuCes  about  the  surplice  were  very  bitter.  The  Pu- 
nlans  objected  to  its  use  on  the  ground  of  its  being  a 
relic  of  po|Aery.  As  In  tbe  rest  of  the  costume,  the  first 
"  with  little 


change;  and,  since  Ibe  rubric  of  this  Piayer-book  hai 

not  been  formally  repealed,  a  ritualistic  movement  in 
ths  English  Church  has  reintroduced,  in  some  places, 
almoat  every  detail  of  the  Roman  costume  iu  the  cum- 


any  uistancea,  ac 


See  Marriott.  Vittiarium  Chrutiamm;  Rock,  llit- 
ruiyia;  Neale,//a^  Kaiteni  ChanA ;  Btant,  A tmolalni 
Book  of  CamawB  Proj/er;  also  the  monographs  dted 
by  Volbeding,  /itdtx  Profframmalum,  p.  ITi. 

Veatiy  (ItriFlbp,  melladilt,  from  an  obseate  mt 
nrV,  re  iipreaJ  out  aa  clothing;  Sept  oJcoc  v.  r.  ;u<r3ii- 
aX ;  Vulg.  Bfitu),  the  mardi'obe  chamber  oT  a  temple, 
E.  g.  that  of  Baal  (2  Kings  x,  39) ;  contuning,  doubtless, 
the  fine  official  apparel  of  Ihe  priestSL 

VESTRY,  in  ecclesiastical  phraseology,  is  a  room  at- 
tached to  a  church  in  which  la  keep  tbe  veatmeots  aad 
sacred  vessels.  Tbe  ordinary  place  of  Ihe  vestry  wat 
at  (he  north  side  of  the  chancel  at  the  east  end.  There 
was  not  unfi>ei|uenily  an  altar  in  the  veslry;  and  some- 
timea It  was  arranged  with  an  additional  chapter  so  at 
to  form  a  domai  tuc'iHa  for  the  reaideuce  of  an  offidat- 


From  their  meeting  in  this  ro«m  cei 
of  the  parishioners,  lor  the  despatch  of  tbe  official  butt- 
neat  of  the  parish,  are  called  vestries  or  vestry  meetings, 
Such  meetings,  however,  may  be  held  elsewhere  in  the 
parish  as  trell  as  in  the  vestry,  provided  the  proper  no- 
tice of  time,  place,  and  purpose  of  the  meeting  bo  givai. 
The  officiating  minister,  whether  he  be  curate  or  vicar, 
is  ezn^eio  chairman  of  the  meeting.  All  persons  rated 
to  the  relief  of  the  poor,  whether  inhabitants  of  thepa^ 
ish  or  not,  are  entitled  to  attend  the  vestry  and  vote; 
and  this  right  is  also  extended  to  all  inhabitants  ceo 
ing  into  the  paiisfa  idnce  the  last  rale  for  the  relirfof 
the  poor,  if  they  consent  to  be  rated.  But  nopemnii 
entitled  to  vote  who  shall  have  neglected  or  refused  I* 
pay  any  rate  which  may  be  due  and  shall  hare  been  de- 
manded of  him,  nor  is  he  entitled  to  be  present  at  any 

In  the  year  1831  an  act  was  pasted  by  the  Biiilik 
Patliamcnt,  which  has  been  very  generally  edited.  (■- 
titled  "  An  Act  for  the  Better  Rrgulation  of  Vestries 
and  for  the  Appointment  of  Auditnra  of  Accounts,  in 
Certain  Parishes  of  Englsnd  and  Wales."  This  »» 
doea  not  alter  the  law  in  any  parish  by  whicfa  it  is  mt 
adopted  by  a  majority  of  Ihe  rate-payera,  nor  doea  it  in- 
terfere with  pariahes  govemed  by  select  veitiics.  Tb> 
moit  important  provitions  are  that,  in  all  parisboadop^ 
ing  the  act,  the  vestry  shall  condtt  of  twelve  vestry- 
men for  every  parish  in  which  the  number  of  lattd 
householdeta  shall  not  exceed  one  thoosand;  twenty- 
four  where  they  exceed  one  thousand;  thiny-«ix  who* 
they  exceed  two  thousand;  and  so  on  ir 


ouseholders;  I 


Then 


vicar,  perpetual  curate,  and  church-wardens  are  to  d»- 
stitute  part  of  the  vestr;',  and  vote  in  addition  to  ths 
vestrymen  to  elected;  but  no  more  than  one  such  niia- 
ister  is  ex  officio  to  be  a  part  of,  or  vote  al,  any  veslty 
meedng.  One  (bird  of  Ihe  vestrymen  go  out  aS  J- 
fice  annually,  and  others  ere  elected  in  their  sltid 
Select  vestries  have  arisen  from  a  practice  which  ob- 
tained in  large  and  populous  parishes,  especially  in  sad 
■bout  Ihe  metropolia,  of  choosing  a  select  number  of  Ibt 
chief  end  most  respectable  parish ioiien  to  represent  aod 
manage  the  concerns  of  the  parish  for  one  year.  Tb« 
practice  baa  been  held  by  the  conrta  of  law  to  be  a  good 

In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America  the 
vestry  ia  a  committee  chosen  annually  by  tbe  pariA, 

who,  in  conjunction  with  the  cbutch-w ardent,  manage 
its  temporal  concerns. 

The  term  reitiy  is  also  applied,  by  aeeammodatiii^ 


VESTRYMAN 


VeBttymui,  ■  meoibeT  ot  the  vealry  (q.  v.). 

TesUy-preas,  a  cupboard  to  hold  the  encbariui- 
tal  and  olhcT  veatmenta  belanging  to  ■  church. 

ITeatTy-trDllk,  a  box,  originally  made  out  of  the 
trunk  ofa  tree,  hollowed,  in  order  to  conlsin  the  eeclesi- 
■ttical  vestmenis  belonging  lo  a  churcfa. 

Teaturer.  a  sacristan  (q.  v.),  ot  aexton  (q.  v.),  a 
keeper  of  the  veatmentai  a  nub-treaautcr  or  a  collegiate 
church  or  cathedraL 

Votcll,  James  Edwarhs,  A.B.,  an  EngUah  Cungre- 
(Cational  iDinister,  was  born  at  Zacatecaa,  Mexico,  Aug. 
17,  1836.  Mr.  Vetch  gndiul«d  al  New  College,  and 
cominenced  the  work  of  the  rniniatry  in  AuBtralia  In 
1868— fint  at  Melbourne,  and  Utterly  atWoolbara,near 

«very  denomination.  He  ilted  June  17,  1870.  "  His 
character  was  ifaat  of  an  exemplary  Chriatian  gentle- 
man, and  ever  preferred  principle  to  prosperity."  As  a 
preacher  be  was  tboughtful  and  instructive;  as  a  pas- 
tor and  friend  he  was  respected  and  beloved  as  few  men 
■I*.      See  (l.ond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1871,  p.  358. 

Vetliym.  an  old  fonn  of  the  word/ofAora,  a  meas- 
ote  of  ail  feel  in  length. 

Veto  Ac:t  is  the  popular  desin^ation  of  the  cele- 
brated act  on  calls  passed  by  the  General  Assembly  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  May  31, 1834,  and  which,  being 
aflerwardu  declsred  by  the  courts  of  law  and  ""  " 
preme  I^egi^lilure  to  be  illegal  and  beyond  thi 
of  the  Church  to  enact,  gave  riae  to  ■  collision  between 
the  Church  and  State,  and  led  to  the  formation,  in  1S4S, 
as  a  separate  denomination,  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land. The  act  originated  in  ihe  motion  of  Dr.  Chal- 
mers, which  was  seconded  by  lord  MoncriefT.  Thia  mo- 
tion is  given  iti  full  under  the  article  Nox-lNTausiOK- 
ISTS  (q.  v.).    The  act  runs  as  follows : 

"TbeOeneral  Assembly  declare  that  it  la  a  rtaudamen- 
tal  law  .it  this  Gharcb  that  no  pastor  shall  be  Intruded  nn 
any  cniigreKSlliHi  contnir  to  the  will  »ribs  people:  and, 
III  order  that  this  principle  may  be  carried  Inio  Ihll  elTecl, 
■be  Ornerul  Assembly,  with  the  enn-eni  of  a  majority  t>t 
tile  presliyieries  of  this  Chnrch,  do  declare,  enact,  and  or- 
dain, That  II  Bhall  be  an  lostmcilnn  lu  presbyteries  that 

the  vacant  cmfiregailon  iiud  In  (all  conmnulun  with  ilie 
Chuich.  Shalt  dlsappniie  uf  the  person  In  whose  favor  ilie 
chII  la  lube  moderated  In,  sacbdlaapproTat  shall  be  deem- 
ed snnclenl  ctmind  for  the  presliytny  rejecting  each  per- 
■no,  and  that  he  sbail  be  rejected  accntdliiRly,  nnd  dne 
niilce  thereof  fort b with  iilveu  to  all  concerned  i  bni  that 

dlsapprnve  of  such  person  to  be  their  pastor,  the  prevliy- 
ieT7  shall  pn>ceed  with  the  setilemenl  aeenrdinc  to  the 
rules  oflbe  Chnrch.    And  Ihey  (tarther  declare  that  u<>  per- 

wha'ah'all  refuse,  if  rcqnirsd,  solemnly  to  declare, "n'pKs- 

ur  ma  ticirins' motive,  bat  solely  by  a  con  acleu  tints  "sard 
to  the  spiritual  Inierests  of  hlmeslf  or  the  congregsiiVin." 
See  Patro:iaoh;  Ridino  Comuittees;  Settleuemth, 

VlOLK<T. 

Vevurs,  Wiluax,  an  English  Weeleyan  minister. 
commenced  his  itinerancy  in  1813  on  the  Gateshead 
Circuit,  tie  travelled  some  of  the  principal  circuits, 
auch  as  Gtai>e»*'  (»ii).  HaUrax  (1824),  Yotk  (1837), 
Deptrurd(1Ka-21,  Leeds  (IBSS),  Liverpool  (1840),  Derl^ 
(1811),  Hull  (1845),  etc  He  had  an  active  and  vigor- 
ous mind,  and  often  evii^ced  great  skill  in  citeait  flnance. 
He  died  at  the  Weeleyan  Theological  Inatitution  (of 
which  he  was  governor  and  chaplain)  at  Taunton,  Sept, 
8,  1850,  in  the  lirty-niulh  year  of  his  age.  He  wrote, 
Ao  Appall  to  Ike  Wnlrgan  Soritlitl  on  Ihe  A  Unapt  nine 
node  In  Svbrtrt  Iheir  Coml^iitiun  {referring  to  1  he  War- 
ren agitation)  (Lond.  Ilt34,  8vci)  :~~A  .Irrimd  Appriil, 
Contaifins  a  R'pis  lo  a  Pampklrl  mtilM  A  n  Affeeliim- 
ale  Ad-lrra  of  Iht  Uniltd  WetUj/aa  MflhaditI  .l-jori-i- 
lio,,  1 183.1,  «vo)  :-.l  Ijller  to  Ikt  Set:  »',iber  F.  Hook, 


9  VIAIXNES 

D.D.,  Vicar  of  Lwdi,  m  Au  Inanguml  Diacouii  (2a 
ed.  lS36,8vo):— .In  Kuni/  on  Ihe  Saiionat  Importanct 
of  Methodum  (1831,  Bvo).  See  Miiuittf  of  IVeileyan 
Cotferma,  1851 ;  Stevenson,  Waitym  eymn-booi  and 
its  j|  ssDcialtDns,  p.  365. 

Vex  ia  uaed  in  the  A.  V.  only  in  the  old  Lat.  accep- 
tation (from  rrho,  to  carry,  hence  to  toss  about),  aa  a 
tendering  of  many  Heb.  and  Greek  worda,  in  the  sense 
of  agilate  or  disturb  greatly,  especially  to  corment  or 
afflict. 

Vezilla  Regis,  a  hymn  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  Urst  words,  Vexilla  Begii  prodemni  ("The 
kingly  banners  forward  go"),Bung  in  procession  on  Good* 
Friday  before  the  Mass  of  the  Presanclided.  It  was 
composed  by  Tenantiua  Fortunatus  {q.  v.)  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  reception  of  certain  relics  of  St.  Gregory 
of  Tours  and  Sl  Radeguml,  prior  to  the  conaecratiou  of 
a  new  church  at  Tours.  It  is  strictly  a  processional 
hymn,  but  was  afterwards  adapted  for  use  in  the  West- 
em  Church  during  Passion-tide,  and  is  now  used,  in  an 
English  version,  verv  generally  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. 

VexHlum  (a  bamer)  is  the  cru- 
cifix carried  before  the  pope,  with  the 
figure  towards  him,  to  remind  him 
that  be  should  have  Christ  crucified 
ever  before  his  eyes. 

The  word  rtxillum  also  denotes  ■ 
Sag  or  pennon  of  ailk  or  linen  at- 
tached to  the  upper  part  of  a  tush- 
op's  pastoral  atalT  by  a  cord.  This 
pennon  ia  then  folded  round  the  staff, 
so  as  to  avoid  the  inconvenience 
which  might  ariae  from  the  moist- 
ure of  the  hand  staining  the  metal 
of  which  the  staff  Is  made.  Many  I 
examples  of  the  vexillum  are  repre-  n 
sented   in   illuminated   MSS.,  and  'I 


Texalay,  Cou.vcil  of  (Concili- 
um Vcitliactm),  was  held  in  1146, 
after  the  capture  of  Edessa  by  the 
Saracens.  Louis  VH,  Ihe  archbish-  j 
op,  biabop^  abbots,  and  many  of  the  j 
nobility  of  France,  attendftl.  Su  I 
Bernard,  who  was  present,  urged  ^ 
the  king,  with  great  eloquence,  tn 


of  St,  Gilles  ;   Thierry, 

lido,  and  many  others  of 
See   Uansi,  CoikU.  x. 


After   them  Alphunno.  c 

count  of  Flanders  1  coui: 
the  nubility,  tiiuk  the 
1100. 

Via,  Ai.EsaATiDi»  tiEi.i.A,  an  lulian  engraver,  flour- 
ished at  Venice  about  1780.  He  engraveil  siime  por- 
traits and  other  subjects  in  an  indifferent  style,  among 
which  is  one  of  the  Virgin  and  Infant  Christ,  with  $L 
Sebastian  and  other  saints,  after  Paul  Veronese.  See 
Spooner,  JOog.  Bill,  of  Ihe  Fine  A  rit,  a.  v. 

Via  DolorOaa.     See  Jerusaleh. 

Via  Media  {thr  middle  path),  a  name  which  An- 
glican High-Churchmen  claim  for  themselves,  as  hold- 
ing a  middle  position  between  popery  and  ultra-Protes- 
See  Oxponi)  Tracts;  Tractariam. 

Thikrri  Fahsiku  iiK,  a  French  contHv- 
vemialiat,  was  bom  at  Chaliina-sur-Mame,  March  18, 
16.'i9.  He  was  brought  up  by  the  Jesuits,  ami,  having 
entered  the  Order  of  SI.  Bencilici  (l>>77)  and  cr.mpletnl 
irdaiiied  prii--i  (l<»a).« 


he  fell  ii 


n  betn-i 


n  IWO 


Kiul- 


VIAL 

In  Thienche,  but  he  "ai  >oon  nlcated  ihnmgh 
influence  nf  his  father.  After  various  adventures 
b«anie  (1S96-I703)  director  of  an  academy 
viUiere  (diocese  of  Rheims)!  but,  coniiruirg  hiB  oppoai- 
tion  to  papal  authority,  he  was  imprisooeil  (l7(M-tj) 
at  Vincenttes  and  flnally  baniahed.  lie  retired  to  Bel- 
gioni,  and  thence  to  Holland,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  hia  checkettd  life  in  the  preparation  oTa  few  eccleai- 
astical  works,  which  are  recited  in  Hoefer,  A'onr.  Biny. 
GtniraU,  t.  v.  He  died  at  Rbynwick,  near  Utrecht, 
Oct.  81,  178S. 

Vial  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V„  of  TJ9,  put  (frotn 
•)  nsD,  to  dinU),  ■  bottle  or  flatt,  e.  g.  at  oil  (I  Sam.  x, 

■  {'"boV^  Kings  is,  1,3);  and  ^aXq  (1  Eadr.  ii,lSi 
Rev.  v,8,  etc),  ■  bowl  (q.  v.)._ 

Vino.    See  Van  Tiane. 

Vlauaglum  is  a  term  frequently  found  in  Du);- 
dale's  ^flma^licon  («  deu^ate  the  payment  uf  a  certain 
■  quantity  of  wine  in  lieu  of  rent  to  the  chief  lord  of  the 
vinejanl. 

Vlaul.  Antonio  Uoiia  (called  II  VioRiRo),  an 
Italian  painter,  native  of  Ciemona,  flourished  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  lie  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  art  from  the  eminent  painters  of  Cremona, 
the  Campi,  and  was  then  invited  by  the  duke  Tincen- 
210  Gouiaga  to  Mantua,  where  he  executed  several  pict- 
ures for  the  churches,  among  which  were  SI,  ificAntI,  in 
tbe  Church  of  Sanl'  Agnese,  and  the  representation  of 
JVeuDBi,!!  the  Otsoline,  both  in  the  style  of  bis  instruc- 
lon.  Bcrides  hia  work  inthecburches,be  was  employed 
in  many  other  ediflcesi  and  after  the  death  of  the  duke 
remained  in  tbe  employ  of  his  three  succeaaont  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt-qftht  Fmt  ^rft, i-v. 

VlanliDomenlcoUviB,  an  Italian  painter,son 
of  Giovanni  Maria,  was  bom  al  Bulogna  in  1668.  He 
received  a  thorough  education  in  the  art  from  his  fa- 
ther, and  then  went  to  Venice,  where  he  studied  tlic  old 
Venetian  masters.  Some  prefer  him  to  bis  father,  but 
this  preference  is  not  entertained  by  most  critics,  lie  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  school  which  he  had  eatahlish- 
ed  at  Bologna,  and  instructed  several  pupils.  He  exe- 
cuted many  works  for  the  churches  of  Bolafcna,  Berga- 
mo, PialDia,  and  other  neighboring  cities.  The  princi- 
pal at  Boliq^a  are  a  series  representing  the  Propkcli 
and  F.pcaigdiili,  in  the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  and 
ChriU  Healing  a  Fiiffrini,  in  the  Chunh  of  the  Sen-l 
He  died  at  PistoU  in  1711.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hill. 
aftht  Fine  ^  rM,  >.  v. 

Vluii,  OfoTannl  Marim,  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Bologna  in  1637.  He  atodied 
along  with  Pawnelli  in  the  school  of  Flaminio  Torre. 
He  executed  many  works  for  the  churches  of  Bologna, 
as  well  as  for  other  public  edifices.  He  opened  a  school 
opposite  to  that  of  Cignani,  in  which  he  instructed  sev- 
eral pupils.  Besides  his  work  as  painter,  he  executed 
several  spirited  etchings  from  his  own  designs  and  if- 
terCaracci.  Hedied  in  I7U0.  See  Spooner,  £u;$.  Swt. 
oflhtFintArtt,^^. 

ViBtitooin  (literally,  preparoCion /or  ajoarucf)  is 

■  term  corresponding  to  the  (ireek  i<pitiev,  and  itsed  to 
deugnate  tbe  sacramenta  of  baptism  and  tbe  Lord's 


VICAR  EPISCOPAL 

ila  are  to  the  saow  effect,  providing  alao  for  the  giviB( 
r  the  viaticum  under  peculiar  circumslaiices.  as  lo  ptt- 
ms  in  extreme  weakness,  deliriuiD,  or  subject  to  a- 
onical  discipline. 

Vtbert,  CHAEiLEa  W.,  an  English  Wrslevaii  mirrL>. 
:r,  was  bom  at  I'enzance,  Cornwall,  April  3.'l»U.  lit 
niled  with  the  Chureh  in  bis  fifteenth  year,  was  tr- 
;ived  into  the  ministry  in  1S26,  and,  in  the  raidu  uf 
preparations  fur  removing  to  South  Prthertuii  LHrcuii 
was  attacked  with  paralysis  and  died  in  four  buan. 
at  Bnimsgrove,  Aug.  W,  1854.  He  was  ■  man  of  ooob- 
trusive  pietv,  unimpeachable  integrity,  and  comcioi- 
tiously  devo'ted  to  his  work.  See  MimUa  •■/  H'tdcym 
Con/irmcu,  lOob. 
Vloai  is  one  who  supplies  the  place  of  aoollMr. 

the  religious  bouses,  the  monks  sup[>lied  tbe  cure  hy 
one  of  their  own  hratherhood,  and  received  tbe  reve- 
nues of  the  Church  tu  their  own  use,  A^erwards,  id 
almost  all  appropriate  churches,  it  became  euaiunary 


.f  Chrisli 


them  safely 

eternal  life.  Uora  stnctJy,  lie 
denoted  tbe  eucharist  given 
dangeriif  death,  in  which  set 
used.  Death  was  a  journey 
this  sacrament  was  deemed  tl 


e  Council  provides  that 


lumcy  through  this 


I  the  eternal  world,  a 


11  ih,. 


served  to  the 


suppli€<      . 

own  bouse,  from  which  laa  and 

he  name  of  eiairim;  and  G<t  tbe 

I  vicar  about  a  third  part  dT  lie 

set  apart,  the  rest  of  the  tithes  beini:  r» 

of  those  houses.     Tbe  liihes  net  ipsn. 


vicarial  tithes,  and  the  others 

totial  tithea.     After  the  religious  nouses  • 

the  king  became  possessed  of  that  share  i 

who  granted  them 


called  great  or  rec- 
uses were  diiwlnd, 
:h  belong- 


ly  belong  (be  whole  of  the 
can  Church  the  vicar  is  a  c 
bent  of  a  parish  under  a 
the  great  tithes,  and  the  li 


great  tithes.     In  i 


irAagH- 


formet  receiiing 

inUe,but  in  Fiaoa 
the  opposite  usage  obtains. 

VICAR  AroHTOLic  is  a  bishop  who  poaaeHies  on  £>• 
cese,  but  wbo  exercises  jurisdiction  over  ■  censii  ap- 
pointed district  by  direct  authority  of  the  pope.    SikIi 

ous  parts  of  the  I-aijn  Chureh.     There  were  vic«»  s^ 
'n  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  in  the  7ih  and  ftb 


Jidillerei 


since.  In  England,  Dr.  WUIiam  I 
crated  lo  this  office  by  the  title  of  bishop  of  Cbakedoa, 
June  i,  teiR.  In  1688 /our  disiricla  were  created  by 
pope  Innocent  XI ;  and  to  theaeybar  aiorT  wen  Met 
by  pope  Gregory  XVI,  July  30,  IS40.  In  place  cf  tliii 
a  new  hierarchy  was  established  in  Englai>d  br  |x^ 
Pius  IX  in  1860. 

VICAR  Apostolic  of  bU  A'ortli  Polt  ia  a  ptiol  if 
the  Romish  Chureh  pnaatsring  certain  episcopal  jvis- 
diction  in  Orkney,  Shetland,  Iceland,  and  tbe  ailjacal 

VICAR  CAriTDi.Ait  is  the  admiiiistratur  of  a  dtocot 
choaen  by  the  chapter  in  case  of  vacancy.    He  can  |ier- 

form  acts  for  the  govt     '"     " "      ' 

episcopal  authority. 

VICAR  Choral  is  a  minor  canon  attached  la  > 
cathedral  or  collegiate  church;  also  a  layman  appiHoud 
to  assist  in  chanting  divine  service  in  cathedral  ami 
collegiate  churcbeo. 

VICAR  or  CitBiBT  is  a  term  by  which  RiMiiaii  Caib- 
olica  somelimes  designate  the  pi'pe. 

VICAR  Epibcopal  is  an  officer  of  tbe  V<nm 
Church  corresponding  lo  the  English  nrrAdirurv*  or 
the  Greek  e/u/irpiicopoi.  In  Africa  the  riiy  priest  ■■ 
one  of  the  cathedral  body,  who  ministered  in  the  *l- 
Joining  villages.  According  lu  Sidonius.  he  wa>  lie 
bishop's  chaplain,  vidam,  notary,  treasurer,  tbeoli^Mi 
■nd  steward. 


VICAR  FORANE  T 

VICAK  FoRANE  (_rieariat/ortneiit,  liL  "victr  oul 
of  duon")  is  Lb;!  delcjjKie  of  ■  bi>hep  who  exercieei 
certain  epiicopal  righu  iu  >  p«t  of  the  iliace«  only. 
Such  officen  are  not  provided  for  all  dioc«wi. 

VICAR  Gujuui.  i>  a  principal  official,  now  called 
duncelloT  of  tlie  diocew ;  an  eccleaiasiical  jodge  in  the 
bishop's  court,  as  (he  officii!  belopging  to  the  arch- 

VICAK  OF  THE  Holt  She  is  an  officer  who  has 
been  from  lime  to  time  appointed  by  the  pope  to  exer- 
cise quaai'tpiaeopal  jorisdiclion  in  certain  dioceses.  Hit 
functions  and  duties  are  almost  precisely  the  same  as 
thoae  of  the  vicar  apostolic  (q.  v.).  Vicars  oT  the  Holy 
Se«  were  first  appcdnted  in  Qaul  hy  pope  Zoaimut  iu  417. 

TICAR  OK  Peter  is  a  term  by  which  the  pope  of 


Vicarage  <or  Ticaraob  House) 
hooae  of  residence  for  the  vicar  of  ■  parii 

Vicarial  Tithes  are  the  lesser  tithes  (q.  v.)  be- 
longing to  a  benefice.    See  Vicak. 

Vicariate,  one  having  delegsled  power  as  a  vicar. 

Vicaxil  is  a  name  given  to  certain  officers  ordered 
to  be  appointed  by  pope  Innocent  III  in  1316,  who 
lo  have  tbe  can  of  souls  in  the  larger  dioceses  neglected 
by  tbe  worldly-minded  bishops.     The  name 
ployed  to  distinguish  them  from  the  offieialet, 
simply  ■  coercive  jurisdiction. 

Vloariima  Sofferlng  of  Jesds  Chbibt.  Under 
the  head  of  Atonbheht  we  have  given  a  historical  re- 
view of  opinions  on  tbis  subject,  and  in  the  article  Me. 
DiATtoif  we  have  discussed  the  character  and  extent  of 
tbe  expiation  ettected;  it  remains  to  consider  tbe  ulti- 
mat«  ([round  or  virtue  of  such  a  redemptive  act.  Why 
was  It  necessary  that  any  victim  should  saOer  in  mi  ' 
stead?  The  real  need,  as  we  conceive,  lies  not  al 
(tether  in  (Sod's  dispoMIion,  but  quite  as  imperativeli 
that  of  the  sinner  himself.  As  the  divine  law— being 
a  transcript  of  the  moral  attributes  of  Deity,  and  t' 
fore  of  all  moral  inielligenees — was  but  the  prodi 
cnature  {»  to  speali)  of  <iad  himself,  be  may  be 
Hived  as  having  tbe  sovereign  tight— so  far  as  hii 
Btlilude  or  interests  are  concerned— la  abrt^te,  v 
nr  suspend  it  or  ila  penalty  in  any  case  upon  bit 
Ifrm^  or  at  his  simple  pleasure.  But  he  could  n 
this  arbitrarily,  or  in  such  a  way  as  to  contradi< 
uwn  nature— that  is,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  conntei 
Mn,  to  which  he  is  esaenlially,  abeolulely,  and  forever 
oppOMiL     Human  ain,  be  il  borne  in  mind,  consists 

vitiating  the  inherent  prescriptions  of  the  moral  n 
of  the  univeise,  including  man  himself.  If,  tborel 
God  riiouid  be  so  wesk  as  lo  overlook  or  condone  m 
crimes,  without  the  fulffiment  of  such  conditioni 
should  conser^'e  that  moral  instinct,  he  would  incur 
contempt  of  the  crimioal  himseir.  In  other  words,  n 
if  pardoned  at  all,  and  if  so  as  lo  (ctl  hirawlf  really 
justly  fo^ven,  must  be  pardoned  in  accotilance  i 

That  ordinance  may  be  summed  up,  if  w 
pnt  it  by  oonscionsness,  by  Ihe  anslojiies  of  parental 
mndoctandsocialrelease,  aiMl  by  ihecKplicit  terms.' 
Holy  Writ,  in  the  one  eaenHat  requirement  of  such 
stale  of  mind,  on  the  part  of  [he  cnlptii,  as  warrant"  tl 
pmumptinn  of  voluntary  nun-repetitiun  for  the  future 
of  alikeolTence^  that  is,inanewoEd,  repsifaiKe.  Wi 
vut  this  no  one  feels  that  he  can  properly  for  himself,  or 
safely  for  othem.  either  forgive  or  be  (brgiven  any  ' 
The  question  now  ia,  How  can  this  state  of  mind 
certainly,  efleclually,  and  permanently  be  prodt 
Thai  Goil  could  infallibly  bring  it  about  by  a  dire 
fiueoce  upon  man's  mind  no  one  can  doubt,  and 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  thst  this  is  the  sctui 
inrariable  fact;  but  tbis  is  to  deny  free  SRency,  i 
stoltity  [he  whole  counie  of  the  divine  procedure  ii 
milting  any  Hn.  whatever.     We  know  of  no  mei 


VICARIOUS  SUFFERING 

likely  to  reduce  the  natural  rebellion  and  corraplion  of 
the  human  heart  as  that  which  God  has  acUially  adopl- 
namely,  by  the  presentation,  in  the  parson  of  the 
leemer,  of  a  specimen  of  perfect  holiness  sufferiiig 
the  penally  due  to  the  sinful  race  from  pure  motives  of 
philanthropy  and  piety.  This  sptctacle  st  once  en- 
hances the  majesty  of  law,  puts  sin  lo  the  blush,  and 
'  indies  the  least  spark  of  magnanimity  remaining 
nan's  bosom.  There  have  been  instances  of  simi- 
lar devotion  among  friends  on  earth,  and  these  have 
IS  of  humanity  wherever 
the  unprecedented  self- 
(or  rather  oScuded)  one 
in  behalf  of  guilty  man  (Kom.  v,  7,  8) !  So  far,  then, 
from  the  vicarious  suffering  of  Christ  being  necessary 
to  appease  the  wrath  of  God,  it  is  really  seen  to  bt 
the  highest  exhibition  of  his  love  yearning  fur  some 
plan  of  salvation  (John  iii,  16).  In  point  of 
Dund  that  this  act — as  a  divine  and  not  mere- 
expression  of  sympathy — does  melt  and  sub- 
due the  sinful  soul,  when  il  comes  to  ba  apprehended 
under  the  Spirit's  light  of  conviction,  as  no  denuncia- 
tions of  veugeanca  or  view  of  dsiigemus  consequences 
can  do.  Yet  the  penalty  must  still  be  held  in  reserve 
for  recussnt  and  hardened  cases,  else  the  effect  of  the 
contrast  itself  would  be  destroyed,  and  the  conscience  of 
the  universe  would  be  shocked.  We  conclude,  ihen,  in  a 
last  analysis,  that  the  moral  purpose  and  need  of  the 
death  upon  Calvary  was  for  the  condemnation  of  sin 
and  for  a  crowning  proof  of  divine  inlervention.  In  a 
forensic  point  of  view,  it  was  substitutionil,  if  soiccepi- 
ed  by  tbe  party  for  whose  benefit  it  was  volunteered; 
bat  as  a  remedial  measure,  its  virtue  lies  in  its  power  to 
impress  and  win  and  reform  (John  xii,  3'2).  It  is  thus 
that  the  cross  becomes  the  instramenl  of  a  glorious  re- 
generation (GaLvi.H).  Inothetwords,thctlnalcause 
of  the  sacriflce  of  Christ  is  to  be  sought,  not  so  much  in 
any  prudential  considerations  of  the  divine  government 
or  human  society  as  in  the  essential  nature  of  God  him- 
self and  in  man's  conscience,  which  is  a  copy  uf  God's 
moral  consciousness  Both  these  retguire  a  jirmiliy  for 
the  violation  of  that  law  which  is  written  in  the  consti- 
nmply  as  a  vin- 

againsi:  ine  luiure,  nor  yet  purely  as  a  spectacular  ex- 
hibition of  inBnileandgntuiiouB  compassion,  hut  chief- 
ly and  imperatively  as  a  eatisfaclion  to  the  instinctive 
and  irrepressible  sense  of  ill-desert  which  Ihc  view  of 
sin  excites  in  all  right-minded  beings,  and  to  stamp  it 
with  an  emphatic  rebuke.  This  is  wholly  irrespective 
of  petHoal  interests,  whether  of  resentment,  injury,  or 
pride,  on  the  part  either  of  individuals  or  of  communi- 
ties; it  is  alike,  if  not  equally,  shared  by  the  Crealar 
and  [be  creature,  by  the  innocent  and  the  guilty.  T» 
this  grand  sentiment  all  other  ends  are  subordinate; 

paracively  minor,  although  really  immense,  advantages 
of  amnesty  and  protection  i     *      '         ' 


■tbya 


afntt 


and  inexorable  adherence  to  the  demands  of  everlasting 
righL  The  substitution  of  Jesus,  the  innocent  victim, 
for  the  conscious  culprit  is  indeed  a  device  of  that  love 
which  is  always  fertile  in  resources;  but  it  is  not  in 
evauon  of  justice:  it  is  an  accomplishroenl  of  the  law 
far  more  signilicant  and  eilectual  than  the  peisoiial  an. 
guish  of  the  sinner  himself  can  be;  and  yet  it  leaves 
room  for  the  latter  also  in  the  alternatii'e  of  the  refusal 
of  the  former.  Just  at  this  point,  too,  comes  in  appro- 
priately Ilie  determinative  wci):ht  of  tbe  human  will, 
which  Goil  has  left  free  to  be  cant  into  the  scales  of  des- 
tiny. In  tbe  interval  which  divine  forbearance  ha;i  set 
between  the  sentence  of  the  convict  and  his  execuiiim 
(Eccles.  viii,  II;  Rom.  is, '22;  1  Pel.  iii,  20;  2  Pet.  iii, 
9)  an  ample  pardon  has  been  prorided,  not  hy  "execu- 
tive clemency,"  but  as  a  "receipt  in  full"  from  a  friend- 
ly band,  which  neeib  but  the  gnnlee's  endorsement  to 
make  it  valid.    That  act  on  the  subject's  part  ip  genf 


VICAKS'  COLIEGE  Vl 

nine  petulenae,  includini;  the  individual  ftith  which 
■lone  prerenU  remoree  from  degenenitiiig  into  dupair 
<2  Coi.vii,  10)i  and  tliia  complex  sui«  of  the  khiI— a 

*ngeudereil  by  the  proper  appreliension,  under  the  light 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  of  a  jiut  but  releiittesa  doom,  vica- 
rioiulf  but  fully  endured,  la  the  Croaa  theae  demand* 
(U  meet  and  barmoniic 

Vlcara'  College  ii  the  house  of  n«denee  of  those 
membera  of  a  cathedral  corporation  who  do  not  belong 
u>  ihe  chapter.    Anciently  auch  a  buikling  waa  prob- 

the  collegiate  life  wai  everywhere  maiulained  in  Eng- 
land, and  at  Uerefurd  w  late  as  18S8. 

Vicars,  JniiN,  an  English  Presbyterian  minister  and 
violent  writer  on  religious  and  political  subjects,  was 
born  in  London  in  1M<2.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital,  Loudon,  and  Queen's  College,  Oxford;  and  was, 
during  the  greater  part  »r  his  life,  usher  of  Christ's  llus- 
pital.  He  died  in  1652.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
following  works,  among  others:  Proipeciirt  GIoh  to 
LoaHnloHeiitvn{Loai.iei8,Ho)\—Eagl<mit'$llaadii- 
>aA(I63l,4to): — Irhoca/t  Jtrth,  God  in  lie  Mount ;  ar 
Eagtamtt  Remmibranrtr  (leil-M,  4to):  — ffoJs  Ark 
Omioppias  lit  WorWa  Watf  ( 1646)  -.^Frod^ia  and 
Apparkionn—Ea^aadt  WortlHti  (1647). 

Vice  (VicCIUS),  FBIEtiB1CH,B  Lutheran  theolngiui, 
was  born  SepL  9, 1639,  at  Brealau.  in  Silesia.  He  stud- 
ied at  Wittenberg,  and  was  permilled  to  lecture  there. 
In  1668  he  was  appointed  co-rector  at  Sl  Maiy  Msgda- 
lene's  in  his  native  place:  in  1666  he  was  made  dea- 
con of  Ijt.  Elisabeth's ;  in  1667  professor  of  the  Elisabe- 
tbanumianddlMlJan.  27,1697,18  pastnrofSt-Eliabeth's 
and  inspector  of  the  evaugelical  churches  and  schools. 
He  wrote.  IHatrt.di  Ui-imelTliammbm—DtPracomo 
Jotfphi  .Effspliaeo: — DeAnliquilatiHiiiraicalJngaa: 
— Duitrll.  iiiiquol  ad  Cap.  li  Ctncatof.  See  Pantke, 
Puilorri  dtr  Kirche  zu  SI.  EUiabelh  in  Brettlau ,-  id. 
Paslora  la  Sl.  Unria  MagdaUne  ingltkliea  Prapntili 
and  Ecclfiiiuta!  Jocha.Allgmuina  Giltlirtm-Lex,  s.  v. ; 
FUrst,  Bibl.  Jad.  iii,  47S ;  Steinschneider,  bibiiog.  Uaitd- 
WA,  8.V.     (ttP.) 

Vice  is  a  chronic  and  habitual  tranagressioo  of  the 
moral  law.  as  distinguished  from  those  transgressions 
which  result  ttoai  momentary  tempuition.  It  is  a  phase 
of  sin  (q.v.),  and  the  remarks  there  made  are  applica- 
ble here.  Vice,  like  every  other  habit,  is  the  product 
of  repealed  acts,  and,  as  the  vicious  habit  strengthens, 
the  mind  of  iu  victim  becomes  lees  and  leas  conscious 
of  the  evil  of  which  it  is  the  slave,  until  sin  is  commit- 
ted almost  without  knowing  it.  The  hatefulneaa  of  vice 
both  lo  Gort  and  man  is  shown  in  the  whole  of  God's 
moral  government  in  the  world.  Even  in  this  world 
vice  is  fotedoooied  by  the  unmistakable  judgment  of 
God,  and  [he  human  agents  of  the  sentence,  although 
they  be  themselves  under  umilar  condemnation,  allow 
the  law  lobejusL  Eitalled  virtue  secures  the  admira- 
tion of  even  the  worthless,  and  vice,  when  punished,  is 
as  univeraallv  scknowledgeil  by  both  good  and  bad  to 
have  met  with  iu  deserts.    Societies  for  Ihe  suppres- 


which  are  prevalent  and  most  flagrant. 

The  greater  hopelewnese  of  vice  than  mere  sin  very 
clearly  bespeaks  the  wrath  of  (tod.  The  evil  conse- 
quences of  youthful  folly  may  be  lightly  thought  of  for 
a  time,  but  they  leinaiii  aa  a  root  of  biuemeaa  (o  mar 
the  peacefulness  of  more  mature  yeais.  Even  an  im- 
prutlent  choice  of  vicious  companions  will  often 


h  thesi 


ofdoTI 


right  vioous  action.  It  has  been  decreed  that  v 
and  everything  that  directly  or  indirectly  belongs  to 
unpunished;  anditsewapefromci 


2  VICELINUS 

hopeleas.  The  Scriptures  are  ver)-  positive  in  their  de- 
nunciations of  vice  (see  Ueb.  ii,  1-3 1  iii,7-19;  iv,  UI3; 
vi,4,6;  Rom.  1,29-32). 

Vlce-chsncelloT  is  the  officer  chief  in  ■uthorily 
in  a  miiversity;  usually  one  of  the  heads  of  colltgn, 
who  is  selected  from  time  lo  time  to  manage  the  gor- 
emment  of  the  same  in  the  absence  of  the  chantelloi. 

Vlce-deAn  is  an  officer  appointol  by  the  chajKet 


^Jral,  or  i 


Hei 


Idea 


acts  ss  the  locum-teiieiia  of  Ihe  dean,  and  is  reganled 
as  a  patfrfaiailias.  He  usually  sits  in  the  hmiIi-wfs 
stall,  although  that  is  properly  appropriated  to  the  bel>- 
domadary  or  canon  in  residence.  In  some  luliaa  anJ 
Spanish  foundations  he  is  called  prr/ecf  oflkt  dtair. 

VicA-domlnl  (in  pWeo/fAemMtr)  is  ■  term  ap- 
plied lo  certain  ecclesiastical  officers,  often  called  taidl« 
or  bailijftt  appointed  about  the  Sth  century  from  lb; 


r  of  li 


It  the 


'rongB.  Their  work  was  of  such  a  chu- 
acter  tnat  it  could  not  properly  be  peifomed  hv  «tlf- 
siastics.    See  Neander, /Twr-q/'fAc  CA»rc4,iii,  101.   Sm 

Vlce-legata  is  an  officer  of  the  court  of  Rome  wka 
acta  as  spiritual  and  temporal  governor  iu  cerlaiu  ditn 
where  no  legate  or  oanlinal  resides. 

VicellnUH,  St.,  the  apostle  of  HolMein,  wu  a  ds- 
tive  of  Quemhelm,  on  the  Weaer.  His  euly  eduotiM 
was  directed  by  the  clergy  of  Ihat  place ;  after  che  desili 
of  his  parents  and  the  loss  of  his  inheritance  he  bKsmc 
the  charge  of  the  lady  of  Everstein;  and  ultimsirii. 
having  been  taunted  by  the  priest  of  the  caoUe  w  ac- 
count of  hb  illiteracy,  he  entered  himself  at  the  tloM- 
tshing  school  of  Paderbotn,  and  rapidly  became  noltd 
for  the  eneigy  and  auoceas  with  which  he  purRwd  bii 
studies.  After  a  time  he  became  principal  of  the  schml 
Bt  Bremen,  and  adminislered  its  affairs  with  great  ctolii 
and  success;  but  his  craving  for  knowledigc  was  wch 
that  he  soon  resigned  his  place  and  went,  accompanisd 
by  his  fsvorite  pupil  Thetmar,  lo  Paris,  wher*  Ihey  w 
at  Ihe  feet  of  Rudolph  and  Anselm  (q.  v.),  and  acqund 
a  correct  understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptum  (Ddif 
practical  Christianity.  After  his  return  to  his  home  he 
declined  the  office  of  cannii  at  Bremen,  and  went  t« 
Magdeburg  lo  prepare  himself  for  the  work  of  a  v»- 
sionary  lo  the  heilhen.  He  was  omsecraled  priest  <ir 
archbuhup  Nonbert  of  Magdeburg,  and  commisaomd 
by  archbishop  Adalbert  II  of  Bremen  lo  labor  amoi^ 
the  Slavs,  and  at  once  peiitioned  Henry,  the  poweifil 
king  of  the  Obotrites,  to  allow  Ihe  preaching  of  ibt 
Gospel  among  hia  subjecis. 

The  Obolriitt  (frequently  written  Abodriia)  were  ■ 
branch  of  the  sUick  of  Wends  or  North  German  Slan. 
They  were  coarse,  cruel,  false,  and  indolent,  but  gi\» 
to  hospitality  iDwarda  strangers.     Their  priests  hsM 

leading  influence  over  public  aflairs,  beside*  having  ei- 
dusive  possession  of  what  little  scientilic  ijifimiutMs 
waa  extant  among  them.  Their  numerous  gods— <f 
whom  Siranteirid  or  Svatimd,  the  four-headed  via«, 
/Vorr,  the  god  of  justice,  and  Radegait  were  mosiprDoi- 

god  of  heaven,  and  administered  their  offices  in  bu 
name.  The  Obotrites  Srst  became  aojuaiaied  wiib 
Christianity  in  the  beginning  of  the  9th  cvntuiy,  whes 
they  allied  themselves  wilh  Charlemagne  in  his  «m 
against  the  Saxons.  They  were  defeated  iu  9il  K 
Lenzen,  in  a  bloody  battle,  by  Ileur>- 1.  made  tributoiT 
to  the  German  realm,  and  pledged  to  receive  Christian- 
ity. Fora  time  encouraging  progress  was  made  in  cno- 
verting  them  to  the  new  religion;  bui  when  the  Un- 
man emperors  empowered  Ihe  dukes  of  .Saxony  to  gov- 
ern the  Wendish  iribes.  and  impoeis  and  uxes  were 
consequently  increased,  a  feeling  of  discontent  anw 
which  the  heathen  priests  were  able  to  iuiensiiy  uotd 


VICENTINO 

il  became  open  rebellion,  ■nd  ■  contest  begui  b< 

»  huDdred  and  bfty  yean.    In  the  lui  quanei 

llih  centuiy  the  Chrutiao  pan  of  Ehe  populatLuD  was 

whoUj  Biibdued,  and  the  euuntry  was  altogethi 

oui  Chriitian  influences  antil  Henry  Mixed  the  chioiie 

opponetiu.  Tbis  prince  endearored  to  icciutom  b'u 
■ubjecta  to  Che  labor  of  culliratiug  the  aoil,  and  to  re- 
inlruluce  Oiriuianity  among  them ;  and  the  applica- 
tion of  Vieelinua  and  his  companiona  for  permiiuan  id 
pMacb  the  Gimpel  wat  acourdinglj  receivnl  with  favor, 
and  a  church  at  Lubecli  turned  orer  to  them  for  ui 
Henry's  death,  in  11!£,  deatroyed  the  proapecc  ofnu 
cessful  miaaionary  labor,  honevei,  by  inaugurating 
bitter  internal  war  in  the  kingdom,  and  Vicelinua  w 
fibliged  la  return  to  Bremen.  An  opponunity  lo  eaial 
liah  himself  at  Faldera  (now  Neumunaler,  in  Holatein) 
soon  afterwards  occuTTed,  which  enabled  VicelinuB  to  n 
turn  lo  the  bortlen  of  the  SUvs;  and  from  this  pU< 
aa  ■  centre  he  was  able  to  carry  the  Goapel  in  ever 
direction  during  many  years,  and  with  a  measure  c 

■•siauiiice.  An  anociation  of  celibate  bymen  and  eler- 
gynMO  was  also  formcil  for  pioui  purpose 
tribnted  malerially  towards  the  extension  of  Chrialian- 
it]'.  In  1134  the  emperor  Lothaire  eatabiiahed  the  fort- 
leaa  of  Segebun;  for  the  protection  of  the 
vhioh  Ticehnug  labored,  and  iu  titne  ■  church 
aalery  grew  np  in  ita  vicinity,  which  were  placed  under 
hia  care;  and  as  the  Churcb 
trusted  to  bia  guidance,  he  naturally  became  the  head 
of  the  entire  missionary  work  among  the 
of  his  dnl  ondertakingi  now  was  the  plai 
Btoiuu}'  training-achools  in  both  Segeburg  snd  Lubeck. 
The  death  of  the  empecur,  in  1 137,  inlerrupUd  the  [ 
Tf«  uf  Christianity  amniiK  the  Slavs,  and  once  i 
Vicelinua  saw  the  dera>taii>'iia  of  war  sweep  awaj 
rcniltsuf  the  labors  of  many  yean.  CountAdolphi 
Holslein  llnally  subdued  the  reatless  population,  an 
stored  the  furmer  condiUon  of  things.  In  1 149  Vice- 
linua was  consecrated  bishop  of  Aldenburg;  but  afwr  a 
few  years  of  toil  in  that  oAke,  rendered  difficult  by  the 
ezaction*  of  bia  auperior,  the  arcbbisbop  Harlwig  of 
B^emeI^  on  Che  one  hand,  and  of  duke  Henry  the  Lion, 
tbe  aovereign  of  the  country,  on  the  other,  he  suffered 
■  alnilieof  paralyiiiin  llfil  which  deprived  him  of  the 
ability  lo  travel  and  uf  tbe  power  of  speech.  He  died 
Dec  IS,  IIM. 

Z,if«-Hrtre.-HeImold,CA™Biet»iS/nTOr«m(toll70)i 
Adami  Bremens. Cetfn  Hamburg. Keel, Ponlific.,ed.hMp- 
peiibetg.  in  Pens,  J/muin.  voL  vii,  Script/,;  Siumia 
Gram<nalidHi1.DaBUaI.ibHXVl!CnnU,.Vein>polii 
and  Wamdalia ;  Gcrken,  t'erwcA  in  d.  allalea  descA.  d. 
SUitat  im  DfulicU.  (Leips.  1T7I);  Gebhsrd,  GrieA.  d. 
Slavai  V.  Ifmfai  (HaUe,  1790-97,  4  vol*.  4l.>) ;  also  in 
Wtll-Hulorit,\n\.  xxKiii-xxxvi;  Fimk,  A  Ita  a.  neua 
JI/iCjUaiiiir7(Leipa.l763-&8);  Kadlotr, Pragmat. Hundb. 
iLmtcUtmb,  GiieM.  (1-80,2  voU.;  id  ed.  18-2-2);  Heffler, 
WttlkumpftL  ItrnUthm  «.SUmn  (Hamb.  1847);  Lap- 
penbe^,  Oit  Jtuchaje  r.  AldmbHrg,  in  Pettz,  .irchicf. 
altert  dniKkt  Uudiicktikundr,  ix,  884-395 ;  Kruse,  /-<!- 
km  d,keU.\'Krlvi{\»2»);  Vfiggen,  Kifcimgeici.  Meci- 
InAurgt  (1810);  Neandcr,  A'lrcArn^n-il.  V,  1;  Mooyer, 
I  «ra*ir*™.  tl.diaUcltm  BinAife  (Minden,  1854).— Her- 

SOg,  RtnUt'RCt/Uop.  ■■  V. 

VlcentiDO,Audre8,an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Venice  in  Ija9.     He  was  a  scholar  of  the  elder  I'ar- 
'iilluwed  liis  ntyle.     He  was  a  great  plagiari*!. 


tion.  He  died  in  1614.  SteSpooiKr,Biog. /iul,o/llit 
Fine  A  rU,  «.  v, 

Vlo«Dtlno,  Maroo,  a  Venetian  painter,  son  and 
pupil  of  Andrea,  practiced  his  art  at  Venice  with  con- 
uderable  reputation,  and  executed  many  works  fur  the 
churches  and  for  the  collectians.  Hia  fame,  however,  ia 
derived  more  from  hia  father's  name  than  from  his  own 
works.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  //id.  o/Ike  fine  A  rfi,  s.  v. 

Vlce-reotor  is  the  second  in  authority  to  the  rec- 
tor, governor,  master,  or  ruler  of  a  coUege. 

Vlce-««OilBtan  is  a  sacristan  (q.  v.)  or  kxiou  uf 


o  acts  during  1 1 


Vfcl,  Andrea  del,  an  Italian  architect,  was  bum 
at  ArcBvia,  in  the  Harca  d'Ancona,  in  1744.     He  was 

painting  under  Stefano  Pozzi,  and  aichitectute  under 
Carlo  Hurena,  but  he  decided  to  follow  the  latter  as  a 
profesBion.  la  1780  the  court  of  Tuscany  appointed 
him  hydraulic  architect  and  engineer  fur  the  Val  di 
Chiana,  and  in  1787  he  was  employed  in  a  umilar  ca- 
pacity by  tbe  papal  government  in  the  work  of  drain- 
ing the  Pontine  marshea,  and  preventing  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Teppia.  In  1810  he  erected  tbe  embankment 
to  support  the  left  bank  of  tbe  Teverone,  His  archi- 
tectural works  are  considerable  in  nnniber  and  im|>or- 
tance.  He  was  architect  to  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany 
and  built,  among  others,  the  Palazzo  Lapii  at  Bevsgna: 
tbe  Church  and  Honasteiy  delle  Saleeiane  at  Offagna ; 
the  seminary  at  Oaitno;  tbe  Church  of  S.  Francesco  at 
Foligno;  Che  Capella  Goizoli  alTemi;  the  villa  and 
casini  at  Monte  Gallo:  and  the  superb  cacbediai  at  Cla- 
mariiio.  He  died  Sept.  10, 1817.  See  Spooner,  Biag. 
HiH.  of  the  Fim  A  rli,  s.  v. 

Vlok,  J.  O..  an  English  Congregstional  minister, 
was  bom  at  Emswotth,  Nov.  11, 1803,  and  died  June  7, 
1862.  He  was  occupied  in  business  nearly  Che  whole 
of  his  life,  buc  frequencly  was  engaged  in  preaching, 
and  for  several  yean  labored  accepcably  as  pastor  of 
the  Church  in  Waterloo,  Portsmouth.  See  (Lend.)  Cong. 
Year-boat,  1863.  p.  270. 

Vlck,irewat,a  Methodist  Episcopal  minigler,waa 
bum  ill  Southampton  Oniniy,  Vs.,  Uarch  17. 1766.    He 
began  preaching  in  1788;  entCTcd  the  Virginia  Confer- 
'~9I;  removed  to  North  Caro- 
ls later  to  Hi  ssia^ppi,  where 
he  laiwred   until  his  decease,  near  Vic)ishurg..^ue.  5, 
1819.     See  Spragiie,  Atmah  of  A  laer.  Fulpil,  vii,  iJS. 
"Vlao  (Vigbl.  or  Vlotu),  Enra,  an  eminent  Ital- 
n  engraver  and  medallist,  was  bora  al  Parma  about 
20.     He  studied  under  liiulio  Romano,  and  after 
■rda  went  to  itnme,  wbere  he  entered  the  school  or 
Marc'  Antonio  Raimondi.     He  made  such  progress  that 
ted  to  Florence  by  the  grand-iluke,  Coimu 
engraved  several  plates  after  Michael  An- 
imerous  poilraiis.     From  there  he  went  U> 
Perrars.     On  returning  to  Parma  in  lEiM, 
he  engraved  and  published  the  medals  of  gold  and  sil- 
tthe  twelve  Ccsan  with  explanations.     In  1&6& 
Lbliahed  at  Venice  his  Diiconi  lepra  Ir  Mrdoiilie, 


lie 


Hia 


butm 


h  gondii 


iudgmcn 


Hewa 

found  abundant  employment  in  painting  for  Ihe  church. 
M  and  public  edifices  of  Venice  and  other  cities  of  that 
.-vpublie,  and  even  beyond  iu  bounds.  His  best  pici- 
niea  are  preserved  in  Ihe  coileciiuiis,  among  whicli  is 
bis  a^mrm  A  noialrd  King  nf  tirarl.  in  Ihe  Koyal  <ial- 
k*y  at  Florence,  a  fucture  worthy  of  great  commeiida- 


last  work,  Imagim  delle  Voime  A  ugui 

"  nice  in  1557.     He  died  about  1570.     Among  hia 
may  be  mentioned  the  Cmrmum  •>/ Hi.  I'utd, 
aAer  F.  Salviati;   the  EmonAing  of  Chnii,  tftet  Ra- 

'^iog.  Hitt.  of  the  Fine  A  lit.  s.  v. 

Victor  (Ike  conqufor).  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a 

mame  of  Jupifrr,  often  appearing  upon  tablets. 

Victor  (also  Ctji-i>iL«  SI.vrh's  Victor  and  Vic* 
)RiNiis)  was  a  poet  and  orator  of  Mareeillea,  who  lived 

the  former  half  of  the  5th  century,  and  wrote  in  hex- 
neter  vene  a  Commttil.  ia  6'cwnn  and  an  Kjiitlalu  at. 


VICTOR  r 

Sotomon.  Abbot,  dt  Pmtriit  ma  jElalii  .Vbriftui.    Sm 
Mar.  BM.  etc  viii,  418. 

Victor,  St.  Tbe  lists  of  mutyra  and  uinli  in  lh« 
Komin  Calhulic  Churcb  include  an  eiLenit«l  aenes  or 
(wrsona^ces  nimed  Victok,  conceraiiig  whom  see  ttui- 
J'tihrl.  UeU.-l^xilaia  uid  the  »cconip«nying  KaUndir 
(Colugne  ud  Frinkfon,  1719),  p.  3262-2271.  See  Her- 
zof;;,  KritUEaofidop.  a.  r. 

Victor  OK  AntiocH  wju  ■  bishop  conMmporarv 
witli  Chrysostom  (aboul  A.D.  400)  who  vraW  ■  com- 
meaury  on  Ihe  Gospel  of  Mirk,  in  which  he  defended 
the  view  entertained  by  ihe  Church  of  his  day  that, 
with  refvrenee  to  fasti  tig.  Christians  hare  entire  libertv 
of  action.  1'he  commentarv  is  K>ven  in  Uax.  BibL  Vrl. 
Palru-H  (Ugd,  1677).  iv,  870. 

Victor  OP  Capua  was  a  bisbup  in  the  fortner  half 
of  the  6th  century  (died  about  544).  He  ranks  as  Ihe 
earliest  Latin  catenator,  and  wrote  Df  Ci/cio  Piuckali, 
fngmentit  of  which  work  are  contained  in  Bede,  and  a 
Scholia  I'ti.  Palrum.  He  also  prepared  a  Latin  rersinn 
of  AmnMn.  Alenandriniu's  Uarmong  of  l/ie  Goipeh 
{Harm.  fcinyfL  AmnL  Ahxandr.  etc  [Col.  16S2]). 

Victor  OF  Cartknna  was  a  bishop  in  the  6tb 
century  wbo  wrote  AdrerMai  Ariamn  ad  Gaurric., 
Vandal.  Rrgem:  —  Dt  Pamltatia  Publicn :  —  Epittola 
Cotuolaloria  ad  Baiil.: — and  Mveral  huroilies.  Hia 
writings  are  now  extant  only  in  parL 

Victor  OF  CAHiiiAQE,  a  Irisbap  A.D.  046,  is  kiKiwn 
only  through  a  letter  addressed  to  pope  Theodore  I,  in 
which  he  innoimced  hia  elevation  to  the  episcopal  chair 
and  accepted  the  doctrine  of  two  wills  in  CbrisL 

Victor  OP  TusuNA  was  ■  bishop  who  died 
A.D.  566.  He  was  one  of  the  defenders  of  the  so-called 
Thi'f  Chapttri  (q.  v.),  snd  was  imprisoned  . 
ed  liecause  of  bis  reuntance  in  opposing 
edict  in  condemnation  of  the  cliaplers.  tie  composed 
a  Chionicoa  a*  Orbt  Cotufito,  of  which  the  part  extend- 
iii);  from  A.D.  444  to  465  is  still  ext■n^  .See  Thaasr. 
J'rmp.  Kuaclai  Pamphili^  opera  et  studio  J.  J.  Scaligeri 
(Anut.  l6o«),  ii,  I  *}.;  Tirtqur.  MoKum.  Eccla.  sic 
Heariei  Vaaiiii  Ltdiotia  A  nliqiia,  ed.  Basnage  (Ant) 
1725),  i,  S2I  sq. 

Victor  OF  Vita  ( I'itmtii,  not  bishop  of  Ulica,  s 
is  often  staled)  was  ■  bishop  who  lived  in  the  lattc 
half  of  the  Sth  century.  In  A.D.  487  he  wrote  ■  /fuf. 
Prrircul.  A/ric.  «i4  Oautrico  rl  Hormeriai  I'andal.  Rr- 
9t6ui,which  is  given  in  Ruinart,  llil.  Ptrimtt.  Vandal. 
<T'aris,l694;  Venice,l732).  See  also  Papencordt,  CescA, 
d.  rajviaL  Hemchajl  in  A/rUca  (Beri.  1887),  p.  66  sq. 
Il3sq..  2G9sq. 

Victor  I,  pope  from  185  to  197,  or  Train  187  tt 
about  200,  was  an  African  by  birth  and  a  hot-t>looded 
character.  He  is  noted  for  the  part  be  look  in  the  d 
pute  with  the  Qnanodecimaniana  of  Asia  Minor  abc 
the  observance  of  Easter.  He  wrote  «  letter  to  Poll 
rales  nf  Kpheaus  demanding  that  he  should  cunform 
the  Occidental  nde  respecting  Easter,  on  pain  of  e 

declined,  he  severed  ecclesiastical  reUtinns  with  tl 
bishop  and  the  churches  of  Amb  Minor  by  which  Pnlj 
rates  was  supported.  The  oppowiion  of  many  WesM 
ecclesisstiCK  lo  such  measures,  however,  compelled  Tici 
to  recede  from  hie  arbitrary  posi  ' 


LS  the   prei 


Western  theory  of  Easter.  See  Easter  Costikh"hk- 
8IKS.  Victor  participated  also  in  the  beginnings  of  tht 
Monarchian  controversy  by  expelling  from  the  Church 
the  Dvnamisiic  Monarchian  Theodotus  the  Tanner  ( 
oeuTn't),  who  denied  the  deity  of  Christ.  This  «te| 
gave  rise  to  the  sect  of  TheodntianiMs,  which  ex 
isted  for  a  time  in  Rome.  Certain  expressions  asei 
hv  Temdlian  (_Adr,  Praxram,  c.  1:  App,  ml  Ulrr.  dr 
/••■"i-i-ipl.  c.  53 )  would  seem  lo  indicate  that  Vict  " 
is(4.v.)ai 


Bit«  of  the  notions  entertained  by  the  Ebioniiiiig  Dyna- 
mists.    See  Euaebius,  Hul.  Efdt*.  v,  23-28. 

Victor  II,  pope  from  1055  to  1057.  was  a  relative  uf 
the  emperor  Henry  IIL    Mis  name  was  G-Vmrd.  and 

he  was  previously  bishop  of  EichstUt.  Leo  of  iJnia 
(CinHL  <7a«n.  ii,  89}  states  that  the  elevation  uf 
Uebhard  to  the  pontidcate  was  the  work  of  the  DtiDoiu 
Hildebrand.     The  motive  of  that  schemer's  i 


icided  B 


end  of  tt 


iUtlH 


papal  chair  would  seem  tu  bive  been  a  desire  lo  divide 
the  imperial  camp  into  two  oppoaiiig  facliona.  The  u- 
prrimeiit  succeeded  well,  at  least  in  so  far  as  that  Gtb- 
bard  iileHti6ed  himself  with  the  ClutiiaoetuaaD  paitj. 
whose  head  was  Hildehrand.  He  attacked  the  pnc 
tices  of  simony  and  marriage  among  the  priests,  iiaiuiig 
energetic  probibiliotu  and  holding  several  ooundli  is 
France  against  them.  In  1056  he  was  present  at  ibt 
death-bed  of  Henry  HI  in  tierrnany,  and  became  tlK 
guanliaii  of  the  infant  heir  of  that  prince  and  the  cooii- 
selloT  of  his  widow.  He  died  soon  after  bis  return  tJ> 
Italy  in  the  summer  of  1057.  See  Psgi,  Arrnmi'n 
Paparmn  Ram.  i,  5!8  sq.;  Hbfler,  Gack.  d.  drnttdm 
Pdple;  Gfitlrer,  Grrgor.  VII,  i,  560 ;  and  the  Cbinrii 
histories. 

Victor  III,  pope  and  succemor  to  Oregorr  VII. 
waa  a  son  of  Landulph  V,  prince  of  Benevetito.  Hit 
name  was  Dtiidtriu*,  ami  he  had  been  abbot  of  Haru 
Casino.  Chosen  by  Gregorj-,  he  waa  elected  by  th( 
cardinals  to  the  papal  chair  in  1086,  but  refused  to  obry 
their  call.  He  laid  aside  the  papal  insignia  in  sukni 
form  at  Terracina,  and  returned  to  his  monasterv.  but 
in  the  spring  of  1087  was  nevertheless  indntvd  tci  enm 
on  the  high  office  for  which  he  had  been  selected.  Hf 
displayed  much  of  the  energetic  spirit  and  tendmo'  -^ 
his  predecessor.  At  Benavento  he  excommunicated  b» 
rival.  Clement  [II.  and  at  the  same  time  fortHde  sll  ic- 
vestitiire  of  clergymen  by  the  laity,  called  up«  th( 
Italians  to  uiidenahe  a  sort  of  crusaile  against  the  Ssn- 
cens  of  Africa,  and  instructed  all  bishops  and  frd™»- 
tict  to  avoid  all  muciation  with  the  archbishop  H^n 
of  Lyons,  who,  witfa  the  abbot  Richard  of  UaneiUes,  bad 
rebelled  against  his  authority  and  grossly  raalignnl  hk 
person.  While  engaged  in  the  prosecution  of  far-fficti- 
ing  plans,  he  waa  suddenly  cut  down  by  death,  in  Sqi- 
lember,  1087,  after  having  been  the  actual  pnseosot  of 
the  papal  chair  daring  scarcely  half  a  year.  See  Lm 
Ostiens.  Chrm.  Catia.  contin.  a  l^tr.  Diacon.,  bk.  m. 
c  71,  p.  480  sq.;  Muratori,  GticlL  flat,  im  .Vitutakr, 
(Germ.  transL),  vi,  464  sq. 

Victor  IV,  popes.  1.  The  successor  of  Anad««i 
II  (died  1138),  who  was  previously  cardinal  UiTf;orr 
Conti,  but  who,  after  a  reign  of  two  months,  wsi  in- 
duced by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  to  give  place  In  ib» 
more  powerful  Innocent  II  (q.v.;  and  comp.  Peir.  Di- 
acon., in  the  Ckrim.  Cam.  iv,  ISO). 

2,  Antipope  against  Alexander  III-  He  was  pre- 
viously a  carilinal,  l^rfarumuf.  Enthroned  in  1159,  be 
was  recognised  and  protected  by  the  emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossa  and  endorsed  by  the  synods  of  Pa\'ia  is 
llfiOandofLodi  in  1161,  bat  never  equalled  his  rival  is 
ecdesisatical  power  or  in  moral  influence.  He  died  is 
1164  at  Lucca,  and  was  flawed  by  Paschal  IIL  S« 
Von  Raumer;  ffoAeufaHrn.  ii,  123  sig.;  Renter.  Gfdt 
Alfxandrr'M  III  u.  d.  KinJie  :  Zril,  i,  129,  401  sq.^ 
Herzog,  Stal-KmyUop.  s.  v, 

Victoria,  a  Christian  martyr  of  the  Diurlcnan  per. 
secution  (A.D.  284^12),  was  a  native  of  an  inlaiul  i..i.n 
in  Nuniidia.  She  was  one  oTa  band  of  Ctiristians  who 
had  met  in  the  house  of  a  church  reader,  and  tm 
si-iied  and  brought  10  Carthage  to  be  arraigned  befom 
the  tribunal  of  the  proconsuL  Her  father  and  bn<hec 
were  still  pagans;  and  her  brother,  upon  her  ttfuaal  to 
go  with  him,  claimed  that  she  was  tvot  in  her  rijht 
mind.  "This  is  my  mind,"  replied  she,  "and  I  hire 
nut  altered  it."  She  died  in  triumphacit  biih.  Set 
Neander,  HiH.  ■•/lir  Ckunh,  i,  152. 


VICTORINUS  T 

TtctOlIniu,  bi»hop  or  pBTIAU  {PtIaTumBuu), 
1  (own  in  incient  PuinaDia — nnt  or  Pnitien,  ■»  Baro. 
Dim  BUtea— lived  about  A.D.  290,  and  wa>  an  orator 
btfoK  he  became  b  bietaop.  He  waa  of  Greek  eitrao 
lim,  and  was  better  acquaiated  with  Che  tirecian  than 
Ibe  Laliii  toDj^e.  Of  bu  woriu,a  rragoieut,0c  fuiri- 
tn  Huitdi,  was  pnblisbeil  by  Cave  (see  belaw).   Jerome 

boolu  uf  Ibe  Old  TesL,  and  be  is  also  credited  witb  Ibe 
authorship  of  a  commeiitary  on  the  Apocalypee.  He 
died,  accordiDic  U>  the  Ruman  martyrolog;,  a  mutyr'a 
death,  under  Diocletian,  about  303.  See  Dupin,  A'oa- 
tMt  BiU.  da  AmeuTt  Ecdit.  (Paris,  1693),  i,  IM; 
■Care,  ScripMrum  Ecda.  Ili4t.  Lit.  ((ienev.  1693),  p.  "3 
■q.;  Max.  BiU.  VrL  Pair,  etc  (Lugd.  1677  X  roL  Ui, 
where  the  caramniury  oa  the  Apocalypw  occurs, 
p.114  sq.j  Herxog,Stal'Encyklop.t,v. 

Tlctory,  in  Raman  mythology,  was  the  danghiei 
■ot  Pallaa  and  .Styx.  Victory  pecaoniBed  (called  t?  the 
Greeks  Nicir)  was  generally  represented  in  connection 
with  other  deities,  who  cany  her  upon  their  hands: 
'for  instance,  Jupiter,  Uinerra,  Yenos.  She  alao  ap- 
pears with  victors  in  races,  whose  borsa  she  guidea. 
Sbe  is  pictured  at  a  maiden  umilar  to  Himrra,  witb 
wiags,  a  palm-branch,  and  a  wreath.  In  the  accompa- 
nying cut  ahe  appears  bringing  a  saoiBce  to  Minerva. 


Plpira  of  Victory. 


Tlctllolas,  St.  Tradition  makes  bim  to  have  been 
a  aoldier  who  became  a  ChtisHan  and  wished  to  leave 
the  army,  for  which  reason  hewas  condemned  to  under- 
go seTere  tortures,  but  escaped,  Yiecause  the  liclor  who 
bad  him  in  charge  became  blind,  and  the  prisoner's  fet- 
tan  leriiseil  to  hold  him  bound.  After  being  liberated, 
Victricius  became  bishop  of  Kouen  (A.O.  B8U^90),  and 
an  active  missionary.  He  sustained  iatinule  relaiions 
with  Martin  of  Tours  and  Paulinos  of  Nola.  Aboit 
S93  he  visited  England  for  the  purpose  of  restoring 
peace  u>  the  Church,  into  which  the  Pelagian  faction 
had  brought  discord;  but  was  himselfsuipected  oCher- 
es*  aikd  compelled  to  visit  Rome  (403),  in  order  to 
prove  his  orthodoxy.  Pope  Innocent  I  thereupon  gave 
him  a  paper  intended  to  be  a  guide  in  the  administra- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  discipUnc,  and  also  for  the  depart- 
ment of  believers  generally.  He  died,  probably,  in  407 
ot  408,  and  left  a  work,  entitled  Dr  Lau<U  Sonrtorain, 
which  waa  published  by  Leheuf  (Paris,  1T39).  His  day 
is  Aug.  7.— Ilenog,  Rrat-EyKyklop.  a.  v. 

Vlctrlae  ('if  n'cWrrw)  was  a  surname  of  Venus. 

Vlottutls  (represented  by  several  Heb.  and  tit, 
Vords,  which  are  variously  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  ). 
the  necessary  act  of  taking  food  was,  at  a  very  early 


'B  VICTtTALS 

period  of  the  world's  hiatorr,  connected  immediately 
with  religion.  Thus  the  paschal  lamb  and  the  unleav- 
ened bread  spoke  in  pleasing  tones  and  by  striking  em< 
blems,  to  each  succcHive  generadnn,  of  the  great  his- 
torical fact  of  which  they  were  designed  to  be  the  per- 
petual memento.  In  like  manner  the  Lord's  supper 
(I  Oir.  xi,  W),  the  breaking  ofbread  from  house  to  house 
(Acts  ii,  46),  and  the  ayarai,  or  love-feasts— feasu  of 
charity  (Jude  13)— were  all,  especially  the  fiist,  both 
wisely  designed  and  admirably  Stied  to  bring  into  play, 

manity,  iii  maintain  in  everlasting  remembrance  the 
events  which  they  symbolized,  lo  make  eating  and 
drinking  an  act  of  religion,  and  (o  make  religion  a 
pleasure.    See  Aoape;  Passover;  SfprnR. 

1.  The  productions  of  a  country,  at  an  early  period  of 
the  world,  necessarily  determined  its  food.  Palestine 
abounded  with  grain  and  various  kinda  of  vegetables, 
as  well  as  with  animals  of  different  species.  Such,  ac- 
cordiDglv,  in  general,  was  the  sustenance  which  its  in- 
babiUnis  look.     See  CsiuiAua. 

The  use  of  fire,  and  the  siau  of  the  arts  of  life  in  a 
country,  most  alao  have  important  iiiflucuce  on  iu  cook- 
ery ;  in  other  words,  will  go  far  lo  determine  the  slate 
in  which  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth  will  be 


Iftt 


no  mesna  easy,  process  has  lo  be  gone  through.  Skill 
in  preparing  food  is  therefore  held  in  high  repute;  so 
that,  as  in  Homer,  princes  slay  the  cattle,  and  poetiy 
details  the  process  bv  which  the  carcass  is  made  ready 
for  being  eaten  {tliad,  i,  457).     See  Cook. 

Bread  formed  "the  staff  of  life"  lo  the  ancient  He- 
brews even  more  than  lo  ourselves;  but  the  modes  of 
preparing  it  have  been  noticed  under  other  heads.  See 
Breah;  Miu. 

On  a  remarkable  occasion  a  calf,  lender  and  good,  was 
taken,  slain,  dressed  (roasted,  most  probably  [f^n.  xxvii, 
7;  Exoil.xii,g,9;  Judg.  vi,  19;  1  Sam.  ii,  13];  boiling 
was  not  known  till  long  afterwards),  and  set  before  the 
guests,  while  the  entertainer  (Abraham)  respectfully 
stood  at  their  aide,  doubtlena  lo  render  any  desirable 
service.  The  sauce  or  accompaniments  on  this  occasion 
were  butler  and  milk.  From  Uen.  xix,3  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  the  bread  waa  unleavened.    See  Btn-TKR; 

The  cases,  however,  to  which  reference  has  been  made 
were  of  a  special  nature;  and  from  them,  at  well  as  from 
what  is  recorded  touching  Isaac  and  Esau  and  Jacob, 
it  appears  that  flesh  meat  waa  reserved  aa  food  for 


grain,  buiwy,  and  milk  being 


rdlnary  fare.    See 


The  agreeable,  and  perhaps  in  part  the  salubrious, 
qualities  of  salt  were  very  early  known  and  recognised. 
In  Lev.  ii,  18,  it  ia  expressly  enjoined,  "Every  oblation 
of  thy  meat«>ffering  shalt  thou  season  with  salt ;  with 
all  thine  offerings  shalt  thou  offer  salt."    .See  Salt. 

Locusts  were  a  permitted  (Lev.  xi,  33)  and  a  very 
common  food.  At  the  present  day  ihey  are  gathered 
by  the  Bedawin  in  the  beginning  of  April,  and,  being 

large  bags,  arvd.  when  needed,  eaten,  strewed  with  salt 
by  handfuls.    .See  Locl'st. 

or  four-footed  animals  and  birds,  the  lavorite  food 
were  sheep,  goats,  oxen,  and  doves.  There  are  few 
traces  of  the  ealing  offish,  al  least  in  Palestine  (Lev.  xi, 


I  made  between  cc 


i,  5).    In  tl 


1  of  clean  and  uncleai 


r  hath  (Ins  and 

and  scales,  tliev 
'    See  Cattle;  Fish. 


d  those  which  might  not  b 
e  Spencer,  Lrg,  Hit.  i,  6;  D 


VICTUALS  V, 

Ueiuehen,  ,V.  T.  Talm.  p.  79&i  MaimoniclvB,  De  CibU 
Velitu,  ed.  Wtiiaicke  (Lipi  17ft4) ;  Ktinhirdt,  be  COit 
Hrbraoi:  (ViwU  1697).  The  Mouic  lawi  which  regu- 
IaMiI  the  UK  or  animal  tood  may  be  fouiid  in  L^v.  xi 
■nil  Dent.  xir.  The  (^unda  n(  manf  of  theae  regula- 
tiona  TDa.T  Iw  ascenained  with  a  Breater  ot  ku  degree 
oT  probability,  provided  (he  aludeot  ia  well  acquainted 
with  the  mind  and  apirit  ot  Hebrew  aniiquily.  Coii- 
aiderationa  drawn  teoia  idolatrous  uaageti,  regard  to 
health,  Che  runheraiice  of  agriculture,  and  eaUbliahed 
cuatoma  and  lantce,  bad  in  each  case  an  influence  in  the 
pmmnlgation  of  these  lawn.    See  Cleam. 


2.  In  I 


t  earliet 


1  inloKtcaling  tendency  was  drunk  at  a 
Tery  earlv  period  appears  from  what  happened  lo  Noah 
(Gen.  iji.  W),  who  aeema  to  have  made  a>  well  aa  drunk 
win&     Bread  and  wiue  are  apoken  of  in  xir,  18,  aa  of- 
fered fgr  refreshment  to  Abraham  by  Melchlzedek,  king 
of  Salem.     Water  was  sometimes  put  lo  the  wine ;  at 
others  a  atrong  drink  was  made  by  mixing  with  the 
wine  animalicherba(Paa.liiv,9;  laa.  r,  23),  or  a  de- 
coction derived  from  Ihem;  myirh  was  UMd  far  thia 
purpoae.    Dale  wine  waa  in  nae,  and  probably  the  Egyp- 
tian or  malt  wine,  COSoc,  olvof  xplSivos  (Herod,  ii,  77). 
Jerome  {Opp.  ir,  864,  ed.  Bencd.)  aaya  that  "  drink  call- 
ed licrra  by  the  Hebrewa  (131C)  is  every  kind  which 
can  inebriate,  or  that  which  i>  made  from  grain,  or  of 
the  juice  of  apples,  ot  when  the  boney-comb  >■  made 
(rfwoyMUBWr)  into  a  sweet  and  barbarou*  beverage,  or 
the  fruit  of  the  palm  expressed  into  a  liquor,  and  when 
water  recdvea  a  color  and  a  con- 
aistency    from    prepared    herbt." 
The  common  people  (Marit  lii,  37) 
drank  an  acrid  son  of  wine,  which 
ia  rendered  vinegar  in  our  English 
veraion  (Rutb  ii,  H;  MatL  xxvii, 
48).      The    Orientata   trequently 


6  VICTUALS 

repast  being  taken  before  noon  (Adam,  Rom.  Anliq,  p. 
3T7.ed.Uajar;  Putter,  ii,SV&',  Chardin,  iv;  Jafao,  i,  1). 
But  from  Uen.  xliii,  IS,  ib,  it  appears  lo  have  been  the 
custom  to  dine  at  noon  in  the  daya  of  the  pairiaichi. 
The  same  seems  to  have  been  the  cue  in  Palestine  ai  a 
laler  period  (1  Kings  xi,  16;  cump.  Luke  xi.  37;  Acu 
X,  10).  Convtvialitjes,  however,  were  poMponed  till 
evening,  and  sometimes  protracted  to  the  foUowine 
morning  (Isa.v,  11;  Mark  vi,  21 ;  Luke  xiv,  24).  See 
Ba-j4L-kt.  The  meal  was  preceded  by  washing  if 
hands  (Mark  vii,  2;  Luke  xi,  38),  which  the  mode  »f 
eating  rendered  necctsary,  and  by  an  invocation  of  the 
divine  blessing  (1  Sam.  ix,  13),  termed  in  Samuel  r!:~^ 
and  in  Greek  luXoyia  fiiX''piaTia,  blessing,  giving  tf 
thanks  (Luke  ix,  16;  John  vi,  11).  Similar  cuMOdu 
prevailed  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans^  Jahn  iBM. 
A  nlig.  p.  68)  has  given  the  short  praver,  as  preserved  ift 
the  1'almud,  which  the  Jews  used,  as  follows :  "  Blesaed 
be  thou.  O  Lord  our  God,  king  of  the  world,  who  has 
produced  this  food  (or  thia  driuk)  from  the  earth  (or  lb« 
vine)"  (Matt.  xiT,  19  ;xv,36;  xxvi,S7>.    .<^HLJlt. 

4.  The  Hebrews,  like  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  tbeit 
earlier  history  I  ate  utting  (Gen.  xxvii,  19;  Judg.  <[ii.fi; 
I  Sam.  XX,  25).     A  carpet  was  spread,  on  which  (he 

ulsrly  when  Palestine  came  under  the  influence  of  Ro- 
man mannen,  the  Jews  reclined  on  cushions  or  couches 
(Eslb.  i.  6;  Amos  vi,  4;  Luke  vii,  87 ;  iv,iA,2^  iM 
"sat,"  as  in  the  common  translation,  but  " redined"). 
See  AccuoATioK.    The  cuBt4>m  of  giving  prefeteuM  in 


drawn  niany  striking  Hgures  in 
Holy  Writ  (DeuUxxx(i,42;  Psa. 
lxxviii,B6;  Isa.  r,  It ;  xxviii,  1; 
xlix,26;  JeT.viii,I4;  ix,  14;  xvi, 
18).  That  indulgence  in  wine  was 
practiced  in  very  ancient  daya  is 
manifest  froni  there  being  in  tbe 
court  of  Pharaoh,  at  the  time  of 

charge  of  the  wine,  and  served  the 

mnnsrch  with  it  when  he  drank  (Gen.  xl,l,lt ;  comp.  1 

Kings  x,b;  2Chron.ix,4;  Neh.i,ll).     See  Wink. 

For  drinking-vessels  there  were  used  the  cup  and  the 
DOwKExod.  xxv,38;  Numb,  vii,  IS,  84;  Jer.  xxxv.fi; 
Amos  vi,  6).  The  cup  was  generally  of  brass  eovereil 
with  tin,  in  form  resembling  a  lily,  sometimes  circular. 
It  is  still  used  by  travellers,  and  may  be  seen  in  both 
Bhapes  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  (I  Kings  vii,  26).  The 
bowl  (Exod.  iiv,33)  assumed  a  variety  of  shapes,  and 
bears  many  names.  Some  of  these  "chargers"  appear, 
from  the  presents  made  by  the  princes  of  Israel  (Numb, 
vii),  to  have  been  of  large  size  and  great  splendor ;  some 
were  «lver,  some  gold  (1  Kings  x,  21).    See  Cur,  etc. 

S.  InEaa(emclimesthechiefmeal,or  what  we  term 
dinner,  ia,  in  consequence  of  the  heat  of  the  middle  pe- 
lted of  the  day,  deferred  till  towards  evening,  a  slight 


AudenU  Reclining 


(Table. 


Wiue-cnpa.    (From  PereepollsJ 


ptunt  of  sest  or  pontion  (n  guests  of  high  considentiott 
appears,  from  1  Sam.  ix,  32,  to  have  been  of  ancien(  data 
(Amos  iii,  12).  In  the  time  of  Christ  (Luke  liv.  8)  (be 
Pharisees,  always  eager  for  distinction,  coveted  the  plan 
of  honor  at  meals  and  fcasta.  Women  were  not  adnui- 
(ed  to  eal  with  the  men,  but  had  their  meals  suppKtd 
in  their  own  private  apartment  (Eslh.  i,  6-9).  In  [bb- 
ylon  and  Perna,  however,  females  mingled  with  ntaka 
on  festive  occasions  (Dan.  v,  3).  In  general  (he  man- 
ner of  eating  waa  similar  to  what  it  is  in  tbe  East  si 
tbe  present  day.  Special  care  was  taken  of  favoted 
persons  (Gen.  xliii,  84 ;  1  Sam.  i.  4 ;  ix.  33 :  John  liii. 
26).  Neither  knives,  fiirka,  nor  uponns  were  enplond 
for  eating.  The  food  was  conveyed  fmm  the  diah  !»• 
the  mouth  by  the  right  hand.  The  panics  sat  with 
their  legs  bent  under  them  round  a  dish  placed  in  the 
centre,  and  either  (ook  tbe  flesh  neat  with  th«r  Goftn 
from  the  dish,  or  dipped  bits  of  their  bread  inio  the  ■- 
vory  mess  and  conveved  them  to  their  mouths,  la 
Ruth  ii,14.  Boazsars'to  Kulh,''Dip  thy  mur»el  in  the 
vinegar,"  which  explains  the  language  of  our  LonJ.  in 
John  xiit,  26,  "Heit  is  to  whom  I  shall  give  a  sop  wbes 
......    .-        .....     This  presenting  of  food  ti- 


head  of  the  family  for  (he  purpose.     Drink  w 


le  guests  in  cups  or  gobletr,  ai 


Ytrr  aiKieiit  period,  in  >  Mpante  cup  In  each  pennn. 
Hfoct  Ibt  word  cop  u  lued  •»  equirilciit  to  wh«t  wB 
umi  m  iaui'>tat  or  degday  (Paa.  xi,  6 ;  luv,Si  Iia.  U, 
H;  MMt.  xxvi,  89).      See   Diir;   EiTiso ;    Food; 

Vloita,  Hkxbicub,  ■  Ronun  Catbolic  theologian 
anil  philosopher,  «u  bom  in  1536  M  Valencienius,  and 
died  in  Hie  at  Armeniien.  in  Flanden.  lie  oroM, 
Dt  Chritlianorum  SucranKMoram  Nalura,  Ofiaii.  li 
.Vii«*ro.— Z»e  Dtioauu  Chriili  ad  Infijfat:^De  Com- 
mniime  tianctoram,  etc  Sfe  Swenii  A  Ihcna  Belgiea ; 
Andr«e  liSiioi)uca  BHgiai^  3(it:\m,  AUgiaima  Ge- 
lehnofLtriiym,  K  V.     (B.  P.) 

Vlda,  Habcx)  GIROI.AMO,  an  Italian  poet  and  prieac 
of  the  Boisan  Churcb,  wai  born  at  Cnmuna  about  11H5. 
He  studied  at  Padiu  and  Bologna,  and  joined  the  Order 
ur  [he  Caooua  of  St.  Utik  at  Muitua.  He  aiteiwaida 
became  ranao  of  St.  John  Lalerau  at  Rome,  and  prior 
-of  San  Silvealro  at  FraKati,  and  in  1532  biahopor Alba. 
He  Has  a  learned  acholar,  and  one  of  the  beat  Lalin 
hit  day.     He  ¥m)le  in  Italian 


Ucin. 


e  D* 


tr  PoelvTx  (Rome,  1627)  -.—ChrUtiiu  ,■— and  Scacekia 
Ladm.    All  of  these  have  been  tiwulated  into  English. 
Tida  died  al  Alba,  Sepc  27, 1666. 
Vldal,  Diego  (oaUed  tht  Eldtr). 


He  u 


artist.  He  waa  a  prebendary  of  the  Cathedral  or  Sev- 
ille, and  painted  there  a  nalied  Chrul,  and  the  rtr^in 
leilh  Ikt  Injimt  in  Jter  Amu.  His  drawing  are  also 
•poken  of  in  terma  of  commendation.  He  died  at  Sev- 
ille in  1615.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  HiH.a/lhe  Fiat  Am, 

Vidal  (DK  LiB!<Do),  Diego  (called  rAe  rounper),  a 
Spanish  painter,  nephew  of  Diego  the  elder,  iru  bom 
at  Valmaseda  in  160-J.  Be  studied  theology  and  paint- 
ing at  Rome,  and  was  canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Seville. 
There  arc  wme  of  his  works  in  the  sacristr  of  tbe  Ca- 
thedral of  Valencia,  which  evince  considerable  skiU. 
He  died  at  Seville  in  1648.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  HUt. 
Bfike  Fint  .\rlj,,t.v. 

Vldal.  Dtoniaio,  a  Spanish  painter,  was  bom  at 
Valencia  about  I67D.     He  studied  under  Antonio  Palo- 

mumeil  to  Valencia  and  was  employed  to  paint  the 
ceiling  of  ihe  Church  of  St.  rTiooJas,  from  the  designs 
of  Palomino.  He  also  executed  some  works  of  his  own 
eomposiiion  in  fresco  for  various  churches.  He  diod  at 
Tonosa.  vrhile  painting  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin  of  the 
(Tinlle.  Iriti  the  time  is  iwt  known.  See  Spooner,  Bittg. 
Hul.nflht  Fiat  ArU,a.v. 

Vldam  (Ut.  rict  domhti  [q.  v]),  was,  1.  Tbe  bish- 
opV  steward  in  Ihe  administration  of  the  Church  reve- 
nues as  the  viscount  represented  thecouot.  AtRheinu 
and  Chartres  tbe  vidams  raised  their  office  into  a  fief. 
2.  The  proviisi  or  bailiff  of  Ihe  capitular  rente,  aa  al 
S.  The  term  is  also  ap- 


pli»l  I 


the  h 


I  of  fuui 


religiou 


VldfU,  Elus  de,  ben-Maut,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the 
16ih  cenlnry,  a  pupil  of  Motee  of  Cordova,  or  Coc- 
doveto  (i|.  Y.l,  ia  the  author  of  the  work  on  elhjca  en- 
titled n-33n  n^O»-i,  (A*  htgimunff  of  TciHfom,  jn  Ave 
pans,  of  which  the  Brat,  called  nK*^in  ism,  treats  of 
the  fear  of  God,  in  Ijfteea  chapters;  the  second,  ^7'^ 
I13nxn,  of  the  love  of  Qod,  in  twelve  chaplers:  the 
third,  r(3"icnn,  with  seven  chapters,  treats  of  rejient- 
mtx:  the  fourth, ncnprt  ISO,  with  seventeen  chap- 
tare,  of  holiness;  while  the  fifth,  mjSn  irc,  treats 


Into  Lalin  bv  J.  Morin,  in  hia  C 
■        "       a  (Pari 


■■),< 


d  bv 


David  de  Lata  into  Spanish  (Leyden,  1666), 
tnnsUted  the  Urst  part,  treating  of  the  feat  of  Uod 
(Amst.  163S).  See  FUrat,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  477  eq. :  De' 
liosBi,U:tim(irio£torica(Gemi.tran9L),p.3:28.    (B.P.) 

VldQa  (As  wMJov),  a  Latin  aaroaoie  of  JtJNO. 

Viduee  (idJiMei),  a  term  applied  to  the  deaconeaaes 
of  tbe  encieni  Church,  by  Tertullian  and  others,  be- 
cause they  were  commonly  chosen   from   among  thb 

of  the  ancient  laws  required  them  lobe  widowa,  prescrib- 
ing minutely  their  qualifications  in  this  regard.  See 
Bingham,  C&riii.  A  Mig.  bk,  ii,  ch.  xiii.    See  Widows, 

Vldtkoa,  in  Roman  mvtbology.  Is  tbe  family  name 
of  tbe  mother  of  the  Fabius  in  Rome.  She  U  said  to 
have  been  a  daughter  of  Evander,  the  most  ancient  king 
of  Italy,  loved  by  Hercules,  through  whom  she  became 
mother  of  Fahiua,  tbe  progenitor  of  the  family. 

Vieil,  PisHHK  LK,  an  eminent  French  painter  on 
glaaa,  wis  bom  in  Paris  in  1708.  In  1734  he  executed 
several  excellent  works  for  the  Church  of  St.  ^lienne  du 
Mont,  in  Paris;  and  afterwards  restored  the  glass-paint- 
ings in  the  Cathedral  of  Koire  Dime.  He  also  exe- 
cuted, among  other  works,  the  paintings  in  Ihe  Church 
of  Sl  Victor.  He  spent  ttfteen  years  in  preparing  ina- 
t«rials  for  a  work  on  the  art  of  glass-painting,  entitled 
Traiti  I/iilorique  It  Fraliqut  dt  In  PeitOurt  uir  Verre. 
He  aLw  wrote,  Euai  >Kr  la  Pnnluir  m  Afoniique.  He 
died  in  1772.    See  Spooner,  fiioy.  tfirt.  o/-(A«  fm*  .4  rto, 

Vielra  ( Vieyia),  Antonio,  a  Portuguese  mis- 
uonary.wasbomin  Lisbon,  Feb.  6,  I60S,  of  a  good  fam- 
ily. He  was  brought  up  by  the  JcMiita  it  Babia,  in 
Braiil,  ami  in  162o  entered  their  order.  He  prepared 
himself  by  diligent  study  for  evangelical  labor  among 
the  aurroundlng  Indians  and  negroes,  and  in  1641  went 

Portugal  at  companion  Id  the  vi« 


their 


re  mislak 


and  VIeira  was  caai  into  prison.  He  was  soon  released, 
however,  and  preached  at  the  court  with  such  eloquence 
that  Juan  IV  made  him  his  preacher,  and  engaged  him 
in  diplomacy  at  Paris  and  the  Hague.  In  1647  he  went 
In  1652  ho  re- 


rned  Ic 


■ssful 


Ml  of  his 


milili 
of  Viilas's  work,  the  part  w 


from  and  compends 
ta  of  repentance  has 


of  Brazil  from  slavery.  He  returned  again  to  Portugal 
for  further  authority,  but,  after  six  more  years  of  iniie- 
fatigable  labor  in  Brazil,  he  was  Unally  sent  home  u> 
Lisbon  (1661)  as  a  criminal.  After  variuua  fortunes  at 
home  and  abroad,  still  laboring  for  religious  purposes, 
he  died  at  Rahia,  July  18, 1697.  the  acknowledged  head 
of  the  Jesuitical  order  in  Brazil  He  left  a  number  of 
historical  and  other  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  A'oiit>. 
Bittff.  Gtniralt.  s.  v. 

VIeira,  Sebastiano,  a  Ponngueae  mlsnonary, 
waa  bom  at  Castm  Daire  (dioceae  of  Lamego)  in  1670. 
At  theageofsixteen  he  entered  Ihe  Order  ofStlgnatiuB, 
and  prepared  himself  for  evangelical  labor  in  Ihe  East 
Indies.  In  1602,  he  arrived  in  Japan,  and  ^nt  several 
years  there;  thence  he  went  to  Manilla,  and  again  to 
Japan,  gathering  converts  continually.    Being  sent  for 

demned  aa  a  traitor  by  the  Japanese,  and  on  his  return 
was  seized,  commanded  to  renounce  his  faith,  and  on 
refusal  was  cruelly  martyred,  June  6, 1634.     See  Bio- 

Vlel,  De.     See  Duveil. 

Vienna,  Council  of  (Concilium  Viadiibontw),vu 
held  May  10, 1267,  by  C.uy,  cardinat-legate.     A  conati- 

to  that  drawn  up  in  the  Council  of  Cologne  in  the  year 
preceding. 
By  canon  8.  clerks  harlng  wive*  or  concnblnaa  were  or- 


u  challceB,  puleoa,  or  ■nj' 


See  Minn,  ConciL  xi 

Vleaa«,  Cousci 

lobroffvmf  or  yirimrK 


fot-  iConciiiamapud  FiemiintAl- 
).     Vi«nue  is  ■  chy  of  Diupbin^, 
mace,  wnere  uumerous  Cburch  couneila  were  held. 

I.  The  firac  of  which  mention  is  nnUewM  held  A.  D. 
474.  UC  iu  tranuccions  notbing  it  knoHn  bey oad  tbe 
fact  Lhat  it  uDcuoned  Ihe  solenm  abwrTince  of  the 
three  daya  precedinf;  Ascension-day,  which  bishop  Ma- 
mercus  of  Vienne  hait  ordered. 

II.  Held  A.D.  S70,  aiiDply  conannod  the  privileges 
bestoweil  upon  a  mmiutery. 

III.  Held  A.D.  692,  b;  order  of  pope  Fa^mosu^  whose 
two  legates,  I'aacal  and  John,  presided.  Several  bish- 
ops were  present,  and  Tout  canons  were  published. 

1.  i.  Eiconnniinlcnta  those  who  telzs  tbe  property  of 
the  Chnrch.  or  msl  treat  clerks. 
4.  Forblde  iMymfn  to  present  tii  chnrchM  wilhnnt  tbe 
•n!ent<irthel>l»hoporthed>oceM;  Hi      '    '" 


Inke  any  present 


m I hey  pi 


SeeMansi,ronnZ.ii,433, 

IV.  Held  A.D.  907 ;  was  convoked  by  archbishop  Al- 
exander of  Vienne,  and  settled  ■  dispute  between  abbots 
Aribert  and  Baniatd  leapecting  Ihe  income  receiplA  of 

V.  Held  A.D.  1112  by  archbishop  Guido;  excommu- 
nicated emperoc  Henry  V  because  he  clamed  Ihe  right 
of  episcopal  investiture,  and  revoked  the  treaty  of  11" 
which  conrerred  stich  right  upon  the  crown. 

VI.  Held  A.D.  1 1 19 :  was  called  by  pope  Gelaaiui  II, 
who  had  again  excommunicated  Henry  V,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  his  setting  up  an  antipope  in  the  person  of  Greg- 
ory VIII :  but  nothing  whatever  concerning  the  liana- 
■ctiona  of  this  synod  is  known. 

V[[.  HeldA.b.1134:  was  incited  by  pope  Calixtui  II, 
and  called  by  archbishop  Peter  of  Vienne ;  legislated 
with  reference  to  the  securing  of  ecclesiastical  privileges 
and  poasesMons. 

VIII.  Held  A.D.  1142;  was  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  election  of  a  new  bishop. 

IX.  Held  A.D.  1164,  st  which  archbishop  Reginald 
of  Cologne  vainly  en<1eavored  to  secure  a  reeogitition 
of  Paschal  IU,  whom  tbe  emperor  Frederick  had  en- 

X.  Held  A.D.  1199,  by  tbe  cardinal-legate  Peter  of 
Capua,  for  Ihe  purpoae  of  promulgating  the  decree  of 
pope  Innocent  111,  which  punished  the  king,  Philip  Au- 
giistus,  with  excommuoicatinn  on  account  of  his  renun- 

"       "        iful  consort,  and  his  snbse- 

h  Agnes  of  Menu.    See  Mansi,  Con- 


oned  in  the  rec- 


quent  marriage  n 

n/.xi,ll. 

XI.  Held  A.D.  1289i  is  barely 
ords,  and  some  suihorities  deny  lhat  it  was  nejo. 

XH.  Held  A.D.  lail ;  known  as  the  fifteenth  acumen 

taches  any  considerable  importance.  It  was  originall' 
ordered,  by  apapal  hull  oT  1808, l« meet  Oct.  1.  1810,  bn 
was  subsequently  postponed  for  one  y^ir.  Tbe  council 
finally  convened,  under  the  presidency  of  pope  Clement 
V,  on  Ocu  IC,  1311.  The  number  of  prelates  preaent 
is  fixed  by  some  at  114,  and  by  others  at  300,  including 
the  patriarchs  of  the  Latin  Rit«  of  Alexandria  and  An- 
tioch.  It  discussed  metboda  for  presening  the  purity 
uf  the  faith,  which  was  impaired  by  Ihe  heretical  influ- 
ence of  John  of  Oliva,  and  of  the  FratriceUi,  Dokinists, 
Begbanis,  and  Brguins;  aim  the  aid  to  be  aObrded  the 
Holy  Land;  the  reform  of  ecelegiastical  discipline:  and 
especially  the  disposition  to  be  made  of  the  Order  of 
Kiiishts  Templars.  The  decisions  abrogated  the  Order 
nf  Templars;  declared  Ihe  legitimacv  of  Ihe  laic  pope 
Bonifac«  VIII,  and  his  freedom  from  the  crimes  charge.! 
againit  him:  concedeil  liihes  for  si 
Df  France,  England,  and  Mavarre, 


VIGER 

might  organiie  a  cnisade ;  and  regnlated  the  pnvini- 
of  [he  be^ng  friars  and  similar  mailers.  HoN 
e  decree*  which  hare  to  do  with  matun  of  doe- 
and  discipline  are  contained  in  the  ao-callc<l  Ht- 
mi  (q.  v.),  and  were  first  promulgated  bv  idpe 
John  XXII. 

XIII.  Held  A.D.  1557 1  determined  aeverml  quFsiiou 
of  Church  discipline;  discussed  the  use  of  sermotis  ass 
meani  of  instructing  the  people;  forbade  the  admiaaka 
of  itrangers  to  tbe  pulpils;  demanded  tbe  rendition  rf 
heretics,  and  prohibited  merry-makings  on  feaat-ilan 
and  association  with  suspected  persons;  gave  direciiuai 
respecting  the  tonsure  and  gati>  of  priests;  deiiiiil  ■>• 
monks  snd  nuns  the  privilege  of  leaving  their  convene 
etc  See  Martene,  7'Auuur.  A'iii>as.4wab(.tLutei.Pai. 
1717),  iv,  446  «!■ 

^ourcFi.— Ilarduin,  A  ela  ConaL  ft  Kpittfi.  DtrTHabi 
lie  Cmufiruf.&'ummorun PonfijicHn (Paris,  1TI4):  Mao- 
si,  Sacromin  Conctfioriini  AWa  ef  An^>li4iitiui  CoUtttit 
(Venet.  1776);  Tract.  lUuHr.  Jarimfuabom  (ibid. 
1584),  XUt,  i,  159  aq.,  where  is  given  Durandus,  Traekh 
(m  dt  Modo  Cft^randi  Cm.  Voneilii. — Herar^,  Jital- 
tCmyUnp,  s,  v, 

Vlon,  Joseph  Marii,  an  eminent  French  painter, 
and  the  rq^neraioi  of  art  in  France,  was  bom  ai  Mnot- 
pellier,  June  18, 1716.  His  enthusiasm  for  art  ted  hnn 
lo  study,  against  the  wishes  of  his  pareni%  under  sev- 
eral masters,  among  whom  werp  Rivalz  of  Toukne. 
and  C.  Natoire  at  Paris,  where  he  went  in  I'M.  In 
1743  he  gained  the  prtie  of  the  Royal  Academy  by  his 
IHCture  of  the  Plogue  oflht  IirarliUt  in  Iht  fimt  -^ 
Itarid,  En  1744  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  spent 
some  yean  in  studying  the  masters  and  designing  (run 
the  antique,  and  painted  numerous  picluTP^  includiig 
many  altar-pieces  of  great  merit,  such  as  the  .•iluHgUrr 
of  tie  liaioemli,  and  two  pictures  now  in  tbe  L>iivi»: 
a  SUtping  f/niail,  and  St.  Gemam  inul  SI.  I  >«■< 
KtctirtBf  iSe  Crotm  of  Glory  fr-nt  lit  Hindi  of  a 
.Kwfil.  He  relumcil  to  Paria  in  1750,  and  was  choaoi 
a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1754.  While  at  Psris  ha 
painted  numerous  pictures,  and  labored  wiih  exeeUrat 
success  to  restore  in  trench  arc  the  study  of  the  antiqge 
and  of  nature  as  represented  in  the  Italian  masters,  tie 
comjdeted  his  picture  of  ^V.  Jurats />rRtcil>MvrDi*r<;aib 
in  177S,wben  be  was  decorated  with  tlie  Onler  ofSl 
Michael,  and  appointed  director  of  the  French  Acadnay 
at  Rome,  where  he  resided  until  1781,  aixl  was  slas- 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke.  Aftti 
returning  to  Paris  he  wti  chosen  one  of  the  rectors  aad 
director  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1769  priudpil 
painter  to  tbe  king.  At  the  time  of  the  Kevolntka 
came  a  change  in  his  relations  to  the  government,  but 
Nspoleon  made  him  a  member  of  the  Senate,  a  mnl 
of  the  empire,  and  a  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Hw 
or.  He  died  in  Paris,  March  Ti,  1809,  and  was  hurird 
in  Ihe  Pantheon.  Vieu's  subjects  are  taken  chiefly 
from  tbe  Scriptures,  ancient  and  modem  hisuny.  sail 
Greek  mytliology.  Among  the  most  celebtaled  warki 
of  this  artist  tbe  following  deserve  mention  beie :  51. 
JtTont :  —  the  Enbarhitifm  of  SI.  Jfarllia  :  -  Clavl 
Brniiiiig  Briad: — tbe  Bmrmiioit  of  Laianm—Hii 
Virgin  A  tlrmied  bg  A  ngelt :  —  and  St.  Grrgorf.  Sn 
Spooner,  Binp.  Biif.  of  the  Fine  A  rte,  s-  v. 

Vlenx.  Rrnacd  tx.  a  French  historical  paintrr. 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  I'lh  ceulUTv.  Rs 
visited  Rome  for  study,  and  when  he  relumed  to  Frant* 
produced  many  workaof  conMderable  menu  He  psinf- 
ed  several  pictuie*  for  the  Church  of  the  Penitewa 
at  Avignon  froiD  subjects  in  the  history  of  John  ibe 
Baptist.  Two  of  these  were  taken  to  Paris  in  ITSli 
two  are  in  the  Gallery  of  Nismes,  and  the  r»t  are  at 
Avignon.    SfvSpaantt,  Biog.Hitl.  of  tit  Finr  A  nf,t.r. 

Viger,  Francis,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  boru  in  1391 
at  Rouen,  and  was  professor  of  elocntion  at  Pari*,  "baa 
he  died  Dec  16,  1647.  He  edited  EtrMi  Knnfi- 
/■rnporot,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  a 


VIGERUS  7 

(Puis,  16je>.  See  Ale^^mbf,  BUiiothKa  Scriplonim 
Sociritttit  Jau;  Wine,  fiiarium  Btographirum :  iA- 
cb«r,  A  Hyrmeinti  GtUhrtai-Lrxkcn,  •.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand- 
Inidi  der  tkeoL  Lilaatur,  i, 892.    (R  P.) 

VlgdniB,  Marcl's,  >  LigurUn  Duminicin,  a  pro- 
fevor  of  theoloKy  at  Padua  and  Rome,  ind  a  cardinal, 
was  born  in  1446.  He  wrote  vuiaiu  trealiaes  respecting 
the  death  uf  Chri»l,  which  were  printed  in  twn  VDlumeA 
■t  Douay  in  1H07.  He  died  in  1516.  See  Moabeim, 
Hal.  nfihe  Charoh,  hk.  iii,  cent,  iv,  pu  ii,  ch.  ii. 

TlgiH-  G^BALD,  a  French  haKiogiapher.  who  died 
in  1637.  He  wrote  a  Hiloirt  da  Suiali  PnHtetairi 
if  .1  unrpnr  (Paris,  1586,  8ro) :— and  La  M-HUirchtt  Je 
Fraiia  (ibid.  1670-T3:  Cletmanc,  1677,2  vol9.rol.).         | 

Vigil  OF  LiciiiTS,  an  old  English  term  to  designate 
Candlemas-eve  (Feb.  I). 

VlgUantliis,  a  presbfCer  of  the  early  pait  of  the 
5th  centur]',  belongs  to  the  number  of  inolaled  rata 

Church  with  respect  to  worship  and  morals,  which  were 
becoming  iocreauagly  notvrious  with  the  advancing 
yemn  of  the  4th  century.  He  wai  a  native  of  CaU- 
guriia,  now  Casire,  in  the  county  of  Commenges  (Cun- 
rnswr).  His  Gallic  extraction  is  indispulably  proven, 
deapite  the  fact  (hat  nnie  authoritiea  have  been  misled 
inu>  stating  that  he  wis  or  Spanish  ramily.  He  was . 
brought  up  tu  follow  the  businen  of  inn-keeping ;  but  i 
in  395  (?)  viMied  Paulinua  of  NoU  (q.  v.),  and  immedi- 
ately afterwards  was  ordained  presbyter.  Recommend- 
p(i  to  Jerome  by  Paulinus,  be  travelled  into  the  East  I 
and  visited  Jeruialem  in  396,  meeting  with  a  friendly 
receplioD  at  the  hands  uf  Jerome,  but  making  no  favor- 
able impresaioQ  upon  bis  heart.  Jerome  had  two  es- 
pecially tender  ipots  in  his  character— the  one  an  inor- 
dinate vanity  because  of  hia  learning,  and  the  other  an 
exalted  opinion  of  his  own  arthndoxyi  and  Vigilintius 
managed  to  fret  them  bi«h.  He  was  not  possessed  of 
learned  culture,  though  Gennidius  credits  him  with  be- 
ing lingua  politat ;  and  yet  he  laid  claim  ta  the  literary 
character;  and,  with  the  practical  dtspnsitinn  off  West- 
cm  roind,  he  objected  to  the  speculative  dc^matics  of 
Urigen,  upon  whose  study  Jerome  was  at  that  time  em- 
ployed, and  even  raised  Buspicions  against  the  sound- 
ness of  Jerome's  penwiutl  riews.  Jerome  at  drat  at- 
tempted to  prove  the  correctness  of  his  creed;  but 
Tigilaniius,  liaving  refused  to  avail  himself  of  the 
achular's  hospitality  and  departeil  from  Jerusalem,  felt 
himself  bound  by  no  restraints,  and  issued  an  epiatle 
coodemnatory  of  Jerome's  Origeiiism  (sec  Hieron.  A)i. 
cix,  2,  uiUrAdria  Ftaeliit  CoUiiqut  Rrgit  Alpet).  in  re- 
sponse to  which  the  irascible  saint  compared  him  to 
Judas  and  termed  him  an  ass.  Either  Just  before,  or 
immediately  subsequent  to,  the  sojourn  at  Jerusalem, 
Vigilvitius  went  to  Eg>'pt,  but  the  exact  time  is  nut 
determined;  and  a  «milar  uncertainty  surrounds  the 
place  uf  his  residence  an  his  return  to  the  West.  The 
letters  of  Jerome  appear  to  compel  the  conclusion  that 
bis  oppiineut  was  settled  in  Uaul,  while  Geunadius 
makes  him  to  have  charge  of  a  parish  in  Barcelona. 
We  incline  ti>  believe  the  former  the  only  settlement  of 
the  i|uestion  which  can  be  successfully  ilefendeil.  Eight 
years  aHer  the  ileparture  of  Vigilantius  from  Jerusalem, 
a  presbyter  named  Riparius  notilted  .lerome  that  his 
adversary  was  teaching  very  questionable  dncirinea 
and  disturbing  the  entire  (<>allic  ?)  Church  with  the 
piomulgaiinn  uf  hia  views.  He  Iherenpon  renewed  hia 
attacks  upon  VigiUnlixa  (Ep.  rostra  I'ig.  IR),  but,  much 
to  the  surprise  uf  himself  and  other  students  -t  the  sit- 
uation, without  giving  wider  dimenaiona  to  the  quarrel; 
for  Vigilantius  was  certainly  supported  by  many  of  the 
lower  clergy  and  of  the  laiiy,  and  was  even  prelected 
by  bishops,  So  answer  was  made  lo  .lerome'i'  abusive 
epistle,  and  Vigilantiua  ihenceforwaril  drops  out  of  view, 
either  because  he  soon  afterwanla  died,  ur  because  the 
barbarian  invasions  of  Haul  crowded  the  paper  quarrels 
of  tDcenwd  churchmen  out  of  aighL 


'9  VIGILIUS 

The  views  which  stirred  the  soul  of  Jerome  to  wrath 
are  not  preserved  to  us  in  suOlcient  fulness  (o  furnish  a 
contiecled  system.  The  primary  object  of  attack  by 
Vigilantiua  was  the  veneration  of  mattyra  and  of  relics^ 
Hedoubted  the  genuineness  of  the  relicd,  and  condemned 
the  bearing  about  uf  desd  men's  bones  enswathed  in 
costly  wrappings.     Ho  also  couaidered  the  inrocsiion 


doctrine  oftheiromnipresence,  and  that  their  intercewion 
cannot  be  safely  relied  upon,  since  their  pnvers  in  their 
own  behalf  were  not  ^ways  answered.  He  held  that 
the  miraculous  power  with  which  relics  were  supposed 
to  he  endowed  had  not  extended  further  than  lo  the 
close  of  the  disunciively  missionary  period  of  the  Church. 
The  burning  of  daylight  candles  in  the  basilicas  was 
rejected  by  him  on  the  ground  that  the  martyrs,  in 

in  the  light  of  the  Lamb  on  the  throne,  and  had  no 
need  of  such  illumi  nations.  The  celebration  of  vigile 
(q.  v.)  and  martyra'  feasts  waa  denounced  as  involiing 
dinger  lo  public  morals;  but  he  violated  consislency  in 
consenting  that  vigils  might  be  kept  in  conneclion 
with  the  Kastei  festival. 

In  the  Held  of  morals,  Yigilantius  draws  still  nearer 
to  the  evangelical  position,  particularly  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood,  which  he  con- 
demned, as  he  did  monasticism.  with  ila  volunlary  vows 
of  poverty  and  solitude.  He  reasoned  that  it  is'  better 
to  contribute  regularly  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  than  to 
alienate  posaeuiona  by  a  ungle  act,  and  that  lo  flee 
from  the  world  is  not  to  conquer  it.  He  was  especially 
outapoken  in  criticisms  of  the  fanatical  monks  of  the 
East,  whose  fanlastic  eccentricities  he  had  himself  ob- 
served. He  funhermore  opposed  the  donations  of  mon- 
ey which  it  was  customary  to  send  to  Jerusalem  —  a 

attack  upon  himself.    In  all  these  argumenis,  Vigilan- 


ll    lOH 


ic  de- 


ars equally  binding  upon  all  n 
waa  not  the  equal  of  Jovinian  (q.v.)  in  speculative  abil- 
ity.but  merely  a  clear-headed  exponent  of  the  instittct 
of  an  earnest  piety  which  lived  iii  his  soul.  He  was 
pious  rather  than  philosophical;  and  he  vtas,  moreover, 
not  deeply  learned  in  the  Scriptures.  His  work  was 
not  of  Usting  consequence,  probably  because  he  lacked 
the  relormatoty  spirit  which  alone  is  competent  to  re- 
ust  the  perverae  tendencies  of  a  degenerating  age.  See 
Jerome,  Epp.  and  Pt  Virii  lUvttrAvi,  with  the  contin- 
uation of  Geunadius  (q.  v.) ;  Paulinus  of  Nola,  Kp.  ad 
Sfrerum,  v,  II  (Aug.  Kpp.  24.  4);  Vogel.  IM  yiyilaiUio 
//<prs(i«)Or(Aoifna»(Erfurt,I756),inWalch,A'fKrty«oS. 
iii,  673-704.  The  latter  gives,  in  addition,  ciuiions  from 
other  and  earlier  writers.  See  also  Baur,  Dir  chriitL 
/Cirehe  com  4.  5u  stun  6.  Ju/irhuixlrrl,  p.  HI7  sq.;  and 
Lindner,  Jjf  Jonmano  H  VigiLiiUto,  etc.  (Lips.  1640); 
Ueraog,  Rtal-Eaeyklop.  s.  v. 
Vlgllln  MortuAmm  (literally,  vali^ri  fnr  ihr. 

intercessiima,  beside  the  bodv  of  a  depirted  Chrisiiin 
after  death  and  before  burial 

VlElItua,  pope,  was  biehop  of  Rome  from  540  (636  ?> 
to  S6(>.  and  is  remarkable  from  his  connection  with  th« 
cnntroreray  of  the  Thrrt  Chapltrt.  He  wis  i  nativa 
of  Rome,  and,  in  the  capacity  of  deacon,  accompanied 
Agipetos  (q.  v.)  lo  Constantinople  in  636,  where  he  em- 
pliiyed  the  opportunity  afforded  by  his  iniroduciion  i» 
the  imperial  court  for  the  realialion  of  ambitious  plans 
which  neither  his  itiefplogicai  cutlure  nor  his  character 
for  intelligence  and  spirituality  justified.  The  empresa 
Theodora  marked  him  as  a  soluble  instrument  for  the 
accomplishment  of  her  ends,  and,  on  the  ileaih  i>l  Aga- 
pelus,  dusetl  him  lo  be  informed  that  Ihe  aoccewion 
might  be  secured  lo  him  foe  the  price  of  his  support  to 
the  Monophyule  party.    Thiabeptomiied  lagl«*    i^" 


viGttins 

hit  return  M  tuly,  hoverer,  hefoundtfaeMeorRonii 

ready  occupinl  bv  SUreriiu,  the  •on  of  Lishap  Don 
daa.  anci  he  Beeordingly  ipplied  l<i  DeJiuriua,  the  c 
minder  of  the  imperial  irmtea,  who  wu  ihen  at  IUi 
nbtfl  bring  abuut  the  rultHmiint  of  the  proinise  madi 
■he  empreni;  aiid  with  the  iiifluenw  of  Antoniiia,  the 
Mife  of  Beliuriua,  and,  it  is  charged,  nf  added  pei;iiiiiary 
iiiriuceinent^  hiinbjeetwaaaccompliBhed.     Oiice  in  the 

pHrtoriheaKi«ement.  He  wrote,  indeed,  to  the  deposed 
Monophysile  patriarcha  of  the  East  to  declare  his  Bym- 
pathy  with  their  views,  hut  he  requested  that  the  con- 
by  sought  to  deprive  the  cause  of  the  empress  of  wbat- 
ever  aid  his  iuSuence  might  aOord. 

The  emperor  Justinian  eocenained  the  hope  of  bring- 
ing about  an  agreement  between  the  contending  |iartiee 
in  the  Church,  and  was  induced  to  istue  an  edict  in  651 
condemning  the  so-called  Three  Chtipten  (q.  v.),  which, 
it  was  said,  would  temove  all  the  JUonophysite  objec- 
tions against  the  Chalcedonian  decrees;  but  the  eilict 
encoiinteredsetiousoppositioiievervwhere.  Even  Men- 
fias,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  anwilling  to 
subscribe  to  it;  the  African  Church  protested  against 
its  enfiirceaient ;  and  Vigilius  dared  not  appose  himself 
to  the  liercenesa  of  the  storm  raised  throughout  the 
West  by  the  imperial  condemnation  of  iu  own  peculiar 
(enela.  He  was  accordingly  summoned  In  Constanti- 
nople, and  reached  the  court  in  M7,  bearing  with  him 
the  spoken  protests  of  every  community  he  had  touched 
while  on  the  way;  but  the  atmosphere  of  the  court 
wrought  a  (peeily  change  in  his  attitude,  and  he  return- 
ed to  his  old  plan  of  conciliating  the  court,  but  conceal- 
ing his  treachery  from  the  world.  He  was,  however, 
com|)elleil  to  lake  an  open  stand,  and  therefore  tried  to 
Bheker  himself  behind  the  authority  of  a  synod  whose 
convocation  he  advised;  anil  when  the  Africans,  led  by 
FamniUis  (q.v.).  were  found  to  possess  a  majority  of 
voii-a.  he  practically  dissolveil  the  synod  by  requiring 

period.     It  thus  became  possible  to  influence  them  sep- 
'       '    'ng  a  majority  orthem  into  accord  with 


n  (./uiJicuniiii),  was  imme- 


(he  w 


mittal  la  the  ei 


tion.  The  orthodox  oppueilion  immediately  broke  out 
afresh.  Facundus  of  Hermiane  was  attain  its  leader, 
but  it  includeil  also  persons  belonging  to  the  immediate 
train  of  Vigilius,  such  as  the  deacons  Rusticus  and  Se- 
bastian, whom  he  was  thus  induced  to  depose  and  ex- 
communicate. In  his  aUrm  at  the  storm  his  measures 
had  excited,  he  thought  only  of  aveitiog  iu  shock  from 
his  own  person.  He  managed  to  recover  possession 
of  hisjudiouCunt.  He  vowed  the  condemnation  of  the 
Tkret  Chapteri,  and  thereby  induced  the  emperor  to 
convoke  a  council,  of  which  he  hoped  that  it  would  re- 
lieve him  of  the  burden  of  responsibility  under  which 
he  suggered.  When  the  counwl  came  together,  how- 
ever,  it  refused  to  accede  to  the  desires  of  the  emperor ; 
anil  when  the  latter  sought 
Vigilius  renounced  all  ecclestat 
East  and  took  refuge  in  flight.  He  subsequently  pub- 
lished an  encyclical  describing  his  troubles,  and  followed 
(his  with  the  excommunication  of  Theodore  Ascidas, 
the  Monophysite  bishop  of  Cffisarea,  who  had  been  a 
prime  instigator  of  the  emperor's  action ;  and  the  em- 
peror saw  himself  constrained  to  convoke  a  general 

Ihe  emperor.  Vigilius  refused  to  participate  in  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  sent,  instead,  a  judgment,  the  so-called 
CoHtliluluia,  protesting  against  the  condemnation  of  the 
Three  Chaplert.  The  opposition  thereupon  published 
sUthe  documents  in  which  Vigilius  had  previously  cum - 
promised  himself  in  order  to  obtain  favor  with  the  em- 
peror. Slid  ordered  the  erasure  of  his  name  from  the 
IHiiigeht.  He  was  also,  it  is  ssid,  banished :  and  at  any 
vate  made  to  feel  the  anger  of  Justinian  in  a  measure  . 


Chapttn 


0  VIGILIUS 

which  induced  him  to  purchase  its  cessation  at  the  cot 
rhich  be  approved  of  the  decisuoi 
luncil  and  the  condemnation  uf  the  Tkrrr 
e  died,  however,  in  55&.  before  be  cmld 
irone.  See  Anaslasius,  Lib.  PimtijUaL,  in 
Mansi.Tol.iXi  Liberatus,  ArrFianHin ,-  Victor  orTuD- 
nunum,  Chrimieon ;  Facundus  of  Hermiane,  Pro  Dr/at- 
tionr  Trium  Capil„  and  A  dr.  Hodnnuin,  all  to  be  fosnd 
in  Gallandi  Bibl.  vol  xi  sq.  See  also  Walch,  Knttr- 
ffficL  vol.  viii ;  Neander,  Kircitti^irh.  voL  iii,  etc.; 
Herzog,  Heiil-liHryttop.  s.  v. 

VlgiUos  THK  Dkacox,  mentioned  in  GeuoaiUu^ 
De  Viti,  /autlrOta,  So.  Bl,  was  doubtleu  resident  ia 
Gaul,  and  lived  in  the  second  or  third  decade  of  Ihe  oth 
century.  A  monastic  rule,  baaed  upon  traditions  and 
reail  in  the  conventual  assemblages,  is  mentioned  as  hit 
oidy  literary  production.  Holsten  has  published  such  a 
rule,  based  substantiallv  on  rachomtiii,  in  tbr  Codn 
RrguUinm,  i  (Sligne,  Patrol.  50,  p.  370-380).  VigUiiB 
must  accordingly  be  regarded  as  nne  of  the  profDHen 
of  monasticism  upon  the  basis  of  the  experiences  obtain- 
ed by  the  Oriental  Church,  of  which  ihat  age  fumiihsd 
so  many.  See  Cave,  Scripl.  Eccta.  MiM.  Lit.  ann.  W!; 
Herzog,  Reut'Entjilnp.  a.  v. 

VIglllua  ov  TuAi^iis,  in  the  African  province  rf 
Byzacene.  His  name  sunds  last  on  a  list  of  biihoiii 
who  attended  a  conference  at  Carthage  called  by  tlit 
Vandal  Hnnneric,  in  A.U.  484,  to  bring  to  a  cooclunufi 
the  quarrel  between  the  dominant  Arian  and  the  n^ 
pressed  orthodox  parties  in  the  Church.  A  laier  ttpn 
f  his  banishment  to  Constantinople,  though  not  authen- 
icated,  is  yet  credible  because  a  similar  fate  was  exi*~ 
rienced  by  his  colleagues,  and  hisworks  justify  the  en- 

portant  character  among  the  theoloj^cal  writers  oThli 
day,  possessing  a  logical,  simple,  perspicuous  style,  ind 
considerable  dialectical  skill,  ami  producing  a  ttiitt  <t 
polemical  works  which  were  directed  against  iheAi 


if  Trent,  who  wa*  more  generally 
pseudonymous  works  from  the  pen  of  Vigiliua  nf  Thap- 

cal  period  of  the  worid ;  e.  g.  several  controversial  dia- 
nissioiis  between  Athsnisiiie,  Phutinus,  Sabelliut,  and 
Vrius  were  credited  to  Athanisius.  The  standpoint  of 
I'lgilius  was  that  of  Chalcedonian  orthodoxy.  He  holdi 
u  a  distinction  of  persons  and  a  unity  of  essence  in  lbs 
Trinity,  and  to  a  unity  of  person  and  a  diversity  of  oat- 
person  of  Christ;  but  he  does  nut  era 
:  any  difficulty  is  connected  with  the  recep- 
tion of  such  divergent  doctrines,  and  seems  uiteriy  un- 
able to  discover  any  occauon  whatever  for  the  riw  of 
heretical  opinions.  The  importance  of  his  woii  is  con- 
sequently only  relaUve,  as  it  dealt  with  the  particular 
heresies  anlagonizeit   in   a    polemical   or  apohigriinl 

giau,  and  his  works,  if  measured  by  the  standard*  at 
a  productive  age,  have  no  considerable  value,  while,  if 
they  be  regariled  as  designed  merely  to  combine  and 
recapitulate  the  tnatter  fumished  bv  eariier  thinliers, 
their  value  cannot  be  denied.  Ediiioiis  of  the  woika 
of  %1gilius  are  by  Chtffletius  (Dijon,  16M)  and  Chni^ 
lenis  (Tnb.  1o2^).  The  books  against  Euti-ches.  and 
the  disputations  with  Arius,  and  with  Arius  and  SabeK 
lius.  tether  with  twelve  (doubtful)  Imohs  A- rrnstoft, 
iro  given  in  the  Mtr.  HiU.  Patrum.  vol.  viii :  ami  the 
contmverteil  books  against  Marivarl,  agaiuia  I'alladiui, 
Ihe  lit  Umtatr  THmliUu  (which  is  generally  ascribed 
to  Augustine,  but  possiblv  belongs  to  Vigilins).  an  in 
vol  ivof  the  same  colleclbn.  SeeTiUemont,flV.«Hjj«r, 
Can,  StHpL  Enia. 


iil.I.il.i,  458;  litni>g,lttal-EnryHop.a. 
VigUliu  OF  Tbekt,  bishop,  is  nentkoed  b^  Gen* 


VIGILS  7( 

B^at  JQ  Dt  y'irit  lOiutriiai,  No.  87,  u  the  init«r  of 
«iuticle"Ia  Lauilcm  Mirt;n]m,''addr«iKdloacenua 
Simiilicianus,  wba  can  only  have  been  the  saccessor  or 
Ambrcne  in  the  tee  of  Utkn.  This  iHnigns  him  lo  th« 
4lh  or  6th  ceatuiy,  antl  prorea  cDuclusiTely  that  he 
cniUI  Dot  hive  written  the  books  againM  Eucychen. 
See  VIUILH.-S  OF  THAFBtTs,  He  lired  probably  not 
kler  (ban  the  reign  ur  Ilonoiius,  for  in  hia  day  the 
beuhen  party  wa*  atill  able  to  inflict  gnwa  indi^iiiei 
upon  ChrieitaDB.  In  Usuard,  A  da,  under  June  26,  it  la 
ualed  that  Vigiliaa  atudied  at  Athen*  and  wu  eom- 
ppUed  by  the  populace  la  become  biihopi^Trenl.  Af- 
ter a  lealoiu  adminiuiation  of  hia  oAce,  he  was  atoned 
la  death  in  a  distant  part  ot  hu  diocese  because  be  had 
caused  a  statue  of  3atuni  to  be  deetroyed,  Siiiicho  was 
ennsul  at  the  time,  which  Bxes  the  date  in  A.D.  400  or 
405.  The  leltera  of  VlgiUus  to  Simplician  and  Chrys- 
osiiHD  are  given  in  Rumart,  under  May  29.  Their  su- 
perscriptinn  indicates  that  the  mtsaionBry  lield  of  Vi- 
giliiu  was  dependent  on  Milan  aa  the  Western  meciopo- 
lii  uf  that  day,anil  affords  ground  fur  the  conclusion  that 
he  went  out  from  Milan  when  be  entered  ou  that  work; 
and  the  ihought  a  not  far  to  reach  that  a  Cliurch  which 
cuuld  prosecute  missionary  labor  on  its  own  account  was 
itself  an  independent  Church.  See  Baronius,  .1  mafu, 
■nn.  400.  Noa.  2-18;  Tillemunt.  ilimoira,  xi;  Heizog, 
A«i;-£'KyUcj>.s.v. 

VlgUs  (vigitia,  pmoclaliona,  mmrvxiiti)  a  the 
,  term  by  which  are  designated  in  the  Romish  Church 
the  ceremonies  of  prepantion  for  the  observance  of  one 
of  tbe  great  feasts.  It  originally  designated  merely  the 
nocturnal  religious  services  of  the  earty  Christians  in 
times  of  persecution,  hut  aften^ards  was  applied  to  the 
BFrrice*  inatltuied  to  enforce  the  idea  that  the  Chris- 
tian ought  tube  watchful  unto  prayer  even  in  the  night- 
seasons,  and  assiffned  to  the  night  preceding  the  recur- 
rence of  a  noiahle  feast  of  the  Church,  The  vigils  of 
Easier  and  Penieeosi  were  regatded  as  especially  holy 
in  tbe  3il  century,  and  with  the  farmer  were  oonnecl- 
td  the  holding  of  the  agapa,ar  love-feasta,  and  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  Lord's  supper,  while  with  the  latter  was 
d  the  sacratTKut  of  baptism.  Only  tlie  faith- 
e  allowed  to  participate  in  the  vigils  of  those 


In 


e  1th  ai 


were  generally  chuaen  for  the  admlnistra^on  of  either 
•acrament  and  for  the  conferring  of  orders;  and  tboae 
of  PenlecosE  and  Christmas  hdd  a  subordinate  pUce, 
baptism  not  bdng  administered  in  connection  with  the 
latter.  In  the  12th  century  vigils  were  first  held  in 
bonoTof  the  Virgin  Mary. 

The  celebration  of  vigils  became  very  splendid  after 
the  4th  century,  but  also  corrupted  with  many  impTo- 
prieties,  insomuch  that  women  were  prohiblteil  from  en- 
gaging in  it.     Much  oppontion  against  their  obser- 


onseque 


e,  Iheii 


Dent  assailant  being  Vigilsntius  ([[.  v.).  Tl 
were  the  principal  agencies  for  perpetuating  the  insti- 
tution of  the  vigils,  but  the  churches  gradually  abol- 
ished it  asa  night  service,  and  transformed  the  services 
into  a  fast.  This  gave  rise  to  the  Saturday  fast.  Vigils 
were  afterwards  observed  in  the  forenoon  of  the  day 
preceding  a  feast,  and  were  generally  adopted.  At  the 
pteseDt  time  an  occasional  midnight  mass  is  celebrated 
at  Christmas,  and  a  vigil  isolMerred  on  the  evening  be- 
fore Easter,  in  addition  to  tbe  forenoon  vigiL  Vigils 
precede  the  fesste  of  the  Annunciation  and  Purifving 
of  the  Virgin,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension 
Day,  Pentetfni,  and  the  days  of  John  the  Baptist,  All- 
sainu',  and  the  apostles  Matthew,  Peter,  Judo,  Jamc^, 
Simon,  Thomas,  anil  Andrew.  Some  vigils  are  privi- 
leged, i-thave  a  special  service.  If  connected  with  a 
second  or  third  grade  feast,  the  o^um  is  celebrated  and 
the  vigil  obflerve<l  in  tbe  laudtM  and  tbe  masfL  If  two 
priesu  oUclate,  one  reads  the  mass  for  the  feast  after 
the  lertia,  the  other  that  for  the  vigils  after  the  ni>n:i. 
Noo  -  privileged  vigils  simply  commemorate  the  vigil. 
An   occasional   vigil   is  observed  in   the   Pruieaiant 


1  VIGNOLES 

churches,  a.  g.  the  Moravians  on  Good  Friday  and 
Easter.  See  August!,  .IrcAdo'n^,'  Henog,  AmZ-E'a. 
esUop.  s.  T. ;  and  the  monographs  cited  by  Volbeding^ 
Index  PmgrammatuiH,  p.  llli,  121. 

Vlgnall,  Jacopo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Florence  in  1592.  He  wa»  a  disciple  of  Matleo  Rossel- 
li.  He  is  most  conspicuous  in  his  frescos,  as  seen  in 
the  Chapel  of  Buonarotii.  He  alao  painted  good  his, 
torical  pictures  in  the  palaces  of  many  of  the  nobility, 
and  pven  boasts  of  noble  pupils.  He  dieii  at  Florenca 
in  1604.     Set  Spuoaer,  Biog.  mn.o/IIU  Fiw  ArU,\v, 

VlgneilO,  Jacofo,  a  Sicilian  painter  who  flourish- 
ed at  Hesainaabout  the  middleof  the  IRth  century.  He 
studied  under  Pdidoro  da  Caravaggio,  and  followed  his 
style.  An  excellent  picture  by  him  of  Chriil  Brarv^ 
hit  Crott,  dated  1552,  still  ezisu  in  the  Church  of  Sanu 
Maria  della Scala.  See  SpoDner, Sio^.  tftsf.q^ lie /%>« 
Arlt,s.v. 

Vignatte  (Ft.),  in  ircbilecture,  means  a  running 
ornament  consisting  of  leaves  and  tendrils,  such  aa  is 
frequently  carved  in  the  hollow  mouldings  in  Gothio 


Vignette. 
architecture,  especially  in  the  Decorated  and  Perpen- 
dicular styles  ;  called  also  TrtiiL 

Vlgiii«r.  Nicot-AS.  a  French  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, son  of  Nicolas  Vignier,  Sen.  (who  himself  wrote 
one  or  two  religious  works),  was  bom  in  Germany 
■bout  1576.  He  studied  theology  at  Leyden,  and  in 
1601  hH^me  pastor  at  BluU  He  was  secretary  to 
the  national  synods  at  Gap  d'Alaih  de|>iity  (in  ll>09:- 
lo  the  Assemblv  of  Grenoble,  and  preinded  over  four 
provincial  synods  (tbe  last  two  in  16S8  and  1619). 
He  died  at  Bliris  about  1645,  leaving  several  relig- 
ious works^for  which  see  Hoefer,  A'oud.  fiii^.  Carafe, 

HissonNieolaslikewise  served  the  Church  at  Bloii^ 
and  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-four. 

Viguola,  Olacomo  Btiroulo  da,  an  Italian 
architect,  was  bom  at  Vignola,  in  Modena,  in  1507. 
He  studied  painting  at  Bologua,  but  afterwards  went 
to  Rome  to  study  aichitectare,  and  made  it  his  profes- 
don.    He  spent  two  years  in  France  with  Primaliccio, 

etal  tine  palaces  and  other  public  buildings.  He  final' 
ly  settled  in  Rome,  and  was  appointed  architect  by  Ju- 
lius III  in  1560.  He  designed  the  Church  of  the  Jes- 
uits at  Rome,  the  Caparola  palace,  and  the  two  lateral 
cupolas  of  St.  Peter's,  of  which  he  succeeded  Michael 
Angelo  as  the  archilecL  He  was  the  author  of  The 
Five  Onlert  of  ArcUledurt  and  Praaical  Ptrtpectme, 
works  which  are  still  atnong  the  best  authorities  on 
those  subjects.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  HitLoftht  Fm  A  rii, 
s.  V. "  Barozzio." 

Vignola,  OlTolamo  da,  an  Italian  painter,  flour- 
ished at  Modena  in  the  fliM  half  of  the  16th  centuiy. 
He  was  a  professed  follower  of  Raphael,  and  some  of  lus 
frescos  still  remain  in  the  Church  of  SI.  Piero  In  hia  na- 
tive city.    See  Spooner, Biog.  llUt. oftht  Fine  ArU,».v. 

VlgDOles,  Au'ifoSHK  iiK>i,  a  Relbrmed  theologian 
of  (iermany,  was  bom  Oct.  9,  1S49.  at  the  Castle  Au- 
bais,  in  Lower  Languedoc^  He  studied  at  Saumur,  Par- 
is, and  Oxford,  and  after  hia  retutn  from  tbe  latter 
place  he  was,  in  1S76,  appoinled  pastor  at  Cailar,  where 
he  commenced  hra  chronological  studies.  Afier  the 
KevncstioD  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  was  not  only  de- 
posed from  his  ofllce.  but  also  deprived  of  all  his  booka 
and  papers.  He  went  in  16X5  to  Geneva,  thence  to 
Uuuiine,  Beme,  and  finally  to   Berlin..    In  1688  h* 


VIGNON  V( 

mu  appuliited  putar  at  Hall«,  in  I6S9  wu  ullcd  to  '. 
Brandenburg,  and  wu  received  in  1701  u  *  mcniber  of  ' 
the  newly  founded  Actdemy  of  Science).  In  1708  bt , 
moved  tn  Beriin,  and  prescbed  Tor  some  lime  in  the ' 
French  Church  at  Kcipenick,  neer  Berlin.  Id  1727  he 
wu  made  director  or  the  mithematical  diriaioo  of  Ihc  ' 
Boyd  Academy.  He  died  July  34,  1744.  He  is  the ' 
author  otC/irmiologitdtPIIuloirtSiiialtetda  tfiifoirri 
Elriiagirti  qui  la  Coaetrnfnl,  ikpuit  la  Soriit  tCEsyple 
jutqu'ii  la  Captirili  de  Hiibi/lone  (Berlin,  1738, 2  vols.). 
He  also  wrote  snnouiions  to  Leafant's  French  edition 
of  Spanheimii  Diiqainlio  l/ulorica  di  Papa  Femma  in- 
ter  Utnam  IV  a  Bmrdidam  III  (La  Haye,  1720).  See 
Iliimire  de  eAcadimU  Kogalt  de  Berlin;  Jiicher,  All- 
gemeiaei  GeUhTlen-IjfiUiem,i.\.;  Winer,  Handbneh  drr 
theoi.  Lileralur,  i,  167,  692;  FHist,  BM.  Jad.  iii,  47tf. 
(B.P.) 

Vignon.  Claude,  a  French  pointer  and  engraver, 
waibotn  at  Tours  in  1690.  tie  visited  Italy  and  studied 
there  several  years.  Dumesnil  menlionB  twenty-seven 
spirited  and  masterly  etching!  by  him,  among  which 
amSI.JolmiiitieD^ert; — thirteen  plates  from  itnL^ft 
of  CAriM.-— rAs  Afailgrdom  of  HL  Andrea :— Philip 
Baptizing  the  S^nicil.'— and  The  Corotialion  of  the  Vir- 
gin.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  f/itl.o/Ihe  Fine  ArH,t.v, 

Tlgor,  Simon,  a  French  prelate,  wu  bom  at 
Svreux  alwut  1616.  He  was  educated  bv  his  filher,  Re- 
nand,  who  wu  physician  to  Charles  IX,  Henry  III,  and 
Catharine  de'  Medici.  In  1640  Simon  joined  the  house 
of  Navarre,  and  became  rector  of  the  university,  and 
curate  of  St.  Germain  de  Vienx.  In  1645  be  wu  made 
doctor  of  theohigy,  and  soon  after,  as  prinitencier  of  the 
Church  of  £vienii,  he  accompanied  his  bishop  Id  the 
Council  of  Trent;  for  his  services  ihere  he  was  reward- 
ed with  Ihe  curacy  of  St.  Paul's  at  Psris  (1666).  His 
zealous  preaching  against  the  doctiiDcs  of  the  Hefornia- 
lion  Hnollvled  to  his  promotion  to  the  bishopric  of  Nar- 
boiine  (1670).  He  died  at  Carcassonne,  Nov.  1,  1676, 
leaving  several  sermons  and  hislorical  Ireatiaes,  which 
are  eniimeraled  in  Hoefer,  Noac.  Biog.  Giniralt,  s.  r. 

Vigor,  William,  an  abbot  of  Glastonbuiy,  F.ng- 
land.  He  was  elected  lo  the  office  and  presented  lo  the 
bishop  of  Bath,  who  consecrated  him  on  the  day  after 
Ihe  Vigil  of  St  Benedict  (1219).  He  is  mentioned  u 
having  been  very  kind  lo  the  monks;  and  is  immortol- 
iicd  in  the  Cinmieiei  for  having  ceded  half  a  load  of 
grain  to  each  brewing  lo  make  the  beer  better.  He 
died  Oct.  14,  122S— but  five  years  after  bis  elevation. 
See  HiU,iiiyluhJKoiiailicitm,p.ibi, 

Vignter,  Pibriik  FRAMfOis,  a  French  OrienUJist, 
was  bnrn  at  Besonfon  July  20, 1745.  He  entered  the 
ecclesiastic  ranks  and  taught  rhetoric  at  the  college  of 
his  native  place;  afterwards  he  passed  into  the  Congre- 
gation of  St.  LoMrus,  and  tanghc  theology  in  the  Semi- 
nary of  Sens.  In  1772  he  went  to  Algiers  to  redeem 
the' Christian  sUves;  and  in  1788  to  Constantinople,  u 
apostolical  pncfect  of  the  Jesuit  establishments  in  the 
Levant,  where  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  After  his  relum  to  France  (1802)  he  lived 
in  relirement,  and  died  there  Feb.  7, 1821.  He  left  sev- 
eral works  on  Eutem  phUology,  history,  elc^  for  which 
see  llnefer,  A'oui'.  Biog.  GiaiTaU,  s.  v. 

Vibara  (Sanscrit,  tcaHang,  for  pleasure  Or  amuse- 
ment), with  the  Buddhisu  (q.  v.),  is  the  nsnn  of  their 
temples  and  convents.  Ori^nally  it  designated  the 
hall  or  halls  where  the  Buddha  Sakyamui.i,  aiid  the 
piiesls  by  wbom  he  was  oceumpanied,  used  to  meeii 
bill  when  these  halli  were  convened  into  Umples,  the 
name  Vihara  was  applied  to  them ;  and  when  the  tem- 
ples became  the  centre  of  a  number  of  habitations  in 
which  the  priests  belonging  to  Che  temples  resided,  the 

name.  Properly  Ihe  Vihara  merely  designates  the 
Buddhistic  temple,  and  it  is  generally  used  in  this  re- 
slricied  sense.  Ill  Ceylon  they  are  permanent  strucl- 
ures,  (he  walls  being  plastered  and  the  roofs  covered 


12  VILLAGE 

with  [ilea.  Sunoanding  tbe  sanclinn  there  is  aauallT 
a  nanow  room,  in  which  are  images  and  puntinm. 
Opposite  the  door  of  entrance  there  ii  another  door,  pru- 
tecled  by  a  screen ;  and  when  this  is  withdrmwo  an  im- 
age of  Buddha  it  seen,  which  occupies  nearly  the  whiJi 
of  the  apartment,  with  a  table  or  allor  brfiire  it  upon 
which  flowers  are  placed.  The  walls  o.'  the  Vihara  ate 
covered  with  paintings,  and  its  sloriea  generally  illus- 
trate some  legend  of  Buddha's  life.  Sometimes  no  land 
is  attached  lo  the  Viharas-,  but  often  thev  atv  rich  iu 
landa.     See  Hardy,  EoMlerrt  Monaddm  (Load.  18H>). 

Vi  Laica  Removesda  (for  remotng  laicfom\  b 
English  ecclesiastical  law,  is  a  writ  which  lies  where  a 
clerk  intrudes  ium  an  ecclesiastical  benefice,  and  hokit 

of  the  laity.  By  this  writ  the  sheriff  is  enjuiiird  to  re- 
move by  force,  and  to  arrest  and  imprimn  all  prnaot 

the  Court  of  the  Queen's  Bench,  where  the  offenders  an 
punished  and  restitulion  granted  to  the  sufferer. 

Vila,  LorenEO,  a  Spanish  painter,  son  of  Senen, 
was  bgni  at  Murcia  in  1682.  He  was  Uught  by  his  b- 
ther,  and  executed  some  very  acceptable  works  tot  ib* 
churehes,a(terwbich  he  became  an  ecclesiastic.  He  died 
in  I71B.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hiil.  of  Ihe  Fine  A  rit,  t.  r. 

Vila,  Saneu,  a  Spanish  painter,  wu  bom  in  tbe 
I7th  century  at  Valenda.  He  studied  with  Esteliao 
March,  and  reuded  mostly  at  Murcia,  where  be  «»■ 
cuted  Diany  worlts  for  Che  churches,  conventa,  and  pab- 
lic  edifices.  Hia  paintings  are  said  to  be  more  remark- 
able for  correcmesa  of  design  and  fine  eipreaaiDO  in  Ut 
beads  Chan  for  beauty  uf  coloring.  He  died  in  17C& 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Bill,  of  the  Fine  Ani,a.v. 

Vlladomat,  i>on  Airiimio,  a  Spanish  paintcf,  was 
bom  at  fiaicdona  in  1678.  He  made  rapid  progr^  ia 
tbe  art;  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  wu  emjiloyed 
to  paint  a  series  of  pictures  from  the  life  of  Si.  Bnuio 
fur  the  monastery  of  the  Carthusians  at  Monte  AUtgrL 
He  afterwarda  painted  a  similar  series  from  the  life  ot 
St.  Francis,  for  tbe  monastery  of  Ihe  Franciscan^  at 
Barcelona.  He  executed  many  other  works  for  Ihc 
churches  and  public  edifices  of  Barcelona.  He  slss 
painted  landscapes,  battle  scenes,  and  portraits  with 
equal  success,  and  has  been  regarded  by  aome  as  ibt 
foremost  Spanish  punter  of  his  dav.  He  died  in  1753. 
See  Spooner, Biog.  BiM. oftht  Fin  Artt,e.v. 

Vilgard  (or  Bllgard),  a  grammarian  and  herak 
of  Ravenna,  flourished  in  Ihe  first  part  of  the  llch  oe- 
tury.  He  wu  chaiged  with  being  possessed  with  evil 
spirits  in  the  form  of  Virgil,  Horace,  Juvenal,  etc,  anl 
with  leaching  tubveinve  doclrines;  and  wu  tbei*AiR 
condemned  In  death.  See  I4eander,  Uiit.  of  the  Ctard, 
iii,  602. 

Vlll,  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology,  was  one  of  the 
brothers  of  Odin,  and  a  member  of  tbe  Triad. 

VlllacU,  Don  Ni(X)i-AB  DB,  a  Spanish  painter,  was 
of  noble  birth,  a  native  of  Murcia.  He  was  first  io- 
slracced  in  design  in  his  native  city,  and  then  sent  t> 
Madrid,  where  he  received  instniclion  from  Dud  IKegb 
Velasquex.  He  afterwards  studied  in  Italy;  and  en  biL 
return  to  Murcia,  executed  aome  important  woiks  fce 
the  churches  and  con\-ents,  which  have  been  highly 
commended.  The  principal  ones  are  a  aeries  of  piciuns 
in  the  life  of  San  Blai,  in  the  convent  of  La  Santtuoia 
Trinidad  de  Calzados; — and  the  Martyrxioin  'fSi,  Lo- 
muo,  in  the  Church  of  the  Dominicans.  Being  a 
wealthy  nobleman,  he  painted  only  fur  atnasement;  Ui 
works  are  therefore  rare.  Hedietl  in  1690,  SeeSpna- 
ec  Biov.  Uiel.ofthe  Fiite  Artt,a.  m. 

VlUaga,  a  collection  of  huuasa  leaa  rvgnlat  aid  im- 
portoiit  than  a  town  (q.  v.)  or  city  (q.  v.).     See  Toeo- 

I.  Original  Termt. — The  word  "  village"  stands  in  ih« 
A.V.  as  the  rendering  of  many  Heb.  and  Gr.  words.  «<• 
eral  of  which  represent  quite  other  ideas. 


VILLAGE  1 

1.  The  proper  Hcb.  teim  lai  villig«  ii  "^BS,  hapkSi 
i_tioai  ^f^,  to  mvtr;  Sept.  nu^iii;  Vulg.  vOla),  whict 
•ppora  aba  in  the  farma  *1*'D3,  iephir  (Neh.  vi,  3 
CHftii.  n'rufui),  and  ^B3,  kdpher  (1  Sam.  vi,  18,  rw/iq 
nUti ),  anil  ii  represrntfd  by  the  Anbic  ttfr,  idll  n 
much  in  use.  !□  the  Heb.  the  preDx  capiar  implied  i 
Tegular  village,  aa  Capemaum,  which  place,  however 
hail  in  later  dmes  oulgrDwn  the  limits  implied  bj  in 
oHfpnal  deaignation  (L^htfool,  infra ;  Stanley,  Sin.  dm 
Pai.p.521-537;  I  Mace.  vii.Sl).     Sec  CaPHAR. 

Anotber  term,  ^Sn,  dtcaiir  {(mnt  l^n.  (»  hedge  tn 
Sept.  iirav\if  or  xiirftji ;  Tulg.  ritla^  ciuteUum^  or  uppi- 
-<bn),  pioperW  an  mdinuit,  ia  used  of  farm  building 
eacloainf-  a  court ;  of  the  encampment  of  namada  (Gen. 
xxriii,  16;  DeuL  ii, 26, etc) ;  anil  of  hamleta  near  tnw 
(Joah.  siii.  28,  28;  xv.  82  aq.;  1  Chron.  iv,  33;  Ni 
xi,  2,  5),  eapedallv  the  unwalled  niburbe  near  walleil 
towns  {l*T.  xxv.'ai ;  comp.  ver.  34),  They  w( 
realitr  "  paat«ral  Mttlemetits,"  or  little  encloaures 
«d  partly  Tor  shelter,  and  partly  as  a  hind  of  defence 
frnm  the  wandering  Arabs.    Tbe  ■ 

'  a  pitched  in  the  form 


n  the  CI 


Uof  t): 


Arabs,  who  arrange  thei 
s^e  of  better  iwcurity  and  mutual  ptotection  (Wilson, 
LamlM  of  lie  Bible,  ii.T  10;  Robinson,  Aw.  ii,  468).  In 
WHne  parts  of  Syria  the  term  hauih  is  applied  to  a  few 
houses,  which  are  coniUucted  n  ai  to  join  together,  and 
thereby  present  a  liefence  against  the  Arab  robbeis,  the 
entrance  into  the  hauik  being  usually  tbrougb  a  strunii 
wooden  ^aie,  which  is  Brmly  secured  every  evening 
(Burckbardt,  Syria,  p.  212).  Such,  probably,  of  what- 
ever material  formed,  were  the  villages  spoken  of  in 
connecIioB  with  some  of  tbe  ancient  town*  of  the  Is- 
nelitea:  those,  especiallj,  which  bordered  on  paatnre 
or  desert  lands.  The  places  to  which,  in  tbe  Old  Test., 
the  term  chatier  is  applied  were  mostlv  in  Ihe  outakitta 
of  the  country  (Stanley.  Sin.  and  Pat.  p.  626). 

DilTerent  from  these  were  the  "i^SIl  mJ3,  daughter! 
of  lilt  city,  which  were  small  towni  or  vilkges  lying 
near  U>  ■  great  fity,  dependent  on  it,  and  included  ui 
^r  its  jiitisdiction.    See  DAttoHTEu. 

The  terra  n^.  cAairiti,  from  r\^n,lo  bnallu,U>  lie 
^n.piittvo/'fina^.  though  othera  prefer  to  derive  it  froi 
the  Aralnc  cAaim,  ameoMt,  in  gyrun  m  Jlrxii,  whence 
eketeaon,  a  letU,at  a  duittr  of  leaU,  '  ■  ' 
also  denotes  a  village.  The  term 
plural,  and  only  ia  refeimce  to  certain  villages  or  small 
towns  bearing  tbe  name  of  Havoth-Jair.  These  art 
mentioned  in  Numb,  xiciii,  42 ,  Deuciii,  14;  Josh.xiii, 
30:  Judg.  1,4;  t  Kings  iv,  tS.    See  Havoth-jaih. 

Id  the  New  Test,  the  term  tiifiti  is  applied  to  Beth- 
pbage  (Matt,  xxi,  2),  Bethany  (Uke  ii,B8;  John  xi,  1), 
Emmaus  (Luke  xxiv,  13),  Bethlehem  (John  vii,  42). 
A  distinction  between  city  or  town  (n-oAtc)  and  village 
{»;■■))  is  painted  out  in  Luke  viii,  1.  Ou  tbe  other 
hacid,  Betbsaida  is  called  TiiAii' (Ik<  lOi  John  i,  4G), and 
abo  cufiT)  (Maik  viii,  S3, 26),  unless  by  the  latter  word 
we  are  to  anderstand  the  suburbs  of  the  town,  which 
o  belong  to  "country"  (vi,  66).    The 


villages  of  Cm- 


rdation  of  depend 

peats  to  be  denoted  bv  the  phras 

area  Philippi"  (viii,  27).      Bolhiai 

which  Herod  fhilip  II  allowed  tbe  dignity  uf  a  city 

(jDSephas,.lii'.xviii,2, 1),  is  called  iroAic;  unless  these 

two  are  one  and  tbe  same  place  (Thomson,  Land  and 

Boot). 

i.  Other  temu  are  improperiy  thus  rendered.    That 
Bab.  iii,  14,  Ihe  plur.  of  I^f ,  par6i  (from  inf,  lo  Brpa- 

Ii  ihnuhl  he  "capUins,"  or  "eminent  men."  men  sepa- 
nted  by  their  rank  or  pmwens  from  the  masn  (Sept.  ^ii- 
tvn-oi;  "Vaig. princept, pn^taui).  In  Judg.  v.  T,  II, 
the  oripiate  'fM^B.^wnudn,  properly  nitiri  (Sept.  ^ffo. 


13  ViLLALPANDO 

rni),  is  rendered  "villages;"  and   Eiek.  xxxviii,  II, 

r.lTJp,  peroidlh,  means  "  open  country."  Tbe  cognate 
noun  ■'I'J^.iKraii,  however,  signifying  a  countryman, 
a  rustic,  with  ^^3  prefixed,  siguilieB  a  "country  vil- 
lage" ifiptZmos,  oppidum). 

The  word  B^SO,  migrath  (from  BJnS,  lo  draw  oul ; 
nipiaropiav;  tuburiaHiim),  transl.  "village"  in  Lev. 
XXV,  31,  is  more  correctly  rendered  in  ver.34  "suburb." 
II.  Comparaliee  SfofeiiKnU.— There  is  liulc  in  the 
Old  Teat,  to  enable  us  more  precisely  to  define  a  village 
of  Palestine,  beyond  tbe  fact  that  it  was  destitute  uf 
walls  or  external  defences.  Persian  villages  are  spoken 
of  in  similar  terms  (F.zek.  xxxviii,  II ;  Esth.  ix,  19). 
The  rabbins  make  the  distinction  between  a  city  0''S) 
and  a  village  (1B3)  lo  lie  in  tbe  former  having,  and 
the  latter  wanting,  the  number  of  leamOd  men  (ten) 
deemed  requisite  to  entitle  a  pUce  to  a  synagogue 
(Lightfoot,CAoroffrBpA.jWuO./'r«mMJ.c.98:  and  //or. 
lJeb.ia  Mall,  ie,  23).  This  is  a  distinction,  however.so 
purely  arbitrary  and  artidcial  that  it  is  worthless  for  any 
practical  purpose.  Galilee,  in  our  Lard's  lime,  contain- 
ed many  villages  and  village-towns;  and  Joaephus  >b}-s 
that  ill  bis  time  there  were  in  Ualilee  two  hundred  and 
four  towns  and  vilUges  (TrSAnc  icai  ni/ioO,  some  of 
which  last  had  walls  (Josephus,  Li/r,  g  46).  At  present 
tbe  country  is  almost  depopulated  (Raumer,  Paldtl.  p. 
106;  SCaaley, Sin.and  Pal.  p.S8i).  Most  modem  Turk- 
ish and  Persian  villages  have  a  menzil  or  mtiihi/eA,  a 
house  for  travellers  (Burckhardt,  .Syiw,  p.  295 ;  Robin- 
son, ii,  19;  Msrtyn,  Lift,  p.  437).  Arab  vilUges,  as 
found  in  Arabia,  are  often  mere  coUect ions  of  stone  hiifa 
— "  long,  low,  rude  hovels,  roofed  only  with  the  stalks 
of  palm-leaves,"  or  covered  for  a  time  with  tent-cloths, 
which  are  removed  when  the  tribe  change  their quartera. 
Others  are  more  solidly  built,  as  are  most  of  the  modem 
viJlsges  of  Palestine,  though  in  some  the  dwellings  are 
mere  mud-huts  (Robinson, ffu.i,  137;  ii,  13, 14,44,387; 
fIasselquiBt,rrai!.p.l69i  Stanlev.^tn.und />aj:  p.28S; 
App.  §  88,  p.  625).  Arab  vilhigeii  of  Ihe  Hejii  and  Ye- 
men  often  consist  of  huts  with  drcuUr  roofi  of  leaves 
or  grass,  resembling  the  description  given  by  Sallust  of 
the  Numidian  taapalia,  viz.  ships  with  the  keel  upper- 
most (Sallust,  Jug.  13;  Shaw,  TroB.  p.  220;  Niebuhr, 
De«T.Aif-4rai.p.64). 

VILLAGE,  in  ancient  ecclesiastical  nsage  as  distin- 
guished from  a  dig,  was  a  place  having  no  magistrates 
of  its  own  and  no  laws  except  such  as  form  a  part  of 
Ihe  government  and  laws  of  Ihe  city  on  which  11  is  de- 
pendent. Some  villages,  however,  were  set  apart  as 
dioceses  and  had  bishops  appointed  over  ihem.  lii  the 
irly  Church,  the  chorfpiimpi  were  appointed  to  super- 
itend  the  work  in  the  villages.  See  Bingbam,  Chritt. 
A  ntig.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xiv ;  bk.  ix,  oh.  iL 

ViUalpando,  Franolsco  »k  Torrkbrahciio  dk, 
I  learned  Spanish  lawyer  of  Granada,  nephew  of  Juan 
Bantista.  was  bom  at  Cordova  in  1670,  and  died  ihere 

ictei,  especiollv  on  dcmonnlogy,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Vouv.  Biog.  aiairaU,  s.  v. 

VUlalpftndo,  J'nan  Bantiata,  a  learned  Spanish 
smmenuior,  was  born  at  Cordova  in  1662.  At  the  age 
if  twenty-eight  years  he  entered  the  Onler  of  the  Jesu- 
its.   He  was  distinguished  for  his  theological  and  math- 

latical  knowledge,  and  as  a  commenlator.  Dupin  a>- 
that  he  was  one  of  the  most  learned.     He  was 


lilled  ii 


cnpiion 


Temple  he  exhausted  a  . 

ind  fancy  in  making  it  after  (he  plan  of  perfection  as 
given  byGod  himself.  lie  died  at  l{onK',May  23, 160d. 
He  is  the  author  of  /n  Eirck.  Krplanatiowa  ri  Appa- 
falm  Urbii  ac  Tempti  llierosnlymilani  VommenlaTiit  rl 
fraaginibiit  IButMilut  (Rome,  1696-1604,  3  vols.  f.iL). 
See  Antonii  BHiioik'm  Hifpaiaca;  Alegambe,  BMi- 
ilheea  ScHplonim  Socitlalis  Jria;  Joeher,  Ai" 


VILLAMENA  7i 

Cdtkrlm-Ltx.  s.  v. ;  Winer,  HanShueh  dir  throlog.  Lil- 
B-afflr,  i,220:  FUrat, fli«.  Jud  iu,478;  HoeTcr,  .Veur. 
Biog.Gii>iralr,».i.     (B.  P.) 

Vlllamell*  ITranckihx),  an  Italian  deaigDer  and 
engnver,  was  born  U  AHisi  about  11166.  He  HeiiC  to 
Rome  Juring  the  pontilkaW  of  SiitUu  V  aiid  Btudied 
designing  froni  tbe  antique  and  the  irorka  of  the  great 
miiten.  His  (riatei  are  execaled  entirely  wilb  the 
graver,  iu  ■  miUerly  BLyie.  Hla  prinU  are  conndered 
defective  on  account  of  the  lights  being  too  equally  dis- 
tributed over  the  irholp  sulijccl,  but  Ihc  defect  receives 
a  cotnpensation  in  the  oorrectneu  of  the  drawing  and 
the  admirable  expression  of  the  heads.  Among  his 
principal  worlis  arc,  Mma  Shmrimi  Uit  Bnara  Serpml 
to  tht  Iiradita,  after  Ferran  da  Faenia:— ^Ar  Virgm 
and  fnftmt  Chritl,  vM  SI.  FrancU,  after  the  ume  :— 
Tit  liolg  Fiimils,  vfh  SI.  John,  St.  KtiKtbnk,  and  SI. 
Amt,  alter  Raphael  (1602,  1611):— £r.  Brum  md  kii 
Companvmt  Doing  Ffnance  in  the  Daeri,  afEer  Lanfran- 
co: — the  Ti^xig^liMyn  from  the  Oo«,  after  Baroccio: — 
the  Prriratatvm  n  Ihf  TrmpU,  after  Paolo  VenincM  :— 
a  aet  of  twenty  scriptural  subjects  from  Raphsei's  paint- 
ing! in  the  Vatican.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hiit.  of  tilt 
Fine  ArU,u-<i. 

TllUnova  (S|l  Vittamuva,  Fr.  Viiieniutit),  Thom- 
as OP,  a  Romish  saint  and  author,  was  bom  at  Fuen- 
llana,inthedioceaeorLeon,in  1487  (?),  but  bis  family 
belonged  to  Villanova,  He  inherited  a  charitable  dis- 
position from  hia  parents,  and  was  trained  to  such  a  de- 
gree of  piety  tbat  he  received  tbe  title  of  "  the  Child  of 
Mary."*  His  education  was  obtained  in  the  Univereitv 
of  AlcaUL  After  teaching  philoaoph?  at  Alcal&  and 
Salamanca,  he  renounced  the  wurid,  and  in  !61T  entered 
the  Order  of  Augustinian  Eremites,  devoting  himself, 
after  his  oonnecration,  wholly  M  preaching  and  tbe  care 
■        "  austerity  ^leedily  gave 


mrankai 


er  Salamanca,  Burgoa,  and  VaUadulid. 
and  beyond  that  to  the  office  of  provincial  over  Anda- 
luaia  and  Castile.  He  was  cieiUted  with  the  poesesaior 
of  prophetic  powers. 


of  Spain 


Thet 


or  Charie 


le  archbishopric  of  (Jrai 


irhi, 


confessor,  and  ufTered 
and  after  Thomas  hai 
inducted  him  into  the  arcbtushopric  of  Valencia,  in  1544. 
Yillanova'a  attention  was  chiefly  given  to  preaching 
BDd  devotional  exercises  in  this  aa  in  his  former  stations. 
He  made  a  visitation  of  his  diocese,  held  a  synod  id  the 
interestaarrerortii,made  provision  for  schools  and  hos- 
pitals, and  devoted  most  of  his  income  to  charitable 
uses.  Unable,  by  reason  of  impaired  health,  to  attend 
of  Trent,  his  prayer  yet  rescoed  the  Span- 


Bfn™ 


ipenli 


age  thiibrr,  and  it  also  reHUed  a  bam  which  had  been 
emptied  of  its  stom  U>  feed  the  poor.  He  died  Nov.8, 
155.1,  and  was  buried  in  the  Augustine  church  at  Va- 
lencia. At  the  time  of  his  burial  a  boy  fell  from  a 
house,  but  is  reported  to  have  been  preserved  IVnm  in- 
jury by  the  intercession  of  the  depsned  one,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  burial  services.  Such  miracles  led  Paul 
V  tu  beatify,  and  Alexander  VII  U,  canoniie  (1666), 
Villanova.  Hisday  was  fixed  at  SepL  18.  Villanova'a 
literary  remains  consist  of  sermuns  and  a  Commtnlar!/ 
oBC(iiKMu(Alcalfi,15UI;  Brescia,  1613;  Cologne,16I4: 
Augsbuqi,  lT5i,  and  often).  Quevedo  published  Villa- 
nova's  Lift,  and  Hiimburg  published  the  work  in  a 
French  translation  (Paris,  1666).  See  /I  c(a />'^., . Sep- 
tember {AntV,  1755),  T,  799-892 ;  Heiaog,  ReaUEmy- 
Uop.  a.  V. !  Hoefer,  Konv.  Hiog,  Cinriait,  s.  v. ;  Jame- 
son, Lrgemdi  of  tie  Motuuiie  Ordrrr,  p.  199  114.     See 

VlLLINELTE,  HoafltAI.  SiSTIHS  OF. 

ViUarot,  Fonlques  da,  grand- muter  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  and  brother  of  Guil- 
laume,  aoon  after  his  election  (1307)  put  into  effect  the 
designs  of  his  brother  at  Rhodes.  See  HospiTaLLEbs. 
In  1309  he  resigned  hia  powers  and  retired  to  France. 


!4  VILLEGAIGNON 

He  died  Se|>t.  1,  1327.  at  the  CaslU  of  Leiran,  is  Lm- 
goedoc.     See  Biographir  fmrtrw/fr.  s.  v. 

Villaret,  Ouillaoma  da,  graud- master  of  tb* 
Knights  uf  Su  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  burti  of  an  old 
familv  of  Provence.  He  was  at  lint  gitior  of  Si.  GlUn 
in  Lauguedoe,  and  in  1300  succeeded  Odo  of  Pin.  as 
grand-master.  His  plans  for  the  safety  of  the  order 
rievcdved,  upon  his  death,  in  1307,  upon  bb  broibn 
FoulqueB(q.v.). 

ViUaret,  Joan  ChryBoatoma,  a  Freitch  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Kodez.  Jan.  27,  1739.  He  studied  at  tbe 
Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and.  after  teaching  there,  be- 
came grand-vicar,  canon,  and  theologian  of  bis  native 
city.  Under  Necker  he  entered  thecivil  service.  Dur- 
ing the  French  Kevolulion,  he  lived  privately  in  the 
country.  In  11^  he  was  made  bishop  of  Aioirtw.  but 
transfeiml  to  Che  see  of  CasaL     On 


then 


n  of  Piedmont  to  Sardini 


ttParii. 


ami  thenceforth  lived  in  retirement.     He  died  al 
May  12. 1824.     See  Biographit  CitiefTtHit,  i 

TlllaiB,  the  name  of  a  French  family  of  Lytw 
noted  for  the  part  which  it  took  iu  public  affainduring 
the  1 6th  century. 

X.  Frak^ih.  bom  in  1514,  and  died  Nov.  I.  1581 
was  the  son  of  Pierre,  a  public  functionary  of  his  native 
city.  As  lieutenant  of  the  priiidial,  he  aided  in  tbe 
wsr  against  the  Huguenots,  who  pillaged  his  bouse  in 
1062.  Ueleftan^ir*^ilii>Scimimn(iJrr.4a((^whick 
Balthasar,  one  of  his  sons,  published  iu  1594. 

3.  HifXRi,  nephew  of  Pierre  3,  was  bom  in  16!0,aBl 
died  Dec  28,  I69S.  As  coadjutor  of  his  uncle  (afts 
1652),  he  scrupulously  attended  to  the  duties  of  ibt  tee. 

3.  JteoUE,  brother  of  Pierre  2,  died  Jan.  IS.  leiC 
He  acted  as  clerk  of  the  French  PariiatrwDt  in  I5M, 
and  canon  and  architect  of  Vienne.  where  be  becane 
bishop  in  1599.  He  was  active  in  subsening  the  ia- 
teieslg  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

4.  PiGREtE  (I),  brother  of  Francis,  was  borii  in  1517. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Padua  (1539).  and 
attached  himself  to  cardinalToumon,  who  ncropied  hiia 
with  several  imporUnt  errands.  In  1555  he  beamc 
clerk  of  Parliament,  in  1561  bishop  of  Mirepoix,  and  ia 
1575  archbishop  of  Vienne.  He  sustained  Henri  III 
against  tbe  Esutes  of  Blois.  In  1686  he  rengned  all 
his  dignitte*,  and  lived  in  retirement  till  bis  death.  Nor. 
14, 1592.     He  U  the  author  of  some  ascetic  Ireatin. 

5.  Pierre  (2).  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  bora 
March  3, 1545.  He  was  made  doctor  by  the  Sorbaiae, 
and  in  1576  succeeded  his  uncle  as  bishop  of  Uirrpoii 
and  in  1587  as  archbishop  of  Vienna.  In  1599  he  re- 
signed his  office,  and  retired  Srst  to  Annonay,  and  aft<r- 
HBTds  to  Lyons.    He  died  July  18, 1618,  al  Saiot-tiefui> 

6.  F'tekhk  (3),  coumn  of  Pierre  8,  became  hi>  coad- 
jutor in  1612,  and  succeeded  him  in  16M  aa  aichbisli- 
op  ofVienne.     He  died  in  1663. 

VUlafro7.  Guil.l.A(i]tE  oe.  a  French  Orientali>l. 
was  bora  in  Paris,  March  5,  1690.  He  studied  at  the 
Abbey  of  Tiron  and  at  the  Seminaiy  of  Besan^oi.  and 
after  ordination  and  reception  of  tbe  doctorate  be  be- 
came abbot  of  Blaaimont,  in  Ituienne,  and  finallv  (175;) 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  de  l>ance  at  Pari^ 
where  he  died  Afott  4, 1773.  He  made  knovn  seivcal 
valuable  Biblical  MSS.,  founded  the  Socieie  <les  Capados 
Hebraisams.  and  wrote  several  archciikiijical  works,  fur 
which  see  Hoefer,  A'oar.  jSioj.  6'<w™/r,  s.  v, 

VlllagaiKDon,  Nicoi.a»  DiRANn  uic  a  Maltese 
knight  who  achieved  an  unenviable  notoriety  iu  cm- 
French  Reformation.  He  was  a  native  of  Brittany. 
and  had  dislinguiahed  himself  as  an  officer  of  the  royal 
navy.  In  1564  he  held  the  rmnk  of  vice-admiial'of 
Brittany.  A  dispute  with  the  gnveniot  of  Brest  tbmi- 
ened  10  deprive  him  of  tbe  royal  favor,  and  he  coiirrived 
tbat  a  succeasfu)  expedition  to  South  America  would  be 


VTLLKGAIGNON  78 

king'*  conwnc,  he  ipproached  •dmiial  Coligiiy,  giving 
bimseir  out  as  ■  Proleslanl^  and  repreKnliiig  ihal  a  col- 
ony ill  South  America  wouUI  provide  tha  aureat  nfuge  I 
for  his  coreligianistB  against  the  penccutione  Ihej  were  i 
»  coiiiunLly  mule  In  endure.  Hcauled  from  Havre  de 
Grace  Julj'  IG,  1555,  with  two  yttttit  bearing  *  large  > 
nuiDber  oT  ctrionUia  and  >  body  of  aoldierg  and  laborers, 
and  reached  Brazil  in  the  fallowing  November.  Tbe , 
colony  was  locatni  on  an  island  near  Kiu  de  Janeiro,  to 
which  they  gave  the  nanra  of  Coligny.  Here  the  work 
of  fortifying  engaged  the  attention  of  tbe  commander 
to  an  extent  tbat,  joined  with  the  insufficient  and  un- 
palatable food  the  n>en  received,  produced  much  diaaal- 
iafaclion  among  bis  subordinates;  but  tbe  display  of 
zealous  energy  for  the  esiabliihing  of  a  Proteatant 
Church,  which  he  still  itept  up,  served  lo  quiet  the  cot- 
oniata.  In  March  <T  or  10),  1657,  a  second  expediUon 
from  France  airiveil,  which  brought  about  three  hun- 
dred aouls,  among  Ihem  the  preachers  Peter  Richer  and 
WiUiam  Cbanier;  a  reputed  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne 
named  Cointa  -,  John  de  Lery,  the  principal  bisl«rian  of 
tbe  enurprise;  and  six  females.  Villegaignan  repeated 
the  pledges  he  had  made  reapecling  the  erangelical 
worship  and  organiutinn,  and  Richer  preached,  on  tl 
day  of  arrival,  a  sermon  which  was  probably  the  flr 
evaiigelicar  sermon  heard  in  the  Sew  World. 

The  arrival  of  reinforce meuta  reliei'ed  the  governor 
of  tbe  fears  which  a  conspiracy  among  his  people  hod 

.cited.     He  at  once  employed  the  new  colonists 


5  VILLENE0VE 

of  all  hands  at  the  pumps.     A  careless  s«ilor  burned  olT 

mice  were  eagerly  devoured,  as  were  aUn  shoes  and  log- 
wood chips.  The  water  also  failed.  Hut  the  port  of 
Blavet,  in  Brittany,  was  finally  reached,  May  36, 1558, 
and  the  passengers  dispersed  to  their  homes.  A  casket. 
Bent  over  by  Villegaignon,  was  delivered  lu  the  magis- 
mte  of  Hennebon,  and,  on  being  opened,  was  found  to 

iivet  the  returned  colonists  over  to  destruction.  The 
magistrate,  however,  disregarded  the  plan,  and  aided 
the  proposed  vicrims  to  continue  their  journey.  Kicher 
became  pastor  at  La  Rocbelle,  and  lived  to  see  the  UrBt 
siege  of  that  place.  John  de  Lery  died  later  as  pastor 
at  Berne.  Sooii  afterwards  the  colonv  was  whollv  given 
up,  and  VillegatgnoQ  returned  to  France.  Cointa  had. 
previously  been  banished  from  tbe  island,  and  was  never 
heard  uf  aflerwards.  The  Portuguese  stormed  the  fort, 
cut  down  the  remaining  garrison  as  heretics,  and  con- 
veyed the  cannon  lo  Lisbon.  In  later  life  Villegaignon. 
wmta  a  violent  letterag^Dstthe  Palatine  Frederick  III,, 
on  the  occasion  of  his  introducing  the  Reformed  doc- 
trine into  hia  principality,  and  was  answered  br  Peter 
Boquin.  He  died  miseniUy  in  1571.  He  had  destroy- 
ed the  earliest  foreign  missionary  enterprise  of  the  Evan> 


dChur 


(he  foniRcationa,  bi 
their  religion,  so  t> 


allow 


le  free  ei 


was  preached  to  Ihem 
escii  secular  oay  auu  two  on  Sundays.  The  Ixird's 
supper  was  lo  be  adminislered  once  a  month  \  but  dis- 
putea,  originated  by  the  Sorbouoist  Cointa,  arose  on  the 
dtsl  ucca«on  of  ita  celebration.  He  demanded,  on  tbe 
autboriiy  of  the  Church  fathers,  that  water  should  be 
mixed  with  the  wine;  that  the  ministers  should  wear 
sacerdotal  rubes,  etc.  In  baptism  he  required  that  oil, 
spittle,  and  salt  should  be  added  to  the  water.  Ville- 
gaignon su{qiorted  his  demands,  and  eritieised  tbe  con- 
stitution of  the  CbuTcb  of  Geneva,  upon  which  the  col- 
ony was  to  be  modelled.  The  matter  was  finally  re- 
ferred to  Calvin  at  (ieneva,  with  the  proviso  that  Rich- 
er should  not  discuv  controverted  points  in  the  pulpit 
while  his  colleague  Chartier  was  absent  to  obtain  Cal- 
vin's deciuon.  Chartier  departed,  and  at  this  juncture 
Titlegaignou  threw  off  the  mask.  He  had  learned  that 
his  bereticol  colony  had  excited  the  anger  of  his  popish 
masters  in  Prance,  and  he  now  pronounced  Calvin  a 
heretic,  and  declared  that  he  would  accept  no  other  de- 
cision than  that  of  the  Sorijonne.  He  required  the  in- 
ception of  tbe  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  after 


See  Lerius  Bnrgundus,  ffi^.  Narigat  in  BrasiL  etc 
(Gentv.  1586);  Thuanus,  ffwf.  rat  Temp.  (Offenbach^ 
1609) ;  Crespin,  Hiit.  6a  ifartgrt ,-  Beta,  Hilt.  Eedtt.  i 
Calvin,  EpiMl.  et  Kapoai,  (Gener.  1575);  Bayle,  Dkl. 
Hilt,  ft  CHt.  s.  V.  "Villegaignon"  and  s.  v.  '-Richer;" 
Strove,  P/Siz.  Kirchtaidil.  (Frankf.  1721 ).  —  Herzog, 
RraUKHCgkiop,  s,  v. 

VUlegas-Matmolajo,  Pedro  de,  a  Spanish 
painter,  was  bom  at  Seville  in  1520.  He  is  supposed 
lo  have  studied  in  Ilaly.  He  executed  some  paintings 
for  the  churches  and  public  edifices  of  Seville,  and  his. 
best  productions  are  sud  to  equal  those  of  Pedro  Cam> 
pana,  In  whom  his  Vintaiitm  oflkn  I'trptn  Mtiry  to  St.. 
EliuifitA,  in  the  cathedral,  has  often  been  attributed.. 
He  died  in  1597.     See  Spoona,  Biog.  Hiil.  t^  the  Fine 

VlllsnenTA,  Hospitai.  Sistkhh  or.  This  con- 
gregation was  founded  at  Paris,  about  the  middle  of 
tbe  17th  century,  by  Ange  le  Proust,  an  Augustinian 
prior  of  Lwnbalie.  tu  1662  several  noble  ladies  were 
united  in  ■ 


der    I 


le  public 


ihip,  and  even  the  CI 


on,   for 


gregatior 


common  prayer.    He  also  oppressed  the  pious  colonists, 

force.     At  this  time  a  trading- vessel  visited  the  isia 
and  a  large  number  of  the  colonists  resolved  upon  a 
turn  to  EuiDpe ;  and  the  governor  thereupon  contiscai 
their  provisions,  books,  and  toola,  and  drove  them  lo  the 
mainland.     Here  they  gave  themselves  bC  misaic 
labor.     Lery  wrote  down  a  brief  vocabulary  of  wor 
the  language  of  the  Topinambus,  the  fruitage  of  a  brief 
sojourn  extending  over  no  more  than  two  months.    The 
natives  had  received  them  kindly,  but  demanded  re 
netnlion  for  eveiy thing  needed  by  the  exiles;  and  when 
the  latter  had  bartered  away  even  their  clothes,  thi 
were  compelled  to  embark  for  France.    Tbe  vessel  w 
found  to  be  unsesworlhy,  and,  after  voyaging  a  wee 
Sve  of  the  returning  emigrants  prefened  to  risk  Iht 
lives  in  an  open  boat  rather  than  continue  in  the  ship, 
Thi*  boat  was  driven  to  tbe  shore  and  fell  into 
hands  of  Villegaignon,  who  had  four  of  the  five  pasf 
gcrs  put  to  death  as  heretics.    The  fifth  was  spared  be- 
cause he  was  the  only  tailor  in  tbe  colony. 

The  ship  in  the  meantioie  continued  its  voyage,  in 
peded  by  storms  and  constantly  requiring  the  aervici 


which  was  named  i 
honor  of  the  recent  can- 
onization of  St.  Thoma» 
de  Villeneuve.  It  was 
approved  by  a  bull  of  In- 
nocent XII.  U  Proust 
gave  to  it  the  Augustin- 
ian rule,  and  before  his 


ished  and  spread  over 
France,  and  eapeciaUy  in 
Brittany,  including  at  a 

establish racnts.    By  the 

cannot   be  carried  into 


VILLENEUVE 


goDil  work  in  relieving  tt 


<  Tictims  of  the  msHMcres  of 
■Kriioad  are  the  ume  M  the 

priauns,  houses  of  refuge,  hoapilila,  uid  uylume  for  the 

ageiL— Migiie'»Helyot,Wrifr«ftJ^ieu3;.iii,909;  ii-,1416. 

TlUeuenve,  Thomas  ob.  See  Vii.LAirovA,Tuoi<- 

VlllleiB,  CoBine  d«.  a  French  eoclesiauie  hii- 
torisn.  was  bofD  at  St.  Denis,  near  Paris.  Sept.  S,  1683. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Harcuurt,  took  llie 
nile  uf  the  Carmetiles,  taught  philciw^hy  at  Plo^miel, 
and  theology  at  Nantes,  Hennebon,  and  SL  Pol  of  Leon, 
and  after  1727  gave  himself  to  pleaching.     He  finally 


leConv 


tof8t.M 


leine.  and  died  in  l7bS,  leaving  a  BiiUolJttcii  Carmelili- 
ca  <0^leul^  I7S2,  i  vols.  ful.). 

Vllllen,  HeniT  Montagn*,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of 
the  Church  of  England,  was  bom  in  Londtm,  Jin.  4, 
laiS.  His  father  was  the  Hon.  George  Villierm  son  of 
the  earl  of  Cliieiidon.  After  lui^on  in  a  privaie  schtHil, 
he  went  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  graduatetl  in 
1834 ;  wM  ordained  deacon  in  1896,  aail  priest  in  the 
next  year,  when  he  received  frum  the  lord  chancellor 
(he  vicarage  of  Kenilworth.  Previous  to  this  he  had 
been  curat*  of  Deane,  Lancashire.     In  1841  hewaaap- 


rotSl 


n  134T< 


<in  of  St.  Paul's  Catheilral.  in  1856  bishop  of  Carlisle, 

He  died  Aug.  9, 1861.  ltisha]>  Villiers  had  a  very  com- 
manding presence,  and  bis  well-modulated  voice,  his 
dignilicl  manner,  and  bis  evident  ainceiity  greatly  con- 
tributed to  his  succeaa.  As  specimeni  of  composition 
Ibere  was  little  in  his  aennona,  and  when  read  they 
aftm  lame  prDductions-as.  indeed,  is  frequently  the  case 
with  the  lectures  of  mere  pulpit  orators.  Ai  a  Ixindnn 
clergyman  he  was  roost  exemphiiy.  AtTahle,  genial, 
and  kind,  he  was  universally  liked,  and  his  devuiion  to 
the  poor  of  his  Bock  was  earnest  and  real.  He  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  sermons  of  average  literary  mer- 
it, and  several  little  books  of  family  prayers,  tracts,  etc, 
on  which  his  fame  will  not  rest.  In  his  religious  views 
he  was  an  ardent  Evangelical,  and  a  determined  fue  to 
.anything  savoring  of  H  igb-Chutcbisni. 

TlUierB  (<Jr  eiU  dt  Mm),  Philippe  de,  grand- 
master of  the  kmghlsnfKhudes,  grandson  of  the  French 
marshal  Jean  de,  was  bum  at  Beauvais  in  1464.  He 
was  at  first  grand-hospitaller  of  the  order,  later  (1513) 
ambassador  to  the  king,  and  on  Jan.  2^,  1&'21,  was  elect- 
ed grand-master  in  place  of  Caretto.  It  was  a  lime  of 
greatexigencv  with  the  order.  Se«  HuBPiTAU.Kita.  At 
the  falling  of 'the  island  into  the  hands  of  the  Turk^  he 
secured  the  retreat  of  hit  brave  followers. (Jan.  1, 1523), 
wh'>m  he  iransfeTTed  to  Malta,  and  died  there,  Aug.  22, 
1534.     See  Hoefer,  Soue.  Biog.  GmiraU,  a.  v. 

Villlera,  Pierre  de.  a  French  writer,  was  bom  at 
Cognac.  Mav  10, 1648,of  a  Parisian  familv.  After  ear- 
Iv  studv  he  eniere.!  the  Jesuitical  order  (I666),and 
■nervals  that  of  St.  Benedict  (1689),  and  finally  be- 
came prior  of  Si.  Taurin,  He  died  at  Paris.  Oct,  14, 
1728.  leaving  a  number  of  theological  works,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  A'dhf.  Biog.  Gifuralf,  s.  v. 

VilloldO. -Ti'AN  DE,a  Spanish  painter,  flourished  in 
Toleilo  ill  the  first  part  of  the  16th  century.  In  1508 
he  began  the  painting  of  soverat  piclnres  fortheMuzar- 
abic  Chapel,  in  the  catheilral,  which,  with  some  assist- 
ance, be  finished  in  lolO,  In  1647  he  was  employed  by 
Ihi-  bishop  of  Placentia  to  adorn  a  chapel,  which  he  had 
rtbuill,  with  a  series  of  fr>rty-live  pictures  in  sacred  his- 
tory, from  the  fall  of  Adam  lo  the  deaih  of  Christ. 
Tbeee  works  have  been  commended  for  their  [mrilv  of 
Btvle  and  comtctness  of  design.  He  finished  the  chap- 
el'in  lo48.  He  is  hui>p..srd  to  have  dieil  about  1551. 
See  Spooncr,  Biog.  UUl.  oflht  Fmt  A  m,  s,  v. 

Villotte.  .lAcgi-Ks.  a  French  missionary,  -vas  bom 
at   Bnr-k-Duc,  Nov.  I,  1fi.%     In  1673  he  entered  the 


6  VINCENT 

Order  of  the  Jesuits,  and,  after  teaching  for  k 

was  sent  (1688)  to  America,  where  (Aug.  la.  1691)  t« 

took   the  four   monastic  vows.     After  lealnu  lahon 

there,  he  set  out  on  his  return  to  Frauce  (Oct.  29. 170fn, 

stopping  to  report  at  Rome  (1709),  and  Boaliy  twk 

chaise  of  different  colleges  of  the  order  ti 

which  ODCuned  at  St.  Nicolas,  near  Nancy,  Jan.  14,  I7<t 

He  left  aome  religioos  works,  wbu  ' 

Htiefer,  Kaur.  Biog.  Ginirab,  s.  r. 

Vilmar,  Auoubt  Fbieobich  Chf 
doctor  and  professor  uf  theology,  was  bom  Nov.  31 
at  Stolz,  in  Kur-Hesse.  He  studied  theology  ai 
lology  at  Marburg,  and  for  a  number  of  years  1 
professor  at  the  Marburg  Cymnasium.  Iii  18W  be  in 
called  as  member  of  oonsistoiy  to  Caseel,  at 
was  one  of  the  main  supporters  of  the  HaBenpdug  tf- 
gime.  After  the  fall  of  the  latter  in  1855,  Vilmar  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Marliurg,  and  lectiatd 
mainly  on  dogmatics,  practical  ex^esjn,  and 
thfology.  He  died  July  30.  1868.  We  cani 
here  fully  into  the  Church  history  of  Hes9e,wi 
Vilmar  became  connected  under  the  HaaaeiipHii 
iJitration.  Of  hiswritingewe  mention,i^CaHl 
SjpUaii  quam  Prabeat  llarmomia  EcangrUon 
nicu  Diatfcio  Sacuta  IX  Comcnpla,  Commaitalia  (Uar 
burg,  1834)  ^-Z>M  Theotogie  dcr  TAuliarIm  wider  iii 
Thfokgir  der  Rhetorik  (ibid.  I8&4;  3d  ed.  1857):- 
ciUgiam  llgmnohgicim  ( ibiiL  eod. ) :  —  Gadticilt  ia 
Co«/'mo«ulanda  drr  naagrL  KircAt  in  lietim,  tu, 
(ibid.  1860)  -.^Dmlu-ke  A  UtriUmer  m  HriiamdaU  Em- 
Idriiiang  drr  rtangrliichai  GnrXidilt  ( ibid.  II 
Die  h'ailche  KirckmordKuag  rm  1657  is  iirtm  la- 
tamnaihangt  und  ihrfr  BtdtutMmg  fir  itit  Gtgemriirt 
(Frankfort,  1867).  Afier  his  death  were  publishad. 
Die  ohjbS.  CoH/eition  rrkMn,  ed.  Piderit  {GhtenUu 
1870)  :^Dir  Ijrhre  r«n  grinL  A  mit  (Martmrg.  ISTOi  :- 
Throiogiirhe  .Vorof, ed. Israel  (Guiersloh,  1871,3  viih.1: 
—  Von  drr  ciriilL  Kiirienaicit  (Uai^Tg,  1872):— 
Lrirbuch  der  Pattnrallhrohgie.  ed.  Piderit  (GiUenloh. 
1872):— Di-gmalit  (ibid.  1S74-T5.  2  vola.)*_Pni^ 
u.gHnlieAf  Krden  (Marburg,  is:G) —CoB^iam  BUS- 
cum.  PriibiKift:>ilarK<vderlltiUgrnSeliriJldttAllrm 
a.  yrum  TeHanieKU,  ed.  Cbr.  Muller  ([illlenloh.  ISTS. 
™l.  i).  See  Vilroar's  autobic^raphv  in  Strieder's  Cmi- 
Uifff  mer  keintchm  GiUhrlra-GrKhirilr  (CasscL  18631. 
i,  119-140;  Tkeolog.l'iriTerial-Ltxiioii,».v.:  Zucbold. 
Bibl.n«Jog.\i,mt;  LUrrariteher  Hip^brriirr  fir 
duM  kathuL  Dratichbmd.  1868,  p.  402 :  Schurer,  Tirji^ 
/.iVfin/uririftiis  (Uipaic,  1876),  p.  82,25*;  1880,  p. 71 
sq.     (B.P.) 

Vincent  op  Beauvais  [BeUmacnuii-).  sumasd 
the  Spteabtlor,  lived  in  the  fonner  half  of  the  13th  cea- 
tuiy,  and  was  conteniiporary  with  Alexander  Hales,  tai 
Thomas  Aquinas,  etc  He  was  eilucated  in  Burgunly, 
became  a  Dominican  monk  and  a  rstlist  in  philaaophT. 
His  fame  as  a  teacher  and  a  preacher  was  such  that 
Louis  IX  cammanded  his  presence  andentend  inlspo- 
manent  relations  with  him.  He  probablydied  in  1261. 
Vincent  obtained  a  literary  celebrity  through  his  cney- 
chipssdic  works  {Spttuia),  which  contain  a  mictc^  <f 
the  state  of  leaming,  particularly  in  the  departs^  <i 
philosophy,  in  that  day;  and  which  nuniftat  a  sur- 
prising range  of  reading  on  the  part  of  the  aathor,  toi 
poflsess  great  value  for  the  study  of  the  pngrran  ttf 
learning.  The  principal  work.  Speicitbim  Migu,  hai 
three  divisions:  (I)  .SfifCiitan  Kaiuralr,  indndiOK  aH 
natural  science;  (2)  Speculum  fiorfrnoJe.  embrwciag 
philosophy,  grammar,  dialectica,  logic  rhetoric.  etluA 
matbemarics,  physic*,  medicine,  cliemiitty,  akboay. 
etc;  (3)  SpeealaM  HitloruUt,  which  deals  with  nn- 

fourth  iiart,  S/itevItun  Mnnile.  is  spurious.  The  Sperm- 
turn  MtiJHi  was  first  published  at  Slrasburg  in  1 47S.  and 
afterwanls  frequently,  in  Latin  and  also  in  Freorb  aad 
Ihiich  translations.  The  four  Sperxta  were  pnhhsbed 
under  the  title  Siiee.  Qaadruplex  (Duaci,  ItM),  by  lb* 


YINCENT  71 

Senedictinea.  A  patdigogicil  work  trom  the  pen  of 
Viiwegc,  entitled  Ih  Imtilittiom  Fiiiorum  Rtgionm  itu 
A'oMiun,  bu  likewise  become  fsmoiu.  It  was  pub- 
liabed  at  Bule  in  1481  by  Amerbacb,  ia  a  volume  con- 
uiniog  also  the  Tnuialut  de  Gratia  Dri;  the  /.lier  ili 
Lmtdibui  Virgna  Glorioia  ;  Liher  de  St.  Jok.  Evangt- 
li*la  ;  Kpiit.  Ccmtolat.  ad  Rtgem  FraacoruJn  Ladoviram, 
«(e.  Several  other  works  were  written  by  Vincent, 
irhich  are  extant  ooly  in  maDUHcript  rorm.  See  Schlos- 
■er.  ViKcaU  urn  Beamaii,  eu.  (Frankf.  1819) ;  Bibtio- 
graphie  Cniixrtdte  (Paris,  1827),  ili»,  119.  — Henog, 
Seaf-Ewyldop.  a.  v. 

Vincent  OF  Lkbihs,  a  monk  and  priest,  bold)  an 
important  place  in  the  dogmaiics  of  the  Cburcli  of 
Roine  thniD)[h  his  little  book  ComnumiwrHi  Duo  pro 
■Calheiiar  Ftiki  A  tiliqailale  el  Umvmitale  ado.  Pm- 
Jinta*  Ommiunx  HartHcarwn  Nonitala;  but  histoiy  has 

life,  and  ibal  liitle  is  drawn  simply  from  the  preface  of 
the  Cemmomloriiim  and  from  a  few  scattered  notico  in 
<JeiinsdiDs,  De  Virii  lUuitribai,  cb.  IxiT.  He  waa  a 
native  of  Uaul,  became  monk  and  priest  at  l^rins,  lived 
under  Thnxkniiu  II,  and  died  in  tlie  reign  uf  Valen- 
liniaii  I,  according  to  the  Roman  martyntogy.  May  23, 
A.D.  450.  The  Comiotaionam  was  oomposed  about 
lubsequenttu  the  Synod  of  Epbesus  {Comm. 


17  VINCENT 

that  aniiquiiy,  within  the  pale  of  tbe  Catholic  Church 
itself,  was  divided  ugion  many  questions,  though  he 
gives  tbe  definition  that  what  a  mijorily  ofsucmJufH 
and  magitlri  have  deieimiiied  is  Catholic.  He  requires 
even  councils  to  legitimate  themselves  by  tbe  tests  of 
uiDFcrsilua  and  anIiqtaXat,  and  argues  that  the  Catholic 
body  of  doctrine  is  an  organism  which  g^ow^  but  affords 
place  to  nothing  that  is  abaaluCdy  new;  and  then  hs 
applies  the  principles  he  has  labored  to  establish  lo  de- 
stroy the  infallibility  of  certain  great  ones  who  have 
made  use  of  tbe  confidence  with  which  Ihey  were  re- 
garded %o  introduce  novel  teachings  into  the  Church — 
tbe  object  uf  his  attack  being  assuredly  none  other  than 
the  great  bishop  of  Hippo,  whose  reputatiiHi  excelled 

antiquity  a  protection  « 


ary  spii 


toftl: 


<h.  » 


i),  or  i 


>r  any  polemical  refer- 

which  the  author  lived.  Tbe  draft  of  the  greaUr  part 
of  (he  second  book  was  stolen  from  the  author,  and  its 
Mibslance  was  consequently  incorporated  by  him  in  the 
itrsl.  There  are  also  still  in  existence  sixleen  04«i- 
taliiwa  ViHceMMMa  against  Augustine's  predestination- 
ism,  ID  which  Prosper  of  Aqoilania  responded  (Augus- 
tine, 0pp.  X,  App.  p.  1843  sq.),  and  which  may  have 
been  written  by  his  pen. 

The  question  which  engaged  the  thought  of  the 
-Church  in  tbe  ^me  of  Vincent  was  the  contest  between 
Semi  -  felagianism  and  strict  Augustiuism,  and  this 
fact  furnishes  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Com- 
maniloriHin  (cump.  cb.  xxKvii,  "Magna  et  specialis  ac 
plane  pemnalii  qu«dam  ut  Dei  gratia,  adeo  nt  sine  uUo 
labore,  sine  ullo  studio,  une  ulla  industria,  etismu  ikec 
petant,  nee  qiusrant,  nee  pulsent,  quicunque  iUi  ad  nu- 
roemm  suum  pertinent — iinnquam  posrint  ofiendere  ad 
lapidem  pedem  suum,  id  est  nunquain  scandaliiari ;" 

Catholicomm  fidelium  aique  sanctorum,  qua  ad  ruinam 
et  perdiiionem  prxdestinata  est,  etiamsi  petat  a  Deo 
saDCtitatis  perseveientiam,  non  impetrabit").  A  further 
key  to  the  motive  of  the  hook  is  fonnd  in  the  fact 
that  moikastidsm  did  not  lake  kindly  lo  Augustinism, 
■nd  that  in  Soulhem  Uaul  especially  it  was  penetrated 
with  tbe  views  and  spirit  oi  the  Eastern  Church,  of 
which  statements  Hihiry  of  Aries  (q.  v.),  who  came  forth 
from  Lerins,  and  Faustus  orReji,who  was  perhaps  the 
abbot  of  Lerins  when  Vinceot  wrote  bis  hook,  are  in 

Tbe  Commoniloriam  b^ns  with  demanding  an  ob- 
jective guarantee  for  the  truth,  and  flnds  the  required 
criterion  in  Scripture  and  the  ttailicion  of  the  Catholic 
Cbnrcb,  tbe  latlf  r  being  necessary  because  of  diversities 
of  inurpretation  of  the  former.  This  posilion  marked 
(he  result  of  the  conflicts  by  which  tbe  Cburcb  had 
progrened  thus  far  in  ehsping  its  own  constitution  and 
in  forming  the  New-Test,  canon.  But  then  comes  the 
question.  Does  tradition  itself  require  a  criterion  by 
which  it  may  be  tested?  How  rleiermine  what  is  and 
what  is  not  Catholic?  Is  there  a  completed  canon  of 
tradition  as  there  is  a  canon  of  Scripture?  VincenI  re- 
sponds with  the  rule,  now  famous,  that  we  must  be 
chiefly  concerned  "  ut  id  tenesmus  quod  ubique,  quud 
aemper,  quud  ab  omnibus  creditum  fiu"  He  is,  how- 
ever, dispoaed  to  overrate  the  worth  of  anliquilr,  and  to 
•carch  rather  for  that  which  was  held  by  ibe  ancients 
.(ban  for  that  which  is  true;  and  he  fails'  lo  remember 


The  weak  no 

disregard  of  the  fact  that  the  consent  of  antiquity  can- 
not be  established  unless  the  factor  of  interpretation 
be  applied  to  tradition  itself.  He  accordingly  failed  (o 
take  the  step  in  advance,  which  logical  coiiMstency  re- 
quired, of  making  the  Church  ii«lr  the  court  of  last  sp- 
peaL    The  Jesuitism  of  our  day  has  satisfied  this  de- 


edo, 


;lc.     Vin 


igmati 


e  Church.     Mo 


onhelmmaci 


teacher  had  so  explicitly  insisted  on  a  purely  outward 
guarantee  for  the  truth.  Tbe  lathers  had,  even  in  their 
strongest  utterances,  manifested  conlldence  in  the  abid- 
ing presence  of  tbe  Spirit  with  the  Cburcb.  The  feel- 
ing that  tbe  Spirit  has  departed  fnm  the  Church  finds 
its  lirst  pronounced  expression  here,  and  this  specitical- 
ly  Romish  doctrine  in  thus  shown  to  have  had  its  origin 
in  the  Semi- Pelagian  ism  of  our  monk's  attack  on  Augus- 

Editions  of  \~incent  were  publisbeil  by  Baluaius,  Cas- 
ter, and  KlUpfel— the  latter  in  Augsburg,  I84S.  Con- 
cerning him,  see  Tillemonl,  Mimoira,  xv,  148-14T; 
Dupin,  JVoDseUs  BibliolM.  iv,  114  sq.:  Cave,  Hal.  1.0. 
i,  426  j  Elpelt,  De*  heU.  I'mc.  v.  Lerinam  Ermainungt- 
buck,  /eia  Lrbm  u.  i.  Lrkrr  (Breslau,  1840);  Vosaiui, 
Hul,  Pelagiana,  p.  5T6 ;  Norisius,  Hut.  FelagUma,  ii,  3, 
S,  1 1 ;  Walcb,  Ktltergetch. ;  Wi^^ers,  A  ugmtinitmin  u. 
Semipelag.ii,l96,iOS--n6i  Bunt, Dai CiriMtenlham nm 
4.  buxum%.Jakrkitail,rrt;  Gengler,  in  \,\\k  Qaarialtekr. 
Jiir  kalhoL  Theoiugir,  1833,  p.  679 ;  Kctllner,  SymbolUt 
d,  kathat.  Kirche. — Herzog,  Real-Enoftdop.  s.  v. 

Vinoeot  (St.)  DK  Paui,  a  Koman  Catholic  eccleu- 
astic  and  philanthropist,  was  bora  April  24.  157S,  at 
Pouys,  near  Acq^  in  Gascony,  in  the  reign  uf  Henry 
III.  His  education  was  intrusted  to  (he  Franciscan 
monks  atler  he  was  twelve  years  old,  and  in  1600  he 
was  ordained.  He  was  captured  by  conaira  while  voy- 
aging from  Toulouse  to  Narbonne,  taken  (o  Tunis,  and 
purchased  by  a  renegade  of  Nizza,  whom  he  induced  to 
return  to  Christianity.    Alter  being  liberated,  he  so- 

became  bouse  chaplain  to  queen  Uargaret,  where  ha 
was  involved  in  temporary  scepticism  with  regard  V) 
religious  matters.  His  friend  BeruUe,  founder  of  a  so- 
ciety of  Peres  de  I'Oratoire  de  Jesus,  obtained  fur  him 
tbe  pastorate  of  Clicby,  and  the  position  of  chaplain  to 
count  Gondy  and  tutor  (o  bis  three  sons.  His  faithful 
viutation  of  his  parish  canned  the  countess  to  set  apart 
tbe  sum  of  16,000  lirres  fur  purposes  of  priestly  visi- 
tation over  her  domains;  bul  ibe  great  confiilence  re- 
posed in  him  by  the  countess  oppn-sscd  him,  and  be  ob- 
tained a  new  parish  at  Chatillon-les-Dombes  (1617) 
among  the  poor.  Here,  again,  he  was  eminently  use- 
ful, converting  Calvinists  and  worlillings  of  either  sex, 
and  organizing  tbe  llrst  sisicrhond  of  charity  (Confrcrie 
de  Charito)  with  a  view  to  regular  and  systematic  cars 
of  the  poor  by  women.  Having  been  persuaded  (o  re- 
turn (<•  count  Gondy's  parish,  he  repea(ed  the  meaaore 
of  organizing  sisterhoods,  and  began  lo  visit  the  pris- 


VINCENT  788  VINCENT 

onen,  capecully  the  gillF7->lave>,  whose  cwnditiop  wu  \  (tee  of  sharp  (tonea,  etc  In  tbii  dondicion  oT  mucix 
miiterabk  in  the  exuecae.  For  thpni  he  ealibliihed  a  i  be  began  Uieiperieiice  hiaglonfifation.  Angels  bnx^bc 
hoapital,  and  be  so  devoted  hinuelf  lo  care  (or  their  him  celeatial  food  and  changed  hit  rough  much  ituo  a 
physical  aud  afilritual  wellare  that  many  other  peraans  bed  of  rosea;  aud  when  the  people,  attracted  by  the 
were  led  to  imitate  his  apiril.  Louia  Xill  gave  him  report  t>(  the  miracle,  thronged  abuut  him.  be  found 
authority  lo  prosecute  such  labors  in  1G19  hy  cnminis-  slreugth  lu  preacli  to  them.  Even  tbe  Taiiatical  gnt- 
aioning  him  Aumonier  Koyal  dea  Ualerea  de  France. '  emor,  Duian  of  Saragoeaa,  waa  temporarily  tubdunl. 
At  Macon,  in  Burgundy,  he  found  a  aurpriaing  number  and  ordered  Yincent  to  be  brought  from  the  dun^iu 
of  beggars,  who  were,  besides,  ignorant  of  the  common-  and  placed  on  a  soft  bed;  but  when  the  latter  di«L  hii 
«at  and  most  necessary  article*  of  the  faith  ;  and  he  rage  broke  out  afrech,  and  he  commanded  that  ibe  body 
consequently  delayed  liia  Journey  long  enough  lo  organ-  should  be  thrown  to  tbe  wild  beasts  for  food.  Thert- 
ize,  with  the  niaittance  of  tbe  local  authoritlea,  a  socie- ,  upon  angels,  and  even  ravens,  protected  tbe  curpfte  from 
Ij  of  St.  Charles  Borrumeo  in  tbeir  behalf  (16'^).  In  ■  the  nveuoua  wolvea  and  vultoias.  It  was  then  cut 
162b  the  donation  of  the  countess  Gondy  bore  fruit  in  into  the  aea,  but  floated,  and  reached  a  sale  short,  vben 
the  founding  of  the  organization  of  Prieats  of  the  Mi»-  it  was  taken  up  hy  Christian  hands  and  hooorahly  ia- 
luon  {confirmed  by  Parliament  in  1631,  and  provided  terred.  At  ■  later  day  the  erection  of  an  altar  iai  a 
with  a  rule  of  his  devising  thirty  years  later),  and  lo  chapel  iutroducM  the  wonhip  of  the  precious  rriics. 
the  service  of  this  society  Vinc«nt  devoted  the  principal  i  Thia  legendary  history  was  already  familiar  to  Augai. 
energies  of  his  later  yean.  The  object  of  the  order  was  |  tine(seeaerm.4,Zicyaco&cl£niu[in.Vat(i/i^.r£>Kn(H], 
the  prosecution  of  preaching  and  pastoral  labor,  per-  and  serm.  274,  27fi,  2T6 ;  comp.  also  Prudeniius,  Periilf 
farmed  in  harmony  with  the  plans  of  the  resident  bisb-  pluaum  [ed.  Dtessel  ],  hymn  v,  p.  350-371 :  Paulina*  tl 
ops,  among  the  peasantry;  but  its  operations  were  aub-  Nola,  Pcwm.  27;  Venantios  Fortunalua,  6'u'vi.  vni,4; 
sequently  carried  on  over  the  cities  also.  It  received  i  Gregory  of  Toiira,i^C2i)r.J/iirU.c90;  Huiiyr. Fraimr. 
the  cordial  support  of  a  number  of  ladies,  aome  of  them  i  iii,  ^;  BoUand,  Pauio  S.  Vine,  sub  Jan.  ii  :  and  Ksi- 
belonging  lo  the  higher  orden  of  sotsety.  Ila  bouse  '  n»n,A€ta  Marit.  fed.  Galura],  ii,  3SS).  The  r^lio  af 
became  a  benevolent  aaylum,  in  which  as  many  aa  |  Vinceni  were  mostJy  brought  lo  Lisbon  in  the  Hiddk 
eight  hundred  laymen  found  a  temporary  refuge  in  a  Ages;  but  a  portion,  including  his  stulc,  is  claimed  id 
■ingle  year,  Especially  noteworthy  were  tbe  labors  I  be  in  the  poaaesuon  of  Parisi  and  aootbet  portion,  ia- 
of  these  priests  in  tbe  army  and  among  the  victims  eluding  one  of  his  arms,  in  tbe  keeping  of  Bari,  in  .Ipa- 
of  the  war  on  the  German  border.  They  cullecled  lia.  See  Tillemonl,  Jf^moiru,  v,  2lfi;  Herxog.  RaJ- 
money  for  the  support  of  the  s^ffe^er^and  even  denied    Enci^ciop.  k  v. 

themselves  bread  that  the  hungry  might  be  fed.  Their  Vinoont  PewarlB  (  Ticmfe  Ftrrrr\  St..  a  Snsn- 
Tisiiauona  in  time  extended  to  tbe  Roman  Campagna,  i,|,  n,oni(^  .„  boni  at  Valencia,  Jan.  28,  13i>.  Hit 
Tunia,  Algiers,  IreUnd,  Poland,  Corsica,  Hadagaacar,  p^nig,  ijthough  of  moderat*  mean^  took  great  piiiit 
**^  „,,.,„,.  _         ,  to  develop  his  talents,  so  that  at  the  age  of  twelve  ht 

The  numerous  Confr^nes  de  Chante  suffered  from  ,tudied  philosophy,  and  at  seventeen  he  passed  bernal 
the  fact  that  the  Udies  who  composed  them  were  loo  the  ahiliiv  of  hia  instroclors.  He  entered  ihe  Onl«  ol 
Urgely  engrossed  with  the  care  of  their  own  house-  st.  Dominic,  Feb.  6. 1874,  taught  for  some  time,  tbti 
holds.  This  mduced  \  incent,  on  the  suggestion  of  ■  p„,cbed  at  Barcelona,  and  went  lo  Lerida  in  13M  I* 
Madame  leGras,  to  found  the  Order  of  FiUeade  Chante,  receive  the  doctorate  in  theolwv  In  1383  he  ei- 
or  Si«ers  of  Charity,  also  called  Sowrs  Crises.  They  pounded  Scriplure  in  the  Cathed'rj  of  Valencia,  aad 
are  not  nuns.  After  a  novitiate  of  five  yeara,  they  take  p„„hea  with  such  aueceas  that  the  legale  Peier  loak 
a  vow  which  binds  them  for  only  a  single  year.  He  ,  hi„  i„  ,991  w  Paris,  and  in  1394  he  was  called  to  Kdot 
also  orgwuaed  a  society  of  Matrons,  whose  work  was  1  „  confessor  of  the  papal  palace.  In  1397  he  rr-omed 
principally  attendance  at  Ibe  great  hoapilal  of  Paris,  p,e„hing,  pasung  thiwigh  the  cities  of  Si 
tbe  HStel  Dieu;  and  to  these  roust  he  added  a  seoii-  Germany,  Great  Britain,  .nil  IwUnrt  .n, 
nary  for  bis  missionary  order,  modelled  after  those  es-  ^  great  flue 

labiished  among  the  Jesuits.     He  served  the  govern-    „f  j^],  ^i  _...., 

ment  also  as  spiritual  councillut  of  sute.  In  these  ^  ipnce.  in'ui'a  he"wjis"«  d'elegate"lo"ibe  hodv'whi^ 
multifsrious  occupations  he  ripened  lo  a  gentle  old  age  elected  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  to  the  throne:  in'HIS  hi 
in  the  imitation  of  Chnst.  He  shattered  his  health  by  counselled  in  favor  of  Manui  V  as  pope ;  and  in  H17  be 
a  wmtcr  journey  when  seventy-four  years  of  age,  and  received  a  triumphal  iwxption  lo  Vannea  in  Briiianv. 
lingered  for  eleven  additional  yesra,untU  death  relieved  ,  He  died  there  April  S,  1419,  and  was  canoniied  bv  Ci- 
him,  Sept.  27, 1660.  He  was  beatified  in  1727  and  can-  jj^tus  II!,  on  Jnne  29,  1455,  although  Ihe  hn!l  u.  ihai 
onized  1787.  jff„.t  ^,„  „„(  published  till  OcL  I,  I45S.     He  left  sa- 

See  AbeUy,  La  Vit  dt  VincaU  it  Paul  (Pans,  166*. '  „ons  and  a  few  other  religious  works,  for  which  «x 
and  often);  Col^  La  Vif  dt  Sai«t  Viwnrf  di  /"■"</;  Hoefer,A'™F. Bim.  C^rofc,  s.  v. 
(1748;  in  exlraei,  Pari^  1819);   also  Stolherg, /.eien  I      _,  ^   »  w       .  ■  -         -       . 

de,  4dt  Tine.  F./*uiiia,  etc.  (MllnMer.  1818),  and  nu-  ^  7'°^?%"'^  *;  »  minister  in  the  Methwlis 
merous  Uier  essays ;  .Iame«.n  [Mrs.],  L^d.  of  (*e  i  \^"^^  ^^^r,^,!™'^'  ""  ^  '"  ""."7'  *''™'"' 
3/,™o«icOrrfrr,,  p.  347  «!.;  Hoofer.  A^«7flioff.  CA.^  1  Tenn-,  Sept.  24,  1811  He  ttce.ve^  a  carrful  religio.. 
™fc,s.v.;  and  Herzog.  aai-£»<ytfcp.fcv.  training;  experienced  religion  in  bis  foiineenth  y.H; 

Vincent  (St.)  op  Saraooma  is  one  of  tb.  most  ■  ""  "«»»^  f  P""!"  "'^^^'  '"^  ""««"  *«"  "» 
venerated  martyrs  of  e.rlv  timei  Tradition  rdates  ,  M^P"""  ^^'^^^  '"  ^^■.^\'>°'-'"""^  I'l""- 
tbat  he  was  a  native  of  Hw-ca,  in  Aragon.  and  a  kins-  """^y  !"''  """j  ^^.'.'V  V"'.''  ^^  *►"■"  f"!"*  ""^I"" 
man  of  the  martyr  deacon  Laurentius.  On  the  break-  1  "'^T'",  ,«t  !f'"'^"!''"''B  '^",  "»!?■  ^"^  "'  *^ 
ing-out  of  Uiocletiwi  and  Manimian's  persecution  <»"^;  '"  '^  ""f  ■£""  entered  the  efflK^iive  ranks, 
(about  A.D,  308),  he  waa  archdeacon  10  bishop  Valerius  ?.';''  '"  1*'™  ™"'"'«i  nnl.l  his  death,  m  1S66.  Uu 
of  Ssrap«s., and  was  summoned  before  the  governor  lo  :  l'""'''. P""*"**'  ""  '"'"ni"i^«l  '^•""""-  "nsid..*- 
snswer  for  hi.  faith.  This  he  did  with  such  boWness  "'  "l".'"''  "  '.  P™««f,  ">d  was  highly  respect«L 
a.  to  excite  the  rage  of  hU  inquisitor,  and  bring  upon  ■  ^  ,f"-'«  "/■J""-'  Co.fir^,  o/rfr  .V.  £.  CW*. 
faim  the  most  horrible  tortures,  which  he  intenaiBed  by   '*'""*•  '™"*'  P-  '''■ 

mocking  the  executioners  when  they  wearied  of  their  I  Vlnoent,  Thomas,  a  Nonconfonnist  divine  of 
work.  He  was  finally  roasted  on  a  red-hot  grate,  and  great  popularity,  was  bom  at  Hertford,  England,  in  I6S4. 
his  sores  were  afterwards  rubbed  wilbaalt;  and  he  was  ^  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  in  1617 
then  thrust  into  an  exceedingly  contracled  and  dark  '  elected  lo  Christ  Church.  Oxford.  He  waa  chosen  caie- 
dungeon,  where  he  lacked  food  and  had  to  lie  on  a  sur-  |  chist  to  Dr.  Owen,  and  chaplain  10  Kobert,  eail  of  Leices- 


VINCENT  71 

trr.  During  the  plapie  with  which  Che  kingdom  wu 
viaiicti,  he  exhibited  great  courage  and  piely  b;  de- 
voting himself  It  Ibe  •erviee  or  the  auSeren  in  thii 
f(Teal  calamity.  He  was  ejected  in  1B62  for  Noncon- 
formily,  and  preached  «  Koxtoo  until  his  death,  Oct. 
Ill,  1678.  He  woB  tbe  author  of  several  practical  relig- 
iaiu  works,  fur  wliich  aee  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 

Vincent,  WilllHin,  D.D.,  ■  teamed  English  di- 
vine, was  bom  in  Londuii,  Nov.  3,  173!).  He  pawed 
Ihruiigh  every  gradation  of  the  School  of  Westminster 
-Mnii  in  1757  was  elected  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Cam. 
bridge.  In  1763  he  returned  to  Westminster  as  teach- 
er, uid  ill  that  capacity  he  proceeded  fium  the  lowesi 
tn  the  highest  situation,  becoming  Unally  dean  in  1S02. 
His  literary  work  is  extensive,  and  he  did  much  ii 
moultlin)-  the  higher  thought  of  bis  time^  He  died 
Dec  JI.  1815.  For  his  writings,  which  chiefly  iclau  to 
^nliquatiaii  and  philological  subjects,  see  Allibone,  A'c/. 

Vlncsiitlan  Congiegatlon  is  ■  brotherhood  or 
■ssifiatinii  of  secular  priests,  who,  although  not  strictly 
a  religiuus  order,  are  bound  by  vows,  and  are  especially 
devuied  to  preaching  and  hearing  confession  among  the 
poor.  Tliey  are  so  called  fmin  their  founder,  the  Ro- 
man Catboiic  saini.  Vincent  de  Paul  (q.v.).  Aitothei 
ol>ject  a  ID  undertake  the  direction  of  episcopal  semi- 
naries  and  other  colleges  for  the  education  of  ecclesias- 

t  he  secular  clergy. 

The  name  I'incmliaH  is  also  sometin 
VI  s.is.*ialiuns  founded  by  Vincent  de  Paul     Of  these 
there  are  several  siiterhooll^  that  of  Charity  being 
most  remarkable,  and  the  Cliarilable  Lay  Associati 

Vinci,  Leokarho  da,  an  illustrious  Italian  artist, 
wai  Inirn  in  Lower  Valdamu,  at  the  Castle  of  Vine'  ' 
lib3.     He  was  the  natural  son  of  Pietro  da  Vinci, 
wn.    At  an  early  age  he 


into. 


!  particularly  fur  arithmetic,  muwc,  and  draw- 
ing. His  drawings  appeared  •omething  wonderful  u 
his  father,  who  showed  them  to  Andrea  Verocchii 
<i|.  v.),  and  tbat  master,  greatly  surprised  at  the  merii 
di^pUyetl  in  so  young  a  hand,  willingly  took  Leonardi 
as  bis  pupil.  His  astonishment  was  greatly  increaseil 
-when  he  saw  the  progress  made  by  his  pupil;  he  felt 

surpasseil  by  yuung  Da  Vind,  relinquished  painting  en- 
tirely. The  tint  original  work  by  Leonardo  was  the 
#«■(■«■  Jtl  f'ko  (round  board  of  a  Bg-tree),  upon  which 
hi-  father  requested  him  to  paint  sanKthing  for  one  of 
hilt  tenants.  Leonardo  wished  to  astonish  hia  father, 
and  determined  to  paint  mmething  e.^traordinary,  that 
ahuuld  represent  the  head  of  Medusa.  Accordingly, 
having  prepared  the  rot/lla  and  covered  it  with  plas- 
ter, he  collected  almost  every  kind  of  reptile,  and  com- 
posed s  monster  of  most  horrible  aspect;  it  aeemed 
alive,  its  eyes  flashed  fire,  and  it  appeared  to  breathe 
destruction  from  its  open  mouth.  His  father  was  in- 
deed astonithed,  and  carried  the  picture  In  a  dealer  in 
I  hundred  ducat*,  and  bought 


give  K 


Hi: 


slenis  soon  attracted 

os^iesseil  of  remarkable  intellectual  powers.  He  was  a 
iligent  and  successful  student  of  painting,  sculpture, 
rchitectore,  mathematics,  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  mn- 
ic  poetry,  botany,  and  astronomy,  besides  nnmeMus 
ly  spurts.    To  this  inlelleciiMt  power  he  jmned  ele- 


iice  of  feat 
angers,  with  ci 


He 


,    -Such  a  comhinatim 


indivi 


Da  Vinci's  life  is  divided  by  Lanzi  into  four  periods. 


ig  TINCI 

the  Jlril  of  which  includes  the  time  he  remained  at 
Florence,  until  1494.  Ho  was  a  diligent  student  of  his 
art,  and  endeavored  to  perfect  his  designs  rather  than 
to  multiply  his  pictures.  i)y  his  knowledge  of  sculpt- 
ure he  gave  that  perfect  relief  and  roundness  then  want- 
ing in  the  art  of  painting,  and  he  imparted  such  grace 
and  spirit  to  all  bis  works  that  he  fairiy  earned  the  title 
of  Fatlier  of  Hoderu  Painting.  To  this  gierlod  may  l» 
referred  the  Mediuii;  the  Maffdiiltn,  in  the  Ktoreiiline 
Uallerv;  some  Madomuu  and  /lolf  FamUiei,  in  the 
Giiistiiiioni  and  Burghese  galleriesj  and  oiheia.  He 
also  executed  several  important  sculptures,  among  which 

ence ;  the  Uorit,  in  the  Church  of  Sta.  tiiovsntii  and 
I'anlu,  at  Venice ;  besides  other  important  models. 

The  ieco«d  period  commences  with  Da  Vinci's  resi- 
dence at  Milan,  which  began  by  invitation  of  the  duke, 
Lodovlco  Sforza,  in  1491.  He  was  appoinleil  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting,  which  hail  lately  been  re- 
vived. In  this  capacity  he  banished  all  the  dry  Gothic 
principles  formerly  established,  and  introduced  the  beau- 
tiful simplicity  and  purity  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman 
style.  The  duke  engaged  him  in  the  stupendous  proj- 
ect of  conducting  the  waters  of  the  Ad<la  from  Murte- 
sana,  through  the  Valteliiie  and  the  valley  of  the  Chia- 
reana,  to  the  walls  of  Milan,  a  distance  of  nearly  two 
hundred  miles.  He  applied  himself  with  such  diligence 
to  the  preparation  for  and  execution  of  the  work  that  it 
was  accomplished,  greatly  to  the  astonishment  of  all 
Italy.  He  executed  the  model  for  a  cokasal  bronie 
equestrian  statue  of  the  duke's  father,  Francesco  Sforza, 
but  could  not  complete  it  on  account  of  the  financial  em- 
barrassment of  the  duke,  two  hundreil  thousanil  pounds 
of  metal  being  required.  It  was  here,  also,  that  he  ex- 
ecuted his  celebrated  painting,  the  Lust  Supper,  on  a 
wall  of  the  convent  of  Aanu  Maria  delte  Graxie  at  Mi- 
tan.  This  has  been  considered  the  masterpiece,  not 
only  of  Leonardo,  but  of  all  trusters.    Unfortunately  it 

terisK  so  that  in  half  a  century  after  its  execiitinn  it 
was  greatly  deface<L  Numerous  copies  have  been  marie 
which  retain  much  of  the  spirit  of  the  oriflinal.  In 
1500  Lodovlco  SforzB  was  overthrown  in  battle  by  the 
French,  and  made  prisoner.  Leonardo  was,  on  this  ac- 
count, obliged  to  abandon  all  his  pasBessions  and  take 
refuqe  in  Flosence, 

The  third  period  of  Da  Vinci's  life  begins  with  this 
return  to  Florence.  Pietro  Soderini,  the  gonfalonlere, 
now  had  him  enrolled  among  the  artists  in  the  employ 
of  the  goveruineni,  and  procured  him  a  pension.  In 
IdOi  Cesare  Borgii^  captain-general  of  the  pope's  army, 
appointed  him  his  cbief  architect  and  engineer,  and  Da 
Vinci  viMted  many  parts  of  the  Roman  states  in  his  offi- 
cial capNcitr.  In  1503  he  was  emploved  to  paint  one 
side  of  the 'council-hall  of  the  Palauo  Vecchio,  while 
Michael  Angelo  was  to  paint  the  other  side.  Leonardo 
drew  upon  his  side  the  cartoon  u{  the  Batllt  of  Ike  Stand. 
ard,  which  has  received  much  praise  from  the  old  Ital- 
'  '   L     In  1507  be  again  visited  Milan,  where  he 

large  Madomia  and  Child.     During  this  pe- 
riod Leonardo  produced  his  best  paintings.    He  was  less 

riih  other  pursuit*  than  at  any  other  peri'id. 


ioned  a  fl'J^  Family,  w 


ofRi 


al  eslleri 


to  the  court 
It  Flor- 


portrait  of  Baphial!   Chriii  IHipulmg  m  Iht 

Temple,  in  one  of  the  collections  at  Home ;  the  portrait 

■      ■     '      ■    Palace :  the  iHirlraii  of 

tfona  IMa.  now  in  the  L>iuvre,  at  Paris;  anil  the  car- 

of  ^t.Jtmit.drawn  for  the  Church  of  the  Servi,at 

Florence.    In  1513  he  vi^iieil  Milsn,  and  painted  two 

wuiofLodovicoSf.irza. 


I  1514  h 


again 


»  [{on 


rned  to  Flon 


About 


•.  drawn 
by  the  new  [i-jpe.  Leo  X.     He 
[loniiff,  who  signidcd  his  iiiteii- 


'•  FIrM  Sketch  or  iha  B< 


imrlny  his 


m  i-bt!  p»Tt  of  Ihe  popctn  {KCtute  af  Ihe  ns-lBliad  HarfiimtutfUVniilifot 


of  en. 

.    wl,h'W[ 

Now  b«KinH  [he  foarth   perirvl  of  D«  Vinci's 
which  in  markeit  bv  hii  relinquishment  of  the  irl 
painlinR.    By  invitarion  of  Krancia  I  of  Frsnce.he  » 
to  Paria,  where  he  wm  received  wich  the  RreatcM  ki 
new  by  Lbnc  mnnareh.talten  into  his  service,  «ndgri 
ed  ■  salary  of  «even  hundred  crowns  aniinelly.     He 
went  with  the  kitie  tfi  Bologn*  In  meel  Leo  X.  and  af- 
terwards, ibom  the  bceinninit  of  1616,  accomiunteil  him 
to  France.     After  he  left  Iialy,  on  account  of  enfeebled 
health  he  eiipeutnl  little  or  iinthinir.     The  king  cnuld 
not  prevail  i>n  him  In  color  his  cartoon  of  Su  Anna, 
which  he  had  taken  with  him ;  nur  was  he  at  all  dis- 
poaed  to  comiDenee  any  new  work.    He  icradually  prw 

Biill  received  marks  of  the  esteem  and  favor  of  the  king, 
anil  ilied  ai  Cloii,  neat  Amboise.  May  2, 1619.  ajced  Mixlg- 
itrt«.  and  not  seveniy-flve,  aa  Vasari  hus  siaicl.  Va- 
sari  relates  ihat  he  dinl  in  tlie  arms  i.(  Frajicin  I,  who 


>r  his  Great  ralnting  of  [ha 


of  the  e 


VINE 

reaHiiung   upon  any   eaubtiibed 

Galileo  and  Kepler,  and  Uaebtlii, 
and  Hauniliuiu,  and  Ca-ieUi.ainl 

of  Copernicus,  the  vert  ihe'>riee<j( 
recent  Keolngen,areanticipaiedbT 
Da  Vinci  within  the  compas  of  a 
few  pages,  itoi,  perhipr,  iu  [be 
roost  precise  language,  nr  on  the 
mow  conclusive  reaHHiing.boi  » 
as  lo  sliike  un  with  something  Uke 
the  awe  of  snfienistutal  knuwi. 
edge.  In  an  age  of  so  much  dog- 
matism, be  Arbt  laid  down  (he 
grand  principle  of  Bacon,  that  ei- 
perimentand  observation  must  be 
[ha  gulden  to  just  theory  in  the 

Da  Vinci's  life  has  been  wriils 
in  Italian  bv  Vasari  (la&l»,Aiw 
reul  (1784),  Bowi  (I8U) ;  in  Frencfc 
by  St-Uermain  (imSi.  DeUdtOF 
(I814),Dumeusil|ie50i.Ri<>(18i5v 
CUinent  (1861).  Hounaye  (ISs;); 
in  German  hv  Branii  (1819);  ik 
E.iKli»hhyHawkins(ie<B),Br««a 
(lt(:!8>,ai>d  others. 

Vlnckenboama.  David,  a 
Flemish  paiiiir[,wB»  bom  ai  Mfcb. 
IJniiilii8.  HewasinUnictedb; 
hia  father,  Philip,  an  obscure  paint- 
er in  distemper.  He  painted  laod- 
ecapea  of  a  tmall  size,  and  deo 
rated  [hem  with  tuhjecrs  taken 
from  the  UJble,  with  ^air^^le^T- 
making»,elc.  Oneuf  hi>  monim- 
pnrunt  works  is  a  ptnure.at  ArD> 
sterdam.of  >  crowd  of  jwople  lU 
tending  the  drawing  of  ■  lottery 
bylorchli((bi.  Ilepaintedapictate 
of  ChtiH  BniTiKff  Ml  Cnm.  iu  tbe 
tor  palatine,  and  C^ritt  Rrimiif 
each  of  which  a  lind- 


:hat  he  wi 

Da  Vim 

■s  well  as 


I  achieved  disiinciion  in  ibe  lield  of  Ictiera 
>  in  that  of  art.  He  wr<.ic  several  (remits  on 
various  subjects,  the  principal  of  which  was  a  treatise 
on  painting,  Tnilhilo  dtOa  Pilluni  (Paris,  16S1).  Very 
few  of  his  oiber  works  have  been  puldidied,  hut  in  1797 
Ventuti  collected  iiiimenHis  extract*  from  his  unpub- 
lished writings,  and  puhlisheil  them  in  an  essay  enlitlcd 
Etiai  titr  let  Owrar/rt  Piyrini-itnlhtmtiiiguri  de  JJtt. 
-■■■'  -■   "-■--'  --   '■'  ""--  »  Hallani,  "according. 


mird  dt  Vm 


e  i.r  th 
"fphy.i<Blltulhivon( 
he  superstructure  of 


^•capeserveafor  Um  backgruuniL      He  excelled  in 

ife,  ling  drawings  with  the  pen  washed  with  India  ink, 
of  aeveral  of  which  are  in  the  Uriiish  Museum,  repmnii- 
ing  the  hiseoty  of  the  Pmdiijid  Son.  He  also  engrived 
some  plates  of  landscapes  from  his  own  detiens.  He 
died  at  Amstenlam  in  1629.  See  Spooner,  Biag.  Hat, 
qf  dtt  fine  A  i-ri,  s.  v. 

Vino.     This  well-known  and  valuable  plant  is  tbc 

bject  of  frequent  Biblical  notice  and  a  oonspicuoia 

sment  of  Oriental  agricalture. 

I.  The  follaning  Hebrew  words  denote  the  viue^ 

I.  (liphm  ('?»)■  "'■  ""<■"  deHniiely,  j^*™  kaj-gdjm 
O??"?  le?)'  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bihie,  and 
general  aenie.  Indeed,  i^Am  someiimes  ir 
^iplicd  to  1  plant  that  renmbles  a  vine  in  some  particn- 
lara.  as  TVri}  ^p^  (gipkoi  >adih).  2  Kings  iv,  39,  i.e. 
pn^bly  the  colocynth  plant  [aee  GouBi>],  or  cHb  *,Bt 
(.!ltpktintd6n),t\it  vina  of  Sodom,  certainly  Dot  a  viiA 
See  Vi-ra  ok  Soiiom. 

a  Sor^  <P50).  "f  wreWA  (njJlto),  is  ■  term  ex- 
preaaive  of  some  choice  kiml  of  vine  (Jer.  ii,  Jl ;  I»b.t, 
2l  fieii.  slix,  II),  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Ihat 
now  callol  in  Morocco  atrii  aiid  in  Perwa  kitimitk, 
wilh  small  round  dark  berries  and  eoft  sliHini  (see 
\iehuhr,  DfKripL  de  FArabie.  p.  147;  and  OedmanI^ 
SanuuiuKg,  ii,  97).  Prom  the  passage  in  Jeremiah,  It  u 
clear  that  Ihe»i«t  denotes  nni  another  spcrie^  I'f  vine, 
but  tbe  common  vine  which  by  some  process  of  cultiva- 
tion a[taine<1  a  high  state  of  excellence. 

3.  Xiitir  (^"IJI,  originally  applied  to  a  Xaiarire  wh* 
dill  not  shave  his  hair,  expreaaes  an  "uudresanl  viu«"" 


VINE 

(A.T.),i.e.oTie  whicb  every  wrenth  i lid  every  liriUth 
year  ww  itot  pruned  (see  Gcseniiu,  Thaaar,  b.  v.). 

The  regular  Greek  word  for  "  vine"  u  o^nXori  "f 
gcoeric  significalion. 

Grapes  in  dMignatcd  by  various  luunes :  (1.)  Eihkol 
(VsiTK)  19  eiLher"iclutEer,''npeoruiiripe,Uke. 
■Bt/>,  or  *  "single  gnpe"  (at  in  Ibi.  Ixv,  8:  Micri 
(A)  •£iioi{3:?);  Ar«b,9™)A,"«olu»Wr."  (8.)  SiWr 
rOS).  "»"■,  I «.  unripe  grapes  (ls«.  iviii,  5).  (4.)  Zs- 
morik  (Tfy^'a'l),  "a  grape  cut  offi"  The  "blo«>c 
ihe  Tine  is  called  ttmaddr  (-i^^p);  Cant,  ii,  13,  16. 
"  drape  -  (tones"  are  probsbly  roeain  by  eharUumtim 
r.a-'JS'^in);  A. V. "  kernel,"  Numb,  vi,  1.  '  The  "cuticle" 
of  the  grape  U  denominated  iSg  (iX),  ibid.  toe.  cil. ;  tbe 
'■leudrila''byMi^n>(0-<J>'nie),Joeli,7.    See  Ghapk. 


1  VINE 

highly  valotd.  The  up  wis  at  one  time  meU  in  meii- 
iciiie.  Verjuice  exprened  from  wild  grapes  it  well 
knovra  fiit  its  acidity.  The  lale  Sir  A.  Bumes  meii- 
tionB  tliat  ia  Cabul  they  use  grape  powder,  obtained 
by  dryiiiK  and  powderint;  the  unripe  fruit,  an  a  pleasant 
acid.  When  ripe,  the  fruit  is  everywhere  highly  es- 
teemed, both  fresh  aiid  in  its  dried  Nate  as  raisioB. 
The  juice  of  the  tipe  fruii,  called  muil,  is  valued  as  a 
pleasant  beverage.  By  fermentation,  wine,  alcobol,  and 
vinegar  are  obtained;    '     '         "  " 


tbe  to 


Gen.ix,SO:  "And  Noah  began  to  be  a  husbandman, 
and  he  planted  a  vineyard."  Many  are  of  opinion  that 
wine  was  not  unknown  before  the  Deluge,  and  that  the 
patriarch  only  continued  to  cultivate  tbe  vine  after  that 
event,  as  he  had  done  before  it ;  but  tbe  fatheiB  think 
thai  he  knew  not  the  force  of  wine,  baviag  never  used 
it  before,  nor  having  seen  any  one  use  il.  The  grape- 
vine is  found  wild  al  this  day  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Noah's  Hrtt  vineyard,  at  the  foot  of  Hoiint  Ararat. 
Humboldt  found  it  on  the  ahorea  of  the  Caspian,  JiL 
Caramania,  and  in  Armenia.  It  is  also  a  native  of 
lieorgia  and  of  the  northern  part*  of  Persia. 


family  are  co 


nun  among  tt 
t  rich  a 


Tsl  pUnts  of  th 


Ttne  of  Palestine. 

II.  Tbe  grape-vine  (  Vilit  vii^ferd)  ia  supposed  to  be 
native  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  Its  culture  "  ex- 
tends fn<m  about  tbe  tweatj-flist  to  the  fiftieth  degree 
of  north  latitude,  and  reaches  from  Portugal  an  the  west 
to  ih3  coDHnes  of  India  on  the  east.  It  is,  however, 
only  along  the  centre  uf  this  lone  that  the  finest  wines 
an  made,  those  on  tbe  north  being  hatsh  and  austere; 
and  tbe  grapes  grown  at  the  south  are  better  ailapled 
tot  making  raisins,  unless  when  they  are  grown  in  ele- 
vated positioDB  or  on  tbe  slopea  of  mountains.  Ijetrig 
states  that  tbe  wines  of  warm  countries  possess  no  odor ; 
wiuea  grown  in  France  have  it  in  a  marked  degree;  but 
in  the  wiuea  from  the  Rhine  the  perfume  is  most  in- 
Wnse"  (Hogg,  IVjwi.  Kingdom,  p.  181).  It  may  be  added 
that  not  only  is  it  largely  and  successfully  culiiviied  in 
tbe  new  world  of  America,  but  that,  carried  acmu  the 
equator,  it  thrives  in  Sonthem  Africa  and  in  the  Aus- 
tralian colonieB.  and  may  be  regarded  aa  the  conipanbn 
of  the  human  family  in  nearly  all  the  mild  and  genial 
tegions  of  its  BDJoum.     In  the  districts  of  '     " 


fadays  by  no  means  eminent  for  its 
grapes;  but  the  fiisL  time  after  the  planting  of  Noah'a 
vineyard  that  we  find  the  vine  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
it  is  the  vine  of  Egvpt  (Gen.  xl,  9-11;  comp.  Numb,  xx, 
5;  pBa.  Uiviii,  vf).  Even  although  we  bad  not  the 
Terences  in  Herodotus,  and  the  tradition  ascribing  to 
Osiris  the  invention  of  wine,  the  frequency  with  which 
the  plant  or  its  fruit  is  figured  on  Egyptian  monuments 
shows  haw  important  it  must  once  have  been.  See 
TiHEVAKD.  The  vine,  however,  was  not  a  native  of 
Egyft,  nor  does  the  climate  favor  it  In  ancient  times, 
as  we  learn  from  the  monumeuts,  great  care, was  taken 
in  ita  culture,  but  with  comparatively  little  success;  and 
hence  the  surprise  of  the  spies  when  sent  to  aurvey  the 
promised  land  at  the  immense  clusters  of  grapes  they 

would  not  be  ctediled  by  persons  accustomed  lo  the  lesa 
productive  vines  of  Egypt,  they  brought  back  a  clusler 
uf  the  grapes  lo  convince  them,  as  we  learn  iu  Numb, 

'*'  33,24:  "And  they  came  unto  the  brook  of  Eshcol, 

cut  down  from  thence  a  branch  with  one  cluster  of 

grapes,  and  they  bare  It  between  two,  upon  a  BtafF;  and 

■  _  ■  _■  rf  the  pomegranates  and  of  the  flgs.  The 
pUce  was  called  Eahcol  becaase  of  the  cluster  of  grapes 
which  the  children  of  Israel  cut  down  from  thence." 

ome  wine,  indeed,  has  been  made  in  Lower  Egypt  ia 

iSerent  ages,  but  it  was  never  celebtated  either  for 
quality  ot  quantity.  From  the  fortieth  chapter  of  (ien- 
esis,w'bere  the  dream  of  Pharaoh's  chief  butler  is  re- 
lated, it  would  appear  that  the  juice  of  the  grape  fresh- 
presseii  was  drunk  by  the  king,  and  possibly  the  Egyp- 
tian grape-juice  at  that  lime  was  used  in  the  sute  of 
mail.  But  though  the  Pharaohs  drank  of  the  "  blood 
of  the  grape"  in  this  imperfect  state,  the  Ptolemies  rev- 
elled in  the  maturer  wines  of  Palestine,  Cyprus,  and 
Greece;  and  one  of  them,  as  Josephus  tells  ua,  among 
some  magnificent  gifts  sent  to  ihe  Temple  of  Jerusalem, 
renewed  the  Golden  Vine,  the  symbol  of  the  Jewish  na- 


y  had  b 


climb*  to  the  I 
intermediate  ci 


:n,  the  < 


mUller  tells  ua  that  in  the  Templf 
gate  seventy  cubits  high. which  led  t 
the  holy  place,  a  richly  can'ed  vine  » 
border  and  decoration.  The  branc' 
leaves  wen  of  the  finest  gold,  the  slal 
were  of  the  length  of  the  human  form, 
banging  upon  them  were  of  coatly  jei 
placpil  ii  Ibere;  rich  an<l  patriotic  Jt 
time  added  to  its  embtlli»hiDeiiI,  on 


ihove 


VINE  79!  VINE 

new  ^nipe,  aiiathcr  i  leaf,  and  a  third  even  a  bunch  ar  '  miner  uiie  chairelle  entre  denz.  Cc  n'cM  pas  Kouie 
[he  same  precious  maleriah.     >Se«  Temple.  |  mirveille  ai  lea  raiBini  sont  ei  beanit  tt  Ic  vin  m  puu- 

Eveii  befiire  larael  luuk  pOBsemion,  Ib«  land  of  prom-  ,  aanC"  Suabo  staMa  lh«  it  it  recorded  that  there  tn 
in  wta  a  laml  nf  vineyards  (Deut.  vi,  IL;  xxviii,  2H ; '  tiiiei  in  Mnrgiani  whoM  Hema  are  such  ai  vouM  n- 
Kumlk  xiii,  23) ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  utMerre  with  ,  quire  tvro  men  to  apan  round,  aul  whoM  daat* n  vr 
what  miuuiciieaa  the  divine  legislator  enacted  lulea  and  two  cubita  lung  {Uiogruph.  [ed.  Kramer],  i,  I  li).  No* 
re(;ulalioiiB  Tor  Ihe  culture  of  tbeir  vineyarda,  while  the  Margiana  ia  the  modem  district  of  Ghilaji,  in  Puna, 
proapective  ownera  atill  wandered  in  a  liuming  deaerc  |  south-west  of  Ihe  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  reiy  country  w 
(Exotl.  Kxii,  5;  xziii,  11;  Lev.  xxv,  &,  11;  Numb,  vi,    wboaehiUslbe  vine  ia  believed  to  be  indigenou*.     Noth 

ure  the  portion  ofJudah  waa  eapecially  adapted,  and  in  |  tive  to  the  large  size  of  the  giapea  or  Paleatiiie,  fmai  the 
nblaining  for  his  iiihetitaoce  the  hilly  slopes  oi  the  publiahed  accounts  o(  travellera  auch  aa  Elliot,  Labonle. 
guuth,  the  prophecy  of  his  ancestor  was  fulfilled — he  j  Marili,  Dandiui  (who  expreases  his  suipriae  at  ibr  «- 
washed  his  garments  in  wine  and  bis  clothea  in  the  Iraurdinary  size  of  the  grapes  of  Lebanon),  RuaseU,  etc. 
l)lood  of  grapes  (GcD,  xlix,  II).  Here,  more  than  else-  We  must  be  content  with  quoting  the  following  extran 
where,  an?  to  be  seen  on  the  aides  of  the  hills  the  vine- 1  from  Kitto'a  Phstical  llitl.  of  FalrH.  p.  330,  whidi  ii 
yards,  marked  by  their  watch-towers  and  walla,  seated  strikingly  illuatralire  of  the  ^ies'  mode  of  carrriog  tbi 
on  iheir  ancient  terraces — the  earliest  and  latest  symbol  grapes  from  Eshcol:  "Even  in  nur  awn  country  ■  bundi 
«f  Juihili.  The  elevation  of  the  hills  and  table-lands  of  grapes  waa  pmluced  at  Welbeck,  and  aent  •■  a  pm- 
of  Judah  ia  the  true  climate  of  the  vine,  and  at  Hebron,  ent  from  the  duke  of  Rutland  to  the  marquis  of  Ktck- 
according  to  the  Jewish  tradttion.  was  its  primeval  seat,  ingham,  which  weighed  nineteen  pounds.  !t  waa  (sa- 
lt was  from  the  Judean  valley  of  Eshcol — "^  the  torrent  veyed  to  its  destinalion — more  than  tweniv  miles  din 
-of  the  clualer"— that  the  spies  cut  down  the  gigantic  tant — on  a  staff  hy  four  laborers,  two  of  whom  ban  it 
cluster  of  grapes.  A  vineyard  on  a  "hill  of  olives"  ("a  I  in  rulation."  Tbe  greatest  diameter  of  this  clueui  was 
horn  the  son  of  OTl,''lBa.  v,  1 ),  with  the  "fence," and  nineteen  inches  and  a  half,  its  circumfereoev  Tout  fwc 
'-the  stones  gathered  out,"  and  "the  tower  in  the  midst  and  a  half,  and  its  length  nearly  twenty-three  iiKb«. 
thereof,"  is  the  natural  figure  which,  both  in  the  pro-  Deth-haicerem, "  the  house  of  the  viae"  (Jer.  vi  I ; 
phetical  and  evangelical  records,  represents  the  king-  Neh.  iii,  14),  and  Abel-ceramlm,"the  plain  ofLlKTiM- 
doin  of  Judah.  The  vine  was  the  emblem  on  the  coins  yanls,"took  their  respective  iiamea  from  their  viciniit 
nf  the  ^laccabees,  and  in  Ihe  colossal  cluster  of  golden  .  to  vineyards.  Uophna  (now  Jifna),  a  few  miles  Danh 
grapes  which  overhung  the  porch  oTthe  second  Tern-  of  Jerusalem,  is  stated  by  Eusebius  (OHnniut.  ^dpril 
pie;  and  the  grapes  of  Judah  still  mark  Ihe  tumbatones  jSurpvoi;)  to  bave  derived  its  name  from  its  linta.  Bin 
of  tbe   Hebrew  race  in  the  oldest  of  their  European    aee  Ophni. 

cemeierien,  at  Prague  {Stanley,  Sis.  and  Fiilett.  p.  162).  In  Italy  vines  are  trained  round  the  trunk  of  tbe  da 
AlilioughrMm  nian>'oriiBmnst  famous  haunts  the  villa  and  other  trees;  in  France  and  (iermany  for  a  knalirt 
has  iliM<[i|ieaml — fur  example,  from  Engnli — both  in  growth  stakes  or  wooden  props  are  provided,  in  Pal- 
Suuihern  l^ilcaline  aiul  on  the  slopes  of  Lebanon  there  estine,  however,  the  vine  is  usually  planted  on  ihe  side 
are  niitcimtns  tuAlcient  to  vindicate  Ihe  eki  renown  of  <  of  a  terraced  hill,  and  the  aged  branches  are  alkised  id 
this  "laiKl  of  vineyards."  "Tbe  grapes  of  Hebron  are  I  trail  along  the  ground,  the  fniit-beating  shooi*  bring 
atill  cnnaidered  Ihe  Bneat  in  the  Holy  Land.  Bnnchea  raised  on  forked  aiicks.  Thia  latter  mode  of  cnliii-a- 
weighing  from  six  to  seven  pounds  are  said  to  be  by  no  lion  appears  to  be  alluded  to  by  EzekicI  <xii,  1 1,  t^i : 
means  uncummnn,  and  Sir  Moses  Monleliore  said  he  aaw  :  "heratnjngnida  were  broken  and  withereil.*'  Dr.Bolan- 
one  bunch  al  Hebron  a  yard  long"  (liailby.  tVanderiiigt,  1  son,  who  baa  given  us  much  information  on  the  vims 
p. -I5H1.  Schiilz  i /jiluni/TH  Jrt  //urAafni.  v.  28fi,  quoted  of  Palestine,  thus  speaks  of  tbe  manner  in  nhich  heai 
by  liuM'nmDIIer.  liiU.  boi.  p.  223)  speaks  of  supping  it  them  trained  near  Hebron :  "  Tbey  are  planted  langlr 
lieitsliiu,  a  village  near  Piolemaia,  under  a  vine  whose  in  rows,  eight  or  ten  feet  apart  in  each  direction.  vU 
Btem  waa  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  whose  i  Block  ia  suffered  lo  grow  up  large  to  the  height  of  nix  or 
height  was  about  thirty  feet,  which  by  its  branches  I  eigiit  feet,  and  ia  then  fastened  in  a  aloping  poeilian  t" 
formeil  a  hut  upwards  of  thirty  feel  tnuad  and  long,  a  strong  slake,  and  tbe  shoots  suSered  lo  grow  and  ei- 
"The  clusters  of  these  extraonlinary  vinc'a,''he  adda,  ■  lend  from  one  plant  lo  another,  forming  a  line  of  fs- 
"  are  so  large  that  they  weigh  ten  ur  twelve  pounds,  I  loons.  Sometimea  two  rows  are  made  to  slant  luwardt 
and  the  berries  may  be  compared  with  our  small  plums."  each  other,  and  thus  form  by  their  shoots  a  sort  riTarvb. 
See  also  Bekm,  OJnen-n/.  ii,  ttW:  "Lea  aepa  dea  vignes  '  These  shaots  are  pruned  away  in  autumn"  (A^  An.  u 
sent  fort  gros  et  lea  rameanx  fort  apacieux.  Lea  habi-  80,81).  Sometimea  tbe  large  stones  are  built  into  ■ 
tants  eniendent  bien  comme  it  la  Taut  gonvemei.     Car    rough  wall,  about  three  feet  high,  and  the  vines  art 

and  ripening  magnificent  clusters  (Tris- 
tram, rninJf,  p.  £06).  In  the  coona  af 
many  houses  vines  are  trained  oi'natPsUti. 
or  framework  of  wood,  and  in  the  bo(  weatlut 
the  ample  foliage  affords  a  delightful  shadow 
(see  1  Kings  iv,  25;  Mic  iv,  4). 

Beaidea  planting  tbe  vine  and  ptoiectiag 
it  from  sggreBaort,suehaajaiAala  or -little 
foxes"  (Cant,  ii,  15),  and  that  wholesale  de- 
stroyer  "the  boar  nut  of  Ihe  wood"  (Psa. 
Ixxx,  13),  to  say  nothing  of  unscnpulos 
passengers  or  mischievous  marauders  (ra. 
12 ;  Gta.  xlix,  22, 23),  the  careful  hi«)»nl- 
man  "prunes  and  purges"  his  tine,  that 
it  may  bring  forth  more  and  belter  frail 
(John  XV,  2).  "TbeprTo.i»p,  or  kppiait 
of  the  fruitless  shoots,  takes  place  tint  ia 
March,  when  the  clusters  begin  to  fotv. 
The  twig  that  is  loppeil  olT  in  March  baa 
time  lo  shoot  by  April,  when,  if  it  give  do 
Watch-tower  In  Vineyard.  promise,  it  is  again  lopped  off,  and  that 


VINE  « 

again,  if  Mill  fruideaB,iii  Mav;  after  which  it  don  not 

■hout  forth,  and  the  proc«n  of  pninin^  ceaaeB.  Such 
u  ilw  different  rreitment  of  the  fruitful  and  [he  fruit- 
lea  hranch.  Frum  the  former  a  twig  or  abnot  ii  taken 
away ;  the  latter  i»  taken  away  iuelf,  and,  iu  wood 
being  unfit  fur  any  other  uee,  it  is  cast  itilo  the  Sre 
and  burned  (Eiek.  xv,  2,  5).  The  purging  of  the  viae 
ia  effected  by  making  incitionii  in  it  with  a  iinife,  which 

this  way  the  ii^fecied  up  ii  drawn  off,  and  the  diaeaHd 
vine,  which  would  otherwise  die.  ia  preaarved.  This 
ii>  what  is  called  the  bleeding  of  the  vine,  and  ia  often 
alludnl  u>  bv  religioua  writen  aa  an  emblem  of  aancti- 
6ed  affliction"  (Andenon,  BOle  Light  from  Biblf  L,mdt, 
p.  290).  Bealda  wild-bo«r»,  jackals,  and  fonea,  other 
enemiea,  such  aa  birds,  loeuata,  and  caleipiUin.  ucca- 
inanally  damaged  the  vines. 

The  rine  in  the  Hoaaic  ritual  was  aubject  to  the 
osual  realricliona  of  the  "seventh  year"  (Exud.  x:<iii, 
II)  and  the  Jubilee  of  the  ditielh  year  (Lcf.  xxv,  II). 
Tbc  gleanings,  iiliUHh  (rib^;),were  to  be  lea  for  the 
poor  and  atnmjter  (Jer.  :iliT,  9 ;  DeuL  niv,  21),  The 
viueyard  was  not  lu  be  sown  "with  diveraieeda"  (xx" 
9),  but  fig-trees  were  aometimea  planted  in  vineyarda 
(Lukexiii,  6;  comp.  1  King*  ir,  3»  :•<  Every  man  un- 
der hii  Tine  and  under  his  fig^ree").  Persons  passing 
through  the  vineyard  were  allowed  to  eat  the  grapea 
ihervin,  but  not  to  carry  any  away  (DenL  xiuii,  24). 

The  vintage,  halitT  (^^XX),  which  formerly  was  a 
•eann  of  general  festivity,  aa  is  the  caae  more  or  less  in 
all  Tine-gruwing  countries,  commences  in  September. 
The  towns  are  deserted,  and  the  people  live  among  the 
vineyards  (Q^S)  in  the  lodge*  and  leota  (Robinson,  m 
np.;  conip.Jiidg.ix,  27 {  Jer.xxr,80;  laa.xTi,10). 
The  grapes  were  galbered  with  ahuuta  of  joy  by  the 
"  grape-gatheren"  CX^)  (Jer,  ixv,  80),  and  put 
bukets  (seevi.S).  They  were  then  carried  nn 
head  and  ahoalders.  or  alung  upon  a  yoke,  to  the"v 
preaa"  (ri).  Those  intended  for  eating  were  perhaps 
put  into  flat  open  baakela  of  widterwork,  aa 
caatum  in  Egypt  (Wdkiiaon,  Anc  Egypt,  i, ' 
Palestine  at  present  the  finest  grapes,  says  Robinson, 
are  dried  as  raisins,  limmat  (p4BX),  ai 
the  remainder,  after  having  been  Inidden  and  preaaed, 
"ia  boiled  down  to  ■  syrup  which,  under  the  nai 
iltba  (SSI),  is  much  used  by  all  claaata,  wherever 
ywda  ai«  found,  as  a  condiment  with  their  (bod." 
fiutber  TCinsrks  on  the  modes  of  making 
drinka,  etc,  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  see  Wine.  The 
vineyard  (B^S),  which  was  generally  on  a  hill  (laa. 
V,  1;  Jer.  xxxi,  G;  Amoa  ix,  13),  was  aurrouuded  by 
a  wall  or  heilge  in  order  to  keep  out  the  wild  boars 
(Pu.  Ixxi,  13),jackals,  and  foxes  (:«umb.  xxii,  M; 
Canu  ii,  1&;  Neh.  iv,  3;  Ezek.  xiii,  4.  b;  Matt,  zxi, 
S3),  which  commit  sad  havoc  among  the  vine^  both  by 
treading  them  down  and  by  eating  the  grapes.  With- 
in the  vineyard  was  one  or  more  towen  of  stone  in 
which  the  vine-dressers,  biremim  (D^sns),  lived  (Isa. 


3  VINE 

i,  8;  T,  2i  MatL  xii,  S8;  aee  also  Robinson,  Bib!.  Ba, 
i,  SIS;  ii,  81).  The  pree^^dti  (r|),  and  vat.  v'bi 
(3;?:?),  which  waa  dug  (MatU  xxi,  88)  or  hewn  out  ot 
the  rocky  soD,  were  part  of  the  vineyard  fumiture  (lai. 
3).  One  of  these  ancient  witK-presses.  scooped  out 
the  living  rock,  has  been  described  by  Robtnenn.  He 
inil  it  nn  the  road  from  Akka  to  Jeruulem.  "  Ailvan- 
tage  had  been  taken  of  a  ledge  of  rock ;  on  the  upper 
aide,  towards  the  aouth,  a  shallow  vat  had  been  dug 
out,  eight  feet  square  and  fifteen  inches  deep,  its  boi- 
tum  declining  slightly  towanla  the  north.  The  thick- 
ness of  rock  left  on  the  north  side  was  one  foot ;  and. 
two  feet  lower  down  on  that  aide  another  smaller  vat 
was  excavated,  four  feet  square  by  three  feet  deep. 
The  grapes  were  trodden  in  [he  shallow  upper  vat, 
and  the  juice  drawn  off  by  a  bote  at  the  bottom,  stiU 
remaining,  into  the  lower  vat.  This  ancient  press 
would  seem  to  prove  that  in  other  days  these  hills 
were  covered  with  vineyards;  and  such  is  its  atate  of 
preservation  that,  were  there  still  grapea  in  the  vicini- 
Iv,  it  might  at  once  be  brought  into  use  without  repair" 
(bOL  Hrt.  iii,  187).  This  may  he  taken  aa  a  type  of 
the  Hebrew  wine-press.  Like  the  Egyptians,  the  Jews 
may  have  alao  employed  preiaes  made  of  wood ;  l>u( 
those  hewn  out  of  the  living  rnck  would  be  landmarks 
as  permanent  as  threahing-floon  aimilarlv  conalnicted 
(comp.  Juug.  vii,2fit  Zech.  liv,  lO.wilh  Gen.  1,  lOi  't 
Sam.  xxiv,  18).  It  was  a  simple  but  aufBcient  srrange- 
ment,and  modern  ingenuity  haa  not  much  improved  on 
it.  Nor  has  any  effectual  substitute  been  found  for  the 
human  foot  as  an  appaimtus  for  expressing  the  juice  of 
the  grape  without  cruahing  lbs  seeds  or  "  stones."    See 

Wl.NB-Fal. 

Approaching  Hebron,  Dr.  Bonar  describes  the  square 
Utwera  in  gardens,  corresponding  la  those  mentioned  in 
laa.  v,  !;  Hatt.xii,83,  and  adds,  "These  lowers  seem 

of  considerable  Biie,a9  if  meant  for  something  more  than 
watching:  and  we  are  told  that  in  summer  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city  take  up  their  residence  in  llieir  gar- 
dens,  and  make  use  of  these  lowers  for  shelter  hy  night, 
aa  Ibey  do  of  their  olives  and  vines  for  shade  by  day' 
(Land  q/'/Vomwe,  p.61).  Even  in  spring,  and  long  be- 
fore ■  lungle  "  berry"  was  ripe,  with  their  fresh  and  deli- 
cate fragrance,  and  with  their  promise  of  "  things  not 
seen  as  yet,"  there  was  a  great  attraction  in  the  vinr- 
yarda;  and  though  it  were  only  to  see  if  the  "vina  . 
flourished  and  the  lender  grape  appeared,"  it  waa  worth 
while  to  arise  early  and  "  go  tbrth  to  the  field  and  lodge 
in  theviUBgeB"(Cant,ii,ll-iS;  vii,ll,12),  Nor  most 
we  forget  the  feathered  minstrelsy  which  at  that  season 
made  the  vineyards  vocaL  They  are  the  hiding-place 
of  the  bulbul,  the  nightingale  oFPalestine;  and  in  vine- 
yarda uiuler  Herman,  Tristnm,  in  the  course  of  two 
days,  discovered  a  Bnch  and  two  warbler^  all  of  then 
perfectly  new  to  omithakigy,and  all  of  them  "songsters 
uf  no  ordinary  power  and  compass"  ( rrarvfi,  p.  606). 

Even  the  leaves  and  the  Blocks  of  the  vine  are  use- 
ful.   Tho  cuttings  of  the  vine  and  the  leaves  are  much 


Egyptian  Tloejard  aud  Wlne,pref 


VINE 


794 


VINE  OF  SODOM 


'up  together  in  ^ngle  Ihtbi,  and  boiled  fbr  the  Cable ; 
it  laakea  a  vtry  agneMe  dieh.  The  leaven  are  also 
used  for  foi1d«r.  The  scarcity  of  fuel,  particulailj  wcxhI, 
ill  mosl  parts  of  the  Eatt  ii  so  great  that  Ihey  supply 
it  with  everything  capable  of  burning — cow-dung,  dried 
roots,  pariiigg  of  fruiia,  withered  stalfca  of  herba,  and 
flower".  Vine-twigs  are  particularly  mentioned  m  uaed 
for  fuel  in  dres^ng  their  food  by  D'Arvieux,  Ia  Roque, 
and  others,  Eiekiet  aays,  in  his  parable  of  the  vine 
used  figuratively  for  the  people  of  God, "  Shall  wood  be 
taken  thereof  ID  do  any  walk?  or  shall  men  take  a  pio 
-of  it  to  hang  any  vessel  thereon?  Behold,  it  is  cast 
iulu  the  fire  for  ftiel"  <XT,e,  4).  "If  a  man  itnde  not 
in  me,"  saith  our  Lord, "  he  is  cast  fortb  as  ■  branch  (of 
the  vine),  and  is  withered;  and  men  gather  them,  and 
■cast  tbem  into  the  Bre,  and  they  are  burned"  (Jobn 
xr,6).     SeeFuKU 

in.  Everywhere  present,  so  beautiful,  so  vahiable,  we 
«annot  vonder  Chat  the  vine  reappears  oa  almom  every 
page  of  poetic  Scripture ;  and,  almost  as  if  created  on 
purpoM,  it  has  become  the  ■ymbol  of  the  believer  and 
of  the  Church.  "My  beloved  hath  a  vineyard  on  a 
very  fruiiful  hilL"  Thus  Israel  is  a  vine  brought  from 
Egypt,  and  planted  by  Che  Lord's  hand  in  the  land  of 
promise;  room  had  been  prepared  for  it  (oomp.  with 
this  the  passage  from  Belon  qnnl«d  above)  i  and  where 
it  took  root  it  filled  the  land,  it  covered  the  hills  wilh 
its  sbadow,  its  bongbs  were  like  the  goodly  oedar-(re« 
<Psa.Ixxjt,8-IO).  Comp.Graelin(rrapdK*ioiiS*fti«- 
lia  and  XorlA.  Periia,  iii,491),  who  thus  speaks  of  the 
lines  of  Ghilan :  "  It  i*  fond  of  faresCs,  . .  .  and  is  fre- 
-quenlly  found  about  pramontoriea ;  and  their  lower  part 
is  almost  entirely  covered  wilh  it.  There,  higher  than 
the  eye  can  reach,  it  winds  ilaelf  about  the  loftiest  trees ; 
and  lis  tendrils,  which  here  have  an  arm's  ihicknew,  so 
spread  and  mutually  entangle  themselves  far  and  wide 
that  in  places  where  it  grows  in  the  moec  luxuriant 
wildnew  it  18  verj- difficult  to  find  a  passage."  Todwell 
jiider  the  vine  and  fig-tree  is  an  emblem  of  domestic  i 
happincM  and  peace  (t  Kings  iv,25;  Psa.  cxzviii,  3; 
Mil-,  iv,  4) ;  the  rebellious  people  of  Israel  are  compared 
to  "wild  grapes,"  "an  empty  vine,"  "the  degenerate 
plant  of  a  strange  vine'  (lsa.v,9,4  [but  see  Cock i.b]  ; 
Jer.ii,21;  Hob.  x,  I),  etc.  It  is  a  vine  which  our  Lord 
selects  to  show  the  spiritual  union  which  subsists  be- 
tween himself  and  his  members  (Jnbn  xv,  IS).  With 
■  stuck  or  stem  and  its  outgoing  branches,  a  wonderful 
hydraulic  apparatus,  made  for  the  rapid  transmisrion 
and  rich  elaboration  of  the  liquid  Deisureshiddeninthe 
«ail;  with  feeble  and  flexible  twigs  which,  in  order  Co 
^DW  upward,  mtut  clasp  Che  elm  or  cling  to  the  wall; 
-with  its  aviditj'  for  Che  sunshine  and  the  shower;  with 
ics  large  sofl  leaver  and  the  cender  scent  of  ila  meek 
incnnspicuous  blossom ;  above  all,  wilh  its  amethystine 
ripeness  empurpling  autumn's  diadem  and  inviting  the 
worid  to  glsdnesii,  it  IS  an  ailmiiable  emblem  of  the 
Christian  and  theCburch— of  the  believing  soul  and  the 
believing  society.  "  My  soid  cleaveth  Co  the  dust,"  attd 
it  is  only  by  clasping  and  climbing  that  the  fallen  nature 
rises  i  and,  like  the  vine  with  its  curling  tendrils,  so  with 
the  fe^lc  lingers  of  his  faith  Che  Chriician  takes  hold 
and  mounts  upward.  Of  the  Kock  of  Ages,  of  the  Hi- 
lar and  Ground  of  the  Truth,  of  the  Tree  of  Life,  he 
lakes  hiild;  and  fcom  the  dust,  and  from  amid  Che 
creeping  things,  is  drawn  up  into  the  pure  air  and  the 

a  Saviour  as  faitbfulas  he  is  mighty— so  he  has  a  strong 
■Hinity  for  those  truths  and  Chac  communion  which 
keep  up  the  spirit's  life.  The  vine  subsists  by  drink- 
ing. It  is  because  he  ia  himself  Hu<.'h  a  thirsty  plant 
that  his  clusters  are  so  refieshing.  Through  every 
eager  channel  absorbing  the  fulness  of  the  neighboring 
well,  he  bangs  aloft  bis  flasks  of  nectar — his  pensile 
fountain  filled  with  the  essence  of  all  the  summer,  yet 


ties. 


the  belici 
hirsty  cer 


.    Longing  ibr  III 


the  very  life  and  itnovatian  of  his  racwakened  im- 
OTtality,  his  "soul  thirsteth  for  God,cbe  living  God;' 
and  wich  greaC  joy  ic  is  ihac  he  draws  water  from  the 
wells  of  salvation.  If  true  to  his  privil^es,  if  planted 
by  the  river  and  constantly  resorting  Co  God  aod  the 
word  of  his  grace,  the  inner  life  will  he  vigorotia  and 
abundant.  Still  "  fac  and  full  of  sap.  and  ever  flooradk- 
itig,"  Chrough  the  much  fruit  which  he  bears,  the  world 
shsll  be  Che  better,  Che  Father  shall  he  glorified.  See 
Gakdei'. 

VIVE  OF  SODOM  (CIS  ;El,sipAm  SrdSia;  SepC 
aiartXof  £afo/iui';  V'nlg.  ffmra  SodomornBi^  occsn 
onlv  in  DeuC.  xxiii,  S3,  where  of  cbe  wicked  it  is  sai^ 
"  their  vine  is  of  the  vine  of  Sodom,  and  of  the  fields  at 
Gomorrah."  It  is  generally  supposed  that  this  paasagc 
alludes  to  the  celebrated  apples  of  Sodom,  of  wluch  Jo- 
sephus  ( irar,  iv,  8, 4)  speaJo,  and  Co  which,  apparaitly, 
Tacitus  iHitl.  v,  6)  alludes.  Much  has  been  writleo  is 
tbia  curious  subject,  and  various  cms  bare  been  coa- 
jeCCured  to  be  tbac  which  produced  those 

"Dead  Sea  frn  I  is  that  tempt  the  eye, 

of  which  Moore  and  Byron  sing.  Tbe  following  is  the 
account  of  these  fruits  as  given  by  Joaepbus;  Speaking 
of  Sodom  (ut  lup.),  be  says, "  Ic  was  of  old  a  happy  land, 
both  in  respect  of  its  fruits  and  Che  abundance  of  its 
cities  I  but  now  it  is  all  bunted  up.  Hen  say  thai,  <■ 
account  of  Che  wickedness  of  iCa  iuhabicsDIs,  it  waa  de- 
stroyed by  lightning.  At  any  rate,  there  are  still  In  be 
seen  remains  of  Che  divine  fire  aitd  Cracn  of  fine  dtio; 
and,  moreover,  ashes  produced  in  Che  (raiu,  wbKh  in- 
deed resemble  edible  fruit  in  color,  hue,  on  being  plncfc- 
ed  by  Ihe  hand,  are  dissolved  inco  smoke  and  asbea.* 
Tacitus  (m  np.)  ia  more  general,  and  speaka  of  ofi  the 
herbs  and  flowers,  whether  growing  wild  or  plaoMd, 
Cuniing  black  and  crumbling  into  ashes. 

Some  travellen,  as  HaundreU  (Karig  Trar.  n  Palo- 
tim:  [Bohn,  1S48],  p.  4M),  regard  the  whole  sUsy  as  a 

would  answer  the  required  description.  Pocncke 
supposed  Che  apples  of  Sodom  Co  be  pomegranaut, 
"  which,  having  a  lough,  hard  rind,  and  being  left  <n 
Che  treea  two  or  three  yeara,  may  be  dried  to  dust  inside, 
and  the  ouldde  may  remain  fair."  Ilaaselquist  (Trai. 
p.  S6<)  seeks  to  identify  Che  apples  iu  question  with  dM 
egg  -  shaped  fruit  of  tbe  SolaMm  mrionffma  wfaro  at- 
tacked by  some  species  of  lenlkrtdo,  which  converts  the 

entire  and  keeps  iu  cokir.  Seetzen,  in  his  lett»t  (o 
barou  Zaeh  {.Vomit.  Corrapoad.  xviii,  «2),  thouf^t  he 
had  discovered  the  apples  of  Sodom  in  tbe  fruit  of  a 
kind  of  cocion-cree,  which  grew  in  the  plain  uTEI-Gba^ 
and  was  known  by  the  name  olAfitdar.  The  cMioi 
is  contained  in  the  fruit,  which  is  like  a  pomegranale. 
but  has  no  pulp.  Chateaubriand  concludes  Che  long- 
sought  fruit  Co  be  that  of  a  thorny  shrub  with  anull  ta- 
per leaves,  which,  in  siie  and  color,  is  exactly  like  the 
little  Egyptian  lemon ;  when  dried,  this  fruit  yidds  a 
blackish  seed,  which  may  be  compared  to  aabeo,  and 
which,  in  taste,  reeemhlM  bitter  pepper.  Burckbaidl 
(Trartli  tn  .Syria,  p.  392)  and  Irby  and  Uanglo  belicn 
that  the  tree  which  produces  these  ceiebnied  apples  is 
one  which  they  saw  abundantly  in  tbe  <ihor  to  die  rtm 
of  Che  Dead  Sea,  known  by  che  vernacular  name  <t 
atkry,  or  othar.  This  nee  bears  a  fruit  of  a  reddi^ 
yellow  color,  abouC  Chree  inches  in  diameCer,  which  coe- 
tains  a  while  substance  resembling  the  fiDeat  silk,  aw) 
envelofung  some  seeds.  This  silk  is  collected  bv  ibt 
Arabs  and  twisted  into  matches  for  their  Stelockf,'  Dr. 
Bobinson  (Bibl.  Bfi.  i,  623).  when  at  'Ain  Jidy,  wicboal 
knowing  at  the  moment  whether  it  had  been  observed 
by  former  travellers  or  not,  instantly  protHtunced  iu  b- 
voroflhe  'iisher  fruit  being  the  apples  of  Sodom.  Mr. 
Waller  Elliot,  in  an  article  ''on  the  I'ouHt  Sodomilira. 
or  Dead  Sea  apples"  ( Tram,  of  Ihf  EnlunoL  Soc  IIQT- 
40,  ii,  II),  endeavois  Co  show  chat  Che  applen  iu  quncioE 


VINE  OF  SODOM 


795 


TINET 


-an  iiak-|^l>,  uliich  he  foand  growiDg  plentiful]: 
dwarf  inks  (^Qaereut  iif/ietoria)  in  the  countiy  bejrond 
the  Jordan.    He  tell*  lu  that  tbe  Arabs  aaked  him  to 
bite  une  of  tbeae  galls,  and  that  they  laughed  when 
th«r  tan  hii  mouth  full  ufduM.    "That  these  gaUa 
the  true  Dead  Sea  apples,"  it  is  added,  "  there  can 
longer  be  a  quealion.     Nothing  can  be  more  beaut' 
than  their  rich,  glowy,  puiplish-red  enterior;  noth 
more  bitter  than  their  porous  and  eaailv  pulveriied 
lerior"  (ibid.  p.  IG).     The  opinion  of  Piwoi^ke  may, 
think,  be  diamiaaed  at  once  aa  being  a  most  improbable 
■conjectuR.     The  objection  to  the  Solatium  mtonjfow 

borhood  of  the  Sea  of  Sodom,  but  ia  generally  dialribu- 
ied  thronKhout  PateMine;  besides  which  it  is  not  likely 
that  the  fruit  of  which  Joeephua  apeaka  should  be  rep- 
RMnted  by  occanunal  diaeaked  epmmena  of  the  fruit 
of  the  c^-apple.  We  muaC  look  for  some  plant,  the 
normal  character  of  ohoae  fruit  comes  aoniewhere  near- 
er to  the  required  condittoni.  Seetzen'a  plant  is  the 
nine  as  that  mentioned  by  Burckhardt,  Irby  and  Man- 
gles, and  Robinson,  i.  e.  the  'Usher.  Chateaubriand's 
thorny  shrub,  with  fruit  like  small  lemons,  may  be  the 
Zaibim  {Balunila  jegt/piiaeti)i  but.  it  certainly  can- 
not be  the  liee  intended.  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that 
the  usk-gaUa  of  which  Hr.  Elliot  speaks  should  be  the 
fruit  in  iiuestiun ;  becatise  these  being  formed  an  a  tree 
BO  generally  known  as  an  oak,  and  being  common  in  all 
coaniries.  would  not  have  been  a  subject  worthy  of  es- 
pecial remark  or  have  been  notjeed  aa  something  pecul- 
iar lo  the  diatrict  around  the  Sea  of  Sodom.  The  fruit 
of  the  'oiArr  appean  to  have  the  best  claim  lo  represent 
the  apples  of  Sodom,  The  CalMrepii  procera  ia  an  In- 
ilian  phint,  and  thrives  in  the  warm  valley  of 'Ain  Jidy, 
but  ia  scarcely  lo  be  found  elsewhere  in  Palestine.  The 
reailineai  with  which  ila  fruit,  "fair  to  the  eye,"  h 
when  presaed.  agrees  well  with  Josephua'a  account ; 
although  there  is  a  want  of  suitablenesa  between 
few  (ibnf'  o(  Robinson,  and  the  "  amoke  and  ashe 
ibe  Jewish  historian,  yet,  according  to  a  note  bi 
editor  of  Seetzen'a  l^ter;  the  fruit  of  the  calotm| 

^ling  certain  fungi,  bat  of  pungent  quality.  —  Smith. 
Fmm  the  fact  that,  in  the  song  of  Moses,  it  is  a 
which  is  mentioned.  Dr.  HookeT  argues  with  much  force 
in  favor  of  the  colocynth  [see  UouRp],  the  foliage  and 
irailing  stem  of  which  are  sufficiently  vine-like.  The 
drenerai  use  of  the  word  "  apple,"  in  subsequent  limes, 
carries  uur  thoughts  away  from  the  bahit  nf  the  plant 
(u  the  appearance  of  its  fruit,  which  in  both  cokx^nth 
and  caloiropis  is  certainly  not  unlike  an  apple  and  very 
unlike  a  grape.  Notwithstanding  the  highly  authori- 
■(ative  opinion  in  favor  of  the  former,  we  still  lean  lo  the 
■caluinipia.  Pound  at  'Ain  Jidy  (Engedi)  and  Keferein, 
aiHl  abundantly  on  the  eastern  ahore.  it  is  decidedly  a 
Dead  Sea  plant ;  and  there  ia  something  in  its  appear- 
ance and  habit  which  amsts  the  eye  and  impresses  the 
imatcination.  Mr.  Tristram  Calls  it  "the  strangest  and 
■nnMi  tropical-louking  shrub  he  ever  saw,  having  bollow 
pufT-balls  bv  wav  of  fruit,"  and  without  hesitation  pro- 
nouncoa  it  "the  true  apple  of  Sodom"  (T>ur.p.Wl). 
Afierwarda  he  describes  it  as  a  tree  "with  cork-like, 
thick,  and  light  bark,  wrinkled  and  furrowed,  huge  glos- 


[ofthel 


large  as  the  foliage  of 
have  taken  it  for  a  species  of  apurge  {taphmHn),  from 
the  abundance  of  acrid  milk  it  discharged  when  broken 
-or  punctured;  but  Maundrell  at  once  recognised  it  aa  an 
old  acquaintance  in  Nubia.  It  waa  now  both  in  Bower 
.and  thiit.  The  Uoaaoms  were  like  those  of  some  spe- 
cies of  caper,  and  the  fruit  like  a  very  large  apple  in 
shape  and  color^golden  yellow — and  soft  to  the  touch; 
but,  if  ripe,  cracking  likea  puff-ball  when  slightly  press- 
ed, and  c-ontaining  only  a  lung  thread  nf  small  aeeda  on 
a  halr'-open  i>od,  with  long  silky  tilamenls,  which  the 
Beflswin  prize  highly,  and  twiat  into  matches  for  their 
Jtrclocki"  {ibid.  p.  283).    The  acrid  spurge-like  juice  at 


oncegn^esta  the  gall  in  Dent  icxxii  32 :  "Their  vine 
is  of  the  vine  of  Sodom,  and  of  the  fields  of  Gomorrah  : 
their  grapes  are  grapes  of  gall,  their  clusters  are  bitter." 
See  ArpLK  of  Sodoh. 

Vinegar  (yvn-,  SepLand  N'.T.  uCor;  Tulg.  tuv- 
tam).  The  Hebrew  term  cMnttU  was  applied  lo  a  bev- 
erage, consisting  generally  of  wine  or  strong  drink 
turned  snur  (whence  its  use  waa  proscribed  to  the  Naz- 
arite.  Numb,  vi,  3),  but  sometimes  artificially  made  by 
■u  admixture  uf  barley  and  wine,  and  thus  liaUe  to 
fermentation  (Mishna,  Paack.  iii,  1>  It  was  acid  even 
to  a  proverb  (Prov.  x,  26),  and  by  itself  formed  a  nau- 
seous draught  (Psa.  Ixix,  21),  but  waa  serviceable  for 
the  purpose  of  sopping  bread,  as  used  by  laborers  (Kuth 
ii,  H),  being  refreshing  in  the  heat  (Pliny,  xxiii,  26; 
comp.  ii,  49).  The  degree  of  ita  acidity  may  be  inferred 
from  PiDV.  xxr,  20,  where  ita  effect  on  nitre  is  noticed. 
See  WiME.  Similar  to  the  chdmtl$  of  the  Hebrews  was 
the  acttum  of  the  Romans — a  thin,  sour  wine,  consumed 
by  soldiers  (Veget.  IM  Rt  Mil.  iv,  7)  either  in  a  pure  state 
or,  more  usually,  mixed  with  water,  when  it  was  termed 
poaca  (Pliny,  xix,  29;  Spanian.  tf anb-.  ID).  This  waa 
the  beverage  of  which  the  Saviour  partook  in  his  dy- 
ing moments  (Matt,  xxvji,  48:  Mark  xv,3t>;  John  xix, 
29, 80),  and  doubtless  it  waa  refreshing  to  his  exhausted 
frame,  though  offered  in  derision  either  on  thatoccaainn 
or  previously  (Luke  xxiji,36).  The  same  liquid,  min- 
gled with  gall  (aa  Matthew  states,  probably  with  the 
viewofmarking  the  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  in  Psa. 
Ixix,  21),  or  wiih  myrrh  (aa  Mark  statea,wlih  an  eye 
to  the  exact  hiatoriial  fact),  was  offered  lo  the  Saviour 
at  an  earlier  stage  of  his  sufferings,  in  order  to  deaden 
the  perception  of  pain  (Matt,  axvii,  34;  Mark  xv,  23). 
See  Grahner,  De  Potca  (Misen.  1701 ;  Pfaff,  Dt  FtU* 
Etca  (Tub.  1755);  Bviibus,  lit  .Ufrlt  J,tu  Chr.  iii, 
26S.    See  Ckl-cifixion. 

Tinea,  Riciiari),  a  learned  English  divine  and  pap- 
ular preacher,  was  born  at  Dlaston,  aud  educated  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.  From  the  universitv 
he  waselectedachoolniBsier  at  Hinckley;  entered  into 
holv  onlers,  and  obtained  the  rccturv  ol  Weddington. 
lu  1644  Mr.  Vines  was  chairman  of  the  assembly  of  di- 
vines which  eatahliahed  the  Presbyterian  goveromenc, 
and,  as  Fuller  saya,  was  the  champion  of  that  party. 
'  n  he  became  minister  of  St.  Clement 
.  and  vicar  of  St.  Lawrence  Jewry :  anil  was  after- 
(i64fi)  appointed  masur  of  Pembroke  Hall,  in 
Cambridge,  which  position  he  resigned  in  1660  on  ac- 
>r  the  Engagement,  as  he  was  of  Presbvlerian 

S55.     For  his  work^' which 

ither  pastoral  treatises,  see 
Allibone,  Dicl.ofBrU.  and  Antr.  Aulhort,  s.  v. 
Vinvt,  Alexandbe  Rodof-phk,  an  eminent  Swiss 
vine  and  author,  was  bom  at  Ouchy,  canton  of  Vaud, 
near  Lausanne,  June  17, 1797.  He  studied  in  the  acad- 
Lausanne,  under  the  direction  of  the  Fmtestant 
Church,  of  which  he  waa  ordained  a  minister  in  1819. 
He  taught  French  literature  at  the  University  of  Basle 
from  1817  lo  1837,  when  he  was  appointed  profeasor  of 
practical  theology  at  Lausanne,  which  pout  he  lield  un- 
il  1847,  aOer  which  be  again  taught  French  literature. 
He  obtained  in  IS2S,  through  the  efforts  of  tiuisol.  a 
prize  for  his  essay  ,Sui'  J(i  f.ibeiii  dti  CuUti.  Vinet  be- 
came one  of  the  commission  for  orgsniiing  the  Protes- 
tant Chureh  in  the  canton  of  Vaud;  hut  his  views  con- 
cerning the  functions  of  Church  and  State  being  reject- 
ed, he  seceded  from  the  Stale  Chureh  and  aid«l  in 
forming  an  independent  organiuiiion,  the  Free  Chureh 
of  Vaud  and  other  cantons,  tn  1R46  (Dec  2)  he  lost 
his  professorship  on  account  nf  his  opposition  In  the 
new  radical  authorities  of  the  canton.  He  died  Mar 
IS,  1847.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  earnest  prenrher, 
clear  and  brilliant  rather  than  profound  in  thou)[ht; 
and,  although  highly  evangelical  and  orthodox,  advn- 


When  ai 


sentiments.     He  died  ii 


VINEYARD  »i 

on  literature  and  nl'igion,  and  mMt  of  hiii 
worka  have  been   cnnsUted  into  En^iifa. 
His  works  en  French  literature  ahow  that  be 
WW  (horoDghW  acquainted  with  iis  hiMotr, 
and  pouessed  the  criliol  raculty  in  no  mean 
degree.     As  a  jihilnsopliicu-ieligiouB  writer 
be  ia  veiy  popular  botb  in  England  and 
America.     His  principal  worka  are,  CAreifo- 
taatfiU  franfatK  {IS'29,  a  voIa.)  ■.—Hiitoiruk 
la  Liltiralure  Frasfaac  an  X  Vllliime  Siick 
(1851,  3  Tula.):  — £(iufei  rar  la  Liaii-alure 
FnmtaUe  au  XrXiime  aiidt  (1849-61,  3 
vols.) : — Mtmoirt  ta  Favor  de  ta  L^trli  dit 
Calta  (1826):— ZMnvun  lar  qoflqiiei  SuJrU 
Bttignx  (1831) :— Euaiiur  la  Mamfatalion 
da   Comktinnii  Seligimiei,  el  lar  la   Siparalion   de 
tEglite  et  de  FEtat  (1842)  -.—Eludei  tur  Blaite  Piuoal 
119*8-) -.-Midilatieiu  ieangtiifua  (ISii) -.—Thiohgie 
Piulorale, du  Theoloffiedu  MimMire  Eeangilique  (1660) : 
—and  HamUitique,  on  Tkiorie  de  la  Pridicatimi  (1853), 
Bia  tni^aphy  ha«  been  written  b;  Scbdrer,  A .  Viae!, 
la  Vie  tt  tet  (Euvrei  (Parii,  1853);  and  by  Rambert, 
A .  Vviet,  Bittnre  de  la  Vie  el  de  tei  Oueragei  (Lauaanne 
and  Pari^  187G).    See  alao  Sainte-Beuve,  PoHrailt 
Contemporainit  vol.  iL 

Tlne^aid  (D'^3.  ktrea,  an  orchard).  In  Badml 
Egypt  Ibe  orchard  and  vinerard  were  not  aeparated  by 
aur  wall,  ard  figs  and  other  treea  were  planted  within 
the  aame  limitB  aa  the  vines.  Bui  irnot  connected  with 
it,  the  vineyard  was  cloie  to  the  orchard,  and  their  mode 
of  training  the  Tinea  on  wooden  raftera,  supported  by 
TOWS  of  columna,  which  divided  Che  vineyard  into  nu- 
merous avenues,  was  both  tsHIcful  and  convenienU  The 
columna  were  frequently  colored,  but  many  were  aimplo 
wooden  pillara,  aupporting,  with  thnr  Torked  sommita, 
the  polea  that  lay  over  them.  Some  vinea  were  al- 
lowed to  grow  aa  alandiog  bushes,  and,  being  kept  low, 
did  not.  require  any  support;  othen  were  formed  int«a 
aene*  of  bowers ;  and  from  the  form  of 
,    the  hieroglTphic  signifying   vineyard 


It  Ihe 


Flgnnil 


roplTphlo  aiR-  ,tuched  tl 
nl^plfVlue- „„.„ 


[o  otber  trees,  as  the  Ro- 
to the  elm  and  poplar, 
and  aa  Ihe  modem  Italians  do  to  the 
white  mulberry .  nor  have  the  Egyptians  of  the  present 
day  adopled  Ihia  European  cuatom.  When  the  vine- 
yard was  encloeed  within  its  own  wall  of  drcnit,  it  fre- 
quently had  I  reaervoiT  of  water  attached  to  it,  as  well 
as  the  building  which  contained  the  wine-presa;  but 

aa  the  other  pans  of  the  garden,  depended,  of  cnuise,  on 


PrigbLeulug  nway  ibe  Birds  with  a  Sling. 

the  taaCe  of  each  individnal,  or  the  nature  oftbe  gnaai. 
Great  care  waa  taken  to  preserre  the  clatters  fruoi  ibe 
intruaion  of  birds ;  and  boya  wen  conatantly  emptoyeiL 
about  the  aeaaon  of  the  vintage,  Ui  frighten  cbem  wiik 
a  sling  and  the  aound  of  the  voice.  Wbrn  ibe  grapt* 
were  gathered,  the  bunchea  wen  carefully  put  into  diap 
wicker  baaketa,  which  men  carried,  either  on  tb^  bead 
or  shouldera,  or  alung  upon  a  yoke,  to  the  wine-ptra: 
but  when  intended  for  eating,  they  were  put.  like  utbs 
fruits,  into  flat  open  baskets,  and  generally  nreied  wiik 
leaves  of  the  palm,  vine,  or  other  ines.  Thew  dal  ba- 
kcta  were  of  wicker-work,  and  similar  to  iluiae  iiftkt 
present  day  uaed  at  Cairn  for  the  aame  putpaw.  whick 
are  made  ofoaiers  or  common  twigs.  After  ihr  viatagt 
was  over,  they  allowed  the  kids  to  browse  upon  il* 
vinea,  which  grew  aa  standing  buabea  (comp.  Un.  &«. 
ii,  6, 48) ;  and  the  aeaion  of  [he  year  when  ibe  graya 
ripened  in  Egypt  waa  the  month  Epiphi,  uiir  Juoc  n 
July._Wilkinaoo,.1iK.£^g^.i,4l  aq.  See  Tlve.  AI- 
tlwugh  the  climate  of  Egypt,  eapecially  the  annaal  itn- 
flow  of  the  Nile,  waa  not  favorable  to  Ibe  culitin  «C  tkc 
grape,  yet  from  the  above  monumenta  we  iufer  ibal  iu 

it  could  only  have  been  grown  with  succiaia  fti  a  ff»  rf 
the  high-lying  diatricia,oT  on  artificiallv  elevateil  bed^; 
and  when  comnKToe  enabled  the  ERyptianii  to  impnt 
wine  from  olher  oountriea  better  and  cheaper  than  ibrr 
could  manubctun  it  themaelvea,  they  had  the  pjai 
aeuae  lo  abandon  thia  unproSlable  branch  of  ind«tiy 
and  direct  their  attention  to  commodiiiea  fur  which  nsl- 
ure  afforded  them  greater  facilitiea.  See  Ecvpt.  la- 
deed,  every  circumstance  provea  to  lu  that  the  nillirv 
lion  of  tlje  vine  required  great  care  and  actentioii  ia 
^Syp'-  '^'li'  oi^  ***  particularly  required  to  garni 
against  Ibe  boar?  night-shade,  called  by  the  Arabs  mt 
tl-dib,  or  the  wolf-vine,  which  is  common  in  Egypt  ad 
Palestine,  grows  much  in  tbe  vineyards,  and  it  mj 
peniicious  to  them.  It  greatly  raembk*  a  vine  in  in 
shnibbr  stalk.  This  ntay  have  been  "the  wild  viat' 
wbose  fruit  poisoned  the  pottage  which  Disha  miiaca- 


rd.  with  a  large  tank  of  water. 


Coogic 


VINEYARDS  787 

liMUlycuRd(SKingiir,  39-41).  It  is  to  thU  alao  that 
Moms  ttlludes  in  bis  prophetic  lieacriptioii  of  tb«  Tuture 
isgenency  of  the  laraelitea,  "For  their  vin«  19  of  the 
Hue  of  Sodom,  and  of  the  ttelds  of  (lomumh :  their 
grapes  are  grap«Bofg«II,their<:luil«™»ra  bitter:  their 
wiue  ia  the  poiwo  of  dragODi,  ind  the  cruel  reoom  of 
up«"(Deut.zxxii,82,8S).  See  Tine  or  Sonox. 
VINEYARDS,  Plaim  ok  the  (n-'ans  iait ;  Scpl. 

rtl  rineU  amata),  ■  place  meiitioniii  only  in  Judg.  xi, 

33;  poseibly  now  repreKnteil  by  a  ruin  beuiog  the  name 

of  Brit  ct-Kena—"  hoiue  of  the  vine"— to  the  north  of 

Kerak(De  Saulcy,  A'nrr,  i,S63J,  if  the  Aroer 

in  the  same  passage  is  the  pliee  of  that  Dime  on  the 

Amun  CW.  Mojeb).     It  in,  however,  by 

tain ;  ami,  indeed,  the  probability  it  thi 

lies,  with  the  instinct  of  a  nomadic  or  semi-nomadic 

|<e«ple.  betook  Ibemselvea,  when  attacked, 

<'ivilized  and  cultivated  country  of  Mnab  (wh 

Kerm  is  situated),  but  (o  the  gpreaiUn^;  (lew 

the  ea.sl.  where  they  ciuld  disperse  themselves  after  the 

usual  tactics  of  such  tribes Smith. 


VIOLA 


7101,  Sebastiano,  an  Italian  painter,  was  a  iiatiTe 
■of  Venina,  who  settled  at  Pistoja  in  the  early  part  of 
*he  Itith  century.  He  enjnved  a  high  reputation,  and 
left  many  works  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  His  moat  im- 
portant work,  huwever,  was  in  the  suppressed  chapel  of 
^an  Desiderio,  in  which  the"  fafade  over  the  great  altar 
was  storied  with  the  Cnidflxion  of  tbe  Ten  Thousand 
Martyrs — 1  work  abouiuling  with  flgurea  and  invention." 
.See  Lanzi,  Sloria  Pilloriai .-  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitl.  of  the 

Vintage  (prup.-^'<XZ,iitlifr),  the  season  of  ingath- 
ering of  tbe  grape  (Lev.  XRvi,  6;  Isa.  :iKiv,  18,  ele.), 
trhich  of  coufsa  was  one  of  hilarity.  See  Harvest. 
The  produce  of  the  wine-crop  is  denoted  by  the  term 
Bh^n.  rt'nijiA, "  new  wine,"  See  Wine.  For  the  oper- 
ations <if  the  vintage  (Henvel,  Dt  Vimkmia  VtlMtbraor. 
[Tr.  ad  Rh.  I76&]),  see  Tihk. 

VintimlllA,  Charlbs  GAflPARii  Gitii.lauhe  de, 
a  French  pretal«,  was  horn  in  the  diocese  of  Frejus,Nor. 
15,  I65S,  uf  the  distingnisheil  family  oC  De  Luc  As 
■oun  a^  he  had  obtained  licensure  from  the  Soibonne,  he 
received  from  his  uncle,  Jean  de  Vlntimille,  hiahop  of 
Toulon.acanonahipin  hi*  cathedral,  and  he  was  likewise 
prior  of  three  abbeys  in  Pmvence  until  nominated  (June 
37,  1S84)  to  the  see  of  Haiseillea;  but  the  political  dis- 
turbances of  the  time  prevented  his  consecration  tilljan. 
9, 1B92.  He  was  theuce  transferred  (Feb.  1, 170H)  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Aix,  and  finally  (May  12, 1729)  to  that 
of  Paris.  In  all  hia  olflccs  he  displayed  great  Rdelity 
and  public  generosity,  but  often  fell  under  royal  and 
even  papal  displeasure  for  hia  defence  of  naiinnal  and 
popular  rights.  He  died  at  Paris,  March  13, 1746.  See 
Hr>efer,  Soav.  Biog.  Giniralt,  a.  v. 

Vinton,  John  Adams,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  6,  ItWl.  He 
Kradust«d  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1828,  and  at  An- 
dover  Theohigical  Seminary  in  1831.  He  preached  for 
•evernl  churches  in  Maine,  Vermont,  and  Maawichuaelis, 
from  1X32  to  IM62.  He  was  the  author  uf  the  Vinlon 
Mrmoriul  (Boalon,  1S&8)  —Tht  Gilrt  Mtmoriid  (I8G4) : 
~Thr  Hampton  F,i«ilg  in  Amfrta,  (1864):— and  edited 
a  reprint  of  Deborah  Sampson's  Ftmak  Btrirw  (t86G{: 
besiclrs  contributing  to  a  number  of  religious  and  libr- 
ary periodicals. 

Vlntoo,  Justtu  H.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  misrionarr  in 
Burmah,  was  bom  in  Wilminglan.  Conn.,  Feb.  17, 1806, 
and  was  educated  at  the  Hamilton  Liieniy  and  Theulng. 
icalln!<titute,naw  Madison  Uiiivrraiiv.  He  saileil  frum 
BoKon  July  S,  1894.  for  the  field  of  his  misshuian'  \t\xt\ 

his  n.irk,  until  his  relnm  lu  the  Ciiiied  .Siuii-i.  in  ixW.  \ 


He  retained  to  Bonnah  in  ISGO,  and  eontinoed  hia 
labofa,  devoting  bimaelf  espedally  to  the  converuon 
and  religioua  training  of  the  Karenb  lie  died  March 
31, 1S58.  Mr.  Vinton  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
zealous  and  successful  missiunariea  ever  sent  to  heathen 
lands  by  the  Baptists  of  the  United  Stales.  (J.  C.  S.) 
Vinton,  Robert  Spencer,  a  Hetbodist  F.piscopal 
minister,  was  first  employed  in  pastiirai  work  in  1817; 
joined  the  Baltiroore  Conference  in  1818)  was  ordained 
descnn  in  1820,  and  elder  in  1822  j  in  1868  was  super- 
numerated,  and  in  1869  superannuated.  During  tha 
war  president  Lincoln  commissioned  him  as  chaplain  in 
the  C'niled  States  army,  and  charged  him  wiih  the  re- 
ligious watch-care  of  the  military  hospitals  of  Baltimore. 
He  died  of  paralysis,  July  31,1870.  -Mr.  Vinton  was 
devoted,  energetic,  of  apotlees  reputuion,  and  success- 
ful as  a  minister.  See  Mmata  of  Amuat  Conftreacti, 
1871,  p.  19. 

Viol,  (he  rendering  in  the  A. V.  at  Amos  v,  28  j  vi,S, 
of  the  Heb.  ^3;,  luiri,  which  is  elsewhere  rendered 
"psaltery."  It  is  a  musical  instrument,  used  chiefly 
in  worship  (I  Kings  i,  12;  1  Chron.  xv,  16;  xxv,  1;  2 
Chion.  V,  12 1  xjtii,  26;  Mishna,  SuceoUi,  x,  4),  but  ab» 
in  worldly  festivals  and  banquets  (2  Chmn.  xx,  28; 
Isa.  V,  12;  xiv,  II),  and  is  hence  often  connected  with 
cAinoor",  nils,  tbe  harp  or  iMara  (Psa,  Ixxi,  22 ;  cviii, 
2;  cl,  3).  It  pissed  fhim  the  East  to  the  Greeks, 
and  tbey  reuined  the  name  mSbia,  mfiXa ;  Lat.  nn- 
Ui«B,  (Ovid,  Ar,  Ama.  iii,  B27;  oomp.  Athen.  iv,  175; 
Slraho,  X,  471).  The  original  form  of  the  instrument 
In;  it  was  not,  however,  ■  proper  harp,  but 
more  like  the  cithara,  which,  as  Josephua  siya  (j4n(, 
ii,  12,  8),  had  twelve  strings,  and  was  played  by  the 
hand.  But  the  expression  iSbs  ^33,  nibrl  luSr,  a 
nslrument  often  airings,"  in  Psa.  xxxiii,  2; 
ems  to  make  against  thia  view,  if  we  render 
it  thus,  with  the  Sept.  (laaxopton),  and  the  number  of 
strings  may  anciently  have  been  fewer,  or  even  vary- 
Frora  another  meaning  of  niM,  leather  boUU  or 
nme  understand  the  instrument  pictured  by  Nie- 
btibr  (Ta/  xxvi;  see  Pfeiffer,  p  28),  but  thU  U  more 
probably  the  kUmSr,  -Tin.  If  Augustine  was  right  <on 
Paa.  xxxi  and  sxvi),  dlharu  and  ptaUtrium  (naUiun) 
differed  in  this :  that  the  latter  had  the  aounding-hoi, 
'hich  the  strings  were  fastened,  on  the  upper  side) 
and  accordingly  Cajmodorus  and  [wdorus  (Onj,  iii,  75) 
"■spared  it  to  an  inverted  &,  so  that  the  instrument 
■mhled  a  vessel  enlarging  upwards.  '  Sucb  inatru- 
Its  aie  seen  sometimes  on  Egyptian  monumenu 
{Wilkinson,  ii,  280,  282, 287).  On  the  other  hand,  tbe 
of  the  most  ancient  cithara  compared  by  Thenina 
{Sdcht.  exrpn.  Slud.  i,  100  sq.)  has  but  a  remote  resem- 
blance. Cases  for  the  ntbrl  are  mentioned  in  the  Misb- 
(CArfim,  xvi,7).  See  PsALTEBi. 
The  old  English  viol,  like  the  Spanish  rigiula,  was  a 
-Btringed  guitar.  Mr.  ChappcU  (Pop.  JKui.  i,  246) 
.■s"the  position  of  the  fingers  was  marked  on  the 
finger-board  by  frela,  as  in  gulura  of  the  present  day. 
The  '  chest  of  viols'  consisted  of  three,  four,  Ave,  or  «i 
of  dilfcrcn  t  siies;  one  for  the  treble,  others  for  the  mean, 
the  counter-tenor,  the  tenor,  and  perhaps  two  for  the 
bass."  Etymologically,  tftof  is  connected  with  the  Dan. 
Fiol  and  the  A.-!i  jSwfc,  through  the  Fr,  Hale,  Old  Fr. 
ritllt,  Med.  Ut.  cilflla.  In  the  Promptoriam  Panulo- 
run  we  find  '-Fyj-ele,  viella,  fidlcina,  viielU."  Again, 
in  North's  PluUrch  {Antonitii,  p.  980,  ed.  1695)  there  is 
a  description  of  CTeopaira's  barge,  '■  the  ponpe  whereof 
was  of  gold,  the  sailea  of  jmrple,  and  the  nwers  of  silver, 
which  kf  [>t  stroke  in  rowing  after  the  sciuiid  of  the  mu- 
Bicke  of  rtuies.  hoiv  b..yp'i,  cythems,  rsoltr.  and  such  other 
inalniments  as  they  played  vpon  in  tbe  barge."     See 


Viola,  Don 


;nii.  a  Neapolitan  painter  of  the  17th 
•iple  anil  imiuior  of  the  cavalier  Mai- 
■cuted  gume  works  uf  a  mediocre  grade 


VIOLE  71 

for  iheehurcheaandcollMtiana.  HeUuid  tolulvedJ«l  I 
«boutl696.  SteSpootKr,Biog.aul.<!/'theFiiuArti,t.i. 

Viole,  D*!iiEt,  (iKoluiKS,  a  lesnied  French  priesl, 
wu  bom  at  Soulwre  (diocese  of  Charcrat),  in  1598,  of 
an  olil  noble  family.  In  1S23  he  enlared  the  Order  nf 
Belied ic tinea  at  SLMaur,  and  ihen  studied  theology  at 
Corbie.  He  spent  his  dayi  in  quiet  atudy  and  hiiuiri-  i 
cal  rewarch,  dying  at  Auiorre,  April  21, 1669,  and  ieav.  ; 
ing  aeveril  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Aouf,  Bieg. 
GmiriUt,  a.  r. 

Violent  Hands  is  a  phrase  in  the  labric  of  the 
Engliih  service  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  which  de- 


Vlpw  is  the  uniform  rendering,  in  the  A.  T.,  of 
nSB^,  rpk'ih  (IVoiD  n7D,  prob.  lo  kia),  which  occun 
only  in  Job  xx,  16;  Isa.xxx,6;  lis, 6;  and  of  ixitva 
(MaiLui,7:xii,34;  xxiii,8S;  Lukeiii,?;  AcUxxTiii, 
B).  In  all  inatanees  a  renomous  aerpent  is  evidently 
denoted,  but  the  particular  kind,  if  anything  oiore  than 
a  generic  term,  is  indelerminaUe.  The  English  name 
is  derived  from  the  Ladn  n'rtporu,  which  signifies 
"bringing  forth  ita  young  alive;"  but,  though  the 
young  ait  thus  produced,  they  are  previously  formed 
in  an  egg  within  the  parent's  ovaiy,  and  hence  Isaiah's 
allusion  to  the  batching  of  vipers  (lis,  S)  is  perfectly 
justified  bv  phyaiologj-  and  natural  history.  Hence 
it  is  used  tropically  for  deceitful  and  wicked  men  (Hate, 
iii,  7;  iii,B4;  xxiii,38i  Lukeiii,  7).  From  the  earli- 
est ages  the  "viper*'  has  been  dreaded  for  its  venomous 
bit«,  and  made  the  emblem  of  everything  thai  is  hurt- 
ful and  destructive;  indeed,  ill  poison  is  one  of  the  moat 
active  and  dangerous  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
true  viper  is  the  addtr  iPrliai  bena  or  WiptTa  btnu), 


the  Heb.  word) :  il 
son  as  the  most  ve 
ern  Africa  aud  Sou 


thus  described  by  Sbair  and  Jack. 
jouBof  the  serpent  tribe  in  Sorlh- 
weslem  Asia.    It  is  remarkable  lot 


long,  u)d  as  thick  u  B  man's  arm,  beautifully  spotted 
wiili  yellow  and  brown,  and  sprinkled  over  with  black- 
ish specks  similar  to  the  hon-noaed  snake.  These  arr- 
pents  have  a  wide  mouth  with  which  ibey  inhale  a 

great  quantity  orair,and  when  inflated  tbervwilh  tbty 


The  modern  Oriental  name  is  derived  fnan 


have  inferred  that  the  fieij-  serpents  sent  to  chastise 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert  were  t^ait,  or  viper*.  St« 
Skrfkkt. 

Vlpond.  David,  an  English  Weslevan  mitiisur, 
was  bum  at  Hardwick,  Noifolk,in  IT78.  He  was  aand 
from  infidelity  bv  reading  the  biographies  io  the  If*^ 
Itym  MtlhcdiM  Uagatw.  His  appoinlmeDta  wMe 
Canterbury,  tfawburv,  Kochester,  180B,  and  Sevenookv 

1811.  He  died  at  Newbuiy,  of  consumption,  Julv  11, 

1812.  See  WrA  Utli.  Mag.  1818.  p.  881 :  ilimilti  of 
WaL  Con/.  1812. 

Tipond.  John,  a  Methodist  preacher,  was  cooren- 
ed  young,  and  in  1797  was  admillpd  on  trial  bv  tlM 
English  Wealeyan  Conference.  In  1799  he  wu  ap- 
pointed to  Whiwhaven  Circuit,  where  he  only] 


1  few  ti 


He  « 


d  died. 


Comraon  Viper  (Ttptnbtrvl). 

wh'icb  reuins  ita  egga  until  hatched.  Its  bite,  how- 
ever, is  not  neceesarily  fatal.  So  terrible  was  the  nat- 
ure of  these  creatures  that  they  were  very  comnmnly, 
thought  to  be  sent  as  executioners  nf  divine  vengeance 
upon  mankind  for  enormous  crimes  which  had  escaped 
the  course  of  justice.  The  people  of  Klelita  showed 
that  they  were  thoroughly  imbued  with  this  supenti- 
Ciun  when  Paul  was  shipwrecked  on  the  island  (Acta 
xxviii,  3).  Such  a  dangerous  serpent  is  known  in  the 
East  by  the  name  of  iffnk  (i.  e.  rl-effiA,  equivalent  to 


tmisbed  and  his  talents  pnx 
ing.     See  Almorc,  Jf **i.  J/bhotio/,  s.  v. 

Vlpond,  Wlllittm,  an  English  Weeleyui  minio- 
t«r,  labored  successfullv  on  the  following  drciiilt :  Dia, 
Yarmouth,  Norwich,  Bncklej,  1800;  New burv. Canter- 
bury, and  London  West,  1807.  He  died  at  Newboir. 
April  26,  1809,  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  age  and 
the  eleventh  of  his  itinerancy.  "  His  ministerial  atol- 
ities  were  great,  his  manner  devout,  bis  language  pun 
and  impressive,  bis  piety  deep,  his  information  exien- 
sive,  and  his  usefulness  considerable."  See  11'«jLJ/«1. 
May.  1810,  p.  10,49;  Sfinula  of  IVoL  Con/.  ltW9. 

Vlrblus,  in  Roman  mythology,  is  the  name  under 
vhich  Hippotglttt  lived  alter  Diana  had  raised  hioi 
fmm  the  dead.  She  married  him  to  the  nyiDph  Epnia 
in  the  sacred  forest  at  Arioo,  and  he  had  a  son.  vhoB 
he  alK>  called  Tirbius ;  this  son  fought  iu  the  armi-  of 

Vlrot.  Peter,  a  Swiss  reformer,  was  bom  at  Orbe. 
ill  the  canton  of  Vaud,  in  1511,  and  was  educated  aad 
cnnvetted  from  Komauism  at  Paris.  In  1531  Ksrel  vti- 
it«d  Orbe  and  ordained  VireC,  despite  his  unwillingneH, 
to  tbe  ministry.  In  I5S4  he  became  Farel's  aHftani  at 
Geneva.  Thence hewenttsKeufchiilpI  and  Lausanne. 
In  October,  1536,  he  defended  certain  theses  primal- 
gated  by  Fare!  in  a  public  disputation,  and  thereto 
contributed  to  the  impitivement  of  the  Church  of  La>- 
sanne.  In  the  following  May  he  responded  with  a  de- 
Hnitive  confession  of  fatlb  to  his  colleague  Dr.  Caitili's, 
cbai^  of  Arianism,  and  with  such  success  thai  CaniA 
was  dismined  from  the  pastorate  and  reluroed  la  Ko- 
manism.  Tbe  activity  of  Viret  was  now  ai>pUed  ia 
many  different  directions.  He  labored  in  Genera  ^tvet 
the  overthrow  of  the  Anti-Refonn  party  until  Calvin 
returned,  improved  the  discipline  of  the  Church  at 
Lausanne,  wrote  a  number  of  theological  and  catecheti- 
cal wochs,  and  jounieyed  to  distant  points  in  the  io- 
terests  of  the  Reformation.     In  1S49  Beza  was  appoini- 

ret.  Diffi-rences  began  to  make  themselvei  felt,  bow- 
ever.  Viret  was  accused,  in  IbH.  of  holding  lu  Bucer's 
view  of  tbe  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  was 
not  confirmed  in  his  office  until  li49.  The  Bemese 
govemtuent  was  disaalisfled  with  the  predominance  of 
Calvin's  influence  at  Lausanne,  and  raised  difficultin 
about  the  question  of  eicomniunicatioo  and  then  about 
predestination.  In  the  end  Viret  was  dismissed.  Hr 
went  to  Geneva  aud  became  pastor.     In  liiil  hr  wa» 


TIRGILIM  71 

aZuA  to  Ntsmes.  In  the  fnllowid^  j'eir  he  counaellnl 
ihc  preachers  ostembkd  al  Mnnipellier  In  ■iibmU  when 
tbe  Frotestanu  were  obliged  lo  reaure  cheir  churchM 
to  th«  RumaniUa.  and  Bubaequently  viiited  that  town 
for  hia  health.  He  next  accepwd  a  call  to  Lyaiia,  aiHl 
livrd  there  when  the  Huguenuta  soiled  tbe  city  after 

Om  maaa  wai  again  eaubliihed,  but  the  Hugueoota 
were  alloweil  to  conliiiue  their  worship  fpr  a  time.  On 
Aug.  10.  15(>3,  he  presided  over  the  fouith  French  Na- 
tional fiynod.  He  developed  *n  extraordinary  degree 
of  literary  TerUlity.  He  wae  drawn  into  a  diapute  with 
Italian  antitiinitariana  and  monka.  In  the  period  be- 
tween 1563  and  lofiA  be  published  nine  worin,  aowng 
them  hia  chief  production,  Inttnuivm  ChTtititme  tn  la 
Dodrint  de  la  Ijtg  tl  de  FEmagUt,  etc  (Ueneva,  1564. 
B  vols.  fuL).  The  book  ia  a  nutewonhy  specimen  of 
the  literature  nf  tbe  He fonnatian,  containing  a  complete 
system  of  morals  and  politics,  and  suggestive  apologetics 
aimed  against  atheist*  and  deUta.  It  waa  written  in 
diali^ue  form,  like  moat  of  tbe  works  of  Virel,  and 
shows  great  daiaical  and  Ibaiilagieal  learning,  ■  rich 
imagination,  cinteat  piety,  and  keen  wit ;  but  it  nifteis 
ftoo  dilTuaeness  and  incorrectneas,  the  results  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  author  worked.  In  1566  ha 
was  iibliged  to  leave  Lyons.  He  went  in  Orange,  and 
thence  to  Jeanne  d'Aftret's  newly  erected  Academy  of 
Onhei^  In  1J69  he  was  made  pnsmier  ly  the  OiCb- 
olics,  but  was  soon  liberated.  He  died  at  Orthez  in 
IS7I.  He  was  brave  and  true  in  his  ailhesion  to  the 
evanirelieal  Church,  but  nevertheless  of  a  mild  and 
peaceful  temper.  He  did  not  develop  the  prevalent 
iheu1ogy,Uut  merely  made  it  aisesaiblc  lo  laymen 
defended  it  against  opponents.  His  works  rank  an 
the  greatest  rarities  in  literature.  Viret's  life  b 
tained  in  Xtfca  d.  VHtr  a.  BrgrSadrr  (I,  lej',  Kirdu 
(Elberfeld,  I860),  toL  ix.    See  lletiog,  Rtal-EMyk^p. 

TlTgllllU,  St„  waa  an  Irish  priest  of  the  Sth  centu- 
ry. He  went  to  France  in  the  reign  orl*Fpin,andf(jaad 
his  way  to  Bavaria,  where  he  had  Inwhle  with  Boni- 
face (q,  V.)  on  several  accounts.  He  seems  to  have 
been  of  good  education  and  talents,  but  made  a  bli 
in  repeating  the  I^tin  formula  in  administering 
tism  in  one  instance,  which  caused  Boniface  to  declare 
it  Dull  and  void,  and  tn  insist  upon  rebsptisin.  Virgil- 
ius  resisted  the  clnim,  and  upon  an  appeal  to  the  pope 

Isr.fur  which  he  wis  accused  by  dnulace  of  heresy,  and 
the  pope  at  first  excommunicaletl  Vir^ilius.  but  upi'n  a 
mure  careful  hearing  restored  him.  In  the  year  766, 
tbroueh  the  inSuence  of  Pepin,  and  by  tbe  bvor  of  the 
duke  (Milioof  Bararia,  he  waa  appointed  Ushopof  Sali- 
burg.whicboffice  he  held  until  hisdeatb.  In  780.  While 
at  Salzburg  be  did  much  to  extend  Christianity  to  tbe 
eastward  of  him,  among  the  Slavonians  and  Huna.  See 
Hodieim,  IJil.  of  Or  Chaick,  bh.  iii,cenl.  viii,  pt.  i,  cb. 
i !  Neander,  Hitl.  of  Ike  CAiirdS,  iii,  63. 

Virglii  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V.,  nf  two  Heb. 
terms,  concerning  the  distinctive  use  ofwbicb  some  ex- 
egtiical  and  theological  controversy  has  arisen.  The 
word  rt^rS,  hrthulSk  (from  ir.a,'to  irparalr),  occun 
forty-nine  times  in  tbe  Old  TestJ  and  is  translated  by 
wap3iro{  in  the  Sept.,  except  in  two  instances.  It  is 
nodered  once  by  navtf  <1  Kings  i,  2),  and  once  by 
>Vfifi|(Jadi,H).  See  Exod.xxii,  16, 16,17;  Lev.xxi; 
Dent,  xxii,  xxxii ;  Judg.  xxi,  etc  II  properly  denotes 
"  nVjii,  maiden  (Geo.  sxiv,  16:  Lev.  xxi,  18;  t>pui. 
xiU.  14,38,  S8;Judg.xi,87;  1  Kings  i,2);  the  passage 
in  Joel  1,8  is  not  an  exception,  as  it  refers  to  the  loi«  of 
OM  betntbed,  not  married.  tl^^S,  'alm6h  (from  Q^S, 
>"  cOKtal),  also  properly  signifies  a  viiyln,  a  taaolen.  a 
T^ng  woman  unmarried,  but  of  marriageable  age.     It 

MCpwUn  (Exod.ii,S:  I^lxviii,2&;  Cant.i,3;  vi, 


8),  in  one  (Prov.  xix,  19)  vi6t7,>:,  and  in  two  fOet.. 
xsiv,  43;  Isa.  vii,  14)  wnpaivor.  The  same  worn  la 
also  rendered  cirso  in  tbe  Vulg.  in  these  two  passages; 
in  Exod.  ii,  8, /neffu ;  in  Pml  Ijtriii,  36,>n«cu('i.'  io' 
Cant.  [,3  and  vi,8,  adelarrKtitlai  and  in  Prov.  xxx,  19, 
udoltKoaia,  after  tbe  Sept.  The  Syriac  follows  the- 
Sept.  in  laa.  vii,  14,  but  in  all  the  other  passages 
agiMa  with  Aqoila,  S^inBiachna,  and  Tbeodotion,  who 
translate  ffvAs  by  vtaHCi  i^ot  only  In  Psa.  Iiviii,  26 : 
Gen.  ixiiv,  43 :  £xod.ii,8;  I'lor.  xxx,  19  (in  which. 
tbeysgite  with  the  Sept.),  but  also  in  Isa.  vii,  14.  Jus- 
dn  Martyr  {Ovil,  c.  Tiypi.)  complains  of  the  partiality 
of  the  Uitek,  translators  In  rendering  n^Sr  here  by 
ndfn  (a  term  which  does  not  necessarily  induile  the 

wishing  IO  neutralize  the  application  to  tbe  Messiah  of 
this  pdwage,  which  the  Jews  of  hia  time  referred  la 
Hciekiah.  Jeoirae  says  that  the  Punic  for  virgo  i» 
a/na, although  the  word  HOSS  is  but  twice  so  rendei- 

notwitbttandiug,  that  riari(,  nut  rap^iros,  is  tbe  cor- 
rect rendering  in  Isa.  vii,  14,  while  he  at  the  same  time 
agrees  with  Justin  that  the  prediction  cannot  possibly 

deliver?-.    Flint  (CoaCDidoficr)  ekplaina  nvbs  by  "  pu- 


egcta;"  but  Hengstenberg  (CArufaf'>jiy),al- 
litlinglhatnia^^  does  not  necessarily  mean 
bich  he  conceives  is  plain  from  Prov.  xxx, 
'  I  always  applied  in  Scripture  IO 
an  unmurried  woman.  Maitiiew  (i,  23),  who  cites  from 
the  Sept.,  applies  the  passage  Isa.  vii,  14  to  the  mi- 
raculous birtb  of  Jesue  from  the  Bleieed  Virgin.  Prof. 
Robinson  ((^r.  ioh/  Kng.  Ltxieon)  considera  traiiHivoi 
here  to  signify  a  bride,  or  newly  married  woman,  as  in 
Homer  (/f.ii,  614)1 


(•■Them 


le  AeijucI 


lb  gin  pnn 


outhfitt 


and  considering  it  to  refer  apparently  i 
spouse  of  the  prophet  (see  Isa.  viii,  U,  4 ;  vii,  i.  in,  -H), 
holds  that  the  sense  in  Halt.i,2S  would  then  be:  Tbu* 
was  fullilled  in  a  strict  and  literal  sense  that  which  tbe 
prophet  spoke  in  a  wider  sense  and  on  a  diSerent  occa- 
'  1.  Though  the  prophet  already  ha<l  a  sou,  it  is  by 
means  improbable  that  bis  <i>rmer  wife  was  dead, 
aitd  that  he  was  about  to  be  united  in  marria^  <o  an- 
other who  waa  a  virgin.  The  prophet  predicted  the 
birth  of  a  male  child  which  should  occur  within  tbe 
appointed  period  ftitm  one  who  vai  thai  a  virgin,  aii 
which  could  be  known  only  lo  God;  and  ibia 


uuld 


a  sign,  I 


tion,  to  Ah 

a  of  the  t 

utb  of  his  prediction 

concerning 

Syria  and  Israel     In 

his  re 

the  pr,.pb- 

et  directed 

he  minds 

.rthe 

king  and  people 

the  binli  u 

the  Me»i 

abfroi 

™  a  virgin,  and 

o  him  the 

uldN 

cly  given. 

Hence  the 

vangelist 

Matth 

ew,  considering 

the  rormer 

event  as  Ih 

predicted  type 

of  tbe  lauer  ev 

M.t,  applie. 

thepa-uge 

to  the  miraculoua  birth  of  Jesu 

1  from  tbe 

"I  vi^nity  of  Mary  against  the  Jew  , 
the  use  of  the  term  twi  {imiS,  Matt.  i.  26)  as  implying 
the  contrary;  hut  the  fathers  triumphantly  appealed 
against  the  Jewish  inlerprelalicm  to  Scripture  usajre, 
accunling  to  which  this  tprm  frc<(uently  included  the 
notion  of  perpetuilv  (comp.<ien.viii,7!  Psa.l.\i.7;  ex. 
I;  lsa.xlvi.4;  Malt,  xxviii,  20;  and  see  Suicer,  TAr- 
tiiHr.,  and  Pearson.  On  lAe  Crrrd,  art.  iii).  Although 
there  is  no  proof  fVom  3cri|itura  that  Mnrj-  had  other 
children  [see  jAue«;  Jii*].  the  Uhristinn  fatherj  did 


««0ii«antrri(lilIonarbothih«Ea9lenian(lt)ieWeHtrni  ly,  to  havt  no  Knlimrnti  biit  nch  u  were  conaUok 
<:hurcb.     The  moM  diMmt;iiish«i<  Pminunt  Ibeologi.    viUb  cbwtitf. 

■iiuhareilsosdopt«dthi.belief,iiiidDr.ljrdner{0»/.  VIKUIMIT,  Pgrfetital,  it  ucribeil  lathe  loailKt 
ibilii!/}  cnngid*red  tbc  fvidence  in  its  fivor  to  Hrong  of  uur  Lord  by  tbeEutfitiorGreek  Church,  which  ralU 
u  to  ilewrre  that  anent  which  he  himwlf  yieldetl  to  her  timrapScvut,  and  bv  ihc  Koroin,  which  calU  her 
II,     See  PRKFiiTirAL  Virqihitt  of  Makv,  Srmpcr  Fiiya.     In  even-  igt  of  the  Church,  bower rt, 

Thewonlir..uJ,j-oi-.ixVyi«,nccii™in  Mx'i.  ii  xxrj  there  have  b«en  Ihuse  who  have  nuiniained  that  she 
Luke  i !  Acl»  xx\ ;  I  Cor.  vii  i  2  Ow.  li,  2 ;  and  A|wc.  only  continued  a  riigin  till  the  oaiiviiv  of  Chrini.  Epi. 
xiv.  14.  In  t  Cot.  and  Apoc.  il  it  applied  to  both  «b-  phaniu^  and  after  him  Auguwine,  gi»»  aueh  the  nuiw 
e».  as  II  freiiuently  is  by  the  falhen,  who  uie  it  in  the  of  AitUdkvmariimila.  Biabop  Peanoo  mainuina  tbc 
•en«  offalrb,.  It  U  wmrtime.  metaphorically  iiKd  .fflnnaliveonthefollowLiiBTeiy unaatiafaetorveTound*! 
in  the  Xew  Teal,  to  denote  a  hiKh  Mate  of  tuoral  punty.  Her  peculiar  emioencv  aud  unparalleled  privilege :  the 
^Kitlo.  «o  al»,  among  the  HebrevTB,  the  popalalum  special  honor  and  reverence  due  to  her  aon  and  evef 
<if  a  place  or  city  »a«  aometimea  peiwnified  ai  a  female  p^^  bv  bei;  the  regard  of  the  Hi4v  (ihwt  that  canie 
and  called  rirgin;  Ihua  the  inhabitatita  of  Tyre  (lat  ufMn  her,  and  the  power  of  the  Highest  which  ove^ 
Mxiii.  12).  of  Baljjk.n(iilvii,  I),  of  Egypt  (Jer.  xlvi,  11),  shadowed  hers  and  the  Mngular  goodnen  aiHl  pietv  rf 
and  of  Judab  and  lurael,  Lethe  Hebrew*  (I'm.  i,  l&i  j  jowph,  her  hiiaband.  By  an  accotniDodaiinii  of  ^ek. 
Jer.  xiv,  17 ;  xviii,  13 ;  KKXi,  4,  31 ;  Amis  v,  2).  See  |  j(jiv,  g,  be  and  miny  nthen  are  inclined  to  support  ibe 
DAUOKTen.  :  „„>»  aide  of  tbe  qaealioa.     With  respect  to  Mati.  i  2^ 

Vlrgltl,  C11ARI.BS,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  ininialer,  where  it  is  said  "Joseph  knew  her  not  until  she  bad 
was  bom  at  llopkinton,  N,  H^  May  8,  I7«7.  Ho  was  brought  forth  her  Brat-bom  «on,"  it  has  generally  been 
convened  at  the  tgt  of  tweire;  joined  tbe  New  Eug-  considered  equivocal;  but  Campbell,  Wbitfar,  BLxxd- 
land  Conference  in  180T;  served  the  Church  in  several  Held,  and  other  critics  regard  the  pbraae  as  favning  the 
ciicuilA;  was  presiding  eidet  on  two  districts — Boalan  contrar}-  opinion,  thar  she  did  not  conliniw  a  vii^a. 
•ml  Kennebec:  and  after  hit  superannuation  he  resided  See,  especiallv,  Whitby's  Note,  and  we  nav  well  acqu- 
it Wilbcabtni,  Mass,  where  he  died,  April  1, 1863.  Mr.  ■  e«ce  in  the  sentiment  of  Buil  there  quoted':  "  What  siie 
Vii^u's  character  was  marked  by  uprightaexs  and  de-  I  was  afterwards  (after  tbe  birth  of  our  Saviour)  lei  us 
-ciMon;  he  was  a  great  ftiend  to  the  alave:  a  man  of  leave  undiscussed,  aa  being  ofsmaU  concern  to  the  mw 
Di'ich  prayer  and  emotion.  See  Minuta  of  Atuiual ,  lery."  Bee  the  monographs  otied  by  Volbniing.  It^n 
Cm/trenca,  1863,  p.  181.  1  P'offnimmatim,  p.  118.      See  pKRParriAL  Vim^iM  rr 

Tligiil  Chimes  are  the  flrai  chimea  rung  after  1  "'  Mabv. 
twelve  o'clock  on  Christmas-eve;  also  the  flrat  chime*        ViKGINITV.ToKBKS  or  (n-Sira,  fte/*u/im,  ro»t 
rung  on  a  peal  of  belLs  newly  consecrated.  |  plur.  of  n^tra,  a  niyut;  ^pL  r<i  ropiiyiia:  Volg. 

Virgin  Mar;.    SeeMARV.  '  ngna  eityimlalii;  Deul.  xxii,  14,  I&.  17,  30:  elsewbrte 

VlTBtil4«DKio'CMmCTii..c..inmon.uimefo^a.»i"'-in^ni'y;;«"Pl')-  T^«  Mos^c  laws  «™cerniog 
(q.  v.).  Aa  earlv  a*  the  ad  cen.urv  bodilv  mortification  1  "^'^.'"V  "JT™^, '",  ^'J-  V"'  '^*'=  ™*- 
and  a  conlempUiive  life  were  regarded  bv  many  persona  j  »«'■ '-  ^^-^^  The  proofs  of  maidenhood  there  referrrf 
as  ■i.dica.ionaan.l  mean,  of  extraordinary  piety.    lu  the   '".  f ", '^K'"' *"  ^7  '^"  i""  '*^'-l""'mg  „..w 

...         ...        ..      ^        '^i,'--       .^.1       with  hlivtal  on  lh4>  wntdina-niirhr-      K^^  lA  Atitnn: 


ag    of  Cyprian  and  TerluUian  the  SucreJ  rirj™  0/ (*e  1  * 


wedding-nigh^     See  Marriage, 


fjtardS,  iir  CwOHicrtJ  r.VyiM,  were  recognised  as  a  dis-i  Vlrginlvi*,  Abdrkas,  a  Lutherui  tbeulogian  rf 
titiacIass,aiidcelibaeywa»eiitolled  a«a  pieceofsuper-l  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  fl.  1596,  in  Pomeninia.  He 
eminent  pieiy.  Such  superatit ion  made  rapid  ptogrese, '  studiwl  at  Roatock  and  Ureifswalde,  and  died  >■  bishop 
•lui  cunlinuea  to  hold  its  place  in  the  minds  of  many  to  of  ICstbonia  and  president  of  the  Reval  ConsialaiT,  Dr& 
tbe  present  time     Kce  ViKoinirr  '^<  '^i^'    H'  wrote,  ftitpul.  Jnimmitictt  dt  Pntripni 

TlrBlnto.1.  D-.  to  «,»..  m,,b.l,o.. «..  »  '  SJSf ^ij';ftl^*  ^?JZSi~J^ 


be  identical  with  tbe  tirecian  Laoama  (girdle-looser). 
She  li"»ed  the  girdle  of 


h  gave 


o.«  »-wu  .«.  B-M,=  ™  .^.  ......  VM  »-...-., ^  7-Wojw™™ :  Rollii  i(iWio**™  Aoia«,  r*«/* 

nagscnamoer.  \goniiM;  Jacher.Allgt«.Gfkkr1a^UMi>n.t.T.     IKT.) 

Virginity,  in  an  ecclea,a«.cJ  sen«,»  'he  'inm<i;r. .      virgin..  Giwrt.  Th«,  in  Norae  mytbology,  wa.  . 
TKd  or  cehbare  ataw,  voluntarily  accepted  a.  a  means  *  daugWre  of  each  J^  bur^dcal- 

:  rX'W^'^yTe'ori^il^:^^^^^ 

profeaaion ,  bnt  virgins  did  not,  at  A"'' ''« '"  ^"'"'■-  aleeping  bcide  the  «a,  thev  were  visited  bv  Odhi ;  «d. 
nity.tat  with  Pf«"  -"'  «!•  »«•  '" '"„7,fnti  era'^ ' '"  <™>'«1''™«.  '^'  entire  'nine  bec«ne  mithe,,  if  iW 
adopted  a  peculiar  dre«.;  »"  ™'^  ""  ""I^f.  ^^^^^^       1  single  soi  HeimdaL 

usage.     1  he  vow  was  ui  many  inaCances  secretly  made. ,       "_,         ,,  .,  ,  ,.„ 

anddid  not  require  ecclesiastical  sanctioiu  Rarlv  in  Ibe  i  Virgin*  of  Love  i.a  benevolent  society  of  the  Ed. 
ano  ui  1 1    1  req  .       ^^^^    ^^  Catholic  Church,  founded  by  a  noble  French  lady, 

f\,f   Louise  de  MariUac  le  Gnu,  and  approved  by  Clement  IS 

,  „_ the    in  IW".    They  are  under  Ibe  counsel  and  patnoageff 

™. „ igcelilHilMorig-    the  Priestaof  tbe  Mi««ons,and  it  is  theirduty  tomiuis- 

inaied  bv  the  aMtncialion  of  those  under  the  vow  in  one  '«  to  the  indigent  in  sickness.  They  are  alao  olfcd 
home  for  praver  and  worka  of  ebariiv.  .Siui*  that  time, ,  Jfaaghurt  0/  Cfc.riqi.  See  GolMlkin,  F«  de  MaJ-mt 
in  the  cborelies  which  encourage  the  monastic  life,  nn-  ■  ''  <>""  (I^™-  'B'«) :  Moeheim.  UUt.  of  At  C*a™*,  hk. 
mecDUB  orders  of  celibates  have  sprung  up.  and  are  to-  1  iv,oenu  ivii.  %  11,  pi,  1,  ch.  l 

<^»v  exercising  *  considerable  intluence  in  the  world.  Virgo  Vir^nm  ( Vir^  ofHiyvu)  is  a  devotioo- 
6ce  MoNASTiciSM  i  NtiM;  SiSTEKHOonK.  al  title  in  the  Latin  Church  fur  the  Viryia  Mary. 

VIRrJlNlTY,  PioiitTRATivK.  such  an  extraordinary  1  VitlUfc  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  aonume  at 
or  perfect  gift  ofehasUtv,  to  which  some  have  pretend-  yonvna,  a  goddeaa  of  luck  for  men.  just  aa  Fortius 
•d,  that  it  overpowered  'tho«  bv  whom  tbcv  have  been  Hulifbrii  was  a  go.liless  of  luck  for  women.  As  earlr 
surrounded,  and  credited  in  iheii  an  inscnsibiliiv  to  the  »  'h*  time  of  Aucua  Slarciiis  or  of  Herviua  Tullioi.  a 
(keasureaoftheliesli.  The  Virpn  Mary  (q.  v.),aicir.|.  temple  was  erected  to  her  memory.  To  lier  tbe  wotnei. 
ing  ui  some  Komanists.  was  possessed  of  this  ^ift,  which  prs.f  U  tor  the  preservsiiou  of  iheir  charms. 
Ra<<e  those  who  beheld  her,  ootwilbaunding  ber  beau-  .       Vltlpl&Ca,  in  Roman  mytholi^,  lb'  mediiun  of 


._  ^ril  vorka 
lor  the  ehureheg.  He  wu  sulwequemly  appoiiitnl  di- 
nxtor  ot  Ltae  academy  it  Bni(^>,  and  vrai  na(«d  more 
for  his  eSbrtB  to  advance  lh>  an  and  the  iiulniclinii  uf 
piipila  than  t>a  srett  akill  in  execution.  He  collect- 
ed materiila  for  ■  hialory  of  painting  in  Belgium,  wliieh 
were  aftenrsnla  uaed  by  DeM^mps  in  his  Lirti  n/ikt 
FUkM  Painlen.  He  died  in  ITIio.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  //in.  of  tit  fiat  A  tIi,  k  v. 

TlsoheT,  PuTsn,  ■  ctlebratm  Ccrman  aculptor,  vn 
Iram  about  1460.  Uo  punueit  l>is  Undies  in  Italy, 
wliert  lie  reuiied  aevetal  yeara.  Ilia  tlrat  great  irurk 
was  his  TOonnment  to  t lie  archduke  Enieat  of  Magde- 
burg, erecieil  in  the  catliednd  >'i  iliat  [dace  in  1497. 
Tiachcr  ultimately  settled  in  Nuremberg,  "here  he 
lived  with  hia  Ave  anna.  His  masterpiece  i*  the  Tomb 
n/ St., "iebuld,  in  tliecliiirch  or  that  saint  at  Nuremberg. 
Among  other  tiyures  in  this  work  are  twelve  small 
Btaiue*,  eigbleen  inches  highjof  the  iposllea,  which  are 
conspicuous  for  their  Una  e.-spreaaiun.     In  one  part  of  it 


neoDcDialion  between  men,  was  ■  goddna  in  whose 

temple,er«ted  upon  the  Ilatiiium,  diiBatisHed  married    the  great  maiters.     He  then  n 

people  ODmpUined  of  their  diOerencee.   She  was  fanoua   opened  a  Khool  of  ileai'-ii,  and  executed  ec 

because  she  generallr  lent  the  disaalisAed  bom  tecon-   '      -      -       - 

dleil. 

Virtue, « term  used  in  various  stgniflealinns.  Some 
deHne  it  to  be  "liv-ing  according  to  nalun ;"  others,  "uni- 
rersal  benevolence  to  being."  Some,  again,  place  it  "  in 
reganl  to  truth;"  others,  in  the  "mural  sense."  Some 
place  it  in  "the  imitation  orGudi"  othen,  "in  the  luve 
ofGnd  and  our  rdlow-crealuies."  Some,  again,  think 
it  consisti  "  in  meiliucrilr,'  eupposing  vice  tu  consist  in 
extremes;  others  have  placed  it  in  "a  viae  regard  tu 
our  own  interenl."  Dr.  Smith  refera  it  lo  the  principle 
of  sympathy;  and  Paley  iteBnes  it  to  be  the  doing  good 
b>  mankind,  in  obedience  to  the  wilt  of  God,  and  fur  the 
sake  of  everlasting  happiness.  Some  of  these  deRiii- 
tinns  are  certainly  objwt  iimaUe.  Perhaps  those  who 
place  it  in  tlie  loi-e  of  Uoil  and  our  fellow-creatures  mai 
coma  as  near  to  the  tnilh  as  any.  See  Edwards  anil 
Jameson,  On  Viilue,-  Grove  and  Paley,  ifnral  nil.. 
Cumberland,  /.am  nfXoliirt,  i,  4i  Deattie,  Kttmmlt  oj 
Moral  Scmat,  ii,  8,  77 ;  Watts,  Stlf-  Ion  and  I'irtm 
&i»nnlnf,3d  vuLof  hb  IFuiii,  last  cd. 

The  If  UHdiinf  of  virtue  is  the  Rill  of  God  as  express- 
ed in  nature  (including  the  human  constitution)  aurl 
ha  written  word.  See  Fleming  and  Kraiith,  VaaA  «/ 
I'kiloi.  p.  4S7,  a^,  M7, 

Vlrtaea,  Cikdinal,  arc  the  four  virtues  Pni- 
deuce  (q.  v.).  Justice  (q,  v.),  Kurlitudc,  and  Temper- 
ance (q.  v.). 

VIRTUES,  Theological,  ore  the  three  virtuei 
Faith  (q.  v.).  Hope  (q.  v.),  and  Charily  (q.  v.). 

VlRTtJESAlll>VlCiiaiaiGiv«tileimpenona(ion  un- 
der buman  rorms,  in  the  Uiddle  AKe^  aa  in  the  Cliapter- 
iHHise  of  Salisbury,  Englnml.  In  this  manner  ire  hare 
allusions  to  Itgiirea  of  Luve  and  Hope,  Despair  and  Haie, 
nc,  in  the  churches. 

VlltOB,  in  Roman  mythnlngr,  was  the  deiScd  wma- 
fiacu.  Tu  her  and  Hoiiui  two  temples  were  erected  by 
U.  Marcellus. 

Vlaacol,  Antonio  (callal  also  //  Viiaed),  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  AiuriDbeil  at  Urbino  abnuC  lOOa     He  Mu 
ied  under  Fslerlgo  Baroccio,  and,  in  conjiineliiin  wi 
other  artists,  was  employed  lo  paint  the  arclios,  pic 
nre^and  other  decorutiiHis  in  honor  of  (liidia  de'  Me- 
•lici,  roanied  in  the  duke  of  Urbino.     He  poswasetl 
special  talent  for  pen-drawing  and  ciiianhoscum.     H 
liiciures  of  the  Prophelt  were  designeil  in  grand  style, 
and  hare  been  transferteU  from  the  catheilnil 
afioatolie  palace.     Among  bia  other  wnrka  left 
native  place  ia  a  line  picture  of  5r,  Stoaica.  in  the  Church 
of  Sant'  Aguslino.     He  left  same  copies  from  Banicciu 
at  various  places,  particularly  at  the  Cathedral  of  Cagli. 
Herendnl  and  practiced  ahmg  lime  at  Pewtro,  where  b« 
iiiHrucled  several  pupils.     Sec  Ijnii,  Sloiia  Pilliiriai ; 
Spooner,  Biog.  //ill.  nflkt  Fiat  A  tit,  a.  v. 

Tltcfttm,  or  Vlscdaa  (Ms  r^rin^),  in  Roman 
mythology,  was  a  surname  ot  Furtuat,  under  which 
uame  she  had  a  temple. 

Tlwdl,  Kftfl  de,  aCistercian  of  Flanders,  who  died 
in  the  second  halfof  the  17th  century  as  profeisor  of  mor- 
al philosophy  at  Ebersbach,  in  Germanv,  is  the  author 
of  BiUiolAtca  Scriplonm  0<-dimi  Citlerciiait . . .  acait. 
CiroKilBsia  A  nliqxiuima  Monatlrriarim  hnjat  On/im 
aiOOtt  qand  rxairril  Ataat  Condmata  (Oilngne,  ISiili). 
He  alio  edited  AUnu  de  /lUtdit  0pp.  Mond.  /•m-aart. 
W  Pokm.  CorrrOiora  rt  TUiiilr.  (Antricrp,  1054).  Sec 
Wner,  BnmBHic.\  dtr  llitottg.  /.iltialvr,  i,  716,  914; 
JA:her,  A  Ugemeixtt  Gdrkrln-UxitQa,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

TlschiMatthlasde,  a  Fleminh  painter,  was  bnm   quiremcni!>.     He  enga^.'cd  in  atnpendnn*  studies  ai 
St  Reningen   in   1702.      He  elndied   at  B^■ge^  n    '       " 
Joseph  Tan  iler  Keth hove,  and  in  the  academv,  w 
be  obtained  the  lint  pr'uc  In  ITJt.     He  wclit'tu  I 

l71S,and  fh>m  tltenoe  to  Italy, where  he  resided 


Hie  ai 

dress.  Ho  was  occupieil  In  this  work  thirteen  ytaiij 
and  received  fur  his  own  labor  and  that  of  hia  aons  cniy 
ZJ03  florins.  He  executed  some  other  wnrka  of  gi'eat 
GxcellcnecatKurembe'Tg,and  died  in  1630.  SecS|ioun- 
cr,  flioj.  //«(.  nflhe  Fiat  A  Hi,  a.  v. 

VlatKiiitl  was  the  name  of  an  illustiious  family  of 
Lombanly,  which  separnteil  itself  from  the  sovereignly 
of  Milan  at  the  dose  of  the  I3tli  century,  i'he  rullow- 
ing  members  are  of  cectesiaatical  ifnpoitance; 

1.  GiovANxi  db",  fourth  Min  of  Matieo  the  Great, 
wnbomiii  1290,  aiid,haviiig  entered  the  monastic  lil'e, 
was  made  cardiual  by  the  antipnpe  Nicliolas  V  (132S), 
and  Ifecame  iMsbop  of  Nuvara  (1330).  In  1317  he  had 
been  nominated  to  the  see  of  Jtibin,  and  in  1333  he  ac- 
cureil  authority  from  John  XXII  to  lake  charge  of  that 
diiiceBe,aHd  fiiuilly  (Julv  17, 1342)  from  Clement  VI  the 
title  of  archbishop.  In  1350  be  ransnmnl  ibc  city  of 
Itulogoa  from  the  papal  in>nps,aiid  in  13.'i3  he  fur  a 
while  snccessfully  rcaistol  tlio  political  cnmbinalion 
aesinst  him,  but  in  the  midtt  of  these  eveiila  be  died,  at 
Uilan,OcL6,1354. 

ifSEri'E,  bom  abnnt  1570,  entered  the  ecclcei- 

inks,  and  was  one  of  the  funr  dnctora  chosen  by 

canlinal  F.  Burromeo  In  arrange  the  booka  and  maiiu- 

-  -riplB  of  his  new  Ambruaian  library.  He  fulfilled  aU 
a  duties  with  ical  and  inielligeiwre.  He  died  at  Mil- 
I  in  IG33,  leaving  a  few  works,  for  which  see  llocfer, 
our.  Biog,  GtHiralf,  a.  v. 

3.  (hroxB  he',  real  fwmder  of  the  political  power  of 
the  family,  was  born  in  1208  at  Ucogne,  n  village  b«- 

-  en  the  Gieat  Lake  and  the  Sim|rion.     He  early  at- 
leit  himself  to  cardinal  Utiavisno  Ubaldini,  who 

presented  him  lo  pope  Urban  IV,  and  he  was  accord- 
ingly appointed  archbishop  of  Milan,  Jnlv  12,  ViQ2, 
administralinn  was  a  stormy  one  during  the  con- 
againat  the  Gnelphs,  and  he  Hnally  resigned  his 
political  sflaira  to  his  grand-nephew  Maileo  (sumameil 
Great),     He  dial  at  the  Convent  of  C^iiaravalls, 
Aug.  IS,  1 295.     See  Hrtefer,  Xoar.  Biog.  Ctairate,  s.  v. 
Tladeloo,  Ci.ALnK  t>E,  a  French  miaionarj-,  was 
•m  in  Angiist,  1056,  at  Ihe  Castle  of  Hienassis  in  PU- 
'ur(C6te».<li>-Nord).    At  the  age  of  flfteen  he  entered 
the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  at  Parts,  and  vigurously  applied 
liimaelf  lo  the  study  not  only  of  ihp<i|iigv,  but  also  of 
mathematics  ami  languages.'  In  1085  he  Bccompanicd 
Tochsrd  and  liis  bsml  of  misainnaries,  iwnt  out  liy  Louts 
XIV,  to  China,  and  sihiu  sniiiriscil  the  natives'by  his 
rapid  Bcqiiisiitnii  of  their  language  and  his 


X-2U 


labon.  the  must  iinputl 
'ere  embndieil  in  luipplcmenlari'  correciiims  lo  D'ller- 
beUit's  BiUinrhi^ae  OneiUale.  'The  arrival,  houever, 
'  '■'  '    m  Clement  XI  appointed  vicar-4po»- 


VISE  8( 

lolic  to  Cliini,  in  which  opacity  he  vUiled  Ptkin,  but 
retired  (Aug.  3, 1706)  lo  Nankin,  put  an  eiiO  U  Ihoe 
miuionary  aucceiwt  on  account  of  m  unier  (i«u«l  by 
Tournon,  Jan.  28, 1707]  agaiDSt  the  nlJ  ccremoiiieg  being 
praciiceil  by  ilie  Clirislian  convcrta,  wtiith  ao  exanper- 
aleil  tlie  CliincK  eropemr  that  Vixlelou  wai  eTCDtually 
compelled  toqiiiiMacaD(Junc2J,1709),atHl  he  retired  la 
l'undichcTT}-,wlivr«  bodied,  Nov.  11,1737,  See  HucTtr, 
^Dur.  Biog.  Uiniratt,  t,  v. 

Viae  (old  r.irm  tyi  =  a  acrew),  a  apiral  staircaK,  the 
eteps  a<  which  iviiid  round  a  perpendicular  ahall  or  pil- 

tnnera  are  pruviiled  wilh  Uaircaan  uf  Ma  liiiHl,and 
ihey  are  lu  lie  found  in  various  uliialiuns  in  matt 
Middle-a(^  biiihlinga.  During  the  prevalence  of  Ihe 
Norman  uyle,  the  iiepa  were  fonncil  of  small  Honea 
■iippurted  un  a  cnntinuous  spiral  vault  rtacbing  the 
whule  height  uf  Ibe  alairi,  one  siile  of  which  rcaled  on 
the  newel,  and  the  other  on  Ihc  niaiuwall;  lubwqueiit- 
ly  to  this  period  the  alepi  were  each  made  uf  ■  single 
slonc,  one  end  nf  wliich  was  insetted  into  the  ntain 
vail,  and  ifae  ulher  rested  upon  and  formed  part  of  Ihe 

Vishnu  (Sanscni.  ™*,  "encompa»,"  or  ew,  "to 
penetralc"),  the  second  cod  of  Ihe  Hinilfl  Trimani,  and 
considered  l>y  his  wursliipiicni  Iho  aiipreine  god  of  the 
panlheon.    In  the  Riii-Veila  Viahiiu  is  a  repreKntalion 

the  earth,"  and  "  in  three  ways  ptnnts  his  bipik"  Ac- 
Gordins  to  one  authority,  these  three  strgis  inean  the 
manifi'Station  of  the  (nn  at  its  place  uf  rising,  on  the 
rttcridian,  and  at  lis  placo  of  setting;  or,  acc^rdinic  to 
another,  its  manifestation  on  earlh,  in  ihc  iniermcdiale 
space,  and  in  heaven ;  and  a  later  cuinmenlalnr  temark* 
that  Vishnu  in  the  llral  "f  these  man ifestai  ions  repre- 
sents fire,  in  the  second  lighlninc,  and  in  Ihe  thitil  sular 
liglit.  Fmm  this  position  whicti  Visbim  huldi  in  the 
Ktg-Veda,  it  appears  that  he  was  not  rrganled  as  su- 

piedlberotcmoMrankinlbeVedlcperimt.  But  when 
we  come  in  the  epic  times  of  Sanscrit,  to  Iho  Mithiibhd- 
Tiila  and  Anmnyifnn,  then  n-e  And  I  he  rnn-giHl  of  the 
Veilas  rise  into  auilden  prominence,  anil  become  iilcnii- 
fled  wilh  Ihe  elenial  |irimo  essence  itself.  In  Ihe  !ll«- 
haiidmla,  however,  alihnngh  ircaleit  as  one  of  the 
Irisil,  he  in  now  and  then  spoken  of  as  if  hs  were  nni 
uf  e<j>ial  honor  with  Siva,  tint  the  SnimisSiia  is  wholly 
devolcit  lu  his  praise.  In  that  epic  he  is  Ihe  cbief  uf 
the  goiiis  and  liis  snpremncy  is  ill  evctj'  way  consiricn- 

Ifwe  ate  to  beticre  the  votaries  oT  Vishnu  and  those 
who  have  written  in  praise  of  him,  wo  ronsl  beliei-e 
that  he  slniiils  alone  n*  Ihe  [nenmpamble  chief  of  the 
llindU  paiiihcun,    Ue  is  pceMotcd  to  ua  uiiilcr  almost 


inb.     He  : 


the  ii 


and  the  comrade  uf  the  gods  of  lire  and  the  apacMH 
tirmament.  Ue  leclinea  on  the  lotus;  is  ai  bercc  aa  the 
long-tiisked  buai(  is  shaded  and  guarded  by  the  aeipnii 
of  many  heails;  is  the  liml  of  iiiuumerable  huota  of  tbc 
moiikey-warii<in  of  Ilainmia4i;  llic  piinwl  fi>b  of  ibe 
ocean  uf  Liirthsi  Ihe  eternal  turluiM  who  can  beat  on 
hisbacklbeireiglitoftbcunivenei  the  mau-lioo ;  tbt 
fulfiUer  of  all  qiacr,  nlin  can  lake  upunhiro  Ihe  tunnof 
a  dwatf.  llratama,with  hia  four  hcad*,springa  fmahia 
navel  He  ia  tlie  hinband  uf  Ihc  pcerboa  Sita,  who  ■• 
ao  pure  that  even  tlie  flames  uf  a  funucc  caiinut  uLe 
"  her  priw-ii;  aiul  ia  Ihe  lured  of  llic  Gu|iU,  iW 


.ially  n 


lie  n 


>c  ilukaUa- 


>luugh,or  ulaoii  ilie  Ibmic. 
hcio  ol  tbD  Hamtifiimi,  ami  is  lauded  ui 
niru  under  ■  ihonsand  names. 

lint  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  Tithnu  asagnl 
ia  bis  Atatm-,  {q.  v.),  or  inc«»aliun^  in  which  be  b 
presented  to  ua  as  ibe  cbanipiun  uf  gmlsand  men.  The 
myths  ciinceming  ihrscaruse  frum  ibe  iden  that  <*hci>- 


it  phyaii: 


nural  di 


laciliuDsmaU 
to  set  it  right,  Olid  thus  preserve  creation.  Such  dCKttiis 
uf  the  giHl  are  ealleil  Anttaiai  (Sanscrit, oro,  from,  and 
(n,  tu  descend),  and  cimnst  in  Vinbuu's  beini;  snppiod 
to  have  eilber  assumeil  Ihe  form  of  some  wondnful  aai> 
mal  or  siiperhnmaii  being,  or  lo  have  been  bom  t*  ha- 
man  parents  in  a  human  fiirm,  bin  posaesani  uf  niiratti- 
toua  powers.  Some  nf  the  avatars  are  of  an  nilinly 
cosmical  ebaracler,  while  mhers  are  pn,lubly  baaed  <■ 
hialnrical  eveiila,  the  leading  personage  of  wlitch  was 
gradually  enduweil  with  divine  allributesi  until  be  sat 
reganled  as  the  incamalinn  of  the  deity  itself.  Tbry 
are  ten  in  number,  and,  with  the  exception  of  llic  lax. 
belong  lo  Iho  past;  the  tenth  is  yet  lo  come.    TW 

Osh;  3.  KQrma  (i.  v.),  or  loriuiri^;  8.  Vaiilia  (q.  v.i..« 
boarj  4.  Naraaingha  (q.  v.),  ur  man-liun;  &  Vamaua 
(q.v.),or dwarf;  G.  I'arasuriima (q. v.) ;  T.Ramai^v.'. 
or  ICimachaiKlra ;  6.  Krialina  (q.  t.)  aiul  linlorima: 
%  DniUha  (q.  v.);  a:id,  la  Kalki.    Thia  niioiber  and 

Tha  Makiid&rata  mentions  ten,  but  with  names  A\Srt- 
iiig  Bonwwhat  from  those  giTcii.  Tlie  Biofforahi-I't- 
rdmt  meiiliuns  twenty-two,  while  other  works  tposk  iJ 
IweDly-four,  or  even  call  them  numbericBS.  It  i*  be- 
cause uf  llie  peculiar  attractiveness  tu  tlie  UindA  miwl 
of  many  of  llie  avatars  that  Vishnu  sprang  up  ■■>  Hich 
sudden  popularity,  and  has  maintained  his  position  hi 
lung.    The  acniualily  connected  uith  many  itf  Ihe  tr^ 

votaries.  It  will  be  admitted  by  all 
wlui  have  read  the  Purfinao  that 
'presentcil  ai 


liisl 


aughicr 


Ihe  object  of  wnrship  fmm  aucb  a 

irind,   llut  the  Brahman  ftel*  that 

'   lie  bos  no  aiilhurily  lu  jwlge  the  guda 


ml  or  evil,  a 


il  as  nfliirding  s]inrt  lo  tb* 

Sllc  polls,  who  arc.  by  virtue  of  their 
Iviiiitv,  aUiive  all  responstbililr. 
U'islinu's  wife  ia  Sri  or  I^hhrnm 
(i*  v.),  and  his  paradiie  Vaikuntha. 
\^\en  reprrscnied  be  is  of  a  •lark 
hii^  wilh  four  ball.l^  in  ohicfa  te 
bolfa  (1)  a  couch-ihcU  Uu«n  ^i  \atr 


\ 


VISIBLE  CHUnCH 

de,  tbt  PnHciaJoiiifa  i  (3)  ■  duk,  tbe  SuJanana,  in 
emblem  of  aovereign  poweri  (3)  a  mace,  the  Ki 
dun,  at  ■  aynibul  lA  puniabment;  aiid  (1)  till 
loun,  ■■  A  type  of  creilire  puifer,  or  ■  BwonI,  the 
Nmidata.  Varioiu  other  nproieiiUtHHia  are  meii- 
liiMieil  under  the  dilTtreiit  (Tiiira. 

SeoV!\lx,n,Tra<ul<ilii'if/iht  Vithm-PaiSnn  (I»ml. 
18G4)  J  Bumoof,  Ui  Bha'j,nnUt~l'ar6mi  (I'aru,  1810- 
17)  t  I^iiglou,  /larivoHia  (ibid.  1S34-S5);  LasKii,  In 
dUckn  AbfrHumitaade  (Bona  ind  Uiptk,  1B62-GG) 
Miiir.  Otigiuil  Sauicril  Ttxli  [Lond.  l»'>8-63);  Sluor 
y/iwAi  FimHtan  Mllller.ai/u/rDina  Gfrnan  Wort- 
ikap  (N.  Y.  ISTi);  WiUUiDS,  l/imluun  (Und.  187;). 

Visible  Church  iaagnatet  the  uhnle  body  of  tl 
(irofnaed  believera  In  divine  irulb  united  in  one  biid 
as  di«lii){iuished  friKii  those  whn  are  fine  Mimi 
nniteil  with  the  rormcr,  yet  not  to  be  diMinguiahi 
TroDi  ihem,  and  hence  called  tbe  incitibU  Church.    See 


I  (aome  drrivatire  of  mn,  tn  MoU,  iipii 
or  of  nH*t,ra  jk,  ovrofiiu),  a  aupematural  preeeiitation 
of  certain  icenerr  or  eircunutaucea  to  the  mind  of 
peraon  while  awake.  See  Dukam.  When  Aaron  an 
Uiriam  muroured  against  Hoie«  (Knmk  xii,  Q-S),  the 
Ixird  aaid,  "Hear  now  my  wonia:  if  there  be  ■  prophet 
anioiif;  you,  1  tbe  Lard  nili  make  myaeir  knuirn  unto 
hint  in  ■  Tiaion,  and  will  apeak  nnin  him  in  a  dream. 
My  serrant  Unaea  ia  iiot  an,  who  ia  faiihfid  in  all  mine 
house  With  him  will  I  apeak  mouth  to  month,  even 
apparently,  and  not  in  ilark  >|ieei'ltet:  and  the  aimili- 
(u<le  of  the  Lord  shall  he  behld^l.''  'I'lie  falM  prophet 
Balaam,  wlioae  heart  waa  perverteil  by  cavetuuiiieaa, 
aavs  of  himaelf,  that  he  had  aoen  the  vii>iona  of  the  Al- 
mighlv  (!fumb.  xxiv,  15,  IB).  In  the  time  of  the  hit,'h- 
prieatEli,  it  i.  Slid  (I  .Sam.  ili,  1),  "Tha  word  of  the 
Lnnl  was  pTKiiiui  in  th<Me  daya;  there  wi 
vision ;"  literally,  "the  rifaoii  did  not infut/urti,'"  that 
la,  there  waa  nci  piililic  and  recof^iixed  reveUtion  of  the 
divine  wUL  Willi  ihia  we  may  compare  the  passage 
ProT.  xxix,  18,  "There  ia  nn  viaiini,  the  people  per- 
ish." SeetJKiir.  Vision  iaalaoaametlmMii  '' 
nify  the  ecstatic  state  of  the  pmphera  when 
favored    with   communications    from   Jehoi 

'nalt OpBitnacirrofiai).  Littlemeniioniamade 
in  the  Dibleofceramunieaur  complimentary  riaits  of  ■ 
social  character.  See  Courtksv.  <iuests  were  wet- 
corned  witb  water  la  waih  their  feel  (Gen.  xviit,4;  xxir, 
82;  Jutlg.xiK,2l;  I  Sam.  xxt,  41 ;  Luke  vii,  44,  etc; 
eomp,  Shaw,  Traedi,  p.  208);  Just  as  in  modem  times 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  frequently  other  refteshmenta  are 
oSereil,  and  the  beani  is  sometimes  >|>rinliled  with  per- 
fumed walcr  (An-ienx,  iii.  18(1;  Harmer,  ii,  77,83;  lii, 
119).  A  repast  waa  K|ieeillly  prepiml  (fien.  xviii,  4; 
Jiidg.  xix,2li  eomp.  Kiebohr,0r^.  p.68;  Arvicnx,  iv, 
843),  and  the  gueat't  animals  were  provided  for  (Gen, 
iiiv,  Hi  JiidK.  XIX,  21).  See  HosptTAi.iTT.  IVs- 
cms  are  cDmmon  to-ilay  in  visits  (Ilaimer,  ti,  18).  See 
Uirr.  tt  waa  nEanlcil  a*  ■  aacreil  duty  to  visit  the 
aii:k(Sirach,vii,89;  Matt,  xnv,  86,43),  and  the  Tal- 
raudisls  hail  the  praverii  "To  neglect  to  visit  the  sick 
is  the  same  as  lo  shed  blood'  (we  Schtiltaen,  //or.  IM. 
i,  £10  >q.);  a  princi|i1<!  »f  liumaulty  ihac  wan  recog- 
nised even  among  ilie  heathen  (see  Kvpe,  Obtn.  i, 
123  1.> 

Vlaltants,  nnns  of  tha  visitation  of  Elissbeih,  ihe 
mnthernfjohn  the  Baritist,byMirr,lhe  mother  orjesui. 
eoflalitute  an  onler  founded  by  Su  Fnitcii  do  Soles — 
whence  they  are  aometlmea  called  SalaUmt^m  coii- 
junnion  with  Mailamc  de  Chantal.  The  first  house  was 
litunded  at  Aiinecy  in  the  apring  of  1010.  and  in  June 
Sales  gave  the  nnler  nn  exceedingly  simple  mle.  There 
waa  to  be  no  aeclnsion.no  peculiarity  of  dre«a,cxccpt  that 
iit  cidor  should  be  Hack,  and  a  black  veil  should  cover 


uhjec 


ia  were  all 


open  for  the  temporary  accommoiUliun  of  pious  femalei. 
with  a  view  to  their  spiriiual  silvancemeiic  A  special 
peculiarity  waa  enforccil  from  the  begiunini;,  however, 
in  the  requirement  that  the  aistera  ahould  change  their 
rosaries,  breviaries,  cruciKxea.  etc,  each  year.     Their 

of  Hary,  who  visited  Kliaabelh.  The  ori^nal  form  of 
the  sodety  wa*  changed  in  J61S,  under  Paul  V,  Ihua  a 
conj^Te^iun  to  a  relif^on,  and  it  recdved  the  name  of 
OnUr  of  iKe  VitUalvi*  (q.  v.),  with  a  aeparate  mle 
named  after  Augustine.  Tlte  conaliluiiinis  were  framed 
by  Francis  and  confirmed  by  UrbanTllI  in  1620.  The 
dluceaiin  bishop  conliiiueil  to  exercise  authority  over 
Ihe  order  within  hia  see.  A  special  garb  waa  prescribed, 
of  black,  with  white  veil  ami  black  forchead^iece,  and 
■ecluHon  was  inlroduced,  which  did  away  with  ilKviaita- 
tion  of  the  sick  and  poor,  Ascetical  practice*  were  not 
mode  more  aevere.  The  onler  is  now  extended  over 
Ital.v,  France,  Switzerland,  Poland,  Auitria,  Syria,  and 

Inatruction  of  the  voung.  See  Hemig,  Stnl-EaeyUop. 
».  r. ;  and  Jam  CaUu  tt  nt  FamiUt  (I'aris,  1856). 

TlaltsUo  LiiiiML'H  SS,  Apmloloram,  A  visitation 
of  the  Church  of  (tie  Apoadea  (Peter  and  Paul)  al  Kome 
may  be  imposed  by  a  vow  or  by  legal  requirement.  The 
former  cause  was  very  fruitful  of  such  visita  during  the 
Middle  Agea,  and  special  pmteclinn  was  accorded  lo 
"Feregrini  qui  propter  Deum  Romam  vsilunt,  Romipe- 
M  Apnstolonim  liminn  viaiiante*,''etc.  It  waa  the  spe- 
cial privilege  of  the  bishopa  to  grant  diapcneation  from 
aiich  vows;  butthe  pope*  introdnceil  a  papal  resetration 
after  a  lime,  to  protect  Ihemselvea  agaiml  abuses  on 
ips,  though  tbe  appUeaiion  of  such  rea- 
ervalion  waa  connected  with  conditions  which  led  lo 
the  practical  transfer  of  the  whole  biisincu  to  tbe 

The  I'iiilalio  tx  Irgf  ia  regulated  by  the  pope,  in 
whom  cenlrea  the  authority  by  which  the  Church  is 
Koremeil,  and  ia  ordered  for  Ihe  belter  government  of 
Church.  Each  prelate  is  obliged,  to  this  end,  to 
I  Rime  at  stated  tinK^  and  to  submit  written  re- 
a  of  his  charge  during  the  intervals.  The  earliest 
decree  bearing  on  the  aubject  was  issued  by  a  Roman 
synod  in  748,  which  obliged  bishopa  subject  to  Ihe  Ro- 
man see  to  freqnenlly  visit  their  superior  (c.  4,  ilist. 
xciii;  aee  also  /Jbtr  Diurmn,  op.  et  stud.  Gamerii 
[l*ariii,  IGBO,  4lo],  p.  6C}.  Since  Ihe  time  of  Gregory 
VII  a  similar  cibligalion  waa  imposed  on  all  metropoli- 
tans (c.  4,  %,DeJurfj«Tamh,  11,24,  Creg.VlI,  an.  1U79), 
and  aflerwania  nn  all  prelates,  particularly  bishops,  the 
intervals  between  (heir  visita  being  regulated  by  the 
of  the  patticnlor  diocese  from  Rome.  Certain 
biahops  having  accnrtd  an  exemption  from  this  duly, 
thnr  privilege  waa  revoked  by  Alexander  IV  in  12&7. 
The  bull  Jbimaimi  P-afiftx  (Ualiar.  Uagit.  [eiL  Lux- 
lb.],  ii,  Ml),  iwued  by  Sixlus  V  on  Dec  20,  1584, 
commanded  the  bishops  resbleni  in  Uediierranean  landa 
o  visit  Komo  once  in  three  years;  those  in  Europe, 
Hitside  elf  Russia  and  Turkey,  once  in  foot;  all  others, 
iving  in  Europe  ami  eastward  of  Ihe  American  coiiii- 
teut,oiice  in  five;  and  those  in  ihe  remaining  sections 
if  the  wnrLI  mice  In  ten  years.  Itcncdict  XIV  extend- 
ed Ihe  obligation  so  as  to  mike  it  caver  all  prelates  of 
:veri'  class  who  should  have  territorial  Juriadiclion,  in 
he  conatitution  Qiod  Simda  of  Kov.  23, 1740  {llullay, 
rit.  xviifuLll).  It  is  generally  coiKcdcd  that  even  til> 
ulary  bishopa  are  held  to  this  dnty. 

The  I'iiilalio  tintiauiit  should  be  made  hy  the  prelate 
proper  peraon,  but,  in  case  nf  neeil,  a  substilnle  ape- 
illy  aritliorized  mar  be  cmploynl  by  him.    Tbe  in- 
creased facilitiea  of  travel  in  mitdem  times  have  made 
ions  ■  matter  of  regular  recurrence,  and  tha 
for  them  of  a  written  report  is  now  infre- 
qncnt.   The  report  Z)e5(a(iiA'cc(n>ii  is,  however,  part- 


VISITATION  a 

I;  ont  (nd  partlv  written.  A  tpecUl  imlniction  re- 
■pediDf;  ic  wu  elilwtnted  bjr  Prosper  Lambtrlini,  the 
HtbMquem  iiopc  Ucniidiet  XI  V.iiidii  given  nrier  vol.  ii 
of  his  liulUiiiuin,  aiid  aliu  in  the  ippeiulix  lo  hw  waifc 
De  Sifiodo  Dioceiana,  *nA  in  Richttr  anil  (jchulte'i  edi- 
tion of  the  One.  Trilml.  (Lipt.  1863). 

See  Ferrari^  BOIioli.  Ciinomca,-  Benolict  XIV  an 
above;  Ikjigen,  Oii  rum,  Curw,  in  Znlichr.f.Ktehta. 
PolilU:  d.  Kircki,  bv  Jiculnnit  ind  Hichter,  Vo.  2 ;  Uie- 
seler,  Kirchengack.  ii,  2  ■,  l"hili))p,  Kirckemtckl,  ii,  81, 
82;  atnos,  Rtal-EK3ldop,».\. 

VUltatioii  (rn'pB,  immorii),  in  Smptare  lan- 
guage, ii  ■ometimee  taken  for*  vine  or  mercy  rrom  God 
(Uen.l,24i  Exod.  xiii,  19|  Luke  i,GG,  etc),  Lhii  orinier 
fur  n  viric  of  n|;or  and  venfteanee.  Day  of  viaitalioii. 
Tear  at  viniuitiiin,  or  lima  of  viaitation,  gtriicnlljr  ligni- 
lieg  the  lime  nf  anielion  and  vengeance;  or  of  clove  ■•- 
tptelim  (Exod.  xxii,  34;  lai.  xxUi,  17;  1  fee.  it,  12, 
ett> 

VISITATION,  in  eedeiiastieal  phraw,  ia  (he  in- 
ipectiaa  of  ■  province,  dinwie,  arehdeacDiiry,  or  pariah 
church.    Fonoerlf  theae  viiiu  were  perfumed  by  the 
officer  with  a  largo  retinue,  greatly  to  the  ineonrenience 
of  curatei  and  vicars.    Ai  early  aa  liT9  aetloo  waa 
taken  by  the  pope  readictlni;  the  retinue  of  the  Tint- 
ing prelate,  and  aucb  reMricllve  meawrea  have  been 
paued  frequently  unce.    In  the  Church  ot  England 
the  bishop  viaita  once  in  three  yearv,  in  onlei  to  give 
his  cliarge  and  to  make  inquiry  aa  to  the  Male  of  the 
chuTchca.    The  archdeacon  visits  in  hia  place  ii 
interiiD.     The  term  is  aUo  applied  to  the  work  of  the 
paator,  in  Protestant  chtirchea,  of  calling  upon  the  me 
bers  of  (he  Church  to  inquire  aa  to  the  pmsperily 
their  houLs.     In  ■  divine  or  apiritual  acnae,  tlie  tern 
applieil  to  either  a  communication  of  divine  love.oi 
any  calamity,  individual  or  DatknaL 

VISITATION  OK  (ffc  maed  I'ir^)  MAnv  is  the 
Journey  made  by  the  mother  of  our  l»ril  lo  the  htlt- 

— -y  orjudn.  tnrii-it  the  mother  of  John  the  Bap- 


all  ages.    See  Jan 


I.  favorite  «,bjec: 

■>ii,  t,fgtmU  of  lit  Sladoima,  p.  I8)> 


VISITATION  (OF  St.  Mart),  Ffstivai.  or  t 

featival  of  the  Church  of  Kome,  inatilul^l  about  I33S 
by  pope  Urban  VI,  in  memory  of  the  viaitalii>n  of 
(q.v.)  lo  Elisabeth,  the  mother  of  John  the  Daptit 
is  llieil  fur  July  S.     See 
Jameson,  l^ntndi  of  lie  Ma- 
doma,  p.  ins. 

VISIT.\T10N   <OF   St. 

MaIIV  ),  OlU>EB  OF  TUB,  i* 

a  congregation  of  niina,  in- 
stituted in  ICID  by  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  anil  St. 
Jeanne  Franfoisc  de  Clian- 
lal.    The  design  of  the  or- 


Mtgne'i  \\e\ym,Orditi  St- 
tiffitvXf  ill,  !^  sq.;  Jame- 
son, Lrr/endt  oflhe  Hoanilic 
Onfei's,  p.  447  sq.    See  Vi»- 


appoinlcd  at  the  request  of 

tlie    Ihcologians    in    l.Wr.  ii„bli  of  the  Order  .>f  th 

The  lysum  of  aupervi^on     Vlaitatluu  uTHLMury. 


Tnation,  aail 


viswAiirrRA 


the  ontgnwth  of  the  Uitheran  Befon 
one  feature  of  the  Lutheran 
rera  appointed  to  take  the  place  of  bishops,  and  eser^ 
ise  an  Dversi[;lic  upon  the  doctrine  and  worship  nf  the 
churches,  and  upon  the  pasloib    See  Fither,  ftiat.  i-f 
the  RrfoTmalioit,  p.  491. 
VISITATION  OF  THE  Sick  is  the  duty  ofTbitini; 

■nts.  The  appmptiale  fiirnu  used  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  ill  this  work  ore  fuuud  in  the  Book  nf  Common 
/V„yr,. 

Tialtatorikl  Poweh  is  t 
the  viiitor  of  ■  corporate  bod; 
"Every  corporation,  whether 

visital^e  by  some  superior;  and  every  spiritual  pemn, 
being  a  corporation  sole,  is  viutable  by  the  orilinary. 
There  is,  however,  in  our  eccleaiostieai  puliiy.  an  ex- 
ception to  this  rule,  for,  by  compoaltion,  the  archbisb- 
■ip  of  Canterbury  never  visits  the  bishop  of  UhhIdh. 
During  a  viaititiiin  all  iiilerinr  jucisdieiion  are  iii- 
hibiieil  fmn  exerciring  jiirinlicliiHi :  but  thb  rici'i' 
from  the  inoanveiiieiici:  aiicnrliiig  ihe  exerriK  ot  ii. 
is  usually  coiicolnl;  su  Ilut  the  eseiciae  of  jairiadic- 
lion  in  the  inferior  court  is  cuutinucd  notuithHwid- 


rvlrsia>t  icml,  it 


Visitor,  in  ofEcial  langungr,  is  an  innprMor  of  bod- 
ies politic,  ecclesiastical,  or  civil.  With  miprct  to  or- 
diiuiry  ecclesiastical  corporal icniis  the  liiiliop  is  ibdi 


has  no  superior.  The  bishops  are  visitors  in  tbeir  re\'- 
eral  dioceses  of  all  deans  and  chapten,  pamnns,  vicam. 
ami  all  spiiitual  corporations.  Visiinn  uf  cillri^e*  aiHl 
other  eleemosynary  corporations  are  (jeiwrally  inde- 
pendent of  the  diocesan,  being  extra-dioccaan.  Sdok- 
time*  a  lisitor  or  visitor-geiipral  in  appiuntnl  with  ei- 
traonliiiary  powers.  See  Hill,  Em/Hik  J/imotficirm. 
p.494sq. 

TlBO,  Fti.tT  CiilBTdn.iL  TIKI,  a  Spanish  paiater  of 
Ihe  17th  ceiitiiri',  resided  at  SlailriJ,  and  at  one  time 
held  Ihe  ullice  »f  commissary -general  of  the  Iwlin. 
He  painted  all  the  saiul*  of  ihe  Order  of  Kan  Fmncbn 
for  the  chapter-bouse  of  the  eoiivent  of  that  unler  at 
Conlova.  He  was  a  monk  of  Ihe  same  order,  ami  died 
at  Ifadrid  about  i;t».  Seo  S(iooncr,  Biiy.  Ilitt.  oJtKt 
Fin  A  lit,  ^T. 

Viipered,  in  the  Parsee  phikwophr,  ia  a  book  of 
the  Zeiidaiesta  (q.v.). 

Tlsacber,  Corxkub,  a  celebrated  Dutch  deugnrt 
and  engraver,  was  bom  at  Haarlem  about  1610.  He 
studied  under  I'etcr  Snulmln,  but  adopted  asiyleof  tat4 
own,  fiirraed  by  a  combination  of  the  point  with  ti.e 
graver,  in  which  Ito  has  hardly  been  equalled.  His 
works  are  ver>>  niitncnius,  and  those  from  his  own  de- 
signs arc  I  he  muni  esteemed.  Hedied  in  1670.  Aincm^ 
his  piiiiu  of  sacred  subjects  may  be  named,  Tkr  At^ri 
IHitding  Ike  ttfjMitivre  nf  Abraknm,  after  nmiaiiii 
Abriiknm'i  Arrinil  at  Sichem,  iiL :— .Sasiraixi  ami  Ittt 
KUen,  after  Guiiki  i—Hiiiidaltit  PrnUml,  design  doubt- 
ful:—Tie  JCntombmml  n/ CT>«^,  after  Paul  Venxinci 
—  Tht  Lot!  jHitifmnl,  after  Rubens:  —  and  The  Holy 
Family.     See  Spooncr,  Bios-  Hat.  of  lie  Fvm   A  rti, 

Visttclua  and  Vlsncla  were  Gallico-GnnmK 
gods,  of  which  the  Hist,  idenlicsl  with  tlercniy,  appean 
oil  a  strange  tablet  recently  found  on  tbe  Nec'kar. 

Vlawttinltia  (Sanscrit  tineo,  "all,"  and  mkra, 
"  friend,"!,  e.  friend  ofall  Ihe  (tods), an  interestiniE  cbar- 
acter  in  ihe  mjtliolngical  hialory  of  India,  waa  the  aw 
thor  of  many  liymns  of  the  Rigreda  [see  VutjL];  bat 
Ilia  fame,  which  pervades  all  the  pcrioda  of  Sarnmit  lii. 
cratuie,  is  ehielly  fuundol  on  tlic  lemarkalile  fait  lUr, 

be  succeeded  in  having  bimiclf  adoitlcd  into  ili«  Bial>. 


VITAL  8( 

Htanic  aatt,  ■fin  ■  long  contnt  which  ho  h«<t  to  irage 
■gainst  Ihe  Rulii  Vuuhllia  (q.  v.).  Frnm  the  «|>ic  puems 
■lid  ihe  f  urjiiu,  iL  would  tttm  ihmt  the  result  of  thi> 
coiiiest  WW  tbc  elevilion  nTViawtmiin  la  the  rank  ut 
■  Unhmnna.     Bill  the  Inlet  inulitions  rcliliiii;  to  thia 

•ince  Ihe  ririlir  belwe«n  Vuwimitra  and  VaHahlha  it 
nlluded  to  in  uvenl  nT  the  Kigvedi  hrmna,  and  (inct 
the  caate  diuinciion  u(  later  tieriodi  of  Hinihilini  waa 
not  ;cl  tatablubed,  iheae  tr.iiliLioiu  mulled  rrom  the 
circuDuUnce  that  SuHas,  a  kiii|;  .nanw<l  in  the  Eitc- 
TEila,whii  FmplayeJ  Vuiiahtha  fur  his  liniiae-priesi,  al- 

fii'iate  (m  him  at  lacriticc*;  ami  that  the  latter,  iitcur- 
riii;;  oil  Ellin  eround  llie  Jealmvy  at  Vaaiililha,  had  to 
maintain  Iiy  fnrce  tlie  preni^taiive  oDfeiTeil  on  him  by 
hii  im-al  miuler.  tfaiiy  l^eiiils  are  relatol  conceni- 
inS   liim.     See  iiuir,  Oiigimil  Saiacril  Ton  (Loud, 

Tltol,  St„  an  early  French  mnnk,  waa  bom  abnit 
in50  at  Tierceville,  near  Murtain,  Nutmaiidy,  He  left 
Ilia  natjre  laiiil  to  gniu  iiuiriictiim  from  the  mcnt  Icanieil 
men  of  his  time.waaonlaineil,  anil  became  (about  IU8U) 
chaplain  of  Robert,  count  nr  Jlortaiti,  who  rumiahcil 
him  aprebenJaliipintheenlleeialcliurefaafSuSvniul, 
fuuniled  by  him  in  1081  Tual,  neverthelesi,  renot 
bia  honnn  and  emolutneiits  (abniit  1091),  and  n 
among  the  mclia  or  Murtain.  The  number  o(  hi 
lowen  iiicreanng,  he  went  (in  1093)  to  the  Uar 
Craon,  and  artcrwanla  to  that  of  Fnnc^rea.  He  Anally 
(about  I  lOa)  foun.led  an  abbey  in  Ihe  TuceBt  of  Savi| 

firnwdin  111:!.   Thence  Vital  maile  extended  preaci 
louns  Ihe  fame  of  whirh  reacheil  even  Ibe  jiapal  i 
III   llfO  he  puaul  over  to  England,  where  be  n 
manv  roiivernnna.     About  the  Hme  lime   lie  tr 
rerr.:'<l  to  Neiif-Bourg  a  nunnery  which  he  bail  r<iui 
near  Savij^y,  in  liwicir  of  his  HUer  Si.  Adeline.     He 
dieil  while  perriirming  malin*  at  Ibe  priorv  of  Dnm- 
pierre,  Sept.  Ill,  1122.    The  monailery  eslabliabol  by 
liim  eare  riae  to  many  DtherB,boih  in  France  ami  Eiig- 
lam),  the  muM  remarkable  of  which  were  thuae  of  La 
Trappr,  Fuummnnt,  and  Aulnnj-.     It  dually  (in  1H8) 
paaanl  over  Id  IheOnler  ofCiteatix.   Oiieorihc  last  mc 
reoonofaUieViial  w«a  Mtwilun.    See  Hoercr,iVuui 
Biiig.  aiitiraU,  a.  v. 

Vital  CirAJiM,  a  ftraoua  Caboliit  and  pupil  of 
Isaac  lj>ria  (q.  v.)>  waa  a  ilescemlant  uf  a  Calabrian 
fantiiy.  He  woa  bum  In  IM3,  and  dieil  in  IG20.  After 
the  death  of  bii  teacher,  Vital  diligently  collected  all 
Ihe  maniucript  nul«a  of  the  lectures  which  Loria'a  diK 
ciplea  hail  wrillen  down,  from  which,  together  with  hia 
own  jutting*,  he  produced  Ihe  gigantic  and  famoui 
■yaiem  of  the  Cabala  entitled  the  Trtt  nf  Li/r, 
O^^nn  y;.  Thia  work,  upon  which  Vital  labored  ovei 
thirty  yean,  waa  at  flnt  circulated  in  manuacript  copies, 
and  every  one  of  the  Cabaliitic  disciples  had  to  pted^n 

ci'py  lo  be  made  for  a  foreign  land,  so  that  for  a  time 
■II  the  QKlioc*  remained  in  I'alesliKC.    "Chajim'a  e 
amide."  says  Steinachneider,  "gave  a  great  impulse 
hia   ferlile  fullowera,  and  not  long  afteiwanla,  Aaron 
Iterechja  of  Moilen^  declared  (in  a  manuacript 
1G:!9)  that  he  had  mmewhere  reed  that  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  student  to  write  down  the  principlta  of  tbc 
Cabala.     With  icapcci  tu  the  authenticity  and 
iBiigeinent  of  iheK  writiogn  nearly  all  of  which  bear 
the  name  of  Chajim,  and  are  extant  in  hundreds  of 
manuacripla  (the  very  fvu  that  are  printed  harine  ep- 
pntcd  together  with  other  nhler  Cabalistic  works 
Korei,  l7tU-B5),  we  find  an  ajipanitai  cri/irui  of 
leai  than  four  receinionsi  and  Chnjim  himseir  began 
hia  cnmprebensive  worii  with  siieh  care  that  he  dislii 
gidnhed  what  he  found  lairght  in  Loria's  name  fmi 
what  he  coiiaiilere.1  as  auihcntic  trailillon.     B»l  h  . 
own  account  of  the  diDercDt  ways  in  which  he  arranged 


VITEK 

rearranged  hia  materials,  atul  the  accounts  ot  thoae 

who  again  prepareil  his  writings  Tut  Ihe  presa  (viz.  hia 

son,  Samuel  Vital  of  Damascus;  rhe  polygrapher  Jacob 

Zemacb,a  I'unuguese  physician  in  I'akslinclGIS-SS; 

ml  his  Uerman  pupil  Heir  l'ii|<|ien  at  Jerusalem,  ob. 

\iii),  and,  lastly,  a  comjiarison  of  the  different  forms  in 

■  ;h  tbc  same  (urmulK  and  plays  upon  leilcrs  appear 

reappear,  must  make  every  huncst  student  despair 

^er  producing  lighl  and  order  nut  of  this  vast  mass 

jeniuosbiUiitgnpher,  in  thewonb"The  dream  of 
I'haraub  is  one."  The  work  of  Chsjim  consists  of  six 
;  a  portion  of  that  part  which  treats  of  ike  doc- 
trvK  ofm/kiKptycltotU  (D'bljbjn)  has  been  trsiialated 

lo  Latin  by  luMrr  von  BiMennith.  Sec  Fllrsi,  BM. 
yvrf.  iii,  479  aq. ;  Uinsburg,  AToUabjiip.  135;  De' Rossi, 
Diaowiiio  S/oiico  (ticrm.  tranaL),  p.  828  sq.;  GrHii. 
Cttch,  d.  Juilm.  ix,  Ub  aq.;  and  notc,8,  p.  Ixxv;  x, 
126  sq.]  Slcinacbncider,  Jnciih  Lilerulurt,  p.  237  sq, 
(It  P.) 

Tltoll,  Al«Handro.  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Urbino  in  l&RO.  He  was  iurlruclod  by  Fedcrigo 
llaroccio,  who  awstol  him  in  some  of  his  best  woriis. 
Ha  copied  the  AmanKialhm  of  loirto,by  Baroccio, 
with  sucli  success  that  il  might  easily  be  mistaken  fur 
the  Dii}iinal.  His  S'.  A-flin,  in  the  cathedra),  and  Si. 
AngaiHat,  in  tlie  Church  of  ibe  Eremilani,  at  Urijino, 
are  among  his  best  works.  He  died  io  1G30.  See 
Spooner,  bias.  II"'-  "flit  f'i^  A  lit,  s.  v. 

'71tall,aiilseppe,a  painter  of  Iluloena,aQuriBbed 
about  liOO.  He  siudieil  under  GiaiigloselTo  del  Sole, 
■ihI  psintol  history.  He  excciiteil  aume  works  for  the 
churches  uf  lioliigna,  the  most  important  of  whicli  are 
the  .4  nntiDCto'ion,  in  San  Anionio;  Sr. /■(rroina,  in  SS. 
Sebasiiano  e  llocco;  and  the  J/iir^i'<A>M  n/ SI.  CkHw, 
ill  the  church  of  ibat  ■ainl.  He  dicil  sonu>  lima  af- 
ter 1720.    See  Spooner,  biog.  Ititl.  b/ Iht  fmt  Ailt. 

Vltallan,  pope  from  nS7  until  672,  In  that  age 
the  pope  was  sidiject  to  the  emperor,  and  Vilalian  won 
oblignl  to  write  loCmstans  U  lo  request  the  im|icrial 
conflrmation  of  hiselevalion  to  the  papal  chair.  In  the 
Monothelile  com  mvcny  he  was  oliligeil  lo  bend  before 
the  imperial  ]>arly,  which  favored  the  Monotlielito  error. 

over  biahoji  Mauru*  nf  Ravenna  to  which  he  laid  claim. 
Vilalian'a  iiiHucncc  seems  to  have  been  more  potrerful 
in  F.ngland  than  elsewhere,  through  the  labors  of  The- 
odore, archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  rndearored  to  ea- 
tablish  unirurmity  with  the  Churvh  of  Bomb  Vilalian 
left  rcnain  tetters  which  are  yet  extantj  and  died,  it 
ia  stated,  on  Jan.  27, 672.    See  Hcnog,  BtiiI'£iKslitop. 

Vltalls  i  FtTitNO,  a  French  prelate,  was  appointed 
cardinal  in  1312.  Hcoppnaeil  tbe  Spiritual>,and  wrote 
mystical  expn#iiioiis  of  the  Troverh^  tha  (iospela,  the 
Apocalrpse,  and  variom  other  portions  of  the  Bible. 
The  exegeais  uf  the  French  writers  of  this  period  ia 
well  illustrated  bv  bis  JfcrulA/in-oroTlhc  whole  Bible. 
See  Mosheim,  ifin.  oftkt  CKvrch,  bk.  iii,  cent.  liv,  pt. 
ii,  ch.  ii. 

Vtte.  TiMorao  (also  caUed  d^la  Vilt  di  t  VMno),  an 
Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Urbino  in  H'O.  He  studied 
under  Francesco  Fnncia  at  llologna,  and  relumed  lo 
Urbino  in  H06.  From  ihence  be  repaired  to  [he  acad- 
emy which  Ilia  relative  Kaphsel  liad  opened  in  Ihe 
Vatican  at  Rome^  He  assisted  Raphael  for  some  time, 
and  again  returned  to  Urbino,  where  be  paastil  the  re- 
mainder of  hia  daya.  He  died  in  1624.  Among  bia 
principal  works  arc  the  ItucofTi  nfikr  Cmti,  in  (lie 
Church  of  the  Oniveiiiuali  at  I'l-sam;  the  fonnji/foii, 
in  Ihe  Onrrvanli  at  Urbino;  and  i he  .Vd»  .!/<  Tanpm, 
ill  the  Cliurch  of  Snnt'  Angelo  at  Cagli.  See  Spooner, 
aioj,  llil.  ••/Ike  fine  A  rli,  a.  v. 

Vlte^  in  Chinese  mythology,  waa  au  iJul  worship 


VITELLnJS  8 

ped  btcluH  of  fail  having  delirercd  the  urlh  and  the 
k'mgdoni  ur  hnven  frurn  Ehe  puw«T  ur  the  <]ieniuii%  who 

tic  aizF,  very  Tnt,  and  III  ting  u  pull  ■  Ihrune,  triih  limits- 
raaas  m  )iU  aule  liitv ning  to  his  cooimauili.  NunKiuuf 
daily  i|)ife-oir«ings  were  ran Je  ui  him.  At  the  lime  of 
theae  offvriiigt  bis  prieua  related  upon  their  kueea  the 
great  deeds  o(  Ihe  god. 

VitelliUS,  an  African  Donatiac,  flmiTisbed  about 
A.D.  $44.  He  wrote  on  the  worid'a  hatred  to  the  aci 
vanta  af  God,  against  the  pagans,  agaiptt  the  Cilhii 
lica  aa  traditnn,  and  some  other  tract*.  Nonn  of  hit 
worki  reoiaio.    See  Uennadiuit,  Ite  Virii  lUmlribiu, 

Vitelllns,  Anliu,  ■  Roman  emperor,  son  nf  Lucin* 
Titelliiia,  the  censor,  wia  bom  A.D.  lb.  Like  hi>  father, 
he  was  a  master  of  the  arts  uf  servile  cringing  anil  Hat- 
tery.  Through  Ihe  favor  of  Tiberius,  Caius  Caligula, 
Claudiiui,  aiid  Stro,  he  woi  advanced  tu  high  slaiiun, 
and  on  Ihe  death  uT  Utho  was  pruclsirned  emperor  in 
Uermaii]'  at  Ihe  lime  VtapaHan  was  engaged  in  war 
with  the  Jews  early  in  €!).  He  was  ■  glutton  and  vo- 
luptuary, and  without  either  dvil  ur  military  talent. 


>rTllellIni. 


cnlcred  the  Univi 
ualiiiK  at  Leyden 


About  the  lime  he  arrived  in  Rom»,  Vcapasian  vas  pro- 
claimed at  Alexandria,  and,  nn  the  laitrr  arriving  i 
Itolv  at  the  head  of  his  hoiiile  nrmy,  Yiielljtis  was  pi 
to  death,  Dec.  22,  69  (Josepbus,  Wiir.  iv,  lOj  Taci 
llitl.  ii,  S;  Suelun.  Vilelliai).  See  Tillemaiil,  Hit- 
tart  da  i'm^-eura,  vol  i  i  Smith,  iJirt,  n/Ciiw.  Biog. 

VltelUua,  EraamuB,  a  I'ul'isli  bighap.was  boni 
■bout  1470,at  Cnniw,Df  obscure  pareniage.     He  sli  ' 
led  in  the   university  of  that  place  at  tlie  eipei 
of  Ihe  fomilT  of  Ciulek  de  Vitcllio,  whose  name  lie 
mimed.    In  1491  he  became  ductur  at  the  iiniversi 
anil  in    1504  was  nominated  by  prince  Alexander 
bisiiDp  of  rinck.     He  visited  Rome  twicir  to  present  i 
aalutaiions  of  hio  soven-ign  to  the  pope,    in  1618 
was  wnl  by  Siglsmnnd  to  the  Diet  orAugihiirg  to 
lidt  aid  against  the  Turk*,  aa  veil  ai  on  othei  diplo- 
matic services.     He  died  in   1522.     Sec  Bwgntplat 
VnttrstUe,  i.  v. 

VltallluB,  L«cln«,  the  censor,  father  of  the 
pemr,  was  made  governor  of  5}'ria,  at  Ihe  expiraiio 
his  consulate,  A.D.  85;  and  the  sanK  year,  or  the  . 
fi>llowing,1iccometoJeni«alcmat  theftont  ufthc  I'ass- 
over,  and  was  very  magiiilicently  entertained.     I 
leased  iheciiy  from  a  tax  on  friiiu,and  commiiteit  to  ilie 
«aro  of  the  Jews  the  high-priest'a  hslii,  with  ibe 
lificil  ornaments,  which  Ileru(landthel^>man^  had  kept 
till  then  in  the  Tower  of  Anionia.    He  deposed  Joaep' 
Caiaphat  from  the  high-priesthood,  and  put  in  his  place 
Jonathan,  ton  of  Anaiiiis,  but  deprived  him  of  his  digni- 
ty two  }-eais  afterwanis,  and  conferred  it  nii  TheiipbiliiB, 
his  brother  (Josephns,  .4  nf.  viii.  S).     He  was  noted  foi 
his  sfcnphancv  and  public  inlrignea  (Dio  Cass,  lix,  37: 
Taciu.4BiKitvi,32j  xi,l-3;  xii,  6).     Sec  Smii h, ZMrt. 
o/CiiiM.  hiog.  a.  V. 

Vltlsiltor,  in  Roman  mythology-,  was  a  sunia 
Baedtut,  who  first  taught  the  planting  of  vines. 

Tltodar&QUS,  Johannes.    See  Wiktertii 

Vltriuga,  Campegliia,  ihr  tlJtr,  the  most  famous 
of  Ihe  oilier  expositors  of  the  projdiet  Isaiah,  was  bor 
Ms>'  IG,  ICG9,  at  LccuwarUen,  in  Fricsland.  His  fa 
Iher  was  a  jurist  of  high  rauk  In  Ihe  superior  court  o 


VITKY 

ly  began  the  study  of  the  clasi' 

ii);uages,  and  in  his  sixteeoih  yi 

siiy  iif  FranekeT,subaeqiKnt]y  |:n' 

In   tUNI  he  was  made  pmftssiitif 

Oriental  languages  at  Fraiieker,  two  yean  laifrpnrfr^ 

theology,  and  aDer  sen  I'eara  more  profiMor  ■< 

Church  htaluiy.     In  lOHS  he  refuBett  a  call  to  I'lmNr 

ras  marri^and  became  Die  father  of  lour  sons  iiJ 

laughter.    His  last  yeara  wert  filled  with  |,bni>>'    I 

stroke,  March  81, 1722.    Albeit  ikbultens  delivered  lia    I 
iieral  oration.  I 

Viiriuga  was  engaged  in  but  two  literan-  axm-     j 
Tiics:  one  of  which,  with  Coeeeins,  his  fotner  tun,     i 
had  respect  to  the  form  of  Eiekicl's  templF,  and  ibi     | 
ith  Rhenford,  was  concerned  alnut  the  idin    i 
(Delias)  of  the  sytiBgKgue  (comp.  Carpiov,  J/ymit 
P.S11).     HiBCDinRinKar7  0ii/iauiA(LeavatiliB,]:i<- 
—     ~    ■       733,2  vula-foLi  Herh«ri>,l715;  Tnhii^    j 
ITSSi  in  German,  abridged,  bv  Itllching, and  wiihpnt    i 
by  Mosheim  [Halle.  174'9-&1})  is  atiU  wonkjif 
:.     Gesenius  asserts  that  it  neigha  down  all  pi- 
la  expoHliona  of  that  pmphet.  aiul  many  et  boi    i 
lem  times.     He  finds  lis  author  given  to  Cmriu 
methodsof  intcri>relaii,in,and  prone  to  apply  the  piifk- 
•y  to  some  pariicitlar  hiaiorical  event  whenever  pi* 
le;  but  also  carcfid  to  rxpoiiml  the  meaning  of  c«it    | 
ifScult  passage,  and  iburoughly  learned  iu  tin  !>■ 
guagcs  of  Ibe  Bible  and  in  the  antiquities  of  ibt  us-    l 
Ciillocaiinns  of  passagei  directed  aigsinu  ibi     | 
peoples  are  made  by  him  whieh  constitute  an  iai[anH 
of  his  ttotk.     Ned  iu  value  may  be  cwiiikM 
ik  on  Ihe   arnagogue,  entitled  AreioKiiaf^ 
Oitnralt.' XorU  IU.,  etc  (1st  ed,  Franekcr.  ie&.Hn 
ed.  1096,  entitled  Dt  Sipmgog.  Vrtm  Liki  Tm. 
Other  anil  less  important  works  are,  Sorrunni  Oliiir>>".    I 
Lib.  VI  (ibiiL  ICBS-ITflS  and  often),  which  exp«^  V>- 
tringa  to  Ihp  charge  of  heterodoxy  from  •nmecritia:-    l 
.4Rai7ruif  Apocafypi,  Jomrnii  ApoMt.  (ibid.  lllli,tK-- 
direeteil  against  tlic  Church  of  Rome:  —  llsr''W^ 
lliit.tt  ChravoLSatr.nAJundoCundilo.ttc.il'K'* 
—TgpHi  TItfilogia  Praclica  (17IG  sq.).     A  pesthiF    I 
nuius  work,  Connnmr.  m  I.&r,  Pni/ihrl.  Zaciana,ai, 
was  published  bv  Venema  (Ix-ovanliv,  1 734. 4U>).  ' 

Three  ofViiringa'a  sons  ilied  in  early  life,  the ha<(  I 
whom,  Horace,  had  aninired  llic  reputation  of  ascUi 
before  his  decease  at  the  eariv  age  of  sixteen  thb 
Hisob8ervoliniisnnVursl,i)c//^»r<iM)nif,werepabi.M 
by  Lambert  l)<is  in  Obirrvnit.  ifitalL  (Fnneker.Ki: 
Svo).  A  rnurlh  son,  Campegins.  became  profFsur  a 
theology  at  Franeker  (see  the  following  anicle).  5b 
Hertog,  Reat-EiirgUi<p.  a.  v. 

Vltrlnga,  Campeglaa.  He  tomgtr,  «aa  bona 
Franeker,  March  U,  tim,  and  matriculated  m  a  KbW 
ill  1708.  His  eilucatioii  was  directed  chiefly  br  tJ 
rather.and  his  kinsman  Lambert  flos.  He  becami  ita< 
lor  of  theology  May  38,  ITH,  and  in  the  fuUowiDg  n« 
ordinary  professor  of  iheohigy  at  Franeker.  He  M 
of  inflammation  of  the  lul1g^  Jan.  II,  I72&,  Hia  tee- 
a)  oration  waa  delii'crcd  bv  Hrmstnliuia.  He  Mta 
f:iHloim  Throlwim  .V-ilnnlit  (Franeker,  17Sl,4it'. 
anil  a  number  of  ilisBeriatione  which  were  coUffir^*^ 
publislied  by  Vcnema  under  the  title  THarrttilf.  So^ 
together  with  llic  oration  of  Hemalcrhiiia  (irsi.lC'. 
See  Henog,  Biiit-f'itryUiip.f,  t. 

Titniviam  Bctoll,  n 
peculiar  pallem  of  scrull-  ■ 
work,con^ting  of  con  vol  veU 
imdulalions,  used  in  classical  TltrovUa  H 


i»  given  after  the  great  architectural    writei  T"io* 

Vltry,  fiix>[;AHii  DK.  B  leanieil  FtPiich  phiWo" 

order  of  St.  Ignatius,  studied  at  l'Bril,aU(]  wasenppi 


Vitty.  Machsor  of  (■«ia-«l  •^^m^),  a  ihe  liile 
of  a  ritiinl  ot  the  Syiiij(OKue  of  Vilry,  in  Knorr, 
compilcil  about  1100  by  K.SimchB  of  Vilry,  ■  dii)c't|ile 
ori{uhi,inil3bl*iii«]  ita  name  Trum  tlie  plaM  inwhivli 
the  cumijilcr  livnt.  It  not  only  cumpriMB  tbo  whole 
cycle  i>r  ilie  ilaily  vi-l  Mivai  KTvice*,  but  rarious 
Irsal  nitd  titml  Uw»  (torn  ancient  ilocuroeiKa.  This 
Mac-lisnr,  nhich  ja  uT  [he  ipealtut  rarily,  haa  been  ilc- 
•cribcil  by  Luiullo  in  the  IIi;brev  mavB  and  revieiri 
eniilled  AVo-m  Ciemrd  (Ptaguc,  1838),  iii,  JOO.  An  ac- 
count «r  a  M&  oT  ihU  Michxr  (Itrili.h  &InKiim  A.lil. 
27,200,  a7,20l )  bus  alw  been  ffiren  bv  Ur.  \V.  WriKht,  in 
Ihe  ytwrcn/Siic.  l.U,  July,  l8n(i,|i.H5Gni.  See  Fllnl, 
£iU.  Jmf.  iii,  488 ;  De'  Bowi,  DitiuBaria  SIvrico  (Germ. 
truuL),|>.330ai|.    (B.  P.) 

Vlttoria,  ALESBAsnno,  a   tli>)in);ui>hed    Italian 


III  arurwanl* 


ml  IT 


lelliiit 


■>  hai 


onii  only  (o  Michael  Angel".     In  Venice, 

wnrk«,  he  eieeurol  the  Blaine*  ami  aniunenln  »ii  the 

Mairuaae  of  Ilia  LilirnryorSl.Mirk,  in  thcDncal  I'Hlace, 

feci,  he  complrleil  Ibe  Chnruli  tirSan  liiuliann  at  Venice, 
iheChapeiufSan  Kanlinn,  anil  »t her  WDtkaiirSaiKorino; 
■b«  thechatwl  ami  altar  >.r  the  Bourin  in  SS.  Giovanni 
e  Paulo;  the  omnnnKnl  of  I'rinii,  in  the  Clinrch  nl  San 
Salralnre;  the  Oralorv  of  San  lllrolamu;  ami  the  Pa- 
lazzo Baibi,  near  ilie  Uraiul  CanitL  He  died  in  1608. 
Sec  SpHiier,  Bi-a.  Ilirt.  oflU  fiat  A  ili,  u  v. 

VltSla,  in  Knnian  myihnliigy.  was  the  (ovlilcn  aC 
Jny  Biiil  DKfrimesI  generally  at  Ilie  cclcbraiion  uf  vie- 

TitdnUllM  (t^  ditpenter  •iftiji),  in  RHnun  ray- 
Ihukifty,  waa  aaid  in  give  life  lo  the  newly  Uuni. 

VltQilAlll  h  a  name  applied  in  cenain  idalalmua 
ofBcen  ainnnK  the  ancient  Knmaiis  who  were  valariei 
of  Apnthi  DidnnUBuai  hence  nfien  calleil  Didvnuiiii. 
See  Bingh*ro,CJruf...1iiM;.bk.xvi,cb.v. 

Vitus,  St„  one  of  the  Kiurleen  Mi-calleil  Arljim  m 
neeiJ  of  the  Komiah  Church,  is  Main)  lo  have  been  ■ 
nntiveof  Sicily,  and  nf  heathen  parenlage.  Helired  nn- 
derIHi>cletian,andfle>l  fmm  penecutinn  in  Lnwer  Italy 
anil  lo  Hooie,  where  lie  vrmnght  Tna^^'elllH■a  eurca,  lint 
waa  comlemneil  lo  die  becanne  nf  bia  unbending  lldelity 
to  Christianiiy.  Aa  lire  vnulil  tint  bum  him  and  llnna 
wunhl  nni  icat  him,  U  became  necrm-iry  in  torture  him 
III  death,  l|it  bnlv  wa*  taken  t<i  France.Unt  In  Saint- 
I>enb  and  afierwarili.  in  a.rrey.  I-ortions  of  hJa  relics 
are  preacrred  at  Prague,  Salibihu,  nitil  etaewhere,  A 
Kcund  marlyf  of  tills  name  i>  meuIimiKl,  ivhnae  bndy 
was  bmiight  from  I'avia  to  I'ragup.  See  Henog,  RtaU 
EnryHap.  n.  T. 

Vltoa.  Doineiilco.  an  Italian  engraver,  ia  aaiil  to 
have  been  bom  abnut  I53R.  and  lu  have  become  an  in- 
mate nfthe  MunaiterjnrValliHTibrasii,  in  the  Apenninea. 
Hia  prima  iX'Saeaa  Ciiniiderable  mc[il,among  which  xa»\- 
be  named  SI.  UurUiotumra  (i5T6):-5/.  Joadtim  Hold- 
iiKj  a  Crattr,  after  A.  del  Sarin  i— and  a  set  oT  smnll 
plain  representing  the  Puttim  o/our  Sottour.  See 
SpooiKT,  Sing.  Hal.  o/He  Fiae  A  rl;  ».  v. 

VltuB,  St«plunaB.n  Refurmed  tlicolo^iian  ofGer- 
inany,  »aa  bom  at  Scbaffhauaen,  FeUB,  1CH7.  Aa  fur 
hit  linnwledge,  !">  "as  a  aeir-inade  man,  and,  before  lie 
left  hia  eoantry  for  lUeniling  the  lechiTca  at  foieign 
academies,  bt  passed,  in  1710,  an  examination  pro  mi- 
io  with  aucb  an  excellency  that  Ihe  city  awarded 


It  of  t' 


\x  171 


1T3lN     Ile< 


e  Luihci 


lie,  Apubujiu,  in  qua  Syniidiii  Onidiaceaa  tl  Rrfur- 
mata  t'tdtt  Vindiailur ; — Vvidieia  fuihu  ta  qua  in 
Apttiuffitt  Sffnodi  Dordraemr  dicfa  rani  yiodicia/ur: — 
Seifdiiiiiiia  quo  A  ugailiin,  Latktri  SupruUipnirioiuni' 
f  ■«  Smlnilii  a  HwachaitiBi  Catanmia  Viniltailur.  See 
jiicher, ^{(linanKS  ffeMrfsn-Lrzultfli, a. t.     (B-l'.) 

ViTKldllB,  a  Dominican  and  prdale,  was  boni  in 
Heilmnni  in  Ihe  latter  part  of  [be  JGib  century.  He 
was  chiieen  bishop  oT  Oalmaiis  in  1619.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral tracts  on  experiownlal  relifpnn,  which  were  pub- 
lialied  at  V<>n*  in  1568.  See  Mnaheim,  //iif.  o/rAa 
Ciardl,  bk.  iii,  cent,  xv,  pU  ii,  ch.  iL 

Tlvas,  JuAS  LiTDOvico,  a  learned'  and  libeial- 
minileil  humanist  of  Ihe  lOth  ceuturt',  was  bom  in 
Ulsrcli,  1432,  at  Valencia,  In  Spain,  and  olncaicd  at 
I'aria  and  Lnuviiin.  He  made  himaclf  acquniiiled  wilb 
the  auL-ient  claasica,  and  thereby  came  to  understand 
tlw  barrenness  and  taatelessneaa  of  the  scholastic  aludies 

adversary,  and  awajleil  tliem  in  public  leelnret  and  in 
repealeil  jmlilicBtinna,  chief  amoni;  the  latter  being  his 
LOrr  in  ffait- DialrcHcar,  Hia  WSil  in  Ihla  work 
gained  fur  him  the  friend>hip  of  Thnmaa  Mure,  Itml- 
ilous,  Erasmus,  and  other  scholars  of  similar  ten-lency. 
The  publication  of  anedilinn  of  Augustine's  Dt  Cirilale 
Oti,  deilicated  lo  Henry  VIII  of  England,  led  cardinal 
Wnlsey  l4i  invlleTives  to  Encland;  ami  as  his  inde- 
pendent notcx  appended  lo  the  work  hail  involveil  him 
in  diapulea  with  Ihe  dnclon  of  I,oiivain,  be  was  Rlad  lo 
accept.  Hia  reception  waa  magniflcent.  Oxfunl  gave 
him  a  Ibeolngical  dnclorale,  bihI  the  king  iliicnaaed  aci- 
entiflc  matlera  with  him  and  appmnled  him  Ihe  tutor 
in  Ijatin  and  Greek  of  Ihe  princess  Mary  (the  Csiholic). 
The  myal  favor  was,  bowever,  forfeited  by  Vivea  when 
he  refuaed  lo  sanction  Henry's  aeparatiim  fmm  his 
c|iicen,  Caihsrine  uf  Aragon.  Ha  was  Ibluwn  into 
prison  and  kept  there  more  than  aix  months.  On  his 
releaae,  bo  fled  to  Itnigca,  in  Flamlera,  and  f^nm  Ihcnco 
addressed  a  letter  lo  the  king,  in  which  he  admonished 
him  igaioat  the  intcmted  ilivurce,  and  poinleil  out  Ihe 
hurtful  consequences  to  Slate  aiul  Church  lo  which 
aiich  a  measure  would  \rK\  {mmp.  Kpi»i.nd  lltn.VIII, 
Anfil. Br!ifm,\\\  0/jp, Onwui,  vol.  vii). 

The  following  years  were  apcnc  by  Vives  at  Bruges 
in  undisluibcil  ijuietiicaa  cngsgcil  in  liteiaiy  accnpa> 
liouK  'Ihe  ripest  fruit  uf  hia  mind  ia  Ihe  work  De  hit- 
riplinii  /.it.  Jf  A' (Antwerp,  1 561 ),  a  cyclopisdie  presenta- 
tion of  Ihe  sdcnce*,  which  is  cbamclcrizcd  by  a  wide 
reading,  frequent  exercise  of  penetrating  and  sound 
judgment,  and  a  wealth  of  Ihuuglit,  though  ilin  nai^ 
rowncss  ot  bis  tioiea  ia  appsicnt  and  the  Uiignnge  is 
often  drr  and  bani  Of  equal  value  is  the  last  work 
upon  which  be  waa  engsged,  the  I>e  I'tiilnit  t'iJti 
CiriUiiiHit,  ia  five  books.  Ilia  wife  publiaheil  this  book, 
which  contains  many  Ihinga  not  to  be  freely  spoken  in 
the  Komiah  Church  of  Islet  times,  an<l  which  have  oc- 
casioned the  suppression  nfvarinua  paragrapha  by  later 
editon  (comp.  Hcnke,  AW/rr*.  Grtdu  rf.  thrill.  Kirthe. 
4th  ed.  1X06.  Iii,  260).  His  independent  sjiitit  ex- 
posed him  in  life  oa  well  [o  the  aua|iici»n  of  being  favnr- 
■bly  di'poaed  Inwanla  the  I'miestant  dociiinca.  He 
died  auildenty,Mayri,l64l).  Hia  complete  works  were 
nnblivhed  in  two  folio  vulumea  at  Ibole  in  I6.i-'i.  The 
lirst  and  mnat  complete  cilitiun  is  that  of  archliiiihiip 
Kraiuria  Fabian  and  Fueni,  under  the  title,  Jo.  I.Hihr. 

(Vnlencia.  1782  aq. «  vola.4ln),  Hia  pnbliabed  let- 
See,  in  addition,  Antnniua,  BiUiolh.  Hiip.  (Rome.  1<;7^), 
i,  6U  aq.;  Dupin,  BOiiolh.  xiv,  99:  1'eiasier,  tj-/f;  i, 
ilM:  Nic^ron.  xxiii,  12  sq.;  Morbof, />Dfy«ufoi'.  passim.; 
J6tbtr,  Allyfm.GelthrUu-UzihiH,W,llMl  aq.;  Trane- 
mann,  Gadi.  d,  Ph3on>phie,  ix,  42  sq. )  Kilter,  tietoL  d. 


VIVIAN  8( 

ikriilL  riiloiopHe.v.iSS  sq.;  VftcMer,  Gach.  d.  Li/e- 
nilur,  IT,  3  j  Schriickh,  C*rulL  Kiiehoigadi.  tti  d.  Rt- 
/orntalioH,  i,  47  iq. ;  Henng,  Stul-KiKyldop.  s.  v. 

Tlvian.  H.,  iii  EngUah  Cunf^^nttonal  miHioniry, 
WIS  bam  it  Penmi, CuniHall, III  1832.  lie  wu  du- 
caied  fur  Ihi:  miMioiiiry  wiirk,  iml  accepted  liy  ihe 
Loiiiion  Miaionsrv  Swcielv ;  aiul  embarked  for  the 
Soulh  Seee,  March,  18t>2.  Much  of  hU  time  wu  em- 
ployed in  preparing  nalire  studeiita  for  the  ministrVf  in 
which  work  he  wu  enunentl)'  luccenfuL  tlii  early 
dealh  (April  11, 1874}  war oiiicb  lamented  bytheaocietr 
orwhich  he  was  *n  able  r^resenlalive,  and  by  Ihe  na- 
tirea,  amcMifi  whnm  he  did  a  iiuble  work.  See  (Lnnd.) 
Co«g.  Year-boat,  lH;&,p.S>l. 

TiTlBD,  James  C,  a  Chnivh  of  England  divine. 
No  record  remains  of  his  binh,eiiucarion,conversuni, or 
entrance  inia  the  mlnittrv.  In  18C2  he  railed  lu  tlic 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  [here  Ubored  for  twelve  veant 
He  died  April  1 1, 1874.  Mr. Vivian  wu  a  faithfui,  ear- 
nest, luviiig  preacher  atui  pailur.  See  EniiigtUcul  Mag- 
oi£«f,Augu..,1874,p.l99. 

Vivian,  Thomas,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  wai  burn  near  Truro,  and  educated  there  It 
the  titammar- school,  and  at  Exeter  College,  Oxfunl, 
where  be  graduated  Juno  19,  1742.  He  wu  ordained 
in  ITU  to  Ihe  cnracy  of  St.  Blichael's,  renkevil,  in  Corn- 
wall :  and  in  1747  was  collated  vicat  of  Comwoml,  near 
Ptvmauth,  and  alae  licensed  as  public  preacher  lbn<uj;h- 
out  the  diocese  He  died  in  April,  1193.  Mr.Vivun 
pulilisbed  a  sermon  of  great  note  on  the  text "  1  have  set 
watchmen ,"  also  Thite  Dialogvtt  irttnfn  a  ilinitltr  and 
One  v/iii  men  PiK-idiiomn—Elpotilim  of  the  Cult- 
chitm  oftht  Church  qffSagtaadbyQueiiiimaRdAntwer: 
— The  Booh  of  Rtretuti/m,  expounded  in  a  historical 
view:  —  and  Cotmologg,  an  inquirv  into  Ihe  catiM  of 
graviuiion.  See  Chriilum  ObKiTti;  March,  1877,  p. 
236 ;  Allibone,  Dkl.  of  Bril.  and  A  mti:  A  Blhoit,  a.  v. 

Vlvier,  O.  do.  a  Dutch  engraver,  floariibed  about 
1666.  Utile  is  known  of  him  except  by  his  prints, 
among  which  are  the  following  t  CMtt  u  lie  Sepul- 
chrr;— The  Fi>art'caBffeliilM.bi  one  pitec!— The  Tmip- 
tnlion  of  81.  Aiala»!i  :—mi  Thelil  and  Chiron.  Sec 
Dumeanil,  f^  Ptinlit-Orattar,  voL  ui ;  ^Kwner,  Biirg. 
llin.  of  Ihe  Fiu  ArU,a.v. 

Vlweg,  CiiHisTiAX,  a  German  profcMnr  of  Oriental 
languages  of  Ibe  17th  century,  is  the  anthor  of  /lodo- 
gtta  Ihdaeltcut  llebr.,  Nota  itelhodo  Unicn-ia  h\ 
Liagaa  Fiindamealii  Bna  cum  Praxi  dtcem  llorai 
SfnilioftticiaiiiK  A  Imfcnu  (Jena,  1683)  -^Itodtyela  Di- 
daclieut  Lingua  /Ith-aiea  Major  (Zeiiz,  1688)  -.—IImIo- 
ffttd  DiJaeficua  Liug.  tiebr.,  Ottendeni  laodum  haac  Litig. 
Siimtim  DiKeaii  Mtfhodo  Fiidli  intra  dam  Sfptimauiii 
(Erfurt,  llWy—Photphorui  Veleru  Tetlnmnlieire  Syi- 
tiiiis  llrbiaica  (Zcili,  1690).  See  Vllnl,  Bibl.  tlibr.  iii, 
484;  Steinwhneidcr,  BUIiogr.  tliimlbuci,  >.  v.;  Wulf, 
B<«.//ffa-.ii,619!  iv,3fl5.     (tt  P.) 

Vlerick,  Vsriat,  a  Flemish  painler,  was  l>om 
Courtrsy  in  1539.    He  wu  first  iiistmclcd  by  Will 
SnelUert,  and  al^ernanls  by  Cliarks  d'Ypren.    Itut 
capricioua  di^xnitinn  nf  the  lallcr  caused  him  to  c_ 
Ilia  uudio  in  twu  ycaia.     He  then  travelled  through 
France,  wipporting  liimsdr  with  his  pencil,  and,  after  a 
short  reiiitence  in  I'aris,  he  proceeded  to  Italy.    He  re- 
mained at  Venice  fiiur  years,  <lurinfc  which  he  secnrcil 
the  friendHhip  and  instiuciioii  of  Tintoretto,  and  then 
went  to  Rome  to  study  the  antique  and  the  wiirki  of 
the  ereat  masters.     He  also  viiited  N'aples  and  PuteolL 
In  1368  he  relumed  to  Flaiiden,  where  be  spent  the  re- 
mniniler  of  his  life.     Among  hia  tnany  excellent  woriu 
are  the  Braza  Serpent :— Judith  ailh  'the  Head  af  llulo- 
femen—His  Four  £caiigelielt!—uii  the  C'lUctJlrioii. 
He  wu  skilled  in  pcrapeclive  and  archilertiire,  with 
which  he  enriched  his  bnckii^undi.     He  died  in  1581. 
SeeSpoouer,£it>;.  llul.nflke  Fine  Aiii,i.\: 

Vliot,  JoiiN  UEoiuib  VAK,  a  Dutch  painter  and  en- 


VOETiirs 

er,  was  bnm  at  Delft  in  1610.  He  wu  a  dudpk 
of  Kembnuidl,  but  little  iaktMwn  of  hia  work  aa  >  paint- 
er. He  left  about  ninety  prints,  from  his  own  deugmv 
after  Kembrandl  and  after  J.  Ueveus,  which  are  cae- 
cuteil  in  an  cxcellmt  nuunier  and  with  gnod  eSea. 
Among  bis  bfHt  jirinta  are,  alter  Keni brand t,  Z.o<  mrfiu 
Daiiijkini!  Ihe  Hoflimnflhe  Fuauch;  mnASI.Jrrome 
Praying  in  ii  CiiTfrn ;  — after  J.  Liei'ens,  ./nooi  OUaimimj 
hii  Ftithrr'i  Blfuiag ;  Saiama  and  Ike  EUitn  ;  and  Ibe 
Artunrcf itn  of  fjaarm.  See  Spoooer,  Bioff.  IJiit.  if 
Ihe  Fine  A  rle,  a,  v. 

VOCatloil,  or  Callimi;,  in  thcrilogr,  is  a  graciota 
act  of  Uod  in  Christ  by  which,  through  his  word  ami 
Spirit,  he  calls  furth  sinful  men,  who  are  liable  tu  cui- 
demnalion  and  placeil  under  the  dominimi  trf  ain,  fna 
Ihe  euiidilinn  of  Ihe  niilmal  life,  and  from  llic  piiUuIinu 
and  corruptions  of  I  hia  wnrM  (Gen.  vi,3:  Hall.  31,28: 
Itum.  X,  13-t5;  Gal.  i,4;  1  Urn.!.  9;  1  Pet.  ii. 9, 10; 
iii,  19;  3  Pet.  ii,  Sn),  nnio  "ihe  fellowship  of  it>m 
Chrisl,''and  orhiskingib'm  ami  iisbcnefila;  ll>at,hanf 
united  unto  him  u  their  brad,  Ilicy  ma}-  derive  fnm 
him  life,  aenatiim,  molinn,  and  a  plenitude  of  evsy 
spiritual  bleaung,  to  the  gkiri-  of  <lri<1  and  thrir  owii 
salvation  (I  Cor.  i,  9;  GaLii,»li  Eph.i,3,6;  S  Tb««. 
ii,I3,14).    SceCAi.i. 

VoeL  JbaS,  a  French  ecclesianlir,  was  Imrn  in  1641 
atTaux-le-Monclot.aiHlenlcreil  the  Onler  ofSi.ltnia- 
lilts  at  Ihe  age  of  eighteen.  He  taujihl  Ibe  humauitin 
in  various  colleges,  especially  at  Lyons  and  Dulr.whcte 
he  filled  the  otncc  of  rcrlnr.  In  1591  he  was  sent  te 
occupy  the  chair  uf  ihrioric  and  Greek  at  Toanun, 
and  he  died  there  Hin-h  10, 1610,  learins  ■  number 
of  educational  works,  for  which  see  t'be  Biogroplui  (.'■>■ 

Voet,  Alexander,  a  Flemish  engrarer,  wu  htn 
at  Aninerp  in  1613.     He  execuicd  a  number  of  pbia 

Paul  Pontius.  He  handleil  Ihe  graver  well,  but  bii 
drawing  was  incorrecl,  leaving  the  etTec*  of  his  prists 
uassti>factnrv.  Some  ofhin  best  prints  arc  the  fulkw- 
ing:  that  VJH\xv\JudiIkKitk  Ihe  Head  «fl/oUfrTwt! 
The  Half  FamUy  Rrtanii!, from  Egfpl ;  Tit  Viryinni 
Infatit;  and  the  Miirtgrtlom  ifSI.Aadmc; — aflcrVin. 
dvke,  Ihe  Eiilo!nbii«r  ofChriil.  See  Spouiwr,  liitg.  Hit. 
oflie  Fine  Alia,  S.V. 

Toetins  ( Voef),  Gvbbkrtih,  n.D.,  rh«ilogic«l  ft*. 
fesaor  at  Uirecht,aiid  one  of  Ihe  imwi  noted  men  inikc 
Dulch  Reformed  Church  of  the  I7ih  centurr.  He  wss 
bom  March  S,  1S88.  at  Heuwkn,  in  H»lbin<L  He  earif 
distinguished  himaelf,  while  a  ■Indent  *l  Leyden.  t^ 
his  imlnatry  and  exiisonlinary  mcmort',  and  prDttiH 
greatly  by  Ihe  (cachings  of  Gumanu,  Anoiiiiui,  sad 
TrelCBIin*,  Jr.— the  HrM-namnl  luving  the  gntieti  in- 
Kuence  over  his  mind.  Amuming  the  station  of  a  iai« 
in  the  I.nipea,  he  became  n«li-<t  for  hia  kern  and  bold 
defence  of  ihe  strictest  form  uf  Calvinisni.  In  1611  be 
became  pastor  at  Ulymen,  and  laUircd  among  tbe  Bt- 
m.in  CathuUc  population  of  that  ritlage  fur  tbe  cMriH 
sion  of  ProIMtantiam  with  great  success.  In  1617  be 
•ccepteil  a  caU  to  hi*  native  lown  of  Hensilen,  hia  lead- 
ing motive  being  a  desire  to  anlagioiiie  Kemoiwiniit- 
(sm,  which  wM  there  Hourishing.  He  preached  ei^ht 
Umea  in  each  week,  and  ofien  actnl  a*  reader  aiul  pre- 
centor to  his  congregations;  In  1618  he  was  ilrk^ifil 
tolheSynodoTDorvandwasiullucntial  in  shapiii;  ihe 
actions  and  results  of  that  body.  He  afierwanh  le- 
mained  at  Henaden,  but  extcndcil  Ihe  area  of  bis  \t\mn 
BO  u  to  make  his  influence  (eir  against  AminiaiiisD 
and  far  Ihe  support  of  the  Reformed  iheolngi-  in  other 
ciliea  also,  in  I0S4  he  wu  called  to  the  poat  of  pm- 
fennr  of  theology  and  Oriental  science  at  Utrecht;  awl 
to  this  be  addeil,  three  years  all«Twarda.  the  olSce  of 
pastor  In  tbe  Utrecht  cnngregalinn.   When  Ihe  Ultrchl 

lu  the  same  year  be  issued  a  work  ciiiillcd  Proof -J 


VOETItrS 

lie  Poa/er  ofGoJUarsi,  wh'icli  U  importint  u  ■  ehiriG 
tetixatioD  of  hii  teiiilciicy  to  intiat  upon  a  ciiiiHcnt«< 
!•<-.  u  Iha  iU£fUliiin  of  an  ortboiinx  failh.  'l^iin  len 
ucQcy  he  illiutnUHl  it!  liU  own  pervoii  by  the  fiJclil; 
wiUi  wbtch  he  performed  every  pastornl  duty.  'ITi 
uLatt  In  Uuecht  mi  which  he  lived  \itan  liii  name  l 
thia  day,  and  bia  ponrjil  it  lMn»nibl}'  |<laced  in  th 
x-»ip>ilioQ  of  Ilia  KTvicci  to  tb 


miniiy. 


n  wu  espedilly  n 
»u  auch  that  he 
;o  begin  1 


eKnnhy  as  a  achnlar.   Hii 
nne  ac  fuut  n'dwk  in  the 


lo  hia  academical  hearers,  or  lu  the  |i 
oua  booki.     He  gave  inBtnicliun,  public  and  private,  i 
H«br*Tr,  Arabic,  mil  Syriae,  ■>  well  an  (hcnIoEy,  ami  i 
Ibe  fiirty-two  years  of  hia  pniTewnrsliip  ([alhered  aboi 
him  >  circle  of  cultured  Trieiida  Hhkti  ineludeil  oiany 
or  the  (brenuMt  peiwna(;«  of  thR  time.     Ilia  Rrex 
biiinn  waa  the  achievement  of  the  overtlin)W  orArr 
■anism,  and  Ibis  influenced  hia  achalarly  characle 
veil  ss  hia  general  conduct.    Hia  ex^^ia  lackeil  inde- 
pendence, and  aimed  Icaa  at  the  dlacorery  nf  what 
Btiiucrs  religioui  truth  than  at  the  inventiun  nf  pi 
lotpcal  and  other  irgumenta  to  defend  the  Ihailnfpcil 
■TMem   he  preferred.     Hia  dogmatic*  wen 
with  th«  spirit  of  •cholaattctam.  and  were  e: 
a  "  barbaroua  artificial  lerminoloay"  (Thol 
/jbra  da  lilm  Jakii,  ii,  SIG)  and  an  iusulTerahly  dry 
■ml  dilTuW  atyle.     He  waa  ptedom 
the  ArJatol«lian  philoanphy,  a*  mndiHed  and  improved 
by  Christian  thought,  being  one  nf  hU  chief  iMpparls. 
He  hail  Do  aympalhy  itiih  Zwinglianiim  or  Melanc- 

was  ti>  hia  mind  an  Arian.  I'elagian,  Socinian,  and  acep- 
tic.  He  hated,  nilh  s  perfect  hatred,  every  person  who 
cnald  be  eren  aiupecteti  of  acalteriug  llio  aeed  of  doubt. 
He  was  a  Calriniat,  aim,  in  Ilia  conception  of  the  rela- 
tion ilutained  to  each  other  by  the  Church  ai|d  the 
State,  and  steadily  chimei)  fur  the  fornicr  the  right  lo 
^vrm  her  own  ii)nriliial  pimeMioni  atvd  appoint  her 
miniMcrs.  His  views  upon  this  qnealion  were  violent- 
ly aasatled  by  h.  iMimria,  of  London,  in  IGC8. 

As  a  ecmtrovenialiat.Voetius  waa  ("chement,  and  not 
careful  ai  rtapecra  the  choice  of  his  weapon!.  Hia 
wwriis  afford  abundant  evidence  that  he  believed,  in  a 
ixaciical  way,  that  the  end  hallowt  the  mcana.  Hit 
most  violent  catnpaign  waa  that  directed  against  the 
Cartestian  philosophy  in  the  persons,  at  Arsr,  of  the 
Utrecht  proTessora  Kenerins  and  Rhi^ua  (1039.43), but 
eventually  uf  Des  Cart«i  himMlfi  and  in  this  he  waa 
defealed  in  consequence  of  the  exposure  of  hia  duplicity 
in  perauadlng  hia  friend  Schnock,  profesaDr  at  Uroning- 
en,  ut  write  a  polemic  against  Catlesianism,  tnany  of 
whose  aUEemenlB  ha  shapeil  in  person,  and  then  denied 
tbat  be  waa  in  any  way  omnected  with  the  publi- 
ition  of  that  work.     Another  important  incident  in 


the  o 


.f  Voei 


(q.r.),  which  Inst  tu  theological  and  ecctexi 
acier  in  a  brief  tittle,  and  became  bitterly  poliiical  and 
penonal,  and  waa  not  even  terminated  liy  the  deceaec 
of  the  two  belligerenli.  The  partisans  of  the  Cocceiin 
Federal  iheolotcy  were  republicans  in  their  general  ten- 
dency, while  the  Vuetiana  were,  aa  ii  rule,  Orangeisla. 
The  last  decades  of  the  life  of  Vuetiua  were  at^ilaled  by 
a  contraveny  with  the  celebrated  ^rean  de  Labadie,  b^ 
gun  on  account  of  (he  separatist  trndency  of  the  latter. 
Serrial  wotka  of  attack  and  dc'cnce  were  issued  on 
eiihT  side;  but  peace  had  not  been  restored  when 
V.wiiu*  ilicd.  Nov.  I,  ]S:6.  He  lea  three  si.ns:  Paul, 
profeaant  uf  Jurii^mulence  at  Utrecht;  Unnhl.  pmfrsh 
or  of  phjloai^'iy!  N'icbnlaa,  pieaclier  at  Heusilen  and 
Utftcht;  and  a  grandson,  John,  pnifcsaur  uf  juriapru- 
dence  at  Herbom  and  then  at  Utrecht. 

With  all  the  faulta  at  his  ch:iracter,Voelius  was  an 
earnest  and  aincere  Christian,  siid  a  moit  devoted  ser- 
vant of  the  Church.  Few  men'have  in  any  age  cxer- 
eiaed  greaut  iuBiKOce  oi'er  the  Church  of  their  time 


)9  VOGEL 

and  country.  No  satisfactory  life  ofToctius  has  yet 
been  written)  but  comp.  GObel,  G^acA.  d.  cti-iiti.  /jbrvi 
(N  d.  ririn.-Kfttph.  emag.  Kirdit,  ii,  I ;  Burmao,  Truj. 
fiiW.  p.  use  SI).;  Tpey,  Cnct.  d:  cjir.  Krrk  in  dc  IM. 
AcHU',  viii,  1£2  sq.  The  most  uoiable  works  of  Voetius 
ace,  t'xtreil.  PiOalii  (Gorinch.  1044):— 5rZpct«  Ditpu- 
tall.  Tint.  (Traj,  lfi48,  5  vols.)  ■.—faHHc.  Ecdti.  (Am- 
slerd.  I»i3,  4  vols.)  —IHalrlit  dt  Tlitotoffi.i  (Ifi6«)  :— 
Erptnii  Jiiilioli.  AriAiea  am  Aagmtalo  (IGG7) : — Ex- 
trdlia  n  Biiliolh.  Sludioii  Tifohgia  (Lips.  lliGS  sq.). 
See,  in  addition,  £>■;«£>. //uf.-(J<aJ.ife/V9nui«'rrVwf. 
tl  Caritu  (Lodg.  Bat.  18GI } ;  and  Hem%,  Rral-ICiies- 

Vogel,  Davlct,  a  Lutheran  theologian  nf  Germonv, 
waBbuniSept.ia,ia;4,ltKeiiigsberK,Jnl'rus9ia.  H« 
studied  at  L^peic;  was  appuintol,  in  i7iS,aeoundciHirt- 
preacher  at  his  native  place,  anil  in  I'll  prufessoi  of 
theology  bcsiJeai  and  died  Hay  14,  I78G.  He  wrote, 
Oiipulxlio  dt  Frilo  KUIicUalu  Ckritti:  —Dt  Sliibula 
BtikU-krmilico:—Dt  Qamliomt;  m  Crtaiio  Jlaitdi  « 
/.amiae  A'lirum  DtHumUniri  Qutalf  etc  Sec  Arnold, 
lluloiit  der  tinigibergiK/ini  UnictrtilBl ;  Jiicher,  A  U- 
gtmti«rtGilehHr»-Lrxihm,t.v.     (a  P.) 

Vog«L  Georg  Jobatm  Iiodwlc;,  a  German  schol- 
ar, well  known  by  his  contributions  to  the  text  of  the 
Old  Test.,  waa  bom  March  IS,  1T13,  at  Feuchtwangen, 
and  died  FeU  Vi,  1T76,  at  Aldkirf.  Beaidea  editing  Ue- 
laud'a  Cimp.  Aniiquilafum  l/ebraorim  (Halle,  1769  J,  and 
L.  Capelli  Criliea  Sacra,  lict  de  I'oriU  qua  M  Sa- 
rrii  l''.7'.Uii'uatiranimf,etc(itnd.lT7S-T>l],  be  wrote 
DeCotUnBilJiorttiit  Iteirakorum  llclnHaditati  (Helm- 
Miiit,17e6):—De  Lucii  Qaibiadan  rnUaltaM  (ibiiL 
IT6G)! — A'sBi  LiHima  llrbran  Ditrt  m  Pauprr  Did 
iftnatar  <ilHd.  1766):  — /V.  ValaUi  AtumlaHiHin  in 
PnilmiUytuiJiuHit  Hug.  GrMii  Kalit,  ttt,  {ilAil  ilHi); 
—Ohurtaliosa  Criliea  ia  Varia*  gaatdam  LttfioRrt 
CmKrii  lltbnti  Script!  BiNiolifca  Acadaniea  llttiiul, 
(Halle.  17G6) :— Z)uii.  de  ftiilribtit  {.rcliumt  Libraiio- 
ram  olim  Ai-bilria  Brlidii  (ibiil.  1767') -.^Dia.  Jntcrip- 
lioaa  Pmlewraa,  Striiu  Adililat  I'i-lni  (ibid.  1767).  etc 
See  Fllrsl,AiM../inf.iii,484aq.,  Winer, /fnwJb'cA  i/rr 
rAroJ.  £if.i,93,l>1.9G,l37,IH;,W&,S07,2ll,!ia,  ii,8[8- 
SleinwhneJder,  BiU.  Haadbuih,  p.  144.  (B.  I>.) 
VoK«l,  Jobann  Jakob,  a  Protestant  theolnpan 
id  historian  of  Cermany,  was  bom  May  4,  lOfiO,  at 
■ipsic,  where  be  also  stuilied  and  waa  pronHUed  as 
mni^ister  artinm.  In  IGW  he  waa  called  as  deacon  to 
Tniicha,  and  in  1697  at  pastor  to  PanitBch,near  I^ipuc, 
where  bo  ilied,  July  16,  1729.  He  wrote,  /.rim  da 
pSpillkkn  Gmdtn-Prtdiiferi  odtr  AUau~Cramn-t  Joh. 
TtKfU  (Leips.1717}.  See  Winer,  flimdbach  der  lieoL 
IJl.i.'M,  JocheT.AIfyaariiKi  GeUir1eit-Leriiim,a.r. 
(RP.) 

Vogol,  Mattlueas,  a  Lutheran  iheotngian  of 
Germany,  was  born  .Sept.  7,  1619,  at  Nuremberg.  He 
stuilied  at  TlUitngcn  and  Wittenberg,  and  waa  called  in 
1544  as  pastnr  lo  LaufTen,  not  far  from  Nuremberg.  In 
1548  he  waa  appointed  deacon  at  St.  James's  iu  hia  na- 
tive place,  but  had  to  leave  it  in  I&49  on  account  of  hia 
opposition  In  the  formula  inttrimitlimr.  He  went  lo 
Wehlau,  where  belabored  for  tour  yeara,  and  in  1654  he 
was  called  as  cathedral  preacher  to  KOntgeberg,  occupy- 
ing also  from  1557  the  theological  chair.  The  Osian- 
drian  conlroveray  made  it  neressary  for  him  in  loW  to 
leave  the  realm  of  Prussia,  and  ha  went  into  Siiabb, 
was  pastor  at  Homberg  in  1668,  in  1669  pastor  and 
■uperintemlcnt  at  Geppingen,  and  in  1580  eounselloT 
and  abbot  at  Alpirspach.  He  died  Dec.  3, 1691.  He 
is  known  as  the  author  of  neiaurvi  Thmlngievi  rx 
Sola  Saera  Scripturn  Drpramplia.  See  Fischlin,  J/^ 
maiia  Thftingoram  Wirlmbtrgemiam,  ii.Vila  rraci- 
pannoa  CiinerUariaraai  tt  Froeancelliiriontm  Daealat 
Wii-leberi/iti !  Salig,  f/ittorir  dtr  aagrpuripidiai  Con- 
fiitioni  ilartknoch,  Prmmiche  Kirtktn-Hiilorie ;  Ar- 
■iidrl,  Hiilnrit  dtr  touvjAtigiKken  Vimtriilali  Jbcher, 
A  a-jeouitKt  Getehrlts-Ltxikor.  a.  v.     (E  P.) 


VOGEL  8 

Togel,  Paul  Joachim  Sisgrniind,  *  Proto- 

Unc  Ilieologian  of  OeriDiiiy,  wu  iMrn  Jan.  13,  1753,  at 
Nuremberj;.  For*  iiumbtr  of  jrfun  he  acted  u  tesch- 
er  in  bu  native  placc)  was  callol  la  Altdorf  in  1793  as 
dcKCOLi  and  pnifeamr  uf  theuln;;y;  and  in  1808  lie  was 
collol  10  Etloiigcn  ■■  duclnr  and  prarcssor  uf  thaolDKy, 
wbere  he  died,  April  18,  mi.  He  pul>li»lied,^H/faf« 
tkeoL  Matli  (Xureml).  and  Altdurf,  I79G-99,  3  rub.) : 
—Conuienlalio  de  Canom  Euifbiiino  (Erlang.  1809-1 1, 3 
fits.)  s—C'onmailalia  <lt  Apoail.  Joamtit  (iliiJ.  ISll-lli) : 
—Dt  ConjrclariB  U*a  it  CrUi  If.  T.;  eui  Adjnin  ft 
Brau  CoMOtntatio  de  IV Libra  Eidra  (Alularr,  1705) : 
— Utbtr  dit  Irtsltn  GrSmle  dtt  huhkU,  unJ  chriillicieH 
GUittbau  (Sulzhach,  1800) :— CaMmcitf.  de  Chivtologia 
A'.  T.  {ErUiig.  ISii,  S  pts.) !— Diatribe  de  Remrrediime 
Camu  {ilid.  1819,2  pta.):— t'(*er  die  Ho^mg  da 
WiedtTKhau  (Nuremb.  I9!li) -.-Uther  dai  rkOom- 
pkitthe  a.  dot  ChriMliiAe  in  drr  ckritU,  Mural  (Er- 
lang.  1823,  2  ptt.') :  —  Sfnodal -Vortriii/e  (Ma(-reiith, 
1B37),  See  Winer,  Hamlb.  drr  He,.L  IM.  i,  30,  77,  92, 
103,  363,  43a,  475,  4'7  ;  Ziichold,  AU.  Thti^.  ii,  139a. 
(B.P.) 

VogeliBiiB,  tlKiiiiticn  Jo3Erii,a  Romin  Catholic 
theologian  or  (iermatiy,  was  Iwm  in  1803.  From  1829 
he  was  connectfd  with  the  Universilv  of  Bonn,  where 
he  died  April  Ifi,  I86a  He  ia  the  author  of,  I^lr- 
t»ch  (far  chriilliehm  Sitlmlrirt  (Bonn,  1834-39,  S 
vol».)  -.—Fidn  A'iiwwi  de  Filio  Dei  Simctor.  Paltvm 
alpie  Dortomm,  ;«i  3  Fiimii  Saralit  Conlituta  Sumu. 
ia  Eixlft.  Flomenint,  Tritdit.  Cimfirmaln.  Diuninl. 
IliMnr.-llieol  (Odofnie,  18»>  '"  wnnMlion  with  Ach- 
terfeld,  Braun,  Dmate,  and  Schulz.  he  eiLiled  the  Zeii- 
tehr^flfiir  FhOoiophie  u.  kalhoL  Theoloffit  (ibi<L  1833- 
BS).  Stt  Winpr,  llinvlb.  der  ««*  IJI.  i,  14,  818,  597; 
IMtrnriKhtT  lliinilicfiter  JUr  dot  talAoL  IkuUcSlasd, 
1803,  p.  380.     (Rl'.) 

Togler,  Talkxtin  Hkinbicit,  a  Oernian  doctor 
and  profesKir  of  medicine,  who  wna  bom  at  HeliDilUill, 
Sept.  17, 1622,  and  died  Uarch  IS,  1677,  is  the  author 
tifCoiameiilariiii  de  Sebvt  Salaral^i  et  Mediae  ^arvm 
in  S.  S.  FU  Memia  (Heimst,  lG8i):-/*e  Rtligiom  Ja- 
daica  etJudaorum  Cosceriiime  (ili<1.  iESO)  ■■—Pii/iiiolo' 
gla  llittoria  Piiuiimie  Jeia  CliritiL  See  Joclier, 
A  l/gtmnna  Gelehrten-tjexiiiiB,  f.  V. .  Winer, /fifndb.  da- 
lAeoL  lAI.  \,  146;  FUnt,  BOL  Jud.  ill,  486.     (It.  1'.) 

Vogt,  Caki.  AfCPBT  TnAirooTT, «  Protestant  then- 
toilian  of  Uermanyiwaa  born  at  Wiltcnbei^,  Kay  15, 
1SU8,  For  a  number  ofyeara  he  occupied  the  piilfiil  uf 
Trinity  Church  at  Berlin.and  afterwarda  went  to  Urcira- 
walile,  where  he  diol,  Jan.  22,  lS69,aa  auperiiilendent, 
TnemtKir  of  coiiNStory,  and  doclar  and  pmfcuar  of  thr- 
ologr.  In  connection  with  Pelt  and  Rliein«-ald,  he 
Hilled  BmnSiiiiiUTii  Palrvl.  Collerlvm.  Adanll.  Cril., 
Farg.,  Hiitoritiiiqae  Inilmelum  (Berlin,  1829-33  [Cerm. 
tiflr,  Bnmilfl.  Bibliulkek,  ibl-l.]).  lie  published  A'm- 
plalonimnt  a.  Chiitlnilhum,  Valtitueliungen  abr  die 
Sthrifin  del  Ptmdo-Difni9tiat  Aitopitgila  (ibiil.  1B3S), 
Ree  Winer,  /laaJb.  der  Ihml,  IJI.  i,  878,  890^  Zuebuld, 
Bibl.  Tin-I.  ii,  13D6.     (It.  P.) 

Tolce.    See  Batii-koi.;  Votk. 

Tolce-tnbe  ia  a  tunnel  or  tut>e  placed  In  the  vails 
of  Che  choir,  by  which  meana  the  faithful  knceltni;  in 
the  nave  could  communicate  with  the  clcr^  seated  in 
the  church  atalla. 

Void  Benefloe  is  a  benefice  which  hao  becnme 
roid  by  the  death,  resignation,  or  dcpriTBiion  of  its  legal 
incumbent;  also  a  beneOce  which  is  vacant. 

Tolgllt,  Gottfried,  a  learned  Gennan,  was  bom 
in  Apiil,  l&U,  at  Dclitsch,  in  Mitnia,  and  was  the  son 
of  a  rich  merchant.  He  studied  at  Allenberg  and  Wit- 
tenberg, and  was  for  twenty-three  years  rector  of  the 
Scbool  of  Guitmw,  and  iflerwardB  of  that  ofSuJuh 
ac  Hamburg,  where  he  did,  July  7, 1682.  He  wroi 
numerous  works,  chiefly  on  sacred  science  and  aniiqui 
lies,  fur  which  aee  Ilocfer,  Aonr.  Biog.  Genii-ale,  t.  v. 


VOL AN  US 

Volgbt,  John  Itawls,  n  Lutheran  minislrr,  was 

ini  al  Mansdeld,  in  I'rusiian  Saxony,  Kov.  9,  1731. 

e  completed  hit  academical  and  tlieuli^ical  studies, 

ul  for  several  years  taught  in  the  Orphan  Houae  at 

Halle,  in  whicli  he  subHequenlly  became  iiiipector.    He 

is  ordained  at  Wemigemle,  and  shortly  after  cent  to 

iiidnn  anil  embarked  fur  l'hil*di.'l)ih in,  where  be  ar- 

red  April  1, 1764.     Alier  preaching  in  varioua  places 

[  a  few  weeks,  he  was  appiiinleil  by  the  president  of 

e  ayuod  to  lake  charge  uf  the  cougrcgalion  at  Gtt- 

■nluivn.    In  the  course  nfthe  year,  howeTer,  be  *aa 

regularlychoaen  pastor  ofGcrmaninwn  and  Barren  HilL 

About  the  cloac  of  tlie  year  17Go  he  became  paitnr  of 

the  churches  at  Trappe  aiul  New  Hanover,    tie  con- 

*  .0  reside  at  Trappe  for  many  yean,  and  tn  aiiu- 

Ihe  above-namcil  and  other  cimgreeations  but 

finally  settled  at  Vinccnl,  where  ho  spent  the  remainder 

'    life.     He  die<l  Dec  28,  1800,  and  was  buried  in 

)f  ihe  church  d.»ir,  wliere  a  marble  »lali  marks  his 

last  resting-place.    See  ^iraguc,iliaHfi(  (ffiie  Amu. 

Pui;n/,  ix,  41sq. 

Vol^  JoHANKKB,  B  German  pnifeaaor  ol  hislntr, 
raa  bom  Aug.  37, 1786,  at  Beiteiihausen,  iiear  Mi-io. 
ingen.  In  1813  he  commenceil  his  acailemical  taivrr 
at  KOnLinberg,  where  lie  died,  Sepl.  33,  IHIi4.  He 
wrote,  llUdfbrimd  all  Papit  fii-eifiruii  VII  md  trim 
ZeUaUtr  (2d  ed.  Weimar.  l»16};-CwiticVt  JVruarM 
Uifen/ange  der  llrmcknfi  dri  dtaluken  Ordnu 
(Konigiberg,  1827-39,  9  uila.  ):—llandb.  drr  Gridl. 
Pi-taarm  bU  im-  Itrfuntalion  (ibid.  1843  sq.  3  vols.); 
Gilt*,  dri  dtvlKkra  RUltrordna  (18o7-fifl,  3  v>ib.> 
See  Ulrrariteher  Jlandicriirr /Br  diit  InilhiL  DiVtiit- 
fi(iKf,18e4,p.ll8,  Zuchcd>l,fiiif.  7't«iJ:ii,1»9T.  (RPJ 
Tola,  Ructi  ni:,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  wai  laim  in 
Poitiers  in  1665,  and  entered  the  Order  nf  the  Carmd- 
ites  under  the  name  of  ThKuhir  nfSI.  Rrai,  bv  which 
he  is  chiefly  known.  Alter  fuiniling  the  chari^  ..f  cub- 
missmj'-apiHtolic  in  Englaml,  and  ihat  of  conmiaaaiy- 
general  of  the  Carmeliiea  in  France,  he  rebignnt  bb 
digniiies  to  give  himsiir  to  atiuly  and  devmiiin,  uuiil 
his  death,  which  occurred  at  Paris  in  1748.  He  left 
some  religions  pieces  nf  a  historical  ami  practical  cliarao 
r,  fur  which  see  the  Biograpkie  UmcerieUi,  t,  v, 
Volaenon,  Ci.Ai;nK  HEnttt  Fuaiiii  pk,  ■  French 
be,  wa*  bom  at  the  Caslle  iif  Vnisenon,  near  Ueluo, 
July  8, 1708.  He  was  eariy  <lestiued  fur  the  Chanb, 
and,  allliuugh  nf  a  wothlly  lempeiameni,  he  received 
unlera  in  eonseqitence  uf  feeble  heallh  and  aume  fsi- 
vale  misfununea.  In  1740  he  became  grand  vicar  of 
Boulogne,  and  on  the  death  uf  his  rebtive  Ihebislwpbt 
declinol  the  offer  uf  the  see,  but  accepted  ihe  abbaer 
of  Jard.  He  gave  himself  la  secuUr  literature,  etpetisl- 
ly  Ihe  drama,  and  died  It  ]>is  native  place,  Kuv.  22, 
I7a5.  leatiiig  imlhing  of  religioua  impurtaucc  Sea 
Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog.  Uiniralr,  *.  v. 

VoIbK^  .Ioskpii  UK,  a  learned  French  Hebnisl, 
was  bcini  A  H-mlranx.  about  ICIO,  of  an  ancient  gnd 
honoraUe  faiWy.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  [daced 
in  public  poniiVi  in  his  native  ciiy.  but  he  was  led  by 
his  taste  for  tti^'  to  embrace  the  rcclesiasiic  life,  snil 
was  ma.1calmon\  nfthe  prince  nf  Cnnti.  In  1660  he 
produced  a  French  tranHluiiun  of  Ihe  Kvmatt  Miaal, 
which,  although  i»Actl  luiiler  authority  of  Ihe  »i«r»- 
genera]  of  the  cliocrV  of  Paris,  was  liually  condemMd 
and  plaecd  in  the  lilfrr.  Voisin  cnnlinned,  nerenh- 
Icss,  to  defend  himsell^liulmi  the  death  nf  his  protMor 
he  retired  into  privacvflnil  died  in  1685.  Of  hiawritinp, 
we  umice  rAfv/Ano  ..Wcvnin  (Paris,  I047,4lo):-'{tt 
l-fgeDiriiia  (iliirl.  IGs\'<vo):— /V  JofrOira  (ibid.  I6&^ 
Svo)!—Commeitlariui  «  A'nr.  TrU.  (ibid.  IGoD,  3  i»K 
Bvo>,fpnmSt.Ai 

"ingropiie 
Tolanna,  AxiMtE.\l>  a   Polish  Pmtciiant  a 
He  lived  chi-fy  at  \Viliia,ih«re  he  w 


VOLITION 

Inr  of  the  BcfonnnI  Charch.  lie  acqairetl  great  celeb- 
rity liy  hi*  eontrorfniy  wiLh  the  Jmuiu,  by  whom  he 
Tu  utacknl  with  the  mutt  bitier  tiulcncc.  He  alio 
wrote  againM  the  Snciuisni.  anl  had  ilienlu^inl  iliapii- 
taliont  urith  ibe  Lutheniu,  in  which  hs  diiiilai'eil  grtM 
talent  itid  leirniiip  Hitobjectwutnuiiiterbe  Augut- 
tinian  ■nd  Brlvrliin  Foufmiiins  in  riiliml,  Init  la  thin 
he  hiinL  Me  pnblislieil  uumemua  cniitnirenial  work*, 
which  wece  popular  in  their  ihr,  ind  be  U  ilw  faror- 
■blv  knuwii  aa  a  polilieil  wriiiT  by  his  work  De  Uber. 
;  PoUlica  tu  CifiU  (CraiMW,  liSi).    He  died  at 


Wilr 


n  IGIO. 


Volltton  (Lat.  nolo, "  i 


will")  ii 


which  it  posMMea  over  any  part  uT  the  mai),  by  em- 
ploying it  in, or  withhuldini;  it  rnim,any  particular  ac- 
lioD.    SeeWiLU 

Volk  (qauf),  in  Iriih  mylhalogy.  Tbe  olvea  are 
named  the  quiet  penpW  by  the  Irbib,  and  ore  lupposcd 
to  he  rillen  angda  baniihcd  lu  Ihc  earth  fur  ibei 

u  deviJa. 
VtUkel,  JoiiA:iN,a  Soeinian  thenlnj^an 


It  Grimi 
laSi  joined  the  Soci 
Itniw,  and  died  ai  | 


^  Uudied  at  Willi-nberB,  ■> 


Ihe  eamposilion  i 


;>al  ri 


He 


been   r..t 


<if  the  Caitehiimiit  Ri 

waa  nupplemenlFil  bi 
.lulin  Crell  and  r"iblii>h«rat  Kakof,  lUiHI  (reprinted  ii 
KUretii  llgiira  SadMmatmi  Jirpugniau,  timn.  1651- 
bi).  See  Focli,  l>tr  Soenianumu,  (Kiel.184:):  T/if 
oktg.  V«iet>-1it-lrxihm,  (.v.;  Winer,  llandbuck  dti 
tkrslog.  LUenUur,  i,  308 ;  Biwjrapliia  UiaetrKUi,  a.  v, 
(HP.) 

Volkmar,  Gu»tav,  a  C-msn  doctor  end  prnfeHoi 
or ttaeolufr?-. wa>  bam  in  lt:u  it  Henfriid,  in  Kurheaae, 
aiid  died  in  Kli  at  Zurich,  aa  prufeMnr  of  U]il-T< 
exej^iL  He  iiubliahedf  li^tt  Ke^imjflium  AJiirriima, 
Tnt  tmd  Kiilit,  nul  Riirtiklil  tin/dii<  Eeangrlim  dn 
Miirtyrrri  JiuliH.  dtr  CUnttntiiu*  n.  dtr  apotloluchai 
ValtT  (L*ip«.  l8o2)!— /^  QatUnt  dtr  Ktlzn^ittAirlUt 
bit  tMK  \icdiuM  (Zurich,  1856)  -—Dit  Sti^ian  Ji 
(Leipa.  lail)  -.  —  Utbrr  dit  rSiiuicit  Kinhr,  ikrm  Ur- 
ipra,g  and  trUes  CmMial,  etc.  (Zurich,  ISoi)! 
Hrrfs  Unci  Ktra  uml  Jit  apuluilgpluchtn  Gtiaiaiiute 
Sbtriaupl  (ibid.  1858)  -.—llaadbuch  Jtr  KiJ-Uitmy  u  dU 
Ai-otrypien  (Tbb.  ItMT  — 
birns,  Jahamu  (Zurivli,  IttGil.  See  Zuchnl.i,  BM. 
Tiroi.  ii,l«tO:  Sttm,0iil.Jad.iii,ia6.     (B.  P.) 

VoUbottll,  JoitA:iM  Kaui,  a  PnCMtant  theolopt 
of  Germany,  wa*  b<>m  at  N'urdhauaen,  Nov.  34,  1T4S, 
and  died  Aug.i^,  i;9G,  u  doctor  of  theology 
inlendent  at  tiirhom.  He  pnblinheil,  Cnmn 
Mai.  ii,  16,  V'trtm  ttte  hfanliddii  Brilihliemi  ffittori- 
on.  am  Obilaiilt  Jmrpki  Siln^i 
cUd  mft  JVmt  iiiu  dnn  llrbr&itekm  ibtrttia  und  mU 
itwm  Annteriiiai/ot  (ibid.  I7g7) -.—Cainmnilalio  Tlit- 
o^StoJ-ecfflrtioo  da  S'lcnjicio  Fan-to  I/rbraara 
(iUid.lTHO):-W(  IS  Urimn  Prt^hflm  avfi  N, 
dt.t  lldirSudm  uUrtrlH,  etc  (ibid.  1783)  ■.—Krmnng 
d'l  Pnpittrn  Jlotta  (ibid.  l'i%l):—Dtaifi  aafi  Xaie 
iihmau  uadmif  Aivatrtiiagm,rtc.  (Hanover,  1788)  !— 
Priia  Liaea  nramaiuiica  //rinait,  etc.  (Li|«  1788): 
—Jtrtmiu  auf,  AVue  i>foi'«Fnf,elc(Zel]e,  I79S).  See 
Winer,  UamBmch  dtr  IhtoL  lAlrrolvr,  i,  293, 665,  69B, 
^•;VatU,Bai.jMd.  iii.  4HG;  Steinacbneider,  £ii^. 
U"idi<idt,p.]U.    CU-l'O 

TohWjr,     CoySTAXTlK      FltAif^IH     CllAOaEDII'.UI', 

CaiM  b/,  a  French  author  awl  atheist,  waa  bum  at 
Crwin.in  Aojau,Feb.3, 1757.  He  waa  educated  at  ihc 
'^llcga  of  Anceni*  and  Angers,  anil  aiurlicd  medicine 
f"'  i  time,  but  gave  up  the  idea  uT  |iri>reasi<jnal  life. 
After  tpending  aeveml  yean  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  be 


1  VOLTAIRE 

was  appointed  direetor-Reneral  of  agricnlture  and  com- 
meree  in  Coriica.  In  1789  he  wae  electeil  to  the  Statea- 
General,  and  in  1793  wai  imprinnned  by  KobeeiHerre  a> 
a  myaliai,  gainiug  Ilia  liberty  only  on  the  orerthrow  of 
that  officer,  July  27,  I7EH.  Soon  after  tb is  he  waa  ap- 
pointed profeaaur  nf  hiitory  in  Ihe  uewly  eatabliaheil 
Normal  SchnoL  Upon  the  Nippresaion  of  the  Normal 
School  in  ]79ii,  he  pn>ceedei1  tu  the  United  States,  where 
be  remained  until  1798.  On  bia  retuiu  to  t'nuice,  he 
was  elected  tn  a  seat  in  Ihn  Senate,  and  tubaequenlly 
received  Ihe  litlea  of  count  and  cmnmandant  oTthe  L^ 
giun  at  Honor.  He  waa  tnie  of  the  senators  who  voted 
in  favur  of  the  decree  for  tlie  depurition  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  paMOil  April  S,  1814;  and  on  June  4  fullow- 
ing  was  raised  to  Ihe  peerage  by  Louis  XVIIt.  He 
died  April  So,  1820.  H  ts  principal  worka  are,  Vonugt 
ffl  Esslf  ft  m  Sgrie  (1787,  3  vols.):— /^  Buiau,au 
JI/idilaHoHi  tar  ia  Sirolaliont  del  Emjiina  (1791  ),a 
work  which  has  often  been  reprinted  and  Irauslaled, 
and  cunlains  hia  drat  avowal  of  those  infldel  views  fur 
which  he  aftcnvarda  became  so  nuied : — La  /jii  !fatii- 
rrilt,  oa  Calichiimt  da  Ciloytn  FranfiiiA  (1793)  -.-llit- 
loirt  dt  Samiui,  Itamliur  da  Sacic  drt  Roit  (1819): 
—  and  Rrcktrchn  SoncttUt  lur  tllitoire  Anatmia 
(1814).    In  IB3U  hia  cumpleu  works  appeared  in  eight 

Tolo,  Ihe  Idtin  term  for  /  iciU,  an  ancient  Tespoose 
in  the  services  fur  ChriatiBii  bapiism  and  marriage. 

Toloer  (or  Volowrer),  a  term  aomeiimea  applied 
to  the  priest  who  admin'tatcred  baptism. 

Volowing,  a  term  applieil  to  the  ordinance  of 
baptism,  derived  from  the  leapouse  "rulu,"/  wiU,  used 


Volpato,  GiovAici,  a  diaiinituiahed  Italian  de- 
ai^ner  and  engraver,  was  born  at  Baatano  in  1738. 
He  Hrac  practiced  tapestry  embroidery,  having  learned 

aionally  practiced  engraving  without  any  n'f:ubT  inu ruc- 
tion, ami  the  success  of  hiseffutta  in  thia  line  induced 
him  to  adopt  engraving  aa  a  profesaion.  He  sellled  at 
Venice  and  entered  the  school  of  Itarlohizzi .  aficrwanis 
went  to  Home,  and  waa  employed  by  a  society  uf  dilet- 
tanti, wlw  undertook  tu  re-engrave  all  the  works  of  Ra- 
phael in  the  Vatican.  Volpato  engraved  on  a  large 
scale  seven  of  Ihe  (ireat  works  of  Haphael  In  the  alauie 
"  B  Veliian.     They  were  publisheil  both  in  colora 

ilatii,  and  form  a  splendid  anil  valuable  set  of  en- 
gravings. He  waa  empbiyed  by  Uarin  Hamilton  upon 
hia  Schala  llalica  I'idara,  and  piibliahed  many  prints 
after  the  celebratnl  Italian  maatcra,  among  which  are 
the  l-'iimett  Giitttry,  after  Annilinle  Caracci:  —  two 
Prophrli  and  two  Sibylt,  after  Michael  Angelo.  He 
died  at  Rumc  in  1803.  Among  the  very  nutiy  works 
of  his  hsnd  we  meiilton  only  the  following:  CArtat 
Pmyinff  on  lie  Jfounf,  after  Correcgio :— Mniy  Haff^ 
drd/Ht  III  the  Fett  "fChrin,  after  Paul  Veronese:— the 
itarrvigt  ofCmn,  after  Tintoretto;— and  Si,  I'tirr  De- 
UeertdJ'rom  I'riioa,  after  Raphael.  See  %Hioncr,  Biog. 
Hill,  af  Ihe  Fine  Ani,t.\. 

Volpl,  SmrANO,  an  Italian  painter,  floiiriahed  at 
Sienna  in  the  first  part  of  the  17th  cenlury.  He  ia  aup. 
posed  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Criato'fano  Casolani, 
executed  aome  frescos  from  the  dcsigiia  of  Cai«i- 

or  Ihe  churches  of  Sienna.  See  Spooner,  Bioj, 
Uitt.nflhe  Fine  .4rM,  a.T. 

VolsoeuB,  in  ancient  Ilaliaii  mythology,  was  a 

commander  in  the  army  uf  Tumua.    He  fought  againat 

ineas  nnd  killed  ^uryalu^  and  waa  slain  by  N'isus. 

Voltairei  Fiiancois  Maiiis  Aroukt  i>k,  a  nnleil 

French  anthnr  and  intidel,  waa  bum  at  Chnienav,  near 

Sccaiix,  Feb.  20, 1G9J.     He  waa  eilucated  at  the  Jesuit 

e  uf  I^Hiia-le-Grand.     In  1712  he  accompanied  Ihe 

Ilia  de  Chitteaniiour  tn  Holland,  but  the  rapoeure 


d  his  recall  to  1'aria.     Soon  after  this 


VOLTAIRE 


812    VOLUNTAKT  CONTROVERSr 


prUooed  u  tbe  alleged  luthor  or  lampoons  on  I.ouis  XI V, 
whkb  appeareil  iSiei  the  king's  deaih.     [n  ifae  Itasli' 
he  wrote  pact  or  bis  epic  tbe  ilrtawdr,  anil  cumpleb 
his  uag«dy  (Edipt;  on  reading  wbicb  (he  regent  re- 

■lier  Rohan  -  Chabot,  he  was  banished,  and  resided  in 
England  Tnim  liJS  to  1729,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  lord  Uulinsbnike  and  tbe  freethinkera.  On  re- 
tarninii;  lo  Fnnce  in  1T29,  he  found  bimwlf  idolized  by 
the  French,  and  entered  at  once  upon  a  brilliant  career 
lie  wrote  bis /^fni  nir /h  .1  i^if,  in  praiK  of  English 
inslilutinns.  In  Ibis  and  other  wurlis  wbicb  appeared 
about  thlt  time  iiis  ileiitkal  views  began  to  crop  out;  *i> 

publicly  burned.  He  only  escaped  atiest  by  retiring  to 
Cirey,  where  he  nude  his  borne  with  the  maichiotten 
Chatelet  until  her  death,  in  1J49.  In  1736  he  had  tu 
eacape  fur  a  time  to  Brussels,  on  accouni  at  the  scandal 
occisinned  by  his  Mondain.  He  viute<1  Frederick  the 
Oieat  in  1740.  and  again  in  1744  on  a  political  misuun. 
In  1760  be  again  went  to  Berlin,  where  Frederick  grant- 
ed blm  a  pension  of  twenty  thousand  francsi  and  stud- 
ied with  him  two  houn  a  day.  A  violent  rupture  at 
length  occurring  between  him  and  Fieilerick,  Voltaire 
Teauived  to  escape.  He  carried  some  of  tbe  king's  IJt- 
enry  work  wilh  him,  and  was  arrested  at  Frankfort  un- 
der clrcumsiancnurgreataaiHiyaiKeand  disgracei  but 
be  afterwards  renewed  his  correspondence  with  Freder- 
ick. In  17£>s  he  purchased  an  estate  near  Geneva,  but 
could  not  lire  agreeably  wilh  hi*  Swiss  neishbora.  In 
1T62  he  removed  lo  an  estate  at  Femey,  In  Frsnce,  near 
the  Swiss  bonier,  for  the  purpose  uT  easy  escape  from 
one  country  lo  the  other.  By  this  time  ho  bad  beanoe 
enormuutly  rich  through  his  slock  operatiun*  and  his 
books,  lie  lived  in  excellent  style,  and  was  very  lib- 
eral wilh  his  wealth.  He  hail  become,  in  a  certain  de- 
gree, the  founder  of  B  new  sect  of  ibiiikers  and  wrilera 
uf  ■  decidedly  atheistical  tendency,  although  Voltaire 
himself  was  a  iheisl,  and  rebuked  the  philosophy  which 
tried  to  banish  (iod  from  the  universe.  In  his  eighty- 
fourth  year  ho  viaited  Paris,  where  he  was  received 
with  all  tbe  honor  of  a  hero,  and  brought  nut  '.he  trag- 
edy of  Iiine  with  great  enthusiasm,  lie  was,  during 
'  ':,  taken  with  a  violent  hemorrhage 


ought  a 


h,  that  he  might  not  be  denied  ChriBlisn  buriaL 
He  signed  a  statement  that  he  would  die  in  the  Itoman 
Catholic  faith,  and  that  he  asked  pardon  of  God  aiiit 
thaChurch  fur  his  Bins.  He  recovered  from  this  aiisck, 
but  died  soon  after,  before  leaving  I'aris,  Uay  30, 1778. 
Voltaire  was  the  foremost  lilcraiy  man  of  bis  age. 
The  secret  of  his  success  lay  in  the  remarkable  spirit, 
vivacit.v,  and  grace  with  which  he  portrayed  llie  spirit 
of  his  age,  in  his  salirca,  tales,  and  other  short  ani- 
cles.  "  Knglish  writers  very  rarely  understand  Voltaire. 
Those  who  dislike  him  almost  invariably  denounce  him 
OS  a  wild  and  reckless  scoffer,  or  insist  upon  trying  him 
by  a  lofty  standard  of  political  philosophy,  and  passing 
heavy  sentence  on  him  accordingly.  The  truth  is  that 
Voltaire  was  no  philosopher  at  all,  and  was  naturally  as 
little  ijunlilied  for  such  a  part  ai  any  man  of  tiis  day. 
He  was  not  a  thinker.  He  was  a  man  of  certain  quick, 
impatient  instincts,  which  sometimes  le<l  him  right  and 
often  sent  him  wrong;  andendownl  with  the  most  won- 
derful and  unrivalled  weapon  of  wit  wherewith  lo  light 
for  any  cause  which,  on  the  spur  of  a  sudden  feeling,  he 
might  happen  lo  embrace."  "V'ciliaire  tvas  ihe  most 
formidable  enemy  the  Roman  priesthnid  has  ever  had 
since  the  Kcfurmation.  No  man,  since  Luther,  has 
shaken  more  pmfoundly  the  ecclesiaslicism  of  Kumpc. 
In  this  respect,  rather  than  b;  liberal  politicnl  dogmas, 
he  helped  eOecIively  la  bring  on  Ihe  great  Hevolulioii 
of  the  last  century.  Kousseau  was  Ihe  real  author  of 
its  dogmas,  bat  Voluire  is  the  arch-anticlericalist  of 
hisloiy.  In  the  literary  celebration  at  the  Giiirti,  Vol- 
laire'a  undeniable  services  to  the  cause  of  toletalion 
were  tbe  emphatic  theme.     Victor  Hugo  showed  his 


good  taste  aa  well  aa  good  sense  in  this  respMt.  AI 
Uhrisrian  men  may  well  acknowledge  lhi*,'ilmoM  the 
only  good  work  of  tbe  great  writer.  Tbe  I'ruiataiiti 
oT  France  uuiversally  acknowledge  it.  Tictor  flnp 
gave  ebiqueiitly  llic  ineiDonible  euni|des  of  the  I'alaa 
family,  and  i<(  Labarre.  He  might  liave  added  thai  uf 
the  Servien  family.  Voltaire  niaile  Eiin^  ring  wiik 
reports  of  these  cases,  till  the  euuns  uf  France  had  lo  le- 
bsbililate  tbe  viclims,  as  far  aa  posaible;  and  jraprrj 
reeled  under  his  penistenl  blows.  Tolemilon  in  Frasec. 
by  which  l*rol4'«iaiiii»m  has  become  a  |ian  of  Ihe  na- 
tional religion,  dates  really  fnim  his  labors.  Tltc  Jea- 
iiils  were  Bubswiuently  expolled.  and  Napoleon  gave  the 
llugiienola  a  legal  status.  A«de  from  this  good  woek, 
Voltaire  was  almost  totally  a  bad  man.  He  wu  a  lib- 
ertine; be  could  lie  without  scruple,  as  Carlyle  ebon 
in  the  life  of  the  greal  Frederick ;  and  uoUuDg  was  ue 
sacred  for  his  jest  and  sareasm." 

Among  Voltaire's  numerous  writings  are  aevFiwl  ti»g. 
edies  and  comedies;  Sikdt  dt  l-ouit  Xiy.-Siirlf  ik 
/.oaii  XV:  —  Hatoindt  Oiailn  X 1 1 :  ^  llitunrt  ob 
Riiinf:—ArnuilrtdtrEmpim—f/itlinrrdKFinlntr9l: 
—Philutophkr—Lii  hibit  tjydigvtf—in  whict  bis  at- 
tacks upon  Ch rial ianiry  are  expressed  without  ilecmrr; 
and  in  bis  references  to  the  philosophy  of  olhrra  he  is 
unjust  in  a  high  degree  -.—Diiiiommre  Flkiloirjiiiqar  .-_ 
Lra  Qu'itionfi  lur  In  MimdH — an  nlijeclion  in  nin- 
cles  founded  upon  the  constancy  of  natural  law.  His 
works  have  been  published  in  seven ly  volumes  bv  Lr- 
quien  (I>Bris,  1820)  ;  also  by  Louis  Barre  in  twemi  r.4- 
umea  (ibid.  lBD6-fi9).  See  Vit  de  l'o«ntrv,by  the'  mar- 
quis »r  Conclorcet;  .Slnnss,  VoJ^ini-r  (IK;2)t  Hnrirr, 
l'u'r»tiF(18TI):  and  Desnoireslerres,  I'abairt  if  la  St- 
dili  da  X  Vllltim  Sadt  (1H66-76.  B  vols.). 

Volteira,  FitAxcEsco  Dt,an  Italian  archiiect  i^ 
Ihe  IGih  erniury,  was  originally  a  carm  in  wood,  lau 
devoied  himself  to  architecture,  and,  among  other  nB- 
fice*,erectedtheChuKhc>rSanUiac<>modeglilucHal<ih 
at  Home,  tbt  Lancillniti  Palace,  and  Ihe  nave  of  ihs 
Church  della  Scala.  Thif  last  is  stately  in  appearairt, 
but  has  many  defects  in  the  details,  which  drinn 
greatly  from  the  beauty  of  the  edifice  and  ilie  fame  <>f 
the  arehiteel.  He  died  in  lf>88.  See  Spoooer,  £m 
//i«.o/<iSa/-««^r(s,a.». 

Toltnmna,  in  ancient  Italian  myifanlngT.  was  « 
goddess  of  Ihe  Etrurians,  whose  temple,  sjniateri  lie- 
tween  Ameria,Volsinii,  and  Falerii,  near  Ihe  *li|jtr,  via 
the  principal  gathering- [dace  for  that  people. 

Volume  (n>:^,  rsa.  xl,  7,  a  rvf^  as  elsewhere  m- 
dered ;  n^jf,  Hcb.  x,  7,  a  liapltr).    See  Bouc 

VolimiiinB  and  Volumiia,  in  Roman  DTtta^ 
ngy,  were  male  or  female  deilies  who  cauaed  gsvd  ^ 

Voluntary,  in  t./iiuii:ii  iniim,-.  ■■  m  msini 
piece  such  aa  is  usually  perCirmcd  un  ihe  oi^-vn 
beginning  or  ending  of  divine  service.  The  uaM 
probably  arose  from  the  fact  that  these  effusioas  wen 
gencraliy  extemporaneous  or  Tobnlary,  especially  with 
eo.mplished  organists,  or  were  their  own  selettioaa. 
be  term  is  applied  to  written  compoaiiioua  in  anyolyle 
aving  the  same  general  design. 
Volnntary  Aasoclatloiis  are  those  atwidatigM 

ilh,  or  independent  of,  the  Chureh  for  religiws  and 
Mfnevolent  purposes.  They  are  not  m/tiii-rd  by  ibe 
Scriptures,  but  are  sanctioiMil  by  Ibe  general  inior  of 
the  Won),  and  bare  been  abundantly  blened  in  lb* 
~  Ihe  Gospel  and  the  promotion  of  happiiNSi 
less.  Such  are  ralssimiary  aocieties.  yoaajt 
..- —  ^..risiian  assudations,  and  similar  orgaaixatiniBi. 
See  Socn^TV. 

Voluntary  Controreray  is  the  name  applini 
lo  an  animaled  controversy  which  commrncad  in  Sn'l- 
in...i  ;„  itwo  ....I  ,vas  carried  on  fw  several  y '^- 


•n  tbe  BUf^witen  ai 


VOLUNTARY  OFFERING        8 

Ikluiieiilii  of  religion.  The  discuMioB  originatfil  fmrn 
tbf  (HiLiUcuiDii  of  s  •ennon  by  Mr.  Andnvr  MiTnliill, 
isiuUCer  of  ihe  Cnited  Seofiniaii  Church  in  Kirkiiiiil- 
locti,  in  which  he  itumpteil  to  prove  that  n<li)(im»  e*- 
ubluhnwnu  are  unKripcural,  unjuM,  iinpolilic,  scguUt- 
iting  in   thait  tendencv,  iiwffli^icnl,  and  unnecesury. 

Ihe  public  minil.  It  rapiiily  pSMCil  lhraui;h  iieveni 
editiom,  ind,  mnre  enpeciaJlj  in  thij  Church  to  which 
the  author  iMlongnl,  it  wu  reganJc J  aa  i  miiM  vit(DrDu* 
■II J  effective  uuulc  upon  civil  Htnbliihineiili  at  rdifj- 
ion.  A  review  of  this  sennon,  however,  appeared  in  the 
KiliiJiur^k  Ckritliiui  /ntfructoi',  whicli  maintained  with 
great  abiliiy  the  cause  of  national  ai  against  voluntary 


The 


n  fur  I 


fen  Dr.  Manhall  an<l  hia  re- 
viewer, uniil  at  length  varioua  men  ufaljililyon  hotb 
■idea  entered  the  field,  and  the  iwint  in  difpule  uniler- 
irflit  >  mint  Matching  examinaiimi  in  all  ita  bcaringa. 
The  coiitrovenr  Giially  took  an  organized  furtn,  and 
a  Mciety  waa  furmed,  on  the  part  of  the  ilisaenters,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Vulunlary  Church  Aaaociation, 
whoae  commiuee  inued  a  perloilical  bearing  the  title 
nf  Ihe  I'l/Jaalarn  Chui-ck  Magazinr.  Another  aaaocia- 
lion  was  fumted,  nn  Ihe  pan  nf  the  national  Church, 
under  the  name  of  the  Aaaociatinii  fur  I'mmoting  tlie 
Intercsu  uf  [he  Church  of  Scotland,  aiut  a  psrimlical 
was  begun  under  the  title  of  the  C/iarc/i  nf  SaMlinid 
Mayaiitt.  A  treatiae  waa  publiihed  in  IS3B  by  Dr. 
Jidin  Inglia,  one  nf  Ihe  miniilera  of  Edinburgh,  Giitillol 
A  \~htdiailioii  of  EccUniutioil  EiUMUkmBiU.  After  a 
iihiin  interval,  a  volume  in  reply  to  the  I'wdtM/iun  ap- 
peared fn>m  the  pen  of  Dr.  ManlialU  See  Gardner, 
fiiitlu<'flkeWorlJ.\i,'ii\.     Sec  CiiUKCii  ASD  Statk; 

EBTABLUilMKNT;   VV 


Valnntary  Offering  ins^},  Exod.  xxxr,  29; 
lcrat,4;  v,  7),  afreegilt  (iii,fl;'Viii,  28;  Eseli.  xliv, 
:!):  chieflva  voluntary  aacti Bee  oppoaed  to  one  in  con- 
esuence  of  a  vow  (Lev.  xxii,  29),  metaphoticolly  (Paa. 
;si:i,  108).     See  TiiASK-oFFKnT^ii). 


Volniitaiyism  u 


e  fur  Ihe  principles  i 


a«|>aration  of  Church  and  Slate,  the  ceantii 
endiiwmenta  and  Slate  granu  fur  rcliginua  pnrpoaei, 
anil,  in  general,  of  all  interference,  patronage,  ur  exer- 
cise of  authority  on  the  part  of  the  civil  power  in  the 
relit^uoa  and  ectleaiaslical  affiaira  of  the  citizen.  The 
tenns  Vnlattiaryitn  and  ValuHltiry  have  been  in  uae 
riiice  the  dale  of  the  exciting  dlscuiNoiu  known  ai  Ihe 
Voluntary  Controveny  (q.r.)t  and  Ihey  aerve  b>  aog- 
gcM  the  fundamental  cuicepiion  which  undcrliea  Ihe 
creed  of  religion*  diaaent— that  all  true  worship,  or  ac- 
repcable  aen-ice  in  rcliginn,  mnM  be  the  free  expreaiun 
of  individual  minda;  and  tbat  religion  ought  to  be  left 
by  civil  aociety  to  mould  itaelf  «pontancon<ly,  without 
violence  to  individual  freedom  from  any  interpnailion 
of  secular  anthorily  or  compulaory  influence^  Volun- 
tary-ism aeck*  In  ileflne  more  accurately  the  limili  of 
civil  power  by  defining  more  adequately  than  preceding 
theories  have  done  the  latitude  due  to  the  movemenu 
of  religion.  Asaigning  Ihe  magiatrate  hii  proper  aphete, 
it  ia  equally  careful  to  aaaigii  the  Church  and  Ihe  indi- 
vidual their  appropriate  spherea  nf  reaponaibilily  and 


a  referc 
work  unchecked,  ii 


II  the  claimaof 
civil  anlcr.  Voliuitar^'iam  may  be  regarded  a>  Ihe  for- 
mula ofailvanecd  Pnilcatnnli!im,  the  conecled  doctrine 
of  Chnrch  and  State,  which  the  failure  of  Ihe  expcri- 
ment  ofTiilinnal  churchr*  haafi>ice<l  on  public  thought. 
It  ia  a  pmteatin  modem  language  againat  the  encroach- 
ment  of  the  temporal  imwer,  whether  under  the  name 
of  maglatnle,  nation,  or  pulilical  majority,  on  the  righia 
nf  iiulividuat  conacience.     See  Ciiuiicii  asd  State; 

EST.UI  LUHKEST. 

VolnplH,  in  Roman  mrihn1ogy,wailhc  goildeia  of 
pnn|>erit]r  and  lual.     She  hail  a  aauctiiary  at  Rome, 


Voltialan  waa  Cbe  aoa  of  the  Roman  emperor  Gal- 
lua,  upun  whoae  elevation  in  A.D.  261  he  waa  atyled 
Cittar  and  Priaorpi  Juvmtalit,  In  ibi  he  hpU  the  uf- 
licc  of  cunaul,  and  waa  invested  with  Ihe  title  of^vjnu- 


d  the  persecutions  again) 


e  Chrialiana,  which 


Vuluaiau  perisheil  with  hia  father  at  Interamna,  in  2i>3 
(or  254).  See  Musheim,  Hal.  oflht  ChvnA,  bk.  i.cent. 
tit,  pi.  i,  ch.  ii;'  Eiisebiua,  Eeda.  Hul.  lib.  vii,  eh,  i; 
Cyprian,  EjaUla  Ivii,  Iviii  \  Smith,  Okl.  of  Clou.  Biog. 

Voltupa  ia  the  oldeat  and  moat  interesUng  of  the 
EdiUa.  It  conuins  the  whole  system  of  Scandinavian 
mythology — the  Creatiini,  the  origin  of  man,  how  evil 
and  ileath  were  brought  into  the  world ;  anil  concludes 
by  a  prediction  of  the  dcatruction  and  renovation  of  the 
univeise,  and  a  description  of  the  future  abudea  uf  blisa 
and  misery.    See  Noksk  Hitholoot. 

Volnta  <Lat.  i»i/u(u)=lnmeii),  a  spiral  scroll  runn- 
ing the  principal  chatao- 

Volulea  arc  also  useil  on 
the  capitals  of  the  Corin- 
thian and  Cumpoaite  or-    , 
der^      Several   examplea   | 


Volutins,  in  Roman  Volute, 

mythology,  waa  a  nwiic 
giHhlcss  who  effected  iu  grain  the  ahooting-out  in 

Tolvlno  was  a  Milaneae  artist  of  Ihe  10th  century, 

who  produced  the  celebrated /uUuitro  iT  aio,  or  gold  pal- 
lium, for  the  Church  of  San  Ambrogio  at  Milan,  which 
Lanzi  aays  "may  be  pronounced,  in  potut  of  style,  equal 
lo  the  Hiieat  i^iecimcna  of  the  dillici,  or  amall  ivory  al- 
tar pieces,  that  th«  muaeums  of  sacred  art  can  afluixl." 
Sec  Lanzi,£(u>iu  Pillarica  Jdl'  llaHa  (Milan,  1824-25). 

Vcxirat,  Conrad.     See  Vonarius,  Condad. 

Voorst,  Johann  van,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  (iemiany,  waa  bom  at  Weaaelburg  in  1623.  Me  stud- 
ied at  Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  in  1663  rector  at 
Flenabui^.  In  IG6a  the  Rostock  University  made  him 
a  licentiato  nf  theology,  and  shortly  afterwanla  ho  waa 
called  to  Berlin  as  rector  of  the  Joachimathal  Uymna- 
aium.  In  1660  he  retugned  his  poaition,  and  became 
librarian  to  the  elector  of  llrandenhurg.  He  died  Aug. 
i,  IC'6.  He  wrote,  tHaeiialio  de  iMigua  Omnian 
Prima  (Flensburg,  liTbt-.Sipilagma  MitcrUaiieoriaii 
Aeiidemieoram  (Uoetock,  1G52)  : — De  Hebraiimu  A'on 
TftamnUi  Commmf.  (Leyden,  Iti6b):  —  De  fTolabai 
Corrtrliotium  Matarttiainim  Gmere  (ibid.  1678); — 
Dintribt  lU  Ad-igiU  X.  T.  ( tleilin,  1669),  etc  See 
Moller,  Cmbriii  IJilfTala ;  Winer,  nintdb.  dir  Ihrol.  LU. 
i,SO,  \ih,  129,912;  JOchcr,  AlbprmtiMt  GeUhrla-Lex. 
a.  v.;  Flint,  BiU.  Jad.  iii,  487;  Stcinacbncider,  BOi. 
Ifan^.a.v.     (a  P.) 

Voorst,  Wilhelm  HeUulcli  vax  i>KM,a  Dutch 
scbolar,  son  of  Cnnind.waa  bom  at  Steinfurt,  and  ac- 
companied hia  father  to  Holland,  where  he  shared  hia 
fortunes.  AOer  llie  aubeidence  of  the  disputes  between 
the  (lomarisis  and  the  Arminiana,  he  returned  lo  Hol- 
land, and  became  paatorofthe  Remonslronla  at  Leyden, 
where  he  occupied  himself  in  quiet  studies  until  his 
death,  about  1600.     He  tianslateil  sei-vral  Itabhtuical 

the  /x(i«(  n/  iliutt' (Ami.  1U3S;  Franek.  JC84,  4to). 
See  the  Biograpiit  Uaim-itUe,  s.  v. 

Vopb'si   (Ileb.  Vopkri',  ^DIl,  perh.   a^litimal 
[Gescn.]  or  rich  [Flint] ;  Sept.  iafii  v.  r.  'lafii:  Vnig, 
V'o/in),  the  father  of  Nahbi,  which  latter  was  the  aov 
appointed  bv  Moses  from  the  tribe  of  Naph' 
plorcCanaui<Numb.xiii,  14).    U.a«nt«I 


Voiagiaa.    Sea  Vabaooio. 

TorilongoB,  Guuelml-b,  ■  French  Domiiiicin  cC 

Lhc  l&[]i  Hiitun'.  nsa  olleil  la  Kumc  by  pope  Kiu  II 


e  Fni 

the  blond  of  Clirul.  He  »rute  a  Caiamnlar^  oa  lAt 
four  Bookt  ifSnlrMf  (X.ymt,  MM),  and  a  billccliun 
uT  puugea  frum  Ihe  Sntnai.  which  ire  n^tahiu  M«i- 
lui.  He  died  bC  Kinne  in  HM.  See  &[<«heim,  Hal. 
o/lkt  ChureA,  bk.  ill,  cent,  xr,  p(.  ii,  cb.  ii. 

Voria.  Cornelius  V.,  a  PreahrleriAii  minister,  woe 
bom  in  Swiizerbnd  Cuuiity,  Ind^  Mxrcii  14,  lt»7.  Af- 
UT  a  good  iddcmical  coune  i-t'sltuly,  he  entered  Heni>- 
ver  Cullcge,  where  he  gwluileil  in  1658.  He  aludied 
iheoloey  Bt  Princeton,  N.  J.  He  wu  licensed  by  Ihe 
Uadiauu  rresbyltry  in  A|iril.  tSOO,  but  wu  never  or- 
dained. He  preached  an  stated  aiipplv  in  Lexintclon, 
Ind.,  fur  more  ihan  ■  yeiir.  He  iticd  Aur.  4,  imZ 
SeeV!li»ou,rrtib.llal.Almmac,  I8C8,  pl£1o. 

TCTOnfkhln,  Amuuu  Nikopiioiiovitch,  a  Ru»- 


isanliy 


'  in  17C0.    He  wu  m 


ic  lalenu,  to  MoacnK, 
wbere  he  receivcil  iiutruciiMi  [rom  the  eminent  aielii' 
tecU  Bazlienot'  and  KbuIcot.  He  wm  then  leiit  to 
travel  with  count  Paul  Stmgiiinv,  aon  of  Alexander, 
with  whom  he  viailed  Suulheni  Uuisii,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland,  and  retided  tnmc  time  in  I'srix,  <vhcre  he 


nued  hi 


ililigi 


lumedloSl.Peleniburg, 
of  his  pattvn  won  brought  bim  into  notice  and  employ- 
ment. He  became  [irufeenor  in  Ihe  Academy  of  Ans, 
and  w«i  employed  in  1800  by  the  empcmr  Paul  as 
arehilect  of  the  magniAcent  cathtdnl  lo  >>«  built  in  the 
Nevahii  Prospcci,  and  dcilicaled  lo  Our  Lady  of  Kazan. 
The  edifice  was  completed  in  1816,  and  fi.im's  one  of  ihe 
flnest  architectural  wnrks  in  St.  Peler»biir(-.  Voroni- 
khin  also  erected  many  other  ediDce*,  public  and  prir.ite. 
He  died  in  1814.  S^  Spooncr,  M-g.  Hit.  -/lie  tint 
A  riM,  ■.  V. 

Vorae,  D.W„  n  SlMh«li>t  F-pisei^al  minister,  was 
bom  in  Smyrna,  K.  V„  July  IG,  1812.  He  experienceil 
teliRion  in  1830,  wai  licenseil  to  preach  in  18S7,  and  in 
1889wasTeceived  into  the  Erie  Ciinference  and  apgiiiini- 
«d  10  IlendeTwnvilie  Circuit.  In  IS40  be  was  Knt  to 
KcwCastle;  in  I»42.lr.Canibri<1ge;  in  1843,toM'Kean: 
in  IB4-I,  to  Napnli;  in  IBib-iK,lo  Gerrv;  in  I84T-4H, 
tDVoungiviUe;inlH9-5n,wasaupr»nuuateihinia^l, 
went  to  tiiraid ;  and  at  the  close  of  that  year  look  Ihe 
aupetannualed  reUlion,  which  botustaineil  till  Ihe  time 
of  his  death,  in  1869.  Zeal  and  fidelity  characterized 
the  minislrv  nf  Mr.  Vorse.  See  Mmuirt  of  Aimaiil 
Cimfermctt,  1860,  p.  S5I. 

Vorateimaiu,  Lucas,  ike  KUrr,  an  eminent 
Flemish  engraver,  was  bom  at  Antwrrti  about  1580. 
He  Unt  studied  ixinling  in  Ilie  schniil  of  Uubcns,  bill 
afterwards  devoted  liiinself  eniirely  to  engravinj;.  lie 
made  a  specialty  of  enKraviuc  plates  alter  Knbeiis,  un- 
der the  immediate  advice  nf  that  tnatler,  besiilei  tin 

lirely  with  the  graver,  and  cxprrss  with  great  lirlelity 
the  life  and  spirit  of  ihe  oritonal  painting.  He  risileil 
England  in  Ihe  reign  of  Charles  I,  where  be  resided 
tnrni  IES3  to  1G31,  atiit  was  cmplnred  by  the  king  and 
llie  earl  of  Arundel.  The  lime  of  his  dealh  is  nut 
knowr-  A  few  nf  his  ndijects  are  subjoineii :  TAr  FuS 
oflha  Ecil  Aigtla—lM  "ml  kU  Jhwffklrrt  Lranoii 
Sodum.—Job  Trmplnl  bg  hit  Wife  ami  T-rmnled  bg 
DtftotU! — Suxmnu  im-llke  KUett: — The  Xnririlg: — 
The  Adoration  nfihe  .'frrin  (regarded  as  one  of  Ihe  lines! 
productions  of  the  art);— rAe  Brlam  fi-nm  Aijjp*,  and 
Mveial  Dther^  all  after  Kubens :  —  TAe  lloiy  t'amOy, 
aflet  Raphael:— Tiie  Knltmbin-j  of  Chjvi.  after  Ihe 
same:— C*r»t'  Pmyitiii  in  Ihe  Giirihn,  after  Catacci:— 
Ciria  Hound  la  rht  /■ilinr,  after  ().  Seghers.  and  various 
others.    Six  Sfioaaer.  £iog.  IJiel.  of  Ihe  fint  A  111,  t.v. 


i  vos 

VorrtennuiB,  Zincas,  the  Totager,  ■  FVmhh 
engraver,  son  at  Ihe  preceding,  was  bom  at  Anlwerp 
about  ItiOe.  Although  he  had  the  advaDiage  of  hm 
father's  instruction,  he  was  not  equal  to  bim  in  skill 
Some  of  his  best  prints  are,  The  THniji,  after  Uubcm: 
— The  i'irffin  in  lie  I'lundi,  nrroW¥M  (y  A  ivrli,  after 
Vandyke:-and  The  Tiiun^  of  Ridtea,  olter  Hi4- 
beiii.     Sec  SjKwiicr,  biwj.  HiH.  of  the  fiia  A  rtt,  a.  v. 

VoraHaa  O'oonsT),  CoNBAD,  an  Anniniao  Ibcutx- 
giaii,  was  bom  July  19, 1669,Bt  Colc^tie,  of  parems  wt.D 
became  conrerta  I  fromlbeKomao  Catholic  tot  be  Phh- 
eslaul  failh.  He  was  educated  at  DUsseldorf  and  C->- 
logne,  but  eonld  not  obtain  the  academical  drgma  at  the 
latter  place  because  he  would  nut  suliscribe  the  Con(r~ 
sion  nf  Trent.  He  now  resolved  to  adnpt  a  iDercaniili 
career,  Uil,  after  two  yeara  (in  1589),  went  to  Hcrlam 
anil  lesumeil  liin  learned  studies.  He  wis  made  dDCt>« 
oflheiihigy  at  Heidelberg  in  1591,  and  in  I59G  accrptnl 
a  theidogicil  pmfessorship  at  Steinfurt,  after  having  di- 
elined  a  imsiiion  oflered  him  at  (ieneva  through  IJeis'i 
intervention  in  bis  favor.  At  SieinftiTt  he  so  disitD- 
gtiisheil  himself  as  a  leicherthal  calls  toother  aehoe!? 
were  repeatedly  adilressed  tu  him;  but  he  alao  began 
loenni  the  name  of  a  Sucinian  through  the  books  vhith 
lie  gave  lo  Ihe  wurUI,  and  even  found  it  nemHry  ia 
provehisonhoiKixy  at  Heidelberg  (1599).  The  Socin- 
ians  endeavored  to  win  him  lo  Ihcir  side  by  oOeriD; 
him  the  presidency  of  the  Lublin  gymnasium,  and  ait- 
sequcnlly  a  Iheolopcal  prDfes(oi%h>p,  but  wilboot  iw^ 
cess.  Ill  1GD5  Vorstius  became  preacher  and  cotiiiMn- 
rial  asecssnr  at  Steinfurt,  and  in  IGIO,  after  the  deatl. 
of  A^ninlu^  be  accepted  a  call  to  l.eyden.  He  ■■* 
preceded  ihiiher  by  his  tHtjiulaiiimti  X  cfr  Katwra  i 
.irrHifiruZVi  (1st  nl.SKunfun,  1601;  and  again  1<i1l> . 
and  was  at  once  viulenlly  assailed  by  Ihe  Conii^Ur. 
momlranti,  or  Gomarisls,  as  a  SDeitiian  and  archbere- 
tic,  because  of  Ihe  views  he  bail  set  fiTth  in  Ibat  west 
lespeciing  God,  his  altribnics,  ami  leFpceiing  Christ  and 
pi«destinalicin.  He  was  ehsrgnlwilh  deny  log  the  pnn 
spirituality  of  the  divine  nature,  and  ii's  aimfdidiy. 
eternity,  immutability,  bihI  omnipreseiioe ;  and  abo  tit 
Trinity,  the  personal  uniiHi  of  two  natures  in  Christ,  his 
ileily,  and  perfect  aalisfaclion  made  for  our  ain!^  Tbo 
Heuielbcrg  Iheologians  also  dedded  against  his  book. 
and  Ihe  Leyden  zeBlots  manigcd  lo  involve  eteu  kia,; 
James  I  of  t'ngland  in  Ihe  dispute,  Vuntius's  book  ws> 
publicly  bume<l  at  London, Ox fonl, and  Cambridge.asd 
the  king  wrote  out  a  list  of  errors  which  be  bad  (uum^ 
it  to  contain.  Vorstius  replied  lo  the  Heidclbcrgm  in 
Protn/tiiio  EpuloUca  amira  Thtot-sorua  /tnbO.,  etc. 
(Hag.lUlO)-.  and  to  the  liiug  in  CiliMrunxi  »•■  AfodM'i 
Rttpaiuio  ud  .4  rlialot  fuusJon  miper  tx  A  i^liu  Tratt- 
misNW  (Lngd.  1611).  The  Estates  were,bowcver,oUigiJ 
to  dismiss  him  rmm  his  pcsi,  and  lo  oblige  him  la  it- 
tiie  to  privacy  at  Tergow;  but  even  then  the  amaulit 
upon  liim  were  not  inlerrupted.  His  ptinci|vl  adver- 
saries were  J.  Ibigcrmann,  S.  Lubben  of  Fnneker,  U. 
Sladus  at  Amsterdam,  elc.  Vorstius  defended  himself 
l■ig^lroll^■ly  in  a  series  of  traelalcs,  until  Ihe  Svnod  uf 
t>urt(]GI9)  banished  him  from  the  counir}-  as'a  ben~ 
tic,  after  which  he  lired  in  concealment' tmlil  llj?l 
wticn  the  duke  of  HoUaein  aOimleil  a  refuge  to  Armin- 
Uns.  He  arrived  at  Tininingeu  July,  IGii,  Uit  dieil  n 
Ihe  fulhiwing  Sept.  39.  He  was  buriol  at  Friedrich- 
Bladi.  It  is  said  that  lie  wmte  nut  a  coufniioo  of  faitk 
a  sbnrt  tinte  before  his  death,  in  which  he  avowed  his 
adoptinu  of  the  Sncinisn  views.  See  Wslch,  //uf.  ■. 
Ikfd.  KSal.  in  J.  Rrlviii'itatlrriliglrilnt  (Jena,  1784),  iii, 
n(a  sq.;  (1730),  iv,  281 1  Schrdckli,  Chr.  Kirdmigrteh. 
•fit  rf.  Bfjbnmilion  (Uipr  1800),  p.  240  Bi|. :  and  tbe  lit- 
crature  there  cited llerzog,  Ardf-AntjUi^i.  s.  v. 

VortnmniiA,    See  VitirrtJii.NuSk 

Vos,  Arte,  an  F.nglish  O'ngregitional  raiasinnarT. 
was  bom  Nov.  20,  1770,  In  1805  he  became  the  agvni 
of  the  London  llissionarv  Society.  His  Dim  alativs;) 
were  Zak  River  and  Graai'Ueinel.    IdISII  he  ruDtnrd 


VOS  8] 

ro  Tulbigh,  ind  became  pouor  of  ■  church  nr«r  vbioh 
br  labored  Tor  cwent.T-five  yean.  He  Jied  June  14, 
1867.  Hr.  Vol  shoved  to  the  comniiiiiity  in  which  he 
lifcd  the  power  of  a  pure  ami  gotlly  life.  See  <LonJ.) 
Cimg.  Ytnr-baok,  1B68,  p.  BOO. 

V<M>  Mattin  de,  a  Fir misb  paiiilcr,  wa*  bnm  it 
Antwerp ^utlSSfl.  HeHntrcceiveiliiulnietion  rrum 
hi*  father,  and  llirn  in  llie  Kb'x'l  "f  Fraiicig  Fluri»  un- 
til be  wu  twenty-three  yean  iihltwhcn  be  irenl  to 
llaly  ami  ipeiit  temi  yean  at  Kume  Mudriug  the 
i|iei:lally  of  UapliaeL    He 


o  Veil 


iiig  fmm  Tinuireli's  wlm  ii  uid  to  bare  diacloeeil 
liiiD  all  the  aecreli  rclaiive  to  ooNiting  which  he  had 
cither  derived  from  Titian  "T  acqiiircil  by  III*  own  e:i- 
perience,  and  to  have  expliiiie<l  to  him  the  rule*  and 
I'liiicipleaon  which  hefiniudedhLi  own  practice.  While 
■I  V'ciiicc  he  acquirml  the  atCurculoriiigso  Ihoronglily 
lliat  he  wa>  emplnyed  l>v-  the  Meilici  to  paint  •cnral 
portraits,  and  alio  executed  Kvcral  hialoncal  work*  of 
great  merit.  After  an  abieiice  of  about  right  year^  he 
returned  to  Antwerp,  and  was  received  into  tlie  Acad- 
eniy  in  1&69.  lie  execiilnl  levenil  work*  fur  tlie 
churches,  which  e«talilisbe<l  hia  rcpiitat'tun  aa  one  of 
the  ablest  attiata  of  hi*  lime.  He  also  reeeirc<l  com- 
miniiin*  Tor  (HCturee  tn  odiirn  the  churches  of  other 
ciiiea  in  Ibe  Netherlaiu)*,  bc«i1es  numerou*  pattraita,  in 
which  branch  be  excelled.  His  pritMipal  wnrlts  at  Ant- 
wer|>  are,  lie  Marring  ofC'mn,  the  Incrrdaliis  n/SI. 
Tk  -mat,  Ikt  MiracU  «/  llie  Loam  and  Fitkn,  Iht 
Ttmptaliia  nf  St,  An/i/iry.in  the  ealbedral.  ami  llie 
Latt  Stpprr'.in  the  Church  of  Sl  James.  He  died  at 
Antwerp  in  16D4.  See  Spiioner,  Uhy.  UuW/llie  l-'vie 
A  rl;  a.  v. 

VOB.  Simon  do,  a  Flemish  palmer,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1603.  He  studied  under  Rubens,  ami  be- 
came an  eminent  painter  of  htatnri'  and  ponrsits.     lie 

nf  hia  works  in  ihe  churches  uf  Antwerp  have  frequeiit- 
Iv  been  mistaken  (or  the  works  of  Kubens.  Anwng 
Iheae  arc  Ihe  Knaneetvm,  in  the  cathedral i—TjU  Jte- 
tent  from  Ihe  C'«at,  in  the  Church  of  St.  .Andi 
and  SI.  S'vrbnt  Rrctimg  ike  Saenimtni,  jii  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Michael  He  was  very  diligent,  and  occupieil 
liimielf  coniinually  in  studying  everything  that  mtfiht 
pniinoie  hia  knowledge,  and  he  was  one  of  the  few  nhn 
tiHik  pmns  to  make  the  ilcepeat  researches  Into  the  trut 
princi|de<  of  his  art.  The  Ume  of  hi*  death  is  noi 
known,  although  it  must  have  oceiirreil  some  time  adci 
1062.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Ilul.«flke  Fine  A  t1$,  a.  v. 

Voa,  VrUlem  van,  a  Dutch  Anabaptist  pastor  al 
Amitcrdam.who  died  there  Juii.8,l82S,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-four  years,  waa  noted  for  his  skill  in  moral  plii- 
lusophy.  He  wrote  scrcral  prize  essays  on  kindreiJ 
aubjecta,  for  which  aee  Ihe  Bi-ig.  VnirrrtrUr,  s.  v, 

VosAD,  Chbistias  HKRitA!<!t.  ■  Rrnnan  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  li»m  in  1816  at  Cnkq:p» 
He  r««eived  holy  orders  in  1839,  and  from  18M  actei 
na  religioui  tnstniclor  of  tlie  Cathulic  O'llrge  at  0>- 
logne,  where  he  died  May  IS,  1871.  lie  ' 
of,  AnKesotfn  Liagaa  llrbr.  (Freibiny,  18l!0,  and  often 
ainn ) :  —  Kane  A  iittiiaiin  zam  Krlnum  drr  Mr. 
Sprache  (ibid.  1858,  and  often):— /)iu  Chritmikam 
die  XmeprBrhe  teiner  Crpnrr  IfiA  ed.  ibiil.  1870)  -^ntr 
KalkaBeitmui  and  die  Eiiuprllclie  erin/r  Gepiier  (id  cd. 
18e9>  See  Fnral,  BibLJud.  i>i,  481!  «q.;  /.ilTaiiirkfr 
llaodwtiter  flir  dai  taliol.  DtaltAloml,  1870,  p.  SJS 
sq.;  1871,  p. -iS9.    (K  R) 

Voaalua,  Oeiard,  theologian,  papal  pmthonoiary 
andproi'DstorTongeni,  a  comprebeiiaivcly  leamr<l  man 
in  the  (ireek  and  Latin  language*,  and  a  palristical 
scholar,  was  bom  about  the  middle  of  the  lAlh  cenlun-, 
Ihe  place  of  hia  birth  beinn  whoUv  unknown.  He  pub- 
lished ■  Latin  edition  of  Chiyaoali^'s  0<  iifi'uwi.-  an  ura- 
Iton  by  Tbeoiloret  on  benevolence,  in  Ureek  and  Ldtiii, 
•ceoopaiiicd  with  variuiu  readings  and  notes ;  the  works 


VOSSIUS 

and  life  of  Gregory  Thaomaturgua ;  the  writioga  of 
Ephnem(I689);  and  the /)«  Cimnrferuliow  of  St.  Ber- 
inl,  with  coramenlar>-  (1594).  He  akn  edited  Grila 
Monum.  Grrgorii  IX,  with  acholia  (15SG) ;  and  other 
IS  important  wtnliB,  as /Uetori'ea  Ailit  Melhiidiii,u\d 
arnmetl,  in  Sonmiiim  Sciiiinnii.  Just  befure  his  death 
:  iindertouk  an  edition  of  Ihe  works  of  Hi.  Leo,  whicli 
aa  not  complelaL  He  died  March  la,  1C09. 
Vosalno,  Gerard  Jan,  a  tbeolngian  who  ac- 
quired reputaliuii  as  a  laborer  in  the  Held*  of  Church 
bistory,  pliiloenphy,  phikdogy,  Keneral  hiatory,  and 
ehnuiulogy,  and  also  aa  a  cuniniversialiat  oppooeil  tu 
the  Itemuiistranis,  naa  the  ai>n  of  a  Dutch  preacher  liv- 
ing near  Heidelberg,  and  was  boni  in  1577.  His  edu- 
ion  was  obtained  at  Dirti  atHl  Leyden,  under  tjoma- 
i,TreIcalius,  etc  He  gradnatvd  in  philosophy,  and 
la9S  became  professor  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently 
tor  of  the  theolugical  college  at  Dori,  where  he  re- 
mained until  IGI4.  He  then  went  to  Leyden  in  a  sim- 
ilar cajMcity.  In  Ihe  Armlnian  dispute  Vossius  took 
side*  with  Ihe  Gomariati^  withont  being  a  rigid  adhe- 
rent of  their  views,  however.  The  action  of  the  Synod 
of  Don  hail  greatly  inteiiMtled  the  bitter  feeling  exist- 
ing  belireen  the  panieo,  and  (his  fact  became  so  un- 
pleasant to  him  that  he  resigneit  bis  portion  in  Ihe 
univenity.  Toretain  hisse^vice^lIlechurof  rhetoric 
anil  chruiioln{ry  was  assigneil  to  him,  but  on  the  condi- 
tion lliat  he  should  not  write  against  the  transacliuns 
cif  Don.  Soon  sncrwanla  he  published  bis  principal 
work,  entitled  HitlTia  tie  Confiorernu,  jnai  Pebigiat 
ejaigae  Rttiqna  MuceruRl.  Lib.  VII  (Udg.  Dot.  10l8),in 
which  he  brouglii  together  and  compared  with  each 
other  the  tenets  held  by  Pelagians  and  Semi-Pelagians, 
and  at  the  same  time  ahowed  that  Artninianitiii  iliiTereil 
from  Scmi-Felagianism,  and  that  the  atrict  theori'  of 
predeslinaltnn  was  nut  known  in  the  early  Church. 
The  Colli ra-Hemonalrants  thereupon  assailed  him  with 
great  violence.    In  the  Synoil  ul  Tergmiw  (ICiO)  they 

though  they  revokeil  that  decision  in  the  fulluwiug 
vear.  In  I<j24  the  offer  of  the  chair  id"  profane  history 
in  the  University  of  Cambndge  <vbs  exienile<l  to  Vi.a- 

1G£6.  Charles  1  made  him  acaiionorCanlerbury,wilU 
privilege  to  live  away  from  EnglaniU  The  dciirc  to 
make  lermi  with  his  opponents  led  Vossius  in  1G27  to 
publis)i  his  work  Dt  lliiloricit  Lalinii,  in  which  he 
slateil  that  he  accepteil  Augustine's  theory  of  prede>li- 
nation,  and  that  this  theory  was  known  to  the  aiH-ieni 
Clinrch;  and  in  which  he  distinctly  renouncetl  Serai- 
l'cbie''"'<'f-  "^  ^^  ceased,  however,  to  enjoy  his 
stay  Bi  Leyden,  and  in  1633  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
gvmnaaium  ofAmelerilam  at  professor  of  history.  He 
dieil  Uarch  19, 1G49.  His  works  include  a  lengthy  list 
of  disBettaiiona  on  chronological,  hialorical,  phijosophi- 
cal,  and  theological  aubjecta.  His  complete  works  were 
puldiahed  in  1701  at  Amsterdam.  Sec  i6i:\ieT,  AUgr- 
mtiaa  Get^iirH-fjxitan,  s.  v.,  wlicre  a  detailed  lial  of 
Ihe  wrilinga  of  ToeMua  is  given. — Henuc,  Real-Enrif 
a«p.t.v. 

VoMlna,  Isaac,  a  Dutch  acholar  and  theologian, 
Ihe  only  son  of  (leranl  Jan  Viisiiius,  irho  survival  him, 
was  bom  at  Leyden  in  1618^  He  was  educated  entirely 
bv  his  lather,  and  at  theageoflwentv-ooe  he  published 
ail  nlition  of  the  Periptiii  of  Scylax,  the  Ureek  gcog* 
rapher.  with  a  Latin  tranriation  and  uoira.  He  ihen 
iravelleil  Iliroii^li  Italy.  France,  ant)  Kngtand  fur  three 

KHpls  ..f  ancient  writers.  In  IC48  he  took  up  his  ai«>dc 
■t  thecixirtoTqueenChrinlinnorSweilent  hut  iu  lii-iH, 
in  coiiicqnenceofa  quarrel  with  SalmnsiiK  he  reiimied 
to  Holland.  In  1670  he  went  to  Knglniid,  where  he 
waa  made  a  doctor  nf  laws  by  the  Ciiivpn-ity  of  OxCn'. 
and  ill  1678  appointed  canon  of  Wiiirlaor  by  Cliarles  il, 
and  assigned  apBrtmoiils  in  the  Canlle.  He  dinl  there 
in  1G88.    It  is  recorded  thai  on  hia  dealb-bcd  be  ro- 


VOTA 


ftiKd  to  Cake  th<  ucnuncnt  until  out  of  bis  collogues 
argued  Ihst  be  oagbl  to  da  to  fot  the  lioanr  of  tlie 
chiptei.  He  wa>  sceptical  la  religion,  ami  it  i>  relMed 
thic  king  Charles  uid  at  him  on  one  occasion,  "This 
learned  divine  is  a  xrange  man;  he  will  believe  any- 
thing except  the  Bible."  His  literary  merits  are  great, 
though  bii  vorks  are  not  no  valuable  as  those  ot  bis 
father.  Among  his  most  impurtatit  tvorka  are,  iKiKr- 
lalioHt  on  the  SrctBli/  Inttrjirtleri,  and  fMr  Tramliilion 
irad  Chnmologf  (i&iS)i—Onlhf  Chmling  of  Pormi  and 
lit  PoKtr  of  fHglhm  CI673):>-/i  hook  of  fariom  Ob- 
in-ralumi!  bcuilesnumerouseditkins  of  the  elastics.  His 
brge  and  valuable  library  hbs  purchaseil  by  the  Uni- 
veiMty  of  Uy.len.     See  Foppeiis,  hiUiulktia  Bdgitat 

Vota  (or  Sola),  a  festival  of  ihc  ancient  Church, 
M'hk:h  fell  on  Jan.  4,  so  calleil  because  it  wv,  the  day 
of  sacrificing  fur  the  emperor's  ufely.  See  Bingham, 
Chrut.  Antiq.  bk.  xx,  cb.  i,  §  liL 

Tota.  The  Orientals  are  not  acctistomeil  to  fonnal 
ballots  OD  any  occssion,  and  the  Hehrena  do  mit  appear 
to  have  resnrteil  to  it  in  any  fgrio  unless  the  lot  (q.  v.) 
may  be  so  regsnled.  In  Komau  times  the  (ircek  cus- 
tom of  hand  -  showing  (jfiiporofiw,  "orilain")  gradu- 
ally came  into  ro)Cue,  and  hence  has  usually  prevailed 
in  the  Chriilian  Church.  In  Acts  xxvi,  lU  (A.  V. 
^^Toice")  the  Attic  method  of  public  decision  by  means 
of  a  fctniru  (^ij^c,  Kev.  ii,  17)  is  thought  to  be  al- 


e  ot  judgmmt.    See  I'al" 

M  OF  CLtQtiV. 


rmuB  persnnages  o\ 


•  ;  but  if  HJ 
ly  metaphorical  in  the 

Voting.    Sec  Ei.k 
Votlvo  TabloU 

live  tablets  dedicatol 
the  Deity,  in  commemi 
favorable  nature.  Their  use  passed  over  into  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  under  the  alleged  sanction  of  ExoiL  xvii, 
14;  pBa.c?(i.4,etc.  These  tablets  uere  dcugned  to  be 
memorials  of  thankN;ivi)ig,  and  they  wen  placed  iu 
churches,  cliapchs  and  other  sacred  localities.  They  arc 
mentioned  by  Theodore!  of  Cyrus  in  '  EXXtimtiv  Sfpo- 
jctvTi*^  irn^fiarw  liiqnnan.  XII  (ad  Cu<l.MSS.  Kec. 
Th.(iaislbnl,0xnn.ltl3e),i,a  The  gmwiuR  worship 
of  saints  and  relics  es  teniled  the  use  of  such  tablets,  arnl 
the  chapels  and  churches  to  which  pilgrimages  were 
made  were  specially  chosen  to  receive  thcni.  The  nse 
of  them  still  exists' in  the  Church  of  Home.  They  bear 
the  words  ex  rolo,  and  usually  represent  a  picture  in 
which  one  or  more  persons  appvac  in  Ihc  posture  of 
prayer.and  sometimes  the  occaiiun  ii  Bhon-n  wlien  help 
was  obtained  or  prayer  was  answered,  [n  Oie  I'rotcs. 
tant  churches  of  Gumpe  memorial  tablets,  usually  in 
honor  of  deceaseil  minislers  who  Ber*ed  llie  particular 
congregation  which  thusscckii  to  peipelualc  their  mem- 
ory, are  sometimei  fuuniL  They  are  of  atone  or  metal, 
and  bear  upon  their  surface  a  dencription  of  Ihc  life  and 
f^rvices,  usually  in  Latin,  of  him  lo  whom  the  tablet  is 
dedicated.  Sometimes,  too,  they  are  in  the  form  of  a 
Maine  of  the  persou  so  commemorated.  Sec  Herzog, 
Real-Enfyklop.  s.  v. 

Votom.    See  VoTivn  Tadlets. 

Vo<iet,  Simon,  an  eminent  I'rench  painter,  was  bom 
at  Paris  in  ioK-l.  He  receivol  ini'iruciioii  from  hit  fa- 
ther, and  made  such  rapid  advances  in  the  art  that  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  cominisaioncil  lo  visit  Eng- 
land lor  the  purpose  of  paiuling  Ihc  portrait  ofa  French 
nobleman  then  residing  in  Londiii.  Several  years  af- 
ter, baron  de  Soucy,  French  ambanador  lo  tlie  I'nrte, 
took  him  lo  Conslaiil  inopic,  where  lie  painted  an  excel- 
lent portrait  of  the  tulian  from  memory,  after  seeing 


Rained  bim  the  palronage 
CouBtantinople  he  »ent.l 
of  Paul  Veronese,  and  ib< 
he  adopted  the  style  of  Ce 


of  til 


19  perfo 


,    Fro 


I  llome  in  tGI3,  n 


6  VOW 

by  pope  0rbaD  Tin  atid  his  nephew,  the  '■*"l'"*^,  lo 
paint  several  pictures  for  St.  Peter's  and  tbe  raUiV' 
Baibetini,  which  are  said  lo  be  among  his  beat  tiuttft 
He  was  also  employed  by  Louii  X  ill  of  France  and 
prince  Doria  of  lieiioa,  and  on  reluming  lo  Borne  in 
IBH  was  choaeii  president  of  Ihc  Acailemy  of  St.  Lake. 
In  1G37  be  returned  lo  I'aiit  by  invitaliou  ofthe  king, 
and  was  appoinlcd  his  principal  paiiilcr,  vitb  apart- 

commissions — so  numerous,  indeed,  that  he  was  obliged 
to  iniiust  the  execution  of  the  greater  part  l«  bis  scbol- 
ars.  He  painted  ceilings,  gallcrie^  aliar-piecB,  smiU 
religious  aul:jectt,and  other  eawl  iiivtures,  and  podraiii 
in  oil  and  in  crai'on.  The  multi|ilidiy  of  his  tofgt- 
menu  induced  Vouet  to  abandon  the  careful  and  vignr- 
ous  style  which  he  followed  in  [laly  ami  during  ihc 
flnt  part  of  his  resilience  in  France;  bnt  be  nerenbe- 
less  greatly  impmvc<l  the  French  srhool.  and  he  is  mid 
by  French  hiilorians  lo  have  done  as  miicb  for  painting 
III  France  as  Conieille  did  Ibr  the  drama.  Among  his 
principal  works  in  Paris  are  Ike  Aumnjitiim  oflAr  fiiyiM, 
in  Ihc  Church  of  Sl.NicDlasdes  Champs;  and  rts  J/nr- 
lyrduia  o/Sl.Agnn,\«  ihe  Church  of  St.  Kimlache.  An 
etching  by  Viiuet  of  the //o^  fVinii/gi,  daleit  I63a.isali* 
menlioned.  He  was  fullowed  by  a  uuniher  of  iUsci|Jea. 
who  exened  a  funlier  influence  upon  the  taste  of  tbt 
French  school.  Hedied  at  I'aris  in  IMl.  See  Spouun, 
Hing.  Hill,  of  flu  Flnt  Arit,*.  V. 

Toalllamont,  Sesahtiun,  a  French  engraver,  via 
boni  at  Har-sur-Aube  aboui  1S20.  He  niidieil  at  I'srii 
under  Daniel  Uabel,and  Ihen  went  lo  Home,  where  he 
resided  several  years.  Heeiigrared  several  plaiea  fm 
the  llalian  and  French  masters,  aa  well  as  ftuin  his  owa 
designs.  Among  Ihe  best  of  Ihese  an  ihe  foUoviig: 
The  Murder  of  tlie  fiameenli :— drill  leilt  Ait  Datifit 
at  Eiamaut .— .VoviU  Panaaut,  all  after  Haphaeh—  Tk 
llolg  Faailg,  after  Pouasin ;  —  TAe  I'li^  attd  hfat 
aiur,  after  Parmigisno:— and  Tke  Morrvige  -f  SI. 
Ciilhtiiiit,  after  Albano.  Sec  Spooner,  biog.  Iliil.  oflU 
Fiite  Ant.».x. 


Vontsolrs. 


termed  the  springing- 
slvnc,  Of  s^iriif^r.— Par- 
ker, lilim.  of  A  rtkilea. 

Ibuod  iu  Eng- 


Voiuanre,  a  French  lei 
glish  msnuBCiipis,tigiiiryin 

Vow  {"HI,  neiltr,  a  technical  wnni  for  Ihc  idea; 
(iX^,  a  prayer,  as  somclimcs  reudereil)  defined  as  a  re- 
ligiiHis  nndenaking,  either,  1.  Positive,  lo  do  or  pctform ; 
or,  '1.  Negative,  In  abstaui  from  doing  ot  iierfnimiiig  a 
certain  thing.  Vows  icsc  on  a  human  view  of  religious 
obligal  ions,  assuming,  as  they  do,  that  a  kind  of  rccom- 
l^ensc  is  Ui  be  made  lo  God  for  good  enjoyed,  or  consid- 
cration  offered  for  good  ilesiderateil,  or  a  graluity  pre- 
seiiled  10  buy  off  an  impending  or  threalened  iU.  They 
were  quite  in  place  in  a  system  of  religion  which  » 
largely  consisted  of  doing  or  not  doing  cenaiii  outward 
actis  with  a  view  of  pleating  Jehorali  and  gaining  hit 
bvor.  The  Israciilcttlio  had  been  laughl  by  perfutm- 
ances  of  daily  recurrence  to  amaider  particular  ceremo- 
nies aa  essential  lo  hia  powesaing  the  divine  favor,  may 
easily  have  been  led  lo  the  conviction  which  existed 
probably  in  Ibc  primitive  agei  of  ihcRorkt.thatvolun- 
larj- oblalioiia  and  self-imposcil  sicrificci  had  a  qieciat 


vow  8 

viae  In  the  light  orfloii.  When  one*  this  conviclioD 
lud  led  to  cotretponiling  prmctice,  it  coulil  not  be  other- 
wi>p  than  of  the  highcat  comequeDce  that  Ihete  Hcrcd 
pTDmues,  whieh  iu  mnctlty  differeU  Utile  frum  oiiIib, 
■boiild  be  religiouily  uid  (crupuloiuly  oheeived.  Be- 
fore >  vow  a  Ukea  there  may  ba  iilroiig  reuoiin  whv  ' 
(houlil  nut  be  made;  but  when  it  19  onre  anuined, 
new  obligation  is  contracted,  which  has  the  greali 
force  becauM  of  it«  Tolniiiaiy  nauiiei  ■  new  element 
■ni  rod  Deed,  whicb  atrongly  requires  the  observance  of 
the  vow,  if  Ibe  bonds  of  moraliLy  are  nut  to  be  seri 
relaxed.  For  example,  a  person  may  be  of  opinior 
total  abstinence  is  in  itself  not  ■  virtue  nor  of  g< 
obligstioD,  but  be  cannot  doubt  that  "bieaking  the 
pled}^"  when  once  taken,  is  an  act  of  iminoraliiy  that 
caanot  be  repealed  vithout  undermining  the  very  foun- 
dations of  character;  whence  it  obviously  appears  that 
caution  shfiuldbe  observed,  nut  only  in  keeping,  but  also 
in  leading  men  to  make,  pledges,  i-ows,  anil  piomiseN 

The  praelice  of  making  vows,  L  e.  incurring  volun 
tary  obligations  to  the  Deity,  on  fitlHlment  of  cerlaii 
couditioiis,  auch  as  delirerance  fmm  death  or  danger 
success  in  enterprises,  and  the  like,  is  uf  extremely  an 
cieut  itatc,  snd  oomruon  in  all  systems  nf  religion.  The 
earliest  menlion  of  a  row  is  that  of  Jacob,  who,  after 
hii  vision  at  Beth-el,  promised  that  in  Case  of  his  f  ' 
return  he  would  dedicate  to  Jehovah  the  tenth  of 
gnods,  and  make  the  place  in  which  he  had  art  up 
memorial  stone  a  pUce  of  worship  (Gen.  x.tviil,  lS-32; 
XXXI,  13).  VowB  in  general  are  also  mentioned  ii 
Book  of  Job  (xxii,37).  With  great  propriety  the  per- 
furmaiice  of  these  vidnntaiy  undertakings  was  account- 
ed by  the  Hebrew*  a  highly  religious  duty  (Judg.  xi, 
3a:  Eccles.  v,4,&).  The  words  of  the  last'text  are  loo 
emphatic,  and  in  (he  present  ilay  loo  imporlant,  not  to 
'  ' :  that  thou  shouldesC  not  vow, 
rand  not  pay"  (comp.Ps«. 


Es  of  heathen  usage  in  this  respect  t) 
■      ■     ■    ■        liv,  25, ,     ■  ■ 


./li,  01,98;  vi,93,308;  OJ^tt.  iii, 
382;  Xenoph.  .Ii«li.in,2,12;  Vl^il, Ccoi^. i,  13G ;  ^'ri. 
v,33i-.  Uorace,CariB.i,6,l3;  iii, 89,59;  livy,xxii,9, 
10;  Cicem,  Jff.  viii,  16;  Justiii,x!it,3— a  passage  which 
■lieaks  of  immoral  vows;  Veil.  Pat.  ii,  48. 

L  Jaeiih  I'ort. — I'he  law,  therefore,  did  not  intro- 
duce, but  regulated  the  practice  of  vows.  The  views 
which  guided  Ibe  Mosaic  legislation  were  not  dissimi- 
lar to  iboac  Just  expounded.  Like  a  wise  lawgiver, 
Huscs,  ill  this  an>l  other  particulars,  ilid  not  attempt  to 
sunder  the  line  of  continuity  between  the  pait  and  the 
present.  He  found  vows  in  practice;  he  aimed  to  reg. 
utaie  what  it  would  hare  been  fully  to  try  to  root  oiil 
(Deiii.  zxiii,  21  sq.).  The  words  in  ver.  'ti  arc  clearly 
in  agreement  with  our  remarks:  "tf  thou  shalt  forbear 
to  vow,  it  shall  be  no  sin  in  thee"  (see  J  «,  FitA  Srr. 
July,  IH07).  The  DiUe  speaks  of  three  kinds  of  vows, 
fur  each  of  which  the  Ueb.  has  a  distinctive  term : 
namely,  vows  of  devorwa  in  general  (l'l3,n«/cr,  prop- 
erty so  called) ;  von  (^  tOitiiiBHX  (nDN,  aar,  or  IStt, 
iBiJr,Numb.xxK,aaq.);  and  Uiose  af<Jc<fnirt>i»i(B'^n, 
eJ^rtm,  nva9i/ui).  In  the  present  article  we  conHne 
our  attention  to  vows  ofthetintclassonlyirefeninglhc 
other  two  clasaa  Iu  Cobbax  and  ANATiiEitA.  (In  Ibe 
Irealmentof  tbispattaftbe  topic  we  chietly  follow  the 
abstract  of  tha  Levitieal  statutes  found  in  Smith,  t,  r.) 

(L>  .\s  to  vows  of  the  firit  class  (nsdcr),  the  fullowing 
rules  are  laid  down  in  the  Jewish  law:  A  man  might 
devote  to  sacred  uses  possessions  of  persons,  but  not  the 
flrst-b^n  either  of  man  or  beast,  which  was  devoted  nl- 
fewly  (Lev.  xxvii,36).    See  FtnsT-uoux. 

1.  If  he  vowed  fuiH^  he  might  either  redeem  it  or  not. 
If  he  intended  to  redeem,  two  points  were  to  be  consiJ- 
(reil — (I)  the  rate  of  redemption ;  (3)  the  distance,  pr>>- 
tpeetively  and  retrotpeclively,  from  the  year  of  jubilee, 
Tlie  price  of  redemption  was  fixed  at  fifty  shekels  of  | 


7  TOW 

silver  fur  the  quantitv  of  land  which  a  homer  of  tuitj 
(eight  bushels)  would  suffice  to  sow  (Lev.  ixvi<.  IS; 
see  Knobel  ail  ioc).  This  payment  might  be  atiated 
under  the  direction  of  the  priest  acooriiing  to  il.t  di*- 
lance  of  time  from  the  jubilee  yi  -       -     . 


tmed,  hi 


estimated  r 


nftii  (Iwe 
If  he  sold  the  Uml  in  tlie  mcan- 
ight  not  then  be  redeeiseil  at  all,  but  was 
to  go  to  the  priests  in  the  Jubilee  year  (ver.  20).    Sea 

The  purchaser  nf  land,  in  case  be  devoted  and  alss 
wished  to  redeem  il.was  required  to  pay  a  redenptiwi- 
price  according  to  the  prieally  valuation  first  mentiinied, 
bat  without  the  additional  flAh.  In  this  case,  however, 
the  land  was  to  revert  in  the  jutalee  to  its  original  own- 
er (Uv.  xxvii,  16,24;  xxv,27;  S.tH,l/rtr.Arch.%a6, 

ao). 

The  valuation  here  laid  down  ia  eriilenlly  based  on 
the  notion  of  annual  value.    Siipposiiig  laiiU  to  require 

for  seed  about  three  bushels  of  barley  per  acre,  tlie  ho- 
mer, at  the  rale  of  ihirty-tno  pecks,  or  eight  bushels, 
would  be  sntBcient  for  about  two  and  a  half  or  three 
acres.  Fifty  shekels,  twenry-Gvo  oniicea  of  Mlver,  at 
five  shillings  tbs  ounce,  would  give  ^C  fii.t  and  the 
yearly  valuation  would  thus  amount  to  about  £2  pet 

The  owner  who  wished  10  redeem  wouhl  thus  be  re- 
quired to  pay  either  an  annual  rent  or  a  redeaiptini>- 
ptice  answering  to  the  number  of  years  short  nf  Iha 
jubilee,  but  deducting  aabbatical  years  (Lev.  xxv,  3, 15, 
IC),  and  adding  a  fifth,  or  twenty  per  cent.,  in  eiiher 
case.    Thus,  if  a  man  dernleil  au  acre  of  laml  in  lha 
jubilee  year,  and  redeemed  it  in  the  aitme  year,  he 
luld  pays  reilemption-priceiif 49— 0=48  vears' value, 
20  per  ceuU^£103  ii„  nr  an  annual  rent  ct£iSt.; 
ate  by  no  means  excessive  when  we  consider— (I)  the 
prospect  of  restontion  in  the  jubilee;  (i)  the  iindoubt* 
'.  fertility  of  the  soil,  which  even  now,  utuler  all  disari< 
intages,  sometimes  yiekls  a  hundredliild  (Durckbardi, 
S!,.i„.v.iST). 

redeem,  either  the 
next  of  kin  (lioel)  came  forward,  as  he  had  liberty  to 
do,  or,  if  no  redemption  was  effct^lcd,  Ihe  land  became 
the  property  of  the  priests  (Lev.  xxv,  26;  xxvii,  21, 
Ruth  iii,  12;  iv,I,ctc.). 
Iti  Ihe  case  of  a  hniue  devoted,  irrespective  of  the 
nd  it  occupied,  its  value  was  to  be  assessed  by  the- 
iest,  and  a  flftb  addeil  to  the  redemptinii-pricc  in  com 
was  reileemed  (Lev,  xxvii,  16).    Whether  the  nile 
held  good  legarding  houses  In  wotleil  cities,  viz.  ihat 
the  liberty  of  reilemption  lasted  only  for  one  year,  is 
lot  certain ;  but  as  it  does  not  appear  that  bouses  de- 
nted but  not  redcenieil  became  Ihe  property  of  the 
itiest^  and  as  the  Levites  and  priests  had  special 
owns  assigned  lo  them,  it  seems  likely  Ihat  the  price 
inly  of  the  house,  and  not  the  house  itself,  was  made 
iver  to  aocrcd  uses,  and  thus  that  Ihe  act  of  coiisecra- 
ion  of  a  house  mean^  in  fact,  the  consecration  of  its 
fttlue.     The  Mishna,  however,  says  that  if  a  devoid 
house  fell  down,  the  owner  was  tint  liable  to  payment, 

house  {El-akin^  v,  5). 

.  A  iiimatt  tit  for  sacrifio'.  If  devoted,  were  not  to  ba 
redeemed  or  changeil,  and  tf  a  man  atlcmpleil  lo  do  so, 
10  was  required  lo  bring  both  the  devotee  and  Ihe 
^Imugeling  (l.ei-.  xxvii,  9, 10,33).  They  were  tii  be  free 
from  blemish  (UaL  i,  14).  An  animal  unfit  for  sacrifice 
ight  be  redeemed,  with  the  addition  tu  the  prieu's 
iluation  of  a  filih,  nr  it  became  the  properly  of  the 
iesut  (Lev.  xxvii,  12, 13).  Sec  Offkuing, 
3.  The  case  of  pnioai  devoted  stood  thus:  A  man 
ight  devnie  cither  himself,  his  child  (not  the  Hrsi. 
im),  or  his  slave.  If  no  redemption  look  place,  the 
'Voted  petnon  became  a  slave  of  Ihe  sanctuary  (see 
le  case  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  xv,  8 ;  Michaelis,  g  124,  u, 
<G,  cd.  Smith).   Sec  NAZAniTiL    Otherwise  he  might 


vow 

f>F  redeemed  «t  a  Taluition  accordinf;  to  age  and  aex, 

on  me  rullowmg  scale  (Lev.  xxvil,  1~T): 

ii.  1.  A  mule  rrom  1  montli  to  B  jicara  old,  S  ahrk-      *  "^ 

elf. =  B  10 

S.rmmSyeiinlotayenr«,li<«h«keti =11  # 

B.  Prom  »  yen™  In  BO  jenre.  BO  shekel- =SI  00 

4.  AboireWve^in,  loihekelf =  8  SO 

B.  1.  Pliinnlfs  iVom  uue  iDuuili  lu  B  yenn,  S  ■be- 

kda =  1  SO 

9.  Frui>iliypnnlnWTenr*,10fhekeli =  G  «0 

S.Fn>in«iTvariinil(tvesrMOthekela =IN  00 

4.  Abuva  00  yenrt,  10  slickela =  S  tO. 

If  ihe  p«naii  were  too  poor  (0  pay  ih«  Teilemption-pTice, 
hb  value  WM  to  bo  eatimlted  by  the  prieil,  not,  as  Ui- 
chaeli)  aavs,  the  eivil  magUtrate  (Lev.  xxvu,S;  Deut. 
xxi.5;  Micliacn«,§  145,  ii,  383). 

(II.)  Among  general  regulations  aBecting  vows  of 
this  clau,  Ihe  julluwlng  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  Vuwa  were  enlirely  rolunlarr,  but  once  made  were 
regarded  oa  compulsory-,  and  evasion  of  perfonnanee  of 
(hem  waa  held  ti>  be  contrair  to  true  religiou  (NumU 
xxx,i:  Deul.xxji,21;  Eedea.v,4). 

2.  If  persona  in  a  dependent  (vndilion  made  rowi — 
as  an  unmarried  daughter  living  in  her  Tal Iter's  house,  or 
a  wire,  even  irshe  aftervraTds  became  a  widow,  ihe  vow, 
if  in  the  fiiat  case  her  father,  or  in  ihe  second  her  hu»- 
liaml,  heard  and  disallowed  it,  was  void ;  but  if  they 
heard  wilhniit  disallowance,  it  was  to  remain  gooil 
(Numb,  ux,  8-16).  Whether  this  principle  extendetl 
to  all  children  and  to  alave*  is  wholly  uncertain,  as  no 
tnenliim  is  made  of  tbem  in  Scripture,  nor  by  Philo 
when  he  discussrs  thequeelion  (Oe  SpK.  i/ff.  S  «,  ii,!7*, 
ed.  Hanjiey).  Hiehaelis  think*  the  ooiissinn  of  son* 
implies  absence  of  power  to  conlrol  them  (g  83,1,417). 

5.  Votive  offerings  arising  from  the  produce  of  any 
impure  traffic  were  wholly  farbidden  (Dent,  xxiii,  18). 
A  question  has  risen  on  tbi*  pan  of  the  subject  a*  to 
the  meaning  of  Iho  word  233,  il^M,"dng,'' which  is 
understood  to  refer  cither  to  iinmoral  iulercourae  of  the 
grossest  kind,  or  literally  ami  simply  to  the  usual  mean- 
in);  of  the  word.  The  prohibition  sgainec  dedication  to 
sacred  uses  of  gain  oblsinnl  by  female  prostitution  was 
douUtlcBii  directed  against  the  practice  which  prevailed 
in  I'hceiiiria,  Dabylouia,  anil  Svria,  of  which  mention  is 
made  in  Lcv.xix,!9;  Banich,  vi,  43 ;  Herod.  1,199; 
Strabo.  p.  eci ;  August.  Dt  Cie.  Dri,  Iv,  10,  and  other 
anthorilies  qiwted  by  Spencer  ( />s  £^. /Mr.  ii,  36, 
66G).  Following  out  Ibis  view,  and  bearing  in  mind 
til*  meniiiHi  made  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  7,  of  a  practice  evi- 
dently connected  with  idolatrous  wonhip,  the  word  U- 
It6  has  been  sometimes  retideted  cinailst;  some  have 
understood  it  to  refer  to  the  Hrsl-born,  but  Spencer  him- 
self,  ii,  36,673;  JoBepbus,^ii/.iv,B,g;  Gckb.  Tiruwr. 
ii,  G8&,  and  the  Mishna,  TmiHrtii,  vi,  3,  all  understand 
dog  in  Ihe  literal  sense.    See  Doa. 

Vows  in  general  aitd  their  Unding  force  aa  a  test  of 
religionarementioned,Jobxxii,37iProv.  vii,  14;  Tsa. 
xiii,35;  1,14;  lvi,13;  Uvi,l3i  cxvi,  14;  Isa.xix,ll; 
Nah.i,l&. 

1.  No  evasion  of  «  vow  was  to  be  allowed  which  siib- 
Btiluteil  a  pan  fur  the  whole,  as,  "  1  vowed  a  sheep,  but 
not  the  bonea"  (Ardirr.  ii,  6). 

3.  A  man  devoting  an  ox  or  a  house  vm  not  liable 
tf  the  ox  was  lost  oi  (be  house  fell  down;  but  other- 
wise, ir  he  had  devoted  the  value  of  the  one  or  the  oth- 

3.  No  devnliims  might  be  made  within  two  yean  be- 
fore the  Jubilee,  nor  tolemptions  within  the  year  fol- 
lowing it.  If  a  son  rcileemed  his  father's  Isiid,  he  war 
to  restore  it  to  him  in  Ihe  julnlee  (AVuKn,  vii,  3). 

4.  A  man  might  devole  some  of  his  flock,  herd,  aiul 
beathen  ^ves,  but  not  oil  these  {Krutin,  viii,  4). 

6.  Devotions  by  priests  were  not  reilecmable,  but  were 
transferred  (o  other  priests  (b'rakin,  viii,  6). 

6.  A  man  whn  vowed  not  to  sleep  on  a  bed,  might 
sleep  on  a  skin  if  he  pleased  (Olho,  Irx.  RuU.  p.  678). 


818 


7.  The  sums  of  money  ariung  from  votin 


livided  ii 


d  (1)  I, 


tbt 


the  repaira  of  the  Icmple  (Belaud,  Jal 
X,  4). 

It  seems  that  the  practice  of  shaving  the  head  at  tbe 
expiration  of  a  votive  period  was  not  limited  to  tbe 
Nazaritic  vow  (Acts  xviii,  18 ;  xxi,  34). 

II,  CArufiun  riw*.  — 'The  practice  of  vows,  tboogfa 
evidently  not  forbidden,  aa  Ihe  above  case  of  Paul 
(Acts  xviit,  18)  serves  to  show,  does  mt  seem  to  have 
been  Bl  all  common  in  Ibe  apostolical  Church.  With 
the  civil  establishmenl  under  Omslatiline,  bowever, 
and  especially  uihIct  Ihe  growing  inUiience  of  oKinaKi- 
cism,  it  early  gained  exleroive  and  |>owciful  prevalence. 
Bingham  cites  the  ccclesioslieat  instances  and  trgul*. 
tioiia  chicflv  affbctlng  church  proyiertv  and  religious  or- 
der*  (ari^..4Hf>f.bk.xvi,cli.vii,§9),but  they  apply 
mostly  to  mediaival  limci^ 

"There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  reiperling  the 

finn  thai  they  were  made  legally  Innding  and  iiulusolu. 
ble  as  early  as  the  Council  ofChalcctlini;  but  ihe  rase 

general  opinion  is  llist,  though  eonndcred  obllgatiay 

disability  or  irreversible  obligation  was  incurred  bi- 
Ihcm  till  the  lime  of  Uonirace  Vllf,  late  In  ihe  13ib 
cciiluri-.  The  Ihiec  Hilcmii  vo«s,  as  Ihry  arc  Itnool, 
of  the  monaMic  ordm  are  poverty,  cbaMiiy,  an-l  obe- 
dience, lu  which  others  are  occarionally  annexed  by 
certain  religious  ordcis.  Fur  example,  Ihe  foiinh  vifw 
of  the  .lesuits  places  every  member  at  the  aWdnlc  di^ 
Ix'Nil  uT  Ibe  Boman  pontiff,  to  be  employed  by  him  in 
whatever  service  may  be  lliougbl  most  lo  the  adras- 
t^e  uf  the  holy  see.  11ie  earliest  lawful  age  f<,r  na- 
Iwacing  Ihe  monastic  pmfession  has  varied  at  dilftnat 
periods  and  in  dilfi'rent  eountrici;  it  was  Axeit  by  ikc 
Council  of  Trent  at  "ixteen  years,  befoiv  whirh  period 
no  religious  vow  is  uT  any  hgnl  validity.  Wiibin  thr 
first  Hve  years  the  von'  may  be  pnileeled  agaiiwt  rai  the 
ground  of  want  of  consent,  insufficient  age,  or  iiregiilsr- 
iiy  of  novitiate;  but  after  ihe  expiration  of  that  perM 
it  is  held  to  be  indissoluble.  Certain  cxlraurdiaaiy 
vows— for  instance,  Ibat  of  pilgrimage  to  Kome — CB 
only  be  dispensed  with  by  the  pi>|>c;  oilirni  mar  beie- 
laxed  by  tbe  intervention  of  Ihe  onlinary  of  the  div- 

C«F."      See  Mo<iA9TICISM. 

In  Ihe  Church  of  Home  the  Hibjcrl  .if  vows  asaamts 
extraordinary  proportions.  "The  lil-jecls  of  llxse  «•■ 
gagements  among  Catholics  are  vei;-  varices;  but  they 
arc  drawn,  fur  the  hhhC  port,  from  what  are  called  tbe 
evangelical  'counsels,'  in  caul tadislinci ion  lo  'pre- 
cepts' or  'commaiuts'  —  the  most  onlinary  subject  rf 
vows  being  the  so-called  'evangelical'  virtues  of  poc- 
eny,  chastity,  and  obeilience.  IHlgrimagrs,  however, 
acts  of  abstinence,  or  olher  self-moni  Heat  ions,  wheibn 
of  the  body  or  of  the  will,  apedsl  pniyera  or  religious 
etercises,  are  frequently  made  the  object  of  vows;  and 
there  ia  another  targe  class  of  more  material  ol>J«X^  as 
the  buihling  of  churches,  monasterlen,  hospitals,  and 
other  works  of  public  interest  or  utility,  lo  which  me- 
dieval Europe  was  indebted  for  many  uf  its  moot  roag- 
niNcent  memorials  of  piety  and  o(  art.  Vuws,  in  ibe 
Roman  Church  law,  are  either  'simple'  or  'mlemn.' 
The  principal  difference  between  Ihem  coniiils  in  iIm 
legal  effects  of  the  'solemn'  vow,  which,  where  Ibe  sub- 
ject of  such  vow  is  chastity,  renders  net  merely  un- 

iracted.  A  'rimplc'  vow  of  chastity  makes  it  unUw- 
fill  In  marry,  but,  except  in  the  Jesuit  Sociely,  itot*  ml 
invalidateamaniage,  if  subsequently  ciHitrnclCil.  Oath. 
olio  acknowleilge  in  the  Church  a  imwer  of  ilispen^ng 
in  vuws;  luit  this  is  held  to  be  rather  declaraiory  (haa 
remisaory,  and  it  is  not  acktiowleilgnl  in  Ihe  case  ^ 
vows  which  involve  any  right  of  a  IhinI  party.  Bisk- 
ops  ate  held  lo  possess  tbe  power  ofdisiwiiaing  in  snple 
vuws  generally ;  but  the  power  of  dispensing  in  solemn 
vuws  and  in  cenain  simple  vows — as,  for  cxa^lpU^  that 


VOWEL-POINTS  e: 

oT  >baolatc  and  perpetual  churitv,  and  at  the  greater 
pUgrimage*— i>  reeetved  to  the  pnpe.  The  practical  op- 
eration of  the  canoii  Uir  regaiding  vowi  baa  evidently 
been  much  modi Hed,  even  in  Catholic  countries,  nince 
the  French  KevnluHon,  and  the  aubsequeiit  pulitical 
change*;  bul  this  mast  be  understood  to  regard  chiefly 
their  external  and  [lurely  Juridical  eSecta.  So  far  as 
eoiicenis  their  apirilual  ubliRalion,  the  modeni,  Roman 
ilinili^v  n<oEin»M  litll*.  if  aiiv,  change.'  See  Wet- 
ter und' Wtiie,  Kirrkm-La.  a.  v. 

Vi3«rel-pOlit1:a.  At  nn  linn  waa  the  Hebiemys- 
teiD  of  writina  merely  a  wrilini;  or  lh*e  contonanu,  but 
from  the  begtnnini;  it  had  three  vunrel-aigiit  tut  the 
Toneli  (I,  t,  ami  a.  OF  these,  however,  the  Hrst  (X)  was 
uaeil  unly  with  a  commencing  sound,  and  in  a  conclud- 
ing sound  it  »a»  not  written,  but  every  coiisonani  was 
•nunilcd  with  tbe  u.  Slorevver,  In  the  beginning  the 
a  lounil  waa  rety  greatly  predominant,  and  only  as  tbe 
language  became  developed  the  other  vowela  became 
more  fr«|ueut,  t  and  *,  also  t,  o,  ai,  and  (in.  Vet  the 
writing  was  developed  leia  rapidly  than  (he  pronancia- 
tion,  and  thus  the  niwel-marks  *<  and  1  were  not  applied 
everywhere,  but  only  in  ambiguous  Tonns.  As  long  as 
Hebrew  coniiimeil  to  be  spolien.  men  were  content  with 
tbia  simple  vocaliialion,  and  the  preciaion  and  certain 
knowledge  of  the  living  language  compensated  fur  the 
defectiveneHofthe  written  symbols.     Thin  can  best  be 

pvara  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Test.  But  when, 
after  the  Kxlle,  literary  activity  was  awaliened,  and 
the  Jevrs  turned  their  altenlion  to  reading  and  writing, 
the  inconvenience  or  the  old  vowel  designation  was  Telt 
in  propnrtion  at  ktwwledge  of  tbe  living  tongue  de- 
creaaed.  In  Iheu  nrcumstancea,  they  endeavored  to 
retain  their  knowledge  of  tbe  cuneal  pnuiuncialion  by 
a  more  frequent  use  of  the  vowel  letters;  and  the  so- 
called  icripHa  plaui,  as  it  appears  in  the  later  books  of 
the  Old  Teat.,  was  useil  more  and  more.  Thus  we  read 
■nn,  a-iip,  o"^*sis,  ii-i  tor  im,  oip,  caabx, 
Zn,  respectively.  This  orthography  is  also  seen  in  a 
greater  degree  in  the  Samaritan  Pentatcucb,  and  in  the 
Talinudical  and  later  Rabbinical  language.  But  bo  late 
ai  the  time  of  tbe  Alexandrian  version  the  vocaliiation 
hill  not  attained  to  ila  later  perfection,  and  therefore  in 
many  cases  it  deviates  from  that  which  is  now  adopted. 
I.  neOHgnn/AeVoiBtlSstteiii.—l.Intttela\miiJi, 
•lin,we  have  no  trace  of  written  voweUaigns  at  accents, 
as  some  have  suppoaed,  nor  does  it  contain  even  the  in- 
cipient features  of  a  written  vowel  system.  The  fur- 
mulaa,sofrequenllyaceurring  in  the  Talmud,  Mnpn  hik 
13  sVs  13  and  noo^  OX  V  ttipsi  OK  C^ 
have  often  been  iiitoled  as  a  praof  that  in  the  lime  i)f 
the  Talmud  tba  laxt  of  the  Scripture  had  be«n  firmly 
settled  in  respect  of  the  vowels  no  leas  than  of  ibe  con- 
snnanla.  But  tliia  ia  a  misUke.  The  Krst  formula, 
"  Head  not  so,  but  so,"  relates  solely  to  fanciful  and  play- 
ful changes  up  words  in  the  text,  so  that  witty  ipplica- 
tiiniB  may  be  made  of  them.  It  funiiahes  no  pMuf  ibat 
the  Talmud  recognises  written  vowel-marks.  The  oth- 
er formula,  "A  reason  fiirdcciaion  according  to  the  Mi kra 
and  the  Mawrah,"  is  useil  when  two  Talmudic  dnctAr^ 
di^Hiling,  base  Ibeir  different  opinituix  m  tbe  same 
wwil  in  the  text,  but  according  to  a  iliflerent  reailing 
of  it — tbe  otie  reading  being  called  X'^po,  ihe  olhpr 
rilQ13.  The  former  is  the  eccletdaatical  or  canonical 
reading;  the  latter  the  apocryphal  or  aanimed  one. 
The  oppositiiin  between  the  two  recordcil  in  the  Tal- 
nud  sbowa  that  wrillen  vowel-sigus  were  then  un- 
known. Bath  refer  lo  the  vncaliution,  Iwt  in  such  a 
*sy  as  proves  an  unvowellrd  text,  affunliiig  scope  fur 
inlerprelations  deviating  from  Ibe  estsbliihed  pnmuti- 
datiun.  Another  class  of  passages  has  lieen  quuieil  in 
which  certain  vowel-signt  appear  to  be  mentioned, 
Thnaare— 


9  VOWEL-POINTS 

>.  The  Tfllmndlc  eiplnnallons  of  Ihe  Biblical  passaga 
Keh.  vlll,  S,  where,  as  a  means  uf  underflandlns  the 
seDis  of  the  tarr  read  in  public,  □■'STS  end  ■<plQ^B 
0^197B  are  adduced,  besides  iheverse-dltlslna  D^p^OB. 

k  O^BTa  ''piOIl  aud  nntn  'nasa  an  bIw  maii- 
Uoiied. 

Such  exprcBuons  have  been  tbougbt  to  allude  not  merc> 
ly  to  divisions  of  the  sense  and  acoenia,  but  also  to 
vowel-signi.  But  CSIB  does  not  mean  iiecmli,  such 
aa  we  now  bare  in  tbe  text.  It  denotes  mlealiii,  a 
logical  sentence,  and  ::  '<piQ^8  tncua  imlalitiniai, 
divisions  of  the  sense,  or  short  passages. 

'I'be  Talmud,  theTefure,  due*  luit  cuulaln  even  the  in- 
cipient feature*  uf  a  wrillcii  vowel  system.    All  tbe  ex- 
be  rightly  eiplsjiied,  and  they  will  be  fiMnd  lo  iii- 


nted  will 


scribe  wonla,  his  dascripiiiiiu  refer  to  Ihe  consunania 
alone.  Ilia  usual  expreMiiuis,accon1ingly,  are  tciiUnir 
and  leriplum,  Ugilat  and  Irr/am — the  former  two  refer- 
ring Ifl  the  letter^  llie  Isiier  two  lo  tlieir  pronuncia- 
tion—and  Ibe  contra*!  implial  indicating  that  wbile 
tbe  consonants  were  nritien,  the  vowels  were  supjdicd 
by  Iradilional  usage.  Tliis  is  cunlinDeil  by  the  fact  uf 
his  remarking  in  various  places  that  Ihe  same  nuril  or 
tbe  same  letters  {idtm  m-ban,  nr  trno  iiidim  liiitiii 
Kr^ui)  might  be  read  (J^')— lliat  is,  pronounceil,  and 
consequently  understoiHl  (inlrllii/t)~ln  varinuswavii.uc- 
cordingto  the  connect  ion  (  pni  jWiTuW  bci  or  Zhcthm, 
pro  ctmieqreitluir  prouf  lvca»  rf  uniofiiigiiarant),  ttt  ac- 
cording lu  the  Judgment  "f  the  reader  (/>ro  uMiiio 
Irt/enlit,  rolanlalt  Iretoran)  ur  the  vernacular  rS  ilie 
country  (p>i>  varielale  rrgiomiBi);  aud,  on  Ihe  ciiiitrary, 
two  wunis  (u'lwxftfc  rtrbaia)  as  la  Ngnificaliun  nire 
written  with  the  same  [eltera.  Worda  of  this  sort  be 
calls  ajnbigua^  To  such  ambiguity  {^awinguiUit  atr^ 
monu)  he  asciibca  Ihe  numerous  rjevialinns  and  mla- 
take*  of  the  ancient  iranslatnrs,  particularly  the  Sept., 
wbnm  he  blame*  only  where  their  venion  does  viiileiH'e 
lo  tbe  lelters,  or  interchanges  wonls  whose  letlcn  liave 
no  similarily  tn  one  another.    In  giving  his  own  ver- 

which  is  The  right  reading,  ami  gives  ibe  deviatimis  irf 
former  translators  without  making  known  his  ownjutl^- 
ment  (comp.  Hpiit.  IS6.  ml  Evagr.).  Occasionally  lie 
indicate*  his  opinion  by  mrtiai  nr  tangii,  as  if  one  read- 
ing were  more  protisblc  than  another  because  belter 
suited  10  the  connection  (see  Mic.  v,  8;  Zeph.  iii,  8; 
Hab.iii,1;  Gen.  XKvi,  12).  Such  cases,  however,  are 
the  exceptions,  r<ir  he  is  usually  ilecided;  and  where  Ite 
does  give  the  ground*  of  hia  decision,  he  teat*  ou  IheM 

a.  Ue  Is  oflen  giddod  by  Ihe  connection  alone. 

b.  The  Blilhorlly  of  hi*  prcdetemlrf,  p — ■—'--'- 
roach  II*  and  TiModoilon.  perha|is  the  n 
in  onpnsltlon  In  IhB  Itept.,  determluee  bl 
II;  lv.lt,  11;  Hlc.T.S,!,  It). 

c  Aliiive  all,  the  anihoriiy  of  ibe  Jenlrh  rnbbliis  by 
whuni  he  wan  Inttmcled  Eiddeil  hi*  Irniirliillnns.  Bj 
this  lis  Mils  chiefly  biBneneed,  raldom  depanliij-  from  lis 
viilee.  "  Ilebntii*  qnl  ma  dii«att  vHnlMi,"  aud  Ilka  ei- 
prsMinn*,  wo  meet  wlih  In  U*  aipmltbuis,  whlcb  is  bat 
nalaraU  eonsiderlug  the  cltcnmsianee*  In  vrhlch  he  wa* 
placed.  lUren  hn*  been  laid  nnnn  tba  bet  Ihal  Jenmia 
Niineilines  emphiya  aroMa*,  vhleh  atrunatinslr  has  lieen 
takeu  In  tbe  sense  nfa  sign  liir  regubilliig  the  rendlue. 
Bui  Ihe  umKiu  of  the  L>•1lD^  like  iha  tpM^iia  r.f  itaa 
Oreeki',  reRirs  to  the  Tucnllintiiin  aud  tbe  vhi/Ihi;  vhadaa 
iifiimblgiiouB  ninmnint  sonuds.  but  uoi  In  written  elciix. 
Jenime  'peak*  ntilfn>r<i<)  wints  et  acmitlhu  pr^rvatHr 
<ci>ni|i.  Ad  Ktaip:  lU),  while  the  expression  prti  vtrittau 
nettniHiim  Is  iii-ed  In  tbe  same  wuf,  nml  of  the  snmo 
word',  II*  the  phmsa  Juts  anK^nffatnn  srmenis  tl 

if.  Tlicrc  Isnnniher  class  of  paasKiie*  la  which  he  speak* 

anr^iCiini  est  or  Jhobsliir,  fa  Hstriw  mulla  atOur  lijttuT, 


t.«c). 


VOWEL-POINTS 


JtaM  Hebraiaim  wrMmni,  jiata  Bibr.  wriMfnt, 
■ii<t  nijcci*  a  reading  idiiplcd  br  foimcr  tnnili 
Here  be  merely  eipresm  ble  caiiTlctlon  thil  bl<  »wii 

pliK»  wliun:  b«  Dial  re^ra  tu  tbe  urlEiDal  und,  viib  all 
oocDrnd  in  lEe  nbi^DCt  Drill  wriiteii  vowel-DurkL  Tliar, 
DC  and  CiD,  5=3  and  J3^,  n-iisd  and  B'^'iStt  cou- 
veytiililDi'oDe  iiiid  Ibe  aAiiia  meuulug  |CDiDii.*Uapreld, 
KrUitche  IStlnuchiung  rtnigcr  dtattebi  iiud  nAHwratande- 
lUH  ffldbii,  etc..  In  tbe  Stud.  u.  KriL  1S30.  p.  Dig,  etc). 

From  what  haa  been  uld,  it  a  eridenC  that  Jerome 
knew  no  vuwcl-piHnts,  any  more  than  tbe  Talmud,  and 
that  th«  Sept.  trtnilitors  did  not  uie  «  vocalized  t«xl. 

S.  Fieii  Traer$.—  nK  llebreir  voeiliulion  wu,  no 
doubt,  luggeMed  by  the  example  of  the  Araluan,  or 
more  pmbably  the  Syrian,  wriiing;  but  though  it  ia 
mnilugiiiu  to  that  of  the  kimlrtd  iangutjtM,  it  ia  con- 
■iderably  richer  and  more  elabamle.    When  the  He- 
brew vooUutiiin  wM  iniTDduced  hat  long  been  ■  mat- 
ter oT  uncertainty  and  dispute.    According  to  a  alate- 
nwDl  on  a  acroll  af  [he  law,  whiuh  may  have  been  in 
Sua*  fnioi  the  Sih  century,  Hoiea  the  I'liuctuator  waa 
the  tint  wha,  id  order  to  faciliiate  tbe  reading  of  the 
Scri|icurea  fur  hit  pnpila,  added  voivela  lo  the  onuonanla, 
a  practice  in  which  he  wai  foUowed  by  hia  son  Judah 
the  CurrectOT,  or  tteviaer.    Theac  were  the  beginning* 
of  a  full  ayatein  or  Hebrew  poinia,  the  cooiplelion     ' 
which  liai  by  tradition  been  aomciated  with  tbe  lur 
of  the  Karaite  Acho,  or  Achai  of  Irak,  living  about  61 
and  which  cooipriaed  the  vowela  aod  oecenta,  dagt 
and  rapkth,  Kai  and  Krilab.     It  woo,  from  ita  lucal 
origin,  called  the  Itabylonian  or  Aaaytiau  ayMem  (^lj 
^ia^n,  ^^l^S  nlpj),  or  the  Eaatem  ayalem.    The 
peculiarity  oribia  ayatem  conaiala  in  having  «gn>  ofi 
diRlrciiC  ahape  to  repreaent  the  vowela:  thua,itanKfi  is 
_ ;  jxalud,  : ;  ifyol, , ;  Mnk,    or  ,  and  if  a  ^  fullowiS 
merely  a  dot  above  it;  ckeltm^    ;  InblmlM,    \  tifva 
and  ia  empkiyed  al  the  end  oT  wonli  alio,  even  al 
n  qHtacfiu;   only  Itrr,  Mkarrk,  and  dagak  arc 
iboae  in  uM  at  pcoent  in  our  Hebrew  teilo,     Alio 
peculiarity  of  Ihia  ayalem  U  that  the  vowels  are  air 
unifurmly  |daced  tAote  tbe  leiten.    It  ia  therefore  deaig- 
naled  the  tHfiri'/ui«iiyi9<rea(nb:^V  ^piJU).    Thui 
t.  g.,  Isa.  xlix,  18  ia,  ooconling  to  the  old  Babyloniai 
TOcaliiation,repreaenledi  ots  ^»is  *1"'3^J  S^SO  ^S3 
-^  <X=  ^XSpi.    Thia  lyatem  is  best  exhibiled  in  th 
PnpkelarHm  Pottenonim  Codtx  Babj/lonieiit  Pelrofcli 
limut  (cd.  fjlrack,  Petropoli,  I87G),  p.  4^  aq. 

Almoat  liinullaneously  with  Ihcw  endeavors,  the 
BchoUrs  of  falralitie,  especially  nf  I'ibeiiaa,  worked  in 
the  same  direciiim;  and  here  rabbi  Hocha,  a  diacipit 
of  Anan  the  Karaite,  and  hia  sun  Uoees  fixed  another 
B)'steDi  of  vocal  liatioii  (about  670)  distinguiabed  oa 
ofTiberiaa  OJiaB  tips)  and  the  Polatinian  ot  Weat- 
em  ayatem  (ix-iO-"  inK  llpS),  It  is  far  more  com- 
plete and  extensive,  and  exhibila  more  sharply  the 
niceriea  of-the  traditional  prouuncjalion  and  ' 
of  the  text  than  tbe  Babylonian  aystem,  with  which  it 
competed,  and  was  ultimately  odopleil  by  all  the  Jenra. 
Even  the  Karaites,  who,  with  llicir  character! 
uacity  and  their  aiilagnniam  to  the  Uabbanilea,  dune 
^■l^aonK1imeIoIheokJcrtisn^becauac  they  had  iiMd 
lliem  bcfiire  their  aeceasion  Trom  tlic  Talmudical  sects, 
u'Ere  at  laat,  in  957,  induced  to  abaiHlon  them  in  faiur 
uf  those  adopted  in  PaleUine. 

II.  Coilroefiiitt  on  Ihe  Sab/tet.  —  Thnt  much  f<ir 
tbe  orti;in  oflhc  vowel-poiuta,  ivhich  during  the  IGili 
and  i7ih  cenluriee  were  the  came  of  the  fiercest  ciin- 
trorertiy  that  agitated  the  republic  of  learning.    Some 
centuries  before,  the  dispute  about  the  antiquity  a    ' 
origin  of  Ihc  l-Iehrew  vowela  commenced,  and  their  ■ 
tbority  was  qnestioncil.     Aa  early  as  tbe  9th  cenlui 
Natroiiii  11  bcn-Hilai  (q.v.),  in  reply  to  the  quesli 
whether  it  ia  lawful  lo  pul  the  points  to  Ibe  ^'nagogal 


VOWE1,POINTS 

I  of  the  Pentateuch,  distinctly  declared  that "  nnc* 
tbe  law,  aa  given  to  Mosea  on  Sinai,  had  no  points,  aiiil 
the  pointa  are  not  Sinaitic  (i.  e.  aacredl,  having  been 
invented  by  the  aagea,  and  put  down  oa  aigna  fiT  tbe 
reader;  and,  taoreover,  since  it  ia  pmhibited  lo  ua  to 
make  any  addiliona,  on  nur  own  cogiiationo,  leal  n 
tiansgreas  the  command  'Ye  shall  not  odd,' etc  (DeuL 
"  ;  hence  we  must  not  put  tbe  points  lo  the  ecroUa  of 
the  law."  The  passage  iu  Ihe  original,  as  fuuml  in  tbe 
Filry  if dcitor  (q.  v.),  and  qoiileil  by  Luuatlo  in  Krrrm 
Ckemd,  iii,  200,  [una  tbua:  -i';OX  CX  CrsxSCI 
•'j-'oa  now  inso  niin  -i»o,  m-ir  -wo  TipA 
^3  ^3^03  iipi  ID  (til  lip:  "ra  i:ti:s)   iA 

o-npis  -,'»  is-isb  q^ffin  V=a  ii^j  -,k  tjnm 
.n-iin  -iBo 

1.  Down  to  and  rjbvyyt  lit  Uiddit  Atftt. — Atnoiig 
tbe  Jews,  It  was  generally  maiataincd  that  the  rowel- 
points  were  either  given  to  Adam  in  I'aradisc,  ot  cin»- 
municaied  lo  Uoae*  on  Sinai,  or  were  Bxed  by  Ezia 
and  Ibe  Ureat  Synagogue.  'Ilii*  view  wai  ilreiDn]  all 
tbe  more  orthoilox  since  the  famous  Zaknr  (q.v.),  Iha 
sacred  code  of  the  Cabal isla,  which  waa  believed  to  be  a 
revelation  from  Rod,  communiciieil  ibroiigh  R.  SinwHi 
ben-Jocbai  (q.  v.), declared  that  "Ihe  lettcra  are  tiM 
body,  and  the  vowel-pointt  the  lOiil :  they  move  wi^ 
the  motion  and  Mand  atiU  with  Ihe  tcalingof  Ibe  iw- 
el-pointa,  Juat  aa  an  army  movra  afler  ita  soverogn' 
(^ipn  ;nns  irr'*^ra»  T'its  ^inV^T  strsai 
■,in"=bn  ins  T>i^Ti3  iiT'""najt  ir:r;nc\  z»- 

kar,  i,  15  b);  that  "the  vowel-pointa  proceeded  Itum 
Ihe  aame  Holy  Spirit  which  indited  the  Sacred  Script- 
urea,  and  that  far  be  tbe  tboogbl  lo  gay  that  the  Kribea 
made  the  poinia,  since  ei-eo  if  all  the  pmpheit  had  beea 
aa  great  aa  Moeea,  who  received  the  law  direct  fnai 
Sinai,  they  could  not  have  hod  the  authority  tn  aha 
Ihe  amallest  point  in  a  aingle  letter,  ihuogh  it  be  the 
moat  intigniUcanl  in  the  whole  Bibk"  <  ibid,  m  tba 
Song  of  Salomon  [ed.  Anist.  1701],  i,  57  b),  B.  Levi 
ben-Joseph,  author  iif  the  book  Snaudiir,  qiioiea,  in  fanr 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  rowel-pninta,  thepsivage  Id  DcdI. 
xivii,  6,". \nd  thou  shall  wriie  up<ni  the  atones  all  Ibe 
worils  of  this  law  ttiy  pliiiidi)'  Similar  is  tbe  view 
expressed  in  Ihe  book  IloniyXk  Ha-lvnr  ( P^v^i^ 
X11pn),Baiil  to  belong  to  tbe  lllh  ccnlui>-.  B.Unei 
the  PanctualoT  speaks  of  a  period  of  liirgctting,  which 
closes  with  Eira,  who  revealed  Ihe  vowtd-poiiila  agua. 
DiDbrent  entirely  is  Ihe  view  of  Aben-Eira,  Jiidab  ha- 
Levi,  and  D.  KimchL  With  tbe  appearanoe  uf  Eliat  Le- 
vita'B(q.v.).VnHrFtittn-ifaiorrrA,lbecontrDvern'Iaok 
spew  phase.  He  denied  the  divine  origin  and  aniiquiij 
uf  Ihe  vowel-pointa.  According  to  Levita,  the  vuw^ 
poinli  and  accenu  did  not  exist  cither  befurc  Ezra  nr  in 
the  lime  of  Kira,  or  after  Eira  until  the  chi«  uf  the 
Talmud.  They  uriginalcd  with  the  aagea  at  Tibeiiaa, 
I'o  make  gno<l  his  assertion,  be  examines  rhe  Knbbini- 
cal  evidences  in  favor  of  the  anliquily  of  the  pointy 
and  comes  lo  Ihe  conclusion  that  they  behinji!  to  a  lalec 
period,  and  arc  consequently  of  no  avaiL  If  tie  cooM 
be  convinced  by  the  testimony  of  earlier  labbinss  be 
would  succumb.  In  favor  of  his  opinion,  he  i(iiotci 
AbcR-Ezra,  Kimcbi,  and  JuJah  ha-Lrvi's  Katori.  He 
Mfiedally  lays  great  stresa  npon  the  fact  Ihai  ibc  law 
which  Moses  put  before  the  chUdren  of  larael  waa  a 
plain  codex,  without  points  and  without  accents,  tai 
even  without  the  division  of  ^'elHs,  as  is  lo  Ije  seen  la 
the  present  day.  He  reminds  us  that  almoat  all  the 
names  both  of  the  vowel-points  and  ihe  accents  arc  not 
Hebrew,  but  Araouean  and  Babylonian — as,  c.  g.,  lart, 
itgol,  cAofrn,  miliipkvm,  niappii,  dagrii,  crc— and  6nds 
it  very  Strang!:  thai  ihe  points  oiid  acctmla,  ifiliey  were 
actually  given  by  Uoses,  could  have  been  furgotlen. 
Lerita'a  book  excited  a  great  atir  among  tJa  co-relig- 
ioDists;  andlomeet  it  with  arguments,  Aaoriahde'Reai 


VOWEL-FOINTS  Si 

(q.  T.),  in  IGT4~75,  nuily  forty  jean  ift«r  the  tppeu- 
ance  of  Lerita's  work,  undertook  a  refuUtioD  u(  tbe 
Mune.  In  his  work  iftvr  fnan,  he  quotM  the  Tal- 
mud, Ntiarini,  87  L;  the  booki  BaMir  and  Zohari  Je- 
mnc,  Epul.  136,  ad  Ktagr.  etc 

Without  enuring  loo  minutely  upon  the  qoertlan,  we 
may  wind  ii  up  by  uying  that  Iha  (ynspigue  of  the 
UiJiUe  AEe^l■p  tolhelfitb  ceoEuty,  waa  almoM  unani- 
DHiuiily  in  favor  of  tbe  high  antiquity  of  the  rowcl- 
puintt.  The  more  imponant,  however,  waa  the  vuico 
of  Lei-iM,  proving  the  very  revene.  Anung  Chris- 
tiana, even  Hnne  cenlurie*  befura  Levila,  the  vowel- 
poinla  were  regarded  oa  liter  iiiventiona.  Prominent 
among  them  waa  tbe  Dominicsn  Raymond  Hartjiii 
(q.  T.),  who,  ill  his  Pvgio  Fidti  (2d  ed.  'Leipe.  IBST),  on 
Uoa.  ijE,  13,  remark!,  "Cteleram  adendnn,  quod  nee 
Hoyaea  punclavit  legem,  unde  Judni  non  babent  e*m 
cam  poncliii  i.  e.  cutn  rocalibiu  Kriptam  in  lotulii 
auia;  Dec  aliquU  ex  prophetii  punctavit  librum  Hium; 
■ed  duo  Judni,  quorum  unui  dictua  eat  Kcphlali,  alter 
Tcro  Ben-Acher,  tntum  Velua  Teatamentam  punetasae 
leguntur;  qnai  quidam  puneta  cum  quibuadam  Tirgulia 
Bunt  loco  voealium  apud  eoa:  cum  quo  veninent  ad 
locum  latum,  et  aecandum  orthographiam  dcbuisaetit 
punetan  ^^1S3  incamalione  mea,  punctaTerunC  ^'^lO^ 
a  Deo.' 


Martin  i'l  opinioi 


rmed  by  Nicholoa  de  Lyra 
(q.  v.),  who,  after  quoting  with  approval  Raymond  Mar- 
tini on  Has,  is,  13,  temirki, "  Puncta  non  aunt  de  aab- 
•taniia  liltere,  nee  a  principio  acripturere  fnemnt,  onde 
el  nituli  qui  in  aynagogii  eotum  legentur  aunt  aine 
punctii,  led  pemugnum  t«mpua  poitea  invents  aunt 
bujua  modi  puncta  ad  facilitia  legendam."  Lj'ra'a  opin- 
ion was  regarded  aa  paramount  by  all  aucceeding  Calfa- 

To  inveat  it  with  an  air  of  originality,  Jacob  Perei 
deYalencia  (died  1491)  givea  the  following  account  of 
ttiB  origin  of  the  vowel-pointa,  which  we  quote.  Hot 
for  its  intrinsic  value,  but  on  account  of  ita  amuMng 
nature :  "  After  the  oonvenion  of  Coaalaatine  the 
Great,  the  rabbins  perceived  that  great  multitude*  of 
Gentiles  embraced  Chriatiaoity  with  the  greatest  de- 
votion all  over  tbe  globe;  that  the  Church  pro^wred 
very  favorably,  and  that  also  of  the  Jewa  an  immense 
Dumber  became  convinced  of  the  truth  by  experience 

leaaened.  Housed  by  this  wickedness,  they  BBeembled 
in  great  multitude*  at  the  ttabj'tnn  or  Egypt  which  la 
called  Cairo,  where  they,  with  aa  much  secrecy  aa  possi- 
ble, falaiSed  and  corrupted  the  Scriptures,  and  oninicted 
^raut  Ave  or  aeveo  pointa  to  sen'e  aa  vowels,  these 
pniDt*  having  been  invented  by  Ravina  and  Ravaahe, 
two  of  their  doctorat  The  aame  rabbin*  also  eoneocled 
tbe  Talmnd"  {Pi-elotJ.  ia  Ftalmm,  tract  vi).  Hence  he 
mainuina  "  that  no  faith  is  to  be  placed  in  the  Holy 
Scriplurra  aa  tbe  Jewa  now  interpret  and  punctuate 
tbem"  (ibid,  tract,  ii,  foL  %  "Ide<>  nulla  Ikies  ndhibemla 
eat  Scriptum  Sacra  sieut  hodie  habeiit  [Juditi]  aic  in- 
terpretatam  et  punctuaum"). 

2.  Varitg  and  Since  the  A';^nMaf>oii.~Paasing  over 
the  name*  of  other  Catholic  divines  who  also  assumed 
a  late  origin  of  the  vowel-points,  we  find  that  ainwat 
the  entire  period  of  the  Refonnation  aided  with  Levita, 
Ltitber  (who  called  the  vowel*  a  modem  invention— 
Hkn  MnucArKfiiiutttia),  Calvin,  Zwingli,  Mercier,  Pcl- 
liten,  Len  Judsh,  Piscator,  John  Scaligcr,  Druaiua,  etc., 
bnldly  declaimed  against  the  antiquity,  divine  ari(pii, 
anil  authority  uf  the  points.  The  conviction  of  the 
Pniteatant  leaders " undoubtedly  was  tliet  by  libcraliiiK 
themselve*  fnim  the  traditional  vowel-points  of  the 
synagogue,  alter  having  diacaided  the  Iradiiiona  uf  the 
Church  uf  Rome,  they  could  more  eaaily  and  tiidcpend- 
ently  prosecute  their  Biblical  studies,  without  any  Irnni- 
nel*whitaoever"—thua  making  the  Bible,  and  the  Uihle 
alone,  without  glo**  and  without  tradition,  the  rule  of 
hith  and  iwacticck    £a)biiMf«d  at  the  cry  of  the  newly 


VOWEL-POINTS 

risen  Protestant  leaders  that  the  Bible,  and  Dothing  but 
tbe  Bible,  is  the  mama  nornunu,  Kome  soon  changtil  Iter 
tactic*,  and  Lcvila'i  argument  aa  to  the  Ute  origiu  uf 
the  vowel-points  was  perused  by  Iter  in  order  to  coufule 
the  claim*  of  her  opponent*,  yrom  Leviia'a  argument 
*be  deduced  the  following:  1.  That  the  Uible could  only 
be  read  in  ancient  days  by  the  few  autlioriied  spiritual 
teacheta;  and, !.  That  the  Scriptures,  without  these 
piunta,  cannot  possibly  be  understooil  apart  frmn  the 
traditional  inlerpreUtiun  Innamilleil  by  the  Church  cif 
Kome.  This  opininii  soon  nmnd  its  way  inio  Knglaml, 
and  wa*  advocated  by  Dr.  Thnnias  Harding  (q.  v.),  tbe 
celebrated  antagonint  of  bishop  Jewel  Uia  argument 
was  aa  fullowa :  "  Among  the  people  of  Israel,  the  seven- 
ty elder*  only  could  read  and  understand  the  inyaterie* 
of  the  holy  books  that  wo  call  the  Bible;  for, whereas 
tbe  letter*  of  the  Hebrew  tongue  have  m  vocals,  they 
only  had  the  ikill  to  read  the  Seriptute  by  the  conso- 
nants, and  thereby  the  vidgar  people  were  kept  from 
reading  of  it  by  special  prorideilce  of  God,  aa  it  i* 
thought  that  precious  atonea  abould  not  be  cast  befiira 
swine;  that  is  to  *ay,  such  aa  be  not  nlleil  (hereto  *■ 
being,  fur  their  unnvercnd  euriusilv  and  impure  life, 
unworthy"  (comp.  the  WoHa  a{  Juhn  Jewel,  bish.il.  of 
Salirtory  [ed,  Parker  Society],  ii,678). 

Similar  was  the  langua)^  used  on  the  Conlineni  by 
the  Komauista  against  the  l'rDteBtants,who  appealed  to 
the  Scripture*  in  matters  sOecting  their  failb  and  prao 
tice.  Jean  Horinus  (q.  v.)  aulemnly  declarea,  in  hia 
learned  ExereHalioiia  Bi6liea  dt  Hrirtn  Gracigut  Trx- 
Au^Hcerafiite,  that -'the  reason  why  God  onlaiiieJ  the 
Seriptarea  to  be  written  in  tbia  anbiguuns  manner  (i.e. 

man  should  be  subject  to  the  Judgment  of  the  Church, 
anil  not  interpret  the  Bible  in  hia  own  way.  For,  aee- 
Lig  that  the  reading  uf  the  Bible  ia  to  ditScult,  and  ao 

the  thing,  it  is  plain  that  it  is  not  the  uill  of  God  that 
every  one  *bould  rashly  and  irreverently  lake  upon 
himaeU  to  explaio  it,  nor  lo  *uftr  the  common  peo- 
ple to  expound  it  at  their  pleasure ;  but  that  in  Ihow 
things,  aa  in  other  matter*  reapecling  religion,  it  is  lua 
will  that  the  people  abould  depend  upon  the  priests" 
(Exarilal.  [Paris,  1638],  IV,  u,  8.  198,  etc.).  To  thia 
argument  R.  Simon,  in  hia  Ilittoirt  Crilign  (Kntlcr- 
daiD,  1685),  p.  408,  replied  in  the  following  manner  i 
"On  pourra  dire  auaai,  par  la  mfime  raison,  que  Dieu 
a  voulu  KiAiDettre  les  Mahomolana  &  leur*  docteiirs 
pour  rinlerprelation  de  I'Alcoran,  parce  qii'il  est  ecrit, 
ausai-bien  que  le  teste  Hebreu  de  la  Bible,  lUna  unc 
laiigue  qui  n'est  psa  moina  incoiiatante  d'eile- mfime 
que  la  langue  Hitbralque,  Mais  ssns  qu^l  soil  btaiiin 
d'avoir  reooots  au  conseil  secret  de  Dieu,  il  est  certain 
que  la  langue  Hebralque  a  cela  de  eummiin  aiec  lea 
languea  Anbe,  Chaldalque  et  Syriaqiie,  qu'eltes  sont  de 

yellea,  pour  rendre  1*  lecture  dea  mote  qui  Iv*  cumpixent 


The  modm  operandi  of  tlie  Calhrdic  cantrover«ali*t* 
caused  great  alarm  amonj;  the  ilcfendcrs  of  Proteslanl- 
ism,  who  now  commenced  beating  a  retreat.  They  de- 
clared that  the  points  were  put  In  the  text  by  the  pnipb- 
ela  tbenuelvcs,  and  that  lo  say  otherwiae  waa  heathenish 
and  popish.  Thus  the  charge  »f  Gregory  Martin  (q.  v.), 
in  his  work  entitled  A  IHteortty  >■/ lie  Maiii/M  Cor- 
nplvm*  of  Iht  Holy  Seriptum  bg  the  ilntiiet  of  mr 
IMif,  that  Ptoteataiils,  in  their  veisions,  follow  the  He- 
brew vDwel^  which  were  uf  recfni  origin,  was  relMii- 
l«i  by  Fulke,  in  hia  llr/nKt  of  Iht  Sinrtrf  ami  Tn,« 
Tramlalioiu  af  thr  lltity  SmiplUTn  into  the  Sni/liih 
Tmgiu.agaimt  Iht  .VaHifiiil  Catilr,  Fi-irolosi  Qiuimh, 
and  JmpudfM  BUmderl  of  GtrgniTi  itniiin,  onr  if  Ike 
Rnifkri  if  PBpiiA  IHciaily  m  tke  Trailoraut  SrmiKary 
"fRStimt  (Lond.  1583;  Parker  Society  ed.  Csmbrirlge, 
1848),  p.  678,  with  the  declaration  that  'seeing  u»r  Sav- 
iour halh  promised  that  never  a  particle  of  the  law  shall 
lierisfaiwe  may  understand  the  same  also  of  the  pnipit- 


TOWEL-POINTS  8: 

*U,  who  hare  not  reeoived  the  rowdi  of  ihc  hUr  Jem, 
Lut  even  of  the  prophets  th«mMlve«,  huwKcver  that 
bentheniah  opinion  pleiieth  you  anil  oihcr  papiiia." 

Hitherto,  both  CuhoHoi  and  fioleManta  chieOy  re- 
lied upon  abusins  each  nlhet.  Nooe  of  them  thought 
or  examining;  LeviU'a  argument!,  or  of  oanaborating 
or  refuting  hi>  Blatementa.  To  be  or  nnt  to  be,  that 
waa  the  queetioa  on  both  ndeK,  and,  beaidea,  nrither  of 
the  two  paniea  had  suffident  Talmuilical  learning  and 
critical  (acL  The  flnt  attempt  to  meet  Leviia'a  book 
waa  made,  u  haa  already  beeii  Mated  above,  by  the 
learned  Azariah  de'  Kueai,  in  1574-75,  in  ch.  lix,  pt.  iii, 
ur  hit  vork  Tht  Light  n/ih!  /.>«  {MnrlCiuiim  [Usn- 
lua,  loT-l-ifi;  Vitnna,  1H*9]),  wherein  be  tried  to  prove 
the  a»lii[iiilv  i>(  the  vouel-poiiils  rrom  theZnliir  and 
the  Talmud. 

With  vrcapona  like  theae,  the  rmteaCanU  now  opened 
■  new  campaign,  uiiiirr  the  teadenliip  of  Buxtorf,  the 
father  (died  1G»),  with  a  display  oT  Kabbiiiical  bayo- 
nela.  Tlie  anliijuily  and  diriiiiiy  of  the  vuwel-pirinlii, 
which  were  n>mieriy  abandoned,  wen  now  deTended ; 
and  in  hia  Tibniai  tint  Comninmiiw  Hatorrthictu 
(Basle,  I6W)  Bnxlorf  made  uae  of  De'  Roaai'i  a^i- 
tneiils.  Feeble  aa  lliera  argument!  were,  they  never- 
IhelHs  found  many  suppnrtera,  who  ranged  themaelvca 
uiHtcr  the  Icadenliip  of  Uuxtorr,  wlio,  however,  waa  not 
dealined  to  carry  ereryihint;  befiire  him  in  hii  Hnl 
battle  against  LgvIib.  The  IJuxlorf-ile'-Roni  alliance 
fKudiiced  a  coniitcr-alUaiiec,  hcadeil  by  Louia  Cappel 
(q.  v.).     Before  Cappel  iiublished  his  ireatiae,  he  tent 


VOWEL-POINTS 


The  eoniequenee  of  lli 


It  Chris 


It  it  might  ikot  be  printed. 

lu  Bi^imenta  ana  leanuiig  ilial,  without  the  aanctioa 
of  the  author,  he  primed  it  at  I.eyden,  under  the  title 
Tkr  ifgitny  oflht  Poimli  l'nttUid'(A  mniHin  Pmdnlin- 
«i'  ffrn^rti«[Levd.  1624;  afterwards  reprinted  bv  liia 
aoii.  Amsterd.  1689,  fo1.]>. 

A  time  of  anxious  suapense  fullnweil  the  publicnttoii 


onymc 


ii>  Bibtiail 

dicalnl  ■have.  Uariiuw,  as  well  as  Ghppel,  deninl  the 
antiquilv  of  the  vowcl-piiint^  but  each  had  a  dilTcient 
aim  in  views  for  while  C.p|»l  cm.iended  against  the 
authority  of  Rabbinical  lradilioii,MDrinuB  contended  in 
behalf  of  Komish  tradition,  placing  the  same  above 
the  t)cri|Hufe>,  which  he  compared  "  to  a  mere  noae  of 
wax.  to  be  (nnicd  any  way,"  lo  prove  thereby  the  »e- 
ceasiiy  of  one  infallible  interpretation.    Albert  I'ighius, 


died  in  I54i).  i 
1588),  iii,  S,  80,  make 
ille  (ScripLune),  iit  i 


md  c<i 


at(hominH90,and 
iirch,  Kccbi,  Auriiia  (ed. 
ilarnralementi  "Sunt  eiiim 
lua  vere  quam  festive  dixit 


In  quam  volueria  partem,  ttahi,  relrahi,  llngique  facile 
pcrmiiiii."  When  Morinus'a  work  waa  puldiithcd.  Cap- 
pel  felt  rather  uncomfortable  at  this  aaaocialion,  and, 
bai'ini:  been  made  known  lo  the  public  as  the  author 
of  the  .-I  i-ciiiiiin  by  Cocceiua  (in  Wit  IJt  duobui  Talma- 
dii  Tilalii  Sankalriai  ft  Maccolk),  Cappel  now  open- 
Iv  dcclareil  hiioaclf  aa  the  author  in  the  preface  to 
"I-S' 


The  BV 


uid  k 


iwed  the  publici 


lion  of  the  .... 

ing  argiimeiilt  soon  convinced  the  moat  tceptical  schol- 
ars of  the  late  origin  of  the  vowel-polnla.  lite  foUow- 
cra  of  Duxtorf  were  for  ■  considerable  lime  doomed  to 
almost  fatal  inaction,  till  at  lait,  after  ■  ailencc  uf  four- 
and'tweniy  years,  Buxtorf,  the  eon,  who  succeeded  bis 
father,  piibliahed,  in  1648,  a  reply  to  Cappel,  eniitled 

t™  VelnU  TfilaiOHili  ///brain*  Origine,  A  aiiquilalr  tl 
Aulhorilalr,  Oppotilui  Ai-amo  Paitdalionit  Rnikilo 
Ludarid  Cttpflli.  Oppel  inawered  in  a  rejoinder  eii- 
litleil  t'indieia  Artam  Pttnc/alioni  (publidied  by  hia 


.  .  ellisls  and  a  n  I  i- vowel  lists.  Suon  ttv 
controversy  was  tran^bnted  to  Kne^land,  where  Leriti 
and  Cappel  >vere  re|iie*ented  by  Wolioii,  whili:  Dt'  Koaa 
and  Buxtorf  were  represented  by  Lighifoui  and  Owen. 
Wallon.in  liis  pivlrgomena  to  the  London  I'ulyglui  {/V»- 
ifyom.  iii, 38-5tt),  speaks  at  grcal  length  coneeming  ibt 
contmversy.andouncludes  that  the  <j)mrorerBv''i» only 
about  Ibe  present  points,  in  regard  ti>  their  forms,  not  t4 
their  tbrco  and  siipiittcalion."  Uititrentniiirely  wan  tl« 
position  uT LJ8l>t>(>o«-  'l'l>»  leanicd  Hebraist  Ihoni^ki 
that  his  dicta  uuulil  b«  qnile  si^ffiricnt  to  ailem  las 
oppcnients,and  in  hia  C>mb)hi  Ch-iyi-papltico, t,6\,tit 
comes  lu  the  conclusion;  "Opus  tjpiritus  Saucli  H|wt 
IHinclatio  Bibliurum,  iton  opus  hominum  perdilonun, 
czccecaiorum,  anieniiuro."  Tliia  dogmatic  and  abitpive 
assertion  of  Liglilfoot  stimulated  Dr.  Uwcii  to  iaaue  bu 
attack  on  WaJion's  Voly^i  and  the  auli-voweUiaui,>Dil 
his  defence  of  llw  vowel  poinit,  with  ihc  cKcepdiiu  uf 
the  endorsement  and  elaboraiion  of  I Jghtlbot's  disiribr. 
is  simply  made  up  of  l)c'-KvaBi-l)uxioff  aipiBKiiti 
greatly  dilulol  (comp.  his  litlrgri/g  md  f^rily  o/  lU 
//ebi-ne  aa-l  Crttb  Trxl  «f  t/a  Saiptum,  etc.  f  Lood. 
liioS]:  iv,  417  iq.  of  Ma  collected  nutks  [Lund.  lOiS]). 


Connitralor  C<mnVri«il  (Loud.  IGoS ;  reprinted  i 
second  volume  of  Todd'a  ilemoirt  fj  rlit  Lift  ami 
isf  o/Biihop  WaUoH  [Lend.  1831}),  which  cnolaii 
ditional  and  valuable  conlributious  to  ilic  lilerali 


the 


Allbough  the  antiquity  of  the  voweKpmnts  tliU  Kmnd 
advocates  in  Joseph  Cooper  {bonaa  M<mirm  Clarit, 
liet  Lti/it  at]»itKntiim,  etc  [Lnnd,  l67S],8amurl  ClariiC 
{A  N  Kaercilaliim  coimrnsy  Ike  Original  nf  ikt  t'lf^ 
ten  and  Vtrtei  m  Iht  BMr,  etc  [ibid.  11W8]),  While- 
Held  (A  DiitrrtoHint  on  the  I/rbrm  Voirtt-poiiat  I  Lii- 
erpont,  1748]),  and  Dr.  (iill  (A  Dittmiiiiim  conca^ig 
Ihc  An/iquilg  of  l/u  Hebnu  Ijnipiage,  iMIrri,  Vent- 
pvi«li,<iiid  Atenli  [Lond.  ITG7]),whu  publisltnl  kva- 
ed  disscrtaiiunt  in  defence  of  Dr.  Uweii  and  agsinsi  Wai- 
Ion,  jct  it  must  be  admitted  that  Walton's  woi^  de- 
cided the  battle  iiiEngland  in  favor  oflheanti-TowellBaa 

On  the  Continent,  Wallmul^vilh  hia  I'Mnr  //*. 
Script.  (RoAock.  1664),  and  olhera  eni«vd  the  Um*  ■ 
support  of  Buxtorf,  wliuH  adherents  in  Kwitteiland 
exalted  hii  riewa  to  a  confessional  atiicle  of  belief  ■> 

wBi  enacteil  in  11178  that  no  person  should  be  liccostd 
lu  preach  the  (iinpel  in  their  churches  iiidess  he  |uA- 
licly  declare<l  that  he  believed  in  the  intettiiy  at  the 
Hebrew  text  and  in  the  divinity  of  ihe  vuwd-piitnis 
and  accents  ("cmliecm  Hebr.VeLTeal.  turn  ijuuad  ccai- 
soiias  liim  quoad  vocolia  aire  puncta  ipsa  sive  puncU)- 
rum  aaltcin  iwtrstatera  Oiiryivartiy  esse"). 

An  intermediate  course,  proceeding  on  the  .asanup- 
lion  that  tfaera  hod  been  a  *im|iler  syalem  of  vowel- 
marks,  cither  by  three  original  vuwela  or  by  diacrilie 
points,  waa  opened  up  by  Kivciua  (/mgoga'tn  tmH-m- 
dutlio  GeneniliM,  Vtt.  tl  A'ori  Tm.  [L^d.  18KJ,  viS, 
15,  l(M),  Hullinger,  and  allien,  and  was  punued  csn- 
cially  by  J.  D.  Mi^lioelis  ( lua  drm  A  lltr  iltr  /vhr.  I  'oa*, 
in  Oriail.  BiiL,  ix,  8;!  aq.,  S8  aq.),  Trendeleiibnrg  (in 
Eichhom's  Rrptrlnr.  xrtii,T0  sq.),  kichhuni,  Jahii,  Uip- 
tbold,  and  ollten  (camp.  Diestel,  Unci,  dii  nbrm  Tnl, 
i-  ikr  ckritll.  KinAt  [Jena,  18G9J,  |i.  OS,  3S4  aq.,  401, 
461,a6l>,h;i),53Dsq.). 

The  controversy, which  so  vehemently  raged  for  nun 
than  three  centuries,  may  Dow  be  rrgaideil  as  ended. 
Modem  research  and  criticism  hare  cuntiniKd  ihe  oi- 
gumenls  urgeil  by  Lcvila  against  the  antiquity  of  iha 
present  rowel .sifii is.    It  Is  now  established  beyuudquea- 

were  two  aystems  of  vocalization  umirivcd  almost  si- 
multaneoualy,  the  earlier  ur  tjtsc  systEm  develupui  by 
Acha,  or  Achai,  of  Ink  (Babylon)^  cir.  AJ>.  KO;  tha 
later  or  second  system  by  Hocha  of  FibehO)^  about  SAt, 


VOWLEB  8: 

Sec  Giniburg,  LtriUi'i  UasMortlA  lia-3Iaaorrth  (Load, 
1867),  p.44  aq. :  Fkk,  Tie  I'uml-poyiH  CoBlrorcrtf,  ia 
Uie  Praifiterian  QHOiierljf  tai  Prinaioa  Striae,  Jan. 
1877  ;  SchnetlenDUin,  I>ie  Conlrocirie  da  Ludoviau 
CappeilMi  mii  dm  BtLetarfa  Hbtr  dot  A  tier  dtr  Aebr, 
Pumetalim  (LsipaL  1879);  ¥i»iHK>ch,JiAuimu Bwctorf 
Arvictren(Iluk,18;9).    (KP.) 

Voirler,  jAnica,  •  dcrRymtn  of  th*  CbuKh  of 
England,  Mudied  >t  Eietcr  U'lltm,  0\i.inl,  whera  be 
took  hu  dqcne  in  1750.  lit  ^'h^  he  beciiiia  cunle  of 
SLAgim',  and  died,  iu  the  miilit  c>r  hii  nKfulncn,  in 
July,  1I5H.    Sec  CAih/km  Ohirttr,  March,  1877,  p.  232. 

Vowtes,  James,  an  Engllth  Woleriin  miwoniir, 
wa*  a  native  of  Bath.  He  wat  pioiulj  trainel,  con- 
verted in  hia  flft«eatb  jtu,  wai  noeired  into  the  min- 
iMi?  and  tent  M  Jamaica,  Weat  Indiea,  in  18S9 ;  wi* 
Btationed  at  Port  Antnnin,  alUclitd  by  fCTCT  on  Aug. 
10, 1830,  and  dieil  on  the  Idlh,  in  the  iweiily-founh 
year  of  his  age,  Hia  lalenli  wen  rt«peetal>le,anil  hia 
amiable  diaposiiioii  endeared  him  to  alL  Stt'EKgliih 
Wt^m  Mimulct,  1831. 

VredeDbeTBb,  Joiix  Schdrkxan,  a  dergyinan  of 
tba  Reformed  (Uuuh)  Church,  wu  boni  in  Hev  lirunt- 
irick,  N.  J.,  March  30,  I77S,  the  aon  of  a  rmpectable 
merchanU  He  graJiiated  at  Queen's  CulloRe  in  1794, 
alndied  ihwloffj  with  Ur.John  H.I.ivinKslun,  wa>  li- 
nn«d  to  preieb  in  1798  or  1800  (?),  and  liecame  pastor 
nf  his  only  charge,  the  ReTurmed  (Diiich)  Cburcb  of 
Karitanur  Somerrille,  M.J,,  June,  ISOO.  Here  he  min- 
istered UDIil  Oct  4, 1821,  vhen  he  wia  iiiddenly  called 
to  hia  reward  in  heaven.  The  Church  had  been  dj- 
rided  befora  hia  seltleiitent,  but  under  hia  miiiiilry  it 
wai  united,  ami  grav  with  aleidy  increase  in  atrenglh 
and  numben  until  his  death.  Then  came  the  great 
harmc  Ue  ha<l  been  engaged  fiir  three  iiicceasive 
days  ID  paatoril  viMiation  with  an  elder,  and  was  so 
cheend  by  its  reaulu  thai,  iteisiiM  fatigue,  lia  iniiated  ' 
on  finishing  his  round  on  the  third  day.  lie  bade  fare- 
well to  a  laily  of  his  coogrfgation  and  her  huiband  who 
wera  just  about  going  fui  a  mlaaioii  to  the  healhen. 
They  aaug  logelher  the  l>yn>n  "Bleat  l>c  the  tie  that 
bioiia,"  «"'•  '*>e»  he  offered  a  prayer  so  sweet  and  melt- 
ing thai  il  leemeil  lo  carry  them  up  to  the  gate  of  heav- 
en. That  midnight  the  bridegrwini'i  cry  was  heard, 
and  he  went  out  lo  meet  him.  He  died  of  epilepsy, 
tearing  hia  widow  with  her  eleven  children.  Her  great- 
est anxiety  was  "How  ahall  I  (rain  Ihem  for  heaven?" 
Mrs.  Vredenbergh  was  a  dauRhtef  of  the  celebrated 
K«T.  James  Caldwell,  D.D^uf  Elizabeth,  K.  J.,  the  he- 
roic luanyr  of  the  Keviduiimi.  "aiNt  was  a  babo  in  her 
mothei's  arms  when  Ti.ry  hands  tink  that  mother's 
lire.'  Nr.hly  did  this  rare  woman  fiJHI  her  trust  as  a 
minister's  wife,  and  u  I  he  mother  uf  her  fatberlesa  cliil- 
dren.  Iler  hu-bsud's  funeral  drew  crowds  of  weeping 
friends  lo  the  im;iK<uivc  scene.  Immediately  a  won- 
derful revival  nf  religion  began,  which  Inalcd  two  yeata, 
and  added  to  the  Churi'li  r.'llnwship  three  hundred  aitd 
Nxty-eight  soula,  Il  reached  all  claaaes  of  the  commu- 
nity, ami  its  aubJeclH,  as  a  body,  with  very  few  eicep- 

Mr.  Vredenbergh  was  an  impreiaive,  earnest,  initruc- 
live  preacher,  a  faithful,  tkilful,  successful,  and  beloved 
pastor.  His  amiable  quolitiea  cnileareil  him  to  all  that 
knew  him.  His  attainments  were  respectable.  He  waa 
a  great  friend  of  the  young  people,  a  Judiciinia  counael- 
Inr,  and  attracted  a  conAdence  which  he  always  Juati- 
Oed.  He  knew  men  and  he  knew  God  and  the  Kble 
la  few  men  dn.  Hjs  aprituilily  was  hia  crowning  ex- 
cellence and  the  secret  of  hia  aucceaa.  See  Sprsgue. 
Aiaalt  nf  lie  Aner.  PMlpi/,vnLi\;  Corwin,  J/onuu/ 
o/  Ihe  Ref.  Chimi,  a.  v.;  WaUh,  The  Martyred  Jtii- 
MMKiHei,  11,107,201.    (W.J.K.T.) 

TndenbnrglL  Hkcealiah,  a  Methodist  Ep'iaoo- 
pal  ministeT,  was  bom  in  Wesichet>ler  Coiiuly,  N.  Y., 
Hay  10,  I7W.  He  united  with  the  MisKiuri  Cunferencc  | 
iD  ISK,  and  served  sppoiatmeals  in  this  coofetence  ai  i 


13  VUEZ 

Okaw,  Wabash,  Honcv  Creek,  and  Termllian.  In  1834 
Ihe  Illinois  G>nrercnce  waa  funoed,  and  Hr.  Vreiteii- 
burgh,  being  within  ita  limits,  became  a  member,  ajid 
served  it  at  Vermilion,  Crawfurdsville,  and  Luganspuit 
MisBOn.  In  1832  Ihe  Indiana  Conference  was  tumtd, 
ondHr.Tredeuburgh.being  located  within  its  limits, be- 
came one  of  its  member)^  and  aerred  it  until  bis  dmlh, 
Jan.!3,1869,  See  Minuleto/AimiialCon/cnuixt.lSm, 
p.  183. 

VrlhaspKti.  (or  Bhihaspati,  fmm  l/riA,  "hymn" 
or  "  prayer,"  and  pali,  '•  prulectoi"  or  "  lutd"),  in  Veilic 
mythology,  is  the  guardian  of  the  hyoina  or  prayers  of 
the  ploua  addceaaod  to  the  goila.     He  i       '      '      ' 


■  lighl,-  L 


i-foeeii,"  becauae  bis 
fscea  ire  the  acvcn  Vedic  metres;  and  "represents  all 
gnda,"  when  (he  sacrilice  is  peifunned.  He  is  tbeie- 
fore  Bomptimea  idenilHed  wiih  Agni.  He  is  lepreaent- 
e<i  as  a  priest  of  the  gnds,  who  himself  celebrates  wor- 
ship and  imparts  iiistruclinn.  In  the  epic  and  Purjlnic 
mythology  he  ia  represented  as  preceptor  of  (be  gods 
aiul  Kishi&  He  also  appears  as  recent  of  (he  planet 
Jupiter;  and  in  (he  ceremonies  perfurmed  in  honor  of 

ia  paid  him  in  this  capacity.    Sec  Cham^rt't  k'negtUi- 

VrlmOBt,  Eho  Luoub,  a  Dutch  phikilogist,  was 
bom  in  1699  at  Emden.    In  1722  he  was  admitted  (o 

Hartingen.  In  1730  he  was  called  lo  Franeker  as  pro- 
fessor uf  Oriental  languages,  to  which  he  Joined,  in  1781, 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  aiiliquitiea.  He  waa  also  leclut 
of  that  achool,  and  died  there  June  15, 1760.  He  pub- 
lished, Difeilatio  de  Te}Ta  FiHu  (yisrt  IBS)  irpud 
llebraxa  (Utrecht,  1719):— £>>u.  de  SriOoi  (ibid.  1722)  i 
— O'alio  Innugunilu  dr.  I'uriit  Gmlilium  Iptoramtpit 
CAru/iawruin  Qaorunduni  Erroribm,  tic  (  Franeker, 
\'i\):—Anliq«ilnlym  llrarlitiearum  Tietn  Coaliwrr- 
la  (ibid.  1782-39,  2  vols.)  —Din.  de  SHibat  ia  Jii-eju- 
I'ami)  a  Veleribut  llrhivit  Maxime  el  Gnecit  ObterrattM 
(Utrecht,  l735)i-ttM.  dt  Aalm  A-lgli  Titbenuiniti 
t^Uici,  fjutgae  Rali-me  LilltraU  ae  MyHerio  (Fran- 
eker, 1745)  -.—Din.  SrUtIa  Velerit  Trtlametili  prncipm 
fx  Itecaloijtt  (i!b\A.\'SS)i—AdDiclaClainra  Theo^gia 
Dogmatieir  V.  T.  Srlerltt,  etc,  (ibid.  1 743-67, 8  vols.).  See 
BiM.  Jud.  iii,  487  aq.;  Winer,  ItamOach  dtr  ikeat.  l.il- 
eralur,i,M;  Hocfer, A'oar. Si^. Crnenife, a. v.    {B.V.) 

Vfooiuan,  Uaiiknt,  a  minister  of  the  Iterurmed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bum  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y^  Dec 
24,  1723.  He  stwlie<l  wiib  CumeUi>a  Van  SantviKinl 
anil  TheodoTue  J.  Frelltighnj'iien,  and  alterwanls  at  (he 
Univcrvily  of  U(rec1it  frum  17S0  to  1762;  was  licensed 
by  (he  Clossis  nf  Utrecht,  June  7, 1752,  and  iiTdaii>e<l  by 
theClaisia  uf  Amaterdam,  July  3uf  Ihe  time  year;  and 
became  paator  at  !4ew  Palls,  Shawmgunk,  and  Sloni- 
gomerv,  N.  y_  from  l7iD  lo  1764;  and  at  Schenociaily 
from  1754  (o  ITHI.  He  died  Nor.  16, 1784.  During  his 
long  and  Uborium  insturale  at  Schencc(ady  he  recciveil 
more  than  400  meuiben  iu(a  the  Church,  married  868 
couples,  and  pcrf»rmcil  34al  baptismi.  He  was  elixjuent 
la  a  preichet  and  beloved  as  a  paator.  See  Curwin, 
J/miHui  o/lie  B'f.  CAme*  »  A mrrim, a,  v. 

VoeE,  AbnoU),  n  French  painter,  was  bom  at  Op- 
pcnoia,ueir  Sain(-Uiner,in  1642.  He  Srat  received  in- 
atriKtion  from  a  JeKiah  painter  of  Sain l-Umer,  who  rec- 
Piria,  whidier  he  went,  iiid  en- 
years. 


tend  the  aclKKd  nf  Fr^re  Luc, 
and  (hen  went  li'  Inly,  At  Koi 
works  of  art,  and  carried  off  (hi 
einy.    The  prince  Pamilfi  (■"*  him  under  hli 


ic  he  aludied  (1; 


ihci 


VtriTASSE 

WIS  ktiidlf  raecircd  by  thtt  iniat.  Th«  king  gars 
Ikliti  a  iwiiBion,  uiH  he  executed  many  good  works.  He 
rernovHl  to  lilie  for  the  purpose  or  piunliug  a  picture 
ot  iUk  Pramfiiiii-a  in  lU  rmpfr  for  the  Cbiiith  ofthe 
Huapilal,  and  wliile  there  he  received  so  manr  caminis- 
■intia  that  he  decided  lo  remain  there  permanently, 
lie  wu  chosen  alileman  of  the  eity,  and  died  in  1T24. 
Tuez  executed  many  piclurea  for  [be  churches  nf  LiHe, 
Catabray,  ami  Uouay.  among  Iha  beU  at  vihich  an 
Sfiarrrrtioii:  —Tke  VnrtgnhK  of  St.  Aitdme : —The 
Jtuhjiamt  n/SiJaimm:—Dantl  in  Ike  Dn  afLiimi:. 
riel^teortTj  «/ Ike  Ptomittd  Load  :—mnA  The  DacaU 
/ran  the  Croa.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hit.  o/tie  Hm 
Ai1i,a.r. 

Taltasse,  CitAKUca,  a  French  divine,  wu  born 
Nov.  II,  ICCO,  at  Chauny,  near  Noy.n.  Afier  studying 
at  l*iiii,  aiHl  entering  the  religiotu  nnks,  he  cuhivaioi 
theology.  Church  hittory,  and  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
languayea.     In  lUHH  he  wu  admitted  tu  the  Sorbonne, 

led  toliis  removal  in  17H,  and  he  died  April  10, 171G. 
Hia  iheiilugical  compilaliona  ue  euumerated  in  the 
£iOff.  UmutrtUt,  n.  v. 

Vnlcan  (Gr.  "H>oiffr«e),  in  Greek  and  Roman  my- 
thologi-,  wai  i)ie  »n  or  Jupiter  aiiil  Juno,  and  conse- 
quently ibe  brother  of  Hart,  to  irhum,  therefore,  he 
bean  a  chxe  relation,  became  he  prepsrea  for  him  the 
veapnni  of  warTare.  A  later  atory  aay«  Juno  gave  biith 
la  Vulcan,  being  jesloua  becitiae  of  the  birth  of  Hiuer^ 
va,  without  the  ossiMinee  of  man,  having  been  mmle 
fruitful  in  eating;  a  certain  plant,  Vulcan  ia  the  god 
of  Srr,  and  etpecially  in  two  ways— Ant  as  a  suhtem- 
neous  power  of  nature,  showing  himwlr  in  Rnxjecting 
volcanoes,  and  second  as  an  iuiUt{ien)uilile  aid  lor  the 
trades  and  aits  of  man.  The  god  was  b»m  as  a  weak- 
ling, and  was  Ihercfiire  so  hated  by  hii  mother  that  she 
planned  to  dispeirae  with  bim,  whereiipiin  he  fell  down 
from  Olympus.  Thetis  aiHl  Kurynomp.  gridilcsses  nf 
the  sea,  caught  him  in  their  laps,  With  them  he  then 
nmained  nine  yean^  and  made  fiT  them  all  kinds  of 
costly  apparel  He  also  made  at  this  time  an  cnchant- 
«!  choir,  rnim  which  no  one  who  had  scaled  himseir  in 

hia  mother  as  ■  |ireseiit.  to  punish  her  fur  her  diiilike  of 
him.  \Vlieii  she  wbs  acconlingly  held  fast  by  the  chair, 
IM  goil  could  persuBilc  him  to  withdraw  the  eiiiliani- 
ment  save  Uacchus,  who  intoxicated  him.  Vulcan  tlien 
relumed  from  his  hidtiig-pbce  and  was  obedient  to  hia 
mother,  although  she  had  wished  to  kill  him  in  his 
When  Jupiter  at  one  lime  ifuarrelled  with 
her,  he  actuollv  took  her 


parvfo 


m  ly  (he  fooC  and 
hurleil  him  from  heaven. 
According  to  some,  in 
consequence  of  ibis  (all, 
I)  according  to  others,  horn 
f  birth,  he  was  lame  and 
)   limped.     Ur  Homer  he 
'    has  a  place  of  work  upon 
Olympus,  built  by  him- 
self, where  he  also  built 
dwellings  for  the  other 
gods.     Later  his  work- 
ing-places arc  in  The  Hrc- 
ejecting  volcanoes  —  as, 
forinstance.in^.ina<.r 
.  upon  Lemnos — and  his 
y  helpers  are  the  Ct'clnps 
1   (q.v.)B^onle^Steropcll, 


according  to  the  Hit 

Cbaris  (iitace);  aei 

ing  to  the  Orli/fjf^^' 

AuiJijue  Head  of  Vulcou.      wbo,honeTei,waaw 


14  VULGATE 

to  him.  As  an  ingenious  god,  who,  similar  to  Minerva. 
teaches  men  The  delightful  and  conducive  arts,  lie  waa  tt- 
sociatcd  with  her  in  religious  worship  by  the  Athenians 
who  dedicated  feasts  to  both,  and  placed  tbeir  slalus 
side  by  Mde  in  their  templca.  According  to  Homer, 
Vukan  had  no  offspring.  Others  affirm  that  he  had 
children  by  different  mothers :  Capid,  Erichthnminv 
IViiplete^Pahemon.RhadaoianthujsaienitfsCMU^C^ 
cuius,  SerriusTullius,  Ibe  nrmph  Thalia,  Casmilus,  and 
the  three  Cabiti.  The  Romans  called  Vulcan  alM>  J/af- 
ciber,  that  is,  "  the  melter."  In  Kumc  he  had  a  nnmbec 
oftemples.  among  them  one  by  tlicCamitture,theiiiaia- 
meeting  place,  whose  erecllun  wiu  sumciimet  accredit- 
ed to  Komulus.  at  other  times  again  to  Titaa  Tatin 
His  festival,  the  Vulcanalia,  was  celebrated  Aug.  a, 
with  plays,  in  the  FlamiIlianCiIm^wltere  also  a  temple 
of  the  god  was  erected,  and  at  this  feast  the  Romans 
began  to  work  by  light,  in  order  to  inaugurate  the  pnc- 
I ice  of  working  by  light,  a  gift  of  Vulcan.  See  Smith, 
T>ia.  of  CloH.  Biog.  and  Mstiol.  a.  v. 

VnlgBT  Tonsua  is  (be  ordinary  common  langiup 
of  the  people  or  country.  The  phtaoe  "vulgar  lotiEue' 
occ'iTv  in  tuo  or  three  of  the  rubrici  and  eihartatkua 
of  the  Knglinh  Boat  nf  Common  Prayrr ;  e.  g.,  in  the 
'      '        '  uhliealorj  "thsi 


be   ti 


1  the  rylgitr  loMijatJ"     Tbe 


Prayrr-bOBk,  howev 

moniing  and  evening  prayer  privately,  iliey  may  sij 
the  snme  in  <as  taiigvogr  l/lut  lAiy  Ihemtrlcti  do  ndrr. 
Mand."  The  expresMon  stood  formerly  m  Ike  ij^ui 
bmgMff  and  was  changed  in  compliance  with  the  tug- 
gestioii  thif'auppoee,  as  it  often  falls  out,  that  chiklni 
of  stranger*  wlto  never  intend  to  stay  in  England  should 
be  brought  there  for  baptism,"  it  would  be  objeclianaUt 
that  they  should  be  required  to  leant  tbe  principles  of 
religion  in  the  Eai/iiii  lo^gur.    Sec  Vilkxaci'ljiil 

Vulgate  is  the  impular  and  conrenirnt  detignaiino 
of  the  common  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  usually  at- 
tributed to  Jcnnnc.  Its  great  importance  ill  the  biMi>< 
fy  of  the  Chrintian  Church  jusliAcs  an  unusual  degree 
at  fulness  in  ita  treatment.    See  Vkhsiom. 

I.  OrigiH  ami  llifoty  nf  Ike  Same— I.  The  Dam 
Vulgale,"  which  it  equivalent  to  Vvigala  rdilio  (tl:t 
ai-Tfnl  lent  of  Holy  Sctiplure),  has  neeenarily  been 
used  diffcn-nlly  in  various  ages  of  the  (Hiureh.  Then 
'  ID  doubt  that  the  phrase  originally  answered  lo 
1^  hlom-  at  the  Greek  Seripturea.     In  ihit 

1  his  language  explains  sutBciently  Ihe  nrgio 

term:  "Hoc  Juxto  LXX  interpietes  dlilmw, 

quorum  edilio  Into  oris  tab/iiln  hT  (HIeron.  Cosib.m 

'  a.  Irt,  SO).  »  Multum  in  hoc  lueo  LXX  criilio  Hcbiai- 

imque  discordant.     I'rimum  ergo  Jt  Vubjala  nftrwat 

iraclabimus  et  posteasequemuronlinem  veritatis'  (itiiJl 

TI7, 22).    In  some  places  Jerome  distinctly  quotes  the 

Greek  text;  "Porro  in  eilllioneV'ulgata  duplicitrr  Irgi- 

habent  f  qXai  (I'm',  hoc  «B 

man^etli  nal:   alii  ffiXaroJ  iloiv,  hoc  eat  letiattB 

sive  mtsrn  nmC  (Conm.  in  Otr*,  Hi,  13;  cvrnp.  8-11, 

etc.).     But  generally  he  regards  Ihc  Old  Latin,  whith 

las  rendered  from  the  Sept,  as  subctantially  idcnlrn) 

riih  it,  and  thus  inlrDdiicea  Ijitin  quotalioni  niidrt 

he  name  of  the  Sept.  or  VvlffOla  rdilio:  "Minirquo- 

loilo  TvlgiUit  tdirio  . . .  testimonium  alia  inierprctatis^ 

e  Biibi-ertcrit:  ConffTH/nbor  et  glorifeabor  eortm  I)a- 

ibiB....  lUud  aiitem  quod  in. LXX  legilur:  Coiigre- 

gabor  ct  gloriHcnbor  coram  Domino  .  .  ."  (Cammi  in 

Itn.  rlir,  b).     So  agxi"  -  **  riiilisthiens  . . .  alifmiprKii 

Vulgata   scribil    ctliliu"   lOid.  rit,  t9).     "PalMiniK. 

indifferentcr  LXX  nJ.'m>iifl»  roam-  (f™-.  n 

■.  rri,  27).     In  this  way  ilie  transfeirnce  of  the 

F  from  tbe  current  (ireek  text  lo  the  current  Ijiin 

became  easy  and  natural;  but  there  does  imi  gp- 

To  be  ant  instance  in  tbe  ageof  Jernme  of  the  Bp* 

plication  of  the  tenn  to  the  Latin  Tenion  of  tbe  CM 


VULGATE  8: 

Test  witbont  regard  to  iu  dcriration  from  tbe  Sept^  or 
tu  that  of  tbe  New  Teit. 

3.  Tet  nwre :  ts  the  phfMe  |I0l>^4  i'toait  came  to 
ngnify  an  UDCorrecteJ  (and  so  corrupt)  text,  the  ume 
•eoondaiy  meaniog  waa  attached  la  tvtgala  tdilie. 
Tbua  in  soine  places  the  vutgata  editio  stands  in  con- 
trast with  tbe  true  HexDpUric  text  of  the  SepL  One 
pasaage  will  place  this  in  the  cleaTctt  llfrlil:  "Brer- 
ilti  ailiDoneo  eliim  eoe  ediiionem  qiinni  Ucigenca  et 
Caaariensia  Eiuebim,  oninesqiie  Ursulu  triiisUlorea 
Eoirqv,  id  est,  amiHuwjn  appellant,  atque  nf^foni,  et 
a  plenaqoe  qunc  KaoKtavo^  dicilur ;  aliam  LXX  incer- 
ptelum  quae  in  lEarXoTc  cnlicibua  reperitur,et  a  nobia 
in  Latinum  Kmwnem  Odeliwr  vena  eat . . .  Kuivq  au- 
tem  iata,  hoc  c«^  (lommumi  afilio,  ipaa  est  qiue  et  LXX, 
aed  hoc  inurett  inter  utnni(|ue,  quod  xoii-q  pro  iocia  et 
temporibiia  et  pro  roluntale  acriplnnim  vrlua  comipta 
editio  eat;  ea  autem  qiw  habeiur  in  tfmrXolc  't  quam 
nos  renimiis,  ipsa  est  qiue  in  crudiiorum  libri«  incnr- 
nipl*  et  immacalita  LXX  inteqirctum  tnnilaliu  re- 
•errntur"  iKp.cr\,int  Sun.rl  F'rl.§i). 

3.  Thii  uae  of  the  phrase  Vyb/ala  tdilio  to  describe 
the  Sept.  (and  the  Latin  venuun  iif  the  latter)  was  cou- 
tiniieil  in  later  limea.  It  I«  aiipp»ned  hv  the  authority 
of  AngnMine,  Ailn  of  Tienne  (A.D.  BUO),  K.  Dacon,  etc ; 
anil  liellsnaine  diatinclly  recognises  llic  application  nf 
the  temi,  >o  that  Van  Esa  ia  Juttilted  in  saving  that  the 
CiHiiKil  of  Trent  erred  in  a  piiint  of  history  when  they 
described  Jemmt'i  version  as  "  veins  et  Tulgatu  cdiiio, 
qiue  longo  tot  sKCuhirum  nsu  in  ipsa  eccleaia  pmUata 
al'i(lrKA.p.Si).  As  a  general  rule,  the  Latin  falhera 
speak  of  Jeronte's  rcrsiiii  as  "onT"  version  (iiottra  tdi- 
lia.  nodi-a  eaUcet) ;  bnl  it  was  not  nnnatural  that  (he 
Tridenline  fathers  (as  many'Ialer  scholars)  should  be 
nrideil  by  the  associatimis  of  their  own  lime,  nnd  adapt 
to  new  circiimslancea  irrms  which  had  grown  otsolele 
in  their  orifrinal  sense.  When  the  did^reiice  of  the 
(Ureek)  Vul^^te  of  the  early  Church  and  the  (LaUn) 
VulgaM  of  the  modem  Knman  Church  baa  oiKe  been 
afqwaheniled,  no  further  difficulty  need  arise  from  the 
idenlitv  nf  name  (enmp.  Augustine,  ed.  Uenedicl.  [raris, 
IS36],'v,3A:  Sabatter.  i, 79-J 1  Van  Eas,  f7neA.  p. 34-4!, 
who  gives  very  full  and  conclinivc  refereitcea,  though 
he  fails  to  perceive  that  the  OU  Lultn  was  practically 
ideniided  with  the  Sept.). 

II.  The  OU  LaliH  Virtum:-t.  C>n>m.-The  hi>Ir>ry 
of  the  earliest  Latin  venion  of  tbe  Bible  is  liwt  in  com- 
plete otMciirily.  All  that  can  be  affirmed  with  ccrlain- 
ly  is  that  it  was  made  in  Africa.  During  tbe  first  two 
centuries  the  Church  of  Koine,  Id  which  we  naturally 
look  for  the  sonree  oflhe  version  now  identified  witb 
it.  waa  eaaefltially  Ureek.  'I'he  Roman  tushops  bear 
Greek  names:  the  eariiest  Roman  liturgy  was  Greek; 
the  few  remains  nfthe  Christian  literature  nf  Kome  are 
Greek.  The  aanw  remark  holds  true  of  Gaul  (camp. 
Wesloott, //iK.n/'(7niioiin/A'.  7".  p.2e9,i70,and  raff.); 
bat  the  Church  of  Korth  Africa  seems  to  have  been  Lat  in- 
apeaking  from  the  first.  At  what  dat«  this  Cbureh 
was  founded  ia  uncertain.  A  passage  of  Augustine 
(,Ciml.  IMhuiI,  Up.  ^ixxvii)  seems  to  imply  that  Africa 
waa  converted  late;  but  if  so,  the  Gospel  spread  there 
with  remarkoble  rapidity.  At  the  end  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury, Christians  were  found  in  every  rank  and  in  evert' 
place ;  and  the  roast«-B|)irit  of  Tertullian,  the  first  of 
the  Latin  fathers,  was  then  raised  up  to  give  utterance 
to  the  poMionaie  thoughts  of  his  natiTo  Church.  This 
Church  father  (tiitiiictly  recognises  the  general  curren- 
cy of  a  Latin  veniun  of  the  New  Test.,  though  not  nec- 
essarily of  every  Lnok  al  present  iiic1uiU.il  in  the  canon, 
which  even  in  hi*  lime  hod  been  able  to  monid  the  pop. 
ulat  language (_A ilr.  Prax.  t;  "In  usn  est  nualtonim  per 
sinplicitalem  inlerpretationis.*'  fie  Mimog.  ni :  "  Sci- 
amus  plane  noa  aic  ciae  in  UrKco  authentic!)  quomoilu 
in  uiuin  exiit  per  dunmm  syllabarum  out  callidam  ant 
tinplicem  erefaionem").  This  wos  chsractetiieil  by  a 
"rujenes*"  and  "«im[dicity"  which  seem  lo  point  l» 
the  nature  of  its  ari(^n.   In  the  words  of  Auguatiuo  {Dt 


15  VULGAl-E 

i)a«r.  CAruf.ii,IC[ll]),''any  onein  tboBrst  aiceaof 
Christianity  who  gained  possession  of  a  Greeic  M^,anJ 
fancied  that  be  had  a  fair  knowledge  of  Greek  and  l^t> 
in,  ventured  to  translate  it"  ("Qui  scripturaa  ex  He- 
bnea  lingua  in  Gnecam  verterunt  numerari  pcasunl. 
Latini  antem  interpretes  nullo  modo.  Ut  cnim  cuivif 
primis  fldei  temporibus  in  manus  vcnit  codes  Grscuiv  - 
et  aliquantulum  bculialis  ^bi  ulriusi|ue  lingua  baberr 
videbalur,  ansua  est  interpret ari").  Thus  Ihe  venii« 
of  the  New  Test,  ai^iears  to  have  arisen  turn  individual 
and  successive  efl^rts;  but  it  docs  not  lullow,  by  any 
means,  that  numeiDus  versions  were  >iiuullaaeoiiBiy  dr- 
eulated,  or  that  tbe  several  parts  of  tha  vcrMon  were 
made  independently.  Even  if  it  had  been  so,  ihc  exi- 
gencies of  tbe  public  service  must  soon  have  given  dcf- 

bors  of  inilividuals.  Tbe  work  of  private  haikds  would 
necessarily  be  suliject  lo  revision  fur  ecclesiastical  use. 
The  separate  books  would  be  united  in  a  volume,  and 
thus  a  stanilard  text  of  the  whuU  collection  would  Ue 
esublisheit.  With  regard  to  the  Old  Tcst^  the  case  is 
less  clear.  It  is  pmbable  that  the  Jews  who  were  set- 
tled in  North  Africa  were  cnnHneil  to  the  lircek  lowiu ; 
otherwise  it  might  be  su|>poaed  that  Ihe  Idiin  version 
of  the  Old  Test,  is  In  part  anterior  ■■'  Ihc  Cliristian  lera, 
and  that  (aa  in  Ihe  case  of  Greek)  a  preparation  fiir 


How 


.  Christi 

Gospel  was  introduced  into  Africa. 
have  been,  the  substantial  nimllarity  of  the  dincreni 
pans  of  the  Old  and  Neiv  Tests,  establishes  a  real  coo- 
neclion  between  ihem,  and  justifies  the  belief  that  there 
waa  one  popular  I'tiii  veruon  of  ilic  llible  current  in 
Africa  in  the  but  quarter  of  the  3d  century.  Many 
words  which  ate  either  Greek  (mochBra,  sojihia,  peri- 
zoma,  poderis,  agoniio,  etc)  or  literal  trauduliona  of 
Greek  forms  (vividco,  JuBtifico,  etc.)  abound  in  both, 
aiul  explain  what  Tertullian  meant  when  lie  spoke  of 
the  "umplicity''urihe  translation. 

2,  C*or«rfer.— The  exact  litcrality  of  Ihe  Old  ver- 
uon was  not  condned  lo  the  moat  miinile  observance  of 
order  and  the  accurate  reflection  of  the  wonls  of  the 
original;  in  many  coses  the  very  forms  nf  Greek  con- 
struction were  retained  in  violaliun  ofLjiiin  usage.  A 
fen  examples  of  these  singular  anomalies  will  convey  a 
better  idea  of  the  ainnlute  certainty  wiib  which  the 
Latin  commonly  Indicates  the  text  that  Ihe  transla- 
tor had  before  him  than  any  general  statements: 


HalL  lT,»,"hal>llai 


lot  improbable  that  the  continual  Gnecitro 
which  marks  Ihe  Latin  texts  of  D,  (Corf.  Bear)  and  E, 
(Cod.  /Mud.)  had  a  wider  currency  than  it  coulil  main- 
lain  afterward). 

8.  CrtowB.— With  regard  lo  Ihe  African  canon  of  the 
New  Tesu,  Ihe  Old  version  offers  im|>unant  evidence. 
From  eunsideralinns  of  atvie  and  1angua{;e,  it  seems  cer- 
tain that  the  Epistle  to  the  HcbrawK,  James,  snd  2  Pe- 
ter did  not  form  part  of  the  original  African  version,  ■ 
concliuion  ivliich  falls  in  wilh  what  is  derived  from 
historical  lestimonv  (comp.  Tht  Hit,  ofthi  C.JBoa  of 
Ihe  .V.  T.  p.  2lfi  sq.}.  In  Ihe  Old  Test.,  on  ilie  other 
linnil.  the  Ukl  Latin  erred  by  cxces^  and  not  by  defect ; 

ibc  Scpt^  it  included  the  Apocryphal  books  wbLch  are 
commoidi- conlaincd  in  them,  and  to  these  3  Esdras  nas 


Ion. —After  t 


e  trauslalioD  once  received  a 


VULGATE  8i 

deflnilc  alupe  in  Arriei,  whieb  could  not  have  been  long 
aflcr  ihe  miUdle  of  the  3J  cenlun,  it  wu  not  [rablicly 
reviacd.  Tbe  olil  lest  troa  jpaloiuly  guiTdcd  by  eccle- 
liuiiciil  uM,  uhI  ira*  rctaiiieU  there  at  a  itioe  vrhen  Jo- 
rume'a  i-cruon  was  cbcwbrre  almost  iiiiirrnially  reccir- 
eiL  Tbc  uell-kiHinii  story  nt  ilie  iluluKianci:  caused 
by  the  attempt  oT  iii  Arricaii  biibop  la  introduce  Je- 
rume'a  cucurMii  fur  tbc  old  irdeni  in  the  liislory  urju- 
nali  (August,  t'p,  cir,  ap.  Hieroiu  Kpp.  quiiiol  bj'  Tre- 
gelles,  /n/iWucfibn,  p.  24S)  allows  liuiv  carefully  inlen- 

Ihe  text  suffered  by  the  ualural  cortuptions  of  copyinR, 
eiipedally  by  iuterpoUlinna,  a  r>imi  uT  error  to  which 
Ihc  gospels  were  panicularlr  expuaeiL  In  the  Old 
Teat,  the  veraion  was  marip  from  ibe  unreriaed  eililion 
of  Ibe  Sepl.,and  thus  fruiti  the  Hrat  included  many  falae 
teadings,  of  which  Jerome  orten  notice*  ijutancei  (e,  g. 
i>i.  evi,  lid  Sao.  tt  Fnt.). 

The  Latin  tranalalot  o(  Irenteai  km  pmbibly  con- 
teropornry  with  Tertulliin,  and  faia  renderiiifra  of  the 
quotaliona  from  Scripture  eonBrm  the  cuiieh 


'dranti  as  to  the  ci 


:yof{™l 


tially)  one  Utin  version.  It 
had  a  Latin  MS.  before  him  during  the  execation  of 
his  work,  but  be  was  ao  familiar  wilh  the  common 
ttanalaliun  that  be  rcpnidueea  couiinually  character- 
istic pbraaei  which  he  cannot  be  supposed  to  hive  de- 
rircd  from  aiiv  other  source  (Lac  h  maun,  A'.  T.  i,p.  x,xi). 
Cyprian  (died  A.D.  HT)  carries  on  the  chain  of  teati- 
mony  far  llirougb  the  next  century ;  and  be  is  rullowed 
by  l^ctanlius,  Juvencus,  J.  Firmicus  Matenit 
the  Deacon  (Ambrosiaster).  Hilarv  of  Pwiiera  (died  A,  D. 
U9),  and  Ludfer  of  Cyiiari  (died  A.D.  370).  Ambrose 
■ud  Augustine  exhibit  a  peculiar  recenaion  of  the 
text,  and  Jerotne  oflcra  some  traces  of  it.  From 
date  MS3.  of  pana  of  the  African  lext  have  bevii 
■erred,  and  it  is  unnece«sarv  to  trace  the  hiitury 
transmiaaion  to  a  later  lime. 

But  while  the  earliest  Ijrin  veteinn  wan  preserved 
l^nenlly  uiu-hangcd  in  Korib  Africa,  it  fared  diffi^renl- 
ly  in  Italy.  There  the  provincial  rudeiieas  uf  the  ver- 
sion was  necessarily  mure  offeni^re,  and  the  eurapara- 
live  familiarity  of  "the  leading  bishops  wilh  the  Greek 
lexla  made  a  revision  at  once  more  feasible  and  Icsa 
aunling  to  Iheir  con gregal inns.  Thu^  in  the  4th  een- 
turi-,  a  deHnite  eccleiiaatical  recension  (of  the  gosiwls, 
at  leaal)  appeora  to  have  been  made  in  North  llsly  by 
reference  to  the  (iret^k,  nbich  was  diatinguiabed  by  tbc 
name  of  /lain.  This  Augiuline  recommends  on  the 
ground  of  its  dose  accuracy  aiH<  il»  |ien>picuily  (X>e 
ikitir,  Ckriil.  IS,  "  In  [pais  inler|)relati<inibu*  Itala  cai- 
teria  prcferatur,  iwm  est  veibornm  lenacior  cum  perspl- 
cuilate  eentcnliB"),  and  the  text  of  ihc  goepeta  which 
be  folIoHTs  is  marked  by  the  latter  cliaracteristic  when 
compared  wilh  Ihc  African.  In  the  olher  books  the 
difference  cannot  be  Iraeeil  with  accnney;  and  it  ha 
not  yet  been  accurately  ilctertnineil  whet  her  other  na 
tional  teccnsioiis  may  not  have  existed  (as  scema  cer 
tain  from  the  evidence  which  icbolars  have  recenth 

iiiO,nanl,  and  Spain. 

.'c  been  rnade  in  some  degree 
wilh  Buiborily;  other  reviaions  were  made  for  private 
nae,  in  wiiicb  aocb  changes  were  introduced  aa  suited 
tbe  taste  of  scribe  DTcritic.  The  i 
terioratibn  of  the  text  was  the  iniermiMure  of  these 
various  reviaions:  so  that  at  the  close 
tiiry  the  gospels  were  in  such  a  state  as  lo  call  for  that 
final  recensiiHi  which  was  made  by  Jerome. 

h.  AnmniM.— It  will  be  seen  that,  fur  the  chief  p 
of  the  Ohl  Test,  and  fur  considerable  parts  of  the  N 
Test.  (e.  g.  Apoc;  Acts),  the  ohl  text  reaia  upon  eai 
quotations  (principally  TettuUian,  Cyprian,  Lucifer 
Cagliari  fur  the  Africui  text,  Ambrose  and  August! 
for  the  Italic).  These  were  collecteil  by  Snbaiier  with 
great  diligence  up  to  the  dale  nf  his  work;  but  a 
recent  discoveiies  (e.  g.  of  the  H.imaii  SpHuluK)  h 
fiimiehcd  a  Urge  store  of  new  materials  which  have 


yet  been  fully  employeil.  (The  great  work  (A  Sabatier, 
already  often  refenvd  to,  is  still  the  staDdord  work  on 
the  Latin  vcrsiona.  His  great  fault  is  his  neglect  to 
distinguish  tbe  dilTcrent  types  of  test — African,  Italic, 

The  earliest  work  on  the  subject  «u  by  FUnuniin  Ku- 
\i\\\vt,Vtl}itTal.SK.l.XXLHliiKRrddUvn,K\c.HU-tx. 
Ia88].  The  new  colbitions  made  by  Tiscbemlotf.  MsL 
Stumer,  Ccriani,  have  been  noticed  separalelv.)  Sic 
lT.M.icVEi(aiox. 

in.  iMbort  ••/ Jtrome.—  l.  Omirion It  lias  bnrn 

seen  thai  at  the  close  of  the  4ih  centnr}'  IDe  Laiiu  le^iii 
of  the  Bible  current  in  the  Western  Church  bail  falleo 
into  the  greatest  comipliun.  The  evil  was  ret  gtraier 
in  prospect  than  at  the  time;  fur  the  sepanlion  of  the 
East  and  Weat,  politically  and  ecclesiastically,  was  rtdi- 
hig  imminent,  and  the  fear  of  tbe  perpetuation  of  labt 
and  conflicting  Lalin  copies  proportions idy  grester. 


I  uf  don 


upw 


K  great 


iindred  years,  p«- 


sessed  the  qualifications  necessarj'  fur 
original  version  of  the  Scriptures  for  tne  use  oi  ine 
Lalin  churches.  Jerome— Eusebi us  Hieronymns-wa, 
bom  in  A.D.  829  at  Siridon,  in  Dalmalia,  and  died  at 
Bethlehem  in  A.D.  420.  From  his  eariy  youth  be  was 
a  vigorous  atudenl,  and  age  removed  nulbing  from  ha 
zeal.  He  bos  been  well  called  the  Western  Origen 
(Kody,p.850);  and  if  be  wanted  the  brceness  of  besn 
and  generous  sympathies  of  the  great  Alexandrian,  he 
had  more  chastened  critical  skill  and  closei  cunteotn- 
tion  of  power.  After  long  and  self-denving  siudin  io 
the  East  and  West,  Jerome  went  to  R^e  (A.D. »«), 
probably  at  the  request  of  Damasua  ibe  pope,  to  aaiai 
iportant  synwl  (A/i.cviii.  a),nhe      ' 


I  niiiow 


lepopt 


S.  Btritinn  of/he  Old  Lata  Vrrtim  of  lit  X.  T— 
Jerome  bad  not  been  long  at  Home  (A.D.  363)  wben 
Damasua  conauhed  him  on  points  of  acriptural  critidot 
{Ep.  xii,  "  Dilectionis  tuB  est  UL  ardenii  ilto  slrenui- 

whicb  be  received  (£]p.  xx,  xxi)  may  well  have  to- 
coiiraged  him  to  seek  for  giealer  services;  and.  appai^ 
enlly,  in  tbe  same  year  be  applied  to  Jerome  for  ■  re- 
vision of  tbe  current  Latin  veruon  of  the  New  Teal,  by 
the  help  of  the  Greek  oripnaL  Jerome  was  fully  sm- 
sibleof  the  prejuiliccs  which  soch  a  work  would  exciit 
among  those  "who  thouglit  that  ignorance  was  bnli- 
nces"  {Ep.  ad  Marc,  xxvii) ;  but  ttie  m    '    ' ' 


.-(-.«■ 


SIS,  "almoei  as  m 


pa-ne  quut  cv- 
[Pr<rf.iii  Arr.}}.  ilislakt«  bad  been  ioimduceil 
"by  falsa  transciipiion,  bj-  clumsy  corrections, and  bt 
careless  iulcrpolaiiona"  (iUif.);  and  in  the  oonfuBeu 
which  had  ensued  Ibe  one  remedy  was  to  go  back  to 
the  original  source  ("lifKa  vcriias,  (jr>ca  oripu"). 
The  gospels  had  naturally  auflerol  mii>4.  'llioughilen 
scribes  inteited  additional  details  in  the  iiairative  froa 
the  patalleta,  and  changed  the  forms  of  expressim  t» 
those  witb  which  they  had  originally  been  familiiriied 
(i6Hf.).  Jerome  thcrefute  applied  himself  lo  these  Grit 
C'htec  piseeiis  pnefalitmcula  pullieelur  qualnor  laniuK 
Evangelia").  Uul  hia  aim  was  lo  revise  ilie  Old  Uiin. 
and  not  lo  make  a  new  vcrtion.  When  Augusiiw  ex- 
pressol  to  him  his  gratiludo  U<t  "bia  riosi^nni  of  ihc 
Ui'S|<er(Aj).riv.G, -'Nun  parvasDen  gratia* agimui ik 


IO  quo  Evangeliin 


zCiwn 


irrecied  him 

•■theco.Tfrfi™oflheNewTest."(»6w/.~exii,aO,"'Sim*, 
ut  dicio,  in  N.  T.  ennnfuftiiife  suscipis  . . .").  For  iku 
purpose  be  collated  early  Greek  USS.,  aiid  piraemd 
Ihc  current  rendering  wherever  the  sense  was  oi-t 
injured  by  it  (''Evangelia  .  .  .  cmlicum  Grascomiii 
cmendata  collniioue  scd  velerum.  Qua  lie  mullam  s 
leciionis  Laiiua;  consuetudiue  discropaieiii,  iia  caUme 


VULGATE 

II  [att.  iiDptnTiniuB]  nt 


827 


VULGATE 


his  Uotum  qun  |  think  Ihat  h«  iranld  ahrink  from  the  cnmplellon  of  it 
liqua  marKra  pu  [n  accarduice  with  tliii  view  he  eiiiimenim  (A.D.838) 
leninar  at  fucnnt"  [Frrf.  ml  Dtm.']i.  Yet  altbough  amnni;  hie  Hi>rki"the  leUnntinn  of  the  (Laliii  rtndon 
he  propoae<l  la  hiiuwir  this  limited  uliject,  the  Tarioua  uf  the)  New  THt.tn  tannooiiy  with  the  iiiiuinal  linek," 
fmins  DrcorTU|)lion  which  hatt  been  iiitniduced  were,»  I  (/71.  luJ  I,yd«.  Ixxi,  5:  "N.T.Unncai  reililiiU  luclo- 
be  ilcKtilNS,  >a  nunHDiia  that  th«  liidrrenca  of  the  (Hd  [  rilali,  ut  enim  Teiemm  Librnruai  Gilts  ile  llelrteii  v> 


a  tliiuughout  clear 
e  Iiate  the  Mawing 


n  fralrl  ino. 


or  these  varialiDni,ibcMeinTfr.  ir.Unraonlypanial- 
ly  HipfHirietl  by  the  aid  copim,  but  they  illuMrale  the 
character  of  the  inteipolationa  froni  which  the  text  suf- 
fered. In  Juhn,  as  might  be  expected,  lfa«  Taiiations 
an  less  fie<|uent.  The  6lh  ctu|iteT  conlaiiu  only  the 
(oUawing: 

1  HqaelMtnr  anlim.  S  tt  wqusbntDr. 

SI  (Yulelijii.1).  II  (lalDemDI). 
S3  queiii  beiieillienitDomI-    tS  (irnillii*  ui»ut«  Somino). 

line  (Kill  allKrC. 

»  bnc  cat  tnin.  W  hue  eft  untem. 

-~  (Puuii  met}.  —  (PuirlsmelftiinMiM). 

n  (miiDdDcareJ.  Its  (nd  maudncriiidnni). 

M  (n  ps  I  rel.  M  0>  PMrf>  tun). 

•I  ex  boc  trjiD.  t1  ex  hoc 

Some  of  (he  changes  which  Jerome  introduced  were, 
u  nrill  be  Kwn,  made  purely  on  linguiHic  ground*,  but 
it  is  impouibk  to  ucertain  an  what  principle  be  pro- 
ceeded in  iliii  respecL  Others  inrolred  questions  of 
intetpretauon  ()iRtl.vl,U,iupfnubtlaiilialii  (or  inoo- 
noc)-  Ihit  the  greater  number  coiisiated  in  the  re- 
moval of  the  interpolations  bv  which  the  synoptic  g»- 
peis  especially  were  diifi;^rvd.  Thesa  interpolations, 
uiileaa  hi)  deecrlptitm  is  very  nioch  exaggerated,  musi 

ing  cupia;  but  exampleg  itill  occur  which  show  the 
iiDportaiit  service  which  Ira  rendered  to  llie  Church  by 
checking  the  perpetuation  of  apven-phalgloaiei:  Malt. 
iii,3.  l^(v,  12):  (ix,:it);  xx,  ^  1 '{.tx'^'.  3«) i  Mark  i, 
8,7.N;  it-,19i  xvi,4;  Luke(v,IO)t  viii,48;  ix,43,i0; 
■i,36;  xii,38:  xxiii,4a;  John  vi,M.  An  a  check  upon 
further  iiiterpulstiiin,  he  inierted  in  his  text  the  nota- 
tion of  the  EuBcbian  Canoti*  [sr«  New  TtcsTAHKnT] t 
hut  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  he  iHcluitafin  his  re> 
Ti^n  the  famous  pericopr,  John  vii,6B;  viii,  II,  which 
is  not  incluilnl  in  that  analysis. 

The  preface  to  Uantasus  speaka  only  of  a  revision 
of  the  gosprla,  and  a  (giiestion  has  been  raised  whether 
Jerome  really  rei-ined  the  remaining  hooka  of  the  New 
Test.  Augustine  <A.D.  403)  speaks  only  of  the  Cos- 
pel"  (£/k  civ,  6,  quoted  abore),  and  there  is  no  preface 
to  any  other  iB-iks,  such  as  is  elsewhere  fouiul  before 
sll  Jerome's  venions  or  editions.  Ihit  the  omission  is 
probably  due  to  the  tomparalively  pure  state  in  wjiicli 
the  test  of  the  rest  of  the  New  Test,  was  presoneil. 
Damasus  bad  requested  (/'ri^  aJ  Viim.)  a  reviri'>ii  of 
lbs  whole;  and  when  Jetome  bad  faceil  the  morcinvid- 
isM  and  difficult  part  of  bis  work,  there  i*  no  rcasua  to 


Of  Vir.  III.  c 


m  iinxm  [?J  se 


Hebraicam  trans- 
it is  yet  mora  directly  concluiiie  as  to  [be  fact 
'evision  that  In  wriiing  to  HaiceUa  (cir.  A.l>. 
)  on  the  charges  which  h^  been  bnmght  auainat 
for"  introducing  changes  in  the  e'"pel>,''he  qimtea 
«  passages  from  the  epistles  in  which  he  asHrts  the 
iriuriiy  of  theprcKnt  Vulgate  rewling  to  that  »r  tin 
Latin  (Kom.  xii,  Il,''i)oinvinservienles,''for  "itm- 
■  ~  ■  — ,n).  V,  19,  aid.  •■  niru  sub  duubtn  aut 

15,  »jiWi»  sermn,"  fiir  "iamumw 
'    Vulgate  text,  with  the 

feet  evidence  of  HSS.,  is  itself  sufBcient  to  esublish  the 
reality  and  character  of  the  revision.  This  will  be  ap- 
parent from  a  collation  ofafewchapters  taken  from  ser- 
eral  of  the  later  books  of  the  New  Test. ;  lut  it  will  also 
be  obvinos  that  the  revision  was  basly  ami  imperfect; 
and  ill  later  times  the  line  between  the  Old  Latin  and 
the  Hieronymian  texts  became  veiy  indistinct.  Okl 
readings  appear  in  MS9.  of  the  Vulgate,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  no  MS.  represenu  a  pure  African  text  of  tbe 
Ads  and  epistles. 


Oi-n  Lat 


Tcta.n 


t  ai  illl  coDvsnlentes.  . 

r  at  ille  mpondtnt  dixit.  I  Ulilt  a»fa 

M-uptnminWA.S.  S  sH^Mrmiir 

>  iutenderent.     Conip.  Ill    10  lutr 

w'iH,»)'     '  *'"•*' 

I  aseendertiDt    In  tujitri-  13  In 


.ST'- 


\t  UoiaaMa  MHarn. 


Roji.  t,13-lS. 
II  Adu  antem  arbUntr,  \i  tjofo  antem. 

10  qniid  In  DM  sN  fmnplHS    IS  qU'xl  1u   me 


(CkL  Aug.  f). 

:  ISSHl'll"- ...... 


Ui  q)     i  cimspqnenle  en 


■UO. 


w.  0 


pmdeutes, 

qnem  (f.  i). 
■  coiumniiicntlotsll 

i;;.'BrP«»- 


(g). 


haBloqnortdicnif.g). 

(sit-)  (f,B).    —  piirtlelpnllo, 

tl  Liinleipee  ewe. 
Mrallfuujinllsif). 

1  Coi.  111.  II- K 

ual  e  corr. )  nmi    U  'ion  raelalvm  if). 

:!'4?"-,L,.- ,.. ^ 


t4  poUteitAtkmgm  {!). 

rrnit  (n. 


I  umnH  {g).  S  idfpinm  (I). 

•  cnm  .  .  .  mutttulvi  <£)-      '  cnn  .  ■  .  can 

■»  tulUat—  {tmlebatar,  g).       it  mnlM  — 


tffo,  f :  /oL  tt*Utn,  g)- 
40  parabaiBlVM  da  anfma  nu    BO  trmleita    aiumdn    auant 


IS  iMicitut  iUqut. 


n/Uial    I 


(f)  (lui^, «.  s), 
qnl  mil  tali  7«» 


S.  Revuion  nflht  Old  Ten.  from  lla  Sfpt^khovt  the 
«une  time  (dt.  A.D.  883)  at  wl>ich  l>e  v>u  ciigignl  «u 
the  reviaun  of  llie  New  "tat-,  Jeronae  iiiidertiwk  ilan  a 
BrMrcviaiunnTtliel'MUler.  Tbiahe  made  by  l lie  help 
of  the  Gieck,  Lrut  (he  wurk  wai  not  very  cumplete  or 
careful,  anil  ibe  uunli  in  wliich  he  deierilie*  ii  may, 
pnhipa,  he  otenjeil  without  iiijiutite  lu  the  revitioii 
of  the  iuer  buuka  at  Ihe  New  Teat. :  '  Pialtcrium  Koidid 
.  ,  ,  emeiidaraid  ct  JiiMa  LXX  iiilerpretra,  Ikrt  euiiiHi 
tmifpuM  illtd  tx  parte  crreieram"  {fraf.  w  I.A.  /•«.)■ 
Thi)  tcviwHi  obiaiiKil  the  name  of  the  IlomaH  Puller, 
pniljably  lieciiue  it  was  mailo  Un  the  meuTtlie  liomaii 
Church  at  the  lequeic  of  DaouMia,  vliere  it  vas  rc- 
tiiued  till  the  pamilkatc  i.rPiiisV(A.U.  ItMyvim  in- 
tmliiceil  the<ialljcai>  I'Mlter  pencnilK-,  t>ioii(;li  tlicRu- 
DUs  Paaller  wai  uill  retailed  in  three  Italian  chiiti-hea 


8  VULGATE 

and  EuMochita,  Jerome  eomiDenecd  a  new  and  bob 
thorough  reviidon  {CaUiam  Valla).     The  cuct  dale 

Hxed  Hith  great  probabilitr  very  ttaortly  after  A.D.3K', 
when  he  retired  to  Bethlehem,  and  certaudr  beCiin:  391, 
when  he  bad  begun  hii  new  Irauslaliona  fnim  the  He- 
brew. In  the  new  reviiiou  Jetome  alleoiptcd  to  re|*e- 
Knl,  aa  far  aa  poaaiUe,  by  the  help  of  the  Greek  let- 
■ions,  the  real  leadinf;  of  the  Hebrew.  With  thi*  riew 
he  Bcliiptcil  the  notaiinn  of  Origen  [see  Semi-acist; 
ccxnp.  /Vir/l  in  Gm„  etc.],  ami  Ihua  indicated  all  Ihe  ad- 
diticHiB  and  Dminiiana  of  the  8epi.  te:iC  reproducnl  ia 
the  Latin.  Tlie  addition*  were  marked  by  an  etrfu 
(t);  Ihe  amiuiinia,  which  he  aupplied.  by  an  aMeriik 
(  ■ ).  The  omitted  patwagea  he  aupiilied  In-  a  tcthsb 
of  the  Creek  of  Tbeodolion,  and  nut  dirocllV  from  tbt 
Hebrew  ("unuai|uieque  .  .  .  uliicuiiquc  vid*fit  vii^o- 
lam  pnecedentem  ( t  ]  ab  ea  oaqu*  oil  dim  puneu  [ "] 
qiue  impresflimiifi,  Bciat  in  LXX  interpreli1>tu  |^tB  ha- 
licri.  ULn  aulem  Melbe  [  •]  umilituilini 
de  Hebneia  volnminibua  addilum  noverii,  leqi 
ad  duo  puneta,  ^Hzra  Tkeodoliomt  dumlaxat  ei 
qui  limplialale  termouu  a  LXX  iutrrprttibut  • 
contal"  IPra/.  ad  Pta. ;  conip.  /V»/  ia  J«t,  Pantlif, 
l.ibr.  Solam^juxla  LXX  /itff.,  Kp.cvi,  ad  Sun.  et »«.]). 
This  new  edition  »oon  obtained  a  wide  pii|iiiUriiT. 
liregory  of  I'mirt  ia  said  tu  have  iiitruiluceil  it  ftuii 
Home  into  the  puUic  terricea  in  France,  and  fium  thii 
it  oliained  the  name  of  Ihe  Gallicaii  Ptnlter.     Tbe  am- 


Tldebo  ctaloK,  opern  digltor 


Innnmrt^ 

Quid  ait  homo,  auod 


ic    FaALTU. 

ea  '  tnoa  "  opera  dl^ib^ 
t  [n"fiindii'tl. 

ilnir,  mtrnfan  tliltaa  enmr 

\.inlDn.abai.Kelli: 


(Psmiiu.) 


(Body,  p.  31 
tlU-).     In  I 


A^fiHHum  Deu  nuslru. 

P«i.  mi  (iv),  g-11  (Adt 
Pnivldebam  D-miimm  In  couapeciu  mso  f< 

ei  e»nllaTiI  linen*  me"  < 

liKHjicr  el  earn  mea  reqaleacel  Id  rpe. 

iiec  iluliif  Sflnctnm  tnnm  Tidere  currnplloit 


■BlieelnneextuecIiiTlDnmlnnDi: 
etinlaidamiU; 

t  ei  "andWitiirimmeiir; 

(flulnltanic 
et "  dlmxU  g 


in|cr  pel  rnm  pedea  meoa : 


Til>eoii( 


»i  leqnlescet  In  Fpa. 


na  Ronue  V' 


)  In  deiirn  in 


.    nac  dahli  Snuclnm 
Nnua  mlhl  hcii'Il 


derellnqiie 

..Jul  vliia' 
melKllllar 


et  in  eecleiia  3.  .Viinrl. 

the  old  error  previ 

t  the  urgent  reque» 


.f  l*ai 


'  I  How  far  he  Ihuught  cban)^  really  neccaaary  will  ap- 
'  pear  from  a  compariann  of  a  few  venea  of  hii  iranda- 
r  tion  from  the  Hebrew  with  the  earlier  reriatd  Scptoa- 
1 1  ginlal  tranilationi : 


iCHlXt  vh 
MOe  llii( 


OlH  LtTIH. 

sradiealHiaort 


'  a  mahi  at  nie  bimnin: 
inqnim  |iarem  oi  •r^utn  oaai. 
(millUoinhdFUperjnMoa 

Vultua  Domini  anper  fuclenlea  Bv 


■ai.  xxxlll  (iiilTl,  li-io  (1  Pet.  Ill,  10-l». 

Vri^ATa.  jKBoua-B  Tainau  (/'«■  i 

Soil  e«t  tanmn  qnl  vnlt  vllnm,  Qnli  eat  vfr  qni  velli  Tllnin 

IfgU  diea  nldere  boniuF  iOigeiui  dtea  videre  buwwf 

Fp*ltt  llnjpium  main  a  mnlo:  Ciufnli  lliignnni  Inani  a  nm 

Dierru a  malo rltJc  bui.nm :  Iteerdt  a malo  eifHc'boDBin 

Inqalre  pncem,  et  ptratquere  enm.  qaairi  |«rem  pi  peffeqnere 

Ocull  D.Q11I  ;ni«rjn<i.>a  bcnl)  Uoinli.l  WjnaiTi!: 

el  anrca  ^na  in  prctee  eninm.  et  nnres  elna  ltd  elnmarim  ea 

VnllDi  auinn  Domini  super  bdeotea  Tnliua  Dumlul  luper  lacii 


SMriOdam  «t  oblatloiiBni 
■Bras  marem  pcrfecifX  mlli 
Uulocaitaln  ellaiu  pi 


Ii(tI),0-S  (Hn,  X,  5-10). 


delicto  aoa  pot-    HuU 


Vietima  et  oblaHmt  lu 

unrei/tidulinilhL 


In  uirila  llbri  rcrlpiuiD  e*t  do  ma 
III  fmctam  volnuuiciu  wam. 


ellnjiwi 


NudKTOos  mumKripU  remiiii  which  conMin  the  Latin 
PMltcr  in  two  or  more  rumu.  Tliiu  BibL  Bodl.  Laud. 
aa  (lOth  «nturv  ?)  auiUiiia  i  triple  Pullei— GiUioui, 
Koman,  and  Uebniw;  CoH  C.  C.  Oam.  xii  (15lb  cen- 
liiry), GaU>c«n.R«min, Hebrew;  AiiJ.x  (14th  cenluiv), 
(•■llican,  Uebmv,  Hebrew  text  with  interUneat  Latin ; 
Bril.  Mtu.  Hari.  l»S,  ■  d«ible  Puller,  Gillicaa  anil  He- 
bnw;  t6idlArund.  15o  (IUhccntDry).aKaniin  PsalLer 
with  Uallican  correctiwa;  ColL  88.  Tri^  CanAr.  K.  17, 
1,  a  triple  Fuller,  Hebnir,  Ualliean,  Roman  (tSth  cen- 
tury) :  aid.  R  a,  6,  a  triple  I'lolter,  t)ie  Hebrew  text 
with  a  ppculiar  interlinear  Latin  veraion,  Jeninie'a  He- 
brew, Galilean.  An  exioiple  of  the  unreviaeil  Latin, 
which,  indeed,  'a  not-  very  wuisraclotilv  distinguished 
fnioi  the  Rimian,  ia  ruunil  witb  an  Anslo-Saxnn  inter- 
lin«ar  version,  Unit.  Libr.  Cambr.  Fr.  i,  23  (llth  cen- 
Inrj).  H.Slephena  published  a  Qamcupbx  Ptal/trvim, 
G'lUiana,  fftnwrKiiin,  IMraiann,  VauM,  ConcSiatam 
(Paris,  1513),  but  he  does  not  mtnlion  the  nuumactipta 
foim  which 


,ml  (Gall 


m)r. 


Jerome  appears  tn  have  proceeiled  to  a  revi«ion  of  the 
other  book*  i>r  the  Old  Teil^  r«»lori»g  all,  by  the  help 
of  the  Creek,  to  a  Reneral  confoirrily  with  the  Hebrew. 
In  the  preface  to  the  rtviiiuii  iif  Job,  he  notice*  the  op- 
poailion  which  he  had  net  witb,  and  eoiittaua  indig- 
nantly hia  own  labon  vith  (he  more  mechanical  oocu- 
patinna  of  monks  which  excilol  no  reproaches  ("  Si  ant 
Ibetllam  Junco  teiereni  aut  pabnarum  folia  compliea- 
lem  .  .  .  nuUus  morderet,  nemo  reprehenderet  Nunc 
autem  . . .  eomclor  Titiurum  falsariu*  vocor").  Simi- 
lar eomplainta,  bat  leas  itmiiely  eipreaeed,  occur  in  the 
preface  to  the  books  of  Chronicles,  in  which  he  had  re- 
Boarae  to  the  Hebrew  as  well  as  to  the  Urtek,  in  onler 


ct  the  ill 


>y  whic 


h  delbrmcd.  Tn  the  preface 
booha  of  Solomon  (Pmrerba,  Ecdniutes,  Canticles)  he 
notices  no  attacks,  but  excnset  himself  fur  neglecting 
to  miK  Ecdetiastlcus  and  Wisdom  an  the  ground  that 
"ha  wished  only  lo  amend  the  canonical  SoipUircs" 
( *^  tantummodo  canonicas  Scripturas  rnUs  emendare 
dniilerans").  No  other  pceracea  remain,  and  the  re- 
vised texts  of  the  Pultet  and  JiiU  have  alone  been  pre- 
serveil  i  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  lltat  Jerome 
carrieil  ont  his  dcsicn  of  revinng  all  the  "canonical 
Scripliirea"  (oomp.  Ep.  cxii,  ad  A  uguA  [ar.  A.D.  401], 
"QiHid  autem  in  allia  qusaris  e|ustaliai  cur  prior  mea 
n  lArit  fitamscu  intelpretatio  aateriaeo*  habeat  et 
virgnhu  prBtiulatas").  Ha  epeaka  of  this  work  as  a 
whole  in  several  places  {f.g.Adr.  Aii/.ii,  24,"Egone 
contra  LXX  interprctea  aliquid  sum  loculus,  qiioa  ante 
aanra  plurimni  diligentissime  cmendatoe  mne  lingiin 
Kudiotia  deili?"  comp,  ibid,  iii,  26;  Ep.  Ixxi,  ad  Lu- 
((•^''Septuaginta  inierpretum  ediiionem  el  tc  habere 
■HHi  dnbiw,  ei  anu  anno*  plurimos  [he  is  writing  A.D. 
398]  diligentiaame  emendaiam  atudioMS  tradidi"),  and 
diuinctly  reprtsenta  it  as  a  Latin  version  of  Oiitien's 
Hexapla'r  text  (Ep.  cvi,  ad  Sun,  el  t'rtl^  "Ea  aulem 
qua  habetur  in  'Ui^jiKois  el  quam  non  retlimiis"),  if, 
■nH(ed,theTerer(nee  is  not  lobe  conSnedtothe  Psalter, 
which  was  tb«  immediale  subject  of  discussion.  Rut 
though  it  aeems  certain  that  the  revision  was  made, 
ibtre  is  very  great  difficulty  in  tracing  its  history,  and 
it  ii  remarkable  that  no  allusion  to  the  revision  orcuts 
ia  the  prvlJiee  lo  the  new  inuulation  of  the  Peotateuch, 


Joehiia  (Jndgea,  Ruth),  Kings,  the  Prophela,  in  which 
Jerome  touches  more  i.r  leaa  plainly  on  the  dilBcullies 
of  bii  task,  while  he  dues  refer  lo  his  fomter  labors  un 
Job,  the  Psalter,  and  the  books  of  Solomon  in  the  par- 
allel prefaces  lu  those  books,  and  also  in  his  Apobigi/ 
agaiMl  Rxjinat  (ii,  Z'.  29-ill).  It  has,  indeed,  been 
supposed  (Valtani,  Pi-af.  in  llitr.  x)  that  these  sis 
books  only  were  published  by  Jerome  himselC  Tba 
remainder  tnay  have  been  put  into  circulation  surrep- 
titioQsly.  Bui  this  supposition  is  not  willtout  diflicnl- 
ties.  Augustine,  writing  to  Jerome  ( cir.  A.D.  405  ), 
earnestly  begs  fur  a  cnfy  of  the  revision  from  the  Sept., 
of  the  piiblieatiun  of  wliiuli  he  was  then  only  lately 
aware  {Ep.  scvi,  34, "  Deinde  nobis  mittas,  obeecm.  iii- 
tcrprelationera  tuam  de  Sqituaginla,  fvaM  ft  ediiiitm 
MKitbam;"  comp.  §  34).  It  dues  not  appear  whether 
the  request  waa  granted  or  not,  but  at  a  much  laier  |ie- 
nod  (cir.  A.D.4I6)  Jemme  sajis  that  fw  cann.it  runiiili 
him  with  "a  copy  oflhe  Se|it.  [Le.  the  Latin  Ter>i»ii 
of  it]  furnished  with  asterisks  and  obeli,  a*  he  hail  liwt 
the  chief  part  of  his  former  labor  by  acime  persm'i 
treachery"  (iiii'.cxxxiv,'*PlersquepriarislaboriBfrsi  Ills 
cujusdam  amlsimus").  Honrever  this  may  have  been, 
Jerome  could  not  have  siiciic  more  than  four  (or  live) 
rears  on  the  work,  and  Ihat  too  in  the  midst  nf  oilier 
labora,  fur  in  4H1  be  was  already  engaged  on  the  ver- 
■ions  from  the  Hebrew  which  constitute  bis  great  claim 
on  the  lasting  gratitude  of  the  Church. 

4.  Trnv^tilim  of  I  he  Old  Teil.  from  the  IMinr— 
Jerome  cnmmenceil  the  study  of  Hebrew  when  he  was 
already  advanced  in  middle  life  (cir.  A.D,  874),  think- 
ing Ihat  the  dillicultics  oflhe  language,  a*  hequainlly 
painu  them,  would  sen'e  lo  subdue  the  temptations  of 
passion  lo  which  he  waaexpnseti  (Ep.  cxxv,  12;  com[h 
Fnrf.  ia  Datu).  From  this  time  he  coiiiinucd  the 
iiudy  with  unabaled  zeal,  and  availed  himself  of  every 
help  to  perfect  bis  knowleilge  d[  the  laneaage.  His 
first  teacher  had  been  a  Jewish  cimvert,  but  aftervranla 

services  be  secured  with  great  difficulty  and  expenee. 
This  exceiMre  leal  (as  it  seemed)  exposed  him  to  the 
misrepreaentallons  of  his  enemies,  uid  RuHniis  iiululges 
in  a  silly  pun  on  tho  name  of  om  of  his  teachers,  with 
the  iiilention  of  showing  ihat  bin  work  was  not  "sup- 
ported  by  the  aulhnriiy  of  the  (^urch,  but  only  of  a 
second  Barabbas"  (Ruf..1;)oJL  it,  IS,  UieroiL.1/)oi. i,  I8t 
comp.£>.lxxxiv,Si  PrtJ.in  I-aroL).  Jerome,  how- 
ever, was  not  deterred  by  opposition  from  pursuing  bis 
object,  and  it  were  only  to  be  wished  that  he  bad  sur- 
pasied  his  oriticB  as  much  in  generous  oounesy  aa  he 
did  in  honest  labor.  He  soon  turned  bis  knowledge  uf 
Hebrew  to  use.  In  come  of  his  earliest  critical  leliers 
he  examines  the  force  of  Hebrew  wordu  (l^7ifi.xi*iii,xx, 
A.D.  SSI,  883){  and  in  884  he  had  been  eiigaiml  fur 
some  lime  in  comparing  the  version  of  Aquila  with  He> 
brew  MSS.  (JUd.  ixxii,  l),whichajew  had  succeeiled 
ill  obtaining  [iir  him  from  Ihe  synagogue  {ibid,  xxxvi, 
1).  Afler  retiring  lo  Bclblelu'm,  he  nppean  to  have 
devoted  hinurif  with  renewed  ardor  lo  the  study  nf  He- 

cir.  A.D.  389  (QhoiI.  Ilrbr.  in  Gen.  etc.).  These  euays 
scrveii  as  a  prelude  tu  his  New  version,  which  bo  now 
cummenced.  This  version  was  not  undertaken  with 
any  eeclesiaslicBl  tancljon,  a>  the  revision  of  the  gospels 
was,  bill  at  the  urgent  request  of  private  fricndc,  or 


VULGATE  8! 

fmtn  bis  oicn  senie  of  the  Imperioiu  necmitr  or  the : 
uiirk.  lu  hialorv  is  told  in  the  rnaiii  in  the  iirefices 
lu  the  Nvenl  inUalnieiilB  which  uei^  Miccenivel.v  pub- 
iiahol.  The  booka  of  5«muel  mid  Kines  were  itsued 
Hnl,  mil  to  these  lie  ptefixed  iho  ranioiu  Prologu* 
Cufeuru,  adilreased  to  I'sula  >ikI  Luttochiui,  in  which 
he  give*  «n  »cfountof  the  Hebrew  c»non.  It  i»  impos- 
uble  to  delenatriE  wliy  he  Mlected  IhcK  books  for  his 
experiiueni,  fur  it  docs  not  appear  that  he  wu  request- 

wiili  lUe  greatest  care.  Jerome  ■peaks  of  Iba  (riiula- 
tiiHi  IS  theieiuttorcDnilaiit  rcviNnn(ProiLG(iI.,''Lcge 
«gu  primum  Samuel  et  MaUcbitn  meam :  laeuin,  iti- 
quam,  meuni.  Quidquiil  entm  crebriua  verteiido  et 
emeiHlanrtii  nilliriiius  et  didicimiis  et  lenemiis  noNrum 
est").  At  the  time  when  this  wu  published  (cir.A.D. 
891 .  39-i)  nlliet  booka  aeem  to  have  been  alrcadr  tmtia- 
Uleil  ((ill/.,  "oniiiibua  libris  qiios  de  Hebneo  verti- 
mua');  ami  in  893  the  aixleen  prophets  were  in  rireiila- 
l!<in,  and  Jub  had  lately  heeti  put  Into  the  hands  orhis 
mm'i  iiKimate  friends  (A/i.  xlix,  ad  Pammaeh.}.  tn- 
deeil,  ic  would  appear  that  already  in  892  he  had  in 
■nnse  sense  completed  a  versi(mi>f  the  Old  Test.CDnnV. 
/IL  cxxxr,  "Vetua  Jnxta  Hebraieuni  ttinstuli :"  this 
treatise  was  written  in  that  year);  but  many  bnnka 
were  not  completed  and  publiahed  till  sonie  yean  after- 
wards. The  next  books  which  he  put  into  circniation, 
vet  with  the  provinon  that  they  ahonld  be  coitHiieil  Id 
IMends  iPrqf.  in  £iP,),»ere  Ezn  and  Nehemiah, which 
he  translated  at  the  requeat  of  Dominica  and  Roi;a-  < 
lilnu^  who  had  nrjjed  him  to  the  task  for  three  rests. ' 
Thia  was  pmbabli-  in  Iho  vear  BM  (Vi/.tlitron.  ixi,4), 
fur  in  the  preface  he  alludes  to  his  iiilenlinn  nrdiacus*- 
ini;  ■  question  which  he  tresta  in  Ep.  Ivii,  written  in 
89n  (/>r  Optimo  Uen.  lalrrprel.).  In  the  preface  to  the 
Chronicles  (addressed  to  Chminatiua),  he  alludes  to  the 
Mme  epistle  as  "lately  written," and  these  books  may 
tlifreforo  be  set  down  to  that  year.  The  three  book's 
of  Solomon  followed  in  898,  having  been  "the  work  of 
three  days"  when  he  had  Just  recovered  from  a  neren 
ilhicss,  which  he  suffered  in  that  year  Ci'ne/'^  "  Itoquc 
|i>ni;a  s;^tatinne  fractus  . . .  tridui  npos  iiomini  veslro 
[Chromalio  et  Heliodoro]  consecravi ;"  eom|ki,/>.  Ixxiii, 
10).  The  Octaltuch  now  alone  remained  (ibid.  Ixxi, 
6),  L  e.  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  and  Esther 
(Pntf.  in  Joi.).  Of  this  the  l^entateuch  (inscribed  to 
Desiilerius)  was  published  Brat,  but  it  is  uncertain  in 
what  year.  The  preface,  however,  is  not  quoted  in  the 
A  piiogs  againtt  Rufimu  (A.D.  40D),  as  those  of  all  Iho 
other  books  which  were  then  publisheil,  and  it  mav 
therefore  be  set  down  to  a  bter  date  (Hody,  p.  9fi7). 
The  rcmninin);  biiuks  were  completed  at  llie  request  of 
EuMochius,  shunty  alter  the  death  of  Panla,  in  VA 
(.Prirf.  in  Jot.).  Tlius  the  whole  lianslatioa  was  spread 
over  a  (leriod  of  about  fourteen  years,  from  the  sixtieth 
to  the  scventy-Mxih  j-ear  of  Jerome's  life.  But  still 
paita  of  it  were  Uniahcd  In  great  haste  (e.g.  tile  bonks 
of  Solomon).  A  single  day  was  sufRcient  for  the  trans- 
lation of  Tulit  {Prof,  in  Toft.),  and  "one  abort  effort" 
(una  lucubratiuncula)  for  the  translation  of  Judith. 
Thus  there  are  errors  in  the  work  which  a  more  careful 
reviaion  might  have  removed;  and  Jerome  himself  in 
many  places  gives  rendcringa  which  he  prefers  to  those 
which  he  had  adopted,  and  admits  from  lime  to  time 
that  he  had  fallen  into  error  (llody,  p.3G-2).  Ycl  aneh 
defecia  are  triHing  when  compared  with  what  he  nc- 
complishcd  siicccssrully.  The  work  remained  for  eight 
centuries  the  bulwark  of  Wealern  ChtialUnity,  and,  as  a 
monument  of  ancient  lin^iistic  power,'thc  translation 
ol  the  Old  Test,  alands  titirivalled  and  unique.  It  was 
at  least  a  direct  rendering  a!  the  original,  and  not  the 

IV.  llitlorff  n/Jmm^i  Ti'ontlalion  lo  iSe  Tnrtntion 
of  Prinlini/.—X.  Martg  AeCfjaaner, — The  critical  labors 
erf  Jemmc  were  received,  as  snch  labors  always  are  re- 

H:  was  occuseil  of  disturbing  ihc  re|iaae  of  the  Church 


0  VULGATE 

and  shaking  the  foundations  of  faith.    Acknowledged 

erroTs,  as  be  complain^  were  looked  upon  aa  hallowed 
by  ancient  usage  {Prirf.  in  Job.  ii),  and  few  had  the 
wisilum  or  candor  to  acknowleilge  the  importance  of 
seeking  for  the  purest  possible  text  of  Holy  Scripture. 
Even  Augustine  was  carried  away  by  the  popular  preju- 
dice, and  endeavored  In  diicnnrage  Jerome  from  the 
task  of  a  new  translation  (A./i.  civ),  which  sccnmi  Is 
him  lo  be  dangerous  and  almost  profane.  Jerome,  in- 
deed,did  little  to  smooth  the  iiay  fur  the  reception  of 
his  work.  The  violence  and  hiitcmcss  of  his  language 
is  more  like  that  of  the  rival  scholars  of  the  IGih  tra- 
tury  than  of  a  Christian  fai  her,  and  there  iro  few  oBon 
touching  instances  of  humility  than  that  of  ibc  youns 
Augustine  bending  himself  in  entire  subiniss^on  \xSan 
the  contemptuoua  and  impatient  reproof  of  the  veteran 
scholar  (_Ep.  exii,  s.  f.).  But  even  Angustlnc  could  oat 
ovetcnme  the  force  of  early  habit.  To  the  last  be  n- 
mained  faithful  lo  the  Italic  text  which  he  bad  first 
used ;  and  while  be  notices  in  hii  RrttVrtatiomu  Wveial 
faulty  readint^  which  he  had  formerly  embraced,  be 
shows  no  tendency  to  substitute  generallv  the  New  rer- 
MonfortheOld.  InsnchcaiesTimeis  Ihe'gtrHtRfoniwr. 
Clamor  based  upon  ignorance  soon  dies  away,  and  the 
New  Iranstalion  gradually  came  into  use  equally  with 
the  Old,  and  at  length  supplanted  il.  lu  the  5ib  cm- 
turv,  it  was  adopted  in  Gaul  bv  Kucherius  nf  Lvin^ 
Vincent  of  Lerins,  Scdulius,  snd'CUudianus  Uamlntos 
(Hody,  p.  838),  but  the  Old  Utin  was  still  mained  io 
Africa  and  Britain  (ibid.).  In  the  Gih  century,  the  dbs 
of  Jerome's  version  was  universal  among  scholars  ex- 
cept in  Africa,  where  the  other  still  lingered  (Juniliut); 
close  of  il,  Givgoiy  It      ~ 


'dthat 


admitted  equally  with  the  Old  by  the  aposiolic  sta 
(  Ptirf.  in  J<A.  ad  Lrandmm,  "  Noram  trauslalioaefB 
dissero,  aed  nt  comprobatlonis  causa  eiigit,  nunc  N«- 
vam,  nuno  Velerem,  per  tesiimonia  aasuroo:  ut  quia 
sedes  apoatolica  [cui  aiiclore  Deo  pmsidco}  airaqus 
HIilur  mei  qunqnc  labor  stndii  ex  utraque  fulciatur'^ 
But  the  Old  version  was  not  authoritatively  diipUttd, 
though  the  custom  ofthe  Roman  Church  prevailtd  abn 
in  the  uther  churches  oT  tho  Weat  lliua  ludore  of 
Seville  {Dt  Offie.  Knln.  i,  \i),  after  affirming  Ihe  i>- 
spiralion  of  the  Sepl«  goiis  on  to  recommend  the  w- 
slon  of  Jerome,  "which,"  he  aayi^^'is  used  antversafly 
as  being  toon  truthful  in  substance  and  more  perqacs. 
ous  in  language"  (Hody,  p.402).  In  the  Tth  cenlnir 
the  traces  of  Ihe  Ohi'vernon  grow  rare.  Julian  tt 
Toledo  (A.D.  676)  afflrma  wiih  a  special  polemical  par- 
pose  the  auihority  crftheSept.,a»dsoof  Ihe  OM  Latin; 
but  still  be  himself  follows  Jerome  when  not  influenced 
by  Itie  requirements  of  controveriy  (ibid.  p.  4nS,  40£). 
In  the  8th  century,  Dede  speaks  of  Jerome's  venion  as 
"our  edition"  (iliiil.  p.108) ;  and  from  ihis  time  it  is 
needless  to  trace  iu  history,  though  tho  Old  Latin  was 
not  wholly  fo^otten.  Yet,  Ihmughoiit,  the  New  veisioa 
made  i's  way  without  any  direct  eedesiBstical  authori- 
ty. It  was  adopted  in  the  diOerent  ehnrches  gradually, 
or  at  least  without  any  formal  command  (sec  ibid.  p.  411 
sq,  forrieiailed  quotations). 

But  the  Latin  Bible  which  thus  passed  {jraduslly 
into  use  umier  the  name  of  .leromc  was  a  sirangelT 
composite  work.  The  bonks  of  the  Old  Test^  with  one 
exception,  were  certsinly  lakcd  from  his  vcr^on  fnia 
Ihe  Hebrew;  but  this  had  not  only  been  vaiioosly  ooc- 
ruptcd,  but  was  ItBcIf  in  many  jianicHlars  (especially  in 
the  Penlateuch)  at  variance  with  his  later  judgment 
Long  use,howcver.  made'it  impossible  to  suhsliluu  his 
Tsalier  from  Ihe  Hebrew  for  the  (^llican  Pulter;  and 
thus  thia  book  was  retained  from  the  Old  verHon,  as  Je- 
rome  had  corrected  it  fhim  Ihe  Sept.  Of  the  Apocry- 
phal books,  Jerome  hastily  revised  or  translated  twoonly, 
Judith  and  TobiL  The  rrmaiitder  were  retainod  fram 
the  Old  version  aj;aln>t  his  judgment;  andthe  Apoa7< 
phal  additions  to  Daniel  and  Esther,  which  he  had  ore- 
iully  marked  as  apooypbal  in  hia  own  version,  oete 


VULGATE 

trealnl  as  integral  puis  of  the  book*.  A  Tew  USS.  ot 
thi  Dible  liilhfully  procrvcd  llic"Ucbteircinon,''but 
ihe  great  mua.  idMnling  to  tbt  general 
itt*  to  omit  DDtbing,  included  evetjihin);  which  had 
held  a  plaoe  in  the  Uld  Lalin.  In  iho  Mew  Test,  the 
only  important  addition  which  was  frequently  ialerpn- 
lateil  was  the  Apocryphal  epiille  to  the  Liodiceau 
The  lest  nt  Iho  goapets  was  in  the  main  Jerome's  n 
Tiled  ediiion;  that  uf  the  remain iiig  bnoks  hit  rery  ii 
complete  teviiion  nf  the  Old  Latin.  Thiu  the  preiei 
Tul^le  contain!  elements  which  belong  to  every  perioil 
and  fonn  of  the  Latin  venuon— (1.)  Unrtrited  Old  LaU 
i>.-  Wisdom,  Ecclua^  t  and  i  Uarc,  Barnch.  (2.)  Old 
LaliarrritdfromtluSfpl.!  Psalter.  (a.)Jaime'iJiw 
IrmuJa/itm /rom  llu  original  If xl !  Jitdith,  Tobit.  <*.) 
Jtromet  IrOHiliilioa  /rum  lAt  oiiginal:  Old  Test,  ex 
cept  l-saltcr.  (S.)  OU  l^tin  rtrUfdfmut  Grtfk  ifSS. 
(iospcls.  (G.)  Old  Lalia  cmioi'ilji  rtcittdi  the  renuin 
dcr  uf  the  New  Test. 

2.  RerttioB  of'Alcuia, — Meanwhile  the  test  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  Latin  Bible  was  n 
lating.    Tlie  ■Jmuitaneous  nie  of  the  OU 
sions  necessarily  led  to  great  corruptiiHiB 
Uixcd  texts  were  funiied  accordingjn  iTii* 
ment  ot  acribcs,  ami  the  cniifiuion  was  fun 
by  the  changes  which  wore  sometime*  i 
■hose  who  bad  somo  knowledge  of  (Ireek.    From  this 
cansc  scarcely  any  Anglii^xnn  Vulgate  AIS. 
8th  or  9th  ceiitnn-,  in  all  pmhahility,  is  wholly  free 
from  an  mliniilure  uf  old  readings^    Several  remark. 
aide  examples  are  mitieeil  below  i  and  in  tare  iiistancet 
it  is  diRicidt  to  decide' whether  the  text  is  not  rather 
a  revi^eil  tX»s  than  a  currnpte'l  I'u^lti  noea  (e.  g. 
BriLMuhftry.!,  F..\\;  AdJil.  M<i3).    As  early  as  the 
Gth  cciunry,  Caiaiodorui  attempted  a  partial  revu^ 
of  the  text  (I'salter,  I'mphclis  E|iisUes)  by  a  collsli 
nf  old  MS.S.    But  private  labor  was  nn^le  to  cht 
the  growing  comiptiun,  ami  in  the  8th  century  tl 
had  arrived  at  such  a  height  that  it  attracted  the 
tentioii  of  Charlemagne.    Chariemagnc  at  once  sought 
a  remedy,  an>l  iuliuslnl  to  Alcuiii  (cir.  A.I).  802)  the 
task  uf  revisiii;C  the  Latin  text  fur  public  tisc.    This 
Alciiin  appears  la  have  done  simply  by  the  use  of  MSa 
nf  the  Vulgate,  aiul  not  by  reference  to  the  original 
texts  (Porsnn,  Ldlrr  vi  lo  Traeii,  p.  Ui).    The  pas- 
ttgcs  which  are  adiliiccil  by  Hoily  to  prove  his  famil- 
iarity with  Hebrew  are,  in  fact,  niilr  quotations  from 
Jerome,  and  ha  certainly  left  the  text  unaltered. 
least  in  one  place  where  Jerome  pwnts  out  its  inoi 
racy  (Oen.  xsv,  S).    The  patronage  of  Charlemagne 
gave  a  wide  currency  to  the  reviuon  of  Alcuin,  ami 
sererol  U.SS.  temain  which  claim  tu  date  immediately 
from  his  time.     According  to  a  reri-  remarkable  slate 
ment.  Charlemagne  was  more  than  a  patron  of  sscreii 
criticism,  and  himself  devoted  the  last  year  nf  hit  life 
lothe  cnrieclinnufthcgnsprlB  "with  the  hctpof  (ireeks 
and  SiTians"  (Van  Ess,  p.  159, quoting  Thcganui,Sciilfif. 
Ilill.yraiC.  ii.Vl). 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  probable  lliat  Alcuin's  re- 
vision coiitrilHileil much  lowanU prescning  agooilVui- 
galctext.  ThobestM.SS.ofliisrecenunndunotdiO'ei 
widely  from  the  pure  Ilieianymian  text,  and  his  sulbor- 
ity  moil  have  done  much  to  check  the  spread  of  the 
interpolations  which  reappear  aAerwanls,  and  which 
weicdeiivol  fo>m  the  intermixture  of  the  Old  and  New 
vemioiis.  E.tamplcB  of  readings  which  seem  lo  be  doe 
to  him  occur:  Dent,  i,  9,  add. 


131 


VULGATE 


siiuo  laa,  fur  in  imohbi  Ivai;  iv,  3S,  rii/u>)',  for  ririai; 
vi,  13,  ipii,  add.  so'i;  xr,  9,  oculiu,  om.  Iitot:  xvii,  20, 
J»uu.rurji/»,-  xxi,6,Bdd.rnHn(,'  xxvi,lC,<ir,  fur  r/. 
But  (ho  new  revision  was  grailually  deformed,  tlwugh 
Islei  aucmplB  at  conectinn  were  made  bv  Lanfmnc  of 
Cantcri>iiry  (A.D.  1089,  Hody,  p.  41G),  Ca^L  NicoUus 
(A.D.llaO), and  the Cisiercisn abbot  SiephBnua(cir.A.D. 
IISO).  (n  the  13lh  nntuiy  Cmnelaiia  were  drawn  up, 
■sptiiaUy  in  France,  in  which  varieties  of  reading  were 


disctused;  and  Roger  Bocnn  complains  loudly  of  the 
confusion  which  was  intmdnced  into  the"  comnHnt, that 
is,  the  Parisian,  copy  i"  anil  quotes  a  false  reading  fruio 
Mark  viii,  SB,  where  the  correctuis  had  substituted  cob- 
fatn  for  em,faia$  (Hoily,p.4l9  sq.).  Utile  more  wa* 
dime  fur  the  text  of  the  Vulyaie  till  ihe  iiiventimi  of 

alone  ileserves  mention,  as  or  one  who  devoted  the  high- 
eat  powers  In  the  criticism  of  Holy  Scripture,  at  a  lime 

V.  HiMoty  of  Ihe  I'niUtJ  TfJrt.— 1.  Karl^  EdUimt,—  • 
It  was  a  nubh>  omen  fur  the  future  progress  of  printing 
that  the  first  book  which  isaueil  from  tlie  press  was  the 
Bible;  ami  the  qilemlid  pages  uf  the  Uazarin  Vulgate 
(Uainz — (iutenburgoiiilFual)  ntand  yet  unsurpassed  by 
the  latest  (JTortx  of  lypograpbr.  Tliis  work  is  rcfemd 
to  about  Iho  year  Mho,  and  presents  Ihe  common  te^t 
of  Ihe  i5th  ceniury.  Ihher  edition*  fulloweil  in  rapid 
succession  (the  tint  wiih  a  dale,  Maini,  14I>2,  Fust  and 
SchoiHer),  but  tliey  ntfer  nothing  of  critical  intenst. 

editinn  of  1501,  aiul  others  followed  at  Venice  am)  Lyon* 
in  1511,  lol3;  but  cardinal  Xlmene*  (loOi-luW)  wa* 
the  Bntwho  seriously  revised  the  L^lin  text  ("contnli- 
mus  cum  quamplnriniis  cxemplaribiis  Tcneraodn  ve- 
tutlatis;  scil  his  nuxime,  qiue  in  piildica  Cumplulensi* 
nottne  universitatis  bibliotlieca  recniiduntiir,  qua  supra 
octingentesimum  abhinc  annum  liiteris  Gotbicis  con- 
scripts, e«  sunt  sineerilate  ul  ncc  apicis  lapsus  piissit  in 
ei*deprehcndi''[/>i'^]),  In  which  he  asugned  the  mid- 
dle place  of  honor  in  his  Polyglot  between  Ihe  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts.  The  Complutensiaii  text  is  said  tn 
be  more  correct  than  tbnae  which  precrtlcd  it,  but  still 
it  is  very  far  from  being  pure.  This  was  fidluweil  in 
1328  (ill  ed.  1532)  by  an  edition  nf  R.  Stephens,  who  hail 
bestowed  great  pains  upon  the  work,  considiiug  three 
USS.orhighcliaracictand  Ihe  earlier  dliiions;  bulai 
yet  the  b^  materials  were  nnt  open  f"r  use.  About 
ibe  same  time  various  ottempta  were  maile  to  correct 
the  Latin  from  Ihe  original  texts  (ICrastnus,  ISIG;  Pag- 
ninus,  1618-28;  C^ard.  Cajetan:  Sleuchius,  1620;  Cla- 
rins,  1542),  or  even  to  make  a  new  Latin  version  (Jo. 
Campensis,  I53S).  k  more  important  eilition  of  II.  Ste- 
phens followed  in  IMO,  in  which  he  mailc  use  nftwenly 
MSS.  and  introdiK^l  cuiisidorablo  alierstious  into  liis 
former  text.  In  1541  another  edition  was  pnblbheil  by 
Jo.  Benedictiis  at  I'«ri\  which  was  based  on  the  ndla- 
tion  uf  USS.  and  cilitions,  and  was  often  repriuteil  af- 
terwards. Vercellona  speaks  much  inorc  U\t^\\y  of  the 
BSit'oi  OriKmiria,  with  gkissea,  etc..  piiblifhc*!  at  Lynns, 
\bib,  OS  giving  readings  in  accordance  with  the  oldest 
MSS^  thougli  Iho  sources  fniin  uliich  they  are  derived 


in  ^y,.,■ 


e  IClh 


•.Ln> 


is).    Thec< 


and  interpretatiot 


tance  nf  the  ililTcrc 

of  the  Vulgate,  and  liic  confostoii  caileil  fur  so 
edy.  An  ouihorized  edition  bi 
Romish  Church,  ami,  however  gravely  later  tli 
may  have  erred  in  explaining  the  pidicy  or  inicntiun* 
of  theTrideinine  faiben  on  this  pinnt.  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  (setting  aside  all  reference  lo  the  or^'aol 
texts)  the  principle  of  their  decision— the  preference, 
that  is,  of  the  oklest  l^iiit  text  to  any  later  Latin  ver- 
sion—was substantially  rigbl. 

!.  The  Sirlitu  md  CIrmmliiie  Vidfj>xtn.—T\K  lint  ses- 
MonnrtlicOHnicilurTrciit  was  held  mi  Dec.  Id.  1545. 
Afierwme  prclimlnsTy  arrangemeni*,  the  Xicenc  Creed 
was  formally  promulgated  as  the  foundation  ofi  lie  Chris- 
tian faith  on  Feb.  4,  i51l>,niiil  then  the  ciiuncil  proceed- 
ed to  the  question  of  Hie  ouihrwiiy,  irxi,  and  interpre- 
tation of  Holy  Scripture.  A  comniiiicc  was  appointed 
to  report  upon  the  subject,  which  lirld  private  mceiing* 
from  Feb.  20  to  llatcli  17.  Coiisi.lrrable  varietica  of 
opinion  existed  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  original 
and  Latin  tcxiii,  and  ihc  linsl  clccrec  we*  intended  lo 
a  compromise.  This  was  maile  on  April  fl, 
consisted  of  two  parts— the  fint  oluhicii  cou- 


VULGATE  88 

(■ina  the  list  of  tfae  eanonlcil  books,  wiLh  ibc  naual 

■iiiihcRia  on  thine  who  refuK  to  receive  it;  while  the 
Kcond, "  On  the  Edition  and  Uae  of  the  Sacred  Baok*,' 

clea  of  fiilh.  The  wording  of  the  decree  ilself  contains 
■erenil  mirkn  of  the  conmreray  from  which  it  arose, 
■ml  admits  otatac  more  libenl  conalruclion  than  later 
ekwcs  hare  affixed  to  it.  In  afflnning  the  authority 
of  the  "  Oid  Vulgate,"  it  contains  no  estimate  of  the 
value  of  the  original  texts.  The  question  decided  is 
simpir  tho  relative  merits  oflhe  current  Latin  versions 
("  si  ex  omnibns  Ijitinis  veisionibus  qua  circumfemn- 
uit"),  anil  this  only  in  reference  to  puNie  exerdses. 
The  oliject  contemplated  is  the  advantage  (^HliSlat') 
of  the  Church,  and  not  anything  esaenliil  to  its  con- 
stitution. It  wsa  further  enacted,  as  a  check  to  the 
license  of  printers,  thst  "  Holy  Scripture,  but  npteinUg 
the  old  and  common  [Vul(>ate]  edition  [eridentir  wilii- 
out  exdmling  the  original  texts],  should  be  printed  as 
eorredly  as  possible."  In  spite,  however,  or  the  cnm- 
parolive  caution  of  the  decree,  and  tbe  inteT|irelalion 
which  was  affixed  to  it  by  the  highest  authoritietj  it 
naa  received  with  little  favor,  and  the  want  ofa  stand- 
ard text  of  llie  Vulgate  practically  left  the  qucalion  as 
unsettled  as  before.  The  decree  itself  wss  made  liy 
men  little  flilcd  to  anticipate  tlie  difficulties  of  textual 
criticism,  but  anemards  these  were  fuuml  to  be  so  great  i 
that  Air  some  time  it  seemed  that  no  aulhorixed  edition 
wiHild  appear.  The  theologians  of  Belgium  did  some- 
thing to  TDMt  the  want.  In  1547  the  Snt  edition  of 
Henlenius  appeared  at  Louvain,  which  bad  very  consid- 
erable influence  upon  later  copies.  It  was  based  upon 
the  collatiim  of  L^lin  MSS.  and  the  Stephanie  edition 
of  1640.  In  the  Antwerp  Pxlyglot  of  lUS-Ti  the  \'ul- 
gate  »as  borrowed  from  the  Catnplutensian  (Vereellone, 
Far. /.erf.  ei);  bat  in  the  Antwerp  edi  I  ion  ofthe  Vul- 
gate of  I, iT3-74  the  text  of  Henlenius  waa  adopted,  with 
cupioDS  additions  at  readings  by  Liicas  Bnigen^  This 
last  was  designed  as  the  preparation  and  temporary  sub- 
stitute for  the  papal  edition;  indeed,  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  it  was  not  put  forth  as  the  "correct  edi- 
tion required  by  the  Tridenlinc  decree'  (comp.  Lncas 
Brug.  ap.  A'erccllone,  cii).  But  a  pa|ial  bosrd  was  al- 
ready engaged,  however  desultorily,  upon  the  work  of 
revision.  The  earliest  trace  of  an  attempt  to  realize 
the  recommendations  of  the  council  is  found  fiiteen 
years  alter  it  was  made.  In  1561  Paidus  Hanutius 
(son  of  AhtuB  Sianuiins)  was  invited  to  Rotne  to  super- 
intend the  printing  of  Latin  and  Greek  Bibles  (Vercel- 
kme,  Var.  Ltd.  etc.,  1,  prol.  xlx,  note).  During  that 
j-ear  and  the  next  aei-eral  scholars  (with  Sirlelus  at 
their  head)  were  engaged  in  the  revision  of  tbe  text. 
In  the  pantidcale  of  Pins  V  the  work  was  continued, 
and  Sirletua  alill  took  a  chief  part  in  it  (I5G9-70)  (ibid. 
!bc.  at.  prol.  IX,  note),  but  it  was  currently  reported 
that  the  difficulties  of  publishing  an  aulhoriialive  edi- 
tion were  insuperable.  Nothing  fiirther  waa  done  to- 
wanis  the  revi^cm  of  the  Vulgale  under  Gregory  XIII. 
hilt  preparations  were  made  fur  an  edition  of  (he  Sept. 
Thia  appeared  in  I5tti,  in  the  second  year  of  the  pon- 
tificate of  Sixlus  V,wha  had  been  one  of  the  chief 
promoters  of  the  work.  After  the  publication  of  the 
Sept.,  Sixtus  immediately  dei-uted  himself  to  the  pro- 
duction of  an  edition  of  the  Vulgate.  He  was  himself 
a  scholar,  ami  hia  impcrioua  genius  led  him  to  face  a 
task  from  which  olheni  hod  shrunk.  "He  had  felt," 
he  BBys,"fmm  his  Arst  accession  In  the  papal  throne 
(1586),  gr?at  grief,  or  even  indignation  iiadiffne  fi- 
rat'tt),ihat  tbe Triitcnline decree  wot  >iillnnsatislleili" 
and  a  board  was  appointed,  under  the  presidency' of  car- 
dinal Carafa,  to  arrange  the  materiaUi  and  offer  sugges- 
tions fur  an  edition.  Sixtus  himself  revised  the  text, 
rejecting  or  confirming  tho  suggestions  of  the  board  by 
his  absolute  judgment ;  and  when  the  irork  was  priiit- 
eil,  he  examined  (he  sheets  with  the  utmost  care,  and 
corrected  the  errors  with  his  own  baud.  Tbe  edition 
appealed  in  1690,  nilb  the  famous  conBtitulion.£V(Tnii> 


2  VULGATE 

UU  (dated  March  1, 1589)  prefixed,  in  which  Siitu 
affirmed  witli  characteristic  decision  the  [denary  knthor- 
ity  of  the  edition  for  ail  future  time.  "  My  the  fnlnes 
of  ipostnlical  power"  (such  are  his  Words),  "we  decrre 
and  declare  that  this  edition  .  .  .  appmred  by  the  an- 
thority  delivered  to  us  by  the  Lonl.  is  to  be  recsired 
and  beld  as  true,  lawful,  authentic,  and  nnqnestionable, 
in  all  pDblic  andpi-irate  discussion,  reading,  preaching:, 
and  explanation."  He  further  forbade  expressly  the 
publication  of  various  readings  in  copies  of  the  Vulgate, 
and  pronounced  that  all  readings  in  other  rditinm  aud 
HSS.  which  var?  from  IhoecoTthe  revised  text  "  ore  in 
have  no  credit  or  authority  for  the  future"  ("  e»  in  iii 
qiue  hiiic  nostrai  edition!  lion  coneenserini 


deceniimus').  Itwasali 
should  be  introduced  iut 
and  the  greater excommi 


n  babiturm  e«e 
missab  and  servic(~-bnd^ 


the  life  of  ^xiiia  been  prolonged,  there  i: 
that  his  iron  will  woidd  have  enforced  t) 
which  he  thus  peremptOTily  proclaimed;  bni 
August,  1590,  and  those  whom  he  had  alarmed  o 


fended  took  it 


'r  tbe  c 


designs.  Nor  was  Ihiswiihout  gooil  r« 
He  had  changed  the  readings  of  those  whcim  he  had 
employai  to  repn.~t  upon  the  text  with  the  rmni  ari^i- 
tnry  ami  imskiiful  hand:  and  it  was  scarcely  an  ei- 
aggeralion  to  soy  that  his  precipitate  "  self-relisore 
had  brought  the  Church  into  the  most  serious  peril' 
During  the  brief  poniiScate  of  L'rban  VII  nothing  cnull 
be  dune,  Iwt  the  reaction  was  not  long  delayed.  <hi  rhe 
accession  of  Gregory  XIV,  some  went  so  far  as  m  pn<- 
poae  that  the  tuition  of  Sixtns  ahould  be  abKoturHv 
prohibited,  but  Bellarmine  suggested  a  middle  coarr. 
He  proposed  that  the  erroneous  alterations  of  the  text 
which  had  been  made  in  it  ("qito!  mslc  mutala  etsni~i 
"should  be  corrected  with  all  poBsible  speed,  and  !!■■ 
ItiUe  reprinted  under  the  name  d.' Sixtus,  with  a.[HT(s- 
toiy  note  to  the  effect  that  errors  (a/ijun  err«rB)  Lail 
crept  into  the  former  edition  by  the  caretessneas  of  tbe 
printers."  Thia  pious  fraud,  or  ralber  daring  fshtbooj 
—for  it  can  be  called  by  no  other  name— fouod  famt 
with  those  in  power.  A  commlsHon  was  appointed  n 
revise  the  Sixtine  text,  under  the  prendencv  of  the  car- 
dinal Coloniia  (Columna).  At  first  the  commisswons 
maile  but  slow  progress,  and  it  seemed  likely  that  a  yrit 
would  elapse  before  the  revision  was  com|>lcled  (I'ngi- 
relli,  in  Vercellone,  Prolrg.  Iviii).  The  mode  uf  pro' 
ccedings  was  therefore  changed,  and  tlie  commiisioa 
moved  to  Zagarolo,  tho  counlTy-«cat  ofColiinna;  ami. 
if  wc  may  believe  the  inscription  which  srill  commeD- 
orates  the  event,  and  the  current  report  of  liie  tinw. 
the  work  was  completed  in  uinrtfrn  days;  But  erm 
if  it  can  be  shown  tliat  the  work  extended  over  six 
months,  it  is  obvious  that  there  was  no  lime  fur  ibe 
examination  of  new  aulhnriHes,  but  only  for  making 
a  rapid  revision  with  the  help  of  the  materials  al- 
ready collected.  The  task  waa  hardly  finished  when 
Gregory  died  (October,  1G91),  and  the  puUieaiioa  of 
■he  revised  text  was  again  dclai'ed.  His  sucrcnor. 
Innocent  IX.  d>e<)  within  the  same  year,  and  at  the  be- 
ginning of  15E»J  Clement  Vllt  was  rsisei!  tu  the  pi^x- 
dom.  Clement  intnistcil  the  final  revision  •>(  tbe  text 
to  Tiilclus,  anil  the  wlmlc  waa  printed  by  Aldui  Maou- 
tius  (the  grandson)  before  the  end  of  159S.  The  piet 
ace,  which  ia  moulded  upon  that  of  Sixlns,nBS  written 
by  Rellarmine,  and  Is  favorably  distinguishol  from  Ihit 
ofSixliia  b?  its  temperance  and  even  modesty.  The 
text,  it  is  said,  had  been  prepared  with  the  giealea 
care,  nnd  though  not  absolutely  perflMi,  was  at  least 
(wliat  is  no  idle  boast),  more  cnnecl  than  that  of  any 
former  eilillon.  Some  readings,  indeed,  it  is  allowed, 
linil,  though  wroiig,  been  left  unchanged  to  avoid  pop- 
;  but  ycl  even  here  Uellarmim 


]  recall  h: 


I  edition,  which  si 


a  the  frtmt  af 


VULGATE  8! 

tbc  RomiD  Vnlgite  by  an  apolagy  no  1cm  needlcm  than 
untrue.  Another  edition  folkmed  in  ia9S,  and  ■  thiid 
in  1696,  with  ■  triple  liiC  of  amla,  one  fat  each  al  the 
lhf«e  editiont.  Other  editiona  were  alterwanb  pab- 
liihed  at  Bonie  (comp.  VeiceUone,  cir),  but  with  theaa 
eorreetioiu  the  hUtorjr  of  the  authorized  text  propeiijr 


Tbe  napeetive  merita  o(  the  Kxtim  and  Geinenline 
edition*  have  often  been  debated.  In  point  of  mecben- 
ical  BccuTacj,  the  Sixtioe  aeema  to  be  dearly  auperior 
(Tui  Ea^  Cetci.  866  aqOl  but  Van  Eh  haa  aUowed 
hioiaelf  CO  be  milled  in  the  calimale  which  be  givee  t^ 
the  critical  value  of  (he  Sixtine  leadingii  The  coUec- 
itoDa  latclj  publiihed  by  Tercellone  place  in  the  clear- 
cet  light  the  atrange  and  uncritical  mode  in  which  8i£- 
lua  dealt  with  the  evidence  and  raulla  ■ubmitled  to 
him.  The  recoramendailona  uf  the  Sixtine  oarrectore 
■re  marked  by  ungular  wisdom  and  critical  tact:  and 
in  almoat  every  case  where  Sixtus  departa  from  them 
be  is  in  eiror.  Tbia  will  be  erident  from  a  ciillalicm  of 
the  readings,  in  a  ftw  chapters,  as  given  by  Vem Hone. 
Thus  in  the  flnt  lour  chaplen  of  Geneva  the  Kxtine 
conecton  are  right  againn  Siitua:  i,  2,  !7,  81 ;  ii,  18, 
Wt  iii,  1,  11, 1!,17,  3I,!2;  ir,  1,6,7,8,9,  15,  16,19: 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  Sixlui  i>  light  againat  the  cor- 
rectors in  i,  lit.  The  Gregnriau  correctnni,  therefare 
(whose  restdia  are  gjveti  in  the  Clementine  ediiinii),  in 
the  main  nmply  restored  nadingi  adopted  by  the  Six- 
tine biHud  and  rejected  by  Sixtui.  In  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  Che  Clementine  edition  follows  the  Six- 
line  coneclwa  when  it  diflerarrooi  (he  Sixtine  edition: 
i,4,  l»,  SI;  U,2I;  ir,  6,  31,  S8,  BO,  38,89;  v,i4;  vi,4; 
viii,  1 ;  ix,  9;  X,  S;  xi,  8;  xli,  11, 12, 16,  etc;  and  eve< 
ry  change  (except, probably,  vi, 4 ;  xii,  II,  12)  is  right; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  same  chapters  there 
are  apparently  only  two  inalancea  of  variation  with- 
out the  aatbority  of  the  Kxline  correctois  (xi,  10, 
BS).  But  in  pniiit  of  fact  the  Clementine  edition  em 
b*  excess  of  caution.  Within  the  aame  limits  it  fol- 
lows Sixtna  agwnst  the  eonecTors  wrongly  in  ii,  83; 
iii,  10, 12,  IS,  l«,  19,20;  iv,  10,11,  28,42;  vi.S;  xi,28; 
and  in  the  whole  book  admits  in  chs  foUowing  paangea 
arbitaiy  changes  of  Sixtna:  iv,  10;  v,  24;  xi,  IB;  xii, 
16,  82;  xviii,  10, 11;  ixii,  28.  In  (ha  New  Te8^  as 
(be  report  of  the  Sixtine  correctors  has  not  yet  bee 
published,  it  ia  imposalble  (o  aay  how  far  the  aanie  lai 
boldagood;  but  the  foUowing  oumparisoa  of  the  varij 
tinns  of  (he  two  editions  in  continuous  passages  of  th 
ginpela  and  epistles  will  show  that  the  Clementini 
though  not  a  pure  text,  ts  yet  very  far  purer  than  th 
Sixtine,  which  often  gives  Old  Latin  readings,  and  some- 
tiiDH  appears  to  depend  amply  on  patristic  auibi  ' 
(ie.pp.IL)! 

Bfxmn.  CLaacKTiiia. 

Malt  I,  n,  vocahltor  (pp.  II).  vocahuni. 

II,    D,  Jnda(eit.uim.elc).       laAm. 

U,  inrse,  anipe  (t).  >DrKe  et  acclps. 

II     a  — iroplnooablt  (Iv,     spproulnonavlt. 
n,  ^IB&Osllle.  pp. 


Matt.  vlU,  te,  CApnt  snam  {It.  lol.).  Capnt. 

la,  veulsset  Jeswllt.).  venliset. 

n,  magnolmpstuUt.)-  Inpetn. 

13,  b)EC  omnia  (f).  otnols. 

H,  logabant  enm  at  Je-  rogabant  at. 

Eph.  1,U,  In  Cbristo  J.  (pp.  IL  InDomlaoJ. 


11,   1,  *oscauvlTlflciTlt(pp. 

11,  vo.'B'ratlilpp.lLBodl.  vo*. 

-,  dlabs^lDl<pp.tL).  dlclmlnl. 

11,  qui  (pp.  It.  B»dL  etc),  qaod. 

K,  gplrllD  Ssncto  (pp.  It  Splritlb 


H,  innnriiinienin(pp.II.).     tmml 


W  ln< 


ladcn 


laila. 


HI.  «,«: 


II.). 


Ii  deqaodli 


at  (lot.    qal  dlctor  eat. 


IB,  OsllliHe  111.  am.  etc).  Uallliea. 

is,  ambulibat  (I).  aedebsl. 

f,  11,  Tobi*   taomlDe*  (gsL  volils. 

M,  absdnds  ij).  abnide. 

«^  Injndlcio  (iL).  Jnillclo. 

vt,  t,  8th.  bcloui  (It.).  etbnlcL 

»,  aulm  (luk  anlem. 

vU,   I,  et  Don  Jndkablmlnl,  ut  hod  JodlcemlnL 


«,  anprs  (pp.  IL  I 


8.  Laltr  £<K>tiHu.— While  the  Cteinentine  edition 
was  still  recent,  some  tbnugfata  seem  to  have  been  en- 

tant  collection*  for  thia  purpose;  but  the  practical  diA- 
culties  were  found  to  be  too  great,  and  the  study  of  va- 
rious readings  wai  reaerveil  for  scholai*  (Bellarmin.  ad 
Lvaim  Brng.  1606).  In  the  next  generatioB  use  and 
cDntroversy  gave  a  sanctity  to  the  authoriied  text. 
Many, especially  in  Spain,  pronounced  it  (o  bavea  value 
superior  to  the  originals,  anil  to  be  inqiired  in  every 
detail  (comp.  Tau  Ess.  CrsciL  p.  401,402;  Ilody,IIl,ii, 
IS);  but  it  is  useieaa  (o  dwell  on  the  history  of  such  ax- 
traragandes,  from  which  the  Jeaiiita,  at  least,  following 
their  great  champion  Bellarmine,  wisely  Itept  ahiof.  It 
was  a  more  serioue  matter  that  the  universal  acceptance 
nf  the  papal  text  checked  the  critical  itudy  of  the  msEe- 
riala  on  which  it  was  professedly  based.  At  length, 
however,  in  1706,  Martiiuiay  published  a  new,  and,  in 
tbe  main,  bet(er,  text,  cbiefiy  from  original  MS3.,  in  hia 
edition  of  Jerome.  Vallani  added  fresh  collaUons  in 
his  revised  issue  of  Hariianay'a  work;  but  in  both  cases 
the  collations  are  imperfect,  and  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine with  accuracy  on  what  MS.  authority  tbe  text 
which  ia  given  depends.  SabaCier,  though  professing 
only  to  dul  with  the  Old  Latin,  published  importiut 
material*  for  the  criticism  of  Jerome's  verdan,  and  gave 
at  length  the  reaillngsof  Lucas  Brugenai*(1748).  More 
than  a  century  elapsed  before  anything  more  of  impor- 
tance was  done  for  the  text  of  the  Latin  veiaion  of  the 
Old  Test,  when  at  length  the  roctunale  discovery  of  the 
original  revision  of  the  Sixtine  correctoi*  again  direcleil 
tbe  attention  of  Roman  scholar*  (o  (heir  authoriieil 
text.  The  (Irat-fniiia  of  their  labiirs  are  given  in  the 
volume  of  Veicellnne,  already  often  quoted,  which  baa 
thrown  more  light  upon  (he  history  and  criticism  of  the 
Vulg.  than  any  previous  work.  Tbere  are  »ome  defects 
in  the  arrangement  of  tbe  nulerials,  and  it  is  unfortu- 
nate chat  the  editor  ha*  not  added  either  the  authorized 
or  coirecMd  text;  but  still  Uw  work  ia  such  that  every 
student  of  (he  Latin  Mxt  most  be  deeply  interested 
in  it. 

Tbe  neglect  of  the  Latin  text  of  the  Old  Testis  but 
a  consequence  of  the  general  neglect  of  the  cHiicism  of 
tbe  Hebrew  text  In  the  New  Test  far  more  has  been 
done  for  the  correction  of  tbe  Vulg.,  though  even  here 
no  critical  edition  ba*  yet  been  published.  Numerous 
collatiuna  of  MSS.,  more  or  leas  perfect,  have  been  made. 
In  this,  as  in  many  other  poinl*,  Bentley  pointed  oat 
tbe  true  path  which  others  hare  followed.  Hia  own 
collation  of  Latin  MS.S.  waa  excendve  and  important 
(comp.  Ellis,  timlltii  Criiica  Sijcra,  xzxv  *q,).  Griea- 
'     '  added  new  collations,  and  arrangMl  those  which 

a  bad  made,    l^chmann  printed  the  Latin  text  in 

his  larger  edition,  having  oollaled  (he  Codtm  /alrfaasit 
*ie  purpose.     Tiscbendorf  hiu  labored  among  Lalin 


VULGATE  8! 

US9„  only  with  )Mi  Mil  than  uDoogQrMk.  TrcgcllM 
hu  given  in  bia  edtlion  of  the  New  T«K.  the  text  at 
Cod.  jtniufnifj  Ihim  fail  own  coUatiun  with  the  varii- 
tioni  of  the  OemeDtine  edition.  But  in  all  thne  cuei 
the  study  of  the  I^lin  wu  merely  utcilUry  la  that  of 
the  Greek  lexU  Prabihlv,  fram'tbe  KtEiit  (iitiquity 
and  purity  of  the  Codd.  A  mialiaut  and  t'utdtniii,  there 
ii  comparatively  little  acope  fiir  criticiain  in  the  reviiiaii 
of  Jerome'a  veraion;  but  it  cnuld  not  be  an  iinprofliable 
work  la  examine  mure  in  detail  than  baa  yet  been  done 
the  aeveral  phaaea  tbrough  which  it  has  pawed,  and  the 
cauaes  which  led  to  ita  gradual  corruption. 

A  full  accaunC  af  the  ediliona  of  the  Vnl^  i*  given 
bfiUtch(Lehaai0,mbUalkfeaSaerail7JS-«>).  The 
variacioni  between  the  SixLiiie  and  Qcnientine  rditinna 
were  collated  by  T.  Jamea,  Btlinni  Popatt,  i.  Concordia 
Oitcon  (Lend.  1600),  and  more  eomplelely,  with  a  col- 
lation of  the  Clementina  editiona,  by  H.  da  Bukentop, 
/.ax  dt  Lace,  iii,  316  aq.  Vercellone,  correctind  earlier 
critics,  reckona  that  the  whole  number  of  rariationa  be- 
tween the  two  reviwina  ia  about  tbree  thousand  {Pro- 
/fj^.xlriii.ttofai). 

TL  PrittifMU  UBS.  oflKt  FuSjo/*.— Theae  may  brief- 
ly be  enumerated  aa  fallowa ;  1.  Cod.  Anialvai;  of  the 
middle  oT  the  6ch  century,  the  oldeet  and  beat  extant; 
ill  tlie  LanrenlisD  Library  at  Florence ;  it  contains  the 


4  VULGATE 

Old  Teal^  except  Baruch,  and  the  New  Test. ;  the  latter 
haa  been  edited  fram  it  by  Tischendorf  (Leips.  1850^  4to). 
Set  Amiatihb  Hakiiscript. 

S.  BOttia  Gotkica  Tt^am  Eedaia,  ot  tbe  Sib  cm- 
tnry,  containing  all  the  boolta  except  Baruch  (Veicel- 
lone,  Var.  Lm.  i.  84). 

8.  Cod.  Cavnuii,  of  the  Sih  cenlury,  if  not  evUer; 
containa  Ihe  Old  and  New  Test,  i  belongs  lo  ibe  mooM- 
Krv  of  La  Cava,  near  Salerno;  examined  br  Tiadioi- 
dorf, 

4.  Cod.  FanlUmit,  of  tbe  E>tb  century,  wanta  Banad!; 
at  Kome  (Vercellone,  loc.  df.). 

5.  Cod.  Stalitoau  hod.  ValUeelimau,  of  Ihc  9tli  oea- 
tary ;  at  Rnme  (Vercellone,  L  c). 

e.  Cod.  Onobonimii,  of  tbe  Slh  century,  containa  tbe 
Ocuteiich ;  in  the  Vatican  (Vercellone,  L  c). 

y.^tUfaCorofniiOf IheScbcenturi';  wantsBameh. 
and  the  two  laai  leaves  aie  by  a  later  hand ;  in  tbe  aa- 
Kinal  library  at  Zarich. 

8.  Biilia  Bmdmrgrma,  of  the  9th  century,  wants 
Ihe  Apocalypae;  it  has  Jerome's  Epistle  (o  PaulioH 
prefix^  in  large  uncia]^  the  itat  of  the  MS.  ia  miniB- 
cular;  in  Ihia  MS.  I  John  v,  T  appean  (Kopp,  BO- 
der  u.  Sclirifleti  dtr  Vontil.  i,  IS4). 

9.  Cod.  Akuiti,  of  tbe  9th  century,  containing  tbe 
Old  and  New  Teat,  (except  Baruch) ;  auppoaed  u   ' 

that  offered  to  CI      ' 


duKB  at  MtHiiier  de  Gnand- 
val,  now  in  the  Brituh  Ha- 

aeum  (.4dai^  10,  646), 


ISlh  c 
Altdorf,  I 


ATX  ,  eoDTsre 
gtcnonibtt 
cpjsexocraDvpecrrcio 

iXtNnnncGciopxrRjs 
Tyjcxxj^rr,  Mocgssrcoas 

NON  h;iBemus  ne^em 

KBsi  CMSJkaem 
(uHcm^o  YRAiidcreis  itlum 

urcRucipKjeiieTtjit     __ 
^uicepeRUNT  iuienj  iTjro 

erMlnlMSSIBI  CR«oen> 

qady-aaxxum  f  m  tpfo  uvzcuefs  Cemxtv 
epjcuru^  hominum  oLujc  irrcenAfuflva 
fipinAf^  earn  noneon-pvfidienbefvams  >■ 

Bpecliiwna  or  M8&  of  Ihe  Vnlgnte :  l.Brfl.  Mna.  (Adilll.N(B),Cnclal:  1.  SlonTbnral  (Sl.Cnlhbert'r},  SamMmdal; 
i-Harrelan  (Brll.Mna.  lSW),Cura1vei  4.  Hereford  aari<eiP,CnnlTe. 


r,  XocMridkln  mr 
jriiTAn-,  Gdrkrtnt-  mJ  fii- 
dur-Grrhirilr,  X,  1251. 

ll.AUS.ofihelSlhc«b 
tuty,  described  in  Eich- 
horn'a  ArperloHaai,  xvii. 
183  >q. 

ItCod. /'vUnuu.of  the 
6tfa  centnry,  containa  the 
New  Teat.,  with  the  goaprit 

used  by  Laehmann  in  hia 
edition  of  tbe  Latin  aalifinn- 
ed  to  bis  Greek  New  Tea).; 
a  apecimen  was  puUtihed 
by  Ranke  (llarh.  IBGO,  Ua). 

la.  Cod.  Forojtlinni! 
containa  the  four  goapels; 
edited  along  wiih  fraements 
of  Mark's  gospel  fram  tb* 
Prague  MS.  (previoiBly  ed- 
ited by  Dnbrowski,  Fraf' 
vtrnlam  Progemt  Er.  S. 
Hard,  etc.  [Prag.  1778, 
4to]),  and  other  remains  rf 
Ibe  same  gospel  fnun  1IS& 
preaerved  at  Venice,  by  ifi- 
anchiui,  Apptnd.  ad  £caa- 
ffcLQaadnpL 

14.  Cod.  An^UnHt.;  a 
Gneoo-Lalin  MS.  of  the  9lh 


VULGATE  81 

gnspeb  in  Or««k,  witb  u  intcrlineirv  tnnsUtion ;  ed- 
ited in  rtc-vmile  by  SaUig  (Turin,  iS36,  4(o).  There 
in  BiiuChei  Cod.  SanyaiJaaii  eoouimng  fragmcnta  oribc 
l^iaiKjc,  of  [he  Bth  centurr,  described  b;  Tiechcndorf  in 
■tw  Drttieit  Zeittcrift/iir  citi-ifL  Wiuauckujt.  1867, 
Nil.  7,  and  csleemed  by  him  oT  unM  vdue  for  [be  text 
»r  the  Vulj^te  (Titchenduif,  Proltg.  p.  249  «q.).  See 
Galc  (St.)  Makuscbiit. 

Beuiles  thoe,  many  cnlicei  exist  bD[h  in  Bri[iih  and 
ContiiienUl  librar■e^     Ste  Manu»cript8,  BiBUCAL. 

TIL  Crilical  Valat  itfihe  Lain  Kernou.— 1.  In  tilt 
Old  Ttt.—  nt  Utin  Vetiwin,  in  \\x  rerioiu  formis  eera- 
tributei,»  bu  already  been  seen,  more  or  len  impor- 
taot  iDilenali  for  [ha  criticism  of  the  original  texli  oi 
tbe  OIil  and  New  Teat*.,  and  of  the  Cammon  and  Heia- 
pluic  lexla  iif  the  Sepc  Tbe  bearing  of  the  Vulfton 
tbe  Sept.  will  not  be  noticed  here,  ai  the  point*  itiralved 
in  the  ictquiry  mote  property  belong  to  the  histoir  of 
the  Sepi.  Liitle,  BKaiii,  need  be  aaid  on  (he  value  of 
the  tnuuUtion  of  Jemnie  fur  the  textual  mlicium  nf 
the  OKI  Teat.  Aa  a  wIkiJc,  hi*  work  ii  a  remarkable 
munument  of  the  subelaiitial  idenlity  uf  the  Hebrew 
text  of  the  *th  taiKury  with  [he  iirenent  tlaviretic 
text;  aiid  the  want  of  trustworthy  materials  fur 
exact  de[enDin>[ion  of  (be  Latin  text  itself  has  made 
all  detailed  investigation  of  his  readingi  inpoeaihle  c 
ansatiafactory.  The  passages  which  were  quoted  i 
the  premature  controversies  of  the  lUlh  and  17tb  cer 
tnries,  to  piove  the  corrupiion  of  ihe  Hebrew  ur  Lili 
text,  are  commonly  of  litrle  importance  so  far  as  th 
text  i*  nmcemeil.  It  will  be  enough  to  notice  thos 
only  which  are  quoted  by  Wbitaker.  the  wonhy  aniafi 
■mist  of  BelUrmioe  (^Oitpatulioit  on  Seiiplurt  [ed.  Pari 
8oc],  p.  163  aq.). 
Gen.  I,  SO,  ah.  all  i>reen  herbs  (In  Tat.  L.) :  111,  IS.  if* 


IK.n.lnriicntn. 
Ir,  t«.i>«.Kod,« 
qntttt.  Htlir. 


a  in  rntamin.    The  words  ace  i 


-.,.,  , ---r ,-  — ,.— jodatiM.    S-i8epL 

Till,  T.  enredlebslar  et  turn  mvenelminr.    The  tun  Is 
WHiiiliig  111  the  best  mniiDKripu  of  Ihe  Vnlgiie,  aud  baa 


x<,  IS,  (r 


id  rnim  Ihe  Sept. 
"a   tribal  for   <j 


adrinseolls   trlbo*.     Bo 


e,<>*L"thebnlh 


IVobably  >  tixn. 
Wherefore  he  left— Joseph." 
lloue,  ad  ISO. 


Il,  1,  ftandetnr  nninls  llllniu     Om. "  by 
xiivil,S,^edniA'  — ■"■*"'-     ■■ 

il.r 

Ilk  .  -    - 

xlii,>a,fliL 

In  xxIt,<:  iivll,a:  xiili,  n,tha  lariatlon  Is  pmba- 
blT  In  ibe  rendering  only-  The  rifinalnlna  pssaaije',  11. 
8;  III.!;  lT,«^lt.Kl  •>■■:  xlv.B:  xvll.lS;  111,  IS;  xil, 
»:  iilT,  Hi  XI*,  M:  iivil.  09:  iiil,  K:  iiivlll,  t,ia: 
illi,  M,  contain  dlffisreiices  of  luterpreinlliiD ;  and  tn 
xutI,  it,  ill,  4B|  Ihe  Vuliate  nppesra  to  kiva  presented 
ImpoKani  irxdltlonal  ttadeiiugB. 

%  In  lie  Nrm  r<a«.— The  examples  which  bare  been 
given  show  the  comparatively  narroi*  limits  within 
which  the  Vulgale  can  be  useil  for  tbe  criticism  of  the 
Hebrew  [exL  Tbe  vecsion  was  nude  at  a  time  when 
the  present  terisiou  was  already  eaiabHshed;  and  the 
freedom  which  Jerome  allowed  himaelf  in  rendering 
the  senae  of  the  original  often  leaves  it  doubtful  wheth- 
er in  reality  a  rarioua  reading  is  repreaented  by  tbe  pe- 
culiar form  which  he  gives  to  a  particular  passajje.  In 
the  KewTett-thecaaeisfardiftrenc  In  [his  the  crit- 
ical evidence  of  the  Latin  is  sepanble  in[o  [wo  distinct 
elamenta,  the  evidence  of  the  Old  Latin  and  that  of  the 
Hiemnymian  reviaion.  The  lalier,  where  it  diOen  from 
tl*  rurmer,  represents  the  received  Oreek  text  of  the 
4ih  century,  atid  so  far  claims  a  respect  (speaking  rough- 
lyjequal  tn  that  due  to  a  fliaUduaGreek  HS.j  and  it 
■nay  be  fairly  ouocloded  that  any  reading  oppnaed  (o 
tb*  cnmbiiMit  leacimnny  of  the  oldest  Greek  M.S.^  and 
tba  ime  Vulgate  text  (itber  aiuae  later  [ban  tbe  4th 


IS  VULGATE 

centnry,  or  was  previously  eonfined  within  ■  ver 
tow  range.  The  corrTcftaaj  of  Jerome  do  not  ca 
back  beyond  tbe  age  of  exisliu((  Greek  U8S.,  I 
tbe  same  time,  they  supplement  tha  original  teat 
of  USS.  by  an  independent  witneai.  The  nbttn 
the  Vulgate,  and  tbe  co^es  of  the  Old  Lj[in,  I 
more  venerable  authority.  Tbe  origin  of  the 
version  dates,  as  baa  been  seen,  from  the  earlie 
of  the  Christian  Church.  The  translation,  as  a 
waa  pnic[icaliy  6xed  and  current  more  than  a  c 
before  tbe  transcriptiou  of  the  oldest  Greek  HS. 


Thus 


aaterit  parHxu,  more  valuable,  than  is  represented  by 
any  other  sutbority,  unless  the  Peahi[o  in  its  present 
li>rni  l>e  excepted.  This  primi[ive  text  was  not,  as  far 
as  can  be  ascertained,  free  from  serious  cutrupiions  (at 
least  in  tbe  synoptic  gospels)  from  [he  flnt,  and  was 
variously  compled  afterwards.  But  the  comipiions 
proceeded  in  a  ditferent  direcllnn  and  bv  a  dilTerent  law 
from  those  of  Greek  HSK.,  anil,  consequently,  the  two 

naiure  of  these  corruptions,  and  what  the  character  and 
value  of  Jerome's  revision  and  of  the  Old  Latin,  will  be 
seen  from  some  examples  to  be  given  in  detail. 

Before  giving  these,  however,  one  preliminary  re- 
mark musE  be  made.  In  estimating  the  critical  value 
of  Jenime'a  labors,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a  distinction 
between  hia  different  works.  His  mode  of  proceeding 
was  by  no  means  unifomn  and  [he  importance  of  hi* 
Judgment  varies  wi[h  the  object  at  which  he  aimed. 
The  three  Tetsions  of  tbe  Psalter  represent  completely 
the  three  diflerent  melbods  which  he  followed.  At  Hrst 
he  was  contented  witb  a  popular  revision  of  the  curreut 
text  (the  AostiM  Pialtet);  then  he  inati[uled  an  accu- 
cB[e  comparison  between  the  current  text  and  the  orig- 
inal (tbe  Gatliam  Psalier)^  and  in  tbe  next  place  he 
translated  independently,  giving  a  direct  vernon  of  the 
original  (the  /lArtw  Pnaltar),  These  three  mclhoda 
folkiw  one  another  in  chronological  order,  and  answer 
to  the  wider  views  which  Jerome  graduallv  gaiuci  of 
.  the  functions  of  a  Biblical  schuUr.  Tbe  reviainn  of  [lie 
New  Test,  belongs,  unfortunately,  to  the  Hnt  period. 
When  it  was  made,Jerome  was  as  yet  unused  to  Ihe 
task,  and  he  was  anxious  not  to  arouse  popular  preju- 
dice. His  aim  was  little  more  than  to  remove  obvious 
iQ[erpolatinns  and  blunders;  and  in  doing  this  he  like- 
wise introduced  some  changes  of  expression  which  soft- 
ened the  roogbiwas  of  [he  old  version,  and  aoma  which 
teemed  to  be  required  for  tbe  true  expcesson  of  ibe 
aente  (e.  g.  Uatt.  vi,  1 1 ,  nptmAsfaafiaimt  for  quolidiii- 
num).  But  while  he  accomplished  much,  he  failed  In 
carry  out  even  [his  limited  purpose  with  thorough  com- 
plelenesB.  A  rendering  which  be  commonly  altered 
was  atill  suBbred  to  remain  in  some  place*  without  any 
obvinus  reason  (e.g.  fiwrrwwov,  Jo(ci;i-,  d^nvijw)!  and 
the  textual  emendations  which  ho  introducetl  fapart 
from  the  removil  of  glosses)  seem  to  have  been  made 
after  only  a  partial  examination  of  Greek  copies,  and 
those  probably  few  in  number.  The  result  was  such  as 
might  have  been  expected.  Tbe  greater  corruplioiis 
of  Ihe  Old  Latin,  whether  by  addition  or  omissiaii,  are 
generally  corrected  in  [be  Vulgale.  Sometimes,  also, 
Jerome  give*  the  (rue  reading  in  details  which  had 
been  loat  in  [he  Old  Latin !  Malt  i,.  K,  cogmtabal ;  ii, 
28,  prophn«i ;  v,  22,  om.  titri ;  ix,  14,  Imgrrt ;  John  iii, 
8;  Lukeii,a8,Airar^p;iv,  12.  But  not  niely  he  leaves 
a  falsa  reading  uncorrected  (BlalL  ix,  28,  eMi;  x,  42), 
or  adopts  a  TalM  reading  where  the  true  one  was  alw 
cunenti  xvi,6;  xviii,39;  xii,*i  John  i,8, 16;  vi,6i 
Even  in  graver  variations  he  is  not  exempt  from  error. 
Tbe  famouB  pericnpe.John  vii,5S|  viii.ll, which  hod 
gained  only  a  partial  entrance  into  the  Old  Latin,  is  ccr- 
uinly  established  in  the  Vulgale.  The  additions  in 
Uatt.xxvii,  So:  Luke  ii-,19t  John  v,4i  I  l'el.iil,22, 
were  already  generally  or  widely  received  in  the  Latin 
copiea,  and  Jerome  left  them  undisturbed.  Tbe  same 
may  be  said  of  Mark  xvi,B.2Di  but  the  "heavenly  ter 


VULGATE  85 

timonjr"  (1  John  r,  7},  which  l>  fnund  In  th«  e^tiona 
or  the  Vulgate,  ii,  beyiind  ill  doubt,  *  Uur  inlcipiila- 
Hon,  due  to  an  AfriunKlo*;  and  there  ia  reuon  la  be- 
liere  Ihat  the  ioterpoUtioni  in  Acta  vlil,  87 ;  ii,  5,  were 
reilly  enaed  by  Jenme,  though  they  rauotuiied  their 
place  in  the  maaa  or  Latin  copiee. 

Jermne'A  revUion  of  (he  guapela  <ru  far  mote  com- 
plete ihan  that  oribe  remaining  pvtBoTtbe  New  Teat. 
U  ie,  indeed,  inipoaaible,  except  in  the  goapeKf  de- 
termine any  aubstantial  diSeience  in  the  Greeli  leila 
which  ere  repreaenled  by  the  Old  and  Hieronymien  rer- 
■iona.  Elaewhere  the  difference*,  at  far  as  they  can  be 
salUrictorily  eaMbliahed,  arc  difference*  of  expresaion, 
and  not  of  text;  and  there  ia  no  anfBcirntieaaon  lo  be- 
lieve that  the  reading!  which  exiat  in  Che  beat  Vulgate 
MSS„  when  they  are  at  varianea  wilh  other  Lalin  ao- 
thuriliea,  reat  upon  the  deliberato  judgment  of  Jerome. 
On  the  contrary,  hia  eommentaries  thow  that  he  uaed 
oupiee  differing  widely  from  Che  recen«(in  which  paaaea 
under  hia  name,  and  even  expreealy  condemneilaa  faulty 
in  text  or  rendering  many  paMagca  which  are  nndonbt- 
edly  part  of  the  Vulgate.  Thua  in  hia  CDumenlaiy  on 
the  Uilatiaos  be  coiidemna  Che  additiona,  iii,  I,  vrrilati 
lumobmiiit;  T,21,AaiRU)iJu;  and  Che  tranilalione,  i,  16, 
■on  ncguirci  ecinri  tC  auBjuuB  (for  mm  toBlufi  mni  came 
tt  im^ine} ;  r,  9,  rtodicuni  frrmnUum  loUim  nuisaufa 
corrampil  {tor  nu/dicumfirmaitan  lolam  contperriimeM 
ftrmailal);  r,  11,  rvacualvm  Hi  (fur  Beaaril);  vi,  S, 
taptuni  (seipse)  ttditdt  (fur  menleia  noin  dtcipit).  In 
the  text  nf  Ihe  epiatle  which  he  gi*e»  there  are  up- 
warda  offlfty  readings  that  differ  from  the  beat  Vulgate 
text,  of  which  about  ten  are  imprnrenwnta  (ii-,  SI ;  T, 
IS,  28;  vi,  18, 16, 16,  etc),  aa  many  more  inferior  read- 
iugi  (i  V,  1 7,  S6, 30,  ete.),  and  the  remainder  diSbrence*  of 
expreaflon :  nolo  for  mrqaum,  recto  pede  inadunt  for 
reels  ambukml,  mrinm  fur  iteram.  The  aame  diff 
eneea  are  funnd  in  his  eommentariea  on  the  nther  ep 
Oet:  ad  £pha.\,«;  lii,Ui  iv,  19;  v,SS,8l ;  nd  TO. 
15.  From  chia  it  will  be  evident  thai  the  Vutgaie  it 
of  the  Ada  and  the  epiil  lea  does  not  represent  the  crili 
opinion  of  Jerome,  even  in  the  reairicied  acnae  in  whi 
this  is  true  uf  Ihe  wxt  of  the  gnapela.  But  atiU  ihi 
■re  some  readings  which  may  with  probability  be  re- 
ferred ID  hie  leviaion :  Acts  siii,  18,  morel  eorum  mui- 
nuil  for  tmlriit  (alaif)  «h,-  Rom.  xii,  II,  Domimi  for 
Itmporii  Eph.  iv,  19,  iiinmimibil  fe  Ckrittiit  for  eon- 
Iviga  Chritlam;  liaL  ii,  S,  ntque  ad  horam  efuinm  fur 
ud  koran  ctmmu4 ,-  1  Tim.  v,  19^  add.  nn  mi  duabui 
aul  Iribai  tettibat. 

8.  The  Kaftu  Latino. — The  chief  corruptians  of  the 
Old  Latin  conaiat  in  the  introduction  ofgloaaee.  These, 
like  the  correiponding  additiona  iu  theCidrxfff*a{D,), 
are  aomeiimes  indications  of  the  venerable  antiquity  of 
the  source  from  which  it  was  derived,  and  seem  u>  cany 
u>  back  CO  the  lime  when  the  evangelic  Inditioi 
not  yet  been  wholly  Bupeneded  by  the  written  goq>ela. 
Such  are  th-;  i'.it«rpoJationa  at  Mau.  iii,  lb;  xx,  £8; 
Luke  iii,  22  (comp.  also  i,  46;  xii.SS);  but  more  fre- 
quenlly  tbei  are  derived  from  parallel  paaaages,  either 
by  direct  transference  of  the  worda  of  another  evange- 
list or  by  Che  reproduction  of  the  substance  of  them. 
These  inlerpolaciniu  are  frcquenc  in  the  smnptic 
pela:  Matt.iii,3;  Hark  xvi,  4;  Luke  i,  29;  vi,  I<1 
48,  bO,  M;  xi,  i;  and  occur  also  in  John  vi,  U 
Bui  in  John  Che  Old  Lacin  mure  oommonly  errs  b, 
feet  than  by  excess.  Thus  it  omits  clauses  certaii 
probably  genuine:  iii,  81;  iv,  9:  v,K;  vi,  38;  vi  . 
etc  Somelimea,  again,  the  renderings  of  the  Ureek 
Uit  are  free:  Luke  i,  '29;  ii,  16;  vi,  21.  Such  varia- 
tiona,  hnwevfr,  are  rarely  likely  to  mislead.  Otherwise 
the  Old  Laiin  ten  nf  Che  g<«pela  is  of  the  highest  value. 

one  or  two  ocher  of  the  tnou  ancient  witnesses  to  sup- 
port a  readh:g  which  ha.1  been  iiLlicenled  in  the  maw 
of  authoriiieai  Luke  vi,  I;  Mark  v, 8;  xri,  9  aq.:  and 


intheVidgsce:  Luhe  xiii,  19;  x 


VULGATE 

But  the  placea  where  the  Old  Laiin  and  the  Tolgate 

ve  aeparalely  preserved  Ibe  true  reading  are  rai^ 

len  compared  wilh    Chnee  in  which   they  combuM 

ih  other  ancient  wiinenea  against  the  great  mas*  al 

thoritiea.     Kvery  chapter  of  the  gospela  will  fumisk 

icance*  of  this  agieement,  which  ia  ufim  Ihe  mote 

iking  because  it  exiaia  only  in  the  original  text  of 

the  Vulgate,  while  the  later  oopiea  have  beoi  cumipitd 

'    thesamewavas  the  later  Greek  HSS.:  UaA  ii,lt; 

26  (?);  viii,  18,  etc.;  Kom.  vi,  8;  svi,  i4,  etc.     Ia 

^firat  few  chiptera  of  Matthew,  the  foUuwinK  mav  be 

iwliced:  i,  18  (iuj ;  ii.lS;  iii,  ID;  v,  4,  6,  II,  80,  44,' 47; 

vi,G,13;  vii,l(l,  14,39;  viii,  SS(i,  S),  etc     It  i*  use- 

less  lo  multiply  exampin  which  oocur  equallr  in  eray 

'     eNewTest.;  Lake  ii,  14,40;  iv,  2,  etc:  John 

43,61;  T,  IS;  viii,  69;  xiv,  17,  etc;  Aelsii, 

80,  81,  87,  etc.;  1  Cor.  i,  1, 16,32.  27,  etc     On  Ibe  otb- 

er  hand,  there  an  paaaages  in  whioh  the  Latin  aa- 

thoriciee  combine  in  giving  a  lalae  reading:  Malt,  ri, 

16;  rii,  10;  viii,  38  (?X  etc;  Luke  iv,  17;  xiii,  t), 

27,  81,  elc;  Acta  ii,  20,  etc.;  1  Tim.  iii,  16,  etc    Bm 

these  are  comparatively  few,  and  commoiilf  marked 

by  the  absence  of  all  Eastern  corroborative  evideKC 

It  may  be  impossible  id  lay  down  definite  law*  foe  ihc 

separation  of  reaitinga  which  art  due  to  free  rendensf, 

or  carelessness,  or  glosses;  but  in  practice  there  ia  lirtle 

CO  the  idioayncraey  (ao  to  speak)  of  the  version  6ia 
those  which  oontain  real  traces  of  the  otigrnal  text. 
When  every  allowance  haa  been  made  for  the  mdenen 
of  the  original  Latin  and  the  haate  of  Jerome's  rwviav*. 
it  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  the  Vulgate  ia  not  coly 
venerable,  but  alio  Ihe  most  precions,  mme- 


itofLi 


nChria 


served  in  Western  Europe  a  text  of  Holy  Scripiuie  Cu 
purer  lhan  that  which  was  current  in  the  Bi-ianiioc 
Chuieh,  and  at  the  revival  of  Greek  learning  (^iiileil  the 
way  lowarda  a  revision  of  ilie  late  Greek  text,  in  ithirh 
Ihe  beat  Biblical  crilies  have  followed  Ihe  stepa  of  Bent- 
ley,  with  ever-deepening  conviction  of  the  Hipreme  im- 
portance of  Che  coioddeaee  of  ttie  eailieat  Greek  sml 
1^1  in  aiithnriliea. 

4.  or  Ihe  imrrprTtaHBt  value  of  the  Vulgale  little 
need  be  said.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  dealin; 
with  the  Kew  Test.,  at  least,  we  are  itow  in  pnm^« 
nf  means  inflnitelymnn  varied  and  better  suited  to  iht 
right  elucidation  of  the  text  than  could  have  bn>n  re- 
Joyed  by  the  original  African  Iraiislatota.      It  is  a  blae 

Ihe  inveatigstion  of  the  laws  of  latiguage,  Ihe  clear  prt- 
ceplion  of  principles  of  gramnwr,  the  accurate  inieili- 
gsiion  nf  words,  the  minute  compariaon  of  ancient  iriK. 
the  wide  study  of  antiquity,  the  long  leaaans  of  expe- 
rience, have  contribdied  nothing  towards  ■  fuller  nndB- 
standing  of  Holy  Scriptuie,  all  trust  in  Divine  Pmri- 
dence  ia  gone.  If  we  are  not  in  thia  respect  far  in  sd- 
vance  of  the  atiiiple  peaaant  or  half-Inineil  schnlar  of 
North  Africa,  or  even  of  the  laborinua  student  of  Betli- 
lehem,  we  have  proved  falae  to  their  example,  and  rtis- 
honor  ihem  by  our  indolence.  It  would  be  a  thankleai 
laak  to  qnole  inslincea  where  the  L^tin  Tetsion  render* 
Ihe  (ireek  inctirrectly.  Such  faults  arise  most  common- 
ly from  a  servile  adherence  to  Ihe  exact  wunta  of  ibc 

proves  a  fteah  evidence  of  the  acrupukiua  care  wiib 
which  the  translator  generally  fidlowed  ihe  text  beftm 
him.  But  while  the  interpreter  of  the  New  Test,  win 
he  fully  jualihed  in  aetling  aaide  without  scmple  lbs 
authority  of  early  verstone,  there  an  ■ometinMa  ambig- 
uous pasaagea  in  which  a  version  may  preaerve  the  li»- 


•e  (John  i,  8,  B 


tc.)o. 


early  diflerence  of  trandatioo,  and  thai  iia  evideoct 
may  be  of  the  highest  value.  But  even  here  the  judg- 
ment muBl  be  free.  Tenione  aappty  aulbority  for  the 
text  and  opinion  onlv  for  Ihe  renderings 

■    ■    ~  and  hjhimee  nffhr  Ltiit 


VULGATE  8; 

b*v«  been  moM  Dnaccountably  neglcded  by  leilcnf^ 
raphen  4nd  fpanmunina.     1(  it,  indeeJ,  only  lately 
that  the  full  impoftance  ut  proviiMiil  dialeeu  ill  the 
hUtory  of  Ungnagca  hu  been  fully  recognbed,  and  it 
DUT  be  hoped  that  thevrritingaDrTenullian,  Amobiua, 
and  tba  African  fatlien  Kencnlly  will  nnw  at  length  re- 
eriTB  the  attention  which  they  Juatly  claim.     But '' 
ncceasaiy  to  go  back  one  aiep  further,  and  to  eeek  in 
remainairf theOld  Lalin  Bible  the  earlieH  and  the  pureat 
traceauf  the  popular  idiom*  of  African  Latin.    Itiieai 
to  trace  in  tbe  patrietic  writings  the  powerful  influeni 
of  thia  vetierable  venion ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
*cnioiiilaeir«h< bill  nnmerooapeculiBri  ties  which 
evidenEly  borrowed  ftom  the  cunenl  dialect.     Gen 
ly  it  ii  neecMarf  m  diatingaiab  two  diatinct  elementa 


«ib.eqn* 


(1)  proTincialisDu  and  (2)  Gneciam.  The  toniier  are 
chieBy  of  intereat  ai  iiluitntiHK  the  biatorf  oT  the 
l^tiD  langnage ;  the  latter  ai  marking,  in. aonie  degree, 
ita  power  ofexpantinn.  Only  a  few  remarks  on  eac' 
nfttaese  heada,  which  may  help  to  guide  inquiry,  cin  b 
etfbred  herv;  hut  the  careful  reading  of  eome  chapter 
or  the  Old  vereion  (e.  g.  Pw..  Eccluiu,  Wild.,  in  the  rood 
■IB  Volitate)  will  aupply  namcToua  illaelralioiu. 

(t.)  /Venna/tiiu.  —  One  of  the  moat  Intereatiofc 
facta  Id  regard  to  the  langnage  of  the  IjUin  verwon  ia 
the  reappearance  in  it  of  early  famia  which  are  fimnd 
iir  Plaatua  or  noted  as  arehaiain*  by  gramnuriana. 
Theea  eatabliab  in  a  lignal  manner  the  vitality  of  the 
pripular  aa  diitinguiaheil  from  tbe  literary  idiom,  and, 
from  the  great  acarcity  of  memoiiala  of  tlie  Italian  dia- 
leeta,  posaeaa  a  peculiar  value.  Exampleg  of  worda, 
forma,  and  cooatructiuna  will  ahow  the  extent  ts  which 
thia  phenomenon  preraila. 

(a.)  Wimb,  —  S)t>Jlf(»4u(>m<,  ntvXHIaqtfum,  tmihmnit 
(Plaulux):  i^Miimmnim  (Id.);  datu  (mihft.ld.);  «m- 
ai4>iM{1d.);  arnJfuuiWd  (Id.)  1  mmlptUU  (Id.)i  mUHrilat 
(Id.) ;  tlmU  tid.) !  amliKw  (Enulua) ;  etutodUW  (Fe-til»)  i 
da^iifa,  dtita  (Pliintai>);  aantm  (Id.]:  •«■»  (Fac); 
mfiin  (to  itTi—,  Fealna). 

(b.)  n>mu.  —  Dcpiinenta  aa  paMlve:  ommlar,  tertor, 
vranurior  (Heb.  illi,  l«):  mfttMror.  Irrettnlar  fnflec 
ti.ius:  parUbarabteaatiu:  conTerw);;  (z<h. etc.i  tnrHHa 
■■"— n),  luK  (fem.  plnr.).     Unuioal  fnrmi":  pmorw 

-MK.) :  Ml  (nool.) :  nstta  (aing.) ;  ttrta; 

..,  .   ir(Bob«u),dutoir. 

(c)  C<mttrtieliotu.~B'nli)ro  wflh  wc  (Ph.  Ill,  T.  "eml- 
grablt  le do  tahernacDin") !  dsnMorwUh  am.!  noMwlih 
UE. ;  Md,  nuia  tir  ^ut,  etc  ;  )»■  foe  iH  prohlbltlTe ;  asptt 
Impera. 

In  adilition  tfl  theae,  there  are  many  other  peculiaritiea 
which  evidently  belong  to  the  Arriean  (or  common)  di- 
alect, and  not  merely  to  tbe  Cbfiatian  form  of  it. 

Such  an 
/rii-aala 

™t.;~(Tlr.lBii).. 


riird),  ■MiiMallg.  aiiHiwUis  aUrtlai  . . 

nit,  piBil/ea,  jMrntma,  Im-tHrd,  trihilore, 

luffs,  HbiAum,  nrgdariuit,  viort,  rfctiuHa. 

rmHuatarium,  aerilfiifbm,  9fnHUiarr,  ttratoria  (rnbet.), 

laflut.  auMib,  collaelanr-iM.  anululairt,  ffmintn,  gruail- 
tuda,  Ttfixtio  lta-ra\aaa1,  rKfrmlntum.  difimctUi  (decsiiH), 
aHAoIdii/i'a  l*ba.l.  trunlntHM. 

m  aitJectlTea :  pttttmaTi,  pnal. 

irt,  pIfirttaH,  mlvart  (•niealor, 

-  — '  — cclaiij  ■  lunif  -'■-- 


NewierlxarariTi 


la  thia  clxH  mar  be  .^..■u«.  n.v>  ....uj— 
(I.)  (tew  inbilaQiliea  derlred  fr'>m  ailjecllvee:  poariW. 
•,  Bnmrimtia,  nlifiutiiat,  na- 


ttatioM,  ttqtmpaeuirajt,  th 


(tl  Nenrierbala:  awrruJMfta.awiitiiMKt.diM'Mlla.r*^ 
i'telilU.  patifMlIt,  naptibau,  rrprelmuilUlit,  mtadibnit, 
rUintaUu.  mmjUUHu;  and  pirUdplHl  forma:  iHidi-ra- 
hia.  uutfttatHM,  Meaeroriia,  tnmtut,  dUe^huu-u*,  mogr- 

(i,)  New  adJectiTea:  rniinunptm  Imtporantun,  <m^7™<- 


ia  peenllarlj  worth; 


f  iaawtiUattu,  tnOfJUmM,  ii>em\fiitaait,  tmporla- 


1  VULGATE 

Among  thecharacterletkaorihe  lata  atageafalanginn 
mnit  be  reckiniad  tbe  eiecwlTa  [reqiiener  otoimponuda, 
eapedully  thiH-e  fiirnied  wlin  the  pmpuaUluua    Theae  are 


It  In  the  Latin  Teral-m ;  I 


nalailiwanf  tbe  lata  8( 


-.'i-.S-K 


imjmiiltmii't,  aMwaigjara,  ntniilarf,  mianairsCta,  ra. 
yrapitiari,  taMtjfiTTt.  Of  ttteee  taan*  are  the  direct  rep- 
rereniailvea  of  Greek  worda:  anpoodtilra  (I  Cor.  ill,  SI), 


in  Ton 


(a.)  Croctnw.— The  "  rimplidty"  of  tbe  Old  vendoo 
neceeaarily  led  to  the  introduction  of  very  nameroua 
Septnagintal  or  Mew-Teat,  forma,  many  of  which  have 
no*  paaaed  into  oomttMn  uae.  In  this  rcapeet  it  would 
be  easy  to  point  out  the  difference  which  exiala  between 
Jeronte's  own  worii  and  the  origiiul  tranaladon,  or  bit 


tu,  imaali/Iw,  pnflittm  -«wi  ^ntar*  -tare,  nxf* 

fompaan,  (kaaaiiriaan,  iMiW*«>aKiare,  oamiiara, 

ltd,  arorHotuore.  attgtJtu  'itn^  ptriMuM,  jiCatvua,  pn^ 

CO,  pamiria,  poMMat-ia,  lelsnfttm,  utt^rU,  aeiarU, 

.  ....phaa,  bmtwwt,  ACAotoanw,  doms  ((Jtroniu),  tAiniito- 

ttrnmi-lriiiltam.  iniaJakaittUaTtia,  Uaioihrmart,  etc.,  be- 

aldw  the  paraly  lachnlcal  larma  patrrareAa,  l^iratcmt, 

nutha, Ptnuhlut.    Otherwnrdabaaedon  theOreek  nra: 

sporiir,  angaria,  opoalatare,  ^ntfMatu,  ocwMn-  (<ur^»^lI). 

Some  cliiM  renderlnga  are  uitereailng :  otuda  luwi  Tn> 

T»),  prapittalortwnCa.anlifii'tl,  InUlpiam  (Ui  to  aiii), 

tvUmiU  (\sii's>,  Eiod.  xivlll,  ID,  etc),  lann/aelentai 

(AcU  ii1l(,  B).  wmfnf rwMua  [itII,  13),  autMndwdw  (Oal. 

ll,4ha>4wwr(aH  (Jade  n.eAaftM  (Acta  1x11,18),  fatnUo- 

tor  nutonifH  (Jnmea  1,  IS).    To  Ihia  bead  moat  alio  be  iv- 

t^rredeech  conatmctluoe  aa  ular*  witb  mstia.  KnKoZi  'nal: 

Jimn  with  <V-  (■«<•■'•  .  .  .  ytiltStat)  i  poltttat  WIA  Inf. 

itf <m'a  itttia,) :  the  ue  Of  tl>e  1V<  ">  eipreee  an  end 
Ada  Til.  M,  tti»i»itf  wg^artlri  >ir  a  reanlt  (Lake  i,  V, 
rtiitruat>kili,Tt^rrHtmffrn}:  the Introductluu  offvla 
forSri  III  lbeHiiHofIJIaC(Ter.  II8,aKd«Fnna  .  .  .  mfa), 
or  for  &'.  nrOattrHm  (Hall,  vll,  V,  OmJUtbar  ilUt  nia) ; 
tbe  daL  wlih  oHigHJ  (Loke  t,  B.  >m>uo*»N»  VeL  L.): 
the  u-e  of  tbe  gin.  witb  the  comparative  (Jiihn  I,  BO,  mn- 

fra  Aorum) ;  and  aDcb  Hebralaou  as  e<r  nerUe  (I  Kings 

Generally  it  may  be  obeerred  that  the  Vulg.  lAtin 
bean  traces  of  a  threefold  influence  derived  from  the 
anginal  text;  and  the  modificationi  of  form  wbich  are 
capable  of  bring  carried  back  to  thia  source  occur  yet 
more  largely  in  modem  languages,  whether  in  this  ease 
they  are  to  be  referred  to  the  plaatic  power  of  the  Tulg, 
on  the  popular  dialect,  or,  as  is  more  likely,  we  must  sup- 
pose that  the  Vulg.  has  preeerved  a  diatinct  record  of 
powers  which  were  widely  working  in  the  times  of  the 
Emoire  on  the  common  Latin.  These  are  (1)  an  exten. 
if  pivpoaitiona  for  aimple  easee;  e.g.  in 
if  ly  (CoL  iii,  17),facere  ui  verbo,  etc.; 
(!)  an  aaumilation  of  pronouna  to  tbe  meaning  of  tbe 
Greek  article ;  e.  g.  1  John  i,  3,  ipta  vita ;  Luke  xxlv,  9, 
iUi$  undecim,  etc;  and  (3)  a  conelant  employment  of 
the  dednitive  and  epithetic  genitive,  where  clasrical 
usage  would  have  required  an  adjective;  e.  g.  Call,  13, 
Bliua  enrilulii  na :  iii,  12,  viicera  viiMrimiifKa. 

Tbe  peculiarities  which  have  been  enumerated  an 
found  in  greater  or  leas  frequency  Ihioughoiu  the  Tulg. 
It  is  natural  that  they  should  be  moat  abundant  and 
alriking  in  the  parts  which  have  been  preserved  least 
changed  from  the  Old  Latin — the  Apocrypha,  the  Acts, 
Epistles,  and  Apocalypse.  Jerome,  who,  aa  he  often 
aaya,  had  a|wnt  many  years  in  the  achnolt  of  grammari- 
ans and  rhetoricians,  oould  not  fail  to  snfien  down  many 
nf  the  asperities  of  the  eariier  version,  either  by  adapting 
variations  already  in  partial  use,  or  by  correcting  faulty 


I  nf  a  few 


iself  as 


n  the  Old  I 


Lnke  1,  •),  oJ.i. ""».  *'■!.  L.,  Mfftiaowim,  Vnla, :  ver.  K, 
'.•,  5»if  -p  Iv't.  *™  1"^"'  "WBtauo,  Vbu  L.,  •'T't  eian'a 
Muntnm^Vnlir.'  11.  l,i#rn|«»r»f'ir,J7nlf-M<n,  Vcl.  [.,d«Kr(. 
ierttiB-,  dnrripHi},  Vulir, ;  ver.  IB,  eaerrttiu  wrlwKt.  VeL  U, 
nflOlie  dotMNs,  Vulg.  i  ver.  U,  iwd  Bntrodtotwr,  VeL  L, 


VULGATE  ! 

«<  (vnfr.  Vail.  •  Kr.  M,  Vnpnifirta  Palrl*  mtWftl.  L.,ii 
kttqtuMpatrUvuinntVaif.  8.hm  nordi  ha  Hwma  u 
limre  rhmiired  eoDtumlr,  ili-ingn  i-ol  aiilTsmtljri  e.  g. 

MiinyiiritiemoMrainn'rkuliler'>ni»ire«>iiaMnl"t!'linok< 
wblcti  he  did  dm  RriHi:  ducMoiv,  MnUore  (jDcoudnrl) . 
/HmiffaJmrtdnM^  iUamtnJtUwit  *ndiaftyliimtHit,  inawtpienbi- 

Untit,  heimi/ltmtla:  horripilatie,  (iiAoiwratti). 

3.  tieneraltj  tc  mty  be  uid  that  the  acripUinil  idi- 
oms iir  iiur  ciimmai]  laiif^uage  bave  cnrne  lo  ua  miinl; 

the  cuimeciing-link  between  clusiol  and  modem  lin- 
eoiges.    It  cunuin*  eteneiiu  which  belrmg  to  the  E>r- 

cbc  flexibility  or  tlie  popular  diilect.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  hu  rurniahed  the  aource  '  '  ' 

targe  portion  of  cuncnt  I^Lin  i 
cunory  ezaminalion  of  the  ebaractcriuie  wordi  which 

naiiy  curraponding  funni,  bave  paiaed  inio  Uriug  lai 
guagcs.    To  fiillnw  out  this  question  in  del^l  would  be 

hlalory  of  language,  fruitful  in  multi  and  hitherto 
wrilten.    Within  ■  more  timited  range  the  luthoi 
of  the  L^tiii  reruoni  it  undeniable,  Ihuugh  ita  eitpn 
'  rarely  realized.     The  vaM  power  which  they  hare  : 
in  delerminiug  the  theobigical  unna  of  Wealem  Chria- 
tendnm  can  hardly  be  overrated.     By  far  the  f_ 
part  of  the  Current  doctrinal  tenninol.igy  iahued 
Vulg.,  and,  as  far  ai  can  be  aacertained,  waa  ori)[iiialed 
in  the  l^tin  veraion.     Prtdttliiialiim,  jutt^ficaiioii,  n- 
jterrrogafion  {tapertrogo),  tanctijicntiimf  aitlvation,  mt^ 
dialor,  rfgtjttralioii,  retflaliim,  ritilalioii  (meu),  propi- 
HaliOK,  firat  appear  in  the  Old  Vulg.    Gnicr,  redemption, 
eirrtion,  rtconcUiatumf  KitvfuHion^  inMpirati 
were  devoted  there  lo  a  new  and  holy  use.     SaaafUftil 
(fiutrr^piov) and  <»miiu»iuiii  are  from  the  aame  source; 
and  ihoueh  baptitm  ia  Greek,  it  comei  lo  ui  fron 
Latin.     It  would  be  easy  lo  extend  the  list  by  the 
linn  of  ordtr$,  prtuuct,  congrrgalitm,  priril,     Bui  i 
be  seen  frnm  the  farma  already  brought  furward  that  the 
Ljlin  veraiona  have  left  their  mark  bnlh 
j-nrngf  and  upon  our  thoughts;  and  if  the  right  method 
uf  conlmreny  is  baaed  upon  a  cleat  historical  percepti 
of  the  force  of  worda,  it  ia  evident  that  the  iiudy  of  [ 
Vnlg.,  however  much  neglected,  can  never  be  neglected 
with  impunity.    It  was  tbe  veraion  which  alone  Ihey 
knew  who  handed  down  lo  the  Refonnen  the  ricii 
Morea  of  mediBval  wisdom;  the  venion  with  which 
the  greatest  of  the  Kefonnen  were  most  familiar,  and 
from  which  they  had  drawn  their  earliest  knowledge 
of  divine  truth. 

In  mora  important  reapecta,  likewiae, 
which  the  l^tin  vetidous  of  the  Kbie  have  exercised 
upon  Weslem  Cbristianky  is  scarcely  leia  than  [hat  of 
the  Sept.  upon  the  Greek  churches.   But  both  the  Greek 
and  the  L^tin  Vulgatea  have  long  been  neglected.    11 
revival  uf  letters,  bringing  with  it  tbe  study  of  the  on 
inal  text*  of  Holy  Scripture,  checked  for  a  time  t1 
Bludy  of  these  two  great  bulwarks  of  the  Greek  ai 
I^lin  churches — fur  the  Sept.,  in  fact,  beimii^  rather 
the  hialnry  uf  Chriatianily  than  Ui  the  hialory  of  Juda- 
ism—and, in  spile  of  recent  labora,  their  importance  is 
even  now  hardly  recognised.     In  tlie  case  of  the  Vul- 
Satp,  ecclesiastical  controveTsies  have  siill  further  im- 
pelled all  effurts  of  liberal  criticism.     The  Romanist 
(till  lately)  regarded  the  Clementine  text  as  Hxed  be- 
yond appeal;  the  Protestant  shrank  from  examining  a 
subject  which  seemed  to  belong  peculiarly  to  the  Ko- 
manial.     Yel,  apart  from  all  polemical  quesliona,  the 
Tulgale  should  have  a  very  deep  interest  for  all  the 
Western  churches.      For  many  centuries  it  was  llie 
only  BiUe  generally  used;  and,  direct  1;  or 
1y,  ii  is  the  real  parent  of  all 
siona  of  Western  Europe.     The  Uotbic  verrion  of 
IJIphilaa  alone  is  independent  of  ll,  for  tbe  Slavonic 
and  modem  Runan  veruons  are  necesaaiily  not  ukeii 


VULGATE 


a  peculiarly  close 


into  account.  With  Englaml  il  h 
connection.  The  earliest  tranKlatira 
the  (lost)  books  nf  Bede,  and  the  gUne*  on  the  ■'mIw 
and  gospels  nf  the  8th  aud  9ih  centurki  (riLTttosp^ 
Land.  1S35, 1843).  In  the  lOih  century  'ClfHe  traaa- 
laled  cousidcnble  portions  of  tbe  Old  TeA.  (  Hrptt' 
rnicAu,  etc,  ed.Thwaitea,  Oxford,  1636).  But  tbe  mi^ 
important  moaiunent  of  its  influence  ia  the  great  Kng- 
liah  venion  of  Wyeliffe  (1824-84,  ed.ForshaU  and  MM- 
den,  Oxfonl,  18M),  which  is  a  iileral  reoderinK  of  tba 
currant  Vulgate  text.  In  the  age  of  tbe  Reliitmalaaa 
the  Vulgate  waa  rather  the  guide  than  the  aoiifee  gf 

German  (Michaelis,  ed.  Matah,  ii.  107),  French,  lialiaa. 
Bod  Spauiah  were  natuixlly  derived  from  the  Vulgaia 
(fUmon.  nitl.  Cril.  N.  T.  c.  !8.  !9,  40, 11).  Of  oihei^ 
that  of  Luther  (New  Test,  in  152S)  was  the  nwu  im- 
■■onant,  and  in  this  the  Vulgale  had  givat  weighs 
though  it  was  made  with  such  use  of  the  oriffinak  as 
was  possible.  From  Luther  the  inSuence  of  the  I^in 
passed  to  our  own  A.  T.  Tyndala  had  Sfient  HNBt 
lime  abroad,  and  was  acquainted  with  Ijilher  befcn 
he  published  hia  veniou  of  the  New  TeM.  in  Ifitt. 
Tjndale's  version  of  the  Old  Test.,  which  was  ub&s- 
ished  at  the  time  of  his  manyrdom  (1U6),  was  een- 
pleled  by  Coverdale,  and  in  this  Ihe  infloence  tt  tb* 
L4Iiii  and  Uetmao  translations  waa  prpiliiminaiit.  A 
proofofthia  remains  in  Ihe  l^alle^  of  the  I'mver-hnnk, 
which  waa  taken  from  ihe  "Great  Kngiiib  Bible- (I SIS, 
1540),  and  this  waa  merely  a  new  edilion  of  thai  caOed 
Matthew's,  which  was  itself  taken  from  Tynrtale  and 
Coverdale.  This  veision  of  Ihe  Psalms  fidlowa  the 
Uallican  Psalter,  ■  reviahn  of  tbe  Old  Latin  made  hy 
Jerome  and  afterwards  introduced  into  hia  new  Iran- 
lation,  and  ililTers  in  many  reapecis  rrum  the  Hebrew 
text  (e.  g.  I'la.  xiv).  It  would  be  out  of  plan  to  fol- 
low this  question  into  detail  here.  It  ia  enough  to 
remember  that  the  first  translators  uT  our  Bible  bad 
been  familiarized  with  the  Vulgate  fmm  theLr  yooih, 
and  could  not  have  east  off  the  influence  uf  early 
association.  But  Ihe  claims  of  Ihe  TiJgale  lo  Ibe  at- 
tention uf  scholan  rest  on  wider  grounds.  It  is  not 
only  the  source  of  our  current  tbeotogical  terminology, 
but  il  is,in  one  abapeorother,Ihem<ist  important  early 
witness  In  Ihe  text  and  inierpreuiion  of  the  whole  Bi- 
ble. The  materiala  available  for  the  accurate  stadr  of 
it  are  unfortunately  al  pmrnt  aa  acaoly  as  those  yet 


primed  In  1468,  the  Spanish  in  1479,  and  the  Italian  ia 
1471.  Oar  limits  will  allow  u*  only  to  refer  lo  thai  in 
use  ill  English,  of  which  the  OU  feat,  was  printed  at 
Duuai  in  1609,  and  the  New  at  Kheima  in  158}.  This 
is  greally  inferiar  in  strength  and  elegance  of  ex- 
preaeion  lo  tbe  A.V.  uf  1611,  but  is  highly  cummenda- 
bie  fur  its  scnipulouB  accuracy  and  Sdelily,  which  can- 
not be  predicated  of  all  uanalalions  frnm  ihe  TDtgaie 
into  other  languages.  It  waa  altere<l  and  moderncEsd  b>r 
biahop  ChaUoner  in  1749,  when  Ibe  text  was  conKiniied 
lo  that  of  the  Clementine  edition.  It  has  since  uider- 
gone  various  alterations  under  the  care  uf  Ihe  Irish  Ro- 
man Catholic  hierarchy,  and  has  been  iu  snme  reapecn 
canformed  lo  the  A.  V.,  even  in  paaaages  which  chi- 
trovenialists  of  a  bygone  age  had  atigmatixed  as  boe^ 
icaL  But  this  lias  been  ilnne  wiihout  any  depaitiMC 
frum  Ihe  text.  The  original  tranalatota,  huwever,  ad- 
hered so  aervilely  to  this  aa  to  employ  such  bartMToia 
words  and  phrases  as  aindom  {Mark  xv,  46),  iealat4in 
(Acts  XX,  !0),  pnefinilion  (Eph.  ui.  1 1),  conirisiate  (iv, 
SO),  agnilion  (Philem.  16},  rvi'TnpiliaTe  (Heb.  ii,  17), with 
auch  hosts  (lud  is  promeriied  (xiii,  16),  eic  ■-  Yet,  in 
justice,  it  must  be  obierved  that  no  case  oT  wilful  per- 
veinon  of  Scripture  has  ever  been  bmiight  boice  to  the 
Rbemiah  tranalaloTa''  (Scrivener,  SuppSial  Kt  lit  An- 
tkoritei  Vertkn).    MrScrivener  adds  that  "Ibe  Bbe> 


VULGATE  8; 

nish  diTfiMt  [who  wen  erideiiily  ohh  of  Iciraing  tmd 
ability]  may  uceuioailly  do  lu  good  acrrice  by  fur- 
niahing  loiiM  happy  phnM  or  (brm  of  exprcMiun  witieb 
had  dudfd  lh«  diligence  of  their  more  repatiUe  prede- 

The  (nneUlon  observe  in  their  preface  that  they 
letigioutly  keep  the  phrue*  word  Tor  wuni, "  fur  Tear  uf 
■niMogtir  reMnuDing  the  Knaa  ufibe  Huly  Gboet  to 
thr  fantasc;"  in  pnnf  ot  which  they  leFer  ID  *uch 
phwie  u  ri  Jful  tai  aai,  ymu  (Ji^  ii,  4}  wtnch 
tbey  render  ■■  Whal  tu  am  and  cbee,  woman  T  explain- 
ing it  in  the  Dote  by  tbe  phrase  "What  hast  thou  to 
do  with  me?"  But  in  some  of  [he  modem  editions  of 
tiw  Khemith  venion  thii  rule  has  been  departed  {mm 
and  the  text  altered  iiilo  -  What  is  Mdl  to  me  or  thee?" 
(Dublin  ed.  1791, 1824), or  "What  is  it  In  me  and  Ibee?" 
(ibid.  I8-JI>);  a  reading  itMoniUleut  with  the  transla- 
tion uf  the  same  words  in  Luke  viii,  iH.  The  inter- 
polation has  been  removed  in  Dr.  Murray'i  edition  of 
1826.  In  the  ffoB  Vrriim  of  Iht  four  Goiprlt,  by  a 
Catbolii:  (Dr.  Liufcaid),  the  words  are  rendered, "  What 
haac  thou  in  da  with  me?"  The  whole  passage  is  thiu 
rendered  and  oammcnled  on  by  Titimaiin  (Mdrteaialu 
Sacra)  s  "  itiuum  ne  fiic,  o  mta,  •  Leave  thai  to  my 
care,  ^^ood  mother.'  It  is  not  the  language  of  repruof 
or  refusal,  but  rather  or  consolation  ~"  ' 


■ill  gratiry  hi 


St  at  the  pruper  time  he 

ir  Lord  purpoeely  delayed 
the  fcreatness  oT  the  mirxcle  mi^'ht  be  the  better  known 
to  alU     The  appellation  yiivat,  which  was  employeil  by 

was  veiy  hon-irable  among  tbe  Greeks,  who  were  aeous- 
tnmed  to  call  their  queens  by  ibis  title,  aud  maybe  ren- 


n  tht  AjncalypK, 


Prof.  Hoaes  Stuart  (Ct^mailary 
i,  tl9)  oonceivei  that  "in  the  translation  oi  /uTavo- 
tirt  by  agitt  pamlaOiam  (Halt,  iii,  'i\  tlie  same  apir- 
it  was  opentiiiK  which  led  one  part  til  the  Church  in 
modem  times  tn  translile  /iirawufire  by  do  pentmnt." 
But  the  I^tia  phnae  "oj^re  pceiiileiuiani,''  which  is 
also  found  in  the  old  Italic,  is  evidently  synuiiymuuH 
with  furoivtEi',  "to  repent."  "Agile  praiilenliiim,'' 
saya  Campbell, "  was  not  originally  a  mistraiinlation  of 
tbe  Greek  laTavofin."    Di.Ungard  (ut  lup.)  renders 

We  refer  to  one  paMage  more,  often  objected  to  as 
proving  that  the  Vulgate  was  altered  to  serve  a  pur- 
poae^  In  Heb.  xi,  21,  the  VulgaM  reads,  as  tbe  trans- 
lation of  irponcoM^iii  tiri  r«  dicpov  rqc  pojBJov  airroS : 
adoravit  fastigium  virgs  ejuo,  "worshipped  the  top  of 
his  [Joseph's]  ivd."  If  the  present  pointing  or  tbe  He- 
brew n:ia(Gen.xlvii,81)be  correct,  the  Seventy,  who 
read  it  >^^,  "a  staff"  or  "sceptre,"  mmt  have  been 
in  error,  wherein  they  were  followed  by  the  Syriac 
Tholuck  (C.BniBBi/orjf  on  Hrb.)  b  uf  opinion  that  the 
Laiin  traiulaiora  did  not  (aa  some  suppose)  overlnnk 
iwi, "  upnn,"  and  he  cnnsiderv  that  this  preposition  with 
the  accusative  might  easily  lead  to  the  atrepiatinn  in 
which  it  is  uAep  by  the  Vulgate,  which  is  also  that 
■ilnptfd  by  Chrytostom  and  T'heodiirel,  who  explain 
(be  passage  as  ir.lacub  had  Tiireseeii  Joseph's  sovereign- 
ty, and  gave  a  proof  of  his  belief  in  it  by  the  arc  of 
adoration  in  the  direction  of  hi*  sceptre.  This  in,  in 
Tholuck')  opinion,  further  conAnned  by  the  geneially 
spread  reading  avroU  (his),  not  aurou  (bis  own);  and 
he  doubts  if  ihe  insfured  writer  of  tbe  epistle  did  not 
himself  so  understand  the  passage  in  the  Sept.  as  beine 
the  more  signilkant.  But  should  it  be  admitted,  with 
Tholuck,  that  "the  ProlesUnt  controvereiali-.ts  have 
very  unjustly  designated  this  passage  of  the  Vulgate  as 
one  of  the  moit  palpable  of  it*  errors,"  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  Onkekia.  Jonathan,  Syramncbn^  and 
Aqnila  follow  ihe  present  reading:  to  which  Jerome 
((""U"- 


xlvii,  SI), "  In  this  pasaog 
cob  adored  the  tup  of  Jum 
Hebrew  the  reading  is  quite  dl 


«F,!<a 


t  Israel  od  Caput  lectuli)." 


S.  I.iltraturr, — The  chief  original  works  bearing  on 
Ihe  Vulgsie  generally  are.  Simin,  /liilotrf  Criliqui  ilu 
V.  T.  1678-86 ;  id.  N.  T.  l(W9-98 1  Hodv,  Be  BibUarum 
TaHbiu  OT^imtibm  (Oxon.  1705)  t  Hattianav,  tiitnm. 
0pp.  (rario,  1698),  with  tbe  prefaces  and  additions  of 
Vallarsi  (Verona,  17»4)aHd  Uaffei (Venice,  1767] ;  Bian- 
cbini  illbtm*ui«;  not  BtamMm),  Vimdida  Canaii.  SS. 
Valy.  IaiU  Kdil.  (Kome,  1740) ;  Bukeatop,  Lta  de  Lvct 
(Bruxellis,  I7lfl);  Sabalier,  BibL  88.  /.al.  Vtri.  A  nl. 
(Remis,  1743);  Van  Eoe,  PTHsaaluch-krilitdU  GtKh.d. 
t-H^.  ('I'Ub.  1824);  Vercelknie,  Varia  Ledumei  Valg. 
Lai.  Biblionm  (torn,  i,  Kunue.  I860;  lom.  ii,  pan  prior, 
IH<12).  In  addition  to  ihese,  there  are  the  o.niruvemial 
works  urUariaiis,fitHarmine,Wliiiaker,Fu1ke,  etc, and 
numenius  essavs  Uv  Calmet,  D.  Schuli,  Fleck,  Kiegler, 
etc;  and  in  the  New  Test,  the  labutsof  ltent1ey,Sanfil, 
Ciricsbach,  Schulz,  Lacbmsnn,  Tregelles,  and  Tischen- 
durf  have  collected  a  great  amount  of  critical  inalctiabi. 
But  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  iiohle  work  of 
Vercellone  has  mode  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  the  Vul- 
gate, and  the  chief  results  which  follow  from  Ihe  fiist 
instalment  of  his  collation*  are  here  fur  the  first  time 
incc>r|K>raled  in  its  histnrv.  !^  also  Kiegler.  tjfick.  iSer 
l'HI^/.i»cUSulzb.  1820);  Btunati, /^-t'lii^rf.KVien  182S); 
Kaiilen,  CwA.  dtr  Vtilgala  (Menu,  ISfiS);  Ronscli, 
IlaUi  tinJ  Vulgiita  (Marb.  18C9) ;  W.  A.  Cassinger,  Uer 
Lutein.  Bibel  (Leipx.  1892).     See  Latin  Vbrsioms. 

VnlgivSga,  in  Soman  mytbidogy.  Is  «  sumanie  of 
Vflnijyas  Ihe  lowly,  in  contrast  with  Urania,  the  heav- 
enly. She  favored  the  longings  and  desire*  of*meD 
which  were  wrongfully  desigiuiled  by  tbe  name  of  lore. 

Vnltnro  i"  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V„  of  two  Heb. 
words;  1.  nx^,  daM  (only  in  Lev.  x\,  14;  Sept.  )i>i;>; 
Vulg.  mUeat ;  Ihe  parallel  passage,  Deut.  xiv,  IS,  bai 
in  tlie  corresponding  pontion  HX^,  rodi,  wbich  may 
be  an  erroneous  transcription ;  Sept.  yt^ ;  Vulg.  tribn  ; 
A.  V. "  glede"),  or  n;?,  dagdA  (only  DeuL  xiv,  18,  Imv; 
mitita$!  Isa.  xxxiv,'s4,  iXn^ci  miltiu);  and  2.  mK, 
o^dA  (only  in  Job  xxviii,  7,  yu^;  eulturi  Lev.  xi,  14, 
iicnv;  mltar;  A.V."kite;"  Deul.xiv,18,Sepl.omita; 
Vulg.  mihiu ,'  A.  V. "  kite"). 

I.  There  seema  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  A.  V.  transla- 
tion i*  iiieoRcct,  and  that  the  original  word*  refer  to 
some  of  the  amaller  apeciee  of  rapltwial  birds,  as  kites  or 
bustards.  fWa  (dagdh)  is  evidently  synonymous  wilh 
Arab.  h'Jayuh,  the  veniacular  for  the  "  kite"  in  North 
AfricB,and  without  theepiihet  "red"  for  the  black  kite 
especially.  Bochart  {Hitnu.  ii,  195)  explains  it  Yal- 
far  migtr.  The  Samaritan  and  all  other  Eastem  ver- 
sions agree  in  rendering  it  "  kite."  fljij  {ogiii)  is  yet 
more  certainly  referable  to  this  bird,  which,  in  other 
passages,  it  is  taken  to  represent.  Bochart  {ibid.  ii. 
leS)  says  it  ia  the  same  bird  which  the  Arabs  call 
y<tjra  from  its  err;  but  does  not  stale  what  species 
this  i*,  supposing  it,  apparently,  to  be  the  magpie,  the 
Arab  name  for  which,  Imwever,  is  rl-ogaag. 

There  are  two  very  diHerent  specie*  of  bird  cnmpriseil 
under  the  Englieh  terra  vulture:  the  griSbn  {Gypifai- 
m;  Sav.).  AnK  ttftr;  Heb.  irJ.  niihty;  invariably 
rendered  "eagle"  in  the  A.  V.;  and  Ihe  ptrmopltr,  or 
Egyptian  vulture  (Xropkroa  permoplrriu,  Sav.),  Arab. 
riithmi;  Hob. 011^, r<i£*dBi (  rendered  " gier-eigle"  in 
theA.V.  The  identityofi.he  Hebrew  and  Arabic  terms 
ill  t  heae  cases  can  scarcely  be  questioned.  However  de- 
grading the  siibsiilnlion  of  the  ignoble  vulture  for  the 
royel  eagle  may  at  Bret  sight  appear  in  many  passages, 

movenKuU  and  characteiiatic*  a  ttuyestic  and  royal  bird. 


ERTpHiiB 


!  {.Vwpftnm  percmipltna). 

)ii  the  wing 


Ihc  ImrgCBt  and  tnoat  powerful  whi 

ia  Palentine,  iiid  far  Burpaflsin^  the  Mgle  in  aize  and 
power.  Ira  only  rival  in  Lheae  reipecta  i*  the  iKarded 
vulluie,  or  Lammtrgtyer,  a  mure  uncomniDii  bird  every- 
wbere,  and  which,  aiiice  it  i*  nut,  like  the  gritRiii,  bald 
on  the  head  and  neck,  eannul  be  lefemd  to  a*  nriAcr 
(Kt  Mic.  t,  IS).  Very  different  is  the  slovenly  and  cow- 
ardly Egyptian  vulture  (JVwpArun  permoplrrut),  the 
rimiliar  ncnvenger  at  all  Oriental  lowna  and  villages, 
pmtected  fur  iu  iiaerul  habila,  but  Imtheil  and  deapiscd, 
till  its  name  has  become  a  teim  of  repruach,  like  that 
of  the  d'lg  or  the  iwlne.  The  epeciea  of  vulture,  prop- 
erlv  ao  called,  have  the  head  naked  ur  downy,  the  crop 
external, and  very  lonjr  wtnga;  Ihey  all  have  an  offen- 
sive smell,  and  *re  know  of  none  that  even  the  scaven- 
ger-snu  will  eau  When  dearl  they  tie  on  the  ground 
iinloucbed  till  the  tun  haa  dried  Ibem  inin  mummiea. 
Late  Western  coromenutort,  anxloiu  to  disiingutib  ea- 
gle* rrom  rultare>,have  asHimed  that  the  first-men lioii- 
ed  never  feed  on  carcasses;  and,judging  the  whole  Tarn. 
ily  or  vultures  by  the  group  of  carrion-ealera  ikme,  have 
insinuated  that  the  latter  do  not  attack  a  living  prey. 
In  both  CUM  they  are  in  emir;  with  some  enveptiiHia, 
eagles  follow  armiee,  though  not  so  abumlaiitly  lU  vull- 
urem  and  vultures  attack  living  prey  pr»vide<l  with 
small  means  of  defence  or  of  little  wriRht;  but  their 
talons  having  no  means  of  gmnping  with  energy,  or  of 
seriously  wounding  with  the  claws,  they  devour  their 
prey  on  the  spot,  while  the  eagle  carries  it  ahifl,  and 


rtrt  rtgiilii.  'It 


■mm.),  Ill 
n.),  we  s 


id  the  pi 


les  the  bead 

•i  kite  (.l/tt 
k  kite  {.l/iV- 
sii;htofthe 


fnnnei  referred 
habiuofihe  litlerby  Isaiah  (xxxiv,  15).  It<.th'»pccies 
ore  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  the  ted  kite  being  found 
all  over  the  couihry,  as  formerly  in  England,  but  no- 
where in  great  numbera,  generally  soaring  at  a  great 
height  over  the  plains,  acoirding  to  Dr.  Rolh,  anil  ap- 
parently leaving  the  country  in  winter.  The  black 
kite,  which  is  90  nnmemiis  everywhere  as  lo  be  gregari- 
ous, may  be  seen  at  all  times  of  the  year  hovering  oter 
the  villages  and  the  outskirts  of  towns,  on  ihe  lookout  for 
offal  and  garbage,  which  sre  its  favorite  food.  VuUnre- 
Uke,  it  seldom,  unlus  pressed  by  hanger,  attacks  living 


10  VULTURE 

animala.  It  it  therefore  neirer  mcdested  by  the  natrmk 
and  builda  its  nest  on  trees  in  ibcir  neighboihoud,  fan- 
caslicolly  decorating  it  with  as  many  nga  uf  cokirtd 
dolb  aa  it  can  ooUecl.     See  Gi.iii>e. 

II.  There  are  three  specie*  of  so-called  vulture  koowa 
to  inhabit  Palestine  1 

1.  The  Lammergeyer  (Cypaloi  barboliit.  Cur.),  which 
is  rare  everywhere,  and  oidy  found  in  deanlale  dkob- 
tain  regions,  where  it  rears  iu  young  in  the  drpib  rf 
winter  among  inaccessible  precipice*.  It  b  looked  upca 
by  the  Arabs  at  an  eagle  rather  than  a  vulture;  for, 
though  properly  neither  a  vulture  nor  an  eagie,  it  ia  Ibt 
largest  bird  of  prey  of  the  old  eonlinent,  and  n  armed, 
like  Ihe  eagle,  with  furmidabia  claws.  The  h«d  b 
wholly  feathered;  its  courage  is  equal  to  ils  piiwo»l 
and  it  has  a  strength  of  wing  probably  superior  id  tQ 
rapturiant,  excepting  the  condor.  It  it  conErquently 
found,  with  little  or  no  difleeenoe,  from  Norway  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  from  the  Pyrenee*  to  Jspaa, 
This  is  perhaps  the  black  species,  which  it  often  ligiiTrd 
on  Egyptian  monuments  at  the  bird  of  victory,  hovrr- 
ing  over  the  head  of  a  national  heto  in  battle,  and  smie- 
limes  with  a  banner  in  each  talnn.     See  Omifkaoe. 

3.  The  Griffon  (C(jM/uJ™»,Sav.),  mentioned  aborfc 
remarkable  for  ita  power  of  virion  and  the  great  beighi 
at  which  It  toart.  AriMMie  (A  ain.  Hit!,  vi,  5}  ndirrt 
the  manner  in  which  the  griffon  tcenit  iia  prey  fna 
afar,  and  cnngiegatea  in  the  wake  of  an  army.  The 
tame  aingular  inetinct  wm  remarked  in  the  Kuttun 

in  Ihe  Crimea,  and  remained  till  the  enil  of  ihe  caiD- 
paign  ill  the  neighborhuod  of  Ihe  camp,  allbnugh  pre- 
vioutly  Ihey  had  been  scarcely  known  in  Ibe  ruiniTv. 
"Wheresoever  the  carcase  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be 
gathered  together"  (Matt.  xxiv,J6);  " When  the itaiD 
are,  there  ia  she"  (Job  xxxix,  80).    Traveliett  have  ob- 


is and  rocky  disirl 


IV  <fislr 

It  of  Palestin. 


and  eapeetally 
niiant  in  tne  •ouin-eati.  lit  lavorile  brtcding- 
es  are  between  Jerusalem  and  Jcricbo,  and  aB 
Id  tbe  Dead  Sea. 


Griffon  Tnlinro  {Oypi/atmu/t. 

B.  The  third  ipecies  is  the  above  Egyptian  valiare 
(Kfophnm  pfmnpievii.  Sav.),  often  called  Pharaoh^ 
hen,  observed  in  Palestine  by  Haaaelquist  and  all  subaa. 
queni  tmvellera,  and  vety  numemus  everywhere. 

Two  other  upeeiea  of  very  large  all*,  Ihe  eared  and  n- 
nereonsvultuiet(ViiJrtirni6>a(«. Smith. and  Viilnirdmi' 
rriM,  I.)  although  inhalMlanlsof  the  neighboring  tota- 
triet.  and  probably  also  nfthe  south-east  of  Palenina. 
have  not  yet  been  noted  in  colleclions  from  thtl  cniintry 

Mom  of  the  ahnve-nnnied  apeciet  *n  nccnaionallT 
teen  in  tbe  north  of  Europe.     Tbe  react  varica  is 


VULTURE  6i 

different  ipecie*;  biit  (hnee  of  Egypt,  frequenting 
the  PjTaiDiili^  ire  known  to  bark  in  the  night  like 
dng^  Hxcrptiiig  tbe  percnopimne  (or  eurioa)  vuit- 
orei,  all  [he  other  ■pecicB  tre  of  lai^  Hie;  ninie 
tiiperinr  ill  bulk  to  the  twnn,  Biid  othen  >  little  lewL 
TIte  Nubian  iH>Ki«  he*  bern  Hsured  in  Kiltfl'i  Pat- 
tuiite  !   the  fultia  in  HanU'e  DicL  of  Me  NaU  Bui. 


VuItntiuB  (Ur.  rviraiot),  in  Gr««k  mythrilncy,  ii 

bv  >  ihephenl,  beciiue  Ihe  god  hed  Mved  bim,  bf 
ruUum,  from  dettb  in  ■  Urge  deep  cave. 


^T'aajaa  (or  Waaien,  or  'Waeyen),  Hana 

VAN  nER  (1),  *  Dutch  thenlogiin,  wa»  burn  »t  Ameter- 
dani,  Julv  1!,  IG39.  He  began  his  etudiea  at  Utrecht, 
whence  he  pruceeded  aucceuiveiy  lo  Heidelberg,  Gene- 
va, aiKl  Bade,  and  returned  iu  I6G3  to  his  native  coun- 
trr,  ■■  diictoT  ofdivinilv,  to  preach  in  Sparendam.  In 
I66fi  he  wt«  caUed  to  Ueutrarden,  and  in  1673  lo  Uid- 
delburg,  but  in  1677  be  waa  furceil  by  the  iutriguee  of 
William  MoiDDia  to  retire  rmni  Ihe  latter  place.  The 
ume  year  he  waa  made  proreuoT  of  Hebrew  in  Franekei 
to  which  office  he  added  (in  1G80)  that  of  univer 
ait  r  preacher  and  alale  histiirian.    He  resided  with  th 

1701.     He  enjiiyed  Ihe  reputatiun  ofbeinK  one  of  the 
Srat  cantTxjvenialiala  of  Holland,  and  wrote,  ^untiwi 
Tkfitiof/ia  Chrittitma: — Kitc&iriihvn  Thtologia  Cht 
tiiuui:^Dt   Anliqailalt  Litleramm  Judakarun:  — 
BUibri,  ifHtalu  tt  Ralvmtt  dt  Va-bo  Dti,  Libra  RH- 
tangtlii  Otmrta  ; — De  koyt/t  Diaaerlatio  conini  Clericuntf 
etc     See  Vriemuet,  Stria  Profeaorum  FroMqi 
noTvm;  JScher,  Altgtmeina  (itUirfet'Ltxiion,  i 
Font,  Jiibl.  Jad.  iii,  490;  Biograpkie  VidienrOe, 
(a  P.) 

^I7a«j«ii,  Hans  vam  t>br  (2),  ton  ofthe  preceding, 
wu  bnm  Oct.  20,  1677,  at  Hiddelburg,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  hia  literarir  and  clerical  poaitiona.  He 
died  Dec  9, 1716,  leaving  no  original  works.  See  Bto- 
graphie  [TuRwraeUr,  a.  v. 

V7aaat  (or  Wast,  Lat.  Vkdastub),  Si~  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  was  bom,  accnnlini;  to  aume,  on  Ibe  borders 
of  I'erigord  and  Limousin,  and.  according  to  oihen,  at 
TuuL  After  living  a  hermit  life  neai'  the  latter  place, 
be  waa  ordained  as'  priest  by  ita  bishop  and  made  cale- 
chist  of  Clovis,  who  bad  just  embraced  Chrialianity 
(496).  That  prince  ti-olt  him  to  Kheims  and  recom- 
mended him  tn  Remi,  who  nominated  him  la  bishop  of 
Anas  (about  499),  and  afieiwanla  of  Cambrai  (about 
510).  He  abolished  the  lilolatrouscustnmaof  both  •ee^ 
and  built  chapeiN  etc  He  died  at  Arrai^  Feb.  6,  540. 
See  Hoefer,  Noac.  Bing.  Gininitt,  t.  v. 

V7abat,  CHHiHTLtEB  tiCTTTWALD,  a  Lulbenn  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  14,  1694,  at  Dresden. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  appointed  deacon  at 
OederiD  in  I7S6,  pastor  al  Uiibeln  in  1733,  superin- 
tendent at  Kocblitz  in  1735,  where  he  died,  June  36, 
1743,  having  iu  1737  been  honored  with  the  doctorate 
of  divinity  by  the  Wittenberg  University.  He  wrote, 
TS^idttr  Dtukulld  in  fftitllielien  Btlratklmgm : — 
DiMpulatio  dt  Dtiaia  iiunilia  nam  MuKuiinunt  rl 
Fmunmn  A  dmillal  i  —  De  /HltUniu  I/umano  eimlra 
Ja.  Lodtinn.  See  A'we  Zeilar^in  eon  gtUhrltn  Stiehm ; 
JOcher,  AUyemma  Gdekritn-Lfxikon,^  v.     (B.  F.) 

Wlotller.  Llmwio.  a  Protestant  [heolt^an  nfGer- 
nan^,  waa  bom  April  15,  17A7,  at  Gntha.  In  1790  he 
w«B  rector  ai  Herlbrd,  in  1794  professor  of  theology  at 
Bintein,  in  \fDi  pmfeMor  of  hitliMT  at  Harbuig.  and 
d>e<l  April  4, 1S38,  at  HreaUu,  as  member  of  consistory 
and  profesear  of  historv.  He  wrote,  fH«  Piiriier  Bliii- 
AwAinf  (Leipt.  Ilfi6):— miiur/-rr-t  J-rhm  u.  nach- 
flaunt  Sckr\f1m  (Frankfort,  1817)  i— ^Htwrfiifio  In- 
onyaro/ir  A  Ptrudo-PJioeglidt  (Rintein,  1788),  See 
Furu,  BitL  Jad.  tii,  488j  Winer,  llandb.  dcr  IhfoL  Lil. 
1,10,161,537,891,866.     (R  P.) 

Waobmilltb,  Erkbt  WllJlaua  Gottlieb,  a  Ger> 
X.-17* 


man  historian,  was  bom  Dec  28, 1TS4,  at  Hildeahcim. 
Iu  1826  he  waa  appointed  prufesaur  of  history  at  I^psic, 
and  died  Jan.  28,  1866.  He  wrote,  HrlkmMrhe  AOtr. 
thmiuhHidt  (2d  ed.  Halle,  l»iS,  i  vula.)  —Ean-paitche 
SillrHgadiidtle  (Leipa.  1881-39,  6  Tols.):-/><9-dl-ui'icAa 
Bautmiritg  zsr  Zeil  drr  Kr/vrmatiOH  (ibid.  1834)  :~ 
aaAidile  Frmhridu  im  Betalulioiaztiliilltr  (Hara- 
burfc.  1840-44.  4  vols. ) :—  GrtchidUt  da  ZrUaUtif  dtr 
Rttulalion  (Leipa.  1846-48,  4  vols.):— .4f^nn>vH  C«^ 
tvrytKliidM  (ibid.  18a)-6-2,B  vols.).  See  Zuchold, 
hibLTheol.u,lVil.     (a  P.) 

'Wttobter,  JoHAHit,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger* 
many,  was  boni  in  1768.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
evangelical  memberof  conslslury  and  superintendent  at 
Vienna;  in  1819  he  became  director  of  the  Proiesianl 
Theological  Liiiheran  Seminarv;  and  died  April  26, 
1827.  In  connection  with  K.  Cleynmann,  he  published 
AUgem.  prab.  BMvUhtk  JUr  Pit^rr  v.  SehnlmSaatr 
(Vienua,  1801-8, 2  vols.).  His  own  Sermmit  were  pub- 
lished alter  his  death  bv  some  friends  (iUd.  18^,  2 
vols.).  See  Wiuer,  Ha«^  der  thtoL  LilrriHur,  ii,  37, 
14S.     (a  P.) 

WUcbtler,  Jakob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Grimma,  Sept.  17, 1688.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  where,  in  1666,  he  became  aifjunct  u 
Ihe  pliilciaophica]  faculty,  in  1666  he  was  tnade  arch- 
deacon at  Oschatz,  and  iu  1679  superintendent  at  Gum- 
mern.  For  the  same  piMlion  he  was  called  in  1687  la 
Beltzigi  was  in  1698  created  doctor  of  divinity,  and  died 
Nov.  4, 1702.  He  wrote,  ChiHuHica  Vonitarii  Dtmon- 
Mtralio  contra  J.  Sptntrunt .- — Dt  Caiiudra  Coa/ejnoaofl 
eoalra  Sptntrum.—Humuma  Sacra  ParucitHtn,  etc 
See  Pipping,  Uenoria  TkeiAoganim ;  Rantl,  Libtn  dtr 
ckurtachiiichai  GoltagfUhtitn ;  Jibber,  .4  U^ieiiKt  Ce- 
Wrt«-i*Mfam,s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Waok,  CBap«r,  a  German  Reformed  minister,  was 
bnm  at  Philadelphia  in  1762.  He  began  the  study  of 
theology  under  Dr.  Weyberg  in  his  eleventh  year,  and 
received  calls  at  Ihe  age  of  eightoen;  but  his  licensure 
and  ordination  were  deferred  until  tbe  Cbuais  in  Hol- 
land could  be  cniisidted,  which  occurred  soon  ader.  He 
labored  extensively  among  the  (Jetmans  who  had  flsd 
fiom  Rhenish  Ptufmb  to  HolUnd  in  1706  and  in  1707 
sailed  to  Philsdelphia,  aflerwards  settling  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsvlvaiiia.  He  waa  pastor  at  Tohicken, 
Indian  Field,  and  Great  Swamp,  Ha.,  from  1771  to  1778; 
the  some,  with  the  addition  of  Nacomixen,  from  1778  rn 
178'Ji  German  Valley,  Fox  Hill,  a 


1788  t 


i,  inc 


t  Stillwa 


Hardwick,  and  Knnwlton;  pastor  at  Gcrmanlown  and 
WhitemaKdi,Pa..riom  1809  to  1821;  Whitemarsh.from 
1821  va  1823.  During  Ihe  Revolution  he  was  a  warm 
patriot.  He  die.1  July  19,  1839.  See  Haibaugh, /"u- 
Ihtrt  of  lit  Ctrman  Rrf.  Charck,  ii,  173  sq. 

'^Vack.  Charlaa  P.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  minis- 
r,  grandson  of  Casper  Wack,  gradoBtnl  at  the  New 
Brunswick  Theolngical  Seminary  in  1829.  He  waa 
pastor  at  Caroline,  N.Y.,  in  1881;  Rrllona  from  1881  to 
18351  Ubanon,N.J_  from  1835  to  1840;  Trenton  (First 
Church)  from  1841  to  1844;  German  Refornwd  Church, 
at  the  same  place,  from  1846  to  1862.  He  died  in  1866. 
He  left  a  large  amount  of  MS.  containing  sketches  of 
prominmt  ministers  of  Ihe  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
which  waa  uaed  by  Mr.  Sprague  in  the  preparation  of 


WACK  8- 

hia  Anmali  of  Ike  Amer.  Palpil.  Sn  Conrm,  Mamal 
Hftke Rrf.CkHTch  M  America,».-r. 

Wack,  QeoTge,  •  minuur  of  tbe  German  Re- 
fiiniiwt  Church,  ou  bnra  in  Bucki  O-untj,  P»,  Mirch 
I,  li'S.  AfUr  hiving  punued  a  count  or  clauical 
■Uidin,  be  wu  tuiKht  tbeolugy  by  hii  fitbar,  then  pas- 
liir  ill  Kiickiway.  M.  J.  He  wu  liceiiied  uid  onlaioed 
in  1801.  lu  1S02  he  became  paator  or  churcbn  in 
Hunlgoniecy  aiiri  Bucks  counties.  In  Lhii  charge  he 
■penl  a  lung  life.  In  ltH6,  in  the  Kvenlielh  year  of 
his  age,  be  vas  compelled  by  increasiiij;  inSmities  to 
quit  the  active  dutiee  or  the  miiiiMrr.  He  ilieil  Fell. 
17, 1856,  after  a  miniiliy  oflifty-nine  yean.  He  w«»  a 
insn  iiT  great  simplicity  of  heart,  which  with  age  made 
him  a  ]>atriarch  in  the  Church.  He  was  able  lo  preach 
Li  (ierman  and  Engli^. 

Waok,  John  J.,  an  American  minister  of  the  Ger- 
man Heluruied  Church  whnae  churches  flnallv  joined 
the  Dutch  cummuiiion,  was  bom  in  Philadelpbia,  June 
14, 1774,  and  studied  theology  with  his  brother,  Casper 
Wack.  He  waa  pastor  at  Amwell,  N.  J,  from  1798  to 
1803;  supplied  Knowllon  and  Hanlvick  rrom  1796  to 
ISOA;  pastor  at  Canajoharie  and  Stone  Arabia,  N.  Y., 

perance  in  1816;  prcacheit  aa  an  independent  at  Can- 
ajoharie and  Stone  Arabia  from  181ti  to  1827;  also 
preached  in  the  Independent  Church  ot  Tillaborougb 
for  aereial  yeani.  He  died  at  Ephratah,  N.  \.,  May 
36,  IHSI.  See  Cotwiii,  Hanual  of  the  Rif.  Church  in 
Amrriai,».r. 

WaokemaBal,  Karl  Etiuard  Philut,  a  (ier- 
man  Protealant  hvmnuKigiiit  u(  great  nol«,  was  bom  at 
Beriin,  June  28,  fsoo,  when  also  be  studied  natural 
science*  and  philology.  In  1810  he  was  promoted  at 
Etiangen  as  doctor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1861  (he  Uni- 
ventiiyofBrealan  couferrcd  on  hint  the  degree  of  doctor 
or<livintiy.  He  died  June  20,  ie77,ai  Dresden,  where  he 
had  rcKided  from  IStiO.  Wackeniagel  wu  a  memlierof 
diHerent  learned  sncielies  of  tiermany  and  Holland. 
Besides  a  number  of  works  on  mathemitici  and  natural 
■ciencea,  he  published  very  important  contributions  to 
<iernian  hymnuktgy,  which  made  him  an  authority  in 
that  department.  We  name.  Hom  deulicht  Kirehtiilird 
(Siultgiit,  ll»i):—Biili«gntplut  mr  Gaei.d.  deuUctn 
Kirdunliedn  m  W.JakrhmdeH  (Frankrort-on-ihe- 
Main,  1866)  -.—Lieilrr  dtr  mtdniaiidiidiai  Brfunaiiini 
oni  derZtitibT  Vtrfolgamg  im  16.  JaithaHdfrl  ( ISfiT) ; 
—  Diu  dntteht  Kirdtniiiid  ron  ifrn  Sllttlta  Zriln 
(Leipa.  1864-78,  4  vola.).  Besides  these,  be  publiabeil 
the  hymns  ofPaultierhard,  Martin  Luther,  and  Johann 
Hermann.  See  Zuchold,  BM.  TheoL  ii,  1408;  Tlitvl»- 
ffitcha  Urnvrrial-Ija.  s.  v. ;  Koch,  Gtich.  d.  drulichai 
Kiidmlirda,  vii,4r  sq.     (R  P.) 

^T'addel,  Jamea,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
celebrated  fur  his  eloquence,  and  immortalized  br  the 
pen  of  William  Wirt  aa  "  The  Blind  Preacher,"  was  bom 
at  Newry,  in  the  North  of  Ireland,  in  July,  1739.  He 
came  with  liii  parents  at  an  early  age  to  America,  was 
educated  at  Dr.  Finlay's  Nottingham  Acaiiemy,  studied 
theology  with  the  Kev.  John  Todd,  was  licenned  to 
preach  by  the  Preabyterj- of  Hanover  April  2, 1761, and 
was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  cburchei  of 
Lancaster  and  Northumberland,  Va.,  Oct. ',  176!.  In 
1778  he  took  charge  of  the  Tinkling  Spring  congrega- 
tion, Vi.',  in  1783  he  organized  a  congregation  atStaim- 
Inn,  to  whom  he  preacheit  on  alternate  Sabbaths;  in 
1785  he  removed  lo  Louisa  County,  Vs.,  to  an  estate 
which  he  bad  purchased,  and  while  there  be  lost  his 
sight  from  cataract,  but  Eiill  continued  to  preach.  It, 
was  during  this  period  that  Hr.  Wirt  was  thrilled  by 
his  eUHjuence  in  the  aocluded  little  church  in  Orange 
County.  In  1792  the  deftree  of  D.D.  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  Dickinson  College,  Pa.  He  died  in  great 
triumph,  Sept.  17.  1805.     The  testimonies  to  Dr.  Wod- 

tionable.     His  oratory  was  simple,  majestic,  and  impaa- 


WADDINGTON 


le  poetV  I 


ophet'a  fire,"    Ur.Waddel  pob- 
■  raihaiall 


his  HSS.  should  be  burned  after  bis 
hia  tcK  \  ti  iklai  ■  sccupied  inportani  poaiiioBa  m  ■aeie 
ty.  See  Sprague,  .ImoJj  oflht  .Iokt.  Pripil,  iii,  2U; 
Thomas,  Proaomdiig  Biag.  Hid.;  Foote,  Sk^thrt  tf 
Firjniii,  vol.  i;  Life  of  Ra.  Dr.  AUxm^ar ;  Watth- 
mm  of  At  Svulk,  and  Prat,  and  Her.  Oct.  24,  184<: 
Davidson,  Hitl.  of  Ike  Prrtb.  Church  w  Kmtmd^,  p.  M; 
Letitri  oj a  Briliih  Spg,^.™.     (J.  1.3.) 

'Waddel,MoBea,D.D.,i  Presbvterian  divine,  was 
bom  in  Iredell  Cuunty,  N.  IX,  July  29,  1770.  He  re 
ceived  a  good  academic  education,  graduated  at  Hamp- 
den Sidney  College  in  1791,  and  was  licensed  by  Han- 
over Hreabvlerv  of  Virginia  in  Hav,  1792.  He  taught 
school  in  Columbia  Countv,  Go.  (1793-1800 ;  then  ia 
Vienna,  AlbcvillF  District,  S.  C  (1802-1804).  He  re- 
moved toWillingtiin,8.Cin  1804,  where  be  remained 
uiiril  May,  1819,  when,  having  in  the  prevkna  rear  been 
elected  president  of  the  University  of  Genrjira,  he  en- 
tered upon  tbe  dutiea  of  that  office.  "The  eOect  •/  lus 
coming  to  this  institution  was  almost  nugical:  it  rei; 
soon  attained  a  measure  of  pmqierity  alti^elher  un- 
equalled in  its  previous  history."    He  resipied  this  p» 

His  labors  in  the  ministry  he  continued  hx  or  irm 
yean  longer.  In  September,  1886,  he  was  risiied  with 
a  stroke  of  the  palsy,  which  incapacitated  him  fur  sU 
active  diilies.  He  died  July  21,  1640.  Dr.  Wsddtl 
was  distinguished  aa  an  instructor.  "  He  may  be  justly 
considereil  as  the  father  of  clasMcal  educaiion  in  tl« 
upper  country  or  SiHith  Carolina  and  Ueorgia."  A>  a 
Christian,  his  character  was  imexceptiuiiable.  He  was 
active  and  constant  in  the  discharge  of  his  ministerid 
duties,  aiHl  he  shrank  from  no  labor  which  his  ecdea- 
aslical  relations  im|ioM<l  upon  him.  His  atyle  of 
preaching  was  plain,  simple,  and  earnest.  He  publish- 
ed Mtmov-i  of  Miu  Oitkmim  Eluabm  Smib  (K.  Y. 
1810,  l2mo).  tt  was  a  highly  inlereatinff  and  pofulii 
work,  as  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  pasard  to  a 
tbird  edition  in  the  United  Stalea,  and  was  piUubed 
twice  in  Great  Briuiu.  See  Sprague,  Anab  ef  Iht 
Amer.  Prlpil.iv.e^;  AUibont,  Din^  of  BrU.md  A  <Mrr. 
Aiirhori,r.\:;  Mrmoiri,Hc^of  S.Grtlia  (Phila.  1860> 
ii,  187.    (J.LS.) 

Waddtleam(orr>oiinAiiuB),Ai>Aii,D.D.,anEiq[- 
lish  Francitcan  of  Norwich,  was  profcflBor  at  OxIikL 
He  died  in  1368.  His  CoMmrUary  on  Ike  Senimen  was 
published  at  Paris  in  IG12.  See  Hoabeim,  UiH-ofOa 
Churrk,  Ik.  iii,  cenL  aiv,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii. 

WaddlnK.  Luke,  a  Roman  Catholic  ecdenaitir, 
was  bom  at  Waterford,IraUnd,Oct.l6, 1588.  He  itud. 
ied  theology  in  Porlugali  joined  the  Franciscan  Ordtf 
in  1605;  became  proreseor  of  divinity  at  the  UiiiversiiT 
of  Salamanca;  removed  to  Rome  in  161B,  vben  be 
founded  in  1629  the  College  of  St.  Isidore  r.ir  Irish  Fran- 
ciscans; took  part  with  the  Jansenists  in  the  famniu 
controversy  of  that  name,  but  retracted  his  vicwa  upon 
the  publication  of  the  papal  bull  oTcDnrieranaiion;  and 
was  procurator  of  the  Franciscans  at  Rome  from  1610 
lo  1634;  and  vice-commissary  from  1645  lu  1648.  He 
died  at  Home  Nov.  18,  1657.  Among  hi*  works  aiT, 
TiitiritloryaHd/}ibliographt/nflAerrwtcuanit,m  the 
A  nmilet  Ordint  Minonim  .-—an  edition  of  the  »'dnb  of 
DuBi  Scoiai: — and  Sniptnrrt  Orainii  Miaorwrn. 

Waddingtcin.  Edward,  D.D.,  an  English  pnj- 
ate,  was  bishop  of  Chichester  from  1724  until  hia  deaih. 
in  17HI.  He  published  some  Scmumt  in-1718,  1721, 
and  1729. 

TXraddloKton,  OeoTga,  D.D.,  an  English  dlvitie, 
traveller,  and  historian,  was  bum  Sept.  7, 179S.  He  was 
lied  at  the  Charter-house,  Londoik,  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  ha  graduated  in  1815;  Md  be 


WADDLE 

wai  ndxtqneotl]'  elected  rellow  of  Trinity  Cullege.  He 
dcTotcd  fainiaeir  for  a  conudeisble  period  U  OrienUl 
travel,  uid  «■>  for  *ome  years  vicir  of  Haahim,  York- 
■hire.  In  18W  he  wH  iuUelled  dean  of  Durham,  and 
in  1841  became  flnt  warden  of^tbe  University  of  Dui- 
ham.  lie  wa*  genernoi  in  hi*  chariliea,  and  a  Urong 
■opparter or libenl opinions.  H« diedat l>urham,Jul7 
30, 1W9.  His  principal  works  an,Jo¥ntal  of  a  yitil 
(o  Soma  PaiiM  o/Elkiopia  {ISH):  —A  firit  U  Gneet 
im  182S  and  \»H  (1826)  ^rAe  Prttait  Cvodilioa  and 
ProrpttU  of  At  GrteL  or  OrifUal  CAjjrci,  etc.  (1829); 
—BtMtorj  aflhc  Ckarth  from  Ikt  EarUal  Agtt  to  At 
Rfformatiim  (tSSby^l/utorg  of  Ike  Btformaliom  «i 
At  CotHKM  <i841)>-u>d  Tkrts  Ltdura  m  NatimiU 
EdMcalioH  (Ig4fi}. 

'Waddle,  Bkmjamih,  D.D.,  a  minuter  of  the  United 
PrenbTterian  Church,  was  born  in  Obio  County,  Va.,  Ji 
2,  1002.     At  twenty-one  yean  of  age  be  cummeneed 
nuking  preparation  Tut  tbe  ministry. 
claMical  education  at  Wheeling  AcaJei 
Udtation  or  Bev.  Dr.  Samuel  Findley,  b> 
iiigton,  0„  to  assist  liim  in  a  grsmmar-scboiiL    In  No- 
Tember,  18:26,  he  entered  the  tbeological  seminary 
Piitaburgb.rram  whence  he  gnuloateJ.    Hewasliceni 
to  preach  at  WashinKlon  April  28,  I8!S,  and  accepted 
a  call  to  Jonathan  Creek,  Rush  Creek.  Thomvilte, 
Zaneaville,  and  tbe  fullowing  Hay  was  onlained.     He 
remained  over  this  charge  seven  years,  when  he  accept- 
ed ■  call  tn  Crooked  Creek,  where  hia  labora  were  great- 
ly bleseed.    lie  remained  there  mi  year*,  during  which 
time  he  was  instrumental  in  founding  Muskingum  Col- 
lege.     He  was  sent  with  Dr.  Findley  as  miwiniioiy  to 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri.     In  1858  ha  laboi^ 
ed  as  a  missionary  at  Chicajto.    In  lSfi9  he  took  charge 
of*  Church  in  Kenton, O.,  where  he  remaineil  until  1ST  I, 
when  be  was  elected  by  the  friends  of  the  Bible  in  c«m- 
man-echools  tj>  represent  Hardin  County  in  the  Legisla- 

enta,  and  maintained  bis  character  as  a  minisler  in  his 
KHDCwhat  doubtful  podlinn.  His  name  was  a  synonym 
uf  goodness  He  died  at  Kentou  in  1879.  (W.  1'.  &} 
Waddjr,  Samuel  Doiiii(.AHD,D.D.,an  English  Wrs- 
teran  Helho.iiN  minister,  son  of  Kev.  Kichard  Waddy, 
wai  bom  at  Barton-Dn-Trent,  Aug.  5,  1804.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Weslevan  Academy,  Woodhouse  Grai 
Yorkahire  (1813  to  1819).  In  i8»i  be  was  apprentio 
tn  a  linen-draper  in  London— in  an  occupation  uncange 

apprentice^the  late  Samuel  VTarren,  M.l).,  LLD.,  a 

thor  at  Tta  rtoiuami  a  Year,  etc,  and  ton  of  Dr.  Sar 

uel  Warm,  b-wus  in  Methodist  bisioiy— bad  to  sleep 

on  the  Boor  under  tbe  ahop  ooun 

hia  Rfusal  to  be  implicated  in 

maat«r,  young  Wad<1y  was  soon  baniahed  to  sell  goods 

in  a  danip,coliI,  underground  department,  wbi 


in;;,  he  commenced,  by  Li 


id  of  s  flicl 


eriug  lamp,  the  otody  of  m^icine.  His  indomitable 
ipirit  was  leading  the  way  ("  eminence  as  a  medical 
man,  when  his  conversion  (1BS3)  gace  him  to  (he  min- 
istry (1825).  Hiacliargeswere  Cambridge,  Lvnn  (1826), 
Krmingham  (1827),  Gateshead  (1829),  Northampton 
(I8S1),  ShetfleU  (ISM),  Hull  (1840),  Bstb  (1841),  gnr- 
eioorship  of  VVeeley  Collide,  Sheffiekl—an  institution 
which  he  had  founded,  and  now  saved -(l»14-6-2), 
Cbelaea  (1862),  Lambeth  (1865),  and  aitUm,  Briatol 
(1867).  Id  1842  he  publicly  opposed  Sir  James  Gra- 
ham's Factories  Education  Bill,  and  receired  the  thanks 
of  kml  Duncan.  In  1848  he  bad  a  remarkable  eiar^ 
from  the  shipwreck  of  the  "Queen,"  on  her  way  W  Dub- 
lin, a  thrilling  account  of  which  he  published  in  London, 
and  reprinted  in  his  /^/r.  The  following  spring  he  was 
SKsin  sent  la  Ireland  on  a  missionary  deputation.  In 
lSa9  he  was  elected  president  of  conrertnce,  and  re- 
ceived his  doctorate  fmrn  WesJejan  University,  Conn. 
?*ir  many  yean  he  was  treasurer  of  the  Children's  Fund. 
In  1S70  Dr.  WaJJy  became  saperoumerary,  and  nliled 


,3  WADE 

to  Rodland,  Bristol.  Like  dean  Swift,  he  "died  al  the 
lop."  The  intellect,  too  active  iu  life,  lost  its  cimning, 
the  memoiy  ita  power.  Finally,  the  great  spirit  passed 
away,  Nov,  7, 1S76. 

"Seldom  has  a  man  been  intrusted  with  an  intellect 
at  once  so  strong  and  so  aprigbtly;  seldom  have  the 
earnest  student,  the  powerfiil  preacher,  and  the  eOeciive 
administrator  been  so  happily  united  in  tbe  same  per- 
son.   Waddy  was  a  great  and  noble  man,  of  strongly 

honor,  admirable  alike  in  public  and  private  life"  (JfM- 
vUm,  1877,  p.  18).    In  a  beautiful  and  masterly  memon- 

Arthurthus  speaks  of  Dr.  Waddy  osa  preacher:  "Those 
wbo  best  knew  these  private  qualiliea  also  best  knew 
that  the  gravity,  depth,  and  elevation,  which  took  up 
the  whole  man  when  he  appeared  in  the  pulpil,  were  as 
spontaneoua  as  tbe  rest.  He  was  not  now  the  frienil 
among  friends,  but  the  servant  in  the  presence  of  his 
Uaoter,  whose  greatness  and  whose  goodness  piit  him 
and  all  hia  fellow-serranta  to  ihame,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  gave  them  cause  fur  adoration,  of  which  the  deep- 

a  messenger  fraught  with  words  of  import,  and  bound 
to  make  their  sense  understood  and  their  weight  and 
urgency  felu  Then  did  thought  sit  supreme  in  every 
chamber  of  the  spiric,  and  look  out  with  a  meet  manly 
eamestneas  from  every  window  of  the  cuunlenanoe. 
Calm,  strong,  reverent,  and  original;  acuta,  lufly,  rich, 
and  often  deep,  he  unfolded  his  Haster**  me«asg«.and 
laid  hia  Haoter'a  will  upon  the  aoul"  (see  Lifr,  p.  842 
>q.).  "  Dr.  Waddy  waa  the  brightest  and  nwsl  vivid 
iif  men  in  society.  No  one  that  ever  passed  a  free  hour 
in  social  inlercnuise  with  him  couki  believe  that  even 
Sydney  Smith  was  a  wittier  man  or  uttered  more,  or 
more  pungent  or  more  biillionl,  twfj.  Every  sentence 
sparkled ;  every  repartee  Hashed.  Now  graceful,  now 
caustic,  now  irreustibly  comic  and  grotesque,  tbe  play 
of  his  wit  was  incessant  and  inexhauHible"  (Dr.  J.  H. 
Bigg).  "  Like  tbe  Hashing  of  steel,  it  never  gave  an 
Impression  of  less  than  the  strength  of  steel'  (Anbor). 
"  His  humor  was  always  brilliant,  never  cruel  i  like  the 
flame  of  a  diamond,  bright  but  not  burning"  (Simpaoa, 
in  N.  r.  Chrulian  AAwiUt,  Hov.  18, 1880). 

Of  Dr.  Waddy'a  writings  there  were  published,  Exe- 
ler  Hall  Lteturi  oa  Sliurriig  (Lond.  1868}  i—Ex-jirtti- 
datHal  Ckargtt  (ibid.  I860) :— a  volume  of  iffenunt,  is- 
sued by  bis  family ; — and  several  A  ddrtuet,  Lttten,  etc, 
preserved  in  bis  /.i/e.  See  particularly  a  Letttr  lo  lit 
LonJim  Timf  (Sept.  8, 1849)  in  defence  of  the  action  of 
the  Conference  ui  re  Everett,  Griffltli,  and  Dunn  {Ufr, 
p.  209-219)1  and  a  letfun  an /'oprry  (p.  864-405,  Ap- 
pendix). Waddy,  like  most  of  the  British  Wesleyan 
divines,  coulil  sea  no  good  in  the  Koman  Calbolic 
Church.     He  dnsa  this  able  lecture  with  a  highly 

!toricaI  and  unlimited  denunciation  of  the  hated 

charity.    Dr.  Waddy  was  the  brother  of  Kev.  Benjamin 
R  Waddv,  and  father  of  Samuel  D.  Woddv,  Q.a,  a 
prominent  Liberal  member  of  Parliament,  aitd  of  Rev. 
John  T.  Waddy,  of  the  British  Oinhrenre.    See  Mvt- 
ulft  of  Can/'trmce  (Lond.  ISTT),  p  17 ;   Life  of  8.  D. 
WtuUg,  J).D„  by  his  youngest  daughter  (ibid.  1878, 
12mo},  a  lieautirul  and  admirably  written  biography  i 
~  evenson,  HiMl.  of  Cily  Road  ChiiptI,  p.  226. 
^)7ade,  A1plieiM.a  Hetbodisi  R|>iscnpal  minister, 
la  bom  at  I'awlet,  Vt,  June  14, 1801.     He  was  cou' 
irted  when  about  nineteen,  and  licensed  as  a  local 
eachor  in  tS21,     In  1838  he  Joined  the  Tmy  Cnnrer- 
ce,  and  was  appointed  to  the  Luzerne  Circuit.    Subse- 
.  lenlly  he  served  at  Ticondemga  and  Jay,  N.  T. :  Al- 
burgh,' Sheldon,  and  Monklon.Vu;  Northampton,  N.  V. 
In  1847  he  was  supemumsrafed,  and  in  185'2  wan  super- 
annuated.   He  died  at  Amsterdam,  V.  Y..  July  26, 1868. 
See  Miiailf  ofAamial  Cooftrmctt,  1869,  p.  117. 
Wad*,  Debormh  B.  Laphun,  aa  eminent  Bap- 


WADE  8 

titc  luiMiiiinarv,  wire  of  Rov.  Dr.  Jonalhio  Wadt,  wai 
bum  in  KelwD,  N.  Y>  June  10,  IBOI.  She  uiletl  Un 
Burmah,  the  field  of  ChriMun  labor  to  which  she  acid 
her  hiuband  had  been  deiigiuled  by  the  BiptiM  Trien- 
nial Conveniion,  June  H,  \S2»,  and  arrived  al  Calcutta 
Oct.  19,  and  Rangoon  Uec  6,  of  the  tame  rear.  Suon 
■Her  ther  reached  thdr  iraliim,  tlie  Bnl  Burmrae  war 
hruke  out,  iiiil  Mr.  and  Mn.  Wade  t<>i>k  up  their  roi- 
dence  in  Uourgapoore,  about  five  mile*  frani  Calcutta. 
Here  they  gave  themaclvei  to  the  wurk  ol  Uudyiug  the 
BumieH  language  and  fitting  theniielvea  Cor  the  raie- 
iiinnary  labors  upon  which  they  propoaed  to  enter  when- 
ever  the  providence  of  God  should  prepare  the  way.  In 
1926,  the  war  having  ended,  they  returned  to  Burmah. 
and  took  up  their  reeidenee  at  Amlirrat,  in  the  nmnth 
■if  November.  Uts.  Wade  devotnl  herwlf  lor  a  time  to 
the  care  of  the  iulant  left  by  the  fint  lira.  Judoon,  and 
on  ita  deceaie  the  eslablithed  and  luperin tended  a  school 
fur  Burman  girls,  and  perfonned  oiiniiinary  labor  among 
the  Burman  women.  Atnbent  not  pruvinK  lu  be  so 
hopeful  a  place  for  miisionsry  work,Mr.  and  Mn.  Wade 
removed  to  Meulmoin,  and  in  ISSU  to  Kanguon.  Sub- 
sequently they  went  to  Mergin.  In  all  theae  diOertnt 
•Ulioiis  Mrs.  Wade  deroled  herself  with  great  fidelity 
and  peiseveiance  (a  the  work  which  she  had  undertak- 
en. We  have  read  of  but  few  persons  who  were  more 
thi-mughly  consecrated  to  the  service  oI  their  Uasler, 
and  lived  as  if  immediately  in  his  ilivine  presence.  She 
reuimed  to  the  United  Sutea  in  1838  on  account  of  the 
ill -health  of  her  husband.     Wherever  she  wen),  her 

i  in  the  cause  of  IVirHgn 

more  to  devote  hereelf  to  the  service  of  her  Lord,  What 
she  accomplished  during  the  next  fourteen  jean  cannot 
be  told  in  ■  sketch  so  brief  as  lia.  The  reconls  of  tlie 
final  day,  alone,  will  disclose  it.  the  health  at  her  hua- 
baiid  again  broke  down,  at>d  sbe  once  more  went  bock 
to  her  native  land,  reaching  Boston  July  81,  1B48,  and 
remaining  in  her  awn  country  two  years;  at  useful  per- 
haps, at  home  at  the  had  been  on  foreign  shores  in  the 
great  work  fo  which  ilie  had  conaecraied  all  her  facnltiea. 
On  July  35,  IBSO,  the  again  set  sail  for  the  East, 


tried  on  i 


Haulmi 


He 


voy.anileonlinuedup 

leached,  the  wrote  I<i  a  friend, "  We  are  oh),  very  okl,  f»r 
India;  and  we  live  daily  lookingror  the  bright  messenger 

Jurison  once  cidaimed,  when  near  the  heavenly  shore, 
'Oh,iheloveofChri8l!  Whi 


iiityT  And  for  s. 


St  I  hi 


before,  oF  the  length  and  breadth,  and  height  and  depth, 
of  the  richeaof  the  grace  of  God  Ihnnigh  Christ  our  Sav- 
iour; and  oflen  does  my  heart  eiclaim, 'What  a  beauti- 
ful, what  aaublimestudyfurelemityr"  The  anticipated 
close  of  life  came,  and  she  entered  tlie  belter  world  Oct.  S, 
1868.    ■■ 


[lix,989t   (J.CS.) 


It  devout  fei 
See  Bapiiil  ifuiinarn  JUiigatm 

Wadfl,  Jobn,  a  Congregational  minitter,  was  bom 
at  I|»wli:h.  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Dan-ard  Col- 
lege in  1693;  woe  ordained  |iA«Ior  of  the  church  in 
Berwick,  Me.,  in  November,  I702i  and  died  in  liOa. 
See  Sptague,  Aaialio/IAe  Amer.  I'ulpil,  i,  189. 

Wade,  Jonathui,  D.D.,  ■  distinguished  napdst 
miisiunary,  was  bom  in  Otaegn,  N.  Y^  Dec.  10,  1798, 
He  pursued  his  studies  at  Hamilton;  wot  ordained 
at  Bhtadalbin,  N.  V.,  Feb.  IS,  1823;  set  apart  as  a 
missionary  to  Burmah  the  following  May,  and  arrireil 
at  Rangoon  In  December  of  the  same  year.  The  war 
between  Burmah  end  the  English  seriously  deranged 
mi'^iontry  operaliona.  In  1837  the  mitsion  was  re- 
moved to  Maulmaio,  when  lit.  Wade  labuied  until,  la 


4  WADSWORTll 

tSSI,  ha  began  miatfonaiy  work  in  Airaon.  Hia  m» 
siouaiy  life,  which  wa«  crjwiied  with  abundant  aneeei^ 
covered  ■  period  of  bfLv  ^eaio.  Twice  be  Tisiied  faia 
native  land,  in  1883  and'  1847.  Just  befen  karinK  Iba 
laM  time  for  the  scene  of  his  labon  in  the  East,  he  bbU, 
"  I  have  lived  lu  see  the  baptism  of  fifteen  ihuuaoDd.* 
He  died  at  Kat^ooo,  Burmah,  June  10,  1871.  Sm  ite 
N.  y.  £zit««wr  <md  Chvmdr.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Wads,  Joabna,  an  English  Wesleyan  miniatw, 
was  bom  near  Leeda  in  17iRt.  He  was  conrerteil  wtwa 
fuurteen  rears  old;  was  sent  in  181G  to  Liskesrd,  hia 
first  charge;  becama  ■  aupemumenirv  at  Bauwell  in 
1844;  nmuved  to  Kilhampton  in  I84fi;  and  died  n 
Tamerton,  near  flymouih,  (Jet.  24, 1869,  Ui^tinguiA- 
ed  success  marked  his  labors  in  some  dicuiia.  Saa 
if uwfes  o/  IVrtUyuK  Cmfima,  1860. 

Wadrakall  {Patragali,  Bhatragoti,  Pogodom),  n 
Hinilil  mylhulogy,  is  a  powerful  goddess,  a  daughm  if 
Siva,  bom  in  hia  middle  eie  by  the  power  of  ViidiBa. 
She  conquered  the  giant  Darida,  who  could  not  be  «t«™ 
by  any  man;  and  the  even  became  dangcroua  to  btr 
own  father,  who  hid  himtelf  in  the  sea  wbeo  she  n- 
turned  from  her  combat  with  the  great  d*nHia. 

VadswOTtb,  BeDjania  (l),D.D.,an  Amerias 
Congregsiinnot  minister,  uncle  of  John  W.  (bc:ew),wt« 
bom  at  Milton,  Moas.,  in  I6(i9.  lie  graduaied  at 
Harvard  College  in  1690;  was  ordained  in  I69G.  and 
preached  at  the  First  Church,  BosTon.  uniil  17»;  wm 
president  of  Harvard  College  from  17!n  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  Uarch  16, 17S7.  He  published  imme> 
ou«  SenaoHi  and  theological  worki.  See  Sprague,  Aa- 
KalM  if  He  A  HUT.  r<ilpil,  i,  2M. 

Wadawoitli.  Benjasilii  (!),  D.D.,  a  Conpega- 
tionalminiater,wasbamatUilton,Maia.,July  I8,I7MI; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1769,  and  was  ordained 
Dec  28, 177*2,  as  pastor  in  Danvere.  where  he  trawincd 
until  his  death,  Jan.  18, 1826.  He  published,  Enttfi  m 
WathiKsfm  (1800):-aiid  several  occaaional  Stnum. 
See  Sprague,^ntu^  o/llu  Arntr.  Pvlf>il,\\,ii. 

Wadawortli,  George,  an  Euglisb  Weslnwa 
preacher.wastenCout  by  the  conference  in  1770.  'Ht 
was  a  plain,  pious  man,  and  for  twenty-five  yeari  labor* 
ed  in  the  rineyanl.  In  1797,  being  afflicted  wiib  iha 
palay,  be  retired  from  the  active  work.  Some  of  hit 
faculties  were  taken  from  him  before  his  diMolutiun. 
He  died  Juue  li,  1797.     See  Atmon,  iftlA.  Utmarii^ 

Wadawoitb,  John  W.,  ■  Congregational  ninis- 
ler,  was  bom  in  Hilton,  Haas.,  Aug.  6,  170B.  He  wt* 
the  grandson  of  captain  Samuel  Wadsworth,whDftllat 
Bloody  Ilronk.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  CoUrge  i> 
1738;  was  ordained  at  Canterbury,  Conn.,  in  1739;  oad 
resigned  in  1741  on  account  of  a  charge  of  imuxwal  cso- 
duct  brought  against  him.  He  retired  lo  bia  nattra 
home,  preached  occasioDally,  and  died  tbere  June  li, 
1766.  Tradition  says  that  his  death  look  place  in  the 
pulpit  immediately  after  he  bad  read  a  hymn  contaia- 


"Bosanna,  with  a  chevrftil  sound. 
To  0<id's  nptaoldbiE  UilDd ; 
Ten  thonNiDd  snsras  be>ei  us  nrand, 
Aud  jti  mean  wt  stand." 
See  C<K^.  Qaar.  I8&9,  p.  SM. 

Wadawrortli,  Lemnal,  a  CoBgrpgaiional  miato- 
(er,  wot  bom  at  Sloughlon,  Maio.,  in  1769.  He  endn- 
ated  From  Bimin  UniTenity  in  1798;  saa  oniained 
pastor  in  Raby,  now  Braokline,  N.  H.,  Oct.  It,  I7>7; 
and  died  Nov.  S6,  1817.  See  Spragnc,  ^  axafa  a/"  (b 
.1inn-.PH^,ii,417. 

Vadairortli,  8ami)«l.  a  CnngregMknal  dIb^ 
ler,  brother  of  John  W.  (above),  waa  bom  at  Hihoa, 
Mate.,  July  S3,  1730.  In  1747  he  waa  ordained  orer 
the  Separate  Cburch  in  Xillingly  (South),  Conn..  wb«>* 
he  preached  until  hia  death, in  1761  He  waa  "a  mM 
of  an  excellent  gilt  in  pi^^r,  hia  eoDdsel  axtraordtn*' 


WADSWOKTH 


lily  nligioai,  ■nd  bit  conTemitioD  vn;  boTeDly."  See 

^T'kdsirortta.TItoina*.  an  eminmc  Koneoaronn- 
iM  divjue,  wu  bom  at  »L.  S>v».iin<,  Souihwark,  Eiig- 
bori,  in  ISSO,  and  eUucatcl  in  Chiiat'i  CuUfire,  Cam- 
briilKe.  In  IB£2  he  wu  appgiiiUil  miiiiater  urNewing- 
tiMi  ButU,  where  he  ipeiic  bis  Lime  and  ■  £Teal  pan  <it 
bia  Tiirtune.  He  lectured  occuionail}'  in  Tirioiu  city 
churches,  and  naa  finally  chnoea  U>  the  living  of  St 
l^wrence  I'ouniney,  wbence  he  waa  ejected  a[  [he  Res- 
toratiiin.  He  afLcrward*  pnached  privalely  at  Me  Wins- 
ton, Theobalila,  and  Suutbwark,  Tnr  which  he  reoeived 
no  compcniiCinn.     He  died  Oct.  29, 1676.     He  publiah- 

'Wadawoitll,  WUllam  A.,  ■  Methodise  Epis- 
copal inini.ter,  »■■  bom  at  New  Henfurd,  N.  Y.  He 
decliiwd  a  flariering  buiinew  ofTei  when  he  entered 
the  mlniilryi  ofliciated  wme  time  m  local  preacher; 
atndied  rheiik^ty  in  Boslnn  Uiiiverairy;  and  in  IflU 
joined  the  Ondda,  now  Wyiiming,  Cnnfeteiicei  aerr- 
in^  ■■  paalor  al  Vemnn  Centre,  Hnuiit  Upton,  Norwich, 
Unariilla,  and  Coopenlown.  He  died  March  9,  1875. 
Although  Mr.  Wadaworih  wu  not  a  ahowy  or  brill- 
iant speaker,  yet  hli  siinnil.  in'lructive,  pnclical  ser- 
inons  made  him  a  great  power  in  ihe  Church.  In  ids 
dailv  life  he  wm  peculiarly  affeclionsir,  Tsithful,  and 
exemplary.  See  Uiiwlit  of  Ammal  Cmjirtnca,  1K75, 
p.  60. 

'WMthrwollI  in  Scandinavian  niylhalii)^-,  ia  a 
apiritual  being  who  still  creates  fear  in  niany  people's 
■Dinds.  Superatition  teachea  that  Waehrwolfis  a  hu- 
man beins  (iiian  or  woman)  that  ia  capable  of  chang- 
iiiK  itself  into  a  wolf.  This  wolf  ia  uiiusnally  larKe 
and  aavage,  and  is  kiuiwn  mainly  by  his  ridiiiK-belt, 
an  imlisiienaable  article,  ai  it  aerrea  bim  in  chang- 
ing from  one  form  to  another,  and  which  he  seeki  to 

he  Jooeea  the  belt  be  becomea  a  human  being  again. 
ir  the  wnir  is  shot  at  iiiil  the  belt  is  hit,  their  lies, 
instead  of  Ihe  animal,  a  naked  man  nr  woman.  In 
this  manner  witches  are  wid  In  have  been  caiighi 
who  went  ont  hunting  for  |>rey,  and  especially  chil- 
dren. 

TVaeliiaeiDO«lnen,  in  the  myihulogy  of  the 
Finns,  ia  one  uf  the  supreme  gods,  who  is  said  la  be  seen 
in  the  seven  principal  Biars  of  the  (ireat  Benr  constella- 
lioti.  He  lakes  the  aoiils  uf  the  departed  up  witb  him, 
and  if  it  is  possible  for  tnich  a  aoul  lo  strike  Ihe  Great 
Urar,  it  beenoiea  partaker  of  eternal  happinen.  He  u 
reUlad  to  Ilmanincn,  god  of  air  and  water.  The  name 
of  Ihe  father  of  both  ia  Kawe,  and  he  ia  the  only  being 
■prung  from  binudf.  The  snna  discovered  and  madi: 
Ihe  arts  and  sciences — llmarainen,  the  art  nr  working 
iron;  Waeinaemoeinen  invented  the  ttmdtlc  (a  Hddhi- 
like  instrument),  and  with  it  poetry  and  song,  bunting, 
fishing,  and  war,  of  which  he  was  worshipped  as  the 
god  generally.  He  was  the  spirit  whence  all  life  pro- 
ceeded, the  master  of  favarablf  tpelK  the  adversary  and 
Ihe  conqueror  of  all  person itical ions  or  evil,  and  the 
■overeign  punemor  of  all  science.  He  sent  the  celestial 
fire  to  man,  and  invented  incanlatinns.  Fersniia  of  all 
classes  needed  to  invoke  his  protection.  The  sweat 
■  ■  n  for  all  dis- 
lance  against 

the  charms  of  the  soroerers,  and  an  appeal  la  him  wag  an 
aScctual  reanorce  against  the  encroachments  of  demons. 
— Vollmer,  WurtnAil.  Mj^i,i.t.v.i  Lenonnant,  CAul- 
Aaan  Magie,  p.  !46  sq. 

^Vaeipaea  is 


Finnn 

hia  playfellow 


t  made  a  long  ji 


I    rested    liimKlf  upon 

sprung. 

VTael  (nr  Waa]),  John  Baptist  de,  a  Flemish 
pni;raver  of  the  17th  century,  nf  whom  little  is  known, 
is  said  to  have  esecuttd  aome  etchings,  among  ivhich  are 


s  WAGENSEIL 

a  set  of  prints  lepresendng  the  Hitfory  nfllu  FmXgal 
Son.     See  SiKKHier.  Bi-f.  llUt.  "/Ilm  fine  -4  rti,  a.  V. 

Wavyen,  Jam  ma  dtr.     See  Waajeh. 

Wafer  is  the  mideting,  in  the  A.T.,of  nri'<&X, 
(KTiilieAflA  (from  ncx,to  Jlunm),  a  pancutc  (Exod.xvi, 
Slj.aml  of  p-p'H,  ro*t*  (from  pp^,  to  Makelhm),  a  cots 
(xKix,!,!3;  LeV.ii,!;  Tii,lg;  viii.Hi  Numb.vi,lli, 
19;  1  Chron,  xxiii,  29).  See  BaKB.  We  learn  from 
the  above  passsges  that  such  thin  cakes  nude  of  fine 
Sour,  usually  without  leaven,  and  anointeil  with  oil, were 
used  by  the  Hebrews  in  connection  with  their  offerings. 
See  SacbiftCk.  The  custom,  to  some  extent,  ia  still 
maintained  by  the  Jewa^     Sec  FaBSoveh. 

WAFER,  in  ecclesiasUcal  terminulngT,  is  the  bread 
used  in  tbe  eucharist  by  the  Romanists  and  Lutherans. 
In  tbe  ancient  Church,  ao  long  as  the  people  continued  to 

use  of  the  eucharist  were  taken  outof  Ihem;  and,  conie- 
quenlly,  «o  lung  was  the  common  leavened  bread  in  or- 
dinary uae  employed  fur  that  purpose.  Tbe  use  of  wa- 
fers and  unleavened  bread  waa  not  known  in  (be  Cburuh 
until  the  I  lib  century.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  cbange  crept  in  from  the  people's  leaving  off  their 
oblation*,  and  tbe  clergy  being  compelled  to  provide 
the  bread  themselves.  Under  pieience  of  decency  and 
respect,  they  changed  it  from  leaven  lo  unleaven,  and 
from  ■  loaf  that  might  be  broken,  to  a  nice  and  delicate 
wafer,  which  was  formed  in  the  figure  of  a  dronn'iM,  or 
penny,  either  lo  represent  the  peiK«  fur  which  our 
Saviour  was  betrayed,  or  because  the  people,  instead 
of  oOerJBg  a  luaf  of  bread  as  funnerly,  were  ordered  to 
offer  a  penny,  which  was  M  be  expended  upon  some- 
thing pertaining  lo  the  aaerifh^  of  tbe  altar.  This 
alteraiion  in  the  eucliaristical  bread  occasiuned  great 
dbpules  between  the  Eastern  aiHl  Western  churcbea, 
which  separated  about  it ;  the  Weatem  Church  going 
su  far  to  the  entreme  as  almost  to  lose  Ihe  nature  of  tbe 
sacnmeulal  element  by  iniruducing  a  thing  that  could 
hardly  be  called  bread,  instead  of  that  which  our  I»rd 
had  appointed  to  be  the  representative  of  hii  body  in 
the  eucharist-  The  wafer  now  in  use  in  the  Roman 
Church  is  B  small  thin  portion  of  unleavened  bread, 
bearing  upon  it  either  tbe  llgure  nf  Christ  or  the  ini- 
tials I.  H.  S.  In  the  Church  of  Knglaml  wafen  have 
been  used  from  Ihe  earlieia  tinKS  of  Christiauily,  and 
are  still  not  nnoommouly  used;  but  the  rubric  of  tbe 
present  Prayer-book  maintains  that  the  best  and  pnreat 
wheatcn  bread  that  may  be  conTenieutly  obtained  will 


Wagenaar,  Haxs,  a  Duitdi   historian,  who  was 

l»m  at  Amstonlam,  Oct.  81, 1709,  was  chicHy  occupied 
in  commerce  and  literature,  and  died  Alarch  1, 1773,  de- 
servrs  notice  here  for  several  ecclesiastical  monogiBphsr 
fur  which  see  BiiH/.  UntctruUt,  s.  v. 

Wagenaell.CbilatlaiiJBkob.aGerman  writer, 
who  was  bnro  Nov,  23, 175C,  at  Kauf  beuren,  anil  died 
Jan.  8. 1839,  at  Augsburg,  ia  the  author  of,  Brilrng  tar 
GfSfJiichte  iltr  Rffbrmatitm^deM  drristi^jdAriffpn  Krirgftj 
rlrt  KritpABlMini  Frirdnt  u.  dtr  Jtiailn,  mm  JiiArt 
1524  bii  zu  Endc  drt  Jnhrri  1099  (Leipsic,  1830):— r^ 
lieh  V.  flunn,  mich  •mem  fjbm,  trinm  Ci'iratltr  u. 
Kinm  SchriPfn  gat^Udrrt  (Nuremberg,  1833;  new  ed. 
1858)  —Prdial  J.  Cp.  v.  ScAmiJ  zu  Vim,  oarA  wm™  Lf 
bm,WirlfB  u,  CharakUr  (Augidxirg,  18'iB).  See  Winer, 
ff»*»Nrf  A.-  IhfoL  Lit.  i,  7«,  807 ;  Zucbohl,  BOA.  Thtol. 
ii,  H08.     (B.  P.) 

Waganaoll,  Johann  Chtlatoph.  a  Proiesiam 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  26, 1638,  at  Nu- 
remberg. In  1<j<i7  he  was  appointed  profeunr  nf  his- 
tory at  Alldorf ;  in  IG'4  he  occu;ried  the  chair  of  Ori- 
enliil  languages,  and  from  1697  that  of  eccleaiaatical 
law,  and  died  Oct.  9, 1705.    He  is  known  as  the  amhor 


WAGES  8' 

of  Tda  Igiua  Satina,  nv*  A  remrf  ft  BornbOti  Judmi- 
I'lm  iidtvrni  Olrufm  Daim  tt  CI>rittiatui<K  Rrligiimem 
/.ibri  (Alldorf,  I68l),a  work  oonuioing  the  ■nti-Chri*- 
tiiii  literatun  of  (be  Jcwi  in  ■  Latin  tnndilion  and 
refataliun.  Ha  also  tnniUleil  into  latin  tba  Talmudic 
tnatin  SataA,  noio'on  (ibid,  ie74),  with  very  valu- 
able noteai  BendeOf  he  wrolef  Dmuncuitia  Chtir/uma 
ad  Otauet  Imptt-anla  qui  Judaot  kabmt  gab  JuritdK- 
liaat  tua  (ibid.  i:D3-t ;  reprinted  in  Schudt's  Jidiidit 
DnAtcUi-diglxilcn,  ii,  S39) :  — />upu/((ria  Cinxlatit  dt 
Jadiat  (ibid.  VJHb):  —  KxtnAatinnti  Sex  Varii  ArgU' 
tonUi  (ilid.  1698).  See  FLInit,£iU.Ji(riiii,  189;  Winer, 
Ihaidbueh  der  theoL  LiL\,9il,S9:i,b2i.    (a  P.) 

Wag«B  (uHially  aome  furm  of  nao,  *abf r, "  to  bin" 
[eapeciiUy  in  [he  Uitbpiel,  Hag.  1,6,  In" earn  iraKca"], 
chiefly  '\i<^,  mMr  [Oen.  xxxi,  8 ;  EiDd.  ii,  S ;  Eiek. 
xxix,  18,  19;  elMwhere  "hire,"  "reward,"  etc.],  and 
n^iaa,  muWrrf*  [Gen.  Kxxix,  16,31,11;  "reward," 
Riith  iii  12];  aL»  niJO,  peStti*  [Lev.iix,  18;  "re- 
ward,"  Pu.  cix,  20],  vsijt  [aa  elMwhere  moally  ren- 
ilered]:  /iiaSoc  [John  iv,  36,  elsewhere  "reward"  or 
'■htre~],pny,-  j^iov  [Uke  iii,  H;  vi,13;  1  Cor.  xi, 
(t;  "ebarge*,"  I  Cur.  ix,  7],  Hrictly  ralioiu),  according 
ii>  [he  eailieat  luagea  of  roankinil,  are  a  reluni  made 
by  a  purchaser  fur  ■oniethin)^  of  value — apeciflcally  for 
work  perfomied.  Thus  labor  ii  recn)(ni«ed  a*  properly, 
and  wage!  ae  the  price  paid  or  abuined  in  exchange 
Air  Bucb  property.  In  this  relation  there  is  obviously 
iintbiiig  improper  or  humiliating  on  the  lide  either  of 
the  bnyer  ot  the  aeller.  They  have  each  a  oenain 
thing  which  the  other  wants,  and,  in  the  exchanKC 
which  tbey  in  conaequence  make,  both  parliei  are  alike 
aerred.  In  theee  few  worda  Ilea  the  theory,  ami  aba 
the  juitiAcation,  of  all  tervic*.  T 
of  life  ia  barter.  In  hire,  then,  there  ii  nothing  improp- 
er or  diacreditalilt    It  is  nily  a  hireling— tbil  it,  a  mer- 

a  human  being  baa  anylbtng  to  give  which  another 
human  b«ng  want*.  >o  long  haa  he  mmetbing  of  value 
in  the  great  market  of  life;  and  whatever  that  aome- 
thing  may  be,  provided  it  doea  not  coutribute  to  erii 
pauiona  or  evil  deeda,  he  i>  a  truly  reapecUble  capital- 
■Bl,  and  a  uaeful  member  of  the  ■acini  community.  The 
Kripiural  uaage  iii  ipt^yini;  the  term  translated  "  wage*" 
lo  aacred  aubjecta — ihua  the  Almighty  himself  says  U> 
Abraham  ((ien.  xv,  I). "  I  am  thy  exceeding  great  re- 
'"— (cnda  to  conflm    * 


employ 


j"  and  "  hireling,"  which  hav( 
offensive  meaning  by  no  nteans  orifciniily  inherent 
themaelves,  or  in  the  Hebnw  words  for  which  they 
aland(xxx.l8,a2,sa).    See  Hi  an  Li  mo. 

The  earliest  mention  of  wage*  ii  of  a  recompen 
in  mniiey,  but  in  kind,  to  Jacob  from  Ldban  (Gen. 
13,20;  xxx,!S;  xxxi,7,8,4l).  Thin  usage  wai 
natural  among  a  paaloral  and  changing  population  like 
that  of  the  tenl-dwellen  of  Syria.  Burckhaidt  men- 
linna  «  case  in  Syria  resemblitig  closely  that  of  Jacob 
with  Laban— a  man  wboser^'e<1  eight  yeara  fur  hii  food, 
on  condition  of  oblaining  his  maaiv r'a  daughter  in  mar- 
TiaRe,  and  was  afterwards  c«nipelled  bv  hia  father-in- 
law  ro  perform  acta  of  aervice  for  him  (Syn'o,  p.  297). 
In  Egypt,  money  payments  br  way  of  wages  were  in 

!)).  Among  the  Jews  wages  in  general,  whether  of  snl- 
diets  or  labi>rerB,are  mentioned  (Hag.  i,  fl;  Ezek.  xxix, 
18,19;  John  iv,BG).  The  only  mention  of  the  rate  uf 
wages  in  Scripture  is  found  in  the  parable  of  the  hiwse- 
holiler  and  vineyard  (Matt,  xx,  2),  where  the  laborer's 
wage*  are  aet  at  one  denarius  per  day,  pmbalily  =  Hfleen 
cents,  a  rate  which  agrees  with  1'obit  v,  II.  where  a 
drachma  is  mentioned  aa  the  rate  per  day,  a  aum  which 
may  b«  fairly  lalien  as  n^nivaleiit  to  the  denarius,  and 
III  the  usual  pay  of  a  solilier  (ten  nun  per  diem)  in  th« 
later  daya  of  the  Roman  republic  (Tadtits, .lim.  i,  17; 


WAGNER 

Polybioa,  vi|S9).   It  waa  perhaps  the  traditional  rasiev- 
brance  of  this  aum  aa  a  day's  wages  that  sngKCSled  the 
ion  or"dtBchmas wrung  fmm  the  hanl  hm^of 
peasaiitJi"t^>k*peare,./u/.6'iH.  iv,  B),    In  eariier  limta 
'    '    irubalilB  that  the  rate  was  lower,  as  until  lately  it 
was  IhriHigbout  Imlia.     In  Scotland  we  know  that  in 
'  lat  century  a  laborerV  dsily  wages  did  not  excevd 
aixpeiux  (Smiles,  Lita  of  Ersinem,  ii,  96).     But  it  b 
likely  that  laborers,  and  also  mldiera,  wci*  luppliedwith 
ovisiona  (Michaelis, LaaanfUoKt  [ed. Smith], {  130^ 
190),  as  is  intimated  by  the  word  j^wu,  need  ia 
ike  iii,  14,  and  1  Cur.  ix,  T,  and  also  by  PnlylMui,  n, 
89.    TheUi>ihna(Sa&i  J/cfsu,  vi,  I,6)spe■k■DrvicI- 
1leing  allowed,  or  not,  according  to  the  coMoa  of 
Che  place,  up  to  tbe  value  of  a  denarina,  L  e.  indnaTe  ot 

The  law  waa  very  attict  in  requiting  daily  payment 
of  wage*  (Lev.  xix,  18;  DcuU  xxiv,  14,16);  aiid  (be 

(fioia  MtUia,  ix,  IS).  IV  employer  who  ntfoaed  ta 
giva  his  laboren  iiilBcient  victuals  is  cenured  (Jub 
xxiv,  II),  and  the  intquitv  of  withhofaling  wages  is  ile- 
nonnced  (Jer.  xxii,  18;  HaL  iii,6;  Jamea  v,4).  See 
Sekvaitt. 

WaKEi  •'OHN  D.,  a  minialer  of  the  Hethodtat  Efas- 
copal  Church,  South,  was  bom  in  Je(fer»m,  M.  C,  July 
8, 1 896.  He  embr»»d  religion  in  early  lifi^  and  aniied 
with  the  Holston  (E.  Tenn.)  Cffliference  in  Itl&B.  U 
1866  he  was  granted  a  superannuated  relation,  and  died 
June  18, 1866.  Ur.  Wagg  ponessed  more  than  nnlina* 
ry  preaching  abiliiiea,  and  for  me^ncas  and  pietv  *ai 
worthv  of  imilatinn.  Srt  MvuHtt  of  A<mMal  Comfrr- 
aurt  a/lia  M.  K.  Ckurch,  Sflh,  1866,  p.  63. 

TRTaggODer,  SAMUEL,a  Uethoditt  Epiacopal  minis- 
ter, was  b»m  in  St.dteoCounty.N.  a.  Oct.  SI,  1788.  He 
was  converted  in  1808,  joined  the  Virginia  Cunfetenn 
in  1811,  and  was  appointed  to  Salisbury  Circuit.  lie 
was  ordained  deacon  in  ISIS,  elder  in  '18I&,  and  dini 
April  13, 1816.  Mr.  Waggoner  waa  laborious,  inirilett- 
ual,  and  faithfuL  See  UiMf  itf  Amtaat  CiM/armn, 
1817,  p.  291. 

Wagl,  FKliinRicH,  a  Kmaan  Calholic  thenlngim  i4 
Austria,  was  born  in  1807  at  Horn.  In  1831  he  <•■ 
made  a  priest;  in  1836,  dcictvr  iiT  thea)<^(y;  in  1831^ 
pTofenorofexegeHsat  (Iratx;  and  died  Sept.  tO,  18T1. 
at  riitileinadorf,  near  Vienna.  He  published,  IMr 
PivMrr  und  die  Nrutrit  (GrKii.  I86D)  -.—Drr  Rttigiiim- 
vidrrricht  an  der  VoObudHiU  (ibiiL  eod.).  See  tirr-ir. 
tKA«r//<f»fiinsn-,IS66,p.l68i  1871,p.62eL     (a  P.) 

^faguer.  Daniel,  a  German  Reformed  ministn, 
was  burn  in  the  duchy  of  Kassau  in  1760,  and  litvuglit 
to  thia  cfloiitrv  by  his  parents  when  only  two  Tears  nf 
age.  He  studied  the  ciisrics  under  Rev.'jiihn  D.  Gm*, 
of  New  York  city,  and  theology  onder  Rev.  William 
Hendel,  of  Ijincaaier,  Pa.  He  waa  licensed  by  the  Gee- 
man  C<BtiiB  in  1771;  preached  at  Krenta  Cmk,  1^ 
1771-74;  Vork  and  other  pUce^  1774-86  ;Tulpehucken, 
Heidelberg,  Bern,  Berg,  8ommerbei;g,  1786-93;  Yiitk, 
1798-1802;  and  KtHlerick,Ud.,I80i-IO,  when  he  died, 
in  IRin.  See  Harbaugh,£«M«n//'(Ktrni/«&c  Cem. 
ftf/a«rc*,ii,SS9*q. 

Wagner,  Friediloh,  a  Protettant  minister  of 
Germany,  waa  bom  Jan.  21.  l<>93,  at  CaiD,  nn(  far  frea 
Magdeburg.  He  studied  theology  and  phiksofihy  ■( 
Halle  from  1712  to  I71&  In  Ihe  latter  year  he  jras  ap- 
pointed  teacher  there,  and  entertained  the  hnpeofbriBg 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  East  India;  but  in  1719  he  was 
called  to  Berlin,  where  he  remained  two  i-ean,  when  be 
went  to  Nsuen  as  pastor  primariu*.  A  few  year*  latM 
he  went  to  Surgard  as  pinveal  and  pastor  of  St  Mary's, 
at  tlie  same  time  occupying  the  chair  nf  theology  and 
Hebrew  literature  at  Ihe  gjmnagium  there.  In  tha 
year  I7SR  he  was  called  lo  Hamburg,  whera  Tw  dieil, 
July  fi,  lifiO.  having  irceiveil  two  rears  pniiniialy  tbe 
d^ree  of  doctor  oTdiTiniiy  frum  the  Jeaa  Univeniijr. 


WAGNER 

H'MirTitiag*M«glTai  in  Daring,  Die  pddknat  Tkeaia^ 
gr»  DeaHeUamb,  ir,  612  aq.     (a  P.) 

'Wasner,  Bemr,  ■  Qermin  Rdbnncd  miniMcr, 
wu   bora  in    B«ki  Conntr,  Pi^  April  S,  IBOl.     Ue 
united  with  the  Church  *t  Aaronaburg,  Pa^  when  ibout 
nineteen  yuraof  age;  cnlered  the  Theulogical  S«iainrTy 
at  Carliile,  Pa.,  in  the  apring  or  1816,  ind  rvmained 
about   tbrM  yeira ;  txgux  preaching  in  the  Paradise 
charfie  in  1828,  anil  wiB  ordained  by  the  aynod  in  th 
■nluinn  of  the  aaine  year;  labored  extenaively  in  thi 
charge  fur  aeveral  yean,  preaching  lo  eight  nr  R»r 
congregalioiia ;  became  paator  of  tbe  Lebannn  charge, 
corapiiaed  or  Lebanon,  Hill  Church,  JoneiUiirn,  Anii- 
ville,and  CampbellMown,  in  18S6;  aocepled  a  call  Trom 
HcCunnellaburg  charge,  Fulttin  Cnunt?,  Pa.,  in   T' 
preacbed  at  Meroenburg  from  IHfiS  to  1836 ;  begai 
paaCorala  at  Orwigabur);,  Schuylkill  Co.,  in  the  apriiiK 
oT  1866;  resigned  hia  paalnral  charge,  and  relinquiahed 
tbe  active  duties  of  the  ministry  in  1865;  and  died 
LetwDon,  Pl,  May  S5, 1HC9.     "As  a  theologian  and 
a  preacher  he  stood  high  among  hii  brethren,     li 
aennona  were  always  well  prepared,  and  replete  wi 
■Dunil  ducuine  and  evangelical  truth.     As  a  pastor 
waa  faithful  and  active :  as  a  catechise  he  was  ihonnigh 
and  earnest;  as  a  father  in  the  ministry  he  poaweaed 
the  albctioni  and  regard  uf  alL    His  labors  in  building 
up  the  Church  were  arduous  and  successTuL     lliii  min- 
istry has  left  a  sweet  aavoi,  and  will  lon«  be  hekl  in 
grateful  remembrance''     See  Harbaugh,  Fulhai  "/lAt 
Orrm.  R^.  CAnrc*,  ir,  244  aq. 

'WAgner,  Johum  Jakob,  a  (ierman  philnsnpher, 
waa  bum  at  Clm  in  1776,  and  became  prufeasor  at  Wlln- 
barit.  He  died  NoT.iS,  1841.  Hia  principal  worka  are, 
PkOoKipkit  OiT  KnitiimffMJOBUt  (IfHk) -.—  Voa  do-  Kii- 
lur  dtr  lAoge  (1803):_5y«eiii  licr  Idtatphihtopkii 
(I8M)  •.—GntitdriMt  drr  StiialivruiatKhn/i  and  Polilti 
(i9Ub):—lhliffirm,  Wiumdiqfl,  Kmtl  a.  Stoat  in  Htm 
gvfautiligai  VahSilmfn  ( UipSL  IS19  )-^TItrodiat 
(Uamberg  and  WUnbun;,  1809):-/rira>  lu  eittr  uli^ 
mriaem  AisHni.  der  aUi»  WtU  (Frankf.  1808) :— JfnrA. 
PMloHtpkit  (1811):— Oi^inon  dtr  mnuchlKhm  Kr- 
kaaUmu  (1880):— and  Nadigttaime  Sckriflfa  (18.^). 
Sec  Babus,  /.  J.  Wagmr-i  Ubat,  Ijdm,  umi  BtdmliBV, 
etc  (  Nuiemburg,  18Ca  ) ;  Adam  and  K^lk,  J.  J.  fVag- 
ner-i  LtbamadirklUn  and  Brirfe  (1848). 

^Vsguei,  Joaaph.  a  Swisa  engraver,  waa  born  at 
Thalendorf,  on  Lake  Consunoe,  in  1706.  He  flrsl  atud 
ied  painting,  at  Venice,  imder  Jacopo  Amiconi,  who  ad 
vised  him  to  dernle  himself  to  engraving.  He  then 
went  lo  Paris,  where  be  studied  under  Lawrence  Cars. 
He  also  visitoi  London  in  1733,  where  he  resided 
time,  and  engraved  aeveral  plates.  He  aderwanls  re- 
Inmal  to  Venice,  where  be  eatabliabed  himself  as  an 
engraver,  and  carried  on  a  trade  in  prinla.  He  died  al 
Venice  in  1780.  Among  his  best  works  are  tbe  rullow. 
ing:  Tilt  Education  of  tie  Kii^  after  Amiunnii-rAr 
Infant  Ch-iH  Slrrping,  after  the  same  -.—Tie  Holy  Fam- 
ily, after  Paul  Veronese :— r**  Inltnrim  brtann  ./ami 
and  KiicM,  after  L.  Qiordano ;— Arfwra  Recriivig  the 
Prtttrit  from  Eltiuar,  after  the  name :— rAc  /JeuM  nf 
Ahd,  afker  Benedetto  Loll:— Jfcuy  Maffdulm  in  Ike 
/foue o/r*e/^(rwre,arter  the  same:— TAs  Viryinaiid 
Infant  Clriit,  after  9ulinwna:—rie  AHumption  of  ike 
Viryiii,  afW  Piaxxetta:— and  81.  John  in  ihe  Itetert, 
after  a  Vanloo.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  /liA  of  Uu  Fine 
ArlM,t.T. 

WttSttcr,TobiMa,anntedaennan  tfaeolngnin.wBs 
bom  at  Heidenheim,  in  Wnrtemberg,  Feb.  21,  liiWi. 
He  puraued  hia  sUidiea  at  the  convent  nf  Maulbrunn, 
and  afterwards  at  the  Univernty  of  Tubingen,  taking 
Ihe  degree  nf  master  nf  arts  in  1618.  He  waa  made 
dtaooa  in  I8M,  and  eight  years  later  pastor  at  Essling- 
en.  Hia  prafauml  learning  caused  him  to  be  invited 
lo  Tubingen,  in  charge  «f  the  magistracy;  and  in  IGo3 
he  woB  made  profeoaor  of  iheokwv,  in  1656  vicc-chan- 
eillor,  and  chancellor  in  l«6i.    He  died  Aug.  II,  1680, 


WAGON 

leaving  a  large  number  of  Iheolt^tleal  worka,  Impottant 
in  their  day, fur  which  see  Bing,  Uiiitfntllt,t.y. 

WagnltK,  HKntHtcH  Baltrabas,  a  PnMeotant  the- 
oli^ian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  Sept.  8, 17&6.  In  1777 
he  was  appointed  fourth  preacher  at  St.  Mary's,  in  Halle; 
in  1786  he  was  made  deacon  there;  and  in  1809,  prv- 
feianr  of  theology  and  auperinlendent  and  pastor.  He 
died  Feb.  38, 1838.  He  wrote,  Jfnuir<Ailim  dea  Frtdi- 
grrn  da  19.  Jairlmadent  gtmdmH  (Halle,  1803-6,  S 
xo\t.'):~~liomitlitdie  Ablumdlungm  Had  KrilHtm  (MA. 
1783-86,  3  villa.)  -.—I.tlurnitdiei  Journal  (ibid.  ISOl-fl, 
1812, 8  vols,)  ■.—HelipioiuMi.tH  in  Briipitkn  (ibid.  1799, 
1800,  and  often,  3  vols.)  -.-Uebrr  die  PhAumena  cor  drr 
Zerldrlmg  Jenitalemt  (ibid.  178D).  See  FUist,  BibL 
Jud.  iii,  *90:  Z.«bold,  BOL  TkeoL  ii,  HID;  Winer, 
Hat^bvck  drr  IhroL  Lit.  i,  6;  ii,  36,  S6,  ST,  68,  68, 161, 
283,  363,  389,  398.     (R  P.) 

WagnoS  in  Horse  mythology,  was  the  god  nf  war 
among  Ihe  Dane*,  who  often  waa  mistaken  for  Fm  or 
Olin,  and  was  represented  as  similar  to  tbeae,  anned 
with  helmet,  shield,  atwl  sword. 

'Wagon(nV;;;.a^a£U[GeD.zlv,I0,!l,37t  xlvi, 
6;  Numb,  vii,  a' 6,7,8;  elsewhere  "carl''],  from  VjS, 
ro  rotf;  or  33^,  <iheb  {  Eiek.  xxiii,  24;  elsewhere 
"  chariot"],  from  331.  (o  riifr).  Among  tbe  Isiaelitea 
in  Palestine,  we  And  in  use  from  the  time  of  Ihe  Judges 
transport-wognni  (1  3am.  vi,  7  sq.;  3  Sam.  vi,  S;  Amm 
ii,  13),  as  well  as  vehicles  forperson^  especially  priitcely 
carriages  ( 1  Sam.  viii,  11 ;  3  Sam.  xv,  1 ;  eonp.  Isa, 
xxii,  18).  for  Journeys  (1  Kings  lii,  18;  iiii,  86;  3 
King*  is,  37).  The  former,  or  «rf>,  were  called  T^^l^ 
(used  fiv  family  transportation  in  tbe  case  of  masses. 
Gen.  xlv,  19,  like  tbe  Greek  ufioCa  and  the  Latin 
pfawrunt),  while  thiise  wilh  seats  (i  King*  X,  16)  were 
designated  as  n'lSX'^'S,  ckariott;  and  both  erenlually 
33^  simply.  The  S^  niVaS  of  Numb,  vii,  8  were 
probably  (so  Onkeloa,  Aquila,  the  Vulg.,  etc),  as  in  the 
A.  v.,  "  covered  wagon^''  in  which  the  aacred  utensils 
were  carried  (Sept.  ufiafai  \auinfvu:al,ctkiciilalettai 
see  Schleusner,  TheiauT.  Phiiol  iii,  482).  See  Lrrrea. 
A  travelling  carriage  is  also  mentioned  in  the  New  Test, 
(  £fwU  Acts  viii,  38  sq. ).     All  these  vebidea,  whose 

HtshuaicArli«,i[ir,4],which  menlions  three  kinds  of 
wagon  [iUd.  xiiv,  3J} — except  that  the  wbeds  gener- 
ally were  called  D'^s'^X  or  O-iAf,  the  hubs  D->nqsn, 
the  felloes  a^a|  or  rial,  and  the  axia  ^,  while  the 
gearing-np  of  the  homes  was  denoted  by  iptf  (/o  imd), 
once  (Hie  i,  18)  by  Cr^  (of  the  like  aigniHcatiun)-ai>d 
which  were  sometimes  drawn  by  oxen  (1  Sam.vi,  7;  3 
Sam.  vi,  6  ),  especially  those  fur  transport,  and  some- 
times by  hones  (aa  equipage)  or  perhapa  anees,  appear 
nevertheless  to  have  been  customarily  employed  nut » 


nthem 


ts  (whi. 


through  lack  of  carriage  mails)  as  in  the  anutheni  and 
laririme  regions;  whrreas  in  modem  times  the  iiibabi- 
ints  are  in  the  habit  of  riding  (on  the  backs  of  horses, 
iHikeyo,  or  mules),  leading  burdens  lo  be  home  by 
imels;  and  carriages  (with  Ihe  exception  of  a  few  fur- 
Ign  cnaches)  are  rarely  seen  in  the  RasI  (Kone,  Anara, 
p.  434),  even  in  Egvpt  (Havr,  ScliirktuU,  ii,  40),  where 
'  ',  .  numemuB  (Herod,  ii,  108). 
The  Caiiaanitea  had  war-chariots  before  the  arrival  of 
(Josh.zL4;  xvii,  16;  Jndg.  iv,  3),  like 
the  Philistines  (i.  19;  I  Ham.  xiii,  6;  comp.  Jer.  xlvii, 
S)  and  Uler  the  Syrians  (2  Hem.  x,  18;  1  Kings  xx,  1 ; 
31;  3  King*  vi,  14  sq.);  and  Ihe  immense  nnm* 
•fthne(90ainJudg.iv,3;  [000  in  1  Chrun.  ;;viii, 
4;  SO.OOO  in  I  Sam.  xiii,  6;  comp,  the  1300  F.g}'ptlan 
chariots  in  3  Chmn.  xil,  8)  are  confirmed  by  other  an- 
ent  BccnunU  (Xeni>ph.  .t  mib,  I,  7, 1 1 ;  Diod.  Sic  i,  64 ; 
imp.  3  Mace  xiii,  3).  This  gave  tbe  natives  a  great 
Ivaotaga  at  flnt  (Josh,  xvii,  16;  but  coiDp.TcgCL 


AndcDt  Aiajrlmi 


jnujik  Id  i 


,    (Fr.™ 


i>-tg|IEr  ut  Kd 


J/iU.iii,34),wbieh  David  at  once  effectually  overcioM 
inapitchtdUiLle  (2  Sim.  viii,4)i  anit  Sulomun  eat 
luhtdcBTa]r;BUtiunB(23^n  i'^7,l  King«ix,19j 
26 ;  comp.  t,  6 )  ai  ■  defence  ( Kwald,  Itr.  Cttck.  ill, 
Ti  >q.}.  Theie  fureigii  war  veliiclea  are 
called  charioU  of  irm  (bt13  3:"^,  Joah.  xvii,  IG, 
Judg.  i,  19;  IT,  S),  m«ai>iiig  either  coiutrocted  whullj' 
out  <it  or  (imply  umiglbened  by  iron 
bap*  f(;(jl«-aniiai  ("cumia  folcali,"  Cartiiw,  iv,  1!,  6; 
iiv,3,4;  comp.  iv,9,5;  Uvj-.ijtiti-ii.ll;  Vegel.  Mitit. 
iiL  24 :  SpfiaTa  ipmavti^ipa,  Xennph.  A  nut.  i,  7,  10 ; 
Diod.  Sic  nrii,  I>8;  Apioan,  Syr.  sxxii;  Ke  Suhlcke- 
danz,  D»  Carrilmt  fiilcalii  [Serv.  1754];  cnmp.  the 
a=nn  ^■^•b^  of  Nah.  ii,  4}.  See  Jahn,  A  rckaJ.  H,  ii, 
4a»'aq.;  Lydiiu,  De  Re  MHO.  (ed.Vait  Til,  Dordr.  i6U8), 
p.  131  nq.;  WichraaniuhaKxeii,  [h  Curritat Brili (yHtb. 
I'.H);  ScheOer,  St  St,  friicalan  (FranouC  1071  ); 
FabricT,  Ktclttrtha  tvr  lEpoqut  it  tEquUatim  (  Par, 
lT64);'(Jliiirot,Me  Wagtn  da-  Gr.md  l&m.  (Muiiieli, 
1813).     SeeCHAKitTT. 

With  snma  email  exceptinnr,  it  may  bi  aaid  that 
wheel  carriage*  are  tiol  m>w  employed  in  Africa  or 
Wcaleni  Aaia;  but  that  they  were  anciently  ui«l  in 
Egypt,  and  in  what  is  nux  Asiatic  Turkey,  ii  attested 
not  only  by  hiBlory,  but  by  enistiiift  KulplureB  am 
paintings.    It  would  aeem  that  they  were  nut  in  «rli 


.  WAGSTAFFE 

uaed  Id  PaleMine,  at,  when  Jacob  ««  itiCB,  la 
know  they  miut  have  anoe  Imm  ILfcsyt,  P(rlii|» 
howerer,  he  knew  Ihit  by  tl   '    . 

rioK  the  materiala  of  ike  tab- 
ernacle were  probably  omutructed  on  LKyptian  aoilck 
They  were  each  drawn  by  two  oxen  (NuDtivii,l.ik 
HeroduttiB  mentiuni  a  four-wheeled  Egi'ptiin  n^ick 
(u/ioCa)  usedluraaered  purpoaei  (Henid.ii,6S),  Twi- 
'heeled  wagoaa,  or  rather  carta,  are  frequently  nin- 
aenled  on  the  Aaayriaii  aciilpturea,  espnuUy  in  lb 
g  of  (female  and  infantile)  p  ' 
ikeii  city  (Layard,  A'nav*,  ii.  »1).  Tk 
only  wheel  carria^ei  in  Wnlem  Ana  with  wlu^  vf 
are  acquainted  are,  first,  a  very  rude  cart,  OMalli  irm 
,  and  erapliiycil  in  eonveyinti  a{ 
Lrmenia  and  Georgia ;  ai  ^  ' 
ed  an  arubak,  uaed  at  Conalantinople  wtd  aoaie  mIih 
town*  towards  the  Ueriiterranein.  It  ia  a  lijtU  w 
ered  cart  without  aprinKa;  and,  beiNR  esdudi-el]'  ■« 
by  women,  chihiren,  and  aged  or  aick  penfina,  vmli 
seem,  botb  in  ita  uw,  and,  aa  nearlv  aa  we  can  dtsprtr 
in  ite  make,  to  be  iiu  bad  repreeentilire  of  tbc  '■>e<*>' 

in  a  journey.  The  Oriental  wagon,  or  arabak,  ii  a  n- 
hide  compuaed  uf  iwo  nr  three  planka  fixed  oo  n^ 
four)  aolid  circular  Idocki  uf  wood,  Imiim 
feet  in  diameler,  which  Hn-euwheck  T>lh 
■liai-hni  wing*,  which  iplaT  tat 


paaaengen,  maltre 

(Animle]l,^naiVmir,ii,  I9[.-J3S,SS8i  Oleaiiu 
p.  809  i  Ket  Potter,  Trac.  ii,  633).     See  Caiit. 

Wagstafle,  John,  an  English  ■nthor  of  the  I'lh 
century,  wu  eiliicaied  in  Oriel  Odkf?'.  Oxford,  ■km 
he  remained,  and  died  in  107'.  He  ptiblinhnl.  Ilii^t*- 
ciit  SfHtetiau  tm  Me  BvUnp  of  Romr  (  lG«l):-a«i 
Q^rMvmt  ofWilchcrnfi  Mxtftd  (1S71).  See  «im- 
Wood,  A  thai.  Oxm.  iii,  1113. 

Wsgataffe,  Tbomaa.  a  learned  NonjurirpftiirK. 
wa>  bom  in  Warwickahire,  England,  Feb.  IS,  IMi  Ht 
waa  educated  at  the  Chtnerhmue  Schnil  undrr  U'. 
Wood :  lonk  the  Arrmr  of  bachelor  of  iris  in  1G64.  ai^i 
IhatofmaaieiinieOT;  waaordained  deamn  J<ineG.1«C. 
I  and  prieet  Not.  19,  same  year;  rector  of  ManinailK*!-, 
'  iinly  of  Rutland,  from  1069  tn  1676:  aamtii 

ihe  oounly  of  Bucks,  frooi  1676  to  16M ;  ckK- 


,i,:cc  ..Google 


WAIIABEES  84 

«UoT  of  th«  calhednl  ch>iRh,Licb6eU,  In  ISSt;  audi 
nclor  f>f  Si.  Uargvet  I^twm,  Laadim,  In  tha  mdm 
jMT.     Deprived  of  hii  pichrnwDU  >l  (ha  fiemli 
fnr  not  ukjng  tha  naw  oatha,  ha  pnctiead  phy*» 
mt-chI  Tcara  in  Loodaa  with  good  mcogm.    In 
he    was  o'lnacralcd   biahop,  and  afWrwanla  Iki 
MilTrBKaD  nf  Ipiwich.     Ha  ilicd  OcM7,  1713.      b«i>le> 
hill  Srmmu,  he  publisbod  aeveral  iracli  in  dcr«iica  oT 
Cliarln.  I. 

^ahabeea,  a  nmUrn  Hohamniedan  arcC  fniind- 
ci)  by  aheik  Hohammttl,  Ihe  wn  of  Abd-el- Wah&b, 
Tur  whom  Iher  ven  named.      The^  pnach  nn 
dnccrine,  but  hare  fur  their  dinliiietive  principle  a 
aire  to  nboiish  (he  iih-latmua  practicea  which  have 
DFC[«I  themielvn  wllh  (he  religinn  at  [■lim.     1'hev 
reject  the  worship  ot  Hohammed  aa  groaa  idulatrr,  and 
adhere  slrictly  to  the  Koran;  otherwise  tbey  Dbeerre 
■II  the  ritea  ami  ceremoniea  nf  the  MohaTmnnlans— Chi 
number  ur  the  prayera.  the  ^nuflectiona,  the  fast  of  Ihi 
Kamadan  (q.v.),  ami   abstinence  from  wine  and  al 
apiriiuDua  lii[iu>rH.     Abd-el-Wahfth,  during  hia  whnU 
life,  aotiRht  to  gain  converta  by  peaceable  meana,  biil 
hia  aucceamra  fulhiwed  the  example  of  Mohammed  in 
diaseminalins  their  prindpln  by   * 
cal  intereaM  were  united  with  religiom  refurm.    They 
nriKinated  in  the  amall  tribe  of  Nedihi,  in  Yemen ;  '   ~ 
their  fiiuniler  nndenook  an  expedition  into  Syria  and 
rr^om  bonlering  nn  the  Kup  bra  tea,  and  having  collected 
a  number  of  tribea  fTDm  the  Artbii 


im,  under  the  control  of  F.ben  S( 
emor,  and  himaeir  as  their  imam. 


ofthelaaicenturr;  b 
the  Wahabees  by  tb< 
they  were  attacked  b 


ler  the  middle 
taken  againM 
Piirte  until  the  rear  1798,  when 
the  paiiha  of  Rafcdad,  but  wich- 
■    ■  ?m  to  leave  the  deaert ; 


and  in  IMI-3  they  met  with  (i^al  anccen, 
hoTfiv  from  the  neiffhboring  llobanimedans,  aixl  capt- 
nrrd  Mecca  iuelf,  where  they  esiabliahcd  Ihrir  powei 
in  lieu  nftbat  of  (he  grand  aultan,  in  virtue  of  which 
he  had  hiiheno  been  rricanied  aa  (he  head  and  pro- 
tector of  the  faithful  The  residence  of  Send  was  now 
8xed  at  Dreich,  nhere  ha  had  a  palace, 
the  pomp  and  splendni  of  an  E^ilem  piince.  In  lt>03-t 
he  made  unaucoeaar<d  attacks  on  Bagdad  and  I 
but  toidt  Httlina  in  1804,  and  in  1S05  Jidda,  w 
fiirmarly  baffled  all  his  attempts  to  snbilue 
I'orte  waa  now  obHgeU  to  pay  a  heavy  (ributi 
miaaiun  to  tend  an  eaonit  ftnm  DamascHs  with  the 
eanvans  of  pilgiima  that  annually  pnicee<led  to  Mecca; 
and  these  caravans  were  no  longer  allowed  ro  have 
weapona,  flaKH,  or  music,  or  lo  enter  (he  holy  diy  on 
carpeta,  as  fonneHy.  In  1807  the  Wahaliccs  stood  in 
the  lenitb  of  their  power,  since  which  (imc  (hey  have 
been  n'pcateilly  repulaol,  especially  in  1SJ8,  when  their 
abeik  AbilalUdi,  the  gTMt-grandaon  oF  SaOd,  (be  friend 
and  pmireior  ••(  Ah.l-el-Waha^  was  compelled  (o  sur- 
render to  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  ann  of  Mehemet  Ali,  and 
o  Constantinopli 


n  Centi 


.r«bi..w 


the  dnminions  of  (he  sulisn  of  the  Wahsbees  embrace 
not  only  Nedjed  proper,  but  lbs  adjacent  provinces,  and 
include  SIS  towns  or  villages,  with  a  pnpulaiion  (in 
1S(»)  of  1,219,000.  They  are  a  great  annoyance  (o  the 
Turkish  government,  and  a  terror  to  the  pilgrims  who 
proceed  from  all  pans  of  (he  East  to  visit  the  tomb  of 
the  prophet.  See  Palgrave,  Cnlnil  and  EaUfn  A  mlnn 
(Loiid.  1  Wia) :  llulairr  ifrt  Wtiknbiltl  drpuUlrur  Oiiginr 
jugiih  tAn  1809  (Paris,  1310);  Burekhardt,  A'afrs  on 
rk  BfdoHvit  nnd  Waiatyt  (Lond.  18B0).     See  Uo- 

Wahl,  ChilBtlaD  Abrabain,  a  Protestant  (heo- 
l^Eian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  at  Dresilen,  Nov.  1,  1773. 
In  IH08  he  waa  called  as  pastor  to  Schneeberg.  He  wai 
appwBUd  in  1828  •aperin(*ndcnt  at  OH:ha(z;  in  1(185, 


9  WAIL 

member  of  consistory  in  bis  luttve  place;  aiwl  died 
Nnv.30,  )Si&,a(Keiachenbruda.  Uewrole,//u'arua(e 
EiiJriliag  u  die  timmllichat  BScktr  ikr  Bihrl  (Leips. 

lSOi):—l/ulonKh-pniiliKJit  Eialritung  a,  die  bibL 
Sdtrjfttn  (ibid.  1820) :-  Qaafi'ma  Thfolugtco-dogBiati- 
ea  Cmdid/iHi  TktoL  it  SiibfrelKrii  Propraila  (ibjd. 
1806) :— fli«,  llaadaintrba^  (ibid.  1826)  >-Com™™»Q- 
lio  de  Purlieula  li  rt  Prapot.  ii'c  opud  .V.  T.  Scriplorti 
Un  tt  Pvlalulii  (ibid.  1827)  x—Clavii  Novi  Ttlamnli 
PkUohriica  (ibid.  1822 ;  Sil  ed.  1S48),  which  is  the  baua 
of  Dr,  E.  Rubiiison's  Gttdt  l^txitm  o/like  N.  T^  (he  best 
mt.nt-.—CliiiiiiLibroramVtl.Tril.ApiKr^iionimi'lii- 
Ji%.  (ibid.  1803).  See  Kunt.  AiK  Jiirf.  iii,490;  Zucb- 
ohl,  BibL  TkroL  ii,  UlOsq.;  id.  TliroL  Univmat-ljaibm, 
S.V.!  VliMt,H>MBMckdtrAtoLLiL\,li»;  ii,30t,S04 
(a  P.) 

W*ti],  Samtiel  Fiiedrlcli  OOutlier,  a  Pmtea- 
Unt  linguist  orGermaiiy,waa  bum  Feb. 2, 1760,atAljKh, 
near  Eriurt.  In  1764  he  was  appointed  rector  at  Dllcke- 
burg ;  ill  1783,  pr'>resBor  of  Oriental  LanguBgrs  at  Hallei 
and  died  June  '29, 1S34.  He  publiehol,  A  Ugtmrine  Gt- 
tchiriie  drr  nrvn/u/ucArn  Spracim  a,  Lileratur  (Leipa. 
l1M):—0birrratiimn  Ph^o/j.-critiea  lapfr  Ftallfra 
OAi'-io  IBS  (ibid.  ilStj-.—Mngtain  Jir  iiUt.  baomim 
mmttidaitdi^hr  and  biU.  LUaitmr  (CmaA,  1787-90)  i— 
OrimtitliKhe  Bibtinlhrk  (Lemgo,  1788-92,3  vols.)'.— 
ElenteittiiHHichJurdiearab,3prtidiev,LiJrftitMr{\it\\tf 
nSS) -.-^Bfilrvg  iBF  GfieiicUt  h.  Slatiitii  dtr  Araber 
(ibid.  1789): — Utbmrnmig,  Evdriltnig  u.  Anmrrk,  at 
llab-ikak (,»mav.  \l»S):—ATnbiKlai  A^lkologie <}je\Vi. 
\-^\):  —  Alla  vrtdtna  Vordtratin  (ibi,i.  1795):— 
UrterKlt*^  drt  Korimt  (Halle,  1828,  and  often).  See 
Funt,  BibL  Jad.  iii,  490;  Winer,  Haadbmck  dtr  IknL 
LU.  i,  Sin,  229,  277,  (27;  id.  Thml.  Cmtatal-LaUKm, 
a.v.    (B.P.) 

^7atalera,  F,  H„  a  German  Reformed  minister,  waa 
bom  at  PHbr,  kingdom  of  Hanover,  SepL  10, 1344;  emi- 
grated to  America;  was  litiensed  by  the  Imiiana  Clamis 
at  Laravetce  in  the  spring  of  1887 ;  began  preaching  at 
Crothersville,  Ind.,  where  he  died,  March  18, 18S8,  frrm 
sufliication,  having  fallen  in  an  epileptic  fli  with  hia  face 
in  the  water.  See  Halbaugh,  FalAen  o/lht  Grrm,  Re/. 
Cia'-rit,  iv,  U)2. 

'Wllbuar,  AimRSAB  (iEORn,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gUn  of  Germany,  waa  bom  Feb.  24, 1093,  at  Rhida.  He 
studied  at  llelnutiidt,  enpecially  Orienul  languages, 
from  1710  to  1716;  and,  as  the  result  of  his  studies,  he 
publiahed  during  that  time  three  dissertations:  DtMart 
Aijiiidlile:—I)e  Rrgionr  Ophir:—uvl  Dt  FhIo  Enarni' 
onim.  In  1718  he  waa  called,  aa  professor  of  the  Uym- 
nasium.  to  Got(ingen.  When,  in  1738,  (ha(  in>(i(n'tion 
was  changed  into  a  university,  he  waa  permitted  to  led- 
here,  anil  in  I7&&  he  published  hia  t/ebt'ear  Gram- 
which  is  the  more  remarkable  because  being  (he 
drst  bonk  which  waa  published  by  that  univenily.  In 
.mecity  he  studied  (he  Talmuiland  the  Rabbinical 
igs,  bis  instructor  being  a  learned  Jew  by  the  name 
of  GiniburgiT.  In  1738  he  waa  advanced  to  be  onlinary 
profesanr  of  Orienlal  langusgea.  He  died  Feb.  21, 1762. 
ipurtnnt  work,  which  be  published  in  two  vol- 
A  Bliguilata  Ebraonim  dt  Itraliiiat  Gnlii 
Qriginr,  Faeii;  Rrbiii  Saaii,  etc  (GSt(,  1743),  a  very 
learned  and  instructive  work,  which  may  still  be  used 
i(h  great  advantage  by  the  student.  For  hia  other 
writings,  see  FUrst,  B^  Jud.  iii,  483  t(\. ;  Diiring,  Die 
gttthrltB  Titotosm  DraUcktandi,  iv,  G09  sq.     (Ft.  1'.) 

'WBldabaratita(ar  V«lcUbaT>[>U)'>|i  HindO 

mylhutogy,  is  the  palace  of  Indra,  god  of  the  aun,  in  India. 
Wftil  (SOI 


.  observi 


13  or  1(9,  £^oXo:<d.     It  ia 


ic  form 


ofgi 


IsngnsRes  to  express  the  st 
tBs!:V.u/u/<ir>,Aoic',yftf,eic;  all  consirtingesseu- 
y  of  the  I  sound).    The  Oriental  forms  of  lamenta- 
■re  much  mure  expreaaive  and  vebemeut  than  with 
US.    Sec  MomtstMa 


WAINRIGHT  8E 

^alailght,  David,  ui  English  Conftngiiionid 
minigl«r,wu  bam  It  Lwd^  Jin.  38,1880.  He  wm  ed- 
ucated ■(  Airedale  College,  ind  becime  the  minlnler  ot 
(h«  Wnlejui  Free  Chuich,  Gmt  Htirtm.  He  wu 
(wdiined,  April  6,  I860,  putor  of  the  ConKTCgRtional 
Church  u  Chorlej,  Lincubire,  uid  died  Sept.  28,  IS6S. 
Mr.  Wainright  ou  ■  trutb-wckn-,  ud  U>  Hnd  and  com- 
muiiicaie  what  he  tielieved  to  be  With  seemed  to  be  the 
jOT  or  hii  miDtacratioa.  See  (Loud.)  dnjr.  Ycar-boot, 
1861,  p.  371. 

Walurisbt,  VTllIiun,  an  Gngliah  Ongregatinnal 
miniiler,  waa  bum  in  Londun,  September,  1806.  He  waa 
educated  at  Chriat'a  lloafnl^  and  while  there  became 
deeply  inipreawd  with  religious  thingt.  He  early  en- 
ga(|ed  in  Sabbalh-schnol  work  and  lay  preaching,  and 
in  1819  waa  ordained  at  Tarrant,  Hampahire,  Mr. 
Wainrigbt  labored  tueceanTely  at  Wheathampatead  and 
Oinlicoie,  and  waa  recogniaed  by  the  Chunh  tt  an 
earnest  and  lealoui  advocate  o{  the  religion  of  Jeaua 
Chriau  He  died  Hay  B,  I8C6.  See  (Lond.)  Cixv- 1'«"^ 
booi,  1866,  p.  286. 

'WaliiHOt.  Tliia  term  originally  aeema  to  hare 
implied  rough  planlu  of  oak  timber,  and  auboeqitently 
to  hare  been  pveu  to  wooden  panelling,  (o  which  they 
were  converted  bt  lining  the  inner  walla  of  hooaea 
and  churchea.  It  waa  very  eJtieuwvely  employed  dur- 
ikt;  the  reigne  or  Qiieen  Eliiabeth  and  Jamea  I,  and  fi>r 
a  long  period  afkerwarda.  The  name  haa  lonft  ceaoed 
to  be  confined  to  oat  panelling.     It  ia  alao  called  (hJ- 

WalniTTlglit,  JoKATHAH  Mathew,  D.D.,  a  bbh- 
flpoflhe  Prauatant  Kpitcnpal  Church,  waa  bom  in  Ljv- 
erpnol,  England,  Feb.  S4, 1T92.  Hia  parenu  were  on  ■ 
visit  (0  England  when  be  was  bom,  and  they  remain- 
ed there  until  he  waa  eleven  yean  i>ld.  During  thin 
period  he  apent  several  yaam  at  a  school  at  Biithin,  in 
Niirth  Wales.  When  hia  parent!  returned  to  Ihe  United 
Stales,  he  waa  placed  in  Sandwich  Academy,  Maei^  and 
ill  due  limeentered  HarvanlCuUe^.  from  which  he  grad- 
uated in  1813.  For  some  time  Bfrfr  his  graduation  he 
waa  proctor  and  teacher  i>r rhetoric  there,  and  meanwhile 
bad  resolved  to  enter  upon  Ihe  ministry.  In  1SI6  he 
became  a  il*aoon,and  not  longaner  asaiimcil  charge  or 
Christ  Church,  Hartrord.  Conn.,  where  he  was  wtmitteil 
ti>  priest's  orders;  May  V9, 1819,  he  was  made  rector  of 
the  parish;  Nor.  35  he  waa  called  to  be  an  aaaintant 
minister  of  Trinity  Chureb,  New  Y.-rk  city,  where  he 
rimtiiiued  lo  serve  until  he  was  elected  rector  of  Grace 
Churcli,  in  Ihe  same  city,  early  in  I8JI.  With  this 
Church  he  spmt  thirteen  yean  of  his  ministry.  In 
ISU  he  accepted  the  rectorship  uf  Trinity  Church,  Bos- 
Ion,  but  remained  oiilv  three  veara,  when  he  retameil 
lo  New  York  as  asaulant  minister  of  Trinity  Chureb. 
the  congregation  of  St.  John's  Chapel  becotning  his 
more  immediate  charge,  and  in  this  relation  he  contin- 
ued until  the  close  of  his  life.  He  became  involved  in 
a  couiroveniy  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Potts,  of  New  York,  ii> 
1844,  which  grew  out  of  an  assertion  which  lie  hod 
made,  that  "  there  is  no  Church  without  a  liishnp."  It 
was  cnnducteil  in  the  form  of  letters  in  the  A'ru  Ynrt 
Commtrciai  AJvnlurr,  tlv\  was  afterwards  published 
in  pamphlet  form.  His  health  having  become  impair- 
ed, he  Uavelled  eictensively  in  Europe  and  the  East  in 
1848-49  (or  recreation  i  and  afkei  his  return  he  pub- 
lished two  larjre  volum»  on  Egypt  end  the  Holy  Land. 
June  l^  185!.  he  was  a  representative  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  America  at  the  celebration  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  at  the  dose  of  the  third  jubilee  year  of  the  Soci- 
ety fiT  the  PnqiBgation  oftbe  (ioapel  in  Foreign  Pans. 
On  this  occasion  Oitford  bestowed  upon  him  the  degree 
of  D.CL.  OcC  1, 1852,  he  was  chosen  provisional  bishop 
of  the  diocese  of  New  York,  and  was  consecrated  Nor. 
9  f.illowing.  Among  the  various  offices  which  he  hail 
previously  Hlled,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  he  was  a 
deputy  from  the  diocese  of  Mew  Y'ork  to  the  General 
Couveution  of  I83;ij  waa  a  nwmbcr  of  the  Diocesan 


0  WAIT,  LYING  IN 

Standing  CominittM  frtMU  18S9  to  18S3;  waa  iFfdMCd 
on  that  committee  in  1844,  and  was  coniinited  there  by 
four  sucoesnve  conventions;  from  1828  to  1884  waa 
BecreiaryortbeBoardofTtuateetofttieGeHnl  Theo- 
Ingical  Seminary ;  fur  many  yean  a  tniatee  of  Triaity 
School  1  a  trustee  of  the  Society  for  the  Promffliaa  of 
Religion  and  Learning  in  the  State  of  New  York;  a 
vice-prejddent  of  the  New  York  Bible  and  Pnyer-boKk 
Society;  a  trustee  of  the  Tiact  Society;  and,  from  lb* 

ber  of  the  Board  of  Ihe  General  Sundav-achiul  Coiim. 
Dr.  Waiiiwright  died  in  New  York  city,  Sept.  21,  ISal. 
Among  his  literaiy  ptoductions  are  numerous  publiihad 
discourses  and  several  books,  via.:  Pal^irnjuatri  AUd- 
ing  Plata  of  Our  Sarvmr  (1850) :  —  Tn  Ordtrt  of 
Fanils  Proftr  (184S,  18MJ):— rAe  Lattd  of  Boadog, 
(1861).  He  also  edited  two  rolumea  of  Metoirt,  eat 
of  bishop  Ravenscrofl,  of  North  Carolina,  and  one  of 
bishop  Heber,  Dr.  Wiinwright  waa  a  lover  of  the  fine 
arts,  and  his  taste  in  these  matlen  was  e^tcellcDl.  Hia 
Bermonic  style  waa  perspicuoua,  but  there  waa  little  «^ 
nament  and  apparently  little  elabontioa.  Hie  eloca- 
tion  evinced  careful  culture.  He  bad  a  Rmng  reliak 
fur  social  life,  and  attracted  Ihe  refined  by  hia  urbane 
mannen.  See  Sprague,  S  laKiia  oflktA  ma-.  Pulpit,  v, 
610. 

TXTalrewAit  for  Valr«v«it),  in  HindA  tnytbnl- 
ogv,  is  the  eon  ot  ^va,  bom  from  his  breath  to  bumble 
Brahma. 

^7aJabwiuiani  (or  Vaiahwanara).  in  Hindt 
mytholo^,  is  a  surname  of  A^i  (god  of  &re),  airf 
meant  Ike  aU-ptrmmliKg  Jirt, 

Wait,  Daniel  (ii'iu<tHtD,LL.D.,  an  English  diviiN^ 
was  bom  in  1789,  and  educated  at  St.  John's  Colkp, 
Cambridge.  He  was  for  some  time  curate  of  Puckla 
Chutrh,  near  Bristol,  and  in  1819  beeante  rertor  of  Bbg>. 
don,  Somerset.  UediedinlBia  He  puUished  aevenl 
works,  in  which  be  gives  the  results  of  liis  rraeatclKa 
in  the  Hebrew  aiKl  olber  Oriental  languages  and  an- 

Walt  LrtMO  m  iVVn,  tntpa).  Ibe  nativea  «f 
WcBlem  and  Central  Asia  have  in  all  agn  been  inb- 
moaa  for  tbeir  plundering  propensities.  Their  ilaiiag 
in  watching  caravans  can  only  be  equalled  by  iheir 

sometimes  fur  daya  and  even  weeks,  with  a  very  scanty 
supply  of  provisions,  waiting  to  surprise  the  ungvatiM 
caravan  or  the  unwary  traveller.     Uotncr  apilj  de- 
scribes such  characters  {/Had,  xviii) : 
"A  pint*  fi-r  nmhnsli  (It  they  fnnnd,  snd  flood 


in  seek  tl< 


:e  inrk.  ai 


lebrDlaeem. 
n'ar  the  plains 


n,  id^ng  on  liidr  leed*.  Ibey , 


In  nrmsllis  gllltoiiqEMitiadroa  riflngroand, 
Rnshi^nddeb;  bills  or  sumghfer  heap  ihe  fTtm 

Whole  flnekr  and  herds  He  lileedliif  on  the  pi. 


Ft  Ibem,  dead.  The  fhepberd  si 


ilna. 


It  appears  from  virione  parts  of  Scripture  that  I^ 
estine  and  Ihe  adjoining  regions  were  much  infested 
by  penone  who  lived  by  vUdence,  and  took  refuge  in 
the  many  laqce  raves  and  mounlsin  fastnesses  which 
the  country  afforded  them.  In  the  eivil  wara  which 
arose  out  nf  the  uMirpalion  of  Ahimelech.  we  God  that 
the  men  of  Shechem  ailopted  the  Canaanitish,  or,  as  wa 
BhouM  call  it  in  modem  limes,  the  Oriental  custom  of 
employing  "lien  in  wait"  The  sacred  historian  re- 
lates, "  The  men  of  Shechem  set  lien  in  wait  for  htm 
ill  ihe  top  of  the  mountains,  and  chej  robbed  all  that 
came  along  that  way  by  them :  and  it  waa  Icdd  Abime- 
lech"  (Jnde.  ix,  25).  The  chapter  from  which  wa 
have  quoted  then  proceeds  to  describe  how  Abitnelecli, 
by  planting  an  ambush  of  "  lien  in  wait,"  succeeded  ia 
aurprinng  the  citj  of  Sbcobcm,  which  be  kniltd  u 


mbbcn 


WAIT,  LYING  IN 


lit  at  lut  thr  nail  ui 

In  the  time  of  Aiitig- 

1  the  Roman  ■ol'diera  U>  emirpal*  them.  Tht 
lived  wilb  their  hmiliea  in  cavea,  on  the  ueep 
the  mnunlnin  precipice*,  guarded  with  thirp 
rock^  Wirt  Bpparenil.v  iuaeceraible  lo  invader*.  Htiod 
caiunl  large  wooden  cheMa  U>  be  made,  and  1M  down 
bv  an  iron  ebain  frmn  an  engine  on  the  top  of  the 
niountjuns,  till  they  came  on  ■  level  with  the  mouth  of 
each  cave.  The  chcMa  contained  Hildien.  well  armed, 
aiid  provided  with  long  hooki.  They  ilew  with  their 
dana  and  epean  a*  many  of  the  robbers  aa  they  • 
reach  U  tbeenrraace  of  thecavea,  and  pulleiloato 
with  their  hooka,  and  eial  Ibem  down  headlongi 
they  aet  fire  to  the  buibei,  etc,  about  the  cava 
tmothered  many  more;  bo  by  theae  means  the  n 
lain  mbben  were  extirpated  (Joaephna,  A  •(,  xsiv,  lli). 
Dr.  Thomaon  well  dew tibea  auch  acenea  (Lund  onJ  fiooi, 
i.487): 

lihcrlnrki  Ilka  a  wntf  nmong  Ihi 


MofHiid-btllrond 
»■.    Our  rrleiidtn 


•udrieiily  0\ 

>  careful  n.4  Iimllow  n 
ind  tat  It  Nenw  abanr 
wCire,  Acra  in  lb*  ram 
■ddet.    lt<il)b«Tla>,  bow 

are.    SI^an^■fl 


Ller*  111  WalL 

iwfnl  pray.  Shnnld 
...,.  -^rr~..  ~-  ~.  lyinr  and  ranad.  hu 
fur  not  bnvlng  hmiiGtit  anficiviii  pn^ 
,nj  M  inika  him  wi.nh  n)Wi!ng,  They  are  n>it  onlydai^ 
Kg  n'bbensbnt  ■kllfnl  tMavea;  and  thair  boldneaa  la 
lolcly  eqnallad  liy  their  nddraM.  tSIr  John  Halcolm,  no 
III  mlRdun  in  the  oHirt  of  Fcnla,  In  IBin,  bad  oearealy 
let  hl«  Hurt  In  Iheir  torrlwrj  wbea  be  wni  iitaekad,  til 


__,,_in  Kep'iwl  waa  ebwely  watched  for  »•»• 

cral  mtlwv  and  nurtoBly  aroipad  -  -■- -i—""- 

•■-  "-^kliighan  wr-  '—  '-' ' 


almllar  vlaluilon. 
.....  n  niDtrlbDiliin  of 
IsTled  on  the  caravan 


coani  ry  1  and  It  ha«  alwayi  been  an.   There  ar 

baMHl  npi'U  Iboin.    Thnft.  in  PfO.  i,  R-10 :  'liti    

Inrklng-plBCe.  of  the  vlllB(ms  In  the  iwrel  plnce.  dulh 
be  mnrder  the  lnn.*ent.  He  Hath  lu  wall  aecmty  aa  s 
lloD  In  hia  den;  be  llelh  In  wait  In  eaieh  the  ixair:  he 
diitb  eaicb  the  |H»r  when  be  rtrawctb  him  Into  bl*  net  j 
be  croneheih  and  bnmhleih  h1ni*oH  that  Ihe  poiw  may 
fall  by  his  .irons  ..net,'  And  a  ihnnMjd  rnacnr*.  iha  llv. 
tne  oridiiala  •■'  ihla  picture,  nre  this  day  croachliis  and 
ItIiii'  In  wiiii  nil  over  Iha  eunmrr  to  catch  poor  helplex 
iraTellarK.  T.ra  ob«rve  that  all  these  people  «re  meet  "r 
paiiF are  armed:  nor  wimld  theyVBiTluie  b.gn  (nm  Atrn 
tTKbalfa  whhooi  ihelr  mii»krU  Blihonyh  lEe  caii.ion  of 
The  e«sile«  «em  to  cnmmand  awry  fi-.t  ..f  the  m.y. 
Simni^e,  mml  Kirauge  laud  I  bnt  It  tallies  moat  wouder- 
tully  with  lu  ancient  story." 

In  modem  times,  Ihe  Knrda  am  the  moat  dinln- 
guUhed  among  Asiatic  naliona  for  their  innnliiiste  and 
determined  spirit  of  plunder,  and  they  faitiituliy  pre- 
acrre  all  the  habits  which  the  Old  Teat,  ascribes  lo  Ihe 


Wni  piastres  {sh<n1t  »1»)  was 
by  which  ha  Jnurueyed,  bebire 

These  maraiidera  not  only  beaet  mounUin  panea  and 
deflle^  but  frequently  come  into  the  neighborhood  of 
ciiiea  for  the  puTjioBe  otkiilnapping  the  unpmteeled  «  ' 


g  them  off  to  be  sold  ai 


mng  ai 


ardajt  Maguzi 


re  tbus  dcseribea  them  i 

pliinderiiiz  la  a  natnra] 
ilrBn)[er  whuDi  cbauce  u 


Bobben'  Cave. 


they  SI 

It  their  pennns.  The  Kurds  usnally  place  them- 
»  in  ambuah  tiear  ■  well,  in  order  to  gain  poiaes- 
of  the  persons  of  young  women  who  come  to  draw 
»;  or  near  Ihe  groves  planted  round  ponds,  which 
nmelimea  Ebiind  in  the  vicinity  of  Oriental  ciliea, 

_  r  Iha  refreshment  of  pure  air,  coolneas,  and  shade, 
SeeKoBBUk 

Waltwia  (or  VnltaiM),  in  HiiidDism,  ia  a  cere- 
mony by  which  water  ia  made  holy. 

W«lt«,  ClBrandou,  a  CangmpiU  ionalminl»ter,wa« 
bominHubbardston,MasB.,Dec12,IS30.   Aflergradu- 
■ling  from  Umwn  University  in  186!,  he<levol«il one  year 
(0  business,  and  then  spent  three  yean  in  the  Andover 
TlieokRical  Serainary.  For  six  months  he  waea  student 
at  the  Univereily  of  Halle,  Pnissia,  when  he  was  sud- 
denly called  home  by  the  death  of  his  falher,     HIa 
first  paslnrate  was  that  of  the  Church  in  Rutland,  Hals., 
where  he  was  installeil  Feb.  25,  IBoH,  and  remained 
eight  years.    He  waa  very  much  interested  ia 
the  freedmen  in  the  South,  and  fur  six  months 
was  superliiiendeut  of  them  at  Mewbem,  N.  C 
In  that  same  year  he  was  inaulled  pastor  of 
Crombie  Street  Church,  Salem,  Uass.,  where,  in 
the  midst  of  his  work,  he  was  stricken  down. 
He  visited  Cuba  in  the  winter  of  lH«fl-67,  and 
returned  itrengthened.    In  the  fall  of  I8«7  ha 
was  asked  to  temporarily  fill  the  chair  of  Eng- 
lish literature  and  beHes-leurea  in  Beluit  Col- 
lege, and  consented,  but  twftue  arriving  there 
was  attacked  with  tvphoid  fever,  of  which, 
anno  after  hia  arrival,  he  died,  Dec  16,  1B67. 
His  sermons  were  carefully  prepareil,  and  were 
eamestlv  directed  towards  the  aalvaliun  of  the 
people.  ■  See  C<mg.Q<iar.  1868,  p.  886. 

Waits,  John  James,  an  Kngltsh  Cork- 
gregational  minister,  waa  bom  at  (Jloueealer, 
Feb,  23,  1808.  Mr.Waile'e  thirst  for  knowl- 
edge  in  all  departments  led  him  lo  pursue  hia 
studies  with  such  avidity  aa  ultimately  to  im- 
pair bis  eyeught,  of  which  Escully  he  waeen- 


WAITE  8J 

titrly  iteprtved  at  (he  >r«  uf  cightMn.  Tliis  tevtn 
■fBiciiun  terved,  under  the  bkuiii);  uflioJ,  (u  dcvelup 
the  more  npidir  hU  inlellectuil  and  Divral  character. 
Fit  ten  vein  he  waa  eiiK'K"'  entirely  in  miiiiMeriit 
labor,  and  al  the  end  rif  this  {irriiMl  Mr.  Waite  cum- 
nienc«d  his  important  life-work,  the  rcformaliun  nflhe 
Paalniod}-.  For  Mvcral  years  lie  had  the  oveinght  of 
■he  Church  at  IltninMer;  but  >»  great  vu  the  fErawing 
appreciatinn  of  the  value  nf  hie  iabo^^  and  of  the  sim- 
piidiy  and  ^neral  application  uThiaayiilem  of  teaching, 
that  it  became  necentary  fur  him  la  accede  to  the  requeat 
iif  hit  minimerial  brdhren  in  London,  and  dernte  bim- 
•eirexciueiveiy  to  hit  great  work.  Mr,WiiIerecogniK<< 
the  necearity  for  a  purer  laale  and  for  a  higher  ataiidard 
oT  mutic  in  the  atn-icea  of  the  aanciuary,  and  with  the 
coK^ration  of  the  lander  churches  he  was  able  ID  dn 
much  tuwardi  laying  the  fuumlatiun  for  a  more  e»tend- 
eil  knowledge  of  musical  acience.  He  died  Oct.  26, 
1HS8.     See  (Loud.)  Cong.  Year-iaok,  1069,  p.  S9I. 

Waits,  ThomaB,  LUD.,  an  Engluh  clerg}-man, 
was  bom  in  1T76.  He  became  curai«  nf  Weliingtnn ; 
WM  principal  of  Ihe  grammar-Kbiiol  at  Lewitham  Hill 
fRim  1816  lo  I83.S:  rector  uf  High  Haliten  in  I8S3:  nf 
Great  Chart  in  ItOui  and  dieil  in  184).  He  publiihni 
KvenXSmnoiu,f:j'planalorga7idCiiliail,oaihi:T)iirir- 

Walte,  'WiUlkTD,  a  minmter  of  (he  OmBrega- 
tinnal  Church,  was  b<im  at  Idle,  England,  Jan.  6,  Itn>5. 
Hia  drat  religious  jmpreaaions  wen  meired  umler  the 
mhiialrj'  of  Kev.J.  Stringer,  of  Idle,who*a  Church  he 
joined,  and  by  whom,  with  th«  concurrence  uf  the  en- 
tire Church,  h«  waa  aent  to  Airedale  College,  in  Jan- 
uary, l<H7.  He  apent  lira  years  there  in  the  ac(|ui>i- 
tiuii  uf  knowledge  and  in  preparation  for  Ilia  work  of 
the  miniatry.  He  left  college  at  ChriKtnaa  in  IS5I ; 
settled  at  Bacup,  Jan.  I;  was  ordained  in  May:  and 
ilinl  in  September,  ISii.  Dnrins  a  inmiMry  uf  a  lit- 
tle over  one  year  the  Church  grew  rapidly.  His  death 
waa  greatly  regreKeil.  "A  most  {uoua,  devnteil,  la- 
biirioua,  intelligent,  faithful  man;  ha  waa  a  (ruly  seri- 
■Hi*,  eamesr,  and  enrrgeiic  preacher  nf  [he  UospeL" 
See  (Uind.}  Cotg.  Yair-buot,  l8a3,p.2S;t. 

'Waitb,  William,  a  Presbyterian  miniater,  wan 
bnm  in  the  parish  of  Pretdin-on-Wye,  Herefurdahire, 
England,  April  17.  i;96.  He  received  his  educatiiHi  in 
the  cuuiKFv  schnnia ;  became  an  aiiomev  in  (he  Mayor'a 
Court;  em'igraied  10  Ihe  United  Slates  in  1632;  waa 
licenseil  to  preach  by  the  Ihifialo  I'reabytery  in  1835; 
and  onlaiiied  aa  an  evangeliai  in  1836.  He  preached 
ag  foUiiwa:  in  Burton,  Napoli,  Ellington,  Klver  Creek, 
and  Kipley,  N.  T.,  anil  died  at  the  last- men  tinned  place, 
June  4, 1860.  He  Has  a  good  preacher,  a  laborious  and 
raiihfol  paa(ar,anda(nreChrialian.  See  WiUun, /Vui. 
//ur..4f»iu>uic,IS6l,p.lfi9. 

Waits  were  anciently  minstrels  or  mnaical  watch- 


angelic 


ihngs. 


night.     Tliej 


lith  hums,  represented  ui 


Hirbel) 


WalivaBMideii  (or  VaiTa8aadsn\  in  Hind 

mythology,  is  ihe  father  of  N irk unden  aixl  K'O'i'lfalhi 
of  Itudalsheai,  a  powerful  monarch  of  India  burn  in  tli 
dynasty  of  the  Children  nflhe  Sun. 

VralwaawAta  (or  ValvaavAta),  In  Hindfl  mi 
thology,i«  theeunofthegnd  or(heE'iin.  Hewassave 
by  Vishnu  as  •  Bsh,  prior  and  eulHe<|iwnt  In  the  great 
Flnnd.  He,  a  aon  of  the  sun,  gare  hia  daughter  to 
Buddha,  a  mn  of  i  he  moon,  In  marriage.  I'hw  he  in 
the  pn^nitor  of  (he  mighty  dynasties  the  Ciiililren  of 
(he  Sun  and  the  Children  of  ihe  Moon. 

WalBgaDtbm,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  a  the  gnd 
nf  friiiifuloHa  and  land^iUagr,  wonhipped  mainly  by 

'W(ik«  {Anglo-Saion,  vxiktm, "  to  waich"),  ■  holy- 


'2  WAKEFIELD 

day  Astiral  once  uniraiMlly  held  in  England.  lo 
early  limes  the  day  waa  conaideied  •*  beginDine>  and 
ending  at  lunaet;  and  on  the  eve  of  the  holyday  wot^ 
abippvra  repaired  lo  Ibe  churches  for  worahip,  whik  tbe 
following  day  waa  spent  in  amusement.  Each  chuirb. 
when  consecrated,  was  dedicated  to  a  saint,  and  on  ibe 
annivgnary  of  that  day  Ibe  parish  wake  waa  kept.  la 
many  place*  there  was  a  second  wake  do  the  birihdaT 
ofthesainc,anmetimeacalled/>afnn>ordaMriZ>"f.  (In 
these  OGcaiiona  tbe  floor  waa  strewed  with  malie*  aad 
flowers,  and  tbe  altar  and  pulpit  were  decked  with 
boughs  and  leaves.  Crowds  resorted  to  tbe  wakes  ftun 
neighboring  parishes;  hawkers  or  merchanta  wen  at* 
Iracled  by  the  otiwdsi  and  ultimately  the  wakes  tae> 
came  mere  fain  or  markeU  little  ander  the  influetm  of 
tbe  Church,  and  di^raced  by  scenes  of  indulgence  and 
rint.  Tbe  scandal  of  these  scenes  became  an  greai  (hat 
in  1286  Edward  I  paaaed  ■  suiute  forbidding  bin 
and  marketa  in  be  held  in  counlrv  churchvarda.  In 
144«  Henry  VI  ordaineil  that  all  showing  of  gnoils  and 
merchandise  except  necmiary  victuals  should  be  dis- 
continued on  the  great  festivals  uf  the  Church,  la 
l636,Henry  VHI,by  an  act  of  conirocatinn,  ordered  the 
festival  of  the  Saint's  Day  lo  be  diacontinued.  aod 
that  of  the  dedication  of  Ihe  church  in  all  pariahea 
to  be  the  lirat  Sunday  in  October.  This  giadually  Ml 
into  desuelud^  the  Saint's  Day  being  the  inaie  popa- 
lar  festival,  and  it  still  eubNsta  in  tbe  lomi  of  a  villag* 

A /yb^^ioit^F  is  a  watching  all  night  of  a  ikad  body  by 
the  friends  and  neighbors  of  the  deceased.  In  Irekml, 
u|H>n  the  death  uf  one  in  humble  circnmslanoes,  I  he  body, 
laid  out  and  covereil  with  a  sheet  except  the  face,  and 
sumunded  with  lighted  tapers,  is  uaird  by  tbe  friemb 
and  neighbore.  After  vociferous  lamentaliona,  load  and 
whiskey  are  indulged  in,  commonly  leailing  to  noity 
and  even  riotous  demonstrstions.  The  cnstooi,  no  doubt, 
originated  in  aiiperstitinna  fear  either  of  passing  the 
night  alone  with  a  dead  boily  or  of  its  being  iuterfend 
with  by  evil  apirits. 

Wak«,  WiLLiAii,  D.D^  a  distingnished  BngEA 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Handrnrd,  in  Dnnetthire,  in  Its!. 
He  waa  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Dxfonl.  where  ha 
leceived  the  degiee  of  master  of  srta  in  1679,  when  b* 
tlecideil  to  tskc  iinlera  in  the  Church,  althongh  his  Es- 
ther designed  him  for  a  commcrcist  life.  In  JSSi  he 
went  lo  Psris  as  chapisin  with  viKount  Preston,  en ror- 
exiranrrlinary  la  the  court  nf  France.  Uii  his  tetura 
to  England,  in  llW.i,  he  wsa  elected  preacher  lu  4iraT's 
Inn,  Immediately  sfter  the  Revohiiinn  he  was  ap- 
pointed depuiv-clerk  of  ihe  closet  to  king  William,  and 
inJune,  1689,  waa  made  canon  ufChHatChurch.Uxr'ml. 
In  1698  he  obuined  the  reclory  of  St.  James's,  W(wt> 
minster.  In  1701  he  was  made  dean  nf  Kxeler.and  io 
ITOG  biahnp  of  London.  In  the  earlier  years  of  his 
episcopacy  h«  adhered  to  the  Low-Cburch  party,  biK 
afterwsnis  became  alienated  from  it,  though  ncit  beam- 
ing a  High-Churchman.  In  January,  1716,  be  was 
msde  archWshop  of  Canterbury,  which  office  he  hekl 
niuil  hia  dealh,  which  occurred  at  Lambeth,  Jan.  24. 
1737.  Among  hia  most  important  worka  are  ihe  ful- 
L.wing:  iiijMmliini  of  lie  Oofl.im  o/(*«  Cinrri  of 
f:eglaiiJ  (yam):— A  DffriKt  of  Iht  Dortriat  of  iht 
CharcK  of  Kngl,nul  (eod.)  -.—A  Second  Dr/ma  af  ft* 
noelrvuoftkt  Churei  of  Engimd  {\e8B):—Aw  A'spliii 
VrnioH  nf  Ike  Gtnuvti.  Epiilln  of  lite  Apmlflk  Faikrrt, 
rilk  a  FrflBmiHarg  Diteouite  conn-rnu^  Mr  f'tr  i^ 
IkoK  Ftilkm  (1898):— r*e  AuikorUy  of  Cktvnm 
Priara  orer  ikeir  KixUiuMifal  Sjpadi  Aurried  (1697): 
— and  olh>r  imcta  lo  the  tame  effect.  A  coUeclioo  of 
hia  Straamt  and   Ckaryt  waa  ,>nblished   after  his 

Wakeflold.  QUbeit;  firW  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Eiiglsn'!,  then  a  Unilarian,  was  Iwru  at 
Noiiinghsm,  Euglsml,  Feb.  22,  IToG.  Us  was  edn- 
~.iteil  at  Jesus  College,  Cambriilge,  where  he 


WAKEFIELD  8i 

in  1776,  lod  vu  elected  to  ■  fellmrihip  the  Mint  feat. 
He  wa>  urdiuiea  in  the  Cbuich  of  Ensluid  in  1TT8, 
■nd  ■ppoinlcl  curat«  of  SlDckport,  Li  Cheithire.  In 
AMIpitt  nr  the  ume  reu  he  left  Stockpon  anil  becanw 
cunue  of  Si.  Vetcr'i  M  Uverpuot,  and  in  1779  ww 
chiHten  ctuaical  tutui  af  the  Uiweuling  Aeailemy  it 

178;).  In  the  latter  year  he  reniaved  to  Bnmcote,  near 
NuUtnKham.  and  in  1790  went  to  Haokner  aa  Uiloc 
in  B  DiiaenlinfC  academy,  where  he  mnained  one  year. 
Tbc  remainder  nr  hia  life  wae  ipent  in  literary  puTHiiU. 
He  ilied  Sept.  9,  1801.  Amon;  hli  moet  impurtant 
wnrka  are,  .In  /rnquiry  inlo  lie  Opimaiu  o/lht  Ckriilian 
Wii/tit  o/lkt  Thra  t'irU  CaUiria  caiiemaiig  lit  Prr- 
ton  nfChrut:^FoiirUarlaofAiHidiriU,tK.  (1778): 
^latrrmil  Maria  i^fUie  JivUeaa  uf  Ikt  Chriitum  St- 
liffUm  (1779)1— TVoiululiM  /iflkt  Nev  Talamoa,mlk 
Nates  0791}:— ^Ae  Spirit  of  ChriitianHs  Compared 
vilk  He  Spirit  a/Iks  Timet  ia  Great  Srilitii  (1796)  >- 
and  An  Anaoer  to  Ike  Age  uf  Bauon,bg  Tkomai  Paine 
(e«d.>. 

'WakafialA  Robart,  a  learned  F.nglijih  di^Hne  in 
tb«  reicn  uT  Heniv  VIII,  naa  bam  in  the  nnttb  of  Eng- 
taiiJ.  He  was  educatal  at  the  univcnity  bikI  on  the 
Cuntinent;  Uught  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,and  Syriac 
Iq  France  and  Gerniny;  in  1619  leli  hie  Hebrew  pro- 
reaonhip  at  Luuvain,  returned  to  Knicland,  md  became 
chaplain  ti>  Dr.  Pace;  opened  a  pnblic  lecture  in  Creek 
at  Cainbridt^e  in  1G21,  beinR  made  KD.  by  Ilenr>-  VIII, 
wbum  he  favured  after  oppasinjc  in  the  affair  uf  hii  di- 
vorce from  Catherine:  "aa  proifeMor  of  Hebrew  at  i)x- 
timl  in  laaO;  canon  of  Woltey'aCullegfe  in  1632;  aaved 
Hebrew  and  Greek  MSS.  at  tbe  dinolulioii  of  Ihe  leeaer 
niona*teriea  in  loSS;  and  died  in  London,  Oct.  8, 1537, 
He  left  aome  teamed  worka  lu  language  and  eoulru- 

JUTaUm  .  IkAtm  -  Ulno  -  kami,  in  Japanese  my- 
lhi>ln(cy<  ■■  Ihe  gad  of  tlashea  of  lij{hininK;  a  aublime 
PmI,  reeident  in  the  main  Mnctuary  at  Kamo,  near 
Mijako,  ami  vfhn  Ruanli  the  fate  of  the  Hikadu.  In 
Ihia  aancluary  are  yearly  beW  aeveral  fcstivak  of 
irhich  one.  OLrimatauri,  ia  eapecially  remarkable,  be- 
cause Ihe  piiexta  then  appear  in  the  nvMt  eouly  ap- 
parel. «uper»e. ' 


nidea  feat 


3  WALCH 

had  been  raiaed  from  tbe  dead,  according  to  her  own 
pcedietioiL  Their  credulity  waa  carried  to  an  nnnaoal 
extreme.  The  a»«alled  propheteaa  claimed  that  a  farm- 
er named  Juatua  Matthewa  waa  poiaaaied  by  an  evil 
apirit,  and  that  it  waa  ueceaaaiy  to  put  him  to  death  ia 
order  to  remore  it.  Her  foUowen  were  ready  to  per- 
form  the  deed,  and  even  the  man  bimaelf  waa  willing 
to  aubmil  to  be  munlci«d  aa  the  only  meani  of  b^ng 
rid  of  the  evil  apiril.  Upon  the  commiasioa  of  tbe 
crime  the  fanaticnl  aect  waa  aoon  extioguiahed. 

TKTaltit-uawo-aoiiaJo,  in  Japaneae  mytholi^,  b 
a  featival  in  Dairi,  held  on  the  flnt  lat-day  of  tbe  aae- 
ond  month,  by  the  eating  of  fmh  vegetablea. 

"Wala,  in  None  mythology,  waa  a  wiae  woman,  an 
enchainreas,  endowed  not  with  imaginary,  but  with 
real,  aupematural  powers,  and  able  to  fix  tbe  fate  of 

^ala.  abbot  of  Corbib,  waa  the  aon  of  Bernard 
(natural  brother  of  Charlemagne)  by  a  Saxon  woman, 
and  aeema  to  have  been  bom  about  765.  He  atudied 
at  the  palatine  achnol,  and  received  the  nameof  .IraiM 
(male)  from  hia  teacher,  Alcuin,  on  account  of  hia  enar~ 
gy.  Tudeaqiie  waa  hia  native  tongue,  but  be  well  dd- 
derKtood  l^tin  and  Greek.  He  waa  empk>yed  by  hia 
imperial  bnither  in  aeveni  distant  embaaaiea  and  home 
dutiee,  but  waa  neglected  on  tbe  accewiiH)  uf  Louia  tbe 
Pii.ui  (8H):  and  two  years  after  he  aiaumed  the  clerical 
haUt  at  Curbie,  where  hi*  brother  Adalhard  waa  abbot. 
He  waa  baniahed  bv  Ihe  ruyal  diabvnr,  but  waa  Rcdied 
in  8-23,  and  in  826  becante  abbot.     He  died  in  October, 

Huefer.  A'our.  Biog.  Gmiralf,  a.  r. 

'WaUena,  Anthoht,  an  eminent  Dulcb  PmiMiant 
diTine,  waa  bnm  at  Ghent,  Oct-B,  ISIS.  He  oAciatetl 
aa  paMor  at  aeveral  diligent  placeai  declared  in  favor 
iif  the  Counter-iemonatranlB,  and  waa  one  of  Ibnae  who 
drew  up  the  canona  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  He  after- 
warda  became  prafeasor  of  divinitv  at  Levden,  and  died 
July  9, 16S9.  He  wrote,  Compmkum  hHkiea  A  ruMe- 
lica  (IG86),  and  the  greater  part  of  the  imnalatioa  of 
the  Fleminh  Bible.  See  Chalmera,  Bitg.  Diet.  a.  v. ; 
Biog.  i'mctrieUt, Kt," Wale." 

'Wala&ld  Strabo.    See  Snuao. 


kami  prirata  and  cuun  aetvaiita  are  permitted  to  p 
ticipate^ 
Wakeley,  Jmcph  B.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epif 


He  V 


verted  when  about 


1   at    Danbury,  Conn., 


d  the  New  Turk  Con 
cemivelv  at  Salisburv,  Conn.;  Lee  and  Lenox,  Canaan. 
Stwk|iort,  Claveracli,  and  Itbnmville,  N.  V. ;  Seventh 
Street,  New  York  city :  and  in  1843  at  Birmingham  and 
Miir<>nl,Cnun.  In  1>IW  be  waa  transferred  toNew  Jersey, 
in  1852  to  NvwYnrkEislConference,  and  iwoyeara  later 
relumed  lo  the  Sew  Viirk  Conference.  From  1866  to 
1868  l>r.  Wakeley  waa  presiding  elder  of  Puughkeepsie 
Uiitrici.  aiul  for  the  next  four  years  held  tbe  aameolBce 
on  the  Sewburgh  Diotriel.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
April  27, 1676.  Dr.  Wakeley  waa  a  remarkable  man  in 
many  respeda.  Hia  cast  of  mind  was  piacticaL  He 
wai  a  nrHHlel  pastor  and  a  prudent  counsellor.  Aa  an 
eccleu ant ical  antiquarian  he  had  nu  equal  in  the  Church. 
Hia  writings  were  mainly  historical  and  biographical 
memiiirs  of  early  Methodiam,  and  embrace  /.ixf  Chap- 
Itrt  Rmnmvl/iiim  lit  Karlf  Hillary  of  .Urlhodiim :  — 
Aneoloiee  -f  Ihr  Wriliye^^AmifdoIri  nf  WkilfJiM:^ 
Herote  af  Urlh-dim  .—Life  ami  Sermon  nfBfimm'-M  .- 
—and  B-thm'e  RemtaiKnwee.  See  Miniilet  if  A  mual 
C-Xffereaut,  1876,  p.  Gbi  Sprague,  .4ina/(  nfike  Aner. 
Pidpil,  voL  vii ;  Simpson,  Cgcliip.  of  Mrtkoditm.  s,  v. 

Wajumanltea,  •  smdl  party  of  fanatics  existing 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  I86A,  who  reganled  Khoda 
Wakcman  as  a  divinely  commiaaioaed  prophetess  that 


all  the  higher  deil  iea,  one,  however,  especially  (or  Odin. 
It  waa  alan  called  Hlidakialf,  and  from  it  Odin  eouki 
view  the  whole  earth. 

'Walbnrsa,  St.    See  Walpuhdis. 

Waloh,  CliTlstlaii  WlUMlm  Prans,  a  tbeolo. 
gianofG<iUingen,waabomDecSG,172e,atJena,whe(« 
his  rather  waa  professor  of  theologj".  He  travelled  with 
hia  elder  brother,  Jobann,  after  cumpkting  hia  aludiea, 
and  msde  the  acquaintance  of  many  of  Ibe  foremost  celeb. 
rilies  in  the  literary  world  of  his  lime.  On  his  return  he 
was  made  extraordinary  profeaaoiof  philosophy  at  Jena, 
in  17fiO;  and  three  years  afterwards  professor  of  tbe 
same  branch  in  ordinary  at  GUttingen.  In  1764  he  be- 
gan to  teach  theology  as  extraordinary  professor,  and  in 
17&7  received  the  theological  cbair  in  the  Giittingen 
faculty.  His  lectures  covered  the  entire  Held  of  theol- 
ogy; and,  when  supplemented  with  the  numerous  learn- 
ed works  he  wrote  and  the  adminialraiive  dutiea  be  per- 
formed in  the  government  of  the  university  and  other 
innlliuliuna,  demonatrated  his  great  induitr^-  and  capac- 
ity for  work.  He  was  made  a  member  of  various  learn- 
ed societies,  and  an  honoraty  oonaiaiorial  councillor  of 
fireat  Britain.  He  waa  married  in  1T6S,  and  died  of 
apoplexy  in  1784. 

Wolch  waa  rather  an  induatiioua  compiler  than  a  ««-* 
ative  genius.  His  importance  Ilea  in  the  department 
of  Church  history:  hia  theology  being  dedcient  in  or- 
thodox life,  but  pervaded  by  the  hisioijcal  ipiiit.    Hit 


It  biih,  and  aba  in  dtmoiuiuue  ihil 


all  bU  worka  evinced  au  uUer  hialoliiy  lo  luain  to  tbit 

philoai^hicil  compreheiiidan  if  hia  iheoM  by  wbieb  be 

In  penpiciiity  aiid  taste  he  wu  iinc  the  equal  oT  Ho«- 
heiai,aDd  in  power  Ifl  ezciu  aiid  atiinulale  he  waavery 
much  iiirerior  Hi  Seraler.  Hia  chief  merit  lay  in  ea- 
haualieaa  patience  and  great  canacieiitiouanEn,  u  dis- 
played in  the  examiiialiim  oranurcea  and  belpa.  Many 
of  hia  worka  are  conaequently  Hill  iudiaptnuble  aa  aids 
in  their  apecial  Srld*. 

Walch'a  moat  iioportant  worlu  are,  AsHquiialri  falii 
nOat.  Vrf.  CKtUi.  (Jena,  1746)  —llitt.  Falriarek.  Jtid. 
i\1bl):  —  Widlrkape  Gaci.  d.  Calk.t.  Bora  (Halle, 
1761^,  2  volfc):-CMeA,  d.  a.-taik.  ReL  etc,  (Jena, 
1753)-.— //(C.  AdopHanarHm  (,l7ib,  given  in  reriaed 
IbriD  in  voL  ix  of  the  KftirrgrKk^)'. — Oniankm  v,  d. 
GiKk.d.Gtmbaitkkre  (1786;  2rt  «1.  ilMy.-Etthciirf 
tutrr  voOH.  kitl.  d.  riim.  P^t  (GStl.  ITSSt  Sd  ed. 
■;M):— fatal,  riwr  colU.  Hit!,  d.  Kv-ckruvinammlaa- 
gat  i  Leipa,  1769  )  •—Hal.  FmlopnthHanim  <  1 760  )  !— 
Gnadtdnt  d.  mrai-l.  GotutgriiUtrihrit  (17SU,  etc;):— 
GnwiMdlie  d.  Kin*eaiitt.  d.  Yeu^n  Tabmnf  (1761 ;  in 
■  Bd  enUri^  eil.  by  Schuli,  MK):  —  Ei,laurf  mer 
mffaf.  Hill.  d.  Krlx*rn'r*,  SfillHugtn  u.  IMigimutlrtilig- 
kalfn.  Me.  (Leipn.  1TG2  iq.,  11  pla.,  the  concluding  part, 
reachinj!  d<i«i>  to  the  9th  <xnu,  by  Spiitler),  liii  princi- 
pal vark:-~£i«ttur.  SjiihoL  EocL  Lath.  (Ufilt.  1765, 
ttc) —BiUiotk.  SgmboL  Vrliu  (Lemgo,  mo)—Kri- 
tiMcke  Vint.  t.  Otbraaei.  d.  knL  Sckri/i  ...iadn  trUnt 
diri  JaJkrh.  (LeipL  1779).  O-mplete  liota  of  Walch' 
worka  an  gli-eD  iu  Pnttcr,  Fera.  tinrr  ahideiH.  Gettkr 
UoftndLB.d....  Uitiea'HtetatGOUiiiga,\,Vl\an.:  ii, 
'iS  H|.;  Heuael,  Ijfx.  trrtlaiiftier  draliek.  Sdiriflilrlltr, 
xiv,  S45  Hfj  Dikiii)^  Tktoloffoi  Dnltchtioidi  in  IS.  h. 
It).  Jakrlu  if,  615  aq.  For  biojiriphical  noiicea  of 
Welch,  aee  Heumaiiu  and  Leas,  Mtauu-ud  nf  Ihe  G6II. 
faetllf  m  llaoor  of  C.  tV.  F.  Wal^  (r.Stl.  1784): 
Heyne,  Midog.  Vn.  Watckit  ( I7M,  fi.L);  Wincklet, 
Xackr,  e.  linJcrMoliiaetrK  Ijoaen,  ii,  101.  For  a 
■eieriuiion,  aee  Baur,  Epocken  d.  tirM.  Gickichlt- 
Kknihiaig  (TuIl  1852),  p.  lib  aq.  See  Henog,  Stal- 
Ema/ldop.  a.  v. 

^Talcb,  Johann  Bmst  Inmairael,  brother  of 
ChTisian,Bnd  the  flnt-bnni  wm  or Johann  CJeotg  (q.v,), 
wu  bom  iu  1725.  In  1750  be  becanw  piofeaaor  of  phi- 
luaophy,  and  later  of  oratnry  and  poetry.  He  i 
man  of  wide  philolagical  and  antiquarian  learning.and 
■lao  veraed  in  phyaica.  He  puliUibed,  Dia.  in  ' 
ApoiloL  (1756  aq.)  in  which  hia  archaeolngical  k 
edf^  wu  applied  la  the  expoeition  of  the  New  Teil. 
After  hia  death  appeared  Obttmatl.  in  MaM.tx  Gi 
latcripll.  (Jena,  17T9):— .Inft;.  S^atint.  gniiua  Symbal. 
Apotl.  Ilitl.  llltttr.  (ibid.  1772)  i—Frogr.  de  Freai-  " 
Siiir.Saact.(lb-<±V6l-W)-~Marmortlap.Aiiliq. 
Ckriit.  Xtron.  iiuign  Doaim.  (ibid.  1750,  4to):— and 
Per*«ii'.CA;-if(A«wLiB//up,etc(ibiiLI7o3);_CArt«- 
lian.$uh  rAocUtimo  ia  llinp.  Ftr$rcilt.  etc  (1751).  See 
Daring,  Theotagm  OtuUcklandi  im  IM.  a.  19.  Jahrhut- 
derl,  iv,  615  aq. ;  Her20g,  Beal-Enq/tlop.  *,  r. 

Walob,  Jobann  Osoig,  a  Jena  iheolngiai 
father  of  Jubinn  Emat  Immanuel  aixl  Christian 
belm  Fiana  Walch  (q.v.),  wu  born  in  1693. 
entered  the  Univaraity  of  Leipaie  in  1710,  and  became 
maaler  in  1713.  Hii  earlieat  literary  endeavor*  wen 
philolagical.  He  edited  the  academical  discunrae*  <>) 
Cellarina.  and  a  aeriea  of  ancient  I^tin  authon,  includ- 
ing Oviil  and  Lactantiua.  In  1716  he  wnite  the  valiieil 
Hatoria  Ciilica  Lai.  Lingua,  In  the  same  year  he  ea- 
MUiabed  himaelTat  Jena,  where  ba  became  profeeaorof 


WALD 

iTj  in  1719,  and  afterwards  of  poetry  alao,  ind  what 
u  assDvialed  with  Buddeua,  wba  bealowed  on  him 
Illy  daughter  in  marriage.     In  1728  he  entered  the 
I  of  philuaopbical  diacuasion  wiih  hia  Gedonttm  tas 
•mpkiieknt  NahirtU;  and  again,  in  17S4  and  1715^ 
with  rejoiiiriera  to  Wolf'a  review  oTBuddeua'a  Btdi^im 
«b.  d.  WotfuJu  FkUoKjAie,     In  1726  be  publiahed  a 
/'iUaiDjiAiKAM/«nlii»,  which  attained  a  fourth  odiiisa 
'     '776;  and  in  17X7an£M.nd:/>ii&Mo;)Aie,BIldOt- 
fIU;  n  Nov.  Tril.  Librot,  quarum  I  Part  to  Coiri*- 
Lota  qua  a:  fHH.  FkHot.  lUunr.     lie  united  wiik 
deiia  in  holding  fast  to  the  old  Lutheran  ortbodoxj, 
igh  hia  receptiiin  of  natural  theology  bad  deatro^td 
the  old  tbeoretical  baria  of  that  orthodoxy ;  and.  at  the 
ime  time,  his  views  had  received  an  in (iiaion  ofPieiiKBi, 
hich  prevented  bim  frum  suataining  ■  boetUe  aliituile 
iwarria  that  movement.     In  1724  he  was  made  Ibe*. 
logical  profesaor  extraordinary,  doctor  of  tbeology  in 
'*"  pnifesHiT  in  ordinary  in  1728,  and  pro/amtr  pry- 
I  in  1750.     Four  y.        '         '  -      -    • 


Hewrol 


rtofS 


e-Wam 


e  bMfing  n| 


an  inlmduction  in  Christian  ethics;  and  iHhea  inta 
syslematic  theology,  p<demh^  tbeolngy,  and  tlie  tbm- 
liipcal  aciencea  (the  latter,  1737,410;  2d  ed.  niKh  en- 
'ged,l75)l,8vo).  The  history  of  theological  liieiUBie 
bis  debtor  fur  valuable  aervice,  banning  with  Ibt 
iblicalinn  of  Boui  /Wiorf,  ta  Ao»i/.  StriploTUM  Eed. 
(Jena,  1783).  Hia  BSJiolk.  Tirol.  Selnia  IHlmr.Ai. 
■  "ibid.  1757-66,  4  vols.)  ia  stiU  valuable,  aa  is  aW 
the  BibUatk.  Pulriil.  LiUer.Aimal.  IiaiT.  (ibiiL  1770; 
ised  by  Dana,  1884).  The  publication  of  Lutbei'i 
□plele  works  (1740-62, 24  rola.),  and  of  the  ifoot  y 
CAru/imCaKDnl (1750, Germ. and  Lat.wiih  hiMorical 
),  to  which  be  added  an  Mrod. »  LOn:  Sgmb.  Eat 
Lalber.  (1752,  4to),  ia  alu  wonhy  of  note.  The  » 
laining  more  impurtanc  works  of  Walcb  are  C*o  iuDB- 
uedona  to  polemical  theology,  TktoL  Enl.  u  d.  tvr- 
rAoufm  Rfligimutreiligtriltit,  etc  (1724),  inlended  Is 
supplement  the  oral  lectures  of  Buddeus,  and  HiM.  a. 
tktiii.  Eiid.  in  d.  Rrliqinnutrtiligkaten  Ktldt  tondnSti 
autr  d.  ev.-lalk.  A'iVcAe  alHaadm  (1733-36,  S  volt.). 
,n  EinltiloBg  to  the  religious  contrnvrraiea  within  Uh 
pale  of  the  Lutheran  Church  (1730-S9,  5  vols.)  faraird 
the  compkment  to  the  Ust-nsmed  work.  Other  wstj 
deaerving  of  mention  are  hia  MitcrU.  Sacra  a.  Cimm. 
ad  HiM.  EecL  Simdiomqiu  DitnpL  Pert.  (Amai.  1741) : 
— hii  cmnprehenaive  Uitt.Eai.X.  T.  Variit  ObtmM. 
III.  (1744)  to  the  end  of  the  4th  century :— and  bis  Aur. 
CnMrortrtt.  Grac.  <t  IjO.  dt  Procat.  Spitil.  Samrfi 
(Jena,  1751).  Walch  waa  a  preacher  as  well  as  a  schol- 
ar, and  Ilia  interest  in  preaching  ia  attested  by  a  Simm- 
lung Heiaer  Schriftrn  r,  d. goligrfaUigni  Art  ai prrdigri 
(1746).  Despite  his  growing  decrepitude,  be  wai  dde 
to  complete  hisfliWiWA.  Pa(r.  He  died  in  lT7a.  See 
Walch  [  C  W.  F.  1,  I.ibm  a.  Karnher  con  Or.  J.  C. 
W-rUk  (Jena,  17T7,  4tu);  Heusel,  Lrxihm  vrrfortr^ 
dfulickn-  SchTyfUttOer,  xlv,  860;  Ddring,  Tkialagrt 
DmUchlandt  im  18.  a.  19.  Jahrhandert,  iv,  61a.— Her- 
zog,  Rfal-EncgUBp.  a.  v. 

Wald,  Bamuel  OottUab,  a  PmteMant  iheoin- 
gian  of  Uerroany,  was  bom  at  Brealau,  Oct.  17,  176^ 
He  studied  at  Halle  and  Leipuc  In  tbe  latter  place  br 
received  the  degree  of  muter  on  presenting  a  disaer- 
tation  Caranmin  Hiiloritm  TtxIaM  fatidmrmtn  Dtmi. 
elit  Spfdiaen  Prirnam,  and  was  thus  entitled  tn  lectoR 
[mUicly.  Being  a  pupil  of  Semler,  Wald  fuUowed  ha 
inasier  in  the  grammatico-hislorical  interpirtatiw  af 
the  Scriptures.  In  1786  he  waa  called  u  pnif^sor  d 
lireck  to  Kiinigsberg,  and  in  1793  the  Univemiiy  of 
Rrlangen  made  him  doctor  of  theology  on  preaentioga 
diswrlalion  Dt  Filii,  SaipHt  et  Sgttrmair  Mgiliai  St- 
kuliani  Franei.  Fur  more  than  twenty  ypBrB,WaU 
Isbnreil  aa  teacher  and  preacher  in  KSnigslitr):,  and 
died  Feb.  22,  1S18.     Ha  pablighed,  Pngr.  "jiii  iU^m 


WALD  81 

Varianim  Uttiamm  Codd.  IV  Vtlerit  TtHamati  H*r. 
VratMmitaiiHm  (Ijp4. 1TB4)  i—Af.^.  fJiimnn  in  Li- 
irmm  Pmlmonm  BrmM  Ex^analio  ,  .  .  Caracit  (4 
Pnt/iflw  at  (  H^l«^  na6}—Progr.  Conlnmnio  dt 
Btmaram  Optrtm  SettttHiM  mitr  Mmeulam  et  Fmlo- 
riam  Agitata  (Lips.  1786)  i—Thtob>gia  Symboiiea  Im- 
theman  Dacriplia  (H«tei,*«l.)  i — IM  Vitaperio  fieoio- 
gtrmm  CRefnom.  \l«:y.—DiMi.  de  Vtra  Vi  Votab^nm 
ripoc  I*  mimt  n  Epiilola  Paali  ad  Somamot  (ibid. 
1788),  cu.  Sei-Ii6nng,  Die  gMkrlaiTkfoliigtiiDeiUtch- 
bmb,  It,  647  iq. ;  Flint,  BiU.  Jud.  iii,  491.     (R  P.) 

^ald.  Wlllielm,  ■  PnnsMint  ihcologian  of  Uer- 
many,  wu  born  HBrch  B,  lT9i,  M  KOnigaWg,  whers 
be  alMi  died.  Nor.  6, 1879,  M  Hip«riDWndenc  and  doctnt 


eulogy. 


1  1826  H 


■ppoinl 


Habeiixrger  Charch  in  hia  Mlive  pUc«,  where  he 
Ubured  for  flrtj-two  yean.  Hia  literary  prodncUona 
■re  (DDK  Strmoni,  which  were  prinUd  by  requeat.  See 
Nate  enagtL  KiTehauUaag,  1879,  p.  7S9  K).     (B.  P.) 

'Waldan,  Gioro  EiOBt,  ■  ProteatinC  theologun 
of  Germany,  waa  bom  Hareh  S6,  1745,  at  Nureniber){. 
He  studied'  rrom  1768  u>  1767  at  Alidorf  and  Leipsic 
Aller  completing  hia  atudies,  ha  returned  to  hia  native 
place,  where  he  waa  appointed  vicar  or  St.  Clara'a.  In 
1789  he  waa  made  professor  of  Church  hislorT,  and  oc- 
cupied that  position  uiiiil  hU  death,  April  !7,'l8]7.  lie 
wrote,  DwtriiUio  Ewgelica  ad Apoc.iii,!  (Li pa.  1767) ■ 
Uaiu  Versiomt  Alexiatdraa  n  iMtrpittatione  Novi 
TalaBUMi  (Alldorf,  1770);— beaidu,  he  pubtiihcd  set' 
mnns,  ascelical  worlu,  etc  See  DGriiig,  i>ie  geteirlta 
TkaiogtM  DeMlMcUandM,  iv,  6M  sq.;  Wiuer,  HoHdiudi 
dtr  tkrsA.  Lit.  (Index  in  vol  ii);  Koch,  Gttdi.  da 
deuUcJiai  Kirdualieda,  vi.  334  sq.     (&  P.) 

^7aldBgrav«,  Sahukl,  an  Anglican  prelate,  son 
ofthe  eighth  esriofWaldegrare,  waa  bcni  in  1817.  He 
receivcil  a  careful  religious  (raining;  graduated  at  Ba- 
llot Collate,  Oxfunl,  in  1839,  uking  double  flrat-clasa 
honors;  and  waa  admitted  inlo  holy  orders  in  1843  at 
Oxford,  and  ordained  to  the  curacy  of  St.  Ebbe'a  in  Chat 
city,  lu  iS49  he  waa  elected  fdlow  or  All-Souls',  and 
in'tSoBwai  appointed  Hampton  teclurer.  In  1857  be 
was  appointed  canon  of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  in 
1860  waa  calleil  to  preside  over  the  diocese  of  Carlisle, 
which  office  he  held  un^l  hia  death,  Oct.  1, 186B.  Bish- 
op WaldegrsTe  was  bumble  aud  devoted,  an  excellent 
putor,  and  au  indefatigable  worker.  He  published, 
anMuig  otber  works,  Tht  Wag  nf  Peace,  or  Teaduag  of 
Seripltrt  cimctriaitg  Jiut^/icaliom  (Lond.  184S),  in  four 
aerravns  at  Oxfurd  :—.VnB  Tf$laoieHt  .WiUemiTianiim 
(IS66)>-aDd  leonlf  0/  £lenuJ  Life  (1864),  eighteen 

'Walden,  Charlks,  proceeded  as  a  Wcsleyan  Meth- 
odist missionary  to  Western  Ahrica  in  December,  1840. 
It  was  only  for  a  brief  season  that  the  infant  Charch  at 
Cape  Goaat  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  bia  earnest  miuis- 
irv  of  the  Word,  hia  pastoral  aOtction,  and  his  pioua 
example.  He  die.1  Suir  39, 1841.  See  (TufayoN  Co». 
femtee  MiiuUi,  1842. 

'WKldenaea,  The,  known  also  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory as  VaUauet,  and  sanKliiDSS  as  I'limhii.  Two 
theories  have  been  broached  to  accoant  for  the  origin 
of  the  name— the  one  that  it  is  derived  from  Peter 
Waldo,  the  Lyonnese  refurmer;  and  the  other  that  it  is 
derived  IVoui  "  vallia,"  a  valler,  the  Vsldenses  or  Wal- 
denses  being  inhabiianls  of  the  valleys  of  Piedmont. 
Waddington,  in  hia  J/iilon/  of  tbe  Chard,  has  given 
the  authorities  for  both  these  theoriea. 

L  ZlsctrvKs.— Tbe  doctrine]  viewa  nf  the  WaMenses 
a^Cree  essentially  with  those  of  (ho  Reformen  of  the 
]6tb  century.  W.Csrloa  Martyo,  in  his  //iilory  <•/ 
(*e  Hmpieiu^i,  ihoa  eutes  their  doctrinal  tenets: 

1.  The  Waldenaes,  or  Vaudois,  bold  the  Holy  Script- 
ures In  be  the  sources  of  Ikilb  and  relipun,  without  re- 
gard to  the  authority  of  the  fathers  orlu  trsdhion;  and 
though  they  principally  use  tbe  New  Test.,  yet,  aa 
Uiber  prorea  ftom  Reiuer  and  others,  they  regard  the 


IS  WALDENSES 

Old  also  aa  canonical  Scripture.  From  tbdr  gnatcl 
use  of  tbe  New  Teat.,  their  adveisariea  charged  them, 
however,  with  despi^ng  the  Old  Test. 

%  They  bold  the  entire  hith  aoccKding  to  all  tbe  ar- 
ticles of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

6.  They  reject  all  the  eitema]  rites  of  tbe  domi- 
nant Charch  excepting  baptism  and  the  sacraDwnt  of 
the  Lord's  supper;  ss,  for  iostaitce,  templee,  vealmenta, 
imager  crosses,  pilgrimages,  the  religious  worship  of 
tbe  holy  rriies,  and  the  rest  of  the  Romsn  sacraments; 
these  they  conuder  ss  inijutions  of  Satan  aud  of  the 
flesh,  full  of  superstition. 

4.  They  reject  the  papal  doctrine  of  purgatory,  with 
masses  or  prayers  for  the  dead,  acknowledging  oidy 
two  terminatioDS  of  the  earthly  state  —  heaven  aud 
hell. 

6.  They  admit  no  indulgences  not  confessions  of 
sin.  with  any  of  their  coiiaequeiicea,  excepting  mutual 
confesaions  of  the  faithTul  fur  instruction  aiid  cuosula- 

6.  They  hoM  the  aacraments  of  baptism  and  of  the 
euchariat  to  be  only  symbols,  denying  tlie  real  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  bread  and  wine,  as  we  Bud  in  the  au- 
thoriuiire  book  of  the  sect  concerning  antiohrisl,  and 
■B  Kbrsnlus  de  Bethuuia  accuses  them  in  bia  book  A»- 

7.  They  hold  only  three  eocleaaalkal  onleia— biih- 

ops,  priests,  and  deacons;  other  s; ■"    " 

mere  human  figments;  that  m 
vogue,  is  a  putrid  carcass,  am 
men ;  and  that  the  marriage  oT  (be  clergy  is  lawful 

8.  Finally,  they  denounce  Rome  as  "the  whoie  of 
Babylon,"  deny  obedience  to  the  papal  domination, 
and  vehigmently  repudiate  the  notious  that  the  pupa 
has  any  authority  over  other  churches  and  that  he 
has  the  power  either  of  the  civil  or  the  ecckeiaslkal 

II.  Bitlors  ofihaT  PertcaHoiu^'nat  Peter  Waldo 
(q.v.)  became  intimately  ansacialed  with  the  already 
existing  Waldensea  then  is  no  duubl.  Amoag  tha 
simple  inhtbiunts  of  the  Piedmont  vaUeya,  he  iiautd 
those  who  aympatbized  with  bim  in  bis  nligious  sentt- 
ments  and  practices.  So  general  and  wide-spread  be- 
came the  so-called  heresy  that  Innocent  HI,  one  of  the 
proudest  and  most  bigoted  of  the  Kumsn  ponlillii,  de- 
termined to  crush  it  out — "exterminate  the  whole  peaii- 
lential  race"  was  the  language  of  which  he  made  use. 
The  commiauon  he  gave  to  the  authorities,  who  knew 
no  law  above  that  whicb  went  forth  from  St.  Peler'^ 
waa  to  bum  tbe  chiefs  of >  the  Vaudois,  to  scatter  tbe 
heretics  themMlve*,  conOscatlng  their  properly,  and 
consigning  to  perdition  every  soul  who  dared  to  oppose 
the  haughty  mandate  of  the  pope.    How  these  coin- 


ful  wiuiess.     Joined  wi 

tion  of  the  Waldrnses  was  Doi 

Inquisition,  tbe  prime  article  in 


rried  out 

n  in  bis  relemless  penecs- 
)Dminic,  the  father  of  the 
hose  creed  came  to  be 
ikI  the  Church  to  keep 
faith  with  heretics.  For  many  yean,  however,  the  in* 
habitants  nf  the  nvnre  aeeluded  valleys  and  rostnesae* 
escaped  the  storms  of  persecution ,  and  it  was  not  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  14th  century  that  the  ven- 
geance of  thar  relentless  foes  reacbed  this  class  of  the 
Waldensea,  and  multitudes  perished,  viclima  of  the 
flerce  storm  of  wrath  which  was  poured  out  on  their 
once  peaceful  homes.  With  but  few  intervals,  all 
through  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  Rome  did  not 
cease  in  her  cruel  endeavoia  lo  exterminate  the  hated 
rebels  against  her  authority.  Vast  niiinbera  of  tbe  suf- 
ferers from  the  papal  policy  of  extirpating  the  Reformed 
faith,  in  France  and  other  countries,  Hed  to  these  se- 
cHnded  vallej'a  of  Piedmont,  hoping,  in  pIsces  inacceaai- 
Ue  lu  their  enemie^  to  escape  from  their  piii1e»  wrath. 
Bill  the  seasons  of  tranqoillily  wen  short;  and  when 
the  tempest  broke  for(h  sgain,  it  seemed  to  be  with  tea- 
tuld  fury.    It  was  iu  vain  that  ProtesUnt  nation*  a^ 


WALDENSES  » 

pealed  to  ihe  dukes  urSnrcj  to  putaitopto  the  pene- 
■    irie«  uf  Ihe  pope.      They  were 
wbo  lUted  Dot  Six  the  ira  at 


d  one  or  ihow  dnadful  outliurMi 
e  Church's  rage  igiiiiit  thne  humble,  earnest 
ensea.  We  art  laid  tliat, "  ihc  pcqxilaliuii  oT  Iha 
vallers  still  remaining  Eaillilul  to  Che  religiim  of  their 
fiirefathers,  the  swonl  was  apenly  unsheaEbed  ind  the 
scabbard  LhroiHD  awaj'.  An  armed  force,  CDinaianiled 
by  a  chier  wb«e  name  was  in  terrible  conu-att  wilb  his 
chsrsoler— the  count  de  Trinite — poured  into  ibe  pro- 
scribed icrritorr.  Bui  a  Spirit  stronger  than  ihe  swonl 
upheld  the  W^denses,  and  an  arm  more  powerful  than 
that  which  aaeailed  them  fought  on  [heir  side.  The 
villages  near  the  plains  were  deserted  i  the  women,  Ihe 
children,  the  feeble  and  the  aged,  vera  sent  for  refuge 
to  the  heights  of  Ihc  mountains,  to  the  rocks,  and  to 
the  foresls.  Erery  man  and  boy  who  could  bandle  a 
weapon  planted  himselfagBUist  the  invaders,  and  a  suih 
cessful  guerilla  warfare  was  carried  on  by  small  brigades 
of  peasants  agaiast  the  veteran  lioopa  that  were  let 
loose  upon  tbem.  Greater  exploits  and  instances  of 
more  enduring  fortitude  were   never   recounted  than 

by  the  Wshlenses  to  their  oppnasors." 

In  1665  the  peneciiiion  raged  again,  and  if  all  the 
Proteslant  powers  of  Europe  had  not  interposed,  a  mm- 
plele  amiihilaliun  of  the  Waldcnses  vroulil  have  been 
the  mult.  The  blood  of  John  Milton  was  stirred  by 
the  Btoiyafthe  barbarous  trestment  to  which  they  were 
subjected,  and  thmogh  his  influence  Cromwell  issued 
OIK  of  thoae  mandalea  which  fordgn  powers  had  been 
compelled  to  respect.  A  few  years  of  comparative  rest 
were  succeeded  by  another  storm  orpersecution,which 
burst  upon  them  under  the  adminiatralion  uf  Victor 
Amadeus,  the  duke  of  Savny,  stirred  up  by  Frant«  and 

heretiest  and  the  effort  was  well-nigh  successful, fur  it 


inng  ih 


a  half  th 


of  the  ancient  religii 
pearance  oeaaed  in  E^edmonL"  Bin  after  the  lapse  of 
two  or  three  years,  in  1689  several  hundreds  of  them, 
who  had  been  driven  into  exile,  returned,  and  tbe  fort- 
unes of  tba  duke  of  Savoy  having  undergone  a  change, 
be  t»w  craved  the  help  of  those  who  had  been  such  se- 
rere  sufferers  at  bis  hands.  Tlic  account  of  this  cam- 
paign by  their  devoted  pastor  and  leader,  Henri  Ar- 
naud  (q.  v.),  is  one  of  the  most  thtilling  passages  of  his- 
tory in  any  age. 

Such  has  been  the  history  of  the  Walrlenses  all 
through  tbe  ages  —  sultlecc  to  untold  luffeiing  from 
persecution;  then  enjoying,  in  the  quiet  valleys  of 
I'iedmont,  eomparaliva  tranquillity  fur  a  tiaw;  then 
assailed  by  their  ever-relentlesa  foe,  the  Roman  Cath- 
alic  Church,  which  has  spared  no  pains,  by  Are  and 
slaughter,  and  the  horrors  of  the  Inquisition,  to  put  an 

Napoleon  was  emperor,  in  common  with  all  his  nihjecla, 
they  were  tolerated  in  the  exercise  of  their  relifnous 

session  of  their  anreatrsl  domains,  the  old  persecuting 
spirit  was  revi veil,  for,  however  just  and  inclined  they 
might  be  to  b«  tolerant,  there  was  a  power  behind  Ihe 
throne  whose  authority  was  supreme — the  power  of  the 
ancient  foe  of  the  dwellen  in  Ihe  valleys  uf  Piedmont, 
the  pope  uf  Rnni& 

III.  Pmeat  Conditiim.—kl  last  came  what,  to  the 
down-trodden  Wsldenses,  must  have  been  their  "year 
of  jubilee"— the  year  l848~-when,  for  the  first  time  in 
all  their  long  and  sadly  eventful  hiMory,  full  liberty  lo 
worship  God  according  lo  the  dictates  of  their  own 
oonsdence  was  accorded  to  them  by  Charles  Albert. 
Everywhere  they  could  settle  in  Italy,  and  not  be  mo- 
lested in  the  enjoyment  of  their  reli^ous  faith.  From 
Turin,  which  had  been  the  peat  of  their  operations,  they 
wished  to  remove  10  Fluteiice,    Tea  jean,  however. 


«  WALDENSES 

must  dapse  before  they  could  take  this  step,  but  they 
were  years  uf  preparation  to  enter  upon  Ibe  evangiJiitic 
work  which  the  Waldeusian  Church  was  lo  unlrrtaha 
in  Italy.  In  18£9  tbe  domioious  of  king  Vidoi  Em- 
manuel embraced  nearly  all  Southern  Italy,  excefA  iIm 
Papal  Stales,  and  now  lolere^on  of  religioa  was  allowed 
everywhere,  and  ihe  time  had  come  when  the  WaVlro- 
siau  Church  could  eaubliih  lla  headqaanrrs  in  Fkn- 
enoe.  Ihither,  in  Hay,  I860,  the  Taudus  Synod  de- 
cided Id  remove  its  t^cdogical  school;  and  tlie  next 
autumn  the  two  piofesaors,  Bevel  (so  well  known  ia 
America)  and  Gey monet,  with  eight  pupils,  took.qi 
their  residence  in  the  Palaizo  Salviati,  once  the  man- 
sioit  of  an  archbishop  of  Florence,  and  so  utilised  every 
part  uf  the  spacious  building  Ibat  Ihey  secured  for  their 
work  nolonly  a  college  with  convenient  clasa-rooni*,  bat 
also  a  chapel  capable  of  holding  three  or  four  faumtred 
hearers,  rooms  for  their  families,  rooma  for  preparatmy 
school- work,  and  a  suitable  place  lo  set  up  the  printing- 
press  which  they  had  broughl  from  Turin.  From  ibi 
Salviati  Palace,  as  a  centre  of  operation,  the  Waidenvoi 
Church  has  sent  forth  the  missionaries  of  the  Cms  is 
all  directiunsb  The  college  and  preparatorv  schools  arc 
still  among  the  valleys  of  Piedmont.  Students  who 
ptopoee  to  engage  in  missionary  labors  as  fosl  as  they 
are  educated  at  La  Tour,  the  seat  of  the  Waldeniian 
college,  are  transferred  U  the  theohigical  school  at  Flor- 
ence, there  to  receive  their  special  training  for  iheir 
future  work.  The  press  also  has  proved  a  most  cfficieBt 
helper  in  giving  Ihe  pure  Gospel  to  Italy.  Fiisl  of  all, 
there  was  issued  from  il  a  stereotyped  edit  ion  of  Dioda- 
ti's  translation  of  the  Bible  in  Italian  in  Ihe  I6ih  cea- 
lury.  In  ISCS  there  were  sent  out,  under  the  directioa 
of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  5S,96T  copies  of  religion 
works,  large  and  small.  Among  these  were  II  PrimOa 
dd  Pupa,  3000;  Piffeirma  f>-a  il  Proialattlitma  t  R». 
mmiimp,  WOO;  /ICorpodi  Othm,  10,01X1;  and  /ucU 


Then 


coniiilerably  more  than  doubled,  being  r 
120,000  enpie^  including  VialogkilH  di  De  Sattu, 
78,000;  Vit  u  Gnru,  SOOO;  and  De  Sanctis,  LflVerr  nl 
Cardinal  PalHxi,  3000.  Among  the  books  sent  out  ia 
1864  were  Strrmmi  M  fier.  C.  H.  SpargrOK  (8  voU), 
SOOO  each.  Tbe  total  for  the  three  yean  was  iwariy 
224,000  copies.  Standard  F.nglish  books  translated  into 
the  Italian  have  a  large  circulation.  In  one  year  lO.VM 
copies  of  TAe  Pilgrim' t  Progrru  were  drculated  in  Iislv, 
From  the  last  available  statistics,  it  appean  that  all  the 
higher  Waldensian  leali  of  learning  were  in  a  pinifwt- 
ous  condition.  Four  Journals  were  published  at  Flor- 
ence, one  in  French.  There  were  10  mission  staii<in>, 
with  SO  out-stations  which  receive  more  or  lesa  atten- 
tion. In, the  dilTereni  churehes  ore  over  3000  converts 
They  hsve  also  their  hospitals  aiid  schools.  In  Rum 
itaelf  Ihey  have  a  place  of  worahip  and  school*  ot' va- 
rious kinds.  With  the  progrHa  of  religious  freedom  in 
all  parts  of  Italy,  and  Ihe  toleration  which  is  eveiT- 
where  pledged  to  Christians  of  all  names,  it  canani  ba 
doubted  that,  with  the  blessing  of  Heaven,  a  pruapereia 
future  is  before  the  Waldenvan  Chureh. 

IT.  lAltralvn References  to  Ihe  Waldmaes  aM 

very  numerous.  All  wriien  of  ecdesiaMical  h'Mor; 
dwell  more  or  leas  upon  Che  record  of  iheir  suireriiigK 
See  Baird,  The  Waldettft,  Albigntn,  iipd  r«ifew 
(Phils.  ISiH)  I  r/srwIdH  Jf/H-i  (PariM8Sl,4vuls.)i 
[Anonymous].  Skftei/i  aflht  Etxngrliciti  Chruriaai  <4 
lie  VaUfft  '■/PUdmixa  (Pbila.  1858)  j  Wylie,  ThtArak. 
eimg  of  Italy  and  Ihe  Critii  nf  R<mt  (a  publicaiiun  \ij 
the  American  Tract  Socielv);  Adam,  The  Ghriatu  Bf 
rovers  iy  lie  I-'oaiMt  o/fjlnr  On  Valine  (Umd.lStT, 
8vo},  ^m  tbe  original  of  Henri  Amaud;  Beaitie.  Tie 
W.ildentiaii  or  Protnliod  VaOryt  of  Pirdm-M  (illustt. 
by  Banlett  and  Brockdon,  iUd.  1S&8,  4u>) ;  Hittoirt  dn 
Vaudaie,  on  det  llabiUau  dee  ValUee  Otridrmlolet  dm 
Piemom,  etc.  (Paris,  1796,  !  vols.  Bto);  Cbarras,  Oti. 
gint  dei  KiUmi  t  CaraUm  drUe  Primtlire  Dnnrime. 
venione  di  G.  F.  Huialori  (  Torioo,  IS&S,  8to>  ;  Fobn 


WALDENSrS 

in  IngtiryiMo  lAt  HuHrrg  amJ  Tktolngg  o/Uit  Aneitnl 
VuOtiua  and  Atbigmaa  (Loa<L  I8SH,  8rc 
ICuMauiiM  SiteanAa,  M^  u  Sraiad  Vi 
VauAfit  ofPitdmeml  (ibid.  1881,  6ta) ;  Lnolher,  Britf 
ObKrraJiulu  on  tit  Praat  Stata  oflkt  Watdaua  (ibid. 
18-21,  Sm);  AUrUa,  Buteirt  dtt  VaadoU  dtt  VaiUn 
•In  PitmmU  at  di  Inn  C'ltomia,  ApKu  ^r  Or^ime 
jrtqu'a  km  Jourt  (Pun,  1804,  Sro) ;  GoU,  Veiidir  da- 
kkeaMtJim  BrOdtr  mi  dtn  Watdeutn  (Pngu«,  t87T>, 
(J.&S.) 

WaldanalB,  Thomas,  D.D^  ■  Itamml  Enfilwb  Car- 
aMlite,iiraabomal  Waiiien,  in  Essex, about  1367.  Hii 
biher'a  aanic  wm  JahK  fftUrr,  but  he  cTujsc  lo  b«  c>ll«d 
from  the  plan  irf  his  MCirity.  He  becamr 
pitni  ot  the  Church  against  the  Refurmtn  oT  Che  reign 
ofHcnrr  lY;  and  in  that  of  Heucy  V,  whose  favorit 
be  iTu.heiomo  be  provincial  or  hi*  onier  and  a  privy 
CDunciUuc.  Heuy  V  died  in  bis  anna;  and  he  himteir 
dial  vhile  atMnding  the  youthful  nraoarob,  Heuiy  VI, 
ill  France,  in  liM. 

Waldtaanami.  KaNBArt.voH,an  Angnstiniaa  monk 
of  the  14th  eentury,  who  ranka  a*  one  oT  the  precuiaan 
of  John  Huaa(q.v.).  He  wa*  a  na^ve  orADglm,and 
labored  rrom  ia4&  lo  1S60  in  Vienna  as  a  jireachrr. 
lame  and  influence  aa  ■  powerful  preacher  of  repent 
led  u>  hit  being  called  to  Leilmeriu,  in  Bohemia,  by 
the  emperor  Charles  IV,  acting  in  liis  capacity  aa  king 
iif  that  count r}'.  He  sovn  afterwarda  begai 
rices  in  tbe  Church  of  Si.  Gall  at  Prague,  and  subse- 
quently in  the  public  market-place  of 
eDurta  were  directed  towarda  a  moral  ar 


It  did  n 


sail  ci 


Test  itMlf;  and  when  he  attacked  the  orders  of  mendi- 
icovered  the  hypocrisy  and  depraved 


ufih 


vengeance  of  llioae  pawerful  enemiea.  Twenty-nine 
cbargea  were  laid  against  him  before  tbe  archbishop  of 
Prague,  by  Dominican  and  Franciscan  monks,  in  13G1 ; 
but  no  complainant  appeared  at  the  trial  conaequently 
onleml,  and  Waldbauien  auecetded  in  patabliahing  a 
aaiiefactory  defence.  EITiirtwas  made  in  the  same  year, 
bv  tbe  archbishop  of  Austria,  tu  recall  Waldhsusen  Id 
\ieDiia,  but  inefTeeluallv.  He  died  in  Prague  in  1369. 
8e«  Pal»:ky,  CrfcA.d.SdAimn,  iii,  1,161  sq.;  225,  note; 
Jordan,  VorlHafir  oL  Hmtilmtkiimt  w  BSAtnm  j  Keao- 
der,  iCtrrAea^nct  ToL  vi  I  Hertog,  Real- HacgUop.t.  v. 

'Waldo,  Dsnial,  a  Cungregational  minister,  was 
bum  in  Windham,Cona.,SepU10,1763,andwaa  a  grad- 
uate of  Yale  College  in  the  data  <>(  ITStJ.  For  a  time 
beservedaaaauldierin  Che  KeTolutionary  army;  hewaa 
taken  prisoner,  and  imprisoned  by  the  British  in  the 
Sugar  House,  New  York,  barely  escaping  with  his  life. 
He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  West  SufCilk, 
Ohitl,  Hav  il,  179'J,  remaiuing  there  seventeen  veara 
(1793-1809),  acting  also,  a  part  of  the  rime,  at  a'mis- 
sionary  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  After  preach- 
ing in  Cambridgeporl,  Hata.,  for  about  a  year  U8I0-I1}, 
he  performed  missionary  tervice  in  the  dtsliluEe  sectiona 
of  Rhode  Island  until  ISiO,  organiiing  a  Congreiiation- 
al  Church  in  Eatt  Greenwich  and  another  tt  Stlalem- 
ville.  He  preached  Air  a  time  at  Harvard,  Uass.,  and 
tor  twelve  yean  at  Eseter,  R  I.  Afterwards  be  re- 
aided  in  Syncuae.  At  tba  advanced  age  of  ninety- 
three  he  was  elected  chaplain  li>0>n)!rest.anddieiUuly 
30.  |g)il,  having  reacheil  the  great  aRcof  ahuiidinl  and 
two  years.   See -Wwiortuir  ii/'A/.Cu'^»yu'Kmu/J/i»- 

TValdo,  HorkUo,  a  Pmbyterian  mtniMer,  was  a 
native  uf  Coventry,  CnniL  He  graduated  at  Williams 
CUt^e  in  1804 ;  wat  a  tutor  in  the  Cf^lege  in  1806-7 : 
•eitled  ■•  pastor  of  tbe  Church  in  Griswold,  Conn.,  in 
IHlOl  naigoed  hit  pastoral  charge  in  1830;  and  re- 


WALENBFRG 


tv.eaa 

Waldo,  NftttlBI],  a  Congregational  minister,  re- 
ceived the  bnnurary  degree  uf  A.H.  from  Danmouth 
College  in  1803;  wat  ordained  paator  of  the  chureta  in 
Wiliiamstown,Vt.,ia  IWW;  and  diMi  in  les,!.  See 
itprague,  A  imaU  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  ii,  S6S. 

V7Bldo  (or  VBldo),PetBr,  the  founder  or  ally  cf 
the  Vauduuor  Waldenset  (q.  v.),abody  ofChristianswho 


separated  themselves  fmm  tt 


Chun 


ras  bom  at  Vaux,  in  Uanphiny,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Rhone.  He  acquired  a  large  fortune  J)y 
commercial  pursuits  in  Lyons,  France ;  and  wlien  he  nn 
solved  to  retire  from  businexa,  not  only  devoted  bimtelf 
to  tbe  spiritual  instruction  of  the  poor,  but  dislribnled 
his  goods  among  them,  and  in  all  reapecta  treated  thetn 
as  bis  chililren  or  brothers.  The  only  translation  of 
tbe  Bible  then  in  nse  was  that  made  by  ileTOiiie, 
called  the  Latin  Vulgate;  but  Waldo,  who  waa  a  learn- 
ed aa  well  at  a  benevolent  man,  translated  the  four 
gotpelt  into  French,  this  being  the  first  appearance  of 
tbe  Scriptures  in  any  modem  language.  The  poeeea- 
sion  of  thete  books  soon  discovered  to  Wahlo  and  his 
people  that  the  Church  was  never  desipifd  to  be  de< 
pendent  on  a  priesthood,  even  for  the  admini'traliun  of 
the  sacramenu;  and  bis  Instmctiun,  holilly  f<it1uwed  by 
].  Bciice,  beoime  so  obnoxious  to  the  Church  tbal  ha 
was  first  persecuted  by  Che  archbishop  of  Lyons,  aiid  at 
length  ansihemaiized  by  the  pope.  No  longer  sale  at 
Lyons,  Waldo  an<<  his  friends  took  refuge  in  tbe  moan- 
tains  of  Dan  phiny  and  Piedmont,  and  there  fiimied  ihoee 
communiriea  which  grew  in  peace  and  flourished  in  rus- 
tic Nmpticity  "  pure  aa  a  Bower  amid  the  Alpine  ■noirt.'' 
From  these  mountaina  and  vallev*  the  rim^le  doctrines 
of  Cbriitianity  flowed  out  in  mul'tiplied  riviilels  all  over 
Eunipe.  Provence,  Langnedac,Flander9i4iermany,ona 
after  arwther  tasted  of  tbe  refreshing  waters,  nnlU, 
In  tbe  ooiine  of  ages,  they  swelled  into  a  flood  which 
swept  over  all  lands.  Wahlo  is  nnderstnod  lo  have 
iravelleil  in  Picardy,  teaching  his  Refunnalion  doctrines 
hundreds  of  yeais  before  Luther  waa  bom.  He  finally 
settled  in  Bohemia,  where  he  died  in  11'9,  the  aama 
year  in  which  hia  tenets  were  denonnced  by  an  mcii- 
menical  coundL  The  Waldeneian  Church  was  a  light 
on  the  mountaina  daring  the  Dark  Agea,  and,  amid  all 
the  eorruptiont  of  the  Church,  it  held  iia  npen  Bible  and 
pure  doctrines:  and  that  aame  Church  alill  Bnrrives,tba 
baaitofall  reformatory  movementa  in  Italy.  <W.P.S.>' 
"WmVAToa,  laaao,  an  English  Wesleyan  minialer, 
began  his  itinerant  labors  amone  tbe  Hethodbta  of 
England  in  1760,  and  died  (according  to  Hill)  in  1782, 
He  was  not  eminent  either  for  piety,  giAs,  or  osefutncss. 
His  natural  disposition  was  crooked.  He  died  in  ob- 
scurity. See  Atmore,  Mrlh.  Mmorial,  s.  v. 
Waldron,  WllUtun,  a  Congregational  minister, 
IS  the  son  of  captain  Kichanl  Waldron,  of  Portsmouth, 
H.,  and  grandson  of  major  Richard  Waldron,  of  Dover, 
bo  waa  murdereil  by  the  Indians  in  1689,  at  the  age  of 
eighty  vetrs.  Williini  waa  bom  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H, 
Nov.  4, 1697,  and  graduated  from  HarvaH  College  in 
1717.  When  the  New  Bricli  Church  in  Boaton  was 
founded,  be  became  ita  minister,  being  ordained  May 
22,1722.  He  died  SepU  11, 1727.  See  Sprague,  .4wtai( 
n/li'  Amrr.  Pulpit,  i,  818. 

Waldachmldt.  John,  a  German  Reformed  minis- 
r,  wat  bom  in  Naesau,  (iermany,  in  1724,  and  came  to 
merica  in  1752.  He  waa  pastor  of  tbe  churches  at 
Cocalico,  Weiseichenlaiid,  Mode  Creek,  and  Zelienreich, 
Pa.,  fmin  1762  to  1786.  He  also  supplied  Tuipehooken 
(1T56-58)  and  Heidelberg  (I76--70).  He  died  in  1786. 
See  Corwin,  Mamal  o/Ihe  Rrf.  Ckurck  in  A  mawo, «.  v. 
Walo.    See  Wai.«[ts. 

^Valentmrc,  Prnta  and  AnniAn,  two  brothet^ 
bom  at  KoUerdam  in  the  17th  cetituiv,  who  abandooed 


WALES  8i 

their  counu?  and  their  nllgion  iml  UthI  it  Culogne. 
The  flntwua  titular  bUhup  in  Hyata,iiiU  luffragui  Ui 
Culugne;  the  other  wu  the  titular  bishop  lo  Adriaiiu- 
ple,  and  euHh^aa  tu  Miyence.  Tbeir  worki  cniriM 
uhiefi}'  uf  contruveiaial  {ueca  againat  the  Froicetauta, 
ami  were  printed  toKetbet  under  the  title  or  Fratmn 

Wulenlmriiiconim  Opera  (1670,3  Toll.ruL) Mwheini, 

BitL  i/lie  Churci,  bk.  iv,  ceat.  xvii,  §  ii,  pi.  i,  ch.  i. 

Wales,  ChribtiakitT  IM.  The  ancient  Briliah 
Church  having  been  rouiuled  at  a  very  early  period  and 
entiiciy  independent  of  the  Church  of  Rnme,  t  he  Romau 
and  Anftlo-Saion  churche*  were  hoadle  unrardi  the 
Cbrialiau  Ikilung,  who  were  obliged  ui  take  refuge  in 
tb^  mountoinoiu  diiliicti  of  Walee,  where  they  gradu- 
ally dimiiiiihetl  in  numben  and  finally  became  exlincu 
Fui  cenliiriea  following  ignorance  and  wperalitinn  over- 
■pread  the  entire  principality,  until  the  Kefurmatiuji  la 
the  I6th  century  reached  Wales  through  England. 
Uoapel  truth  epread  rapidly  among  the  mounlaineeri, 
and  ite  beueflU  were  noticeable  amung  all  claieea.  But 
in  the  lime  of  the  Stuarta  the  Welsh  peauutiy,  who 
had  once  been  characlerli«d  by  a  nmple  ecriptural  pie- 
ty, began  to  degenerate  buth  in  religion  and  morila. 
Ignorance  and  vice  prevailed  t«  a  meUncholy  extent. 
Kirdly  any  of  the  peauiitry  cunid  read.  Both  clergy 
and  laity  were  at  once  ignorant  and  inmoraL  When 
John  Wealey  viailed  Wale*,  he  declared  the  people  to 
be  "  Bi  little  vened  in  the  prindplea  of  Chrisiianlly  as 
a  Crecli  or  Cherokee  Indian."  But  he  ■!»  declared 
Uiem  to  be  "  ripe  for  the  Gnapel,  ami  meet  enthusiaali- 
cillv  anniaua  Is  avail  tbemaelves  of  every  opportoiiity 
uf  i'natruction."  The  Church  of  EngUnd  wai  fully  or- 
ganiied,  but  teemed  utterly  incapable  uf  accompl 
the  work  uf  elevating  the  maaaee  above  the  bw 
lion  into  which  iliey  had  faUen.  Kev.  Griffith  Jonee, 
however,  by  cMabliahing  a  ayetem  uf  educalion— now 
known  aa  the  Welsh  circulating  schonla — began  a  mor- 
on, which  has  aocomplished  great  good.     He 


WALK 

r;  was  ordained  paatw,  Dec  19,  lT7D,irf  rba 
Uilfurd,  Conn.  For  a  abort  lime,  in  17TG, 
aa  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army.  la 
^  1781,  he  waa  appointed  pxofeiaor  of  diviaity 
Yale  Ciiltege,  but  was  not  indoeced  into  office  until 
June  n,  nSi.  Soon  alter  thia  he  becaow  the  snljtet 
of  an  alanning  malady — an  affection  ofiJie  nrrroiH  fts' 
tem.  In  Uay,  17S6,  ha  went  to  Europe  fur  ihe  beoeit 
of  hia  health,  but  returned  after  an  abaenoe  of  ax 
month*,  wilhust  any  marked  impioTpmeni.  Hii  pn. 
feMOnhip  ceaaed  in  1796.  Uia  pulpit  eloquence  wh 
of  a  high  order,  and  he  waa  eateemed  aa  one  of  the 
atdeat  preachers  of  hia  day.  He  died  in  New  Havea, 
Conn., Feb.  IS,  1794.  See  SpragiM,^aaiiI>,{/-(4(  JaMr. 
Pidpil,  i,  710. 

\7«]fBdar,  in  Norae  mythology,  wa*  a  aunume  *l 
(Mia,  who  was  the  blher  (maater)  of  all  the  ilaia  ia 
battle,  because  Ihe  aurriving  In  battle  taiiied  with  hii^ 
'Walford,  Wtt-UAK,  an  English  Diseenting  minia- 
ter,waB  born  at  Bath,  Jan.  9, 177S,  and  waa  sonw  liaw 
tnlor  in  Honterton  College,  Hepubliibed,  Tie  AoAio^ 
Ptalnu,  a  S'ne  TrjitulaHoH,  teilk  NoUi  ErplamaloTy  oU 
CritiaiK^nii.  18S7);— Can*  Ae>w»w.-— A'utn  «  nb 
Ejiiilk  lo  Ike  Rommu,  wilh  a  Rmtrd  Trontlarim  (ibid 
IS46).     He  died  at  Uxbridge,  Jan.  K,  1860. 

'Walglno,  in  Slavonic  mytholog}-,  ia  a  god,  pio- 
lector  of  domestic  animals,  worshipped  by  the  Pule*. 

'WftUlalla,  in  Norae  myihology,  it  ibe  g<,l<le(i  pal- 
I  ace  in  the  kiugdom  of  Odin  whete  all  heroes  ilain  in 
1  batlle  assembled.  Everything  known  by  Northeen  tn- 
roea  aa  luck  and  blenedness  was  lo  be  found  in  Wil- 
;  balla.  Herraode  and  Biaga  received  them  in  the  Gla- 
I  sor  forest,  bearing  gold  leaves,  which  led  the  wiy  U 
the  palace  reaching  up  lo  hearen.    In  thia  palace  — -~- 


:,  bloomi 


IA8,3S7  Bcholara  weie  educated.  For  the  fuithei  pMg. 
leae  of  the  work,  see  Skeata,  Hal.  <•/  At  Frit  C/iurcin 
o/Eiiglamd,  p.B»2  sq.    See  Wkldh  CaLvikistic  Xktu- 

WaloS,  Blwix«t,  a  Pmbyterian  minister,  waa 
born  in  Hanachiwelts,  and  graduated  at  Yale  Collqce 
in  the  claas  of  1727.  He  was  ordained  ani' 
AUenlown,  N.  J.,  tn  1780.  He  remained  here  but  ■ 
abort  lime,  and  accepted  a  call  from  the  Preabyterian  i 
Church  at  Croetwicka.  In  consequence  of  inadequate  | 
aupport,  he  asked  leave  of  the  rhiladelphia  Presbytery  | 
torenign,  which,  on  due  coneideratinn.  waa  granted.  He 
was  called  to  Millatone,  N.  J^  Sept.  19, 1786,  and  Joined 
the  East  Jersey  Presbytery,  in  the  bound*  of  which  it 
Uy.  Ite  waa  one  of  the  Sftt  menibert  of  the  New 
Brunewick  Presbvlery,  and  the  only  New-Englander 
besides  Treat  who  wax  exclwled  by  the  Pmleel.  White- 
field  and  Briinerd  both  speak  of  him  in  their  journals 
in  fivirible  lerms.     He  died  in  1749. 

^7alea,  Blkaiiah,  an  English  clergyman  of  ihe 
Esubliahed  Church,  was  born  in  1588;  was  fur  Ufty 
years  miiiifler  of  Pudsey,  Yorkshire,  whence  he  waa 
ejected  in  1663;  and  died  in  1669.  He  publishetl  a  sei- 
mon  entitled  MaaiU  Kbalt  l^nrUed,  or  Htdemptim  from 
tktCHr>r,yi\A^l^eo/lheAitlkor, 

Walea,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bnm 
at  Braintree,  gradnaled  from  Harvard  College  in  Wilt. 
He  waa  onlained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Raynham, 
Bristol  Co.,  Mass.,  in  17*1;  and  died  in  I76fi,st  the  a|te 
of  sixlv-sii  years.  See  Spiague,  ^ nwiJe  o/uU  Amir. 
Pulpit,  i,  710. 

Wal«B,  Samuel,  D.D.,a  CongregatioDal  minister, 
aon  of  Rev.  John  Wales,  of  Raynham,  Mass.,  was  boni 
ill  March,  1748.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in 
1767;  for  a  abort  time  waa  a  leaeber  in  Dr.  Wheekck'a 
Indian  ScbonI  in  Lebanon,  Conn. ;  in  1769  waa  elected 
a  tnlw  in  Yale  College,  and  rettMJned  in  that  poaiiion 


spread  fur  ihera  a  lable  if 
bacchanalian  abundance.    But  there  are  also  in  sim  hi 
g  3495  »chooli,in  which  '  '**"■  *"•  vicu.ry,  and  death;  because  Odin  will  tm- 
-     ■  pluy  the  heroes  in  order  lo  resist  Surtur"*  army  and  the 

iiihalritant*  of  Muspellheim  on  Ihe  day  of  the  dnirwe- 
lion  of  the  woTld_Volliiier,  Wdrlti-b.  d.  U^lkU.  a.  v. 
See  Norsk  MyTHoioav. 

Wall,  ia  Nutn  myttaobfor,  ia  the  aim  of  the  evS 
I  Loke.     After  Lnke  bad  tmmiA  the  death  of  Baldur.  ha 


Another  Wall  u  also  called  A  ti. 

'Walk  (prop.  T^bn  or  ^b;,  wtptwaria.).  The  He- 
brew verb  not  only  eigniflce  to  advance  with  a  steady 
step,  but  abo  to  augment  a  muderale  pace  DnttI  it  ae- 
quirea  rafudity.  It  is  need  in  this  aenae  by  the  evaa- 
gelieal  prophet  with  the  greatest  propriety  in  the  M- 
lowing  passage:  ~EveB  the  youtha  shall  faint  and  be 
weary,  and  the  young  men  shall  utterly  fall :  but  they 
that  wait  upon  the  Uird  shall  renew  Ibeir  strength; 
they  shall  mount  up  with  wings  as  eaglea;  ibey  shsU 
run,  and  not  be  weary;  and  they  shall  walk,  and  net 
faint"  (lea.  11,80,81). 

Walking  fur  Ihe  Stke  of  exercise  is  rarely  practiced 
in  Ihe  East;  indeed,  the  indolent  Orientals  are  qaitc 
unable  to  comprehend  Ibe  conduct  of  European*  in  walk- 
ing fut  mete  recreation,  without  any  immediate  parpose 
of  buainesB.  They  aitribute  thia  to  a  tfurit  of  reellcae* 
nees  which  they  believe  to  be  a  kind  of  corse  inflicted 
upon  Christian  nations;  and,  in  a  dispute  between  Tarfc^ 
,  ii  is  not  uncommon  fut  one  of  ibe  parliea.  as  hia  wnnt 
execration,  tn  wish  that  hit  opponent  shouM  be  eoa- 
I  ilemned  "lo  walk  like  a  Frank."  Among  the  femalci^ 
\  thia  dielike  of  kcurrntion  is  carried  to  a  sail!  greater 
extent,  and  there  is  acarcely  any  epithet  whicb  wnid 
be  more  othneive  tu  a  Turkish  or  »nian  lady  than  ta 
be  called  "a  walker,"  This  appear*  also  to  hare  bees 
the  eaae  with  Ihe  Egyptian  ladie^  for  tbcee  are  but  fnr 
iottancM  of  their  l«iiig  repitaeiited  oi>  the  mcanDMan 


WAI.KEU 


WalklDs-Bticki  foDDd  It  Thebn.    1  <■  or  cberrr-irnnd,  in  Xt.  Salt'a  collMtlan ; 


le  peg  fll  tb4  iflldb 


"Wheu  wIlbLne  from  hnne.  BiiJplUn  fjenllflinen  trt- 
qncniljr  cjirilml  •iTcka.varjinfftnuii  llireeor  rnariii  Hbam 

IxilLmluK  a  OiKTer,  nr  with  the  mora  nmal  ueg  umhieiln:; 
rn  .m  one  Me.  ■onw  i.r  wblcli  btn  bMii  tmaii  ill  TImIim. 
Mnny  w«r«  "f  eAfrry-mal,  aul^  ihrec  ftii  [bras  luebea 
rniK-.  Hiid  ibuM  I  have  »e«ii  wlita  th*  lotan  li«ad  were 
i:«ii«ri>llT  alKiIll  ihe  hiih  leiigtb.  Othars  apiioir  M  hitve 
been  niDcb  ti>unr:  thetmluinrurauraneiililiein  iiIIphi'I 
all  Mel  i  and  .ma  brmizht  lo  KDilnnd  lir  Mr.  MHdm  'aa 

c->l>-r  and  uUdiQK.  On  aniariiie  a  b.Hne,  ihar  laft  thcic 
atlek  111  [he  hall  .ir  Ht  the  d-ior :  and  piRir  irxii  weni  »>nw- 
tlDiea  einpluir«l  to  bold  Iha  Miclio  iif  ibe  gnanu  who  bud 
come  to  a  parir  on  ti>..t,  bclH«  nmirdad  bjr  iba  miuler  of 
tha  bunx  for  Ibalr  UoiiMe  wlib  a  iiidliiK  conprnaailoii 
111  nioueT.  vtlih  their  dluncr,  »r  a  |rieca  liT  nimi  M  cany 
!■>  Ibeir  hmllT.  Tba  name  r>r  each  peraoii  vim  rreqiienl- 
I7  writuii  III!  hi*  atlcb  In  hIeMgljpblva.  Kir  which  reuon 
11  hard  moid  wna  prefenwl.iia  ihu  aciicln,  whtrh  reena 
m  bava  been  mora  geiiamHj  u-ert  ihaii  anj  nlber;  and 

atlck,  tbs  .oppiirt  i.t  nij  teg^' "  Bic. 


to  walk  after  dete«MbIe  tbiuga. 
^ftIker,Aldac«,  D.D^a 
Cmmrcgacional  miniiter,  waa 
bom  ill  SUaflbnl,  VL,  July  30, 
1HI2.  lie  WIS  prepared  fur  ciil- 
!«){«  *C  Kimball  Union  Acad- 
emy, and  gTBduated  at  DaiU 
niunth  Udtege  in  ISS7.  From 
here  he  went  to  BratlleboF- 
ougb,  and  Temuned  M  principal  of  ila  Uigh-acboul 
br  una  year,  until  1838,  at  which  lime  he  entered  Vale 
Theulo^ical  Seminary,  where  he  remained  imlil  1839, 
Me  then  entered  Andorer  Theological  Seminaij-,  and, 
alter  reiualiiiiitc  one  year  in  studv,  graduated  in  ISiO. 
He  waa  nnlaiiicl  at  Weal  KutUnil,Vt^  Dec  30,  1840, 
where  lie  preached  Tur  twenty-two  yeara,  and  waa  dis- 
miawd  Auk.  2*!i  lXli:i.  He  then  became  acling  fuua 
at  WalliiiKrurd,  Vt„  >i>  1^'^  "niil  iiiMalled  there,  March 
ID,  IHIjD,  in  which  oSce  he  remained  until  hi»  death. 
He  waa  disabled  Trom  aervice  and  reaigiieri  in  January, 


1877, 


ia  Chur 


if  MiiUllebnry  College  frum  1858;  corporata  n 
III  the  American  Uoard  of  Cummisaiunen  for  Foreign 
RtiHions  from  1873.     He  was  regiater  of  the  General 
Oiiiveniirin  aC  Vermont  fnim  18M  to  1870,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  Fairbaiik'a  DuanI  af  Kducation  rium  iu  firel  ap- 
pointment in  18M.     He  died  of  general  debility,  July 
i4,  1878.     (W.F.S.) 
Walker,  Alexander  Waddell,  a  mtnieter  in 
theMethodiHt  Epiacopal  Ch  urcb. 
South,  waa  bcini  in  CtMiiralon, 
8.C., Jaii.2i, IHlfi.  Heieceiveda 
good  gTammar-achool  ed  ucation ; 
■pent  much  of  hit  early  roaiv- 
hnud  in  marble  ■wiirkiii)^  dia- 
playing  both  akill  and  tane;  wa* 
cnnrened  iti  1880,  and  waa  ad- 
loilted  into  Ihe  South  Candiiu 
CnnrervnceinI834,and  for  twen- 
ty-three yeaia  did  eflkient  work 
on  circnii,  minion,  and  etaiion, 
in  Ihe  Dp-country  and  in  tba 
lowlands,  in  the  miasma  of  the 
awampa  and  rice-flelda,  and  iu 
the  bracing  air  of  tba  niouD- 


tithew 


Prlealai 
Walkii 


lotberPeraonaorRi 


irien  used  in  Scripture  fur  conduct  in  life,  or 
•  man's  Keiirnl  demeanor  and  deportment.  Thiia  we 
are  tidil  that  Enrich  and  Noah  "  walked  with  God ;"  that 
li^  they  mainiained  a  coune  oT  action  conrormed  to  the 
will  of  their  Creator,  and  acceptable  in  his  sight ;  draw- 

fnuiiiK,  by  their  piety,  a  constant  sense  of  hia  presence, 
Hiiil  by  tbeir  purity  of  life  a  reference  for  the  moral 
laws  which  he  hail  establiahed  for  the  guidance  of  his 
creatures.  In  many  parta  both  of  Ihe  Old  and  Xew 
TeM.  we  find  God  promising  In  walk  with  his  people; 
■lid  hi*  people,  on  the  other  hand,  desiring  the  intluenire 
of  food's  Holy  Spirit,  that  thev  may  walk  in  his  atai- 
ava.  -To  walk  jn  darkneaa"  (1  John  i,  6,7)  u  to  be 
iiiTidfeil  in  unbelief,  and  mixleil  by  error;  "  lo  walk  in 
Iha  light~  ii  to  be  well  infomied,  holy,  and  happy;  "10 
walk  by  faith"  ia  lo  expect  the  thinga  promised  or 
■hreslened.and  lo  maintain  acouree  of  conduct  perfect- 
ly cuuislent  with  such  a  belief;  "to  walk  alter  the 
tieah"  is  to  gratify  the  carnal  deairea,  to  yield  10  the 
fieahly  appetiiea,  and  be  obedient  to  the  liiata  uf  the 
Heah ;  "  lo  walk  after  the  Spirit"  is  to  punue  spiritual 
ubjei'ia,  to  cultivate  spiritual  alKcliona,  10  be  apiritually 
miiided,  which  is  life  and  peace. 

By  a  somewhat  different  figure,  the  pealileiice  i*  said 
to  walk  in  darkneaa,  spreading  ita  nragea  by  night  at 
mtU  aa  by  day.    God  ia  laid  to  walk  on  the  wiuga  of 


Stlcka.    (From  Tbebes.) 

Liltii-aled.    In  1857  Mi 


the  polite  and  le- 

lI  to  the  rude  and  un- 
settled at  Spartanburg 

as  aupeniumi^rarv,  ami  in  leoi  enlisted  in  Ihe  Confeder- 
ate army  and  seA-ed  two  year*.  He  died  iti  1870,  Mr. 
Walker  was  distinguished  for  poriiy  and  honesty  of 
character,  for  sincerity,  kindneea,  and  generosity  oT 
heart,  for  modeatv,  coiislancv,  courage,  and  conscien- 
tiousneaa.  See  -Wwefr.  n/  A  mutal  Corftitaca  of  At 
if.  JS.  CkunA,  SoalM,  1870,  p.  419. 

TKTalker,  Aaputtia.  1  Congregatinntl  miaaioo. 
arj-,  waa  bom  in  Me.lway,  Masi.,  Oct,  »0, 18W.  He  waa 
Gonrerted  at  the  age  of  twelve;  fallowed  mercanlile 
putsiiita  inCharleslon,  3.C„and  Baltimore,  Md.;  pr*> 
parel  for  college  at  Lelcealer  Academy,  and  gradualed 
■t  Yale  in  1848.  In  186S  he  graduated  at  AndorcT 
Theological  Seminary,  was  mamed  and  ordained,  and 
in  tlie  ftiilnwing  year  sailed  for  Smyrna,  Turkey—Diar- 
bekir,  on  the  Tigris,  being  the  Hclil  deetgnalnl  for  him. 
Here  he  labored  hanl  and  succemfully  the  ramainder  of 
his  life,  except  from  1864  lo  18K6,  when  he  visiied  his 
iiatire  land.  Ha  waa  welcomeil  with  much  joy  by  hia 
friends  and  the  natives  upon  hia  return  u>  Diarbekir. 
But  his  work  waa  nearly  doi«.  Hia  exhausted  and 
overworked  body  was  stricken  with  the  cholera,  and.  in 
spite  of  all  that  could  be  tlone,  he  died,  Sept.  13. 1866. 
Mr.  Walker  did  a  noble  and  enduring  work  on  ihebanka 
of  the  Tigria,  and  bia  death  waa  felt  sevefely  both  in 


WALKER  8{ 

Turkey  and  America.  "He  fell  when  the  uwidird- 
beiier  wtatie*  to  fall,  at  bia  poal,  cluing  manruUf ,  car- 
ncMly,  even  beyond  hiaatrengCh,  the  work  giveD  him  to 
ito."  '  See  Cons-  Qitar.  1867,  p.  «Kt  tq. 

^Bllur.  Benjamin  M.,  a  Hethodini  Epiwnpal 
miniiler,  wu  bom  at  Springtleld,  Vl^  April  36,  ia09i 
waa  convened  in  ISSO;  licenaed  lo  preach  in  1831 ;  and 
Joined  the  New  England  Conftrenoe  in  1B34.  On  the 
diviiiioii  of  (he  confereooe  he  became  a  member  of  the 
PrDvitlence  Conrermce.  Hii  appuinlmenw  were  aa  fol- 
lows: Bainauble,  Hanifleld,  Franklin,  Scicico,  ToUatid, 
UlaatenbiirT,  Wapfiing,  North-weal  Bridgewater,  Wood- 
aloek.  Square  Pond,  Norwich  Fall^  Eaatford,  Sniiih 
Cflvenlty,  Weet  Thomp«>H,  South  Glaatenburr.  Wajh 
ping,  Mooeup,  Staffurdville,  Tolland,  Windsorville,  and 
Quarryv-iUe,  where  he  died,  March  28,  IS71.  Hr. 
Walker  wai  ■  man  of  great  devoiednen,  faith,  and  leaL 
See  yiMita  of  A  mmat  Cmfiraca,  1(171!,  p.  87. 

W&lkar,  Chorlea,  D.D.,  a  Cungiegaiionil  min- 
later,  waa  bom  in  Woni1stock,Ci>ini.,  Keb.  1, 1791,  and 
died  in  Binghamtun,  N.  Y,,  Nor. !»,  1870.  At  about 
the  age  uf  seventeen  years  be  attended  one  term  at  the 
Academy  at  Tbetfurd,  hia  education  being  largely  ot^ 
Cained  by  fail  own  effurta,  Subsequently  he  became  a 
teacher.  In  ISIS  he  waa  converted  and  uniteil  with 
the  Church,  and  in  the  year  following  turned  hia  atten- 
lluD  towarda  the  ministry.  In  September  he  began  lo 
teach  at  Cherry  Tillev,  N.  T.,  remaining  one  year,  and 
then  enteriug  [be  Academy  at  Plain<leld,N.H.  In  1818 
he  entered  the  Tbeok^ical  Seminary  at  Aadover,  and, 
graduating  in  iSil,  w«ii  immediately  to  New  York 
city,  to  preach  under  the  direction  of  the  Seaman'a  and 
the  Evangelical  HiiaionBry  societies  of  ibat  city.  Go- 
tng  to  Central  Kew  Votk,  in  the  year  after,  he  received 
onlination  from  the  Otaego  I'resbitery,  Feb. 27, at  Nor- 
wich. Mut  this  he  preached  rhree  tnonlh*  in  Lfeba- 
non.  N.  II.;  and  then,  Jau.  !,  18!j8,  after  having  served 
Ibcre  temporarily,  waa  installed  pastor  uf  the  Chureh 
In  KuUand,  Vt^  siid  served  there  until  1833.  He  was 
iniMee  of  Burr  Seminary,  Manchester,  Vt.;  a  director 
of  Vermont  Domestic  Minionary  Society,  atid  a  warm 
temperance  advocate.  lu  consequence  of  bronchial 
tiwible  he  waa  forced  ti>  abandon  the  pulpit  for  a  time, 
and  look  charge  of  a  aemioary  in  Caslleion,  Vt.,  for  one 
jreat  (1804).  During  part  of  1834  he  supplied  (be  Pine 
Stieet  Church  in  tliistiin,  and  Jan.  1, 1B3S,  was  installed 
paKor  of  the  Church  in  Bnltlebnruugh,  Vt.,  in  which 
pOHilinn  be  remained  until  Feb.  II,  1846.  In  IS4S  he 
Moepted  ■  call  to  IMitafurd,  Vt.,  and  waa  installed  Dec  1, 
and  migned  in  [864.  Though  not  a  brilliant  preacher, 
hiiatyle  was  singularly  clear  and  chaste,  ile  received 
the  hunorarv  d^ree  of  A.M.  from  the  University  uT 
Termonl  in  '[823,  and  from  Midrllebury  and  Dsnmouth 
cullegea  iu  I82fi.  The  degree  of  D.D.  was  bestowed  by 
the  L'niversity  of  Vermont  in  1847.  He  waa  elected 
one  of  tbe  corporation  of  Miiidlebury  College  in  IS87, 
and  nf  the  American  Buard  of  Foreign  Mission*  in  1838. 
He  died  while  on  a  vlstt  to  hia  daughter  at  Kngham- 
t(Hi,N.  Y.     SeeCoi^Quir.  1871,  p.Sa;. 

^Tallur,  Charl«B  S.,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Epiacopal  Chnreh,  South,  was  Iwrn  in  Charleston,  S.  U, 
Jan.  21,  18I&1  experienced  religion  in  I830i  and  en- 
tered the  South  Carolina  Conference  in  1834.  In  1855 
be  was  made  supernumerary;  in  ISM  was  appointed 
(«enl  for  WofTurd  CoUege;  and  died  Jan.  18, 1857.  Mr. 
Walker  was  a  man  of  atem  integrity,  sound  Judgment, 
■ltd  high  moral  coarage.  See  liinslei  of  Amuai  Cott- 
ftrenca  of  the  M.  E.  Ckurck,  Soalk,  1SS7,  p.  77(1. 

^7Blkar,  Bd^rard  P.,  ■  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Amesville,  O.,  in  1834.  He  enteral 
Marietta  College,  O.,  in  1852,  where  he  graduated  in 
1866.  Hs  studied  theology  in  AndoTer  .Seminary,  ami 
was  liceiued  by  Athens  Pmbvterv  in  lU^S.  He  died 
Dec.  27, 1861.  See  Wilson,  iVsAJ/iM.  ^ftntmai;,  186S, 
p.810. 

Walker,  Blkatiah.  a  CongT^atioiua  miniatei. 


0  WALKER  1 

was  bom  la  Tairaouth,He.,Ang.7, 1806.  Be  raecind 
his  preparatory  editcaticin  at  KimboU  Doioo  Aoal- 
emy.  He  graduated  at  tbe  Bangor  Tbeokigiisl  Sen- 
inarj-in  I837,nnd  was  unlained  at  Brewer.HcPttLli 
1838.  In  March  be  set  out  fur  tbe  Oivgon  miHioD  li 
the  American  BuanI  of  Com  misuDDera  br  Foniwn  Hia- 

fmm  Misauuri.     He  was  stationed  at  Tsbimakain  miiS 

1848,  when  the  Indian  massacre  attd  troublea  tm 

tared  his  removal  to  Fort  Colrille.  After  IS49  be  n- 
sided  at  Foiest  Urore,  often  acting  aa  paMor  there,  and 
■t  HillaborDugh  and  olber  neighboring  villageo.  Be 
wastrusteeofthe  Tualatin  Academy  and  Pacilic  UniiR- 
sity,  and  from  1847  wia  Piesdent  of  the  Oregoc  Khk 
Society.  He  died  at  Forest  Grove,  Noir.  41,  18:7. 
(W.  P.  3.) 

Walk«r,  mnathan.  a  Presbvterian  minis(«.  wv 
bom  at  Taunton,  Uaaa^  Feb.  18, 1780.  He  was  Awd 
fiir  college  at  the  Academy  in  h^  native  town,  and  wb 
a  graduate  of  Brown  Unireiaity  in  tbe  clan  of  I8CB. 
After  leaving  college,  ha  model  ^bUcprore«oBii/lM 
faith  in  Christ,  and  united  with  tbe  Congrrgatioiwl 
Church  iu  Dighton,  Mass.  He  commenced  sooi  aftn 
this  the  study  of  theology  with  tter.  Dr.  EmmDmsrf 
Fnnklin,  and  was  ordained  Oct.  25,  1809,  and.  at  the 
same  time,  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Pmbyteriao  Cia- 
gregaliuii  in  Homer,  N.  Y.,  where  be  remaiited  until  hit 
death.  At  one  time  there  was  a  lilJe  restireooa  tai 
the  part  of  ■  few  peiaons  in  bia  Cbureb,  and  tbe  qaei- 
tion  of  his  disBiiaial  waa  agitated.  He  interpoeed  oa 
objection,  and  consented  to  the  calling  of  a  OHuidl  to 
consider  the  matter.  It  waa  said  that  "  tbe  iDodnsto 
opened  the  session  with  a  prayer  of  peculiar  lemw  airt 
eameatneaa,  especially  praying  for  the  movers  of  to  >^ 
■ponsibht  a  sup  as  severing  the  paatoral  relalion.  The 
spirit  of  the  prayer  awakened  new  thoughts  and  M- 
ings  in  the  anembly.  At  its  dose  one  of  the  chief  a^ 
talors  reqneeted  a  delay  of  the  pmceedinga,  and  momt, 
before  the  Church,  a  dlsmiswon  of  the  matter  In  be  |n- 


canied."  At  o 
and  many  persons  were  hopefully  convened.  Durisg 
his  ten  and  a  half  years' miniatiy  in  Homer  the  Churb 
enjoyed  ihree  general  revivalo.  At  tbe  time  uf  hisKs- 
tlement  the  number  of  oommunicanta  was  99.  He  re- 
ceived into  the  membenhip  of  the  Church  4«8.  At  the 
time  of  his  death,  after  all  losBea  by  removala,  dfalk^ 
CIC,  the  number  of  members  was  427.  And  y«,al- 
Ihuugh  he  had  been  so  laborioui  and  aucceMTnl  a  laia- 
iMer,  he  renounced  all  righteousness  of  bis  own  sa  tla 
ground  of  salvation,  and  trusted  alone  in  the  eSraaoa 
work  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  He  died  June  i,  1620.  Set 
Watktr  Mtmoriat,  p.  65.     (J.  C.  S.) 

W«lker,  Fraucla,  one  of  Wedey's  belpen,  wb 
bom  at  Tewkesbury,  Uloucestenhire.  He  was  at  tbt 
conference  of  1768:  labored  in  Wales  aixl  CnmwslL 
One  of  the  great  revivals  in  Cornwall  waa  under  hit 
ministry  (in  1744).  He  had  his  share  in  suffering  pe^ 
atciirion.  Ur.  Walker  eventually  married  and  settled 
in  the  city  of  Gloucester,  where  he  died.  See  Attnotc 
MnS.  Mtmonal,t.v.\  Smith, Hiil.iif  Weil. 3/tiio<iim. 
i,287,26i}  Wesley,  jMirwii;  1744. 

Walk«r.  Oeorga  (1),  an  eminent  Poriun  divin, 
waa  bom  at  Hawkshead.  Lancashire,  England,  in  138L 
He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge :  and 
went  to  London,  where.  In  1614,  be  became  rector  o^  Sl 
John  the  Evangelist's,  in  Watling  Street.  Ileiehecui- 
linued  for  nearly  forty  ycara,  refusing  every  other  prvtrr- 
ment.  Kealsn  became,al  thesamelime,chaptain  lo  Ot 
Fellon,  bishop  of  Ely.  He  was  distingnisbed  Ibr  his  cb«- 
inivertial  powen  attd  their  exercise  in  several  imanccb 
In  I6S6  be  preached  a  sermon  in  favor  of  the  tacna  ob- 
servance of  tbe  Sabbath,  for  which  he  was  imm | 

by  archbishop  Land,  fined,  and  imprisoned  j  but  waa  ir- 
leaaed  by  order  of  tbe  ParliariKnl.  He  was  cboaen  ia 
164B  Doe  of  ths  AMembly  ori>iTii>ei,alid  wu  a  wHom 


WALKER  8f 

'  i^nM  Liod,  in  which  h«  tMtiO^d  thai  he  hail  «id«>r- 
unn  to  iutiodiice  |>'T>cry.  He  died  in  ISat.  Set  Chil- 
OKn,  fiiog.  DicL  t.  v. 

^7alkeT,  OeoTgo  (!),  D.D^  m  Iriih  eldi^youii 
of  the  Church  of  Eiiglind,  wm  bom  of  Enf^liih  purcim 
in  Ihe  County  Tyrone,  IreUnd,  ibout  1630.  He  was 
eilucBied  at  Ihe  tlniverut;  of  Glaagow,  mil  look  orden 
ill  the  Chuich  of  EnglanJ,  after  wbich  he  became  rec- 
tur  urDonaughmore,DearLoDdond«rry,  Irrlanil.  When 
Jamea  II  laid  liege  1a  that  city  in  IGS9,  Walker  riiNd 
a  reffinicnt,  with  which  he  galliiiLly  defended  l/ra- 
donderty,  after  it  had  been  abaiiilnned  hy  its  (tuvem- 
M,  and  tuccFcded  is  holding  ihe  '^ity  until  Jsmea  wa> 
obliged  to  niaa  the  aiege,  July  SO,  1689.  He  receired 
the  thanks  of  the  Houae  of  Commona,  and  was  nomi- 
tiated  biahop  of  Deny  by  Williani  lU ;  but  deajring  U> 
pus  through  anuther  military  campalin  before  enter- 
inf[  npoD  tlieduiietuf  the  epiaoipal  ulSc«,  he  was  killed 
■I  the  battleoftheBoyne, July  1,1690.  Hepubliahed^ 
Tnu  AccoHM  afiU  Sirge  of  iMulimdnrni  (1689),  which 
waa  aUaekfd  uid  criuciied,  and  the  attack  brought  out 
a  ('wfieufioA.  A  uatue,  nionnied  nn  a  liifty  pillar,  hat 
been  erected  to  hit  mecaory  in  Londonderry. 

'Walkar,  Oeorgs  (8),  a  Diaaenting  miniater,  was 
born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  EnglaiHl,  in  1784.  He 
bteaine  pastor  uf  a  hndy  of  Diaienlcn  a 
I7&7:  of  annther,  at  Great  Yarmouth,  in 
another,  at  Nottingham,  in  1774;  was  lul 
malici  at  Waningtnn  from  1772  to  179<i; 
virioua  bnnchea  at  Utncheater  in  1796. 
London  in  1H07,  Among  hia  published  works  are,  Doo 
trinf  »/(*«  Spierr.etc.  (1776)  ;—jWMCT/n-V /"fca  Off' ' 
lie  TtMt  Laai  (1790):— Serrvw  on  Varioiu  Sub 
(ead.):_Eu'i;taa  Varioat  Subjtcl;mtk  a  l.^ft  o/tlu 
^■l'jiar(1809,tval(.}. 

^7a]kar,  Oaorga  (4),  an  English  clergyr 
boni  id  t>96.  He  became  minister  of  Triiiiiv  Church, 
Leeda;  head  master  of  the  Leeds  Gramma  ' 
1818;  uid  rector  rifPapworth  St.  Ererard  in 
died  at  Leeds  in  1830,  Among  other  works, 
ed,  Sermimi  on  tht  /lamiliulinn  aad  Exntbilina  of  Ikt 
Sm  afOod  (Lnnd.  1824)  ■.—Speeimeru  ofKn^itk  Fotlry 
(1827).  See  Gmllaaan'i  Miijazine  (Ldnd.  1830),  i,  649. 
Walkor,  Ocorgs  "W.,  a  Hethodist  F.piscupai 
minister,  was  bom  in  Frederic  County.  Ucj.,  Nov. 
26,  1804,  of  Roman  Catholic  parents.  When  he  wi 
quite  yomig  his  &rher,  through  curiowty,  brought  inl 
his  family  ■  Bible,  whlgh  was  soon  the  means  of  coi 
Terting  then  alL  But  George  was  led  astray  by  ga 
company,  and  was  soon  far  from  the  fold  of  Chris 
Through  the  instrumentality  of  his  pions  sister  he  wi 
bCDoght  bacli :  and,  after  much  struggling,  he  yielded 
to  the  ministerial  call,  and  in  I82S  entered  the  Ohio 
Conference.  Soon  alter  entering  the  minielry,  he  was 
scot  to  Michigan,  than  which  there  was  then  open  no 
harder  Beld  fur  the  ilineranU  But  no  swollen  river, 
dismal  iwamp,  m  dangerous  fen  could  daunt  the  lion- 
baancd  George  Walker.  In  1839  he  took  chance  of 
the  Lebanon  Uistrict,  C>.,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
~  ~  ",  where  he  spent  tliree 


He 


District.  His  last  appiHuti 
DiKriel,  where  he  died,  Jul< 
rcmarksble  for  hi 


rred  a  full  term  u' 


neaa.    As  a  preacher  he  wsa  powerful,  both  in  argoment 
and  deck  nation.     See  ItinMIrt  of  A  imual  Conftr 
18U,p.laa. 

Walker,  Jamaa  (I),  D.D.,  the  venerahlc  primus 
of  the  Scottish  Church,  bishop  of  Edinburgh,  and  " 
toaian  piofesAor  of  divinity.  No  record  remains  • 
birth  or  early  life.  He  look  ■  regular  Soottish  college 
nsne,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and 
in  1793,  i«tuming  to  hit  native  country,  devoted  him- 
lelftoliiermlurB  as  eub-ediiorofthe  third  edition  of  the 
EtefdepaJia BrUitmniea,  In  ISSOhewaielecIedbisI 
cfEdinbBrghi  also  preudeot,  or  primus,  of  the  rainiiti 


al  body  to  which  be  belonged.   He  died  in  1B4 1,   ^hop 
Walker  was  highly  instiuctiTe,  amiable,  and  revered  by 
all  who  knew  him.   See  Ckritfiim  SeaimibniiKxr,  1S41, 
819. 

Mallear,  Juuea  (2),D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
clergyman,  waa  bom  at  Burlington,  Mass.,  then  a  part 
uf  Woburn,  Aug.  16,  1794.  He  graduated  at  Hanatd 
College  in  1814,  and  studied  Iheology  at  Cambridge; 
fiasior  of  the  Unitarian  Church  in  CharlestowQ 
1818  to  1039;  editor  of  the  CknMtian  Exammtr 
from  1831  to  1839;  was  Alfurd  professor  of  intellectual 
aural  philoK>phy  from  1839  to  18i>3j  and  president 
of  Harvard  College  from  1858  to  1860.  He  died  at 
itidge,  Dec  23, 1874.  Among  his  published  works 
iirmaai  Prtaekei  in  Ihe  Chapd  of  llarcard  Ciil- 
l€!/HldGI):—IHtmuire/JmiaAa>iiMsl.iS67).  He  waa 
BlsoediivrofStewart's^c(i'HinHJ.Vo<'uJPi>iMn(lS49), 
and  Keid's  iMtUtctaai  Foam  (1860). 

^Valker,  Jamea  MoCnUooh,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  wsa  hom  near  Charlotte,  N.  C,  Nov.  1, 1829. 
He  graduated  with  honor  at  Davidson  Collide,  N.  C, 
in  1847  i  niudied  theology  at  the  Erskine  Aaeociate 
Kerormcd  Presbyterian  Seminary,  Due  West,S.Ci  waa 
licensed  by  Ihe  First  Pretbyleiy  of  the  Associate  tto- 
formed  Synod  of  the  South  io  September,  1849;  spent 
two  years  as  a  missiooarv  in  Kentuckv;  was  ordained 
pastor  of  Sardia  Charcb,'N.  C  May  9, 1851 ;  and  aub- 
sequently  preached  in  Lancaater\'ille  and  Waxhaw 
churches,  3.  C  and  Philadelphia  Church,  N.  a  He 
died  April  1I>,  1860.  Mr.  Walker  possessed  a  vignroua 
intellect;  was  well  versed  in  theology, science,  and  gen- 
eral literature;  an  excellent  preacher;  a  ready  writer, 
contributing  largely  to  the  religious  press  of  the  day. 
A  Strimni  m  Temprrance,  and  a  tract  entitled  Griete 
not  He  HiAy  Spirit,  have  been  puhliahed.  See  Wilson, 
Pi-ab.  Jliit.  Almamic,  1861,  p.  1  la     (J.  L.  S.) 

VTalkar,  Jaaon,  a  Methodist  Kpiscopal  miniater, 
WIS  bom  in  Ashby,  Maa*.,  Feb.  17, 179B.  He  was  con- 
verted when  about  seventeen  yeara  of  age ;  successfully 
BUed  the  office*  of  class-leader,  exhorter,  and  local 
preacher,  till  in  Juno,  1818,  when  he  was  received  on 
trial  in  the  travelling  connection.  He  labored  as  fol- 
lows: Wetheirileld,  1813;  fiarre,  1814;  Bristol,  Sonwr- 
se^  and  Rhode  Isknd,  181G;  Hansfleld,  1816;  Warwick 
CiKuit,  1818.  He  died  at  Smithfield,  R  U  April  10, 
1819.  Humilitv,  aeal,  and  patience  were  his  character- 
iatics.  See  MoaHa  of  A  maal  ConftrrKr,,  1869,  p.  928. 
Walhsr,  Jaramikll,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  BuieCounty,N.C.,about  the  year  1747.  Ha  is  said 
to  have  been  a  lad  of  remarkable  precocity,  and  was  dis- 
tingniihed  fur  bis  love  of  books  and  his  iksire  for  men- 
tal impmremenL  When  comparatively  yuung,  he  be- 
came a  hoiKful  Christian,  and  in  due  iXiat  began  to 
preach.  His  associations  with  his  brethren,  who,  how- 
ever, were  giind  men,  and  in  many  reapectswetl  Alted  to 
the  spheres  in  which  they  were  calleil  to  tabor,  did  not 
help  liim  much  in  hia  mental  development  But,  as  his 
biographer  tetls  us, "  the  invincible  energies  of  his  gen- 
ius towered  above  eveiy  obslnjction."  For  some  time 
he  preached  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  native  place 
and  in  Piilsylvania  County,  Ta.  In  1769  he  became  Ihe 
pastor  of  a  newly  formed  Church  in  Amelia  County. 
Here  he  entered  upon  a  career  of  great  usefulnesi.    lu 

ers,  especially  a  number  of  young  preachers  who  had 
been  trained  bv  him,  he  eatabliahed  between  thirty  and 
forty  churchea'south  of  .Tames  River.  In  these  churches 
there  were  not  a  few  pereona  of  character  and  influence, 
who  afterwards  became  distinguished  as  ministen  of 
the  Gospel  As  a  preacher,  Mr.  Walker  was  equalled  by 
few  of  any  denomination.  He  suffered  persecution,  aa 
did  BO  many  of  the  Virginia  B^tist  ministers,  and  was 
thrown  into  prison.  When  released,  he  continued  to 
preach  nith  great  succeea for  some  time.  But  he  came 
under  a  cloud,  overtaken  by  temptation ;  and  although, 
after  having  paased  through  discipline,  be  was  lesiored, 


WALKEE  8( 

he  atret  reaiimol  tbc  pUce  heonceoccupinliauHigtbe 

Uiidnl  nilb  gr«at  pbyajcal  aulTeriiig.  He  d ■»!,■■  wu  be- 
li«vedfUi  humble  CbrialiuiTBCcepted  by  his  Liircl  in  (ipit« 
of  »11  hia  fnlltita.  Uiii  dntta  o«unwl  S»pu  SO,  1792, 
bee  Benedict,  llubny  of  the  BnplitU,  a,  39U.  (J.  C.  &} 
V7alker,  faaaa.  ■  noted  pioneer  of  the  Metbndiat 
EpUcnpil  Church,  whuae  oame  wu  iileiititird  lor  yens 
H'iih  tlie  wentwuii  pn^mt  of  MethMligm,  wu  am' 
uf  Nunh  Caralini.  The  dale  of  hit  tinh  is  nut  ■ 
laineil,  anil  there  is  no  reconl  of  his  early  lire.  He. was 
Bilmitied  aa  a  irarellini;  preacher  in  the  Wettem  Con- 


England,  i>  laid  la  have  keen  bom  in  Drrnaikn 
ear  the  cluae  of  the  17th  crntury.  He  in  b«t  ki«»i 
y  his  wurk  entitled  Ati  AltmpI  lowiardt  Rrttvrrmjm 
I  BEount  of  Ike  Hambm  and  Suffrtwgt  of  lU  CIrnf 
}ko  atre  StqtietUrtd  m  tie  Btbriliim.  He  di 
17Sa. 

'Walk«r.  John  (3),  •  Church  of  Engbnd  dirin. 
iras  bum  in  Cheshire  in  1719.    He  wu  (itdokIiI  ii| 
luaineaa;  and  after  marrring  and  Killing  as  adnjitT 
experienced  religinus  ix^iivictinns  by  the  prcaehuri;  of 
•M  Melhixlisli,  amiiUE  which  body  fae  Hr*t  eie 
gi fie  OB  a  preacher.     He  next  went  throngb  a 


.t  Nurthai 


■pponib 


.   The 


intry  between  Kentucky  and  the  inleriiir  uf  lllinuu 

dree,  afterwards  bishop,  but  then  presiding  elder  of  the 

ifl  assist  him  on  the  way.  They  Journeyed  on  horse- 
back,  alorping  in  the  woods  ou  their  saddle-blankets, 
and  cookini;  their  meals  under  the  trees.  "It  was  a 
time,"  saya  bishop  Morris,  who  knew  both  uf  Ihem, 


Long  Buckley,  Nonhanplonaliire.  About  I7«0  ben- 
Kramlingham,  and  a  few  ye«ra  later  to  Wt 
pole,  SiiHulk,  where  he  continued  uolil  his  decease, 
31, 1806.  Ur.  Walker  was  a  man  of  eoiioent  ^Mi 
and  benevolence.  He  poaseeaed  ■ 
understanding,  a  sound  judgtnenl,  and  waa  well  renrri 
'  Iheolugr.  .See  Tkroloykat  Mapazinr,  1805.  p.  U7. 
WaUcor,  John  (S),  an  Irish  clerp>-ni>D,  wu  tm 
]7e7,  and  was  »lncaled  at  Trinity  College,  Diibui. 


iio  least! 


re  full  U 


.sfor  » 


a  fellow,  but  w 


ir  horses  swam  the  rapid 
h  their  riilen  and  bagi;sge ;  but  (he  travel- 
lers, by  carrying  tbeir  saildie-biigs  on  their  shouKler*, 
kept  their  Bibles  and  part  of  their  clothes  above  the 
water.  This  was  truly  ■  perilous  business.  In  due 
time  they  leached  their  deslinalinn  safely.  M'Kendrce 
Kouiued  a  few  weeks,  visited  the  principal  neightior- 
hoods,  aided  in  forming  a  plan  nf  appointments  fur  the 
mission,  and  the  new  selllars  received  them  with  much 
faiMr."  Walker,  though  left  alomi  in  Ihe  territory,  was 
nut  disennraged,  and,  as  Ihe  result  of  his  first  year's  ex- 
perinveni  in  Illinois,  two  hundred  and  eighteen  Church 
members  were  reported  in  the  primed  Minulti.    Ha 

operate  theiicefurward  alternately  in  ihe  two  tetrilnries 
until  1812,  when,  as  preMding  ehler,  be  lunk  charge  of 
all  the  Methodist  iiitereels  of  both.     The  old  Western 
Conference  baring  been  divided,  in  tsilj,  into  the  Ohio 
and  Tennessee  cunferences,  tbe  Illinnii  and  Hiasnuri 
work  peruined  to  the  latter.     He  had  charge  uf  dis- 
tricts in  the  two  terriluriri  until  1819,  when  he  was  ap- 
pidnted  einilerence  miMionaiy,  that  he  might  range 
about  and  form  new  Gelds  of  labor  among  the  destitute 
— "  ■  work  ID  which  be  was  peculiarly  adapted,  both  by 
nature  and  grace,  and  in  which  he  continued  to  be  em- 
ployed for  many  years."     In  1820  this  veteran  pioneer 
formed  the  purpose  of  planting  Melhmlism  in  9l.  Loi ' 
where  previoui-ly  Mptho'list  preachers  "had  found 
rest  for  ihc  soles  of  their  feet,  the  early  inhabitai 
from  Spain  and  France  being  utterly  opposeii  In  i 
I'niicstsnt  priiKiples,  and  especially  to  MethiBlisn 
Some  idea  of  his  succeia  in  thia  bnlil  undertaking  m 
be  obtaitKd  from  the  fact  that,  as  the  result  of  Ihe  H 
year's  experiment,  he  reported   to  Ihe  conference 
chapel  erected  and  paid  for,  a  flourishing  school,  ami 
aevenlv  Church  member*  in  Rt.  Louis,     '("he  next  vrat 
(Oct.  24,  lBi2),  the  Misanuri  O-nlerence  held  its  session 
in  that  cily,when"an  excellent  and  venerated  bnith- 
er,  William  Beanchamp,  was  appoiuied"  his  successor. 
Walker  was  continued  conference  missionary,  and  in 
1813  began  to  tarn  his  special  alteniion  to  Ihe  Indian 
tribes  up  (he  Mississippi.     In  thia  self-denying  work 
he  continued, "  breaking  up  the  fallow  gmuiui  and  e»- 
laldishing  new  miuion*.  unlit  1894,  when  his  heal(h  had 
become  so  inArm  that  he  was  obligeil  to  lake  a  supcr- 
anniialeil  relativn.'     He  retired  to  his  fsrm  in  Cook 
4^iunlv,  IIL,  where  he  died  in  great  peace.  <)«.  6,  l«So. 
See  .l/tHHfe(  of  Amuot  Confiime-t,  ii,  4H7 ;  Spragiie, 
.4Hn«;»  of  f*e  ^mrr.  P»l]>il,  \u,  m\:  Sle^■eH^  lli$l.  if 
!*e.l/.  A\ai.-c*,iv,364.     (J.L.S.) 
Walker,  Joba  (1),  D.D.,  ■  minister  of  Eictcr, 


pelled  about  1800,  and  nriginaled  a  sect  called  ikt 
Charrk  of  GmL  He  died  Oct.  35,  1833.  He  t^ui 
several  matbemalical  and  clatucal  worka.  See  (l^md.) 
GenlUnuti't  Magatim,  1838,  ii,  btO. 

'Walker,  John  (4),  an  Engliah  clergyman,  oai 
bom  in  177a  He  was  educated  at  Oxfunl,  where  ht 
ne  fellow  of  New  College  i  and  was  vicar  of  Unna- 
rh,  Unex,  from  IS19  ualil  hit  death,  which  sou- 
red April  G,  1831.  Among  bis  published  wodu  ir. 
Curia  (hHmimnt.—^ttMtiimifCurioiit  Anirlrtfirm 
lAe  GnUkBum-t  Magamt  (IS09,  S  roU).  He  was  ak. 
le  of  the  original  proprieiom  of  the  Orford  HaM. 
id  for  several  yean  an  assistant  editor. 
^ITalkeT,  John  (A),  a  minister  of  the  AasocisM 
Church,  wss  born  in  Washington  Owniy,  l>a„  in  17«. 
He  was  educated  at  Jeffenoo  Odlege,  in   Lis  nsiivt 

licensed  in  1809.  He  Urst  settled  io  Mercer  Onuiy. 
Pa.,  where  he  remained  three  jean  preaching  to  va- 
rious cnngregalioi  ^   -» . .    -  >■ 


r.  Itlfil  (ta- 


rn 1846.     SeeSprague,/4«u6n/'rA<X» 
sociste),p.B5sq. 

Walker,  John  (6),  a  Heihoditt  Episcopal  nius- 
ler.  was  U™  in  Hampshire  County,  Ta.,  FcUSM,  ITs:. 
He  removed  with  hia  parenl*  to  Ohio  in  lt<l4;  voi 
converted  soon  afier;  joined  the  Ohio  CunfrreBce  ia 
1821 ;  and  served  with  great  leal  and  osefolnas  m  ihi 
following  circuits:  Kiiuk  and  Huron  in  18£t,  Vin 
Wheeling  in  1823,  Burlington  in  1824,  and  in  IRS 
Salt  Creek  Circuit,  where  he  died  of  pulmonary  cw- 
Bumplion,  See  Mmuta  of  Aimual  Cmtfernat,  18C, 
p.  540. 

Walker,  Jolm  (7),  a  Methodist  Eintcopal  tains- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Burlington  County,  N.  J.  He  was  cm- 
verted  at  Mount  Hully  in  his  nineteeiiih  year,  reniesd 
on  trial  in  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  IStKt.  and  ap- 
pointed to  the  Trenlun  Circuil.  anil  subee<)aeBtly  n 
the  following  places:  Flanders,  Salem,  Chester,  Brinal. 
riiilailelphia,  I^ncaster,  Smyrna,  Dauphin,  <.lluuc«"T. 
Uurlington,  New  Hills,  Freehold,  BargaiBlnwn,  Cam- 
den, and  SwedesboTiHigh.     In  1SS5  he  touk  a 


Lhfc 


in  Clarkihunuigh,  where  he  died  April  G,  1M9,  in 
eighty-Snh  year  of  hit  age.  He  wu  a  bkisi  Hicees^iJ 
preacher  in  winning  souls.  As  a  nun.  be  waa  unin<^ 
sally  beloTcd ;  ■■  a  Christian,  his  pir(y  was  deep  bbI 
genuine.     See  ifiNuro  ofXaaaoJ  Cua/erncri,  iv,Sja, 

Walker,  Joeeph  (l).  ■"  Engliah  CoDgn«aii<aal 
miniaier,  was  \fin  in  IW)2.  Mr.  Walker  was  f.^  nanT 
years  a  teacher  in  the  public  acboola.    He  s 


WALKER 

with  hi^h  hnnnn  it  Airedile  Collets,  and  bKime  pa*- 
tia  iif  N^rihitltrtiMi  ImlFpendenl  Church.  AtUr  yean 
nl  patlriit  Ubiir,  he  rciiiiivFd  lo  Heiham,  iiiil  in  IHiia 
Mi.ltcl  at  Deitiy.  Hr.Walktr  ww  wrtl  rer>«d  in  the 
Hr'jreiv  and  Ureek  Scriplures,  and  pimeMnl  ipecial 
rmillidJ  of  imputing  hia  knowledge  lo  nlhera.  He 
ditd  Ijec  3,1867.     See  (Land.)  Ctn^  r<(ir.tMhl,  1869, 

Walker,  ToBSph  (!),  an  EngliaTi  Wealeyan  min- 
iitPT,  wan  conrerted  at  the  age  of  fourteen  under  the 
miniMiy  of  John  Cimby.  In  1811  he  waa  accepted  ■* 
a  candiilau  for  the  miniMrr.  Owing  to  an  atfeciiuii  of 
tbe  linin,  he  waa  teraporarilv  laid  uide  at  Durer 
taa*  to  IB36.  He  became  a  inpemnmenn'  at  L 
BedronUhiR,  in  1846,  and  died  April  14,  18&7,  in  the 

of  great  uatriilneai.    See  IToK^an  MimUa,  18&7. 

^VmlksT,  JoMpb  B..  a  Mellioilist  Episcopal  mil 
iater,  waa  bom  at  Wilton.  He.,  in  1847.  He  wta  cni 
reited  at  tbe  a^e  nf  twpnty;  began  preaching  in  186! 
Bupplied  the  Lisbon  charice  in  1870;  and  in  1871  Joim 
the  Maine  Conference,  and  waa  appointed  to  Maple  Ci 
cuit,  where  be  labored  iwo  yean,  and  then  returned 
Wilton,  where  he  died  of  oonaumplion,  Aug.  SA,  187 
Mr.  Walker  waa  atudinus,  eameat,  and  very  promiain 
Se«  .Vtwtu  of  A  moml  Caofrrfnea,  1876,  p.  87. 

^7aUtsr,  Joalah  H.,  an  £ngliah  Wealeyan  mi 
iater,  (rat  bnm  in  London  in  1776.  He  waa  pious 
tnined  and  early  imiled  with  the  Chanh.  In  1804  1 
enured  the  aacred  oflice,  and  fur  thiny-fire  yean  di 
chanced  iu  dutiea  with  unwavering  fidelity  and  zei 
In  183G,  hia  healtb  failing,  he  aettkd  in  Uancheater. 
He  died  July  se,  1813. 

Walker.  Levi  (l),  %  prominent  layman  of  the 
Bapliat  denomination,  waa  bom  in  Rutland.Vt.,  Hay 
2J,  1777,  and  ii  aaid  in  have  been  the  Ant  white 
bom  in  that  town.  He  reirtoTed  to  Whiting,  Vt., 
hia  father's  family  in  1784,  uid  was  one  of  six  bmlheia, 
all  rirmenin  that  town,  their  farms  adjoining  and  furm- 
ingoneofthe  beat  tracta  of  land  in  Addison  County,  em- 
bracinK  about  twelve  hundred  acres  on  the  Otter  Creek. 
He  was  af^inled,  under  president  Haillson's  adminis- 
tration, asscaaot  for  the  towns  of  Whiting  and  Leicester, 
and  for  several  years  was  theflrst  constable  of  Whiting, 
ai>d  for  a  lime,  also,  a  selectman  of  the  town.  Like  his 
brother,  James  Otis,  he  was  pmvetbiil  for  hia  genems- 
i(y  and  his  public  spirit  "If  there  was  a  hiiuae  of  wor- 
ship lo  be  built,  a  minister  of  religion  to  be  obtained 
and  supported,  any  tienevalent  object  to  be  aided,  or 
public  improvement  to  be  aconmpliiheri,  his  pune  and 
influence  were  generously  offered,  and  to  these  was  ow- 
ing the  sueeeat  .if  many  a  benevolent  and  useful  enter- 
prise." In  his  will  he  bequeathed  to  the  town  of  Whit- 
ii^t  twenty  acres  of  land  at  Whiting  Centre,  one  acre 
to  Ik  used  fur  a  cemetery,  and  tbe  yearly  income  of  ten 
acrea  to  be  appmpriatnl  to  the  support  of  cummon- 
■chooli,  and  the  income  uf  the  remaining  nine  acres  to 
maintain  the  preaching  of  tbe  Goapel.  He  died  July 
27,  1832.  Up(>nhiSETape-iInneisthiains<!ription,-''l'he 
memory  of  his  public  spirit  will  outlast  this  monument, 
which  marks  the  humble  spot  whet*  be  lies."  See  the 
WalletT  MtmoriaL     (J,  C  S.) 

'Walkat.  L«t1  (i),  H.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
boni  in  1781.  He  spent  the  earlv  part  nf  bis  life  in 
Livtrmorr.  Me.  Not  far  from  the  year  18IM  he  became 
a  hopeful  Christian.  For  some  twelve  years  he  was  an 
earnest,  realous  preacher  in  the  Metho-lii-t  ileiuimina- 
tioll.  A  change  nf  sentiment  on  the  snlijrct  of  baptism 
led  him  to  sever  bis  connection  with  his  tletlioiliit 
hrethren,  and  to  unite  wiih  the  Baptislfi.  He  Joiueil 
the  Baptist  Church  in  Fall  Kiver,  Max.,  tlien  under  the 
chai^  of  Rev.  Mr.  Borden.  Having  fur  a  lime  preach- 
nl  tn  Pall  River,  New  Dedforrt,  and  F.<lGartown.  Mass., 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  nf  the  Warwii'h  aiui 
Coventry  Church,  R.  I.,  where  he  remsiiieil  until  mil>, 
wban  he  ttmoved  (a  IhvstoD,  Coon.    Subsequently  be 


13  WALKER 

removed  la  North  Slnnington,  Conn.,  where  he  contin- 
ued to  preach  and  practiije  his  profession  nearly  to  the 
close  of  his  life^  His  death  occurred  at  Winstead,  Conn., 
in  1871.    He  is  referred  to  as  "  a  preacher,  clear,  logical, 

cellence,bo>h  in  matter  and  manner."  His  pivfes^ual 
skill  as  a  phyaidan  was  everywhere  recognised,  and  had 
he  given  hi*  exclusive  attention  to  the  practice  of  med- 
icine, he  would  hare  acquired  dis^ncclon.  Three  of  hia 
suns  entered  tbe  Cbrlstian  ministry :  Kev.  W.  a  Walk- 
er, fur  some  time  the  Baptist  state  missionary  of  Cun< 
necticut;  Rev.  Levi  Walker,  Jt.,deceased:  and  Rev.  O. 
T.  Walker,  now  (1879)  pastor  of  the  Harvard  Street 
Church,  BustOD.  See  Fuller,  Bin.  of  Waneict,  p.  SS7. 
y.  C.  S.) 

'WallMr,  ITatluui,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mini»> 
ler,  was  bom  in  Montgomery  County,  Md.,  Ocu  20, 1793 ; 
Juineil  the  Ohio  Conference  in  IftiOi  waa  admitted  le 


n  1822,  a. 


I  eUier' 


n  I8J4;  i 


ddied 


of  typhus  fever,  Aug.  26, 1835.     See  Muiultt  o/AfamA 
CoH/trauxt,  1826,  p.  601. 

'Walker,  Obadlab,  a  teamed  divine,  flm  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  then  cf  the  Raman  Calhiilia 
Church,  waa  bom  at  Woraborough,  Vurkthire,  England, 
about  1616.  He  was  eilucatcd  at  Dniveraiiy  College, 
Oxford,  wberc  he  graduated  in  IGSfi;  took  holy  ordeta 
in  1638,  and  became  a  noted  tutor;  he  was  for  a  lima 
one  of  the  preachers  before  the  court  of  Charles  I  at 
Uxfurd.  In  Hay,  ItHS,  be  waa  ejected  from  his  fellow- 
ship, and  travelled  on  the  Continent,  residing  mostly  at 
Rome.  After  the  Restoration  he  was  reuiMated  in  hw 
fellawship,  and  made  another  visit  to  Rome  as  travel- 
ling tutor  to  some  young  gentleoieti.  in  1S76  he  w«« 
chosen  master  of  his  college,  and  waa  alao  assistant  to 
Abraham  Woodbead,  who  kept  a  popish  seminary.  He 
soon  b^an  lo  give  indications  of  a  decided  leaning  to- 
wards the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  He  went  to  LondoD 
in  1685,  and  on  his  return  to  college  ha  announced  hinv 
self  a  Roman  Catholic  He  had  maas  in  his  private 
lodgings,  and  in  1687,  under  letters  patent  from  King 
James,  began  tbe  publication  of  books  against  the  Be- 
furmeil  religion.  He  had  some  apartments  in  the  col- 
lege arranged  for  his  use  sa  a  chapel,  and  the  income 
of  a  fellowship  act  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  a  priest. 
For  these  acts,  which  were  viotations  of  law,  he  waa 
irapriaoned  in  the  Tower,  but  afterwards  released  in 
1690.  He  died  Jan.  SI,  1699.  Among  his  published 
works  are,  a  Grnh  and  Rnmini  Hitloiy,  lUailraltd  (y 
CaiaM  and  MidalM  {\6V1) -.—A  Brirf  Aavmt  of  An- 
ivKl  Ckiavi  CDwnuMil  (l662}:-.4ii  AuTorical  A'ar- 
raHm  of  lit  L^ft  imi  Dtatk  of  CkriU  (1685) :— and 

Walker,  Pat«r  J.,  ■  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  bnm  in  Will iamaon  Coun- 
ty,Tenn,,  1808;  pmfeaaed  religion  in  1841;  waslicensed 
to  preach  in  1851,  and  Joined  the  Alabama  Conference 
in  1858.  Ha  died  in  1860.  See  ^taufM  of  A  natal 
Confermaa  of  Ike  M.  E.  Cknn*.  Soalli,  1860,  p.  263. 

Walker,  Robert  (l)  (commonlv  called  the  Wtm- 
iln/nfAoAertH'oUer),  a  minister  of  the  English  Church, 
was  bom  at  Seathwaite,  England,  in  1709.  By  his  own 
industry  he  qualified  himself  for  holy  orders,  wax  or- 
dained, and  appointed  curate  of  Seathwaite  with  a  sal- 
uf_<w  jmutidi  per  annum.  This,  however,  was  af- 
terwards increared,  so  that  by  rigid  economy  he  was 
maintain  hia  family,  and  at  his  dralh  in  1802 
.wo  thousand  pounds.    See  his  f.i/i  by  Wonls- 


.rBh.  in 


leCano 


leUiii' 


f,  Kdin. 


[il7S7,    Kewasordainol 

an,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  second  charge  of 
mill  Leilh.  In  1754  he  was  again  removed  to  one  of 
G  collegiate  charges  of  the  High  Church,  Edinburgh, 


WALKER  8E 

wh<K  he  coDtlnoed  qnti)  hi*  dulb,  April  4, 1789.  He 
puliliBfaed  two  TOlumn  or  Strmau.  Sec  Mtmoir  pre- 
Uied  to  aU  aermimt, 

WaUUT,  Robert  0),  *n  En^ieb  HetbodiaC  praub- 
er,  wu  bom  in  Giteebeed-on-Tyne  in  1888 ;  wu  con- 
Tertsd  in  his  youtb  uhI  Joined  Ibe  New  Cnoneclion. 
Hia  wotIc  m  a  local  preacher  gave  promise  of  s  life  or 

in  1S68.  He  tnTeUed  in  Butule;,  Stockton,  lirerpoij, 
Birmingham,  and  Alnwick  1  and  at  the  end  oTlen  yean' 
aerviw  hi>  health  Tuled  him,  and  in  1874  he  became  a 
■upemuineraty.  Hoping  for  recoveiy.  be  took  a  voyafte, 
but  hig  uaerui  lire  waa  cut  abort  i  he  died  at  aea,  Dec  21, 
I87i.     See  Baggilj,  Digal  nftht  JleUiodul  Krv  Cm- 

'Walltar,  Samnal,  a  Cbareh  of  England  divine, 
waa  bom  it  Exeter,  Dec,  16,1714;  entered  Exeter  Cul- 
lege,  Oxfbnl,  in  17S2,  and  took  hia  A.B.  degree  in  1736; 
and  in  1787  waa  ordained  to  the  curacy  oT  Doddia- 
comtUeigh.  In  the  lollowiDg  Tear  be  travelled  in 
France,  and  added  muaic  K>  hia  acquintiona;  and  in 
ISB9  returned  and  reaumed  hia  miiiiatryaa  curate  ofLan- 
liret)-  in  ComwalL  Subaeqaently  he  reanred  to  the 
curacy  uf  Truro,  where  hia  apiritual  lire  underwent  ■ 
ndical  change  foi  tbe  better.  He  died  Jul*  19, 1761. 
Mr.  Walker  waa  atuaclive  and  commanding  in  per»u, 
ezpieaeive  in  Teatures,  frank  and  ooiirteoua  in  conver- 
awion.  Hia  tracts  are  conaidertd  of  great  ralue,  e*pe- 
dally  r**  CkriHiami  n  Count  of  Practical  Strmmi 
( 1 7M>},  thought  to  be  the  beat  in  tbc  English  language. 
Hia  poathuoMua  works  are,  Fiflg-lwo  Srrmora  on  llle 
Calfeiitm  (17«B)  ■—rractical  CliTvlianilt  :—Tk€  Coc 
(wrnf  (i/'GrHBU,— Tie  CiriHian  Mimr.  —  Tkr  Hrfian; 
or  GoiTi  UtHod  tif  Purifying  4i>  PtopU;—Tkt  Chi-U- 
tiim  Armor :  — Diatratt  Jirmowd.  See  Ckritliim  Ob- 
acTEVr,  Feb.  1877,  p.  IfiO ;  CAruftmt  RnmAraHcrr,  1838, 
p.  ;09j  Cknrck  qf  Eo^ad  Magotiar,  i,  468;  Sidney, 
Lift.ifimMlij,  and  Rtmaiat  fif  Samutl  Wulktr  (ISad). 

^)7alker,  Saondera,  a  Daptiat  miniater,  waa  bom 
MarcU  17,  1740,  in  Prince  William  County,  Va.,  He 
waa  a  brother  of  Rer.  Jeremiah  Walker.  Alrbough  he 
had  nnt  the  intellectual  ability  of  thia  htutho',  unlik 
him  he  piaacd  through  life  tritb  no  atain  left  upon  hi 
character.  He  ii  apoken  of  la  ■  remirluble  inatance  o 
the  transforming  influence  of  the  grace  of  God.    "Befor 


WALKINSHAW 

the  Wachiia  Conference  and  appointed  to  tbe  Haaifw 
"'  uil,  where  he  died,  June  S8, 1859.  Hr.Walkec 
inns  man,  full  of  leal  and  love  for  the  Cbuidi. 
of  hemorrhage  of  the  lunga.  See  Mt^ata  aj 
ConftraHxt  qflMtU.E.  Ciarci,  SotiA,  liM, 
p.  18!. 

Valkar,  Thomaa  (I),  a  minincr  «f  the  Societj 
of  Frienda,  waa  bom  in  Leeda,  Englasd,  id  17M.  He 
did  not  enjoy  many  edocational  advantage*,  yet  he  wn 
inalrumental  in  doing  much  good.  Hia  life  was  di«r~ 
acteriied  by  much  aimplicity,  and  by  a  cheerful,  buaible 
willingneai  to  do  wbat  he  could  in  tbe  serrin  of  the 
Sariour.  He  died  at  heaia,  Jnne  U,  18&1.  See  Aif 
mial  MoniloT,  186!,  p.  91. 

Walkar,  Tbomms  (2),  an  EngUdi  Wcderan  mia- 
later,  waa  received  into  the  Chorcb  in  early  lile,  into 
the  miniatry  in  18!4,  and  died  April  8,  I8S9.  He  wa 
realoua  in  hia  labors.  See  Walqai  JViaWn,  1830, 
p.b6&. 

'Walker,  Tbomu  (8),  an  KngUab  WaaleyiB  in» 
later,  was  converted  in  bis  fllteenth  year,  entered  ibe 
miniatry  in  18S4,  retired  in  1847,  and  aetiled  in  Tott. 
where  he  died,  July  7, 1848,  in  tbe  flftieih  year  of  bis 
age.  *■  Hia  qualificstiona  liiT  the  work  uf  thie  minianr, 
and  the  uprigbttMsa,  integrily,and  kioduea  maulcMed 
in  his  deportment,  made  hia  labon  to  be  eateeoed  ia 
pmportiun  aa  they  weie  koowtu"  See  (Fofaya  Mm' 
M<et,  1»8. 

^Valker,  ^T.  B.  C,  a  Hetbodiat  EpEwx^Ml  aiai^ 
ter,  waa  bom  in  Warren  Cnuoty,  Tenn.,  June  ii.  OSO, 
and  received  tbe  beat  training  in  early  life.  He  wis 
rerted  at  the  age  of  twenty-four;  Joined  the  Sooth' 


temper,  and  waa  much  addicted  to  the  rice*  naturally 
attendant  on  aucb  a  disposition.  But  the  Divine  Sfdrit 
not  only  changed  his  heart,  but  his  nature  Ino ;  ao  that 
be  was  ever  after  iHttinguiahed  for  the  mrekneaa  and 
gravity  of  hia  deportmeiiL  The  mfrk  Sauadfri  Watirr 
■aa  a  proverbial  eipression  among  all  wlie  knew  him." 
In  the  twenly-aerenthyeatc^hia  age  he  began  to  preach 
the  (inspel,  and  continued  In  tbe  office  of  the  miniatry 
(•ir  lliirtv.eii:ht  vesra.  Fur  some  time  he  had  charge 
ofaChu'rchinButeCunnty.KC.  Inl783beren; 
to  tjeorgia,  where  he  remained  during  the  reat  of  bia 
life.  For  a  time  he  and  Rev.  Daniel  Marshall  were  the 
only  ordained  ministers  in  the  upper  part  of  the  srate. 
It  was  a  period  of  great  polilicnl  excitement,  and  party 
spirit  ran  very  high.  Mr.  Walker  was  often  called  to 
inediate  in  caiea  nf  political  animiwitie*,  and  to  recinH-ile 
thnge  who  had  beoume  alienated.  The  gentleneaa  of 
bia  character,  and  his  freedom  from  the  bitiemeaa  which 
tiima  friends  into  enemies,  eminently  litted  him  to  be  a 
peacemaker,  and  be  had  the  blening  which  nur  Lord 
prnnounoes  on  those  who  are  peacemakera.  After  a  life 
of  great  usefulness  ID  the  cause  of  his  Msater,  nearly 
fi«y  years  of  which  were  apent  in  the  active  duties  of 
the  ministry,  he  died  in  I80».  See  Benedict,  Hitlory 
ijfOif  BapMi,  ii,  829.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Walkar,  Blmeon  R.,  a  minister  in  the  Hetbodiat 
E)usGnpal  Church,  South,  waa  bora  in  MacNairy' Coun- 
ty, Tenn.,  Jan.  8,  1834.  He  professed  leliginn  at  the 
age  of  flfleen,  and  was  received  Inra  (he  Memphis 
Cuiifereoce  Id  1864,     In  1856  be  was  tranaferied  to 


n  lUiiK 


lOinferenceln  J865iands( 


at  New  Haven,  Carmi,GTavville,Hari 
borough,  where  be  died,  Jw.  II,  IS7S.  Hr.  Walker  wm 
a  man  of  remarkable  energy  and  tailbfulneaa.  See  Ifas- 
Mnn/^niiuJ  Cffn/tmc«,  1878,  p.  186. 

WaUcar.^XTllllwii,  (1),  a  learned  English  divisv 
waa  bnm  in  Lincolnshire  in  1631  Amonp  other  wnrbi, 
he  puhlinhed  a  TrttOitt  m  KiigKiA  PanUtt,  and  /di- 
omaiulogia  Angh-fjOtina.     Hedied  ia  1684. 

'Walker,  WllUam  (3),  a  Baptist  minister,  wa 
bom  in  DighIon,HaBa.,Sept.  19,1817.  Whenayoacf 
man  be  reuded  in  New  Bedford,  where  be  learned  the 
trade  of  a  ahipwrighi.  While  chiia  engaged,  he  hean 
a  hopeful  Chrialian,  and  bia  attenlioD  was  boob  turned 
to  the  Chriatian  ministry.  He  was  prepared  fvt  cdIV|* 
at  tbe  Academy  in  Middleborongh,  ar>d  was  a  gndjiate 
of  Brown  University  in  the  chus  of  184S.  He  poraarf 
Iheolngical  studies  at  the  Newton  Institniioo  fat  lii 
months,  and  then  went  to  the  West,  where  he  tout* 
eveiywhere  an  open  field  for  ministerial  labiw.  For  s 
year  and  a  half  be  preached  at  Dixon,  lU.    While  at- 

IlL,  he  waa  attacked  by  a  fatsl  disease,  and  lived  ooly 
nine  dsr^  driiig  Oct.  M,  1846.    See  tbe  tf  aOxr  Jfeiw 

™itp.9i.  '(J. as.) 

Walker,  'William  H ,  a  preacher  of  tbe  Cnitsd 
Uethodist  Free  Chnnh,  waa  bom  at  Liverpool,  Uay  II. 
1810.  Hia  pious  parenta  gave  him  a  good  education,  and 
as  a  boy  he  Joined  a  Methodist  clan  meeting.  In  18I> 
he  separated  from  tbe  Wealeyans  and  Joined  tbe  Aia*- 
elation.  After  careful  preparation,  he  entered  tbe  aun- 
iatry  in  1840,  and  began  a  missian  at  H  amburg.  when 
he  labored  for  seven  yean,  both  Engliah  and  American 
Joining  hia  Church.  He  returned  to  England  in  1M7. 
In  1856  hia  health  gave  way,  and  for  twenty-one  yean 
he  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Salfonl  Cemetny.  He 
serveil  his  generation  failhfuUv,  and  died  of  apojdeir, 
Aug.  26,  1878.  See  Mimtt  of  the  HA  Amimal  jit- 
tatblf. 

Walklnahaw,  HuoH,a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  was  bom  in  the  County  of  An- 
trim, Ireland,  June  IIS,  1803.  He  icDiot'ed  with  his  fa- 
thei'a  family,  in  1819,  lo  Belmont  County,  O.,  and  «« 


WALKYKIES  8! 

aflcrwarde  educated  in  Franklin  College,  when  be  f(nd- 
OHted  ID  18S7.  He  iludied  theo]Dg7  undeT  Dr.  Bln:k, 
omtuburgb.aud  Dr.  Wylw,  of  Philadelphia.  He  waa 
UceiiKd  to  pieach  in  188!,  and  ia  tlie  (pring  of  1836 
wu  Kttltd  aa  paiUir  of  ihe  congregation!  of  Bniokland, 
North  Wailiington,  Union,  Pine  Creek,  etc,  Pa.  In 
1B41  the  chargewu  divided,  and  he  nmaioed  aa  paator 
■t  Brookland  and  North  Waahingion,  where  he  coniin- 
oed  lo  labor  until  hii  death,  which  occarred  April  19, 
ISU.  See  Sprague,  Atmali  of  the  Anur.  Pulpil,  ii, 
83  iq. 

^ValkTilaa  (An^lo-Saion,  Valegrigair,  (ma  val, 
the  baUte-Geld,  and  fy/ra,  to  chooae),  in  Mona  mjrlhol- 
"  Offf,  an  two  beautiful  young  maideni  in  the  aerrice  of 
Odin,  as  bia  cup-bearen,  called  /mil  and  Jf ix— the  for- 
mei  [lame  Bgnifiring  a  black  doud,  Che  latter  a  watery, 
floating  vapor.  In  general,  ihey  are  imagined  ai  hover- 
ing over  UaltiM,  or  even  participating  in  the  conflict, 
marking  with  Ihfl  point  of  the  lanw  Cba  heroea  who 
ahall  fall,  and  whotn  they  BhaU  conduct  lo  Walhalla. 
Tbey  naiewhat  reaemble  the  Hours  or  Destiniea,  but 
never  attain  thaC  lofty  and  nnapproachable  dignity 
which  chaiaoterizet  thoae  deitiea.  The  Walkyries, 
though  BUperhuman,  are  not  goddeaaea.  Tbe?  fall  in 
love  with  men,  and  then  confer  their  favon  in  battle  aa 
thej  are  prompted  by  their  own  pauiona.  For  this 
Odin  expela  them  from  Walhalla,  dooma  them  to  toar- 
riage,  ot  drivea  them  into  a  trance,  where  they  lie  aleep- 
ing  until  the  warrior  contee  who  underatanda  bow  Co 
break  the  apelU 

"WaU  (prop.  I^p,  aa  a  drfmct,  or  n^lH,  as  a  haf 
ritr;  aomeliraea  niC.  perhaps  from  its  roeiychanicteri 


5  WALL 

the  case  of  the  Temple,  and  in  the  pioent  day  with 
■tructure*  intended  to  be  permanent  ( Joaepbna,  ^  nf.  sv, 
11,3;  RobinM>n,ii,8ae:  CoJl  a.CAron.  [IS&7],  p.4(i9). 
The  paina  taken  by  the  ancient  buildere  to  make  good 
the  roundaUona  of  their  work  may  atill  be  seen,  both  in 
the  existing  lubacructiona  and  in  the  number  of  old 
Btonea  used  in  more  modem  conatructiona.  Some  of 
these  stones — ancient,  but  of  uncertain  date — are  from 
30  feet  to  SO  feet  10  inchea  long,  S  feet  to  S  feet  6  inches 
broad,  and  &  feet  to  7  feet  G  inchea  deep  (Robinson,  i, 
238,  383,  2Sfl:  iii,  3S8>.  Aa  ia  the  caae  in  numberlesa 
inatanees  of  Syrian  boildings,  either  old  or  built  of  old 
materials,  the  edges  and  aametimea  the  faces  of  cbcae 
atone*  are  "  bevelled"  in  Sac  groovea.    Thia  ia  commoo* 


IS  from 


.t1-11,(u 


sioaaUy  3*11,  from  its  ttrtitglk  ;  y"^^,  from  its  aUrior 
poaitian ;  ^^'^'7>  from  being  dun,  ^c. ;  Gr.  teIxoc).  The 
walls  of  ancient  cities  and  of  bouses  were  gcoerally 
built  of  earth,  or  of  bricks  of  clay  mixed  with  reeds  or 
straw  and  hanlennl  in  Cbe  aun.  When  any  breach 
took  place  in  such  a  mass  of  earth,  either  by  hear; 
rains  or  by  some  defect  in  the  faiindaCion,  the  conse- 
quences were  aeiious  (Gen.  ilii,  6;  Psa.  1x11,3;  Isa. 
XXX,  IS).  It  is  not  surprising  that  walla  which  were 
oRen  made  iu  auch  a  rude  and  perishable  manner  could 
be  easily  destroyed  by  Are  (Amos  i,  7, 10,  H}.  The  ex- 
tensive mounds  DO  the  pUins  of  Mesopotamia  and  Aa- 
^ria,  mailing  the  sitea  of  ancient  cities,  show  that  the 
walla  were  principally  constructed  of  earth  or  clay. 
The  thickness  of  tbe  wall  surrounding  the  palace  of 
KhorsabadisflxedbyDoltaat  48  feet  9  inchea;  a  very 
close  approximation  to  tbe  width  of  the  wall  of  Nine- 
veh, upon  which  three  chariola  could  be  driven  abreasl. 
The  wall  of  Babylon  waa  87  feet  broad,  and  aix  chariots 
could  bo  driven  together  upon  it  Mot  unfrequentlr 
ttone  walla,  with  towers  and  a  fosse,  surrounded  forti- 
fied cities  (Isa.  ii,  t£;  ix,10,  x:tvi,  1;  Neh.  iv,8!  Zeph. 
i,  l«).    See  FoBTii'iCATioii. 

Houses  ahutting  on  cha  city  wall  frequently  had 
windows  which  commnnicated  with  Ihe  exterior  (Joah. 
ii,  15;  1  Sam.xix,  13;  Acta  ix,  94,  25;  3  Cor.  xi,88: 
see  HacketC,  lUatL  of  Script,  p.  67  iq.).     See  WtMDOW. 

In  Scripture  language  a  wall  ia  the  aymbol  of  reaist- 
anoe  or  separation.  See  Fence.  The  Lord  tells  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  (i,  IS;  xv,  20)  IbaC  he  will  make 
him  aa  a  wall  of  brasa,  to  wichatand  the  house  of  Israel. 
Paul  saya  (Eph.  ii,  14)  that  Christ,  by  his  death,  broke 
dawn  Ihe  parCirion-wall  that  aepariled  ua  from  (iod,  or 
lather  the  wall  that  separated  Jew  and  Gentile ;  so  that 
these  two  people,  when  converted,  may  make  but  one. 
See  Partition. 

Only  a  few  other  paints  need  here  be  noticed  in  ad- 
dition u>  what  has  been  aaid  elsewhere  on  wall  con- 
at  ruction,  whether  in  brick,  alone,  or  wood.  See  Brick; 
HanpicRAFTi  MoRTAn. 

I.  The  practice  was  common,  in  Palestine,  of  carrying 
1  to  Che  solid  nick  (Luke  vi,  48),  as  in  , 


■■■"^ 

:::::::. 

S|>cclmens  ot  Ancient  Walta. 


_.ooglc 


WALL  ARCAMNG  8( 

Iv  auppnwd  10  indicate  work  at  IriM  m  oIiI  u  the  Ro-  I 
mui  period  (ibiil.  i,  Ml,286;  ii,  ;G,78,2;S,Si3;  iii.Ci!, 
58.84,229,461,498,511;  Fergunon,  H-rndb-n/Ardiami. ' 
p.  288).  Oil  the  coiimrv  »ide,  s«  Co/.  CA.  Ckr/m.  (1858),  I 
P.SGO. 


Butt) 


leoTll 


id  by 


lenftliuie  Bl  tlull>ek,thrre  of  trhicli  ireencli  ahoi 
63  feet  long;  ami  cnie,  still  lying  in  the  quarry,  meat- 
ur»  68  feet  4  iiichn  in  leii{;lli,  17  feet  2  incheB  browl, 
and  14  feet  7  inclien  thicli.  Its  weijtlil  can  tcsrwly  be 
IcH  than  GOO  t»n9(ltuliiii>aii,iii, 505,512;  Valiie]:,l'r(ir. 
ii,24l).     SceSroSK. 

2.  A  feature  uf  avtne  paru  nf  Solomon'a  bulMinga,  lU 
deacribnl  by  Jonepbiiii,  eorres|K<iulii  remariiably  to  the 
metlind  adapteil  at  Miiicvch  uf  encmaling  or  veneerini- 
a  will  uf  brivh  or  alone  with  slaba  uf  a  more  coetly  ma- 
terial, ai  marble  or  ababaaler  (Joaephiu,  .laf.  riii,  5,  2; 
Ferguaioii,  tlmM.  of  A  rchaoL  p.  202, 208). 

3.  Another  use  of  lh«  villa  in  Paleitiiie  is  [o  support 
mountain  roada,  or  terraces  formed  on  ttie  aidea  of  hills 
for  parpoaea  of  ciiltiriiiun  (RobininD,  ii,  49(1;  iii,  14, 4&). 
Hence  the  "  path  nf  the  vineyarda"  (Numb,  xxii,  24)  i* 
illuMrateil  bv  Kubinnon  aa  a  pathway  lhrou([h  vine- 
yards, wilb  walls  on  each  aide  (£iM.Ae>.ii,  80;  Sunley, 
Sh.  and  Pal.  p.  102, 42U  i  Li nda«y,  Trar.  p.  236 ;  Maun- 
drell,  fiarlff  True.  p.  437).     See  ViNt 

Wall  Arcadlag,  a  aeriea  of  niches  added  aa  nn 

charts  Scntlaiiil,  niul  at  All-Sail itn',  Stamfun),  it  adorns 
the  exterior  of  ilie  Church.  At  Balrle,  Merlon,  Roch- 
ester, and  Drecon  there  is  a  very  lofty  aeriea  of  w 


'Wall,  Andraw  J.,  a  Melhodiat  Episcopal  n 


'e  of  Ind 


i;  joii 


riCon 


iville.  Laticaaler, 
and  Ashley  circuit*.  After  being  locaieil  for  some  lime, 
he  waa  sgain  admitted  in  1859,  and  a^inied  (o  Lin- 
nena  Circuit.  In  1860  he  Has  auperannualed ;  after 
which  he  resided  in  Lapnrte,  Mo.,  and  Hnilt*  aeitleil 
near  FairAeM,  la.,  where  he  died  in  1806.  Mr.  Wall 
wai  a  man  of  clear  intellect,  averaj^e  ability,  and  pna- 
seased  an  exemplary  spirit  of  humility.  See  MinHla 
<,/  A  muat  Coa/cmiCM,  J86S,  p.  7. 

Wall,  Oeorge,  an  English  Methodist  preacher, 
and  nne  of  the  nrij^inal  promoters  of  the  New  Connec- 
tion, was  born  in  ilic  Peak  of  Derbyihire  in  1774 
wo  conreiteil  among  the  Methodists  a(  the  a; 
twenty,  Ktmnving  lo  the  villaRt  of  Arnold,  Notlini;- 
ham,  he  Joined  llie  New  Connection,  and  was  accepted 
in  tliia  minialrj'  in  1799,  ami  his  aereiiteeii  appoinl- 
menls  embraced  the  leadinff  circnila  in  the  Connection, 
in  which  his  inlegriiy,  piety,  and  derotion  secured  for 
him  acceptaoco  ami  (treat  usefulness.  He  waa  three 
times  president  of  conference— in  1809,  1815,  and  1882. 
In  1838  declining  health  obliged  him  ft  become  a  super- 
numerary, but  hia  forty  years'  labors  comforted  him  in 
his  retirement.  He  enjnyed  unclouded  peace  in  his  last 
hours,  and  died  at  Ughtclitle.  near  Halifax,  March  ' 
1852.     See  Uhvln  n/ihe  X'a  Conaeetim  Cuffirtace. 

Wall,  John.  D.D.,  an  En^llah  divine,  was  bom  i 
1588;  became  prebendary  of  OxfunI  in  1682;  and  die 
1666.  He  published  i  niiniber  of  ^ermoiu  and  olhi 
product  ion& 

Wall,  Tbomaa.  an  English  Wealeyan  miasionari', 
was  sent  out  to  St.  Mary's,  Weaiern  Africa,  in  1837,  ar- 
riving there  Nov.  26.  He  was  atudious,  diligent,  afie 
tionsle,  and  faithful  to  all  his  duties.  His  promising 
life  was  cut  short  by  a  paroxysm  of  fever,  and  he  died 
Aug.  24, 1868,  exactly  a  year  after  the  death  of  the  la- 
mentcil  young  Henry  Wilkinson,  who  precedeil  him 
on  the  station.  See  Mmata  of  the  BrilM  Cm/treaee, 
1839. 

Wall.'WilUBm,  D.D,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
in  1646.  He  waa  fur  Sftr-lwo  Tcan  (1676-1728)  vicar 
of  Shoreham,  Kent,  where  he  died  in  1728.     lie  pub- 


WALLACE 

works,  among  which  are,  Iifattl  Bap- 

litmAlKTlrdatiilViiidicaltd(l6:i):—/lulorjn//wfaiil 

Hnptim.  n  TKo  Farlt  (1705) !— and  CrilUat  Sola  om 

the  Old  Talamna  (I7S4). 

Wallace,  BenjamiD  Jobn,  D.D.,  lo  cminnt 

Presbyterian  divine,  wis  bom  at  Erie,  fa..  June  10. 
10.     He  made  a  profession  of  religion  when  in  bn 
elflh  year;  received  an  appoiniment  of  a  cadeiship 
the  We»t  Point  Mililarj-  Academy,  N.Y,  in   I8S7; 
graduateil  at  the  Princeton  (X.J.)  Theological  Seni- 
■    """i  waa  licensed  by  the  Donegal  Pre«byie(7 
,    ir;  ordained  by  the  MuhienburgPresbyterv 
aa  pastor  ufthe  Churcb  at  KuMellville.  Ky.,  in  1834;  he- 
me pastor  of  the  Church  it  York,  l*a.,  in  1637;  wn 
ded  pmfesaor  of  languages  in  Newark  CoUef^.  DcL. 
184C,  where  he  was  faithful  as  an  instructor:  chosen 
ilor  of  the  Pmbflmai,  Qaarltrlg  Jttriew  ID   18*!, 
d  for  ten  j-rars  he  sustained  it  with  great  aUliiT. 
lis  waa  the  most  important  labor  of  hia  life.     Hwh 
the  inicreat  of  the  Jttrine  was  created  by  his  own  ar- 
ticles.    In  all  Ills  reviews  nf  books  and  editofiab  then 
iestness.a  vivacity.and  afteshneaalhst  made 
ible,  and  some  wcie  marked  by  great  els. 
quence  and  power.     He  wrote  al)  the  book-notices  dnr- 
'  _    *  "Ills  editorial  charge,  and  forty H*t 

articles  on  various  aubjecta.  He  published  two  siii-le 
5rrHDfu,aiid  was  a  contributor  to  the  BiUioflirTa  Snrm, 
etc.  He  died  JuIt  2&,  1862.  See  Wilwrn.  Ptnt.  Itiu. 
.Knnanc,  18G3,r.Bll;  Mibnnr, Kit.  n/Biif.(H>JA»rT. 
A  ulhori.  a.  v. ;  /^ri4.  Qaur.  lirr.  Oct.  186!,  p.  !84-)<& 
(J.  L.  8.) 

^Tallace.  Craomara,  a  clergyman  ofihe  Prates- 
tant  Episcopal  Church,  waa  bom  in  Ackworth,  N.  U. 
Feb.  27,  leoS.  Mr.  W.  waa  educated  at  Danmooth 
College,  gndiisting  in  1824,  and  engaged  for  a  ttian 
time  in  teaching  at  Boston  and  other  towns  in  Ubbib- 
chuKtlB,  As  early  aa  1830  he  removed  to  Suulh  Caro- 
lina, where  for  the  first  ten  yean  of  his  Tciidence  be 
was  the  principal  of  the  Chcraw  Academy.  Here  he 
began  the  study  of  theology :  became  principal  of  tie 
South  Carolina  Male  School,  Charleston ;  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1836,  and  priest  a  year  ihereaflcr.  Hia  eatfy 
clerical  labors  were  spent  as  a  misaionai^-  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  stsU,  after  which  he  became  rrrtor  otSt 
David's  Church,  Cberaw.  Subsequenlly  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  pariahea  of  St.  James,  James's  bland: 
St.  John's,  Berkeley;  and  in  1818  he  accepted  an  io- 
viutiun  to  St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  in  Charleston.  He  na 
alsorecuir  oftbe  Church  Home,  and  waa  fur  many  yean 
secretary  of  the  Diocesan  Convention  and  a  memb«  of 
the  standing  committee  of  the  diocese.  He  died  hi 
Charleston,  Feb.  3, 1860.  See  A  mtr.  Quar.  Ckurck  Sa. 
18i;ii.p.  181. 

Wallace,  OeorBe^KT.,  a  minister  oftbe  bptoi 
denominaiioii,  was  bom  at  Berkeley,  Ham,  Feb.  19, 
1814.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  profeeaedhU  faith  ia 
Christ,  and  united  with  the  Free  Baptist  Church  ia 
Pawlucket,  a  I.  In  1836  he  was  licensed  to  prtadi  I? 
the  Khode  Island  Quarterly  Meeting.  Forsevetal  ycaiN 
svch  was  the  stale  of  his  lieallh  that  he  was  able  u 
preach  only  occasionally.  During  this  time  he  in- 
proved  bis  mind  by  study,  and  thus  prepared  himself 
for  more  extensive  usefulness.  He  was  ordaineid  ■■ 
Rehobnth,  Mass.,  Aug.  23, 184&  The  churches  of  whidi 
he  was  pastor  were  at  Hebrunville,  Kehobotb,  and  Far- 
numviUe,MBaa.;  GeorgiaviIleandApponaug,iLI.;  East 
Killingly,  Conn. ;  and  in  one  or  two  other  places.  Ui> 
miiiiBiry  in  Apponaiig,  tnm  1870  to  1877,  waa  one  of 
markeil  succesa.  When  his  age  and  failing  health  c«b- 
pelleil  liim  lo  retire  from  his  pastoral  work,  he  iMamed 
lo  his  native  village,  where  he  apent  the  remainder  d 
hia  life,  with  the  exception  of  the  laat  few  montha.  He 
died  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept.  1 1, 1880.  See  obitsary 
notice  in  the  Froridran  JviiniaL     (J.C  8.) 

Wallace,  Heniy  C,  a  Methodist  Rpiaenpal  ni»- 
isler,  waa  botn  in  Winchester,  111,  Nov.  b,  JB8S.      tit 


WALLACE  ( 

wma  convened  in  bis  nineteenth  year,  anil  in  1858  join- 
ed the  lUiooiaConfeienre  and  wn  appointed  tii  Butler- 
viUe.  Tbe  next  year  lie  waa  diacuiiliaued. 
be  waa  again  receired  and  filled  Ibe  fullowing  charges: 
I*et«nburgh  and  Athens,  Sangamon,  Springfield  Cir- 
cuit, Pecenburgh,  I'awnee,  Giraid,  Whitehall,  Wbite- 
hall  arcuii,  Tupeka,  and  .'Saiigainan  Circait,  where  he 
died.  SepL  29, 1M76.     Mr.  Wallace  waa  a  nan  of  great 

if  inula  of  A  aaaoJ  CtM/ernicri,  187S,  p.  14i 

'Wallace,  Jatnas,  embarked  in  November,  1845, 
aa  a  Wesle.vaii  miuirniarr  fot  the  islam)  nf  t3evloii, 
which  he  reached  in  aafety.  En  June,  1846,  he' waa 
driven  out  to  aea  while  un  his  way  TrDm  JalTiia  tn  Bil- 
tiealoa,  and  for  «ix  days  BuffBred  groat  privations  and 
dsn^r*  in  a  imall  crafi  in  the  Bay  of  IkngaL  From 
the  effects  of  thi)  eKposure  he  never  appear*  tfl  hare 
ncavtnti.  He  die.1  at  (Jolomho,  April  21, 1847,  dwply 
regretlel  liy  ihon  nhu  had  witnessed  hii  zeal  Tur  the 
ocmversion  oCIiidia.  &et  Miimlaa/ WttUyimConfrr- 
mix*,  1817. 

'^Allaca.  John  (I), a  Methodiii  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, vas  bom  in  North  Carolina  in  17a&  He  spent  the 
eaHy  part  of  his  life  in  ignorance  and  wickedness;  was 
omvertcil  at  the  ago  of  twenty-aix(  received  lioeiise 
a*  a  local  preacher  two  jean  later;  labored  with  ac- 
cepiaaee  in  that  capacity  about  twenty-four  years; 
and  in  1818  joined  the  Hissouii  Conference,  and  worli- 
ed  with  success  Yinccniiai  and  Patoka  dreuila.  In 
1831  he  united  nith  the  Ohio  Conference  and  served 
on  Blue  River  Circaii  until  his  death,  Aug.  37,  1821. 
Mr.  Wallace  was  not  a  brilliant  speaker,  yet  Bubiilan- 
tial  and  powerful  The  law  and  the  promises  were 
bis  great  themes.  See  .WhiUu  n/Aaimal  ConftitHcrt, 
1 824.  p.  424. 

'Wallace,  Jotan  (2),  a  Presbyterian  minitter,  was 
bom  near  Uap,  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  I,  1791.  He 
w-u  ■elf.fditcaud,  but  out  of  regard  to  hii  claasical  and 
theological  attainments  was  licensed  by  New  Caille 
Pmbyteri-,  and  ordained  by  the  same  in  1832  as  pas- 
tor of  the  I'vqua  Church  in  Lancaster  County,  which 
was  his  only  charge.  Here  he  laboreit  failbfullv  and 
successfully  f..r  nearly  thirty  years.  He  dieil  Ocu  23, 
18«6.  He  vta  an  eminently  good  and  faithful  nun. 
See  Wilson,  PrrA.  Hul.  Alman-ic,  1867,  p.  214. 

'WaUace.Jonatluui.H.tUa  Universalist  minis- 
ter, was  nf  Scotch  descent,  bom  at  Peterborough,  N.  H„ 
March  20,  I78L  He  removed  with  his  father  t<>  Berlin, 
Vl.^  in  1795,  where  he  received  a  good  common-schoDl 
education,  and  taught  school  for  several  years;  studied 
Diedicine  in  his  yuunf;  manhood,  and  fur  som 
lowed  tbe  medical  profesaion ;  and  finally  embraced 
Universalism,  and  in  18IG  began  preaching.  His  first 
fields  of  labor  wore  Richmond,  Williaton,  and  Jericho, 

he  moved  to  Potsdam,  S.  Y.,  where  for  several  years 
he  atDOd  almost  alone  as  a  preacher  of  Universal- 
ism,  hia  circuit  embracing  Canton,  Mailrid,  Picrr»- 
poat,  Hopkintnn,  Malone.  Bangor,  and  Potsdam,  in 
which  latter  place  he  wm  pastor  over  twenty  yean. 
Id  1837  he  b«|^n  in  PotsdaDi  the  publication  ofa  semi- 
monthly Universalist  paper,  which,  not  paying  ex- 
penses, waa  anon  HmppoL  He  was  afterwards  associ- 
ate editnr  of  Tit  Keatgflictd  Magtaint  anil  Gmptl  Ad- 
roeate  at  Utica,  N.  T.  He  went  tn  Boston  in  1828  to 
be  treated  fur  epile|ii>yj  preached  there  aUiut  a  y«ar, 
spent  bis  latter  yean  in  Potsdam,  and  died  April  6, 
Mr.  Wallace  was  a  close,  original  thinker,  and 


17  WALLAUER 

Carmel  Academy,  Tipton  County,  Tenn.,  unde,-  the  to. 
ition  of  the  Rev.  James  Holme*,  D.D.,  anil  graduated 
at  tbe  CuUcge  of  New  Jersey  in  1849.  He  made  a 
proftasion  of  religion  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age, 
and  united  with  the  Church  of  hit  parents,  tbe  riiplar 
Tent  Church.  Immediately  after  hia  college  gradua- 
tion, he  entered  Princeton  l'heol<^ical  Scmioarv,  where 
he  spent  three  yeant,  regnlarlv  graduating  in  1862.  He 
was  licensed  by  the  New  Brunswick  Preshyterj-  April 
28,  18a2.  Ho  begsii  his  minisirv  in  Texaa,  where  ha 
preached  two  years— 1853  and  18M-a*  supply  to  the 
churches  of  Jefferwn  and  Hickory  Hill,  hariiig  been 
ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  IVeshvlery  of  Kast- 
em  Texas  April  4,  1868,  at  Church  llill.  Husk  C.'., 
Teiss.  Next  he  supplied  Htckorv  Hill  and  Smvriia 
cliurches  fmni  1856  to  ISCO,  when  he  moved  to  his 
last  and  longest  Held  of  labor,  and  became  supply  o( 
Marlbriiok  and  Greenwood  (now  Hope)  churches,  in 
Ouachita  Preebyleiy,  Ark.  Here  he  labored  assidu- 
Dual  J  and  faithfully  for  more  than  eighteen  years, 
until  bis  death,  June  21,  1878.  He  had  no  fear  of 
death,  but  during  bis  uckness  often  expressed  a  wish 
to  live  longer  su  that  he  might  do  something  mnre 
fur  the  Master.  But  his  work  was  <lone,  and  well 
done.  He  waa  an  honest,  earnest,  and  faithful  preacher 
of  the  GospeL  a  linn  and  devoted  friend,  true  in  all 
the  reUtions  of  life.    <W.  P.  S.) 

^Tallaoo,  Robert  (I),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine,  was 
bom  in  Perthshire  in  1697;  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
veniiy  of  Edinburgh}  became  minister  of  Sloffat  in 
1723;  also  of  Ureyfrian'  Church,  Edinburgh,  in  1783 
and  died  in  17TI.  He  published,  A  DiMte^uiun  on  lii 
A'umAn'i  o/  Moakiad  i»  Ancunt  and  Mockm  Tima 
{l763):-~CkaraeleH$lici  of  the  Prarnl  PoUlicat  Slair 
of  Gnat  Bi-ilain  (l768)i-aDd  Variom  Pro^tcU  «f 
Maiikiad,  Xafair,  and  PncilrrKt  (I'BI). 

Wallace,  Robait  (2),  a  minister  of  the  Reform, 
ed  Presbytecisn  Church,  waa  bora  in  the  parish  of 
Lnughgilly.  Oiunty  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  December, 
1772.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univernly  of  Glasgow, 
from  which  be  graduated  in  1810.  Tlie  next  spring  he 
removed  to  America  with  his  family,  consisting  of  a 
wife  and  four  children.  He  studied  theology  under  Dr. 
Wylie,  of  Philadelphia,  and  was  licensed  in  1814.    tn 


the  ai 


e  year  h. 


sved  a  call  from 


very  U 


He 


Bcripta,  iocluding  a  volume  of  original  hymns  (iir  public 
worship.  He  devoted  much  of  his  time  pre|>aring 
voting  men  for  tbe  minialty.  See  Ciiircrtufut  Rript- 
(er,  1874,  p.  126. 

VTallBO*,  Maicna  Jediah,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
iaur,  was  bom  Jane  19,  1819,  io  Cabarrus  County, 
K  C     H«  tCMiTed  hii  ptepantory  education  at  Mount . 


in  Kentucky  and  the  other  ni 
ie,  0„  and  was  ordained  and  installed  in  the  pas- 
t.     He  continued  in  this  relation  until  1820,  when 
signed  the  charge  in  Kentucky  and  retained  the 
lear  Chillicolhe.     He  waa  instrumental  in  oif;ai>- 
several  siwietiea  within  convenient  disunce  of 
lome.     In  1822  he  received  a  call  Onm  the  ihraa 
lira  which  he  had  esiaUislieil  at  Salt  Creek.    Here 
intinued  to  labor  aa  pastor  of  these  societies  and  as 
the  adjoining  neighborhoods  during  the 
hii  life,     lie  dinl  Julv  19,  1849.     See 
Sprsgiie,.4niwi«n/"/As.4m*T. /■«/;>*,  ii,  p. 66  sii. 

\7allace,  ^Villlam,  a  PreidiyuiiBn  minister,  wm 
bom  ill  Chester  County,  Pa.,  March  IT,  1787.  He  grad- 
uated at  JeHeraon  Oiilege,  l'a,i  studied  theology  pri- 
vately; was  tioeused  by  Steubenville  Presbytery  iti  1821. 
and  immediately  entered  upon  the  work  of  a  domestic 
missionary,  going  through  the  new  settlements  of  East- 
em  Ohio,  and  galheriug  up  and  forming  nuclei  from 
which  have  arisen  sotna  pn    * 


gr^ations  of  Nottingham  and  Freeport,  (>.,  in  which 
relation  he  continued  for  eighteen  vean.  He  ilied  Dec. 
18, 1841.  Hr.  Wallace  had  Hie  reputation  of  being  a  man 
of  ardent  piety  and  practical  worth.  He  was  faithful 
and  Buccesaful  as  a  pastor,  and  plain  and  instructive  as 
a  preacher.  See  Wilaon,  Fro.  Iliit.  Almanac,  1367,  p, 
214. 

WaUaobian  Varaion.    See  RouiuitiAM  Vkb. 

TVaUauer.  linonaa,  a  Oereian  Rcli>niicd  miaw 


WALLBHIDGE  8( 

ter,  urived  iu  America,  from  Europe,  in  tlie  wiiitrr  of 
I7T1.  He  WIS  putor  of  the  cnngregadan  at  Baliimon 
frDm  1772  antil  near  May,  177(S,  when  it  u  »id  that  he 
left  Baltioinre.  Some  one  has  reUleil  thic  iliiriiiK  tbe 
American  Revolutioo  he  left  hia  congregation  and  yiln- 
ed  the  Briiiih  atmv.  Sec  Hvlnugh,  Fallitri  of  tit 
Gtrm.R>f.ChiTth,\i,i9d. 

Wallbridge,  Ei>wii<  AxaiL,  an  English  Congie- 
Italional  roiMionarv,  wai  lioni  April  10, 1813,  and  died 
April  S7,  1876.  Mr.  Wallbridce  wu  fur  a  anie  con- 
nected with  the  Britlah  and  Foreign  School  Society, 
■ud,  in  connection  with  Mr.  Trevr,  engaged  In  echool 
work  at  Jamaica.  In  1841  be  waa  invited  by  the  I-on- 
don  Minionary  Society  to  commence  their  miaion  et«- 
tion  at  Georgeloirii,  Demeraro,  and  here  he  labored 
without  intemiptiun  till  1874.  Uc  woa  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  miuinn  work,  and  was  wonderfully  blessed 
in  heralding  the  Goopel  of  CbriM,  See  (Lond.)  CmQ. 
Year-book,  1877,  p.  420. 

Waller,  AItIh  F.,  a  Hethodiit  iiioerant  minialer 
■nd  cacly  missiimarj-  to  Oreffon,  waa  bom  at  Abingdon, 
Lnieme  Co.,  i'a.,  May  8,  1808.  He  wa*  the  young- 
est of  Kveii  children,  hia  mother  dying  when  be  was 
biit  Ave  moiiiha  old.  Keceiving  early  religioua  inUiuc- 
lioii  Irom  his  Talher,  a  man  of  earnest  piety,  he  was 
converted  and  joined  the  Hethnliat  EpiMopai  Chnrch 
ill  Wis,  from  which  time  to  the  end  of  hia  liiuy  life 
he  was  a  dcroled  Christian.  In  1882  be  was  employeil 
M  junior  preacher  on  t)ie  Lewiiton  Circuit,  Genesee 
Conference.  In  ISSB  he  was  married  lo  MiM  Elephe 
WhiU,  and  tbe  same  year  eniered  the  Lyma  Scmiiiaiy 
under  the  prewdency  of  Rev.  Dt.  Luckey,  where  by  dil- 
igent application  and  ateady  piety  he  made  more  perma- 
nent the  faith  which  governed  his  life.  He  connect- 
ed himself  wilh  the  Ueneece  Conference  in  1833,  le- 
■naining  until  1639,  when  he  joined  the  Oregon  Mis- 
sion, under  the  superintendency  of  Rev.  Jason  Lee.  Af- 
ter a  tedious  journey  around  Cape  Horn,  he  reached 
Oregon  with  his  family  in  1840.  and,  with  scarcely  a 
day's  relaxaiion,  worked  for  his  Master  up  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Salem,  Oregon,  Dec.  SO, 
187-2.  Mr.  Waller  helped  to  found  the  Oregon  luMi- 
lute,  from  which  has  grown  the  Willamette  UniveiNty. 
To  his  eSbns  above  all  otbera  the  latter  institation 
owes  its  existence.  He  was  ilaci  the  principal  agent 
in  establishing  the  Pacijic  OtriliuH  Adeacair.  In  fact, 
he  waa  thoroughly  identified  wilh  all  the  best  interesu 
of  Oregon.  At  his  death  flags  were  placed  at  half- mast 
uver  the  state  buildings,  and  ilie  whole  common wealih 

Coa/Tmea,  1873,  p.  133j  Saipann,  C^ttvp.  nf  Mtlhod- 

Waller.  Edmnnd,  a  Bsptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Spollsylvania  County,  Va.,  Jan.  I,  1775.  His  father 
and  uncle  were  Baptist  ministciv,  and  distinguished  ' 
their  zeal  fur  the  truth  during  Ihc  limes  of  persecuti 
ill  Virginia.  His  hopeful  conversion  occurred  when  he 
was  but  thirteen  vears  of  age.  He  delayed  mi 
a  professirm  of  his  faith  in  Christ  until  he  was  tw< 
Ihrcc  veors  of  age,  uniting,  in  1798,  with  the  Baptist 
Church  at  Bryan's  Sution,  Fayette  Co..  Ky.  In  1802  ' 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  onluiieil  May  11,  1805. 
Fi4lowingtbe  practice  of  Baptist  miiiislen  in  the  eec 
lion  of  the  country  in  which  he  lived,  lie  had  the  pas 
total  care  of  two  or  ihiee  churches  at  Ihe  same  lime 
He  preached  during  the  last  yean  of  his  life  fur  tni 
churches — one  at  Mount  I'leosanl.and  the  otheratGlenn' 
Creek — dividing  his  time  between  them.  Hisministry 
waa  a  successful  one.  He  ia  believed  to  have  baplixed  fif- 
teen hundred  persons,  most,  ifnot  all,  of  whom  connected 
iheiDBelves  with  churches  under  his  pastoral  care.  He 
died  in  1818.    See  An/ifuf  ^niun(i/,ii,!07.    (J.C.S.) 

^Tallar.  John  Ughtfoot,  LL.D..  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  born  in  WoodfonI  County,  Ky.,  Nov.  28, 1X09. 
His  early  education  waa  limited,  yet  be  studied  pri- 
vately so  diligently  aa  to  qualify  bimaelf  for  teaching 


WALLIN 

inol  for  aeveral  yeara,  until,  in  183&,  he  accep(«il  ib* 

itonfaipoftheifaprtft  Auntrr.a  mull  seni-tDOOthly 

Kt  published  at  SheUiyville,  Ky.,  in  which  occupa- 

n  he  continued  to  be  engaged  with  great  success  un 

1841.     In  1840  he  waa  ordained  to  the  Chriitiv 

niatri-,  and,  after  relinquishing  his  editorial  pooitioii. 

becstne  general  agent  of  the  General  Asenciation  ol 

Kentucky  Baptists,  preaching  in  tbe  meantime  wbeo- 

ever  he  found  an  opportunity,  sometimes  aaafl«a  asBs 

timea  a  week.     In  1813  he  succeeded  his  father.  Bev. 

Edmund  Waller,  as  pastor  of  Glenn's  Creek  Cbtucb.    lai 

1349  he  was  electetl  a  member  of  the  convention  calkd 

"to  readiipt,  amend,  or  abolish  the  CoiulitutioD  of  tbe 

State."     In  1850  he  resumed  the  editorial  managemrat 

.f  the  Btmaer  aiid  Piimnr  (now  sivled  tbe  Wtlerm  Rt- 

«nJn-),and  in  April,  1852,  the  Bible  Revision  AsBoets- 

ioii  having  been  organized  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  he  wb 

elected  preudent  of  the  association,  end  held  that  office 

until  his  death.     He  died  Oct.  10, 1854.     See  Spraga, 

.4  mail  (/fjle  .4  ner,  Aii/nV,  vi,  837. 

Waller,  Ralph,  an  English  Methodist  preacher, 
waa  bom  in  1811,  and  waa  converted  in  hia  youth  in 
Ihe  Methodist  Society.  During  the  division  of  l&i 
he  joined  the  New  Connection,  while  at  Ne#  Milk. 
Ileal  Stockport,  and  in  1S3G  entered  thnr  ministry. 
During  twelve  yean  be  travelled  in  nine  cinuila  with 
marked  stuxess.  In  1844  he  obtained  enliie  aancti6ea- 
lion  by  faith,  and  his  ministry  waa  ever  oTIer  nme 
earnest.  His  voice  failed  him  in  184(i.and  he  beeane 
a  supemumerarr  at  SbeSeld,  where  he<lied  in  triunpli, 
Nov.  17, 1848.     See  JfMifu  oftkt  Coo/ernux. 

Wallet;  a  bag  for  carrying  the  necessaries  for  a 
journey,  which  anciently  always  formed  a  port  of  the 
dress  of  the  Christian  pilgrim.     See  Scrip. 

^7allin,  Benjamill,  an  Engliah  Baptist  minioer. 
was  bom  in  London  in  1711.  He  received  a  good  edu- 
cation; and  although  it  wss  Ihe  earnest  wish  of  bb 
friends  that  he  should  enter  the  mliiistrv,  he  felt  so  dis- 
trustful of  his  qualidcations  for  the  work  that,  for  a  loDg 
time,  he  resisted  their  importunities.  "  When  I  cto- 
sider,''said  he,"the  design  of  auch  a  care  to  be  cm- 
ployed  more  or  less  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  tbe  rrrv 
thought  strikes  me  with  terror.  It  is  a  work  of  ss 
awful  nature."  His  scruples  were,  however,  in  time 
overcome,  and  he  consented  to  be  set  apart  to  the 
Christian  ministry,  anil  was  ordained  as  Ihe  ncttsm 
of  hia  father,  Rev.  Edward  Wallin,  as  pastor  of  the  ^p- 
list  Church,  Maze  Pond,  I»iidon,  This  position  he 
filled  for  more  than  forty  years,  his  death  occurring  in 
Fehntaiy,  1782.  Mr.  Wallin  wo  the  author  of  tke 
hymn, "  Hail,  mighty  Jesua,  how  divine  ia  thy  vicuci- 
oils  tvotd ','  See  Belcher,  IJiitorical  Strteiet  ofllfmia. 
p.  252.    (J.  a  a) 

WaUln,  Jobau  Olof,  a  Swedish  iheolngian,  wv 
bom  Oct.  16,  1779,  at  Stora  'I'uiia,  in  Dalccarlia.  He 
studied  at  Upaala,  nnd  un  Urst  coming  before  the  pub- 
lic, in  I80d,as  a  poet,  ho  received  the  great  prise  of  the 
Sweiligh  Acoilemy,  which  was  alio  anarded  to  him  u 
the  following  yean  by  Ihe  same  academy,  of  which  be 
became  a  member  in  1809.  He  now  belook  himsdf 
to  spiritual  poetr)-,  and  became  tlie  most  pmnineot  rep- 
reaeniative  of  this  kind  of  poetry  in  Sweden.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Solna,  and  in 
1812  was  called  to  Stockholm,  and  advanced,  in  I8lfi, 
OS  piHfoT  primariat,  thus  becoming  eniiiled  In  a  seat 
and  vote  in  the  national  diet.  In  1837  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Upsali,  and  died  June  30, 1839.  He  pah- 
lished  aermona  under  the  title  Rtligiimi-Tal  rid  aaHi- 
lui  TilljatltH  (Stockholm,  1827-81,  S  Tol9.>:  —  Pnitt|. 
ningar  (!d  ed.  1842,  3  voK ;  most  of  hia  seipionB  an 
translated  into  German).  His  purirt  he  publiahed  wi- 
der the  title  tCMn-ArM  -  aiton  (1848,2  vols.).  Tbs 
Swediab  hymn-book,  which  he  completed  in  1819,  il 
mostly  his'  work.  See  ZachoM,  BOL  TktuL  ii,  1413; 
Tkn>iog.CtMimat-Ltxiiint,t.Y.;W  "  ■■  ■  ■ 
IktBlog.  Lit.  ii,  1«7, 8Sfi.     (a  P.) 


WALLI8  8* 

^ITUlia,  OAorgs,  ma  Engliib  Congrcgatioaal  min- 
uter, wu  born  It  Andover,  in  Hiy,  1816,  and  died  SepL 
5, 1871.  He  wu  educaUd  at  the  Univanity  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  preached  auiceuively  at  LeytunMoat,  Bam- 
biuy,  Hot.h'erfard,  Sluiieliouw.andBradruid.  Uc.Wal- 
lis  WM  eiidowni  with  laLeaia  a(  no  onlinaiy  character, 
which  be  ciiltivateil  diJigciilly,  and  became  a  great 
power  for  good  to  the  Church.    See  (Lond.)  Coi^.  leiii- 

^^Bllla,  Hagh,  a  CungreRational  miiiiater,  wa«  a 
gntluaie  of  DaTtmoiiIh  College  in  1791.  He  waa  or- 
■lained  paaur  at  Ihe  Church  in  Bath,  Me.,  Dec  9,  i79D ; 
traa  diamiaatd  July  16, 1800;  and  died  in  1U8.  See 
Spngar,  Aiaialt  o/lit  Amer,  Pulpil,  ii,S7^, 


.0  Udy  Ver 


Nov.33,1dlG.iiiid  waa  eil 
CambridKe, « litre  be  groi 
1696.  Hf  took  orden  iu  i 
England  in  1G40,  ami  wai 
■ir  Kichanl  Dorley  and  I 
Beingaiieiperlin  diacovenug  tiie 
to  MSS.  wrilleii  in  cipher,  he  wai 
ployed  in  this  capacity  by  the  1 
ParliameiiL  He  aAcrwanla  obu 
the  liring  of  Si.  Gabriel,  Lnndoii 
exchangeil  it  r<ir  St.  Marii 


3Ie.l  at  Krm 
ninl  alitnii, 
Churdiof 


loan*  were  lately  reprewntcd  among  the  early  Dutch 
aettleti  in  Noilh  Anwrica,  particularly  in  New  York 
and  New  JerKv, 

Wall-palntlnc.  ThelargeapaceitwhichareHime- 
limea  left  withoui  any  uniamentation  in  our  churchea, 
and  which,  when  wbiiewaahed,  appear  ao  cold  and  un- 
■<ghtly,«ere  originally  covered  with  color,  either  in  the 
riiape  of  floral  or  geometrical  patlema,  or  of  figures  or 
emlilema.  The  painted  glata  nbeii  treated  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Ihe  wall,  aa  may  be  aeen  at  SuChapelle.  hu 
a  beaulifiil  cniH:t.  The  bandii  nf  color  on  the  vtill 
were,  no  ibHihl.  in  c<«>tiiiimli<ni  of  tlie  traruom,  nt  llie 

arche*.  and  lakini*  tlie  place  uf  a  drigi-iiliine  nnd  airing. 
There  are  frenli  examplca  iliitcnvcml  every  day,  hut 
they  are  scMum  in  aiich  a  Itate  as  in  admit  of  preaei^ 


«of| 


1G43: 


geom. 


■t  Oxford  in  ICMi  keep 

cbtVM  there  in  ItiM;  and  wat  ctni- 

firmed  in  then  oBiL-es  at  the  Realora- 

tioDinl660.    He  waa  anKOibeTarthe 

Boyal  Society  in  1 062.    He  had  a  con- 

troTemy  with  Hohhw,  who  pretended 

to  have  disciivereit  Ihe  quadrature  o( 

the  circle,  which  InMcd  fmm  1666  till 

1663.    HediedBtOxr.>rrl,Oct.28,170S. 

Beaidca  publishing  umncnjus  BcientiSc 

and  mathematical  work\  he  was  one 

of  Ib«  refieersufihe  hoi-k  >•/ Ca-mmon  Pritgtr  (1661); 

edited  the pngthumouiirorksuf  Jeremiah  Hurroi(lG73}! 

maintained  thciili<pical  controversies  with  the  Arians, 

Hapliata,  and  Sabbalarianij  published  Theologicat  Hit- 

coarteM  (1632);  and  left  the  MSa  of  a  number  ufsei- 

mona,  which  were  puhliahed  for  Ihe  tlrst  time  in  1791. 

See  his  Memoir,  by  Kcv.  C.  E.  de  Coetkigon,  printed 

Wallla,  John  (2).  an  English  clero-man,  was 
bom  ia  Cumberland  in  1714.  He  wrote,  MUn  to  a 
PapU  OK  Enltivig  iiiln  Holy  OrAri :  —  MuetUani/  in 
Prote  and  Virte  (1748):— and  S<il«rnl  /littory  and 
AMiquitia  n/ XotiiumbttUmd  (1769).  He  died  at 
Norton  in  1793. 

II  EiigliBli  Methodist 


New-Conneclinn  friend 


led  the   I'rimilive  Hethodiita, 
>  had  I  be  fint  claim  on  bim. 


WalL-pDintluE,  Rliigsiead,  Morthnmptiiiiahire. 

'Wall-plata,  a  piece  of  timber  laid  horufontallr  on 
Ihe  lop  of  a  wall,  on  which  joisis  rest. 

WallrotbiAi'DUinFittKiitiicii  CmtiKTiAit.al'cot- 
eatant  theologian  of  tiermanv,  was  bc>rii  May  3,  ISU3.  at 
Eutin.  He  atudietl  al  Kiel,  Ikrtin.anil  Ronn;  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Euiin  in  1839;  in  1838  he  was  made 
court  and  garrison  preacher  in  Uldciiburn,  and  member 
uf  consistory ;  unlil  in  1849  he  waa  ohliged  lo  retire 
from  the  Church  goTemment  on  account  of  the  new 
conalitulion  of  the  Church.  In  18^^  he  iras  again  ap- 
pointed for  Eutin  as  superintendent  and  court  preacher, 
with  the  title  of  superior  counaclkir  of  the  Church. 
Mere  he  died,  April  4,  187G.  He  publishd  a  number 
of  sermons,  which  are  enumerated  in  Zuchold,  liiUialh. 
Thtolog.u,Ul3.     (111'.) 

^olla,  F.  H.,  a  Methoilial  Episcopal  miiiislcr,  who 
sen'ed  the  Churcli  many  years  as  class-leader,  ttewant, 
exlioner,  and  local  preacher;  jubied  the  Soulliern  Illi- 
nois Conference  in  1848,  when  aomcvthat  advanced  in 
years;  Iravclled  snine  yeara;  look  the  superannuated 
'ewycarslalerdie<t,  A<      ■"  "' 


TValloon  Chnroh,  a  branch  of  the  Preiwh  Re- 
formed Church,  which  still  exists  in  the  Netheriands. 
It  differs  from  the  Dutch  Refurmeil  Church  chieHy  in 
retaining  [he  use  of  the  French  language  in  divine  set- 
Tiee,  and  of  the  Geneva  Catechism  instead  of  the  Heidel- 
berg. The  congregations  of  this  body,  though  once  nu- 
merous, are  now  reduced  to  a  very  few;  and  the  minis- 
"     "      n  by  With.    The  Wal- 


Wall 


See 


n/.4i«wu/CoH/n™c«,l8G-',p.ail. 
'Walin«Bl«y,  Ch.ikLks,  D.D.,  F.K.S.,  an  English 
Reneilieline  monk  atid  Roman  Cnihnlic  biBhii|>,  was 
born  in  1721.  He  waa  senior  bishop  and  vicar  apoxtolie 
of  the  ^'estern  district,  and  doctiir  »f  ilimlngy  of  the 
Sorbunne.  He  was  the  last  survivor  i>t  ihuse  eminent 
mathematicians  who  «cre  ociivv  in  bringing  about  a 
change  in  the  chmnulngical  style,  or  calendar,  of  Eng* 
land,  which  was  accnnipliahcd  in  1752.  He  wrote  ■ 
number  of  mathematical  and  theoUigical  works,  which 
are  at  present   unimportant     He  died  at  Bath  in 


WALK  8' 

t797,ind  died  April  3i,  IMS.  Hii  Mrnxmi  ciiiKed  ui 
■fftctioTule  ■piri[,  ■  fulnen  of  lave  to  God,  conpauaion 
fur  niiiaen,  and  s}-mpithy  with  afflicled  uiiila.  He  en- 
joyed Ihe  eonfideiiee  «nil  eiteem  of  hia  hmhren.  See 
Mmula  a/  Ifcfrjun  ConJhttKa,  18J2, 

'Wain,  KicHotAS,  a  member  of  ibe  itecjety  of 
Frieod-i,  wu  bom  Occ  19, 1742,  it  Fait  Hill,  near  Phila- 
ilelpbia,  Pi.  He  acquired  a  good  elemi'iitary  education 
at  ■  Friends'  ncbool  in  Philadelphia,  ind  on  leaving  tb« 

liiuing  to  his  iDijarily  was  admitted  to  practice  in  the 
courts.  In  order  to  extend  his  knowledge  <if  ilie  law, 
he  went  to  England  in  the  fall  of  1763,  and  vru  a  stu- 
dent foTHime  time  in  the  Temple.  Hiving  eei-ured  the 
object  Hliich  carried  him  abroad,  he  relumed  tu  Phila- 
delphia and  reaiimed  the  practice  of  hii  prafeBgion.  For 
seven  yean  be  devoted  liiniKlr  with  untiring  induaiiy 
and  success  to  his  work  as  a  lawyer,  at  Ihe  end  of  which 
lime,  having  had  a  remarkable  leltgioua  experience,  he 
fell  it  10  be  bis  duly  to  abandon  hia  profession  and  de- 

ciety  of  Friends.  He  was  ■  frequent  visitor  lu  quiner- 
ly  iHi)  yearly  meetings  of  Friends  in  dilTerenl  parts  of 
the  country;  and  his  gills  mide  him  au  acceptable 
preacher  wherever  and  whenever  he  felt  moved  to  ad- 
dress the  auetnhled  people.  Some  of  these  public  ilis- 
coursei  were  remarkable  f»r  their  power  and  Iheir  unc- 
tion, and  produced  a  profound  impresMon  on  those  who 
listened  lu  them.  He  visited  most  of  the  Friends' lueet- 
ings  in  England  in  the  years  17SS  to  ITSo,  and  ten  years 
after  made  a  similar  tour  through  Ireland.  Everywhere 
he  was  welcomed,  and  made  a  good  imptession.  Hii 
deathoccuiTedScpl.29,1818.  S^ Hiynipiical Sttleh- 
rto/r,v»d.(l'hihLl871).p.Bei.    (.I.C.S.) 

WalparglB,  or  Walpnrga,  St.,  was  ihe  hi^i 


WALSH 

bytery),  Hiaa,  until  his  death,  Feb.  14, 1861.  See  VB- 
n,  Prnb.  But.  A  Imamic,  1862,  p.  121. 
Walsb,  Jobn,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  wsi 
>m  It  Ormskirk,  Lancashire,  in  1796.  It  was  iniend- 
I  by  his  parents  that  be  should  become  a  Kuman  Catlt- 
ic  print,  and  his  education  was  in  reference  therctD. 

Kemoving  to  IJverpooI,  he  was  led  tu  Christ  under  the 
'  listry  of  Joseph  Entwisle.    He  was  received  into  Ibe 

ministry  in  1814;  labored  two  years  on  the  LaneaMa 

Circuit;  was  sent  to  Newfoundhind;  preached  at  C>r> 
r.  Blackhead,  St.  John's,  and  Harbor-Grwv;  n- 

tumed  to  England  in  182&;  wis  appointed  to  aevml 
ipottant  circuits;  became  a  superounterary  in  IS&l; 
id  died  Dec.  19,  1857.  AUhough  somewbu  stiff  in 
inner,  be  was  ■  powerful  preacher  and  a  laborioas 
inisler.  See  UmiHa  of  WeA^m  Cmfrrr«err.  ISSS-. 
'iUoii,  .Vrr/uBwUnid  and  it  MunomHtr,  p.  2M. 
WaJsb,  Peter,  ■  learned  and  liberal  lri»h  CathoGr, 
SB  bom  at  Mnurlnwn.  County  Kililire,  in  the  early 

part  of  the  17tb  ceniutj-.     He  was  prubablr  edocmKri 
'    iiviin,  where  lie  became  prufeMor  uf  divinity.     He 


llibahl.  tl 


!  of  EicI 


after  it  bad  bren  founileil  by  Buiiifsce.  She 
lish  birth,  and  ucnl  ai  a  missiunify  to  Germany  at  Ihe 
solicitation  urBoiiirace.  AHei  a  perioduf  labor  in  Thu- 
ringiaiShe  became  abbessuf  Ihe  convent  al  Heidenbeim, 
in  Eichsiadt,  where  Wminebald,  another  brother,  exer- 
cised supen-ision.  'I'radilion  stales  that  WilpuiKis  ex- 
ercised control  over  nKinaMcries  also,  after  Wunneliald's 
death.  She  lierwirdied  in  TT6or  7;B,and  several  diys 
are  still  oliservc.l  in  liet  hnnor;  e.g.Aug,4,in  oietDiiry 
iif  her  departure  from  England ;  Feb.  23,  in  commemo- 
ration of  ber  death  i  Uay  1,  in  honor  oT  her  canoiiiu- 
tioit.  It  is  customary  in  certain  sections  of  Germany  lo 
adorn  the  doors  of  houses  with  hircb  twigs  on  the  law- 
named  of  these  days,  as  a  protection  against  witches  i 
anil,  in  explanation  of  this  custum,  tradition  retiles  IhnL 
n'llpui^ii  was  in  the  hibit  of  aecumpativing  Ihe  apos- 
tles James  and  Philip  in  their  missioiury  jntiineyi, 
thereby  inciirrtiig  the  suspicion  of  maintaining  iinchastt 
relations  with  tlicm.  To  remove  Ihat  su*plcinn,  shi 
planted  n  dry  twig  in  the  ground,  which  imnmliBteli 
producwl  leaves.  The  night  of  Walpurgis.  May  1,  hai 
long  been  regarrled  as  Ihe  chosen  lime  when  witchei 
begin  their  infernal  practices.  To  banisb  Ibem,  it  wai 
;o  long  pules  and  bun 


.f  Walpn. 


.hkh  became  know 

The  bones  of  this  silni,  especially 
aid  to  exude  an  oil  which  is  a  specitic 
les  of  domestic  aiiimala,  and  which  is 
■  Convent  of  St.  Walpurgis  at  Eich- 
slitdt.  See  Bollandus  eC  (iixlefr.  hIenschenUis,  Ada 
SS.  Febniarius  2&  (Antw.  IGid),  iii,  ail-&72;  Heriog, 
Rtiil-lianiilnp.  s.  v. 

\7alBb.  Henry.  ■  I'rcibvieriaii  minisier.  was  bom 
near  Dublin,  Ireland,  Aug.  5,  IR24.  He  came  lo  ihe 
United  States  in  I9V>:  was  educated  at  Oglethorpe 
UniverMty.Ga.;  taught  for  several  yeai 
ology  in  the  Princeton  Theolugical  Sci 
censed  by  Katitan  Presbytery  in  IS62;  was  pastor  of 
the  churches  of  Carmel  unl  Macedonia.  N.  C,  one  year : 
anil  then  of  Edmiston  Clmrch  (Sorlh  Minisuppi  Pres- 


canfrU 

e  became  pmcnriior  ofihe  Romish  clergv ; 

nloratiun  uf  Charks  II,  persuaded  many  ot  them  to 

Ign  a  remonstrincc  against  the  temporal  supremanaf 

be  pope  and  in  favur  of  tlie  king.     For  this  cmirie  h* 

rasiw  persecuted  bv  ibeoppnuilon  that  be  had  lu  tike 

refuge  in  England'(iu  I6T0).     lit  went  to  Loadea, 

where  be  received  an  annuity  of  urn  bundred  posnda 

life,  and  remained  true  lo  bis  early  faith,  nntwitb- 

iding  the  perscculions  he  suflrred.     lie  died  in  Sep- 

.ber,16BT.    Mr.  WaUh  wrote  several  pampUtlaof  a 

conlrurersial  c'haracler,  and  a  iiiitoiy,  which  was  nut 

imponnni. 

Walsb.  Tbomaa.  one  of  Ibc  remarkable  mea  io 
earlv  Methodism,  was  born  at  Ballvlin,  near  limrtiA, 
Ireland,  in  1730.  He  went  to  school  nnlil  lie  was  nine- 
teen yean  of  age,  when  he  commenced  leaching  nn  bis 
own  account.  His  ponijuwere  Kuman irl*,  ami  he  was 
educileil  in  Ihe  fiith  uf  Iheir  Chuich.  His  temper  waa 
constitultonally  ■eTiou^  bordering  on  roelancboly.  a«d 
he  had  deep  religimis  solicitudes  fnmi  his  cbildlised. 
Devotion  lo  the  re((Uirement*  of  hu  Church  bmight 
him  no  relief,  lu  his  righleenlh  year  be  becanic  oi*> 
vinced  of  the  ermri  of  Ihe  Church,  rumully  alynnd  in 
creed,  and  united  with  the  Established  ijhurch.  His 
religious  anxiety  was  now  deepened.  He  beard  Swin- 
dells and  other  Melhodist  itinerants;  and  in  one  of 
their  asaemhlies  "he  was  divinely  assured,"  to  use  bis 
own  words,  "  that  Hod,  for  Clirist's  sake,  bad  forgives 
all  his  Mill.'  He  joined  Ibe  Methoilist  Society  in  New 
Market,  and  in  llbO  he  commenced  to  preach.  Pene- 
cutiunt  awailnl  him,  not  only  from  KumanisU  and 
Churchmen,  but  even  more  severelr  from  the  Preibv- 
terians  of  Ihe  Nunh  (we  Morgan,  Li/r.ch.  iii).  So  maa 
conlributeil  more  than  Walsh  to  the  spread  of  Method- 
iim  in  Ireland.  "He  went  like  a  flame  of  fire  ihroogh 
Leinster  and  Connaughl,  preaching  twice  or  thrice  a 
day,  usually  in  the  open  air.  The  guitelesa  peasanls 
flocked  to  hear  their  onn  ntde  but  touching  langosge. 
They  wept,  smote  their  breasts,  invoked  the  Virgin  with 
subbing  voices,  and  ileclared  themselve 


1  throi 


TTiepi 


r  (Stev 


«).      His 


after  bim  and 


wept  ahiud  under  his  w<ird.  a 
tiiiis,  meadows,  higl1wav^  market-places,  piiioni,  aad 
ships.  In  ITbS  Wesley  catted  bim  to  Loiidnn,  where  he 
had  frequent  discussiims  with  ilie  Jews,  and  preached 
to  the  Irish  in  MoorSelds  and  Short's  Cardens.  "Such 
a  sluice  of  divine  ontar>'  ran  through  the  whole  of  his 
language  as  i>  rarely  to  be  met  with"  (Morgan).  "I 
do  not  nmember  ever  to  have  known  a  pnacher."  say* 
Wesley,  "who.  in  ao  few  yenii  as  he  remained  npaa 
earth,  was  the  instratnent  of  converting  ae  many  peu- 


WALSH 

pie."    It  WW  while  in  London  be  cmDOMnod  Uie: 
ofticMk  and  Hebrew.    In  llieee  MuJiei  he  progreiKtl 
wiib  incredible  ■wifliiet&      "No  Catholic  uint 
pared  more  laiduuualy  ind  devoutly  orei  hie  brt 
rhin  did  this  remirkalile  mitn  over  ilw  original  Script- 
ure* daring  the  len  of  hia  life"  (Swvena,  at  iajr. 
»!).     Hia  meinor}-  wu  >  cuucordance.    "The 
Hthman  I  ever  knew,"  eiclaima  the  enthutiaMic 
lieuerom-heirted  VVealev  over  Ihia  "  bleieed  man,"  u 
he  was  wont  U)  call  bim  (Skorl  ititlary  o/lhe  ililhod- 
ut>. pat. 71).     "I  knew  a  younR  man  who  was  ao  the 
DHghly  acquainted  wiih  the  llible  that  if  he  waa  que*- 
lioned  couceniinR  inv  Hebrew  word  In  the  Old,  or  any 
lirrek  wnni  in  the  New,  Test.,  he  would  tell,  after  ■  lit- 
tle paiue.  not  only  hnw  ofien  ilie  one  or  the  other  oc- 
curred in  the  Biiile,  but  also  what  it  meant  in  evei}' 
pluv.     Hia  name  wa!<  Thomaa  WaLih.     Such  a  maUcT 
of  Biblic  knowledge  1  never  aavr  before,  and  never  ex- 
pect to  aee  again"  (Wesley,  Sfrmoni,  ter.  xd).     Young 
mm  from  the  Universitv  of  Cambriilge,  when  ' 
doii.  chose  Walih  to  inilUle  them  inbo  the  Hebrew 
tungue.     But  younf;  Walah  wai  burning  the  eandle 
baih  ends.    The  manner  of  his  preachinj;,  inteiite  Mud 
habitual  aelf-abiotption,  and  exeeHive  labor  and  faiigi 
bmke  him  down,  and  hia  nervoua  aenaibililjea,  at  lai 
•uBered  great  Mrturce.    Wealey,  ■  aagaclnui  man,  and 
who  wrote  ucelleiit  unitary  nilei<  fur  hia  miniatera, 
never  lecnu  to  have  idmnniihed  Wal! 

not  of  awe.  Wabh  wai  seized  with  eicknoa  al  BnMoI, 
in  February,  175R,  tailed  fur  Cork  ajiaooii  la  hiaMrengtIi 
would  permit,  and  waa  removed  by  Iiik  friends  tn  Dub- 
lin, where,  after  euffering  extreme  menial  anguiab  on 
account  of  a  temporary  eclipae  of  faith— occaMoned.  no 
doubt,  by  iiervona  disorganiiatinn— he  died  with  worda 
of  rapture  on  hialipa,  April  8,1759. 

The  Church  haa  pcoduce<l  few  aiich  men  at  Tlioniaa 
Walih.  With  the  devolinii  of  d  Kcmpis— Mrongly 
lin^l,  tm,  wilh  hu  aacelicimn — and  the  tainllineH  of 
Fktcber,  he  had  the  meoKiry  of  I'atcal  and  the  «udi- 
oiianeaa  of  Origen.  "His  life,"  Bays  8onihey,  "might, 
inileed,  aimoat  cocvict  a  Catholic  that  aajnt*  arc  lu  be 
found  in  other  communiont  at  well  as  the  Chureh  of 
Kome."  Aoaaxes  was  not  more  lost  in  contetnplation 
an  a  Palidean  battle-fieid  than  was  Walsh  in  introipec- 
lian  and  prayer  at  he  walked  through  ih«  stieeu  of 
great  cities.  In  his  devotions  he  wis  somer 
rapt  and  abaurbed  in  the  viaicms  of  tlod  that 
prufnuDd  and  eulemn  frames  of  mind  he  rema 
hnun  still  and  motionleaa  aa  a  statue.  Such  were  hit 
learning,  hi*  talent*  in  the  pulpil  (where  be  often  seei 
(d  clothed  with  the  ardor  and  majesty  of  a  aeraph),  the 
•aintly  dignity  and  morsl  grandeur  of  Ilia  charaetet, 
that  corleiDporaTV  allunout  to  him  are  touched  with 
reverence  and  wonder  (tee  Stevens,  i,  S38).  "  Hia  por- 
(riiia  might  almost  be  taken  as  fac-simile*  of  the  cut- 
leuc  picture*  of  Jonathan  Edward*,  whom  he  resembled 
much  in  other  respects'  (ibid.  I.  339,  note).  Charles 
Wealey  wrote  sevend  hymna  in  memory  of  Thomas 
Walith,  commencing  "<iod  a(  unfalhomable  grace; 
"Ghiry,  and  thaoka,  and  love;"  and  "Tia  Ani*hed. 
Vh  ptat."  Nine  Srrmoiu  by  Walsh  were  pnblisheil, 
with  a  preface  bv  Uorgan  (1764,  l!mo).  See  Unrgan, 
Ufi  of  WaUh  (Und.  1762. 12nio;  N.  Y,  1848;  repub- 
liihed  in  Jackson'a  Early  Urihoditt  PmKhtrt,  8d  ed. 
ToL  iii)i  Homp,  Appnidix  to  Walah'a  l.yfe  (in  Jackson'a 
PrtutArri,  iii,  !78  sq.) ;  Jackson,  fj/f  ofChirln  Waby 
(N.  Y.  I842.BVO),  xxi,  Ml  aq.;  Tverman. /,i/i  n/ Join 
Vaht.  n,  200,  239, 661  j  Smith,  ItiMl.  of  Wnl.  .Wrlhod- 
am,  i,  253,  G2-.;;  Stevens.  Hiil.  nf  Mrlhodum,  i,  287  sq., 
iS7  tq. :  Mylea,  Ckrwi.  IliH.  nf  MUkoditm,  ann.  1750,  p. 
89;  Crowther, /Virfroihire  of  Mrlhoditm  (Land.  1814), 
p.ilM  aq.;  Atmore,  Meth.  MrmoriaU  (ibid.  IHOi),  p. 
438-443;  Soulhev,  lA/t  of  W^tnl^,  ch.  xxiii;  We»lev, 
»'»rfa,(Sded.  ibid.  14  vola.),vii.54;3iii,448(aee  Index); 
Trill.  Vrdodim  Saecfufid  (N.  Y.  1860.  tSmo),  p.  188. 

^alab,  Tracy  R.,  a  miniu^r  of  the  Methodist 


WALTER 


lib,  was  licensed  to  prMCh  iti 
1827,  and  admitted  into  the  South  Carolina  ijonference 
in  IB30.  Several  years  later  he  hicated  and  assumed 
charge  of  the  Marion  Academy.  Fur  thirteen  years 
the  impreaa  of  bia  sterling  character  wai  ttamped  upon 
the  youth  eommilled  to  bia  training.  During  thcae 
years  he  did  an  amount  of  pulpit  and  parochial  work 
seldom  exceeded  by  a  regular  pauor.  In  1849  be  re- 
entered the  Conference  and  continued  to  travel  until 
elected  pratident  of  Caiulina  Female  t^iUege  in  ISO. 
In  1860  he  again  entered  the  itinerancv,  and  on  Oct. 
20,  1867,dieil.  Bee  ttimula  «f  Annual  Conftraicfi  of 
the  M.  E.  Ckurch.  SoWh,  1867,  p.  1 II. 

Walah.  WUlIam  M-Kendra*,  a  Methodiat 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Hanover  Couniv,  Va., 
Feb.  19,  1814;  was  converted  in  ISffl;  and  in  I^  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  the  Virginia  Conference.  During 
the  following  year  be  was  transferred  to  the  North  Car- 
olina Couference,  within  which  he  labored  for  thirty 
year*.  In  1867  be  waa  adraiUed  into  the  Baltimore 
CouTereiice;  wassupemumeratedin  1870;  became  effec- 
tive agaiti  in  1871,  and  wat  appointed  to  Green  Ridge 
Circuit,  and  two  years  later  lo  Uedgesrille  Circuit, 
where  he  died,  Dtc  10,  187G.  Few  men  have  shown 
equal  fortitude  and  devotedneit.  See  i/iiwta  of  An- 
imal CoHfrrtneet,  1876,  p.  20. 

Waltdagbain,  Sir  Francla,  an  eminent  English 
ualesman,  was  bom  at  Chiaelhurai,  in  Kent,  in  1I>36. 
He  Mas  nmbaaaadoc  to  the  court  of  France  from  1B70 
to  1577,  during  which  time  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
ihulomew  occurred.  Here  he  learned  much  nftbe  part 
which  Mary  Stuart  took  in  the  intrigue*  of  that  dread- 
fid  plot,  and  acquired  a  deep  and  abiding  hatred  to- 
wards her.  lie  went  at  ambauadar  to  Scotland  in  1568, 
and  in  1M6  became  one  of  the  commiasion  fur  the  trial 
nf  Mary  Queen  of  Scota.  He  afterwards  became  chan- 
cellor nf  tlie  ilueby  nf  Lancaster,  and  remained  aoch 
until  his  death,  April  6, 1590. 

Walaingham,  niomas,  an  F.nglish  Benedtclina 
monk  of  !St.  Albans,  waa  precentor  at  that  place  in  1440, 
Id  historiographer  royal  to  Henry  IV  al 


Hew 


If  Euglan 


ued  the  Potj/eknmiam  of  Ranulph  Higden,  from  1342 
to  1417. 

Walter  ov  CaLi^owAT,  originally  clerk  tn  Roland, 
the  high-cansiahleorScol1and,was  made  I  >i  shop  of  Gal- 
loway in  1209.  He  gave  the  church  of  Sembry  to  the 
abbey  of  Dryburuh,  and  dietlin  1296.  See  Keith,  Jcof- 
li4A  JiUhopi,  p.  272. 

Walter  ok  Ci^asoow,  originally  cbiplain  of  king 
William,  was  elected  Ushop  of  Glasgow  in  1207,  and 
consecrated  Nov.  2, 1208.  He  wa*  aent  tn  treat  about 
peace  with  king  .lohniif  England,  and  went  to  a  general 
council  at  Rome  in  1215.  Hedied  iu  1232.  See  Keith, 
Scoauh  BMopM,  p.  237. 

Walter  of  St.  Vkjtor  was  a  pupil  of  Hugo  of  St. 
Victor,  auhprior  of  that  monaatery  to  the  death  of  Rich- 
ard, in  1173,  and  thenceforward  prior.  He  died  in  1180. 
He  it  known  to  posterity  through  a  yet  unpublished 
work,  lengthy  exlrartt  from  which  are  founti  in  BiiU>- 
im,  HiMt.  f/n'ivrrit.  Parii.  ii,  200  «]„  402  sq.,  562  sq., 
629  sq.  It  beaia  the  title  LAH  IV contra  Mamfulta  rt 
Daytmnliu  rtiani  in  CondliiM  Harari,  qua*  Saphiita 
Abelardia,  iMiJmi'diu,  Prli-m  Pictariraii  rl  Gilitrlui 

Ira  qaatuor  Li^rvUhot.  Waller  was  a  stranger  to 
the  profound  mysticism  of  Hugo  and  Richard  of  Sl 
Victor,  but  he  shared  their  aversion  to  the  trifling 
subtleties  of  tcbolarticism.  To  iicholaBticism  he  op. 
poecii  the  principle  that  dialectics  can  bring  into  view 
only  furnial,  but  not  material,  truth.  The  truthfulnet* 
of  premises  assuuted  lies  sllogethet  beyond  its  field  of 
reaesrch.  He  was  nevertbeleaa  so  much  the  slave  of 
authority  that  be  violently  opposed  eveiy  attempt  «t  a 


WALTER 


[irettigation  of  doctrine  u  a  dtagaoat 
hemy.  His  work  i>  dUed  with  iburiTe  epitheti  and 
demuidttiofl*.  He  locuud  Peter  LoinlMrd  of  Nihil- 
imi.ind  Abelardofenora  with  respect  to  tbe  Trinily. 

Virion*  historians,  amonf  them  Neander,  have  eno- 
neoiul^  identified  Walter  of  St.  Victor  with  Walter  of 
MRuriiania  (L  e.  of  Hortagne  in  Flanderk).  Tht  latter 
Uught  rhetoric  at  Parii,  vu  (he  tutor  of  Jubn  of  Salis- 
bury (q.  v.).  becBtoe  bishop  of  Laon  in  1 155,  and  died  in 
1174.  He  left  few  writings,  among  which  is  a  polem- 
ical letter  on  the  lubject  of  the  Irinitj  addreMtd  to 
Abelard.     See  Hem^,  RtoJ-Encsthp.  s.  v. 

'WoltAT.  Anu,  a  Bible  Christian  minister,  was  coo- 
*ened  in  183a  In  1825  she  entered  the  itinerant 
work.  She  bore  ■  long  and  painful  aiBiction  with  ex- 
emplary patience,  and  died  triumphantlj  in  the  faith 
in  183G. 

Walter,  Ernat  7ohtum  Konrad,  a  German  di- 
rine  who  died  as  doctor  of  philosophv  and  pastor  at 
Neukloater,  near  Witmar,  Sept.  25, 1800,  was  bom  Aug. 
9, 1741,  at  Cliber.  He  wrote,  Vrmc/i  tati  lehriftmd- 
tign  Bentfuu,  daa  Joitph  drr  icakre  Valet  Chritti  try 
(Berlin,  1791)  -.-Nrnt  VortUUungai  em.  dm  Strafin  drr 
VtrdaiHiHlai  tn  da-  Ksigteil  ilach  GHmdm  drr  Schrifl 
(Rostock  and  Leipde.  lT7fl).  See  Winer,  tfanifhic*  ifer 
aeolos.  Lit.  i,  478, 555.     (R  P.) 

Waltar,  Fordlnaud,  a  Roman  Catholic  canonist 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  30,  1794,  at  Wetilir;  and 
studied  law  at  Heidelberg,  where  be  was  promoted  in 
1818  as  dodor  ulriutquejnrii.  Here  he  also  commenced 
his  lectu^e^  when  in  1819  lie  was  calleil  to  Bin 
professor  of  Roman  and  canon  law,  where  he  died,  Dec 
19,  1879.  He  publishrd  Irkrbiich  dn  Kirchevrrckli 
(Bonn,  1822;  14(h  ed.  1871,  ed.  Herlach).  This  is  hit 
main  work,  which  was  translated  into  French,  Spanish, 
and  Italian.  Besides,  he  published,  Corpm  Jurit  Ger- 
vumci  (1824,3  vols.):— CcK^H-Are  da  rSmiKkm  RrtkU 
(1834-40,  3  vols.;  2d  «l.  1346i  3d  ed.  18fl0;  alse 
translated  into  French  and  Italian):— ZVu'KAt  RtdiU- 
fl«e*i<*«fl8oS,2vola.i  2d  ed.  IC57) :— fio*  oite  Wala 
(I859f  -.—FimUt  Jurit  EcdntaHid  (1862)  -.—Nulurrtehi 
undPoHlikQBea;  Sdtd.lSll):— Dot  atle  Erulijltmd 
die  Rtkkuladt  Koln  (1866)  -.—ETvatrmign  ant  mrinrr. 
Lfben  (1865).  See  Throtog.  UmrrriaULrriroit,  s.  V. 
Zuchald.  BM.  Tlit<A>g.  ii,  1414 1  lilerartKhtr  Hni>d 
Kriterjiirdiutalhol,  /)tulK*limd,  1880,  p.8  sq.      (R  P.) 

Walter,  Henry,  a  Church  of  England  di 
was  bom  at  Louth,  Lincolnshire,  Jan.  28,  1T8&.  He 
received  ■  carefld  religious  training,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  taking  hi 
gree  of  A.B.  in  1806.  In  1858,  being  left  wi 
a  cnrate,  he  preached  in  his  schoolroom  and  still  kept 
up  his  pastoral  ivork.  He  died  in  January,  1859.  Mr. 
Walter  attained  great  proBciency  as  ■  chemist,  astron- 
omer, and  naturaligt.  His  intimacy  was  inughi  and 
cherished  by  the  clergy  fur  miiea  around.  His  j 
cations  were  all  stamped  by  his  characteristic  bcci 
of  research.  They  are  his  Hittory  of  England,  finished 
in  1889  (7  vols.)  :-his  col)ate<l  eilllinn  of  Ihe  Prin 
of  Eduiard  V[:— Biographical  \olirt  of  Tyndiil  Ike 
MaTtifr!—tBAYt\»I^llrriloBi»hopManh,afPtlrrteT- 
ongh,  on  Ihe  Indrpendniet  ••/  lit  A  vlhorized  Vertioa  of 
hteAi6fr,as  well  as  many  of  lener  note.  See  CAriifi'im 
Obtrcrr,  March,  1869,  p.  209. 

Walter,  Hubert,  archbishop  of  Canteibnry,  was 
bom  at  West  Dereham,  in  Norfolk,  where  he  afterwords 
fouuded  a  Premonstratensian  munaatery.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  Ranulpb  de  Glanville. 

1 186  he  was  dean  of  York.  Oct.  22, 1 1 89,  be  was  conse- 
crUed  lord  bishop  of  Halisbuiy,  and  in  1 190  sailed  for  the 
Kolv  Land.  He  was  enthroned  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury May  SO,  tl93i  Towards  the  close  of  1198,  Hubert 
was  summoned  lo  Normandy.  The  two  sovereigns — 
the  king  of  France  and  the  Ung  of  England — had  se- 
lected him  vo  mediate  between  them,  and  to  efTect,  if 


WALTERS 

posuble,  a  reoonciliatian.  He  did  not  stieceed,  bat  tliia 
inatance  shows  the  high  estimation  id  which  be  waa 
held  as  an  honest  and  skilful  diplomatin.  Bubert  died 
April  6,1199.  See  aook.  Lira  of  Oe  ArcktMoptrf 
Cmierbui-y,  ii,  684  sq. 

^7alter,  Jobann  Oottlob,  a  Proteatmt  tlwdo- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  April  5, 1704,  and  died  Nor. 
16, 1782,  as  aoperintendent  at  Neustadt-an-der-OrlL 
He  is  the  author  of /Vi'inaCforiaCfen^oaimffeirtfwr* 
£,Bfilen)  rinifiai/u  (Neustadt,1767).  See  Winer, /foai^ 
imck  der  Ueol.  IM.  i,  76 1.     (R  P.) 

Walter,  Michael.    See  WALTDKR.HicnEi. 

Walter,  llathuilel,  a  CoDgngatiorkal  mininv, 
son  ofUev. Kchemiab  Waltcr.ofKoxbun-, Has*., grad- 
uated from  Harvard  College  in  1729.  He  was  ordained 
paitorofthe  Second  Church  in  Roxbuiy,  July  tO,  1734; 
and  died  March  II,  17TG.  See  Sprague,Xmab  uftkt 
Amer.  Pulpil,\,33fl, 

^Valter,  Hehemlah.  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ireland,  in  December,  1663,  of  Engliah  pn- 
ent*.  As  eariy  as  167»,  hi.  father,  Thomas  Walln-.  let- 
tled  in  Bolton,  Mass.  Nehemiah'a  preliminarr  eduo- 
tion  was  received  in  his  naiire  country.  In'lGH  ka 
graduated  from  Har\'Brd  College,  and  shortlv  after  went 
to  Nova  Scotia,  and  resided  with  a  Ftcnrfa  bmily  I. 
Irani  the  language.  Returning  to  Massachusetts,  be 
resumed  his  studies  at  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  a 
fellow  of  that  college.  Oct.  17, 1688,  he- was  ordaiaed  as 
colleague  with  the  famous  Apostle  of  the  Indians,  Jotui 
Eliot,  who  was  then  settled  in  Roxbuiy,  Haot  Ehot 
died  two  y«an  after.  About  1717,  In  consequence  of 
excessive  application  to  study,  health  failed,  and  be  vis 
incapable  of  performing  the  duties  of  his  office.  Be 
gradually  recovered  his  health,  and  resumed  his  minii- 
try.  For  tweiuy-eight  vean  he  was  without  a  col- 
league ;  but  OcL  19, 1718,' his  son.  Rev,  Thomas  Walter, 
was  choeen  to  that  position.  After  fire  yean  the  sn 
died,  and  tbe  father  again  awnmed  the  entire  paKotd 
charge.  He  died  Sept.  17,  176a  A  volume  of  his 
Sermomi  was  published  after  his  death,  in  177Sl  See 
Sptague,  Amalt  nfike  A  mrr.  Palpil,  i,  217. 

Walter,  Tboroaa,  a  Congregational  minister,  lan 
of  Rev.  Nehemiah  Walter,  was  bom  Dec  13,  I69G.  Be 
graduated  from  Har^*ard  College  in  1713;  was  ordained 
as  colleague  id  his  father  in  Kuxburi-.  Man.,  Oct.  19. 

o/Muiie  EiflitiiMd  (1721) :— an  hja«y  upon  hfoBM- 
ify,  etc  (1724).  He  died  Jan.  10, 1724.  See  Spragae, 
Aiaali  of  Ihe  Amtr.  PatpU,  i,  SlS. 

'Waltor,  ^niliam,  D.D.,  a  I'miestant  Efwnpal 
clergvman,  was  bom  in  Roxbuiy,  Klass.,  Oct.  7,  1717. 
He  ^dusted  at  Han-ard  College  in  1766;  weni  is 
England  for  holy  orders  in  17&4:  and  July  2S  of  the 
same  year  was  installed  rector  of  Trinltv  Chutcb.  Bos- 
ton, the  third  Episcopal  Church  of  thai  city,  tie  le- 
signed  this  charge  March  17, 1(i6.  and  went  to  Nova 
Scotia,  where  he  nrmained  several  yeat^  and  preached 
during  a  considerable  portion  oflhe  time  at  Sbelbomt, 
In  1791  he  relumed  tu  Boatun.  aud  purchased  an  M 
manuon  in  Charter  Street,  wiiich  formed  his  home  dar- 
ing tbe  remainder  of  his  life.  In  1792  he  was  innalM 
rectorofChrist  Church,Boitnn.  Hedied  [>ec6,l80a. 
See  Sprague,  A  mah  oflhr  A  mer.  Palpil,  y.  236  gq. 

'Walter,  WUUam  Bicker,  a  poet  and  Unttariai: 
preacher,  a  descendant  of  Nehemiah  Walter,  wai  bom 
inlloston,MaaB,inl79C.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege in  1818;  studied  theology  at  Harvard,  aitd  scoie- 
times  preached,  but  did  nut  obtain  a  license.  He  died 
at  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1822.  He  was  the  author  of 
Suiry;  a  Poem  (Boston,  182l):~4nd  Peemi  (ibid.  1821). 
See  ADibone,  Did.  of  Bril.  and  A  mer.  .4  ulhort,  s.  T. 

'Walters.  CbrUtJaD,  a  Methodist  Epiacopal  stin- 
isier,  waa  bom  in  Dauphin  County,  Pa.,  March  16, 1827. 
He  was  converted  in  1843;  lleenied  to  preach  in  IS&t; 
hU>or«d  several  years  aa  colportetu  for  the  Bibb  Socwiy; 


WALTERS 


and  in  1866  ontcred  the  PbilidelphU  i 
tet  Mining  Safe  Hirbot  Circuit  Iwo  jean ;  St  Paul's, 
I.ancaMcr,  two  van;  Tatniiiua  twu  rears;  Port  Car- 
boa  two  yean;  and  Second  Street,  Pbiicdelphia, 
yeu,  hetook  tfae  lupeniamerary  relation,  travelled  n 
tioK  for  tbe  improTement  of  hii  health,  and  finally  . 
tird  in  Hanisbun;,  where  be  died,  July  12, 1SG9. 
WaltelB  was  remsikahla  fur  his  i^iillemanlineM,  «al, 
and  peraeverouce.    See  iliimlf  'i/'Aiamal  Coh/ii 
1870,  p.  47. 

-WaltBTB.  Tohn,  ■  Wesleran  Heihodist  mi 
ary,  was  a  natiro  of  South  Wales.  He  was  n>iiverted 
in  hia  yonth,  was  Mdt  to  the  West  Indies  in 
appointed  to  the  island  of  Jamaica.  Un  the 
William  Wood  (q.  v.).  Hay  !4, 183^,  he  was 
.S]iani«h  Town  to  St.  Ann'a  Bav,  to  supply  thi 
the  deceased,  although  he  sialeil  to  the  com 

plate,  iiwing 


.t  gel  ri 


>r,  that 


he  bimseir  would  die  there.  With  thin  and  pallid  feat- 
urea  the  slender  and  delicate  Walters  siartln  Ihc  moum- 
iiiK  people  with  the  words, "Dear  Christian  friends,  [ 
■m  come  this  morning  lo  preach  Mr.  Wood's  funeral 
sermon,  and  I  shall  at  the  same  limo  preach  itiy  own 
Blan."  On  that  very  day  the  yellow  fever  smiUs  him, 
an<l  in  one  weeh  he  passes  away.  R^ard  for  the  poor 
aiKl  aicit,  and  fervent  zeal  for  liod,  were  traiu  in  the 
L-haiscter  of  Ihe  voung  aud  hulv  Walters.  See  ifin- 
uln  of  Wateym' Con/trtnea  (IH36)i  Bleby,  Aomnnce 
•Htlkout  Fielitm,  or  SttlcAri  from  Ihe  Porlfulio  of  tm 
Old  Miaionaiy  (Lond.  and  N.  V.  16(no),  ak.  x:(i>i,  p.  459 
sq. 

^Faltera,  Thomaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
rer,  was  botn  at  Hanley,  England,  July  18,  IS24,  of  de- 
voted Wesleraii  parents,  who  gave  him  a  careful  train- 
in;,',  and  brought  him  to  Christ  at  Ihe  age  of  fiDeen. 
He  receive*!  license  (o  preach  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
and  continued  on  circuit  work  until  1H48,  when  he  sailed 
lo  the  United  Stales,  and  settled  in  Itellerille,  N.  J., 
where  his  preaching  soon  attracted  attention,  and  he 
received  a  call  to  supply  Saudyslone  Circuit.  In  1849 
he  united  with  Ihe  New  Jeney  Conferencr,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  Vernon  CSrcuit.  Subsequently  be  labored 
at  Newton,  Rockaway,  Barr}'vi]le.  Htlfnrd,  Home  and 
(;reenrille,  Asburr,  Flemingtnn ;  Second  Church,  Rah- 
way:  Bclvidere;  St.  Panl's,  Staten  Island;  BelleviUe, 
Boiniton,  Dover ;  Eighth  Avenue,  Newark ;  Prospect 
Street,  Palerwn;  and  Pint  Church,  Hackensack.  He 
died  July  7, 1879.  Mr.  Walters  was  intensely  practical, 
a  diligent  reader,  and  a  thoroujch  student,  eminently 
scriptural:  had  a  very  tenacious  memory,  a  clear,  full, 
rich  voice ;  was  cultured  in  muuc,  and  in  oraturv.  See 
AtiFiHlH  nfA  ORXal  Spring  Cimfnrmrt,  1880,  p.  !)G. 

TValtber(WALTFit<Ri:»  or  <T[iAi.TERii3),a  German 
Luiheran  divine,  was  bum  at  Allendorf,  in  Thuringia. 
in  I  he  latter  part  of  the  IGlh  century.  He  studied  di- 
vinity at  .k'lia,  and  ga%'e  special  attention  to  classical 
and  Oriental  languages.  He  became  professor  of  (ireek 
and  Hebrew  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  was  appointed  su- 
periiilenilent  of  the  Luiheran  Church  in  the  duchy  of 
Saxe-<iutha  and  in  the  duchy  of  Bmnswick-Woifen- 
blliieL  He  died  Nov.  15,  1640.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  iheolnvieal  aitd  linguistic  woriis.     See  Zeu- 

^altber,  CbllstUn  (I),  a  German  theuIogUn, 
was  b-irn  about  Ihe  beginning  of  the  16lh  century.  He 
studied  divinity,  took  nrders.  and  lived  for  some  time  in 

•eiiled  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  was  much  esteemed  by 
the  thenli^ians  fur  his  leaniing.  He  was  employed  by 
the  celebrated  primer  Hans  Lufll  as  pmof. reader  for 
thirty-four  yean:  was  also  sub-editor  of  the  Wittenberg 
edition  of  Lather's  works;  and  was  the  author  also  of 
(ome  pamphlets  and  other  works.  He  died  aboac  1572. 
See  Zeltner,  Thtatrum  Vintrva  fmdilarum,  p.  M'i 
'Waltber.CblUtlui  (3),  D.D.,  a  aerman  divine. 


3  WALTHEB 

waa  bom  at  Norkitlen,  near  KcSnigiberg,  in  16t&  He 
was  educated  at  Kiinigsbarg,  Leipaic,  and  Jena,  receiving 
the  degree  of  A.M.  at  the  latter  place  in  1877.  He  then 
returned  to  his  native  country,  where  he  held  several 
ecclesiaslical  uHtcea.  In  1701  he  became  a  member  of 
tbe  Academy  uf  Science  at  Berlin;  in  I'OS  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  divinity  in  liie  Univenity  of 
Kiinigsberg:  in  1704  was  made  inspector  of  the  syiia- 
gi^ue  of  tbe  Jews  in  the  same  city.  During  some  dme 
he  was  rector  magnilicut  of  the  University  of  KSnige- 
berg,  and  died  there  in  1717.  Among  his  works  are, 
TraeKtlut  dt  Culm  Dhino  SaiKlttarii  Velerit  Tetta- 
naai,q>itm Slando Fieri Oporltbat : — Dt  Daabiu  Tabu- 
lia  Lapideii :  —  Dt  Qaatuor  PtFoarum  GmtribuM  apod 
Utbntat.-^VvjfulatioMi  V//I  dc  FluralUale  Ptrnnta- 
mm  in  Dininii,  ix  Gmrti  i,  26. 

Wolthor,  ChtlBtopll  TheodOBltu,  a  German 
missionary,  waa  bom  at  Schildberg,  in  Bnndenbnrg,  in 
1G99,  and'studied  divinity  at  Halle.  On  the  invitation 
of  Frederic  IV,  king  of  Denmark,  he  arranged  to  go  as 


o  the  Dan 


IS  in 


He  went  lo  Copenhagen  in  company  with  Henry 
rtuischow  and  Uattholumew  Ziegenlialg  in  1T05,  and 
they  arrived  at  Tranquebar,  India,  July  9, 170fi.  Wal- 
ther  then  learned  Portuguese  and  several  Indian  dia- 
lects, and  visited  the  whole  coast  of  Cotomandel,  preach- 
}  tbe  iubabilanls  with  great  succeas,  He  founded 
nisiionary  establishmeot  of  Majiibaram.  On  ao- 
.  of  failing  health,  he  returned  lo  Europe  in  1740; 
bnt,berare  reaching  Denmark,  he  died  at  Dresden,  April 
27, 1741.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works  peruin- 
ing  to  his  miisionsry  labors,  aud  for  the  benefit  of  the 
heathen  nation  to  which  he  preached.  See  Scb<)ttgen, 
Cnmmailarii  de  Vila  tl  Agont  Ckritlian  Tluodotii 
WoUhtri  (Hall^  1748). 

Waltber,  Helniicb  Andreas,  a  German  Prot- 
estant clergyman,  was  botn  at  Ktinigslierg,  in  Hesse,  in 

He  became  minister  at  Worms  in  1729,  and  of 

itherine's,  Frank fort-on-tbe-llain.  In  1T41  he  was 
honored  with  the  rank  of  senior  of  the  Protestant  clergy 
inkron.and  with  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology 
by  the  faculty  of  Oiessen.  He  died  in  1748.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  following:  Ditpalalio  ex 
nli^uilale  OrimtaH  dt  Zabiit;  — Fiiulemiti  bt;/  detn 
frmeia/ett  Lichle  der  romiatJt-katAoiitchen  lAhTt^gegen 
n  ono  tintni  Jriuiten  hetautntg^ieaft  SSdlein,  yenamit 
Licht  ia  dti-  FiattmiU! — Extgriit  EpiMola  Jada; — 
Griinde  dtr  Watkeit  md  Tugaid:—»ni  ErUaler- 
ter  Kaltdtilmiu. 

'WaltiXBT,  Jobami.  a  German  divine,  was  one  ot 

Luther's  intimate  friends.    As  a  oomposet  of  tunes,  he 

was  able  to  assist  the  great  Reformer  in  improving 

Church  psalmody.    In  1524  he  published,  with  Lather's 

sistance.  the  Srst  Lulhtrai  Choral  Boot,  containing 

me  of  his  own  tunes.     He  filled  the  office  of  precentor 

Torgau,  and  was  afterwards  director  of  the  choir  to 

ince  John  Frederick,  and  to  prince  Maurice  of  Sax- 

y.     In  1530  he  removed  to  Wittenberg,  received  the 

degree  of  A.M.,  and  was  appointed  a  lecturer  in  the 

university.    In  1547  he  removed  (o  Draden,  where  he 

prubablv'died,  in  1564.    He  ia  the  aulharDfa  floe  Oeiv 

man  hymn,  HrTtHeh  iliiil  miek  erfreaea  (Eng.  transL  in 

I^ra  Gtrm,  ii,  388 :  "  Now  fain  my  joyous  heart  would 

ling").     See  Koch,  Gndi.  det  dailtdi.  Kirdaaliedtt,  I, 

247,285  *q.:  453  sq.;  ii,471;  viii,  655.     (R  P.) 

llPaltber,  Jobn  L,.  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Kulmbach,  Bavaria,  Sept.  10.  1818. 
He  emigrated  to  America  in  1840;  was  powetfuUy  con- 
verted at  watch-night  services  in  S^  IauIs,  Mo.,  at  the 
close  of  1848;  served  the  Church  grandly  as  exhorter 
and  local  preacher;  joined  the  Illinois  Conference  in 
1861,  which  he  sert-ed  faithfully  and  successfully  undl 
1861,  when  he  was  appointed  ch^lain  of  the  Forty- 
third  Re^fiment  of  Illinois  Volunleeis.  As  chaplain  he 
was  persistent  in  all  his  duties,  and  highly  honored  by 
officers  and  soldiers.    He  was  shot  in  the  cheat  ^iril  6, 


IMS,  on  the  Ixltle-fklil  of  Shiloh,  while  earing  for  the 
wounded,  and  e:tpiieil  almoit  wilboDt  a  ntnigglf.  Mr. 
Wilther  wa»  tht  Chird  cbipUiii  nf  the  Union  *nny  dy- 
ing in  tlie  aervice  of  hi*  nation  ;  and  waa  Snt  in  excel- 
lenev  atnong  German  preaclie™  in  the  UlinniB  Cuiifsr- 
enoe.     S«  MiBUlrt  of  A  mual  Ctmfernieti,  IBtia,  p.  2M. 

Waltlier,  Michel  (I),  a  Lutheran  ilieoluRian  nf 
Germany,  wan  bom  at  Nuremberg,  April  6, 1698.  He 
atudieri,Bt  Brat,  medicine  at  Wittenberg;  but  anemariU 
he  ijetook  himaelf  lo  the  aludy  of  theology  at  Gieaaeti 
and  Jena.  In  (be  latler  place  hewaa  appointed  adjunct 
to  ihe  philoaophical  facully.  For  a  lime  he  acted  as 
court-pTtacher  to  the  ducheaa  of  Brunswick  and  Lilne- 
bnrg,  occupying  at  tbe  aame  time  ■  profeuoifliip  at 
Helmstildl.'  Aftfr  the  death  of  the  ducheaa.  in  1626, 
be  was  appointed  court-preaeber  and  general  auperin- 
lendent  at  Eait  Friealand ;  in  )U2  he  wm  called  lo  ZcUe, 
where  be  died,  Feb.  9,  IC62.  He  wrole,  Uarmmia  Hi- 
l^ca:~Poaiila  Motaica,  Frophrtiat,  l/unt-piallicu, 
Erangiiiilica : —Comm,  ia  Eput.ad  Kbraoi.—hlnilui 
ad  Pialurii  Sacrarium: — SpicHeffimn  Controteniamm 
dt  f/emrnibai  Jrhorak,  Elokimi  —  AgKin  at  Pkair:  — 
Tradaliu  dt  Undiom  Chruli,  etc.  See  Freher,  Thea- 
Imm  Eniditoiiim  1  Hofftuann,  j>ztnm  UrmrTtaU;  Artu 
t'rmttor*™  Lalma ;  Jikber,  A  Ugtmrinrt  Giltkrlnt-Lfx- 
«■«,,..  r.     (ftp.) 

WaltbST,  Mlchsl  (2),  a  Lutheran  theologian  nf 
Germany,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  March  3, 16SB, 
at  Anrich,  in  Frieiland.  When  liileen  yean  of  age  he 
entemi  llie  Univeraily  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  was 
appointed,  in  1687,  profeBaar  of  Iheologv.  He  died  Jan. 
21,  1692.  He  wrote,  i>«  Fide  Nieatih  .-—Of  Fide  la- 
faaltna BitplitalOTiim : — Dr.  CiilKAaoliom  fWersni.- — 
De  .Varo  I-egiilalort  Ckritto  amira  Soeaimot  ei  A  rmt- 
aiuniu  i—lh  Bali^aclUait  Cknili .-— De  ViumiHladim 
Orif  Nviri  rl  Chruli  IJomMf.—th  Duabf  Tolmtii 
Lapidtii  ex  Exod.  xxx,i9,H  mil,  16,16 ; — Dt  Ingmtu 
SaiMTiolil  Sua™  in  Smriam  SamiorKm  ex  Ijril.  m"  .• 
— lie  ChinmaBiia  tx  Job,  xxxtO,  7,  aon  Pretaiili: — 
DtJkoA  btaaidila  ex  Je:  xir,  Ib—IM  Vim  SomiiH  Ze- 
macli,tivtGenHeitfxZaei.ri,li-^DeSnuii  Verbornin 
iri^nXaiv  ixXau  Marc,  fir,  73 : — Dt  aaiiivif  fi-aitti 
txiPelT.i,*:—DeArtiaitiSS.  Triialalit  Anliftilalt, 
Vtrilalt  et  NecttitaU,  elc  See  Bunemann,  lie  Dodit 
Wetlpholii;  Nora  Liltraria  Utiimiaia;  I'ipping,  He- 
moria  Theoloffomm ;  iiichtt,  A  Ugrmtint*  G'eltirtr*-Ln- 
ib>i,a.r.     (a  P.) 

Waltber,  Rudolpta.  a  Refcinneil  theohifnaii  of 
Germany,  waa  bom  at  Zurich,  Nov.  9, 1619.  He  ttud- 
ied  at  different  places,  viMteil  EnRland,  and,  after  his  re- 
turn, lie  continued  his  thidiis  at  Marburg.  Here  he  at- 
tracted the  aUemion  of  the  Uiulgrave,  Philip  of  He**, 
who  look  him  in  1541  to  Ratisbun,  where  he  acted  as 
clerical  secreutT.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Melanclhnn,  Bucer,  Sturm,  Cruciger.and  otbera.  After 
his  return,  he  waa  ap|H>inle<l  pastor  at  Schwammencliii- 
gen,  and  in  1642  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  at  Zurich.  He 
died  Nov.  25,  I5H6,  He  wrote,  Apolo^a  ZKimjIii:  — 
Commmlurii  in  f.ibtoi  lliilaricot  jVort  Trtliianii:  — 
Epietola  PaaH,  Pelii,  Jacabi,  Joiaiiaii,el  J«da!—llo- 

A'urtcm  Teilamtnlum:—llomlia  in  Prr^eMi  Xll  Mi- 
nora ;  —  ffomUia  XXXII  He  Inearmilioat,  Xaliritalt, 
el  lila  FUH  />n.etc  See  Verheiden,  Ebigia  Prailaa- 
tiaram  altgaot  ThttA^niiB ;  Adam,  Vila  Kradttomm ; 
Teimer,  Eli'gfi  dn  Saeimt ;  Jiicher,  A  Hgtatinet  Or- 
khrim-Ltxibv,  t.  v.     (ft  P.) 

Walton,  Brian,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Seamer,  in  the  district  of  Cleaveland,  in 
Yorkshire,  in  1600.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  look  the  degree  of  A.M. ' 


Camt 


idge. 


the  irouble*  between  Ihe  kin. 

he  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Puritans,  and  waadi- 

don.   He  took  refuge  in  Oxford,  and  io  I64lt  was  iue 
porated  doclor  of  divinity.    There  be  formed  tbe  pi 

of  bis  famous  Polyglot  Bible,  aud  commenced  ihe  coUi 
tioii  of  toaterials;  but  it  was  not  completed  till  »■ 
years  afl£r  bis  rttum  to  London,  which  occuired  after  the 
death  of  the  king,  llie  work  appeared  in  sx  voluiae^ 
large  foilo.  It  waa  published  by  subecripiian,  and  is 
thought  lo  be  the  firsi  book  printed  in  England  on  thai 
plan.  Tbe  flnt  Talume  appeared  in  September,  I&M: 
the  aecond  in  July,  1665;  ihe  Ihird  in  July,  leW;  and 
tite  last  Ibree  in  1GS7.  It  b  accompanied  l^  il>e  /i> 
ma  lltfUaglolKM  of  Dr.  Edmund  Castell  (publislwl  ia 
l<3G9,iii  2  vols.foL).  This  is  a  lexicon  otihe  aeTcn  Uri- 
enlal  languages  used  in  Walton's  I'olfylol.nuii  hat  gran- 
num  of  those  languages  prefixed.  The  Fpl^plat  tan- 
not  be  considered  cnmplele  wiihout  it.  Tlie  Pn^tgvBe- 
na  to  ihe  Polyglot,  which  are  highly  valued,  and  ban 
several  limes  been  reprinted  separately  (Zaiieh,  1^71; 
Leips.I777,etc.},areamonDment  lo  the  author's  teaiv- 
ing,  and  contain  siileen  diiBertBl  iona  on  the  langnagB, 
editions,  and  translations  of  the  Bible,  the  various  rcail- 
ings,  critical  condition,  Jewish  a 


e  niled  wilh  red 


erofai 


and  fur  a 


It  lo  London,  wher 
lurate  of  All- hallows',  Bread  Street.  In  16; 
ecloraf  Si.  Msrtin's  Orgar,  in  London,  an 
n  Essex.    Some  time  aTterwards  he  beca^ 


etc.  Some  copies  of  the  Poljgloi  a 
lines  by  hand,  and  art  iberefore  mora 
published,  besides  his  Loudon  Polyglot,  Tir  ( 
Cotuidered  (I6&9),  a  reply  to  the  Cimtidirafiom*  of  Dr. 
Owen:  —  and  an  Inlrvhiclio  ad  l^rfitmni  Lugaarm 
Onntaliam  (1666).  In  1660,  after  the  ReBloiattoB,  bt 
was  appointed  chaplain  lo  the  king;  and  in  1681  Vatmf 
of  Chester.  He  enjoyed  the  honor  of  tbe  office  boi  a 
short  iitiH>,  fi.r  he  died  Nov.  29, 1661.  See  Todd.  Uf, 
and  Wrilhigi  of  Uu  Right  Rtv.  Bnam  Wabom.  DJi., 
Lord  Biihep  nf  Cheittr  tLund.  1821 ),     See  PoLTouiT 

BiBLlU. 

Walton.  Jam«a,  a  minister  in  Ihe  MelhodiM  E^ 
copal  Church,  South,  was  bom  near  Chester,  S,  C-  Kif. 
IG,  1799.  He  removed  lo  Knox  OHinty,  Tenn..  ht  early 
life,  where  he  received  a  careful  religious  culiare.  sod 
vns  trained  in  the  an  of  agriculture;  embraeed  rrligi™ 
■1  ihe  early  age  of  eight  years;  removed  to  Uinoa- 
■ippi  in  1882 ;  for  two  years  lepreacnted  Oktibbeha 
Cuunly  in  the  Slate  Senate;  was  licensed  ta  preach 
in  ISBB;  and  in  1843  was  admilled  inm  the  Hh»- 
uppi  Conference,  where  he  labored  wilh  gipst  teal  and 
derotedneSB  unlil  his  death,  Jan.  18, 1B61.  Hr.  Waltm 
was  deeply  pious,  had  a  strong,  well-balancnl  nilBd. 
and  was  an  example  of  prudence  and  fideliiv.  See  Mm- 
mrt  nfAmual  Conftntcei  nflkt  M.E.  Ckmrci,  Sailk, 
lS6l,p.8IS. 

^KTalton,  Joaathan.  D.D.,  an  Engrish  clngrmar 
of  the  E[aBcopal  Chureh,wasbom  in  1774;  became  rec- 
tor of  Birdbrook,  in  Essex,  aod  mtal  dean ;  aad  died  k 
1846.  He  was  the  amhor  of  i.eerin«s  oa  A^oriinre.— 
TitProdigol  Son,  etc.  (1893)  :~TU  Glory  qfllu  LmKrr 
HovK  (1842):— and  several  aingle  Sermrai.  Sea  Alb- 
bone,  Did.  nf  Brit,  and  Antr.  A  alian,  a.  v. 

Walton,  Robert  Hal),  a  Presbyterian  diriiM 
was  bom  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  I8SS.  He  entcml  IM- 
■ware  College,  and  graduaieil  in  1864,  aad  cammeDoed 
his  theological  studies  in  Union  Seminary  in  lBo7.  He 
was  ordained  in  18G0,  and  labored  in  the  Bnadway 
Church,  Vs.,  as  a  stated  supply.  From  (bia  be  went  io 
Georgia,  snd  supplied  tbe  Charch  at  Caasrillc  ami)  his 
death,  April  2, 1876.     (W.  P.  &) 

lil7alton,  ^PllUain,  D.D.,  a  pnfenor  and  dergy- 
man  nf  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  31, 1869,  aged  tiny-nine  yean.  He  was  (be 
eldest  son  of  rear-admiral  Walton  of  the  British  nary; 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  be  was  pnAaaor  of  He- 


ir  uf  the  Se< 


brew  in  the  Genenl  TlinilncEical  Semincrr,  New  York 
ciC*.     ate  Aitr.  Qaar.  Church  Rrt.itn.i«:ii,J<.ea6, 

'Walton,  William  C,  »  rre«bvleri«n  miniiter, 
wMbom  i'>  HenorerCuuiity,  Va„  Ndv.  4, 1793.  He  »as 
educaled  It  Hampden  SiiliievCaUe)!^:  Iicenierlt.)|<ri-nch 
OclK,  I8U;  ontihied  April  3d,  ISIB;  «nd  on  May  fi  fol- 
lowing wru  insteUwl  piaior  of  the  Pmbrteriui  Churuli 
in  HopewelL  In  18S8  bt  mxepted  ■  ull  bi  the  Third 
Pn*bTlerun  Charch  in  BaliimoTe;  in  ISSfi  returneil  to 
Virginii;  in  July,  1827,  wea  inNal 
oikI  Pr«bvieiiui  Cburch  in  Mexi 
btr,  IBS2,  nf  the  Free  Cbuicb  in  Hinfunl,  Conn,  where 
he  continued  to  labor  until  his  death,  Feb.  18,  1834. 
Ha  wu  ■  moat  zealoua  and  devoted  minister,  (iill  of 
lo>c  for  Bciiib  and  the  glory  of  God.  See  Danfunh,  UJi 
nf  W.  C.  ITfibua  (tS37, 12mo) ;  Cintt.  Quar.  SfifcfiUar, 
:(,  193;  Sjingn^  Amalt  of  Oe  A mn:  Pulpil.Wi, 5^ 

'VTalts,  UeNRV  C  a  UcthoiliMt  Epiacopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Wayne  County,  Ind.,  June  6,  1»1B.  He 
(|ieiit  bia  boyhoiMi  on  a  farm;  entered  Indiana  Aabury 
L'liivenity  in  18G0;  was  coDverted  in  ISCS;  graduated 
in  1866;  apent  twenty-two  months  in  travelling  over 
Kurope  and  the  Orient;  lectured  the  following  year  on 
the  sights,  scenes,  cualoma,  and  habita  of  the  people  of 
Che  Old  WorUi;  joined  the  Nortli  Indiana  Conference 
in  1869;  and  served  Che  Ch^rtli  at  Wabash  and  Fort 
Wayne.  In  1871  be  joined  the  Odnrado  Conference, 
which  he  served  faithfully  until  1875,  when  hia  failing 
healtb  obliged  him  to  take  a  supernumerary  relatioii. 
He  next  remored  to  Quincv,  III.,  where  he  dieil,  Mav 
II,  1877.  Ab  a  writer,  Mr.  Waltz  was  ulear,  lucid,  in- 
atnictive,  and  interesting;  as  a  preacher,  above  Ibe  av- 
erage, futhful,  practical,  tngical ;  as  a  pastor,  devoted; 
as  a  father,  nffectioiiatc.  Sec  Miaalu  o/Amaal  Coo- 
/e™«.,i87T,p.82. 

^7ama  (or  Vonui).  in  ilindft  mythology,  waa  the 
wife  of  king  Aswarena,  who  apnni^  from  the  holy  fam- 
ily of  Ikswika.  She  gave  binh,  by  her  husband,  in 
Farswa,  who  became  so  reoowited  for  hia  ]Mety  that  In 
waa  oude  one  of  the  twenty-three  elders  of  Buddha. 

Wamack.  DkCBIT,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  wju  bom  in  Rutherford  Coun- 
ty, N.  C,  Oct.  I'i,  1806.  He  professed  religion  after 
reaching  his  msjurily,  and  entered  the  Tennesseo  Om- 
rerencc  In  1854  he  went  to  Tenas.  and  entered  the 
North -w»t  Texas  Conference.  He  died  in  1878  or 
I87fl.  See  J/huIh  o/Amaal  Coi^trraat  nflht  Af.  K. 
CkanA,  SoalA,  1879.  p.  77. 

^■^ambaugli,  AenAHAH  B.,  a  Mcrboiliit  Epifcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Hunterdon  County,  N.  J.,  Oct.  16, 
leiA.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  uf  thirteen  1  Joined 
the  Ohio  Conference  in  1838,  and  ser\-ed  at  Jamestown, 
Bellerontainv,  East  Liberty,  Jamestown  R  second  term. 
Cotumbus,  and  Circleville.  In  1844.  because  of  failing 
health,  he  located,  studied  law,  and  fur  six  years  pur- 
sued that  profession,  though  all  the  time  pnniiiheil  bj 

the  Cmference,  in  wliich  he  labored  earnestly  until  his 
death,  Aug.  14, 1873.  Mr.Wambaugh  waa  a  minister 
of  la^  ability,  reserved  among  Uraiigen,  afoiable 
among  acquaintances,  always  very  dignided.  See  ,t/in- 
B/u  of  A  mnal  Conferfmx,,  1873,  p.  1 40. 

V7ainaii.    See  Tanama. 

'^KTan,  in  None  mythology,  is  one  of  the  infemal 
streams  in  the  kingdom  of  Hell. 

'VTaaadls,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  a  aurnanic  of 
Frria.  the  goddess  of  the  Wanes,  she  iiaving  sprung 
from  that  nilioii. 

Wanagaron  (or  Vaaagaren  or  Ba  Qabberen ) . 
in  UiudO  mythology,  is  the  son  of  the  gi~  -  ' '   -  "  " 


cned  in  Marat 


iticed  hisdaugliter  ai 


iram.     Because  Krislin 


d.  Krixl 


WANDELBEliT 


aa  the  remoral  of  tli 


of  tl 


Wan 


forse  mythology,  ii 
■  .night  tc  ■ 


n  the  e: 


lorth  of  Europe,  but  is  dilUcult  to  locate  exactly  either 
Its  hiBtor>-  or  its  geography. 

Wandalln,  Jolian  (I),  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Denmark,  was  born  Jan.  26,  1624,  at  Viborg,  in 
Jutland.  At  Ibe  age  of  fourteen  he  waa  acquainteil 
with  the  Hebrew,  Chahlee.  Syriac,  Aratnc,  and  Rabbin- 
ical langnaaes.  He  Mndieil'  at  Capenbagen,  Levdrn, 
Utrecht,  aiul  other  univenutie^  In  1661  he  retunntl 
to  Copenhagen ;  was  appointed  in  1652  profeienr  of  Ian- 
gnages,  and  in  1655  professor  of  theology.  He  died  aa 
'$eelandinl675.    He  wrote,  Connen/.  in //«^ 


//iiron 


-Com. 


a  Lam 


icram  A  ulnlilm.  .■  —  Dt  Statu  A  mmumin 
Post  MoHtm,  etc  See  Witte,  Jltemoria  Tkiolononim ; 
Tindingi,  Aeadrmia  //'•fiiintu;  Barthelini,  De  Snip- 
loribUM  Dimi;  JiJcher.  AUyrmtina  Gftthrltn- l,txikim, 
S.V.     (RP.) 

'WandallD.  Joban  (2),  son  of  the  preccling,  nas 
bom  St  Copenhagen,  Jan.  14,  IC56,  where  he  also  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  1683.  He  died 
March  20,  1710.  He  wrote,  UiurilaUo  PhUotogico-lhr- 
ologiea  de  Ptvphtlit  rl  Pr-ipHrtiit  (Hafnije,  1676)  i—lJa- 
eutnio  Spri  Sptewtai  ik  Cimrrriiime  Judaanui  (ibiil. 
1702).  See  Haupach,  /k  UlilHule  PtrigrimttOHU  Ihi. 
iota  1  Jiicher,  A  Ugtairuin  Grlrhiin.l.exUxm,  a.  v. ;  Fllrst. 
Bai.Ju<Lii<,tm.     (1).  i>.) 

'WandaliD,  Patar,  a  Protestant  theologian  and 
linguist  of  Germany  who  diol  in  16S9,  is  (be  author  of 
Calula^atiOO  yucabuloi-iiiB  naaieonin  Cognaliimm  rx 
Liaguu  llebr.  DatrtOvim  (Hafniv,  1661).  He  also  wn>te 
Purnphratit  Grrm.  in  7  Piiilmoi  PattiltatiaJtt,  in  Kpui. 
ad  GalaUa,  PkUippenin,  lltbraoi,  tt  Titi  Jehiaaat 
Ejntlnlat.  He  wmIb  likewise  in  the  Danish  language. 
See  Holler,  CinAni  IMln-nla ;  JOcher,  AUgtmtina  (It- 
khnaflAxihm,  a.  v.     (R  P.) 

Wandelbert,  a  saint  of  German  extraction,  was 
bom  A.D.8li},  and  became  a  monk  in  tlie  monastery  of 
Prhm.  He  was  a  teamed  the<ilogian  and  Latin  scholar, 
whose  attainments  not  only  won  for  him  the  position  of 
master  in  Ihc  schoid  of  his  convent,  but  also  gave  him 
literary  celebrity  and  earnol  for  him  the  notice  of  the 
empemr  Louis  the  Piuua.  Wandelbert  was  a  devoted 
educator  and  scholar,  and  also  a  busy  writer.  He  left 
numerous  works  at  hia  death,  both  in  prose  and  verse, 
only  two  of  which  ait  still  extant.  The  tint,  entitled 
Vila  tt  Miraealii  S.  Gaarit  Prr^ltn.  was  published  at 
Hayenee  in  14«9.  and  afUrwanls  incorporatcil  by  Surioa 
and  Mabillon  in  thdt  respective  .4cfn.  It  originated  in 
the  desire  to  perpetuate  the  fame  of  St.  Goar,  whose  cell 

kings  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and  ia  valuable  for  a 
correct  apprehension  of  the  conditions  of  Carlovinglan 
times.  The  second  work,  a  .Worlyro/i^'iiiB,  ia  more  im- 
portant. It  was  written  in  verse,  and  completetl  nbniii 
A.D.  850.  A  preface  in  prose  was  preHxed,  which  de- 
scribes the  different  meters  employed  by  him,  hut  other- 
wise not  in  general  use  in  his  age;  and  upon  thia  follow 
tux  lyrics  whose  burden  is  the  invocation  of  (iod,  an  oil- 
■Iress  to  the  reader,  a  dedication  to  the  emperor  Lothairc, 
a  statement  of  the  plan  of  the  work,  and  a  survey  of  i  he 
different  parts  of  the  year.  The  manymlogy  itself  be- 
gins with  Jan.  I,  and  describes  in  brief  the  life,  eharac- 
ler,  and  death  ofnne  or  more  saints  for  each  ilay  in  the 
rear.  The  conclusion  of  the  work  is  made  by  a  /It/mnM 
in  0n«M5uMC/os  in  Sapphic  verse;  and  two  other  hymiia 
III!  the  seasons  and  pastoral  occu|>atioll^  etc..  in  heroic 
verse.  These  poems  cannot  be  regarded  as  successful 
essays  in  poetry  so  much  as  they  must  be  considered 
noteworthy  productions  of  the  learned  culture  of  that 
time.     The  martyrolog]',  unaccompanied  by  the  minor 


WANDERING  BEGGARS        876 


WAR 


pocma  ibnve  dncribrcl,  wu  flnt  pobliabtd  in  1A36  by 
Bed«,  uid  arterwutla  by  Molinus,  in  UMKrd,  «ad  com- 
plelely by DAcbiry, iii Ihe Spidltgiim, v, 806 M).  W«n- 
ildbcrt  died  probalily  in  ihe  yuf  H70.  See  Triihtniius, 
De  ScTifUrOnn  EccL  p.  281  (q. ;  OuJilHl^  Commait.  de 
Ser^oribut,  u,  140  «q.i  Fabliciiu,  fi^  jV(^  tt  Inf. 
/.uriN.  vi,  814  tq.i  HUt.Ul.it  ix  Franai,  v,  877  «).; 
BUhr,  GaO.  d,  rim.  Lil.  in  hiToL  Zeilabtr,  lU  »q^ 
2S9  H].;  SchrOckh,  KirdUii^ick.  xxjii,  SIS  aq.;  Belt- 
berg,  Kircimgai.  DtutKUtmdt,  i,  466,  iSi,— Hemig, 
Rtai-Eaeydop. «.  v. 

'WandeilDg  BKOaABa,CuwoT,AiD>ll«nK&  See 
Vacantivi. 

W^anderiDS  in  thb  Wiijikhmwb.     See  Exode; 

WlLDKBMIUS  Of  Tim  WaHDEBINO. 

lXraDd«rlng  J«vr,    See  Jew,  The  Wisdebino. 

'Waudsirortb,  a  large  village  of  England,  eounly 
'  nf  Surrey,  on  the  Wsndle,  neu  ita  oioulh  in  the  Thal■)e^ 
Are  milea  soutb-weac  of  Sc  Paul'),  and  now  indude<l  in 
Ihe  city  or  London  1  noted  aa  being  the  wat  of  the  fint 
Pretbylerian  Church  and  the  flral  preabytery.  In  1572 
the  linl  preabytery  w»a  organized  lecretly.  The  mem- 
bera  were  Mr.FieUI,  lecturer  of  Wandsworth ;  Mr.  Smith, 
nC  Mitcham ;  Mr.  Cnne,  of  Roehamploii ;  Meaara.  Wil- 
cox, Slanden,J*cl(aun,B'nihani,Saintloe,ind  Edmondi; 
and  iflervarda  Mewra.  Traven,  Clarke,  Barber,  (iardi- 
ner.  Crook,  Egerlon,  and  a  number  ol  very  influential 
laymen.  Eleven  eUeia  were  choKii,  and  their  duties 
docribed  in  a  register  entitled  The  Ordtrt  of  Wandt- 
icoiih.     See  PatiiBYTEitiAi)  CiiuitciiEB. 

WansB,  in  Norve  inyihology,  is  ■  people  the  loca- 
tion o!  whoaa  country,  Wanaheim,  is  not  dettniCcly 
given  1  aomciimt*  being  tboiight  lo  be  on  the  Don 
(Tanaia),  aomelimea  <•••  Cape  Korib.  Tbia  peopli 
ia  retnarkable  only  as  bring  implicatnl  in  a  Irnic  and 
Irighiful  war  vith  ihe  Asas,  wliich  Kemed  to  lead  tr 
Ihe  destruction  of  both,  uiiiil  finally  peace  was  made 
ami  hoitages  exi:hanee<l.  whereby  the  Atas  i 
Ni'ird  and  Freia,  and  tha  Wanes  Hiinet  and 
Buih  pariiea  alio  apit  into  a  caak.  Trom  whi 
lents  the  Aaaa  Iheu  created  the  white  man 
The  n'ane*  appear  iti  have  been  an  experienced  peo- 
ple,  because   ilieir  hiwlaeea   introduced  the   won' ' 

have  been  inexperienced  in  aiiie  management,  as 
Aaaa  made  Hiiiier  Ihcir  kinc. 


of  the  partial  submias 


ic  W'uii 


rxpla 


o  the  conque 


Waugnereck,  Hkinrich,  ■  German  Jesuit 
bom  in  lo9S.anddiedNar.ll,1664.  He  wrote, 
in  6'Dn/Futoiian  S.  A  vgiulmi—De  Crratvme  A  nvm 
tiomilU:^^AatithtMt$Catholieadt  Fiiiert  Bt/nu  Oper^at 
A  rliculU  I  [',  VI,  XX.  Co^eiti-xm  A  usalaaa  Oppoalm : 
— JudKiam  Thtotngicam  Mvper  Quatlitmt :  aa  Pux.qua- 
lem  Jlesidefant  ProlealtaUeMftU  tntmduin  M  litieHaf  etc 
See  W'itte,  Diariam  Btugiaphkum ;  Alegwnbe,  Itibiio- 
Ihtai  Seiiplorum  Sodrlalii  Jrtu ,'  Jocher,  A  Ugtmrine* 
Gtlrhrlm-ljiikoo,  B.  v.     (It.  P.J 

Wanker,  FEHDt.iAtin  Uuitnian,  a  Catholic  dirine 
nf  Germany,  waa  bom  OcL  I,  I76S,  at  Freiburg,  In  the 
Breis(;au,  where  he  alto  Btudiod.and  where,  on  account 
of  his  excellent  examination,  he  waa  prornoled  as  docioi 
or  divinity.  In  I7K2  he  received  holy  orders  at  Con- 
atance,  in  1T8B  waa  nude  subrefiena  at  the  seminary  in 
Frciburg.aod  in  I'SS  was  appointed  profeaioT  of  ethics. 
For  a  great  many  years  he  occupied  this  chair,  and  wai 
about  to  lie  condrmed  as  archbishop  o(  Freiburg,  when 
he  died.  Jan.  19, 1BS4.  He  ia  the  author  or  ChrvtliKh, 
Siltealehrt  (Ulm,  17»4;  3d  ed.  Vienna,  1810).  Ke  alwi 
wrote,  UiAcr  Vaimnjl  and  ajfenbanng  in  Hianckt  w,f 
He  moTalitchen  Ilrdiirfiiute  der  AfrmcMHI  (ibid.  1S04 ; 
new  ed.  Freiburg,  ISlB'f-.  —  Vai-l/tiingen  Sber  Religion 
nnch  yernuoji  aid  Ofmbariaig  (Mayence,  1828),  etc. 
bis  works  were  edited  by  Friedrich  Weick  (Suizbacb, 


18S0  aq.  4  vols.).    See  Werner,  GadL  dtr  haluiitcltn 

7'A»lp^,p.2S4;  Hug,  Aafe  a^f  Ferd.  Wai^T,Vr.m. 

Pnf.dtr  Tktulogif;  Tkrotogiidtn  Ummal-Laribim, 

::  Vtiatt,  HandUck  dtr  Iktiios.  Lil.i,igA,i\6;  ii, 

324, 826.     (a  P.) 

Wanley,  NATHASi&t,  an  Enf^ish  dergynwD  and 

ithor,  was  bom  at  Leicester  in  16B8,  and  educated  at 

Trinity  College, Oxford.    He  became  minister  at  Becby. 

LeioeBtenhire,Bndaubaequentlv  vicar  oTTrinitj  Church, 

Coventry.    He  died  in  1680.    Mr.  Wanle>-  was  the  s» 

lor  of  Fox  JM;  or,  The  Crrat  Ihilj  of  HrJIrrtiom  n^ow 

Um'tOmt  ICoyi  (London.  1658):— r*(  Womdrrt  i^ 

Iht  IJaUWorldi  or,A  Ghw-I  J/iHoty  of  Man  (tSTS) : 

—Tke  Hitlori,  of  Han;  or,  Tir   ft'omltTi  »J  Ummaa 

tfalun  w  BdatiOH  to  lit  V'l'rf  ari,  1  ic«.  and  Drfrtii  of 

Bolk  Stxa  (1704).     See  Allibone,  Did.  of  Bril.  atd 

^7uul«baii,  JoBA:n(  MiaiAKL,  an  Oriental  adnl- 
ar  and  traveller  in  Abvstinia  and  Egypt,  was  bom  in 
lliuringia  in  1686.  He  was  living  at  Etfuith  id  lG6t, 
when  he  was  aeiit  by  Eniesf,  duke  of  Saxe-floiha,  with 
instnicliona  10  contiljate.irpoaible,  ihe  goud-will  of  ibe 
Abyaainians,  and  open  up  ihe  way  Tor  teachers  of  (he 
Bcformed  religion.  He  lingeml  in  Egypt,  and,  on  hiB 
leuim,  not  being  able  to  account  for  the  mooey  inttiM- 
ed  In  him,  revolted  tu  the  Knman  CathoKc  Church  ia 
1667.  He  then  went  to. Paris,  whence  he  was  tent  \h 
Colbert,  in  1672,  lo  Egi^tt,  to  purchase  rate  mannscripU 
Tor  lbs  king's  library.  In  lli78  he  became  vicar  itf  a 
church  near  FonIainel>leau.  and  tubaeqiiently  vicar  of 
Ruuran,  where  he  died  in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of 
Hitloivi  Ecclttia  Altxaiidiiiia:—RrlaiinK  drik  Slat* 
PitKHlt  dflF  fgUtoi—KouTrllf  BtbUioM  ra  ^'orase  dr 
Jounial  dt  an  fofagt  Fail  m  £^plt  (1677).  See 
Uosheim, IliM.ofUi  Chardi, bk.  iv,  ceuL xvii, }  ii,pL 
i,  ch.  ii. 

^7aplo,  EnwAtm,  an  English  clergyman  of  tlie 
ITth  ceiiturv,  became  prebendarv  ol  Bath  aud  Wells  ia 
1677;  archd'eacon  of  Taunton  ill  1682;  pirbendarr  sT 
WiaeheMer  in  1690;  and  died  in  1712.  He  was'  Ike 
author  of  Boot  of  He  Rmlalion  rarajJitatrd  (I63S):— 
and  StBiMs  Strmimi  (1714-SO,  3  vols.:  a  second  nli- 
tion  with /.v^r,  1729).     See  Allibone,  X'^.  of  £nk.  oaJ 

'Wappsrs,  Gt'BTAVK.  a  Flemish  painter,  was  ton 

at  Antwerp  in  1808.  He  studied  there, and  aflerwar^ 
at  Paris,  where  he  adopted  (he  style  of  Ibe  Romanik 
achooL  In  18S0  he  produced  the  Drrotiom  ofUu  Bar- 
gouuuUri  nf  lAydm.wliich  eatabliahed  his  repaiationaa 
an  original  historical  painter.  He  waa  eecreiaiy  of 
Leopold  L  who  made  him  ■  baron :  and  was  director  U 
the  Academy  of  Antwerp  uuiil  about  1866,  when  be 
removed  to  Paris,  and  died  there  l>cc  G,  1874.  Ahm^ 
hia  best  works  are,  Cil'-ul  at  lie  Srpukkrt  .—Chirla  I 
Taking  Lean  of  kit  CkOdrm  :—Ci,iilti  IX  on  lit  Xi^ 
/ifSI.BaHit>limtiB!—aai\  Extealiom  of  Aunt  Soltym. 

VftU  (prop.  On^,  xiXipos,  but  represented  in  tbe 
Heb.  by  many  subsidiary  terms),  Hilbbew.  We  may 
deflne  war  as  "an  attempt  i.i  decide  a  conteat  between 
prini-ps,  states,  or  large  twdies  of  people,  by  morting  lo 
excessive  acts  of  violence,  and  compelling  claims  to  be 
conceded  by  force." 

I.  Eattg  Hittory  qf  ITai/urt— This  we  Uatt,  bow- 
ever,  only  in  ils  relation  to  Ihe  Hebrews. 

1.  /VifriambiJ.— It  ia  probable  that  the  Gist  srara 
origitwled  in  noniad  life^  and  were  occasioned  by  ibc 
diapiites  which  arose  between  wandering  tribes  for  ibc 
pxcluaive  possession  of  pasturage  favorable  lo  ibeir 
flocks  and  herds.  Tribes  which  lived  by  hunting  wen 
naturally  more  warlike  than  those  which  led  a  pastoral 
life;  and  Ihe  latter,  again,  were  more  devoted  to  war 
than  agricultural  races.  There  waa  almost  a  natnral 
source  of  hoetility  between  these  races:  the  hunten 
were  enraged  against  tbe  shepherds  becaioe  they  ap- 
propriated animals  bfdoixMicatian,  and  


flqaallT  failed  th«  ■gricullDtiiU  bcauH  Ibe;  •ppnipri- 

Mcd  laud  by  Ullage,  and  ihua  limited  (he  range  of  pa>- 
tuiage.     Ilunling  also  indispoaed  [ho«e  who  lived  b; 


dilBDOH 


indlHi 


cupatioiia;  tboM  wbo Ihua supported  thenwlvea lought 
to  throw  all  the  burden  of  manual  labor  on  tbeir  wivea, 
tlicir  childnn,  and  ahfrwatda  on  pereniii  wham  they 
reduced  m  alavery.  There  is  a  uuiverul  Iradiuan  iu 
WcMem  Aaia,  thai  Niairwl,  mentianed  in  Scripture  as 
"•  mighty  hunter  befure  the  Lord,"  wu  the  tint  who 
engai^  id  extenaive  win  fur  the  purpo«  uf  obtaining 
alarea,  and  that  he  waa  also  the  tint  who  introduced 
the  practice  o(  competlinK  conquered  iiitiona  to  reaeue 
ttaemaelrea  by  the  payment  oT  tribute  as  a  ransom.  So 
early  aa  the  days  of  Abrabam,  we  Snd  tbat  wars  were 
uDdertakeu  for  the  eipresa  purpoae  of  obtaining  alarea 
and  tribute.  Chedorliomer  fniceil  several  neighboring 
prtoceSr  including  the  king  of  Sodom,  to  pay  biiD  trib- 
ute for  twelve  years;  and  when  they  ceaaed  to  sulHuit 
ID  this  exBclion,  be  invaded  tbeii  tetrlLuriea  fat  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  the  inhabitants  to  slavery.  He  suc- 
ceeded, and  carried  away  a  host  of  captives,  among 
whom  were  Lot  and  his  family ;  but  the  ptii 
rescued  by  Abraham. 

2.  AruHig  the  Earlif  Nalbxu, Xt^hbort  lo  lilt  /trail- 
ittt, — From  the  existing  monuments  of  Egypt  and  As- 
syria, we  learn  that  war  was,  amnng  the  ancient  na 
(ioas,  the  main  buuness  of  life.  The  Kgyplians  earl; 
posseaaed  a  considerable  aianding  atmy,  which  waa  prob- 
ably kept  op  by  conKripliun.  "Wherever,"  sai  " 
aellioi,  "  the  armies  are  reprcacnteil  on  the  great 
menu  oTEsypt,  they  are  composed  of  iroopi  uf  inl 
armed  with  the  bow  or  Unee,  and  of  ranka  of  wsi 
iota,  drawn  by  two  horsea.  The  few  flgurea  upon 
almost  all  belong  in  fureignera,"  Chariots  also  j , , 
in  Homer,  at  the  principal  strength  of  the  Egvptian 
army  {Iliad,  ix,  333).  Champollinn  also  says  of  Ihi 
war-chariots:  "This  was  the  eavali7  of  the  age;  cav- 
alry, properly  speaking,  did  not  azisc  then  ia  EgjpU' 
Hence,  when  Phsiaoh  pursued  the  fugitive  Hcbrewsi 
he  "took  six  hundred  chosen  chariots,"  evidently  the 
royal  guard ;  and  also  all  the  chariots  of  Egypt,  i.  e.  the 
remainder  of  his  disposable  mounted  forces;  ai  Ihe  in- 
fantry coald  not  well  take  part  in  the  pursuit.  "  And 
the  Egyptians  followed  them  and  overtook  them,  where 
they  were  encamped  by  Ihe  tea,  all  the  chatiut-hoTses 
of  Pharaoh  and  hit  riders  and  hit  host"  (EiDd.xiF,  6,7, 
9,  23,  2.%  26,  28).  The  Assyrian  monuments  exhumed 
by  Botta  and  Layard  exhibit  Ihe  military  fnree  of  Ihs 
AJaTrianj  aa  eomposeil  of  iiifsnlry,  armed  with  the  bow 
■ndtbe  lance;  also  of  .war-chariot  a  and  regular  cavalry 
(laa.  xxxvi,  8,  3;  Kiek.  xxiii,  12).  The  war-chariots 
which  are  depicted  on  the  walls  of  Khorubad  are  low, 
with  two  souU  wheels,  wjtb  one  or  two  persona  stand- 
ing in  each,beaid«  the  driver;  the  horses  are  full  of 
muile,  aome  of  them  splendidly  caparisoued  (Kah.  iji, 
2,8).     See  Chariot. 

II.  ifitilani  Tactia  amon^  Uu  llttmtt.  —  (\n  this 
section  we  follow  Kitto's  Cgchpadia.)  The  Hebrew 
nation,  to  long  at  it  conliinicd  in  Egyptian  bondage, 
might  be  regarded  as  unacquainted  with  military  af- 
fairs, since  a  jealoua  government  would  scarcely  permit 
BO  numerous  and  dense  a  populalion  as  the  pastoral 
familiea  of  larael  which  retained  their  aeat  in  Uoahen 
certainly  were  to  be  in  possession  of  the  means  of  re- 
sistance to  sutharity ;  bul.  placed  as  this  portion  of  the 
people  was,  with  Ihe  wanderers  of  the  wilderness  to  the 
south  and  the  mountain  robbers  of  Edam  to  the  east, 
aome  kind  of  defence  mutt  have  been  provided  lo  pro- 
tect ita  cattle  and,  in  a  measure,  lo  cover  Lower  Egypt 
itielf  from  foreign  inroads,  rrobably  the  laboring  pop- 
ulation, scattered  aa  bondmen  Ihroush  the  Delia,  were 
alone  destitute  of  weapons;  while  the  shephenli  ha<1 
Ihe  tame  kind  of  defenrire  aims  which  are  aUU  in  use 
and  allowed  to  all  nlanars  in  Eaalem  countries,  whatever 
be  their  condition.  This  mixed  slate  of  tbeir  social 
pention  appean  lo  be  aooBtaianeed  by  tbe  fact  thai. 


n  WAR 

'  when  suddenly  permitted  to  depart,  the  whcde  organU 

zation  required  for  Ihe  movement  of  such  a  multitude 
was  dearly  in  force;  yet  not  a  word  ia  said  about  phys- 
ical means  Iu  reunt  the  pursuing  Egyptiaoa,  although 
at  a  subsequent  period  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were 
wanting  to  invade  Paksline,  but  Ihat  special  causes  pre- 
vented  them  from  being  immediately  resorted  to.  The 
Isrselites  were,  therefore,  partly  armed;  Ihey,  doubtleas, 
had  their  bows  and  arrows,  clubs,  and  darts,  wicker  nr 
ox-hide  shields,  end  helmets  (caps)  of  skins  or  of  woven 
rushes. 

From  their  familiar  knowledge  of  the  Egyptian  insii' 
tulions,  the  Israelilca,  douhlleas,  copied  their  military 
organiution,  as  soon  as  (bey  were  free  from  bondage, 
and  became  inured  to  a  wariike  life  during  theii  forty 
years'  wandering  in  the  desert;  but  with  this  remarka- 
ble diflerenee,  that  while  Egypt  reckoned  her  hundred 
thouiands  of  regulars,  either  drawn  from  the  province* 
or  nomea  by  a  kind  of  conscription,  such  as  is  to  be  seen 
on  the  nwniimenla,  or  from  a  military  catte  of  hereditary 
-totdierti  the  Hebrew  people,  having  preserved  the  patri- 
archal inttitulion  of  nomads,  were  embodied  by  fami- 
lies and  tribes,  as  it  plainly  proved  by  the  order  of  march 
which  wai  preserved  during  theit  pilgrimage  to  the 
Land  of  Promise.  That  order  likewise  reveals  a  mili- 
tary ciroumstanee  which  aeeraa  to  attest  tbat  tbe  dis- 
tribution of  Ihe  greatest  and  most  warlike  masses  was 

wanls  their  immediate  enemies — but  always  Iu  the  front 

might  be  expected  from  the  east  and  north-east — possi- 
bly from  a  reminiscence  of  past  invasions  of  the  giant 
races  and  of  Ihe  Biat  conquerors,  furnished  with  cavalry 

At  the  time  of  the  departure  of  Israel,  horses  were 
Mot  yet  abundant  in  Egypt,  for  the  pursuing  army  had 
only  six  hundred  chariots;  and  the  shepherd  people 
were  even  prohibited  from  breeding  or  possessing  them. 
The  Hebrews  wero  enjoined  to  trust,  under  divine  pro- 
tection, to  the  energies  of  infantry  alone,  their  future 
ry  being  chietiy  within  the  basin  of  high  n 


.hither  i 


rsbU 


where,  to  this  day,  horses  are  not  in  use.  We  may  in 
fer  that  the  inspired  lawgiver  rejected  horses  because 
they  were  already  known  to  be  less  tit  for  defence  at 
home  Chan  fur  distant  expeditions  of  conquest,  in  which 
'as  nol  intendeil  that  the  chosen  people  ahould  ea- 
g«Ke. 

Where  such  exact  order  and  inatniction  existed,  it 
nay  not  be  doubted  that  in  mihtaryafftira,  upon  which, 
n  the  flnt  years  of  emancipation,  ao  much  of  future 
wwer  and  success  was  to  depend,  measures  no  less 
ippropriate  were  taken,  and  that,  with  tbe  Egvplian 
nodel  universally  known,  idmilar  inalitutiont  or  others, 
equally  effldent  were  ailopled  by  the  Israelites.  Great 
iribal  ensigns  they  bad,  and  thence  we  mar  infer  the 
•xiitence  of  others  for  aubordinale  divisions.  Like  the 
Egyptians,  they  could  move  in  columns  and  fumi  vrell- 
irdered  ranks  in  deep  fronts  of  battle;  and  they  acted, 
ipon  the  best  su^^ettions  of  human  ingenuity  united, 
with  physical  daring,  except  when  expreialy  onlereil  lo< 
trust  to  divine  inlerpoeitioru  The  force  of  circumalances 
caused  in  lime  modiBcalinns  of  importance  to  be  made, 
bere  doctrine  had  interfered  with  what  was  felt  Iu- 
inge  on  political  necessities;  but  even  then  they  were 
Inng  and  iirj^nlly  wanted  before  tbcy  took  plscc,  al- 
though the  people  in  religion  were  oonslsntly  disreganU 
ing  the  most  important  poinU,  and  foisakiog  Ihat  God 
who,  they  all  knew  and  believed,  had  taken  them  out 
of  bondsge  to  make  them  a  great  nation.  T^.us.  al- 
Ihoagh,  from  ihe  time  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Hanas- 
th  received  their  allotment  east  of  the  Jordan,  the  poa- 


defend  their  fronlier,  still  tbe  people  persisted  for  ages 
'  tainingfromthem,andeveninlbelimeof David 
.  not  uae  them  when  Ihej  were  aeUially  capluned  i 
but  when  the  policy  of  Solomon  had  n~' 


878  WAR 

it  inhibiUd  it;  (i)  thote  whu  Ix 


„i  of  Jer 


ilrr,  won  gmc  buile«,»ul  even  cifilured  I'arthLiii 
^'  When  twih  the  kini^onw  of  Judih  and  Iirul 
e  Rgain  eondntd  to  Itw  mnunlatna,  the]'  reduced 


■  anuU  body ;  becaua 
(.lilwilfain  the  I 


>e  UbaiiK 


u  it  alill  ia,  unravonUe  lo  brcalini 
iiiMBXce  of  unwilliiignen  li>  riiilate  ■iicieiit  iiia 
ii  fDriiul  ill  the  Htlmwa  ■beUiiiinj:  fi»m  irtivi 
the  Sahbaiti  until  the  dme  of  the  Uaci-ilnr>>. 

Thr^re  ire,  however,  iiidiciliona  in  Iheirmiliu 
■ciionn,  from  ^e  time  Anyrian  unil  I'ersian  c<> 
prened  upon  the  Isneliliib  aUitn,  and  Hill  mr 
the  Captivity,  which  ahow  the  infliieiic*  of  Asia 


■nil  had  ni 


ears;  (8)  tho«e  who  were  lietrmh.>.L 
»r  harl  been  married  leat  than  one  yrar:  (4)  ibe  raii.i- 

ratUer  rlian  ilie  cowanlly.aithatqiulilrw  seldom  fmt- 
ed  wiibuiit  [lerannal  inconvenience,  and  where  U  ii  d* 
longer  a  ahanie  the  rule  would  dcMro|f  everv  fevy. 

The  levies  were  drilled  lo  mareh  in  nnka  (I  Chnt. 
xil,  88),  and  in  cnlumn  hy  Uvea  (C"C^n.  rAonivsIn) 
■hrMBt  (Exod.  xiii,  18);  hettce  it  may  ^  infinvd  that 
ihcy  bniTowed  fniin  Ihe  Efcyplian  in-aiem  a  drciraal  tar- 
""  niaticm  —  lwo  Hflin  in  each  divl<^on  makiiiR  ■  aoGd 
!  xitiarr,  e-iiial  in  rank  am)  Hie ;  for  twice  ten  in  rank  and 
i|{h(-liand  and  Ivft-haad 


''"'  1  »4i. 


ordered  uniiy,tHit  truM  to  the  more  adventurou*  in  the  ,  ,|,p  r[„ht.han.l  or  nntnoved  filea  tiecesa 
vnnlo  decide  the  fale  of  battle.     Uter  .till,  under  ll*]  ,|,ijl,,  ,nd  apear  without  hindrance;  w 


Nimmand  to  the  left-hand  files  lo  face  aliiHU  and 
>ix  or  ei|{ht  pace*  to  the  rear,  then  to  fniol  and 
ke  Htep  to  (he  riK^I,  woukl  make  the  handred  a 
'v  the  additional  dialancc  Uetwtt* 
e  the 


leofMacefkmian  im- 
portation can  be  olnerved,  even  though  in  Asia  Che 
tircek  nkethixl  of  trMiilng,  founded  on  maihemaiical 
lirinciples,  had  nerer  been  fully  complied  with,  or  hail 


w  eletneni 


y  the  e^ 


tJreck  kingitoma.  E 
rr.>m  Joaephun,  inmlelled  t^ 
iwrinl  plan;  their  in' 


the  uu  of  great  boiliea  of  light  cavalry.ahowering  mill- 

ianiararrowi  upon  their  enemies,  and  Hghting  elephant* 

introduced  by  the  Ptolemies. 

But  all  the*e  praciicea  became  again  modlDed  in 

Wesleni  Asia  when  Roman  dominion  had  wipeneUed 
»  the  Jews,  as  in  evident 
t  military  force  on  the  Im- 

u  aeeordance  with  that  system  which  every- 
where gave  victory  hy  means  of  the  Hrmness  and  mo- 
bility which  it  imparted.  The  masses  were  composed 
of  cohorts,  or  Iheir  equivalents,  con>i*ling  of  ccniiirin 
snd  deciiriK,  at  aubdivisona  into  hundreds,  Kftie^  ami 
tens— similar  to  modem  battalions,  cnmpanie*,  and 
•(|uad*;  and  the  commanders  were  of  like  pradra  sml 
numbera.  Thu*  the  people  of  Israel  and  the  nations 
aminid  them  cannot  be  accurately  consiilered,  in  a  mili- 
tary view,  witliout  taking  into  account  the  successive 
chsnges  here  noticed;  for  they  had  1) 


.  of  Charlemagne  and  the  emperor  Chsrle 


^nthe 


n  for  a  long 

time  making  no  greater  alteration  in  the  conalitutioti 
of  armies  than  the  perfection  of  war  machines  produced 
upon  the  military  institutions  of  antiquity. 

The  army  of  Israel  was  chieMy  composed  of  infantri', 
as  before  remarked,  furmeil  into  a  trained  body  of  spear- 
men, anil,  in  greater  numbers,  of  sliiigem  and  archers, 
with  horses  and  chariots  in  small  proponton,  excepting 
during  the  periods  when  the  kiiigilooi  extendeil  over 
the  desert  to  llie  Red  Sea.  The  irregulars  were  drawn 
from  the  families  and  tribes,  porlicuUrly  Kphraim  and 
Benjamin;  but  the  heavy- armed  derived  their  chief 
sireuiilh  from  Judsh,and  were,  it  appears.  cotleet«d  by 
akinduf  conscription — by  tribes,  like  the  earlier  Roman 
atinies— not  through  the  instrumentality  of  selected 
officers,  but  by  genealogists  of  each  tribe  under  the  su- 

Tolls,  a  proportion  greater  or  less  was  selected,  according 
to  the  exigency  of  tha  time  j  and  the  whole  male  popu- 
lation might  be  called  ont  on  ei 
When  kings  had  rendered  the  i 
better  organized,  tbere  was  ai 
•1B10,  ihotir,  a  aort  of  muster  -  master,  who  had  re- 
turns of  the  effective  force  or  number  of  soldien  ready 
for  service,  but  who  was  subordinate  to  cbe  *<B10,  so- 
pher,  or  scribe,  a  kind  of  secretary  of  stale.  These  of- 
ticen,  or  the  lAo^erfnt,  struck  out  or  excused  from  ser- 
vice:  (I)  those  who  had  built  •  house  without  having 


Item  of  gover 


reducetl  li 

ight  or  left  anil  marcli  drmly  in  cohimii,  passin);  ervir 
ind  uT  ground  »ithouC  breaking  or  lengtbening  fbeb 
onler.  The  pentaslichous  system,  or  anangemeni  of 
five  men  in  depth,  was  effected  by  the  simple  evulurim 
Just  mcHlioned,  to  its  own  condensation  to  double  num- 
ber, and  at  the  same  ^me  affiTdeil  the  necnaarr  tpKt 
between  the  standing  Ales  of  spearmen,  or  light  itifaolry. 
for  liaiidling  their  weapons  wilbwit  oboiacle — alwsii 
a  primary  object  in  evcnr  ancient  system  of  iraiirii^^ 
Between  Ibe  llflh  and  sixlh  rank  there  was  thu>  s|iacr 
maile  for  the  ensign-bearer,  who,  as  ho  tben  Xood  pn- 
citely  between  the  companies  of  Hfiy  each,  bad  probably 
•lime  addilinoal  wldili  to  handle  his  ensign,  bdoj;  xa- 
tioneil  between  the  four  middlemost  men  in  Ihesqiiair— 
liaving  five  men  in  Hie  and  five  in  rank  befoi*.  behioiL 
and  nil  each  side.  There  he  was  ilie  regulator  of  Ihtit 
onler,  coming  to  the  front  In  ailvani'iiig,  and  to  the  mi 
iu  retreating;  and  this  may  explain  why  irriyDc,  a  fle, 
and  the  Hebrew  digtl  and  n»,  an  nii-ign,  are  in  many 
cases  reganled  as  syiionymnui.  Allhougli  neilber  the 
Egyptian  depth  of  formation,  if  we  may  Judge  frna 
their  pictured  manurDenI^  nor  the  Creek  |>halani,  di> 
the  Roman  legion,  was  coiulnicted  upon  ihrimal  piinci- 
ples,  yet  the  former  was  no  doubt  ao  in  its  origin,  since 
it  was  Iho  model  of  the  Israelites;  and  the  IciraFiirhal 
system,  which  alterwardi  aucceeded,  shows  that  it  was 
not  the  original,  since  even  in  the  phalanx,  wlicre  ibr 
files  formed,  broke,  and  doubled  by  finira,  ejghta,  dx- 
teens,  and  thirty-twos,  there  ttmaiiKd  names  of  sections 
which  indicalnl  the  first- mentioned  divinon.  Sich 
was  the  pentacontarchy,  denoting  some  airangemnii 
of  nrty,  while  in  reality  it  oonsiHcd  of  sixty-loDr;  and 
the  dccany  and  decurio,  though  derived  from  a  decimal 
order,  signified  an  entire  flie  or  a  compact  line  in  ibc 
phalanx,  wichoat  ti:ferenc*  to  nuniber. 

With  centuries  thus  anangel  in  masses,  both  nwv*. 
ble  and  solid,  a  front  of  battle  could  be  formeJ  in  simple 
decimal  ptogresNon  lo  a  thousand,  ten  iliousaiiil,anil  to 
an  anny  at  all  times  fomiidahlc  by  it*  depth,  and  by 
the  facility  it  afforded  for  the  light  im..]*,  chariots  of 
war,  and  cavalry  to  rally  behind  an<l  lu  issue  from 
thence  to  the  front.  Archers  and  sliiigers  could  ply 
their  missiles  from  the  rear,  which  wcmld  be  tnoiv  cer- 
tain to  reach  an  enemy  in  dose  conflict  ihan  was  to  be 
found  the  case  with  the  Greek  phalanx,  because  rmm 
the  great  depth  of  that  body  miniles  from  behind  were 
liable  to  faU  among  its  own  front  ranks.  Theae  divi- 
sions were  commanded,  it  seems,  by  O^J^Xp,  ttliiiiim, 
officers  in  cbai^  of  one  thousand,  who,  in  the  fint 
ages,  may  have  been  the  heads  of  boiiacii,  but  in  the 
time  of  the  king*  were  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  had 
a  seat  in  the  councils  of  war;  but  the  commander  of  the 
host,  It^lp?  ^9  "^i;,  sitr  al  Ai>-rni&!— such  aa  Jdi^^ 
Abrker,  Denaiab,elc. — waa  cither  Ibc  judge,  nr.ttnder  ibe 


WAR  8' 

judge  or  king,  tbo  supreme  head  of  the  iraiy,  wid  one 
of  [he  highest  ofBcera  m  the  SUte.  He  u  well  lu  the 
king  had  an  ■rmoi-beirer,  fibo«e  duly  wu  not  anif  tii 
beat  hia  ahielil,  ^)ear,  ot  Ixiw,  and  to  carry  orders,  hut, 
■iwve  «l),  [o  b«  at  the  ctiier'i  tide  in  the  hour  of  battle 
(Judg.  is.  M;  I  Sam.  xiv,  ti;  xi!xi,4,S).  Bnidea  the 
royal  Ku>nl>  there  was,  u  early,  at  least,  ai  the  lime  of 
Daviil,  a  select  iioop  of  heroeo,  who  appear  to  have  hid 
■n  iiutituiinn  very  umilir  in  principle  to  out  modern 
ardcn  of  kiiighthiwd.and  may  have  originated  the  dis- 
tinctive marks  already  pointed  out  as  used  by  the  Ko- 
mana;  for  it  teems  they  strewed  tbrir  bait  with  guld- 
du^^     See  Aenoa 

In  iDililary  operations,  such  a*  marches  in  quest  of, 
or  in  the  presence  of,  an  enemy,  and  in  order  of  battle, 
the  forcea  were  foriDed  into  three  diviiions,  each  com- 
Qunded  by  a  chief  captain  or  commander  of  a  corps,  or 
third  pan  (C^^i^,  tlmlUh),  as  was  also  the  case  with 
other  anuiea  of  the  East:  these  constituted  the  centre 
and  light  aiKl  left  wing,  and  during  a  Durch  fanned  the 
van,  centre,  and  rear.  The  great  camp  in  the  wilder- 
nera  was  composed  offourofthese  triple  bodies  diapnsed 
Li  a  quadrangle,  each  front  having  a  gi«C  central  stand- 
ard for  its  teailing  tribe,  and  another  tribal 


e  Hebi 


aUviu 


dby 


the  ensign- bearers,  ss  in  the  Wial,  but  bi 
priests  bad  likewise  charge  of  the  trumpets  and 
sounding  of  signals ;  and  i>ne  uf  them,  called  "  the  on 
eil  fur  war,"  who  is  ssid  to  have  had  the  charge  of 
■natiog  the  army  to  action  by  an  oration,  may 
been  appointed  to  utter  thecry  of  batlle(Deitt.xx,2).  It 
was  a  mere  shout  (I  Sam.  xrii,  SO),  or,  as  in  later  ages, 
HaBttajah!  while  the  so-called  molloes  of  the  cenual 
banners  of  the  four  great  sides  of  the  square  of  Judali, 
Reuben,  Ephraim,  and  Dan  were  more  likely  the  batile- 
aonga  which  each  of  the  fronts  of  the  mighty  army  had 
sung  on  commeiMing  the  march  or  advancing  (o  An  \itx- 
tle(Numb.x,31,3a,36;  Deul.vi.'t).  These  venes  may 
have  been  sung  even  before  the  two  books  wherein  they 

text  iiMlicstes  a  past  tense.  It  was  to  these,  we  think, 
Jehoehaphat  addressed  hinnelf  when  about  to  engage 
the  Maalntes:  he  ordered  "the  singers  before  the  Lonl" 
tochant  the  response  (2  Cliroii.  jtx,  21),"  Praise  the  Lord, 
for  hii  mercy  endureth  forever."    With  regard  to  the 

rii,  18,  when,  after  the  nwii  had  blown  their  trumpets 
and  shown  light,  ihey  cried,  "The  sword  of  tlie  Lord 
and  of  Uideon" — a  repetition  of  the  very  words  over- 
heard by  that  chief  whilo  watching  the  hostile  army. 

Before  an  engagement  the  Hebrew  soldiers  were 
ipaied  fatigue  as  much  as  posuble,  and  food  was  dis- 
tributed to  them;  their  arms  were  enjoined  to  be  in  the 
best  order,  ami  they  furmeil  a  line,  us  before  described, 
of  solid  squares  of  hundreds,  each  square  being  ten  deep, 
and  as  many  in  breadth,  with  sufficient  intervals  be- 
tween (be  flies  to  allow  of  facility  in  the  movements, 
the  management  of  the  arms,  and 
fmiit  or  rear  of  slingen  and  archers 
pied  posts  accordiiif^  to  circumstances,  on  the  flatiks  or 
in  advance,  but  in  the  heat  of  battle  were  shellered  be- 
hind the  squares  of  spearmen ;  the  slingen 
■tationed  in  the  rear,  until  they  were  ordered  forward 
to  caver  the  front,  impede  a  hostile  approach,  or  com 
nwDce  an  engagement,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  mod 
>m  akirmisheiB.  Meantime  the  king,  or  his  represent 
ative,  appeared  clad  in  the  sacrad  omantenls  (^^ln 
d^.Aoifriyi&fesA,  in  our  version  rendered  "  the  beaul.i 
ofWioess,''  Psa.cx,3;  2  Chron.xx,!l),and  proceedcc 
to  make  the  final  dispositions  for  battle,  in  the  midJli 
of  his  chosen  braves,  and  attended  by  priests,  who,  by 
llieit  cxbortaIiun^  animated  the  ranks  within  hearing, 
while  Iba  trumpets  wailed  to  sound  the  signal.  It  was 
Mw,witb  iiieeaeniyat  handgwemay  suppose,  that  the 


WAR 

sllngers  would  be  ordered  to  pass  forward  between  the 
intervals  of  the  line,  aud,  opening  their  order,  would  let 
fly  their  stone  or  leaden  ;iiis>iles,  until,  by  the  gradual 
approach  of  the  oppoung  fronts,  they  would  be  hemmed 
in  and  recalled  to  the  rear,  or  ordered  to  take  an  appro- 
priate position.  Then  was  the  time  when  the  trumpet- 
bearing  priests  received  command  to  sound  the  charge, 
and  when  the  shout  of  battle  burst  forth  from  the  ranks. 
The  signal  being  given,  the  heavy  infantry  would  press 
forward  under  cover  of  their  shields,  with  the  Tva"!,  r6- 
mack,  protruded  directly  upon  the  (mnt  of  the  enemy; 
the  rear  ranks  might  then,  when  so  armed,  cast  their 
darts,  and  the  archers,  behind  them  all,  shoot  high,  so 
as  to  pitch  their  arrows  over  the  lines  before  them  into 
the  denne  masses  of  the  enemy  beyond.  If  the  opposing 
forces  broke  through  the  line,  we  may  imagine  a  body  of 
charioteers  in  reserve  rushing;  fmrn  Ihrirpoatandchaig' 
iiig  in  among  the  disjointed  ranks  of  the  enemy  before 
they  could  reconstruct  their  iinler;  or,  wheeling  round 
a  flank,  fall  upon  the  rear;  or  being  encountered  by  a 
similar  manteavre,  and  perhaps  repulsed,  or  rescued  by 
Hebrew  eavolr}-.  The  king,  meanwhile,  surrounded  by 
his  princes,  posted  close  to  the  rear  of  Yi\t  line  of  battle, 
and,  in  the  middle  of  showered  missiles,  would  watch  the 
enemy  and  strive  to  remedy  every  disorder.  Thus  it 
was  (hat  several  of  the  sovereigns  of  Judah  were  slain 

mouB  iroste  of  human  life  look  place;  fbr  two  hostile 
lines  of  masses,  at  least  ten  in  depth,  advancing  under 
the  confidence  of  bressiplsle  and  sliielil,  when  once  en- 
gaged hand  to  hand,  had  difflcullics  of  no  ordinary  nat- 
ure to  retreat ;  because  the  hindermoit  ranks,  not  being 
exposed  personallv  to  the  flrst  slaughter,  would  not,  and 
the  foremost  could  not,  fall  back;  nei^er  could  the 
commanders  disengage  the  line  without  a  certainly  of 
being  routed.  The  fate  of  tlie  day  was  therefore  no 
longer  within  the  control  of  the  chief,  and  nothing  but 
obstinate  valor  was  left  lo  decide  the  victory.  Hence, 
with  the  stubborn  character  of  Ihe  Jews,  battles  fought 
among  themselves  were  pariiculaily  sanguinary;  such, 
for  e.tample,  as  that  in  which  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel, 
was  defeated  by  Abijah  of  Judah  (xiii,  3-17),  wherein, 
if  there  be  no  enot  of  copyists,  there  was  a  greater 
slaughter  than  in  ten  such  battles  as  that  of  Leipsic,  al- 
though on  that  occasion  three  hundreil  anil  flfty  thou- 
sand combatants  were  engaged  for  three  successive  days, 
provided  with  all  the  implements  of  modem  deaCruction 
in  full  activity.  Under  such  circumstances  defeat  led 
to  irretrievable  confusion,  and,  where  either  party  pos- 
sessed superiority  in  cavalry  and  chariots  of  war,  it 
would  be  materially  increased  i  but  where  (he  infantry 

force,  loaded  with  shields  and  preserving  onler,  could 
overtake  very  few  who  chose  to  abandon  their  defensive 
armor,  unless  they  were  hemmed  in  by  the  locality. 
Sometimes  a  part  of  the  army  was  posted  in  ambush, 
but  this  manteuvrc  was  most  commonly  practiced  against 
Ihe  garrisons  of  cities  (Josh,  viii,  I2i'jiu1g.  kx,88).  In 
the  case  of  Abraham  (l>  en.  xiv,  15),  when  he  led  a  small 
body  of  his  own  people,  suddenly  coUecled,  and,  falling 
upon  the  guard  of  the  captives,  released  them,  and  re- 
covered the  booty,  it  was  a  surprise,  not  an  ambush; 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  suppose  that  he  fell  in  with  the 
main  army  of  the  enemy.  At  a  later  period  there  is  no 
doubt  the  Hebrewa  formed  their  armies,  in  imitation  of 
Ihe  Romans,  into  more  than  one  line  of  masses,  and 
modelled  their  military  inslitulions  as  near  as  possible 

which  the  Hebrew  people,  as  well  as  the  nations  which 
surrounded  them,  appear  to  have  adopted ;  but  in  the 
conquest  of  the  Promised  Land,  as  regardcfl  their  ene- 
mies, the  laws  of  war  prescribed  to  itiem  were,  for  pur- 
poses whicb  we  cannot  now  fully  appreciate,  more  se- 
vere Ihaii  in  other  cases.  All  the  nations  of  aniiquily 
perhaps  Ihe  Bomans  ntoai 


WAR  8( 

uf  jU  :  even  the  Egj^iCiint,  in  the  sculplnrei  of  thtir  I 
monuEnenU,  allot  the  ume  dtipoittian — the  malea  be- 
ing veiy  generally  ■bufthteTed.siiil  the  women  and  chil- 
dren sold  Tor  ilavea.  Wilh  regard  lu  ihe  gpoil,  except ' 
in  the  ipecial  ca«  just  referred  to,  the  Hebrewi  divided 
it  in  part  with  thoM  who  remaiued  at  home,  and  wilb 
Ibe  Levites,  and  ■  portion  wa>  set  apart  aa  an  oblalion 
lotheLoTd  (Numb,  xixi,  50).  This  rrghtofapuil  and 
prey  waa  a  iieceaaary  eoiuequeoce  of  military  inatitu- 
^ona  where  the  army  received  nn  pay.  ^sti,  ihalal, 
that  is,  Ihe  armor,  clothes,  money,  and  Tuniiture,  and 
'?'^P??>  nuiUuncA,  prey,  cooNSting  of  the  caplires  and 
live-Mock,  were  collected  into  one  general  man,  and 
then  diatribiited  aa  staled  above ;  or,  in  the  lime  ot  the 
kings,  were  shared  in  great  part  by  the  ciown,  which 
then,  no  doubt,  took  care  to  subsist  the  army  and  grant 
military  rewirila.     See  Aiiht. 

ni.  MiUlary  rifjmnUioni,  Oprralumt,  and  Rrtullt. 
—(ill  this  seciiun  we  Tolkiw  Smiih's  JUct.  o/Ihe  Siilf.) 
Before  entering  ou  a  war  of  aggression,  Ihe  Hebrews 
■ought  for  the  dirine  sanction  by  conaultiug  either  Ihe 
Urim  and  Thummim  (Jiidg.  i,  1;  xx,  37,  2S;  I  Sam. 
](iv,e7;  xxiii,3;  XKviii,  G;  xxx,  8>or  some  acknowl- 
edgedpTapbet(l  Kings  xxii,6;  SChron.xviii.fi).  The 
heathens  betook  Ihemeelres  lo  various  kinds  of  divina- 
tion for  the  same  pnqwse  (Ezek.  xxi,SI).  Divine  aid 
was  funhet  sought  in  actual  warfare  by  bringing  intu 
Ibe  field  the  ark  of  the  cnvenant,  which  was  the  sym- 
bol of  Jebnvah  himself  (I  Sam.  iv,  4-18;  xW,  18);  a 
custom  which  prevailed  cenainlv  down  In  David's  lime 
(a  Sam.  xi,  U;  camp.  I'u.  Ixviii,  I,  24).  During  ihe 
wanderings  in  the  wiUerneaB  the  sigtial  for  warlike  prep- 
arations was  sounded  bv  priests  with  the  silver  trump- 
ets of  the  sanctuary  (Numb,  x,  9;  xxxi,  6).  Formal 
prodanialions  or  war  were  not  interchanged  between 
the  bellit'erenti;  but  occasionally  meeeagea  eilber  ilcp- 
lecatorv  or  deflant  were  sent,  a*  in  the  cases  of  Jrph- 
thah  and  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  xi.  I!'27),  Ben-ha<lad 
and  Ahab  (1  Kings  xx,  2),  snd  again  Amaiiah  and  J^- 
hossh  (2  Kings  xiv,  H).  Before  entering  the  enemy's 
district,  spies  were  sent  to  ascertain  Ihe  character  of  the 
country  and  Ihe  preparations  of  its  inhabitants  for  re- 
usiance  <Mumb.  :iiii,  17;  Josh,  ii,  1;  Judg.  rii,  10;  1 
Sam.  xxvi,  4).  When  an  engagement  waa  imminent, 
■  sacrifice  was  offereilO  Sam. vii,9;  xiii,9),aiH]  an  in- 
spiriting address  dcUvered  either  by  the  commander  (2 
Chron.  XX,  20)  or  by  a  priest  (Deul.  xx,  2).  Then  fol- 
lowed the  bs tile-signal,  sounded  forth  from  Ihe  niver 
trumpets  as  already  described,  to  which  Ibe  host  respond- 
ed by  shouting  the  war-cty  (1  Sam.  xvii,a2i  laa-xlii, 
13;  Jer.  1,49;  Ezek.  xxi,22;  Amos  1,14).  'I'he  com- 
bat often  aasumed  the  form  of  a  number  of  hand-to-hand 
conlesis,  depending  on  Ihe  qualities  of  Ibe  individual 
aoWier  rather  ihan  on  the  disposiiimi  of  masses.  Hence 
the  high  value  attached  to  tleetnesa  of  f.Kit  and  strength 
of  arm  (2  Sam.  1,38;  ii,  18;  1  Chmn.  xii,8).  At  Ilie 
same  lime,  various  strplegic  devices  were  pnciiced,  such 
as  Ihe  ambuscailc  (Josh,  viii,  2, 1 3 ;  Jiulg.  xx,  36),  sur- 
prise (vii,  IG),  or  circumvenliun  (2  Sam.  v,  23).  An- 
other moile  of  settling  Ihe  diapule  was  by  the  selec- 
tion of  champions  (1  Sam.  xvii;  2  Sam.  ii,  14),  who 
were  spurred  on  lo  exerlion  by  the  offer  of  high  reward 
(I  .Sam.  icvii,2D;  xviii,25;  !  Sam.  xviii,  II ;  1  Chron. 
xi|6).  The  contest  having  been  decide"),  Ihe  conquer- 
ors were  recalled  from  the  pursuit  bv  (he  sound  of  a 
trumpet  (2  Sam.  ii,28i  xviii.lS;  xx,S2). 

The  aiege  of  a  town  or  foiiress  was  conducted  in  the 
fulkiwinK  manner:  A  line  of  circumvallatinii  (*^■l:t^,liu 
an  "  enclouiig"  or  "  besieging,''  and  henoe  applied  to  the 
wall  by  which  the  aiege  waa  effected)  was  drawn  round 
the  place  (Ezek.  iv,2 ;  Mic  v,  1),  conslnicted  out  of  the 
trees  fuund  in  the  neighborhood  (Deut.  xi,  20),  fath- 
er with  earth  and  any  other  materials  at  hand.  This 
line  not  only  cut  off  Ihe  besieged  from  the  sunaunding 
country,  bat  also  served  as  a  base  of  operations  for  Ihe 
beaiegera.    The  next  step      "  ""  "* 


ji  tbiDW  out  from  this 


10  WAR 

line  one  or  more  "mounla"  or  "backs"  (TQJn.  S^i!- 
schutz  [AiiASoL  it,  NH]  understands  this  tenn  of  A< 
scaling-ladder,  comparing  the  cognate  laUdm  [Gea. 
xxviii,  12],  and  giving  the  verb  ihaphah^  which  accflfD- 
panies  loUISi,  the  sense  of  s  "  hurried  advancing'  of 
the  ladder}  in  the  direction  of  Ihe  cilv  (2  San.  xx.  IS; 
2Kingixix,82;  Isa.  xxxvii,  33),  which  was  grttlually 
increased  in  height  unlil  it  was  about  half  *■  hiirb  as 
the  cily  waU,  On  Ihia  mound  or  bank  tnwers  (p^^- 
Sume  dnuU  exiilaas  to  the  meaning  of  Ibis  term.  The 
sense  of  "lurretB"  assigned  lo  it  by  Uesenjusl^TAeaanr.  p. 
380]  has  been  objected  in  on  Ibe  ground  that  tbe  word 
always  appears  in  Ihe  singular  number,  and  in  odhihe- 
tion  wilh  Ihe  expression  "round  about"  the  dty.  RcKe 
the  sense  of  "  circumvallation"  has  been  asaijcn^  t"  >< 
by  Michaells,  Keil  [ArrliiaL  ii,80S3.aiul  olbom.  It  m 
difflcull,  however,  in  this  case,  lo  see  any  diEtinrtiao 
between  ihe  terms  dnfik  and  maiaSr. 


hanks  St  different  points :  tbe  nse  of  tbe  singular  in  a 
collective  sense  forms  a  greater  diJRnilty)  wete  ocded 
(2  Kings  XIV,  1;  Jer.lii,4;  Eaebir,!;  xvii,!!:  kxl 
22;  xxvi,  8\  whence  the  alingen  and  archers  raigbl 
attack  with  effect.  Battering-rams  (Q^'^3,  Eiek.  ir,  J: 
xxi,  2!)  were  brought  up  to  the  walls  by  roeana  of  the 
bank,  and  acaling-laddcn  might  also  be  placed  on  iL 
Undermining  the  walls,  though  practiced  by  tbe  Assyr^ 
tans  (Layard,  Nmertli,  ii,  371),  is  not  noticed  in  Ihe  Bt- 
hie :  tbe  reference  to  it  in  Ibe  Sept.  and  Tulg.,  in  Jer.  E. 
68,  is  not  wBiranled  by  ibe  original  text 
however,  tbe  walls  were  attacked  near  I 
either  by  individual  warriors  who  protected  ll 
from  above  by  their  shields  (Ecek.  xxvi,  8),  or  by  the 
further  use  of  such  a  machine  as  the  hrtrpoliM,  wfcnrt 
to  in  1  Mace.  siii.  43.  This  is  described  bv  AmniianB 
Uarcellinus  (ixiii,  4, 10)  as  a  comUnation  of  Ihe  Ir^m^ 
and  the  battering-ram,  by  means  of  which  the  baatfm 
broke  through  the  lover  part  of  the  wall,  and  tbea 
"leaped  into  the  cily;"  not  from  above,  aa  the  woids 
prima/aat  imply,  but  from  below.  Burning  tbe  gates 
was  another  mode  of  obtaining  ingress  (Jndg.  ix.  52). 
The  water-aupply  would  naturally  be  cut  off,  if  it 
were  poauble  (Judith  vii,7).  The  besieged,  roeanwhiln 
atrengthened  and  repaired  their  forti  Seal  ions  (Iia.  iiii, 
10),  and  repelleil  (be  enemy  from  Ihe  wall  by  missiira 
(2  Sam.  xi,  24),  bv  throwing  over  beams  and  beaw 
stones  (Judg.  ix,  ^ ;  2  Sam.  xi,  21 ;  JoaepbuB,  War,  v. 
3,  8;  6,  3),  by  pouring  down  boiling  oil  {ibid.  iii.  7, 
28).  or,  lastlv,  by  creeling  fixed  engines  for  tbe  pnfud- 
sionofstoneaandarrowa(2Chron.xxvi,l&).    See  £<•- 

ing  tbe  besiegers'  works  (t  Mace.  Ti,Sl ;  War,^,  11>4). 
and  driving  them  away  from  the  neighboibood.  Tbe 
foregoing  openliona  receive  a  large  amount  uf  iltoatia- 
tion  from  tbe  representations  of  such  scenes  on  the  As- 
Syrian  alabs.  We  there  see  the  "  bank"  thrown  np  ia 
the  form  or  an  inclined  plane,  with  the  ballering-raB 
hauled  up  on  it  assaulting  the  walls;  movable  low- 
en  of  conaiderable  elevation  brought  up,  wbence  tbe 
warrioTS  dischsrge  their  arrows  into  the  city;  tbe  walk 
undermined,  or  attempts  made  to  destroy  tbem  by  pick- 
ing to  piecxs  tbe  lower  courses;  tbe  defenders  aoiv^ 
engaged  in  arahery,  and  averting  the  force  of  the  bau 
lering-ram  by  chains  and  ropes ;  the  saling-laddeis  *t 
length  brougbl,  and  the  conflict  become  hand-to-hMd 
(Layani,  A'lnrwA,  ii,  866-374).    See  BaTTUtno-uM; 

The  ttealnmit  of  the  conquered  was  cxtmnely  aiiu* 
in  ancient  times.  The  leaden  of  Ihe  host  wen  put  (a 
death  (Josh.  X.  26;  Judg.  vii,  26),  with  the  oceuiofiBl 
indignity  of  decapiution  after  death  (I  Sam.  xvii,  &I; 
2  Mace  XV,  SO;  Joaepbus,  War,  i,  17,  2>  Tbe  bodies 
of  the  soldiers  killed  in  action  were  plundered  (I  San. 
xxxi,  8;  2  Mace  viii,  !7) ;  tbe  aurvivon  were  eitbai 
killed  in  some  savage  manner  (Judg.  ix,  46;  !  Sam  ni, 
31;  2  Chron.  XXV,  12],  mutilated  (Jndg.  1, 6;  ISani.xi, 


WAR  Bf 

S),  or  cirricd  uito  optiritj-  (Numb,  xicii,  3C ;  Dml  xx, 
14).  Womfla  ind  chilrlren  were  occtrioiullj  put  to 
death  wiLh  ttaegreileU  barbiritv(!  KingivUi,  12;  xv, 
16;  lu.  xiii,16,  ISj  Bd«.x,14':  xui,lGj  Amen  i,  13: 
Nab.  iii,  lOj  2  Hacc  v,  IS);  but  it  was  more  unuU  to 
retain  the  miiilens  ai  concubine*  or  aemnu  (Judg.  v, 
80;  SKiiiga  v,3).  Somelimratbc  bulk  or  the  populi- 
ticHi  of  the  eooquered  couulry  wu  rertwTeil  toa  diaUult 
louliLv,  u  ill  the  cue  uf  tbe  bndiles  wbeu  aubdued 
by  the  A»vriBi»(ivii,fi),  and  of  ibe  Jewa  by  thB  B.by- 
lonian9(xziv,  11;  xxv,  II).  In  addiliun  totbeae  meu- 
ure^  the  (owns  were  Jealmya)  (Judg.  ix,  ib;  2  K.ings 
ui,2d;  1  Mice.v,^,&I;  x,84),  ihe  idoli  and  ebriuai 
sere  carried  off  (lta.xlvi,  1,2),  ur<le»roye>l  (I  Uiccv, 
68;  1,64);  therniic-treec  were  cut  down,aiid  the  fleldi 
spoiled  by  aTerspretding  them  with  etonpi  (I  Kings  iii, 
19,  2i);  and  the  borM«  nere  limed  (2  Sam.  viii,  4; 
Joeh.  si,  6,  3>  If  the  war  was  carried  on  simply  for 
the  purpiwe  of  plunder  ut  aupreniaey,  these  extreme 
mesaunia  would  hanlly  be  cbitimI  inio  executiou;  the 
conqueror  would  restrict  himseirto  riding  the  treaiuriet 
O  Kings  xiv,!6;  2  Kings  xiv,14:  xxir,  13),  or  levy- 
ing eonlributions  (iviii,  14).     See  Captivs, 

The  Mosaic  law,  however,  mitigated  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  aererity of  ibe ancient  usages  towards  tlig  \ta~ 
qaiahed.  With  the  exception  of  the  Canaaniles,  who 
were  delivered  over  lu  the  ban  of  exlemiination  1^  the 
express  command  of  God,  it  was  forbidden  to  Ihe  Is- 
raelites to  put  toilealh  any  others  than  males  bearing 
■m»t  the  women  and  children  were  to  be  kept  alive 
(Dent.  XX,  13, 14).  In  a  umilar  spirit  of  humaiiily  the 
Jew9  were  prohibited  tnai  felling  fruil-tieet  fur  the 
purpoM  of  making  liege-wnrki  (ver.  19),  The  law  fur- 
ther restricted  Ihe  power  of  the  conqueror  over  fenisles, 
and  secured  to  them  humane  irealmenc  (xxi,  10-14). 
The  majurit;  of  Ihe  savage  acts  recorded  as  having 
been  practiced  by  the  Jews  were  either  in  retaliation 
for  some  grosa  provocation,  at  inalanced  in  the  caaea  of 
Adoni-bezek  (Judg.  i,  C,  7),  and  of  Darid'a  treatment 
of  the  Ammonites  (!  Sam.  x,  3-4;  xii,  81;  I  Chron. 
XX,  3)  1  or  else  they  were  dune  by  lawiese  usurpers. 
■s  in  Henahem'l  ireatment  of  the  women  of  Tipbsah 
(3  Kiuga  XV,  IS;  eomp.  Judg.  ix,  46).    .  The  Jewlah 


Thee 


tncy  (1  Kings  xx,  SI ;  camp.  3  Kinga  vi 
;vi,6). 


inque 


cclebial 


oumenlal  stone*  (1  Sam.  vii,  12;  2  Sam.  riii, 
IS,  where,  instead  of  "gat  him  a  name,"  we  aboold  read 
"■et  up  a  memoriar),  by  hanging  up  trophies  in  their 
public  buildings  (1  Sam.  Xxi,  9;  xxxi,  10;  3  Kinga  xi, 
10),  and  by  trinmphal  songa  and  dance*,  in  which  the 
whole  population  look  part  (Exod.xv,  1-21;  Judg.v;  I 
Sam.xviii,fl-S;  3  Sam.  xxii;  Judith  xvi, 2-17;  1  Mace 
ir,  24).  The  death  of  a  hero  waa  commemorated  bv  a 
dirgo  (2  Sam.  i,  17-27;  2  ChTDn.xxxv,25),ur  by  a  na- 
tional mourning  (2  Sam.  iii.Rl).  The  fallen  warriors 
were  duly  buried  (1  Kinga  xi,  IG).  their  arms  being  de- 
posited in  Ihe  grave  beside  them  (Eiek.  xxxii,  t7),  while 
the  enemica'  coipee*  were  exposed  lo  the  beaata  of  prey 
(1  Sara,  xvii,  44;  Jer.  xxv,  83).  The  Israelite*  were 
directed  to  undergo  the  purifieation  imposed  on  those 
who  had  toitched  a  corpae,  before  they  entered  the  pre- 
■  '  '  y  (Numb,  xxxi,  19). 


IV.  if  anil  PriHOpIrt  /iitofrn/.— We  may  distinguish 
two  kinds  gf  wara  araung  the  Hebrews^  Some  were  of 
obligslion,  being  cxprei^y  commanded  by  the  Lord; 
others  were  free  and  votiintar>'.  The  flnt  were  such  aa 
tboae  a^inac  the  Amalekites,  and  the  intrusive  and 
wicked  Canaanitea,  nationa  deeuted  lo  an  anathema. 
The  otlura  were  to  arenge  injuries,  Insults,  or  oBencea 
against  Ihe  nation.  Such  waa  that  against  the  city  of 
Oibeah,  and  againat  the  tribe  of  Benjamin;  and  such 
was  that  of  David  against  the  Ammonites,  whoae  king 
had  inaulled  his  ambaaaadorh  Or  they  were  lo  main- 
tain and  defend  their  aQi**,  as  that  of  Joahoa  against 


Aa  to  details,  the  laws  of  war  among  the  Hebrews, 
as  we  have  seen,  permitted  aevetiiies  in  the  treatment 
of  the  conquered  such  ai  we  should  not  now  approve. 
Probably  in  practice  limitatioiu  were  put  upon  Ihe  ab- 
elract  rights  of  conqaerora  among  like  Jew*  just  aa 
among  Christian  nations.  This  is  not  invalidated  by 
aeveritiea  such  as  those  of  Gideon  towards  the  kings 
who  had  enslaved  Israel  (Judg.  vii,  26;  viii,  18-21);  nr 
of  David  culling  off  and  carrying  away  Ihe  head  of  the 
Phdiatine  champion  ( I  Sam.  xvii,  64) ;  nor  by  auch  ex- 
ceptional dealinga  aa  llioee  with  the  Midianitea,  who 

ment  as  the  devoieil  Canaaiiites  (Numb.  xxxi).  'llie 
same  may  be  aaid  of  Ihe  fearful  threatening  in  Paa. 
cxixvii,  8,  9;  but,aB  a  matter  of  practice,  contraat  Ibe 
cruelty  of  putting  out  eves  bv  the  Philiatinea,  the  Aid- 
Inonilea,and  the  ChskUans  (Judg.xTi,2l;  1  Sam.  xi, 
2;  3  Kinga  xxv,  7).  The  tieatmentof  the  men  of  Suc- 
culh  and  Penuel  by  Gideon,  of  the  Ephraimitca  by 
Jephlhah,  and  of  Ilie  men  of  Jabesh-gilead  by  the  as- 
sembled Isrielilea  (Judg.  viii,  4-T ;  xii,  1-6;  xxi,».12), 
are  unmiitakably  punithmenta  of  extraordinary  sever- 

Jehovah.  The  treatment  of  ten  tbounind  Edomites  by 
Amaiiah  ia  a  parallel  on  the  part  of  one  whose  princi- 
ples and  praclice  uught  lo  have  been  belter  (2  Cbron. 
xxv,  12).  On  Ihe  other  band,  it  abeuld  be  borne  in 
mind  that  these  were  nut  usages  of  Judaism  a>  auch. 


retry  a 


modem  humanity  which  is  the  offshoot  uf  Christianity. 
See  MosAiSM. 

It  has  been  queslioned  whether  wars  are,  under  any 
circum*t*nces,Ju9tiSBble  from  Jewish  example.  While 
it  is  certain  that  the  practice  of  offensive  v^arn  cannot 
be  defended  by  reference  to  sacred  hialory,  it  i*  equally 


It  they 


only  1 


:d  of  neo 


d  telfilcfrnc 


n  (he  clear  a 


When  the 


iminafed  the  minds  of 
all  nations,  wan  ahall  ceaae  from  the  ends  of  Ihe  earth, 
and  all  men  will  give  glory  to  (iod  in  Ihe  highest,  anil 
on  earth  peace  and  good-will  will  univenally  prevail 
(P«a.xlvi,9;  lxxvi,8;  Iaa.ii,4;  £zek.xxxix,9t  Luke 
ii,  14).    See  Peace. 

WAB,  Chhi»t1A!(  Views  of.  I.  nittory  o/Opiaiom. 
— The  queslinn  whether  war  is  allowable  to  Christiana 
diridn  itself  inio  two,  which  are  intimately  related  to 
each  other:  (n)  Is  it  right  lor  a  Christian  government 
to  carry  on  war?  and  (A)  la  a  Christian  subject  obliged 
tu  serve  as  a  soldier?  Christianity  always  breathes  the 
spirit  of  peace  among  individuals  and  nations,  and  like- 
wise the  spirit  of  freedom  and  personal  respect,  yet  nev- 
er by  command  does  it  do  away  with  eilher  slavery  nr 
war,  nnr  does  it  forbid  civil  gavemment  using  Ihe  sword. 
The  objections  of  early  Christiana  to  serve  in  war  were 
based  prindpslty  upon  the  text  "  Whosoever  sheddelh 
blood,"  etc  But  there  were  also  other  reasons.  The 
early  Christians  did  not  feel  obligated  lo  serve  a  gov- 
ernment that  conalancly  persecuted  them,  and  they  also 
dreaded  the  idolatry  connected  ivith  Itte  service  of  war. 
Tertullian  forbids  serving  as  a  common  soldier,  although 
auch  were  nol  so  imperaiively  required  to  engage  in 

cieni  fur  Tertullian  lo  know  that  the  Roman  ensigns 
bore  imsgea  and  pictures  of  idols  (see  TertulL  Dt 
rdoMatria.  c  xix;  De  Corona  MiOit,  c  xi;  Apnl. 
c  xlii;  Ad  Scap»laia,  c.  iv).  NolwilhsMnding  these 
objections,  a  great  many  Christiana  served  as  aoldiera. 
The  conversion  of  Conatantine  and  the  exchange  of  the 
idol  atondarda  for  the  banner  of  the  Croaa  laid  evtij 


AugMtinc  8pe.ki  of  him^lf  a 

.  hoMins 

The  01 

I  ira  Justified  in  morting  to  arm); 
1 1  mule  one  right  I     UoubllcM  nil  men 
a  polUical  tight  to  like  up  an 
IS  Christiaiu  thej  ire  required  I 


to  the  u 


huM  III 


.    Wh( 


right. 


y  (Jhria 


of  Origen  is  iinw  limited  to  the  clerRy  (Conl.  CtUam,  vii, 

ume  attitude  that  the  earlier  Christiana  liehl,  iiaaidj, 
tint  the  Mrvicen  or  the  sancluiry  rurUO  the  ahoildiiii; 
of  blooil ;  yet  they  huld  that  the  mi>re  cliuely  Churcli 
aiid  State  ato  united,  the  more  justiliable  in  war.  Ite- 
ferring,  alu,  to  the  Old  'I>su  and  lu  Ihe  Church  fa- 
thers, they  make  the  riiiliiiring  diuiunioiw ;  (1)  prose- 
eutionof  uar  in  itwlfia  no  sin;  (i)  the  clergy  are  not 
persoHAlly  10  handle  Ibe  tworil,  although  they  may 


die  Ages,  and  hi 


el2>. 


e  liumisb  Churcl 


r  ol  the  Mid. 


Yet  tha  ort-repeal«d  threatening*  and  rebukes  in  carlv 
Cbristian  documents  (Apou.  Cm.  Ixixii,  c  4.  23,  i|n. 
8 !  Cone.  Tokt.  W,  c  «,  ann.  633 ;  Cow.  SltLttntf,  c, 
87,aaii.S45i  c.2,x;  c.  2d,  x.  b,  39)  imlicue  tlial  lliv 
warlike  inclinations  of  many  of  [be  clergy  transgressed 
one  or  the  aboi'e  niles.  Athanaaiua  already  lamented 
that  bishops  engaged  iu  war.  There  were  three  causes 
that  produced  this  spirit!  (n)iealotlini, which  was  anx- 
ious to  exterminate  hereties;  (b)  xelf-derence  in  case  of 

p,iiv\oi 'li<xif>ia,^itji«  [Wiitenherp,  IGTiJl.  'in  ihc 
lime  or  ChryNHtom  the  HHinks  travelleil  in  lar)^  com- 
panies From  place  to  place  with  imperial  aullHirily  (o 

y  effectually 


er  in  absolute  self-derence  they  a 
force,  eren  to  the  extent  or  homicide,  may,  indeed,  be 
left  an  open  i|uesliatij  but  warfare,  as  usually  carried  iw 
by  tvations,  acatcely  ever  comei  under  this  eximtie  cat- 
egory. On  the  other  hand,  no  humane,  much  leis  gi^ 
ly  man,  can  look  abroad  at  the  diabolism  of  war,  as  lye- 
tematically  practiced  in  ancient  oc  modem  linwn,  wicl^ 
out  the  innat  intense  horror  and  drpr«catian.  I'hai  lie 
should  ddiberately  enter  upon  such  a  course  of  actiua, 
involving,  as  it  must,  not  only  the  immense  deatruclkn 
of  human  life  end  property,  but  also  the  ruin  and  mis- 
ery of  helpless  and  innocent  families,  cannot  for  a  m*. 
ment  be  reconcileil  with  Ihe  impulses  of  philanthropy, 
mUcb  leas  wiih  Ihe  principles  of  ChriMianiiy,  (thieb 
teach  universal  lure  and  lieiielicetKe.  To  jutiify  «di 
conduct  fnim  consideralioua  of  |ienuna],  local,  ot  leai- 
purary  advantage,  or  arcn  of  national  gain  and  ad- 
vancement, is  clearly  to  adopt  ilic  damnable  doctrioe 
Older  that  g"od  may  come'' 


(llom-ii 


>fallci 


aChrii 


Bystematiied  in  after-ages.     During  the 
ops  became  renowned  as  military  m{ 
4fati/tii,  cb.  i]  1  and  these  holy  wan 


(Ran 


T,  //uA™. 

ml  on  Uy 


Church  to  au( 

apeak,  of  the  Church  itself,  in  lite  form  of  the  different 
nrders  of  knighta.  This  warlike  spirit  became  so  cinn- 
mon  among  the  clergy  that  wlienever  anytliing  was  Iti 
be  gained,  they  were  ever  ready  ftir  war. 

The  (|ueetion  is  to  whether  iinlividuals  are  obligated 
U>  serve  as  soldiers  depends  lai^ly  upon  i  he  govern- 
ment of  the  country  in  which  they  live.  S»  far  as  Ihc 
Kvangelical  Church  is  concerned  in  the  question  wheth- 
er war  is  allowable  to  Christians,  we  hare  aiifficienl 
proof  that  the  Reformers  believed  it  to  be  right  for 
Christians  to  use  the  sword.  The  A  agAurg  Co«ftiirio« 
refers  to  this  subject  in  art.  10  ('-Doccnt  quod  Chris- 
tianis  liceat  jure  Iwllara").  Only  a  tew  small  seels  are 
opposed  to  Christians  engaging  in  war.  The  evangel- 
ical doctrine  has  generallv  l>een  on  ihe  affirmative  side 
of  the  question  (see  Reinbard,  MomL  g  244,  SOS;  Au- 
moa,  II aadb,ii.chriill.SiHrBlAre,%l6\,  Harles^ CAiuf/. 
EtIM,  p.  2m).  Schleiermacbcr  iOit  chivll.  Sillr,  p.  STB) 
contends  that  every  individual  is  bound  lo  nbedieno! 
when  B  call  lo  war  is  made ;  so  also  Hegel "  The  agita- 
tion of  war  purtfles  a  nation"  (Rrrhl-phihi.  p.  3S4).  I'he 
Evangelical  Church  at  large  has  no  lun  against  clergy 
serving  in  war,— Hcrzog,  litnUfJiicyUt^.  viii,  81  sq. 

II.  /Mgmnik  Viae. —  These  modern  opinions  in  de- 
fence of  warfare,  however,  have  evidently  grown  out  of 
a  desire  to  conciliate  Ihe  civil  power,  and  ore  clearly 
oppiaed  to  Ihe  ancient  Christian  doctrine  and  ti>  the 
whole  ^irit  of  the  llcifpel,  as  well  aa  to  speciRe  precepts 
in  the  New  Test.  (Mall,  v,  39|  Rom.  xii,  17-21.  etc.). 
The  appeal  lo  n  few  passages  is  futile  against  this  (e.g. 
Luke  xxii,26;  comp.  Mati.  xxTi,G2.  Rom.  xii i,  4  re- 
fers only  to  magisterial  or  mmiicipal  justice).  Tlie  lame 
effjrt  to  avoid  the  force  especially  of  Chriit'a  commaiMl 
may  be  strikinglv  seen  in  Stier'a  inconclusive  argiimenl 
( WojiU  of  Ikt  I^rd  Jam  [  Amer.  ed.],  i,  74),  who  con- 
lends  lliat  because  they  live  in  an  evil  world  Chiiations 


tre  as  a  profession,  and  huld  himetlf  eiAfett 
i<>  even  Ills  country's  call  in  any  cauae,  withoot  the  priv- 
lege  ofdedding  Kir  himaelf  the  justireof  the  quarnL 
Casuists  have   usually  relieved  the   Christian  coD- 


suning  would  excuse  the  ChrB- 
_  .  eiw>rmily,  even  idolatry,  at  tbe 
station  of  secular  or  political  riders.  Tbe  will  of  a 
ijority  under  democraUc  or  republican  gDvernmsit 
ikea  no  essential  difference  in  this  responnbilitr. 
himself  in  Ibe  fear  of  God  b 


»  of  ff'nr.— The  ■< 


Each 


III.  SditmttfaT  I 
lion  of  gunpowder  . 
lery,  while  they  have  greatly  ihortcnert  the  periods gf 
warfare,  have  immeiuvly  iucnasal  its  deetnxtiTetMai. 
Hence  victory  now  uaiially  depends  ralber  upon  nna- 
bers,  equipment,  and  stralrgic  skill  than  upon  pcrwaal 
bravery.  At  Ibe  same  time,  arbitration  has  mnn^  in~ 
qiiently  been  remried  to,  in  eettlemcnt  of  natiooal  dis- 
putes, insieail  of  the  swonL     Still  the  histoty  of  ibe 

tions,  especially  of  Europe  at  the  preanit  lime,  du  imt 
favor  the  hope  Ihat  war  will  soon  be  abandoned  in 
such  cases^  On  this  continent  likewise,  anil  within  tbc 
existing  generation,  we  have  hail  fearful  evidence  of 
Ihe  liability  lo  this  Jmitr  rraoi*.  The  meihudt  by 
which  philanlhropists  and  slaliwnen  have  propioed  iv 
supersede  the  necessiiy  of  a  recourse  lo  arms  in  nodrn 
times  arc  cbiefiy  luii,  a^de  from  Ibe  usual  e0unj>  iif 
diplomatic  currcHpoiidcnce  and  Ihe  inlcrreiiiion  of  v- 
bilraiDcnl. 

1.  Ptace  Coagrrnti. — These  are  ci 


which 


have  been  referred,  it  which  have  vol 
the  discussion  and  ailjustmenl  of  difficvllies  between 
particular  atalcs.  An  account  of  them  may  be  fbond 
at  length  in  a  recent  work  (Amoa,  PoUHai!  ami  Ltgid 
HtmfH/ifor  jr„r  [N.  Y.  1880]),  from  which  it  does  lut 
appear  that  this  method  has  been  particularly  mn  iim 
ful  in  preventing  Ihe  occurrence  of  war.  It  is  lo  be 
hoped,  however,  that,  as  the  principles  uf  international 
law  extend  and  are  more  generally  recognised,  tbis 
means  of  averting  collisions  between  contiguous  aa  wdl 
aa  remote  nations  may  become  more  eScactoua, 

2.  Peac*  Smfttfj.— These  are  purely  voluntary  aaso- 
cialioiia,  which  labor  in  moral  and  social  lines  to  pm- 
inote  harmony  and  fratrmily  among  the  people*  of  the 
earth,  especially  in  cirilized  lands,  and  Ihua  aim  pri- 
vately and  gradually  lo  extinguish  tbe  spirit  of  am- 


WAR  8i 

moaitf  and  coaUaL  TlM  eidting  aceoti  oT  "  tbe  Eut- 
eni  queUinn,"  tbe  Fnnco-GHniui  Miuggic  in  Eu- 
rope, and  the  lebdlion  in  this  oountry  have  gnatly 
reurdRl  ihe  luixem  of  this  movement,  (tevetthei™, 
orginiution*  of  Ihia  kind  liare  been  in  opentioii  Tor 
inaiiy  yean  in  Great  Itriiiin,  and  othen  in  llie  United 
States,  which  are  leciirtly  but  tlowly  laying  the  ftjun- 
dation  for  a  fututc  reTurrD  on  Ibii  aiibject.  Aa  in  the 
cue  or  the  temperance  iDovemcnt,  the  paaaiona  and  hab- 
ii  j  vt  mankind  ace  in  the  oppoMie  direction,  and  hence 
ihc  eSiirt  miut  be  pmtncied  and  even  precarioix. 
But  the  enla^eil  view)  of  modem  auteamanahip,  («- 
gelber  with  the  increasing  lies  that  tnnd  natiuns  to- 
t^elfaer,  most  coniinue  to  Hippktment  the  moral  argu- 
ments ailvaiicai  infavor  or  the  abolition  of  war,«D  that 
we  may  anticipate  an  eventual  millennium  in  this  ai 
well  aa  in  the  general  diffiuion  of  Ihe  Goapel. 

"Win  (or  'Woer),  in  Norie  mythningy,  ia  the  (pxi- 
dea  oT  canniibial  love  and  lideltiy,  anil  tlie  avenger  of 
conjugal  nnfaithfulneae. 

VrMtn.    See  Vaka. 

V7aranda,  in  Nonw  mytholncy,  ia  one  of  the  three 
Deilinief,  who  ait  at  the  well  at  Onlar  and  control  the 

\(rarbilTtoil,  William,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
prelate,  waa  bom  at  Newark-upnn-Trent,  Dec  34,  Utm. 
His  father  waa  attorney  and  (nwo-clerk  at  Newark,  and 
young  William  waa  designed  for  Ihe  law.  He  received 
the  usual  grammar-achnot  educalinn  at  Oakham  and 
hi<  own  native  village,  and  in  1713  was  phieed  ill  the 
office  of  an  attornev  at  Eant  Markham,  in  Nottingham- 
shire, where  he  remained  until  April,  1719.  He  then 
omimenced  Ihe  practice  of  law;  biit  hia  literary  tastes 
pnrented  his  success  in  that  profession,  and  he  absn- 
ilimed  it  for  the  ministry.  He  waa  ordained  deacon  by 
Dawes,  aichUshop  of  Viirk,  ill  1723;  nrdaineil  prieal  by 
liibaon,  tHshop  of  London,  in  1720,  and  appointed  vicar 
orGryealey.Nittiiighamihire;  became  rector  of  Brant- 
l)cnughlan,Liacoliuhire,inl7i8;  preacher  to  the  society 
of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1746;  piebenilarr  of  Gloucester  in 
1753;  king'a  chaplain  in  ordinary  in  1764;  prebendary  of 
Durham  in  IT&5;  dean  of  Bristol  in  1757;  bishop  of 
Gkwoesterin  l7C0t  anddied  there  June  7, 1779.  In  t7S9- 
40  he  published  a  series  of  letters,  in  Tit  Worlaqfihe 
Ijamed,  in  defence  of  the  orthoiloxy  of  Pope'a  Ktiat) 
pa  JfoB,  which  gained  him  the  life-long  friendship  of 
the  poet;  and  on  the  death  of  I'npc,  in  1844,  it  was 
found  that  he  had  bequeathed  to  Warburlnn  halfofhis 
library,  and  the  profits  arising  from  the  publication  of  all 
his  works  not  othetwiaa  diapoeed  of.  But  the  moat  im- 
portant serrice  rendereil  him  by  Pope  waa  hia  intro- 
duction to  the  houseof  Ralph  Allen,  Ksq.,  of  Prior  Park, 
near  Bath.  This  led  to  his  marriage,  in  1746,  with 
Allen's  niece,  Hias  Gertrude  Tucker,  in  whnae  right,  on 
the  death  of  Allen,  in  1704,  he  became  pmprietoi  of 
Prior  Park.  AmonK  bis  other  literary  wriiinga  are, 
MiMcdhtttou,  TniHiialioiM  in  Prom  imd  Vtrtt  (17.13); 
—.411  Inquiry  into  Iht  CuBie*  o/Prodigia  and  Mirada 
(llll'y.—AUiainx  bttwttn  Chmtk  and  Stale  (1731!)  :— 
Dinne  Lrgalian  n/JTiuw  (1738-41) ;  this  is  hU  greatot 
work:  — an  edition  of  Siakrtptatv  (lltJ):  — Julian 
(l7M);-an  edition  of  Pope's  ITarfa  (I751):-and  Tlii 
DacU-iae  "/Graee  (1762).  Warbnrton's  Iforfa  were  pub- 
liiheil  bv  his  friend  bishop  Hurd,  in  7  vola.  4c<>,  in  1788, 
and  a  subsequent  edition  with  a  ihnov-  in  1794.  In 
IfOKP  appeared  a  volume  of  lAtten,  and  in  1841  another 
volume,  entitled  Littrury  Bemaim  afBitkop  Wurbar- 
I.*.     Se«  Walsnn,  Lift  •■/  WatUrion  (ISeS). 

Warbnrtonlaii  Iiaoture,  ■  lecture  founded  by 
bishop  Waibnnon  (q.  v.).  lo  prove  the  truth  of  revealed 
religion  in  general,  and  the  Christian  in  paiticobr,  from 
the  completion  of  the  pmphecics  in  the  Old  and  New 
'I'esis.  wblcli  relate  to  the  Christian  Church,  cs|>ccislly 
Ilia  apostasy  at  papal  Kume.  Courses  of  lectures  on 
ihia  roniidation  have  been  ileliveted  by  Halifax,  Hunl, 
Uagot,  Aplhorp,  and  many  othera. 


WARDLAW 

'Wurdlatv,  John  Smith,  D.D.,  an  English  Con- 
gregational miaBinnarv,  was  born  at  GUu^ow,  July  2&, 
181K.  He  earlydedicated  himsclfto  the  Lord,and  com- 
menced preparation  for  his  great  work.  Mr.  Wardlaw 
bad  ever>'  advantage  for  mental  and  spiritual  cnlture. 
He  graduBlecl  with  honor  at  Glasgow  University  and 
Tbeological  Academy,  and  at  once  decided  In  give  his 
life  In  miaainnary  work.  He  waa  ordained  as  a  mission- 
ary July  14, 1841,  nnd  sailed  for  India  under  the  auspices 
of  Ihe  London  Missionary  Sodeiy,  arriving  at  Madraa 
in  September,  1841.  He  at  nnce  look  an  cfBdent  part 
in  carrying  out  Ihe  objects  of  the  mission — leaching, 
preaching,  itinerating,  and  superintending  rhe  prinling> 
presB.  He  translated  Ihe  Scriptures  iuto  Ihe  Teliigu 
iBiigusge.  and  waa  able  to  send  tbousands  of  copies  of 
the  New  Test,  into  the  mis^on  fields.  In  1865  Dr. 
Wardlaw  visited  Viugapatam,  and  in  1869  also  viailed 
Calcutta  and  Ihe  missiuns  on  the  roast.  He  died  Oct. 
13,  1872.  "Di.  WardUw  waa  a  Isboriona  and  faithful 
student, e»c(,  thorough,  with  great  analylical  power," 
and  the  ability  lo  exprcsa  with  clearness  his  conclusions. 
He  was  a  man  of  bniad  sympathies,  unselfish  in  friend- 
ship, with  a  cbaraciei  transparent  and  spotless,  and 
with  an  "exhauatleas  patience  and  charity."  tie« 
(Loml.)  Corn.  Yrar-book,  IS7B,  p.  B6fi. 

'Wardlaw,  Ralpb,  D.D.,an  eminent  Scotch  Con- 
gregslinnal  divine,  waa  bom  in  Ualkeilh,  ]>ec23, 1779; 
Though  bred  in  Ihe  principles  of  Il«  Secession  Church, 
he  resolved  to  Jiiiu  himself  to  the  Congrcgationai  parly; 
and  was  in  IWS  ordained  and  bislalled  pastor  nf  the 
chapel  in  Albion  Street,  Glasgow,  but  subsequently  re- 
moved to  a  larger  church  in  George  Street.  In  181 1  he 
was  appointed  prnfessor  ol  theology-  in  tbe  Seminar;-  nf 
the  Congregatiutial  Church  of  Sciltland,  which  posliimi 
he  occupied,  in  cnnneclioll  ailh  his  pastorale,  until  Ids 
deaih,liec.l7,  IM6S.  He  acquired  a  high  reputaiicni  as 
a  theologian.  His  life  was  a  very  laborioua  and  ear- 
nest one.  Jlesides  discharging  failbfuUv  and  ably  Ihe 
duties  u(  the  pulpit  and  the  professor's  chair,  he  was  a 
voluminous  author;  often  inv(dved  in  theological  con- 
troversy, and  a  prominent  actor  in  the  public,  religious, 
and  philanthropic  movements  of  the  day.  His  inlelleet 
was  acute,  hia  undenlanding  sound,  and  his  alyle  re- 
markable for  its  peispicacity,  vigor,  and  grace.  Tim 
moat  important  of  Dr.  Warillaw's  works  are,  Ditcourta 
on  rte  Soctirion  Ci>ntroHrig:—Ijcllliti  tm  Kcrirliiula 
(2  vols.) :—  Eaofi  on  Auuranct  of  Failh,  and  on  Ihe 
Kxltnt  oflkt  Alannunt  and  Unicmal  Pardon:— Di*. 
tovrttt  OH  Iht  SahbaOi! — Ckriitian  ElUa: — Diteeurta 
on  Iht  Kattirt  and  Extat  iff  lU  Alonemnt  of  Chritl!— 
Tkt  Lift  /tfJotrph  and  llui  Lan  Trari  of  Jacob:— Coa- 
grrffaliomil  Indrprndrna/ : — On  Mifudtt .-- and  Ltdurtt 
a!)<iiiut  Ktlif/ioHM tMablitimtnli,  Hislifeandcorreapond- 
ence  were  published  by  Dr.  Akxander  in  1866.  See  Al- 
libone,  /Hel.  o/BHI.  and  Amir.  A  nthort,  s.  v.    (W.  1'.  i) 

Wardjaw,  Thomaa  Celacey,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  stWarrcnpolnl,  County  Down, 
Iretanil,  Nov.  1. 1826,  where  he  recrived  bis  preparatory 
education.  He  graduated  from  Belfast  College  in  1814; 
and  soon  alter  went  lo  Quebec,  Canada,  and  fnim  Ihenoe 
to  tlK  Unilol  States  in  I81U,  when  he  enlereil  Prince- 
ton Thcohjgical  Seminary,  from  which  he  graduated  in 
1849.  Immediately  on  leaving  the  seminary,  he  began 
to  preach  aa  a  auied  aupply  at  Poit  Carbon,  Pa. ;  but 
aubsequently,  having  acceptcil  a  call,  was  ordained  and 
installul  pastor.  After  two  years'  service,  he  was  re- 
leased lo  take  charge  of  the  Church  at  Paris,  Ky.,  where 

collal  to  Clarksville,  renn.,  where  he  continued  nine 
yeard.  After  this  he  removeil  to  Shelbyrille,  where 
he  conlinucd  to  reside  inilil  hia  death,  Aug.  29,  1879. 
He  became  principal  of  a  Young  Ladies'  Seminary  iu 
that  place,  at  Ihe  same  lime  supplying  the  neighboring 
cliurchesufPetersbuig  and  Bethlehem.  He  was  a  man  of 
superior  Bchotanhip  and  eitensive  literary  culture.  See 
J</terolBgiealIlrp.PruKtl</nSem.AliimiH,im>.  (W.f.S.) 


WARE  81 

Ware,  Hamy,  Sr.,  D.D^  a  Unitarian  dergymin, 
WW  bom  Mt  Sbeibunie,Haaa.,  April  1, 1764.  Be  gnd- 
uauil  *t  Hanrard  College  in  17H5,  and  studied  theology 
under  Rev.  Timothy  IlillianI  for  a  j'eir  nnd  a  half  fol- 
lowing.  He  became  piator  of  the  Fint  Congregational 
Church  ac  Bingham  in  1767,  and  lab<ired  there  until 
tSO.i,  when  he  waschoaen  Hollis  profeiwar  of  divinity  at 
Han'atd  College.  Thia  election  naa  the  occarion  ui'  a 
■harp  controvecay  between  the  Unitarian*  and  the  Trin- 
itarian Congregationaliata,  vhich  reaulted  in  the  separa- 
tion or  the  two  parlies  as  distinct  bodies  of  CbrUtians. 
He  held  his  chair  in  the  collei^  until  1816,  when,  on  the 
Organiistiuii  of  the  Harvard  Uit'inily  School,  he  became 
proreasor  or  ■yitematic  theology  and  the  evidence*  or 
Christianity,  which  ofliee  he  held  until  1840,  when  he 
was  compelled  to  resign  oil  account  ot  the  loss  of  hia 
eveaighL  He  died  at  Cambridge.  June  IS,  1846.  Dr. 
Ware  published,  LeUiri  la  T'-iHUorian  ani  Cabnmttt 
(Camb.  1820),  in  replv  to  Dr.  Wood's  f^lrri  (o  Utdlan- 
aati^Aaiatrlo  Dr.  Wood:t  Reply  {l&ii):—Pi>ilterift 
(D  llK  Antwtr  la  Dr.  WootFt  He^  (182S)  >-/ln  In^iry 
into  Oe  Foundalion,  Ecidemx*,  and  Tralht  of  Rftigian 
(1842, 2  vola.) :— and  nameraiia  Sermom.  See  Sprague, 
AimaU  a/lic  Amer.  Pulpil,vin,199. 

Ware,  Hsnir,  Jr.,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  clergyman, 
eldeat  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  nc  H  ingbam,  Haaa., 
April  21,  I'M.  lie  was  educated  at  l>l>illips  Academy, 
Andover,  and  at  Harvard  College,  from  which  hegiadu- 
atedin  1812.  During  the  next  two  yean  he  taught  in 
the  academy  at  Eiet«r,  N.  H.,  speuding  much  of  hia 
leisure  time  in  the  atmly  of  theology;  and  during  the 
Utter  part  of  thia  period  he  conducted  tlie  public  aenrtcoa 
iif  a  Uniuriau  society  iu  Exeter  by  performing  the  da- 
v»tioual  part  of  the  service  and  reading  ■  printed  aet- 
moo.  Iu  1814  he  returned  to  Cambridge  to  atudy  tbe* 
olcigy  as  a  resident  graduate  of  the  univeraity,  and  waa 
appointed  aub-librarian  ft  the  college,  which  office  he 
held  one  year.  He  was  called  to  the  paalorale  of  the 
Second  Church  in  Boalon,  and  was  ordained  and  install- 
ed Jan.  1, 1817.  In  this  relation  he  remained  until  the 
■ntumn  of  1B80.  In  1819  he  became  editor  of  the  CMrit- 
lian  DUnplt,  and  remained  in  that  office  until  1822. 
On  account  of  decliniiig  health  Hr.  Ware  desired  to  re- 
sign his  charge  in  1829 ;  but  his  Church  and  congr^a- 
tion,  not  willing  to  Iom  hia  scrrices,  chose  as  colleague 
pastor  Hr.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  upon  whom  ahould 
devolve  the  burden  of  the  active  pastoral  labor.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1880,  Mr.  Ware  recnoveii  to  Cambridge  to  enter 
upon  the  duties  of  proresnor  of  pulpit  eloquence  and  the 
paadrtal  care,  to  which  he  had  lately  been  elected.  In 
184!,  on  account  of  feeble  health,  he  resigned  bis  pro- 
fesMirship  and  removed  to  Frnmingham,  where  be  died, 
Sept  S2, 1848.  Among  his  published  works  are  the  fol- 
lowing ;  DitcBUria  on  (At  Offim  nnd  Chnrader  e/Jtait 
Ckritl  (182a)  ■.—Sermoia  on  Smalt  Sim  (18^7)  -.—On  llu 
Formatiixi'i/lkeChnttiaaCharadtrt^ifaiy.—TheUft 
oflht  Savioar  (1832) :— several  aingle  Serautu,  Ewgt, 
and  Poexu:— and  ifimoirt  nfOUHvt,  Noah  Wortatrr, 
Dr.  Joieph  Pi-infhy,  Nathan  Parkrr,  and  otheia.  See 
bis  StUct  Wriliagt,  by  Rev.  Chandler  Kobbina  (Boat. 
1846-47,4  vols.);  Ware  [John],  ^flmoir  o/Btr.  tlarf 
H^ure,  Jr.,  D.I),  (ibid.  1846,  2  vobi)  i  Sprague,  A«Ki» 
qflhtA  mtr.  Pulpil,  viii,  472  sq. 

Waibam,  Wiixuu,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  bom  at  Okeley,  in  Hamp^iie,  about 
mo.  He  was  educated  at  Wiiicbesier  School  and  at 
New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  be  became  a  fellow  in 
1475.  He  remained  at  Oxfonl  until  14SB,  having  in 
the  meantime  taken  holy  orders,  and  then,  it  ia  believed, 
waa  collated  to  aome  living  in  the  Church.  Shortly  af- 
ter this,  he  is  found  practicing  as  an  advocate  in  tbe 
Court  of  Arches,  and  acting  as  principal  or  moderator 
or  tbe  Civil  Law  School  of  the  parish  of  S^Edward'^ 
Oxford.  In  1493  he  was  aent  by  Henry  Vll  as  a  j. 
envov  to  the  duchess  of  Burgundy,  to  complain  of  her 
ntcthepretcnderPerkinWarbeck.    Hewaa 


WATER 

i  rolls  from  1494  to  1£02:  joint  cuvot  ta 
ifBurgnndy  in  1501-2;  b«f*rae  keeper  al 
thegreatsealAug.  II,  1503;  lord  chancellor,  Jau.  1,  ISM; 
bishop  of  London  in  1503;  archbishop  of  Cantertrfin , 
March  9,  1604;  and  chancellor  of  Oxford  Uoirenniy 
aeon  after.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  EranDDs;  a 
rival  of  Fox.  bishop  of  Winchester;  and.  laier,  a  rival 
of  cardinal  Wolsey,  with  whom  he  bad  many  canlcn- 
tions  concerning  J  urisriietion.  Heoppoeed  the  marriage 
ofCatharineof  Aragon  with  Henry  VIII,  but  ufficiatrd 
at  tbe  ceremony  in  June,  1509;  and  resigned  the  grvai 
seal  to  Wolsey,  Dec.  29, 1615.  During  hia  laUer  yran 
he  drew  some  discredit  upon  himself  by  his  cooDMioi 
with  the  aOair  of  the  Maid  of  Rent,  lo  wbnae  prseu- 
aiona  he  lent  acme  support.  He  died  at  St.  StepbenX 
near  Canterbury,  Aug.  £3, 1 532, 

'Warner,  Aaron,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  miuftcE. 
was  bom  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  OcL  20,  17M.  AJler 
graduating  from  Williams  College  in  1815.  Se  eniend 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  from  which  be  grada- 
■ted  four  years  artenvards.  He  was  city  roisAioiiarv  is 
Charleston,  S.  C,  from  1819  to  1822,  and  part  oI'Uk 
lime  waa  scting  pastor  ol  the  Circidu  Church  in  ihsl 
ciiy.  Ac  Salem,  Mass.,  be  waa  ordained  as  au  evangxl- 
191,  Sept.  2n,  1823 ;  and  a  year  after  he  was  inaulbd 
pastor  of  the  Second  Church  in  Med  ford, which  he  BeTvtd 
until  18S2.  From  February,  1836,  to  November.  1849, 
he  was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the  Uilmaulia 
Theological  Seminary.  In  January  of  the  lullo«iii|t 
year  he  was  made  pntTeBSDr  of  rhetoric  and  oratory  Hd 
English  literature  in  Amherat  College,  retaining  tUt 
piMitiou  until  1853;  aher  which,  and  until  hi-t  death, 
Uay  14,  187*1,  be  resided  in  Amherst  without  charge. 
Dr.  Warner  was  a  corporale  member  of  the  Araeries 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  from  183& 
See  Cwi).  Qaartrrlg,  1877,  p.  427. 

'Wamet,  Fardlnando,  LLD.,  an  English  deip^y. 


studied  SI 


volun 


Ronde,  Wiltshirt 


ie  at  Jcsua  College,  Cambridge,  but  b 
lOiig  ita  graduates;  became  vicar  U 
,in  1730;  rector  of  St.  Hichael  Qumi- 
1746;  and, in  addition,  rectorornarses. 
in  Surrey, in  1768.  Hediedofgoutabout  1767.  Amgni: 
his  published  works  are  tbe  rullowing :  S^tam  n/ Oirm- 
i»S  and  Montlilf  {hood.  1760)  -.—RaHimat  Dtfatct  of  A, 
EHgliih  Rr/onHotiom  (nb2):  —  An  lauHraUm  if  i^ 
Booi  of  Common  Prayer  okJ  A  dnniutrrUiDii  of  lie  Sac- 
ramaiH  (1754)  ■.—£crlniaMlkal  Hutary  of  En^aadfr^fm 
tit  farlitMt  AceoutiU  U  lit  Eighlttnlh  CaUmy  (I7it- 
67)i~Mttnoirt  of  the  Lift  of  Sir  Tkoatat  Mart  (1758): 
—TheltittoTy  of  Jrrland  (I76B):— and //irtoij  ofH, 
Sebeliion  and  Cieil  War  m  Irdandfrom  1641  (a  1S60 
(1767). 

'Water  (Q^C,  e2»p),  univeraally  one  of  tbe  cbief 
neceaaaries  of  life.  No  one  can  read  far  in  the  Sacred 
Scriptnres  without  being  reminded  of  the  vau  impw- 
taoce  of  water  to  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine,  aitd,  indeed, 
in  every  coanlry  to  which  their  history  intmdooes  e>: 
but  more  particularly  in  the  deserts  in  which  Lhey  wm- 
dered  on  leaving  Egypt,  as  well  as  those  into  which 
they  before  or  afterwarils  sent  their  flocks  fur  paataie. 

I.  Svpplsf, — In  our  temperate  climate,  sumNiDdf4  as 
we  are  with  perpetual  verdure  and  nerer-Iailing  atnmtf. 
we  can  eearcely  conceive  tbe  value  of  water  in  l^alestiM 
ami  other  reginns  of  the  East.  Dnriuf;  sumtucv  skI 
autumn,  when  the  amall  streams  are  dried  op  Ihrangfa 
want  of  nin,  the  inhatutanta  are  estirely  depenlem 
upon  the  water  derived  from  wells,  or  preserved  ii 

See  CiffTEitx.    Hence  the  ' 

fountains,  as  oppoaed  to  that  of  stagnant  ci 

or  marshes,  ia  called  licim/  watrr  (Gtn.  xxvi,  19; 

xiv,8;  John  iv,  10,11;  vii,8e;  Kev.vii,!?).   Sec  Pool. 

Water  is  oommouly  drawn  out  of  tbe  wells  or  cialeniB  h 

Ibmales,  and  Tarriirl,  upon  the  shoulder  or  head,  ia  large 

leathern  or  earthen  veuela  (Oen,  sxiv,  46%    SeeWKU. 


In  the  hot  cuunlrica  of  (be  EuC,  the  utiueine  of 
hint  it  Dn«  of  ihe  mou  delighlAil  aenulioiH  llial  on 
e  felt  (I'aiLCxliii.fl;  Trov.  xxv,  ib) ;  aud  every  itlen- 


mly  n 


Un  with  w»ier;  anti  public  reser- 
roiis  i>r  inHiis  ire  opened  in  leveml  parts  of  Egypt 
and  Arabia  (Miiu  x,  «2).  See  Foustai.n.  Water  wai 
smnelimes  paid  Tiir.  and  ia  now  occaMonally  in  I  be  Eaat 
[Xiinib.sx,  17,19 1  Lain. v,4).  See  Db&wek  op  Watkb. 
IL  PteuliuT  Viaga.  —  Among  tbe  optical  iiliuioua 
which  the  deeeria  or  the  £au  have  fiimithed  is  tbe  <■■>- 
ragf.  This  pbenumenon  of  "  iralen  that  fail,"  or  "  are 
[tot  nure,"  vraa  called  b;  the  Hcbrewi  ikarab,  i.  e-  hnt, 
and  is  rendered  "the  parched  gmunil"  ((u.  xxxv,  T); 
pnjperly,  "And  tbe  mirage  shall  become  a  poul,"  i.  e. 


( appcarai 


I  of  a 


be  changed  into  real  water.     See  Ml 

Tbroughuiit  i\\ii  ICaH  it  is  customary  la  irrigate  their 
Aelds  and  ganlciis  by  means  of  amall  canala  or  rivuleta, 
which  diilribule  the  water  in  Bve/y  direction  (Psa.  1,3). 
Allusion  ia  prubalily  made  to  this  ciialom  in  Eiek.  xxxi, 
3, 4.  Suroetimea  the  chaunela  are  bordered  with  alone, 
and  accompanied  wiih  irougha;  at  other  limes  tbey  are 
mere  ridges  ofeirtli.  In  regnUle  the  flow  (Pmr.  xxi,  1). 
Thus,  ill  Dent.  xi.  Ill,  it  is  said  the  land  of  Canaan  ia 
not  like  Egypt.  '■  where  thou  loweal  thy  seed,  and  wa- 
lerrai  it  with  thy  fcwL"  Palestine  is  a  counlry  which 
has  rains,  plentiful  dews,  spring*,  rivulets,  and  bivoks, 
which  anpijy  the  earth  with  the 
fniilfulaess;  whereas  Egypt  has 


Nile; 


It  scldni 


>e  lands 


hlch  SI 


III.  ilrlnphoiicnl  and  SifnAolKal  />Anuca.  — Water 
locDeiimei  aiKiiifivs  literally  the  element  of  water  |Gen. 
i.10),  and  occasionally  its  parallel  in  lean  (Jer.  ix,  1, 
7h  beDce,  flguralivvly,  Inmble  (i'sa.  Ivi,  I)  and  niis- 
luitinw  (Uin.  iii,  Hi  Pia.  Ixix,  1;  civii,  IS;  cxiiv, 
4,  a).  Waler  ia  put  for  children  or  posterity  (Numb. 
sxiv,7t  laa.ilviii,l);  for  the  cloada  (Pta.  civ,3};  for 
tbe  ordinances  of  the  Unapel  (Iia.  xii,  S;  xxxt,  6,  7; 
lr,l;  John  vii,37,3«).  '■Stolen  waters"  (lenote  unlaw- 
ful pleaiuros  with  strange  women  (Prov.  ix,  17),  The 
Israelites  are  reproached  with  having  forsaken  the 
fountain  of  living  water  to  quench  their  thirst  at  broken 
cistema  (Jer.  ii,  I3| :  that  i^  wilh  baring  <|i>iiled  Ihe 
wonhip  of  the  all-nilGcient  (jod  for  the  worship  of  vain 


Water  is  used  ii 


s  Ihe 


18  WATER  OF  JEALOUSY 

"washing  sway  of  sin."  See  Baptism.  When  dear, 
cool,  and  pleosanl,  it  is  the  symbol  of  great  gOod ;  and, 
when  mndiiy  and  thick,  it  denotes  disease  and  affliction 
(as  above}.  Hence,  the  torments  of  wicked  men  alter 
this  life  were  by  the  ancients  reprcsenled  under  [he 
symbol  of  a  lake  whoae  waters  were  full  of  mud  and 
eith(Isa.lvii,20). 

Many  waters,  on  account  of  their  noise,  number,  dis- 
order, and  the  confusion  of  the  waves,  are  the  symbols 
of  peoples,  mullitiides,  iinlions,  and  tongues  (Rev.  xvii, 
IB;  Jer.  xlvii,  'i);  walen  signifying  an  army  or  multi- 
tude (Isa.  xvii,  12,  IS). 

As  in  Scripture  bread  is  put  for  all  aorta  of  food  or 
»lid  nourisbmeiil, »  water  is  used  for  all  sorts  of  drink. 
The  Uoabitea  and  Ammoiiiies  are  re|>roached  (or  not 
meeting  the  Israelites  with  bread  and  walerj  that  ia, 
uith  proper  refreshments  (Deut.  xxiii,4).  Nahal  says, 
insulting  David's  messengers,  "Shall  I  then  take  ray 
bread  and  my  water,  ami  my  flesh  Ihat  I  have  killed  fur 


r  (I  Si 


'.  II). 


Baptism.  The  scholastics  adopled  the 
relation  of  the  water,  but  carried  their 
inquiries  concerning  the  fluids  to  be 
used  at  the  pcrformatice  of  the  rite  of  baptism  to  ■ 
ridiculous  extreme.  Various  opinions  obtained  as  to 
the  question  whether  beer,  broth,  tlsh-sauce,  mead  or' 
honey-water,  lye  or  rose-watet,  might  be  used  instead 
of  pure  water.  They  carried  Ibeir  absunlilies  so  far  aa 
to  start  the  question  "(Juiil  faciendum, si  puer  urinaret 
(stercorizarcl)  in  fontem  ?"  A  distinction  was  also  made 
between  "aqua  artilicialis,  naturalia,  and  usiialin."  See 
Hagenbach,  llitl.  nf  Dodriim,  ii,  ft4.  See  llAiTiau; 
Holy  Wati:!!. 

WATER,  Holy.  See  h\er\W.  Holy  Watkil 
WATER  OP  Jbalo';sy  (Numb,  v,  1 1-81,  D-nal?  "9, 
"waters  of  bitterness,"  sometimes  with  C^inMBn  add- 
ed, aa  causing  a  curse ;  Sept-iijuip  roii  tXfy/ioCi;  Philo, 
ii,  Bid,  rdrot  iXlyx"")-  This  was  probably  not  the 
"water  of  separation"  fur  puriAcalion,  mixed  with  the 
ashes  of  tbe  red  heifer,  for,  as  iis  ceremonial  property 
was  to  defile  the  pore  and  to  purify  the  unclean  (Numb, 
xix,  SI)  who  touchol  it,  it  could  hanlly  be  used  in  a 

of  the  upright  or  discover  the  guilt  uf  the  sinner  with- 
out the  symbidlsm  Jarring.  I'erhaps  water  from  the 
laver  of  the  sanctuary  is  inleniled.  The  ritual  pre- 
scribed consisted  in  the  husband's  bringing  the  woman 
before  the  prieal,  anil  the  essential  part  nf 
it  is  unquestionably  the  oath,  to  which  the 


be  regarded  from  a  judicial  point  of  view, 
and  this  "offering"  in  the  light  of  a  court- 
fee.  Yet  being  an  offering  to"  bring  iniqui- 
ty to  remembrance"  (v,  16),  it  is  ceremo- 
nially rate.1  as  a  "  un-offering ;"  hence  no 
'    oil  is  to  be  mixed  wilb  Ihe  meal  before 
burning  it,  nor  any  frankincense  to  be 
;    placed  upon  it  when  burned,  which  same 
,   rule  was  applied  to  "sin-ufferinKs"  gener- 
'    ally  (Lev.  V,  11).    Wilh  meai-offerings.on 
1  tbe 


;    theo 


e  of  oil  a 


'    imposition  of  frankim 

(11,1,2,7,14,16).  liod  himMlf'was 
deiily  iniMkcd  lo  Judge,  and  his  [>re! 
recognised  by  throwing  a  hatiilful  o1 
barley  -  iTMal  on  the  blazing  altar  in 


seofther 


1.1  "  «i  her  before  the  Ivml" 
iut:  in  her  hand.  TheMi'.hna 
i^ribes  that  she  be  clotbed 


WATER  OF  JEALOUSy 

in  black  with  a  rnpe  girdle  Brniii 


;r  free  from  ti 


;  ind  fnnn 
r  bei  head" 


in  oalh  among  her  people,"  ir 
guilry,  funher  deacribint;  (lie  exact  eon«priuencea  ao- 
cribeil  lo  the  openljnn  of  the  water  in  the  "memben!" 
which  she  had  "yielilnl  as  Krvanu  lo  uncleaiinna  ' 
(rer.  21,  22,  27;  camp.  Kom.  vi,  IS;  and  Theodofet, 
Qaatl.  X  iH  A'Hni.).     The  words  T^U,  !>^p:V  nbt9, 


endered  in  lbs  A.  V.  b 


cite,  Bccotdiiig  to  Geaeniua,  i.  v.  ifl,  lo  "  heeame  or 
make  leau."  Hicbaelis  tbought  ovarian  dropsy  wa* 
intended  by  the  symploma.  Joaephua  Mva,  roij  ri  nt- 
Xotic  irxfoomo^  aurp,  aai  r^v  cmXiqi'  tritpov  mnTo^ 
XafiliayovTot (Anl,  iii,  11,6).  The  prieat  then  "wrote 
(hew-  ciinioi  in  a  book,  and  blotted  them  out  with  the 
bluer  water,"  and,  having  thrown,  probably  at  this 
ataj^  of  the  proceeding*,  the  handful  or  meal  on  the 
altar,  "caused  the  woman  to  drink"  the  potion  thui 
druggeil,  she,  moreover,  aniwering  lo  the  wunls  of  hit 
imprecation, "  Amen,  Amen."  Jvaephiis  odila,  if  the  iub- 
picinn  was  unfounded,  she  obtained  conception ;  if  true. 
■he  died  infamoualy.  Tlii*  accords  with  the  sacreil 
te:(t,  if  she  "  be  clean,  then  "ball  she  be  free  and  tinU 
~  (N'umL  V,  2H),  words  which  seem  to 


liuii  bad  taken  place  V"  ^ 
have  iiH  projier  inaue  in  child-bearing,  which,  if  she  bail 
been  unfaithful,  woidd  he  intercepted  by  the  operation 
of  I  lie  cunc.    It  may  be  supposed  that  a  hnabaiiid  nould 

Jury,  unless  there  were  symptoms  of  apparent  concep- 
tion and  a  risk  of  a  child  by  another  being  presented 
to  him  as  his  own.  This  is  somewhat  supported  by 
the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  wonls  K3  V^r}"! 
n^Bni  (vcr.  13)  by  "neither  she  be  taken  <eHh  tkr 
mamKr."  the  italicized  words  being  added  ai  cxplana- 
tori',  without  any  lo  correspond  in  the  original,  and 
pointing  to  the  sudden  ceaiiation  of  "the  manner"  or 
"custom  of  women  "  (Gen,  xviii,  1 1 ;  xxxl.Sb),  i.e.  the 
menstrual  tlux,  suegestint;,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  not 
past  [be  a^e  of  child-bearing,  that  conception  had  taken 
[daoe.  If  this  be  the  sense  of  llie  original,  the  enniM- 
cions  of  the  liusband  would  be  so  far  based  upon  a  fact. 
It  seems,  however,  also  poHsible  that  the  words  may  be 
an  ealension  of  the  sense  of  those  immediately  preced- 
ing, n^  *,'X  lr^,whea  the  connccled  lenor  would  be. 


WATEKBUiCY 

I  words  cabalistic  or  OKdical  relaliog  to  a  paiticuUr  case. 
and  then  wasbing  them  off,  and  giving  the  patient  the 
water  of  this  ablution  to  drink,  has  descended  amoDi: 
Oriental  eupcrsiitiona  to  the  present  day,  and  a  ikk 
Arab  would  probably  tbink  this  the  moat  natural  war 
of  "taking"  a  prescription.  Sec,  on  tbe  geaersl  sab- 
Ject,  Gtuddeck,  Dt  VttI,  Heirr.  Piirgat.  CoMtilatit,  a 
Ugolino,  Thetnur.  The  custom  of  such  an  ordeal  vat 
probably  traditional  in  Hoses'  time,  ami  by  fencii  z  it 
niund  with  the  wholesome  awe  inspitwl  by  the  aolcv- 
fiity  of  the  prescribed  ritual,  the  lawgiver  would  de- 
prive it  to  a  great  extent  of  its  barbarois  tendmrr, 
and  woiikl  probably  mrrain  the  husband  fmni  muie 
of  the  ferocious  cxlremities  lo  which  he  migbl  oOkt- 
wise  be  driven  by  a  sudden  6t  of  jealousy,  m  poweifiil 
in  the  Oriental  miud.  On  the  whole,  it  is  to  be  taken, 
tike  tbe  permiMion  lo  divorce  by  a  writti 
rather  as  tbe  mitigation  of  ■  cui 
and  as  a  barrier  placed  in  the  way  of  uncalculaiinf;  via- 
dicltrcneas.  Viewing  the  legulaiiona  cDitorming  nisi- 
rimony  as  a  whole,  we  shall  Hnd  the  same  principle  n- 
imating  Ihero  in  all  tlieir  pans — that  of  pmridiDg  a 
legal  channel  for  the  course  uf  natural  reelinf^  wbtn 
irrepressible,  but  at  tbe  same  lime  of  surmundiiii;  ibrir 
outlet  with  insitiiiiiona  apt  tn  mitigate  their  imcnaiir. 
and  so  aaiisting  the  gradual  tcrmstion  of  a  ((enllR  ma- 
per  in  tbe  boeiim  of  the  nsiion.  The  precept  wa*  jrivHi 
"  because  of  the  hardness  i-f  their  hearta,"  bui  n-iib  the 
design  and  the  tendency  nf  softening  them.  (Secsmat 
■      ■       ■    nicer,  Ue  l*s-  IIAr.)     See  JEALomi 


lit,  4,  n 


regardiuK  hi 
Iv  to  make 
ijainly  the 


othe  w 


ate  bcnelicially  for  the  w 
be,  dm: 


iwhile  tl 


r  the  proteclian  of  the 
court  to  which  the  husband  had  himself  appealed,  and 
go  far  secure  against  any  violent  consequence  of  his 
Jealousy,  which  bad  Ihns  found  a  vent  recognised  by 
law.  Further,  by  thus  interpnaing  a  period  of  proba- 
tion the  flcrceiiess  of  the  conjugal  jealousy  might  omi. 
On  comparing  this  argumeiil  with  the  further  realric- 
lions  laid  down  in  the  treatise  ^ofiiA  tending  to  limit 
the  spplication  of  this  rile,  there  seems  grave  reason  to 
doubt  whether  recourse  was  ever  had  to  it  in  fact.  See 
Auvi-TBiiT.    The  custom  of  writing  < 


OmiK*u 

WATER  OF  ScfARATIOK.  Sec  PriiincATios, 
^HTatoibDrj,  Jabkd  Dei.l,  D.D.,  a  rresbTteria 
minister,  was  boni  in  the  dly  uf  Kew  fork,  A'ug.  I U 
IT99,  He  wss  converted  at  the  age  of  serenlem,  tM 
united  with  the  Kutgen  Street  I'mbyteriaii  Ctinrrii, 
becoming  at  once  an  earnest  Christisii  worker.  He  ra- 
lered  Vale  Cullege  and  graduated  with  high  bonon  in 
1822,  ami  in  the  autumn  of  (be  same  year  he  enieteJ 
upon  his  iheolofpcal  studiea  in  Princelnn  SnniasR. 
where  he  remalneil  two  years.  On  April  15.  IfQS.  be 
was  taken  under  tlie  care  of  the  New  York  I'mUyicty 
as  a  eandidaie  fi>r  ihe  ministry,  and  ihat  body  lin-nvri 
him  to  preach  in  VsS)  aud  ordained  him  tiuelilalii  Nut. 
IDofthe  same  year.  ShonJy  after  completing  bis  the- 
ological studies,  he  accepted  an  agency  for  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society,  and  made  a  highly  siiocesifiil  sad 
iiaeful  tour  in  ils  i>ileresl*  thmiigli  tlie  Southern  Siaioi. 
In  Ihe  year  ISiB  he  commenced  preiching  at  Ilat6rl>l. 
Mass.:  ami  having  been  dismtMCil  bvibe  Fniibtitn  ••( 
New  York.  April  IS,  1H2;,  tothe  AiiiiociBi'ion  of  Kiint- 
ampton,  Mass.,  was  siHinly  after  iiwialled  pastor 
Hailield  Church.  While  re>iiliii|{  there,  he  puUi 
■mall  volume  entilleil  Adrire  In  a  Youiig  Chrviiiai.  if 
a  ViUaye  /"ai/or.with  a  vcrv  iiiteresiii^  inlrodwiii* 
by  Dr.  Archibald  Aleaander.  This  liitle  book  was  widr- 
ly  read  ami  ver>-  useful.  In  1S29  lie  was  called  to  P.tta- 
mouth,  N.  H.,  where  he  was  installed  ahortly  after,  an] 
remaiiinl  for  two  yearn  in  a  happy  an<l  useful  minirirT. 
which  he  was  compelled  to  resign  on  actvunt  ot  liia 
health.  For  a  short  lime  he  reuded  in  Bnioklm,*! 
Ihe  houseof  hisfaiher-in-law,  ihebte/achariah  Lrwia, 
In  the  fall  of  1882,  he  began  lo  supply  the  I'reibyteriaB 
Church  at  Hudson,  N.  V.,  and  in  tlie  spring  anvpied  a 
call  from  and  was  installeil  its  pastor.  Here  he  lalnnl 
fourteen  yean,  and  his  earnest  and  fervcni  pulpit  rfforta. 
his  genial  and  social  manners,  glowing  seal  and  gndly 
life,  secured  for  him  the  unbnundeil  alfectioii  of  tbe 
entire  community.  During  his  mini<ilrj-,  a  lanjo  bbiI 
beautiful  church  was  erected,  and  a  great  nuoibrr  uf 
penon^  many  of  them  of  high  social  pusiiion  ami  iiiirt. 
Itgence.  were  gathered  into  Ihe  church.  In  t84G  be  no 
cepted  a  call  lo  the  Bowduin  Street  Chnrch,  Bdshiq, 
where  he  was  installed  pastor,  and  wbrre  he  eontinoed 
to  labor  until  1867,  when  he  rewgncd  his  charge  and  n- 
moved  to  Stamford,  Omii.,  where  he  lived  orer  tm 


WATERLAND  8t 

yeafg  in  retitciMDE,  but  prMChiug  vxttmaiUj  u  op- 
poftuni^  otCeni,  In  1869  be  supplied  the  pnlpit  of 
the  Cenml  Presbyterian  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.Y^dnr- 
■ag  the  ibHiHx  or  its  pastor  (l>r.  Rockwell)  in  Europe, 
■ad  [hcncerorwinl  to  the  end  uf  his  life  he  nude  thit 
dly  his  home.  During  the  1*I«  war  of  the  Rebellion, 
Dr.  Walerbury  wis  made  secretary  of  (he  Brooklyn 
branch  of  the  Christian  ComniiBion,  in  «liich  poeiiiwi 
ho  rendered  Tilaable  and  effective  service,  collwliiig 
buokaaitdpamphleUtobesentti)  the  Union  anny.and 
Buperinteoding  the  sendinB-out  of  ministen  to  supple- 
ment the  work  of  the  regular  chaplains  in  the  army. 
He  was  afterwanls  appointed  city  mistionaty'  iu  Brook- 
IvD.  Ut  had  a  lai^e  tent  creeled  on  Fun  Ureene  and 
in  Leffena  Park,  where  on  Sundays  the  outside  multi- 
tude were  congregated  K>  hear  the  GvapeL  Uisfuitune 
clanded  his  last  days.  Hia  ample  property  was  swept 
awar  at  a  stroke,  and  his  health  Was  gone;  yet  in  the 
midat  of  all  he  never  lost  his  cheerfutnetd  or  trust  in 
Goii,  but  reated  calmly  on  the  never-failing  promises. 
Dr.  Waiethury  was  a  man  of  warm  piety,  and  always 
watchful  fuT  opportunities  of  wUiiiiiig  souls  to  Christ. 
As  •  pastor,  he  was  faithful,  sympathetic,  and  earnest. 
In  bis  prime  he  was  a  preacher  of  unusual  excellence 
and  power.  He  wrote  much  fur  the  religinus  press, 
published  quite  a  number  of  sermuns  and  tracis,  besidet 

jecta.  Among  his  last  utterances  w.u  tliia — "Jesus  is 
with  me."  He  died  on  Sabbath  momlne,  Dec.  SI ,  1876. 
(W.P.S,> 

Waterland,  Dahikl,  D.D^  an  eminent  English 
llieolAgian  and  conuovenialist,  was  bom  at  Waaely,  in 
Lincolnshire,  Feb.  14,  1683.  He  was  educated  at  the 
rree-w:boal  of  Lincoln,  and  Magdalene  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  about  I70S,  and  became  a 
feltow  of  the  college  in  I'M,  He  continued  lo  reside 
at  the  university,  and  after  taking  holy  orders  he  acted 


I  1713,  ai 


.  during 


Hebi 


ed  the  l^v  Hoy 


w  at  St.  PaulX  London, 
1730;  became  recioT  ofSt.  Austin's  and  St.  Faith's,  Lon- 
don, in  1721:  chancellor  of  theChurcb  of  York  ui  1733; 
canon  of  Windsor  in  1727;  and  vicar  of  Twickenham 
and  archdeacon  oTUidilleaex  In  1730.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec  28, 1740,  Dr.  WaterUnd  was  greatly  dlatin- 
guished  as  a  Trinitarian  cnntrDversialisi,  having  been 
especially  noted  for  hia  treatiiea  on  the  Uicimlj/  of 
Ciritt  ill  reply  to  the  poaitions  of  Dra.  Whitby  and 
&muel  Clarke,  in  vindicaliun  of  the  authority  of  the 
Scriptum  against  the  positions  of  Middlelon  and  Tin- 
dal,  and  on  the  doctrines  of  the  eucharist  and  baptismal 
regeneration.  His  most  important  works  are  the  ful- 
lowing:  Vimticalioa  ofChi-ut't  Diviailg  (I71E>)  :—3te- 
imd  l'iKMeolio<i{n23):—Fiinkfr  VindicutioiHiTU)  >- 
Ei^l  Strmom  in  Dr/rrux  o/lke  IHtimIs  of  our  Ijard 
Jttiu  Ckriit  (1720),  preached  at  the  Uoyer  Lectures^ 
Case  ofArian  SabKriptum  Comtdtnd  (17a!):-f« 
L*Utr$  lo  (CiUinn  Slaunlim  eoneenmg  iht  7'i'n% 
(1722):— Cnfico/  t/irlory  vf  tit  Al/unuiiiim  Crnd 
(1724):— .9ciijrfiif«  ViadkaM  ( I730-a4):-JVo(oiT, 
(^Ugatiim.  and  Efficaei/  of  tht  Chi-uiiiin  Sacrameali 
Cimndtred  (ITHO)  ■.—Imporiamx  afthe  Dortrmt  of  Ihi 
Uolf  Trvaly  Aufrttd{\iSi):—RtriewoflktDoctrmr 

of  Ike  Eackariit  ai  iMtd  Dorm 

An/igui/g  (1737): — R^aKTOlim  Slaird  and  KrpUiiiinl 
(17 W):~-Sermi<ni OB  Several Imporlatil  S«6>(ti{l"42). 
publiabed  afi^  his  death  by  Joseph  Clarke.  In  M'J^ 
appeared  a  complete  ediliun  of  hit  works  in  eleven  vol 
umea.  with  a  Iteriew  of  Ike  A  ulkor't  Life  and  IVnliHgi, 
by  William  Van  Hildert,  D.D.,  lord  bishop  of  Uandaff. 
^7ateTTnBn,  John  A.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco 
pal  divine,  was  bom  in  New  Hafnpahire,  June  29, 1790 
He  was  converted  in  hia  eighteen) li  year;  admitted  int< 
the  Ohio  Confereikce  in  1814;  and  travelled  siu'ceMiivel; 
Ibe  Uiami,  Mahoning,  and  Zancat'ille  circiiile.    Wbei 


the  Pittabui^h  Conference  was  formed,  he  fell  within 

-    and  successively  filled  Kttsburgb,  Wheeling, 

Waahington,SleubenviUe,  and  other  prominent  a ppoint- 

its.     In  1832  he  was  transferred  to  the  Ohio  Confer- 

',  as  asupeiannnate;  in  1837  he  was  mods  effective, 

appointed  tn  Uxfoni.  where  he  died,  Aug.  6,  1887. 

Mr.  Waterman  was  a  self-made  man.     See  Jftnafet  of 

Anmial  Cmferrmx;  ii,  bid. 

^BtBDD,  JoRiOB  v.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minisler,  was  bom  in  Londnn,  England,  in  1814.  He 
emigrated  to  the  United  Stales  while  youngi  became 
a  local  preacher  in  early  manhood  in  Indiana;  and  in 
1832  joined  the  Miimmti  Conference.  Two  years  later 
he  returned  to  Imliann,  and  juiiied  the  Indiana  Confer- 
ence. In  1840  he  became  a  member  of  the  Michi- 
gan Conference,  and  later  of  the  Detnnt  Conference,  in 
which  he  filled  some  of  (he  most  prominent  appoint- 
ments; then  he  labored  two  yean  as  agent  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society;  and  finally  superannuated  and  es- 
tablished a  Christian  newspaper,  which  he  edited  with 
success  until  the  orginizaiion  of  the  North  -  avtirm 
Ckriuiaa  Adrocair,  in  1852,  when  he  became  its  editor. 
This  position  he  held  till  his  death,  Oct.  17,  I8d6.  Mr. 
Watsun  was  tall  and  slender  in  person,  amiable  and 
charming  in  social  life,  marvelhuis  in  bit  preaching 
abilities,  and  profound  as  an  editor.  See  Miaiiitt  of 
Amaat  Coofrrtitott,  1857,  p.  431. 

Wataon,  Rlcbard  (I).  D.D.,  F.R.R.,  an  eminent 
Enplish  prelate,  was  bom  at  Havenhara.  nenr  Keiidai, 
Westmorelaml,  in  Angnsi,  1787,  where  he  received  hia 
eariy  education  from  hi*  father.  Hegraduated  atTrin- 
itv  College,  Cambridf^,  in  1759,  and  was  elected  to  « 
fellowship  in  17S0.  'He  then  look  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  became  assistant  tutor  in  November  of 
the  same  year.  He  became  moderator  in  1762;  pro- 
fesaor  of  chemistry  in  1764;  one  of  the  head  tnlora  in 
17G7;  and  ri^us  professor  of  divinity  in  1771,  and 
at  the  same  time  rector  of  Samersham,  Hunlingilun- 
shire.  In  1774  he  exchanged  his  rectory  for  the  preb- 
end of  Ely.  and  in  1780  became  arehdeacoii  of  Ely  and 
rector  of  Northwold,  Nurfcdk.  In  1782  he  became 
rector  of  Knaptoft,  Leicestershire,  and  bishop  of  Llan- 
daff.  [ii  1786  he  received  a  bequest  nf  property  from 
hit  friend  Mr.  Luther,  of  Ougar,  Essex,  from  which  he 
realized  i:20,500.  This,  together  with  his  bishopric, 
his  professorsbip,  his  archdeaconry,  and  his  rectory,  en- 
abled him  to  live  in  opulence,  deapitc  his  complaints  of 
poverty  and  neglect.  He  died  at  Calganh  Park,  West- 
moreland, July  4, 1816.  He  was  the  author  of  .4n  Apid- 
oqgfar  Chriiliaaiii  (1776);— .4b  Apology  for  Ike  Bible 
{i736):—Ckemical Euof  (1781-87,  6  vols.):— Srrmow 
on  Publie  OeetuioM  (,l78»y.—lUucrIlaarvut  Tradi  <m 
SiliipOKt,  ruliHcal,  and  Aijricallarat  Sub/ecU  (1816)  :— 
and  several  other  works  on  kindred  subjects.  He  also 
edited  a  CoUeclion  of  Tktologicat  Tradi,  KUaedfrom 
Varioat  Anlhon  (  1785,  S  vols.).  His  aulobiognphy 
was  published  by  his  son,  Bicbard  WatsuD,  LUE,  in 
1817. 

Wataon,  Richard  (2),  a  IVeeleyan  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Barlnn-upon-H umber,  Lincolnshire,  Feb.  'ii, 
1781.  I'hj'sically  feeble,  lie  bad  a  precocious  mind,  and 
against  poverty  and  great  difficulties  he  bent  bis  ener- 
gies to  the  acqui«ii«n  of  knowledge.  He  enjoyed  no 
school  advantages  after  be  was  fourteen,  having  at 
that  age  left  the  grammaFwhaol  in  Lincoln.  Wild  and 
imTHOUt  in  yinitli,  he  nat  converted  when  about  thir- 
teen; commenceil  l»  preach  when  fifteen;  was  received 
InlotheWesleyan  Methodist  ministry  in  179«;  resigned 
under  false  impnUIion  of  liercsy  in  IHVl ;  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Mcthoditt  New  Connection  in  1803; 
and  was  received  again  into  the  Wesleyan  body,  cbiffly 

I  through  the  instrnmenlality  of  Jabes  Bunting,  in  1812. 

'  He  was  aclive  in  the  foimation  of  the  Wesleyan  Mit- 

I  sinnary  Society  in  1813  (not  formally  inaugurated  uniil 
1817),' and  wai  made  one  of  its  seerelariea  in  1816,  re. 

I  taining  the  office  for  fourteen  years.    Besides  attending 
to  lite  duties  uf  this  office,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  the- 


oV^ictl  tnining  of  cindiiliitefl  for  the  mtstkin  work.  In 
18S6  be  was  elevated  lo  ihe  preaiJenc}-  of  Che  Coater- 
eiice,inil  in  IHiJ  lie  resumed  Ihe  ilinerancy  in  Uan- 

of  belies-leitres  iiid  mornl  phLlo»ophy  in  Weilejun  Uni- 
verHily,Conii.  Abouc  tbia  time  Wat»ii,who  vrt>  itTDng- 
ly  opposed  to  slavery  and  intimate  with  Buxton,  Liub- 
ington,  and  otber  iFwien  in  tho  antiAlflvery  movemeut, 
nude  some  eloquent  speeches  in  Tavor  or  negro-enitnci- 
pttion.  In  1832  be  wu  again  appointed  to  the  lecrela- 
riateofmiMion*.  Biitliiacomradeswere  falling.  Clarke 
had  (lied  on  Ang.  25  of  that  year;  Stanley  aaiik  to  reM 
Oct.  9  {  and  Waisan'a  devoted  colleague,  James,  paiaed 

Diieaae  had  been  gnawing  at  hii  viialsall  hia  lire;  but 
witti  devotion  indomitable  he  Hill  wmle.  He  died,  af- 
ter intense  suffering,  Jan.  8. 18BS. 

Wataan'a  cbaraclei  waa  one  of  great  beauty.  Hia 
humility  and  piety  never  shniie  brighter  than  at  (he 
time  of  hisgrealeal  popularity  ^  and  «yiDpathy,  tender- 
nesa,  and  strength  blended  in  a  ^irit  purifled  by  fire. 
How  many  felt  the  power  of  hU  presence  1  "  A  Hgure 
ao  tall  and  thin  is  seldom  lo  be  aeeii,  yet  there  wi* 
aomethinj;  majettic  in  his  gait  and  manner,  and,  when 
his  head  was  bared,  the  ouibesmings  of  intelligenc*  be- 
apoke  the  geniua  which  was  concealed  then,  and  a  kind 
t^awe  waa  felt  which  indicated  the  pmence  ott  supe- 
rior being"  ( Stevenson,  Wuf.  i/  C%  Boad  Ckaptt, 
p.  664). 

He  was  a  man  of  elei^nt  taste,  of  a  remariiably  l«ia- 
cioua  memory,  great  vigor  of  intellect,  and  unconquer- 
able application.  Hu  uiiid  waa  versatile;  bii  qrmpa- 
thie*  univeiHl.  He  was  at  home  intheology,  metaphys- 
ics, politics,  and  domestic  economy.  As  a  preacher,  great 
things  are  spoken  of  him.  Nihil  UlSgil  g\uid  mm  orno- 
tril.  "He  soars,"  says  Robert  Hall,  "into  legions  of 
thought  where  no  genius  but  bis  own  can  penetrate." 
"  He  led  hia  hearers  into  realms  of  thought  of  which 
they  had  previously  no  conception;  and  his  tall  and 
graceful  form,  his  pallid  countenance  bearing  marks  of 
deep  thought  and  of  severe  pain,  and  at  the  same  time 
beaming  with  benignity  and  holy  delight,  served  to 
deepen  the  impression  of  liii  incomparable  discourses. 
The  greatest  cbarm  of  his  preaching  was  ila  richnen  in 
evangelical  truth  and  devolinnal  feeling;  and  in  those 
qualities  it  increased  to  the  last"  (  WaL  iftlh,  MagniBif, 
1833,  p.  151).  "Watson  had  not  the  earnestness  and 
force  of  Clialmcta,"  saj-s  an  elaborate  and  able  article  in 
tht  London  (^arlfilg Rei!ita,l8oi, a,  192;  "but  he  pos- 
■eSBod  much  more  thmisbt,  philoeophy,  calm  raliocina- 
lion,  and  harmonious  fulness.  He  had  not,  perhaps,  the 
metaphysical  subtlety  and  rapid  comlnnation,  the  burn- 
ing atTectiuns  and  clejEant  diction  of  Hall;  but  he  poa- 
seased  as  keen  a  reason,  a  more  lofty  imaginalinn,  an 
equal  or  superior  power  of  painting,  and,  as  we  think, 
a  much  more  vivid  perception  of  the  ^iritual  world, 
and  a  richer  leaven  of  evangelical  sentiment.  Owen'f 
oraiury  seemeil  to  be  nxire  flowing,  tpontanemia,  and 
impassioned  than  that  nf  Watson;  but  the  latte 
ceeded  Owen  in  slreich  of  thought,  sublimity,  beautiful 
imagery,  and  deep  and  touching  pathos," 


Wat 


II  gave 


leyan  theology.     His  Italilatri,  though  not  the  legal, 
have  been  the  moral  and  scientitic,  stanilard  of  Meth- 
odist doctrine.      Although  the  works  of  Profs.  Pope 
and  Kaymnnd  HU  a  niche  in  the  temple  of  more  recent 
lilentuie,  which,  of  course,  the  /ulinifrf  cannot  fill,  the 
latter  work  can  never  be  superseded.    The  elder  Hodge 
speaks  of  it  as  "excellent,  aiul  well  worthy  of  its  h' 
repute  among  Methodists"  (BgtUnolie  TArologg, 
190).     In  1862  Dr.  John  Brown,  of  Edinburgh,  cha 
teriied  Watson  as  "■  prince  in  theolugy.and  the  /ntfi- 
iulu  as  the  noblest  work  in  Methodism,  and  tmlv  valu. 
able."     The  late  Dr.  J.  W,  Alexander  Boy^  "Turreiine 
is  in  theology  initar  omnium — that  Is,  so  far  as  Black- 
stone  i*  in  law.     Making  due  allowance  for  difference 
in  age,  Watson,  the  Methodist,  is  the  only 


I  WATSON 

rithitt  my  knowledge,  who  appiDacbe*  die  aBUM  c 
ence;  of  whom  I  use  Addison's  words,  'He  rtnaritia  I 
'aley,  and  descants  like  Hall'"  (FaTiji  Ytart  of  Fm 
fir  Lnttn  [letter  of  Dec.  26,  1831]).  ITie  ItuHH 
have  defects,  however  (see  Stevens,  liitl.  ef  MethoSrm, 
i,4T9).  Watson's  fJ^KHifwH  was  written  io  aickncai, 
left  unflnished,  and  published  pocthumously.  In  tba 
pinion  of  some,  it  is  one  of  the  finest  specimeiu  of  saA 
'orti  in  the  English  language.  Although  of  ample  je| 
loflest  learning,  and  eminently  theological,  it  is  b^^ 
iful  and  tender,  and  brings  the  heart  neater  to  God 
lee  Jackson,  I.^e  n/  Watmm,  p.  461). 
Watson's  influence  has  been  great  and  entlarin^  Hb 
premacuTe  death  was  greatly  lamented;  but,  "with  an 
intellect  so  iutanse,  mental  labor  so  atwndant  and  unit*- 
ing,  activitv  so  incessaul,  and  feelinga  so  deep,  v«  an 
not  surprised  that  Watson  fell  a  maitvr  to  hia  exntiaaa 
in  tbe  midst  of  his  yean"  (Loni  Qaar.  Baiac,  ieS4, 
p.  287). 

Besides  missionary  reports,  essays,  paatonl  adilii  mi. 
and  other  Conference  documents,  Waiaon  wrote  tbe  Ui- 
Inwing:  An  Apologs/orllie  MaiodiiU  (I799),ia  a  let- 
ter to  Rer.  J.  Hotham,  A.B.,  rector  nf  St.Weiburs's.  Ucc 
by,  in  answer  to  a  pamphlet  entitled  An  Addrtt  to  Its 
FeopU  falltd  Milkoditl$:^Mr«ioir$,  in  the  MHh.  Stm 
Comirrtvm  Jfinjoinr,  1805, etc:— /'i^Zar  Bitlorf  lai 
DacripHon  nf'tkt  Vity  o/LirrrTiool  (1807);— Srtr/'Vw. 
fory  o/thf  Bfign  of  Gforye  III  (1807, 12mo)  ■.—E<iit<wi- 
at  A  rlicia,  in  the  Liverpool  Courier,  1807  oq.  -.—A  La- 
la-  lo  WSiiam  AoH»e  (1808),  containing  atrictuns  oo 
his  tale  publication  on  the  present  war  with  Fnoee: 
—Drfaice  of  Wftlrsim  MrlhoJiH  Uiitiimt  n  Ae  WtM 
India  (Lund.  1817,  8vo);  — Aenorfa  or  lie  SUrmal 
Soiutip  ofCkriil;  and  J'kt  Vie  of  RtaKm  «  MaOen 
of  Rrrtlaiim  ( ibid.  1818),  soggeated  by  paaoage*  ia 
Clarke's  ComminKiry  on  Ike  A'.  T.!  —  Ohirrtatiomi  am 
Soulkejft  lAfr  of  Wtilty  (ibid.  1821, 8vo;  bounj  wUta 
Watson's  l.ifi  of  Wttlry,  ibid.  1836,  8vo)  -.—The  /-ufc 
yrinfA,  or  Popiih  Circle  (tninsL  from  the  Latin  of  Siiaoa 
Kpiscopius,  1G60;  Lond.  1826),  being  a  coofuiation  of 
the  supposed  infallibiliiv  of  the  Church  of  R«h:— 
Theoli^cal  IiatilMla  (ibiiL  1824,  3  vols.  Svo;  8th  tA 
1860,  4  vuU.  l2roo;  reprinted  in  N.  Y.,  Nashville,  etc) : 
—Life  ofJokn  Wt^  (Lond.  1831, 12mo,  often  nprint- 
ed ;  Amer.  ed.  N.  Y.  1831 ;  Cooperslown,  1846)  -.—Afftf 
lionnle  Addrtu  lo  tit  /.tada-i  nfiie  London  Sov/i  Cir- 
ckil  (Lofid.  1830),  in  oppoation  U>  certain  tendencies  to- 
wards Independency:  — CoRTrrjofioH /or  Ike  loa^  . 
(Lond.  and  N.  Y^  1830, 12mo),  designed  to  prnmote  the 
profitable  reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures:— SOffraf  md 
Tktological  Diclioaary  (UinA.  1832,  ToralSvo:  lOth  ed. 
1860;  N.  Y.,  Nashville,  lSa;,8vo,  revised  with  additiota 
by  T.  O.  Summers)  ■^Srrmnni,  o«d  Slelfiet  of  Sermem 
(Land.|834,3volB.I2mD;  1854,3 vo1b.8vd;  N.Y.lttU): 
—ErpotilioHi  of  Ike  Goiprlt  ofMoltknn  and  Uart  irti 
olhtT  Portiont  of  Ike  Hols  SeriplurH  (Land.  18S3.  royal 
8va;  5tfa  ed.  1818,  13moi  N.  V.  1837,  8vo).  Watmn 
projcctcil  sermons  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Konians.  and  ■ 
complete  exposition  t>f  the  New  Test.  His  Wortewa* 
published  in  London  in  1834-87,  with  Ltfr.  bv  jBcfcm 
(ISvols.8i-o;  3d  ed.  I8S8, 12  vols.  12mo).  aA.4w>Ivw 
ofthe /ufitureiwas  prepared  by  I>T.McCliniock  in  Ixt^ 
bound  with  s  new  edition  nf  the  work  (N.  Y.  1X50,  S 
vols.  8va),  and  revised  by  James  A.  Bastow  (puhlbbed 
sepatately,  Land.  1876, 12mo). 

Besides  the  authorities  cited  in  the  article,  see  Jack- 
•on,  I4fe  of  Walton  (Lond.  and  N.  T.  lltM,  8vo) ;  Si«> 
vena,  Hitl.  of  Melkodivn  (see  Index,  vol.  iii) ;  fi•nill^ 
Hit.  of  Wtd.  Meliodint  (see  Index,  voL  ui);  Metk. 
tiaur./fennr,  1861,  p.  15  sq.;  Gorrie,  Ura  o/" fnuMri 
M^hodiiU  (Auburn.  185i,  ISmo);  Scott,  OtiOiary.  in 
^■Rutei  o/(«e  Con/emn,  1883 ;  Lowndes,  AfUK^.  J/oB. 
not  s.  v. ;  Jacoby,  GrieUekle  da  Mnkoditmiu.  i,  S34, 
For  able  reviews  of  the  apologetics  of  the  Imlititirt, 
see  Bangs,  in  the  ^/C*.  (Juir.  Anniv,  Joly,  1837 ;  Jut, 
1638;  aitd  of  (heir  metaphysica,  aee  Cocker,  itidL  Apail, 
1862.    For  a  reply  to  both  Boogi  and  Cocker,  see  Lev 


WATTS 

Ington,  Waltm't  Thtologicat  IntHluIrt  D^atdrd  (Deti 
>DdN.Y.1863,l!nio).  Agui»tLrvingI«i,weW>iadon, 
Jtilk.  Qaai:  Rrdea,  1S64,  p.  156.  For  ■  review 
morml  phiioaapbr  of  (be  latHlalet,  sec  Cocker, 
Vtdk.  Qwir.  /firing,  Jan.  idcI  Apiil,  1804.  Sm  also 
BuDlint;,  MtmariaU  of  the  halt  ««-.  fficAorJ  Waiton 
(IadU.  1883,  8vu)i  iiL  Struma  and  Oullinei  (y  /tev. 
/tieHard  Waliim ;  Dixon,  //u  Ckurader  and  Wrilagi, 
edited,  itiLh  Btogi-aphiait  SIxIchri,  by  Rev.  William 
Willan  (ibi(i.lBCo,8vo). 

'V7atta,  lease,  D.D.,b  celebrated  divine  and  poet, 
was  bom  at  Sniilbunpton,  England,  July  17, 1674.  Hif 
Athet  wu  Che  muter  of  a  bosidiiig-achool  in  that  town, 
a  man  of  strong  devotional  feeling,  and  a  rigid  Noneon- 
fonnist.  He  wai  imprisoned,  on  account  of  h'w  Koncon. 
furroitr,  in  (he  time  of  Charles  II;  uid,  durini;  hie  con< 
GncDicnt.hi9  wife  sat  on  a  Motie  at  Uie  priion  door  with 
laaac,  then  an  infant,  at  her  b^eu^  Young  Watti  ear- 
ly ditplayed  a  lore  for  books,  and  imbibed,  under  thi 
training  of  his  parents,  that  turn  of  mind  which  prompt- 
ed him  t«  Lecome  ■  Pissenting  minister.  He  entered 
npon  the  study  of  Latin  at  fuur  yean  of  age, 
wwD  after  began  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  un- 
der the  Rev.  John  Vinhnme,  mister  nf  the  free  gram- 
mar-school at  Soiithatnpton.  He  was  very  Mndioiis, 
pending  for  books  the  little  money  given  him  in  pres- 
ents, and  devoting  his  leisure  bours  to  Mivly  and  read- 
ing instead  of  Juiiiing  the  other  boys  in  play.  The 
progren  he  made  here  induced  some  friends  to  raise  a 
Bam  of  money  stifficienC  la  maintain  liim  at  one  of  the 

senters,  to  whom  his  snceston  had  belonged  fur  several 
generations.  Accordingly,  in  1690  he  was 
academy  in  Idndon  kept  by  Rev.  1'homu  1 
minister  of  the  Independent  meeiing-house  in  Habcr- 
daafaer's  HalL    Here  he  remained  three  yean,  studying 

his  health.  He  allowed  himself  no  time  for  exercise, 
and  very  little  for  sleep.  He  used  to  mark  all  the  books 
he  read,  to  abridge  some,  and  annotate  others  of  them. 
or  his  classical  acquirements  at  this  period.  Dr.  John- 
nin  says,  "Some  Latin  essays,  supposed  to  hai-e  been 

knowledce  both  phitnsophica!  and  theological,  such  as 
vervrew~aitainevenbvamucblonsercoiirB(  '  '  ~ 
Hi«  leisure  hours  seem  to  bare  been  esriy  r 
pi>ttical  elTorts.  He  intimates  in  his  miscellanies  that 
be  was  a  maker  of  verses  from  flfteen  to  litly.  His  Lat- 
in verses, "  written  to  his  brother,  in  the  glyconic  meas- 
ure, at  (he  age  of  seventeen,  are  remarkably  easy  and 
etegant-'  He  made  considerable  proficiency  in  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  logic,  and  scholastic  divinity  ;  bat 
his  acquirements  in  msihematics  and  the  physical 
scipj)Ces  wen  ineDnsiderBbie.  In  169S  he  joined  in 
communion  with  the  congregation  of  Mr.  Rowe;  and 
in  1694  returned  to  his  father's  house,  where  he  spent 
two  yean  in  private  study  and  devotion.  It  was  dur- 
ing this  period  that  the  greater  part  of  his  hymns, 
Biid  probably  moat  of  his  Juvenile  productions,  were 

At  the  end  of  this  time  he  was  invited  by  Sir  John 
llarlii^p  to  rcuda  in  his  family,  at  Stoke  Newington, 
tiear  Lnndon,  as  tutor  to  his  son.  Here  he  remained 
dnlil  170*;  but  on  the  compleiiim  of  his  (wenty-fourth 
vear  (in  1698).  ho  preached  his  Hmt  sermon,  and  was 
chosen  xwn  after  aui>lant  to  Dr.  Cliiuncy,  pastor  of 
the  Iiidspendent  Church  then  meeting  at  Mark  Lane, 
In  170-J  be  was  )>ersuaded  lo  socceol  Dr.Chauncy  in 
ibe  paitoral  office;  but  soon  after  bis  entrance  upon 
this  rharge  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  illness, 
which  left  him  with  a  constitution  so  greatly  im- 
paired that  the  congregation  dedded  to  procure  bim 
His  health  returnetl  gradually,  and  he 


aeiied  b 


this  Held  n 


a  he  was  invited  to  (he  h 


19  WATTS 

Thomas  Abney,  at  Theobalds,  whither  he  went  expecA- 
ing  to  remain  a  week,  but  he  continued  there  for  Ihirty- 
six  yean — the  remainder  of  his  life.  Here  be  contin- 
ued preaching  in  his  Church. overlooking  his  congrega- 
tion, or  enga^ng  in  literary  work,  as  health  and  incli- 
nation prompted  him.  During  the  last  yean  of  hii 
life,  the  conduct  of  some  of  his  near  rclativee  caused  him 
much  biltemeas  of  soul,  and  seemed  to  so  stupefy  him 
that  he  took  but  little  notice  of  aityihing  about  bim. 
Ihii  the  worst  part  of  this  misconrluct  was  kept  from 
him.  Says  a  coTrespondent  of  Doddridge,  "Lady  Ab- 
ney keeps  him  in  peaceful  ignnroiice,  anil  his  enemies 
at  a  becoming  distance;  so  that  in  the  mulst  of  this 
cruel  persecution  he  lives  conifoTlably.  And  when  a 
friend  asks  how  he  docs,  says,  •  Wailing  God's  leave  U 
d'le.'"  In  this  peaceful  state  he  died,  Nov.  25, 1748, and 
was  buried  In  Ilunhill  Fields. 

Dr.  Watts  wro(e  largely  for  almos(  all  classes  of  read- 
ers, scjidents  of  all  ages,  in  science,  literature,  poetry, 
and  divinity.  His  principal  published  works  are  the 
following:  l/orie  Lgiica  (Loud.  1706);  poems  chiefly 
ofthelvtic  kind:  — %ainj  (ibid.  ITO;):  — OrfiWnzy 
and  Churilg  Umled  (1707) i-fiuida  to  Prayer  (1716): 
—The  Piiilaa  •>/  David  (1719) :  —  Didne  and  Moral 
Soagi  fiir  Children  (1720)  ■.—Srrmoitt  on  Varioai  Sab- 
jedt,  Diciiir  ami  iforal  {VUl-ti):— logic;  or,  Tkt 
Rvihl  Uuoffleiiiojiialhtl«qaii-ga/ler  Truth  {1725): 
—The  Kmwieiijt  of  the  lleamtt  and  ike  Earth  Madt 
Eats;  or,  The  Firit  Priaeipltt  ofGrography  ortd  Ai- 
tromimy  Explained  IXi26) :  ~  Diitertationt  Relalvtg  to 
the  Ckriitvm  Dodruie  nf  the  Trinily  (eod.):— fjioy 
on  the  Pretdom  of  the  Witt  in  God  and  in  Creature, 
(1783):  — PAifcmp*;™;  Ettayt  ( 1738):-7'*e  Worid 
lo  Comt  (IT3S):— A'Huji  on  the  Rain  and  Reeocery  of 
Mnnldad  (1740):— /inpioir/uait  of  the  Mind  (1T4I):— 
Glaiy  of  Chritt  ai  God-man  UnceUrd  (1746)  -.—Eraif 
gelical  Diieourue  (1747):— and  many  otliers.  His 
complete  works  have  been  published  in  various  editions 
of  from  six  to  nine  volumes.  Uf  his  literary  merits  Dr. 
Johnson,  in  bis  f.ivtt  of  tie  Eagliik  Poeli,  says,  "  Few 
men  have  left  behind  such  purity  of  character  ur  such 
monuments  of  laborious  piety.  He  has  provided  in- 
strnctiini  for  all  ages — from  those  who  are  lisping  their 
Hrsl  lessons  lo  the  enlightened  readera  of  Mslebrnnche 
and  Locke;  he  has  left  neiiher  corporal  nor  spiritual 
nature  unexamined;  be  has  lauj^bt  the  art  nf  reasoning 
and  the  science  of  the  alsni.  His  chancier,  therefunt, 
must  be  farmed  from  the  innlriplieity  and  diversity  of 
his  attainments  ralber  than  from  any  single  perform- 
ance, for  it  woiilil  not  be  safe  to  claim  for  hliu  the  high- 
est rank  in  any  single  denomination  of  literary  dignity  i 
yet,  perhaps,  there  was  nothing  in  which  he  would  not 
have  excelled  if  he  had  not  divided  bis  powers  to  dif- 
ferent pursuits.  As  a  poet,  had  be  been  only  a  poel,  he 
lid  probably  have  stood  high  among  the  aulbon 

1  whom  he  is  now  associated He  is,  at  least,  one 

ho  few  poets  with  whom  youth  and  ignorance  may 
ofely  pleased:  and  happy  will  be  that  reader  whose 
d  is  disposed,  by  his  verse  or  prose,  lo  imitate  him 
ill  but  his  Nonconfotmilv ;  to  copv  his  benevolence 
nan  and  his  reverence  to  God."     Of  his  tfynni  Mr. 
James  Montgomery  [lalrodiieloTy  Eaay  to  the  Chriitimi 
°«u/«uO  says, "  Every  Sabbath,  in  every  region  of  the 
arth  where  his  native  tongue  is  apaken,  thousands  and 
ens  of  thousands  of  virices  are  sending  the  saerificea  of 
irayer  and  praise  to  (iod  in  the  strains  which  ho  pre- 
lared  for  them  a  eenturi'  ago;  yes,  every  day  'he  be- 
ng  dead  yet  speaketh'  by  ihe  lips  of  posterity  in  these 
acred  lays."     His  worts  on  logic  and  philosophy  are 
f  no  great  value  at  the  present  lime,  having  been  su- 
perseded by  later  and  more  discriminating  treatises. 

Dr.Watiswas  small  in  stature,  being  little  mare  than 
ive  feet  high;  and  was  never  married,  although,  it  ts 
Ininted,  not  by  his  own  fault.  Monuments  have  been 
reeled  to  his  memory  in  Abney  I>ark  and  Westminsier 
Abbey ;  a  statue  by  Chautrey  was  dedicated  at  South- 
ampion  in  1861;  and  the  foundation  of*  memorial  ball 


WAITS  8: 

WIS  UM  tbcre  Uay  C,  tSrS.  Sc«  Souther,  Memoir  of 
Intae  fVaUt,  D.D. :  Johnson,  Lift  of  Wallt ;  Jennings 
Stnnm  m  lU  Dralh  of  CAe  ImM  Bn.  Itaac  W.-iii. 
J}.D. ;  Gibbons,  Memaiii  of  ikt  Rtr.  liaac  WaU;  DJJ. 
See  HvuNouiur. 


•WaXtM.  -WlUiam.  D.D^  m  Kngli 
WW  bom  near  Lynn,  in  Noifolk,  about  tbe  cloM  of  the 
16lh  century,*nd  wu  eduotnl  il  Csiim  College,  Cam- 
bridgr.where  he  gnilualed  in  IGIO.  He  iflemrds 
trirelled  abroad,  anil  became  Tainiliar  with  several  fur- 
eign  languages.  (In  bis  reluin,  h<  became  chaplain  to 
Iting  Charles  I,  and  hail  the  living  orSi.Alban's,  Wood 
Street,  London.  Some  lime  after  this  be  became  chap- 
lain under  the  eaH  of  Arundel,  general  of  tbe  fnrcea  in 
the  Scotch  expeilii  ion  in  1639,  and  prebendary  of  Wells. 
About  1643  bis  living  in  Uindon  was  seqiteMered,  nn 
account  of  his  odbereiice  to  the  crown,  and  liis  family 
made  homelesa.  He  won  compellnl  to  fly,  and  was 
made  chaplain  to  prince  Ru|iert.  He  died  at  Kinaale, 
Ireland,  in  IMO,  Amoni;  his  published  works  are,  ■ 
Trniutalion,v:ilh  Sulrt,  tlc^of  Annaitiaii  Omffuvmt 
(1631); — Adriee  eontrniBig  fAe  PtUmoplig  of  foreif/n 
Diitocrry.  He  alsii  had  a  principal  hand  iu  Spelman'i 
n/iMsiii^,  and  published  a  line  edition  of  Matthew  I'aris 
(Lond.  1640). 

Waugli,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  at  East  tionlon,  in  Iterwickahire,  Aug. 
IR,  1754.  He  was  educated  in  the  graaimar-Kbool  at 
Earlslon  and  the  univerames  of  Edinburgh  and  Aber- 
di^en,  beaidea  having  studieil  theology  two  years  (ITT4- 
76)  under  the  Rev.  John  Itrown,  at  Haddington.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  June  2S,  1773,  and  supplied  the 
■•ulpit  at  Well  Street.  London,  for  ashnrt  time.  In  IT80 
lie  wa^  settled  as  paatoi  at  Newlowo,  in  the  parish  of 
Slelrose,  Roxburghshire,  and  remained  two  years.  In 
1782  he  became  paalot  in  Oxford  Street]  London, 
where  he  continued  to  the  time  of  his  dfalh,  Dec. 
14,  mi.  He  was  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  London 
llisiinnaty  Society,  and  waa  very  active  in  its  sup- 
|H.rt. 

'Wangb.  Beverly,  D.D„  a  bishop  of  tbe  Hetho-I- 
iM  Episcnpid  Church,  was  boni  iu  Fairfax  County,  Va., 
Oct.  25, 17(19.  His  father,  Capt.  James  Waugh,  was  a 
■nbslantiol  farmer,  and  bea<led  a  company  of  milllia 
at  the  lime  Irird  Comwallia  invaded  Vi^nia.  Mr. 
Waugh's  youthful  days  were  guarded  by  pi»us  parents, 
who  screened  him  Imm  the  common  follies  uf  early  life, 
■lid  gave  bim  tlte  best  education  the  country  could  af- 
ford. At  tbo  age  of  fi^ecn  he  embraced  religion,  and 
niainlained  hia  reputation  as  ■  consistent  Christian 
through  life.  His  Christian  zeal  ■tiriclol  the  atten- 
tion of  a  (HOua  merchant,  who,  finding  Mr.Waugb  well 
qualified  in  figures  and  penmanship,  engaged  him  as 
clerk,  and  after  n  tltorouf(h  trial  gave  him  full  manage- 
nieiii  ofa  store  in  Middleburgb,  forty  miles  from  Alex- 
andria, the  iHune  of  his  employer.  Thus  was  Uid  the 
fiiundalion  of  his  well-developeil  business  habit*  in  after- 
life. While  in  his  mercantile  liie,  he  began  exercising 
his  gin  as  an  cxhorter,  under  the  conviction  that  to  de- 
cline laboring  for  the  salvation  of  souls  vould  bring  a 
great  peril  upon  his  soul  and  frustrate  his  religious  en- 
joyment. Prompted  by  such  a  motive,  he  quitted  btui- 
ueis  ill  1R09,  and,  entering  the  Baltimore  Conference, 
was  appointed  helper  on  the  StalTord  ami  Fredericks- 
burg Circuit.  Va.  In  1810  be  travelled  the  (ireenbrier 
Circuit;  and  in  1811  was  admitted  into  full  conn 
and  stationed  at  Ebeneaer,  Washington  cily,  th 
Methodist  Church  then  in  the  national  metropuli 
April  12,  1812,  he  was  married  to  ttiss  Catherine  B. 
Busby,  of  Wasliingtun  city.  The  fullow; 
fears  of  hia  itinerant  career  were  marked 
peculiar  lights  and  shade*,  joys  ami  sflrroH 
•dlst  prescher's  life,  in  IH2N  Mr.  Wsngh  was  electeil 
assistant  book-agent,  and  In  1832  principal  book-agent, 
in  the  Methodist  Book  Coneem  in  New  Vork  city.  In 
1836  he  was  constituted  bishop.     His  views  respecting 


0  WAYLAND 

the  oew  ofllce,  as  recotded  in  his  private  jadnial  altk 

time,  exhibit  hi*  characteristic  otnniE  aeiae  of  ikn 

and  his  habitual  diffidence  and  self-diunisl.     He  mn. 

■' Much  as  I  felt  my  utter  inadequacy  to 

work,  I  feareil  fn  take  myself  out  of  the  hiuids  ida^ 

brethren.     1  could  not,  therefore,  see  my  wai 

do  anjihing  eW  than  to  throw  myself  and  m 

tbe  arms  of  Christ,  and  by  his  grace  attempt  ihe  pa- 

formsnce  of  ihe  work  to  which  Goil,  by  hi    '" 

peared  plainly  lo  call  me."    To  follow  I 

on  his  regubr  episcopal  touts  for  tweniy- 

live  years,  and  review  his  travels  and  laborr,  woiJd  dm 

be  suitable  in  this  brief  sketch.     "  -      - 

whatever  locality  his  office  demanded  hb  presence  ivt- 

iiig  those  twenty-two  years  he  was  m 

was  m  tenacious  of  |ierfarming  liii  whole  doty  tku. 

sick  or  well,  he  eetdom  called  for  a  iDoniTnt'*  reUeC    li 

considering  btslH>i>  Waugh's  character,  then  is  laitfc 

to  impress  and  ititeiest.     Hii  personal  appearuwe  ■• 

very  striking.    He  was  sedate  and  grave,  bat  nH  Bd: 

cheerful,  but  not  trilling;  proverbially  neat;  aad  ka 

strength  and  meekiieas  wen  happily  blended.     arfi> 

tianity  pervadeil  and  ennobled  him.     Aboat  two  v 

before  his  deatii.  the  bishop  went  In  Carlisle,  Pa.  uu- 

he  labored  with  his  usual 

■uddeuly  at  his  home  in  I: 

lowed  by  nn  aRcclion  uf  tbe  heart,  Feb.  9,  1858.    Sh 

MiHuletnfAnmtilCoRfemKtt,  i858,p.i-iv,6-8:  Siap- 

sun,  CycJop.o/J/erAodun.s.r.i  Spngur,  Amtali  ef  tk 

Waylaud,  Francia,  D.D.,  LLD.,  an  en 

New  YoHt,  March  11,1 

United  States  from  EiigUiid  iu  1793.     Soon  s 

•eltlement  in  New  York,  his  father  left   bis  inaiv 

i-|)eiit  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the  ministerial  (At*. 
I'he  early  educational  advantages  of  the  sod  wen  att 
of  the  highest  order,  span  from  thuae  which  be  es)iin< 
in  his  own  home,  where  he  felt  the  influence,  in  malt- 
ing his  intellectual  chancier,  uf  a  mother  of  rarrqoah- 
ties  of  mind  and  heart.  He  always  gratefully  jdatti. 
iu  after-life,  to  the  ability  of  Ihe  inittuctor  who  lees! 
flrst  to  have  taught  him  to  studv  fur  Ihe  love  of  it.  Hi. 
Daniel  H.  llanies.  He  was  admitted  inio  the  sophi- 
more  class  of  Union  College,  Schenectady,  in  May.  IKli. 
and  was  graduated  July  28, 1813.  On 'learing'ci-Oi^ 
he  began  at  onee  t  he  study  of  medicine,  and  pmeednl 
so  far  in  his  profeauonal  career  tlial  he  had  btgna  Is 
practice,  when  a  sudden  turn  was  given  to  all  bis  hft 
plans  by  his  coiiverHun.  He  now  resolved  to  itDdy  6* 
the  miniotiT.  To  make  the  necessary  prvpanuioB  l>* 
entering  upon  his  wurk,  he  went  to  Andovet  in  the  bb- 
tiimn  of  18IG,  where  he  remainni  one  year,  derivia; 
great  benefit  from  I  lie  inslructiiHis  of  Uosea  Staan,  tn 
of  the  most  earnest,  inspiring  teachers  any  insutuiua 
In  this  country  has  ever  had.  He  left  Andovet  at  tke 
close  of  the  scsshhi  of  1816- 17,  expecting  to  lamie  hii 
studies  in  the  fall.  He  did  not  return,  however,  hav- 
ing accepted  an  appointment  as  lutor  in  I'uion  CuUrgr. 
where  he  Tcmainnl  the  next  bur  years.  Tbe  Fim 
Baptist  Church  in  Boston  being  destitute  of  a  pallor.  ■ 
the  suggestion  of  I>r.  Wisncr,  then  Ihe  niinisler  </  tbt 
Old  South  Church,  the  name  of  Mr.  Wayland  was  aw 
lioned  to  Ihe  Church,  a*  a  must  suitable  person  la  SH 
Ihe  vacant  place.  In  due  time  a  call  was  extended  n 
him,  and  he  was  nnlaiucd  Aiig.21,  ItHl,  being  then  a 
few  montha  over  twenty-five  years  of  age.  In  sume  re- 
spects it  was  far  from  being  an  inviting  field  uf  labor  to 
which  he  bad  been  calleil.  Tbe  houM  of  worship  ass 
old  and  unattractive.  The  Church  hod  been  grradv 
Tbe 


ulatlv  graceful  or  winning.     It  was 
through  which  he  was  called  to  paaa, 

•at  be  too 
hiiMelfas 

panicv 
«^p]» 
op  bis 
-K-4 

WAYLAND 

iDinisMrorJeBiuChri*t,*itd  It  length  biarewtnli 
■nd  it  came  doervedly  u  (he  result  of  hard,  unliring 
wnrk,  and  unflincliing  devotion  In  hit  dutiea  ai  a  Chrit 

"  popular"  |ireactaer,  a  thing  which  he  never  a^ired  u 
br,  nnd  could  not  have  bcea  unilcr  any  circumBlanc«9 
hut  he  grew  erery  month  in  the  ealcem  and  respect  ol 
(hote  who  knew  him  intimately  and  could  appreciaii 

tlemenl  he  preached  hii  celebrated  sermon  on  The  A/or- 
al IUgmln  of  Ax  ifutioaaiy  EMnjH-iie,     It  wi 
Sunday  evening,  Oct.  36,  I8S3,  that  he  delireied 
beini;  his  torn  to  preach  the  lecture  to  the  three  chi 
ri  ••(  his  denomination  in  Boston,  which  were  won 
caaionally  to  hold  a  union  serviee.     "The  house 
tiiicnm rumble,"  we  ace  told  {the  preacher  wearin| 
Civai-coat  throughout  the  service),  "  and  (here  wa 
little  enlhusiasm  on  the  occasion."    What  the  pn 
er's  estimate  of  the  performance  was,  we  infer  from  the 
statement  that  "on  Monday  mnming  he  went  b 
Wisner's,  and  threw  himself  nil  a  sofa,  in  one  fl 
moit  depressed  moods,  saying. '  [i  was  a  complete 
lire.    It  fell  perfectly  death'  ~    It  ia  nfedleu  to  say  that 
he  was  mistaken.     Probably  no  sermon  ever  preachei 
in  America,  at  least  up  to  that  time,  has  had  ■  wide: 
i-irculation,  or  been  perused  by  a  larger  number  of  reail 
era.      Dr.  Waylaod  wat  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Bostoi 
which  he  ser»«l  so  faithfully  live  years,  when  he  was 
invited  lo  accept  the  pmfessiirship  uf  moral  phiinsophy 
in  Union  Colletre,  ma<le  vacant  bv  the  re~igna(io 
Ker.  Dr.Alonio  P.rtter.     [n  this  pusitinn  he  remi 

ths,  having  been  called  in  the  presidency 


■.f  Brown  Universiiy, 


nlered  in  February,  IS27,  being  al 
thirty-nne  years  of  age. 

Dr.  Waylind  now  entered  upon  what  wii  lo  be  the 
work  of  nearly  the  whole  of  tlie  cematnder  of  his  life. 
What  be  accumplisbed  as  president  of  Drown  Unirer- 
•ily  has  passed  lung  since  into  the  recurds  uf  the  liter- 
ary history  of  out  country.  But  it  was  no  bed  of 
roses  on  which  he  was  called  to  recline.  From  the 
outset  of  his  BilministraUon  he  had  a  well-dcAneil  "pol- 
icy," It  was  not  popular,  but  he  believed  it  to  bo  right, 
and  he  Hrmly  and  peruslcntly  pursued  it  against  oppo- 
Hi(ii>n  which  at  times  was  very  bitter  aud  unrelenting. 
"  I  was  not  cespniisible,"  he  remarks,  in  the  review  of 
his  administration, "  for  the  continuance  of  a  college  in 
Providence,  but  I  considered  myself  respoiiNble  fur  the 
conduct  uf  the  collece  on  correct  principles  so  long  as  it 
continuetL     What  income  I  deriveil  from  my  poulioi 

fare  and  wear  Ibe  cheapest 
would  ilo  what  seemed  my  duty."  He  was  so  pleaM 
with  a  remark  of  I>r.  Arnold's  that  he  made  a  epeci 
note  of  ii  in  his  copy  of  the  /.ijr  of  that  great  leachi 
"It  is  aiK  necessary  that  this  (Kngby  School)  should 
be  a  iwboid  uf  three  hundml,  or  one  hundred,  or  of  Sfty 
boys;  but  it  u  necessary  that  It  should  be  a  school  of 
Chri-iiaii  genilemen."  It  is  not  lo  be  wondeiwl  at  that 
shirk*,  and  iilie  men,  and  doting  parents  should  kHik 
with  diirfavoT  upon  a  man  so  earnest,  and  so  determined 
lo  niw  the  slaiidaril  of  etlucniion  to  the  highest  point 
pas<ih|p.     Such  peiaons  had  but  slight  appreciation  of 

miltht  sink ;  but  if  so,  it  should  sink  with  all  its  colors 
flying.  VFe  would  Ktrive  to  make  it  a  place  of  thorough 
eilucaliiin,  and  fur  the  cultivation  of  elevated  and  noble 
character."  Tn  a  sketch  like  this  we  cannot  present 
minute  details.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  llie  policy 
which  the  new  president  marked  out  for  himself  com- 
mended  itsrtf  (0  thuughtful  men  and  the  lovers  of  good 
learning.  Those  who  had  long  loved  the  university, 
and  contributeil  lo  its  proaperily,  felt  new  hop&  The 
men  uf  wealth  in  the  city  where  it  had  its  home  gave 
liberally  to  supply  its  wants.  While  he  was  in  office, 
and  ehieSy  thmugh  his  personal  efforts,  Manning  Hall 
was  erected,  a  tweDt7-ave.t]icHsandKloUar  fund  rais&l 


1  WAYLAND 

for  the  library,  and  the  libraiy  iiself  greatly  enlarged 
ami  enriched  by  some  of  its  most  valuable  treasure* ; 
Rhode  Island  Hall  erected,  a  new  president's  bouse  built, 
tlie  college  ompns  greatly  improved  and  extended,  and 
the  endowment  and  scholarship  and  aid  funds  enlarged. 
For  twenty-eight  years  and  a  few  months  Di.  Wayland 
was  president  uf  Brown  Cnivenity.  Weaiy  with  this 
long  service,  and  tnnvinced  that  the  prolongation  of  his 
life  depended  on  his  relaxation  from  bit  arduous  duliea, 
he  resigned  his  office,  Aug.  20, 1855,  It  was  a  touching 
remark  which  he  maile  to  his  associate.  Prof.  Godilard, 
when  the  bell  rang  for  the  opening  exercises  of  the  new 
termi  "No  one  can  conceive  the  unspeakable  relief  and 
fieeilom  which  1  feel  at  this  moiDent  lo  hear  that  bell 
rin^,  and  to  know,  fur  the  fint  time  in  neatly  twenty- 
nine  yean,  that  it  calls  me  lo  no  duty."  For  less  than 
two  years  he  remained  in  the  comparative  quiet  uf  his 
pleasant  home,  wiibin  an  easy  walk  of  the  college 
gniunds.  He  was  inviied  lo  act  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Uspdst  Church  in  Providence  for  such  time  as  he 
might  Slid  his  strength  adequate  to  perfurm  tbe  duue* 
of  the  oSce.  With  his  wonted  zeal  and  earnestness,  he 
work  early  in  the  spring  of  1867,  and 


inied  in 


■ting,  II 


itse  which  he  pursued  both  as  preacher  and  pas- 
tor, an  illustration  of  what  was  his  conception  of  the 
duties  of  an  office  than  which  none  more  honored  could 
a  Christian  man  take  upon  himself.  After  retiring  from 
public  life.  Dr.Wavland  passed  the  few  ceraainlng  vcan 
of  his  life  in  Providence,  where  he  died,  SepUSO,  18(15. 

We  llud  in  the  list  of  the  publications  of  Ur.  Way- 
land,  in  (he  form  of  tiooks,  sermons,  odtlresses,  etc,  the 
number  uf  seventy-two,  exclusiveof  many  articles  which 
he  wiute  fur  the  periodicals,  daily,'weekly,  and  quarter- 
ly. From  this  number  we  select  the  following  as  among 
those  best  known:  Diicoane  on  the  Moral  Dignilg  of 
iKt  Miviatuay  Enltrprite  (1838);  — fiueoarje  m  iki 
Dalinnfan  Amencan  CHKak{\9i&'):-'Mwrog SirttI 
I>iKoarK:—Cenam  Triampit  of  Ike  SfdeenKr  (1830): 
—Moral  Kfcacg  (ifAt  AlonemaU  (IB9I)  -.—Pkii'impht 
ofAmiloss  (eod.):—Sfrmim  al  Ihe  /mlaUiilian  nfWUi- 
iam  R.  WiUiamt  (1882)  -^Drpaidmef-  of  Sei/mr  apom 
RataM  Seligkm  (188.^1  -.—ElrmaH  of  Moral  Scirnet 
(end.) !— £fcmai(j  of  Foiilical  Kcotamg  (1837);— Lim- 
U<»io«»  of  Human  Rt^onabitiiy  (1838)  -.-Tkoitghli  om 
Ikt  Pmnt  CoOrsiate  SgMn  in  At  Uaital  ^lolti  (1842) : 
— Dotunlic  Sbatry  Coniidertd  al  u  Scriptural  Imiita- 
linn;  ^ttueaaion  with  Bee.R,  Fulitr.  D.l).(lSiby.— 
Atemoir  of  Mil  Harriet  Wart  (IMS):— i/rnVrny.* 
SeiimmM  ( 1850) :— Jf  moir  of  Ikt  Lift  and  /xtors  of 
firr.  A.  Judton,  D.D.  (imS):—Semm  at  RiKittIrr  im 
ihi  ApottaUe  Mitittry  (eod.) :— A'i«nra«i  of  InlrUteliml 
Piiloiophg  (1854) :— Anfc*  on  Ikf  PriHeipitt  ami  Prae- 
tieri  -flhe  BapHil  CJiurcifM  (ie54i):-.Sfr»«™  to  lit 
Chiiithet  (1858):  — /«™fa(*wn  lo  ifulUr't  Lift  of 
Trail  (1881)!— Memoir  of  Hi  Chriiliun  Lahori  of 
Tkinmii  Ctaimm,  D.D^  LL.D.  (1864)  ■.—Rrrimd  Edi- 
tion ofEltmtnli  of  Moral  Srienee  (18651,  See  A  Mf 
moir  nfike  Life  and  LiAor,  of  FnmeU  Win^nd.  II.  11., 
U..D.  (N.  Y.,  18H7),  bv  his  sons  Francis  WiyUiul  and 
H.  L.  Wayland.     (J.  a  8.) 

Wsyiand,  John,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  tbe  Pnit- 
estant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  New  York  oity. 
His  father  was  pastor  of  a  Bapliitt  Church  in  Troy,  N.  Y. 
John  graduated  from  Union  College  with  honorj  be- 
came prntaaor  of  mathcnnlics  and  rhetoric  in  Brown 
University,  Providence,  R.  I.,  of  which  institution  Dr. 
Francis  Wayland,  hii  hnilher,  was  president.  For  many 
years  he  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  congr^ration  in  Salem, 
Mass.  1  but  afterwards  entered  the  Protestant  F.piscopal 
Church,  and  became  rector  of  St.  John's  parish,  Caiian- 
daigua,  N.  Y.  In  1848  he  assumed  the  reciotahip  of  St. 
James's  parish,  Ruxbury,  Mass.,  where  be  lemaine'l 
twelve  yeara.  The  lost  two  years  of  his  life  were  spent 
111  Saratoga,  wiihon I  paruchial  charge.  He  died  st  Sor- 
ainga  Springs,  N.  Y.,  (>cC  1G.  1HR3.  Sea  Anicr.  Quar, 
Ckiuch  Revitv,  Jan.  1BG4,  p.  668. 


WAYTE 

WaTte,  Jaues  H.,  an  English  Weileyiu  miui( 
■T}',  was  born  at  NewcastU-iinder-Lyne,  Suffurdihi 
in'Hav,  1812.    HU  pareaU  feared  the  Lont,and  he  hi 
wir  eariv  uniud  with  Che  Church.     He  believed  il 
be  wu  destined  for  the  mistjon  fleld.     In  1844  he  v 
appninled  to  the  Richmond  branch  ot  the  theotogi 
iliMitution  Tor  training  for  the  roreiyii  Aeld.    Here  he 
was  very  diligent  in  his  studies,  and  vety  eiempUi^-  in 
hii  piety  and  zeaL    to  October,  184G,  Wayie  embarked 
for  Sierra  Leone,  in  company  with  T.  Rasloii,  David 
Gri^Blh^  and  othera.     But  the  horrid  yeUow-feTer,  the 
miuionary-eiayer,  would  not  pass  him  by.    Symptoms 
appeared  on  Jan.  6, 1846,  and  on  llie  16th  he  dieil  at 
Free  Town,     Hii  death-bed  scene  was  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  ttiompbant  on  record.    See  Wtit,  -VrlJi. 
Magaziar,  Feb.  1849,  p.  113',  Minutti  of  Cmftrmet; 
1S4G. 

Wayu  (or  Tayw  [q.  v.]),  in  HiiidH  mvihcil.igy,  i* 
one  of  the  three  deities  whom  Kunii,  wife  of  Paiulii, 
called  from  heaven,  so  as  through  him  lu  become  rnotlier 
of  Pandiis.     Ily  him  she  became  mother  nf  Dhirwa. 

WaytuatxdM  (or  Vayuaacca),  in  Hinda  tr 

tbdogy,  is  a  luruame  of  the  god  Agiii  (fire) ;  it  sig 
fles/ruwl  afllie  air. 

Waso,  bishop  of  IJege,  was  bom  probably  in  the 
eighth  decade  of  the  lOth  century.  His  name  was 
Diiginilly  tfallfr  or  Warner.  He  came  under  the  iio- 
Ci4e  of  bishop  Notger,  and  was  admitted  into  the  semi- 
nary for  the  clergy  at  Liege,  in  lime  becoming  its  chap- 
lain, canon  of  the  cathedral,  and  magistcr  scholarum. 
In  IDIT  he  was  made  dean,  and  authoriud  to  share  in 
the  odministratinn  of  the  secular  property  <if  the  chap- 
ter. In  this  position  he  diaplayeil  so  much  strictness 
towards  inferiors  and  so  much  self-assertion  towards  sti- 
periura  as  to  make  many  enemies.  The  bishop,  Wol- 
podo,  took  active  part  against  him  by  exciting  the  paa- 
oions  of  the  peasants  and  disturbing  the  peace  of  the 
school  to  such  a  degree  as  involved  the  life  ot  Warn  in 
danger  and  indnceJ  him  to  resign  the  leailetship  of  tbe 
■chooL  In  A.D.  1030  the  emperor  Conrad  chose  Waio 
to  be  one  of  his  chapbino.  I'wo  years  later  he  wo* 
made  provost  and  archdeacon  of  liege.  In  1037  bis  in- 
fluence secured  the  election  of  bishop  to  t)ie  youthful 
NithanI ;  but  when  the  latter  dieil,  in  IMl,  Wazo  was 
compelled  by  the  unanimous  voice  to  assume  episcopal 
functions  himself.  In  his  new  pouUon  he  displayed  in- 
dependence in  administering  the  Church,  and  unequalled 
liirce  and  skill  in  the  coniluci  of  civil  affairs,  such  as 
were  then  iinderthe  control  uf  the  bishopa  of  the  Church. 
He  refused  to  obey  the  emperor's  behest  and  pronounce 
•entence  npon  archbishop  Wigger  of  Itavenua,  who  had 
been  convicted  ot  deviating  from  the  ciutoms  of  the 
Chureh  in  a  certain  matter,  on  the  ground  that  Wigger 
was  an  ItaUau,  and  subject  therefore  to  the  pope  rather 
than  the  emperor.  He  also  briveil  the  emperor's  anger 
with  the  declaration  that  a  pope  cnuld  be  judged  of 
God  only,  and  that  therefore  Henry  III  hod  no  author- 
ity to  HII  the  pontilical  chair  vacaseil  by  the  Synod  or 
Sutri  in  1046.  Wazo  further  angered  the  emperor  by  i 
collecting  forces  and  participating  in  the  wars  against 
the  Lorraine  rebels,  who  had  threatened  the  peace  and 
property  of  his  diocese,  and  carried  on  a  campaign  of 
murder  ^nd  pillage.  The  court  held  that  Wazo  had 
taken  up  arms  from  motives  of  personal  aggnndizement 
and  love  of  war;  and  when  he  refused  to  lake  advan- 
tage of  the  conduct  of  lady  De  Mons,  who  wished  to  de- 
liver np  her  husband  as  guilty  nf  higb-treason,  his  loy- 
alty came  under  suspicion.  In  the  meantime  Wazo 
wrote  repeated  letters  to  the  king  of  France,  disauading 
him  from  prosecuting  an  alleged  claim  upon  the  poaes- 
oion  of  Lorraine,  for  which  attempt  troops  were  already 
OoUectcd.  Nothing,  however,  could  regain  for  him  the 
emperor'a  favor,  and  he  was  eventually  brought  to  un- 
dergo a  public  humiliation,  and  pay  a  diw  for  an  act  of 
alleged  disobedience.  As  bishop,  Wazo  was  a  zealous 
patron  of  schools ;  a  liberal  benefactor  of  the  poor  and 


2  WEAPON 

needy;  a  tolerant  critic  of  heretical  opinkna.  Hi 
nied  the  power  of  iMsbopa  to  pruuounee  seotcoo 
death  upon  heretics.  He  was  also  deeply  pioaa. 
stated,  indeed,  that  he  avoided  in  his  clbtbing  lotun  m- 
oori/icikai;  but  h«  w 
•rtilied  the  flesh.  He  died  July  8,  1M:.  Tdt 
material  for  a  life  of  Wazo  is  fumiabed  by  Aoaeldi, 
on  of  Liege  (died  about  1056),  in  hia  Gala  Epiic  Lim. 
ditmiam,  c  39-TS.  See  Perti,  Mamam.  UiH.  Stryii. 
vii,  SlO-283;  fisen,  Saada  Ltgia.  i,  158  aq.;  Stennl, 
Gr$>.-L  DtulKhlandt  u.  d.Jribtk.  Kaittm,  voL  i ;  GitK- 
brecht,  Gtidi.  d.  deaUck.  JCaiierteit,  roL  iL  —  UcniK 
Rtal-Eaesldop.  s.  v. 

'Wealth.    See  RiniBa. 

Wean  C^'Oi,  from  the  complttdtm  of  the  inCoBt  si 
that  time).  Host  Oriental  mothera  suckle  their  chil- 
dren much  longer  than  is  usual  in  Europe,  and  the  star 
custom  seems  to  hare  prevailed  among  the  audmi  H«-  ^ 
brews.  When  Samuel  was  weaned,  he  was  old  essiifb 
to  be  led  frith  Eli  for  the  service  of  the  Ubetnade  U 
Sam.  i,  34).  As  no  public  provision  was  made  fat  tta 
children  of  prieats  and  Leiites  until  they  were  ihni 
years  of  age,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  not  waaaal 
Mioner(2ChrDn.  xxxi,  IG;  -J  Mace  vii,  27>     In  ladii 

years  of  age;  but  throughout  the  East  ■  giii  is  goal- 
ally  weaned  within  the  lirst  or  second  year.  "Abo- 
bam  made  a  great  feast  when  Isaac  was  weand!''  (lit* 
leHie- 


"Weapoa  (usually  ^is,  iia-XoP,  which  dwoK  a 

rfruionirofany  kind).   Among  the  Hebrews  we  SdL  is 

iieral,  the  same  kinds  of  military  weapons  mentisot^ 

(I  Sam.  Kvii,  6  eq.j  3  Chron.  xxvi.  If.  Neh.  iv.  11,  K: 

Ezek.  xxxix,  9;  comp.  Philo,  0pp.  ii,  330)   as  taiatl 

otlier  warlike  nations  of  antiquity  (see  Henid.TiL 61^,1. 

Vi'e  can  Ihererore  determine  little  obnut  their  pnoif 

form  or  material,  except  so  far  as  monuments  or  mudaa 

usage  enables  us  to  draw  a  comparison.      We  mte  ikt 

following  kinds  (eomp.  3  Cur.  vi,  7,  iirXa  :  «i£id  cd 

ApifTipn,  Diod.  Sic.  iii,  61;  vcuramiipin .  sfifmifH. 

It.  ni-mo  f<  feJu;  sec  Bremi  on  Nepos,  xiv.  It): 

1.  ProtMitt  IFrOiXMU.— To  this  cbiss  belong  the  U- 

l.The«Ai*W(q.v.). 

2.  Tbe  Hflmrt  (S^^S  or  :3^p,  3  Chron.  xxvi  III 
r.  xlvi,  4;  ij  irfputi^aXoia,  Eph.  ri,  17)  oT  brass  .1 
m.  xvii,  5,  SB  1  I  Mace,  vi,  3o ;  cump.  Diod.  .Sic  T. »: 

Xeiioph.  Amih.  i,  3,  16).  Whether  the  Israelim  ite 
tbem  nfleatber(neats' bide.  Homer,  II.  x,£57iq.: 
Sirabo,vii,80fl,etc;  see  l>assow,  s.  v.  cvw>|)  is  uK»- 
tain,  although  such  certainly  belongeil  to  lude  afn^  (t« 
Egyptian  form,  see  Wilkinson,  i,  33 1>  ^ 
Hklmkt. 

3.  The  Brra^ptale  (li-^-ip,  ^.ipnE),  which  coresrt 
he  centre  of  the  person  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5;  Neh.  iv.  16;  1 

Chnni.  xxvi,  14 ;  1  Mace,  iii,  3),  usually  of  brass  (1  Sna. 

i,5;  Kec.  ix.  9;  eomp. //inrf,  xiii,'37l  iq..S97  t^\ 

oud  sumelinies  composed  of  platea  (CST^^^,  I  San. 

the  Roman  furicn  tguamtain,  consisting  nf  s  leaihir 
corselet  covered  with  brass  scales.  In  order  to  wouD'I  i 
fully  equipped  soldier,  it  waa  necessary  to  atrikr  »a«ir 
spot  where  the  brazen  pieces  biled  to  join  eacb  otbir 
fully.or  where  ordinary  clothing  intervennl  ( I  Kings  ii. 
34).  Among  tbe  Syro-Seleucid  generals  we  find  chaii- 
armor  (panoply)  in  use  (I  Mace,  vi,  35;  comp.  tbe  .Sr)*. 
atlSam.  xvii,. '>:I>iod.  Sic.  V, 30);  but  of  linen  c.«rlH> 
(see  Ktipke,  Kritym.  d.  Griech,  p.  97  sq.)  ihere  ap- 
pears no  trace  in  the  IMble.    See  BRiuKTri.ATK. 

4.  Greavti  for  protecting  the  knees  and  leg^s  (nrcti 

(Iliad,  vii,  4!),  were  onivenal  in  elaioifl  uiiiqiatj 
(Xenoph.  '4nai^  t,  2,  IC;  iv,  7, 16;  Virgil,  JS's.  si,  177^ 


WEAPON  8 

Plinj,  xxxiv,  18,  etc.),  and  are  reganHed  aa  in  inveo- 
tioa  of  ihe  Cariua  (liin^r,  vii,  67).  We  muM  diilin- 
pibh  from  [b«K  ihe  milieu;  that  (^iXD,  Iia.  Is,  4), 
pTDbablv  like  the  Romui  catiga  (see  Bvn«u>,  Dt  CalaU 
ilibr.  p.'  S3  ■).),  >  Kirt  of  hilf-boot  of  ISMtber  thod  nilh 
HKNig  nails  (Juvenal,  xTi,!4;  Jiiaeplius,  War,  v\,  1,  8; 
dun  oa^^m*,  Pliny, ix, 33;  ]i:tii,4«i  xxiiv,41).  Sec 
Gkiaves;  Shoe. 

11.  AggrrmH  Wfaptmi^l.  The  -Siconi  pin),  which 
WW  carrieJ  in  ■  special  belt  at  the  hips  (1  Sam.  xvii, 
37;  xxr,  13;  £  Sara.  xx,8),but  c«rlainlr  not  (ai  Jaliii 
[  .1  rdiSoL  II,  ii,  40]  filwly  aiguei  mm  Jd Jg.  iii,  10, 21 ; 
jowphiu,  War,  iii,  G,  f>)  oa  the  rigtU  aide  (see  the  fi|t- 
urea  or  NiiwTitea  in  tbe  Journal  Atialiqut,  IMO,  vii, 
pL  S,  6, 7, 10 ;  Ji,  17, 19,  S3, 63,  ele.).  It  waa  endoHd  iii 
a  theath  pyf},  1  Sam.  xvii,  61 ;  3  Sam.  lot.  cil. ;  y^3, 
1  Cbron.  xxi,  !7;  Si)Bi,  John  xviii,  11),  hence  the 
pbrase  "to  dtaw  the  swunl"  (3^11  P^'?'^  of  k)91^,  or 
n^l),  and  waa  liouUe-edged  (ri*B  ••it,  Judg.  iii,  16 ; 
Pniv.  V,  4;  JiVro/iof,  Ufb.  iv,  12;  Rev,  1,61;  ii,12; 
ufr^qnic/'iu'',  1X1,118).  It  was  uaed  both  for  alrik- 
ing  and  subbing  (I  Sain,  ixxi,  4 ;  2  Sam.  ii,  16 ;  xx,  10, 
Mc).  The  Sept.  usually  cianalaUa  Ihe  Heb.  3^n  by 
fjajfaipd,  wbich  latter  cK'curi  in  the  New  Teal.,  and 
originall;  denoted  the  abort  dagger  (cooip.  Ittad,  iii, 
SI  sq.),  but  later  anj  (curred)  sabre  in  dialinction 
Irom  Sifos,  the  proper  (military)  swoid ;  bat  that  S^tl 
also  aignifies  the  straight  atrnrd  there  can  lie  no  doubl. 
The  Romauiira,  asDntewhatCDrredpuDianl,  was  inlro- 
doc«<l  later  among  the  Jews,  and  became,  shortly  before 
tbe  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  deadly  weapon  of  Ihe 
bald  rubbers,  who  lience  were  called  Sicarii  (Josephus, 
AHl.jix,a,]l>:  W<ir,vii,10,l;  /.■/I'.Sftfi).   SeeSwOHD. 

2.  The  Spear,  lanee,  or  dart,  was  used  aa  a  weapon 
both  for  Chruiliiig  (close  it  hand)  and  fur  throwing  (at 
a  abort  distance),  like  the  iapv  of  the  Uteeka  (Strilw,  x, 
448) ;  but  chieHy  for  lbs  foimer  (see  i  Sam.  xviti,  1 ; 
xii,  10;  XX,  33).  The  uaiial  Heb.  deaignattons  are 
rrai  and  r^Sn,  which  can  hardly  be  diatingniahed,  ex- 


mwilh 


(or  bow),  while  both  ippei 
with  the  shield  (Judg.v,8;  t  Sam.  xvii,  IS}.  Inatead 
oreiiberword.wcanmeiimeafiad  l^g  (2  Sam.xxi,  16) 
and  TIT'S  (Jooh.  riii,  IS,  26;  I  Sam.  xvii,  6;  Job  xli, 
21)  1  ■lsoa3Dinsomecisea(2Sirn.  xviii,  14,  accord- 
ing to  eome).  They  are  also  thought  to  hare  been 
used  as  standanls  for  colors  (Geacn.  Thriaur,  p.  G83). 
The  speara  (see  the  Persepotilan  specimens  in  Porter, 
Traeilt,  i,  pt  dC,  40, 46, 49)  had  a  woollen  shaft  ()'ri,  1 
Sam.  xvii,  T;  or  ys,  2  Sam.  xxi,  19;  xxiii,  ~)  and" an 
imn  pinnt  (I  Sam.  xvii.  Tf.  Ash  or  flr  waa  prefeireil 
(Virgil,.£B.xi,66T;  Homer,//.  xix,390sq.;  xxii, 293; 
(Wj».  xir,  281 :  Orid,  Hetam.  x,  93;  Slatius,  TAfb.  vi, 
102;  comp.  Pliny,  xvi,  24),  and  hence  many  (so  Bosen- 
mllUer)  explain  Nah.  ii,  4 ;  but  dl'jl  ia  probably  cy- 
press (q.  T.).  The  haila  of  tbe  Romans,  ■  weapon  for 
ihmwing,  is  called  Xoyj^ij  in  the  New  Teat.  (John  xii, 
34 ;  comp.  2  Mace,  v,  2 ;  xv,  1 1 ;  see  Alatorpb.  Dt  IJaifit 
Vttrr.  {Amsl.  1757]).     See  Speail 

B.  TheBo«j(i|.v.)  in  connection  with  ^mn(n(q.  v.). 

4,Th*«ttiir7(q.v.). 

6.  A  flalllf-axe  (ire  Wilkinson,  i,  32S,  S2S  s(|.)  is 
named  C"iO,  Pas.  xxxt,  3 ;  comp.  Ihe  odyapir  of  Ihe 
Scythians, Maaasgetv,  and  Peniana,  Herod,  i,  213;  iv, 
70;  Tit,  61;  Xtnoph.Csrop.i,2,9;  ii,  t,9;  Strabo,  XT, 
TM;  (he  Armenian  locr)  aa  a  special  weapon  ofalloek 
(comp.  the  nis^^p  of  tbe  Chaldcana,  Jei.xli'i,2).  A 
sledj(e-hammer  may  peibaps  Im  meant  in  one  passsge 
C7^B^,Pn>v.xXT,18;  Sept.  powaXov ;  comp,  r)<ji|f,  xi, 
676);  bat  it  is   probably  only    the   ordinary   mallet 


iyt^h  See  generally  Bosvelt  [Rau],Ae  Amat  Vttr. 
Heir' (Jr.  ad  Jth.  1781);  Jabn,  .4rc«i)i>J:  II,  ii,«>0  sq.; 
Senme,  A  rma  Veil,  cum  A'otlru  Comparala  (Upa.  1792> 
SeeARHOR. 

if  burying  arms  with 
0  tnce  in  (he  Bible 
(see  Esek.  xxii,  27;  1  Mace,  xiii,  29;  comp.  Tocilua, 
Cmn,uiii;Rosenm11ller,  .i/orjmLiT.3*3sq,),  (lipl- 
ured  weapona  were  auapended  in  tenplea  or  burned  in 
heapi(Isa.ix,  4  aq.;  Ezek.  xxKix,9;  comp.  Virgil,  ^'a. 
viii,  662  iq.).  Aiaenala  (C^Vs  ^^2,  2  Kings  xx,  18; 
[aa.xzxix,  2;  uirXoS^nt,  Joaephus,  ITur,  ii,  17,  S)  were 
erected  in  cities  fur  the  deposit  of  weapons.     See  Aq- 

^V«U«1  (*t^,  dtSled,  so  called  from  its  gtidtug 
[Geseiu]  or  bumvb^  [  FUnI])  occnr*  only  in  Lev.  xi, 
29,  in  the  list  ofanctean  animals.  According  to  the  old 
versions  and  the  Talmnd,  the  Heb.  di6Ud  denolea  «n 
weasel"  (aee  Lewysohn,  ZooU  det  Tain.  p.  91,  and  Btix- 
lorf,  l.ex.  Chald.  It  Tulm.  p.  766) ;  but  if  tbe  word  is 
identical  with  the  Arabic  chatd  and  tbe  Syriac  ekuldo, 
aa  Bochart  {Hitrot.  ii,  435)  and  otbera  have  endeavored 
loihow,  there  b  no  doubt  thai  "a  mole"  i«  the  animal 
indicated.  Greenius  (  T'Acaaur.  p.  474 ),  bowerer,  has 
tbe  following  very  true  observai  Ion:  "Salis  constat  ani- 
malium  nomiiia  persBpe  in  hac  lingua  hoc,  in  alia  cog- 
nata  aliud,  iil  vero  aimjie,  animal  significare."  He  pre- 
fen  to  render  Ihe  lemi  by  "weasel,"  as  in  the  SiepL 
(TaXq),Vulg.(mii(Ma),and  Ibe  Eoglish  vcraioo.     See 

jllolea  are  common  enough  in  PaWtine.  Hasselquist 
{Travel;  p.  120),  speaking  of  Ihe  country  belweeo  Jaffa 
and  Ramah,  aays  be  had  never  seen  ia  any  place  tho 
ground  so  cast  up  by  molea  as  in  these  plains.  There 
waa  scarcely  a  yard's  length  between  Ihe  mole-hiUa.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  both  tbe  Talpii  Ewrojma  and  tbe 
T.  caoa,  Ibe  blind  mole  of  which  Aristotle  speaks  (JIUt. 
Anim,  i,  8,  3),  occur  in  Palestine,  though  we  have  no 
deflnile  information  on  this  point.  The  ancients  repre- 
sented the  mole  as  having  no  eyes,  which  assertion  later 
scientific  writers  belicTed  Ihey  had  disproved  by  show- 
ing our  speciea  to  be  posspssed  of  these  organs,  though 
exceedingly  small  Nevenhelea^  recent  observations 
have  proved  that  a  apecict,  In  other  reapecls  acarcely, 
if  at  all,  to  be  diBtinguisheil  from  the  common,  is  total- 
ly destitute  of  eyes,  and  consequently  has  received  the 
name  of  Talpa  caca.  It  is  to  be  found  in  llaly,  ami 
probably  extends  to  ibe  East,  instead  of  tbe  Earopao. 
Moles  must  not,  however,  be  considered  as  forming  a 
part  of  the  rodent  order,  whereof  all  the  familiea  and 
genera  are  provided  with  strong  incisor  leelh,  like  rats 
and  squirrels,  and  therefore  inlcndedfuraubaisiing  chief- 
ly on  grain  and  nnia;  they  are,  on  Ihe  contrary,  supplied 
with  a  great  number  of  small  teeth,  to  ihe  extent  of 
Iwenly-two  in  each  Jaw— indicating  a  partial  regimen; 
fur  they  feed  on  worms,  larvie,  and  underground  in- 
aecla,  aa  well  aa  on  mota,  and  Ihua  belong  to  tb«  ii>- 
seciivoroua  order,  which  briiiga  the  application  of  (be 
name  aomewbat  nearer  to  carnivora  and  its  received  In- 
terptelation  "  weasel," 

Boelian,  inclined  lo  recognise  tbe  word  D*'<3,  (riyfat 
(A.V."  wild  beaatoftbe  desert,"  etc.),  aa  a  general  term 
denoting  cala,  or  any  kind  of  wild  beasts  that  frequent 
dry  place^diN»Tered  an  incongruity  when  it  is  opposed 
tu  a  single  ipecies,  e^^N,  tyim  (A.V."wild  twast  of  the 
iitsnds"),  which  he  Iranslalre  Ihori  (Isa.  xxxiv,  14 ;  Jet. 
1, 89).  Both  words  are  meant,  it  teems,  to  imilate  the 
cry  ofanimala;  and  if  be  be  right  in  regarding  tbefitat 
IS  expressive  of  tbe  mewing  or  screaming  of  witd-cata, 
with  such  other  animals  as  tlic  ancienta  included  in  the 
feline  tribe,  and  we  now  class  among  Viverrida  and  Mut- 
lelida,  each  including  several  genera,  more  or  lesa  rep- 
resented by  species  residing  in  and  around  Palestine,  we 
then  find  Ihe  opposition  of  the  two  worda  strikingly 
jual,  provided  that.  Instead  of  the  dngle  Ihoe*  of  BO' 


WEASEL 


le  region 


rluJint;  I. 


lofOrie 


Such  is  llie  v»Ku»ne 
the  nec«BBity  u(  iioljdng  ceruin  •pcciei  which,  fnim 
llietr  importance,  cannot  well  be  Bupposed  lo  have  betii 
altogether  diareganlnl  in  ihe  Bible,  that  in  [his  place  a 
lew  words  deacriplivG  or  the  apeciei  of  yicrrritia  anil 
Mmlrlida  known  to  renidc  in  and  near  Palestine,  and 
suppoied  to  be  cnlleclirely  deugnated  by  the  term 
ff^'M,  may  not  be  irreles-ant.  They  appear,  both  aii- 
ciently  and  among  our«eU-e«,  collected  into  a  kind  of 
group,  under   an   impreuion   that  they  belong   to  the 

words  civet-cat,  tree-cat,  polecat,  etcj  aiul,  in  reality, 
a  coniiderable  number  of  the  Bpedet  have  partially  re 
tractile  clawn,  the  pupil)  of  Ihe  eyes  being  coninciile 
liLe  those  of  cats,  of  wliich  they  even  bear  the  spotted 
and  streaked  liveries.  All  siicli  naturally  have  arinreal 
babiu,and  from  their  low  lengthy  forms  are  no  less  dis- 
posed to  burrow;  but  many  of  them,  cbieHy  in  otlxr 
bemi^hcres,  are  excellent  swimntere.  One  of  these 
apecies,  allied  to,  if  not  the  same  as,  Gaulbi  harbaru,  a 
(he  Thdu  vEiiB, described  by  Bochart  as  having  "va- 
rious colors,  mill  as  bring  spotted  like  a  pard."  In 
Syria  it  is  colled  cpjUu,  in  Arabia  ttbitb,  aiid  lives  by 
huiUing  birds  and  shaphaiie.  There  are,  besides,  in  the 
same  region,  the  fUMH',  ferret  or  polecat  {Puloriai  rut- 
iiaru),tar  these  two  are  not  spedScally  distinct ; .frrf- 
rl-krili;  the  weasel  (Mtuttla  vulgarit  -</f»pniio).  differ- 
ing from  ours  cbieHy  in  its  superior  sxe  and  darker 
colors.  A  pnradoxunu,  iJentical  with,  or  nearly  alljeil 
to,  P.  Ispm,  occurs  in  Arabia;  for  it  seems  these  ani- 
mals are  found  wherever  there  are  puinn/eiiB,  the  date- 
palm  in  particular  being  a  favorite  residence  of  the  spe- 
cies. Two  or  three  varietie%  or  perhaps  species,  of 
•Kmt  occur  in  Rgii'pt.  solely:  for  the  name  it  again  ge- 
nrrical  in  the  Arabian  dialects,  and  demta  ' 
iieuman.  Arabia  proper  has  several  other  ani 
clearly  distingiiialied.  though  belonging  to  the  families 
here  noticed ;  but  which  of  these  are  the  (kh^iA  and 
the  si'nttr,  ot  the  alpkamx  of  Ibn  Omar  ben-Abdulbar, 
quoted  by  Docborl,  is  undetermined;  albeit  they  evi- 
dently belling  to  the  tribes  of  vermin  mammals  of  that 


WEATHERFORD 

■  original  word,  as  above  wen,  is  referred  by  many  to  the 
Aridiic  and  Syriac,  in  which  it  is  said  to  implv  ■  crvfp- 
iiig,  iiiwlioiis  motion  ;  and  hence  peculiarly  >p|iropTiaii 
to  the  J/uiftfuiiT,  which,  from  their  rvmvkably  buf. 
slender,  and  vermiform  bodies  and  short  le|^  secffi  to 
glide  ailing  the  earth  more  like  reptiles  than  qnadio- 
peds,BnJ  insinuate  themselves  into  ilic  smallest  creriA*. 
Kilto  mentions  the  fltchet  or  polecat  (Jlattrla  fmtn- 
TiBt)  as  found  in  Palestine  in  the  neigliborhoad  udhc 
villagr>i,bul  says  that  it  is  rarely  seen  in  tonrna.  Tbr 
skin  is  of  no  vshie  in  Syria,  as  the  (leuple  have  noi,  ar 
ill  Europe,  aiiv  means  of  divesting  it  of  its  unpleaiaoi 
smell  {Ph^i.'lliH.  of  falrtl.  p.  il5S).  The  romTm 
weasel  i»  tloubtless  found  there  also,  as  it  is  spmil  otw 
Europe;  bill  not  the  stnal  or  ermine,  the  climate  beiag 


Polecat  (VusMIajnitsriu). 
it.    All  these  animals,  but  panimlarij  tlic 


lofm 


I   the  ih 


Their  appetite  fur  blooil  seems  insatiable;  their  reroctci 
and  courage  prompt  them  to  fly  at  animals  lar;;cr  tbaa 
themselres;  while  their  carnivorous  arganixaiion  is  de- 
veloped perhaps  even  more  highly  than  in  the  iT|*n] 
cats,  and  they  use  their  powers  with  the  utinoM  Aiill 
and  judgment.  They  prefer  the  brain  and  blood  «f 
their  prey  to  the  flesh. 

TVeatller  (D'",  }/6ra,  day,  as  usually  mxleml: 
"fair  weather,"  :hj,  zaAii*,  Job  i»ivii.  22,  til.  yM. 
i.e.  "brightness;"  tiiSia,  Matl.  ivi,  2;  "foul  ireaibn." 
yttfuiir,  ver.  3,  s/orni,  as  elsewhere)  in  PALKVinsK  is,  is 
consequence  of  the  region  being  greatly  divernGcd  tiy 
hills,  valleys,  and  plains,  quite  various  in  difleimt  parti 
being  hot  during  tlie  summer,  especially  along  the  «- 
shore  (comp.  Josephus,  Ifur,  iii,9, 1)  and  in  the  Jaidan 
go^  (JAid.  iv,  8, 3),  and  cooler  on  the  reonntaiu  rid^een. 
especially  iti  winter,  but,  on  the  whole,  more  equalilt 
■     ""      "  The  Irugih 


than  in  Northern  and  Occidental  co 


«  lea 


ndilfere 


s  t)>a« 


region,  excepting  as  regards  the  but  mentioned,  tiow 
known  to  be  a  kind  of  miniature  fox  {MrgnlolU  ttrda. 
Ham.  Smith),  ojfnnti:  of  Bruce,  who  nevertheless  con- 
'  founded  it  with  Faradviuiut  typtu,  or  an  allied  species 
which  equally  frequents  paltD-trees;  but[hc./n>n«:<lues 
nut  dimb.  It  is  equally  imposeibie  to  point  out  t1>e 
cats,  tree-cat*,  and  civet-cats  noticed  by  the  poet  Neme- 
sianiis,  who  was  of  African  birth,  or  by  the  Arabian  Da- 
inir,  who  makes  no  further  distinctive  mention  of  them. 
The  dtiltd  is  described  in  Uv.  xi,  29  as  one  of  the 
small  animals  which  are  thrown  togetlier  under  the 
general  designation  of  "creeping  Ihtngs,"  and  which 
appear  to  include  the  smaller  eamivomus  ami  ineec- 
livorous  DioiinnaJin,  as  well  as  the  fbur-fuoted  TtptiUa. 
The  whole  category  is  prohibited   as  unclean.     The 


igher  latitudes,  and  thus  tends  to 
ure.     SeeCALiCMiAn;  FAi.EaTiN£;  Seasos. 
We«tIiercock  is  a  weather  vane,  on  which  ti  the 
metal  or  wooden  reptesentalioti  of  a  cock,  placed  on  tW 
Kp  ol  a  spirt,  which  vane  turns  by  the  force  and  diiec- 
ian  of  the  wind. 

Woattaertord,  Jobn,  a  Baptist  minister, was  bm 
ii  Charioite  County,  Va.,  about  1740.  Hia  parents  win 
lembers  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  his  father  beiac 
ti  elder  in  the  church  of  which  the  distinguished  Dr. 
Rice  was  the  minister.  Soon  after  bis  conversioti.  hb 
mind  began  10  be  troubled  on  the  siihject  of  bapUn. 
"  'ng  conversed  on  the  matter  with  his  paator,  aod 
oiibtt  not  having  been  remoi-ed.  Dr.  R>c«  had  (be 
lanimity  to  say  to  him, "  I  perceive,  John,  that  yna 
be  a  fiaptitt.  Go,  and  the  Lor>l  be  with  ToaL" 
ecamc  a  member  of  the  Baptist  Church  when  be 
about  twenty  years  of  age.  He  commenced  i- 
preach  about  the  year  1761,  and  bis  ministry  was  ■• 
popular  that  crowds  were  dimwn  to  hear  bim.  Fuse- 
ution  now  began  to  follow  him.  Atler  preacbiBg  an 
certain  occasion  in  Chesterfield,  Ta.,  be  waa  ancMtf 
and  thrown  into  prison,wher«  he  was  held  in  conSoe- 
meni  Are  monibst     It  is  said  of  him  that "  his  courae* 


WEATHERFOKD  81 

fonook  him  not.  The  lore  of  Chriat  cunitraiiteil  him. ' 
He  piucfaed  at  thedonr  of  the  pruon  ulonf;  uallowed 
[hai  privilege.  When  refuied  ihat,  he  preached  llirough 
(he  graiiDgg  of  the  vriDilon;  but  ttich  delenuined  uppo- 


ivhat  c< 


■T  by  « 


III 


built  an 
diief  by  th. 


wall  abore  the  gtaliiig, 

»HKre)[»tion  wm  lo  be  raised  uii  a  pcde 
ignal  that  the  penple  wete  ready 
lo  near,     ttts  voice  being  very  strong,  he  could  throw 
it  tieynnd  Iheie  impediment*,  a»d  convey  tlie  woidt  of 
life  and  ulvatioii  to  the  listening  crowds."     At  last, 


wall,  m  a 


through  tl 
liberated  from  hi 


Ihani 


mdage.an 
is  life 


l<  Henr 


liaL  1'uwanla  the  close  of  the  century,  however,  he 
sustained  tlie  relaiioii  of  pastor  to  two  churches,  which 
arc  said  to  have  Huurished  tinder  bis  ministry.  Ilo 
took  up  hi)  rendence  in  Halilai  County,  Vn.,  in  I81B, 
where  he  lived  about  ten  years,  and  then  renioveil  to 
Pi tteylrania,  where  he  died,  Jan.  3S,  1838,  having  been 
a  preacher  of  the  Goapei  over  seventy  yean.     He  be- 

vast  anwunl  or  good  in  a  Hate  the  people  ofKhiili  had 
too  generally  settled  down  Into  a  condition  ofrurmal- 

inatrument  all  ties  as  were  represented  by  the  subject  or 
this  sketch.  However  despised  they  may  have  been 
by  some,  they  certainly  reaped  tlie  honor  which  cimie* 
from  tiud  onlv.  See  Licri  nf  Virgiam  Jltiplut  J/inu- 
(erji,p.55-fil.'  (.T.CS.) 

'Weatheiford.  Thotnaa,  ■  Meihndiiit  KHioipat 
minister,  was  born  in  Eutopo  shout  1T3C.  He  labored 
four  yeai«  in  the  ministry  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  slender  in  frame,  remarkable  fur  his  pieir,  and  died 
triumphantiv  in  1792.  See  maulri  o/Atmual  Confrr- 
(ww,  179!,  p.  16. 

'Weavar,  Jobn  M.,  a  Methodiu  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, wai  bom  in  Washington  Coimty,  N.  Y.,  Jidy  5,  i;<U. 

censed  to  preach  in  1816;  nndjoinedthe  NewYorkCon- 
feretKC  in  1629,  Inwhich  he  served  faithfully  until  IMS, 
when  be  was  erantnl  a  superannuated  relation.  In  1869 
he  resumed  his  Conference  work,  Ubored  eameMly  twu 
years,  and  then  retired  from  staled  work.  He  died  at 
Ganges  Mich.,  Hay  12, 1872.  Mr.  Weaver  was  very  de- 
voted to  Uetbodism,  deepiv  pious,  and  an  excellent 
pmcher.  See  SlinvUt  r/ Amui-l  CoK/tmcn,  1873, 
p.  64^ 

'Weavar,  LiDdaa;  Cair,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
(South)  minister,  was  bom  in  Spartanburg  District, 
S.  C  Nov.  16,  ieS7.  He  joinci  the  Church  In  IS58, 
while  a  student  at  Woflurd  College  :fp*duued  in  1869; 
and  ill  IBGO  entered  the  South  Carolina  Cnnference.aud 
labored  zealouslv  until  failing  health  obliged  him  to  re- 
tire from  active  aervice.  He  died  at  Itishopsville,^  C, 
Feb.  28,  1863.  Mr,  Weaver  was  a  young  man  of  great 
pram ise,  amiable  in  spirit.  uncampriimisinfT  in  integrity, 
unSinching  in  ual,  and  abundant  in  giiml  <leeds.  See 
UiimM  of  Atmaal  Confrmca  of  the  if.  E.  Churek, 
5<wM,  1863,p.419. 

^T'eaver,  Richard,  an  English  CongregatiDnal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Tewkesbury,  Sept.  9,  1804.  In 
Mrly  life  his  mind  was  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  peiHual  piety.  He  was  educatcil  atWyntonilleyCul- 
lege  for  ministerial  worh,  and  in  1830  was  ordained  over 
the  Independent  Church  at  Fnulmire,  where  he  labored 
usefully  for  some  years.  In  1838  he  was  stationed  at 
Balaham,  and  continued  for  severs!  yean  in  charge  of 
that  church.  He  died  Dee.  16,  1863.  See  (Lond.) 
Cimg.  Yearbook,  1864,  p.  248. 

W«av«ra,  Drothkh,  1*  ■  name  given  to  the  Beg- 
hanla,  or  Lollards,  in  France  on  account  of  the  oceupa- 
Uoa  cTinoat  of  them.    See  Lollardb. 


Lh  great  skill  by  the 
Kgj'ptians  at  a  very  early  period,  and  lienee  the  inven- 
tion was  not  unnaturally  attributed  to  them  (Pliny,  vii, 
57),  The  '■  vestures  of  line  linen"  such  as  Joseph  wore 
(Uen.  xli,  4S)  were  the  product  of  Egyptian  looms,  and 
their  quality,  as  attested  by  existing  specimens,  is  pro- 
nounced to  be  not  inferior  to  the  finest  cambric  of  mod- 
ern times  (Wilkinson,  ii,  76).  The  Israelitea  were  piob- 
ably  acquainted  with  the  proceas  before  their  sojourn  in 
Egypt;  tut  it  was  undoubtedly  there  that  they  attained 
the  pniHciencv  which  enabled  them  to  execute  the  hang- 
ings of  the  fabemade  (Exod.  isxv,35;  1  Chmn.  iv, 
21)  anil  other  artistic  textures.  At  a  later  periinl  the 
Egyptians  were  still  famed  for  their  msnufaclntes  of 
"One' (i.e.  hackled)  flax  andofcAoW,  '<'lh,  rcndereit  in 
the  A.  T."  networks,"  but  more  probably  a  rhitt  mate- 
rial either  iif  linen  or  cotton  (Isa.  xis,  9;  comp.  Prov. 
vii,  16).  From  them  the  Tynans  procured  the  "fine 
linen  with  bruidered  work"  for  tlie  sails  of  their  vessels 
(Eaek.  xxvii,"),  the  handsome  character  of  which  may 
be  inferred  from  the  representations  of  similar  sails 
in  the  Egj-plian  paintings  (Wilkinson,  ii,  131,  167). 
Weaving  was  carried  on  in  Egypt  generally,  but  not 
universally,  by  men  (HeTO<I.  ii,  36;  camp.  Wilkinson, 
ii,  84}.  1  his  was  the  case  also  among  the  Jews  about 
the  time  of  the  Exode  (t  Chron.  iv,  21);  hut  in  later 
limes  it  usually  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  females  to  supply 


Ancient  Egyptian  Women  Weaving. 
the  househidd  with  clothing  ( I  Sam.  ii,  19;  2  Kings 

surplus  for  sale  to  others  (Pn>v.  xxxi,  18, 19,  24). 

The  character  of  the  loom  and  the  process  of  weav- 
ing can  only  be  inferred  ftom  inciilcnlal  notices.  The 
Rgyplian  loom  was  usiully  upright,  and  the  weaver 
stood  at  his  work.  The  cloth  was  fixed  sometimes  at 
the  lop,  Biimeiimes  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  remark 
of  Hcnxlndis  (ii,  86)  that  the  Eg^-ptians,  contrary  to 
the  usual  praciicc,  pressed  the  woof  downwards,  must 
be  received  with  reservation  (Wilkinson,  ii,  85),  That 
a  similar  rariely  of  image  prevailed  among  ihe  Jews 
may  be  inferred  from  1  lie  rrmarii  of  John  (xix,9S)  Ihat 
Ihe  seamless  coat  was  wwen  "from  the  top"  (it  riv 
dvviiv).  I'unica  of  this  kind  were  derignateil  by  the 
Romans  rtelit,  implying  that  they  were  made  at  an 
upright  loom  at  which  Ihe  weaver  atood  to  his  work, 
thrusting  the  woof  upwards  ( Pliny,  viii,  74 ).  The 
modem  Arabs  use  a  procumbent  loom,  raised  above  the 
ground  by  short  legs  (Burckhardt,  NWh,  i.  Si).  I'he 
Bible  does  not  notice  the  loom  itself,  but  speaks  of  ibe 
beam  (*^i:Q,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  1o  a  plough- 
tnan's  yoke)  to  which  the  warp  was  attached  (I  Sam. 
;(vii,T;  2  Sam.  xxi,  19) ;  andoflfacpin  (r=e^,aterm 
otherwise  uodersti«d  of  the  warp,  as  in  ibe  Sept.  and 
IheVulg.  [Oesenius,  ThrM-ur.  p.890])  to  which  the 
cloth  was  Hxed,  and  on  which  it  was  rolled  (Judg.  xvi, 
14).  We  have  also  notice  of  the  shuttle  QTiV.,  de- 
noting bolh  the  web  and  t)ia  shuttle),  which  is  de- 
scribed by  a  term  ugnificantof  theact  of  weaving  (Job 


WEAVING  896  WEBB 

■imply  of  a  vuiegUnl  Muff  witbout  ■  patun. 
We  D»}'  funbtr  uotice  the  Mnm  (I)  Aaiio 
tyaC)  and  (diUAi  (ysdr),  appUol  lo  i^ 
robei  or  the  print  {E^od.  xiviii,  t,  39),  ud 
ligiiifyidg  Ititdaltd  (A.  T.  "  broidered'^,  i.  t. 
with  dvpreMioni  probibl;  of  ■  (qoaK  ilii|ii 
worked  in  it,  aimilat  to  tbe  lexlun  dochlBl 
bv  the  Bomant  undet  the  tenn  anliifii 
(Plinv,  viii,  73;  JutfuiI,  ii,  97);  (hk  n 
produecd  in  the  loom,  as  it  is  espreadr  Hid  » 
be  ibe  work  or  Ibe  weaver  (Exod.  xixix,  T.  ■ : 
(2)  mothidr  C-t,TOe)  (A.  V,  -^  twined- 1,  tp- 
plied  la  the  flue  linen  out  of  which  the  cuniba 
of  the  tabernacle  and  the  ucerdotal  vetUMiia 

texture  each  thraul  con^Med  orwrenlftv 
threads  twitted  together,  a*  i*  deambtd  w 
have  been  the  ease  with  the  famed  ctwirtflf 
Amaais  (Herod,  iii,  17);  (3)  nahbatHli  uM 
pm  pisati^)  (A.  V.  "of  wrought  golf!, 
?i'id^'  '"* '"  "'""  '«"'"«•  '"  '^hich  gold-lhread  wu  interwns 
(Pia.  xir,  13).  Tbe  Babvlaniana  were  fwiic- 
Tii,  0);  the  thrum  (flVl)  or  threads  wbieh  attaehedl  "larlyikilfulinthiiibniichofweaTing.aodenibfwdctrf 
the  web  to  the  beam  (lia".  xxxviii,  12,  marg.);  and  the  !  K""^  '^^  "  «'>i™«'*  ""the  rnl«  (P**"?;  "»;ji 
web  it«lf  CJuflg.  "vi,  Hi  A.T.«bean."):  Whether :  W»H  A''««'*.''.  *  3>-  ^he  "e»«Uy  Bab;te»* 
the  two  .«™.  in  I...  xiii,  48,  rendered  "warp"  (T^,  ,  ^r^StT^ul'?:  ^%Z'':^':^X:L^^ 
and  '■  w«.r  C='^;),  really  mean  thew  admila  of  doubt,  j  „jj  ,„  ^ave  been  woven  in  one  piece  wLiIkhI  ibc  ia- 
inaimuch  as  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  one  eniild  be  urvenlion  of  any  needlework  to  join  the  »™~  (Jai. 
affected  with  Icptwy  without  the  other:  perhaps  the  [  pbas,Anl.  iii,  7,4).  The  "coat  without  waoi'  (xirw 
terms  refer  tn  certain  kinds  oftex(ure(Knobel,arf(oc.).  I  i^^.j^^om  by  Jeiua  at  the  time  of  his  crucidiM 
The  shuttle  is  uceasiunally  dispensed  with,  Che  woof  be-  (So\\a  xii,  23),  was  probably  of  ■  sacerdotal  chsnoa 
fng  pused  throngh  with  the  hand  (Robinson,  fliit  Ra.  \„  this  respect,  but  made  ofa  leM  costly  malenal  (CBi>- 
i,  109).     Tbe  speed  with  which  the  weaver  used  his    v>v,Appar.^7i).    See  Wkb, 

th^w^brlu''lL^rt!mmT""iiVor^^^  ■Web:  l.The  spider's  (P^a.  itf^i.  Job  viii.ll. 

plied  vivid  images  — the  fiirmer  of  the  rapid  pa'sBsge  Aonsf,  as  elsewhere;  C-<'1!ip,tHr{i»,Isa.lix,5,6,rAmiA'>: 
of  life  (-fob  vii,  6 ),  the  latter  of  sudden  death  ( Isa.  2.  Of  (he  loom  (P?»?,  mauiknk,  JuJg.  xvi,  13L  ti, 
mviii,  12).  warp,  as  wov-en).     See  Wbavinq. 

The  teitlures  piMuced  bv  the  Jewish  weavers  were       _,,.,.„,,*,        ,  ,  ,    „ 

rery  various.  The  coarser  kitids,  such  as  tent-clot:,.  '^ebb,  Be^«°i°  C-..«  cterKym.-t  of  the  Ptwe- 
,«!kcloth,«.dthe"h.ityK.rmcnVofthep.»r,were  Mt-t  Epi»»p.l  Church.  H'-jn-nutry  w«  devoid  » 
ma.le  or-goafs  or  camel's  hair  (Exod.  xxvi,  7 ;  Matt,  iii,  ">"  "^J"*.  '^"  ""■«"«'  "^  <-^  S«.then.  A^  h^ 
4).  W<Sl  was  extensively  u«d  for  ordinarv  clothing  !>"»  '''"B*  of  "evenil  la^  plantation,  in  HnnceR-dl. 
(Uv.  xiii.  47;  Prov.xxvi"i,2Gi  xxxi.lB;  E«k.  xxrii,  ""°  County,  Va.  q  l8o4  he  removed  from  the  W 
U);  while  for  finer  work  flax  was  used,  varying  in  '  ~"""?  '?  Abbeville,  S.  C,  to  wke  charge  of  ,  wh«. 
quiUly.  and  producing  the  diffire.it  tcxturei  described  ,  '»"8"e»"''".  "oping  to  improve  h»  l>«l>h  ^  *^ 
fa.  tbe  KWe  as  "linen-  a.Kl  "line  linen."  The  mixture  '=*'«"8«  "/  ="™";  ^".,^*  ^'f^  '*"!.  ^I^'^'h  Tr" 
of  wool  and  flax  in  dulh  inlo.ded  fur  a  gartnent  was  in-  ""  •?'""S  ™''^f  »!  J*  ''?"' '  S'l>""(^^■  U  «>  I** 
terdicted(Lev.xix,19iDe,-t.xxil,ll).  With  regard  "hen  he  die,l,aK«l/utty-five  years.  See  .<  »rr.  (i«. 
lo  the  ornamental  kimls  of  work,  the  "neediewnrt"  and    <^*"''=*  '^"^'  '*■"'■  ^  ^^■ 

"tbe  workofthecuuning  workman-havealreadybeen        W«bb,  Danlvl,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  miBiMc 
diMuBSed  uniier  the  beail  of  Nkkplewore  to  tLie  effect    was  boni  at  CanUrbury,  Conn,  April  13, 11'" 
that  both  kinds  were  pmduce<l  in  the  loom,  and  that .  braced  religion  in 
the  distintiion  between  tlym  lay  in  the  addition  of  a  j  work  of  pteachiui 
device  or  pntletn  in  the  latter,  the  ritrntA  consisting  '  faience  in  his  tw 


d  by  the  war  « 
Britain  campelled  him  to  lucMc. 
which  he  did  al  Newport.  Here  bt 
opened  a  schaol,  and  foe  nine  yeart 
performed  the  responsible  duties  gf 
both  schoolmaster  and  pn-acher  is 
charge.  In  1B23  he  rvjuiimj  tit 
New  England  Cotifemice,  and  iah 
\  iog  the  following  eighteen  \ti' 
tilled  the  most  important  chaijn*  is 
the  Conference ;  puhltahed  tbe  Zm^i 
lltrald  one  year  (I«27):  and  ••• 
pmiding  eld«rfarseveral  Tcan,  is 
1841  he  superannuated;  in  IMS  k 
was  CranifeiTed  lo  Ibe  ProvidtaB 
Conference,  and  was  statioiied  in 
at    Little   Compton,  and    then   * 


WEBB 


It,  when  bj  rtr. 
bigblf  ealtoTMl  ud  ■pprecialiTC  audicii 
tinned  Bi  ytan  eouieciitiTel;.  Hera  b*  died,  March 
19,  IB«7,  one  of  thfl  mot  noud  Hethnliau  of  hii  limo, 
having  sptnt  mora  ycsra  in  tha  ictiv*  work  ihwi  »uj 
other  pnncber  In  the  anuli  of  UetbodiMD.  8«e  Jtfi*> 
■tv  (/  A  immal  Con/enwH,  1867,  p.  101, 

'Webb,  nranolB,  an  EngUih  Bap(l«t  ralnianr,  wa* 
bom  atTauDlon  in  1TS6.  He  beewtie  niniilerofa  eon- 
gngatkm  at  Barbican,  London;  ■!■>  at  Huniian;  and 
died  in  1815.  He  wai  the  author  oraonie  vulumn  of 
Srrmama—SomatH!  a  Potm  (1811):— and  Pamkar. 
■HiincDD(l8lb>  att(Looi.)GBiHimaM'tMiiff(ami,l8lb, 
u,t7S,hK. 

^tTebb,  JamM,  ■  Hetliadiat  Kpluopal  mlniitrr, 
waabominPennaylTaiiiainI839.  He  embraced  relig- 
km  in  early  life;  years  later  waa  li<!enaed  aa  an  exhore- 
ct;  and  began  hi*  ministerial  life  in  ISJUIon  Zion  arcuic, 
Cecil  Co.,  Md,  Heeling  wilh  ciiacouragemenia,  he  be- 
gan lo  doubt  the  genuineoeaa  of  hit  call,  and  »on  re- 
luTued  to  hia  rumer  vocation.  After  much  prayer  and 
cotinad  he  again  began  the  active  work;  joined  the 
Pbiladelphia  Conference  in  1860,  and  in  it  labored  funr 
rcATi  io  peraatentl;  that  hia  health  gave  way  and 
canaed  hia  nperannuUion,  He  died,  greatly  lamented, 
in  Cheater  County,  Pa.,  Oct.  8, 1864.  See  MvMta  of 
Am»al  Con/rrmea,  ISSIt,  p.S4. 

"Webb,  lotan  <l),  an  American  divine,  vaa  bom  in 
ieS7.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  ITOS;  wai 
ladained  minialer  of  the  New  North  Chnreh,  BoMon,  in 
1714;  and  died  in  1750.  He  puUiBhed  twenty  nngle 
Strmomi.     See  Allibone,  Did.  a/  Bril.  md  Amrr.  Aa- 

"Webb.  John  [!),  an  English  clerKyman  and  erni- 
IKntantiqueiy,wasboniinl776,and(1iRlinl8S9.  He 
was  ihfl  aulhnr  of,  Traiaialim  of  a  French  Mrtrical 
Hittorg  of  lit  Drpotitien  of  Kini/  Richard  II  (Lond. 
l9ia):-Hiaifik'M  Erpnuet  of  Richard  dt  S«i<!field 
(18&&).     ateimbmMylMct.tfBril.ondAmtr.Aulhori, 

VTebb,  John  (3),  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, wai  bom  at  Dulcot  in  1827.  Early  in  life  be  ex- 
perienced a  thorough  consecraiion  to  God,  and  was  dih- 
gmt  in  pieparaiiun  for  the  miniMry.  Hr.  Webb  grad- 
uated at  tbe  Vfettem  College,  and  aettled  at  Caatle  Cary 
in  1861.  He  removnl  to  Shepttm-Mallel  in  1858,  and 
aettled  at  Lewia  in  1864.  The  Church  and  congrega- 
tkm  greatly  increaaed  under  hia  adininiilralion.  Ur. 
Webb'*  reading  waa  extensive  among  the  best  writers 
and  thinkers  of  the  dHj;  and  his  preaching,  thoagb 
aimple,  waa  combined  with  such  intelligence  that  he  at- 
tracted tbe  tboaghlful  Christians,  and  alwara  atuched 
them  to  hia  minittrv.  He  died  Nov.  7,  1867.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong.  Yfar-boot,  1888,  p.  BOl. 

VTebb,  John  (4),  to  English  nintster  of  the  Bible 
CbiiMians,  was  bom  Jan.  81,  1836.  After  laboring  for 
aome  lime  ai  a  local  preacher,  he  gave  bimself  wholly 
to  the  work  of  tbe  miniatry.  He  entered  the  Confer- 
ence in  1860.  At  the  Conference  of  1873,  feeble  health 
aUigrd  him  to  lake  a  snpernumerarv  relation.  He  died 
June  7, 1874.     See  Mmiila  nfCmfrrtnctt,  1874. 

^^abb,  Joaeph,  a  Pmbyterian  minister,  was  a 
gndtiaie  of  Yale  College  in  the  class  of  1715.  He  was 
ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Newark, 
N.J.,andbecameameniibeToftbeSynodinl720.  He 
proposed  to  the  Synod  *  case  of  conscience,  but  in  such 
general  and  doabtful  terms  thai  it  was  remitted  to  the 
Preabytery.  In  ]7M  a  committee  of  Synod,  at  his  re- 
quest, went  to  Newark  to  settle  a  difficulty  which  had 
ariaan;  and  tbe  Synod  approved  of  its  action  in  the 
ptemiiea.  In  178S  diOcnltiea  in  his  congregation  led 
tin  Church  miaaionaries  to  commence  thtir  servic«s  in 
the  town.  Dickinaon  preached  on  "  the  vanity  o(  hn- 
maninttitationain  matters  of  religioo."  Colonel  J  naiah 
Ogden  bad  been  anapanded  from  Church  piivilegn  be- 


7  WEBB 

canae,  fi>r  fear  of  losing  his  bay,  he  had  gathoed  it  in 
on  [be  Lord's  day.  He  wrote  to  tbe  Synod  in  17B4,  and 
Crota  and  Pembntun  replied ;  but  the  letter  did  not 
satisfy  him.  Dickinaon  and  Pemberton  wrote  the  next 
year.  The  result  was  that  Ogden  joined  the  Epiaco- 
paliaika,  and  a  Church  miadonaiy  was  stationed  in  New- 
ark. Webb  oontinued  bis  relation  to  the  Synod  till 
1740.  He  and  his  son,  a  student  of  Yale  Odlege,  wen 
drowned  while  craaslng  the  ferry  at  Saybrooh,  Conn., 
OcL  ai,  1741.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Wsbb,  IiOtan,  a  Uetbodiat  Epiaeopal  minister, 
wa*  bom  at  Ridgeaeld,  Huron  Co.,  O.,  Aug.  9,  18S7. 
He  removed  with  his  pareot*  to  La  Porte,  Ind.,  when 
thirteen  year*  of  age ;  there  received  a  common-achaol 
education;  experienced  converaiDn  in  1865;  mnoved 
to  BoMse,  Minn.,  in  18S7 ;  spent  two  winters  in  a  print- 
ing-office; received  Ikenae  to  preach  in  1868)  stodied 
two  years  at  HcKendree  College ;  was  one  of  the  Arst  lo 
respond  to  president  Lincoln's  call  for  volunteers  to  put 
down  the  Rebellion,  and  served  the  first  three  months  aa 
flrat  lientenant,  and  the  next  three  years  as  captain  of 
Company  F,  Ninth  lUtnois  Infantry;  then,  being  di»- 
abled  tbr  the  infantry,  returned  hom&  Soon  alter 
he  Joined  in  the  ellc)rt  to  supprvsa  the  Sioux  Indian 
outbreak;  afterwanl*  labored  zealously  as  a  lecniit- 
ing-officer;  and  Anally,  re-entering  the  university  at 
Red  Wing,  resumed  his  studinL  In  1867  he  entered 
the  New  York  East  Conference,  and  wa*  stationed  at 
Collinsville,  Conn.  Hi*  subMquent  charges  were:  Es- 
sex, in  1868-69;  and  in  1870  Forotville,  where  hia 
dMe  application  and  over-exertions  andermined  his 
conalituiion,  and  hemorrhage  of  the  lungs  set  in.  He 
removed  South,  and  employed  hlmsdf  at  various  man- 
ual occupations  until  his  demise  at  Naahvllle,  Tenn., 
Feb.  20, 1880.  The  last  six  years  at  his  life  were  full 
of  poverty,  bereavement,  and  deep  sorrow.  See  JWn- 
Mtt  ofAmaal  Cvnfrrtiiea,  1880,  p.  60. 

'Webb,  nathnn,  a  Congregstional  minister,  was 
bom  in  Brainlree,  Mast.  He  gradusted  fkom  Harvard 
College  in  1735;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Uxbridge,  Feb.  S,  17S1 ;  and  died  March  14, 1772,  in  the 
sixty-teventliyearof  his  age.  See  Sprague,  ^  anab  n/" 
Ike  A  mer.  Pulpit,  ii,  8fi. 

Webb,  Samnel,  an  English  Weslevan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Hanham,  near  Bristol,  in  1788.  He  feared 
tbe  Lord  from  his  youth,  and  Joined  the  Methodist 
Church  at  the  age  nf  twenty-two.  He  was  called  into 
the  ministry  in  1808,  in  which  he  continued  with  an  un- 
sullied reputation  until  his  death,  June  2G,  1847.  Meek, 
humble,  and  modest,  he  was  6rm  in  principle  and  tal- 
ented in  preaching.  See  MiHattt  of  Wttlffon  Co»ftr- 
(isces,IS47. 

^V«bb,  Thomu,  prominent  in  tbe  eariy  history 
of  Hethodiam,  was  an  English  soldier — for  several  yeara 
lieutenant  of  the  Forty-eighth  Regiment  of  Fool— and 
a  man  of  wealth  and  education.  He  lost  an  eye  and 
was  nearly  killed  in  the  storming  and  capture  of  the 
Fi«ncb  fort  of  Loaisborg,  Acadia  (Nova  Scotis),  in  1758 ; 
and  waa,  wilh  Washington,  one  of  the  few  olBcera  who 
survived  the  terrible  slaughter  at  the  battle  known  aa 
"Braddock's  Drfeat'—the  unsuccessful  attack  in  17&6 
on  tbe  French  fort  Duquetne,  where  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
nowstands.  Fouryeanafterwardsbescaiedthc  Heights 
of  Abraham  with  Gen.  Wolf,  and  saw  Canada  pits  for- 
ever  from  the  hands  of  France.  He  was  converted  un- 
der a  sermon  preached  by  Wesley,  in  Bristol,  in  1765; 
united  with  the  Hethodist  society,  and  commenced 
preaching.  We  next  hear  of  him  as  barrack-master 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  report  that  the  Methodists  had 
commen(^ed  meetings  in  New  York  reached  the  ein  of 

(spring  of  1767).  Webb  was  the  providential  man. 
"  The  little  society  needed  a  leader— Webb  was  bom  to 
command.  They  needed  another  preacher  of  more  »• 
perience,  learning,  and  power-Webb  was  one  of  lbs 
beat  preachers  then  on  the  continent  of  America.    They 


WEGSCHEroER  8! 

UMded  money  wherewith  to  boose  th«ir  rnung  aocitty 
— Webb  ««■  rich  and  graemu. . . .  Il  would  have  been 
■  hard  mitter  fui  them  to  bive  sailed  theouelvei  by  ■ 
cboice,  oat  nf  tH  the  Hethodiac  preichen,  betMT  than 
Ui>d  had  suiud  them"  (Dtnidi,  Hiil.  nf  itetiodum,  p.  \ 
388).  The  oanj^iegationg  became  too  Urge,  and  in  1768 
John  Stroel  Church  was  dedicated,  Wdih  being  one  nf 
the  principal  contributora  in  meeting  the  espeiua  of 
the  new  building.  The  miliUry  aulhnritie*  now  pUcvd 
the  captain  on  the  retired  list,  but  with  full  pay.  He 
■C  once  commenced  idnera^ng.  He  introduced  Hi 
odiun  into  Long  Itland  at  Jamaica;  founded  aocie 
■tPemberlon.  Burlington,  and  Trenton.N.  J.;  tnvened 
Delaware  and  Maryland ;  became  the  pioneer  of  Mcth- 
odiim  in  Philadelphia,  where  be  preached  in  a  uil-lod 
and  fanned  a  elan  in  1768,  and  two  years  after  gave 
liberally  for  the  purchase  of  St.  George'i  Church.  The 
work  was  now  spreading  lapidlv.  Help  was  needed. 
Webb  sailed  for  England  in  1772;  preached  in  Dublin, 
London,  etc;  made  a  aUrring  appeal  before  the  Leeds 
Canrerene«i  and  in  1778  returned  with  Shadfnrd,  Ran- 
kin, and  Yeatbry.  He  continued  his  erangeliuic  la- 
bors till  after  the  brerting-out  of  the  Rerolntionary 
War,  being  one  of  the  last  of  the  English  preachers  l>i 
leave;  but  finally  the  eountrr  became  too  hot  for  liim, 
and  he  bade  a  reluctant  good-bye  to  America,  the  acent 
ofio  many  struggles  and  victories  in  his  eventful  ami 

home  for  bis  family  in  Portland,  on  the  heigbta  of  Bris- 
tol; but  still  travelled  and  preachedextensively  in  chap- 
els, in  market-placen,  and  in  Che  open  air,  listened  to  by 
immense  congregationsL  The  French  prisonen  at  Wiii- 
cheslcr  (1776-82)  and  the  soldien  and  sailors  at  Porla- 
mouEh  were  beneflted  by  his  labors.  In  179S  he  was 
liberal  and  active  in  the  erection  of  Portland  Chaptl,  st 
that  time  one  of  the  moat  elegant  meeting-bouseii  in  the 
Hetbodist  connection.  The  old  soldier  and  erangellM 
died  Dec20, 1796,  aged  seventy-two rean,and  was  laid 
to  rest  under  Uie  chance!  of  Portland  ChapeL 

Wnley  writing  to  a  friend  in  Limerick,  aaid, "  Captain 
Webb  is  a  man  of  fire,  and  the  power  of  God  conilantly 
atlen'ls  his  word"  (Jour.  Feb.  i,  1773;  Worh  [Bd.  ed. 
Ijmd.],  xii,S7S).  Charlea  Wesley  speaks  of  biiD 
''  inexperienceil,  honest,  zealous,  loving  enthuuail.' 
1774  John  Adams  says,  "Mr.  Webb  is  one  of  the  most 
fluent,  eloquent  men  I  ever  heard.  He  reaches  the  im- 
agination, and  touches  the  passions  i-ery  well,  and  ex- 
presses himself  with  great  proprielv.''  See  Atmore,  Mflk, 
Jfnn.s.v.;  SUTens,Htff.n/'Af«il.'i,437;  iii,99;  M.Hul. 
of  M.  K.Ch.  (Index),  vol  iv;  Porter,  Wirt,  o/ J/riA. 
p.  347-50,261;  SimfMD,  Cgdop. of  MOK^y. 

^RTegBchelder,  Julius  Augcst  Lcowia,  the  fore- 
most systematic  theologian  of  rationalism,  was  bom  in 
1771  at  Kubbelingen,  in  Brunswick.  In  17S1  he  was 
in  the  Univenily  of  HelmstOdt,  where  Henke  then  oc- 
cupied the  theolngical  chair,  and  in  1796  ha  became 
tutor  in  the  family  of  a  prominent  merchant  of  Ham- 
bui^.  He  gave  ten  years  to  this  service.  His  leisure 
time  was  devoted  (o  the  study  of  Kant's  philosophy, 
the  fruit  of  which  appeared  in  1797  in  Ethiea  Sloi- 
corum  . . .  cum  PrUicipiu  Elhieit  a  Kaniio  PropontiM 
Comparala,  and  in  ■  ftrnch  d.  HavpUSM  d.phUn- 
loph.  ReligionilrhTt  in  Prediglm  darzuiltllai.  In  1804 
he  added  to  these  a  treatise  L'thtr  dii  Traamng  dtr 
Monil  ton  Jtr  Kdigion.  In  1805  he  obtained  a  tutor- 
ship in  the  University  ol  Ghttingen,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing work  came  more  prominently  before  the  public  by 
the  issue  of  his  EmtfUnxg  in  dot  JicaageliHm  Johnimit. 
He  was  thereupon  called  (o  a  professorship  in  the  Hes- 

sorplion  of  Rinteln  was  transfetreil  to  Halle.  Here  he 
became  exceedingly  popular  with  students,  who  throng- 
ed his  lecture-rooms,  and  he  added  to  his  fame  by  the 
publication  of  bis  /aitilalionei  Thtnlogim  Dogmalietr. 
His  popularity  continued  until  the  DemincialioH  nftii 
KvangtUcal  Kirchemtilung,  as  it  was  called,  in  1880, 
When  be  was,  together  with  his  colleague  Geaeulua, 


18  WEIDNER 

cited  before  a  committee  of  examination  to  defend  him- 
self against  complaints  reiqiecting  his  teachings  in  the 
lecture-room.  The  incervention  of  political  evenia  de- 
prived the  examination  of  such  importance  as  it  might 
have  possessed  for  him,  but  his  influence  was  oevenbe- 
lesB  irrevocably  broken.  Ullmann  came  to  reinfum 
Tholuch  in  1839,  Julius  HuUer  lea  years  atlerwsnl*; 
and  the  orthodox  tendency  grew  in  every  direciiorL 
Many  of  the  polemical  blows  aimed  by  Hase  agaisK 
Riihr  in  I8S1  took  et&ct  on  Wegicheider  alM.  As  hii 
reputation  declined,  students  no  longer  found  il  passi- 
ble to  endure  the  tediousoeaa  and  n>onotonaas  deliveiy 
of  his  lectures,  and  but  few  of  tbem  cvDUnoed  to  ait  at 
hie  feet  after  1840.  He  died  in  February,  1849.  The 
Bcientinc  value  of  his  laitiliilioaet,  the  great  syslcnuiie 
theology  of  rationalism,  owes  but  little  of  iu  character 
to  Wegscheider.  Its  iboughis  are  borrowed,  usually 
from  Herke's  Lineameala  and  Ammon'a  Stimmta,  and, 
in  many  instances,  iu  the  exact  words  of  tbos«  bonkx 
It  abounds  in  hidf- completed  ideas  and  unrecoociW 
diflerenees,  aa  does  scarcely  any  other  theological  work. 
Its  true  chancter  waa  shown  up  for  the  6rat  time  by 
Hase  in  his  AUirokr  (1837).  See  aho  Steiger,  Krii^ 
dri  RilHimalitniat  in  Wrgtcheidrr't  Dagmatii  (!«»)  and 
Henog,  Rtal-Eacyldop.  s.  v. 

'Wagawtn,  in  Norse  mvthokigy,  is  one  aC  the 
streams  of  Hel,tluwing  through  Nidlieim. 

^(TelohaelEOpf,  in  German  myibuk-ex,  is  >  name 
given  to  a  certain  disease  which  was  ihnii(;ht  to  be  de- 
supposed  to  be  common  in  I'gland.  It  ia.  however, 
now  quite  certain  that  the  name  really  ii  Wtdurlir^/, 
taken  from  the  superstitious  idea  of  Wichtvl— email.  it»- 
Riestic,elflikeB(Hriu  that,dtiubtleas,iu  manycasnan 
benefldal  («  men,  yet,  when  leased  or  tantalized,  are 
angry  and  evil-minded:  and.  besides  doing  other  nis- 
chief,  they  are  aaid  to  interlace  the  hairs  of  the  head 
into  inextricable  plats  and  knula. — Vollmer,  Worttrb.  i. 
MgikoL  s.  V. 

Vtreioklmiman,  JnACHiH  Sahurl,  a  LailwTaa 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Hay  1, 17 14,  at  Daai- 
lic  From  1736  to  17^  be  studied  at  Lnpsic,  and  his 
dissertslion,  published  in  1739,  Dt  FoKlibmi  VrHtaiit 
Saera  in  Riculit  Profamit  Sparta  ad  fAxOat.  UL. 
VII,  Cap,  7,  gave  him  the  privilege  of  lecturing  on  phi- 
losophy. In  1740,  having  presented  another  diaeerta- 
tion,  Dt  Plulonica  Aidnonim  Imnorinlilaif,  he  was 
appointed  adjunct  to  the  philosophical  faculty.  Three 
years  later  be  was  maile  pnifesaor  extraordinary,  aod  ia 
1744  professor  in  ordinary  of  theology,  his  dissrnain 
for  this  occasion  having  been  De  Tifologit  7'ridrwi^it, 
alia  iMqaail&ia,  alia  SaUintlibia.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  tnade  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Oct.  IB,  1774. 
Besides  the  writings  already  mentioned,  he  pablinlKd, 
Dt  Chriito  at  MotU  t^Jbrwrimito  (A'iiebei^K,  17&a}:  — 
Dt  DiKrimint  Gratia  Dima  lint  Merilo  contra  Mrti. 
(sni  (ibid.  l757)!^Dfcu,  ftmrfTcftOBW  WM  Typmt.trd 
PToftaor  (ibid.  1759).  His  other  writings  are  ennaice- 
ated  in  FUrsr,  BtU.  Jud.  iii,  497 ;  During,  Dit  tftUkrim 
TItrolofftH  DtutKUimdi,  iv,  672  sq.     (I).  1'.) 

Waidetbot  is  a  priest  of  the  Weods  in  PocDera- 
nia  and  Kllgen,  the  next  to  Uriwe. 

Weldnum,  Fai-l,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  mintater. 
was  bom  in  1788.  He  graduated  at  Union  Orflq^  ia 
18l8,at  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  iii  I8M^ 
and  was  licensed  by  the  ClaiHS  of  New  Brunswick  iha 
aante  year;  was  pastor  at  Schoharie,  N,  Y„  18->a-3«(  at 
Hanbeim,  1837-41,  and  again,  1841-M.  He  died  in 
185i.  Sec  Corwin,  Mamat  of  lit  Rrf.  Clnrxi  u 
America,  i).M3. 

^KTeldner,  Johmnn  JoaeUin.  a  Lutheran  tbeo- 
bigian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Aug.  11,1672,  at  Roatadi. 
He  studied  at  dil^rent  universities,  and  in  1690  be  waa 
appointed  deacon  at  St.  Mary's  in  his  native  place.  » 
IToe  he  received  the  itgne  of  D.D.,  in  17IS  itm  a^ 


puintMl  prorenor  of  CbetAogy,  and  in  1731  unior  or  Ihe 
tbeolagiul  facultf,  anil  died  Ocl.  17,  17S2.  He  vra  ■ 
voluroirtDUS  writer.  Of  bii  worka  we  mention:  Du- 
pmll.  IX  eonira  Rr/iynnalot,  quod  nm  Cotwrmanl  cam 
iMIkertnuMiiiHiirimii  Artieiilu  Fidci:—DiMttrtatiomi 
Trt»  de  Gratia  Dei  Cmtrtali  mm  Par1iixlari:~Ciru- 
Itit  ex  Siiliit  ofutoimot : — Dt  Forma  S.  Ciaa  at  CW- 
tfcraiione  ^  cam  radtm  Conjuacla  SacramattaU  Man- 
AioafibiK  M  Biitfione.- — Miracatum  JfiironuM  Hkri- 
dmtit  Cadfoitium:  —  Ckriifvi  Raurga*  V'fcdir, 
See  SeekD,  ^fikau  Lvbeemni  Jiicher,  " 
GtMrlrti-Lexilmt,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Weldner,  PBal,  a  Jewith  convert  of  Cirinthia 
who  joined  the  Chrisiiu  Church  in  l£08,wu  prufnaor 
of  Hebrew  *t  tbe  Vienna  Univerat}',  and  was  appuinted 
bj  imperial  perminiMi  to  preach  oceaaionally  to  the 
Jews.  He  wrnle  Loco  Pracipaa  Fidei  Chrvlium  Cot- 
Una  tt  Eiplicata  (Timna,  1669;  2il  ed.  1662,  with 
Efi^ala  Htbr.  ad  R.  Jrkvdam,  Vmrt.  HabilaHlm,  cum 
VcTtiPUt  LaHnai.  See  Kalkar, /nor/ rnddte  A'lti^,  p. 
90 ;  Ddituch,  H'iwiucidr/},  KvnU,  Jadauhum,  p.  189, 
Jtt);  Wolf,  SiU,  Ae6r.  i,  964 :  JHclteT,  A Ugrmma  6'e- 
lehrtat-I.enhim,t.v.;  FUret,  fit6/.  yui/.  iii,  498;  Baj'le, 
ItidietHutire  Hutoriqae  tt  Criiique.     (B.  P.) 

^l7»lKaI,  Ctulatopher,  a  Uennan  engnrer.  wu 
boni  at  Redviu,  in  BuhcmU,  in  1654.  After  viiiiting 
variana  Geman  citifs,  he  Ktlled  in  Nuremberg,  where 
he  died  in  1726.  Hit  principal  work  waa  a  Mt  of  Bible 
plates  engnTCd  Tram  hia  own  desi(;ni,  entitled  Snera 
Seriptura  Loqaetn in !nuigiaSiat,etc.,pu[A\t,iirAia  1690. 
Ther  were  executeii  with  ihc  grarcr.  He  ia  alao  laid 
h>  have  engraved  in  meziotiiiio,  and  to  have  carried  on 
an  extenaive  commerce  in  prima.  See  Spooiicr,  £ts^. 
Hat,  of  Ok  Fim  AjU,».v. 

'Waisel,  Valantliie.  ■  mj^ie  at  the  16th  cen- 
tury, waa  born  in  169S  at  Kayn,in  MiMiia,irhen  hia  ra- 
ther waa  then  paator.  He  studied  at  L^paic  and  Wit- 
tenberg from  1664  to  1667,  and  waa  ordaineil  paainr  of 
Zachoppan,  in  the  diocese  nf  Chemnitz,  Nov.  16, 1567,  by 
Paul  Eber  (q.  t.).  He  remained  in  that  poailion  till  he 
died,  June  10,  1688.  He  waa  married,  but  remained 
childleaa.  He  waa  beloved  b;  hia  parishioncra,  who 
were  Dot  capable  of  diacovering  hia  heterodox  viewa, 
more  eapedally  aa  he  did  not  publiah  them  to  the  worid, 
and  contented  himaelf  with  privately  etaboraiidg  them. 
He  waa  not  wholly  aacceaalul,  however,  in  preventing 
icporla  of  hia  onaound  opiniona  from  being  circulated, 
according  lowhich  he  waa  tainted  with  Oaiandrian  and 
Schwenkfeldian  enon.  Hia  cantor,  n'eiken,  collected 
a  band  of  myitical  adept^  who  undertook  the  mnltipli- 
caiion,  and  aabaeqiiently  the  publication,  of  Weigel'a 
worka;  and  who  iaaoed  them  al  Halle,  Magdeburg,  and 
rlaewfacre,  in  1613,  and  afterwarda  in  repealed  editions. 
Il  ia  poanble  thai  interpolationa  of  foreign  matter  into 
theae  wiitinga  look  place,  aa  the  editora  aaauned  pseu- 
donyiDoaa  namea. 

The  turn  anil  nibatanee  of  Weigel'a  tbeoriiing  may 
be  comprcheniled  in  the  wonia  nrhia  epitaph  at  Zachnp- 
pan  (aee  Amold,  XireAn-  u.  Kefuriuforar,  ii,  17, 17), 
"O  man,  learn  to  know  thyaelf  and  God;  thi*  ia  auf- 
flcient  for  theel"  His  alimentation  proceeds  within 
the  range  of  the  subjective  conacuniaaeas,obJeeliveproofa 
being  regarded  by  him  aa  the  demonatration  of  a  bond- 
s' [o  tbe  letter  which  ia  oppoaed  to  all  true  spiritual 
wiadoiD.  He  leachea  that  man  is  a  microcoam  which 
embodiea  within  itedf  the  potentiality  of  aalvation  equal- 
ly with  other  elements.  Nature  and  grace  are  not  in 
contrast  with  each  other,  even  In  an  ethical  aense,  but 
ate  umply  different  degreea  of  the  aame  alate.  Man  is 
furthennoT*  a  threefold  principle— hia  boily  being  taken 
fram  tbe  Jsauu  ttrm,  hia  anul  fmm  the  atcUar  spirit  or 
Armament,  and  hia  apirii  from  the  tpiracuiun  vita  in 
Uod.  Tbia  apitit  ia  alao  the  Holy  Divine  Sririll  or, 
more  atnmgl;  expreaaed,  man  comprehenda  in  himaelf 
by  native  not  only  the  worid,  but  alan  God  and  Christ, 
Man  ia  eonafquen'tly  both  a  mictotheoiand  -  -' 


19  WEIGEL 

maa,and  conalitutca  the  point  at  which  the  worlil,  which 
emanated  from  God,  letuma  to  God.  Weigel'a  panthe- 
iam  ia  undeoiahle,  The  idea  of  emanation  appears  in 
hia  cosmology,  and  tbe  thoughta  of  eternity  and  time, 
the  invisible  and  the  viuhle.are  everywhere  regarded 
by  him  aa  correlated,  ao  that  none  of  them  can  exiat 
without  ita  Gounterpwl.  The  creature  ia  considered  «>■ 
lential  to  the  unlulding  of  the  divine  nature.  The  per- 
sonality of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  ia  not  necessary 

nection  with  the  emanation  of  the  world  frum  God. 
The  Son  ia  the  centre  in  which  God  and  the  creature 
come  together.  Throu)(h  him  God  becomea  corporeal 
and  tempoiaL  It  will  b«  noticed  that  tbia  doea  not  ef- 
fect the  emanation  of  the  creature  from  God,  but  ia  a 
mere  impoaaible  redaction  of  the  divine  and  the  eternal 
to  the  meaaura  of  time  and  aenae ;  nor  doea  Weigel  any- 
where aucceed  in  achieving  the  completeness  eaaenlial 
to  the  consistency  of  hia  ayalem  which  the  eatablisbing 
of  a  distinct  creature -nature  wnutd  involve.  Ange^ 
were  created  by  the  word  of  God,  and  in  them  the  in- 
vi£ble  world  1  but  when  Ijicifer  fell,  God  deured  to 
have  man,  and  therefore  created  the  earth.  Yet  man 
is  called  the  eye,  ear,  fool,  hand,  inatmment  of  God, 
through  which  even'thing  must  he  recognised  and 
wrought ;  and  it  ia  aaid  that  this  could  not  have  come 
to  paaa  had  Adam  remained  in  Faradiae.  In  brief,  lU 
externality  ia  hut  a  reflex  of  the  inlerruU,  and  an  idcal- 
iam  exiats  in  which  the  diatinction  between  the  worhl 
and  God  ia  altogether  subJectiTe,  and  whose  result  ia 
that  man  lacka  personality.  Alt  effect  is  tbe  reaulc  of 
the  divine  action,  and  yet  tbe  baroan  ' 


le  (aU  in 


ihich 


an  accident  assumed  by  the  will,  though  it  may  hi 
aidered  a  substance  in  view  of  ita  effect  on  human  nat- 
ure, which  involvea  the  loas  to  man  of  hia  whole  body- 
body  being  equivalent  to  all  that  is  objective.    Origi- 

which  involvea  the  departure  of  man  from  Eden,  that 
be  may  till  the  aoil  and  learn  to  know  himself.  Re- 
demption consequently  has  no  objecltve  ugniBcatinn. 
Chriat  and  the  new  life  exiat  naturally  in  man.  The 
kingdom  of  God  is  so  in  man  that  all  the  potenciea  of 
aalvation  exiat  in  him,  and  it  is  actualized  by  the  at- 
tainment of  the  soul  to  a  knowledge  of  itaelf,  and  there- 
by to  a  knowledge  ofthe  Eternal  and  of  God.  The  key 
to  the  whole  of  Weigel'a  system  ia  hia  postulated  oppo- 
aiiion  between  the  internal,  which  ia  the  divine  in  man, 
and  the  cxiemal,  which  ia  the  product  of  the  internaL 
The  Scripturea.  aa  the  outward  letter,  are  depreciated 
and  accounted  incapable  of  revealing  eternal  life,  which, 
according  to  Weigel,  ia  made  known  by  the  aubjtclive 
apirii  alone;  and  yet  they  an  aaid  to  be  neceeaary  in 
another  direction,  because  of  our  blindness  and  weak- 
ness. The  duty  of  man  ia  fiilAlled  in  a  simple  snrren- 
der  to  Ihe  operations  of  the  immanent  Chrisu 

It  remaina  to  be  observed  thai  while,  in  hia  opposi- 
tion to  the  literalism  of  the  Church,  Weigel  waa  at  one 
with  the  aecla  of  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  he  was 
utierly  at  variance  with  them  in  his  advocacy  of  >  fully 
developed  quietism,  and  in  hia  denunciation  of  war, 
lawsuita,  etc.,  aa  he  waa  alao  with  the  groaa  materialism 
which  characterized  the  early  Anabaptists  in  the  nn- 
qualiHed  intelieclual'iam  of  hia  viewa.  Hia  mysticism 
aflbrded  no  ai<l  whatever  towards  the  thorough  regen- 
eration of  theology.  His  signiAcance  probablj-  extenila 
no  further  than  hia  influence  contributed  to  the  renew- 
al of  phiiiianphical  methoda  In  Iheolngtcal  inquiri-,  and 
as  he  antagonized  the  supranaturalism  then  current 
with  hia  principle  that  nothing  can  be  true  which  does 

as  being  true. 

See  Arnold,  Kircim-  n.  KKttrMtlwU,  n,  17,  17, 
where  a  complete  liat  of  Weigel'a  works  ia  given  ;  Un- 
MCltuldigt  yachrick'tn,  ]7l6i  Hilliger,  a  dissertation  en- 
tilled  Fata  d  Scripla  3f.  V.  Wr^  etc.  (WilUnberg, 


WEIGHING  OP  S0UI5  «( 

1731)  i  comp.  ilw  Rotb,  NSiUiier  Uitiemekt  vm  d.  pro. 
plM.W<iMtagiuifm(ie9i),iU.  Amold bu auted Wei- 
gel's  peouliu  tooMi  in  an  apologetic^]  wijr,  while  llilU- 
ger  lu*  fumuhed  ■  KUHirbBt  extended  li»  of  bis  hen- 
■U*.  Uii  impotuacc  to  phUowpby  u  kI  Turth  ia  Bit' 
tCT,  Cue*,  d.  Philomphii,  x,  77-100;  Sundennufer, 
PiUoi.  d.  CkriMmtivmi,  i,  lltt  iq. ;  Curitre,  Phiiuioph. 
Wdtaaichaaungd.  Ar/oraulioiinnf ,  p.  SOB-309 ;  fiirllier, 
Wtich,  EM.  ia  d.  lUL-Streitigktilea,  iv,  1021-1066; 
Pluck,  Gttck.  d.  pro*.  Tktoloffir,  p.  72  iq. ;  Higtnbacb, 
Vorhi,iib.d.Rr/..G<KA.i\i,3S7Ki.;Donirr,ChriMologit, 
ii,  86S;  Blur,  TraiiUUilekn,  iii,  £65-260;  id.  VenSI,. 
mmgtUirt,  p.  163.— Hencg,  SealSncfUop.  a.  v. 

'WeiBhlug  or  9ouu  ii  ■  pnictics  taieditad  to  tbe 
Egjptiui  godi  ta  detennine  tbeiT  place  in  the  futnra 
world.  The  beart  of  the  deixued  wu  placed  on  one 
■ide  or  tbe  Kilea  betil  by  Honia  and  Anubii,  ind  the 
ftod  Ttaoth  registered  the  reaulC  of  the  weighing.  Upon 
tbii  judgmeitt  (vtbich  wai  rendered  bv  Oiirii  and  his 
forty-two  depotiei)  tbe  irrcToctble  fata  or  the  loal  de- 
pendecL  If  tbe  deceased  wa*  convicted  of  unpardon- 
able faults,  be  became  the  prey  of  an  inferaal  niotiBCer, 
with  the  head  of  a  hippopotamua,  and  wB  bebeaded 
by  Horns  and  by  Sma,  one  of  tbe  fotma  of  Set,  upon  the 
iKTMiKi,  or  infctnal  scafluliL  The  most  wicked  were  pun- 
ishedwi^flaslannihiUtion,  See  LsDormant,  CjtoUlBfn 
Magic,  p.  86.    See  WaiaHT. 

Weight  ('|3^  Jkn,  DeuL  xxii,  34 1  XXV,  tG  1  3  Sam. 
xiT,  26;  l>rov.Vi,li  XT),  1 1 ;  XX,  10 ;  HicTi,!!;  a 
ttaiie,  a*  elsewhsra  reodered;  usaally  Vj3SQi  aaifAidl 
[once  ^-ptJa,  aUUnH,  Bwk.  It,  10],  troia  Vpti,  (d 
vtigA;  sbn,  pilet,  Prov.  xri,  II;  "scales,"  Isa.  xl,  ISi,  a 
balanct;  a^nac,  Heb.  xii,  1,  ■  nou;  (Sitpof,  2  Cor.  ir, 
17,  elsewhere  "bnrden"J.  It  is  evident  from  one  of 
these  namea  (iien)  that  stonea  were  used  in  the  moat 
ancient  lime*  among  tbe  Hebrews  for  weiebts,a9  they 
were  also  among  minj  other  aationa ;  and  fnim  anolh^ 
{autiiaT),  that  of  their  money  weights  and  terms  tbe 
shekel  was  that  in  moat  common  use,  and  the  alandard 
by  which  otbera  ware  regulated.  In  later  limea  weigbta 
were  made  of  lead  (Zech.  v,  6).  These  weights  were 
carried  ina  big(Deut.xxv',  IS;  Prov.xvi,  11)  suspend- 
ed Cram  tbe  girdle  (Cbstdin,  Vog.  iii,  133),  and  were 
very  early  made  the  vebick*  of  fraud.  The  babit  of 
carrying  two  sets  of  weights  isdeoounced  in  Deut.xxf, 
13  and  Piov.  xx,  10,  and  the  necenity  of  obaerring 
Urict  boneaty  in  the  matter  ia  inusted  upon  in  several 
precepuof  lhela<«(Lev.xix,36i  Deut.xxv,  13).  But 
the  cuBlom  liviKl  on,  and  remained  in  full  force  to  the 
daysofMicah  (vi,ll),  and  even  to  those  of  ZecboHsb, 
who  appears  (ch.  v)  ui  proDouuce  a  Judgment  against 
fraud  ofaaimilar  kind.     See  Bio. 

Between  ancient  wmghla  and  money  there  was 
very  intimate  connection.  All  Greek  money  was  ari(, 
inally  a  certain  weight  of  ailver,  aud  a  similar  rule  prob- 
ably held  with  the  money  of  other  nations.  H 
perhaps,  the  best  mode  ofascenaining  an  ancient  w< 
ia  by  weigfaing  a  good  coin  of  the  same  denomini 
When  thia  is  ascertained,  we  can  form  ijust  opinii 
tbe  other  weigbta  in  the  scale  rmm  their  relative 
portions.  Gold,  even  as  Iste  as  tbe  lime  of  David 
not  uud  as  a  standard  of  value,  but  was  ooniidered 
merely  as  a  very  preciooa  article  of  commerce,  am 
weighed  like  other  oilicles.  In  Oriental  countries,  as 
far  back  as  Che  time  of  Abnbam,  the  value  of  gooda 
was  estimated  at  a  certain  quantity  of  silver,  the  purity 
of  which  was  taken  into  account  by  ibe  mtrchant(GeD. 
xxiii,  16).  Buttbereisnotnceofalampedsilverorcoin 
previous  to  the  Captivity.  Nor,  indeed,  was  it  at  tbaC 
early  period  divided  into  piecee  of  a  certain  aize.  It 
w«a  commonly  weighed  out  in  balances,  thongh  its 
weight  was  Bometimes  ascertained  by  means  of  an 
instrument  of  weighing  answering  to  our  steelyards. 
See  ScALB.  By  meana  of  the  balance  the  Hebrews  ap- 
pear to  hire  been  able  to  weigh  with  conudentble  del- 


icacy, tad  for  tbia  purpoae 
they  bad  weights  of  extreme 
m in uteneaa,  which  are  called 
metapboricaUy  "  tbe  email 
'    t  of  the  balance"  (Isa. 

IS).  Tbe  "little  grain' 
(ponj)  of  the  balance  in 
Wiad.  xl,  23  ia  the  amall 
weigbt  which  cause*  the 
scale  to  tunu    In  this  pas- 

e,  as  in  2  Hbc  ix.  6,  the 

tek  word  TXosnyJ,  ren- 
dered "baloitce,"  wm  origi' 
nally  applied  to  Ibeacale-pan 
alone.  See  Bai-aiicb:.  Tbe 
batiDce   in   this   form   was 

t  is  found  on  Che  EfQ'ptian 

ime  of  Joseph,  and  we  And 
alluaiona  to  ita  aae  in  the  sto- 
ry of  tbe  purchase  of  tbe  cav 
if  Machpclab  (Uen.xxiii,ll 
by  Abrahsni.    Before  coii 

(as  introduced,  it  was  of  necessity  employed  in  ail 
tction*  in  which  the  valuable  metals  were  tbe  aw- 
diams  of  exchange  (xliii,  21;  Exod.  xxii,  17;  1  Kiogi 
IX,  89;  Eath.  iii,  9;  laa.  ilvi,  6;  Jer.  iiiii,  10,  «t). 
SeeHomcT. 

The  ahekel,  the  balf-shekel,  the  talent,  are  not  oahr 
denominatious  of  moneys,  of  certain  vi1iiM,iD  gold  sad 
Hlver,butalso  of  ceruin  weights.  The  eoilieot  we^ 
to  which  reference  is  made  is  the  na^bp,  hailU  (tito. 
xixiii,  19;  Joah.  xxiv,  33,  Job  xlii,  11)',  whidi  ia  tkt 
margin  of  our  ver^wn  is  ia  two  passages  rasitenl 
"Ismbs,"  while  in  the  text  it  is  "  piece  of  money."  Il 
may  have  derired  ita  name  from  being  in  the  ahapt  of 
a  Iamb,  Bee  sHutp.  A  number  of  aoiall  ■talii>a,ofa 
crouching  lion  in  bronxe,  forming  a  secies  of  vannttf  dh 
menaions,  from  one  inch  to  twelve  in  length,  bond  M 
MimrCId,  and  now  iu  the  British  Hoseum,  appesir  t* 
hare  been  Aaayrian  weighta.    On  the  tombs  at  TbebH 


are  representations  of  weights  having  tbe  form  if  itac 
sheep,  gaicllee,  etc  There  are  also  sRHing  the  Egvp- 
tian  antiquities  some  Coptic  weights  of  great  amsqaitv. 
but  not  antecedent  to  the  Christian  Bra.  They  uc  ck- 
cnlar,  and  have  grooves  or  channels  cut  in  them.    Sa 

ThelF^I  oftir  Sanctaarf,  or  Weight  of  the  Ta» 
pie  (Exnd.  XXX,  19,  34;  Uv.v,  16i  Nonb.  iii.AO:  n. 
19;  xviii,  16,  etc)  was  probab^  tbe  stanlonl  wri^ 


WEIGHT 


me  ■psTtnwnt  of  ibe  Tcnifile,  ind  not  a 
dilliretit  weight  from  the  eomnKm  ibtkcl  (I  Chnin. 
niii,S9);  fw  Ihongh  HoMi  appninu  tbit  at)  thinga 
Taliwd  by  Ibeir  price  in  lilvcr  abould  be  raud  by  the 
weight  oT  the  uncluary  (Lev.  nxvii,  90),  he  mikn  no 
difference  beci>««i  [biitbekelDrt»entyaboU,artwenLy 
gcnba,  and  the  common  ■hekel.  K»kiel  (ilr,  13), 
•peaking  c^  the  oidiiiarj  weighli  anil  meaauTe*  uwd  in 
tiaSc  among  the  Je■•^  uyi  ihit  Ihe  shekel  weighed 
twenty  oboli,  or  gtrabs;  it  was  therefDR  equal  In  the 
weight  of  tbe  ■ancluar)'.  Neither  Joaephus  nnr  Fhilo 
Dm  JenHTM,  nor  any  ancient  author,  apeak*  of  a  diuinc- 
tien  between  tbe  weights  of  the  Tempk  and  Iboae  in 

Handanli  of  weigbta  and  meaMim  in  lemplea  ia  not 
peculiar  to  tbe  Hebrewa.  The  Egyptiana,  aa  Ctemena 
Alexandrinoa  informa  ui,  had  an  officer  in  tbe  college 
«f  prieala  whose  busineea  it  wia  to  examine  all  sorta  of 
■neaaum  and  to  uke  care  of  tbe  originals ;  the  Romans 
had  Ihe  same  cuaioDi(FuiniuB,Z'e^>>>;)W(i):  and  the 
emperor  Juatiniin  decreed  that  sUndirds  of  weights 
mnd  meaaiirea  ahould  be  ket>t  In  Christian  churchea. 
Tbe  Jews  do  not  aeem  to  hat^e  bad  anr  olflcera  whose 
especial  duty  it  was  to  superintend  weighing  transac- 
liona  like  Ibe  kabb&neh,  or  pobtie  weighers  ot  Egypt, 
the  Greek  Zirjivrnrai  (Artemid.  ii,  87),  or  Latin  ISni- 
ptmSa  (Pliny,  xxxiii,8);  bat  care  was  always  takeo 
that  the  money  osed  should  be  of  full  w^bt  (Gen. 
Kliii,  !1).  For  the  eadmation  of  Bebrew  weights,  see 
Mktkoloot. 


Aucteui  ll)(]ipuau  lLabbiueli,ac 
iiMis  1,  •  ^Tgr  «)B>  la  lb*  tana  tl 


aiMm  1,  •  pill  gr  «)B>  la  lb*  tana  al  rUf  |  i.  a  Mu 


The  eapteaaion  in  Dao.  t,  S7,  "  thou  art  weighed  in 
the  balances,  and  art  Ibund  wanting,'  ho  bsan  auppoaod 
to  be  iUastraled  by  the  custom  of  weighing  tbe  Great 
Mogsl  on  hi*  birthday  in  tbe  presence  of  his  chief  gran- 
dee*. The  ceremony  i|  oncrilxd  in  a  paaaage  from  Sir 
Tbonaa  Roe's  Vogiiffe  vt  InMa,  quoted  in  Taylor's  Cal- 
Det,  Frog.  1S6;  "The  scalei  in  wbich  he  was  Ihss 
weighed  were  platoi  with  gold,  and  so  tbe  beam  on 
which  they  bong  by  great  chains,  made  likewise  of  that 
mnaC  predoiu  metal.  The  king,sittinK  in  one  ofthem, 
was  weighed  Hrst  against  aitvei  coin,  wbich  immediate- 
ly after'was  diatribnied  among  the  poor;  then  was  he 
weighed  againtt  gold  I  afiet  that  against  jewels  (aa  (hey 
M^) :  but  I  obserred  (being  then  present  with  my  lord 

thingii  laid  in  silken  bags,  on  tbe  contrary  scale. ...  By 
faia  weight  (of  which  hi*  physiciana  yearly  keep  an  ex- 
act BccooDt)  they  presume  to  guess  of  tbe  present  stale 


H  WEIEEL 

ofbisbodyi  of  which  they  apeak  flatterin^y,  howerer 
they  think  it  to  be."     It  appean,  however,  fivrn  a  con- 
NderatioD  of  tbe  other  metaphorical  eipreiaiona  in  the 
same  pasaage  of  Daniel  that  the  weighing  in  balances 
ia  aimply  a  figure,  and  may  or  may  not  have  reference 
to  such  a  eualom  as  that  abo*e  described.     Many  ex- 
amples of  (he  use  of  the  aame  flgure  of  apeech  among 
Orienlals  are  given  in  Roberts's  Orim/al  IBuilraiioiu, 
p.  602.     Tbe  alluaion,  however,  may  be  of  a  far  more 
solemn  character.     The  Egyptians  entertained  the  be- 
lief that  Iha  actions  of  the  dead  were  solemnly  weighed 
in  balances  befoie  Osiris,  and  that  the  condition  of  the 
departed  was  determined  according  to  tbe  preponder' 
aucc  ofgoodoreviL  SuchJudgmentsceDeaarevery  <Ve- 
quently  lepresentei)  in  the  paintings  and  papyri  of  ancient 
Eg3^  and  one  ofthem  (given  on  the  following  page)  we 
have  copied  aa  a  suitable  illuatratinn  of  thepreaent  au1>- 
Ject.   Oneoftheseacenea,aaTepreBeRtedon  tbewailBuf 
a  amall  temple  at  Deii^l-Medtneh,  haa  been  so  well  ex. 
plained  by  Mr.  Wilkinson  that  we  shall  avail  anraelrss 
of  hisdeacriplion;  for  althougb  that  to  which  it  refers  is 
anmewhatdiReientfromtbeone  which  we  have  engraved, 
his  account  atforda  an  adequate  elucida^on  of  all  that 
ours  contains:  " OBiTi^  aeated  on  his  throne,  awaits  the 
arrivalofthoaesouls  thst  are  ushered  into  Amenti.  The 
fourgenii  stand  before  him  onalolua-bloasom  [onrabu 
the  lotus  without  the  genii],  the  female  Cerbems  ula 
behind  them,  and  Harpocnlea  on  the  crook  of  Oriris. 
Thoth,  tbe  god  of  letters,  arrivea  in  the  presence  of  Ob- 
ri*,beaiinginbi*  band  a  tablet, on  which  the  actions  of 
the   deceased  are  noted 
down,  while  Honia  and 
Aroeria  are  employed  in 
weighing  the  good  deeds 
of  the  judged  against  tbe 
ostrich  feather,  the  aym- 
bol  of  truth  and  justice. 
A  ej'Dorephslua,  the  em- 
blem of  truth,  ia  aeatcd 
oti  the  top  of  the  balance. 
At  length  arrives  the  de- 
ceaaed,  who  appeira  be- 
tween two  flgurea  of  tbe 
goddess,  and  bean  in  hia 
hand  the  symbol  uf  truth, 
indicating  hia  meriloriona 
aclionsvaiid  hia  fitness  for 
admisainn  to  the  presence 
otOtitm'  (Riu«,Pkl.Bi- 
:    ill,  note  ad  tor.). 

A  weififit  of  rrforjr,  of 
which  Paul  apeahs(2  Cor. 
ir,  17),  is  opposed  to  tbe 
lightness  nf  the  evila  of 
tbialife,  Theuoubleswe 
resUy  of  no 


Welgber  and  Motary. 

I  i^ailhf  t.  •  »%b<  li  U> 


him71H.«w«i.«i.iui>i  er_„(,fno,,„„ , 

if  compared  to  the  wt  igbt 
of  that  glory  which  shall  be  hereafter  a 
eompenaalion  for  them.  In  addition  tn  thia,  it  ia  prob- 
able the  apostle  bad  in  view  the  dotdjie  meaning  of  tbe 
Hebrew  word  113^,  kaUJ,  which  ngnifies  not  only 
nH^pAf,  but  story!  that  is,  splendor  i*  in  this  world  tbe 
lightest  thing  in  nature;  but  in  the  other  world  it  may 
be  real,  at  once  substantial  and  radiant. 

WeihenniBJ'eT,  Jokanm  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  ' 
He  studied  at  Jena,  was  ap 
Leiphdm,  and  pastor  at  Altheim  in  IGfil.  In  II 
was  called  to  Ulm,  where  he  died.  May  29, 1706.  He 
left  a  great  many  writings,  mostly  of  an  ascelical  nat- 
ure, which  are  given  ill  Pipping,  3/ emortts  Theoiogonm; 
Serpiliua,  i,)>il(ipAiu  TheoliM/onim ;  Jocbtl,  AUgememu 
CtkiTUn-Lex.».v.     {B.P.) 

Welkal,  JoKs  H.,  a  Germu  Beliirmed  ministei; 


■u  putoT  or  Boebrn's  «nd  Bome  olher  churchca  In 
VtmlgomeTY  County,  Pa.,  from  1776  U>  1781,  but  his 
loyally  to  tbe  Americia  cau»  diinug  the  Revolution 
fiully  led  to  his  nutation  on  iccaunc  of  diuilbfac- 

knowD  of  him  tfler  the  vsr.  See  HubRugh,  Fuliieri 
of  the  Germ.  R^.  Chunk,  ii,400. 

^3tr«il,  Jakob,  a  Jewiah  t«acher  of  (iprmanv,  vat 
born  in  1792  at  Fruikfart,  when  he  died,  Nut.  19,  ISG4. 
He  wrote  and  (poke  for  tl>B  eniancipaiion  of  hi>  cnrelig. 
ioniata.  He  fnh\a\ifA,  Fragmeitle  a¥t  den  Tabiuiduiiil 
dot  Saibinm  (Fnnkr.  l»ll-Vi):--DiujimgfDt«l$ci- 
land  and  die  Jaden  (ibid.  1836};— ZMe  trtle  lOchiuckt 
KaiiimiirmiddieJudtH{Hantu,l»aT):—IFagtnfr,Slnil, 
die  JuikH  tad  die  protalaiUitcAtB  IHtiidenlai  (Fnnkf. 
18S7)  —Die  allot  Propirltn  unif  dm  /.fbm  Jrm  {il.id. 
1861).  See  Winer,  Hai>db.  dtr  throL  Lil.  I,  b-i6 ;  Flint, 
fifN.Ji<itiii,499;  K»iiKT\nig,BaiiollukjHditduiKiiH- 
xf/nxbcr.  i,  400  aq.     (fi.  H.) 

TVeiller,  Kajetan  vox,  a  Roman  Catholic  thoilo- 
gian  of  Oermsny,  wu  born  at  Munich,  Aug. 2, 1762.  He 
■ludied  tbeolog)'  and  pbilueopby  in  bi«  native  place.  In 
1785  be  received  holy  orders,  and  in  1799  be  w»a  plactd 
in  the  chair  of  philosophy  aud  pedagogica.  The  Uiii- 
vereitj  of  LandahuC  confemd  on  him  (he  degree  of 
doctor  q(  philoeophy  in  I8DS,  while  learned  aocietiea 
admitted  bim  to  membenhip.    In  181!  be  wia  enno- 1 


12  WELCH 

bled  by  bi>  king,  and  died  June  S4,  1836.  Ha  wra- 
inga  are,  DAer  die  rdigtitt  Au/gabt  uiuerer  Ztk  (Ha- 
ukh,  1819):  — Z>(U  ChriUnlkHm  ik  ttinrm  ['cntdfawr 
lur  Wiuaudiufi  (ibid.  1821):— i^Wr  GtiH  da  tlUKa 
Ktlkolidlmui,  all  Gnndlagt  fh-  jtden  ^dUrm  (ibid. 
1834):— <;niinMwdo-/>iiJfow;ulK(ibid.iei8)i— Gm^ 
legut^  ier  PtgcMogie  (ibid.  1818).  Hia  ontiuu  mi 
minor  irealijiea  are  collecled  in  hii  Elriat  Sdr^tm, 
Sdulrrdm,  etc  (8  roll.  1822-26).  See  Diiiiiig,  Ditf^ 
fatne*  Tlieoicgm  Dtulicklimdt,  ir,  679  aq. ;  Wiao, 
f/andbadi  der  Haiogitckat  Un-oMr,  t,  406,  509,  BGa : 
ii,  145.    {B.  P.) 

^TT'elmar,  David,  a  Jewiah  philotogiit  of  tier 
tiuuiy  who  lived  iu  the  17th  centuiy,  is  tbe  author  o( 
SCiprn  "BID  mr, /Jortriw  vltom/wi/ioiiitfl*. 
(Ciw,  168[ ;  atudio  Uatiheril,  Lipa.  1687  ■.  o.)  .-Mgt- 
teriiim  in  hfalliiili  Accealui/m  Bibl,.Viiiulerio  I>rltii^ 

ieai):-^Solida  IMnumilraliodeVrra  DiriAii 

UK  a  InfaUOiiii  Dvpiicit  A  ccMtr.  /Vib^pw  (ibil 
eod.)  -.—Umui  Aaxntvalioiat  BibL  per  25  Loeat  V*.  Tm. 
Prmmiaa  ejta  iioivtoniat  DrmtrnttralioiK  (Jcnt, 
IBOS  (.  0.).  See  FOrat,  BOUntkmt  Jud^dc-t.  iii.  Ml 
»q.;  Stelnichneider,  ifiWiwmpjUe*«  llumdlmri,%,x. 
(RP.)    -  ^    "^  ^ 

Waloh,  Butbolomew  T.,  D.D.,  u  rmiMa 

BapUat  miniatcr,  wae  tiom  in  Buiuon,  Sept.  W.  IIM. 

There  waa  aoniething  in  the  biatory  of  hi>  tnettaj 

Inapired  and  iiept  alive  Ihuae  feetinga  of  pauiatin 

which  were  ao  tnirkeil  a  feature  in  hia  aulMeqaeu  Gfc 

Hia  father  waa  a  roidahipmin  in  tbe  Davy,  and  hji 

gnndhthcr  a  lieutenant.      Hia   graudfather   so  hk 

motber'a  aide  waa  Banhulumew  Trow,  one  of  ihe  b> 

party  who  threw  over  the  tea  in  Boaton  Barber. 

■a  present  at  the  battle  of  l^exinKton,  and  tmi 

bia   country  in   the   Revolulionaiy  war.      Hia  biker 

died  when  be  was  but  a  child.      The  pailar  of  ba 

rly  daya  was   the   excellent  Dr.  Thomu   Baldwin 

and  he  remved  a  good  reiigiom  education  in  faia  eaiy 

home.    With  a  reetleasneaa  which  b  often  chameteiiMk 

'outh,  he  aapired  after  more  freedom  than  he  foot 

\a  home,  and  at  the  age  of  aeventeen  be  ataned  kt 

E>hikdelphia,  making  Ihejoiiniey  on  foot,  with  tbe  bcfe 

if  finding  butineaa.     But  the  war  had  put  a  check  te 

itrictly  menaulile  punuila,io  which  he  had  been  rartd, 

ind  be  became  an  apprentice  to  learn  the  engraver^  m. 

For  aome  time  he  aeema  to  have  lived  a  thongbilv, 

caieleaa  life,  ao  far  aa  religicm  waa  cDucemed,  aiNl  it  b  and 

_      \  whole  year  he  never  entered  a  hone  of 

worahip.    At  length,  the  Spirit  of  God  took  stfonghaU 

"      iw  the  wickedncaa  and  Mh 

punuing,  and  hia  bean  na 

bowed  in  tubmiiraon  to  Cbiiat.    He  waa  bap(tnd,thc 

Sunday  in  September,  1815,  by  Ber.  Dr.  Slai^tw, 

became  ■  member  of  the  Sanaom  Street  Baptiit 

Church  in  Philadelphia.     In  1813  he  removed  to  U6- 

ipe  of  meeting  with  belter  ai 


At  o 


identified  himaelf  with  the  cause  of  Cliri-t  and  becasw 

er  in  the  vineyard  of  hi.  UaA.     It  VM 

he  felt  an  impulse,  which  he  atrng^ 

I  preach  tbe  Uocpel.    After  maiiT  tan- 

Bicti  growing  out  of  the  eonrideration  that  be  w'm  ■- 

eriy  unprepared  by  the  wan^  of  intellectual  tniaiif 

'or  the  aacied  office,  he  yielded  at  length  hia  own  w3 

md  ecquieaced  in  what  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  calliif 

God  that  he  ahould  be  an  imbaraador  for  Chriat.     la 

August,  1824,  he  abandoned  his  profeaaion  aa  ao  m- 

jiaver,  and  entered  upon  what  waa  to  be  the  work  it 

lis  life.     His  eariy  labon  aa  a  preaeber  were  aa  a  ms- 

lionaiy  among  the  destitute  ehnrchea  within  tlie  lintit] 

if  the  Baltimore  Bijitist  Ateociation.     He  cnvsed  tbe 

of  Maryland  and  visited  the  villagn  wd 

lets  scattered  along  the  banks  of  the  Juniata,  |m~ 

ning  Bi  he  went  the  news  of  aalvaiioii  Ihtuagh  a 

ified  Redeemer.    One  year  waa  apent  in  such  work 

lia.    In  the  aumtnet  of  IVifi,  be  waa  oa  a  vnt  w 


WELCH  « 

•onw  fnendi  in  Ifew  Turk,  uid  wm  requatod  to  ik>  tbe 
kind  or  irork  which  he  bad  performed  »>  MiccMsfulIy  id 
Maq'IaiiJ  Among  the  feeble  chiircbea  of  the  fiAptiit  de- 
numinaliun  along  the  line  uf  the  Hudaon  River,  to 
Octubei  uf  thi>  year  he  waa  ordained  as  pailur  of  the 
Church  in  Cuakill,  and  remained  here  a  litlle  leaa  than 
two  jean,  when  he  waa  called  to  take  charge  of  what 
i*  now  tbe  Emmuel  Church  in  Albanv,  N.  Y.  He  en- 
lend  upon  hia  duties  here  in  September,  1837.  It  was 
■  dark  day  in  the  biatoiy  of  the  Church  when  Dr. 
Welch  commenced  hia  mininttj  with  Ihem.  "The 
Chnrch,"  aaya  Dr.  Bridgman, "  wai  Teelile  and  alaggcring 
*ilb  tbeir  debt.  Tbe  old  theatre  ui  Green  Street  had 
VcD  turned  into  their  aanctuari',  tut  the  huuae  waa 
Ibought  to  be  too  large,  and  a  partition  had  been  built  lo 

At  once  a  change  Cook  place,  and  as  a  preacher  Dr.  Welch 
■oon  itood  in  the  fbremoet  nnk  among  the  must  gilM 
and  eloquent  miniilen  in  the  city  of  Alban.v.  A  few 
yesia  of  euch  work  aa  he  put  into  hia  lainiatry  lold 
wonderfully  upon  tbe  prosperity  of  Che  enterprise.  Hie 
lecUe  band  grew  to  be  a  Chuicb  of  three  hunilred  and 
tweaty-acTen  memben,  "  uniced  in  their  couiiacla,  free 
rrom  all  emharraument,  and  in  a  condition  of  great  ma- 
tola]  and  gpitituai  proeperily."  The  queatiun  of  crjlci- 
niiing  began  to  be  discimed,  and  after  the  usual  delays 
which  aroae  froni  the  reluctance  or  Church  members  lo 
break  away  from  their  religiaua  homes,  it  was  decided 


Ad  appeal  was  made  Cn  the  friends  nf  religiun.  and  Ihoae 
who  bad  become  warmly  accached  to  Dr.  Welch,  al- 
tbough  not  belonging  to  Che  Baptist  denomination,  for 
tbe  mccawiy  funds  to  carry  out  the  projected  plan. 
Among  the  contributors  to  these  fundi  we  notice  tbe 
names  of  William  L.  Harci-.Marlin  Van  Buren,  Etastns 
Coming,  and  Pi  9.  Van  Rensaelaer.  The  comer-stnne 
of  the  new  church  was  laid  in  July,  1833,  and  the  build- 
ing WBi  ready  for  occupancy  in  the  month  of  October 
fiillowing.  A  colony  of  about  one  hundred  aiul  twenty, 
with  Dr.  Welch  ai  the  paaCor  of  iho  new  church,  took 
puMBiioH  of  what  waa  then  regarded  aa  one  of  the  most 
elegaul  housesof  worship  in  Albany.  Tbe  record  of  the 
nwilta  ofa  ministry  of  fourteen  yean  in  the  Pearl  Street 
Chareh  ia  aommed  up  in  very  general  terms  by  saying 
tbat  during  clieae  fourteen  years  Bre  hundred  and  seven 
penona  were  received  by  baptism,  and  two  hundred  and 
■isty-two  by  letters  ttom  other  churches.  During  all 
tbia  time  Dr.  Welch  took  a  pmminenc  pnsitinn  in  all  che 
icreat  nligima  enterprises  in  which  the  Baptist  churches 
were  inleresled,  especially  in  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  SacielfiOT  which,  for  many  years,  he  waa  the  pres- 
ident. On  resigning  his  pasloraCe  of  the  Pearl  Street 
Cburch,  Dr.  Welch  Cook  charge  of  the  Pierrcpont  Street 
Church  in  Brooklyn,  where  be  remained  eight  years, 
and  then  removed  Co  Mewtonville,  near  Alban.v,  and  was 
pastor  for  ten  yean.  Worn  down  by  the  labora  of  his 
long  ministry,  Dr.  Welch  went  into  retirement.  His 
gnat  powers  gradually  grew  weaker  and  weaker,  until 
the  lamp  of  lifv  went  ouC,  to  be  rekindled  amid  the 
glories  of  a  better  world.  He  died  Dec  9,  187a  flee 
Miiai'a  o/lht  lladKM  Riter  BaptUt  Attocfot  1871; 
Dr.  Bridgman's  Strmm.     (J.  C.  S.) 

'Welob,  Moms  Cook.  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  sod  of  Rev.  Daniel  Welch,  waa  bom  in  Mans- 
BeM,  Conn.,  Ptb.S2, 1764.  Although  he  graduated  from 
Yale  College  in  177S,  ha  remained  for  several  yeara  un- 
decided as  to  his  profession.  For  a  while  he  was  teach- 
er of  a  grammar-school  in  Windham,  Conn.,  and  then 
entered  the  office  of  Hun.  Eliphslel  Dyer  Co  study  law, 
Hia  father's  averHon  Co  this  profession  induced  liim  to 
abandon  it  in  about  a  year.  Then  he  iau|-hc  school  and 
atudied  medicine  a  short  time.  As  the  Krvolutiun  was 
fairly  begun,  he  engaged  with  Mr.  Samuel  Note  in  the 
manuEscture  of  ssilpeire,  to  be  used  in  making  powder 
to  aupply  Che  Continental  Army.  Having  heeii  draped, 
be  cheerfully  entered  tbe  army,  hue,  contracting  a  dis- 
Mae  in  camp,  waa  obliged  lo  return  boms.    About  tbia 


>e  he  was 


o  the 


theology  under  Rev.  Dr.  Salter, 
of  HatisAeld.  and  Rev.  Stephen  White,  of  Windham. 
When  his  father  died,  in  17S2,  hg  was  called  lo  succeed 
him  as  pastor  uf  the  Church  in  North  HanaAeld,  to 
which  office  he  was  ordained  June  i,  1784.  In  1812  be 
wsB  detailed  as  chaplain  in  Che  American  army,  a  ser- 
vice which  he  promptly  perfarmed.  For  two  years, 
firom  1832,  he  belonged  to  the  Corporation  of  Yale  Col- 
lege. He  died  at  North  Mansfield,  April  31, 1824.  In 
conaeqnence.  probably,  of  his  legal  training,  he  waa  a 
gnat  eccleaiaslical  lawyer.  With  a  vigorous  mind,  an 
ardent  temperament,  and  clear  perceptiona,  he  became  a 
popular  preacher.  See  Spragua,  Aimali  of  Oa  Amir, 
Palpil,  ii,  1S4. 

WelohmBn,  Edwabd,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
divine,  waa  bnm  about  1666.  He  became  a  commooer 
ofUagdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1679:  graduated  in  1688; 
was  admitted  probationer  felluw  of  Merton  Cull^^  in 
1664i  became  reciur  of  Lapw<'rth  and  uf  S.>libnll,  War- 
wickshire: arcbdeacun  of  Cardigan  in  1737;  and  diedia 
173S.  He  waa  the  author  of,  Zlr/ssn  o/lU  CAurth  ef 
En^iBid  (1693J  '.—IluAmdmm't  Mianal  (1696) ;— .4r- 
(iniii  XXXIX  Kcdaia  A  ngUauia  TrxtOuM  rr  Scriplura 
Deproniptii  Conjtmolt,  etc  (1718)  i  translated  into  Eug- 
li*hCl740);  bia  most  famous  work;— i»ii<nwwii/"flup. 
tim  {niX):—DT.  Clarit'i  Scriphire  Dodrvu  of  Ikt 
Trim/)  Exammai,  etc  { 1714):  — Con/emwe  (nfA  an 
Ariwt  (1721):— and  other  works.  See  Chalmers,  .ffiiw. 
Did.  t.y. 

Weld,  Liii>oviciia,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Braintree.  Mass.,  SepL  li,  17GS,  being  a  sou  of 
the  Kev.  Etra  Weld.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  [789;  taught  school  in  Cambridge;  studied  theolo^ 
with  his  tiitber;  and  waa  ordained  at  Hampton,  Conn., 
in  1799,  where  he  remained  until  infltmitiea  induced 
bimlo  seek  sdismisaion  (1824).  He  removed  Co  Fabi- 
Ds,  K.  Y.,  where  he  ministered  to  vacant  churebea  for 
aerenl  years.  In  1842  be  purchased  ■  reaidence  near 
hissonTheodDrt,inBelleviUe,N.J,wberehedied,Ocl. 
9,1844.  Mr.Weld'scbaracter  from  early  life  was  manly 
■ud  upright;  his  mental  abilities  were  superior,  so  that 
be  waa  oonaidered  one  of  tbe  ablest  men  of  his  day  iii 
that  region.  Three  of  his  sermona  were  publislml.  See 
<7oiv.  C^ar.  I8<J0,  p,l8l. 

Well  (prop,  ntts,  tJfr,  ^apjacfv;  source  of  living, 
tfaougb  not  running,  water;  hue  "  well"  is  an  occasional 
rendering  in  tbe  A.  V.  Ukewiae  of  "ns,  b6r,  2  Sam.  iii, 
26t  xiiii,  IG,  16;  1  Cbron.  xi,  17,  18;  2  Chton.  xxvi, 
10,  a  "pit,"  L  e.  cisMra,-  alao  of  I^Sp,  nagin,  Joab. 
iviii,  lb;  3  Kings  iii,  19,  26;  Psa.  uicziv,  6,  a  "  foun- 
tain;"  of  ■^ip';,  floWr,  Prov.  i,  11,  ■  "founUiD;"  and 
evenofl^^.d^.Gen.  xxiv,  13,  16,29,80,42,48,46; 
xlix,  32,  a  living  tpring;  and  ao  of  niyq,  John  Ir,  6, 
14).  The  difference  between  a  well  (iie>)  and  a  cistern 
(itfr)  conwsts  ciiieHy  iii  the  use  of  tbe  former  word  to 
denote  a  receptacle  for  water  ipriLigitig  up  freshly  from 
the  ground,  while  tbe  latter  usuilly  denotes  a  rvservoir 
for  rain-water  (den.  xxvi,  19,  S2 ;  Prov.  v,  16;  John  iv, 
14).  SeeCiaTKRN.  Both  these  HeUwordscomefrom 
a  root  (*>na  or  ~xa)  sigiiiScant  ofd^/giiy,  and  are  thus 
distinguished  from  a  natural  fountairv.  The  fanner 
(biti)  is  still  represented  by  the  Arabic  bir,  used  in  tbe 
same  sense;  but  the  latter  {bdr)  has  in  ntoilem  times 
given  place  to  tirtrl  (  =  Heb.  >^3^S),  which  signlAea 
an  open  pool  of  surface  water.  Iwc  Topoouafhical 
Terms. 

The  flnt  well  mentioned  in  Scripture  Is  lo  "the  wil- 
dertiesi,"  in  the  way  to  Shur,  where  Hagar  sat  down 
when  fleeing  from  Sarai,  which  was  sfterwards  called 
Bter-laini-roi,  "  the  well  of  him  that  liveth  and  seelh 
me"  (Gen.  xvi,  14),  between  Kadesh  and  Beivd.  It  ia 
called  boch  a  "fountain'  and  a  ■'well."  The  second 
'ich  Hagac'a  hi*- 


tvelL 


(sivi.2G)',  the  HuopoUi 
an  well  (xxiv,ll),>[  Ihc  city 
of  Nahor ;  the  wdia  in  Gcrar 
(xKvi,  16,  IS) ;  tbe  weU  Eaelc 
(ver.  SO);  the  well  Silnah 
(va[.2l)i  the  weU  Kehoboth 
(Ter.33);  the  weU  in  Uirin 
(xxix,  ili  tbe  wells  of  ElJm 
(Eiiod.  XT,  !T) ;  the  well  dug 
by  the  princea  (Nuinb.  iii, 
61);  Che  well  of  MepbWah 
(Josh,  xviit,  IG);  the  greet 
well  in  Sechu  {1  S.iii.  xix, 
22)  1  the  well  of  Bethlehem 
bv  tbe  gite  (2  Sent,  xxiii, 
IG);tliewcUofI]BnHl(Judg. 
vii,  1);  Jacob')  well,  on  the 
low  dope  oT  Uerixim  (John 
iv,  6).     See  Fouxtain. 

The  impoTtance  of  welll  tl 
TBty  gioel,  eBpecifllly  in  the 
deaert,  where  the  means  of 
forming  them  are  deficient,  aa 
well  a*  tha  lupply  of  labor 

neeeeeary  for  auch  andertAkings,  which,  after  all,  are  not 
alwayt  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  a  supply  of  water. 
Hence  in  such  aituatiDna,  and  indeed  in  the  settled  coun- 
tries also,  (he  wells  are  of  the  utmost  value,  and  the  water 
in  most  eases  is  very  fnigally  used  (Numb,  xx,  17-19 ; 
I>eat.ii,6,S8;  Jobxiit,T).  It  i^  howerer,  not  merely 
the  value  of  the  well  itself,  but  certain  other  cnn«dera- 
Uons  that  explain  the  contests  about  wells  which  we 
Hnd  in  the  histories  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi,  S&- 
81  j  xxvi,lG-22).  The  special  necessity  of  a  supply  of 
water  (Judg.  i,  15)  in  a  hot  climate  has  always  involved 
among  Eastern  na^ons  questions  of  property  of  tbe 
highest  importance. 


Well  at  BeerrheliB. 
(Nola  onlkeSaL  i,22&,22»i  OHup.  Nnmb.  xu.  17,  U 
■ndJudg.i,lfi). 

It  is  thus  easy  to  understand  how  wella  have  heinaM 
in  many  case*  linlu  in  the  history  and  Undaiarka  is 
the  topagnphy  both  of  Palestine  and  of  tbe  AiaUat 
PrninsuU.  The  well  onc«  dug  in  tbe  rocky  soil  iilPil- 
cstine  might  be  filled  with  earth  or  stones,  but  wai  viik 
difficullv  destroyed,  and  thus  the  walls  of  Beecabel^ul 
Nablfis,  caUed  Jacub's  Well,  an  wbo^ 


a  tirtb 


ogivea 


■H  danotol  a 
le  once  dug  ' 


of  property,  and  to  stop  or  destroy  r 
military  expedient,  a  mark  of  conquest,  or  an  encroaen- 
ment  on  territorial  right  claimed  or  existing  in  its 
neighborhood.  Thus,  the  well  Beersbeba  was  opened, 
and  its  possession  attested  with  special  formalitv  hv 
Abraham  (Gen.  xil,  SO,  SI).  In  the  hope  of  expelling 
Isaac  from  their  neighborhood,  (he  Philistines  stopped 


irells  w 


dug  II 


i,  16-SS ; 


stoutly  resisted  by  the  followers  of  Isaac  (> 
see  also  a  Kings  iii,  19:  2  Chroii.  xxii,  IV;  comp. 
Burckhanlt,  A'Dtai « Ike  Bed.  ii,  186, 194,201,276}.  Tbe 
Koran  notices  abandoned  welli  as  signs  of  desertion  (sur. 
rii).   To  acquire  wells  which  they  had  not  themselv 


brews  0 


>r  the  m 


ir  foretold  to  the  He-    I 


to  Canaan  (Dent.  ■ 
possess  one  is  noticed  as  a  mark  of  independence  (Prov. 
T,  16),  and  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  wella  belonging  to 
others,  a  disclaimer  of  interference  with  their  property 
(^umb.iT,17,19j  xxi, 22).  Similar  rights  of  poues- 
sion,  actual  and  hereditary,  exist  among  the  Arabs  o( 
the  present  day.  Wells,  Burckhardt  says,  in  tbe  inte- 
rior of  the  desert,  are  excludve  property,  either  of  a 
whole  tribe,  or  of  individuals  whose  ancestors  due  the 
wells.  If  a  well  be  the  property  of  a  tribe,  the  tents 
are  pitched  near  it,  whenc 


I  their  camels.     But 


n  perm 


h  the  water  of  it 


drink  of  tbe  wat< 


sacred  history  in  which  they  have  borne,  so  to  apeaLs 
prominent  part.  On  tbe  other  band,  tbe  wella  dif  ia 
the  sandy  soil  of  tbe  Arabian  valleya,  eaail  j  dtitn^td, 
but  easily  renewed,  often  mark,  by  thdr  ready  aupfily, 
the  stations  at  which  the  Hebrew  pilgrima  alaked  tW 
thirsCor,aa  at  Haiah,  were  disappointed  by  ibc  bilW 

Mohammedan  pilgrims  from  Cairo  and  Demaans  la 
Mecca  {the  HaJ  route)  are  marked  bv  the  welli(BiibiB- 
•on,  i,  66,  69,  201,  206 ;  ii,  283 ;  BuVckhanlt,  Sgria,  ^ 
318,172,474;  App.  iii,  656,  660 ;  Shaw,  Tror.  p.  Ill: 
Niebuhr,  Dacrip.  de  FArabie,  p.  SIT,  848;  Wel^ei 
Ti«r.  ii,  10,  IS,  61, 167,  App.). 

Welts  in  Palestine  are  usually  excavated  fins  tW 
solid  limestone  rock,  sometime*  with  step*  to  iliiaurt 
into  them  (Gen.  xxiv,  16 ;  see  Burckhardt,  ^yria,  p.  ttl; 
Col.  Ch.  ClirnH.  1858,  p.  170).  The  brims  are  fumisW 
itb  a  curb  or  low  wall  of  stone,  bearing  marks  of  bigt 
ntiqiiity  in  the  farrows  worn  by  the  ropesuaed  Id  dial- 
ing water  (Robinson,  1,204).  This  cutb,  as  weU  as  tbt 
stone  cover,  which  is  aiao  very  usual,  agrees  with  ika 
directions  of  the  law,  as  explained  by  Pbilo  aixl  Joie- 
phus,viz.as  a  protection  against  accident  (Exod.xzJ; 
33;  comp.Jasephus,jliir.  iv,8,37;  Vbilo, lit  Sprt.  fjy. 
iii,  27  ;  ii,  621,  ed.  Mangey;  see  Haundrell,  in  Earit 
Trar,  p.  136).  It  was  on  ■  cnrb  of  thb  sort  that  stt 
Lord  Bst  when  he  convened  with  tbe  woman  of  ^"laiiia 
ria  (John  iv,  6) ;  and  it  was  this,  tbe  usual  Mnue  conr, 
which  the  woman  placed  on  the  UMnth  oT  the  w*fl  at 
Bahurim  (2  Sam.  xvii,  1 9),  where  the  A.  V.  weafcn  iht 
sense  by  omitting  the  article  (T^QBI?;  SepUrA  laur 
Xv/ipa ;  Vulg.  vilanien).  Sometimes  the  wella  are  exr- 
ered  with  cupolas  raised  on  pillars  (Buickhardt,  .X^l 
v,p.666). 

A  well  was  often  covered  with  a  great  atone,  wtack 
being  removed,  the  penon  descended  some  *trp>  ID  th) 
surface  of  the  water,  stid  on  hJ  return  poured  iaia  s 


WELL 


90S 


WELLES 


tfoogb  that  whioh  he  hid  brought  ap  (Gtn.  xxiT,  1 1- 
15;  ni>,8-10;  Eiod.  II,  16;  Judg.  r,  II).  Tbne  ii^ 
in  fart,  DO  luIiDMioD  of  «iiy  other  way  of  drawing  w»- 
(ct  from  wclli  in  Scripture.  But  u  thu  could  onl;  b« 
■ppUoblc  ip  cun  where  Cbe  well  wu  not  deep,  we 
muB  lauiM  tbal  ibey  htd  the  use  of  tbon  contriv- 
ance* which  are  Mill  e'm|ilayed  is  the  Eut,  and  ■ome 
of  wbkb  an  known  fTOm  the  ERvptian  nMnumenU  to 
ban  been  ttty  anciint.  Thia  oDnoluaion  U  the  more 
pntebte  u  the  welli  in  PlleKine  are  roonljr  deep  (Pro*. 
KX,fi;  JohniT.ll).  Jacob'*  Well  neat  Sbeebemiauid 
to  ba  lao  feet  deep,  wltb  only  fiflten  feet  of  water  in  it 
(M*aDdrell,/«nMy,  March  M);  and  the  laborof  draw- 
ing from  M  deep  a  well  probably  ocigioalcd  the  flret  re- 
lactanoB  of  tb*  woman  of  Simaiu  to  draw  water  for 
JeMw:  "Sir,  tboa  ha«(  notblnii;  to  draw  with,  and  the 
wall  t*  deep."  flee  Jacob's  Wkli.  From  tbi*  deeper 
kind  of  well  the  niual  method*  fur  laiang  wiler  an 
the  fi^owing:  1.  The  rope  and  bneket,  or  waler-ekin 
(Ocn.ixir,  14-30;  John  ir,  II).  When  the  well  i»  deep, 
the  rope  i»  either  drawn  o*er  the  curb  by  the  mui  or 
wnman,  who  pull*  it  out  to  the  dialance  of  111  fuU  length, 
Di  by  an  an  or  ox  employed  in  the  *ame  way  for  the 
aame  porpoee.  Sometimea  a  pulley  ot  wheel  ii  flied 
over  the  well  to  awit  the  work  (Robinaon,  i,  W4;  ii, 
948;  Niebnbr,OnCT-.der^ra*te,p.l8T,pLlft;  CoLCh. 
Otntn.  1869,  p.  8S0;  Chariio,  Foy.  iv,  99;  W*ll««d, 
TVitr.  i,  280).  a.  The  mJiigdt,  or  Peniui  wheel  Thii 
onnaiMaoraTeniealwbeeirumiibedwitb  aaetofbuck- 
et>  or  earthen  Jare  attached  to  a  aai  p*«ng  over  the 
wheel,  which  dMoend  empty  and  retutn  full  a*  the 
wheel  RTolTe*.  On  the  axla  of  the  wheel 
aeeood  wheel  parallel  la  it,  with  coga  which  t 
wheel  ae(  horiiontally  at  a  Mflieient  height  ttvm  the 
ground  to  allow  tbe  animal  nied  in  turning  i 
undn.  One  01  two  oowi  or  bull*  are  yoked 
which  [iiaiin  ihroogh  the  axu  of  thi*  wheel,  and  a*  ihey 
traTcl  njiind  it  Cum  tbe  whole  machine  (Nnmb 
7;*ee  Lane,  J/«t  ^SH*  ii,  168  i  Niebnhr,^^^. 
CeLCk.CI>r<m.iea9,p.9ii;  Shaw,  p.S9l,  408). 
■BodtBoltion  of  the  last  method,  by  which  a  man, 
oppeaite  to  a  wheel  famlihed  with  bucket*,  torn 
drawing  wilh  hi*  hand*  one  tet  of  epoke*  prolonged 
bevond  it*  ci icomference,  and  puihing  another  »etfroii 
bin  with  hi*  feet  (Niebuhr,F(9.  i,  120,  pi.  16;  Robin 
•oo,ii,M;  iii,89).  4.  A  method  very  eommnn,  both  i 
ancient  and  modern  Egypt,  i»  the  ikadi/,  a  *imple  con 
trivancecon»i«llngor«lBTer  moving  on  api*ot,whic 
to  loaded  at  one  end  with  a  lump  of  clay  or  aome  olhf 
weight,  and  hat  at  the  other  a  bowl  or  bucket  Thi 
U  let  down  into  the  water,  and,  when  raiaed,  emplied 
into  ■  receptacle  above  (Niebohr,  Foj.  i,  110;  Lane, 
Mod.l<:g^.ii,ie»:  Wilkin*on,-fiit£s)rp».i,e6,72j  ii, 
4).     See  [KBiSATroH. 

Wclla  an  tmaUy  fundabed  with  mngh*  of  wood  or 


atone  (rgltfi  Sept.  wonarripiav ;  Tulg.  canalu),  into 

1  the  water  ii  emptied  lor  tbe  uae  of  penoni  oi 

U*  coming  to  the  well*.     In  modem  time*  an  old 

earcopliigu*  ii  ofteii  u*ed  for  thi*  purpoae.    The 

bneket  ia  very  commonly  of  akin  (Burckhardt,  5y rid,  p. 

naou,  i,  '204 ;  ii,  31,  BIB :  iii,  S5,  89,  lOS,  tS4 ; 

Lorf  y nd»*y,  Trav.  p.  286, 2B7 ;  WilkinKm,  A  ne.  Eggpl. 

loc.  cit.;  comp.  Geo.  zxiv,  SO ;  Eiod.  i),  IS). 

Un lea*  machinery  ■•  u*ed,wbich  i*  commonly  worked 

'  men,  women  are  usually  the  wateiHVTTiera.     They 

carry  home  their  water-jara  on  their  head*  (Lindsay,  p. 

See  DBAWkB  or  Watik.    Great  conlention* 

often  oocui  at  the  wells,  and  they  are  often,  among  Be- 
favorite  placea  Ibr  attack  by  enemies  (Exod.  U, 
ie,l7|  Judg.v,ll;  gS»m.ixiii,lS,18>.  See  Burek- 
haT^I,5rr{a,p.6B;  ttolei  oa  M*  Btd.i,W8;  Col.  Ck. 
CknK.  18S9,  p.  nt;  Unt,  HoJ.  Egfpl.  i,W3;  BMo- 
*"  169;  H*diett,/aaKr.^£cr^p.8S-98.  Sm 
Water. 
W«llbeloT«d,  Chaslei,  D.D„  an  English  Dni- 
rian  miuister,  was  bom  at  York  about  1T70.  He  be- 
came a  clergyman  at  his  native  place;  va*  noted  fot 
"  philulogicsl  and  anbieDlogical  attainmentai  and 
died  at  York  in  1868.  Ue  wu  the  author  of,  £'krncn>  ; 
or,  rort  under  UU  Somat  {IMl)  -.—Tlu  Holt/  Script- 
in*  aftlu  Old  CbvokbU  (18i9<e2),  in  *  revised  trans- 
lation, in  which  be  wa*  aariiled  by  Rev.  C^eorge  Vauoa 
~nitbandHeT.JohnScoitPortei;aDd  other  work*.  A 
'amoir,  by  Kev,  John  Kenrick,  appeared  in  I860. 
Wallar,a«Orge,  D.D..a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov,  15, 1790.  He 
was  edncated  in  the  puldic  schools  of  IkMun  ;  learned 
tbe  trade  of  a  bookbinder;  openeil  a  small  biwkston  in 
Newark,  N.  J. :  and  afterwarda  removed  it  to  Duibury, 
Conn.  Abont  the  ye*r  1818  he  entered  the  family  of 
the  Bev.  Bethel  Judd,  D.D.,  of  Norwalk,  to  sbidy  thecri- 
ogy.  lie  began  to  officiate  a*  lay  reader  at  Bedford, 
N.r.,in  June,  1814;  was  aUniitled  to  deaooa'i  orden 
by  bishop  Uobart  June  16,  1816;  miaaionary  in  the 
coontiea  of  Putnam  and  Wnteheatei  in  1816-17;  oi^ 
dained  iiriest  April  2,  1811;  instituted  ndor  of  Great 
CopUnk  pariih  at  Cambridge,  Ud.,  Nov.  l^  1817 ;  rec- 
tor of  Sl  Stephen'*  Chureh,  Cecil  County,  Hd.,  in  No- 
vember, 1822;  became  editor  of  TAe  ChanA  Srgatir 
Jan.  7,  1826,  in  which  i^ce  he  continued  three  yearii 
WW  secretary  and  agent  of  the  Domestic  and  Foreign 
UissJoo*ry  Society  in  1828;  removed. to  Naahville, 
Tenn.,  about  1829,  where  he  built  a  new  church,  the 
Ont  Episcopal  Church  in  Tenneaee;  retired  for  a  time 
on  account  of  feeble  bealtb  about  1836;  became  rector 
of  Calvary  Chureh,  Memphi*,  in  1888;  rector  of  Chriit 
Chureh,  Vick*burg,  Miss.,  in  1889.  Thia  waa  bis  laK 
field  of  labor.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  yellow 
fever  in  Vicksburg,  he  wa*  overburdened  with  the 
IS  of  the  lick  and  friend*  of  tbe  dead,  and  fell  a 
m  of  the  epdemic,  Nov.  9, 1841.     He  ws*  the  au- 

of  FimKcotf™  o/(*«  ChurA  (lB24):-and  adiloi 

of  tbe  Ponmt  n/i(w*<i/i  flrfer  (about  1826):— and  the 
WtiltrTnuU.  See  Sprague,.4Hiwi«o/f**  Jwcr.  Pli(- 
jA,v,aOL 

W«Um,  HMb,  D.I>,  a  Congr^tatlonal  mmiswr, 
wa*  bom  at  Colchester,  C.>»n_  Jan,  28, 1718.  Ha  grad- 
uated at  Yale  O-llege  in  1741 ;  eusaged  in  leMihiog 
■chool  H  Hartford  for  some  tin»e ;  and  became  tutor  of 
Yale  Collego  in  1746.  He  wa*  licensed  to  preach  aooa 
afler,  and  ordained  pasloe  of  the  Chureh  at  Sumfurd, 
Conn„  Dec  81,  174«,  where  he  remained  in  the  quiet 
and  faithful  discliarge  of  his  duties  until  his  death, 
Dec  SI,  I77S.  He  wa*  chosen  fellow  of  Vaia  College 
in  1774,  and  also  dfUvereit  the  coiino  ad  eltrum  in  tha 
chapel  of  that  lo.lii..tion,  Sept.  IS.  1770,  before  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  mini»ter«i  He  look  an  active  part  in 
Ihe  dispnio  conieming  the  v*lidily  of  n.-n-episoopal  or- 
dination in  TAB,  publishing  three  pamphlet*  on  ihem^ 
Ject.  He  also  published  other  .ingle  »<™™«  and  .4* 
Jrrtta.   SBeSpago^AnMbo/fhiAmi 


r.Pii^i,tU- 


WELLS  8 

Wella,  Bdwud,  D.D,  ■  leimea  Engliah  .llviue, 
wu  bora  about  1*165.  He  wai  iilniitlMl  to  WeMcniii- 
(lei  Schwil  ill  1680,  and  in  iOHB  to  Christ  Chunh  Cul- 
Isge,  Oxrurd,  where  be  pmceeded  u  A.K1.  in  llSVS,  uhJ 
u  IJ.D.  in  liftii  became  ■  tutoi  in  h1>  college;  tuuk 
orden  in  the  Churuh  of  England )  and  became  rei'tar  of 
Bletcbley,  in  Bucitinghamabiie,  and  of  Ciiltrabacti,  in 
Leiceslanhire,  in  1717,  where  he  died,  in  August,  1727. 
He  was  the  anlhor  of,  A  Trtaiite  of  A  nattd  unrf  Prt- 
ml  GeograpKy  (1701)  :~hulorical  Geography  of  At 
JV™  Tetlameat  (170»)  ■.—Hiilancal  Geagivpkg  of  the 
Old  Tatnment  (1711-li)  :—4  Slip  (o  Uu  J/ore  Eioj) 
nnd  Clear  Underitrm^ag  of  Uu  Holg  Seriplam  (nOS- 
!e,8  vola.  4tD),  being  a  itviaecl  UiDalation  of  the  Bible, 
wilh  ■  paraph  rue  and  tnaottXxomi—ThtBaohnfDttit- 
WfiipiiiMiielc.  (1716):— and  other  works,  eapedally 
on  matheniatics.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Z>Kf.  a.  v.;  AUi- 
bone,  Did.  af  Brit,  and  A  rwr.  A  ulkort,  s.  v. 

WeUb,  David,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scotch  clergy- 
man, was  born  at  Braefuut,  DumrrieBbire,  in  1793.  He 
waseducatedat  the  Univenity  of  Edinburgh  I  was  paalot 
of  the  pariah  of  Cnmniichael,  Pretbjury  of  Kirkcud- 
bright, for  aereral  years,  beginning  in  1S9I;  be 
minister  of  St.  David's  in  Ulasgow,  in  1826;  wa 
pointed  profeHnroCCburch  history  in  the  Unirernty  of 
Edinburgh  in  IBBI :  Iiavelled  on  the  Continent  in  1884, 
Mudying  I  be  tierman  language  and  literature;  wi 
pointed  itispeclor  of  Biblei  in  Scotland;  was  modi 
of  the  Gent^ral  Assembly  iii  184!;  left  the  Established 
Church  ill  1813;  became  professor  of  Church  history  in 
the  Free  Church  Cullege,  and  was  first  editor  of  TK» 
Nonk  Brilith  Reriea.  He  died  April  34,  1S46.  Ha 
was  the  author  of,  .4  n  Account  oftktLtftand  Writagt 
afTtoiiuu  Broaa,  il,D„  etc(ie-2fi)  i—SmmnuanPrac- 
ticai  Sabjrcti  (1834)  -.^/iUmoiU  of  Chum*  Hilary  {ISti, 
vol.  i) :— and  ^ernou,  uilA  a  Mtmoir  by  A.  Dunlap,  Ad- 
vocate (1846). 

Weael,  JoHAinf  TOM,  whose  name  really  was  Jo- 
iuiBiffncAraCA,  ofObfrwe«el,viasone  of  the  looM  prom- 
inent forerunnera  of  tbe  Keforrnation  in  Getmany.  He 
was  bom  early  in  the  15th  century.  The  first  au: 
tic  record  we  have  of  his  life  brioga  hioi  into  view  as 
a  master  in  phitosophy  at  Erfurt,  about  1445.  Soon 
aHerwarda  he  was  professor  and  doctor  nf  theology. 
In  philosophy  he  was  a  nnminalial,  and  suRiciently  able 
to  project  his  influence  over  many  yearn,  so  that  Luther 
Is  yet  constrained  tu  acknowledge  his  power  (see  Di 
Cimcilii;  in  0pp.  ed.  Walch,  xvi.  3743).  The  age  ' 
which  he  lived  was  loo  greatly  under  the  rule  of  irai 
lional  authority  to  be  strongly  impressed  by  his  Bib- 
lical tendency  in  theology,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fact 
that  a  schoUrly  essay  from  his  pen  aimed  againit  ' 
diligences  excited  so  little  attention  that  he  was  ch» 
■utwquent  to  its  appearance,  (o  be  vice-rector  of  the 
university,  and  preacher  at  Hayence,  about  1460: 
does  not  seem  certain  that  he  accepted  the  latter  posi- 
tion. A  statement  is  extant  In  the  effect  that  Wesel 
wu  driven  from  Havence  in  1461  or  1462  by  pesti- 
lence, and  adcrwards  became  preacher  at  Worms,  giv- 
ing the  next  seventeen  years  to  the  preaching  of  the 
(•ospeL  His  utterances  were  exceedingly  frank  and 
buM,  and  were  supported  by  the  labois  nf  his  pen  until 
the  rulers  nf  the  Church  came  to  regard  him  as  a  mis- 
chievous personage,  upon  whom  they  might  justly  bring 

■ilenee.  An  article  directed  sgainst  the  hierarchy  ae 
the  central  abuse  in  the  administration  of  the  Church 
Hnally  induced  the  airhbisliop  of  Mayence,  Diether  of 
|genbut)«,to  Uke  deflnite  measures  fur  compelling  the 
liold  agitator  to  end  his  work.  It  is  not  known  why 
■he  archbiabop,  wbose  Jurisdiction  did  not  extend  over 
Wesel,  took  action  rather  (ban  the  bishop  of  Worms, 
Keinhard  of  Siekingen,  who  was  Weael's  immediate  su- 
perior; but  Argentr^who  reported  the  trial  ofWesel, 
asserts  Ihst  the  persecution  of  Weael  had  fur  ite  inspi- 
tation  the  hatred  which  Ibe  Thomists  who  atood  oif- 


WESEL 

lo  him  in  philoaoph*  bore  against  him.  Wcsd 
immoned  before  a  tribunal  composed  of  thee;*- 
rom  the  universitiea  of  Cologne  and  Heidrtheig, 
ere.  with  a  single  exceptian,  traliala.  The  Uv- 
iis  M.  GerhanI  Ellen,  U.  Jacob  Sprenga,  and  a 
third  uiikniiim  prnon  were  inquisitors  at  the  trial.  TW 
'B*  brg'"  °n 'be  Friday  alter  Can* 
dlemas.  probably  February  4, 1479,  at  Uayeocc  Eliea, 
a  fanatic,  presided.  The  accnsed  was  rBqaiml  lo  ex- 
plain certain  suspicious  facta  in  his  personal  history, 
such  as  his  intercourse  with  the  Bohemiana,  and  ope- 
cially  with  a  certain  Nicbolaa  of  Bohemia.  He  -u 
examined  with  regard  to  any  possible  adherents  he 
might  have  gained,  and  respecting  a  cvTnmiinion  to- 
vice  he  had  held.  Bavle  (Z>^iosRui>r.  s.  v.  "  Wesalia') 
and  Erbarrit  (C»cil.  dti  WitdeTawfUiikau,  etc,  i.  »l) 
state  that  he  was  also  qucs^oned  with  regard  lo  Ihi 
relation*  with  the  Jewa;  but  as  Argentr^  dot*  not 
mention  this  point,  a  confounding  orWesel  wilhWemrt 
would  seem  to  have  been  made  by  those  auiboritiefL  A 
second  part  of  his  trial  was  concerned  with  ductrinal 
errors  alleged  against  Wesel,  r.  g.  that  he  denied  Ite 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  Ibe  Son,  which  kt 
admitted,  but  defendHl  hb  view  by  an  appeal  to  ite 
Scriptures ;  that  he  rejected  the  aulhuritT  of  tradiliM, 
with  respect  lo  which  he  was  obliged  to  ackDOKM(> 
his  opinion  that  the  holy  fathera  and  doctors  were  Mt 
guided  in  their  interpret  aliens  a(  Scripture  by  the  mat 
infallible  Spirit  by  which  it  was  originsUy  meakd, 
and  that  the  immediate  direction  of  tbe  Holy  Spirit 
couU  not  be  cerlunly  assumed  of  every  council  wliich 
might  be  convened  by  the  proper  authority.  Olbtr  er- 
rors charged  against  him  had  reference  lo  indulgoea, 
the  sacramenta,  tin  in  general,  and  original  bd  in  pst- 
ticular.  Under  the  dogma  of  the  Cburch,  be  staled  Ut 
belief  in  one  holy  Church  ;  but  was  charged  witti  ua» 
ting  the  attribute  a(  universality.  He  ootKCded  tte 
rule  uf  the  Holy  (ihoat  over  the  Church,  and  alwba 
freedom  from  error.  He  also  conceded  the  Dtmauilj  sf 
a  papacy  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  though  not  witbaA 
eqiiirocation.  It  is  evident  tbst  he  did  imM  hnU  tkt 
views  respecting  the  authority  of  the  Chun:h  wluA 
time.  He  i 
presbyter,  ai 
»im  the  right  of  civil  Jurisdiction  and  li 
claimed  by  the  Church.  He  did  not  eonsioet  oeliMty, 
monaaticiam,  and  fasting  as  of  binding  obligatkiii,  aad 
was  able  to  reply  inasatiafaclory  manner  to  the  cliBi|V 
against  htm  upon  these  points,  only  because  tber  wen 
conceived  and  expressed  in  a  form  in  which  be  iai 
actually  never  held  the  views  to  which  they  refend. 
It  appears  that  Weoel  endeavored  to  give  way  to  Ini 
pcrseculora  as  far  aa  he  could  without  doiog  too  gmt 
violence  to  his  coiisdcnce,  and  that  he  sought  to  lakt 
advantage  of  every  ambiguity  in  the  charges  aeaioM 
him,  or  which  he  could  weave  into  his  own  expbaa- 
tinns.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  repeatedly  nk  ta 
mercy.  He  needed  all  the  eocoBragement  he  coald 
get.  He  was  old  and  broken  down,  threatened  wiih 
death  by  fire,  and  obliged  to  undergo  usage  which  he 
decLaied  would  have  turned  Christ  bimaelf  into  a  btre- 
lic  He  finally  consented  to  retract,  with  tbe  pmviB 
that  the  retnction  should  be  charged  upon  the  ccsi- 
scieoce  of  hia Judges.  The  formula  adopted  was  ofa 
general  nature,  and  aet  forth  that  erroneoua  matM 
might  be  fiiund  in  his  writings,  which  be  now  reolM: 
that  he  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  Chnrch  ami 
the  teacbineaof  her  doctors;  thsi  he  was  ready  to  per- 
form whatever  penance  might  be  impoaed ;  and  that  te 
asked  for  forgiveness.  This  retraction  took  place  be- 
fore the  assembled  tribunal,  and  was  foUowed  by  a  sini- 
Isr  act  in  the  cathedral.  His  writings  were  bumrd, 
and  he  was  himself  condemned  lo  life-long  iirprisaD- 
ment  in  the  Augualinian  convent,  where  he  died  ia 
1481. 


WESI-HIISI  9( 

rirariMM  ttuo  «■■  poaibl«  td  the  R«rarmen  in  ifae 
beginning  or  their  work.  He  jMiicd  iu  prrapicuily 
with  iu  MfflrieDcy  u  ■  neccHr}-  cnnsequenee.  He 
alio  Uiii  down  the  (uuiiiUtioQS  uf  tlie  ductriue  of  the 
nitnoa  of  the  Spirit,  though  he  did  not  develop  it. 
With  reference  to  the  nateri«l  principle*  of  the  Kefor- 
DMIioa  WsmI  was  lew  dear.  He  uealled  indulgences, 
u  nut  authorized  bv  Scripture,  and  denied  that  (iod 
cnuld  eunfer  Juriediction  in  ilivine  Ihinga  upon  the 
Church.  Hij  argument,  however,  wa>  altogether  that 
of  a  cleu^beaded,  well-meaning  theologian,  who  aaw  in 
the  doctrine  of  indulgencei  ■  scienlillc  error  involving 


ng«d.  lodulgenoo  were  in  bi>  view  an  eccleaiaatical 
Bbiiae,but  not  a  peril  which  threatened  the  wul.  Ili« 
iJea  of  no  ia  Ibit  it  ii  a  debt  and  a  deficiency.  He 
doe*  nntappredateita  power  over  tbc  inner  man.  Grace 
ia  euUied  bj  bini,but  lathei  at  demoostnting  the  cau- 
■alicy  of  Ciod  than  aa  benefiting  the  aoul  of  man ;  and  he 
aceordinglv  give*  a  foremoat  place  to  the  doctrine  of 
election.  He  regarded  the  Church  u  being  above  all 
a  comrounian,  and  beld  that  the  true  Chureti  ia  the  holy 
Churefa,  within  the  univeml  Church.  He  denied  em- 
phatically that  the  apoMie*  liad  received  power  froni 
Chriat  to  enact  canoni  and  lawa,  and  refueed  to  recog- 


ofChrii 


Dlar  princee  to 


of  legislative 
■poaed  to  question  the  authority  of  aec- 
nactlawa;  butas  he  was  oompelled  to 
y  of  order  ia  the  world,  be  found  him- 
•elf  involved  in  unoertainly,  which  led  him  to  concede 
nucb  on  bia  trial  which  he  had  previoualy  denied. 
Hiniatera  were  eoDceived  of  by  him  aa  ambanadors  for 
Cbriat,  and  both  pope  and  prieata  ae  deriving  their  au- 
thorisation from  him.  Every  Christian  poeaeaaed  the 
right  in  hia  view  of  refusing  obedience  to  an  ecdeaiaa- 
tieal  commandment  which  antagonize*  the  Word  of 
God,  and  the  humbleat  Christian  has  authority  to  re- 
boka  an  ening  pope.  He  required  obedienoa  to  the 
clergy,  however,  in  things  indifferent. 

Weael  wai  probably  a  fertile  writer.  Jakob  Wim- 
pTeliug  says,  in  Flaciaa,  that  Weael  had  adorned  the 
Erfurt  acbonl  by  his  teaching  and  writings;  and  Fla- 
ciua  add*  that  the  writings  were  atill  preserved  at  Er- 
furt. Only  the  two  tracta  Adrtrna  Indidgeatiai  and 
D»  Polalale  Ecdaiailica  an  now  eilani.  See  Ai^ 
geaUi,  CiMtdia  JmHaonm,  I,  ii.  S91  sq. ;  Walch,  Mo- 
Min.  Mtdii  ^e>,I,  i,  114  aq.;  Vtrntan,  Joluim  Wael, 
der  Var/£r/fr  fMAer'i ;  id.  Ri/arniatoTtii  vor  dtr  Rtfor- 
matiaii. — Htnog,  Real~Enq/tlop,t.  v. 

mreai-HilBl,  in  Finnish  mythology,  wai  a  servant 
of  the  wicked  giant  Hiiai  (the  penonificatioti  of  the 
wicked  principle),  who  rules  over  the  waters,  aa  othen 
mled  over  the  mountains,  the  air,  etc.  See  lienoimaut, 
CkaUaan  Mngic,  p.  267. 

'Wealay  (originally  WeUealey),  a  naaie  memor- 
able in  English  ecclesiastical  history,  as  will  be  seen 
trota  the  biographies  fnllowing.  The  pedigree  un  the 
following  page  lupplici  the  link  connecting  all  the 
chief  branebea  uf  the  Wesley  family,  and  extends  back- 
ward for  mote  than  (ire  hundred  yeara.  It  indicate* 
tha  branche*  from  which  descended  the  lata  Arthur, 
Duke  of  Wellington,  and  the  two  sister*  Ann  and  Jane 
Porlar.     It  also  include*  the  name*  of  nearly  twenty 


nily  livi 


sotne  of  which  an  now  affixed  for  the 

add  a*  muoh  completeness  as  possible  to  the  reooAl.    It 

was  prepared  by  Ur.  George  J.  SterenioD,  A.Mn  of 

Lindon. 

'Wesley,  Bkttholoinew,  ao  Episcopal  clergy, 
man,  great-grandfather  of  John  and  Charle*  Wesley, 
waa  bom  in  England  about  1696.  He  received  a  uni- 
vmity  education  (pnbably  it  Oxford),  and  took  orders 
in  the  Chureh  of  England.  He  waa  rector  of  Catber*- 
lOD  and  Cbannonth,  two  village*  in  Donet,  in  IBM,  and 


17  WESLEY 

wasejectedfrombothby  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  168Z 

After  hi*  ejectment  he  followed  (he  profraaion  of  a  ph}-. 
sician,  fur  which  he  had  prepared  while  in  the  uuivei- 
sity,  and  preached  among  the  Nonconfonoista  as  oppor- 
tunity served.     He  died  about  168a 

'Wealey,  Ctaulea  (1),  A.M.,  the  hymniat  of  Meth- 
odism, and  one  of  "  the  sweet  singen  in  Israel,"  was 
celebrated  also  a*  a  prvauber  and  a  coadjutor  of  his 
brother  John  in  tlte  great  evangelical  and  ecdeuastical 
movement  of  their  lives  and  time*. 

I.  /.i/e.— Charles  Wesley  was  bom  at  the  parsonage, 
Epwonh,  Lincolnshire,  Dec  IB,  1707,  being  the  eigh- 
teenth child  and  the  youngest  son  of  Bev.  Samuel  Wea- 
ley.  (All  the  biographers  exi;ept  one  give  the  dale  a* 
Dec  18,  1708;  the  latest,  Ur.  Ueo.  J.  Steveoaoa,  lays 
that  (he  information  now  at  hand  places  the  date  a  year 
earlier.  See  UrtutriaU  of  Una  Wfity  Familg  [Lond. 
1876],  p.  SB5).  When  five  year*  of  age  he  entered  hi* 
moiher's  school,  where  began  that  si-stematic  course  of 
mental  discipline  which  laid  the  groundwork  of  his  after- 
success  in  academic  pursuit*.    At  eight  he  was  enrolled 


usher — an  elegant  scholsr,  and  who  imbued  his  little 
charge  with  his  own  lligh-Ohurcb  notion*.  Here  he 
became  a  friend  of  a  Scotch  lad,  James  Murrsy,  after- 
ward* the  celehnted  lord  Mansfield.  Young 'cbatlea 
made  such  progress  in  his  studies  that  in  1721  he  waa 
admitted  one  of  the  king's  schulan.  hi*  expenses  being 
thus  henceforth  home  by  the  Foundstion.  The  biog- 
rapher* think  it  doubtful  whether  religion  would  ever 
have  had  the  services  of  the  great  hymniat,  or  the  State 
those  of  the  administrator  of  India  and  the  hero  of 
Waterloo,  if  the  sloident  at  Westminster  had  accepted 
an  heirship  to  the  estates  of  Garrett  Wesley,  Esq.,  mem- 
bet  of  Parliament  for  the  County  of  Meath,  at  this  time 
(aboutl726)  pressed  upon  him  by  hislsnded  relative.  In 
1 7S6  he  was  elected  to  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  an 
institution  which  his  brother  John  hsd  left  a  little  be- 
fore. Here  he  and  a  few  friends  became  ao  diligent  in 
study,  serion*  in  manner,  and  observed  with  such  strict- 
neas  the  method  of  sti 


north 


an  epithet  first  applied  to  a  college  of  physicians  in 
Kume  M  thetime  of  Nero,  and  aoou  the  little  bandwas 
known  by  a  word  that  baa  now  in  a  large  measure  lost 
its  opprobrious  aMc^Urtiodiil.  At  thcageoftwenly- 
one  Charle*  took  his  A.B.  degree,  and  became  tutor  in 
(he  college,  In  November,  1729,  the  "Methodists"  were 
joined  by  John  Wesley,  and  through  insult  and  ridicule 
pursued  (heir  devotional  and  self-denying  libura.  The 
brothen  remained  st  the  university  until  the  death  of 
their  father,  in  April,  1796.  Having  been  perauaded  to 
accompany  John  on  the  misaion  to  Georgia,  primarily 
a*  aecretary  to  the  managing  committee  of  the  colony 
and  private  secietary  to  general  Oglethorpe,  its  founder, 
Charles,  at  the  instance  of  Dr.  Burton,  was  ordained  dea- 
con in  Oxford  by  Dr.  John  Potter,  bishop  of  that  cit)', 
and  on  the  following  Sunday  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
the  metropolis  by  Dr.  Gibson,  bishop  of  London  (autumn 
uf  17S6).  The  ship  Synmond*  sailed  up  the  Savannah 
Feb.  6, 17SS.  It  is  needleat  to  treat  the  reader  with  an 
scconiit  of  the  mishaps,  privations,  trials,  and  pemecu- 
lion*  which  befell  oitr  subject  in  this  country.  He  can 
read  it  in  Charles  Wesley's  Journal  and  Ltff.  Sulflce 
it  to  say  that  diligently  and  conMJentiously  he  endured 
hardship  a*  a  good  soldier  while  stationed  at  Frederic*. 
On  the  nth  of  August,  1736,  Charie*  Wealey,  sick  and 
disappointed,  embarked  for  EngUnd.  The  vessel  waa 
compelled  to  put  into  Boston,  where,  under  kind  aitd 
hospitable  treatment,  he  quite  fully  recovered,  so  as  to 
beable  lo  preach  frequently  in  King's  Chapel.  On  Dec 
8, 1786,  he  arrived  at  D^al.  l^nglaml.  By  the  desire  of 
(he  University  orUxfor'l,UlisrleB  Wesley  was  requested 
to  present  their  address  lo  the  king,  which  he  did  st 
Hampton  Court,  Aug.  29, 1 737.  He  was  graciously  re^ 
eeiv(<l,Bnd  dined  with  the  royal  household. 

In  Ftbnaaiy,  17S8,  the  brotheti  Wesley  were  intra- 


FBDIOBSB  OP  THE  WSSLET  PAHILT. 


MurM  Alin 
luKburotSlt/ohD 


Rlchard 


DinStiter  dI 


PnocM,  mirrM  to  Botwrt  WaUnlir, 


Sir  Herbert  Wealet, BllubMb  da  WellnleT 

or  WeltnkT,  of  of  Duiu 

Wwtlel2li,Cr 


duol^ 


doced  to  Peter  Btthler,  the  MonTtin.  On  tbe  iOtb, 
Chorln  began  is  inMniet  hiirriend  in  EngUita,  tod  Pe- 
ter in  retuni  UughC  bim  tbe  plan  of  ulritioa  by  fiith. 
It  itu  on  Wbiuunda?,  Hay  SI,  1708,  bit  beait  having 
b«cn  piepared  by  aickncM,  thai  Ihii  devout  and  labori- 
ous priest  or  the  Church  or  EngUiid  oUiiued  the  atnie 
, of  pardon  and  adoption.  It  waajuU  a  week  before  hia 
bmtber  received  tbe  uow  bleaaing.  Heueefbnb,  what 
bad  beta  a  labor  of  c«uci«iKe  and  duty  wM  to  be  one 


■\ng.  ISIO.] 


aljo  of  jo;  and  love.   He  at  oi 

■null  audiences  iu  tbe  houaea  of  frienda,  harind  aooe- 

tbe  Lalia  DiOtanarjf,  He  wa*  iood  appoiuud  «n(t 
of  St.  Haty'i,  Islin^lon,  London,  wbieh  was  the  <afr 
preferment  Cbarla  Weiler  ever  bad  in  the  Cbttii  al 
EnglaDd,  altbough  to  the  end  ofhii  long  lite  mesf  hrt 
flrnieat  adberenla.  Hi*  faithful  mioiatiy  apCBiCy  fn- 
He  was  litcrallf,' MT*  Or;  JU- 


WESLEY  9( 

TialeoM,  and  that  rialcnee  reedred 
in"  (r*«  Poet  Prtnckrr,  p.  67), 
Id  Jane,  I7S9,  he  wu  lummotwil  ta  ipprar  brrore  the 
■rehbulioparCaiitctbiirjt  to  in»wer  the  chergo  of  pitch- 
ing in  cbarchea  to  which  he  bed  no  canonical  appuint- 
nent.  Theleamedpnlateanf^rilTclliniiMHllheToulh- 
ful  praecber,  and  forbade  the  clergy  to  pennit  the  Wee- 
lej«  to  preach  In  their  churches.  On  the  Suoilay  after 
Dr.  Potter'a  inletdiction,  Charlee  Weelev  preached  lo  ten 
tbooHod  people  in  Hoorfielda  rron  the  words  "Cnme 
unto  Dw,  all  je  that  tnvail,"  etc.  Henceforth  tbia  ar- 
dent CboKhman,  oontrary  to  all  the  irailitinoa  oT  bii 
training  and  life,  bapdml  with  ihe  ipirit  of  conaeen' 
lion,  cnirnd  opoo  that  work  which,  auder  Weelej  and 
White&ld.and  Cownlej  and  Hopper,  waa  to  slir  throogh 
and  thiDuKh  the  rotten  locietj  and  dead  cbarobea  of 
England  from  Uod'a  End  to  the  Tweed.  From  thU 
time  ontil  I7i6,  Chailn  WhIcj  ilinented  throngboM 
Bn^and  and  Wales,  in  delicate  health,  and  amid  bodily 
inflrnities,  but  witb  a  leal  which  hardshjpt  never  abated, 
and  witb  ■  ooaiage  which  oppaulion  nefer  quelled. 
Charles  Wesley  waa  no  muscular,  iron-heaned  Cromwell ; 
his  spirit  was  gentle,  his  sensilHlities  tender  i  yet,  near 
(a  maityrdoRi,  he  over  and  ova  s^in  faced  mobs  and 
bdd  bis  ground  "until  his  clothes  were  tom  to  titters 
•nd  the  Itlood  ran  down  his  face  in  streams"  (Daniels, 
lU.  Hit  of  MUk.  p.  826).  For  the  thrilling  bot  sicken- 
ing detuls  of  these  adventures,  see  his  biograpbeis  and 
Ihe  history  of  the  early  Methodist  movement. 

After  17U,  it  appeani,  according  lo  Jackvm,  tbat 
Charles  Wesley  eevied  the  active  itinerant  lifa.  His 
Ubora  now  became  chiefly  confined  to  London  and  Kia- 
tot,with  visits  to  intermediate  and  surrounding  places. 
The  reaaont  for  this  change  were,  his  marriage,  the  cares 
and  attractions  of  domestic  life,  and  the  Tact  thit,diB'ei^ 
ing  so  widrly  from  bis  brother  in  poinia  of  Church  or- 
der, he  could  nntregnlsle  the  tttttn  of  the  societies  sat- 
ialajEtoriiy  tn  all  enneemed.  (The  pnachers  and  mem- 
ben  almost  invariably  agreed  with  John.)  He  therefore 
Ihougbt  it  beet  to  leave  the  oversight  with  John,  whoee 
unrivalled  administrative  ability  he  could  not  fail  to 
aee,  in  fact  acknowledged.  (See  Jackson,  Lfft  of  C. 
ir«Ay,N.  Y.ed.,p.548).    "  The  effect  of  his  retirement 

"""""'" '  —     rse  of  favorable,  ao  bt 

Hia 


tally  inclined  to  view  things  in  a  gloomy  aspect,  but 
amid  the  esdteoient,  the  change,  Ihe  toil  of  an  itine- 
rant ministry,  be  had  no  time  lo  be  melancholy. .  . . 
The  manifest  aueoees  which  attended  hia  preaching  fliled 
him  with  uimUerable  gratitude;  and  while  all  his  pow- 
era  were  engaged  in  this  work,  he  enjoyed  a  heaven  upon 
earth.  When  be  ceased  to  travel,  he  was  at  leisure  to 
chniah  hia  painful  forebodings;  croakers  and  buay- 
bodies  lomiented  him  with  letteia  comiriaiaing  of  the 
ambition  of  the  preachers,  and  of  (be  alienation  of  the 
people  from  the  Cbnrch;  and  the  pemidons  leaven  of 
mysticism  'Which  he  had  imbibed  at  Oiford,  and  fmm 
which  bis  mind  had  never  been  thoroughly  purged,  re- 
gained its  ascendency  over  him  so  aa  often  to  interfere 
with  his  spiritual  enjoymenis:  yet  his  piety  and  integ- 
rity of  purpose  were  unimpeachable.  Often  was  be  in 
asoniea  of  fear  lest  Ihe  Methodists  shmdd  leave  the 
Church  when  ha  and  his  hroiber  were  dead,  while  John 
waa  sa  happy  as  an  angel,  flying  through  the  three  king- 
doois,  sonndJng  ihs  trumpet  of  the  world's  Jabilee  and 
Joyfully  witnaanng  everi'  successive  year  the  steady  ad- 
vancement of  the  work  of  God"  (Jackson,  *1  mp.,  p.  US). 
He  still  tamaiDad  witb  the  MethndisiB,  and  still  threw 
olThiamalchlasshymna.  In  1771-72  he  Anally  rcmored 
to  LoodDO.  In  1777  he  ftequently  visited  Ihs  unfnrtu- 
rmte  Dr.  Dodd,  condemned  to  die  for  forgery,  and  from 
hia  pen  came  A  PraftTfoT  Dr.  Oodd  under  Condtmmi- 
rsm.  In  1780,  iti  age  and  feebleness,  he  attended  at 
BriMol  his  last  Conference,  liradually  he  weakened  nn- 
til  ha  quietly  paassd  awar,  at  No.  1  ChnterAeld  Street, 
London,  Hareh  39,  17*8.  His  body  rests  in  the  old 
HaryUbora  chottb-yard. 


>»  WESLEY 

n.  A  few  ipedal  lopict  letnain  to  be  treated  bcAm 
we  can  get  a  satisfaclory  view  of  the  career,  inflaeeoa, 
and  genius  of  Charlea  Wcslev. 

1.  Hii  FaMHf.—Oa  April 'S,  17i9,  Charles  Wesley  WM 
married  to  Sarah  Gwynne,  a  Welsh  Isdy  of  piety,  reflne- 
ment,  and  fortnne.  Of  tbia  happy  marriage  were  bran 
foursonsandfonrdaughteia,  Three  only  survived  their 
father— Cbaries,  Sarah,  and  SamueL  '  The  two  sons 
were  musical  prodigies.  They  gave  concerts  before  the 
mia  of  London  with  great  applause,  snd  were  shown 
marked  favor  by  the  royal  family.  The  last  days  of 
their  father's  lift  were  erobittered  by  the  pervernon  of 
hia  third  son,  Samuel,  to  the  Church  of  Rome  in  178fk 
Tbia  called  forth  from  the  old  man  ona  of  the  most  Uwcti- 
ing  poems  in  tbe  lat>gnage,oommeiicing  "  Farswell,  my 
all  of  earthly  hope,"  If  the  father  had  lived  long  enough, 
he  would  bave  seen  his  ton  leave  Ihs  Roman  CalhAio 
Church  in  contempt  and  become  her  publio  antagcoiat. 
His.  Wedey  survived  her  husband  thirty-live  ycar%  and 
died  Dee.  S8,  IKi,  aged  ninety-  six  years,  Nomeroaa 
deaeendanta  are  living  (see  Stevenson,  Pedigree  of  the 
Wesley  Family  fmm  A.D.  988  to  1S7S,  in  Mimoriab  of 
tkeFimUyy. 

S.  BU  (rAaracter.— Althoogh  abrapt  and  singular  in 
his  manners,  snd  with  the  utmost  rimplicity  and  ftank- 
neseof  mind,  he  had  much  warmth  of  allbction  and  ten- 
demtes  of  sympathy ;  so  tbat  bia  friendship  waa  H\t  \a 
Ik  of  inestimable  vatua.  His  views  were  ssoetlo.  In 
him  appeared  "the  true  Reformer's  Are, the  fearless  seal, 
the  utter  self-renDndalion,  the  contempt  for  what  other 

iog  faith"  (ffird,  al  infra,  p.  IIS).  "  The  most  remark- 
able featnre  of  the  poet's  mind,"  continues  the  sama 

petually  introverted;  he  bad  no  eyes  for  external  object^ 
no  intetesi  in  the  things  that  other  men  care  most  for ; 
he  was  ill  soul ;  apiritoal  ideis  snd  fscts  wen  tbe  world 
to  him"  (p.  151).  He  was  powerful  in  his  antlpathiea 
and  teniciuoa  of  his  peculiarities  of  opinion. 

8.  Ui$  PrtaeMing  and  ScAolartiqh  —  His  discourses 
were  efflislons  of  the  heart  rather  than  the  oApring  of 
the  intellect  or  of  the  imagination.  Of  the  Kble  be 
was  a  diligent  and  enraptured  student,  and  be  imbued 
his  sermons  with  ila  doctrines  and  language.  To  tnm 
men  fnim  An  ta  Christ  wss  the  object  of  bis  preaching, 
and  in  those  less  artificial,  slower,  and  perbapa  mors  ig- 
norant days  he  did  not  hesitate  to  preach  long — some- 
times two  hours — if  he  thought  good  could  be  accom- 
plisbed  thereby.  With  the  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  snd 
French  langnagea  he  was  well  acquainted,  and  he  had 
studied  Arabic  Horace  and  Virgil  he  loved,  and  often 
repeated  from  memory  laige  portions  of  the  .^Msii 
Jackson  thinks  Ihsl  had  be  devoted  himself  to  sacred 
litenture,  he  would  bave  taken  high  rank  among  tbe 
poets  of  Gieat  Britain. 

4.  nil  Difftrenai  nf  Opntm  wUh  Hi  BrotW,  <md 
Ai)  Rthlioii  to  ifraodin>._Charles  Wesley  was  an  ar> 
dent  Charehmsn  (see  his  Postscript  in  John  Wesley's 
HeoKmi  agaiiut  a  Stparation  from  Out  Ckurdt  qf  Eiip- 
bmS).  He  loved  tbe  Church  as  his  owi)  life ;  yet  he 
thought  he  WIS  not  fur  thst  reason  less  i  Hethodiau 
Againat  the  adminiatration  of  the  sacraments  by  the 
preachers  he  resolutely  contended  (see  his  letters  quoted 
in  bis  Uographics).  He  also  differed  with  hia  brother 
concerning  the  quallAcationB  necessary  for  an  itinerant 
preacher,  and  sometimea  silenced  those  whom  John  bad 
admitted.  From  the  Brat  be  opposed  hia  brother's  or- 
daining the  preachen;  hs  made  no  exceptioiia  for  Scot- 
land and  America,  although  Dr.  Rigj;  says  he  admitted 
hia  brother's  right  to  ordain  his  preachers  lo  adminialer. 
(Dr.  Rigg  gives  no  suthority  for  that  suiement;  there 
are  ficti  which  look,  to  say  the  leist,  the  other  way.) 
"Ho  lived  in  hope, someiimee  ainguine,monj  often  des- 
perate and  scarce  aun-iving.  that  a  blshnp  would  be 
raised  up  to  ordsiu  tbe  best  of  the  preachers  in  tbe  aueces- 
dun,  aa  they  became  ripe  for  ordination,  to  eurea  in  tbe 
Chnreh  of  England.    He  would  thus  have  made  Ueth- 


WESLEY 


odimi  ■  nunery  far  eTangelieal  putt 
in  the  Cburch  ar  EngUod,  and  in  outwork  oV  the  E>- 
tiUiahment.  He  wu,  however,  himaeirpncticillrcTen 
Bea*  or  ■  ChurchmiD  than  bi>  bnilber,  uid  hii  bopn  or  a 
buhop  were  continuilly  diuppoinled.  ''Itie  bishop* 
might,  if  rbe;  pleased,'  he  wrote  lo  Lalrobe,  the  Mora- 
vi4n  minuter,  in  1 786, '  uve  the  largest  and  aoundeil 
part  or  lliem  back  iiilo  the  Churchj  perhaps  to  learen 
the  whole  lump,  as  trchbiahop  Patter  uid  tu  m*.  Bat 
I  Tear,  however,  betwixt  fou  and  mt,  their  lordship*  care 
fur  none  of  these  things,  Still,  I  should  hope,  i(  Uod 
raised  up  but  one  primitire  binhop,  and  commanded  the 
potter  to  open  the  door' "  (John  H.  Rigg,  Ijfidcm  Quar. 
An.  [WeBlejaii],Na.LX,Julv.lB6B,p.sa2).  Yet  thu 
■ama  Churchman  approved  ii(  lay  preaching,  separate 
meetings,  and  alonoat  evei^thing  else  thai  belonged  to 
the  earliest  Uelhodiam.  He  himseir  was  the  first  lo 
adminiilei  the  Lord's  aupper  to  the  separate  eocietiea. 
In  fact,  as  Jackson  well  says,  "  there  was  a  Bingular  dis- 
crepancy between  his  theory  of  churchman  ship  and  hia 
conduct.    For   ' ' 


n  oftt 


the  Church  than  any  man  of  the  age;  and  all  ihia  time 
be  was  beyond  compariaon  the  greatest  practical  sepa- 
ratist in  the  whole  connection.  John  Wesley  ipenl 
moat  of  his  time  travelling  tbrotigb  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  often  preaching  twice  every  day,  and  two  or 
three  limea  on  the  SaUuth.  Barely,  however,  did  he 
preach  in  Church  bonn  except  when  he  officiated  for  a 
brother  clergyman. ...  He  attended  the  Chorch  where 
he  happened  to  be,  and  pressed  the  people  lo  accompany 
him  thither.  Many  of  Ibe  irineniit  preachers  pursued 
the  same  course. . . .  This  was  the  recogtiised  plan  of 
Methodist  practice.  .  .  .  But  this  was  not  the  state  of 
things  in  London  under  the  administration  of  Charles 
Wesley.  He  preached  twice  durini;  Cburch  hours  eve- 
ry Sabbath,  and  indulged  the  society  with  a  weekly 
•acrament  at  their  own  places  of  wonhip.  He  conduct- 
ed divine  worship,  indeed,  according  lo  the  order  of  tbe 
Church  of  England,  except  that  he  used  eitempoimiy 
prayer  and  sang  his  own  beautilbl  hymnai  but  be  and 

Eiiabltahed  Church  than  any  Dissenting  minister  and 
congregation  had.  He  was  under  no  episcopal  control, 
the  chapels  were  licensed  by  no  bishop. , . .  The  oouotry 
societies  wished  In  this  respect  to  be  cm  an  equality  with 
their  metropulitan  brethren,  and  they  were  never  satis- 
fled  until  this  was  conceded  to  them"  (ii/i  of  Charia 
irr(J^,Lond.ed.,ii,404,405).  " Though  Charles  Wes- 
.  ley  hardly  ever  went  to  Church,  and  waa  no  more  under 
.  the  Jurisdiction  ofa  bishop  than  I  am,  yet  he  wsasoat- 
.  taehed  to  the  name  of  a  Churchman  that  I  heard  him 
-say  be  should  be  afraid  lo  meet  bis  father's  spirit  in 
Paradise  if  he  left  the  Chi.rch"  ( Bndbum,  .4  re  tkt 
MtthodiiU  DiaoOrrtl  [Bristol,  I79S]). 

Charln  lacked  the  bnadth  of  view,  the  practical  east 
of  mind,  the  vrisdom,  of  his  brother;  and  in  measures  of 
.Church  administration  his  influence  over  the  latter  was 
slight.  Perhaps  Ihe  remark  of  Dr.  Stevens  is  Justified : 
"Had  the  leadership  of  Methodism  early  devolved  upon 
him  by  the  death  of  his  brother,  as  was  at  one  time  like- 
ly, it  would  probably  have  been  either  extinct  to-day,  or 
hardly  dtslinfcuiahable  as  a  special  religious  agency  in 
the  world"  (Uitt.  of  Mtthodim.  ii.  2TS).  It  was  as  a 
bymuist  hii  influence  over  Methodism  was  so  great  and 

b.  Hit  Hsnmt—Cbtxim  VluHty't  fame  rests,  and  will 
forever  mt,  upon  his  hymn^  Upon  these  it  Is  secure 
for  all  time.  Critics,  however,  have  fooiHl  certain  faulla 
in  these  hymns.  These  alleged  defeelawe  will  flist  give. 
They  call  altenlion  to  "the  prosaic,  liieril,  doctrinal 
character  of  many  of  Ihe  lines;  their  occauonal  harah- 
nen,  and  Ihe  preponderance  of  the  subjective  element 
of  personal  experience"  (^nwr.  FrtA,  Rrt.  April,  1867, 
p.  SU).  "  The  paucity  of  hia  topics  produces  frequent 
repetition.  He  has  little  variety  of  manner,  and  less 
variety  of  matttr,  . ,  .  Many  of  his  pieces  wear  the  ex- 


0  WESLET 

elusive  aspect  of  the  sectarian ;  he  casts  bia  mite  iatn 
the  treasury  of  a  party ;  he  writes  as  a  poet  of  HnboA 
ism,  not  aaiba  servant  of  Ihe  untveraal  Church' (MihMf, 
L\fe  of  Walli).  Certain  extravagant  eipmsiosis  and 
violations  of  correct  Judgment  and  taste  arc  peiitted 
out:  as,e.g.,  the  remarkable  hymn,''Ah,lo*dy  appear- 
ance in  death,"  Ihe  lines  of  wh'urh,  the  objector  allowi^ 
"are  invested  with  all  his  own  grace  and  teodanaa* 
(Bird,  BOIiotk.  Sac  Jan.  1664,  p.  148).  [Dr.WbcAa 
stoutly  defends  this  hymn,  taking  issue  wilh  Dr.  Eloy 
and  critics  generall}'.  He  says  it  is  rarely  extclkd  fa 
originality,  solemnity,  and  pathosi  oompan  it  with 
Byron's  celebrated  panage  in  the  Crimnrr,  and  awards 
the  palm  to  tbc  poem  of  Wesley,  "  describing  an  inei- 
pressible  moral  and  divine  beauty  connecled  with  fepoa 
from  the  toils,  sorrows,  and  ains  of  life,  and  the  bach  tl 
the  spirit  to  its  eternal  and  ineffable  repose"  {MriL 
Quar. /Tm.  April,  1867,  p.  SOT).]  FinaUy,  (^eoigr  Hae- 
dunald— an  undoubted  aathoritv— denies  I bem  "auicb 
literary  merit"  (£ivJ(0Krtilir^a,  1869.  SecalMiaA- 
versely,  J.  D.  Buma,  in  the  Enegdop.  Brti^  Btb  eiL,  lii, 
189). 

On  the  other  side,  we  give  the  judgment  of  a  l^tba^ 
an  ciilic.  Rev.  Frederic  H.  Krd,  a  moat  tbomogfa  and 
ardent  student  of  Wesleyan  hymnologj-.  We  qsii 
from  an  able,  elaborate,  and  interesting  review  id  tbe 
BiUiMkrca  Satra,  Jan.  and  April,  1864:  "The  men 
exlensirely  and  cloaely  bis  writing*  are  examined,  the 
more  will  be  found  in  tbem  wonhv  to  be  admind  aad 
used"  (p.  129).  "  Dr.  Watts  has  been  conimaaly  nc- 
sidered  the  most  powerful  of  hynnista.  Tbe  pabiiifceil 
Wesleyan  hymns  are  Ave  limes  as  numerous  as  his;  Bd 
oflhis  immense  man  the  literary  slsndsnl  is  far  higkn 
Ihim  that  of  the  lesser  bulk  of  the  more  celebealed  writ' 
er.  Set  asida  one  hundred  of  Watla's  and  five  famdted 
of  Wesley's  best  hymns,  there  will  be  no  camparisss 
between  the  remainder  in  style  and  poetic  meriL  Dr. 
Watts  was  a  poet  at  certain  limes,  and  under  cpecid 
inspiration ;  Charles  Wesley  was  a  poet  by  naiuiv  aad 
habit.and  almost  always  wrote  as  such.  Of  cause  hit 
effunont  are  not  equal  among  Ihrmnlves;  but  he  es- 
lablisbed  and  olwerved,  through  all  his  multiplicity  •< 
verses,  a  standard  which  no  other  hymn-writer,  i^  is 

since  surpassed"  (ibid.).  "No other  sacred  poet  haaal- 
tempted  such  a  'variety  of  matter;'  and  h' 


ia  topic 


with  ui 


and  grace.  . 
are  no  hymns  in  Ibe  world  of  such  '  spontaiieoBs  dere- 
tion;'  none  so  loftily  spiritual:  "one  so  unmistakafaly 
genuine  and  inlensely  eamesl,  as  the  best-kmnm  aad 
most  laigcly  used  of  Wesley'a.  It  is  the  higheal  paiw 
of  the  few  noblest  hymns  of  Walta  and  (>wpeT  thai 
they  reach  an  elevation  on  which  tbe  lletbodist  pan 
generally  sat,  and  express  a  mental  slate  which  wai 
habitual  with  him"  (p.  140).  "No  hymn-writer  v 
more  inlellecinsi :  none  puts  DHirc  doctrine,  Iboogbt, 
solid  owntal  pabulum  into  bis  poema.  And  certaintT 
none  is  more  awakening  and  edifying;  few  otbeiv  n 
fact,  approach  him  in  native  morid  eameattteaa,  fonx, 
tin:  and  none  pnaaeases  a  higher, purer, more  coDvcteni. 
unifonn.and  positive  spirituality"  (p.311).     "As  a  pa- 

lemic  poet  Charles  Wesley  has  never  been  equalled 

The  moat  powerful,  comliative,  and  coniroveraid  poMHE 
we  have  ever  seen  appeared  in  Hgmiu  on  Goii  Evrr- 
biilBig  iMve,  puUisbed  in  1741,  and  greatly  enlarged  ia 
17H"  (p.  38B-28S).  Hr.  Bird  give*  a  fine  r«(nu  rf 
these  rhyming  polemics.  "The  Fwmrral  ttfmmt  ot 
Chatiea  Wealey  are,  perhapa,  the  nohleat  spedmcD*  iif 
his  genius"  (see  further,  p.  S98  sq.).  "Doddridge  and 
StMle  are  diluted  reproductions  ot  Dr.  Wslia.  Mcdi- 
gomery,  a  professed  and  life-long  poet,  ia  inferior  to  W«- 
ley  in  sll  the  quatiliea  mention^  above,  aitd  in  rM  re- 
spect above  him  in  propriety,  harmony,  and  grace  if 
■lyle.  Heber,  tbe  mtet  elegant  and  mellifluous  of  m- 
cred  pnela,  is  not  mon  polbihed  and  fluent  than  hia 
Uelhodisl  predecessor;  nor  has  he  anything  of  his  as- 


WESLEY  0 

tidilT,  Mrangth,  (nd  Ore.  Covrper  is  the  grotnt  name 
in  ibe  hymn-boolu;  but  Cowper'*  beat  poems,  whicfa 
are  very  few,  Jire  but  (qiuJ,  not  mptrior.  to  WesleT'i 
beat,  wblcb  are  vtry  muif .  TopUdy  appniichea  mod 
neaily  tb«  Hetbodut  poet,  but  TopUdy  biWTOwed  hie  iii- 
■pinlion  from  Wesley  ind  reproduced  hi*  etylB;  and  it 
ia  the  Calvinial'a  highett  pniae  that  hii  fineat  pieon 
are  nodiatinpiiah^le  from  Ihoae  of  hie  Anninian  neigh- 
bor. So  other  names  in  British  aacred  lyric  poetry 
be  mentioned  with  that  of  Chailea  Wealey.  And  w\ 
it  ia  remembered  that  all  these  counted  their  poenii 
doietia  or  bandreds,  while  be  by  Ihooaandt;  and  that 
his  tbonaands  were  in  power,  in  elegance,  in  derol 
and  literary  ralue,  above  tbeiifew,  wecallhim  yet  more 
conSdmtlf  great  amoni^  poeU  and  prince  of  English 
hymniMa"  (p.  31B>  Thia  high  praise  comea  fron 
who — not  a  Hetbndist — has  by  lung  and  patient  study 
earned  tot  hinuelf  a  place  among  the  veiy  Tew  auihori- 
tiea  in  the  hymnotogy  of  Wealey. 

It  is  needlns  to  mention  single  hymn*  of  surpassing 
csoelletioe.    Several  have  been  already  reTerted  l»  in 
the  art.  Htmnologi.    Suffice  it  hers  to  call  aitei  ' 
to  three  only : 

(a.)  The  poem  on  "Wrestling  Jacob' ha*  enraptured 
all  readers.  Wbo  has  not  felt  (he  power  of  that  mi 
piece?  "With  consummate  art  he  carrieson  the  I 
tifa  lyric  drams;  erery  turain  the  conflict  with  the 
MriouB  Being,  against  whom  be  wrestles  all  nighi,  being 
marked  with  precision  by  the  varying  language  uf  the 
■peaker,  aeoompanied  by  inlenae  increasing  interest,  till 
the  raptarous  moment  of  the  discovery,  when  be  pre- 
Taib  and  exclaim^  'I  know  thee,  Savionr,  who 
art"  "  (Montgomery,  Ciniliai  Pmlmitl  [I8S8]). 

(b.)  "Jeaut,  lover  of  mysaul"ia  the  essence  ora 
aaiid  hymns  and  prayers.  Tributes  innumerable  might 
be  laid  down  here.  B<it  what  an  tbeaer  Tfae  bean 
of  the  world  is  brought  near  to  God. 

(c)  "Stand  the  omnipotent  decree,"  "the  finest  lyric 
in  tbe  English  language,"  says  Soutbey. 

IIL  LiteralUTt.  —  We  classify  this  for  convenience' 
sake,  under  separate  beads. 

1.  Charies  Wesley's  own  poetical  vorka  (pnblisbed 
dniing  his  life)  may  be  enumerated,  as  followa,  in 
lar  form  (we  include  a  few  prose  writings) : 

DaU  !      , 

H/PtM.  net.  Bin«n*. 

1TS>,  Hymns  and  Sacred  Poema IM 

1T40.  Hymn*  and  BflCred  Piienis M 

1T4I,  Hymns  of  Ood'a  Ererlaatlng  I^re AS 

1141,  Hrmnp  and  Sacred  Poems IM 

17*a,  Collection  of  Psalms  and  BymnsrtnlsrcBd),...  IM 
1T44,  Ilymna  lot  Times  orTroalire  and  Penecullun..    ts 

1144,  Hjwnsfnr  itieNstlTltjofonrLord in 

1T44,  Hymn*  r.ir  WMch-ulgbt II 

1T44.  Fnnenl  Bymua. 14 

1T4A,  Hrmna  Hit  Times  ofTronble  tar  the  Tear  1T4B  .    in 
)T4hA8honVlew.)rtbeDllhreiicesbalweBiiLhsMo. 

rarlan  Brelbno. 

1T4^  Hjmna  for  Ihe  Lord's  Snpper lU 

1140,  HvrnDslbr  Times  of  TrouMs s 

1T44.  aiorla  Patri.  eic :  Hiains  to  the  Trlnllr » 

1140,  HymnsoDOreatPaillTnlaiwIthmnslcbyLamiieJ    M 
1144,  Bymns  of  Petlllou  and  thnnkiglTliiK  t-t  Ihe 

Promise  of  the  Father  (Wblunnday) K 

1T4<,  BjmnsfinAscsnslon-daj. I 

1144,  Hymn*  for  on  r  Lord 'a  Rvanrrscllon in 

II4«,  Omces  before  and  after  Meat M 

1140.  Bimnsfin  Public  Thanksiflirlng  (Oct.  ft,  i;4«)...      1 
1T4I,  ilymna  Sir  thowi  ihst  Seek  and  ihiire  that  Hiive 

Redemption  In  the  Blood  of  Jeens  Christ OS 

IT4S,  Rymuson  bla  Marriage. IT 

ITW,  Bjmna  and  Bacred  Poems 4M 

ItBO.  Hymns  (nr  New-yesr's^ajr  (ITS!) T 

IHO,  Hymns  Occasioned  byttae  Barthqnake{Har.8).     1» 

lIBt,  Hymns  and  BplTliaBlBi)Di.-a 114 

ITM,  Ad  Bplslle  to  Kei.  Ji.hn  Wesley  (chnrcbly  and 

brolbsrlf  [see  Jackson.  L'fi  if  Charla  Valry, 

N.  T.ed.,p.KI)). 
ITH,  An  Eniitle  In  Rer.  Owirga  WbllaOeld  (bmtherl* 

(Ibl3.p;lilgl). 

ITS*,  BTmn*Occaa1nn*dbytha  Bnrthqnake  (tried).  11 
IIDO.  Hymn*  fur  the  Tear  IIW  {partlcnlarly  for  the 

Pa*t  Day,  Feb.  i) U 

ITBS,  Hymn*  nriniereesaloofbr  all  Mankind 40 

ITW.Byinnsfor  IhaUasomethodiat  Pieschert 10 

ITM.  VBDeral  Bymni  (enlarpd). 41 


1  WESLEY 

DaU  Xa,qf 

->/  liM.  TiOe,  Bgptm. 

>T«,  ilTmne  •m  the  Bipecied  InTaslon 8 

no»,  Hymuaf.irThaiikaBlvlnjfday  (i«OT.«) IB 

II41,  ilymna  for  ibow  i.>  wbom  Cbrtsi  Is  All  In  All. . .  IH 

liai,  Select  Hymus,  with  Tuiieg  Annexed 1» 

net,  afarirt  Hrmns  oD  Beleci  Passages  at  Bo^  Script- 
ure (i '"Is.) * rTjBM 

lies.  Hymns  for  Clilldron lOQ 

lHie,HymuaonlheOo»pela<l»fIla  MS.),. — 

IIST,  Hymns  fur  the  Dae  of  Fsmlllea  on  Tsrions  Occa- 
sions.   IS8 

IT*!.  Hj'mos  on  tbe  Trlnliy I§> 

ITTi,  Pre  para  Ilnn  fur  Death...  40 

11^  BymuB  Written  lo  the  Time  of  Tomnlta  (Jnne, 

ITOO) 18 

lIBa,  Hnnna  >i>r  the  Nation  and  for  the  Fast  Day, 

Pcb.MJM. 81 

ITK,  Prayers  for  Condemned  Halerncton  (in  reree). .    10 
See  Stevenson,  Manoriali  o/Ihe  Wetltf  FimUf,  p.  41!. 

J.  CoUfditt  pBimt.-~A  CottrcHo*  ff  Ike  Poemi  of 
Jnkm  and  Charltt  Wtilry  (WesL  Conf.  Office,  Loud.  1868. 
Ti,  13  vols.  Svo),  reprinted  from  tbe  originals  with  the 
last  correclions  of  the  authors,  collected  and  armnged 
bv  G.  Oibome,  D.D.  t  Ckarkt  Wr^  Sam  n  Au  Fintr 
Jud  Lot  Fumiiuir  Poemi  (N.  Y.  1867,  Mmo),  edited  with 
nolea  by  Frederic  M.  BinU  Wesley  [Chas.],,!  Potlical 
Vertion  ofUu  Pnlmi  (Lond.  1864, 8vo),  edited,  with  an 
introduction,  by  Heniy  Fish.A.H. 

S.  For  authorities  on  Charles  Wesley's  life,  see  White- 
bead, /.iVo/ Join  rnxJCAuT^  If  F>J^(Loud.  1738,  Boa- 
Ion,  Mass.  1»44, Svo;  Auburn  sndSocbnier,N.Y.,18&4); 
Moore,  LirtM  nfJokn  and  Ckarlf  H-rsfry  (Lond.  18S4)i 
Jackson,  U/t  nfCkarla  Wt^  (Lond.  1841, !  vol*. Svo; 
N.  r.  1844,  Bvo,  slightly  retrenched  [an  abridgment  of 
this  excellent  work  was  subsequently  publ.  in  Lond.]), 
with  a  review  of  his  poetry,  sketches  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  Hetbodistn,  and  noticea  of  contemporary 
events  and  characters;  Doie,  Biog.  Noliea  of  Ikt  Wt»- 
itg  FamUs;  Stevenson,  MtmoriaU  of  lite  WtAy  Fam- 
i/y  (Lnnd.,N.r.,  and  Cincinnati,  I8T6. 8va  [invaluable]), 
11.881-418;  Adams, r*e/'(vfPr«ialo-(N,Y.18a9,16mo); 
Wakeley,  Anadola  of  lit  WeMlfyi  (ibid.  1869,  ISroo), 
P.8S8-386;  Julton,  Journal  of  Cliarla  Wtd/y  (Lond. 
1849,  3  vols.  Svo),  selections  from  hia  correspondence 
and  poetry,  with  introduction  and  notes;  Smith,  Ste- 
vens, and  Porter,  Hittoria  of  Mtthoditm  (N.  Y.  1875, 
rimo);  Daniels,  fliKofy  o/ifrtiodwiN  (ibid.  IS79,  Svo 
[aee  Indices]);  Cmwther,  Porlrailun  of  Metladitm, 
p.  16-19:  Hyle*,  Chnm.  Hwl.  of  Ihe  MeOadiiti,  ann. 
17*9,1788;  Atmora,  if ffjl.  Jf nnonu^  s.  v. ;  Mimttt  of 
At  CoBftrenta  (Lond.  1788,  Sro),  p.  201;  Mitk.  Qnar. 
Reriew,  Jan.  1842,  art.  viii ;  IVennan,  Lffe  ofJolm  Wo- 
Irf  (see  Index),  vuL  iii;  W^v,  Work,  (see  Index): 
Stevenson,  Hut.  ofCOg  Road  Cliopel,  p.  148,  S4S;  and 
articles  in  Ihe  cyclopadias. 

4.  On  hia  poetry,  see,  in  addition  to  the  above  and  to 
tbe  authoridea  cited  in  the  text,  Christophers,  Tkt  Ep- 
leorlK  Singtri  and  oiker  PoeU  ofMtikodum  (Lond.  and 
N.  Y.  1874. 13mo) ;  Creamer,  «nk.  Bfmnohgf  (N.  X. 
184S,12ma);  Burgesa,»'ca%aa//y>WH>Jssy(Lond.l84a); 
HuUand, />Mibiuf(o/£rilasi,'  Symona,  Aoteioii  klelh' 
oditt  Hjfmjt'itriteta  and  thfir  Hifimu;  Kirk,  Ckartrt 
Wal^.  ikt  Poet  ofMakadiKA  (1860,  l!ina);  Belcher, 
lliit.  SkUcka  of  ffynuu;  Stevenson,  Tht  Mahoditt 
Ilgmn'hook  awl  lit  ^uonatioiu  (Lond.  1870,  I2mn); 
/.ond:  Quar.  Reriew  [Wed.].  Jan.  186»,  p.  600;  BibL 
Siura,  July,  I8G7,  p.  591 1  McMullen,  Sacred  Porlry: 
Schsff.CArwf  »  8img  (N.Y.  18CS)i  Miller,  Our  llymut, 
Tktir  A  ulAon  and  Origin  (Lond.  1867  (see  /.omL  Qaar, 
AnPtw,  April,  1867,  p.  158]):  J^idiei'  Srpotilory,  tite, 
1874,  p.  8o5;  The  Ckritlian  Adr-eali  (N.  Y.),  Oct.  7, 
1880,  p.  I.     Sec  works  men) iuned  in  articles  IlruNOL- 

OCIT;    PbaLMODT,  CptBIBTIA.V. 

b.  The  great  muiicians  Lampe.  Giardini,  and  Han- 
del composed  tunes  for  Charles  Wesley's  hymns. 

^Vuley,  Cliailea  (!),  an  eminent  musician,  son 
of  the  Rer.  Charlea  Wealey,  was  bom  at  Brialol,  Eng- 
land, in  1757;  was  for  many  veara  organist  at  Si. 
Harylebone,  and  died  In  1884.  Tie  was  the  author 
of^  Se<  d/A'^(  Saa^  (1784):— and,  antong  other 


jneett,  in  anthem  antiLled  ifjp  Scut  HaA  Palimif 
Tarritd. 

^7«Bl«]r.  Chulra  (8),  D.D„  a  dergymui  of  the 
Church  ot  England,  no  of  Samud  W««ley,  the  miuielaii, 
and  gnndaon  uf  Cbarle*  Wealey,  AJkt.,  wu  born  at 
Bidge,a>illaf!enearSLAlbaiu,3epu2S,179a.  Hewaa 
iiutnioied  by  hu  Mtta  until  be  wai  about  twelve  yean 
old ;  Knc  to  a  school  *t  Wal«ringbury,  oeai  MaidUooe ; 
nmiintd  ktdk  yean  at  Sl  Faol'i  School,  London ;  en- 
tcfed  Chiigl  Cull'sa,  Cambridge,  in  1818,  when  he  di>- 
tinguuhedhinuelT as  a  logician;  wai  ordained  prieU  in 
Sali^buTy  Cathedral  in  1821 ;  appointed  carate  of  Ebury 
Chapel,  Pimlico,  the  aineTeari  became  alternate  min- 
itter  of  Sl.Hary'9  Chapel,  Kulhan-,  in  1823 1  wai  for 
•otne  years  minister  at  St.  Faul'i,  Ciivent  Garden ;  be- 
came chaplain  to  the  kins'!  household  at  St.  Jamee's  in 
18SS;  nubsequently  became  subdeacon  of  her  niajeiity'a 
Chapela  Royal,  confeaaor  of  the  hoiuehnld,  and  in  tS47 
chaplain  to  the  queen.  He  died  at  St.  Jamin'i  PaUce, 
Sept  14,  18(>9.  He  pubUabed  A  Guide  to  SyUogiim 
(1832),  and  A  Short  Conmenfoty  m  Iht  Clmrdi  Calt- 
cAirm.  See  SteTeiuon,ifnwr>ali  o/'fA<  Ifutiy /iinitfjr, 
P.5S9KI. 

Wesley  («  Weatley),  John  (l),  an  English 
clergyman  of  the  Eaubliahed  Chnrch,  grandfatbet  of  I  he 
foHodei  of  Hethodiam,  was  bom  about  16S6 ;  and  edu- 
cated at  New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford,  where  be  was  diWin- 
gniihed  for  piety,  diligence,  and  special  attainments  in 
the  Oriental  languages.  Alter  gnduation  he  wai  con- 
neoced  with  the  Chnrch  at  Helcombe.  Dorsetshire,  by 
which  he  was  sent  ai  a  lay  pnacher  to  labor  among  the 

he  became  the  minister  of  Wioterbouni  Whitchurch, 
Dorsetahire,  nader  the  authority  of  CnmwelL  After  the 
'       ■  oned  b  


bishop  of  Bristol,  who  dismissed  him  without  inlecfer- 
enca.  Bat  he  was  afterwards  twice  imprisoned,  and  in 
IGfil  ejected  from  his  living.  He  was  then  persecuted 
Trom  place  to  place,  and  finally  took  refuge  in  Prestoiu 
He  was  then  called  to  preach  to  a  anciety  in  Pool 
on  iDcounL  of  the  Five-iDile  Act  performed  the  duties 
^  pastor  still  rending  at  Preston.  He  was  several 
times  arrested  and  four  times  imprisoned ;  snd  died 
I6T0.  Application  was  made  to  bur;  him  in  the  Church 
at  Preston,  bat  permiasion  was  refused  by  the  vies 

Wemley.  Jolm  (!),  the  fomidcr  of  Heihodism,  was 
bom  at  Epwotth,  Lincolnshire,  England,  June  17, 1708 
(O.  S.).  His  father,  Samuel  Wesley,  rector  of  Epworth, 
belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of  high  reepectat '" 
Mis  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Annealey,  i 
nobly  connected,  and  the  poeseesor  of  a  very  eaalled 
character.  To  this  remarkably  endowed  lady  Wesley 
was  chiefiy  indebted  for  his  admirable  early  training 
and  his  elementary  education.  His  nncommonl  ' 
trails  of  chsrscler,  and  his  narrow,  not  to  say  tn 
louB,  escape  from  the  burning  rectory  when  he  w 
years  old,  gave  birth  in  her  mind  lo  an  impreMioi 
this  child  was  destined  to  an  extraordinary  career.  She 
therefore  consecrated  him  U>  God  with  special  solec 
resulring  "  to  be  luore  particularly  careful ...  to 
into  his  mind  the  principles  of  religion  and  vi 
The  frait  of  her  fidelity  to  this  high  purpose  wi 
grand  and  beautiful  life  of  her  consecrated  boy. 

\.  Sdmol  end  CoUtge  /,.>>.— When  Wesley  was 
eleventh  year,  the  patronage  of  the  duke  of  Bucking- 
han  secured  his  admission  to  the  Chsrterhouse  School 
London,  of  which  Dr.  Thomas  n'alker  was  then  mastci 
and  the  Rev.  Andrew  Tooke,  author  of  the  Paiakrrir 
usher.  To  such  a  grave  and  gentle-mannered  boy  a 
was  this  poor  son  of  a  village  rector,  his  removal  from 
the  peaceful  rectory  snd  the  companionship  of  his  fir 
but  loving  mother  to  the  cloisters  ot  a  larfce  "  found 

rude  boys,  whose  cruelty  lo  their  Janion  was  equal 
their  though  ttessiiess,  rcust  have  been  a  very  sore  trial ; 
but  be  stood  it  bravely,  and  soon  woo  k  very  bigta  rep- 


WESLEY 

utatiod  for  good  behavior,  devotion  to  Hndy,  and  SBp» 
scholarship.  When  sixteen  years  old  he  was  eleet- 
ad  to  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford.  Bare  be  potsaad 
with  the  same  eiemplaiy  diligFBcc  as  at  iJw 
Chartcrhouae.  So  highly  were  hia  classical  attain- 
^med  by  the  heads  of  the  nnivcnilv  that  ha 
was  elected  feUow  of  Lincoln  College,  March'  17, 171C 
He  was  then  but  twenty-three  yean  of  age,  yet  swh 
raa  his  reputation  as  a  elasdcsl  scholar,  a  thongbifal 
and  polisheil  writer,  and  ■  skilful  logician  that  he  was 
:haaen  Greek  lecturer  and  moderator  of  the  cJasataotdy 
eight  months  after  his  electiuo  to  a  fellowship,  and  br- 
ha  bad  proceeded  master  of  srta,  lo  which  fartwnic 
honor  he  was  admitted  in  Febmarr,  17S7. 

II.  OrMuaioH  and  Work  n  Amtrica After  DKh 

hesitation,  caused  by  grave  doubts  as  to  whether  iht 

ministry  of  the  Gospel  was  his  proper  vocaiion,  Wesley 

had  aoughc  and  obtained  ordiuicion  as  a  deaonn  bv  the 

'    if  bishop  Potter  in  Seplenber,  1736.    The  saw 

prelate  ordained  him  priest  in  1728.    Fnnn  1T££  to  17n 

*  is  time  was  spent  partly  at  Epwonh,  as  hia  faibo^ 

irate,  and  partly  at  Oxford:  but  in  the  lau«t  year  Us 

illege  autboriiies  insisting  on  his  r««idenc«  at  Oilbid, 

e  returned  thither  and  ilevoied  himself  to  the  duties 

of  his  felkiwship.     In  17S6,on  the  death  of  his  faibci, 

was  strongly  orgrd  by  his  telsiivea  to  take  the  nee- 

lary  steps  for  securing  the  vacant  Epworth  rectonhi^ 

licving  that  he  oouU  be  Dtore  useful  at  Oxford  thai 

Epworth,  he  only  yielded  lo  the  wishea  of  his  friends 

so  far  as  to  make  an  indirect  applicsiion  for  the  hviag 

(Tyeniian.lf'<-(<Fy,i,l02,l(e>.   He  was  probably  plesstd 

to  Iram  that  it  was  given  taaiiolher.     Yet  in  tjctobst 

of  the  same  year  hii  convictions  rejecting  his  daiy  lo 

remain  at  Oxford  were  so  modified  that  he  waa  pn- 

suaded  to  go  with  general  Oglethorpe  aa  a  niiMBaiy 

Wesley  spent  two  years  and  almost  four  months  ia 
Georgia,  faithfully  preaching  to  the  colonists;  but  Snd- 
ing  no  opportunity  to  reach  the  Indiana,  as  ha  hal 
hoped  to  dn,  and  seeing  but  scant  fruit  from  bis  Isfaos 
in  Savannah  and  adjacent  settlements,  he  relumed  t* 
England  in  17S8.  His  ascetic  habila,  hia  exireme  rit- 
uslislic  practices,  his  rigid  adminislral ion  of  Church  dia- 
ciplirK,  bis  vigorous  method  of  dealing  with  prevailiiig 
vicea  in  the  pulpit,  and  his  highly  cultivated  and  le- 
fined  nature  were  not  soiled  to  win  tha  sympathy  gf 
those  rude,  self-seekiiig  cokinisia.  Had  liis  cbaracur 
snd  preaching  been  softened  by  that  evangdical  expe- 
rience which  he  subsequently  obtained,  hia  mifaetiaiy 
work  in  America  wonld  probably  have  been  more  p(»- 
duclive.  Nererthelesa,  it  wsa  eminently  beiieAd«l  Is 
himself^  and  after  his  departure  the  people  of  Savao- 
nah,  reflecting  on  what  he  had  said  and  dnne  aDoag 
them,  generally  admitted  his  great  worth,  snd  lamesM 

Wesley  was  now  nearly  tbjity-flve  years  of  age,  ao^ 
except  in  academic  circles  at  Oxfoii),  waa  almost  aa 
unknown  oian.  No  signs  of  the  great  oelehriiy  to  which 
he  waa  destined  luul  yet  appeared ;  bnt  his  hour  was  at 

hand.  He  was  about  to  receive  that  spiritual  bapliMO 
which  was  the  pivotal  fact  in  his  career,  but  for  whvh 
it  is  quite  probable  he  would  have  spent  bis  life  in  the 
gratification  of  his  scholastic  tastes,  quietly  prrHirming 
the  duties  of  his  fellowship  within  the  walls  of  UrvolK 
College,  at  Oxford.  Wesley's  special  work  was  the  fmil 
of  bis  nligiouB  experience,  to  which  we  will  now  dinel 

III.   Hit  RrligiiMt  Krperitiief From  hi*  eartieK 

childhood  Wesley  was  uncommonly  snscepiible  To  n- 
ligious  impressions.  He  was  revertntisl,  cHnecieuiinn* 
retleclive,and  grave,  far  beyond  his  year*.  These  qual- 
ities were  developed  by  the  religious  atiDaapbere  whiHi 
pervaded  the  Epworth  rectory,  by  Ihe  methodical  ■>- 
slnclion  and  Judicious  training  of  bis  affectionate  Bid 
highly  gifted  mother,  and  by  the  infinence  of  his  lestn- 
ed  and  devoui  father.  Reared  in  thiahnme.corseiTstari 
to  the  domMtic  allecti<u>%  to  Intellectual  cnltuic,  and  k 


tpiritiul  ptumiti,  hU  mind  and  bcitt  dnak  in  Uw 
•ve«  infliMDCMDr  the  ipirit  oT  cnitta  •(>  praoociooiljr  that 
hia  btbct,  impnaaad  1^  lb«  oonnalciicy  of  bii  child- 
lifa,  admiuad  bim  to  tba  oonunnuoo  whini  be  wia  only 
eight  y«an old.  AodbahfaDadTdecland  tfaat  "nntU  I 
waa  about  taa  yean  old  I  bad  not  turned  away  tbat 
waahing  of  tbe  Holj  Gboat  wbich  via  pwta  mt  in 
baptUm." 

Wben  be  waa  Mnt  to  the  CharUtboan  School,  he 
waa  like  ■  plant  aoddenly  nowTed  from  thi 
waraHh  of  a  giMnbovae  to  Ibe  sold  air  of  an 
tered  gaideo.  Tbe  (arm  of  nligioa  waa  mainb 
iu  haUa,  bat  tba  apiritual  aUiioe|dtef«  tad  the  penoul 
guidance  to  which  lie  bad  been  accaatomed  ware  not 
there.  Hanoe  the  {HOty  at  hia  childhood  willed.  He 
Uill  adhend  to  the  outward  dotiea  of  tebgion,  bat  hi* 
heart  loat  the  conaolaliona  of  the  Sfdrit ;  and  though  be 
aroidtd 


In  (bia  Kate  heenUied  the  nniTenit;,  where,  for  five 
yean,  while  treating  hia  religious  datiea  with  ootwii 
reapeot,  he  contlnaed  to  nn  agtinit  hia  conTiotiona 
apite  of  the  eaatigation*  tJ  hia  conadence^    Theae  we 
■0  aeTera  at  timea  at  to  induce  tnnnent  lltt  of  unfrui 
fill  repentBDCCb    Hb  love  of  learning  wu  Uw  itning 
aulfer  hia  pleawina  to  inurfere  with  hia  atudieaj  hia 
porerty  bald  htm  back  from  the  coaly  vicea  which  en- 
ilaved  many  of  hii  ooU^e  oompaniona,  bat  did  not  pre~ 
vent  him  from  becoming  ■  lively  and  witty,  tboogh  not 
■n  immoral,  tinner.     When  twenly-two  yean  of 
hit  thoagbt*  wan  drawn  to  mora  aeriooa  viewa  of 
by  hit  fathcr't  prening  Istlera,  nrging  him  to  enter  i 
holy  ordera,  and  by  the  light  which  bnike  apon  hiti 
acicnoe  while  reading  the  CJtruMm'f  Patltm,  by  Tbom- 
aa  k  Kempit.    Tbe  coavetaation  of  a  Tdigimta  IHend, 
■od,  alter  hit  reiaoTal  to  Lincola  College,  the  peruaal  of 
Law'i  ChriMiait  Ptr/ediim  and  Striom*  Call,  deepened 
iheaa  eoavietioai,  and  led  him  to  devote  blmtelf,  tool, 
body,  and  lubMance,  to  the  lerrice  of  God.     Tbe  < 
pleteneaa  of  thii  telf'^votioD,  oombined  with  bia 
moral  courage  and  superior  atrength  of  character,  caoied 
him  to  be  recogoited  aa  the  leader  of  a  gmop  of  ander- 
giadnatet  which  waa  oicknamed  tlie  "  Holy  Qnb"  by  the 
unRodly  ttudenti  and  doot  of  the  nniveni^,  who  alio 
derided  ila  meobera  for  tbdr  rigid  adbenon  to  ritnal- 
iatic  ralea  and  charitable  practicea  by  oalling  tbem 
-  Hethodiata." 

From  tbia  anreterred  dedication  of  himaelf  to  God 
Wealey  never  receded.  Henceforth  he  aoogbt  to  do 
the  divine  will  with  all  the  force  of  bit  inergetlo  nit~ 
are.  But,  owing  to  hit  failure  to  comprehend  the  icript- 
arsl  doctrine  of  aalvatioD  by  faith  only,  he  groped  in  the 
dark  thniugh  thirteeu  yeara  of  ucetic  aelf-danial,  ritu- 
aliatio  obterrtnoaa,  unceaaing  prayer,  and  wocka  of  char- 
ily, before  be  gained  in  aaaatinee  that  God,  for  Chrlit' 
aake,  had  pardoned  hia  rini.  No  tinnger  proof  of  ain 
eerity  and  eantealmaa  can  be  found  in  human  hiatory 
than  iaaontaiiiadiDWe>l«y'aabaoluieandeamp1«i«d». 
Toiion  to  religion  through  thote  long,  wtaritome,  com- 
fordeaa  year*  of  tacking  God  without  Bndirtg  blm. 
rerbapa  there  it  no  tut  more  aurprialng  In  hia  marvel* 
lout  earetr  than  that,  with  hia  aingultrly  large  per- 
ceptive power*  and  hit  fhmillarlty  with  fkripture  and 
with  tbe  writinga  of  the  English  divines,  be  lived  ao 
long  withont  gaiolng  a  right  conception  of  tbe  doctrine 
of  Jualiflcation  by  laith  alone.  And  when,  on  hit  voy< 
age  to  Savannah,  he  aaw  tome  piona  Horaviana  t^fcde- 
ing,  white  ha  waa  ahakan  with  fea^  of  death,  amid 
the  futy  of  a  atorm  which  apparently  waa  driving  them 
into  the  jaw*  of  deatmction,  he  did  not  antpect  that  hit 
feaiwaa  thelMtef  biaenoneout  vlewt.  Nevertheleet, 
bia  attention  waa  tbtraby  dirtcud  to  the  untaiitfaciory 
featntea  of  hit  ezpeilanoe.  He  itlhed  much  with  tome 
of  the  MoravUn  brathren  after  hia  arrival  in  Savannah ; 
bat  it  waa  not  until  after  hit  return  to  England,  in  1738, 
tbat  Peter  Bahler.a  Moravian  picaoher  in  London,  after 
nucb  oonvetiatloiv  aided  bj  the  tattimoniet  of  teveral 


13  WESLEY 

living  witneotet,  convinced  bim  that  to  gain  peace  of 

works  which  had  hitherto  been  the  bane  of  hit  experi- 
enoe,  and  replace  it  with  a  full  reliance  on  the  blood  of 
Cbriit  Bhed  for  iim.  To  gain  Ihia  faith  be  itrove  with 
all  pomible  eamcatoeat.  And  at  ■  Horavian  tociety 
meeting  In  Alderagite  Street,  while  one  was  reading 
Lather'a  atatement  of  the  change  which  Ood  works  in 
the  besrt  thmagh  faith,  Wealey  says, "  I  felt  my  heart 
atrangely  warmed.  1  felt  I  did  truat  in  Chriat,  Christ 
alone,  tot  talvation;  and  an  amurance  wsi  given  me 
tbat  he  bad  taken  away  my  sins,  even  iMiie,  and  saved 
me  from  tbe  law  of  tin  and  death." 

Wealey  wai  now  the  potsetsor  of  "  constant  peace ;" 
but,  bia  faith  being  yet  weak,  was  subject  to  many  fluo- 
tnitiDns  thnmgh  manifold  temptationa.  He  therefore 
devoted  all  the  foreea  of  hit  mind  to  the  culture  of  hia 
faitb.  He  soaght  association  with  the  spirituslly  mind. 
ed  Horaviana;  Journeyed  u>  Germany;  viaitcd  count 
ZiaiendarT;  made  himself  familiar  with  the  religious 
life  of  the  Moravians  at  Hermhut;  conversed  freely 
with  many  of  their  moat  diatinguiahed  men;  and,  in 
Septamber,173S,ielainedto  London,  strong  in  faith  and 
prepared  to  entor  with  unbounded  teal  upon  the  duty 
of  calling  men  to  repentance  aa  Providence  might  give 
him  Dpportuniliea.  "llook,"  he  said  to  a  friend,  shortly 
after  his  relora  to  England,  "  upon  ill  the  wortd  aa  my 
parish ;  thua  hr,  I  mean,  that,  in  whatever  part  of  it  I 
am,  I  judge  it  meet,  right,  and  my  boanden  duty  to  de- 
clare unto  ail  that  are  willing  to  heir  the  glad  tidings 
of  aalvatioo." 

17.  Bagimmg  of  kit  Ematgdittic  IFart.— This  con- 
viction, the  trfbpring  of  hia  fiilh  and  kve,  wis  the  ger- 
minal ptincipla  of  organic  Hetbodiam,  though  Wealey  did 
not  then  tteognise  U  in  that  light.  At  thla  time  he  hid 
not  the  feeblest  conception  tbat  be  was  about  to  become 
the  builder  of  a  rait  ecekaiattical  atructure.  Never, 
perhapa,  was  a  learned  clergyman  at  thiity-flve  yen* 
of  age  ao  utterly  without  a  plan  of  life  as  waa  John 
Wealey  in  )TS8.'  He  knew  that  his  bean  waa  ablaie 
with  love  for  Christ  and  for  human  souls,  and  tbat  he 
waa  paaacaiad  by  ■  paaaionite  desire  to  proclaim  the 
doctrltie  of  pleewt  salvation  by  laith  alone,  and  that  he 
was  determined,  coat  what  it  might,  to  be  guided  by  that 
deure.  Beyond  thia  hit  intentions  did  not  reach.  Ha 
wat  a  ttinch,even*High,(%urcbman,ind  very  osto- 
rilly  luppcaed  that  the  fruit  of  hit  labors  would  con- 
tribute to  the  tpiritoality  of  the  Eaublished  Church. 
Hence  Methodism  must  be  regarded  as  an  accident 
rather  than  the  reault  of  a  purpose  deliberately  formed 
in  the  mind  of  ita  great  (bander.  It  was  the  outgrowth 
of  1  sublime  prindple  wrought  into  oiginio  form  by  cir- 
cumstanoet  which  could  not  be  controlled,  except  by 
tbe  turrtnder  of  the  principle  ittelf.  The  fieu  in  Wt^ 
ley's  csreer  tnbseqnent  to  17Sa  scarcely  admit  of  any 
other  tatitfactory  interpretation.    Let  us  briefly  review 

There  were  aevetal  "tocietiei"  in  London,  chiefly  com- 
poasd  of  peraona  who  ware  deairout  of  tfdritual  fUlow- 
abip  and  inttruetlMi,  Some  of  them  were  under  Mo- 
raviin  tcaehert,  othen  were  made  up  of  Churchmen. 
Wealey  very  naturally  atsociited  with  theae  societies, 
and  pteaohed  to  them  and  to  such  Episcopal  congr^a- 
tiona  aa  were  open  to  hia  ministrations,  ButbiaexeMd> 
ing  eaniestnetB,  fi!t  theory  of  inatantancou*  conversion 
through  (kith,  and,  above  all,  the  remarkable  apiritnal 
reaultt  of  bit  preaching  give  *uch  oflence  to  the  vieara 
and  reotcn  of  the  cburchet  that,  after  a  few  months,  ha 
found  bit  further  aoceta  to  church  pulfrita  very  general- 
ly refuaed,  and  hit  tpbert  of  operatlona  limited,  in  the 
main,  to  die  rooma  of  the  aocietira,  to  priaon  chipela, 
and  to  hospital  wards.  Neither  wat  there  any  prsba- 
bility  that  he  would  tie  presented  to  any  churcb  living. 
At  thit  critical  moment  hit  friend  Whitefleld  tent  him 
y  pressing  invitation  to  visit  BristoL  After  aome 
hetiuiionbewentthltber;  andhli  High-Chutch  eenai- 
blllties  were  shocked  by  aeeing  that  eloquent  evangelist 


WESLEY  9 

piCMli  to  an  immenn  congregltioa  id  the  open  air, 
"  I  could  Ktmeij  rccondle  myKlf  >l  flrat,~  tw  obMirei, 
"  Id  this  acrange  way  at  preaching  in  tbe  flelda hav- 
ing been  all  mj  life  (till  very  lately)  ao  tenanoiiB  of 
every  point  relating  M  decency  and  order  that  I  should 
have  tboDght  tbe  uvini;  of  aoula  almnat  a  Bin  if  it  had 
not  been  in  ■  church."  But  teeing  WhileRelir*  field 
preaching  diviaely  bleand,  he  conquered  hia  life-long 
prejudice!,  and,  atanding  on  an  eminence  near  the  city 
of  BrUtol,  preached  for  Che  firat  time  in  the  open  air  to 
about  three  tbooiand  aauls.  Tbua  the  problem  of  hii 
eranKeliatic  career  waa  aolred.  The  great  purpoae  of 
his  life  could  be  accompliahed  in  tpile  of  closed  church 
doora.  He  did  not  know  il  then,  but  he  really  made 
organic  Helhodiam,  with  ila  itinerant  miuistiv,  po«ib1e 
on  that  memorable  Monday,  AprU  %  17199,  when,  with  a 
courage  which  in  his  circuDMlaacea  waa  truly  aublimr, 
he  croned  the  Rubicon  by  becoming  a  field  preacher. 

The  tnoeeas  of  hia  out-door  miniatratiooi  aoon  made 
it  necenary  to  erect  a  chapel  fur  the  accommodation  of 
hia  converta  at  BtiitoL  Lack  of  ability  on  the  part  of 
the  people  compelled  him  to  aaiime  the  financial  re- 
'  ■ '  To  protect  hia  pecuni- 


ary in 


laaoqi. 


ired,  ■ 


eof  il 


pulpit  to  himself  or  hi*  repTCHntativea,  he  felt  obliged 
to  veit  [be  title  to  the  chapel  in  hlmselC  All  this,  to 
hia  mind,  bore  the  aspect  of  an  undesirable  burden  forced 
upon  his  shoulden  by  unaonght  ctrcumitancea,  But  it 
proved  lo  be  the  Inception  of  that  ayatem  of  veiling  hia 
ctiapel  titles  in  himself  but  for  which  the  organic  unity 
and  growth  of  the  Wesleyan  societiea  could  not  have 
been  aecnred.  In  adopting  it,  Weriey  was  unconscioua- 
1*  working  on  tbe  foundationa  of  a  Church  the  ideal  of 

V.  ait  Firm 
in  the  same  dit 
This  was  nothing  leas  than  the  fonnation  of  a  sociely, 
under  hia  ascluaive  direction,  at  hia  chapel  in  London, 
then  recently  acquired,  and  known  as  tbe  Foundery. 
Six  months  before  he  had  organized  a  "  United  Society" 
in  connection  with  the  Monviani  at  Fetter  I^ne.  But, 
owing  to  errors  in  theory  and  wrongi  in  practice  rrhieh 
had  appeared  among  its  members,  Wesley  thought  prop- 
er tn  invite  all  who  adhered  to  bim  to  separate  from 
tbe  Uoraviani.  Some  eighteen  or  nineteen  accepted 
bis  invitation.  These  persons  he  organized  into  a  so- 
ciety, aa  stated  above,  which,  though  not  intended  to  be 
aseparatian,  either  on  hia  part  or  theira,  from  the  Church 
of  England,  moat  be  regarded  hlaiorieally  as  a  germ  of 
the  Wesleyan  Church.    It  was  the  nucleus  around 

ecclesiastical  head  subsequently  clustered. 

The  rapid  increase  of  his  United  Societies,  and  his  en- 
forced absences  from  them  while  on  hia  evangelical 
tours,  soon  made  it  apparent  that  some  means  of  wateh- 
ing  over  their  s^ritual  growth  was  needed.  No  plan 
presented  itself  to  hia  mind  until,  in  February,  1742, 
while  hia  followers  in  Bristol  were  discosting  waya  and 
tncona  ofpayiug  their  chapel  debt,  one  of  them  propoaed 
that  the  society  should  be  divided  into  bodies  of  twelve, 
one  of  whom  should  be  a  aort  of  leader  lo  collect  from 
each  s  penny  per  week.  Wesley  approved.  The  plan 
worked  well.  In  reporting  their  reoeipta  tome  of  these 
leaders  spoke  of  having  disorderly  members  on  their  list. 
"  Il  alnick  me  immediately,"  wrote  Wesley, "  thia  ia  the 
thing,  tbe  veiy  thing,  we  have  wanted  so  long."  Act- 
ing promptly  and  with  chiracleriatic  energy  on  thia 
auggestion,  he  requested  all  the  collectors  lo  make  par- 
ticular inquiry  into  the  lives  of  the  memben  on  their 
respective  lista.  Six  weeka  later  he  divided  bis  lAndon 
society  iulo  similar  classes,  under  the  leadership  nf 
"eameat  and  sensible  men,"  who  were  Instructed  to  gain 
"a  sure,  thofough  knowledge  of  each  member  on  Ilia 
list."  At  first  they  did  this  duty  by  personal  viaita- 
tionl;  but  this  method  being  found  inconvenient,  the 


WESLEY 


claaa- meeting  originated. 

means  of  "  utispeakable  usefolnese  ■" 

deed,  to  spiritual  instruction  and  disapUne  i 

of  itineracy  which  made  il  impossible  for  il. 

lo  perform  thorough  pastoral  work.     Wealey  il 

his  sagacUy,  if  not  his  genius,  in  incoiporaiing  it  ints 

his  scheme  of  Christian  work.     It  is,  perhapa,  tbe«cel- 

icalij  open  to  objections,  which  ttnne  think  to  be  not 

entirely  groundleaa;  yet  it  is  historically  certain  ttasa 

it  contributed  greatly  to  the  purity  and  spread  of  Hetb- 

oduim ;  and  it  is  assuredly  susceptible  of  such  impnn*- 

menis,  both  on  its  intelleclnal  and  spiritual  sidea,  as  to 

justify  iti  retention  in  Ihe  great  churcbes  which  hart 

grown  out  of  Wesley's  United  Society. 

VI.  OfigmaUt  Iks  Wrtlrsan  /finrrary.— Obeying  the 
unsought  calls  of  Providence, Wealey  visited  other  toma 
in  the  vicinity  of  I«ndon  and  BrisloL  Wbeierer  bs 
preached,  powerful  awakenings  and  surprising  eonvtr- 
siona  look  place.  This  success  begot  new  and  weigbtkr 
responsibilities.  As  the  father  of  these  spintual  chil- 
dren, he  felt  it  to  be  hia  duty  to  see  ihat  they  wot 
pmperly  nurtured.  And  when  be  saw  many  of  hn  em- 
verts  repelled  from  the  sacramental  table  in  nalkoal 
churcbes  only  because  they  wen  hia  bearers,  be  fck 
compelled  lo  provide  for  Iheirspiiitual  culture  andorep- 
■igbt.  His  choice  lay  between  making  luch  pnriika 
or  permitting  tbe  fiuita  of  bis  labon  to  beoonMi  a"!!^ 
of  sand."  Being  a*  yet  a  strong  Churchman,  he  cmdd 
not  fully  approve  of  lay  preaching;  bat,  fuUowiDg  sa- 
raerous  Church  precedents,  he  did  appnnt  Hr.  Cesniik 
at  Bristol,  and  Hi.  Maifield  at  Londuo,  to  Mke  lool  ib- 
pervision  of  ihe  sodetica  in  their  Tespeclive  neighbo- 
boods,  to  hold  prayer- meetings,  and  to  expound  die 


n  arrayed  tbemtelvea  once  aon 
against  his  atowly  declining  ecclesasiiciaD.  Dariag 
his  absence  young  MaxGeld  began  to  preach  in  Lsndo* 
wiib  Biich  power  and  spiritual  fniitage  aa  demunNiaiad 
his  divine  calL  Wesley  hastened  back  to  lAndan.  la- 
tent on  pntting  a  stop  to  this  irregularily.  His  mMb- 
er,  then  living  in  hia  bouse,  said  lo  him,  "  John,  yoa 
know  what  my  sentiments  have  been ;  you  cannot  sot- 
pect  me  of  favoring  readily  any  theoiy  of  this  kiad. 
But  take  care  what  you  do  with  respect  to  that  yvoK 
man,  for  he  is  as  surely  called  of  God  lo  pteacb  aa  yoa 
are."  Thus  cautioned,  Wesley  heud  Hazfleld  fnadL 
catefnlly  observed  the  fruits  of  his  preaching,  was  ecu- 
vinced  that  be  was  called  of  God  to  the  wait  of  tW 
ministry,  and  then  authorized  him  to  pitach  to  Heths- 
dist  congregations  aa  his  "  lay  helper."  Tel  be  weald 
not  permit  him  to  administer  tbe  Sacramento,  becaaM 
he  was  not  episcopally  ordained. 

This  unpremeditated  step,  so  reluctantly  lakeo,  coo- 
■ributed  immensely  to  the  struetun  which  Wesley  was 
still  undesignedly  rearing.  In  taking  MaxfieU  ai  kia 
helper,  he  in  fact  inaugurated  the  ministry  of  Method- 
ism on  the  basis  of  a  divine  calL  And  as  olbet  mia 
equally  qualified  and  conscious  of  that  call  apcodily  ap- 
peared among  hia  converts  in  nuroemns  places,  be  ooU 
not  consistently  refute  to  accept  their  aid,  since  tbe  rap- 
idly incTMiing  number  of  his  sodeties  and  cuugiega- 
tionsdcmanded  Iheemplnyraentof  moielaboien.  Bar- 
ing once  admitted  the  principle,  Wesley  did  not  bcaittit 
lo  apply  iL  Hence,  in  174!,  he  bad  twenly-ihret  hd^ 
en  preaching  anderhisdirecrion:  and  in  li44,fiTeye«n 
al^er  hia  first  sermon  in  the  field  at  Bristol,  «e  find  hia 
holding  his  first  "conference"  in  London.  It  irascoa- 
posed  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  John  Hodges  Hetny 
Pien,  Samuel  Taylor,  and  John  Heritoo,  cletgynMD  ia 
sympathy  with  Wesley ;  and  Thomai  Richards,  Tbonaa 
Haxfield,  John  Bennett,  and  John  Downea,  lay  helpen.. 
in  all,  ten  persons.  Tbey  remained  in  teisiMi  fire  dayK 
conversing  freely  on  questinna  of  doctrine,  discipline, 
and  ministerial  duty.  Among  the  rulet  adopted  (M  as- 
sistsnta  or  lay  helpers  was  one  requiring  them  "  to  act 
in  all  things  not  according  to  yont  own  will,  but  at  a 
son  in  the  Uotpd  to  do  that  part  oT  tlM  work  ntoA 


WESLEY  01 

ire  direeC,  tt  thou  times  and  pUcea  which  we  Judge 
Most  fur  hii  iflury."  This  rule  recognised  Weslej^i  au- 
tbority  to  appoint  bis  lay  helpers  to  such  fields  of  labor 
m  he  judged  best ;  it  maile  unqualiBed  ■ubminion  to 
this  auttuirity  Ihs  dulj  ot  every  lay  assistant;  it  put 
■DtD  the  rininfc  atcucture  of  Methodisra  the  principle  or 
■nthority  which  mule  an  orjjanized  ilinenRI  miniitry 
pcaaible,  and  without  which,  in  some  rnrm,  it  is  difficult 
lo  see  bow  it  could  be  mainlained.  As  exercised  by 
Woley,  Ibis  authority  was  anlwuadc  aud  pnclically 
irrespoiHibte,  and  his  acceptance  and  use  o(  it  cannot  lie 
justified  except  on  the  ground  that  he  believed  it  was 
neceaniy,  a>  it  probably  was  at  firet,  to  the  growth  of 
the  great  work  which  Provideace  had  thmet  upno  him. 

«il  with  the  peace  and  progress  of  his  ncieliea;  but, 
whether  one  ajirees  with  him  or  not  on  this  point,  one 
cannot  fairly  charge  him  with  iU  improper  use.  From 
first  lo  last  he  sought  the  highest  good  of  bis  societin, 
Ibe  best  fields  of  usefulness  for  his  preachers,  and  the 
ptnoiotiiiii  of  the  glory  of  God  in  all  his  appointments. 
No  doubt  he  made  nuny  mistakes,  for  be  was  human; 
biit,  if  ever  mortal  man  poaseased  nf  great  power  was 
unselfish  and  pure  in  its  exercise,  that  man  was  John 
Wesley. 

VIL  FoTimilaliotni/'a  Dodriaal  Plal/onn.—'n«  doc- 
trinal platform  of  the  Wesleyaii  societies  was  tarmalaled, 
at  least  in  its  essential  outlines,  at  this  first  oonfbrenee. 
Wesley  himself  had,  after  diligent  study  while  at  Ox- 
furd,  conclusively  accepted  the  Arminian  theory  of  gen- 
eral redemption,  and  learned  lo  reganl  the  doctrines  of 
election  ami  reprobation,  as  held  by  Calvin,  with  very 
deep  abhorrence.  His  adhesion  to  what  be  believed  lo 
be  the  teaching  of  Holy  Writ  had  brought  him  into  an 
■■ipleasaiit  conflict  with  Cennick.  his  lay  helper  at  Bris- 
tol, and  with  his  friend  and  felbw-evangelist  White- 
field.  The  latter,  having  while  in  New  Eneland  become 
coamoured  with  its  then  prcvailiog  Calvinism,  took 
grave  olFeucs  at  a  sermon  preached  by  Wesley  in  1740 
oo  "  frse  grace,"  and  ppot«Bted  against  it  very  sereiely 
in  a  ktter  to  Wesley,  which  WJiitefleld's  friends  pub- 
lished in  England.  Cennick  espoused  the  opinions  of 
the  letter,  and,  though  in  Wesley's  employ,  soweil  the 
seeds  of  dissension  in  the  Bristol  society.  The  conse- 
quence waa  Ceonick's  separation  from  Wesley,  Wblie- 
Seld'a  temporary  eatnogement  from  his  old  friend,  and 
[he  division  of  Methodism  into  two  branches,  the  Calvin- 
iatie  and  the  Wesle.van.  Subsequently  the  two  friends 
"  agreed  to  diSer,"  though  they  henceforth  wrought  in 
■qjaiata  paths.  But  during  Ibis  controversy  the  creed 
orchccomingWesleyanCburoh  waa  practically  settled; 
and  when  Wesley  assembled  his  first  conference,  and 
its  memben  conversed  two  days  on  "what  to  leach," 
they  found  tbemnelves  in  BubUantial  agreement  on  the 
BUmeoKnt,  election,  justiBcation  by  faith,  ibe  witness 
of  the  Sjnrit,  entire  ssnclification,  and  other  leading 
doctrinea.  Thus  Wesley's  theological  views  became 
the  Bceepled  platform  of  the  great  ecclesiastical  system 


Till.  DmU^me-aaf  WaUy't  Ifort.— During  the  five 
veats  preceding  this  first  conference  great  things  had 
been  accomplished.  Starling  from  London  and  firisUl 
as  the  centres  of  hia  movement,  Wesley  bail  traversed 
the  country  IVom  the  Land's  End  to  Newcastle,  and  had 
formed  societies  in  numerous  towns  and  cities,  In  Lon- 
don alone  those  societies  numbered  not  tees  than  two 
thousand  souls.  Their  number  elsewhere  is  not  known, 
bat  it  must  have  been  several  thousands.  Forty-Gre 
preachers,  including  two  ordained  clergymen,  were  la- 
boring under  hia  direction.  Unnumbered  thousands 
were  aocostomed  to  listen  to  the  quickening  words 
which  fell  with  unwonted  power  from  his  lips,  and  from 
ibose  of  his  devoted  and  laborious  belpen.  They  bad 
much  iHlter  opposition  ami  harsh  persecution  to  con- 
tend with,  and  very  little  public  sympathy  lo  encourage 
them.  The  lower  orders  wore  steeped  in  brutality,  the 
Upper  daaaas  were  hardened  by  scepticism  and  devoted 


WESLEY 

to  pleasure.    The  clergy  wero  fnaen  amid  the  fbrmaU- 

of  the  Establishment.  The  Dissenting  churches, 
1  their  ministers,  were  too  lukewarm  to  breast  the 
iling  tide  ot  immorality  which  overflowed  the  land. 
They  were,  as  Isaac  Tsylor  remarks, "  rapidly  in  coarse 
found  nowhere  but  in  books."  And  the  peculiar 
characteristic  of  the  English  nation  waa,  to  uas  the 
words  of  Wesley,  <■  anivereal,  constant  ungodlineea." 
Against  this  triumphant  wickedness  Wesley,  with  hia 
brother  Charles,  a  handful  of  spiritual  clergymen,  and 
his  little  band  of  lay  helpers,  inspired  by  heroic  faith, 
had  entered  the  liata,  determined  to  overthrow  it  and  lo 
establish  the  reign  of  scriptural  holiness  in  its  stead. 
It  looked  like  an  unequal  and  hopeless  strife.  But  he 
threw  himself  with  more  than  a  hero's  daring  into  the 
midst  of  the  fray,  and  led  the  van  of  a  host  which,  if  it 
did  not  wholly  purify  England,  wrought  a  great  reform 
mation  in  public  morals,  poured  fresh  tides  of  qntilual 
life  into  both  the  Established  and  Dissenting  eharehea, 
raised  up  that  great  body  of  spiritual  men  and  women 
who  flnslly  conslitnted  the  Wesley  an  Church,  and  ef- 
fected a  refurmation  which  broke  the  sceptre  of  ungod- 
lineea and  made  England  a  comparatively  godly  nation. 
IX.  WrtUifi  Kxlaaive  Labon.— In  leading  this  great 
refonnalion,  Wesley  did  herculean  work.  His  evange- 
listic tours,  snnually  enlarging,  soon  extended  into  all 
parts  of  England,  (o  Wales,  lo  Scotland,  and  to  Ireland. 
Ei-er  on  the  wing,  travelling  some  four  thousand  five 
hundred  miles  every  year,  he  preached  ^m  twice  to 
four  times  nearly  every  day.  His  audiences  were  gen- 
erally large,  sometimes  vast,  and  in  many  places  were 
disturbed  by  riotous  mobs  which,  like  hungry  bessts, 
thirsted  for  hit  blood.  He  also  met  the  societies,  the 
clasaes,  and  the  official  boards  whenever  opportonity 
offered  or  necessity  required.  The  erection  of  ^ousands 
of  chapels,  the  colleetion  of  funds  lo  pay  their  cost,  and 
the  choice  of  suitable  trustees  constanlly  required  his 
attention.  The  care  of  alibis  preachers  was  upon  him. 
His  correspondence  was  immense.  He  bad  a  heavy  pub- 
lishing huainesB  to  manage.  His  journeys,  mostly  on 
horseback  until  the  feebleness  of  advanced  age  compelled 
him  10  use  a  carriage,  were  long,  ledioui,  tiresome,  often 
perilous,  and  were  puniaed  in  sunshine  and  in  storm, 
through  the  heat  and  raio  of  summer,  and  the  frosts, 
winds,  and  nxiwi  ot  winter.  Not  unfiequently,  espe- 
cially during  Che  beginning  of  his  career,  they  involved 
many  privations,  severe  hardships,  and  much  physical 
aulTeiing.  He  usually  read  while  travelling,  even  when 
on  horseback,  aiul  thus  kept  himself  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  current  literature  of  his  times.  He 
also  wrote  several  original  books  and  Diimerous  pam- 
phlets on  pasung  events.  He  edited,  wrote,  translated, 
or  abridged  not  less  than  two  hundred  miscellaneous 
publications,  which  he  published  and  sold  through  his 
preachers  tor  Ibe  benefit  of  his  societies.  Every  public 
movement  for  the  improvement  of  society,  such  aa  the 
Sunday-school,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  drculatlon 
of  tnuM,  chaiilahle  associations,  papular  educadon,  and 
the  like,  occupied  his  thoughts,  moved  bis  sympathiea, 
called  forth  hia  co-operation,  and  exhausted  his  purse. 
His  eya  wen  open  lo  every  detail,  no  matter  how  mi- 
nute, that  concerned  the  growth  of  his  societies  or  the 
increase  ot  the  kingdom  of  God.  He  was  always  at 
work  when  awake,  yet  was  never  in  a  hurry.  Hia  in- 
dustrj-  and  activity  never  were,  nevor  can  be,  exceeded. 
It  it  estimated  that  daring  the  fifty  rears  of  hia  itlner- 
anl  ministry  he  travelled  over  a  quarter  of  a  million 
miles,  and  preached  mora  than  forty-two  thousand  ser- 

Under  this  unexampled  leaderahip,  continued  through 
half  a  century,  the  organizalion  which  was  begun  wiih 
the  feeble  society  at  Fetter  Lane,  London,  in  1739,  bad 
developed  in  1T90  into  a  powerful  body  consisting  of 
Ave  hundred  and  eleven  preachan,  laboring  on  two  hun- 
dred and  sixteen  circuits,  which  covered  vast  territories 
in  Great  Britain  and  IreUnd,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
Ai'^^1^ ;  and  numbering  in  its  fellowthip  over  one  bun- 


WESLEY  9! 

dred  and  tweptj  tbonund  nul*.  Beaidea  tliii  eDRiDsd 
mnubenhip,  tbere  were  at  leut  four  timea  u  atnj  pet- 
(oiu  vorahlpping  in  Methodiit  congngiUoiu.  Then 
■welled  the  number  of  hia  idherenta,  at  the  (law  of  his 
death,  to  at  leaat  failf  a  milliDn  of  aouli.  But  oataide 
of  thia  mrmj  of  arowed  adhereola  there  wa*"*  multi- 
tude which  no  man  oDuld  nnmbei,"  who  had  been  apir- 
itoally  aud  morally  beneBted  by  Cbe  morement  which 
this  truly  marvelloua  man  bad  inangaiated,  and  which, 
for  half  a  «ntur;-,  he  guided  with  almwt  unexampled 
wisdom  and  energy. 

X.  Hii  Death.— Aft  could  not  cbill  tbe  leal  of  tbia 
apoMolic  man.  Deapila  of  iu  burdena  and  inSnnitipi, 
be  would  oot  alacken  bia  labora  nntil  the  appnuch  of 
deatb  bemunbed  bit  powera.  Eight  daya  before  hia 
death  he  preached  hit  lait  aermon  at  Leat'herhead,  t«ar 
London.  Hia  pbyrical  nature  then  gave  way,  A  grad- 
ual ainhing  of  hia  pbyaicalftncea  followed,  during  which 
bia  mind  waa  generally  clear,  hia  faith  itrong,  bia  peace 
perfect,  hia  hope  triumphant.  On  March  2, 17St,  he 
paned,  "  without  a  lin^ring  groaD,"  iota  tbe  felicilias 
<>f  the  bleaaed  life,  in  the  eighty-eighth  year  of  bia  age. 
Hia  remaina  were  interred  in  tbe  burial-ground  of  City 
Road  Chapel. 

Wealey  leH  no  children.  In  Februaty,  IT61,  be  bad 
married  tbe  widow  of  a  deoeaaed  London  merchant 
named  Tazeille.  It  was  an  anfortanale  marriage.  The 
tady  could  not,  or  at  lea«t  did  not,  enter  iniu  aympaihy 
with  her  buiband'a  great  life-work.  She  ahrank  from 
the  toil  which  hia  inceasant  Journeying  involved,  and, 
after  a  abort  time,  refused  to  accompany  him  is  his  ap- 
poinlraenta.  Neither  would  ahe  cheerfully  consent  to 
bia  almoat  conatant  absence  Ikxn  borne.  Hence,  atler  a 
few  yeara,  they  lived  apart.    She  died  OcL  8,  ITSI. 

XI.  Penonal  ApptanOKt  and  Chararler.^Wbm  he 
waa  fbny-ona  yean  of  age  ^ealey  waa  described  by  Dr. 
Kennicott  aa  being  "  neither  toll  nor  fit.  .  .  .  Hia  black 
hair,  quite  amoDth  and  parted  reiy  exactly,  added  to  a 
peculiar  compoaurc  in  bia  cmuilenancc,  ahowed  him  lo 
be  an  uncommon  man."  Tyennan  aaya,  "In  pennn 
Wesley  waa  rather  below  the  middle  aiae,  but  beauti- 
fully proportioned,  without  an  atom  uf  aupeifluoua  flesh ; 
yet  muscular  and  alrong,  with  a  forehead  clear  and 
■raooth,  a  bright  penetrating  eye,  and  a  lovely  face, 
which  retained  the  frethneaa  ol  its  complexion  to  the 
lateat  period  of  hia  life." 

Aa  a  preacher  Weriey  was  calm,  graceful,  natuttl, 

e.     "Hia  voice  waa  not  loud,  but  clear  and 

9  was  not  an  orator  like  WhitcBeld,  but  his 
ta  remarkable  for  annion,  compactneas  and 
Innaparency  of  style,  dear  and  ahaiply  deflned  ideai, 
power  over  the  conscience,  imprcasiveuesi  and  author. 
Uy. 

In  social  life  Wesley  never  trUed,  but  hs  was  slwsya 
cheer^.  He  waa  an  admirable  conversationallai,  full 
af  anecdote,  witty,  coartcoua,  gentle,  aerioua,  and  at  ease 
with  both  rich  and  poor.  Though  naturally  irritable, 
be  waa  maater  <if  himself,  and  waa,  in  ill  reapeeta,  "  a 
Christian  gentleman."  A  more  charitable  man  proba- 
bly never  exiUed.  Hia  benevolence  was  only  limited 
byhiansourcei.  After  reducing  hit  personal  expenaea 
to  tbs  lowest  point  consistent  with  the  mainlenano 
hia  health  and  respectable  appearance,  he  spent  tbe 
oTbis  income  in  worlta  of  charity. 

if  a  man'a  work  la  the  measure  of  bia  mind,  Wesley 
mnat  be  ranksd  among  men  of  tbe  highest  intellectual 
order.    A  nature  that  could  impress  itself  as  hie  did 
hli  gcDeratloD,  tbit  could  create  and  govern  almost  i 
Bolutely  an  organisation  aocb  aa  he  called  into  existen 
muat  have  been  traly  regal— bom  to  rule.    Had  he  p 
aeased  a  more  philosophical  imagitution,  and  had  he 
given  himaelf  lo  apeculktlva  thought,  the  world  might 
bars  rated  htm  higher  among  its  profound  tblnken 
than  It  doea.    There  Is,  bawarer,  no  valid  reason  for 
doubting  his  capacity  to  pursue  aacacesTully  almost  any 
depanment  of  human  knowledge.    Bia  joumala  and 
other  writings  ahow  that  he  had  a  rare  aptitude  and 


appetite  fi>r  both  leading  and  thinking ;  but  tbe  practi- 
cal cast  uf  bia  mind  led  him  to  avoid  apeculalioD,  and 
m  bis  knowledge  to  account  in  a  multitude  of 
channels  running  in  the  direction  of  tbe  one  chosen  aim 
of  hia  life.  Tet  the  clearness  of  bis  thonghta,  while  i< 
led  men  to  underestimate  their  depth,  showed  tbe  far- 
reaching  penetratiTeneia  of  bis  mind.  Hia  peireptMSi 
of  things  and  their  relations  waa  latber  intuitive  than 
the  resultant  of  a  alow  and  tedioos  proceaa  of  rtasoniog. 
His  mind  was  Iherefuce  IcH  a  workriwp  than  a  wiixiDw 
imugh  which  he  viewed  tbe  facta  of  nature,  theeoont 
'  human  history,  and  tbe  icvelaiicms  of  H(dy  Writ, 
ith  auch  clear  vison  as  cnaUed  hiui  lo  present  then 
I  men  with  a  mental  fbroe  so  logical  and  Butbenlativc. 
id  in  a  style  so  terse  and  direct,  that  Ibeir  Judgmests 
ere  convinced,  their  atbdions  won,  sud  ibeir  wilb 
ibdoed  by  the  truths  be  uttered. 
Westsy'*  mind  waa  constructive  in  all  its  tcodescMa. 
lad  it  been  destniclive,  be  would  have  spent  much  of 
is  force  in  elforts  lo  pall  down  the  Natiooal  Cburch, 
which  waa  nearly  "dead  in  trespasses  and  sin^  wfaea 
he  began  his  itinerant  career.  He  did  not  do  thi^  be- 
cause bis  genius  moved  him  lo  build,  not  to  deitsny. 
So  strong  waa  this  tendency  that  it  restrained  his  on- 
unl  combiliveness,  which  waa  large,  limiting  it  Is  auch 
vigorous  defences  of  what  be  believed  to  be  vital  tralh 
as  he  deemed  absolutriy  needful  to  prevent  bis  wnft 
from  being  hindered  by  the  attacks  of  his  many  altve^■ 
sariea.  This  conatmctive  instinct  moved  bim  to  givs 
organic  form  lo  a  novel  system  of  itinerant  prracbinit, 
it  leil  him  lo  organiie  the  fruits  of  his  labcc  into  asct- 
eiies,  by  which  he  hoped  not  to  supersede  or  rival  iks 
Episonpal  Cburch,  but  to  fan  ila  expiring  apiritaal  life 


back   t 


But 


e  b«  tseetsd 


his  huprs,  and  tbe  si 
becsme  the  Wesleyan  Cburch. 

Wesley's  character  waa  remarksble  for  its  perfect 
nnity^and  coherence.  He  was  governed  in  bD  be 
thought,  felt,  and  did  by  that  single  purpose  wtueb  bt 
avowed  at  the  beginning  of  his  evangelical  eaicer,  what 
be  atBrmed  hia  belief  that  God  bad  called  him  "to  de- 
clare unlD  all  that  are  wilting  to  bear  the  glad  tidiags 
of  salvation.''  This  conviction  ahapad  his  life.  Itdw^ 
baorbed  hi*  aOwtiona;  it  goven- 

flowed  into  all  tbs  activities  of  his  life; 

n  under  bardabipa  and  tiiala :  it  atwuiu 
for  tbe  peuaiariile*  of  bis  career.  The  laoat  scntiiiiB- 
ing  search  flnds  nothing  contrary  to  it,dtlMr  in  hi*  pri- 
vate, social,  or  public  life.  Such  absolute  cohefencc  is 
rarely  found  in  human  character.  In  Wealey  it  is  so 
envious  that  it  goes  far  towards  sccounting  for  that 
marvellous  degree  of  personal  power  by  which  ba  rated 

Men  submitted  to  his  rule  bBcaoae  they  saw  tbat  he 
ruled  not  for  himself,  but  for  the  triumph  of  a  gnat 
principle ;  that  he  held  on  to  hia  great  power,  not  be- 
cause be  was  ambiCiooB  or  loved  power  fur  its  own  sake, 
but  because  be  belisved  the  spiritual  welfare  of  tbna- 
sanda  required  him  to  keep  the  reins  in  his  own  band^ 
That  this  beliefamouDled  to  a  sincere  coavidioa  is  evi- 
dent fhim  the  fact  that  in  17TS  he  wrote  to  the  auntly 
Fletcher  begging  him  to  prepare  to  succeed  bim,  bc> 
cause  be  waa  sure  that,  afker  bis  death,  hia  anctetia 
could  ba  held  together  only  by  placing  BDpremo  power 
in  the  hands  of  one  leader.  But  Fletcher^  deub  led 
bim,  at  a  later  period,  to  change  his  mind.  Seeing  no 
other  man  whom  he  oould  safely  trust  wilb  bis  soprems 
power,  he  began  lo  train  the  "Yearly  Conference*  la 
govern  both  itself  and  tbe  connection.  This  be  dVl, 
not  by  surrendering  bia  power  while  living,  but  by  per- 
mitting tbe  confennc*  to  direct  aflkin  under  lib  an- 
pervidon.  When  aatlsfled  by  this  experiment  that  it 
would  be  safe  to  convey  bis  power  to  that  body,  he  ex- 
ecuted a  "  Deed  of  Dedaration,"  to  take  ttfKt  after  ka 
deatb,  by  which  tbe  government  of  bis  sodeiiei^  the 
appointing  power,  and  tbe  uss  of  bia  chapels  and  tbcir 
properties,  were  placed  in  perpMnity  in  the  bands  si 


be  cboMD  rrom  ttia  body  ot  Wealeyui  preuben.  Hid 
Wnlcy  deemed  it  nfe  to  mike  tliU  Irgal  utathi  of  hii 
power  during  hii  tifetime,  he  would,  no  doubt,  have 
done  10.  The  Uct  that  he  peniiitted  hia  conrennce 
to  txKOBe  both  leguktire  and  executive  power*  Tor 
•evenl  vain  before  hii  death  is  proof  enooxb  thit  be 
did  Dot  ding  to  power  for  iu  own  leke.  Mia  aim  WM 
notbia  own  honor,  but  Che  good  of  hii  beloved  aocietiea. 
XIL  Wtiks'i  Wntiagt.  —  WtiUy't  writingi  and 
oompUalioDa  wen  imponant  faclora  io  bia  evaogeliiiic 
work.  Knowing  ignorance  to  be  a  icuid;  foe  to  godli- 
neai,  he  uied  Ibe  pren  as  an  auiiliaiy  of  the  pulpit 
fhiin  the  veiy  beginoiDg  of  hia  itinerant  cfreei  to  the 
daj  of  hi*  death.  Me  conaecnted  hia  pen  to  the  great 
parpoae  ot  hii  life.  He  bad  the  abilitj  (o  win  a  high 
repntation  ai  an  elegant  writer ;  bat,  deapiaing  the  mere 
pnin  of  men,  he  wrote,  ai  he  preacbod,  in  the  Myle  and 
maaoeT  he  believed  beat  adapted  to  win  own  lo  CbrisL 
Hia  moat  important  prodnctiaaa  were  hia  rSowMiu,  num- 
bering one  hnndred  and  forty-oob  They  arc  remark- 
able ftitbe  (atHneia  and  purity  of  their  alyie,  in  wbieh 
not  •  word  :e  waited;  the  traoiparaDcy  iad  eompact- 
mm  of  their  tbonghU;  and  ■  kigiod  forea  which  i*  not 
iabtle,batthefmit  ara''keeD,clear  indghL"  A  fint 
•eriea  of  hia  arrmomi  waa  puUiahed  In  1771:  — hii 
TVmubKua  of  th*  Nan  Tatanimt,  wilX  KoUt  (Lond. 
1766),  which  won  approval  from  many  eminent  ichol- 
an ;  the  Itxl  for  "  many  happy  oorrectioDi  of  the  Ao- 
thi^ued  Veruon ;''  the  wiUm  fur  condaeneaa,  ipiriluali- 
Ijr,  actUeneaa,  and  aoundnesi  of  opinion ; — hli  JoumaU, 
which  penny,  ii  in  a  mirror,  the  eoone  of  bii  remirk- 
aUe  life,  and  are  eioeedingly  enriona  and  entertaining. 
The  flnt  part  wai  iwied  in  17S9;  nineleen  more  parte 
at  irregnlarintervala:— biaappBali,eotillal'4a£arwatf 
Apptailo  Mm  of  Etaion  owf  R^gkm  (written  in  IT44), 
aod  A  Fardia-  Appeal  lo  Mm  c^  Reato*  and  Sdtffion 
(publiahed  1744-46,8  pta.).  Tbeae  maiterly  appeala  i 
acute,  aearcbing,  and  powerful  in  thoagbl,  forcible 
atyle,  and  lingularly  Inder  in  ipirit:— bia  TreaUtt  on 
OT^imat  Silt,  in  reply  W  Dr.  Taylor,  of  Korwich, 


swa  it,  though  he  promptly  repUed  to  erety  other 
uawbacontnimtedhiaapiniooa.  Beiidea  theaework% 
Wadey  wrote  many  ooomreful  atticlea,  which  were 
puUiilud  aeparately.  In  17T8  he  began  a  moothly 
magaaine  (TU  Arminlai  if o^oiiiK),  which  heeontin- 
Dad  to  the  end  of  hi*  life.  He  alao  wrote  a  Chiuxh  Hit- 
lory  (in  4  valj.):-.a  Siloiy  o/Eiglaiid  (in  4  voli.): 
a  CwiyaiJiiiw  of  tiabiral  Pkibaopkf-.—A  DietioM  , 
a/  lK»  EugliA  £<B<^i^.-— eepante  Cnanrar*  of  tin 
EngUah,  French,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  langnaga: 
— a  CompmUmmof  f,ogie,«K,  UU original praae worka 
lUled  fonrieen  eloaely  printed  volume*;  hi*  oommenta- 
riea,  eompilationi,  and  abridtrmenta  form  a  liat  of  one 
baodrcd  and  nineteen  publicBtioniiapniae,oneorwbich, 
entitled  A  Ckrittim  Liirarif,  contained  flity  volunKs. 
Baaidea  tb«*e  pnne  worka,  be  pnbliabed  fifty-two  aepa- 
rale  woAa  in  poetry,  the  Joint  productiona  of  himaelf 
and  hi*  brother  Charlea;  and.laKlyiSce  puhlicalion*  on 
■nunc,  and  cdlectioo*  of  tunca.  That  all  Ihia  literary 
work  ihould  hare  been  acccnnpliahed  by  a  man  i ' 
life,  for  half  a  century,  wa*  a  aeriea  of  journeyi,  i*  i 
unlahing  [act.  "Looking  al  hi*  trareUing,"  rtmarka 
Tyerman,  "  the  marvel  ■*  bow  he  found  time  to  i 
and,  looking  at  hi*  buuka,  the  marrel  u  how  be  found 
dme  lo  preach."  An  edition  of  hi*  principal  pniae 
worka  ia  published  by  the  Uethodiat  Book  Concern 
(N.  Y.>  in  »evon  ocuvo  voluma*. 

Xni.  iifero/nre.— See  Tlu  Jonrni^  e/Ot  Rtv.Join 
Wrtltf ;  Souther,  Lift  of  JiAa  Wtdtg,  and  the  Rtt 
and  Progrttt  of  MttkodUm;  CUrke,  Uanoin  of  Ikt 
Wtalis  Fa-ii/gi  Whitehead,  Lift  of  John  Ifoty; 
Crowther,  Porlraitiirt  nfMtlhodim:  Wataon,  Lift  of 
Rar,  Jolut  Widry  i  3m)tb,  l/itloiy  of  We^tgan  Mtlhod- 
itm  !  Hoore,  Uft  of  ICetfcy ;  Taylar,  WaUy  aad  MtA- 
(HbaM,  Stevena,  We  Uutory  of  Ike  Rtligiaut  Momml 


WESLEY 

HflitEigkteatihCmttirtcaaatMtAaXtmi  Tyennan, 
Lt/e  atd  Tima  of  the  Bee.  JoiM  Wmbf,  Feimder  of 
Ut  MelkodiMf:  Jackaon,  Lift  nf  Ktf.  CkarUt  Waltgi 
Uyle^  Cinmoioi/iina  Biitoiy  of  lit  MModiitM!  Dr«w, 
lift  of  Tkmiu  Cokt,  LL.D. ;  Hampaon,  Hfe  of  Wm- 
V     (D.W.) 

Wealsy,  John  ntomas,  an  EngUah  Coogrcga- 
tiooal  miniater  and  misaionary,  waa  born  al  Burton  in 
1844,  and  died  Dec  19, 1S76.  Hr.Wedey  from  early 
youth  wa*  a  devoted  foUowrr  of  Cbiiit;  graduated  at 
Hackney  College  in  187D,  and  wa*  otdainad  at  Xork 
Street,  Dublin,  where  he  aecured  tbe  warm  allectianand 
eateem  of  the  Cbnrch.  In  1S74,  under  the  auat^cea  of 
the  London  Hiwionaiy  Society,  he  aailed  for  Hadagasoar ; 
readily  acquired  the  language ;  and,  daring  hi*  few  yean 
or  lahor.'became  a  great  power  In  tbe  miauon  field,  and 
an  honor  to  the  Church.  See  (Lond.)  Conp.  Yatr^aot, 
1877,  p.  431. 

Wvaley,  Swnnel  (t),  AJIL,  an  Engliab  E[dMK>pU 
clergyman,  son  of  John  and  grandaon  of  Bartfaokoww 
Woley,  and  father  of  John  Wealey,  the  fauDder  of 
Hethi>di*m,was  bom  at  Winteiboum  WhitchoKh,Dor> 
aetahire,inise2.  Hebeganhiaatudieain thefrefr^chool 
in  Durchcaler,  and  at  tbe  age  of  fifteen  went  to  an 
academy  in  London,  where  he  remained  about  three 
yeara.  He  waa  then  Irantferred  to  the  Stepney  Acad- 
emy, oonducted  by  tbe  learned  Nonoontbrmiat  Edward 
VeaL  Thiiacademybungbrokenupat theendofcwo 
yeara,hewa**ent  to  the  academy  of  Cbarlce  Morton  at 
Newinglon  Green,  where  he  reokained  until  the  aainBier 
of  less.  During  the  entire  period  of  bit  acaderatnal 
atudtea  he  waa  expected  lo  enter  tbe  miniatty  of  the 
UiiaenteTL  He  even  wrote  letter*  and  aalJre*  i^ainit 
tbe  Epiacopal  clergy  under  the  advice  of  tbe  Noncon- 
fonniat  miniitera.  Hia  ehanga  to  tbe  £[nacopal  Church 
la  thuB  aooouDl«d  for  in  tbe  w<H^la  of  hia  aon,  John  Wea- 
ley: "Some  ecTeTeinvecliveabeiiw  written  againatthe 
Diaaentera,  Hr.  3.  Wciley ,  being  a  young  man  of  coiuidei- 
able  talent*,  wa*  pitched  upon  lo  auawer  them.  Thi* 
aat  him  on  a  eourae  of  reading,  which  produced  an  effect 
very  dUfcieac  fmo)  what  bad  been  intended,  Initcad 
<^  writing  the  wiabed-for  aniwer,  he  himelf  onnceiTed 
ba  aaw  reaaon  to  ehasg*  hi*  optniona^  and  actually 
formed  a  leaolBtiofl  to  leoonnse  the  Diaaentera  aod  at- 
tach binaelf  lo  tbe  Ealabliahed  Church.  He  lived  at 
that  time  with  hia  mother  and  an  old  aunt,  both  of 
whom  were  loo  tttoDgty  attached  to  tbe  Diaaenting  doc- 
trinei  to  have  borne  with  any  patienae  tbe  diadowue 
of  hii  deaign.  He  therefore  got  up  on*  morning  at  i 
very  early  boar,  and,  without  aeqoainting  any  one  of 
hi*  purpoaa,  set  out  on  foot  to  Ozfbrd,  and  enlMvd  bin- 
aelf at  Exeter  CoUege."  He  entettd  a*  •  mrtttor  and 
jMnper  aeiofarii^  and  helped  to  lopport  biaaeir  with  hU 
pen  daring  the  next  Hve  yean,  graduating  June  It; 
ISBB.  Seven  weeka  after  Ihia  lime  be  wii  ordained 
deaoon  at  Bromley  by  Dr.  Sprat,  biibop  of  Rocheatar. 
During  the  year  immediately  fbllowing  hi*  onlinatioa 
ba  aerved  a  curacy  at  a  aalary  of  £28.  He  waa  then 
appointed  chaplain  on  board  a  niaiM>f-war  at  a  aakry 
of  £10,  and  held  tb*  office  one  year,  during  which  he 
began  hia  L\fe  tfCkriu.  He  wu  during  tbe  next  two 
yean  iooumbent  of  a  curacy  in  London  on  a  lalaty  of 
£30,  to  which  be  added  daring  the  leoitid  year  £80  by 
hia  pen.  He  then  married  SiManaab,  daughter  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Annealey,  an  eminent  Nonconformiit  divine. 
Tbia  occurred  (probably)  Id  the  spring  of  1SB9.  In  1 891 
he  waa  appcdnled  lo  the  living  of  South  Omuby  in 
Lincolnahin,  where  he  alao  acted  a*  ilomeslk  chaplain 
to  the  marquia  of  Nonnanby.  Tbi*  nobleman  dedred 
Mr.  Wesley  to  be  raised  lo  an  Iriih  episropate,  but  tbe 
plan  waa  not  favond  either  by  the  crown  or  arebtasbop 
TillotBon.  Mr.Weiley  nmaioed  at  South  Drm*by  five 
yean.  About  1694  or  ie»>  the  mannoa  which  had 
been  occupied  t^  the  marquia  of  Normanby  waa  ranted 
to  tbe  earl  of  Caatlelon,wbo  waa  adiaKilute  man;  aiul, 
greatly  lo  the  dliguat  of  tb*  rector,  kept  miatreaaea  wlw 


WESLEY 


eiS   WESLETAN  CONF.,  AUSXUAL 


were  thrown  id  eootict  witli  hi*  ramil^,    Tbt  mirquii 
wu  ■  mui  of  nmilir  habili,  utd  in  event  occurred  in 

the  rector  to  uwtber  pUce.  It  ■*  ihiu  related  by  John 
V/etiey  •■  "  The  miiqiiii  of  Noinunby  bad  a  bouM  in 
the  pariih  of  South  Onniby.wbBrea  woman  who  lived 
with  bim  uaually  resided.  This  lady  would  be  intimau 
with  my  mother,  whecbei  she  would  or  not.  To  aucb 
an  intercouTK  my  father  would  not  lubmiL  Coming 
In  one  day,  and  Qnding  tbia  inttuuve  vuitant  ntling 
with  my  mother,  he  went  up  to  her,  took  ber  by  ^e 
band,  and  very  fairly  handed  her  out.  The  aablcman 
teeenled  the  aflront  M  outnigeoaaly  as  to  make  il  iiece«- 
aaiy  for  my  father  lo  resign  the  living."  In  169S,  hav- 
ing dedicated  hia  Lift  n/Chritt  to  queen  Hary,  be  waa 
preiented  by  her  with  the  living  ofEpworth,  Lincoln- 
abiie,  wbere  he  died,  AprU  22,  I7B&  For  four  w  Ave 
yean  he  alio  had  the  rectory  of  Wroote,  a  little  village 
near  Epwnrth,  which  hardly  paid  hie  curate.  In  llSi 
he  teaigned  it  to  hia  soD-io'liw,  John  Whitelaoib.  Hr. 
Wealey  waa  alwaya  poor  in  Ihii  world'i  gooda.  He 
had  nineteen  children,  had  to  aaaiat  poor  relaliona,  in- 
cluding hia  widowed  mother,  met  with  many  reveraee, 
and  never  had  more  than  £iHK)  a  year.  He  su  a  mi 
of  great  learning,  of  large  benevolence,  loyal,  devout,  ai 
oonaeieutioua  in  the  eierciae  of  the  dutiea  oT  hia  oSce. 
He  il  fluently  mentioned  ai  ■  Tory  and  a  Higb- 
Chnrchman,  but  he  waa  no  bigot.  He  rejoiced  in  the 
work  done  at  Oiford  by  hia  tona  John  and  Charles, 
which  gained  for  them  the  name  of  MtlJuiduli  and 
Tlu  Holg  Club,  He  penned  the  following  sonla  Dec 
1,  17S0  :  "  I  hear  my  *ou  John  has  (he  honor  of  being 
■tyled  the  •  father  of  the  Holy  Club.'  If  it  be  so,  I  n 
be  tlie  grandfather  of  it ;  and  I  need  not  (ay  that  I 
rather  any  of  my  aona  ahould  be  so  dignified  and  di*- 
tinguiahed  than  to  have  the  title  of  His  Hoh' 
wu  a  piolitto  writer.  Among  his  works  mi. 
tiohol,  ■  volume  of  poema  called  Xaggolt  <1686):— rie 
Li/t  of  Chri1,m  Heroic  Poem  (1898):  — Tie  Pioui 
CotmiMmiemt  Rigklfy  Prtparrd,  etc  (1700)  v-HtHory 
qfllu  Old  and  ffemTnlamml  (1701)  ■.—Ditterlaliam  OH 
at  Book  of  Job,  in  Latin :— and  several  eicelleat  Hgnrnt. 
He  waa  one  of  the  alitors  and  chief  contributor  to  the 
.4fjlariim  GiarUf,  See  Tverman,  Lift  imd  TiiHf  of 
Oe  Rat.  Sawm^  Waleg :  Clarke,  The  IK«((y  Famili,  i 
Stevenson,  iftmorialt  of  the  Waleg  Familg; 
nameroiu  LireM  of  John  and  Charlea  Wealev. 
Waaley,  StamnBl  (2),  A.M.,  an  Eng'lh 
man,  Bcm  of  the  Etev.  Samuel  and  Susannah  Wesley,  was 
bom  in  London,  Feb.  10, 1690.  His  mother  taagfai  hia 
to  read  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  laid  the  foundatioi 
of  the  scholaiship  which  he  afterwards  acquired.  He 
was  aent  to  Westminster  School  in  I'M,  and  waa  admit- 
ted king's  scholar  there  in  1707.  Hewasemployedfo 
time  in  the  house  of  Dr.  Sprat,  bishop  of  Bochesler, 
read  to  him  at  night,  and  in  ITlt  was  elected  to  Cbrist 
Church,  Oxford.  He  remained  there  a  little  more  thai 
one  year,  when  he  received  the  degree  of  A.M.,  and  en- 
tered into  holy  ordere.  He  ofBciated  at  usher  in  West- 
minMer  School  for  the  next  twentv  years.  Here  he 
became  familiar  with  lord  Oxfonl,  Hope,  Swift,  Prior,  and 
oUier  Tory  poets  and  statesmen,  though  he 
with  Addison  and  others  of  his  class.  In  1732  he  became 
bead-masterorBlundeirsfrecGrammar-schnolatTi 
ton,  where  he  reiaained  till  his  death.  Nov.  8, 1739. 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  flnt  inSmary  set  u 
Weatrainater,  now  SCCieorgt's  HospiiaL  He  belonged 
U>  the  High-Charch  party,  and  did  not  cOHiperali 
John  and  Chark«  in  their  "Methodist"  labors;  t 
often  encouraged  them  in  their  teal  fur  good  works, 
only  cautioning  tbem  against  such  eseesa  ss  would  in- 
Jnra  their  health.  He  is  repreaented  as  an  excellent 
preacher,  and  often  exerdsed  his  talents  in  that  dii 
tion.  Like  other  membera  of  the  family,  he  was  highly 
gided  in  poetry.  The  first  edition  of  bis  poema  was 
publiahed  in  I73fl-,  a  tecond,  with  addilions,  appeared 
in  1743.    A  new  cdilion  wm  pnUiahed,  with  a  life  of 


ithor,  by  WiUiam  Nichols,  in  1SS2. 
1,  however,  by  bis  bymna. 
metialt  of  lie  Wedcy  Fanalg. 

Wasley,  Bamael  (3),  an  eminent  noual  geniat 
.f  EngUnd,  third  son  of  the  Rev.  Charies  Wealer,  wa* 
bum  Feb.  24, 1766.  He  compoetd  the  oratorio  of  Rik 
before  be  waa  eight  years  of  age,  and  in  his  later  jean 
'le  was  considered  (he  most  remarkable  extemputant- 
>us  plsyer  in  Europe.  Among  bis  cotn posit inu  wm,  a 
Gnnuf.Wuai  for  the  chapel  of  pope  Pius  VI:— a  Cnayfi* 

TviafoT  Oe  Cathedral,  of  the  Chun*  of£mglamd:~- 

itheniB,  sonataa,  and  duets  for  the  pianoforte,  and  vol- 
untariet  for  the  oi^an.  He  died  Oct.  11,  1S37.  8aa 
(Lond.)  GeMUman't  MagatBie,  1S87,  ii,  oU. 

'W«b1«t,  BnMiniuili,  ■  remarkable  Chriaiian  ■«•- 
an,  wife  of  Samuel  Weiley.  Sr.,  and  mother  of  Joliii  uad 
Charlea  Wealey,  waa  the  youngest  daughter  of  tbe  learn- 
ed NonoonfiKiniM  divine  Samuel  Annesley,  LJ.D.,  ad 
was  born  in  London,  Jan.  20,  16G9.  About  tbe  yen' 
1681,  befbte  she  waa  yet  thirteen  years  of  ag^  alM  n. 
iKNinoed  Nonconformity  and  gave  ber  adhennae  to  the 
Church  of  England.  In  1689  she  becune  the  wife  of 
Samuel  Wesley,  to  whom  she  bore  nineteen  chOdn. 
The  greet  service  abe  did  for  the  world  waa  acenB|ib^ 
ed  largely  through  her  thorough  ttairnng  of  her  duK 


1  of  U 


hing  ai 


was  peculiar  to  herself,  and  i* 
>  her  son  John,  dated  Epwonh,'july  84, 1T32.  Tb*y 
'ere  not  taught  to  lead  until  they  were  five  yean  old, 
hen  they  learned  the  alphabet  in  a  few  days,  and  bt- 
an  to  spell  and  read,  first  a  line,  and  (ben  •  ihonpss- 
graph,  mastering  it  perfectly.  She  waa  a  wvman  rf 
atrong  intellect,  and  employed  her  beat  powers  in  the 


cif  her  a 


lother,  and  her  sons  owed  a  great  deal  of  thnr  s 
lo  her  pnideot  counsels.  Many  incideats  nmain  (■ 
record  wbich  illustrate  ber  ungular  independence  tl 
character,  ai  well  as  her  womanly  deference  la  legili- 
mate  authority.  For  a  prolonged  period  she  shared  the 
fortunes  of  her  husband  in  a  oount^  parish  with  a  atiat- 
ed  income;  but  thmoghoat  she  maintained  an  ailnc. 
cheerful,  and  consistent  pie[y.  The  family  of  wtadi 
■hey  were  the  joint  head  was  a  remarkaUe  noe  in  bh* 
respects,  and  In  i(a  peculiariliea  she  con(Hlnii«l  bar 
full  share.  After  her  husband's  death,  she  remained  a 
short  time  with  her  daughter  Emilia,  attd  then  iitiik4 
with  ber  son  John  in  London,  and  becacoc  his  jadicioai 
adviser  in  carrying  out  bis  great  work.  Prcrioos  la 
her  death,  her  experience  was  very  clear,  mncji  nsn 
•0  than  formerly,  though  she  seems  to  have  been  a  Owe 
Christian  all  her  daya.  She  died  in  London,  Jutr  21, 
1742,  and  waa  buried  in  Bunhill  Fields,  whm  her  hb 
John  delivered  (he  funeral  discourse.  Sec  Stevmon, 
MemoriiiU  of  the  Wetlry  Famiif. 

Wemleyan  Confarence,  At-ffrmiuAn,  ia  the 
general  dengna(ioD  of  the  regular  Ue(boditf  body  in 
that  province  of  the  British  empire. 

I.  Origin  and  fliafory.— Methodism  in  Australia  and 
>few  Zealand  has  had  the  marks  of  Divine  rrDvideme 
stamped  upon  it  from  the  beginning.  Coloniaalioti  baa 
been  both  a  souroe  of  lelief  and  of  impoverishmciit  lu 
the  mother-country  of  England.  Early  in  the  seoond 
decade  of  the  19lb  centary,  the  mast«'  and  miitreas  of 
Mr.  Wesley's  charity-school  at  Great  Queen  Street.  Lon- 
don, were  sent  out  as  teachers  to  Australia.  An  Eog- 
lish  penal  colony  had  existed  there  some  rears,  and,  in 
order  lo  laise  the  character  of  the  peofrir,  many  of  tbra 
released  convict*,  teachers  were  first  waniedL  A  few 
agricultural  emigrants  had  settled  in  Mew  South  Wates. 
and  among  them  Messrs,  Bowden  and  Hoskini,  tws 
schoolmaatera,  who  had  gone  out  in  ISlt,  rKWnmended 
by  Joseph  Butlerworth,  U.  P.,  to  uke  charge  of  the 
charitT-schoal  in  Sydney.  They  were  Hethoditta,  and, 
desiring  to  have  the  advantages  of  the  Methodist  rlaw 
meeting  in  their  new  home,  commenced  the  fint  oa  lb* 
evening  of  March  6, 1812.     Twelve  petami  met  u  the 


WESLETAN  CONF.,  AUSTRAL.    919   WESLEYAN  CONF.,  AUSTRAL. 


cocDiDenccinRit,  mi  tb^y  reaolved  to  apply  to  the  Heth- 
udiaUiD  EngUtMlfura  mlniiMMiy.  Hr.  Samuel  Leigh, 
wbo  had  convaned  with  Dr.  Cuke,  had  ofl^red  ' ' 


applici 


n  Nei 


South  Waica  baring  reached  Dr.  Adam  Clariie,  be  m- 
cured  Che  •ervioei  of  Hr.  Leigh,  ordained  him  Toi  the 
work,  ptoeurad  for  bim  a  liornir  lo  preach  froni  the  lord 
mayor  of  LoodoD,  aod  baaailed  rrom  England  in  Febro- 
Uj,  1816,  laodiiig  at  Port  Jtktea  Aog.  10  or  the  lame 
ycM.  Tin  pngreaa  of  tlM  minioa  of  Helhodiuo  in 
A^mnlJB  from  tbat  day  forward  cannot  be  conumplated 
without  a  fediDg  of  aMooiahment  and  delight.  Id  1820 
HMtiodiam  waa  intladueed  into  Van  IKoowu'a  Land ;  in 
1833  it  nachnl  the  Friendly  blandi  and  the  neighboring 
fnrapai  in  182S,  New  Zealand ;  in  183A,the  llji  latuid* 
wclcomad  their  fint  Hethodiat  munoDaiy;  in  1HS6  a 
mianon  wai  commencad  in  South  Aouralia;  and  in 
1839,  WeMcm  Aostialia.  Thai,  within  a  qoailer  of  a 
coitiiiT,  the  whida  oounlry  wat  vjaited  by  Hethodiat 
miasiouariea  where  Ihere  waa  population  to  whom  Ihej 
coald  miniatar.  The  fooneen  wbo  eaiiy  united  their 
eHbrts  to  thoae  of  Samuel  Ldgh  were  John  Waletbouae, 
Walter  Lowly,  Benjamin  Carvoaao,  and  John  H.  Bum- 
by,  followed  l^  othere  who  an  aJM  laboring  then, 
and  thdr  valuable  and  uaeful  aenieea  will  preaerve 
their  mcmoriea  freah  in  the  eonntry  for  many  genem- 

The  marvelloiii  triumphs  of  Chriitianity  in  nearly 
all  the  loealiliea  nanwd  wen  aqoalled  only  bv  the  be- 
foie  devotioD  of  the  miaaionariei  and  their  wirn.  It 
wsuld  not  be  poauble  to  deacribe  the  aoenee  of  degrada- 
tion and  ferocity  which  they  had  for  many  yean  lo 
confront.  The  Lift  o/  Samurl  Lfv/k  (an  octavo  vol- 
ume of  &90  pages)  and  the  Rer.  Jamee  BuUet'a  Fortf 
Ytan  ta  Nae  Zealand  are  two  worka  which  supply 
Bocb  a  variety  of  valuable  and  inleieating  facta  de- 
scriptive of  Che  triala  and  triumphi  of  Hetbodisnl  in 
Aoatralia  and  New  Zealand  that  any  abridgment  of 
their  cDDtenEs  would  be  impossible  in  the  compua  of 
these  pages.  ■ 

U  ii  due  to  the  convict  clan  of  the  inhabiUnli  to 
record  tliat  many  of  them,  alter  their  convenioD,  be- 
came the  most  active,  energetic,  and  uaeful  helpen  of 
the  guod  cauSB.  Among  them  have  been 
era,  stewards,  local  preachers,  and  some  have  become 
wealthy,  and  devoted  much  of  their  nubitancc 
■nction  of  Hethodiat  churches,  parsonages,  and 
Hr.  Leigh  records  of  one  of  lbs  earliest  of  the  c 
Hr.  E^-— >  who  was  an  educated  Irishman  designed  for 
the  bar,  but  who^  for  lottery,  had  been  tenlenced  t( 
death,  tbat  he  was  oonvertad  while  in  his  Irish  prison, 
and  had  bis  sentence  commuted  Co  Iran epoital ion  (m 
life.  Hi*  Hethodjst  friends  gave  bim  a  Bible  to  be  hi! 
companion  in  bis  banisbmanu  He  read  the  Bible  and 
liturgy  CO  bis  fellow-oonvicU;  and  his  intelligenl,  con- 
sistent Christian  life  soon  secured  him  bis  liberty.  He: 
taught  a  school,  preacbeil  in  the  villages  on  the  Sabbath,  { 
and  commenced  the  Dnt  UethodisC  clan-meeiing  at 
Windsor  in  1812.  In  hi*  humble  way,  he  was  probably ' 
the  Brst  Methodist  preacher  in  the  toulhem  world.  Thei 
memben  gathered  by  this  young  Irishman  held  the 
flr«  Methodist  love-feast  in  that  cuunliy  on  April  8, 
ISIS.  The  missionariea  sought  out  many  of  the  ban- 
ished onat,  and  in  many  instances  they  had  repented 
ar>d  found  mercy  at  the  handa  of  Uod.  The  morning 
of  eternity  alone  will  tell  bow  many  of  those  children 
of  oime  and  punishment  will  be  welcomed  in  heaven 
by  parents  and  friends  who   seldom  mentioned  th^ 

Hr.  Leigh  was  a  most  faithful  and  hernc  man,  and 
he  aoon  wilneaaed  the  erection  of  thrta  small  chapels, 
cue  each  at  Sydney,  Windsor,  and  Castlereaglu  Four 
Sunday-schoola  were  opened,  and  a  Uethodist  Circuit 
was  formed  which  included  fliteen  preaching- places, 
eiteoding  160  miles.  After  three  year*  of  hard  toil, 
Hr.Lrighwelconwd  Walter  Uiwry,  on  May  1,  I81B,  as 
lua  Otst  oolleagiie,  and  so  r^mced  waa  be  on  meeting 


tbat  he  felt  on  his  neck  and  kiiaed  him.  The  aborigiuca 
as  well  aa  the  criminals  were  accesuble  to  the  misaion- 
ariesi  but  the  preachers  were  ezpoaed  to  inaulla  and 
hardabipa  which  cannot  be  realized  in  the  present  im- 
proved condition  of  the  country.  They  perfurmed  long 
rugged  Journeys,  and  oflen  slept  on  boards  or  on  the 
bare  earth,  with  their  saddle-bags  as  pillows  and  over- 
coata  for  carering;  but  they  witnessed  sucb  triumphs 
as  man  than  compensated  them  for  all  their  Bufleiinga. 
The  founilationa  of  Australisn  Methodism  were  thut 
laid  broad  and  deep,  and  possibly  tbat  form  of  religion 
may  ultimately  dominate  in  that  vast  country. 

Cheered  by  the  prospect  which  was  opening  before 
him,  Hr.  Leigb  returned  to  England  in  1820  to  plead 

him  William  Horton  and  Thoma*  Walker.  The  latter 
intended  to  open  a  station  among  the  nativea,  among 
whom  he  oommenced  lo  labor:  but  owing  to  their  no- 
madic character  the  success  did  not  justify  the  oontinu- 
auce  of  that  station  after  18-28.  Another  and  more  sat- 
isfactory eflbrt  was  made  in  1836,  when  a  new  sUlion 
waa  opened  at  Port  Philip,  South  Australia,  with  two 
miadonanes,  and  one  at  Pertli,  Wett«m  Australia.  In 
18SB  Methodism  was  introduced  into  Geehing  by  two 
misuonarieai  These  men  endur  immenae  hardships. 
They  acquired  the  native  languages,  translated  portiona 
of  the  Scriptum,  oommenced  schools,  established  print- 
ing, wrote  and  publisbed  school-books,  and  founded  a 
training  institution  far  native  preachers  and  leachera. 
At  each  statbn  the  mieaionaries  conducted  a  farm  on 
which  the  people  wen  taught  agriculture,  the  farma 
supplying  Che  preachers  wilb  a  large  portion  of  their 

Ht.  Horton  commenced  his  labon  in  Tasmania,  or 
Tan  Diemeu's  Land,  in  1820.  The  population  there 
was  utterly  demoraliied,  both  convicta  and  natives^ 
Among  the  former  vera  fuund  a  few  wbo  had  been 
Methodists,  who  bad  repented  of  theit  evil  doing*,  and 
had  oommenced  a  aociety  class,  and  were  erecting  a 
AapeL  The  mission  prospered  ttiere,  under  the  tbater- 
ing  smile  of  the  governor,  who.  seeing  tlie  good  resulla 
of  the  labors  of  the  missionaries,  in  18Z7  applied  for  ad- 
ditional preachers,  offering  to  pay  their  passage  out  and 
partial  support  on  arrivaL  In  1882  William  Butten 
oommenced  a  new  station  at  Port  Arthur,  another  con- 
vict aetllemenL  Suocemve  gnremon  tesliSed  to  tb* 
valne  d  these  missionaries'  labors  among  the  oonvicts, 
snd  in  IS3T  the  work  waa  extended  by  the  arrival  of 
four  more  preachers. 

A  survey  was  made  of  the  progress  of  the  mission  on 
that  cooUnent  in  1839,  when  they  were  reported  lo 
be  nine  missionaries,  570  members  of  society,  and  9S2 
scholars.  To  extend  and  consolidate  the  wotk,  the  Rev. 
John  Waterhouse  was  appointed  general  superintendoit 
of  all  the  Australian  and  Polynesian  misaionsi  but  his 
exbauative  and  earnest  labors  ended  hi*  esrthly  career 
in  three  yean,  though  the  work  was  eilended.  Will- 
iam Knnington  Boyce  succeeded  him,  and  he  became 
the  prsMdent  of  the  first  Australian  Conference  in  1866. 
Samuel  Leigh,  on  his  ntum  from  England  in  1821, 
made  an  inroad  on  New  Zealand.  His  first  experiment 
was  not  encouraging.  On  entering  one  of  the  native 
v{llage^  he  passed  twelve  human  heads,  Utlooed,  placed 
on  the  pathway.  That  sight  helped  to  determine  him 
to  endeavor  to  dispel  the  darkness  and  misery  whicb 
prevailed.  He  secured  the  help  of  Messrs.  Turner  and 
White,  and  commenced  a  mission  at  Wagarea,  on  the 
nortb-eaat  coast.  They  were  surrounded  by  ferocion* 
and  savage  men.  One  day  Hr.  Turner  saw  several 
chiefs  sealed  at  a  fire,  roasting  one  of  their  slaves  be- 
tween two  Ing*  of  wood,  to  make  them  a  meaL  These 
natives  became  mure  enlightened,  the  worit  prospered, 

■  reswete  converted,  chapel*  were  erected,  and  m 


good  waa  done:  hut  in  1827  war  broke  oi 
wa*  atopped,  and  the  miasionaries  fled  to  Sydney.  I] 
1828  they  returned,  at  the  inviiatioo  of  one  of  the  obieA 
r  misrion  at  Haugungu,  wbicb  fo 


WESLEYAN  CONF.,  AUSTRAL.    920   WESLETAN  CONP.,  AUSTRAL. 


two  yuri  Bude  but  Glllc  pcograa.    Aha  1880  tbc 

lionuin  w«re  mnt,  md  K>  HtufMtMy  wm  tbe  oondact 
of  tbi  people  that  one  or  the  mUnonirie*  in  ISMmole, 
"In  nv«r«]t)il  bebniot  in  the  honn  of  God,  Ib« 
airakeaed  iborigiDo  were  >  pallcm  ertn  to  Eoropeuu, 
uid  tokcDi  of  luuijr  kiodi  were  given  tbit  i  glorioiu  wntk 
VM  beginning  in  N«w  Z^ilADd."  TboH  nigiLR  prored 
true.  DeputMiona  were  not  from  lh«  Soathern  Island  to 
tbe  miuionttie*  tot  preachen  uid  leaeheni  more  mi*- 
^narie*  wefe  MntoiU,  wtw  tooo  nuutcnd  the  luguage 
of  tbe  natives;  booki  were  wiitlaa  and  tnnilated;  a 
printing-pren  wu  eaubliihed ;  ehapdi  and  aeboola  vera 
citctedi  and  an  inititntlon  tot  the  mining  of  attitt 
preaehen  vat  eatabliabad.  Tbe  bleningi  of  civiliied 
life  (bUowed  tbe  diffudon  of  Cbriatian  ptiDdplea ;  and 
In  IBM.wben  it  «u  detcnnincd  to  onite  the  miwon 
autioni  in  New  Zealand  witb  tboae  in  AuNnUa,  to 
form  one  CoDference,  tbe  Rtpoii  of  tbe  condition  of  tbe 
Hetbodiet  misdons  in  New  Zealand  exbibiled  the  fol- 
lowing  flguTM :  Chapeli,  lOS ;  o^tei  preacbing-|daoea, 
IIS;  locaL  preachers, 823 ;  calechiMi,B;  memben of  ■>- 
dety,4600;  attendants  at  publicvonbip,  11,000;  mia- 
■ionatite,  'X>.  Bo  ably  bad  tlia  miNlonariea  oondocled 
their  financial  enlerpriaa  that  in  18M  tbe  enlira  debts 
on  their  cbipel  property  in  Kew  Z««l«iid  wm  oDly 
£360.  After  eucb  a  aaliafactory  report,  there  wai  no 
oppoaition  to  the  nnion  of  tbe  latter  miaaioB  with  Ana- 
tralia.  There  wen  alaoi  Sunday -achoola,  188;  day- 
actaoDla,  88j  pupili,  6846.  Soeb  were  tbe  reanlta  u 
qnaiter  of  a  cenim?  lince. 

The  Soolh  Sea  lalanda  form  an  important  part  of  the 
Aoatcalian  MetbodiM  Cburcb.  Walter  Lowr?  com- 
menced a  minion  in  Tonga  in  1833,  but  it  wii  given 
up  in  1828.  In  1S26  John  Tbomaa  and  John  HuCchin- 
•on  reamned  tbe  work,  aud  in  18*^  the;  were  joined 
by  William  Cron,  Nathaniel  Turner,  and  another,  and 
that  gradou*  work  waa  commenced  whioh  baa  nsulted 
in  tiringing  tbe  whole  popolation  of  thoae  iilanda  no- 
der  the  inflnence  of  ChriMuuiity.  There  are  no  reoorda 
In  hiatoT)-  wbicb  can  compare  witb  tboae  of  tbe  bialory 
of  Christianity  in  the  vanoua  ialands  of  the  South  Seal 
for  tlie  oompleleneea  of  the  orerthraw  of  beatheniam, 
idolatry,  infanticide,  unnibaliKD,  witb  all  their  attend- 

churchea,  chapela,  ecboola,  pareotiagea;  tbe  whole  popa- 
lation  within  the  space  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  em- 
bracing Christianity  and  learning  to  read  and  write;  and 
the  Introduction  and  practice  of  all  the  cuatome  of  eiv- 
Uiied  life.  When  John  Thomas,  who  Mill  livea,  ritlted 
Uie  Hawaii  Islands  in  1880,  he  wis  startled  to  And  the 
king  and  the  people  had  abandoned  paganism  and  were 
worshipping  tbe  true  God,  and  tbeir  idnj  temi^es  were 
either  biinied  or  conTeited  into  dweiling-bouiea.  Dar- 
ing a  visit  to  Tonga,  where  the  mission  bad  appeared  to 
fail,  tbe  king  of  the  Hawaii  Iiland*  had  been  converted, 
and  on  bis  letum  brought  with  him  a  Chris^an  oatire 
and  his  wife.  The  king,  leading  his  people  by  exam- 
ple, was  baptized,  end  he  bad  a  cbapel  erected  in  which 
fifteen  hundred  people  could  wonhip.  In  but  a  short 
time  young  and  old,  rich  and  poor,  masten  and  serrants, 
embraced  the  new  loiu,  m  religion.  The  king,  a  man 
of  fine  preaenee  and  intelligence,  took  the  name  of 
George,  and  his  wife  that  of  Charlotte.  King  George 
carried  the  intelligence  of  their  eonrerrion  to  the  king 
of  Vavau,  who,  on  hearing  and  seeing  the  ebangea 
which  Christianity  bad  wnnight,  with  a  tbouaand  of 
his  peoi^  at  once  renounced  paganism,  and  the  viailora 
remained  a  long  time  teaching  the  people  the  elements 
of  Christianity.  A  pren  was  established,  and  books 
printed  by  tbouianda  and  scattered  broadcast  on  tbe  nu- 
meiQua  ialanda.  The  press  was  to  the  people  one  of  the 
greatest  marrels  they  had  known.  Hymn-books,  cale- 
chkmiS  ■od  portiona  of  Scripluni  weie  distributed  by 
Ihouaanda,  the  natiTes  being  the  mlnntary  agents  em- 
ployed; and  very  soon  hnndnds  of  these  native^  male 
and  female,  including  chiefs  and  tbeir  vives,  were  em- 


ployed ■■  teachers,  daas-leadeis,  ezboten^  and  kaal 


tbe  miaaionariea'  wire*  tcacUng  Uw  art  of  catting  got 
clothe*  and  sewing,  as  well  as  other  dnnaiatii  and  aav 
ful  arts.  Tbe  news  of  these  oonTenioaa  qiread  IIbt  and 
wide,  end  canoe*  laden  with  inquirers  ea 
three  hundred  miles  to  see  what  C 
and  thess  rstumed  themaelves  to  qtrcad  tbe  tidii^  <f 
the  new  religion.  So  the  work  went  on  till  July,  UH 
when  there  broke  oat  on  sercrsl  ialanda  a  gnat  spirit 
ual  revivaL  Hen,  women,  and  ehUdren,  cbieft  and  pM- 
ple,  all  shared  in  the  aulpooring  of  the  S|ifait,  md  ea 
one  day  (July  27)  Mr.  Tomer  fsooids  llial  "not  lamtt 
than  one  thousand  soula  wen  conTcrted,  not  only  &«■ 
dumb  idols,  but  from  Saun  to  God."  A  little  Utv  ha 
recoida,  "Witbio  tbe  past  wt  weeks  tbe  nombar  af 
cooTcrts  is  SMa."  For  a  wrck  (hey  hehl  |«sjii  ■msi 
ings  ail  timsa  daily,  and  as  many  ai  "' 
were  on  tbeir  kneea  at  tbe  aame 
eryiag  eanuatly,  for  deUveranoe  ft 
sin.    3aoh  earnest  crying  tcr 


King  George  became  first  a  daw  leader,  then  a  kol 
preacher,  and  hie  whole  life  was  now  devMed  to  Iha 
etcTstimi  of  his  people.  H*  leltMsd  sU  his  slare^  and 
bad  a  missiDa  church  sneted  in  the  FriMdly  li^DiK  ■ 
tbouaand  of  his  people  t>ang  employed  io  its  iii  nmm 
Tbs  king  bad  the  spears  of  U*  ancestoia  Axed  m  (kt 
rsila  for  the  commuoioo-tabls,  and  two  doba  fmnolr 
adored  as  deities  were  placed  as  pillsi*  (a  tbe  |iiil|dii 
stain.  Tbe  king  himself  preached  tbe  opeoiogaeraM^ 
and  tboosands  of  people  attended  tbs  openiag.  SaA 
were  some  of  the  imdta  of  oae  of  tbe  gnatest  rerirals 
ever  known.  In  no  otbtr  pottioii  of  tbe  missiaa  Ud 
have  so  many  natir*  bbcsoa  been  raised  ap^  orf 
schools,  chapels,  and  paisonagea  adora  naoat  of  Ihs  i^ 
and*.  Ilie  whole  popabtioa  bM  amlmoad  riiiiMiM 
ity. 

Tbe  Rev.  Robert  Tonng  in  ISBB  yUtitd  tboae  iJwda, 
New  Zealand,  and  Australia  Is  a  deputation  ftev  tba 
EngUsh  Cnnferenoe  to  make  the  anaDgeBKlita  for  Ar 
union  of  aU  the  ehnrcbea  in  tbe  Bastem  flrrhipiisg* 
That  union  was  sadsCaetorily  ananged,  and  hH  wostat 
adminbly  fbt  (rver  a  quarter  Of  a  oeDtuiy.  At  the  time 
tbe  Australian  Ooofercikoe  was  fbuoded  it  included  ntss^ 
ly  300  prsacbera  and  soase  40,000  coomtmieaats;  tbs 
Bodetiea  wen  nearly  aU  self-supporti^,  and  XIO^MB 
was  annually  given  fbr  nuasione  alotici  Since  that  pe- 
riod every  department  be*  advanoed.    Is  1880  ib«t 

fi9,3»7  church  membera.    The  Methodkt  ai  iiili  i  iihip 


fthsA 


wjustec 


to  tbe  total 
Grat  Britain  at  tbe  dnw  of  Hr.  Wta- 
ley's  death.     In  another  half-centtiry  tbe 
churehea  will  probably  sum  up  as  many  n 
the  parent  society. 

When  tbe  Jutnlee  of  tbe  Wesleyan  Mianooary  Sod* 
ety  waa  celebrated  in  1864,  a  large  meethig  wn  fadd 


opened  which  soon  reached  jCll/WO,  tbe  mmey  be^ 
spent  in  the  erection  of  a  Weeleyan  college.  About  tbe 
same  time  another  inatltntiiHi  came  into  euMenea  at 
Helboome,  tbe  erection  of  the  Wesleyan  Emigmits* 
Home  at  tbe  coat  of  £SeOO,  towards  which  tbe  cidosid 
government  voted  £1000,  fR>m  a  oomictioB  ol  its  pbil- 
antbropic  character.  That  lempoiary  borne  baa  been 
a  bleasing  to  mnltitades  on  tbeir  strival  in  tbe  mbaij 
without  friends  to  greet  them. 

IL  CMvrrk  Organaatiim  and  Poliif,—Ia  tbesa  re- 
spects tbe  Australian  Conferenoe  is  in  accordance  -with 
the  parent  society.  Ministeisand  laymen  unite  in  eea- 
ducting  the  annual  conferences;  and  occastonally  min- 
isterial depntaliona  are  sent  to  the  outlying  churdiea 
to  report  upon  and  encourage  them.  The  Ber.  Hesaaa, 
Bathbone  and  Watkina  went  over  tbe  minoiis  in  the 


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WESLETAN  CONF.,  AUSTRAL.  921    WESLETAN  CONF.,  FRENCH 

WESLETAN  CONFERENCE,  FmroR.  TJiOtt 
.is  h«ad  we  pnpoM  to  give  ■  MaUmnit  of  the  iiHead 
of  Wealtywilim  oonia*  the  En^iih  Chutnel 

h  Origin  and  Hitlorg, — HeibodiHn  had  to  itnggia 
hard  and  bng  to  obUtD  ■  home  in  Fnnce ;  bat  the  tt' 
foru  of  muiy  jcam  vera  at  length  cnnnied  with  uo- 
c«B,  Am  early  a>  17TB  Hetbodisoi  Awiid  ila  wty  (rom 
NewroundkDd  to  Jeney,  one  of  the  Cbaanel  lelanda  op- 
poaite  Fnace.  Soma  auldien  in  a  Feginent  rnnn  Eng- 
Uitd  to  Jeney,  beiog  Hethoditts,  carried  their  teligioa 
with  them,  and  •  omall  Ndety  wai  Ibrmed.  They  ap- 
plied to  Ur.  Wealey  for  a  pcowher,  and  Bnbert  Can 
BrackCDbnir,  Eiq^  a  weakhy  layman  who  ooold  apeak 
French,  waa  aent  by  Mr.  We^  to  help  the  cauae  there. 
la  178A  Di.  Coke  viNtcd  the  iaUml,  and  in  1786  Adaa 
Clarke  vai  appwnled  to  the  Norman  Idanda  to  eniit 
Mr. BrackenlHuy.  Inl78THr.WMdey npetitarortaight 
on  the  iaUndi,  preaching  and  exborUng  from  hooae  to 
hoiue.  The  ptople  asiienibled  in  the  evemnga  by  hoD- 
dredii  u  bear  him.  Ur.  Wealey  forMair  that  Medwd- 
tata  from  thoac  iiUodi,  having  *acb  frequent  iolercoane 
with  France,  would  nwn  uke  tbeir  religion  tbere  alio. 
In  1790  the  Rev.  John  de  QuelteviUe  and  Hr.  John  An- 
gei  viiited  aome  of  the  riUageein  Normandy;  and  find- 
ing amall  congtegatiDni  o(  French  Proieatann,  jatMd 
them,  and  began  by  giving  peraonal  ejcperisncea  of  coa- 
Tcnion.  Thti  awakened  sympathy,  and  the  people  df 
uied  infonnalioo. 

WiUiam  iUhj,  a  lay  preacher  in  Gnemaey,  wa*  mm, 
and  waa  ordained  in  1791  by  Dr.  Coke  ta  prMcb.  H« 
commenced  bn  labors  at  Courcelle.  Dr.  C(Ae  then  want 
on  u>  Paria,  taking  with  hioi  Hr.  De  Qoetteville  and  Ur. 
Gibaon ;  and  there  hired  a  room  for  a  month  near  the 
Seine.  Di.  Coke  wai  then  offered  a  anppreeaed  church 
in  Pirii  (or  £160,  which  would  hidd  two  thousand  per- 
aona.  This  will  abow  the  low  state  to  which  leUgim 
had  then  fallen.  In6delity  was  rampant,  the  prieate  had 
all  be«i  killed  or  baniahed,  end  any  paalora  remaining 
did  not  tnoi  the  new  religion.  The  oppoaition  to  Ur. 
Hahy  broke  down  hii  health,  and  ended  in  his  prema- 
ture death.  Dr.  Coke  aooo  found  that  Paria  waa  not 
(iTorable  to  Uethodiam,  and  retired.  Seed  was  sown  in 
aeTend  Tillage*  io  Nonnandy,  which  waa  not  aUowed 
to  die;  but  the  Bevidution  Mowing  so  quickly  on  theaa 
efforts  arreeled  rartber  prograas  then. 

In  the  history  of  Uelhodism  in  many  places,  when 
one  door  la  doeed.  Divine  Providenoe  opens  another. 
So  it  was  in  France.  For  yean  religioa  in  every  form 
had  been  nearly  eitinguiahed.  The  war  with  NspoleoD 
Bonaparte  had  reaulted  in  the  capture,  by  Enghud,  of 
thouiands  of  French  priaonen;  and  eleven  large  ajiipa 
of  war  formed  the  pnaoo-homM  of  thoae  men  in  the 
river  Uedway.  In  ISIO  tbe  Rev.  WiUiam  Towe  be- 
gan to  vist  the  ships  and  apeak  to  the  aotdien.  He 
waa  heard  gladly ;  and  began  to  preach  and  diatribnta 
French  Biblea,  and  oonvena  wen  the  result.  In  ISU 
Conference  appmnled  Ur.  Toaae  a  mianooaiy  to  tbe 
French  abipa  in  the  Uedway.  Theae  aoldieia  wen  nl- 
timelely,  after  ISlfi,  returned  to  their  honea,  and  they 
look  their  religion  and  Biblee  with  ihem;  and  so  the 
way  waa  prepared  for  the  renewed  iatroduction  pf  Ueth- 
odiam. This  time  it  was  to  be  permanent;  and  although 
it  baa  bad  a  alow  and  atniggling  eiisleDoe,  yet  the  ata- 
lialics  will  show  that  it  haa  aorvived,  if  it  haa  not  ex- 
tended largely. 

After  tbe  peace  of  1814,  aome  evangelists  again  oom- 
menoed  to  labor  in  Normandy ;  but  the  return  of  Bona- 
parte from  Elba  caused  them  to  flee  for  safety,  leaving 
a  amall  society  of  fourteen  membera,  which  waa  increaied 
to  twenty-dve  during  the  year.  Alter  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  and  the  rehim  home  of  priaoners,  the  Rev. 
William  Toaae  went  to  France,  and  had  Richard  Ro- 
barta  and  Benjamin  Frankland  aa  hia  colleagues.  In 
1818  Charles  Cook  followed  them.  Ha  studied  the  taif 
guage,  and  ao  thoroughly  interested  himself  in  the  peO' 
pie  that  for  forty  years  he  devoted  all  hia  time,  atnawth, 


EV.  LAtrotarc— The  liutature  which  belongs  (o  thii 
aeetioD  of  the  Uetbodiat  Church  relates  chieQy  to  tbe 
poUiahed  biogtaphiea  of  tbe  miniaters  who  have  died  in 
the  work:  Tit  Lift  i^f  lit  Jta.SaiaiHl  Ltisk,  bj  Aie:t- 
aodK3lrahBi,a  amall  octavo  Tolnme  of  692  pi^es,with 
portrait,  ia  the  basis  of  our  hiatorical  knowledge  of  Ueth- 
oiUnn  in  AostralU.  Wm.  B.  Boyce  published  in  1B50 
■  Britf  Grammar  q/"  Aaciad  Hitltry,  for  the  u 
achoi^  in  Sydney  (a  ISnn  of  108  pp.).  He  haa 
liabed  other  works  not  relating  to  Australia.  J 
Boiler,  forig  Yeart  M  ffat  ZaJiad,  fndiuKag  a  Ptrnm- 
al  NarraliDt.'m  A  eaotmt  of  Maoriibim,apd  afOtCirU- 
tiamUaAm  and  Cokudiatim  efihe  Conntrg  (1878, 8ro, 
608  pp>),  a  work  of  moch  and  permanent  value.  Hft 
ofJ.H.BHnbs,"*^  aBrirf  HittoTyofiitNau  Zea- 
limd  Mifum,  by  Alfred  Barrett  (1852,  ISmo,  874  pp.,  with 
portrait,  three  editions).  James  Calvert,  Fyi  and  tit 
F^iau,  tbe  Hiaeion  hiatory,  edited  by  George  Stringer 
Bowe  (1868,  poet  8vo,  4S&  pp.),  Talosbls  for  fsou  of  bia- 
Mwy.  Mr.  Calvert  haa  also  printed  a  Lettir,  on  tbe  L^t 
of  JakH  tiuM.  David  Cargill,  A-M^  A  Rtfulatiait  of 
Ciecalier  Dilim't  Altadi  on  Ike  Wabyaa  ifittioitiintt 
iitlimFriBidlglilaiidt{\8A2,8vo,iOpp.);  also  J/«motn 
ofMrt.  Margartl  Cargill,  tacUding  Nolieti  of  lie  Prog- 
rtM  of  Ckriniamls  •■  Toiiffa  and  Fiji  (18&6, 18mO,  S48 
pp^).  IkaM  J.  Drape-,  At  SUpiBncttd  Uarvur  aai 
Us  Anwmv  Caorye,  a  sermon  by  Rev.  Dr.  Jobson  (1864, 
cnwn  Svo,67  pp.).  John  Uun^  Jf motr  q/-rta  Jieir.  IT. 
Cron,MiMnimarilotheFTia>^andF^I^ahdi(\ia», 
ISmo,  848  pp.).  Lift  of  lie  Riv.  Join  Haiit,l/iinomiTy 
U  Ike  Cafmiali  (1869,  iamo,>70  pp.).  Jamea  J.  Jobson, 
D.D.,  AiutraBa,  yiHi  Ifotei  bg  lie  Wag  (1862,  8vo,  381 
pp.),  an  intaresdog  review  of  the  work.  Walter  Lowry, 
Jtmrwii  of  a  Uiuitmar^  Vitk  to  At  Statiout  in  At  Soali 
SfU  in  1847  (l2mo,  808  pp.).  A  Stcami  Joumut  af> 
Mifiomart  VitU  lo  lie Fricm^ and F^  I^amdtiK  186C 
•ditedbytheBeT.EliJahUDole(12mo,2l7pp.).  LUUr 
frirm  At  Aca. J^oi. ff.  fJelcbr  (AnckUnd,  1861,8vo,  100 
pp.).  William  Uoister,  A  Hitory  of  Walrifm  Uimmt 
from  Iktir  ComatauimaU  to  1870  (amall  Svo,  M7  pp.). 
BiAat  Toong,  Tie  SoaAem  [TorUJoumal  of  a  depuui- 
tioa  ftom  the  Weeleyan  Conference  lo  New  Zealand— 
Polymaia,  Aualnlia,  and  Taamania  (1854, 12mo,  444  pp.  i 
the  Mma  work  in  2  pla.).     (G.  J.  S.) 

WKSLET AN  CONFERENCE,  BBITI8H.    See  Was- 


Fnnc*.  T«n  tboxMod  dalkn  ■  «ar 
more  wooM  gira  the  oun  an  impoki  Midi  ••  k  kn 
pcTct  had  before.  Then  u  iBon  cag«fDcaa  Aemm,  bj 
both  DMd  and  irotnni,  u  btu  tb«  Gs^itl  and  nad  idf 
iwa  bogka  than  ever  before.  The  Rav.  William  Gtkv« 
A.&,  hat  for  nme  yean  beea  uung  hii  utmoM  c&m 
chiefly  in  erangeliMie  laboni  but  what  >•  soe  ia  a 
gnat  >  city  u  Pari*?  Then  ii  ■  bHght  day  danaag 
for  HethadiHn  in  Fiance  if  only  the  nnall  aum  amad 
could  for  a  few  yean  be  guanDUcd  to  aid  tbc  wk. 
The  B«r.  Dr.  Job«Hi,  Scv.  William  Ajthor.  AJL,  aad 
other  leading  HetbodiMa  from  Eoglaad  bare  rtniWin< 
■ome  help ;  but  such  help  guaranteed  for  tluca  m  in 
yean  would  work  wonden  at  the  pment  lime.  Doon 
are  open  averynrhere  for  preaching  Uie  Goapel :  aad  In 
•ome  yean  the  prachen  have  cootinucd  tbeir  labaa  te 
only  a  bare  pittance  for  food  anddoibiDg.  Tbc  Fnaek 
CoarereneeownaaDempaptrandabook-ntoB;  botboit 
■re  langutahing  fui  want  o(  paurmage.  In  oo  cuaMiy 
in  the  world,  not  even  Ireland,  have  tbcrc  be«a  grcMH- 
obetaclea  in  the  way  ofmaking  progio  than  bare exnaed 
in  France:  but  now  Bnaodal  help  Uall  that  ia  miBind 
to  make  Metbodism  in  France  a  gnat  power  for  goad. 
II.  SlatiMia—Thv  following  table  win  czhilat  Ibt 
niUDerical  progrcaa  of  French  MethoiliaBB : 


WESLEY JlS  CONF.,  FRENCH     982     WESLETAN  CONF.,  FBENCH 

He  i*  considered  the  chief  founder  of  Hethodiam 
in  that  country,  giving  not  only  hi*  own  life,  but  the 
Urea  of  hit  two  aona,  to  the  lame  work,  both  of  whom 
are  ai  well  known  in  America  as  in  France.  Ur.Cook 
became  a  doctor  of  divinity;  and  when  he  died,  in  July, 
I8fiS,  Herle  d'Aubignd  wrote  conceming  him,  "The 
work  which  John  Weale;  did  in  Great  Britain  Chartea 
Cook  hai  done,  tbough  on  a  tniBller  acale,  on  the  Conti- 
nent,' The  Engliih  Conference  of  1S24  appointed  Hr. 
Cook  to  commence  a  Hethodint  miaaion  in  PaleBtine ; 
but  tbe  difficulties  being  »  great,  and  funds  not  avail- 
aUe,  Hr.  Cook  did  not  leave  France.  He  preached  hb 
flnt  sermon  in  that  country  in  December,  ISIB.  The 
Snt  diatrict  meeting  was  held  in  April,  1B20,  when  there 
were  present  five  preachers — brethren  Toase,  Ollivier, 
Hawtrey,  Cook,  and  Henry  de  Jeraey,  The  Bnt  love- 
feaat  was  beld  the  week  after  the  district  meeting,  and 
it  proved  to  be  an  oocanon  of  much  good,  and  wu  long 
remembered. 

Up  to  the  year  1S32  the  progreu  wu  alow  and  dii- 
eooraging;  but  the  surrounding  circnmslances  sufficient- 
ly accounted  for  tbac  state  of  things.  The  Conference 
□r  1838  sent  the  Kev.  Robert  Newuead  to  giie  the  mia- 
uon  a  new  start,  and  the  members  were  nelity  doubled 
the  flrst  year.  In  I8S4  Jamei  Hocatt  Jcrined  the  mis' 
nan,  and  he  has  since  dernted  hia  whole  life  to  tbe 
work.  He  atill  survives;  and  at  the  English  CoDfer- 
cnce  of  ISSO  he  made  a  powerful  and  impreastve  ^ipeal 
on  behalf  of  the  extennon  of  Hethodism  in  France  In 
183S  Hatthew  Gatlienne  joined  the  mission;  be  devot- 
ed many  yean  of  valuable  service  to  the  canae,  and  hit 
son  is  at  the  present  time  tutor  in  theology  of  (he  young 
men  preparing  for  the  ministry.  The  reinvigontcd 
mission  aoon  showed  signs  of  tbe  new  power  infused 
into  it.  Robert  Newstead  found  in  ISSS  a  total  mem- 
benhip  of  one  hundred  and  eleven;  in  right  years  just 
one  thousand  were  added.  Eight  yean  after  came  an- 
other Revolution  and  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy, 
which,  followed  by  increased  diSlcaltiea  in  conducting 
religious  wonhip,  soon  resulted  in  the  loas  of  nearly 
three  hundred  membera.  Peaceful  time*  followed, and 
Dr.  Cook  lived  to  tee  the  number  of  miuiaten  raiaed 
from  4  to  80,  and  tbe  memben  Imm  29  Co  1446 — prog- 
reaa  which  would  have  beea  tbougbC  small  in  any 
country  excepting  Catholic  Fratice. 

In  1S6E  France  was  o^anined  into  a  separate  cnn- 
farenee,  and  affiliated  with  England.  It  had  then  17 
preachen  and  776  memben.  France  was  divided  into 
two  districts:  and  in  1S6B  Jeui  Paul  Cook  Joined  the 
mission  aa  a  catechiit.  He  baa  nnoe  been  one  of  the 
moat  devoted  and  tnccessful  of  its  paslon.  There  were 
then  only  nine  cireuita  in  all  France.  It  had  long  been 
utuler  conaideiBtion  to  make  the  older  miation«  of  Heth- 
odism self-sustaining,  while  at  the  same  time  the  Hia- 
sionaiy  Society  in  London  desired  to  be  relieved  of  tbe 
management  of  its  opetatinns.  and  thereby  give  the 
Freikcb  people  greater  ficiiities  for  useful  and  extended 
opetatlona.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Beecbam,  one  of  the  general 
secretaries  asHsted  in  completing  the  arrangements ; 
and  with  the  presence  and  unction  of  the  Rev.  Dr.Chaa. 
Cook,  the  Conference  of  18&2  adapted  the  recommenda- 
tion of  IheMiMionary  Committee.and  France  baa  ever 
since  managed  her  own  agencies,  otre  having  been  tak- 
to  for  the  maintenaoce  and  security  of  Uethodist  doc- 
trine and  discipline,  while  the  operalioot  may  take  ■ 
wider  scope.  Two  years  after  the  change,  eight  more 
preachen  were  at  work  and  three  hundred  members 
added  to  tbe  society.  The  targeat  number  of  memben 
ever  tccotded  in  one  year  wat  in  1870,  when  they  were 
reported  at  3049.  Then  came  the  Franco-German  war 
and  the  Common^  wbicb  caused  i  lost  of  over  two  hun- 
dred memben  tbrunghout  the  country.  In  1880,  owing 
mainly  to  the  want  of  financial  support — all  the  societies 
■  ■         ■      hip  ia  only  1789,  being 


III.  Ucro(iire^-Tbe  French  people  are,  oa  tbe  wbok 
much  more  educated  than  auny  oationa  lo  whaa  tbi 
Gospel  has  been  senU  Inldelity  and  popeiy  in  ikdr 
worst  forma  have  been  tbe  chief  eonrcea  of  oppnnitina  It 
the  qiread  of  vital  godUneaa  in  France.  From  an  «s~ 
nest  deaire  to  instruct  the  people,  when  pui  liing  hat 
been  forbidden,  about  a  dosen  preachen  beloogiBg  to  Ibt 
French  Conference  have  made  fne  nac  of  tbe  pnat  te 
enable  tl>em  to  spread  divine  (rulb-,  and  allboogb  th 
salet  of  some  of  the  books  bive  been  but  small,  yet  Ikoi 
veiy  existence — copies  having  found  th<dr  way  into  pah- 
lie  librariea — has  often  proved  a  •oorce  of  driencia,  aad 
in  other  ways  have  been  belpful  when  the  living  vein 
might  not  be  tppealed  to. 

Dr.  Cbaries  Cook  issued  seveo  pablicaliooa  A  vtl- 
ume  of  ClLrulian  Song;  of  nearly  400  pagta,  ran  rhwgk 
eight  editions  in  hia  lifetime :— a  Lditr  to  Uu  EJiltw  ff 
Ike  EtuMgdirai  OautU  of  Gmrva  (Bvo,  M  fp.)  i— Tlr 
l-ift  of  Mr*.  Mary  Flitdiir.—Joiintal  Itf  Hnlmr  Am 
Rsj/tri: — ApkoriiwuimJtuli/Sealiim: — jir  LonafS^i 
to  a  La*  World,  a  reply  to  a  brocbon  by  Dr.  Halaa  :— 
and  Waitt  and  WaUfamiMm  Jn^Jied. 


WESLEYAN  CONP.,  FRENCH    923       WESLEYAN  CONF.,  ffilSH 


Jean  Paul  Cook,  boiika  wridag  miMt  intemting  IM- 
ttrt  fbc  min^  jrein  put  in  the  Ntv  York  and  Ibe  Wat' 
era  CkrittiaiiAdnxale,  has  uaned  aepantel]',  Organaa- 
Uim  of  »tmdaf*AooU  (IMT)  —Ltfe  of  Ckartu  Cook 
(1863,  S64  pf).) :— £«K^<  «■ /"Orr  (■  pampblel  ofSO  pp.) : 
— ud  TktDagiofa  Ymmg  CkUdwho  LottdAt  Saviour 
<12nio,  30  pp.). 

Ucory  de  Jener,  who  begin  to  trarel  in  1S19,  and 
wbo  loiled  long  in  [he  vine; ard,  pnbliibed  in  1887,  The 
Lif*  ofJohit  StlKm;—LeUen  on  Siaictijkatim  (lamo, 
ISOp(i.):~and  tbeZ,i/c  of  tkt  Be).  Jok*  de  QialltBUU 
(IMT.StHpp.).  Hii  ion,  the  Bar.  Henry  T.  da  Jeney, 
bm*  al»  iaKKd  two  himII  publicationa, 

The  rencrable  John  de  Queueville  may  be  considered 
the  (klher  of  the  French  Hethoditt  pnaai  He  waa  ac- 
cepted by  Mr.  Wedey  w  a  pnachcr  to  the  French  in 
the  Channel  lalaudi  aa  early  aa  1786,  and  be  devoted 
Dearly  liity  yeui  ot  his  life  in  promoting  Uethodi>m 
among  the  French  people.  Hepuiilubed  the  first  bymn- 
book  for  them;  but  the  date  oflbe  Sret  edition  i«  ancer- 
laiD.  A  CoUtctioK  of  MoiodiM  Hymi,  in  French,  w» 
fiiM  publiahed  in  London  in  1786,  (he  firac  year  of  Hr. 
<l£  QuetCerille'a  labara  aa  a  preacher,  hul  it  it  attributed 
to  Mr.  R.C.  Bnckenbury ;  ■o.alio,  ia  another  and  larger 
otrileciion  iiaued  in  1799.  Ur.  de  QuetleviUe  prepared 
and  iasoed  a  new  edllion  of  the  hymn-book  in  1818,  in 
raiiona  eiaea.  In  the  aame  year  he  traniUied  and  pub- 
liahed in  Freoeh  John  We«ley'a  Strmoii  on  Hit  Truth  of 
Ckrialiamilif.  He  aftemards  iaHied  Frencb  tnnalatioas 
of  other  Krmoni  by  John  Wedey.  He  trantUted  the 
Life  of  waUam  Braimedi  into  French,  and  publiahed 
iti  besidea  which  he  waa  for  thirty-lour  yean  the  editor 
of  the  Methodic  MagaxiKt,  in  French.  The  Rev.  Mat- 
thew tiallienne  becaine  the  editor  aftei  Mr.  da  Quette- 
ville. 

Franeia  Faijat,  who  aerred  Ibe  miniatry  bum  1842  to 
1856,  publiahed  a  voIohm  of  160  p^et,  ISolo,  on  the 
Spirit  ami  Tmdaiaa  of  He  CkntHaBt  caUtd  MtAod- 
wW.-— alaa  a  amali  volume,  ffotka  jar  Louim  Jaulmti: 
—  and  a  BiograpAjf  of  MaiemoittlU  Marit  Ttaipk 
(Uma,  60  pp.), 

L.  P.  Ualland,  wbo  began  U)  itinerate  in  ISSl,  iaaoed 
■  pampbkt  appeal  of  90  page*:  Knov  You  lie  Truth 
of  ChrietiiBatg. 

Hattbew  GaUienne,  who  began  lo  itinerate  in  ths 
Fnnch  Conference  in  188&,  publUhed  in  1868  a  CoOte- 
tioa  of  Ugmmifor  Sinidaf-tthoot;  edited  conjointly  by 
himself  and  Mr.  Handoock.  He  sin  issued,  for  four 
yean,  a  monthly  periodical  called  Le  Mi—iomairt, 
whidi  would  have  done  much  good  bad  it  been  patron- 
ized. Aa  the  editor  of  tbe  f  Vnwal  Mahtdiit  Magatuie, 
Mr.  Gallienne  tendered  gi«al  and  perrunent  service  up 
to  (he  tinia  of  his  death. 

Philip  Gulton,  who  has  now  been  forty  years  in  tbe 
miDiatry,  published,  in  ISW,  ffutoire  du  MUhoditme 
Wnkimdaai  If  Ik*deia  Uauehe—m  1804  he  pub- 
liahed a  French  translatioa  of  Bev.  WiUiam  Arthur's 
Tomgtit  of  Fire. 

William  J.  Uandeock,  wbo  travelted  many  yeai*  in 
the  Freocb  Conftience  from  IB88,  published  in  French  a 
Summary  of  Uu  Lam,  Orijaiuialion,  and  Diicipliie  of 
the  Emglith  MtUioStIt,  in  1868,  a  pamphlet  of  SO  pages : 
— alM  A*  Expotilion  of  the  FirH  Epwth  ofSLJohn,  in 
1861. 

James  Hocart  hsa  devoted  Torty-di  years  to  tbe  itin- 
eraut  ministry  in  France.  He  has  published  Ave  sei^ 
mona  on  apecial  occasions — namely.  Faith  Ihe  Imttipat- 
taHe  Comiitim  lo  Sacero  in  the  MtniUrg.—The  Good 
F'igkt,  preached  at  the  ordination  of  Henry  T.  de  Jersey 
in  1868:— r*i!  CtriiHm  Pailor.—Puriiy  of /lean:— 
and  Tk«  Young  Servant  ofChriit  EnBouraged.  He  has 
also  revued  a  new  edition  of  Mr.  Wtilry'i  Sermone. 

John  Wealey  Leliferre  has  translated  and  published 
in  French  Mrs.  Phoebe  Palmer's  ITt^  o/ //ojinru .— and 
FaiU  and  Itt  Effeeter—tiaa  a  small  book.  The  Death 
o/lktJuH. 

Hatinew  Lelitrre  published  in  1866  tbe  L\fe  of  John 


Louie  Saltan,  tlu  Freieh  Stittionaiy,  which  has  recent- 
ly been  translated  into  English  by  Rev.  A.  J.  French, 
A.IL,  and  publiahed  at  the  Wealeyan  Conference  OIBce, 
under  tbe  title  of  tbe  Acting  Mt—ionary.  He  bas  also 
published,  in  French,  The  Life  of  John  Hunt,  Mittionary 
(Oihe  Canaibali^— The  Lifi  and  Work  of  John  Weeley, 
a  valuable  biography,  which  has  been  published  in  Eng- 
lish, also,  at  the  Conference  Office:— also  a  Lt/eo//W 
Ldiivre  (1868, 183  pp.). 

Luke  Fulsfon),  wbo  has  now  completed  forty  yean 
of  itinerant  work  in  France — oommencing  hia  labon  in 
1841— hsa  publiahed  a  Sarmomiat  CoUection  of  Tuna 
and  Chmttfor  Tkrtt  and  Four  Voica.-^eiK  a  CUIsc- 
tion  of  the  Proper  Ifamei  n  Che  f/rw  Tatamenl,  dedicat- 
ed to  the  falbera,  motben,  and  children. 

John  Louis  Rostan,  tbe  Alpine  misaionaty  fimn  18H 
to  1860,  published  Chriitian  Perfection  E^/platnedfrvm 
Scripture.  This  was  mn^ted  into  Engliab  by  ■  lady, 
with  Che  title  The  Path  Hade  Plain,  He  also  publish- 
ed an  essay  on  Claet-mtttinge  and  CkritHan  Exjierienee. 

William  'I'uase,  one  of  the  apoallea  of  French  Metbod- 
laoi,  published  several  Sermom  in  French: — Memoire 
of  Mrt.  ElivAeth  Arrivii—vai  Rev.  RiiAard  Sobartt, 

of  the  WeAyaa  Miteian  m  /Vanos.-— and  Among  lie 
French  Soldiert.     He  waa  nzty  yean  a  preacher. 

IV.  Pretidenti  of  Ihe  Frrack  Cof/emce.- Charies 
Cook,  D.D.,  ail  years;  Hattbew  Gallienne,  twice;  Herre 
Lucas,  twice ;  James  Uocail,  twelve  years ;  Luke  Pnla- 
ford,  twice ;  £mile  F.  Cook,  A.a,  twice ;  Jean  Paul  Cook, 
A.&,  twice;  William  Comfortb,  twice— tbe  tint  in  186S, 
the  last  in  1S81.     (G.J.a) 

WESLEYAN  CONFERENCE,  iBlsn.  Thb  is  a 
DoDvenient,  if  not  exact,  deugnation  of  tbe  body  of 
Methodists  in  Ireland. 

1.  Origin  and  Bitany.— It  is  a  cnrioos  and  inUnM- 
ing  fact  that  tbe  Fsladnea,  a  body  of  German  emi- 
grants, were  the  cause  of  inUoducing  Helhodism  into 
Ireland;  anditiaequallyiuleresting  to  knowthataome 
of  Ihoeo  very  Palatines  were  the  originatore  of  Meth- 
odism in  America.  About  tbe  year  1709,  these  emi- 
gnnts,  a  aet  of  sturdy  Proteatanta,  were  rathlemly  per- 
secuted by  tbe  Romish  bigots  under  Louis  XIV,  and 
compelled  to  leave  tbdr  paternal  home  in  Germany. 
Some  thousands  settled  in  England,  othera  went  to 
America ;  but  about  a  thousand  found  a  welcome  00 
Lord  Southwell's  estate  in  tbe  County  of  Limerick,  Ire- 
land. Each  family  waa  allowed  eight  acree  of  groand 
on  lease,  at  Ave  shillings  per  acre  i  and  the  gDvemment, 
in  older  to  encourage  the  Proleatant  interest  in  the 
"'   ■         -  -     -  .g„[y  yeaia. 


oibitani  a 


re  for  three  lives ;  i 
were  demanded,  a 


the  end  of  which  ei 
I  Iha  tide  of  emign 


IreUnd  in  1747  by  • 
Uy  pKAcber  named  Thomas  Williams^  He  fbtmed  a 
society  in  Dublin ;  and  during  the  same  year  John 
Wealey  made  his  first  visit  to  Ireland,  examined  per- 
sonally tbe  members  gathered  into  fellowahip,  and  fbuod 
(hem  strong  in  faith ;  and  wrote  respecting  tboee  who 
gatheiedlohiimini»lTy,"Whalanalionisthis!  every 
man,  woman,  and  child,  except  a  few  of  the  great  vul- 
gar, gladly  and  patiently  aalfen  the  word  of  exhorta- 
lion."  Cniwds  gathered  to  bear  him,  including  many 
wealthy  cidiens.  He  wrote  in  his  Jounud  in  August, 
1747, "  If  my  brother  or  I  could  have  been  here  for  a 
few  months,  I  question  if  (bare  might  not  have  been  a 
larger  society  in  Dublin  than  even  in  London  itself." 
After  spending  two  weeks  among  them,  he  returned  to 
LiHidDn,  and  immediately  afterwards  sent  bis  brother 
Charles,  and  Charles  Perronet,  of  Shoreham,  wbo  re- 
mauied  mora  than  half  a  year  in  the  country  rea|dtlg 
much  fruit. 
At  Chriatmas  following,  John  Cenoick  pccacbed  a  tef 


WBSLETAN  CONF.,  IRISH      «!!<      WESLEYAN  OONF,  nUSH 


■Don  iD  Dublin  oa  "  (ha  babe  wrapped  in  iwaddiing 
dlothaa."  A  popiab  bearw,  igDonut  of  the  BiMc, 
dvemcd  tbe  text  a  pun  PioUatant  inTCDtioo,  and  calleii 
the  UetbodiM*  "Swaddlera" — a  Ulle  which  dung  to 
themftnaeTecal  generalioiu.  Daring  Chlriei  Wc^fiy'a 
Tuit  many  riounu  prooeedinga  were  witneaacd  rrom  the 
})a[uata  opposing  the  UeCfaodiiU;  pM^weK)iiUed,aDd 
mock  trial*  were  held,  and  tbe  lioten  esoaped,  the  pa- 
piali  being  »  much  in  the  aacendant.  God  owned  the 
woida  of  the  preachei.  Cfaulei  Wealey  wu  firm,  an 
were  hit  follDHen ;  Chat  firmneas  garc  courage  to  the 
iafant  aocie^.  On  the  public  Graeti,aat  ordoora,Hr. 
Waaler  often  had  ai  reapecuble  a  locic^  as  at  tbe 
Foundry;  and  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  wa*  ao 
manifest  that  tbe  prayera  and  erica  o(  the  penilenta 
often  drowned  the  pTeacher's  voice.  Addidoru  were 
made  to  tbe  aociety  almoat  daily,  and  tbe  btdk  of  the 
oommunicanla  at  St.  Patrick's  were  nanally  Methodists 
lad  there  by  Hr.  Wesley  himMlf.  During  that  Tint 
Chariaa  Wealey  often  preached  five  timea  in  one  day ; 
ba  ooUeeted  auhacriptiotii,  and  had  a  better  chapel 
anoted.    Tbe  Qoipel  reclaimed  tbe  people  from  error 


Dnring  ^lat  Tint  Charie*  Wealey  IraveUed  abroad 
into  tba  country.  The  ainging  of  the  Hetbodiata  had  a 
moat  winning  effiiet  on  tbe  Irish  people.  A  good  work 
was  b^un  in  many  plaocs,  and  in  same  a  spirit  of  trans- 
fonnatioii  was  the  elleot.  This  was  capedally  the  caae 
at  Tynell'i  Ctom,  The  people  tbeie  bad  been  wicked 
toaprorerb;  they  became  entirely  changed.  In  aome 
places  the  dngoan*  had  to  be  called  for  their  ptotao- 


Wealey  waa  again  in  Cork,  be  waa  aaaalail 
rible  violenDei  but  God  has  hi*  own  wa;f  of 
those  who  do  bis  work.  When  the  Bvyor  —uum^w 
iotera,  aome  ol  the  aoldiera  wtn  namiilid,  aai 
(bey  beouM  ataneh  Hethodiata,  coming  in  a  bady  m 
the  preaching  ■erricee ;  protection  was  tbewby  aetawd. 
and  the  work  prospered.  Methodism  took  p^^Baaoa 
root  in  that  dty;  and  in  1TS6  Hr.  Wesley  waa  lecaned 
by  the  mayDi  at  the  HanaDn-honae ;  and  bia  nk  M 
tbe  plaoe  was  then  consideiHl  an  bonor  is  the  city. 

The  arst  Hetbodiat  sennon  pieacbad  in  Tiawriil 
WMbyBobeitawindells,inHan!h,  1741k  HelwIbHa 
in  Irdand  just  one  year,  and  had  aoaoapuiied  J^n 
Weeley  in  hia  tour,and  bad  learned  Docfa  of  it>»  eim- 
actarofthepec^le.  He  also  aeooopanied  Cbaals  Vo- 
ley  in  his  Irish  journeys,  Swindells  had  Dot  a  graeiMa 
reception  at  Limerick ;  but,  though  be  bad  a  ntMe 
audience,  he  pmcbed  daily  on  the  Parade,  wbick  ws 
at  that  time  a  oonrageoas  act.  In  his  i  iin|i.i  npijiia  aac 
day  waa  a  young  man,  educated  for  the  Rmiafa  pciHi- 
bood,  who  was  oonTinoed  of  sin  so  deeply  that  Ike  asaH 
est  away  ftom  tbe  Methodist  serricea,  and  «k*  a 
reeks  after  waa  oonvened,  and  Joined  the  aiiaiij 
wmarket  in  1749.  That  young  maa  was  Tb«s« 
Walah,  tbe  Orat-frDit  of  atnet-preaching  id  Iretaad,  eat 
of  the  moat  pious,  uaeful,  and  aooomptisbad  pnai^n 


ading  Methodiai 


When  John  Wealey  returned 


t«  Dublin  in  March,  1748,  Cbariea  left  for  England,  with 
the  Uesaings  of  hundrada  of  oonTetta. 

Bobett  Smndellt,  a  lay  preacher,  aosompanied  John 
Taaley,  aod,  being  eapedally  adapted  for  both  tbe 
and  tbe  people,  was  made  a  great  bleasng.  Mr.  Wea- 
ley began  his  work  by  preaching  every  morning  at  fii 
o'clock — a  plan  not  congenial  to  the  dilatory  Irish ;  bi 
they  crowded  to  hear  him  in  mou  places.  During  th 
•eeond  viiit  he  found  out  more  of  tbe  real  Irish  cbarse- 
ter,  and  formed  no  sanguine  hopea  of  the  aueoeaa  of 
Methodiam  among  the  Irish.  He  tried  both  penua. 
•ton  and  threat«n>ng  in  bis  sennona;  bat  tbe  people, 
whik  eating  up  every  word,  did  not  appear  to  digeat 
any  ponioiL  What  waa  Mr.  Wesley's  discovery  in 
)74B  WM  tbe  ouperience  of  Henry  Hoote  in  1788,  and 
aito  of  Oideon  Onseley  in  1828.  The  same  ma; 
ttc  aaid  of  tbe  Iriah  people  to-day.  Travernng  Ireland 
for  three  months,  nameroua  aodetita  weie  formed,  and 
half  a  doxau  exoellent  pieaohen  from  England  were  la- 
boring among  them. 

Cbariea  Wealey  returned  to  Ireland  soon  afl«r  John 
left,  and  be  revisiiad  the  places  into  which  he  had ' 
duced  Hethodism  a  year  previously.  In  Cork  be  ob- 
aened  a  great  moral  diange  had  come  over  the  peoph 
Swearing  waa  now  tddom  beaid  in  the  streets,  and  tb 
allat*  and  cburcbca  were  crowded  with  devout  woribip- 
pen.  He  pleached  to  ten  UioaBand  peojde  out  of  doors; 
«Teo  the  cleigy  come  to  bear  bim.  Bettirning  to  Eng- 
land, a  fierce  storm  of  opposition  waa  raiaed  agaiiut  the 
Methodiata  in  Cork,  led  by  a  balU^wngrr  named  BuU 
ler.  The  mayor  of  tbe  dty  favored  Uie  persecutor* ; 
and  wbeo  the  Hetbodista  applied  for  protection,  the 
m^ror  aaid  in  reply  that "  the  law  protected  the  priests, 
but  not  the  M^hodists;"  after  which  declaration,  pnb- 
tidy,the  riot«iB  became  furioua  The  whcde  city 
excited.  Charie*  Wesley  and  all  the  proacbera 
had  been  in  Cork  were  charged  b«fi«e  the  aisLzea  aa 
persona  of  ill-fame  and  vagabonda  The  Judge  soon 
ire  of  the  case  and  tbe  character  of 
Ihe  oaae  asaumed  a  belter  aspect 
nt  the  miachief  done  at  Cork  that  year  was  itot 
femedied  for  many  yean  afterwards.  The  preachera 
were  viniUoated ;  yet  two  years  aflerwatdt,  whan  John 


Philip  Guier,  one  of  the  Palatinea,  waa  mother  esa- 

rt  to  Methodism  at  that  early  period.  He  eauied  U> 
religion  to  the  little  colony  among  wboan  he  fmMul 
Mr. Wesley^  pieachera  wet«  invited  to  |iiiih  am^ 
tlieai.  The  colonists  greeted  them  ami  we'lcsiaed  Aew 
with  Joy,  and  aoon  a  sodely  was  formed  with  Gtaec  aa 
the  leader  of  the  infiuit  chunh. 

In  176!  Mr.  Waaley  was  sgain  at  UnHrick,  en  wtM 
occaaian  be  CMivened  the  first  Irish  Coaleraic*.  Thm 
were  present  John  Wealer,  S.  Idrwood,  J.  fJsngMiw. 
Joseph  Cownley,  J.  Puber,  Thomas  Walsh,  Jacob  8ov- 
ell,  T.  Eead,  Robert  Swindells,  J.  Wbitgoad,  and  J. 
Hmia.  These,  excepting  J.  Morris,  fwmed  Ht,  Wfs- 
ley**  stair  of  preacher*  in  Ireland  in  the  middle  <f  tbi 
18th  century.  In  ITM  Mr.  Wedey  again  Tiiated  Ii>- 
crick,  and  now  for  the  first  time  preached  in  Brib- 
gany,  tbe  home  of  Philip  Embury  and  B  '  "  ' 
both  ofwfaom  were  memben  of  Wesley's  I 
Much  of  ttie  future  of  Methodism  ii 
ica  depended  upon  that  visit 
Embury  and  Heck  aa  pait  of  hi*  a 
aaji  of  that  service,  in  hi*  JoaraaJ,  "  1 1 
among  this  plun,  artlese,  aerioua  people  The  wWi 
town  came  together  in  the  evening,  and  prasnil  Gti 
for  tbe  oonaalation.  Many  of  those  who  are  not  oa- 
wanlly  Joined  with  ua  walk  in  tb*  light  of  God'*  esw- 
tenanee:  yea,  and  have  divided  themselves  into  dasa 
in  imitation  of  our  brethren,  with  whom  they  Bn  n 
perfect  harmony ."  Here  are  the  germs  of  that  Htth- 
odism  wbich  ten  yean  later  originated  the  bat  Helb- 
odist  society  in  New  York,  and  in  America  At  ibi 
Snt  Irish  Conference  Mr.  Wealey  suspected  «ae  of  the 
preachen  of  a  Calvinisiic  leading,  of  which,  he  at- 
served,  he  had  as  great  a  dread  as  he  had  of  the  plagat. 

In  1768  Mr.  Wealey  again  held  a  CDnferetKC  ia  Irt- 
land,  at  which  fourteen  preachen  were  present:  aa^ 
though  the  record  of  its  proceedings  is  cnnipnmr^ 
within  a  few  lines,  yet  it  is  most  satiKfactDry.  Ia  I7» 
Mr.  Wealey  wa*  again  among  the  Palatinea,  wba  hi 
"  observed  the  ravages  of  emigrarion.'  How  Utile  iH 
he  then  foresee  what  immenae  l^dva^tl^5«a  would  fcllss 
that  emigration!  else  be  would  hare  used  othet  madi 
to  describe  the  events  he  then  witnessed. 

Popish  influence  was  unsparingly  eaertiaed  to  <vp>a> 
tbe  prognss  of  Methoditm  in  Ireland.  Mobs  mniiaad 
to  be  gatbered,  aasuming  often  frightful  and  periha) 
aeverilyt  while  at  other  times  PrnvideDce,  in  a  It- 
narkaUe  manner,  delivered  tbe  wonhippera.  Oncail 
Clones,  a  popish  rabble  vlalently  assaulted  the  Hetbad- 
ists  In  (he  maiket-plaoe^  when  auddealy  a  reiena 


WESLETAN  CONF.,  IRISH       925       WESLETAN  CONF.,  IRISH 


Scotch  mUiUi7  pensnncr  took  hii  poit  by  ■  tnt  u 
mAj^et-plue,  miuket  in  band.  decUring  he  would  (boot 
the  fint  mui  who  duliitbed  the  mettlog.  Tbs  wiriblc 
tiiiil«tnM  of  (be  nuui  ■wed  Ihe  people  into  aubmii- 
■ion ;  uid  be  kept  guud  ibere  raguUrlf  for  eeveni 
wwkL 

Ireland  wu  belpful  M  Americ*  in  more  wi^i  Ibin 
butarum  record.  Soon  alter  tbe  flrM  aomty  wu  fanned 
in  Hew  York,  Chsrien  White  and  Bicbard  Saoae 
Dublin  UetbadiU%  anired  in  New  Yoik;  and 
wne  liberal  conliibuton  lo  John  Streel  Clupel.  Some 
rcan  alierwanli  Richard  SauM  recroMtd  (he  AUanlic, 
•Mtlfld  in  London,  and  beoame  one  of  [he  tmMa 
Ui.  Woley'a  chapel  in  Che  Ci^  Boad,  where  he  was  in- 

Hethodiim  woo  manjt  oonverta  from  poperf,  ■■  weU 
ai  from  tbe  peaMiicrj  of  Ireland.  Hr.  Walmy  tent 
that  ODnntiy  BMDe  i^  the  but  preacben  he  had ;  and 
with  untiring  Kal  tbty  Labored  jeu  bj  year,  witoeae- 
ing  alternately  vidintudes  and  progresa-,  but  the 
of  Hethodismwn  fixed  in  the  loil,  and  there  can  b 
doabt  that  it  aaved  ProMitantiam  in  tbat  ooootry. 
1773  tbe  two  famiiiea  of  Embury  and  Heck,  with  an- 
other  Irith  family  nansd  L^wimcc,  removed  to  Canadi 
aad  Ibey  inlroduoed  Hethodiim  inta  that  coaatiy.  Ii 
1775  Idwience  Cougblan,  aootber  Irith  MetbodiM,  with 
two  ochen,  founded  Hetbodiam  in  the  tforman  ialet; 
while  Remington,  aoother  Irish  Hethodiat,  eMaUiibed 
Hetbodiam  ia  Newfoundland.  Emotion  baa  impor- 
criabed  Uethoditm  in  every  part  of  Ireland ;  but  that 
emigralioo  bae  resulted  in  an  aeiount  of  extenaii 
which  never  could  have  teen  realiied  by  other  mean 
MethodiMD  wai  odea  carried  to  and  planted  in  tl 
>ew  bomea  of  emigianla  yean  before  il  would  hai 
nacbrd  them  by  invitation.  Ireland  bea  peculiar 
elainii  on  tboae  counuiee  to  which  it*  emigrants  have 
carried  their  idigioo.  During  Dr.  HcClintock'a  viiil 
to  bit  fkmily  homestead,  in  tbe  County  of  Tyrona, 
Inland,  he  went  into  a  bumble  cabin  inhabited  by  a 
poor  widow.  A  friend  introduced  the  doctor  aa  from 
Amarica.  Instantly  tbe  aged  widow's  fading  eye 
brightened  aa  in  her  early  days,  and  she  said,  instant- 
ly, "America?  Ah,  then,  sir,  do  you  know  our  Eliza?" 
That  rnay  be  thought  to  be  a  ample  question ;  but  re- 
'  t  there  is  scarcely  a  homestead  but  has 
re  in  America,  such  sympathy  ia  caail; 


In  1789  Hr.  Wesley  presided  for  tbe  last  time  at  tbe 
Iriafa  Confereoce,  then  composed  mainly  of  Irishmen, 
tboae  English  preachers  who  had  done  auch  good 
■■Tvice  having  been  returned  to  their  own  Conference. 
Mr.  Weatey's  recurd  is  worthy  lo  be  transcribed.  He 
aayst  "  I  narer  bad  between  forty  and  flfty  such  preach- 
era  Uf(etbei  in  Ireland  before,  all  of  whom  we  have  rea- 
aon  to  hope  are  alive  to  Uod,  and  earnestly  devoted  to 
hia  service,  nMn  of  sound  eiperience,  deep  {Ncty,  and 
altoog  ttndentandiDg."  Aa  if  fnreaeeing  his  own  death, 
Mr.  Wesley  sent  Dr.  Coke,  in  1790,  to  hidd  tbe  flnt  Coo- 
fermce  formally.  Dr.  Coke  took  that  nomination  as  the 
yeoily  president  of  the  Irish  Conference,  and  be  contin- 
ued to  occupy  that  position,  in  conjonction  with  John 
Crook  and  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  lo  the  end  of  his  life.  In 
1790  there  wen  in  Ireland  16  circuits,  67  preBcben,aad 
11,000  members.  No  miontea  were  published  of  the 
aarlr  Irish  oonfeiencea,  apart  from  those  of  tbe  English 


Historical  accuracy  makes  it  necessary  to  name  an 
unpleasant  dispute  which  aroae  in  an  informal  oonfet- 
CDca  held  by  Hr,  Wesley  in  1776,  to  condder  and  deter- 
mine a  dispute  which  had  arisen  among  his  societies  in 
nferenca  to  the  aeparalinn  of  the  Hethodiita  from  the 
Chnreh.  The  Bev.  Edward  Smythe  had  been  driven 
fmiD  the  Irish  Church  for  his  Hethodiat  preaching. 
He  had  Joined  the  Hethodiat  ministry  and  had  indis- 
creetly urged  the  need  for  separation  from  the  Church.' 
Ur.  Weatay  heard  tbe  arguments,  but  rnled  that  sepa- 
cation  was  not  deaiiable.    He  viiiied  Ircliuid  more  than 


twenty  Umea,  and  nothing  gave  the  Methodista  theft 
greater  pleasure  than  lo  see  him  and  lo  hear  bis  voice. 
His  laat  visit  was  attended  by  drcumstancea  which 
were  not  of  an  enoouragiug  nature.  Dr.  Coke  bad  t>een 
uaing  his  almost  efforts  to  intioduce  Helbodist  servioea 
in  church  houn.  This  innovation  waa  stoutly  resisted 
by  the  leading  laymen,  of  whom  Mr.  Artbar  Keene  and 
Hr.  Richard  D'Olict  were  the  chief.  Tbey  presented 
a  memorial  to  Ur.  Wesley  against  the  action  of  Dr. 
Coke.  Letters  and  memorials  followed  in  quick  soccee- 
lion,  and  Hr.  Wesley  determined  against  tbe  propcaed 
change,  while  Dr.  Coke  had  a  contidenUe  following 
among  the  people  of  bis  way  of  thinking.  The  result 
was,  before  Ht.  Wesley's  death,  a  divided  society  in  Dub. 
tin.  Al^erUr.  Wesley's  death.  Dr.  Coke  was  sUe  to  urge 
his  opinions  with  more  determination,  and  they  served 
to  alieuata  from  tbe  doctor  SMue  of  his  dearest  and  beat 
friends  in  Dublin,  and  lbs  pn^reaa  of  tba  wurk  of  Qod 
waa  proportiooably  hindered.  In  1790  Hr. Wesley  was 
pleased  to  know  that  in  Dublin  he  had  <nie  of  the  laigeat 
societies  in  bia  Connection,  very  tew  being  larger. 

Dr.  Coke  beoame  the  apostle  of  Irelaiid  after  the 
death  of  Waiey.  He  visited  the  conntiy  twenty-Qve 
times  at  hia  own  coat ;  gave  freely  of  his  own  money  to 
the  preacben  and  tbs  new  erections  of  chapels;  trav. 
elled  and  preached  all  over  the  country ;  and  the  society 
advanced  rapidly  under  bis  superiniendenoe.  In  178!, 
when  hefiistpreudedat  their  Conference,  they  badonlv 
16  ciceuita  and  BDOO  memben  In  181S,  afier  a  lapee 
yean,  Ibere  were  66  circuiu  and  38,770 
11  tbis  was  in  spite  of  difficulties,  perseeu- 
Uance  almoat  insurmountable.  From  1796 
to  1T9S,  during  the  prevalence  of  tbe  Rebellion,  the  suf- 
ferings and  even  tortures  of  tbe  Hetbodiats,  pertiape  the 
moat  loyal  people  in  the  country,  were  too  horrible  to 
relate.  Their  very  loyalty  caused  the  malignity  of  the 
rebels;  but  God  was  on  their  side,  and  had  r^sed  up 
among  them  two  or  three  miuislen  wboae  Ubora  saved 
tbe  societies.  Especially  were  the  untiring  labors  of 
tbe  Rev.  Adam  Averell  made  a  great  bleaaiiig  to  the 
whole  oountiy.  Educated  for  the  Church,  after  a  few 
years'  service  in  tbat  body,  be  became  ■  Helbodist,  and, 
having  abundant  meaus  of  bia  own,  began  to  itinerate 
all  over  Ireland,  much  in  the  same  way  as  Ur.  Wesley 
bad  done,  enooaraging  the  members,  administering  the 
sacnments,  attending  and  prendtng  over  quarterly 
meetings,  opening  new  chipels,  and  intmdudng  Heth- 
odiam  into  new  localities.  During  half  a  eentuiy  that 
devoted  aervant  of  God  ceased  not  to  eiert  all  bis  en- 
ergies and  influence  on  behalf  of  Uetbodism,  while  he 
himself,  like  Wesley,  at  an  ordained  clergyman,  was 
permitted  occasionally  to  preach  in  churcbea,  and  with- 
out permisaion  preached  continuonsly,ollen  daily,  in  the 
open  ait  t^  listening  multitudes.     In  those  excursions 

ifesUtions  of  the  divine  power,  both  during  bissermoDS 
and  in  pnyer-meetings  afterwards.  During  the  twenty 
years  of  Dr.  Coke's  superintendence  of  Jtctbodism  in 
Ireland,  Hr.  Averell  was  generally  appointed  their  rep- 
resentative to  the  English  Conference,  and  for  many 
yean  accompanied  Dr.  Coke  from  Ireland  to  EngUuul 
for  tbsl  purpose,  the  two  taking  turns  in  preaching  in 
tbe  towns  through  which  they  passed  on  their  journeys. 
When,  in  1B18,  the  Irish  societies  were  divided  on  tbe 
saerameDt  and  Church  question,  Hr.  Averell  took  sides 
with  those  who  rormed"The  Primitive  Wedeyan  Meth- 
odists," thought  by  some  to  be  tbe  seceders.  He  waa 
appointed  their  president,  organized  their  societies,  es- 
tablished for  them  a  magazine  and  book-room,  and  re- 
mained true  to  their  society  end  ioternts  till  bis  death, 
Jan.  le,  1S47,  at  the  ripe  age  of  ninely-tivo  yenn^ 
Hethodism,  while  struggling  with  poveriy,  opposi- 
in,  and  cruelty,  yet  was  olien  favored  in  a  remarkable 
inner  by  Divine  Providence.  At  the  time  of  tbe  great 
Rebellion  Methodism  saved  Dublin  from  being  sacked 
by  the  rebels,  whose  intention  to  march  on  that  city 
was  secretly  made  knowit  t«  a  Mctbodi>t  dlizen.    He 


WESLETAN  CONF.,  IKISH       926      WESLETAN  CONF.,  IRISH 


■tonoecon>inuiiieBtailwithth«lord-IieDteDuit,wbii(ent 
out  the  Boldien  to  m«et  the  rebeli,  uid  tbey  were  de- 
feated *nd  ihe  city  uved.  Dr.  Coke  ome  to  Dublin, 
inurceded  with  the  aulhorities,  foond  ibit  Alczinder 
Knoi,  Mr.  Wesley's  rteU  friend,  was  privtte  secreUry 
to  lord  Caaclereagta,  theD  lord-lie uten ant  of  Irelind,  and 
thiDugh  tiin)  obtained  peiminion  for  ibc  Coafennce  (o 
meecin  Dublin.when  bylaw  mope  than  live  penona  were 


£8000  ititl  remainins  of  debt.  During  the  jetr  folkiK 
ing  ibe  people  nuaed  £7200,  ao  the  debt  waa  cancelled 
But  *bo  can  lell  the  aatriScea  the  preachers  had  I* 
make  to  raiae  that  aom  in  maiuteaaiice  uf  thdr  aerenl 
agencita?  During  aiiteen  yeara  tbey  almou  aUggend 
under  heavy  financial  burdena,  but  ihey  ilackcnHl  ao* 
in  th«it  devotion  far  tbe  lalvalion  oT  ibeii  beni^itcd 
countrymen. 


1)  iDe«t  for  any  purpoM,aiid  wcuiedufe-con*  I       The  great  trouble  of  the  Method iMi  in  Ireland  w 


Toya  for  the  preacbera  lu  iraveL 
waa  reenlved  to  eatabliah  home  miniona,  in  order  to  pro- 
ride  preaching  fur  the  people  in  their  native  language. 
The  two  miaaioaarieafint  appointed  were  JamealfUuiKK 
and  Cbarle*  tirabim.  The  former  waa  both  a  acholar 
ID  able  preacher.     He  toiled  «a  a  miMionary  till  hia 


Le  their  Engliih  bretb- 
li,  they  were  barely  content  with  iheir  pociliaa  a*  a 
:iety  without  full  church  privilego.  Vbra  ibe  Ea^- 
',  liab  Methodiata  agitated  for  and  nblained  peimiaaim  in 
!  I7»7  for  tb«r  ministera  to  adminiuet  the  ncrBOMtili, 
I  the  Irish,  having  Dr.  Coke  and  Mr.  AvcrtU  ao  frcqnan- 
healtb  broke  down,  then  devoted  hia  energiea  to  the  .  ly  with  tbem  u  adminialer  Ibe  aacramenta,  dM  Mt 
pruparalion  and  editing  of  the  Bible  in  the  Irish  tongue,  claim  for  Iheir  preacheia  generally  their  full  paatonl 
which  the  Britiab  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  putilisbed.  righta.  After  the  death  of  Dr.  Cuke  Ihe  bkbiIhh  in 
He  brought  out  a  lecond  edition,  and,  while  preparing  j  aociety  had  ao  oRen  lo  be  taken  either  to  Chorcb  er  lo 
a  third  edition  for  preaa,  closed  a  career  of  toil  and  auf-  tbe  Preabyleriaru  fur  the  ncramente,  according  to  tht 
fering,  leaving  behind,  in  that  Iriih  Bible,  a  work  which  leaning  of  the  preacher,  that  Ihey  became  greatly  dtaiat- 
waa  a  bleating  to  thouaands  after  hii  death.  Charlea  iafled,  and  in  1816  there  aroae  a  strong  determinatioti  in 
Graham  waa  a  man  of  dannlleaa  Iriib  courage.  At  the  minds  of  many  of  the  people  to  bave  Ihe  aacrwnail) 
twenty-five  hia  eyes  were  opened  to  lee  his  loat  con-  lYom  their  own  miniatera.  There  waa  also  aiwtbcr  par- 
dition.  He  bad  been  both  Churchman  and  papiat,but,  ty  equally  delennined  to  atnde  by  the  old  rule  and  ga 
finding  no  soul-rest  till  be  found  Methodism,  his  char-  lo  Church  for  Ibe  ordinanret.  For  more  than  two  yean 
acter  was  soon  diacorered  by  Mr.  Wesley,  who  aenC  him  ,  the  contention  continued,  hot b  parties  being  equally  d»> 
out  aa  a  miaaionaiy  in  Kerry  County.  Few  ofthe  Irish  lermined  to  have  their  owd  nay.  Tbe  Bev.  Adan 
evangelists  had  more  trials  than  Graham,  and  few  knew  Averell  bad  long  been  the  apoatle  of  Ihe  Iriab  Slethad- 
beiur  bow  to  meet  and  conquer  tbem.  Bartley  Camp-  iatt,  iravellinc  conalanlly  among  ihem,  Rtving  bia  Bto- 
bell  waa  another  who  had  been  an  ardent  papiit,  and  ey,  relieving  Iheir  sufferings,  directing  their  official  meei- 
became  an  eccentric  but  enthunaatic  miHionary,  Mare  .  inga,  and  idminiMering  the  aacramenla.  Sereral  iboo- 
exientively  useful  than  any  who  bad  preceded  him  in  aanda  resolved  to  adbeie  to  the  old  plan,  and  at  tbe  €«•• 
misaion  work  waa  Gideon  Onseley,  who  devoted  a  lung  ferencc  of  18IG,  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  preaiding.  the  Be». 
life  to  aprtading  divine  trnth  io  tbe  form  ofMetliodism  Adam  Averell  and  Hr.  Tulnaa  were  Ihe  chief  apnken — 
among  the  Irish  people.  Tbe  Li/i  and  Labort  of  that  |  the  former  for,  the  latter  agaiuit,CDniinuing  the  old  (dan. 
eminent  preacher  and  defender  of  truth,  by  the  Rev. .  Throughout  Ihe  aocielies  the  people  were  divided,  Bd 
William  Arthnr,  ha*  perpetoated  hia  character  and  ,  in  theautumn  of  ISlGaConferenceirBabelilaiClDnatf 
work.  He  and  Graham  often  travelled  together  and  iboaerepreaenlativeBwhofavon'dlbeoldplan.  Thm^ 
asaistedeach  other;  butOuseley  will  always  be  conaid-  ,  hope  of  avoiding  ■  aeparation,  Ihere  waa  too  murh  bt>> 
ered  the  chief  Metbndiet  Irish  minionarr,  which  poM-  '  talion  and  deliberation.  In  1817  Iwo  confereooea  *<fr 
tion  he  occupied  far  forty  years.  He  labored  as  hard  '  held,  the  second  one  at  Clones,  presided  over  bv  Mr.Av- 
with  bia  pen  as  his  tongne,and  hia  writings,  uhen  pul>- :  erell,  who  waa  unanimously  choeen  their  president.  Hw 
lilbed,  were  at  times  more  hdpful  to  tbe  cause  ofGoil  main  body  of  the  preacben  voted  for  the  sacraraenit: 
than  his  Tcrbal  utteranceat  The  improved  religiona ,  the  party  led  by  Hr.  Averell  maiulained  the  «igin^ 
cliaracter  of  Ireland  now  ia  largely  due  10  Gideon  i  plan.  In  January,  1818,  a  meeting  of  rrprewntatina 
Ouaeley's  labors.  |  of  circuits  waa  held  at  Clones,  when  those  who  adhend 

Ireland,  however,  waa  not  lo  be  so  much  benefited  lo  Hr.  Averell  and  primitive  cuatum  reaolved  on  a  form 
hy  theae  labora  aa  other  eountriea.  Methodism  would  of  general  principlee,  and  formed  the  Primitive  Wcder- 
havc  been  mighty  in  tliat  country  had  not  emigration,  j  an  Hethodial  Sodet}-.  They  were  not  a  Church ;  their 
continuing  year  by  year  for  balf  a  centuiy,  deprived  preachera  claimed  nu  ministerial  rank,  amimrd  no  uio- 
it  of  thouaanda  of  iu  Metbodist  converta.  In  fifteen  ialerial  lillea,  and  performed  no  pinper  ministerial  liae> 
years  fully  ten  thousand  memben  were  reported  at  lioniL  They  preached  to  ihe  peo[je,  and  led  tbcni  ta 
aucceaalve  conferences  as  having  emigrated  to  America,  i  other  cburchea  for  tbe  ordinance*.  In  ibal  unemain 
Nor  waa  tbia  the  only  drawback  lo  the  progreaa  of  the  |  ciindilion  they  certainly  praepered  for  a  time,  and  dor- 
work.  In  1801  the  English  Conference,  unable  to  meet .  iiig  1818  over  two  thousand  mrmbera  were  added  lo 
the  claims  of  its  own  aocietlea,  and  having  to  borrow  i  them,  and  in  1819  over  four  thouraiid  addiiiooa  wen 
money  to  auacain  its  own  agencies,  waa  obliged  to  dia-  made.  This  seclinn  of  Ihe  original  society  waa  led  by 
continue  th*  pecuniary  aasiatance  it  bad  che«rfiilly  ren-  j  Hr.  Averell  during  the  rest  of  hia  prolracied  lifr.  In 
dered  tbe  Irish  Conference.  Dr.Coke  immediately  vis-  i  year*  follovring  ibey  maintained  their  aepanie  coadt- 
ited  Ireland.  To  provide  far  that  emergency  a  fund  of  j  tion  amid  varioua  v{cinilude^  and  for  just  sixty  rtan 
£1200  waa  raised  by  special  effort,  out  of  which  tbe  '  ihey  endured  bardahipa  and  privations  grvster  than 
deblawere  paid,  and  a  book-room  eaiablished  a*  a  means  they  need  have  done.  Happily  they  came  to  an  end 
to  raise  money.  The  institution  was  of  great  utility  to  ]  at  the  Conference  of  1S78.  In  tbe  addreas  from  tbe 
the  eauaei  but  instead  of  being  financially  belpfbl.  mon-  .  Iriah  to  the  English  Conference  of  thai  year  is  ikb 
ey  had  to  be  borrowed  to  keep  il  going,  and  aoon  tbe  [  record,  "  This  Conference  ha*  been  notable  for  the  con. 
debia  were  £8000,  the  Interest  on  which  abeorbed  all ;  anmmalion  of  the  union  with  the  Primili^'V  Wealeyan 
the  public  oolleclion  on  behalf  of  tbe  book-room.  Tbe  Sndely,  so  long  under  connderalion.  The  final  rtitnu-- 
pnachora  taxed  Ibemielvea  yearly  for  many  yeara  to  aion  of  the  auhjeci  wu  marked  by  great  Ibotoagbiw** 
reduce  the  debt.  Their  difflcnltiea  ftvm  limited  re-  and  good  feeling,  and  the  declaion  arrived  at  with  a 
ton rces  continued  nearly  twenty  years,  and  after  the  di-  beany  unanimity.  When  tbe  two  conference*  camcia- 
villon  in  tbe  aociety  in  1818,  the  bunlen  on  the  Iriab  i  getber  it  was  a  time  long  to  be  remembered,  and  it  wai 
preacherabecameaooppreaaive  that  lbs  English  Confer-  evident  to  all  that  Ihe  spirit  of  God  waa  cminmilT  ■ 
encegeneroualygranled  them  £600  a  year  from  the  con-  their  midal.  Tbe  only  breKh  which  baa  occurrnl  m 
Ungent  fund,  Still  Ihe  debt  waa  not  cancelled,  and  in  |  Irish  Methodism  waa  thus  braled." 
1^  tbe  Iriah  preachers  again  taxed  tbemBelve^  and ,  The  parent  aociety  was  known  for  aomr  lime  aa  ibt 
byaapedalellbrt  raited  £lBH)tawatclaeleaTing  off  the  i  5ncrai)intai*iiM,becauM  Ihe  preachcra  had  voted  tbe» 


WESLETAN  CONF.,  IBISH       927       WESLETAN  CONF.,  IRISH 


Htlvca  to  the  privily  of  adminiitering  tbe  onliiiuicea 
of  bapliim  jud  the  Ixird'a  lupprr — ■  privilege  thejr 
ouglit  to  hare  had  rrom  tbe  fine.    The 


^ip.  During  the  four  yejm  of  the  »lniggle  (1814-IB), 
an  aonual  decreiK  of  aienibera  was  reported,  and  in 
1817  no  leM  than  7500  retired  I  but  in  1819ther  had  an 
increue  of  over  SAOO,  and  tbe  SeparatiaCa  bad  an  in- 
dtase  of  over  4000,  ao  that  neither  party  could  com- 
plain of  apparent  want  ariuccHi*.  The  greatnt  hinder- 
ance  to  proeperity  wa*  the  continued  emigration  from 
Inland  to  America,  b/  which  for  man;  yean  the  »o~ 

Tbe  yearly  r'mu  ai  preaidents  of  theii  Conference  of 
Hich  pTHchera  ai  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  Richard  Reece, 
Richard  Walnn,  Dr.  Bunting,  Robert  Nei 
cr  leading  minislerg  from  England,  greatly  encouraged 
the  patient  toilers  Their  Gnancial  privaliona  were  very 
great;  but  they  Ubored  muM  energetically,  Ihougb  it 
waa  up-hill  work  all  the  way;  yet  in  1839,  the  centena- 
ry year,  they  numbered  orer  ISO  preacben  and  nwre 
than  96.000  members.  During  the  mom  year  they  con- 
tributed £14,500  to  the  Onlenary  Fund.  That  liberal- 
ity in  their  poverty  wu  marvellous,  and  >how*  the  spir- 
it of  self-deDial  which  animated  thetn  all.  In  addition 
to  all  thia  effort,  Ihey  eaubliihed  schoola  in  Dublin, 
Cork,  and  Belfiat,  and,  aided  by  tbe  muniScent  contri- 
butions or  American  Methodiacs,  they  built  and  eatab- 
liihed  a  Hethodiit  College  at  Belfaat.  Th«  Weeleyan 
Connectional  School  in  Dublin,  opened  in  1846,  waa  to 
aeeure  to  Metboditea  in  the  South  a  high-daM  educa- 
(ioo.  Tbe  college  in  Belfaat,  opened  in  Auguat,  1B6S, 
combinea  both  a  public-school  and  college.  In  tbe  far- 
mer, boys  am  prepared  fur  a  collegiate  conrae  of  train- 
ing;  and  in  the  college  two  ciaaaei  of  Undents  are  re- 
ceived— oDe  coniiating  of  candidatei  for  the  miniatry, 
tbe  other  those  intended  for  commercial  punnita.  Un- 
deigraduatea  of  the  Queen'a  Univenity  al*o  attend  ita 
danes  of  jnstmctian. 

There  have  been  heroic  men  in  their  r«nk%  who  bare 
fought  and  labored  with  marvellous  zeal  and  energy. 
Charles  Graham  was  a  gray-beaded  veteran  of  aeventy- 
fuor  yean,  who  died  in  triumph  in  April,  ISH.  Will- 
iam Hamilton  hmke  down  in  1816,  but  he  ceased  not  to 
labor  until  October,  1348,  when  be  closed  a  ministerial 
carter  of  fifty -six  yean,  aged  eighty -two,  Gideon 
Ouieley  was  abroad  preaching  out-of-doors  at  seventy- 
four,  active  oa  ever,  and  delivering  twenty  aermona  in 
the  week.  He  died  a  victor's  death,  in  Dublin,  Hay 
14, 1SS9,  aged  KTenty-elght.  To  these  nuy  be  added 
Richard  Binrdnian,Jameg  Morgan,  Andrew  Blair,  Jimea 
M'Mullen,  John  H'Adam,  Thumai  Barber  (who  sent 
Adam  Clarke  into  tbe  miniatry),  Lanktree,  Tobiaa, 
.Stewart,  Waugh,  and  othen.  Besides  these,  bow  many 
Methodista  fmm  Ireland  hare  entered  the  miniatry  both 
in  England  and  America — anch  men  aa  Benry  Hoore, 
Adam  Clarke,  William  Tbamp»)n,  Walter  Griffith,  and 
William  Arthur,  all  of  whom  were  presideuta  of  both 
the  Engliabaod  tbe  Irish  Conference,  and  the  transplant- 
ing of  whom  impoverished  the  Church  which  reared 
ihem  I  Think  also  of  tbe  minislen  IVom  Ireland  now 
in  Americal  But  Iheae  we  have  not  apace  to  name,  j 
Irish  Hethodiala  have  helped  to  found  their  denomina-  i 
tinn  in  America,  Canada,  Australia,  A irica,  and  India;  | 
>nd  wbila  tbua  helping  othen  everywhere  with  their 
beat  men,  thej  were  left  to  atniggle  on,  in  Cbeir  own 
iiiid,  with  but  little  help  from  any  but  themaelvea. 
Iriih  Methodiata  hare  a  ruU  of  honor  which  will  never 
benrpaaaedin  the  Chanh  militant;  and  in  the  Church 
inmnphantDone  will  receive  greater  commendation  than 
ibnae  whose  names  have  Juat  been  given,  and  hundreds 
uf  others  who  were  their  colaboreri  and  Joint  sufferers. 
Itev.  William  Crook,  D.D.,  has  a  copioua  hiitory  of  Irlah  ,  . 
Uethodiam  nearly  ready  for  pobhcation,  i 

In  1877,  as  a  preparation  for  the  union  with  the  Iriah 
Primitive  WealayaDs,  tbe  Irish  Hethodlst  Conference 
Bnt  admitted  laymen  lo  participate  with  the  miniaters  |  I 


in  the  Annual  Conference.    This  act  of  grace  was  done 
in  Ireland  one  year  before  it  waa  adopted  by  the  Eng- 
lish Conference.    In  1878  the  Primitive  Wesleyan  Qm- 
feience  came  in  a  body  to  the  Conference  of  the  parent 
society,  and  both  united  to  form  one  community,  after 
having  bad  a  separate  eiiaterKe  for  just  stxly  yeara. 
The  highnt  uumber  of  members  the  Iriah  Conference 
ever  bad  at  one  time  waa  in  the  year  1814,  when  the 
agitation  commenced  for  the  sacramenla.    That  year 
the  membership  waa  29,888.     Tbe  year  1818,  when  the 
separation  took  place,  they  were  reduced  to  1S,0&S. 
The  society  never  fully  rallied  from  the  shock  that  di- 
''  ncauaed.    In  lS44,wbenin  theirdiridedaute,the 
parent  society  numbered  38,409 ;  but  having  to  struggle 
gainst  the  continued  drain  ariung  from  emigratlun, 
rhen  the  two  societies  were  united  in  1878,  they  only 
reached  a  total  of  !6,4S7  members,  and  at  the  present 
I  they  are  below  that  number.     A  careful  examina- 
ot  tbe  statistics  of  tbe  body  will  enable  tbe  reader 
nderstand  tbe  difficulty  of  tbe  preachers  in  laboring 
■gsimt  such  varied  discouraging  forces.    The  dismp. 
which  took  place  in  England  in  1849  reached  Ire- 
I  in  its  paralyzing  influence,  and  tbe  Irish  Coafer- 
I,  which  in  1849  had  a  membenhip  of  22,000,  in  1866 
had  been  reduced  to  ■  little  over  18,000.    The  highest 
mber  of  members  reported  by  the  Irish  Conference 
ring  the  thirty  years  following  1849  was  only  28,600 
in  tbe  year  1861. 
II.  attoMet^ 


I.TM 

«,D1S 


19,010 

14,116 

KTOS 
14. 1M 

18,811 

i4,taa 

I6,T41 


U,6U 

sa,i4i 


(WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION  928  (WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION 


-But  ttw  o[  tha  IrMi  UetbodiM 
uch,  b4ve  hid  cither  liisare  or  dUpni- 
(ioD  lo  make  tne  uia  of  lb«  jmm.  Some  prcachen 
who  Mt  IreUnd  4ad  joined  th«  Engliita  CanlErenoe 
have  writua  ind  puUithed  eEUnuvely.  Dr.  AiUn 
Clarke,  Henry  Hoore,  Williux  Arthur,  A.H.,  William 
llyln,and  Jame*  Creigtalon  bare  each  left  their  namn 
pcnnBDeDlly  in  (he  annali  of  English  liuralore.  With 
two  or  three  exceptional  the  lil«nt«ni  of  Ireland  haa 
not  been  mucb  enriched  by  the  prsachera;  not  frotn 
want  of  alnlily,  but  owing  to  mote  piwaing  dutiei. 

Rer.  W.  P.  Appelbn,  LL.Di^  haa  pubUahed  thrac  pam. 
phlet* :  one  on  The  GaaiamaM  amd  A  MJunlieitj,  of  Hob) 
Seripl\trt:—ratK  Cabmitm  Not  Uu  Tkeolosy  o/lht  £t- 
U;— and  A  VvMxiHom  o/Oie  WfUfaa  CaUnMim. 

RcT.  George  Alley  baa  puhliahed  Oar  Ctatt  Mreiiiigi, 
Tluir3mptttnilAulion/gaiidPrvetiaaHfortii^(_ia6S, 
IBS  pp.). 

Bav.  J.  C  BaM  haa  publiihed  a  poem,  L^ftit  Tnt  Se- 
atUadei  or,WHouWiKf~^tao,GiimpMiiiiAmi  ■ 

Rev.  Robert  G.  Gather,  LL.D.,  made  very  free 
bla  pen  in  newapapen,  aa  wcretary  cf  the  Syal«niali« 
Bane6cence  Sodely. 

Bev.  G.  W.  Campbell,  A.H.,  has  beconu  widely  knoi 
by  hia  Life  of  lit  Rtv.  Ckaria  Gndutm,  pobliahed 
1868  a*  Tht  ApoDle  n/Kmy  {8to,  SM  pp.). 

Rer.  William  Crook,  D.D.,  it  the  moat  prominent  i 
thor  now  in  connection  with  the  Ccnretenee.  He  I 
publithed,  ^'uwroMfrnoM,  on  the  death  of  fail  rather: 
—CkriMianCimtotaiioitiHRebUiamliUJuDtiuiimCkriil, 
a  termon  foe  W.  H.  Barkin:— 7"**  Memory  of  our  Fa- 
(io-i,  aemion  an  thedeath  of  John  Nelwin : — Q»r  Utaveu- 
If  Home,  aermon  for  John  Carey  :—i'arwii  , 
frMoU  Stale  of  lit  Halg  Dead,  a  Bermon  ■.—Lag  Prtaci- 
wg  in  Irtiand,  <md  tie  Ntm  Goiptl ;— Ireland,  and  Ikt 
CtMenary  if  American  JIffiloduin,  an  octavo  toIui 
IBS  pages.  He  haa  in  pre«  a  BiMtory  tfHilkodi 
/rWaniJ(in2Tot>.).  Ha  haa  alio  been  the  edilor  of  the 
Irith  KrimgdUl  for  many  y  ran. 

Rev.John  Dwyer  haa  published  C*r«lioa  Tloroaj*- 
larja.  a  memorial  of  T.  A.  Shillington,  Eaq.,  of  Portadown. 
Bev.  Thomaa  Peanon  ii  the  author  of,  The  Iriifi  oflhe 
JrM  Cluire/i,  publiahcd  anonymonaly,  and  a  work  of  deep 
teaearch:  — Tikr  Bibh  and  Ttmperaaee;  or.  The  T\ 
Bcriptund  Batit  of  the  Temperama  MomneM.  Thii 
one  of  the  moat  exhauative  worka  on  the  wine*  of  the 
Bible,  an  octava  Tolnme  of  £96  pages  iiaued  in  IWIl . 

Rev.  WHliam  ReiUy  has  publiahed  A  Mtnorial  of  the 
Mimtltrial  L{fe  of  the  Ree.  Gideon  Oaiele^,  !<vh  Mie- 
nrmary.  The  Rev.  William  Arthur  baa  also  published 
a  Life  of  Gideon  Otadrji. 

Hr.  Ouaeley  himaelf  waa  the  anlhor  of  thirty-four 
teparale  pnblicationa,  with  hia  name  attached.  They 
were  chiefly  letters  of  a  conlroveraial  character,  which 
ware  clear,  powerful,  and  convincing;  and  were  of  im- 
mense service,  when  published,  in  oppoeing  the  spread 
of  popery,  and  in  defending  Uethodiit  agency  in  Ire- 
land. The  two  principal  works  published  by  Mr.  Ouae- 
ley were,  Old  CAruliomfy  ayiiBUl  Papal  NoneUir;  an 
octavo  volume  of  146  pages:— and  Co^fm-^lnniimm- 
um  (18S1,  ISma,  230  pp.). 

Rev.  George  Vance  has  puMIthed  a  pamphlet,  Calrin- 
itn  Kot  Iht  Theob^  of  At  Bible. 

Rev.  Samuel  Weir,  in  1867,  pubUahed  a  small  volume, 
lemo.  Onward  to  Ood. 

Rer.  0.  F_  Wedgwood  haa  publitbed  a  lecture  entitled 
Librrig.     (G.J.S.) 

(Wmlayan)  Motbodlst  ITaw  CooDection, 

abody  of  English  Independeuli  which  aeparated  from  the 
tegular  Weileyans  on  queitiona  of  tccleaiiatical  polity. 
1.  Oi-igin.—TiK  opinion  haa  been  held,  and  is  alill 
prevalent  in  tome  localide^  that  the  Methcdiat  New 
Connection  had  its  origin  in  penonal  aympatby  with 
Aleunder  Kilham.  Such  ia  not  the  fact.  Must  of 
those  who  joined  the  body  at  ita  origin  were  influenced 
by  the  publications  and  public  addresteaof  Hr.  Kilham, 
but  the  Connection  as  auch  originated  in  principle,  not 


aympathy.    The  Hetbodilt  Mew  CwacctiDB  •« 

originated  ^  •  ooDteat  Ibr  tba  eaubliab  ant  of  tb*  M 
lowing  iiopatUDt  and  (oipBinl  ptinopka: 
1.  The  rifbt  or  the  people  to  hoMtlMfrpe 
ihip  atsocb  huoraaa  wen  noat  oaa'"~ 


lertflftaa 
itf^taMl 


their  belujt  raetrlctad  to  the  mare  laiwvala  of  ik 
ppciinted  far  tarvlee  In  tbe  Batabllsbed  CliDreii. 

1  Tlio  r1([ht  of  the  people  to  ren " 

spitsm  and  tbe  Lord's  mpparfh: 

WD  BilDlateraandlB  tbeir  own  placoa  oC  woAlp. 

S.  The  right  ot  tbe  people  lo  a  rapreaaalatlia  ta  lb) 
Istrlel  nwetlOK)  and  lo  iba  annual  eoDfbraiK*,  and  tbicv 
7  to  parddpate  in  the  goterament  of  tba  ni»i— alij 


ipprtmrtatl 

a.  Tbe  right  of  tha  Choreb  u>  have  a  nilee.  llimaak  lb 
local  bnalness  meetings.  In  the  reaeptlno  and  •xpaMm 
ofmembara,  the  choice  iirioealDlBcua,  audio  IbacBflb*- 
DUtorcaadtdatea  tor  tbe  mlDlsirji. 

Not  any  of  theee  privllegea  were  origtnally  cnjojel  is 
the  parent  body;  they  wen  for  years  nabxaly  aa»- 
tended  for  by  the  fathen  and  foanden  of  tbe  NewCou- 
nection ;  and  wben  (hey  could  not  be  fnDy  iililaaait 
finm  tba  fa- 
eat  commnnity  and  originate  a  diatiiiet  dnawninatisB 
in  which  tucb  acriptntal  ptivihgea  coold  be  AccIt  a- 
joyed, 

Tbe  power  of  Hr.  Wealey  waa  abaDlatc,  bat  it  U 
intfl  bis  hands  nneougfat  and  nndeeired.  It  waa  civ- 
ciaed  by  him  with  afhction,  and  solely  tot  tbe  bttf  ia- 
terestsofbia  todetiea;  atid  ictaioed  from  the  wac  ■» 
tive.  He  was  the  falhtr  of  tbe  corDimiiiity,  aad  wtt 
neceaaitatedtbtatinif  tobe  itairde  dinetor  and  gmtn- 
or;  but,  however  proper  it  waa  for  him  to  exesqac  Ibai 
power  during  the  infancy  of  the  Connectioai,  jvt,  wha 
surrounded  by  chirrchea  which  bad  grown  lo  piwuillj 
and  asalated  by  ministen  and  UylMa  of  adci»wla4|td 
wiadom,  integrity,  and  piety,  wboae  exiatenet  and  hif- 
pineB,  like  his  own,  were  bound  np  with  tbe  psunwai; 
ofUethodism,  it  would  have  been  rnore  ooolbtmaUt  t  b 
the  example  of  the  apostles  aitd  the  dktataa  of  send 
reason  to  have  gtaduaCy  relaxed  hia  hold  of  (be  niat 
and  admitted  others  to  a  participMioo  of  tbe  bbm,  aad 
finally  to  have  framed  a  liberal  coDsdtotloa  dt^aag 
the  premgativea  of  the  ministry  and  tbe  privikge*  of 

the  people,  seeurinjt  both  hy  anitable '-' 

wbolCKime  laws.  Hr.  Wol^s  mind  w 
for  this,  but  he  did  it  not.  He  retained  abaolole  powa 
until  death ;  and,  instead  of  framing  (be  the  iCMMaw- 
(y  ■  liberal  conatitution,  he  tranafemd  by  Irgst  ^nk- 
ment  his  owt 
law  which  before  w 

from  the  peculiar  relation  in  which  he  st 
thoae  bis  saccesaon  in  abaolute  power  who  ooald  b« 
poaaibly  be  hia  auocesaors  in  paternal  relacioo  and  i^a- 
ence.  That  axerdae  of  power  waa  the  mbjeet  of  msar 
remarks  and  advene  critidBm.  JuK  fifty  years  ^M 
the  origin  of  Hethodism  Hr.  Weeley  had  to  ddead  hia 
conduct  in  thia  matter,  which  be  did  in  tbeae  m>4t: 
ir  helper*  aaf, 'Ttaltia  akackHnff  Baa  k«» 


ikii 


Engllihi , , 

Is,ameetlntinfa1llhepr 

be  determined  b;  most  vote*,    lanswa 

mr  mv  dMib  imnalhlni  of  Ibia  kind  ™_, , ,  ,_. 

To  me  tbe  preacfaera  kava  •ngact' 


>t  thej  ar 


lalBtbeO 


bnt  tbej  will  not  that  submit  to  any  other." 
Wben  Hr.  Wealey  died,  in  1791,  only  two  yens  aj 
had  written  and  publiataed  Che  above  oharrvi 
there  weia  B80  preaehen  in  hia  society,  aooM  with  ac 
live,  otben  paadve,  diapoatiopa.  Amoog  tbe  fiama 
were  some  who  wen  of  opinion  that,  betng  tbe  n(«- 
larly  appnnted  minittera  of  their  oongRsatiaaa,  Ibiy 
ought  tn  exercise  all  the  fonctions  whidi  bekofc  to  ibt 
puioral  o&ee;  but  so  be  deprived  of  tha  privilaB*  c' 
administering  the  lacramenta  was  fdl  by  sona  of  tbe 
pteacben  to  be  a  great  hardship,  while  Iba  lajims 
many  of  them,  conaidered  thay  had  a  Joaa  rigbt  eo  nf>. 
reaentation  la  the  properly  coaatitnted  CbaTtb  cmdMl 
Hr.  AlexBDder  EUlMni,  raa  of  the  pnacbcn  wba  had 


(WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION   929   (WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION 

iiinciplea   which   hid   been    piibliclv   advncited. 


tiHD  speciill/  privileged  in  his  miniUerial  career,  wu 
one  III  ihe  most  able  aod  courageoiu  advocate*  of  what 
wt  cDDsidered  the  full  riffhu  and  lib«rciei  of  both 
pKKhcn  aad  people.  In  1793  be  published  an  addreu 
la  the  Newcastle  Society,  to  whom  be  WM  then  minis- 
lering,  advocating  liberal  views.  His  address  met  with 
fiior  from  Dr.  Coke,  Messrs.  Bradbum,  Pawson,  Moore, 
Tivlor,  Crciwlher,  Bramwell,  and  others  The  Church 
ftrty  among  [be  preachem  reusted  stroiiglf,  uid  the 
coulroTersy  spread  and  inlensiBed.  Mr.  Rilham,  im- 
pressed wiih  ihecunvietian  llial  pecroaneDt  peace  would 
never  be  eniabiisbed  in  the  body  until  such  a  constilu- 
tion  WIS  idnpteil  as  secured  to  the  people  New-Test. 
rights  Hid  privileges,  felt  it  a  duty  to  nuhe  another  ef- 
futt  Cur  the  atuinment  of  this  important  object,  tin- 
itt  Ibis  impressian  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled  Tit 
Prw/rtu  o/  /.iierijf.  In  this  worlt  he  advened  to  the 
course  nf  Ut.  Wesley  in  the  progress  of  Methodism, 
•hiiwinit  thai  he  had  acted  from  time  to  lime  as  altered 
larsuiniitances  required;  be  glanced  at  the  alterations 
which  bad  been  effected  since  Mr.  W<  '  '  '  ' 
inalvied  "the  Articles  of  Pacificilii 
tbdt  defects,  etc.  In  the  second  part  of  this  work  he 
lays  down  the  "Outlines  of  a  Constitution,"  which  he 
humbly  proposes  to  the  conaideralion  of  "  The  People 
tailed  Uethodiils."  Tliis  outline  embraces  the  Tollow. 
ing  paniculais: 

power  tn  admit  and  eipel  memben,  these  acls  ■hutiid  b( 
-done  with  ciiuMiil  of  the  penple. 

Second,  Thnl  Ihe  inemberg  sboald  have  a  Toko  In 
iliixwiiijr  iheir  own  IcHt-'ers. 

Third.  Tbal  local  preachers,  Ins      -    -■    - 
bylhecirCEIliprei 

P.Hirib.  Thnl  n«  It  wna  impossible  to  allow  il 
to  >;ii<>..>e  their  own  ministers  on  scconnt  of  Ibe 
plan,  ret  llie  quarterly  meetings  should  have  a 

Pirtb.  Thai  lay  delenles  appointed  by  the  qoarterly 
meeilngs  sbiiald  itiend  the  district  meetings. 

Aud.  Ia>ily,  he  proposes,  "with  sabrnlssion  to  the 
preachere  uid  the  Connection  nt  Inrje,  to  ap|>oiiit  one 
or  two  Iht  delegnles  from  every  district  meeihig  to  at- 
lend  the  Couferenca." 

Such  wenj  the  propoutlons  of  Mr.  Kilham,  and  such 
were  the  principles  adopted  as  elements  of  the  coosti. 
tuiion  ul  the  New  Connection  at  its  origin,  and  such 


important  places  in  which  friends  declared 
for  the  New  Itinerancy  were  Alnwielc,  Ashton,  Bolton, 
Chester,  Hanley,  Leeds,  Liverpool,  Haccleefield,  Han* 
Chester,  Nottingham,  Newcastle,  and  Stockport,  wbicb 
became  the  nuclei  of  disdnct  cin  ' 
get  her  of  over  6000  members. 

II.  Doelrwa—Tha  Methodist  New  C 
creed:  the  doctrines  it  leaches  ate  Arminian,  purely 
Methodistic.     No  written  creed  was  considered  neces- 
Connection  was  commenced,  its 
fuunden  being  all  Methodists  who  held  by  Mr.  Wesley's 
ings:  they  retained  his  hymn-boolt,  and  avowed 
r  unabated  attachment  to  the  doctrinia  he  tiughu 
e  reports  on  this  head  having  been  drculaced  in 
early  years,  the  Conferenoe  of  1800  made  ■  spe- 
dedaration  of  their  daclrines,  which  were  briefly 
summed  up  under  the  following  beads:  namely,  lint, 
Ihe  fall  of  man;  second,  redemption  by  the  death  of 
third,  justifeation  by  faith;  fourth,  the  com- 
plete sanctiAcation  o[  believers;  fillh,  perseverance  ia 
'le  divine  life,  or  [be  necoaity  of  continuing  in  (iutb 
id  good  wnrlu  to  the  end,  in  order  to  final  salvation. 
The  Conference  of  1816  reviewed  the  whole  question 
of  doctrines,  and  embodied  them  in  twelve  articles  or 
propositious,  with  Scripture  references  to  each.     These 

in.  Chuni  Orgmaalioii aad  FoUtf—Tbt  roDndert 
of  the  Hethodist  New  Connection  renounced  allonnneo* 
tion  with  the  Established  Church,  and  as  avowed  Di»- 

senters  added  the  administration  of  the  ordinances  oT 
Lord's  supper  to  the  regular  duties  oi 


>f  them  have  f 


g  featm 


(ially  ailopted  in  the  other  Methodist  bodies.  Hi 
thelcAS,  fur  publishing  the  pamphlet  advocating  I 
principles  o(  freedom.  Mr.  Kilham  was  tried  anrl 

(1796 1.  Being  left  without  a  circuit,  Mr.  KUbam  . 
lisheil  a  detailed  account  of  his  trial  and  expulsion, 
which  sold  extensively  uid  was  read  eagerly.  It  cre- 
ated a  strong  feeling  of  sympathy  towards  the  expelled, 
who  was  welcomed  in  many  circuits  to  preach  [o  and 
address  the  people.  Several  lari^  societies  expressed 
their  adhesion  to  the  principles  Mr.  Kilham  advocated, 
and  in  May,  1797,  a  cbapel  was  purchased  in  Leeds, 
where  he  gathered  large  congregationa  and  preached 

The  Methodist  Conference  of  1797  was  occupied  dur- 
ing its  HMion  with  tho 
(nxn  their  refusal  of  the  liberties  which  had  bten  asked 
by  deputationa  from  the  people.    A  Plan  of  PaciRca- 
tioa  was  drawn  up  and  published  by  the  Conference, 
which  was  oce  of  the  most  important  proceedings  con- 
nected with  tba  history  nf  Methodism.     As,  however, 
that  plan  did  not  con<^e  all  that  the  people  desired, 
three  of  the  preachers  re«gned — William  Thorn,  Ste- 
phen Eveislleld,  and  Alexander  Cummins — and  unit    ' 
with  Mr.  Kilham.    These  brethren,  with  a  number 
delegates  from  the  people,  met  together  in   Ebenc 
Chapel,  Leeds,  on  Aug.  9,  1797,  when  Mr.  Thorn  n- 
elected  pteaident  and  Mr.  Kilham  secretary,  and  t 
iasB  o''  a  constitution  wss  adopted  in  conformity  wi 


iciples 


of  the* 


listrj-,  I 


enlaitl; 


ciple;  "That  the  Church  itself  is  entiUed,  either  col- 
lectively, in  the  persons  of  its  members,  or  repreeenta- 

and  influeiics  in  all  the  acta  of  legislation  and  govem- 

tem  of  government  of  the  Connection.  This  will  be 
seen  from  the  roUowing  statement  of  the  constitution 
and  functions  ot  the  olT  '  ' 


-This  I 


1.  Con/en 
posed  oTaneqaal  nun 

circuit  sending  one  ot  ita  preacnen  and  one  oi  its  uy 
member*.  When  only  one  representative  is  sent,  the 
circait  selects  a  preaclier  and  layman  in  alternate  years. 
Should  any  drcuit  be  unable  to  send  a  representative,  a 
letter  accompanied  by  the  required  documents,  delails, 
and  collections  is  auSlcienL  The  treasurer  of  the  Con- 
nection, the  corresponding  member  of  the  annual  com- 
mittee, the  stewani  and  treasurer  of  the  book-room,  the 
general  secretaiy  of  the  miasiona,  the  superintendent  of 
the  Irish  miasion,  a  deputed  minister  or  layman,  allei^ 
nately,  from  the  Irish  Conference,  and  the  guardian*  of 
the  Connection,  under  the  deed  executed  in  1846,  are, 
by  virtue  oI  office,  members  of  Conference,  without  inter- 
fering in  any  way  with  the  privilege  of  the  circuits  in 
which  such  individuals  may  reside.  The  buaineas  of 
Conference  ia  la  make  laws  for  the  government  of  Che 
Connection;  to  decide  impartially  on  charges  affecting 
the  cbaracler  of  preachers  or  other  olBcers.  and  on  ap- 
peals referred  to  it  by  the  quarterly  meetings;  to  dis- 

the  pieachem  for  the  year  ensuing;  lo  investigate  the 
condition  of  each  circuit:  to  adjust  diSetenceH,  and  to 

and  liive  throughout  the  enmmunity ;  and  to  devise  and 
put  into  operation  means  fur  the  more  extensive  spread 
of  the  (lospel  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Its  sittings  art 
open  to  memben  of  the  Connection,  subject  to  the  judg- 


ic  presidi 

In  addition  lu  the  aboi 
jwns  is  chosen  at  enrh  Conferei 
Ihe  business  of  tho  Cannclhn, 


of  seven  pcr- 
ne  Conferenof 


<WESL)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION  930  (WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTIOX 


■nd  anolher:  four  of  the  memben  ue  preichnu  and 
ibree  ire  Uynien,nne  ye»r,»iiil  iticr  t«*i  the  fallowing 
yetT.  It  It  the  duty  or  Ihii  cummitCM  lo  tee  that  the 
resolulioiu  oTCoafereQCc  an  UTTi«l  into  effect ;  to  gire 
advice  in  all  mitlcn  oC  diapute  end  difficulty,  and  to 
make  pronann  for  toeh  circuit!  ai  may  tbiough  death, 
new  apeningi,  or  other  Cauaei,  need  lupplin  during  the 
eccleaiMtical  year.  A  report  of  iu  proceedings  U  pre- 
pared by  the  correaponding  member,  and  annually  pre- 
■ented  to  Cnnrerence, 

2.  Ditlrtei  Mitlingi.^Tbfte  meetinffi  are  oompoaed 
of  all  the  cirauit  preachera  in  the  dlntcicl,  with  aa  equal 
Dumber  of  laymen  (including  the  lepreHntativei  lo  the 
lait  Conference),  who  are  elected  hy  the  rwrective  quar- 
terly meetings.  Theee  meetings  are  deaigned  lo  form 
and  carry  out  plaai  for  the  revival  of  the  work  of  God 
in  the  district;  lo  inTestigata  the  condition  of  the  soci- 
ctiea,  cbapela,  and  8abbath-«choa1«,  and  to  prepare  cor- 
(Bct  returns  of  the  number  of  memben,  proliationers, 
Sabbath-scbool  teachers  and  scholars,  etc,  for  the  use  of 

euit  for  the  different  Connectional  funds;  lo  investigsle 
all  claims  on  the  yearly  collection  and  chapel  fund ;  to 


!  applia 


IB  for  t 


«  of  cii 


amine  candidatea  for  the  ministry;  to  lay  before  the 
district  any  resolution  of  the  Conference  alTeclJng  the 
eircaits,  and  to  aMcrtaln  whether  they  have  been  car- 
ried into  full  efTect.  Theae  meetings  are  designed  and 
calculated  to  aboTtai  the  duration  of  Gonferfnoe,  to 


D  point*  of  local  ir 


llcird  a  legitimate  cha 
nay  bk  altogether  preve 


tbrougfa  wl 

3.  Quarttrly  !Uedvigt.  —  ThtM  are  held  in  each  eir. 
cnit,  and  are  composed  of  the  circuit  preachers,  the  cir- 
cuit Blewardsi  the  secretary  of  the  local  preachera,  and 
representatives  of  the  people  chosen  from  the  local 
preachers,  leaden,  trustees  (being  members),  and  other 
experienced  persons  from  the  different  societies.  Each 
society  sends  one  or  more  representatives  according  to 
the  number  of  its  members.  Any  member  of  socicfy 
has  free  admission  lo  the  quarterly  meetings,  with  lil>- 
erty  to  give  his  opinion,  but  without  tbe  power  lo  vote. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  qusrteriy  meeting  to  pay  the 
preachers'  salaries;  tn  determine  the  amount  that  each 
society  is  lo  contribute  for  the  support  of  tbe 


n  regulj 


i  for  tl 


management  of  the  circuit,  providing  they  do  not  con- 
travene the  rule*  of  the  Connection;  to  appoint  persons 
to  make  the  preachers'  plans  for  the  circuit ;  to  recom- 
mend local  preachers  to  be  taken  into  tbe  regular  min- 
istry ;  to  determine  respecting  the  quallflcalinns  of  can- 

ctde  upon  the  affairs,  both  temporal  and  spiritual,  of  the 
drcuit  general  ly. 

4.  Learltri'  Mtttiagi. — These  consist  of  leaden,  snci- 
ety  stewards,  one  or  more  of  the  circuit  preachem,  a 
male  reprene illative  for  each  of  the  female  and  circuit 

of  the  chapel,  provided  such  reprenentative  be  a  member 
of  society.  Leaden'  meetings  are  hetii  weekly,  or  once 
K  fortnight,  and  regulale  the  sffsin  of  each  society  and 
place  of  worgbip.  It  is  the  province  of  these  meetings 
to  inspect  the  class-books,  and  to  receive  the  weekly  or 
Bther  payments;  to  inquire  aller  the  sick  or  abnent 
members,  that  Ihey  may  be  visited;  to  delermine  on 
notice*  tor  the  pulpit;  to  fix  the  hnun  for  public  wnr- 
•bip,  and  appoint  the  times  for  making  the  collections 

eis  or  locid  preachers;  to  judge  and  decide  upon  the 
fitness  of  candidstea  for  Church  membership;  to  ascer- 
tain whether  any  memben  are  walking  disorderly :  and 
prayerfully  to  de>'iK  plana  for  the  advancement  of  the 
work  of  God,  and  for  the  general  improvement  of  the 

a.  Local  Pnacien'  JVce'ii^.— These  are  held  previ- 


ously tn  the  circuit  quarterly  meetlnga, and  arc  cumpgrf 
of  the  circuit  and  local  preachers.  Their  bvauMssifcis 
addition  to  mutual  counsel  and  cncooia^mait,  to  aa- 

ings  of  persons  to  be  employed  as  kcal  preachers  or  ti- 
hnrtera;  make  suitable  inquiries  respecting  pntatkmf^ 
and  any  alleRed  irregularities  iu  the  conduct  or  jinai-b. 

are  required  in  the  places  or  tima  of  preaching,  and  n- 
port  thereon  to  the  quarterly  meeting  thniugh  the  aKdt- 

The  religious,  social,  (nd  society  meetingi  of  tiie  Kr* 
Connection  an  conducted  in  tbe  same  ■naium'  ss  tkt 
like  meelingB  of  the  Wesleyan  body,  the  parent  bwR. 

IV.  fllttor^.— The  incidenU  of  history  in  tbe  Ueik- 
odiat  New  Connection  are  comparatively  few,  and  ibty 
relate  chiefly  lo  the  peraonal  history  of  the  piescten 
and  the  steady  spread  of  the  movement.  At  the  tat 
Conference  the  number  of  adherents  was  fire  tboiaad 


and  a 


In  179S  seven  otber  pieachen  entered  the  ninisirT  — 
Hessrs.  W.  Haslam,  W.  Styan,  John  Revil.  CiMriti  Dna. 
aid,  W.  Driver,  G.  Wall,  and  John  HcQnre.  That  Isit 
inspired  cheerful  hopes  of  progresa,  bot  in  five  ntff 
only  two  hundred  and  forty-three  addilkma  wen  raatc 
to  the  membenhip.  A  monthly  magaiinc  was  om- 
menced  in  1798,  which  hai  been  continued  ever  siaR. 
The  flnt  and  second  conferences  were  presided  otm  b* 
Hr.  William  Thom,  the  secretary  being  Mr.  EHbaa. 
The  Conference  of  1799  was  presided  over  by  John  flna- 
dell,  the  secretary  being  Hr.  Robert  Hall. of  Nnuiogkast, 
I  holy  man,  and  a  generous  aupporler  of  tbe  cause,  h 
December  of  the  previoua  year  tbe  first  heavy  bkrt  vJ 
discouragement  came  by  the  unexpected  death  nf  Mr, 
Kilham ;  many  were  dia'heartened,  and  some  sionnt  Ut. 
Wesley '9  fullowen  were  glad,  Ihey  viewing  I  he  oocnim 
as  ajudgment  upon  him  personally.  All  the  aumasd- 
ing  circumatances,  calmly  conudered  apart  from  prtjn- 
dice,  show  that  Hr.  Kilbam's  death  was  man  (be  tr~ 
suit  of  earnest  overwork  and  exposure  in  bad  weaibn. 
Viewed  from  any  human  standpoint,  the  pretBKart 
death  of  that  able  minister  was  much  to  be  leinetn^ 
and  the  good  work  for  which  he  lived  and  lahnrd  vai 
considersbly  retarded  by  the  occurrence.  Exactly  tw» 
months  after  Ur.Kilham'a  death,  the  Connectiao  saBrwd 
another  serious  loss  by  the  death  of  tbeir  vstt  libnil 
and  leitouaUyman.Ur.Wiltiam  Smith,  of  Uanlrv.wlw 
expired  peacefully  Feb.  -iO,  1799.  He  had  ben  bnn^ 
up  in  Ur.  Wesley's  society,  but  bia  sympathies  inn 
with  Hr.  Kilham,  whom  he  visited  at  Nottingham,  D(C 
19, 1798.  He  was  bom  at  Walsall,  Suffordsbiir.  in  Dt- 
cember,  1768;  was  religioualy  brought  up:  (leiinenily 
preached  ss  occasion  offered ;  attended  tbe  fi»t  Caiattf 
ence  of  the  New  Connection;  openal  his  boiue  at  Hsa- 
ley  for  preaching,  and  soon  aflerward*  had  a  chaprl 
erected  there,  which  became  the  oeniral  home  of  gv 
of  the  largest  and  most  prospenHU  sucieties  in  tbe  Coa- 

Tbe  Conference  of  1799  ivcognised  a  tociety  in  IirlaBl. 
and  the  Rev.  John  HcClure  commenced  a  coiuf  at  lis- 
bum.  The  same  year  the  few  preachers  then  cMorwied 
■greed  to  coiitribule  len  shillings  and  siipeno-  yeariy  it 
found  a  fund  for  the  support  of  aged  ministrni-' 

The  Confeience  of  1S03  commenced  what  is  known  a 
the  Paiemat  Fund.  It  ia  auatained  In-  public  npUectiMa 
in  the  chapels  and  private  subscripiinnj.  A]Ii<vbb(p 
are  made  from  it  towarda  the  aupport  of  the  rhiWn-nrf 
the  preachen  in  theii  early  yean.    Tbe  Beneik-ent  Fonri 

Higt.'i'ibuUom,orUanc 


(WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION   931   (WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION 


lU  objwts  »re  the  relief  of  aged  and 
id  Ebeii  widowi.     In  I8«0  the  Pater- 
nd  Fund  produced £2698;  the  Benettcent  i\ 

The  JBU 1804  wu  made  memonble  by  the 
Rev.  Richud  Wauon  joining  the  ranka  of  the  New  Con- 
iKction.  Ha  travelled  foe  eight  yean  in  that  body,  and 
they  clwm  the  honor  <•(  bringing  that  extraordinary 
null  out  of  obaciirity.  Two  of  the  Mmiuua  in  hii  pub- . 
Uibed  Ttorks  were  first  preached  in  New  Connection 
chapela.  During  bit  itinerancy  with  them  he  wu  ■ 
member  of  the  Annual  Committee,  and  three  times  tec- 
relary  of  the  Conference.  Dr.  Bunting  reintroduced 
him  into  the  Wealoyan  body,  bat  be  ever  beld  in  very 
high  esteem  hia  brethren  in  the  New  ConnecdntL 

In  1808  the  law  was  nude  which  requires  preachen, 
■t  the  end  of  their  probation,  to  anewer  in  public  quea- 
Cione  relating  tn  their  religious  experience,  call  to  the 

Itwill  be  inunictive  to  the  present  race  of  Methodists 
In  read  the  financial  conditions  on  which  Methodist 

ly  to  the  ministry.  Serious  onmplainli  had  been  made 
mpecting  the  inadequacy  of  the  income  ofihepreactaera 
ifl  meet  their  necessities.  A  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  Conference  o(  1812  to  examine  and  report  there- 
on. After  a  candid  conaideration  of  the  subject,  it  was 
resolved  that,  in  addition  tn  the  u>e  of  a  house  and  fumi- 
inre  at  the  eipense  of  ^le  circuit,  every  married  preach- 
er in  tiill  connection  should  receive,  for  himself  and  wife, 
£li  per  quarter;  "tiol  leu  than  £2  per  qoaner  for  a 
serranl;"  and,  in  addi^n  to  these  items, "  not  leu  than 
lis.  per  week  for  board."  The  allowance  from  the  Pa- 
ternal Fund  for  boys  under  eight  years  of  age,  and  for 
girl*  under  twelve,  in  be  Xfl  per  annum;  then  they  retire 
rnim  the  fund.  Charge  fur  medical  attendance  and  trav- 
elling expenses  are  to  be  paid  by  the  quarterly  meeting. 
Coruiderable  uneasiness  and  anxiety  was  felt  in  many 
parts  of  the  Connection  in  the  years  1814-16  with  re- 
paid to  the  legal  safely  of  some  of  the  chapels  which 
Tiad  belonged  to  the  parent  society  before  the  year  17il7. 
1'hose  anxieties  were  not  favorable  to  the  spread  of  the 
word  of  God. 

In  1818  a  Home  Minion  was  established  Co  introduce 
Methodism  into  new  localities.  The  tarn  of  £434  was 
given  by  the  circuits  (o  aid  that  mission.  In  18S4  the 
mtssirtn  was  relini[uisheil,  and  Ireland  was  selected  as 

of  the  English  preachers  was  appointed  to  superintend 
the  work.    It  has  continued  with  varying  success  to  the 

rrage  oflO!  members  per  nation.  The  home  missionary 
operations  were  resumed  some  years  afterwards,  and  in 
IS80  Ihey  occupied  eleven  autions  in  England,  with  a 
membership  of  1349,  and  for  their  support  the  circail* 
contributed  £1158  during  the  year  1879-80. 

In  1823  the  general  rules  ol  the  Connection  wen  con- 
siileml,  amended,  and  published,  with  the  sanction  of 
the  Conference. 

The  same  Conference  ordered  Ihe  publication  of  a 
monthly  magaiine  for  tiumlay  scbolan  at  the  price  of 
2-1.  The  Conference  of  1837  ordered  the  publication  of 
■  (^techism  for  the  useof  children,  which  was  prepared 
bv  the  Rev.  Abraham  Scott.  A  larger  Catechism  for  the 
use  of  elder  children  was  written  by  the  Rev.  William 
Cooke,  D.D..  and  published  about  the  year  1848.     The 

of  that  Catechism  W  be  published  in  1881. 

A  ContiectionsI  msgailnc  was  commenced  in  Janu- 
ary, t'9«,at  the  price  of  6^  monthly.  It  has  been  con- 
tinued to  the  present  time.  To  promote  the  circulation 
of  the«  several  publications,  a  book-room  and  an  editor 
«rere  indispensable.  The  former  was  located  at  Hanley 
tram  1798  to  1883,  when  it  was  removed  to  Manchester. 
I II  1837  the  Rev.  W.  Shuttleworth  was  appointed  editor 
■bimI  aieward,  nnd  the  business  rapidly  advanced.  In 
J  M27   the  capital  stock  amounted 


annual  profits  to  £113.  Five  yeara  aderwards  the  cap- 
ital was  £2300,  and  the  yearly  profits  over  £500,  while 
the  magaxuie  was  greatly  improved;  (be  tbinl  series 

dient  to  remove  the  book-room  to  London,  where  it  bas 
since  remained,  and  (he  Kev.  John  Bakewell  was  ap- 
pointed editor.  In  1S48  the  Rev.WilUam  Cooke,  the 
eminent  theologian  and  divine,  was  the  editor  of  the 
magazine,  and  in  that  capacity  and  as  book-steward 
he  has  rendered  more  valuable  service  to  (he  Connec- 
tion than  any  other  minister.  The  Rev.  Charles  De- 
wick  Ward,  D.D.,  was  appointed  editor  and  book-atew- 
ard  in  1880;  the  capital  stock  that  year  was  £2960,  and 
the  profits  £343. 

The  Methodist  hymn-hook  had  been  used  in  Ihe  New 
Connectiou  from  17*97.  In  the  year  1884  a  new  hymn- 
book  was  prepareil  and  published,  which  was  intended 
more  as  a  source  of  profit  (o  the  Connection  than  as  a 
superior  book  to  the  one  which  it  supplanted.  This 
also  was  displaced  by  another  and  very  much  improved 
collection,  including  1034  hymns,  compiled  chiefly  by 
the  Rev.  Henry  i^gin.  and  published  in  May,  1868.  It 
was  at  that  time  the  best  oollection  in  use  in  any  branch 
of  the  great  Methoi^t  family.  Ita  marked  superiority 
soon  led  tti  the  pisparation  of  other  improved  and  en- 
larged collections  for  the  use  of  "  Ihe  People  called 
Hetbodista." 

The  years  1836  and  18ST  weie  periods  of  unrest  in 
many  Methodist  societies,  owing  to  the  trial  and  expul- 
Non  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Warren  from  the  Wesleyan  body. 
At  Dudley  and  Stourbridge  large  numbers  left  the  Wes-  ' 
leyans  and  joined  the  New  Connection,  adding  greatly 


e  Separatists  mode  si 


though  many  changes  were  made.  Thone  who  did  not 
unite  with  (his  body  fomed  themselves  into  a  new 
branch  of  the  Methodist  family,  known  for  some  years 
as  the  Wesleyan  Association.     They  afterwards  relin- 


their  proposed  un 

on. 

The  year  1841 

New  Connection, 

owing  to  the  neeeasarj-  expulsion  of 

two  of  the  rainisti 

•n,  J,  Barker  and  W.  Trotter.     Joseph 

Barker  had  used 

and  infidel  opinio 

s.    Muchmischiefwasdone.fortwen- 

tv-nine  societies. 

ncluding  4348  membeiB,were  lost  t* 

the  Connection. 

After  Irving   his   new  doctrines  for 

some  years,  he  fo 

nd  out  Ihe  delusion  into  which  he  hod 

the  Christian  faith,  and  endeavored 

nndo  the  mischief  he  had  done.  He 
is  said  Ui  have  joined  the  Primitive  MethodisM;  wrote 
and  published  his  autobiography  in  1869,  in  which  he 
recanteii  all  bis  errors;  was  reconciled  to  most  of  his 
former  brethren  in  the  New  Connection;  and  died  itt 
IST9  (or  1880)  a  penitent  Christian.  It  was  not  until 
1865,  fourteen  years  afterwards,  that  the  number  of 
memben  in  sodety  reached  the  total  at  which  thev 
s[ood  at  (he  da(e  ofUr.  Barker's  expulsion.  A  email 
work  was  published  in  1841  endcled  Thr  Btartm,  and 
also  some  tracts  by  the  Rev.  W.Couke,  D.D.,  which  pre- 
vented the  breach  becoming  wider  than  it  otherwise 
would  have  been.  The  Connection  suffered  greater 
losses  through  Mr.  Barker's  unfaithfulness  and  treach- 
ery Ihan  from  any  other  cause  in  ils  whole  history  of 
ighly  yeais.  The  financial  dillicu hies  of  the  Con- 
n  became  so  great  and  oppressive  thai  in  IH43 
neariy  £900  were  collected  to  lessen  them.  £840  mora 
848,  and  Ihe  (inference  of  (hat  year  ordered  a  spe- 
cial collection  to  be  made  through  the  cireuit,  which 

The  Conference  of  \'^'  originated  a  mission  in  Csna- 

William  Ridgway,  one  of  the  leading  New  Coouection 


(WESL.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION    932  (WEST.)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION 

imlej,  Thomu  RowUnd.  aiid 


laymen,  haviog  viiwUd  thlC  Innlily,  mult  luch  leprc- 
seiititions  of  the  cliimfl  of  Cintda  for  the  tiuspel  Lbti 
Ibe  Kev.  John  Addyrnin  became  tbe  piunecr  iDitBiuD>ry 
[here.  He  was  joined  two  yeaia  aflerwarda  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Only  Crofis,  D.D.  Mr.  Aildynan  uiti  uirvives, 
baring  been  in  the  miiii9tr>'  frirty-eiKht  years.  Dr. 
Crofta  entered  into  rest  in  rhe  year  1880.  The  CtnB- 
dim  misiiun  wu  a  eucceu;  but  a  fe*  yean  ago,  in 

ill  Canaila,  in  order  to  tnake  one  Urge  undivided  Heth- 

great  rejoicing.  The  Jubilee  Conference  waa  held  at 
Manchester,  ibe  Rev.  Thomas  AUin  preBidinjc-  The 
liltings  commenced  June  1, 1846.  The  first  important 
epecial  busineu  done  waa  the  flnal  conaiderition  and 
adupiion  of  a  deed-poll,  which  provides  fur  the  seeurity 
of  the  property  of  the  Connection,  the  preservation  of 
ita  doctrines,  and  the  cnntinuance  of  its  principles  and 
discipline.  By  the  deed-poll  a  legal  idenrity  ia  given 
to  the  Connection  in  the  persona  of  twenty-four  guudinn 
repreaentativea — twelve  ministers  and  twelve  laymen^ 
whose  names  are  inserted  in  ibe  deed,  with  proviatons 
It  will  necessarily  occur. 


ardiai 


requu 


didyei 


High  Court  of  Chancery.  A  model  trust-deed,  and 
form  of  conveyance  of  freehold  land  for  Connectional 
chapels,  schools,  and  piraunages,  were  also  decided  upon 
and  a  book -room  deed  also  agreed  to,  each  of  them 
adapted  to  the  deed-poll. 

At  the  end  of  fifty  years,  the  number  of  memben 
the  Coinieclion  waa  onlv  20.003,  namely— in  England, 
15,610;  Ireland,  932;  Canada,  3460. 

It  waa  resolved  to  raise  a  Jutnlee  Fund  of  not  lei 
than  X-20.000,  but  the  result  was  onlv  £7721.  T( 
wards  that  fund  there  was  raised  in  1»47  £2829;  i 
1848.  £1567:  in  I849,£3403.  About  £6100  waa  voted 
to  remove  chapel  debts,  £1300  to  promote  missions 
various  sums  were  given  or  loaned  to  tbe  Paternal  1 
Ibe  Beneficent  Fund  for  a  theological  college,  for  aged 
ministera,  and  to  lessen  other  financial  burdens  which 
fettered  the  agencies  of  the  Church.  On  June  S  a  Jubi- 
lee tea-meeting  was  held  in  the  Free-Trade  Hall,  Man- 
chester.which  was  attended  by  more  than  four  thou- 
sand persons.  Several  important  schemes  for  Ih*  ex- 
teniion  of  the  work,  which  it  was  hoped  the  fund  would 
enable  the  Connecllon  lo  undertake,  could  not  be  com- 
menced fur  want  of  finances.  One  result.  bowever,wa) 
attained,  which  will  be  a  permanent  memorial.  Th( 
Keva.  Thomas  Allin-WUIUm  Cooke.  Samuel  Hulme,  and 
Philip  James  Wright  conjointly  wrote  a  jubilee  volume 
which  had  a  reasonable  sale,  and  which  chronicles  mncli 
important  and  valuable  infurmation.  both  historical  and 
biographjcal,  relating  to  the  Coimeetton  during  th< 
villus  fifty  year*.  From  that  work  many  facu  in  the  no- 
tices preceiling  are  obtained.  BagKal.v'a  V^at  and  tbt 
Hiautei  afCon/rreHOn  supply  the  details  which  follow. 

At  the'  Conference  of  1848  arrangements  were  madi 
for  the  establishment  of  home  misrionfl  in  England;  but 
the  work  grew  slowly,  and  ten  years  afterwards,  in  1X57 
a  plan  waa  adopted  fur  the  management  of  home  mi» 
sion  chapels.  In  1865  the  present  Home  Missionary 
Society  was  inaugurated.  In  1N80  there  were  lbirt«ei 
mission  stations,  witb  1249  members. 

Although  the  Jubilee  Fund  had  been  of  much  use  ir 
relieving  the  Conuection  of  some  financial  burdens,  yet 
great  embarrassment  was  felt  in  many  places  from  in- 
adequate funds  in  1)149,  and  at  the  following  Conlerenct 
a   plan  was  adopted  which  entirely  extinguished  tht 


le  Met  hull: 


s  in  England  were  ir 


William  Griaith,Jam 
othera.     Although  ii 

rere  separated  tm 
n  were  attracted  ti 
Connection.  In  1851. 1853,  and  1854  this  body  tud  u 
report  to  each  Conference  a  decrease,  whir^h  vaa  a 
source  of  much  anxiety  and  solicitude,  and  a  >p«ial 
service  of  humiliadon  before  God  was  held  at  tbe  Con- 
ference of  1853.  In  1851  overtures  were  made  from  tU 
Wesleyan  delegates— the  seceders  from  tbe  pu>aii  so- 
ciety— towards  union  with  the  New  Connection,  boi  k 
unioniook  place.  In  1854  an  effon  was  made  to  change 
the  iiitne  of  New  Connection,  as  it  was  tiot  tbvB  new, 
and  many  tbougbt  the  name  was  a  bindeiancv  to  oab- 
era  uniting  with  them.  It  waa,  however,  resolved  by 
tbe  Conference  of  that  year  not  to  change  tbe  name,  as 
the  new  deed-poll  had  only  been  adopted  a  few  yean. 
The  rules  of  the  Connection  were  revised  in  IKM.' 

The  Manchester  Conference  of  1869  waa  memoraUi 
for  tbe  establishment  of  a  mission  to  China.      Fron  ■ 
icouragement  of  raieign  d 


H  hind 


r  home  wuik,  that  step  was  tikeo.    Tbe 


Cooke  was  the  president,  and  hv  hia  p 
nial  advocacy  a  auccesaful  work  was  commenced  in  iLsi 
country.which  in  1880  reported  43  chapela,27  snedet. 
and  902  memben,  under  the  superintendence  of  tbe  Re<. 
John  Innocent,  who  is  the  principal  of  a  training  inai- 
tutiou  in  China.  In  1862  a  missian  was  eUabUsbed  ia 
Australia,  which  has  but 
at  Adelaide  and  one  at  Melbourne — wilb  ti 
aries  and  115  members. 

At  the  Conference  of  I860  a  Trustees?  Mutual  GDOnD- 
tee  Fund  was  eatabliahed  against  lossea  by  fiic,  to  in- 
clude all  Connectional  property. 

A  training  instilution  for  the  preparalioo  of  yoanc 
men  for  llie  ministry  was  for  some  yean  under  eao- 
tideralion.  Tbe  Conference  of  1861  resolved  upon  bar- 
ing one;  and  owing  to  tbe  noble  generosity  of  Tbcmas 
Firth.of  Sheffield,  such  a    ■      ■     - 


Rann 


Ilstr 


the  collt^  was  opened  and  a  tain-  tc 
in  1864.    In  1880  there  wei     -  -         - 

who  paid  £10  per  annum.     The  president  of  the  Goif 
ferenoe  was  the  principal  and  only  I 
The  college  building  cost  £8710. 

The  Conference  of  1S6G  resolved 
stei's  Bible,  the  Conference  Journa 
tho  general  rules  of  the  society  sho 
insignia  of  office  of  the  president,  lo 

Conference  resolved  that  all  fu<- 


M  at  that  petind. 

a  copy  of  bg- 
:  deed-poll,  aid 
a  future  be  the 


ir  body  si 


Monday  in  June,  instead  of  Whi. 
ly,  the  latter  being  a  movable  date,  which  iras  oAea 
attended  with  much  inctuivenience  to  both  mtDHten 
and  laymen.  Mr.  Alderman  Blackburn,  of  I«dA.  a 
wealthy  layman,  presented  to  each  of  the  ex-presdcnti 
of  Conference  for  fourteen  years  previously  to  tbe  veu 
1863  a  copy  of  Bagstet's  Bible  and  the  new  hyrnn-kwk. 
then  first  published.  A  new  tune-book,  adapted  to  the 
hymn-book,  was  prepared  bv  the  Rev.  J.  C^den,  aad 
published  in  1866. 

Tbe  Conference  of  1868  resolved  on  a  new  deparaar 
from  existing  usage,  and  cniisented  to  ruiniHinal  a|>- 
paintments  being  continued  for  five  sucMSsire  rear- 
in  circuits  wbere  two  thirds  of  the  quaiteriy  oiFetiBe 
request   iL      The   limit   had  previously  b«ai   thrt> 

A  further  attempt  at  union  was  made  at  ib«  Coafrr- 
ence  of  1870.  when  the  terms  for  a  fdleral  union  wiik 
the  Bible  Cbrisiians  were  considered,  and  resDlntiMii 
recordeil  thereon.  The  same  Conference  resolved  thai 
home  ninwunories  of  fourteen  yean'  standing  be  alkiw- 
ed  Id  attend  Ibe  Conference,  but  not  to  vot«. 

The  Conference  of  1871  approved  of  the  raiainf;  of  a 
fund  to  extinguish  ihe  Chapel  Fund  debL  Tbr  aoi 
of  £4673  was  raised,  which  accomplished  the  o\^kx  da- 


(WESU)  M.  NEW  CONNECTION   933    WESLEYAN  KEKOltM  UNION 


The  Conference  held  Bt  Mancbeater 
in  lS7i  WM  preaided  over  by  the  Rev. 
Jowijti  H.  Knbinnn,  the  secreury  be- 
ing the  Kev.J.CWatls.  Both  these 
minisrera  hod  spent  many  yeara  in  the 
Cuuda  niiuion.  MethodiM  union  in 
Cinada  wsa  fully  considereil  in  1873, 
and  the  union  wga  coauim  mated  in 
1874. 

It  WM  nsDlred  in  1876  to  esublish 


a  training  in 


In  China  for 


'  teachers.    The  principal 
Sty,  John  Innocent. 

The  Conference  of  1876  wu  made 
meiDurable  bv  acta  of  frateniizadon 
of  cunaiderable  intereU.  The  Meth- 
odiM  Church  of  Canaitasent  u  adep- 


],  D.D., 


IC  Confi 
ble  and  Etev.  Egenn 
and  Mr,  David  aavage,  who  preeented 
■n  addrese  of  brotherly  fraternization. 
Thev  were  most  conlially  welcomed. 
Dr.  Rj-erson  remained  ume  time  in 
Entchuid  as  the  pueM  of  various  frienda 
of  the  Connection.  His  portrait  waa 
ordered  to  be  engmved  and  published 
in  the  magazine  as  ■  pleasant  memo- 
rial of  his  vint.  At  the  same  Confer- 
ence, the  Her.  Alexander  Clarke,  D.D., 
presenied  a  fraternal  meaaage  from  the 
fieneral  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
Protestant  Church  in  the  United  Slates 
of  America.  Fralental  mesaaiiceB  were 
retumedtohothdocuraeutB.  The«me 
Conference  sent  its  titat  fraternal  roc«- 
URC  to  the  Primitive  Methodists  of 
Ent;lanil.  which  greeting)  vere  con- 
tinued and  reciprocated  for  three  years, 
when,  in  1879,  the  New  Connection 
Cimrerenee,  seeing  how  kindly  their 
written  mefaagea  had  been  rec^ved, 
appoinieil  two  of  the  members  of  the 


Conf< 


jt  the  ( 


uingF; 


•  Metbodiiit  Conference, 
to  Tiaic  the  Methodist  Free  Church 
Conference,  and  two  others  to  visit 
ihe  Wesleyan  Conference.  Each  of 
the  conferences  appointed  represenu- 
lives  to  return  these  visits  of  fraternal 
f^iod- will,  and  Ihe  good  work  has  since 
been  continued  with  very  happy  re- 
sults; and  the  feeling  uf  surprise  now 
is  [hat  such  pleasant 


Duld  hi 


ilclaiyed.  They  serve  to  racilitate  the 
arrangements  for  holiling  the  (Ecu- 
nienical  Congress  in  18«1.  At  llie 
Conference  of  1876,  Mr.  Mark  Firth 
pmenled  £1000  to  the  endowment 
fond    of  the  college,  and  the  home 

united  under  one  committee  of  man- 
afienient. 

In  1877  a  loan  fund  was  commenced 
for  the  purpose  of  aiding  chapel  trusts 
anrtof  entvuraging  the  erection  of  new 

The  Conference  of  1880  was  remark- 
able for  iu  reci'til  of  deaths  among  the 
ministers,  n"  lei*  than  six  of  whom, 
all  men  of  diwinclioii,  haddied  during  ^ 
•he  vear.  Their  name*  were  Par- 
kini».i  Thomas  Uill'>n,  William  Baggali 
Crofts,  D.D.,Johnravlor,  Charles  Mann; 
a  Tumock.  A.a  The  four  lint  nan 
presidents  of  the  Conference.  As  many 
ten  bad  never  before  died  in  one  year. 


V.  SlalUli^..- 

We  exhibit  these 

natabuUrrorro: 

^ 

X. 

"£i. 

f^,. 

c^ 

^ 

M».. 

D«U». 

SSSE- 

T-^ 

^,^ 

^o8I 

20 

COM 

IB-fl 

IB 

M 

MM 
6,070 

19W 

}• 

m 

bImi 

1803 

IS 

ai 

0,918 

in?na! 

^»2o 

88 

33 

No 

WM 

21 

3§ 

84 

1»0 

<,4fij 

M 

n 

40 

8S 

i,wo 

40 

T,i«» 

iiii 

» 

MS 
SIO 

80 
101 

201 

W6 
207 

iji 

180 

1314 

wt 

8.2M 

ISO 

M 

MO 

IM 

8,300 

S4 

43 

H8 

8,»01 

IBI 

2«5 

9,402 

143 

48 

0B8B 

«8 

W 

ISO 

m 

lolwo 

40 

HI 

■80 

0,847 

4T 

HO 

III 

IHM 

41 

loisoi 

n 

sm 

141 

S44 

10,740 

ita 

» 

B3 

m 

140 

I03W 

Hi 

10.BSI 

m 

10,788 

na 

4ea 

I«S 

U8 

11.028 

loe 

OS 

SH 

It^lW 

lis 

lan 

«a 

we 

KM 

ilvu 

2C6 

18»1 

M 

as 

«« 

«gB 

181 

Ml 

12,800 
12.««0 
12,021 

180 

IBM 

M3 

m 

MS 

14.784 

132 

es 

uIho     er* 

l«3d 

MI     Wft 

12.210       t»B 

4» 

li3J      KO 

2i;e4« 

Ml 

118 

21,H7 

808 

No 

G» 

9»S 

2i;88« 

SM 

pre 

'» 

1841* 

801 

3»1 

22,008 

18,8« 

II 

ISO 

10,834 

ssfi 

4,040 

28,SM 

lats 

n 

20^»ll 

80fi 

MIO 

38.371 

18«4 

TM 

m 

OM 

ln;i28 

0,M7 

82.038 

IMO 

804 

m 

3W 

82D 

Ml 

IM 

I0J43 

801 

O.KBS 

asloBi 

Bl 

l>4«t 

40B 

0,481 

35.007 

is<a 

Kt 

tat 

i»:sos 

S»3 

3II.IMI 

IMS 

g 

143 

8M 

M 

!l[l»2 

»H 

806 
828 

7:4M 

42.1WI 
44.S00 

2i:0O2 

7JS1S 

a 

103 

IK 

009 

i»i 

K« 

21, em 

III 

388 

7;Hlt 

48]  177 

10« 

IM 

ii;287 

381 

1.832 

4S,^4B 

ISSB 
18W 

inu 

IM 

1011 

418 

880 

21,747 
2S,*ft2 

arl 

BSO 

8,076 
8,283 

45,811 
61,278 

803 

loss 

440 

2if;nn3 

«7 

Ibo 

8,708 
0,062 

64.870 

60,387 

I8W 

1106 

464 

WS 

s->« 

4>1 

u.4se 

ISWh 

4BS 

8,030 

tSD 

3TS  :  SV.W 

10,172 

BS3      32.I»I 

10,717 

1988 

tu 

874 

SOS      3S.22* 

m',xia 

IN 

MS 

40B      Bt.W8 

luliai 

OS.O'fl 

911 

1VS8 

«t6 

10,»B7 

70,160 

IBM 

032 

*n    saliioi 

8i,S2» 

MA 

1  '.3S» 

zs'.soB 

11« 

1»T1 

604 

1  ,330 

74.831 

1MB 

M8 

4S4 

000 

DOT 

17,073 

»2iflS3 

«ni 

SWl 

70.608 

ISTS 

184 

3M 

UH 

*w 

80;»73 

000 

wl 

1  .478 

1  .aw 

:»!»oo 

ISTS 

938 

SOS 

412 

81,100     en* 

ORi 

:».:oo 

S44 

81,01(1       6« 

neo 

1   .040 

S0,4S8 

and. 

18TS 

4SU 

44S 

""raiwfl       404 

10.35= 

72,779 

]8I« 

IN 

441  '   4S11 

10.430 

7B,20S 

25,324       4441 

10,770 

I^IIM       432 

437 

76;S74 

M,«8S  1    MO 

440 

\m 

_'_'_'_ 

J'l*_ 

_tw|«7 

29,1.73  '    47t 

44S 

10,041^ 

''■*"- 

lis  Ion  of  Joseph  Barker,  which  caoseda  liwsof  29  soclettw  unit  4848 

((J..T.S,) 
■y  tlnly       'VTesleyan  Metbadiota.    See  Wbslkvanh. 
siijami'n       'Wesleyfui  Rofonn  Union.    This  organiia  lion 
id  been    had  its  origin  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Revs.  James  Ev- 
minis-    eretl,  Samuel   Dunn,  and   William   (Irillith   from   tha 
Wedeyan  Conferetice,  in  Augntt,  18*9.    These  expul- 


WESLEYAN  REFORM  UNION   934   WESLETAN  REFORM  UNION 


e  MethodUt 


nons  took  Ihe  people  of  Engli 

people  in  pirticiilur,  bo  cniirely  oy  surptiM  tnit  cne 
whole  pressor  the  counlrj-, excepting  only  iwo  or  three 
pipers,  took  the  part  of  the  expelled  minislen.  Meetings 
of  Methodisu  were  held  in  miny  uf  the  great  centres 
ill  England,  aiid  cbe  popular  feeling,  fanned  by  the  voice 
of  the  presi,  was  in  a  few  munths  manifested  by  tens 
of  thouunds  of  inembera  and  office-bearera  ligning  me- 
morials to  the  Conference  a^^ainst  the  expuluuna.  In 
icspuniie  thereto,  Che  Conference  ordered  the  preachers 
to  withhold  society  tickets  from  all  who  signed  such 
memorialu,  whether  officers  or  members,  and  that  policy 

the  Connection  became  so  embarrassed  chat  the  expul- 
aiou  policy  had  to  he  abandoned. 

Seeing  Ihe  desolation  which  prevailed  in  so  many 
societies,  all  the  eflbrls  made  by  members  far  redress 
being  repulsed  by  the  Conference,  another  dKirt  was 
made  in  December,  1S61,  by  a  large  number  of  infiuen- 

pelled,  who  drew  up  a  memorial  to  the  Conference  under 
twelve  heads,  asking  for  the  cessation  of  the  severe  dis- 
ciplinary action  of  the  preachen,  anil  also  Tor  some  form 
of  lay  representation  in  the  chief  courts  of  Methodiam. 
Tbis  was  ktuiwii  as  the  Mediation  Movement,  and  their 
■nemnrial  Has  in  a  short  time  signed  by  over  two  thou- 
sand Methodists,  chiefly  oflicia!  persons. 

The  Conference  of  IS52  declined  to  receive  or  negoti- 
ate with  any  deputation  with  regard  to  the  said  memo- 
rial, and  in  reply  thereto  "  indulged  in  rancorous  invec- 
tive against  many  of  tbe  memuriallsts."  Every  effort 
at  reconciliation  with  th«  Conference  having  been  made 
by  the  people,  and  tenstance  being  the  only  reply,  it 
became  necessary  to  take  care  of  the  thousands  of 
members  who,  by  the  withholding  of  their  society  tick- 
ets, hail  been  cut  off  from  membership. 

Xot  wishing  to  establish  a  separate  body,  early  in 
the  year  ISM  a  lai^  meeting  was  held  in  Finsbury, 
London,  of  delegates  from  all  parts  of  England,  about 
four  hundred  in  number,  all  of  whom  leas  than  a  year 
before  held  office  in  Methodist  societies.  After  several 
days'  deliberation  a  form  of  constitution  was  agreed 
upon,  and  the  best  arrangementa  made  for  keeping  the 
memben  united,  till  all  negotiations  were  found  to  be 
of  no  arail,  wheu  it  was  resolved,  first,  that  they  should 
exist  IS  ibe  Reform  Union,  and  afterwards  as  the  United 
Methodist  Reformers. 

The  details  of  the  various  steps  taken  for  several 
years  lo  reform  the  constitution  of  the  Wesleyan  Con- 
ference BO  as  lo  admit  laymen  into  the  higher  Church 
conrls.  nnd  so  open  the  way  for  the  reiutn  of  thousands 
into  fellowship,  having  all  failed,  to  avoid,  if  possible, 
making  another  separata  body,  the  Conference  of  the 
New  Connection  was  applied  to,  but  that  body  did  not 
feel  disposed  to  make  the  concessions  asked,  so  as  lo 
open  the  door  for  union.  Had  they  done  so,  their  mem- 
bership might  have  been  doubled  immediately.  Some 
local  societies  did  unite  with  them.  Ultimately,  in 
1856,  a  meeting  was  heU  in  Exeter  Hall  of  appointed 
representatives  from  the  Wesleyan  Hethodiac  Asaocia- 
tinn  (of  1836)  and  Ihe  Wesleyan  Reformers  (of  1849), 
when  terms  of  union  were  agreed  upon  which  resulted 
in  Ihe  amalgamation  of  the  two  bodies  under  ibe  name 
of  "  United  Methodist  Free  Churches." 

At  tbe  eighth  meeting  of  the  delegates  of  tbe  Re- 
formers, held  at  Drialol  in  August,  1866,  tbe  etaustica 
of  their  societv  were  as  follows: 


Class-leaders *,8IS 

Members. 4«.«n9 

Members  on  trial It,ll9 

Snudny-schoola TM 

Ti-arhers l!,U« 

Although  most  of  the  leading  societies  belonging  t 
the  Krfutnicrs  resolved  on  amalgamalion,  yet  dutin 


the  flrst  year  only  19,113  took  action;  and  oa  tberc  ri 
a  strong  feeling  of  independenci 
places,  so  long  as  they  were  able  to 
ter  of  their  choice,  these  sociBlieB  kept  ■  separate  nai 
euce,  in  consequence  of  which  action  some  mecDbtn>' 
the  Reform  Union  determined  not  to  amol^mait  hi 
1867  more  than  36,800  memben  adheml  to  llieii  mi^- 
inal  principles.  That  number  was,  however,  aoon  cou- 
siderablv  leduced.  In  1868  neorlv  2000  tiniud  with 
the  Free  Churches;  and  in  1869  over  6600  acUd  in  lb» 
same  way,  and  so  the  process  went  on,  year  by  int 
several  separate  societiea  uniting  in  a  Iwdy  niib  the 
Free  Churches,  still  leaving  a  few  who  nuiDtaiofd  a 
separate  existence  as  the  Reform  Union. 

This  body  baa  had  its  headquarters  at  Eietei  Hd 
from  its  origin.  It  established  a  book-room  tbei*.  mi 
commenced  tbe  publication  of  a  monthly  magazine  ig 
1851,  as  Tie  W/ikyas  Rrformrr,  Ihe  first  edimr  beiag 
Mr.  Robert  Bulman,  its  second  Mr.  N.  T.  LAngriage,  k> 
third  Hr.  Kichots.  In  1863  its  title  waa  changed  to  ib 
ITu^on  Me&odiit  Frmiy  Mapiamt~  The  coooiilU* 
also  established  a  monthlv  magaiine  for  tbe  acbglan  ii 
the  Sunday-schools.  Owing  to  it*  gradually  dnin- 
ished  numbers,  chiefly  by  amalgamation,  it  has  for  Dm 
than  ten  years  past  been  the  smallest  fcclion  of  tbt 
Methodist  family,  and  its  coniinued  existence  as  a  wf- 
arate  body  has  been  a  source  of  regret  for  some  yea« 
seeing  that  decadence  has  marked  its  c«uae  slaoat 
continuously  from  the  time  its  memheia  dediaed  U 
amalgamate.  The  staiiatica  of  the  past  four  yean  wiD 
be  sufficient  to  indicate  its  positioa  and  iuflneDce. 


tsso... 


,.  n« 


Their  doctrines  are  identical  in  all  nispects  with  tbott 
of  the  Wesleyan  Methodisla.  The  points  of  poliiy  m 
discipline  in  which  they  differ  are,  that  their  rainiiUn 
may  remain  as  many  years  in  a  dicuit  as  the  [«fiit 
may  deure:  and  they  permit  lay  preachen  to  baplju 
their  children,  and  to  administer  the  Lord's  aiipper,ika> 
placing  ministers  and  laymen  on  an  cqiudjcy  in  riiii 
terial  functions. 

In  addition  to  the  serial  publicatioiis  ptTTiraJv 
named,  the  committee  of  the  Kefonn  Unioa  reaolnd 
to  take  advantage  uf  Ihe  book-room  lo  aecute  fandt  tw 
carrying  on  their  work;  and  as  large  pmfiia  had  bera 
made  by  the  sale  of  the  hymn-books  used  by  tbdr  b- 
cielies,  the  book  committee  was  the  first  to  try  i)k  ex- 
periment of  enlarging  the  hymn-book  which  had  v 
long  been  in  use  by  Engliib  Methodists.  Tbe  Bn. 
James  Everett,  who  had  himself  once  bten  eiDplaytd 
in  the  book-room  of  the  parent  sodety,  learning  Ikai 
there  were  only  about  eight  hymns  in  the  Wnlet-sn  col- 
lection which  were  copiiigh ted,  supplied  iheir  placHbr 
othen  of  Charles  Wesley'^  and  added  to  them  aa  maur 
more  new  and  popular  hymns  as  made  a  book  of  a  ihoo- 
sand  hymns.  To  these  were  added  for  the  fint  ciait 
the  authors'  names,  not  in  all  instances  eonecily,  tun  e 
nearly  so  as  was  then  possible.  The  book  was  a  bc- 
ceas,  and  as  the  usual  discount  was  allowed  on  it  i» 
booksellers,  which  at  that  lime  the  Weskyana  did  mJ 
allow,  many  thousands  soon  found  their  way  even  inw 
the  congregations  of  Ihe  parent  sodety.  That  ia- 
proved  edition  in  due  time  led  the  way  to  a  still  beiiri 
collection  being  issued  by  the  boot-room  of  the  Metb- 
oditt  Free  Churches,  and  since,  a  stilt  more  mudrrn  ccr 
by  the  Wedeyan  Cunference  itself.  The  Rrfurm  Luili- 
room  has  for  some  years  published  the  totai  Pwroe*- 
frt  Uagazint,  at  twopence  monthly,  a  serial  which  hai 
for  many  years,  unofficially,  been  very  helpful  lo  man" 
industrious  lav  preachers.  It  has  also  pubiuhtd  olbti 
Methodist  works,  chiefly  temaindcra  of  editirm.  of  good 
booka  which  authors  wished  to  di^iose  of,  but  whirii 
tbe  rigid  rules  of  the  Wesleyan  book-mom  ptennuil 
from  admission  iiiio  their  sales.     (G.  J.  S.) 


WESLEYANISM  9; 

'V^aaleyanlam,  or  U  kihodut  Armihiakism,  ia 
a  reprDdoctioa  of  tha  original  doctrine  oT  Jamea  Aimiii- 
to*  (q.  v.),  the  Diitcb  K«moDac»nt,  in  e|uthet  gained 
by  hia  roUowen  for  their  opposirioii  to  the  CilTiDistic 
views  eTenliiilly  embodied  in  the  Ktion  of  the  Synod 
of  EhiTt.  The  Booadeat  and  moat  prudent  of  the  early 
Anoiainn  thef^ogiana  were  Epiacopiui  and  Liniboixh, 
who  developed  the  view*  or  their  great  leader  aubetan- 
tially  u  held  by  the  Wesleyon  Hethodiata  both  in 
America  and  Great  Briuln ;  but  a  feir  of  the  Kemon- 
atraau,  especiallr  Grotius,  and,  to  aome  extent.  Curcel- 
beoB,  exhibited  Hgnt  of  a  freethinking  tendency,  espe- 
eially  on  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement.  The  intenne- 
diate  Engliah  Anniniana  carried  Iheae  erratic  elementa 
to  the  verge  of  Sodnianiaoi.  and  thua  gave 
«he  charge  of  Pelagianiam  with  which  Calvin: 
en — at  leaat  until  very  recent  limea — have 
frequently  in  the  habit  of  branding  Armin 
generaL     See  Auumiaihom. 

John  Weiley,  the  founder  of  Hethodiam,  ca 
minian  atock.  Hia  father,  Somne],  like  many  of  the 
evangelical  Anglican  divinta  of  that  period,  wa»  op- 
poeed  to  the  teneta  of  Calvinism  (aee  Tyennan,  lA/e  of 
Samuel  Wedry,  p.  144),  and  the  Boni  of  the  latter  nat- 
urally grew  up  in  the  aanw  aentimanto.  WhitefleM,  on 
(he  contrarViOho  waa  likewiae«  member  of  (he  Holy 
Club,"  ag  The  Bnt  Hethodiata  were  called  at  Oxford, 
waa  of  Colvinintlc  penuaaion,  and  on  thia  ground  alone 
a  aeparalion  ullimateiy  look  place  from  ibe  Wealeya, 
Whii«fleld  eventually  becoming  the  founder  of  the 
We]*h,orC«lirinialip,'Melhodi»taof  LadyHuntingdon'a 
Connection.  The  viewt  of  Wealey  ore  thua  hialorically 
-of  a  rvmonatrant  or  polemical  caat  on  thia  subject,  the 
ftiain  point  uf  eonlroveray  always  being  the  dogma 
of  predeMination,  which  is  central  in  the  Caliiniatic 
Bcheme.  We  propone  here,  however,  to  develop  the 
principal  reatnrea  of  We^yaniain  poaitivelyin  a  lo^cal 
-order  out  of  the  more  radical  idea  of  the  divine 
See  Weslev,  Jokn. 

I.  Wealeyans  hold  that  God's  foreknowledge  i 
live  and  ^Molute,  not  being  a  deduction  or  inference 
fmni  his  purposes  or  power.  They  grouni 
trine  upon  Scripture:  "  Whom  he  did  fnrekn 
-did  predeetiuate  "  (Kom.  viii,  29).  Dr.  Charles'  Flodge, 
in  hia  note  on  this  passage  (Conmailarj/,  p.  447),  after 
frankly  admitling  that  the  "knowledge"  here  spoken 
of  is  not  merely  a  cognition  of  the  e™(«iceof  the  indi- 
viduals (for  then  it  would  apply  equally  to  the  elect 
and  the  reprobate),  atill  ingeniously  perverts  the  whale 
force  of  the  argnmenl  by  averring  that "  the  foreknowl- 
edge . . .  involrea  the  idea  of  selection,"  which  is  tan- 
lo  saving  that  there  already 


le  divii 


I  mind.     Met: 


n  the  other  hand,  believt 
knowledge  haa  reference  to  the  cAdrucrtr  of  the  persons 
coniemplattd  as  about  to  accept  the  offer  of  salvation. 
They  thus  truly  place  the  divine  pracienee  as  tbe  basis 

escape  the  cauaational  force  of  the  divine  pre-conlem- 
plation,  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  knowledge  of  any 
present  or  past  facta  which  haa  no  influence  or  power  in 
pnHlncing  them.  .See  nHKiaciENCE.  (lod  foreseea  not 
only  the  future  event,  but  also  all  its  circumatancea  or 
(ondiiiona,  and  therefore  knows  that  it  is  contingent, 
■  i,  e.  that  although  it  certainly  ictU  take  plaee,  it  yet 
might  be  otherwise.    See  Pkkscibkcil 

2.  Intimately  connected  with  the  foregoing  position 
ia  [hat  of  the  divine  foreordination.  Weeleyana  hold 
that  while  God  abnitutely  and  of  hii  own  inacniUble 
porpOBes  detenninn  beforehand  (whetber  from  all  eter- 


.r  phyai 


15  WESLEYANISM 

ballon  as  incompatible  with  the  Justice  and  impartial- 
ity of  tbe  divine  character,  and  with  the  freedom  and 
reaponaitdlily  of  the  human  aouL  They  e^iecially  ob- 
ject to  the  doctrine  that  God  baa  absolutely  predeter- 
mined the  final  destiny  of  individuala  in  the  other 
irrcapective  of  their  conducti  but  they  have  Ut- 


ile o 


purpoaes  of  God  a  morat  government,  without  predicat- 
ing it  of  any  and  every  particular  act  of  intelligent 

the  Weatminaler  Confesaion,  that  "God  decreea  what- 
ever comes  lu  pan,"  would  involve  the  divine  will  as 
the  efficient  element  in  all  causality,  and  ao  be  isnta- 
moonl  to  tbe  beurodoxy  that  "  whatever  ii,  is  righu" 
Or,  if  the  language  be  interpreted  as  ngnifying  that 
God  haa  BO  arranged  tbe  universe  (both  of  matter  and 
of  mind)  that  events  moat  inevitably  transpire  just  as 
they  do,  this  is  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  neceasitv 
or  fktfl.  But  if  it  be  merely  meant  that  God  bos  insti- 
tuted Uwa,  forces,  or  causea  (whether  primary  or  aec- 
ondary,  phyncal  or  apiritust)  which  he  permits  (or,  if 
any  prefer  so  to  say,  enables)  to  act  freely  yet  certainly 
(within  given  limits)  in  bringing  about  whatever  oc- 
curB,  then  we  have  but  the  enpression  of  what  is  matter 
of  fact  undeniable  by  any.  This  ia  no  proper  foreordi- 
nation at  all,  for  it  ranks  the  human  agent  aa  •  leading 
factor  among  these  freely  moving  powers,  and  hangs 
the  larger  part  of  events  upon  the  contingencies  of  hia 

conduct.       See  FREDESTINATtOll. 

a.  Wealeyan  Methodists  further  maintain  that  al- 
thoagh  man  ia  universally  bom  with  corrupt  moral  af- 
fections and  a  depraved  will,  yet  by  virtue  of  Ibe  gen- 
eral atonement  of  Christ  and  the  ftee  bestowment  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  every  person  is  grsctouaiy  enabled  so 
to  resist  the  teiHletkcies  to  evil  as  to  lay  hold  upon 
the  proffered  means  of  aalvatioh.  They  believe,  indeed, 
that  in  response  to  the  intercessions  of  the  Divine  Medi- 
ator, and  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Chriatiana,  Bpecial 
conviction  is  often  sent  into  the  souls  of  Binnera,  hut 

prove  abortive.  They  also  believe  thai  the  general 
oinvictions  resulting  from  the  aniinary  influeucea  ofthe 
Spirit  ate  sufficient,  if  enoouroged  and  fostered,  to  lead 
the  ainner  to  Chriat.  They  admit  that  none  will  or 
can  come  to  God  without  sitch  divine  drawings;  but 
they  believe  that  these  are  never  withheld  from  the 
sincere  ami  compliant  souL  The  ultimate  force,  there- 
fore, which  determines  any  person  in  turning  away 
from  lun  and  towards  Gnd  is  the  human  will  itself,  act- 
ing freely  in  view  of  motivn  made  clear  and  cogent  by 
God's  Spirit,  but  never  coerced  thereby.    The  self-de- 

fundamenlal  axiom  in  Wesleyan  thetdogy.  See  WiLi. 
4.  Wealeyans  hold  that  saving  faith  is  a  conscious 
surrender  of  tha  soul  to  God  and  a  positive  truat  in  the 
merits  of  Chriat.  This  faith  ia  indeed  poUslialbf  the 
gilt  of  Ufld,  but  its  exercise  is  the  voluntary  personal 
act  of  the  believer.  Conversion,  in  Weslevan  theologv, 
is  the  entir  -   .  -  -       - 


Bl-7 


presupposes 
SeeRi 
Wealeyi 


-dingly  teaches  that  justiAcation 

ano  onopiinn  are  simultaneous,  the  former  being  the 
act  of  pardon,  and  tbe  latter  the  rdution  of  filial  ac- 
ceptance. A  degjee  of  sanctification  ia  also  held  to  be 
experienced  at  the  aame  time,  being  a  $lalf  of  com- 
parative holiness,  consisting  in  a  fixed  purpose  and  dis- 
position to  love  and  serve  God,  the  IVuit  of  which  im- 
mediately begins  to  appear  in  the  life.  The  first  of 
these  elements  takts  place  in  the  divine  mind,  and  a 
knowledge  of  it  aa  a  fact  is  derived  by  the  converted 
person  from  a  consideration  of  the  conscious  exercise 
of  faith  to  that  end;  the  second  ia  a  mutual  chan"- 


WESLEYANS 

(i>  the  »oul  by  ■  Bpecial  "wilncM 


<q.  v.),  -1 
though  CI 
element  tikea  place  encliui 


elv  in 


It  (bey  alt  tl 
he  opentioc 

e  hiiDwir.  bi 


felt  in 


III  Hibjecl, 


■hawn  in  the  life ;  b 
wbtilly  the  effect  of 
The  roan  does  not  u 
be  uved,  depends  upon  (Jhrisf  lo  be  saved,  and  co-op- 
eniea  with  Ua<l  for  hU  Mlviiioii.  It  fatlows  from  Ibe 
abuTe  ahovriii^  that  tbe  converted  peraon  huMCi  Tar  the 
lime  being  hia  gracioiu  condition  by  Ihia  threefold  lea- 
timony,  one  or  the  other  part  of  which,  however,  miy 
for  the  moment  preponderate. 

b.  WetleyanUm,  moreoTer,  maintaina  that  ibis  xalva- 
tion  is  not  only  free  anil  preaeiil,  hat  alsa/uJ/.  i.  e.  that 
it  is  the  privilege  of  ereiy  believer  to  be  entirely  aanc- 
tilied  ill  thi>  life,  and  to  lire  without  actually  feeling  or 
committing  any  known  ain.  They  admit,  of  coiirae, 
the  continual  peccability  of  human  nature,  and  do  not 
claim  Adamic  or  angelic  perfcctiDii  for  any  human  be- 
ing aince  the  Fall;  but  they  neveriheleaa  inriat  upon 
the  privilege  and  duly  of  complete  buliiieaa  in  heart 
and  life  aa  not  only  neceaaary  for  heaven,  but  poaajble 
indeflnilely  before  death.  They  differ  to  boom  degree 
among  theniaelve*  ae  lo  the  inatanuneoua  or  progre*- 
■""'"    Biperieni;e,aod  alao  aa  "" '""  '""" 


with  reference  ru 


by 


6.  Fiui 


life  and  healtb,  on  precisely  the 


Ce  SAMtT 


agree 

i»ly  il 

>p«ralion  aa  requireil 


3  kctiul  for- 


WESLEYANS 


yeara  of  hia  life  wbich  elapaed  bt 
oiilion  and  the  death  of  ita  founder,  Hr.  Wesley  wu 
its  source  and  life.  Bom  at  Epwotlh  in  1703.  he  en- 
tered the  Chanerbouae  School,  Umdon,  in  IT14  ;  iu  I7J9 
he  was  continuing  hia  studiea.  under  his  brMh«r  Sam- 
uel, at  the  WeWminster  School,-  audio  1730  be  entered 
Christ  ChuTCb  College,  Oxford.  In  17^  he  wu  -nluD- 
ed  deacon  by  Dr.  John  I'otler,  biabop  of  Oxford,  vbo, 
in  the  advice  he  gave  the  young  deacon,  said.  "  If  lie 
wishes  to  be  extensively  useful,  be  must  nut  »ppiid  bis 
time  in  contending  fui  or  agaiott  ihinga  of  ■  diiipiitatib 
nature,  but  in  testifying  against  naiori«w  vkv.  Mail  ia 
promoting  real,  easeniial  bolinesa."  Here  were  ibc 
germs  of  that  life-work  which  produced  Uelbudian. 
In  1729  Jflbn  Wesley  bq^i  u  lake  pupils  ai  Oxford, 
and  some  of  tbe  more  serious  of  these  united  with  ibeir 
teacher  in  visiting  the  prisoners  in  the  Castle  and  the 
sick  poor  in  the  city;  SI 


of  li' 


n  led  to  tbeii 


will  at  ever}-  stage  of  the  re- 
demptive procMB,  Wealeyans  univeraally  believe  that 
it  is  posaible  for  any,  even  the  highest  Chriuian.  to 
fall  from  grace  and  ullimalely  perish,  and  they  think 
they  lind  actual  instances  of  such  lapse  in  the  Script- 
ures and  in  common  life.  As  none  are  ibaoluiely  i ' 
ed  to  elenial  life,  so  none  aie  fully  secure  of  it  until 
piubation  is  entirely  enilnd.     See  Pekskveramck.  I 

LilB'atiire^-Tbr  moet  exhaustive  as  well  as  nldesC ' 
polemic  on  these  distinctive  fealum  of  Weileyaii  At- 
minianiam  U  FUtcbet'a  CAtch  to  AaHmamaiiutn  (Land. 
1771  sq.,  and  often  since) ;  but  the  subject  is  discursive- 
ly treated  likewise  in  Wesiey'a  Semiom  (in  WorU). 
A  topical  diacunion  is  given  in  Watson'a  Inttitatti 
(Umd,  IftH.  and  since),  in  Pope's  CkriMian  Thtologi, 
(ilrid.  1876-77,  3  vnls.  8vo>,  and  in  Raymond's  Sylrm- 
mk  THtotogn  (Cincin.  1877  sq.,»  vdIb.Svo).  For  other 
workBiSee  AHMlNtANtsH;  Mkthouisil 

^VAaleyaiu  is  a  general  name  for  all  adherents  or 
followers  of  John  Wesley,  tbe  founder  uf  Arminian  Meth- 
odism :  but  by  usage  it  is  commonly  limited  to  the  reg- 
ular Methodists  of  (he  British  Conference,  in  distinction 
from  those  of  the  other  kindred  bodies  in  America, 
(ireat  Britain,  Ireland,  and  elsewhere,  which  in  this  Cy- 
clapadia  are  treated  under  separate  heads. 

I.  Uitlory. — As  much  of  this  is  tbe  common  property 
of  all  Methodist  bodies  throughout  the  world,  we  give 

18  the  child  of  Providence. 

areeron  earth  was  marked 

r.     In  the 
of  Methodism,  we  can 


Methodist 


ongin, , 


»  past  history,  now 
covering  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  forty  years,  when 
ila  movements  weie  in  accordance  with  the  indications 
v(  Providence,  it  proapered ;  on  the  other  hand,  many 
of  the  changes  in  ita  operations,  which  were  of  human 
origin,  and  tbe  oolcome  of  expediency  only,  bare  been 
the  cause  of  obstruction  and  often  of  painful  disappoint' 


Ten  years  elapaed.     Both  John  and  Charles  Wnlei- 

lime.  Ketuming  to  England  in  1738,  they  w^re  bt^ 
intniduced  to  Peter  Bohler  and  other  Miiravian  (mtk- 
ren,  from  whom  they  learned  the  way  of  salrstJiHi  \rf 
faith ;  and  themselves  entering  into  the  litierlT  of  ilic 
children  of  God.  in  (he  moulh  of  June,  1738.  w«rc  malF 
so  happy  in  their  new  experience  that  they  brgan  in 
great  eamestiiess  to  preach  that  docirine  everywhere- 
convincing  evidence  of  the  cuni|ileieiien  uf  the  chance 
which  had  been  wrought  by  failh  in  b»ih  the  bnnhen. 
This  was  more  distinctly  and  emphatically  shown  \rw 
the  spiritual  awakening  whidi  accompanied  and  foUu*- 
ed  the  preaching  of  John  Wesley.  Ue  had  tu  pre«ch  iu 
St.Hary'BChurch,Oiitbrd,before  the  Unimsity.  His 
text  was, "  By  grace  are  ye  eared  through  faith  :"  aari 
he  explained  the  new  doctrine  with  a  cleamesa,  rolnea^ 
and  force  which  had  not  been  known  befuri'  in  that  fa- 
mous seat  of  learning.  That  sermon  waa  priiitrd  and 
widely  cimiilated.  It  waa  follownl  by  another  on  "Gwrs 
free  grace,"  in  which,  with  equal  lucidity  and  power,  be 
sot  forth  the  doctrine  "  that  the  (Trace  or  luve  of  i.i<a  ia 
free  in  all,  and  free  for  aU."  This  sermon  was  prinud 
in  ■  cheap  form ;  anil  those  sermons,  repcaieil  in  vari- 
ous forms  and  places, "  gave  birth  lu  the  greatesi  leri- 
val  of  relii^on"  the  world  has  ever  known. 

He  dcaiced,  in  hia  own  mind,  lo  retire  lo  Oxford  to 
bis  beloved  obscurity,  but  Uiviiie  Proridene«  ordeied 
otherwise;  and  John  Wesley  was  detained  iu  Londm 
and  imporliincd  to  preach  Ihese  new  doctrines,  in  vari- 
ous churches,  thrice  every  Sunday,  aiHl  on  week-<teys 
also.  One  source  of  attraction  was  that  he  hitd  tvceai- 
ly  returned  from  AoMrica,  which  was  consiilered  a  tar 
country ;  and  he  related  some  of  his  experience  in  tbe 

hiffli  and  soon  the  churches  were  unable  lo  hukl  the 
crowds  which  assembled.  In  a  short  time,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  large  assemblies  and  partly  owinjc  to  ike 
new  dnclrine^  he  wss  excluded  from  one  church,  thea 
fnim  another,  till  at  length  he  wss  shut  out  uf  all  the 
churches.    Not  daring  lu  be  silent,  after  a  shiirl  Iar\^rgle 

cessity.  and  preached  in  the  open  air— first  in  MootiieUk 
London,  then  at  Keniiington,  and  in  manv  other  pana 
of  England. 

Thousands  upon  Ihousands  of  persoiu — in  a 


n  thou 


ml.  in 


V  tbousaod.  wDi 


by  Mr. 

services.  This  step  waa  not  taken  in  ani-  spirit  of  an- 
tagonism lo  the  Church;  quite  the  conirarr.  Doricf: 
one  month  in  1739,  both  John  and  Charles  We&ler  fasi 
interviews  with  the  bishop  of  Oloucesier.  Gibson,  tobofi 
of  London,  and  Potter,  archbishop  of  Canterburr.  to  laK 
over  their  conduct;  and  with  kindly  rewlia'  iu  radt 


WESLEYANS 

IMse.  Ml.WhiUficld,alm,hadHmiUiiilUrvie«>with 
buhopi  respecling  hia  preaching  in  the  open  air.  Ii  ii 
plaid,  iherefore,  Ibai  the  resialaiice  Cbese  three  clergy- 

'men  met  wich  did  Dot  proceed  from  the  beads  of  the 
£subli*he<l  Church,  but  fmm  thou  of  the  clergy  vho 
were  at  ease  in  theic  comfortable  livings,  and  who  aiH' 
ihM  their  cguiet  enjoyment  would  be  broken  if  the  pro- 
ceediDKa  of  these  eTangeliita  were  not  stApped.     Hence 

bv  thoM  clergymen  to  sUndet  and  miarepresent  the 
«.<rk  of  the  Wealeys  and  Whiiefleld. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1739,  there 
witnesaed  by  thousanda  of  peraons  moM  remarkable  man- 
ifesiatiuns  of  divine  power  at  many  of  the  open-ai 
Ticea  conducted  by  John  Wesley.     The  preaehing  of 
{•eorge  Whitelield  and  Cbailea  Wesley,  at  the  lao: 
find  and  to  the  same  congcegaliona,  was  quite  as  ; 
ful  and  even  more  impaationed,  at  times,  than  wu 
Wesley's;  but  it  was  1«  the  preaching  of  John  Wealey 
only  that  those  special  manifesUtions  were  given. 
Lonilon  and  at  Bristol,  on  various  occaaiona  and  at 
vera  plKCS,  during  the  six  months  preceding  the  fom 
lion  of  the  United  Societies,  scurea  of  persona  were  sn 
ten  down  under  hia  preaching,  in  the  open  aii  and  in 

before  witnessed  since  apostolic  times.  Mr.  Weiley 
hirnaelf  wrote:  "More  and  more  of  the  people  were  cut 
If)  the  heart,  and  came  to  me  all  in  lean,  inquiring  with 
the  uCmoat  eagemesa  what  they  muit  do  to  be  aaved." 
TliFse  peoitenta  were  counted  by  scores  and  hundredi 
during  the  autumn  of  1739;  and  it  was  the  wjtneaatng 
of  the  deep  agony  of  spirit  and  anguiah  of  heart 
•wakencil  the  sympathy  of  two  gentlemen,  who  att 
ed  the  preaching  at  MoorfleldA,  to  provide  a  place  of 
shelter  (or  those  poor  atrieken  ones. 

Northward  of  the  preaching  ground  at  Uoorfielda — 
iinly  B  few  hundred  yanig,  but  aurrounded  by  fielda — the 
Old  Uunnerr,  or  foundry  for  cannon,  had  stood  in 
for  more  than  twenty  years.  Mr.  Wtsley  was  pressed 
to  lake  thepremiaes  into  hia  own  hands;  but  he  had  u 
decline  them,  having  no  funda.  Mr.  Ball  and  Mr.  Wat- 
kins,  two  kindly  disposed  friends,  finding  that  the  ten- 
ancy conid  be  secured  for  £i  15,  loaned  that  auni  to  Mr. 
Wealey:  but,  aa  the  place  waa  a  vast  heap  uf  ruinous 
building  a  large  additions]  anm  had  to  be  spent 
it  up  as  a  plaice  for  religious  worship.  The  roofless 
building,  with  tottering  walls,  wan  Mrst  ujMd  bv  Mr.  Wes- 
ley on  Sunday  evening,  Nov.  II,  17B8.  The  "cost  of  fit- 
ting tip  the  Foundry  for  worship  was  about  £t>00,  which 
aum  waa  paid  in  three  yean  by  small  subscriptions  from 
many  friends  who  had  shared  in  the  Uessinga  which 
came  with  tbe  preached  word. 

The  exact  date  of  the  origin  of  Methodism  is  not 
known;  but  it  was  within  the  three  weeks  embraced 
within  the  last  week  in  Norember  and  the  first  fourteen 
d»ya  of  December  in  1739.  A  large  number  of  persona 
bai)  been  converted  within  aix  months,  who  had  been 
joined  to  the  Horaviana.  In  Mr.  Wesley's  works  are 
found  several  allusions  made  by  him  to  that  period. 
Tlie  two  ''■ilbwing  pasaagea  convey  tbe  clearest  accoont 
we  have;  " In  the  latter  end  of  the  year  1789,eightor 
ten  persons  came  to  me  in  London,  who  appeared  to  be 
deeply  oosvinced  of  sin  and  earnestly  groaning  for  re- 
demption. They  desired  I  would  spend  aome  time  with 
them  in  prayer  and  adviae  them  how  to  flee  from  the 

(hia  great  work,  I  appointed  a  day  when  they  might  all 
emne  logrf  her,  which,  from  thenceforward,  they  did  ev- 
ery Thursilsy,  in  the  evening.  To  these,  and  aa  many 
more  as  desired  to  Join  with  them,  I  gave  thoae  advices 
which  I  judged  moirt  needful  for  them;  and  we  always 
concluded  our  meetings  with  prayer  suited  Co  their  aev- 
atal  iieecuitiea.  This  waa  the  rise  of  the  United  Soci- 
ety; Hnt  in  London,  then  in  other  pUce<."  The  first 
meetings  were  elaaanneetinga,  and  John  Wesley  was  the 
leader.  In  another  extract  we  find  the  following  addi- 
lional  iletaili  ■  "  The  llrat  evening  about  twelve  persona 
X._30* 


17  WESLEYANS 

came ;  the  next  week  thirty  or  forty.  When  they  were 
increased  to  about  a  hundred,  (  took  down  their  names 
and  places  of  abode,  intending,  as  often  aa  it  waa  con- 
venient, to  call  upon  them  at  their  homes.  Thua,  with- 
out any  previous  plan,  began  the  Methodiat  Society  in 
England — a  company  of  people  aasodaled  together  to 
help  each  other  to  work  out  tjieir  own  salvation." 

Such  is  the  account  of  the  origin  ofMethudiani  from 
the  pen  of  its  founder,  who,  in  a  small  tract  which  he  is* 
sued  shortly  before  their  organisation,  thua  deacribea  tbe 
character  of  a  Methodist : 

"A  Heihoditt  la  one  who  has  the  love  of  Ood  abed 
abroad  In  hia  besrt  by  Ihe  Holy  Ohoit  given  onto  him : 
one  who  lovea  Lbe  Lord  his  Qud  with  all  Ills  heart,  and 
■nal.  mid  mlad,  auil  HlrenRlb.    Be  njolcee  evermore, 

His  heart  is  full  of  love  to  all  maiikiud.^imd  is  porlfled 
from  euTv,  malice,  wrath,  and  every  unkind  atecllon. 

His  own  desire,  and  the  one  desicn  of 

do  his  oi         


Ua  fnllawi 


lesicn  of  his 
>f  Him  Ihsl  H 

ofihe  wtirld;  for 


diallngiiiabed  (Tom 

2.  Frngrtu  of  the  Wtslegitia  duTitig  Str.  WaUjft 
LyclmK.—¥m  the  firat  century  of  its  exialence  Ihe  his- 
tory of  Methodism  was  a  series  of  provideiKea,  (n  a 
condensed  record,  which  this  is  required  to  be,  these 
providential  openings  can  be  very  little  mote  than  in- 

From  the  Xirae  the  Wealey  brothen  returned  from 
America  they  were  both  closely  connected  with  the 
Moravians,  whose  meeting-house  was,  and  is  alill,  in 
Fetter  L^ne.  It  is  probably  true  that  most  of  [he  ac- 
cesuons  mode  to  their  society  during  the  yean  1738  and 
1739  were  the  fruitsofthe  labors  of  Ihe  two  Weslejs  and 
Whilefield.  Even  after  Mr.  Weiley  began  his  own  so- 
ciety, in  December,  1739,  he  himself  continued  W 


tBuf  hi 


nany 


of 


As  early  aa  June,  1738,  John  Wealey  viaited  the  Mo- 
ravian aetilement  at  Hemihul,  (iennany,  where  he  re- 
mained three  monilui,  convening  freely  wilh  the  Breth- 
ren on  their  doctrines  and  discipline.  In  December  of 
the  same  year  Mr.  Wesley  drew  up  for  the  society  io 
Fetter  Lane  the  rules  of  the  Band  Socieiies—companiea 
of  not  leas  than  Uve  nor  more  than  ten— who  met  lo- 


of  thoae  meetings  was  embodied  in  a  aeries  of  ten  propi^ 
sitions  and  inqiiiriea.  These  were  the  baua  of  the  Cnit- 
ed  Societiea  which  began  to  meet  under  Mr,  Wealey  in 
December,  1739. 

In  April,  1739,  John  Wesley  was  excluded  from  the 

churches  in  Bristol,  and  a, few  months  later  he  was  also 

excluded  ^m  the  London  churches.     Mr.  Whitefield 

Charies  Wesley  were  also  included  in  the  prohibi- 

.     Mr.  Whitefield  commenced  open-air  preaching 

near  Bristol,  with  such  happy  results  that  John  Wesley 

saw  a  wide  door  of  usefulness  opened  to  him  in 
that  plan;  and  he  readily  adopted  it,  with  such  marka 
of  divine  approbation  as  had  not  been  before  witneneed. 
This  led  to  the  commencement  of  the  system  of  the  itin- 
erancy, and  uecessitatcil  the  employment  of  lay  helpers; 

r  lay  preaehen  had  to  be  engaged  to  watch  over 

ew  converts,  gathered  out  of  the  world  by  the  la- 

if  those  apostolic  men. 

e  earliest  of  these  lav  helpera  were  Joseph  Hum- 
phreys.Thomas  Mailield,  and  John  Cennick.  Theflrst- 
lamed  if  thus  introduced  to  ua  by  Mr,  Wesle;  hlmsdr: 


WESLEYANS  »: 

'Jowph  Huiophnjia,  th«  Hnt  ]»y  prfichei  that  awit- 
«1  me  in  Eiigliiid  in  1738.  lie  wu  iierTeclMl  ia  love, 
and  »  coDiiDued  Uir  at  leau  twelve  months  After- 
nrards  he  turneil  CalTiiiiat.  Joineit  Mr.  Wbilefleld,  and 
published  an  invective  againet  me  and  my  brother 
Charles.  In  ■  while  he  renounced  Mr.  White6eld, 
tunwil  Presbyterian  miniiler,  then  reccired  EpiBCof>al 
onlinatian,  and,  linall}:,  •coffed  at  Inward  reliKion" — a 
catalogue  of  delinquencies  long  enough  ij>  cause  hia  name 
lo  be  BKcludd  rn-m  the  tnte  friends  of  Methodism. 

Thomas  MaxAeld  was  converted  under  Hr.  Wesley's 
preachinx,  at  Brisinl,  in  May,  1739.  He  had  an  exnl- 
lent  gift  Tor  iireaehiiig.  and  wu  very  useful  in  keeping 
together  and  instruct  ing  the  young  converts  in  London 
during  Mr.  Wesley's  abaence.  Sonie  Churchmen  rwsed 
a  err  against  Maxtleld's  preaching  at  (he  Foundry,  and 
they  sent  lh«r  complaints  to  Mr.  Wesley  in  the  coun- 
try-, who  hasuned  to  London  to  silence  him;  bnl,  on 
meeting  his  aged  mother,  who  had  heard  MaxOebl,  she 
desired  her  son  to  heir  him  and  judge  for  himself  if  he 
was  not  qualified  to  preach  as  certiinlv  as  Mr.  Wesley 
was.  That  wise  admonition  of  Mrs.  Wesley  led  to  the 
regular  appointment  of  Thomas  MaxlicUl  early  in  PW 
to  preach  as  a  lay  helper  at  the  Foundry,  lie  contin- 
ued in  office  at  the  Foundry  mrne  twenly-tbree  years, 
and  after  Mr.  Wesley's  marriage  joined  Mrs.  Wesley  in 
her  prejudices  j  anil  in  I7R3  he  separated  from  Mr.  Wes- 
ley, taliiiig  with  him  one  hundred  and  seventy  membeis. 
He  gathered  an  independent  congrmatiun  in  London, 

ciled  (a  Mr.  Wesley  before  his  denlh,  and  Mr.  Wedey 
preached  in  his  chapel  in  1783. 

John  Ceunick  joined  Mr.  Wesley  at  Britlol,  and  was 
very  useful  in  that  ciiy  and  at  Kingswood;  but,  not 
agreeing  with  Mr.  Wesley's  views  on  general  redemp- 
tion, he  joined  Mr.  Whilefleld,  and  became  a  useful  min- 
iBler  in  many  iiarisof  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  1740  Mr.Weilev  preached  against  predeatination, 
anti  Mr.  Whiteiield  published  a  reply  to  it  in  1741,  in 
which  he  advocated  unconditioital  election,  irrestalible 
grace,  and  final  perseverance.  Charlea  Wesley's  Hj/imu 
and  John  Wesley's  Strmmu  being  directly  opposed  lo 
Mr.  Whilefleld's  doctrinal  views,  a  separation  took 
place,  which  continued  for  many  yeartj  but  Providence 
bmughtgiKHl  out  of  what  appeared  lo  miny.atlhe  lime, 
a  serious  e\-il. 

July  28,  1710,  Mr.  Wesley  separated  fmm  the  Mora- 

In  December,  1711,  several  disturbances  having  tak- 
en place  at  the  services  held  by  Mr.  Wesley,  one  uf  the 
leading  London  magistrates  voluntarily  waited  on  the 
king,  (ieorge  IL  In  a  few  days,  Sir  John  (Unson  called 
on  Mr.  Wesley  on  behalf  of  th  ' 
ported  "thai  the  Middlesex 
orders  from  above  lo  do  ymi 


e  WESLEYANS 

Watch-night  services  began  as  early  as  April.  1T4& 
Thf  converted  colliers  at  Kingswood  lirst  began  ibem 
as  a  substitute  for  their  midnight  meetings  held  at  the 
ale-house.  They  began  at  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  and 
continueil  unUl  miduigbL  Mr.  Wesley  at  i-Dce  afi> 
proved,  and  fixed  them,  lint  muiiihly,  at  the  fuU  ol  lit 
moon,  then  quarterly,  and  rtcommeiideil  them  to  all  his 
•ocieties.     Tbeyaie  now  held  only  on  tbe  last  nighiU 

i^rterly  society  tickets  were  firM  given  in  1741. 
For  over  twenty  yean  these  were  issued  in  three  « 
four  localities,  each  having  a  different  design.  Inttn- 
veuience  having  arisen  from  these  varieties,  the  tickn 

er,  the  Conference  in  I76£>  ordered  a  uniform  ticket  W 
be  inued  from  London,  the  first  of  which  is  dated  Feb- 
ruary, 1766.  For  filly  yean  these  tickets  were  only 
about  an  iitch  square — a  very  simple  record — ntntain- 
ing  the  dale,  a  text  ofSciipIuret  and  a  large  capital  Bo- 
man  teller  enclosed  in  a  simple  border,  with  the  rarat- 
ber's  name  written  by  the  preacher  who  gave  it  on  the 
margin.  In  1816,at  the  suggestion  of  the  nev.Jsbei 
Bunting,  the  ticket  was  a  little  eoUrged  to  give  space 
border  for  the  member'^  name.      In  US, 


n  Mr.  Bum 


ing  w 


wice  as  large  as  b( 


H  checked  the 


In  174'i,  the  societies  having  greatly  increased,  and 
numbering  several  thousand  members,  they  were  fnrmed 
into  classes  of  twelve  or  more  persons,  with  a  properly 
qualified  person  to  lead  them.     In  Februarv-,  at  Bnsloi, 


Iv.  and  a  steward  was  then  appointed  lo  receive  these 
amounta  fmm  the  leaders  weekly.  Claw-leailers  and 
Mewards  were  thus  early  chosen  and  appointed.  The 
Select  Society,  or  Band  Society,  consisting  of  justified 
person*  only,  was  established  in  1742.  Members  meet- 
ing in  band  had  on  their  quarterly  ticket,  beside*  the 
usual  distinguishing  marks,  a  large  B.  Band  tickets 
havi:  been  provided  in  England  regularly  each  quarter 
'  It  Ihey  are  usually  given  now  as  ordinary 


leed,  so 
It  the  letter  B  on  the  tii 


oft! 


and  adding  tl 
head.  The  design  was  thought  by  the  Conference  too 
fandful,  and  three  ticket*  only  of  that  kind  having  beea 
iseued.  it  next  was  printed  with  ■  ray  border  aruuod  it 
in  1823,  and  in  that  form  it  has  appeared  ever  tipi*. 
The  tickets  were  used  to  admit  the  memlins  to  lore- 
feasta,  society  meetings,  and  the  Lord's  supper.  Tbt 
adilition  of  a  few  lines  by  the  preacher  at  tbe  back  <tf 
the  ticket  made  it  a  passport  for  a  member  ti>  any  s- 

Kecently  a  proper  form  for  the  removal  of  niembvn>  Ivi 
been  provided. 

In  1742  Hr.  Wesley  and  John  XeUon  itinentel 
through  parts  of  Yorkshire  and  Cornwall,  establittiinf 
Methodism  in  many  placea.  During  that  year  tbe  m- 
giniulinn  oTMethodism  was  nearly  completed. 

published  in  a  small  tract  of  eight  pages,  with  the  titlt 
rAf  .Vomrc,  Drngii,  ami  Gntrol  RaUm  of  Ot  VtaHi 
SocieHa  in  London,  Brillol,  A'evouf  fe  -  on  -  ryar.  etc 
They  recite  briefly  the  origin  of  the  societies,  and  thoi 
describe  the  objects  and  characteristic*  of  Slethodiio. 
Twenty  editions  of  that  Incl  wer«  issued  during  He 
Wesley's  lifetime. 

In  1748  sick-visilori  were  appointed,  the  leaden  tt 
classes  furnishing  the  names  of  persons  to  be  visited, 
and  the  steward*  supplvuig  pecuniary  aid  when  needed. 

In  June,  1744,  the  'Hm  CoDference  was  held.  H>. 
Wesley  invited  six  clergymen  and  five  lay  pieacbnt 
lo  meet  him  in  London,  at  the  Foundry,  and  five  dan 
were  occupied  with  ila  deliberations.  The  first  jndwicd 
preliminary  ])lans  and  a  discussion  on  justification  i  ib* 
secnnil,  a  discussion  on  sanctiflcalion;  the  third,  on  the 
Church;  the  fourth,  on  diacipline;  and  the  fifib  was  de- 
voted to  the  appointment  of  officers  and  defining  that 
duties.  A  fall  record  of  their  deltbeivtions  was  pre- 
served, and  it  shows  bow  oomptelely  (he  whole  scbese 
of  Methodist  disdpline  waa  oullineil  in  their  eariien  de- 
liberative assembly. 

The  year  I74G  waa  memorable  for  tbe  inquiry  made 
in  the  Conference,  Is  Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  ni  Inde- 
pendent Church  government  most  reasonable?  The 
unrest  of  Mr.  Wesley's  mind  was  deepened  by  corrt- 
spondencc  with  tbe  Rev.  Westley  Hall,  who  had  urged 
him  lorenounce  theChurchofEngland.  Atthaltia^ 
Mr.  Wesley  believed  in  apostolical  succesnon  and  tht 
offering  of  an  outward  aacrifice  by  the  priest.  Tbae 
dogmas  were  sinn  afterwards  given  up  by  him.  On  hi* 
journey  lo  Bristol,  in  January,  1746.  Mr.  Wesley  read 
lord   King's  Inqatry  into  ihe    CaiulitariuM,  /tuLifUm, 


WESLEYANS  9; 

Cnits,  and  FParaUp  o/  tit  mmiliei  Churth.  M  the 
remit  uftbe  diKusaiua  held  in  [lie  Conrerence  of  1745, 
Ut.  \Veal«y  cuiuideicd  bis  lay  belpen  u  deacoDs  uid 
pmbyien,  tad  himKlf  as  a  uriptutal  bishnp.  Lurd 
'King^H  booh  ciinEirmed  LboH  opiiuonL  He  look  lime 
tu  cunoiiler  ibe  wlmle  quwtiou;  aud  u  the  Conference 
uf  1747,  in  a  lertes  of  nine  questions  and  annwers,  lie 
tlMlf  plainly  his  accepunve  uid  adoption  of  a  I'resbv- 
lerian  Turm  of  Church  guvemmeiic.  He  renounced  all 
hi]  Hi^h-Church  nolimis,  and  his  le^pslation  in  Confer- 
ence after  Ihat  date  wa*  based  upon  ibe  convictions 
icroughtin  his  mind  by  lurd  King's  work.     Even  i 


wards,  he  wnile,  '■  I  never  could  see 
pemuacled  I  never  shaU."  His  prefei 
of  England  remained,  hut  his  practio 
■ilh  the  Uiasenurs  in  Church  poll 
Wealey  did  not  for  forty  yean  afiei 
10  the  impositiun  of  bands  in  ordinat 

office;  and  the  fact  of  hia  UyinK-on 
fbre  his  death  was  more  a  mall 
(erring  of  any  apecial  grace  or  <\ 


leyear 


after- 


it  prorol,  and  ]  ai 
ence  fur  the  Church 

ty.    Although  Mr. 

bn,  yet  the  preach- 
part  to  the  paA[oral 
of  hands  shortly  be- 


r  of  funn 


on.  Hefoui 
i  tanil,  and  he  ! 
emnly  set  apart  godly  men  as  Iheir  pastors.  If  ih 
w»  mine  inconsistency  in  Mr,  Wesley's  adhesion  to  i 
Church  of  England,  and  his  establishing  a  Mpar 


In  liK  England  was  divided  into  seven  drcuits,  for 
the  better  cairyiag-on  iif  the  itinerancy  and  the  sys- 
tematic govemmenl  of  the  societies.  Circuit  stewards 
were  that  year  Unt  appointed  and  quarterly  meetings 
liist  held.  At  that  meeting  all  the  finances  of  the  cir- 
cuit were  reported,  receipts  and  expenses,  and  those  re- 
ports were  carried  up  to  the  yearly  Conferenoe. 

In  IT47  a  tract  society  was  oammenced  in  Method- 
ism. HrWesley  had  himself  vrilten  and  published  ■ 
do«n  tracts,  the  wide  distribudon  of  which  waa  made  a 
bleaeiDg  to  many  people. 

The  wisdom  and  forethought  of  Mr.  Wealey  were  clear- 
ly shown  in  June,  1748.  when  he  opened  •  targe  school 
on  the  lop  of  Kingswood  Hill,  Brislnl,  for  the  education 
of  Ibe  children  of  his  preachen.  That  school  Mill  ex- 
Liti;  but  nearly  a  quarter  uf  a  century  since  it  was 
changed  in  its  characur  to  a  Kefurmalory  Schoid,  aiid 
a  much  larger  and  more  convenient  esublishment  was 
erected  near  Bslh  as  the  School  for  Methodist  Hreacb- 
er»*  Children,  which  is  known  as  New  Kingswonl.  In 
IHlit  a  second  school  for  the  same  purpose  waa  pur- 
chased and  opened  at  Woodhnuse  Gmve,  near  Leeds, 
Vorkshire.  For  some  years,  the  latter  has  been  the 
juvenile  school  and  New  Kingswcmd  the  flnishing 
•chonL  and  it  has  taken  high  rank  among  the  Hrar-class 
classical  and  mathemaucal  scbopls  in  Kngland.  There 
is  ■  scheme  under  consideration  for  the  union  of  these 
schools,  or  for  some  enlargement  which  will  admit  of 
the  larger  number  of  preachers*  sons,  owing  to  the 
greatly increasednumberofHethodistpreacbers,  These 
schnuls  have  each  a  history  full  of  interest,  at  least  to 
MethrnliHtH;  biit  no  friendly  hand  has  yet  undertaken  lo 
be  the  chronicler  of  Ihrir  instnirtive  reconla.  Piooi 
those  schools  have  gone  f»nh  youths  who  hare  risen  lo 
the  highest  positions  in  law.  iheulcu^,  and  medicine; 
while  in  commercial  life  Melhndist  preachers'  sons  take 
rank  wiih  the  best  in  the  laiut.  In  the  present  years 
(liVtO-Xlxtbesonofanlrish  Methodist  preacher  is  ihe 
li>rd  mayor  of  London,  be  having  been  also  sheriff  of 
London  and  Middlesex.  .Among  the  senators  in  the 
House  of  Commons  are  sons  of  Metboilist  preachers, 
who  are  distinguisheil  aa  accomplished  speakers  and 
able  legislaloni.  Mo  Iru  than  ten  sons  cif  Methoilisi 
1  have  been  presiilenta  of  the  Melhiidid  <'<pn- 


19  WEyLEYAN'S 

children.  A  public  collection  ia  made  through  all  the 
societies  once  in  the  year  fur  these  schools,  it  was 
appointed  by  Mr.  Wesley  when  the  6nl  school  was 
opened,  and  it  has  been  continued  ever  since.  The  col- 
lection was  intliluted  when  the  salary  of  a  preacher  was 
not  more  than  £12  a  year. 

In  January,  ITW,  a  union  took  place  between  Mr. 
WhiieUeld  and  Mr.  Wesley.  Doclriual  dlfletcnceii  sei>- 
arated  them  ten  years  previously;  but  they  began  this 
year  by  preaching  in  each  otlier's  chapeU,  and  so,  re- 
conls  Mr.  Wesley,  "one  more  stumbling -block  is  re- 
moved." 

In  1761  the  Srst  disruption  in  Methodism  took  plaT. 
John  Dennett,  who  had  been  a  preacher  for  eight  year:', 
separated  from  Mr.  Wesley,  charginc;  him  with  being  a 
pope  and  preaching  popery.  During  the  same  year, 
James  Wheatley,  anuther  preacher,  was  eipelled  by  the 
united  voice  of  both  John  and  Charles  Wesley.  Both 
these  men  for  a  lime  created  picjudice  against  the  Wes- 
leys,  but  the  societies  soon  recovered  their  lost  ground. 

The  Conference  of  1752  agreed  that  the  preachers 
should  receive  a  stipend  of  i;i2  per  annum  to  provide 
themselves  with  necessaries.  Previously  nu  moiieysal- 
ary  was  given,  the  stewards  supplying  ihe  picachera 
sriih  what  they  wanted.  In  Ihe  year  ISOO  the  tInancM 
had  improved  sufflciently  to  allow  the  preachers  i;4  each 
quarter.  Ten  years  later  that  amount  was  doubled  in 
some  circuits,  and  by  the  end  of  the  flrsi  hundred  years 
(1889)  most  of  the  preachers  received  £1  per  week  or 
more,  besides  a  residence  rent-free.  In  1880  single 
young  preachen  n 


!  of  the  leading  ministers 


ranges  from  £ioO  lo  £35u  from 
their  circuits.  Many  excellent  preachers  led  Mr.WeB> 
ley  during  his  lifetime  because  no  provision  could  be 
made  (or  lb«t  wives  and  children,  or  fur  men  worn  oul 

In  August,  1756,  Mr.  Wesley  held  the  first  covenant 
service  in  London.  The  form  of  service  used  is  that 
written  by  that  eminently  holy  Puritan  Richard  Al- 
l«ne.  The  sacrament  of  ihe  Lord's  supper  formed  Iba 
cliaing  part  of  the  service.  It  has  for  many  yean  been 
the  custom  to  hold  the  covenant  service  in  the  afker- 
noon,  or  during  some  pan,  of  the  fint  Sunday  in  each 
year,  in  all  aocielies  belonging  lo  English  Meihoilism. 
it  has  usually  been  a  solemn  but  very  interesting  and 
pmlllable  nervice. 

.  The  G>nferenc*  of  1756  ordered  a  collection  lo  be 
made  yearly  in  all  Ihe  societies,  which  fur  a  century 
was  known  as  the  yearly  collection,  lo  asaist  in  paying 
chapel  debts,  to  help  poor  circuits,  to  pay  the  preacher^ 
small  salary,  to  encourage  the  opening  of  new  preach- 
ing siationi,  and  lo  pay  legal  costs  when  Meihndisis 
had  to  defend  iheir  rights  againiit  men  who  interfered 
with  them.  The  debts  on  chapels  in  ITSfl  were  f4000, 
and  in  1812  they  reached  £IOI>,OOa  Kegulations  made 
durinn  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  provide  against 
any  such  accumulations  of  debt.  The  yearly  coliectioD 
is  made  in  the  sodetv  classes  among  membeisonlv.and 
in  l8Sn  it  realixed  more  than  £K000.  The  (trneral 
KuihI,  as  lirit  originated,  has  changed  its  name  into 
Contingent  Kund,  or  Home  Miiviion  and  CtmlingenC 
Fund.  The  several  ol^eeta  at  fini  to  be  assiste-l  by  the 
fund  have  now  each  •  separate  collection  for  Iheir  nup- 

On  several  occasions  evil-dii<po»eit  persons  had  S[>i>ken 
against  Ihe  moral  charariet  of  some  of  the  preachers. 
Mr.  Wesley,  bearing  of  these  complaints,  cniisert  each 
preacher  to  be  examined  at  the  Conference  of  1759,  and 

ments  for  oB^iders  are  a  re* 
bebire  Ihe  whole  Confervnce, 


ference.  While  n 
due  to  natural  gei 
owe  their  inceplio 
excellent  training  obtained 


md  persevering  eSl■r^  vet  these 

i.wih.  and  success  largely  In  the 

cds  for  preachers' 


I  great  revival  ••(  religion,  which  spread  over  moat 
pans  of  England  and  into  Ireland. 
'    1TG2  Thomas  MaxAeld  aud  George  Bell  separated 


WESLEYANS 


b  them  a  Urge  number 


•J  in  EiiglaiiU,  «iid  Ut  eaublisb  a  Canacctiuaal  prin- 
wbich  alioulii  be  a  bond  oriiniuu  an<l  mutual  help, 
iluties  of  asaistanta  and  helpen  were  deUiied,  and 
welve  ruleH  ot  a  helper  written  and  published.    The 


buuks  issued  frum  the  book-roum,  aiid  the  first  iircach- 
er  ill  each  circuit  baa  acted  as  Cuunectional  boukseUer 

The  Conrerence  of  1763  obKrving  that  aome  of  the 
pre achen  were  almoal  worn  nut  and  unable  to  itinerate, 
it  was  reeommeiided  that  a  fund  be  eatablished  to  re- 
lieve the  urgent  needs  or  euch  as  were  obliged  to  rest. 
Each  travelling  preacher  was  desired  to  cwntribute  ten 
shillings  yearly  to  that  I'und.  For  fony  years  the  pio- 
viiuoii  thus  made  was  utterly  iiiadei|uate  for  the  pur- 
pose designed.  In  1807  the  Cuufereiice  reported  that 
the  fund  was  not  sufficient  to  provide  the  auperaniiu- 
ateil  preachers  and  their  widows  with  even  the  necas- 
sarics  of  life.  Dr,  Adam  Clarke  drew  up  a  plan  that 
year  fur  increasing  the  fund.  Subsequent  conferences 
improved  upon  that  plan,  and  for  a  time  it  was  known 
as  the  Snpeniuiaerary  Preachers  and  Preachem'  Wid- 
ows' Fund,  then  it  was  named  the  Auxiliary  Fund,  and 
in  1838  it  was  further  imjicoved  and  called  the  New 
Auxlliai}'  Fund.  The  preachers  contribute  liberally  to 
it,  and  a  collection  is  made  once  a  year  in  all  theclawes, 
so  that  the  fund  now  yields  a  sum  wbicb  enables  each 


preacher  ai 

d  widow  to  rece 

vc  from  it  a 

early  s 

m 

that  rally  I 

eels  all  the  nee 

essaries  of  life 

and  pla. 

?ach  above 

want     The  Bei 

John  Raltenbury  dcvo 

the  last  yea 

rs  of  his  valuabl 

life  to  perfect 

ngthe 

sour;.'es  and 

administration 

f  that  fund. 

n  1790  the 

C-inlereuce  resdved  that  a 

iieachcr  unable  longer 

to 

who  presided  orer  the  first  Methodist  Conferenca  held 

in  America,  having  enl«rcd  iuto  busii 

the  removal  of  his  name  from  the  Conference  roll,  and 

his  death  was  not  recorded  in  the  Mhatia  when  he 

dieil. 

At  the  Conference  of  1765  It  was  lesol' 
from  London  one  uniform  society  ticket  of 
for  all  the  societiea.  The  first  ticket  so  iai 
February,  1766.  The  ticketa  have  been  printed  and 
sent  out  by  the  book-room  ever  siiit  '  ' 
Conference  it  was  recommended  that  in  speaking  to 
and  of  the  members  of  society  the  words  "brother"  and 
''  sister"  should  be  uniformly  used  as  far  as  practicable. 
Those  terms  are  still  used  by  the  older  preache 


iSI  made  a  legulalinn  that  the 
same  preacher  shall  not  be  sent  above  one  year,  i 
above  two  years,  to  the  same  circuit.  The  timi 
aince  been  extended  to  three  years^  Once,  by  special 
irqueu  of  the  Bible  Society,  Dr.  Adam  Clariie  was  ap- 
pointed a  fourth  year  to  the  same  circuiL  Preachers 
who  have  ceased  to  itinerate,  that  they  may  occupy 
official  positions  in  the  Connection,  are  appointed  by 
the  Conference  to  the  duties  for  a  period  of  six  }-ean 
which  may  be  renewed  at  the  discretion  of  the  Confer 
vnee.    There  ue  about  eighty  preachers  located  in  ol 


fice. 

The  question  wai 

iniiats  Churchmen  < 
ley  replied, "  We  are 


agitated  it 


e  the  Melh- 


ofCbi 

In  176 
oftbeesl 
two  of  i 
Pilmoor, 


WESLEYANS 

aamming  adomiusnt  place  among  tb«chimliM 

.tablishmeut»rMeibulism  in  America.  aoA  i«ii 

ilB  preachers,  Richard   Buardmon   and   .Innepb 

adjust  the  new  society,  and  to  eanvrj  to 

■  proof  of  its  i^'mpalhv. 

The  Conference  of  1770  was  a  veiy'metiHnblr  one 

Metliudisro.     Tu  raise  a  defence  againat  AtititMoiu- 

lism,  Mr.  Wesley  published  a  series  of  ei^ht  {imfioai- 

»is  respecting  doctnne.     These  arouaed  a  fierce  ooi^ 

troversy,  Laily  Uuncingdon.  Rev.  Walter  Shiilty.  aari 

othera  using  their  most  viHVmus  cl&rti  against  Ur. 

Wesley.     Convinced  that  Mr.  Wedey  was  right,  aU  his 

preachers  defended  the  propcsilions,  and  the  Rer.  jolio 


The  Kev.Ueorge  Whiiefield  died  in  Amenni  id  tb« 
September  of  1770,  and  Hr.Weslev  preacbal  his  hmBiI 
sennon  in  both  Mr.  Whiiefield's  iabemacl»  in  Undoi. 

The  year  1777  was  memorable  in  Hcthodism  as  ihM 
in  which  the  foundation  of  City  Koad  Chapel  was  laad 

On  Jan.  1, 1778,  Mr.  Wesley  issued  the  first  atoArr 
of  the  A  mtnun  Magatinr,  a  work  in  defence  of  ge*- 
eral  redemption.  It  has  appeared  monthly  wiibmi  oa* 
intcmiption  for  one  hundred  and  three  yean,  and  is 
nearly  the  oldest  serial  magazine  in  Engtand.  lis  phcc 
fur  thirty-two  years  was  sixpence  each  iasur;  a  Jann- 
ar>-,  lttll,the  price  was  raised  to  one  shilling  niaiiblT, 

years,  when  the  price  was  again  reduced  to  sixpencd 
Soon  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death  the  title  was  changeo  a 
Mtltodiil  Mugaiim,  and  in  18-2:2  the  Hev.  Jabei  Un- 
ling,  as  editor,  change! 

Jfu^ztnr,  which  it  still  retains.     When  [here  wtn 
,  Kngland,  i 


»thed 


It  has  been  i 


:  of  much  revenue  i«  Mrthodiiv. 
iwerful  defender  of  its  doetriMn 
agencien,  and  experience.  Ita  page*  ore  richlv  sumd 
with  valuable  history,  and  instructive  and  predoca  bi- 
ography. 

TheRev.  Dr.  Thomas  Coke,  an  ordaine 
who  had  joined  Mr.  n'esley  in  lT77,wasae 
preside  at  the  Iririi  Coi>ferenc«  in  I'ttt,  and  for  Deailr 
thirty  years  coniiuued  to  preside  over  their  delibna- 
tions,  his  visits  to  that  countn-  being,  on  tbc  wbotc  a 
great  blessing  to  the  people.  In  1784  Dr.  Coke  tni- 
elled  over  England  to  examine  the  trust-deeds  uf  the 
chapels,  and  to  get  them  settled  on  I  he  Conferairr  plan. 

The  last  day  of  February,  ITH.  was  a  nwrnonble  « 
in  the  history  of  Methodism.  To  perpetuate  the  ns- 
tern  of  Methodism  as  it  had  been  formnlaled  by  the  ix- 
perience  of  forty-three  yeoiii,  Mr.  Wesley  had  dnwa  op 
a  deed  of  declaration,  wbich  was  enroUtd  in  the  Crai 
of  Chancorv,  bv  which  one  hundred  mintsien  are  to 
form  the  Annu^  Conference  of  Methodism,  and  the  aio- 
vivon  are  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  once  a  jtmr.  The 
deed  limits  the  sittings  of  the  Confereoce  to  lul  ka 
than  five,  nor  more  than  twenty-one,  day^  and  by  thai 
deed  Methodism  may  be  perpetuated  till  the  a>d  of 
time.  Several  preachem  whose  names  wete  not  indad- 
ed  in  the  first  selected  hundred  took  offence  and  left  tbr 
Connection,  among  whom  were  John  Ilampsoo.  Miin 
and  junior,  and  Joseph  I^lmoor,  who  went  lo  America 
and  did  useful  work  in  the  Church. 

The  Conference  of  1784  fixed  the  lime  ft*  a  pceacba 
to  remain  on  trial  at  four  vears;  it  had  been  !«,  Ssca 
after  the  Conference  Mr. Wesley  otdaJned  Dr.  Oikr.aad 
sent  him  out  to  America  to  be  joint  superiDtendml  ml 
the  Methodist  brethren  in  that  country  with  Fiaarii 
Asbury.  Ho  also  wrote  ainl  sent  an  important  Inter  K 
the  American  societies,  ilaied  Bristol,  Sept.  10,  l^tl.ia 
which  he  embodied  what  to  bim  aeened  ssflicieat  ia- 


WESLEYAtJS 


Siiod«y-Mhoiil»  were  lyiU 


ibridRed 


'Mr-WBleyhim'- 
seir  hail  conducted  ■  SundAy-schonl  in  Geoi^u,  Americi, 
u  early  u  1736.  ]q  1169  Hiniuh  Ball,  a  young  Heth- 
odiat  lady,  couducted  a  Sundat'iKhool  teii  yam  before 
Mr.  Kuikea  bf([an  Ihe  work  in  Glouoeiwr.  Mr.  Wwley 
early  approved  of  the  ayileoi,  ana  one  of  the  earlieft 
letters  wriUen  bv  Itobert  Raikes  waa  published  in  the 
A  rnDuun  Magaziae  for  January,  1786.  That  led  the 
way  lo  Iheir  general  atloption  by  the  Melhodiils. 
1812  Che  number  of  •cholara  in  Methodist  Snm 
scl>n.lB  waa  abnuc  fiO.OOO;  in  1880  the  number  wai 
»^.a06,  wiih  139,472  leachera  in  England,  and  a  i 
wu  eatabliaheil  for  the  Conneclion. 

The  action  Uken  by  Hr.  Wesley  in  1784  in  nrdaining 
Dr,  Cuhe  u  loperinteodent  or  bishop  tn  officiate  in 
America,  and  nrdainin);  Richard  Whatcoat  and  Thom- 
mn  Vaocy  to  act  n  elilert  or  deacons,  was  repealed  in 
the  rollowing  year.  178o,  when  he  ordained  John  Paw- 

the  sacramenU  in  Scotland.  In  1786  he  ordained  .lushua 
Keighler.UhaHes  Atmore.  William  Wirrener,and  Will- 
iam Hammed;  the  two  Uitpr  were  for  mission  Uationa 
abntad.  In  1787  Duncan  HcAlluro,  AleKinder  SaCer, 
and  Jooalhin  Crowther  were  ordained  by  him,  and  m 
1708  John  Barber  and  Joseph  Cnwnley  were  ordained 
elilen,  and  Alexander  Matiier  a  auperinlendent. 
1789  Henry  Moore  and  Thomas  Rankin  were  ordi 
to  have  apecial  charge  nf  the  London,  Bath,  and  Briatnl 
■ocietiea.  and  toadminiaurthe  BBcraments.  Mr.  Moore's 
parchment  of  orders  was  long  in  the  poasemon  of  the 
writer.  Mr.  Rankin,  five  years  previoualy,  had  con- 
vened and  presided  over  the  Ural  Conference  of  Meth- 
■kIisc  preachers  in  America.  These  acts  of  ordination 
were  strongly  apposed  by  Charles  Wesley,  but  such  a 
pniueeding  on  the  part  of  John  Wesley  waa  Justified  by 
ilie  surrounding  circumacancea  of  the  time.  It  was  one 
of  thine  pacilicalery  measures  which  prevented  what 
threatened  to  be  a  separation  and  loss  of  members. 
The  eoiiferences  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death  did  not  recog- 
nise the  "orders"  thus  given  as  confecting  any  superi- 
oritv  of  position  to  the  preachen  thus  onlsined.exeept- 
inK  that  tome  of  them  were  permitted  to  adminiater  the 
Lord's  supper  before  otber  preachen  could  do  so.  Mr. 
Aloure  maintained  his  eup|>osed  rigbls  Co  the  end  of  his 
days,  but  the  Conference  did  not  regard  them.  The 
Coiilerenee  began  to  ordain  preachera  by  the  imposition 
of  hanils  in  1836,  but  Mr.  Moure  was  not  invited  to  take 
part  in  the  ceremoniaL  Tbe  three  ministers  who  first 
laid  hands  on  the  heads  of  young  men  received  into  full 
ooniieciion  in  1836  were  Jabez  Bunting,  president  of 
the  Conference:  Richard  Reece, ex-pre«ident :  and  Rob- 
ert NcHlon,  secretary  of  the  Conference.  Ordins 
ill  this  way  has  been  continued  at  eieiy  aubseqi 
Cuiifeniice,  the  officiating  ministers  being  (he  presii 


chairmen  of  districts,  and  occasionally  the  father,  if  i 
minister,  who  has  s  sou  to  be  ordained.  The  president, 
in  Kiving  ■  copy  of  the  Bible  lo  each,  says,  in  substance, 
■'  Take  thuu  authority  lo  preach  the  word  and  adminis- 
ter the  aacnmenls."  This  takes  place  not  till  after  four 
yeara'  aatiafactury  probitioo,  and  a  thorough  examina- 

Uuring  Ihe  life  of  Mr.  Wesley,  preaching  by  the 
Methodists  wo*  held  at  five  and  nine  in  the  morning, 
five  in  the  afternoon,  and  eight  in  the  evening,  so  as 
not  to  prevent  any  from  attending  service  at  Church. 
The  Conference  or'l7S6  gave  consent  lo  bold  Methi 


,1  WESLEYANS 

alter  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  and  more  liberty  was  given  to 
the  preachers. 

March  29, 1788,  was  a  memorable  day  in  the  hisWry 
of  Methodism;  Charles  Wesley,  the  poet,  entered  into 
rest.  He  had  nu  disease;  "the  weary  wheels  of  life 
stood  BtilL^  He  was  bom  in  December,  1707,  conse- 
quently was  aged  eighty  years  and  three  montha.  He 
wrote  fully  ux  thousand  five  hundred  hymna  and  poet- 
ical pieces,  but  left  bis  widow  in  such  mo<leral«  circum- 
stances with  her  three  children  that  William  Wilbet- 
force,  the  Christian  philanthropist,  sent  her  yearly  the 
sum  of  £60  as  a  gratitude-offering  for  the  soul-com- 
fort he  had  derived  from  her  husband's  hymns  and 
sermons,  and  this  was  continued  till  her  death,  iu  De- 
cember, I8M,  at  Ihe  age  of  ninety-aix  years.  The  death 
of  Charles  Wesley  was  more  deeply  felt  by  the  founder 
of  Methodism  than  any  other  event  in  the  hiatory  of 
the  Connection. 

At  the  Conference  following  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Mr.  Wealey  took  a  review  of  the  ni^y  years  that  had 
passed  since  his  conversion,  which  event  he  considered 
to  be  the  teal  beginning  of  Methodism.  The  sum  of  a 
long  conversation  was  that  Che  Methodists,  in  the  course 
of  fifty  yean,  bad  neither  premeditaledly  nor  willingly 
varied  from  Ihe  Church  in  one  article,  ei  ' 


r  discipline.     Thst 


Ltof  n< 


liiirch   li 


wicked  man  or  preached  Arian  dm^lrines,  or  when  i 
cliurcbea  could  not  contain  half  the  people,  or  wl 
(oe  ebarch  was  three  miles  distant  In  such  cases  i 
preacher  waa  directed  In  read  the  Paalms,  Lessons,  e 


slowly  varied  in  some  points  of  discipline,  b 
preaching  outrof-doors,  using  extemporary  prayer,  em- 
ploying lay  preachers,  forming  societies,  and  holding 
annual  conferences.  These  were  all  commenced  as 
Providence  opened  the  way. 

The  Conference  of  1790  was  the  last  preraded  over 
by  Mr.  Wesley.  Aa  if  premonitory  of  his  death,  two 
committees  were  appointed,  one  to  manage  the  mission 
newly  eaCabUahed  in  Ihe  West  Indies,  and  one  to  super- 
intend Che  erection  of  chapels  both  in  England  and  Ire- 
land A  plan  of  the  order  of  business  in  cunducliiig  (he 
Conference  waa  drawn  up  and  published  in  Ihe  A/iimlti. 

S.  ffilory  of  tht  Waleyan  Bodi/  linoe  Mr.  H'enlrs'* 
Z)ee™».— The  death  of  John  Wesley,  in  March,  1791, 
was  a  blow  ao  heavy  when  it  occurred  that  it  produced 
a  feeling  of  awe  and  submissinn  among  the  preachers, 
which  prevented  the  introduction  of  various  reforms  for 
several  years  which  had  been  contemplsted  and  were 
required.  During  the  whole  year  the  A  nBDiian  Jfa^ 
arms  scarcely  named  Mr.  Wesley;  more  important  du- 
ties devolving  on  both  preachers  and  officers  uf  the  Con- 
nection. It  waa  reaolved  lo  elect  a  president  from  the 
senior  preachers  at  each  Conference,  and  in  other  re- 
specls  to  cany  on  Che  Connection  on  tbe  plan  previoua- 
ly  observed.  England  was  divided  into  districts,  and 
chairmen  appointed  to  superintend  them.  The  num- 
ber of  districts  were,  England,  nineteen ;  Scotland,  Iwo ; 
Ireland,  six.  By  this  plan  the  best  possible  arrange- 
ment was  made  for  giving  to  the  societies  that  careful 
oversight  which  they  bad  previooaly  received  from  Mr. 
Wealey  himself.     Each  dlsti'cf.  was  required  lo  meet 

A  spirit  of  restlessness  soon  appeared  among  some  of 
the  societies  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death.  William  Ham- 
meth,  whom  Mr.  Wesley  had  ordained  to  labor  in  the 
West  Indies,  went  to  America  in  1792  in  seareh  of 
health.  He  made  a  division  iu  the  aociety  at  Charle»- 
,  appealed  lo  the  English  Conference,  and  the  re- 
■raa  his  exclusion  from  the  ministry.  In  Englamt, 
It  least  of  Mr.  Wesley's  ordained  preachers  assumed 
illeofreverend,  wiffeagown  in  the  pulpit,  and  ad- 
uered  Ihe  Lord's  supper  without  the  consent  of  the 
^rence.  During  the  three  years  followiNg.  much 
C  wa»  manifested  in  many  parts  of  England  by  the 
people  asking  lo  have  the  Lonl's  Bupper  aiiminiatereii 
by  their  own  preachers  instead  of  having  lo  go  to 
Church  for  the  puriHMc. 

In  1794  Che  tnistecH  <if  some  Melhodint  chapels,  es- 
pecially in  Bristol,  rafuBCd  to  allow  any  preacher  lo 
iifiiciate  in  their  chapel  who  hail  not  previously  tweii 
approved  bv  them  for  that  purpnoe.     The  dupute  >U 


ttriuol  rail  » 

high  u  to 

^reaUD  > 

diTuion  of 

the 

whole  CoiinecE 

In  I7»B  the  dispute  Willi 

he  Bristol 

quulion  of  (he 

niiusleriiig 

the  Lord'. 

«.p- 

per  to  the  »ocii 

tiei^  h«cl  crt 

«ied  (M  m 

uoh  painful 

re.trh,L,.««, 

e  .  durupcio 

,  ■  plan  or 

dr.wn  up  by  n 

which,  w 

en  approved  by 

»M  submilb 

d  w  the  d 

raa- 

tees,  and  when  accepted  by  them  was  sent  to  the  aocie- 
tiea,  and  wa*  the  means  of  averting  fur  that  year  any 
division.  The  plau  included  nine  points  coaceraing 
public  worship,  and  nine  poinu  coDceming  discipline. 
The  concessions  consisted  mainly  of  authorising  the 

where  they  had  been  practiced  without  the  consent  of 
the  Conference.     Preachers  and  offlcers  who  spnke  for 

be  subject  to  trial  and  penalties.    That  clause 
sisted  so  determinedly  by  ■  few  preaihera  and  ay  very 
many  taembers,  both  in  public  addresses  and  by  the 
n  of  pamphlets,  chiefly 


2  WESLEYANS 

reported  at  lbs  annual  tneeting  that  year  in  support  ol 
the  foreign  miasiooi  being  .£166,498,  while  the  expeo- 
dicure  of  the  year  was  £190.686. 

A  Committee  of  Privileges  was  appoiiitnl  b<  the 
Conference  of  IMUt,  which  then  consisted  of  len  U  tba 

'as  principal  preachers  and  laymen  in  Melbodism.  Its  ori- 
gin dates  from  the  threatened  invasion  of  England  bj 
Bonaparte  in  1802,  when  an  act  was  passed  in  Parlia- 
ment to  raise  a  regular  corps  of  militia.  This  indDilfd 
some  Methodists :  and  a  clause  was  intmduced  to  n- 
empt  the  Methodists  from  drill  on  the  Sabbath,  lit 
Committee  of  Privileges  was  at  first  intended  to  act  io 
defence  of  those  Tights.  Its  scope  and  numbers  wae 
enlarged  in  1811,  when  tbecommitter  waa  ap)»inled  to 
have  the  direction  of  any  lawsuit  which  in  any  way  n- 
lated  CO  the  Methodist  Connection.  Ciimit  ooUeoiaBi 
were  ordered  to  be  made  to  meet  the  outlay  whirb 

re-    might  occur  in  consequence  of  such  legal  procenlinjn 

erv    In  I85S  the  committee  was  established  on  a  bnadcr 

more  permanent  bsua,  so  as  to  include  any  k^ 

ingency  which  might  arise.   It  is 


the   two  pana,  one  for  guarding  Dui  privilege*,  the  otbeafat 

rial,    cases  of  exigency. 

The  Conference  »f  1804  resolved  that  any  itiotiot 
preacher  who  carried  on  any  trade  should,  on  pnof 
'  idedfmm  the  "Itinerant  Plan,"  and fix- 

and  eiccluded  from  (he  ministry  the  Kev.ThatDas  RankiB. 
one  of  the  mnsc  respected  and  most  prominent  of  Hr. 
Wealsy's  pceacben,  wbo,  seeing  that  the  aUowame  made 
to  Bopemumerary  preachers  was  wholly  inadequate  la 
their  support,  preferred  to  enter  inls  buaineas  and  bt- 
coms  a  coal-merchant  raiber  than  impoverish  a  liuit 
already  overtaxed.  That  act  excluded  him  from  tbe 
mtnUtry,  and  at  his  death  he  had  no  record  in  the  ifis- 
utes  (^  Corf/erairt.  An  interesling  tDesKHT  of  bim  wn 
printed  in  the  MelioditI  Uagtmne, 

A  series  of  nine  new  minutes  were  agreed  to  be  Ibt 

1807,  the  fifth  of  which  was  to  the  tf^ 

ip-meetings  nuy  be  allowable  in  America,  tci 

highly  improper  in  England 


d  all  CO 


■a  Kith  t 


Alexander  Kilbam,  one  of  the  pieac 

Conference  at  1796  the  first  business  di 

and  finally  the  espuMon  ftom  the  ministry,  of  Mr.  Kil- 

ham.    Those  who  had  the  direction  of  the  affairs  of  the 

Connection  acted  with  determination  in  this  matter,   thereof, 

but  many  of  the  Junior  preachen  and  several  thousand   fe 

members  coniudered 

The  year  between  the  expulsion  of  Mr.  Kilham  and 
the  Conference  of  1797  was  |)as«td  by  him  in  visiting 
the  societies  in  various  parts  of  England,  to  ascertain 
their  views  respecting  the  action  of  the  Conference  in 
his  case.  The  reeult  was  the  farmalion,  in  the  summer 
of  1797,  of  a  new  Methodist  Connection,  which  included 

five  thousand  members.  That  was  the  first  division  of 
the  Methodist  people  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  and  in 
thirty  years  it  was  followed  by  three  others  all  which 
might  have  been  averted  by  the  exercise  of  more  Chris- '  that 
tian  forbearance  and  the  concession  of  pointa  of  disci-  |  they 
pline  deemed  "  nnn-essentials,"  which  baW  in  later  years 
been  nearly  all  conceded  hy  the  Methodist  Conference. 
The  New  Connection  Methodists  ought  to  be  now 
united  with  the  parent  society,  from  which  they  shonld 
not  have  been  separated.   The  three  preachers  who  sep- 

were  William  Tbom,  Stephen  Everafield,  and  Alexandei 
Cummin,  all  of  whom  assisted  in  forming  the  New  Con- 
nection. The  Conference  of  !(97  issued  a  pastoral  ad- 
dress to  the  societies,  to  allay  as  much  ss  possible  the 

sixty  years  ■  pastoral  address  has  been  annually  issued 
bv  the  Conference,  commencing  with  tbe  year  1819. 

'  The  foreign  missions  of  Methodism  were  considered  the  year  181 1.     Some  Hethodista  had  snakd  ti 

and   recognised  by  the  Conference  of   1788.      Those  ooloay  of  Sierra  Leone  about  the  j'ear  179S.     Early  ia 

missions  were  commenced  by  Ut.  Coke  in   1786,  anil  this   century    a  colored  man,  named   Mingn  JoniBi, 

were  entirely  under  h in  direction  and  management  till  preached  to  the  people,  gathered  a  society,  and  wrote  u 

1791,  when  (he  Conference  appointed  a  committee  of  Dr.  Coke  and  Ur.  Adam  Clarke,  asking  fur  help.     Tbr 

nine  uf  the  brethren  to  aasist  him  in  examining  candi-  Conference  of  181 1  sent  out  George  Warroi  as  tbe  bs 

dates  for  foreign  service,  and  also  the  accounts  and  let-  misaionary  to  that  colony. 

ten  relating  to  the  missions.     The  Conference  of  1798        Some  Methodists,  having  made  their  way  to  the  ed- 

through-  any  of  Australia,  formed  a  class,  and  found  in  one  «' 

ns.     The  the  penal  convicts  who  bad  become  converuil  tbe  fiM 

Men  con-  Methwlist  preacher  in  ibal  vast  comitry.     The  Om- 

!it  uiHler  ferenceof  1813sentoutSamuelLetgh,wholaid  in  A«- 

I  the  aid,  mlia,  broad  and  deep,  the  foundations  of  a  great  Helb- 

un-  odist  Church,  which  numbered   in   1880  fully  69«» 


tbe  earnest  Methodists 

in  Suffolk 

shire  were  of  oeiom 

that  if  camp-meeting 

were  good  for  Amerial  ifaei 

were  equally  good  for 

England; 

aecordin^y,  M  H« 

Coss,  in  that  county, 

csmp-mee 

UK*  were  held :  aad 

for  Uking  part  in  their 

Waiiam  Clowes  Hugh  B™iK. 

and  other  Methodists 

bership:  and  on  being 

xoluded.w'veral  ofihem  nnii« 

D  forming  the  Primiti 

e  Method 

which  has  since  becom 

e  the  mos 

numeroDS  olbhoot  from  the  patu 

tsone^.     ImmnH 

ben  in  1880  numbeted  190,800. 

The  Stat  Methodist 

was  sent  to  Africa  is 

appinr 


neralco 


second  collection  was  made  in  1796,  and  it 
tinued  yearly  ever  wnce.     Theae  missioi 
the  ciinirot  and  management  of  Dr.  Coke, 
though  little  more  than  nominal,  of 
(il  the  year  1813,  when  he  arranged  with  tbe  Confer- 
a  India.    The  doctor  closed 


Dr.  Coke  started  with  a  small  hand  oi'Di» 
ilgrimage  while  cniaeing  the  Indian  Ocean,  sionariea  to  found  the  Methodist  Church  in  India:  aatt 
'  following  year  the  Foreign  Missionary  Sucl-    although  it  has  been  of  slow  gmwlb.  its  btaticltes  are 

haabe-    rapidly  stretching  over  the  continent  uf  India-     fM 

sionary    work  assunied  wider  pmportiona.  and  fouiul  manv  ora 
nindred    fields  after  the  His«nnarr  Society  was  lully  urgaoiBJ 

d  (heir  way  to  nearly  every  country  bd^ 


e'y  was  originated  at  I.ee<1s 

come  one  of  the  most  uJtcfid  and  important  missii 
'nganizaiions  in  tbe  world,  with  nearly  fire  ho 
ministers  and  one  hundred  thousand  members  in  si 
at  the  Cuufercoce  of  1800;  the  voluntary  contribi 


WESLEYANS 


In  OcUiber,  1816,  wbac  ia  now  known  tt  th«  Bible 
ChrislUn  Society  was  founded  at  I^e,  near  Sbebbear. 
Devondhire,  hy  WiUiaro  O'Bn'an.  He  had  been  ■  very 
zealous  MMbrxlist  liieal  preacher;  had  viaiMd  many 

t<i,  and  gatbered  Lhe  people  together  Tor  Teli^ous  wor- 
stiip.  For  doing  jital  what  Mr.  Wesleji  had  done  aev- 
enty  years  bef'ffe,  an  Injudicious  tlethodist  preacher 
expelled  Mr.O'Bryan  from  their  comtnunity;  and  he, 
not  feelinK  It  libeny  lo  discontinue  hia  evangelialic 
work,  mthered  some  of  his  consorts  into  a  small  society 
ill  Uei'onsbire  I  and  in  one  vear  theit  members  num- 
beml  more  than  500.  In  lhe  year  1H80  iheir  member- 
ship in  England  was  21,292;  in  addition  to  those  in 
■Canada.  7254 ;  and  Austnlia,  3605.  Hr.  O'Bryan  died 
in  Atnerica  ■  few  years  tgo  at  an  advanced  a^e.  Their 
HKinhenihip  ia  lai^ly  confined  lo  the  west  of  England, 
vhere  the  society  originated. 

In  tSIH,  what  i>  known  as  the  Children's  Fund  was 
instituted.  Previinuly  Co  that  da(«,  each  preacher  hav- 
ing ■  fainily  was  allowed  £6  per  annum  for  each  child, 
which  sum  wa>  found  to  be  inadequate.  New  arrange 
ments  were  made  in  1818  for  niaing  mure  money 
■nd  for  the  better  management  of  the  hind.  The  ii 
lowance  has  been  £7  for  each  child  for  half  a  century 
but  some  circuits,  by  a  special  effort,  make  up  the  sun 
'to  £10. 

In  1819  important  improvements  were  made  in  th< 
d  the  Conftrence        '     ■   ■      - 


futur 


le  held  in  the 


-early  part  of  the  mouth  of  September  in  every  distrii 
.at  which  all  the  preachers  and  tlewards  "ha  could  were 
Ui  be  present,  to  make  whatever  Knancial  arrangements 
were  required  for  each  circuit  in  the  district,  for  one 
year  prospectively. 

One  o(  the  most  important  acta  done  at  any  Heth- 
-odist  Conference  was  the  passing  of  what  have  nnce 
-been  known  as  the  Liverpool  Minulea  of  1820— a  aeries 
of  thirty-one  reaotutions,  the  design  and  purpoae  of 
which  was  "  the  increase  of  spiritual  religion  among 
-our  societies  and  congregations,  and  the  extensioa  of 
the  work  of  God."  The  reading  of  those  resolutions  to 
the  sudety  at  any  time  since  has  usually  been  fullowed 


The  y. 


r  1820  w 


«hen  iiassed 

■of  delfgates  between  the  Engli 
Methodist  Churches.  The  first  delegate  from  America 
waa  John  Emorv,  who  was  presented  to  the  Conference 
■t  Liverpool  in  July,  1820;  and  wh 
akelcbing  the  pn^reis  of  Hethodisoi 
Iiy,  said,  "  The  two  bodies  would  yet  compaas  tbe 
world,  and  shake  hands  at  the  PaciBc."  That  proph- 
ecy has  been  realized.     Emory  was  a  thin  spare  man 


hirty.fi 


ing  hard  at  h 

(he  Bri^h  Conference 

and  John  Hannah, 


Mgiwat 


llie  first  del^stea  From 
to  America  were  Richard  Reece 
<  attended  the  General  Confer- 
in  1824,  where  they  met  bish- 
ops McKeodiee,  George,  and  Roberts,  and  one  hundred 
■nd  twenty-nine  delegawa. 

The 'missions  to  the  ShetJand  Islands  were  com- 
nenced  by  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  in  1822,  who  found  the 
chief  means  for  their  support  for  ten  years,  when  he 
ceased  from  his  labors.  They  now  |1880)  number  more 
than  twelve  hundred  members. 

What  is  known  as  the  Leeds  orgon  dispute  arose  from 

Chapel  in  1828  against  the  wishes  of  a  large  majcirily 
of  (be  leaders  and  other  officers  of  the  sofie ly.  The  re- 
sult wag  that  more  than  one  thousand  mem  ben  left  Met  h- 
-odism,  and  formed  the  Society  of  Wealeyan  I'micatant 


3  WESLEYANS 

Hethodisls.  They  existed  as  a  useful,  laborious  Church 
for  about  eight  years,  when  they  united  with  a  much 
larger  secession  from  the  old  body. 

In  the  Conference  of  1834,  the  question  of  conunenc- 
ing  an  institution  for  the  educauon  and  training  of 
young    miniiiers   was  considered   and  decided   upon. 

Keece,  Bunting,  Newton,  ;^uhcliffe,  Gaulter,  Scott,  Les- 
sey,  snd  one  hundred  and  fifty  other  preachers.  Against 
the  proposal  were  James  Wood,  Dr.  Samuel  Warren, 

preacheta;  one  hundred  other  preachers  remained  neu. 
traL  Dr. Warren  look  the  lead  in  the  opposition ;  wroto 
and  published  a  pamphlet  against  the  proposal,  which 
was  cooMdered  by  those  friendly  lo  tbe  project  to  be  such 
a  misrepresentation  of  the  facts  as  to  bring  the  doctor  to 
trial  before  a  special  district  meeting.  Ur.  Warren  was 
the  superintendent  preacher  of  the  Manchester  first  cir- 
cuLl-  The  cLTouLt  defended  their  minister;  the  special 
district  meeting  tried,  and  suspended  him  from  office  as 
a  preacher.  An  appeal  waa  made  lo  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, when  the  vice-chanceUor,  Shadwell,  declared 
against  Dr.  Warren ;  in  consequence  of  which,  at  the 
Sheffield  Conference  of  183&,  Dr.  Warren  was  expeUed 
from  the  Conferance  and  the  Connection.  Having  many 
frienite  and  followers  who  sympathiied  with  him,  they 
left  the  Connection,  and  formed  theWesleyan  Hethod- 
ist  Association,  which,  ten  years  afterwards,  numbered 
21,176  members.  In  1867  thev  were  united  with  the 
Reform  Methodists  of  1849-50. 

The  rewilution  of  the  Conference  of  18S4  to  found  a 
theological  institution  was  carried  into  effect  by  the 
Conference  of  1835-Be.  A  committee  was  formed  to 
complete  (he  pcoposed  scheme.  An  old  Congregational 
building,  known  aa  the  Hoxton  Academy,  waa  rented, 
and  used  with  advantage  for  aeveial  yean.  In  183!>, 
Abnev  House,  in  Slake  Newington,  long  the  residence 
of  Sir  Thomas  Abney  and  of  Dr.  Isaac  Watts,  was  taken 
ass  branch  establishment;  and  both  were  used  lo  their 
fullest  capacity  until  [he  year  1841-42,  when  the  hand- 
some college  at  Hichmond  was  completed;  and  about 
lhe  same  lime  the  commodious  inxitutioii  nf  Didsbury, 
near  Manchester,  was  also  ready  for  occupation,  wben 
both  wore  tenanted  by  the  removal  of  the  students  from 
(he  two  London  buildings.  Since  then  another  college 
for  the  same  purpose  has  been  buill  at  Headingly,  near 
Leeds,  and  occupied  fully;  and  a  fourth  college  is  now 
in  course  of  erection  at  liandsworth,  near  Birmingham, 
which  is  to  be  opened  in  1881. 

The  centenary  of  Methodism  was  celebrated  in  all 
puts  of  the  world  during  the  year  1839.  The  Confer- 
ence of  1837  appointed  a  committee  of  ministers  and 
laymen  lo  prepare  a  report  of  the  beat  way  of  observing 
the  occasion.  The  report  was  presented  to  and  accept- 
ed by  the  Conference  of  1838,  and  a  great  Connectional 
representative  meeting  was  gathered  in  Oldham  Street 
Chapel,  Hanchealer.^Not.  7, 1838,  comprising  two  bun- 

impoMng  assembly  of  Methodists  which  liad  ever  been 
held.  Its  deliberations  were  continued  for  three  days, 
To  commemorate  ita  proceeiliiigs  a  large  piclure  waa 
painted,  engraved,  and  pnblistied  by  Mr.  Agnew,  in 
which  were  included  one  hundred  and  four  portrails- 
It  is  generally  known  as  "  The  Centenary  Picture." 
Tbomas  Jackson  presided.  It  surpassed  all  previous 
meetings  for  Chrisrian  feeling  and  pious  beneficence. 
A  Thanksgiving  Fund  was  recummended  as  an  ac- 
knowledgment for  the  great  mercies  of  the  past,  and 
£80,000  was  at  first  fixed  upon  as  the  limit  expected 


from 


No  le 


ilO.IHI 


Chapel,  Londoi 
landgeneruusly  pn>misnl£l4,fi00;  and  by  the  ope 
the  eentenarv  year  the  pMmisea  had  reached  £[ 
by  March  they  were  £150,000;  and  by  the  li 
celebration  was  to  be  ol)9erved  throughout  I 
lion— namciv,  Friday,  Oct. -i&— the  promises  I 
£200,000.    Before  the  fund  was  closed, ' 


WESLKYANS  fl 

£316,000.  Tbeabj«cUU)beb«ieflUdb;lhefu»d  were: 
the  cieoliuD  o(  two  Tbeological  IiudLutiaDs:  the  pur- 
chttse  of  a  Centeniry  Ilall  anil  MiBsion-houN  iu  Loo- 
dun;  the  relief  of  diitreued  cbapels;  tbe  better  nip- 
port  of  worn-out  preichers  midiheir  widowB;  the  build- 
ing afaCealeniryCbapel  ill  Dublin;  and  to  make  pro- 
vinion  for  promotiug  day-schuo]  education.  The  Cen- 
tenary CoDfeTence,  1831),  ipported  an  increMe  of  okri- 
benhipof  over  1G,U0U,  and  US  candidate!  for  the  min- 
inlry.  Tht  year  alter  the  death  of  Mr.  Weeley,  i.  e.  in 
ITUi.  tbe  Melhoiluii  family  numbered  550  itinerant 
preachers  and  140,000  member*  in  (ircat  Britain  and 
America:  in  18S9  these  liguree  were  raised ln5200  itin- 
it  preachera  and  l,ri,000  members  in  society. 


1889  tl 


ir  of  it 


It  IheMrihoiliBt  world  was  41,066;  i 
isierv  ami  members,  6331,112.  This 
very  appropHately  closed  witi 


irouiih- 


.tsl  of  m 


14  WESLEYANS 

nectioii.  and  had  formed  a  new  oue  under  the  deidgn«- 
tion  of  Wetdeyan  Refonnere.  DariuK  the  lamr  tiai* 
the  funds  of  the  Connection  bad  lulTered  so  Hveidy 
that  the  arrears  three  or  four  years  altcrwards  aamani- 
ed  to  about  X100,U00.  The  total  membership  of  Ei^ 
lisb  MetbodisiD  iu  1850  was  reported  at  S5H.^7T.  It 
waa  not  until  iwenty-fii'e  year*  afterwanta  that  Ibc 
membership  a^in  reached  those  fif(ure%  so  that  it  le- 
quired  the  labors  of  over  one  thousuid  paid  miottloi  to 
recover  the  ground  loet  by  those  expulainiu.    Soeb  a 

ference  of  1849  is  not  likely  lo  be  erer  again  repeaiid. 
The  Wcsleyan  Refonnen  had  a  aeparate  enisterKe  until 
the  year  1H57.  when  they  united  with  ibosc  who  stf*. 
rated  in  the  Waneniie  division  of  1^5,  and  fofOHd  Id- 
'ihfldisl  Free  Chun-hca,  havioi:  a 


I  memorable  words 

In  1841  the  Cenlenarj-  grant  of  £2600  for  educational 
purpoaeswas  made  available  fur  the  rounding  of  a  train- 
ing institution  for  elementary  leacbers  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  primary  schools  throughout  the  Connec- 
tinn.  The  necesnarv  funds  for  developing  (he  work 
came  in  sbwly.  The  Normal  Training  Institution  and 
practicing  achooLi  in  Westminster  were  opened  in  1848. 
In  1857  there  were  484  day-schools  connected  with  Hetb- 
odism,  in  which  53,630  scholars  were  taught.  Ten  years 
later  th«e  were  6W  schools  and  100,000  scholars.'  In 
1889  there  eiislfd  847  schools  and  no  les«  rhan  179,.'t7M 
scholars.  An  additional  training  institution  has  alro 
been  established  at  Shoitlands,  Battersea, 
The  dnt  principal  of  the  Westminster  institution  was 
the  Rev.  John  Scott,  and  the  present  principal  is  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Rigg.  The  principal  at  Shortianda  a  the  Rev. 
G.W-.OIver,A.R 

The  dinuption  which  took  place  at  the  Manchesler 
Conference  of  184S  was  the  most  nad  and  painful  event 
that  ever  occurred  in  HeThodism.  A  growing  feeling 
of  discontent  had  for  some  years  been  manifeai*d  by 
some  of  the  preacbeni  at  what  was  considered  by  them 
a  policy  of  dictation  hy  some  of  the  senior  preachers, 
more  especially  by  Dr.  Bunting;  and  certain  fly-sheets 
were  printed  and  circulated  throughout  the  Con 


ip  in  IB80  of  79,477. 
}  amalgamate,  form 


the  Weslev 


.    Rrforu, 


Uni. 

nally  expelled  ministers  in  1849— Mr.  Duim  aud  Mr. 
(iriffitb — still  survive,  enjoying  a  contented  and  bapfiT 
old  age.  Thousands  of  members  were  aliogetber  Inii 
to  Melhodiam  and  to  the  Christian  Church  in  nmr. 
Tbe  Refotmere  ban  an*. 


One  of  It 


tisfaction 

were  embodied.  The  fly-shoeta  were  anonymous. 
About  the  same  time  there  was  published  a  volume 
entitled  CaUmary  Sl^cha  of  Om  Bundrrd  o/  the 
/•romtHeal  MiaUlm  of  the  Comtetum.  That  also  was 
anonymous.  Tbe  Conference  of  1849  resolved  to  ascer- 
tain, by  a  Bystem  of  rigid  questioning,  who  among  the 
preachers  were  the  authors  of  the  aaid  publications. 
Several  of  the  preachers  refused  to  answer  tbe  ifuestion, 
Are  you  the  author  of  tbe  Hy-sheets?  Suspicion  was 
mainly  flxed  on  (he  Rev.  James  Everett,  one  of  the 
senior  preachers.     lie  moat  resolutely  declined  to  an- 

publications,  and  he  was  excluded  fmrn  the  Connection 
for  contumacy.     The  Rev.  Samuel  Dunn,  another  min- 

IM49  a  new  montbly  magazine,  with  the  tiile  of  The 
W/ilry  BaimtT.  lie  had  not  complied  with  an  obsolete 
Meihulist  Conference  rule  which  require*  every  preach- 
er to  publish  works  only  through  the  hook-room.  The 
quesiion  of  the  authorship  of  the  lly-aheela  was  put  to 
him,  and  also  the  question  whether  he  would  discun- 


Rev.  Dr.  Bunting,  bat  other  proi 

ars.     In  ,  truatees  of  chapels  being  severed  from  the  aociely.  aaJ. 
179,.'t7Fi  I  further,  the  withdrawal  uf  so  large  a  sum  of  iDUnry  (iuB 
has  alro    Clmneciional  oljecta.     To  meet  that  em«TgcDcy,  tW 
lemales.  {  Conference  of  1864  inaugurated  what  is  uoyi  knowD  » 
the  Connectioiial  Relief  and  Exlennon  Fund,    (tm 
hundred  Ihuusand  pounds  was  promised  to  that  fund  ia 
1854,  and  the  money  waa  to  be  appropriated  as  loan  I> 
trustees  of  such  chapels  as  were  in  difficulties,  as  gifts 
and  loans  to  improve  Church  properly,  and  to  aid  ia 
the  erection  of  new  Methodist  churches.     Tbe  fund  ■■ 
now  known  by  the  title  of  Eileiuiao  of  Hethodiaii  ia 
iireat  Britain,  and  at  the  Conference  of  1880  the  cm- 
mi  ttee  reported  having  assisted  ninety.ODe  chapeli  either 
in  their  erection  or  enlargement. 

At  the  Conference  of  1 854  the  Wedeyan  Chapel  Fud4 
and  separate  basis.     The  on- 


decltned  to  promise  that 
ceedings  of  the  Conferei 
For  those  offences  he  also 
ministers  were  afterward 
ley,  (he  Rev.  Thomas  Ito 
or  those  procecdineswaf 
Utorc  than  1^20,000  memh 


vasexcluded.  To  those  three 
I  added  the  Kev.  Jamea  Bum- 
'iand,  and  others.     One  result 

irs  of  society  had  left  the  Con- 


■ehasti 


An  important  change  in  the  managetnent  oftbe  grtM 
sectional  departments  of  Melhodisra  was  inaugiiraied 
when  affiliated  amfereneea  were  introduced.  Thr  Ana 
action  was  taken  in  IS4T,  when  the  two  sections  of  lbs 
Methodist  family  in  Canada  were  united  and  made  into 
an  independent  Conference,  hut  affiliated  with  the  Brit- 
ish Conference.  The  New  Connection  Hethodisu  d 
Canada  have  since  joined  with  (hem  so  aa  to  make  one 
united  family  in  Canada.  The  French  Methodist  Ciinefc 
was  made  into  an  independent  ecclesiastical  orgaoio- 
tion  in  1853,  but  affiliated  to  the  British  ConlereDcc 
Australia,  including  New  Zealand,  Pidynesia,  ant  tbe 
islands  oftbe  Pacilic,was  in  1854  created  an  indepen- 

eiice.  The  provinces  of  Eastern  British  North  .America 
were  created  into  a  separate  Conference  in  1854.  but 
affiliated  to  the  British  Conference. 

In  1861  the  Meiropoliian  Chapel  Building  Funil  wal 
inaugurated  for  I  he  purpose  of  securing  the  etrdiou  cf 
lifly  new  Methodist  churchea  in  and  near  Umilon  with- 
in the  period  of  twenty  years.  Sir  Francis  I.ywii 
(then  Mr.  Lyeett)  gave  tbe  princely  sum  of  £60,(100  in 
commence  the  fund,  with  the  proviso  thai  a  siinilai 
amount  should  be  contributed  throughout  the  Couuveiini 
for  tbe  same  object.  The  full  number  of  blly  were  nut 
erected  within  the  period  specified,  hut  the  good  wort 
was  so  far  advanced  thai  Sir  Francis  genenxolv  gave  . 
further  £5000,  shortly  before  his  sudden  drslh'.<>r«.2S, 
1880,fotsecuringtbeeteclionnffiven]urecha|>cli.    One 


WESLEYANS  9- 

cooditioD  was  Lhat  at  lent  one  thouund  ut^ngn  were 
u>  be  proviiled  in  each  rhapeL 

The  Conrerence  of  1873  receiTea  under  iu  fintenDg 
csie  ID  inuitution  called  the  Cbildrea'a  HcniP,  which 
WM  ori^nated  iii  lambelh  in  1B69  by  the  Rev.  Thnma* 
Bowman  Stephenaon,  A.B.,  and  which  had  ileadilv  de- 
veloped into  a  large  establish  menl  for  the  education 
anil  traiaitig  of  deelitute  children.  Its  origin  and  bia- 
u>ry  abound  in  inLcresting  incidents.  Having  been 
originated  by  a  Wesleyan  minister,  and  aupparled  main- 
ly by  tbe  benevolence  of  the  Metbudtac  people,  it  began 
to  Iw  considered  as  a  gieat  Ucthodist  orphanage,  or 
borne  for  the  destitute.  As  an  independent  organiza- 
tioD,  it  bad  expandetl  into  four  eeparate  eaubliahmenls 
— tbeCentral  Home, in fielhnal Green, London;  arrain- 
ioft  inatitution  at  Grafeaend ;  a  farni  school  in  Lanca- 
■bin;  and  a  Home  in  Canada,  to  which  the  children, 
wbcD  trained,  are  sent  to  be  placed  in  service,  and  lo 
get  a  good  sUrt  in  life.  The  Conference  of  1873  recog- 
niaed  the  institution  as  belonging  Iu  Methodinn.  Its 
Rtport  ia  yearly  presented  to  the  Conference,  and  tbe 
same  body  appoints  ita  ofBcera.  Tlicre  were  489  chil- 
dren in  the  H.mes  at  the  Conference  of  1880,  and  a  new 
branch  waa  to  be  opened  at  Binningham.  Ita  proper 
deaignatiun  onwistbeChildren'tHomeaDd  Orphanage. 
At  (he  Conference  of  1873  the  Committee  for  the  I'lo- 
motion  of  Higher  Education  in  Methodtam  wu  instruct- 
ed to  take  Ibe  requisite  steps  for  founding  a  college  for 
Methodut  children  in  the  nniversiiy  city  of  Cambridge 
The  institution  has  been  successfully  founded,  under  the 
management  of  the  Rev.  W.F.Houlton.D.D.,  with  the 
modest  designation  at  present  of  the  Leys  SchooL  It 
reported  100  pupils  at  the  school  in  1880,  and  its  pros- 
perity waa  most  aatisfactnry. 

Artangements  were  made  br  the  Conference  of  1875 
for  Ibe  founding  of  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  Sut 
school  Union.  The  varied  advantages  of  such  a 
alitution  were  recognised  by  the  Conference,  and  during 
the  year  following  the  Union  was  formed,  which  estab- 
lished itself  in  1376  in  new  premises  In  Ludgate  Circus, 
Londun.  At  Ibe  Cniiference  of  IKHO,  [he  committee  re- 
ported 6376  MeihiMiiat  Sumlay-scbools  in  the  Union— 
an  increase  of  Hlleen  per  cent,  in  ten  years;  119,911 
officers  and  teachers  —  twelve  per  cenL  increase;  and 
7*7,143  scholars-an  increase  of  twenty-four  per  cent, 
in  ten  years.  It  ia  in  contemplation  lo  erect  larger  and 
more  convenient  premises  for  the  Union  at  an  eariy 
date  The  Kev.  Charles  K.  Kelley  ia  the  clerical  secre- 
tary of  the  Union,  and  its  chief  advocate  and  cepresent- 

Tha  roost  important  historical  event  of  tbe  present 
generation  of  Methodiils  is  the  introdru^ioa  of  lay  rep- 
resentation inio  the  Conference.  That  was  first  deter- 
mined  npon  by  the  Conference  uf  1877,  and  the  whole 
scheme  of  the  new  arrangement  occupies  nineteen  pagea 
of  the  Mmila  of  that  year.  The  Conference  cannot 
legally  exwnd  beyond  twenty-  >ne  ilays  yearly.  The 
first  fourteen  days  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  Ministerial 
Conference,  and,  the  six  week-days  following,  the  Con- 
ference is  to  consist  of  440  miniaters  and  240  laymen. 
All  Ihe  members  of  the  legal  hundred  are  entitled  tc 
be  present,  and  also  secretaries  of  departments  in  Meth. 
ndism,  some  chainnen  of  districts,  and  oihera.  The  lay 
representatives  are  to  be  all  metnbers  of  society  and 
memben  of  a  circuit  qnanerly  meeting.  The  comli- 
tions  are  specilie<l  with  great  care  anil  minntenesaL 
Filleen  subjects  are  reserved  for  the  consideration  of 
the  ministerial  conference  only,  anil  sixteen  other  auh- 
jacts,  chietly  of  a  HuancisI  character,  are  rescn'ed  for 
the  consideration  ami  determination  of  the  Mixed  Con- 
ference.   The  order  and  form  of  business  are  agreeil 


a  all  tl 


aubjeci 


on.  The  Conference  of  1H78  waa 
the  tint  at  which  the  new  plan  was  adopted.  The  har- 
mony was  complete.  The  experiment  of  ministers  and 
laymen  working  together  waa  a  succeas  of  the  highest 
chancier.    As  a  mark  of.graiitude  to  Goil  for  Ihe  sue- 


WESLEYANS 

of  the  first  Representa^ve  Conference,  four  nioDth* 
r  its  close  the  Thanksgiving  Fund  was  inaugurated, 
which  has  now  reached  in  promisea  £292,000,  but  it  is 
1  the  fund  will  reach  £300,000.  The  conferences- 
tbe  othhoots  of  Methodism  have  from  cheii  origin 
consisted  of  ministeis  and  laymen.  The  parent  society 
.he  last  to  try  the  experiment,  and  some  persons- 
Burprised  that  it  was  not  a  failure.  This  action 
on  the  part  of  the  \F^ealeyaa  Conference  was  the  fint 
really  aggressive  step  towards  the  union  of  universal 
Methodism.  Tbe  (Ecumenical  Methodist  Congress  of 
10  be  heU  in  London,  will  be  the  next  impiHtant 
step  towards  the  accompliahment  of  that  object. 

There  are  many  minor  points  of  Methodist  history, 
which  the  limited  scope  of  this  article  cannot  include. 

I[.  i>octrtMi.~The  following  brief  outline  contains 
a  nimmary  of  the  principal  doctrines  believed  and 
taught  by  the  people  known  as  Wesleyan  Hethodiata. 

I.  That  there  is  one  God,  who  is  infinitely  perfect, 
tbe  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Governor  of  all  things. 

!.  That  the  Scripturea  of  the  Old  and  New  Tests,  are 
given  by  divine  inspiration,  and  form  a  complete  rule 
of  faith  and  practice. 

8.  That  three  Persons  exist  in  the  Godhead— the  Fa- 
ther, the  Son.  and  the  Holy  Ghost — undivided  in  essence 
and  coequal  in  power  and  glory. 

4.  That  in  Ibe  peraon  of  Jesus  Christ  the  divine  and. 

erly  God,  and  tnily  and  properly  man. 

b.  That  Jesus  Christ  has  become  the  propitiation  for- 
the  sins  of  the  wholb  world ;  that  he  rose  fiom  the  dead ; 
and  that  he  ever  liveth  tu  make  inrercession  for  us. 

B.  That  man  was  created  in  righleousness  and  tme 
holineaa,  but  that  by  his  disobedience  Adam  lost  the 
purity  and  happiness  of  his  nature,  and  in  consequence 
all  his  posterity  are  involved  in  depravity  and  guilt. 

7.  That  repentance  towards  God  and  faith  in  our 
Lord  Jesns  Christ  are  itecessary  to  aalTation. 

8.  That  JuatiUcatton  is  by  grace  through  fsith;  and 
that  he  that  believeth  bath  tho  witness  in  himself,  and 
that  it  ia  our  privilege  to  be  fully  sanctilied,  in  tfae- 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  by  the  Spirit  of  out 
God. 

9.  That  man's  salvation  is  of  God,  and  that  if  he  is- 
cast  into  hell  it  is  of  himself;  that  men  are  treated  by 
God  aa  rational,  accountable  creatures;  that  it  ia  God. 
that  wnrketh  in  ua  to  will  and  to  do  of  his  own  good 

uon  with  feat  and  trembling;  that  it 
man  lo  fall  Snally  from  grace. 

10.  That  the  soul  is  immortal,  and  t' 
it  immediately  enters  into  a  si 

II.  That  the  observance  of  the  Cbriatian  Sabbath  is 
of  perpetnal  obligation. 

12.  That  Ihe  two  sacramenta.  baptism  and  the  Lord's 

supper,  are  instilniions  of  perpetual  obligation. 

The  doctrines  of  Methodism  are  explained  in  Mr. 
Weeley'a  Sfrmoni,  and  in  his  Solf  on  the  New  Test, 
which,  with  tho  small  volume  known  aa  the  Lfiriir  Mm- 
vlei,  form  the  authorized  standard*  of  both  doctrine  and 
discipline.  The  doctrines  preached  by  Mr.  Wealey  were 
those  of  tbe  Church  of  England.  When  it  became 
necessary  fur  him  to  make  a  selectiou  of  ihem  f»r  Ihe 
use  of  his  followera,  be  printed  Ihem  in  a  met  with  ihe 
Me  ApptiiU  to  Mm  of  Seiiiin  and  ftrlii/iim.  The  mi»t 
complete  lummary  of  them,  with  Scripture  pnnirg,will 
be  found  in  the  catechiiim  usr<l  by  the  McthiHlijiia. 

IlL  l7o«(i(in'w«,imf/'..%.— TheSIembersMf.S.-jie- 
iy  are  tlie  basis  of  Metlindixm.  Fmm  among  Ilicm  "re 
selecteil  the  preachers  and  all  the  olficem  of  Ihe  Church. 
The  preaehcrsraav  he  l.■la^«ed  umhr  the  fxllciwing  hpa.la; 
Ihe  president  anil  secretary  of  Ihe  CHufrrrm-e,  chiiir- 
men  of  districts,  financial  secrelnrie'.ollicial  or  Imatnl 
ministers,  aupcrinrendenls  of  circuits,  mini 


I  possible  for 


nnuated  minislers,  local  preaeheia 


WESLEYANS  9 

Offlf^iol  lay  mcmben  ire  clauifieil  under  Ihe  fullawing 
lieiils:  truateeB,  local  preichen,  clasa-l«ad«n ;  circuii, 
■uciely,  chapel,  *nd  poor  atewardi:  treuuren,  stcreu- 
ri«s.  and  msinbeis  of  camtnittee  o(  varinus  inalJUitions, 
Buperiiilenilents  and  lc*chen  of  Sunday -Khouls,  niis- 
Bionary  coUectora,  and  othere. 

The  varioiM  meelinga  or  aMcmU 
Ihe  Methwiisu  are :  the  Conference, 
tional;  district  and  minor  dulrict  meelings ;  and  ibelbl- 
lowiiig  local  or  circuit  meetings;  namely,  quarterly, 
leaden',  local  preachen',  band,  claiB,  sociery,  and  prayer 
meetinus,  and  love-feaata.     These  in  addition  to  the 


WESLEYANS 


li.)  qffi«. 

tit  Con/trnn: 
■e  preac; 


reof  tt 


legal  h 


dred  are  placed  berore  the  Conference,  ■  balluC  it  taken, 
and  the  preacher  haviiif;  the  highest  number  of  votea 
is  nanieil  to  the  legal  hundred,  by  wham  Ihe  choice  is 
onfinnetl.  The  ncreury  la  elected  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Both  retain  otBce  till  the  nexl  Conference,  when 
the  aecreiaiy  may  be  re-elected.  The  president  can- 
not be  re-elected  until  after  the  lapse  of  eight  years. 
The  Kev.  John  Parrar  it  the  only  pretident  re-elected 
during  the  past  thirty  years.  Tlie  president  it  in^etl- 
"le  power  of  two  membei 


official  n 


.ings,  aupplies  vacancies  ii 


iniMty, 


sanctions  changes  in  appointi 
similar  authority  when  the  Conference  ia  not  silting  to 
that  of  a  bishop  in  the  Melhodiat  Epiacopal  Church  of 
America.  He  is  the  chairman  of  [be  district  where  he 
is  located,  a  member  of  Ihe  Stationing  Commitlee,  and 
has  an  assistant  appointed  by  theConfereuceto  aid  him 

{■}.)  The  cAainaan  of  At  ditlrir*  exercises  the  au- 
thority of  a  bishop,  or  overseer,  in  the  locality  to  which 
he  is  appointed.  He  convenes  and  presides  over  the 
annual  district  meeting  beld  in  May,  and  the  financial 
one  held  in  September,  at  both  which  all  the  preachers 
residing  in  the  district  are  expected  lo  attend.  He  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  ctrrj'ing-out  of  all  the  rules  and  utagts 
of  the  Connection,  Ihe  proper  conduct  of  religious  wor- 
ship, the  care  of  all  the  Methodist  Trust  properly  in  the 
district,  the  payment  of  the  preachers' salaries,  tiie  mak- 
ing of  public  collections  and  their  proper  distribution- 
He  has  to  examine  candidates  for  the  ministry,  and  U> 
direct  what  ministers  are  to  attend  the  Conference.  He 
has  authority  to  visit  any  part  of  his  district.  He  is 
.chosen  annually. 

(3.)  The  financuil  tanlary  has  to  assist  the  general 
treasurers  of  the  various  funds  to  liantact  all  the  flnan- 
cial  busineaa  of  the  district  to  which  he  belongs. 

(1.)  Offirial  or  located  Mimiltrt These  are  princi- 
pals or  profeMors  and  tutors  in  collegei  and  teminiriet, 
book  stewards,  missionary  aecrelariea,  secretaries  of  oth- 
er Conneciional  agencies,  edilois,  and  house  governors 
of  Iheolngical  colleges. 

(o.)  Snpfrintende^t  are  those  minislers  wboae  names 


olBce  constitutes  si 


.elistofai 


The 


Hea< 


miifl  and  excludes  members  with  the  consent  of  the    t);e  o 
leaders,  directs  all  Ihe  public  servicet,  meets  Ihe  cla 
quarterly  and  gives  each  member  a  ticket,  keeps  a 
of  all  the  officers  and  members  in  society,  registers  dei 

to  ihcir  religious  experience,  examines  and  instn 
candidates  for  the  ministry,  has  to  distribute  the  bo 
published  at  the  book-room  and  to  pay  for  the  (lame  | 
flaarterly.  to  appoint  the  collections,  and  see  all  moneys 
■ieA  irantmitleri  to  the  treasurers;  and  is  responsi- 


lingt  as  mi 
circuit  plan 


rrMie 


those  who  are  sick  or  infirm,  and  assist  the  MtperiDlnid- 
ent  in  the  general  work  of  the  cireuii.  They  are  en- 
titled to  be  present  at  all  society  and  dislrict  meelingn. 
All  such  ministers  were  designated  as  Helpers  during 
Ihe  lifetime  of  Hr.  Wesley. 

(7.)  MiniiUn  on  ^rial.— When  a  young  man  hu 
been  examined  by  the  quarterly  meeting  and  recnm- 
mended  therefrom  as  a  minister  on  probatiao,  be  is  wnt 
usually  to  the  district  meeting,  thence  to  the  Confer- 
ence, and,  if  accepted  there,  he  may  be  sent  for  traioing 
to  one  of  Ihe  four  theological  calleges,  where  he  may- 
remain  one,  two,  or  three  years.  A  conne  of  study  ia 
marked  out  for  each  year.  He  must  pass  a  yearly  ex- 
amlnalion  and  be  well  reported  of  by  hia  examinnv 
The  Confereoce  has  made  salisfaetiiry  provision  fur  hn 
having  a  supply  of  suitaUe  books  and  proper  inaimr. 
tioQ  in  pursuing  his  studies.  Probationen  may  allend 
quarterly  and  district  meetings,  but  they  may  not  viwh 
They  may  not  administer  tbe  sacmnenls.  eicvpiii^ 
baptism  in  a  case  of  great  emergency.  They  may  not 
marry  while  on  triaL  They  are  speeiallr  under  tbe 
care  of  the  superintendent  until  received  into  fall  c«i- 
nection,  which  it  not  till  they  have  completed  four  yraia 
of  probation.  The  act  of  being  received  into  full' con- 
nection ia  one  of  the  most  imporlani  in  the  career  tf 
■  miniater.  Having  passed  several  examioationa  witlt 
a  good  report,  he  is  presented  lo  the  Conference.  Tw» 
evenings  during  each  Conference  are  set  apart  for  this 
work.     On  Ibe  first  the  young  men  give  an  account  of 

outpouring 


is  ollen  attended  with  i1 


le  Divii 


■a  the  I 


e  presidenL    The  y 


le  presidnu 


questions  asked  by  l 
men  are  Ihen  formally  and  p 
imposition  of  hands  of  the  preaident, 
eral  senior  ministers  in  Ihe  legal  hundred,  th 
saying.  "  Mayeat  thou  receive  the  Holy  C 
office  and  work  of  a  Christian  minister,  now  ootDinitied 
unto  thee  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands.  And  be  thna 
a  faithful  dispenser  of  the  Word  of  God  and  of  the  holy 
sacramenta,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  f^ 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghual.''  After  each  young  man  baa 
received  the  gift  of  a  smsll  Kble,  tbe  pnwdent  ny^ 
"  Take  thou  authorily  to  preach  tlie  Word  of  Uod,  and 


Shortly  after 
certilicate  of  his  admi 
of  the  Larse  Miimlti.  in  which  are  inscribed  the  fidlnw- 
ing  words,  signed  by  the  president  and  secretary  of  tbe 
Conference;  "As  long  as  you  freely  oDnse^ltI^  and  ear- 
nestly endeavor  to  walk  by,  these  rules,  we  shall  njoiee 
tu  acknowledge  you  as  a  felkiw-laborer."  On  tbe  sec- 
ond evening,  the  ex-preeident  deliiers  to  the  newly  or- 
dained I  ministerial  charge,  which  is  usually  printed. 
Most  of  the  young  minittert  enter  ihe  married  stale  a 
few  days  afterwards. 

(8.)  Sipfrtiumrraivt Hinislera  w 


1  perfor, 


their 


bli^l 


.-.mfuBcc 


lork  are  placed  in  ihis  class.  Many  n 
obliged  lo  retire  from  Ihe  full  work  for  one  or  nHn 
years  to  rest,  and  afler  recover}-  of  strength  reeune  cir- 
cuit work.  At  the  Conference  of  1793  it  was  resolved 
Ihat  "every  preacher  shall  be  considered  as  a  super- 
numerary for  four  years  alter  he  has  desisted  from  trav- 
elling, and  shall  afterwards  be  deemed  superannualed.' 
All  supernumerary  or  superinniuled  ministers  are  re- 
quired to  meet  in  class  to  retain  their  membership  in 

to  be  a  member  of  tbe  legal  hundred ;  bni  this  rale  baa 
been  set  aside  by  special  vote  of  the  Conference  in  rec- 
ognition of  some  important  Conuectional  scnicc    A  an- 


WESLEYANS 

fwrnunienrj  who  enlcn  iaio  biiriaen  i*  nnt  entitled 
have  hia  nunc  ictwiied  on  the  jouniil  of  the  Conference 
a»  a  miiiiMer,  aad  his  death,  if  occurring  while  he  is 
businew,  is  not  lecorded  in  the  Miaalf.  The  praviii 
now  made  fur  Hiperaumenry  miniicen  and  their  wi 
oWB  )»  otM  of  [uoderale  competence. 

(9.)  LoaU  Pr/aden,  or  ZJly  Fitadim—This  di 
vt  woikers  ia  u  old  as  Hethodism  itaelf.     As  early 
the   year  1738,  Hr.  Weslev  had  a  lay  helper  nimed 
Hamphreva,  vbo  left  in  1789.     In  Hav,  1T39,  Thom- 
as Maxileld  waa  conreited ;  he  became  Mr.  Wealey'a 
first  lay  helper  in  London,  and  John  Ceunicic  was  the 
Ant  lay  belper  in  BristoL    Pmm  tbii  body  of 
neaily  all  the  minialera  have  been  *elecl«d.    1 
prcachen  must  be  accredited  membera  uf  aociely,  men 
of  piety,  of  conaiatent  life,  of  good  undentanding, 
fair  ability  aa  apeakers.     They  generally  begin  bv 
honing  in  cottage  meetinga  or  tniaaion  rooms,  . 
when  conudered  capable  of  addressing  an  audience  tl 
arv.  after  preaching  ■  trial  aennon  before  a  eompeteiit 
judfce,  admitied  on  trial  and  have  ippointmeiils  on  the 
plan.      They  are  examined  as  to  Lheir  knowledge  uf 
<li«trine  and  Church  government  and  their  call  to  the 
wiirk.     After  a  year's  pn>baliuii,  and  having  passed  sat- 

and  been  passed  by  the  quarterly  meeting  of  Church 
oRlceft.  they  are  reeeiveil  as  accredited  local  preachers. 
Many,  by  the  exercise  of  their  gifts,  aoon  qualify  them- 
selve«  fur  a  wider  sphere  dF  ministerial  workj  others 
TCinain  at  hocne,  following  their  daily  occupslions,  and 
preach  every  Sabbath,  often  to  targe  coiigreeaiions. 
without  any  financial  cnnsideraiinn.  Lay  preacliers 
bare  alwava  been  held  in  much  esteem  in  Melhoilium, 
and  were  ihn^t  so  highly  of  when  Mr.  Wesley  died 
that  they  had  special  nocice  in  the  inscription  ou  the 

Metbodism,  where  he  was  described  aa  "  the  patmn  and 
fnend-of  lay  preaehera."  Methodiam  for  a  full  century 
wa*  greatly  indebted  to  the  lay  preachers  for  their  ser. 
vices,  valuable  aa  teacheis  of  divine  truth,  but  especial- 
ly HI  because  rendered  gratuitously.  They  have  hith- 
erto looked  alone  to  Cod  for  their  reward,  and  through 
•heir  labors  chouaands  of  sinners  have  teamed  Che  way 
to  G<>d  and  heaven  who  would  otherwine  have  lived 
and  died  deatilute  of  the  knowle<1ge  of  both. 

2.  Ofifiiit  Lng  JfemVrs.— (1.)  TnufwA— The  office 
«r  tni'leei  in  Methodiam  is  one  of  great  reeponailHlity. 
They  hidd  the  pniperty,  mostly  freehold,  belonging  to 
the  Connection,  in  truai  for  the  Conference,  and  are 
theimelves  responaiUe  for  the  diacharge  of  the  debts 
eonnecied  with  their  respective  trusta.  During  the  life- 
time of  Mr.  Wesley,  there  was  diversity  in  the  drawina 
of  the  lruac-deeds,and,consequenlIy,  in  the  pow 
)f  the  Conni 


WESLEYANS 


Wesley,  aiid  publi 


!d  by  bim  iu 

persou  In  his  clasi 


e  neceaaity  for  it  was  shown 
'  D  at  BriatoL  During 
'    n  London  and  else- 


'  their 


wtlltog  tc 


To  advise,  reprove,  cc 

To  receive  what  the; 
snpport  of  the  Qoapel. 
ety  mco  a  week,  In  ordCT-  "'"  '""  "'""™" 

To  Inform  the  mtnlater  of  suy  that  are  sick,  or 
thai  walk  disorderly,  and  will  nut  lie  leprored. 

Ti>  par  to  ibe  atewarria  what  the;  have  received  ( 
several  claHMa  in  the  week  preceding,  and 

To  show  their  account  or  what  each  peraon  ha>  wm- 
trlhaled. 

The  original  nile  uf  Methodiam  was  that  each  mem- 
ber contribute  one  penny  weekly,  and  one  shilling  quar- 
terly when  the  tickets  of  membership  were  given.  Even 
at  the  beginning  of  Methodism,  and  throughout  it* 
whole  hiatory,  there  have  been  members  who  gave  six- 
pence, or  even  one  shilling,  weekly,  and  live  or  ten  shil- 
lings quarterly,  K>me  twenty  shillings.  Among  the  poor 
(be  original  ruls  is  the  standing  order.  Aa  early  aa 
1748,  leaders  were  recommended  to  meet  in  other  classea 
to  promote  growth  in  grace.  Leaders  are  really  resident 
local  pastors,  and,  aa  such,  have  in  thousanda  of  instances 
witnessed  many  moat  glorious  and  triumphant  deaths. 
IrfBiiers  are  chosen  by  the  superinieudent-pteacher,  and 
nominated  by  him  at  a  leaders'  meeting,  the  vote  of  the 
meeting  fixing  the  appointment.  Some  good  and  useful 
rs  have  been  appointed  at  as  early  an  age  as  six- 
teen years  in  times  uf  special  revival.  Leaders  are 
ibers  of  the  quarterly  meeting  of  society  officers. 
.)  CirruU  Sleaardi.  —  The  most  important  of  the 
lit  officers  is  the  circuit  steward,  who  manages  alt 
the  finattces.  There  are  generally  two  in  each  circuit- 
They  receive  and  pay  all  accounts,  and  report  the  items 
U>  each  quarterly  n>eeting.    They  are  expected  tc 


When 


steward  makes  the  necessary  arrangemem 


ough  w 


He  is  the 


u  been  prepared  with  great  a 


which  are  likely  to  arise.   S 

pita  whom  they  did  not  apf 
clesiastical  powers  of  Iruatee 
Pacification  drawn  up  and  p 

ConJ?rrnrr  for  1794-95.  Thi 
ex  nffirio  the  chairman 


Trual 


I  emergencies 
ime  trustees  nave  had  pow- 
any  preacher  to  their  pul- 
oint  or  approve.  The  ec- 
I  are  defined  in  the  Plan  of 
ihliahed  in  the  MimUu  of 
aunerintendent- minister  is 
iiiRii  of  trustees,  and 


all  n 


behalf  ul 

( j.)  CZoM-lnulrra. — These  are  persona  of  pi 
ligencc,  and  ability,  who  are  appoint 


appointed  to  he  sd- 


:  of  the  members  of  soci- 
ety divided  into  small  companies,  varying  in  numbei 

Bixording  to  circumaunces,  from  aix  to  aixti  persona,    "fT.V  aee  Ibnt  the  collection  .   

either  malentfemale.or  aometimes  mixed.   The  simple    speHfled  u|Hm  Ihe  cirFuh  plan,  and  to  tiihe  charae  of 
condition  of  membership  is  "a  desire  to  flee  from  the    them  un ill  llifv  rm  he  di-Uvered  Into  the  rlahi  hnndi, 
■mth  to  come."    Mr.  Wealey  himself  waa  the  first  class-  I  ,„  wh„''^fli''i*,p"In"il 
leader.      The  oSce  of  leader  waa  not  iiisiiiuied  until !  ihnt  ibehesj-cn^e'.  if 


I  rule,  the  office  of  steward  ceases  at  the  end  of  the 
ear,  and  no  steward  ia  to  remain  in  office  above  thive 
ura  in  succession,  except  in  snme  extraordinary  cases. 
They  are  appointed  to  office  by  Ihe  quarterly  meeting, 
.  the  nomination  of  the  superintendent-minister. 
(1.)  Chapd  itneardi  are  appointed  by  the  trustees  to 
let  and  relet  the  ailtlngs  in  a  chapel,  to  recmve  the  mon- 
ey for  the  same,  and  pay  it  into  the  hands  of  the  treas- 
urer for  the  tmatees.  They  are  expected  to  see  that  the 
chape]  ia  kept  in  proper  repair,  to  have  it  made  ready 
for  public  worahip,  and  to  transact  any  budneea  connect- 
ed with  Ihe  chapel  which  can  be  done  without  oiling 
the  truatees  together. 

(&.)  Society  srewonb  are  intrualed  with  tbs  dnancial 
affiursof  a  particular  society.  Where  the  members  are 
few,  only  one  is  appointed,  but  two  is  the  tuual  number. 
Their  buriness  ia — 

1.  To  attend  the  leaders'  meetinga ;  to  eiamhie  the 

books  at  the  leaders,  snd  to  receive  the  moireya  which 

their  members  have  contrlhnied  since  the  laat  leaden' 

meeting. 

t.  To  prepare  proper  notice' for  Ihe  pulpit  of  all  that  Is 


irship,  a 


0  lhe< 


Mry  before  p 


rei-peclive  chepela.  i 


WESLEYANS 

Thar  are  cboscn  j'earJy  on  the  nominati 
inlendeui'miniBler,  the  lead*™'  meeting  appmriagot  re- 
jecting a»  they  eee  beat.  It  is  recoiDmeaded  that  each  aa 
ciety  steward  may  be  either  changed  annually.or  one  eact 
year  alteniately,  so  aaiflreuiu  one  whu  knows  Che  du ties 

(6.)  Poor-ilt^ardi  receive  and  disburBe  Itie  money) 
gircti  Tut  the  pour.  The  collections  taken  at  Ihe  Lord'i 
■upper,  and  at  love-feaaU  gf  the  society,  are  thus  dis- 
tributed. Tbey  attend  the  teideni'  meeting,  and  pay  tc 
the  lesdem  any  eumi  which  are  voted  fur  needy  or  iieIi 
membera,  monthly  or  quarterly.    A  special  eoUectii 


WESLEYANS 


U  Sund 


wyei 


yields  from  five  lo  ten  ahillinga  for  each  poor 
The  puor-stewards  provide  the  bread  aiid  wine  lor  tne 
Lord's  aupper,and  the  bread  and  water  for  the  love-fcasta. 
Preachen  who  have  wine  alter  preaching  are  supplied 
by  the  same  etewarda. 

(7.)  Treaiureri,  Mertlariti,  and  membtn  of  toimmt- 
Iff  of  the  various  inslitnliona  connected  with  Method- 
iaoi  are,  to  some  extent,  oRlcea  held  by  intelligent  and 
respectable  members  of  the  congregations,  who  are  not 
always  nenibers  at  society,  but  persons  of  iotegrity, 
whose  consistent  Christian  eendnct  entitles  them  la  the 
confldence  tbereb]'  reposed  in  them.  Uany  persons  and 
families  are  by  these  means  retained  in  Hethodism  who 
would  be  likely  to  drift  into  other  communities  of  Chris- 
tians, but  for  their  being  thus  employed  in  the  woric 
Persons  so  occupieil  generally  find  their  way  into  soci- 
ety classes,  and  so  become  recognised  members. 

The  teachenand  elder  scholars  in  our  Su  ml  ay-schools 
render  important  services  as  collectors  for  the  Foreign 
Missionary  Society.  Forty  yean  ago  a  special  effort 
was  made  to  secure  the  services  nf  the  Sunday-school 
Children  as  collectors,  first  of  Christmas  offerings.  In 
this  way,  £4000  and  ££000  was  soon  raised  as  free-wiU 
offerings  at  Christmas  and  it  New-year's.  Afterwards, 
those  young  persons  were  organized  into  a  Juvenile 
Missionary  Society,  and  hy  their  aid  a  considerable  sum 
is  brought  into  the  funds  of  the  socieCv.  No  less  a  sum 
than  £16,567  was  collected  by  the  juvenile  associations 
for  1880,  which  was  one  sisth  of  the  entire  ordinary  io- 

(II.)  Official  Meetmni—i.  The  Con/ermce  is  the  high- 
est court,  and  the  only  legislative  body  in  Methodism. 
During  forty  years,  all  the  power  of  the  Conference  was 
vested  in  Mr.  Wesley.  By  the  Deed  of  Declantion 
enrolled  in  chancery  in  ITM,  the  Conference  was  made 
to  consist  of  niie  hundred  preachers  in  connection  with 
Mr.  Wesley's  society.  In  1791  was  held  the  flnt  Confer- 
ence after  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  and  was  the  first  organised 
accnrdinj;  to  the  deed.  By  the  provisionB  of  that  deed 
Methodism  is  made  perpetual.  The  resolution  of  the 
Conference  of  1791  was  "  to  follow  strictly  the  plan  which 


Mr.  Wealev  lefl," 


This 


when  the  Conference  resolved  upon  two  chsnges  ;  first, 
to  Hll  up  one  vacancy  in  four  in  tlie  legal  hundred,  not 
by  seniority,  as  previously,  ImiI  by  nominations  from  the 
whole  body  of  preachers  who  have  travelled  fourteen 
years  or  upwards.    Second,  li>  give  preachers  of  folly 


idmgaii 


)rilyto 


er  for  election  into  the  hundred,  and  also 
election  of  Connectional  oSicers.  The  legal  hundred 
alone  has  ti>  confirm  such  elections.  From  the  time  of 
Mr.  Wesley's  death  lo  the  year  1878,  only  preachers  were 
permitted  to  be  present  ni  the  Conference.  Following 
the  example  no  successfully  set  them  by  the  (ieneral 
Conference  of  the  M.  E.Oiurch  in  America,  the  English 
Conference  of  1877  resolved  to  admit  laymen  to  partici- 
pate in  their  proceedings  in  such  matters  only  as  did 
not  strictly  bdoiig  to  the  ministerial  office.  Tlie  time 
for  cuntinuing  the  deliberations  of  the  Conference  is 
limited  to  twenty-one  days.  Two  weeks  are  now  ile- 
voted  to  the  Ministerial  Conference,  and  the  third  week 
lo  the  Mixed  Conference.  This  is  composed  of  an  equal 
number  ('240)  of  ministers  and  laymen.  In  this  brief 
summary  only  an  outline  of  the  business  of  each  Con- 
ference can  be  given. 


X  embnccs  the  following 


sudldales   fur   tbe 


The  UifiiitH-ial  CoB/k 
items  of  business,  namely 

1.  Flllliig  np  vacancies  in  the  legal  hundred. 
!.  Election  ofpresldent  and  secrrtarj. 

4.  Pn&ic  pruyer-meetlnt 

«.  ReeepOoii  of  representatives   from  ot 

^Consideration  of  cases  of  character  and  discipliae. 
8.  Appointment  ofcommlllees. 
».  Appeals,  niemorlsls.  notices  of  motion. 

10.  OrdlDsllon  of  ronng  mlnlslera. 

It'.  ObUuaries  oruilnlstera,  with  remluisaKiea& 
n.  Alternllons  and  dlvlilousof  clrcDlia. 

14.  Stations  or  miniglen. 

W.  SMllsilcs;  nadiuc  pastoral  addreiv. 

15.  Convetsatlun  on  the  work  of  Ond. 

11.  Pastoral  reports  of  co1Iege^  acboals,  ale 
IS.  Book  aOUrs,  and  review  orilierainra. 

18^  Addreeses  lo  the  Cunltoience  and  replies 

til.  Ondal  appolotmenis  and  depntntlon*. 

11.  Reports  sod  mlscellineoDa  busiueta. 

The  business  of  tbe  Mixtd  Cmi/trtact  may  ba  this 


1.  Calling  Ihe  roll,  and  address  uf  the  president 
t.  RecepilDn  urmemuriali,  aod  nollcea  or  motlc 
B.  Couflderatlon  othnme  snd  foreign  mlssluoa. 


or  Methodism. 

.. elating  to  chapels. 

7.  The  Children's  Fund. 

\  Home  missions  and  Cunlingent  Fond. 


i.  Funds  relating 
J.  The  Child  '^ 
ii.  Home  mis 


rasud  Widows'  Fnnd. 

11.  TbSDloglcal  Insiitntlon, 

II.  Edncatlnn  ;    General    Committee,  BniidaT.i 
Tnion.  and  Children's  Hume.  ^  ' 

IS.  Higher  education. 

14.  Committee  urpilvllegea  and  BxIgenCT- 
lit.  Conversation  on  the  work  orO<>C 
1«.  RellEl^ns  obwrvaute  or  ibe  Sabbath. 


ML  ReodlnR  aud  signing  ilie  Conference  JoDmal. 

2.  Dutrict  mtttingi  originated  at  the  first  ConfereiMe 

after  Mr.  Wesley'adeath  in  1791.    They  correspond  very 

much  to  the  annual  conrerencea  in  the  M.  E.  Church. 

Their  deliberations  occupy  from  two  to  five  days.    Tbe 

business  transacted  may  be  thus  briefly  slated.     At  tbe 

r,  when  ministere  only  are  present,  inqai- 

regariliiig  each  minister  and  prcAiationcr 

as  to  moral  and  religious  character,  adherence  to  doc- 

le,  attention  to  disdpline,  ability  lo  preach,  marriages, 

iths,  resignations,  and  whether  fully  employed :  num- 

of  membera  in  society ;  reports  from  Home  Misooa 

the  work  of  {ioi;  reports  uf 


.of  pre. 


ihall  attend  Confermcr. 
When  the  cireuit  stewards  join  the  ministers,  the  fuDda 
are  separately  brought  under  couHderation,  much  io  tbe 
same  manner  as  at  the  Mixed  Confereikce,  each  circuit 
being  brought  under  consideration.  The  district  meet- 
ing is  usually  closed  by  a  sermon  from  one  of  the  leading 
preachers,  and  by  the  administration  of  tbe  I.ord'i  sup- 
per. The  financial  district  meeting,  held  in  September 
yearly,  was  uriginaied  at  the  Conference  of  1819,  Kheti 
important  changes  were  intmduced  into  the  sysctm  of 
fliuince.  The  finances  of  each  circuit  are  arranged  and 
determined  for  a  year  at  that  meeting. 

3.  Quoilrr/y  mttiingi,  as  their  name  indicalea,  are 
held  in  each  cireuit  imce  in  three  montbs,  about  the 
time  of  the  usual  quarter  days.  All  the  stewards,  clas»- 
leadensand  local  preachers  uf  at  least  one  year's  siand- 
iu|C  may  attend.  The  superintendent-minister  preside*. 
A  secretary  records  the  names  of  those  pment,and  tbe 
<ns  adopted,  and  any  other  business  transacted. 


The  s 


Ij  the  si 


report  the  amount  of  moneys  receiveit  from  the  das 
the  salaries  paid  to  the  preachers,  house  rent,  and  ot 
expenses,  and  the  accounts  are  balanced  each  quar 
Conversations  are  held  upon  tbe  progress  of  the  w 
in  each  society,  and  reports  of  pioneer  work  dtrisil 


•ranis 


WESLEYANS  94 

The  qaaneilr  metling  in»y  be  aUled  ■  circnit  Corfec-  I 
fuce.  The  origin  orihese  meeliiigs  dales  from  tfae  fint  { 
ten  years  or  tfae  history  or  Methudism  ;  bul  Ihe  6nt ' 
time  Ihey  weto  introduced  by  Mr.  Wesley  wu  at  Ilie 
Conlerence  of  1749,  though  stewards  were  appointed  sad 
ehant;e<l  several  years  previously.  After  1749  Ibey  be- 
canH  part  of  tbe  economy  of  the  Conpecttoo. 

4.  Leadtri  nmfnjM  were  originally,  and  Tot  half  a 
century,  held  weekly.  Their  purpose  wsa  to  pay  to  the 
steward  K-hat  money  they  bad  received  rrom  the  mem- 
ben^  For  many  years  thai  moDey  was  distributed  by 
the  stewanls  among  the  poor.  It  now  goes  towards 
ibe  support  of  the  ministry.  The  meetings  were  used 
for  receiving  reports  of  sicit  and  poor  membeis,  and 
also  for  gii-iiig  such  counsel  and  directions  to  the  lead- 
ers lu  wouki  be  likely  to  promoM  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  their  classes,  and  tbe  spread  of  the  work  of  tiod. 
The  au|>eriMtendent-preacher  presides,  and  no  meeting 
of  ihe  leailers  is  legd  without  a  preacher  is  present  to 
presidp.  Since  tbe  death  of  Mr.  Wesley  the  powers  of 
tbe  leailers  have  been  increased  considerably;  they  can 
vein  ibe  admission  of  members;  leaders  and  stewards 
<in  be  sppoiiiled  or  removed  only  with  their  consent; 
(bey  also  give  consent  for  the  adiDinisiration  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  and  for  making  special  coUecUons  on 
Ihe  Sabbaih  fur  any  benevolent  purpose.     In  some 

ihat  is  the  case,  they  know  but  little  of  spiritual  pros- 
perity.    The  poor  fund  is  distributed  here. 

5.  lAirol  prtaAtrt'  laedingM  are  usually  held  seven 
days  before  the  qnsrteriy  meeting  of  the  ciicuit.  They 
are  occasions  of  pleasant  and  profitable  intercourse. 
After  an  hour  spent  in  taking  tea  together,  the  super- 
iuieudent -preacher  presides,  a  secretary  records  the 
nimes  of  those  present,  and  a  suuimary  of  the  proceed- 
iiies.  The  names  are  called  over,  and  inquiries  made 
as  (u  their  appointments,  especially  when  neglected. 

n»ement ;  any  revivals,  or  evidences  of  either  prosperi- 
ty or  adversity,  are  reported  and  considered.  Occa- 
sionally new  preaching  starionsare  accepted,  and  young 
men  are  examined  belbre  them  hefure  being  received 
i.n  trial,  and  again  before  they  ant  received  on  full  plan. 
The  services  of  local  preachen  are  all  gratuitous.  A 
Yorkshire  country  local  preacher,  when  asked  what  re- 
ward he  received,  said, "  1  preach  for  nothing  a  Sunday 
and  keep  myself."  Local  preachers  are  expecied  to 
conflue  their  labors  to  their  own  circuits;  they  are  all 
to  meet  in  class,  and  are  allowed  to  have  frum  the 
book-room  publications  at  the  trade  discount.  Ac- 
conling  to  rule,  they  may  not  bold  lore-feasts,  but  tfae 
rule  is  often  broken. 

6.  Band  meelmit  are  the  oldest  society  meetings 
connected  with  Ifethodismi  but  they  have  quite 
changeil  their  originai  design.  Band  societies  were 
established  before  Methodism  had  a  separate  existence. 
In  December,  1738,  Ur.Wesley  drew  up  the  Band  Rules, 
which  were  printed  and  circulated.  AH  who  were  jn»- 
tifled  by  faith,  who  knew  their  sins  forgiven,  were  ui^ed 
to  lueet  in  band,  snd  "to  confess  their  faults  one  to 
another,  and  to  pray  for  each  other."  It  was  a  more 
strict  or  searching  form  of  class  meeting.  For  more 
than  sixty  years  ihey  were  kept  up  in  England;  but  in 
IW)6  the  Gmference  complained  that  fellowship  meet- 
inRS  were  taking  the  place  of  band  meetings,  and  grad- 
ually they  have  done  go:  band  meetings  for  personal 
•xaminntion  and  confession  are  almost  unknown  now; 
the  meetings  now  held  under  that  name  are  generally 
-an  the  evenings  uf  ^tunlay,  as  a  preparation  fur  tbe 
Sabbath,  and  (hey  consist  of  singing,  prayer,  and  (he 
relation  of  personal  religious  experience.  They  are  led 
by  one  of  the  ministers,  and  usually  continue  one  hour. 
from  eight  to  nine  o'clock. 

7.  CliiH  meettvfii  may  be  said  to  be  the  origin  as 
well  as  the  life  of  Methodism.  The  first  little  company 
«f  persons  who  came  to  ask  advice  about  their  souls 
were  met  weekly  by  Mr.  Wesley  himself.     This  kind 


9  WESLEYANS 

if  meeting  of  persons  who  were  desirous  lo  "  Aee  from 
he  wrath  to  come,  and  to  be  saved  from  their  sins,"  were 
«nljnued  through  the  years  1740-41,  and  tiU  Kebnc 

ary,  1743,  when  classes  were  organizeil,  hrat  at  Brislol, 

then  at  London,  and  soon  al^er  throughout  England. 

Their  original  purpose  was  to  raise  funds  to  discharge 

a  chapel  debt ;  I ' 


my  spir 


ualbl 


ings  that  Mr.  Wesley  introduced  il 
ciety  could  be  formed.     In  May,  1743,  he  published  the 
first  edition  of  the  AuJa  of  the  society.     Class  meet- 
ings are  under  the  directioti  of  a  leader,  who  has  under 
his  or  her  care  from  six  to  twenty,  or  even  as  many  as 
sixty  persona,  who  meet  once  a  week  for  mutual  eilifi- 
cation  and  encouragement.    The  members  relate  their 
religious  experience,  hear  each  other's  progress  in  the 
divine  life,  and  receive  from  tbe  leader  suitable  counsel 
d  direction.     These  meetings  have  no  resemblance 
the  confessional  of  secret  orders.     The  meetings  are 
a  purely  social  character,  and,  to  leiulet  Ihem  profita- 
!,  candor  and  wmplicity  are  blended  with  faithfulness 
d  affection.    The  membere  contribute  each  at  least 
e  penny  weekly  towards  the  support  of  the  ministry. 
8.  Soditjf  mnliagi  are  convened  by  the  preacher, 
d  consist  of  members  of  tbe  society  usually.    After 
iging  and  prayer,  the  preacher  delivers  an  address 
respecting  (heir  religious  duties.  Christian  experience, 
and  general  conduct.     The  rules  of  tbe  society  sre  oc- 
casionally read  and  expounded,  and  their  principles  en- 
forced.    Seriously  disposed  persons  are  permitted  lo  be 
present,  and  they  are  invited  to  become  members  of  so- 
ciety.    These  meetings  sre  frequently  held  on  5unday 
evening  after  Ibe  unual  public  worship.     They  are  held 
ibers  to  meet  in  class  when  there  have 
indifference  manifested, 
are  a  revival  of  a  custom  practiced  by 
"Christian  Church.     Tbey  are  conducted  by 
r,  who,  after  singing  and  prayer,  desires  (he 
stewards  to  give  to  each  person  a  small  piece  of  bread 
or  cake  and  a  drink  of  water,  after  which  a  collection 
is  made  for  the  poor.     The  minister  then  relates  his 
Christian  experience,  and  those  present  follow  him  in 
giving  their  own  experience.     About  two  hours  are  oc- 
cupied for  these  meetings;  they  are  usually  held  quar- 
Icriy,  soon  after  the  violation  of  the  classes,  when  the 
tickets  uf  membership  are  given.    Those  tickets  en- 
band  meetings  and  love-feasts, 

10.  Praijer  mcelingi  are  appointed  by  the  superin* 

and  are  held  at  such  times  as  best  suit  the  convenience 
of  each  locality.  Oike  should  be  held  in  each  society 
at  seven  o'clock  on  Sundav  morning;  in  some  places 
one  is  held  for  half  an  hour' before  tbe  evening  service, 
and  again  after  the  evening  service.  One  week-day 
evening  is  devoted  fur  one  hour  fur  public  prayer,  and 
once  a  month,  generally  the  Hist  week  of  the  month, 
home  and  foreign  misNons  are  specially  prayed  for. 
Much  good  has  been  {lone  by  holding  such  meetings 
in  cottages,wilh  the  permission  of  their  occupants.  A 
monthly  prayer  meeting  held  by  Suikday-schnol  teach- 
ers and  the  older  scholars  has  been  a  great  blesMng  in 
many  schools;  and  it)  other  ways  the  union  of  officers 
and  members  with  the  public  in  such  meetings  has 
been  the  cause  of  many  revivals.  The  first  meeting  in 
the  month  of  society  classes  is  generally  a  prsyer  meet- 
ing instead  of  sn  experience  meeting;  by  this  means 
many  gain  that  confidence  which  they  need  (o  encourage 
them  to  pray  ui  tbe  larger  gatherings.  In  some  places 
members  are  employed  a*  prayer- leadent,  to  condiwt 
such  meetings  in  cottages,  halls,  warehousea,  and  faclo- 
ries.  Cases  sre  nn  record  of  very  poor  |lel»I•1l^  who 
hail  a  remarkable  gift  in  |>rsyer,aM)Direil  by  close  and 
frequent  communion  with  Cud  in  priva(e,  having  been 
made  a  special  blewing  in  the  locality  where  they  re- 
sideil.and  often  revivals  of  religion  have  resulted  from 
(heir  |iersistent  devotion  (o  prayer.   Any  cburoh  which 


been  neglect  at 
9.  Aoce-/™. 


WESLEYANS 


WESLEYANS 


baa  well   aucndrd  prifer-r 
prsyen  from   n»iiy  I 
proepcrity.     Prayer  i 


ourage  a 


odiam  ve  an  urigiiial  conipilalioii  fcom  William  Feinx'i 
PHiKiglrt  and  Polity  of  the  Walryan  HethoduU;  Alia- 
Hla  uf  Conferaia ;  and  the  peraoDal  experience  of  ■ 
fiftv  vran'  membenbip  in  tbe  aociety. 

IV.  Slalitlia  (number,  uf  memben,  el*,).— 1,  Sla- 
liMlicM  o/Ettglitk  .Mrt&xKfin.— During  twenty-five  yean 
rrorn  the  nrigin  of  Metliodixo  no  recnrda  or  "  Minulea" 
or  Conference  were  publishedj  and  if  any  Matiatica  were 
taken  of  the  »cieUea  generally,  tbey  have  not  been 
printed,  excepting  part  of  thnee  relating  to  the  audety 
in  London.  The  year  1766,  which  wttneeeed  tbe  com- 
mencement of  Methodiam  in  America,  was  memorable 
alio  as  that  in  whicfa  Lhe  dmt  record  was  printed  of  tbe 
number  of  Hetbodiats  meeting  in  claaa  in  England. 
From  that  year  we  have  a  continuoua  leeord  to  the 
pieaent  time. 


Y-. 

n-™,u. 

P~-.™ 

U«.^ 

JloSZ^ 

M 

~  w 

w.ooo 

TflT 

W.911 

17,841 

TIO 

BO 

118 

SS 

m 

M 

BI.SW 

1« 

48 

160 

sslsi* 

n* 

M 

88,800 

Bern 

tIB 

H8«l 

m 

168 

BS,eJ4 

1178 

N 

41,067 

at 

41,488 

M 

4B,88>1 

aa 

44,l«l 

IIM 

M 

4B,7!S 

m 

180 

191 

48,M6 
4>,I87 

7W 

IBU 

ai« 

58,148 

81068 

788 

106 

MS 

8«:a76 

IBB 

BM 

lo.sw 

7«0 

81,488 

Death 

of  Mr. 

We-ley. 

mi 

181 

tso 

7*.476 

ITM 

19B 

406 

7a,i78 
7S,i4B 

17M 

1W 

«B6 

88.88S 

M 

448 

4«e 

M^Wt 

mi 

474 

M,ai8 

IIM 

CB 

4M 

101, Tig 

IMW 

SI  6 

loolwi 

M 

IRTOS 

8,801 

I80i 

97 

7.8M 

1808 

1,160 

WH 

l*^m 

D.(6Bi| 

1S«8 

IS 

«to 

1BI,SJB 
I4i:i«B 

^06^ 

»,S41 

*,4I>9 

D.  (i-ewi 

I6W 

inio 

!U 

Iretnd 

iai,r!i 

ISI.WI   ' 

10,788 

flse 

7,017 

HIS 

1 

iBs.rioa 

18H 

pfl 

ll^iiSS 

•inns 

ISIS 

is*n 

816 

onn 
70» 

iwiowi 

isw 

71S 

«ll|3«t 

I4B 

818 

ifi» 

ie!« 

BM 

SU 

«,Bt>» 

890 

1948 

i4l<lM 

7;»w 

8ja 

Ml.SHt 

S.SM 

i,n«s 

HM 

wnlint 

isai 

3M 

tssisij 

OJiM 

1884 

308 

t»\\ita» 

11.001 

1886 

iHO.SSS 

D.  [161) 

880 

«I3,1S* 

tw 

1837 

B* 

«*«»a 

D.(4»i 

1888 

887 

»a,8ai 

4,IW 

1888 

404 

1003 

mMi 

]IC»J 

1840 

3^1,178 

1841 

itisan 

lOM 

BJ17K 

D-Itas 

1848 

4!S 

*,»-. 

1844 

4M 

iin 

887|6«8 

tfiX* 

1846 

4» 

840,778 

8,190 

480 

486 

SS8,3TB 

D.  KOM 

IMS 

488 

8SM.WI 

^pw 

848,  «I4 

*,4I) 

1S60 

448 

3Ba.in 

lOOqS 

IMO 

B*>i,snB 

D.  {s«.«aE| 

400 

»i.^ 

D.  Um 

ISRS 

D.  [lo.tw 

1188 

BIS 

1666 

18M 

468 

1667 

>M 

■,!» 

1888 

484 

M4 

sItm 

488 

888 

ii 

484 

•08 

ll 

1S8S 

4»8 

HO 

1884 

BM 

inm 

O-iM) 

1888 

DBS 

1UB8 

840 

1018 

^'m 

1887 

ui; 

1888 

680 

UlO 

18«) 

SK 

1110 

1811 

T>.  n.881 

ierl 

s; 

1»8 

&  ill* 

1874 

«4S 

siiiMB 

8S> 

18SS 

86e:o8i 

t^. 

878 

1884 

BTIKS 

14:8:4 

884 

140U 

B8«,t8a 

1878 

BsS^sje 

D.  [l|419] 

i^ 

780 

sre' 

_^;!^_ 

B.|v~j 

%„ 

„.. 

z-^ 

"so.,™" 

-ssr.- 

4488 

86,681 

6818 

S.  Ilrdir  nf  Public  CoUtttkmi  m  JCngtiik  Mrtkodint. 

Nun*  ij  C'lhnlmi,  Wbn  Urfh 
Wvm-eut  JTinfaEtfa  and  tluir  WUoo^  f^md. 

Ci.ntrlball[>na  Id  cluM* May. 

Public  cnlleellona Jn^. 

flsfH  JKarinu,  etc. 

Cknitrlbntliint  Id  elBaaea llaRli. 

Pnbllc  olleciioiu Ocmbei. 

Pnaehtri  CAlUnn'a  SeKoaU. 

BnhacTlptloD*  and  colleclionii November. 

rHicleaial  IntUtuUttu. 

SnlMcrlpthma Jaunatr. 

Ci.riectiW I>,c™bt>. 

Grnrral  Chaprl  fVtiif Fehmari. 

KdueatioH  Mind Miiti. 

nrrian  Mimmu Mat. 


WESLEYANS  9i 

V.  iHitauHota  iBid  Fundi.— (I.)  Sfkoob.— There  it* 
four  theological  iDUilucions  in  EiijilaiiU  dir  Ih«  (raining 


^raredeKrilwdi 


a  rollowi 


1840-11  tarnely 
ODI  of  tbe  Centenary  Fund,  and  opened  in  1842.  Ii  ia 
a  rtry  hand>oin«  range  oC  liuildiiiKB,  sinuate  on  ibe  top 
ofKicbmond  Hill,  alwut  twelve  miles  from  London.  Ita 
nioen  are  as  follows:  J.  A.  Beet,  U.D.,  aysleiuatic 
iliwlogy ;  Daniel  Sanderson,  house  govemiir ;  biblical 
Hierarure  and  t-xctteBi",  W.  T,  Davidson,  M.A.;  clas- 
^o  and  mat  hematics,  J.  G.  'I'aBber ;  asaistant  tutor,  E. 
0.  Barratt.  M.A. 

■i.  Di-Uarg  Hnmch,  erected  1S42-43.  partly  uut  of 
llic  Ceiilenary  b'nnd,  is  situated  a  aboit  distance  from 
.Maucbosier,  anil  wa*  openeil  in  1848.  I'be  fulkmiug 
are  its  olflcen:  Marshall  Randies,  iheolngy;  Richanl 
(iteeii,  house  (p)vemiir!  W.  F.  Slater.  M.A.,  biblical 
literature  and  exegeMs;  classics  and  mathematica,  R 
V.  Muh;  auisUnt  tutor,  A.  B.  Walker,  RA. 

3.  fteadinjUi  Braxtk  waa  erected  in  1666-67  (and 
opened  !«»),  partly  by  a  grant  of  £12,000  from  the  Ju- 

■  bilee  Fund  of  the  Wesleyan  MiiMonary  Society.  It  is 
situated  a  short  distance  from  Leeds,  Vorkshire.and  was 

fureign  misainnary  wutk.  That  deaigii  has  since  been 
changed,  and  the  Richmnnd  Branch  is  now  used  far 
miisiimary  Hndenta,  ai  being  nearest  to  the  Mission 
Muiute  in  London.  Its  staCT  is  as  fdlnwai  J,  S.  Banks, 
iheology;  (J.  S.  Rowe,  hoUM  governor;  U.G.Findlay, 
B.A.,  biblical  lileralure.  exege«s,  and  clatajcsi  anist- 
anl  Ultur.  J.  A.  Barnes,  B.A. 

4.  Birntimihiini  BtiiacJi,  erected  partly  out  of  a  hand- 
■unw  gift  of  £10.000  by  a  gentleman  residing  in  that 
locality. .S>lDm<>ii  Jevons,  is  mw  (I8»0|  in  course  of  erec 
tinn.  The  site  of  tbe  new  college  is  a  fine  esuieof  sev- 
enteen and  a  half  acre*,  adjoining  the  suburb  of  Hands- 
worth,  in  the  midst  of  an  undulating  and  well-wootleil 
tract  of  coinitry,  about  three  miles  from  Birmingham. 
The  college,  of  which  the  memorial  stones  were  laid  in 
June,  leSO,  by  Sir  Francis  Lycett,  WillUm  Mewbum, 
Isaac  Jenka.  and  James  Wood,  was  opened  for  the  re- 
ception of  students  in  September.  ieR],at  acostofaboni 
£24.000.  The  buildings  include  studies  and  bedrooms 
for  seventy  students,  a  library,  large  leclu re-hall  and  fiie 

us,  dining-hall.  all  necessary  oflicfi 


uid  » 


Detachei 


5,  M.A. 


for  the  theological  and  clas 
niceas  of  erection  on  the  ilie. 
:  is  founde.1  upon  the  (lothic 

Facultv:  F.  W.  Macdonald. 
luso  eovcrnori  R.  N.  Young, 
II    tutor,   R.   M. 


b.  Tht  Lryi  School  (Cambridge^—Thia  achool  ha* 
recently  been  established  in  the  belief  that  a  school  in 
tbe  immediate  neighborhood  of  one  of  nor  great  uni- 
versiciea  would  enjoy  special  educational  advantages. 
While  the  general  teaching  and  discipline  are  in  the 
bands  of  resident  Wealeyan  masters,  classes  in  various 
subjects  are  committed  to  the  care  of  able  visiting  ma»- 
tem.  The  Rer.  Dt.  Moulton,  one  of  the  New-Test,  re- 
visers, LI  the  head-master  and  prindpal. 

&  Primiiiy  Eiluaitioa.—\t  wis  not  until  about  the 
yeu  1846  that  the  Wesleyan  Conference  would  uke  ac- 
tion in  promoting  the  establishment  of  elementary  day- 
■cbonla.  In  IS^I  Ibe  >inl  Normal  College  and  Prac- 
ticing School  was  opened  in  the  city  of  Westminster. 
It  bas  been  a  great  success,  and  is  now  di^'ided  into  two 
branchea  for  male  and  female  teachers. 

7.  Wtttntiiultr  Traimai/  CoUrgt  was  opened  Oct.  7, 
IS51,  and  adapted  for  male  students  only  in  January. 
1874  During  the  year  1879  120  atiMieins'were  in  train- 
ing. aU  of  whom  passed  the  certlHcaie  examinations  at 
Christmas,  1879.  The  college  accommodatea  131  stu- 
dents. >nd  117  are  now  (1889)  in  training.     Theexpen- 


.1  WESLEVANS 

diture  of  the  college  for  the  year  ending  Dec  31,  iS7f^ 
was  £7984  0*.  3i,  and  of  tbe  prMticing  schools  £223» 
6i.2<i 

8.  Saulhlaiidi  Trnialng  Colltpe  (Battersea,  near  Lon- 
don ),  for  female  students,  was  opened  Feb.  -26.  1872. 
During  the  year  1879  106  stitdenis  were  in  training,  all 
of  whom  passed  the  certidcate  examinations  at  Christ- 
mas, 1879.  The  college  will  accommodate  109  siudenla, 
aiul  109  auidenta  are  now  in  training.  The  cost  of  the 
college  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  81, 1679,  was  £4271 
ISs^  lOii.,  and  of  the  practicing  schools  £694  5).  6ii. 
The  number  of  Wesleyan  dsy-Bchools  in  England  in 


9.  ITetliy  CoU^  (Sheffield)  was  opened  in 
1844  it  was  conatitnted,  by  bet  majesty's  warrant,  a  col- 
lege  of  the  University  of  Landon,  and  empowered  lo  is- 
sue certiflcales  tn  candidates  fur  examinatiun  fur  the  de- 
grees of  bachelor  of  arts,  master  of  arta,  bachelor  of 
laws,  and  doctor  of  laws.  The  directors  award  a  schol- 
arship  of  the  annual  value  of  £40  (tenable  for  one  year) 
to  the  youth  who  shall  be  certified  as  tbe  best  pupil  of 
his  year  at  Wuodhouse  Grove  School  The  Holdeo 
Bcbolarship,  also  of  £40  per  annum,  is  usually  given  la 
Kingswooil  School  Two  others  of  £20  a  year  each, 
given  by  the  late  P.  Spooner,  are  open  to  boys  resident 
in  Sheffield.  The  late  Sir  Francis  Lycett  also  estab- 
lished two  scholarships  (tenable  for  two  yean)  of  the 
annual  value  respectively  of  £S0  and  £S0.  These  are 
held  Ly  the  two  students  from  Wesley  College  who 
Bland  highest  in  the  honors'  list  of  the  Lundon  Univer- 
uty  at  the  matriculation  examinationB  coinciding  with 
the  time  when  the  scholarshipsfall  due.  The  college  ia 
examined  and  reported  on  tuenuially  by  the  syndicate 
□f  Cambridge,  which  is  appointed  bv  the  University  for 
the  examination  of  schools. 

10.  Weilryaa  CoUfffiule  IntlittaUm  (Taunton).— This - 
institution  was  founded  thirty-eight  years  ago,  in  1843, 
tbe  object  of  its  founden  being  to  secure  a  sound  litera- 
ry and  commercial  education,  comlnned  with  religions 
instruction  in  harmony  with  the  principles  of  the  late 
Rer.  John  Wesley.  In  1846  it  was  also  made,  by  royal 
charier,  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  University  of  Loudon, 
and  degrees  in  arts  and  lawsare  open  to  all  its  students. 

\l.  Schoolt  for  Mmuttrt'  ChUdrm—lbt  School^ 
Fund  was  insljtuted  by  Mr.  Wesley,  in  order  to  provide 
for  the  education  of  the  children  of  Wesleyan  ministers, 
and  he  commended  it  10  the  liberal  support  of  his  peo- 
ple in  the  most  forcible  terms.  The  collections  and 
aubscriptions  for  the  Schools'  Fund  are  made  In  the 
early  part  of  November.  Out  of  it  the  four  schools  for 
the  education  of  ministers'  children  are  supporled,  and 
an  allowance  is  tnade  for  the  education  of  those  for 
whom  there  may  not  be  roam  in  the  schools.  These 
allowance*  are  only  made  for  children  between  Ibe  agea 
of  nine  and  Sfteen. 

The  general  committee  consists  of  the  guremiiig 
body  of  the  New  Kingswood  and  Wooilbouse  Crave 
School,  the  governing  body  of  the  School  for  Girls,  and 
seventeen  other  ministers  and  lavmer. 

(1.)  For  Boys.— The  governing  body  of  the  New 
Kingswood  and  Woodhouse  Grove  Schixd  consists  of 
the  president  and  secretary  of  the  Conference,  the  ei- 
presidentii,  the  general  treasurers  and  secretaries  of  the 
Schools'  Fund,  the  chairman  of  the  Bristol,  Bath,  Hali- 
fax and  Br^ford,  and  Leeds  Dislrictsj  the  governors 
and  the  head-master  of  the  school ;  and  ten  ministers 
and  thirteen  laymen  named  by  the  Omference. 

Sew  KioffiKund  Sclionl  is  situated  at  Landsdown, 
Bath,  and  was  opened  in  l«,il.  Old  Kiiigswiwd  .S?hool, 
near  Bristol,  was  founded  bv  the  Rev.  John  Weslev, 
A.M.,  in  1748.     It  ia  now  b  Reformatorj-  School  for 

ll'oo<ttoiiM  (irni'F^cAoo/ was  established  in  1811. 

(3.)  For  ffirto.— The  governing  body  of  ihe  Schools 
for  (iirls  coosists  of  the  presiilent  and  secretary  of  the 
Conference,  the  ex-presideiit,  Ibe  general  ircaHirers  and 
e  Schools'  Fund,  the  general  ireoMrcrs- 


WKSLEYANS 


anil  KcreUry  of  Ibe  Children'*  Fund,  the 
the  Sccnnd  London  and  Liverpool  dUtricu,  the  local 
d  aruen  other  minUcer* 


Qarmairood  Srhool  (Claphun  Park)  i>  near  Londcui. 
The  executive  comniilUe  conaials  o(  Ivn  mcmben. 
Trinity  HaU  School  (Southporl)  ii  near  Liverpool. 

(11.)  Olhtr  I«tlUulioai.  —  \.  The  Wi^an  Chaptl 
Commilltr  was  iiiiliuited  iu  1818,  and  reconilituLed  in 
18M.  The  commillee,  aHisisliinK  of  an  eqoal  number 
of  ministers  and  laymen,  UHialiy  meeu  on  the  llrst 
Wednesday  of  eacb  iDonth  to  dispose  of  loans  and 
jtrants ;  lo  deiemiiie  on  ereclJoni,  allerations,  purchases, 
and  sales  of  Wesleyan  trust  property,  including  organa; 
and  In  aflurd  advice  on  difficult  casea.  The  income 
fnim  all  sonrces  in  1889  was  £\aMb  13t.  ll<f.  The 
iiiul  nuiiiber  of  applications  for  [lerniisaiun  to  erect  or 
enlarge  chapels,  schools,  and  organs,  which  have  re- 

1H79-80.  including  97  modiflcatiuns  of  cases  previously 
sanciioned,  is  Ml.  The  estimated  outlay  it  £263,656. 
Two  hundred  and  ninety-seven  erections  and  enlarge- 
menis  have  been  completed  during  the  year  at  a  coat 
of  £318,175.  The  endre  temporary  debt  left  on  this 
large  nurlay  is  i76,807,  most  of  which  will  be  paid  off 
in  a  few  years.  The  entire  amount  of  debts  which 
have  been  dlschai^ed  or  provided  for  during  the  last 
twenty-six  years  is  £1,483359. 

a.  MflivpoliUm  Chapel  Building  Fund  (instituted  in 

1862) This  fund  originated  from  the  generous  gift  of 

4he  late  Sir  Francis  Lycelt  of  £60,000  towards  the  erec- 
tion of  lifty  Methodist  churches  in  London  during  twenty 
years.  Sir  Francis  in  1880  gave  £6000  more  towards  the 
erection  of  ten  additional  chapela.  Shortly  alterwards 
he  ilird,  after  only  ten  davs'  illness.  The  secreisrv  of 
the  fund  is  the  Rev.  John  Bond. 

3.  liineratU  ifeUtocUH  Prrackfrt"  Atmntanl  Soetefg. 
-I'his  institution  was  formed  at  Bristol  in  1798,  re- 
fined in  Tweeds  in  1837,  and  revised  again  in  London 


1860, a 


is  often 


ailed  ai 


■'  The  l-reachera'  Fund."  It  was  formed  by  , 
stime  of  the  preachers  for  the  relief  of  supemuoieran- 
and  superannuated  preacheni  among  themselves  and  of 
their  widows,  and  is  supported  by  donations  and  lega- 
cie^  bt>t  chiefly  by  the  paymenis  of  the  memlwrs  them- 
.selves.  The  annual  payment  is  now  by  preachen  on 
trial,  £5  &i.i  by  ministers  in  Ihe  home  work,  £6;  and 
by  ministers  on  foreign  stations,  £10  it, 

4.  Besides  these  agendes,  there  exists  alio  a  aeparate 
mission  to  seamen  in  London,  chaplains  to  portions  of 
(he  army  and  navy,  and  a  lay  mission,  each  under  dis- 
tinct management,  for  London,  Manchester,  and  Liver- 
pooL  Since  1876  Ihe  temperance  movement  has  been 
recognised  by  the  Conference,  and  circuit  societies  and 
bsniis  of  hope  are  rapidly  forming  throughout  England. 
There  are  also  committees  of  privilege  and  exigency, 
and  those  fur  ihe  promatinn  of  Ihe  religious  obaervance 
oftheSabbalh. 

6.  .-I  Namltis-teiool  Unian  was  estaUisbed  in  1874, 
and  ihe  total  nttmber  at  sehoola  in  onion  in  1880  leaa 
iG-ta  out  of  63*«  belonging  to  the  Connection.  The 
WM'rfiary  i>  ihe  Rev.  Robert  Culley.  The  olGce  and 
<le|K>Htori-  fiirihe  present  is  situated  alLudgate  Circus, 

6.  The  Chitdrfii'i  Borne  ^Orpliaiuigf,  Kf/igr,  tmrf' 
Training  /uft/ufe— originated  at  Lambeth  in  ltf69,  has 
diow  four  branches,  aiul  b  fiflh  is  in  preparation, 


i2  WESLETANS 

olulions  of  the  Conference,  to  which  body  the  ooaut- 
lee  of  management  is  annually  submitted  (at  appraraL 
At  present  five  hundred  children  are  in  the  tlome,  aod 
nearly  as  many  have  been  sent  ronh  into  the  world,  osd 
the  reports  received  concerning  Ihe  great  majority  itf 
them  are  highly  satisfactary.  The  Home  is  aha  a 
training  institute  for  Christian  worker*,  especially  wiik 

in  orphanages,  industrial  schools,  children'a   bo^atak 

7.  Con/trence  OJia  and  Hooh-room  (_2  Cutle  Slieet. 
City  Road,  LoiHlon)  was  instituted  by  the  Rrr.Jaha 
Wesley.  It  was  formed  by  him  tor  tbe  pi^iIkaliM 
and  sale  of  his  works.  On  his  death  be  Tcated  bii 
property  in  Ibe  book-room,  consisting  of  hooka,  oopr- 
rightOiClc.,  in  trustees  Tor  conying  on  the  wcvfc  tt 
God  in  conneclion  with  the  CaQreTencc."  Tbe  wbds 
of  the  proceeds  of  Ihia  institution  is  devoted  u>  tbe  Rip- 
pon  and  extension  of  Wesleyan  Uetbodism  in  Unal 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

8.  Waltyan  Mtliodiit  Miuimarj  Socittf  (CsnlaBy 
Hall,  Kahopigate  Street  Witbin,  Loodoo  ).-_Miasi« 
were  commenced  in  1786,  and  the  aociely  arcBniied  ia 
18I&  The  committee  of  management  oonsiMs  of  the 
president  and  the  secratsiyoftbe  Conference,  tbe  gm- 
eral  treasurers,  the  general  secretaries,  the  bomnrr 
secretary,  tbe  governor  and  tuioni  orRichmood  Colkgt. 
the  Conuectional  editor,  the  Uy  treasurer*  of  tbe  Rich- 

Hfty-Iwo  other  member*,  vii.,  slxieeo  froni  Ibe  comry 
circuiM  and  Ihirty-«i  resident  iu  Ixindun  :  fttor  of  ilr 
latter  go  out  annually  by  rotation,  and  four  of  tbe  far- 
nier  are  also  changed  each  year.  Every  pcrami  *^>- 
Kritnng  annually  one  guinea  or  upwanls,  and  ersT 
benefactor  of  £10  and  upwards,  is  deemed  a  nnbs. 
The  Wesleyan  minons  were  commenced  in  1786,  and 
werE,until18IB,oonflnedchiefly  to  British  NottbAnc 
icaand  the  West  Indies.  In  the  December  of  ibatyear. 
however,  Di.  Coke,  accompanied  by  a  band  of  yomg 
missionaries,  embarked  for  India.  Up  lo  this  period. 
Dr.  Coke  bad  mainly  raised  the  funds  needed  to  cany 
on  the  Uetbodist  misuonary  operations.  Tbe  oddi- 
tifliul  evangelistic  enlerptise  now  entered  upon  made 

plans  were  suggested:  but  that  which  originated  wiik 
the  late  Rev.  Ileorge  Morley  and  the  late  Rev.  Dt.BBa- 
ting,  then  stationed  at  Leeds,  and  sanctioned  by  semal 
of  the  ministen  in  that  lown  and  neighbarbood,  was 
adopted  by  the  ensuing  Canfeivnce.  That  scbenc  has 
been  greatly  owned  of  Uod.  In  1814  (he  inoDcne  of  Ibr 
~      "  "    "    f  £7008;  there  werr  70  mis- 


Canadian  AraxcA.— Hamilton,  Ontario.  Canada. 

Crrtijiid  hul<Mrial  BraBcfc.— Mlluin,  Kent. 

•orphans  and  desiiiute  chiUlren.     It  bas  been  aanct 
and  commended  to  ihe  Christian  public  by  seven 


18,7*7.     Nov 


cording 


'  Ihe 


107,816  accredited  Ch<irch  mecnber^i  bi 
sides  ie,461  on  trial  for  membership,  under  tbe  core  nf 
6S4  miaaionaiiaj  and  tbe  inoome  is  £166,498  lis.  U, 
indiBivfl  of  £37,62i  4i.  Ildl  received  from  ibe  Ths^t- 
giving  Fund.  The  eipeoditure  in  1879  was  £14&ta7 
Gt.  lOit  Tbe  legacica  for  1S7!M0  amoanud  lo  £4Mt 
ISi.8dl  The  Ladin'  CowumUafor  frmale  £dmattim 
M  BeaOm  CouiUria  expended  £2296  Is,  6^  beadas 
supplying  clothes,  etc,  for  charilaUe  purpoaea. 

9.  Tie  Borne  Miitiim  and  Comtingttit  Famd  was  iadi- 
tuteil  in  1766  and  remodelled  in  1866.  Tbe  comtailie* 
consists  of  the  president  and  the  secretary  of  tbe  Caafc*^ 
ence,  the  ex-presidents,  the  treosnrers,  the  gtnanl  •••>■ 
relaryand  the  financial  secrelarv'  of  Ihe  fond,  Ibe  tiam 
uters  and  aecretari- of  tbe  Fuad  for  the  Eztensiaa  «f 
Methodism  in  Great  Britain,  with  fifteen  miniseen  o^ 
nrieen  lavmen  for  London,  and  tbirty-five  m 
ihinr-flve  laymen  for  the  counltv.  The 
Ibe  itev.  Alexander  McAulay.  This  fund  u 
dependent  circuits  in  maintaining  tbe  mil 
the  Gospel,  lo  provide  means  for  employing  ad 
ministen,  and  to  meet  various  conlingetinca.  li  a 
mainly  supported  by  the  yearly  collectiasi,  by  Ibe 
Home  Missionar;-  collections  made  after  sefnmsa  ad 


me«iiijp^  and  by  eubvrip 
Bswciitiuiia.  The  tuMi  ii 
was  £'28,(199  6t.  Id.,  ind  II 
19i     " 


re  £11,770 


prominent.     He 


s  iikture  wu  beeomiog 


VI.  /.ittralan.  Thii  n  c<>i>ioi»l.v  exhibited  id  O^ 
born'*  Wriltgnit  BOUoptiphy  ( LonO.  tl«9,  8vo).  See 
>lao  Hmhmi,  B^Uatktea  Cattaiiaaa  (Utuwa,  1867, 
8vo)  ;  >i>a  compare  Mktuouibm,     (U.  J.  S.) 

'QFaana.  in  SUvonic  mythology,  ia  a  lister  of  Motb- 
ns;  they  represent  apting  4nil  wiiiler,orlire  and  death, 
nn<ler  whose  protection  humaa  life  lUDdn.  Weiiii  guards 
ibe  begiiinin^  of  life,  Uorana  ita  end.  She  rocks  men 
lo  aleep  with  beautiful  hymn*  aad  suitable  piclurea. 

'VfTeaael.  Johaiin  ( 1 ),  waa  unqueationably  the 


Helped  ti 


.moHK  th 


nfGi 


e  Kefun 


The 

iavDlred  in  great  uncenainty,  insomucn  that  eveu  his 
natnea  hare  been  nude  Che  subject  uf  ittquiry  (John, 
Hrmunni;  Ganaevort.  Basil ius).  He  was  born  in  1400 
or  UW,  pnibably  the  latter  year.  His  binhpUce  was 
(ironiiigen,  where  the  very  house  JD  vbich  he  was  bom 
is  yet  shnvn.  He  was  urphaiied  at  an  early  site,  but 
t«ceireil  into  the  house  of  a  kinswoman  named  Oila  or 
Odilla  CUnleI^and  sent  to  a  school  at  ZwoU,  wliich  was 
conducted  hy  the  Biolhenof  the  Common  Lifr,  and  hail 
a  Kood  reputitiiin.  He  there  not  only  devoted  himsrif 
(u  BcieniiHc  pursuits,  but  also  to  the  promntiaii  c>r  the 
Tcliipiius  life,  being  aided  in  the  latter  respect  by  Thom- 
"i  Kempis,  vrhii  sojourned  iu  the  neighborhood  of 


Zwoll 


»qf  al 


ler,  but  unpleasant  surroundings  and  a  thirst  for 
greater  knowledge  drove  him  away  from  Zwull  to  Co- 
lofcne,  where  he  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew,  chiefly  un- 
der the  direction  of  piivaic  tutors,  and  also  examined 
the  libraries.  His  habit  vis  to  note  the  results  of  his 
readings  and  impressions  in  memoranda,  which  he  cuii- 
tiDued  lo  keep  to  the  end  of  his  life.  The  independence 
of  thought  which  such  a  method  of  study  displayed  was 
yet  further  cultivated  by  the  study  of  Plato,  the  great 
tiita^tonist  of  scholasticism  and  agent  in  the  restoration 
of  theologr,  and  the  simple  and  onadonwd  mystic  Ru- 
pert of  Deuu  (q.  v.).  It  was  not  possible,  however, 
that  he  should  lliid  in  bigoted  Cologne  a  soil  suiuble 
for  the  propagation  of  his  views.  A  call  to  Heidelberg 
was  extended  to  him,  but  he  was  not  yet  ready  lo  de- 
rote  himself  exclusively  In  the  work  of  teaching,  and 
felt  himself  attracted  l«  Paris,  where  the  controversy 
between  numinalists  and  realists  had  broken  out  afresh. 
He   piuseil  for  a  little  while  at  Louvidti,  and 


sned  to  I'aris,  at 


wu  that  he  hecam< 
to  be  such  while  hi 


linalist  him 


LO  gmn  bis  couu' 


elf,  au 


lived.  He  remained  in  Paris  about 
sixteen  years,  not  sustaining  an  altugelhet  receptive  at- 
titude, but  doing  his  part  to  shape  the  mind  of  the  com- 
ing generation.  He  was  moat  powerfully  stimulated  by 
asKtciation  with  cardinal  Bcssorinn,  Rovere,  then  geii- 
cr>l  of  the  Franciscans,  but  afterwards  pope  Sixtua  IV, 
and  with  youngsr  men  like  Reucblin  and  R.  Agticola. 
He  visited  other  l^rench  cities  also,  e.  g.  Angers,  in  or- 
der to  take  pan  in  disputations,  and  two  years  before 
the  dose  of  the  pontiliclte  of  Paul  H  came  to  Rome. 
Here  he  fouwl  the  most  lulvanced  culture  of  the  time, 
but  also  the  most  evident  ami  shocking  corruption  in 
the  Church.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  witnr»«e.l  the 
attempt  of  Louis  \1  ^o  put  down  nominalism  by  force. 
In  1475  be  was  at  Basle  with  Reucblin,  and  later  at 
member  of  the  philosophical  faculty. 

ombaiiveness  as  a  debater  had  in  the  meantime 

d  for  him  the  title  nf  .tfisgitler  dmlrudiciKrnmn. 

oil  ifterwanls  retired  loprivsry  in  his  native  town 

iningrn.  ami  spent 


>n  uf  a  profound  piety.    All  tt 


,  and  ir 


>p  David  of  Burgundy,  and  in  a  former  period. 
of  Kovere  (see  Bbove),which  circumstance  probably de- 
teired  the  inquiaitonof  t^lugiie  from  proceeding  against 
him,  as  tbev  did  against  J.  vui  Wesel  (q.  v.),  and  aa 
Wessel  ihoJght  they  would.  He  maintained  a  Urge 
correspondence  and  received  many  visitors.  He  also 
contributed  much  towards  the  formation  of  the  charac- 
ten  of  K.  Agricnla,  Alexander  Hegius,  Uermaim  Busch, 
etc.,  with  reference  to  whose  intlueiice  in  the  future  he 
predicted  thai  bis  young  friend  Oestendorp  would  lire 
to  see  the  time  when  scbolaslicism,  i.  e.  the  teachings 
of  Aquinas,  Bonaventure,  etc,  sbouhl  be  rejected  by  i^L 
truly  Christian  divines.  Before  he  died  be  was  assailed 
by  ikHibts  respecting  all  the  verities  of  the  Christian 
faith,  with  which  he  struggled  aloMsl  despairingly,  but 
which  he  conquered  with  the  ciy,"!  know  nothing  but 
Jesus,  the  crucified  one."  He  died  in  peace,  but  with- 
out having  received  the  papal  ibsniutioo,  Occ  4, 1489^ 
and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  the  Nunnery  at  Gro- 
ningen.  After  his  <lealh  the  mendicant  monks  subject- 
ed his  writings  lo  their  mge,  and  prubablv  destroyed  ■ 
portion  of  them,  though  a  sufficient  quantity  of  them 
was  preserved  by  the  devotion  of  bis  pupils  to  enable 
us  to  estimate  the  cboracter  uf  the  man.  Tlie  tirst  col- 
iectioii  WAS  iniblished  by  Luther, 
the  Lord's  supper,  wl  "  ' 
the  (Jroningen  edition  of  1614, 

Weasel's  career  was  lately  determined  by  the  fact 
that  he  was  never  bound  by  any  vow,  facial  slatiao, 
or  other  similar  obligation ;  so  that  while  he  was  great- 
ly interested  in  the  conditions  of  the  Church  and' the 

an  independent  observer.  He  was  thus  able  to  com- 
mand tlie  leisure  required  fur  a  thorough  exami.iation  of 
the  matters  he  discussed,  and  the  calmness  essential  to- 


ts added  fur  the  Drst  time  i 


Uriy  polem 

CB.    Itm 

uatbe 

added  that  he 

was  iiatu- 

endowed  w 

Ihanind 

epen. 

entspiritandsoundjudg- 

t.     Neither 

usofthcChu 

ch  n..r  the 

ticism  of  1h 

e  Brothers  of 

the  Common 

Life  could. 

turn  his  balanced  mi 

nd. 

His  methoil  was  mmewhat  apboristical,  invidving  the 

central,  finidamenial  principle  from  which  the  whole  of 
his  position  might  be  undentnoil.  They  hold  a  ground 
intermediate  between  scientilic  dl-cuuion,  ascstical  ap. 
plication,  and  reformatory  polemical  exhortation.  Hia 
theology,  like  that  of  Zwingli,  is  laigety  determined  by 
Platooism.  The  principal  work  he  has  funiisbed  in 
this  department  is  the  />  Pnteideilia  Dei,  which  con- 
ceives of  (iod  as  the  absolute  cause,  or,  in  other  words, 
(U  independent  Being.  The  pantheistic  tendency  of 
this  idea  of  (lad  is  not  sufficiently  guarded  agaiiisi,  but 
Hnds  its  rectiHcalion  in  the  emphasis  which  Wessel  else- 
where lays  upon  the  idea  that  Hod  is  pure  Being,  dis- 
tinct from  and  above  the  world.  In  ibe  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  the  Father  is  the  divine  wisdom,  the  Son  the 
divine  reason,  the  Spirit  the  divine  love.  The  Deity  is 
the  creative  life,  the  original  idea,  which  is  necessarily 
active  and  compelled  to  glorilV  itself.  This  glorifying 
of  the  divine  nature  coflstitutes  the  Son,  the  Xoyoc 
vpiTin  i  and  in  order  that  both  may  not  be  unem- 
ployed, the  self-conscious  and  self- glorifying  Being 
also   eternally   love   himselB      In   anthropology 


eliki 


»  of  <i 


iturc.     The  parts  of  Ik 
■nli-.  and  nJunliu  (/tr  Pii-p. 
bene  parts  is,  it  would  ap[>ea 


dislingnished  from  the  intellect  and  the  ili'<i 
dtscuaing  Che  Ego,  Wessct  defines  personality  i 
the  fruitful  source  from  which  sjiring  the  will,  il 


■lid  ihal  he  is 
iclogy 


in  hi:-  personalily  Ihe  Bbilily  lo  i 
existing  reUtion  between  the 
humin  into  «n  ethical  reUIion,  ■ 
uess  of  Uud  being  impUnud  ii 
under  ohliijitiDii  lo  effect  ihui  c 
he  places  cl>e  origin  of  sin  Id  the  angel-world,  bat 

would  eien  leem  that  he  regarda  it  as  an  inherent  fac- 
tor ill  the  constitution  of  man,  aiuee  it  is  lu  him  merely 
dMlura.  Adam  and  Eve  were  far  rrom  being  perfect 
while  in  Ed«n,ind  needed,  even  if  lemptation  had  been 
ireaisted,  development  in  every  side  of  their  nature,  (t 
in  difGcuU  lo  see  how  this  ondeveluped  state  could  be 


ognuK 


tiuful  at 
a  moral  deptava 


'  under  hiadeflnil 


Here 


II  as  having  been  added  i 


K>  far  u  Ui  destroy  tbe  freedom  ol 
iBu  man  from  attaining  to  his  rigl 


wiU.  thougl 

.goal     Grai 

.tion,  because  it  was  required  fur  human  well-being  from 
the  be pnning. 

Redemption  is  a  process  which  required  that  Jesaa 
ahoiild  be  the  "  express  image"  of  Goil.  Christ,  aa  the 
source  of  life,  was  mediator  from  the  beginning.  He 
was  from  all  eternity  appointed  lo  be  the  king  and  head 

-of  an  empiip,  which  ia  in  no  senae  a  merely  eueial  or- 
ganization, but  iu  which  he  is  the  life  of  all  its  mem- 
bera  and  ia  liimaelf  the  end  for  which  it  eiiat&  In  the 
aumemeat  Jesus  died  for  us  and  made  satisfaction  M 
God.  The  process  cf  redeoiption  if,  however,  conatant- 
ly  described  by  Weasel  as  a  conflict  in  which  the  Lamb 
la  taking  upon  himself  the  wrath  of 


io.1,  b 


g  the 


i  to  wage  war  and  ia  aasiated  therein  by  (lod. 
The  death  of  Jesus  ia  then  conceived  aa  tbe  completion 
of  the  life-long  struggle.     His  victory  comusts,  on  the 

-one  hand,  in  thesuhjugationofthedevil,  whoisunquea- 
Iioiiably  regarded  aa  tbe  person  iflcacion  of  the  power  of 
•viJ,  and,  on  the  other,  in  the  demonstradon  afforded  by 
this  triumph  that  he  is  tbe  (eatalor  of  the  New  Teat, 
in  his  ileath  and  in  his  evident  drawing  of  all  men  lo 
himself  in  bis  righteooanesa  and  love.  His  merits 
as  redeemer  are  superabundant,  for  be  is  the  consum- 
mation of  the  race,  and  in  hia  capacity  aa  head  and 
redeemer  haa  more  to  offer  than  man  possessed  before 
the  fall. 

The  condition  of  salvation  is  faith  in  God,  based  on 

'the  word  uf  Christ.  Juadfication  is  distingnished  from 
the  remission  of  una,  and  conceived  of  as  the  positive 
-act  of  renewing  in  lighteoDSneaa  through  a  union  with 
Christ  and  the  Trinity  by  faith.  God  regards  man  aa 
being  positively  righteous  in  Chrisl.  though  not  for 
Christ's  sake.  This  ia  staled  in  a  different  light  when 
WesscI  l«achea  that  faith  does  not  lay  hold  upon  the 
work  of  Christ,  but  upon  his  life-giving  person.  This 
union  having  been  formed,  faith  melta  into  love,  and 
gnml  works  may  appropriately  be  aaid  to  flow  from 
either  quality.  Remission  of  sins  ia  nowhere  allowed 
an  independent  place  in  Weasel's  theological  syatem. 
Repentance  is  not  with  him  sorrow  fur  the  ains  uf  the 
past,  hut  is,  in  anbatance,  converaion  or  freedom  from 
sin.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  will  rather  than  of  the  feel- 
ings. 


rorum.     The  i 

look  for  the  visible  Church  within  the  papacy, 
accordingly  conceded  t  jariididio  papijit ;  but  he  re- 
stricted lis  operationa  altogether  to  externalities,  and 
denied  that  a  papal  excommunication  has  power  to  con- 
trol God.     He  even  aaserled  Ihal  a  pope  is  entitled  lo 

liii  own  faith  ia  correct;  and  he  rated  the  authority  of 
the  universities  higher  than  theaulhurity  of  the  clergy. 
But  he  esteemed  the  Scriptures  even  above  the  uni- 


edoc 

trine 

oft 

he  Chun: 

hWessel  differed  from 

ndll 

Ih 

the  did 

not  deflne  tbe  Church 

mum 

«/n 

Ida 

momm 

but  a  fvmmunio  kitic 

Uiged  hi 


versities,  and  addtened  lo  them  the  final  atipML  Tba 
Scriplnrea,  he  held,  are  simply  the  Holy  Ubo«  q)cak- 
ing  to  man.    They  are  clear  and  self-explaiutary  and 

and  Che  regalaJUiri  waa  apparently  placed  oo  an  eqoal- 
ity  with  Scripture  by  him. 

With  ra^Kct  to  the  saeramenta,  Weaiel  denied  Ihtt 
they  are  of  themselves  effecttnl  means  of  gnet.  TW 
infusion  of  love  into  llie  heart  constitutea  true  baptaH. 
and  God  is  himself  the  admin iaCiaior,  according  to  hii 
view;  the  priest,  of  whatever  degree  h^  may  be,  is  fin- 
ply  a  minister,  knd  ii       ' ' 


Tbe  ai 


of  the 


ThH 

view  carried  with  it  the  rejection  of  indulgmoa  aa  a 
matter  of  course,  for  Ihey  were  the  fraiiaKe  of  the  ve- 
rament  of  penance  as  held  by  the  ChtiTcJi.  Wsvsl 
does  not  heulate  lo  term  them  awindlea,  and  platan 
indulgeneea  abominations.  In  connection  with  tlu 
Lord's  supper,  he  contended  against  the  oput  opmiM^ 
or  bringing  of  maases  in  behalf  of  particular  indivib- 
als.  He  held  that  the  mass  has  value  for  him  who  hm- 
gersand  thiistsfor  the  bread  of  life,  the  eating  iffwkicl 
conatiiutes  the  sole  value  of  the  saerameut.  The  iAa 
of  sacriflce  has  no  place  whatever  in  hia  view. 

In  eachatology  W(«el  held  firmly  to  tbe  iCjiMaatt 
of  purgatory,  bal  aa  a  place  of  purgacioo  rather  tha 
satisfaction.  The  fire  which  boma  Ihere  is  the  fre  rf 
piety,  and,  more  particularly,  of  love^  Christ  himself  it 
Ihere  to  preach  hia  Gospel  among  the  dead,  aad  to 
make  of  purgatory  a  place  of  delighla.  Weasel  did  Mt 
paint  the  atate  of  the  lost,  and  therein  led  hia  iteacnp- 

The  fanatical  hostility  of  the  mendicant  monks  pn- 
vented  the  immediate  publication  ofWessers  writiagt 
Luther's  collection  of  these  writings,  entitled  Farraff 
Rfruta  Thtoiogicanan  UbfrrimOt  appeared  in  1511.  Hid 
was  followed  by  repealed  editiona  in  1532  and  1^. 
The  last  edition  waa  that  of  Stnck  (Giessen.  1617),  M- 
lowiug  s  complete  edition  of  Weasel  in  1G14.  The  /«• 
Togo  contains  the  following  books;  Dr  n  injjiii'iiaa  i 
Dei  ProtiderUia:  Ih  Carnt,  UyittTnt  rt  Kfftti^ilh- 
mimca  Incanuilioiai  tt  PoMtimit ;  Dt  Dignlatt  it  Patit- 
tiire  Ecekriailica ;  Dt  Saerammlo  Ptemirntit ;  Q*w  tit 
Vrra  Commmtio  Sandorvm ;  De  Purgatorio .-  and  a 
number  of  letters,  among  which  one,  De  /wAr^^i-Miu.  ad- 
dressed to  Hoeck,  deserves  special  mention.     The  oa- 

rtf/io,  which  Luther  had  omitted  for  dogmatic  Msiiafc 
and  also  an  extendeil  essay,  Dt  Cauiit  Tiiearmatieiii 

ft  de  Ma^mtudiae  Dammioa  Patiomi,  in  two  boofeii 
and  three  ascctical  works  entitled,  resperiivelv,  Df  On- 
tioHt,  acnla  Midilalianii,  and  Kxrmpla  Seatt  JUcdta- 
fionif.     The  impression  made  by  a  reading  of  tbe  Far- 

hand,  and  who  for  that  very  reason  seldom  n: 
the  compoaition  of  an  extendei 
not  renurkatde  that  statements  with  leapect  to  lost  wi 
ings  tivm  his  pen  do  not  hannoniie.  ~ 
respecting  such  writings  and 
life,  see  Hardenberg;  .Suffridua  Petri  De  i 
Frinas  Ubbo  Emmiua,  Hiilaria  Keram  FrUicami.- 
the  E^ffiei  et  Vila  Fn/ettonBi  Aeadrwam  Gnmm^ 
(I6M);  and  eapecially  Muuriing,  Commnlalio  Bim. 
Tkeol.de  Wtutii,  ttc  (Traj.  ad  Rhen.l83i);  id.fr 
llVsieK  Gaia/oTlu.  etc.  (Amaielod,  1 840) :  and  DlniaBt. 
Rr/ormatoren  vor  /Ur  ff^omorKm  (tlamh.  1M1).  a« 
al»  Schmidt, itujnulin'i  LrMrevtm  der  Kirrif.'ai  Jakr- 
baeh./iirdailicheTiniiiffit,Ti,tiOtq.;  Brnlhem,  fM- 
lilmL  Kirrhm-  mul  SeAvl-Slaol.  ii,  I78i  Hefiog.  Beal- 
E«cnUop.  s.  V. 

Waasel,  Johaan  <2),  a  Dutch  ttwnlagtaa,  » 
born  at  Emden,  Oct.  SO,  IfiTl.     For  aome  tiaie  he  na 


WEST 


called  u  prufewor  of  Iheologj  to  Lej-aen,  where  be  ,  „f  [jj^  Hebrew  Uoguage.  Tlie 
died,  J«n.  16, 174&.  He  u  the  aothor  of,  DiuerUaionei  i  ., jjj,^f,j  csinBiBU  uf  It)  aections 
3<k™  Lrid.  .id  SrUda  qumbin  V.  tt  N.  T.  Loca  (Ley-     '  „h,„,.„  frUlbni.  add  c 

™  C,m/\iUitu,,,.4t  CkrUla  Umeo  ti  PropHo  Dtifilio.    ""  philologicd  u>tl  pnychologici 

Hon  Mrr.ipkoneo,  Libtr  Sing,  m  ipu  Katarii  Pdagitmi-    " ■*  ■""-'        *"*  " 

tantii  VrltrttMque  A  dopivntor.  Sataitia  ex  Veter.  .tf onN- 
natit  Ervilar,  etc  (  RotlerdKm,  1727  ).  See  Winer, 
Handlxich  <ltr  IknA.  Lit.  i,  30, 191, 672, 645;  Funl,  fitW. 
Jiid.ii\,!M.     CB.P.) 

^XTessellng,  Pcmt,  >  Germui  philologiK,  vu 
bom  Bt  Sleinfurtli,  Jin.  7. 1693,  oT  an  nld  uid  wealthy 
Westphalian  faoiily  celebrated  in  literary  circlea.  He 
was  educated  at  tbe  Untvenily  of  Leyden,  and  after- 
wards at  Fnuirker,  whera  in  1718  he  waa  iecei*ed  as 
a  candidate  for  the  ministry.  Ill  1719  he  *«»  nwde 
pro-rector  of  ibe  Mhoal  at  HidJelburg,  in  17!!  rector 
■mt  tbe  gj-mnasium  at  De»enter,  in  1728  professor  of  elo- 
-quence  and  biator;  at  Fraiieker,  and  in  173fi  filled  the 
same  chair  (with  the  addition  of  canon  law  in  1746, 
■dJ  the  librarianship  in  1749)  at  Utrecht,  where  he  I 
died,  Nov.  9. 1764.  He  wrote,  Epiibila  ad  H.  Vaiemam 
de  Aquila  in  Scriplii  Phiioaii  Jud.  Fragmaitii  el  Pla- 
Jonif  Epiilola  XIII  (Utrecht,  I74B) :— OWrrotioiium 
Viirinmia  Libri  (AmiU  !J27) :— Diatribe  de  Judaoram 
A  TcA'-nlibm  ad  Itacriplirmem  Btrrmcaitem,  et  Diutrta- 

4iaa,  etc.  (Utrecht,  1738):— Wuertotioner  de  Orpine 
alqut  I'm  A'Hmmoram  apad  HAemot  (ibid.  1750):— 
IHtMrtiiruMiei  to  EpiMoiam  Jertnda  (ibid.  17&I).  See 
Winer.  //«ni«Brj*  dtr  IhtoL  LUeraOir,  i,  52,  560;  Furst, 
Bibi.  Jud.  Lii,  506;   Hoefer,  A'miP.  Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

^KTeasely,  Habtwio  ( or,  according  to  his  Jewish 

name,  UtIz  WckQ,  a  noted  Jewish  writer,  w»«  bom  in 

1725  at  Hambui);.    Like  his  friend  Hoses  Mcndelaaohn, 

he  was  originally  a  Rabbinic  Jew,  and  obserred  the  Ira- 

ditinnal  law  to  the  last.     His  thirst  for  knowledge  led 

him  to  acquire  the  German,  French,  Danish,  and  Duich 

Urjniages,  and  to  stndy  msthemalics.  nalural  philoso- 

phv.  Kei>graphy,  and  hialory.     An  eatraotdinary  power 

of  iv riling  Hebrew,  both  proae  and  poetry,  secured  him 

the  esteem  of  his  nation,  and  gave  him  an  opportunity 

•of  coromunicatinK  his  acquirements  in  a  national,  and 

therefore  an  unsuspected,  form.     The  edict  of  the  em- 

(leror  Joseph  II  In  establish  elemenury  schools  among 

*he  Jews  lirsl  exhibited  ffessely  as  a  Reformer.     He 

wriite  a  letter  to  the  congregation  at  Trieste  upon  the 

subject,  in  which  he  related  the  importance  of  eleraenls- 
fv  insinwjlion,  recommended  the  study  of  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, and  advised  the  poHponing  of  the  Tslmudic  studies 
u>  a  riper  age.  This  brought  down  upon  him  all  the 
wciRht  of  Rabbinic  indignalion,  especially  that  of  th( 
Polish  rabbins,  who  iltaclied  and  anathematized  him 
with  vehemence,  while  those  of  Trieste,  Venice,  Ferra- 
r»,  and  Reggio  supported  him.  Wessely,  who  died  al 
Harobu^  in  1805,  may  be  considered  the  founder  of 
modem  Hebrew  literature,  in  the  same  way  as  Mendels- 
sohn was  of  German  literature  among  the  Jews  of  hit 
age  and  country.   Furtbough  in  destitute  circumstance* 

which  form  a  new  sra  in  Hebrew  composition,  and  hav< 
united  bis  name  with  Chat  of  Menilelssohn  in  the  hon- 
Arable  appellation  of  the  "  two  restorers  of  sdenco  amonp 
ihe  Jews."  Josl's  description  of  the  effects  of  their  lBbon> 
is  very  striking.    He  says, "  They  found  the  Jews  wi 
out  any  language;  they  gare  them  two  at  once— the 
-German  and  the  Hebrew."     He  wrote,  "H   m^.  Tht 
Spirit  of  Grace  (Berlin,  1780,  a.  a),  a  coinmcnta 
the  Book  of  Wisdom,  translated  into  Hebrew  by 
^fi  —  tt^p"""    "'BOV    nixa,  a  comroenlarj- on  L 
icua,  which  forma  part  of  the  commentary  of  Mendels- 
sohn's PenUteuch  :-TllS^  ',"•  The  Wine  of  Lrbanot 
i  ibid  1775),  a  commentary  on  the  treatise  Abaih  ;—    poses  his  face  innied  towards  t 


lisain,  LdKiBon,  a  gigantic  work  on  tha  synonyms 
uf  the  Hebrew  language.  The  first  volume  (n'^sn 
(n^^in),  Bubdivided 
wulains  a  most  elabo- 
•logical  disquisition  on  tbe 
ignification  and  development  of  the  root  OSn.  as  well 
as  a  treatise  on  a  portion  of  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is  pre- 
ceded by  an  ententive  intniduution  entitled  The  Kn- 
traaet  Mto  Ihe  Garden  (',an  Kin's),  in  which  the  plan 
of  tbe  work  is  set  forth,  and  specimens  of  Hebrew  syn- 
ODymt  are  given.  This  first  volume  be  edited  when  a 
book-keeper  al  Amsterdam  in  1765.  The  aecond  volume 
(■"Jton  ri'ian)  conusta  of  is  sections,  subdivided  into 
180  cbapteiB,  and  gives  in  a  most  learned  manner  a  pbil- 
osophico-lraditional  explanation  of  all  the  pasuiges  of 
tbe  O.  T.  in  which  either  the  word  OSn  or  its  deriv- 
atives occur,  [t  is  likewise  preceded  by  an  elaborate 
introduction,  wherein  tboee  words  are  explained  which 
coosiilute  mixed  forms.  A  second  edition  of  it  was  pub- 
lished at  Vienna  in  1829,  and  a  third  at  Warsaw  in  1838 1 
— rojtl  DI^O  '^31,  Letters  to  the  Jews  of  Austria 
ig  the  reforms  of  the  emperor  Joseph  U  (Berliui 
1782):  — l^T  ^Iprt  -lattn,  De/eax  of  the  RabbiniL. 
TratOitm  (KSnigsb.  1837,  new  ed.) ;— riTan  'o,  Jew 
A  Elhia  (  Berlin,  1784 ;  Ulest  ed.  Konigeb.  1851 )  ;- 
n^Seri  ■'T'O,  Simgi  of  Glory,  an  epic  on  the  life  of 
Moses.  Though  tbe  language  uf  this  poem  is  purely 
~iblical,and  the  style  enriched  with  the  fluest  embel* 
ihments  of  the  inspired  poetic  writings,  yet  the  casi 
of  thought  is  not  national,  but  European  and  secular. 
Tie  Songi  of  Glory  "  sajTS  Dr.  Marjoliouth,  "embodies 
the  history  of  the  exodus  of  tbe  Children  of  Israel  from 
Egypt  until  the  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinau  It  w,  in- 
deed, a  most  unique  productiiiii.  An  English  Christian, 
who  Justly  esteems  Milton  as  the  meet  successful  epic 
poet,  may,  perhaps,  not  like  lo  hear  Wessely  compared 
to  their  venerable  bard.  I  have  read  them  both,  and 
have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  they  are  equal  to  each 
other,  with  the  only  diSerenee  that  Wessely  is  not  so 
profuse  in  mythological  terms  as  Milton.  Wessely,  like 
Hilton,  did  not  think  rhyme  a  necessary  adjunct  or 
true  ornament  of  a  poem  or  good  verse,  and,  there- 
fore, rejected  it,  which  makea  Ibe  poetry  of  the  Shirrj) 
Tiphtrnh  ejtoeedingly  sublime.  Wessely  also  left  in 
MS.  a  commentary  on  Genews,  which  was  edited  by 
Isaac  Keggio,  wiih  the  title  Commentarium  in  Gentm 
ex  ejat  Autographo  Ercudi  Cururil  (Uorilis,  1854). 
See  FUrsl,  BMi.aheea  Jadaka,  iii.  607  sq. ;  De"  Rossi, 
IHzionario  Siorim  (Germ,  transl.),  p.  331  sq.;  Ethe- 
ridge,  Jnlrodtti^ion  <0  fftbrrw  Lilei-alure,  p.  393  sq. ; 
Kitto,  Cydopadia,  s.  v. ;  Da  Costa,  Iirael  and  lit  Gat- 
fila,  p.  554  sq. ;  McCaul,  Skttchet  of  Judaim  and  lite 
Jeiiii,p.il  sq.;  Schmucker,  «u(.o/"(Af  J™*.p.244  sq.; 
Msijolioulh,  The  Fuadamtnlal  Prtacipl'i  of  Uodtm  Ju- 
daiim,  p.  247  sq.;  GrStz,  Gfteh.  d.  Jiiden,  xi,  !)1  sq.; 
Jost,  Geich.  d.  JudenliuBu  and leiner  Srtten,  iii,  307  sq.; 
MeiscI,  f.ebm  a.  Wirkm  Watels'i  (Dreslau,  1841) ;  Gei- 
ger,  in  the  ZtilKhrifi  dir  D.  M,  G.  nxn.mi  »q.:  De- 
litisch,  Grich.  drr  jOiXirhtn  Poffif,  p.  85,  95,  106,  114, 
174  sq.;  Stem,  Getch.  d.  Judenlhum  ron  Mendrluolm, 
etc.,  p.  104  sq.;  Desaaner,  Geieh.  d.  firaetiten,  p.  S04 
sq.:  GUdemsnn,  in  Frantrt-GrSIt  MomituehriJ},  IS70, 
p.478Bq.;  Cassel,  l^hrbuch  der  Gftrhichte  and  Lilrratur 
(Leipe.  1879),  p.  49<1  sq. ;  Morals.  Fminrxl  Frra^iU,  of 
ihe  NineUmlh  Ctniary  (fhiladelphia,  IS80),  p.  344  sq. 
(B.P.) 

'Went  (expressed  in  Heb.by  liriK,  ieAiW,-  O',  the 
*eo;  CJ^CSn  Xia,  the  .ffoinjdomi  oflhi  tun  [and  so  In 
Greek  iuo/ii],  ™kw(]  ;  Z'^^'a,  errnittg).  The  Sheraite, 
in  speaking  of  the  quaners  of  Ihe  heavens,  elc,  >i 


WEST  91 

[9  before  hini,D'l|;,  strictly  obit  ii  before  or  in  ftiHit; 
Ibe  south  on  his  right  h«nd,  It)""!!!,  atrialy  what  lies  id 
the  right;  the  north  on  his  left  hind,^K13i^,  the  left 
side;  and  the  west  behind  him, -iint(,liler«U}' the  hind- 
er side.  The  Ust  Hebrew  word,  though  nerer  ti«n«- 
Uied  "  west"  in  our  version,  meuis  so:  as  in  Iiia.ii,  12, 
•■  t'he  Philistines  behind,"  oppoaed  to  the  Syriuis,  Cl^ : 
.Sept.  if'  iiXiav  luafiuiv;  Vulg.  ab  axideBle;  and  in 
Job  Jixiii,  8.  The  words  (Deut.  xi,  24)  "  the  uttermoBt 
sea,"  I'nnttn  O'n,  are  rendered  in  the  SepL  I'mj  r^c 
iaXdaaiK  T^C  iri  iva/iiiv;  Vulg.  ad  nwir  ocddeUale 
(comp.  xxxiv.  i;  Joel  ii,  20).  The  more  general  use 
of  the  word  niriK  for  the  weu  was  doubtless  super- 
seded among  the  inbibitants  of  Paleiline  by  S^,  liter- 
ally "  the  sea,"  that  is,  the  Hedilerranean  Sea,  which 
lay  to  the  wpst,  and  which,  as  ■  man  palpable  object, 
beeame  to  them  the  representatiTe  of  the  west  general- 
ly, and  chiefly  amociated  with  their  ideas  of  it.  Ac- 
cordingly (hu  word  D;  and  its  derivatives,  noj,  etc, 
are  thirty-two  times  rendered  hy  SoXamro,  in  the  Sept^ 
and  only  once  by  tva^ai ;  in  the  Vulg.  by  oecWmi  and 
marf.  It  is  used  In  signify  a  quarter  of  the  beareni, 
or  of  the  earth  (<ien.  xxviii,  14;  Deut.  xxxiii,  S3;  1 
Kings  vii,i5i  1  Chroii.  ix,  24i  SChroo.iT.I;  Isa.  xi, 
14;  xlix.lS;  Exek.xiriii,  1 :  Hoa.  xi.lO;  Zecb.xiv,4). 
It  is  used  adjectivelv  in  the  same  sense;  as,  west  border 
(Numb.xxxiv,8;  J«h.xv,IS;  Exek.xlv,7);  western 
(Numh.  xxxiv,  8);  wotquarter  (Jo^.xviii,  14);  weet 
siile(Kxi>d.  xxvii,  IS;  xxxviii,l2;  Numb-ii,  IS;  xxiv, 
G:  Kiek.  xlviii,  B-8,  2S,  24);  westward  <Gen.  xiii,  14; 
Numb.iii,!S;  Oeut.iii,S7:  Eiek.  xlviii,  18;  DaiLviu, 
4);  west  wind  (Exod.  x,  ]9>  Tbose  words  of  Mows, 
"  Kiphuli,  possess  thou  the  west  and  the  south"  (Dene 
XKxiii.  23),  seem  to  contradict  the  statement  of  JoiephuB, 
that  this  tribe  possessed  the  east  and  the  north  in  Up- 
prr  (ialilee  {.4nf.v,  1,22):  but  Bochart  interprets  "the 
south,"  not  with  regard  lo  the  whole  land  of  Cuu 
but  lu  the  Danites.  mentioned  in  ver.32;  and  by  " 
west"  he  understands  the  like  of  Tiberias,  otlieiw 
called  the  ta  of  Tiberiah  or  <ialilee,  or  liennesvet; 
the  portion  of  Naphtali  extended  ftom  the  south  of 
city  called  Dan  or  Liish  to  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  wb 
was  in  thin  tribe.  So  all  the  Chaldee  psrsphrasls  i 
pound  the  word  O"',  here  translated  trur .-  Sept.  ^aXair- 
tav  tai  AiQa:  Vulg.  mart  tt  meridirm  (Hum,  pL  i 
lib.  iii,  c.  IS).  In  some  passages  the  word  signiOes  Ihi 
masts  of  the  Hedilerranean  Sea,  and  "  the  islands  of  thi 
sea"  denotes  the  western  part  nf  the  worhl,  or  Eurogiean 
nilions.    Thus,  in  regard  to  the  future  restoration  of 

"  when  the  l.ord  shall  roar,  then  the  children  shall  trem- 


e  (tt 


n  allusi 


n  Hying)  fmro  the 

comp.  Isa.'xxiv,  11,16, with  xi,lli  xxiV,  14).  In  the 
account  given  of  the  removal  of  the  plague  of  locusts 
from  Egypt,  we  are  told  (Exod.  x,  19), "  ihe  Lord  turned 
a  mighty  strong  west  wind,"  D^Tll"',  uvi/iov  dwo  &o- 
Xoarnit-  Supposing  ihat  these  were  the  very  words  of 
il  rendering  of  his  words,  I 


[sa.  xlix,  12)  D^a  stands  opposed  U>  liUKQ,  bat  ooglit 

Deut.  xxxiii,  23.  The  west  is  also  indicsted  by  Ihe 
phrase  ICp^n  X^i'Q  y^^  Srpt.  aw6  yqc  civrpiiv: 
Vulg.  de  terra  occatai  totU.  These  words  are  trans- 
lated "  the  west  country"  in  Zech.  viii,  T,  liienlly.  (be 
country  of  the  going-ilnwn  of  the  sun,  and  are  fully 
IraDslaled  in  Psa.  1, 1 ;  cxiii,  8 ;  HaL  i,  1 1 ;  camp.  Deal. 
xi,  SO;  Josh,  i,  4;  xiiii,  4.  Another  word  by  wfaieb 
the  west  is  denoted  is  3^7^,  from  3^S.  to  remove, 
pass  away,  disappear  as  the  sun  does;  beace  tbe  quar- 
ter of  the  heavens,  etc,  where  ihe  sun  sets,  the  wesL 
1'he  same  idea  is  conveyed  in  lbs  Greek  word  i  vvfuii. 
from  tivi.  It  occurs  in  1  ChnuLxii.  13;  Pia.lxxi-. «; 
ciii,  12;  cvii,3;  Isa.xliii,&;  xlv.e;  lix,  19;  SepLirv- 
liai;  Vulg.  occtdnu.'  in  Dan.  viii,  9,  Sept.  Aid';  ^ulg. 
ocddnii.  It  is  used  lo  denote  the  west  quuier  of  tbe 
beavens  or  earth.  In  the  Apocrypha  and  New  TesL 
the  word  translated  "weal"  invariahlv  oirrefponda  lo 
IviTliai  (Jud.ii,  19;  »Utl.  viii,  1 1 ;  xx'iv,27;  Luke  lii. 
64;  xiii,29;  Rev.zxi.l3):  Vulg.<Knd0U,Mm<iuL  O" 
Lord's  rnemorable  words, '^Tbey  sbalt  come  ftom  tbe 
east  and  the  west,"  etc.  (Matt,  viii,  II),  to  which  Ijika 
adds  "  and  from  the  north  and  the  south'  (xiii.  29).  mag- 
nify all  the  regions  of  the  world:  as  in  claniical  wiiten 
also  (Xenoph.  C>r.  i,  1,3).    Groi 


la  Jacob  (Gen. 


ii.141. 


In  our  Lord's  prediction  of  ihe  destruction 

by  the  Romans  (Matt,  xxlv,  27>  "  For  as  the  llghiuiae 

so  also  shall  the  coming  of  the  son  of  man  be,"  he  is 
supposed  to  have  intimated  the  predse  dir«cti<io  ia 
which  the  Roman  army  conducted  tbe  invasion.  Hia 
reference  to  Ikt  cloud,  r^  vifiX^v,  rising  out  ot  the 
west,  as  the  precunor  of  a  shower  (comp.  I  Kings  xvin. 
43-46),  still  corresponds  lo  the  weather  in  Palesiine. 
Volney  says,  "The  west  and  south-weai  winds,  which 
in  Syria  ami  Palestine  prevail  from  November  to  Feb- 
ruary, are,  to  borrow  an  expreaaion  nf  tbe  Arabs,  'lie 
/alhen  ijf  lioKtn'"  (^Voyagt  rn  .'«!/rir,  i,  ^7 -.  romp. 
Shaw,  TiaPflj.  p.  a2»).— Killo.  Notable  insianca  of 
such  showers  are  those  at  the  battle  orBeihhnnin  i.iixih. 
X,  II),  and  Elijah's  aaeriHce  on  ML  Carmel  (I  Kin^ 
xviii,  44). 

WEST  IN  ExoRCUH.  A  person  ts  be  exotcwd 
atood  with  hia  face  towards  or  liis  hands  slrelcbeil  in. 
the  direction  of  the  west,  the  region  or  symbol  of  ilarli- 
neas.    See  Bowing  towakdb  thk  Eabt. 

^7est,  Benjamtn,  an  eminent  Americmn  punier. 
was  bom  at  Springfield.  Pa.,  Oct.  10.  1738.  He  early 
iscovered  the  artistic  genius,  sketching  a  rude  likeness 


of  his 


lofa. 


made  a 


le  Medite 


ince  Moses,  an  Egyptian, 
unge  of  his  country  in  describing  an  event 
curred  in  it.  If  his  wnnls  dn  not  refer  to  the 
II,  they  must  refer  t»  Ihe  far-distant  At- 
iiiitc.  which,  however,  according  in  Herodotus,  was 
<il  kiuiwn  ta  the  Egyptian*  till  many  ages  afterwards, 
losm  also  represents  God  as  saying  tu  Abriim,  in  thr 
md, "  Lift  up  thine  eyes  and  look  northward,  and  snuth- 
'ard.aud  eastward,  and  westward,  n»J  (Gen.  xiii,  14). 


,ad  l«en  pr« 


id  were  inserted 


eight  cumlnnjng  pans  nf 
nal  design,  which  he  pmduced  in  colors  on  canvai  to 
the  infinite  delight  of  his  friends.  At  nine  ve^rs  of 
age  he  was  introduced  into  Ihe  studio  of  ail  anisi  in 
Philadelphia  named  Williams,  who  gave  him  eiicaar- 
agement  and  furnished  him  with  books  on  painting. 
and  young  West  relumeil  home  fully  resolved  ta  be  a 
painter.  His  parents,  although  Friends  (and  that  body 
of  believers  were  not  favarable  to  the  an),  encuurvged 
bim  in  bis  determination,  believing  that  tie  was  predt^ 
tinated  to  be  an  artist.  His  tInU  psinting  that  attract- 
ed any  considerable  notice  was  the  pnnrait  of  Mn.  Koaa. 

This  effort  gained  him  so  many  <jrder»  fc.r  portrait*  that 
he  could  scarcely  nwet  them.  About  the  same  limei  a 
gunsmith  named  Henry  comminionrd  him  lo  paint  a 
picture  of  Ihe  Dtalh  of  Seeraltt.  Being  at  a  l«tt>  for 
a  model  fur  the  slave  who  was  U>  hand  Ihe  cup  »f  pni- 
UMi  lu  the  philuaopher,  the  gunsmith  bmught  hicn  ■ 
half-naked  negro,  and  the  picture  was  Hnisheil.  Ab-xiC 
this  time  Dr.  Smith,  provost  of  Ihe  college  at  Philadrt- 
phia.  induced  young  West  in  enter  upon  a  course  nf 


WEST  ȣ 

high  sUlion  he  urudestineO  to  GIL  He  reniuiicd  hen 
aniil  he  was  eighUen,  with  the  exceplluu  of  a  short 
Qme  when  he  >ccompaiii«<l  Major  Sir  l^let  Halkcn  u 
■  voluuLeer  to  Marcb  fur  (he  remaiiu  ind  bury  the 
boiws  of  the  »miy  which  hid  been  lr»E  under  General 
Hndilock.  On  bit  return  frtim  Lhis  espedilion,  he  wu 
cilled  ID  wiliieu  Ibe  deetb  of  his  mother,  ifter  wbtcb 
tie  letumed  to  Philadelphia  and  aet  up  w  i  portiait- 
punter.  When  he  bod  exhausted  hia  patronage  in 
Fhitodelpbia,  he  remaved  W  New  York,  where  be  met 
with  Btili  better  aucceu.  In  1760  be  waa  uMated  by 
auoK  wealthy  inercbuit  to  go  abroad  Tor  the  improve- 
ntent  of  hi*  talenta.  At  Rome  be  was  palroniied  by 
Lord  GraDtham,  whoM  portrait  he  painted,  became  Che 
Tiiend  oT  Mengs,  and,  ai  the  Brat  American  artiat  ever 
seen  iu  Italy,  attracted  mueh  attention.  He  punued 
his  Btudiea  in  Italy  lor  three  yean,  during  which  he 
wai  KTeitly  aasiited  hy  wealthy  Americana.  He  painu 
ed  his  Ci  won  and  Ipiigaiia,  and  A  ngdica  and  Medora, 
and  was  elected  member  of  the  academies  of  Florence, 
bologna,  and  Fanna.  In  1763,  visiting  England  on  bis 
wav  ii>  America,  he  was  induced  to  remain  in  London, 
ami  in  17G.)  married  Eliia  Shewell,  an  Amencan  lady, 
i«  u'hom  he  had  been  engaged  before  going  to  Europe, 
He  painted  for  the  archbi^ap  at  York  a  picture  of 
AgrljipiAii  Landiiig  iet(jl  Ihf  Aiha  a/GmHanicia,  which 
aiiractwl  the  attention  of  George  III,  who  became  hia 
««ady  friend  and  patron  for  forty  rears,  during  which 
lime  be  sketched  or  painted  over  four  hundred  pictures. 
Ilia  first  painting  for  the  king  waa  the  I>rpnmTi  of 
K'gtUui  from  Rome,  and  it  was  so  entirely  aatiafactiiry 
<hat  the  artist  waa  received  by  tbe  king  on  terms  of 
iiiiimacv  from  that  time  onward.  Weal  waa  one  of 
ih«  fDuudera  of  tbe  Royal  Academy  in  176S,  and  auc- 
reeded  Sir  Joshua  Revnolds  an  its  preaident  in  1792,  but 
declined  the  honor  of  knighthood.  His  DtaA  o/Gea- 
iriii  ICoi/r,  painted  in  the  costume  of  tbe  period  against 
I  he  advice  of  all  the  most  diatingubhed  painters,  effect- 
eil  a  revolution  in  historic  arL  For  the  king  he  paint- 
ed a  a^riea  of  twenty-eight  religions  picturea  for  Wiiid- 
Nir  Casile.  Ilia  beat-known  works  are,  Chiiit  ilraUng 
thf  .Si<-k:—Dtath  ok  the  Pate  llorta^Ani  the  BnttU 
■•/  La  /foguf.  He  attempted  many  wonderful,  and  Co 
roost  aniaiB  dangerous,  aubjecia,  such  as,  if  ma  Rrcrin- 
iag  Ikr  hiiB  o»  Sinai!— Deicmt  of  Ike  llolg  Gkoit  on 
the  Sarinur  ill  the  Jordan: — Opettvig  if  the  Seeenlh 
Still.-  — St.  Mieliarl  utid  hii  AngeU  Caifing  Oat  the 
Grffit  l'f<i</on:—The  Mights  '^'•ff'l  ""*  One  Foot  on 
the  Sea  anilhe  Other  on  the  A'ar(4:— the  Rfiurrectioa: 
—and  oihera  of  tike  character.  He  died  in  London, 
Man-h  11, 18^  and  was  buriHl  with  great  pomp  in  St. 
Paula  Cathedral.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hilt,  of  the  Pine 
A  .tt,  a.  v. ;  Gait,  The  Lift  and  Stadia  o/flmjnmin  H'ett 
<Lond.  1816-20);  Cunningham,  WtM  o/A'minm(  flrif- 
mA  Paialtrt. 

^Vest,  Ell&abetll,  a  |Houa  lady,  the  wife  of  a 
Scotch  clergyman,  was  bom  In  Edinburgh  in  1672,  mar- 
ried Mr.  Bne,  minister  of  Salim,  Fifeshire,  and  died  in 
1735.  She  wrote  Sfemoiri,or  Spiritaal  Er/rciiti  IVrit- 
im  leilh  her  oan  Hand  (Edjnb,  1807).  See  AlUbone, 
Dirt,  nf  Bril.  and  A  mer.  A  uthort,  s.  V. 

"WeBt,  Bnocll  G.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Clermont  County,  O.,  Nov.  25,  1826. 
He  was  the  special  object  of  tbe  prayers  of  his  pious 
pareiiin  from  infancy,  and  tbe  aubjecc  of  deep  religiooa 
impTessinna  from  cbihlbood;  experienced  religion 
bii  fiHirternth  year,  waa  appointed  class-leader  at  tbe 
af^  of  eighteen,  joined  the  Ohio  Conference  in  18"* 
and  continued  energetic  and  devoted  until  his  dea 
which  occurred  at  Urbana,  O..  May  8, 1865.     Mi.  \V 
poaseswd  a  well-stored  mind,  waa  a  man  of  deep  and 
uniform  pielv,  bold  and  firm  in  principle.     .See  ilinuiti 
of  Animal  Confirmee*.  I860,  p.  168. 

'West,  Francis,  an  English  Wealeyan  minister, 
Oejtan  hia  work  in  1793.  labnreii  tweniy-scven  years, 
and  died  July  3, 1820.     The  J/ihh'h  cbaractcrize  liim 


a  plain,  useful  m 


See  Mimla  of  the  Coi^t*~ 


Weat,  Francil  L.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
r,  was  bom  at  Knsh,  N.  Y.,  March  7, 1840.  He  removed 
ilh  hia  parents  to  Michigan  when  quite  young,  expe- 
mced  religion  in  hia  youth,  waa  licensed  to  preach  in 
6%  and  in  1861  joinei'l  the  Detroit  Conference,  and  in 
served  tbe  Church  until  the  fall  of  1864,  when  lie 
as  drafted  into  United  States  service,  and  sent  in  Che 
Twenty-third  Michigan  Infantry  to  Tennessee,  where 
he  was  shot,  while  on  duty,  by  guerillas,  and  died  in 
Hospital  No.  I  at  Chattanooga  the  next  morning,  Jan. 
b,  1865.    Mr.  West's  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  made 
him  a  young  man  of  great  promise.     He  waa  Brm  in 
purpose,  of  intense  earnestness, conscientious,  affable,  de- 
>ut.     See  Minutei  of  Amunl  Conferenrtt,  1865,  p.  168. 
West,  Jobo  (1),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Charles  City  County,  Va.,  April  20,  1768. 
He  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1784,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1787,  entered  the  travelling  con- 
nection in  1790,  and  was  appointed  to  Greene  Circuit,  in 
TenneftMe.     In  1802  be  was  transferred  from  the  Vir- 
ginia 10  the  Baltimore  Conference,  his  connection  with 
that  body  lasting  until  1B2S,  when,  at  its  organization, 
be  became  a  member  of  the  Pittsburgh  Conference.    For 
fifty-seven'years  (forty-four  of  which  he  was  effect  jve) 
"  Father  Weat"  labored  in  the  itinerant  roiniatry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church, -'and  in  every  station  his 
oneftius  and  important  duties  were  discharged  with  a 
fidelity  but  seldom  equalled  and  perhaps  never  surpass- 
ed."    He  died  July  23,  1847.     "Modealy.  innocence, 
and  punctuality  were  prominent  traits  in  the  character 
of  Father  West-"    His  death  was  as  triumphant  as  his 
life  waa  serene.     See  iSHtatei  of  Aanaat  Confereneti, 
iv,238. 

W«Bt,  John  {2).  a  Welsh  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  1808.  He  atndied  privately  for  the 
minisliv.  was  ordainrd,  and  for  some  years  preached  in 
several  English  counties  with  acceptance  and  suecesa. 
In  1839  he  was  received  hy  tbe  Cohinial  Missionary  So- 
ciety, and  waa  sent  to  I'asmania  under  its  auspices. 
He  not  only  did  good  work  as  a  minister,  but  as  a  po- 
litical leader  he  did  much  for  Tasmania,  and  his  stir- 
ring appeals  were  a  strong  element  in  the  resistance 
that  Hnally  triumphed  over  the  imperial  government. 
In  18S4  he  became  chief  editor  of  the  Sgdne}^  Morning 
Herald,  and  labored  in  this  capacity  until  hia  death, 
Decll,  IH73.  See  (Loud.)  Coih;.  l'ear-5(wjt,I876,p.373, 
West,  Jonatliao  Benahair,  a  Sletbodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  wss  bum  in  Jaclison  County,  Ala.,  Aug. 
31,1806.  He  experienced  religion  in  1825,  was  licensed 
to  exhort  in  1827,  and  to  preacb  in  1S32,  and  in  1846 
or  1847  joined  the  Missouri  and  Arkansas  Conference. 
During  tbe  war,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the  South 
for  personal  safety.  In  1864  he  went  to  Kansas,  where 
he  preached  until  his  death,  June  15, 1874.  See  Jfin- 
atet  ofAmuial  Confrrmrtt,  1875,  p.  28. 

^7eBt,Natli8niel,D.D..a  Presbyterian  divine,  waa 
bom  in  Ulster,  Ireland,  in  1794.  He  was  educated  under 
Dre.  Chalmers  and  Tumeri  entered  tbe  ministrv  in  the 
IiidependenCConnecIioninHull,Eiigland,in  1831;  came 
to  tbe  United  States  in  1834.  and  waa  pastor  of  Piesbv- 
terian  churches  successively  at  Meadville,  Pa. ;  Monroe, 
Mich. ;  North  East,  PitUhurgh,  MacKeesport,  Belmont, 
Hestonville,  and  Philadelphia,  Pa„  besidea  being  en- 
gaged in  various  benevolent  agencies.  He  was  senior 
chaplain  in  the  Satterlee  United  States  Militsrv  Hos- 
pital, West  Pbilarlelpbia,  fmm  May,  1862,  until  his 
death,  .Sept.  S,  1864.  lie  published.  The  A  rk  of  Cod 
lie  Snfityofthe  Xatinn  {i8M)-^ Popery  the  Prop  of 
t:iiropeanf>etp.>liin«.(lf^^-i):^H<ihslontheGj-eal(ibiA.)i 
—Riffil.  and  Lefi-ha»d  ftl^e'ingi  of  God.  or  a  Care  for 
rnrffoin«fM(l'hila.lMo2.  lauio):— Cont;jI(«.<B<i(yn(o/" 
the  Hidy  hiblr.  Cc-l'umi'J  the  Whdt  of  the  Xew  and 
Old  TeetanwHti,  (••lleded  and  AtTnnffed  SgttemalieaUg 


WEST  9f 

iWo  Thiiig  Booh;  Batnl  on  tkt  Work  nf  At  l^earned 
Tulbol  (N.  Y.  1853,  roy*!  Bvo;  ;ih  ed.  !tl65,  royU  8»o, 
1035  pp.): — rAf  Ocaluniiiig  of  Tj/ramiait  GoMnnmiti 
(preached  before  and  published  at  the  r({|DeM  of  Louis 
Kouuth  when  iii  the  Unll«d  SUtes,  sud  by  hia  order 
and  aL  his  cost  innslaled  into  Msgyar)  ■.^f.tclatt  on  Ihe 
Cauta  oftht  Ruia  of  [Upubtican  LibeHg  in  tht  Aadrnt 
Roman  Rrpabiic,  elc  (Phila.  1861, 8iro)  -.^Hiitory  of  Die 
Saltfrlte  U.  3.  A  rmg  Gat.  Soipdul  (West  PbiU^  Hos- 
pital press,  1868, 12nio,  30  pp.).  "  Dr.  West  was  a  mui 
oi  marked  peculiarities  and  abundant  labors."  See  Al- 
liboae,  Diet,  of  Brit,  atid  A  mer.  .1  uAort,  u  v.  i  Wilson, 
Pmb.  Hal.  A  tnanac,  1865,  p.  134.     (J.  U  S.) 

'Weat,  Riohard,  D.D.,  an  English  clerKyman,  wa* 
bom  in  1671.  He  became  a  oonnnonei  in  Herton  Col- 
leRe,  Oxford,  in  1688 ;  waa  aAerwardi  elected  fellow  of 
Magdalen  College ;  hecame  prebendary  of  Wincheal«r  in 
1706:  nn:haeacan  of  Berks  in  ITlOi  and  died  Dec  2, 
1716.  He  piihliahed  some  esnys,  aeroMns,  and  other 
worka     Ute  AlVihone,  Diet,  of  Brii.tmd  Amer.Authori, 

'West.  Robert  Atho«r,  an  American  writer,  waa 
botn  at  rhetford,  Kngland,  in  1S09.  He  emigWed  Co  the 
United  KuCes  in  i84S;  was  the  otflcial  repoit«r  of  the 
General  Ciniferenee  of  the  Hetbidist  Epiacooal  Cbutch 
in  IS41,  and  published  the  debaieii  was  editor  of  the 
CofamAiu  Magaxitt  (N.  Y.)  from  18*6  to  1849;  co- 
editor  of  the  JV.  Y.  Commeraal  AdevrHitr  in  1845, 
■nd  editor-in-chief  in  18oO.  Us  was  the  author  of, 
Sbtcha  of  K-r^/rytn  Pnaclttn  (N.Y.  1848) —.4  Fa- 
Ihtr'i  /.tlUr  to  Ail  Daughter  (1865).  He  was  also  one 
of  Ihe  compilers  of  the  Hgim-booi  nf  ilu  MrlhodiM 
Kpiieopal  Ckureh,  and  contributed  to  its  pages,  besidea 
writing  poetry  and  prose  fur  periodicals. 

"Weat,  Samuel  (l),  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Yarmouth.  Ma»..  March  3, 1730 
(O.  S.).  He  labored  on  the  farm  until  he  was  twenty 
yean  iif  age;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1764;  was 
ordained  minister  of  a  part  of  Dartmouth  (now  New 
Bedford  and  Fair  Haven)  Jane  B,  I7II1 ;  was  a  lealoiu 
patriot  during  the  American  Revolution,  encouraging 
(he  people  in  public  addresses,  entering  the  army  as 
chaplain,  and  adding  all  the  weight  of  his  great  learn- 
ing (o  the  American  cause;  withdrew  from  his  minis- 
terial lahors  in  June,  1803;  and  died  at  the  house  of  bU 
son  in  Tiverton.  K.  I..  Sept.  24, 1807.  He  was  a  man  of 
exlrannlinary  physical  and  mental  powers,  and  was  ca- 
teemed  the  most  learned  Dtan  of  his  time  in  New  Eng- 
land. He  was  a  vigorous  preacher,  and  was  noted  for 
the  complete  mailerv  of  his  subject  He  was  Che  au- 
thor of  i:u<aft  OH  Liberty  and  Naxuilj/  (1793  and  1796, 
•i  pts.),  and  several  single  SermouM  preached  on  vari- 
ous occaiuons.     See  Sprague,  ^ luofa  of  Ae  Amer.  Pal- 

West,  Samuel  (2),  D.D.,  an  Aowrican  Unitarian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Uartha's  Vineyard.  Nov.  19, 1738 
(OS.).  He  npent  hisearly  yearsathardlabor;  entered 
Harvard  College  in  his  twentieth  year,  and  gradual^ 
in  1761 ;  became  chaplain  U>  the  garrison  of  Fort  Vow- 
nal  at  Peiiobicoi,  Me„  November,  ITSI ;  relumed  boMe 

Cambridge ;  was  settled  as  pastor  at  Needham  in  1764 ; 
became  pastor  at  the  Hollia  Street  Church,  Boston, 
March  12, 1789;  withdrew  entirely  from  public  labor  in 
1806:  and  did!  April  10, 1808.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  series  of  articles  in  the  BoMon  Seraiarl,  over  the  sig- 
nature of "  The  Old  Man :"— and  several  single  Senmmi. 
A  Bitif/rnphieal  StfJrk  has  been  published  bv  the  Kev, 
Thomas  Thacher.  Sm  Sprague,  AmuU  ofih*  Amer. 
Pk/pi'.viii.SOsq. 

^Vut.  Stephen,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  Tolland,  ConD„  Nov.  13, 1785.  He 
graduatetl  at  Yale  College  in  1755;  taught  at  Halfield, 
Mass,:  studied  theology  with  Timothy  Woodbridge; 
became  chaplain  at  Hoosack  Fort ;  and  was  onlaitied  as 


WESTBROOK 


successor  of  Jonathan  Edwards  in  the  Indian  Mi-non 
at  Slockbiidge  in  1759.  In  a  few  yean  he  gave  up 
the  Indian  portion  of  hii  charge,  and  confined  himaalf 

in  August.  1818,  and  died  May  15,  1819.  Dr.  West  in 
appearance  resembled  a  Puritan  of  the  old  schooL  He 
was  most  exact  and  uniform  in  his  habits  and  work. 
His  Christian  character  was  one  of  strength,  purity,  iim- 
plicity  and  tenderness ;  his  preaching  was  able.  eatHai, 
and  eminently  didaclic-^hve  hundred  and  four  perwnt 
united  with  tbe  Church  during  his  pastormte.  In  the- 
ology. Dr.  West  was  a  Hupkiosian :  in  metaphywca,  a 
Berkeleyan.  He  was  a  contributor  to  Ibenlogial  pe- 
riodicala,  and,  beaides  several  SermomM,  the  following  ai* 
hta  publications :— J n  Ettay  on  Moral  Atfotry  0"i: 
enlvged  ed.  1794).  Dr.Woodbtidge  calls  this '-one  d 
the  most  extraardinaiy  spedmeos  of  subtle  melaphjiaeal 
truoninni'—DtilyaidObUgaliaiofCkrutiantloJiarrf 
oufy  IH  lAe  Lord  (1779):'.4a  ii^ai^  oa  file  Srriplm 
Dodrint  of  the  Alouemtnl  (1786):  "lesa  oteUphyiical 
and  more  popular  than  that  on  Moral  Agency.  It  «- 
Jnys  a  high  measure  of  favor  with  prorouud  theolo- 
gian* :" — A  R  Inquiry  into  iJu  Ground  (md  Import  of  In. 
font  Baplitm  (I'M):— Diutrtalion  on  Infant  Baptiimi 
Riply  (0  Rre.  Cyprian  Strong  (1798)  —Life  of  Ba. 
Samuel  HopUni,  D.D.  (1806)  :'-7'Arce  Strmont  n  ete 
Motaic  Aocaunl  1^  tie  CrtaHtm  (1809) :— fridem  af 
litIiiniiitgofChTiit,colleeledfroBHlieSi:riptum(m6). 
See  Sprague,  ^rbii^  of  lie  Ama:  Pnipil,  i.  &M-Ut: 
Con^dKor.  1859,  p.  41. 

^eat.'WllUaiD  (1),  D.D.,aa  American  Episivial 
cleigyman,  waa  bom  in  Fairfax  County,  Va^  near  Munnt 
VemoDi  about  1739.  Hewasordained  and  licensed  for  Vii> 
ginia  by  the  bishop  of  London,  Nov.  21,  1761;  becaau 
rector  of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster  parish  .Ann  AruDcId 
County,  Md. ,  rector  of  Sc  Andrew's  parish,  Sl  Msrv't 
County,  Nov.  17, 17S7;  incumbent  of  St.  George's  paridi. 
Harford  County,  in  17/2;  incumbent  of  St.  Panl'.  par- 
ish. Baltimore  County,  June  7,  1779;  waa  five  yean 
(1780-85)  employed  to  officiate  every  third  Sundsv  ii 
St.Thamas's  Parish  Church  ;  took  a  pramtneni  pan  ia 
the  organization  of  tbe  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  ia 
America  aDer  tbe  Revolution ;  waa  choaen  presideat  uf 
the  Diooeaan  ConvenUon  in  May,  1790;  and  died  Match 
SO,  1791.  Ha  was  a  Whig  during  the  Kevulutina.  and 
left  no  published  works.  He  ordered  bis  sentHHis  lo  be 
bamed,  stating  that  tbey  were  itot  wonby  of  pracr- 
vation.  See  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer.  Fk^  v, 
208  sq. 

^7«at,  'William  (!),  an  Engliab  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Ireland.  He  waa  convened  in  caiiir 
life:  entered  the  itinerancy  in  1779;  waa  lotally  blinl 
fur  many  vears;  became  a  supernumerary  in  1817;  and 
died  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland, SepU  2, 1822.  in  (he  eightieth 
year  of  his  age.  West  was  a  man  of  strict  iniegrity, 
pietv,  and  of  no  mean  gifts.  See  Mimla  of  Ar  Cm- 
ferena,  1823 ;  WaL  Meik.  Magatint.  Oct.  1822,  p.  68& 

Weatall,  Tkohas,  an  early  Bletbodist  preacba, 
labored  forty  yean  in  Euglandifrom  1740  until  won 
nut.  He  retired  to  Bristol  abont  1780.  He  had  tome 
exciting  experiences,  one  of  which  Atmore  records.  It 
was  connected  with  (iwenap,  bmed  in  Ihe  histon-  rf 
early  Methodism.  He  waa  at  the  Third  Conference  in 
1746.  He  died  in  Bristol,  April  20, 1794,  He  was  a 
pattern  of  Christisn  simplicity  and  humble  love.  Ste 
Atmore,  MrA.  Mtmariat,  ■.  v. ;  Mimilft  of  ike  Canftr- 
Bi«,1794;  S[evena.»uf.D/Jfefjl.L174,315;  Ui,89. 

'W^eetbrook,  CoRnELim  D.,  D.D..  an  nrly  and 
distinguished  minister  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
~  both  Puritan  and  Huguenot  stock. 


a  descendant  ol 


infancv.  He  was  bom  at  Rocheaier.  lister 
Co.,  N.  Y..  in  1782;  giaduated  at  Union  dllege  in 
1801;  studied  theology  with  Dr.Tbeodoric  Bomen, 
and  was  licensed  in  1804  by  the  Classis  of  Albany.    Ha 

waa  settled  at  Fishkil],N.r.,twenlv-roiirvMn  {IHOS- 


WESTBROOKS  9B 

30).  Then  for  three  yean  be  wu  the  Bnl  editor  of  th« 
VArvtum  iHtdUgenar,  which  had  just  been  eatahluhed 
u  ■  weekly  paper  in  place  of  itae  old  MmlUy,  the 
■*  Umguine  of  the  Rerormed  Dutch  Church."  After 
tbU  b«  bccanw  rector  o!  the  giammarHichoDl  of  Rutgen 
CoUe^  in  1^8 ;  but  letunial  to  the  paMorale  in  1^6 
at  Canlandtown,  N.Y.,  where  he  remained  fourteen 
Tcan  (IHa6-60),  and  then  retired  from  active  wrvic« 
u>  Kingiton,  M.Y.,  where  he  died  in  1868.  Ur.Weat- 
bnwk  waa  in  every  mpect  a  man  tai  yaieriM.  Ha  waa 
original  in  tbonght,  tpeech,  wrilin)(,  and  action.  He  i 
Hcrantyped  nothing  —  (or  he  could  never  be  anylhtng  \ 
but  bimself,  Ue  wai  learned  and  acholarly  in  his  i 
taaua,  but  could  nerer  endure  rigid  ■j'stem,  nor  rallow 
in  the  tracka  of  others.  Hie  mind  irai  quick,  intuitive- 
ly upringiDg  lo  coDcltiaiona  which  othera  reached  only 
'">  intellect  and  beait  and  will . 


iUua 

B8  by  tbe  piety  which  wanned  his  childlike  heart.  In 
pnyer  al»  he  wa*  himaelf.  natural,  truxrul  in  God, 
reverential,  and  devont.  At  the  grave  of  Waabinglon 
among  the  vclenna  of  (be  War  of  1813,  whoae  chaplain 
he  waa,  he  prayed  ao  that  no  eye  waa  dry  in  that  ■»- 
■embly  of  gray-haired  beroei.  Hit  aocial  qualiliea  were 
unique  and  attractive.  He  waa  a  Natbanael  in  whom 
there  wa*  no  guile,  but  be  waa  alao  as  cbeerTul  and 
happy  and  exuberant  n  a  boy.  Hia  heart  never  grew 
okL  "  Ho  was  alwsys  a  boy."  Hia  pupils,  parishionera, 
and  fiends  lured  him  just  becauae  be  was  Dr.  WeU- 
brook,  unlike  any  one  elae,  and  always  genial,  gentle, 
great-bearted,  honest,  aim  pie-minded,  ungle-eyed,  and 
upselSsb,  full  of  lympathy  fnr  the  weak  and  auflering, 
TuJl  of  generonly  and  labors  for  the  cause  of  Christ. 
Hia  very  frslltiea  grew  out  of  the  simpliciQr  of  bit  large 
nature,  and  doubtleaa  they  added  much  to  bis  experi- 
eiKea  cf  tbe  grace  of  God.  See  Corwin,  Mamal  o/tht 
Sif.  Ckurck,  p.  264,  S65.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

^FeBtbrooka,  James  H.,  ■  Southern  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  waa  bom  March  10,  I8S7.  He  pro- 
rcaaed  conversion  in  his  twentieth  year;  began  pnacb- 
ing  in  1852;  and  in  I8SS  waa  received  into  tbe  North 
Carolina  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  fBithrully  until 
compelled  to  retire  from  active  service  by  aeveie  ill- 
ness a  short  time  previous  lo  his  death,  which  occurred 
Jan.  28,  ISoS.  Mr,  Weatbrooks  pcesesaed  a  fervent  but 
uitobtruaive  piety,  and,  though  amttien  down  in  tbe 
morning  of  life,  he  left  abundant  evidence  ot  his  ability 
as  a  preacher,  his  diligence  as  a  pastor,  and  hia  cniuis- 
tency  aa  a  Christian.  See  Mimla  nf  A  mmai  Cmftr- 
CMcea  oflht  M.  E.  Church,  Snulh,  1866,  p.  6M. 

^7e»toOtt,IiOreii»o.aPre«byterian  minieter.waa 
bom  in  Southern  New  Jersey,  and  belonged  to  a  large 
connection  known  in  that  pan  of  the  state.  He  waa  a 
graduate  uf  Princelnn  CuU^  and  entered  tbe  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  ISliS,  where  he  remained  three  yean  and 
grsduBled.  He  was  ordained  in  Green  Avenue  Preahy- 
lerian  Church,  Brooklyn,!.  I.,  and  was  inatalled  pastor  of 
tbe  Church  at  Warrior  Run,  Pa.,  in  1S69.  He  waa  called 
to  a  profeisorship  in  Lincoln  University  in  1866,  and 
remainei)  at  that  poet  until  tranBfeired  tn  a  profesmr- 
sbip  in  Howard  University.  He  waa  deeply  interealed 
in  the  education  and  elevation  of  the  colored  race  in 
this  country,  and  gave  lo  this  important  matter  hia 
■tores  of  learning  and  unceasing  Isbora.  He  died  at 
Gennantown.  June,  1879.  See  Pnibglentm,  June  14, 
1879.     (W.P.S.) 

^7Mtcott,  WIUImh  AnBoatQS,  a  Preeb.vteri- 
an  minister,  was  bom  in  Orange  County,  N,Y.,  in  1814. 
Afler  receiving  an  scademical  educatioi>i  including  the 
languagea,  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  mercantile  house  in 
Maw  Tork  city.     While  thus  employed  he  united  with 


9  WESTEN 

the  Choirh,  and  soon  after  turned  hia  attention  lo  the 
ministry;  but  not  being  able  to  hear  the  expense  of  an- 
education,  he  niudied  medicine.  He  waa,  howei'er,  dis- 
satiaGed,  feeling  it  his  duly  to  presch.  His  way  wac 
opened  to  enter  Princeton  Seminary,  which  be  did  in 
1841,  and  spent  there  two  years  in  study.  On  April  17, 
184&,  he  wu  licensed  to  preach,  and  for  some  time  sup- 
plied the  pulpit  of  the  F  Street  Church,  Washington, 
D.C,  and  afterwarda  that  of  the  Church  of  Kainapo, 
N.  Y.  He  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  Hudson 
Presbytery,  and  was  called  to  the  Church  at  Florida,, 
where  he  waa  inetalled  paatoi  in  1849.  Here  he  labored 
eleven  years  with  marked  eucceas.  At  the  dissolution 
of  the  paatorate  he  was  called  to  the  Church  at  Bloom- 
ingbur^,  where  he  was  inatalled  in  1868,  Afler  laboring 
bere  three  years,  he  was  called  to  the  Centreville  Church,, 
and  he  remained  here  until  he  died,  Feb.  38,  1876,  be- 
loved and  regretted  by  aU.     (W.  P.  3.) 

'Westen,  Thomas  of,  a  missionary  among  tbe- 
lapp  or  Finna  down  to  the  year  1727.  This  man  waa- 
one  uf  the  moat  noteworthy  characters  in  Ihe  history  oT 
Protestant  missians.  The  people  among  whom  he  la- 
bored dwelt  from  latitude  64°  northward,  chiefly  in. 
tbe  marshes  of  Finland  and  in  the  North  countn',  but 

10  aome  extent  ab»  among  the  Norwegians. .  Theit 
number  ia  now  reduoed  lo  from  40DO  to  7000  aouls. 
They  speak  a  language  reeemhliug  that  of  the  inhab- 
itants oT  Finland,  proving  that  they  belong  to  the 
same  alack.  As  they  have  not  made  any  considerable 
advancement  in  civilization,  they  are  greatly  despised 
by  Noiwegians  and  Swedes.  In  the  period  of  (be  Chris- 
tianizing of  those  regions,  they  heard  the  Gospel  and 
were  forced  lo  receive  bapiiam.  The  preach^  wete- 
not  able  to  traverse  all  the  country  and  reach  all  tbe 
people,  and  birelii}g  adventurers,  intent  only  upon  the 

In  many  instancea  persona  were  denied  ihe  privilege* 
of  religion  because  too  poor  to  pay  tbe  amounts  demand- 
ed by  their  ministers  as  a  yearly  contribution.  Tbe- 
Norwegians,  loo,  were  guilty  of  overhearing  and  unjust 


observant  of  the  forma  of  Chrii 
children  were  washed  on  their  return  from  Church  in 
order  that  their  baptism  might  not  take  effect  on  them, 
aud  a  sort  of  counter-baptism  was  administered,  etc  A. 
Finnish  name  waa  given  the  child,  which  was  carefully 
concealed  (roai  the  preachera,  etc  The  (brgiveuess  of 
the  heathen  gods  was  invoked  whenever  parricipatioa 
in  the  aacrament  of  the  Locd'a  supper  became  neceaeaiy. 
In  morals,  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  bad  done  great 
harm.  Drinking -shops  atood  in  church-yards  and  at 
cburch-doora,  and  even  minittera  of  the  Church  carried 
on  a  profitable  traffic  in  the  businesa  of  providing  for 
the  general  thirst  for  0er}'  potions,  and  uaed  persuasion 
lo  induce  unwilling  peiBons  lo  drink.  In  time,  no  cere- 
mony could  he  conducted  without  the  uae  of  alcobolio 
drink.  Harrisges  were  sealed  with  it,  and  it  was  sprin- 
kled over  the  graves  of  the  dead  aa  a 


le  Finn 


.e  Nor 


10  the 


property,  an 

The  Danish- Norwegian  Church  waa  not,  however, 
allogetber  unconcerned  about  the  needs  of  this  people. 
ffishop  Eric  Bredahl  vi^red  it  repeatedly,  and  won  a 
few  individuals  over  to  Chriatianity.  Issac  Olsen,  a 
schoolmaster,  spent  fourteen  yean  at  Tarangrr,  on  the 
Russian  t>onlier,  and  under  the  TOth  degree  ol  laiiliidr. 
engaged  in  apoemlic  toils,  enduring  apoalulic  ■•ifretiiigs 
fur  ilie  cause  of  Christ,  and  aucceeding  ao  far  ai  !»  ive 
some  of  hia  pupib  excel  their  Norwegian  comperilota  in 
a  knowledge  of  Christian  doclrinea  in  tbe  annual  viaita- 
lion  of  churchea  and  achools. 

IV  of  Denmark  ordered  an  inveaiigation  ijf  the  co' 
linn  of  schools  and  churches  in  Nordland  and  Finm 
and  in  1714  he  ordered  the  newly  (bunded  CoUegiiin 
Preimovcutl'i  Cutsu  Evsngelii  to  make  preparation  ( 


g  Frederick 


rounun  anuiii);  (hi 

taken  in  cunaeqiiei 

□r  Tlinmis  a(  Vi'euea  w  oe  un  •uperinienaeni,  ai 

proiwiseii  mUrion. 

Wesieii  WM  bom  »t  Trondhjeiii,  in  1682,  and 
obliged  ill  eariy  life  M  conutid  trilh  wiiit  mJ  ( 
culliei  iif  every  sun.  Hia  (aiher  retiatd  to  permit 
ui  >tu<ly,  and,  when  benevolent  efiiirt  made  >  uiiii-ei 
cdn-er  pussible,  induced  him  Ui  Btudy  medicine  ins 
o(  iliei>Ui|iy.  JuM  u  he  wu  about  to  uke  Ihe  degree 
ofM.!).,  liiB  Tilherdled  and  led  him  pennileu;  but  por- 
cny  did  1101  deter  him  from  eDUring  on  the  study  of 
theialouy-  "'d  paiticulirly  of  UrienUl  lanfpiagM.  He 
wu  able  la  ^t  food  of  very  inCerior  quality,  aud  only 
OD  alienisie  days;  and  he  shared  with  bin  room-male 
in  the  owiienhip  of  an  old  and  poor  black  coat,  which 
-compelled  him  lo  remain  iiidnun  when  the  garment 
wan  away.  A  call  to  Miwcow  a*  profeaaor  of  languages 
imd  [hetoric,  which  was  extended  lo  bim  at  tbii  time 
by  I'eter  Ihe  Ureat,  was  withdrawn  without  result,  ami 
he  accepted  instead  the  post  of  librarian  at  Tronilbje m 
without  salary,  but  with  a  prospect  of  ecclesiastical  pre- 
/ermenl.  In  1710  be  became  pastor  of  the  parish  of 
Wedofii,  and  after  six  years  of  successful  labor  wai 
made  lecuir  and  notary  «r  the  Trondhjem  chapter,  and 
soon  afterwards  vicar  and  manager  of  minions  among 
the  Finns.  In  Ihe  capacity  uf  lector  he  was  called  on 
to  preach  several  sermaiis  in  each  week,  la  deliver  ilai- 
ly  lectures  on  moral  and  positive  theology,  and  also  to 
guide  the  school,  which  was  designed  lo  become  a  nur- 
sery f>ir  the  Finnish  miasion. 

Westen's  Hnt  missionary  lour  among  the  Finns  was 
undertaken  May  'i9.  1710,  and  waa  protncled  through 
Went  Fiiininrk.  East  Finmark,  and  Nonlland  until  au- 
tumn, when  he  relumed  in  open  boats,  often  at  the  risk 
■of  being  drowned  in  the  stormv  inland  waters,  to  Trund- 
hjem.  He  brought  the  womUut  Olsen  wiih  him,  and 
nftcrwanlH  recommended  him  fur  tbe  post  of  Finnish 
teaclier  and  interpreter  in  the  missionary  college.  He 
ihad  left  a  chaplain  as  missionary  in  Kast  Fii 
had  appointed  a  number  of  itinerant  teacbers,  besides 
encuursging  the  buiWing  of  chi 
whom  he  could  persuade  to  that  work.  He  also  brought 
to  Trondhjem  a  number  of  Finnish  children  to  be  train- 

•ry  for  such  chiklren  in  his  awn  house.    'I'he  bishop, 

iplans,  but  was  defeateil  through  the  favor  of  the  king. 
In  1717  the  seminary  was  securely  established,  and  royal 

-edicts  were  issued  providing  for  the  erection  ofchnrGheB 
an<l  chapels  within  the  Qeld  uf  Ihe  mission,  and  settling 
tbe  relations  and  duties  of  caiechiats  and  teachers  aud 
dmilar  malters.  A  recund  missionary  tour  was  b^un 
by  Westen,  in  company  with  several  asustants  whom 
he  hail  gained,  in  June,  1718.  Ho  waa  already  permit- 
tcil  lo  note  progress  in  the  work  he  had  so  recently  be- 
gun. -Sevornl  churches  were  in  course  of  erect' 
a  number  of  ciiildren  were  secured  for  instructii 
princiiilpB  of  Chrislianily.  The  volnnleers  whi 
panied  him  were  left  an  pastors  in  diSerent  places,  and 
not  ,in1y  became  useful  laborers  in  the  preaching  of  Ihe 

of  the  country.  Erasraui  Hachlcw  translated  Luthei'i 
CiUrriiiii,  and  wrote  a  Griimmiilicn  Loppimira,  and  1 
t-i<rri,am  VoetAiUarii  Ijippnnid.  Minin  Lund  ren- 
dered similar  aervice  with  his  pen.  Weslen  was  unable 
III  return  to  Tnindhjem  in  tbe  autumn  nf  i  his  year,  and 
cnntenteilhimseirwith  rendering  a  written  report,  whi  ' 
led  to  his  b^ng  summoned  to  Copenhagen  in  the  fiilli> 
ing  spring  that  he  might  give  fuller  information.  I 
)*  presented  lo  the  hing.and  was  permitteil  m  siibmi 


WESTEKLO 

ing  people  at  his  charge.     Tbey  clamorad  for  cdncs- 

I  and  read  the  Bible.    The  population  of  ccftaiii 

ces  which  he  had  uot  previously  visited  wetc,  Ixnr- 

T.  bitterly  hostile    At  Siumen  tbe  people  bad  tbmt- 

eued  to  take  his  lifei  but  when  be  preached  u>  ibeo, 

ihey  were  subdued  and  won.     On  Ihe  rock  Over^aldeu 

lived  a  populatioQ  of  :i83  souls  who 


of  th 


ospeL   Wh. 


with  n 


It  Wcsien  inteoded 


f..r 


le  promolii 


1  of  Mice 


migbl . 


It  awakening  among  the 


held  a  magical  mass  lo  deter  him ;  but  k 
gained  tbeit  good-will  and  submission  lo  the  Goapel 
Similar  experiences  awaited  him  in  Snuaen,  when  b« 
remained  two  months,  and,  after  his  return  to  Truad- 
hjem,  in  Hay,  1723,  in  Stordalen  and  Merager,  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  that  centre.  He  parpvaed  riait- 
ing  the  Finns,  also,  who  dwelt  within  tbe  boonde  ut  Cite 
diocese  of  Chriatiania.  but  was  hindered  bv  ita  faiabop. 
in  1725  the  district  of  Kalten  contained  10211  newly  oso- 
verted  Christians,  and  that  of  Finmark  1725. 

During  Iheae  years  Westen  wrote  many  work*  in  tbt 
interest  of  his  mission,  chieHy  of  a  practical  naluic  A 
history  ul  the  Finnish -Lapp  mission  wasci«nplMed,bM 
has  never  been  published,  and  is  now  probably  kuL 
His  last  days  were  Uoubled  with  poverty.  He  diad 
April  9,  1727,  leaving  behind  him  a  widow  who  had 
been  a  helpmeet  for  him  indeed,  and  continuinfc  to  liv« 
in  the  recollection  of  tbe  people  whom  he  had  sprved  as 
"the  lecUir  who  loved  the  Finnish  man."  !»«  Ada 
Hitl.  F^Ja.  Hi,  mi :  v,922;  s,867:  Ubguixm.  A- 
teripliim  of  Lapland  (GfnnMnrii.iTiS)-,  alto  Radtlbaek, 
in  Knapp's  CtristoMrpe  (1SB3),  p.  399-3A0i  ami  H^ 
moiid,  Xorri,  .l/iinoiu^ucA.  (  Copenb.  1787  ).  —  Ilenog 
Reai-Kan^dop.  s,  v. 

^7natBraB  (or  Test«rM),a  town  of  Sweilni.  cap- 
ital of  the  laCD  irf'WestinanUnd,  sixty  miles  wesi-oorth- 
west  of  Stockholm.  An  impenal  diet  was  held  bereia 
I  h-I7,  in  which  the  Protestant  controversy  was  bmifAt 
to  a  crisis.  Liberty  was  granted  for  the  "  preachen  to 
proclaim  Ihe  pure  Word  oT  Goil,"  a  Proteistant  deflniiina 
being  coupled  with  this  ^rase.  The  property  of  tbe 
Church,  with  the  authority  lo  regulate  ecclesiasttcal  af- 
fairs, was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  king.  The 
Protestant  churches  retained  their  revenues,  and  the  ««■ 
clesiastical  property  fell,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  ixjasrs- 
xion  of  the  nobles.    See  Fisher, //iai.  o/lAe  A 


WestSTKaard,  Niels  Lvnvno,  ■  Danish  Orientd- 
ia(,  was  bom  (>cl.27,  ISI&.at  Copenhagen,  where  he  abo 
commenced  his  linguistic  studies,  which  he  coi>iiii(Ma| 
fmm  1838  to  1839  at  Bonn,  Paris.  London,  and  OxfiinL 
From  IMt  to  1H44  he  travelled  through  India  and  Per- 
«a,  and  aOer  his  return  was  appointed  in  the  latter  ytat 
pnifessor  of  Imliin  philology  at  Copenhagen,  where  b« 
died,  Sept.  H.  187)*.  Of  his  writings  we  mention,  Andica 
Lingua  Samcrila  (Bonn,  IIMI)  ■■^Santtrit  /VrnsJbav, 
tngelher  with  Sanitrit  Laetd»g  (CVipenh.  1846).  He 
also  published  the  critical  edition  of  the  Zatianmta 
(ibid.  1854):— and  the  BumddteiK  (ibjd.  IS5I).  Hi*  two 
treatises  Dt  aUnr  ndttitm  i  das  auSihe  Rutorie  and 
BaAUuif  nddMoar  liliiil,  186(1)  have  been  translated  ioM 
(ierman  ( Rreslau.  I8ii2).     (R  P.) 

'Weaterlo,  Eil-ardus,  D.D.,  the  successor  of  Theod* 
nms  Frelinghuysen  in  Ihe  Keformed  Church  of  Albanr, 
was  biim  in  Gitmingen,  Holland,  in  1738.  hlsralbra-,  RrV. 
Isaac  Westerlo.  being  pastor  of  the  Chunh  at  that  place. 
Consecrated  by  his  parents  from  hiseaily  boyhood  lo  tbe 
ministry,  afier  spentUng  six  years  at  the  i^attn  •ebool 
of  DldenEssI  he  entered  the  Onivenntj  of  Gnminf^m  at 
the  age  of  sixteen ;  spent  hx  full  years  in  pieparatioo 


e  he  unexpectedly 


rs  in  1760.  Just  at  that  til 
d  and  accepted  the  call  to  A 
or  of  the  Church  in  March,  and  arrived  in  ibe 

life.    About  eight  years  after  cooing  to  .Ubany 


WESTERMEIER  fl( 

be  fall  into  ■  Mita  of  icligioiu  dtapoiiilFncj-,  which 
proved  (a  be  an  ermiful  period  of  hi*  apirilual  lifn 

mil,  but  it  Memed  like  "life  rrom  the  deid."  In  17T6 
he  married  the  Kiilaw  of  Slephen  Tan  KenweUer,  pa- 
Iroon  of  the  minor  of  Rengsrlaerwjck,  and  mided  with 
her  at  the  muior-liiniAe  iiiilil  1784,  when  tbey  renkuved 
to  the  parsonige  im  Bruailivay.  Dr.  John  H.  Living- 
Man'!  wife  wai  the  sitter  of  Mrs.  Weuerlo.  Tbe  rela- 
tionship between  tbeee  two  eminent  clergymen  greir  in 

Tor  Chriil'a  kingdom.  Both  of  them  were  ardent  sup- 
porten  •'f  the  independence  of  Ihe  American  Cliiinh 
from  (hat  of  Holland,  and  were  known  ai  peace-make™ 
■nil  leaden  during  all  rhe  itrifea  which  endetl  in  the 
triumph  of  their  principlea.  Both  of  them  were  equally 
bi'ld  ami  inHuential  patriots  during  the  Revolutionary 
War.  When  Burgoyiie  was  moving  lowards  Albany  in 
1777,  Dr.Westerlo  took  his  family  la  a  place  uf  safety, 
but  came  back  ro  hia  hone,  direclcd  bis  church  to  be 
opened,  and  held  daily  religiuiia  aervicca  for  a  week, 
with  ferrent  prayers  liir  the  army  and  animating  ex- 
hortations In  tbme  who  renMined  jn  ^e  city.  Dr.  Uv- 
ingalon  aided  him  in  these  patriiilic  services,  which  con- 
tinued until  Che  surrender  of  Bilricoyne  and  his  army. 
When  Washinglon  visited  Albany  in  1782,  Dr.  Westerlo 
delivered  tbe  addresi  of  public  welcome.  Until  17P2  be 
preached  only  in  the  Duleh  language,  and  it  hia  death 
atatcdaervicrsin  thatlongiieceasedinhischurch.  But 
■c  the  period  named  he  bvKan  to  preach  on  a  port  of 
each  Sunday  in  Engliih,  and  continued  to  do  ao  with 
acceptance  until  Dr.  Batselt  became  hia  colleague,  in 
June,  1787,  about  three  years  before  his  own  decease. 
He  was  a  man  nf  fine  peiBonal  |)mence,  mild  and  per- 
aoaaive  in  manner,  yet  digniSed  and  commanding.  He 
was  beloved  by  his  own  people,  and  a  favorite  in  the 
cooimimity  among  all  denominations  of  Christian*.  An 
excellent  claiaical  and  theological  scholar,  be  was  fa- 
miliar with  tbe  beat  learning  of  bis  timeo.  He  wrote 
well  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  president  Stiles  of  Yale 
Collene,  with  whom  he  corresponded,  said  that  he  wrote 
Latin  with  ((reaur  purity  than  any  man  he  ever  knew. 
He  le(i  ■  Hebrew  and  Greek  lexicon,  prepared  apparent- 
ly lor  pablieation,  in  his  own  neat  msnnscript.  Among 
bi>  papers  was  fininil  an  interealingaiiiubiography,  wril- 
tMi  in  Dutch,  up  to  May,  I78j,  and  in  English  up  to  Dec. 
4, 1790.  This  work,  he  says,  was  written  "  for  hia  own 
edification  and  the  rememiinince  of  God's  merciea." 
During  his  last  illness,  a  brief  period  of  despondenci 
■aa  ruUawed  by  the  moat  cheerful  and  happy  sereniti 
of  snoL  '■Hia  people  came  fmm  all  partnnfthe  ciiy  tn 
■e«  him  when  ha  wa*  near  bis  end,  and  he  left  Ih«m 
with  hia  bleiaing  in  such  a  solemn  manner  that  it  was 
thoiiicht  be  d'ld  u  much  goml  in  his  ilealh  as  In  hia  life." 
He  will  always  be  remembered  among  the  great  and 
l(tmd  ministers  of  the  Church  of  hia  fatben.  He  died 
Dec.  S6,  1790.  "So  omnipreaent  was  his  religion,  so 
engrossing  bis  piety,  that  his  bobitual  state  of  mind 
■eemed  to  be  'one  continued  prayer,'  and  hit  life  'one 
onbroken  offering  of  praise.' "  See  Rogers.  Hiiloricat 
Di*eomrtf,p.a\,Mi  Ovwhi,  Mimaal  o/lAe  Br/.  ChMivk, 
p.W5,3e6!  SpnKOt,  A  imalM  nf  tie  A  mei:  PalpU.ix,  10- 
81.     (W.J.RT.) 

^IFaBtarmeiar,  Frakz  BootBt.Ana,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  23.  17TS,  at 
Flechtorf,  near  Brunswick.  He  studied  at  HelmaUdI, 
■mt  in  1799  be  waa  called  aa  pastor  to  Hagdebnrg.  In 
ISIO  he  was  mode  aiiperintendent,  and  in  IftIS  member 
of  oonsistori'.  In  1817  the  Hallo  University  confrrml 
on  him  the  ilegree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  ami  in  Wlb 
tbe  king  of  Prtuaa  appointed  him  evangelical  bishop. 
Three  yeara  later  he  waa  made  general  aiiperintendent 
of  the  prorince  of  Saxony.  He  died  March  1,  18BI. 
He  waa  one  nf  Ihe  most  excellent  pulpit  oraton  of  the 
evangelical  Church,  and  his  Oeffnillicha  RttiyioHtror- 
tr^  (Magdeburj;,  1800)  will  always  be  regarded  as  Hne 
tnedowna  of  pulpit  eloquence.  For  bis  vriiing*.  see 
X.-81 


;l  WESTER  VELT 

Diiring,  Die  gMtrttn  Tkeologm  DratKhUatdt,  n 
aq.;  ZucboU,  BOL  TktoL  ii,  143!*:  Winer,  K 
dir  UtoL  Lil.  ii,  liW,  17ii,  178, 17*,  176,  BBS.     (R  P.) 
^«st«iii    Chtueh.      See     Rouah     CiTnoLic 

^IfMtWVfllt.  Alfrad  L.,  a  miniateT  of  the  Heib> 
odist  Episcopal  Church,  wa*  bom  about  1820,  of  pioua 
parents.  He  received  a  careful  religious  ttainuig;  ex- 
perienced convernon  in  hia  nineteenth  year:  began 
preaching  soon  after,  and  aubsequenily  joined  tbe  Ohio 
Conrerence;  aerved  three  years  as  junior  pmwher  and 
three  a*  senior;  and  died  of  cbulera.JulySl,  184B.  Mr. 
Weslervelt  wo*  a  man  or  deep  piety  and  respectable 
talents.     See  Mva^a  of  Aiuuiai  Can/trautt,  IMS, 

388. 

Wsaterrall;  Itiba  P.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  aehoU 
ar,  waa  bom  at  Fanmus,  N.  J.,  Nov.  7, 1816.  He  was  n 
teacher  in  Lafayette  Academy,  Hackeneack,  in  I8S8, 
and  afterwards  in  private  seminariFs  in  New  Vork  and 
vicinity  until  18*4.  He  then  studied  theology  for  one 
year  under  the  Rev.  Albert  .Ameroian.  After  engaging 
in  various  pursuits,  be  joined  the  Preabvlerv  ofAlbanv 
in  1868.  and  removed  to  Princeton,  N.  J '  where  he  gave 
much  time  to  the  study  of  lai 
ciam.    He  waa  familiar  w' 

Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  and  spoke  fluently  the  Ger- 
man, French,  and  Dutch.  Especially  waa  he  skilled 
in  tbe  lost,  and  held  familiar  intercourse  with  the  theo- 
logians and  poets  of  the  Low  Countries.  He  preached  as 
fluently  in  the  Dutch  Unguage  as  in  his  own.  Bilder- 
dyk,  hia  favorice  poet,  he  esteemed  equal  to  any  of  our 
Knglish  poets.  When  Dr.  Cohen  Stuart  came  from 
Holland  to  attend  tbe  Evangelical  Alliance,  so  great 
had  tbe  fame  of  Mr.  Westetvelt  become  as  a  Dutch 
scholar  that  Dr.  Siuan  vuited  Palerson,  to  which  place 
Mr.Westervelt  had  moved  in  1866,  in  order  that  ho 
might  aee  tbe  renowned  schnlar.  Dr.  Stuart  aflerwanls 
spoke  of  his  "eminent  attainments  being  eqoalled  only 
by  bis  modesty."  By  rei^uest  of  the  doctor,  Hr.  Wes- 
tervelt  wss  mode  a  member  of  the  Leyden  Snciet)'  of 
Netherlandish  Literature,  June  16, 1876.  Although  Hr. 
Westetvelt  was  in  do     '         "  •  -  ■ 


gliiK 


opinion  of  difficult  passages  of  Scripture  was  considered 
sufficient  authority,  flis  piety  was  fervent  and  deep, 
hia  character  pure  and  spotless,  bis  faith  tmsiful  and 
atrong;  and  in  his  Last  hours,  when  utterance  was  diS- 
i  cult,  he  declared  Christ  to  be  his  satitfaction.  He  died 
,  Jan.  Ifi,  1879.  He  published  a  TroBiiiilim  from  Ike 
Datck  of  Van  *t  Palnt'i  Hft  and  Srrmimi  { 1N6&).  He 
contributed  to  the  frmtxlon  ftrrim  articles  on  Van 
derPalm(1861),Ililderdyk(186Z},Sliauss,andSchleiet- 
mscher  (1866);  also  articles  to  this  Cyiopadia.  See 
Corwio,  Mmaal  ofiht  Rrf.  Chinch  in  A  mriica,  p.  biO. 

Weatervalt,  Ralph,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  minis- 
ter, studied  under  his  father-in- law.  the  Kev.  S.  Froeligb. 
He  was  licensed  by  the  Ciasfin  and  served  at  Paramua 
in  1801,  at  Rochester  and  Wauanung  fmm  1802  to 
IS07,  at  Clova  in  1808,  at  Bethlehem  ami  C4)evmana 
until  1816,  and  at  Wynanlskill  from  1810  to  I8».  in 
which  latter  rear  he  died.  See  Curwin,  Manual  aflkt 
Rrf.  Church  %aAmenax,».  v. 

WeatATTelt,  BftJinel  D.,  a  Presbvierian  minia- 
ter,  was  boni  in  Schralenburg,  N.  J.,  April  SI,  1818.  He 
waa  convene*!  in  his  eighlernth  year;  e^lncaietl  in  the 
New  York  Uoii-ersity ;  studieil  theology  privately;  was 
licensed  by  the  Ne'»  York  Chn«i»  i  and  onlnined.Octo. 
ber,  1839,  as  pastor  of  a  church  in  King  Street,  N.  Y., 
known  a>  Ihe  True  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  In  i9at 
he  transferred  his  ecclesiastical  relation  to  the  Second 
Presbytery  of  New  York,  and  in  1868  was  insialled  pas- 
tor of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Y'orktown.  where  lie 
continued  lo  lalinr  almost  until  the  close  of  his  life.  He 
died  Nov.  IS,  18G5.  He  nan  a  good  scholar,*  clear  and 
iitttruclive   preacher,  and  an   acceptable  wriler.      ll« 


pablUhcd  cH 


le  belt  arttcles  on  dtncing  u  a  GMb- 


wis  qiioied  in  4II  Ihe  religioui  Juunialo,  rqiubliahed  in 
London,  and  hi),'hly  npokeii  of  Ly  the  Lnndun  pren. 
See  Wilwn,  Prnb.  Hitl.  A  Imimie,  I8G7,  p.  210. 

^Veatfall,  Benjamin  B..  >  tniiiutrr  of  ihe  Re- 
formed (Dulch)  Church,  WIS  bnni  U  Clarerack,  Colum- 
Uii  Co.,  X.  Y..  in  ITWI.  Hia  early  life  vm  tpent  on  ■ 
ftroi.  Religioin  cunvielHini  Kixed  hia  mind  when 
quil«  voting.  He  f;nMiiiIed  at  Union  College,  N.  V., 
in  1H2B,  and  at  Ihe  New  Bninswidi  (N.  J.)  Theolotiieal 
Seminary  in  IH^.  He  wis  lieenacil  by  rhe  Claans  of 
New  Brunttrivk  in  l»i6.  He  w»  miuionary  at  Sand 
Beach,  N.  V.,  la  18J7-M.  Then  iie  was  msdc  pa*lor  of 
Rocheater,  part  of  which  linio  Clove  wa»  e«nn«ted  with 
ll.  In  Ihia  liel.1  he  Ubotol  fmiD  18^  niiiit  1838,  during 
which  time  he  uw,  as  (he  rruiUofhis  labor,  about  three 
hundred  aoulabroiii-hiinlu  the  Churcli.  Higlanlclurge 
was  I4iane  Arabia  anil  Ephrttah,  where  he  toiled  from 
1838  until  hi 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 

wrilinRi  on  the  po^oo  of  tbc  popet  to  the  gcscnl 
oouiicila,  on  the  primacy  ot  Che  popes,  and  theit  w/oAi- 

*jf«airfu  cofKrvrtrBUjSJn.     {RR) 

WeBtlake,  Buttowb,  a   Meihodiat    E|nawpil 


ti  0/  A  imual  Cm/eaeo,  W 


Hi* 


bis  people.  He  lived  oidy  lo  tave  men.  His  death 
was  caused  by  excessive  labor  in  revival  and  oiher 
meeting  Tur  ihe  l>enpHl  0%  the  people.  See  Coiwin, 
.V-iBMiri ./  /**  H'f.  Vharch  ia  A  mmca,  a.  v. 

Westhll.  Simon  T.  B,,  ■  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed  (Dutch)  Church,  waa  bom  ot  R hi ncbeck,  Dulch- 
eu  Co.,  N.  ¥„  in  IMlj.  He  Kn'luated  at  Rulf^r*  Cul- 
IcRe  in  1831,  and  at  the  New  Bninswii:k  Seminari*  in 
IH34.  He  was  lieeiiwd  bv  the  Claaais  of  KeuMtlaer  in 
1834.  He  was  paitiiir  ofthe  Hyde  Parl(  Church,  Dutch- 
tat  Co.,  N.  Y.,  ftma  18H4  10  1837,  and  Union  aiHl  Sakm 
from  1837  to  1847.  At  this  time  ho  went  fl»  miationary 
to  I11inni^  and  in  that  eapaciiv  he  labored  for  about  two 
yean,  rrom  1847  to  l»tS.  In  iwa  he  underlook  the  try- 
ing task  of  buildins  up  an  "eminent  Dulch  Church"  in 
the  young  dtv  nf  I'ekin,  Tazewell  Co.,  111.,  where,  with 
Ihe  eiceptlon'ofoiie  year  (1868),  iu  which  lie  labored  at 
Vniideneer, Morgan  Co.,  he  minialereil  nntil  18^6.  Hii 
task  waa  long  and  arduous,  but  fruitless.  He  left  Pekjn 
in  ISaC,  and  returned  Co  his  native  East  In  apirnd  hia  de- 
clining days.  He  had  scarcely  got  eeHleil  in  his  new 
house  and  engsgeil  to  aiipply  the  Second  Church  of  Rot- 
tenlam.whenhewas  taken  aick.and  died,  in  IH06.  Dur- 
ing the  shore  lime  lie  waa  sick,  he  repeateilly  uttered 
the  word  "Ecalasy!"  while  visions  of  glory  passed  be- 
fore bi*  mind.  He  waa  a  man  of  seiileil  porpoae,  ' 
Oexible  integrity,  and  of  a  modest  and  iliffident  spiciu 
See  Corwin,  Momal  of  Ihe  H'f.  Cliai-eh  iii  A  ntiica,  t.  v, 
WestBald,  Thomas,  an  Knglish  prelate,  waa  bom 
at  Ely  in  1673.  He  was  edncated  at  Jnuia  College, 
CamUridge,  and  afttr«arda  became  a  fellow;  was  as- 
■isunl  10  Dr.  Nichnla*  Felton.  at  Si.  Mar> -le-Bow,  Lon- 
don, and  then  presenleil  to  the  same  Church;  a(te> 
wards  presented  lo  St.  Ban  hiilumew'a.  made 
con  of  St.  Alhin'i.  and  finally  made  biahop  of  Bristol, 


p.  668. 

^7estl«ka,  CharloB,  an  Engluh  Wealeyan  nio- 
sler,  was  burn  at  Lauitcestoii.  ConinalL  He  was  <iat- 
eited  umler  the  ministiy  of  Henry  Cheveslon,  enicrd 
he  sacre.1  work  in  1831,  and  died  suddenly  ofapo^^y, 
Nov.  18, 1868,  aged  bfty-tbree  years.  See  Mmatt  f' 
tkt  Coffrmrt,  1869. 
'Wertley.     See  Weslct. 

■Weatloy,  James  R.,an  English  Wesleyu  misiioii. 
T,  waa  converted  under  a  sermon  preached  at  TLvaff 
ud  Road,  London,  hy  Holluway.  Ha  was  received  by 
Ihe  Conference  in  I8IG,  and  died  at  Kingston,  Jamuo, 
Nov,  29, 1847,  aged  thirty  yeaiB.  He  waa  dUii.Tnt,«^ 
iouB,  and  unremitting  in  hia  pastoral  duties.  See  Jfn- 
tf  o/Uu  Cim/erencr,  1848. 
WeBtmiiut«r  Abbey,  the  venerable  pile  acinar 
'bich  UiB  city  itself  (now  included  in  Lonlon)  iM^f- 
ally  sprang.  (The  following  account  is  taken  fnn  tbi 
6'Iriie  HHCj/clnpadui,  a.  v.)  The  foondation  u(  the  fiM 
Abbev  on  a  spot  furmerly  aurrounded  by  tlie  watcn  of 
a  and  called  'rhomer  Island  is  innlTeil  ■• 
It  beic  waa  certainly  one  trf"  Ibe  eadiM 
Chrislian  churches  in  England.  Seberl,  king  of  ite 
East  Saxon*,  who  died  in  lilU,  in  lielieveil  tu  ban  ob- 
pktcd  a  sacred  ediSce  dedicated  to  I'etcr,  which  m 
destroyed  by  Ihe  Danes.  Edward  the  Coiiles«r  ii  k) 
phce  buill  a  structure  of  great  spIcDilur  fur  bti  tint. 
and  endowed  it  with  a  charter  of  ample  powers  sa4 
privileges.  Heury  111  pulled  down  a  ponlon  and  a- 
Urged  the  plan  of  this  andeut  Abbey,  adding  a  chat>l 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  and  Ihe  incomparable  Chafur- 
hoiise.  Henry  Vlt  built  ihe  majniift»nt  cbapeJ  to  tiK 
east  of  the  Abbey  which  bears  bis  name.  After  hi- 
reign  the  building  fell  inio  decay  until  renovaied  b( 
Sir  Chrialophcr  Wren,  whu  designed  the  upper  pm 
of  the  mo  weMem  towen.  The  resloration  of  ilw 
Chapter-house  was  undertaken  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  ia 
1863.  The  Abbey  is  in  ihe  form  of  a  Lalin  cnn  in 
exterior  length  I)eing416  feet,  or,  including  Heniy  VII  t 
Cliapel,  530  feet.  Iu  interior  length  is  S7a  fret,  and  ia 
greatest  iucariBr  breadth  200  feet.  The  bnadlh  of  tb 
nave  and  aisles  is  7a  feet,  and  their  interior  height,  to 
which  the  Abbey  owe*  Dnich  of  its  stalely  appeaiaocr, 
i*  101  feet.    The  best  view  of  the  Abbey  is  fron  ibt 


n  Ihe  ii 


of  hia 


He 


il  from  h 
no  published  worka, 

VTesthoff.  Elbsrt  Wilhelm,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1801  at  Dolberg. 
He  stuilied  at  HllnBter  and  in  the  Collegium  (lermai ' 
cum  at  Rome,  where  he  recciveil  lioir  onleTB  in  18: 
and  where  lie  was  pronioteil  as  doctor  of  theology. 
1829  he  was  called  to  the  Cbiinh  ai  KDnninghansi 
and  in  1839  Co  Dietteddc.    In  18.^1  lie  was  called 
Cologne  aa  regent  of  the  clerical  seminary,  which  po 
tion  he  occupied  until  18&8,  when  he  relired  on  accou 
of  fcL-hle  health.     He  died  May  6, 1871,  in  the  AlexUn 
tlonostcry  at  Nensa.     He  ia  Ihe  editor  of  ilie  sscetical 
wriiiiiga  of  Avancinua,  Augustine,  Belleciua,  (iregory  the 
Greal,  cic.    He  alio  publiihcd  new  editions  of  Bollei' 


inge  of  pillars  tenninaiing  towards  the  ea>  by 
a  sort  of  semicircle  enclosing  the  Chapel  of  Ednnl  ibt 
ConfesBor.  The  fabric  is  lighted  by  a  range  of  windnvt 
anpported  hy  galleries  of  double  odumn*  on  the  aiths 
of  the  pillans  by  an  upper  and  uniler  range  of  wtDdnin 
and  (ocir  capital  windows,  the  whole  of  the  lights  bsBK 
admirably  arranged.  Twenty-two  windowsareenridwJ 
with  alained  glaia.  The  new  choir,  ^bb  (eel  bv  35  (Mt 
wu  executed  in  1648.  The  fifty-two  slalU  ubilit  1 
great  variety  of  carving  and  traeery.  Tbe  medn. 
completed  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  it 
an  elaborate  and  B|ilendid  work.  The  names  of  the 
various  chapels,  beginning  from  the  s 


s  M- 


luna:  (I)  St.  Benedict's;  (i)  Sc  FMrnund'si  (3)  S 
Nicholas'ai  (4)  Henry  Vll'a;  (5)  St.  Taiil's:  (6)t^£d- 
ward  the  Confessor's j  (7)  St- John's;  (8)  [slip's  Cbapel 
dedicated  to  John  the  Baptist  1  (9)  St.  John,  Si.  HiebHl. 
and  St.AndreH'a  Tb>  Chapel  of  HealyVli  iaadond 


WESTMINSTER  ANNOTATIONS     963      WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY 


qoeeiL  In  [be  wiuth  i™n«pt  is  the  well-known  roei'a 
Cunm.  Kvery  English  BOTereign  lince  the  Coiiqneat 
bu  been  crown eU  in  Westminuer  Abbej,  and  tbe  curona- 
[ion-chiin  ind  the  curanatiun-etone  of  Scotland  are  in 
Ibe  Cbipel  of  Eilward  Ihs  Confenor.     Tbirtffin  kings 


no  respect  the  product  of  the  WeMmini 


tif  it.     The'noiea  on  the  FenlaCeucb  and  on  the  fout 

jcmpelB  ire  by  Le;.  subdein  ofCbeiler;  Ihuaeon  Kinga, 

ChrnnicleB,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther  by  Dr.  Gonge ; 

thoMon  the  I'ulms  by  Merio  Caaaubon  I  nn  Proverbs  by 

I  Fnacia  Tayiur ;  on  Ecclaiastes  by  Dr.  Keynalds ;  and 

on    Solomon'a  Song  by    Smallwood. 

Tbe  Larger  Propbett  Tell  to  the  lot  ot 

the  learned  Qataker;  Ihe  Smaller, in 

■econd  to  biahop  Richanleon.  Tlie 
eccentric  Dr.  Featley  uiulerlook  the 
Pauline  epiailei,  but  did  not  complete 
b'u  u'ork ;  and  Downham  and  Reailing 
were  both  employed  on  the  work, 
though  what  they  did  haa  not  beeti 
rpeciHed.  Tbe  work  i>  more  than 
reapeclable;  aome  pirti,  eipecially 
iboK  intruHtHl  to  Cataker,  are  done 
with  euperiar  learning  and  ability; 
and  the  whide,  Ihmigh  of  varioua 
merit,  doe«  credit  to  the  piety,  schol- 
tiabip,  and  Judgmeiic  of  ibe   au- 

\7eBtiniiiat«r  Amembly  of- 

DivTNKS,  a  namp  given  to  the  nynodi 
of  divinea  called  by  I'ltllament  in  Ihe- 
reign  of  Charles  I,  fur  the  purpme  of 
acttling  the  govemmen I,  liturgy,  anili 
doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England- 
The  WewmiiiMer  Synod  or  AHemNy. 

locality  in  London  where  it  held  ils- 


origin 


Wert  m  Inf  tar  Abbey. 
r<ircrili  of  Pitt,  Fox,  Wilberforce,  Grattan,  Canning, 
■ni)  Peel  —  a  multitude  of  the  illuatrioui  departeil. 
I'alnwraCon,  Charlea  Dickena,  Lyiton,  and  Uvingilnnt 
■re  among  the  lateal  of  the  glorioua  company.  There 
■re  also  memnriala  to  Shakeiprare,  Hilton,  (ioldsmith, 
Thackeray,  John  and  Charlea  Wealcy,  and  many  othera 
whose  lEDiaina  lie  elaew here.  Some  of  the  mnnumenta, 
•Dch  aa  [hat  lo  John,  Duke  of  Argyll,  are  very  impna- 
inff.  The  Abbey  nila  a  great  place'in  the  pidilical  and 
nligiona  history  of  England.  The  Chapler-houae  was 
naed  for  three  ceninries  a»  the  meeting-place  of  the 
Houac  of  Commona,  and  was  thua  the  cradle  of  repre- 
•enlatiire  gDVemmetit,  atMl  the  scene  of  the  chief  acta 
which  laid  the  foundalioii  of  the  dvil  and  religioua  llb- 
sTtv  of  England,  The  Wealminster  Asaembly  of  Di- 
Tines  aanclioneil  in  tbe  Abbey  the  Confesaion  of  Faith 
which  is  the  reeogiiiseil  creed  of  (be  Preahyterian 
Churcli(IM3-62),  and  the  flnal  all«raiinn«in  the  Hook 
of  Ciimtnon  Ptaver  were  made  bv  the  hiahnps  in  the 
Jenisiit«n  Chatiiber  in  1662.  Kiman,  Anglican,  and 
Puritan  theologians  hare  in  turn  preached  in  theae 
walls.  In  recent  tioiea.  under  the  enlightened  rule  of 
Deaii  Stanley,  the  national  character  of  rhe  Abbey  haa 
been  well  maintained.  OfBcially  calte<l  tbe  Collegiate 
Church  of  St.  Peter,  it  ia  governed  by  the  dean,  a 
chapter  and  eight  prebendaries,  anil  other  ofHcera.  See 
N«le  .init  Bravley,  //i»*ory  and  /I  iifi^i(i>if»  <•/  Abbry 
Ckurch  of  Si.  Peter,  WrUmiaittr  (Lond.  1818,  2  vol'.) ; 
Suuiley,  HtMlorical  Memoriali  of  Walmmtl-^  Abbiy 
(ibt.L  1876,410);  Hulorinil  Detcriplvm  of  Walmnuirr 
AUf^  (1878), printed  for  the  Tergcis, 

^T'sBtmliiBter  (AMemblj's)  Annotatloiia. 

Dv  thin  name  ia  CDtnmonly  designated  ■  work  bearing 
the  tjlie  of  Amatatimu  upon  all  Ikt  Booki  of  Ike  Old 
imd  .Vev  Tfi'amaUi,  iyike  A  nembly  iff  Diviaa  (Lond. 
1651.  3  vola.  fol.;  8d  and  beat  ed.  1657).  It  was  the 
work  of  aeveral  eminent  ministera,  but  was  in 


Bcclesiaslico-polilical  conHicl  between' 
the   "Long   Parliament"  and   king 
Charles  I,  which  reanlled  in  the  decap- 
itation of  Charlea,  Ihe  protectorate  of 
Cromwell,  and  the  events  consequent  on  lliuse  chaiigea.. 
This  condicl  waa,  in  iia  religious  aspects,  n  struggle  of 
Piiritaniam  or  radical  Prolealantism   agninst  a  nemi- 
liomish  Episcopal  hierarchy  and  liturgy;  in  its  polilicar. 
bearings,  a  cimleet  fur  pailiamenlary  privilege  and  pop- 
ular freedom  against  the  monarchical  nbaoluiism  of  ihe- 
Scuarta.    The  Hnal  reanlt  of  tbe  simple  was  a  conatir 

Eilici  of  Toleration  in  favor  of  Protealant  Dimnlen. 

After  some  nnaucceasful  ailempts  to  obtain  Ibe  aanc-- 
lion  of  the  king,  ■  joint  resolution  of  the  houses  of  Par^ 
liament  waa  paaaed,  June  12, 1618,  which  convoked  ft 
aynod  "  for  seliling  the  govcrnntenl  and  liturgy  of  iha- 
Church  of  Englanil,  anil  for  vindicating  and  clearing  of 
the  doctrine  of  said  Church  fhim  false  aspereions  amfc 
interpretations,''  and,  furthermore,  for  bringing  about  a' 
more  perfect  reformation  in  the  Church  than  was  ob- 
tained nniier  Edward  VI  and  Elizabeth,  by  which  a. 
eloaer  union  of  aentimenl  wiih  the  Church  of  Scotlandi 
and  the  Keformol  chiircbcs  of  the  Continent  might  be- 
secured.  It  waa  intended  that  it  should  include  among- 
its  memben  adherents  of  all  the  chief  partiea  amon^ 
Engligli-speaking  liotealan  la,  except  the  party  of  arch- 
biahiip  Laud,  whoae  innovations  and  despotic  tendencies- 
had  l>ceii  one  main  cause  of  the  troubles  in  Church  and. 
Slate.  Paiiiament  appinnted  to  membership  in  lhi» 
aynod  121  clergymen  taken  from  the  various  shires  of 
England,  ten  members  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  twen- 
ty of  the  Commons.  The  General  Synod  of  Scotland, 
Aug.  19, 1643,elecled  Ave  clergymen  and  three  lav  elders 
as  commiaaionen  lo  the  Weatminater  Synod.  These,  it 
will  be  seen,  were  simply  a  committee  raised  by  Parlia- 
ment and  amenable  to  ita  authority.  About  twenty  of 
the  members  originally  summoned  were  clergt'men  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  several  of  them  afterwards 
biahopa;  but  few  of  tbe  Episcopal  members  took  their 
scal&    The  biabops  of  the  English  Church  never  a> 


WKSTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY      864      WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY 


kun>Tt«lged  iu  dun»,  and  tbe  king  fbrbida  iu  Msaioiu 
nnilerexiremc  pcnilliM,  June  !!,  1643 !  but  it  nevertbe- 
leu  became,  if  meuured  by  lbs  far-rucbiug  ctmBo- 
qnenc«*  o(  iU  work,  tbe  mugC  impaitant.  lymid  helil  in 
the  hiateiy  of  the  Refiirmed  fiiih.  The  aynod  con- 
vened  July  1, 1648,  in  Weiimimter  Abbey,  in  the  pre»- 
cnce  of  both  houw*  at  PirliBin«n(.  On  tbe  opening  of 
the  Awerobly  eixly-nine  of  the  dcrieal  raenibeni  >ren! 

were  praenl,  though  ihe  usual  itiendance  rangeil  be- 
tween uxty  and  eighty.  The  great  body  of  the  mem- 
ben,  both  clerical  and  lay,  were  Pre«byterisiia;  ten  or 
twelve  were  Indepeadenu  or  CoiigrBgalioiialids ;  and 
Are  or  eix  etyleil  theniaelFea  Erutiuii.  Nearly  or  quite 
all  were  Calvinista.  The  purpoaee  fnr  wbich,  according 
to  the  urdinance,  the  Aiaembly  wafi  coiivnkeil  were,  aa 
above  stated,  to  vindicate  the  doctrine  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  to  reoiiminend  aucb  furtheT  rerurmatinii 
of  her  [tiacipli lie,  liturgy,  and  government  as  might  "be 
agreeable  id  Uud'a  holy  word,  and  moat  apt  to  procure 
■nd  pieserre  the  peKS  of  the  Church  at  home,  and 
nearer  agreement  with  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  oth- 
er Reformed  churchca  abroad."  But  when  the  Parlia- 
ment, feeling  their  need  of  Scottiah  aid,  acceded  to  Ihe 
SHemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  urged  the  Scotch  lo 
■end  their  deputiea  to  the  Aoembly,  ita  obJecUwere  ex- 
tended; and,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  cuvenint«d  uni- 
formity, it  was  empowered  lo  prepare  a  new  confesHon 
of  faith  and  catechism,  as  well  aa  directories  for  public 

ed  by  all  the  churchet  represented.  It  retained  to  the 
laat,  however,  its  advianrv  character.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  threw  all  ita  iniliience  in  favnr  of  strict  Cal- 
viniam  and  Presbylerianiam.  Before  electing  delegates 
to  the  Wealminater  Auembly,  in  oompliance  with  I' 
request  oT  I'arliament,  it  adupUul,  Au^.  I'.  IIJ43,  the 
called  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  [see  Covkna; 
Solemn  Leaouic  ahd],  which  bound  the  Scottish  i 
tinn  to  the  defence  or  ihe  Reformed  religion  inScollai 
the  furtherance  of  the  Befiirmaiion  in  EiTgland  and  Ire- 
laud  in  doctrine,  worship.  Church  nrginiiation.  and  dis- 
cipline; the  eatablishing  «(  ecclesiaaiical  and  religious 
nuifonnity  in  tbe  three  realms;  the  extirpation  of  papa- 
cy and  prelacy,  of  hereay  ami  all  ungodlinesKt  and  tbe 
support  of  all  the  right*  of  Parliament  and  of  Ihe  lighl- 
fnl  authority  of  the  king.  This  document  was  imme- 
diately transmitted  in  Parliament,  and  thence  lo  the 
Weatminaler  Assembly,  and  was  funnally  endoned  by 
each  of  thoee  bodies,  but  was  condemned  by  the  king. 
The  Assembly  sought  to  gain  the  fraternal  aympilhies 
of  the  Reformed  churches  on  Ihe  Omtinenc  also,  and  to 
thai  end  addrexseil  to  them  circular  lellera  which  drew 
forth  toure  or  lesa  favorable  responsea,  and  which  ihe 
king  endeavored  to  neutral iie  by  issuing  a  manifealo  in 
Lalin  and  Engliah,  in  which  he  denied  the  intention 
charged  upon  bim  uf  re-otablishing  the  papacv  in  his 
lealm. 

The  opening  sermon  was  preached  by  Dr.  William 
Twine,  who  had  been  chosen  pmlnciitor,  and  immedi- 
•telv  thereafter  the  Assemblv  was  conMituted  in  (he 
Chn'pel  of  Henty  VIL  The  meetings  ci.nlinucd  lo  be 
held  in  this  chapel  till  alter  the  arrival  of  the  Scotluh 
commieaioners,  and  were  chiefly  occupied  wiih  the  re- 
viuon  of  the  drat  Rfieen  of  the  "Articles."  On  Sept. 
16  four  Scottish  miiiittera  and  two  lay  asseaaora  were, 
by  a  warrant  from  Ihe  Parliament,  admitted  lo  leala  in 
the  Aasembly,  bat  without  vntet,  u  oammisaioners  from 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  Solemn  League  and  Cor- 
enant,  binding  the  eccleriastical  boiliea  of  the  two  na- 
tion* into  a  union,  had  been  passed  in  Sciitland,  Aug.  IT, 
was  subsequently  accepted  by  Ihe  Westmlnaler  A»em- 
bly,  and  ariei«d  by  Ihe  English  Parliament  to  be  print- 
ed'. Sept.  21,  and  anbscribed  Sept  26,  when  the  House 
of  Commons,  with  the  Scottish  oommiiaionen  and  the 
Weatminaler  Assembly,  met  in  Ihe  Church  of  St.  Mar- 
garet, WestminaUr.  'The  HouM  of  Lords  took  the 
"Covenant"  Oct.  li 


The  manner  of  proceeding  ia  thus  deacribed  by  flaS- 

day  of  Ihe  week  but  Saturday Ordinarily  then  nil 

be  present  aixiut  threescore  uf  their  divines.    Tbeacan 

man  is  ■  member.  No  roan  ia  excluded  who  plraaei  to 
come  to  any  of  the  three.  Every  committee,  as  [fat 
Parliament  ^ves  order  in  writing  to  take  any  porpcaa 
into  consideration,  take*  a  portion,  and  in  tbeit  atlo' 
noon  meeting  pi^parea  matteni  for  Ilie  Asaembly.  KB 
down  their  mind  in  distinct  propoeitioiu  with  teilstf 
Scriplure.  After  the  prayer.  Mr.  ByfieM,  tbe  aoibs, 
reads  the  propoailiona  and  Scripture*,  wbereupm  iki 
Assemldy  debates  in  a  moat  gimve  vid  oxOerly  wsy 
No  man  is  calleil  up  l»  speak ;  but  who  stands  up  of  lui 
own  accord,  he  sjieaks,  so  long  as  he  will,  wiihoui  inter- 
niplion. . . .  They  harangue  long  and  learnedly.    Tbn 

apeecbea,  bul  wilhal  tbe  men  are  exceediiiglv  proinrl 
and  well-apoken.  I  do  marvel  at  the  very  accurate  tnl 
extemporal  replies  that  many  of  Ihem  usually  make." 

The  question  of  Church  government  omaAmed  the 
moat  difficulty,  and  aeemed  for  a  time  impoanble  to  be 
settled.  Uany  of  tbe  most  learned  divines  who  wen 
entirely  on  Ihe  side  of  Parliament  wore  yet  in  favor  of 
what  they  termed  primitive  episcopacy,  or  the  srstm 
in  whicli  the  preabylers  and  their  presidi 


Then 


re  the  i 


he  more  radical  Puri 
at  tbe  opposite  extreme ;  and,  in  order  to  reach  a  cofr 
elusion,  these  diflerencea  muse  be  reconciled.  It  wa 
accomplished  after  much  discussion  and  long  driav  ky 
the  adoption  of  the  Pre^yierian  form  of  govemmoii. 

The  subjects  relating  u>  the  form  of  public  wonlrip 
and  the  statement  of  doctrines  occasioned  leaa  dificoliy. 
Early  in  1644  eu;h  of  these  was  assigned  to  a  aBak 
committee  fgr  the  preparation  of  msiertals,  after  wlu<t 
they  were  to  be  brought  tint  before  the  larger  cns- 
miitees  and  then  befi're  the  Assemblr.  Tbe  ItinOwj 
for  I'aUie  Woniip  wa.  prv|«ired  in'  1S44.     The  una- 

dinalion,  was  submitted  to'  Psiliameni  April  W,  IM. 
and  ratified  by  that  body  Oct  i,  the  same  year.  Tfaii 
Dirtttory  wa*  completed  during  the  fullowing  vear.  ba 
the  printing  of  it  was  deUye<l  till  1U7.  In'  IMa  is 
1046  the  C>Vc*'"~  "/ ^'"i'*  >'W  d'boralal,  and  GnallT 
put  into  the  shape  in  which  it  ia  atill  printed  in  ScM- 
land.  The  £<ir^o- C<irniium  was  sent  to  the  Houwii[ 
Oimmoiis  Oct  i%  1647;  the  S/iorlrr  Cattckitm,  Ncn, 
So.  the  same  year.  In  the  autumn  of  1648  both  booB* 
of  I'arliament  ordered  the  prindng  and  imUiihin;  of 
the  !fiaiirr  CuJeeAina,  but  the  House  of  Lonis  was  dit- 
continued  before  it  had  acted  on  ihe  Laiyn-  Calrriiim. 

The  other  papers  issoed  by  the  Asaembly  consinid 
only  of  admonitions  to  Parliament  and  the  nalion,  cdd- 
troversial  Iracln,  letters  of  foreign  churches,  etc  Tbi 
laat  of  the  Scotch  commisBoners  left  theAsennblv  Sot, 
9, 1617.  On  Feb.  H,  1IM9,  after  it  had  held  1 163  sl- 
angs, lasting  each  from  9  o'clock  A.M.  to  t  I'Jl.  the 
Parliamenl,  by  an  urdinance,  changed  what  remained 
of  the  Assembly  into  a  committee  for  trying  and  eiam- 
ining  minuilen\  and  in  this  fonn  it  cont>nt>ed  to  bi^ 
weekly  sitlings  until  the  dinolutioD  of  tbe  "  Loiig  Par- 
liamenl," April  20,  IGoS. 

A  monthly  day  of  fasting  and  pnyer  was  Rgnlaibt 
held  in  union  with  Ihe  house*  of  Parliaraent.  In  Iha 
lime  it  had  framed  and  adopted  a  oompiele  standani  of 
doctrine,  government  and  worship  for  Ihe  Rdutuiid 
charehes  of  tbe  three  kingdoms.  lis  labors  were  ap- 
proved by  Parliament,  and  their  results  elevated  iU* 
laws  of  tbe  State,  though  with  certain  modiSauinoa  ii 
the  disciplinary  arrangemenls.  A  perfect  execution  of 
these  decrees  was,  however,  impnsaibie.  becaose  a  laag* 
number  nf  ihe  En^ish  people  adhend  to  the  Episoofial 
establiahment  and  liturgy,  and  the  great  majority  of 
Irishmen  were  of  Ihe  Roman  Catholic  faitb.  Scotlnd 
alone  gav«  them  an  nnqndified  obeiBeace,  wbich  hm 


WESTMINSTER  CATECHISM     965    WESTMINSPTER  CONFESSION 


been  conlinued  iJniaat  intact  down  to  the  prarnt  Atj, 
fnna  ScolUuil  the  Weumiiuter  aundatdi  wen  lnn»- 
Dilud,  with  luiimpoitaDl  moditlcaliani  at  Miument, 
to  tbe  diArent  lYesbjlcrian  bodies  of  North  America. 
AStet  cumpieling  ill  labors,  ttae  tyaoA  waa  perpeltiated 
in  tbe  cbancUi  or  ■  bonid  of  examiiiaLiDn  and  ordiiia- 
tioa  notil  March  2a,  1662,  when  the  diiwidulion  of  far- 
liament  br  CiumireU  ended  its  existence,  without  any 
fonnat  adjoamDieDt  havinft  been  bad. 

The  official  records  uf  tlie  Assembly  are  supposed  to 
have  lieeo  loct  in  the  great  fire  or  London  in  IU66, 
though  it  is  said  that  Dr.  UcCiie,  the  younger,  renjv- 
cred  a  purtioii  ur  tbem.  ISxteosive  private  repona  by 
memben  or  the  synod  are  yet  extant,  however,  c.  k-  ' 
Lightfuot's  Jourmil  of  lie  Proaadin^  oflht  Auembly 
<if  Dimet  (Lond.  18-il),  Bobert  Biiltie's  i>Utt'j,  and 
tbieemanuBcripc  volumes  of  Goodwin's  Aoto.  Claren- 
don's Huliity  n/Ihe  Puiilan  H^lUoB  is  biassed  and  iii- 
aufficieut :  but  Keal's  //wTotji  afihe  Pvriiim*,  pL  ill,  eb. 
ii-x,  has  ■  vci?  full  and,  upon  the  whole,  trnUworthy 
reports  See  also  Hetherington,  Hitlorn  nf  Ihe  Wal- 
nvuter  ^asmUy'/i'inws  (Edinb.  1843 ;  N.Y.1S&6); 
BiMtory  oftke  Walmmltr  AutmUg  of  IHrtatt  (Presb. 
Board  of  PubL,  I'hila.  1841) ;  Mi«ula  of  Ike  Seuioa  «f 
lite  WrUmiuIrr  Atsmbig  of  Dima  (Edinb.  1S74); 
Gilleapie  (  Workt,  toL  ii ),  Kol't  of  Iht  Piwxtdhgt  of 
Ike  Auemblg  of  Dicati  (ibid.  I»44);  Fuller,  CAuroi 
llittorj,  and  Woriliia  of  Kogtimd,  Palmer,  A'cmcoa- 
fomdilt'  Memorial ;  Price,  IliMoiy  of  Prolalanl  Xon- 
am/omi/g ;  Helherington,  tlulorji  of  Iht  Church  qf 
ScoHand;  End,  HiMon/  of  Ike  PirttgUrian  Chun*  in 
Irflaad:  SUmgbtoa,  t'ecleiiailical  Hittory  of  England ; 
Rutherford,  i>^s-i,-  Utnbury,  Hiilorical  Atmtoriali  of 
Ikt  ImlrprtidnUt ;  Brook,  Z.>nj  of  Ike  PuriUna;  Reed, 
Lmt  oflhr  WataimiItT  Dirinei;  Smith,  l.ieet  ofKng- 
tith  mwl  Scotliik  Dicinei ;  Wood,  A  Ihrma  Oxtmientri ; 
Uarsden.  Karli/  and  Later  Puiilami  HcCrie,  Amali 
qf  Eagliih  Premiers  i  S*xn\iy,MtmoriaUofWettmia- 
ttrr  A  tbry ;  and  Skeats,  Bittory  of  Ike  Free  Ckurehet 
ofEK^aad. 

'WoBtciliutar  CateoIilMn.  Thu*  are  two  in 
number,  the  Larger  Calfckitm  being  designed  for  use 
in  public  worship,  the  Shorter  Tot  the  instruction  of  I  he 
yonng.  They  are  probably,  next  lo  the  //tidtlberg  Cale- 
cAuv,  the  most  widelydrculated  of  Kefunned  catechisms, 
and  differ  from  it  in  being  more  decidedly  Calvinistic,  and 
more  k^cal  in  arraiigement  and  intelligible  in  Blat«- 
ment.  The  substance  of  the  questions  is  Bleadilj  re- 
pealed in  the  inswen,  and  the  nae  of  tbe  third  person 
■■  maintained  throughoul.  I'he  Sharler  CalaAitm  is 
aimply  an  abridgment  of  the  Larger, 

VTeatnUiUtar  ConfeaBlon  of  F^rrH,  that  body 
oTilncirinef  pmpused  bv  M'^  Westminster  Assembly,  and 
■d<ipied  by  Parliament  in  lUO  as  the  creed  of  the  Eng- 
li«h  Church,  and  now  Ihe  doctrinal  baus  of  almost  all 
Presbyterian  churches.  A  committee,  conusting  of 
about  tneniy-Hve  members,  was  appointed  by  the  Aa- 
•emldy  "to  prepare  inaiter  for  a  Joint  Conleision  of 
Faith"  about  Aug,  20, 1644.  The  matter  was  prepared, 
in  part  at  least,  by  this  committee,  and  the  digesting  of 
il  into  a  formal  driUKht  was  intrusted  to  a  smaller  com- 
Diittee  on  May  13,  IMA.  The  debating  of  the  separate 
article*  b^an  July  7,  llrtB,  and  on  the  following  day  a 
oommitlee  nf  three  (arienvarils  increased  to  dve)  was 
appointed  lo  "  take  care  of  the  Kordinj;  of  the  Confes- 
non'*  as  the  articles  should  be  adopted  in  Ihe  Assembly. 
On  July  16  the  committee  reported  the  heads  of  the 
Confeasion.and  these  were  distributed  to  the  three  large 
eommitiees  to  be  elaborated  and  prepared  for  discussion. 
All  were  repeatedly  read  and  debateit  in  the  most  Ihor- 
(Hgb  manner  posaible  in  the  Assembly.  On  Sept.  2A, 
ISM.  a  part  of  the  Confession  was  finally  passed,  and  on 
I>ee.4  the  remainder  received  the  sanction  of  the  As- 
■cmbljr,  when  the  whole  waa  presented  to  the  Parlia- 
a»ent.  That  body  ordered  the  printing  of  six  hundred 
COftefor  the  uaeofmcmbeii  of  Parliament  and  of  the 


Assembly,  and  Uiat  Scripture  proofa  abonld  be  added  to 
the  Con Feauon,  which  waa  accordingly  dDt>e.  In  1A4T 
the  Confession  waa  approTCd  by  tbe  Chnrcb  of  Scotland 
in  the  Tihdi  in  which  it  bad  passed  the  Ateembly,  and 
it  was  ralitted  afterwards  by  the  Scotch  Parliament. 
It  was  passed  by  the  Knglish  Parliament  in  IfAS,  under 
the  title  o(  ArlUIn  nf  Chi-iilian  S^ligioa,  but  with  cer- 
tain changes.  The  basis  of  the  Conreasion  is  doubileas 
those  Cslvinislic  anictei  which  ate  supposed  to  hare 
been  prepared  by  Usher,  and  in  1615  were  adopted  by 
the  convocation  of  the  Irish  Church. 

In  the  formation  of  this  symbol  the  Aasembly  at  flrsl 
undertook  to  revise  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  An- 
glican Church,  and  proceeded  with  that  work  until  fif- 
teen articlen  bod  been  revamped  with  elements  of  a 
more  pronounced  Calvinistic  character  and  proriiled 
with  Scripture  proofs.  The  only  important  change 
made  in  this  piuceas  was  the  omission  uf  Article  Vlll, 
concerning  the  authority  of  Ihe  three  (ecumenical  sym- 
boU  The  intention  of  tbe  synod  waa  to  ground  every 
statement  directly  on  Scripture  as  tbe  only  rule  of  faith, 
while  the  Church  of  Knglaud,  under  Edward  VI  and 
Elizabeth,  conceded  to  Catholic  tradition,  if  not  in  con* 
Hict  with  Scripture,  a  regulative  authority.  The  Scot- 
tish commissionera,  however,  induced  the  Anembly  to 
undertake  the  formation  of  an  entirety  new  symboL 

In  the  nnler  and  titles  of  many  of  its  chapters,  as  well 
as  in  the  language  of  ubole  sections  or  subdivisions  of 
chapters,  and  in  many  nngle  phrases  occurring  through- 
out the  Coiiresrion,  the  Westminster  divines  seem  to 
hare  followed  the  articles  adopted  by  tbe  Irish  convo- 
cation. They  very  seldom  determined  points  which 
that  body  had  left  open.  Their  purpose  wa*  to  expreas 
their  views  in  such  a  way  as  to  obviate  objections  and 

duced  nothing  into  the  Confession  which  had  not  been 
taught  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  before. 

The  Confession,  under  the  title  of  The  Hvmbl'  A  dviee 
qfthe  Aurmbfy  of  IHimtt,  noic  bg  Aulhorily  of  Pariia- 

f'ailh,  etc,  was  pruital  in  London  ii>  Deceiiiber,  1G46, 
without  proofs,  and  in  Uay,  1647,uiih  prnofH.  fur  the 
use  of  the  house*  of  Parliament  and  t  he  Assembly.  A 
copy  of  this  lost  edition  was  taken  lo  Scotland  by  the 
commissioners,  and  from  it  three  hundred  copies  were 
printed  for  the  use  oft  tie  General  Assembly  there.  Af- 
ter being  approved  by  tlist  body,  il  was  published  in 
Scotland  with  the  title  of  The  Ciiffritioa  of  Failh 
Agreed  upon  ^  Ihe  Autmblg  of  Diriari,  etc.,  and  while 

don  bookseller  brought  il  out  under  tbe  same  title  in 
1C48.  In  the  same  year  it  was,  with  the  omisuon  of 
parts  ofch.  xK  and  xxiv,  and  the  whole  of  ch.xxi  and 
xxii,  and  with  some  minute  verbal  alterations,  ap- 
proved by  the  two  houses,  and  published  under  the  title 
A  rtida  ofChriilian  Seligion,  Approrrd  and  Paaed  bg 
both  ffouiet  of  Parluimtnt  after  Advice  had  icilh  Ihe 
Attemblg  of  Dirinei,  etc  But,  notwithstanding  this 
legal  sanction,  the  laiter  form  is  not  common;  and  the 
Confession  continues  to  be  printed  in  Great  Britain  in 

approved  by  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

The  Confession  ranks  as  one  of  ttw  best  Calvinistic 
symbols.  It  is  clear,  inciuve,  compressed,  and  |irovided 
throughout  with  Scripture  proofs.  It  treats  in  thirty- 
three  chapters  of  all  the  important  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity, beginning  with  the  Scriptures  as  the  only  rule 
of  faith,  and  ending  with  the  Last  Judgment.  It  has 
almost  entirely  eiiperwded  the  Con/eiiio  Seolica  of  IS60, 
and  is  in  use  among  the  l>resbyteriBi>  churches  of  (ireat 
Britain  and  its  colonies,  as  well  as  of  orthodox  Congre- 
gationaliiu  and  Independents;  In  America  theConfes- 
sion  is  received  by  all  similar  bodies,  with  the  exception 
of  Article  III  of  ch.xxiii,  which  treats  of  the  civil  power, 
and  is  altered  to  conlbrm  to  American  conditions. 

For  the  doctrines  of  the  Confevion  and  their  expo- 
dtion,  ace  CnuDingham,  Hittorieat  Theoli^  (1W>); 


WESTMINSTER  DIRECTORY    966 


WESTON 


Hodge,  Commatarif  m  the  CoH/aiioB  of  Faith  <1869); 
Sh«w,  EipotUion  of  the  WrUmhuttr  CimfraiaH  ofFuilh 
(l84T);Surk,lVH(iiiuMrrCDn/unoii(J<1«l.Lond.IS64). 

WeBtmlnaterDireotoiy  KORTHKpuBucWoR- 
Biiii-  OF  OoD  oniiMina  no  riirmulu,  but  merely  general 
directiona  for  the  guidance  of  Lhs  worship  of  [he  Church. 
Psrlismenl  subatituted  IhU  JUricloiy  for  the  Anglican 
liturtfv,  bul  the  Utcer  was  rcalored  cm  the  scceuion  of 
Charlea  II.Btid  Scotland  alone  reliiiied  the  Weatminster. 

'WastmlnsteT  Foim  ot'  PiiKSDYTERrAL  Ciiukch 

(iOVKRNHRMT     AHD    OF    ORDIMATION    OF    MISISTKK8. 

The  membera  of  the  aynod  were  at  firat  inclined,  as 
a  general  thing,  to  content  IheoiMlvei  with  reatorinj; 
apgitalical  or  primilive  umplicity  in  the  Epiacopal 
Church]  but,  af\er  the  arrival  of  the  ScottUb  oommis- 
Bionera  atid  the  adoption  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Cov- 
manl,  the  aynod  became  predamiiianllr  Presbyterian 
in  ita  viewB.  The  Pretbyterial  constitution  was  recog- 
nUeil  aa  originating  with  Chriat  anil  being  the  oiily 
■crigitural  form  ofChurch  organiialion.  TcileratJon  waa 
apposed,  and  uniformity  was  atrenuonaly  inaiated  on. 
liberty  of  conscience  was  aligoiatiieil  as  the  outgrowth 
of  blameworthy  indifference  and  betrayal  of  the  truth. 
In  these  teneta  the  majority  was  lenlnusly  nppnaed, 
bowever,  by  the  Independent*  led  by  Ur.  Thomas  Gooil- 
win,  who  inaiated  upon  the  divine  right  of  each  congre- 
galion  to  govern  itself  under  the  WonI  of  (lad ;  and  by 
the  Erastians,  who  wished  lo  relegate  the  power  to 
punish  ecclenastical  as  well  as  civil  offences  altogether 
to  [he  secular  authorities,  anil,  in  general,  advocated  the 
aubordinalliin  of  the  Church  to  the  State  as  the  only 
iBtworthy  means  for  doing  away  with  spi 


ny  Bi 


o  ofol 


1  Chur. 


and  State,  The  leailera  of  the  Eraatian  party  were  the 
celchraletl  Orlontaliata  and  antiquarians  Lighlfuot  and 
Selden,  etc  When  the  Presbylerian  party  prevaileil, 
the  Independents  and  Eraatiana  withdrew  fnun  the 
aynud ;  but  Parliament  ailopteil  the  Scntch-Preahytcri- 
aii  constitution  with  an  Eraatian  proviso,  and  with  the 
declaration  that  it  should  be  set  aside  if,  after  trial,  ita 
provisions  ahoiild  be  found  impracticable.  The  event 
ptured  that  England  waa  not  ripe  fnr  such  a  Church 
orgaoiJtation.  Independency  and  other  forms  of  <l 
•eut  conquered  the  Weeunlnater  Aasembly  and  ma 
an  end  of  all  ita  endeavors  towards  conformity. 

Trenton,  David,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  h 
born  inNorthMiddleborough,  Hass.,Jan.S6,  lB3fl,  a 
was  a  graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the  class 
18.^9,  anil  of  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  t 
class  of  1S62.     Soon  after  gradnnliii;;  he  was  onlaiu 
pastor  of  the  Pleasant  Street  Baptist  Cliurch,  Worci 
ler,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  nearly  eight  years.    I 
resigned  on  account  of  hia  health,  and  for  two  yei 
was  the  principal  of  the  Worceaier  Academy,     Foi 
abort  time  he  was  paacor  of  the  Central  Baptist  Church 
in  Salem.  Mass.,  from  which  place  he  removed  to  Ham- 
ilton, N.  Y.,  having  accepted  an  niipointmcnt  aa  prufcaa- 
or  in  Maitison  University,    flia  iiisinu;t>""  waa  ii 
deaiastical  history  in  the  theological  ilepartmenl, 
dvil  history  in  the  collegiate  department.    After  a 
vice  of  two  years  and  a  half,  be  die<l,  Feb.  !l, 
I>r.  Weston  published  a  revised  and  valuable  ed 
of  Backus'a  lUtlon/  of  the  Baptitte  in  fietc  England, 

CJ.cs.) 

W^eston,  Edward,  D.D., 

Cathidic  divine,  was  bora  in  Londo 
the  ICth  century.    He  spent  about  five  years  at  Oifunl, 
studying  in  Lincoln  College  and  in  the  private  school 
of  Ur.  John  Chase;  studied  aubaequently  aix  years 
Komc  and  some  time  at  Kheimni  uugbt  divinity  at  i 
latter  place  and  at  Uouay  from  ^bSi  until  about  161 
afterwards  went  on  a  mission  to  England,  where  be 


time;  returned  to  Doua 


iieiZ;  I 


It  Drugea, 


canon  of  [he  coll^lBte  Chureh  of  St.  Mi 

in  Flanders,  iu  which  capacity  ho  continued  until  nis 

death,  in  1634.    He  waa  (be  author  of  several  works, 


among  which  are,  Itutilutiimet  de  TripUa  ffMnar  Q^ 
ficio,  ex  A'olHMO  iptivt  f/aturiUi.  Morali,  ae  Tktokfiea 
(1602)  -.—TriaU  of  ChrMam  Trmh  bg  the  Ittda  ifiii 
K«r«uiu(Douav,  1611):— and  Tkealnm  VilaCiriliMat 
Sacra,  etc  (16i6). 

Weston,  Hugo,  an  English  divine  of  Uw  Itth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Li  oeoinsh  ire.  He  wasedoeated 
at  Boliol  College,  Oxford ;  became  proctor  of  Oxf<«d  in 
1537,  was  rector  of  Lincoln  College  in  1S37-3S,  dedHi 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity  in  IMO,  brcame  rector 
of  St.  Botolph's  in  1543,  archdeacon  of  Cornwall  m  IH;, 
dean  vf  Westminster  In  I5A3,  archdeacon  of  Cutehestet 
in  the  same  year,  dean  of  Windwr  in  1656,  was  4»- 
prived  of  his  prefermenU  by  cardinal  Pole  fur  aU^ 
immorality  in  1567,  and  died  in  156H.  He  waa  the  au- 
thor of,  Oralio  coram  l\ilnbai  rt  Clero,  Awmi  ftiW 
Mnria  (1658)  ■—[HipalatioM  with  Cnnmtr,  KtJ^.aii 
LiUmeriiilkeDiriniisSehoot,OTfanH\i54).  See  Al- 
libone,  Did.  of  Brit  and  Amer.  Authan,  a.  v. 

Weston,  John  Equality,  a  Baptist  miniKB, 
waa  bom  in  Amherst,  N.  H.,  Oct.  13.  1796.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1822,  and  in  18i7  waa  ocdaioed 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  East  Cambridge,  a  le- 
lation  which  continued  until  hb  death,  .Jaly  2,  MBL 
In  IS19,  in  connection  with  Sir.  True,  he  auned  Iks 
first  Baptist  newspaper  in  America,  the  Chriitiaii  (Tdrt- 
nHtn.  See  Sprague,  Amalt  of  the  Awter.  FiJpii,  n, 
7  IS. 

77eaton,  John  'W.,  a  Hetbodist  Episcopal  niu- 
ter,  was  bom  near  Easton,  HiL,  Jan.  I,  1839.  He  wsi 
converted  in  185G;  soon  began  preaching, and  id  IWt 
waa  received  into  the  I'hiUdelphia  Canferefier,  and  ia  h 
worked  with  great  teal  ami  fidelity.  He  died  in  1V3- 
mington,  DeL,  April  23, 1377.  Mr.  Weston  was  a  pul 
preacher,  a  skilful  workman,  and  an  upright  nan.  Sec 
jVmiUm  ofAimual  Coafmncrt,  1878,  p.  ti. 

Weston,  Stephen  (l),  an  English  prelate,  wb 
bom  at  PamboroDgb,  Berkshire,  in  1665.  He  was  iita- 
cated  at  Eton  and  at  King's  College.C^mbridge.  when  te 
graduated  in  1686;  became  a  fellowirfbotb  cdU^cs:  n 

School;  became  vicar  of  Uaple-Datham,  Ozrutdshin: 
was  collated  to  a  stall  in  FJy  in  I7IS;  became  nh- 
deacon  of  Cornwall ;  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Eucb 
Dec 38, 1724;  and  died  Jan.  16, 1741  or  1742.  In  1741 
two  volumes  of  his  Seriaim  appeared,  poldiiked  tf 
bishop  Sherlock. 

Weaton.  Stephen  (i\  an  Engliab  clerui  — 
and  Oriental  scholar,  waa  born  at  Exeter  in  1747.  Ht 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Exeter  CuUi^.Oiiiiid; 
became  (blkiw  of  his  college,  took  orders  in  the  Chirck 
of  England,  held  the  living  of  Mamhead  (1777-90).  ite 
of  Hempston,  Devonshire  ( 1 786-90),  and  anerwardi  de- 
voteil  himself  tn  Continental  travel  ami  litentuc.  be- 
coming diatincuished  as  a  classical  ami  (Oriental  sebnl- 
ar.  He  died  in  London,  Jan.  S.  1830.  Hia  p<ibli»M 
works  include  translations  from  the  Clu<>e«e  and  Ptf 
sian.  Specimen  of  the  Cimformi/y  rfihe  Earofean  ■«! 
the  Orieilal  I./aguaget  (1802)  -.—Fragmealt  of  Orin^ 
Lileralitre  (1807)  -.—Sandas  Ixuoni  Ihroughoal  the  Yur 
(1808-9):— Sperimm  n/u  Chineie  Dieliomiry  (18121:- 
/ImaCariont  on  Ceriain  Pouagit  in  the  Fiikmt.  rH 
Hrbrae  and  Greek  TilUt  (IS24):— besideaaeTecalwnfki 
on  travel  See  (Lond.)  GenUemim't  Maffaantt  ISSO,  i 
370. 

Weaton,  William,  an  Englisli  deiKymu^  «i 
bom  about  1700,  He  graduated  at  St  Jobn'a  Colleen 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  become  a  fellow,  and  wh  Bai; 
years  rector  orCampden,(ik>uc(aienhire.  where  be  did 
in  1760.  He  was  the  author  of,  fafHtrr  inin  the  Rfjeciim 
of  the  ChriiAm  MiracUtiylhe  llealkai  (I74«|:-/M*. 
scrrortDiu  oa  Sont  of  the  UaU  BnmariaiU  iPamlm  tf 
AntigMilg  (1748) :— Safety  and  Pei^uilf  of  dK  BrUit 
Slate  (I7S9) :— ATnc  Dialegta  of  the  £Mif  i,17St):-«d 
ither  wotlia. 


WESTPHAL 


967       WESTPHALIA,  PEACE  OF 


'Westpbal,  OeoiK  Cbilatltui  Erhard,  ■  Pmt- 
edint  theologUu  of  (tcnnany,  wm  bom  in  17fiT  ic 
(Jucdlinburg.  He  studied  >[  Jem  and  Halle.  After 
eiKDpleling  his  ■tuilies,  he  scled  for  sumr  Lime  is  pri- 
TaU  lulor.  In  1773  he  wu  liipuiiileil  teacher  at  [he 
QueiUiobuTg  gymnuium,  and  iii 
•Mond  paator  K>  Halbcnlwll.  In  I' 
le,  wu  made  member  or  coiisiMorjr  in  1805,  and  died 
Dec  S,  18I)S.  Benide*  a  number  of  Sermom  which  he 
pohiished,  he  translated  the  hisiorics  uf  Livy  and  Vale- 
riiu  MaxiniuB  into  German.  See  Dtiriiig,  Uit  devUchm 
A»«WrBi«r,p.666»q.     (&  P.) 

WeatphaX  Joaotalm,  a  zeiinus  and  uncompro- 
misin);  Lutheru  polemic  and  Flacianiw,  was  bum  at 
Hamburg  in  1610  or  1511.  He  wai  educalrd  at  Wit- 
unberic  under  Lulber  and  Melancthoii,  and  el«eirhere, 
and  after  TsritHu  vicissitudes  Milled,  in  IMl,  as  paslot 
in  hia  native  city.  When  the  disputes  causequent  on 
the  Leipsic  Interim  bmke  out,  he  united  with  Kiacius 
and  bis  party,  an<1  publisheil  his  BrsI  work,  against 
Ueianctbim  and  Wittenberg,  under  the  title  Hitl.  Vi- 
tuti  A  Mtri  Aaromt  ExoJ.  zxiii,  ad  NoUra  Ttmpoia  tl 
CoHlmr.  A  avinmoJata  (Magileb.  i  M9),  A  secouri  work 
t  Adiapharislic  contruversy,  and  discuu- 


tvoral 


er  evil  than  n>jectiiig  Ibem,  issued  from  his  pen  in  the 
following  year,  entitled  Ezflicalio  Gntrnlu  SmltHlia 
gHad  e  iluobni  MuUi  Mintu  fJiptndam  lil,  a  gua  Qui- 
™  Enditut  Iti/tUigtrt  Patrtt  quod  in  Coairou.  de  A  di- 
aph.  Stgaradam  aat  t'ugimdHm  lit.  In  (he  Oaiandrian 
disputes  he  was  associated  with  Johann  Aepin  in  the 
judgment  returned  by  Hamburg,  etc.,  theologians  to 
duke  Albert  ••(  I^ssia  on  Osiander's  doctrine  or  justi- 
Scatian  (Magilcb.  166S).  It  is  also  pmhtble  that  in  the 
Uajociflic  eonlroverty  he  composed  the  harsh  opinion 
oribe  llamlxirg  theulogiana  respecling  Major's  doctrine 
of  (he  necesNCy  of  good  works  ii>  solvation.  His  prin- 
cipal field  oT  baltlr,  however,  was  the  sicrammtal  dit- 
pate,  in  which  h«  defended  extreme  Lutheran  otlho- 
doxy  against  Swias  and  Philippist  latiuidinarianism. 
Peter  Uarlyr  had  denied  the  bodily  pnaence  of  Christ 
in  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  supper,  at  Oxlurd,  tM9, 
and  Calvin  and  Farel  arowod  similar  views  in  (he  Con- 
taum  Tiffumuit  o(  that  year,  issued  by  them  in  con- 
junction with  the  clerg}'  of  Zurich.  An  extract  from 
Manyt's  lectures  was  soon  sfterwards  published  {Tiguri, 
1652)  by  J.Wnlpbiu*.in  wbleh  the  eililor  claimed  that 
Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  supper  had  been  thor- 
ooghly  deatroyed.  Wntphal  at  unce  issued  in  reply. 
■od  also  aa  an  attack  upon  the  Philipfusts,  who  agreed 
more  neariy  with  the  Swiss  than  Ibe  Lutheran  view,  a 

farrago Opnuonai*  dt  Cima  Domaa,  e(c.  (Msgdeb. 

1553).  In  IbSa  he  repeated  the  effort  by  piiblishing 
ICtda  Fid»  dt  Coma  Domini  tx  VrrUt  ApotloH  Paali 
H  EeawftL  (ilrid.).  At  this  juncture  Mary  of  England 
had  eipel1e<l  the  congregation  of  French  and  Neiber- 
landisb  exiles  formed  by  John  k  Lasco  in  London,  and 
they  were  aeeking  a  refuge  in  North  (iermany,  which 
waaevei^'whenileniedthem.  Weatphalheldadispula- 
(inn  with  Uicroniua,  one  of  their  preachers,  and  waa  ex- 
ceedin^y  lealou*  in  oppoaing  them.  In  15&t  he  pnb- 
tiabed  a  third  book  against  the  Keformed  doctrines  of 
(be  aaerament  nnder  the  title  ColUdanta  Scnlenl.  D. 
Atrtt.  Aiigiuliii.di  Cana  Aoniin,  etc,  in  which  he  tried 
to  abow  that  the  Swisa  view  baa  nn  aupport  in  the  nt- 
tcrancea  of  Auguatiuc  This  work,  reinforced  by  in- 
dignation growing  out  of  (be  author's  treatment  of 
k  Lmod  and  his  Keformed  adherents,  drew  out  a  reply 
(torn  Calvin,  under  date  of  Nov.  W.  1654  (Ar/nuio  Sa- 
na tt  Ortioiloxa  Doctr,  di  SaerameiU.  etc),  which  was 
writMa  in  a  style  of  proud  and  haughty  depreciation 
of  the  adveraary  it  was  designed  to  demolish.  A  rapid 
interchange  of  writings  followed,  in  the  couiae  of  which 
Laacn,  Baliinger,  and  Beza  became  involved  in  (he 
dispute.  As  a  fliul  dibn  to  defeat  hia  opponents, 
WeMphal  wni(«  to  various  ebarebea  in  Lower  Saxony 
(a  unite  them  in  a  leagne  acaioat  the  Swiuen^  and  re- 


ceived from  many  of  (hem  statemenu  of  their  belief, 
which  he  published  under  the  title  Con/ttrio  Fidti  de 
Kuckariilia  Sacrumato,  etc  (Jlagileli.  1557).  The 
leaders  of  the  strict  Lutheran  paJiy,  e.  g.  Brentiua,  An- 
drea, Schnepf,  Paul  von  Eitien,  etc.,  also  came  to  his 
supporL  After  1560  Westphal  withdrew  from  the  are- 
na of  religious  controversy.  He  acted  aa  superintend- 
ent of  Hamburg  from  1663  to  1571,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  appointed  to  that  office.  He  died  Jan.  Ill, 
1574.  See  the  CaijiiuAr/'ciniMKursiiiObid.  1840-42), cd. 
Itrelscbneider,  vol.  vii,  viii,  ix ;  Uieaeler,  Kirchengttth. 
(Uonn,  1853),  iii,  2, 1 ;  Holier,  FlmAurs.  CinAriu  Litt- 
i-um(Hauau,1744Xp. 641-649;  Hetzog, Bial-Kniyldop. 

'WaatplMdia,  Peace  or  (also  known  as  the  Peact 
of  Miiiultr).  This  title  designates  the  treaty  which 
brought  (he  Thirty  Years'  War  (t|.  t.)  to  a  cnnehision 
in  1648,  and  which  was  drawn  up  in  the  Westphalian 
cities  of  MUnster  and  Osnaburg.  Ilie  Peace  of  Prague, 
May  20  (SO),  1635,  concluded  between  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand II  aud  the  elector  John  George  of  Saxony,  was 
designed  to  extend  amnesty  to  Protestants  over  the 
whole  cminre,  excepting  Bohemia,  (he  Palatinate,  and 


,s(.eo(h 


of  Fra 


(be  proposeil  peace,  anil  cunslntned 
(he  emperor  (o  convoke  a  general  diet  (o  meet  at  lialit- 
bon  in  1840.  A  more  iin[i(>nflu(  cougtess  of  deputies 
from  the  diOerent  contending  poweis  was  assembled, 
however,  at  about  the  same  time  in  Hamburg,  whose 
deliberations  resnlicd  in  the  signing  of  preliminaries  of 
pe«;e,  Dec  16  (25),  1641,  The  settling  of  these  pie- 
iiminariea  was  rendered  difflcult  by  the  conflicting  views 


lertiuned  respecting  each  other;  ami  the  preliminaries 
themselves  merely  desigiiated  the  places  and  dales  for 
the  holding  of  a  definite  pesce  convention,  aiul  deter- 
mined rules  to  be  obsrrveil  with  respect  la  the  aafe-cnn- 


rsofdi 


il  1644,  a 


il  April,  164S. 


to  Ibeee  arrangements  was  imi 

the  proposed  congress  was  d 

The  representatives  uf  the  ei 

empire,  and  the  Swedes  met  at  Oanaburg,  and  those 

of  the  emperor,  the  French,  and  other  foreign  poweis 


separate  peace  fbe  negotlatlon^  which  were  protract- 
ed during  more  than  three  years,  were  greatly  influenced, 
of  course,  by  the  varying  fortune*  of  the  war,  which  was 
incessantly  pniaecuteil ;  but  the  Osaaburg  convention 
succeeded  in  settling  terms  of  peace,  Aug.  8,  and  the 
Munster  convention  reached  a  like  concluuon,  Sept.  17, 
1648.  The  treaty  was  then  adopted  and  signed  in  a 
general  assembly  of  both  coiivenrioiis,Oct.  11  (24),  1648. 
Spain  and  the  United  Netherlands  had  previously  (Jan. 
20  [30],  1648)  reached  an  agreement  at  UUnster  by 
which  the  independence  of  the  latter  country  was  rec- 
ognised and  its  league  with  (iermany  dissolved.  The 
independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  already  pro- 
nounced bv  the  Peace  of  Basle,  Sept.  22, 1409,  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Tnaly  of  Weslphaiia. 

The  provisions  of  this  peace  belong  to  our  field  only 
in  BO  far  aa  they  involve  religious  or  eccleiiastical  in- 
terests.    In  these  respects  they 

1,  Ordain  that  (he  demands  of  Frsnce.  Sweden,  and 
Hemve-Cnesel  be  snll^Hed.  This  cimflmiBd  the  sopremncy 
of  France  over  the  cities  of  Meli,  Toul,       '  "     "^ 


- . .— clpnlliyorlioKeiiuii, 

archl>isbiiprU:  or  Bremen.  These  arrangcmenls  Involved 
n  transfer  of  ecclesiastical  power  also,  tbonch  with  cer- 
tain exceptions  which  were  parilcnlarly  speciHed. 

*.  compensate  BrnndenburB,  Mecklenhnrg,  and  Bmns- 
wIck-Ltluebnrg  for  territory  luet  by  Ibe  nrmogenent  made 


WETENHALL 


to  Htliiy  France,  ««.,  Mifl  thMwlij  bring  nbont  BlmUnr 

S.  Declars  a  geuetil  iiinnmv  nod  miiiiniioii  of  ecclasl- 
nittenl  iirnpen/.  The  jeu  1*19  wm  in,T«d  npiiu  in  ihe 
vear  In  ivti^iH  candlLlniiB  n  relnrn  ibonld  be  inadtti  bni 
III  ihe  niipUeiitlaD  or  ibia  rule  Impurum  gieepll'iui  wen 
Hiado.  by  whlea  Ihe  Rumau  Cnihullc  [wny  was  bouellied. 
\  mnliirltT  nf  [be  Blecbin  «u  eecured  lo  tbla  piinj;  ■ 
iiurUiiii  cif  the  FdlatlDaM  m*  Irnnirerred  lo  BaTirik  In 
ihe  ume  liiiereali  uud  o  *Dnwwb>t  elmllir  dltpMlliiiii 
vvni  made  of  BadeD-Dnrlecb.  Id  Ibe  heredluirj  ■laiea 
■    will  praciicellj  ^"   "'""^    *   "  "' 


'oru  ufiil  Chan 


I  propenj 


iieWT  ol 
phnlls. 


MeckleDbDiv  ilgo,  mid  a 
iteeiam  wnitn  nan  been  oicepledTroni  ttae  am. 
I'ragQD,  were  benadiBd  by  the  Trealy  of  We«t- 
A  aueclal  jiroirlilou  ordered  thai  lb*  Bcclealartl- 

■  of  nil  jufheroDU  lo  the  Aogebn™  ConfBMlon 

•hoDld  be  CDurtimied  tu  the  ci>adm<ii»  of  lOftl. 

4.  Arrange  f.ir  the  remiival  of  oceo>lcin»  fur  dlapnH 
between  eliurchea.     Ti>  ihl>  end  itae  irentj  of  Pawin 
(IUMI  and  the  rellitlrnu  p«aca  of  AnKtbnrg  were  rntlled 
adherente  lo  ibe  Reruruied  conreMl'iii*  were  nccorded 
equal  reeogiiltliiii  with  Lnlherana  and  Roman  Cnlhnllc*, 
and  the  righu  n(  ProieitanU  and  Rotnou  Ciiihi>1lc>  were 
placed  npiin  an  eqnal  foiHlnxt  tbe  rljchl  ii>  Ibe  poen*- 
•liin  nf  chnrcb  propertj  wae  accorded  to  Ibe  oartj  which 
lield  inch  propartj  im  Jan.  1,  WH:  Ihe  IradaiDUal  ri|ibt 
i>r  raRn-niaii-in  wltbln  their  own  terrltnriea  claimad^- 
rnlera  wae  reenlaied,  and  alen  the  tUtue  of  penone  i 
bel.insed  to  one  Cbnrch  while  lb*  uorernmeDt  on 
which  the;  lived  edhored  to  aiinlber  raiih:  and  Ihe  I 
ill  of  eoclenla^tlciil  Jnrl»dloiloii  wem  panlcnlorljr  delli. — 

y  Do  away  with  p.ilttieal  abntea  ntiwlnu  oat  of  tbe 
preference  pnTiiinalT  acciirded  lb*  llonan  Catholic  orer 
the  Proteilaiit  Chiircli.  The  ucordlni  nf  territorial  an 
ereiirnii  lo  the  dlirereiit  mlera  Impaired  the  rummum  h 
perSim  prevl.inilv  .-ncribed  to  the  empar.>r,  efpeclally  i>a 
■Inllar  rlnfata  and  prlrlleKea  were  bestowed  mi  ibe  citlei, 
eic.,otih88i(iplro  l''commnoilatlhna  etuaglalmmedlaii""! 

a.  Take  meauiies  torUieeiecatloa  ottbetteiitT  aui 
pretervntlOD  of  tba  peace. 

The  emperor  taaued  edicts  designed  to  (cive  elTe 
Che  treaty  Nov.  7, 1S48,  and  the  partiei  to  the  treaty  | 

tion  Fcb.8, 1619.  The  leaders  of  the  reapectiTe  armiu  < 
■lao  bad,  lunce  tbe  cloee  of  1G4H,  conducud  negotiationa  i 
at  Prague  looking;  iDwanla  a  realiiatinn  of  the  peace,  I 
and  tbia  led  ta  a  conKrest  at  Nurembeig  at  whic^  the 
three  eatatei  of  the  empire  (electors,  princes,  and  citiea) 
were  represented,  and  which  pueed,  June  16,  1660,  a  I 
general  reoesa  of  execution.  The  papal  legate,  cardinal 
Fibius  Chigi,  bad  protnted  against  the  peace,  OcU  11  i 
and  !S,  and  Innocent  X  followed  with  Ibe  bull  2eJo 
Ihmai  Dei  uT  Nov.  36, 1648.  It  it  aaaertetl  that  these  1 
ptoteats  were  only  dewgned  to  perfurtn  a  duly  which  | 
the  pope  owed  to  hii  povlion  ami  his  coiisdence,  aince  I 
[bey  could  under  no  circumsuneea  exercise  authorita-  | 
tivc  influence  over  the  cxecuiiun  of  the  peace.  'I'he  j 
treaty  wae  conHnned  by  tbe  diet  of  ICM  and  often  af- 
terwards. Iia  execution  was,  as  respects  particulars,  I 
secured  only  through  many  dispute*,  and  its  proviaioni  j 
have  often  been  violated',  hut  it  has  preserved  its  au- 
thority in  general  ibwn  to  the  present  day.  | 
The  verv  copious  literature  may  be  found  cnllecteil 
in  the  list  of  Flitter,  in  LUeralm-  d.  Slaaltrtdtl;  ii,  420 
■q„492sq.;  iii,6»Bq.t  It,  138  sq.,  140;  iil  GtitI  d.  leril- 
phai  Fri^kai,  p.  T7,  a  cnmplement  of  Senckenbtrg, 
Daril.  d.  vaijMl.  FrirJau  (Frankfort-oii-ihe-Hsin, 
1801);  Woltmann,  nacS.  d.  waiphiU.  Fritdmi  (Leip*. 
1808, 4  vols.  8vo).  For  sources  see  Meiem,^«(a  Pucii 
Pobiiaiy  odtF  ufatphdL  FriedetuvrrhaJidliinffm  a-  G<~ 
Khkhle  (Hanov.  and  GStU  1734-»6);  id.  Aaa  Pacit 
Execai.  PiibUca,  at.  (Nurenb.  1736  sq.),  and  index  lo 
Imthcolleelinna;  iA.AclaComitaliaRalMom.Aoitn\Wii 
(1738  sq. ):  id.  /nMit<m«^  Paat,  etc.  (GiHI.  1788  foL), 
preface;  Urhiidai  ibr  FrMmHcMitie  lu  MSniler  v. 
Otitabrack,  etc  (Zurich,  1818 )._ Heiaig,  Btal-Em^ 
Oop.  K  y. 

Wetenhttll  (orWettenhaU),  Edwabo,  an  Eng- 
liah  clergyman,  was  bom  at  licbSeld  in  1636.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford;  became  rector  of 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford  \  minialer  of  I.nngcanibe ;  can- 
on lesidentiary  of  Exeter  in  1667;  lemoted  to  Inland 


WEITE 

16TI;  became  biabop  of  Cork  and  Bom  in  1ST8;  wis 
CTanaUted  to  Kilioore  in  1699;  and  died  in  Ldadua  ia 
1718.  He  published,  Mdliod  md  Orxler  far  TVttnSi 
liaotion  (1666) ;— Sn^Bni  A*D>aidc  <B»d  Ftdlk  Crr. 
tain.— Fine  o/Ow  Lorii  Piuiim  (1710);— and  otlm 
works.     See  AUibone,  Did. o/BrU.amI  Amtr.  AiHim, 

'Watberell,  William,  an  English  clergyman,  wh 
bom  in  1000,  and  Iwcame  minister  at  Sdluaie  in  ICtO. 
ia  which  capacity  be  contiuueii  until  bis  death  in  Mk 

Wetbeilll.  Sahuel,  a  preacher  of  tbe  Sociely  id 
Free  Quaken,  was  bom  at  Buriingtoo,  H.  J.,  tn  171S, 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia  In  early  youth,  what  hi 

maanbcturcr  of  that  city  as  wdl  as  ■  pseaeber.  Bf 
wrote,  Ah  Apologs/or  Ihe  Reiigiatit  SocUlf  catted  Free 
Quaiern—t  tract  on  the  DtBimlf  ofCkritti — and  otfatf 
works.     Siea  HX6.'0oae,  Diet. of  BriLamI  Ama-.AMkan, 


Wetmor«i  IsraUah,  ■  _ 

was  bom  in  1729.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  b 
1T4S;  becameminister  at  Huntington.  Conn.;  and  died 
In  1738.  See  AUibone,  Dkt.  of  Bril.  and  Amr.  At- 
Hon,  a,  V. 

TVatmore,  Jam«S,  a  I>nMestant  Eptacnfial  clvgi^ 
man,  was  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1714.  K< 
was  ordained  the  firat  Congr^aiinnal  minisiei  in  Nofik 
Haren,  Conn.,  in  November,  1718,  but  in  September, 
1723,  declared  in  faror  of  the  Church  of  England.  Hs 
immediatelv  went  to  England,  obtained  onlera,  and  n- 
tumed  in  1723  as  calechiM  and  assistant  to  tbe  Rer. 
William  Veser  of  New  York.  In  1726  he  became  ne- 
tor  of  Ihe  Church  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  where  he  coutinuad  IB- 
til  his  death.  Hay  15,  1760.  He  published  QanbriM 
a  Jadiciat  lafatualum,  and  other  conlmversial  weika 
See  Spngue,  AmuiU  oflkt  A  Mer.  Pulpit,  r,  16. 

Watts,  Wii.HELJi  Maectin  LEBtJiiccirr  ik,  an  ■>. 
inent  (ierman  Iheulugian  and  eiitie,  was  bom  Jan.  11, 
1780,  at  lIllB,  near  Wnmar.  where  bia  father,  Joh.  A» 
giistln,  was  pastor.  He  began  hie  pursuit  of  learauf 
at  a  time  when  German  literature  was  in  its  hi([tieit 
g1nrr,Biidin  a  region  where  its  foretoflM  representatirti 
■ujnumed.  In  tbe  school  at  Duttatiidt  he  was  grudi 
I  embarraiHol  by  lack  of  money.  Thence  he  went  to  tht 
gymnasium  at  Weimar,  where  BOttiger  wu  rector  aad 
Herder  ephnrus,  Hia  theological  oonrae  was  taken  ■ 
Jeiia.  where  Grieabach,  and  still  more  Paulna,  eiensMd 


a  laate  for  independent  study  of  the  Scriptuiea. 

De  Wette'i  earliest  eaaav  in  lileratore  was  a  oitU 
.iissertation  on  the  book  of  Deutenxiomy  (Jena,  ISU), 
and  his  next,  Cai^r^tioiu  to  Ktie-Tetl.  Ittrodaeliat 
{Beilrdije  zur  I-Saltihiog  in  dot  N.  T.}.  In  tbeK  woilB 
De  Wette  abandoned  the  attempt  to  explain  tbe  nir*. 
cles  of  Scripture  as  natural  occnrreiMts,  and  took  the 
ground  that  Ihey  are  mythical  events.  To  imahljdi 
this  poMtion  he  undertook  to  show  that  tbe  hiMorual 
bunks  of  the  Bible  are  of  much  more  lecenl  otigin  than 
ecdewastical  tradition  tetiches;  that  especially  tbe  Pcs- 
lateuch  is  composed  of  fragments,  tbe  earliest  of  which 
uricinated  in  the  time  of  David,  and  tbelslf  .the  boek 
of  Deateionomy  ilself,  in  thereign  of  Jodah:  and  that 
many  penons  were  engaged  in  the  compilatioo  of  tbae 
books.  As  J.  S.Valet,  of  Halle,  had  Just  published  liB- 
ilsr  opinions,  De  WetU  was  obligeil  to  revise  bis  hook 
and  delay  its  publication  until  1800,  when  the  fast  nl- 
lime  of  BtilrUge  ia't  AUr  Tell,  appeared.  The  aeeood 
volume  appeared  In  1807,  and  was  remarkable  fbr  its 
development  of  the  theory  that  the  (^tonidea  are  v* 
drawn  from  the  same  source  in  which  the  booka  of 
Samuel  and  Kings  originate;  bat  that  the  writer  of  the 
Chrontctts  had  raadBoaa  of  Samuel  and  Kings  so  fsrs) 
Ihey  oould  serve  his  purpose,  and  had  arbilnrih  al- 
tered and  made  additions  U>  them  in  the  interests  of 
the  Levideal  hierarchy;  and  fi>r  (he  maiutcT  in  whict 


WETTE  9( 

llieae  conduiuona  wrt  mide  lu  n*ct  upon  the  cicdibility 
of  llM  I'enlaWiicli.  He  arvFrtbeloa  penuted  in  suiii- 
taiaiiig  the  ucndiiesa  of  llie  8criptiiTe  hiNorio,  even 
ia  tbeir  mythical  form,  ind  iiiBiBled  thai  no  misenble 
pngmatum  thauld  Ix  aUowed  lo  Antroy  their  ucred- 
neaa.  Ue  declared  truth  to  be  the  gceat  law  of  hiatory, 
aad  the  love  of  truth  to  be  the  hiitorian'*  tint  quilittca- 
ttoo;  but  truth  was  fur  him  an  iileal,  poetic  ibMractiaii, 
nbtch  had  no  plac«  either  id  the  rationalum  or  the  ni- 
pianaluralUtD  of  thoie  diyi,  Uii  viewa  upon  thii  nib- 
ject  ire  given  in  the  ulide  BtUraye  tiir  CkanUHnitlik 
df  flrbraiifua,  in  the  Sludim  Khich  he  edited  m  com- 
mon with  Creuier  ind  Daub  (1807).  Ue  place*  himielf 
on  the  aide  of  thoM  who  believe  in  revealed  retiKJou, 
and  regards  ChriU  ai  the  true  Redeemer  and  the  cen- 
tral fact  in  revelalion. 

Ill  IBUT  De  Wetle  became  profeMor  of  theology  at  I 
Heidelberg  after  having  aervtd  lu  tutor  at  Jena,  and 
having  receireil  the  doctorate  uf  philveophy.  .  In  1811 
he  publialied  *  cominenlarv  uii  (he  bo<ik  uf  FmIiiii  (cdi- 
liotta  in  1828,  1829,  and  1836),  in  which  he  denied  the 
Davidic  anthonhip  uf  a  number  of  paalms  previoualy 
aarribed  lo  David;  apiilieil  the  references  made  in  cer- 
lun  paalma,  by  the  current  exegeaia,  tu  the  person  of 
Chriat  to  len'diatant  historical  evenla;  and  asi-igiied  a 
later  dale  than  was  iiaually  agsumed  to  the  I'aalrna  gen- 
erally. He  waa  himself  coniliajned  la  feel  that  hit 
work  was  not  conducive  to  iLevoliooal  effects,  anil  aiib- 
»e(|ueiitlr  modified  many  of  ita  atatententa,  betides  n  rit- 
int;  a  supplement  on  the  devoliunalexpusiiion  of  Paalma 
(Heiilelb.  I837>  He  demanda  a  Mriclly  acienittic  ex- 
pasiliuii,  anil  emphatically  denounces  all  "play  of  pious 
ingenuity ."  Chriat  ia,  in  hi>  view,  not  furetolil  as  a  his- 
torical personage  in  the  Pulms.  tbniigta  niany  ideal  de- 
■criplionB  are  then  fumiahed  which  may  be  uliliied 
fur  Christnli^cal  puipoaes.  In  1810  he  was  called  lo 
the  then  newly  founded  Oniveraity  of  Berlin,  where 
Schleiermacher  became  hia  colleague  and  his  colaborer 
in  the  endeavor  to  secure  a  theology  which  might  aat- 
isfy  the  demands  of  both  faith  and  science,  Ihcugh  they 
differed  widely  aa  respecla  the  application  of  methods. 
Schleiennacher  insiHcd  on  a  atricc  aeparation  of  philoa- 
opby  from  theology,  yet  penittently  made  use  of  phi- 
loanphy;  De  Wette,  on  the  other  hand,  proceedeil  from 
(he  theialic  standpoint  of  Kant'a  criticisni,  and  also  co- 
incided with  Jacobi  in  hia  theoiy  of  the  feelings  in  re- 
ligion. In  methodalogy  he  wholly  followed  the  philo»- 
ophy  of  Fries.  Knowledge  and  faith  are  by  him  aharp- 
\y  distinguished  from  each  other — the  finmer  bring  a 
■natter  of  the  understanding,  and  being  concerned  with 
finite  things  only.  InAnite  things  are  to  be  apptehend- 
ed  by  faith  acting  under  Ihe  form  of  feeling  (devotion, 
enttaustasm.  rerignalion).  The  religiona  consciouaneaB  < 
ia  accordingly  ■alhelical  in  character.  The  infinite  is 
■jmbdically  manifnted  in  the  flntte,  and  the  hiatorical 
revelation  muat  be  conceived  of,  in  conseqnence,  as  ■ 
armbuL  This  he  held  to  be  true  of  miraclea  also. 
'  De  Welle'a  critical  Ubors,  in  ihia  period  of  hia  life, 
extended  beyond  the  limits  of  exegesis  and  reached 
over  into  systematic  theology.  In  1817  he  published 
the  fjAHmek  da-  hiil.-h-il.  Eiiikinniff  n  die  Iimod.  h. 
apakrypk.  BStdur  da  Atlnt  Tnl.,  which  may  be  le- 
gariledatthe  consummation  of  his  critical  progreaa.  It 
paaeed  Ihtough  seven  editions,  and  was  rated  by  De 
Wette  as  the  most  finlahed  of  the  productions  of  liis 

TVa'.appeared  (Sth  ed.  1860).  Earlier  than 'both  of  these 
littrodaeHoni  waa  hi*  Ltkrbveh  drr  Mr.-JUd.  Arrid' 
oA^,elc<Leips.  1811,1880, 1842):  and  earlier  still  the 
Ct/mmrMoHo  dt  Mortt  Jrn  Chtitli  Expialnria  (1813). 
In  this,  hia  tlrat  book  in  doctrinal  theologr,  he  aaaailed 
the  orthodox  view  of  Iho  atonement  from  a  new  direc- 
tion He  represented  the  death  of  Jesus  aa  Ihe  una- 
votdable  consequence  of  hi*  moral  action,  and  aa  unex- 
pvdca,  but  grandly  met  when  it  was  at  hand.  The 
phikMaphical  principle*  on  which  Da  Wette'a  theolog- 
ical aysteiD  was  bnilt  an  developed  best  of  (11  In  bis 
X.— 81* 


littleworklTekrArli^Hmu.T'ARiIi)^,  etc  (Berlin,  ISlft 
and  ISil).  The  first  part  of  hia  book  on  Christian  doc- 
irine  appeared  in  18IB,  and  waa  devoted  to  Bible  doe- 
and  pervaded  by  the  principle  of  "  historical  de- 


tical  doctrineSi  In  Bible  ducliine  he  dislinguiabed  be- 
tween Hebraism  and  Judaism  in  Ihe  Old  Teal.,  and  the 
teaching  of  Jcmi*  ami  Ihe  teaching  of  lb*  apostlta  In 
the  New.  Chureh  docliine  naa  nol,  to  his  (hinhing,  a 
finisbed  piodnct,  which  could  nndergo  no  alteration  and 
be  developed  no  furiber;  be  raw  tn  it  simply  a  bond 
of  union  which  biuds  logether  ihose  who  are  members 
of  the  Chureh,  but  which  dcHrvra  the  attention  of  ihc 
theologian  despiu  ever;  adrince  Ihal  may  be  made. 
The  pretentMioii  of  Church  diifiiinr,  however,  in  ihitc 
books,  was  simply  ihat  of  the  Lnlhtran  Church.  The 
author's  own  avstem  was  nol  civm  to  the  public  until 
1846.  In  1819  the  Lekrbvrh  dir  Lvgmalik  waa  fallowrd 
by  a  CkTitllida,  Sillnhkre  (CAiufim  ElUa)  in  tun 
pans,  Ibe  farmer  of  which  contained  Ibe  system  of  eth- 
ics, and  (he  latter  the  hisloiy  of  ethic*.  In  this  bonk 
De  Welte  tum«l  aaide  from  ihc  beaten  track,  in  lhat 
he  did  not  regard  Chtittian  ttbics  aa  a  mere  aggrega- 
tion of  moral  presctipliuns,  but  as  a  life  having  its  toot 
in  a  Chriaiian  disposition  of  the  heart.  His  views  in 
this  Held  are  still  further  exhibited  in  Ihe  article  ^ii- 
tudie  I'tbniicht  dir  Atiibildmg  dir  timlcg. SillfidrliTt 
ia  drr  niimgfl.-Iiilli,  Kiivht  nil  C'uliilm,  in  Ihe  Titoloii. 
ZR>>ril>i>l  afl8l9andl8S0(ediled  by  himself,  Echliier- 
macher,  and  LUcke).  His  publiaheil  viewa  upon  this 
subject  fairly  reflected  hia  own  tbcelngical  chsrscler. 
He  combined  in  himself  moat  intimately  Ihe  FcientiHc 
and  the  practical  ethical  cbaracter.  Hi*  whole  being 
waa  enlisted  in  the  endeavor  to  work  a  iDoral  renova- 
tion of  the  Ucrman  people,  ind  a  realontlon,  on  a  large 
scale,  of  a  Cbriatian  community  in  (he  land.  Unable 
to  use  the  pulpit,  he  drew  up  a  number  of  pamphlela 
and  artick;*  for  periadicals  (I81S-19),  which  were  very 
influential  and  became  quite  popnUr.  This  constant 
endeavor  to  introduce  hit  ethical  view*  into  Iho  rela- 
tions of  practical  life  brought  upon  him  the  censure  of 
the  government  on  the  occasion  when  the  F.rlangen 
theological  student  Karl  Sand,  a  member  of  the  Jena 
BurtduMcluift  aa  well,  sUrtled  the  German  world  by 
asaamnating  Che  dramatist  August  von  Kot»bue  under 
the  impulse  of  an  enthusiastic  pattiolisni  [Hsrch  23, 
1819).  Kotzebue  had  been  strenglv  opposed  tn  the 
success  of  the  liberal  movement  then  beiiic  made.  De 
Weite  addressed  to  the  mother  of  this  mifguideil  youlh 
a  paper  in  wbich  he  condemned  the  murder  as  illegal, 
immoral,  and  antagonistic  to  all  moral  law.  but  at  Ihe 


Paul's  Judgment  of  Charlotte  Cordaj-.  In  consequence 
of  having  written  this  letter  h*  was,  despite  the  inter- 
vention of  the  academical  senate  in  his  behalf,  dismissed 
from  hii  prnfeaaoTship  by  command  of  tbc  king.  Ocl.  % 
1819.  He  decfined  a  aum  of  money  offbreil  him  in  com- 
pensation, and  retired  lo  Weimar  in  nnderuke  an  edi- 
tion of  Liilher's  wrilinga  {I.ttko't  Brir/r,  SendttkreOm 
irndfierfouini),  of  wbich  voLi  appeared  in  IS2&,Bndlbe 
final  volume  (v)  in  18S8.  A  eupplenenlary  volume  waa 
pnbliahed  by  Seidenmann  in  1866.  This  waa  the  Hrst 
compraheniive  and  complete  edlllon  of  Luther's  works 
ever  published,  and  waa  of  itself  aufficient  to  earn  for  its 
author  the  fame  of  scholarship.  In  18S3  he  published 
the  didactic  romance  Thtodar,  odtr  dri  ZttriJIm  Wiiht, 
to  which  Tholuck  replied  in  I8!3  with  liis  Boire  Wnha 
da  Zweitlera. 

In  18S1  meaeui**  were  taken  by  St.  Othaiine's 
Church  in  Brunswick  to  secure  De  Wette  aa  it*  pastor; 
but,  before  the  arrangement  was  eompltled,  a  call  to 
the  theological  professorship  of  Barie  was  extended, 
which  he  Bccepte<l.  Hera  he  not  only  taught  to  Ibe 
great  salitfection  of  *tndent^ but  also  lectured  in  weekly 
fveniag  aaserohlits  where  the  cultured  people  of  Iba 


WETTE  95 

pUce  wen  hU  cmuunt  tuililora.  In  thU  my  ba  cov- 
ered a  courae  nrethics,in[l  ■nuttier  on  tb«  niUKC,  mui- 
irtdUiioni,  uiJ  influence  (irreli)(iDn;  both  of  which  wen 
publbhed  (Berlin,  IH23  Kg.  ukI  1827).  He  tlM  gave 
hirnKirBteiilily  lo  iiulpii  Imbor,  in  which  he  hid  never 
legulirly  engtgtd  duriii);  liis  eirliei  veira,  uid  published 
tive  volumes  of  (enDons  (,1(125-29),  irbich  wen  Mipple- 
mented  by  ■  >ixth  vulume  publiihed  aftri  hii  death 
(1849).  He  wu,  howerer,  limply  >  teacbcr  in  the  pul- 
pil^nerer  *n  urslur;  and  yet  ihe  pulpit  reacted  apon 
the  lecture-mom,  ami  lol  bim  iiilA  the  ■tudy  of  theoret- 
ical homiletici,  the  fruit  of  which  appean  in  hia  val- 
iiible  work  Aidrulungm  iibtr  Bildimg  a.  BtmftlluUig- 
keildtTGtitllichm,clc  He  alaaalieinptedcaLecheticd 
wnrka,  but  without  Raining  the  popular  ear. 

D»rin||;  De  Wette'a  aUy  at  Baale  the  practical  ele- 
ment in  bit  character  waa  more  eneryeiically  developed, 
and  introduced  a  noteworthy  chants  in  hia  religioua 
lift  He  learned,  in  contact  with  different  people,  lo  ap- 
preciate vaiioui  lurma  nf  relij;ious  manifeaution  which 
had  runnerly  repelled  him,  and  hia  polemical  tendency 
Rave  nay  la  an  irenical  diapoaitiuii  aa  hii  yeara  ad- 
vanced. He  iiialituled  a  (Irifcitwerriii  in  1S2A,  whoae 
object  was  the  advancemenl  uf  the  moral  and  reliRioua 
welfare  of  the  newly  libetaleil  Greek*,  and  aided  in 
the  founding  uf  a  branch  Guiiim  ■  Adolf  Vertia  fur 
SwilzerUnd  {ProttMaM-larckt.  llUfietrtia).  He  wu 
changed,  in  conaequence.  with  being  a  convert  to  eccle- 
siastical orthotliixyi  but  there  ia  abundant  evidence 
that  he  never  changed  the  views  he  had  adnpted  in 
earlier  life.  He  peraiatcd  in  advocating  the  utmoal  in- 
dependence in  theological  thinking,  and  in  regarding 
religion  as  a  life  rather  than  a  creed ;  but  leatitted  that 
ho  knew  "  that  none  olher  name  under  heaven  ia  given 
among  men  whereby  we  miiat  be  aaved  but  that  of 
Jesus,  Ihe  CruciAeil  One."  In  adilltion  lu  hia  profea- 
aional  employmenta,  De  Wette  took  an  amateur  inter- 
est in  art.     He  did  not  condemn  the  drama  aa  immoral. 


pnbliil 


a  of  h 


1  (Betlin,  1823),  though  moral  conniderationa  pre- 
vented  him  rrum  visiting  the  theatre.  He  loved  music 
and  the  formative  arta,  and  impreased  their  imparlance 
on  the  thought  of  his  studenia.  He  wrote  a  second  ro- 
mance, and  published  it  in  1829  (f/nnricA  MflchAal,odtr 
Biidamf  a.  GeoiriHgtuf  [2  volt.]).  A  viait  to  Rome  in 
the  winter  of  1846  was  largely  devoted  to  Ihe  atiidy  of 
ecclesiaatical  art,  and  gave  Inrth  to  the  attractive  book 
GedimJira  iibrr  Ualati  a.  BaukuMl,  betomiert  in  UrehL 
BtiifliMHg  (Berlin,  1846). 

De  Wettc's  chief  occupation,  however,  waa  alwaja 
theology,  and  his  yean  ai  Baale  were  fmilful  in  theo- 
logical publications  from  his  hand.  He  ihomughly  re- 
vised hia  version  of  the  Bible,  wrote  the  Eiairiiung  ix't 
X.  T„  conalructeit  a  muss  of  text-bonks  and  articles  for 
periodicalp,  and  crowned  hia  exegetical  labors  eipeciailv 
with  the  Kuiigf/'i-t"  ""J".  HcutA.  lum  .V,  T.  (8  vola. 
in  II  pit.  1B3II-48).     He  poeaesaed  in  an  unusual  tneas- 

eviuccd  it  here  as  in  all  his  works.  This  commentary 
was  contemporary  with  Strausa's  I^ben  Jrm,  and  the 
author  did  not  hesiral*  lo  avow,  in  hia  preface  to  Mat- 
thew, hit  sympathy  with  Strauw  in  that  writer's  oppo- 
nillon  lo  old  and  new  "  harmonistics,"  anrl  in  his  advo- 
cacy of  an  iilealiitic  and  symbolical  iiiteniretation  of  the 
m1rac1eBofScripture,though  he  believed  that  Strauss  had 
^ine  loo  far  in  giving  up  the  hiatorical  Jesns.  De  Wetle 
wai  twice  invited  back  to  (iermany,  once  lo  becoma 
[)astnr  of  Sl>  felet'a  in  Hamburn,  and  again  to  accept  a 
l>r»fes*orship  at  Jena,  but  declined  to  return  thither. 
He  died,  aflet  a  brief  illness,  June  16,  1849.  His  like- 
neu  in  oil  bv  Dietter,  and  hia  bust  by  SchliUh,  orna- 
ment Ihe  aula  at  Baale. 

Concerning  De  Wette'i  life  and  works,  aee  Hagen- 
bach  (for  manv  vean  his  colleague),  Leichainde  (Basle, 
I»49),and /I  Wim.  CnJociftnundi  (Leips.  1850) :  Schen- 
kel  (a  pupil  of  De  W.),  />elF.  u.  d.  Bedtutiaig  teiiKy  Tht- 
ologie,  etc  (Schaffhauien,  1849);  Lucke,  Dt  W^  air 


WETTSTEIN 

frtMKiMdiafil.  EriuarTvig  (Hamb.  IKaO);  ThjaUen,iii 
NtknAog  der  Datteia,  1849,  p.  427  sq.;  BmckhaH, 
Cov!er$atiim4-lj!xiboit,>.v,:  Btogrnpliit  ijinvmrUt,t.t. 
With  reference  to  hit  theology,  aee  Baur,  KirdmgrKk. 
d.  I9(aii  JairlimtdaU  (Tub.  1862),  p.  212  aq. ;  Kahni^ 
D.  imtre  Ga*g  d.  dtaliek.  PnltlamliiMiu  (Ldp&  IWO). 
EespectiDg  DeWeUe'tmerilaaaacriticuide  ipaaiux.  set 
Ihevariouain  troductiona  lu  Scri  pture,partieularty  B)eek\ 
and  the  curDOMatarietL— Heno^;.  Reai-ilmiiUnp.  a  v. 

WsRengel,  Frikdrich  THAVaon.  a  Prntestaat 
theologian  of  (iennany,  was  bom  Feb.  9, 1750,  at  Aadi, 
in  Bohemia.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Erlaiigen.  In 
1T75  he  was  appointed  chaplain  U>  Ihe  prince  of  Bnat, 
HeinrichXI;  in  1'HOIiewaamade  arurt  preacher. anil  ia 
1792  aaperinlendeot.  He  died  at  Greila,  June  31,  mi 
Of  his  writings  we  mention,  PrtdiqieK  ibtr  dir  Rrim 
Jait  Chritti  am  Krtui  (F.riangen.  1779)  :—Siitd  dif  fm- 
Mitein  BMia  tin  Jix\  fir  Ht  freie  ens^isekh- 
Ihtrische  Kirdet  (Greitz,  1790).  See  D^tinft  Mi 
gdtkrlai  Tkeologai  DnttcUrmdt.  iv,  710  sq. ;  Winer, 
HaniIhud,dtrlketi.LU.\.3IU,i9*x  ii,  3S8L     (RP.) 

Wettateln  (often  whiten  ^Vetatein),  Jotuum 

Rudolf  ( 1 ).  a  learned  Swiss  theulogiaii  (son  of  the  vale 
minister  of  Ihe  same  name),  waa  bom  u  Baale^  Jan.  j^ 
1614.  He  ilevoled  himself  chiefly  to  the  cJaasical  la» 
giiages.  Alter  ■  ahorl  term  as  preacher  at  Bade,  he 
became  pmfessor  of  rhetoric,  and  in  I63T  uf  (iiech,  fiua 
which  he  p.isaed  in  1C44  to  the  chair  oflogic^  and  agiio 
in  I6JC  to  that  of  theology,  frota  which  he  was  Giullr 
iraiuferred  in  IGU  to  the  department  oT  New-ToJ.  io- 
lerpreUtiun.  Hedied  Dec  11, 1684,  leaving aeveral  ihn- 
logical  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  .Vour,  Biog,  Giti- 

'W«ttatelii.  Jobana  Rudolf  (2),  a  Swiss  ibco- 
logian,  son  of  the  preceding,  waa  bom  at  Basle,  SepL  1, 
1647,  and  died  there,  April  24, 171 1,  as  imifeaaor  of  the- 
ology (alter  168£>),  leaving  the  following  wriiingt: 
Origtnit  DiaL  c.  .Vitrdonil.  Ezhorialio  ad  Manyritm, 
Hapoiuio  ad  A/ricam  Epitt.  de  HiM.  Sutamna  Gr.  M  f^A 
cum  Sotit  EJidil  (Basic,  IG74):— hia  Dtpulalio  dr  Pn. 
pkrtit  a  published  in  S'or,  Uc //r/nuT.  (  17tl2),p.  127. 
See  Winer,  llandbuA  dtr  IktiA.  LiL  i,  899;  FUrst,  B»l. 
Jucf.iii.MO;  llwfn,  Xaac.  Bio^.  Giiirtile,t.v.    (B  P.) 

WetUtein,  Joluim  Jakob,  ■  celebrMcd  New- 
Teat,  critic,  was  bom  at  Basle.  March  5, 16^,  the  lec- 
ond  in  a  family  of  thirteen  children.  Hia  Etlher  was 
minister  in  Si.  Leonard's  Church,  and  his  teacbera  wen 
the  younger  Buxtorf,  Samuel  Werenfeks  Iselin,  Frer, 
etc  His  attention  was  early  turned  upon  the  mana- 
acripta  in  the  public  library  and  the  compaiiwn  of  eod- 
icea,  and  his  earlieat  dissertation  had  for  ita  sutjed  £* 
VariU  fl.  T.  LfcHambat.  Travels  to  Geneva,  Lyun, 
Paris,  and  England,  in  connection  with  which  he  vititH 
all  aocesuhle  libraries  and  made  himself  aoquainled  with 
all  the  more  important  manoscripli  of  the  New  Test, 
served  to  enlarge  the  range  of  his  views,  as  did  also  aeea- 
ciation  with  Uontfaucon,  La  Rue,  and  Bentler.  He 
obtained  a  chaplaincy  in  a  Dutch  r«^ment  of  SwitiRi 
through  Beniley'i  influence,  but  in  1717  ntumtd  ts 
Basle  and  was  made  diacoivt  conunnu.  and  in  1791 
deacon  nt  St.  Leonard's  and  aasislant  to  his  father.  Ia 
this  station  he  earned  the  reputation  of  an  able  ptnc^ 
er  and  faithful  pastor;  but  study  being  his  favorite  oc 
cupation,  he  read  private  lectures  on  eiegeais  and  av«- 
tematic  theology  liefure  a  class  of  yonng  men,  and  gave 
hia  spare  moments  lo  the  continued  compsnson  uf  manit- 
tcripia  in  Ihe  library.  Ha  conceived  in  Ihia  period  ibe 
idea  of  publishing  a  critical  edition  of  tbe  New  Test, 
laelin  and  Fny  were  at  the  aame  time  tlodying  tbc 
codica  of  the  Baale  library  for  the  purpose  of  aiilin^ 
Bengel  in  the  preparation  of  his  .Vno  Tr^„  and  Wnl- 
stein  came  into  conflict  with  them  respecting  the  age 
of  the  Basle  Coclex  of  the  Gospela  (F.),  which  be  br- 
lievad  to  be  much  lower  than  they  wouki  cweede. 
This  dispnle  soon  became  personaL  Wettatein'sanb*- 
doxy  b»d  for  aome  time  been  a 


WETZEL 


BJl        WEXFORD,  COUNCIL  OF 


cht^eil  with  balding  Ariin  and  Sociniiit  crron,  ind 
I  IS  [hia  fault  were  now  added  bis  alleged  erilical  abem- 
'  lima.  HUprefetenceofocto9(.]cinlTim,iii,lB,on 
'  [he  ground  [hit  a  cirerul  exaroinatian  of  the  Cod.  Alex- 
indfin.  had  convinecd  him  of  iu  genuinenesa,  wae  ered- 
iled  lo  an  alleged  dealra  of  depriving  the  doctrine  of 
Ctirisi'a  deity  of  a  proof.  Complainu  respecting  hi* 
httefodoxv  wrie  expreised  even  in  the  Diet  of  I  he  Con- 
federal ion,  and  ultimalely  a  Turmal  proceaa  orinqnUitian 
■u  iniuguraled  against  him.  Wetutein  had  laliEn  the 
prtCBUlian,  however,  to  lenil  the  maniiKript  of  his  ffae 
TVsf.  tn  Holland,  aiid  hia  awailuita  were  accordingly 
compelled  to  «ilj«lanliat«  their  chargea  from  (he  nolo 
of  hia  nufu)^  and  from  the  memotlea  of  ihoae  who  had 
heard  him  preach.  He  was  ultimately  diamiued  from 
hia  poU,  Hay  13, 1730.  He  found  a  new  place  at  Am- 
«erdam,  u  slicceiwaT  to  Clericiis  in  the  College  nf  the  He- 
moiutrants,  and  thenceforward  made  Holland  hia  hnme. 
The  PrBlegomemi  to  hia  A'ew  Ttil.  had  already  been 
iNDCd  onaiiyaioualy  in  1730.  In  17Gl-&!i  appcsreil  the 
Km  Tal.  itaelf,  the  wnrli  of  bit  life;  but  auch  wat  the 
lioiidity  of  the  age  that  he  waa  compelled  to  state  the 
reading*  he  preferred  in  foal-nutca,  and  to  give  the  re- 
ceived text  ill  the  body  of  hia  work.  William  Buwyer, 
if  London,  fiist  published  a  New  Test,  with  Wettatein's 
■ —      '  lined  a  wealth  of  van 


ona  leadings,  numeroaa  antiquarian  remarlis  JIluatraliTe 
nfthe  anbject-matter,  and  parallel  paaugn  from  claSBi-* 
cal,  ecclesiastical,  and  Kabbinical  writers,  which  made  it 
a  valuilile  aid  both  tn  exegeais  and  criticism.  Well- 
Uein  had  appended  to  hia  Sne  Tnl.  iwo  Syriac  letters 
discovered  hy  him  and  credited  to  Clemens  Romanna, 
but  whoae  genuineness  haa  since  been  disproved  (the 
letters  lo  rirgiiit).  He  eameil  the  reputation  of  having 
excelled  all  his  prtdeceeaors  in  the  industry  and  exact- 
nen  with  which  he  prtneculed  the  comoarison  nf  cod- 
ices, baring  personally  examined  about  forty.  To  him 
we  owe  the  de^ignalinn  of  codices  now  current  in  the 
iheolf^cai  worlil.  He  dirl  not  long  outlive  the  publi- 
cation  of  his  book,  and  died  March  2!,  17M.  Hia  col- 
league, JsDob  Krighnnt,  delivered  a  funeral  rtiscourM 
over  his  remains,  which  led  to  ■  dispute  between  himself 
and  Frey,  nf  Raster  Previous  lo  his  death,  Wcltstein 
had  been  made  ■  member  of  academies  of  science  in 
Berlin  and  London,  and  of  the  Briliah  Society  for  the 
Extension  of  Christianity.  See  i1  fjlfli.  fffwr.  p.  379  aq. ; 
HeistcT,  IMrrt.  Semm  rf.  aruem  SchicSrmrrri  V.  InM- 
eraia  (Zurich,  178a),  p.  167  sq. ;  Hagenbach,  Wrtliim 
. . .  u.  tint  Grgtr.  in  lllgen'a  Zriltchryflf.  hvt.  TkeoL 
1839,  No.  I,  p.  IS:  Henog,  ff«i/-£iHyUop.  a,  v. 

Wstmsl,  Andraaa,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Cer- 
manv,  was  bom  Jan.  17, 1808,  at  Weil,  in  Wllrtemberg. 
He  studied  at  I'ubingeu,  and  in  1831  ha  arrived  in  (he 
United  SUtea.  In  Lewis  County,  N.  Y.,  he  commenced 
hia  minialerial  labors  with  great  success,  looking  at  the 
Mtme  time  after  hia  coreligionists  in  Oneida  Cuuuty. 
In  1833  he  also  commenced  preaching  at  Utica.  In 
l(Ht,(he  congregation  organized  ihere  built  a  church — 
Zion'a  Church  — and  in  1H4J  Mr.  Wetzel  left  Verona, 
where  he  had  resided,  for  Utica,  where  he  libored  until 
the  year  1879,  when  ludily  iiitirmilie*  obliged  him  to 
retire  from  hia  office.  He  died  Aug.lC,  ISWI.  Mr,  Wet- 
zel was  highly  honored  in  his  ecdeuastical  body,  in 
which  he  held  fiiragreat  many  years  the  office  of  treaa> 
urer.  He  also  promotHl  the  cauae  of  education  within 
hia  own  Church  ami  the  community  in  which  he  lived, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  all  movements  which  tended 
IV  elevate  the  moral  atandanl  of  the  people.    (B.  I'.) 

Wetsal  (or  Wcsel).  Jobuu  Kaapar,  a  learned 
German  writer,  waa  bora  at  Meiningcn,  Feb.  22, 1691, 
aa  the  son  of  a  poor  nhoemnker.  He  was  eiliicated  at 
the  expense  of  nernarrl.lhe  duke  of  ftaxe-Meinlngcn,  at 
Halle  and  Jena.  After  leochlnp  awhile,  he  became  »ec- 
relaiy  to  a  diplomate.  and  in  that  capacity  risiied  Iialy 
and  Switzerland.  He  cvenliiAlly  taught  icain  prirnie- 
Ij-,  and  fliially  became  preacher  of  the  ducbeaaMlowagcr 


(1734)  and  at  Rjimhild  (ITSS),  where  he  died,  Aug.  6, 
1756,  leaving  several  works,  of  which  we  mention,  Hyat- 
tiopaograplaa,iniir  hiil.  LtbaubackreOiiaig  dtr  heriikm- 
lattm  LirdoTtickler  (Hetmaladt,  1719-28,  4  pfs.):— 
Ilymnolosia  Saaa  (Nuremb.  1728)  ■.—Hymnolosin  Pat- 
lioBiilu  (iUd.  1783) :— y/yiMiio/i^  Poksaca  (AmsladC, 
1736) :  — A  nalreta  /fgminca,  oder  merhnlrdige  JVadUcifii 
zur /.irflVrlulDru((lothB,  1751-66,2  vols.}.  See  Du- 
ring, Dif  grkkrim  Tkeologrn  DtultcilanJi,  iv,  712  sq. ; 
Huefer,  Aoar.  Buy.  Gniialf,  a.  v.     (It  H.) 

Vstser,  Keiuhick  Josiini,  chief  editor  of  the  Ea. 
tSdapadia  of  Roman  Ciilkalk  Thf^ogy,  was  bom  in 
1801  at  Anzefahr,  in  Electornl  Hesse.  Hia  early  in- 
slmcliou  was  obuincd  of  pastor  Kaiser,  at  Niederkleini 
thence  he  went  lo  the  Pralagogium,  and  subsequenlty 
(1820)  to  the  University  ofMnrburg.  Under  Arnold') 
and  Hartmaiin's  tuilioii,  he  devoted  himself  especially 
lo  the  study  of  the  llelnew  and  Arabic  languages.  In 
I82S  he  was  at  TuUngcn,  engaged  in  the  study  of  Ori- 
enul  languages,  and  in  1824  he  receit-ed  at  Freiburg 
the  doctorate  oftheoh^y  ami  canon  law.  He  then  vis- 
ited Paris,  and  prosecuted  the  atudy  of  Arabic  and 
Fenian  onderDeSacy,  and  of  Sy  rise  under  Quatrem^re. 
While  in  Paris  he  piibliahed  from  an  Arabic  manuscript 
Tke  IliHoiy  nf  Iht  Cuplic  Ckiiitiaia  doicn  lo  Ikr  Wh 
CnU4ii:y  (1828),  as  written  bya  learned  imsum  of  Egypt, 
accompanying  the  Arabic  text  wiili  a  Latin  veruon. 
He  hwl  already  published  A  Liilin  Tnalue  on  the  Ari- 
an  Conlrocrrts,  J.0.326-3EO  (1827).  In  1828  he  be- 
came tutor  and  extraordinary  professor,  and  in  18S0  or- 
dinary professor,  of  Oriental  philology  at  Freiburg.  In 
1831  he  married.  He  delivered  intereating  lectures  on 
the  grammar  of  the  Hebrew  and  .\rabic  languages,  and 
on  the  inlerpralation  of  Scripture  and  introduction  lo 
the  Old  'I'esl.,  etc  In  1840  be  publiahed,  in  connection 
with  UVanEui,  the  Sulzbach  edition  of  the  Diblc.  In 
the  intemal  disputes  which  agitated  the  Univenity 
of  Freiburg,  he  held  strictly  Koman  Catholic  ground. 
When  in  1814  a  motion  waa  made  in  the  Chambers  of 

wrote  an  eaaay  advocating  its  preservation.  His  prin- 
cipal importance,  however,  grows  out  of  the  assent  he 
gave  in  the  plan  of  publiahing  a  cyclopedia  of  KomaD 
Calholic  theology.aa  conccivcil  by  the  bookseller  Her- 
der. He  was  j'ivcii  the  direction  of  Ihc  work,  and  in- 
dustriously prosecuted  it  fmm  1846  until  his  death,  in 
November,  ISM,  The  work  is  thorougly  Koman  Cath- 
olic in  tone  and  siuril.  and  ha*  doubtless  conlribuled 
greatly  towards  flxing  the  tendency  ofthnl  theology  of 
late  years  in  (termany.  Its  treumeut  of  I'relMiantitm, 
the  inalilutions  growing  out  of  it,  and  Ihc  men  coiniect- 
ed  with  it  is  naturally  biaased;  but  itapolemica  are  never 
hitler  or  extreme.  SigniAcant  are  the  brevlly  and  *u- 
pcrAcial  treatment  accorded  to  Sailer  (q.  v.),  and  curioua 
the  miklness  which  F^nelun's  mystical  quietism  receives 
in  the  article  "  Bossuet."  The  immaculate  conception 
of  the  Virgin  is  not  at  all  approved  of,  though  it  was  not 
yet  a  dogma  of  the  Church  when  the  J^ntydopaditi  s]^ 
peared.  The  entire  work,  incluiling  Supplement, consists 
of  12  volumes  (1847-1856).  A  complete  Inilex  facili- 
tates iu  use.  A  new  edition  is  at  this  writing  (1881)  in 
course  of  puUieation.— Henog,  Btal-EniyU^.a.v, 

'Waxford,  Coti;iciL  o»  (fonci/iinii  WerfimSmtt). 
Wexford  is  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland,  cag^tal  of  Wex- 
ford County,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Slaney,  where  it 
expanda  inio  a  harbor,  sixty-four  miles  south-west  of 
Dublin.  An  ecclesiastical  council  was  held  hen  in  1240 
by  the  bishop  of  Fem^  in  which  it  was  ruled  how  the 
debts  of  deceased  ciiralea  ■hoiild  be  paid.  Clerks  were 
fnrbiiiden  to  follow  any  kind  of  secular  business.  The 
infringers  of  ecclewastical  libenic*.  inimders  into  bene- 
Bees,  Incendiaries  poisoners,  false  wiineaaes,  elc„  were 
exeooinonieated.  Cnrates  were  forbidden  to  excom- 
municate their  parishionen  without  the  bishop's  sanc- 
lion.  See  Wiiklns,  C'mc.  i.  681 ;  Manai,  Awif.  (suppL), 
ii,  1066.— Landon,  Umnal  o/CoitodU,  p.  691. 


S««  Sert 


y  above  Che  ai 


WEZEL  9 

WaaeL    Sm  Wcran. 

'Wbalt,  llie  reodefing  in  ibe  A.V.  Qiaiia  tqrot, 
Uill.  xii.  40)  of  two  very  doMly  rcliled  H<h.  tcmu: 
•Fl,  dm  (or  nuber  0^5,  laman',  n  a  »ing,,  Ewk.  ixiii, 
3i  "dragon,"  xxix,8;  elMwhere  M  ■  pluT.  and  rendn- 
ed"dngoni,"Jnbxxx,!9;  Psi.  xlir,  19 j  Iu.xiii,22; 
xnir,  13;  xxxv,7;  xlii,20:  Jcl.  U,  tl:  x,22;  xjv, 
6;  xlix,3B;  li,  ST),  and  ^in,  roH^' (Geo.  i,  SI;  Job 
vii,  I2j  "Mrpent,"  Exod.  vii,  9, 10,  IS;  "«ea-i 
Lam.  iv,  3;  eltcwhen  alao  "dragon,"  Dcul.  x 
Neh.  ii,  13;  Pu.  Ixiiv,  IB;  xd,  18;  cxlviii 
xxvii,!;  U,9;  Jer.li,34).  Tbe  tcxu  where 
iiwd  in  genenl  pnwnl  pictnro  of  ruined  citie 
deaoUtioii  in  tbe  wildernMi,  rendering  it  diflkult  to  de~ 
termine  what  ItindofcreaLumin  particular  are  mean 
except  aa  may  be  inferreil  from  olber  pamgea  (J< 
XXX,  29;  Paa.  xliv,  19,  20;  laa.  xiii,  22;  xxxiv,  It 
xxxv,Ti  JeT.Jx,ll;  s,2-l;  xUx,3B:  1i,34,37).  Whe 
the  term  ta  aiaociated  wiih  beaala  or  binls  or  the  rleHn. 
it  clearly  indicatea  lerpents  nf  rarioua  apeciea,  baih 
■nail  and  large  (lu.  xliii,  20;  Psa.  xci.  13;  alao  Rxnd. 
vi,  9-1!),  aitd  in  one  pauage  a  poiganuiu  reptile  i«  dis- 
tinctly referred  to  (Dsut.  xi 
In  Jer.  xiv,  6,  where  wild  aa 
•R  compared  to  dragont,  the  image  will  appear 
full  atrength,  if  we  undentand  by  dragona  great  boat 
and  pjlAoR-aarpenta,  auch  aa  ire  Agtirad  in  the  Pnent 
tine  moaaics.  They  were  common  in  ancient  limea, 
and  are  atill  tar  fmm  rare  in  the  tnipi 
nenta.  Several  of  the  apeciei  grow 
aiie,  and,  during  their  periuda  <^  activity,  ar 
babit  of  Tailing  a  conalderablo  pvrtinn  of  thei 
inCA  a  vertical  potition,  like  pillan,  ten  or  twi 
high,  in  order  tu  aurvey  tbe  vidni 
rounding  buahea,  while  with  open  Ja 
quantity  ol  the  current  ur.  The  aaii 
in  smaller  serpeiila  i  but  it  ia  nnc  obt 

ke,  lliey  atand  on  end  nearly  three- 
]f  their  length.    Hoal,  if  not  all,  of  ihew  ape- 

although  the  maai-iHtmiii,  the  great  rock-anake  of 
Southern  Aua,  ia  aaid  lo  wai!  in  the  night,  no  natunl- 
iat  haa  ever  wilneased  such  a  phenomenon,  nor  heard 
il  aaserted  Ihat  any  other  boa,  python,  or  erpelon  had 
a  real  roice;  but  (hey  biaa,  and,  like  crocodilea,  may 
utter  snunda  somewhat  akin  to  howling,  a  Tact  that 
will  lufficienlly  explain  tbe  paaaage  in  Micab  (i,  8). 
When  u»ed  in  connection  with  riven,  the  term  pruba- 
blv  aiguilles  the  croco<lile  (Psa.  Ixxiv,  13;  Isa.  xxrii, 
1;  li,9;  Ezek.xxix,8i  xxxii,2),  and  when  altution  ii 
had  to  larger  bodies  of  water,  pnibably  some  of  the  ce- 
taceous mammalia  (Gen.  i,  21 ;  PNkcxlviii,7;LaiD.  iv, 
8).  See  Lk VI ATI! AH.  The  above  interpretation  ia  ac- 
cording to  that  of  Bochart  (_/Iitroi.  ii,  429),  who  pro- 
pMea  alwaya  to  read  V!?  '"  ')"  woe  of  huge  aer- 
penla;  but  others,  following  Dab.  Tancbum  Hieros., 
suggest  a  diSerent  etymology  for  the  piur,  forma  D^l^ 
and  *,^iri  (the  iaolated  caaa  of  a  ung.  fonn  S^IH,  in 
Eiek.  xxii,  3,  being  taken  for  a  oairupt  reading  for 
yta,  oa  in  some  HSS.),  from  the  root  '^tj,  in  the  trop- 
ical sense  of  ilrtfched  out  in  running,  and  applied  to 
the  jackal,  a  awift  animal,  which  answers  well  lo  tbe 
description  where  these  forms  occur,  being  a  creature 
living  in  deserts  (Psa.  xliv,  19;  tsa.  xiU,  32;  xxxiv, 
18t  xxxv,T;xliii,SO;  Jer.ii,II;  x,22;  xiT,S;  xlix, 
83;  Ii.  37),  suckling  iu  young  (Ijim.  iv,  S),  and  uttering 
a  wailing  cry  (Jobxx.'29;  Hie.  i,  3).  The  other  paa- 
■ages  in  which  the  forms,  Niig.  ^^1?,  plur.  D^3'<{r|, 
MCur  are  thus  left  to  be  explained  aa  before,  namely, 
as  signifying,  <l)a  great  flsh  or  »fa-'»™irter,e.g.a  whale, 
shark,  elc  (Gen.  i,  2t ;  Job  vii,  12;  Isa.  xxvii.  I;  Psa. 
cxlviii,  7);  (2)  a  (nrinir,  either  in  genetal  (Exod.  vii, 
9-12;  Deut.  xxxii,  S3;  Psa.  xci,  13),  or  speciallv  a 
"dragon"  (Jer.  Ii,  34),  or  the  crocodift  (Psa.  Ixsir,  13), 


Iburiha  a 


'2  WHALE 

put  as  ■  aymbol  of  Egypt  (Eiek,  xxii,  8,  aoairdi^  M 
the  true  reading;  also  xiiii,  2).    See  Duuosl 

"  In  the  paaiages  when  acalea  and  feet  an  nietan 
edoatieloiiginglulhe  fan,  comaienI4IOn  have  shown  thai 
the  crocodile  ia  intend^,  which  then  u  sinooyaaa 
with  the  leviathan;  and  they  have  eodeavond  alaiii* 
demonstrate,  where  laaaa  draw  tlie  diagi  lo  lucUe 
their  young,  that  aeala  are  meant,  although  enaats 
nuuriib  Ibeira  in  a  similar  manner.  It  may  be  d«U- 
eil  whether  in  most  of  the  cases  the  poetical  dictisa 
piHnta  absolutely  to  any  spedSe  anioial,  particalarij 
aa  there  ia  more  force  and  grindeor  in  a  gtonahii^ 
and  collective  image  of  the  huge  moosteis  of  the  dap, 
not  inapprupriately  ao  cailcd,  Ihau  in  Ibe  ratnctioa  it 
any  one  spedcB,  since  all  are  in  Uen.  i.  K  made  silaci- 
ively  subservient  to  the  supremacy  of  man.  But  crit- 
icism is  atill  more  inspproptiale  when,  not  ooaicaiai 
with  pointing  lo  aome  assumed  apedea,  it  altempUD 
ralionslixfl  miraculous  evenia  by  auch  ■rgumenci;  ■ 
in  the  case  of  Jonah,  when  Ihe  fad  of  whaka  hsriif 
a  small  gullet  and  not  being  found  in  the  Uediieni- 
nean  is  adduced  lo  prove  that  Ihe  hug*  Hah  3^,iSf. 
was  not  a  cetacean,  but  a  shark!  Now,  if  tbe  leu  It 
literally  taken,  Ihe  transaction  is  plainly  mirankw 
■nd  no  longer  within  ihe  sphere  of  loolugical  disoa- 
aion;  and  if  it  be  allrguricai,  as  some,  we  think,  con- 
neously  assume,  then,  whether  the  prophet  waa  atrtd 

tieal  account  of  initiation  where  Ihc  iwophiia  vh de- 
tained three  days  in  an  ark  or  lx>at  figuratively  dois^ 
insted  a  fish,  or  Oltic  iieaiK,  the  transacttua  ii  cqiall; 
indetenninate;  and  il  assuredly  would  be  demgiiiB|[ 
from  Ihe  high  dignity  of  the  prvpbet*s  misaian  id  cd^ 
vert  Ihe  event  iuli>  a  mere  e»ca|ie  by  boat  «  into  *  ;•- 
gan  legend  such  as  Hercules,  Bacchus,  Jemabld.  lal 
other  dpiAed  hemes  of  the  remotest  aniiquicy  air  Is- 
bled  to  have  undergone,  and  which  all  Ibe  aticinit  anv 
terieSiinduding  the  Uruidical,  lymbnliied.  It  mar  bi 
observed,  besides,  of  celaceoua  anunala  tbat,iboaKb  ka 
frequent  in  the  Mediterranean  than  in  the  ocean,  thei 
are  far  from  being  unknown  there.  Joppa.  imw  itb, 
the  veiy  place  whence  Jonah  set  sail,  displayed  lotifB 
in  one  of  ita  pagan  temples  huge  bones  of  a  apecia  st 
whale,  which  tbe  legends  of  ihe  place  pmeiHM  wcr 
Iboae  of  the  dragon  monster  slain  by  Perseus,  is  lep- 
resenieil  in  the  Arkite  mylhua  of  that  faen>  and  As- 
dromeda,  ami  which  remained  in  that  spot  till  tbe  am- 
qucring  Rumana  carried  them  in  triumph  to  the  grm 
ciiy.  Froci^iuB  mentiotn  a  huge  sea-RKmater  in  ik 
Proponlis,  taken  during  his  pmfeclure  of  GHUtautiio- 
ple,  in  the  BSth  year  of  JustinUn  (A.D.  G63),  aAw  bs" 
ing  desimyed  vessels  at  certain  inlervala  for  nHre  tba 
flfty  yearSi  Rondoletiui  enumtralea  aeveiml  wbik) 
stranded  or  taken  on  the  -coaala  of  Ibe  Hcditerraoe*: 
tliese  were  most  likdy  all  onni,  pkftrtrrt,  ot  coafr- 
doliot,  L  e.  toothed  whales,  as  large  and  mote  iHct 
than  the  otjiaticrM,  which  have  balein  in  tbe  mmtk 
and  at  pieaent  verj'  rarely  make  their  way  totbai 
south  than  the  Bay  of  Biscay:  though  in  eariy  tioasii 
probable  they  visited  the  Mediterranean,  aaoee  ikiy 
ive  been  seen  within  tbe  tropics^  In  tbe  "Ij  rial  sta. 
the  Belgian  pilgrim  I^vaen,  on  bia  paaaag«  fnim  HsK 
Palestine,  incidentally  mentiona  a  'Tiwynviidk 

1  he  further  denominates  an  'nl-Ssb,'  lonqter  tbs 
the  vessel,  leisurely  swimming  aloog.  and  which  tkt 

in  said  pn^nosticaled  bail  weather.  On  the  i^ 
and  of  Zerbi,  dose  to  the  African  coati,  th«  l>te  C^ 

ei  Davies,  RN.,  found  the  bones  of  ■  ckIuIsS  « 

n  length  stranded  at  Algiers;   and  the  late  ii- 

Rosa  Donelly  saw  one  in  the  Mediienaoeaa  ■« 

Ihe  island  of  Albaran.     There  are,  bcsiiles,  iuumh' 

sharks  of  tbe  largest  species  in  the  seas  oT  tbe  Leias- 

id  al»  in  tbe  Araluan  tiulf  and  Red  Sea,  ■•  w*0  aa 

lacea,  of  which  Balatin  tilam  is  tbe  largcat  in  ihHf 

aa,  and  two  apeciea  of  Aaiimn  or  di^oty,  which  M 


btrbivarmu  uiimali,  inlcmwdutc  between  whiles  ■»■ 

"Hucb  criticism  lua  been  expended  on  the  *mpt- 
unl  account  of  Jonah  being  ewallowed  by  ■  Urge  Aah ; 
il  iiaa  been  Tuiouily  underMood  as  ■  lilenl  LranMCIinn, 
■  in  CDlire  Action  or  in  allegor}',  a>  a  piieiial  myihui 
H  I  panUe.  With  regard  to  the  remarlia  of  thoee 
vrilen  who  groupd  their  ulijeclionB  upon  the  denial  of 
■nrade,  it  a  obviona  that  ihii  ia  nut  ihe  place  Air  di>- 
Miaon  ;  tlie  queation  of  Joiiab  in  the  tiah's  belly  will 
ihire  the  unie  (ate  oi  any  other  miracle  recorded  ia 
■be  Old  Ten.  (See  MenlciMein,  Dt  Paee  gai  Jonam 
Itnoranl  [VHemb.  17UoJ.)  The  reader  will  And  in 
Boeeomtlilec's  Prolfgowmu  leverBl  itumpta  hy  various 
writers  to  explain  the  Mripturd  narrative,  none  of 
vhicb,  however,  hare  anything  to  recommend  them, 
unleea  it  be  in  aome  cuca  Ihe  ingenuity  of  the  authon, 
aueh  w,  fur  instance,  that  of  Godfrey  Leea,  who  wp- 
powd  that  the  ■  Sah '  waa  no  animal  at  all,  but  a  ihip 
with  the  flgure  uf  a  Bih  painted  on  the  atem,  inti> 
wbicfa  Jonah  wax  received  aUla  he  had  been  caat  nut 
of  hia  own  vmmII  Equally  curioua  ia  the  explana- 
tion of  (i.C  Anton,  whn  endeavored  to  aolve  the  diffi- 
culty bj' aupjiosinf;  thatjaat  ai  the  pmphetwas  thrown 
into  the  water,  the  dead  carcaH  of  some  large  Hah 
Boated  by,  inln  the  belly  of  which  he  oontriveil  to 
gel.  and  thai  Ihni  he  waa  drifled  lo  the  ahore  I  The 
opinion  of  RosenmUller,  that  the  whole  account  ia  found- 
ed on  the  I'hcenician  fable  nt  Hercute*  devoared  by  a 
sea-monaleT  (ent  by  NepluM  (Lycophmn,  CanMntd.  33), 
although  awKlinnetl  by  GeMni us,  Winer,  Kwald,  and 
other  (iennan  wrilera,  i*  oppnaed  to  all  aound  principles 
of  Biblical  ex^esii.  It  will  be  our  purpose  to  conaidct 
what  portion  of  the  occurrence  panaliea  of  a  natural 
and  what  of  ■  miracoloua  nature.  In  tbe  first  place, 
■hen,  it  ia  necewarv  lo  obaerve  that  the  Greek  word 
x^7-o(,  uaed  by  Matthew,  is  not  reatrieled  in  ila  mean- 
n;  like  the  Latin 


nay  den. 


moiisBi»'(BeeAthen.p.303b[ed.Dindurri.  (MyKxii, 
97;  IT,  14«,  *b2;  Iliad,  xx,  147).  Although  two  or 
tbiee  (pedes  of  whale  are  found  in  tbe  Mediterranean 
Sea,  yet  the  'great  fith'  that  ewallnwed  (he  pmphet 
cannot  properly  be  identided  uiili  any  cetacean,  fur,  al- 
Ihoogh  Ihe  sperm-whale  (Oiforfon  macrarrjikiiliu')  haa 
a  gullet  aulHcienlly  large  lo  admit  the  body  of  a  man, 
yet  it  can  hardly  be  the  Aah  inlended ;  aa  the  naliiral 
iiHMl  oTcetaceanaconsista  of  small  animali,  sucb  aa  me- 
diias  and  cniilacea.  Nor,  again,  can  we  agree  with 
biabop  Jebb  {Bacrrd  /.ileralHrr,  p.  178, 179)  that  the 
KoAia  of  the  Greek  Teat,  denotes  the  back  portion  of  a 
whale's  monih,  in  the  cavity  of  which  the  prophet  waa 
ennccaled;  fur  the  whole  passage  in  Jonah  is  clearly  op- 
posed lo  auch  an  inlerpreistion.  The  only  fish,  Ihen,  ca- 
pable of  swallowing  k  man  would  be  a  large  apccimen  of 
the  nhlte  shark  (Careiariai  i^lgtiiii),  that  dreaded  en- 
entr  of  sailors,  and  the  moat  voracious  of  the  family  of 
Sqvalida.  This  ahirk,  which  aomelimes  atlaina  the 
length  of  thirty  feel,  is  quite  able  lo  swallow  a  man 
whole.   Some  commentators  are  aceplical  on  this  point. 


vellera  in  proof  of  this  as- 


uld,  h 
irritings  of  anlbon  ai 

aenion;  we  confine  onrseivea  lo  two  or  inr™  exirscia. 
The  shark  '  haa  a  lai^  gullet,  and  in  the  belly  of  it  are 
aomPtimes  found  the  bodies  of  men  half  eaten  ;  snme- 
[imea  wMe  and  aUin'  (.VriUre  Ditplagrd,  iii,  140). 
But  lest  the  abbd  Phicbe  should  nol  be  conaidered  euf- 
Scienl  authority,  we  give  a  quotation  from  Mr.  Couch's 
rcccot  publication,  A  Hitlnry  .-/Ihe  Fiiha  of  Ike  Briliih 
f^tnti'.  Speaking  of  white  sharka,  thia  author,  who 
)!■■  paid  much  attention  to  the  habila  of  tish,  slates  that 
they  nsually  cut  asunder  any  object  of  considerable 
dze  andlhua  awallow  it;  but  if  they  find  a  dlfficuliy  in 
loing  Ibis,  there  is  no  hesitation  in  paadng  into  the 
xnniach  even  what '  ' 
nai  ion  of  ibe  Jaw*  i 


S  WHATCOAT 

bat  little  difflculty.'  Ruysch  sai-s  that  the  whole  body 
of  a  man  in  armor  (forKo/ui)  haa  been  found  in  the 
alomach  of  a  white  shark ;  uid  Captain  King,  in  his 
^Sttrcvy  n/J  utrra/ia,aaya  he  had  caught  one  which  could 
have  swallowed  a  man  with  the  greatest  ease.  Ku- 
menbach  mentiona  that  a  whole  horse  has  been  foand 
in  a  shark,  and  Captain  Basil  Hall  reports  the  uking 
of  one  in  which,  besides  other  things,  he  liiond  tlrf 
whole  akin  of  a  buffalo  which  a  short  time  before  had 
been  thrown  overboard  from  hia  ship  (i,JT).  Dr.  Baird, 
ofthefiriliah  Huaeum  iVy^<p.ofSiil.Satnen,^h\K). 
sayathat  in  Ihe  river  Hooghly,  below  Cah;utta,he  bad 
seen  a  white  shark  awallow  a  bullock'a  head  and  homa 
entire, and  bespeaks  also  of  a  shark's  mouth  being 'snf- 
Itcienlly  wide  lo  receive  Ihe  body  of  a  man,"  Wherever, 
tlieiefure  the  Tarahiih,  to  which  Jonah'a  ship  waa  bound, 
was  ailuated,  whether  in  Spain  or  in  Cilicia  or  in  Cey- 
lon, it  is  certain  that  Ihe  common  while  shark  might 
have  been  seen  on  the  voyage.  The  C  valgaru  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean;  it  occurs,  aa  Ponkll 
(Dmripl.  Ammol.  p.  SO)  assures  us,  in  the  Arabian  Uulf, 
and  is  common  also  in  Ihe  Indian  Ocean.  So  far  for  the 
laliiral  portion  of  the  subject.  Bui  how  Jonah  could 
have  been  swallowed  nhole  miAiirr.  or  how  he  could 

possible  lo  explain  by  simply  natural  causes.  Certain- 
ly Ihe  preservation  of  Jnnah  in  a  fish's  belly  is  not  more 
remarkable  than  that  of  Ihe  three  children  in  the  midat 
of  Nebuchadnezzar's  *  burning  Mcry  famac&'  Naluial-- 
ists  ha^'e  recorded  that  aharka  hare  the  haUt  of  throw- 
ing op  again  whole  and  alive  the  prev  the*  have  seized. 
(see  Conch's  /Oil.  of  Fiiha,  i,  BS).  'I  have  henrd,'  says- 
Hr.  Darwin,  ■  from  Dr.  Allen  of  Forres,  that  he  has  fre- 
queiilly  found  a  UJodon  floating  alive  and  distended  in 
the  stomach  of  a  shark ;  and  that  on  several  occasions- 
he  has  known  it  eat  its  way  out,  not  only  through  tbe 
coals  of  the  stomach,  but  through  the  tides  of  the  moo. 
aur,  which  haa  been  thus  killed.'" 

'WlMtl«7,  Richard  Chapfix,  D.D.,  a  Church  of 
England  divine,  was  bom  in  1749.  He  received  a  au- 
peiior  education;  displayed  a  passionate  love  for  the- 
fine  arts  in  his  youth ;  travelled  extensively  in  Italyj* 
and  finally  returned  home,  given  much  to  scepticism. 
He  became  convened,  however,  soon  after,  and  took  or> 


He  I 


veiled  ii 


e  miiiislerial  nSc«  at' 
Horsington,  where  be  continoed  to  reside  and  uRiciale 
for  thirteen  year*.  Through  Ihe  school  of  affliction, 
in  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  child,  his  religious  knowl- 
edge and  character  were  deepened  and  perfected.  He- 
died  Nov.  17, 1816.   See  Ckriiliaa  Guardian,  18i7,p.  1,49. 

'Wliarton,  Ckarlks  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Ejat- 
ciipal  clergyman,  was  bom  in  Harykand,  May  '2o,  1748. 
At  Ihe  age  of  twelve  he  was  sent  to'  the  English  (>>lkga 
of  St.  Omer'a,  where  hewiu  educated  a  Roman  Catholic.' 
Liille  is  known  from  this  till  his  ordination  in  1773;. 
except  that  be  was  a  teacher  of  mathematics  for  some 
lime  at  Liege.  In  1783  he  retiimeil  to  America;  and  in 
(785  was  rector  of  Immannel  Church,  Newcastle.  Del. 
Subeequentlvhewasconncctcdwiih  the  Swedish  Church' 
at  Wilmington.  In  1708  he  served  St.  Mary's,  Burling- 
ton, where  he  continued  for  upwards  iif  thirty-five  years,, 
with  great  usefulness;  and  in  1801  be  became  pnaident 
of  Columbia  College,  N.r.  He  died  July  23, 18B3.  Ser 
Sprague,  A  malt  ofthi  A  mer.  Falpil,  v,  3S&. 

'%l7hatC0at,  Ricitaiih,  a  iHshop  of  the  Hethndist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Quinlon,  Gloucesierahiro, 
England,  Feb.  33,  1736.  He  enjoyed  the  influencea  of 
an  early  religioua  edualion;  was  convened  Sept.  S, 
1758;  and  was  immediately  placed  in  official  posiliona 
by  the  society  at  Wedricsbiiiy,  where  he  resided.     In 

nection  nf  Weslevan  Methodist  preachera,  then  under 
the  superinl#n<lence  of  Mr.  Wesley.  He  preached  ex- 
tensivelv  through  England,  Ire1and,and  Ihe  principalitv 
oTWaln;  and  was  selected  by  Mr.  Wetley  to  «d  i- 


WHATCOAT  9 

OTgaiilEatlon  of  Che  Methodiat  Episcopal  Church  in  Anier- 
iob  He  wiB  unlaiueil  ill  Seplember,  1784,byJobn  W«b- 
Icy,  aKuaUd  by  Dr.  Cuke  lud  Mr.  CrcigliEun,  u  deacon 
and  eiJcr :  biiiI,  accmnpsiiyiiig  Dr.  Cuke,  laniled  in  Amct- 
icaNov.8,  i7S4.  Frooi  the  arganiutiun  ofuurCburch 
■t  the  CbriBtcnis  Conrercnce  until  liia  electioa  to  the 
office  or  a  biehop,  he  JLschaiged,  with  the  exception  n( 
three  years,  rhe  duties  of  preuiling  eliler,  "which,  in 
Ihiwe  lUys  especially,  rcquireil  laUnii  and  privatimii  of 
no  onliitary  character,  aa  Ixith  the  iliuricta  and  circuits 
were  large,  the  people  in  geiteral  poor,  anil  the  calls  Tor 
preaching  numeroiiB  and  orteii  Car  apart,"  At  the  lien- 
eral  Conference  in  May,  1800,  such  was  the  bealtb  of 
bishop  Asbury  that  be  thnuglil  of  resigningi  but  the 
Confereiice.in  unler  ii>  relie re  him,  elected  bishi 


y  of  fo 


ErJe« 


Lee. 


citement  attending  the  diOerent  ballatinf^  The  Srat, 
no  election;  the  second,  a  tie;  the  third,  Kicbard  What- 

mentary  view  of  Che  ordination  Sabbath.  "Suuday, 
the  18ih,  was  ■  great  day  in  Ualtimore  among  the 
Methudieti.  The  ordinalion  semion  was  preachcil  by 
Rev.  ThonuB  Coke,  LL.D.,  in  Light  Street  Church. 
Cronila  at  an  early  hour  ihmngeil  the  tetnple.  The 
doctor  preached  from  Kev.  ii,  8:  'And  unto  Ifae  angel 
of  the  church  in  Smynia  write.  These  ihiiiga  aaith  tbe 
flrac  awl  the  last,  which  was  dead,  and  is  alive,'  etc. 

Bichard  Whaicoat  was  onlaiiied  a  bishop  in  the  Church 
of  (iud  by  the  impoaition  of  ihe  haiula  of  Dr.  Culte  and 
bishop  Afloury,  aasisted  by  several  elders  Never  were 
boliet  bands  laid  upon  a  holier  head.  In  those  days 
we  went '  out  into  Che  highwaya  anil  hedges  and  com- 
pelled them  to  eome  in,'  That  afternoon  Je»«  Lee 
preachcil  in  the  market-house,  on  Howard's  Hill,  from 
John  xvli.S:  'And  tbis  is  life  eternal,  that  they  might 
know  thee  the  only  true  God,  and  Jesus  Christ,  wliam 
thou  hast  sent.'  The  Lord  was  there  in  a  powerful 
manner!  several  were  converted."  Fnim  the  time  of 
bis  election  aa  bishop  until  he  was  disabled  by  sickness 
and  debility,  he  travelled  regularly  through  his  vast  di- 
ocese, which  extended  over  the  entire  eonlinen I,  preach- 
ing almost  evety  day  to  the  people,  visiting  the  annual 
eonfe fences,  sometimes  in  company  with  his  venerable 
'Colleogiie,biBh(q>  Asbury,  and  sometimes  alone, discharg- 
ing his  re^wnsible  diiiiea  with  nurkeil  satisfaction  lo 
•II  concerned.  In  1806  he  met  the  Ualtimore  Cunfer- 
«nce  in  company  with  biafanp  Aabary,  and  at  the  ad- 
journment of  Conference  travelled  through  Ihe  eastern 
shore  of  Maryland  towanls  ['hilsdelphia.  His  last  ser- 
mon was  preacheil  in  Hiironl.  IX'l.,on  AprUS.  He  had 
"  finished  his  uxth  episcopal  tour  through' the  work  af- 
ter his  consecration,"  sat-a  Ur.  1'h<ebll^  his  biographer, 
"or  near  that;  and, after  great  sulTering,  he  got  an  hon- 
orable discharge  from  the  Captain  of  his  salvation,  and 
by  his  iiermissiun  came  in  from  his  post  which  he  had 
faithfully  kept  fur  flfty  yean."  He  took  refuge  at  the 
home  of  senator  Baaeell,  Dover,  Del,  where  he  died, "  in 
the  full  assurance  of  faith,"  Julv  b,  1806.  He  was  bur- 
ied under  the  alUr  of  Wesley  Chapel,  in  Che  oniskins 
of  Dover.  Bishop  Asbiii?-,  some  lime  alW  his  death, 
visiting  the  place  of  his  scpuUure,  preached  his  funeral 
Kmion  from  2  llm.  iii,  10.  In  Ihe  coune  of  his  sermon 
be  declared  that  such  was  his  unabated  charity,  his  ar- 
dent love  to  Uod  and  man,  his  patience  and  rerignution 
amid  the  unavindable  ills  of  life,  that  be  always  exem- 
plified the  tempers  and  conduct  of  a  most  devoted  ser- 
vant of  Gixl  and  of  an  exemplary  Christian  minister, 
Kshop  Whatcoat  was.  not  a  man  of  deep  erudition  nor 
axtensive  sciencei  but  he  waa  ihomnghly  acquainted 
with  Wesleyan  theokigy,and  well  versed  in  all  the  va- 
rying systems  of  divinity.  As  a  preacher  his  discounes 
were  pUin,  instnicltve,  and  highly  spiritual.  His  dis- 
linguiriting  trucofcharaclerwasa  meekness  and  mo<l- 
rsty  of  spirit  which,  united  with  a  simplicity  of  inten- 
tion and  gravity  of  deportment,  com  meiided  him  to  all 


WHATELT 


as  a  pattern  worthy  of  their  imitation.  I^b«n  Oat 
said  of  him,  "  I  Chink  I  may  safely  aay,  if  I  ever  kser 
oue  who  cane  up  to  St.Jsmes'a  deicriiiliati  of  a  peiftn 
man — one  nbo  bridled  bis  tongue  and  kept  ii 
tion  his  wbole  body— that  man  was  bb ' 
See  Minylft  of  Annual  Con/trttKXt.  1867,'  p.  Ila;  .Ste- 
vens, //it/,  of  lit  M.E.  ChUTck,  ii,  157,  166,  16>k  l«t 
J84,  295, 196;  iii,  38,  76;  iv,  61,  IIS,  169,  ISJ.  »&  JUI; 
Bangs,//uf.0/r^if.£.Cjlura(,i>,93,l»t,l86:ll<Kkn 
lUi«imKn>at,  p.  ib ;  Phcebus,  MtHoiri  ofBiiiop  Wk-O- 
c««,elc.  (U.  Y.  18-28),  p.  101.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Wbately,  KicitAou,  D.D.,  an  etDinent  Jagitm 
prelate  ami  writer,  was  bom  in  Cavcndiah  SgoarcLn*- 
don,  Feb.  1,1787.  His  father  was  the  Rev.  J.  Whaldr. 
DD.,  prebendary  of  Briscd  Cathedral,  and  prapiiruri^ 
Nonsuch  Park,  SuOUk,  whose  brother,  ThoiDM  Hluie- 
ly,  the  private  secretary  to  loril  Suffolk,  wai  the  aoltn 

SomnflktCknrattirinfShakKptitrr^  llisaxKhnvs) 
a  daughter  of  \V.  Plummet.  Esq.,  of  Wan  Park,  in  HbI- 
fordshirc-  He  wan  carefully  educated,  chiefly  In  pri- 
vate, at  Nonsuch  Harli,  and  early  entered  Oriel  OJkp 
as  a  commoner,  under  the  tutorship  of  Dr.  E.  CoiifeMii. 
then  head  of  the  college,  and  afterwarda  tnshop  of 
LUndalf  (1776-1849).  From  public  lectnra,  ivinii 
conversatiou,  and  personal  study,  Whately  aeqaiRd  ■ 
reputation  as  asouni!  thinker.  Uis  active,  ingeniua^  sod 
fertile  mind  found  scope  in  the  university  studies:  and  ii 
the  stir  of  rcclesiaacical  politics,!  lien  "Bounding  as  itvii 
dim  and  perilous  way"  towards  Tract ariani«m,  he  ktfi 
a  heedful  and  safe  course.  Ac  the  Uicbaelmas  tern  ■ 
1808  be  graduated  as  A.a,  taking  a  second-das  a  1^ 
ru  hturutmoi^VtuM  and  in  dUeiptifOM  mtitkemttHr^  ^^%~ 
tica,  when  the  late  Sir  B.  Feel  went  up  from  Chni 
Church  and  came  out  in  both  the  only  lint-dan  »m 
of  his  year.  In  1810  Whately  gained' the  chaBcdkf'i 
(lord  William  Wvndham  GrenvilleV)  piiie  of  £S0  !•• 
the  best  English  essay  on  Wial  art  Ike  am  u  lir  o^ 
'■iHiIion  of  wkiA  tht  modtrut  hiicr  brot  Utt  tanrt^tt 
IkuH  Ike  aiaiailtt  In  1811  he  was  choaen  ooe  of  tbe 
eighteen  fellows  of  Oriel  College,  graduated  oa  AJL  a 
W\i,  anil  then  began  to  act  as  tutor  in  his  colk^e.  n 
which  office,  by  his  felicitous  style  of  tMchina,  be  f«-  I 
dnced  nture  fiiM-cUss  graduates  than  any  otbcf  taisr 
of  his  dav.  ' 

In  1818  Whately  eon Iri but ed  bia  anide  oo  Jj^icts 
the  Encgdopadiu  Mrtrapotilaiia,  To  tbe  aanw  mrt 
he  also  contributed  the  original  ontlina  of  hia  /Am/ia 
of  Rkttoric.  These  writings  wete  too  important  snl 
useful  to  be  kept  shut  up  in  the  huge  misoellaBy  ni 
learning  in  which  tbey  at  first  appearcH.  and  nen.  ■ 
urgent  demand,  republisheil  in  1825.  llie  foniKT.  ig 
which,  as  the  iote  Pnif.  Spalding  said,  he  ~  has  «- 
pouiideil  Ihe  Aristotelian  or  syllogistic  logic  u-ith  li- 
mirable  deamess  and  method,  and  illustraCoi  it  will 
characteristic  sagacity,"  was  seveirly  commented  aps 
by  5Ur  (i.  C  Lewis,  by  George  Bern  bam,  nephew  of  tte 
philosopher  of  Westminster,  and  nnlalily  by  Sir  V. 
Hamilton  in  his  paper  (Babaequentlv  repnlilished  i  * 
the  EdMmrgk  Rtcinn  for  April,  1833.  ¥.nn  lir  itw* 
opponents  it  is  admitted  that  "a  new  life  was  aaddFsl' 
communicaleil  lo  the  study"  of  logic  bi-  the  paUics- 
tion  of  this  work  i  and  we  ntav  safely  trust  tbe  iltcnia 
of  .lohn  S.  Uill,  cbat  in  It  the  studenc  will  find  *UKi 
with  philosophical  precision,  and  explained  with  n- 
markable  perspicuity,  the  whole  of  the  cminDn  da- 
trine  of  Ihe  "ayllogUm."  The  latter  work.  tiMi  » 
RAtloi-ie,  wtt  immediately  accepted  as  a  text-buA 
De  Qiiincey  early  acknowleilged  "the  acuteneaa  M 
originaliry  which  illuminate  every  pott  nf  tbc  hetk.' 
and  asserted  that  "in  any  elementary  work  it  baa  m 
been  our  liirtune  tn  witnesa  a  rartr  combinadun  ni  au- 
lytical  aeutcness  with  severity  of  judgiDetn.**  la  lUf 
Whately  issued  anonymously  his  ingeniously  |*vmw  !•«■ 
ical  satire  on  acepticisiD,  enlilled  Hiilaric  Uatitn  As» 
tin  lo  Ikt  txiUoies  ofNopotton  Bomtparlt.  In  tSS 
appeared  bia  Aonytoi  Ijourrf,  on  71b  Tw  mJ  Aim 


ofParlif  Ftdins  w  Rttigiem.  This  subject  ii  tiemUd 
wjlb  delicacy,  ducriniiaalHin,  aiiil  liberslii}-,  and  Clic 
■erira  h>*  l>e«n  rra|utaily  reiaauHl. 

Meuiwhile  Wbaul;  became  by  mirriagr, 


i"  of  0 


Hii 


wu  a  daughur  uf  Wm.  Pope,  £a(|.,or  Hillingdoii,  Uid- 
iUhwi,  a  laily  ot  taleiiC,  tuLe,  acctimplialiDieiiti,  and  lit- 
erary capacity.  Shorily  artec  Ijia  marnage  he  accepted 
the  nclonhip  onialetwonli,  witli  llie  vicarage  of  Cbed- 
iMoii,  deaperv  ot  Dunwich,  in  ihe  ItlycbiiiR  Hundml 
or  Su&blk.  in  l»io  WhaLely  aucccedeil  Peter  Klmatey 
■a  priDCipal  of  ScAlban's  MalL  HU  iMgit  and  Hint- 
oric  nere  ihen  republuhcil  aa  separale  and  independent 
worka.  In  1828  he  published  bia  tiuagi  on  Same  aflkt 
Diffieubia  in  lit  WHiaigi  «/  Ihe  ApafUr  Paul,  which 
had  been  preceded  by  a  Hneg  on  Some  oflht  Preuliiir- 
ilirt  <if  Ikt  Chiiition  Heligioii,  and  were  aucceeded  by 
Tlu  Krrort  o/Romtimlm  Aapiivf  tkrir  Origin  ia  t/unum 

iioued  by  Mr.  Fellawe8,ur  Ludgale  Mill,  bimielf  a  mia- 
oellaneou*  writer.  This  book  waa  made  the  occasion 
ofa  prcaecutiun  for  alamp^uty,  to  which  all  publicationa 
excejit  booka  or  pisly  and  dcTolion  were  then  liable. 
The  publisher  waaAiiedXSO,  and,  on  temonatrancv  that 
the  biwk  was  within  (he  protection  ut  llie  statute  anent 
"piely  and  devotion,"  be  was  answered  Ibat  It  was 
rather  (he  contrary,  because  Mr,  Whalely  cautroverts 
(he  Uoaaic  law,  and  inculcates  that  ne  may  da  just  the 
aame  on  Sabbaths  u  on  other  daya."  Several  series  o( 
£f >'no»,  C^iv^i,  and  Traeti  were  published  in  18S0, 
1833,  and  1336.  In  1831  earl  lirey,  then  premier,  pro- 
innieil  the  logician,  Iheolo);ian,  and  politician  ot  St.  Al- 
ban's  Hal)  to  ihe  primacy  of  licUmL  'I'he  appi'intment 
wan  at  Gfst  the  occasion  of  niuch  animadversion.  Sus- 
picion waa  sown  in  the  minda  uf  the  clerg}-,  and  dialike 
was  shown  iu  their  conduct.  But  Wbately's  honest 
impartiality  disarmed  hostility,  and  he  soon  trained  the 
hearts  of  clergy  and  people.  Bishop  Copleslvn  said, 
Whalel.v  "accepted  the  atduous  station  proposed  tu 
him  purely,  I  believe,  from  public  spirit  and  ■  senile 
of  duty.  Wealth  and  honor  and  title  and  ponet  have 
no  charm  (or  him.  He  has  great  energy  and  iiiirepid- 
ity;  a  hanlthnoil  which  euatains  him  against  obloqny 
when  he  knows  he  is  discharging  a  duty;  and  he  is 
generous  and  disinterested  almost  to  a  fault.  Hia  en- 
lariced  views,  his  aincerit.v,  and  hia  freedom  from  preju- 
dice are  mnnt  than  a  compensation  for  bis  want  of  con- 
ciliating manner."  The  labors  of  the  episcopate,  great 
as  Ihey  were,"  could  not  exhrnut  his  power  of  work- 
ing, in  I6'28  he  had  coniiH'sed  a  paper  on  Trara- 
pnrralioH,  in  which  he  argueil  agaiiiat  convict  colonics; 
He  followed  tbis  up  iu  18»2  with  TkovghU  o»  Stcmdaiy 
Pimitiiiietili,  and  in  1884  with  Rrmarla  m  Trmajiorta- 
tioa.  In  these  he  had  "  the  diaiinguisheil  honor,"  says 
Henry  Ko;;er»,"or  being  the  Hrtt  who  ireitnl  the  sub- 
ject comprehensively,  or  who  succeeded  in  exciting  any 
eonaidetaUe  degree  of  attention  to  it."  In  the  parlia- 
mentary report  on  this  topic  in  1838  nearly  all  the  opin* 
inna  of  archUsbop  Whately  were  adopted,  and  the  car- 
rring-out  of  hia  principles  wi 


.  of  the 


of  CI 


all  his  armpathiea.  The  caiiae  of  national  ednestian 
was  advocated  by  him  with  force  and  pertinacity,  and 
cbieSy  Ihmncli  hia  sagacity  the  national  schools  of  Ire- 
land, under  Ihe  oommiaaionera  of  education,  were  placed 
un  a  workable  and  useful  foundation.  For  these  schools 
(in  particular)  he  composed  several  treatises;  anions 
others,  bis  able  little  work,  £ui<y  ^moiu  oh  Rriamviii, 
aa  well  aa  those  on  Monry  Mallnti  StoraU;  Miait; 
and  flriliiA  Conililalion.  For  schoisatic  purposes,  too, 
he  wrote  fur  the  Society  for  PromoliiifjCbrislinii  Knowl- 
adge  hia  candid  Ijomi  m  Ihe  lliilory  nf  Rilinioiii 
Wonhip,  and  his  simple  yet  effective  Lrttom  on  C'hrii- 
tiaa  A'cii/nKU— the  former  of  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  and  luiian,  and  the  latter  not  only 
into  these  two  tongues,  but  alao  into  Spanish,  Swedish, 
tieroun,  (ireek,  and  Hebrew.     Ej^analiata  o/lit  Bi- 


5  WHEAT 

He  and  Prayer-book  and  Lectures  on  Praytr  may  also 
be  regarded  as  addiUons  to  the  educational  riperlain. 
During  the  years  1M33-41  the  Tiadt  for  Ihe  Timet 
were  issued,  and  fur  some  yean  after  Tractariaiiism  was 
active  and  inHuentlal  in  the  Cburcb  and  in  llie  nniver- 
sily.  Tbe  mu>'ement  reached  its  crisis  about  1843- 
1&  in  Ihe  withdrawal  from  the  English  communion  of 
Ihe  author  of  Tract  90— Dr.  J.  H.  Newman— and  several 
others.  Newman  had  been  a  friend  of  Whately'a,  and 
hod  ''actually  composed  a  considerable  portion,"  and 
was  "the  original  author  of  seveial  pages,"  of  Whately's 
famous  work  on  Z,<i^"as  it  now  stands."  YetWhaie- 
ly  did  not  shrink  from  duty  at  the  call  ot  friendship, 
but  produced,  as  occasion  seemed  to  demanil,  his  qnlel, 
lucid,  logical,  and  pithy  Caaliont  for  Ihe  Timet,  and 
with  more  special  reference  to  the  material  doctrines 
and  theories  invidveil  in  tbe  hurricane  of  controversy 
with  which  the  Chureh  was  assailed,  he  issued  in  1841 
a  truly  admirable  work.  The  Kingdom  of  Chi-iil  I)r- 
linralrd.  In  bis  Chan/e  in  1848  he  characterixea  the 
prevailing  opinions  on  subscription  in  a  nun-natnral 
sense  as  "dangerous,  disgraceful,  and  niinnni."  Cog- 
nate lopicsoceupv  his  charge  for  IS44.enritIed  Thmgkit 
un  Church  Gorermaenl ;  for  1846,  im  The  Dai's"-  <•/ 
Dicitioiu  uiilhia  the  Charehi  for  1851,  on  ProtecHte 
Meantrn  on  Behalf -f  Ihe  Eilablitked  Church.  The 
Maynooth  question  is  reviewed  in  Refintlimtona  Grant 
Iu  a  RomuH  CathJit  Setinifiy,  a  charge  delivered  in 
1846.  On  the  failure  oflhc  potato  cropin  Ireland,  he 
issued  an  Arldreit  lo  Ihe  Cleij/s  ami  Other  Mtmbert  of 
Ike  Ettailithtd Church  on  Ihe  Vte  o«d  Abvte  ofihePrtf 
ent  Oceaiion  for  lie  Exereite  nf  Benerubnce ;  and  Ihe 
same  topic  occupied  him  in  1848,  when  he  gaveachari;e 
on  Tht  B^l  Vte  nf  National  AJHeli-m.  The  Trncta- 
rian  (h>ctriue  of  regeneration  called  from  him  in  1850  a 
chai^  on  loftml  Baplitm;  and  every  subsequent  year 
found  htm  holding  himself  breast  of  the  tide  of  specu- 
lative or  practical  difficulty,  and  able  to  leach  his  clergy 
to  "  buffet  it  aside  with  hearts  of  controversy."  AtVer 
the  conference  on  Christian  union,  held  at  Lirerpoid  in 
October,  1845,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance,  Whately,  early  in  1846,  iK'ueil 
Thoughlt  on  ihePn^ioted Kvamg^cai  AUia«ce,\niK\\K\i 
he  expressed  a  fear  ihat  it  would  become  an  orgaiiiixil 
intolerance,  or  occasion  a  surrender  of  truth  fur  the 
mete  sake  of  an  outward  unity;  and  "condemned  as 


theirownChurchauthorilies,"orthe  becoming  members 
of  those  combinations  when  set  up.  He  thus  continued 
active  in  literatnre  and  public  matters  of  importance 
until  his  death,  which  occuircil  at  Uiiljtin,Uct.8, 1863. 

Whately's  works  not  already  noticed  are  chiefly  Ihe 
fallowing:  hWodurlory  Lettont  on  Ihe  Btudiet  nf  SI. 
Pautt  Epitllei  (]M9'):—Sciplii/e  Reeelaliota  eoHcem- 
tag  Good  and  Kmt  Avgelt  (I8.>l); — EngiiiA  Sj/nnai/mt 
(cod.):— Aocon's  Kaagi,  ailh  Amalaliimi  (ISSfi):- 
£«n>rH  «■  Soiae  of  Ikt  Parnblrt  (1859):— !«*(,«  on 
Frager  (1860)  i—Tkoaghlt  on  (*(  Prnpoted  Reritimt  of 
Ihe  Lihu-gy  (end.):- .4  Geternl  View  of  ike  Rite.  I'l-ng. 
reitfOnd  Comiplioni  of  Cktittimiil^  (coil.) : — and  Mit- 
otlioHeout  I^lnrri  anil  Rerinei  (t»iil).  Since  his  il^ath 
two  volumes  of  Rrmaint  have  ap|iearvd.  His  I.ifi  and 
CorrttpoKleHce  (lBfi6, 2  vols.)  has  been  puUUhed  bv  liis 
daughter,  AIIm  £.  Jane  Wbately.  See  also  Hemairt 
(1804),  by  William  J.  Filipatrick. 

Wheat  (TOn,  CkiltaA  [for  n^m,  chiiU^A] ;  OmiA. 
plur.  'h''S)n.  chiHlia;  aiTof),  tbe  well-known  valuable 
cereal  cultivated  from  the  earlieai  times,  occurs  in  va- 
rious passages  orScriptuTe{Heb.Ueti.xxx,  14;  Exoil.ix, 
32i  xiix,!;  xxxiv,22;  I>eut.viii,8;  xxxii,14;  Jiidj:. 
vi,  II;  XT,  1;  Ruth  ii,  !3;  1  Sam.  vl,  18;  xii,  17;  2 
Sam.  iv,  6;  xvii,  39;  1  Kings  v,  II ;  t  Chren.  xxi,  30, 
28;  i  Chron.  ii,  10,  IB;  Kxvii,  b;  Jub  xxii,40:  Psa. 
Ixxxi,  IG;  cxItII,  14;  Canl.vii.S;  Isa.  xxvii'i,!a;  Jcr. 
xii,  18;  xli,8;  Eiek.ir,9;  sxrii,  17;  ill,  18;  Joel  i. 


I  j  Child.  Em  Ti,  9; 

ivi,  7;  xxii.ai;  Jobii  > 

ixvii,BS;  lCor.iv,a;i 

3;  Ecclu9.x 


iliEh 


23;  GiMk  Km.  Hi,  li; 
["com"!;  Luke  iii,  ITi 
l;A<;t«vii.l2["c»rD"l; 
.vi,G;  iriii,lB;  (boJu- 
).    tn  (h(  A.V.the  Hcb. 


vorda  bar  C^  at '^^,  Jet.  xxiii,  HI i  Joetii,24i  AmM 
v.llj  vui,6,6).Ai5di.0Jfl,Nunib.xviii,12;  J«,«ii, 
14),  rifHbkA  (nifi^,  Pcor.  xxTii,  M),  Wi  oeemion«lly 
tnn9lMed''vhutr  but  then  ii  do  duubc  ttut  the  prop- 
et  name  uf  thii  cereal,  u  dialinguiaheil  rrom  "  turley," 
"  9|>e1t,"  MC,  i*  cUC'fU  (nxn ;  Clidil.  -,'>??'7>  ctMm). 
Alio  tberoriDerHebrewlenni,K«uadetCi>ii>i.  There 
GUI  be  no  doubt  Ihtt  chillali,  by  Ume  wriiteu  ekiuki, 
duttftk,  ehath,  etc,  U  correctly  [runlued  "  wbeil,"  bma 
iti  cloee  meitibUnce  to  the  Anbic.u  nell  to  the  nemei 
of  irhut  in  olbrr  Unfjiugea.  CeUiuB  uys,  "  rtsn, 
di(rA(i,oceulUlo3inpuiKtodigCKh,prori33n,ctut(*<i, 
diciluT  ex  uau  Ebneorum."  Tlii*  brings  it  attll  nearer 
to  the  Arabic  name  of  wheat,  which  In  Homaii  eharae- 
ten  ii  viHoutl*  wrillen,  hinlih,  kinlkt,  IkkIo,  and  by 
Fempliui,  in  hia  tnnalitioo  of  Avicenna,  hkiiinha  ;  and 
under  Ihia  name  it  i>  dncribcd  hy  tbe  Aralnc  authon 
on  Uateria  Hedica.  Aa  the  Arabic  ha  ii  in  many  words 
convened  into  kko,  it  ie  evident  that  the  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  namea  of  wheat  are  the  aome,  eapecially  ai  the 
Hebrew  n  haa  the  guttural  sound.  DifTerent  deriva- 
(iona  have  been  giren  of  the  word  diUlah :  by  Celsius 
it  isderivedfrom"3in,  cAimii^protulit.pradniiit^rac- 
fuiii,  ex  Cant,  ii,  18 ;"  or  lite  Arabic  "  ckaaal,  rubuit,  qund 
irilicum  rubella  ait  colore"  (^Uia-eAol.  ii,  tl3).  'fhe 
Iranilator  of  the  Biblira!  BMavg  of  RiwenmuUer  Justly 
ubaervea  that "  lUe  simiUrity  in  mund  between  the  He- 
brew word  chilldh  and  the  English  wktal  u  obvioua. 
Be  it  remeniberHl  that  the  ch  here  is  idenlieal  in  lound 
with  the  Gaelic  guttural,  or  the  Spwilih  X.  It  is  fur- 
ther reoiariiable  that  the  Hebrew  term  ia  etyicologically 
cognate  with  the  wordt  for  wluat  used  by  every  noe  of 
the  Teutflnie  and  Scandinavian  nations  (thus  we  hare 
in  Icelandic.  A eeifi,'  Danish,  Acofa  i  Swediih.Jlerfe.'  Mn- 
to-Goth,  Avail* ;  Gemuin,  lOicca);  and  that,  in  thi>  in- 
stance, then  ia  no  resemblance  between  the  Scandina- 
vian and  Teutonic  terms,  and  the  Uieek,  Latin,  and  Sla- 
vonic (for  tbeCJretlt  word  is  ini(>iic;  the  Latln,/n(inn>- 

aiid  yet  Ihe  general  resemblance  between  the  SUvonic, 
the  TbraGian,andthe  Cothic  liiiguagea  ia  so  strong  that 

dl.  p.  T&).  KosenmUller  further  lemarks  tbst  in  Egypt 
and  in  Barbary  iumac*  is  the  usiul  naiuF  for  wheat  (quot- 
ing Z^ucrip.der^^jTifr.xi]!.  45;  H6st,^ccoaalq/'Jfar^ 
tvaiid»z,p.809);  and  also  that  in  Hebrew,  H^p,  t^ 
mack,  denotes  the  flour  of  wheat  (Gen.  ]iviii,e;  Numb. 
V,  IS).  This,  it  is  curious  ID  ol»erve,  is  not  very  unlike 
the  Indian  name  of  wheat,  tunuix     All  these  names  in- 

aa  well  as  point  lo  a  common  origin  of  wheat.  Thus 
in  his  Himixlojian  Bolaag,  Dr.  J.  F.  Ihiyle  haa  atated : 
"Wheat,  having  been  one  of  the  earliest -cultivated 
grains,  it  nMiat  probably  of  Asialie  oriciii,  as  no  doubt 
Asia  was  the  •arlieal-civiUied  as  well  as  the  fltst- 
IKOpled  couulry.  It  is  known  in  the  Arabs  under  the 
name  of  kialrh;  to  the  Pereian*  as  utmdim;  llindfl, 
i/rkiH  and  hanak.  'Itie  species  of  barley  cultivaled  in 
ihc  plains  of  India,  and  known  by  the  Htndfl  and  Per- 
sian name,^,  Arabic  niafr,  ia  lloumil  hexaerittthuBi. 
Aa  both  wheat  and  barley  are  cultivated  in  the  plains 
of  India  in  the  winter  montha,  where  none  of  the  ope- 
cies  of  these  genera  are  indigenous,  it  is  probable  that 
both  have  been  introduced  inl«  India  from  the  north, 
that  is,  from  the  I'ersian,  anrt  perhaps  from  the  Tarta- 
rian region,  where  these  and  other  species  of  barley  are 
moat  auccesffully  and  abundantly  cultivated"  (p.  419). 
Different  speciea  of  wheat  were  no  doubt  cultivated  by 


a  WHEAT 

the  aneinila,  aa  TViNnnreanpositiM  in  Egypt,  T.  tli- 
not,  T.  kibenam  in  Syria,  etc.;  but  hnlh  bailey  and 
wheat  are  too  well  known  to  require  further  ill 

Unch  has  been  written  on  tbe  aubfect  of  tbe  « 

ofwbeat.and  thequestiona]: 
It  is  said  that  the  Trilicum  eidgan  has  been  (ound  wiU 
in  some  parts  of  Persia  and  Siberia,  apparently  rennml 
from  the  influence  of  cullivaiton  (A'l^rfujt  C>e^>.T. 
"Triticum").  Again,  fium  tbe  experinieiits  uflLEifni 
Fabre  of  Agde,  it  would  seem  that  the  numerrw  varie- 
tiea  of  culiivflled  wheat  are  merely  improved  iranAr- 
nutiona  of  A^gUopt  otata  {Journal  t>f  rkt  Rajvl  Af- 
riaJl.  Soc.  No.  Si,  p.  1S7-IW).  H.  Fabre's  exptti- 
Bients,  however,  have  not  been  deemed  oondoBve  by 
some  botaniats  (see  an  interesting  paper  by  tbe  laie 
Prof.  Henfrey  in  No.  41  of  the  Joamii/ iiuoted  ^nie). 
Egypt  in  ancient  times  was  eekbratcd  {la  Ibe  gromb 
of  ila  wheat.  I'he  best  quality,  ocoording  to  FtioT 
{Sat.  Uiir.Jtviii,  7),wasgTownin  iheThebaid;  it  wii 
oil  beariled;  and  the  same  vatietiea,  Wilkinsun  wriia 
{-(«■.  Aijp/.  [ed.  18M],  ii,  Sfl),  -  e:»iaiBd  ill  Bicieni  as  b 
modem  times,  among  which  maybe  menlioned  the  sev- 
en-eared quality  described  in  I'haraob'a  dream'  (Gsl 
xli,  2!).  Thit  it  the  so-called  mnmmy-wlieu,  wbieh. 
it  has  been  said,  hii  germinated  alter  ihe  lofise  of  Ib«i- 
sanda  of  years;  but  it  it  now  known  that  the  wtmli 
thing  was  a  fraud.  Babylonia  was  aloo  noted  for  ihi 
excellence  of  its  wheat  and  other  eereaki  ""In  graia,' 
saj-t  Herodotus  (i,  198),  "  it  will  yield  oommooly  two- 
hundredfold,  and  at  iu  greatest  production  as  oinch  ai 
three-hundredfold.  The  bladen  of  tbe  wheat  and  bai- 
ley plants  are  often  four  flngen  brood."  But  this  is  a 
great  exaggeration  (see  also  TheopbrasI  us,  ^ul. /^nl, 
viii, ').  Modem  writers,  at  Cheoiey  and  Rich,  bear  lai. 
limony  lo  the  great  fertility  of  Mesopotamia.  Syria  «d 
Palestine  produced 
wheat  of  flne  quali- 
ty and  in  largeqnan- 
lities  (  Psa.  cxivii, 
14;  Ixxxi,  16,  etc). 

ippear  to  be 

three  kinds 
of  wheat  at  pietent 

—the  Triliaim  mi- 
iKire  (var.AiierTiuni), 
the   T.  tprlla  [see 
Kte],  and 
..riny  .f 

hich  ap- 


borde  taya,  "  Then 
it  lo  be  found  at 
Kerek 

h  justiflea  the 
t  of  the  Bible 
intt  the  charges  Bgypllan  Wheat  (TMtfem  tt 


WHEATON  9: 

whicb  it  bas  been  Ihc  object."  The  cuinnMn  Triti- ' 
cum  nlgart  will  lonKlimee  produce  one  hundml  gnini 
in  I  he  ear.  Wlieit  i*  reap«d  lowardi  the  end  ur  April, 
in  May,  and  in  Jiioe,  accarding  lo  tbe  liifleimcee  uf 
•Dil  aiHl  pwilicn.  It  waa  wwn  eilber  broadcast,  and  , 
then  ploughed  in  or  mmpleil  in  hj  utile  (Ie<.xziii,  | 
90),  or  in  rowi,  if  we  righJy  undenland  laa.  xxviii, 
S5,  which  wenu  to  imply  that  the  leedB  were  plaiU- 
td  apart  in  order  to  innirc  larger  and  fuller  can,  Tbe 
wheat  wu  put  into  the  gmund  ill  the  winter,  and 
■ome  lime  after  the  barley.  In  tbe  Egyptian  plague  I 
of  hail.  cuii«ei|i»utly,  the  barley  sumred,  but  the  wheal 
bad  Dui  appeared,  and  »  escaped  injury.  Wheat 
waa  gniuud  into  flour.  The  Hnest  qualities  were  ex- 
prcHHil  by  the  term  "fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat"  (3|in 
nan  ri^^a,  Deut.  uiii,  M).  Unripe  ears  are  sonie- 
tiines  cut  ufffnxn  the  stalks,  roasted  in  an  oven,  mashed 
and  boiled,  and  eaten  by  the  modem  Egyptians  (Son- 
nini,  TractU).  Roaenmuller  (fiirfuoy  n/(A<  SfMt,  p.  W), 
with  good  reiaon,  conjectures  that  this  dish,  which  the  . 
Arabs  caA/rrik,  ii  the  same  as  the  ^rrt  earmil  IjCT^i 
^•q'^'ii  of  Lev.  it,  14  and  1  Kings  ir,  12.  Tbe  \\i\i. 
wonl  kali  ( ^bj?.  Lev.  ii,  14 )  denotes,  it  is  probable, 
rootled  cars  of  com,  still  used  asToud  in  the  East.  An 
"ear  of  com"  was  <:alled  MUOIitk  (r^xti),  the  wont 
which  betrayed  the  Ephtaimilei  (Judg.  xii,  1,6),  who 
were  unable  10  give  tbe  sound  of  lA.  The  curious  ex- 
piuaion  iu  Tror.  xxvii,  33,  *-  Though  thon  shouldsi  bny 
a  fool  in  a  mortar  among  wheat  with  ■  peule,  yet  will 
nut  his  fooliibness  depart  from  him,"  appears  to  point 
to  the  custom  uf  mixing  Ihe  ijniua  of  inferior  cereals 
with  wheili  the  meaning  will  then  be,  "Let  a  fool  be 
ever  ao  much  in  tbe  company  of  wise  men,  ret  be  will 
continue  a  fooL"  Haiirer  {CoinmnU.  lac  cit.)  simply 
explain*  Ihe  passage  thus:  " Quomodocunque  tiacla- 
veris  aiulluoi  noo  patielar  se  emendari."     See  Cl- 

Wheat  wax  known  lo  the  Isnelites  iu  Egypt  (Exod. 
lx,3S),  and  on  rctuniing  to  Canaan  they  do  dmtbt  found 
it  still  cultivated  la  in  the  day*  uf  Keii- 
ben  cneri.  xxx,  14>  Host  probably  they 
were  the  same  aorta  which  were  used  in 
biith  CDuntries;  but  there  were  only  a  few 
districu  of  Palestine,  auch  as  the  plain  of 
Jexreet,  which  could  compete  with  thai 
magniBcent  "  cirse,"  the  delta  of  Egypt, 
the  Bnest  com  country  of  tbe 
world.  At  present  the  wheat  t 
Palestine  "are  very  poor  and  light,  and 
would  diiguBl  an  English  farmer.  One 
may  ride  and  walk  tbroogb  the  standing 
com  without  the  slightest  objection  made 
or  harm  done.  No  wonder  it  ii  thin, 
irhen  while  crops  are  raised  from 
same  aoU  year  after  year,  and  no  sort 
of  mannre  put  into  the  gfound'  (Tris- 
tram, Trarrli,  p.  Ml).     See  Aqiuci;i.t- 

VTbmton,  Nathakixl  8«ki.i>oii, 
D.D.,a  dernyman  of  Iha  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  bom  at  Washington, 
C.nn.,  AuR.  20,  I79S.  His  preparatory 
eiluestion  was  acquired  at  Ihe  Episcopal 
Academy  nf  Cheshire,  Comi. :  he  gradu- 
aleilat  YaleOdleseinlSHi  was  ordained 
deacon  anil  prienl  in  I8IT;  warpsstor  in 
Anne  Arunilrl.  l>iince  Ueorge,  and  Hont- 
pmerr  counties.  Ud.;  in  1818  became 
tecturoC  Christ  Church,  Hanford.  Conn., 
remaining  Iweire  yean;  in  I8tl  became 
president  of  Trinity  (then  Washmgton) 
CoUege,  which  oAoe  he  flUed  ontil  1887; 
In  that  year  became  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  New  Orleans,  continuing  in  ihal 


"I  WHEEL 

position  for  seven  yean;  in  1844  ridled  Europe,  and 
un  bis  return  published  his  travels  in  two  volumes. 
He  was  a  scholar  of  varied  learning.  His  beoefnelions 
to  vnrions  sdenddc,  pbilanthrojiic,  and  religious  objects 
were  large,  and  his  bequests  to  Trinity  College  ammmled 
to  about  twenty  tbousand  dollars.  He  died  at  Uarble- 
dak.  Conn.,  Uarcb  18,1882.  See  Amtr.<iMar.ChHrdt 
Ittriac,  I86I,  p.  7S4. 
'Wheal  (usually  and  properly  [of  a  carriage]  'ffiX, 

[of  any  circular  object]  ^^^1,  jn^^  Psa.  liixiii,  18 ; 
Eeelea.  xii,  6 ;  Isa.xvii,18;  Jer.  xlvil,B;  Euk.x,S, 
6, 13;  uiii,  34;  xxvi,  10;  "heaven,"  Psa.  lixvii,  18; 
Dan.  Tii,  9;  "rolling  thing,"  las.  xvii,  IS;  or  bt^t, 
gilpdl,  Isa.  ixviii,  W ;  occasionally  □?;,  pdam,  Jwlg. 
V,  as,  a  Hrp,  as  afien  elaewheie ;  B^JSK,  obm^m, 
Jer.  xviii,  8.  of  a  potter's  wheel).  We  find  that  the 
wheels  imder  Ihe  biaien  laver  in  Sobmon's  Temple 
were  cast;  they  are  thus  deacribed  by  tbe  sacred  his- 
torian: "And  the  work  ofthe  wheels  was  like  Ihe  work 
of  a  chariot-wheel :  their  a.t)et^ee^a□d  their  naves,  and 
their  felloes,  and  I  heir  spokes  were  all  molten"  (1  Kings 
vii,  38).  This  is  illualnted  by  Ihe  Egyptian  chariots. 
A  wheel  has  been  founil  by  Dr.  Abbott  of  a  curious  con- 
siruct ion,  having  a  wooden  lire  In  Ihe  felloe,  and  an  inner 
circle,pnjbab1y  ofmeisl,  which  passed  through  and  con- 
nocted  its  spokes  a  sburl  distauce  from  ihe  nave  (A,  A). 
The  diameter  of  the  wheel  irss  about  three  feet  one 
inch.  The  feline  was  in  six  pieces,  Ihe  end  of  one  ova- 
la|<ping  Ihe  other.  The  tire  was  faMened  lo  it  by 
bands  of  raw  hide  passing  thnmnh  long,  narrow  holes 
(B,  B)  made  to  receive  them  (Wilkinson,  Aitr.  Eggpl.  1, 
882).  Among  the  ancient  Assyrians  the  wheels  orig- 
inally bad  six  spokes,  atul  Ihe  felbws  consisted  of  four 
pieces.  They  appear  to  have  been  thicker  and  more 
solid  than  Ihose  of  the  Efij'plians  (Layard,  Awirt*.  ii, 
370),  Later  Ihe  wheel  had  eight  and'  not  six  spoke^ 
and  was  appsrenllv  strengthened  bv  four  pieces  of  mel- 
I  al  which  bound  the  felloes  (««/.  p.  871).    SeeCi 


Andant  Bfjptlan  Charlot-vheeL 


^'.ooglc 


WHEELELi 

Wheeler,  DutleL  a  diMinsiiubed  membcT  of  the 

SociEty  of  Kriendi,  wu  boin  in  London,  EngUnd,  " 
87, 1771.  E«rty  in  life  he  wrreil  in  boih  the  n«vj 
ihe  umy.  Hiring  become  >  CliriMian,  when  not  bi 
from  tvrenty-llve  veirs  of  age,  he  joined  ths  Society  of 
Friends.  Some  ye«re  after  this,  he  al>andaned  a  very 
Iqcralive  pan  of  ibe  biuineu  in  vrhich  be  was  engaged, 
Ihat  he  migbi  devote  hjmwlf  to  the  work  to  which,  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  he  believe.1  himulf  called.  He  be- 
came an  accredited  miniiter  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in 
IBlfi.  Ill  1S17  the  emperur  of  Buwia,  in  onler  to  carry 
out  0  cberiihed  plan  for  diaining  and  ealtii-iting  the 
marahes  surrounding  Si.  Peterabuig,  aeciired  Ihe  aei 
of  Mr.  Wlieeler  ob  manager  of  the  enterpriae.  While 
fjaithrully  diachargiiig  his  duties  in  the  tecuUr  biuiucai 
to  which  he  had  been  called,  he  was  also  raithful  lo  hia 
biglier  Master,  and  preached  (he  Gospel  with  all  um- 
plicity  and  lidelilr,  not  only  to  the  bumble  and.  lowly, 
but  also  lo  the  higher  in  authority  in  Russia.  He  re- 
mained in  Sl  Petersburg  itniil  I83S,  when  be  felt  im- 
pressed that  it  was  his  duty  to  go  as  a  missionary  among 
the  iilaHils  of  the  Psciflc,  where  a  rich  blessing  attend- 
ed his  labors.  After  several  yean  sgient  in  missioiury 
work  in  the  Pacific,  he  returned  to  England.  Here  he 
remained  until  IH38,  when  be  came  lo  the  United  Sutea, 
where  he  continued  nine  months,  rendering  such  wrvi 
as  he  CDiild  to  the  cause  of  Christ,  and  then  went  back 
once  more  to  his  native  land.  During  a  second  voyage 
to  the  United  Slates  he  contraeieil  a  dltease  v"  ' 
proved  fatal;  and  he  died  soon  sflcr  tanduig  at 
York, Feb. 6, 1840.    See  .VonoiV  (Phila.  1870).    (J.aS.) 

Wbealer  (or  mieler).  Sir  Oreotgo,  D.D., 
English  clergvman  and  trareller,  was  bom  at  Breda, 
Holland,  of  EiiglUb  parentage,  in  1050.  He  remov 
Kent,  England,  in  ebildhooil;  was  educated  at  Lincoln 
College,  Oxfurd  1  travelled  on  the  Continent  and  i  ' 
East  with  Ur.  James  Spon,  of  Lyons,  in  lB7,i-76;  pre- 
sented a  collection  of  MS.S.to  the  University  of  Oxford ; 
received  the  honorary  degree  uf  A.H.  from  Oxfo 
University;  was  knighted  and  onUined  in  1683;  ar  , 
having  taken  o^der^  naa  collated  by  Insbop  Crewe 
to  the  second  prebend  in  the'  Cath^ral  of  Durham 
in  leSi.  In  1683  be  was  presented  to  Ihe  vicarage  of 
Baiingsloke,  Hants;  in  1702  was  created  D.D.  by  di- 
ploma from  Oxford,  and  in  the  following  year  received 
the  curacy  of  Whitworth.  In  1706  be  was  collated  to 
(he  rectory  of  Winston,  and  in  1709  to  that  of  Houghlon- 
l»-Spring,  which  be  retaineil  until  hit  decease,  Jan.  Ifi, 
IT24.  Dr.  Wheeler  was  (he  author  of,  A  Joarafg  lo  Gittn 
{ie»i):~An  Acromt  of  Ikt  Ckarcka  or  PUua  of  At- 
imblf  of  Ihe  Prinilice  Cliriiliuai  (1C89);— and  The 
Pivttttant  Moiuutinis  or.  ChrUHait  (Kcoaonia  (1698). 

minister  and  parent.    See  Church  of  Jii^md  Sfaga- 

Viriiffeler,  John,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Gralkon,  Vi.,  March  11, 1798.  He  gradu- 
ateil  at  Dartmouth  College  in  ISI6,  and  at  Aiidover 
Theological  Seminaiy  in  1819.  In  1821  he  was  ordain- 
ed over  the  Church  at  Windsor,  V[.,  where  he  took  bigb 
rank  as  a  pulpit  orator.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  be 
declined  the  presidency  of  (he  Uaiversity  of  Vermont; 
but  nine  years  afler,  upon  Ihe  resignation  of  president 
Marsh,  he  accepted  the  honor.  Krom  (his  time  his  best 
energies  were  devoted  lo  the  univenily.  He  raised  up 
friends  for  it,  carried  it  through  seasons  of  (rial,  and  ele- 
vated the  standard  of  scholarship.  He  resigned  in  1848, 
and  died  at  Burlington,  April  16,  186V.  Dr.  Wheeler 
published  several  Striaaiii  and  IHicoarm,  especially 
Ihat  before  the  Porter  Rhetorical  Society  of  Andnver 
Theological  Seminaiy  in  1834.  See  Vmy.  Qaar.  1862, 
p.  307. 

^nieelock,  Bleaser,  D.D..  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Windham.  Conn„  in  llav,  I'll,  and 
graduated  from  Yale  Collegi'  in  1733.  In  March,  17BS, 
tie  WIS  ordained  minister  of  the  Secoml  Church  in  Leb- 


8  WHELAN 

anon,  called  "  Lebanon  Crank,"  now  Columbia.  In  (la 
great  Whilefieldian  revival  Mr.  Wheelock  engaged  ■nth 
great  zeal  and  enei^v.  After  the  religioua  exaumpi: 
had  subsided,  he  addeit  lo  his  labor*  at  a  mioiater  ib< 
duties  of  a  teacher.  Samson  Occum,  a  Hohegao  ludis. 
wbo  afterwards  be(«me  a  distinguished  pmcber,  waii 
pupil  in  bit  school  io  174S.  He  soon  biriDed  the  pla 
of  an  Indian  Misuonary  School,  and  several  Indian  Inn 
entered  it,  chiefly  maintained  by  subscripiiuni  fiua  ik 
legislatures  of  Connecticut  and  Masaachusetu.  The  ia- 
Bliiution  recriv«tl  the  name  of  Moor's  Indian  Chaiiir 
School,  Joshua  Moor  having  made  a  doialioD  of  ■  tmi 
and  two  acres  of  land  about  ihe  year  1 7s4.  Hi.  Uecm 
and  Rev.  Nathaniel  Wbitaker  solicited  funds  fm  (hi 
school  in  Great  Briuiu  in  1766,  Ihe  amoant  rtali»i 
being  £7000  in  England,  and  more  than  fiOOO  in  Sen- 
land.  After  conducting  this  school  in  Lebanm  om 
founeen  years,  he  determined  lo  (russfei  it  to  tie* 
Hampshire,  and  a  charter  was  obtairted  fur  a  cufk^ 
with  about  40,000  acres  »f  land,  aa  an  endowment  Tra 
governor  Wentworlli  and  others.  Thus  originartd  u 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  Dartmnulh  College ;  but  Hoot's  icI^ 

ttitulion.  Id  August,  1770,  Dr.  Whedock  went  to  Hb- 
over,  built  a  log  cabin  in  what  was  tben  a  wildeneaE, 
and  put  up  his  scbool-building,  riglity  feet  longaedi" 
stories  in  heigbl.  Among  the  first  graduates  wit  lia 
son  John,  who  succeeiled  to  (he  presidency  of  the  wl- 
lege.  As  a  teacher  Dr.  Wheelock  was  indusiriiioi  isd 
successful.  He  died  April  24. 1779.  Dr.  W  beeluck  pob- 
lislied,  Knn-irtkt  oflht  Indian  Ciarify  Sciutol  at  lA- 
anon  (1762): — \arralKti,  in  several  ncnibers.  fiui 
1763  Id  mi:— ConlBiaalion  o/ lie  f/aTTOticr.  lo  ria 
it  Addeita<iAbttracl  of  a  Minion  to  Ike  Diiannt  S- 
di(naWaloflieOhiot\773):~A  Stmon  am  tAtrt,  ^ 
Canicitncr,orNoKiMgbelChrulallieCAanik{l77i-. 
—and  an  occasional  Sermon.  His  Mtnoin.  In  Dn. 
McCIure  and  Parish,  were  published  in  IBII.'  Set 
Sprague,  .4  laiale  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpil,  i,  89". 

^ITtaeelook.  John,  D.D.,  LUD.,  an  AiDerieaa  elo- 
ej'man,  was  bom  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  Jan.  SS,  17^  Hi 
entered  Yale  College  in  1767,  but  removed  with  hiifulier 
Dr.  Eleuer  Wheelock,  lo  Hanover,  K.  H.,  in  177ii,  ad 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1771 ;  wo*  Inn 
there  from  1772  to  177l>;  was  elected  (o  the  CnlonialAi- 
ibly  in  177a;  appoinicfl  ma}or  in  the  Xew  York  (area 


iu  1777,  ai 
nental  army; 


ant-colonel  ii 


if  Dartmouth  College  ;  was  HW 


ion  aguDst  Ufc 
inouins  in  U/x,  ana  soon  after  was  plocetl  on  cenen) 
Gates's  staff.  At  the  death  of  bis  father  in  lT79.il- 
though  onh 

successor  as  president  o1 

lo  England  lo  raise  money  ami  tuppuea  lur  tno  cuie^ 
in  1783,  but  lost  what  be  had  collected  by  tfaipwitM 
off  Cape  Cod;  was  removed  from  his  office  in  ane- 
quence  of  an  ecciesia^itical  controversy  in  1815.  but  n- 
tlored  in  1817,  and  died  soon  after,  April  4,  11(17.  Ht 
left  half  of  his  lai^  estate  to  Ihinceton  Tbeokipcd 
Seminarv.  He  publisbeil  a  Evloyg  on  Prof.  Jokn  &a6, 
D.D.{im):—».nASIitlduiofDaitmoutkCoafft{aii^ 
Whelan,  KiciiARn  Vikcsst,  D.D..  a  Boown  Coili- 
olic  prelate,  was  bom  in  Baltimore.  Hd„  Jan.  29,  \m. 
He  was  educated  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  £» 
mctltburg,  where  he  became  a  teacher  and  prefect  d 
aludies;  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  the  Semi- 
nary of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  graduating  in  1831 :  wu  or- 
dained  priest  al  Versailles  the  same  vear;  ' 
in  St.  Mary's  CoUege  from  18S3  to  ISio;  w 
ary  in  several  parts  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  from  Itsi 
lo  1840;  became  bishop  of  Sichmond  in  Hareh.  1« 
and  on  the  division  of  the  dioceae  the  foUoiring  ns 
took  the  title  of  bishop  of  Wheeling,  where  be  wa^ 
tive  in  promoting  the  inlenau  of  Ronuoiam.  build 
up  a  seminary  for  yooDg  ladies,  and  aamnnt  at  Mo 
de  CbaoCali  was  a  member  of  the  Vatican  CdbhI  d 
ISGS-TO,  in  which  he  oppoMd  the  dogma  of  intallibaiKy, 


WH£LElt  9 

MgiTt  inhuadheuon  loitifterltwu  dccUrcd.   Ha 
ditd  at  Wheeling,  July  7, 1874, 
Whelar,    OftOTge,   D.D.      See   Wheeuek,  iSir 

Whelp  (^il,  ^r,  or  'l^li.^r),  the  eki  of  >  lion 
(Gm.  ilii,  9:  Dent,  xixiii,  V2-,  Jtr.  !<,  S8;  EieL  xix, 
%i.i;  Nah.  ii.  18),  or  of  a  Jackal  (Um.  ii,  S).  See 
LiOK.  Tbe  Cuba  of  a  beir  (1  Siin.  xrii,  8 ;  Pror.  Kvii, 
]1:  Hoa.  liii,  8)  are  not  deaigi»t«<t  bv  the  Heb.  ward. 
Set  Bur. 

Wbeivell.  WiLiAAn,  U.D.,  a  clti^man  am)  pro- 
four  or  the  Chutch  nrEaglind.waa  bom  at  Lancaater, 
England,  in  1795.  He  graduated  from  Trinitj  College 
in  IdlE,  and  receival  Ihe  degree  of  D.D.;  wta  ot- 
daioett  deacon  in  1H20,  anil  prieat  in  the  fulluwing 
VMt;  became  neater  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in 
W1,  and  waa  vicc-chancetlur  of  the  univereitv.  Pic- 
vnua  10  this  he  waa  fellow  and  tutor  of  Trinity' College, 
and  from  1828  to  1882  waa  profeawir  of  roiiie'ralopy  in 
the  uiiiverailvi  fmm  IS38  u  ISS5  he  waa  pnfcawr  of 
reorat  Iheoloff}-.  Dr.  Whewell  died  at  Cambridge, 
March  6,  1866.  An  an  author  he  waa  prolific ;  among 
liii  work)  being,  An  Elmmtary  Trealit  on  Mtdvnaa 
(1819) — which  paaaed  through  aeven  editions:— .4 luifjrf- 
ical  Slatkt  (18^):  — .IrcJireefni'df  Solet  on  Gmun 
Omrr/irt  (1830) ;— Principfei  o/  Urnvrrmty  EJucalim 
(lS31):—Firt  Primpla  of  Mtdunac*  (^ISAi) :— Doe- 
trvKo/LimiU  (eoii.)  -.-^Ti^.litt  o/Dywmia  (1888-86) : 
—AttromnHs  aitd  Gnrral  Phyuct  {ilOi) :~MaAunical 
£trUiHlS37):—IIiHo>y  uftkt  laductice  Sdenca  (evA. 
i  ™ls,) :— PAiiaopAj  of  Ike  fmbuliee  Scitnai  (1840,  S 
Tola.);- Tie  .VKionica  n/£njii«rwj(1841)  -.-Liberiil 
lilMcatvxt  {iMay—Vertt  Triaalatioiu  from  Ike  Gtr- 
■m  (1847)  -.-Udara  on  the  Bitlary  of  Moral  PhUot- 
opkg\\>S>i):-~S>iUtmatic  JlforoJi/y  (1846) :  — fJrrHniM 
ofMoralilg  (1848).  He  waa  aiao  editor  of  an  edition 
of  Newlon'a  Priiicipia,  UrM  three  aeciiuns  (1846);  of 
BuUer'a  Htman  Nalare  (ia43)i  of  Butler's  Moral  Sult- 
>rtfa(IU9)j  and  of  virion!  olber  scientific  works.  He 
waa  alao  the  author  of  varioua  ecicntiHc  arliclea  in  lead- 
ing perioilicala,  and  publiahcd  many  pamphlets  and  nu- 
merauaaemona.  sU  Anter.Qnar.'Cluircli Rmrv.i'Ay, 
lS66,p.a2&. 

WUcllCOte,  BmuAuiH,  D.D.,an  eminent  English 
divine,  was  bom  at  Whichcoie  Hall,  in  tbe  parish  iif 
Slake,  in  Shropuhire,  March  11,1610.  He  waaeducaled 
at  Emmanuel  College.  Cambridge,  where  be  graduated 
in  1629;  became  ■  fellow  there  in  16S3|  was  ■  diatin- 
guiahed  tutor;  waa  ordained  in  16B6;  orgauiied  a  Sun- 
day-aflemoon  lectureahip  at  Trinity  Church,  and  be~ 
came  pieacher  to  Ihe  univenrity;  waa  preaenled  lo  the 
living  of  North  Caribiiry.in  Someraetabire,  in  1640;  ap- 
pointed pravost  of  King'a  College  in  1G44;  preaenled  to 
the  rectotyorMilion,  inCamhridgeabire,  in  1649;  waa 
removed  from  hia  pmrnatuhip  at  the  Roloration  in  1661, 
but  retained  his  rectory  at  Milton ;  obtained  the  living 
of  Sl  Anne'a,  BUckfrlan,  London,  in  1662;  and  Ihe 
vicarage  t{  St.  Lawrence'a,  Jewry,  in  I66H.  He  dial 
while  on  a  visit  at  Cambridge,  in  May,  1688.  "  Ur. 
Whicbcote  i«  regardeil  aa  one  of  the  heade,  if  itol  the 
chief  founder,  of  what  ia  called  the  lalitudinarian  ichoul 
of  Engliab  divines."  He  enjoyed  great  fame  aa  a 
preacher,  and  lelV  aniaiderable  reanlu  of  bia  literary  la- 
bon,  allbough  he  published  nothing  during  his  lifetime. 
Hta  ObtmUioiu  and  ApoHfgmi{l6H»-),  and  his  Sermotu 
(1698),  were  edited  by  the  earl  of  Shaflesbiirj-,  Dr. 
John  JelTerv  edited  bis  Moral  owl  JMigiovt  Apinruna 
(174»>^nd  ills  Oiteaunn  (1701-3,8  vols.),  to  which  Dr. 
Samuel  Clarke  addcdai^urth  in  1707.  Aneditionof  his 
Srratutu,  in  4  vols.,  accompanied  by  a  Life  by  Uis. 
Campbell  and  tietard,  appeared  in  17fil. 

'Wblp  (Uiir,ijM<;  ooca^onally  rendered  "  Konrge," 
/Ob  T,  SI;  iit.2ailaa.s.28;  xxviii,  IS).  In  ancicnl 
limea,  whips  were  used  not  only  for  driving  animal', 
but  bIbo  a*  inalruroenia  of  torture;  and  even  now,  iti 


Andeiit  Egi] 


Whips. 


alaveholding  countriea,  Ihe  unfortunate  alaveaare  obliged 
lo  work  with  tbe  fear  of  the  whip  before  ibeir  eyea. 
The  ayslem  of  admiiiiateriiig  peraonal  clnuliscment  baa 
been,  ai>d  ia,  universal  throughout  the  East;  and,  under 
deapotic  governments,  no  person  con  be  sure  of  escap- 
ing, as  punishment  ia  inflicted  on  the  mere  caprice  of 
any  tyrant  who  may  happen  lo  be  in  poucr.  Fur  ihig 
piirpifK,  however,  the  rml  (q.  v.)  was  ofteiier  used,  and 
punishment  of  tbe  batlimido  (q.  v.)  is  now  the  moat 
common  in  Oriental  counliiea.     See  ConPOKAL  Pl*»- 


idyou 


Here  a 


mpleac 


illw 


urge  a 


■he  Utter  is 

called  "a  scorpion,"  and  probiably  mrana  lo  denote  a 
comparison  between  the  pain  reapeciively  occasioned 
by  the  scourge  and  the  reptile.  The  rabbins  think 
generally  that  this  acorpion  waa  a  acoiirgc  compoaed 
of  knotted  and  thorny  twigs,  by  which  Ihe  flesh  waa 
sererely  laceraled.  More  probably  it  consisted  of  tbongi 
set  with  thonu  or  sharp  iron  poinla.  Such  acourgea 
were  known  to  Ihe  Romans  as  a  meatn  of  torturing  ined 

the  punishment  of  their  aiavcsk  Some  of  the  early  mat. 
tyrs  were  thus  tortinvd.     See  ScounoE. 

Few  travellers  have  visited  Eg^'pt  wilbont  commis- 
erating Ihe  conditian  of  the  unhappy  Fellaha:  every 
public  work  is  executed  by  their  unpaid  labor;  half 


Whip  Snapended  from  Ibe  Wrlsl  of  the  Arckw^' 


WHIPPLE  91 

nakad  lod  biir  Marv«l,  they  toil  under  a  burning  aun, 
to  clear  out  caaala  or  level  nwdi,  under  the  ey«  nruufc- 
mwien  ready  to  punitb  with  Ibeir  rormidtble  wbipa, 
nude  from  ihe  bide  or  the  bippopOtaiUDtitho  leaM  neg- 
lect or  relaiution.  Such  a  sight  neceaiarily  calls  to 
■nind  the  >utrerine<  endured  by  the  Iiraeliles  nhile 
they  wen  subjected  to  the  tyranny  or  Phaiai: 
Egyptians'  made  the  children  of  Iirael  to  i 
rigur;  and  they  made  tbeitlivea  bitter  with  bard  bond- 
age, in  mortar,  and  in  brick 


WHITAKEK 


n  the  Oeld;  all  their  service  wbennn  they  i 
them  serve  was  with  rigur"  (Exod.  i,  IS,  14).  The  i 
umente  abound  with  similar  scenes.     See  Bktck. 

"In  driving,  Ihe  andeuc  Kgj'ptians  used  ■  whip 
the  heroes  and  charioleeia  of  Honier<  and  tbia, 
staoK  sUck,  was  generally  employed  even  Tor  beast*  at 
burden,  and  furoien  at  the  pbiugh.in  preTei 
gani.    The  whip  eunsiited  iira  smooch;  round  wooden 
handle,  and  ■  single  or  double  thong;  it  •nm 
a  lash  of  leather,  or  string,  about  two  feet  in  length, 
either  twisted  or  plaited  i  and  a  loop  being  attached 
tbe  lower  eml,  the  archer  was  enabled  to  use  the  bO' 
while  it  hung  suspended  from  his  wrist"  (WilkiuKiD, 
Aae,  Eggft.  i,  SVi  sq.).    See  Cuktaot. 

Wltlpple,  Gkorok,  r>,D.,  I  proreSMr  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church,  was  born  in  Albany,  H.  T.,  June  < 
1809.  For  a  time  he  was  a  student  in  the  Oneida  It 
Blilute;  was  one  year  (1883)  in  tbe  Une  Theological 
Seminarv :  and  grariuaied  Trom  Che  theological  depart- 
ment Dfbberlin  Collei^'  in  ]><a«,  in  which  rear  he  wsi 
ordained  as  an  evangelist.  From  18B6  to  1888  he  wu 
principal  of  ibe  Ot'crlin  preparaloiy  department,  and 
from  tMi^9  to  18-17  was  prufeunr  nr  tDithematics  ' 
instilutiotu  Fnim  1SI«1  until  his  death  he  was : 
rv  or  the  American  Missinnarv  AsBDciatinn,  lui  office 
being  in  New  York  cilv.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  T., 
OcL  S,  1876.     Sm  Cong.  Quar.  1877,  p.  437. 

Whiaton,  Willi  AH,  a  learned  English 
malhemaiician,  was  bom  at  Norton,  in  Leiceaterahire, 
DecO,  1647,  where  hia  father  was  rector  of  the  parish. 
He  was  educated  at  Tamwortb  School  and  Uan  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  be  graduated  in  lesi);  beosiiN  a  fel- 
luwof  hiscoUtge,  touk  orders  in  [he  Church  of  England, 
aiid  was  appointed  matbemalical  tutor  in  1896;  was 
chaplain  to  Dr.  Hoore,  liithup  of  Morwich,  frnm  1694  lo 
1698iviur  or  Lowestoft,  in  Suff.dk,  from  11998  to  1701, 
became  deputy  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  tbe  Lucauan 
profeHorship  of  mathematics  in  1701.  and  succeeded 
him  in  that  chair  un  his  rcMgnation  in  I7tf8i 
inated  by  bishop  Uoore  eaiecheticat  lecturer  at  the 
Cfaurcb  olSLCIemenL  By  this  time  he  had  gained  em- 
inence as  a  preacher,  when  he  adapted  Ariaitism,  reject- 
ed infant  hapt.isni,  and  began  to  omit  portions  of  the 
litany.  Tbe  bishop  of  Kly  requested  him  not  to  fulHl 
the  duties  uf  the  Boyle  lectureship,  in  which  he  was 
naking  bis  views  public,  but  alliwed  tbe  ctnilinuance 
of  the  salary.  Whislon  resigned  tbe  lectureship,  and, 
after  several  hearing  before  the  heads  nf  Ihe  huuse^ 
was  depiivcd  of  his  lectureship  and  expelled  from  Ihe 
university, Oct. 80, IJIO.  In conaequence of ceruin ihe- 
olugical  iniblications  of  a  controvenial  character,  he  was 
pronounced  a  heretic  by  the  convocation  in  171 1,  ami 
the  prosecution  was  continued  until  ITIG,  when  the  |)rii- 
ceedings  were  terminated  by  an  "  act  of  grace."  After 
his  expulsion  from  tbe  univer^ty  he  remuveil  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  gave  lectures  on  astmnnmy  and  other 
mathematioal  sciences,  and  continued  an  active  theo- 
logical writer.  He  became  a  Baptist  and  a  Hillena- 
tian,  and  gathered  a  congregation  to  hia  own  house,  to 
which  he  preached  what  he  called  primitive  Christian- 
fly.  A  subscription  was  made  fur  him  in  1721  amount- 
ing 10  £470,  and  he  ilerived  idditionsl  income  from  his 
lectures  and  publications.    He  died  in  London,  Aug.  2S, 

Thtory  o/lht  A'uKA {la%) :— rie  J reompfitimnK  n/ 
Seizure  Froyhtaa  {llOS) ;  —  Praltclioaa  I'kgticu- 


(mo) -.^PruiiUet  Ckrittianilg  Saint 
(1711-12):— X  Brit/Hilorga/l/ieBiTiiHilo/lJHAnu^ 
Htrrjg  in  E<^md  {UWi-.—Atkanatiai  Comrird  of 
F<irgt>y(_\'li):—Tk>itKtin!iio»Tniritarlatiirm{l'tt): 
—A  Vmdicaliim  of  Ihe  BibfUime  Orada;  lo  tckidk  an 
aidtd  the  GHaim  Oracte*  T/umrlea  (IT16):— ^««. 
homieal  Ltdara  (titd.):—8l.  Clttm^t  uadSl.  Irrmafy 
Kindicotwa  ofdu  Apolaiiail  CmuUviimu  (17 16) :— Str 
Itaat  IftwtoiCt  MaOKmatiail  PkiliHopkf  Damutrttti 
(<oA.'):-Alroiiomical  PHmdpla  of  Rdigiam,  Saltnd 
tad  Bmaled  (\llTj:—A  Utltr  to  Ua  Karl  of  Sottas 
kiat  eaacentiiig  tkt  Eltnalg  nfUu  Son  of  God  ami  of 
lit  Hofy  apiTil{il7l9):—Tke  Tm  Origin  itf  Ike  SoM- 
Uan  amd  Alkanadait  Dodrittet  of  Ike  Trinity  (I7S0):— 
An  Etiag  lomardi  Rrtloriag  Ike  Tnt  Ttxi  oflitOU 
and  Aw  TtiUlmMt  (1722)  —The  Lilrral  A  cm^lU- 
tiwnl  ofScriplun  Propktdei  lt7U):—A  Collrttioarf 
Aiitktntie  Rnordt  behiigiiig  to  Uu  Old  and  Xnt  Tola- 
tueait,  TranJaUd  ufo  Kn^ith  (1737-28)  -.—Hilorieal 
Utmmrt  of  lie  Life  and  ^^'riling^  of  Br.  Samatl  CUirkt 
(1730)  T— r**  Primitive  EuciatiX  Reriad  (1736)  ;-^TV 
Eltrnilg  of  Hilt  Tonme-di  CoHiidfrrd  (1740):— Tfc 
Primiiiee  Nete  Teitamat  (1745)  -.—Tie  Sacred  Hiiiorf 
pftheOUltadNeKTatanmli{eoA.')%^Manoir$ofH» 
Oien  Life  and  Wrilingt  (1749-30) ^—uid  ■  Irankaika 
of  Ibe  Wort*  of  JotqAiu,  which  has  oev^r  been  »• 
peraeded  except  in  pail.  See  Chalmei^  Ati>^  Oier.  a.  r, 
W&latotilmii    CoDtreranr.    See  Wiiuni*. 

W&i  taker,  Natluililel,  D.D„a  Pmbyteriao  aia. 
ister,  was  bom  at  Huntington,  L.  I.,  Feb.  £2,  lltt,  and 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  17A3.  He  wn  «. 
dsined  and  installed  at  WDudbridgp,N.J_  in  I7U:  wa 
called  to  Chelsea,  near  Norwich, Conn.,  FekiS,  176 1 1  aad 
selected  by  the  Connecticut  Board  of  CorreaponjieBta 
fur  Evangeliiing  the  Indians,  to  go  to  Great  Briiaia 
witb  the  Kev.  Sampwin  Occam,  an  Indian  of  tbe  tlo. 
began  tribe,  lo  solicit  funds  for  a  mission  schoid.  L^f 
HuDtingdnn.Roniaine,Venn,Wesley,andolhcnri»we« 
them  great  favor,  and  a  considerable  Nim  was  ttiaei. 
After  eighteen  months'  absence,  ihey  returned,  haviof 
prepared  Ihe  wajr  for  founding  Darimnuih  Cotie^ 
While  in  England  he  published  aeveral  aeniKiRS  an 
RttimrUialion  lo  God.  Difficnltiea  arinng  in  hia  nv 
gregalionon  the  subject  of  Church  gDvemment,  he  ao. 
'pledaeall  lo  the  Second  Cburch  in  Salem,  Uam,^ 
ss  installed  July  38, 1769.  In  177S,  in  conacqacM* 
nglbo  people,  Dr.  Whitaker.witk 
otltera,  withdrew  from  the  Church,  funiied 
igregaliou,  and  united  with  tbe  Boataq 
Presbytery,  which  declared  the  new  erection  the  Thiri 
Church.  Hia  frienda  erected  a  hoose  of  wonhip,  bat  it 
"as  soon  after  burned.  Not  disheanened,  tbey  aoi^W 
ilside  help,  and  in  1776  were  enabled  tu  complete  a 
fi  church.  At  tbe  breaking-ont  oT  the  war  he  nam 
ly  espoused  the  cause  of  independenee,  and  actually  mt- 
gaged  in  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre.  In  a  •hort'tiiBe 
he  furnished  the  authorities  with  two  hundreil  tni 
eighty  pounds.  On  tbeoccanonoflhe  Boston  nuuaacic 
1771,  he  printed  ■  aermoa  on  Tkt  FaUU  Trogrdg  m 
King  Slrert .  and  oa  the  proclamation  of  utdepeudeiMe 
another,  entitled  A»  Aniidote  In  Tdijuh.  bikI  at  iba 
war  still  another,  Oa  Ike  Rettard  ffTorgit^ 
He  was  dismiaaed  by  a  council  called  fi-r  that  purpoav 
Feb.  10, 1784,  but  simhi  a^er  installed  at  Nnrridgrwoc*. 
After  vainly  attempting  to  eslabliab  a  pmbyteij-  ia 
Maine,  he  went  lo  Virginia,  and  died  at  Wuodbridge,  dcbi 
Hampton,  Jan.  1, 179&,  in  povertv,  notwithatandioB  alt 
'  :  had  done  f.ir  Ibe  Church  and  oiuntiy.  (W.  P.  a.) 
^Thltaker,  TtaomoB  DtmhaS),  LL.D..  a  cler^. 
in  of  theCliurchof  England,  was  bora  at  Uainhan, 
Norfolk,  Junes,  I7fi9.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John'* 
CkiUege,  Cambridge ;  ordained  deacon  in  1785,  and  prie« 
the  following  year;  became  perpeliial  curate  of  Hnlia^ 
ishire,inl797|  vicarofWhalley  inl809:  helil  fiw 
lime  the  vicarage  of  Heysham;  becuw  vicno^ 


WHITAKER  9( 

BUekbuTD  in  1818,  and  remained  there  until  his  death, 
whioh  occurred  Dec  18,  1821.  He  publiibnl,  A  lli- 
tt,Ty  qf  Ike  Origimal  PariiA  nf  WkaUeg  a»d  Homr  of 
Caitn€,i~llteCoiailiaa/lMmnuUr<niii  York  (IDOi) : 
_//u(ary  o/lhe  Dtamerg  ofCramit  {\»ib):—Dt  Mola 
perBrilamuaiHCinca  Amiillibtt  Ilia  {IS09)!— Tie 
Lif*  and  Original  CorrrfKmdna  of  Sir  Gtargt  Rad- 
digk  (1810):— an  edition  of  Xjte  Viiiim  of  Piari  Plow- 
mum  (cod.) : — ■  Tieir  edition  or  Tharesbr'a  Diicaltu  Le- 
■T.Tlit  TopagngikyfLadi\\Sl6):—Loidii 
:  or,  A»  Attetpt  lo  ittiatrale.  Iki  DiMridt 
iiNikae  }VordtbaBede{lSie)-^bt^^Mng,le 
aenonni  and  other  work*. 

'Wbitaker.WUUam,  D.D.,an  eminent  English 
dtrtne,  «u  bora  at  Holme,  Ijinnshir«,  in  1548.  He 
vaa  educated  at  St.  Paul's  ."(chool  and  Triniry  Cotli^, 
Cambridj;*,  wbere  he  wu  appointed  lo  a  Mlowahip; 
IweaiiK  regiua  profemor  of  divinity  at  Cimbriilire  in 
ia7!>;  waa  appointed  cbincellor  of  St.Paul'a  in  I&80; 
ami  became  master  of  St.  Juhn'a  Collefce.  Cambridcc,  in 
laiM.  HediedatCambridgr,  Dec.4, 1695.  Ur.Wbil- 
■ker  waa  an  able  Calriniatic  wriur,  and  a  powerful 
cbampioD  or  Proteatantisni  against  the  altacka  nf  pop- 
rry.  He  publiahcd,  Tht  Lilvrgs  oflkt  Ckurcli  "f£i>!t- 
/.ti«^  n  Latin  cad  Grrei  (1d»6)i  — CufrcAimuj,  nee 
/'rima  Imitutio  Ditdplmaqat  Pirlalu  CAruftamt  La- 
Hue  Explicata.  etc  (1570):— Jd  Ralio<in  Drttm  F.d- 
wundi  Campiam  JauUm  .  .  .  RnpoHtio,  etc  (1581): — 
A  DitpHlalioa  m  Uolg  Scripluit  againti  tit  Pa- 
pitli,  aptcittUg  BtUarntine  and  Slaplrim  (Hrat  pnb- 
lisl>eil  ill  Latin  in  I5SB,  aflenrarila  in  En);li>h) :— and 
otlier  controTenial  works.  A  collection  of  hia  Oprrn 
Titoliigica  waa  publiahed  at  tieiwra  in  1610,  3  vola. 
ful. 

^niltby,  Daniki.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Engliah 
diriiK,  waa  boni  at  Kuahden,  Nonbamptonahice,  in 
li>38.  He  waa  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Ox li>rd, 
where  he  graduated  iu  1657,  and  became  a  rellow  in 
16<>4{  took  holy  orden,  liecame  chaplain  lo  Dr.  Beth 
Ward,  bishop  of  Saliabury,  and  waa  made  prebendary 
of  aalisbury  in  October,  1AI>8^  waa  admitted  precentor 
of  the  same  church  in  167^,  became  rector  of  St.  Kd- 
CDund'SiSaliBbury,  abont  the  aame  lime,  which  was  hia 
laat  preferment,  and  where  he  died,  March  24,  172IJ. 
Among  his  publiahed  works  are,  RomiA  Deetiiaa  wil 
from  Ik*  Bt^iamg  (IS64): — Endeator  lo  Seiace  'he 
Cerlaintg  of  Chritlian  Failh  (1671):— Discouiw  coit- 
ceiwn^  Ike  Idalnlry  ff  Ike  Cktt'xk  of  Rome  (167-1):— 
A  htardily  and  Idolaliy  nf  Hoil  Win'iip  Provrd  (1679) : 
— r**  Pnlfilnm  Btcrmdlrr  llsmbly  Plfadii^f-r  Cw- 
\  Diamlinn  BrtlkrtH  {\t»m).  This  work 
!  burned  by  the  Unireraity  of  Oi- 
forJ,  and  publicly  retraeled  by  Whitby:  —  A  Para- 
phrate  and  Commenluiy  oa  Ikr  Xta  Tatnmtna  <IT03) : 
— DiteoHTie  of  Ike  Sectaitg  and  UiefaltKa  afikt  CkrtM- 
tian  7fei>eJa>tufl  (170S).  Late  in  life  he  became  an  Arian, 
and  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  Dr.  Waterland.  He  was 
a  Tolutninona  writer,  the  above-mentioned  work*  being 
only  a  small  part  nf  what  he  gave  lo  the  public.  His 
Paropknut  imd  Commentary  is  conudered  his  best 
work. 

Wlllte,  Cbailea,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
bom  at  Ranilolph,  Mass.,  Dec.  28, 1795.  He  was  a  lin- 
eal descendant  of  I'eregriiie  While  of  the  famous  "  Hay- 
Auwer;'  graduated  st  Ilartmoutb  College  with  the  lint 
bonnra  of  hi*  class  in  1821  -,  studied  theology  at  Aiidii- 
ver.  Mass.:  after  licensure  to  preach,  wa*  settled  aa 
o.lleague  paatnr  with  hia  atepfather,  Rev.  Asa  tlurton, 
D.D.,aL  Thetfurd,  Vt.;  aubaequently  over  the  Church 
in  CaienOTia,  N.  Y.,  and  again  at  Owegn,  N.  Y.;  elect- 
ed president  of  Wibasb  College,  Iiid.,  ami  entered  upon 
hi*  duties  in  October,  1841,  and  his  presidency  was  of 
twenty  years'  continuance.  In  this  last  rrlsllon  he 
met  the  manifold  responsiln lilies  of  his  office  with  li- 
delily  and  energy.  He  shrank  from  nn  labor  that  the 
cmbarraaseil  condition  of  the  eollegt,  when  be  entered 


WHITE 


on  its  presidency,  detnanded  at  his  hands ;  and  he  had 
'  B  satisfaction  of  saeing,  long  before  hia  death,  as  ana 

lult  of  hi*  labor,  a  larger  number  of  stadent*  in  th« 
college  daaae*  alMie  than  he  found  in  all  the  depart- 
9  when  he  entered  upon  the  prendency.  He  died 
inly,  Oct.  29, 1861.  Dr.  White  was  a  ripe  and  ac- 
curate acholar,  an  aUa  teacher,  an  impressive  preacher, 
I  sound  theologian.  He  pnblisbed  fuayt  in  I.il- 
emlursaHdAYAsa  (Boston,  1858, 12mo),  and  conlribuied 
four  aemnns  to  the  Xalieiml  Prracier,  and  articles 
(the  most  of  which  were  republished  in  his  Euiijit)  to 
the  Biblieal  Rfpantory  and  BiUiolkeca  Saa-a.  See 
Wilson,  PraL  Hiil.  Almanac,  1863,  p.  8IB;  AUibooe, 
Din.  nfBril.  andAmtr.A ulkort,  s.  v.     (J.  L.  S.) 

^iRn>lt«,  Franda,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  who 
Hnutished  in  the  early  pan  of  the  ITth  cenluri',  was  ed- 
iicaied  at  Cambridge;  became  dean  nf  Carlisle  in  1612; 
bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1S26 ;  Ushnp  of  Norwich  in  I6M; 
bishop  of  Ely  in  16S1 ;  and  died  in  Febmar}-,  1687  or 
1688.  He  was  the  author  of,  Orikndax  Fuiik  and  Ike 
Wii<i  lo  Ike  Ckurck  Erplaintd  mid  ./utiijied  iisaiail  T. 
W.  (I61T)  —Rrplie  lo  Jtwuit  Fitk/r't  A  ntwer  to  Certain 
QuriHau  Pmpomded  ij  Jatnti  /,etc.  (1624)  -.—Tirntin 
of  Ike  Siibbalk  Day  ngniatl  SoUmiarian  .Vorrlly  (IG36) : 
l^nd  other  works.  See  Allibune,  Diet,  of  Bril.  and 
Amer.  Aatkan,*.'^. 

'Wlilte,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbvierian  divine,  was 
bamatDiirhBm,GreeneCo.,N,Y„June  19,1800.  He 
received  his  preparatory  training  in  the  acadenir  at 
Greencastle;  graduated 'with  high  lionar  at  Union  Col- 
lege in  1824 ;  sluilied  theology  in  (be  Princeton  (N.  J.) 
Theologieal  Seminary;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  ihe 
Preabyteiy  of  Columbia  in  1826,  and  immediately  sfiet 
entered  upon  an  agency  for  Ihe  American  Bible  Society, 
bis  field  being  in  the  Southern  Sules.  In  1828  he  waa 
ordained  and  installed  as  pastor  of  the  Allen  Street 
Church,  New  York  city,  where  he  continued  until  the 
estsbltshment  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in 
IKMi,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  professorship  nf  theol- 
i^y  in  that  in^iitntion,  which  office  he  continueil  to  hold 
until  his  death,  Aug.  25,  1850.  Dr.  White  ha<l  natu- 
rally a  Strang,  diacriminating  mind,  well  bsUnceil,  and 
abounding  in  practical  wisdom.  As  a  preacher,  he  waa 
eminently  thoughtTul,  dear,  convincing,  and  pungent. 
As  a  teacher  of  theology,  he  had  peculiar  and  almost 
unrivalled  excellence.  He  pnldished  a  Sermon  on  ikt 
DriUk  of  Jok»  Nilrkie  (1S38),  and  a  Sermon  on  ike 
Abriikumic  Covenant  (1846).  See  Spragne,  Amali  of 
Ike  Amer.  Pu^,  iv,  691 ,  Allibone,  Did.  of  Bril.  and 
A  mir.  A  vlkon,  a.  v.    (J.  L.  S.) 

^Ttalta,  Joaepb  (1).  D.D.,  an  Engliab  clergyman 
and  eminent  OrienUl  scholar,  was  bom  at  Stroud,  in 
Gloucestershire,  in  1746.  He  was  the  son  of  a  weaver, 
and  was  deigned  for  his  father's  calling,  but  having 
been  sent  to  a  charity-school  at  Glouceaur,  and  hav- 
ing made  rapid  advancement,  he  was  sent  by  a  gen- 
tleman of  fortune  to  Oxfoni,  where  be  graduated  at 
Wadham  Collate  about  1770 :  became  ■  fellow  nf  that 
college  in  1774,  was  appointed  to  archbishop  Laud's 
prufefsorshipof  Arabic  in  1775;  chosen  in  1788  ro  preach 
Ihe  Hampton  lecture  for  the  folkiwing  year,  in  the  prep- 
aration nf  which  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  I'arr  and  Mr. 
Samuel  Badcocki  became  prebendary  of  Gloucester  in 
1788;  was  appointed  rector  of  Mellon  in  1790;  liecams 
prebendary  of  Oxford  in  1802;  regius  professor  of  He- 
brew at  Oxford  Ihe  same  year;  and  eubeequentir  canon 
of  Christ  Church.  He  died  at  Oxford,  Hay  22, 1814. 
He  was  the  author  of  De  Uiililitle  Lingua  A  rohica  in 
Sladiit  Tkeologicii  Oialio  (1770)  —Teilamenli  Son  Li. 
bri  Billorid  tl  F.pittola  tan  Calkoliea  junm  FnvUna, 
yfrtiiiSrriacaPhiloxmiana,ru:.il779-]am)i—A  Virm 
of  Ckriitianilii  and  Mokammedanitm  (llsmpton  Lect- 
ures) (London,  1(81):  —  and   other  works   of  great 


v\  frnm  tn  Iri«h  Catholic  UraHj  wbich  had  KtUed  In 
Spiin,  WM  bom  it  Seville,  July  11, 1776.  Being  dis- 
'  MiUti(d  with  mrrcuitile  life,  he  wu  educauci  fur  the 
Church,  and  waa  ordained  a  print  in  17B9;  khhi  lust 
ctiiifldeiica  in  Koman  CatholJcJim,  renouncing  hin  ad- 
herence U>  it  in  ISIO,  when  he  lemoved  la  England; 
Joined  the  Engliih  Church,  but  did  nut  take  ordera  in 
U|  becameatnlurin  the  family  uF  Lord  Hullind;  ael- 
tled  in  London,  where  he  conducted  fur  Bome  yean  ■ 
Spanish  (laper  called  El  Etponol;  received,  in  1BI4,  a 
pension  for  life  of  £2(10  per  annum,  on  account  of  eer- 
vicei  rendered  the  government  by  ibis  paper;  lived 
iubeoqueiitlv  iu  l^ndmi  at  a  man  of  letten;  edited  for 
three  yeara  (  1822-35 1  another  Spaniih  Joamal,  Im* 
Varitdadet;  was  editor  of  the  Ijutdm  Rniae  (iaS9); 
•erved  aa  tutor  in  tbe  family  uf  archbiahop  Whalely  at 
Dublin,  from  1832  lo  I8II0 ;  removed  to  Liverpool,  where 
he  joined  the  Unitarian  Society,  of  which  the  Kev. 
John  Hamilton  waa  then  panor:  anddied  May  20,1811. 
He  was  the  author  ufa  great  many  worlu,  among  which 
are  Preparalory  ObteTmliom  oa  Ihe  Study  pf  Rdigioa 
{\8n):—Lelltri/raiH  Spain  (lSii):—Pj-acliail  lUiHlii- 
Itraal  Ecidaux agaiail  Calliolieum  {ISib)  ■.—Poor  Miih'i 
pTOtmaiin  agavul  Popeiy  { 1825) :  —  liifUogua  coa- 
ai-niHg  Ike  darck  of  Some  (1827)  -.^Ltlltr  to  Pralef- 
liliatCo»iltrttdfiamRomaiam(lSil):—SKOi^TrartU 
^a«  IiiahGailUnum  ta  SeanA  o/a  Religim  (IS33):— 
and  /.{/i  of  the  Rer.  Joerpk  Bhmeo  WhUe,  Wrilln  by 
IfinuflftuWlPorliuaiofliuConetpoiidnice;  edited  bv 
John  llamillon  Thorn  (1845,  3  voU.).  "Thia  book,  at 
the  time  of  its  appearance,  excited  a  good  deal  of  inter- 
est, and  ia  still  eminently  worth  referring  to.  The  cu- 
rious picture  it  preaenu  of  a  mind  at  once  pioua  mid 
sceptical,  longing  and  lorrowing  after  a  truth  which  it 
can  nowiiere  And,  or,  finding,  contrive  lo.reat  in,  has,  in 
the  preaent  unaettle<l  stale  of  religioua  opinion,  a  very 
particular  Bignidcaiicc.  Poor  While'a  life-long  aeiircb 
fur  a  religion  seema  not  to  have  been  a  succeHiTuI  one, 
and  to  have  landed  him  at  the  last  in  >  canditiuu  of 

Wbits,  Robeit  Mesdowa,  D.D.,  an  English 

clergyman  and  phitologiat,  was  bom  about  1798.  He 
gradnalol  at  Uagdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  I819i  wu 
onlainetl  in  1821;  became  a  tutor  at  Oxford  in  1832j 
Rawlinaon  piofesaor  of  Anglo-Saxon  in  1884;  visited 
Denmark  in  tbe  inlereals  of  philology  in  1887;  became 
vice-pmident  of  Magdalen  College  in  1888;  gave  con- 
siderable attention  to  local  antiquarian  research;  waa 
the  annalist  of  hii  college;  and  waa  regarded  a  leading 
authority  in  English  philology.  During  the  latter  por. 
tion  of  his  life  he  was  rector  of  Siimbridge,  UJoiu^ester- 
shire,wherehedied,  Jaii.81, 18Gi.  He  devoted  a  large 
part  of  his  time,  fur  twenty  yeaia,  to  the  editing  of  Tie 
Ormulam,  Semi-Sanm  HamUitt  i*  Verie,  aoic  Jiiit  td- 
ilrd  froBi  the  Origmal  MSS.,  tctlh  Noitt  und  Glaauiy 
(Oxford.  1852). 
Wliita,  Thi>inaB(l),O.D.,an  English  clergyman. 


It  llristi 


II  1550;  1 


>t  Mag- 


took  huly  unlets,  and  preacheil  frequently ;  received  the 
living  of  St.  Gregory's  in  London;  became  vicar  of  St. 
Duntran'a,  Fleet  Street,  in  1575;  waa  made  prebendary 
of  Mora,  St.  Paul's,  in  1588,  treasurer  of  ^alisbory  in 
I59U;  canon  of  Christ  Church  in  1691,  and  canon  of 
Windsor  ill  1693.  He  died  March  1.  IG24.  He  waa 
noted  for  bia  benefaction*  in  founding  hoapitals  aitd 
almsbouaes,  but  especially  for  the  founding  of  Sinn  Oil- 
lege,  London.     Hia  publiihed  works  contiat  of  a  few 

Wllite  (Lat.  Aagitu  fx  Alba,  Cmdidu;  or  VilHt; 
othcrwiee  called  Biaachi,  Rickieorlk,  and  Blartlot), 
Tbomaa  (2),  an  eminent  Kngliah  philosopher  and 
Koman  Catholic  priest,  waa  bnm  at  Halton,  Emex,  iu 
1582;  waa  educated  abroad  and  became  a  prieat  in 
ltll7 :  was  employed  in  leaching  philnanphv  ami  ilivin- 
ity,  residing  at  Diuay,  Home,  and  Paris  with 


12  WHITEFIELD 

interrupriona  until  I6BB,  when  he  waa  ejected  priad 
pal  of  the  Engliah  College  at  Liabon;  served  the  dun 
of  the  Engli^  minion  for  some  yean;  mided  far  a 
conaiderable  time  in  the  houae  uf  Sir  Keudn  Digbt. 
whoee  philoeophv  he  aupporled;  became  a  praO^Morii 
Douay  again  in  1650,  and  rice-principal  of  ibe  Eng&ib 
College;  spent  hia  latter  yean  in  England,  and  died  at 
Dniry  L^ne,  London,  July  K,  1S76.     He  was  ■  nkrai- 


iiig  deserve  mention:  Dialogurt 
laent  ofCommtm  Setae  ia  the  Ckai 
-De  Mamdo  Dialogi  Tree  (1642) : 
paletieamm  ad  dfoUen,  etc  (1 646)  -.—IntUiOiemt  TV 
oiogica  taper  Fkudamnilie  in  Pa-ipaletica  Dighamajat- 
lit  Emmaa  (1652) :— QueXioiiei  Tkeotogica,enc.{\(Xt]: 
—CoHleinplulioii  o/ffeawB,  etc  (1654):— T**  Grvnii 
ofObaUenct  awf  OoBrmmeml  (1656)  ■.—Religion  ami  ba- 
ton MuliutUy  ConrtpoHdiitg  and  A  Kitting  EaA  Olir 
( 1659)  -.^Tke  Middle  Stau  of  SoaU  from  Ike  Usmr  ^ 
llrutk  to  the  Dag  of  Jtidgtitut  (end.).  See  Chalma^ 
Biog.  Diet,  a,  v. ;  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Jwr. 
Aii(Aorj,a.v, 

"Wblte,  WiUlmm,  D.D.,  a  Proteatanl  Epiacciid 
biahop,  waa  bom  in  Philadelphia,  March  36. 1748.  He 
passed  A.a  at  Philadelphia  College  in  1765,  and  wat 
soon  after  ordained  in  England.  On  hi*  mum  ts 
Arnica  in  1772,  he  became  associate  minister  of  ChriK 
Church  and  St.  Peter's,  Philadelphia,  where  he  cmiiiD- 
ued  till  Ihe  Revolution.  In  1777  he  waa  chapUio  to 
Congreaa  and  was  elected  rector  of  Christ  nndSl.Pem'i 
churches  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  oonaeoated  liihap 
at  London  in  1787,  and  died  July  IT,  1836,  Exdnin 
of  periodicals,  he  published,  The  Cait  of  Ike  Epitnrd 
Ckvrtket  inlkt  Umlfd  SI'ilet  (1782):— rkm/gklum  Iki 
Singiiig  nf  Piiilmt.  etc,  aigned  "  Silas"  (18W)  -.-LeH- 
aret  OR  Ike  Caleekitm  "f  Iht  P.E.Ck>inh.nlh  S^fb- 
mealnrg  l^dtirrt,  etc  (1813,  2  vols.  Bvo)  •.—Compam- 
iite  liemi  of  Ike  Conlroceriy  betieeai  Ike  Cakviitri  aed 
Ihe  Armiiiiami,elc(\iU,i  \ii\i,.i<iny:—MemoiriofAi 
P.  E.  Ckurdi  H  Ike  Uniled  Slalei  (1820. 8vo)  ;— 4  Om- 
atnlarg  on  OntinalioH,  etc.  (1838,  Bvo):— .4>i  Fjrnij: 
—and  several  Addrmttt,  LdltTt,  and  Serwmitt.  Sa* 
Sprague,  A  tmaU  oftkt.  A  mer.  Piilpil,  v,  280. 

V7hitefi«ld,  GsoRQit.  a  pre-eminent  evangelist  ami 
founder  of  the  Calviniatic  branch  of  the  HetbodUu,  tra* 
a  native  of  GInuceater,  England,  in  the  Belt  Inn  of  which 
town  (hia  father  being  a  tavem-keepei)  he  wu  bm. 
Dec  16,  1714.  Hia  father  having  died  *hib!  Georp 
waa  yet  young,  the  boy'*  education  devolved  aokly  o 
hia  mother,  whose  pious  inalrueliona  and  eitample  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  imbuing  his  infant  mind  with 
strong  religious  impnssioni.  Having  resolved  lo  culti- 
vate the  superior  talents  with  vrhich  she  saw  George  «■ 
endoHcd.sliescnt  him  to  a  clanical  achooL  At  the  age 
of  lirtcen  he  hail  ilialinguishcd  himselfby  the  aecaracv 
and  cxient  of  his  knowledge,  and  by  hia'laste  in  Gnek 
and  Roman  Ulcratuie.  Dut  his  mother  not  succeeding 
in  the  hotel,  and  becoming  reduced  to  poverty,  liw 
progivaa  of  George's  education  waa  stopped,  ami,  being 
driven  to  undertake  nomt  menial  place  about  Ihe  olab- 
lishnient,hismaiinenand  morals  were  inueh  injured  by 
hia  aaaocisi  ion  with  irreligiouaservania.  Happily  hia  re- 
ligioua imprearions  revived,  and,  having  been  vonfirnied. 
he  received  for  the  llnl  lime  the  sacrament  of  the  LonTf 
supper.  Hia  mother'a  circumstance*  improving,  she 
sent  him  10  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  then  he 
Joined  in  forming  a  amsll  select  society  for  mutual  im- 
provement  in  religious  knowledge  and  penonal  piety, 
along  with  Ihe  Wesleya  and  a  few  colt^  eontempnta- 
rie*  of  kindred  spirit.  Dr.  Benson,  bishop  of  Gloucester, 
who  waa  acquainleil  with  hi*  rare  lalents  and  pieiy,  re- 
solved to  grant  him  nrdinalion,  and  the  solemn  cenrao. 
ny  waa  pnrfnrmed  at  Gloucester  on  June  20. 1736.  Hb 
llrst  sermon,  preached  on  the  following  Sabbath,  pm- 
duced  an  extraordinary  aenaation.  Fmu  GloiKwiier  he 
went  to  London,  where  he  preached  alternately  In  ilia 


WHITEFIELD 

diiptl  of  the  Towec  uid  «t  Ludgate  Prtaon  eveiy  Tue»- 
diy.  In  1737  he  jniiietl  hia  friends  the  Wealeyi  u  ■ 
mbMoiaiy  *t  the  Georgian  «ltlenieiil!  but  he  bid 
only  been  four  month)  resident  there,  when  he  returned 
u  Cu^im]  both  (o  obtiin  priest's  ordere  and  to  niae 
Mbseriptiont  for  erecling  an  orphan-hnuie  ill  Ihat  set- 
tlmiHil.  On  hia  arrival  in  Lundnu,  he  found  an  outcry 
niard  a^inat  him  on  account  of  Methodism,  llishop 
Benaon  diir^iirded  it  and  ordained  him  >  prtett.  But 
)i«wa>  denied  aceeta  lo  the  pulpits  of  many  old  friendtj 
md  hence  he  commenced  the  practice  of  open  -  air 
preacbiDg  in  Hoorfielda,  Keimington,  Blackhealh,  and 
olber  quarters,  where  his  minialrationa  were  atlend- 
(d  by  Tut  ciowda,  Having  niaed  a  fund  of  £1000 
r«  bii  orphanage,  Whitefielil  returned  in  1789  to  the 


it  Sava 
lear  him,  and  extraordinar]'  Kenes  of  excite- 
i  enacted.  On  March  26,  1740,  he  laid  the 
fint  brick  oftheorphan-aayliim;  anil  when  the  building 
■at  completed,  he  gave  it  the  name  of  Bethesda.  Al- 
though his  ministry  iraa  very  ancceasful  at  Savannah, 
he  sighed  for  his  native  land ;  and  accordingly,  in  1741, 


■aht 


igable  diligcin^e  to  preach  the  UoepeL  In 
pnracculion  lufthatcibjeei,  he  made  a  lour  through  Eng- 
land, Watee,  ami  Scotland,  preaching  in  many  places, 
and  alnaya  in  the  open  air,  to  immense  crowds.  While  ' 
iu  Waks,  he  married  Mrs.  Jones,  a  widow  tu  whom  he  ' 
hail  long  eheriahed  a  warm  attachment;  and  shortly 
afler  hia  marriage  he  repaired  to  l^indun,  where,  it  be- 
ii<g  ttinrer,  eome  uf  hia  admirers  erected  a  wnoden  shed 
in  nhich  he  preached,  and  which  he  called  the  Taber- 
nacle. He  WBB  under  the  patronage  of  the  countesa- 
duuager  of  Huntingdon,  to  whom  he  was  chaplain,  and 
whine  benevolence  he  shared  especially  in  the  support 
of  ihc  iximmunilv  of  which  be  wae  the  bead.  At  (he 
deaih  of  that  lady,  her  place  was  Hlled  by  bdy  RrAine. 
In  the  beginning  of  August,  1744,  Mr.  Whitclteld, 
though  in  an  inflrm  state  uf  health,  embarked  again  for 
America.  At  New  York  he  waa  taken  exceedingly  ill, 
iiiil  bis  death  waa  apprehended  i  but  he  gradually  re- 
cr>TeTeil  and  resumed  his  arduous  and  important  duties. 
He  was  tiill  very  much  inconvcnifiiiccd  with  pains  in 
his  side,  for  which  he  was  advised  to  go  lo  the  Ucrmu- 
Aa.  Landing  there  on  Uareh  lb,  1748,  ha  met  with 
the  kindest  reception,  and  traversed  the  Island  from  one 
end  lo  the  other,  preaching  twice  everyday.  His  con- 
gref;alinns  were  large ,  he  there  collected  upwards  of 
XlOU  for  his  orphan-school;  but  aa  he  feared  a  relapse 
in  his  disorder  if  he  returned  lo  America,  he  took  pas- 
sage in  a  brig,  and  arrived  In  safety  at  Deal,  and  the 
next  evening  act  off  for  London,  after  an  abaence  of 
four  jeaia. 

On  the  relamorHr.WhIlefleld,  he  found  his  congre- 
gation at  the  Tabernacle  very  much  acatlered,  and  his 
own  ppcuniaiy  circumstances  declining,  alt  his  household 
fomilure  having  been  sold  to  pay  the  orpban^hoiise  debt. 
His  congregation  now,  however,  began  tn  cnnlribute, 
and  bis  debt  was  slowly  liiiuidaUng.  At  Ibis  lime  lady 
Hunlined(m  sent  for  him  lo  preach  at  her  house  lo  sev- 
eral of  the  nolnlit)-,  who  deslreil  tn  hear  him;  amnng 
whom  was  the  eail  of  ChealerAeld,  who  expressed  him- 
self highly  gratified;  and  lord  Dnlingbroke  tnid  him  he 
bad  done  great  justice  to  the  divine  attribulea  in  hia 
discourse.  In  September  he  visited  Scotland  a  third 
time  and  was JoyfuDj  received.  His  thnnghta  were  now 
wholly  engaged  in  a  plan  for  rnaking  his  orphan-house 
(which  waa  at  first  only  intended  for  the  latherless)  a 
■eminaiy  of  literature  and  academical  leaming.  In 
February,  1749,  he  made  an  excursion  to  Exeter  and 

in  the  aame  year  he  returned  to  London,  having  truv- 
plled  about  six  hundred  miles  in  the  west  of  England ; 
md  in  May  he  went  to  Portsmouth  and  Pnriaea,  at 
which  placea  he  was  eminently  useful;  many  at  that 
rime,  by  the  inatramentality  of  hia  preaching,  being 
■uniied  from  daikuoa  to  light,  and  from  the  power  of 


13  WHITEFIELD 

Satan  unto  God."  In  September  he  went  to  North- 
ampton and  Yorkshire,  where  he  preached  to  congrega* 
tions  of  len  thousand  people,  who  were  peaceable  and 
attentive  ;  and  onlv  in  one  or  two  places  was  he  treated 
with  uukindneia.  In  17&1  Mr.  Whitefleld  visited  Ire- 
land, arul  was  gladly  received  at  Dublin;  his  labors 
there  were,  aa  usual,  veiy  uaefuL  From  Ittland  he  pro- 
ceeiled  lo  Scotland,  where  he  also  met  with  great  en- 
couragement to  proceed  in  his  indefatigable  work.  On 
Aug.  6  he  set  out  from  Edinburgh  for  Lcndon,  in  onler 
to  embark  for  America.  On  Oct.  27  he  arrived  at  8a- 
vainiah,  and  found  the  orphan-achool  in  a  flonrishing 
condition.  Having  sutTered  formerly  trnn  the  climate, 
he  detemined  not  to  apeitd  the  summer  in  America, 
but  re-embarked  fur  London,  where  he  arrived  in  safety. 

His  active  mind,  ever  forming  some  new  plan  for  lbs 
extension  of  the  Kedetmer'a  kingdom,  now  tamed  to- 
wards the  erection  of  ■  new  labemacle.  The  foundation 
waa  laid  March  1,  1753,  and  waa  opened  on  SutKlar, 
June  10,  1764.  After  preaching  in  it  a  few  days,  he 
again  leH.  Kngland  for  Scotland,  embracing  every  op- 
portunity of  preachin((  on  hia  toad  till  he  arrived  at 
Edinburgh ;  and  afler  Iravelling  twelve  hundred  milea, 
he  relumed  honw  on  Nov,  26,  and  opened  tbe  Taberna- 
cle at  Bristol,  after  which  he  returned  lo  London,  and  in 
September,  1756,  opened  bis  new  chapel  in  Tottenham 
Court  Koad.  Hia  labors  were  immense.  He  preached 
tifteen  times  a  neek;  hundreds  of  peisons  went  away 
from  the  chapel  withnnt  being  able  to  gain  admittance. 
By  his  unremitting  atteniiun  to  bis  congregation,  s(  the 
two  chapeli  tn  London,  his  strength  waa  much  reduced. 
About  ihe  end  ofihe  year,  finding  his  health  improved, 
he,  however,  determined  on  again  visiting  America. 
Towards  the  end  of  November  he  \tSt  England,  and  ar- 
rived at  Boston  the  beginning  of  January.  Aftcrspend- 
ing  Ihe  winter  pleaaantly  and  usefully  in  America,  be 
once  more  embarked  fiir  his  native  ^ores  and  landed 
in  England,  and  on  Oct.  fi,  I7G6,  opened  Ihe  countess  of 
Huntingdoii'a  chapel  at  Bath.  Shortly  alter  hia  arrival 
in  London,  His.  WhiteOeld  waa  seiied  with  an  InHam- 
roatory  fever,  and  became  its  victim  on  Aug.  9;  and  on 
the  14th  he  delivered  her  funeral  sermon,  which  waa 
distineuisbed  Ibr  its  palhoa,  aa  well  as  for  its  manly  and 
pious  eloquence. 

Me  now  prepared  for  his  seventh  btmI  last  vovage  to 
Nov.80;'bi     ■■ 


IS  fast  d 


oomplaint,  which  was  asthmi 


His 


unexpected.  Frotn  Sept.  17  to  the  SOih  this  faithful 
laborer  in  the  vineyard  of  Christ  preached  daily  at 
Boston;  and,  though  much  indisposed,  proceeded  from 


e  list. 


ork  until  the 


29th,  when  he  delivered  a  discourse  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  in 
the  open  air  lor  two  hours;  notwithstanding  which,  he 
set  oirror  Kew  bury  port,  where  he  arrived  that  evening, 
intending  lo  preach  the  next  morning.  His  rest  waa 
much  disturbed,  and  he  complaineil  of  a  great  op- 
presnon  at  his  lungs;  and  at  Ave  o'clock  on  Sabbath 
morning,  Sepl.  30,  I7T0,  at  the  age  of  only  fifty-six,  he 
entered  into  the  rest  prepared  for  Ihe  people  of  (iod. 
According  to  his  own  deaire,  Mr.  Whitefield  was  liilerred 
stNewbutyport.  He  and  Wesley,  though  one  in  heart, 
were  divided  in  their  theological  opinions,  and  hence  in 
the  early  part  of  their  career  their  paths  diverged.  The 
friendship  existing  between  them  ivas  not  nf  an  epheme- 
ral character,  but  remained  steadfast  lo  the  end.  Wes- 
ley preached  a  funeral  discourse  commemorative  of  his 


Mr.  Whitefleld  was  not  a  learned  man,  like  his  con- 
temporary, Wesley ;  bill  he  possessed  an  unusual  share 
of  good  sense,  general  infoTmation,  knowledge  of  tbe 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  Ihe 
iiuman  bean.  Few  ministers  have  been  equally  useful 
since  Ihe  days  of  the  apostles.  The  sermons  of  Mr. 
Whitefield  were  impaa»ioned,  and  generally  addressed  lo 


WHITEFJELD  91 

the  heort*  of  bis  congngnlioni.     He  ou  bnwvolcnC 

■nil  kinil, Turgiving  and  gentle;  but  hewn  zetloutand 
Bro);  nihl  Klilom  illuwed  hia  fedingt  lo  oTercome  bis 
judgDKPt.  He  wu  eminoill}-  uHful  in  having  ex- 
cited a  greater  itegiee  of  atcentian  to  religion ;  and 
milliona  have  doubtleu  blesacd  hii  name,  ai  una  of 

Wbitefleld  was  no  comnioii  preacher.  Parlieaofthe 
mcnt  nppuaile  character  and  principlea,  iDch  aa  Frank- 
lin, Hume,  and  John  Newlun,  have  united  in  bearing 
leatimuny  la  the  beauty  and  eflectiveneaaofWhiletield's 
piilpii  oratmy.  Dr.  Jamn  Hamiiloii,  of  London,  dc- 
■oriliing  WhiKflelil,  aaid, "  He  wa*  the  prince  uT English 
preachera.  Many  have  aurpaaaed  him  in  making  aer- 
mniii,  but  none  have  approached  iiim  ai  a  pulpil  ocalor. 
Many  have  onlabone  him  in  the  cleamna  uf  their  logic, 
the  grandeur  of  their  concepiioiia,  and  the  tparkling 
beanty  of  single  aenteneea;  but  in  [he  power  uf  darting 
the  Gospel  direct  into  the  coiiacieiice,  be  eclipaed  them 
all.  With  a  full  and  beaming  councenane*,  and  the 
frank  and  eaay  port  which  the  English  people  love,  he 
ci>m1»ned  a  voice  of  rich  compass,  which  cuuld  equally 
thrill  over  Uuorfielda  In  miiaical  thunder  or  whisper  ila 
terrible  aecret  in  every  private  ear;  and  to  hia  gainly 
aap<H;t  and  tuneful  voice  he  added  a  most  expreasire 
T  used  ao  boldly,  nor 


Hit  thoughts  1 


■,  the  highei 


iCylea  of  in 


d  hia  feelinga  were 
I  if  he  spoke  beeaune  he  felt,  hia 
hearera  understood  because  they  aaw.  They  were  not 
only  enthusiaatic  amateurs,  like  Uarriek,  who  ran  to 

colder  critica  of  the  Watpole  achool  were  eurpriaeil  into 
momentary  aympithy  and  reluctant  wonder.  Lord  Chea- 
tetfieldwasliiieninginlady  Huntingdon's  pew  when  he 
described  the  unner  under  the  character  of  a  blind  beg- 
gar led  by  a  little  tlog.    The  dog  escape*,  from  aome 

hia  stalf.  Unconacioualy  he  wanders  to  the  edge  of  a 
precipice;  hia  atalT drop*  Tram  hi*  hand,  down  the  abyae 
loo  far  to  send  back  an  echo ;  he  reaches  furward  rau- 
tiuualy  to  recover  it:  for  a  moment  he  poises  on  vacan- 
cy, aiiid—' Good  Ood!'  shouted  Chcaterlield,  ■  he  ii  gone,' 

But  the  gtorv  of  Whitefleld's  preaching  was  its  beart- 
kiniUeil  and 'heart-melting  GospeL  Without  this  all 
his  bolil  strokes  and  brilliant  impersonation  a  would 
have  been  nn  better  than  the  rhetorical  triumphs  of 
many  pulpit  dramaiiats.  He  wa*  an  oratnr.  but  he 
only  sought  to  be  an  evangelist.  Like  a  volcano  where 
^Id  and  gems  may  be  ejected  as  well  aa  common  things, 
but  where  gold  and  molten  grsnite  flow  all  alike  in  Hery 
fusion,  bright  thoughts  ami  splendid  images  might  be 
projected  from  his  pulpit,  but  all  were  mei)^  in  the 
stream  that  Imre  along  the  (Jospel  and  himself  in  blend- 
ed fervor.  Indeed,  an  simple  wai  hit  nature  that  glory 
lo  God  and  good-will  to  man  had  filled  it,  and  there  was 
room  for  little  tnore.    Having  no  Church 


4  WHITON 

be  wa*  familiar;  and  lo  see  the  deaf  old  gentIe«oaa^ 
who  u*ed  to  utter  imprKationa  on  him  as  he  paati 
along  the  atreel,clainberinguptbe  pulpit  atairs  toealck 
bis  angelic  words,  was  a  Mirl  oTapecUele  which  ibe  ni- 
umphaot  Gospel  often  witnessed  in  Bis  day.  Wb«  k 
is  known  that  bis  voice  could  lie  beard  by  twenty  tbos- 
aand,  and  that  ranging  all  the  empire,  ■*  welt  ■■  AnieT- 
ica,  he  would  alien  preach  thrice  on  awovking  dmj.aat 
that  he  has  received  in  one  week  aacoaiiyasa  lliiiii^iil 
lettCTS  from  peinona  awakened  br  hia  sermons — if  aa 

some  idea  may  be  auggtoled  of  its  vast  extent  and  as- 
giilar  effiMtivene**." 

Whiufield  puUitheil  a  number  of  smDona,  joamak, 
etc,  and  hia  entire  workt  were  primed  in  l^doa  b 
177t-7S  (7  vols.  8vo),  including  a  I^ft  by  Gillies.  Fat 
other  liletaure,  see  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Bril.  otd  Amur. 
A  Mikon,  t.  V.  Tbe  beat  bit^raphv  i*  by  TvcnaH, 
Lift  0/  GtoryB  WAtirfitU  (Lond.  IBTft  2  Toh.  8to)l 

Whltaboose.  Heirv  Joiih,  D.O^  D.CU,  a  Pna- 
estant  Episcopal  clergyman,  waa  born  in  New  York  dcy 
in  August,  tSOS.  He  grwtuated  at  Columbia  College  in 
laSI,  and  at  the  General  Theolngical  Seminary  (E{«*- 
copal)  in  1B34;  waa  ordained  deacon  tbe  same  vear.aad 
priest  in  1827:  was  rector  uf  St.  Luke's  CbiiiTh',Racb(*- 
ler,  from  18S9  to  1844,  and  of  St.lliomss's,  New  Yiirfc, 
from  1844  to  1851 ;  was  consecrated  aseistanl  bishop  gf 
Illiaois,  Nov.  10,  1851  ;  waa  chosen  to  surreed  bishsp 
Chase  in  that  diocese  at  the  death  of  the  latter  in  IKat: 
preached  the  aerroon  before  the  Pan-Anglicau  OnBcil, 
London,  in  1867,  and  died  Aug.  10, 18T4.  His  only  pab- 
lications  are  in  the  form  uf  ^nHnas.  A  ddrritH,  tie. 

Wtaltglft,  Jans,  D.D..an  eminent  Kngliih  prdale, 
was  bom  at  Great  Griniiby,Lincolnsbire,inl&30.  Hesia 
educated  at  Queen'*  College,  and  Pembroke  Hall.  Cas- 
bridge,  where  be  graduated  in  Ibbi ;  waa  choeen  leUam 
of  Peterhouse  in  1&0&;  entered  into  boly  onlrn 


family 


hew 


Lmbaasador  of  God,  and  inspired 
niai,  piieoua  spirit — so  full  of  heaven  recnnci 
manily  realoreil — he  suoa  himself  became  a  living  Gos- 
pel. .  •  .  Coming  to  his  work  direct  from  communioii 
with  hia  (faster,  and  in  the  atrength  of  accepted  prayer, 
there  was  an  elevation  in  hia  mien  whicli  often  para- 
lyzed hostility,  and  a  aelf-pomcHion  which  made  him, 
smiLl  uproar  and  confusion,  the  more  sublime.  With 
an  electric  bolt  he  would  bring'the  jester  in  hia  fool'a- 
cap  from  hi*  perch  on  the  tree,  or  galvanii 
bat  from  the  akulking  miecreant'a  grasp,  or 
in  crouching  aubminMon  and  shame-faced  silence  the 
whole  of  Bartholomew  Fair;  while  a  revealing  fla*h  of 
aententiouB  doctrine,  of  vivined  Scripture,  would  diacliiae 
to  awe-struck  hundreds  the  foigotten  verities  of  another 
world  or  the  unauspected  arcana  of  the  inner  man.  '  I 
came  to  break  your  head,  but  through  you  God  hai 
broken  my  heart'  wa*  a  aort  of  .confeasion  with  which 


indw 


appoint 


flCox,biabopofEly, 


•fFeversham,  in  Cambri,lg«ldn: 
wa*  appointed  lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge  in  166S;  became  chaplain  to  the  queen  b 
1666;  waa  president  of  PeUrbouse  in  IM7;  becaiK 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in  April  of  the  sauw  year: 
waa  appointed  regiiia  professor  of  divinity,  and  yet  ihc 
same  year  became  roaster  of  Trinity  Cullege;  bteaos 
prebendarv  of  Elv  in  1568;  viceH>haucellOT  of  Ibe  Uai- 
vereity  of  Cambridge  in  1670;  dean  of  Lincoln  in  1^1; 
prebendary  of  lincoln  in  1573;  bishop  of  Worcestev.  *d4 
vice-president  of  the  Marchea  of  Wales  in  IsTT:  was 
chosen  the  aucctasor  of  Edmund  Grindal  as  archbitbe^ 
of  Canterbury  in  1588 ;  waa  very  severe  in  his  prosrca- 
tion  of  Noncnnfonniala,  both  Puritans  and  Catholics. aiid 
was  noted  for  his  strenuous  advocacy  of  tbe  eocstitutkB 
of  tbe  English  Church;  obtained  a  decree  againM  liber- 
ty of  printing  in  1585;  became  privy-councillor  in  158E; 
founded  a  hoapital  and  grammar-school  at  CrD\-<lua  ia 
1695;  joineil  in  the  deliberations  of  the  conferrnce*  al 
Hampton  Court  in  Jann■^^',  1604 ;  and  died  at  Lunbeih 
PaUce,  Feb.  39.  of  the  same  year.  Tkr  Worh  o/Jtia 
WAOsift,  AreibMop  a/ CaalrHiiciy  (Cambridge,  1S5I- 
54,  8  vula.),  were  edited  fur  the  Parker  Socicly  by 
the  Rev.  John  Ayre.  Biogrnpkiri  have  been  wrii- 
ten  bv  Sir  George  Paule  (ini!)  and  John  Siiype 
(17I8\ 

^KfUton.  JoHS  Milton,  D.D.,  ■  PiMh^Ierian  di- 
vine, wa*  bom  at  Winchendon,  Moas^  Aug.  1, 1785.  H* 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1805;  Uugbt  an  aonleDie 
school  in  Litcbttetd,  Conn.,  for  one  jeari  studied  theoU 
ogy  privately;  was  ordained  and  installed  pasinr  of  ibt 
Presbyterian  Church  In  Antrim,  N.  H.,  Sept.  XB,  1808; 
resigned  Jan.  I,  1S6S,  and  became  acting  pasiot  of  a 
Congregational  Church  in  Bennington.  N.  IL,  when  be 
continued  till  bis  death,  Sept.  28,  IS5G.  He  puhlisbed 
several  single  sermona,  and  contributed  Bri^  .Vttkm 
Kflke  Tom  of  Antrim  to  the  A'cw  HampMrt  Bill.  Mt 
i'.-.SI6-i«4,andtath«A9»«ror]ru.dcian<^(ieJVs» 


WHITTAKER  9i 

iHtn  ••/  HiUJionHigk,  S.  U.  S(«  Spn)(i<«,  A  mtaU  of  Ike 
A  ma:  Palpil,  iv,  41S,  uou ;  AUibone,  JJia.  a/  Bril.  and 
AKa:Aaliori,t.v. 

'Wblttakar,  JoHK  Williah,  D.D.,  m  Kngliah  ili- 
Tinp,w>sbnmUMBiich«i[eriiil790.  tie  •fueduciied 
«  SI,  John'e  College,  OsfurtJ,  of  vrhiih  he  became  t  fel- 
kiw;  wurDideTicitof  St.  Mary's,  Blackbum.nnil  in  IH52 
honorary  caimu  of  Manchester.  He  died  Aug.  3, 18M. 
He  published,  An  /fufot-ical  and  Crilical  i'lijniiy  ia/o 
rkt  /nlrrprtialic*  of  Iht  Htbrtm  Scripfuni  (1819):— 
Sxpptemeia  lo  the  same  (1820)  -.—Jaiti/ittHion  ijr  Failk : 
riet  Strman,  etc  <IS2G)  -.-The  Calhotie  ChiTck:  Fiee 
tfrriwMi  (1SS5}  1 — and  other  lerRionB  and  papeti. 

^71iitteinoia,  Thohas,  D.D.,  an  Americiin  Uni- 
Teraaliat  mininter,  wai  bom  in  Boston  in  1800.  He  wu 
■p)irenticed  auccenivelj  aa  a  morocco -dreaacr,  bra»- 
fiiuniler,  and  boot-maker:  atuilied  Iheolngy,  and  in  April, 
1  Hll,  was  settled  as  paitor  of  tbe  Churth  at  Miirard, 
Man.;  removed  to  a  Church  at  CanibritlgepDrt  in  1822; 
reugned  this  pastorate  in  1831,  but  remained  in  Cbid- 
Lriilge  the  rest  nf  his  Ufej  wasjnint  editor  of  the  Uni- 
rerialiit  MagtaiHe;  esUbliihed  Tkt  Tniipel,  a  Ulli- 
veraalisl  newspaper,  in  18^  and  was  sole  editor  and 
pniprietor  of  it  for  thirty  years ;  was  a  meaiber  nf  the 
Masaach metis  Legislature,  president  of  the  Cambridge 

Kailroad,  aud  died  in  Cimbridge,  Mareh  SI,  1861. 
waa  tbe  author  of,  Uodent  Hiitoiy  of  Uniant 
(1830)  -.^A  CommeHaTy  on  tie  Rnelation  of  SI.  Jnkn 
(1838);— Cownntary  o»  lie  Book  of  Daniel  ^—Ptni 
Omide  10  Umetna^m  (1840)  -.—AiUMoarapl^  (ISo9) : 

^rhlt!iriBh°n'i  William  Rollinm>:(,  D.D.,  LLB. 
a  iHihiip  of  the  I^teatant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born 
ill  New  Yiwk  city,  Dec  8, 1806.  He  graduated  in  182£ 
from  the  General  Theokigical  Seminary  in  New  Yorli 
ciiy,  and  was  ordained  two  years  later.  St.  Mark's,  Or 
uige,  N.  J„  was  bia  first  pastoral  cha^,  which  he  held 
from  1828  for  a  yMr  and  a  half.  In  1831  he  becamt 
rector  ofSi.  Luke's  pari>h,Mew  York  city.  While  then 
his  health  failed,  and  he  made  a  trip  to  Italy,  recuniiii)< 
niucb  beueflted.  In  183^  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  ut 
eccleuastical  historv  in  the  General  ThefitnKical  Semi' 
tiar}-.     In  1846  he  was  elected 


"iifih 


died  at  Wast  Orange,  N.  J.,  Oct.  17, 1879.  Tbe  Pmith 
/^•brarg,  13  toIb^  was  edited  by  hiiD,  and  he  was  alsii 
eilitor  of  The  CiuTtAnon,  a  well-known  Episoapal  peri- 
■xlical.  Tia  Family  VUilor  and  CkUdTBi'i  Magaziai 
were  also  under  his  editorial  supervision.  Kshc^  Whii- 
liagbam's  library  was  considered  one  of  the  llneat  ciil- 
lectiuns  in  America.  See  Amtr.  ChunA  Rea.  xxxi, 
476. 

'WUttlMB;,  Wi;.i.iAH,  archbishop  ur  Caoterbury, 
isauppoaed  to  hare  been  a  native  of  Whittlesey,  s  town 
aituatnl  in  the  County  of  Csmhridge,  and  received  his 
education  at  the  University  of  Camhridge.     In  1349  hi 

■iun  tnm  the  founder.  In  1B61  William  Whittlesey 
was  consecrated  to  the  see  of  Ki>che«ter,  and  on  Oct.  11, 
1368,  he  fuuml  himself  primale  of  all  England  and  met- 
Topulilan  by  order  of  the  pope.  It  seems  that  he  wu 
rieither  physically  nor  intellectually  adequate  to  the 
exigencies  of  his  poaidon  or  the  requiremenia  of  the 
time.  Hi*  government  waa  weak.  The  condition  of 
the  Church  Irouhled  him  greatly.  He  felt  deeply  hit 
incapacity  to  take  his  proper  place  In  the  counir)'. 
However,  to  Whittlesey  belongs  [tie  merit  of  having 
put  an  end  to  the  disputes  which  frequently  arose  be- 
tween the  University  of  Oxrord  and  the  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln. He  died  in  June,  1ST4.  See  Hook,  Lieu  of  Ike 
Areiiui4>pi  </ Coaferiaty,  ir,  2S1  sq. 

'WioklU     SeeWvcuTF*. 

'WUbarfOTOe,  aBmnel,D.Oqan  English  prelate. 


WILBERFORCE 

n  nf  William  WilberfiiTCe.  was  bnm  ar  Clapham,  Sept 

1806.    HegnHlualedatOrielCi>llrRe,Uirurd,inI826r 

became  curate  of  Chickenden,  Oxfordshire,  in  1828:  reo- 

tor  of  Brixton  (Brightatone),  Isle  of  Wight,  in   1830; 

Kt  preacher  before  the  University  ofOxforil  in  I8S7; 

lor  of  Alverstoke,  Hanta,  archdeacon  of  Surrev,  and 

iplain  In  pnnoB  Albert,  all  in  lBS9t  canon  of  Win< 
cheater  Cathedral  in  ISIO;  snb-«lmoner  to  the  queen 

1844 ;  dean  of  WestminsMr  and  select  preacher  ba- 
re the  University  of  Oxford  in  184fi;  bishop  of  Ox- 
'd,  ti>  which  is  attached  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the 
Moat  Noble  Order  of  tbe  Garter,  in  November  of  the 
same  I'car;  lord  high  almooer  to  the  queen  in  No- 
vembe'r,  1847,  and  bishop  of  Winchester  in  October, 
[889.  He  waa  killed  by  a  fall  from  hia  horn  while 
riding  near  Dorking,  July  19,  1873.  He  was  one  of 
blest  debaten  in  the  House  of  Lnnls,  and  fur  hia 
tility  of  opinions  was  known  as  "Slippery  Sam." 
He  was  very  popular  in  the  highest  society,  was  a  lead- 
the  High-Church  party,  hut  an  opponent  uf  Uit- 
ualism.  He  was  the  author  of,  A'o(e  Rook  of  a  Caimlry 
CUrggmm  (ISSS) -.—EvdUin^iat  (1839) :— fli»*oiy  of 
Ikt  ProlaUoH  EpitBOpal  Ckurck  in  Avarica  (1844)1— 
Ifeiwi  of  llfbrtK  Hulory  (1870) :— and  many  olber 
miacellaneous  works,  including  sennona,  charge*,  ato- 
ries,elc. 

^niberfbroe,  Willluu,  an  Rngliah  philanthro- 
pist, was  bora  It  Hull,  Aug.  i4,  ITfiS.  His  (slber  was 
a  merchant  of  tbat  dtr,  deacended  from  the  ancient 
Yorshira  family  of  Wilberfoas.  He  first  attended  the 
grammar-school  at  Hull;  but  on  the  death  of  hia  father, 
in  1768,  he  was  transferred  to  the  care  of  his  uncle,  who 
placed  him  in  a  school  at  Wimbledon.  While  at  this 
school  hia  aunt,  who  waa  an  ardent  admirer  of  White- 
licld's  preaching,  first  led  him  to  the  contemplation  of 
the  truths  of  religion  \  but,  at  the  same  time,  imprtased 
upon  him  her  peculiar  views.  His  mother,  (earing  lest 
he  should  become  ■  Methodist,  removed  him  from  the 
care  of  hia  uncle  and  pUced  him  in  the  Focklington 
(irsmmar-BchooI,  in  Yorkshire,  where  his  serious  impres- 
"iuns  were  soon  dissipated  in  a  life  of  ease  and  gevety. 
In  October,  1776,  he  entered  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, being  only  seventeen  yeara  of  age.  He  grad- 
uated In  1781,  aud  almost  immediately  thereafter  was 
elected  member  of  Parliament  from  Hull.  He  now 
came  to  London,  and  entered  at  once  into  the  first  socie- 
ty. He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  most  fashionable 
clubs,  and  became  intimate  with  tbe  leading  wits  and 
politicians  of  the  day.  He  had  fonncd  an  intimacy 
u'itli  Pitt  while  at  Cambridge  which  now  became  still 
closer.  In  Parliament  he  look  but  little  i>art  in  the  de- 
bates, but  was  generally  opposed  to  Lord  Norih'a  ad- 
ministration, and  particularly  adverse  to  the  American 
War.  In  1T84,  while  delivering  an  address  before  the 
freeholders  of  York,  they  suddenly  decided  to  have  him 
for  their  repreaentative,  and  he  waa  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment from  this  the  largest  countv  in  England.  He 
made  a  tour  on  the  Continent  during  l'M-86  with  Mr. 
Pitt  and  the  Kev.  Isaac  Milner.whoae  influence,  coupled 
with  the  reading  of  the  New  Test,  and  Doddridge's 
RiMt  and  Pivgrtu,  awakened  in  him  thnrc  serious  ira- 
preasions  which  had  been  implanted  by  his  aunt  at 
Wimbledon,  and  Axed  In  him  the  determination  to  de- 
vote his  life  to  (inl  and  humanity.  On  his  reliirn  to 
England  he  began  to  devote  himsdf  to  all  reforms 
which  opportunity  permitted.  But  in  1787  he  began  a 
■cries  of  eSbrta  for  the  reforniation  of  manners,  the  sup- 
pression nf  vice  and  immorality,  and  ea|>eciBlly  for  the 
aimliLiun  uf  the  African  slave-trade.  He  opeived  the 
debate  against  the  Iraffic  in  May,  1789,  ami,  during  all 
the  period  that  followed  until  Ih*  accomplishment  of 
this  great  result,  never  lost  sight  of  the  one  object  of 
his  public  career.  He  continued  to  represent  York  un- 
til 1812,  from  which  lime  until  1825  he  was  representa- 
tive from  nramher.  From  tbe  Enijluk  Cyciopmdia 
(Biog.  Div.  vi,  600,  601)  we  quote  tbe  account  of  hia 
elTorts  against  the  slave-trafflc : 


WILBROKD  9 

"Reljiug  mnre  npoD  tbe  hanuM  nod  mllsSoiu  f«1' 
Inni'  ut  th«  coniiU7  Uud  npod  pailiiineiiUrT  miiiimitI,  Iib 
■vnlled  hiiuuiruftbe  •niicjrDia  aiKtelT  "f  which  <lrnn- 
lllle  Hbnri)  wim  Ihs  pmidgut.  and  Thiiniiis  Cl»rki»in  Ihe 
*Kcnl.  ThmDiiliniit  llw  glnieEle,  irhlcli  iHtted  infiitr 
vHn,  M  r.  Wilbcrbrc*  wiu  lod^itl^able.    Y»r  nfler  jear 

._ orlilucbej 

auigei.l  collecllau  uiid  aililni 


- lerrcd.   Thwiirled  ai 

^  eiuniuatlon  of  nlliHHcr,  01 


BialKhtiif 


ncVitertdeiice.   Ont'nf  Patlln- 
ine  >snl<^  greui  ol>)ect.    lublt 
itcd  (he  BKoport  uf 


cc'hciC 


UgiiBB  which  be  wh  forced  to  cudure.    In  Uie  *pr1iig 
1^  when  bis  lab.<n  wtn  jret  lo  cniiM,  his  healib  nu- 
pcared  cndralj  In  bll  JVoni  an  nlwulule  decnj  of  iba  d1- 
esailvDonr-ina.    Tbeflnt  ph*iilcliaa,nrraTni:i>iiaDltatlon. 
doclanil  to  his  fauilly 'Ihnt  b>  had 


fortnlsbt:'  and.  nlihuaih  b*  bnpiilly  tetnvcntl  frnm  hli 
llluaH;  wa  Had  bim  cnlainliiR  uu  New-jcar's^iiT.  UM, 
*At  ttaW  aiid  a  halt  t  am  In  conttllntliHi  iIiit.'  Fmm 
bl>  UtIUief  be  bnd  »nfbr«d  mncb  IViiui  vnnk  ejcr,  aud  bla 

iljrliiM        ■   ■ ■     "■-  ■- 

Sllll.r1 

At  le 
at  Am 


aierllona  wera 
Jnl  bl  


anllj  relied 


ij7  8(111.  rialiltl  wllb 

vij  dlMppolMmaiil,  taa  ccjiuuci-nj  Kum 

_  inccaH.    At  kuBtb  lbs  boor  of  irinmpb 

■t  bnnd.     I&  Jaunanr,  1S*I,  be  pobllabed  a  book 

■      ■  ■      -  111  Ihal  qneailon 

„.  ofLwdi.    The 

Abolillun  Bill  paHtd  ih«  Lord^and  lu  piwaau  through 

BIr  Samnel  Rornlllj  coiictNdad  an  atlocllng;  apeavti  In  fu- 
vot  ortbe  bill  -by coiilraailng tbe  IMIivita  oTNauoleni),  In 
all  bla  iirentiiena,  wlib  ibiH  of  that  bimored  indlvldnal 
wb«  would  ihia  dnj  lay  1>l>  head  apou  hie  i^llnw  mid  re- 


eered  Ur.  Wilbeifinre  wlib  Ibree  cheers,' 


belt  and  the  monk  Wigberl,  two  Di^mbert  of  Ihe  Anp^ 
Irish  Cburch,  the  latter  of  whom  bad  preached  Lliria- 
tianity  in  FrtPaland  for  two  yean  iii  vain.     Ilaviatt 
delermined  to  umltnake  the  work  wbicb  had  bafieU 
bia  preceptor,  Wilhrurd  departed  for  Kriealand  in  the 
''1,  taking  with  him  eleven  or  Iweli'e  diaci|ilai 
When  they  arrired  at  L'tncht,  tbey  woe  warmly  ^t- 
ceived  by  Pepin  tbe  Big,  who  had  juat  gained  a  vioan 
the  FriMaiu.     In  C9£  he  viuled  Bonie  to  Rain  ih* 
'  and  influence  of  Ebc  pope,  and  in  G9&  made  a  kc- 
k'ieit  to  the  papal  capital,  and  waa  made  hichi^  al 
the  Friitatia  with  the  ecclesiastical  name  of  Clrwait. 
epiacupal  chair  at  Ctncbi.  wboe  be 
of  Si.  Saviuur,  Bnd  reelored  that  of 
St.  Martin.     He  visited  the  Danes  and  made  rnanr  a»- 
:  then.  praceedJiig  by  Hater,  he  came  lo  tbe  island 
i  Foaitialand  (probably  the  present  Helicoland). 
the  name  of  the  idol  wnnhipped  there^     Hen  his 
disr^^rd  of  their  aupentilion*  and  af  the  nbjnts  W 
them  belli  sacred  subjected  him  (o  great  o]ipoeition  and 
iwerrr,  he  was  sureesaful  ia 
eicaping  punishment.     Hi*  work  wif  tariiely  utKlmcbT 
^e  death  of  I'epin  in  714,  and  the  colueqiient  retlin- 
nn  of  the  heathen  monarch  Kadbnd.     But  Wilbrenl 
iijnyed  the  pattnnsKe  of  Charles  Martel,  irhMie  aoc- 
fisea  reestablished  him  in  his  episcopal  aulboritv  and 
ifluence.      He  founded  the  monastery  of  Epternach, 
ear  TreTCS,  about  698,  and  (here  died  and  wa*  band 
1  7SB.     His  day  in  the  calendar  i>  the  7lh  of  Noi-em- 
er.    See  Beile.' Hilo™  KrTfrnairioT,  T,  si.  liJ ;  )la- 
illon,.4n«itr>  Orrisiw^.  Amrfifti^libL  xviiii  Wright, 
Bingrapkia  Srilamna  Lileraria   (Aii(;lo  -  Sjuon  Pe- 
riod), p.  460-262;  Hoefer.A'aiff.  fiti^.  (;«iunitr,>.T. 
'W^Uey,  Allen,  D.D.  a  Hethodiat  Episcopal  diiioe, 
ta  bom  in  Frederick  County, Ta.,  Jan.  15, 1789:    He  re- 
moved lo  Indiana  with  bia  parents  in  IMH;  was  brought 
V  the  Church  under  the  ministrv  of  Rev.  Hows  Cromt 
1810;  llcenaed  to  exhort  Sept.  iO,l8II, and  (o  preach 
Iv  11,  ISIS,  and  waa  admitted  on  trial  in  the  (Hii* 
"1  1817.    "Thew 


riliced  friendahip  lu  the  cause  of  truth  and  bumi 
and  nerer  suffered  an  opportunity  to  escape  for  ■ 
good.    Hisgrcat  task,  however,  was  the  agitation 
gro-emancipation,  which  he  continued  until  his  t 
ment  in  1825.    The  emancipation  act  passed  just  before 
hisdealh.    "Thank  (;ad,''haeiclaimed,"lhat  I  should 
have  lived  to  witness  a  day  in  which  Englaml  ia  will- 
ing to  give  twenty  milliona  sterlina  for  rhe  abolition 
of  slavery-  V     He  died  at  Cadogan  Place,  London,  July 
29, 1833,'nnd  waa  buried  in  Weslminaier  Abbey  with    " 
the  bunora  of  a  public  funeral.     Hi*  most  importt 
literary  work*  are,  Spaxi  in  Iht  Home  of  Ctmmoiu 
(At  AboHlioB  of  Ihe  Sttict^Tade  {\im):~~Praclkal  Vi 
nftht  Prrrailmg  RtUgioui  SgHtnu  af  Praftttd  Chr 
Ham  in  Iht  /ligker  and  iliddU  CUatm  in  Ihia  CottMrg 
Conlt-aalrd  ailh  Rtid  Chriilitmil^  (l'i97):~ Apology fo 
tkr  ChHMian  SaUali  (I799|  -^l^lltr  on  fAe  AbolHkm 
af  Ihe  Slare-lrade,  Addrtttrd  lo  Ihe  FreekoUen  and 
alkrr  Inhabilaali  of  Yarhhire  (tMOi) :— and  others  on 
philanthropic  and  religious  aubjeda.     See  [bv  hii  sona 
Robert  Isaac  and  .Samuel)  Tht  Lift  of  Wimam  WU- 
htrfora  (U.nd.  1838.  S  vols.  8vo};  id.  Tht  Cormpond- 
aux  of  H'iWnn  H'tftei/arcc  (ibid.  1840,  S  vnU) ;  Gur- 
nev,  famHiar  Sketch  of  WHberfara  (enl.) ;  Chipchaae, 
Charaelir  af  »'iflwi»    WUierfora   (1844);  Colli  " 
Memoir  of  WiUiam  Wilber/orce  (1865);  and  Harfo 
RtaolUmiom  of  Wiiliaia  Wilbtrfanr,  Etq„  M.P.,  etc 
Wilbrord  (or  WllIlbrod),ST„con3mui.ly  k»n 
as  "The  Apostle  to  the  Frisians,"  waa  bom  in  the  Si 
on  kingdom  of  Nnrthumbria  about  A.D.  667.     He  waa 
placed  in  Wilfred's  monastery  at  Kpon  while  still  1 
child,  and  adopted  the  monastic  profession  before  hi 
was  twenty  years  old.     He  then  risiteil  Ireland,  when 
he  spent  thirteen  yean  under  the  inairiiclian  of  St.  Eg' 


erancy  was  the  beginn 


ling  extensive  ci 


great  and  ptr- 
Eleven  yean  he  spent  in  tmrl- 
a;  for  fourteen  yean  he  acted  as 
ir  live  rear*  he  was  stationed  in 
the  principal  large  towns.  He  waa  chosen  rtclr»^ie  Cd 
each  Geikeral  Conference  from  IB3S  to  1844.  He  died 
at  Vevay,  Ind.,  July  2S,  1848.  Dr.  Wiley  was  a  man  <i 
God,  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  able  and  succesnful  as  a 
minister.  For  a  number  of  years  he  read  the  Scripiuni 
in  the  Hebtevt,  Ijtin,  and  Ureek  languages.  -  He  «S4 
one  of  the  active  fi«inden  and  patrons  of  the  Indiana 
Anbury  Univenity,and  held  for  many  yearv  Ihe  posit im 
of  trustee.  He  wrote  for  the  Weiitrti  Ckrittitn  Aint- 
mle  a  number  of  arlicles  on  '  Ministerial  Charuter  and 
Duties,'  which  were  siiliaei|uen1ly  cnlleded  ami  pob- 
liahed  in  a  separate  work,  oihI  are  now  comained  in  the 
account  of  his  Lift  and  Tima,  written  by  Dr.  F.  C.  Hol- 
liday."  See  Uuwlet  of  Ataaal  Cuo/trtwn,  it,  «6; 
Simftan,  Cj/etop.  of  lltlhoditm,*.T.;  Sfngar,  Jtaalt 
oflheAiKr.Palpil,vi\,Se9.     (J.  1,8.) 

Wll«7.  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  Diiuister, 
wu  bom  at  Flalbuah,  L.  I.,  May  30,  IBIO.  Ke  was 
the  second  son  of  Charles  Wiley,  bookseller  and  pub- 
lisher in  New  Yorli  dty.  After  Ihe  usual  school  praf»- 
antion,  he  entered  Oiiombia  College  in  1835.  wid  re- 
mained as  a  student  there  until  the  death  of  hin  biher, 
in  1836.  He  then  entered  the  law-oSce  of  Grifrpn  and 
Simng,  a  well-known  law  Arm  in  Wall  Street,  and  pnt- 
Boed  the  aturiy  of  the  law  with  ardor  and  tnach  pnimise 
of  success.  During  the  religious  revival  of  I83lt-£l  be 
Joined  Ur. Joel  Parker's  Church,  and  resolved  lo  become 
a  minister  of  the  Gospel.  In  1881  be  entered  Piinae- 
ion  College,  and  in  1832  went  to  the  Theoli^cal  Sem- 
inary at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  graduating  in  1SS3  after  a  faO 
course  of  three  years.  He  became  a  residetit  Ikeik. 
tiale  there,  and  after  spending  a  abort  time  at  Xcw  Ha- 


WILFRID  9 

T«o,Conn^  wu  in  1837  anl>in«d  iiiij  intUlled  n  putoi 
of  Ihe  Congregalioali  Church  at  NonhlmptoTi,  Miu., 
wnerc  he  nmsinHl  eight  yan.  In  1816  he  wis  in- 
■ulled  ovet  the  Reforaied  Dulch  Church  at  Utici,  N.  Y„ 
where  he  reiniined  unlil  1853.  In  ChM  jeir  he  wu 
■ppainteil  president  of  Milwaukee  Univenitr,  end  held 
ihit  posilifln  Tor  leveral  j'earai  but  the  flnaneial  crisis  or 
1857  niaile  it  impowilile  for  Ibll  inslilution  ta  sustain 
eampetition  with  others  earlier  in  the  SeU,  mil  the  ef- 
fort la  build  it  up  was  discontinued.  In  1858  he  aup- 
plieil  Ihe  Presbj-terian  Church  al  Idfiyetlr,  Ind.,  and 
wst  rectcr  of  the  high-school  there,  [n  I85D  he  supplied 
Ihe  Congtt^galional  Church  al  IHrmingham,  Conn.  In 
IHSn  he  was  nettled  over  the  Refrinocd  Diilch  Cliurch 
It  <;ener(,  N.  Y.,  where  he  preached  until  1866,  when 
he  removed  to  Hackensaek,  N.J„and  engaged  in  teach- 
ing ■  private  acliaol.  In  1871  he  removed  to  Orange, 
■od  up  to  the  period  of  his  fatal  ilincM  wns  engaged  in 
that  region  in  ennductiii);  a  private  Khml,  and  in  edit- 
ing snme  leit-booka  of  Virgil  and  Ca»ar  for  school  use. 
Dr.  Wilev  was  a  fine  classical  schr.lar.  His  death  oc- 
urred  Dee.81, 1878,  at  East  Orange,  N.  J.  {W.  P.  S.) 
'    ~   inl,  la  (lie  naou  of  four 


Wilfrid  (Wi 
ngliih  bishc^n. 
1.  Bishop  OF  1 


;  (which  was  no  longer  an  archbish- 
opnc  iner  the  death  of  Paulinos;  see  Fuller,  Chureh 
Uiil.  o/BrilaiK,  i,  217).  Thi»  celebralol  man  waa  bom 
ofnDblep««nlsinNorthiiniherUitd,inA.D.S31.  Hav- 
ing lost  Ills  mother  in  his  fuurteetith  vear,  h«  entered  a 
ScuUiah  convent  on  Che  island  of 
waida  resolved  to  study  the  Church 
Rome.  He  went  thither  by  way  of  Canterbury  aud 
Lyona,  and  arrived  in  Gal.  Fmm  C5&  to  658  he  was  at 
Lyuna,  and  there  recdved  the  tonsure  al  the  hands  of 
hii  friend,  the  archbishop  DalHn.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
lan<1,  and  gained  the  favor  of  Oawy,  king  of  Mortbum- 
berland,  being  nude  tutor  Co  the  prince  Alchfrid  (6M} 
ami  receiving  the  abbey  of  liirhypun){Kipon).  At  this 
lime  a  synod  was  asaemble.l  at  Streneshale  {Whitby,  in 
Yorkshire)  to  discuss  the  Easter  and  the  tonsure  con- 
tiDvers>e>,  and  Wilfrid  succeeded  in  determining  it  to 
approve  the  u>agesarKome,iii  consequence  of  which  he 
WIS  appointed  in  665  to  the  then  vacant  see  of  York,  and 
sent  to  arcbbiriiop  Agilbett  of  Paris  for  consecration. 
During  his  absence,  Ceadda  (St-Chail)  was  ordained 
bish.ip  of  York  at  Canurbur}-,  and  WiKriil  therefore  re- 
timl  Id  his  monastery  of  Kipon  until  archbishop  Theo- 
dore transferred  Ceadda  to  Merda  (Licbllcld)  and  re- 
stored York  lo  Wilfrid,  alter  which  he  exercised  juris- 
dicdon  over  the  whole  of  Kurthnmberland.  He  Inst  Ihe 
royal  favor,  however,  in  673,  by  assisting  queen  Ethel- 
rids  to  lake  the  veil,  and  Ih  was  thereu|ii>n  deposed  and 
his  diocese  divided  into  three  parts.  He  appealeil  to 
the  pope,  and  started  for  Kome  to  plead  his  own  eaiue 
in  A.D.  678;  and  being  driven  ont  of  his  course  by  a 
storm,  he  carried  the  <iospel  tu  the  Frisians,  converted 
many,  and  baptized  their  king,  Aldegils,  On  his  arri- 
val at  Homo,  pope  Agatho  restored  him  Co  his  bishopric, 
but  ilirecteil  that  the  more  distant  parts  of  bis  see  should 
be  erected  into  separace  dioceses.    K.ing  F.gfrid  threw 

ganlless  of  the  justification  of  his  cause  pronounceil  by 
Ihe  pope;  and  he  waa  eventoally  obliged  to  seek  an  as]'- 
lum  among  the  heathen  people  of  SiiMex.  This  ban- 
ishment was  uiiliied,  however,  fur  successful  missionary 
labora.  King  Edilwalch  received  baptism,  and  evangel- 
tHs  were  sent  to  Ihe  Isla  of  Victa  (Wight),  who  labored 
Willi  gratifying  loccesB.  In  68G,  Alchfriii,  Wilfrid's  for- 
mer pupil,  having  obtain^  the  crown,  the  exiled  bishop 
was  recalled,  but  again  deposed  in  692  on  a  charge  of 
disobedience  to  llie  authorily  of  Canterbury.  He  once 
more  appealed  to  the  pope  from  his  banishment  in  Mer- 
eia,andat  the  age  of  seventy  yean  undertook  a  journey 
lo  Rome  that  he  might  obtain  justice  (703  or  704).  The 
conclave  ilecideil  ihal  Wilfrid's  opponents  were  bale  ca- 


WhiU 


ling  through  Gaul,  Wilfrid  fell 


S7  WILKINS 

sick  (706),  and  had  a  viuon  in  which  the  angel  Gabriel 
revealed  that  the  prayers  of  Wilfrid's  pupils  had  ob- 
tained for  him  restoration  lo  heallb,  Ihe  recovery  of  jiart 
of  bis  diocese,  anil  four  years  of  life.  The  king  refused, 
on  Ills  arrival  in  England,  to  obey  the  papal  order,  but 
died  soon  alkerwards,  and  his  successor,  Usred,  restored 
the  see.  Wilfrid  died,  "after  four  years,"  Oct.  12,  7M, 
having  held  the  bishopric  during  forty-four  rears.  His 
remains  were  interred  at  [Upon,  but  ultimately  al  Can- 
terbury. His  importance,  aside  from  his  misrionaiy 
character,  lies  in  his  associalinn  with  Theodore  of  Can- 
terbury as  principal  supporter  of  Che  papal  authority 
anu  Romish  customs  in  England.  The  t.llowing  wrii- 
inga  are  attributed  lo  him,  but  without  full  proof  of  au- 
thenticity; De  Caliotieo  Ctltbnmdo  PiuchuH  Rilu.-~ 
Dt  RigatU  Momeionim,  etc  See  Heddiu^  Vila  Wil- 
frvUs  Bede, //Ml. £nfe«,iii--r,ed.  Stevenson;  Roger  de 
Wendover,  Cknmca  rive  Flora  Hitloriiiram,  vol.  i,  ed. 
Coxe;  lingard,  HimI.  of  Knsland,  6lh  ed.  i,  122  sq.; 
William  of  Malmesburv,  Ih  Gal.  Pwlif.  iii,  lf>2;  id.  IM 
Oeit.  Rig.  i,  8;  Godwin,  IM  PraiuL  AagL  p.  651;  Her- 
log,  Reol-EtKyUop.  s.  v. 

3.  Bishop  oc  BKTKni.Y  and  archbishop  of  York  (Wsl- 
/riduM  Junior),  a  conlemporan-  of  Bede  (Hiil.  Kcclet.  v, 
■    "  ■     RogerdeWendover,u(iii;>.i,31S,327;and 


Worcester  at  the  beginning  of  the 
8th  centurv.  See  A  ni/lia  Sucra,  i,  170 ;  Roger  de  Wen. 
dover,  al  tup.  i,  206 ;  Beile,  Hitl.  Eecht.  v,  28. 

4.  Archbishop  of  Cantcrburi',  806  et  sq.,  died  839 
or  882.  See  Soger  de  Wendover,  ul  lup.  i,  270 ;  also 
SwAtaicltroiiUc. 

Wllkle,  WiLUAM,  D.D„  a  Scotch  deigyrrun  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Echlin,  Linlitbgowsbire,  in  liil.  Hs 
was  educated  at  the  Univeisily  of  Edinburgh,  where  ha 
had  enured  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  but  was  compelled 
lo  leave  that  institution  before  completing  Che  course  on 
account  of  the  death  of  his  father;  turned  his  atlention 
to  farming,  where  be  continued  his  studies,  and  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  Scotland;  published  The  Kpi- 
guimid,  (1  Pom  in  Sim  Booit,  in  1757,  which  gained 
for  him  Ihe  title  of  "  the  Scottish  Homer;"  printed  a 
new  edition  of  Lhi*  work,  accompanied  by  A  Drtnm  in 
lit  MamKTo/Spouer.ia  17^;  was  chosen  professor  of 
naturel  philosophy  at  Su  Andrew's  the  same  year)  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Moral  FaUrt  in  verse  in  I7G8 ;  and 
died  Oct.  10, 1772. 

■WUkln*,  DaTid.  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine, 
was  bom  in  1686.  He  was  appointed  keeper  of  ll^e 
archiepiscopal  library  at  Lambeth  in  17ifi;  spent  the 
next  three  yean  in  drawing  up  a  catalogne  of  that  col- 
leecion;  became  rector  of  Mongham-Parva,  Rent,  in 
1716,  and  of  Great  Chart  and  Hadleigh  in  1719;  waa 
canstituted  chaplain  lo  the  archbishop  and  collalal  lo 
the  recMries  of  Honks-Ely  and  Booking;  wasappoinced 
jmnt  commissary  of  Rocking;  became  prebendary  of 
Canletbory  in  1720;  was  collated  loche  archdeaconrv  of 
Suffolk  inMay,l721;  and  died  Sept.  6, 1745.  Hisprin- 
cipal  publications  are,  A'umnt  Tfttamenlum  jfCgt/ptiaciiiii, 
imlyo  Copticvnif  etc  (1716):  —  Legrt  Anglo'Sa^rfnuttt 
Falmiilka  tt  Cinlft.  etc  (1721  )i  — Q"""*™  ''•'*" 
J/njrJU  Propiela  h  Lingua  jii^pliaea,  etc.  (1731): — 
and  CoTtciiia  Magna  SH/amia  et  UUKmia  (1786-37). 
See  Chalmen,  Biug.  Did.  s.  r. 

Wilkiiw,  Imac,  D.D„  a  clergyman  of  the  Ptuw- 
tanc  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Wilhywood,  in  the 
island  of  Jamaica,  Dec  17,  1712.  His  father,  Martin 
Wilkins,  became  a  judge  in  Jamaica,  and  was  an  emi- 
nent lawyer.  Isaac  was  an  only  son,  and  when  about 
NX  years  i>f  age  was  brought  to  New  York  city  lo  ob- 
tain belter  educational  facilities  than  Che  West  Indies 
aflbnled.  In  1760  he  graduated  at  Columbia  Cotlege. 
What  he  saved  from  his  ftcher's  estate  in  Jamaica 
enabled  him  lo  purehase  Cssile  Hill  Neck,  in  Wesc- 
chesler  Councy.  After  his  graduation  be  resided  for 
some  lime  upon  this  farm,  and  occupied  himself  in  eul- 


WILKINS  9( 

lii'iting  iL  In  1773  he  wu  Mnt  to  the  ColooUl  hegit- 
UluM,  «nd  until  April  18, 1776,  he  wu  in  actire  mem- 
ber o(  that  body,  ready  in  debate  and  honeit  in  the  wr- 
vico  nr  hi>  country ■     Hewaa  the  reputed  author  of  kv- 

eral  political  pampblels  which  vere  olNioxinua  to  the 
Whig»,and  eventually  it  was  necemiiy  for  him  to  leave 
Americai  aiti)  publiabed,  before  uilinf;  fat  England,  an  ' 
■ddreiB  to  his  cMuntrj-men,  in  which  he  Endeavored  to  ' 

miineil  in  England  about  a  year,  in  which  time  it  ii  i 
anerted  that  he  endeavored  to  accom modal e  the  diapute  | 

Innted  to  hia  hmily  al  Cwtle  Hill,  which  hid  been  laid 
waatc,  he  waa  compelled  to  retreat  with  tbem  to  Long 
laUnd.  At  Newtown  and  Flitbiish  he  made  his  reii- 
dence  until  peace  was  declared.  His  farm  had  not  heen 
coiiliicated;  m  he  Hild  it  in  1784,  took  bit  family  to 
Shelburae,  N.  S.,  purchaaed  property  there,  and  again 
became  a  farmer.     Soon  after  he  waa  a  member  of  the 


WILKINSON 


New  York  and  prefiared 
ehatBfl  of  St.  Petcr'a  Church  at  WeMcheater,  cf  which, 
aa  won  ai  be  waa  ordained  deacon,  he  became  reclor. 
On  Jan.  14,  ISOl,  be  waa  ordained  prieat.     The  Britinh 


Re^-ol..Iion 

bestowed  upo 

hitn 

an  ann 

uityoffiaOfg 

Kfftandfo 

or  of  St.  Peter- 

He  died  J 

We«tobMt^r,N.T., 

Feb.  6, 

880.     Hia  K 

eonciae  and  fo 

reiblB 

his  deliverv  was  na 

oral  and  edective.    At  a 

ule,h 

sdiaeo 

raea  were  >ho 

and  impreaeive.    A  numb 

et  of  poetic  elTtisiona  of  anm 

See 
Sf,n((at,AiaHilioflluAtaa:Pulpil,v,4^ 

WilUlUi  John,  D.D.,  an  ingeniooa  and  learned 
English  bishop,  was  born  at  Fiwtley.  near  Dai-entry,. 
North  am  ptonahire,  in  1614.  He  was  edncatefl  at  All- 
Sainta',  at  New  Inn  Hall,  and  at  Hagilalen  Hall,  Ox- 
lord;  took  holy  onlen;  became  chaplain,  Arst  to  Will- 
iam, lord  Say.'and  then  to  Charleni,  count  Paiatiiie  of 
the  Rhine;  took  aides  with  Ihr  Parliament  underCrom- 
well,  and  took  Ilie  .Solemn  League  and  Covenant;  was 
[lude  warden  of  Wailham  Ollege  ia  1M8 ;  become  maa- 
terorTrioily  College,  Cambtidge,  in  1C69;  ejected  at 
the  Reatoration  the  following  year;  became  preacher  to 
the  honorable  aociety  of  Gray'l  Inn  and  rector  of  St. 
Lawrence  Jewry,  London  i  wuchoaen  a  member  of  the 
Hoval  Society ;  was  made  dean  of  Ripon ;  became  biah- 
op'of  Cbester  in  IflfiS;  and  died  at  the  house  of  Dr. 
Tillutson,  in  Chancery  Lane,  London.  Nor.  19,  167a. 
He  piibliahed  aevenl  mathematical  and  philoaophical 
U'orlis,  and  the  following,  viz..  EoclniaiUi,  or  a  lHi~ 
couite  CDNcemHi^  the  Gijl  nf  Preacktag  at  it  FalU 
»mUr  iJte  Bula  of  AH  (1646;  best  ed.  i;7S);— Ma- 
courM  eoiKtming  lie  Btuyly  of  Providtna  ia  all  tht 
Ras^  Paaastt  if  It  (1649):— Semoai,  etc  (1S76): 
— Of  Iht  PriHcipla  and  Dalia  of  Natural  Rttigim 
(eod.). 

WiUdnaon,  Henry  (I),  D.D.,Bn  English  clergy. 

Harn',"  was  h.irn  at  Waddeadon.'BuckiiiBliam>bire,  in 
I6<KI.  HeenteredBacommonetinMa|<:<laleiillal1,Oxr«rd, 
in  16M,  where  he  made  great  proflclcncy  in  hia  studies, 
became  a  noted  tutor,  master  of  the  acbooU,  and  divinity 
reader;  look  unlers  in  the  Cliurcli  of  England  about  I63B, 
but  waa  suspended  from  preaching  because  of  views  ad- 
vanced in  a  aermiin  at  St.  Mary'a  in  September,  1640; 
wan  restored  by  the  Long  Parliament;  removed  to  Lah- 
don,  where  he  was  made  minlaler  of  St.  Faith's,  under 
St.  Paul's,  anil  appointed  one  of  the  Assembly  of  Di- 
vinea;  became  rector  of  St.  Dunatan's-in-the-Weat  ui 
IS46;  waa  appointed  one  of  the  ni  miniatera  to  go  to 
Oxford  to  eatabliah  Presbyterian  forma  and  practice*; 
became  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  a  oanon  of  Christ 
Church,  and  Maroaret  profesaor  of  divinity  in  1663; 
was  deprived  at  the  Rcalnration ;  and  died  at  Clapham 
in  September,  i6'6.     He  publiahed  several  Strmoiu 


WUklnsoo,  Henry  (3X  D.D.,  i 

/tiaiar,  but  commonly  known  aa"  " 
liah  clergyman,  couain  of  Long  H 
wick,  in  tbe  West  Riding  of  Yockahiie,  in  1 
began  hia  education  at  a  grammar-achaol  in  fill  liiiai-' 
pariah,  Oxford ;  entered  ■  commoner  of  Uagdalcu  HaO 
in  1631,  where  be  graduated,  took  holy  ardnm,  1 1 1 1  ami 
a  noted  tutor,  and  modeiatar  or  dean  of  Hai^leo  Hall; 
led  the  university  on  account  of  his  PurilMi  pHnti- 
plea  in  164'J;  removed  to  London,  look  ilie  CuTenant. 
and  preached  frequently;  under  the  aupmnacy  id 
Parliament  he  returned  to  Oxrord,  and  bccamr  priua- 
pal  of  Magdaleu  Hall  and  moral-philosophy  rtailer, 
and  suffered  fur  Nonconformity  after  the  Hemcon^m 

terahire;  Uosfleld,  Eaaci ;  Sible- Headingtum  ;  a>d 
lastly  at  Connard,  near  Sudbury,  SuSulk.  when  k 
died,  May  IB,  1C90.  He  was  the  author  of.  Ctmamm 
Trtt  (16&4):-7'A™  Dtcada  of  Smm^  (  16»): 
—  Calalogvi  Libivnim  ia  BiUiaHuca  Avlm  Mvf 
daiam  (1661}:  — riro  Tnatimi  (1681):  —  and  otW 

!a  celebrated  Eni^ish  traveller  and  Egyptolofria,  wb 
I  bom  at  Haxendale,  Wealmorehnrt,  Oct,'  S,  1797.  He 
j  was  the  son  of  the  Rer.  John  Wilkinson  and  a  daiiibm 
of  the  Kev.  Richard  Gardner.  He  received  hH  Wh>- 
tion  at  Harrow  School  and  at  Exeter  Colk^  OnfaaA 
He  aderwarda  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  remained  (veh* 
yean^  devoting  himself  to  tbe  study  of  the  anttq^UB 
of  the  counlr^'.  and  making  himaelf  acquaintcil  wiik  the 
languages,  maniieiK,nnd  cusinma  of  the  Dwden  iatab- 
itanlB.  He  resided  a  cnnsiderable  time  in  a  toab  at 
Thebes,  anil  employed  himself  in  making  acconleais^ 
Teji  of  the  district  and  drawings  of  ihe  nperb  arrht- 
tectural  monuments,  aud  in  copiing  the  aeulptuiet, 
paintings,  hieroglypfaioi,  and  other  objects  of  inteiM 
then  existing.     In  18-^  he  published  at  Malta  Maltnt 


Ti^iographs  of  Tkrbft  and  Gmeriit  Vina  >>f  E^SP'-  *» 
1836  he  began  the  piiblicatitm  of  his  great  wivk.  rii 
Mar/Hfra  and  Cni!firtu  of  the  A  ncirnt  H^jfptimu,  prialiaf 
the  drat  aeries  in  BroIa.8v«— theaecondaetiea,  in  Inh 
8vo,  appearing  in  1840.  In  184S  be  published  JV*An 
£^^  onrf  TArief,  a  new  and  condenaed  edition  nTwhU 
was  publiahed  among  Murray's  Hat^-iookt  in  1847.  la 
1B44  he  travelled  in  Dalmatia  and  HoateiKj^ro,  and  ■ 
1848  published  Dnbiuilia  and  ifonlrmeprc.  rili  a  Jav 
titjf  lo  MottoT,  ta  Uettrgovina,  and  Rrmarta  im  9ia 
Slat-nic  Xaliom,  etc  In  1850  be  publisbert  TV  ^r- 
clalnlim  of  Ancirnt  Kggpi,  and  in  1851  The  fi-njaif^r 
of  Ihe  Hieratic  Papsrui  at  Tarin  eonlaimrg  tkr  Soma 
of  Ht  Egsplian  Kiagi,  etc.  In  1856-66  he  nTisiu4 
Egypt,  and  on  his  return  published  Kgyjil  n  Ikr  Ti^ 
of  the  Pharaola.  He  presented  his  collections  of  Egy^ 
tian,  Greek,  and  oth«  antiquities  to  Harrow  Sdtonl  ta 
Ihe  purpose  of  forming  a  muaeum,  to  which  br  tMfA. 
in  1874,  Ilia  valuable  collection  ofcnins  and  taeaala.  I< 
1858  be  published  .4  TtraHie  m  Color  and  the  /insrW 
IHJanon  nf  Tone  amiamg  all  Cfautt.  He  ooouibMad 
many  nf  the  notes  to  Rawlinsou'a  Utntdctti,  and  pak- 
lished  papers  in  the  Tnauaeiiant  of  the  eragraphial 
and  archnnlogical  societies  in  Great  Britain.  He  -tM 
Oct.  a»,  ISifi.  A  Memoir  was  published  bv  his  witet 
in  1876.  Lord  Ripon,  in  an  address  before  the  KmiI 
Society  of  Uleralure,  apoke  thus  of  hia  gnat  weak  m 
the  ancient  Eg}-ptiana:  "Indefatigable  in  reee«R4i.W 
of  learning,  accural*  in  facts,  Sir  Gardner  TTIllisaw 
has  at  the  same  time  treated  bis  subject  with  tbe  «• 
thanasm  of  genius  and  the  livelineaa  of  pcetry.  He 
opens  lo  you  the  temple  of  their  dttties,  the  palaca  it 
their  sovereign,  tbe  Held  of  battle,  and  Ibe  TepDskiaM 
of  the  dead.  He  tracea  for  you  their  early  biMaiy.  ke 
exhibit*  lo  you  their  knowledge  of  tbe  atu  aod  acsacsa 


WILI^  ARMINIAN  VIEW  OF     989     WILL,  ARMINIAN  VIEW  OF 


tha  cDune  ot  thtir  bosbiiKlTy,  and  the  procaas  of  tbeli 
a»nufaclur»i  uid  h«  inlnidiicn  roii  lo  tb«ir  privBU 
life  witb  ■  graphic  Tivacity  whicb  mikei  yoa  at  una 
■  iaigt  of  ibe  virtue*  and  vices  or  the  Egyptian  ebar- 
acur,  and  a  panakcr,  u  it  wen,  of  tbe  iiiLimaeiei  of 
th«r  domeatic  ■uciflty-'* 

VITlll,  ArxinijUI  View  of  the.— L  iJfifnrtmi.— I. 
Mind  ii  one  and  indiviiible.  For  cuovenienn  in  lan- 
goage,  the  phenomtna  of  mind  are  genenlUed,  and 
■uniea  given  lo  tbe  powera  by  which  phenomena  tw- 
oooR  poiaible  and  lo  which  phenomena  are  refemd. 
Tboae  powers  of  mind  which  are  immediately  concerned 
in  the  aoquiaitiuii,  retention,  and  elawiUcation  of  knowl- 
edge are  cEaiHd  together  and  generalixed  ao  that  the 
generic  name  o{  the  initlltct  a  made  ifl  include  them  all, 
ot,  more  brieSy,  the  mind't  power  to  know  is  called  tbe 
inteUtcf.  In  like  manner,  the  euiceptibility  uf./Mn;  ii 
called  the  tauiiUiiif,  and  tbe  puwer  to  pm  forth  action 
is  called  the  wilL  Not  that  there  are  three  dialinct  en- 
tities, for  evidently  it  ia  the  aame  one  and  iudiviiible 
ratnd  that  perceivea,  Judges,  remembers,  imagine*,  ii 
pleased  or  duplaaaed,  love*  or  balei,  chooiea,  rewlves, 
clelcrmine^  acts.     Perhapi  itwoulil  Iw  quite  as  ■cientif- 


2.  li>lwanls  dednes  will  aa  "tbe  power  to  cbooae." 
This  ii  nnacientillc  and  inadequate,  became  there  are 
eriilenlly  other  phenomena  of  mind  as  distinctly  active, 
■ml  a*  clcarlv  diaiiiiguiahed  from  knuwleilge  and  from 
feeling,  aiiachuice. 

Thia  i»  not  objeciiimable,  unless  it  be  said  that  it  is  too 
^neral  and  does  not  enable  the  thinker  to  furm  a  ded- 

Whedon  siys  the  will  is  "  that  power  nf  the  mind  by 
which  it  beeonte*  the  ciuiscion*  author  of  an  intentional 

pie*  I  but  it  iiMy  be  asknl,  la  not  will  tometimes  active 
•rlien  there  is  no  intention  ot  purpose  copniicil  in  eun- 
aciousness?  Dues  not  the  mind  put  forth  acta  of  will 
uiicooaciousty  'i 

Haven  aaya,"!  understand  by  the  will  that  power 
which  the  mind  has  of  detarminiJIg  or  deciding  what  it 
will  do  and  of  putting  furth  vulitinn*  accordingly." 

(Jpham  aaya  "  the  will  may  properly  enough  be  de- 
fineil  the  mental  puwer  nt  suteeptitrilily  by  which  we 
pui  forth  vulitimu."  Theae  are  both  defective,  becauae 
they  require  a  knuwleilge  of  what  is  meant  by  the  (enn 


Itlti 


:eslly  m 


8.  In  general  i 


not  impossible.  In  the  present  stale  of  mental  science, 
perhaps  we  say  tbe  beat  thing  posiible,  and  all  that  is 
requisite  for  practical  purposes,  when  we  say  that  to 
know,  to  feel,  anil  to  act  a  an  exhsiitlive  cniegnrr  of 
mental  phenomena,  and  the  mind's  power  ii>  act  is  what 
ia  exprnaed  by  the  term  "  the  will." 

e,  all  acts  of  will  are  called  ro/iria». 

erer,  diainguish  them  as  "chuicea" 
and  "  volitions ;"  but  no  reason  is  apparent  fiir  varying 
fruni  the  general  usage,  aa  the  distinction  aunght  may 

class  as  volitians  in  choice,  and  (be  other  as  vditiinw  in 
the  CKecuCive  aiflu.  To  make  a  choice,  to  form  a  pur- 
poae,  to  seek  an  end,  to  indulge  an  intcnlion,  to  resolve 
Ii>  do,  with  other  terms  of  similar  imporl.  express  acts 
of  mind  which  are  different  from  the  menial  niaui  that 
WKives  the  mind  or  body,  or  both,  in  do  the  thing  in- 
tendeil.  As  between  idleness  and  employment,  as  be- 
tween one  form  of  occupation  ami  another,  and  as  be- 
tween several  booka  lying  before  me,  I  determine  lo 


take  up  a  particular  book  and  gira  attention  to  the 
reading  of  the  same,  and  iheatudyof  the  to;uc  on  which 

are  acts  of  will — are  choices,  volitions  in  choice ;  but  no 
one  of  (bem  alone,  nor  all  of  them  together,  have  as  yet 
stirred  a  muscle.  Another  act  of  will  is  requisite  to 
move  the  bod;:  and  do  tbe  work  intended :  thie  may  be 
calleil  volition  in  tbe  executive  iiisua. 

Tbe  executive  power  of  will  is  exerted  both  upon  tbe 
mind  and  upon  the  body — ufiou  the  mind  as  in  all  acta 
whereby  attention  is  confined  to  any  perticidsr  tt^^cB; 
npon  the  body  as  in  all  cases  of  inteudfd  muaculal 


Tbe  above,  in  a  matter  lo  well  undenlood,  may  suf- 
flee  as  a  son  of  index  pointing  towards,  rslber  than  ao- 
curately  dedning,  what  is  intended  by  the  terma  "wiU," 


snd  what  is  not  is  not,  because  i 

could  ao 

be.   Thoacl- 

ual  is  equal  to  the  poHil>)r,  aud  tbe  n 

on-exiaient  ia 

Ifntego 

enis  aU  exist- 

ences  and  events.    Of  courae 

LheUts  a 

re  UKivcnally 

Bssetuth 

t  nothing  ex. 

ssocisted 

with  fatalism, 

and  in  anvofthefonns  which 

it  is  logically 

fatalistic     Dualism  and  panth 

iam  slwa 

vs  lead  in  tbe 

same  direction,  though  dualists 

all  professed  faulist&     One  form  of  profeaaed  theism  Is 

hat  BpeL 

which  affirms  that  God  ocU  from  the  m 

ceantie*  of  hia 

nalnre,  so  that  he  does  all  he  c 

n  do,  and 

what  be  do« 

he  cannot  avoid  dcnng,  the  actual  being. 

by  the  neces- 

sity  of  Uod'a  nature,  the  measu 

re  of  the 

possible.    All 

that  it  is  deemed  needful  to  say 

offaulis 

m  in  this  GOn- 

nection  is  that  it  oontradlcts  i 

e  universal  eonvictionB 

of  the  buman  mi>»l.    AH  men 

fatoluiti 

a  that  many 

things  might  be  dilTerent  fnim  w 

irresiatihly  conceive  an  eaientiak  ainerence  DSiween  a 
man  and  a  machine,  and  conceive  that  that  difference 
is  found  chiedy  in  the  fact  that  man  chooses  hia  enda 

chine  does  not.  Faulisr 
la  admit  the  poaubility  of  lis  truth  1c 
consideration  of  an  argument  ii  lo  admit  thst  humsn 
thought  ia  a  necessary  falsehood :  and  arguments  against 
fatalism  aie  evidently  futile,  fur  the  fauliat  is  by  hia 
own  profession  compelled  to  ignore  all  confidence  in  hia 
own  thinkings.  Rejecting  as  he  does  ultimate  princi- 
ples, denying  intuitivo  truths,  there  is  no  foundation  for 


between  fatalism  and  freedom  may 
nswer  to  the  question,  la  mind  sob- 
y  in  every  direction,  and  in 
iaaubjectlothatlaw?  The 
fatalist  atflrma  ami  the  freedotniat  denies.  For  all  that 
ia  apparent,  the  antagoiiiats  must  atand  face  lo  face  for- 
ever— the  ime  affirming  and  the  other  denying — with 
nothing  for  either  to  aay  that  will  be  of  any  service  to 
t^e  other. 

Among  aniifatalista  there  is  great  direraily  of  atun- 
ion,  and  here  conttoveray  begins.  All  are  agreed  in 
affirming  the  doctrine  of  human  liberty,  or  technically 
in  aaserling  the  doclriiw  of  free-will;  but  they  instant- 
ly begin  to  dilTer  by  giving  diflbreni  and  opposite  defi- 
nitions ofthe  lenna"liberty,""frecdoni  " 


o  the  law  of  m 


pxplid 


ispersi 


ly  stated,  and  the  argiimenis  pn 

oualy  presented,  with  some  advantage  as  to  brci 

in  any  other  method,  by  making  the  whole  discuasioa 

conaisl  in  an  answer  to  the  sole  quealioii,  la  there  exis^ 


WILL,  ARMINIAN  VIEW  OF     990 


b«  MicI  that  this  qaettion  doea  not  cover  the  wbnla 
groond  of  coDtcoveny,  tioce  aome  allow  that "  the  power 
to  the  coniraiy"  ia  eaaential  to  a  probation,  and  that 
the  fint  man  foaetted  it;  affinning  only  that  the  poa- 
teiity  oTlhe  Mrat  pair,  by  reamo  artheii  rclatiou  to  ihe 
Ant  bittjAo  not  poBsen  it.  Thia  ia  true;  Ijut  it  is  also 
true  that  all,  or  w«ll-nigh  all,  argumcnia  otliluced  to 
prove  Ihe  iion-exiitence  of  a  power  to  the  contrary  in 
ihepoMerilyof  Adam  prove,  if  they  prove  anything,  not 
the  nuii-existence,  but  the  ini|MsaibiUty,of  auch  a  power. 
The  qiieetion  may  lie  ilated  in  other  terma— Ii  mind  a 
power  competent  fur  either  of  leveral  different  rcauiu? 
When  the  mind  chouses  A,  could  it  at 


probation,  ani(Hk|!  «  bidi 
the  power  tu  refaae  ibe  evil  and  eboose  the  good  ia  cbW^ 
ia  fundatneutal  aiid  enential.  Thae  dtfferenm  anmc 
theoli^aaa  deaerve  incuiion  in  thia  connection ;  but  it 
ia  not  needful  that  they  be  kept  in  mind,  fnr  ibe  diacw- 
uon  ia  tbe  aame,  whether  tbey  be  coniideTed  or  ^tA  sat 
of  Ihe  aceoonl. 

ined  b;  an  appeal  t«  tntrr- 
I.  It  ii  affirmed  that  iveiy  man  dvea, 
every  day  of  hia  life,  many  thing*  with  a  cnoaoonanta 
Iheae  things  that  he  baa  power  to  do  otbtr- 
objected  lo  this  appeal  byopp«i«n»  thai 
tifiea  lo  ihe  acti  of  mind,  and  not  id  in 
poam.  This  ob|ection  is  an  aasunption  «bid  all 
paychologiaW  do  not  admit,  and  it  canaol  be  denitd 
that  man  is,  in  aome  sense,  cooacioDa  of  hia  poverK 
But  allowing  tbe  objection  lo  aland  for  what  it  ii  w«th. 


';  that  at  aiiy 
n  (iod  can  create  or  refrain 
.  creating  a  wiwld,  he  can  place  its 
given  point  in  apace  or  in  any  one  of 
an  inflnile  number  of  other  painta;  Ihat  Ihis  power  in 
iiod  is  abaulutely  free  from  all  conatrainl,  either  from 
anything  external  to  liimaeirnr  fmm  anything  pertain- 
ing in  hia  awn  nature.  Tliey  further  affirm  that  Cod 
created  man  in  this  feature  of  hia  image,  au  that  to  de- 
prive man  of  it  entirely  would  be  to  dehumaniie  him — 
would  be  to  reiluce  liitn  to  the  character  and  condiiloo 
of  a  bnite,  or  pcrhaia  won*,  to  mere  machinery,  Thev 
alill  fu    ■         ~         ■         ■  •         -   ■  . 


11  the 


being.  Necciaiti 
Theyoffinn— staling  it  in  the  mildest  tenna  they  choose 
to  oilopi — an  invariable  antecedency  in  all  events,  psy- 
chical as  well  OS  physical.  AU  phcnomeiui  are  uniform, 
equally  ao  whether  pertoioing  lo  matter  or  to  mind. 
External  objects  determine  perception,  perception  de- 
termines emotion,  emotion  determines  desire,  de«Te  de- 
lerminea  volition  in  choice,  volition  in  choice  determines 
volition  in  the  executive  niaua.  and  thia  determiaea  the 
external  muscular  action.  Tbe  chain  is  unbreakable; 
the  connection  between  choice  and  desire  is  as  uniform, 
as  impossible  to  be  otherwise,  aa  ia  the  connection  be- 
tween external  object  and  perception.  Every  cause  ia 
potent  only  for  one  sole  effect  j  every  antecedent  ia  fol- 
lowed, and  must  be  followed,  by  otM  aole  conaequcnt.  Aa 
Edwards  puts  it,  (he  law  ofnecessilygovems  all  events; 
it  is  absurd  lo  suppose  the  possibility  of  the  opposite  of 
what  is.  Discussions  on  this  subject  among  theologians 
have  primary  and  chief  respect  lo  the  power  for  gomL 
PelBgisns  affirm  Ibat  the  power  for  good  is  ns  esseniisi 
lo  human  nature  i-r,  my  other  power.  Of  course  it  was 
not  lost  by  the  fall,  and  all  men  come  into  personal  roii- 
aciousnesa  as  fully  poneaaed  of  power  lo  choose  ihe 
good  as  they  are  possessed  of  power  to  choose  Ihe  evil. 
AugustiiiUnsandArminians  affirm  that  jiower  tochnose 
the  good  was  lost  l>y  the  Hrst  sin;  that  man  became 


aved,B 


IS  agree  with  Pelagians  in 
.isl  u 


a  being  morally  responsible,  but  differ  from  them  when 
they  deny  that  the  power  to  good  was  lost  by  sin. 
minians  agree  with  Au|(usiinians  in  affirming  Iba 
posterilj'  of  the  first  pair  have  inheriied  an  etis 
nature,  but  they  dilfer  from  them  when  they  assert 
this  enslavement  ia  perpetual,  Arminiana  affirm 
Ibe  race,  except  the  first  pair,  come  into  peraonal 


WILL,  AR5UNIAN  VIEW  OF 

lanen  nnder  Ip'ocej  that  tbe  unconditioneil  boifl 

■     ■  ,de  not  only  pe™     ' 


evidence  that  ihai  • 
nan  ia  fr^e  in  ihe  aeiiae  of  the  It 
s  power,  r>r,  more  accuratrlv,  bt 


(2.)  Freednmists  affirm  ibat  tbe  power 


inral  respousibiliiy. 


one  feels  obligated  1 

>chooae 

lliegood,h 

iputlabvfrel 

odoso 

if  he  fecbi 

choosing  the  evil,  h 

so  feel  that 

he  night  have 

chosen  the  good.     These  coi 

victions  are 

cnrdance  with  what 

in  absltBCt  science,  must  be  jiideid 

osjust,  honorable,  a 

drighl 

Wherever 

ubligalirrand 

In  justice  and  in  booor,  punishment  cannot  be  awankd 
for  the  unavoidable ;  if  but  one  way  be  possible.  tBoal 
desert  is  impoasible.  Neceaaiiariaiis  attriDpI  to  avoid 
these  manifest  inferences  by  affirming  Ihat  noa  a  pmrtv 
to  contrary-,  bur  vnlunlariness,  is  the  basis  of  abliffoiioa 
and  responsibility;  vuluntarincsa,they  ay.  is  m-II-ibo- 

clinose  evil  unonnstralntd  by  anything  Fiiranrom  i* 
himself,  he  is  responuble;  Ihough  being  what  he  is  it 
were  impnsoible  for  him  to  choose  otherwise,  ttnsv- 
over,  it  is  said  that  it  ia  no  mailer  bnw  he  cane  to  t* 
what  he  is,  wbelbcr  his  depravity  be  conctvaiHl.  in- 
fused, or  aclf-imposed,  if  his  acta  are  his  own  and  bm 
another's,  he  is  rrsponsihle.  Is  this  so?  If  iriihcst 
any  fault  ur  agcnct'  of  my  own  I  am  a  slave  to  «vil  ite- 
Birea,  so  Ihat  I  have  no  power  or  ability  lo  rbooee  gnuit, 
am  1  re*|winsible  fiir  the  evil  I  do?  Let  the  comaaia 
aense  of  mankiml  answer. 

(3.)  Freedumista  aver  that  a  denial  «f  powrr  lo  tt* 
conirary.  if  not  itaelf  identical  with  faialiani,  is  logical- 
ly its  equivalent,  since  absence  of  power  lo  be  otherwise 
equals  neccnity.  The  term  nreeatily  cannot  b«  Dwt* 
accurately  defined  than  by  llie  Icitd  absence  of  power 
to  the  cnnlrari-.  In  reply,  necesMEarians  make  a  di*- 
liociion  between  a  physical  and  a  moral  necessily;  iba 
former  being  found  in  the  connection  between  a  phvB- 
cal  cause  and  its  efi'ect,  and  the  lauer  between  a  ib»- 
TbI  slate  and  its  cnnscquenl.  Edwards  says  ibe  nre^ 
sily  he  conlends  for  ia  "the  full  and  fixed  connrnira 
between  Ihc  thing  signified  by  tbe  subject  and  pvedirala 
of  a  pniposiliim  which  affirms  something  to  he  liw,* 
The  rejoinder  of  the  freedomist  ia  that  necesaiiy  u  at 
nai'S  Ilie  aame,  whatever  be  ihe  subject  lo  which  it  ap- 
plies, and  ia  always  impoaaibility  of  ibe  (^ipontci    Ha 


WILL,  AKMINIAN  VIEW  OF     891 


dbliiictinn  rnunded  m  >n  irrelevint  milter,  nor  tbc  ob- 

of  Ihe  evident  iSrnMtiun  that  abaence  nf  power  lo  Lw 
Mhtrwue  ia  ueccuity,  Tate ;  and  neceatitirianum  eqiuli 
huliaiD. 

^^,)  FrtedooiUts  aSmi  cbat  in  deny  the  power  tn  the 
notnry  b  In  deny  human  libeny  fully  and  totally, 
irman  caiinoc  do  otheniiK  than  he  don,  he  ia  not  free. 
Ti)  trail!  thia  affirmation,  viciuua  definitioD*  are  given 


of  the  U 


«  win  u  yoii  chom 


!iKil,eli^  Tadoatyou  will  defines  pbysical  liber- 
ihe  rreedom  o(  Ihe  IkhIv.  ami  haa  no  relation  wbal- 
rt  to  rnenlal  freedom.  To  will  as  you  choow  U  with- 
1  •igiiiScance,  becauae  chonting  ia  willing,  and  liber- 
.    ■      itaelf,  snd  not  ill 


bwlj  or  mind.  To  will  a>  yuu  are  pleaaeil  admila  the 
iflseparabLe  cuiinection  between  choice  and  iiiiecedent 
plriBure  or  deaire,  and  may  reject  Ihe  puuibilily  nt  the 
oppiiiiie,  ami  ihia  ia  prtdaely  that  fur  which  the  defliii- 
limi  u  constructed.  When  used  for  Ihia  purpoae,  the 
DuinHiie  i*  ■ioipl}'  a  atatcnieiit  uf  the  inue;  the  deHni- 
linn,  and  all  that  depend!  upon  it,  av^la  nothing  in 
irening  the  affirmation  that  the  denial  of  a  poaailile 
nppuuie  a  a  denial  of  the  poMibility  uf  freedom  fully 
•nil  totally.    Liberty  doea  nut  exiM,  fixed  bte  goretni 

(5.)  As  ■  corollary  of  the  above,  freedomiata  alflmi 

equalty  with  fatalism,  deny  all  moral  distinctioni  and 
rtfnrd  the  idea  of  a  mural  goreniroeiit  an  chimerical. 
i.  The  principal  argumenia  adduced  in  nipport  of 

(I.)  Cauialilji. — Tolitiona  are  effects,  and  must  have 
1  cause  j  the  caoae  being  what  it  ii,  the  effect  cannot  he 

■  plain  begging  of  the  queatiun.  fur  it  asaumea  that  nil 
cause*  are  potent  only  for  one  sole  effect,  nheu  theques- 
iHui  ander  discuaHon  is  whether  or  not  mind  is  i  cauae 
pqiially  patent  for  each  of  several  different  effects.  If 
It  be  asked.  What  eauiea  Ihe  minii  to  cause  as  it  does? 
Jie  answer  is,  Nothing  causa  it;  it  is  itself  Unit  cause 
if  its  own  (*olilions,  and  is  by  its  nature  an  adequate 
aiLie  of  all  its  volitions,  both  general  and  panicutar. 

(1.)  Edwards's  ndnelut  ad  abnirAiui.  If  the  mind 
M  sdl-(lel«miined,  it  must  determine  itseir  in  any  given 

lent  volition  be  self-determined,  it  slso  muat  be  deter- 


But  to  suppose  such  an 

inllnite  scries  nfvo 

absurd;  therefore  mind 

s  not  self-determinei 

fore*  of  thia  a^ment  o 

Mnes  from  the  unfor 

•e  of  the  term  seir-ilele 

mined.     Hind  it  n 

The  supposed  »>1 

trotilion  ia  imHiat,  and  Ihe 

tenea  ia  stopped  at  i 

(3.1  ftiWy.— The  queation  is  asked,  «  What  U  the 
oe  of  a  power  that  ia  never  iised?"  The  events  that 
ID  occur  are  produced  each  by  a  power  adequate  tn  its 
imduction;  iflbere  be  a  power  ailequale  fur  the  produc- 
ion  of  an  opposite  event,  it  it  never  used,  ia  useless,  and 
herefure  need  nut  be.  The  fallacy  here  consiaia  in  the 
■mmplion  thai  the  doctrine  nf  freedom  supposet  two 
owen — one  to  do,  and  another  notio  do.    Whereas  the 

■nw  ooe  pDwcT  it  fully  adequate  to  the  production  of 


■  effect  A,  il  13 


roiluce  effect  B  in 
(4.)  iftMiciii/.—h  is  said  mind  cannot  act  wit 

ail,  thenfoce  voliiions  always  are  as  the  atronge 
ve.  The  ftllacy  of  thia  argument  comes  from  tl 
Tialistic  idea  conveyed  by  Ihe  leim  "stiongesi." 
no  analogy  between  mental  and  material  phen 
laM.  admila  of  such  ■^nmenlalion.    The  aireiig 


WILL,  ARMINIAN  VIEW  OP 

t  be  represented  bytheweigbtsorabalani 


I  pbyeical  phei 
^rm  alrungcst  m 


otive  mutt  be  lued,  it  it  indispensable 
rlly  stated  in  what  tbe  atrengtb  of  ■ 

fined.  "The  tolled  itienglh  ofa  mutive."uy>  Whe- 
don,  "may  be  defined  the  degne  of  probability  that  the 
will  will  choose  in  accordance  with  it,  or  on  account  of 
it."  This  definition  bdiig  admitted,  the  ai^ument.it 
cloaed,  (or  beyond  all  controversy  it  ia  evident  that 
great  imptabalHlities  do  sametime*  oocnr ;  an  improba> 
bility,  however  great,  ia  not  tbe  equivalent  even  of  a 
certainty,  much  leas  of  a  neceaaily. 

But,  again,  Ihe  argument  aasumc*  that  mind  never 
acta  but  in  view  of  nwlivet,  and  that  it  cannot  act  with' 

man,  every  day  of  hit  life,  in  a  thousand  indiflercnt 
and  unimportant  movemenia,  both  of  mind  and  body, 
acta  iu  ihe  lotal  absence  from  consciousneas  of  any  mo- 
tive or  reason  for  doing  as  he  doea  -.  tnd,  again,  in  an 
equilibrium  of  conflicting  molivet,  clearly  cognized  in 
consciousness,  man  cut  make  ■  choice.  This  ia  not  & 
auppnsed  case,  but  it  uf  actual  and  frequent  occurrence. 
Men  frequently  with  itrong  motivea  for  action  find 
themselves  witbont  any  motive  wbalever  fur  action  in 
one  way  rather  than  anuther,  and  yet  in  these  circum- 
Btances  they  put  forth  volitions  as  readily  and  as  easily 
as  when  ■  strong  preponderance  is  obvious.  The  argu- 
ment from  Ihe  strength  of  motives  it  not  determinative. 
(5.)  Dii-me  Pnnvmv.— Intlnile  wisdom  must  include 
a  perfect  knowledge  fmm  eternity  of  all  existences  and 
events.  A  complete  hialiir)'  of  the  universe  through 
all  time  must  have  always  been  perfectly  cognized  by 
the  Divine  Miud,  liaiU  fureknowledge' can  never  be 
diaappointed.    All  exiatencet  and  events  will  Ije  at  God 


dlstiiKtly  noted 
the  nun-exislence  of 


id  if 


ihe  different  from  it,cuuM  nut  be; 

itrary  doei  not  exitu  Lei  it  be 
infennce  berg  it  not  merely 
ower  lo  the  contrary,  but  ita 
argument  prove*  an  impotai- 


vine  affair* — indeed,  at  lo  all  e< 
eternity — and  Goil  himself  it  forever  shut  up  to  one  sole 
and  iieecBsary  history;  the  actual  equals  the  possible; 
eternal  fate  gDvenit  Rod  and  all  that  is  not  tiud. 

The  premises  are  unquestionable,  but  tbe  conclution 
isaiirm-sffr/itur.  A  future  event  may  be  certain,  may  be 
known  as  certain,  and  ita  nppOMte  be  passible  notwith- 
standing; urilibe  ia  not  the  same  as  rauttbr.  The  argu- 
ment  woidd  be  equally  forcible  if  the  foreknowledge  ot 
UotI  were  eliminated.  Knowledge  is  not  causative;  the 
knowledge  of  an  event  has  nothing  to  do  with  ittproduo- 
tion.  All  ihot  the  divine  prescience  of  future  events  doea 
in  till!  argument  is  to  prove  their  certainty.  But  thia 
must  be  ailmitted  without  nuch  proof:  all  things  will  be 
■a  they  will  be,  whether  <io<l  knows  them  or  not.  The 
liatuty  of  th 


sclf^v 


Butcc 


it  does  not  exclude  Ihe  posMbility  of  an 


.bj-t 


helps  nor  huita  thit  case  at  alL 
If  ■  man  on  see  no  difference  between  certainty  and 
necettily,  he  cannot  admit  contingency ;  he  is  logically 
shut  up  lo  invincible  fate.  If  one  does  apprehend  a  cleat 
difference  between  will  be  and  must  be,  be  may  affirm 
both  prescience  and  contingency.  Itetwcen  these  two 
panies  thus  cognizing  these  ultimate  ideas  there  muat 
be  a  perpetual  diflerence  of  o|Miiion  on  the  question  un- 
reached the  ultimate  of  I  he  quesiiun;  they  must  stand 
face  to  face,  une  affirming  contingency,  and  the  other 
necessity,  wiihout  the  possibility  of  an  argument  from 

-   (0.)  Dirint  SorwnVni/j;— God  governs  the  world  in 
accordance  with  a  plan. 


WILL,  CALVINISTIC  DOCTIUNE    S93    WILL,  CALVINISTIC  DOCTRISE 


evenia  miut  be  iododed  in  tlie  pUn,  ind  eich  ro 
rurm  a  cuiutiCuent  pan  theRor.    To  Nippote  anjthi 
conlingent  upon  the  bumia  will  m  to  i*ke  tbit  Ihi 
rnxn  tbe  purriew  or  the  divine  •oveRignty,  gubjeci  it 
bamea  caprice,  lo  unccnuntj,  la  cbuce.    TbereT 
nothing  can  be  ponibls  wbich  it  diffennl  from  what 
All  the  strength  of  thii  argumeat  lie>  in  one  or  I 
other,  nr  bulb,  of  two  coticeptiona.    One  of  tbeae  ei 
C^liona  is  that  a  petlett  government  impliee  an  abso- 
lute coiitrol,  1  determining  efficiency;  the  other  ii 
oontingenoy  i>  ibe  equivalent  of  uucertainty,  no  i 
chance.     The  one  conception  is  that  the  divine  sover- 
eignty cannot  be  oumpltte  ami  perfect  unless  all  tl 
ootGnl  be  reduced  to  the  condiliun  uf  macbinerr. 
antagonist  of  this  idea  is  the  oonceplion  of  a  go 
Dieiit  of  beings  endowed  with  alternative  powers.     The 
idea  that  a  contingency  is  an  uncertainty  ii  anlattoniied 
by  the  oonceptiim  that  contingency  and  certainly  may 
biitb  he  predicated  or  the  sanie  event;  it  may  be  cer- 
tain that  a  thing  will  be,  and  yet,  at  tlie  same  lime,  bt 
poaaible  chat  it  may  not  be.     These  antsgoniiing  con- 
ceptions are  ultimate;  and  two  partiea,  the  otu  enter 

variance.  Controversy  clones,  the  one  party  a9irreiii|i 
and  the  other  denying.  HGod  cannot  know  b<iw  hn 
CtMIure«  will  condnct  themaelve*  when  endowed  wiili 
alternative  power,  when  left  lo  determine  their  conduct 
by  tbeir  own  free  will ;  if  be  cannot  govern  the 
when  ranch  or  its  hiilory  is  within  the  power  i 
creatures,  when  much  that  is,  is  detemnitied  and  enacted 
by  the  free  volitions  of  men,  then  freedomism  mull 
the  Held.and.aswesee  it,  fatalism  is  triumphant.  There 
are  innumerable  poasibilities  which  never  become  aclu- 
alt  if  the  actual  be  the  measure  of  the  poaaible,  then 
Ikte  govema  all  things. 

III.  /.irrnirarr.  — Amiinins,  IFori*  (Auburn,  N.  Y. 
1853,Svola.8vn),l,a5!;  ii,  473;  Wesley,  Ifonb  (N.  Y. 


*i.),  ii 


i,  4t,4 


,  127,  G 


Feicher,  tKorfa  (ibid.),  i,  90  st).,  S'fl,  602;  ii,  W7.  etc.; 
Wstson,  Theoleyiail  laililutu  (ibid.),  ii,  436  h).  ;  Fisk, 
CaMnitti,:  CoHlroBtrif  (ibid.  1835),  p.  129  sq.;  Bledsoe, 
tjumimlKa  of  iklwai'dt  (Phila.  1846);  Whedon,  Frro 
domofike  Wm  (N.  f .  IA64) ;  Raymond,  Sgltmalic  The- 
olngg  (Cincinnati,  1S7T),  ii,  140  «q-:  [>ope,  VhriMitm  Tkt- 
0%;  (Lond.andN.Y.18;9aq.),ii,36atq.  Aver}'n»d- 
er^lely  Calvinistic,  but  not  strictly  AiminiBu,  view  of 
the  will  may  be  fonnd  in  the  Bopliit  Rreita,  IIWO,  p.  5i7 
•q.  SeeARHiHiAHiBii;  TnaoLOGi  (Nkw  £sola:<d): 
Wui^AMiBM.  (U.  B.) 
WILL, Calvikibtic  Doctrinkoptme.    It  isobvi- 

the  same  theory  as  to  the  nature,  conditions,  and  ex- 
tent of  the  freedom  of  man  in  willing.  It  is  no  lex 
eenain  that  Evangelical  Calrinista  can,  in  perfect  logi. 
eal  conaiUeiicy  with  their  system  of  bitb,  bold  any  the- 
ory of  human  freedom  which  is  open  to  evangelical  Ar- 
miniana  in  coiisiatencr  with  the  logic  of  Ifaeir  svatem. 

I.  /--rrrfgrn  of  ihi  \VUl.-lt  hsa  ilwaya  been'  part  of 
the  religious  faith  nfCalvinista  that  nnin  is  a  free  re- 
apouaible  igenl.  The  various  methods  of  philoeophi 
eally  accounting  for  Ihe  fact  nt  freedom,  and  the  relatio 
oribewill  to  the  other  faculties  oflhe  aoul,  and  of  il 
freedom  tu  the  revealed  doctrines  of  ain  and  grace,  ai 
elemenlsiif  philosophy  and  not  of  theology.  The  Wa\ 
fuiiMfn-Co'i/fanon'/AiiWrepresenla  all  other  Calvinii 
tic  standards  in  issening  ea  foUona; 

Ch,  III,  {  I.  God  hat  "  nncbaneenlilf  ordslnod  whattt 
over  comes  to  pnaa  ;  yet  an  ns  therelii  iielltaer  la  Ood  Ih 
nnlhnr  of  sin.  nor  la  violence  oDered  to  the  will  of  th 
creninrea.  nor  Is  the  liberty  or  conilncency  of  lecom 
esDwi  Inken  nwny,  but  raiber  eatablisbed." 

Ch.  v,  (It.  'JAIifi'in^  In  relntlon  to  the  fonknowledf; 

rdoreth  then 


immBIBbly,  yet,  by  the  ta 


necessnrily,  freely,  or  contlnBenlly." 
Ch.la,  i  1.  "God  hath  endued  I  he  w] 

nninrnl  lll*rty,  Ihsi  It  la  neither  f"rce 

Int*  iivccMliy  of  nature  determined  tu  good 


ifmnnwithihn 


This  doctrine  Calvinista  have  always  a 
they  have  never  held  any  other  doctrines  which,  in  their 
belief,  were  iiuunuMcul  with  this  fondaawntal  doctciat 
of  human  freedom. 

In  former  times  Calvinistic  theologians,  while  nssia- 
taining  the  freedom  of  roan  as  a  re^ioasiblc  nioral  apio, 
have  generally  felt  impelled  to  set  over  againpi  the  ba 
of  freedom  the  equally  certain  bets  of  man'a  monl  de- 
pravity, and  consequent  voluntary  avernon  and  raonl 
inability  to  fulfill  tboee  obligations  which  apainf;  tm  rf 
our  relation  toUod.  This  has  been  sturply  emphuHd 
in  oppueition  lo  Pelagian  error.  But  more  recenily.  ia 
consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  pantheistic  and  maw- 
riolistic  modes  of  thought,  which  are  alike  fatalianc. 
Calvinista  generally  have  been  impelled  to  luiite  wkh 
their  Wesleysn  brethren  in  empbasiiing  Ibe  ralinasl 
and  moral  aelf-deiermlning  power  of  the  boman  nal 
which  Ibey  had  alwiys  held.  This  primuy  trmh  i> 
the  only  and  the  efficient  solrent  alike  of  aiatsialB 
and  of  pantheiam  in  all  their  forma.  It  is  tbe  oiadd 
of  faith,  the  last  lenable  stronghold  in  defesKc  of  ai^xt- 
nalunil  religion.  We  therefore  not  only  bold  to  ihi 
freedom  of  the  human  soul  in  willing  aincerdy  and  in 
good  f^th,  but  we  regard  it  as  fundamental  and  rawa- 
tial,  the  truth  of  all  others  to  be  held  aloft  and  vi^i- 


That  Calvii 


:  iheolngiana 


class  have  alwan 
led  the  freedom  of  the  human  soul  ae  the  ^ 

such  impartial,  learned,  and  able  critics  as  Sir  WiliiiB 
Hamilton  (/^ixrufjau.  Appendix  I,  A;  and  nMe  «o  p. 
40:i  of  oilleclcd  lfori><</'Z>e^U£frvarf).DugaUS(tw 
vHDiueiialiimoRlke  Frogrtuo/  PkUotapiif\tni^ 
James  Mackintosh  (Note  6  to  hia  PtrtimiiiaTy  Di^^ 
lalim)  have  affirmed  that  the  docuiue  of  tba  will  man- 
tained  by  Jonathan  Edwards  is  irrecwicilablT  incsiK 
■sistent  with  the  doctrines  of  Augustine  aitd  Calvii^  airf 
Ibe  ayatem  they  taught.  In  direct  cuntradictinn  to  tlui 
opinion.  Kdwarda  and  Chalmers  have  held  that  (be  pe- 
ticular  theory  of  liberty  which  they  maintaiircd— wk^ 
has  been  absurdly  misrepresented  by  its  title  of '"philo- 
sophical necessity"— ia  essential  to  the  k>gicBl  delinn  rf 
tbeCalvinisticsyttem.  PrincipalWiUiamCtmningbaK 
in  his  article  "Calvinism  and  the  Doctrine  oTPfaiVM^ 
ical  Necessity,"  in  ha  Kr/ormirM  and  iJu  Tieoiiyf  i/iki 
A^orwi/i'cm.hatincontmveniblyproval  that  both  tbni 
opposite  opinions,  as  to  the  relstion  of  the  Calviauu 
system  of  theology  to  special  theories  of  the  fnedoB  tl 
the  will,  are  false;  and  thst  neither  the  theory  ta>^ 
by  Kdwards,  nor  the  theory  of  Mlf-detenainatiDQ  rasilit 
by  ErnngFlical  Arminians.  or  any  other  ihcfwr  o4  ik 
will  which  can  be  consistently  held  by  Wed^aM,  ■ 
excluded  by  the  logic  of  Calvinism. 

II.  Oppotiiitm  fo  Peitrffitmitm, — Pelagiana  buU  tlitf 
Ihe  essence  of  free-Hill  involves  an  absolalelf  uoon^ 
tinned  power  oTchoice  between  good  and  evil,  and  i^ 
this  power  i*  inalienable  from  human  natuit  ai>d  east*- 
dat  to  T»ponsible  agenc)' ;  that  Ibe  moral  ageficy  i.f 
a  man  at  any  one  moment  cannot  detemiiiie  nnr  lint 
hia  moral  agency  at  any  other  moment,  bat  that  he 
must  possess,  whatever  hia  i)e«duct,thRHiglioM  his  e*- 
tire  existence,  full  ability  lo  will  and  to  do  all  that  (M 

whether  ^od  or  bad,  can  be  rationally  prcdicatol  aab 
of  act*  of  the  will,  and  not  of  any  permBt)eni  staica  ^ 
Ibe  will  or  of  the  affections.  Hence  Pelagians  <hsiT— t. 
That  Adam  was  created  with  a  holy  charBCter  nra- 
cedent  to  his  own  morally  unbiaaeed  action.  2.  Tba 
deny  Ibit  Adam  was  the  reprcaentative  faettlof  tbebi 
man  race,  and  that,  in  consequence  of  hia  apostHv,  k 
own  nature  or  that  of  his  pooerity  became  uoollV  d> 
praved.  B.  They  deny  Ibat  man's  will  ii  ever  nnll 
impotent,  or  unable  to  meet  all  the  oUigatiaaa  nEtia 
upon  bim.  4.  That  the  will  of  Hnful  man  b  defmidei 
upon  aupematnral  aaaistance,  or  that  it  can  be  eOotn 
ly  influenced  by  such  grace  without  prejudice  ta  i: 
freedom  or  respunsibilily.    fi.  Sociniana,  ibe  ocdy  c^ 


WILL,  CALVINISTIC  DOCTRINE    883    WILL,  CALVINlSnC  DOOTEINB 

■Mant  PcUgUiu,  hold  that  errlamtf  is  abKilalsl;  in- 
rnnaftrnt  with  Ubettj-,  «ad  Ibat,  coDwqoaiilj,  God  eui- 
oM  fanknow  tba  ruUin  ftea  loti  of  men,  or  other  coo- 


CalnniM  ut,  oT  codtw,  pnT«t«d  b;  ifaeit  reiigiooi 
faith  Anm  igTMUif  with  dw  aboTe  poaitioni  of  tha  Pe- 
lagiaDaaa  to  tba  coudilioni  of  free  tgtaey.  They  bold 
that  man  «u  araated  with  a  poaiiiva  holy  chancier, 
JK  abk  to  obej  or  diiobey.  TbU  man'i  moral  nalura 
baa  ben  nnoe  the  fall  totally  aorrupt,  inditpoaed  and 
diaaUed  to  obey  God'a  holy  Uv.  That  tba  iafluenn 
of  dirine  grace,  preveoiaot  and  cooperative,  exerclaed 
in  legenaration  and  MuKtificaUon,  initcad  of  limiting 
the  liberty  oT  tba  hnman  will,  Ta-aaUblitbea  and  loit- 

lit.  Abilih/  ami  USct^n— Hanee  Adguatidiaii*  have 
sharply  amphaaiiad  Ibe  diatinction  l>at«aeD  tibtrti),  Iha 
inaliCDaUe  ftOfltty  of  the  human  ami  aa  a  free  rational 
moml  agent,  ai>d  Mlilg,  L  e^  the  power  lo  will  and  do 
up  to  tba  full  meaanre  of  our  respoaribility ;  or  the  power 
to  will  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  pnrailing  moral 
Male  of  Iha  aoulilaeir;  or  the  power,  by  a  mere  volUion, 
u>  change  that  praralent  moral  atale.  The  tame  dia- 
tinction ia  dgnaliied,  by  German  pbJoaophieal  Iheolo- 
gUns,  by  the  lerma  Formula  FraJuit,  or  ability,  and 
Stale  FrMeit,  ot  liberty.  Tbe  neglect  of  tbia  diatinc- 
tion baa  lad  to  much  coahuioik.  Augnatine,  Luther, 
and  many  of  tbe  Met  Augaatinian  tbeologiani,  in  term 
denied  liberty,  when  they  really  meant  only  to  deny  lo 
Dca  moral  ability  IA  obt^  the  divine  law  independently 
of  aupematoral  grace.  Tbia  liaa  lad  many  boneat  op- 
pooeota  of  Calrinism,  imparfectly  aoqaainted  with  Au- 
guatinian  theotogical  liurature,  and  the  vmg»  of  tech- 
nical languigc  irtatch  preraili  in  it,  to  miaundeiatand 
■lldgetber  the  meaning  of  many  of  oar  elaaaical  author- 
ilics.  CalTiniMa,  aa  thej  hare  undentood  tbemielTee, 
hare  alwaya  maintained  the  freedom  of  tbe  human  will, 
and  at  tbe  fame  time,  and  in  perfect  conaiitency,  have 
denied  the  moral  ability  of  man  lince  the  fall  lo  obey 
God'a  law  w  itbouc  aiipematural  grace.  Tbey  have  abio 
alwaya,  and  with  equal  conaiitency,  mainlained  that  all 
erenta,  including  tha  volitioni  of  free  agent*  aa  well  aa 
thnoa  depeodent  npon  neceaaary  canaea,  have  been  tmn 
etemily  certainly  future,  and  that  tbia  certain  futuri- 
lion  baa  been  determined  by  the  aDTcreigii  foreordina- 
tion  of  God. 

But  in  all  theee  p^la,  except  the  lait,  Wealeyani 
and  Cnlriniala  agree.  Ditferent  ezplanationi  and  ad- 
Juatmenta  of  Ibeae  great  commonplacea  of  Evangelical 
Cbriatianity  may  diMiuguiah  them,  but,  aa  above  geu- 
crally  atated,  Ihey  are  at  one.  God  did  create  man  with 
a  Datnre  boly,  antecedent  to  all  action,  jet  matable 
(Wai«on,/Hfilae«,  pLii,ch.Tiaud  iriii;  and  Wesley, 
aa  there  quoted  by  Walaoii).  Han,  after  hie  fall,  con- 
tiouea  lo  be  a  free  anil  nsponiible  moral  agent,  and  yet 
ia  morally  depraved  before  individual  action,  and  ia  un- 
able, before  rq[eneration,  and  without  the  aaaiatance  of 
Bupematural  grace,  to  obey  tha  divine  law;  and  the 
operation  of  this  grace  doea  no  violence  to  bii  heedom 
of  will  (Mallodut  A  rtida,  art.  viii ;  Wstaon,  /lultfufet, 
pt.  il,  ch,  iviii;  and  Wealey  on  Origmcd  Sin).  Saints 
ID  glory  wilt  be  free,  yet  confirmed  in  holineaa  and  not 
liable  to  fall  into  sin  (Wataun,  Imtihila,  pt.  ii,  cb.  xxix). 
The  free  acta  of  men  and  angels  have  alwaya  been  cer^ 
tainly  fblure  lo  the  infinite  foreknowledge  of  God  (3M. 
pt.ii,ch.iv). 

IT.  FordcaouilKlg*  and  iVafaMuHrfioih  —  Obviously, 
therefore,  tlie  only  point  at  which  the  essential  elemeau 
of  tbe  Calvinialie  •yUcm  even  appear  lo  bear  upon  tbe 
nature  or  oonditioos  of  human  free  agency  in  a  manner 
diflteent  from  that  in  which  the  essential  principles 
of  erangelical  Arminianism  bear  upon  tbe  same  is  the 
poiiit  of  tbe  divine  decrees.  Calvinisla  bold  tbat  God 
taaa  fkom  eternity  immntaUy  Ibtaknown  and^reordawi- 
ad  whataoerer  oomaa  to  paaa.  Waaleyans  hold  that 
Bod  hat  flram  eternity  immuubly  foreknown  wbalso- 
•rw  COBMB  to  pass.  Both  equally  involve  nnat«|y, 
X.-S3 


and  neither  involves  anything  else.  Wataon  says  "  tba 
great  fallacy  in  tbe  argument,  that  the  certain  prescience 
of  a  moral  action  destroy*  its  coatingency,  lies  in  sup- 
posing tbat  contingency  and  certainty  are  tbe  opposiM 
of  eacb  othor.''  Anti-Calviuiat*  oommauly  understand 
that  divine  fareordinatioa  ncoasHrily  includea  tba  de- 
termiikation  upon  tba  part  of  Qod  efficiently  to  bring  in 
paaa  the  thigg*  bnotdained.  Bat  all  events  are  efTecta 
either  of  neoeaaary  or  of  free  caueca.  Foreordinatioo  of 
tbe  effecta  of  naceataiy  eaussa,  of  oonrae,  doea  involve  a 
puiiing-lbrth  of  divine  tAdeocy  to  bring  them  to  paa* 
dthar  immettialaty  or  mediately.  But  the  Ibreordiika- 
tion  of  tba  efheta  of  ttee  causes  sneb  aa  the  volitions  irf 
la»  agenia,  of  ooium,  does  ml  involve  upon  the  part  of 
God  any  puipoee  of  putting  forth  eOlcieney  to  bring  tha 
foreordained  volition  to  paaa,  except  that  involved  in 
bringing  the  free  agent  into  existence  wbom  be  foraaw 
would  f^ly  execute  tbe  volition  in  qucatioui  and  in 
giving  him  power,  diber  natural  or  gncioua,  to  execnts 
it,  God  elemally  saw  in  idea  all  poasible  free  agenta, 
under  sQ  poamble  eonditiona,  and  all  the  voliliona  which 
Ihey  would  frcdy  exerdae  under  sU  thoae  coodiiions, 
if  they  were  so  created  and  conditioned.  This  kitowl. 
edge  (srinfia  sisyiiCM  hildtigaitiai  preeedea  and  con- 
ditiona  all  foieordiDalion.  He  then  aovereignly  cboaa 
out  of  the  poadble  tbe  entire  system  of  things  he  de- 
sired to  make  actually  folate,  and  by  this  choice  he 
made  tbe  futuritioo  of  all  things  eertaim,  Thia  foreoi^ 
dilution  precede*  and  OMtdiiions  his  foreknowledge  of 
Ibinga  ocrtainly  future.  In  order  to  execute  il,  God,  in 
craatioQ  and  provideoce,  tiringa  into  existence  and  con> 
trols  in  action  all  seoeaaary  agents  including  some  side* 
of  human  nature;  but  as  to  free  volilioiu,  be  amply 
brings  tbe  ^enta  into  existenoe  and  conditions  them 
aocording  to  his  plan,  and  gradoualy  or  naturally  su|K 
plies  them  with  tbe  power  necessary  to  will  and  act  a* 
predetermined,  and  then  leaves  them  freely  and  oootin* 
gently  [o  will  aa  be  bad  certainly  foraaeen  tbey  wouU  do. 
Or,  as  an  eminentCslviniuic  authority  prefers  to  put  i^ 
"The  Calviniitic  position  ia  stated  with  sufficient  distinet- 
neaswhenit  is  said  that  tbe  eiisling  >y*temoftbingaor 
world-plan  was  preaeni  in  tbe  divine  mind  from  all  eterni- 
ty, and  wa*  tbetelbn  both  fiveluiown  and  fbreordained." 
I'hus  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  (brcordinalion  of  li«« 
acts,like  the  Wealayan  doctrine  of  lbrcknowl*dge(whicb 
really  doea  not  diffigr  from  it  aa  mnch  as  many  suppoae), 
dmply  involves  tba  previous  immutable  certoinfy  of  tba 
act,  and  in  no  way  alfbeta  tbe  freedom  of  the  agent  or 
the  contingency  of  his  act  ((FufninsMr  Coi^ttdon  of 
Fadtk,  iii,  1).  It  ia  frea  in  ila  very  essential  nature.  It 
is  foreseen  that  the  agent  woaU  exercise  it  if  eieaied 
and  so  oonditioDed.  Crod  mshe*  il  ocrlaiafy  J\ittin  by 
his  purpose  to  so  create  and  so  place  Ibat  man.  Hia 
crration  and  pnvideolial  oondition  are  brought  about  by 
Ibe  efficiency  of  God.  Hiavolition.altboughfoieaeenlo 
be  certainly  future,  ia  his  own  free  spontaneoas  self-de- 
terminatioD.  Even  if  this  explanalion  shoold  be  proved 
untrue  or  aliaord,  surety  a  thonsaDd  other  reconcilialiona 
of  these  revealed  tmthi  may  be  possible  to  divine,  al- 
though they  should  all  be  imposdble  to  buman,  reason. 
Hence,  neither  CalviiiiBt  nor  evangelical  Arminian 
can  consistently  bold  a  theory  of  the  will  involving  the 
prindpire  of  Petagianism  which  both  repudiate.  And 
beooe,  also,  Wealeyans  and  Calviniata  agreeing  (1)  that 
God's  foreknowledge  proves  that  all  events  are  certainly 
future,  and  (3)  that  there  can  be  no  foreordinatian  of.a 
human  volition  in  any  sense  or  degree  inconsistent  with 
its  perfect  freedom,  have,  each  of  them,  in  consistency 
with  the  logic  of  their  respective  svatemn,  preciiely  tbe 
same  range  of  choice  as  to  theories  of  the  will  as  the 
other.  Principal  William  Cunningham  inconlroverti- 
bly  prove*  this  in  e»ay  ix,  RtfonMri  and  Theologs  ry* 
(A«  A^orawUtoH.  Thai  foreknowledge  leada  to  fureor- 
dinatton  la  argued  by  professor  U  D.H'Cabe,  D.D.,  LI.D., 
in  hia  Cbaotauqua  Aildreti  for  1880, and  in  hia  work  on 
TjIs  Forthwukdgt  o/God;  and  hence  be  proposes  to 
ravolutioniae  Weeteyan  theology  by  the  inlwd--' — ' 


WILL,  CALVINISTIC  DOCTRINE    994 


WILLARD 


tlw  deniil  of  Ood'a  forgkiiOKledga  of  futun  contiDgcnt 

V.  Tit  Kdieardeati  Dodrait. — Edwirdi  wrote  igMiut 
the  PeligiinUing  ArmiDiuu  lepreieated  bj  Wfaitby, 
■ud  in  ■  theologicit  interest,  u  hs  wppowd.  He  pro- 
posed  tn  settle  forever,  by  UrictJy  logical  proceai,  all  Ibe 
quMtiont  it  issue.  He  irgned  that  tbe  act  of  tbe  will 
is  by  ■  ri^d  Uw  of  eausition  determined  by  tbe  strong- 
est motive.  "  He  doa  not  caiefully  dislingniih  between 
tbe  different  usages  of  the  word  'cause;'  he  seems  (o 
limit  freedom  loo  eicluriTely  to  eiecutivt  rolitian ;  at 
time)  be  implies  [hat  the  whole  causal  power,  producing 
volition,  resides  in  the  motives ;  bis  conception  of  can- 
ailion  is  derived  from  the  cphere  of  mechanics  rather 
than  from  that  of  living  spontaneous  forces;  and  he  is 
tn  in  earnest  in  arguing  against  the  selT-detennining 
power  of  the  will  a*  to  neglect  that  element  of  self-de- 
(cnninatian  which  is  andeniably  found  in  every  person- 
al act"  (Smith  [Dr.Henrv  a], in  the-4mn-.  Prta.and 
TAwtfienrw.Jan.18G5). 'Yetheneverintendedlodeny 
that  essential  freedom  of  choice  which  is  witnessed  for  in 
conscioiuness,  and  that  be  conducted  his  argument  with 
consummate  powei  is  witnessed  to  by  his  most  earnest 
opponents.  He  "set  np  a  philoaophy  of  tbe  will  which 
is  not  consonant  with  tbe  doctrine  that  had  been  held 
by  the  main  body  of  Aggnstinian  theologians.  . . .  Tbe 
doctrine  of  Angusline,  however,  and  Ibe  more  general 
doctrine,  even,  of  Calrinistic  theologians,  the  doctrine 
of  Calvin  himself,  and  of  the  Weatminsler  Assembly's 
creeds,  is  tliat  a  certain  liberty  of  will  ((Kiiitnimni),Dr 
the  power  of  eonltary  choice,  had  belonged  to  the  fint 
man,  bat  had  disappeared  in  the  act  of  Iransgrnaion, 
which  brought  his  will  into  bondage  to  eviL  It  was 
the  comrDon  doctrine,  too,  that  in  mankind  now,  while 
the  will  is  enslaved  as  regards  religious  obedience,  it  re- 
mains free  outside  of  this  province  In  all  civil  and  secular 
coDcems.  In  this  wide  domain  the  power  of  contrary 
choice  still  remains"  (Fisher  [Rev.  Prof.  George  P.],  in 
theiV(irtA,1meri™iSntnB,March,1879).  Calvinaayt^ 
in  writing  against  Pighius, "  If  Once  be  opposed  to  free- 
dom, I  acknowledge  and  will  always  afflrm  that  there  is 
a  free  will,  a  will  determining  itself,  and  proclsim  every 
man  who  thinks  otherwise  a  heretic  Let  the  will  be 
called  free  in  this  sense,  that  is,  becaose  it  is  not  con- 
strained or  impelled  irresistibly  from  without,  but  deter- 
mines itself  by  itself'  (Henry,  Lift  o/Cateia.  tiinsl.  by 
Stebbing,  i,  497).  Dr.  Thomas  Rcid,  the  founder  of  the 
Scottish  philosophy,  was  a  Calvinistie  minister,  and  in 
his  Aaiot  Powtri  taught  the  freedom  of  the  will.  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  who  was  ■  member  of  a  Catvinistic 
Church,  and  a  believer  in  foreknowledge  and  foreurdi- 
nation,  taught  the  tame  (see  his  Nola  on  Reid,  and  his 
Diicaitioai).  Dr.  IfCoab  (i>R<tfM  Goommnl,  bk.  ili, 
ch.  i,  S  1  and  2)  pUinly  enters  his  dissent  froio  Edwards, 
although  he  regards  the  problem  as  to  the  consistency 
of  the  admitted  self-determining  power  of  tbe  human 
aoul  and  tbe  universal  reign  of  '  ' 
be  at  present  insoluble.  Henry  P.  Tappan  hs 
criticised  Edwards  in  the  interest  of  the  "doctri 
Mif- determined  will,"  while  he  remains  a  eon 
CalvinisL 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Edwards's  cdehraied  i 
ia  an  amaiing 
diteclions  ' 

as  far  as  can  now  be  seen,  never  wiU  be.  Dr.  Whedon's 
new  view  of  the  will  is  a  practical  testimony  to  the  con- 
vincing power  of  Edwards's  logic.  His  (Edwards)  /»- 
fimlt  Serif t  remains  a  triumphant  refutation  a(  the  old 
doctrine  of  the  liberty  of  indifference.  The  position  of 
the  treatise  before  the  public  in  Ihe  present  age,  bow- 
ever,  is  maintained  not  by  its  Calvinistic  defenden,  but 
by  its  persistent  critica,  who  attack  it  because  they  be- 
lieve it  to  be  the  citadel  of  Calriuiatic  theology.  This 
is,  and  has  always  been,  an  entire  misuke.  Calvinists, 
as  such,  are  independent  of,  and  indiflerant  to,  the  psy- 
cholngTcal  theory  it  advocates,  and  tbe  fate  of  Ihe  argu- 
ment on  which  that  theory  rett*. 


YI.  ftgf.Mogy  of  At  Sabjea^^Tbt  qnearieo  ■  to 
tbe  human  will  and  the  laws  of  its  action  abooU  tt  a- 
vestigated  purely  as  a  psychological,  and  h<  asa  Ats- 
logical,  question.  In  this  respect  both  Edwards  at 
Whedon  have  equally  etrad.  The  opinioa  of  bsm 
modem  theologiani,  fbanded  poreiy  on  psycbolopal 
coHiHilerations,  and  independent  of  all  theological  Hti, 
is,  upon  the  wttole,  as  foUowa,  Great  cwifiaiM  bti 
been  imported  into  this  difficult  problem  by  tbe  iHg^ 
common  to  both  paftiea,  of  eonadering  the  will  as  s  vp- 
amte  organ  or  agent,  exleiior  to  the  reaaoo,  athtiw, 
desirea,e«OBeience,and  other  faeukie*  of  the  aniL  Cm- 
sciousnesB  affirms  that  the  human  sool  i*  ao  sbsikit 
unit,  not  like  the  body  a  system  of  organa.  TbewMt 
soul  is  the  one  organ  of  all  its  functions;  the  wbolt 
soul  (Ego)  thinks,  desireB,Judges, feels;  and  the  irlic4t 
soul  wills.  The  soul,  that  is,  tbe  person,  b  an  wigml 
self-prompted  cause,  and  Is  the  sole  and  snSciegl  aam 
of  all  its  volitions.  In  every  free  nJitioo  tbe  isal  ii 
seir- determined  only,  and  bad  power  to  the  coauiri 
choice.  The  will,  however,  ia  not  separate  fna  tbt 
reason,  but  inclu<lea  it ;  includes  all  the  soul  incMa: 
is  self-decided  by  its  own  cnuienta  and  its  oiw  dws^ 
ter;  and  hence  ia  rational  and  moral,  free  and  ra|iB- 

If  the  problem  be  poshed  faftba,  and  wc  d«  iritri 
to  affirm  tbe  relation  which  the  jmriota  stata  gf  ita 
soul  luBlain  to  Its  volitions,  moat  Ihralogiuis  btbrn 
that  no  salisfactoiy  answer  has  ever  been  giren.  Il« 
answer  of  Edwanb  that  tbe  volitiom  are  drtsmiatil. 
through  a  rigid  law  of  moral  cansalioo,  by  the  pmr^ 
ing  state  of  the  sool,  or  by  the  strongest  ntotive,  sfftwi 
to  involve  the  reign  within  the  will  of  lb*  SBHekai' 
cause  and  effect  which  prevails  in  tbe  pbyscal  ■>■ 
verse;  and  this  it  is  difficult  lo  prevent  frou  dcfovi- 
ating  into  fatalism.  Tbe  answer  of  Wbedon  that  ll* 
will,  independent  of  the  reason,  and  tbe  afictii^  ■a' 
the  conscience  can  "pnijecl  volitions"  foe  tbe  ehgn 
and  direction  of  which  no  cause  or  reanoo  whatrnr 
exists,  except  the  bare  power  the  man  baa  lo  viD  Bir- 
thing, appears  to  us  to  involve  pun  chance  (by  tidai- 
ing  ■  •  ■  .    .     ■  . 


id  chance  is  doIt  b. 
>  be  satisfied  witkita 
11  agree^o)  the  fm 
ll  itself  in  every  fiw 


from  Ihe  will  itself), 
other  name  for  fale.    It  is  betl« 
statement  of  the  points  in  whici 

choice,  (b)  that  in  the  free  acts 
ly  reaponnble  we  act  for  reasons,  in  view  of  metal  t\r- 
Nderations,  and  our  personal  character  is  revealed  a  tki 
act — than  to  insist  further  npon  a  ratiooal  account  of  ib 
genesis  of  each  volition  and  ila  relation  lo  Ihe  aDtecadr* 
stales  of  the  souL  For  hitherto  no  such  acnnnt  ha  . 
been  permanently  regarded  as  eatisfactotv  by  aths 
party. 

VII.  Z.itenirNrr.— Leibniti,£t>i>u  <fr  njodnr.etc: 
Rcid,  Attivr  Povtr;  eteay  iv;  Tunetinc,  /asriw*  | 
Thtolngia,  locus  decimus;  Hndge,  SfMttmaNe  Tint- 
ojy,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii;  Edwards,  /njuiiy  om  tin  Frntim  tf 
lit  Will,-  Cunningham,  Tkrotagi/  of  Ou  Rrformim.o- 
say  ix;  Hamilton,  Soln  m  Slrrart;  id.  DitntnM 
Fisher,  DittuMiont  m  Hiitary  and  TIttologf,  p.  V^-'X. 
Smith,  ReeitK  of  Wkrdtm  m  tki  W^  io  the  A^n- 
cm  Pmiyltriam  and  TAniin<;ictil  Kerine,  Jan.  IIG, 
Dav,  Ob  I**  iVUl;  Tappan,  Rrnrw  b/  Edrardfi  I- 
joi'ry,  and  Tit  Dottrm  of  ikt  WiB  Apptiid  to  Mfu 

Agetuy  and  HetpauMlil]/ ;  Taylor,  Uoral  (T —  M 

<f  God;   M-Coah,  Divine  Gntnmtit,  bfc.  iii,  ck  t 
(A.  A.  H.) 

Willaid.  JoaxFH,  D.D.,  LL.D„  a  pnsidmt  of  Bar 
vard  Collie,  btolher  of  Rev.  John  Willard,  D.a.< 
Stratford,  Conn.,  was  bom  in  Biddeferd.  Uc^  Dm  9 
1738.  He  was  the  son  of  tbe  Kev.  Samuel  WiOmi. 
minister  of  that  town,  and  great^raadsan  of  ihe  Est 
Samuel  Willard  of  th«  Old  Booth  Chnrcb,  Bimob.  aai 
vice-president  of  Harvard  College.  Joeegih  waa  ten 
and  reared  in  poverty,  but  by  the  aid  of  otbers  xad  C* 
his  own  energy  be  entered  Harvard  Odlege,  and  giait-  | 


WnXEHAD  01 

ulcd  in  176IIl  He  atDdied  dividitj  atUr  bii  gndua- 
tion,  «u  tutor  in  Greek  for  aii  yeKn,  and  wm  ordained 
ruUagne  pastor  (with  Joaeph  Cbampnej)  of  the  First 
CongngitiDnil  Cburcb  in  Beverly,  HuL,  in  1772. 
Here  he  preached  until  1781,  when  he  wa»  elected  pres- 
ident or  Harvard  Univeraity.  For  more  than  Nxieen 
vearv  he  performed  bis  duties  witboat  interruption  by 
■iciineu;  but  in  1T98  he  was  pmlraied  by  aieTeie  ill- 
DFB  and  could  never  aflcrwarda  attend  to  the  work  nf 
the  college  with  the  ume  conttancy.  In  AugunI,  1804, 
be  took  ■  Journey  to  the  aouibem  part  of  the  atate,  and 
on  his  return  from  NanluckeC  to  New  Bedford  be  vaa 
aeized  at,  the  latter  place  with  sadden  illnesa,  and  died 
in  five  days,  Sept.  25,  IBOt  "  President  Willard^s  whole 
life  was  randelleit  on  the  aonnd  and  impregnable  princi- 
plea  of  religion,  and  presented  an  admirable  specimen 
of  (he  old  Puricati  character  liberalized  and  improved. 
Generality, disintereslednee*, a  lofty  int^rity,and  hott- 
er were  united  with  modeMy,  limidicity,  and  aingleneaa 
of  heart.'*  In  the  administration  of  the  oollege  ha  was 
eminently  faithful,  and  his  (Irmiieaa,  difcnity,  affability, 
and  benignity  aecured  the  cordial  napect,  and  often  the 
aftetion,  of  both  tbe  atadeaCa  and  the  faculty.  As  a 
preacher,  he  was  plain,  instructive,  and  solemn.  Presi- 
dent Willanl  was  ■  tboiough  and  profound  scholar ;  es- 
pecially in  hia  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature  he  had  few  superiors,  if  any.  He  wrote  a 
Gnammar  of  lit  Gredt  Language  (the  fitat,  probably, 
that  was  written  in  English)  which  remains  in  minu- 
seiipt  in  tbe  library  of  the  university.  It  shows  great 
iraearcb.  Thepuhlicationof IheCiouiMrerGreeiCrnBi- 
jnar  wben  Dt.Willard's  was  nearly  completed  induced 
him  to  abandon  tiie  design  of  publication.  A  fen  oc- 
casiortal  aermona  were  published.  See  Spragiie,  A  rtnaU 
-fOu  A  mer.  Palpit,  ii,  23-80 ;  Cong.  Qmrterlg,  1869,  p. 
M;  Willanft  Memoirt. 

TVlllahad,  &r„  apoatle  to  the  Friaians  and  Saxona, 
iras  bom  about  A.D.  730  in  the  kingdom  of  Northum- 
berland, of  an  ancient  family.  Hia  early  training  was 
largely  eondoeted  by  Alciiin  (q.  v.)  of  Vork.  He  reach- 
ed Friealand  in  or  about  tbe  year  770,  and  began  his 
labors  in  the  place  (Doekum)  where  Bonibce  had  been 
muidered,  with  snccesatiil  resulla.  His  zeal  drave  him, 
however,  to  seek  a  region  where  Christianity  bad  nut 
beea  introduced,  and  he  went,  in  consequence,  to  East- 
em  Friaia.  Here  the  jdolacrous  people  were  exlremely 
fanatical,  and  be  escaped  murder  at  tbeir  bands  only 
(brmigta  the  narrow  chance  of  a  (svorable  lot  being 
thrown  when  the  goda  were  invoked.  At  another  place, 
Urenttae,  be  was  more  auceeaaful,  until  the  fanatical 
z«al  or  his  own  oompanjona  excited  the  inget  of  tbe 
people  and  compelled  his  TetnavaL  In  the  meantime 
his  labors  had  been  mentioned  to  Charlemagne,  and 
in  781  tbat  monarch  intrusted  to  him  the  work  of  con- 
rercimg  the  Saxons  in  tbe  vale  ofWigmodi,on  the  Low- 
;r  Weaer,  and  also  tbe  tieighboiing  Frisians.  In  this 
work  he  displayed  great  tact  and  zeal,  and  succeeded  in 
t  little  while  to  a  degree  which  had  not  been  possible 
'.a  Charlemagne  with  ail  his  armies.  Many  iaroilies 
vere  ootiverled  and  several  churches  founded  durinii 
.he  two  yean  which  elapsed  before  the  last  rising  of 
.he  ^lona  under  their  duke,  Widukind,  agsinst  the 
i«w  SDtharitita.  This  rising  occurred  in  7S2,  and  was 
-apeeially  violent  against  tbe  Christians  who  had  been 
^Ihered'  by  Wlllebad.  The  miaaionary  aared  himself 
ly  flifcht  to  Frisia,  but  a  number  of  hia  aanstants  and 
rleiula  were  killed.  The  interval  until  tbe  rsconquest 
if  ihc  eonnlry  was  employed  by  Willehad  in  a  visit  to 
he  pope,  where  he  met  with  a  fellow-laborer  and  suf- 
;rvr  among  tbe  heathen  named  liutger,  and  in  a  so- 
Lfum — employed  with  devotional  and  literary  duties, 
ipeeiaUy  the  copying  of  Paul's  epistles— in  one  of  WU- 
■bKtnt's  convents  at  Kchtemach,  near  Treves.  In  785 
^idaklnd  waa  baptiied,  and  Willehad  returned  to  his 
.0rk.  io  the  region  of  tbe  Lower  Weser  and  resumed 
ia  labota.  He  established  a  central  Chorch  at  Brem- 
1   and  *  amaller  Church  at  Blexen.    In  787,  July  13, 


}S  WILLERAM 

he  waa  cmaeoated  Insbop  at  Worms,  having  previou*- 
ly  been  a  simple  preahyter.  On  hia  return,  he  found 
tbe  Saxons  unwilling  to  recognise  a  bishop  placed  over 
them  by  the  conqueror  and  endowed  with  the  right 
of  exacting  tithes;  but  he  Uwred  with  peniatent  teal 
to  effect  a  firm  establishment  of  the  Church  among 
them,  and  succeeded  in  dedicating  the  flnt  Church  in 
hU  dioccK  Nov.  I,  783.  Hia  administraaon,  however, 
was  but  brief.  He  undertook  a  tour  of  visitation,  the 
fatigues  of  which  threw  bim  into  a  violent  fever,  from 
which  he  died  Nov.  8, 789.  He  had  earned  the  repu- 
tation of  a  devout,  eminently  trustful,  and  very  zealous 
Christian  laborer,  as  well  as  of  a  modeat,  courageous, 
and  abatemiouB  man.  He  wholly  abstained  from  the 
use  of  flesh  food  and  intoxicating  drink.  His  body  was 
interred  at  Bremeu  and  was  credited  with  the  peiform- 
anm  of  many  miraelea.  Ansgar  enumerates  thirty- 
four  such  wonders,  which  involve  not  only  many  note- 
worthy histcffical  and  topugnphical  trulitions  of  tbat 
time,  but  lUo  several  psychological  features  which  de- 
serve exaoiinalion.  He  was  formally  canonized,  and 
two  daya,  July  13  and  Nov.  8,  were  aet  apart  in  his 

LtCerafNtT.— Anskarios,  Vita  S.  WSkiadi,  Epiti:, 
Brem,  (ezrlieat  edition),  the  principal  aonrce;  Coaris 
[Pha]  TriapoHoL  SepttnMon.,  ritit  Vita  «  Gttta  SS. 
W^Mmdi,  Angara,  tt  Riiabtrti  (Colon.  1642);  HabU- 
lon,  Aaa  S3.  Baird.  iii,  2,  tM  aq.,  beat  edition  in  Perti, 
Uomn.  ii,  378-390;  Adami  Gttta  Hanuialmrg.  Etxi 
Pontif.  »fU  ad  A  a.  1072,  in  Perta,  vii,  237  sq.;  Rell- 
hfTg,  Kirciaigack.  Deultdilandi,ii,iti0^t^,68J ;  Klip- 
pel,  LetaubeKireihiHig  d,  EnbiuAo/t  Aiugar  (Bremen, 
1846)  I  Henog,  Seat-EnryUop.  s.  v. 

Willeram  (or  ^ruUram,  also  Walram  and 
Waltiamtu)  waa  a  learned  Gertnan  monk,  and  na- 
tive of  Ftanconia.  On  bis  return  from  Paris,  where 
he  bad  been  to  study  philoaophy  and  bellea-Iettrrs  un- 
der able  masters,  ha  was  appointed  prebendary  at  Bam- 
berg; but  ere  long  he  aiaumed  tbe  gatb  of  a  monk  and 
retired  into  the  convent  at  Fulda.  The  report  of  hia 
piety,  his  merits,  and  hia  learning  reached  the  emper- 
or Henry  HI,  who  gave  to  him  the  Abbey  of  Ebenbcrg, 
Bavaria,  in  1048,  where  he  paaaed  the  re'mainder  of  bis 
days.  WiUcram  died  May  7, 108&.  lie  seems  to  have 
iprove  the  material  inteieata  of  his 
ber  of  ezchangea  of  property  made 
1,  among  them  the  barter  ofaeveral 
devotional  books  for  a  vineyard  poaseaseil  by  bishop 
Henry  of  Trident  He  had  the  repuution  of  being  a 
scholar  and  a  poet.  We  are  indebted  to  him  fur  a 
double  paraphrase  of  Solomon's  Song,  one  in  hexame- 
ter verse  in  Latin,  another  in  prose  in  the  language  of 
the  ancient  Franks.  It  was  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  bridegmom  and  bride.  Several  copies 
of  this  ilouble  work  are  preaerved  in  manuscript  in  vaii. 
ou)  libraries  of  Europe ;  the  original  is  at  tbe  Abbey  of 
Ebersberg.  The  Latin  paraphrase  had  been  brought  out 
fnrlhe  first  lime  by  Menrad  Moltherof  Augsburg,  under 
the  title  IVilrami  Abbaloi  in  CanHea  Snlononii  Myilica 
Explanatio  (Hagenau,  1528).  Pan!  Merula  published' 
the  two  texts,  with  notes  and  a  Dutch  tranalatioii,  at' 
Leyden,  in  159ft,  en  titled  Ifi&nniDPara^iAnuuCfliima 
in  Canlkum  Canlicaran,  prior  Shj/lhmu  Latmt,  AUtra 
V^tri  Lingua  Francica.  But,  in  spile  of  sU  his  merit, 
his  publication,  after  one  poor  manuscript  was  finished, 
remained  incorrect  and  of  little  value.  That  which 
Marquard  Freher  had  given  in  German  from  tbe  tnon- 
uBcript  at  Heidelberg  is  more  highly  estimated.  It 
waa  published  at  Worms  in  leSl  under  the  title  UhrtjUt 
Vtrdolnitttchting  dti  kohtn  Lieda  Saiomonu.  ScbiHer, 
the  author  of  Tii*aum  A  nliq.  Teuiom^  fortrwd  a  plan 
of  reducing  tbe  work  nf  Willerani,  bnt  he  died  before 
be  had  time  to  realize  hia  project.  His  work  wss  found 
among  his  papers,  and  Scherz  look  upon  himaelf  the 
laak  of  completing  it,  and  published  It  in  Dim  in  1726i 
Through  the  effiiru  of  H.  de  Falleisleben,  an  entire 
edition  of  the  work  was  published  by  Hoffmann '~  "~~ 


'      WILLIAM  91 

mm,  at  Bradan,  in  1BS7.  But  Oafdi,  AtntM  Baicar. 
aerift.  It,  1-M;  Hineb,  Jakib.  d.  dtaltdum  Aoob  »- 
Ur  Hemriek  If,  i,  IW;  Wutcnbub,  DaateUaadi  Gf 
tckidiltquUn  im  MUmalla;  p.  £17  *q. ;  GieMbnch^ 
Guol.  d,  dmltck.  Kmttnat  (^  stLX  u.  MO;  HoeTir, 
Notie.  Biog.  Giniralt,  i.  r. 

^71UIun  (iSf.)  or  AoutrAlire,  dkb^  nnumei]  "  the 
Greit,"  wM  the  ton  of  imant  Thierry,  tnd  i>  llmigbt 
u  have  betn  the  brother  of  ChvleiDigiK,  who  giculy 
hanored  hlol,  and  rewarded  hit  Mrricea  in  reducing  the 
Saraoeiu  id  Spain.  William  fbunded  a  monaalery  in 
Uellone,  a  Litle  rallej  on  the  Ijonter*  oT  the  diocMe 
of  LodiTB,  which  he  entered  barefoolad  and  in  aaeic- 
cioth  in  BOB,  after  having  obtained  the  OMiaent  of  bia 
wife,  and  made  proviaioa  fnr  hia  children.  He  prao- 
ticed  great  auBterity,  and  died  Hay  S8,81i  or  818.  Hia 
body  was  found  in  lfl'9  under  ihe  great  altar  of  the 
cbuich  there.  3ee  Hoefer,  Hovt.  Biog.  GMraU,  xxii, 
£94. 

WllUun  OP  Aria,  a  goldmitfa  of  Pari>,  flonriabed 
alwut  the  beginning  of  the  13th  ccncar]r.  He  Uood 
forth  a*  ■  preacher  of  the  aect  of  the  Holy  Ghoal,  and 
announced  the  cooii  og  of  J  ndgmenta  oDacotniptCburch, 
and  the  inanguralion  of  a  new  era  in  wbich  the  Holy 
Ubow  was  to  penneata  alL  See  Neauder,  Hiit.  t{ftit 
CkurcA,  ii,  US. 

'WUUwn  OF  AuvKBONB  (abo  caUad  or  Pamr),  ■ 
French  pretala  and  theologian,  waa  bom  at  Aurillac 
about  tba  close  of  ibe  12th  coitnry.  He  mceecded 
Bartb^lemy  aa  bishop  of  Paris  in  IKS.  He  toolt  a 
Urge  part  in  the  civil  albirt  of  Lnuia  X.  At  tbe  saoN 
time  he  I<u  deeply  intereated  bimidf  in  the  eontni- 
veniea  of  the  day  respecting  beneScea,  oombating  the 
■bnsei  with  gnat  vigor.  He  alao  erected  several 
ehurchea  and  moDiatic  InatibitinnB.  Be  died  at  Paiii 
March  80, 1S4&  His  worJu,  which  conaiat  of  many 
mviUcal  treatises,  were  pabli^ed  by  Leferon  (Orleans, 
1674, !  vols.  foL).  See  Hoefer,  JVonr.  Bkg.  Ghiirab, 
xxii,888L 

WlUlcm  or  Avxebrk,  a  French  tbeologUn  nf  the 
early  part  of  the  ISlh  century,  became  prateoor  of  the- 
ology in  Paiia,  wbere  be  acquired  a  great  npaUtion  fiir 
teaming.  Hs  died  at  Roaw  in  1280,  leaving 
Thealoffica,  vTitwo  at  Paris  about  ISIS,  of  which  Denis 
of  Chsrtreux  erenUially  publiahed  an  abridgmenl.  Ste 
Hoefer,  tfouf.  Biog.  GhiiraU,  «ii,  697. 

^71111ain  OP  Champkaux  (Lai.  CampiBaitu),  a 
French  scholastic,  was  bom  in  the  village  of  Cham- 
peaui,  near  Udun,  about  the  doae  of  the  llth  century. 
He  studied  at  Faria  under  Anaelm  of  Lvm,  became 
archdeacon  of  Kntre  Dame,  and  tiugbt  diaiectica  in  ihs 
cathedral  school  for  many  years.  Among  bis  scholars 
was  tbe  famoiia  Abelard,  who  eventually  eclipsed  bim. 
In  1105  Cbampeaux  retired  to  a  aubuib  of  Paris,  and 
then  founded,  in  HIS,  the  Abbey  of  St.  Victor.  He 
soon  opened  a  achool  of  philoaopby,  rhetoric^  and  theol- 
ogy, and  was  next  raised  to  the  episcopacy  of  Chalona- 
aur-Mame.  He  became  involved  in  the  papal  quarrel 
of  the  invealiturea  (q.  v.),  and  died  in  1121.  Hia  prin- 
cipal publiabed  worka  are  two  treatises  entitled  Jfom- 
lia  Atirwiala  and  Ik  Or^me  Xiaiiiar,  together  with  a 
fragment  on  tbe  eucharial,  contained  in  Mabillon'a  edi- 
tion of  St.  Bemard'i  Worti.  For  these  philosophic 
speculations,  see  Hoefer,  JVouc.  Biog.  GinirtJr,  ix,  626. 

William  or  Cohbediu  archbishop  of  Canlerburr, 
is  generally  auppoaed  to  have  been  a  Fnnchman.  Hia 
Brat  appearance  in  history  ia  as  one  of  tbe  clerics  of 
Balph  Flambard,  bishop  (rf'  Durban).  William  waa  se- 
leCMd  by  the  biahof)  of  London  Is  be  prior  of  Ht.  Oayth. 
He  was  oonsecriled  archbiabop  of  the  tee  or  Canterbury 
in  IISS.  In  1128  he  officiated  at  the  coronation  ofliing 
Stephen.  His  conduct  in  so  doing  has  been  severely 
censured.  One  important  event  oonnrcted  with  the 
history  of  archbishop  William  waa  tbe  completion  and 
--'  t  of  tbe  church  commenced  by  Lanftanc 


irried  on  bj  AiMdm.  This  oeeanad  HJiy  4, 191 
ledication  bd  ftmopa,"  aaja  naii«a.  "  waa  atvs 
of  on  earth,  since  the  dedieatiM  BTOttTafk 
of  Solomon.'  Tbe  arcfabisbcp  died  io  iU6L  Saalks^ 
LiKM  a/du  ArMiikept tjfCaMtrtarf,ii,tat sq. 

WUllun  (SI.)  or  Duoh  waa  bora  ia  981  of  a  bo> 
ble  bmlly,  near  Navarre  (Italy),  and  wm  evly  dcC 
caled  (0  the  Church.  Be  became  a  pnAd^t  ii  aoed 
and  profane  learning,  and  retired  first  to  Clagny,  I* 
was  soon  made  tbbt  of  St.  Benigoe,  and  anftnec  sf  a 
large  number  of  mooasleriea,  into  which  b*  iatattat 
wise  relbtmaaod  a  love  of  polite  Utnatara.  Hsfoaat 
ed  the  abbey  of  Fiutaire,  comtnonly  called  St.  Un 
in  the  diooeae  of  Tvr^  and  died  at  Fecamp  (!ht> 
mandy),  Jan.  1,  lUL  See  HoefCT,  ffan.  Biof.  Ght- 
rait,  xxti,  S9fi. 


Germana,  l>y  exhorting  the  one  to  hanr  (be  jeks  a 
auhmiauoD,  and  charging  ihc  other  to  lav  oti  tliaifta* 
darsof tbeirsutjecunoinlolenblebanlcDfc  Seelt(s» 
der,  ffHt  o/tka  CiMrek,  W,  4L 

'William  or  Ne«b(tbt  (.VaeAiDyll,or  A>*M^. 
a  canon  of  the  mooaateiy  of  Newbutv,  TertaUn,  «• 
bom  in  use,  pmbahly  at  Bridli^tM,  Torkshii^  mi 
died  in  \iae.  He  left  >  vilnable  history  of  EafiM. 
extending  (Vom  the  Norman  Conquest  la  the  yco  INT. 
entitled  Guiidmi  KaiMgtatit  Satm  AmfKe^^L^ 
V  (Antwerp,  1667). 

William  or  Nooabbt.    See  NoodtKBr, 


ft>ra>ed  religion;  bn  the  emperui  Charias  T,  vlNOrif 
became  intensled  in  hia  sarecr,  renoved  him  to  !■• 
court,  and  bad  bim  trained  in  tbe  RoDanCaabafieUk. 
The  empenr  aoon  admitted  the  boy  lo  gnat  iamaarf 
with  Mm,  allowing  bin  akme  to  b«  pnsent  whs  lii 
gave  audience  tn  foreign  amliaaaaihiss.  and  in  mIsi 
wayi  honoring  him  with  a  cooBdenee  Car  abov*  tii 
ycara.  The  discrMion  which  tbe  young  prioos  ^mr 
fetted  in  matten  of  public  cononn  gained  for  ki*  Ua 
tumame  of  Tkt  SUeMi  and  even  the  empenr  wtvmri 
that  he  had  been  Indebted  lo  ao  young  a  ^«a  be  »- 
ponant  suggestions  which  had  not  eocuned  (o  has  ■*• 
mind.  In  1564  be  pot  him  in  command  of  (nnf^sK 
employed  him  in  diplomacy.  On  the  abdkarias  « 
Charles  in  favor  of  bis  son  Philip  II.  tbe  ntatka  •f 
William  to  the  crown  was  materially  chang«A.  Pkilr 
haled  him  on  account  of  Ihe  ealaem  in  which  be  tai  has 
held  by  his  father.  Yet,  Dndcr  Philip,  WaUaa  fmat ', 
Ibe  wav  for  tbe  tiealv  of  Catesa-CambcMs  in  ISM,  mi  \ 
HeniyllofFrancedelainedhimandlhedBkcorAIna, 
hostages  for  its  execution.  While  Cbartea 
the  throne  WiUiai 


as  readily  as  he  had  abandoned  LutI 
youth.    This  change  was  unknown  u>  Ibe  Kreadb 
arch  at  Ihe  time  of  his  residence  there,  who,  m^^ 
him  lo  enjoy  the  same  oonMenoe  with  Philip  that  M 
had  enjoyed  with  Cbarica,  incantiooaiy  wvealad  la  M 
the  aecret  of  a  treaty  lately  concluded  bMi 
crowns  of  France  and'  Spain  lo  i 
cursed  vermin  the  ProteManta" 

both.     William  haalened  to  eon  .  

ure  to  Ihe  Proleataot  leadera  at  Brasscb,  aad  ȣ{ 
discovered  that  be  had  revealed  the  aeerat.  W3M 
waa  already  a  member  of  the  ooonral  of  atat*  whiekwl 
loamat  Margaret  of  Pama  in  tba  regency  of  tbe 
criands.  Being  also  stadtboldcr  of  HoUumI,  "■■'-' 
•nd  Utnebl,  he  waa  abia  l«  "    " 


bAdrofthe 
dnigw  o(  PhiHp.  In  IbM  ba  brought  about  the 
moril  of  CirdiiMl  Cirmnvclle,  tha  principal  anrmy  of 
the  PnUaUntt,  but  oould  not  piCTODt  tbe  introduclian 
of  tkc  Inquiiitim,  and  tbe  increanDgly  Kroiig  baud  of 
peneeiitiaa.  At  length  th«  approach  of  tbe  bloody 
dake  of  Alva,  to  wboin  Pbilip  had  tnnaferred  tbe  re- 
gtucf  0/  llu  Netberlandi  frum  Margaret  of  Parma,  wai 
(be  Bgotl  to  WiUUm  of  tha  coniiDg  conteat.  He 
aroidad  the  tragical  fate  orEgnMntaod  Horn  by  retii^ 
ing  for  a  few  mootha  to  bit  paLtfaal  domaina  in  Na»- 
lau.  Tha  erueltio  of  Alva  to  tha  ProteetanU  of  ibe 
n  wTongi,  and  perhapi  political 
motivea  anuaed  WiUiaa,  in  1668, 
e  of  oppoaLtion  to  the  tyranny  of 
S|MiB,  which  did  not  csaae  until  triumph  waa  compltle. 
Hs  publitiMd  bia  Jvlificaliom  agaaal  lie  Faitt  Blami 
tfkit  CalMMnialari,  and  began,  in  concert  with  the  Prot- 
eatant  prinoea  of  Oennanr,  to  raiae  money  and  tnwpa. 
Hia  Brat  apetaliaaa  miacairied.  He  wai  driren  bicli 
witk  hia  anay  of  30,000  men  into  French  Flanden  1  and 
in  the  ^ving  of  1069  he,  and  hia  bruthere  Louia  and 
Henrj,  with  1300  of  hia  aoldiera,  Joined  Ibe  Huguenola 
imder  ColignL  Then  again  in  lS7!,after  rarioua  auc- 
cnafnl  engagenienlij  in  which  ha  bad  had  command  of 
an  army  of  !4,000  Croopa,  be  ww  oompelled  to  diahand 
it  wi  account  of  the  loaa  of  all  hope  of  aautUnce  from 
Franow  In  ISTfi  Williani  aeeured  the  famoua  Union  of 
Utrecht,  which  fortBcd  the  baaia  of  tbe  Dutch  republic 
Thit  oaioo  iDcloded  the  eeven  Proteatant  province*  of 
Bidtaiid,  Zealand,  Utrechl,F[iealaDd,GKM]iagea,Overy»- 
aal,  and  Gndderiand.  Aa  aoon  aa  tbia  mmure  became 
krMwu  to  Philip,  ba  offered  a  reward  of  26,000  crown* 
aid  a  patent  of  nobility  for  bia  aMaaiinatinii  Onoe  be 
waa  dangenNuly  wounded,  but  the  taak  waa  finally  un- 
datlaken  by  Balthaiar  Gerard,  a  Bargundian  fanatic, 
who  abtained  audience  with  tbe  itadtholdei  on  pre- 
tence of  bmineia,  draw  a  piatol,  and  ihot  bim  thnugb 
the  body,  at  Delft,  Jalv  10,  16M.  See  Motley,  TAa 
Rita/dui  0alali!&7RiWu(K.T.ieS6,8  vela.);  Kloae, 
WiOitlm  I  Mit  Ormien  (Uipt.  IBM) ;  Herrmann,  tFU- 
kelm  m  OrauitK  (Stotlg.  1873) ;  GachaAl,  Corrtipoif 
damee  dt  GuiSaiaui  le  Tacitunie  (Bruiaelt,  184T-M); 
and  Jute,  GuHlamit  l»  Tanlnnie  iTofirH  la  Corrapoit- 
datoe  tt  la  Papien  d'EtoL 

'WllUam  OF  R&MgET,  a  monk  of  Croyland,  of  tbe 
tioMoflUcliardt.i*  known  aa  a  biagraph«r  of  Engliah 
aaiiKa,  particBlarlj  in  CAnmafw*  Ai^-Normaiida. 
See  Wright,  Biog.  BriL  Lit.  (Anglo  -  Moiman  Period), 

^FllUuit  or  Kddkdoidi.    See  Bdtsbbock. 

'Wniljun  or  St.  Albah's,  flooriahed  about  1170, 
and  i*  known  chiefly  for  a  Latin  proae  life  of  St.  Alban, 
■aid  to  be  a  tranalation  from  an  Engliab  life  of  that 
■•int.  The  work  baa  never  been  printed,  but  a  copy 
af  the  HS.  i*  in  tbe  Cottonian  library,  and  another  in 
tha  library  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  See  Wright, 
Biog.  BrU.  LiL  (Anglo-Norman  Period),  p.  SIS. 

William  or  9t.  Ahoub,  in  Bo^nndj,  doctor  of  tha 
Sorbonne,  and  a  famoo*  defender  of  the  Pari*  Univer- 
aitv  in  the  IStb  century  against  tbe  mendicant  ontera, 
which  elaimed  the  right  to  occupy  regnlar  chair*  of 
theiilc^  in  the  univenily  without  connnling  to  be 
governed  by  iia  mlea.  Pope  Innocent  IV  bad  teen  tbe 
ncceantr  of  putting  down  the  monk*  before  his  death, 
bart  under  Aleaander  IT  they  obtained  full  eontrol  of 
tb?  uoivaraity.  Under  theae  circumatanoa,  St.  Amonr 
auadied  them,  ridiculing  their  doctrine  that  maniul 
Labor  la  criminal,  and  that  prayer  will  reap  greaur 
harveata  from  Ibe  acril  than  labor.  He  waa  aummoned 
before  (he  biahop  of  Paris,  but  acquitted  becaun  hi*  ac- 
naaen  did  not  appear  (1:U>1).  Alexander,  mvartheleaa, 
■■■Ded  three  bulla  in  behalf  of  the  Dominican*  in  1155. 
In  1266  WilUwB  publiabed  hia  book  Da  Ptria^  No- 
e^w^^^anl^■  TeaquHtun,  which,  witboot  apecifying  the 
ikiilei*  endoraed  by  the  pope,  charged  monk*  geneially 


17  WILLIAMS 

with  being  ignorant  intmdera  into  the  pn][Mt  and  tbe 
teaeher'a  chur,  and  also  lelf^eeking  ptoaelytert,  aa  well 
aa  profeaBknal  beggara,  liara,  flatterers,  and  caiumnia- 
ton.  It  asserted  directly  that  perfection  oonaiat*  in 
labor,  in  the  performing  of  good  work*,  and  not  at  all 
in  bf^ging.  St.  Amour  (chieved  great  popularity  in 
'  'onnd  many  imitators  among  Ibe  corn- 
people  in  ridiculing  the  monk*,  though  the  book 
wa*  condemned  by  tbe  pope,  and  its  author  was  ban- 
iAeA  despite  the  ingenious  defence  he  interposed  at 
Rome.  A  French  venioD  of  tbe  work  bad  already  been 
put  into  orculation,  however,  and  with  such  effect  that 
men  Uks  Tboroa*  Aquina*  and  Bonaventura  felt  con- 
atraiaed  to  write  in  defence  of  mendicancy.  Tha  victoi? 
achieved  over  Sl  Amour  enabled  the  ordera  to  puiaue 
their  arbitrary  method*  without  reatraint,  until  the  ac- 
oeaaion  of  pope*  Urban  IT  and  Qement  IT  reatored  the 
rule*  of  tbe  university  to  same  degree  of  honor.  Su 
Amour  waa  thereupon  permitted  to  return,  and  was  not 
again  moleattdby  the  Dominicans.  His  death  occurred 
pnibably  in  1271:  See  Bulnus,  Hiii.  UnietriU.  FoHm. 
iii,  160;  Dnpin,  Kouo.  BibL  da  AuUurt  EocL  voL  x; 
Sehreckh,  Kbvka^etck.  xivii,  468  sq. ;  HitL  Lit.de  lit 
Franct,  toL  xii ;  Henog,  Stal-Enejildop,  s,  v. 

Vmiiun  OF  St.  Thibkbt,  a  Belgian  tbeologian, 
was  bom  at  lifge  about  the  end  c^  tha  11th  oentury. 
He  studied  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Nicaiee  at  Rheim*,  of 
which  he  waa  made  prior  in  111!,  and  eight  yeaia  after- 
wards he  became  abM  of  St.  Thierry  in  the  same  vicini- 
ty. In  1131  he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ligny, 
and  died  in  1160.  He  was  a  great  friend  of  St.  Bernard, 
and  an  admirer  of  Abelard.  He  wrote  a  nnmber  of 
doctrinal,  practical,  and  hietorical  discussions,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  Noav.  Biog.  Ginirate,  xzii,  666. 

^triUiam  THC  ThouvAkb  translated  Into  Anglo- 
Norman  verse  account*  of  miracles  of  tbe  Virgin  and 
legend*  of  tbe  aaiota.  See  Wright,  Biag.  BriL  Lit. 
(Anglo-Narmas  Period),  p.  464. 

WilUam  or  WAYxnxn.    See  WAnrLSTE. 

William  or  WTCimi^  an  Engiiah  cletgTman  of 
the  12th  century,  became  prior  of  I.aIhony,  and  chap- 
lain of  Robert  da  Betnn,  biabop  of  Hereford.  Afler 
tbe  death  of  that  prelate  (1149)  be  wrote  a  sketch  of 
hi*  life,  which  is  published  in  Wharton'*  Aaglia  Sacni, 
ii,  293aq.  See  AUibone,  ^>i<:(.  ^  £rtf.  oad  .4  sier.  ^  h- 
tiori,  a.  V. 

'WlUlam  or  Wtuehax.    See  Wikxhaw. 

WllllMna,  CbulM  B.,  D.D,  a  clergyman  of  tbe 
ProEealant  Epiacopal  Church,  was  bom  June  U,  1791, 
in  the  County  of  Kent,  Englanil  (where  his  father.  Rev. 
William  William^  waa  rector  of  a  parish).  He  entered 
the  army  when  young,  and  passed  aame  time  in  India ; 
on  hia  return  from  India  ha  joined  the  Dragoons,  and 
■erved  with  them  during  a  part  of  the  Peninsula  War. 
At  Toulouae  be  was  aeverely  wounded,  and  tra*  left  all 
night  among  the  dead  and  dying  on  the  Seld.  He 
graduated  at  Sl  John'a  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  or- 
dained in  1830.  In  182S  lie  came  to  tbe  United  SUICS, 
and  became  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  York,  Pa. 
For  about  eight  yeara  he  was  president  of  Baltimore 
College,  having  charge,  st  the  same  lime,  of  the  parish 
at  £lk  Ridge.  During  the  last  twentv-two  years  of  hi* 
life  fae  mided  in  Philadelphia,  devoting  himself  to  the 
cauaa  of  education,  and  officiating  almoat  constantly  for 
hi*  brethren  of  the  clergy.  He  died  there,  June  12, 
1839.     See  A  mtr.  Quar.  Church  Rrcietc,  1859,  p.  534. 

WlUluna,  Daniel.  D.a,  an  eminent  English 
Presbyterian  divine,  waa  bom  at  Wrexham,  Denbigh- 
ahire,  in  North  Wales,  about  1644.  His  eariy  educa- 
tional advantages  seem  to  have  been  rather  limited,  but 
be  waa  admitted  a  preacher  aoMng  the  Presbyterians 
inlS6S.  To  avoid  the  penalties  of  tbe  law  againitDi*- 
•enteii,  he  went  to  Ireland,  when  he  became  chaplain 
to  the  coanlem  of  Meath.  Sosw  time  after,  be  waa 
called  to  be  pastor  to  a  congregation  of  Diiseotan  •-- 


WILLIAMS  «l 

umUing  ID  Wood  Stmt,  Dublin,  where  ha  continued 
Tor  neirlr  twenty  jan.  During  the  troubkni*  timet 
in  the  Utut  and  oT  the  reign  of  Jimu  11,  he  round  it 
necostry  to  return  to  London  in  1667,  where  he  con- 
tinued (orende.  Here  he  wu  often  eoiinilted  b;  Will- 
nm  HI  in  reftrenee  to  Irish  aflkirm,  end  did  gnat  Kt- 
vice  in  bebilf  of  muy  who  fled  tnm  Ireltnd.    He 


Alley,  Biihopagale  Street,  In  1688,  and 
ceeded  Bichtrd  Baxter  ai  preacher  of  the  Herchauu' 
LKlure  at  Haner's  Hall,  Broad  Street.  On  acoaunt  of 
cltthings  in  the  lecture*,  he,  with  othen  of  the  iucum- 
bealB,  withdrew,  and  eetabliiihed  anuther  lecture  at 
SaIter-(Hall,aDtheeaiiieda7andhour.  Thia  led  l«  a 
■harp  controvenv  between  the  two  partiee,  and  ■  gnat 
deal  ofbitter  feeling.  He  died  Jan.26,1716.  The  bulk 
of  hia  eetate  he  bequeathed  to  a  great  variety  of  chari- 
tiea.  The  tnoat  important  of  theae  charitiee  waa  the 
founding  of  the  Ked  Croai  Street  Library.  He  ordered 
a  convenient  building  to  be  obuined  for  the  reception 
of  hia  own  library,  and  the  curious  collection  of  Dr. 
Bates,  which  ha  purchaied  for  that  purpose.  Accord- 
ingly, aeveral  yean  after  his  death,  a  commodioua 
building  was  erected  (1727)  by  subscription  among  the 
wealthy  Diswnlera  to  Bed  Crou  Street,  Ctipplegatc, 
where  the  booka  were  deposited,  aiwl  by  lubaequent  ad- 
ditiona  the  coUection  haa  become  a  conaiderable  one, 
containing  more  than  £0,000  volumo.  It  it  also  a  de- 
pository for  paintingii  of  Notioonformist  ministers,  man- 
oBCripta,  and  other  mstteia  of  curiosity  or  utility.  It  ia 
here  that  the  Diaenting  ministers  meet  for  the  tnniac- 
lion  of  all  businaa  relating  to  the  general  body.  Regis- 
Un  of  births  of  the  children  of  Disaenlers  are  also  kept 
here  with  accuracy,and  have  been  allowed  equal  valid- 
ity in  conns  of  tow  with  parish  registers.  Dr.  Will- 
iams was  the  author  of,  T^  Viaiilg  af  CttOdhtod  and 
I'oulh;  in  Snerai  Strmom  (1691J;  —  Cojpri  Tnlk 
S'a'fd  and  Vimticaltd  (1«92):^A  Dr/ma  of  Gofpd 
Tralh  (1698):— Jfai.  ifadi  /CgMroui  bg  Chriit'i  Obr^ 
lUtna;  Simom  (1694)  ;  — OuoDurK)  on  Sertral  iBt- 
parluHt  Sub/tcU  (1788-60):  —  and  Traiiaha  Sdecti, 
tx  Anglka  Latine  Vtrti,  tt  TttUintiili  mi  Jiun  EdiH 
(1760). 

WilUama,  BUpbalet,  D.D.,  ■  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  Solomon  Williams,  D.D.,  of  Lehtnon, 
Conn.,  was  bom  Feb.  21, 1737.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  174S ;  was  ordained  minister  in  Eaat  Hartford 
in  March,  1748;  and  died  June  S9, 1808.  Set  apcague, 
AioiaUofaieAmtr.F»lpit,i,ZW. 

Williams,  OiUBth,  D.D„  an  English  divine,  was 
bom  at  Carnarvon,  in  North  Wales,  about  1689.  He 
entered  Oxford  University  in  1608,  but  two  years  Uter 
entered  Jeius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
and  entered  into  holv  orders.  He  became  curate  of  Han- 
well,  Middlesex  i  rector  of  FoscDt,  Buckinghamshire;  and 
lecturer  of  St.  Peter's,  Cheapside,  Loniton ;  was  suspend- 
ed by  the  bishop  of  London  inlGlB;  received  the  living 
of  Uanllechid,  in  the  diocese  of  Bangor;  became  do- 
mestic chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Montgomery,  and  tutor 
to  his  children;  wu  promoiod  to  be  chaplain  to  the 
king,  and  prebendary  of  Weniminsier  i  was  instituted 
dean  uC  Bangor,  March  38, 1634 1  was  ciHisecrated  bishop 
of  OsBory,  Ireland,  in  1641,  but  was  obliged  to  fly  to 
England  on  the  bTeakiiigK<ut  of  the  Irish  Rebellion,  in 
less  than  a  month  after  taking  possession;  endured  great 
hardships  for  many  yeatt  on  account  of  his  attachment 
to  the  crown ;  regained  hia  bishopric  at  the  Restoration, 
and  died  at  Kilkenny,  Mareh  S9, 1672.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are,  T"**  Dttishti  nftke  SaiMi  (1622)-^ 
Sevra  Co/dm  Candlflicti  (1637)  ■^The  Trut  Ckurt* 
(1829) :— T«e  Rigkl  Wag  lo  tkt  Bat  Kdigitm  (1886)  ;— 
Fiidkia  Sfga-  (1643):  — r*«  Ditcotmy  of  Ms"'"" 
(eod.)  :—i>ua>HrH  on  tin  tMly  Way  to  Prttm  I^t 
(IBU)  t^^ura  Uajalalit  (fod.)  ■.—T/ie  Grrat  AnliiAriil 
Revealed  (1660)  ■^Daeription  aid  Prattkt  oftht  FoKr 
Hon  Admirablt  Btatt  (IWi): -The  PtneeUioii  <tf 


WILLIAMS 

Jokn  Bait  lad  of  GriffitM  WilBaKU  (1664)  :  -  Strmtm 
and  Trtalitu  (1666).     See  Chalmers,  Biog,  DkL  t.  t. 

WilllBIIW,  John  ( 1 ),  D.D.,  a  distingoi^Mi]  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  bom  at  Aber-CoDwsy,  Caman-anilure, 
Wales,  Mareh  26, 168!.  He  was  admitted  to  St- Jeto's 
CoU)^,  Cambridge,  in  1698;  graduated  tltare  in  IWi, 
and  was  made  fellow ;  took  holy  orders  in  1009,  «id  was 
appointed  to  a  (mall  living  near  Bury  St.  Edmund'^  of* 
the  Iwrden  of  Norfolk ;  was  presented  lo  the  rectory  ol 
Grafton  -  Regis,  Kortbamptonshire,  in  161 1 ;  mppanted 
chaplain  lo  lord  Egertun  the  same  year,  I7  wboa  be 
was  promoted  to  the  rectory  of  Gn^ton  -  Underwaad, 
Northamptonshire;  made  preceulor  of  LiuccAn  in  inSi 
rector  of  Waldgrave,  Northamplonabire,  in  1«14,  asd 
between  that  year  and  1617  was  made  picbcndaiy  aad 
residentiary  in  the  Chureh  of  Lincoln,  prebendkry  ol 
Petertftrough,  uf  Hereford,  and  of  St.  Dsvid^  and  se- 
cured a  sinecure  in  North  Wales.  On  the  an  rswiim  of 
Francia  Bacon  tt  lord-keeper,  he  was  made  jnatice  id 
the  peace  for  Northamptonshire,  and  chaplun  lo  tfc* 
king  at  the  same  time;  became  dean  of  SaKabnry  ai 
1619,  and  of  Westminster  in  1620;  wat  made  lo«]-k<q>- 
er  of  the  great  seal  of  England  July  10, 1631,  and  in  the 
same  month  bishop  of  Lincoln;  was  remaved  fnm  his 
post  at  lurd-keeper  by  Chariet  I  in  Octotm,  IsaG;  it 
1636  convicted  of  subornation  of  peijury  when  tried  Im 
betraying  the  king's  secreu,  fined  £10,000,  tnepended 
from  his  offices  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  wbtn  h* 
remained  three  years  and  sx  months ;  was  tdeated. 
and  resumed  hit  seat  in  the  House  of  Lorda  in  IC4CI. 
and  by  command  of  the  king  had  all  the  recorda  M  pes- 
ceedings  against  him  cancelled;  became  aTcbbitboii  gf 
York  in  1641 ;  retired  to  his  estate  at  Aber^VMiw^  m 
July,  1642,  tnd  fortified  Conway  Caatle  for  the  ki^ 
After  the  death  of  Chtrlea  I,  he  tpenc  the  remaiodercf 
bis  days  in  sorrow,  study,  and  devocioo,  and  died  Madk 
26, 1650.  He  published  several  Strmont,  and  Tit  a*i§ 
Ttible,  A'ome  and  Thing  more  Ancimllji,  Proptrlj,  arf 
LUeraBy  Uied  under  l*e  JVoe  TalamaU  Uutm  Ita  1^ 
AUar  (1687). 

Wllllanu,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  eminent  Eng&h  di- 
vine,  was  Iwm  in  Northamptonsbire  in  16S4.  He  en- 
tered as  a  Commoner  of  Magdalen  Hail,  Oxford,  in  lAl. 
where  he  completed  his  degrees  in  ana,  and  w>*  onlaiD- 
ed  in  1668;  was  made  rector  of  St.  Mildred-in-tbe-Hnl- 
try,  London,  in  1673;  prebendarv  of  RevmerK,  in  Sl 
Paul's,  in  1683;  became  chaplain 'in  William  and  May 
alter  the  Revolution:  wag  preferred  lo  a  prebend  of  GiD- 
lerbury,and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Chicheater  in  De- 
cember, 1696,  where  he  died  in  1709.  He  waa  the  aaihsc 
of,  Hin.  of  He  Gtmpowder  TreoKm  (1679):~Srir/&ya. 
tilion  of  the  Church  Calrckitm  1690):— TVdn  aen— 
Prtached  at  Iht  Boyk  Lttlurrt  amtrrmns  tie  Aisntiliiy, 
A'eorstirjr,  oiKi  Certainty  of  Dirimt  BtieAitioit  (169A-9S) : 


ir  of  a  Chur 


death,  at  Islington,  in  1798.  He  pohliab- 
ed,  A  Caneordance  lo  the  Greek  Ttttamat,  kM  tie  £^ 
liA  I'errion  lo  each  H'onf,  etc  OlSi^i—Tiamghtt  •• 
Subtcription  lo  the  Thing-imt  ATtidtti—Frrm  fiijaaj 
imlolheAutkenliciiyaflkeFirtiomdSecoi^Chapltrt^' 
SL  Maltheic'i  Go^  (1771):— CferioaX  flj/bma  (tni): 
—and  other  works,  including  Smnont. 

WllUama,  Jo*hna,  D.D.,  a  Presbyirrinn  iSriBa, 
was  bom  in  Chteter  County,  Pa.,  Aug.8, 1767.  Hepv- 
sued  hia  preparator)'  studies  in  Gettysbarg;  gradaawd 
at  Dickinson  College  in  1796;  studied  theokig;  n»iiaM- 
ly:  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Preat^rtetv  of  Cir- 
Usle  Oct.  4, 1797,  tnd  was  ordained  and  '"-ttlifd  \mmni 
of  the  united  congregations  of  Derry  and  l^zlon,  Oct. 
2, 1799.  In  April,  1802,  he  became  pastor  of  tba  Cte- 
gregation  of  Kg  Spring,  where  be  oontinned  to  lafaat 
for  twenty-tevea  years,  during  which  period,  aa  appia ii 
from  his  church  register,  he  admitted  to  rniiinuiJM 


WILLIAMS 

ed  uid  tsenty-iis  penDOi.  In  April,  1839, 
of  bodily  iafinuitiu,  be  Teaigned  his  charge, 
led  to  pnach  u  hia  health  permitted  ai 
portanitj  offered  ontit  hii  death,  Aug.  31,  IBSS. 
Williama  wu  a  loan  of  vigorous  and  compreht 
mind,  learned  and  able  in  hit  profeaaioa ;  aa  a  preacher, 
Kmiid,  evangelical,  ind  inslxucliTe.  Hit  only  publica- 
tion, boddes  oeeaaional  contribiitioiu  Ea  peiiodicali,  wai 
1  Ikrmom  imlAt  Sitma'i  ImMUg.  3ee  Spragae,  i^  tuuili 
D/tS«  Amer.  Paipil,  iv,  IBS;  Nevin,  Clmrcka  of  like 
Valltf;  Ambaae,IHcL<i/'BiH.aiidAii>a:Aalkai 
(J.  1.8.) 

^mjluns,  ITaUum,  D.Dq  a  Cougregational  mio- 
itter,  •on  ot  Stephen  WilliamB,  D.D.,  of  Longmeada 
)Un^  was  botn  Oct.  38, 178&,  He  graduited  at  Yi 
CoUege  ID  lioS;  wa>  ordained  paitor  of  the  Church 
TalUnd,Cana.,April30,1760;  frtKD  1788  (o  1S06  wai 
EMinber  of  (be  Corporation  of  Yale  College,  and  di 
April  26, 1839.  He  published,  A  Dialogs  ui  CAriclioii 
Bi^HMm  and  Dudplime  (3d  ed.  1793).  See  Sprogui 
AafU  of  At  Aftr.  Palpi,  i,  387. 

^rUllaius,  Fetar,  D.D^  an  Engliifa  clergyman, 
was  bom  during  Che  iatler  pare  of  the  I8th  centuT7,aiid 
became  archdeacon  of  Heriudeth  in  1802.  He  published, 
ASItortVviMailimB/thiEMahlitludaiurch{\^&')v— 
FirH  Book  o/Hamer'i  Jliad,  Tranilaled  iMo  Blank  VtTtt 
(1806)  —Rtmarla  or  Britain  indeptndait  of  Com 
(ISOS) :— and  Roaarla  on  Die  Rtcagni^on  o/EacA  Other 
n  tke  Future  SUM  (1809). 

'WUUwiu,  PUllp,  IXD„  ao  English  dergyman  of 
the  18th  century,  became  a  fellow  of  SU  John's  Coll^, 
Cambridge,  b  I7S0,  and  was  recCor  of  SUrHon  and  Bar- 
row. Us  pobUshed  a  volume  of  Obttnaivntt  (1788), 
•ome  controvenial  works,  and  a  number  of  Strmoia, 

'WUlluna,  Sob«it,  was  one  of  the  earliest  Meth- 
odist minislen  in  America.  PtsTioua  to  bis  leaving 
En^aud,  Mr.  Wesley  had  given  him  permission  m 
picacb  under  the  directiou  of  the  regularminislen.  Hi 
Bnt  labored  for  a  time  in  Mew  York  city.  Under  date 
of  Nov.  1, 1769,  Mr.  I^lmoor,  then  in  Philadelphia,  writes, 
»  Robert  Williams  colled,  on  his  way  fhim  New  York  I 
Maryland.  He  came  aver  about  bnnneia,  and  being 
kml  preacber  in  England,  Mr.  Wesley  gave  him  a  t: 
cense  to  preach  occwonolly  under  the  direction  of  ib 
rq^Iar  preachers."  He  afterwards  speaks  of  him  as 
"  very  sincere  and  zealous.'  Williams  spent  the  great- 
er part  of  his  time  in  Msryland,  when  he  was  inslru- 
mental  in  oommencing  a  great  worli.  In  177S  he  pass- 
ed aoutb  into  Virginia,  where  his  labors  were  greatlv 
blesMd.  Early  in  1775  he  iocaled,  and  SepL  26,  177fi, 
he  died.  Bishop  Asbury  sayi  of  him,  "  He  bos  been  a 
very  usefiil,  Unrioiis  man,  aiid  the  Lord  gave  him  many 
soul*  to  bis  ministry.  Perhaps  no  man  in  America  has 
minialereil  to  iwaltening  so  many  souls  as  <iad  has 
awakened  by  him."  It  has  been  said  of  him  that  "  he 
was  the  first  trsTelling  preacher  in  America  that  mar- 
ried, located,  and  died."  See  Bsngs,  UiM.  oflhe  M.  E. 
CMurei,  i,  7S,  76,  89;  Simpson,  Cyetop.  of  Methodum, 
s.  r.j  Sptague,.4inaZiD/lAcAnKr. /"ulpif,  vii,  II. 

'VVlUiaiiiB,  Roger,  the  founder  of  the  colony  of 
Rhode  Island,  was  bom  at  Con  wylCayo,  Wales,  in  i&99. 
In  bis  youth  he  went  lo  London,  and  attracted  the  al- 
t«DtioD  of  Kr  Edward  Coke  by  his  short-hsnd  nota  of 
■emioiu  and  speeches  in  the  Star  -  Chamber,  and  was 
sent  by  him  to  Sutton's  Hospital  (now  the  Charter- 
hooM  Scbocd)  in  I6SI.  On  April  SO,  1634,  he  entered 
Jemw  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  sn  exbibt- 
lion.  According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  admit- 
ted to  I^mbroke  College,  Cambridge,  Jan.  39,  1633, 
and  matriculated  pensioner  July  T,  IB35,  graduating 
A.B.  in  January,  1627.  He  studied  Latin,  Greek,  tle- 
twcw,  French,  and  Dutch,  and  took  orders  in  the  Church 
at  Knglmd.  He  aoon,  however,  became  sn  extreme 
Pnritari,  with  Icndendet  towards  the  views  of  the 
Baptiat^  who  wen  rapidly  riring  in  England  at  that 


19  WILLIAMS 

time  To  avoid  the  penecotion  then  life  in  bis  own 
country,  he  emigrated  to  Hew  England,  arriving  at 
Boston  Feb.  11, 1681,  accompanied  by  his  wife,  Maty. 
He  refused  10  join  tbe  coogregatioD  at  Boston,  b«cause 
the  people  would  not  nuke  public  dcctanlion  of  their 
repentance  (br  having  been  in  commnnioo  with  the 
Church  of  EngUnd.  He  therefore  went  to  Salem,  to 
become  the  assistant  to  pastor  Skelton ;  but  tbe  gen- 
eral court  remonstrated  against  his  settlement  there,  oa 
account  of  hii  attitude  towards  the  Boston  congrega- 
tion ;  and,  further,  that  he  "  had  declared  his  opinion 
that  the  magiMrale  might  not  punisb"  Sabbath-break- 
ing and  other  religiotis  offences,  as  belonging  to  the 
fltst  table  of  the  law.  His  ministry  at  Sslem  was 
brief.  Before  the  close  of  tbe  summer,  persecution  drove 
him  to  Plymouth,  where  for  two  years  he  was  siaiBlaiit 
to  the  pastor,  Ralph  Smith.  At  the  close  of  this  pe. 
nod  be  was  invited  to  return  to  Salem  as  aaustant  to 
Skelton,  and,  after  the  letter's  death,  became  pastor.  In 
a  short  time  be  hod  very  generally  indoctrinated  tha 
people  with  bis  peculiar  views.  In  the  automo  t€ 
163Ci  the  general  court  banished  bim  from  the  colony, 
with  orders  lo  depart  within  six  weeks,  becaiae  he 
hod  called  in  question  the  authority  of  mogiMrales  in 
respect  to  two  tliii^;s— one  relating  to  the  right  of  tha 
king  to  appropriate  and  grant  tbe  lands  of  the  Indians 
wi£out  purchase,  and  the  other  to  tbe  tight  of  tbe 
dvil  power  to  impose  faith  and  wonhlp.  On  tbe  first 
of  tbne  qoeslions  be  bod  written  a  paper  in  which 
he  defended  the  right  of  the  natives  to  the  soil;  hut 
f  the  court  be  put  in  sn  expta> 
to  the  burning  of  the  MS.  when 
they  were  somewhat  more  leniently  disposed  towards 
him.  But  on  the  other  question  he  reiterated  and  anH 
plified  hisviewa;  and  when  opprened  by  his  opponents, 
frankly  declared  hia  opinion  that  the  magistrate  ought 
not  to  interfere  "even  to  slop  a  church  from  apostasy 
and  heresy,"  and  that  the  office  of  dvil  magistrste  "ex- 
tends only  10  the  bodies  and  goods  and  outward  estate* 
I."  He  was  the  Srst  to  assert  fully  the  doctrine  of 
liberty  of  Gonsdence, the  rightof  every  person  to 
ip  in  what  manner  he  pleseed,  or  to  refrain  from 
wonbip  altogether  without  interference  on  the 
f  the  civil  magistrate.  In  reply  lo  the  chargea 
againat  him,  and  in  defence  of  hia  views,  he  puhliahed 
pamphlet  entitled  Mr.  CoUon't  IMItr  Kiammad  and 
nmeifd  (printed  in  1644).  Winter  being  at  hand, 
the  period  for  hii  departure  was  extended  until  spring; 
but  he  persisted  in  preuhing,  and  the  people  flocked  to 
hear  him.  It  became  generally  understood  that  many 
had  dedded  lo  go  with  him  to  found  a  new  colony  not 
far  diatant,  and  tha  court  decided  to  send  him  at  onee 
Eugland,  regarding  him  as  a  dangerous  person  in 
tbe  colony.  A  amall  vessel  was  despatched  to  Salem 
convey  him  awsy;  but  he  was  forewarned,  and  fled 
fore  its  srrivsL  Leaving  family  and  friendi  in  mid- 
nter,  he  was  "  for  fourteen  weeks  sorely  tossed  in  a 
lersesson,  not  knowing  what  bread  or  bed  did  roesn." 
But  he  bad  learned  the  Indisn  Ungusge  while  si  Plym- 
la  kindly  received  and  sheltered  by  the  sav- 
sges.  He  selected  a  site  for  hia  new  cnkmy  on  the 
shores  of  the  Narraganset;  and,  after  purchasing  landa 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Seeknnk  River,  snd  plant- 
ing hi*  com,  he  learned  (hat  he  was  within  the  limit* 
ofthe  Plymouth  colony.  He  therefore  set  out,  with  tive 
exploraiions.  They  proceed- 
ed in  a  canoe  to  the  spot  which  Williams  fixed  upon  a* 
He  ssid  that  he  had  "mode  covensnt  of 
pesceable  neighborhood  with  all  the  sachems  and  na- 
tions round  about;"  "and  hsviiig,  of  a  senna  of^iod's 
merdful  providence  "In  them  in  their  distress,  called  the 
place  Providence,  he  "desired  it  might  be  fur  a  shelter 


d  for  < 


Hen 


tbe  lawgiver,  and  tbe  minister  of  tbe  infant  colony,  hut 


WnXIAMS  10 

hedidnDtum  Id  bciti  nler.  Hii  pnrpon  wu  to  round 
■  commonirfaltb  io  tbefann  of  ■piu«d«iH>cnK7,iihen 
the  will  of  the  mijorit*  aboold  gDvern,  bM  only  in  civil 
■ITaini,  leading  nuUen  o(  coucieooB  to  b«  MUkd  be- 
tween the  individutl  uid  fail  Uod.  The  ofigiiul  coo- 
■tiUition,  which  all  were  requited  to  lign,  wu  ia  these 
wonti:  "Wewhoae  Tiaaie*ireheieuDder,dento(iilo  in- 
hibit the  town  or  Providence,  do  pnodM  to  (ubjectDor- 
wlvea,  in  active  ot  purive  obedience,  to  all  incta  orden 
ar  (greemeDU  M  ihill  be  made  for  the  public  gnod  oT  the 
body,  in  an  ordeii.v  waj,  by  the  major  conient  of  the 
ptcMntinhalMUDta,inaHanoffun>liasiiioinponited  to- 
gether in  a  town  of  fetlowahip,  and  othen  whom  they 
aball  admU  into  the  ••me,  only  in  dvil  Ihinga,"  With 
ihia  foundation  (or  a  dvil  govemnwiit,  Williant  went  on 
to  organiie  the  Chuich  in  accctdanee  with  hia  own 
viewi.  Having  adopted  the  heUef  in  baprttm  of  adulu  by 
immenloo  only,  he  wai  baptind  by  Eickiel  Holliman, 
a  Uyman,  in  Much,  1089 ;  and  then  he  baptited  HoUi- 
man  and  about  ten  othen.  He  aoon  entRUined  donbti 
m  to  the  validity  of  the  proceeding,  and  early  with- 
drew fhm  the  Chneh  thu  ori^aiied.  The  colony 
remained  lor  nme  yean  a  pare  democney,  (nnuctinf; 
it*  biKDta*  in  towo-meetinga ;  bnt  tbe  time  was  com- 
ing for  a  mote  eyalemalic  organiiation.  Acoordii^ly, 
in  161S,  WilliaBe  wal  tent  id  EngUnd  to  procuiu  a 
charter.  He  wia  licated  with  mariicd  reapect  by  tlie 
Piriiament,  and  ■  charter  incorporating  the  aeUlen  on 
HamganiN  Bay,  with  "full  power  tmd  authority  to 
govern  themaelvee,'  waa  granted.  WilUaroa  rettuned 
the  fblknring  year,  aad  waa  received  in  triomph  1^  the 
inhabieanta  of  Rhode  Uand,  On  hia  voyage  to  £n^ 
land  he  had  prepared  a  £(y  Is  iMe  Lanjpiagti  nf  A  hht^ 
ioD,  including  alio  obaervatioiu  on  tbe  Bumners,  habila, 
laws,  and  religion  of  tbe  Iitdian  tribea.  Thia  work  he 
publiihed  in  London;  and  about  tbe  aame  time  Tkt 
Bl<Mfy  Ttmail  of  PtriKMliim  fur  Ccmm  of  CondaiDt 
Oucuatd  m  a  Conferatei  brtHMOi  Trvlk  itad  Ftoa 
(Lend.  1644  ;  new  ed.  Providenee,  1867).  On  hia  re- 
turn to  Rhode  laland,  be  tefnaed  tbe  office  of  pmident 
of  the  oolonyj  but  when  the  righta  granted  by  the 
chatter  were  about  to  be  infringed,  be  waa  sent  to  Eng- 
land again  in  I6S1  to  secure  a  confirmation  of  therighta 
of  the  colony,  and  waa  entirely  auoeesafuL  While  in 
England  the  seoond  time  he  puUiahed  Tht  Btoudy 
'  Tcnenl  gel  Mart  Blovify,  (y  CoOoh'm  fiKJaomr  (o  Waik 
it  Wiilt  H  (Ac  Bhed  ofllu  Lanit,  etc.  (IGbS)  —Tlf 
ilirtUag  Matutiy  Nom  ofCkritt'i;  or,  i  Ditcoimt 
Toackiiv  Oie  Propagating  At  Gotprl  of  Jtnu  Ckritt, 
etc  (eod.):  — and  ExperimeilM  of  Spirilanl  L^fe  and 
Htullk  aad  Ikeir  PrttemiHcu  (cod.).  He  alio  en- 
gaged in  teaching  language*  by  the  convenational 
method,  and  thn*  became  acquainted  with  John  Hil- 
ton, OUver  Cromwell,  Sir  Henry  Vane,  and  other  per- 
■ena  oTcDinenoe.  In  ISM  be  returned  loBbode  Island, 
and  was  elected  pnident  of  the  inlony,  which  post  be 
held  two  year*  and  a  half.  He  refuaed  to  peneeute  the 
Qiiakei*,  but  met  some  of  their  ablest  preachers  in  pub- 
lic debate ;  and  in  167E  published  a  work  in  oppoeilion 
to  the  sect  entitled  Gtar^  fox  Digged  ouiofkit  Bur- 
Tomt,ora»OfferofDitfnitationonFo»rlemPropotaUt, 
made  thii  Lcut  Smtrntr,  1G73  (w  taUed),  miW  G.  Fox, 
Ikm  PreteiU  H  Rhode  letaad  m  JVw  Eagbmi,  etc 
By  his  conitant  friendahip  with  the  Indians  he  was 
of  greatservice  to  the  other  colonies;  but  they  Tefused 
to  nmove  thdr  ban,  or  to  admit  Rhode  laland  into 
their  leagoe.  He  died  in  I6S3,  and  was  buried  in  his 
familv  burying-groumt,  near  the  spot  where  he  landed, 
if  en^'rt  of  tbe  life  of  Roger  Williami  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Jamee  D.  Knowlee  (  Boston,  I8S3},  William 
Grammell  (ibid.  1M6),  and  Romeo  Ellun  (Lond. 
I86S).  Hia  work*  have  been  reprinlod  by  the  Nam- 
gansetC  Qub  in  6  vols,  tblio  (Providence,  l866-7fi). 
Among  the  works  not  alreadv  named  is  LilUri  from 
B«geT  Wilttamt  U>  Join  IVilirnp,  and  Join  WiMmp, 
Jr.,  GovmOT  of  CoHutftM  (Boelon,  1868).  A  tract 
by  Rofet  Williama,  recently  discovered,  is  in  the  Ji ' 


Carter  Brawn  Libraty  at  Fnividsaoe.    See  alas  Dt> 


MateadMielie  PUaHaliom,  witi  a  Fe»  nrtJttr  VMt 
coMCemiii^  lis  BapttMlt,  Qaoicrs,  and  JMifiMf  Ubf^ 
(ibid.  1876);  and  Arnold,  Hilort  '/  ^'^'^  '■'^ 
(vol.  i,  1860). 

WUllMiw,  Rowlutd,  I>.D„  an  EogliA  t^^tT- 
man,  was  bom  at  Halkin,  Flintabin,  Walee,  Aiag.  tt, 
1817.  He  waa  educated  at  Eu»  and  at  Kii^aOeieg^ 
Cambridge,  where  be  graduated  in  1841;  was  ckmta 
lellow,and  in  184S  elected  tutor  of  bia  euUege ;  toekos- 
den,  and  became  identified  with  the  relum  iBiivfm 
at  Camlnidge  and  with  the  Broad  Cbnreli  igoTveat, 
which  was  beaded  bjr  Anold  and  Uaoiiee;  Iki« 
vice-principal  and  piiifeasor  of  Hebnw  in  the  WcU 
Theological  College  of  St.  David'*  at  Lwoptav,  mi 
chaplain  to  tbe  Uabop  of  UandalT,  in  1860;  VM  ^ 
planted  select  preacher  to  the  Univenity  of  CaiihriJgs 
in  1864 1  became  vicar  of  Broad  Chalk,  WOtshii^  i> 

Eeiafi  and  Rmetei  (1860),  for  which  act  he  waa  pnv 
culedin  the  Court  of  Atchee,  and  coodemned  in  Dces^ 
ber,  186!,  but  obuined  a  r«vena]  of  tbe  jwlgmuit  i> 
February,  1864 ;  reugned  his  pixireasDiahip  in  IWt,  aa' 
therealler  rvnded  at  hia  vicarage  in  Broad  Cballt,  scar 
Salisbury,  where  he  died  Jan.  18, 1870.  Hia  ^iaa^ 
published  works  are,  Ijigtfrom  lAs  Cieibric  t^n  :—At- 
coiintofSt.Dinid^eCMtgt,L(mpeltT:~-IMiimnlGet- 
ttKM  il9iS>)—CI>ritliawils  dad  BitHiim  (18K)>- 
ChritHm  Freedom  in  lie  Onmcil  of  JentiJem  (ISC): 
—The  aOrtu  PnfAn*  Tntadaitd  AfnA  (laeS-TLt 
voIsl);— ifrcNut  Ck<Jk  aerwm-EttOfi  im  }iaunw.Me- 
diatitm,  ifOMXaW,  md  JboMiiM  (1867):— Ob«  (Mm- 
doteer,a  Dramatie  Biagn^l^,  aid  Other  ftjM  (18^: 
—and  Psafsu  and  LiUteia  (187!),  edited  by  hia  srideu, 
who  also  publiahed  hi*  lAfi  md  LeOtn  (1874). 

^miluna,  SolOBiOti,  D.D.,  a  CngnfMsasia)  aa^ 
later,  eon  of  the  Rev.  William  Williams,  <£  HalMil, 
HatSnWas  bom  June  4, 1700.  He  graduated  at  Bl>- 
vaid  College  in  1719,  and  waa  ordained  paatnv  et  iba 
Church  in  Lebanon,  Conn.,  Dec  6,  1711.  In  IT4S  te 
became  invidved  in  a  coutniveny  oo  the  Bains*  of  jiai- 
fying  faith  with  the  Rev.Andtcw  Croawd^aiMl  ia  ITU 
in  another  with  hia  cousin,  tbe  eldw  Joaatbaa  Ed- 
wards, concerning  the  Christian  aacnuaeata.  In  tbi 
extenmve  revival  of  1740  he  showed  Umseif  a  iWtdri 
fliend  to  Whitelield,whom  be  repeatedly  ■  lail  b 
hia  pultdt.  Hedied  Feb.  19, 1776.  He  putdMbed, d^ 
jtonca  of  Tmo  DitBonna  on  the  Oeaaiiem  ofltu  Demh 
bg  Drottming  of  Mr.  Joh»  Woodmord  and  ^  the  Be- 
livrranet  <f  Mr.  SqmmJ  Grar  (1741):— i4  V^tic^im 
of  the  Goepel  Doctrine  of  JaMifiaalian  if  Fimtk  (I74C). 
M>9  oa  oaKFcr  Is  file  Ase.  ^  ndrHi  (TrasBalTs  6ae^  •  (k 
Jiul^ying  Failhi'  —  Thi  True  SlaU  of  the  t^mUm 
-  the  QHlvfaatUM  .Veosasari'  Io  Lamfml  Cam 
M  til!  CAriKia  Avroaiasti  (IT&I),  Iri^  n  B- 
the  Ra>.  Jonathan  Edmard^i  "  HtcmUe  /'^mry.' 


AnnaleeflAeAmer.Pii^iil,i,Stl. 

'WlUluna,  Btaplien  (IX  D.D.,  i 
minister,  aon  of  the  Rev.  JiAn  WilliaaM  of  ffiiilili. 
Haas.,  waa  bom  Uay  14, 1698.  When  in  bis  dmtk 
year,  be  was  taken  captive  by  the  lodians,  witb  bB  ba 
father'*  family  except  one  brother,  and  wlijimil  is 
great  •uffericg  on  tbe  Joufney  to  Canada.  Hanaf 
been  s^Mrated  from  the  rot  of  the  family,  be  did  M 
meet  any  of  them  again  for  fourteen  motitba.  He  wm 
teleaaed  at  Quebec  through  tbe  inlcronaon  of  friiaib 
in  New  England,  and  arrived  in  Bosun,  Maia.  Ndv.H, 
1706,  nearly  twenty-one  months  fhim  the  bcgiaaiBg  rf 
his  captivity.  In  1713  he  gradoated  at  Hsnanl  Od- 
lege,  and  then  tsoght  ichocd  at  Hadley  tai  oae  vMb 
After  preaching  at  Longmeadow  for  rinat  iws  na» 
he  waa  ordained  then  Ocu  IT,  1716.  Darii^  tkna 
oaiBpaigDS  he  served  as  chaplain  In  tbe  annv :  at  Caya 
Breton,  in  17ti,  imdet  3ii  WiUiam  Peppsdl;  weal « 


WILLIAMS  10 

Ukt  GtoTge.  in  17&6,  uaia  Sir  WUIUiD  Johnteit;  tai 
is  tba  jtmt  follawing  WM  ODdar  GcDcnl  Wiailow.  He 
wit  m  unpnnuit  mgent  ia  ntabUahing  tbe  minioti  in 
17S1  imoDg  tiie  Uoiuatoiiui  lodiun  in  Stoc^bridgc 
Bi  dM  Jme  10,  1782.  HU  onlj  puUiettioD  wh  A 
StnmnaiJit  Ordimalim  o/Jolm  Kirp  ilTli),  See 
lifasat,A<uaUnftieAmT.Pti^i,'^i. 

WUIianu,  Btepben  (3),  a  CongiegitioDil  miiii*- 
ut,  nn  of  Lhe  preceding,  uhI  Iklhet  ottba  Rev.atepben 
WiUuBH  of  Fiuwilliim,  N.  H.,  wu  bom  t  Lmgmead- 
ov,  Han.,  Jan.  S6, 1732.  He  grwlaaud  at  fak  CuUega 
in  1741,  lUdicd  tbeology  with  hii  tather,  wai  ordained 
entpaUDroCWoodatuekCWest)  in  1747,  and  contiaued 
in  cbirga  until  hi*  death,April  Hi,  1796.  Ue  va*  a 
good  -■'■—■—'  scbotai,  a  pnctiod  pnaeber,  and  mudi 
cWcmcd  bf  hia  people.  Sea  foi^.  Ouir.  1861,  p.B66; 
Spngw,  AmaU  of  lie  Amer.  Puipil,  i,  287. 

Wmiania,  Thomas,  D.D.,  ■  Heihoditt  Episcopal 
miniiter,  wai  born  lu  the  etc;  of  Durfaun,  EnglaDd,jBlj 
G,  1811.  He  vai  eonverMd  in  18B6,  gradaated  at  Hox- 
too  ia  1840,  Joined  Che  Bridih  Wetkyan  Conlerence, 
■nd  wai  appointed  to  Gtaagow.  Three  yean  Uler  be 
mnored  to  EftinbiiT|;fa,  where  be  hraiei  a  doac  Triend- 
riiip  with  tbe  ramoiu  Dr.  Cbalmen,  and  ftoa  thence  be 
remored  lo  the  SUMkport  Nonh  Cireuit,  where  he  pob- 
liibed  hi*  D^tKx  of  tbe  Britiih  Wealejian  Cooferenea 
a^rut  the  Flf^lteiU  VMicaled.  In  1849  b«  waa  ap- 
poirted  to  the  Leeds  Fint  Circuit,  where  he  puUisbed 
bit  AUrat  \a  the  Methodist  soeieliea.  In  18S3  be  waa 
sppointcd  ID  Cit7  Boad,  LoDdoD  (Fint  Cireait) ;  and  in 
I  til  emigrated  lo  America,  joined  the  Koch  KiverCon- 
lenace,  aod  wu  starioned  at  Indiana  Street  Church, 
Chieago,  where  he  continued  three  jtm.  Ur.Wilt- 
itm*  waa  transferred  in  1868  lo  Che  Histonri  Canfer- 
ence,  and  Waa  appointed  pastor  of  Ebenner  Chnrch,  SC. 
bmii.  On  ibedeath  of  the  president  oflhe  UniTeniiEr 
of  HiMMiri,  at  Jeffsrson  Cicr,  Hr.  WiUiami  was  elecCed 
lo  BU  tbe  TacanC7.  Failing  health  in  1861  caused  him 
to  tnre]  East  for  iu  restoniion.  He  Happed  at  Saia- 
mga,  and  there  died  the  sanM  jfear.  See  MinMm  of 
A  KWdJ  CotrfarKxt,  18«2,  p.  6. 

'VrUUanu,  WlUiBin,  oiled  Ihe  "Watts  of  Wain," 
Tia  bom  in  1717,  in  the  parub  of  Llanriir-ar-f-Bryn, 
Canaartbeush ire,  Wiles.  Hia  oonvermon  he  traced  to 
the  preaching  of  Bowel  Harria.  He  left  the  Establiab- 
ed  Church  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  sod  comiecled  him' 
Klf  with  the  HeChodisls,  among  whom  he  was  lecog' 
niaed  as  one  of  ttadt  most  popular  preachers.  Uided 
with  poetical  talenla  of  a  high  order,  like  Charle*  Wes- 
ley, he  conaecrsted  his  genius  Co  the  cause  of  his  Mas- 
ter. He  pobliahed  Che  following  works :  A  Utbaa  (Bris- 
tol, I74«-4T.  S  pta.)  -.—Tht  Sea  ofGlaa^—VaOk  Fart~ 
mU;—WrUonx  to  lovititlt  TUBgi:~t.ni  An  EUgy  on 
Wkitrfidd,  dedicaittl  lo  the  countess  of  Hnntingdon. 
His  death  occurred  in  1791.  Mr.  WilUama  was  the 
aulboT  of  Che  hfcna  "U'er  the  ghicaijr  bills  of  dsik- 
iMaB,'«(c  His  best-known  hymn — one  that  is  found 
in  so  BMny  colleetions  of  hjmnt — is  that  commendng 
with  tba  words  "Guide  me,  O  Ibou  great  JehoTab." 
The  bistorr  of  this  hymn  is  thus  given:  L^dy  Uunt^ 
ingdoo  baring  read  one  of  WiUisms's  books  with  much 
sfnrilual  aacisfaetion,  persuaded  him  lo  prepare  a  col- 
tcciion  irf  hjmna,  to  be  called  tke  Gloria  ta  ExedttM, 
Ibr  etpecial  use  in  Mr.WhitfAdd's  Orphans'  Houae  in 
America,  In  this  coUtctioa  appeared  tlie  original  alan- 
lat  of  "Gaidfl  me,  O  Choa  great  Jehovah."  In  1774, 
two  jean  afUi  its  publication  in  the  Gloria  in  Exalni, 
K  was  republished  in  EoglMid  in  Hr.  White&eM'a  col- 
lections  at  hymns.  Its  rendering  bom  tbe  Welsh  into 
English  is  attributed  to  W.  EvacM,  who  givea  a  trans- 
bcioa  aimilar  lo  that  (boad  in  the  jHvseni  coUeciiocia 
of  hymna.  The  hyma  wss  taken  up  by  the  Calvinist 
Uetbodists,  embodying,  as  it  did,  a  metrical  praytr  fiir 
God's  avctouming  itnngtli  and  victorions  deliverance 
in  life's  boon  of  discipline  and  trial,  expressed  in  truly 
auqeitie  language,  in  harmony  with  a  Ann  religious  le- 


)1  WILLIEALD 

liSDce  and  tmet,  and  a  lofty  experimental  Ikitb.    It  im- 
mediately became  popular  amoog  all  deiwminatiDns  of 
Christians,  holding  a  place  in  tbe  aDbcliocia  of  Ihe  Church 
with  Robinson's "  Coma,  thou  Fount  of  ivery  Uesaing." 
The  bnrtb  vetae  is  naually  omitted: 
"Hasios  on  my  habitation, 
Knslng  on  m;  beavenlT  bamti 
FUls  my  heart  with  holy  langlo(— 
Corns,  Lord  Jesna.  qakkly  came. 

Lord,!  long  lo  be  with  Ibes." 
SeeBuU«Twiinh,Ao'y^lkFjri>M>,p.80-M.  (J.CS.) 

^ViUlunaon,  Imiko  Dowd,  D.D.,  a  Dniveisal* 
ist  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Pomfret,  Vu,  April  4, 1807. 
He  bad  no  better  early  educational  adTantBges  than  a 
districtschool, and leaniedcbeclothier'a trade;  bnCforca 
of  character  and  thinC  for  knowledge  made  amends  for 
lack  of  excemal  aid,  and  in  1827  we  Hnd  him  preaching 
in  Springfield.  Sahaeqnendy  he  labored  as  supply  in 
langdon,  M.  H. ;  as  paator,  in  1828,  it  JeOiey ;  in  1829 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,when  he  lived  aevea  years,  and  pub- 
lished his  first  book.^a  AiyunMBl^r  CAri«ioB»(y,-  re- 
moved to  Ponghkeepaie  in  1837  j  to  Baltimore  in  1889 1 
to  New  Y<vk  dly  in  1811 ;  to  Hobile.Ala.,  three  yesia 
Uteri  to  Memphis, Tenn.,  two  yesrs  later;  to  Lowell, 
Mais.,  in  1860 ;  to  LonisvilU,  Ky.,  in  1851 ;  to  Qncin- 
nati,  O..  in  1868;  and  in  186li  Co  rhUidelphii,  where  he 
q>ent  three  yean.  He  died  in  Cindnnsti,  Nor.  36, 
1876.  Dr.  WiUiamson  was  largely  engaged  during 
his  ministerial  career  as  editor  and  poblisher  of  the 
ffoipet  AmAor,  in  Troy,  N.T.,  in  1880}  the  RtUgiota 
Injuirtr,  in  HacUbrd,  Cotin.;  the  Herald  and  Era,  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  in  18(2;  and  for  ten  yecia  waa  coaneot- 
ed  with  the  Star  in  lit  Wtit  as  Joint  proprietor  and 
editor.  Bendes  th«abav«-naiDMl'4r;inMi(/orCArJ>> 
lianity,  be  pubUebed  j4it  EipontiiM  and  Cffatce  ^ 
UniceriaUm  (1840,  IBrno)!— Jn  Examitatim  of  tkt 
Dodra*  ofEitik—  Pmiikmmt  (1847,  ISnio}  •.Strmaat 
for  the  Tinf  aad  FeopU  (1849, 18ma)i— 7'Ae  PU- 
latophf  of  UoKtnaiitm,  or  RaamH  for  our  Faith 
(1866,  I'Jmo):  — besides  Ubcr  valuable  works.  He 
was  essentially  a  pioneer,  empbiiically  a  self-made 
man,  a  man  of  Mrong  oonviotions  and  robust  inCellecl, 
and  a  prominent  member  of  tbe  Odd-fellows'  Society. 
He  was  logical,  nncere,  lucid,  ingenious,  aud  magaecio. 
See  Utdeermlitt  SegiHtr,  1878,  p.  82. 

WilUbald,  St.,  and  flrst  bishop  of  EichsCSdt,  was 
a  stesdfuC  supporter  of  Bonifaca  in  the  work  of  Chria- 
ciiniiing  the  Germins.  He  wss  bom  about  A.D.  700, 
in  England,  of  noble  Saxon  parents;  and  in  his  third 
year,  during  a  severe  ricknesa,  was  dedicated  to  the  ser- 
vice of  Che  Church.  In  his  fifth  year  abbot  Egbald,  oT 
Waltbeim,  undertook  his  education.  In  730  he  under- 
took a  pilgrimage  i«  Rome,  in  company  with  his  father 
and  brother  (Wunnebald).  From  Rome  he  wencaecon- 
paniedby  Cwo  friends,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Zand, 
years,  and  exposed  him  to 
nns  eiperienoa.     On  his 


Honle  Caawno  (729-789).  He  chei 
Spanish  priest  Co  Rome,  and  Chere,  ■ 
made  Ihe  scqusiDlanc*  of  Boniface,  whoee  kinsman  ha 
was.  In  740  he  came  to  Germany,  and  entered  on  his 
aposulic  work  at  EichstHdL  In  the  same  year  he  was 
consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  and  in  the  following  year 
(UcL21  or  22)  to  the  bishopric  In  742  he  was  present, 
as  bishop  of  Eichatiidi,  at  a  council  held  by  Carhiman, 
duke  of  the  Eastern  Franks. 

But  little  is  known  as  respects  the  details  of  Willi- 
bald's aetivity,  Deseriptionsof  his  careerspeak  ingen- 
eral  terms  of  the  endication  of  heatheninm.  the  subdu- 
ing of  the  soil,  tbe  miinleoance  of  worship  at  stated 
times,  the  regular  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  and  tbe  muL 
ti|dication  of  conveuti,  under  the  rule  of  Si,  Benedict,  in 
hu  diocea*.     His  brother  Wunnebald  and  his  siMet 

arie^  and  be  waa  tbos  able  to  multiply  his  labor*  and 


WILLIBROD  10 

txteiA  that  (Ki.  In  76G  he  itlcndeil  >  irnod  at  At- 
tigny,  held  by  Pepin.  He  aCuuied  to  ■  gnu  age,  and 
oudired  moal  Dfihe  pupila  indcomputianiofBonifice. 
Keporu  of  ihe  11th  centuiy  fix  the  date  o(  hU  death  on 
July  7, 7B) ;  but  a  dunalioii  to  Fulda,  from  hii  bind,  is 
dated  T86;  and  it  might  accordingly  be  more  nearly 
correct  to  luppoae  that  he  died  in  786  or  7ST. 

The  principal  source  for  Willibald'i  life  i>  the  Vila 
WiUibaldi,  alsi  CDtitled  Bodaporiatm,  wrilten  by  a  nun 
of  Heidenbeim,  who  lerma  henelf  his  kioawDman,  and 
■talea  that  the  obtained  many  of  the  facli  ihe  recorda 
from  hia  own  ltpe»  Thia  Viia  vaa  copied  in  Caniaiua^ 
Ctrl.  ABliq.m,i,\Ob;  Bottmiias,  Acta  SS.  JiAy.M.aOX; 
Mibilkin,  A  da  SS.  Bm.  iii,  3, 117 ;  and  in  Falckeiuteiii, 
Cod.  Diplom.  Nordgac.  p.  446.  A  second  Life  is  copied 
in  CaniaiuB,  Hi  nip.  p.  117;  BoUandus,  p.  BIS;  and  Ha- 
billon,p.B88;  which,  bowerer,  is  merely  an  abridgment 
of  the  firal.  A  third  Lift,  which,  for  do  apecial  reaaon, 
is  naually  ascribed  to  bishop  Reginald  (died  989),  is 
given  by  CanisiuB  alone.  Abbot  Adelben,  of  HeideO' 
heim,  fumiahed  a  brief  biography  of  Willibald,  in  con- 
nection with  a  hiatorical  aketch  of  bia  monssteiy,  in 
the  I!th  century;  and  another  was  drawn  up  by  bish- 
op Philip  of  EichstBdC  in  the  Hthcentur)-,  both  of  which 
were  publiabed  in  Gretser,  i)<i>int  Tut^ribvt  (IngoliL 
1617).  SeeReltberg,£'ircia^ict.ZteitaaUii,»48Bq.; 
Wright,  Biog.  BriL,  Liltraria  (Anglo-SazoD  Period), 
p  SSfi;  amag.Rtal-EiKgUop.t.y 

WilUb[Od(orWllUb[oid).  SteWiLsitoBD.ST. 

Wlllia,  Henry,  one  of  tbe  early  Methodist  preach- 
er* in  America,  wai  a  native  of  Virginia.  He  entered 
the  miniatry  in  1779,  and  was  one  of  (he  most  domi- 
lunt  apirits  of  the  times,  energizing,  by  hia  irrepressible 
ardor,  the  work  of  the  Church  throughout  two  thirds  of 
iu  territory.  He  labored  mightily  fur  the  Weat,  as  if 
consdoos  of  its  prospective  impoitsnce  in  the  State  and 
tbeChurch.  He  fllledthefoUowing  atations:  Roanoke, 
1779;  Hecklenbu^,  1780;  Talbot,  1781;  Dorchester, 
]7eS;NewIIope.l783;  Holaton, liSi.  Inl7gbhewas 
in  charge  as  presiding  elder  of  a  district,  comprehending 
most  of  North  Carolina;  1786,  Charleston,  8.  C.-,  1787, 
Mew  York  city;  1786,  presiding  elder  of  New  York  Dis- 
liict[  1789,  of  a  district  which  eilended  from  PhiUdel- 
phia  to  Hedslone  and  Pittsburgh;  1790, located;  1791- 
95,  supemumerarv  in  Philadelphia;  1796,  he  reippean 
in  Baltimore  with  John  Htggerty,  Nelson  Reed,  and 
other  worthies.  Here  be  seems  to  have  temiined  till 
ISOO.wben  he  became  a  aupemumemry,  doing  what  ser- 
vice he  could — mostly  on  the  Frederick  Circuit,  near  hia 
home— till  his  death,  in  1808,  near  Strawbridge's  old 
church  on  Pipe  Creek.  Mr.  WlUla  was  naturally  of  a 
strong  mind,  and  this  he  had  diligently  improved.  Quin, 
who  knew  him  in  the  Redstone  country,  describes  him 
as  ^Bt  "six  feet  in  stature,  slender,  a  good  English 
scholar,  well  read,  an  eloquent  man,  mighty  in  the  Script- 
became  feeble  in  the  prime  of  life,  retired  from  the  itin- 
ersnt  Held,  married,  and  settled  on  a  farm  near  Freder- 
ick County,  Md.  The  Baltimore  Conference  aat  in  hia 
parlor  in  April,  1801,"  He  was  the  most  endeared  to 
Asbury  of  all  the  ilinennts  of  that  dav.  See  Mimita 
of  OmftrtBCa,  1808,  p.  1S7;  Stevens, 'ffW.  of  tit  M. 
f:.CAurc*,  11,61-68,134,298,847;  ill,  17,S87;  ii',!40; 
Bangs,  Hitt.  of  At  M.  E.  Church,  i,  325 ;  ii,  264.   (J.  L  S.) 

WllliB.  Miobael,  D.D.,  LI.D.,  a  minuter  of  the 
Scotch  Presbyterian  Free  Church,  was  born  in  Scotland 
in  1796.  He  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  Ken- 
fleld  Presbyterian  Free  Church,  GLisgow,  and  labored 
with  great  auccesa  and  usefulness  fur  twenty-9ve  years- 
In  1847  he  receiveil  a  call  from  Canada  West  to  tbe 
presidency  and  proreaaanhtp  ofthetdogy  in  Knox  Col- 
lege, Toronto.  He  was  well  known  lo  English  Presby- 
terians, and  took  a  great  interest  in  everything  periain- 
ing  to  the  weUare  of  the  Church.  In  some  reapecls  he 
was  peculiar,  waa  regarded  as  very  eccentric,  and  was 
Holed  for  bia  pungent  remarks  od  tha  preachen  to 


02  WnXISTON 

whom  he  chanced  to  listen.    Though  pcunted,  his  erili- 

ciamswere  not  bitterot  intended  to  wound.  Kfty-acv<a 
vean  of  his  life  were  spent  in  preaching  and  IMchin^ 
He  died  at  Aberlour,  Scotland,  in  September,  1879.  Dr. 
Willis  published  a  Funeral  Strmon,  on  his  tatlwr>— J 
DiicourKot,  Poptry  {IWiSy^A  Diftita  of  Chvrdt  E- 
labliihmenlt  (1888)  :—A  Biograpky  of  Ttco  Bnihm:— 
besides  several  PamphltU.  See  Morgan,  CehbtaUd  Ca- 
Bodioia  (Quebec,  1862, 8vo),  p.  466.     (W.  P.  S.) 

^7iUla,  Rlolimtd,  D.D.,  an  English  bishop,  wm 
bom  m  1668.  He  became  pcebeodaiy  of  Wettmiasls 
in  1696;  prebendary  and  dean  of  Lincoln  in  1701  ;bMk- 
op  of  Glouceater  Jan.  16,  1714;  bishop  of  Salisbtay  ia 
1721;  bittaop  of  Wiocheata  in  1728;  and  died  in  17H 
He  was  the  author  of,  Tht  Oaaiimal  Paper,  m  Sfhl 
Parti  (1697)  —Spetdt  »  tht  Bout  afLardi  tmlhtBa 
agaiBMl  Fnmcit  (lali),  BiMhop  qf  SodeiUr  (17»)  — 
and  a  number  of  single  Sermoia. 

Wmia,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.,  an  English  dcigy- 
man  and  scientist,  waa  bom  in  London  in  1800.  He 
graduated  at  Gains  College,  Cambridge,  in  1826,  aad 
gained  a  fellowship,  which  he  subsequently  votaied; 
took  orders  in  tbe  Church  of  England ;  waa  early  dis- 
tinguished for  hia  researches  in  physical  sdoice,  patiic- 
ularly  acoustics  and  tbe  physics  of  orml  language,  the 
philosophy  of  mechanism  and  machinery,  and  ibe  mttb- 
ematical  and  mechanical  philoaopby  ot  ancient  anti- 
lecture',  became  a  feUow  of  the  Royal  Society  April  tt 
1830;  was  appointed  Jackaonian  professor  of  utinl 
and  experimental  philosophy  at  Cambridge  in  107; 
made  a  lour  of  Frame,  Germany,  and  Italy  for  Ibe  tlady 
of  arcbitectare  in  1882-38 ;  and  became  a  profvond  a^ 
chitectural  bistoriaiu  He  was  a  member  of  many  sei- 
entiHc  associations,  before  which  he  delivered  mmj 
addresses;  invented  several  philosophical  ioaraaieott; 
and  died  at  Cambridg^  FeU  28, 1876.  As  a  lecnnH  a 
his  own  department  he  was  unrivalled.  He  waa  the 
author  of  numerous  works  on  sdentlfic  subjects,  aa 
which  may  be  mentioned,  Rtnarit  <m  Iht  A  rrii/n 
of  Iht  MiddU  Agr;  E^ttciaOg  of  Italf  (18S6)  -^Brfart 
of  a  Sarrtf  of  Ihe  IMinpidultd  Portiom  of  Btrrjuri 
Calhedrai  i»  Iht  Ytar  1841  -^Primplti  ofMtfhumim 
for  Sludn/t  (1841)  —A  rckilrdural  Bilory  ofCatttt- 
iKij  Cathedral  (1846)  —A  rchUriliinil  ffiHory  of  Wim- 
chtilrr  Calhtdral  (eod.)  ^-.4  rciilirtii  ral  Bitlory  of  Tort 
Calhrdral  (1846)  :—A  rchiltetural  HitloTy  of  the  Chfrrh 
of  the  Bols  Stpulchre  alJmi$alem  (1849) :— and  ArtM- 
leeturr^  Hilary  ef  aUatOHbury  Abbry  (1866). 

WUHs,  ThoinB«,  D.D.,  an  English  dergymaa  d 
the  17th  century.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  Cg)- 
lege,  Cambridge;  became  minister  of  Klngston-upoa- 
Thames,  m  Surrey,  about  1667 ;  and  died  in  1692.  He 
published.  The  Key  to  Knoitttdgt! — aitd  aeveni  lii^ 
Servumt  (1669-76). 

WilUaton,  Sktii,  D.D.,  a  Pnsbyterian  ministSt 
was  bom  at  Suffield,  Conn.,  April  4,  1770.  He  studied 
at  Dartmouth  Cidleg*,  where  be  graduated  in  1T9L 
Having  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  thetriogy,  be 
was  licensed  to  preach  Oct.7, 1794.  and  was  aflerwatdt 
employed  fur  some  montba  in  supplying,  tempotarilj, 
several  churches  in  CunnecticuL  After  several  yew* 
spent  as  a  missionary  in  Yermont  and  New  Yot^  bt 
was  finally,  in  1808,  installed  pastor  oT  tbe  Oiurch  of 
Lisle,  N.  Y.,  which  he  had,  however,  supplied  for  the 
preceding  three  or  four  years.  Having  in  July,  1810, 
became  pastor  of  the  Prnhylerian  Church  at  Durban, 
he  remained  there  eighteen  years,  when  he  noeived  a 
disminiion,  at  his  awn  requeM,  Dec  22, 1828;  and  dar- 
ing tbe  test  of  his  life  he  preached  at  varioos  places 
chiefly  in  New  York  state.  Ader  a  life  remarka- 
ble for  eameatMSB  and  activity,  he  died  at  Guilford 
Centre,  Chenango  Co„  N.  ¥_  March  S,  1861.  Dr.  Wil- 
liston  published  the  fallowing  volnmee:  A»  Addrat 
lo  Parentt  (1799):— &n»ai  o*  Doaritai  tni  Erprri- 
neotal  Riiigion  (,\S\a)i~A  Vi-diealiOR  if  Seme  ^  lie 
Mott  Butniial  Dodriaei  of  the  Rrformiaiom  (1817)  — 


WILLOW 

Sermomi  on  At  Mj/tleiy  of  Ike  faearuatioii,  etc. 
(1823) :— 5H-MOIU  Adapltd  m  Arnrab  (1828):— 
Uarmoi^  of  Dieine  Truth  (1836):— />uroiir«i  on 
Ike  TtmplaHoiu  of  CKtiit  {lSi7):^C/triH'i  King- 
iom  Nolo/ dot  World  (1813),  three  diacouraei:— 
Liclarrt  on  ike  Moral  Iinperjeclion  of  Chriltiaiu 
(1846):— JVilfawtioi  Diaamna  (IMS):— lod  ■ 
jtamber  ot  Pampkl/ld.    Se«  Spngut,  Amial*  <jf  Ike 

'Willow  U  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  V.,  of  the 
two  lullovring  Heb.  word« : 

1.  y^V.inb  (only  in  the  pint.  CS'IS,  Sept  iria, 
oyvoc),!*  ■pjurentlys  generic  Mnn  for  the  willow, 
like  the  Anbic^rai.    Willowi  ire  mentioned  in 
Lev.  sxiii,  40,  among  the  trees  whoee  bnmche*  were 
to  be  u*ed  in  the  eniittructioii  o(  booiha  at  the  Feut 
of  Tabernacle);  in  Job  il,  22,  ■«■  me  which  gave 
■hade  to  Behematb  ("the  hippnpalamua");  in  lai. 
xlir,4,whereit  iauid  that  larael'a  oflapring  should 
■pringDp  "ai  willows  by  the  wacercounn;"  in  tbe 
Paalm  (cxiitvii,  2)  which  h>  beautirnlly  repreaenta 
Israel'*  boitdw  daring  the  time  of  the  Captivity  in 
Babylon—"  We  hanged  our  harps  upOD  the  willowa 
in  the  midst  thereof."     With  reapect  to  tbe  tree 
upon  which  tbe  caplive  Iinelitea  hnng  their  harps, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  weeping  willow 
(Salix  Babj/lomai)  is  inteoded.    This  tree  grows 
abundantly  on  the  banlu  of  the  Euphrates,  in  other 
parts  uf  Asia  as  in  Palestine  (Strand,  Flora  Palatt. 
No.  666),  and  also  in  North  Africa.     BocbarC  has 
eodeavored  to  ahow  {Pkaltg,  I,  viii)  that  tbe  same 
Dountry  is  spoken  of,  in  las.  xv,  7,  as  "  the  Valley  of 
Willows."     This,  however,  ia  very  doubtfuL     Sprengel 
(Ail/.  Bti  /Itrb.  i,  IS,  270)  leema  to  restrict  tbe  Jni  to 
the  SaUx  Bak^loniea ;  but  there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt 
that  tbe  tertu  is  generic,  and  includea  other  apecic*  of 
tbe  large  family  ikSaliat.  which  ia  probably  well  repre- 
aented  in  Palatine  and  other  Bible  lands,  aucb  a*  the  ^o- 
iu  aiba,  S.  viminalii  (oaier),  S.  ^gypliaca,  which  latter 
plant,  however,  Sprengel  identiSes  with  tbe  tafi^  of 
Abul'fadli,  cited  by  Celsius  {Hitnb.  ii,  108);  but  this 
latter  wonl  ia  probably  the  same  aa — 

8.  rif  XBX,  Uapkltaphih,  which  occun  only  in  1 
3(Tii,6,''Ue  took  also  of  the  seed  of  the  land,  and  plant- 
ed it  inaOuitfulSeld;  he  placed  it  by  great  waters,  and 
aat  itMain(tow.4rH."  Cel3iuf^bowever,thinkstbatLh« 


Wssping  Willow  (Solb  Bubvlonfa). 

word  meaoa  loaa  fiamu,  pUmilirt,  although  he  at  the 
same  time  gives  all  tbe  evidence  fur  the  willow.  Firai, 
tbe  rabbins  consider  it  to  mean  a  tree,  "et  quidem 
talix;"  R  Ben  Helech  says  it  is"*pecies  salicih  Aiabi- 
bua  tEipA/xqpjb  dicta;"  while  "Aviceoua  hoc  tit*  dicil 
iiipkUapk  esse  ekilof.'  Tnvetlers  also  give  us  sim- 
ilar information,  Thua  Paul  Locaa;  "Lea  Aiabea  le 
nomment  fftof,  qui  signi&e  en  Arabe  taaU''  Rau- 
wair  (TVoKb,  i,  9),  apeaking  of  the  plants  he  found 
near  Aleppo,  remarka,  "  There  ia  also  a  peculiar  aort  of 
willow-trees  called  vfi&f,  etc;  the  atems  and  twigs 
are  long,  thin,  weak,  and  of  a  pale-yeUow  color;  on 


twigs  h 
like  nnto  tbe  Cypriotiah  wild  fig-treea,  wl 
in  the  spring  tender  and  wouUy  flowers  liKe  unto  the 
bloeaoma  of  the  poplar-tree,  only  they  are  of  a  more  dry- 
ing quality,  of  a  pale  color,  and  a  fragrant  smcU.  The 
inhabitanla  pull  of  these  great  quantities,  and  distil  a 
very  precious  and  aweet  water  out  of  ibem,"  Thia 
practice  is  still  continued  in  Eastern  countries  as  Car 
aa  Northern  India,  and  was,  and  probably  atill  is,  well 
known  in  EgypL  Haaaelquiat  (Trav.  p.  499),  under 
tbe  name  of  caUtf,  apparently  speaks  of  the  same  tree; 
and  Forakal  {Dacr^.  Plant,  p.  Uzvi)  identide*  it  with 
the  Salix  jEgt^pliaat,  while  he  conaidera  the  ni/iq/'la 
be  the  S,  BabfionKa. 

Various  uses  were  ua  doubt  made  of  willows  by  the 
andent  Hebrews,  although  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
0  them.     Tbe  Egyptiana  used 

Cairo  at  the  present  day"  (Wilkinson,  A  iic  EgspU  i, 
43).  Herodotus  (i.  194)  apeaka  of  boaia  at  Babylon 
whose  framework  was  of  willow;  such  coracle-shaped 
bnals  are  repreaenled  in  tbe  Nineveh  sculpture!  (sea 
Rawlinson,  Htrod.  i,  268). 

Of  Biblical  willowa  bv  far  the  mnst  iniemtlng  is  the 
weeping  willow,  or  willow  of  Babylon  (.If.  FiAylimica). 
With  it*  long  lanceolate,  finely  aerraleil.  and  pointed 
leavea,  with  its  amuoth,  slender,  pur|iliah,  drooping 
bnnchea,  it  baa  in  all  modem  times  been  the  symb^ 
of  sorrow.  Before  the  Babylonian  Captivity  the  wil- 
low was  always  associated  with  feelings  of  Joyful  proe- 
perity.  "It  is  remarkable,"  aa  Mr.  Johns  (/'oreif  Trttt 
of  BrUaint'iiiWy}  truly  says, Tor  having  been  in  dif. 


Bnnch  or  On  WMploK  Willow. 
Tcitnt  tga  «nblBmBtic>]  of  two  direellj  oppantc  fcel> 
ingB— It  one  time  beinK  uMicMtsd  with  the  palm,  at 
another  with  the  ejprtn.'  AfUr  the  Captirily,  bow. 
ever,  thii  tree  beams  the  emUem  of  »mm,aiul  ii  fVe- 
quently  thua  alluded  to  in  the  poetiy  of  oar  dwd  coun- 
try I  and  "  there  can  be  no  doubt,"  as  Hr.  Johoi  contin- 
ue*, "that  the  dedicaiion  of  the  tie*  to  aorrow  ii  to  be 
traced  to  the  pathetic  puxge  in  the  Paalma."  "The 
children  of  larael,"  aayi  lad;  Calleott  (Scriptmrt  Ber- 
hal,  p.  tSS),  "atill  preaent  willowa  annually  <n  their  lyn- 
agngiin,  boand  op  with  palm  and  myrtle,  and  aceom- 

Willa.  The  aubjeet  of  teatamentary  dispodtion  ii, 
of  courae,  intimately  connected  with  that  of  inherit anoe, 
and  little  need  be  added  here  to  what  will  be  found 
there.  Set  Ham.  Under  ■  lyatem  of  cloae  inherit- 
ance like  that  of  the  Jewa,  the  ecape  for  bequeit  in  re- 
•pect  of  land  waa  limited  by  the  right  of  rednnption 
and  general  re-entry  in  the  Jubilee  year.  See  JcBiiiK; 
Vow.  Bat  the  law  does  not  forbid  bequeata  by  will 
of  luch  limited  intereat  in  land  aa  waa  eonuMent  with 
thoM  rigblt.  The  ctae  of  houaea  in  walled  towni  waa 
different,  and  there  can  be  no  donbt  that  tbey  must,  in 
fact,  hare  frequently  been  bequeathed  by  will  [Lev. 
ixT,  80).  Two  inacances  are  recorded  in  the  Old  Teat., 
under  the  law,  of  lealamentaTy  diipoaiiioti — 1.  Effei-tcd 
in  the  case  of  Ahitbophel  (3  Sam.zvii.SS);  3.  Recom- 
mended in  the  caae  ofUezekiah  (9  Kings  ix,  Ij  laa. 
xxxviii,  1);  and  it  may  he  remarked  in  both  that  Che 
word  "act  in  order"  (n<X;  Sept.  JvriXXo/iaii  Tulg.ifit- 
pono.  nitax  in  Rabbinic  ia  a  will.  See  (ieaen.  Tht- 
taur.  p.  usii),  marg.  "give  chaige  oonceming,"  agrtea 

"  make  a  will"  (Hichaelis,  Loot  of  Mom,  art.  80).  Va- 
rious direcliona  omceming  willa  will  be  found  in  (he 
Uiahna,  which  imply  diapoaition  of  land  (fain  BatkT. 
viii,6,7).     See  Tkstaheiit. 

'WlllBOn,  James  lloLmd,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Preabyterian  divine,  and  ann  of  the  distinguished  di- 
vine Rev.  Jamea  R  Willann,  D.D.,  waa  born  at  the 
Forka  of  yough.  near  Elizabeth,  Allegheny  Co.,  Pa., 
Nov.  17,  IS09.    From  childhood  he  wu  apt  in  the  ac- 


)4  WILLSON 

quiaition  of  leaning,  and  diligent  in  hil  atDdia,  ^ 
preparatory  education  was  proeeenled  under  fcia  latker^ 
inalniction.  "  So  thorough  had  been  his  previma  tnin- 
ing,  and  ao  advanced  hia  scholarship,  that  oo  tsleti^ 
college  he  tocA  high  rank  at  once  in  the  seDior  elaa,* 
He  graduated  at  Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.T,in 
1829;  then  apent  aome  yeara  in  teaching,  6at  in  ta 
academy  at  Belair,  Hd.,  then  at  the  village  of  SAa- 
dack,  N.  T.,  and  laatly  aa  prindpat  of  the  Higb-Kbad 
in  Troy,  N.  Y.;  studied  tbealogr  until  1834,  wba  be 
waalicenaed  to  preach  by  the  then  Souiheru  Preafayuij; 
and  ordained  and  inttalted  pastor  of  a  church  in  Phib- 
delphia.  Pa.,  Nov.  37, 1BS4,  where  he  labored  with  gi^ 
UKc«B  until  I86i.  In  ]8»  be  waa  appointed  hy  lb* 
Synod  to  a  proTesaorahip  in  the  Thevlogical  Seaiiaay, 
Allegheny  City,  Pa^  a  poaitian  for  which  he  wis  fl- 
uently qualiAed,  and  which  he  Sited  with  great  indoitrf 
and  leal  Ibr  three  aueceasive  aeaaioni^  while  Mill  rctimi« 
bis  paalonl  relation  to  his  congregation.  In  18SS.Ua 
pastoral  relation  waa  diiaolved,  and  he  rcvMred  to  AH*- 
gbeiiy,  when  he  continued  to  perform  the  duties  if  U) 
pToTeaaatahip,  until  the  day  of  hia  death,  Aug.  31,  Igtl 
Coincident  with  hia  pastoral  and  profesuoiial  dutica,h( 
performed  an  amoont  of  other  worii  equal  to  the  wball 
power  of  a  man  of  ordinary  gifts.  For  more  iban  aercB- 
leenyearshe  was  sole  editor  of  the  CaraKBrfcr,  aa  lUj 
onnducied  and  efflcienc  moiithiy,  and  co-editor  with  Dr. 
Tbomaa  SpmnU  for  lour  yeara  mote  after  ita  unieo  wiA 
\^t  Rr/onrnd  PmbgleriiaL,  He  was  also  the  anihsraf 
aeveiil  tnatiaes,  via.,  Tkt  DtaoM  (18«)^fiai(  Mf 
iitraqi:—CiJni  CowiiumiiI;  —  slso  a  little  treadae  ai 
Fmlmods-  Dr.  Willann  was  a  diligent,  kind,  and  Utb- 
ful  pastor;  a  plain,  logical,  and  emiirenlly  instrvctivs 
preacher;  a  successful  editor  and  aulhur;  a  distingoiih- 
eri  theological  professor.  His  contrnverna]  powsiwat 
of  a  high  order ;  his  knowledge  of  hiNnry  waa  be(h  ex- 
tensive  snd  accurate.  In  tbe  Theological  SeminaiTbe 
was  In  hia  elemenL  He  waa  an  ■•  Israelite  indeed,  m 
whom  was  no  guile."  His  whole  life  gave  eviilnce 
of  ibia.  See  Wilaun,  /Vr<6.  nin.  Almanac,  1867,  f. 
K7. 
'WUlsoa,  Jmbim  Renwlck,  D.D.,  otto  of  iht 

moat  learned,  able,  snd  eloquent  divines  of  the  BefbiB- 
ed  Presbrlerian  Church  ui  hia  day,  was  bom  nearPlBa- 
burgh.  Pa.,  April  9, 1780.    He  early  gave  isdicatiiBBirf 

great  mental  alulily,  and,  when  onhr  twelve  years  o(v> 
waa  well  known  aa  an  eager  student  of  tbcalogy.  Ha 
graduated  at  Jeffenon  College,  Pa.,  with  Brat  boaorB,in 
1806;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1807;  and  waa  priadpal 
of  Bedford,  Pa.,  180S-15,  and  of  s  claaical  school  in  PhOs- 
delphiafortwoandahalfyears.  His  labors  bb  a  teadMr 
were  highly  ancoessfiil,  aome  of  the  moat  piwniMnt  got- 
ilemen  of  the  connlry  having  been  trained  by  him.  In 
1817  he  became  pastor  of  the  congregations  of  Newbuigb 
andC<>ldenhsni,N.Y.   At  that  time  Newburgh  was  mKo- 

ihe  village.  The  town  collected  to  heat  him;  it  mi 
grsduallj  refonned,  and  the  oldest  inbahitsnta  atiH  as- 
cribe very  much  to  his  sermons.  In  tSiS  the  coogie- 
gallon  of  Coldenham  asked  and  received  all  hia  servicta 
until  1830,  when  he  removed  to  Albany,  as  pastor  of  a 
church  their.  Aa  early  as  1890  he  began  educslisf 
young  men  for  the  ministry ;  in  1832  he  began  to  edit 
tbe  kcangrlical  Wi/nru,  a  monthly  magaiinc,  the  Am 
ever  published  by  a  Covenanter  as  a  distinctive  deosB- 
instional  magazine:  it  was  discontinued  in  1836.  He 
afterwaniB  commenced  and  continued  for  two  years  Tli 
ChriiHm  StalfMmini,  a  small  paper,  8vo,  of  dgbt  pageai 
In  isai.  shout  Ihe  lime  when  the  abolition  movament 
began,  ami  alan  a  mncement  within  The  Rpf  innnt  Pria- 
byterisn  Church  mpeciinp  censin  nstiuna]  privikgcs, 
he  Imh  a  leading  part  in  all  this  coofliet,  and  Irom  its 
earlier  appearance  bad  begun  the  puhlicalioo  at  Tti 
Alhimy  Qyantrly.  From  1840  until  1846  he  waa  scBisr 
profeasor  in  tbe  Refiirmed  Presbyterian  Seminary,  Al- 
legheny, Pa.1  from  184B,  when  the  Seminary  waa  le- 
mored  M  Cincinnati,  O.,  be  was  aole  SRAasor  mnil 


WILLYMOTT 

laei,  trhtii,  owing  to  iU-hMkb,  he  Tetind  with  the  tiUe 
of  «m*riU*  praroni.  Hi  died  Sept.  S9,  186S.  Dr. 
Williod,  in  intcUectiul  icach,  ind  eomprebcnHon  ind 
acutencai,  nuked  among  the  firet  of  men.  He  i 
wide-ipmd  reputalian  at  tn  eloquent  preacher.  Tbere 
were  momoiu  when  he  wu  orerw helming  in  the  nuj- 
e«ty  of  hia  deKiiptioDt  lod  in  the  twful  character  of  hii 
denunciitioni.  Hawu  pre.eminentlyiniin  of  prayer; 
faithful  to  hie  conviction* ;  a  man  of  unwavering  integ- 
rity. He  publiihed,  ^  nitUricalShttkofOpiinoiuon 
Ikt  AUMtrmml,  tie.  11817):— AlpMiAniad  IFriliig  and 
Primliiig  (1828) :— /ViwB  Meaiah'i  Claim  to  Domiinoii, 
etc.  (Albanj-,  183S,  8vo)  -.-Tlu  WriHat  Late  (1840)  :— 
bIsoi  number  of  occauonel  eermona,  addrenei,  etc  See 
WiliOQ,  iVeit.  Hut.  Almanac,  1666,  p,  293;  Allibone. 
Ditt.ojf  BriLand  Anttr.  AiiAoTt,».T.;  Sprague,^*- 
aaUoft}teAv>tr.PMlpU,\x,«i.    (J.US.) 

'Wlllymott,  WiLUAM,  LLiD.,  an  EngUih  decgy- 
man,  wm  bom  at  Roj-Uoo  about  16T6,  Be  waa  ad- 
mitud  ■  Kbolai  al  Kiog'a  College,  Cambridge,  in  1692: 
beowDC  uiher  at  Eton;  vaa  tutor  in  Sing'a  Colle({e. 
liecanM  rector  of  Milton  in  ITSfi;  and  died  in  IT87.  He 
pahlished  niunerout  acbool.booki,  and  CoBfctioa  ofD»- 
waliomM  for  lit  Altar,  Ic  (17iO).  Sea  Chaliiwn,  ficy. 
I>t>Sla.v. 

VrUmsr,  Wiujui  H.,  D.D.,  a  ProiMUnt  Epla- 
oofkal  der^iDaD,  waa  bnn  in  Kent  CooM}',  Hd.,  Oct 
S9, 17S1.  He  graduatmi  at  Waabington  College,  Ud., 
■ad  iiamediately  engaged  in  tneteaotile  punuiti,  bat 
«T«KDaUT  abandcHiHl  them  to  Itudy  theology.  In  180S 
he  waa  orduned,  and  then  appointed  to  Cbeitec  Pariah, 
Hd.  Th*  oonventimi  of  Ibe  diooeee  named  bim  one 
of  the  ttanding  committee  in  ISII.  The  following 
veat  he  received  a  call  to  St.  Paul'g  Church,  Alexandria, 
Vjl,  and,  aftei  bii  removal  to  tbit  cbaige,  became 
or  the  atanding  eommiUM  of  tbe  diocese  of  Virgi 
Ha  waa  one  of  the  nriginaton  in  lSi8  of  the  Education 
Society  of  the  DiMrict  of  Columbia,  deaigneil  to  aid 
theotugical  itudenta  at  the  Kminary  in  Fairfax  County. 
Until  bia  removal  from  Alexaitdtia  be  waa  pretident  of 
tbi«  BBBoeialion.  When  St.  Jobn'aCharcb  in  Waahing- 
toa,  D.  C,  waa  erected  in  1816  he  waa  cboaen  iti 
ninietar,  but  did  not  accept  the  office,  though  he  iup- 
plied  the  Church  until  a  rector  waa  aeoured.  Of  the 
fVatMJigloii  Thtologioal  Bfprrtory,  a  periodicnl  b 
in  18ie,be  wiaoneof  theeditora  until  1836.  Alter  re. 
moving  to  Tirgiaia,  until  the  close  of  bia  life,  he  «i 
ilelegate  of  every  general  convention ;  and  was  pr 
dent  of  the  HouM  of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputiea  in  1820, 
1821. 1823,  and  18-26.  When  tbe  Theological  Seminary 
of  Virginia  opened  ita  aeiaiona  in  Alexandria  in  1823, 
he  became  profeMor  of  ayatematie  tbeobigy,  eocleii- 
■atical  biiloiy,  and  obnrch  polity.  In  the  apring  of 
1S36  he  waa  choeen  asHatanl  rector  to  btahop  Moore,  in 
the  HoBumental  Cbircb  at  Richmond,  Va.,  but  wa>  in- 
duoad  by  tbe  frienda  of  the  aeminary  to  decline  the  call 
A  few  montha  after,  however,  ha  waa  elected  prealdent 
of  William  and  Harr  College,  and  rector  of  tbe  Cbi  ' 
■t  WilUamaburg.  Before  the  expiration  of  a  year  f 
the  limaorhii  entrance  upon  Iheaedatiea  he  died  there 
July  24,  1827.  Hi*  preaching  waa  eharacleriied  by 
great  iimplicjty;  and  although  hit  manner  waa  notcnn- 
aidersd  oratorical,  it  was  fervent.  See  Spngue,  Amiali 
o/titAiiKr.Pulpil,v,Slb. 

^VUlM,  Elijah,  alao  called  HAe /%aa  O^Onn),  waa 
bom  io  I>aO«Seli,near  Briak,  in  Poland.  Hia  natu- 
iml  endowmenta  were  ao  exira«dinary  that  when  eleven 
yean  of  age  he  waa  not  only  a  thorough  Hebraiet,  but 
unravelled  the  myatcriea  of  the  Cabala,  and  waa  maater 
of  aatronomy,  geometr}',  grammar,  etc ;  and  al  the  age 
of  thirteen  (17S3)  waa  appealed  to  aa  a  great  authority 


.    InaiUlili 


era,  be  pmaeaurl  a  real  love  of  learning 
dnitr,  aa  well  aa  an  independent  fortune,  ana  in-en  tut 
1797.     LlkeMendelaaobn  and  We*Mly,Wilna  waa  labor- 
ing In  produce  a  reformatiaa  in  Poland  with  the  apecial 


06  WILSON 

parpoae  to  dMck  tbe  miachief  wimght  in  tbe  Jcwiab 
commoDi^  by  Che  Cbaridim,  who  at  hia  time  had  be- 
come very  powetfuL  Wilna'a  writinga  are  very  nnmer- 
ouB.  Up  to  tbe  year  1760  he  had  written  the  prodigiona 
number  of  lixty  volumea,  of  which  Hfty-four  appeared 
between  1802  and  1864.  We  mention  the  fallowing: 
ComateirtarjF  on  lit  Order  Ztraim  (Lemberg,  1787,  and 
often ;  taat  ed.  Stettin,  1860)  i—CanimmtiirT  o«  Oe  Onfer 
rojliiii>tt(BrUnn,180!,andoftenilaaced.  Stettin,  1860): 
—Text-critical  GloMta  on  Uie  itfcXilta  (Wilna,  1814)  :~ 
CriliealNola  on  At  BabftoiiiaJt  Tatmtid  (Yienua,  1807, 
and  i^aay.— Critical  Nolt*  on  lit  Pirkt  de  R.  Jdiiter 
(WarMw,  1864)  —CHUad  NMa  m  the  PtiUta  (Brca- 
lau,  iaai):—Sciolia  la  lie  Grmler  and  Ltuer  Sedtr 
Olam  (Wilna,  184(>)  -.^Gloua  on  lAt  TUnytm  Hrr- 
menaAai  Kola  of  R.  Joti  (Sklow,  1803) :— n«  Mamlte 
D/'£J(|uA,a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  (Brat  printed 
in  the  Pentateuch  edition  publiabed  at  DiArowna,  1804, 
and  again  atHalbeTitadt,18M'flO)i-~^  CcmmaAnym 
/M>.».>n>(ind/r<i&iUui(WUnB,  18!0i  !d  ed.  ibid.  1843, 
edited  and  auppleiuenied  hy  bia  gnndaoo  Jacob  Hoaea 
of  Slonim)  I— A  Commemtaiy  an  Jonah  (iUd.  1800)  -^A 
CouumMary  on  Prainrii  (Sklow,  1798,  and  often);— .4 
ainimaiiaryenJobi-ri(Wum.w,18Bi):—A  CommeOa- 
Ty<mtU8imgofSoiigi(Fngan,\Sn;  Waraaw,  1842) :— 
A  Commmlarif  on  Oa  Ckranda  (Wilna,  1820;  3d  ed, 
iUd.I84B)^J  CoMHMdny  on  l*<£oaiJenni  (Grodno, 
1806)  t—A  CommentaTy  en  lie  Zoiar  (Wilna,  1810)  :— 
A  Hibmc  Grammar  (ibid.  18S3) :— .4  Tcpograpiieat 
DacrijXian  nfPaltitine,  onda  Tnmliie  on  tit  Solomonic 
Temple  (Sklow,  1802,  and  often)  :—A  Commentary  on  Ikt 
Tkini  or  EieUrTt  Temple  (Berlin,  1822).  See  FUral, 
SiU.Ji.d:iii,ei6-621;  ]a»t,Gack.d.Jadtntk.ii.t.Sei- 
len,  ill,  248  aq.;  Eitto,  Cyebp.  a.  v.;  Grills,  Gttei.  d. 
Jutltn,  xi,  118  aq.;  Heacbel,  in^^X  ni^V?  b  (Wibia, 
1866);  Finn,rusxi  H-^^p  (enntaininga  biatory  oTthe 
oongregation  of  Wilna,  biograpbiea  of  ita  rabblna,  etc 
[ibid.  1860]),  p.  ISS  aq.    (a  P.) 

^UeOIi,  Adam,  DJ).,  a  Baptiu  miniater,  was  bom 
■tTopsbam,He„Feb.3,1794.  He  waa  a  graduate  of 
Bowdnin  College  In  the  clasa  of  1819,  and  daring  hia 
freahman  year  be  joined  the  newly  conatituted  Baptist 
Chureb  in  bia  native  town.  He  atndied  theology  with 
Kev.  Dr.  Stoughton,  of  Philadelphia,  and  waa  ordained 
in  1820.  After  preaching  some  montbi  he  waa  aettled  aa 
psator  at  Wiicaasett,  He.  Hia  apecial  vocation  seemed 
to  be  rather  aa  a  stated  supply  of  churches,  and  in  this 
capacity  he  acted  for  a  nomber  of  years.  A  new  de- 
nominational paper  having  been  started  in  Portland, 
Ue.,  the  ^lonV  Advocate,  he  became  ita  editor  and  pro- 
prietor, conducting  it  with  marked  ability,  arul  making 
it  exceedingly  useful  in  promoting  the  inleresia  of  tbe 
BaptiK  denomination  in  his  native  slate.  The  last 
yean  of  his  life  wen  spent  in  WaterviUe,  He.,  of  tbe 
collie  in  which  place  he  waa  a  trustee  for  fortv  years, 
Hia  death  occurred  at  Water\-*dle,  Jan.  16,  I87t.  "A 
man  of  energy  and  industry,  of  decided  character  and 
marked  wiadam  and  discnUon,  and  of  genial  disposi- 
tion, he  ever  had  the  respect,  confidence,  and  aAction 
of  tbe  communion  whose  iutereats  he  espoused,  and  was 
eminently  a  good  man."  See  Necrology  of  Bowdotn 
CoOrge.     (J.  C.  8.) 

'Wilson,  Blid,  D.D.,  LUD.,  a  Protestant  Epiaoopal 
clergyman,  waa  bom  at  Carlyle,  Pa.,  in  I7T7.  He 
graduated  at  Philadelphia  College  in  1792 ;  aludied  law, 
and  became  pteiident-Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  for  the  aerenth  Circuit  of  Pennaylrania  In  1802; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1819;  was  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Noniatown, 
Pa.,  from  1819  to  1821 ;  prof^saor  of  aysiematic  divin- 
ity in  the  Episcopal  General  Theological  Seminary  in 
New  Tork  from  1821  to  1860,  and  emeritus  pnrfenor 
from  1860  until  his  death,  April  14, 18fi9.  He  pobliabed 
Memoirt  of  lite  I^/e  of  lie  Ri^  Rn.  William  Wkitt, 
Bitluipof  lie  Pmutlanl  Epiteopal ChuriA  intitaiaH 


WII,S05f  10 

of  Pnauflttuia,  uid  e^ted  AbridgmaU  of  (i«  Lmo, 
h^  Matthta  Baton  (1811-18),  and  tbe  Warki  of  the 
Hon.  Jamti  WiUoH,  LL.D.  (IS03-4>  See  ft  Mttmorial 
(I8S1)  br  W.  Wbite  Broruon. 

VilHon,  Ctulatopher,  D.Dn  *n  Englisb  clergy- 
iDtn.  wu  boni  in  1714;  becaoit  prebendary  or  London 
in  1745,  of  Westminucr  in  1748,  «nd  bUhop  of  Briiul 
in  1783.  He  died  ia  1792.  His  publiciUona  coiuiit  of 
■  few  aingle  wnnoiu. 

WUaon,  Daniel,  D.D.,  ■  colonial  bithop  of  the 
Church  of  EnKUact,  vu  born  in  tlpiUlAeld*,  London, 
in  1776.  Deetined  bj  hit  pvenu  for  irade,  he  wu  ip- 
pTcnliced  It  fourteen  to  hia  uade,  ■  nik  mercbant.  He 
wai  then  ■  giddy  boy;  but  in  1797  he  wa*  converted, 
and  delermined  to  abindon  trade.  Id  1798  be  entered 
SU  Edward's  Hall,  Oxrord,  wbere  be  graduated  A.B.  in 
1802,  and  KM.  in  1804.  He  had  praviontly  been  or- 
duned  in  IHOl,  and  began  big  miniiUy  in  that  year  a* 
curate  to  Mr.  Cecil  in  Chobbam.  "  In  1808  be  waa  ap- 
pointed to  a  tutorihip  at  Oifurd,  wben  he  remained 
for  about  eight  reara  and  a  half,  during  which  time  ha 
wu  fliU  curate  of  Worton,  and  then  oT  Sl  John'i  Chap- 
el, London,  where  he  remained  unUl  tbe  year  1824.  He 
then  became  vicar  of  lalington,  diacbarging  the  dutiea 
of  that  office  until  183!,  when,  on  the  death  t^  Dr.  Tur- 
ner, biabop  of  Calcutta,  he  wai  appointed  hii  ■uconeor, 
and  fn>m  that  time  to  hia  death,  in  1858,  he  was  devoted 
to  the  Ridooua  and  indefatigable  labon  for  the  pmmo- 
tinn  of  Cbriatianity  in  India,  which  have  made  hia  name 
conapicuDua  in  the  history  of  miuiona.  Biabop  Wilaon 
waa  a  man  of  atudioui  hahili  and  aolid  learning,  with 
little  reapect  fur  forma  or  ceremoniea,  compared  with 
inward  experience;  deatiiDle  of  the  elegant  cnltiire 
and  graceful  addreia  of  Heber,  one  of  hia  moat  dislin- 
guiabed  predeceaeora,  he  wu  atem  in  purpoae  and  ex- 
plicit in  apeech.  Hia  energy  in  the  discharge  of  duty 
was  almost  without  a  paralleL  Social  in  hia  dispoei- 
tion,  fond  of  oonremtion,  and  exercising  a  generooa 
hoapilality,  he  appears  to  have  had  few  attacbmenta 
and  intimaciea.  Free  from  wortdlineaa,  from  every  trace 
of  self-indulgence,  from  all  duplicity  and  guile,  he  found 
hia  highest  glory  in  tbe  progress  of  the  faith;  and  in 
hia  seal,  courage,  flrmneas,  and  aelf-dovotion,  must  be 
regarded  as  a  model  of  the  missionary  bishop."  In  the- 
ology be  belonged  to  the  evangelical  party  of  the  Church 
of  EngUnd  — the  earnest  school  of  Newton,  Hill,  and 
Cecil  Ha  died  at  Calcutta,  Jan.  S,  1858.  A  copious 
biography  it  furnished  in  Bateman's  L^t  of  Buiop 
WiUon  (Lond.l8B0,2  vola.8TO;  Boston,  I860,  8vo). 
Besiilea  occasional  sermons,  charges,  etc,  be  published 
SerniDiu  (6tb  ed.  ibid.  1826,  8to)  :—Ei!idtnef  tf  ChHt- 
tiamly  (4lh  ed.  ibid.  1841,3  vols,  ISmo):— ZMrute  Aa- 
tAoi%o/fAcZ,(inrj  Day  (ibid.  1881, 12mo;8deiL  1840): 
Strmoiu  Fnadird  in  India  <ibid.  18S8, 8vo)  •■—Ltdum 
on  Colouiaat  (ibid.  1846,  Bvo)  -.—Toar  on  Ike  OmtinaU 
(1826,  2  vols.  8vu).  See  L^r,  by  Bateman;  Lomioa 
StB.  July,  18B0,  p.  470;  -<  ran-.  Ch.  Ra.  1858,  ii,  177. 

WllsoD,  Heniy  Rowan,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
divine,  waa  tram  near  Geitysbu^,  Adams  Co.,  Pa., 
Aug.  7, 1780.  He  pursued  hia  preparalnrr  course  in  a 
classical  school  in  the  neighborhood;  graduated  at 
Dicltinson  College  in  1798 ;  studied  theology  privately ; 
waa  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle  in 
1801 ;  and  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  con- 
gregations at  Bellefonl  and  at  Lick  Run,  Centre  Co., 
Pa.,  in  1802.  In  1806  he  wu  called  to  the  professor- 
ship of  languages  in  Dickinson  College,  which  poailion 
be  held  for  ten  years,  until  he  became  pulor  of  the 
Church  at  Silver  Spring  in  1816.  In  May,  1824,  be  wu 
installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Sfaippensburg;  in  1888 
he  accepted  the  general  agency  of  tbe  Board  of  Publica- 
tion in  the  Presbyterian  Church;  iu  184!  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Church  at  Neahaminy,  Uartsville,  Bucks 
Co.,  Pa.,  where  he  continued  tiU  October,  1848,  when, 
at  bis  own  request,  the  pastoral  relation  waa  dissolved. 
Ha  died  March  22, 1819.    Dr.  Wilson  wu  a  man  of 


strong  mind ;  an  able,  en 
"  bis  record  is  on  high."  See  Spragne,  A  umaU  of  lit 
Amer.  Pulpit,  iv,  800;  Nerin,  ChmvitM  of  lU  VaUtf. 
(J.  L.  8.) 

WlUon,  Hngb  ITetbltt,  D.D.,  a  Piesbrtaiaa 
minister,  wu  bom  at  Eliubetb,  N.  J.,  Hay  7, 1818.  He 
early  felt  the  poxer  of  religion  and  oniEed  with  (be 
Second  Pmbyterian  Church  of  Eliiabeth  at  aboot  U- 
teen  years  of  ag&  He  graduated  at  the  CtJl^v  ef 
New  Jersey  in  the  clan  of  1830,  and,  afker  »— ^^j-g 
fur  a  short  time  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  enteivd  Princetoa 
Theological  Seminary,  where,  after  taking  a  full  coone 
of  study,  he  graduated  in  1834.  Daring  tbe  yean 
18S3-B6,  he  held  the  place  of  tutor  in  the  coHegc  As 
•n  inatructor,  be  waa  faithful,  thorough,  and  able.  Hia 
manners  were  gentle,  winning,  and  moat  agreeable,  and 
be  always  commanded  the  unbounded  respect  aa  weO 
u  the  atftetion  of  the  students.  He  wu  licvnacd  by 
the  Pmbyleiy  of  Eliubethtown,  April  28.  1836,  nd 
ordained  u  an  evangelist  by  the  same  prethytcry  Oct. 
7,  in  the  aame  year.  His  Gist  Held  of  labor  waa  ca 
Long  Island,  where  he  began  to  supply  the  Chorcft  at 
Southampton  in  September.  1835,  but  soon  after  ba  re- 
ceived and  accepted  a  call  to  become  its  paator,  and  wu 
inslilled  June  29,  1886.  Here  he  had  a  long,  imM, 
and  happy  pastorate  of  neatly  sixteen  yearn.  Hia  labdn 
were  largely  blessed  in  gathering  many  souls  into  Ihc 
Cburcb.and  he  enjoyed  the  unbounded  love  of  an  M- 
lacbed  people.  For  reatons  connected  with  bia  healik 
he  reugned  hia  charge  April  13, 1862,  and  wu  ininedi- 
Biely  sftcrwarda  aellled  at  Hacketlalowu,  N.  J.  Tboc 
be  wu  instslled  June  2S,  1852,  and  labored  aix  yen 
with  great  acceptance ;  but,  having  received  s  od  lo 
the  Second  Reformed  (Dutch)  Cbutch  <rf'  Xew  Bnaa- 
wick,  N.  J.,  be  resigned  his  charge  at  HackeHMown 
Hay  1,  1868,  and  wu  installed. at  New  BnroswiA 
May  27.  in  the  same  year.  After  laboring  ai  tbe  lallet 
place  four  years,  be  resigned  this  charge  in  Hay,  ISCS. 
It  is  not  often  that  a  minister  is  invited  back  in  lata 
life  to  serve  tbe  congregation  which  enjoyed  bis  fins 
minittialions.  This  happened  lo  Dr.  Wilaon.  After 
leaving  New  Brunswick,  be  was  invited  to  supply  dw  a 
time  the  Church  at  Southampton,  which  be  beRsn  I* 
do  in  August,  1863.  In  the  next  year  be  received  s 
regular  call,  and  wu  again  installed  u  paatoi  on  Sept. 
26, 1864.  But,  after  three  years,  bia  health,  whicb  had 
for  a  hing  time  been  far  fium  strong,  bopeleat^  failid, 
and  he  resigned  Hay  1. 1867,  and  in  June  of  tbe  sane 
rear  be  removed  to  Germantown,  near  Philaftelphia. 
Here,  in  an  extremely  infirm  and  disabled  cond^iea. 
but  patient  and  trustful,  he  continued  lo  rende  imlil 
bis  death,  which  occurred  June  4,  187a  Dr.  Wilsiia 
was  a  director  in  Princeton  Seminary  from  ISSl  ontil 
he  resigned  in  1858,  on  entering  another  dcaoaiiiiuiiKL 
He  waa,  in  tbe  truest  sense  of  the  word,  a  Cbrisian 
gentleman ;  wu  a  fine  classical  scholar  and  ■  mwi  of 
extenrive  reading.  Aa  a  preacher,  he  waa  eanseat,  af- 
fectionate, instructive,  and  popular.  The  bleamn^;  of 
God  attended  bis  labora  in  every  place  wbere  be  was 
settled.  See  Corwin,  Mmual  ofllu  Rrf.  ChtrdL,  a.  t. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Wilaon,  Juaaa,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  Ihe  Charcfa  tl 
Ireland,  was  a  native  of  Dublin,  and  a  student  at  Tria- 
ity  College,  from  which  he  received  his  degree  of  A.M. 
in  IA09.  He  occupied  the  pnat  of  examining  chaplain 
to  Dr.  Whately,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  waa  cn^ 
crated  bishop  of  Cork  in  1848.  He  died  at  Cork,  Jan. 
5,  1857,  aged  seventy-five  years.  Bia  title  at  tbe  dne 
of  hia  death  wu  bishop  of  Cork,  Onme,  and  BcM.  Sec 
A  mfr.  Quar.  Chareli  Ha.  1867,  p.  149. 

Wilson,  James  FatHo^  D.D_  a  Preabytcnan 
divine,  wu  bom  at  Lewea,  Suatex  Co.,  DeL,  Feb.  SI. 
1769.  He  gradoated  with  high  honor  at  the  Univani- 
ly  of  Pennsylvania  in  Aograt,  1788;  waa  admiued  to 
tbe  bar  in  1T90:  licensed  lo  pnach  by  Ihe  Preabytsy 
of  Lent*  in  1804,  and  in  the  sum  year  wu  anUioed 


WILSON  10 

md  initiDed  u  putot  ot  th«  oniUd  congngalioni  oT 
Laires,  Cool  Spring,  ind  Indian  River.  In  1806  he  ao 
oepted  tbe  pulonl  cKu^  of  tfae  Fint  PmbyMriui 
ChDTcb  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  remained  until  b« 
iwgned  in  lUBO.  He  •iieA  Dec  9, 1830.  Dr.  Wil»n 
w»  ■  prufnund  thinker  and  ■  learned  preacher  o(  the 
GoapeL  He  publiibed,  Lecfura  upon  Sort  of  ike  Par- 
aila  and  HuUrical  Paitaga  of  Die  New  Tat.  (1810, 
Svai—An  Eats  /ntrodurtim  1<?  HOrtiB  (PbiU.  1812, 
St»;  lsn,BToi:— An  Euay  on  Grammar  [1817,  8va; 
Lond.  1840,  tSmo)  —Comaum  OtgcctionM  to  C/irulianiis 
(Ptiila.1839,  liao):—Tlit  Hope  of  iBiiitortalits  (1833, 
ISmo)  i—A  Frte  Coiaenalion  on  Iht  Uifartianailt  Sin 
ilBSOy.— Tilt  PrMtiptGoiiemmenl  of  ChrvtianCiureh- 
tm: — Litargieal  Coniiderationt  (1888) : — alao  many  Nn- 
gleaennona  ani  pimpbleta.  He  ediMd  Stmoni  oftkt 
Set.  Join  Ewing.  D.D.,  vM  a  L\fe  (EaNon,  1812,  8to)  : 
—Ridglt^t  Bodf  of  Dirnig,  mlk  f/ottt  (1814).  See 
Spragoe,  A  nnaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pu^,  It,  B&3 ;  Allibone, 
Did.  of  Brit,  and  Anter.  Aalhori,*.  v.;  Analeet  JIag. 
xi,  177,     (J,  L.  3.) 

Wllaon,  John,  D.D.,  a  niiwionary  of  the  Scorch 
Wtvf  Church  lo  Bomba}'.  Though  not  M>  widely  known 
aa  Dr.  DufT,  he  waa  a  kindred  apiril.  HIb  Influence 
had  become  rerv  great  in  India,  where  he  apent  Tarty- 
eight  yean  of  miwonBiy  toil  While  at  homa  a  ahort 
Ume,  he  wa*  made  moderator  of  tfae  General  Aiaembly, 
and  men  tuh  ap  everywhere  lo  do  him  honor.  Ha  re- 
tamed  lu  India  and  aaanmed  hia  labor*,  continuing  in 
vigoroua  health  until  a  few  month*  bdbre  hii  death, 
which  nceiirred  in  Bombay  in  I87{>.  See  Prt^terian, 
Jan.  1, 1876.     tW.P.S.) 

^rUaon,  Jolm  UabettilD,  D.D.,  a  Preabylcrian 
divine,  waa  bom  in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.C.,in  1709. 
Me  graduated  with  the  highest  honor  at  Ham(Mlen  Sid- 
ney College  in  1791 ;  Mudied  theology  privately  under 
the  direction  of  the  Rer.  James  Hall,D.D.;  was  licen»ed 
to  preach  by  the  Preabylery  of  Orange,  N.  C,  in  1798, 
and  immediately  after  waa  tent  by  tbt  CommiMlon  of 
Synod  on  a  miiaionary  tour  through  (he  counties  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  ttatr.  He  was  ordained  in  1799,  and 
continued  in  thii  mission  work  until  1801,  when  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  from  the  oongr^ations  of  Rocky  River 
and  Philadelphia.  In  1812  he  opened  a  school  e»pe- 
cially  for  the  accommodation  of  the  young  men  of  hii 
chai^  who  wished  to  devote  themselves  to  tbe  minis- 
try; tbisKhool  he  eonlinued  foiabout  twelve  years,  and 

He  died  Jnlj  80, 1831.  Dr.  Wilson  possessed  a  strong. 
peneinting,and  well-cultivated  mind.  As  a  memberof 
the  judicatories  of  the  Church,  no  man  of  hit  day  was 
held  in  higher  repnie.  He  preached  the  Gospel  with 
great  fidelity  and  ferveney,and  with  atrong  lailh  in  the 
■piril  of  God  to  give  it  effecL  He  publi^ed,  a  Sermon 
(1804)1— Amwm  (1811):— and  an  Appendir  to  a  work 
on  psalmody  by  the  Rer.  Dr.  Rolfner.  of  Virginia.  See 
Sprague,  .4'aiinii  of  Ike  Amer.  Palpil,  iv,  90;  Foofe, 
SkeliAet  of  North  Carottma ;  Allibone,  Did.  ofBril.  and 
A  mtr.  A  ulliort,  a.  v.    (J.  U  S.) 

Wllaou,  Joahna  Laoy,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, wai  bam  in  Beilford  County,  Ta.,  SepL  23, 1T74, 
and  in  the  fall  of  1781  removed  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Danville,  Ky.,  with  his  mother  and  stepfather,  John 
Tcnplin,  father  of  Terafa  Templin.  He  waa  brought 
np  to  the  trade  of  i  blacksmith,  and  had  no  edocation 
beyond  what  hia  mother  gave  bim  till  he  was  twenty- 
two  yean  old.  At  that  period  he  waa  converted.  He 
soon  alter  commenced  the  study  of  law,  but  abandoned 
it  for  theology;  waa  licensed  to  preach  in  1802,  and  in 
18M  was  onliined  pastor  of  Bardstown  and  Big  Spring 
churcbea,  Ky.  In  180fi  he  sat  as  a  member  of  the 
Commission  of  Synod  in  the  Cumberland  difficulties. 
In  IBOS  he  became  pastor  of  the  Fint  Presbyterian 
Chuieb  in  CiDdnmili,  where  he  remained  for  thirty- 
eight  year%  part  of  the  lime  teaching  a  daaaical  tcbooL 
Id  tiM  gnat  eontnrwv  which  di^iUd  the  Freabyte- 


)7  WILSON 

rian  Chtireh  in  1SS7  be  bore  an  active  and  promioenl 
part.  He  died  Aog.  14, 1846.  Dr.  Wilson  was  a  selT- 
edueated  man,  of  unbending  integrity,  candor,  and  con- 
Bcientiousnesa.  For  thirty-eight  yean  he  was  at  the 
bead  of  every  soeia],  moral,  and  intellectual  enterprise 
ol  the  day  in  Ciocinnalj,  and  to  hia  peraonal  influence 
Cincinnati  Collie  is  Uigely  indebted  for  its  eiialence 
and  prosperity.  He  published,  Epinxipal  MeCAoditm,  or 
Dagonim  Exhibited  (1811),  and  a  number  of  sermonl 
and  theological  pamphlets.  See  Spragne, 'I  msolf  oftht 
Amer.Piilpil,iT,a6et  AUihooe,  Diet,  itf  BriL  and  Amer. 
A  alhoTi,  B.  V. ;  Davidson,  Bin.  of  He  Preib.  Church  w 
Kentadtg,  p.  864-366.    (J.  L.  S.) 

^llaon.  Matthew,  D.D.,  eminent  as  a  Presby- 
terian divine,  a  physician,  and  a  teacher,  was  bom  in 
Chester  County,  Fa.,  Jan.  16, 1781.  He  teceived  hia 
education  in  an  academy  in  New  London,  Pa.,  studied 
theok^  privately,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  April, 
1754,  ordained  in  October,  17&B,  and  installed  pastor  of 
tbe  congregations  at  Lewea  and  Cool  Spring,  Del.,  in 
April,  1756.  He  waa  regularly  bred  to  the  medical 
profession,  and  few  physicians  of  hia  day  mamAttcd 
more  medical  skill  and  teaming.  He  died  Usrcfa  30, 
1790.  Dr.  Wilson  waa  an  instructive  and  persuasive 
preacher;  leamed,  pious,  patriotic,  and  benevolent  in 


Uecf 


butedn 


Ailien'i  Amer.  Mag.  1775,  and  Carey's  Anttr.  Mm. 
voL  iv,  and  ObnnaUont  on  the  Winter  of  1779-80  to 
rraaa;  A  mer.  Soe.  lel  iii ;  and  left  prepared  fur  the 
proa  (never  published)  A  Therapeutic  Afyhabet.  See 
Tbacher,  A  mer.  Med.  Bing,  ii,  197 ;  Sprague,  A  nnali  of 
the  Amer.  Pu^  iii,  178;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mtr.  A  uliori,  a.  v.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Wllaon,  Robert  O.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
waa  born  in  Lincoln  County,  N.  C,  Dec  80,  1768.  He 
pursued  his  preparatory  atudie*  at  an  academy  in  Salis- 
bury, N.  C;  graduated  at  Dickinsmi  College  in  1790; 
studieil  theology  privately ;  waa  licensed  Co  preach  April 
16,  1793,  by  tbe  Presbytery  of  South  Carolina;  and 
was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  Upper  Long  Cane 
Charch,  iu  Abbeville  District,  Hay  23, 1794.  He  waa 
offered  a  professorship  in  South  Carolina  College,  and 
was  also  invited  lo  become  principal  of  an  academy  in 
Augusta,  Ga. ;  but  hedeclined  these  offer^and  accepted, 
in  1805,  a  call  lo  became  pastor  of  a  small  Cburch,ihen 
lately  o^anized,  in  Chillicothe,  O.,  where  he  remained 
nineteen  yeai^  greatly  beloved  by  hia  people  and  sifnial- 
ly  bleated  in  his  labors.  In  1824  he  resigned  his  charge 
by  advice  of  the  presbytery,  and  accepted  an  invitation 
to  the  presidency  of  the  Ohio  Univeraily,at  Athens,  ovel 
which  he  continued  to  preside  until  18S9,  when,  on  ac- 
count of  the  incteaaing  infirmities  of  age,  he  resigned 
the  office,  returned  to  Chdlicothe,  and  engaged  to  preach 
BB  a  alaled  aupply  for  the  Union  Church.  He  died  April 
17, 1851.  Dr.  Wilson  was  an  instructive  preacher.  He 
excelled  as  a  member  of  the  judicatories  of  tbe  Church. 
In  no  situation,  however,  in  which  he  was  plsced  were 
the  encrgiesof  his  mind  brought  into  more  vigorous  and 
effective  exercise  than  in  the  pnnidency  of  Ohio  Uni- 
versity. When  he  entered  upon  that  office,  the  ina^- 
waa  greatly  depressed ;  but  ha  gave  to  it  the 


vhole  I 


indicated  within  a  few  yean  by  a  very  considerable  in- 
crease of  both  funds  and  students.  He  published,  three 
tingle  sermons  (1817,  182K,  1829) :— a  sermon  in  the 
Preib.  Prtaeher  {]833):—inil  an  Addrai  la  the  Gradii- 
ating  Ctau  of  Ohio  I'nirerii/g  (1836).  See  .Sprague, 
AanaU  of  the  Amer.  Pulpil,  iv,  122;  Foote,  Stelchei  of 
.Vorlh  Carolina ,-  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  u- 
lhort,t.r.     (J.L.S.) 

'Wllion.  Sir  ThomMB  (t),  LLD.,  a  sutesman  and 
divine  of  (he  reign  ofqucen  Elitabeth,wasbomatStra- 
by,  in  Lincolnshire,  about  1624.  He  waa  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  where  be  grad- 
uatedinl546.  UetookordenintlieChurchofEngland; 
became  tutor  to  the  two  tons  of  Chtriaa  ' 


WILSON  W 

of  SuHuIk,  bv  Hiry,  cx-qaeen  of  France,  bat  both  of  In* 

pnpUa  nwn  died ;  nitbdnw  to  tba  CoDIincDI  an  cb«  ac- 
ecMian  at  queen  Uaty,  in  1&68 ;  wu  impiuooed  b^  Ibc 
Inquiiilioti  Rt  Rome  on  acnnuit  of  berMic*  >lleg«l  to 
be  conuined  in  hii  Logic  and  BAtlorit,  uid  vu  pac  to 
tbe  lonuTe ;  obtaiMd  hii  lib«it;  at  ibe  deatb  of  pap« 
Paul  IV  in  156l>,  in  eouHquaios  of  a  An  which  cained 
tbe  popnJaoe  to  bnak  open  the  dooci  and  allow  the 
priaonen  to  escape  i  RtoiDed  10  Eoglanil  and  became 
priraie  tecretiry  u>  qoeen  £tiiabeth  iu  1668;  waa  ap- 
pmnted  one  of  the  maiten  of  teqneata,  and  maMet  of 
Bt.  Katberiiie'a  Moapital,  near  the  Tower ;  went  a*  envoy 
to  tbe  Netberlaiida  in  1676 ;  became  wcretary  of  Kate 
and  colleague  uf  Sir  Tbomu  WaUagbam  in  16TT ;  wa* 
made  dean  of  Durham  in  1679;  and  died  in  London, 
Jane  16, 1681.  He  pobliibed  a  Latm  Hiograpkf  o/kit 
Mo  pvpiit.  Hairy  atid  Ckaria  Braabm  (1561);— TAe 
Jtule  o/SeatoK,  CoHlanjfmg  lie  Aiie  ofLogiqta  it  forth 
mfxpluAe  l,mi.)i-Tlu  Arit  of  Rhdorila./or  Ike  Vt 
ofaSi  audm  at  are  SCudioiii  ofEloqaaux  (1663) :— 7Ae 
Tkrre  Oratumt  of  OemoMemi,  etc  (1670) :— and  A 
Ducourtt  uppon  Dnryt  (j  Waj/t  of  Dialogue  md  Ora- 
ciofu,  etc  (1672).  Bee  Sliype,  dwwfa,-  and  Chalmeis, 
Biog.  Viet.  g.  v. 

WUson,  ThomM  (1),  D.D.,  LI.D.,  a  Cburch  of 
England  dirine,  waa  bom  at  Buitan,  CheahiK,  Dee^  SO, 
1B«S.  Little  is  known  of  bii  eaiij'  life. 
He  waa  educated  at  Cheater  and  at  Ttini- 
t;  Collage,  Dublin,  quilting  tbe  nniverulj' 
in  1G86,  and  receiving  an  appointaMnt  to 
Winwick,  Lancaahire.  In  I69S  he  waa  0(^ 
dained  prieat,  and  became  domestic  chap- 
rl  of  Derby,       " 


WIMPLE 

TMael'a  tavar  appeaiad  in  lfil7,  wUek  wen 
credited  to  Wimpina,  and  which  wen  oUelr 
remaAaUs  aa  postnlating  a  diMiaetian  between  paU' 
live  and  reformatoiy  puniafaoiaita  in  coDDCCtion  witk 
the  theory  of  indnlgeaoes.  In  1680  Wimpina  aoeoM 
the  Diet  at  Angabargiin  Uie  chancier  of  naodalea- 
thor  of  the  CamfutaiMm  of  tbe  Aigtitrg  Comfa^m,  tti 
also  aa  a  member  of  tbe  oommiaBaD  appoinlad  to  eflid 
a  reooninliatioa  of  partiea  with  napact  to  pointa  in  dii- 
pule.    He  died,  sillier  May  17  o>  June  16,  lUl,  in  the 


LitrratuTt. — Gieaeler,  Kirdimgttek.  nd.  iii ;  \JbiAb, 
Rrf-yrm.  Acta  lOHf  Ihnxmimla  (Lmpa.  17S0),  i,  SB  aq.; 
UtutAiddige  SachridUm  (iUd.  1716)  (  Dc  Welle,  1^ 
lier-i  Britft,  etc.  (Berlin,  18X5),  tdL  i ;  SKfcendoifi,  Ja>- 
fUkrL  HiM.  d.  LaUarHama  (Lcipa.  17U) ;  Sdat  and  (Mfc, 
7'e(»U.£iiaer,etc.(1863)  [Bom. Cath.] ;  HT^-g.fiW*- 
E<tcgUop.a.y. 

Wimple  ia  the  rendering,  in  tbe  A.  T.  at  Iaa.iii,tl; 
of  the  Heb.  nn^^i;,  mUpdeiai*  (from  noa,  ro  ^nai 
out;  SepL  Iranalatea  undiatinguiabably ;  Vulg.  Jutfro- 
■uHta),  which  iauwulated"  veil"  in  Huih  iii,ia,bolit 
^gniBfa  rather  a  kind  of  ahawl  or  mantle  (Schroder, 
IM  VettHm  Malier.  #4r.  a.  IG).  The  old  Engliih  nd 
now  obaolete  term  roeana  a  kind  of  hood  or  reil  ■  ma 


n  1796  ei 


af  Sodor  and  Man, 
id  faithful  till  deatb,  1766,  Kshop 
Wilaon  waa  remarkable  for  hii  humility, 
bia  conicienliouanea,  and  hia  devotedueu 
to  Chrtatian  duty.  He  waa  a  man  of 
praver  and  deep  piety.  See  ChriMian 
ObiBva;  18S0,  p.  669,  718,  786;  Cliiirck 
of  Esglmd  Mogani^  1886,  p.  !46;  and 
CItnUiaa  Remembranca;  1829,  p.  729. 

Wilaon.   ThomM   (S\   D.D.,    an 
English   divine,  aon   of  Uihop  Thomaa, 
waa  bom   at   Kirk  Michael,  in   the   Id* 
of  Han,  Aug.  24,  1798.     He  was  edncated 
at  Chriat  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  grad- 
uated A.M.,    Dec    IS,    1737;   became  prtbendaiy   of 
Westminster  in   1748;   waa  fortr-aix  years  rector  of 
St.  Stepfaen's,  Walbnmk;  and  died  at  Alfoid  Hoase, 
Bath,  April  IS,  1T81.    He  published,  DinHbd  Liquort 
Iht    Bane    of  li*    KaUoin  —  Iitneiii   of  Ike   Projett 
for  BuiUing  a  f/ev  SqtuiTt  at  WaHmlrr  ( 1767 ) : 
— The    OrnamaiU   of  the   ChunAei    ComiOtrtd,   eto. 
(1716). 

Wlmptna,  KoHKAii  (really  Kock;  fur  he  adopted 
the  name  Wimpina  from  the  town  of  Wimpfen,  hia  fa- 
tber^a  native  place),  a  schotaadc  theologian  and  defend- 
er of  Teuel,  the  indulgence  peddler,  waa  bom  at  Buchen, 
or  Buchbeim,  in  the  Oden  foreat,  A.D.  U59  ur  1469. 
He  waa  educated  at  Lcipaic,  and  held  a  profi^twonhip  in 
that  unirertUy.  In  160-2  he  became  licentiate,  and  in 
1603  doctor  of  theology.  Envy  charged  him  with  hold- 
ing heterodox  views  st  thia  time,  hut  he  succeeded  in 
repelling  the  charge  before  the  srchbiabop  of  Magde- 
burg. Id  160S  he,  in  hia  turn,  aasailed  Hariln  PoUchiua 
with  a  charge  of  heterodoxy,  because  that  writer  had 
eharacleriied  tcholaalic  apeculationa  as  naelesa,  and  bad 
recommended  philological  atudies  aa  possegeing  i  higher 
value  for  theolo)(y.  Wimpina  waa  aasociated  with  the 
fconding  of  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  imme- 
diately aAerwards  was  made  professor  of  theology  and 
rector  in  the  University  of  Frankfott-on-the-Oder.  On 
Lother'a  promulgation  of  his  tbsses  against  indnlgences, 
Wimpina  aasumad  tbs  defence  of  TetieL    Two  diapu- . 


Oriental  ODt-door  Telia  ftir  Ladles. 


rallablsckaloleabst 


Orlantal  In-door  Talla  for  Iddlaa. 


WIMPLE 

WHinf,  In  •odMUMkal  phiu&  ii  >  i 
bood  or  veil,  eqwdiUf  the  white  Udcd  cloth  boond 
■boat  ttw  fonbead,  and  eoTcring  tba  Dccka  of  duds 

^nmr,  in  Ifant  m^holog^t  <*  '■^*  rivn  throDgb 
which  Tbor  waded  when  be  joumoyed  ton  ■  "  ■ 
fulaganl.  The  daeghMr  of  the  giant  Diada  ita  waters 
■o  high  that  tbej  rewtaed  to  bis  iwck. 

'Wlnohalsaj,  Robsrt,  arcfaUshop  of  CanteibnT^, 
was  born  at  WiDcheliea,  and  edacil«d  at  Cantcibur?. 
From  Canlnburr  School  be  proceeded  to  Paris,  and 
there  his  hkccm  was  lemaikalde.     At  an  earlj  age 
he  received  hit  degree  of  A.H.,  and  goon  after  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  unirersity.    On  bis  Teloni  lo 
England  he  became  a  member  of  Merton  Ctdlege,  Ox- 
ford.     In  1288  be  ww  appointed  chencelior  of  OifonL 
Ha  was  also  appoinud  archdeacon  of  Essex.    He  was 
translated  (o  Canier^Tj  in  1X9S,  and  enthroned   in 
grand  •tviebj' Henry,  prior  of  his  church  at  Canterbury, 
in  1296.'   It  seems  tbat  of  all  tbe  primates  of  all  Eng- 
land, none  nas  ever  eo  unpoputir  as  archbishop  Robert. 
He  wa*  so  self-willed  and  haughty  that  he  placed  hi 
aelf,  as  it  wen,  in  opfusition  u>  the  country  just  wl 
the  nation  was  rising  to  natiooal  indepeDdence, 
wa*  so  Dnienipulnus  in  tbe  mean*  he  adopted  and  i 
measurn  he  pmposed  that  he  at  length  iovolred  hi 
aelf  in  tbe  guilt  of  high-treasoo.    Towards  Che  close 
bis  life,  he  divided  bt*  time  between  Oxford  and  Canler- 
bnrj.    "  Wbalerer  may  hare  been  said  of  hia  finlta  ai 
a  public  ebaracter— and  they  were  Many  and  great— all 
his  oontempnrariaa  bear  teatimony  to  his  worth  io  pri- 
yata  life."    He  exercised  boundleie  ebariliea  to  the  poor, 
and  their  graiititde  invested  him  with  the  charaner  of 
a  aaJDU    He  died  at  Otford.  Hay  11, 131S.    See  Hook, 
Litm  o/rlit  AreUtiikopt  o/CanUtiuTy,  iii,  868  sq. 

^Vlnotieater,  BUianui.  a  Uninrsalist  minister, 
was  born  at  Bmokline,  Mass.,  Sept.  30, 1761.  He  was 
of  Welsh  descent,  tbe  son  of  a  respectable  and  InduMri- 
oaa  mechamc,  the  eldeat  of  >  family  of  flfteen  children ; 
was  TBiy  preoocioaa,  natunlly  of  a  fe^le  constitution, 
and  remarkably  aniable;  received  a  careful  religious 
training  and  excellent  educational  privileges;  Joined 
the  Baptists  in  1769,  united  in  marriage  the  sane  year, 
and  soon  after  began  bis  ministerial  career.  In  ITTI 
he  preached  st  Rehobnth,  Hast.,  where  bis  youth,  ex- 
trttirdinary  roeinory,  eloquence,  apparent  leal,  and  lin- 
gular dresa  excited  interest  snd  drew  multitudes  to  his 
meetings.  His  subsequent  appointments  were:  Oraf- 
lon,  177!i  HuD,  1778-74;  Welch  Neck,  .S.C,  1775-79, 
meanwhile  travelling  ami  preaching  exteflsively  every 
summer  intheHiiUle  and  Eastern  Stiles;  Pfailadelphia, 
Pa.,  1780.  where  and  when  he  accepted  the  Rcsloration 
theory.  He  sailed  to  England  in  1787,  and  condnoeil  hit 
Journeys  in  Europe  until  tbnut  1795,  when  he  relumed 
in  Philadelphia.  He  died  nf  herooTrbage  of  the  lungs  in 
Hartford,  Coiin„  April  IB,  1797.  Mr.  Winchester  was 
icentle  and  lealoiis  in  temperament ;  diligent  and  faith- 
ful by  habit;  exemplary  in  life;  a  thoroughly  scriptu- 
ral and  evangetical  and  unusually  fascinating  preacher; 
■Dd  a  voluminous,  clear,  captivating  writer.  His  writ- 
ings embrace,  A  CoUrdiDn  of  Hymnt  (1784)  :— J  Siri- 
oui  Addrru  to  Toalk  oa  the  Worth  n/Ike  Soul  (1786)  : 
— Dialogaa  m  Unieertal  Rettoralioti  (1788)  i — ttcTtirft 
«•  At  Frophteia  (17B0-91,  2  vols.  8vo)  ■.~TU  Proeta 
and  Em}nn  <•/ CkritI,  a  Pcem  i}l^)-^Tea  IjtUtri  to 
Tkomu  Paimr,  m  ilrpfy  Io  iu  Age  ofJt*a«m  (1794)  :— 
Polilieal  CaltMtm .— /fysnu  oa  ihe  Betloralion  <1796) : 
— betides  many  semons.  See  Stone,  Biography  "fRtr. 
ElkaaoH  WmiArtltr  (Boston,  1886). 

^71iiebMt«r,  Bunoal  Qover,  a  Ptetbylerian 
lOiniatar,  wM  boiii  at  Rock  Bun,  Hartford  Co,,  Hd., 
Feb.  IT,  180ft.  Ha  received  a  good  aeailemical  train- 
iogi  btigan  tba  stndy  of  law,  but  afterwaidi  studied 
theology  in  tbe  TbwIogieal  Seminary  st  Princeton, 
N.  J.  j  was  licensed  to  prvwh  by  the  Presbytery  of 
BaliimoN  In  IBSSi  aod  waamdainad  and  installed  paa- 1 


J»  WDfCKLER 

to  of  the  Sixth  Presbyterian  Oinrch  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Hay  4,  ISSa  In  188The  rerigned  hit  chu^and 
waa  employed  sa  an  agent  of  the  General  Assembly^ 
Boardof  bomeatteUisnoDs;  in  tbe  autumn  of  Ihe  aame 
yaai  be  accepted  a  call  to  Ihe  Preabyterian  Church  in 
Natcbex.  Hlss^  where  be  cooliniMd  in  the  fwihful  dis- 
charge of  bit  duties  until  hia  dMlh,  Aug.  SI,  1841,  Ur. 
Winobsster  Was  the  author  of  Compaaioit  for  Ikt  3kt 
(1888),  altered  from  WllUson's  AJKcUd  Um'i  Con^Km- 
HH,  with  additions;  — dririKM  Caumel  la  lit  Sick 
(]8S6);-.4  DiKourM  at  OaHami  CoU/gt  (1888):-r*e 
Tlitairt  (Phila.  ISmo)  i—tn^rtanet  o/Famils  BtUgioa, 
vili  Proftri  ami  Hgntt  (1841,  ISmo).  Sea  Spngue, 
il  awlr  o/ lis  .1  aier.  i>a^  iv,  7U ;  AUibone,  MX.  V* 
Bril.mdAtMr.Aulhon,».y.    (J.  L.  S.). 

'Wlnobeater,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  learned  English 
divine,  was  bom  in  tbe  County  of  Berks  about  tbe  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  He  wat  educated  at  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford ;  was  a  tMnr  there  for  man*  yean; 
received  a  fellowship  in  1747;  became  rector  of  Apple- 
ten,  Berkshire,  in  1761  -,  hehl  for  some  years  the  curacy 
of  Astley  Chspel,  near  Asburv,  in  Warwickshire;  and 
died  May  IT.  1780.  He  pubiiihed  A  Dinertatim  on 
(As  XVIIIl,  AnkU  nf  tke  Ckariih  of  fiutimJ,  elc 
(1778> 

'Wloobeliliaiui  JonAm,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  15&I  at  Homburg,  in  Hessb 
He  studied  at  different  universities;  received  tbe  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  divinity  at  Basle  in  1581,  and  wat  sp- 
pointed  court  preacher  at  Cassel  in  15HZ.  In  1692  he 
was  caUtd  ss  professor  of  theology  to  Mirhurg ;  in  1 607 
he  received  the  chair  of  theology  ttGiesBen,tnd  iu  161*:! 
the  superintendency  there.  He' diedAug.  16,1626.  He 
■rrota  commentaries  on  tbe  Minor  Prophets,  tbe  gospels 
of  SS.  Hark  aud  Luke,  the  epistles  to  the  Romans  and 
on  St.  Peter's  and  James's  epistles,  and  on 
the  Apocalypse.  He  also  wrote  disaertations  on  diOer- 
passsges  of  Scripture  and  on  theological  and  other 
Jects.  See  Freber,  Tkntnim  ErtMonm;  Wilte, 
Htmoria  Tkmiogorumi  Jbcher,  ABgemtiiKM  Gdditlm- 
■  tttlna,  s,  V.  (B.  P.) 
Wlliok1«r  (or  \71iikler),  JoHAmc,  one  of  the 
oat  fsithful,  important,  and  Judicious  of  the  friends  of 
Spener  (q.v.),  was  bom  July  IS,  I642,at  Giiltem.neir 
Grimnu,  and  was  educated  at  Leipsic  and  Tubingen. 
He  had  become  acqusinled  with  Spener  before  he  en- 
tered upon  his  first  pastorate  at  Hamburg  in  l6TI,and 
received  ordination  at  his  hinda  In  1672  Winckler 
i>ecan>e  superintendent  at  Braubach;  1676,  court  preach- 
er at  Darmstadt;  1678, pastor  at  Mannheim:  and  1679, 
superintendent  at  Weriheim.  He  had  already,  at 
Darmstadt,  begun  to  hold  private  devotional  meetings, 
such  as  he  had  observed  to  be  a  useful  meant  of  grace 
the  ministry  of  Spener  at  Frankfort,  On  Ang.  81, 
1684,  he  was,  on  the  recommendation  of  Spener,  chosen 
chief  pastor  of  Sl  Hicbael'tat  Hamburg,  and  that  city 
continued  afterwards  to  be  his  home  while  he  lived. 
Soon  after  his  settlement  in  Hamburg  (1686),  be  came 
into  cootroveray  with  Dr.  Jnh.  Friedr.  Mayer,  pastor  of 
St.  Jacobi,  respecting  the  thettra,  which  Uiyer  de- 
fended against  Winckler's  aspersions;  and  the  dispute 
was  renewed  with  greater  acrimony  when  Dr.  Scbultx, 
the  senior  of  Hambnif*,  submitted  a  formula,  made  bind, 
ing  by  an  oath,  and  direcMd  against  all  fanatics,  tn  the 
ministers  of  Hamburg  fat  their  signative.  Winckler 
friends  Horh  and  Hinckelmann  (q.  v.)  refused 
the  paper,  and  various  theologians  in  other 
places,  among  them  Spener,  had  written  against  its 
adoption,  while  Mayer  became  its  impassioned  idvocate^ 
Winckler  ultimately  felt  oonstriined  to  discuM  the  mat- 
in riitpute  in  Ihe  pulpit,  which  he  did  in  four  set- 
mens  delivered  April  2G  to  May  16,  1693.  In  tbe 
course  of  the  dispute  Horb  was  expelled  from  the  city, 
but  Mayer  was  thoroughly  defeated.  An  amneatv  wis 
secured  in  June,  1694.  In  1699  the  death  of  Schulii 
tnnsfetMd  the  office  of  aenior  to  Winckler,  and  Mayer 


WINDER  10 

ehaK,inranMq>>eTice,loremoTclii  Greiftwild.   Wiock- 
kT  diwl  April  5, 1705. 

Winckler  hid  few  equila  u  a  pnuher,  though  hit 
•ennoiui  art  difflcoll  to  reidb;  rewoiiof  the  eitniwoui 
iiiui«r  in»ned  when  thty  were  prepared  for  the  jinm. 
SoDM  of  them  eitend  aver  oae  buodred  page*,  and  ire 
theological  trealiaet  rather  than  ■ermona.  Hewuemi- 
neot  at  a  scholar  in  exegesis  and  Biblical  theolngy.  and 
had  A.  H.Frtncke  for  bis  pupil;  he  rendered  meriluri- 
oua  service  to  the  cause  of  education  in  the  enlarging 
of  a  number  of  achools  and  the  founding  of  minr  Wh- 
en. He  waa  from  an  early  period  ofhii  life  a  support- 
er of  the  principle*  and  methods  of  Spener,  writing 
in  their  defence  Bfdtnkm  uber  Krie^imawfs  Sympkone- 
lu,  etc  (Hmiiu,  1C79)  —AMiairl  aaf  DU/titi  giUtidl 
Erotitrung  dtr  Frage  von  den  Prirallutunvntnilhi/teTI 
(ibid.  1681}:  — and  SanUrkitibiiB  an  Dr.  Hamekrmant 
(Hamburg,  1G90);  but  he  waa  not  a  blind  supporter  of 
Spener,  and  preserved  an  independent  character  to  the 
end,  as  is  illustrated  especially  by  hit  Judgment  in  the 
case  of  Iba  fanatical  FrSulein  v.  d.  Aueburg,  expreaaed 
in  Schriflmatnget  BednJctn  (ibid.  1698),  Francke  pre- 
pared for  the  foundingof  the  Halle  Orphanage  at  Winck- 
lar'i  boiue  in  1688;  and  in  the  aame  year  Winckler 
drew  up  the  plan  fur  a  Bible  Society,  and  began  its  work 
by  the  issue  of  several  editions  of  the  Bible  at  the  ex- 
pense of  himself  and  a  number  of  friends.  He  caused 
a  new  liturgy  and  hymn-book  to  be  prepared  for  the 
Church  of  Hamburg,  and  devised  a  systematic  plan  for 
examining  candidates.  See  Geffeken,  Ja/i.  Winctltr 
d.  flamh.  Kirche  m  mar  Zat,  etc  (ibid.  1681-  170! 
1881)— Henog,  ««il-£»rsifap.».v. 

\71ndei,  Henri,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  Diisenler, 
WIS  bom  at  Hutlun  John,  in  the  paiith  of  Urivituck, 
Curobethind,  Hay  15, 1698.  He  was  educated  at  Pen- 
ruddock  and  at  Whitehaven;  continued  his  studies  pri- 
vately in  Dublin  for  two  years;  became  pastor  of  a  con- 
gregation at  Tunley,  Lancashire,  and  was  ordained  in 
1716 :  waa  cbown  pastor  of  the  meeting  at  Castle  Her, 
Liverpool,  in  1718,  where  he  continued  to  labor  until 
bis  death,  Aug.  9,  I7eS.  He  is  known  to  the  liter- 
ary world  by  hit  "ingenious  and  elaborala  work," 
A  Cnlical  and  Clmnolnffkal  Huloiy  qf  the  Ritt, 
Progmi,  Drdauiim,  and  Srripal  i^f  Knovitdge,  Ckiff- 
ly  Rtligiout,  in  Tteo  Prriodi  —  lhe  Ptriod  nf  Tra- 
dition,from  Adam  to  ifoMeii  and  Ihe  Ptriod  of  Let- 
tert,from  MaHi  Id  Chrul  (1715).  A  second  edition 
appeared  in  1756,  with  ifimoirt  of  hia  life,  by  Rev. 
Ucorge  BronioD,  D.D, 

Window  (usually  yin,  thalUin  Child.  13,  jtor, 
Dan.  ri,  10;  Gr.  ^vpi'f)-  The  window  of  an  Oriental 
house  consists  genernllj  of  an  aperture  (as  the  word 
tlioB&t  implies)  closed  in  with  lattice-work,  named  in 
Hebrew  by  the  terms  anMai  (na^K,  Eccles.  xii.a,  A.V. 
"window;"  Hos.  liii,  8,  A.V,  "chimney"),  {har/tUiPi 
CS^n.  Cant,  ii,  9),  and  eihnii  (ajBW,  Judg.  v,  28 : 
PruT.  vii,  8,  A.  V.  "  casement"),  the  two  former  signify- 
ing the  interlaced  work  of  the  lattice,  and  the  third  Ihe 
CDolnesK  produced  by  the  free  current  of  air  through  it. 
Other  Heb.  terms  rendered  "  window"  ate  ^nlit,  udkar 
{Cweii.  vi,  16;  I  Ugil  or  opening  to  admit  it,  elsewhere 
"  noon"),  and  0|?O,  ihii^  (1  Kings  vii,  5)  or  T;^pV, 
tiakipll  (vi,  4;  vii,  4),  which  means  timbtn  or  beams. 
See  Am;  Templk. 

Glasahaabeen  introduced  into  Egypt  in  modem  times 
as  a  protection  against  the  cold  of  winter;  but  liilice- 
work  is  slill  the  usual,  and  with  the  poor  the  only,  con- 
trivance for  closing  th*  window  (Lane,  Modern  Egypt. 
i,  29),  When  Ihe  lalliee-work  waa  open,  there  appears 
to  have  been  nothing  in  early  times  to  prevent  a  penon 
from  filling  through  the  aperture  (Acts  xx,  9). 
windows  generally  look  into  Ihe  inner  court  ofthe  house, 
but  in  every  house  one  or  more  look  Into  the  sireel,  and 
hence  it  is  postibU  for  a  peraon  to  obMrva  the  appnitch 


■WINE 

of  anetber  without  bdng  himself  obserred  (Judg.  r.K; 
iSani.vi,16iI^v.vii,6;  CanLii,9).  InEgyptthM 
geoeisllj  innjaM  over  Ihe  doonray  (Lwe, 
Modern  Egspl.i,Vl;Ctrm,Leatn,i,9Vt.  Wfaenboi^ 
". '  '  lot  otrtBual  for  them  to  bait 
projecting  windows  sarmounling  the  wall  and  loohiii 
into  the  country,  larepiacDted  in  Cony  beare  and  Bow-' 
son's  Sr. /'oai,  i,  124.  Through  such  a  window  the  ^ 
escaped  from  Jericho  (Joih,  ii,  15),  and  Paul  Irna  Da- 
us  (2  Cor.  zi,  S3).  In  the  Talmud,  Tyriaa  wiv 
■re  mentioned  (Baia  Balkra,  iii,6).  See  Hnu 
1,  Utbrdtr,  iii,  StI  sq.-,  Oldermann,  De  SftoOnn- 
but  Vtttmm  (Helmal.  1719).     See  HoctB. 

Wine,  bolhnsluralandartJOeial.itfreqnaitlyaiea- 
ined  in  the  Bible,  and  in  modeni  tiuieB,  eapeciaDy  m 
'ilh  the  temperance  CBuae,itB  charaeieiaad 
have  been  a  subject  of  no  little  nor  alwayi  inopcfi- 
controveny.     We  propoae  here  to  timi  it  in  the 
light  of  Scripture,  hislorr,  and  morals,  nnbianied  by  the 
disputes  into  which  learned  and  good  men  have  aDovcd 
theniselvn  to  fall  upon  the  subject. 

L  Bible  Temu.--lbt  produce  of  the  wine.pr«a  vm 
described  in  the  Hebrew  language  by  ■  variety  of  wnrili 
indioallve  either  of  the  quality  or  ofthe  nae  ofthe  Hq- 
uid.  It  may  it  once  be  conceded  that  the  Hefart* 
terms  Iranalated  "wine"  refer  occasionally  to  aa  imfB- 
menled  liquor;  but  iuaimucb  aa  there  are  frequat  ^ 
loslons  to  intoxication  in  the  BiUe,  it  is  clear  that  fn- 
menled  liquon  wer«  also  in  common  use.  It  is  aks 
obvious  that  the  Bible  generally  speaks  in  (am  of 


is  a  fair  question  whether  the  condemnal 
rather  (titected  against  intoxication  and  e 
against  the  aubttance  which  it  the  occas 


I.  ftfjTM,  ^7r  (A.  V.  invariably  "  wine,"  except  Jodgi 
xiil,14,"vint;"  Canbii, 4,  "banqueting'^.  Thitwod, 
the  most  commonly  employed  in  the  OM-TeH.  Script- 
ures for  wine,  is  also'  the  most  compreberave,  inclndiDg, 
like  the  cnrmponding  English  word,  wines  of  all  sons, 
although  used  also  in  a  i 


(I.)  It  is  etymologicilly  derived,  according  to  Geae- 
nius,fnni]  ',i*,aQ  unused  nwt,  having  the  force  of./irMS- 
(fi,  leiftimcii ;  according  to  Flint,  from  ',^1,]ike  the  Ara- 
bic 1^1,  Aeth,  y^,  Gr.  felrot,  "  et  sic  porro  csstcris  in 
lingnis,  Arm.ywri,-  l^t-timmi  Eng.  mnt;  Septilnc 
■ioic^r,  yXtuao(."  It  has  been  the  curtent  nfunion  that 
the  Indo-Enropean  languages  borrowed  the  term  frooi 
the  Hebrews.  The  ravene,  however,  is  Ihought  by  ioom 
to  he  the  ease  (Renan,  Lai^.fjM.  i,  SD7),  and  Ihe  wotd  bit 
been  referred  either  to  Ihe  root  W,  "to  weave," whcoce 
come  viert,  nrnen,  rilii,  nUa  (Pott,  Sijnt.  Foriek.  i,  liO. 
MO),  or  to  the  root  won,  "to  Vive"  (Rnhn,  Ztittdir./. 
trr^  Sprae^f.  i,  191, 19!}.  However  this  may  be,  tbe 
elymologieal  connection  and  substantial  iilenliiy  of  lb( 
above  Heb.,  Greek,  La^,  and  English  words  cauuol  bt 
doubted. 

(2.)  In  most  of  tbe  passages  in  the  Bible  where  ftjit 
is  used  (SB  out  of  1S8),  it  ceruinly  means /eraKiOnl 
grape-juiix,  and  In  the  remainder  it  may  fsirly  be  pe- 
Slimed  lo  do  so.  In  four  only  (Isa.  xvi,  10;  Jit.  xi,  10- 
12;  I^m.ii,!!)  is  it  really  doubtful.  In  no  [aiMge  caa 
it  be  positively  shown  to  hive  any  other  meaning.  The 
corresponding  English  word  "wine"  properly  gMiiB 
"Ihe  (erraeu  ted  Juice  ofthe  grape,"  It  always  has  lhi> 
meaning,  except  when  expressly  modified  by  tbe  Imme- 
diate connection  in  which  it  is  used.  The  same  is  trai 
of  i IS  equivalen I  congeners — Greek,  olmc;  Latin,  isslw , 
German,  avia ,-  French,  tsi,  etc 

The  Inloxkating  ehsraoter  uf  y(^  in  genetal  is  pliia 
from  Scriplan.   To  it  an  attributed  lb*  "datkljflaik- 


WINE 


log  Bje*  (Gen. xliz,  13;  A. T. " nd,"  bat  tM 
naaur.  Append,  p.  89),  Iba  onbiidled  umgat  (k-mr. 
ii,li  In.z>cui,T),thc  exciiem«atof  tbeipirit  (Prov, 
XSxi.B;  Ih.t,1I)  Zech.  U,15;  K,7),tbcencb>ined*r'- 
fectiooi  oriu  roUriei  (Hoa.ir,  11),  the  perverted  Judg- 
ment (Pror.  xxxi,  b;  Ibb.  iiviii,  7),  the  iodeceDl  u- 
poHire  (Hib.  ii,  IS,  16),  ind  the  ncknev  molting  rroro 
the  Aeof  (nlonU,  A.  T.  "  bottles")  of  nine  (Hot.  vii,  G). 
So  in  icliuil  inNaiioea :  Moih  pUnted  ■  TioeTird,  and 
dimnk  of  the  j/dgm  and  *ru  drimheH  (Gen.  U,  21) ;  N*- 
bal  dnnk  fifyM  and  waa  ki^f  druidtBi  (1  Sam.  xxv,  S6, 
87);  ttae"druniunlior£phruDi''were"oim»meiiiIh 
f^fia,''  (Iia.  xiriii,  1),  or  ratber,  koocked  down,  or,  u 
Gill  piniphrues  it,  "emitten,  beaten,  knocked  doirii 
with  it  ai  with  ■  baninKr,  and  laid  proatrale  on  the 
gmond,  where  thoj-  lie  died  to  it,  not  able  to  riac" 
Jemniih  uja, "  I  am  like  a  drunken  man,  and  like  a 
own  whom  ydyin  hatb  overcooie"  (xxiii,  9). 

The  intoxicating  qualil;  cfjdjm  ii  amSnaed  b;  Rab- 
Unical  teatimony.  The  Uiahna,  in  the  (nstiw  on  the 
PmoDTer,  iDrorma  us  that  lour  cup*  of  wine  were  poured 
out  and  bleawd,  and  dmnk  by  each  of  the  company  at 


■lao  mixeil  with  the  wine,  because  it  waa  contjdered  too 
Strang  to  be  diunh  alone  (PcMacMm,  Tii,  13;  x,  I).  Id 
Hienu.  Skaili.  (xi,  1)  we  read,  "It  is  comniandad  that 
thU  rite  be  performed  with  red  wine ;"  Babylon.  Skabb. 
(Ixxrii,  IX  "Sharon  wine  is  of  famoat  report,  with 
wbicb  the;  nix  two  parts  of  water;"  Babylon.  Bira- 
duak  (foL  I),  "Their  wine  (1^^)  was  vety  atrong,  and 
not  lit  for  drinking  inlAoHt  being  mixtd  tcili  wafer." 
The  Gemara  add^  "The  cup  of  blessing  is  not  to  he 
Ueaaed  anlilil  wmtzeii  with  water;"  the  Jentealem  Tal- 
miid  Bays,  "It  became  a  man  nobly  to  entertain  his  wife 
and  children  (at  the  PaBDver),  that  at  this  feast  they 
might  be  merry  with  wine"  (1^^).  To  meet  tbe  objec- 
tion How  can  intoxication  be  bindrred?  tbe  rabbins 
replied, "  Because  wine  between  eating  does  tMt  in 
catc  a  oan"  (Hiems.  Taba.).  See  Dr.  Tallam't  Aep^ 
to  a  Pamphltt  by  Rn.  W.  Rildiie  an  l*t  Scriptan  Tali- 
MOiy  agai-at  InloxiaUimg  Wi^,  p.  S.  9. 

But,  although  usually  intoxicating,  yet  it  waa  not 
only  permitted  to  be  drunk,  bat  was  alto  used  for  sacred 
parpnses,  and  is  spoken  of  as  a  blessing.  Thus,  in  Ja- 
mb's blessing  on  Judah,  "His  eyes  shall  be  red  with  yit- 
yn,  and  hia  teetb  white  with  milk"  (Uen.  xliz,  12).  So 
■n  God's  promise  to  reatnie  bis  people  to  their  own  land. 
"  I  will  bring  again  (he  captivity  of  my  people  . . .  and 
they  sball  plant  rineyarda  and  drink  the  ydyn  thereof" 
(Adws  iv,  19).  "  Drink  thy  ytfyn,"  aays  the  preacher, 
"  with  a  merry  beart,  for  God  now  accepteth  thy  works" 
(Eocles.  ix,  7).  The  Mazarite,  at  the  expiration  of  hit 
TOW,  waa  permitted  to  drink  yifyn  (Numb,  vi,  ]3-!0); 
the  Israelites  were  permitted  lo  drink  jN^ta  at  their 
feast*  (Deut.  xiv,  24-26) ;  f tfym  was  used  in  the  sacred 
■erviceof  Jehovah,  being  poured  nut  as  a  drink-offering 
to  him  (Exod.  xix,  40;  Lev.  xxiii,  13;  Mumb.  XT,  5). 
Hence,  it  not  only  "  makeih  glad  the  heart  of  man" 
(P««.  civ,  1ft),  but  also  "cheercth  both  God  and  man" 
(Judg.  ix,  13);  its  cheering  effecta  being  aymbolieally 
uxnafemsl  lo  tbe  Divine  Being. 

Some,  indeed,  have  argued  from  these  paaeagea  that 
gdgiit  oouid  not  always  have  been  alcoholic  But  thia 
ia  begging  the  question,  and  that  in  defiance  nf  tbe  fact*. 
Althongh  invariably  fermented,  it  waa  not  always  prop- 
eily  inebriating,  and  in  moat  inalaocea,  doubtless,  was 
but  alightly  alcoholic,  like  the  sin  onfmatrs  of  Fraoce, 

2.  TiriO,  cHi'<ri  (Gen.  xxrii,  28-38 ;  Numb.  xviU, 
13;  Deut.  vii,  IB;  xi,  14;  xii,  17;  xir,  !8;  xviii,  4; 
xz'iii,^:  xxxui,  28;  Judg.  ix,  13;  2  Kingsiviii,  32; 
2  Chron.  zxii,  5i  xzxii,  28;  Neh.  v,  11;  x,  87,  Pa*. 
ir,7;  ba.xxvl,17;  lxii,8;  Jer.xxxi,12;  Hos.fi, 8, 9, 
S3;  Tii,  14;  Joel  ii,  19,  24;  rendered  "new  wine"  in 
Neh.x,89;  xiii,6,12;  Pror.iii.lO;  Ia*.xxiT,7;  Ixt, 
8;   UoLif,  II;  ij;,i|  Joel  1,10;   Hi«.  i,  1 1 ;  Zecb. 


11  WINE 

ix,  IT  1  "  aweet  wine,"  in  Hie.  Ti,  tft),  pTiq>eriy  6g- 
niSe*  Knu',  the  fteahly  preaaed  Juice  of  the  grape  (the 
rXcvmc,  or  aweet  wine  of  tbe  Greeka^  rendered  "new 

wine"  in  Acu  ii,  13).  The  word  (rendered  in  the  Sept. 
by  three  distinct  (emis,  olvof,  puE,  fiidfiTfia)  occur* 

and  sometime*  with  words  denoting  the  edible  produc- 
tions of  the  earth. 

(1.)  Etymologically,  tiriiK  ia  naoally  referred  to  the 
root  yanfsA,  Hj^^,  "  to  get  possession  of,"  applied  to 
wine  on  acoouni  of  its  inebriating  qualities,  whereby 
it  jwti  jNisscjsvM  q/*the  brain.  So  Geaeaius, "  Hnstum, 
novum  vinnm  ita  dictum  qui*  inebriet,  cerebrum  occu- 
pat"  (Thttaar.  p.  633);  and  FUrst,  "Mustum  ut!*  az- 
presNm,  A.  T.  'O'y,  occnpare,  aoqnitere,  comparaTs" 
(CoKord:  p.  626, 3)'.  But  according  to  Bytbner,  as 
quoted  by  Lees  (TirdrA,  p.  ft2),  it  refers  to  the  Tine  ■* 
being  ipoataioti  (car'  JEoy^*')  in  the  eyes  of  the  H» 
brews.  Neither  of  these  explanations  is  wboUy  satis> 
factory,  but  the  second  ia  less  ao  than  the  drat,  ina»> 
much  as  it  would  be  difficult  to  prove  that  the  Hebrews 
attached  such  pre-eminent  vslue  to  the  vine  as  to  place 
it  on  a  par  with  landed  property,  which  ia  designated 
by  the  cerate  lerma  j/tnukth^  and  ioonxthSk.  Not 
do  we  see  that  any  valuable  condusion  could  be  drawn 
from  this  latter  deriration;  for,  assuming  its  correct- 
ness, tbe  question  would  still  arise  whether  it  waa  on 
account  of  the  natural  or  the  manufactured  product  that 
auch  atore  waa  set  on  the  vine. 

(2.)  As  to  tbe  exclusively  liquid  character  of  the 
substance  denoted,  both  gdgin  end  Hr6th  are  oocasion- 
ally  connected  with  expressions  that  would  apply  prop- 
erly to  a  fruit;  the  former,  for  instance,  with  verb*  sig- 
nidcant  of  jrUiicru^  (Jer.xl,10, 13)  and  jroiMff  (^ 
civ,  14,15):  thelalter  wilhj(ilicrtiv(lBa.liii,9,A.T. 
"brought  it  together"),  irtadag  {Hie  Ti,  IS),  and 
mtitriiig  (Isa.  xxiv,  7 ;  Joel  i,  10),  So,  again,  the  foi^ 
used  in  Numb,  vi,  4,  to  deflne  the  particular  kuid 


reforiri 


viz.  (he  "pendulooa  ahoot  of  the  vine;"  and  tbe  tatter 
in  Judg.  i.t,  IB,  to  denote  tbe  product  of  tbe  vine.  It 
ahould  be  observed,  however,  that  in  most,  if  not  all, 
the  paasages  where  these  and  similar  exprewona  occur 
there  ia  something  to  denote  that  the  fruit  is  regarded 
not  ^mply  as  fruit,  but  as  the  raw  material  out  of  which 
winc'ia  manufactured.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  Psa.  civ, 
15,  and  Judg.  ix,  18,  the  dittriag  eflect*  of  the  product 
are  noticed,  and  that  these  are  more  suitable  to  the  idea 
of  wine  than  of  fruit  seems  self-evident :  in  one  paaaage, 
indeed,  the  A.T.  connects  the  expression  "make  cbeer- 
ful"  with  bread  (Zech.  ix,  17);  but  this  is  a  mere  mia- 
iranilalion,  the  true  sense  of  the  eipreMicHi  there  used 
being  to  Mmrith  or  aahttogrov.  So,  again,  the  trtad- 
,  ag  of  the  grape  in  Hie  vi,  16  ia  in  itaelf  cunclusiTe  aa 
to  the  pr^nant  sense  in  which  the  term  tiriih  is  used, 
eren  if  it  were  not  subsequently  implied  that  the  effect 
of  the  treading  was,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  to 
produce  the  ydyui  which  was  lo  be  drunk.  In  Isa. 
Ixii,  9,  the  object  of  the  galktring  is  eleaiiy  conveyed 
by  the  notice  of  driatiiig.  In  Iw.  xxiv,  7,  the  (irdsA, 
which  withers,  is  paralleled  with  ydyin  in  (he  two  fol- 
lowing venes.  Lastly,  in  Ixv,  3,  the  natnre  of  tbe 
liritk,  which  is  aaid  to  be  found  in  the  duster  of  the 
grapes,  is  not  obscurely  indicated  by  the  subseqnent 
eulogium,"a  bleiaing  is  in  it."  That  the  teTm»"Tine" 
and  "wine"  should  be  Ihua  interchanged  in  poetical 
language  calls  for  no  explsnation.  We  csn  no  mote 
infer  from  such  instances  thst  the  Hebrew  terms  mean 
gropa  atjruit  than  we  could  infer  the  asme  of  the 
I^tin  DHHim  because  in  some  two  or  three  passsges 
(PlaatiM,  Trill,  ii,  4,  126;  V«rTO,J>«  Lag.  Lot.  iv,  17; 
Cato,  Di  Se  RuHioa,  c  147)  (be  term  is  transferred  to 
tbe  grape  out  of  which  wine  is  made. 

Uoreove^  itrdsjl  generally  followa "  com  "  in  (he  trip- 
let "com,  wine,  and  oil,"  and  hence  the  term  applied  id 
th«  oooMueplion  of  eora  ii  CHried  on,  in  accordance 


WINE  10 

with  the  gTunnutieil  tgan  icDgma,  to  tbe  otbcr  mem- 
ben  of  the  clauK,  u  in  Dent,  xii,  17.  In  the  odlj  pu- 
nge  where  the  act  of  conioming  lirM  elooe  ia  noUced 
(In.  Ixii,  8,  9)  the  verb  is  tkafliAk  (nrV),  which  oon- 
eumtly  indicatn  the  act  of  dritlciitg  (e.  g.  (i«n.  is,  21  -, 
uiv,  22 :  EicKl.  vii,  21 ;  Butb  ii,  9),  ind  ia  the  gmieral 
term  combined  with  aidt  (93K)  in  the  Joint  ect  of 
"eating  and  diinkipg"  (eg.  1  Saia.  xzz,  16;  Job  i,  1; 
Eeclee.  Ii,  84).  We  can  find  no  oonfirniMion  for  the 
teate  of  luMag  awigned  Co  the  term  by  Dr.  Leea  [T*- 
nSiA,p.6l):  the  piHage  quoted  In  nppoct  of  That  lense 
(Pu.  Ixxv,  g)  impliea,  at  all  events,  a  kind  of  nickini! 
allied  lo  drinking  rather  than  to  eating,  if  indeed  the 
wnae  of  drinking  be  not  the  more  correct  rendering  of 
the  term.  An  argument  baa  been  drawn  agaimt  the 
usual  aense  anigned  to  liriA,  (rata  the  drcumitaiMe 
that  it  ia  generally  connected  with  "con,"  and  there- 
fore  impliei  an  edible  rather  (Jian  a  drinkable  iubetance. 
The  very  oppoaile  conchiaion  may,  however,  be  drawn 
fhHD  Ihii  circunutance-,  for  it  nay  tie  reaaonably  urged 
that  in  any  eaumeralinn  of  the  materiala  needed  for 
man's  aupport,  "  meat  and  drink"  would  be  q>eciBed 
rather  than  several  kinds  of  the  former  and  none  of  tbe 
latter,  "  Bread  and  water"  oecnr  together  very  often 
(e.  g.  Eiek.  ir,  17;  1  Sao.  xxv,  11,  etc).  Is  mUer, 
then,  a  nMI 

Iben  aiB,  finally,  passage*  which  eeem  to  imply  tbe 
actual  manufacture  of  (irdii  by  the  same  proon*  by 
which  wine  was  ordinarily  made.  For,  not  to  insist  an 
the  probabiliLy  that  the  "bringing  together,"  noticed 
in  Isa.  Ixii,  9  would  not  approprLately  apply  to  the  col- 
lecting of  the  fruit  in  the  wine-vat,  we  have  notice  of 
the  "treading"  in  connectina  with  rirM  in  Hie. ri,  16, 
and  again  of  the  "overdowing"  and  the  "bursting  out" 
of  tbe  lii-6ik  in  the  veaaels  or  lower  vat  (3^7,  gilctb, 
Sept.  vwoXifvuiv),  which  itceived  the  muit  frran  (he 
proper  press  (Pnv.  iii,  ID;  Joel  ii,  34).  This,  acoord- 
ing  to  the  author  of  TirdA  I-o  yrfyn,  is  an  "  image  uf 
abimdance ;"  [he  "  vats  piM  up  with  fruits  »/vi(  that 
what  waa  put  on  would  roU  off  to  tht  grcmtd,  because 
(hey  ODuld  hold  no  more!"  (p.  64). 

(S.)  Aa  lo  the  intoxicating  character  of  this  drink, 
■      ~  "     ■  nngle  pas- 


■,  but  t: 


L,  Hoe 


"Whoredom  and  wine  (jisi*),  and  new  wine  {Iir6tk) 
lake  away  the  heart,"  where  tiriA  appears  aa  the  cli- 
max oT  engrossing  inflneDcea,  in  immediate  connection 
with  ftyin. 

The  inevitable  impreaHon  pnduced  on  the  mind  by 
general  review  of  the  above  notices  ia  that  both  yrfyta 
and  HrdtK,  in  their  ordinary  and  popular  acoeptalinn, 

demnatori-  puaagn  no  exception  is  made  in  favor  of 
any  other  kind  nf  liquid  pining  under  the  same  name, 
but  not  inTeal«d  with  the  aame  dangerooa  qnalitiea, 
Nor,  again,  in  thew  pasaagea  ia  there  any  decisive  cim- 
demnation  of  tbe  snhrtance  itself,  which  would  enftiree 
the  conclusion  that  eleewhere  an  unfcrmeiiled  lii 
must  be  undenlood.     The  condemnation  must  be 
derstood  of  exceuitv  mm  in  any  case:  for  even  wl 
this  is  not  expressed,  it  is  implied:  and  therefore  the 
inatancei  of  wine  being  drank  without  any  reproof  or 
Ihe  act  may,  with  as  great  a  probability,  imply    ' 
moderate  use  of  an  intoxicating  beverage,  aa  Ihe 
of  an  un  Intoxicating  one. 

The  notice*  of  fermentation  an  not  very  decii 
A  certain  smoant  of  fermentation  is  implied  in  tbe 
tension  ofthe  leather  botlles  when  new  wine  waa  plaoeil 
in  them,  and  which  waa  Iiat4e  to  hnrst  old  bottlea.  It 
has  been  aaggested  that  the  object  of  placing  the  wine 
in  boltlea  was  to  prevent  fermentation,  but  that  in  ' 
ease  of  old  bottle*  reTmenlatioD  might  ensue  from 
being  impregruted  with  the  fermenting  substance"  (7V- 
nttjl,  p.  SS).  This  is  Dot  ioooosiateot  with  (he  i  ' 
mem  In  Matt,  ii,  17,  but  It  denacti  ftom  ihe  apirit  of 
the  GomparisMi  whkdt  Inplka  Uw  presano*  of  a  M 


WINE 

expansive,  penetrating  principle.  It  is,  hawersr,  » 
consistent  with  Job  xxxii,  19,  where  the  disliiwiiii  ■ 
described  aa  eccnrriog  even  in  neat  bottle*.  It  is  vaj 
likely  that  rww  wine  was  preserved  in  tbe  state  at  mat 
by  placing  it  in  Jais  or  bottles,  and  (ben  burying  il  is 
the  earth.  But  we  should  be  indioed  to  uDderstsnil 
the  passagas  above  quoUid  u  referring  Is  wine  dmva 
off  before  the  fermentation  was  coaspletc,  eitlxt  ta 
ate  use,  or  fur  tbe  purpoae  of  fonDiog  it  iau 
rin*  after  the  manner  dracribed  by  tbe  Geivctuc 
(vii,  19).  Tbe  preecnca  of  tbe  gas-bobble,  w. 
Hebrews  termed  it,  "the  eye"  that  spaitlcd  bi 
the  cup  (Prov.  xxiii,  81),  waa  oae  of  tbe  tokens  of  frr- 
Enantatlon  haviog  tdten  place,  and  the  same  effect  ww 
implied  in  the  name  cktma-  (irn). 
of  the  rabbina  ia  to  the  same  eSiil. 
They  say, "  TVrdsA,  CI^^P,  is  new  wine ;  the  liquor  s( 
tbe  grape*  first  pressed  out,  which  easily  take*  pemn- 
of  the  miud  of  man"  (SaJiedr.  Ixxvt,  1).  "If 
abase  it,  thou  Shalt  be  poor;  if  ihoo  rightly  ase  ii, 
Shalt  be  head"  (Fomo,  Ixxvi,  2).  Again,  ia  Um 
Gemara,  "Wherefore  is  it  ailed  tirtikf  Becue  all 
who  are^drawn  lo  it  shall  be  poor."  Such  is  tbe  tts- 
llmony  of  the  rabbins,*who  ought  lo  know  idBielhiiig 
of  (heir  own  language."  In  aooordsnoe  with  this,  the 
Targnmists  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  render  tiriA,  ie 
every  instance  of  i(a  occumnce  (except  in  three  oati 
where  there  ia  no  word,  or  tbe  word  fw  vineyard),  by 
the  word  ^Vn,  Aamar  (see  Taltam,  Rrptf,  p.  &,  C). 

S.  Ckimar,  *icn  (from  ^^n,  ailmavil,firi)al),at  a 
ita  Chaldee  fimn,  dUmir,  ^vn  (Sept.  oliwc.  mUri,  ■ 
"vlnum  a  fervendo  et  fermentando  dictum"  (Gesnist, 
Tietaur.  p.  498).  The  word  occun  eight  times— Iwia 
(Deut.  xxxii,  14 ;  Isa.  xxvii,  2)  in  its  Hebrew  and  n 
times  (Eira  vi,  9;  vii,  22;  Dan.  T,  1,  3,  1.  tt)  in  in 
Chaldee  form.  In  DenL  xxxii,  14  it  ia  (in  the  AT. 
after  the  Vulg.)  treated  as  an  adjective,  and  rendn< 
"  pure"—"  the  pan  blood  of  the  grape,"  instead  of  *  lbs 
blood  of  the  grape — wine,"  Mmrr.  The  rabbins  caU  it 
"pur*  or  nest  wine"  (i.e. no  water  being  mixed  wilt 
Ihe  Juice  of  ihe  grape), "  becanse  it  disturb*  the  Ikh'. 
and  Ihe  bnin"  (Tattam).  They  regarded  diimrr  ane 
r{iYWA"ss  equivalent  terms."  This  pure,  powerful  wine 
waa  permitted  to  the  Israelites  (Denu  xxxii,  14);  ana 
ia  apnken  of  with  approbation  by  Isaiah, "In  that  dsy 
ainpye  unto  him,  A  vineyard  of  red  wine  (riJmr);  i, 
the  Lord,  do  keep  it"  (xxvii,  2,  S).  Cynis  and  Art» 
xerxes  commanded  that  dlimrr  should  be  (nven  to  the 
people  of  Israel  "for  tbe  service  of  the  God  of  beavta' 
(Eiravi,9). 

4.  SMfUr,  '^■Sti  (ftam  "^ati,  aibriaril  m;  Sept.ai. 
Ktpa.  olvac,  )ii^iiviia,  pi^;  Vulg.epi<m),is  "liwutum. 
an  inebriadng  drink,  whether  wine  prepared  urdiitiUa! 
from  barley  or  from  honey  or  ftom  date*  ( Gemia^ 
riesoar.  p.  1440).  So  Ft)n(,wha  add^"ot  any  otbfi 
kind  of  intoxicating  drink  comprehended  under  ifae 
name  r»>>  midpHi'."  Jerome  saya,  "Sioera  p^tT)  He- 
bmo  sermone  omnia  polio,  qns  inebriare  polesi,  nve 
ills  quv  fmmenio  conflcitur,  sive  pomotum  sncco,  ant 
quum  favi  decoquunlar  in  dulcem  et  barbaram  potio- 
nem,  ant  palmaram  fnictus  exprimuntur  in  liquortoi, 
coctisque  frugibus  aqua  Tnngulor  coluratur  (Ep.  ad  A'r- 
potiaMaiH),  In  Ihe  A.  T.  the  word  is  once  imdered 
"strong  wine"  (Numb,  xxviii,  7);  and  elaewbere,  oc- 
curring along  with  jr^^i  "strong  drink"  (vi,  S;  Dent. 
xxix,6;  Judg.xUi,4,T,U;  Isa. v,  II;  lvi,It;  Wica, 
11;andlbepasmgeseitedbelow).  Onheloe,  On  .VnA 
xxeUi,  7,  calls  it  "old  wine."  Rabbi  Snknoca,  raUx 
Eteasar,  Aben-Eiia,  and  others  call  it  " inlDikatiiv 
wine."  "The  word  means  strong  drink, from  whatsro' 
substane*  made"  (Tattam).  It  was  used  a*  a  drink-e(- 
fen  ng  ia  tbe  service  of  God  (Numb,  xxviii,  T),  and  ws^ 
notwidutanding  ila  highly  intoxlcnling  pnpetty.  p^ 


nriHed  Id  the  iRUilitM  (DoA  xir,  SCf).    8m  Dsm, 
atatXM. 

A  fain  attcnipt  hu  btcn  made,  b;  cMnMoting  tbe 
wnnl  MjiBokigiQdly  with  tugar,  (o  prove,  in  ttaa  fiee 
of  tba  deunt  nidaMe  b>  the  contnir,  th 
■KMt,  aiHi-iBtoxiaating  arrup  (ue  Lets,  tfiinb).  Tb« 
WDCd  Ib  eiii|dofcd  in  tbc  foUaoiiig  puuga  in  •acta  ■ 
nnnnwT  u  lo  ahow  dcdBTdy  ihu  il  denoWa  in  Intoxi- 
cUing  drink :  Lev.  x,  S,  where  tbe  pKnu  are  brbidden 
to  drink  vine  or  tkMr  when  Ibey  go  into  tl>e  uber- 
uncle;  1  Sani.i,  tfi, where  tluu»b,chirgedirithdnink- 
eanoa  bj  Eli,  npiie*  it  ia  Dot  eo — "  I  hare  dnmii  nei- 
ther wlnt  not  aiaUr;"  ha.lxix,l!,wbere  tbepeahniM 
cMBpIaiiu, "  1  HM  Ibe  long  of  tbe  drinkan  of  mMi&" 
(A.  T.  "  drmkudt'^  ;  Prov.  ix,  I, "  Wine  i«  ■  oucker, 
ihetdr  i>  nging-,  and  wboaoeTer  i>  deceived  tbeiebj' ' 
DatwiM;"  xxxi,  4,  6,  "It  ia  not  Tar  kings  to  drink  win 
nor  for  prineea  jAbUt,  laat  (bejr  drink  and  krget  the 
law;'  Im.v,  Sl,"Woe  unto  tbam  Ihu  aie  mighty  to 
itrink  wine,  and  men  of  urength  (o  mingki  AMa- ,-" 
xzviii,  7,  "Thej  afao  have  erred  tbroagh  wine,  and 
tbimgh  tktUr  are  rat  al  the  way:  tbe  print  and  tbe 
prophet  have  ened  throogb  $iMr,  they  are  awaUowed 
up  of  wine,  they  are  out  of  lb«  way  tbnragh  atatrfr.-" 
xzix,  9,  "Tta^are  drunken,  bat  not  witb  wine;  tbey 
atagg«r,  bot  not  with  Attdr." 

B.  'Arit,  DISS  (ftam  DQ9,  to  trtai;  Sept  vi^ta, 
yXvKoa^,  olvoc  vioc,  /liSii;  Taig.  vy^  l^n,  "pure 
wine;"  Vulg. " dukxdo,  mualum'O,  ia  mtut,  that  which 
ia  expreaaed  ftom  grapea  by  treading,  or  from  pome- 
granatca  (Geaeoiua,  rietoNr.p.  lOM).    I~ 
"By  Q^;  ia  meant  Onfrak  wna,  or  juice  oTthegnpe 
or  other  fruit  which  haa  joal  tieen  pmtd  ant,  and  ia 
el  ftavor  and  ila  fraedom  ftom 
(CinMifltt.  OH  Joell,  G).     Ita  I 
_  anatea  ia  referred  to  in  Cant.< 
S  fjuiee'^.    Tet  iu  intoxioating  quality  aeema  Intt-' 
loBted  in  laa.  xlix,  S6,  "They  aball  be  dranken  with 
thMT  own  bkiod  aa  with  aweet  wine"  {aha};  Jod  i,  6, 
"  Awake,  ye  drankarda,  and  werp  .  .  ,  becanae  of  the 
new  wine  (oifi),  for  it  b  cat  ott  from  yrar  mout: 
ia  praniaed  by  Ood  aa  a  UeMng  (Joal  iii,  17, 18 
ix,I8). 

9.  am,  K^b  (from  M^^,  ;>iXin>ir,  v~ 
tiua,  gurgilant,  la  drink  to  exoaa,  to  lope  [Geaenioa, 
Tketaur.  p.  9B!];  Sept.  olfoc;  Tulg. 
only  in  three  places  (laa.  i,  22,  "wim 
"  drink  i"  Nab.  i,  IO,'*drDi]ken'0,but  the  verb  and  par- 
ticiple often— the  laUer  lo  dniola  diunk,  a  drunkanl,  a 
tnper.  Oeaenin*  rendera  [be  noun  in  laa.  i,  3S  mam, 
but  in  Hoa.  iv,  18  amfKrfu/io,  a  drinking-bout,  a  eaioaee; 
BO  Haodenon,  Dathe,  etc  Tbe  Sept.  miiat  bava  follcnr- 
cd  a  variuui  mding  in  thia  place.  SSlii,  then,  meana 
aoaae  (or  perhapa  any)  kind  of  intoxicating  drink. 

7,  J/aaai,  ^^p^  (from  719?-  to  nix,  or  mingle),  ia  wine 
mixed  with  water  at  aromatica  (Sept.  tipaa/ia;  Vutg. 
aunM).  It  occura  only  once  (Paa.  Ixxv,  9} ;  but  the 
partidpial  Donn  Tfljai?,  atnudi,  ia  round  in  Prov.  xxiii, 
30;  laa.  txv,  ]l,in  a  aimllar  aenaa=wiiia  highly  afnoed, 
to  improve  Ita  flavor  and  enhance  ila  intoxlaa^g  pow- 
er.    See  below. 

8.  SAtmariwt,  O'^n^  (tmta  ~iQIlJ,  lo  kttp,  preserve, 
lay  np!  SepL  rpvyiaf,  fiXirfiia,  lofa;  Vulg, /oiMa, 
e—deaiia,-  AV.  "Iees,"''dre|ca,"''wi  -; 
oQcnn  Ave  limea,  and  alwaya  in  the  plural  It  ia  naed 
both  of  leea  and  of  wina  preaerved  on  the  leea:  of  leea, 
Pka.  Ixxv,  B;  Jer.  ilriii,  11;  Zeph.  i,  11,  in  aU  which 
[laaaairri  it  to  need  in  a  flgnnuive  aenae:  in  the  second 
and  third,  the  fomi  of  expreaaioa  ia  prorerlMal,  being 
tMcd  of  individuala  and  naiiona— '  de  iia  qai  deddea, 

■  I  utuntar  quieta,  Iran- 


r"  (Oeaeniua,  r*e- 


mur.  p.  1444).  It  ia  wad  of  wine,  laa.  xvr,  9  (bii), 
when  the  prophet  foral^  the  rioh  prwiaon  oTGoapal 
bleaainga  lioder  tbe  fignra  of  "  a  ftMt  of  fat  Ihinga,  ol 
winea  on  tbe  leea,  (ioHiiHsi,  well  reflned  (B*ppTa,(I^ 
trat»d~-i.  e.  "  vinum  vetvt  at  notNliaaimatD  a  fteciboa 
puTgatum"  (Geaeniua),  or  "com  fncibaa  aerratiiDi  (He- 
fenwein),  qood  defecatam  et  dariBealum  in  convirito 
opiparia  apponilar"  (Flint,  Ctmonrd,  p,  1IT7),  Tbe 
word  ia  und  of  Icea,  accordiiig  to  aome,  "  from  their 
preaerving  the  etreogth  and  flavor  of  wine"  (Alexan- 
der); M«afdittgtootheraaa''idqDod»d  ukiDnimuaque 
naervatur  et  rciaanM-'iMM  nlpote  qma  in  imo  vaaia 
fuDdo  autMldent"  (Fttrat>  Thia  "  vetos  el  noUbarimam 
vinnn"  ia  spoken  of  approvingly  in  Ihe  l«at<il«d  p««- 
aagt. 

9.  AAiiMh,Tn^''Wt;iS*fil.Xarfavovi-Khniyaymi, 
vinpa,  i/Mpir^c—i'  •■  •  oka  ftom  the  frying-pan,  ■ 
haksd  cake,  a  aweet  cake-'ia  a  variaticti  of  reodasing 
tmly.  The  Targ.  of  Jonalkan  co  Exod.  xvi,  SI  iwa 
-];o^^Mlbrtbelleb.n'TnBX,aaBtcaka.  The  trorit 
ru/adaioaisac^arrr  K^'^fajarofwina.  TheAT, 
has  "  flagona,"  "  flagons  of  wine").  The  plural  of  tba 
word  occur*  both  in  Lite  nuuculiae  and  feminine  (onua. 
Crilica  an  pretty  generally  agreed  that  it  doea  ml  de- 
note wine  or  any  other  dnnk,  but  a  aJit,  aucb  as  waa 
"  prepared  fnxn  dried  grapea,  or  raiaina  praawd  or  com- 
pacted into  a  certain  tbrm.  Cakea  of  Ihia  kind  an 
menliooed  aa  delicacies  with  which  the  waaiy  and  lon- 
gaid  aie  refreahed  (2  Sam.  vi,  19;  1  Chnn.  xvi,  8) 
Cant,  ii,  G),  and  wer«  offered  in  aacnflce  to  idob  (Hoa. 
iii,  1).  Tbey  differed  from  p<9!I,  i.  e.  grapea  dried  but 
not  ooanpacted  into  the  fona  al  cakea;  and  alao  tnm 
rAv>,  I  e,  Sga  preaaed  into  cakaa"  So  GeaeDiDa,  who 
dnivt*  the  word  tktim  tiVK,  to  prtu,  ahhongh  Gios- 
burg  would  derive  it  from  a  almilar  form  denoting  to 
bum.  The  evidenoe  aeema  in  favor  of  a  cake,  espedsl- 
1y  a  grape  cake,  in  which  Istlat  aenae  it  certidnly  occur* 
in  Hoa.  iii,  l,when!,  however,  it  ia  written  more  fnlly, 
or  rather  with  tbe  addition  of  a^SJ9,yrofMa,  which  fllla 
up  its  meaning,  W^M^  i0Vi»=eaia  ofgr<xpet.  Dr. 
Tattam,  raatiug  on  the  anthority  of  rsblnna  whom  he 
quotea,  seeaia  inclined  lo  abide  bv  the  leudcfing  of  tba 
AT.(seeA«p;^,p.lS,H>    Sss'Cakx 

ID.  Three  otbei  words  may  bve  be  aoUoed.  y^h, 
cMawKi  (Sept.  HCfiq,  hot  in  Prov.  x,  S6  l^^l,  L  e.  sour  ' 
grapes;  ao  the  Syr.;  Yulg.  ocadm;  A T. "  vinegar," 
lightly  ),  ocraia  five  timaa.  Thia,  it  appeara,  was  ob- 
taiiMd  either  bom  yigm  or  aiMiir  (Numh.  vi,  S),  and 
was  used  by  those  engaged  in  tbe  labora  of  the  flald  lo 
■often  and  render  more  palatable  the  dry  bread  «bl«h 
fanned  tbe  food  of  the  reapers  (Ruth  ii,  I4>  It  ww 
alao  naed  aa  a  beverage,  probably  mixed  with  water 
(Numb,  vi,  8),  in  which  caae  it  would  reeemble  the 
poaco  of  the  Kumana,  wbicb  waa  not  an  intoxicating 
drinli,  and  waa  uied  only  by  tbe  p<ii»er  daaaca  (PlanL 
MiL  Gior.  iii,  2,  23).  In  Halt,  xxvii,  SI  our  Lord  ia 
said  to  have  bad  vinegar  mingled  with  gall  offered  to 
"  -  drink  when  on  the  croaa.  Hark  (xv,  33)  aaya  it 
ne  mingled  with  myrrh ;  Luke  that  it  waa  vine- 
gar oKred  by  the  acddiait  in  mockery  (xxiii,  86);  and 
John  Ibat  it  waa  vinegar  (xix,  29).  Poanbly  theae  B«- 
ta  refer  to  two  aeparate  occnrrenoes — the  one  an  act 
of  cruallT  on  the  part  of  the  aoMina,  who,  in  reaponae  to 
Lord's  exclamation,  "I  tbirat,'olfered  him  sonMof 
r  own  potai ;  tbe  other  an  act  of  intended  kiodneaa, 
designed  Co  alleviate  hia  auflbringa  by  an  anodyne.   See 

AnabiiH,  CSJ?  (AT.  "wine"  in  Hoa.  iii,  1;  elae* 
here  correctly  "  grapes").    See  GRArx, 
Yiktt,  a|3;;  (  a  v.  "wine-  in  Dent,  xvi,  18;  elaa^ 
wliere  eortectly  "  preaa").    Sea  WlKx-raaHk 

«  Naw  TaaL  aev«nl  woada  an  BBiOogrMl  d»- 
Doting  wina. 


<I.)  01>wci  compcebroding  every  Bort  uf  win*. 

(a.)  ni(iBei>c,«"«tior"nei' wine,"iirhich,««  welln 
(he  ruraiet,  wenu,  froiii  ^e  me  nwde  of  it  (AcU  ii,  IB), 
lo  (igniff  iriae  otta  intoxicating  qiuliij.  "  These  men 
An  full  of  new  winCf"  la  which  chuge  Peter  repliee, 
"Theee  men  ue  nol  drunken  u  ye  iupp(»e"(T,  !&},  al- 
though Dr.  Lees'n  iulcrpretalion  ii  fiirly  xilminible  that 
the  languege  is  tb«[  of  mockery,  m  if  we  should  uj  of 
■  druakeu  mtn,  He  bu  taken  too  much  water.  The 
glaitoi  waa  the  fruit  of  the  grape,  n  kept  aa  to  preeerre 
iu  iweetoeee,  "  perhapa  made  of  a  remarkably  aweet, 
imall  grape,  which  la  nndentood  by  the  Jewiah  eipo^- 
ton  to  be  meant  bymra  (Tf'lta  Oen.  slii,  11),  or  »- 
refaU  (nsliJ,  laa.  V,  3),  and'itill  found  in  Syria  and 
AnbU"  (iifanl,  On  A<U  n,  IS).  60  Suidai,  t6  iro- 
VTokayiM  Tljs  fra^vX^  wpiv  wortfSn-  It  coold  not 
be  HOC  wine,  in  the  proper  aeme  of  the  term,  inaamuch 
■I  about  eiKhi  montha  muat  have  elapsed  between  the 
vintage  and  the  feaat  of  Pentccoat.  It  might  hara 
been  applied.  Just  as  mmftm  was  by  tbe  Romans,  10 
wins  that  had  been  preaeneil  fur  about  a  year  in  an  an- 
leimented  sUUe  (Calo,  Dt  Be  Smtica,  c  120).  But  the 
explaaatiaas  of  tbe  ancient  lexicogrspben  rather  lead 
us  to  infer  that  its  lusdous  qualities  were  due,  not  to  its 
being  recently  made,lH]t  to  ita  being  produced  from  the 
very  purest  Juice  of  tbe  grape;  for  both  in  Hayeiau 
and  the  Etynologicum  Uagnum  the  t£rm  yXtucof  is  ei- 
plained  to  be  the  Juice  that  flowed  ipontaneously  from 
the  grape  before  the  treading  commenced.  Tbe  name 
itaelf,  therefore,  is  not  conclnure  as  to  ila  being  an  un~ 
fermented  liquor,  while  the  context  implies  the  revene 
—for  Peter  would  hardly  have  offered  a  serious  defence 
to  an  accosatioi)  thai  was  not  leriauBly  made;  and  yet 
if  the  sweel  wine  in  question  were  not  intoxicating,  the 
aecDsation  oould  only  hare  been  ironical  (see  Waleb, 
De  Natara  toi  yXimcouf  [Jen.  1756]), 

As  consideratje  streas  is  laid  upon  the  quality  of 
aweetncM  as  distinguished  from  strength,  we  may  ob- 
■erre  that  tbe  usual  lermliv  the  inspissated  juice  of  the 
grape,  which  wascharactcriied  more  especially  by  sweeC- 
ne^  was  df&liA  (IC^^i),  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "honey" 
(Gea  xliii,  11 ;  Eiek!  xxvii,  IT).  This  waa  prepared 
by  boiling  it  down  either  lo  a  third  of  its  original  bulk, 
in  which  case  it  was  termed  «pa  by  the  Latins  and 
F^/Hi  or  aipaiov  by  the  Greeks,  or  else  to  half  its  bulk, 
in  wbich  ease  it  waa  termed  d/fntam  (Pliny,  liv,  11). 
'  Both  the  inbataaoe  and  the  name,  under  the  form  cj 
dibt,  are  in  comnton  use  in  Syria  at  tbe  present  day. 

We  may  further  Dolioe  a  leaa  artiflcial  mode  of  pro- 
ducing a  aweet  liquor  from  tbe  grape,  namely,  by  preas- 
ing  the  Juice  directly  into  the  cup,  a*  deneribed  in  Gen. 
xl,ii. 

Lastly,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  beverage,  also 
of  ■  sweet  character,  produoed  by  macerating  grapes, 
and  bence  termed  the  "liquor"  (iniEis)  of  grapes 
(Nomb.  vi,  3).    These  later  preparations  are  allowed 
the  Koran  (xvi,  69)  as  substitutes  for  wine. 

(3.)  rintiua,  or  yf'viifui,  r^(  ti^rAoti,  fruit  of  the 
vine=wine  (Luke  xxii,  IB). 

(i.)  Olrot  arpOTOC.  puro  wine  (Kev.  xiv,  10) — elvov 
irpaTOv  iltvu   Xiya/HV,  if  ;i^  ftifiicrai   ri  aimp, 
ravraTraaiv  iXiyov /■•fHirm  (Galen  in  Wettalein, cited 
by  Alfurd).    Here  tbe  phrase  is  used  Sguratively.    See 
below. 

(5.)  'OJdc,  sour  wine,  or  vinegar  (Matt  xivi 
Uaikiv,S6,elc). 

(6.)  Sitipa  (A. T, "strong drink;"  HeU13l5),  "any 
ttrong  drink  made  of  grapes"  (Robinson,  Alford,  etc). 

IL  Hinoricai  folka  ofAe  Utt  of  Wilt  n  lAt  BiHr. 
—TheBnt  instance  we  have  of  wine  in  the  Old  Test,  is 
In  the  case  of  Noah,  who  "pUnled  a  vineyanl,  and  did 
drink  of  tbe  wine  (.i/dybi),  and  was  drunken'  (Gen.  ii 
30, 11).  The  culture  of  the  vine  no  doutit  existed  be- 
fore, but  the  patriarch  now  remntes  tbe  occupation 
which  bad  been  intetrapled  by  the  Flood.     "  Mo>  ' 


WINE 

grow  apontaoeousiy  in  such  abondapea 
as  in  the  region  of  Ararat,  in  Armcaoa, 
and  tbe  Eastern  Poutos;  but,  nadoul)t,iheciiltDrcoflfa* 
antiquity,  invented  by  one  naiMB 
and  spread  to  other  countries;  for  thus  only  cm  tbe  re- 
markable drcumatance  be  accounted  lor  thai  wioc  bcaa 
the  same  name  in  almost  all  Eastern  and  Weatecn  na- 
i''(Kaliaoh,Oii(;a.£i,S0,3l).  "  It  may  be  added 
that  tin  Egyptians  attributed  the  manufactute  oT  viae 
to  Osiris,  tbe  Pbattidana  and  Greeks  to  BKchua,  the 
Romana  10  Saturn"  (.ibid.).     See  Vire. 

The  second  notice  of  wine  is  in  the  histcry  of  Let, 
whose  daughten  "made  their  father  drink  wiae' 
(ydfia),  so  that  he  became  stupidly  intoxicated  (GeiL 
xix,  SJ,  etc.).  It  next  occurs  in  Isaac's  liii  ■inffi  pn»- 
nouac«d  on  Jacob:  "The  Lord  give  thee  .  .  .  (dcsUyof 
com  and  wine"  (ycfjrw)  (Gen.  xxvii,  38).  TIte  oaxl 
norice  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  (altbough,  ba  il  ob- 

with  Egypt  (Gen.xl,  II),  when  the  chief  butler  aay^ 

"  took  the  grapce  and  premsd  them  inls  Phaiwdi's 

k"    Are  we  to  (she  these  words  aeconling  to  Utair 

ct  literality  ?     Did  the  kings  of  Egypt,  at  tbe  (iiae, 

drink  tbe  nnfermented  juice  of  the  grape  only  7     Uow- 

t  may  be,  and  although  an  affirmalive  aiwer 

Egypt  fmm  very  ancient  times,  repreMolatkos 
of  the  process  of  tbe  minuficture  of  wines  being  fcvad 
on  lomlte  belonging  to  tbe  4th  dynasty ;  that  wina  was 
used  almost  nni  versally  by  the  rich ;  that  it  waa  fn^y 
drunk  at  the  banquets  t^  both  men  and  women,  and 
even  exceaaiTely,  as  the  monuments  abundantly  leati^ ; 
that  it  was  drunk  even  by  tbe  priests,  and  offered  is  tk* 
temples  to  their  gods.  All  this  is  now  well  aaccrtained^ 
notwithstanding  the  contradicCoiy  statements  t£  He- 
rodotus on  snme  paints  (see  Rawiinaon,  Hrrod.  ii,  lOi, 
136;  Wilkinson,  .lac  i^jpti,  144,  etc).  It  baa  bns 
inferred  from  a  passage  in  Plutarch  {Dt  tiid,  fi)  that 
no  wine  was  drunk  in  Egypt  before  (he  reign  of  Ptaat- 
metichus,  and  this  paassge  has  been  quoted  in  ill—ra 
tkm  of  Gen.  xl,  II.  The  meaning  of  the  anther  atefaa 
rather  to  be  that  the  king*  subsequently  to  PHmiDeti- 
chus  did  not  restrict  themselrea  lo  the  quantity  of  win* 
preacritied  to  them  by  reason  of  their  sacadotal  oSsa 
(Diod.i,70> 

In  the  laws  of  Hoses  wine  is  frequently  mentioDed 
as  forming  the  usual  drink-otfeiing  that  accompanied 
the  daily  sacrifice  (Exod.xxix,  40),  tbe  presentatun  at 
the  Brst-fruita  (Lev.  ixilt,  IS),  and  other  crfl«ingi 
(Numb.  XV,  G).  It  appears  from  Numb,  xxviu,  7  that 
strong  drink  might  be  substituted  for  it  on  tbene  occa- 
sions. Titbe  was  lo  be  paid  of  wine  [tiritky  as  of  oth- 
er prodnets,  snd  this  waa  to  be  consumed  "before  the 
I^rd,"  meaning  within  the  pcecincu  of  the  Temple,  or 
perhaps,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Lev.  vii,  16.  at  the 
place  where  the  Temple  was  situated  (Deut.  xii,  17. 18). 
ThepiieatwasalsotoreceiTefiru-fruitsofwine  (rirA^), 
as  of  other  article*  (iriii,4:  camp.ExoJ.xxii.  29);  anil 
a  promise  of  plenty  was  attached  10  the  faithful  pay- 
ment of  these  dun  (Pn>v.  iii,  9, 10).  Wine  oAttkI  b 
God  as  a  drink-offrdng  (Numb,  xv,  6,  7, 10)  fumisba 
the  key  lo  the  peculiar  language  of  Jotham'i  parwUe, 
"wine  that  checretb  God  and  man'  (Judg.  ix,  IS>-^aB 
cxpodtioD  much  preferaUe  to  that  which  rendcia  tbe 
wolda  "the  gnd*  and  men;"  for  wine  was  otfervd  to 
God  as  the  drink  of  the  Great  King,  tbe  lymbot  of  oar 
best  spiritual  things  whicb  we  otTer  in  his  worahi|i. 
Wine  waa  forbiddsi  to  the  prieats  during  the  perftwaa- 
anee  of  their  sacred  duties  in  the  tabernsci*  (Lc\-.  x, 
9),  which  prohibition  seems  to  hare  originated  in  tba 
offence  of  Nsdab  and  Abiho,  who,  most  ptoti^ily, 
"transgressed  through  wine."  At  other  tiraea  tha 
priests  were  at  liberty  to  drink  wine.  To  tbe  Na**- 
rttes,  while  under  their  vow,  not  only  wine,  but  vioegarv 
and  the  fruit  of  Ihe  vine  generally,  in  every  form,  waa 
probiUted  (Numb,  vi,  8, 4).  Tbe  Israelites  were  at  lib- 
erty to  drink  wine  even  at  tbetr  nxtiooal  saowd  tali- 


WINE 

vail  when  njcddng  Won  the  Lord  (DeaC.  xiv,  £2-36). 
Tb«  Bechabim  are  menlioned  u  very  pecolUi  in  Ibi' 
abaluKnce  rrom  viae,  u  well  u  their  refraining  to  li' 
in  houwa,  *nil  are  commended,  not  for  their  abitineni 
but  for  their  obedience  to  the  command  of  their  anct 
tor  (Jer.  ixiv).     The  cultiTitioii  of  the  vice  wai  i 
oompaUbts  with  the  conditiooi  of  a  nomad  life,  uid 
wai  probably  on  thii  aoeoant  that  Joiudab,  wiahing 
perpetuate  that  kind  of  life  among  his  poMerity.piohih- 
ilcd  the  uM  of  wine  to  them.     The  caae  ia  exactly  par- 
allel to  that  of  the  Kabtthaana,  who  abatained  from 
wine  on  purely  political  grounds  (Diod.  six,  M). 

The  lua  of  wine  at  the  paacbal  feaat  was  not 
Joined  by  the  law,  but  had  become  an  eelabliabed  < 
MMD,  at  all  eventa  in  the  poet-Babylonian  period.    The 
Gnp  waa  handed  rooDd  foar  timea  according  to  tb 
nal  prescribed  in  the  Hiihna  {Poach,  x,  I),  the  third 
eup  being  deaigoaled  the  "  cup  of  bicving"  (1  Cor.  x, 
16),  becaun  gnce  waa  then  taid  (Paadi.  x,  7).     Tbe 
oonunts  of  tbe  cup  are  specifically  described  by 
Ijord  as  "the  fruit"  (/imifia)  of  the  Tine  (Milt.iKvi, 
tO;  Harkiiv,2a;  Lulie  xiii,  18),  and  in  the  Mithiu 
■imply  aa  wine.    The  wine  was  mixed  with  wan 
tcr  on  theae  oceaiions,  aa  implied  in  tbe  notice  of  tbe 
warming-kettle  (Paadi.  vii,  18),     Henoe  in  the  early 
Chriatian  Church  it  waa  usual  to  mix  the  aacramenr  ' 
wine  with  water,  a  euMom  aa  old,  at  all  events,  aa  Ji 
tin  Hanyr's  time  (Apol.  i,  S£).     See  Pasbovkb.     The 
tabbioB  hare  a  carious  tradition,  that  at  the  great  feast 
which  shall  inaugurate  the  coming  of  tbe  Meaaiah  he 
■hall  drink  wine  made  from  grapes  which  grew  in  Par- 
adise during  the  six  creative  d»y»,  and  preserved 
Adam's  cave  for  that  great  occasioa  (Otbonis  Lax.  a 
"Vinum;"  Buxtorf.aja.  Juip.MO). 

The  Faatoral  Ejuatlea  contain  directions  aa  to  I 
BMdarate  use  of  wine  on  the  part  of  all  holding  off 
in  the  Church ;  as  that  they  should  not  be  irapeir^ 
Tim.  iii,  3;  A.  Y."  given  to  wine"),  meaning  inaolent 
and  violent  under  the  Infiaence  of  wine;  "not  giv 
Much  wine'  (iii,  8) ;  "  not  enslaved  to  much  wine" 
ii,8).  Thel«m  wj^oArocin  1  Tim.  iii,2  (A.V. 
ber^,  ezpreaen  general  vigilance  and  circumapeclion 
(SchleuBoer,  Let.  t.  v.;  Alford,  ad  foe).  Paul  ad- 
rises  llmotliy  himself  (o  be  no  longer  an  habitual  wa- 
ter-drinker, bat  to  take  a  little  wine  for  bis  health') 
■ake  (t  Tim.  v,  !S).  Mo  very  satisfactory  reason  can 
be  asngned  for  the  place  which  tbia  injunction  botdi 
in  the  epietle,  unlesa  it  were  intended  to  correct  any 
potaaUe  miaappreheonon  aa  to  the  preceding  words, 
*■  Keep  thyself  part."  The  precepta  above  quoted,  a* 
well  aa  other*  to  tbe  same  effrct  addressed  to  tbe  dis- 
ciples generally  (Bom.  xiii,  ISj  OaL  v,  il ;  1  Pet.  iv,  3), 
■how  the  extent  lo  which  intemperance  prevailed  in 
ancient  times,  and  tbe  extreme  danger  lo  which  tbe 
Church  was  subjected  from  this  qoartar. 

It  appears  to  have  been  an  ancient  custom  to  give 
medicated  or  drugged  wine  to  criminals  oondemned  to 
deatb,  to  blunt  iheii  senses,  and  so  leaaen  the  pains  of 
eaeention.  To  this  custom  there  is  supposed  to  be  an 
allaaian,  Prov.  xxxl,  6,  "Give  strong  drink  unto  him 
that  ia  ready  to  perish ;"  and  an  illnstration  of  the  co*- 
tom  is  fumtabed  by  the  soldiers  giving  Jcaus''«iae 
mingled  with  myrrh,"  or,  which  is  tbe  seme, "  vin^ar" 
i.  e.  sour  wine ;  "mingled  with  gall,"  i  e.  a  bitter  drug, 
without  specifying  the  kind  (Markxv,  3S;  HatLxxvii, 
H).  "  Otima  a  ajmedru  ad  morlem  damnali  pot/trtnt 
VT  yi,  vino  fito  (b.  e.  optima,  forti)  ut  diriperetar  in- 
ttlh""*  ejuB.  ad  conflrmandum  id  dicitnr,  Prov.  xxxi, 
6,  etc  De  perituro  dicelur,  id  Oeri,  ut  obliviscatur  mor- 
tis, qua  est  infortunium  ipsiiu"  (3cht>ttgen,  Bor,  JfA 
p.  SftB).  To  the  same  custom  some  suppose  there  is  a 
reference  in  Amoa  ii,  8,  where  the  "  wine  of  the  con- 
demned" (A.  V.)  is  spoken  ot  The  margin  reads,  in- 
stead of  condemned,  "  Bned  or  mulcted;"  so  Gesenius; 
HeiHlerson,  anieretd.  The  wicked  here  described,  in 
■ddiiion  to  other  evil  pnctioe^  impoeed  onJaM  fiaes 


upon  the  inDaeeat,Bnd  spent  the  money  ihoa  unjnitly 
obtained  upon  wine,  which  they  quaSbd  in  the  booie 
of  their  god* ;  aa  Dathe  renden :  "  pacuniaa  hominiba* 
innocentibu*  eitortas  compotalionibus  abiumant  in 
■emplis  deorum  suomni.'' 

Uixtd  wine  i*  often  *poken  of  in  Scripture.  This 
w*s  of  different  kind*.  Sometimes  it  was  mixed  vitb 
ualtr  lo  lake  it  down  (I>a.i,23);  iometimea  witbsHtt 
(CanL  v,  1) ;  and  sometimes,  by  Loven  of  ttiong  drink, 
with  spices  of  various  kinds,  to  give  it  a  richer  flavor 
and  greater  potency  (I*a.v,  32;  Paa-lixv,  8).  Both 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  flavoring 
their  wines  with  spicee,aDd  such  preparations  were  de- 
scribed by  the  former  as  wine  ii  afHiifiaruii'  Earawnnz- 
{d;ui<ac(Atben.i,SI  r)i  and  by  tbe  latter  as  aroiiuilifri 
(niny,  xiv,  19, 6).  The  authority  of  tbe  Misbna  may 
be  cited  in  favor  both  of  water  and  of  spices,  the  former 
b«ng  noticed  in  BtratA.  vii,  5 ;  PaaA.  vii,  18 ;  and  the 
bttcriDSteii.ii,t. 

The  "royal  wine,"  literally  wine  of  tbe  kingdom, 
TAA-q  y^^  (Eath.i,T),denatta  moat  probably  the  beat 
wine,  such  aa  the  king  of  Persia  himself  wa*  aocuatomed 
to  drink.  "  Wine  of  Lebanon"  is  referred  to  in  such  a 
way  a*  to  indicate  its  peculiar  excellence — "  the  ecent 
thereof  shall  be  aa  the  wine  of  Lebanon"  (Hoe.  xiv,  T). 
Hence  it  is  thought  lo  have  been  dialJnguiabed  by  ita 
grateful  amelL  But  131  means,  aa  tbe  margin  rendera 
it,  tntnwrial,  and  includes  odor,  flavor,  and  refreahtng  in- 
Quence.  Uodem  tiavellen  attest  tbe  excellence  of  the 
wine  of  Lebanon.  The>-wine  DrHelbon,or  Chalybon," 
ia  mentioned  aa  one  of  the  importations  of  Tyre  (Eiek. 
xivii,  IS),  and  wa*  very  famous.  It  was  greatly  valued 
by  the  Persian  moDarche  (Strabo,  xv,  735),  as  it  still  i* 
by  ibe  re^dent*  of  Damascu*  (Porter,  Damawa,  i, 
S3S}. 

The  wines  of  modem  Palestine  are  represented  b* 
travellers  ■*  being  of  excellent  quality.  Tbe  sweet 
wines  are  particularly  esteemed  in  the  East,  becaoae 
they  an  grateful  lo  the  taste,  very  exhilaiating,  and 
■ome  of  them  will  keep  fiir  ■  long  time.  Tbey  were 
therefore  preferred  by  those  who  were  addicted  Vt 
drinking,  and  commonly  selected  for  the  tables  of 
kings.  Their  inebriating  quality  is  alluded  to  by  the 
prophet  Isaiah;  "1  will  feed  them  that  oppresa  you 
with  their  own  fleah,  and  they  shall  be  drunken  aa 
with  sweet  wine"  (Isa.  xlix,  26).  "  Tbe  testimony  of 
travellers  respecting  tbe  apiriluous  nature  of  the  irinea 
of  Palestine  accord*  with  that  of  the  sacred  writer*. . . . 
It  ia  observed  by  Tbevenot  that  (be  people  of  the  Levant 
never  mingle  water  with  their  nine  at  meals,  but  drink 
by  ilielf  what  water  they  think  proper  for  abating  its 
strength.  While  the  (Irteks  and  Romans  by  mixed 
wine  understood  wine  united  and  lowered  with  water, 
the  Hebrews,  on  the  contrary,  meant  by  it  wine  made 
stranger  and  more  inebriating  by  the  addition  of  pow- 
erful ingredienta.  .  .  .  Tbe  wine*  of  Palestine  are  gen- 
erally kept'in  bottles  made  of  leather,  or  goat-skin^ 
1  or  pitched  It^tber.  In  these  the  process  of 
fermentation  took  place,  and  the  wine  acquired  tie 
proper  degree  of  strength.  In  absence  of  anything 
like  chemical  analysis,  these  are  the  data  from  which 

'inas  referred  to  by  the  sacred  writers.  Some  of 
them  are  represented  to  have  been  iweet  wines,  which, 
ifnot  the  stiongest,  are  known  to  have  been  very  strong. 
Tbe  grapes  from  which  they  were  produced  were  re- 
markable for  their  richneas  and  excellence ;  the  dimale 
if  the  country  being  such  aa  to  favor  the  growth  and 
development  of  those  principle!  which,  during  fermen- 
I,  were  converted  into  alcohol.  Aa  the  gnpea  of 
muntry  are  now  known  to  furnish  very  rich  and 
jous  wines,  we  may  infer  that  the  ancient  were 
ir  in  their  character;  since  there  is  abundant  cvi- 
tbat  the  climate  has  not  Buffered  any  material 
change  for  three  thonaand  years.  We  should  not  omit, 
conflrmation  of  this  view  of  the  qurituoua  natnie  of 


WINZ  10 

the  wioM  of  PalMtim,  to  idnit  to  tha  laodea  Id  which 
the7  ireie  kept.  It  ii  now  well  known  thu  wbea  mixt- 
QiM  of  4lDobDl  aod  water  are  put  into  Uedden,  the  wa- 
ter cTapcmlea  and  teavea  the  akobol  in  a  amm  eoneeD- 
trated  rorm.  It  ia  aseerted  that  wine  which  ha*  been 
kept  in  bottlea  ckwed  by  pieosa  of  biadder  IrnHj  tied 
DTer  the  moulh,  io  a  few  weeki  acquire  the  itranph 
and  Bavot  which  wonld  ba  iDiparlcd  to  it  only  b?  aer- 
enl  ream'  preawatioD  in  the  ocdinat})  wajr.  Now,  it 
ia  probable  that  the  leather  bap  into  which  theie  wioea 
tit  pot  would  prndtiae  a  nmilar  efhcl  upon  the  liquor, 
which,  after  the  prooeaa  of  feimentatioD  had  ceased, 
would  aooo  attain  it*  aooipLate  and  appropriate  alco- 
boUc  character"  (ProT.  SilUmu,  ilnter.  Jour,  iff  aaaut 
and  Aril,  ISS4). 

"The  wine  wai  generallj  oontained  in  large  ox-gkim 
ranged  roDod  the  atore-room,  and  qtute  diateaded  with 
liquor.  The  target  ekina  eeem  to  bare  aaawered  to 
caaKt;  the  smaller  goat  and  kid  skins,  to  barrels  and 
kega  in  the  oampariatia,  to  be  ehiaflf  used  in  cormj'ing 
to  costooien  the  smaUeat  qwuliliee  leqnired.  IndiTid- 
uala  rarely  keep  large  atoraa  of  wine  in  tbeii  hooaea,  bat 
get  a  anuiu  supply  of  a  goat-skin  or  two  tnm  tha  wine- 
store.  This  secnu  also  to  bave  been  the  case  with  the 
ancient  Jews,  fur  Nehemiah,  although  holding  the  rank 
of  governor,  had  no  Oaie  of  wine,  for  we  read  he  bad  a 
Bu^r  every  ten  dayi  (Neh.  v,  18).  The  large  skins  in 
tlie  wine-store  we  have  mentioned  are  supported  above 
tlie  Soar  on  fVaiiKB  of  wood"  (Kitco,  iV«.  iftUr,  note  on 
Job  xixii,  19).  Similar  methods  of  storing  and  keep- 
ing wine  were  common  to  Ibe  Greeks  and  Romana.  See 
Smith,  DicL  of  Oat.  A  miq.  ■.  v.  "  Vinum." 

III.  Tfaxkmgofiht  SeryOura  m  raptct  to  Oa  Tm  e/ 
Wile. — 1.  As  appean  from  the  foregDing  eiainuiatian, 
the  Kbie  makes  no  distinnion  between  inloiicating 
and  non-intoxicadng  winea — never  refen  or  alludea  to 
such  a  distinction.  Tet  wine,  y^^^otvosi  i*  conatiady 
^wkcn  of  is  piecisely  the  aame  way  that  com  and  oil 
and  milk  aie  epoken  of— namely,  as  ■  hleanng  sent  by 
God  Tor  the  Die  of  man.  It  was  enjoined  lo  be  used  in 
the  aervice  of  Cod.  It  is  employed  as  ■  symbol  of 
the  highest  spiritual  blessings  (In.  tv,  1,  S).  The  use 
of  it  was  commoa  among  the  Jews,  as  it  is  among  the 
people  of  aH  wine-produciDg  coontriei.  It  wee  forbid- 
den to  the  Nazaiitea  alone,  and  that  only  while  under 
(heir  vow.  The  use  of  it  ia  io  one  raae  distinctly  pre- 
scribed by  Paul  to  TirDolhy  (1  Tim.  r,  H),  Jesua 
Christ  came  "  drinking  wine"  as  well  as  "  eating  bread" 
(Lnhe  vii,S8,84),  and  ia  one  instance  miraculously  pro- 
duced a  supply  of  wine  when  it  was  needed  (John  ii). 
We  attach  great  importance,  religiously  and  theologi- 
cally, lo  these  beta.  Jeeua  was  no  ascetic  He  gave  no 
coaplenanca  to  aaeetidao.  By  drinking  wine — freely 
using  the  blcasings  of  God's  providence^- he  testified 
against  the  error,  afterwarda  called  Gnostic  and  Hani- 
chaan,  which  would  attach  impurity  to  that  which  en- 
ten  the  mouth,  and  vindicated  the  liberty  of  his  fiiUaw- 
CTS  to  use  "every  creUure  of  God"  as  good  and  lit  for 
fiod,and  lo  be  received  with  thanksgiving  by  them  as 
those  who  "  believe  and  know  the  truth"  (t  Tim.  iv,  S, 
ty.  But  this  error  repelled,  and  Ibis  liberty  asserted, 
none  are  obliged  to  drink  wine  or  to  set  neat  if  they 
prefte  nou  There  is  liberty  on  this  side  also.  They 
may  abstain  if  they  choose^  Paul  expressed  his  readi- 
aees  to  abstain  from  "Aeah"  aikd  "wine"  to  secure  ibe 
good  aft  brother, or  to  avoid  occasioning  him  injury 
(Hom.xiv,!!;  comp.1  Cor.  viii,  18).  The  same  liberty 
is  ours;  and  if  a  great  practical  good  may  be  attained 
by  abatinanoe,  Christian  beneroleoce  calls  us  in  this 
direction. 

But  while  Uberty  lo  use  wine,  as  well  as  every  other 
earthly  blte«ng,  ia  conceded  and  maintained  in  the 
Bible,  yet  all  abuse  of  it  ia  solemnly  and  earueBEly  cun- 
demned.  In  the  book  of  Proverba  the  warnings  against 
each  abase  are  frequent  and  severe  (xx,  i ;  xxiii,  S9- 
B£;  zui,  4-7).    it  i*  the  same  in  the  New  Tt«L  <l 


Cor.  vi,  10;  Gal.  v,  21).  "Bs  aot  dnnk  with  wiDs— 
not  given  to  much  wine."  8udi  are  its  preocpta — p<«- 
cepta  which  would  haveliula  arna  folcc,aTev*n  rrwaai 
iug,  were  wine  not  inMsicaling,  and  woe  tber*  sot 
some  peculiar  danger  IncidiBt  la  ila  nab  If  wimm  wcM 
not  iulozicsting,  the  apntle  might  as  wdl  haw*  ex- 
horted tbem  aguDst  drinking  loo  much  milk  or  las 
mai±  water.  He  takes  for  gm.ted  the  right  to  nac; 
he  reoDgnises  the  danger  incident  to  the  naa ;  but  in- 
stead of  prohibiting,  he  eanliona  aod  exhorta  -^i-m 
excess.  ModtralioH  in  eatiug  and  drinking  >•  tha 
broad  Cbristian  law.  JtMnsMt  from  some  kiuda  of 
food  may  become  a  doty  under  peculiar  circnmstsaac*. 
Self-denial,  in  relation  lo  things  lawful,  is  often  inipeF> 
ative.  Wine  is  good)  ia  a  gilt  of  God.  It  may  ba 
used  with  advantage ;  it  may  be  eboaed,  bat  not  inno- 
cently or  with  impuni^.  It  may  be  declined  in  tb* 
Bxerciae  of  Chriatian  Ebaity ;  it  ought  to  be  dedinad  if 
doing  so  helps  forward  the  cause  of  humanity,  meaalily, 
aod  religion,  and  pramolea  the  gtoiy  <rf  God.  In  riew, 
however,  of  ibe  almoat  imposailnlity  of  procuring  gesva- 
iiN  wine  in  the  United  State*  vrithoutcxtravagaot  cost, 
and  tbe  fact  that  in  order  to  iH  preservation  it  ia  iaaa- 
riaUy  more  alcohoHe  thaa  the  light  srinca  ot  BiU* 
liaiee  asually  were,  and  eapeeially  in  view  of  the  dasK 
genua  tendency  to  intoxicating  habit*  involved  in  tha 
use  of  wine  as  a  beverage,  not  only  to  tbe  drinker,  ba 
to  bis  family  and  friends,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  tht 
wisest  and  most  Christian  couiss  ia  to  abataio  irhol^ 
flora  it.  This  ia  in  aceordanee  with  the  apoalnlic  pa*. 
ceptofadF-restraint  (1  Cor.  viii,  IB), 

2.  There  is  do  poaitive  proof  that  th«  fluid  >aed  bf 
our  LiKd  in  instituting  the  sacted  ooaimoBiDn  vaa  al- 
cobolic;  it  is  nowhere  expressly  called  wine,  but  ainqd^ 
tbe  "  fruit  of  the  vine  "  (Matt,  xxvi,  19).    That  it  was 

IVnm  the  tact  that  this  was  the  oislomary  liqiiar  oiftfea 
Jews  in  the  Psaaovcr  mal.  as  we  learn  trom  thr  dcfiaitw 
prescription  of  the  Talmud  ("There  shall  not  be  lesa 
than  fanr  cupa  of  wine  "  [ydyia],  Hiahna,  Faaek.  x,  1^ 
Many  modem  Jewa,  it  ia  uid,  use  the  liquor  of  stored 
ninna  tat  paschal  pnrpoaee;  but  there  is  bo  trace  of 


we  coDuder  aarsdvaa  M 
liberty  to  vary  the  kind  of  bread  (originally  iiiihai 
ened),  the  posture  of  tbo  connnunkant,  and  other  bb- 
eaacDtial  detaila,  to  auit  tbe  oonvcniesce  cf  tbe  occaasea 
and  the  partiea.  These  considentiina  ve  undaubtedljr 
of  the  gravest  eh  '     ' 


tbe  c&mmaniOD-lBbliv  when  the  taste  or  fumea  of  ako- 
bol are  liable  ta  Terive  tbdr  afipetita.  11^  aa  it  ta  gv- 
ftdently  claimed  by  nsany,  nnfsnneiUad  fcrape-juiee  can 
be  (Hccureil  at  a  moderate  cost  aad  witlKnt  great  io- 
cnnrenience,  and  can  be  preserved  with  ordiiuiry  cafe  a 
sufficient  length  of  time,  and  is  sot  offeanve  ta  iha 
■enae,  or  otherwise  particularly  obJectionaUe^  then  ia 
DO  reason  why  cerefoonioua  acnipka  should  be  alkmed 
to  stand  in  the  way  of  it*  emfdoymena.  Wbelber  in- 
dividuals not  Busoeplible  (o  such  a  danger  a*  the  abinm 
are  excusable  in  withholding  tbcmseWce  from  tbe  cimd- 
munion  where  alcoholic  wine  is  used,  is  quite  another 
question,  which  it  docs  not  lie  witbin  the  ao^  of  thil 
anicle  to  discuss. 

IT.  JLiteradire.— This  Is  qolte  copioo.  We  mearisoo, 
in  addition  to  the  works  noticed  above,  only  the  Bsast 
important  and  modem.  General  treatiasa  on  Ibe  m^a^ 
facture,  etc,  of  winea  have  been  written  bv  Tliaihsw 
(Lend  ISSl),  Bedding  (ibid.  ISbl),  Denoan'  (itod.  1864), 
Thndicham  (ibid.  1872), and  otbeTS,but  tbey  are  chidy 
of  a  commercial  ebaraeler.  The  moral  aspects  at  Iht 
Bidiject  have  been  considered  in  mimberieas  book*  aa4 


WI^EBRENNER  10 

Oet.tBt9;  ■nd  tlw  SOfiaana  iffami,  Jan.  1S69 ;  Jtn^ 
April,  uid  June,  1880.  Dr.  F.  B.  Lee*  in  rarioiu  works, 
bu  UTDnglf  UHTted  tint  tbe  wine*  of  iutiquit7  wtre 
Urgeij  iwn  -  ilcotiulic,  and  thU  vif w  hu  inaulioiuly 
beui  mtnpMd  bj-  Hireral  luer  wTite^^  as  Idtcliie,  Mun, 
SUurt,  Bunu,  etc„  and  b*  many  temperance  adTOcate*; 
bat  it  haa  been  powerfaUy  ognbaMd  by  oUMtt,  eape- 
ciall;  Taltam,  CnMby,  and  aolMlara  generally.  The 
lateat  and  onat  eompleu  titadae  m  thla  quaKtoa  ti 
tbmt  of  Wibon,  Tike  Wmtt  of  l^e  Biile  (Load.  1877), 
which,  after  miautely  CKaminiug  all  tbe  clanical  and 
acripuiral  refertBc**,  arrirea  at  the  ttneliuioB  thafm 
flu-  aa  the  wine*  of  tbe  andenta  are  eonoenied,  wif/ir- 
amitUd  wns  if  a  mglk."  Tbe  tBort  of  aameoo,  Tk» 
Dieim  Lmxu  to  Wimi  <K.  Y.  1S80),  to  nwet  (Ua  tea- 


tradiding  the  aaodem  ia  feeble  and  onwonhy.  Tri*' 
tiain  obwrrea,  "AU  the  teriM  fx  wine  pn  Um  Bible] 
■m  naed  In  ealloeatiuu  wblcb  oleaily  tiMW  that  to- 

in  CTitieiani  for  tbe  pretence  tbat  the  aafermenleil  Juice 
of  the  gtape  wai  ordiniril}'  uatd"  Cffal.  Hiil.o/lie  Bi~ 
bit,  p.  411}.  Ad  article  by  Rev.  H.  Bumatead,  in  the 
BMiotitca  Sacra  for  January,  1881,  fairly  meets  tbe 
acientiSc,  philolngical,  and  moral  aipecu  of  the  "wine 
qaewion'MpreHnl«dbyReT.A.aRich,  D.D.,in  Che 
January,  April,  and  July  numbers  of  the  aame  joumaL 
It  ahowa,  at  leau,  that  alcohol  when  taken  in  modFr- 
ace  quanticy  and  in  its  natural  comhinatioiui,  is  not 
piO|»tly  a  poison,  but  is  assiniitated  and  healthily  dia- 
poeeil  of  in  digenion;  that  lirdih  denotes  the  pmduce 
of  tbe  vine  in  general,  while  yfyia  always  signiSei  the 
lice  of  the  ([rape ;  and  that  to  no  one  of  the 
ine  **  does  tbe  Bible  attach  an  indis- 
fsimioale  and  absolute  condemnatiDn.    See  Tektkb- 

^rinebranner,  Chriatisn,  a  German  Reformed 
Binister,  was  born  Feb.  7, 1789.  He  entered  tbe  minis- 
try in  1838  or  1839,  taking  cha^e  ofseretal  congrega- 
tion* in  Bedfiud  and  Hunlingdon  coanljes.  Fa.,  where 
taa  labored  nntil  1S4B.  After  tbis  'ime  he  was  not 
oonoected  with  tbe  Synod,  but  stJU  continued  to  preach 
luUil  the  time  of  hia  death,  at  Woodbuiy,  Pa.,  Feb.  IS, 
1858.  SeeHarbaugh,/'a(Ae»o/'deC;enn.Af/:aUreA, 
iT,«l. 

WlnabiamiM',  Jolm,  an  American  clergyman, 
waa  bom  in  Frederick  County,  Hd.,  March  ib,  1797. 
Ha  begaD  bis  ministry  in  tbe  German  Hefornied 
Cbnrch,  baving  ebaige  of  foot  oongregations  in  and 
near  Hairisbai^,  Pa.,  but,  owing  to  adiSnenoa  of  opin- 
ion In  legard  to  nvivals,  be  withdrew  from  hii  lonDer 
aflniations,  and  estahllsbed  a  new  dennmination  whkb 
he  called  "The  Church  of  <iod,''bnt«hiehigcoaiiDanly 
known  aa  the  Winebrennarians.  See  Ciiubch  or  God. 
Mr.  Winebrenner  waa  for  aeveral  yean  editor  of  The 
Ckmre*  Adeocalt.  His  death  occurred  SepL  IS,  1860. 
He  pnnlished,  in  eonnection  with  I.  B.  Rupp,  Tie  Hitloty 
q;  »UUu  Siiigioui  DemmiHalioni  in  the  United  SlaUt 
(184t).  He  also  published,  Bri^  Viae  of  ihi  Chard 
Iff  God:— X  work  on  SyeMTOiian: — The  Htfennceand 
Pnnnuwaag  Tala»ait:—RtBiBai  /ffem-booi: — Prac- 
lieal  ami  Doctriiiai  Senvmi .- — and  other  works. 

WlDor,  Gmno  BDm>icT,  a  Ronian  theologian 
aad  author,  whoee  work  is  of  permanent  ralne  to  the 
Chiatsh  DO  leas  for  what  it  acoompliabed  dinctly  than 
fbr  th*  indinot  reaolta  obtained  throogh  its  jnfiuence 
over  th*  improrement  of  Biblical  seienoe.  lie  was  bom 
at  Laipele,  A|inl  IS,  1789,  of  parents  in  the  conimon 
walks  of  life,  was  cariy  orptacned,  and,  by  the  decease 
of  an  aant  wbo  was  the  last  of  hi*  relatiTes  to  aiaame 
Ae  cbarge  of  his  childhood  yean,  eipoeed  to  such  pen- 
ury as  depriTed  him  of  suffloieot  and  proper  food,  and 
fiUiged  him  to  do  without  books  nmetaaty  to  his  ooune 
in  the  St.  NieoUi  School  of  his  native  town.  He  ob- 
tained a  Qreck  gnmmar  by  writing  it  out,  and  thus 
btgao  the  philolagical  labcn  in  wbich  he  was  in  tim* , 


17  WINER 

to  become  a  master  and  win  an  imparisbahle  repntation. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  scientific  contests  of  the 
students,  and  acqaired  lucb  proBciency  in  the  Helnew 
language  aa  enabled  bira  to  becotne  tbe  instructor  of 
penons  older  ibsn  himself.  His  teachers  embodied 
words  prophetic  of  his  coming  imponance  *■  ■  sclwlai 
in  hi*  certificate  of  graduation. 

In  1817  Winei  began  the  academical  oueei  which 
eKteodrd  over  forty  years  of  industrious  and  oasful  la- 
bor. Nine  of  these  yean — 182S-S2 — weieipTen  to  the 
University  of  ErUngen,  where  he  was  professor  of  the- 
ology, and  all  tbe  remaining  year*  to  Leipsic  He  lect- 
ured oa  theological  methodology,  and,  beaidei,  on  aob- 
Jects  drawn  from  every  section  of  esegetical,  systematic, 
and  even  practical  theology.  Ia  hietorical  tfaeobigy  he 
confined  his  lectutea  to  the  hiatoiy  of  theologica]  sei- 
enon.  Tbe  general  worid  Itnows  him  only  through  bia 
writings,  and  acknowledges  his  influence  aa  a  compel- 
benaively  and  profwuidly  learned  nun  and  a  thoroughly 
acieuliflc  character ;  but  the  students  wbo  thronged  bis 
tecture-ioam  to  the  very  end  of  bis  public  life  bar  tes- 
timony to  the  power  of  his  clear  oral  statements  and  to 
bis  decided  sympathy  for  all  that  is  pure  and  good,  aa 
also  to  hi*  serious  and  pronounced  religious  chaiacter, 
:d  to  precede  or  follow  bis  lectures 
in  which  he  surveyed,  oden  with  truly 
prophetic  vision,  the  movement  of  eveuta  in  the  woHd 
or  the  Church ;  and  on  those  occauoos  be  often  roee  to 
tbe  regions  of  true  impainoned  eloquence,  and  wrought 
impresuone  wbicb  bis  bearers  were  not  likely  to  forgcld 
It  remains  to  be  added  that  hia  tendency  was  thoroughly 
orthodox,  aitd  tbat  sU  bisimpnlsea  gnw  out  of  his  per- 
fect devotion  to  moral  goodness.  He  was,  however,  too 
earnest  a  lover  of  truth  to  engage  in  tbe  buildii^  of 
original  syttems  wbicb  can  only  be  founded  in  air,>inc« 
tbeit  antbois  will  not  recogniie  tbe  aoundness  of  any 
trach  tbat  is  old  and  approved,  and  also  too  devoted  to 
tbe  aervtce  of  truth  to  endorse  and  repeat  the  iM  umply 

Of  tbe  written  products  of  his  life  a  small  number  be. 
long  to  the  deparlcoentof  qmubolica — namely,  the  Ctm- 
foraiive  DarileUiaig  dee  Lekriegr^gk  da-  vtredaedeKea 
cktiitiidtot  Kireh^arteitn  (ISM,  3  ad.  1887),  a  thot. 
oughly  BcieatiSc  work;  —  his  edition  id  the  Aagitmrg 
Cm/aeion,  with  notes  (1825)  :-«nd  two  sddresses  on  tbe 
idea  ofthe  Church  as  conuined  in  the  creeds  (ISSK-U)! 
In  biblii^aphy  his  Hamlbiiek  dir  Ihtobiffieelien  IMtra- 
n(r(18il,Sd  ed.  1838-10, 2  vols. ;  and  suppleme^^  184-2) 


ble  for  its  brief  bu^raphies  of  autbon.  The  central  ob- 
ject, however,  about  which  all  of  Winer's  literary  ao. 
tivity  turned  was  the  Bible.  Kotooly  had  mast  of  hia 
works  referenoB  to  the  Bible,  but  bis  most  original,  mei^ 
itorious,  and  permanently  useful  work  for  theology  waa 
done  in  the  field  of  Biblical  science.  He  barely  touched 
upon  Biblical  tbeology  indeed,  and  gave  but  pusing  at- 
tention to  either  tbe  bwei  or  the  bigber  critidsm ;  but 
in  iugogical  science  be  contributed  valuable  paper*  to 
tbe  elucithuion  of  quealions  respecting  versions  of  th* 
Old  Teat.,  e.  g.  the  cberacter  of  the  ^maritan  Penta- 
teuch, the  value  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrase*,  especi»lly 
of  Oukeloa  and  Psendo-Jouathan.  The  intar|aetatioD 
of  Scripture  engaged  his  attention  more  than  any  other 
«ludy.  He  expounded  all  tbe  hooka  of  the  Hew  Teet. 
before  bia  classes.  But  of  the  reeulta  of  his  labors  hs 
gave  the  world  no  considerable  quantity — a  single  book, 
the  EpitlU  to  lie  Gala/iant  (1821, 3  ed.  1829),  and  seo- 
tiont  (Tom  other  epistles  constituting  the  whole.  A* 
the  fruit  of  a  whole  life  given  to  the  study  of  exege- 
sis this  is  exceedingly  little.  But  in  the  discussion  of 
matten  of  fact  from  Scripture  history  be  was,  on  the 
other  band,  verj-  busy  with  his  pen.  He  wrote  disserta- 
tions on  the  taking  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchadne»»ar{1848); 
on  the  question  whether  the  tilwyoy  of  Jeans  and  bia 
disciples  (John  xlii)  were  a  Passover  supper  or  not 
(1847)  i  on  whether  the  feet  of  cruciaed  penons  wen 
nailed  to  th*  cnaa  or  not  (1846),  etc    Hia  Bibludui 


WINES  10 

RtidiBdrlrrbaeli,  flniUj^,  ts  a  comprebeniire  and  thorougb 
dictiatuuy,  in  ■Iphibetical  onUr,  of  isilerial  objcclB, 
cvenu,  etc,  bdonging  to  Biblical  Kicuee — >  poaitive 
inin«  of  liislorical,  geognphiu),  Wchaalogic*!,  and 
pbyncal  informaticm. 

Ofuill  gmler  value  for  theological  acience  wei 
oontribiitioiu  M  the  Mudy  of  the  laoguagea  or  the  Kble 
— whether  lexical  or  grammaticaL  He  culiivated  the 
0I<1-Tiwt.  Chaldee  with  ipKiil  fondneH.  Id  1B24  he 
publiahed  GrammaUt  det  biilitchei  und  targamitchm 
CiaJdaitmai  (2d  ed.  1843).  and  in  1825  a  Chaldit  Read- 
er. In  1826  he  issued  ■  Bpecimen  Ltxtei  HOraia,  and 
in  18S8  a  compleM  Ltxicrm  of  Iht  l/rbrra  and  Chal- 
dte  Langaagrij  bajied  on  ■  reTidoa  of  the  HaniKarteT" 
back  bj  Simon  and  Eichhoro.  The  most  imponaot 
or  all  bia  worJu  ii,  however,  uoqneatioDably  the  Gram- 
vtatik  da  naiteMtamaOiicha  Sprac\idiomi,  tu^  (1622, 
and  ofteii).  It  waa  rendered  into  Engliab  b;  American 
Bcholaia  in  182G,  and  baa  aiuee  appeared  in  repeated 
ediliona,  which  confono  to  Che  changea  introduced  in 
the  onginal  from  time  M  timci  and  it  waa  tranilatcd 
intA  Soediab  in  1827,  The  merit  of  ihia  work  conaiala 
In  ila  demonatiating  lliat  tbe  atructure  of  the  Greek 
language  ii  preaerved  in  the  forma  and  idioma  of  the 
New-T»t.  Ungnige,  and  that  vague  awumptiona  of  the 
Hebraizing  character  of  New-Teal.  Greek,  and  unre- 
strained wilfulnesa  in  ila  interpretation,  are  out  of  place, 
Tbe  work  bad  ita  inception  in  a  epirit  of  rcTerence  for 
the  Bible  snd  in  eameat  love  of  truth,  and  it  haa 
■ehieved  gratifying  results  in  th«  inare  ajatemalic 
netlioda  of  interpretatiou,  the  profoander  and  yet  tnore 
elevated  modes  of  expoation,  which  it  helped  to  intro- 
duce, A  year  after  the  appearance  of  the  Grammatik^ 
Winer  publiahed  a  BtUrag  tut  V'eriaiennig  der  not- 
letlamailUcioi  IxzihogrojAit,  and  he  had  made  extend- 
ed preparaliona  for  a  New-TeaL  lexicon;  bnthewaanot 
permitted  to  enter  on  the  writing  of  thia  work.  His 
sight  failed  during  tbe  laat  five  years  uf  his  life.  His 
last  courae  of  lectures,  on  the  doctrinal  ind  ethical  princi- 
ples of  Pratestanliam  and  Roman  Catbolidsm,  was  deliv- 
ered in  the  winter  Una,  1867-68  \  and  after  a  violent  ill- 
neas  ofaix  days'  duration,  ho  died.  May  12, 1868,  and  was 
buried  two  day*  afterwarda,  amid  the  lamentaliona  of 
the  nniverdty  and  tbe  entire  town,— Herzog,  A«^£'n- 

Wlnea,  Ehoch  Cobb,  D.D.,  a  Preabyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Hanover,  N,  J.,  Feb.  17, 1806.  He 
graduated  at  Hiddlebury  College  in  1837,  aller  which 
be  entered  Che  navy  as  chaplain  and  teacher  of  mid- 
shipmen in  the  United  Statea  ahtp  "  Conaiellalion,''  vis- 
iting many  foreign  countries,  and  vrriting  an  interesting 
work  entitled  Two  Yeart  and  a  Half  in  the  A'aiy;  or, 
A  Journal  of  a  Cruitt  tn  lAe  MedilrrroittOH  and  Letani 
(Phils.  1829-31).  He  anerwards  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Uuriington,  N.  J.,  and  alto  of  EaaC  Hampton, 
L.  L,  which  be  resigned  to  become  principsi  of  tbe 
Edgehill  Seminaty,  Princeton,  N.  J.  He  was  subse- 
quently prafHsor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  in 
tbe  Central  High-school  of  Pbiladelpbia,  and  in  1854 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Waahingcon  College, 
Po.,  and  in  1859  in  the  Uoiveiaity  of  St.  Louia.  In 
1863  he  entered  upon  the  work  which  made  him  eml- 
DCQl  aa  a  philanthropist  and  specialise  in  prison  reform. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  New  York  Priaon  Reform 
Association,  and  anerwarda  of  the  National  Association. 
He  was  iiiscnimental  in  tbe  appointment  of  congresaea 
for  prison  reform  in  Europe  (viuting  that  country  re- 
peatedly from  1871  to  1875)  and  America,  which  ac- 
complished much  good  in  rousing  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  world  to  thia  benm'olenC  objecC.  He  died  aC 
Cambridge,  Maaa^  Dec  10, 1879.  Dr.  Wines  made  im- 
portant conCributiona  to  religious  licentute,  and  tbe  last 
work  on  which  he  was  engaged  was  in  seeing  through 
the  Riverside  Press  at  Cainbridge,  Uass.,  bia  book  en- 
tided  lie  Stale  ofPriioiu  and  if  ChUd-iatbig  Imfilu- 
iVMU  Ihroaghovl  the  World.  He  bad  prepared  another 
book  which  waa  ready  tot  the  press,  under  the  tide  of 


18  wmsLow 

Complele  n  Cktil.  Hia  wo^  in  addilian  to  tboa 
menlioned,are,,4  Tr^  to  fioatoo  (BoaC  1838,  12dw)i— 
Three  Halt  on  a  Sgitem  of  Popular  Educatiim  (Fliila. 
eod.  Unto):  — Bote  ShaU  I  Goran  my  Schootf  (end. 
I3ina),  addressed  to  young  taachera: — Laurt  to  Sduet 
Children  (BoaL  IBmo)  !—Cammmtane$  on  the  LtMm*  <^ 
At  A  lacMitf  Ifebrewt,  mli  aa  Mrmbictoiy  Tasiij  ■■ 
Oicil  Socielf  and  Govemmait  (N.  T.  1852,  8vo).  Thia 
work  passed  through  five  editions :_  J  dan  and  Ckriit; 
or.  The  Dodrim  of  RrpittnlMion  Staled  and  Erptaimd 
(1866,  \limo):  —  Prelacf  and  Parilg  Ditetatd  (TS.  J. 
l2mo)  -.—The  True  PtmUut  Porlraytd,  etc  (Philm.)  -.— 
TTtalit  en  Regtnemlvn  (N.Y.  1863,  l2mo);^7V 
/Voniuao/'6'9d(PhiIa.l8G8,lBmo):— i7juyi«7'a>if<»' 
Hon  (1865,  12rio).  He  has  also  pnbUahed  a  Dumln  of 
A  ddreuei,  and  contributed  to  the  A  mer.  Qiiar.  Rew^  A'ord 
A  mer.  Qaar.  Rev.,  Biblical  Repaiilorf,  Bihliotktea  Sacra, 
Knicttrioekfr,  etc  See  N.  7.  Obtemr,  Dec  18,  1S79; 
hUniatit,Diel.ofBri:.aiidAmer.AiilhorM,».v.  (W.P.S.). 

Wing  (prop.  r[9X,  rripvl).  By  thia  word  the  He- 
brews understood  not  only  the  wings  of  birds,  bat  also 
tbe  lappet,  ekirt,  or  flap  of  a  garment  (Bath  iii,  9 ;  Jei. 
ii,  84),  the  extremity  of  a  country  (Job  xxxviii,  I3i 
Iia.iiiv,  16);  figuratively,  the  wings  of  the  wind  (nL 
xviii,  10),  aunbeam  (MaL  iv,  S)j  and,  metaphoricallT, 
protection  or  defence  (Ualt.xxiii,87).  God  aaya  thai 
he  haa  borne  his  people  on  the  wings  of  eagles  (Exod. 
xxi,4iBeealiaDeul.ixxii,ll);  that  ta,  be  had  bra^ht 
them  out  of  Egypt  sa  an  eagle  carries  its  young  am 
upon  ita  wings.  The  prophet  begs  of  Uod  to  protect 
tbem  nuder  his  wings  (Psa.  xvil,  8),  and  ia\t  thai  (ha 
children  of  men  put  their  trust  in  tbe  protection  of  bia 
wings  (xxxvi,  7).  Isaiah,  speaking  of  the  army  of  tba 
kings  of  Israel  and  Syria  who  were  coming  agaioat  Jn- 
dab,  aaya, "  The  atrelching  out  of  hia  wings  shall  iB 
tbe  breadth  of  thy  land,  O  Immanuel"  (viii,  8). 

Wing,  M.  T.  C,  D,D.,  a  pmfeaaoT  of  the  Proteataat 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Vermont  in  1798,  and 
died  at  Gambler,  O.,  Feb.  26,  1863.  Dr.  Wing  waa  ■ 
graduate  of  Hlddlebuiy  College,  and,  after  studying  at 
tbe  Theolo^cal  Seminary,  Alexandria,  Va.,  becaine  a 
tutor  in  Kenyon  College,  O.  At  the  time  of  bis  death 
he  was  professoT  of  eodeaiastical  hisloiy  in  tbe  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Gambier.  Sea  Amer.  Qnar.  Cttrrdk 
Ra.  April,  1868,  p.  162. 

^Vlnlfred,  the  apostle  of  Germany.    See   Bmd- 

Wlnkalmami,  FsaDRiiKnt  T.,  D.D.,  an  Am«ricaB 
clergyman  and  leaeber,  was  profeasDr  of  l^lin,  FTeueb, 
and  German  in  the  Packer  Odlegiate  InatilDte,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  in  a  pdylecbnic  school  in  Nor  Tok 
city.    He  died  in  1865. 

Winnowing.    See  AoBiccTLTtnuL 

^Vlnslow,  Gordon,  U.D.,  D.D.,  a  clei^msD  of 
the  ProteacinC  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  WiDi*- 
ton,  V^  in  1804.  His  preliminary  education  wu  ac- 
quired at  Andaver,  Uaas.,  and  he  graduated  at  Tale 
in  both  the  collegiate  and  theological  departmeoti,  be- 
coming a  Congregational  miniater.  In  1886  be  entend 
the  E^lealanC  Episccqwl  communion,  and  waa  ordained 
deacon  in  that  year.  His  first  parish  waa  St.  Jolui^ 
Tniy,  N.  Y.,  from  which  ha  went,  in  1BB8,  to  Trinity 
Church,  Elmira,  N.  Y. ;  and  in  1841  becasie  mtor  of  Sc 
Ann's  Parish,  Annapolis,  Nd.  In  1846  he  ammed  ibe 
pastorate  of  Sl  Panl'a  Pariah  on  Stalen  Island,  and  a  fcv 
years  after,  though  atill  rector  of  St.  Paul's,  was  chap- 
lain at  the  Quarantine.  At  tbe  beginning  of  (he  Civil 
War  he  waa  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Filth  New  York 
Regiment,  and  served  two  yean.  When  the  Sanitarf 
Commiasion  waa  establiabed,  he  was  ita  inifiector  fix 
tbe  Army  of  the  Potomac  It  was  while  aooecnpaay- 
ing  his  wounded  son,  GoL  Cleveland  Winslow.  that  he 
met  with  tbe  accident  which  Rsoltrd  in  hia  death. 
Headed  as  aide-de-camp  to  Haj.-Gen.  Warren  in  iimiij 
bsldesk    He  died  nniveraally  rcgreucd,  June  7,  ISt^ 


being  drowned  by  fillUig  ovetboud  Inm  ■  ateunn 
the  month  of  ibe  Polonuc    See  Amtr.  Qaar,  CImreA 
Anr.Ocl.l8«,p.4Si. 

IVUulow,  Hubbard,  D.D^  ■  Fresbf  MiUd  i 
vine,  brntbet  of  Dn.  Gordon  and  Mvron,  wu  born 
WUIiMoii,  Vt^  Oct.  80, 1799.     He  prepued  fur  college 
at    Phillip!  AodeiDj,  AndoTCT,  Mua.;  grvtiutcd 
Yale  College  in  ISib ;  Mudied  Ibeology  it  Keo  Havi 
preached  at  Litcb Held,  Conn.,  in  ie'^7-28i  wu  puUii 
nf  the  First  Congiegitionsl  Church  at  Dover,  N.  H, 
tn»n  lBi8  to  18SI,  and  of  ibe.Bowdain  Street  Cbureh, 
BoMnn,  rrom  1832  M  1S44;  travelled  in  Europe;  waa 
principal  of  the  Haunt  Vernon  InUltuU  for  Vuung  La- 
dies, Boslon,  from  1B44  to  1853 ;  visCed  the  educa^nal 
institutions  of  Europe  in  1B63;  edited  for  a  time  the 
St^giout  JVu#aiiiK,beudeicoDlrihuling  U>  Tariouaoth' 
«r  periodicala;  gaiDCd  coniiderable  repute  aa  a  polemi- 
cal theolngiaii;  was  much  employed  ai  a  platform  lect- 
am-  on  Tariouii  [opia;  preached  to  the  Fint  Preaby- 
terian  Church  at  Genera,  N.  T„  Irom  1867  to  1869 ;  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Fiftieth  Street  Preebyterian  Church, 
New   York  city,  in   1861;   and  died  at  Williston."  . 
Aag.  13,  1864.'    He  publiahed,  Controvertitil  TAtiilogy 
{1832}  -.—Ditcoarta  on  llie  Kalure,  Eeidaier,  and  Mond 
Value  of  lie  Dortrne  of  tile  Trimly  (1831)  i  —  CAru- 
rtnmty  Applied  to  our  Social  and  Civtf  Dutia  (18SS) 
Taung  Mat'i  Aid  la  Kroaltdge  {1886):— .*n  i'uu 
CkrieHant  an  Aid  Ic  Self-exanimatiOH  {l8S6):—ifal- 
lat  Cultixia&m  (iSS^'i-.—Deiigti  and  Mode  of  Baptittn 
(1843)  :—Tht  CkriMian  DodriKt  (I8H)  ■^ElanaU  of 
Imtrttedaal  Phili-nphy  (  1851 ):  — £fenentf  of  Moral 
PAUotopif,  AnafyOeal,  Synthetical  (1866)  ^— and  other 

IVlnalO^  Hjion,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Coti- 
gregational  miaaiotvary,  waa  bom  at  WiiliHon,  Vl,  Dec 
11,1789.  HewaaoftheiameBlockastbe  twagorem- 
araWin>lowofHa8HKhD•ett■,Bndthe  Kenelm  Winslow 
mcDtianed  In  the  Engliah  hiiloiy  of  the  16ch  centnTy. 
At  the  age  of  foarleen  he  enleted  a  atore  ta  a  clerk,  and 
Anally  ettabliahed  himself  in  bnaineae  in  Norwich,  Coon. 
During  thia  period  he  waa  converted,  and  convictiona 
that  he  ought  to  preach  to  the  nneringeliaed  nations 
look  boh)  upon  him.  AbandoDing  a  profitable  boainea^ 
he  entered  college  and  graduated  at  Uiddlehniy  in  I81B, 
■ltd  Andover  Theok^cal  Seminary  in  1818.  He  vraa 
ordained  as  a  missionary  in  Salem,  Mass.,  with  Pliny 
Pisk  and  others.  Nov.  4, 1818,  and  in  the  following  year 
embarked  al  lt<wton,arriving  at  Calcutta  in  five  montba. 
He  took  up  his  residence  in  Oodooville,  Ceylon,  in  1830, 
where  he  labored  aeventoen  yeara,  founding  a  secoinary 
and  otherwiae  consolidating  the  miasion.  In  I8B6  be 
waa  transferred  to  Madras.  His  hiograpby  during  bis 
rendence  in  India  would  be  no  less  than  the  history  of 
the  mianons  there.  He  founded  the  Madras  Misaion; 
waa  general  secretary  and  financial  agent  of  that  and 
Mbet  missions:  was  president  of  Madras  College  from 
1840,  and  head  of  all  the  native  acfaoola ;  had  the  care 
of  a  native  church  of  several  hundred  members ;  saper- 
viaed  the  printing  and  editing  of  varioos  educational 
and  religious  works  in  the  Tamil  language;  and  waa  at 
the  time  of  hia  death  the  oldest  misaionarv  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board  of  CommianoQeis  for  Foreign  HiasionSk  He 
liied  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  on  hia  way  to  America, 
Uct.»,  I8&1. 

Df.Winslow  wrote  the  following!  l/iitonf  of  Miaiont 
(Andover,  1819,  IJnw,  4SS  pp.)  -.^Hintt  on  Mitnem  to 
ladia  (N.  Y,  18S6,  8vo):— .1  Comprrtiouivt  Tamil  and 
Eitglitk  DietionoTf  of  Higk  and  Loia  Tamil  (Madras, 
1862,  4tD).  "This  work  baa  received  the  eneomiuma 
uf  native,  Engliah,  and  American  scholars,  and  ranks 
second  to  no  other  philological  achievement  of  the  aice. 
Nut  merely  for  the  profound  acholarshtp  displayed  in  ita 
paxes,  but  for  the  vast  influence  it  exerts  in  civiliiing 
and  Christianizing  India,  has  i(  called  forth  the  thanks 
of  the  religious  world.  In  the  preparation  and  com- 
pletion of  this  work,  Dr,  Winslow  spent  upward*  of 


19  WISDOM 

twenty  years  of  contmuons  toiL  It  has  one  tbonund 
page^  three  columns  to  s  page,  and  conuins  uny- 
eight  thousand  words  and  deflnitiona.  Of  these  nearly 
half  owe  tbeir  lexicographic  birth  and  position  to  the 
author.  The  dictionary  contains  the  mythological, 
astrological,  scientiflc,  official,  and  poetic  terms  of  the 
Tamil;  names  of  heroes,  gods,  authors,  eta,  and  geo- 
graphical and  historical  information,  thus  funning  an 
eneydopBdia  of  Tamil  leaming.''  Dr.  Winslow  is  aud 
to  have  devoted  more  study  to  the  E^astem  languages 
than  any  other  American.  He  also  conducted  a  con- 
tinuous cmreapondence  for  forty  years  with  the  Mit- 
lionaij  Htraid,  ]f,  ¥.  Obtnrrr,  and  other  publicationa, 
Several  Sermoai  and  AddnaeM  were  published  in 
painphlet.  Dr.  Winslow  waa  five  times  married.  Jfe> 
moiri  of  two  of  his  wives  and  one  of  his  children  were 
puMiahed.  See  Coaj.  QMarlerb/,  186B,  p.  209 ;  AppUUmJ 
Amual  Csdop.  1864,  p.  814;  Allibone,  DicL  of  BriL 
and  A  nuT.  A  ulion,  a.  r. 

Wlnatanley.  Tkohas,  D.p.,  a  (Aurch  of  Eng- 
land divine,  waa  bom  in  1749.  He  studied  at  Brasenoae 
CoUege,and  afterwards  became  fellow  ofHertford.  He 
took  his  degree  orA.H.  in  1774;  published  an  edition 
of  the  Potiiet  of  Aristotle;  waa  appointed  principal  of 
St  Alban's  HaU  in  1797;  took  his  degrees  of  B.D.  and 
D.D.  in  1798,  and  about  this  time  became  Laudian  pro- 
feasor  of  Arabic,  Camden  professor  of  ancient  history, 
and  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  ia  September, 
1B28.     See  CArufun  RemeairaiKer,  1828,  p.  628. 

Winter  (prop.  ^nt},Mtb!>t,CanLii, 111  butosoaily 
C|^ri,  eMnpi,  which  is  strictly  autumn,  the  seaaon  of 
ripeness ;  Gr.  xuiiuiv,  the  raiiai  aeaaon).  In  Palealine, 
part  of  autumn  and  the  seaeoos  of  seed-time  and  cold, 
extending  from  the  banning  of  September  to  the  be- 
ginning of  Marcb,  were  called  winter  (Gen.  viii,  29;  Psa. 
Ixxiv,l7;  Zech.iiv,8;  Jer.  xxxvi,  22).  The  culd  of 
winter  is  not  usually  very  severe,  though  the  north  winds 
trom  the  middle  of  December  to  the  middle  of  Febmaiy 
are  exceedingly  penetrating.  Snow  falls  more  or  less, 
but  seldom  lies  upon  the  ground,  except  in  tbe  moun- 
tains (Psa.  cxivil,  17).  In  abady  places  the  ice  will  oc- 
casionally bear  a  man's  weight,  but  thaws  as  soon  as  the 
sun  rises  upon  it.  In  tbe  plain  of  Jericho  the  winter  is 
more  genial  tbsn  the  spring  of  nortbem  countries,  while 
in  the  mountainous  counuj  around  Jerusalem  it  is  often 
more  inclement  than  might  be  expected  (Matt,  xzlv, 


20). 


I  tbis  M 


>nthen 


■tfuri 


experienced  si 

their  streams  fill  Lhei 

ning  are  frequent.    Towards  the  end  of  Ji 

Oelda  become  green,  and  there  is  evei^  appaarance  of 

approaching  spring.     The  last  rains  fall  in  the  early 

part  of  April;  it  is  still  cold,  bnt  less  so,  and  the  spring 

may  be  said  to  have  arrived  (Cant,  ii,  11).    See  Cal- 

dCAn;  Fauestinb;  SEAioit. 

Winter,  Robert,  D.D..  an  Engliah  Diswnting  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  London  in  1T62,  aud  waa  pastor  at 
New  Court,  Carey  Street,  from  1806  until  his  death,  in 
1888.  He  published /'(iJtoraJ  £«(cn  on  A'onan/onHi^, 
and  several  single  Sermani,  Bee  (Lond.)  Gealleman'e 
Magoiine,  18S8,  ii,  277, 
WlntflT,  Sunnel,  D.D.,  an  Engliab  clergyman, 
■a  bom  in  1608 ;  became  provost  of  Tiioity  College, 
Dublin,  and  died  Dec  29, 1666. 

Wisdom  (prop,  nasn,  cAohmH,  ao^a),  in  a  geo- 
al  sense,  ia  a  comprehenaive  knowledge  of  things  in 
tbeir  proper  nature  and  relations,  together  with  tbe 
power  of  combining  them  in  tbe  most  useful  msnner. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  the  term  "  wisdom"  comprehended 
■  cle  of  virtues  and  mental  endowments  (Exod. 
;  xxxi,  6 ;  1  Kings  iii,  38 ;  iv,  29^.34),  and  ila 
iport  in  the  Scripturea  can  only  be  ascertained 
by  a  close  attention  to  the  context.     See  Foou 

1.  It  is  used  to  express  the  ondenianding  or  knowl- 
edge of  things,  both  human  and  divine,  chieBj  in  a 


WISDOM  OF  JESUS  10 

pnetieal  lod  man]  uput,  tt^adtllj  tn  tba  Pulmi, 
PniTWt^  and  tba  book  of  Job,  It  wu  thi>  wudon 
vbich  SokmOD  coMUed  and  reoeivtd  of  God,  tipe- 
dalW  ia  ■  garenuuaaUl  MWB. 

t.  [t  it  pul  fur  ingaouit]',  skill,  dexlcrity,  a*  in  Um 
eaaa  of  Uk  artiOMft  BcnlMl  and  AbuUab  (£ud.  zxviii, 
8;  xxxi,  a> 

8.  WUdoiD  if  Mcd  foe  nbtitty,  oaft,  atntagem, 
wbMbcT  good  or  aTiL  Pbaraob  ^alt  ibm«%  with  the 
bnelilci  (Exod.  i,  10).  Jooad^  wai  racy  wiae,  L  & 
MbUeaiulcraftr(SS«m.xiii,B>,  In  Pnvaita  (sir,  8) 
it  ia  aaid, "  The  wiadom  of  the  pradeot  ii  to  uidontand 
Uawa;.' 

4.  It  Mauds  for  dacUiae,  l«BRiiiig,  c^ierienoc,  aa- 
gaeitj  (Job  xu,  2,  IS;  xxxTiii,S7;  Paa.cv,n). 

6.  It  i*  pat  aouatioMa  for  the  akill  or  aita  of  i 
ciwi*,wiunfa^fon(ui«-teUBi,*te.(Gen.xli,  8;  1 
Tii,ll:  EcelM.ix,17;  Jcr.l,S5). 

i.  The  wudoM  or  kirning  and  phikaopbjr  curreDt 
among  Cbe  Greaka  and  Romani  in  tbe  apoatolie  age, 
wbich  Mood  in  contraM  wicb  tbe  limplicity  of  the  Goa- 
pel,  uhI  Uoded  U>  draw  my  tbe  mindt  of  men  from 
diiine  trutb,  ia  called  "  fleshly  wiidoni"  (2  Cor.  i,  12}, 
"  wiadom  of  thia  world'  (1  Cor.  i,  30 ;  iii,  19),  and  "  wia- 
dom of  men''  (ii,  b). 

7.  In  reaprct  to  divine  tbinga,  wiidom,  L  e.  knowledge 
inaight,  deep  anderMaodtng,  ia  repreaenlcd  everyvhere 
aa  a  divine  gift,  including  tbe  idea  of  practical  applica- 
tion, aad  ia  tbiu  diatioguiabed  from  ttwonlical  knowl- 
edge (Acta  Ti,  10;  1  Cor.  xii,8;  £pb.  i,17i  Col.i,9i 
3  Tim.  ui,  1&;  Jameai,  fi;  Ii),  18,  IG,  17). 

Wiadom  OF  JESUS  (Son  or  Siracb),  Book  of. 
See  EociJist*«T:cii*. 

Wiadom  (Tm)  OF  SOLOUON,  Book  or,  one 
of  tbe  deulas-eaaoaieal  portlona  of  the  Okl  TeaL 
which  have  come  down  to  oa  1^  tradition  ai  the  pm- 
dwtion  of  the  aon  of  David.     Among  the  Apocryphal 


c*  (q.  v.).  See  AiMCarrHA. 
L  TUe  and  /WiftOH.— Thia  booii  ia  called  Sofia  Xo- 
XwfiWr  or  SaXa^iMTBC  (Alex.  CumpL),  L  e.  the  Wit- 
Jem  o/BoltmixM,  in  the  Sept.;  and  the  Gnat  Witdam 
of  Sotomon  in  tbe  Syiiac  retaion,  becauae  it  waa  an. 
cieatly  beliavod  to  have  been  wnUen  by  Solomon,  who 
therein  piopoandathe  lesaontof  wiadom.'  It  ia  deoom- 
Inatfld  UmriftTVt  Safia,  AH-virlaom  Witdowt,  an  ap- 
pallMioa  which,  thoogh  als*  give*  to  Proverba  aad 
Eodeaiaatiaia,  ia  eapedall}'  given  by  AthanatiDa  aod 


Mf^ofwiadoBi  than  either  of  tbe  otber  ao-called  8olo- 
naMOe  pn-daetiooa.  It  ia  called  J,  0tia  lo^a,  Sapimlia 
Dei,  bv  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Strom,  iv,  IS)  and  Ori- 
g:en  (On  Rom.  vii,  14).  In  the  Vulg.  it  ia  limply  called 
lAer  SapiaitiiF,  without  the  name  nT  Solomon,  beeaoM 
Jerome  diqrated  the  Soloatonic  autbonhip  of  it.  Tbe 
veraiona  til  the  Beforeiatioa  are  ditided  between  thoae 
apiieUaliau.  Tbo^  in  Luther'a  veraion  (1586),  tbe 
Gaoaran  vernon  (I^eO),  the  Biahnpa'  Bible  (1568),  and 
the  A.  V.  (ISII)  thU  book  ia  called  tbe  Witdam  of 
^sjoiwm.  according  lo  the  Sept. ;  while  the  Zurich  vei^ 
>ion  (1531),  Coverdale's  Bible  (\SS!.\  Matlhew't  Bible 
(lliST),  CromweU'g  Bible  (1633),Bnd  Cranmer'i  Bible 
(1&40)  denomiiute  it  Tht  Boot  of  WMom,  after  the 
Valg. 

Tba  book  ii  (daoad  in  the  Kept,  and  in  tbe  Ynlg. 
after  the  Song  of  Songa  and  before  Eecleaiaticua,  or 
immediately  after  the  canonical  prod  uctiona  of  Solomon, 
iiiwe  it  waa  believed  thai  it,  loo,  pmceedcd  from  tbia 
OMMUTeh.  Thoogh  all  tbe  tranalatiune  of  tbe  Kefor- 
mation  followed  the  example  of  Luiher'a  veiwon  in  aep- 
■nUing  the  deuten-canonical  from  the  canonical  hooka, 
yet  they  have  deviated  fhn  their  protntype  in 


!0         WISDOM  OF  SOLOMOy 

veiaion— which,  aa  naoal,  ia  followed  by  Covetdalc,  aaJ 
heagain  by  Cmmwd'a  Bible, Uattbew'aBiblcv the  K*. 
ops'  Bible,  and  Cranmer'i  Bible,aa  well  aa  the  Gcaan 

to  Either  and  Ecclesiaaticui. 

II.  Daign,Divuion,amlC<mUtti. — The  object  of  lUt 
book  ie  both  parmelical  and  apologetical.  It  eomfewi 
and  Btrengtbeni  tbe  faithful  who  are  diatractad  by  the 
inexplicabJc  difficulties  in  the  moral  govemmait  of  the 
world,  by  showing  them  tliat  whatever  aaftiiugt  aad 
taunu  they  have  tn  endnn,  both  fnwn  tbeir  apcanct 
brethrcD  and  tbeir  keathen  apprcsnnt  and  honcrct 
much  the  wicked  and  the  idolaters  may  preaper  ben, 
the  elect,  in  following  the  CooDteb  ofdivioe  wiadeaa,  Bin 
be  able  to  look  forward  with  Joy  to  a  fntor*  state  of 
ntribatioti,  where  the  righteous  Judge  will  render  la 
the  ungodly  according  In  their  deeds,  and  confer  ^a^ 
the  godly  a  bliaaful  imnxirtalily. 

rfais  purpose  is  de /eloped  In  three  aeetiooa,  tht  e«- 
tenla  of  which  are  aa  follows : 

1.  The  FinI  «r«m>  (1,1-Ti,  11),  which  contaim  lbs 
real  proUem  of  the  book,  opens  with  an  admoniiini  Is 
the  magnates  of  tbe  earth  to  follow  Ibe  patha  of  righl- 
omtDam,  rince  God  luily  reveals  bimaelf  to  and  abMa 
with  those  who  are  of  an  upright  faeait  (i,  1-C),tad 
duly  registers  the  deeds  of  the  wicked,  which  he  a4 
moat  assuredly  bring  before  tbe  bar  of  a  fntare  jnd^ 
ment  (ver.  T-'tS).  For  although  the  wicked  deny  lbs 
immortality  of  the  soul  (U,  1-6),  indulge  In  tbe  pltmuFts 
of  this  world  (vcr.  7-9),  and  peraecute  the  righteoui,d(- 
fying  God  to  defend  them  (ver.  10-24) ;  and  thongii  tb« 
caaeuf  the  godly  seema  almost  foriom,  yet  GodexeniNi 
a  special  care  over  bia  people,  whom  he  allnwi  to  bt 
chastised  in  order  to  pnrify  them  (iii,  1-7),  and  hm  da- 
tined  hit  aaiDla  to  jn^  the  ■olicna  of  the  earth,  md  la 
abide  forever  with  their  Lord  (rrr.  8,  9) ;  while  he  ha 
laid  np  condign  ponishnMOl  for  the  wicked  (ver.  10-18). 
The  wicked  who  have  large  fkmilies  are  tbenfcn  aat 
to  be  envied,  for  tbeir  children  onhr  petpatoate  thai 
wiokedaaaa  (iv,  1-7) ;  while  tbe  righteooa  who  an  saA- 
denly  overtaken  by  death  are  not  to  be  drploacd,  mbk 
honorabla  age  is  not  to  be  mtaaunri  by  leagth  of  yran 
bnl  by  boliiMas  of  cmdnet,  and  Mace  they  are  soos- 
tjmaa  suddenly  taken  away  toeacape  the  aoaicaof  tke 
wicked;  thus  showing  that  God^  nercy  ia  wiA  tit 
saints  even  in  their  untimely  death,  becaoae  they,  bar. 
ing  been  perfected  in  their  youth,  though  dead,  ipeat 
Dondemnation  to  the  wicked,  who  shall  at  last,  in  tkt 
gnat  dsyof  re(ribDti<B,bec«islTsined  to  amfess  it  (ver. 
8-30).  For  then  the  righteooa  shall  triumph,  and  ibt 
wicked  who  shall  witna  it  will  confcM  with  ongiid 
of  aaul  that  I  hey  have  acted  foolislily  aod  wickedly,  an4 
that  tboee  whom  they  have  derided  and  persecated  ia 
this  life  are  leslly  tbe  childien  of  God,  enjoy  a  gkiiiBs 
immortality,  and  deal  out  terrible  pnnishineDls  oa  Ibf 
ungodly  {v,  1-S8).    Having  shown  that  thia  ia  tbe  dsaa 

of  the  caith  with  whkb 
ing  that  the  fighteooa  JudiK 
who  Invealed  them  with  the  powers  tbcy  pnauii  wil 
soon  call  them  to  the  bar  of  hi*  judgment,  where  Ibeit 
ia  no  respect  of  peiaooa  (vi,  1-8) ;  and  tells  them  tba 
the  most  elhctual  way  to  obey  this  warning  is  to  lean 
divine  wiadom,  who  is  always  ready  in  be  ftnnd  gf 
those  that  seek  her  (ver.  9-14),  who  alone  is  tbe  mlot 
guide  in  this  worid,  and  leads  to  a  untoo  with  ibe  Crt- 
Btorin  the  world  to  oome  (ver.  16-31). 
8.  TItt  Seemi  StcHim  (vi,  SS-ix,  U 
■lesaintv  she 

be  obtained,  by  tbe  eapeii- 
CDCe  of  Solomon,  who  reoounta  it  himsrif  in  tbe  Sim 
penon.  He  tells  us  that,  though  an  exalted  micarck. 
he  realised  his  nurtolity,  and  tbenfbie  prai-ed  fbr 
wisdom  (Ti,  28-vii,  7).  With  thia  pieciona  gift,  wbich 
be  prefcned  above  Ibrones,  richer  heollb,  and  beaarv, 
oome  all  other  earthly  blessings  of  which  sba  is  (he 
inaUMr(vei^S-12).    Throaghher  bebeooH  thdncad 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON        10 

•fOad,«bnM  ibe  ii,  uid  who  bestows  bcr  u  ■  gift(var. 
1S-ld>  By  bet  mid  he  btbomed  the  myturica  of  lbs 
chuiging  senons,  or  Ibe  betvenly  bodies,  and  of  Cb« 
aniinal  ind  reget^le  kingdoms,  u  sbe  benelf  is  the 
maker  oT  ill  things,  uid  pervades  all  creacion.  She 
mlooe  unitM  lis  (o  God  with  ties  of  frieodihip,  and  do 
Ticv  can  prevail  against  her  (vei.  17-80).  She,  loo,  coo- 
fem  all  earthly  bleaungs,  all  intellecliial  and  moral  pow- 
en,aa«ell  as  Ihe  ability  U>  govern  BaliDDs,Bnd  atae  can 
only  be  obtained  from  God  in  answer  to  praj-ei  <vUi, 
1-21).  Soloinon  Ihen  recite*  Ihe  prayer  in  answer  lo 
which  be  received  this  divine  gift  (ii,  I-IS). 

a.  The  Tkird  Stdioo  (x,  1-xix,  22)  describes  the 
blesaings  which  wisdom  secared  lo  the  people  of  God, 
and  the  aora  calamiciei  which  befell  Ibe  ungodly  who 
rrjectwl  her  leaching,  from  Che  history  ol  mankind,  be- 
Kinniug  with  Adam  and  coding  with  the  eonqoett  of 
the  Piomised  Lotd.  Thus  it  shows  how  wisdom  guided 
and  pntectad  Che  pioge  flora  Adam  lo  Moaes  <x,  l-xi, 
4)  ;  how  the  wieked  wbo  despised  her  counsels  and  af- 
flicted the  rlghlaou*  were  pooiabed,  le  seen  in  the  ease 
of  the  Egyptian!  (zi,ft-iil,  1)  and  the  Canaanitea  (lii, 
£-27).  As  Che  chief  sin  of  the  Canaanites  was  idolatry, 
Solomon  takes  oecaiion  to  describe  Che  origin,  fully,  and 
abomioatioos  of  idolatry  (lili,  1-xv,  19),  and  Chen  re- 
unu  to  describe  the  pUgoes  of  EgypC,  which  consti- 
tute an  tasential  part  of  the  history  is  queacion,  chos 
showiog  Ibe  awful  doom  of  the  wicked  and  the  great 
deliverance  of  the  righCeoiu  (xvi,  1-xii,  32). 

IIL  Vwily  and  Intrgrilj/. — Fnm  the  above  analysis 
of  Us  oontenia,  It  will  be  seen  that  Ihe  book  forms  a 
eompleta  and  bannonious  whale;  the  grand  problem 
diacoaed  in  the  Srst  section  being  illustrated  in  the  sec- 
ond section  by  the  experience  of  Solomon,  and  in  the 
third  section  by  the  experience  of  God's  people.  deUiled 
in  ehnnologieal  order.  Indeed,  the  unity  and  integrity 
of  Ibe  book  were  nerer  questioned  till  Ihe  middle  of  Ihe 
last  century,  when  Hunbigsnt  {ProUgomaut  n  Not. 
Cnt.iu  Omaa  7.  7. /.iftroi,  i,p.ccxvi,ccxxi)  maintain- 
ed that  it  consists  of  two  parts,  the  flist  (ch.  i-ix)  being 
written  by  Solomon  in  Hebrew,  and  Ibe  second  (ch.  x- 
xtx)  being  moat  probably  an  addition  of  the  Greek  trans- 
lalot  of  the  fltaC  part.  Elchbom  nibmiu  (Einlebum/  in 
iL  Apokrypk.  p.  148  sq,)  that  the  two  part^  which  belong 
to  diHeient  authors,  are  i-xi,  I  and  xi,2~xix;  or,  if  pro- 
ceeding  from  the  same  author,  that  he  must  have  writ- 
ten the  second  part  in  his  younger  years,  before  he  di- 
reatad  himself  of  his  national  prejadices,  and  before  bis 
notions  wen  enlarged  by  Greek  philosophy.  Bret- 
Bchneider,  again  [Dt  Uhri  Sap.  Parle  /Vion),  will  have 
it  that  it  coniiila  of  four  diflbrent  documents,  the  first 
of  which  (i.  l-vi,8)ii  a  fragment  of  a  larger  work  orig- 
inally whiten  in  Hebrew  by  a  Palestinian  Jew  connect- 
ed with  the  oonrl  of  Aniiochns  E)Hphanes;  the  second 
(vi,  9-x)  wsa  wrilten  in  Greek  al  the  lime  of  Christ, 
by  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  who  put  sentiments  of  Greek 
pbiloaophy  into  the  muntb  of  Solomon  in  order  to  vin- 
dicate for  Ibe  Jews  the  honor  of  having  possessed  all 
philoaopbic  systems  and  sciences  prior  lo  every  one  else. 
The  third  (cb.xii-iii)  was  also  wrilten,  at  the  time  of 
Chrial,  by  a  common  Jew,  who  pceseised  Ihe  crudest 
notion*;  while  the  fourth  piece  (xi,  1-36)  was  added  by 
the  oompiler  of  the  book  to  connect  the  second  and 
third  parts.  These  most  suffice  as  specimens  of  the 
opinions  entertained  bv  some  reepecling  the  unity  of 
thia  book.  They  are  most  ably  aiid  elaborately  refuted 
by  Grimm  {Onnmail.  p.  9-!6). 

The  integrity  of  the  book  is  not  o 
tboae  who  diapate  its  unity,  bat  by  some  who  admit 
that  it  has  a  regularly  developed  plan.  Thus  Grotins 
will  have  it  that  it  is  imperiect  and  unflnished,  having 
been  mDtilatcd  by  some  accident  of  lime ;  while  Cal- 
met,  who  also  maintains  thai  the  book  is  unfiiiisbed, 
beaitates  to  decide  wbether  Ibe  end  was  lott  by  Mci- 
dent  oi  through  Ihe  unfavorable  circummaiKres  of  Ihe 
times,  or  whether  it  was  designedly  omtlted  by  the  au- 
thor himadC    fiat  a  condu^n  mora  apposite  and  more 


21         WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON 

in  hannony  with  tbe  design  of  the  book  can  bardly  be 
imagined  than  lix,  22,  in  which  Ihe  just  reflection  and 
moral  lemon  are  enunciated  as  deduced  from  the  whole 
treatise,  that  the  righteous  are  under  God's  special  care, 
and  that  be  "  assists  them  in  every  time  and  plaoe." 
Equally  nnlenable  is  tbe  sssertion  that  Ibe  Iraak  con- 
tains inlerpolatians  by  a  Christian  band.  This  aaaei^ 
tion  wa*  fleet  made  by  Grotiua  ("Christiana  qnedam 
commodia  locia  addidil,"  Prof,  w  IMnm  Sapiaitia'), 
who  in  hie  CohhuM.  speciSes  iv,  7,  where  he  remarks^ 
"3edhnc,Dt  dixi,Evangelinm  magia  redolent."  Grilti 
{GackidUt  dtr  Jadrn  [2d  ed.  Leips.l86S],iii,448  sq.), 
wbo  advocai«s  tbe  same  opinion,  adduces  ii,  24 j  iii,  IS; 
ir,  1  \  xiv,7.  Bat  all  Ibeae  paiaages,  when  fairly  in- 
leipreted,  are  peiftelly  conuMent  with  Jewish  senti- 
mentsi  and  we  are  almoat  saia  that  if  the  erudite  Grba 
had  consulted  Grimm's  masUrly  commentary  on  the 
passages  in  question  when  preparing  the  second  edition 
of  the  third  volume  of  hia  Bittory,  be  wonld  not  liave 
reprinted  so  lilenlly  tbe  remarks  fiiHn  the  fint  edition 
on  Ibis  subject. 

rv.  PkUoKptueiJ  amd  Dodriiud  CharaeUr.  ~~  1. 
Though  there  ate  Platonic  and  Stuical  senlimenta  in 
this  book,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  aulhor 
propounds  therein  a  philosof^ical  view  of  Judaism. 
The  book  of  Wisdom  contains  no  greater  admixtore  of 
Greek  elements  than  the  post-Babylonian  canonical 
writinga  contain  of  Perrian  elements.  It  is  eaaentially 
based  upon  the  tniChs  embodied  in  the  Old  Test.,  wboee 
spirit  it  breathes,  and  whose  docuince  it  aat*  tbtth  as 
paiamouat,  while  Ihe  Greek  sentiments  are  very  snb- 
ordinale,  and  are  such  as  would  almost  enter  sptnitane- 
ously  into  Ibe  mind  of  any  educated  Jaw  tending  in 
such  a  place  as  Alexandria. 

The  doctrines  of  divine  and  hnman  wisdom  (or  ob~ 
JMitt  and  nljtcliin  wisdom,  as  it  is  termed)  propound- 
ed in  this  book  are  rimply  ampliflcationa  and  holdri 
peraonifloationB  of  whst  is  to  be  found  in  Proverbs  and 
E^cdeuasticns.  This  may  be  seen  in  Ihe  conceptian  of 
dinm  vitdom  being  an  emanalion  from,  or  the  S{drit  of 
God  preaent  with,  the  Deity  before  and  during  the  crea- 
tion of  tbe  worid,  and  brooding  over  Ihe  elementa  of 
Ihe  unformed  world  (Wigd.Tii,22,S5i  ii,9,17;  comp. 
Prov.  iii,  19;  viii,  72-26;  Job  xxiiii,4i  Eedua.  xxiv, 
3) ;  in  tbe  view  that  human  wisdom  proceeds  fmm  the 
prinxirdial  divine  wisdom  which  permeatea  all  flnite 
and  pure  spirits (nisd.vii,2G;  oampLJobxzxii,8j  Piov. 
ii,6;  Ecclus.i,  1),  for  which  reaaan  the  two  not  unfie- 
quenUy  merge  into  one  another  (Wisd.  rii,  12 ;  viii,  6 ; 
x;  comp.  Prov.  iii,  13-20;  viii);  that  sbe  b  "(is  uii- 
irernfat  ISlttranat,"  sbe  teaches  us  all  arts  and  tdencee 
—cosmology,  chronology,  meleorology,  astronomy,  lool- 
ogy,  pneumaiology,  paycholugy,  botany,  pbamacr,  pol- 
itics, philosophv  of  history,parables,and  enigmas  (WisiL  ' 
vii,  17-21;  viiiif);  comp.F,xod.xxii,3;  1  Kings  iii,12; 
iv,  29-.94),  and  the  whole  range  of  morals  and  qnritual 
virtuss  (Wisd.  i,  1-18;  z,l-lSi  Piov.i,7;  iii).  See 
Ihe  article  preceding. 

Not  only  does  tbe  aMbot  of  tbia  book  derive  bit  lead- 
ing thooghta  from  the  canonical  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Test,  but,  as  an  orthodox  Jew,  he  even  espoosss  the 
traditions  of  hia  fathers.  Thus  in  harmony  with  these 
trad iliona,  which  tell  us  that  models  of  both  the  taber- 
nacle and  the  temple  were  shown  by  God  lo  Mote*  tnd 
Solomon,  he  speaks  of  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  as  having 
been  made  aher  tbe  model  of  tbe  temple  in  heaven 
(comp.  liifUDia  arnrnt  ajias  flv  mnoijroi/iaonc  i^' 

apxHt  [wisiL  ii,  8]  with  113Q  resBso  oipisn  P''a 
nVsaio  aipon  rpa  isas  [JfenoMotA,  29];  Rashi, 

On  Erod.  XXT,  9,  40;  Hrb.  em,  b).  Ch.  x,  19  b,  which 
has  occasioned  great  difflcidty  to  inCerpreten,  and  which 
the  Vulgate,  Luther,  the  Zurich  Bible,  Coverdale's  ver- 
sion, Matthew's  ffible,  Cromwell's  Bible,  Cranmer's  Bi- 
ble, the  Geneva  verrion,  the  Bishops'  Bible,  Grotius, 
Calmelielc,  take  u  antitbetical  to  ver.  19  a,  reftrring 
it  to  Che  loaelitei  wbom  wlsdoJU  bnught  tanh  from 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON        10 

tbe  deptb  aribe  aea — tbosTtoUtiag  both  iU  connection 
with  the  fullowing  rerae,  u  indicaled  by  lii  toSto  and 
the  MDM  of  ava^paiiiv,  which  ia  not  to  bring  oMt,  but 
Id  i7n(  ouf,  (o  ciul  ovi — u  based  upon  a  ItaitiUon  which 
cella  US  that  the  aes  spit  out  the  corpses  of  the  E|c7p- 
lian*  when  the  Jews  despoiled  them  of  their  weapotm. 
This  tradition  is  giren  in  Che  MtcAUto,  the  so-called 
Chaidet  paraphraia  nf  Jtraialem,  and  Jonathar  ben- 
Uzziel,  On  Exod.  ztt,  I'i,  and  Pirte  de  Raibi  Etiaer,  sect. 
xUi,  anil  is  at  the  basis  of  the  account  in  ■lo«ephus(.1M. 
ii,I6,6).  Our  aulhoT  also  follows  tradiiioo  in  his  re- 
mark that  it  was  not  the  turning  to  tbe  brazen  serpent, 
as  staled  in  Numh.  xxi,  9,  but  to  God,  which  saved  tbe 
Israelites  (Wisd.  ivi,  7 ;  coiap.Roik  haili-Skmak,iS; 
Jerusalem  Turgvnt;  and  Kashi,  On  Jt^umA.  zxi,  9) ;  that 
the  manna  (Numb.  x\,  8)  had  all  manner  of  pleasant 
tastes  (Wisd.  xTi,20,Sli  comp.  rimio,76)i  that  pray- 
en  mnat  be  oOeted  to  God  before  the  sun  rises  (Wisd. 
xri,2e;  comp-Misbna,  Aerotefi,!,!) ;  thai  Sodom  wax 
destroyed  because  iis  inhabitant*  were  inhospitabte  to 
strangers  (Wisd.  xix,  IT,  18;  comp.  Scmktdrm,  109), 

With  these  fact*  before  ut,  we  entirely  differ  from 
Gfritrer  (PiWo,  ii,  307  sq.),  Dttbne  iJO-L-aUxtrndr.  Seli- 
gioiiiphUoi.  ii,  153  sq.),  and  olhera,  wbo  maintain  that 
the  author  of  this  book  derived  his  leading  tenets  from 
Alexandrian,  and  mote  cspeciallr  from  Platonic,  pbiloo- 
ophy,  and  fully  concur  with  Ewald  (iv,  M9),  who  re- 
marks  "  thai  no  one  who  is  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  Old  Test,  a*  well  a*  with  our  author.wilt  say  tbat 
he  derived  the  doctrine  of  immortality  from  the  aboTe- 
nsnedsource.  The  specification  of  the  aivfpoiTui^.  fpo- 
vT)«c,  ^icntoinii^,  and  ivBpia  as  tbe  four  cardinal  vir- 
tue*, both  here  (Wisd.  viii,  7)  and  by  Philo  (ii,  455  sq. ; 
4  Uacc  i,  18  sq.;  v,  S3  sq.  [where  i^i^in  is  put  for 
^povtimi];  XT,  7,  where  there  ia  a  umilar  change)  ia 
indeed  real  Platonic,  and  is  derived  entirely  from  the 
Platonic  school  But  even  these  fouT  virtues  appear 
in  viii,?  as  merely  secondary,  and  in  the  whole  connec- 
tion of  the  treatment  of  the  book  as  accidental."  Welte 
(£'«In(Hii^,p.  163  aq.),  indeed,  who  does  not  dispute  the 
agreement  of  the  book  of  Wisdom  with  Alexandrian 
philosophy,  goes  so  thr  as  to  say  chat  it  only  refers  to 
such  thing!  aa  are  also  mora  or  lees  clearly  expressed 
in  the  canonical  hooks  of  Che  Hebrew  Scripture*. 

2.  In  its  religious  doctrines  the  book  of  Wisdom  is 
me  of  the  moat  important  and  interesting  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  the  Jewish  theology  before  the  ad- 
vent of  ChrisL  It  allows  how  the  tenets  of  the  Jews 
were  preparing  them  for  the  teachings  of  the  New 
Test.  Thus  it  tells  us  that  God  is  not  the  author  of 
death,  but  niade  both  man  and  all  creatures  in  the  im- 
age of  his  own  eternity,  and  delightad  in  the  whole  of 
his  creation  (i,  IS,  14 ;  xi,  !4),  which  he  made  tiir  per- 
petual duntion  (ii,14i  comp.  Kom.  viii, 30,31).  Death 
entered  into  the  world  thmiigh  the  envy  uf  the  devil 
(Wiad.  Ii,  24).  We  have  here  the  Brst  iuatance  on  rec- 
ord where  the  serpent  which  tempted  the  protoplasla  In 
Paradise  isidenliSed  with  the  devil  (ver.  34),  thus  con- 
firming the  explanation  given  of  Gen.  iii,  1-lli  in  John 
viii,  44;  Rev.xii,9;  xx.a.  Grilli  (Ce»cA.iii,448  sq.), 
who  cannot  brook  so  striking  a  confirmation  on  the  part 
ofthe  Jews  before  Christ  to  the  correctnen  ofthe  teach- 
ings of  the  New  Test.,  will  hsve  it  that  this  is  one  of 
the  passages  interpolated  by  a  Christian  hand.  But 
there  is  very  little  doubt  that  Che  Jews  believed  in  the 
identity  of  the  aerpent  and  Satan  long  before  the  ad- 
rent  of  Christ  (comp.  Ginsburg,  The  Kabbaiah  [l>)nd. 
1866],  p.  29),  and  that  this  notion  baa  even  paaseil  over 
into  the  Penic  religion  (comp.  Uengscenherg,  Cbrulolo- 
gy,  i,  7  sq.,  EngL  tranaL). 

The  book  of  Wisdom,  moreover,  shows  chat  tbe  doc- 
trine of  immortality  and  a  future  Judgment  was  moat 
emphaticallv  believed  and  was  generally  currenC  among 
the  Jews  (1^15;  iii,4;  vi.IB.IS;  viii,  17);  that  the  Is- 
raelites believed  that  Che  wicked  altracE  death  by  their 
sinful  deeds  (1, 16);  Chat  the  saints,  who  are  the  chil- 


is       WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON" 

dren  of  God  (ii,  IS,  16,  IB),  will  oltimatdy  Jad«e  the 
world  and  rule  over  the  nitions  thereof  (iii,  8;  ei>a|). 
Hatt.xii[,!8:  ICoi.vi.S;  Bev.ii.M;  iii, 31;  tx,**). 
The  author  of  this  book  aba  ptopounds  the  doctrine  i/ 
the  pre-eiislence  of  the  soul  (viii,  20).  Tbis,  howem, 
he  did  not  derive  direct  from  Plaionism,  both  becauM 
the  manner  in  which  he  enunciate*  it  i*  diflerent  fnn 
the  mode  in  which  it  is  represented  by  Plato  and  Philu, 
and  because  Ibis  doctrine  was  held  by  the  Eaeoei  is 
Palestine  and  is  to  b«  found  in  the  Talmnd  (cotop.  J. 
sepbus,  Ifar,  ii,8, 11;  the  Talmud,  C«a^>i,  12  h;  ft. 
lamotk,&i:  Aboda  Sara.b;  Ginsburg,  Tie  Kabbolak, 
p.  81  H).).  The  body  is  regarded  as  tbe  seat  of  sib 
(i,4;  viii, 20)  and  aa  a  mere  hindrance  and  priaoo  of 
the  soul  (ix,  15;  comp.  3  Cor.  t,  1-4;  Jnaephus,  War, 
ii,  8,  II).  No  trace,  however,  i*  to  be  found  in  this 
tioo  of  the  body  or  of  •  pmooal  H«s- 


le  hook  itself  m 


T.  Author  and  DaU.— 
Che  words  therein  contained  to  Solomoii,  and  itpreie an 
bim  aa  narrating  hi*  peiwnal  experience  (cb.  vii-iii). 
the  book  of  Wisdom  has  come  down  to  ss  by  tniUlioB 
OS  the  production  of  this  great  monarch.  Tbusitunot 
only  expressly  described  a*  Ibe  work  of  tbi*  wis*  kiag 
in  the  inscriptions  of  the  moat  ancient  versiaiis  (via. 
Sept.,  Syriac,  Arabic,  etc),  but  it  ia  quoted  as  sudi  In 
the  most  ancient  faihen  of  the  Church,  mcb  aa  ClemsK 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.  vi),Tenullian  (A-  Prwe^-.l/irrv. 
cTiAdv.  VoJenf. c 3),  Hippolylus  (p.  6G.  ed.  Lsgink). 
Cyprian  {Exkortal.  Matt,  xii),  etc  The  ^doDOMC 
authorship  ha*  also  been  maintained  by  Hme  tbt 
learned  Jews— vis.  L)e'  Rossi  (.lf»r  Ennjim  [ed.  Vio- 
na,  1829],  p.  281  V),  Wessely  llnlrodurtion  to  his  Ctm- 
mnl.  OR  Wiidom),  and  bv  some  Froteatanta.  Wiik 
the  exception  of  Schmid  (Dot  facA  d.  (TnsMt  ibrr- 
titet  and  trIddH  [Vienna,  1858]),  and  one  or  two  Wh- 
eis,  critic*  of  the  preaeni  day  have  entirely  diaianl- 
ed  this  view,  fnt  the  following  reasons;  (1.)  The  book 
was  written  in  Greek,  and  in  the  later  Btyle  of  ibis  1»»- 
guage.  (3.)  Its  author  exhibits  a  Greek  culture  which 
no  Paiestuiian  Jew  poncesed  even  at  tbe  time  of  Greek 
ascendency  over  JudH,  as  is  evident  from  Uie  later  Fal- 
escinian  writings,  and  from  the  express  declantica  tl 
JoaephuB  (jiaf.xx,  11,3)  that  hi*  brethren  bad  an  aver- 
Hon  to  Greek  education.  The  Greek  culture  of  the  au- 
thor of  the  hook  of  Wisdom  is  seen  in  bis  nasiDnB  rt 
what  constitute*  knowledge  (vii,  17-20;  viii,  8);  in  bii 
acquaintance  with  the  Epicurean  doctrine  of  faie  and 
the  philosophico-materialistic  view  of  nature  and  ibt 
future  destiny  ofthe  mn>  (ii,  3) ;  in  the  disindion  which 
be  make*  between  Ihe  nobler  *nd  educated  featun*  at 
heathenism  and  its  grosser  forms  (xiii,  1-15);  in  lui 
view  of  the  origin  of  image-woimhip  (xiv,  U  sq.),  at. 
Comp.  Grimm,  Comnenl.  p.  19,  etc  (8.)  Il  contaio*  nn- 
questionable  quotations  from  Ihe  Sept.  Thia  i*  rwt  onh- 
evidentfrum  ordinary  pasiogea,  as  vi,  7;  xi,4;  xii,  8;  xvi, 
tt;  xix,3l :  but  from  extraordinary  insi 
8ept.dillen  from  Ihe  Hebrew,  and  when 
the  former  are  inwrought  into  the  text  in 
dum  ii,  1!  pnts  into  the  month  of  sceptic) 
Is*,  iii,  10,  ivfiptwrnifHV  tAv  iiroioip  Bi 
ijpv  tirri,  according  to  the  Sept..  which  eisentiaiiT  mi- 
fcr  from  the  Hebrew  text ;  and  Wisd.  xv,  10,  arotic  il 

the  Sept.  on  Isa.  xliv,  20  from  the  Hebrew,  (4.)  Ii  re- 
fere  to  matten  o(  history  (Wisd.  ii,  t-S,  8 ;  xv,  4),  which 
are  inapplicable  to  Solomon's  period  (Grimm,  Commit. 
p.  17). 

Next  in  point  of  antiquity  is  the  theory  that  Phik  is 
Che  author  of  ihi*  book,  a*  i*  seen  from  the  remark  at 
Jerome,  "  Nonnulli  scriplorum  veterum  bnnc  esae  Fhi- 
ionts  Judci  affirmant"  (_P>t^.  m  I.ibr.  Sal.).  This  view 
was  also  adopted  by  De  Lyra,  Luther,  Kainidd,  Calovio*, 
bishop  Cosin,  and  others.  Butaguustit  it  is  to  be  urged 
that  the  whole  complexion  of  the  book,  as  wdl  as  ks 
historical,  theological,  and  philoMpbical  elementf^  is  it 
variance  with  tbis  faypotheaia.    Thus— (1.)  Tbe  (bnaa- 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON        102a        WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON 


tko  of  tba  fatns  in  tbe  motber'i  womb  ii  at  TBiiBoee 
irith  Philo'a  notiona  upon  the  mat  lubject  (Wud. 
i;tmBp.Pb.ilo,IkJH>mdiOpif.mOpp.\i,li).  (2.)  The 
too  kiivlB  of  pre-ciiHeiit  Kiul*— viz.  good  and  bad— ar 
docribed  in  thia  book  ai  di»tin«l  alike  lo  inhabit  bu 
man  bodies,  irhereaa  Pbiloouly  lets  the  unfully  diapoted 
iMila  occupy  human  bodiea,  and  aaya  that  the  good  aonls 
aid  the  Deity  in  tbe  adminiatraiion  of  human  alfain 
(Wiad.  viii,  IB ;  «rap.  Fhilo,  Da  Gigtmti,  in  Opp.  i,  268). 
(3.)  In  this  book  it  ia  diuinctly  declared  that  the  Egyp- 
tians ireie  puoiahed  with  aeipenta,  which  Pfailo  a*  dis- 
tjnetlj  deni«a  (Wiad.  xi,  Ifi :  xrii,  9 1  comp.  Philo, /J<  Til. 
Uoi.  in  Opp,u,VJ  aq.).  (4.)  The  darkneit  with  which 
the  Egypiiana  were  viaited  ia  deacribed  in  thia  book 
having  proceeded  from  the  infernal  regiona,  while  Philo 
attrmi  that  it  waa  ooasioned  br  an  unoMial  eclipae  of 
the  aun  (Wind.  Krii,  14 ;  comp.  Philo,  Oe  Vii.  Mot.  i,2l), 
(5.)  The  »iew  that  the  aerpent  which  templ«d  our  firat 
parent!  ia  the  devil  ia  diametrically  oppoaed  Ui  that  of 
Pbilo,  who  doea  not  recogniae  auch  an  evil  power  in  the 
wntld,  and  reffarda  the  serpent  aa  a  aymbul  of  plaaaara 
(Wiad.  ii,  24  \  comp.  Philo,  Dt  MmnU  Op^f.  in  0pp.  i,  SB). 
<6.)  Tbe  deacriptionofthe  origin  of  idolatrv  in  this  book 
ia  totally  different  from  that  of  Philo  (Wiad.  xii,  xiii; 
comp.  Philo,  Dt  Mmarck.\  l-S,in  Opp.a,i\i  sq.).  (7.) 
The  idea  of  divine  wiadom,  which  in  the  centre  of  thia 
book  ia  different  fmni  that  of  Philo.  The  autbot  of  the 
book  of  Wiadom  manifeala  no  acqiiainUnee  whatever 
with  tbe  trichotomy  of  human  knowledge,  nor  even  with 
the  doetrine  of  idea^  which  forma  a  moat  eaeential  and 
organic  part  of  Philo'a  ayatem,  aa  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  he  makes  no  alluaion  therennto  in  aucb  pas- 
■agea  aa  i,  8;  viii,  19  sq.;  ix,  15;  and  especially  vii, 
iq.,  where  it  would  have  been  most  appropriate,  m 
where  it  would  undoubtedly  have  been  found,  had  tbe 
writer  known  the  points  in  question. 

The  fbroe  of  these  argumenls  against  Philo  Jodvna, 
and  yet  the  unwillingness  to  tellnquieh  the  traditional 
name,  have  leil  many  Roman  Catholics  and  some  Prot- 
(Mant  scholars  (viz.  Lorinua,  Bellannine,  Huetius,  Druai- 
ii%Weniadorf,Buddeiu,elc.)  to  resort  to  the  theory  that 
it  was  not  the  well-known  philosopher,  but  an  older 
Philo,  who  either  oompoaed  the  book  of  Wisdom  or  put 
it  into  its  present  form.  But  the  fatal  objection  to  thia 
B  that  the  elder  Philo  was,  according  to  the  express 
testimooy  of  Jnsephus  {Contra  Apion.  i,  23),  a  heathen, 
aikd  coulil  not  therefure  have  written  thia  hook. 

Still  more  far-fetched  is  the  theory  of  Dr.  Tragellea, 
that  it  was  written  by  an  unknown  Christian  of  the 
name  of  Philo,  basing  it  upon  tbe  passage  "el  Sapientia 
ab  amieis  3alomonia  in  honnram  ipsius  scripts"  in  the 
Muratorian  canon,  which  he  imaginn  to  he  a  miatrana- 
laiion  of  the  Ureek  original,  that  may  have  read,  mi 
1)  Sofia  XaXo/iwfTDC  uT^  ^iXaimt,  inHead  of  iwi  *■'- 
X«v  {JoMrmal  o/PUJoL  1855,  p.  37  sq.). 

BeinK  thus  compelled  to  relinquish  the  name  of  Philo 


whatsoever  form,  Aiiguslini 


louM  a 


firat  have  i 
.1  of  thia  book 


lite  lioetr.  CAr.  ii,  B),  but  afterwards  relracted  hie  o[Hn- 
ion  («e(rac«.  ii,  4 ;  i)a  Cie.  flfi.  xvii,  aO,  1 ). 

Faber,  again,  maintained  {Ptrlviiimri  it<  Libra  Sap. 
[Anapach,  1778-77],  i-»i,  pt.  v)  that  it  waa  written  by 
Zembbabet,  who  might  Juaily  call  himself  the  aecond 
Solomon,  because  he  restored  the  Solomonic  temple. 
Hut  as  ail  the  arguments  against  tbe  Solomonic  author- 
ship are  equally  lo  be  urged  againal  this  theoryj  and, 
moreover,  as  ix,  3  can  only  be  applied  tu  Salomon,  and 
aa  the  whole  tone  of  the  hook  showa  that  thia  monarch 
is  meant,  Faber'a  conjecture  has  not  been  espoused  by 

Neither  can  the  more  plausible  thtorv  of  Luturbeck 
{Oit  naUalantiUL  UkrirgHfe  [Hayence,  IS&S],  i,  407 
sq.)  be  aostained,  that  Arislobolus  (Houiiahed  B.C.  luO) 
wroleit.  Becan*e(l.)BewMafavoriteof  PtolemyTI 
PhilooetOT,  and  would  therefore  not  have  inveighed 
against  kings  (eomp.Ti,lBq.).  (S.)  The  Jaws  In  Egypt 
cninyed  the  grcalcat  dlstioo^ona  nnder  thi«>  monarcb, , 


and  were  treated  with  the  highest  confldenee,  an  tDllch 
so  that  Phllometor  and  Cleopatra  intrusted  the  govern- 
ment and  the  army  to  Jews  (Josephua,  Contra  Apioit, 
ii,  fi),  whereas  the  Jews  in  Egypt  suffered  under  the 
most  grinding  oppression  when  thia  book  was  written 
(xi,  5  sq.;  xii,  23  sq.;  ivi-xix;  Grimm,  ConnwU-p. 
SI).  For  these  reasons  modem  writers  have  ^ven  up 
all  attempts  lo  discover  the  author's  name. 

2.  Equally  divergent  are  the  opinions  of  cooiiiienla* 
tors  and  bialorians  respecting  the  daie  of  the  book,  a* 
will  be  seen  ftom  tbe  following  table: 


JoiTe" 

All 

dence 

n,  Lnti 

nheck,  Davidson... 

snciant 
pCosl 

Alexs 

father*^  oi  L;^'  Lnther, 

,ar3ti,etc A.D.dr.».W 

■r,  that  can  be  deduced  from  intenul  evi- 
ls subject  is  that  (1)  the  author  of  the  book 
ndrian  Jew,  or  that  he  rcMded  in  Egi-pt 

and  wrote  for  his  coreligionists  in  the  land  i 
mer  bondage,  as  it  evident  from  the  details  of  the  Egyp- 
tian snima]-wonihip(ii,I6;  xii, 34;  xv,I8sq.):  from 
the  involuntary  adoption  of  certain  Alexandrian  notions 
and  phrases  as  shown  above;  from  the  allusion  to  the 
events  in  the  lives  of  sundry  Jewish  worthies  without 
specifying  the  names  of  these  pattianha — viz.  to  tbe  di- 
recting of  the  course  of  tbe  righteous  in  a  piece  of  wood 
of  smalt  value  (L  e.  Koah  and  his  family  in  the  ark; 
comp.  Wiad.  x,  4  with  Gen.  vii,  1  sq.)  i  to  the  pmerva- 
lion  of  the  righteous  man  bUmeleee  unto  God  (i.e.  Koah)i 
to  the  saving  of  the  righteoos  man  (L  e.  Lot)  fVom  the 
baming  of  the  cities  (Wisd.  x,  6  aq. ;  comp.  Geu.  xii, 
IC>  sq.),  which  could  only  be  made  by  a  Jew,  and  only 
be  understood  by  Jeva;  and  from  the  exalted  terms  in 
which  he  apeaka  oftheJewiah  nation,  of  the  permanent 
ohiigalionaofthe  Mosaic  law,  and  of  Palestine  (Witd.ii, 
12;  iii,  8;  xii,  7);  and  from  the  Haggadic  embellish- 
menla  of  the  OM-Test.  narralirea,  as  has  been  shown  in 
the  preceding  part  of  this  article.  These  facta,  therefore, 
completely  set  aside  the  opinion  of  Kirschbsum  (Dtr 
jii(i.4^aB{ruLfiiiiu[Leipe.lB41],p.&2),WeiBse(C'Vt«- 
dit  Ziihn\ftd.tvangtlKirthe  [itnd.  lS49].p.233),Noak 
(Oer  Urtpnmgda  ChriHailAumi  [ibid.  1887],  i,  222  sq.), 
etc,  that  this  book  is  the  work  ofa  Chrislisn  hand ;  and 
that  (!)  he  wrote  after  the  Sept.  (i.e.  Ptolemy  II  Phila- 
delpbus,  RC  284-246],  for,  as  we  have  seen,  he  quotes 
the  Pentateuch  and  Isaiah  according  to  thi^  version. 
He,  however,  composed  it  some  time  before  Philo  (ttC 
cir.  140-50),  since  it  required  a  considerable  period  for 
the  degree  of  development  which  the  religious  philoao' 
phy  of  Alexandria  had  attained  among  the  Jews  in  the 
interval  between  Ihe  author  of  Wisdom  and  the  writ- 
inge  of  Philo.  The  aafferinga  tererred  to  in  this  book 
(xi,5sq.;  xii,  23  aq.:  xvi-xix)  are  most  probably  those 
which  Ptolemy  VII  Physoon  (  ttC  146-117)  heaped 
upon  tbe  Jews  in  Alexandria  (comp.  Joeephus,  Coalra 
Apian,  ii,  5 ;  see  Griilz,  Gachichlt  dtr  Jiidra  [Sd  ed.]. 
iii,  68).  The  hypotheaia  of  Dr.  Rainold  (Cnu.  Likr. 
Apocr.\  that  '■  it  waa  written  in  the  lime  of  the  emper- 
or Caiua.  who  would  have  his  atalue  eet  op  and  adored 
iple  of  Jerusalem  (Suetonius  Vii.  Cutiff.  §  22), 
and  that  xiv,  16-20  deprecala  his  blasphemous  atlempt 
self-deification,"  which  ia  followed  by  Noak  (Dtr  Ur. 
.  rvag  dti  ChriKmlhumi,  1,  222  sq.)  and  Uritti  {Gf 
tckicAte  dfr  Juden,  iii,  442),  is  based  upon  precarious  in- 
terpretation of  thia  passsge.  Grimm  {Commait.  p.  SS) 
has  concluaively  ahown  that  it  givea  tiie  writer's  opin- 
ion respecting  idolatry,  which  he,  in  connmon  with  many 
learned  heathen  of  his  day,  traces  lo  the  deification  of 

ans  adopted  Ihe  epithet  iiiis  (2  Uatc  xi,  !5),  and  that 
Ptolemy  Lagi  and  Berenice,  hia  conaort,  were  apotheo- 
riied  by  their  sueccaaaTS  and  snbjecta  giving  ihem  the 
title  &coi  furffpts,  mi  ateottng  to  them  altan  and  tern- 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON        10 

riet  (PioIt,  Beal-EiicgUiip.  d.  dau.  iUtilkummium, 
L  T.  "  PIolemiDl,"  T1,  i,  190). 

VI.  Original  Langaagt  and  ^IJrfi.— BclieTing  It  to  be 
the  work  or  Solomon,  111U17  of  the  ancient  faiben,  nid 
•CTcnl  modern  <Riur%  botb  Jem  and  Protutints,  lu  ■ 
muter  of  aiune.  mdabiincd  that  Che  oiipnil  language 
of  Wiedom  wee  Hebrew.  Eren  Groiiua,  tbuugb  not  r». 
garding  it  ai  (he  prodaetlon  or  Solomon,  believed  it  10 
hare  been  orlginaUj  written  in  Hebrew,  while  Houbi- 
gant  advocated  ■  Hebrew  original  (bi  the  Ant  nine 
chapter!,  and  Untachntader  and  Engelbrecht  reetrieted 
it  to  the  Brat  Hve  chapWn.  The  cnidiU  Azariah 
de"  RoMi  i^in  would  bava  it  tbit  Sotomon  wrote 
it  in  Aramaic  in  order  to  tend  it  tn  loaie  king  in 
(he  eitrame  E«t  {Hfor  Enajm  [ed.  Vienna,  ISM], 
381  b).  But  JeroDie  bid  already  declared  thattberewae 
no  Hebrew  original  extant  or  tbii  book,  and  that  it  wai 
originally  written  in  Greek,  aa  is  evident  from  iu  ityle 
("Secuadui  [qui  Sapientia  Salomonia  inicribitur]  apud 
Hebime  niuquaoi  ret,  qnin  et  ipae  atTloa  timcam  elo- 
qoenliam  redulet"  [Pra/.  ni  Libr.  SoL^).  Thii  remiA 
ia  fully  borne  out  by  (1.)  The  numenue  compound  ex- 
preaaions,  eapecUUy  idjectii'ei  (e.  g.  iciuiir(]ic>'DC.  ■,  * ; 
XT,  t;  wpaiT6r\ntrrot,  vii,  1;  x,  1 ;  vwipiiaxoc^  it,  10; 
xvi,  17;  cnmp.  alao  i,  S;  ii,  10;  iv,  B;  r,  29;  vii,  1,8; 
■I,  e,  16;  X,  S;  Ki,  17;  xii,  G,  19;  and  for  Jnt  XffiV 
/uvn,  xi,7;xiii,S;  xW.ib;  xv,B,e:  xf),  S,8I}.  which 
have  nn  airreaponding  lenna  In  Che  Hebrew.  {2.)  Tbe 
technical  expreaaiona — ai  irrtiifia  VMpiiv,  vii,  SS ;  tilf- 
nif  mi  x'l'pii''  ^"i  wavrwv,  vii,  S4;  uXq  apopfoc,  il, 
IT;  rpoiMHO,  xiv,  3;  xrii,  3 — which  are  denved  Trmo 
Platonic  and  Stoical  philnophy.  (8.)  Tbe  allilerationa, 
paranomiNM,  and  oxymoni  which  pervade  the  book 
(comp.  (iyair^mri — ^poi'^otirt — tijrljonTj;  fv  drndo- 
njTi— dwXori(Ti,  i,  1 ;  oif — SpoiJCi  i,  lOj  wapolnnrai — 
mivotiivv,  vi,  2tt;  iiJiSXa>(— rffdiiraci  vii,  18;  apyi— 
llrfa,  xiv,  b ;  iixa—tiaj,  i,  8 ;  Hiat  UiintTBt,  ",  !S ; 
arpttrlai  rpiiwioc,  v,  10;  limaToi  ii  iwaritt,  vi,  6; 
O01WC  rd  iiina  iHrtw9q0DtT(u,vi,  IO,i,r.X.;  Ke  Urimm, 
p.  7),  showing  beyond  doubt  that  the  book  waa  origi- 
nally written  in  Greek.  Aa  to  the  Hebrew  coloring  of 
the  language,  the  lexical  Hebraiima  (e.  g.  ^irXunfc 
icapliot,  i,  1:  fupi'c,  (XqpoCi  ii,  9;  rpij3oi,  ii,  16;  X071- 
Cxrdni  (i(  n,  ii,  16;  wX^potV  jQidvoi',  iv,  18;  nnw  roi; 
Sioi',  iv,  IS),  the  numeroua  Hebrew  paralldiuns,  etc, 
theie  are  to  be  eipected  from  ao  thorough  an  lanelite 
aa  the  writer  of  thii  book  menifeMly  waa,  especially 
when  it  ii  borne  in  mind  that  the  author  breathes 
thmughout  the  whole  at  hii  work  the  spirit  of  the  Old 
Test;  (bat  the  bnok  uf  Wiadom  ia  a  Helleniaiic  ver- 
aion  of  the  aamecradilionirhereiD  Solomon  is  represent- 
ed aa  having  philosophically  refuted  aeepllciam  and  lyr. 
anny,  of  which  traces  appear  elsewhere  in  the  later 
Jewiah  literature;  and  that  the  author  took  the  ancient 
Hebrew  poetry  for  his  modeL 

The  alyle  ol  tbe  book  is  very  uneven.  Some  par- 
tinna  of  it  are  truly  sublime,  and  will  bear  comparison 
with  any  passages  in  the  best  claaaics ;  aa,  for  initance, 
the  delineation  of  the  sensualist  (ii,  1  sq.),  the  piclnre 
of  future  judgment  (v,  16  iq.),  and  the  description  of 
wisdom  (vii,  33-Tiii,  1) ;  while  in  other  pasagea  the 
authnr,  aa  biahop  Lowth  remarks,  "is  ofien  pompoua 
and  turgid  as  well  aa  tedioua  and  diffuae,  and  abounds 
in  epithets,  directly  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  He- 
brewa"  (f,^cftim  or  lAe  Sacred  Po^  of  the  /lt6rrtc$, 
rT>lecLp.xxiv). 

VII.  Ctoaaieilg  cmi  .4  utlort^.— Though  the  book  of 
WiaduTn,Iike  the  other  deutero-eaoDnlcal  books,  «a*  nev- 
er included  in  the  cannn  of  the  aynagogue,  aa  ia  evident 
from  the  lilt  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  given  in  the  Tal~ 
mud  (_Baba  Batkra,  §  14) ;  and  (bough  it  ia  not  found  in 
the  catalogues  of  Ocigen,  Jerome,  Epfphanlua,  Athana- 
riui,  Cyril,  etc,  yet  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  it 
waa  held  in  great  reapect  among  the  Jews,  and  that  the 
apostle  Paul  waa  familiar  with  ill  language,  as  may  be 
aeen  fmm  the  striking  parallels  in  Rom.  ix.  !1  to  Wisd. 
XV, 7;  inRom.  ii,  KtoWiMl.  xilK;  in  Eph.  vi,  IS- 


!4         WISDOM  OF  SOLOHON 

I7toWisd.r,  IT-tS.  Tbe  next  aDnrioe  M  U,  tbo^ 
alio  not  by  name,  ia  to  be  fsond  bi  tbe  epiitlp  of  h. 
Clement  to  (he  Corintfaiani  (i,  17;  cnop.  Wiad.  li,  H; 
■Ii,  1>);  and  Eusebius  tells  oa  (0*M.  fodcSL  V,  M)  tte 
Irenaua  made  uae  of  it  in  a  loat  book,  flimias  rf 
Alexandria  qoMe*  it  aa  the  inapirad  worh  of  Sakam 
with  tbe  ianodnctocr  phrase  4  Snia  mfia  Xiyei  (^b«b 
iv,  IB,  |!h  609,  ed.  Potter),  It  ia  aba  qnoud  aa  ivlili 
Origan  (Cimtfti  CAiim,  m,  73),  TertoUian  (A Aiera.  r» 
Um.  a.  ii),  Cyprian  (fziloryal  Martjr.  It), Cyril  (dMsei. 

ix,  137),  He.    Hence  it  wia  dodaicd  as  la lii  J  by 

the  third  Cenncil  of  Carthage  (A.D.>^  in  Uwes^ 
cila  of  Sarriis  (A.D.  847),  Onnstastinofde  in  TTalki(AJll 
693),  Toledo  (A.D.  676),  Flonmoe  (US8).  aad  ■■  dK 
founh  eeaaioB  of  the  Coandl  of  Trent  (1646).  WM 
other  deutero-carMwical  wriringa,  it  rem^Ded  i>  tha 
canon  till  the  time  of  the  Befbnialiaa,  when  LiAb 
ftrst  separited  it  and  pat  it  togetber  with  tbe  i««  «( 
the  Apocrypha  at  tbe  end  of  the  QM  Teat.  Sda  La- 
ther apoke  of  it  with  great  r(i^ieet(  rorreik  oir/'dM  RU^ 
heil  Si^matu  in  bis  translation  of  (be  Bible,  ed.  IIUX 
In  the  Anglican  Church  tbe  book  of  Wisdoei  ia  tesM 
upon  wilh  itill  gmter  favor.  Tfaiia  clu|iten  xn,  mv 
are  quoted  in  the  HomiUtt  aa  tbe  writing  of  Setoaaa 
{Strmtm  agamtl  Pttil  «f  IMatrg,  f*.  lii);  vii,  11,  U; 
ix,  IS;  xiii,  I;  xvi,  6,  are  dted  M  the  worit  of  the  an 
wiae  man  {Sfrmoiufir  Xogaliam  H'itt,pt.\^);  n,l: 
xiii'XT,  are  quoted  as  Serrplan  ( Stritem  uijuia*  (b 
Fear  o/Dralli,  pi.  iii ;  AjgiM*  Idolatriit,  pt.  i  Hd  iti); 
and  ch.  V  is  referred  to  aa  ifo^  Scr^tmn  {Agaiml  wi^ 
ftl  IbMUon,  pt.  vi).    See  Dnrr^n-cAsatncAi. 

TIIL  TRf.— Tbe  book  of  Winlom  m  pnasnvd  ia 
Greek  and  L«tin  leiia,  and  in  sobaidiaTT  timaJatiwi 
into  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Armeoian.  Of  tbeae  ktter. 
the  Armenian  ia  aaid  to  be  tbe  moea  imponaa;  iha 
Syriao  and  Arabic  versions  being  paraphranic  aod  in»- 
curate  (Grimm,  fMnl.}  10).  Ilie  Greek  mt,  vt«i. 
as  appears  above,  is  aodoubcedly  tbe  oHgiBal,  oA« 
DO  remarkable  feature),  The  variKkme  in  ibt  KSS. 
are  eooBned  within  narrow  limita,  and  uw  not  lack 
aa  to  suggest  the  idea  of  dialiiia  earij  1 
nor  ia  there  any  appearance  of  serioos  oocru. 
lerior  to  existing  Greek  avtboritiee.  Tbe  OM  Lak 
version,  which  waa  left  nntoacbed  by  Jetone  {Pf^  ■ 
i«r.«oi,"lB        -      .      .     -  . 


Scriptoraa  ei 
meum  certii  magia  quam  d 
the  main,  a  dose  and  fbitbfnl  rendering  of  Ibc  Gmk. 
ihoDgh  it  contains  aome  addiliooa  to  tbe  origiBal  text. 
•och  as  are  characteriade  of  the  old  venioo  1.1  in  1  all  1 
Examples  of  theae  additiona  are  feund:  i,  16,  ti/miltm 
aultm  tnorlii  tMacguititio  f  ii,  8.  JVaOmpnifttBtJttfaari 
noa  prrinaieat  luxuria  MMrfl ;  rer.  17,  tt  in'iMes  fum 

vim,  et  vir pmdtM  quam Jitrlit,  And  the  neuauaUiun 
of  tbe  parallelism  in  the  two  lint  eaaea  aoggMts  the 
belief  that  thetv,  at  leail,  the  L^in  readiug  mar  be 
coneot.  Bat  other  additiona  point  (a  a  diflkcvt  mm- 
clarion :  vi,  38,  dUigile  Imtm  tapkmtke  obbh  faa  ^rs- 
o^  papufu,- V 


The  chief  Greek  iSSS.  in  which  tbe  book  ii  esotai*- 
ed  are  the  Coder  Smaiticia  (X),  (he  Cod.  Akmdritm 
(A),  the  Cod.  Valietmiu  (B),  and  the  CbsL  i>lrawi 
rocT,  (O.  The  entire  text  La  preaetved  in  tb«  tbn* 
rormer ;  in  tbe  latter,  only  eonridetahle  fragmenta :  viii, 
6->l,10;  xiv,19-xvii,  18;  xviii, H-zix, 31. 

Babatier  naed  four  Latin  M3S.  of  the  higher  tlaa 
for  bii  edition:  " Corbeieoses  dooa,  nnam  laiigiiina 
neniem,  cc  allum  8.  Theodoriei  ad  Ramos,'  of  whi^  be 
pmhaeea  to  give  ahnoat  1  eompleM  (bat  eanaialy  no* 
■  literal)  ooUctlan.  The  variuiiiai  are  sot  gcMrally 
important,  but  patrisdo  i]DoUtloDa  ahow  that  ia  mriy 


WISEMAN  10 

ttmes  my  aiiuidenbk  diffcraiiGCi  oT  text  exiMed.  An 
important  MS.  oT  ibe  book  id  the  Britiah  Uiueum  (Eg- 
trloii,  1016,  Sbc  Tiii)  hti  not  yet  been  examined. 

IX.  £i(o-atti«.— The  eirlieU  commenlwy  which  re- 
maina  ia  that  of  RabaDiti  Uaunu  (died  S66).  Bomui 
Catholic  commenUrica  are  thoee  of  Ninniua  (1552),  Jul)- 
sen  (1557, 1611),  Oeoriui  (1580),  Lorinua  (1607, 1624),  De 
Castro  (1613),  Com.  A  Upide  (1638),  Meldonattu  (1643), 
Gone  (1655),  Uenochiug  (1678),  Du  Hamel  (lT03),Cal- 
niet{1757),DerB«er(Fr«nkf,2d«d.l825),aQdJ.A.Schinid 
(Wien,  IS5H).  Among  Proteatanta  Kpatatc  comnien- 
Uriea  are  thoH  at  Slrigel  (Lipe.  1569, 1571, 1675),  Ra}-- 
an\A  (1618),  Fabriciiu  (Frcf,  et  Lips.  1691),  Selnecker 
(Upa.  1575),  BrochmanD  (Hafn.  1666),  tit  in  Latin; 
Peunen,  ErkUr.  (Buding.  1727);  Schubiud,  ^Rmert. 
(MaKdeh.l7BB);Bteiniiieti,^™«rt(Leipa.l747J;Kleo. 
krr,  EiUnU  (K>gR,  1785);  Hasw,  ^  mHrt  (Jen.  eod.) ; 
WaUeniaa,  Anmarbmsm  (GrieTnr.  1786,  a1»  in  Lat- 
in); Kelfc,  Amtrk.  (I'reib.  1815);  Engelbmth,  Inier- 
prelation  [cb.  l-iv]  (Havn.lSI6);  Bauermeiater,  Con- 
ineOariiu  (Oittting.  1828);  and  eapedally  W.  Grimm, 
ConmtKlar  (Uipa.  1887;  b1»  in  the  Kungrf.  Errg. 
HamO.  ibid.  1868).  To  these  mtj  be  added  the  He- 
breir  aomnienlary  by  Wesaely  (Beri.  1780,  and  later). 
See  alw>  Ewald,  Geirtinlte  da  Volka  lirad  (GOttingen, ' 
1852),  iv,  548  aq.;  OrttU,  Gaciidiit  der  Jtutm  (2d  ed. 
Leipa.  1868), iii. 292  iq.,242  aq.;  and  the  IidToductimi 
W  (Ae  OU  Tul.  by  Beitholdt  (Erlingen,  1816),  V,  326  *q. ; 
De  Weue,S31i-ai5;  Keil  (ibid.  1869),  $  244-346;  and 
DaridaoQ  (Lend.  1868),  iii,  S96-410.    See  Comxeh- 

Wiacman,  Zmka  Hotilt,  H.A.,  a  Wealeyan  Meth- 
odist minister,  wa>  bora  in  Ihedtyof  Nonrich,  Jan.  19, 
1822.  He  "was  a  aaint  at  twelve  and  a  preacher  at 
foart«in.*  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1840;  waa  elect- 
ed iniasiDnary  aeereury  in  1868,  a  positinn  which  hs 
held  Dniil  the  doK  of  life ;  waa  railed  to  the  preaiden- 
tUl  ebair  at  (he  Landon  Conrerence  of  1872  by  the 
Urgest  Dumber  of  votea  ever  recorded  at  such  an  elec- 
tion ;  and  died  in  London,  in  the  midst  of  his  work  and 
homrs,  Feb.  8, 1875.  "As  a  Christian,  he  had  deep 
veneration  b»  the  ^liritual  nature  of  CbristianiCy;  as 
a  man,  a  lore  of  freedom  that  amounted  to  a  paaaion. 
Henca  to  contend  for  the  rights  of  conacienee,  to  enlarge 
the  sphere  of  free  action,  and  to  anert  liberty  of  diSer- 
enc«  among  Chrittian  churches  while  promoting  Trater- 
nal  union  and  co-operation,  and  independence  of  the 
commonwealth  while  maintaining  patriotic  loyally  and 
an  enlightened  citizenship,  were  to  bim  the  most  sacred 
of  an  duUes,  and  ha  ever  discharged  them  with  mitch- 
lesa  courage  and  fearlen  independence.  As  an  adniinis. 
tratoT,  Wiseman  had  learned  to  combine  in  the  happiest 
manner  the /orftfer  in  re  with  the  luimtarvi  modo. .  ,  . 
Never  flurried,  never  in  a  hurry-^wpjs  at  ease  and  at 
hoiue,  courteous  to  all,  servile  and  obsequious  to  none — 
he  aueoeeded  in  guiding  skilfully  the  coune  of  discus- 
sion and  buainess,  and  in  uniformly  maintaining  Chris- 
tian  oourteay  and  urbanity  with  Judicial  fainieaa  and 
impartiality.  Such  was  Wiseman — a  man  of  open  sonl 
and  loving  heart,  massive  alike  in  body  and  mind,  with 
«  splendid  phyaique  and  a  character  to  match — ■  uni- 
veisal  fkvorile  wicb  preachers  and  people,  admired, 
trusted,  loved  by  alL  .  .  .  His  heart  was  too  high  for 
peltiDeas,  too  itrge  for  selflshnesa  or  envy.  Faith  witb- 
oat  superstition  or  fear,  religion  without  bigotry  or 
cant,  the  grandeur  of  intellect  covered  with  Che  sin- ' 
oericv  of  childhood,  were  found  in  him  as  fonnd  in  few" 
il^oiid.  WalAman ;  see  X.  Y.  MttkodiU,  March  20, 1875). , 
Wiseman  passionately  loved  the  miasioDary  cause.  He 
•loqueullj  advocated  it  and  unselfishly  worked  for  it. 
Like  Frankland,  Perka,  Coley,  and  other  eminent  men 
in  the  Biiliah  Conferenoe,  he  worked  too  hard,  and  his 
•ndden  death  was  at  once  a  surprise  and  a  earning. 
Beadea  ooouioDal  published  SenwMi,  Wiseman  wrote, 
Cttturn  on  Indiulria  Prompttd  bg  Caatdome,  and  fi'ol 
V  CovoVkokw  (1852;  ad  ed.  ISU]  i-7^<  EmphgmaU 
«r  UiMTt  Timt  (Load.  1856,  Itsw)  i—TUngi  Stcular  i 


25  WISHART 

amd  Tkingi  Soend  fiUd.  eod.) :— J^nlt  m  tie  KaSaeA 
o/lht  Lrut  CaOuiy  (ibid.  1855):_ilifn  ^  ^oil*,  or 

Slxlcka/n)mlAtBooit^Judga(i\ad.Svo):—ThoiisAU 
on  Clou  Mmtiigi  and  tiuir  ImproetmaU  (ibJd.  1854, 
12nio) :— Cirtit  H  the  Wildtrmi:  PraeHcal  Viaoi  <tf 
<nr  lonf*  TavftalvM  {ibid.  1S5T,  12mo),  See  ifw- 
■du  D/Caa/emDe  (ibid.l875),pLl8;  Osborne,  JfatA. 
Bim>g.  s.  V. ;  WtA.  Mtdu  Masatint,  1875,  p.  388. 

^tfiBBman.  nloholas  Patrlok  Stephan,  Car- 
dmali  and  chief  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Eng- 
Und,  was  bora  at  Seville,  Spain,  Aug.  %  1802,  of  Irish 
and  Spanish  extraction.  At  an  early  age  he  wsa  brought 
to  Eugiand,  and  placed  in  St.  Cuthbert's  College,  at 
Ushaw,  near  Durham.  He  was  thence  removed  to  the 
he  was  ordained  ■ 
ity.  He  was  a  pn>> 
teaser  for  a  time  in  the  Roman  Univeinly,  and  was  then 
made  nctor  of  the  English  CoUegs  at  Rome.  In  1828 
he  published  his  tfora  Syriaea,  Dr.Wiseman  returned 
to  England  in  1835,  and  in  the  winter  of  that  year  de- 
livered a  series  of  lectures  upon  the  leading  doctrinei 
of  Ibe  Catholic  Cbarch  at  the  Sardinian  Chapel,  in  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields.  About  the  same  time  he  delivered  hi* 
Latum  on  He  Comitaiim  bebnem  SdoKX  and  Rntaitd 
RtiigioH,  for  which  he  is  best  known  in  Protestant  lit- 
erature. He  subsequently  repaired  to  Rone,  and  ia  un- 
derstood to  hav«  been  instrumental  in  inducing  pope 
Gregory  XVI  to  increase  the  vican-apoetolic  in  Eng- 
land. Thennmherwaa  doubled,  and  Dr.Wiseman  came 
back  as  coa^ntor  Ushop  to  Dr.  Walsh,  of  the  Midland 
District.  He  was  also  appointed  president  of  St.  Mary's 
College,  OsGott.  In  1847  he  again  repaired  to  Rome  on 
the  aOkirs  of  the  English  Catholics,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  subsequent  change  resolved  on  in  184^ 
which  was  delayed  by  the  troDbles  that  ensued  at 
Rome.  He  was  now  made  pro- vicar -apostolic  of  the 
London  district  in  place  of  Dr.  Griffiths,  deceased.  8ub- 
sequenlly  he  was  appointed  coadjutor,  cum  jart  nc- 
oeiriamt,  to  Dr.  Walsh,  who  was  tranalated  to  London; 
and  in  1349,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Walsh,  he  became  vicar- 
apoatolic  of  the  London  district.  In  August  he  went 
again  to  Rome,  "  not  expecting,"  as  he  said,  ■'  to  re- 
turn to  England  again."  But  in  a  oanuiitory  held  on 
Sept.  80,  I860,  he  was  elected  lo  the  dignity  of  car- 
dinal by  the  title  of  St.  PudenlJana,  and  was  appoint^ 
ed  archhiihop  of  Westmhinter.  a  step  which  raised  an 
angry  controversy  in  the  papers,  and  reautted  in  the 
F.cdesiaatical  Ulles  ^L  He  died  in  London,  Feb.  IS, 
1365.  Dr.Wiseman  was  a  moderate  polemic,  a  fine 
scholar,  an  elegant  orator,  and  an  accomplished  critic 
He  was  from  the  first  one  of  the  chief  contribnlon  to, 
and  joint  editor  of,  the  Dahlia  Quaritrty  Sevica,  and  ia 
the  author  nf  numetoos  psmphlets  bearing  more  or  less 
directly  on  the  religious  controversies  of  the  past  quartet 
of  a  century.  His  Euafi  have  been  reprinted  in  three 
vo1s.8vo.  He  also  published,  I>cAir£iDn  (A«fuctarut. ■ 
—KtcolifclioBt  of  lit  I.<ul  Four  Popa;^Fabiola:  or, 
Tin  Church  ofUie  Catacombi,  rU!.  Dr.  Wiseman  was 
the  seventh  English  cardinal  since  the  Refarmation. 
The  other  ux  were  Pole,  Allen,  Howard.  York  (a  son  of 
the  Preunder,  who  was  never  in  EngUnd),  Weld,  and 
Acton,  ArchUshop  Wiseman's  successor  was  cardinal 
Manning,  the  present  incum  ben  L 

Wiabsit  OaoTga  (1),  called  "The  Martyr,"  a 
champion  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  is  anppoeed 
Co  bare  been  a  son  of  James  Wishart,  orFitlano*r,Ju^ 
tice-clerk  during  the  reign  of  James  V.  The  time  of 
his  birth  is  not  known.  He  was  master  of  a  grammar- 
school  at  Montrose  at  the  beginningof  the  16lh  century. 
He  began  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  the  Re formadon  at 
Monlroee,  but  was  compelled  to  fiy  lo  England  on  ac- 
count of  Ibe  opposition  of  the  enemies  of  that  tnove. 
ment.  He  preached  the  same  doctrines  at  Bristol  io 
1538,  but  was  forced  to  recant  and  publicly  butn  bit 
fagot.  In  154S  we  find  him  at  Cambridge,  and  darinf 
year  he  letoraed  to  3cmUihL    The  B*6m»- 


WKHART  10 

tfon  hiring  gained  tcmt  poirer,  and  hiving  ■  held  for 
the  protKlion  ariu  mtiDben,  he  preached  won  boldly 
in  DunJee,  Perth,  MonlroM,  ind  Ayr,  creating  popular 
tumults.  He  wu  implicated  in  an  attempt  In  take  the 
life  or  cardinal  Beaton,  but  no  poiulive  proor  bag  been 
brought  to  euatain  the  ebiige.  While  preaching  at  va- 
rious place*  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh,  he  waa 
apprehended  by  (he  oirdinal'a  troops,  conveyed  to  St. 
Andrews,  tried  far  beres?,  condemned  to  be  burned  at 
the  stake,  and  executed  Manh  '28, 1546.  See  Bogen, 
Life  o/George  WMaii,  etc  ( 1876) ;  Maekenrie,  Liwt 
lifSaili  WTittTi,  iii,  fl-19. 

Wlohut,  OAorge  (3),  D.D.,  ■  Scoteh  diTin^  waa 
boniatYeater,EastLotbian,inl609.  Ue  mu  educated  at 
IbeUniveruIy  of  Edinburgh;  b«eame  a  parish  miniilei 
•(  North  Leith  and  St.  Andrews,  where  he  refused  to  take 
the  Covenant  in  16S9,  for  which  refusal  he  waa  deprived 
of  bia  living  and  imprisoned;  made  bis  way  to  New- 
castle, En^nd,  where  be  waa  captured  by  tbe  Scoltiab 
■tmy  in  October,  16U,  and  taken  to  Edinburgh  and 
tbruifu  into  the  common  Jail,  where  be  remained  sev- 
eral monthi  and  suffered  great  hardships ;  joined  the 
maiqais  of  HontTOse,  to  whom  he  became  chaplain,  and 
nanowly  escaped  exeention  with  bim  in  IGCO;  became 
chaplain  to  Elizabeth,  the  eleclress-pala  tine,  and  accom- 
panied her  to  Enghmd  at  the  Realoration  in  1660;  was 
then  made  rector  of  Newoaslle-upon-Tyne,  and  conse- 
entted  bishop  of  Edinbargb  in  106!.  Ue  died  at  Edin- 
buigb  in  1671.  Ho  pablished  an  elegant  Latin  hialor? 
of  the  ITari  o/MoMme  (1647),  which  was  bang  by  a 
Coid  U)  the  neck  of  tbe  man[nia  at  his  execution.  He 
kft  a  second  pan,  bringing  the  history  down  to  the 
death  of  Montrose,  which  was  never  published  in  ita 
original  form,  but  a  number  of  excellent  tranilBIiODB  of 
tbe  whole  work  have  been  pobliabed  at  later  dates.  See 
Keith,  Catalegut  oftkt  mikup*!^  Bea^aadi  Lyon,  BM. 
^  ^(.  il  adnciM,  i  i ,  1 0- 1  Si 

WUbatt,  William,  B.D.,a  Sootch^elergyman.waa 
born  at  Dalkeith  in  1667.  He  waa  educated  at  Utrecht ; 
became  one  Of  the  ministen  at  South  Leith  after  the 
Revolution ;  afterwards  principal  of  tbe  Univerait;  of 
Edinhursh.  ainl  one  of  the  city  ministers  in  1716.  He 
died  in  1727.  He  published  sev«nl  single  Sennoiu.- — 
some  collections  of  ^ernioiu  I — and  /VwK^ifei  qfLibtriy 
o/CoMtioM  fimi. 

WUnei,  Benjamin  BlrdenborSi  D.D„  a  Con- 
gregs^nal  minisler,  was  bam  at  Oosben,  N.Y.,  Sept. 
29,17M.  UnderKev.Dr.Axtell,ofGeneva,N.Y.,beac- 
quired  bis  preparalorr  training.  In  1810  he  Joined  the 
BOpbomote  due  in  Union  College,  from  which  he  grod- 
tialed  in  IBIS.  For  one  year  he  was  principal  of  an 
academy  at  Johnatown,  when  he  relumed  home  and 
began  to  study  law.  From  I81B  (o  1818  ha  was  tator 
in  Union  College,  and  during  this  time  he  studied  the- 
ology under  pnifeMor  Andrew  Yalea,  D.D.  Beeigning 
hi*  tutorship,  he  entered  the  theological  aemiaa 
Princeton  in  1818.  In  June,  1820,  he  was  licensi 
pteach,  aod  received  a  call  to  (be  pastorate  of  the  Prta- 
bylcrisn  Church  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  which  he  de- 
clined; wu  ordained  pastor  of  the  Old  South  Cborch, 
Baslon,MaM.,Feh.21, 1821,  where  he  continued  (u  serve 
daring  twelve  years.  From  October,  1832,  he  labored 
ai  the  secretary  for  the  American  Board  of  Commission- 
ers for  Foreign  Missions, travelling  eilensively  Ihrougb- 
out  tbe  Union  to  establish  pew  missionary  organiia- 
tio^^  etc  He  died  in  Boston,  Feb.  9, 1639.  He  was  a 
memberortbeboardofdiiKtOtSof  the  American  Edu- 
cation Society,  and  was  a  trustee  of  the  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  His  executive  talent  was  undoubted, 
and  he  did  not  lack  ability  as  an  extern poianeous  de- 


larly  felicitous,  but  be  was  a  man  of  commanding 

innuence.     Dr.  Wisner  published,  T)tm  Ditcaarirt  • 

lif  Hiitorg  of  the  Old  South  Church  !—A  Sermon  on  (, 

Bmrfilt  of  Sunday- KhooU  :—tiDi  a  Maaoir  of  Mi 

"    ■■    ■        —     ■  i  to  tUe  Sptrilt/ A4 


WITHERSPOOy 

PUgrimM,  and  to  the  nmipreAe 

Spragiw,  .laitalt  eflhe  Amtr.  Pa^  ii,  60S: 

WUner,  Wlllikm,  D.D.,  a  Pmbyterisw  &ntt. 

IS  bom  at  Warwick,  N.  Y.,  in  178!.    He  atodiHl  k<. 

and  practiced  in  Orange  County;  abandoneil  Um  Itw. 

d  betame  pastor  of  a  Church  in  Ithaca;  waa  (aitiir 

a  Church  in  Rochester  from  1830  to  IM! ;  nmnl 

Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  in  1870,  and  died  there  Jan.  7,  IR7L 

a  published,  Inadadi  »  (is  Life  of  a  Potior  fiaSl): 

—Elemnlt  of  CirU  LOienf:  or,  Tht  Wof  to  Mak 

Frre  ffuiUBIiotu  (185S)  :-besides  single  r 

phlets.and  contributions  to  periodicals. 

WUnei,  William  Caipantar,  D.D.,  a  Pmbr- 

rian  minister,  was  bum  at  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  Dk.  7,  Ittt. 

e  was  prepared  for  college  in  the  Hooto  AcadcBr, 

and  graduated  at  Union  College  in  ISSa      Ue  lid 

ot  pursue  any  regular  theological  coaiM  at  the  »■ 

lary,  but  jUDsecuted  his  studies  noder  his  wioaUt 

father,  Rev.  Dr.  Wisner,  of  Ithaca.    Ue  waa  Ueami 

preach  by  tbe  Presbtlery  of  Ro^toter,  aod  in  IS! 

iS  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  tbe  ThinI  Pmhr. 

terian  Church  of  that  city.    Atker  remaining  Uxnfas 

short  lime,  be  removed  to  Athens,  Pa.,  when  be  pnac^ 

ed  for  a  while,  and  then  served  the  Church  in  East  Ana. 

S.  Y.,  for  eighteen  months.     In  1836  he  ocoefned  a  oD 

to  tbe  Second  Preabyterian  Church  of  St.  LcaiB,llii. 

In  1S3T  he  was  called  to  tbe  Charch  at  Lower  Leckpat, 

and  in  184!  became  pastor  of  the  Fim  Preabytcna 

Church  of  Lockport,  and  resigned  on  accontM  at  faiTiat 

health  after  a  succnaful  pastorate  of  tbirly-lns  ye^ 

He  was  for  many  yean  a  trustee  of  HaimltoD  Cdlip 

and  Auburn  Seminary.     He  was  modctatoi  of  the  Sn 

School  General  Assemblv  at  St.  Louis  in  1853l   He  M 

at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  July  14,  1860.     Hia  maDm  ■  i 

public  speaker  waa  pecoliar,  and  strangers  la  it  wiaU 

at  flnC  find  it  unpleasant  i  but  becoming  ftmihar  vilb 

it,  Ibey  would  come  under  his  power,  and  find  hia  * 

teaeh^  of  great  originality,  and  woijd  becuBa  hsii- 

nated  with  bim.    His  principal  publicatioo  >ai  a  nrt 

entitled,  Prdacy  aid  Paritf.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Witch  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.T.,  at  ExndL  xn. 
18,  of  nflSaiS  imrbuhhqMi,  S^t.  fap^ami, Xtig. 
mairfict),  and  'in  Dent,  xviii,  10,  of  the  atosc  faiaL  <f 
the  same  word  C>lVSa,  mOaihMpk,  Sept.  fapfiacit. 
Vulg.  moJe/Ccui),  which  is  elsewhere  rcndeitti  **«» 
er"  (ExDd.  vii,  II ;  Dan.  0,  3 ;  HaL  iii,  5).  I 

WITCH  OF  EsDon.    See  Saiti.  | 

Wltbera,  Philip,  D.D^  an  English  d 
come  chaplain  to  lady  dowager  Hereford  i 
was  sentenced  Nov.  !l,  1789.  to  a  line  of  £50  and  a  yw> 
imprisonment  for  a  libel  on  Un,  Filzherbett,  wi(*  to  ibc 
prince  of  WaK  in  his  HitXtrg  of  the  Kefol  Jfala^ 
(Lond.lT89).  He  died  in  Newgate,  July  M,  ITSa  H. 
also  puhlisbed  a  work  entitled  J  rwhtroUa;  or,  rt* /Vis. 
e^ibo/Conponrsiia  (1791). 

Wlthanpoon,  Jon^  D.D.,  LUD.,  a  ilatiiiaa'ati 
ed  Pmhyterian  divine,  and  one  of  tbe  agnrrs  id  ttt 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  bom  in  3>t  panrii  <( 
Vester,  near  Edinbu^h,  Scothmd,  Feb.  i,  ITtt.  lb 
father  was  a  clergyman  of  Ihe  Church  of  SsnatHA. 
much  respected  for  his  piety  aitd  learaii«;  ca  hn 
mother's  aide,  he  traced  an  unbroken  line  of  Bimaund 
ancestry,  through  a  period  of  more  than  two  hoadari 
yean,  to  the  great  Reformer,  John  Knox.  He  expin- 
enced  religion  at  a  very  early  period ; 
paratorr  studies  in  the  public  school 
where  he  soon  evinced  remarkable  pa 
at  the  University  of  Edinbuigh,  wher 
rivalled  for  perspicuity  of  atrle,  logical  aecinacy  <* 

lectual  qualities  and  accomplisbmcnta  which,  m  sAv- 
life,  conspired  to  render  him  one  of  the  great  asm  rf 
Ihe  age  and  of  tbe  world;'  waa  lioenaed  U  pnart  a 
1748;  oidained  aa  minister  of  the  papolar  pafarii  <d 
Bcitb,inUie»tatorSoMkDd,inl746;  aDderiteJ>« 


nI78 


WITHERSPOON  le 

ChmA  iaPiiilej,  Jan.16.17fi7;  here  he  continued  till 
tha  jm  1768,  when  be  wu  elected  preeideni  of  the 
Coliege  of  ^tw  Jeney,  will  iniugunted  >t  a  meetinf; 
of  tb«  iraitMS,  called  apecially  for  tbe  purpose,  Aug.  17, 
176&  Tbe  fame  of  hii  talenli  and  leaming  had  pie- 
ceded  him,  and  conwquently  he  brought  to  tbe  college 
•  VUTfB  aoocarim  of  iludenta,  and  «■■  tbe  meani  of 
greaii]r  incieuing  iu  fundi,  and  placing  it  on  ■  foun- 
dation  of  pennaoenl  OMfulrKsi.  Indeed,  few  men  oould 
«anibine  more  imponanc  qualiflealiont  for  tbe  preei- 
dencyofa  literuy  inwiCDtian— "  lalenti,  estenBiTe  al- 
tainnMnMs  commanding  penonal  appearance,  and  an 
admirabla  faculty  for  gaveming  young  men,  and  ex- 
citing id  them  a  noble  emulation  to  excel  in  Iheir 
•todiea."  He  inlrodneed  many  important  im;»ove- 
■neats  in  the  lyUem  of  education  —  particularly  the 
nwthod  of  teaching  by  lectare,  which  aeema  previoudy 
to  liave  been  unknown  (o  American  colleges;  and  he 
mctually  delivarei)  lecturei  on  four  differentjabjeotB — 
riz^  Elaqutmee  and  Compoiilion,  TaUe  aadCrilicumi 
Umral  PUIoiapkiit  C^nmoltigy  and  HUtory;  and  Di- 
viiatjf.  He  likewiM  rendered  moK  iniportant  aervice  to 
the  ddlege  by  increasing  ite  library  and  philoaophical 
apparatus,  and  introducing  tbe  atndy  of  the  Hebrew 
■iid  French  buignagt*;  he  waa  alio  chiefly  inatrunien- 
lal  in  obtaining  tbe  ftiM  artery  Gonatntct«t  by  the  cel- 
ebrated Ritlenhaiue.  In  oonneetion  with  hii  dutiea 
u  preaident,  he  wia  paator  of  the  Church  in  Prince- 
toa  during  the  whole  period  of  hU  preaideney.  But 
he  was  Kion  to  enter  upon  a  new  sphere  of  duty.  He 
was  aelected  by  tbe  citizens  of  Ifew  Jersey,  in  1 776,  a* 
a  delegate  to  the  Congreae  that  promulgated  the  Decla- 
ntion  of  Independence.  He  continued  la  represent  tbe 
State  of  !{evr  Jersey  in  the  General  Congress  from  1776 
to  1782.  and  in  practical  buiineas  talent  and  devotion 
to  public  atTurs  he  was  second  to  none  in  that  body. 
Kany  of  the  mast  important  stale-papen  of  the  day 
were  from  his  pen.  During  the  whole  period  in  which 
be  waa  occupied  in  civil  life  be  never  laid  asidt  bis 
ministerial  character,  bat  wished  il  underHaod  that  he 
waa  "a  minister  of  God,"  in  a  sacred  aa  well  a>  in  a 
ciril  sense.  When  be  retired  from  the  national  coun- 
cils, he  went  to  bia  country-place  near  Princeton,  N.  J., 
having  two  years  before  psnially  given  up  his  duties  as 
pfcaident  of  tbe  cnUege  lo  the  vice-president,  bia  son-in- 
law,  Dr.  Ssmnd  Stanhope  Smith.  He  died  Kov.  16, 17M. 
Dr.  Wlthenpoon  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  shiest,  aa 
well  as  one  of  the  most  vuiuminous,  writers  of  his  time. 
He  published,  EerlaiiuHatl  CkamderUtia;  or,  T'jU.I  r- 
nna  o/CAHrvA  Paf>(y(Qlasgow.lTaS,evoi  Bded.lTM, 
8to;  at  least  five  edica.}.  Tbiaworkwssainiedateertain 
principles  and  practices  which  then  prevailed  extensive- 
ly in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  by  its  acknowledged 
ability,  and  particularly  by  the  lieenness  of  its  satire,  it 
produced  a  great  sensation  and  acquirsil  immense  popu- 
larity;— A  Striata  Apoiogg  Jbr  lie  ChnrarteriMtia,  in 
wbioh  he  avows  himself  tbe  author  of  the  preceding 
work:— £saa)F  on  Ikt  Cofmedim  benctn  Iht  Daefrim  of 
JuMifieatiim  bg  lie  Impaled  A^JUnumaa  of  Ciriil  and 
NoKmai  of  Lift,  etc  (Edinb.  1756, 12mo;  often  repiib- 
liahed).  "  This  work  has  always  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  ablest  Calvinistic  expositions  of  that  doctrine  in 
any  language.  I  hope  you  approve  Mr.  Withenpoon's 
books.  I  think  his  Trealiti  on  Ri^entralioa  is  the  best 
I  have  seen  upon  this  important  subject"  (Kev.  John 
Newton  to  Mr.  Cunningham,  in  Ball's  Life  nf  Neteloa 
riW8,p.  150]):— 5er»ai  Inquiry  into  lie  KalHit  and 
Efe<U  <tftk*  Stage  (Glasgow,  17G7:  with  ^Frnon  by 
Bamiiel  Killer,  D.D.,  K.  T.  181!,  ISmo).  Thia  work 
bad  iU  origin  in  the  fact  that  Mr.  John  Home,  a  cler- 
gyman of  tbe  Church  of  Scotland,  had  published  his 
well-known  tragedy  of  Doaglat,  which  was  acted  te- 

.  peaMdIy  in  the  Edinburgh  Theatre,  where  s  number  of 
the  authot's  clerical  (Henda  attended.     The  Rev.  John 

'  Newton,  speaking  of  this  work,  says  he  "  wishes  every 
perstm  who  makes  ths  least  pretence  to  fear  Ood  had  an 

I   onrartuniiy  of  perusing"  It:— £(sa)9M/mpart(uW  iSii6- 


2Y  wirsius 

jecU,  mli  EcdeAutiecU  CiaraOerielia  (  Loud.  1TS4,  t 

vols.  13mo;  I76A,  3  vols.  ISmo).  These  volumes  were 
compoeed  of  pieces  wbicb  had  previously  been  publiahed 
in  Scotland,  with  the  exception  of  his  celebrated  Trm- 
tite  OH  A^KnTolion,  which  appeared  now  for  tbe  first 
lime.  This  Tnatite  was  alao  rublished  sepatalely  in 
17M,  limo-.  —  aermoni  (9)  on  Practkal  Sabfectt  (Glas- 
gow, 1768,  ISmo;  Rdinb.  1804,  I2mo):— /Vocfiai/  Di»- 
ODurMt  (U)oB  /^(K.^  Tmlii  oflieGotpd  (1768,  l!moi 
Lond.  I79d.  Svo;  ISOl,  ISmo).  Tbe  disconrseB  in  this 
volume  are  Bo  airauged  as  to  form  a  concise  system  of 
practical  divinity  :_{7ciiutdcrafu>u  oa  lit  Nalttit  and 
Extent  of  lie  Lef/iilalice  AaikorUg  qfihe  Britiii  Par- 
UamaU  (Pbila.  1774,  Svo;  Lond.  I7T&,8vo>.  He  also 
published  a  number  of  Sernioni:  —  Letturte  on  moral 
philoeopby,  on  eloquence,  on  divinity,  and  on  edBCStioui 
— LeUn-i  oil  ifarrso^.-— an  excellent  fsii^  on  Sfontjf! 
—philological  papers  (see  risBrirtd);— various  Speoe*- 
et  t«  ConTTui,  etc  Alter  bis  death  appeared,  in  one  vol- 
ume, iSernunu  on  Varioui  SubjecU,!!  Supplemeiaary  Vot- 
itme,  with  Ikt  Hiet  of  a  Corporation  of  Sercantt,  and 
olier  Trade  (Edinb.  1798,  ISmo;  1799,  ISmo).  A  col- 
lective edition  of  his  works,  with  an  account  of  the 
aulhor'a  life,  with  Sermon  by  John  Badgers,  D.D.  (also 
published  separately  [N.  Y.  1786,  8vo],  and  in  Prat, 
Dietenl.  Magazine,  voL  ii),  was  pobliah^  in  New  Torb 
(1800-1,  4  vols.  Svo;  2d  ed.  1802,  4  vols.  Svo),  Samuel 
Stanhope  Smith,  D.D.,  supplying  the  Memoir.  An- 
other edition,  with  his  lAfe,  appeared  at  Edinbnigh  in 
1604  (9  vola.  I2mo);  again  in  1816  (9  vols.  lima).  His 
MieeeOaneoui  Woria  were  published  st  Pbiladelpbia 
( I80S,  8va } ;  his  Selecf  Worti,  with  L^e,  in  London 
(1804,  3  vols.  Svo) ;  his  LtchirtM  on  tforal  POtotopiy 
in  Philadelphia  (3d  ed.  1810,  I2mo) ;  his  Eeioy;  Ltd. 
are*,  etc  in  Edinburgh  (1822,  4  vols.  12mD];  and  Ser- 
Moiu  on  PithSe  Occaivme  (2  vola.  12mo}.  "Tbe  name 
of  Dr.  Withenpoon  stands  high  on  both  conlJDenlS. 
No  man  thinks  of  Witberspoon  as  a  Briton,  but  as  an 
American  of  (be  Americans:  as  the  coonsellor  of  Hor- 
ris,  the  correspDndenl  of  Washington,  the  livsl  of  Frank- 
lin in  his  sagacity,  and  of  Reed  in  his  rtaolution;  one 
of  the  boldest  in  that  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
one  of  the  moat  levered  in  tbe  debates  of  the  Congras" 
(Alexander  [Rev.  J.  W.  ].  Prvieelon  Addreu).  See 
Chambers  and  Thomson,  Htog.  Diet,  of  Emiaeat  Soott 
(ed.  1856%  iv,  487 ;  Sprsgoe,  A  male  of  Ike  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
iii,  288-800:  Rich,  fi(ii^.4m(T-.  A'odo,  i,  £26,270;  Bart- 
lett,  Amtricanieme  (ed.  1869),  xxix,  xixi;  Amer.  Qaar, 
Ar^ii,  105)  A'dn6Hi^CArufitn/iu<nic(or,OcL  1829; 
Blatkwcodi  Mag.  ii,  438;  Dr.  Alex.  Carfyle'i  AUo- 
biog.  ( l^ei  ) ;  Headley,  Ciaplaiiu  and  CUrgf  of  Oit 
Bevobilion  (N.  Y.  1864,  ISmo);  Cleveland,  Compoidiitin 
of  A  ster.  Lit.  p.  46 ;  Thomas,  Pronouncing  Biog.  Diet. 
s.v.i  Lond.  Month. IUi:.l~M,ii,im;  Bickerateth, C*™. 
tian  Sladent  (4th  ed.],  p.  309 ;  Bull,  I^e  ofJolm  KeiBlon 
(1868),  p.  150, 226.     (J.  L  8.) 

Witaliu  (Wit*,  or  WiUen),  Heskah,  a  Dutch 
theologian  of  the  Feilerol  school,  with  mediating  tenden- 
cie^wasbamatEnkhuysen.inWestFrisia,Feb.l2,1686. 
His  ratberwssamagistrale,and  later  burgomaster  of  the 
(own ;  and  bis  nnde,  Peter  Gerhard,  was  a  scholar,  from 
whom  he  doubtless  received  the  exact  clasncal  training 
and  tbe  Ii  beral  le  n  dencies  w  b  ich  diatingoi  shed  him  smong 
the  men  of  his  lime.  He  entered  the  University  of  Gron- 
Ingenwhen  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  subsequent!}' stud- 

'  also  at  Leyden  and  Utrei'        ■"•  • 


»him 


ilialed  him  into  tbe  study  of  the  Old-Test. 
Scriptures  and  the  Oriental  languages  with  such  suc- 
cess that  at  the  age  of  eighteen  yean  he  was  able  to  de- 
liver a  learned  address  in  Hebrew;  Cocceius;  and  Jus- 
tus van  den  Bogaerdt,  a  preacher,  who  made  him  ac- 
quainted with  subjective  Christianity,  and  of  whom  he 
was  accustomed  to  say  that  the  beatof  alt  his  iheologi- 


with 


WIZARD  10 

1661  he  wu  It  Wonntfcn,  In  1666  at  QoeMii,  ind  in 

IfiGS  It  Ludwudeo.  In  tbew  Kvenl  field)  of  labor 
he  earned  Ihe  repuUtioa  of  ■  butbfol  putoi,  a  laperior 
preacher,  mil  a  acbolarlj  thinker,  and  wta,  in  conw- 
quevice,  hoaored  in  167&  villi  a  call  to  a  profeiaonhip 
and  pulpii  at  Fnneker,  and  after  fire  yean  more  witb 
a  timilar  call  to  UtrechL  In  1686  be  wai  appoinled 
chaplain  to  the  embaii}'  Mat  bj  the  Netherlands  to  the 
court  of  Jimei  li  of  England,  and  while  in  England  he 
entered  into  relatioDi  of  pemnal  intimacy  vith  prince 
Wmiam(subMquentI]'kinK  William  no.  'in  169t<beio. 
ceptedacalltoLeyden,wbich  released  bini  from  the  pul- 
pit, and  on  OcL72,1708,hecloKdliiibiU7life  in  death. 

The  principal  work  of  WiUiua  {Dt  (Eomumia  Fade- 
rum  Dei  cum  Humimbut  Libri  IV)  was  published  in 
1G77,  and  originated  in  his  desire  to  melionta  tbe  ae- 
limonious  spirit  apparent  in  tbe  controrcrain  between 
the  Dithodox  and  the  Federalists.  His  plsn  involved 
DO  true  mediation  between  the  opposing  STStems,  bow- 
ever,  but  merely  the  knockinR-off  of  a  few  of  tbe  more 
prominent  angles  on  the  Federal  hypolheaii;  and  he 
succeeded  only  in  raiung  a  storm  among  the  Federal- 
iata  agvnst  bimsrif,  without  conciliating  the  opponng 
party.  He  waa  simply  and  only  a  scriptural  theologianf 
and  incapable  of  exercising  the  acutenesa  of  a  •cholastic 
■pprebeositti — tbe  more,  pethspa,  because  be  thought 
and  wrote  in  clasiical  Latin.  The  plsn  of  th«  (Eam. 
Fad.  is  confused  (lib.  i,  De  Fad.  Ori  in  Gmen;  ii,  De 
Fad.  Gratia;  iii,  De  Fad.  am  Eitttit;  iv,  Dt  Doelr. 
Batatii).  The  doctrine  of  Christ's  penon  and  w<Hrk  is 
traaled  of  in  the  aecond  book,  and  that  of  the  election 
oTgraoe  and  the  appropriation  of  salvation  in  the  third. 
The  fourth  book  contains  a  biatoiy  of  Revelation,  be- 
tides the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments.  The  pemnality 
of  Witaius  waa  of  greater  importance  to  the  Church 
than  bis  theoh^. 

Otbet  works  of  Wiujos  are,  in  Latin,  Jndma  Ckrii' 
Hanixam^—ExeTcil.iKSamb.Apatl.tlOral.' 

—  jF-gypliaca  (Mitofllaiua  So  

Ru)  -.—Praxii  Chrutiamina  am  Imagisiliiii  Spirittiali- 
biu: — and  mioorproductions.  In  Dotch,/.Hi)oii«i(;viii 
Vi«a  ttu,  etc  II  is  to  be  added  that  he  was  well  ac- 
qnunted  witb  modem  languages  also,  especially  French, 
in  which  he  frequently  preached  without  diSicullv. 

See  Henngi.  Spedmai  UitL-theoL  de  Hrrm.  Wittio 
(Amstel.  186  [) ;  Uas^  Gttck.  d.  prot.  Dogtaalik,  ii,  81& 
— UerxDg,  Rtai-Ewyklep,  s.  r. 

Wlxard  (^3^7,  fidde'otti,  a  hunims 


i.  111 


■    (Lev. 
S,  9)  .1 


ix,  91  i 


b  he  conjures  (Uv.  ii,  27).     See  Mac 


ic  spirit  by 


WOLF 

■nivorooa  animal,  very  neariy  allied  to  tfa*  ieg,  mi 
well  known  as  to  require  co  particular  dcseriptias^ 
excepting   as  regards  the  identity  of  tbe  spades  m 
~  '    tine,  which,  althoDgh    often    aTiti  il,  is    by  ■> 
s  (slablished ;  lor  no  profeaed  aoolagist   haa  ob- 
tained tbe  animal  in  Syria,  while  otbet  tnTcUcn  aaly 
Fiend  to  have  seen  it,     Cnqoeatioubty  a  me  wwH 
a  wild  canine  with  very  vmiiar  niaBDaa,waa  aatia- 
frequent  in  that  country  during  tbe  earlier  agca  sf  tki 

.  At  thia  day  Ihe  true  wolf  ia  still  abundaDt  ia  Ah 
lOr,  aa  well  as  in  tbe  gorge*  of  Glida,  and.  Inn  ihe 
'eliing  dispoaition  of  the  specie*,  wolve*  may  be  ex- 
pected to  reside  in  tbe  bnals  ol  Libanns.  Hci^ck 
and  Ehrenbeig,  tbe  most  explicit  of  the  nalnrmlials  whs 
have  visited  that  region,  notice  the  ifili,  or  tA,  aads 
the  denomination  of  Conu  lnpaKtr,  and  alao,  it  acMi, 
of  Lupai  ajfriaau.  They  deacribe  il  aa  iisisiililiii|lli 
wolf,  hot  smaller,  wilh  a  white  lip  on  ibe  tail,  rtc. :  mi 
give  for  its  synonym  Cant  anlkiii  and  tbe  nolf  it 
Egypt,  that  is,  the  Xucoc  of  Aristotle  and  Tion  aKka 
of  Ham.  Smith.  This  epedes,  found  in  th«  nnn; 
slate  at  Lycopolis,  though  high  in  propoitiaa  to  in 
bulk,  measare*  only  eighteen  inchc*  at  tb«  ahcaldK. 
and  in  weight  ia  scarcely  more  tban  one  third  tt  tbat 
of  ■  tne  wolf,  wboaa  stature  rise*  to  thirty  sod  Ihiny- 
two  inche*.    It  ia  not  gr^arioua,  doe*  not  howl,  caan* 


means  liurallv  a  person  pretending  to 

eonesponding  to  witch.  In  thehistory  of  witchcraft,  the  , 
•ocosations  against  men  as  compared  with  those  against 
women  were  as  one  to  one  hundred.     See  Divihation. 

■Wolde,  CHAHija  GonrnKV,  D.D.,  LLD.,  T.KS.,  a 
Socinian  mini  tter,  was  bora  in  Poland  in  1725.  He  was  l 
educated  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  at  Leyden ;  was  I 
for  some  time  pattor  at  Lissa;  settled  in  England  as 
preacher  at  the  German  Chapel  Royal,  SLJames's,  in 
17717;  was  subsequently  reader  and  chaplain  at  tbe 
Savoy;  and  became  assistant  librarian  in  the  British 
Museum  in  17S2,  from  which  time  he  studied  the  less- 
known  Oriental  Isnguiges.  He  died  in  London,  May 
7, 1790.  He  edited  La  Croie'i  Coptic  Lexicon  (,177b), 
and  Scholtz's  Egi/pliiui  Grammar  (\~7i).  He  also 
transcribed  with  bis  own  hand  the  New-Test,  portion 
□fthf  Codex  Alexaadrimt  (1786),  which  be  afterwards 
published  in  fac-simile.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
waa  engaged  in  preparing  Fragmaita  Xoti  Teilamenli 
a  V<r$.jEgi/ptica  ZliaJecfi,  etc,  which  was  completed  by 
Dr.  Ford  and  published  at  Oxford  in  1799. 

Wolf  (the  invariable  rendering  tn  the  A.  T.  of  3X1, 
•eft,  *o  called  either  from  iu  Jknntai  or  its  ytUou 
color,  or  perhaps  the  word  is  primitive ;  \vt«t),  a  Oeree 


EgjptlBn  Wott. 

carry  ofT  a  lamb  oi  sheep,  nor  kill  men,  nor  skakt  tit 
shepherd  flee ;  in  short,  it  ia  not  the  true  wslf  of  Eaipt 
or  Asia  Minor,  and  is  not  poMeaaed  of  the  qnalilin  m- 
crihed  to  tbe  species  in  the  Bible.  The  next  in  Ho^ 
rich  and  Ehrenherg's  description  bean  the  Bame  Anbii 
name ;  it  ia  scientifically  called  Cant  lacer,  and  ia  ih> 
pittmeh  of  the  Coptst  This  spedra  ia,  bowwnr,  nil 
amaller,  and  thus  cannot  be  the  wolf  in  i|uiMimi  It 
may  be,  aa  then  are  no  forests  to  the  sonth  of  lifaaBK 
that  these  ravenous  beasts,  who  never  willingly  isim 
at  a  distance  from  cover,  have  foiMken  tbe  men  ofea 
country,  or  else  that  the  iJeiions,  now  only  ladiKiBCtlT 
known  as  a  spedea  ofblack  wolf  inArabia  and  Soahoa 
Syria,  is  the  spedea  or  variety  which  anciently  rifiee- 
sented  the  wolf  in  Syria— an  aiqwUation  (ullr  ili  ■  1 1 1 ' 
if  it  be  the  same  as  the  black  spedea  of  the  Pyrewa 
which,  Iboogb  surmised  to  be  a  wild  dog,  is  evm  b«> 
nerce  tban  Ibe  common  wolf,  and  is  equally  powerM 
Tbe  Arab*  are  said  to  eat  ihe  drriomn  as  game,  thiscl 
it  must  be  rare,  since  no  European  traveller  baa  ili- 
srribcd  a  specimen  from  personal  observatioo.  Tbeir- 
I  fore,  dther  the  true  wnlf  or  tbe  dtrbom  was  aiwimrti 
I  more  abundant  in  Palestine,  or  Ihe  laveima  powm  •< 
those  animals,  equally  belonging  to  tbe  hyena  and  n  i 
great  wild  dog,  caused  several  species  to  be  indndvd  e 
the  name.  £h)e  Doo.  "There  ia  alao  an  animal  rf 
which  travellers  in  Arabia  and  Syria  hear  mack,  ae- 
der  the  name  of  the  sAii,  which  the  narive*  belien  a 
he  a  bleed  between  a  leopard  and  a  wnlf.  They  de- 
scribe it  aa  being  scarcely  in  ita  shape  distingaishahk 
from  the  wnlf,  hut  with  Ihe  power  of  springiog  Kka  • 
leopanl,  and  attacking  catilc.  Its  bit*  is  aaid  Is  >■ 
mortal,  and  to 


1029  WOLFENBtJTTEL  MANUSCRIPT 


In  1772  Dr.  Freer  uir  ind  mMRired  the  forejun  and 
uil  of  oat  of  tbew  uiiiDtlB,  uid  luppUed  Dr.  KusmU 
•ritb  the  detdiplion  ohieh  be  hu  iatert«d 


It  foUowe 


I  the] 


cmTtn  from  Burih  1o  the  nfighbarhood  of  Aleppo. 
MuiT  perwtu  id  the  ciravui  had  been  bitteo,  aome  of 
whonn  died  in  a  short  lime  rtvin;;  mAd.  It  waji  aIhi  re- 
ported tbitaome  penonsin  the  neighborhood  of  Aleppo 
woe  bitten,  and  died  in  like  rnmner;  but  the  doctor 
MV  none  of  them  himselt  Dr.  RuMcll  imiginei  that 
the^tft  might  be  ■  irDtrnui  mad.  But  thia  ia  a  buird- 
«i*aalumption,as  it  is  doubtful  whether  canine  oudnen 
eiiMa  in  Western  Aila;  and  anleaa  we  conclude  with 
CoL  Hamilton  Smith  that  the  liib  ii  probably  the  same 
a  the  T\aiu  acnon,  or  the  wild  wolf-dog  of  Nitnlia,  it 
19  be«t  to  await  further  infonnation  on  the  subject. 
Botekhardt  says  that  little  doubt  can  be  entertained  of 
the  existence  of  the  animal,  and  explains  ita  fabulnua 
origin  (between  a  waU  and  leopard)  by  sta^ng  that  the 
Aiaba,  and  etpecially  the  Bedawin,  are  in  the  common 
pTftcticc  of  asfugning  to  every  animal  that  ia  rarely  met 
wilb  parent*  of  two  different  speciea  of  known  animals" 
(Kitto,  Ph^.  HitLofPaiaU  ii,  364). 

The  following  are  the  tcriptural  allunona  to  the  wolf: 
Its  ferocity  is  meotioned  in  Gen.  iIix,2Ti  Eiek.  xiii, 
27;  Hab.i,S:  Uatt.vit,l5i  iu  nocturnal  hibiu  in  Jer. 
T,  6;  Zepb.  iii,  3;  Hab.  i,  6;  iti  attacking  xheep  and 
Iambi  in  Ecclua.  xiii,  IT;  John  x,  12i  Matt,  n,  16; 
Luke  X,  3.  Isaiah  (xi,  6;  Ixv,  25)  foretells  the  peace- 
ful reign  of  the  He^ah  under  the  metaphor  of  a  wolf 
dwelling  with  a  lamb.  Cruel  persecutors  are  compared 
with  wolves  (Hitt.  x,  16;  Acts  xx,  29).     See  Zexh. 

Wolves  were  doubtleas  far  mora  common  in  Biblical 
Cimes  than  they  are  now,  though  they  are  occasionally 
Rpoeted  br  modem  travellers  (see  Russell,  fiaL  Hitt.  of 
Alippo,  ii,  lU)i  "The  wolf  seldom  ventures  so  near 
the  city  as  the  fox,  but  is  sometimes  seen  at  a  distance 
by  the  sportsmen  among  the  hilly  grounda  in  the  neigh- 
boihood ;  and  the  villages,  a>  well  as  the  herds,  often 
malfer  from  them.  It  is  called  dib  in  Arabic,  and  is 
common  all  over  Syria."  The  wotf  is  now,  as  of  old, 
the  dread  of  the  shepherds  of  Palestine.  Not  so  nu- 
merous, but  much  more  formidsble  than  the  jackal,  he 
Iiuka  about  the  fields,  hunting  not  in  noi^  puks,  but 
Mcreting  himself  till  dark  among  the  rocks;  and  with- 
out annising  the  vigilance  of  the  sheep-dogs,  he  leipa 
into  the  fold,  and  seizes  his  victim  by  stealth.  Their 
boldness  at  times,  however,  isvety  remarkable,  especial- 
ly in  the  less-frequented  regions.  "In  every  pirC  ofthe 
ODontry  we  oceasioaally  saw  the  wolf.  In  the  open  plain 
of  Geoneaaret  my  horse  one  day  literally  leaped  over  a 
wolA  In  the  hill  country  of  Benjamin  the  wolves  still  re- 
main. We  finind  them  alike  in  the  forests  of  Basfaan  and 
Gilead,  in  the  ra- 
vines of  Galilee 


the  wolf  of  Europe,  being  ■  pale  fiwn  tint,  and  seems  to 
be  a  larger  and  atrooger  animal.    See  Fox. 

WoI(JoHAi<NCHHiSTOFH,well  known  by  his  works 
in  the  field  of  Jewish  literature,  was  bom  at  Wemigerode, 
Germany,  Feb.  21, 168S.  Ac  the  gymnasium  of  his  na- 
tiveplaceheteceivedasolidclassicateducalion.  In  1695 
he  went  to  Hamburg  with  his  father,  and  here  he  pme- 
ecuted  his  preparatory  slodies  under  Anckelmann.  Ed- 
zard,  and  Fabiicius.  In  1703  we  fliid  Wolf  at  Witten- 
berg; in  1704  he  was  made  a  doctor,  and  in  1706  he  was 
received  into  the  academic  senate;  in  1707  he  returned 
to  Hamburg,  and  was  appoiuled  co-rector  at  Flensbu^; 
in  1708  he  went  to  Holland  and  England,  and  was  thus 
brought  in  contact  with  the  learned  men  of  his  age,  as 
Vltringa,  Hemsterhuys,  Clericus,  Surenhusius,  Reland, 
Perizonius,  Basnage,  Bentley,  Bamei,  Cave,  and  others 
At  Oxford  he  stayed  about  six  months,  and  spent  most 
ofhistimein  thefiodleianLibrary,  In  1709  he  returned 
to  Fleniburg,  where  be  received  a  call  to  Wittenberg  aa 
professor  of  philosophy ;  in  171!  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  the  Hamburg  (iymna- 
sium,  and  in  1T16  he  became  pastor  of  St.  Cathsrine's 
He  died  July  2G,]7B9.  His  main  work  is  his  SiUiaOtca 
HiAraa  (Hamburg,  171&-83, 4  vols.) ;  the  flnt  vol  con- 
tains a  list  of  Jewish  authors;  Ihesecond  treats  ofthe  Old 
Teat.,  iu  HSS.,  editions,  etc )  the  third  and  fourth  are 
supplements  to  the  Hist  two.  This  Bibliothtca  is  still 
the  great  storehouse  of  information  on  Jewish  litera- 
ture; and  although  Jewish  wiiten  of  out  day  apeak  of 
its  deflcienciea  and  shortcomings  (but  how  could  It  be 
otherwise?),  yet  these  lault-finders,  while  abusing  the 
anther,  copy  his  work.  Those,  however,  who  have  la- 
bored in  the  same  department  will  always  speak  with 
great  admiration  of  Woirt  Biblialhcea.  Steinschnelder 
says  of  OUT  author  "daee  Wolf  an  Fleiae,  EhHichkeit, 
Beeonnenheil,  und  Unbefangenheit  lugleich  noch  von 
keinem  christlichen  und  von  sehr  wenigen  jlldischen 
Autoren  anf  dieeem  Uehiete  ubertrof^n  warden"  (,Bi- 
bliog.  Nandbuei,  p.  xviii).  Besides  his  great  work,  he 
wrote,  B'"010  "'IBD  nsl,  Hitlona  I^aieonim  Hebrai- 
oinim (Wittenberg,  1705):— Ce  Uiu  Talmudica  Rabbvii- 
oaqae  Lttttomt  Elewihtioo  (ibid.  1706) :— jVbrtfia  Kara- 
Oram  (Hamburg,  1721).  See  Seelen,  De  Vila.  SaipHt, 
a  Mtritit  J.  C.  tVolfii  (Stade,  1717);  Petersen,  Gad. 
dtr  Hambargtr  S(adfAiWH)M«t  (  Hamburg,  1838) ;  Fllrsl, 
BOJ.  Jad.  iii,  b29 ;  Winer,  Handbuch  dtr  IhnA.  Lit.  i,  69, 
120, 137, 140, 189, 23S,  116,  MS,  648, 8!«,  899-901 ;  Slein- 
Schneider,  BibUiy.  Han^uat,p.xviiisq.,160;  U.Cala- 
logat  Libr.  HAr.  in  BiU.  BodL  p.  2730;  De'  RosM,  Di- 
tiomiri)  Storioa  (Getm.  transL),  p.  xiv  sq.     (B.  P.) 

WoUenbUttal  FragiiMiita.    See  Lessiho. 

Wolfanbttttel  Mautiaorlpt  (Cotwx  UosLPunb 


iDSritime  plaii 
(Triatram.  .Voc  /lui. 
ttfUkt  Biblf,p.lbi). 
Wolr«9,likemauy 
other  animals,  are 
■nbjeec  to  variation 
in  color.  The  com- 
mon color  is  gray 

faim  and  lotig  bUck 
baira.  The  variety 
moat  frequent  in 
SoDCliern  Europe 
aiMt  tbe  Pyrenees  is 
blw:k  :  ttte  wolf  of 
Aaia  Minor  is  more 

of  the  common  ml- 
or.  The  Syrian  wolf 
likewiae  Is  of  a 
Ugfatcr    ovbx  than 


le  CWcz  GurlplitTbi/bmiu  a  (conuluiug  Luke  I,  t,  •). 


WOLFF  10 

BTTAKOa)  b  tha  Duse  given  to  two  pilimpKat  frig- 
menu  (A  uid  b)  of  the  Greek  Teatanient  (ueiully  dea- 
ignaud  u  F  and  Q  o(  the  Goapebi),  wfaich  Here  disoOT- 
ered  bj  Koiltel  in  Che  ducat  library  at  WolfeDbUCtcl, 
Bninswick,  under  the  more  modem  writings  of  Iridart 
of  Seville.  He  publiahed  the  whole  in  1762.  and  Tin:h- 
endorf  more  accaralel}-  in  voL  iii  oT  bis  ifonuiatnta  Sa- 
cra Inedila  (I860).  The  Tolame  of  which  they  are  a 
part  (called  the  Cudex  Carotimit)  geems  to  have  been 
once  at  Bobbio,  and  baa  been  traced  frocn  Hayenct  and 
Prague,  till  it  waa  booght  by  a  duke  of  Brunswick  in 
1689.  Codex  P  oontaios,  on  43  leavei,  31  fragmenU  of 
486  verses  fnm  all  foor  evangelists;  Codex  Q,  on  18 
leaves,  12  fragments  of  236  ven«  from  Luke  and  John. 
A  few  portions,  once  written  in  Tennillion,  have  quite 
departed,  Tbey  belong  to  the  6tb  or  6lh  century. 
Both  arc  written  in  two  columoa,  the  uncials  being 
Inld,  tboee  of  Q  considerably  amailer.  The  capitals  in 
P  are  large  and  frequent,  and  both  have  the  Ammonian 
•ectiona  without  the  canons  of  Euiebiua,  See  Scrivener, 
ItiirxA  p.  IIS;  Ttegelles,  in  Home's  Iittrod.  iv,  179. 
See  HAKtractopTa. 

WoUC  Bernard  C,  D.D,,  a  German  Eeformed 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hartinsburg,  W.  Va.,  Dec  II, 
1794.  When  a  mere  child  be  received  tbe  impr«sion 
that  he  ought  Co  be  a  minister,  and  this  oonvictinn  deep- 
ened with  his  subsequent  development.  He  was  sent 
to  the  best  schools  aflbrded  by  bis  nauve  place,  where 
he  made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  maCbematics ;  and 
Subiequently  received  instruction  under  private  tutors 
in  the  famUy  of  E  H.  Coulston,  Esq.,  who  lived  near 
Maitiiisburg.  He  also  pursued  tbe  study  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages  for  some  time  under  the  direct  ion  of 
tbe  Kev.  Dr.  Denny,  ■  Presbyterian  clergyman  of  Cham- 
bersburg.  Pa.,  with  whom  he  made  atl«inments  which 
would  have  admitted  bim  to  tbe  Junior  clais  in  college. 
He  was  tben  called  borne  by  his  father  to  engage  with 
bim  in  Che  saddle  and  hamesa  malting  business,  where 
be  labored  four  or  five  years,  until,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  he  became  the  sole  owner  of  tbe  shop.  In  his  thir- 
ty-seventh year  he  entered  tbe  Theolngicat  Seminary  at 
York,  Pa.,  completed  his  coune  in  183!,  and  was  licensed 
at  Frederick,  Hd.,  in  September  of  the  ssma  year.  He 
became  aaaociate  pastor  of  Che  Church  at  Easton,  Pa,, 
in  18Sa;  pastor  of  the  Third  Church  in  Baltimore,  Hd., 
in  1844;  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the  office  of  profess- 
or of  didacdc  and  practical  theology  in  tbe  Theological 
Semmary  at  Hercersburg,  Pa.,  Nov.  !9, 1854;  resigned 
his  profeasotabip  aume  years  previous  to  his  death,  and 
devoted  the  remunder  of  hia  days  to  the  interests  of  tlie 
educational  institutionsof  his  Church.  Hedied  at  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  Nov.  1,  I87a  See  Haibaugh,  FaOien  o/Oit 
Germ.  R^.  C/ivrth,  iv,  246. 

Wolff;  Joseptl,  D.D.,  LL.D„  not  inappropriately 
called  a  meteor  or  comet  on  the  missionary  heaver 
bom  of  Jewish  parentage,  in  17S6,  in  Bavaria.  Endowed 
with  almost  unprecedented  iinguiitical  talent,  a  quick 
power  of  perception,  lively  temperament,  and  gteaC  pru- 
dence, he  became  acquainted  at  a  very  early  age  with 
the  most  prominent  men  in  different 'countries  of  Eu- 
rope. In  ISIS  he  waa  baptized  at  Prague  by  a  Bene- 
dictine monk.  While  at  Vienna  be  was  introduced  to  tbe 
highest  ecclesiastical  dignitaries;  lived  for  some  time 
with  count  Scolbei^  in  bis  castle  of  Tatenbsusen,  and 

heart  was  filled  with  the  desire  to  proclaim  the  glad  ti- 
dings of  the  Gospel  to  both  Jews  and  Mohammedans. 
Although  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  moat  prnm 
men  in  Rome,  eapecially  that  of  pope  Pins  Til,  and 
formed  acquaintances  which  were  of  tbe  greatest  inter. 
cat  in  bis  life,  yet  he  could  not  reconcile  himself  u 
Romanism.  While  at  Rome  he  spent  his  time  in  study- 
ing Oriental  languages.  Some  liberal  views  which  he 
had  expressed  on  sundry  occasions  made  him  auapected 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Inquisition,  and  he  bad  to  leave  the 
college  and  tbe  Eternal  City.    After  many  adventures. 


WOLFGANG 

be  went  to  London,  and  hen  he  joined  the  Chardi  at 
England.  Soon  he  became  acquainted  with  ma  ISkt 
Henry  Dmmmond,  Charles  Simeou,  Lewis  Way— the 
founders  of  tbe  London  Society  for  the  Jews.  Tbtv, 
perceiving  Wolff's  special  Qlneaa  for  miHonary  wetk, 
~        '  ' '  Cambridge  University,  wlnre 

he  oontinitcd  his  Oriental  studies  under  Prot  Let  AJ- 
two  years  (in  1821)  he  gave  up  his  stodies,  and  com- 
iced  his  adventurous  life  as  a  traveller.  Amid  ihr 
richest  and  most  remarkable  experience*,  be  tnvelM 
over  Europe,  Asia,  America,  and  a  part  of  Africa.  In 
journeys  be  became  acquainted  witfa  kings  ami 
princes,  as  well  at  with  the  tuoat  learned  men  of  ail  to- 
clemasticol  relations ;  everywhere  professing  JcsoBas  the 
Christ;  and  although  he  bad  often  been  imprisonnl  sod 
bis  life  bad  been  endangered  several  times,  yet  in  tbe 
greatest  perils  he  showed  an  undaunted  courage  and 
great  presence  of  mind.  Mesopotamia,  Perns,  Egypt, 
Bokhara,  witnessed  bis  ardent  EcaL  He  preached  ev- 
erywhere— at  one  time  in  this  language,  at  anotber  time 
different  one ;  distributed  tbe  Holy  Scriptuns  in 
ranous  languagea  of  the  East ;  and  wbenvs  hs 
.  he  understood  how  to  interest  the  most  pcnmiDcm 
and  women  in  his  behalf.  In  1837  Wolff  anired 
jnerica,  to  be  ordained  by  bishop  Doaae  of  Ke« 
Jersey.  After  spending  some  time  in  this  countrr,  he 
left  New  York  Jan.  3, 1838,  for  England.  Here  he  at 
first  occupied  a  small  incumbency  at  Linthwaite,  in 
Yorkshire;  but  as  the  climate  was  too  cold  for  Iks 
health  of  hia  wife  (lady  Georgiana  Walpole,  daughw 
of  tbe  count  of  Oxford),  Wolff  exchanged  that  pmtonl 
charge  for  the  curacy  of  High  Hnylaod,  in  tbe  ooimiv 
of  York,  and  there  be  remained  for  nearly  five  ytaii 
At  the  beginning  of  the  ynr  1843,  Wolff  heud  of  tbe 
imprisonment  of  colonel  Sloddart  and  captain  CsoDlly 
in  Bokhara,  and  this  induced  him  to  proceed  to  that 
place  in  order  to  ascertain  their  whereabouta.  fna 
what  he  learned  on  this  bis  most  dangeroua  joomey,  hi 
was  convinced  that  Stoddarl  and  Conolly  were  dad. 
In  1844  be  returned  to  England  and  received  Che  pariit 
in  lie  Brewers.  Here  hs  Uboted  for  the  lemaiiuieT  af 
his  life,  and  died  Hay  !.  1862.  Before  his  death  he  fol- 
filted  tbe  promise  made  by  him  msnv  vears  belcn  to 
the  Armenian  and  Greek  pstiiarchs  of  helping  tbeia  to 
establish  hostels  in  Cambridge  and  Oxfnrd:  tbe  Ser. 
George  Williams,  senior  fellow  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, assisted  and  co-operated  with  bim  in  this  unda- 
Uking.  Wolff  published,  Jtrfardia  ami  Vim'iwi) 
/.oior'f  oniony  lie  Jot*,  etc  (Lond.  1835)  : — JUiaic^r) 
Journal  and  Mentoir,  written  by  himself  (revistal  ai 
edited  by  J.  Bagford,  ibid.  18S4)  z—mniamary  JoaimL, 
vol.  iii  (ibid.  \««I'):—Jiainal gurng  an  AeeouHo/Li 
Mitivmarfi  Labort  /ron  Ike  Tear  1827  to  1881,  a^ 
from  1B85  fo  1838  (iUd.  1839^) -.-yarrati^  of  a  Mit- 
nan  to  Boiiara  in  ike  Trart  i84S^t5  (2  ed.  ilud.  IH^ 
2  vols.):— hut  the  most  interesting  are  hia  TnrwaUa^ 
Adtmmreto/Oie  Ret.Joeepli  IFo(/"(ibid.  18fil>  Tbe 
latter  forms  the  basis  of  Dr.  H.  Sengrlmann's  Dr,  Jimpk 
Woif^  FBI  Wmato-Wm  (Hamburg,  1863),      (R  P.) 

Wolffang,  St.,  and  bishop  of  Ratidxra  in  Ilu 
10th  ocntui^-,  belonged  to  a  nohle  family  of  Alemamii. 
and  was  a  pupil  of  the  Convent  of  Reiehenao,  which,  in 
the  early  halfofthst  century,  possessed  the  ben  scbod 
among  tbe  convents  of  Germany,  and  of  WUrxbnig, 
where  be  had  the  misfortune  to  explain  a  paaage  ia 
Uartian  Capells  (Z>e  A'aphu  Fkiloioffim  et  fferctrHi 
more  thoroughly  than  his  teacher,  a  loamed  TiaKML 
named  Stephen,  was  able  to  do,  and  to  be  refuaed  fiirtbR 
instmclion  in  consequence.  In  SAS  he  >cicanipwiied 
archbisbup  Henry  of  Treves  to  his  diocese,  and  beeaiM 
■  teacher  of  youth  and  dean  of  the  detify.  On  lbs 
death  of  the  archbishop  In  964,  Wolfgang  retired  to  tht 
"     of  Eiosiedeln,  and  became  an  exBm[Je  of 


WOLLASTON  10 

but,  mfirMng  with  ^em  mceen  than  he  bad  expected,  be 
accepted  a  call  M  viuc  buhop  Pilgrim  of  Paatau,  and  «aa 
BOO  aflenrarda,  through  that  prelite'e  iafluence,  choKa 
bUbop  of  Racubon,  aad  invealed  with  the  HafC  He 
wa>  oooeecnled  and  enEhcDoed  in  St.  Petec'i  Church  br 
arehbiibop  Frederick  of  Salzburg  anil  his  luffragaDs  in 
973.  Sooa  afterwarda  he  penuaded  bia  chapter  lo  ac- 
cede to  the  wUb  of  the  Bohemiaua  for  a  aepantion  of 
their  coanti;  from  the  dioocN  of  Ratiibon,  and  ila  «rec- 
tioa  into  an  independent  ue ;  and  be  alao  aappUed  tbe 
HonaMeiy  of  SU  Emmeiaii,  over  Hhieh  the  biabopa  of 
RatuboD  bad  alwajv  preeided,  with  a  regular  abbot,  and 
Ht  tftit  a  portion  of  tbe  cathedral  poeeeeaioDi  for  the 
•oppoit  of  the  DKiDkg.  He  furtbenoore  reformed  the 
Donneriei  of  Upper  and  Lower  HUnater  at  Kalian, 
whoae  occopantj,  being  generally  of  noble  ramily,  ar- 
gued that  tb«7,  aa  canoDeeaea  rather  than  regular  nuns, 
vera  »ot  required  to  practice  ao  tlrict  an  aaoelidam  aa 
Biuu;  tbe  end  lieiDg  accomplished  through  the  aeal  of 
the  mma  of  the  new  convent  of  Middle  MUnater  which 
he  founded.  Ue  wsa  equally  lealoni  and  judicioue  in 
bia  care  orer  [he  material  and  apiritual  intereiU  of  bia 
•ecular  ckrgy  and  over  tbe  moni  and  pbyucal  needs 
of  the  common  people.  He  waa  immovably  loyal  to  the 
emperor,  ao  that  doke  Henry  II  ot  Bavaria  w'u  unable 
to  paraoade  him  to  beoome  a  enpponer  of  tbe  rebellion 
againat  Otho  H ;  and  when  Henry  anbmilted,  Wolfgang 
built  aaathank-otferingtheoyptatSt-Emmerau.  He 
acoompanied  the  emperor'a  anite  in  tbe  campaign  of 
978.  On  the  return  Uie  army  waa  puraued  by  the 
French,  and,  on  reaching  a  awolten  river,  waa  in  danger 
of  bung  eat  to  piecea  becauee  the  aoldiers  feared  to  at- 
tempt the  croanng.  Woirgang  thereupon  plunged  into 
the  alream,  and  tbe  army,  emboldened  by  bia  exam- 
ple, eaeapcd  without  tbe  loea  of  a  man.  Hia  ioBuence 
led  to  a  belter  cultivation  of  the  Eaat  Harchea  of  Bava- 
ria. Ue  built  the  Caatle  of  \neaelberg  ai  ■  defence 
againat  the  inroada  of  tbe  Huogariana.  He  alto  edu- 
cated the  children  of  duke  Henry,  the  oldeat  of  whom 
became  at  a  Uter  day  tbe  emperor  of  Germany.  After 
adminiitering  tbe  epiacopal  office  daring  twenty-one 
vean,  hedied  at  Puppingen,  OcL  SI,  994,  and  waa  buried 
in  a  cbapel  of  St.  Emmerau'a.  See  Otblo,  Vila  Walf- 
taitgi,  in  Pertz,  J/onum.  Qerm.  voL  vi;  Callea,  Atat. 
Eoda.  Germ,  vcd,  iv ;  Arnold  de  Vochberg,  in  Caniriue, 
iii,  1 ;  Hied,  Cod,  Diplom,  i,  106  aq. ;  Bolland,  in  Paali 
Vit.  8.  EriarS  ad  Jan.  p.  688;  Zimgibl,  in  Neut  Ab- 
iasIC.  d.  iairuA  Aiadtmie,  iii,  1798,  p.  679  iq.  i  Rett- 
berg,  KiniaigeK*.  DeutiMimit,  ii,  268  aq. ;   Herzog, 


'WoUaston,  Fbakcis,  LL.D.,  an  Engliih  clergy- 
man, a  grandaoa  of  William  Wollaaton,  waa  bom  in 
IT81)  became  rector  of  Ghiaelburat,  in  Rent,  and  died  in 
16I&  Hepnbliahed,  J(Iifr«MloliieCie>jy,etc.(17T2): 
—  Qwria  rtlaiag  to  the  Book  of  Commffn  Prawr 
(1774); — andaev^al  astronomical  worka. 

'WoUay,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  Engliah  cardinal 
and  stateaman,  was  bom  at  Ipawich,  in  Harch,  I4T1. 
He  ia  aaid  to  hare  been  the  aon  of  a  butcher  named 
Robert  Wolaey,  and  bia  wife  Joan,  who  were  poor  but 
reputable,  and  poaeeased  aufficient  meana  to  give  their 
son  the  best  education  hia  native  town  afforded,  and 
then  to  send  him  to  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where 
be  graduated  at  tbe  age  of  flfleen,  and  gained  by  hia 
ear^y  advancement  the  sobriquet  of '*lhe  boy-bacbetor." 
He  wBsioon  after  cbown  a  fellow  of  bis  college,  and  on 
taking  bia  maater'a  degree  was  appointed  teacher  of 
UagiUen  grammar-echool,  and  was  ordained.  In  I49S 
be  waa  made  buraar  of  the  college,  and  has  the  credit 
of  building  Magdalen  Tower  about 


with  E 


■«Cq-v.), 


and  united  bia  eSorta  with  Iboae  of  that 
ar  for  the  promotion  of  letters.  But  in  subsequent 
years,  aa  Wolaey  began  to  advance  in  position  and  pro- 
mt, while  Eraamua  continued  lo  live  the  lit^  of  a 
aoholar,  tbe  intimacy  which  exialfd  between  them 


which  circun 

when  Wolaey  fell,  that  be  waa  not  worthy  of  tbe  honor 
wbich  be  bad  recdved.  While  teaching  at  Magdalen 
College  Wolaey  acted  as  tutor  to  the  three  aona  of  the 
marquis  of  Dorset  By  this  meana  an  acquaintance 
apreug  up  between  Wolaey  and  the  marquia  which  re- 
aulted  in  giving  the  former  hia  first  ecdeeiastical  pre- 
ferment— viz,  the  rectory  of  Lymington,  in  Somerset- 
shire, conferred  on  him  in  1600.  While  here  be  fell 
into  diagrace.  Being  at  a  fair  in  the  neighborhood,  be 
was  engaged  in  some  kind  of  disorderly  oonduct  (posn- 
bly  drunk,  aa  baa  been  charged),  and  waa  arteated  by 
one  Sir  Amiaa  Poulet,  a  J  uatice  of  tbe  peace,  and  put 
in  tbe  stocks.  The  indignity  was  remembered  by 
Wolaey,  and  when  he  became  chancellor,  Sir  Amiaa 
WBI  imprisoned  for  aix  yean  by  hia  order.  He  next 
became  domestic  chaplain  to  Heniy  Dean,  arcbhiahop 
of  Canterbury,  and  on  bis  death,  in  1603,  waa  appointed 
chaplain  to  £Ur  John  Nafsnt,  through  whoae  influence 
he  became  chaplain  to  King  Henry  VII.  In  1504  he 
received  the  rectory  of  Redgrave,  in  Norfolk,  which  con- 
atituted  bia  third  living.  His  indnence  and  favor  at 
court  were  rapidly  increating,  and  in  February,  1508, 
the  king  gave  him  the  deanery  of  Lincoln  and  two  preb- 
ends in  the  same  church. 

The  death  of  the  king  in  tbe  following  year  brought 
to  the  throne  a  aovereign  of  a  very  different  character 
from  the  one  who  bad  Just  left  it.  Great  cbange*  were 
lo  be  made  at  court  by  Henry  YIII;  but  amid  them 
all  Wotsey  managed  to  be  not  only  retained,  but  pro- 
moted aliU  further.  Many  circumstances  favored  hia 
promotion.    He  was  in  the  prime  of  life;  he  wn  ae- 

dreas  peculiarly  fitted  him;  and  be  alao  held  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  Church.  Added  to  this,  there  were  aa- 
imoaitiea  between  tbe  Earl  of  Surrey,  the  lord-treaaorer, 
and  Fox,  the  biahop  of  Winchealer,  wbo  was  alao  keepel 
of  the  privy  aeal  and  secretary  of  state.  Fox,  desiring 
to  Btiengtlien  his  own  induence  by  placing  one  of  his 
friends  and  adherents  near  the  king,  made  Wolsey  the 
king's  almoner.  The  adrmt  courtier  rose  so  rapidly  in 
the  king's  estimation  that  be  did  almost  as  he  pleased. 
He  studied  to  please  tbe  young  king  by  joining  in  in- 
dulgenoee  which,  howevei  suitable  to  the  gayely  of  a 
court,  were  ill  becoming  the  chaiacter  of  an  nccienaatic 
Yet  amid  the  luxuries  which  he  promoted  in  his  royal 
master,  be  did  not  neglect  to  inculcate  maxims  of  state, 
and  present  to  him  tbe  advantage*  of  a  ayatem  of  favor- 
itiam  which  he  secretly  hoped  would  one  day  result  in 
bis  own  advancement.  Before  the  year  of  the  king's 
accession  had  eloeed,  he  had  become  lord  almoner,  and 
had  been  presented  with  valuable  landa  and  bouses  in 
London.  In  1&10  he  became  rector  of  Torrington ;  in 
1611,  canon  of  Windsor  and  registrar  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter;  in  lbi2,  prebendary  of  York;  in  IS18, dean  of 
York  and  biabopofTaumay, in  France;  in  1614,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  and  in  the  same  year  archbiahop  of  York, 
In  1616  he  waa  made  a  cardinal,  and  succeeded  Warbam 
as  chancellor.  In  1616  the  pope  made  him  legate  a  la- 
Ure,  a  commission  which  gave  bim  great  wealth  and 
almost  unlimited  power  over  the  English  clergy.  Ue 
also  fanned  the  revenues  of  pertain  dioceaea  which  wer* 
held  by  foreign  biabopa,  appropriating  a  good  share  to 
his  own  use,  and  received  stipenda  from  tbe  kinga  of 
France  and  Spain  and  tbe  doge  of  Venice.  Thua  Wol- 
aey had  secured  to  htmseir  the  whole  power  of  tbe  state, 
both  civil  and  ecclcaiauical,  and  derivcl  from  varioua 
sources  an  amount  of  revenue  hitherto  unknown  to  any 
but  the  royalty.  Yet  hia  ambition  waa  not  satialied. 
He  aspired  to  the  papacy,  and  had  a  considerable  fol- 
lowing in  Ibti  aa  candiilste  for  the  place  left  vacant  by 
Leo  X,  and  again  in  162B  for  that  ot  Adrian  VI. 

Wolaey  waa  fond  of  display,  and  indulged  that  fond- 
neie  to  a  degree  never  before  approached  by  a  subject 
At  York  Phtce  (now  Whitehall)  hia  neidence  waa  fur- 
niahed  with  every  luxnryi  and  at  HaMpton  Conrt  h« 


WOLSEY  10 

baSt  Tor  himntf  ■  piljux  which  he  cventniUj  picwnled 
to  tbt  king.  His  Ana  WM  goigeoui,  bit  nunner  of 
living  wTnptooui,  uirl  hit  houMliohi  conuAted  of  raon 
thin  five  hundred  peraoru,  irnong  vhoni  wen  many 
people  of  nnk — lords,  earls,  and  the  like.  Yet  while 
bia  train  of  servanU  conuiited  of  Lheae  peraans,  Ilia 
hoUK  waa  a  school  where  their  loiu  wen  educated  and 
iniuated  into  pnblie  life.  While  he  waa  daizluig  the 
eyes  or  imuldng  the  feeliiiga  of  people  by  an  oelenta- 
tioD  of  gngeooa  fumitara  and  equipage,  he  waa  a  gen- 
eral and  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  art.  He  pro- 
moted leaning  with  a  mnniflcent  hand.  He  eacab- 
liahed  lectureahipa,  professoishipa,  and  coUegea  at  his 
own  expenae.  Ha  was  the  founder  of  ■  college,  or 
Bcbool,  at  Ipawich  which,  for  ■  time,  rivalled  the 
acboola  of  Eton  and  Wincheater,  but  waa  diaooalinued 
at  the  caidinal'a  falL  Ha  also  launded  Cardinal's 
College  at  Oxford,  which  renMO*  to -da;  ai  Christ 

He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Luthenn  Reformation, 
and  manifetled  hi>  leal  againat  it  in  1521,  by  procuring 
tbe  condemnation  of  Luther'a  doctrines  in  an  assembly  of 
divinea  held  at  his  own  house.  He  also  published  the 
pope's  bull  against  Luther,  and  endeavoced  to  luppms 
his  writings  In  England.  But  be  was  alwavs  lenient 
lowards  English  Lulheraoa,  and  one  article  of  his  im- 
peachmeut  was  that  he  was  remiss  in  punishing  here- 
tics. His  ecclesiastical  adminialration  was  exceedingly 
comipt,  furnishing  to  all  clergymen  an  example  of  hold- 
ing many  preferments  without  performing  the  duties  of 
any  of  them.  The  effect  of  Ihia  was  to  sow  in  EnglaniJ 
many  of  the  seeda  of  tbe  Reformation  which  followed. 
In  1638  he  resigned  the  see  of  Durham  for  that  of 
Winchester;  bnt  to  the  latter  place  he  never  went. 
AboDt  this  time  waa  tbe  beginning  of  difficalties,  the 
end  of  which  he  might  have  foreseen,  but  had  no  power 
tfl  Bveit.  Henry  VIII  denred  to  employ  the  cardinal's 
tatenia  in  aid  of  his  proposed  divorce  from  queen  Cath- 
erine and  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn.  But  hia  lardy 
efforts  and  rigid  adherence  to  legal  forms  and  tecbnical- 
itica  greatly  exasperated  the  king,  who  was  not  to  be 
trifled  with  even  in  tbe  gratiflcation  of  his  baser  pas- 
lions.  Unfortunately,  too,  for  Woleey,  bis  conduct  had 
been  such  as  to  inspire  the  balnd  of  both  the  qneen 
and  her  rivaL  Catherine  knew  that  he  had  taken 
steps  towards  procuring  her  divorce,  and  Anne  Boleyn 
knew  that  be  waa  uung  his  influcnoe  against  her  mar- 
riage with  tbe  king.  Added  to  this  enmity  in  high 
place  were  tbe  Jealousy  and  oppontion  of  the  numerous 
aspiranta  for  preferment  who  had  been  leas  succewful 
than  bimself.  With  such  a  combinarion  against  him, 
his  fsll  waa  speedily  and  relentlessly  accomplished. 

On  the  Sist  day  of  the  term,  OcN  9,  1S29,  while  he 
was  iqwning  the  court  of  chancery  at  Westminster,  the 
attorney-general  indicted  bim  in  the  court  of  King's 
Bench  for  procuring  a  bull  from  Rome  appointing  him 
legate,  contrary  to  tbe  statute,  by  which  he  had  in- 
curred a  pnmumrr,  and  forfeited  all  his  goods  to  tbe 
kingand  might  be  imprisoned.  The  king  immediately 
sent  and  demanded  the  great  scat  from  bjm,  and  or- 
dered him  to  leave  hia  magnidcent  palace  at  York 
Place.  Before  leaving  this  place  he  made  an  inventory 
of  the  rumituie,plate,  and  other  works  of  art,  which  be 
bad  added,  and  it  is  said  to  hare  amounted  to  the  im- 
mense sum  of  five  hundred  thousand  crowns.  From 
thence  he  started  to  Eiher,  near  Hampton  Court,  and 
waa  met  on  tbe  way,  as  he  was  riding  from  Putney  on 
his  mule,  bj  a  measenger  who  assured  bim  that  he  still 
retained  his  pl»X  in  the  royal  favor,  and  presented  him 
with  a  ring  which  tbe  king  employed  asa  token  to  give 
credit  lo  the  bearer.  The  message  was  received  by 
Wolsey  with  the  humblest  expressions  of  gratitude  i 
but  he  aeems  not  to  have  credited  the  mockery,  as  be 
proceeded  on  his  way  lo  Esher.  Wolsey  might  have 
produced  in  hia  own  defence  ■gainst  the  indictment 
the  king's  letlei»-patcnt  authorizing  him  to  accept  tbe 
(lope's  buU;  but  he  merely  ioatntcted  his  altortiey  to 


J2  WOOD 

plead,  in  hia  abaence,  his  entire  ignorance  of  tbe  lUta^ 
and  that  he  acknowledged  other  particular*  with  whick 
be  was  charged,  and  lubmiited  himself  is  the  king*! 
mercy.  The  court,  however,  pasM^I  the  senteoe*  that 
he  was  "  out  of  the  protection,  and  hia  landa,  gads,  and 
chattels  forfeit,  and  his  penion  might  he  snud."  Uii 
enemies  continued  their  prosecntions,  Fotty-fcnr  ar- 
ticles Here  presented  against  him  Is  the  House  of  Lonk, 
which  were  to  serve  aa  the  basis  of  his  utter  ruin.  An 
he  bad  already  suffered  almost  as  much  punishmeet  as 
it  was  possitrie  to  inSict  upon  him,  and  Paibani^ 
could  do  little  more  than  saoclioo  whU  bad  akndy 
been  done.  Wolsey  also  found  a  friend  in  TboBu 
Cromwell,  formerly  bis  steward,  ubaequcBllj  rait  U 
Eaex,  who  defended  him  with  such  spirit  aai  eb- 
quence  as  msterially  to  change  the  tide  of  hia  lotlaiia 
His  speech  had  Ihe  effect  to  cause  the  CommoiB  to  re- 
ject the  articles,  and  this  brought  Ihe  ptoceeafiagi  al 
the  lords  to  a  slandstilL  During  his  rendoice  at  Esh- 
er, tbe  caidiual's  health  was  found  to  be  declisE&|e  ra^ 
idly,  and  the  king  was  induced,  from  tbe  iui|au»* 
that  it  was  mental  rather  than  phyncal  Imble  that 
was  preying  upon  his  vitality,  to  show  him  such  kin^ 
ness  as  ivvit-ed  his  spirits  at  ot»ce.  Henry  alio  gnaud 
him,  Feb.  IS,  15S0,  a  free  panlon  fot  all  crimes  and  lu- 
demeanors,  a  few  days  sfterwsrds  restored  to  hiesa  targr 
part  of  his  revenues,  and  allowed  him  to  maovt  tram 
Esber  to  Richmond.  From  Ibence  he  was  remmtd  i> 
the  srchbishop's  seat  at  Southwell;  and  then  hia  n*- 
dence  was  flxed  at  Cawood  Castle,  which  be  begxu  u 
repair,  and  was  beginning  to  gain  favor  with  the  pe<- 
ple  when  the  king  had  him  arrefoed  for  higfa-tre^Bo. 
and  ordered  him  to  be  brought  lo  London.  He  set  lai 
on  Nov.  1, 1630,  but  on  the  road  he  wia  seiBd  wiik 
■  disorder  which  ended  hia  life  at  Lricester  Ahbcy  «■ 
Ihe  2Sth  of  the  month.  During  his  lau  boon  be  gan 
to  tbe  expression,  "Ifl  bad  served  aiy  fisd 

.iligenlly  as  I  have  served  my  king,  be  w«a)d  »n 

e  given  me  over  to  my  enemiea." 

Wolsey  attained  his  elevation  byawi 

ambition  was  unlimited,  bis  rapacity  great; 

rogant  and  overbearing,  and  eztiemely  fond 

and  parade.     But  he  was  a  great  mlDislei, 

beyond  the  age  in  which  be  lived,  diligent 

and  a  good  servant  lo  the  king;  for  whea  his  anika 

ity  was  eit^lished,  he  checked  the  king's  eruelty,  n 

strained   many  of  his  caprices,  and  kept  his  poaia 

within  bounds,     The  latter  part  of  Henry's  rei^  wi 

very  far  more  aiminal  than  that  during  wl  '   ' 

cardinal  presided  over   his   counaela."     See 

VIII. 

See  the  r.i/t  of  Woiieg  by  Cavendish,  hia  p 
usher  (Lond.  1641),  Gait  (181S),  Howard  (1831).  wd 
Martin  (1863) ;  WillUm^  i-ini  o/tke  E^iii  Cardimali 
(Lend.  1868) ;  Brewer,  Lflten  ami  /'(■per),  Farrigm  and 
Domatic.  of  Bars  VIII  (1870-75);  and  tbe  Bevcs^ 
Butoria  of  Eii^aad. 

Womb  (usually  *1B3>  yaariip,  both  meaning  brttf. 
as  often  rendered;  but  the  distinctive  term  i>  CHT'' 
The  fruit  of  tbe  womb  is  chiUrtai  (Gen,  xxx,  S),  aat 
the  Psalmist  describes  them  as  the  blean^  at  Btmr^tft 
(Psa.  cxxvii,  B-6).    See  Child. 

Wood  (usually  yS,  also  rendered  "  tree ;"  ;£Xw\ 
The  EBBt,e>pecially  Egypt  (HasBelquiBl.p.70;  NordfD. 
p.  S61),  is  remarkably  destitute  of  foresta.  and  FalcMiiH  > 
nearly  as  barren  of  them,  except  in  sDme  of  tbe  DOftben 
snd  eastern  districts.  SeeTuix.  ConasqueDtlytb*  inbab- 
itants  are  obliged  lo  use,  instead  of  fire-wood,  dried  pa* 
(Hatt.vi,SO;  Lukexii,2S),Drplanta,leavea,i(nw  (WaaL 
iii,i:i;  MiBhna,«i(aM.iii,l),and,intbeabBenceoribaae. 
dung  (Eiek.  iv,  1!,  15;  see  Prok«ch,  EritmrT.  ii,  9«V 
and  in  Babylon  mineral  pilch  (Diod.  Sic  ii,  11).  Goafk. 
Kone,  JJ(i».  p.  B77 ;  Tavemer,  i,  !80 ;  Aivienx,  i,  ISff; 
Robinson,  i,  843;  iii,  233;  WeUatcd.ii,  60.    See  Fcmi- 


ih* 


WOOD  10 

An  imanul  rapplf  ww  raqoind  Tor  the  wcriflcUl  Bn. 
See  BowiT-orrBBDia.  Cbueod  wu  ilw  vatd.  See 
CoAU  Tlut  th«  advuit^*  of  (aretU  wu  *  commoa 
fToftitj  does  not  follow  from  Lain,  iv,  4,  tnd  ia  of  iuelf 
very  improbable  in  ■  Und  wbere  *  lUici  lyitem  of  pro- 
prielonbip  wms  in  vogue.  For  Ihe  vsrious  fabric*  of 
tbi(iiiatetiil,see  HAHDicRAinr.  Tbe  chief  tniJea  cm- 
oemed  wem  iarp«°'="  (Eiod.  xuv,  SO  «).).  cmbioet- 
makan  (zxv,  ID  iq.;  xzivii,  1,10, 15,  25,elc},  wbeel- 
wrigbta(Judi[.iv,lS',  18atD.Ti,T;  1  Kings  vii,  33 ;  ix, 
19  i  Hos.  X,  11,  etc),  bM»keHre«vets  (Numb,  vi,  15  sq.  i 
DeuL.  ixvi,  2, 4 ;  Judg.  vi,  19),  uid  (unlswfuUy)  imsge- 
cuven.  See  li>ot.  On  the  other  band,  ve  flud  do 
Uva  of  ooopenge  (oat  aveo  in  Jei.  ilviii,  12,  where 
wis  HeaiAa  not  auks,  but  vesaela  geDeiaHy},  An- 
cienliy,  u  itill,  tbe  Orient^  used  leather  bottles,  hoios, 
and  Jan,  instewl  of  barrels;  but  pails  (wooden  bucketa) 
were  probably  aakDOwn  (Lev.  xv,  12  7).  The  tools  of 
wood-workers  were  the  axe  or  hitchet  (D^-ip  or  T,nf), 
the  saw  (lilB?),  the  plane  (n^lSJSO  ?),  and  the  auger 
(Talm.  nipa,  Hisbna,  CAet  liii,  *).  See,  generally,  Balr 
Icnnan,  Baaib.  i,  38S  sq.  As  ^ips  were  not  built 
by  Ihe  Hebrews,  and  stone  was  the  ready  material  for 
building,  architecture  had  little  iu«  for  wood.    See 

'Wood,  James  (1),  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyterian 

divine,wasbom  at  Greenaeld,N.Y.,  July  12,1799.  He 
graduated  it  Union  College,  Schenect«ly,  N.  V.,in  1832; 
uudied  theology  in  the  Seminary  at  Princeton,  H.  J.j 
wu  licensed  by  Albany  Pnshytery,  and  ordiined  and 
installed  in  \»iS  as  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Amstei- 
daiD,  N.  T.,  and  rsUdned  this  ooanection  uniU  1888, 
when  he  became  agent  for  tbe  Pretbyterian  Board 
of  Eduction,  laboring  in  the  stain  of  Louiaiana,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Alabama  with  marked  success ;  became 
profeaaor  of  Biblical  lilemtare  in  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary at  New  Albany,  Ind.,  in  1839:  aasociaie  secreUry 
of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1864;  president  of  Han- 
over Collt^e,  Hanover,  Ind.,  from  1859  to  1866 ;  presi- 
dent of  Van  Rensselaer  Initita  te,  Higbtstown,  N.  J.,  from 
1866  until  his  death,  April  7, 1867.  Dr.  Wood  waa  a 
man  of  marit  in  his  day,  and  occupied  many  prominent 
places  of  usefuloeeg.  In  the  controveniea  which  re- 
sulted in  the  diviaion  of  the  Preabyterian  Church,  he 
was  a  ver*  able  and  aucoesiful  writer.  Hia  work  en- 
titled Old  and  Nob  Thtologjf  is  the  moat  comprehensive, 
and  the  fuUcat  eihibition  of  the  reasons  which  led  to 
the  disruption  that  has  ever  been  published.  Ita  temper, 
tact,  and  concluHvenew  are  admirable.  Dr.  Hodge,  late 
profeaaor  in  the  Theological  Semiuaiy,  Princeton,  X.  J., 
wrote  as  follows:  "  In  common  with  ill  hia  brethren,  I 
ever  regarded  him  aa  one  of  our  beat,  wisest,  and  most 
useful  minbten.  The  importint  poaitiona  whicti  he  was 
called  upon  to  fill  sie  proofs  of  the  high  esiimition  in 
wbicbbe  waiheld.  Hia  sound  judgtDeat,digmtled  man- 
nets,  amiable  temper,  combined  with  his  learning  and 
enerKy,  secured  for  him  a  wide  and  happy  influence  in 
the  Church."  Dr.  Wood  was  tbe  author  of  a  Trtaiiit 
cmBaptiim  (]SbO,\2ttu>):—CaU  lo  Ihe  Sacred  Ogict.-— 
Tkt  Bat  LetKM  and  Bett  Timt:~Tlu  Goiprl  Founlam 
(I8mo):-0«  and  Sea  Theoiogy  (1856,  l2mo);— Grace 
(BKJ  lllary  (ISfiO,  18mo).  He  published  also  four  edn- 
cational  pamphlets,  sad  contributed  a  Mtmnir  of  Ike 
A  uUior  to  Rev.  James  MaUhewa'a  InfliterKt  of  Ihe  Biile, 
etc.  (PfaUa.).  See  Wilson,  Pmt.  Hiil.  Almanac,  1868, 
p.  IM;  &ttiboDe,DKl.o/Bril.and  AnieT.AutAi>rt,t.v. 
(J.  I.  &) 

"Wood,  Tamea  C*).  D.D.,  an  Engliah  clergyman, 
was  bom  about  1760;  educiled  it  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge;  became  dean  of  Ely  in  1830:  and  died  at 
Cambridge  in  April,  ISS9.  He  was  co-author  of  a  val- 
uable series  of  mathemslicsl  works  known  ■*  the  Cam- 
bridge Coarte  of  Malhetaalia. 

^7ood,  Jetemlabi  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
WB*  bom  Ut  GreenOeld,  Saratoga  Co^  N.  v.,  Nov.  1 1, 1601. 


)3  WOODBRIDGE 

Alter  gradoatioa  at  Union  Collag*,  Schenectady,  N.  Tq 
in  1824,  ha  enlersd  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and 
remained  there  over  two  yearii  but  without  completing 
tbe  comae.  He  was  ^censed  by  tbe  Albany  Presbytery 
in  August,  1826,  and  began  preaching  at  Uayfleld,N.T., 
within  the  boundi  of  the  preabytery,  in  November  of 
that  year.  He  was  ordiiiied  as  an  evangelist  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Albany,  Jan.  10, 1828,  and  continued  hia 
wotI  as  ■  BUted  supply  st  Majfield  until  Sept.  3, 1840, 
and  after  twelve  years  was  installed  as  pastor.  He  con- 
tinued in  this  Held  through  a  period  of  nearly  half  a 
century.  Dr.  Wood  wa*  ■  man  of  dear  intellect,  and 
possessed  unusual  power  as  a  debater  and  pulpit  orator. 
He  was  a  wise  counsellor,  and  hia  opinions  always  com- 
manded respect  among  hia  brethren.  Hia  deep  piety, 
Gonsiatent  life,  and  faithful  labors  made  him  an  uncom- 
monly aucceasful  pastor,  and  he  was  deeply  beloved  by 
his  people.  During  his  long  ministry  he  was  permitted 
to  witness  many  powerful  and  gloriooa  revivala  among 
the  people  of  hia  charge.  In  one  of  theae  in  1878  the 
membeiship  of  his  Church  waa  almost  doubled.  Ha 
died  auddenly,  June  6, 1876.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Wood,  irathaniel  MUton,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister,  was  bom  at  Camden,  Me.,  Hay  2t,  1822,  and  was 
a  graduate  of  Waterville  College  in  tbe  class  of  1844. 
For  a  year  after  leaving  college  he  was  private  tutor  in 
the  family  of  Gen.  Browning,  of  Colnmbus,  Hiss.  He 
pursued  his  theological  stndiea  at  Covington,  Ky.,  and 
was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Bhnm- 
field.  He.,  May  IS,  1848,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
The  following  eight  years  ha  waa  paator  of  the  ^ptiat 
Church  in  Wslerville,  Me.  His  next  pastorates  were 
at  Lewislon  and  Thomaston,  Me^  and  Upper  Alton,  DL, 
until  March,  1873,  when  be  wu  elected  profeaaor  of 
^Btematic  theology  in  Shurtleff  College.  Tbe  stota 
of  bis  health  compelled  him  to  resign  his  office  in  Juue, 
1874.  He  returned  cait,  and  lived  a  little  over  two 
years,  dying  at  Camden,  hia  native  place,  Aug.  2, 1876. 

(J.  a  S.) 

Wood,  Samtiel  <l),  D.D.,  ■  Congngitiooal  min- 
ister, was  bom  atHinBlield,Conn.,iIa7ll,1762.  From 
an  early  period  he  determined  to  enter  the  ministry, 
but  it  wsa  not  till  he  was  twenty-two  years  old  that  he 
began  his  preparation  for  it.  Under  Rev.  Isaiah  PoUer, 
of  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  hs  prepared  to  enur  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, from  which  he  graduated  in  1779.  Seven  weeks 
after  bis  graduation  he  was  licensed  to  preach.  Id  Oc- 
tober, 1781,  he  accepted  a  call  to  tbe  Church  at  Boa- 
cawen,and  here  he  continued  to  preach  antil  Hay,  1803. 
A  new  society  was  formed  in  the  town  at  that  tinw, 
and  of  this,  although  the  smaller  pariah,  he  became 
the  pastor.  He  never  fully  recovered  from  on  attack 
of  a  violent  disease  in  1828.  Rev.  Salmon  Bennett 
was  installed  aa  colleague  paator  with  Dr.  Wood  in 
December,  1832,  but  after  four  years  Dr.  Wood  waa 
again  sale  pastor.  For  twenty  years  he  officiated  gra- 
tuitously as  superintendent  of  the  schools  in  the  town; 
and  waa  Influential  in  establishing  a  library  and  an 
academy.  He  died  in  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  Dec.  24, 1836. 
He  fitted  a  large  number  of  young  men  for  college.  Ha 
was  sn  camat  and  impressive  preacher.  See  Prague, 
AmaU  of  Hit  Amer.  Pulpit,  ii,  169. 

WoodbildBe,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  ■  Congrega- 
tional miniater,  brother  of  Rev.  John  Woodbridge  of 
Newbury,  Mass.,  was  bom  in  Wiltshire,  England,  in 
1622.  He  removed  to  America,  and  was  the  fiist  gnd- 
uate  of  Harvard  Coltege.  Returning  to  England,  he 
succeeded  the  famous  Dr.  Twisa  at  Newbury,  where  he 
gained  a  great  reputation  as  a  preacher,  scholar,  and 
casuist.  Having  been  ejected  in  t<i£2  on  account  of  his 
noncnnformity,  he  continued  in  preach  privately;  and 
in  1371  reaamed  bis  public  labors.  He  had  been  min- 
iater of  Newbury  nearly  forty  years,  and  died  at  In- 
gtefleld,  Be^lt^  Nov.  1, 1684.  See  Sptigue,  Amalt  of 
llteAratr.Pulpit,\,\il. 

Woodbrldstt.  TtmothT,  D.D.,  a  FreabytcrUa 


WOODFORD  10 

diTiae,  wu  born  aC  Sluckbridge,  Hm&,  Not.  M,  ITM. 
Uii  malCRul  gnndfslher  wis  the  fint  pmidtnC  Ed- 
wuda,  and  hia  ptUnul  ui««tiy  embnced  a  long  line 
of  TCDcrable  miniMen,  r«acbing  back  to  [be  very  earl}' 
■Clttmnenl  of  New  EngUnd.  He  wia  educated  at  Will- 
iami  College,  and  whUe  tbera  he  lost  the  light  of  both 
eyes,  and  the  remaiodci  of  hia  life  wai  paued  in  total 
Uiadoeo.  In  1809  he  entered  tha  Theqlogical  Sem- 
inary at  Andover,  and  in  due  lime  wu  regularly  li- 
eeoaed  to  preach;  in  1SI6  be  wa>  ordained  pawot  oT 
the  Church  at  Greea  Rirer,  Columbia  Co^  N.  Y„  where 
he  oontinued,  laboring  with  great  leal  and  diligence, 
twenty'iis  yean;  in  1842  he  became  paator  of  the 
Church  at  Spenccrtown,  N.  ¥.,  where  he  remained  till 
18ftl,  when  he  reaigned  hia  paatoral  charge;  unoe  that 
time  he  lived  in  comparative  retiremeuc  nntil  hia  death, 
Dec.7,lS62.  Dr.  Woodbridge  had  an  inteUed  of  much 
more  than  cotnmun  vigor,  and  a  memory  that  beld  ev- 
erything depoeiled  in  iti  His  preaching  waa  evani^- 
ieal,  eameat,  imprtauve.  "It  may  reaaoiiably  he  doubt- 
ed whether,  as  a'blindjireacher,'be  had  hia  equal  aiuce 
the  daji  of  WaddeL"  He  publiahed  TJte  A  Uobiogra- 
pif  of  a  BHad  Pnaclitr  (Bouod,  1806,  ISmo),  inchid- 
ing  sketches  of  the  men  and  eventa  of  hia  time.  See 
Parton,  t^ft  of  Burr,  ch.  xxiiii;  Sprague,  MKOUrH 
at  Uie  Fvneral  o/Rev.  Timotky  WoaOridpe,  D.D.  (Al- 
bany, 1863,  8vo};  Wilson,  Praib.  Bui.  Alaimae,  1864, 
p.  826 ;  AUibone,  Did.  of  BriL  and  A  mer.  A  utkoit,  a. ». 
(J.  L.  S.) 

Woodford,  SAHiriL,  D.D.,  an  Eugliah  divine,  was 
bom  in  London  in  1688,  and  educated  at  Widhun  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  atadied  law  at  the  Inner  Temple,  bat 
entered  into  holy  orders  in  1669.  He  became  rector 
of  Hartley-Haudit,  Hampshire;  prehendaiy  of  Chiches- 
ter in  1676,  and  of  Winchester  in  I68D.  He  died  in 
1740.  He  was  the  author  of,  A  Poem  <m  tk«  ROum 
of  King  Ckarla  II  (1660):— A  Parapkrat  upon  Ae 
Pialmt  of  David  (imJ):—^A  A  PtirapkroK  upon  Ike 
Cantida  and  Some  Sdat  Uipimt  oftkt  Xem  and  Old 
TatamtmUt  intA  Olktr  Oooanomal  ConqrotUiomr  n  £nff- 
Utk  Vent  (1679).  In  this  laM  be  eiaminea  Uiltoa'a 
blank  verse  and  eommenda  his  recently  published  Par~ 
aduelMt.  a«eWlMd(fiam't«L),AlJkmmOMniauu. 
iT,iei, 

Woodhonae,  John  Ckafpii,  D.D.,  an  English 
clergyman,  wu  bom  in  1748,  and  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  A.M.  in  1773.  He 
became  rector  of  Donnington  in  the  tame  year,  preben- 
dary of  Rochester  in  I7B7,  prebendary  of  Lichlield  and 
archdeacon  of  Salop  in  1798,  dean  of  licbAeld  in  1807, 
and  rector  of  Stoke-upon-Trenl  in  1814.  He  died  Nov. 
17,1888.  HepuhlishFdrAeJpoca^psr,orAn>e/arKma/ 
SI.  John,  TrtmOaled ,-  wUk  Nota,  Criliaal,  etc  (1806)  :— 
Amiolaliont  on  Ike  Apocalgpte,  etc  (1828};— and  some 
Semotu.     See  AHiboat,  Dkl.  <jf  Bril.  and  A  mtr.  An- 

T)7oodllall,  Jobn,  D.D^  a  Presbyterian  dirine, 
wa*  boiD  in  SuOolk  County,  L.  I.,  Jan.' 26, 1744.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1766,  atudied 
theology  privately,  wu  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Pre». 
bytery  of  Newcastle,  Aug.  10,  1768,  and  was  ordained 
and  inalalled  paator  of  the  Leacock  congregation,  I^n- 
caater  Co.,  Pa.,  Aug.  1, 1770.  In  ITT9  he  b«ame  pas- 
tor of  a  congregation  in  Freehold,  N.  J^  where  he  re- 
mained nntil  hia  death,  Nov.  32, 1824.  Dr.  WoodhuU 
wu  a  popular  and  useful  minister,  distinguished  tor 
his  akili  and  tact  in  ecclesiulicsl  bodiea.  He  published 
a  Smnan  in  the  A'm  Jerirg  Pnachtr  (1813).  See 
Spngne,  A  nuIi  oftkeA  mer.  Pulpil,  iii,  304 ;  AUibone, 
Did.  of  BriL  and  A  mer.  A  aUtort,  a.  v. ;  Timlow,  Hitl. 
Germ. 

WoodbuU,  EtaltOl  BtroQS,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Re- 
formed minister,  wu  bom  in  New  York  city,  Aug.  4, 
1786.  At  the  age  of  twelve,  while  a  freahman  b  Co- 
lumbia College,  be  lost  both  his  parenta.  He  then 
went  to  Vale  CoUege,  graduated  in  180%  atadied  tbeol- 


}4  WOODS 

ogy  noder  hia  uncle,  Rev.  Dr.  WoodhoII,  of  FieehsU, 
N.  J.,  and  afterwards  at  Princeton  with  Dr.  Hcsny  Kal- 
lock,  and  wu  licensed  lo  preach  at  the  age  of  "'""'i' 
by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Brunavrick  (1806).  After 
one  year  of  service  u  pastor  of  the  Pmt^teriaii  OmrA 
of  Boundbrook,  N.  J.,  he  removed  to  Brooklyn,  aod  aa- 
til  IS26  ooaliDued  the  popular  and  useful  miiiisut  cl 
the  First  Beformed  Church  in  that  dly.  He  wu  Ihs 
(1826)  elected  by  the  General  Synod  of  the  Cbsnt  m 
profeaaor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  paatsral  ihtolsgy 
in  the  Theological  Seminary,  and  by  lh«  UiMeca  oTBal- 
gers  College  u  their  profeaaor  of  metaphyaica  and  phi- 
loeophy.  These  eminent  poaitiocia  he  acoepUd,  mt 
entered  upon  his  doties  with  ardor  in  Novenibcr  at  thai 
year.  But,  after  only  Ibur  months  of  hard  labor,  be  died 
fmm  an  inOammalory  fever,  Feb.  27,  1826.  For  ftre 
years  he  wu  secretary  for  domeattc  currespoadcace  ef 
the  American  Khie  Society  (1820-25),  au  <Aat  vbkfc 
he  discharged  until  his  removal  to  New  Bmnswick 
with  great  assiduity  and  success.  In  1814  be  bald  a 
commission  u  chaplain  in  the  United  Statu  mrmj.mA 
officiated  during  pan  of  the  existing  war  witb  Great 
Britain.  He  was  stated  clerk  of  tbe  Geoeral  Syasd, 
1818-XO,  and  its  ptBsident  in  1821.  His  gnat  buuH 
capadty  led  to  hia  selection  for  these  and  many  taba 
important  positions,  in  i 
versal  confldence.  He  wu  tt 
ity,  decision,  energy,  and  persevering  indnsuy.  He  was 
a  diligent  student,  a  faithful  pastor,  an  inatractive,  bm- 
thodical,  solemn,  eameat,  practical,  graceful,  and  aiirs^ 
tive  preacher.  See  Sprague,  Aimalt  of  lit  A  mer.  Ptl- 
pit,  ix,  161-164;  Livingston  [Dr. J.H.],  jrasDir,  p. 401- 
402 ;  Corwin,  ifonoj  of  Hie  Rrformed  Ckmrck  as  A^ 
im,p.27l.     (W.J.E.T.) 

WoodioSs,  BoHAMm,  DJ>.,  u  English  elnsy^ 
tnan,  was  bom  at  Oxford  in  1688,  and  wu  cdocaud  as 
Christ  Church,  Oxftml,  where  he  became  a  tuor.  He 
became  chapl^  to  her  Hajtsty's  ship  "  Royal  Priaca,* 
and  prebendary  of  Oxford  in  I67S,  prabeiMlary  of  Licb- 
field  in  1678,  principal  of  Gbnceatai  Hall  in  !««.  aaid 
died  in  1711.  He  pablished  Tke  Fi^  4if  ArfjCaa 
(1690)  and  other  worka.  See  Ulibeoa,  Diet  of  Bri. 
and  A  mer,  AMJIotv,  a.  r, 

Woods,  Jamea  Stairvtl;  D.D.,  a  Praabytasiaa 
divine,  waa  bom  In  Cumberland  County,  Pa.,  Apeil  tl. 
179S.  Ue  pursued  hia  academical  studies  in  Hopewell 
Academy,  Pa.;  graduated  at  DickinMn  College,  Pa.: 
studied  theology  in  tbe  Princeton  Theological  Sewo- 
riAty,  N.  J. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Kew 
Brunswick  in  1817;  and  labored  u  an  evangelist  fnMa 
1819  to  1822  in  the  valley  of  the  Juniata,  embneiu 
MscVeytown,  Newton,  Hamilton,  a 
where  he  laid  the  foundations  of  tbe  preaent  chur 
In  1822  he  wu  called  to  take  charge  of  tb  ~ 
and  HacVeytown  churches;  in  1829  be 
lor  of  the  Church  of  Lewistown  alone,  a 
thereuntil  the  time  of  his  death  in  1862.  "Dr.Waofc* 
uys  Kev.  G.  Elliott,  "  wu  remarkable  for  his  oaoik*, 
bis  modesty,  and  his  magnanimity."  To  the  wtek  ^ 
preaching  the  Gospel  he  devoted  his  life.  Textoal, 
evangelical,  methodical,  and  earnest,  hia  preaching  ev- 
erywhere commanded  attention  and  secured  ediS^ 
tion.  See  Wilson,  Prai.  HitL  Almanac,  1868,  p.  «& 
(J.  I.  S.) 

Woods,  IiOODard,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Coognfm- 
tional  divine,  wu  bom  at  Princeton,  Uaaa.,  Jdbc  13^ 
1774.  Hisfatbar  hadinteoded  himforafsnBts';.bai,aa 
he  early  exbitrited  s  tuong  desire  for  knowledge,  bm 
mother's  wishes  at  last  gained  the  ascendency,  and  be 
wu  sent  to  school  at  Leiceat«r  under  Prof.  Ebepcsef  Ad- 
Bm^  and  gndoaled  sL  Harvard  College  in  1796  witli  the 
highest  honor.  He  left  tullege  with  a  mind  ioibmi 
with  Prieatley'a  speculatiunB  and  unsMiled  by  materU- 
istio  notiooa.'  He  Uught  school  at  Hedfinl  for  ei|cte 
months,  also  pursuing  a  systemaUc  eoum  of  iinilii>g 
Ue  «M  inleceated,  however,  in  hia  apiritaal  wtltmm. 


WOODS 

Hid,  by  Ih*  tdvicc  of  hii  college  ind  life-Ion^  friend. 
Dr.  John  H.  Chunh,  he  re^  the  /.{/e  n/  DodiMdgt  ind 
other  ipiritual  books,  anil  ■Ret  DMnjr  hird  MnigKl'  ' 
caotcoutinlothe light indlibertyufthiGospeL  He 
puthituedruiideiths  theologictl  mining  of  Dr.Chariea 
Bwk lu  of  Somen,  and  in  t7BB  ww  ard*ined  piHor  oi  the 
Church  in  Newburv,  Hue.  In  1806  the  Aiiduver  The- 
ological Seminiry  wu  »tsl)lished,  Dr.  Spring  giving  up, 
for  the  Mke  or  unity  and  liumony,  hi>  project  or  an 
inMitution  to  be  Tounded  at  KewbuTyport  in  the  .' 
CMS  or  Hopkinuu  tbeolugy.  Mr.  Woods  wu  ap| 
ed  profeaot  of  theolngj',  and  held  that  potition  until 
bii  ntiiemedt  id  lS4fl.  The  icmaindet  of  hU  life  was 
qwnt  in  preparing  fur  the  pren  bii  theological  lectarea 
■bd  mitceUaaeoaa  writings,  and  ia  writing  a  history  of 
Aadovet  Theoloffical  Seminaiy,  wbich  he  left  uofli^h- 
ed.     He  died  Ang.  !4.  ISU. 

In  hia  theological  opiniona,  Dr.  Wood*  wa*  an  o 
dox  Calviaist,  aoeeptiiig  the  Assembly's  confesvon  uid 
catechism  in  the  sitaple,  historical  sense  of  the  Ian. 
guage.  He  waa  nn  tenna  of  intimacy  and  friendsbip 
with  some  Hopkinaian  iliTiae^  and  be  considered  their 
dirergencea  non-essential,  never  poUicl]'  eoatnirerting 
iheir  Tiewa  leat  their  differenca  abould  pve  adt-|]  ' 
to  those  who  were  issailing  the  common  laith. 
had  ■  (bodncaa  for  metaphysical  stodies,  and  qaaliBca- 

which  be  gave  Ibe  bighnt  place  to  tboae  of  revelation, 
were  the  stat^ng-point  in  hia  philosophy.  From  these, 
by  carefol  induction,  he  came  to  general  laws,  then  to  a 
lawgiver,  then  to  a  onivenal  gavernment.  Dr.  Woods 
waa  patient,  caatious,  and  earnest  in  his  investigations, 
aoil  hia  attainments  came,  not  by  genius,  but  by  slcadi. 
ly  prcasing  his  inquiries  further  and  further  iuto  the 
domain  of  science.  "He  is  emphatically  the 'J  udiciont' 
divine  of  later  New  England  thMilogy"  (H.  R  3d  '  ' 
D.D.).  As  a  theological  insliuctur.  Dr.  Woods  was 
ccaafuL  His  pupils,  of  whom  he  had  over  one  thou- 
sand, loved  and  venerated  him.  Ai  ■  preacher,  be  was 
simple,  lucid,  scriptural,  and  instructive,  yet  he  was 
often  ergumentalive  and  taxed  reason  to  her  utmo 
though  never  submitting  the  mysteries  of  godliness 
her  arbitration.  As  ■  writer,  he  was  clear,  pure,  trat 
parent,  rigidly  Anglo-Saxon.  "  It  ia  for  his  qualities  as 
■  man,  a  neighbor,  a  friend,  and  a  Cbristian,"  says  Dr. 
E.  A.  Lawrence,  one  of  his  pupils,  "  that  he  will  be 
cherished  in  most  grateful  and  aDtetionate  remem- 
brance."  He  bad  an  open,  manly  character,  the  oon- 
Btaot  ODt5ow  of  kindly  feeling  lovrards  all,  a  warmth 
ofaffectionandfHendshipian  humble  piety,  which  made 
himpeculiarlybelovedbyallwhaknewhim.  Dr. Woods 
took  an  important  part  in  establishing  those  various 
benevolent  societies  and  refurms  which  are  an  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  19th  century. 

Besides  many  occasiiHisI  sermons  and  orations,  tracts 
for  the  Doctrinal  Tract  Society,  and  articles  in  the 
iDoat  prominent  religious  periodicals  of  bis  day,  the  fol- 
lowing are  Dr.  Woods's  most  important  works:  LtHen 
to  UwitaTitBU  (Andover,  1830,  Svo);— Ap^  /a  Dr. 
War^l  IMen  lo  Trvatanaiu  and  CahrmiU  (ibid. 
I8il) :— Aesurii  on  Dr.  Wart't  Atuieer  (iWd.  1822):- 
Lactura  on  Ikt  liapiraHm  oftht  Scriplurfi  (ibid.  1839; 
Glasgow,  ISSe,  iZmo'j  i—Letttrt  to  Rrv.  Nalkamd  W. 
Taglor,  D.D.  (1830) :— Jfrnoir.  of  Atamam  Mittiotf 
aria  (1833,  limo) -.-^ExaTnmalifin  nf  the  DoOrmt  of 
Perftc&m  us  pdd  iy  Ra.  Aia  Maka*  and  Olitri 
(1S41):-'Ai|p^  to  Mr.  Makm  ( eod.) :  —  twfti™  on 
Cfmrck  CdrtkhkhI,  mnlaiaing  Oljitctioni  to  lie  EpiKO- 
pat  ScHame  (N.  T.  1843,  liion):~l.retura  on  Sirrdtn- 
borgiamtm  (1846)  -.—Tluoligiati  Lectura  and  MuaOu- 
neoui  Leilm,  Eitaf.  and  SmioM  (Andover,  !849-50,  6 
Tcda.  8vo),  highly  recommended  by  Dm.  Hodi;c,  Burder, 
KU.:—Thtolog<io/tlul'iiritnm(\Sbi\  Dr.  Woods  con- 
tributed to  Spragae's  A  malt,  an  Inlrod.  Euay  lo  Ward- 
law's  CKriitian  Elkia  (S.Y.  1886),  and  wrote  other  mon- 
ographs. Seo  Cong.  Quar.  IS69,  p.  loa-124  (by  Prof.  E. 
A.Lawniiee,D.D.)i  Bftagat,AimaUitftlitiiaer.Pal- 


S5  WORCESTER 

l>A,U,488sq.)  JJIiboot,  Diet  qf  Brit,  tati  Amtr.  Am- 
(Aon.s.  V.  See  also  £iML.9(iiTa,  1861,  p, 26;  {ArsKtoa 
finsuiwr,  li,  1 ;  .Imr.  7%m1.  A».  1862,  p.48. 

Woodivard,  JoeiAH,  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man,  was  minister  of  Poplar,  and  afterwards  of  Haid- 
stone,  and  preached  the  Boyle  Lecture  in  1712,  Hs 
published  numerous  works,  imong  which  msv  be  noted 
Six  Stnaoat  lo  Young  Pertoni  (1S97)  -.—fair  Wamingt 
to  a  Carrlat  Worid  (eod.)  ■—Nrftuaiy  Ztitfj  q/"  f'aif 
ily  Prayer  (1794) :— Divine,  Original,  and  IncomparabU 
ExctSoKt  qftie  ChriiHaa  Religion  at  Eovndtd  Olt  Me 
flof,  8>:rifturu  (Boyle  Lecture,  1712):_and  Yoting 
Maiii  Monitor  (I3lb  ed.  1802).  See  Allibone,  Did. 
of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  ulliort,  s.  v. 

^Voolley,  John,  D.D.,  D.CL^  an  English  clergy- 
man, waa  txini  in  It)l6;  Bluilied  at  Umvarsity  College, 
LoiidiHi,and  Exeter  College, Oifurd,  graduating  in  1836. 
He  became  succosively  head-master  of  Rossail  School, 
Lancashire,  and  of  King  Edward's  G  ram  msr- school, 
Norwich.  He  resigned  the  Istter  poution  in  1852,  on 
becoming  professor  of  logic  and  the  classics  in  the  Uni- 
venity  of  Sydney,  Australia,  of  which  he  was  elected 
prindpaL  In  1866  he  paida  visitto  Euglsnd.andon  his 
return  voyage  was  lost  in  the  "London,"  Jan.  11, 1S66. 
He  published,  IMrodactian  te  I^gic  (1840):— AfrmiM 
at  RouaU  College  (1847):  — and  Ledura  Delieertd 
in  A  utratia  (1868>  See  AUibone,  DieL  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  ulkoTt,  a.  v. 

WtMlton,  JoHH,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was 
baniatWigan,Lancasliire,iii  16S6.  He  entered  as  stu- 
dent of  Brasenosa  CoUige,  Oxford,  in  16oS,  and  fled 
'le.  Dean  KoweiJ,  and  the  other  exiles  in 
in  1666.  He  returned  to  Engl«id  in  Queen 
Eliiabeth's  reign,  and  wss  made  canon  residentiary  of 
Exeter.  He  also  had  the  living  of  Spaxton,  in  the 
Dioceee  of  Wells,  and  in  1676  became  warden  of  Man- 
chester College,  In  1679  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Exeter,  and  conltnued  in  that  office  until  his  death, 
March  18,  1696  (O.  8.).  He  was  the  author  of,  Ckri*- 
tian  atonal  I  or,  The  Life  and  Maneri  of  True  Ckri- 
tiom  (1676):-- <■  Armour  of  Proufe  (eod.):  — Q/" 
file  CoHScinMB,'  a  Diiconrtt  (eod.); — A  Trratiwt  aflhi 
launorialilie  of  lA«  SouU  (  eod. ) ;  —  jVow  .4nu(o- 
aie  of  Whole  Man  (eod.):— rV  Catea  of  Chrili^.nM 
and  Foimue  of  lie  Fi^uU  (1677):  — and  DanJt 
Chain. 

^nroolirOTttl.AABon,D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  bom  at  Longmeadow,  Has*,  Oct.  ib,  1763.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  Collegs  in  1784;  studied  theology 
privately;  was  licensed  to  preacb  by  the  Eastern  Aaai>- 
ciation  of  New  London  County;  and  was  ordained  and 
installed  pastor  of  tlia  Church  in  Bridgehamplon,  April 
BO,  1787.  Several  powerful  revivals  of  religion  occur- 
'er  his  ministry,  particularly  one  in  1800.  an 
of  which  was  published  in  connection  witlf 
Dr.  Buell's  f/arralivt  of  an  Exteatitt  Seeivat  n  Eail 
famploii.  He  died  April  3,  1821.  Dr.  Woolworth 
rss  a  msn  of  remarkably  sound  judgment,  deep  piety 
nd  power  as  a  preacher.  See  Sprague,  Ammti  of  lie 
Imer.  Palpil,  ill,  46B;  Prime,  Bitt.  iff  Long  Itland; 
Phillips,  Futteral  Sermon. 

Woroeatsr,  Nokli,  D-D^  a  noitarian  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bora  at  Hollis.  N.  H.,  Nov.  2S,  1768. 
s  opportunities  for  going  to  school  ceased  altogether 
the  winter  of  1774-76.    He  Joined  the  army  as  a 
r  in  the  spring  of  1776,  and  continued  in  the  service 
ven  months.     In  the  campaign  of  1777  he  was  in 
I  aimy  sgun  for  two  months  as  fife  major.     In  the 
nter  of  1776-77  he  was  engaged  iu  teaching  school 
at   Plymouth,  and  followed  this  occupation  for  nine 
successive  winters.     In  Feb.  1782,  he  removed  from 
Plymouth  to  Thornton,  where  he  united  with  tb«  Con- 
gregational Church.     He  engaged  for  some  lime  in  the 
tuiiy  ol  theological  questions  in  connection  with  his 
irdinary  Isbors,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1786. 
He  was  otdaiiwd  and  installed  pastor  of  Um  Coogr^ 


WORCESTER 


gUloiul  Chmcb  >C  Thornton,  on  Oct.  18  rollairing. 
He  tnvelled  in  the  employ  or  Ibe  New  Hampshire 
Miuionary  Societv  in  18U3-1  in  Northeni  Nen  Hunp- 
Bbire.  In  1810  he  remornl  to  Salisbury  u  uwiaUnt 
to  hia  brother  Tboinas,  and  remaiped  three  f  ears.  In 
1813  be  removed  u>  Brightou,  Hus.,  and  began  to 
edit  7^  Chrutian  DwcipU,  in  which  relatioD  he  con- 
tinued until  Ibc  doM  of  IBIS.  In  1619  he  became  edi- 
tor of  Tht-Frimd  of  Ptace,  a  quarterly  which  he  eon- 
ducl«d  for  lea  yeara.  He  died  at  Brighton,  Oct.  31, 
IS3T.  Among  bis  pubUcaliotia  may  be  toentioaed  Sol- 
tnm  Rttxtom  for  Dedirang  to  Adopt  the  BiiptiMt  Throry 
and  PractUx  (1809);— Biftfr  A'<w»;  or,  Sacred  Trulhi 
rtialing  to  lAe  Lining  God,  hit  OHfy  Son,  and  lloif  Spiril 
(1810):— /nipartia/  Seniea  of  lie  Tatmumia  in  Faror 
of  tie  Dieinils  of  the  Son  of  God  (1810)!— Bupwf/W 
Addreu  to  the  Trimlariaa  Cttrgy  (1812) :— Sofemn  Ae- 
rioB  of  the  Cmlom  of  War,  by  Pkilo  Paafiaii  (iSH) ; 
and  The  A  toning  Sacrifice  a  Ditplag  qf  Lort,  not  of 
Wrath  (1829).  See  Sprsgue,  Amait  of  At  Amer.  Pul- 
jnV,viii,l91. 

'Worcester,  Sutmel,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congre- 
caliniu|l  minister  and  author,  was  bom  at  Hollis,  N.  H., 
Nov.  1, 1770,  He  wa«  of  pioua  anceglty,  being  ■  de- 
scendant in  the  uxth  generation  of  Rev.  Williant,  and 
in  the  third  of  Rev.  Franeia,  Wcrecater.  Every  oppor- 
tunity for  menial  improvement  was  seized  at  the  house 
of  his  father,  who  was  i  farmer,  and  at  the  age  of  twen- 
ty-one Samuel  waa  pomeaaed  of  an  ardent  desire  for  a 
t'borougb  education.  He  therefore  entered  the  New 
Ipswich  Academy,  working  his  own  way,  and  afterwards 
Dartmotith  College,  graduating  with  the  bigheai  bon- 
on  in  1795.  He  studied  ttaeoloRy  with  Dr.  Austin,  of 
Worcester,  taught  school  at  Hcjlia,  and  was  principal 
of  tbe  New  Ipewich  Academy.  1796.  The  following 
year  be  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Fitch- 
burg,  a  society  which  was  cursed  by  all  tbe  evils  of  tbe 
Half-way  Covenant- including  among  its  members 
Deists,  Ariiiis,  (Jniversalista,  and  the  openly  immoraL 
With  decision,  inflexible  integrity,  atul  solemn  faithful- 
ness to  truth  and  duty,  Worcester  opened  the  batteries 
of  the  Gospel  upon  the  erron  and  sina  that  called  fur 
rebuke.  Aa  a  result,  in  the  ensuing  spring,  tbe  cove- 
.l^nt  was  revised  and  an  orthodox  creed  adopted,  and 
in  1799  an  extensive  revival  occurred.  A  malignant 
spirit  of  oppuiition,  however,  was  all  tbe  time  de- 
veloped, and  GnaUy,  under  the  leading  of  tbe  Uni- 
versalists,  was  openly  manifested.  tTnder  this  influ- 
ence, tbe  town  voted  «  dissolution  of  their  contract 
with  the  pastor,  but  a  coundl  of  the  Church  unani- 
mously decided  that  be  should  remain.  His  opponents 
now  conceived  the  design  of  organiiing  themsdves  into 
the  First  Church  In  Filchburg.  (bus  enabling  them  to 
lake  the  place  of  the  church  of  which  Worcester  was 
paetur,  in  the  legal  relations  of  the  town  to  the  minis- 
ter. Several  ex  parte  councils  were  called  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  they  failed  in  accomplishing  their  deaigiia. 
Tbe  point  of  contenUon  ultimately  arrived  at  was 
whether  the  town  should  control  the  Church  with  ref- 
erence to  the  selection  or  dismiieion  of  her  ministers, 
or  whether  the  Church  should  do  this  with  the  con- 
currence  of  the  town  acting  as  the  parish,  "  according 
to  the  uniform  ecclesiastical  usage  of  New  England." 
This,  the  biographer  of  Dr.  Worcester  rcraarka,  was  the 
first  organized  attempt  in  Masaachusetts  at  auch  a  sub- 
jection of  the  Church.  Tbe  fearlessness,  ability,  pa- 
tience, and  aliill  of  the  pastor  foiled  the  efforts  of  the 
disaffected,  and  the  Church  was  saved  from  civil  bond- 
age. A  mutual  council  was  at  length  chosen  accord- 
ing to  ecclesiastical  usage,  the  Church  and  pastor  were 
sustained,  and — at  bis  own  reqaesl — be  was  regalarly 
disniiased,  Aug.  SO,  1802.  The  following  year  he  was 
installed  over  tbe  Tabernacle  Church,  Salem,  Mass., 
where  be  had  an  eminently  happy,  useful,  and  success- 
ful pastorate.  In  1804  he  declined  a  proresaarship  of 
theology  in  Dartmouth  College. 

In  promoting  the  cause  of  miaaionl  and  the  drcula- 


S6  WORCESTER 

t  ion  of  the  Scriptaree,  Dr.  Worcealer  was  re^  lalxatmM 
From  1803  tn  1B08,  he  was  the  editor  of  the  tfooaeb- 
eelli  Mimoniirs  J/ojroziiK,  for  five  yeara  he  was  the  sec- 
retary of  the  Uaiaacbuaetts  Uissionaiy  Socjely,  and  en 
the  death  of  Dr.  Spring  hewascboeen  its  president.  His 
duties  were  important  andanluous.  He  aided  in  the  lb>> 
mation  of  the  Maaaacbusetts  Bible  Society,  its  canstits- 
tion  and  the^liiifrw  to  theFublic  having  been  pieparsd 
chiefly  by  him.  It  was  on  a  ride  in  a  chaise  with  Di. 
Spring  from  Andover  to  Bradford  to  attend  the  Geneiil 
Associsciun  of  Masaachusetts  that  the  first  idea  of  ibc 
American  Board  of  Commiasioners  for  Foragn  UisHOM, 
in  its  form  and  administration,  was  suggested  and  devel- 
oped. The  Aesociation  (1810}  instituted  the  Buaid,Di. 
Worcester  being  appointed  one  of  the  nine,  and  at  tbt 
flnt  meeting  thereof  he  was  chosen  corresponding  seoe- 
tary.  He  came  into  his  new  office  with  re*Diuvel  of  ia- 
leliect  and  of  heart  which  were  equal  to  the  great  resfua- 
sibili ties  and  toils  imposed  upon  biin.  "Hisplaus  of  be- 
nevolent action  were  based  upon  fundamental  principlo, 
and  would  bear  the  most  thorough  analysis;  and  for  tbe 
same  reason,  the  measure*  of  the  American  Board  adqi- 
ed  in  the  early  years  or  its  existence  are  marked  by 
pre-eminent  wisdom;  and  the  disclnguished  men  wb* 
have  followed  him  in  office  have  found  little  o> 
to  alter  them."  Dr.  Won 
began  to  give  way  ui 
pastor  and  secretary.  A  colleague  pastor  was  insiilM 
in  1819,  thus  relieving  him  of  three  fourths  of  his  miii- 
isterial  work.  In  1821  he  took  a  voyage  to  New  Or- 
leans, with  the  intention  of  visiting  the  Choctaw  and 
Cherokee  nations  for  tlie  double  purpose  of  recruiting 
bis  health  and  promoting  the  Indian  misaiooa.  Tbe 
trip  irritated  rather  than  mitigated  his  disease.  Tbe 
weathft  during  bis  stay  in  New  Orleans  and  Ibejom- 
ney  northward  was  unpropitious.  After  much  suflti- 
ing,  he  reached  Mayhew,  in  tbe  Choctaw  nation,  and 
eighteen  days  after,  Brainerd,  Tenn.  Ue  was  now  so 
weak  that  he  had  to  be  carried  into  tbe  miasioD-bDac 
He  lingered  resignediv  for  a  few  dava,  and  on  Jtme  T, 
1831,  passed  peacefully  sway. 

As  a  preacher.  Dr.  Worcester  was  doctrinal,  faithful, 
and  lumiuous,  though  bis  manner  was  neither  easy  doc 
graceful;  as  a  pastor,  he  was  diligent,  qrmpuhelic,  tbe 
poor  and  the  sick  sharing  his  special  care.  He  had 
considerable  musical  talent,  iustructed  in  sacred  mnski 
and  gave  lectures  on  church  pealmody  and  musics  His 
influence  was  fett  much  in  ecclesiastical  coBDcila,  and 
he  was  often  called  upon  to  adjudicate  dispntea  aad 
settle  difficulliea.  Ha  was  a  powerful  debater,  and 
some  of  his  speeches  were  seldom  rivalled  even  in  jo- 
diciol  and  legislative  assemblies.  Dr.  Worcester  ever 
sympatbizeil  with  his  ministerial  brethren,  and  fiater, 
nized  with  those  of  other  denominations.  In  ejiite  of 
his  catholicity  of  sentiment  and  peace-loving  dispon- 

lications  resulting  iberefcum  ore  considered  to  class  with 
the  ablest  ever  written  in  tbe  history  of  religious  dispute. 
Besides  numerous  Strmoiu,  Ora/imu,  and  Addiiua, 
Dr.  Worcester  is  Ibe  author  of  the  following :  Sir  Str- 
mom  on  the  Doctrine  of  Htmal  JadgmnU  (1800);— 
Simmary  Vieie  of  Ike  Filcibtrg  Fcdtiiaitical  Afain 
(1803):- ZtiMVurars  on  the  Comant  tnillk  Abrakm 
(Salem,  1806,  Svo ) :— LfNerj  on  Baptiem  to  Ike  Ra. 
Thanat  Baldma  (imi ) -.—Cliritliun  Pmlmatfy  (181i 
4  pta.);  — rAra  LeUen  to  Dr.  W.  E.  Cluaa^  (Boa- 
ton,  I8IG,  8vo).  In  some  respects  these  LUtert  are  tlw 
greatest  work  of  his  life.  They  were  occa^oned  by 
Cbanning'sAiTify  to  Jeremiah  Evans's  Rriiew  of  Amer- 
ican Utdlariamm  in  the  Panopliti.  The  conuoveny 
eventuated  in  tbe  doctrinal  division  of  tbe  Congrega- 
tional churches  of  Maaachnsctls.  The  PaKopliit  and 
Dra.  Moise.  Spring,  and  Worcester  aaved  American  Coo- 
gregalionaliim  from  the  advancing  Unitarian  tide>- 
Waltii  Z/ywu  owl  Seltctiau  (ibid.  1818).  Hoie  Ihaa 
3<in,000  have  been  circolaUd ;— 5emoiu  (pmbiUDoah 
lt»28,  8vo);— /'irsf  Ten  BtporU  iff  Ike  Amerioa%  Board 


WORDSWORTH  10 

tfOawtmifteiiertforFortign  MUiiimi  (tS1O-!0j  npnb. 
18S4).  Uii  I^Urt  Ui  Dr.  Chinning  in  connection  with 
ttw  IJiiilarun  cunlrovecn-,  Mpedally  the  last  one,  hive 
been  oonndered  an  alniiHt  unrivalled  upecimcin  of  po- 
lemic Cheologicil  ditcuuion.  Die  pabltihed  Sermcia 
an  rich  Id  eraiigelical  thought,  and  logically  and  lumi- 
Donalv  preaented  by  R.  Anderaon,  D.D,  in  the  Meniorial 
VaUnm  o/ He  Amrricm  Board  of  Comiuiiiioiim  for 
ForagH  Miaiomi  1186S),  p.  in.  Of  hia  three  miniaterial 
bnittwra— Koah,  Thomaa,  and  Leonard— the  two  Tonner 
were  able  writers  on  the  Unitarian  udc  His  son,  the 
BcT,  Samuel  IL,  D.D.,  becanM  an  anthor  of  tome  re- 
pata.  See  Cong.  Qmtr.  1862,  p.  ISl-lAO  (by  Dr.  dark); 
Sprague,  .InHtb  o/lU  Amtr.  PulpU,  H,  390  >q.;  AUi- 
bone,  Did.o/Brii.  and  Anur.  AatAori,».v.i  aim  J/ii- 
noaary  J/^ruU,  Aug.  1S2I  (by  Ersru):  l.i/e  and Lnbori 
af  Dr.  WnrettUr  (  Bosliin,  1832,  2  Tula.  12mo),by  hit 
son ;  Noi-ik  Amtr.  Ra.  April,  IS62. 

\7ordawotth,  CKmsTOPHEK.  D.D.,  an  English 
ck^yman,  younf^esl  bmther  of  William  Wordaworth, 
the  poet,  wai  bom  at  Cockeimouth,  Cumberland,  June 
9,  1774.  He  was  educated  at  Dawkcshead  granimar- 
Bcbool  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
gradoaled  in  1796.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  Trinity 
College  Oct.  1, 1798.  He  became  domeatic  chaplain  to 
DcMannen  button,  archbishop  of  Canterburvi  rector 
of  Ashby  and  Obey-with-Thime,  Norfolk,  in  1804;  and 
deu  of  Bucking,  Eeaex,  Uay  30,  I80B.  He  was  ap- 
pointed iiEc:or  of  8l  Hary'e,  Lambeth,  Surrey,  and  of 
^Ddridg3|  Kcnl^  April  ID,  1816^  and  soon  after  aen-eil 
as  cFuplsln  lo  the  Hauae  uf  Commons.  On  July  36, 
ISJO^  ba  was  installed  master  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 

Lanbrth  nod  Sundiidge  for  the  rectory  of  Buxted,  wiih 
L'-iUdd.  in  Suiaei.  He  resigned  the  masIerBhip  of 
Trinity  College  in  1841,  and  tbereafter  resided  at  Bnx- 
f-d,whera  be  died,  Feb.  2,  1846.  He  publisiied,  Six 
Lettera  to  GrantiUe  Sharpr  Eiq.j  raptcting  hit  Remarta 
M  tie  D^jhtitiet  Ariiiie  u  lit  Grt^  Text  oflSe  Nea 
Tatamtmt  il«yi):—EtriaiaMiad  Biogm^a  {1610):— 
SermonM  «  Variola  Si^tctt  (1814):— If^Ao  WruU 
Eixir  BamXunj?  and  another  work  on  the  same  sub- 
ject, in  both  of  which  h''  attributes  it  to  king  Charles 
I  i—aritHim  InMUluItt  (I8S6) :— and  other  works. 

^VonnwOOd  (TIJ^V,  laanO,  of  uncertain  etymol- 
ogy; Sepu  rmpia,  x»*^i  WwMj,  and  avayieq;  Vulg. 
aiHaritudo,  aMniiium)  is,  doubtless,  the  correct  iraniia- 
tioo  of  the  Heb.  word,  which  occurs  frequently  ii 
Bible,  and  generally  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  as  in  Deut. 
xxix.-18,  where  of  the  idolatrous  [sraeljtes  it  la  said, 
"  Lest  there  be  among  you  a  root  Ibat  bearetb  worm- 
wood' (see  also  Prav.  v,  4).  In  Jer.  ix,  15;  xiiii,  13; 
I^m.  iii,  15, 19,  wormwood  ii  symbolical  of  bitter  calam- 
ity and  sorrow.  Unrighteous  Judges  are  said  to  "turn 
judgment  to  wormwood"  (Amoa  v,  T;  so  in  vi,  12, 
"hemlock").  In  like  manner  the  name  of  the  star. 
which,  at  the  sound  of  the  third  angel's  trumpet,  felt 
upon  the  riven,  was  called  Wormwood  ('AV/ivSoc :  Rev. 
Hit,  11).  The  Orientals  typified  sorrows,  rruelties, 
and  calamitiea  of  any  kind  by  plants  of  a  poisonous 
or  bitter  nature.  Some  other  plants  have  been  ad- 
duced, as  the  colocynth  and  the  oleander,  but  without 
anything  to  support  them;  while  different  kinds  of  arte- 
milia  and  of  wormwood  are  proverbial  for  their  hi  ttemeis, 
and  often  tised  in  a  flgoratire  sense  by  ancient  authors. 
"Pares,  precor,  Iscerare  tBDOi,  nee  snara  palsmls 
AdmlKEn  Tells,  ceo  melll  ahalulhln,  tct^Is" 

(Panlln.  il)>.  ad  A-utmlum). 
Celrins  has  no  doubt  thst  ■  species  of  artemisii,  or 
wormwood,  is  intended:  "Hine  plantam  amarsm  in 
Jodna  et  Arabia  copiose  nascentem,  et  inteqiretum 
aoctotitate  egngie  auffultam,  ipaam  esse  Ebrcorum 
rn3l>,  pro  indubitato  babemua."  That  apeciea  of  arte- 
miaia  ara  common  in  Syria  and  Palestine  is  weU  known, 
Bi  lE  tnrtUen  SNUtion  their  abnndanca  in  particular 


WORMWOOD 


Common  Wormwood  (ArlemUia  aMnlMHm). 
situations;  but  as  many  of  them  resemble  each  othet 
very  closely  in  properties,  it  is  more  difficult  to  deter- 
mine what  particular  species  is  meant.  It  is  probable, 
indeed,  that  the  name  ia  used  in  a  generic  rather  than  a 
speciHc  sense.  Aiiemiiia  is  the  botanical  nsme  of  the 
genus  of  plants  in  which  the  diHerent  species  of  worm- 
woods are  found.     The  plants  of  this  genus  are  easily 


separated,  an 
lera  of  small,  round,  drooping,  greenish-yeUow, 
ish  flowei^heads  with  which  the  branches  are  lanen.  it 
must  be  understood  that  our  common  wormwood  (drte- 
miria  uitiHlhium)  does  not  appear  to  eiist  in  Palestine^ 
and  cannot,  therefore,  be  that  specially  denoted  by  th* 
sciiplural  term.  Indeed,  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
the  word  is  intended  (o  apply  to  all  the  plants  of  this 
class  that  grew  in  Palestine,  rather  than  to  any  one  of 
them  in  particular.  The  examples  of  this  genus  that 
have  been  found  in  that  country  are — 1.  A  rtemiiia  Ju-  - 
<fcnc(i,which,if  a  particular  species  be  intended,  is  prob- 
ably the  ab^nlhinm  of  Scripture.  Rauwolf  found  it 
about  Bethlehem,  and  Shaw 


Numidia  plentifully.    This 

plant  is  erect  and  shrubby, 
with  a  stem  about  eighteen 
inches  high.  Its  taste  is  very 
bitter;  and  both  the  leaves  and 
seeds  are  much  used  in  East- 
eni  medicine,  and  are  reput- 
ed lo  be  tonic,  stomachic,  and 

Komana,  which  was  found  by 
Hasselquist  on  Mount  Tabor 
(p.  281).  This  species  i>  her- 
baceous, erect,  with  a  stem  one 
or  two  feet  high  (higher  when 
cultivated  in  gardens),  and 
nearly  upright  Innches.  The 
plant  has  a  pleasantly  aromat- 


id  the  bi 


WOKTHINGTON  10 

lie  diMgTHtLle.  S.  A  rtemiiia  <^rvlaiHim,  (bund  in  the 
laiith  or  Europe,  as  well  ■*  bi  Syria  uut  Palwtioe,  and 
c»iwiriieTeiiu>ChiDi.  This  U  a  hoary  plant,  bcoom- 
mg  a  ihrnb  in  warm  counCriee,  and  iUbranctMS  bear  loose 
panicles  of  oodding  yellow  flowcr-heada.     It  ii  bitter 


ritba 


le  branehea  lie  employed  in 


in  medicine, 
parting  a  yellow  dye 
bmed  ill  Anbiin  works  on  materia  medics  ii  [ha 
calked  ihik,  which  i*  conipicuoDa  Tor  iU'  biUemeaa  anc 
Tor  being  btal  to  wonni;  hence  it  has  been  eommonl; 
eaipluyed  as  an  anthelmintic  even  la  our  own  timeg 
Thin  seema  )o  be  the  same  Bpeciea  vbicb  wai  Tound  bj 
Kauwolf  in  PaJeatine,  and  which  he  i«yi  the  Arabe  call 
tckrha.  It  is  bii  "  AUinlhiim  Montotaaim,  lAiha  Ara- 
bun,  unde  semen  lumbricorum  colltgitur,"  the  AbimtJii- 
'  n  Judaican  of  Caspar  Bauhin,  in  bia  Pi- 
rtmiiia  Judaica,  though  it  is  probable  two 
iea  yield  the  Stmoiu  Mtufoausm,  or  worm- 
e,  which,  instead  of  seed,  contiats  of 
the  lopi  of  the  planla,  and  in  which  the  peduncle*, 
calyx  flowera,  and  young  seeds  are  intermixed.  Arir- 
mitia  inarilima  and  Jadaica  are  two  of  the  pLanta  which 
yield  iL  See  Ritlo,  Phgi.  HiU.  nf  Faial,  p.  S15;  Cel- 
sius, &KrDi.i,480;  Roeeninllller,£i6J:SoLp.]ia;  Cal- 
eoK  [lady],  ScrifH.  Ha-bal,  p.  Mi 

Worttalngtoii,  Jolm,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  bom  at  Msnchesler,  in  February,  1618. 
educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Csmbridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  fellow,  and  was  crested  B.D.  ii 
wsa  choeen  master  of  Jeaus  College,  but  resigned  the 
office  soon  after  the  Rotontion.  In  the  meantime  h( 
was  Boocessively  rector  of  Horton,  Buckinghamshire: 
Gravely,  and  Fen  Dilton,  in  the  County  of  Cambridge ; 
Barking,  with  Needbsm,  Suffolk  ;  and  Ingoldsby,  Lin- 
colnshire. In  166S  he  was  collaled  to  the  rectory  of 
Moulton- All- saints,  Norfolk,  aud  entered  u] 
cure  of  St.  Bene'i-Fink  in  June,  1664,  under  lb 
of  Windsor,  and  continued  to  preach  there  u 
cburch  was  destroyed  by  Are  in  February,  1666.  Short- 
ly alter  this,  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Ingolds- 
by,  Lincolnshire,  and  the  prebend  of  Asgaity  ' 
Church  of  Lincoln.  He  remored  to  Hacknev  i 
and  died  there,  Nov.  26, 1671.  He  was  the  am 
Form  of  SoimJ  Wor^n  or,  A  Saiptun  Calrchum 
(1874)  —Tilt  Gnat  Daly  of  Stlf-rrt^nalum  to  tii  Di- 
vine IfUi  (167&)  1— rjle  Doctrinn  of  lAe  AmrrwfVM 
ami  l/tt  Raoard  U>  Corns  (1690}  -.—Miiallania  (1704) 
—and  other  works. 

WoithlnBtOn,  nomas.  D.D„  an  English  divine, 
wai  bom  at  Blainscough,  lancashi 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  entered  the  English  College 
at  Ekiuay  in  IhlS,  and  the  Englith  CoUege    -  "'    ' 
(having  in  the  meantime  become  a  priest)  in 
labored  as  a  missionary  in  England  for  some 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1684,  and  banished  in  1585. 
He  waa  president  of  the  English  College  it  Douay  from 
1699  to  I61S.     He  spent  his  latter  year*  in  Englar 
and  died  in  Slaffordsbire,  six  months  alter  he  becomi 
Jesuit,  in  1626.     He  published,  A  ntolalioni  oa  (le  Old 
TttammH\&!»):-'Catalog«i  MaTlyruiH  Fonlifidorum, 
•la  (1612) ;— ^B  Aitkrr  of  ChHitum  Doctrinf,  ttkritin 
lit  moU  Principal  Poislei  af  CiUhoiiqiit  RtUgion 
Provtd  bg  llu  onli  IfriUoi  ITonl  <i/  God,  etc  (1618- 
£2):  — and  other  works.    See  AUibone,  Dia.  <f  Brit. 
ofdA,         ■   ■■ 

A)7oTthlii«ton,  'William,  D.D.,  a  learned  Eng- 
lish divine,  wsa  bora  in  Uerionethshi 
edttcated  at  Ovwestiy  School,  whence  1 
College,  Oilbrd.  He  then  returned  to  Oaweitry  and 
beoanM  usher  in  that  school  He  took  the  degree  of 
KM.  at  Cambridge  in  I74i,  and  that  of  D.D.  at  Jesiii 
CoUege,  Oxford,  in  1768.  He  became  vicar  of  Llsny. 
blodweU,  in  the  County  of  Salop,  and  afterwards  of  Llan- 
rbaiadar,  Denbigbshire.  where  he  died,  Oct.  6, 1778.  He 
becaiDe  preben&iy  of  York  In  176S,  and  of  Sb  Asaph 


WRIGHT 

in    I7TS.       He    published    numenna    works,  aiD0B( 
which  are,  £uay  on  r*e  SAtmi,  Ht..  of  Mm'i  Mi- 

dmptiou  (1748)  -.—Tlu  Eridncr  of  CiHMiamiy.  etc 
(1769):  — and  The  Scripturt  Tinny  of  lit  Barli 
(1778). 
Wotton,  WiLLtAx,  D.D.,  an  En^iafa  dirise,  wit 
<m  at  Wrentbam,  Suffolk,  Aug.  IS,  IS66,  He  ww 
:dowed  with  a  remarkable  memory,  and  by  the  time 
I  was  Ave  years  old  had  aajuired,  under  the  ttdtka 
of  his  father,  eonnderable  facility  in  translating  I^iis, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  In  April,  1676,  whn  not  yet  tea 
years  old,  he  was  admitted  to  Catherine  Hall,  Csm- 
bridge, where  he  made  rapid  progress  in  tbe  bBgUfis 
and  other  branches  of  learning.  In  1679  b*  took  ibt 
degree  of  A.B.,  and  afterwards  obtained  a  fcUowsfaip  ill 
St.  John's.  In  1691  he  received  the  liriog  of  Uin. 
drillo,  DentHghshire,  and  was  mhhi  after  made  disp- 
lain  to  the  eari  of  Nottingham,  who,  in  IfiSB,  pnaeil- 
ed  him  to  the  rectory  of  Middlelon  Keynes^  Backiog- 
hemshire.  He  died  at  Busted,  Essex,  Feb.  U.  ITS. 
His  publicatttms  are  numerous,  smong  which  May  be 
named,  RrJUtlion*  upon  A  Mtnir  and  Modan  Ltarmif 
{ieBi):-Hitl.ofJlomefTom  He  Dtalk  of  Altmmi 
Piut  to  lie  Deadt  of  Serma  AUxaader  (ITOI):— Cif 
ooart  DB  lit  ConfiuioH  of  Lai^affe  at  BoM  (liM). 

'Wjvn,  Chil*taph«r,  D.D.,  an  English  dogy- 
man,  wsa  fellnw  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  sfte^ 
wards  chaplain  to  Charles  I,  and  rector  of  Kiwrk 
Wiltshire.  He  was  made  dean  of  Wind»r  in  ISSJ, 
and  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Haseley,  OxfuediliiiT. 
in  1638.  He  died  at  the  house  of  his  son-in-tsw.  Ur. 
William  Holder,  at  Blecbingdon,  in  the  Countv  ofOi- 
fbrd.  in  16SB. 

^7'roii,Matth«iv,D.D.,an  eminent  EngUih  pel- 
ite,  waa  bom  in  the  parish  of  Si.  Peter-cheap.  Loprtoa. 
Dec  SS,  1686.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  Hsll, 
Cambridge,  and  elected  fellow  of  his  coUege.  Nov.  9. 
1606,  He  studied  divinity,  and  was  admitted  to  bolv 
orders  in  1619.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  bitbop 
Andrews,  and  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Terershsm. 
Cambridgeshire,  in  1616.  In  1621  he  became  chaplain 
to  prince  Charles,  whom  he  attended  in  that  offlie  m 
Spain  in  1628.  He  became  rector  of  Bngham,  Xoi- 
tinghamshire,  and  prebendary  of  Wincheater  in  16!4. 
In  July,  1625.  he  was  choaui  master  of  Pelerhsoie.  Can- 
bridge,  10  which  be  became  a  great  benefactor,  builcling 
a  large  part  of  tbe  college,  and  securing  conttibuiiuw 
fur  a  chapel,  which  was  oompicted  in  1632.  In  Julv, 
1628,  he  became  dean  of  Windsor  and  WolreTbamptoo. 
He  was  sworn  a  judge  of  the  Star-chamber  for  fortigB 
causes  in  1629 ;  installed  as  prebendary  of  Weslminslef 
in  1634;  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Hereford  tbe  nine 
year;  and  translated  lo the  see  of  Kotwich  in  IG35,iiberc 
he  remained  about  two  vean  and  a  half.  He  succeeded 
Juxon  as  dean  ofhis  majesty's  chapel  in  1636,  and  was 
translated  to  the  bishopric  of  Ely  in  May,  16S8.  la  De- 
cember, 1640,  proceedings  were  begun  in  Psrliamoii 
against  him,  and  in  July,  1641,  he  was  impeached  ol 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  The  penally  was  lixtd 
St  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  during  tbe  pleasure  of 
the  Parliament,  which  lasted  eighteen  years.  When 
the  Restoration  drew  nigh,  he  was  ivleased,  in  MsrcK. 
1659,  ind  returned  to  bis  palace  at  Ely  in  1660-  He 
died  at  Ely  House,  London,  April  24,  1667.  He  pub- 
lished some  5emoiu  and  other  works  of  no  present  io- 

Wllsfat.  Bdwaid  W^  D.D.,  a  Plest>yterian  <»• 
vine,  was  botn  at  Lancaster,  O.,  in  April,  1817.  He  was 
educated  at  Miami  Univenily ;  studied  divinity  at  ibe 
Princeton  (K.J.)  Theok^cil  Seminary,  and  finished 
in  Ibe  Wcelem  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Fa, 
in  18SS;  was  licensed  and  ordained  as  an  evangdist  by 
Logansport  Presbytery  in  October,  tSS9;  becsnie  pastor 
of  the  Chnrch  at  Lafayette,  tnd,  in  1840 ;  agent  io  the 
West  Ibr  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Edacailoti  in  I84t: 
poMor  Df  the  Church  in  Delphi  la  IMS,  whkb  trlaiiM 


WRIGHT  10; 

eondnnedlbri  period  of  twenty  yean.  Hii  labora  then 
mre  greatly  blewed.  The  Church  grew  and  became  a 
recdar  lo  i»«  ehurehea  beyond.  He  wu  gtated  clerk 
of  (be  Synod  of  Northern  Indiana  from  the  time  of  itt 
lurmatian  in  1&12  until  bit  removal  to  Alleghehy,  and 
■Uo  of  (be  Preabytary  of  Loguiapatt  for  about  the  aame 
length  or  time.  It  via  generally  admilled  that,  "  ai  a 
proibytar,  be  had  no  equal  in  «U  tha  aynod."  Al  length 
he  wai  elected  and  lerved  aa  librarian  of  the  Board  of 
Colponage  of  tlMaburgb  and  Allegheny  ar  noda,  and  aonn 
aflerwaidB  he  removed  hia  faipily  to  Allegheny.  He 
died  Sept.  IT,  1866.  Dr.  Wright  waa  an  iiutructiTe 
preacher:  "  He  did  not  appeal  to  the  aympathiea  or  the 


of  the  people.  He  took  no  crude  mateiiala  into  tbe  pul- 
pit; tail  aernMHia  alway*  aOorded  proof  of  patient  and 
prvyerfol  atudy,  and  Ibej  were  delivered  in  ■  aoltmn 
and  rcrerential  maonet."  9e9  m]tan,  Pifb,  Bit.  Al- 
wKmac,  1867,  p.  219. 

'Wright  Joha  Flavol,  D.D.,  a  Melhodiat  EpiKo- 
pal  miniiter,  waa  bora  in  North  Cairolina,  July  80, 179S, 
and  passed  bia  early  yeaia  in  tbe  noithein  part  of  that 
atate.  He  wax  converted  in  tSlS,  and  aoon  arter  hrgan 
W  feel  it  hia  duty  to  become  a  preacher  uf  the  GoepeL 
He  was  licensed  to  exhort  in  August,  1814,  and  anisted 
for  some  months  in  the  work  of  a  Urge  circuit.  He  was 
admitted  on  trial  in  the  Virginia  Conference  it  Lynch- 
burg, Feb.  20,  ISIfi,  and  appointed  succesairely  to  Han- 
over, Black  River,  Guilford,  Princess  Ann,  and  Newbem 
circuits,  and  Raleigh  station.  In  1821  be  was  trans- 
ferred 10  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  appointed  to  Leba- 
non Circuit.  He  was  next  appointed  to  Cincinnati, 
then  to  Madison,  Ind.,  and  in  1821  to  Chillicothe,  O., 
where  three  hundred  and  sixty-live  were  added  to  the 
Chnrch,  and  more  than  that  number  converted.  In 
1827  he  was  stationed  a  MCond  time  at  Cincinnati,  and 
in  1839  became  presiding  elder  of  the  Lebanon  District. 
In  1832  hs  waa  elected  book-agent  at  Cincinnati,  and 
fulfilled  tbe  duties  of  that  ofBca  for  twelve  years  in  too- 
ccseion.  In  1844  be  lacked  but  a  few  votes  of  an  elec- 
tion to  the  episcopacy.  From  that  time  until  1861  be 
received  various  sppointmenla  in  Ohio.  He  was  chap- 
lain of  (he  First  Kenlacky  Regiment  daring  the  Rebell- 
ion, and  near  the  close  of  the  war  became  chaplain  to 
the  military  hosfHtals  of  Cincinnati.  He  again  entered 
the  conference  work  when  tbe  hospitals  were  dosed,  and 
continued  in  that  field  until  I8T7,  when  he  retired.  He 
died  SepL  IS,  1879.  Ste  Mimla  of  Ciaciamli  Cai^tr- 
,»ef,  1880,  p.  86. 

V7rlght,  BamnsL  D.D.,  an  eminent  EngUsh  Dia- 
•enter,wBab»rnalKetfDrd.Noitinghami.hire,Jan,a,16SH. 
He  waa  pastor  at  Blackfriani,  London,  from  1707  to  17S1, 
when  hs  removed  lo  a  raeeting-houia  in  Carter  L^ne, 
Southwarh,  and  died  April  B,  1746.  He  published,  A 
Lillle  Trtaiut  of  Bring  Bom  Again  (171&}:— TVniriH 
oiB  IjU  Jitligioia  Obtrmmct  oflkt  iMriTi  Dag  (Bd  ed, 
J726):  — //unmi  Virlaa;  or,  RaU*  lo  l.itt  Soberly 
{1730)  -.—DtcsitfHkea  o/Svt  (1781) :— and  other  worka 
See  Allibone,  We*,  o/  BHl.  and  A  mtr.  A  ulhori,  s.  v. 

'Wulfram  (or  ^fnlftana),  St.,  apostle  to  tbe  Fri- 
sians and  biabop  of  Sena,  was  of  pa  trician  family,  and  was 
bom  about  A.D,  6fi0,  at  Milly.  He  became  monk  and 
abbot  at  Fonlanelle,  to  which  monastery  he  donated 
hia  fSamily-aeat  of  Milly,  and  arterwardi  waa  chaplain 
to  the  French  oourt,  and  bisbop  of  Sens.  In  681  or  685 
he  devoted  himself,  with  several  brother  monks,  to  the 
Dritsionary  work  among  the  Frisians,  hia  personal  asso- 
ciate for  a  lime  being  a  Burgundian  count  named  Gan- 
gulf  or  Gangnir,  who  was  afterwards  killed  by  a  clergy- 
man, the  psTamonr  of  his  wife.  Wulfram  is  credited, 
while  in  the  prosecution  of  hia  missionary  labors,  with 
having  recovered  a  lost  palen  from  tbe  sea  by  prayer; 
with  having  cured  pirslylic*  and  other  invalids  by 
anointing  them  with  oil;  with  having  preserved  alive 
a  boy  who  waa  hanged  bythaFtiaiansin  honor  of  their 
dlvlniUaa,  and  two  othar  bojrt  who  were  about  to  be 


19  WTCKHOFF 

drowned  from  rimilar  niotivea.  Tradition  stales  that 
Wulfram  was  on  the  point  of  baptizing  Radbod,  tha 
Frinan  king,  when  tha  latter,  standing  with  one  foot  in 
tbe  water,  inquired  whether  his  onbaptixed  ancestors 
were  to  he  found  in  heaven  or  in  hell,  and  being  ao- 
sured  that  they  were  in  hell,  withdrew  his  foot  and  de- 
clared that  he  would  not  be  separated  from  bis  royal 
anoeslors.  The  devil  thereupon  appeared  to  the  king 
and  incited  him  to  persist  in  idolatry,  until  he  waa 
driven  away  by  tbe  sign  of  the  cross.  Radbod,  how- 
ever, died  onbaptiied.  WulfVam,  about  689,  returned 
to  Fontenelte,  and  died  in  69&  (otben  say  720  or  740), 
The  martyroiogies  assign  to  him  Hanb  20.  See  Bul- 
lond,  Aela  S3.  Martyr.  (Antw.  1E68),  iii,  p.  143-ICS; 
Rettberg,  Kirriengrtch.  DaittchUmdt  (Uott.  1848),  p,  574 
sq.,  and  iha  literature  there  referred  to ;  also  Uerzog, 
Btal-EtirsUcp.  a.  v. 

'WuIatSD  (WnlAtan,  or  'Wolataii)  <!),  a  monk 
of  Winchester,  lived  in  the  9tb  century.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  on  the  Harnvntg  of  Tones,  a  poem  in 
Latin  heiamelers  on  the  JUirackt  of  St.  Sicilhin,  and  a 
prose  Lift  n/BuAop  ElhdaaU.  See  Allibone,  Did.  of 
Brit. and  Amer.  Aiil/lori,>.v. 

Wa]Btui(2),  an  English  prelate  of  the  1 1th  cen- 
tury, became  archbishop  of  York  in  1003,  holding  along 
with  that  dignity  the  bishopric  of  Wurcesur.  and  died 
in  1023.  He  ia  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  tbe  A  nglo- 
Saxon  Bomttia,  to  which  is  affixed  the  name  of  Luput 
Epiiapot.  One  of  these  may  be  fonnd  in  Hickea, 
T^fauria,  ili,  99-106.  See  Wright,  Biog.  BHl.  Lit, 
(Anglo-Saxon  Period),  p.  506. 

Wnlatiui  (8),  the  last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  prelates, 
was  bom  at  Icentum,  Warwickshire,  about  1007.  He 
was  educated  at  Evesham  and  PeUrborough,  and  was 
ordained  a  presbyter  at  the  usual  age.  He  then  be- 
came s  monk  al  Worcester,  and  gradually  lose  in  that 
monastery  until  at  last  he  became  prior.  In  1062  he 
was  chosen  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  succeeded  in  ret- 
cuing  that  see  from  (he  control  of  the  archbishop  of 
York.  He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  William  the  Conquer* 
or,  and  after  him  of  his  son  Rufus,  He  rebuilt  the  Cib 
tbedrol  of  Worcester ;  pat  down  an  insurrection  of  (he 
adherents  of  Duke  Robert  of  Normandy  i  and  defended 
tbe  city  against  an  army  of  Iha  rebels  led  by  Roger  de 
MontgomerT.  He  died  in  Worcestor,  either  on  Nov.  2S 
or  Jan.  19,  I09fi.  He  is  not  known  to  bave  written  any* 
thing  tither  in  Saxon  or  L^tin,  though  an  attempt  baa 
been  made  to  prove  that  he  was  tbe  anlhor  of  tbe  en- 
tries in  the  ^ozoa  ChrtmirU  from  1034  to  1079.  Sea 
William  of  Malmesburi',  De  Gatit  FonHfimn;  Whar- 

Wratt,  William  E.,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  tbe 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  a  native  of  New  York 
city,  was  ordained  deacon  in  IBIO,  and  priest  abortly 
after.  In  1811  he  was  pastor  of  St.  John's  Parish,  New- 
town, L.  I.;  in  1814  he  became  associate  rector  of  St. 
Paul's  Parish,  Baltimore,  subsequently  succeeding  to  tha 
rectorship,  which  he  retained  unUl  tbe  close  of  his  life. 
Hedied June24,tS64,agedseveiity-siiyears.  Through 
all  tliis  period  he  was  a  member  of  (he  SUnding  Com- 
mittee of  his  diocese;  was  delegate  to  every  General 
Convention;  and  during  thirty  years  waa  president  of 
tbe  Lower  House.  In  1820  he  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  Maryland.  He  published  a 
volumeof  fnmi^/'rn^n'S.'— a  volumeofSuAop  Krmp't 
Sermoni! — (he  Ckritlian  Abar : — and  a  number  of  paro- 
phleU,  tracts,  etc  See  Amtrican  Qaar.  Church  Riv. 
OcUl864,p.48e. 

'Wjroklioff.  WiLi.tAX  H.,  LL.D.,  •  minister  of  the 
Baptist  denomination,  was  bom  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  Sept.  10, 1807,  and  was  a  graduate  of  Union  Cl- 
lege  in  the  dosa  of  1828.  After  leaving  college,  he  "a» 
for  several  veais  the  principal  of  the  classical  depart- 
ment of  a  collegiate  school  in  New  York.  In  18S9  be 
became  the  editor  of  ThM  Bafli»  AAmatt,  dow  Tkt 


WTCKOFF  10 

Examiner  owl  Cknmiek,  which  wu  aUrted  ^  him, 
had  ha*  exerted  >  wide  iafluence  in  ihe  dtnominition. 
Of  Lhis  paper  he  bad  the  editorial  charge  uBlil  1846,  in 
which  year  he  waa  ordained  ■■  a  rainister  of  the  Goafiei 
bjr  the  Liight  Street  Baptiu  Church  of  New  York.  For 
sereral  yeara  he  waa  the  President  of  the  Young  Hfn'a 
City  Missionary  Sodety,  of  the  Baptiat  Domestic  Mi>- 
sion  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  origiuatora  of  Ihe 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Societv,  formed  in  ISBS. 
Of  this  aociety  he  waa  the  oorreiponding  secretary  from 
1846  to  ]8s0.  In  I860  he  aided  in  the  fonnation  of  the 
American  Bible  UniDn,of  which.fora  time,  be  was  the 
■ecretaiy.  He  died  in  BrooMyn,  N.  Y.,  Nor.  2,  IS76. 
Anmng  hia  publiahed  writioga  are  Ttt  B&te  (tutiHm  i 
or.  The  Ameriam  Bible  Socielg  and  lit  BaftiMn—Ttit 
Biblt,Ui  Exedltnce:  —  RoUin'i  Andeia  hiHoty,  Con- 
denied.     (J.  C.  a> 

WyokoH  laaao  ITewton,  D.D.,  ■  (Dutch)  Be- 
formed  minister,  was  bom  near  Hillstoue,  N.  J^  in  1792. 
lie  graduated  at  Queen'a  CoUege  in  IBIS,  and  at  New 
Brunaviicli  Seminary  in  1817.  lie  was  settled  as  pastor 
ortheBerormedChurch,Cat8kilI,N.Y.,froml81TtaI83e, 
and  of  the  Second  Beformed  Church,  Albany,  from  1836 
to  1866.  He  retired  fmni  active  duly  after  forty-nine 
yean  of  arduoua  clerical  labor,  about  three  years  before 
bia  death,  which  occurred  in  1869,  Four  new  churches 
were  organiied  by  him  in  his  first  Seld  of  labor.  At 
Albany  more  than  one  thouaand  persona  were  added  to 
the  comfDunion  nf  hie  Church  during  hia  ministry  o( 
thirty  years.  He  waa  fond  of  hooka  and  atudy,  and  of 
literary  and  theological  culture.  But  he  was  preemi- 
nently a  patter.  He  seetned  to  know  cTeryhody  in 
hia  flock,  and  almoit  in  the  whole  city.  Young  men 
found  bim  a  genial,  sympathizing,  and  loving  helper, 
for  he  never  lost  bia  youthful  buoyancy.  He  was  gift- 
ed with  a  wonderful  flow  of  animki  q>irita.  Hie  pret- 
ence was  Bunahine.  His  conversation  overflowed  with 
wit  and  bumor,  witli  irresialjble  rimllery,  and  yet  with 
B  pious  fecror  which  sanctified  the  whole  man.  To  the 
emigrant  Hollanders,  who  always  stopped  at  Albany  on 
their  way  t«  the  Hicbigan  Colony,  bewaaforyeara  a  fa- 
ther and  a  priest.  He  conversed,  read,  and  could  preach 
in  the  Dutch  language  with  great  fluency.  In  every 
benevolent  institution,  in  the  boardsof  the  Church,  in  all 
hinda  of  public  aasemblieB  where  his  influence  could  be 
well  used,  be  was  ■  representative  speaker  and  actor. 
Among  the  aick,  the  anxious,  the  unconverted,  the 
young  and  Ihe  aged  alike,  his  personal  and  pastoral 
tact  and  power  were  universally  admitted.  His  home 
was  a  Bethel,  hit  hospitality  unbounded,  and  his  social 
intercourse  entertaining  and  profitable.  He  waa  full 
of  music,  an  ait  which  he  cultivated  delightfully  and 
ekilfully,  with  voice  and  instrument.  His  piety  was  a 
flowing  stream,  sparkling,  clear,  unceasing,  Joyous,  and 
refreshing  to  himself  and  to  his  people  and  friends. 
"The  spontaneity  of  his  faith  precluded  the  indulgence 
of  mere  cant.  The  light  of  the  cross  waa  on  his  brow ; 
the  breath  ofOlivet  animated  his  speech.  To  hear  him 
pray  in  his  family  circle  was  in  be  borne  up  ta  Ihe  Mount 
ofVision."  His  religion  was  a  life,  never  a  burden,  nev- 
er a  mere  robe,  but  a  principle  in  active  operation—"  a 
well  of  water  in  him  springing  up  to  everlasting  life." 
Bis  charity  was  wonderful,  in  thoughts,  feelings,  speech, 
gifts  and  deeds  of  love  for  Christ's  sake.  In  ecclesias- 
tical assemblies  he  was  a  peace  -  maker.  Hit  olive 
branch  never  withered  in  the  heat  of  controvetsy. 
With  nearly  all  the  great  movements  of  his  Church 
for  half  a  century  he  was  prominently  identified.  He 
was  a  frequent  speaker  at  the  great  May  anniveraaiies 
in  New  York,  and  a  number  of  his  sermons  are  printed 
in  the  National  PrracAer,  etc  His  person  was  of  me- 
dium size.sleuder,  wiry,  agile,  and  lough.  His  face  was 
radiant  with  cheerfulnesa  and  goodness.  His  voice 
was  large,  full,  sonorous,  and  he  lued  it  often  wiih  great 
oratorical  effecL  His  menial  ingenuity  and  freshness 
of  thought  and  expression  proclaimed  him  an  original 
character.    He  was  perfectly  unique,  always  himself, 


and  never  much  like  other  folia.  He  thought  and 
talked,  and  preached  and  prayed,  in  his  own  pecalisi 
way.  He  used  many  big  words;  he  often  madcvcrds 
and  combinations  of  words  ihac  gave  great  point  and 

Biblical  and  expository;  hia  style  pictureaqoe,  bomely, 
imaginative,  instructive,  tender,  and  evangelical.  la 
mortuary  discourses  he  ejcclled.  Some  of  his  mtms- 
rial  and  funeral  sermons,  published  in  pamphlet  I«b^ 
and  especially  his  many  contributions  to  Dr.  Spragve's 
Annali  oftfte  AmericanJ^lpil,  are  cbmce  speeiiDensof 
hia  descriptive  and  analytical  sketches  of  cbanclif. 
Down  to  hia  old  age  be  retained  bis  youthful  appear- 
ance and  manner,  with  fresh  complexion,  and  haircirl- 
ing  and  unchanged  in  color.  "Hia  eye  waa  not  lUm 
not  his  natural  strength  abated  "  until  his  last  illnas 
md  its  wasting  hand  upon  him.  See  Porter  [  Dr.  E.  S. }, 
Mtmorial  Smnon.    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Wy  okoff,  Tbeodore  Prolln  ghnysea  a  (Dnith) 
Beformcil  minister,  son  of  the  above,  was  bom  at  CatAill, 
N.Y.,inlS30.  Hegraduated  at  Rntgers  College  in  18(9^ 
and  at  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  ItS; 
was  pastor  of  the  Second  Reformed  Church  of  Gbrat, 
N.  Y.,  from  1843  to  ISM;  of  the  South  Befarmed  Chmrh, 
West  Trov,  from  1846  to  1854;  and  minislrar^l  at  Sr, 
Thoma^  W.  I.,  in  18M.^.  He  died  of  yellow  fevet, 
Jan.  19  of  Ihe  latter  year,  only  a  few  weeks  after  bii  a^ 
rival  in  Sl.  Thomas.  He  wasa  young  man  of  cnlliral- 
ed  miud  and  manners,  a  careful  etudeut,  scholarly  in  hii 
tastes  and  refined  in  accomplishments;  he  wrote  dieIi 
and  well  for  the  periodical  press.  His  sermoDs  woe  or- 
nate in  sti'le,  evangelical  in  matter  Koi  spirit,  and  M 
ofpromise.     {W.J.R.T.) 

^7]rcllff«,  JoiiH,  the  flrsC  translator  of  the  entire 
Bible  inio  English,  and  "  the  rooming-star  of  the  Kfhr- 
mation,"  was  also  eminent  aa  a  scholar,  a  di|ilamatiN, 
and  a  preacher.  There  seem  to  have  been  three  oilKt 
persons  of  the  same  name  contemporaneous  with  bin; 
one  a  seneschal  of  Merton  College  in  1366  frrobably  the 
author  of  a  weak  cbiliastic  treatise  entitled  Tie  LiulAyt 
n/Ihe  CAumt,  usually  attributed  to  the  Reformer  [k. 
Todd,  Dublin,  1840]),  another  who  was  master  of  Dalliol 
College  in  1340,  and  still  another  who  was  vicu  of  Hif. 
field  from  1861  to  1380. 

I.  AnitcvdmU. — The  career  and  work  ofWydiffeeiB. 
not  well  be  appreciated  without  a  brief  review  of  smK 
'  ecclesiastical,  sod  especially  the  Bib- 


lical, ci 


es  of  the  1 


I .  Tbe  midnight  of  Ihe  Dark  Ages  had  been  hmken  bj 
the  establishment  nf  high-schools,  whose  light  was  e(B- 
sibly  fett  along  the  pathways  of  scientific  and  religina 
inquiry.  Europe  was  emerging  from  the  semi-bada- 
rism  which  the  northern  hordes  had  poured  over  the 
older  seats  of  dviltialion,  and  the  invaders  themselm, 
now  Christianixed  and  educated,  wen  lending  Urk 
streams  of  miswonary  and  literary  culture  to  ibeir  fa- 
therlands. England  was  foremost  in  reoliiing  that 
ameliorating  inHnences.  From  Ihe  limes  of  Ibe  Bomu 
away  she  had  enjoyed  pre-eminent  advantagei  through 
contact  with  Ldiin  Christianity,  which  Ihen  embodird 
all  tbe  learning  and  piety  of  the  Western  empire;  and 
the  displacement  of  the  Britons  by  the  Anglo-Saiin^ 
and  the  aubjugation  of  these  in  tum  by  the  Nammu^ 
had  added  successively  elements  of  rrflnemeol  to  htf 
.originally  wild  strength,  at  the  compound  English  Isit- 
guage  itself  atteats  iD-day.  At  the  period  of  which  wa 
write  the  French  tongue  was  stiU  used  in  couni  of  law, 
vealige  of  which  ej  '      ' 


galtt 


lo  the  present  day 


of  literary  inle^^oun 
likewise  is  yet  indicated  by  other  legal  titles  of  will- 
known  processes.  Tbe  English  univernties,  estaUisM 
about  two  centuries  prior  to  WydilfeV  graduation,  aitd 
a  liltle  later  than  those  of  Italy  and  Paris,  hut  some 
three  centuries  before  the  oldest  of  Gerouny,  were  odf 
inslty  divinity  aohooli,  oi       '  ..... 


WYCLIPFE  10 

divinoflwidUr^ly  for ucred  lemming.  In  fact,  tbmlogy 
wu  th«  chief  and  (Imoat  tbe  aols  acience  of  thtt  eaiiy 
day,  and  tbc  oaly  other  forms  of  knowledge  thiL  took  a 
vcbolucic  fonn  were  luiguigefl  and  philosophyf  lioth  of 
Mhich  Ihen  bid  ■  decidedly  i^eologtcai  aim  and  color- 
ing.    Hureover,  the  iiudeoUi  were  ilmosC  exdiuivety 

which  at  that  time  ail  parts  of  Europe  particularly 
Bvranned.  Wycliffe  himself,  while  in  college,  wu  a  can- 
didate fur  holy  onlen,  aud  his  own  ■tudlcs  of  courae  lay 
in  chat  direction,  as  doubtkaa  did  those  of  moit  of  bis 
pupils. 

2.  The  LoDardi,  u  ill  tbe  predcceewrs  of  PratcsUnt- 
iam  in  England  were  called,  had  already  begun  a  com- 
parison of  the  glarinit  cormptiom  of  Rome  with  the 
uotplc  truth!  and  practices  of  early  Chiiatianity,  na  weD 
aa  with  the  obvious  laws  of  morality  and  social  deceii- 


iislly  < 


'  directly  than  oelensibly  carried  on,  tbe  Bible,  and  espe- 
ciaUy  the  New  Te«^  was  of  counie  continually  appealed 
U>  »  ■□  authority  against  tbe  papal  ilogmas,  eccleaiis- 
tical  traditions,  and  prieaCl}'  domiaatioiu.  These  latter 
vera  especially  open  to  the  shalU  of  riiliciile,  and,  as  in 
the  Reformation  afterwards,  the  wits  of  Wyclitfe's  day, 
incIudiiigChaucar  and  tiower,  were  uut  «lnw  in  pointing 
out   Roniish  ineoniistenciea  to  the  public  eye.     The 

ligioiu  questions  thus  laised,  and  every  edncated  pcr- 
•oii  who  mingled  fi«ely  with  them,  as  Wycliffe  did.  had 
coasUnt  occasion  to  ascertain  tbdr  feelings  uid  appre- 

8.  Tbe  political  condition  of  the  country  at  tbe  time 
jtreatly  slimulited  these  debates,  which  had  not  yet 
been  nationally  agitated  elsewhere.  One  century  be- 
fore WycliHe  was  bom,  the  English  barons  had  extorted 
fruro  the  violent  and  vacillating  king  John  the  famous 
Magna  CAardt,  which,  although  quickly  denied  by  that 
prince,  and  denounced  by  the  pope,  who  claimed  the 
vassalage  of  tbe  realm,  yet,  renewed  by  the  next  and 
confirmed  by  the  suhaeiiuent  sovereign,  has  remained 
to  this  day  the  substantial  basis  and  bulwark  of  nritiah 
constitutional  liberty.  From  that  document  definitely 
date*  the  great  struggle  between  the  Romisb  and  the 

the  popular  rights,  on  the  other,  which  has  chanclerized 
»  English  as  well  as  Continental  history  ever  since.  The 
reign  of  Henry  III.  who  fullowed  John  upon  the  throne 
of  England,  was  but  a  Mriea  of  contests  between  Ihe 
king  and  the  newly  instituted  House  of  Commons ; 
which  after  a  lull  during  tbe  reign  of  Edward  I,  whn 
was  the  next  prince,  but  who  was  <^hielly  occupied  in 
•ettling  the  Scottish  aucceasion,  broke  out  afresh  undei 
Edward  II,  and  culminated  in  his  dethronement  and 
horrid  death.  All  these  fluctuations  of  civil  power  the 
Roman  pontiff  watched  at  a  safe  liisunce,  like  a  vulture 
anuffing  the  field  of  battle,  ever  reailv  to  ponnce  upon 
the  weak  or  tbe  wounded  of  either  side.  Edward  HI, 
who  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  three 
yean  after  the  above-aMumed  date  of  WycliHe's  birth, 
•OOD  engaged  in  wars  with  Scotland  and  Fiance,  which 
occupied  his  entire  leign;  but  he  nevertheless  rensteil 
the  claims  of  Borne,  and  Parliament  supporled  him  by 
statutes  declaring  the  independence  of  the  English  cler- 
gy. The  effect  of  oil  these  political  turmoils  was  to 
create  and  foster  a  spirit  of  free  inquiry  into  human 
rights,  both  civil  and  ecclesiasticaL  The  seeds  of  tbc 
English  Retbrmation  of  a  later  age  were  widely  and 
deeply  sown  by  then  puldic  measures  and  private  ex- 


le  home  in  mind,  however,  that  the  art 
of  printing  had  not  yet  been  discovered.  All  bonk<, 
being  in  HS.,  had  lo  be  laboriously  c)>pied  by  hand,  and 
were  therefore  rare  and  costly.  This  was  especially 
true  of  the  Bihis,  from  Its  large  siie  and  tbe  dead  lan- 
guagea  in  which  it  was  written.  The  Latin  Vulgate 
was  tife  authorised,  or  rather,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 
the  only  acceasible  tbriD ;  and  hiis  the  commoD  people, 


with  t 


lace,  for  which,  as  we  shall  see,  bis  earliest  public  ap> 
pearance  was  distinguished,  must  have  orally  tran^ 
lated  for  their  benelit  such  passages  of  Scripture  as  he 
had  occasion  to  cite  in  their  hearing.     The  inconven- 

duced  in  him  the  determination  from  his  very  college 
days  to  furnish  a  more  adequate  text  than  then  exis^ 
ed  for  papular  religious  instruction.  This  purpose  his 
whole  career  afterwards  confirmed. 

The  only  professed  or  real  versions  of  any  part  of  the 
Bible  in  English  proper  before  Wycliffe's  were  those  of 
the  Psalms,  made  nearly  simultaneously  by  William  of 
Shoieham  and  Richard  Rolte  in  the  early  part  of  Wye- 
liflle's  (Kntury.  They  were  both  nade  from  tbe  Latin, 
were  exceedingly  crude,  fragmentary,  and  encumbered 
with  notes  in  most  copies,  and  never  had  any  great  celeb- 
rity or  circulation.  Tbe  earlier  cfiTurts  at  translation  in 
English  were  mere  poetical  paraphrases  of  portions  of 
Scripture,  such  as  the  Ormulam,  a  ver»ficalion  of  the 
narrative  of  tbe  Gospels  and  Acts,  belonging  probalily  to 
tbe  former  part  of  the  preceding  century;  the  Biblical 
poem  entitled  SoulKtlt,  dating  about  Che  same  period;  a 
rhymed  rehearsal  of  the  principal  events  of  Genesis  and 
Exodus  of  a  •Dmewhat  later  date;  and  apparently  coo- 
temponneous  with  the  last  named,  a  metrical  version 


e  Paalmt 


in  dilTeretit  MS3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  versions  that  had 
preceded— namely,  Cadmon's  historical  poem  in  the  7th 
century,  Aldhelm's  and  Guthlac's  Psalter  of  about  Ihe 
same  dale, "  the  Venerable"  Belle's  Gospel  of  John  in  A.D. 
73S,  Aldred'a  "  Durham  Book,"  and  Owen  and  Farmen'a 
"Rushworth  UUtss,"  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury; jElfric's  abstracts  from  the  historical  hooks  and 
Job  a  little  later;  besides  king  Alfred's  attempts  and  B 
few  other  imperfect  glones  on  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Canticles,  elfc  —  were  altogether  sporadic;  moreover, 
their  language  was  quite  unintelligible  to  Wycliffe's 
generation.  The  Anglo-N'orman  dialect  which  inler- 
(-ened  was  partially  represented  by  a  series  uf  versions, 
or  rather  revisions,  of  these  scattered  elenjents,  covering 
probably  most  of  the  Bible,  and  certainly  the  Gospels, 
the  Psalter,  the  Canticles,  and  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Test.;  hut  these  were  of  a  mongrel  character, 
and  scarcely  attained  Ihe  authority  or  currency  even  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  relies.  There  was  an  obvious  and  ur- 
gent need  of  a  new  and  truly  English  version  adapted 
to  the  actual  enndition  ami  vernacular  of  the  people. 

H.  £ift.-Wvcliffe'B  name  (speUed  also  Wirli/.  n» 
»>Wr/;elc.)  is  thought  by  ^'aughan  {J»lm  de  WydiTr, 
[  1858  ].  p.  4)  to  have  been  originally  Wgetiip,  1.  e.  Wu- 
Irrdilfr,  referring  to  a  rocky  hill  on  the  hanks  of  the 
Tees,  about  eleven  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Richmond, 
in  Yorksbire,  where  the  family  mansion  was  hicated. 
The  esuie  hai  nnce  passed  iu'to  tbe  possession  of  Ihe 
Roman  Catholic  families  of  the  Tonstalls  and  Constables ; 
but  the  parish  church  adjoining  is  still  known  by  the  old 
name  of  Wycliffe.  Of  the  Kefurmer's  immediate  parent- 
age and  early  education  nothing  is  recorded,  nor  is  the 
exact  date  of  his  birth  known.  Prom  the  fact  that  he 
enured  while  yet  a  vouth  as  one  of  tbe  first  commoners 
ofQueen'9Collage,Oxford,whichwas  founded  in  1340, he 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been  bom  in  1324.  Some- 
what later  he  became  a  probationer,  and  apparently  also 
a  fellow,  of  Merton  College,  and  a(    "  " 


It  scholars  of  the  unire 


le  w-os  associated  w 
y,  Chaucer  bei 


e  his  pupil     His 


(Of  the 


oubtlesi 


English  colleg 
the  present  day,  with  private  instruction  to  the  under- 
graduates i  and  his  intervals  uf  recreation  nppesrtohsve 
been  largely  spent  in  social  rambles  among  Ihe  peasant- 
ry in  the  neighborhood.  His  scholastic  culture,  warmed 
by  a  genial  temper,  gave  him  great  influence  as  well  as 
ready  access  in  thus  acting  the  rare  function  of  a  link 
between  the  literary  atislocrtcy  and  tbe  sturdy  popu- 


WTCLIFFE 

:  and  tbc  pope  (UrtMii  V)  bdag  ^ 
fttled  to,  tided  of  count  ipBa 
W^cliffe  by  ■  iptcia]  boU  mati  a 
187Q,  or  which  il>«  nxmlu  pmbari 

I  little  faced  WjdiSe,  allboiigb  nil 

'---' -  ""ul  KB  ofHn 


b  ChuTd 


,  p*id  to  the  pt 


order  o(  lUeDce  ■ 

tODi,  but  illrgal  Doder  the  Fnli*- 

— we  may  Judge  rmn  hb  metis  4(- 
fence  of  [he  nailanil  pohcy  igoa 
I  the  pope,  piibliibrd  ■bml  thii  lac 
,  Thu  prodimiod  doubilcM  oon 
,  tbe  ubUUKC  of  h»  ■rgnmtn  b» 
'  fort  the  court,  in  leplv  to  the  ^m 
pontiff'*  eumnuu  to'  tbc  Jiiif  K 
I  pay  the  bamagt  due  frntn  the  lim 
of  Jobn  to  tbe  aee  of  Bcom— «  de- 
mand which,  u  ve  bave  mo,  Ed- 
ward had  rrfiued  to  •^onwkdgb 
•lul  now  npeni  J  lemled.  Tba  ii- 
troduced  to  the  roT»l  fame.  Wit. 
lifle  acted  aa  the  kin^''  ch^ikbi, 
and  was  preaented  (Kot.  G.  im) 
to  the  prebend  of  Aiuv,  in  tbe  Ae- 
cewafWnreetteri  andihmvhAe 
dniu  or  L^ncatier  he  was  napoi- 
pDitnit  otWjciUla.  (From  a  contemporaDooaa  painting  itlll  han^g  In  aa  led  (about  1076)  tsn  tb*  torn  tHit 
.V.  ..  n—iiH^  1  college  maRcnbip  by  beinf  nadi 

ifLotlerwonb  when  he  W 


the  teeiory  at  WycllOk.) 


lac*  nf  ■  collegiate  boioa(ih.    Hence  he  waa  enabled  to 

■ympatliize  with  the  wanta  and  aentiBicnla  of  the  lower 
citMM,  and  to  meet  them  with  the  higher  qiialiOcation 
and  view*  of  a  Chriatian  atudenU  In  penon  conridei 
ally  above  the  meiiium  heigbt,  wraight,  slender,  bu 
wirr,  with  featiira  inilictling  penetration  and  refine 
ment,  a  Ihin  aquiline  nose,  firm  moiilh,  amooth  fore 
head,  and  clear  though  somewhat  deep-set  eyea;  hi 
cxpreanon  at  once  fnnk  and  cautious,  bland  but  well 
bred,  intellectual  and  yet  sympathetic,  Wycliffe  was  j 
nun  to  rivet  attention  and  aecnre  respect  at  the  firs 
glance. 

In  ISGOWycliffe  became  known  asapubhcopponen 
of  tbe  mendicant  friin  who  infested  England,  inteifer 
ing  with  the  school  discipline  aa  well  as  with  domestii 
relitionsj  and  to  this  date  his  tncta  on  that  subjee 
are  accoTilingly  asaigned.  This  was  an  eflurt  in  be 
half  no  lew  of  the  people,  who  were  weary  with  the  ob 
trusive  sanctiaiany  and  beggarly  squalor  of  these  cAard 
jfaai,  than  of  the  university  au  thoritiea,  who  were  t 
ly  sick  of  thdr  impertinent  ignorance  and  proaelyiing 
usurpation.  It  won  him  such  popularity  that  in  1361 
be  was  made  warden  (or  master)  of  Balli'ol  Hall  (after- 
wards Ballicil  CollegeX  ■"  "*=*  *"  which  he  was  well 

student  of  civil  and  canon  law,  and  especially  by  hii 
skill  in  philoeophical  and  theological  dialectics.  This 
preferment  gave  both  a  wider  scope  to  hia  achrdasdc 
abilities,  and  greater  prestige  to  his  popular  discuiaiiniB. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  made  rector  of  Fillingham, ' 
Uncoliisliire.  a  position  which  he  CKchinged  in  If 
frii  chat  cif  Iji.lgerehall  in  the  same  diocese.  These 
livings  dirt  not  require  his  removal  from  Oiford, . 
affiinled  him  a  clerical  function  and  a  pastoral  oppor- 
tunity to  come  still  more  closely  than  before  into 
muninn  with  the  common  peo[de,  and  that  in  a  i 
neighborhood. 

In  1366  arohhishnp  IsKp  of  Canterbury  appointed 
Wvcliffe  master  of  his  new  college  of  Canterbury  Hall 
raflerwards  merged  In  that  of  Christ  Church)  at  Ox- 
fnnl.  bnt  soon  after  the  accession  of  Ljngbam  to  the  tee 
in  1366  the  monks,  who  formed  a  nuijority  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  college,  induced  that  prelate  to  eject  Wyelille, 
DO  the  ground  it  aoine  Informality  in  tlw  tppoioliDtnt, 


full  scope  for  the  reformatory  principtta  which  be  ai 
began  to  avow  mon  pointedly.  He  bad  alread*  (ii 
1872)  been  created  "doctor  in  theolngy"  by  the  Ub- 
venity  of  Oxford,  then  not  a  mere  honotary  title,  W 
an  offlcial  one,  authorizing  bim  lo  lecture  publidyke- 
fure  the  Bludentt;  and  he  uaed  the  privilege  to  ex|ia> 
the  venality  and  aDpeniitions  of  the  monkish  oedtn 
with  a  vigor  of  reataning  and  a  keenneaa  of  aatire  wUtb 
are  conspicuout  in  hit  published  tnda  on  the  bbIi^ir. 
These  abuses  had  coma  to  be  such  a  public  barden,  es- 
pecially the  occupancy  of  beneflcea  by  aliens,  thai  in 
1BT3  the  king  appointed  a  commisnoii,  and  next  yo 
renewed  it,  with  Wyclillt  m  a  pmmiDent  nemba.  is 
confer  with  the  papal  authorities  for  tbe  abngatiia  d 
the  eviL  An  arrangement  was  Bnally  made,  but  IM 
pope  soon  violated  the  compact,  and  Pariiament  a^ 
took  action  againat  the  Rnman  murpatlooa.  These  de- 
velopments more  (hlly  opened  Wycliffe's  eyea  to  At 
intolerant  cotmption  of  the  Konii^  tee,  and  be  benee- 
furth  began  to  argue  and  preach,  and  teach  aod  write, 
boldly  and  without  reaerve.  At  with  Luther  in  a  lartr 
age,  the  hierarchy  waa  alarmed  and  exasperated ;  bra 
formal  conrocation  they  summonrd  bim  to  answtr.FelL 
IH,  1377  (Lewis  erroneously  says  1378),  to  accnanitn 
of  erroneous  doctrine.  The  trial  opened  icgnlatly  » 
St.  Psul'son  the  day  appointed:  but  an  tmrortunau al- 
tercation of  a  person|il  nature,  arising  between  tbc  bish- 
op of  London  and  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  thiew  Ibe  as- 
sembly into  an  [iproai,Bnd  even  led  to  a  popular  tatoalt 
outside.  In  the  mN^,Wycliffe  was  carried  off  in  aafcly 
by  his  friends.  The  pope  (Gregory  XI)  was  now  in. 
duced  to  take  up  the  matter.  Formal  anick*  were 
prepared  againat  Wydifle,  and  in  Ave  papal  baBt,  thne 
of  them  dated  timultaiieautly  (Uay  K,  1S7T),  be  was 
cited  to  answer  to  the  chaises  of  intobordinatiiNi  and 
heresv.  Before  these  sumnonses  arrived,  Edwud  IH 
died.'and  Richard  II  waa  crowned;  and  tbe  new  Par- 
liament was  slow  to  lurrcnder  WycliSe  for  a  trial  at 
Rome,  or  even  to'  suffer  hia  imptiaoamenl  at  bcBc. 
!ver,  in  February  of  Ibe  fullowing  yea  (I17B),  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop  of  London,  tt 
whom  one  or  more  of  the  bulls  had  been  addiesed.  or- 
dered a  second  trial,  which  waa  aceonlin^y  held  ta 
Lambeth  Palace  in  April.    WyclUIc  re^ewled  t?  a 


WYCLIFFE 


■1  paper;  but  Ihc  proceedings  ircn  igiin  abruptly, 
iolendy,  ended  by  ihe  inleirerence  of  the 
populace  in  mue  and  tbe  omnbanil  of  the  king'i  moth- 
er; the  prelatical  judges  retired  io  ooafuaioa  wkb  a 
paalUniniaui  inJuDCtion  of  aleaee  upon  Wycliffe,  (i> 
which,  of  counw,  he  paid  DO  respect.  Tbe  proaecutiuii 
•bonly  expired  wiita  t);e  deatbof  Ur^nry,  and  a  scbiam 
oocurred  by  tbe  eleolion  of  two  popes  u  bis  rival  suo- 
c«8aon.  This  gave  WycliA  fresh  opportunity  of  ex- 
poaing  tbe  oomiption  or  the  papacy,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  a  season  of  quiet  for  tbe  prosscutioo  of  hi*  cher- 
isbed  design  of  translating  the  Sciiptura,  aonewhat 
like  (hat  of  Lutbet  at  tbe  caslle  in  tbe  heart  oT  the 
Thuringian  ForesL 

We  rapidly  pass  over  tbe  reodoe  of  Wyclifle's  life. 
Early  in  1879  he  had  a  severe  St  of  sieknees,  durinjc 
which  he  was  visil«d  by  the  papal  emissaries,  who 
urged  him  to  recant ;  bat  he  soon  recovered  to  deuounce 
them  mora  Tigorously  than  ever.  In  138!  a  court  con- 
etituled  by  the  pope,  with  ibe  aid  of  the  new  archbish- 
op of  Caiiterbary,  controverted  certain  propositions  of 
WyclilTe,  who  bad  begun  Io  question  the  doctrine  of 
tmnsubsCauiiatinn;  and  as  hi*  patron,  the  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, withheld  bis  sapport,  now  that  the  Rerormer 
ventured  upon  doctrinal  ground,  Wyclifle's  poeitinn  was 
eventually  condemned,  and  the  king  was  induced  Io  re- 
move bim  from  the  universitr.  tt  i*  probable  that  tbe 
odium  of  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  in  1381  fell  upon 
WydilFe,  as  it  was  supposed  by  his  enemies  to  have 
been  fomented  by  tbe  "poor  priest*,"  whom  lie  sent  out 
■B  ilinersnts  Io  propagate  hi*  own  riews.  The  Wj-c- 
liffiies,  as  his  numerous  foUoweis  were  calleil,  were  sub- 
jected to  much  persecution ;  but  Wydiffe  himself  cod- 
tinuetl,  unmolested,  lo  preach  st  Lutterworth.  On  Dec. 
S9,  I3M,  he  was  seised  with  a  second  St  of  paralysu^ 
while  (as  same  ssy)  in  the  act  of  celebraling  tbe  Lord's 
supper,  and  died  on  the  last  day  of  ibst  year.  The 
Council  of  Constance  (Hay  B,  1413)  condemned  his  doc- 
trines, and  in  U2S  his  remains  were  dug  np  and  burned ; 
the  Bsfaes  were  cuit  into  the  a<1Jnining  Swift,  wbich,  as 
Fuller  proasically,  and  Wordsworth  poetically,  remark, 
cnnttyeii  them  through  the  Avi         ■  -■     " 


the  I 


nsled  tl 


world. 


His  doctrines,  carried  into  Bohemia  by  the  members  of 
<)uccn  Anne's  retinue,  originated  the  Hussite  movement, 
"The  celibacy  of  tbe  clergy  being  tbes  a  universal  cu»- 
(oiD,  Wycliffe  died  unmarried;  bis  dock  was  hia  family, 
and  the  English  Bible  his  heirkiom  to  posterilv. 

in.  ITriru^.—WycliO'e'alilenry  production's srererv 
Dumenw*  (Shiriey  [/.wt  of  the  Ongtnal  Workt  nfJoin 
WgcUJt  {.Oif.  1866)]  enomenta  more  than  two  hun- 
dred, chiefly  Irscts,  many  of  them  still  unpublished); 
some  of  them  are  in  Latin,  others  in  English,  and  nearly 
all  are  on  the  religious  questions  of  the  day.  Many  of 
them  still  remain  in  MS.  The  must  important,  by  far, 
is  his  Nac  Tntamtnl,  which  appears  to  hare  been  put>- 
liahed  about  1078,  and  again  in  1380;  the  flnt  printed 
edition  ws*  bv  John  Lewis  (Lond.  liSI,  foL),  the  next 
by  Henry  H.  Bsber  (ibid.  1810, 4to),  and  the  latest  si  the 
Oarendon  Press  (Oxf.  1879, 12nin) ;  it  is  also  contained 
in  Bagstet'* /f«ra/)bi  (itnd.  1811. 4to),  and,  in  part,  in  Bos- 
worth's  Atigio-aaxoii  GotptU  (ibid.  18G8,  8vo).  It  was 
likewise  printed  fmrn  a  contidenbly  dilTerant  HS.  by 
Pickering  (ibid.  1848,  i\D\  Wydiffe  also  Iranslsled, 
eitlicr  in  person  or  by  asMstanl*,  the  entire  Old  Teeta- 
nem,  including  the  Apocrypha,  which  seems  (o  have 
been  completed  shortly  before  his  death.  His  whole  Bi- 
ble has  been  accurately  printed  from  a  collection  of  170 
H3S.,  with  valuable  di■se^ation^  He.  by  Fnishall  and 
Madden  (Oxf.  1850,4  vols. 4to).  Wydiffe  translated  di- 
rectly from  the  Latin  Tidgale,  not  deeming  himself  com- 
petent to  use  the  Hebrew  and  (ireek  arl|;inal*as  a  basJA 
Hia  version  is  quite  literal  ami  plain,  but  stiff  and  Latin- 
iiedt  yet  less  so  than  manyofWydiffe'e  other  writings. 
Ithas,ofcoDne, little  critical  value;  but  in  mSuence,at 
the  time,  wss  immense,  and  ha*  since  been  incalculable. 
It  can  hardly  be  cooaidaicd  the  fuundalii 


43  WYNNE 

ent  English  Bible,  bat  rather  its  preennor;  and,  n« 

lU,  Tytidale  largely  u?c<l  it  in  his  translation  from 
ofigind  tongues.  WydilTe's  Bible  waa  revised 
abont  laSBby  John  Purvey,  who  bad  been  hiscnraie; 
aod  it  i*  Purvey'*  edition,  rather  than  WydifTe's  own, 
that  has  generally  passed  as  WydifTe's  Bible  (so  in 
Lewis's,  Ilaber's,  the  Clareadon,  and  Bagater's  leit). 
Both  are  printed  in  parallel  columns  by  Forahall  and 
Madden.     See  Aih'iiorized  Versioi'. 

See  Lechlet's  ed.  of  Wvdiffe't  THahtr^  (Oaf.  18C9); 
also  id.  £ie  Officio  Patlorali  (  Leips.  18n3},  and  Wve- 
lifTv's  Wkhtt  (Oxf.  16l:i) ;  Arnold,  Sthct  ^ugliik  WaHtt 
n/Wyctift  (Lond.  1869-71,8  voU);  Vaughan,  TVnO* 
ami  Trratiia  of  JohH  Wgclijft  (ibid.  1864);  Lira  of 
WydiS'',  by  Lewis  (  Oif.  1880  ),  Tvller  (  Edinh.  1826  ), 
Humy  (Lond.  1829),  Vaughan  (ibid.  1838,  18BI,  1863), 
Le  Bai  (itud.  1882),  Lechlei  (Leips.  1078;  tiansL  by 
Lorimer,  Land.  1BT8). 

WyUe,  Aildr«w,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
dergymen  and  prorewiar,  was  bom  at  Washington  in 
178D.  He  was  edncated  in  the  Presbyterian  Chorch, 
and  passed  A.B.  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonibnrgh,  Pa., 
in  1810.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Ohio 
in  1812,  snd  soon  after  installed  pastor  of  Miller's  Run 
Church.  He  wss  subsequently  chosen  president  ofjer- 
on  and  Washington  colleges,  and  extended  bis  ser- 
n  as  a  preacher  to  Tea  Mile  and  West  Liberty,  till 
removal  (o  Pigeon  Creek,  where  his  memory  is  still 
risked.  In  18^  be  was  elected  president  of  Indiana 
Ctillege,  and  removed  lo  filoomington,  where  he  joined 
tbe  Episcopal  Church.  Twice  he  represented  the  dio- 
cese in  Genenl  Convention,  and  was  president  of  the 
Standing  Committee  in  1861.  He  died  Nov.  11, 1861. 
Dr.  Wvlie  waa  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  teadiers  in 
the  West,  He  published  an  Etiglith  Giunnor  (I8!i) : 
-^A  t'ulogs  OH  l^afOle  (1834):— a  pamphlet  entitled 
atttariunitm  it  HrrMy,  etc  (1840)  -.—TU  IwHtvivnl!  a 
Bacajlmnale  (1861):— A'rnmmJ  and  ^ddrrMFj.-— a 
work  on  rhetoric: — and  an  ildi^  to  Yuang  Mn  (left 
ready  far  publication).  SeeSprogue.^maiiri/'rAe.lmfr. 
Pvtpil,  V,  779;  ^airr.  Qmar.  fkank  Ret.  18*a,  p.  640. 

^77lla,  Samuel  'Btawa,  D.D.,  LUD,,  a  Re- 
formeil  Pretbyterian  divine  and  author,  was  boni  at 
Movlarg,  near  Baltymena,  County  of  .\ntrim,  Ireland, 
May  21, 1778.  He  graduated  at  tbe  Univeraity  ofGhw 
giiw  in  1797 ;  emigrated  to  Philaddphis  the  same  year; 
taught  a  school  at  Chdienham,  Pa.,  until  the  fall  of 
1798,  when  he  was  appointed  a  tutor  in  the  Univetsity 
of  Pennsylvania;  was  licensed  to  preach  June  26, 1T99; 
ordained  June  36,  1800;  waa  pantor  of  the  Fint  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  from  1801 
lo  1862 1  professor  in  the  Theological  Semiiiarv  of  [he 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  fmm  IS09  to  1861 :  pni- 
feseor  of  ancient  languages  in  the  Univenity  of  Penn- 
sylvania from  1828  lo  1S4S,  and  emeritus  profeaiDi  from 
184&  lo  1862;  vice-provost  of  the  Univeniiy  of  Pennsvl- 
vania  from  1888  to  1846;  and  died  in  Philailelphia,  UcL 
13.  1862.  Hr.Wylie  was  the  author  of,  Tkt  Failhfal 
Witofti  for  MoffiMtraof  and  Mvtutry  upon  a  Srryttnml 
Bvtit  (1'hila.  1801 ;  Paisley,  Scotlinil,  1806 ;  other  eds.) : 
—Corfnanlinff  (Uieensburgh,  Pa.,  1803)  -.—FirH  AiBmal 
AAbta  brfort  Ike  Rfltgiout  llitlorieat  Soeitls  (Phila. 
1818,  8vo):— Crtfi  Granmar  (1838,  Svo):— tift  of 
Ike  Rn.AkxoKder  Ucltod,  D.D.  (N.  Y.  18i6,'8vo), 
posthumous.  He  waa  co-editor  of  the  Prabglerim 
Mapaiim  (1821-22, 2  voU  8vo),  and  also  confiibuted  (o 
periodicsls.  "Few  men  have  ranked  higliet  tlun  Dr. 
Wylie  in  classical  literature  and  theological  atuin- 
menla,  as  i  successful  teacher,  a  good  paalor,  or  a  prao> 
licsl  Christian"  (Blake,  Biog.  Did.  s.  v.).  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  BnL  and  Amtr.  A  ulhor;  e.  v. ;  Sprague,  A  malt 
oftkeAmtT.PutpH.iTi.H:  UcMoster, /}umuw  on  «u 
l-ife  and  Cluiracler  (Phila.  1862,  8vo);  McLeod,  Du. 
vartf,  etc  (N.Y.  18G2,  Svo);  Wilson,  PrtA.  Bin.  A^ 
mtnac,  I860,  p.  177.     (J.  L.S.) 

Wynne,  John,  D.D.,  an  Englbh  dergyiDia,  was 


WYNNE 


K  fcUoir  of  Jooa  Collt^  Oifont  He  becime 
Mvgant  professor  or  tlivinic}'  at  OxfonI  in  ITU61  preb- 
entUryorWorccMerin  ITDG;  principal  ufJeuu  College, 
Oxford,  in  1712;  bishop  of  St.  Auph  in  1716,  and  of 
Bub  and  Wdla  in  1737;  and  died  in  1743.  SeeAIli- 
bonc.  Did.  of  Brit,  and  A  ncr.  A  alhon.  t.  \. 

W;iiiia,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  Engliah  cler)[?niui, 
became  prebendaiT  of  Su  Auph  in  1691  (or  169^  and 
ifterwarda  cbancellor  of  St.  Asapb.  See  AUibone,  Dial. 
HfBril.  ami  A  nrr.  A  ullior;  a.  v. 

Wytembogard.    See  UiTKHBOOAtiRT. 

^Tyttanbaob,  Thohas,  chmnolngicall;  Ibe  flnt 

1472  of  an  ancient  family  at  BieL  He  is  known  to  have 
beena  student  at  Tubingen,  where  Gabriel  Biel  and  the 

Abuat  I5Dd  he  habilitated  himtelf  at  Basle  aa  anvim 
iib.  maffitter  and  ranctce  tfuoiogia  bacciiL  bibticoL  He 
expounded  the  Kiitenoea  of  Peiei  Lamt«rd  and  aeveral 
booka  of  Scripture,  and  taught  the  dogmas  of  Rome  in 
Jiaputationa,  aa  is  stleUed  by  hii  pupils  Leo  Judab  and 
Ulric  Zwin((ll  In  1507  he  was  appointed  to  the  town 
EhuTcb  of  Biel,  and  confirmed  in  that  charge  by  the 
biahop  of  Laiuanne  on  Aug.  36.  Id  the  coune  of  hii 
early  miiiiitry  he  was  empliiyed  by  the  town  authori- 
liea  10  conduct  negotiations  with  Rome  reapecliog  the 
permiuinn  to  use  a  milk  diet  in  Lent  and  the  obtaining 
of  indulgences  fur  the  citizens  of  BieL  He  wai  alan 
zealoua  in  defending  the  independence  of  the  town  priest 
againat  the  abbot  of  the  neighboring  convent  of  St. 
John,  and  the  rigbu  of  the  town  church  against  the 
civil  autboritiea.  In  1616  he  sojourned  at  Basle,  and 
obtained  the  degree  of  theological  doctor,  besides  being 
made  canon  and  cuKos  of  St.  Vincent's,  while  retaining 
his  ptevioue  ofGce  at  Biel;  but  five  rears  later  he  had 
reugned  all  bis  dignities  at  Basle  and  resumed  his  place 
at  Biel  illi^ther.  He  persistently  preached  against 
indulgencea  and  the  maas,  kept «  watchful  ef  a  upon  the 


u  XAVIEU 

abbot  nf  St.  John  and  tha  town  MUDcil,  and  veannl 
to  attack  the  celibacy  of  priests  In  1524  he  maniiri, 
and  nas  accordingly  dismissed  frDm  his  charge.  He 
thereupon  preached  in  the  open  air  and  other  aTailalit 
places,  visited  his  assailants  and  diacuised  the  qDettuit 
■t  issue  with  Ibem,  and  by  different  metbods  gaiacd 
roany  friends  to  hia  side.  His  life  had  ben  ■  conaaat 
struggle  with  pcnerty  from  the  beginning,  and  was  nuw 
more  than  ever  wretched  fmm  thia  cause.  But  apreab 
to  the  council  for  support,  in  recogniliun  of  tbc  strricn 
of  eighteen  yean  which  he  had  given  to  ibe  lowo.  |a»- 
duccd  no  effect;  and  when,  in  1625,  Ibe  temper  of  Ibt 

by  the  citizens  asking  that  Wyitenbach  be  allawtd  lu 
preach,  and  that  a  suitable  support  be  asaured  hii»,  iW 
council  first  evaded  the  demand  and  then  invoked  Lbt 
intervention  of  the  bishop  uf  Lauanne.  An  eptsopal 
admonition  was  accordingly  addressed  to  Biel,  Kov.  11. 
Ibib.  A  protracted  agilation  followed,  the  readi  of 
which  was  that  Wyttenbach  was  thrown  aside  by  afi 
parties,  and  refused  employment  of  any  kind  by  his 
native  town.  A  pension  amounting  to  tweire  Soriss 
annually  was  after  a  time  granted  bim  as  re 


h  Ibe  al 


of  St.  John;  but  he  did  not  lire  to  enjoy  c 
beggarly  provision.  He  died  in  16!G.  Two  yean  it- 
tcrwanl's  the  reforraatian  of  Biel  was  an  accompliiiied 
fact 

Ko  literary  remains  of  sufficient  extent  (o  ■llbcd  a 
proof  of  Wytlenbwh's  schoUriy  abilities  are  in  cii«> 
ence.  A  few  LtVm,  mostly  contained  in  the  arcbirn 
of  Uiel,  are  extant,  which  show  him  to  have  been  a  mm 
of  convictions  and  a  courageous  defender  of  truth  and 
right.  See  Scheurer,  ilumolam  (largelv  incttrect), 
pi.  i;  Kuhn,  Rrformalmrn  Benut  Bliiech,  Gnek.  i. 
Sladt  Bid,  etc,  and  pariicolarly  the  aecfioD  Mont* 
nominoniat  Collrffii  StL  Vint*tUii  Bemrnii*  (ma  A.D. 
1488  to  the  Reformatinii ;  HaUer  to  Zwingli  in  163.  ia 
ZwingU's  Ojip.  i,294.— Uertog,  Aeo^fiKj^Jap.  a.  t. 


Zavler,  FiLtNciB,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  mem- 
bers of  the  Order  of  the  -lesuils,  was  bom  of  noble  par- 
entage at  the  Castle  of  Xavier,  in  Kavane,  April  7, 
1506.  He  was  the  youngest  child  of  a  large  family, 
and  fondly  loved  by  his  doting  parents.  Early  devel- 
oping remarkable  talents,  and  devoted  to  literal^'  pur- 
suits, he  was  sent,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  to  ibe  College 
of  St.  Barbara  in  Paris.  The  Rnilened  circumstances 
of  his  parenta  threatened  to  cut  short  his.  course  of 
study ;  but  the  aDtelion  of  his  eldest  sister,  and  her  al- 
most prophetic  insight  into  his  wonderful  future  career, 
prompted  to  the  practice  of  the  strictest  economy  iu 
home  expenditures  that  this  gifted  brother  might  have 
the  means  to  complete  his  collegiste  education.  It  was 
not  long  before,  as  a  public  teacher  of  philosophy,  be 
was  able  to  procure  the  mesne  for  his  own  support 
and  begin  to  make  that  impression  in  the  world  for 
which  be  afterwards  becann  so  renowned.  It  was  it 
this  lime  that  he  became  acquainted  with  Ignatius 
Loyola,  who  threw  around  the  brilHanI  young  man  the 
faBcinslion  which  he  was  unable  to  resist,  and  in  due 
time  he  was  enrolled  as  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Jes- 
uits. He  followed  his  leader  with  an  unquestioning 
obedience  to  Rome,  and  united  with  bim  in  his  effort 
to  raise  a  band  of  devoted  missionaries,  who  should  go 
forth  in  all  directions  to  extend  the  triumphs  of  the 
Church  and  bring  tha  nationa  tuider  the  sway  of  the 
Christian  faith. 

AlUr  the  diseoreiiea  of  Tasco  de  Qama,  the  Portu- 
gupte  bod  sent  out  colonies  to  India.  By  them  the 
city  of  Oca  waa  founded.  Acting  in  accordance  with 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  John  III,  king  of  ronuenl,  re- 
solved to  set  up  the  Christian  Church  in  bis  Eastern 


lerritimes,  and  by  Ibe  anggeMlon  of  I^yola  and  of  Ms 
own  envoy  at  Rome,  Guvea,  he  selected  Xavier  to  naa- 
mence  the  enterprise.  "A  happier  selection  oxtld  a* 
have  been  made,  nor  was  a  BommonstoloiLlo  sulfFTiiv. 
and  to  death  ever  so  Joyously  rtceired.'  He  embark- 
ed in  a  ship  which  bore  a  regiment  of  a  thousand  mm, 
sent  out  to  reinforce  the  garrison  of  Uoa.  A  kmp.  dij- 
mal,  wckly,  and  in  many  instances  deadly,  mrage  was 
the  fearful  experience  through  which  ihey  were  des- 
tined to  pass.  Xavier,  allhoiigh  himself  weakened  by 
constant  se■-slcknes^  was  an  angel  of  mercy  and  kind- 
ness to  his  fellow-voyagera,  and  "  lived  among  the  dy> 

solstion  and  peace."  Fire  months  were  passed  in  this 
dreary  voyage  when  the  ship  reached  ilixamUque. 
Hera  Xavior  was  brought  to  the  borders  of  ihe  grave 
by  a  ragiog  fever,  and  so  stow  was  Ihe  retutn  of  hb 
strength  that  it  was  months  before  he  set  foM  iu  the 
city  of  tioa.  A  dismal  moral  scene  met  hb  ere,  bimI  a 
leas  heroic  spirit  would  hare  been  appalled  in  view  uf 
the  mighty  task  be  had  undeilaken  lo  peifonu.  Brit 
with  apostolic  leal  he  commenced  and  proeemled  his 
work.  Wearing  the  coarsest  garments,  and  pale  and 
haggard  with  his  long  nckness,  he  traversed  ihe  gar 
streets  of  Ooa,  swinging  a  large  bell  in  his  hand,  and 
calling  everywhere  upon  the  parents  whom  he  met  te 
place  Iheir  children  under  his  S|'iritual  care.  Gather- 
ing these  liille  ones  under  his  tuition,  he  tsughi  Ihea 
the  rudiments  of  religion,  and  sent  them  in  their  hnmea 
lo  carry  to  their  parents  tha  lessons  which  they  had 
been  taught  by  tha  misrionir^'  of  the  Croah  The 
wrelched  and  Ihe  diaeaacd  were  not  forgotten  by  hiio. 
He  frequented  tbe  most  loachaomt  bo^lals,  and  bad 


XIMENES  10 

wufds  of  nmpathy  and  kindnH*  Tor  ihe  suflWring  anea 
whom  lie  found  tbeie.  More  than  ■  year  did  be  re- 
main in  Goi;  and  nhen  bi*  work  tbere  vra>  done,  tbe 
city  wai  uoc  wbat  it  wai  «rb«n  fine  be  took  up  hii 
abode  within  ita  valla. 

On  the  eoau  at  Malabar  Cbere  wm  then,  as  there  is 
DOW,  a  peail-6aber7.  Thoae  engaged  in  this  daageniui 
buBnea  roimed  a  law  and  degreded  caste,  which  seem- 
ed to  be  fonaken  af  Uod  and  man.  Thither  Xavier 
ilir«ct*d  bia  steps.  Ouce  nwre  were  heard  tbe  tones  o( 
hU  ringing  bell  calling  the  rude,  neglected  children  lo 
his  side  and  giving  Ihem  auch  leligioiu  imtmction  ai 
be  had  to  impart.  He  piepand  for  them  a  calechistn, 
frooi  which  thaj  could  learn  tbe  elements  of  Cbrislian 
doctrine.  He  remained  imong  theae  d^iaded  peari- 
flahen  for  fifteen  moncbs,sharinginall  the  hardships  of 
their  abject  lol,  and  living  among  tbem  in  the  humblest 
and  most  self-sacrificing  way,  if  by  any  means  he 
might  win  them  (o  tbe  acceptance  of  the  (lilh  which 
he  taughL  Ua  found  inexpreflsible  Joy  in  hii  miasion- 
ary  work.  "I  have  nothing  to  add,"  thtis  he  wrote  (o 
Loyola,  "but  that  they  who  came  forth  lo  labor  for  [he 
salvation  of  idolaters  TSCaive  from  on  high  anch  consc^ 
lations  that,  if  there  be  on  earth  such  a  thing  as  hap- 

Hia  miiaion  on  tbe  coast  of  Halahar  accomplished, 
Xavier  moved  on  to  make  other  conquests  for  the 
Church.  The  kingdom  of  Travancore  was  next  enler- 
ed.  and  the  moat  marrelloua  sucoeaa  followed  his  Ubors. 
He  tells  us  that  in  one  month  he  bajHised  ten  ihouaand 
Da^TFs.  With  a  leal  and  energy  not  Burpaued  by  any 
missianBiy  of  the  Crcea,  he  explored  (he  islands  of 
Mora,  Hanez,  Ceylon,  tbe  Moluccas,  and  every  part 


the  Indiea  which  bad  been  n 


■orld 


by  Eumpeaa  travellen.  "  Weak  and  frail  be  may  have 
been,  bat  from  the  days  of  Paul  of  Tarsus  to  our  own 
the  annals  of  mankind  exhibit  no  other  example  of  ■ 
■onl  borne  on  so  triumphantly  through  distress  and  dan- 
ger in  all  their  most  appalluig  aspects."  In  IM9  he 
landed  on  the  ahona  of  Japan,  and  was  soon  able  lo 
preach  to  the  natives  of  that  great  island  the  Gospel 
aa  he  believed  it.  Tbe  story  of  tbe  labors  of  Xavier 
and  hia  aaaonataa  among  the  Japanese  is  one  of  the 
UMSt  nurrellous  in  the  annals  of  missiiHiaTy  advent- 
mrea.  The  details  of  this  story  are  too  long  to  be  re- 
cited in  a  sketch  like  this,  and  tbe  reader  must  look 
elsewhere  to  find  them.  With  hU  ambidon  aa  a  mis- 
aiooary  aliU  ungratified,  and  resolved  to  find  a  still 
larger  field  within  which  to  operate,  he  turned  his  eye 
towards  the  great  empire  of  Chins,  and  resolved  to 

Overcoming  obatacles  which  would  have  teniHed  any 
other  man,  be  embarked  in  the  "Holy  Cross,"  and  at 
length  reached  Sancian,  an  island  near  the  month  of 
Ihe  Canton  River,  where  the  Portuguese  had  a  com- 
mercial factory.  Here  he  was  prostrated  by  a  disease 
which  proved  fataL  His  iron  frame  waa  worn  out  by 
his  ten  yean  and  a  half  of  incesaant  work,  and  he  was 
compelled  lo  bow  before  a  Power  whose  mandate  he 
could  not  withstand.  He  died  Dec  2,  1552.  His  laat 
words  were,  "  In  le,  Domine,  speravi ;  non  confundar 
in  Memum"  ("In  thee,  O  Lord,  have  1  put  my  trust; 
let  me  never  be  confounded'^.  His  body  was  removed 
to  Goa,  where  it  was  deposited  in  the  Church  of  St. 
PauL  In  1619  he  was  beatified,  and  in  1622  was  can- 
oniied  as  a  saint.  The  "festive  day"  of  Xavier  in  tbe 
calendar  of  the  Romish  Church  is  Dec.  8.  See  Ste- 
phens, MitaUame*,  s.  v,  "  Ignstius  Loyola  and  his  Aa- 
KCtatcs;"  Tlie  Life  and  LeUtn  o/Sl.  Francii  Xaciir 
(Load,  lart,  a  voU);  CkriUiaa  liaiiric,  June,  1812. 
(J.GS.) 

Xlmstiaa,  FHAiicistn  dk  Cismkhob,  cardinal-aich- 
oiabop,  grand-inquisitor  ol  Castile,  and  n(;enl  of  Spain, 
was  descended  from  a  family  belonging  to  Ihe  inferior 
taitMltty  at  Castile,  and  originslly  midenc  in  the  town 
from  which  its  appellative  waa  derived.  He  was  bom 
In  1486,  and  named  GoMoItt,  tbe  name  Francisco  bo- 


15  XIMENES 

ing  a  later  monastic  aubstitule.  Early  destined  tot  the 
Church,  he  studied  ancient  languages  at  Alcala,  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  entered  the  University  of  Salamanca, 
and  six  years  later  became  bachelor  of  both  dvU  and 
canon  law.  He  was  driven  by  poverty  to  engage  in 
the  practice  of  law  at  Rome.  On  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, however,  he  returned  home,  having  in  the  mean- 
time obtained  a  papal  brief  assuring  to  him  the  first 
benefice  which  might  become  vacant  in  the  archdiocese 
of  Toledo;  but  the  archbishop  took  offence  at  the  in- 
terference of  tbe  pope  in  the  alliurs  of  his  see.  and  bad, 
besides,  another  candidate  for  the  benefice.  He  accord- 
ingly imprisoned  Ximeae*  to  compel  a  renundadon  of 
bis  claim,  and  did  not  liberate  him  until  after  six  years. 
In  1480  a  chaplaincy  was  obtained  which  removed  him 
from  under  ibe  Juiisdiccion  of  the  orchbiabop  and  af- 
forded him  opportunity  for  the  study  of  theology  and 
also  of  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  languages)  and  soon 
afterwards  he  became  vicar  to  Mendoia,  bishop  of  Si- 
guenia,  and  admiuiitrator  of  the  estates  of  CouK  Ci- 
Buentes,who  was  ■  captive  nmoDg  the  Uoore.  Uir  fort- 
imes  seemed  to  be  assured  for  life  when  he  suddenly 
renounced  all  his  emoluments  and  entered  bimsslf  in 
the  order  of  Franciscan  Obser\-sn[s  at  Toledo  as  a  nov- 
ice, and  de^'oted  himself  to  ascetical  practices  exccl- 
Ung  in  rigor  the  harsh  requirements  of  the  moDastic 
rule.  Ere  long  he  had  won  extraordinary  bme  as  a 
preacher  and  confeaaor,  and  multitudes  thronged  to  his 
confessional;  but  he  turned  away  from  these  brilliant 
prospects  also,  and  buried  himself  in  the  hermitage  of 
tbe  Madonna  of  Casiannar  in  a  hut  erected  with  his 
own  hands.  Tbree  years  afterwards  he  waa  ordered  by 
his  superiors  to  the  monastery  of  Salzeda,  where  he 
aoon  became  guardian,  and  stimulated  the  monks  by 
his  example  to  strict  performance  of  their  vows. 

In  U92  he  was  made  confessor  to  the  queen,  Isabell^ 
but  with  the  proviso,  insisted  on  by  himself,  that  he 
should  be  allowed  to  fulfil  his  monastic  obligations  and 
reside  in  his  convent.  Two  years  later  he  waa  chosen 
lo  be  provincial  of  his  order  for  Castile,  and  after  a  vis- 
itation of  the  convents  made  on  foot,  in  which  be  noted 
tbe  lax  discipline  everywhere  prevailing,  he  induced 
the  queen  to  procure  a  brief  ftom  pope  Alexander  VI 
directing  a  reformation.  In  1495  the  archbishop  of 
Toledo  died,  and  Ximenes  waa  promoted  to  his  post,  an 
appointment  from  which  he  vainly  sought  lo  escape  by 
flight,  and  which  had  no  effect  whatever  over  bis  ascet- 
ical habits  after  it  was  accepted.  He  was  ultimately 
ordered  from  Rome,  nnder  date  of  Dec  15, 1495,  lo  live 
in  a  style  comporting  with  his  rank ;  but,  though  he 
obeyed  in  outward  appearance,  he  persisted  in  wear- 
ing the  coarse  gown  and  cord  of  St.  Francis  and  in 
sleeping  on  a  bench  by  the  side  of  his  Inxurions  bed. 
In  the  influential  position  he  now  held,  ha  was  able  to 
prosecute  the  reformation  among  the  monks  and  secu- 
lar clergy  more  enei^lically,  and  to  compel  its  success 
despite  the  violent  opposition  raised  against  it.  He 
caused  Albomoa,  a  delegate  to  Rome  who  was  to  aocnsa 
him  to  the  pope,  to  be  arrested  by  the  Spanish  ambas- 
sador at  Oslii  and  returned  as  a  prisoner  of  state.  Sev- 
eral thousand  Franciscans  are  said  to  have  sought  ro- 
lief  frmn  his  rigorous  rule  in  other  lands.  Tbe  general 
of  the  order  visited  Castile  and  complained  Intterly, 
but  to  no  purpose,  against  Ximenea.  After  his  return 
lo  Rome,  he  caused  Ihe  appointment  of  a  number  of 
coadjutors  lo  share  with  Ximenes  in  Ibe  work  of  I*- 
form;  hut  the  latter  paid  no  attention  to  this  commis- 
sion, and  was  even  able,  through  the  influence  of  the 
queen,  lo  evade  a  papal  bull,  ilated  Nov.  9, 1496,  which 
prohibited  their  Catholic  majeaties  from  proceeding 
with  the  reform  until  its  operation  had  been  investi- 
gated by  the  curia. 

A  like  spirit  of  unfaltering  stemnns  was  exhibited 


by  Xim, 

Moors.     Talavera,  archbishop  of  Granada,  waa  diatin- 

guished  for  liberality  of  view  and  for  sealous  interest 

the  peaceful  convetsioQ  of  the  Hoors;  but  Ximene^ 


XIMENES  10 

■etingu  (lie  leiderof  [be  fuiatkil  part;,  inuMcd  upon 
mon  energetic  meuurea.  He  itlemptHl,  indeed,  tt 
Unt  In  convince  the  Moorijh  acbolan  by  my  of  Kfgu- 
ment  and  aleo  by  donations,  and  ao  tuccea^uUy  that  fae 
vu  Me  to  baptize  Ibree  tbousand  Saraceni  on  a  aingle 
occasion;  but  irhen  be  encountered  oppoaition,  hia  rio- 
lent  Bpirit  aieerted  itaelf.  He  ditregaided  all  pledgee, 
burned  all  Arabic  book*  he  could  aeize,  though  he  aared 
three  hundred  medical  vorka  for  bii  University  of  Al- 
cala,  and  irritated  the  Uobsmmedan*  beyond  endur- 
ance and  undl  they  rebelled.  Talivera  and  othera  per- 
iuaded  tbem  lo  lay  down  their  arma;  but  the  revolt 
«a>  punished,  nevettbeleas,  by  a  revocation  of  all 
pledgee  prerioudy  given  them,  and  by  compeUing  them 
ti>  cbooae  between  coDvernon  or  banisbmetiL  About 
dfty  tbouaand  Hoalema  snbmitled  to  baptiim  on  these 
terma,  and  all  the  land  naa  aaloniabed  at  the  nUlity 
with  which  Ximenea  had  been  able  to  convert  a  hostile 
people  lo  Cbriatianily  in  ao  abort  a  time.  The  charac- 
ter or  the  eonveruons  will  appear  looet  clearly  iu  the 
light  of  the  fact  that  Ximenes  rabidly  opposed  the  poh- 
Gcatioa  of  even  fragmentary  portiona  of  the  Scriplurea 
or  of  expositions  of  the  mass  in  the  Moorish  language. 
He  iniialed  that  the  Scriptures  abould  be  preeervsd 
within  the  three  languagea  in  which,  by  the  order  of 
God,  the  inscriptiuna  at  the  head  of  Christ's  cross  were 
written,  urging  that  (be  common  people  deapiae  what 
they  underttand,  but  venerate  what  ia  hidden  rrom 
them  and  beyond  Ihrir  reach,  and  that  wicked  persons 
would  bring  the  Catholic  Cburch  tow  wbenever  the 
Bible  abould  be  spread  among  the  people  In  a  form  in- 
telligil>]e  to  them. 

In  other  respecta  the  work  of  Ximenea  waa  often 
beneficial  to  the  world,  e.  g.  when  be  protected  the  poor 
and  discharged  unworthy  officials,  and  when  he  remod.- 
elled  the  financial  a}ittm  of  Caatile,  wboee  grand-chan- 
oellor  he  was,  so  that  taxation  became  al  once  mure 

State.  He  waa  the  bitbful  apiritual  adriaer  of  the 
queen  while  ahe  lived,  and  after  her  death  secured  to 
Ferdinand  the  government  of  Castile,  a  favor  which 
waa  rewarded  by  the  bestowal  upon  him  of  a  cardinal's 
hat  and  of  the  poat  of  general-inquiiilur  (Ibm).  He 
had  sireadv  begun  the  erection  of  buildings  for  the 
Univeraity'of  Alcala  in  1498,  which  were  completed  ten 
ytara  Uler,  and  bad  given  to  it  a  faculty  of  fony-two 
pnifeSBors,  the  ablest  men  to  be  found,  and  set  apart  four- 
teen tbouaand  dncata  for  its  annual  support.  His  great- 
rat  literary  undertaking  waa  the  Comptateuiim  Po^slol, 
begnn  in  1903  by  the  accnmuUtion  of  available  manu- 
•cripla.  The  Old-Test,  portion  of  the  materials  upon 
which  that  work  was  baaed  have  reoently  been  trana- 
fened  to  the  Univenity  of  Madrid  (see  Treselles,  A  e- 
(omK  [ISM],  p.  12-18).  The  Po%fot  (in  8  volfc)  waa 
flnithed  in  1BI7.  See  PoltolOt  Bibles.  Ximenes 
waa  also  engaged  In  the  preparation  of  an  edition  of 
the  works  of  Aristotle,  which  was  interropted  by  his 
death,  and  he  labored  (or  the  preserralion  of  the  Moiar- 
Bbic  liturgy. 

Ximenes  was  not  poaaeaeed  of  uncommon  learning, 
and  his  inatincts  were  rather  those  of  a  soldier  than  a 
scholar.  He  wished  lo  renew  the  Craaadee,  and  aclu- 
■ily  did  bring  about  the  capture  of  the  piratical  harbor 
■f  Hozarquivit  and  of  the  town  of  Orao,  being  penon- 


10  YATES 

ally  present  at  the  atotming  of  the  latter  plvit.  B< 
bn  been  credited  with  baring  originatad  the  Inqoa- 
tion  in  Castile,  and  charged,  on  the  other  hand,  wiik 
having  opposed  its  rule.  Both  staiemcnu  are^  tarn- 
ever,  enoneoua.  He  came  to  the  court  twelve  ynai 
after  iha  Inqni^Iion  was  iutnduced,  and  he  pnuati 
Talama,  arcbbiabop  of  Granada,  agaiuat  tlw  charge 
of  hareay  by  appealing  the  case  from  the  Inquiiitioa  B 
the  pope.  As  grand- inquisitor  be  issued  instmrtkai 
to  enable  new  converts  to  protect  tbenadTca  agaaal 
the  suapicion  of  relapse,  and  even  pnvidrd  far  ikoi 
education  in  Christian  knowledge.  He  aha  wstrkuJ 
tiie  anthoriCy  of  subordinate  inquiailont  Oa  tke  elk- 
er  hand,  he  refused  to  allow  causes  bcfoiE  the  liiliMsl 
of  the  Inquiution  lo  be  tried  in  public,  and  in  RfMnl 
showed  himself  to  be  in  thorough  harmony  wiib  Ihc 
spirit  of  that  institation.  A  nwdenle  eadinate  txcs 
the  number  of  penona  burned  at  the  Hake  dnriag  lbs 
ten  yean  of  his  supreme  administration  at  dwve  »* 
thousand.  He  also  erected  a  new  cribtmal  nf  the  In- 
quisition and  transplanted  the  InquiaitioD  iladf  toOna, 
the  Canary  Isles,  and  America. 

He  waa  tinable  to  attend  tbeLateran  Synod  beMia- 
der  Leo  X,  but  counselled  the  pope  by  letter,  and  jn- 
mulgaied  the  dedsions  of  ibe  synod  before  ila  me»bwi 
had  dispersed.    He  alao  endoreed  Lev's  plan  fat  iniRvr- 


le  Juliai 


It  he  di 


e  diKipline  al  lk( 


er  band,  heaitnle 
as  involving  an  c 
Cburch  and  a  dangeraua  libeialiii 
ntnd  died  (IBIS),  Ximenes  was  made  r^ent  ofCssdk 
until  Charles  (V)  should  reach  his  majority,  a  posina 
which  he  fllled  during  twenty  months  with  ginl  aM- 
ity.  He  preserved  for  the  aown,  against  Um  opiHsi' 
lion  of  the  nobilily,  the  gTand-maatership  of  the  anbt 
of  San  lago  di  Compostella ;  iraiuferred  the  seal  tf 
government  10  Madrid;  had  Charles  proclaimed  kiag 
over  the  votes  of  the  aaaembled  council;  rtstiained  ihe 
nobles  by  orgaiiiiing  an  armed  militia  throughoail  ti 
Spain,  and  deprived  them  of  a  portion  of  the  property 
they  had  acquired  by  violence  or  fraud.  Wiih  tta 
money  he  paid  all  debta  incurred  by  Ferdinand  and  b- 
shells,  strengthened  ihe  army  and  navy,  erected  (no- 
ficationsand  established  arsenals,  and  supplied  the»tr- 
cenary  greed  of  Ihe  court  with  funds.    He  took  Da»- 

ippoinled  Las  Casas  to  be  prolecior  over  thr 
'  ilea.  The  introduction  of  African  tla> 
very  into  the  oaloniea,  which  was  proposed  bf  seat, 
was  posilively  fiirhidden  by  him.  On  the  icim  tl 
Charles  lo  Spain,  he  found  XIdwiks  dying.  The  tad 
came  Nov.  8, 1&17. 

The  principal  souMS  for  Ximenes'  life  is  Gooei,  A 
att.  Gnlit  a  Fr.  Xmtmo  Cfturro  .  .  .  Libri  OcSa,  ia 
Ktnm  Hitp.  Scriplont  AHtpiot  (^SmM.  1581).  voLia. 
Other  Spanish  works  on  Ximenes  are  given  in  Pro- 
cntt.  A  French  life  was  written  by  Flecbirr,  bidup  1 
Nismes.  See  also  Hefele,  lirr  ConHmil  Ximrmn,  (K. 
(1844);  PreBCOtl,/'rn«>K»Kiaw{/KtM(a.'  Saini-HiUfr. 
Hilt.  iEipogne  dtjmit  tii  Prtwiint  Ttmft  Huttriftrt 
juigu-h  U  MoH  it  Ftrdiaomi  VII  (new  ed.  IKK 
volt. } ;  Lavergne,  J>  CanNnal  Ximtmri,  in  Ar.  i» 
Daa  Honda,  mi,  a,2il  sq.;  Henog,  Jho<-£iiijiMif . 


T«t«B,  Aadr«w,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  min- 
{«ter,was  bom  at  ScheDeclady,M.T.,  Jan.  10,1772.  He 
graduated  with  honor  at  Yale  Coll^  in  1793;  studied 
theology  under  I>r.  John  H.  Iivingslon,and  was  licensed 
in  1796  by  the  Claaaia  of  New  York.  In  1797  he  was 
nude  professor  of  I^tin  and  Greek  in  Union  College, 
and  held  this  chair  until  ISOl,  when  he  became  pastor 
of  a  Congregational  Church  in  East  Haitford,  Conn. 


After  thirteen  years  of  cfBcient  terviee  (tnm  I8D1  ta 
1814),  he  again  accepted  a  professonhip  in  L'Diiin  CuOece 

(menial  and  moral  pbilnnophy),  which  he  held  elevta 
yean  (from  1814  to  1816),  and  for  eleven  yean  dot 
waa  the  principal  of  a  high-acbool  at  Oiiilenaap 
N.  Y.  (to  ISSS).     From  that  lime  uatU  bis  deMh  ht 


TATES  10 

Auiches.  During  bis  lire  u  >  tcicher,  he  ku  cou- 
■Untly  CDKigcd  in  pmcfainj;  wberev»r  he  wu  wauled. 
He  wBi  tliecbiefiiutram«Dt  JrifuundingARiiaAion  among 
the  Iiidiaiu  It  Hackinaw,  Kbout  1828.  He  orginiird  ■ 
Church  al  ChiUcningo,  and  was  its  pantor  while  be  bid 
ehai^  or  the  bigh4cbool.  Hii  death  wai  the  reault  of 
Ulnan  oontncUd  in  bii  minioiiary  labor).  Uli  la«l  el- 
tart  wu  Eha  saUblLahmeDt  of  a  Hissian  Chuich  among 
a  poor  peopla  at  Daj,  nr  Sacondaga,  Schenectady  Co., 
N.  T.,  of  which  hit  aiater,  an  aged  and  benevolent  lady, 
waa  the  chief  lupporter.  But  lea  daja  before  itA  dedi- 
cation, and  on  a  Sabbath,  Ocl.  IB,  1U4,  be  died  nilhoula 
Mruggle.  His  epitaph  ia  inscribed  aa  the  bell  of  tlie 
little  church,  which  is  only  one  of  th«  many  monumenu 
of  his  apostolic  spirit  and  toils.  At  East  Hartfon]  his 
pastorate  was  greatly  blemed  vtilh  revivals  and  constant 
ingatherings.  There  he  began,  and  at  Schenectady  con- 
tinued, to  teach  theology  lo  young  men,  ofwhnin  thirty 
entered  the  ministry  of  Christ.  Among  these  were  pres- 
ident WayUnd,of  Brown  Univeraity;  Dr.  Mark  Tucker, 
of  WelhersOeld ;  and  Dr.  E  E  Wianer,  of  BosUhi.  Dr. 
Tate*  waa  an  aeeurat«  scholar,  a  tbDinugh  theologian, 
an  effectiTe  eTangelical  preacher,  an  accomplished  col- 
ics proleaaor  and  officer,  a  man  of  great  public  spirit 
■nd  Chriatiao  eaterpriae.  He  waa  in  the  beat  sense  a 
Christian  gentleman,  and  ^a  good  minister  of  Je^us 
CbriM."  Hia  publications  consisted  ofa  few  occasional 
Strmoni  and  fugitive  pieces.  He  preferred  to  let  his 
Bcdva  works  apeak  for  him,  for  he  was  not  ambitious  of 
dialinctioa.  **I  allow  myself  to  do  nothing,"  said  he, 
"fotthepurpoaearbeingtuperiorlfl  my  neighbors.  Am- 
bition isa  bad  motive;  the  Bible  does  not  appeal  to  iL" 
■■The  dew  falls  silently,  nobody  bears  it,  but  the  fields 
feel  it.  The  attraction  of  gravitation  mikes  no  noise." 
80  he  lived  and  died,  a  happy  Christian,  and  ^  a  work- 
man that  needed  not  lo  be  asliamed."  Dr.Sprague  has 
given  an  unosual  space  to  hia  memory  in  bit  Anrtali  0/ 
du  Amtr.  Pulpit,]^,  liB-]38:  are  also  Corwin,  ifonktil 
oftktRt^.  Chwik,  p.  Vb.  276.     (W.  J.  R  T.) 

'S'atas,  Jolm  AnatJn,  D.D.,  a  (Duuh)  Keformed 

ford.  Conn.,  May  81, 1801.  He  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege in  1831,  and  atndied  theology  at  the  Seminary  or 
the  Beformed  Chnrch  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  for  two 
years,  when  he  accepted  a  tutorship  in  bis  alma  mater 
at  Schenectady,  N.T.  He  waa  licensed  to  preach  in 
18M ;  continued  aa  tutor  until  lS-2T,and  was  then  made 
pfofessor  of  Oriental  litcnture  in  the  same  institution. 
To  complete  bis  preparations  for  this  chair,  be  went  to 
Europe,  studied  at  the  Unireiaty  of  Berlin,  visited 
Italy  and  other  conntries,  and  returned  at  the  end  of 
two  yean  to  bi>  post  (in  1839}.  He  was  never  seUled 
UBpaslor,butsu;q>liedvarious  churches  in  Schenectady,  1 
Albany,  and  elsewhere  during  his  collegiate  life  of  twen- ! 
ty  years.  He  had,  however,  accepted  a  call  to  the  First 
Hefonned  Chnrch  bi  Jersey  City,  and  had  informally 
begun  his  labors  with  enthusiasm  and  great  popular- 
ity. He  died  very  soddenly  of  Asiatic  cholera,  Aug.  30, 
1849,  while  on  a  viut  to  Schenectady,  and  his  funeral 
•eimon  was  preached  in  his  church  in  Jersey  City  on 
the  evening  that  had  been  set  apart  for  his  inUalli'tlon. 
Dr.  Tat«9  was  a  highly  accomplished  man,  attractive  in 
manners,  of  genial  spirit,  and  pcaseaaed  of  that  magnetic 

He  was  a  man  of  genius,  literary  and  polished  to  a  high 
degree,  and  an  enchanting  public  speaker.  Hia  ser- 
mons, being  prepared  during  hia  prafenional  life,  were 
written  with  great  care,  and  often  were  the  fruits  of 
long  previous  study  and  repeated  revision.  His  delir- 
tfjr  was  animated  and  graceful,  with  a  subdued  eamest- 
DMa,  and  free  from  all  sisge  eSects  or  merely  populu 
aima.  He  was  as  simple  as  a  child,  and  singularly  free 
fmn  duplicity  or  suspicion.  He  passed  through  many 
trials^  to  some  of  which  his  natural  temperament  added 
new  pangs  and  complications.  Hit  tludents  and  friends 
loved  him  unto  death  with  the  most  ardent  aflection, 
while  thOK  who  oppoMd  him  in  aome  of  his  difficul- 


i.t  YOUNG 

ties  were  equally  decided  in  their  fwlinga.  His  tnd- 
den  death  found  him  at  peace  with  God  and  ready 
fur  his  change.  He  left  no  printed  remains.  (W.  J. 
RT.> 

T8tea,IUoliBrd,D.D.,an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's  in  1769.  He  was  chaplain 
uf  Chelsea  Hospital  from  1798,  and  rector  of  Ashen,  in  Es- 
sex, hum  1804  until  his  death,  Aug.  S4, 1834.  He  pub- 
lished, d  a  /UulTolian  of  At  Moaaitic  Hittory  amlAMig. 
vilvto/titToimiadAibrro/SLE<hniiMrt-Burg(l»tby. 
—  Tht  CAurcA  m  Dangtr,  etc.  (ISIB):  — and  other 
worits.    See  Allibone,  Dim.  of  Brit,  md  A  mtr.  A  vlkort, 

Tataa,  WIIHbih,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  misuonaiy,  was 
bom  at  LoDghboraugh,  Leicestershire,  England,  Dec. 
15, 1793.  He  was  educated  at  Bristol  College,  and  went 
to  Calcutta  as  a  missionary  iu  ISIS.  He  settled  at  Ser- 
ampore,  where,  after  the  death  of  Dr.  Carey,  he  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  tranalating,  and  to  pre|>iring  text- 
books. He  visited  KngUnd  and  the  United  Stales  in 
1837-29,  and  in  184&  embarked  fur  EngLind  on  account 
of  bis  health,  but  died  on  the  Red  Sea,  July  8  of  that 

hole  Bible  into  Bengalee; 

the  Old  into  Sanscrit,  and 
Hindee  and  Hindoslanee.     Among 


It  publics 


re/ 


tht  Samcrit  Language  cm  a  A'ev  Plan  (1820)  :—3aiuerU 
Voeabulaiy  (eal.):  — lalroduclion  lo  tit  HiadtuUaue 
Language  (ISZT);— Dictionary,  Hvtdiittatm  and  Englith 
(i8S<i):^BiUictUApparalut,in  four  parts  (1887):— 
Tieorg  (tf  the  Utbrae  l-Vrft.-  — and  Inlraduttion  to  tlu 
Bengalee  Uagaagt  (posthumous;  edited  bv  J.Wenger, 
1847),  A  MrwiiT  (1847)  of  him  has  been  written  by 
Dr.JamesHoby,  See  Allibone, /Kol.  a/£ri<.  and  ^  aier. 
A  Kdon,  &  V. 

Tsomana,  Johm  William,  D.D.,  a  Presbvlerian 
divine,  was  bom  at  Hinsdale,  Mass.,  Jan.  7, 1800.  He 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1834 ;  stodied  theology 
in  the  seminary  at  Andover,  and  wu  ordained  and  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  Church  at  North  Adama  in  Novem- 
ber, 1B38.  In  1SB2  he  became  pastor  of  the  FiiU  Con- 
gregational Church  of  Piltsfield;  in  1894  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  in  1841  accepted 
the  preiidency  oflafayette College,  Eaaton,  Fa.;  and  in 
1845  became  pastor  of  the  Mahoning  Church,  Danville, 
where  he  continued  to  labor  until  hia  death,  June  33, 
1868.  Dr.  Yeomana  wu  a  man  of  strong  and  original 
mind.  His  profound  thought  end  logical  power  were 
acknowleilged  by  all  who  knew  him  or  read  his  writingi. 
As  a  preacher,  he  was  instructive,  impresaive,  and  alien 
highly  eloquent.  Above  all,  he  was  a  man  of  faith  and 
prayer,  of  deep,  intelligent,  and  scriptural  piety.  He 
published,  an  Eireliim  Srrmon  (Boston,  1834,  8vo):— 
fitdicatiim  Smmm  (1840,  8vo):  — /nnu^rol  AdJrttt 
(1841,  Svo) :— and  waa  co-author  of  a  Hi4l.(tflkt  CoaMg 
of  Biritkire,  Matt.  (Pittaaeld,  1839, 13nio,  468  pp.;  in 
3  pis. ).  Bcaidet  these,  he  was  ■  frequent  contributor 
to  the  BibUcai  Repertory  and  other  religious  peri- 
odicals, and  had  for  several  yean  been  engaged  in  wriU 
ing  CommrMarif  on  the  Epistle  to  the  £>maiu  and 
the  Goapcl  of  John,  both  of  which  were  left  in  an  un- 
finished sUte.  See  Wilaon,  /Vest.  ttin.  A  ImoMC,  1864, 
p. 307;  Ambimt,Dicl.ofBril.aiidAmer.Aiilluri,i.v. 
(J.  L  S.) 

Tooiig,  AlaxMidar,  D.D..  a  Unitarian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Baston,8epu33, 1800.  In  1812  he  entered 
Boston  Latin  School,  and  in  1830  he  graduated  at 
Harvard  College.  In  1N31  he  entered  the  Divinity 
School  at  Cambridge,  where  he  pursuetl  the  regular 
course  of  study  for  three  yean,  He  was  licensed  in 
1834,  and  accepted  a  call  to  the  Sixth  Congregatiunal 
Churoh,  Boston,  in  1830.  In  1838  he  went  to  Europe. 
He  was  a  very  successful  preacher.  He  died  March  16, 
1846.  Hia  publications  were  numeroiu,  mostly  ser- 
mons. See  Sprtgua,  ^mtati  of  tht  Amer.  Pulpit,  viii, 
534. 


YOUNG  10 

Tonus,  Aittanr.  D.D.,  LI.D„  ui  Eogliib  divioe, 
chiplain  to  sptaker  OcibIow,  became  rector  of  Br»dfleU, 
and  in  1746  prebendary  of  Cauterbury.  He  died  in 
17&9.  He  poblisbed  a  'Hiitorical  DiitHatioa  on  IM- 
aitvut  Corruptimu  in  Religion,  etc  (17S1).  See  Alli- 
hon^  f>ict.<if  Brit.ajid  Amtr.  A«tkor$,^v. 

Toang,  Brlgham,  the  president  and  prophet  or 
the  Uonnons  (q.  v.),  or  Ltler-diy  3Binlg,wM  bom  in 
Whitiiigham,  Vl^  June  1, 1801.  He  was  the  aoa  of  a 
fknnei,  received  a  very  limited  education,  and  learned 
the  trade  of  a  painter  and  glazier.  He  joined  tbe  Bap- 
tiat  Church  and  preached  occasionally  with  conaidera- 

mona  at  KJrtlanil,  O.,  became  ■□  elder  and  one  of  the 
twelve  apoitle*,  and  wai  tent  aa  a  mlasionary  in  1S35 
to  make  proaelj'tei  in  the  Eaaiem  Statea,  in  which  he 
waa  yety  suoceaafuL  Hia  preaching  was  characterized 
bjB  peculiar  kindof  eloquence,  which  made  a  deep  im- 
presaion,  anil  enabled  him  to  rise  rapid!/  in  the  euima- 
tion  of  tbe  people  of  his  eect,  and  to  acquire  almoat 
boundleaa  influence.  Ha  poaagaaed,  at  the  aaoM  time, 
great  energy  and  shrewd  neaa  and  a  strong  perWHialiiy, 
which  further  enhanced  hia  popularit}*.  After  the 
death  of  Jowph  Smith,  in  ISU,  Young  wu  one  of  the 
liMir  aapiranta  to  tba  presidencj-,  and  was  unanimuuily 
elected  to  that  office  by  the  apoatlea.  The  choice  waa 
received  with  the  highest  approval,  and  bis  prin 
rival,  Sidney  Rigdon,  was  eicommnnicated.  When 
the  Mnmiona  were  expelled  from  Nauvoo  in  1B4C, 
Toung  set  out  to  lead  the  host  on  their  weaiy  journey 
acroas  the  Phiins,  which  terminated  only  on  their  reach- 
ing Great  Salt  Lake  Valley,  which  he  deeUred  lo  be  the 
promised  land.  Here  he  founded  Salt  Lake  City  in 
July,  1847,  in  which  be  exercised  abwlute  authority. 
In  March,  1849,  a  convention  waa  held  in  that  city,  a 
oonatitution  framed,  and  a  Slate  was  organized  undei 
the  nameofDeseret,  which,  in  the  "  reformed  Egyptian' 
language,  is  said  to  mean  the  "Land  of  the  Honey-bee.' 
Congress,  however,  refuaed  to  admit  the  new  state,  bnl 
Utah  Territory  waa  organized,  and  Preaident  FUlmort 
appointed  Brigham  Young  governor  lor  four  yeara 
The  neitl  year  the  United  States  Judges  were  driven 
away;  and  at  the  termination  of  the  four  yeara  for 
which  Young  had  been  appointed  governor,  Colonel 
Steptoe  was  appointed  in  hia  place.  But  on  visiting 
Utah  in  1854,  he  waa  reaiated  by  the  Mormon  pTMident, 
who  declared  that  be  would  "  be  governor,  and  no  power 
could  hinder  it  until  tbe  Lord  Almighty  ssys, '  Brig- 
ham, you  need  not  be  governor  any  lunger.'"  In  1857 
Preaident  Buchanan  appointed  Alfred  Cummin);  govern- 
or, and  sent  him  out  with  a  military  force  of  2600  men 
for  the  protection  of  the  Federal  officers.  Thu  brought 
mattera  lo  a  criaia,  and  the  Harmon*  became  peaceable, 
though  not  without  some  conceasiooa  on  the  part  of  the 
government. 

On  Aug.  29,  1853,  Young  proclaimed  the  "celestial 
Isw  of  marriage,"  sanctioning  polygamy,  which  he 
declared  had  been  revealed  to  Joseph  Smith  in  July, 
184S.  Thia  was  denounced  by  Smith's  widow  and  her 
fcur  Sana  aa  a  forgery ;  and,  although  the  Monnon 
apoailes  had  repeatedly  and  explicitly  denied  the 
imputation  of  such  a  doctrine  and  practice,  they  now 
accepted  it  without  much  reaiatance.  He  look  lo  hiro- 
aelf  a  large  number  of  wiveh  most  of  whom  redded  in 
a  building  known  aa  the  "  Lion  House,"  so  called  from  a 
huge  lion,  carved  in  atone,  which  stands  npon  the  por- 
tico. Inaddition  lohiaofficeofpreHdencof  the  Church, 
he  was  grand  archee  of  the  Urder  of  Danitea,  a  aecret  or- 
ganization within  the  Church,  which  was  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  his  absolute  power;  and  by  organizing 
and  directing  the  mde  and  industry  of  the  eommunily 
for  his  own  advantage  he  accumulated  immense  wealth. 
During  the  later  years  of  his  life  and  adminiatralion, 
the  development  of  the  mining  inlereats  uf  the  Terri' 
tory  and  of  the  commercial  interest!  of  Salt  Lake  City 
brought  a  great  many  "gentilea"  (aa  those  who  are  not 
Honnona  are  called  by  that  sect)  lo  tbe  Territocy  and , 


Tonag,  Edward  (I),  LL.D..  an  English  clergy- 
an,  father  of  tbe  poet,  was  bom  in  1G4S.  He  was  sod- 
sairely  fellow  of  Wiocheiter  College,  rector  of  I'phaai 
Hsm'iubire,  prebendary  of  Salisbury  (168!),  chaplain 
William  and  Hary,  and  dean  of  Saliijiary.  He  died 
1706.  He  published  a  number  of  sin^  aenDoni.  and 
collection  under  tbe  title  uf  Btrminu  om  Smral  Oao- 
«i  (Lood.  1703^,!  yola.).  See  Allibone,  Ditto/ 
Brit,  and  Amtr.  A^ikorl.h.v, 

ToxuiS,  Edwaid  (i),  a  celebnled  English  pOK 
and  cletgyman,  waa  bom  at  Upham  in  Hampshire,  in 
1684.  He  waa  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  at 
Oxford  University,  where  he  received  a  lair  fellowihip 
in  All-Souls'  College  in  1708.  He  devoted  bimadC 
however,  more  to  poetry  and  religioua  atudie*  tbao  u 
law;  bat  received  the  degree  of  ECX.  in  1714,  and 
that  of  D.C.L.  in  1719.  His  flret  appearance  as  a  |iDei 
waa  in  V!l3,in  m  Spittle  lo  Gtorpe, /jyrd  LanidoinK,iia 
hia  being  created  a  peer.  He,  however,  became  aahamed 
of  its  fulsome  flattery  and  suppressed  iL  Iti  the  laAe 
year  be  also  published  two  other  poema  of  aome  length. 
entitled  reapeclively  The  LomI  Day  and  T\t  Fom  of 
Rdiffum,  or  Vaapiiilied  /.o«.  The  year  following  ba 
published  A  Pom  tm  Ot  Dralk  vf  Qkhs  A  m.     Tb«« 

1T19  he  ventured  on  the  more  ambilioua  effort  o(  a 
tragedy,  under  the  title  of  idrn'rii,  which  was  bnogbt 
out  at  Dmiy  I^ne  with  fur  success.  Thia  attracted  to 
him  the  notice  of  the  duke  of  Wharton,  with  whom  be 
went  abroad  at  the  end  of  thia  year.  At  the  dealt  of 
the  duke,  Young  received  an  annuity  of  £200.  Id  17M 
hii  tragedy  Tkt  Jiatnge  was  produced,  but  was  udbdc- 
ceaaful  at  tbe  time,  though  it  has  since  had  greater  ac 
ccptance.  Between  1725  and  1728  appeared  iu  •uaaa- 
siiin  hia  satires  entitled  Tht  Lon  o/ Fame.  Ike  Vaiter- 
tnl  PatnOHf  which  had  great  success,  and  bronght  lo 
iheir  author  both  money  and  fam&  In  1726  be  issued 
The  lailalinenl,  a  poem  addressed  to  Sir  Bobcrt  Wil- 
pole  on  hia  being  mads  a  Knight  of  the  Garter,  for 
which  service  it  is  believed  be  obtained  his  panon. 
In  1727  be  took  holy  orders,  and  was  appointed  ooe  of 
the  royal  ehaplainsi  and  in  1730  he  became  rector  of 
Welwyn,  HertfordBhire,which  poat  he  retained,  mock 
againat  bia  will  (for  he  waa  an  anxious  seeker  for  ec 
cleHBIlJcil  preferment],  until  his  death,  A|iri1  12,  Hii. 
In  17B1  be  married  Lady  Elizabeth  Lee,  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Lichfield  and  widow  of  Colonel  Lee.  He 
exhibited  great  grief  at  her  death,  in  1741 ;  and  it  is 
believed  that  he  received  Ihe  auggeition  of  tbe  S'igtl 
Thovghtt  ftom  the  solemn  meditations  on  that  event. 
Bi-  this  work,  begun  shortly  anerwards  and  published 
IT43^l6,almuet  aolelyiaheremembered.  He  published 
numerous  other  works  of  no  present  impoitance.  la 
1T62  he  Bupenntended  an  edition  of  hia  collected  wofks 
in  4  vols.  12mo,  from  which  he  excluded  some  oT  bis 
most  gushing  proiUictions.  The  S^il  Thotglat  baa 
passed  through  editions  innumerable  both  in  Englaod 
and  America.  Various  other  editions  of  bis  collected 
works  have  also  appeared  from  time  to  lime,  for  which 
see  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Bril.aad  A  ofr.  A  Vkort,  s.  t.  See 
also  Chalmers,  Biag.  Did.  a.  v.  i  Johnson,  Lira  »/  tk* 
Paelii  HuHilt,  Ledura on  Ike  Eng. Poet),]trL  vi. 

TonncJstMb,  D.D„  a  Methodist  Episcopal  micua- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Allegheny  Counly,  Pa,  March  19, 1776, 
His  father  was  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Ene^aod, 
and  his  mother  was  a  Pmbytecian,  yet  botb  wci* 
Blrangen  lo  tbe  convening  power  <^  Christ  ontU 
brought  to  him  by  their  own  son.  The  stirring  sceoea 
and  mighty  atniggles  connected  with  the  birth  of  aor 
national  republic  at  the  time  Hr.  Toong  waa  oalufad 
into  life  seem  lo  have  breathed  into  him  tbe  very 
spirit  of  greatnen.  Hi*  Srst  years  were  passed  anid 
the  wildest  accnea  of  frontier  peril,  which  inspired  him 


YOUNG 


lOM  T0UN6  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOC'N 


vflh  phyncil  ind  moital  ictivity,  ind  nnconnnon  aKt- 
anl  cuunige.  Under  the  care  of  his  iflectionate  maih- 
M,  he  grappled  witb  numf  of  thiwe  great  IhuugbU 
which  •ftetwarda  swelled  his  mnure  »nd  nwnly  heirt. 
TTm  limple  gnuideut  of  the  New  Test,  impressed  tali 
minH,  while  the  history  and  Hifferinga  of  hii  Saviour 
woa  his  heart  and  Undled  his  most  ardent  love.  In 
»«i4y  manbooil  be  moTed  with  his  fither  to  Kentucky ; 
Jiniml  the  Metbodiata ;  ftlthiiDaelfctUed  to  preach,  aod, 
without  formal  Church  antborlty,  preached  his  first  Hr- 
mon,  Mw  tho  con^tregstion  baUied  in  turs,  and  felt  in 
his  own  BDul  the  heavenly  unclioo.  In  1801  he  wis 
licensed  to  preach,  and  under  the  direction  of  William 
HcKendree,  afterwards  bishop,  was  thrust  out  on  a 
Urge  frontier  circuit.  For  flIly-flTe  Veara  Mr.  Young 
was  eu|;aged  in  the  itinerancy.  He  travelled  ei- 
tennvelv,  everywhers  attended  by  mBrrelloiiB  ancceee. 
He  died'  SepL  IS,  1SS9.  He  was  a  man  of  great  intel- 
lectual power,  habitually  prompt,  laborious,  unswerving ; 
giaat  in  blj  Christian  character,  great  in  hii  Sdelity, 
great  in  his  succesa,  See  ifnuMi  qf  Amatol  Coif/er- 
OKft,  I860,  p.  333 ;  Simpwiii,  Cifelop.  ^MetiaduJa,  k  t.  ; 
and  bis  AuluiiograpAg. 

T'oimg.  Tolln  Clorica,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  niin- 
iater,  son  of  tbe  Rev.  John  Toung,  was  i»m  at  Oreen- 
caade.  Pa.,  Aug.  13, 1803.  He  prosecuted  bis  prepan- 
tAry  studies  under  Juhn  Borland,  an  eminent  teacher  of 
New  York  city;  and  studied  three  yean  in  Columbia 
College,  when  be  removed  Co  Dickinson  College,  gradi 
ating  in  1S23.  He  entered  Princeton  Theological  Sea 
inaiy  in  1824,  where  he  Temsiucd  two  yean;  then  i 

1826  became  tator  in  tbe  College  of  New  Jeraey,  where 
be  served  until  1828.     He  was  licensed  in  the  spring  of 

1827  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York ;  and,  on  leaving 
Princeton,  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  McCbord  Pmby- 
terian  Church  of  Lexington,  Ky.  In  tbe  fall  of  1830  he 
was  chosen  president  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  and 
filled  the  office  with  great  credit  to  hi^nself  during  tbe 
remainder  of  bis  life.  In  1831  be  assumed,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  presidency  of  ibe  college,  the  olGoe  of 
pastor  of  the  PreallyUrian  Church  at  Danville,  in  whUb 
idation,  also,  be  remained  until  bis  death,  which  oc- 
coired  June  23, 1357.  He  published  a  number  of  nnglt 
SermonajSpeec&eatBadAddreafs^  See  Sprague,  Hnna^ 
»/■(*«  .4 mer,P^pi(,IX,iv,44. 

Voting,  Jobn  KimboU,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Congregational  Church,  was  bom  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  Harcl 
22, 1802.  His  preparatory  studies  were  pursued  at  Do. 
ver  Academy;  he  entered  Dartmouth  College  at  the  aifi 
of  afleen,  and  graduated  in  1821.  He  was  a  teacher  ir 
DoTer  Academy,  and  in  Chiu'leston,8.C.,from  Januarv 
1824,  to  July,  182;;  grsdoaled  from  Andover  Theobig'i- 
cal  Seminary  in  1829,  and  waa  nrdsined  in  Boston,  SepL 
24, 1829;  waa  tbe  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
from  1829  to  1831 ;  installed  paiLor  at  Laconia,  N.  H. 
( then  Htredith  Britlge),  Nov.  29,  1831,  and  was  di»- 
miaaed  Feb.  12, 1807.  He  waa  acting  pastor  at  Hop. 
kintoD  rrom  1S6T  to  1871,  Fraa  1842  he  was  a  cor- 
porate member  of  the  American  Boanl  of  Commis- 
siooera  for  Foreign  Minions;  from  l^K  to 
from  1861  to  1873,  be  was  a  trustee  of  the  New  Hsmp- 
shire  Hiiwonaiy  Society;  for  a  time  was  a  trustee  of 
the  Gilmanton  Academy  and  Tbeoli^ical  Seminary: 
waa  corresponding  secretary  of  the  New  Hampshire 
General  AiKKiatioa  from  1861  to  1861,  waa  moderaloi 
of  it  in  1866,  and  from  1843  was  a  member  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Hiatorical  Society.  He  died  at  I^conia, 
Jan.  28, 1879,  See  Confr.  (JNor.  1876,  p.  437;  1377,  p. 
676. 

7onilg,  loha  R.,  D.D.,  a  Pttlbyterian  minister, 
waa  bom  at  Marlborough,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  17,  1820.  He 
graduated  at  Union  College,  and  subaequently  at  Union 
Theobigical  Seminary.  After  hia  ordination  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Chnrch  of  Pbelpa,N.  v.;  and 
anbaeqiiently  he  becante  stated  supply  of  Painted  Poet, 
BaldwinsviUe,  CoitUnd,  and  KeesviUe,  aU  in  N.  Y.     A 


il  pasltnate  in  Plactsburg  lasted  five  yeare;  frooi 
Plattaburg  he  removed  to  Uamsroneck.  and  from  Ihenca 
to  Newport,  K.  L  He  was  pastor  at  (ireenbuah,  N.  T, 
two  years,  and  stated  supply  at  Albany  for  two 
a  fallowing.  After  this  he  served  a  short  time  at 
Kewaifc,  N.  T.,  and  at  Tecumseh,  Hich. ;  aba  at  Qyde, 
where  be  waa  taken  ill,  and  returned  to  Albany,  He  died 
at  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  30, 1873.  See  fi'tcrulaykat  B^eti 
qf  Unim  Thtohgieal  Semiary. 

Tonng,  Matthew,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Irish 
prelate  and  mathematician,  uss  bom  in  the  County  at 


He  prosecuted  his 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  was  admitted  in  1766; 
became  a  fellow  in  1776,  and  entered  into  holy  orders. 
In  1786  be  was  chosen  profenor  of  natural  philosophy 

of  iiutiuctian,  introducing  itlustialions  by  meaiu  of  ap- 
paratus. HewIB  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royalliish 
Academy,  which  began  active  work  in  1782.  He  waa 
appointed  by  lord  Comwallis  biahop  of  Clonfert  and  Kil- 
macbduagh ;  and  died  Nov.  28,  1800.  He  published  a 
number  of  mathematical  and  philosopbicat  ps|>ers  and 
essays,  and  left  in  MS.  a  Lalia  CommmlaTy  on  the  Firtt 
Two  Boola  o/.Vncfon'i  Principia.  See  Knight,  Engl. 
Cyclop.  Biog.  vi,  892;  Allibone,  Di/i.  of  Brit,  and  Xmer. 
A>ahort,».v.:  C\ia!taxn,Biog.Dicl.a.y. 

Tooug,  Fatllck  (LaL  Patridui  Jmiai),  a  noted 
English  clergyman  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Seton,  in 
East  Lothian,  Scotland,  Aug.  29, 1584.  He  waa  educau 
ed  at  the  Uiiivenily  of  St.  Andrews,  where  be  took  tbe 
degree  of  A.M.  in  1603.  In  1606  be  was  incorporated 
A.U.BtOifoid,  took  deacon's  otden,  and  became  chap- 
lain of  New  College,  He  went  to  London  afterwards; 
waa  granted  a  pension  of  £50  a  year;  and  made  keeper 
ofche  library  of  king  Jamea.  In  161The  went  to  Frauoe 
and  other  neighboring  countries,  where  he  attracted 
great  attention  on  account  of  his  learning.  He  was  ■ub> 
sequently  presented  to  the  lectories  of  Hayes  and  Uan- 
rbian.  In  1649  he  retired  to  Bcomfield,  in  Essex,  whsra 
be  lived  with  his  sun-in-law,  Mr.  Alvrood;  and  died 
Sept.  7,  1852.  His  great  scholanbip  is  not  adequate- 
ly represented  by  his  literary  remains,  for  be  is  said  to 
have  been  indolent  and  undesirous  of  literary  fame.  He 
asaiated  Thomas  Keid  in  translating  into  latin  tbe  works 
of  king  Jamea;  made  some  notes  on  the  Alexandrine 
MS.  of  tbe  Ilible  (extending  ilown  to  Numb,  zv),  which 
are  published  in  Walton's  Polyglot  Bible,voLvi,  under  the 
title  Patricii  Juaii  Amalaliima  quai  Paraverat  ad  MS. 
AiexaHdrim,  etc :— publiahed  in  1633  an  edition  of  the 
EpMei  ofClemmi  Romimui,  from  the  uma  US.,  which 
may  be  found  in  vol.  i  of  the  SaeroiaiKia  Conetlia  of 
Labbd  and  Cossart:_and  in  1638  published  an  Ex- 
poiilion  of  SiAomorii  Song,  written  by  Gilbert  FoUot, 
bishop  of  London  in  tbe  time  of  Heniy  II.  Uis  L^fi 
has  been  written  by  Sir  Thomas  Smith  (rabbi  Smith), 
See  Chalmem,  Biog.  Diet.  ».  v.;  Knight,  Engl  Cgdop. 
Biog,  a,  v.;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  tad  Antr.  AtUion, 

Toung    Man's    Christian    Aaaooiatloiia. 

This  ia  the  eurrenl  designation  of  certain  organiiationa 
of  modem  times  fur  religious  work  outude  of  the  regn> 
lar  ecclesiastical  limits. 

I.  /fufory.— There  were  aaaociariona  of  young  men 
for  religious  improremeiic  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
at  a  very  early  period.  The  meetings  of  college  atu- 
dents  participated  in  and  largely  controlled  by  John 
and  Charles  Wesley  were  of  this  character,  ^ch  or- 
ganizations found  their  way  inui  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land about  the  same  time.  In  1710  there  were  similar 
societies  in  New  England,  which  were  addressed  by  Cot- 
ion  Mather  undvr  the  title  of"  Voung  Men  Auociatad." 
There  were  similar  awocialions  in  some  of  the  German 
cities  during  the  period  from  1834  to  1842.  Up  to  that 
time,  however,  the  organizatioHswpresporadic.and  left 
no  permanent  results  in  the  form  of  our  present  associa- 
tions.   A  larger  movement  occurred  in  Germany  in 


YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOC'N  1060  TOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOCM 


1849,  irbich  multed  ia  the  orgnusilion  of  tlie  Gcnsan 
UKKUtiona  or  the  present  time. 

The  Young  Men'*  Cbriiliin  AModilJani  of  En^ud 
■ad  Ameriei  originrUed  in  ■  meeting  of  ■  docen  clerks 
In  the  upper  story  or  a  LondMi  commerciil  boose,  Tor 
the  purpuso  of  tpeniliQg  la  hour  in  reli^oos  exercisca, 
iD  1S44.  Il  WIS  orgsniied  bj  George  WiUisms,  one  of 
the  clerks,  and  anerwania  became  enlai^ed  in  iu  scope 
md  plan  so  u  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Christian  young 
men  of  that  vicinity.  A  conreniioa  of  those  who  had 
become  interested  in  the  moTemeiit  was  held,  and  ■  so- 
cie^  was  formed  uo  June  6, 1844,  for  "  Improving  the 
S(dritual  Canduioo  of  Young  Men  in  the  Drapeiy  and 
other  Trades."  The  pUn  was  imitated  in  other  British 
cidea,  and  found  its  way  across  the  Channel.  Yarious 
cities  on  the  Continent  attempted  similar  organ ixations, 
and  among  them  Paris.  In  the  French  metropolis, 
howerer,  the  consent  of  the  poUce  was  required  in  or- 
der to  bold  any  kind  of  public  meeting.  This  was  at 
length  given,  and  a  start  was  made  in  the  good  work. 
A  providential  circumstance  favored  the  populariution 
of  the  new  movement.  JuM  at  this  time  Kenan's  Hft 
o/Jmu  bad  appaared,  and  was  producing  gnat  excite- 
ment among  the  Parisians.  The  work  was  read  by 
thousands.  To  counteract  the  inddel  influence  of  this 
brilliant  writer,  Prolatant  lectures  weie  given  in  reply 
(o  him.  The  lectures  were  crowded.  Thousands  be- 
came eager  listeners,  who  had  hitherto  been  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  churches  and  other  religious  movementa. 
This  gained  for  the  association  the  eateem  of  all  the 
better  clasaes,  and  gave  it  a  Kanding  which  it  has  ever 
since  maintained. 

The  movement  of  London  alao  found  its  way  acroes 
the  Atlantic  in  two  directions  at  about  the  tame  time. 
The  aasocialion  of  Montreal,  Canada,  was  oritaniied  ac- 
cording to  the  model  of  the  London  tociety,  I>ec.  9, 1851. 
Twenty  days  later,  by  direct  suggestion  from  London, 
and  without  knowledge  of  the  oiKaniiadoD  at  Mon- 
treal, the  Bstocistion  of  Boston,  Mass.,  was  organiied. 
On  June  SO,  1852,  the  asMciation  of  New  York  was  or- 
ganiied,  and  during  the 
including  thoes  of  Baltimore  and  Washington, 
into  existence.  Cincinnati,  however,  ' 
nent  organiiation  nnce  1848,  which 
that  of  anj  other  Amer' 
gaoiiations  have  gready  multiplied  in  Notth  Amer- 
ica since  the  time  above  mentioned,  and  at  an  early 
period  of  their  history  nniled  in  oonventiona  fbr  ag- 
gressive and  concerted  action.  At  the  Firal  Annual 
Convention  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association* 
of  the  United  States  and  British  Province*,  wbich  met 
at  Buflblo,  N.  Y.,  June  7  and  8,  18M,  a  number  of  the 
aocieties,  about  half  of  those  in  existence,  formed  a  Con- 
federation. There  were  at  that  time  in  the  countries 
&  societies  with  i^nut  8000  members.  As- 
not  formal]/  connected  with  the  Confedera- 
tion  were  welcomed  to  seals  in  the  annual  meetings, 
but  could  have  no  part  in  the  proceedings  except  by 
GDurtesv  of  the  convention.  A  second  convention  was 
held  Bl>'Cincinnati  in  September,  1865,  when  there  were 
60  assodations  with  9000  nKmbeis.  A  third  conven- 
tion was  held  at  Montreal  in  June,  1866,  when  the  re- 
ports showed  the  existence  of  67  aodeties  with  10,000 
members.  This  convention  accepted  and  ratified  the 
Pari*  basis,  adopted  by  the  flrst  World'*  Conference  of 
the  awiciations,  held  in  that  dty  in  18A6,  It  is  as  Ibl- 
k>ws: 

"TheTonng  Hen's  Christian  Associations  sesktonnlie 
those  young  men  who,  regarding  Jesus  Christ  as  ihelr 
Qod  and  Savinnr,  sccordini;  to  the  Hiily  Hcrlptnres,  desire 
to  be  bl*  disciples  In  their  doctrine  and  In  their  lift,  and 
to  associate  Uielr  sffaru  for  the  extension  of  his  kingdom 
among  yotiUc  men.* 

A*  ■  mle,  the  American  aaaodations  regulated  their 

membentiip  on  this  basis.  It  was  deemed  adviaable 
to  keep  their  membership  within  the  memtienhip  of 
the  evangelical  ebarche^      While  those  outride  who 


are  (erknuly  diapnaed  an  permitted  la  enjoj  all  At 
general  advantages  of  the  association,  Oaj  am  not  aL 
lowed  to  vote  or  to  hold  office.  In  tlw  En^isli  siiii 
ation*,  as  a  general  rule,  any  perwm  is  dlgihla  to  raera- 
benhip  who  gives  evidence  of  his  coovenion  to  Cod. 
But  still  it  is  expected  that  when  such  a  state  cxin^ 
the  young  man  will  nniu  with  some  Church.  In  Hot 
land  there  is  no  restriction  as  to  membeiahip;  ii  i* 
presumed  thai  when  a  youa^  man  preaeota  himadf  H 
the  aiBoeialion,  he  is  earnestly  seeking  the  kingdom  </ 
God,  and  is  worthy  of  all  encouragement.  From  tka 
period  of  its  otganiiatioo  to  the  breaUng-oot  of  llu 
civil  war  in  1861,  the  new  motemenl  had  made  steady 
and  rapid  progress,  the  membership  of  all  the  associa- 
tions having  reached  2&,D0O  in  April  of  tbe  tMHcdiog 
year.  The  work  done  is  iu  part  indicated  by  an  extract 
fram  the  report  of  the  atmual  convention  held  at  Kew 
Orleans,  April  It,  1860: 

It  In  reports.    Oflhaa 
;  IS  have  Blblfr<1*sB- 


es:  U  conduct  nlsalon  SabhstI 
Ubrsrles,  and  M  keep  open  i 


But  witb  the  M  of  Fort  3un: 
shock  to  the  associations.  Many  of  them  d 
the  annual  convention  could  not  be  called  that  spring; 
and  the  Confederation  speedily  fell  to  piece*.  Tbe 
work  of  tbe  preceding  ten  years  seemed  to  have  bea 
destroyed  in  a  day.  But  a  new  Held  of  activity  OOM 
on  with  the  war.  Within  a  month  after  tbe  opening 
of  the  war  the  aiaociaiion  of  New  York  appointed  so 
Army  Committee,  who  began  work  among  the  aoldicn 
gathered  in  tbe  numerous  camp*  in  the  neighborhood 
of  that  city,  and  exposed  to  the  demoraliting  iaflnenca 
of  camp  and  army  life.  Devolionat  meetings  were  hdd 
among  the  soldien;  a  pocket  edition  ofa  SoUwriffjim' 
book  was  published  and  circulated;  the  Chrialian  moi 
of  every  regiment  were  organized,  as  far  as  possible,  tw 
eOcctive  work,  and  public  sentiment  was  aroused  in  be- 

The  need  of  co-operation  under  this  new  phase  et 
the  movement,  aa  under  tbe  earlier  development,  wta 
soon  felt,  and,  by  the  suggestion  of  the  Army  Committee 
of  the  New  Yorii  association,  the  Central  Committee  WIS 
induced  to  coll  a  convention  to  meet  in  New  YoHl 
Only  forty-two  delegates  were  present,  and  Ibeae  lep- 

which  lasted  a  day  and  i  hslf,  a  grand  beginning  was 
eflected.  In  order  to  promote  the  lemporal  and  spirit- 
ual welfare  of  the  addiers  and  uilon  of  the  army  aod 
navy,  the  United  States  Christian  Commisston  wb  ap- 
pointed. This  commiasiun  consisted  of  twelve  Chrb- 
tian  gentlemen,  from  eight  leading  cities,  and  was  t* 
be  the  organ  and  executive  agent  of  the  Young  Men'* 
Christian  Aaociations  Ind  of  the  Christian  pailia 
This  proved  to  be  a  great  boon  to  the  soldicn  in 
camps,  on  battle-field*,  and  in  hospitals.  It  co-operat- 
ed with  the  Sanitary  Commission,  which  was  a  puiriy 
secular  agency ;  but  it  went  further  than  that  anuBis- 
sion  couU  go.  The  Christian  public  heartily  sapported 
its  elTorta,  and  made  it  the  medium  by  which  Christian 
homes,  churches,  and  communities  sent  spiritual  aod 
nialeriat  comfort  la  the  soldiers  in  the  field  sod  the 
hiinpital.  This  work  belonged  distinctively  to  tba 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  only  at  its  origin. 
After  it  was  fairly  organised  it  belonged  to  the  whole 
Christian  public  During  the  four  years  of  the  war, 
the  commission  sent  out  4859  delegate*  to  do  hospul 
and  Gospel  work;  expended  in  cash  $£,£18,741. fit:  re- 
ceived and  distributed  store*  worth  t!^9,44S.J0 ;  re- 
ceived and  distributed  Bibles  and  reading-matter  val- 
ued at  «299,&76.26:  distributed  1,466,748  Bible*  and 
parte  of  the  Bible,  296,816  bound  boc**,  1,870.963  hyma- 
books,  19,621,103  papers  and  mfigatinia,  S.SW,06S  kaatk 
BBck-bookB  in  flexible  coven,  39,104,243  page*  of  tracW- 
iu  delegates  pnached  68,308  sermons,  and  held  7i,V4i 
prat 


Similar  work  wm  done  by  nme  of  the 
(he  Soalh  unang  the  loldiert  of  the  Confedence  maj, 
but  there  iru  no  general  orgiiiiiutiaD  for  that  pQipoK. 

Tbe  dUtinctive  iroTk  of  the  anociitioni  throughout 
(he  eountiT  dumig  the  war  wu  enntianed  on  a  limited 
ioale.  Two  genenl  convonlions  were  httd  during  thia 
period;  the  flrM  met  at  Cbieigo,  June  4-T,  I86S,  with 
'    '     ''  e  second  met  at  BoatoD, 


YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOC'N  1051  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOCN 

of  Ihis  new  AeliL  They  >ent  oat  a  eompuiT 
of  Cbriatiaa  young  men  whoae  duty  it  was  to  keep  pace 
he  mareh  of  the  employte  and  the  attendant 
of  drawing  met)  into  temptation.  They  held 
raligiouB  meetinga  wherever  they  could  get  a  hearing, 
and  organized  aocietiee  for  the  perpetuation  of  theae  be- 
ginning!. After  the  nxivement  had  been  fairly  atarted 
by  tbt  Omaha  aMOciation,  and  its  practicability  had 
bwQ  denonatratBd,  the  International  Conreution  of  Che 
Toung  Hen's  CbriaCian  Aasociatiun  took  it  up,  and  cx< 
tended  it  lo  other  railioada  aa  rapidly  as  circamatanrei 
would  permit.  Efforts  were  mada  to  open  rooms  for 
railroad  workmen  at  Erie,  Altoona,  Baltimore,  Jersey 
City,  and  other  important  eantree,  but  for  varioua  rea- 
Bona  they  met  with  only  partial  aaccesa.  In  time  lead- 
ing railroad  men  became  interested  in  tbeae  pbilan* 
thropic  labors  in  behalf  of  their  emphiy^a.  Such  tnen 
aa  Comeiius  Vanderbilt,  Thomas  A.  Scott,  John  W.  Gar- 
rett, Robert  Harris,  J.  H.  Devereux,  and  others  gave  en- 


e  1-6, 1864,  with  a 


delegates.  Although  tbeee  meetings  w 
thoaiasni,  it  appeared  that  the  principal 
societies  was  absorbed  in  anny  and  comi 

An«t  tbe  clcM  of  tbe  war  It 
upon  m.  new  period  of  piogma  in  thei 
young  men,  which  has  continued  at  an 
until  the  present,  and  has  f 
greater  deTclopment  of  power  for  fjood 
come.  Among  the  items  in  which  this  impnivement 
haa  besi  manifeated,  a  few  deserve  mention.  A  num- 
ber of  general  secretariea  have  been  appointed,  who 
make  this  worit  for  yooiig  men  the  business  of  tbeii 
livca,  These  secretaries  hold  an  annual  meeting  for 
the  interchange  of  viewa  on  their  oommon  work,  and 
carefully  prepared  papers  are  read  on  topics  of  vital  in- 
tereat  to  thoae  pment.  The  greatest  advantage  accru- 
ing from  the  labors  of  these  officers  ia  the  rapid  increase 
of  societies,  as  well  as  of  workers  m  those  already  orgin- 
iied.  There  has  been  a  rapid  increase  in  the  amount  of 
pnperty  and  the  number  of  buildings  owned  by  these 
aaaociations.  A  test  of  membership  has  been  adopted 
by  the  International  Convention,  which  hoi  aecured  a 
moR  aubuantiol  Chriitian  character  to  the  aasociationa. 
In  1866,  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  they  reaSmied  the  Paris 
buii  adopted  in  1856;  in  1868,  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  they 
adapted  the  "evangelical  Church  teat  {"and  in  IS69,at 
Portland,  He,  defined  the  term  tvangdieal.  The  test, 
as  now  applied,  is  aa  foUowst 


■  toSsi 


bear  the  ni 


of  CbrMlan,  and  profses  to  M  engusd  dlrectlj  In  the 
Sarionr^i  Hnlce.  ao  It  ia  cIwicIt  t^eff  dnlj^o  maints^n 

lo  L 

,  _.B  Bedeemer,  aa  Divlna, 

leailfy  their  laitb  bj  bBOomlug  aud  ramslnlng  UMmber* 
of  ehnitbe*  held  tn  be  evaatellea].  And  we  liold  ttaoas 
ctanrcbei  to  b*  etanBallcal  whieb,  malnulnlnK  the  Hulj 
ScrlptDras  lo  be  the  only  InfUllbls  rals  of  hit!  and  prac- 
tice, do  ballsve  In  the  Lord  Jaana  Chrtat  {the  only-bsgot- 
ua  of  tbe  Father,  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords,  In 
whom  dwelletta  the  IDIneea  of  the  Oodhaad  budUr,  sad 
wha  wia  made  Bin  for  ns,  though  kaowlug  no  aln,  liear- 
ing  our  dns  <u  hi*  own  body  on  the  tree),  as  the  only 

be  BBvad  from  everlaalLng  puuLahmenl." 
At  the  time  this  reeolution  was  passed  about  one  half 
of  the  aBBociatinna  bail  the  aame  test.  It  was  decided 
that  all  associations  organiied  after  that  date  must,  in 
order  to  be  entitled  lo  representation  in  the  Interna- 
tional Convention,  limit  their  active  vo^ng  member- 
uigelical  churches.  The  aasoci- 
d  the  hearty  OMipeTBtion  of  the 
chorchea  and  Christian  people  of  the  land.  Another 
important  work,  not  to  be  overlooked,  ia  the  origination 
by  these  societies  of  stringent  legislation  in  the  United 
'ir  the  BuppreBsion  of  obscene  literature,  and  tbe 
f  those  efforts  by  special  organiia^Dna 
Ibr  the  enforcement  of  Buch  legislation. 

The  building  of  the  PociOc  EUilroad  brought  together 
many  men  of  vicious  habits,  who,  in  turn,  conuminaled 
those  who  came  in  contact  with  them.  Here  was  a  new 
population  continually  on  the  move,  yet  Badly  needing 
the  aaaiatanee  of  such  an  organization  aa  the  Young 
Hen's  Chriitian  Aiaociation,  Each  new  terminus  of 
the  mad  became,  for  the  time  being,  a  town,  generally 
ot  tenta  and  board  shanties:  but  what  was  a  town  to- 
day might  be  a 


Suteafb 


of  tbem  contributed  to  the  anpport  of  aecretariea  named 
by  tbe  assodationa,  and  offered  rooms  for  the  balding 
In  Indianapolis  twelve  railway  compo- 
ipporting  Che  association  i  and  in  Cbioago 
the  principal  railroad  oSdals  are  members  of  associa- 

11.  Pnttal  (^Kratiom.  —  There  are  two  prominent 

characteristics  of  these  assomations,  which  deserve  no- 
body tbe  youthful  enthusiasm  and  energies  of  the 
Church.  What  conatitules  a  youn;  man,  is  a  problem 
rariouB  solutionB.  In  America  a  man  ia 
have  passed  hia  j'ODth  when  he  has 
reached  the  age  of  forty  years.  Alter  that  he  cease* 
lo  be  an  active,  and  becomes  a  counselling,  memlier.  In 
France  marriage  serves  as  the  dividing  line  between 
the  young  men  and  those  who  have  passed  young  man- 
hood. Toung  women,  as  a  rule,  ore  not  admitted.  In 
one  or  two  organiiations  women  have  tieen  admitted  to 
equal  or  nearly  equal  privil^es  with  men.  This  ia  the 
case  in  Brooklyn,  where  the  wisdom  of  the  plan  is  ap- 
parent in  the  activity  and  elBciency  of  the  society.    In 

library  and  reading-room,  and  other  similar  advantages. 
In  Boston  they  have  organised  a  Toung  Women's  Chris- 
tian AiBocialJon.  A  like  oBBociation  was  founded  in 
New  York  in  1870,  and  incorporated  in  1878.  It  baa 
for  its  object  the  same  ends  as  those  to  which  Young 
Hen's  Chriarian  AaSDciationB  are  directed.  Qenerally, 
however,  young  women  are  not  admitted  to  these  oi^ 
ganiiations  of  young  m 

The  second  choracteiiatiG 
their  undenominational  character.  They  profess  lo  be 
simply  C^riilian  ogsoeiaUons.  But  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  limit  the  voting  memberihip  to  Christian  young 
men,  and  in  time  it  was  deemed  imporlanC  U>  find  a 
common  basiB  of  Christian  belief.  This  was  found  in 
the  evangelical  tent  already  menUoned.  There  i«  a 
brood  distinction  lo  be  noted  in  the  methods  and  opin* 
ions  of  the  evangelical  chuirhea  and  the  ao-called  liberal 
Christians.  The  incilemenls  to  sinners  to  lead  a  new 
life,  the  degree  of  zeal  in  exhortation,  and  the  methods 
of  initmcting  inquiring  penitents  are  so  widely  diflei^ 
ent  in  the  two  aystema  of  belief  that  it  waa  considered 
vital  to  the  success  of  the  enterprise  to  keep  them  sep- 

snd  none  was  needad;  a  simple  declaration  of  what  waa 
already  in  tbe  aymbols  of  all  evangelical  churches  was 
sufficient  to  unite  the  Chriatian  young  men  of  America 
into  one  brotherhood  for  aggrenive  ChriBtian  work. 
There  is  no  clashing  of  theological  opinions,  for  all  have 
united  under  the  one  banner  of  the  Divine  Christ,  lo 
reach  out  and  save  fallen  humanity  from  impending  niiii. 
The  work  of  tbe  associalions  consists  of  prayer-meet* 
inga,  Bible  clasaeB,  social  meetings,  educational  dasso^ 
meetings  in  jsils,  hospitals  and  almshouses,  open-alt 


TOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOC'N  1052  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRIST.  ASSOCT) 


Librarj  at  Ihs  Young  Hen'i  CbriitUn 

wrvious,  ■errko  oT  nng,  neighborhoDd  ind  eottigc  ; 
pnyer-mectinga,  ind  the  aiutaiaing  of  readiag-rooms, 
leclures,  gyiniiuiums  for  phyiical  exercise,  ind  em- 
ployment bureaus.  The  extent  of  this  work  ia  indi- 
caled  in  Che  suiiitica  given  at  the  dose  of  this  article. 
The  great  work  and  rapid  growth  already  in<<icat«d, 
and  atill  more  apparent  by  an  examination  of  the  sta- 
tiattcs,  could  not  hav«.  b«en  secured  by  the  active  etforta 
of  individual  aasociations.  A  very  common  experience 
is  that  of  a  few  yoong  men  of  a  village,  who  meet  and 


eril^se 


'mploj^ed 


euUri 


Ere  138  secrelsrie«,with  several 

The  syHem  of  organization  and  muiual  dependence 

■ge  R  Crooks,  D.D,  in 


from  an  article  by  Rev.  U 
Barptr't  WeeUg  for  April  3, 
-First  sre  ti 


says: 


tinlutloDB,  wxupTlng  hired 
their  own  bntldluRL  and  em- 
Inct  tbe  uecetsary  bnslness. 
irovlDFliil  oriiaaliiitinnB.cam- 


BloylnE  secrets; 

Then  foUiw  ibe 

pOMd  of  ■  Huie  or  Cansdlan  prutlacs,fantdli 

CUDveatlon  and  appaiulloE  n  State  cooimlllw  lo  eienlse 

ever,  Is  purely  advl«oi7!  twelve  of  them  employ  secre- 
taries. Asceodlng  blghei,  w«  have  the  Amsnun  Inter- 
national  orssiiluilou,  composed  of  tbe  aeKciatlons  oF 
tbe  United  States  and  Canada.  Ila  executive  agent  Is  an 
Intsmattoual  Committee  ortwenty.eve  memben,  bavlne 
a  working  quorum  Id  New  York  eltr.  The  committee  m 
a  vigorona  body,  and  bsi  Uken  In  hand  the  foslering  or 


which  m 


efnarl 


and.  in  June.  IGn." 


The  work  accompliihed  by  the  American  lutema- 
tional  oi^anixation  baa  exerted  a  poweifiil  influence 
upon  the  associationa  of  the  whole  countti-.  In  1866 
a  committee  of  Ave  was  appointed  by  the  convention, 
and  located  io  New  York.  This  committee  has  unce 
letaioed  its  headquartera,  with  a  working  quonim,  in 
that  dty,  but  has  been  incrcawd  to  twenty-flve  mem- 
hcrsi  many  of  whom  reside  in  ulher  parts  of  the  coun- 


Bulldlng  in  New  Yolk  City. 
tiy.  This  is  the  executive  agent' of  tbe  iDtetnatiesd 
Convention.  By  it  tbe  convention  is  called  to  assemble 
each  year,  and  by  it  the  proceedings  are  afterwmh 
publiabed.  Each  year  the  committee  brings  up  a  Te~ 
port  of  ila  work,  and  aubmiu  a  plan  for  the  coaii^ 
year.  This,  alter  due  consideralion  *iid  sitch  mudieca- 
cious  as  are  cousiderrd  deairaUe,  ia  nfcrred  back  Id  Ibe 


thoriied  the  emplo> 

ment  of  a  vis 

tor  in 

the  Vol 

The  Held  included  th 

state*  of  Iu<l 

na,  Ilh 

lois.  llicb- 

igau 

Wis. 

»>n>in,  lo- 

Uissou 

Nebraska,  Kentucky 

and  Tennesse. 

e.     Th 

re   he   has 

tn  Ubor  » 

th  abundant  ■ 

When  U 

legai 

hii 

labon>  the 

-e  were  leas  th 

swialiona. 

nual  expense 

of  |i9,l»00.      Kow 

there 

nearly  300 

associations,  ciprndin 

more 

than 

«100,0(«. 

At  that  time 

only 

»K«H.I 

secreuiy  was  emjiloyed,  and  not  one  societv  oirned  a 
building.  Kow  there  an  48  general  Hcrctaiies  and 
eight  buildings.  The  eleven  stales  all  have  state  cr- 
ganiutions,  and  of  these  nx  employ  state  secretariea. 

The  requirements  of  the  central  office  had  so  in- 
creased in  1870  that  a  general  secretary  of  the  Inter- 

spondence,  vinluijoti,  and  editorial  work.  He  has  gina 
been  retained, and,  ooing  to  the  increased  demands  of 
this  department,  an  assistant  has  Istely  been  provided. 
The  work  in  the  South  has  developed  wonJerfD% 
within  a  period  often  yean.  In  1S70  tbere  were  be- 
tween Virginia  and  Texas  only  three  associaliuns.     In 

labors  in  that  section,  and  now  tbere  an  mure  than  IfiO 

The  work  among  railroad  men  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to.  Another  movement,  entirdy  independent 
of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Miaaion,  was  that  begun  io 
Heveland,  0..  in  1872.  In  that  city,  where  about  10,000 
men  are  employed  by  railroad  companies,  meetings  wen 
held  to  which  men  of  tbis  class  only  were  invited.  Tbe 
idea  was  taken  up  and  practiced  by  other  railroad  ciiir^ 
and,  Anally,  the  International  CommiUrt  undertook  ib« 
general  supervision  of  this  branch.  Since  the  begiiw 
Ding  of  1877  a  general  railroad  secretary  has  given  hia 
entire  time  to  this  work,  organizing  a 


YOnNGMEN'SCHRlST.ASSOC'N  1053  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHKIST.  ASSOC'N 

.ng  ■nocUtinni.  uiil  holding  oo 


cal  I  ng  secreUnn, 

rentioDS.     There  are  now  mart  tnan  eigntr  niiroaa  or- 

giniiiCi<iDR.w]thiiDembfnhip  of  about  17,153. 

In  1874  the  flrat  meeting  nT  the  National  Bund  of 
GcrmaD-apetking  AMncUtiuns  wai  helil  in  Btltinmre. 
A  ooiDp«t«nt  »ecret«iy  wm  choMn,  and  the  Internation- 
al CommiltK  ■■ktil  lo  suaUin  him.  The  work  of  tliLi 
•ecretarv  i>  to  vi«i  German  communilies  and  organize 
■Hociations.  The  flelil  embraceB  the  young  men  lo  be 
fiiuDd  among  ths  tvo  milliona  of  German-apeaking  in- 
habiunta  iii  America. 

The  general  mirk  a^nong  eidleges  via  began  in  1877, 
wben  a  viaitor  was  placed  in  the  Held.  The  work  haa 
yielded  abundant  Tniit.  There 
n  oolite*,  with  a  total 


ideSai 

The  Tullowing  table  will  indicate  in  aome  degree  the 
vonderrul  growth  or  the  Young  Men's  ChriaCian  Aaao- 
ciaiioni  in  thia  country.  The  Hgures,  however,  do  not 
fully  repreaent  the  Tacta.  Many  aaaocialiona  aend  in 
no  reports.  Their  memberahip,  property,  libraries,  and 
work  must  therefore  be  left  out  of  the  account.  Much 
of  the  work,  alao,  ia  oT  auch  a  nature  that  it  cannot 
BUtiatical  tablee.  The  inronnalioii 
Tork  in  fureign  landa  ia  meagre,  but  enough 
0  give  eome  idea  or  the  propertioaa  it  haa 


niembenhip  of  1^ 

A  aecretary  baa  Deen 
aent  to  visit  the  colored 
young  menoftheSouth- 
am  Statea,  to  organize 


7«. 


n  right  metbuda 
of  Christian  endeavor. 

A  great  work  haa  been 
nndenaken  in  behalf  of 
oommercial    travellers. 


I    by   I 


I  Inu 


HocaAKt.^ 

tan. 

law. 

int. 

«,SS 

SOS 
W.S40 

tmsw 

wo 
i,oss 

M 

"■"■is 

ts.i«,aio 
4n.*ii 

i 
4 

680 
«8 

4S 

» 

gKKWKS=™i^.;iiii:::::;: 

ir!;!ir:  ^ssrciiri^^'ifc^v:?:^^^^^^ 

tional  Canimitiee,whicfa 
entitlea  the  holder  to  all 
the  privileges  of  the  as- 


puinled,  and  the  work  of  thia  depaitment  receives  bis 

So  the  work  i*  ever  enlarging  and  reaching  out  into 
new  fields.  In  1868  the  commillee  expended  in  its 
entire  work  tl899.  Now,Hilhthe  recent  development 
enta,  $22,000  are  required 


III.  ThtOatlavL—luiaSmUmnlo/Worlc/oTimi, 
the  International  Commitiee  has  aniHunced  the  follow- 
ing as  its  Seld  of  labor:  "60,000  college  student*; 
100,000 commercial  travellers;  500,000  German-qiaak- 
ing  young  men ;  600,000  cnlored  young  men ;  SDO.OOO 
railroad  laen:  the  young  men  in  the  statea  west  of 
Ohio;  the  young  men  at  the  South;  the  young  men 
in  Canada;  the  Young  Men's  Chrialian  Asaocistions  of 
Nurth  America."  They  eute  that  the  work  "will  call 
for  the  undivided  effurt  of  nine  men;  the  co-operation, 
for  brief  perioda.  of  tweniy-6ve  members  and  forty  cor- 
responding tnenibera  of  the  committee  in  every  atate 
and  province;  the  visitation  of  more  than  &S0  places; 
130,000  milea  of  travel  by  these  workers;  diatribution 
of  pamphlets  and  documents  relating  to  the  work,  with 
necessary  ciirrespondence.  All  this  can  be  done  with 
ao  much  ecnnomv  thsl  t2-i,000  will  cover  the  total 
cost."  Ill  America  the  field  is  almost  unlimited,  and 
with  its  present  facilities,  the  International  Executive 
Committee  will  go  on  enlarging  the  work  and  gatbet- 
ing  power  while  there  are  any  young  men  yet  unsaved. 

IV.  Aufiitio.— There  have  been  eight  World's  Con- 
ferences held— beginning  with  that  at  Paris  in  1866, 
and  ending  with  that  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  1876. 
Twenty-three  American  International  Conventions  have 
been  held— beginning  with  the  one  at  Buffalo  in  1864, 
and  ending  with  the  one  at  BaUimore  in  1679.  There 
ware  thirty  Slate  and  Provincial  conventiona  held  dur- 
ing ths  year  ending  June,  1880.  Tiiere  ia,  over  and 
above  the  commttteea  already  referred  tn,  an  Interna- 
tional Central  Commillee,  appointed  by  the  Wurld'a 
Conference  at  Oeneva  in  1878,  This  cnmmiltee  rep- 
resents eight  Christian  counlrte^  and  haa  headquar- 
ters at  Genera,  where  the  general  scctetsry  and  one- 


Olltrr  C-Mntna.— The  latest  reports  from  the  British 
Isles  show  688  associalions.  In  1889  partial  relnms  indi- 
cated an  average  membership  of  160  in  England.  Many 
societies  in  Great  Britain  own  the  buildings  in  which  they 
keep  open  reading,  rooms,  and  employ  the  aame  general 
plans  in  their  work  as  have  already  been  described. 

There  are  in  France  61  associations,  but  the  mem- 
bership is  very  small,  avenging  less  than  '20. 

In  Germany  the  slacisties  are  more  encouraging. 
There  are  8S6  aaeociationa  in  all,  of  which  I7B  report 
a  membership  of  8035,  118  have  libraries  aggregating 
30,710  volumes,  170  sustain  educational  classes,  and  173 
conduct  Bible  classes. 

The  total  number  of  assodalioos  in  Holland  ia  408 ; 
but  we  have  no  report  of  membership  or  other  iiema. 

In  Switieriand  there  are  388  aasociations,  80  of 
which  report  a  membership  of  1S84.  There  are  also 
!2  Boys'  Auocialiona.  The  most  of  these  societies 
sustain  prayer- meetings,  Bible  classes,  song  services, 
and  Sunday-schools;  several  have  coHrses  of  lectures, 
ami  a  few  own  libraries.  The  great  msjority  of  them 
have  been  organized  within  a  few  years,  and  more  may 
be  expected  in  the  future  than  has  vet  been  done. 

Sweilen  has  Bl  associations,  with'3i36  members. 

The  following  additional  associations  in  various  coun- 
tries are  reported  :  Italy,  41 ;  Spain,  8;  Austria,  G;  Bel- 
gium, 27;  India,  16;  Syria,  1 — the  one  at  Beirut,  or- 
ganiied  in  1870,  haa  60  member*  and  a  library  of  160 
volumes;  three  others  were  at  Damoacus,  Jaffa,  and 
Kazareth;  South  Africa,  10;  Japan,  10;  Madagascar, 
i;  Sandwich  Islands,  4;  Bulgaria,  0;  Norway,  73. 

There  ate  in  the  world,  so  far  as  reporte.1,  2371  asso- 

Uost  of  tbe  infnrmslion  contained  in  thia  article  has 
been  obtained  from  doctiments  published  by  the  Amer. 
ican  Intematlonsl  Commiltee,  eapeciallv  a  Hiiloricnl 
Sktlehoflht  YouftgMa't  ChrulkmAtindaHnTaoflht 
UnilfdSlatn,  etc.,  written  by  Richard  C.  Mnrse,  aecre- 
tary of  the  Intcniaiional  Commitiee  (N.  Y.  1878) ;  and 
the  YtarJxiok  of  the  International  Commiltee  fur  1809- 
90.     See  also  Ilarptr't  Magamt,  Oct.  1870,  p.  641  sq. 


ZABAD.^IAN 


Zaan'alCm  (Heb.  Tiaana'fim,  &?J^$ ;  Sept  t\(o- 
viKToiirraiy  v.  r.  avavavoitlviav ;  Vulg.  £(nnin ),  th* 
name  of  a  "plain"  (li^^i  tUti),  man  iccuTauly  "the 
oak  bf  (3)  Zaanniioi,"  a  tre«— probablr  a  Mcred  tree — 
mentioned  at  marking  tbe  (pot  near  which  Heber  the 
Keoile  was  encamped  when  Sisera  took  refuge  in  his 
lent  (Jiidg.  iv,  11).  lu  ailuation  is  defined  as  "near 
Kedesh,"  i-a.  Kedeih-Naphtali,  the  name  of  which  itill 
lingers  on  the  high  gmund  north  of  Safed  aiid  west  ot 
the  lake  afel-IIuleh,  usually  identified  with  the  Waters 
of  Uerom.  The  T&rgum  givei  as  the  equivalent  oftbe 
name  miihir  agganij/d,  "  the  plain  of  the  swamp ;"  and 
in  the  well-known  paaaage  ofthe  Talmud  (_Mriftllak  Je~ 
rii(A.ch.i]  which  cnnlains  a  list  ofsevenl  of  the  towns 
iif  Galilee  with  their  then  identiflcations,  I  he  equivalent 
for  "  Glon  (or  Aijalon)  be-Zaannaim"  is  Agtii/a  /tah-h>- 
dah.  Agne  appears  lo  sijpiifT  a  swamp,  and  can  hard- 
ly refer  to  anything  but  the  nianh  which  borders  the 
lake  of  Huleh  on  the  nonh  side,  and  which  was  proba- 
bly more  extenuve  in  the  time  ot  Deborah  than  it  now 
ii.  Sea  ManOM,  On  the  other  hand.  Prof.  Stanlay  hu 
pointed  out  {JetnuK  Chunk,  p.  324 ;  Localilia,  p.  197] 
how  appropriate  a  siluaCion  for  this  memoiable  tree  is 
alTiirded  by  "a  green  plain  .  . .  studded  with  massive 


land  country  is  more  or  less  rich  in  teretnnthi.  One 
such,  larger  than  usual,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Stjar 
em-MnnaJi,  ia  marted  on  the  map  of  Van  de  Velde;  u 
rix  miles  north-west  of  Kedes.  The  name  Zaanaim, 
which  appears  to  signify"  r*mo»ings"(a»if  ■  caraping- 
groimd),  bas  passed  away—at  least  no  trace  of  it  has 
vet  been  discovered  (Porter,  ttandboBk,  p.  444;  Van  de 
Velde,  rratwii,ii,4l8),  "From  the  identity  of  signiflca- 
tion,  it  has  been  conjectured  to  be  Beaiti,  a  little  eaat 
iifTabor.  In  this  plain  the  black  tents  of  the  Bedawin, 
the  modem  Kenilos  may  constantly  be  seen''  (Trislram, 
BMt  PUKa,^it«).    Sea  ZAAKaitNiii. 

Za'ttaui  (Heb.  Ttaan&i,  ^3KX;  Sept.  tiweip; 
Vulg.  M  erifti),  a  place  naowd  t^  Hicah  (i,  11)  in  his 
address  to  the  towns  ofthe  ShefSlah.  This  sentence, 
like  others  of  the  same  paaaage,  contains  a  play  of  words 


,ing(o, 


ning ) 


of  the  name  Zaanan,  as  derived  from  yata^ 
bnbi  "The  inhabitress  of  Tsaanan  came  not  forth." 
Both  Geaeoius  and  FUrst,  however,  connect  the  word 
with  yKt,  making  it  mean  a  (dace  cAomcHug  with  (or 
fitfor)j)i>ejU  Tbedivialon  ofthe  passage  shown  in  the 
Sept.  and  A-  V.,  by  which  Zaanan  ia  connected  with 
Beth-ezel,  is  now  generally  recognised  as  inaccurate.  It 
is  thus  given  by  Dr.  Puiey,  In  his  Ctmnmlaijr,  "The 
inhabitant  of  Zunaa  came  not  rnrtb.  The  nraurning 
of  Beth-ezel  ahill  take  from  you  its  standing."  So  also 
Ewald,  DeWelte,  and  Zunz.  The  place  ii  doubtless 
identical  with  Zkkak  (q.v.). 

Zftanui'iiiin  (Heb.  Ttaancomim',  Q^I9^X;  Sept. 

"Rtttivitviji  V.  r.  Xuwavift ;  Vulg.  Sawunnm),  a  place 
mentioned  only  (in  this  form)  In  Josh,  xix,  83,  and  in 
the  Keri  or  margin  of  Judg.  iv,  1 1 ;  but  usually  thought 
lo  be  the  more  correct  form  of  Zaaaavn  (q.  v.),  which 
occurs  in  the  text  of  the  latter  passage.  It  appears  to 
bederived(ifa  Hebrew  word)  from  a  r. Kit  niX.ront- 
graJe}  signifying  to  load  besau  as  nomads  do  when  they 
change  their  places  of  naldence  (Gesenius,  Thaavr.  p, 
1177),  The  renderingof  the  A.V,  isinconecli  "And 
their  coast  was  from  Heleph,./raiii  .4  ttia  ro  Zmnumnn." 
The  Hebrew  is  D^l»ya  ^^^^  '"^  °"'  ""'r  ■Ignl^ 
■'from  the  oak  of  (or  "la")  Ztanuinim"  (sec  Keil,  ad 


lee.1  Rdand,  PolatL  p.  717;  KtH  ana  Dditacti,  Oa 
Jni^.h.ll;  Pona.Gvmt  CiHa  of  Baikia,^ia,). 

Za'avmn  (Ileb.  Tiaman',  l^SX,  migraloij;  Sept. 
Zotwo/i  V.  r.  'liatav;  Vulg.  Zarm),  a  Horite  chief- 
tain, aecnnd  named  ofthe  three  sons  nf  Exet  (Geik 
ixxvi,  27 ;  1  Chron.  i,  4i,  -  Z«Tan">     EC.  poat  19S7, 

Za'bad  (HeU  Zabad",  t^l,  gift;  Sept.  Zo^  v.r. 
Zo^r  or  Za^of,  elc,),  the  name  of  several  Hebrewa. 

JL,  One  of  David's  warrion,  being  son  of  Nathan  and 
father  of  Ephtsl,  in  the  lineage  nf  Sheshan's  daugfaier 
Ahlai  by  the  Egiptian  slave  Jaiba  (I  Chroo.  ii,  36,S7; 
jx,  41).     D.C.  104S. 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  son  of  Tahath  and  falfaer  of  Sbo- 
thelshZ  (I  Chron.  vii,  !l).    aCpoet  1S7&. 

3.  The  regicide,  sou  of  an  Ammonitets  named  Sbim- 
eath,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Jehoaabsd,  the  SM 
of  a  Moabitess,  slew  king  Joash,  lo  whom  thCT  were 
both  household  officers,  in  bis  bed  (!  Kings  xii,  21 ;  I 
Cfanm.  xiiv,  S6,  !6).  In  the  flnst  of  ihe«  texts  be  is 
called  JoEACHAK  (q.r.).  The  sacred  historian  doea 
not  appear  lo  leconl  the  mongrel  parentage  tt  tbae 
men  as  suggesting  ■  reason  for  Iheir  being  more  easly 
led  to  this  act,  but  as  indicating  the  sense  which  was 
entertained  oflheenormily  of  Jnash's  conduct  that  even 
they,  though  servants  to  the  king,  and  though  only  half 
Jews  by  birth,  were  led  lo  conspire  against  him  "fat  ibe 
blood  of  the  sons  ofjehoiadalbe  priest."  It  would  aeea 
that  their  murderous  act  was  not  abhorred  by  the  peo- 
ple; for  Amaziah,  Ibe  aon  of  Joash,  did  not  venlnre  lo 
call  them  to  account  till  he  felt  hiniseir  wen  ealahlishtd 
on  the  throne,  when  the?  were  both  put  to  death  ( i 
Kings  xiv,  5,6;  !  Chron.  sxv,  3,  4  ).  Joash  had  be- 
come unpopular  from  his  idolatries  (vxiv,  18),  hia  (fi- 
pression  (ver.SS),  and,  above  all,  his  calamltie*  (ver.  1>- 
26).  The  atrassinsweie  both  put  lo  death  by  Amaiial), 
but  Iheir  children  were  spared  in  obedieooe'to  the  law 
of  Uosas  (DeuU  iiiv,  16).  The  CMncidenct  betwta 
the  names  Ztcharink  and  Joiachar  a  remarkable. 

4.  5,  6.  Three  Iiraelile^''soos"reapeetiveljofZaIiD 
(Ezra,  X.  27),  Hishum  (x,  3S),  and  Nebo  (x,  IS),  whs 
divorced  their  Gentile  wives,  married  after  the  leUn 
from  Babylon.     Ra458. 

Zabacbe'au  (Zaf3a2o!ac)i  »>e  derignatioa  of  aa 
Arab  tribe  who  were  attached  and  spoiled  by  Jooaibaii, 
on  his  way  back  to  Datnasrus  from  his  fmiilcea  ponoit 
of  the  army  of  Demetrius  (1  Msec  lii,  SI).  Joaephos 
calls  them  Nabaltiani  (^til.  xiii,  b,  10),  but  he  ii  eri- 
denlly  in  error.  Nothing  certain  is  known  of  them. 
Ewald  {Gach.  iv,  SB3)  finds  a  trace  uT  their  Dune  in 
that  of  the  place  Zabda  given  by  Robinson  in  bis  lists: 
but  this  is  too  far  sonth,  between  the  Yaimuk  and  the 
Zerka.  Hichlelis  suggests  the  Arab  tribe  ZniriAl: 
but  they  do  not  appear  in  the  neccnary  locality.  Jona- 
than had  pursued  ihe  enemy's  army  aa  far  as  Ibe  ritrt 
EleuIhenjs(Kahrel-Kebir),  and  wss  on  his  march  back 
to  DamaaciK  when  be  alttcked  and  plundered  the  Zab- 
adcans.  We  must  look  for  Ihem,  IhcreTore,  sMoew  bcic 
to  the  north-west  of  Dsmascits.  Accordingly,  on  the 
ruad  from  Damascus  to  Baalbek,  at  a  distance  of  eight 
and  two~third  hours  (twenty-six  miles)  from  the  hmn 
place,  is  the  rillsge  of  ZtidAiji,  standing  at  the  appcr 
end  of  a  plain  o?  the  same  name,  which  is  the  wry 
cenlre  of  AntUibanoa.  The  name  ia  possibly  a  relic 
of.  the  ancient  tribe  of  the  Zabadaans.  AMordii^ 
to  Burckhanll  (Sgria,^S),  the  plain  "ia  aboat  three 
quiTten  of  an  hour  in  breadih  and  (hree  boun  in 
length;  it  Is  called  ArdZMtni,  or  the  district  of  Zeb- 
denl ;  it  ia  watered  by  the  Barrada,  one  ofwhose  sraron 
i*  in  tb«  midst  of  it,  and  by  the  rivulet  called  ileirt 
ZMeid,  wboae  source  is  in  tbe  nuHintain  behind  the 
village  ofthe  asme  name,"    The  plain  is  "limacd  oa 


ZABADAXAS  IG 

IKW  Me  hj  tiM  MUtra  put  of  the  ADtillbuiiu,  oUrI 
hfaie  Jdwl  ZebdenL  The  village  a  of  coiuidenble 
■iiB,  contMning  nurly  SOOO  inhabiunu,  who  breed  cat- 
tle and  tbe  iilkworm,  and  have  •ome  dyeing-bmuei" 
(Md,),  Not  tu  fnm  Zebdinr,  oa  the  weatem  elopes 
of  AntiUbaona,  w  anotber  vUiaga  called  K^r  Ztbad, 
which  again  eecmi  lo  point  ut  thie  as  the  district  for^ 
metl7  occopied  by  the  Zabad— na. 

SitNidal'u  (Za(3aJaiac),the  Greek  bim  (1  Eedt. 
Is,  Si)  of  the  Heb.  name  (Eifa  x,  48)  Zabad  (q,  v.). 

Xab'bal  ( Hob.  ZaMoy'.  "'5!  [p"*-  «n  •««  fi" 
^$1,  ZtMatf'y,  Sept.  Zo^;  Vulg.  ZoUin  and 
ZdcilaO,  Ihe  name  of  tiro  Hebcewe. 

1.  The  father  of  Baroch,  whieb  latter  repdnd  part 
of  the  nil  of  Jenmlem  after  ihe  Captivity  (Neb.  iii, 
S0>  RC.  ante  44S.  He  ii  peibaps  tbe  Mme  wilh 
Zaocai  (q.  V.)  of  Ezra  ii,  9. 

3.  A  desecndinl  of  Bebai,  who  divorced  hi*  Qenlile 
with  married  after  tbe  return  fretn  Babyloo  (Eira  x,  28). 
B.C468. 

Zabtmd  (Heb.  Zatbad',  Till  [prob.  an  enw  for 
IVi].  Zaikir,  aa  in  the  marg.] ;  Sept.  ZajSoW),  a  "  eon" 
of  Bigvai  who  relanied  from  Babyloo  with  Eita  (Ezra 
viii,U).     B.C.4a9.    See  Zaccur. 

Zabda'na  (la^atot),  the  Graeii  fonn  (1  Ewlr.  ix, 
21)  of  tbe  HebL  name  (Eira  i,  20}  Zebadiah  (q.  v.). 

Zab'dl  (Heb.  Zabdi;  "flSI,  my  gijt;  Sept.  Zo/MJ, 
Zn^|»,  Zn/i3fii,  etc:  Tulg.  ZaUU,  Zabdiai),  the 
t>f  several  Hebrewi. 

1.  SonofZerahandfatherofCannitheioiiofAchan 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ( Joeb.  vii,  1, 17,  18 ).  EC  ante 
1618. 

3.  Third  named  of  the  nine  nne  of  Shimhi  (Shimei) 
the  BenjamiM  (I  Chron.  viii,  19).    RC  cir.  1612. 

3.  A  Sbiphmite  (Le.  inhalntwit  nf  Shepham),  Da- 
vid'i  comminarf  of  rineyarda  and  wine-cellan  (1  Chroo. 
xXTii,  2T>     aC.  1043. 

4.  An  Aiaphite,  Tather  of  Micha  and  graadfalher  of 
Uattaniah(Meh.  xi,  17};  elaewhera  called  ZAOcuK(xii, 
8ft}  and  Zichbi  (l  Chron.  ix,  15).    RC  ante  MB. 

atab'dlel  (Heb.  Zabdiil;  ^K'^naT,  gift  of  Goth  the 
name  of  three  Jews  meutioned  in  ihc   -      - 
Apocrypha. 

1.  (Sept.  Za3JiqX.)    The  father  of 
chief  of  David's  wanioia  (1  Chroo.  xirit, !).    B.C  aol 
10I6. 

3.  (Sept.Z(r|^iiX v.t.BaihiiX.)  Sim nf HaeRedoUi 
("one  of  the  great  nwn"}a<idoverMeriifl28orthe  cap- 
(irea  returned  from  Babvlon  [Neh.  xi,  14).    RC  «9. 

3.  (Sept.  Za^uiX ;  Jneephus,  Zd^^ac;  Vnlg.  ^ui- 
dieJL}  An  Andian  chieftain  who  pot  Alexander  Baias 
tadeath  (1  Haccxi,  17;  Jnsephiis,jlM:xiii,4,g},  Ac- 
cording U  Diodoriu,  Balls  was  muriered  by  [wo  of  tbe 
offlcen  who  accompanied  him  (Huller,  Fragwt.  Hitl.  ii, 
16). 

ZabrlBkiSt  JoHR  LAmmo,  a  reoerated  clei 
of  tbe  Refomed  (DuUh)  Church  in  America,  wi 
in  1779  at  Albany.  N.  T.  He  graduated  at  Uni 
lege  in  1797,  stitdied  Ibeolngy  under  Dr.  Theodorlc 
Romeyn.  and  waa  licensed  by  tbe  Claads  of  Albany  in 
1800.  Hit  firM  aettlement  waa  in  the  united  churehea 
of  Oreenbuab  and  WynantskiU,  near  Albany,  in  1SD0- 
11.  In  tbe  Utter  year  he  removed  to  Hillsbomigb  (or 
HillMone),  near  New  Bmnswick,  N.  J.,  where  be  minis- 
tered until  hia  death,  in  ISfiO.  His  pulpit  and  pari>- 
chial  Ubnra  were  said  to  be  giealer  than  thoae  of  any 
other  miniuer  of  the  r^ion.  He  was  a  judicious, 
eible,  wise  man:  an  excellent  "old-faabioned"preac 
cTaugelical,  eameat,  and  practical ;  a  father  to  hia  peo- 
ple, and  venerated  by  the  ministry.  Hit  carter  was 
quietly  useful,  his  character  uiapotted  by  the  world, 
and  bl*  inemni?  is  eberlahed  atBODg  the  godly  people 
of  his  large  and  important  charge,  npon  whom  he  left 


ZACCH.ECS 

permanent  stamp  of  his  faithful  teachings.  He 
in  peiwn  short  and  stout,  with  a  large  head  and 
face,  genial  in  exprtsNon,  and  easy  in  hia  manners. 
'"'  *  all  hli  halntual  gravity  and  profeasional  air,  at 
"in  hia  social  intercourse  he  would  astonish  and 
excite  yoa  by  bis  wit,  his  sarcasm,  and  even  drollery.' 
Bis  talent*  were  good,  and  his  attainments  in  the  old 
theology  were  respectable;  He  knew  the  Gospel,  and 
felt  it  and  preached  it  with  cleanMSS,  seal,  and  often 

'  great  power  of  immediate  impreasian.  See  Cor- 
M<n»alofllulbf.Charcki»Aiiteriea,p.^n,^>S. 
(W.J,E.T.) 

Za'bnd  (Heb.  Zabud',  Tiaj,p"Mii,-  Sept  Za/3oi3 

T.  ZajJjJovS'),  son  of  Nathan  Ihe  prophet  (1  Kings  iv, 
6).  aC.1012.  He  is  described  as  a  priest  (AT."  ptin- 
ipal  officer"),  and  as  holding  at  the  court  of  Solomon 
the  confldential  post  of  "king's  friend,"  which  had  been 
occupied  by  Hudiaithe  Archite  during  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid (2  Sam,  XV,  87 ;  xvi,  16 ;  1  Chron.  xivii,  S3),  Thia 
poailioo,  if  it  were  an  official  one,  waa  evidently  distinct 
from  Ihiat  of  counsellor,  occupied  by  Ahithc^hel  under 
David,  and  had  more  of  the  character  of  private  friend- 
ship about  it,  for  Absalom  conversely  calls  David  the 
"friend"  of  Husbai  (2  Sam,xvi,  17}.  Aiariah, another 
aon  of  Nathan,  waa  "over  all  ihe  (household)  offlcen" 
ofking  Solomon;  and  their  advancement  may  doubtlese 
be  ascribed  not  only  to  the  young  king's  respect  for  the 
venerable  prophet,  who  had  been  bis  instructor,  but  to 
the  friendship  he  had  contracted  with  his  sons  during 
the  course  of  education.  The  office,  or  rather  honor,  of 
"  frioid  of  the  king"  we  And  in  all  the  despotic  govern- 
ments of  the  East.  It  gives  high  pown,without  the 
public  respoinbility  which  the  holding  of  a  regular  of- 
Sce  in  the  State  necessarily  imposes.  It  implies  the 
poeseeuon  of  the  utmost  confldenee  of,  and  familiar 
intercourse  with,  tbe  monarcb,  Id  whose  person  "the 
friend"  at  all  times  has  access,  and  whose  influence  it 
theiejbrt  often  Tar  greater,even  in  matters  of  state,  than 
that  of  Che  recognised  ministers  of  government.  In  tha 
Vat.  MS,  of  the  Sepu  the  word  "  prieaf  ia  omitted,  and 
in  the  Arabic  of  the  London  Polyglot  it  is  referred  ta 
Nathan.  The  Peahito-Syriac  and  several  Hebrew  HSS. 
for  "Zabud"  read  "Zaocur."  The  bum  oocun  in  the 
case  of  Zabbuu. 

Zab'nlOD  (Zn^vXwi'},  the  Greek  form  (Wttt.  iv, 
19,15;  Rev.vii.S)  of  tbe  Heb.  name  ZcBUUtK  (q.  v.). 

Zao'cal  (Heb.  ZaUas',  ^^J,pure;  Sept  Zatx"l 
V.  r.  Ziaxoi),  the  ancestor  ot  760  of  the  Israelites  who 
returned  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  9;  Neh.  rii,  14).  EC 
ante  536.     See  also  Zabbai  ;  Zaccdxus. 


I'OB  (Znex"'*^'  *"'  ^^'  ^'^  Zaeeai  [q.  v.]), 
the  name  of  two  Jews,  mentioned  the  one  in  the  Apocry- 
pha, and  the  other  in  the  New  Test. 

1,  An  officer  of  Judas  Msccabnus  left  with  two  oth- 
er* to  bemege  the  citadel  of  Zion  (3  Mace  x,  19).  Gro- 
tins,  from  a  mistaken  reference  to  1  Mace,  v,  GO,  wiahea 
to  read  rai  rir  tov  Zaxtphv. 

2.  The  name  of  a  taxM>>Uector  near  Jericho,  who, 

tree,  in  order  Co  obtain  a  sight  of  Jesos  as  he  passed 
through  that  place.  Luke  only  has  related  the  inci- 
dent (xix,  1-10).  Zacchsus  was  a  Jew,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  his  name  and  from  the  fact  that  the  Sav- 
iour sneaka  of  him  expressly  aa  "a  son  of  Abraham* 
(i>Uc  ilipao^).  So  the  Utter  exprtSMon  should  be 
understood, and  not  in  a  spiritual  sense;  for  it  waa  ev- 
idenriy  meant  to  assert  that  ha  was  one  of  Che  chosen 
race,  notwithstanding  the  prejudice  of  some  of  hia  coun- 
trymen thst  his  office  under  the  Roman  government 
made  him  an  alien  and  outcast  from  Ihe  privileges  of 
Ihe  Israelite.  The  term  which  deaignaiea  this  officu 
(ipX'Tt\MivrK}  '■  unusual,  but  describes  him,  no  douU., 
aa  the  tuperincandcnt  of  custotna  at  Iriliule  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Jericho,  where  be  lived,  as  one  having  a  com- 
miMioaftom  his  Bomao  principal  (nimca* '" ■) 


ZACCUE  10 

Kt  collect  the  imposM  levied  an  the  Jews  by  the  Bo- 
mina,  and  who  in  the  execuiion  of  tb*t  tniU  employed 
■uballerns  (the  ordinary  riXuvai),  who  were  lecounla- 
ble  U>  him,  as  he  in  turn  wu  accountable  to  hii  aupeii- 
or,  whether  he  reiided  at  Kome.as  was  more  conimonly 
tbecaM,ur  in  theptoTiDceiuelt  See  Pubucav.  The 
offlce  muH  bare  b«en  a  lucrative  one  in  sucb  a  region, 
and  it  ia  not  urange  that  Zaccheeua  is  mentioned  by 
the  evangelist  aa  a  rich  roan  (oJroe  ^  TiXoiaux). 
Jowpbiu  statCB  (^nf.  xr,4,'i)  that  the  palrn-grovei  of 
Jericbo  and  ila  garden*  of  bilum  were  given  ai  a  aouree 
of  reveuue  by  Antony  to  Cleopatra,  and,  on  account  of 
their  value,  were  ifWrwanls  redeemed  by  Herod  tbs 
Great  for  hia  own  beneflu  The  sycamore-tree  ia  no 
longer  found  in  that  neighborhood  (Robinson,  £iitAH. 
i,  669);  but  no  one  ihould  he  tiurpriiied  at  this,  aince 
"even  the  soliury  relic  of  the  palm-foreat,  seen  ai  late 
■*  1888"— which  eiiited  near  Jericho,  hu  now  di»p- 
peaied  (Stanley,  Sinai  and  PaL  p.  307).  The  eager- 
neaa  of  Zuxhaui  to  behold  Jeaus  indieatea  ■  deeper 
iPleraM  than  that  of  mere  curiosity.  He  muat  have 
had  nme  knowledge,  by  report  at  leaat,  of  the  leaeh- 
inga  of  Cbriil,  as  well  aa  of  hia  wonder-working  power, 
and  could  thiu  have  been  awakened  to  some  just  relig- 
ioua  feeling,  which  would  make  him  the  more  anxious 
to  iee  the  announcer  of  the  good  tidings,  ao  important 
to  men  u  ainnars.  The  readiness  of  Christ  to  take  up 
bis  abode  with  him,  and  hia  declaration  that  "aalva- 
tion"  bed  that  day  come  to  the  boose  of  bii  entertain- 
er, prove  sufficiently  that  "  He  who  knows  what  is  in 
man"  perceived  in  bim  a  religious  sutceptibility  which 
fitted  bim  to  be  the  recipient  of  spiritual  bleAingt. 
Reflection  opon  his  conduct  on  the  part  of  Zacchous 
himself  appears  to  have  revealed  to  hLm  deflciencie* 
which  disturbed  bis  conscience,  and  he  was  ready,  on 
being  instructed  more  fully  in  regard  to  the  way  of 
liA,  to  engaga  to  "  restore  foarfold"  for  the  illegal  ex- 
actions of  which  he  would  not  venture  to  deny  (tt 
nvic  n  imiKo^miaa)  that  he  might  have  been 
guilty.  At  all  events,  be  had  not  lived  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  overcome  tbe  prejudice  which  the  Jews  en- 
tertained against  individuals  of  bis  class,  and  their  cen- 
•ore  fell  on  him  aa  well  as  on  Christ  when  they  de- 
clared that  the  latter  bad  not  sconed  to  avail  himself 
of  the  boapitality  of  "a  man  that  was  a  nuner."  Tbe 
Saviour  spent  the  night  probably  (^iivai.  ver.  &,  and 
KaTtACmui,  ver.  7,  are  the  terms  used)  in  the  house  of 
Zacclueus,  and  the  next  day  pursaed  hia  Journey  to 
Jerusalem.  He  was  in  the  caravan  from  Galilee,  which 
was  going  up  thither  to  keep  the  Paasover.  The  en- 
tire scene  ia  well  illustrated  by  Ooaunee  (Lange,  HiUI- 
««■*,  iii,  m). 

Wd  read  in  the  Rabtunic  writings  also  of  a  Zaecbe- 
ns  wbb  lived  at  Jericho  at  this  same  period,  well  known 
sn  his  own  account,  and  especially  as  the  father  of  the 
celebrated  rabbi  Jocfaanan  ben-Zachai  (see  Sepp, 
LAm  Jau,  iii,  166).  This  person  may  have  been  re- 
lated to  the  ZacchBUB  named  in  tbe  sacred  narrative. 
Tbe  family  of  the  Zacob«i  was  an  ancient  one,  aa  well 
as  very  numerous.  They  are  mentioned  in  tbe  books 
of  Ezra  (ii,  9)  and  Nehemiab  (vii,  14)  aa  among  tboat 
who  returned  from  tbe  Babyk)Dian  ctptirlty  under 
ZerubtHibel,  when  their  number  amounted  to  aeven 
hundred  and  sixty.  For  tbe  modem  traditions  T»- 
apecting  Zacclueua'a  house,  see  Robinson  (SiU.  Sn.  ii, 
MS).  According  to  eccleeiastical  tradition,  Zscchsos 
eventually  became  bishop  of  Ccsarea  in  Palestine 
{Contl.  Nal.  Apoil.  vii,  K\  comp.  Qement,  Rfeogn.  iii, 
65  sq.).  See  Sturemberg,  Zaahaui  lOaitraliu,  in  the 
Synbol,  Dviib.;  Kreese,  D«  iSycamoro  Zacckai  (Upa. 
IHM);  Croasmao,^u(.o/Z(icc^u(Lond.iaM);  and 
the  literature  referred  to  by  Darling,  Cydap.  Bibliog. 
coLIOBI,  loei.    See  JxauB  Cbbibt. 

ZBo'ohar  orZao'onrCHeb.ZoiUti'-',  '^>izt,  mie^ 
ful;  Sept.  ZatX'i^P  ^- ''  ZtHroOp  or  Znjrxup),  the  name 
•f  aevenl  Hebrews.    See  Z«bbi;d. 


S6  ZACHAKIAS 

1.  A  Smeonile,  son  of  Hamoel  and  b'jHS  of  ik 
Shimei  whose  pmteritv  became  numenna  (1  ChRni.  it, 
26,  A  V. "  Zacchur">     0.0.  oonsidenbly  ante  1618. 

a.  The  father  ofShimca,  which  latter  waa  the  Bea- 
benite  "  spy"  sent  out  to  explore  Canaan  the  second  tima 
(Numb.xiii,4).     aa  ante  1618. 

3.  A  Levite,  third  named  of  the  four  "aona  of  HcTMl 
by  Jasiiah-  {I  Chron,  xxiv,  27).    aC  IMS. 

4.  First  named  of  the  four  aons  of  Asaph  as  Lcviticd 
muriciana  in  the  arrangement  of  David  (t  Chnm.  xxr, 
2, 10  J  Meb.  iii,B6).     B,aiM8, 

5.  Son  of  Imri  and  builder  of  part  of  the  wall  of  Je- 
ruaatetn  under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  Ui,  S}.     aC  446. 

6.  Son  of  UatUniah  and  father  of  the  Haoan  wfaoai 
Nebemiab  appointed  to  diatribute  tbe  treamrea  (Nek 
xUi,  IS),     aa  ante  410. 

7.  A  Levite  who  agned  the  sacred  covenant  wilk 
Nehemiah  (Keh.  x,  12).    aC.  410. 

ZaobuUl,  GOTTHILT  Tbaugott,  a  Gennan  thenlo- 
giao,  was  bom  at  Taucbardl,  ui  Thuringia,  in  1 739,  ni 
studied  at  Kttnigsberg  and  Halle,  being  the  pupil,  aaao- 
ciate,  and  amaauenais  in  tbe  latter  place  of  the  lemi- 
ed  Baumgoiten.  He  was  called  in  1760  to  the  newly 
founded  University  of  BUtiow,  in  1765  to  Gcitliiigea, 
sod  in  177G  to  Kiel,  where  he  died  two  yean  afterraida. 
Hia  repotadon  aa  a  scholar  resta  prindpally  upoa  the 
BibSteht  TlHokgit,  oda-  VnltrtiKtinig  dr*  Gmda  ^ 
vonwlmffei  bitlitclux  Lrlirm  (  1771-76,4  ptSi,*  ae»- 
tions,  with  SnppL  by  Volborth  [1786]).  Tb«  w  * 
copied  tbe  aupranaturaliatic  ground  held  by  B~ 
ten,  professing  a  belief  in  reveladoD  and  miradea,  Ipot 
applying  the  bistorico-critical  method  of  interprMaCioB 
to  the  proofs  deduced  from  Scripture,  and  cither  eluu- 
nating  them  altogether  or  depriving  them  of  any  cob- 
aiderable  force.  The  end  of  tbe  divine  economy  (/ 
redemption  is  represented  as  being  the  bletsedota 
which  Christ  will  bestow,  which  coniusta  in  tbe  fruits 
of  bis  atonement.  The  necenity  for  an  atooeoMH 
is,  bowever,  said  to  conflict  with  the  idea  of  the  Ere*- 
dom  of  the  divine  wiU.  A  progretaive  econonij  ef 
grace  is  spoken  of,  but  is  shown  in  Its  outward  maiiH 
festationa  in  tbe  mere  enameration  of  historical  evtMs 
only.  It  ia  aaid  to  have  been  VoA't  Brat  derigo  to  ea- 
uhlish  faith  in  the  Ine  God,  aitd  to  raveal  nothing  t^ 
epecting  Christ  until  tbe  truth  rMpecting  God  abo^ 
have  been  suffldently  impreiaed  on  the  ninda  of  men. 
The  work  evidently  does  not  deserve  tbe  eoeoniiuaa 
bestowed  on  it  by  Mitnch,  Scbenkel,  etc  ZachariC 
published,  besides,  paraphrastic  expoaitiotis  of  tbe  epia- 
ties  to  tbe  Romans,  Corinthians,  Galatiana,  rplii  aiaiia. 
Colossiaos,  Tbeaalonians,  Hebrew^  etc.,  which  were  to- 
vorahly  received  and  repeatedly  pDblishcd.  See  Thieaa. 
GtUhrtaguek.  da-  Uimtrtitat  Kitl,  pL  ii ;  Derinfc,  IA 
gtltkrtai  Tktaiogat  DruttAtaodt,  pt.  ir;  Scbenkel,  ik 
Sf«d.  u.  Kiil.  (A^ifyahi  dir  Bibl.  Tteof.),  I8&2,N&1( 
Henog,  Rtal-Eiui/Uop. »,  v. 

ZaOhui'kb  (a,!  Kings  xiv,  29 ;  xv,  S,  11 ;  1^  1 
Kings  zviii,  2).    See  Zkchariar. 

Zao 
Heb.  ni  ... 

Apocrypha  and  New  Test.,  besides  tl 
the  OU  Test. :  the  priest  in  Jnuah'a  reign  (1  Esdr.  i,  8), 
the  lesser  prophet  (  vi,  1 1  vii,  3},  the  adviser  of  Ena 
(viii,  44i  oomp.  Eara  viii,  16),  the  "son"  of  PIi«- 
rasb(l  Esdr.  viii,  80 1  comp,  Eora  viii,  8),  the'-sod'or 
Bebai(IEadr.Tiii,87;  comp.  £ira  viii,  11),  a  "ana"  of 
Etam  (1  Esdr.  Ix,  27  i  comp.  Ects  X,  26),  and  ime  (1  Eadr. 
i,16)  who  is  properly  called  irairaa{S  Chron.  xxxr,16X 
and  another  (Zopainr,  1  Esdr.  v,  8)  property  called  j1hi> 
HoA,  or  aeraii-h  (Ezra  ii,  2 :  Neb.  vU,  7}. 

1.  Son  of  Barachios,  who,  our  Lord  says,  waa  dalii  by 
the  Jews  between  the  altar  and  the  Temple  (Hatl.  xxHl, 
85;  Lnke  xi,  51).  There  has  been  much  disrute  who 
this  Zaebarias  waa.  There  is  no  reason  to  identity  faia 
with  tbs  Zeehariah  son  of  Jeberecbiab  menthocd  in  Im 
viii.t,   Itisaingularlhat  Josephua(H'iir,iv,t,4)m()^ 


ZACHARIAS  1< 

lion*  aiKilhcr  Zachariu,  unaf  Barucb,  wlra  wu  alainb; 
tbc  Jcva  ill  the  Temple  ibunly  beTnre  Ihe  lut  licge  of 
Jemulein  begun  (tee  Wbinon't  note,  ad  loc).  From 
the  lime  of  Ungen,  who  niales  tbit  tbe  father  of  John 
the  Dapcucwu  killed  in  the  Temple,  many  or  the  Greek 
fathen  hare  muntained  thit  thia  ii  tbe  pemn  lo  whom 
our  Lord  rcfen.  The  name  ol  t^^t  father  of  Zacbarias 
not  being  menttnned  by  Luke,  aoiDe  uDwarrahtably 
HipfioM  that  tbe  name  uf  Baracfalaa  crept  into  the  text 
of  Matthew  from  a  marginal  glon,  a  confuaiaa  hav- 
ing been  made  between  Zacharius  the  son  of  Jeboiida, 
ami  Zachariaa  the  prr^bet,  the  aon  of  Banehiaa  (Bere- 
chUh).  There  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  that  the  aUu- 
■inn  ia  to  Zechiriah,  the  ann  of  Jehniada  (2  Chron.  laiv, 
20^  31).  As  tbe  book  of  Chninidea— in  which  the  mur- 
ilcr  nf  thia  Zechsriah  occurs— cloaca  Ihe  Hebrew  canon, 
thii  asaanination  waa  the  laat  of  tbe  murders  of  righle- 
oiH  men  recorded  in  Ihe  Bible,  just  aa  that  nf  Abel  waa 
the  Hrat  (see  8ix\tn,yU dt  Jiiiu,p.&S9),    See  Zeliia- 

2.  FatherofJaaephialeaderin  the  flnt  campaign  of 
tbe  MaccabBin  war  (I  Uacc  v   Ifl.  56^2). 

3.  FatbetorJuhntheBaptiat  (Lukei,o,etc).  EC. 
■nIeS. 

ZachaiiaB.  pope  from  A.D.  741  to  T63.  He  induced 
the  Lombard  king  Luitprarkd  lo  restore  the  dtiea  taken 
from  Rome  in  739,  to  conclude  a  truce  fur  twenty  ; 
and  aubseqnenily  to  desiat  from  the  aiege  of  Bii 
and  reslore  all  the  territory  taken  from  the  exarchate. 
He  waa  equally  auccenful  in  inOneiicing  Luitprand' 

qneata,  and  even  received  that  monarch  and  hia  queei 
and  daughter  into  the  number  of  hia  clergy  (749)  ifler 
their  abdicalion  of  tbe  throne.  He  aim  iwnaecnil«l  Car- 
Inman  to  Ibe  clerical  ofBce  (747).  He  advised  tbe  By- 
santine  emperor  Copronymua  (o  replace  tbe  images  in 
the  churebei.  Boniface,  Ihe  apmitle  to  (he  Germans, 
fiHind  in  Zachariaa  an  energetic  and  able  manager  of  the 
inlercstaof  Etaine,ind  became  bia  agent  in  Ihe  elevation 

in  748  at  which  fifty-nine  biahopa  were  preseni,  and 
whteb  dealt  with  qneations  of  diaciptine.  He  tranalated 
the  Z>Hiainrjiof6reKnry  the  Great  iiilo  Greek,  and  pnr- 
chased  the  liberty  of  many  slam  destined  by  Ihe  Ve- 
netians for  Africa.  SeeJaifi!,  A'pTfTu  Amfi/Eruni.-Higne, 
Pitlroloffif,  ton).  89 ;  WHrtifeiii  and  Citea,  cnllecliona  of 
Banirace'iileItets,5f.fiom:/.(7/>eru  (Lond.  1845),  vol  i; 
Ucraog,  RraUKargldfi'p.  a  v. 

ZaobailM,  Daniel,  D.D.,  an  esteemed  miniater  of 
Ihe  German  RefomMd  Church,  was  bom  in  Washington 
CnDnly,Hd..Jan.  14, 1806.  He  united  wiih  Ihe  Cbiiich 
under  the  Ker.  James  Rom  Reily,  and  (oon  afterwards 
commenced  his  classical  stuilies,  preparalniy  to  Ibe  min- 
iitry.al  the  Ilajnmown  Academy,  aiul  flnished  Ihe  HOie 
in  Canonabure,  i'a.  Subsequenily  he  eiiiered  the  Semi- 
nary nf  Ihe  Reformed  Church,  then  located  in  Carliale, 
wliere  he  completed  his  theological  course  under  the 
Kev.  Lewis  Uaver,  O.D.  He  was  licensed  and  onlained 
in  18^8,  and  located  in  Vnrk  County.  In  1630  he  took 
charge  of  the  Reformeil  Church  in  Harrisburg,  where  he 
OHitinucd  to  labor  until  188a.  when  he  removed  to  Fred- 
erick Citv,  Hd.  Here  he  labored  with  greal  acceptance 
and  Bucceas  to  the  close  ofhis  Inng  and  iiBeful  life.  He 
died  Match  31, 1870.    Dr.  Zachariaa  was  a  man  of  aupe- 

aition,  and  more  than  ordinary  pulpit  abilities,  "Few 
men  have  been  to  Inved  by  their  oongr^alinna,  or  have 
■o  grown  into  the  affect  inns  of  the  community  in  which 
they  lived."  Aa  a  public  speaker  he  was  greatly  ad- 
I  mifed,  and  nnirenally  esteemed  ai  a  mott  excellent 
pastor,  genial  companion,  and  tnisly  friend.  He  was 
ehnaen  ptcaident  of  the  District  Synoil  in  1836,  and  of 
the  General  Synod  in  IttGfl.  He  aided  materially  in 
compiling  the  bymn-book  of  the  Reformed  Cburch.'and 
■lao  ui  getting  up  ita  present  Ordtr  of  Woniip.  See 
Ibf.Cluirch  .WrM,  Ap-'ifl.  1H7S.    (D.  Y.  H.) 


57  ZADOK 

Zaoh'UT  {Zaduxriiu'),  a  mode  of  AngUdiing  (1 
Eadr.  i,  40)  tbe  name  of  the  prophet  Zkchauau. 

Ztt'ohcT  (Heb.  Ze'htT,  ^31,  in  pause  Za-btr,  ->=T, 
mtmoriati  Sept.  Zaxoip  v.  r.  Zac^Di'jp),  last  named  i>f 
tbe  eight  aooa  of  Jehiel  the  founder  uf  Uibeun,  by  hia  wife 
Haachah  (I  Chroiu  viii,  SI) ;  eluewbcre  (ix,  87)  called 
Zechariak  (q.  v.). 

Za'dak(Heb.riadDi',pi*TX,  ngkteoui;  Sept.  Za- 
fw  v.r.  Xajfaw,  £a2u(,etc;  Jasephna£d£i«DC,^n/. 
vii,  %  %  etc),  the  name  of  aeveral  Hebre»-a,  and  one 
that  also  appears  occasionallv  in  tbe  pnsi-Biblical  biiw 
tory.  The  annciate  of  Juda'h  Ihe  Gaulonile.  Ibe  well- 
known  leader  of  Ihe  agitation  against  Ibe  census  nf 
QuirinuB,was  a  certain  Hhartaee  named  Zadok  (Joee- 
phua,  .1  nr.  iviii,  1, 1),  and  the  sect  nf  tbe  Sadducee*  (q.  T.) 
is  reputed  lo  haredetired  bath  ita  name  and  origin  fn>m 
a  peraun  of  the  aame  name,  a  diaeipte  of  Aniigoiiua  uf 
Soho.  (See  Lightfuot,  Utbr.and  Tatn.  Kxr>c.  un  Mali. 
iii,8;  Renan. I'm de  Jaauf, p. S16.)  A  "Sadnc"  (I.ij'^ir) 
finally  occurs  in  oar  Saviutir'a  geneakigy  (Uaiu  i,  14). 
It  ia,  moreover,  worth  tiolicing  that  the  Ne«-Te«l.  name 
Jiutai  (Acts  i,  2S;  Kviii,  7;  CuL  iv,  II)  is  Ihe  literal 
translation  of  Zadok.  Zedeltiah,  Jeboiadak,  may  like- 
wise be  compared. 

1.  Son  of  Ahitub,  and  one  of  the  two  chief  priesta  in 
the  time  of  David,  Abialhar  (q.  v.)  being  the  other. 
aC  1023.  Zadok  was  of  Ibe  bnuaa  of  Elf  axar  Ihe  eon 
ofAaran(IChron.iixiv,8).  Theaialmentionorhiraiain 

1  Chron.  xii,!8,  where  we  are  told  that  he  joined  David 
at  Hebron,  after  Saal'*  death,  with  twenty-two  captains 
of  hia  falher'a  house,  and  apparently  with  nine  hundred 
men  (4600-3700,  ver.  id.  27).  Up  to  ibu  time,  it:  may 
be  concluded,he  had  adhered  to  Ibe  bouse  of  Saul.  But 
henceforth  hii  flilelity  to  David  was  inviolable.  When 
Absalom  rerolted,  and  David  Hed  from  Jeruaalem,  Za- 
dnk  and  all  Ihe  Levitea  bearing  the  ark  accompanied 
him,  and  it  waa  only  at  Ihe  king's  express  command 
that  Ibey  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  became  the  me- 
dium of  cmnmuiiicalinn  between  the  king  and  Huahi^ 
the  Archite  (S  Sam.  xr,  xvii).  When  Absalom  waa 
dead,  Zadok  and  Abiaihar  were  Ihe  peranna  who  pcr- 
aiiaded  Ihe  elden  of  Judah  to  invile  David  to  return 
(xix,  II).  When  Adunijah,  in  David's  old  age,  set 
up  fur  king,  and  had  persuaded  Jnab  and  Abiathar 
Ihe  priest  to  join  hia  party,  Zadok  waa  unmoved,  and 
waa  employed  by  David  to  ancant  Sofcunon  to  be  king 
in  his  room  ( I  Kings  i ).  For  thia  Ailelity  be  waa 
rewarded  by  Solomnn,  who  "  thmat  out  Abiathar  from 
being  prieM  nnlo  the  Lord,'  and  "put  in  Zadok  the 
priest"  in  his  roam  (ii,  37,&S).  Fmm  thia  time,  how- 
ever, we  hear  Utile  of  him.  It  is  said  in  general  termn, 
in  the  enumeration  of  Solomon's  ufflcen  of  state,  that 
Zadok  waa  the  priest  (iv,  4 ;  1  Chron.  x.iix,3«),  but  m 
single  act  of  his  ia  menlinneri.  T.\tn  in  the  detailed 
acoiiunt  of  the  bidlding  and  dedicatinn  of  Salomon's 
Temple  his  name  does  not  nccar,  though  Josephns  aaya 
Ihal  "Sadoc  the  high-print  was  Ihe  flrst  high-priest 
of  the  Temple  which  Solomon  buili''(,l<ir.x.8,a).    In 

2  Sam.  XV,  27  Zadok  ia  named  a  seer;  but  we  have  no 
further  or  more  particular  information  aa  to  the  revela> 
liana  which  were  granted  to  him.    See  I'RiitaT. 

We  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  the  high-pricst- 
hood  passed  out  of  the  line  of  Phinehah  tbe  son  of 
Eleaiar,  who  was  Ihe  elder  son  of  Aamn,  into  Ihe  line 
of  Eli,  who  waa  descended  from  Ithamar,  Aarnn'a  young- 
er son ;  but  we  do  know  the  doom  pmnonnceil  by  Jeho- 
vah, that  the  unworthy  house  of  Eli  should  be  dispos- 
aesaed.  No  doubt  much  confusion  bad  ensued  upnn 
Ihe  death  of  Eli's  two  snns,  and  the  capture  of  Ibe  ark 
by  Ihe  Philisiinea:  of  Ibis  we  have  abunilant  evidence: 
(i)  ill  the  unsettled  poaition  of  Ilie  labmiacle,  lill  we 
find  David  honariiig  it  at  (iibeon;  (i)  in  the  want  of 
interest  in  tbe  ark,  till  he  brought  it  np  to  Mount  Zinn ; 
and  (8)  in  the  abwnee  of  any  Axed  centre  of  wor-hip, 
sn  ihat  Samuel  sacriliceil  in  different  places,  according 
to  the  irregular  manner  if  Ihat  period  uf  transition  in 


ZADOK  10 

which  be  pnddfd.  Saul  tppireally  attcniptcd  la  n-  ' 
(irpite  the  hi);li-prini1v  huute  of  Eli,  on  teeount  of 
what  he  reckuiiMl  the  treiaon  of  Alnmslech  (1  Sam. 
xxii,  I7'3S),  H)  thit  only  hi«  sin  Abiatli«r  neaped; 
lUid  the  fuUuwiiig  chapter  natralCB  haw  thi«  young  man 
came  lu  Uaviil.  earning  wiih  him  the  high-prieit'i 
ephixl,anil  biw  Jehuvah  acknowledge!)  him  u  the  true 
high- priesi,  inquiring  ur(iDil,on  belialfoT  that  fugitive, 
whu  wia  Ihe  true  king  of  larieL  Tlic  only  conjecture 
we  t^}  liiipiMed  to  make  is  that  king  Sinl  may  al  [hi> 
lime  liave  declaceil  lliat  Abiathar  was  an  outlair,  who 
had  f^rfriteii  the  high-prieilhood,  and  may  have  de- 
vlared  that  the  office  reverteil  to  the  bnuie  of  Elcazar, 
111  which  Zadiik  belongeil:  (here  might  lie  ■  ilmke  of 
jmlicy  in  hia  Ihiia  renlining  the  conatitulioo  of  the 
prienlliiml  acconliiift  to  the  law  of  Moaea,  analncnua  ID 
hia  alaughter  of  llie  liilieonile*,  "in  hia  leil  to  the 
■•hililreii  of  laraci  ami  Jwlah'  (i  Sam.  xai,  2).  If  »,  it 
ticvy  111  see  liow  Ihe  Iwo  rival  royal  houiea  had  their 
rival  [irieiiily  h.iiiiie>  i.*i  and  how,  a  I  the  end  of  the 
rivil  war,  Uarid'a  policy  uf  pradnal  and  aniicahle  re- 
■'•iiiatrucliun  would  lead  tiim  tn  acknnwledge  bnih  biglb 
|lrir«^  especially  after  Zadok'a  heany  adheaion  to 
Uavid'a  inleieal.  l>erhaps,iD  memory  of  hia  early  miU 
ilary  »rvice>  Zadok  had  a  place  among  Ihe  priucea  nf 
llie  Iriliei  anigiinl  him  hy  Davhl,  aa  ruler  over  the 
Aaroiiitea(l  Chrun.  xxvii,  IT).  In  lawr  timet  wa  umial- 
ly  HihI  two  pric«li>,the  high-prieM  and  Ihe  second  priest 
(i  King*  XXV,  IS),  and  Ifaeie  doea  in>t  aeem  lo  have 
been  any  great  difference  in  Iheir  dignity.  So,  li>o,Luke 
ill,  2.  Zacluk  ami  Atiialliar  were  of  nearly  equal  dig- 
nity (3  San). XV, 85, SG;  xix.ll).  Horhni  and  fhine- 
haa,  again,  and  Eleaiar  and  Iihamar,  are  coupled  lo- 
gether,  and  aeem  to  have  been  holder*  of  the  office,  aa  it 
were,  in  oommiMion,  The  dutiea  of  the  office,  loo,  were, 
in  the  caae  of  Zadok  and  Abiathar,  divided.  Zadok  min- 
iKtered  before  Ihe  tabernacle  at  Uibeon  (1  Chron.  svi, 
B9);  Abiathar  had  the  care  of  Iheark  at  JeniMlem;  not, 
however, e>eluairely,aa  appear*  from  1  Gbron.  xv,  II; 
2  Sam.  XV,  ii,  3G,  30.  Hence,  perhaps.  It  may  be  coi>- 
dnded  that  from  Ihe  Hnt  there  wai  a  tendenci'  to  con- 
aider  the  office  of  the  prieethaod  as  Bomewhat  of  the 
nalure  of  a  corpnrale  office,  sli hough  aoine  of  its  fmic- 
linui  were  nceenarily  conflned  lo  the  i;hjef  member  of 
that  corporation ;  and  if  so,  it  in  very  easy  to  perceive 
hnw  auperitir  abililies,  on  Ihe  one  hand,  and  iid'ancy  nr 
incapacity,  on  the  otiier,  might  operate  to  raiae  or  de- 
|ire<s  the  members  of  this  corporaiitm  respectively.  Za. 
dok  leeuis  lu  have  been  succeeded  in  the  priesthond  liv 
his  son  Azariah  (I  Kings  iv,  3),  strictly  apeaking  his 
aon'a  son.  >f*re  observe  I  Chron.  vt,  B,  9,  and  S  Sam.xv, 
ST.   llial  ilcontinued  wilhout derangement  in  his  fam- 


ilyn 


d  by  t1 


inetdcntal  reference  In  "Aeariah,  Ibe  chief  priest,  of  tbe 
houseuf  Zadok,"  in  Heiekiab's  time  (SChron.  xxxJ,  10). 
The  Isngnagein  Eieh. x1, -IT ;  xliii.ia;  iliv,l&;  xlviii, 
11  bean  high  lesiimnny  to  the  faithfulness  of  the  piiesla, 
Ihe  siHia  of  Zulok;  sn  much  so  that  the  pnipbet  takes 
no  notice  «f  any  priests  be^det  them.    See  HlOH- 

3.  FatheroT  Jenisha,  whnwas  the  wifeof  king  Hi- 
liah  and  mother  of  king  JotbaiD  (3  Kings  xv,  8S;  S 
Chron.xxvii,]).    aCT5S. 

3.  According  lo  the  genealogy  of  the  blgh-prieats  in 
I  OiTuii.  vi,  12,  there  was  ■  second  Zadok,  son  uf  a  sec- 
ond Ahitub,  son  or  Amariah;  and  he  ia  there  given  as 
the  father  of  Shallum.  KC.  dr.  TOO.  He  aeemi  also 
tn  be  lefend  la  in  ix,  1 1 ;  Nth.  xi,  11.  S..nie  critics 
are  di^iaeed  lo  regard  this  name  as  an  interpolation  by 


4.  Son  of  fiaana.who  repaired  a  portion  of  the  wall 
lnihelimeorNehemiah(Keh.iii,4).  aCilC.  He  is 
pTubably  the  same  an  la  in  the  list  of  ttiose  Ihat  sealed  Ihe 


18  ZALMON 

that  of  HeshexabeeL  Dut  if  so,  we  know  that  he  wm 
not  a  priest,  as  his  name  wouU  at  tint  eight  lead  osie  te 
suppose,  but  one  of  "  Ihe  chief  of  Ihe  people,'  or  laii*. 
With  this  agrees  his  patronymic  Baana,  which  indimn 
that  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah;  for  Uaanah,  one  uf 
David's  mighty  men,  was  n  Netophatbile  (2  Sam.  uuii, 
29),  L  c.  of  Nelophah,  •  city  of  Judah.  The  own  J 
Tekoah,  anotlier  city  of  Judah,  worked  next  to  Zwli4. 
house  of  Ueahesabecl,  who  prenrini 
bulb  lisU  (Neh.  iii,  4  and  x,  20.  21)  was  alao  at 
be  of  Judah  (xi,  24).  Jntrnnarviagn  cf  ibe 
of  Judah  were  more  frt- 


ewall  over  against  his  own 
G.  He  belonged  lo  ibe  in 
),  which  was  one  of  those  ll 


,87). 


>n  repaired  a  pemioa  of 
use  (.Neb.  iii,  3»).  ttC 
conrw  (1  Chnm.  xxiv. 
relumed  fruan  lUbyka 


of  the  three  priitcipal  ti 
pointed  by  Nehe>nish(Keb.xiii,  13).  U.C4ia   Hewai 
perbape  identical  with  No.4  or  S  abnve. 

Za'ham  (Heb.  id.,  cni,  in  pause  CHT,  rmacaittr  ae 
fahuu;  Sept.  Zoiifi  v.  r.  ZaXd/i  and  PooXnfi;  Tolg. 
Zmhb),  but  named  ofihe  three  anns  of  Rehnboambvm 
of  bis  wives  (2  Chion.  xii.  19),  named  Abibsil  (q.  v.l. 
aeconling  lo  the  common  veiwuii,  biit.uKeil  mmiBiaim. 
{Comrnn'.  ad  kic.)  hv  Hahith  (Abihail  being  tbc  modi- 
et  of  Ihe  latter).    RC.  978. 

Zs'Yt  (Heb.  Ttair-,  -i'7X,  tmall,  as  often:  Srf*- 
Ziup;  Tulg.  Sfirii),  a  place  iiamnl  in  2  King*  viii,  2t. 
in  the  account  of  Joram's  expedition  against  the  Eilots- 
ites,  as  one  to  which  be  went  with  all  hia  chariH*. 
There  he  and  his  force  appear  lo  have  been  surmuDdrd. 
and  only  tii  hare  escapeil  by  culling  their  w*y  throaeb 
in  Ihe  night-  Thia  is  not,  however,  Ihe  iiiler|wvtaiiui 
of  the  Jewish  com  menl  Mors,  w1h>  lake  the  word  Z*^S^ 
to  refer  to  Ihe  tieighboHng  pacts  of  Ihe  country  of  E4ti)B 
( see  Kashi,  On  2  Ckrvn.  rri,  9 ).  The  parallel  ae- 
count  in. Chronicles  <ixi,  9)  agrees  with  this,  exnfa 
that  the  words  "to  Zair"  are  omilled.  and  the  wnttii 
"with  hia  princes"  inseneil.  Iliis  ia  fulhiwed  by  Jiae~ 
phuB  (Anl.  ix,  6, 1  ).  11ie  omilled  and  iinerted  woedi 
have  a  cenain  timilariiy  both  in  sminil  atui  in  ibeh 
component  letters  H^^J^  and  l^^fatJ;  and  on  this 
it  has  been  cunjmured  ihat  tlie  latter  were  snliMiiuird 

icntionallv,  because  the  name  Zair  was  not  elaewbei* 
known  ( see  Keil,  Comrnnl.  or  2  A'n>9>  ran,  81  >.  Cib- 
ers,  again,  as  Mover*  {Clmmik.  p.  218)  and  Ew*U 
{GtKk.  ill,  624),  suggest  that  Zaii  is  identical  with 
Zear  (iSlt  or  "^TIX).  Cenainly  in  the  Middle  Age* 
the  mad  by  which  an  army  paned  from  JiidieB  to  rhc 
connlry  fiinnerly  occupied  by  Edum  lay  through  the 
place  which  was  Ihenbeliereil  10  be Zoar.lirhiwKcnk,  at 
the  south-eaat  quarter  of  the  Dead  ^ca  <  Fiilchcr,  Crtfn 
llri,  p.  403),  and  so  far  this  is  in  Tavor  of  the  idrntlfica- 
lion;  but  there  is  no  other  stippnrl  lo  it  in  tlieHS.nail- 
ings  either  of  the  original  or  Iheveisioni.  A  third  eoa- 
Jeclure,  grounded  on  the  readings  of  Ihe  Xu\e.  (STi^o^ 
ami  the  Arab,  rer^on  {S>in%  ia  that  Zair  i>  an  alter*- 
tinn  for  Stir  (^-^'SZ),  the  enuiilri'  ilnlfof  Ihe  Ethmites 
(Thm'HtHjKurzg'/.nrffrl.Hamib.').  The  olijrctHw  m 
lUis  is  that  the  name  of  Seir  sppean  not  lo  have  be*> 
kiioun  to  the  author  of  the  book  of  Kingih 

Za'Iaph(HebLT'«iJopi',qb;f,«>)MiBd.-  Sept.  TtXi* 
T.r.  £<Xi  and  GXtf;  Vulg.  £<^),  Ibe  hiher  of  Hb- 
nun,  which  latter  rebuilt  part  nf  Iba  wall  of  Jervolrm 
alter  Ihe  Exile  (Neh.  iii,  30).     aC  ante  44e. 

Zal'mon  (Heb.  T-ilwum',  y-zhx,  iltody.-  Sepc 
&Xj.«v  V.  r.  S(*>.>.  etc.i  Tuly.  &/»* 


d  of  a  hilL 


(q.rO.ii 


pnfcn  (Diitti.  p.  187),    Sm 


2.  A  mMnt^n  pR)  or  wooded  emlnenM  in  the  in 
raeiliate  neighborhood  of  Sbecfaem,  from  which  Abimc 
l«h  and  his  people  cut  down  Che  boughawiih  which  be 
*utr>cated  and  hunieil  the  Sbechttmitu  who  hid  liken 
refuge  in  the  ciliJel  (Judg.  Ix,18).  The  reidinft  oTcha 
Hfipl.  here  i'Rptiiv)  ia  nmarhible  both  in  iUeW  ind  in 
the  ran  thit  the  two  Ki»t  HSS.  ifcree  in  i  teiding  K 
much  nnmred  from  the  Hebrew;  but  it  b  impouibtc 
to  euppiiM  that  tftrmon  (i 


1  place  of  the  ■■ 


De)U  tefi- 
<>f  Abimelech.  The  ribbiiu  mei 
liimp,  but  cTulenLlr  far  Onm 
(Sohwin,  P"lf1.  p.'lS7).  The  name  SitMaiijjdi  ii  it- 
Uchcil  tu  the  S.E.  portion  of  Mount  Ebi)  (ace  the  map 
of  Dr.  Ko«en,  ZatKhr.  der  dtuudm  nuirgmL  GtttU.  xiv, 
6S4),  ail  J  Jel«l  Sldman  i*  the  uime  of  >  high  cniupicu- 
ou*  aumiDit  S.W.  of  ind  linked  with  Mount  Ceriiim, 
hiving  on  it  ■  lomb  attribuled  hv  Mnhimmedan  tn- 
diti.ni  lc<  Sleiman  el-Fini  (Vm  de  Telde,  Ui 
SM).  The  only  high  mounuint  imund  Shecbem  are 
Ebal  and  Geriiim,  inil  Zalmmi  mav  be  mother 
fur  one  of  these.  The  ninte  of  Didmaimlha  haa  been 
itup]i»Kd  by  aome  to  be  ■  corruption  of  that  of  Taaloion 
(Qiho,  Lfx.  Rubb.  a.  t.  "  Daimanutha"). 

It  i*  oaaally  auppoaed  thai  thin  hill  ii  menii 
P»tlxTLii,14(A.V."Salinnn");  ami  Ihii  i»  probable, 
though  the  panage  is  peculiarly  diSicult,  ami  the  pre- 
ciae  allusion  intended  by  the  poet  seenu  hnpcleasly  lutt 
G>mmentatori  dider  fnim  each  other;  and  FUrst,'with- 
ill  J76  iwgea  of  bis  /ftmdwdrferbueh^  differa  Troiti  him- 
eeir  (nee  A^:^  aitd  'O^^X).  Indaed,  of  aix  disiinguiihed 
moden  cocaneiitatora — De  Welte,  Hiui|>,  Ewald,  Heng- 
alenberg,  Ueliliaeh,  and  Hiipfeld— ou  two  give  diatinct- 
1*  the  aame  meaning;  amt  Mr.  Keble,  in  bin  admirable 
vetHon  of  the  Psalms,  giveai  tranalalioii  which,  thoogh 
poetical,  as  wta  to  b«  expecied.  di)li;ra  rmm  any  ona  of 
chnMsoggeMcdtgrthMe^x  scholars.  The  literal  inns- 
latiun  of  the  words  'i^a^xs  jb^n  is  "Thnn  wouldst 


Didd  Bl 


with  libi 


the  verb  either  in  the  past  or  in  the  futnre  sense.  At, 
nntwithatanding  in)^nioua  atlemptt,  Ihia  supplies  no 
antiaractory  meaning,  recourae  ta  had  to  a  translation 
of  a  cootpaiativa  character, "  Tliou  mikest  it  white  ■: 
■now," or"  It ii white la snow" — words  tA which  varioui 
metaphorical  meanings  have  been  attributed,  '["he  al- 
Iiiaion  which,  through  the  Lntam  of  Gesanioa,  is  moal 
(ret lerally  received  iathai  the  phrase  rrfen  bi  thsgrounil 
being  snow-while  with  bones  after  a  defeat  of  the  Ca- 
naaniliah  kings,  and  this  may  be  lecepted  by  thoae  whc 
will  admit  that  bleaching  bones  wouhl  be  left  iipun  a 
baifle-Held.  At  the  lame  time,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  flgure  is  a  vi^ry  harsh  one,  and  thai  it  i 
really  juatilied  by  paaugea  qaoted  in  i.lualration 
fmm  Latin  clanical  writers, auch as "campique ingentes 
(Msibui  albent"  (Virgil.  y£ii.  xii,  S6)  and  "  huntanis  oai- 
l.iis  albet  humua"  (Ovid,  Fatl.  i,  ibH).  fur  in  these  cases 
the  wiwd  "  bones"  is  actually  used  in  th*  text,  and  is  not 
left  ■•>  heaupplieil  by  the  imagination,  (irantcd,  how- 
ever, that  an  allusion  is  mlde  toboneanf  the  slain,  (here 
iai  divergence  of  opiiiiiinaitowhet her  Salmon  wiaoMn- 
lione<1  simply  because  it  had  been  the  tuttle-ground  of 
annie  greai  defeat  of  the  Canaanitish  kings,  or  wbelber 
it  is  Hilly  iiitrodDced  as  an  image  of  snowy  whileneas. 
Of  these  tirn  expl^nalinrl^  the  drei  would  be,  on  the 
whole,  inosi  probable;  for  Salmon  cannot  hare  been  a 
Tirv  high  mountain,  as  the  highest  mountains  near 
ithechem  are  Ebd  and  <ieriiim,and  uf  these  Ebal,  the 
highest  of  the  lwn,ia  only  10!)l  feet  higher  than  the 
city  (ae*  Rubitwm's  (franiu, p. 896 a).  If  Ihe  poet  had 
ilcsired  to  use  the  imnge  of  a  snowy  nwuntain,  it  would 
have  been  more  natural  In  kpImI  Itermnn,  which  is  vis- 
ible fmm  the  eaatcm  hmw  of  (^eriiim,  ia  about  10,000 
feel  high,  and  i«  eovereil  with  perpetual  snow.  Still  it 
""""■"'"    ■"     1  by  itself  would  be 


59  ZAUBRI 

Mncludve,  fbr  there  may  have  batn  paitteular  uaoda- 
tiona  in  the  mind  of  the  post  unknown  to  as  which  1p<I 
him  to  prefer  Salmon. — Smith.  It  ii  pertaips  not  too 
great  istietcb  of  fancy  in  thia  highly  flguntire  Paalm 
to  suppose  that  Ibe  liill  in  qurslion,  being  near  Shr- 
ehcm,  in  the  centre  uf  the  country,  may  have  b(«n  (or 
coneeived  aa  being)  the  acene  of  a  aevere  engagement 
in  the  conquest  of  Canaan;  and  the  proMnle  lx>ilies  "f 
the  slain  foe,  covered  with  their  while  Oriental  gar- 
menis,  are  pictured  like  snow  upon  ihe  distant  back- 
ground of  the  dark  moinitain.eide.  The  useoflhe  ll<-U 
future  iHiinlB  out  the  conceptual  character  nf  ihe  alalc- 
ment,  and  JusllBes  the  tranalation  as  a  metaphor,  "  it 

Zalmo'iiab  (Heb.  Ttalmoiiak',  nit^^  sitiJ^i 
Sept.  SiX/iwva  1  Vulg.  Salnuma),  the  naine'nf  a  de«rt 
station  (the  4&Lh)  of  Ihe  Israelites,  which  tbey  renciic'l 
between  leaving  Mount  Hur  and  camping  at  Punnn,  al- 
though they  must  have  turned  Ihe  suulhem  point  of 
Eihimhisb  territory  by  the  way  (Numb,  xxxiii,  41  ). 
It  Iherefura  lay  on  Ibe  anutb-east  siile  of  Ednm,  but 
hardly  so  far  north  as  Mean,  a  fbw  miles  cast  of  Petra, 
as  Ranmer  thinks.  More  probaUv  Zaimonih  mav  be 
in  the  H'a<^d.,1iarAi,  which  mna  into  the  Wadylihm, 
close  In  where  Elath  anciently  stood.    See  Eious. 

Zalmtm'aa  (Heb.  Ttalninaia',  If^^x.  apparent- 
ly from  3X,  tAadow,  and  TS'Q,  (n  wilUitiil,  i.  e.  dtprirnt 
n/  prottaion!  SepL  and  Jvsephus,  EnXfiafa),  \»n 
named  of  the  two  "kings"  of  Midiaii.  whose  capture  and 
death  by  the  hands  of  Ciileon  himself  formed  the  Imt 
act  of  hia  great  conflict  with  Hiilian  (Judg.  viii,  &-i' , 
Psa.lixxili,  II).    EC  ISSl.    See  Zus-t. 

The  diatinction  between  Ihe  "  kings"  (Q'3^,  mrtit- 
khk)  and  Ihe  "  princes"  (Wf^,  lariia)  of  the  Midiatt- 


•n  this  c 


linol  III 


(Judg.viii.fi,l->,26).  " Kings" oTMirlinu 
are  aiso  mentioned  In  Numb,  xixi,  B;  but  when  Ihr 
same  traniacllan  ia  referred  lo  in  Josh,  xiii,  31,  they  are 
dcMgiialed  by  a  diO^rent  title  (a^Mi09,  uoHm!  A.V. 
"princes").  Elsewhere  (Numb,  xxii,  4,  7)  the  term 
ddm  (CJITI,  irtnlm)  a  used,  anaweriug  in  signltic-a- 
tion,  if  not  in  etymology,  to  Ihe  Arabic  *Mt  It  isdif. 
flcult,  perhaps  impossible,  lo  tell  how  far  these  diaiinc- 
liuna  are  accurate,  and  how  far  they  represent  Ihe  im- 
perfect acquaintance  which  the  Hebrews  most  have 
had  with  Ihe  organiatimi  of  a  people  with  whom,  ex- 
cept during  the  orgies  of  Shiliim,  ihey  appear  lo  have' 
been  alwars  more  or  leas  al  aliife  and  warfare  (I  Climu.. 
V,  ro,  19-»i).  Tbeiiniiilelligibilityofthenimcaixin 
favor  of  their  bdng  correctly  relaineil  rather  than  ilio 
reverse.  It  should  not  be  overlooked  that  they  ire  ih«, 
like  Oreb  and  Zeeb,  attached  also  to  liHaUil lea,  which 
always  thinwa  a  dnubl  on  ihe  name  when  auribuled  u> 
a  person  aa  well.  Joseph  us  inverts  thedjslinction.  He 
styles  Ureb  and  Zeeb  0aat\ih,  and  ZeUb  and  Zalmiiii- 
Tifin"i'itiAnl.y,7,b).  The  vast  honle  which  (IM- 
1  repelled  must  have  includol  many  triliea  iimler  Ibe* 
general  designation  of"  MidiBnile^  Amilckite«,i:hildren 
of  the  Easl,"and  nothing  wndil  be  easier  or  more  nau 
■ral  than  for  the  Hebrew  scribes  who  chrontekd  Ihs 

I  point  as  Ihe  title  of  a  chief.  In  the  gieac  IKdawm 
tiibea  ofihe  present  day,  who  occupy,  ihc  place  ofUidfam- 
and  Ameiek,  there  ia  no  distinctive  appcllaiinn  answer- 
liMandfdrof  Ihe  Hebrewnarrative.  DU^ 
rank  and  power  there  are  as  between  the 
great  chief,  the  acknowktlged  head  of  ihe  parent  tiibs,. 
■  lesaerchiefswholeadlliesub-tribeAintowhich 
ilei1,andwhoare,toa  great  extent,  independent 
But  the  one  word  iJirii  ia  employed  for  alL 
The  great  chief  is  Ihe  JlriJirUcMr,-  the  olhara  are  nni 
el-maihfit,  "  o(  the  sheiks,"  i.  &  of  sheik  nnk.    See 

HiniAHlTK. 

Zwn'bri  (Zo^jSpi,  Vulg.  Zuasri),  lb«  Qietk  fbr™ 


ZAMBR19  10 

(1  Uace.  il,  £6}  of  ibe  Hcb.  name  (Numb,  xxr,  14)  ZtM- 

Bt  (.,.  v.). 

Zatn'bila  (Za/iflprr  v.  r.  Znii0pi),  a  eorrupc  Gmk 
fiirm  (I  Eulr.  iic,  84)  of  the  Ht'b.  dame  (Ein  i,  42) 
A«Ai.iAi.(q.v.). 

Za'motli  (Za;iw&  r.  r.  Zi/n'i^,  Vulp.  Ziiioim),  ■ 
wmipt  (irwk  form  (1  Eidr.  ii,  !8)  of  [l>a  Heb.  oame 
(Eira  X,  27)  Zattu  (q.  ».)■ 

ZamEum'iIilm  (Hcb.  Zamianwiim',  Q'atQT; 
Sfpt,  Zaliia/liuiv  V.  r.  Zox^ff'"'  Viilg.  Zonaominim, 
A.  V.  "Zamiummim."),  the  Ammnniti.h  name  for  the 

appear)  were 'called  Kephaim  (<|.  V.)  (D»ur.  ii,  30  oiil.v). 
They  are  described  aa  havinR  ori((inally  been  ■  power- 
Tul  and  numeRiui  natinn  of  giauia—"  gresn  many,  nn<l 

Hebrew  ccmituest  waa  in  the  poneaaion  i>r  the  Ammun- 
ilea,  by  whom  tha  Zaniiuinmim  had  a  Iihik  time  prtvi- 
nutly  been  deatroi-ed.  Where  this  districl  waa  it  is 
nol,  perhBp%  pnnilils  exactly  la  deflne;  but  it  pnibably 
lay  ill  ihe  neit;hbarhnoil  u(  Kabbatb- Amman  (the  prea- 
CDC  Amman),  the  only  cily  of  the  Ammiinile*  uf  which 
the  name  or  ailuatiun  ia  pnaerred  tu  us,  and  iherefim 
eaalward  or  that  rich  undulaiiiiK  country  Tnim  which 
Moab  had  been  forced  by  the  Amniilee  (Ihe  modem 
Bellia),  and  ot  the  numemus  towns  of  that  country 
■hose  ruins  and  names  are  si  ill  encountered. 

From  a  riigbttimil 
from  the  mention  of  the  Emim  in  cnnneclinn  with  each, ; 
it  is  usually  assumed  that  the  Zamiummim  are  identi- 
cal with  the  Zuzim  (<).<-.)  (Gesenius,  T'Aranur.  p.4IQ(f,- ! 
EwaM,  C««ct  i,  306,  note;  Knnbel,  On  On.  ric,  b). 
Kwald  fun  her  supports  this  by  iileniirying  Ham  (q.v-), 
the  capital  dty  of  the  Zuzim  (Uen.  xir,  b),  with  Am- 
Dxni.  But  at  best  the  identifical  >oa  is  verv  conjectu- 
ral. 

Various  attempts  hare  been  made  to  explain  the 
name:  as,  by  comparison  with  the  Arabic  tanaam, 
"long-necked-,"  or  luiiuam, "strong and  big" (Simonis, 
Oaoniasr,  p,  l3o) ;  or  on  "obstinate,"  from  C^l  (Luther), 
or  as  "  noisy,"  from  onf  (Geaenius,  Tiaaur.  pl  419), 
nr  as  onnmatopoelic,  iiilemled  to  imitate  the  unintel- 
ligible jabber  of  rureisnera.  Hichaelii  (Suf^ilrm.  No. 
6»l)  playfully  recalbi  the  likenesa  of  the  name  to  that 
of  the  well  Zem-um  at  Mecca,  and  su^gnts  thereupm 
thai  the  tribe  may  have  originally  come  from  Southern 
Arabia.  Notwilbstanding  this  banter,  bowtver,  he  endx 
his  article  with  the  following  iliscreec  words,  "Nihil 
hiatotitt,  nibil  originia  popuU  norimue:  fas  ait  etymolo- 
gium  »que  ignurare."      6ee  ^oam.   Sac  LU.   ISiS, 


1.  (Sept.  Zani  f.  T.  Tavw,  Tulg.  Zmot^  A  place  in 
the  lowland  (Sbephelah),  named  in  connection  with 
ZoTcahand  Jarmulh  ( Joah.  it,  S4),  in  the  group  occu- 
pying tbe  nonh-weslem  comer  of  th>  district.  See 
j'tiDAH.  The  name  recurs  in  its  old  connection  in  the 
tills  of  Nehemiah,  both  of  the  towna  which  were  rein- 
habiipd  by  Ihe  people  ofJudah  after  the  Captii'ity  (zl, 
Sn),  and  of  those  which  assisted  in  repairing  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (iii,  18),  Jerome  uya  (fimmiaH. ».  v.  "Za- 
nobua")  that  it  was  still  called  Zaaaa  in  his  ilay,  and 
lay  in  the  repon  of  Elenthetopolis  on  the  way  lo  J»- 
niulem.  Tbe  name  and  poailton  tolerably  correspond 
to  those  of  ^aaf  a,  a  site  which  waa  poinud  out  to 
Dr.  Rutrinson  drnm  Beit  Kettif  (BibL  Rtt.  ii,  Ifl),  and 
which  in  the  -map*  of  Van  de  Velde  and  of  Tobler 
(Dritle  Wandfrmg)  is4acaled  on  Ihe  north  side  of  the 
Wady  Ismail,  two  milca  cast  of  Tareah,  and  four  miles 
noKh  of  Yannuk.  Rabbi  Schwarz  inaccurately  calls  it 
Znmta  (Palm.  p.  102). 

3.  (Sept.  [in  Josh.,  taking  in  the  following  name] 


JO         ZAPHNATH-PAAKEAH 

ZnvwiEti^  T.  r.  Zncovosifi,  Tulg.  Zaaotl;  in  Chno. 
Zn^v,  Vulg.  Zutw«.)  A  town  in  the  highland  dtatjict, 
the  mountain  proper  (Josh.  xi,  56),  named  in  the  awac 
group  with  Uaon,  CariseUZipb,  and  other  places  knows 
lo  lie  south  of  Uebrun.  U  'a  (aa  Van  de  Tekie  so^ 
gesta,  iltmoir,  p.  B54)  not  improbably  identical  wiik 
^(inifr,  which  ia  oientioned  by  Secticn  ( Aisrw,  iii,  S9} 
asbelow  Senula,andappeanta  beabouEien  mile*  sDoik 
of  Hebron.  At  Ihe  lime  of  his  visit  it  h*>  the  last 
inhabited  place  lo  the  auuih.  KubinHin  (hUL.  Sn.  ii. 
204.  note)  gives  the  name  dtfTeienily,  Za'niiltilt :  >ih1  it 
will  be  observed  that,  like  Zaimah  above  nwDtii«ed.tt 
cnnlaina  the  .4ia,  which  the  Hebrew  iMaie  don  uot. 
The  ECngliiheiigineenriiund(Q<uir.  ATKiTf.  Dfihc~PA 
Kxplor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1876,  pL  IS)  an  ancient  aiw  calkd 
KUrbtl  3mil  (written  with  an  Elif=VO,  ritoatnl  is- 
mcdiately  west  of  Khirbet  Yekin  (tbe  Cain  of  tbe  ecat. 
text),  which  Trialram  prefer*  as  the  repteanitaiirc  «f 
this  Zanoah  (fitUs  Pliiea.  p.  6i). 

In  the  genealogical  lists  of  the  tribe  of  Jodah  in  1 
(7hron„  Jekuthiel  is  said  to  have  been  the  father  Cut. 
founder  ur  rcbnilder)  of  Zanoah  (!>',  IS);  and,  as  far  as 

to  be  intended  with  "BIthiah,  the  dauiitiier  of  Pt»- 
raob."  This  mention  of  Bithiah  probably  point,  tn 
some  cnlnnixBtion  of  [he  pbue  by  Egyptians  or  by  li- 
raelites  directly  from  Egypt.  In  Sectacn'a  aecAnni  of 
.Sandle  (Za'nfliah)  thera  is  a  cuitons  token  of  tbe  ia- 
Egypt  aiill  exerrised  on  tb* 
place  (Rrimi,  Iii,  29).  Hen  it  ia  also  romtioned  with 
Snchn  and  Ilshumna,  both  of  which  places  arc  re«e- 
ntsable  in  Ihe  neighboibood  of  Za'nOcab.  The  JewiA 
interpreters  considered  tbe  whole  of  this  panafce  of  ■ 
Chron.  ir  to  refer  to  Moass,  and  interpiet  each  uf  ih* 
namea  which  it  contains  as  lilies  of  him.  -  He  waa 
chief  of  Zanoach,"  says  the  Targum,  "beraose  far  bi« 
sake  OodfHit  aimiy  (ri:j}  the  sins  of  letacL" 

Zapb'natll-FH&tia'llh  (Keb.  Ttapkmaiy  />m- 
•H'dcA,  re^f  rUB^f;  Sepc  ^owio^fat^.  Tulft  .^ 
ralor  mimdi'),  a  name  gim  by  Pharaoh  lo  Joaeph 
(Gen  xli,  46).    Sec  JoaePH. 

I.  F"nn  of  tile  ITonJ^-Varioiia  fmnis  nf  this  name^ 
all  Ira.-rable  to  Ihe  Hebrew  nr  Sept.  original,  occwr  ia 
the  works  of  the  early  Jcsrish  and  Chriaitan  wriKn. 
chiefly  Josephoa,  from  diKrent  MS9>  anil  edition*  rf 
whose  Antiquity  (ii,  6,  I)  nn  less  than  elerni  fiwas 
haw  beco  ooDettrd  following  but  I 
riaiioiis  being  very  comipt;  but 

[•iveii  bv  Joaephus  it  is  probable  ibat  be  C  .    

the  Hebrew.  PhUo(OeA'asn>f*n.*/*r.  [ed.CaL  1611). 
p.  RIB  c)  and  Tbeodoret  (1, 106,  ed.  .Schula)  fnllow  ibe 
Sei*.,  and  Jerome  the  Hebecw.  The  Coptic  vein|B 
neariy  transcribes  the  Sept.,  ptont/tampliimrt. 

In  the  Hebrew  text  the  name  is  divided  into  tva 
part*  Every  anch  ilirision  of  Egyptian  wwda  bring 
in  accocdance  with  tbe  Egyptian  onhvgtaphy — aa  No- 
Ammon,  Pi-bneth,  Poti-Phenh  —  we  cannot,  if  tba 
name  be  Egyptian.  reaaonaUy  propnae  any  ctuiigg  is 
thiscaae;  if  tbe  name  b«  Hebrew,  i be  asnae  ia  certain. 
Thero  ia  no  prima  fad»  teasoo  foe  an*  change  in  tba 


The  BepLfbnnae 
as  the  lattsT  part,  f''vi}x,  is  identical  with  ibe-  wnvai 
part  of  the  Hebren.  while  what  precede*  ia  rtifleteni. 
There  is  again  no  prima  foot  reaann  K.r  arty  change 
from  the  ordinary  reading  of  the  nai  ~ 

the  dilfereiice  from  the  Hebrew  in  1 
the  name  must  be  discoaed  when  w 
its  meaning. 

IL  Pnypottd  Erfoolngia  e/lie  ITaridt—Ttdi  naae 
has  been  «splaia«d  as  Hdmv  ot  Egyptian,  and  alwvn 
as  a  proper  nameL  It  ha*  not  been  aupjoaed  to  be  aa 
official  title,  bat  this  posailiiKly  has  to  b   cnnntend. 

I.  The  rabbi na  interpreted  Zaphnath-paaneah  sa  He- 
brtw,  in  the  sense  "  ravealer  of  a  aeetcb'    Thi*  exvi» 


ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH         1( 

lutmn  i(  u  old  ■«  Joiepbui  (K/nirrur  dptriiv,  AkL  ii, 
8,  1),  and  Theodoret  abn  fullows  iL  (rilm  droifiiimy 
ifi^itmriTiv,  i,  106,  SchuU).  Fhilo  ofTen  u  explaoa- 
tua,  wbich,  tbougb  *e«aiiiigly  diSeient,  mtY  be  the 
■uiM  (ty  nrotpiaii  ari'iia  ipiyoy;  bul  Mangcy  con- 
jecUira  the  [me  reiding  lo  be  ir  awotpini^i  iml;ii 


follow  the  Sepc  farm  of  i 
Hebrew  inten>Ktatiun  u  ui 


and  Philo  ceruintr, 
le.  We  dbmiw  the 
in  itaelfaiul  demand- 
It  Pbanob  gave  Jo- 


•epb  a  Hebrew 

2.  Isidore,  Chough  menUoDins  the  Hebrew  interpre- 
latinni,  remariu  that  [he  name  shoald  be  Egyptian, 
and  otfen  an  Egyptian  etymology:  "Juoeph  . , .  huuc 
Phario  Zaphaiialh  Fbaaneca  appellavic,  quod  Hebraice 
abaconditorum  repertor«in  lonat  .  .  .  lamen  quia  hoc 
nomen  ab  ifij'yptio  ponitur,  ipiiua  lingiue  debet  habere 
rationeiD.  luterpretacur  ergo  Zaphanalh  Phaaneca 
^K^'Pt'o  Kmon*  saivatof  rouiidi"  (Or^.  vii,  7,  vol  iii, 
PL  ai7,  Ant.).     Jerome  adopU  tbe  ume  rendering. 

8.  Hndeni  wholar*  bav«  lookeil  ts  the  Coptic  for  an 
explanation  of  this  name,  Jabloneki  and  oth en  proposing 
ai  the  Coptic  of  the  Egyptian  original  piol-n-pknrl, 
rt£^  "  tbe  pretervatiuo  (or  preserver)  or  the  age."  This 
ia  cridentiv  the  etrmali^y  intended  by  Isidore  aiid 
Jerome. ^ Smith.  'See  Ja'blutuki,  OpuK.  c  207-216; 
Koaellini,  Jfon.  Storici,  i,  1)16;  ChampoUion,  Granun. 
p.  380;  FelTon,  Ltx.  Copl.  p.  207;  Geseniiu,  Thaaur. 

III.  Comparimm  mlh  EgfpHon  EltmaM.—l.  7^  Ni- 
ipr»>or«.— This,  after  eliminating  tbe  Hasoretic  vow- 
ell,  i*  Z-ph-a^A  P--ii-<i,  whicb  transcribed  in  blero- 
glyphiea: 


^ 


Kf' 


Tbe  flnt  syllable,  utf,  aignifies  "  prDviriona ;"  the  acc- 
ood,  mil,  a  the  pRpoaiiJon  "of;"  p  is  tbe  deBnJte  article 
"Ibei"  and  tbe  last  syllable,  dncA,  means  "lire."  Tbe 
whole  nanK,  tbetetore,  may  well  be  translated  "  food  of 
the  liring." 

3.  7'*e  Stftmisiml  ^oriH.— This  ia  mora  difficult  of 
rendering,  'lite  must  literal  transcription  of  tbe  Ureek 
^ovioiifariix,  omitdng  the  vowels  as  uneaaeiitial,  L  e. 


This  meana  "  he  who  gives  Joy  lo  the  world,"  a  sense 
evidently  taken  by  Jerome  in  the  Vulg.,  u-bn  lived 
while  the  Egyptian  was  yet  vernacular,  and  who  ren- 
ders it  "saviour  of  the  wurlil"  (see  the  Sptalxr'4  CoM- 
nailaiy  [Amer.  ed.],  i,  4MU  sq.). 

Za'pbon  (Ileb.  Tii^m',  ^inx,  norAI,  m  often; 
Sept.  ^afiiv  V.  r.  Sofav;  Vulg.  Siipkon),  the  name  of 
a  place  tnentinned  (in  eonneclion  with  Beth-inim,  Beth- 
tiimrah.  and  Succotb)  in  the  enumeration  of  tbe  alloi- 
ment  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Josh,  xiii,  27).  It  is  one  of 
"the  valley'  (i.e.  of  the  Jordan), which 


61  ZAREPHATH 

In  Jndg.  xii,  I  the  word  rendered  "  ooithwaK)* 
{Implidmak)  may  with  equal  accuracy  be  rendete<l  "to 
Zsphon,"  Tbia  rendering  is  supported  by  tbe  Alex- 
andrian copy  of  the  SepL  (  Kf ^imi  )  and  a  host  of 
other  HSS.,  and  it  has  contiateney  on  its  aide,  *inc« 
the  Epfaraimites  were  marching  eastward  rather  than 
northward.    See  Jupkthah. 

Za'ia  (Zaf>a),tbe  Greek  form  (Matt.  1,8)  of  tbe 
Heb.  name  Z&BAii  (q.  v.),  tbe  sod  of  Judah. 

Zum.     See  Talmus. 

Zar'ttOea  {Zapan)C  v.  r.  Zapaiot ;  Vulg.  ZaraeiUt'), 
a  corrupt  Greek  form  (1  Esdr.  i,  38)  of  the  Hcb.  name 
of  tbe  brother  of  Joacim  (Jehoiakin),  king  of  Jtidah, 
probably  ZEtiEKtAH  (q.  v.). 

Za'rafa  (Gen.  ixiviil,  SO;  xlvi,  IS).    See  Zkhah. 

Zaral'aa  !J.apaiai),  the  Greek  (orm  of  Zkrajiiah 
(a,  1  Eadr.  viii,  2;  comp.  Ezra  vii,  t;  A.  1  Esdr.  viii, 
81;  comp.  Ezra  viii,  4)  or  (corruptly)  ZcbaUiah  ( 1 
Esdr.  viii,  84;  comp.  Exra  viii,  8). 

Za'rsah  (N'eh.  xi,  29).    See  Zoiiah. 

Za'reathlte  (1  Chtun.  ii,  68).    See  Zokathitk. 

Za'rod  (Numb,  xxi,  12).    See  Zukti. 

Zar'apbatll  (  Heb.  Ttanphalk',  r^~iX.  imrbiag 
place;  Sept.  and  New  Test.  SoptTra  [in  Obad.  rd  £a- 
piiTTD;  V.  r.  in  1  Kings,  £(^a];  Josephus,  Xapc^ii 
"Sarepta,"Lukeiv,2G}.a  town  which  derives  its  claim  to 
notice  from  having  been  tbe  residence  of  the  pnjpbet  Eli- 
jah during  the  Utter  part  of  the  drought,  and  where  be 
performed  the  minde  of  multiplying  the  barrel  of  meal 
and  cruse  or  oil,  oiid  where  be  raised  tbe  widow's  sun  to 
life  (t  Kings  :ivii,  9, 10).  Beyond  staling  that  it  was 
near  to,  or  dependent  on,  Ziilon  (V^^xV),  the  Bilde 
gives  no  clew  to  ila  poeilion.  It  it  mentioned  by  Oba- 
diah  (ver.  20),  but  merely  as  a  Canaani tish  (that  is,  Phie- 
nician)  city.  Jusephm'f.ln'.riii,  18,2),bawever,statea 
that  it  was  "not  far  from  Sidon  and  Tyre,  fur  it  lies  be- 
tween them."  To  thu  Jerome  adds  ( OiKinunL  «.  v. 
"Sarefta")  that  it  "lay  on  the  public  toad,"  that  <^  the 
enasl-.rua(L  Both  these  conditions  are  implied  in  the 
mention  of  it  in  the  itinerary  of  E^uia  by  Jerome  {t'pi'. 
Paula,  §  8),  and  both  are  fulfilled  in  the  aituation  of  the 
mudcm  village  of  Sarajrtid,  a  name  which,  except  in  its 
terminatiun,  is  alntott  identical  with  the  ancisnt  Pho- 
nician(comp.Pliny,v,17;  Jei»me,/!>i.l08,iiiJA*ujroc*.). 
There  were  many  vineyards  there  (Sidon.  Apoll.  Curm. 
xviU  16;  Fulgent.  MjlhiiL  ii,  16).  The  Cruudeni 
^  made  Sarepta  a  Idtin  bishopric  in  tbe  archiepisco- 
pate  of  Sidon,  and  erected  near  the  port  astnallchap. 
el  over  the  re|iuted  site  of  Elijab'a  miracle  (William 
Ch  of  Tyre,xix,l4;  J»CobofVitr)-,ch.xlir).  In  the 
Uiddle  .tges  it  was  a  atumgty  fortified  place  (Wil- 
ken,  KitvaOgf,  ii,  208).  Tbe  locality  has  been  visited 
and  describol  in  recent  times  by  Robinson  (BtbL  Rrt. 
it,  475),  Thomson  {Lttnd  ami  Boot,  ch.  xii),  and  otbera. 
It  appears  to  have  changed  its  place,  at  ' 


tohavi 


cr(ir:)oflt 


kingdom  of  Sihon"— apparently  rererring  lo  ihe 
of  the  same  kingdom  prerioualy  allotted  lo  Keulien 
(ver.  17-21).  The  enumeration  appears  to  pniceecl  from 
amitbto  north,  and  from  the  mention  iifthe  Sea  ofChin- 
i>croth  it  is  natunl  to  infer  that  Zaphoii  was  near  that 
lake.  Tbe  Talmud  (Gemara  Jenia.  Skebiiih,  vi)  iilenti- 
6ea  it  with  tbe  ancient  A  maihas  (q.  v.),  the  rrmains  of 
which  are  atill  called  A  oMlrM  on  Warty  Rejit  (.Schwan, 
Palttt.  p>  382 ),  and  this  poaitioo  is  nut  an  improbable 


lllh  a 


high  up  on  the  slope  ofa  hill  (RuUiuon.p 
whereaaat  IhetimeoriheCniuaesitwaaon  the  shore. 
Of  the  old  luwn  considerable  indications  remain.  One 
group  of  foundations  is  nn  a  headland  called  .4in  tl- 
keiUariik;  but  the  chief  remains  are  sonth  of  this,  anH 
extend  fur  a  mile  or  tDore,  with  many  fragments  of  col- 
umns, slabs,  and  other  architectural  featurea.  The  Ra- 
man road  ia  aaid  to  be  unuauallv  perfect  there  (Bea- 
monl,  Diaiy,atc,  il,  I8G).  The  Nte  irf  the  chapel  erect. 
ed  by  Ihe  Crusadeni  on  Ihe  spot  then  reputed  in  lie  the 
site  of  the  wiilnw'a  house  is  probably  still  preserveil  (see 
the  dlations  of  Robinson),  tt  is  near  [he  waier'a  edge, 
and  is  now  marked  by  a  wcly  and  email  khan  dedicated 
to  tUKhaJr,  the  well-known  pcrwnage  who  unites,  in 
the  populsr  Moslem  faith,  Elijah  and  St.  George.  A 
grotto  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  wbich  the  modun  vil- 
lage stands  is  now  shown  ai  Ihs  reiudence  of  Elijah 
(Van  de  TeUe,  Syr.  aad  Paltl.  i,  102).    See  Haun- 


Kuiui 


it  Sonhud. 


■  n 


place  in  tbc  Iribc  of  Bm> 
ben.  ntiuud  n  tie  manlaa 
ta-Kmrt  (A.  V.  oHount  tf 
the  Valley"),  L  e.  in  ilw  di- 
rupt  Cfl)^  of  ihe  Jordan  dt 
Deail  Sea  vallev  (Joah.  xiii, 
19,  Hhere  it  ii  meDtioned 
between  Sibmah  and  Beib- 
penr).  Seeiten  (  Rriim,  a, 
sea)  pcDpnani  to  i.lentirr  il 
wiih  a  tpM  called  Sari  m 
Ihe  mnutb  of  the  Wailj  Zer- 
ka  Hatn,  aboni  a  mile  fres 
Ihe  edge  of  the  X>fA  Sec 
In  Ihii  TriMraio  HHneiaH, 
id  he  dcfcribes  ihe  ifKil  ai 
beinK  in  kcepjnf;witb  itapn- 
etical  name,  "ilie  ineonaidef* 
able  niimi  of  Zara"  «cirpTin^ 


tirell,  TrarvU,  p.  eS;  Knrte,  Aw.  p.  SOTj  Nan,  Voyage 
jVdub.  p.644;  Pocockc,  A^uT,  ii,  8& ;  Ranmer,  AildXitui 
pLlWi  Richler,  (Totf/.p-TS;  K"«wgjjer,iii,  Wo;  Coti- 
lU,  J)t  Sarepla  (Viteb.  1728).     See  fHiXNiciA. 

Zar'etan  ( Heb.  T$artiluai',  'r';^^  perhapa  iplat- 
•lor,  in  Jmh,  Sepl.  wholly  omiUj'Vulg.  SmlliiBis  in 

I  Kinga  Tii,  4H  Sept.  ^lapin  v.  r.  Ifipri ;  Vulg.  Sar- 
fian;  A.  V.  " Zaithan j"  with  n  dlrectire,  ZurrHUimS- 
«"*,  "JTO  ill  inr,  12;  Sept.  Xap&ai-  v.  r.  StpopSriv 
mid  'Ea^iovii^;  Vulg.  SarTitfRu,'  A.V.  "Zartsiiah'O, 
It  It'wn  or  locality  mentioned  by  [his  name  three  lioica, 
and  apparently  aeveral  timee  alio  under  Bimilar  name*. 

II  in  first  nanieil  in  the  account  of  the  paiaige  nt  tho 
J»nl«ii  by  the  laraeliles  (Josfa.  iii,  16)  ai  ileAning  tlic 
position  of  the  city  Adam,  vrliteh  wa>  beaide  (If  ^)  il. 
It  il  next  mentioneil  in  the  liN  of  Sohimon's  commiau- 
riat  diairicta  ai  "clo«  lt>"  (^^K)  Bethahean,  that  is,  in 
ihe  upper  part  of  the  Jordan  valley  and  "beneath" 
i")  rn?^)  Jeareel  (1  Kinga  ir,  12).  Ic  ia  again  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Succoth  aa  a  clayey  place 
where  Solomon  caat  metal  in  the  circle  C^IX,  Uktdr, 
"l<lain,"i.e.^dr)or  the  Jordan  (vii,  46).  In  the  par- 
allel paav^ie  In  Ihia  last  {2  Cbron.  iv,  17)  Zerkdathaii 
(q.  V.)  ia  aiibstituted  for  Zarlhan,  and  this  again  ia  not 
impnaailily  identical  with  the  ZbheraH  (q.v.)  of  Ihe 
xiory  of  liideon  (Judg.  vit,  22).  All  tbeee  apnta  agree 
ill  pmximily  lo  the  Jortlan,  and  the  aaaociated  placea 
wimevfhat  aid  ua  in  diacavering  Ihe  general  h-cality. 
Hftbaheaii  ia  Ihe  preaent  Beiaati,  Siicculh  is  pnibabir 
Ihe  present  Salkut,  and  Adam  is,  doubdee^ repreaenied 
by  the  modem  Adamiefa  ford.  Van  de  Velde  (Memoir, 
!•.  864)  inclines  to  identify  Zaretan  with  Svrlabak,  a 
I'lfiy  and  iaolated  hill  Hhicb  projecla  from  the  main 
highlandsinln  the  Jordan  valley.about  aeventeen  milea 
north  of  Jericho  (comp.  De  Saidcy,  Dtad  Sea,i\.3\); 
but  the  names  ate  not  closely  alike,  and  thia  peak  has 
another  ancient  appellation. '  See  Saktaba.  Schwan 
I'nrinbly  refera  to  iIk  aatne  spot  when  he  declares  that 
1  he  name  aboulil  be  read  Sarfnpk,  and  that  the  town  in 
ipieation  waa  an  called  "  becauae  it  lav  near  Mount  Sar- 
laf,  five  Engliah  milea  weal  uf  the  jordaii"  (Pal/il.  p. 
1I>2).  Mr.  Drake  (in  Ihe  Quor.  AithM  nfthe  "I>lc»- 
line  Eicplor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1875,  p.  SI)  thinka  that  the 
reading  Siaram  (Euipaii)  of  the  Alexamlrian  HS.  at  1 
Kings  vii,  46  poinla  to  ■  "  TtU  Sarem,  ■  very  conapicu- 
'HiB  and  iiniuually  large  mound  three  milea  south  of 
Briaanr  bat  thia  reading  ia  verv  precarious.  Accord- 
ing to  1'riaitam  (Biile  PInett,  y.  22X), ''  the  name  lingers 
in  Am  Zakrak  and  TuUit  Zakrak,  three  miles  west  of 
lieiian,  indicating  that  Zarelan.waa  the  designation  uf 
a  district  rather  than  a  place." 

Za'retfa-aha'bar  (Heb.  Tit'rtlk  kaik-Ska'dar, 
-nan  rnx,  tpUmlor  0/  ike  Aikb  :  Sept.  2dp»  mi 
Ziwp  V.  I.  &pafd  Kot  Itiv;  VaJg.  Serelh  Aeiahar),  t 


aliltle  L 

shore  of  the  aea,  where  the  river  nms  ihnuigh  sierp 
banks  ahaded  by  oleanden  and  palms,  with  nunenu 
hot  and  somewhat  aulpfauniuB  iprings  (BilJr  Piaen,  p. 
Bbl).  A  place  Skabir  a  marVed  on  Tan  de  VeMe's 
map,  about  six  milea  south  of  es-Salt,  at  the  bc«l  af 
the  valley  of  the  Wady  .Seir,  which  might  poasiUv  iqi- 
reaent  the  latter  part  of  the  name  more  exactly. 

Zar'hlte  (Heb.  Znrehi;  "nil,  Sept.  Zopof  v.  r. 
iapat,  A.  V.  "Zarhitea"),  the  palnmvmic  of  the  ramitr 
of  Zerah  son  of  Judah  (Numb,  xxvi,  20 :  Jush.  rii,  ij, 
1  Chron.  xxvii.  1 1, 13),  and  also  of  that  deaccndcd  bam 
Zerah  son  of  .Simeon  (NumUxxvi,  18). 

Z«t'tanahi:soineZarw'«,*](lKing.i»,H>.  See 
Zabctah. 

Zar'than  (1  Kings  Tii,46).    See  Zarktax. 
Zath'oK  (Sept.  ZopSmi;  Vulg.  Znck«ei\  a  Greek 
form  (t  Eeilr.  viii,  32)  of  the  Heb.  name  ZATTti  (whicb 
is  apparently  omitted  in  Eira  viii,  b). 

Zatba'l  (Sept.  ZaSavi  v.  r.  Zorou ;  Vulg.  Anw),  a 

Greek  form  (1  Eadr.  v,  1!)  of  the  Heb.  name  (Ena  ii. 

8)  Zattu  (q.  v.).  ^ 

2at'thu(Neh-x,l4).    SeeZAi-rtr. 

Zm.ftu(Heb.ZoltH%».ln},pln>innH  Sept.2«S(wi 

r.  ZoS^avd,  Zariova,  etc  -.  Vnlg.  Zrlku-i,  Zitka).  u 

Israelite  whose  "sons"  lo  the  number  of  946  (or  8*5) 

retumed  from  Babjkm  with  Zerubhebel  (Kara  ii,  Sj 

Neh.vii,  18);  and  anotber  company  of  them  retomed 

with  Eira,  allhongh  his  name  has  arciilenially  ■ImfifK.t 

"  B  lent  in  Eiia  viii,  5.  aa  we  Icsni  fn™  (he  Sq*. 

Apocryphal  parallel  {1  Kadr.  viii,  33),  which 

d  "of  the  suns  of  Zathu«,  Zechenias  son  of 

Aiiel  [or  Jezelua]-— {Keil,  Commiw/.  ail  loc).     B.C  ante 

~   '■'       desceiidanlarenouucedthnrGea- 


M<Ezn 


t,a7). 


Za'Taii(lChron.i,42).     See  Zaavak. 
Zaylt     See  Onvt 

Za'M  (Heb.  Zina-.  xn,  perhaps  prvfrtHm ;  Sept. 
Zathi  V.  r.  Oiaii.  'OU^  etc  t  Vulg.  Ztt.i),  laN  naninl 
of  :he  two  sons  of  Jonathan  of  the  fainilv  ofJerahmeel 
the  Judahite  (1  Cbron.  ii,  38).     ILC  pu«t  1618. 
ZebaoUtn.    See  Talmih. 
Zebadl'ah  (Heb.  7(£aaynil',  n^=T  [thrka  la  the 
■olunged  f.™  Zfbadga'ka,  "n^-raJ,'!  Chwn.  »xvi.  3. 
Chnin.xvii.8iiia,lJ],(^n/JrtBrn*;Sept.Znfla. 
a  or  Zaffaliat  v.  r.  -ia^Uac  or  ZojM.n,  etc.),  the 
ime  of  several  I«selitcs.     Comp.  Zablki. 

1.  A  Denjamiie  of  the  "iwns'of  Beriah  (1  Chnm. 
ii,  lo).     aC.dr.  1U18. 

2.  A  Bcnjamite  of  the  "sons"  of  Etpaal  (1  Chnm. 
ii,l7).     Il.acir.l6l8. 

3.  One  of  [be  Ino  wina  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor,  a  Ben- 
mite  who  joinnt  the  fortune*  of  David  in  bia  imol 

Ziklag  (1  Cbwii.  xii,  7).     RC  lOM. 


ZEBAH  10 

C  A  Lmrile,  tbitd  atm  of  Meabelefuikh  the  Korhiu 

(1  cainiii.  nivi,  2).    aa  IMB. 

5.  Siiii  of  Auhel  (Juib't  brother),  and  camtuDdct 
with  hia  dthtr  uf  the  fuurlb  contingent  of  Divul't 
lrw.|»(l  Chn>n.xxvit,T).    aa  1014. 

6.  OneofthelwoLrvilu  whu  wereMntnithothen 
in  the  tbini  v«r  oT  Jehoahaphut  lo  teach  the  law  in  the 
cities  nf  Judah  (J  Chnin.  xvii,  S).     EQ  910. 

7.  The  Mm  of  IihmacI  anil  prince  of  the  haute  of  Ju- 
dah in  the  nign  or  Jehwhaphit,  who,  in  ciitij unction 
with  Anarinh  the  chieF  priesi,  waa  appuinted  lo  the 
•upehntendence  of  the  Levli«a,  prieala  and  chief  men 
wbo  had  to  decide  all  cauiws  civil  and  ecdeiiaatical, 
which  were  bruught  befiirc  Ibem  (2  Chron.  Ki.t,  11). 
&C>  893,  They  poMibiy  may  have  rucmed  a  kind  of 
court  of  appeal,  Zebailiah  aclihg  fur  the  interesta  of  the 
kioK,  and  Amariah  being  the  (upreme  auihoiily  in  ec- 
dnUalical  mattera. 

S.  SanorMichaelorth«"ann»"nr3hephatiBh,  who 
ictarned  with  Ezra  Irom  BabyloD  with  dghty  male  rel- 
atires(IUraviii,8).    aC4&9. 

9.  A  prieal  of  the  "aous"  of  Immer,  who  divorced  hia 
G«ntile  wile  married  alter  the  Exile  {Etn  x,  20).  aC 
458. 

ZaiMli  (Heb.  Ze'iaei,  rot,  ncrijing,  m  oftm; 
Sept.  Zt0ti ;  ■looephiu,  Zt0ti ;  Vulg.  Ziba),  Brat  named 
of  the  two  "kinga"  nf  Midiaii  who  a|>|iear  to  have  com- 
mindeil  the  great  invasion  of  Pa1ritine,aiid  who  Hiiallv 
fell  by  the  hand  of  (iideon  himself.  aC  1301.  Ug  ig 
■Iwija  coupled  with  Zalmunna,  and  ia  mentioned  in 
Judg.  viii,  5-11 )  Paa.  Ixxxiii,  II).    See  Zalxukna. 

Itia  a  remarkable  ioatance  of  the  unconaciiius  artles*- 
Deaa  of  the  uarntive  contained  in  Judg.  vi,  33-viii,  '2B 
that  no  mention  ia  made  of  any  of  tbe  chiefs  uf  the 
Mi<lianite«  during  the  early  pan  of  the  aton-,  or  iiidnd 

We  ihei)  diacover  (viii,  18)  that  while  the  Bedavin 
were  ravaging  the  cropa  in  the  valley  of  Jeireel,  before 
Gi.leoira  attack,  three  or  mare  of  hu  brallien  had  been 
captiireil  by  the  Arabs  and  put  to  death  by  the  hands 
of  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  themielves.  But  this  malerial 
fat.-t  is  only  incidentally  mentioned,  aiHl  ia  of  a  piece 
with  the  later  references  by  prophets  and  paalmiats  to 
other  CTcnta  in  the  same  urugfjle,  the  interest  and 
value  of  which  bare  been  alluded  lo  under  Okkb  (q.  v.). 

Psa.  Ixxxiii,  11  purports  to  have  preserved  the  very 
words  of  the  cry  with  which  Zebah  and  Zalmunna 
rtuheil  up  at  the  head  of  Iheir  hordes  from  the  Jordan 
into  the  li'Xuriaiit  gMWth  of  the  great  plain—"  Seize 
these  gikidly  pasture*!" 

While  Oreb  awl  Zceb,  two  of  the  inferior  leaden  of 
the  incursion,  had  been  slain,  with  a  vast  number  of 
'  the  Ephrai miles  at  the 


the  I 


e  Jordan  (noi 
;e  farther 


,ieh), 
succeeiled  in  makiiiit  their  escape  by 


,h  (prolubly  t1 


ford  n 


Beih^heaii),  and  thence  by  the  Wad.T  Yabts,  through 
tiileaJ,  to  Karknr,  a  place  which  is  not  Axed,  i>ut  which 
lay  doubilesa  high  up  on  the  Hauran.  Here  they  were 
reposing  with  13,000  men,  a  mere  remnant  of  their  huge 
horde,  when  (iidenn  oTertnok  them.  Had  they  reslalcd, 
there  ia  little  doubt  that  they  mi^ht  have  easily  nver- 
cnme  the  little  band  of  "fainting"  heroes  who  had  toileil 


>3  ZEBOIIM 

Penoel,  where  Jacob  had  aeen  the  viaion  oT  Cho  face 
of  God ;  they  pasted  Succoth ;  tbey  crossed  the  ra|Hd 
stream  of  tbe  Jordan;  theyaacended  the  highlands  weal 
of  the  river,  and  at  length  reached  Ophrah,  the  native 
village  of  their  captor  (Jcaephus,.4n'.  v,  6,  ft).  Then, 
at  last,  the  question  which  must  have  been  on  Gideon's 
tongue  during  the  whole  of  the  return  found  a  vent. 
There  is  no  appearance  of  its  having  been  alluded  to 
before,  but  it  gives,  aa  nothing  else  could,  the  key  to 
the  whole  punuit.  It  was  the  death  of  hia  brothers, 
"the  children  nf  hia  mother,"  that  had  supplied  the  per- 

Qideon  on  lo  hia  goal  aijainat  hunger,  faintneas,  and  ob- 
stacles of  all  kinds.  "What  manner  of  men  were  ihey 
which  ve  slew  at  Tabor?"  Up  to  thia  time  the  eheik's 
may  have  believed  that  they  were  reserved  fur  ransom  { 
but  these  words  once  apoken,  there  can  have  been  no 

ble  children  of  the  desert,  without  fear  or  weakness. 
One  request  alone  they  make— that  they  may  die  by 
the  sure  blow  of  the  hero  himself— "and  Gideon  anae 
and  alew  them :"  and  not  till  he  had  revengeil  hit 
brothera  did  any  thuughl  of  plunder  enter  his  heart 
— then,  and  itut  till  then,  did  he  lay  hands  on  the 
treasures  which  ornamented  their  camels.    See  MtDl- 


Zebalin  (Heb.  with  the  art.  tait-TiAatn'i 
D^SKn,  the  giatUti,  as  often ;  Sept.  v'ibI  'A(r(/3M<>  v.  r, 
'luntivfir;  Vulj;.  Airtam;  in  N'eh.  Iiali •  TtAigim', 
D*'^9Sn;  Sept.  vioi  la^iti/x;  Vv'g.  Sabaim),  appar- 

chereth,"  who  are  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
families  of  "Solomon's  >lBVes"aa  having  relumed  from 
the  Captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,ft7;  Neh.  vii, 
69).  On  the  other  hand,  the  compound  name  Poche- 
lelh  hat-Tsebaim  is  considered  by  some  to  have  no  reC- 
erence  to  place,  but  to  signify  the  "soarer  or  hunter  of 
roes"  (Ueaemna,  Tiauur.  p.  1102  hi  llerlbenu,  Hrrg. 
tfmdA.Ezra  11,57),  designating  doubtless  an  indivldw^ 
See  PocHiBUTH. 

Z«b'0de0,  or  rather  Zbbktim'vb  (Zi^fJnTar,  tb« 
Greek  furro  appareiillj'  of  Zabili  or  Zrbfdiiih),  a  Ush- 
erman  of  Galilee,  the  father  of  the  apoatlea  James  the 
Great  and  John  {Malt,  iv,  21),  and  the  husband  of  Sa- 
lome (xxvit,  66:  Mark  xv,  40).  He  pruhahly  lived 
either  at  Bethsaida  or  in  its  immediate  neighborhood. 
It  has  been  inferred  from  the  mention  of  hia  "hired 
servants"  (i,  20),  and  from  the  acquaintance  between 
the  apiistle  John  and  Annas  the  high-prirst  (John  xviii, 
Ift),  that  the  tamily  of  Zebeilee  were  in  easy  drcum- 
stances  (comp.  xix,  27),  atthniigb  not  above  manual 
labor  (Matt,  iv,  21).  While  the  name  of  Zebedee  fre- 
quently occun  as  a  patronymic,  fur  the  sake  of  distin- 
guishing his  Inn  sons  from  others  who  bnre  the  same 

namely,in  Man.  iv,21,lH;  Mark  i,  IS, 20— where  he  is 

A.a  26.  '  On  this  occaaion  he  allows  his  suns  to  leave 
him,at  ibe  bidding  of  the  Saviunr, « it hout  rai>in((  any 
objection,  although  it  doea  not  appear  lliat  he  was  him- 
eelfever  of  the  number  of  Christ's  disciples.  Hia  wife, 
indeed,  apprara  in  tbe  catalogue  of  the  piout  women 


itirely  unprepared  fo 


II  full  of  u 


ia  attack  i  they 


Then  came  the  return  down  the  long  ileHles  leading 
to  the  Jordan.  We  see  the  cavalcade  uf  camcK  jingling 
tbe  gulden  chains  and  the  creacaut-ahaped  collars  or 
trappings  bung  round  their  necka.  High  aloft  mie  the 
captive  chiefs  clad  in  their  brilliant  kr^^ht  and  em- 
broidered iiMuji^,and  Titb  their  "collars"  or  "jewels" 
in  nose  and  ear,  on  neck  and  arm.  Gideon  probably 
Miode  on  fmt  by  the  side  of  his  captives.    Tbey  passed 


the 

ChMS 

of  hU  minis 

rv,  who 

watched  him 

on  the 

isterrd  to 

him  eve 

n  in  Ibe  grave 

(Malt. 

ii,  65 

fiC 

Mark  I 

,40;  X 

i,  1 ;  comp.  M 

Lnke 

vii 

8).     Iti 

ble  to  infer  that  Zeb- 

etleewas 

ileat 

before  ih 

■a  time. 

Sre  JoHH  {lie  Apoe- 

lie). 

Zebi'na  (Heb.  Ztbiaa',  ttj^3t,  parAa*c;  Sept. 
Za/iriv  V.  r.  Ziliivvat;  Vulg.  iiUino),  one  of  tba 
"Buna"  of  Nebo,  who  divorced  hia  Gentile  wife  taket 
alter  the  leluni  from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  4H>     RQ  468, 

Zeblna.     See  Ai.RX*)n>Kit. 

Zeboi'im  (Gen.  xiv,  2, 8>    See  Zeboin. 


ZEBOIM  10 

Zvbolim,  ■  DUDa  which  oocnra  in  two  duUnet 
torma  in  the  origiiul,  dnoting  diOerent  iDcalitio. 

1.  (Heb.  TiOoSm',  Q^m'SX,  gaxtUa,  n  ohcD,  Hm  >i, 
8;  onhoncr,  THAiiyln',  B^'aX  [nwg.  Q7i=X],  Gen.x, 
IS;  orDi:»  [marg.  C^isX],  xiv,  2,  8  [A-T."/*- 
twiim"];  Detit.  xzix,  28;  Sept.  £i;3wE'ri  t.  r.  Zt^ii/i ; 
Tulg.  ZdxHm),  one  of  the  dve  cities  dutrored  by  dirine 
vitiutiun  in  the  vale  ofSiddiin  (Hoi.  xi,  8),  mentiontd 
immediucly  iCur  Admah  (Ueii.  x,  19;  DeuL  xxix/iS), 
■lid  ruled  over  by  a  aepuatc  king,  Sheincber  (Geii.  xiv, 
3,8).  De  Saulcy  Hilda  the  •iteofZeboim  in  the  Tubiii 
StUHian,  ■  name  which  be  reporta  aa  attached  to  exten- 
aive  Tuina  on  the  biyh  ground  between  the  Dead  Sea 
and  Kerak  {Dtad  Sta,  i,  383);  but  llie  poaitian  a*  well 
■I  the  elevaiion  ia  improbable,  and  the  ancient  apot  ia 
moat  likely  beneath  the  water  of  the  nulberu  bay  of 
the  tea.    See  Souox ;  Zoar. 

2.  (Heb.  with  the  an.  kaU-Tu6o'vn',  D'SSSn,  fAe 
kgauu;  Sept.Za/uiiiv  v.r.Za^i'fi,£t^ii;i,eCc;  Vulg. 
Seboim'),  the  name  of  a  valley  CI),  i.  e.  a  raviae  or 
gorge,  apparently  east  of  Michmaib,  mentioned  in  1 
Sam.  xiii,  IR,  where  it  is  described  with  a  curioua 
miuuleneH,  which  ia  unfurtunately  no  longer  jntelli- 
gihl&  The  road  running  from  Hichmaah  to  the  east 
is  spedfled  aa  "the  road  of  the  bolder  that  looketh  la 
the  ravine  of  Zeboim  towards  ihe  wildemeai."  The 
wildcmeas  {midiar)  a  no  doubt  the  district  of  unculii- 

central  dislrict  of  Benjamin  and  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
liere  apparently  the  ravine  of  Zeboim  alinuld  be  sought. 
In  that  very  district  there  is  a  wild  gnrge,  bearing  the 
iiameof£4iil«if-Z>iiAa,  "nvine  of  the  hyena,' up  oh  ieh 
runs  the  path  from  Jericho  to  Mukhmaa  (Conder,  Tenl 
tVark  ia  Palm,  iii,  IG).  It  is  represenled  on  the  new 
Onbtance  Map  ■■  running  for  a  abort  distance  S.E.  of 
Ain  DCA.  The  same  place  or  a  town  adjacent  seems  to 
be  mentioned  in  Neb.  xi,34  (where  it  occun  without  the 
art.  prefixed) — eunfuunding  it,  nevenbelew, with  the  Ze- 
boim of Genesi«-as  occupied  after  the  Captivity.  Kabbi 
Schwan,  however,  maintains  that  the  two  places  are  dif- 
ferent, and,  white  locating  Ihe  valley  as  above  (Pulal. 
p.  IM),  be  identifies  the  Zeboim  of-Sehemiah  with  "  the 
village  Zuba,  situated  on  a  high  mount,  three  English 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem"  (tbul.  p.  184).  He  adds,  "  In 
[the  Talmudical  tract]  ChaUak,  iv,  10  is  mentioned  the 
Mount  Zeboim."  Ho  doubtlen  refen  to  the  ruined  vil- 
lage £<iio,  about  six  miles  west  of  Jerusal<;m,  neat  Esh- 
laul ;  but  this  baa  little  pnibability. 

Zabub.    See  Plt. 

Zebu'dab  (Heb  Zrbidah',  ITl'^l;  marg.  Z(*ii- 
diA',  rrva.'^,  bntowaii  Sept.  'U\Sa^  v.  i.  Ei'iXJaf, 
iiWa,  etc;  Tulg.  Zcitda),  the  daughter  of  Pedaiah 
of  Rumah,  wife  nf  Josiah  and  mothei  of  king  Jehoiakim 
(-^  Rings  ixiii,36).    KC.  833. 

Za'btU<Heb.2«hi/',^1,biM(ii^mj  Sept-Zi/JouX; 
Josephus,  Zi^ou^oc),  the  chief  man  {--X},  A.  V. "  ruler^ 
nf  the  city  of  Shechem  at  the  time  of  the  conieat  be- 
tween Abimeleeh  and  the  native  Canaanites  (Jiidg.ii, 
£8,30,36,38,41).  EC  1319.  He  governed  the  town 
aBlhe''DlIicer"n'pDi8epLiTr<ncDirar;  Joaephu3,^:(- 
IOc[.4R'.v,7,4])af  Abimeleeh  while  the  latter  was  ab- 
fwut;  and  he  took  part  against  Ihe  Canaanitea  by  shut- 
ling  them  out  uf  Ihe  city  when  Abimeleeh  wasencamp- 
rd  outside  it.  His  cnnrereaiion  with  liaal,  the  Canaan- 
ilith  leader,  aa  they  Blood  in  the  gate  of  Sheehem  watch- 
ing the  approach  of  the  aimed  bands,  gives  Zehul  a  cer- 
tain individuality  among  the  many  cboraclers  of  that 
time  of  confusion.    See  Abi)ixi.iu;ii. 

Zeb'alooit*  (Heb.  Ziinibmi-,  -'3'^421;  Sept.  Za- 
liovkuviriK  v.r.Znj3opv/rijc),'he  pattonymie  dengna- 
lion  nf  a  member  of  Ihe  tribe  nf  Zebulon  (Numb,  xxvi, 
STi^'Zebulunitet"  Judg.iii,ll,  IS). 


»4  ZEBULTJN 

Zsb'nlttn  (Hen.  Ztbidm',  oocc  [  Jodg.  i,  30J  lUlj 
^^431,  uiuaUy  -,V43T  or  [Uen.  su,  W;  xxxr, »; 
xlvi,  14;  Judg.  iv^G;'v,  18;  vi,  36;  I  CfaraiiL.H,l;  vi. 
S3,  77;  lii,  33,  40;  2  Chron.  xxi,  10,  II,  18;  Pta. 
ixviii,  27)  Ieb.  ix,  1]  1<^3t,  (oWufio-.-  Sept,  Sew 
Tesl^and  JuMpbuB,Za^u^L>t>;  Vulg.  Zuta/im ,-  A.  T. 
"Zabulon.'Uali.iv,  13,15;  Bev.  vii,S>,  the  nametrfa 
manandof  Ihe  tribe  descended  froiD  biiii,and  alsocf  a 
city  in  Paleaiiiie. 

1.  The  sixth  and  last  ion  of  Leah,  and  the  tenth  bora 
to  Jacob  (Uen.  XXXV,  S3;  ilvi,  11;  ICbron.ii,!).  Ub 
lirth  ia  leconled  in  Uen.  xzx,  19,  20,  where  the  origia 


"Now 


•  ill  n 


bonie  him  nix  sons !'  and  ahe  i 
ed  his  name  Zebulun."    RaiBU.    Thiaparunotsasiaii 
nut  preserved  in  the  original  of  the"  Bleiaing  of  Jacoh.* 
though  the  language  of  the  A,  V.  implies  ii.    The  weed         | 
rendered  "dwell"  in  xlix,  13  is  l'xtp%  with  no  rdatiMi         I 
to  the  name  Zebulun.     The  Sept.  puts  a  dillerent  point         I 
on  the  exclamation  of  Leah :  "  My  husband  will  choose         I 
me"  (oiptnii  /«).     This,  howei-cr,  handhr  implies  aav         \ 
difference  in  the  original  lext,     Jueephiis  (.liif.  i,  19,^         \ 
gives  only  a  general  explanation:  "a  pledge  of  good- 
will towards  her."     In  the  order  of  birth,  Zebulun  fot- 
lowed  his  brother  Issachar,  wiih  whom,  in  Ihe  hiatny 
nf  the  tribes  and  in  their  allotted  territories  in  Canaan, 
he  was  clusely  connected  (Deul,  iixiii,  18).      His  pe>^ 
Bonal  history  does  not  appear  to  have  contained  a  siu- 
gle  incident  worthy  of  record ;  and  his  name  ia  not  nnc* 
mentioned  except  in  ihe  genealogical  listL    In  Ihe  Jew- 
ish Iraditiona  he  ia  named  as  the  first  of  the  five  who 
were  presented  by  Joseph  to  Pharaoh — Dan,  Haphtali, 
Qad,  and  Asher  being  ibe  others  (Targ.  Pseudo-Joo.  Oa 

At  the  tiioe  of  the  descent  of  Jacob  into  Ecypt,  Zeb- 
ulun had  three  sons— Sered,  Elon,  and  JahlccI  (Uea. 
xlvi,  H) — who  became  the  founders  of  the  three  great 
familiea  into  which  the  tribe  waa  divided  (Numb,  xxvi, 
26).  Tbnngh  the  lint  generation  was  so  small,  this 
tribe  ranked  fourth  in  numbers  smong  the  twelve,  wbea 
the  census  was  taken  at  Mount  Sinai,  iu  the  vear  uf  (he 
Exode ;  Judah,  Dan,  and  Simeon  being  more'namrmia. 
During  the  wildemras  journey  it  incrcaMed  frnm  G7.40Q 
male*  10  60,600 1  but  it  held  just  ihe  same  relative  place 
among  the  twelve— Jiiilah,  Uan,  and  Issachar  beinic  be- 
fore it  when  the  census  was  made  on  the  pUina  of  Uoab 
(ver.  27). 

History  ia  almost  as  silent  regarding  the  acta  of  the 
tribe  during  the  long  period  of  Egyptian  bondage  aad 
the  desert  march  as  it  ia  rrganling  the  patriarch  Zebu- 
lun himself.  During  the  journey  fmm  Egypt  lo  Pales- 
tine, the  tribe  of  Zebulun  fnnned  one  of  the  first  camp, 
with  Judah  and  Issachar  (also  sons  of  Leah),  marching 
under  the  standard  of  Judah.  The  head  of  ihe  tribe  at 
Sinai  was  Eliab  son  nf  Helon  (Numb,  vii,  24);  at  Shi- 
loh,  Elizaphan  son  of  Pnmach  (xxxiv,  25).  Its  repre- 
aenutivc  amnng  the  spies  was  Gaddiel  aon  of  Sodi  (xiii, 
10).  The  only  point  worthy  of  note  previous  In  ita  set- 
llemenl  in  Palestine  is  the  &ct  that,  on  Ihe  solemn  proc- 
lamation of  the  law,  Zebulun  was  aroung  the  six  iribca 
Btaiinned  on  Mount  Ebal  to  pronounce  the  cunea  (DeuL 
xxvii,l3). 

The  poucion  and  physical  characicr  of  Zdiulun's  det- 
tined  terriluri-  in  the  Land  of  Promise  had  been  sketch- 
ed in  the  prophetic  blessings  of  Jacob  and  Moses.  Look- 
ing down  into  a  far-distant  age,  Jacob  exclaimed,  as  hi* 
son  stood  by  his  bedside,  "  Zebulun  shall  dwell  oo  the 
shore  (Cjin,  eh6pk,  a  core,  Ihn  modem  Haifay  of  seai; 
and  he  shall  be  for  a  shore  of  ships;  and  hi*  sjiie  will 
be  to  Zidun"  (Gen.  xlix,  IS).  Though  laachai  wai  an 
eider  brother,  Jacob  seem*  u>  have  already  noticed  and 
acknowledged  the  political  superiority  of  Zebulun  hgr 
placing  him  first  in  order.  This  saperioiity  waa  alic*. 
wards  man  fully  displayed  ia  tha  blesni^  '^  Uoaa^ 


ZEBULUN  10 

which,  Ihaugb  cmbraoing  bath  tribet,  >ppean  w  ir  id- 
dmKd  to  Zebulun  ■lone— "And  iif  Zeliulun  he  uld, 
I{eJoiGe,Zebulun,In  Iby  going  out;  and,  Iiuchar,  in  thy 
Uiita.  Tbcy  nhall  c«U  the  people  unio  ib«  mountain; 
there  Chejr  sbill  offer  ucriDcei  or  rlghMoueneas ;  fur 
they  ahill  auck  of  ihc  abundance  or  the  teaa,  and  of 
treasure*  hiJ  in  the  tand"  (Deut.  xxxiii,  18, 19).  Zeb- 
Dlun'i  Imiioty  wu  one  of  Iht  richeu  and  moit  beauti- 
fal  lectiun*  of  Western  Paletline.  Il>  aUnlnieni  wai 
the  third  of  the  second  diitribulion  (Jnah.  xlx,  10). 
Joshua  defines  it*  borders  with  his  usual  minuteneu, 
IhtHigh,  in  consequence  of  the  diaappeannoe  of  many 
old  cities,  it  cannot  now  be  en^relj  identified.  Its  p<^ 
■ition,  however,  and  genera]  extent,  are  clear  enough. 
Asher  and  Naphtali  boonded  it  on  the  north,  and  litw- 
char  on  the  lonth.  It  iirctched  nearly  acrucs  the  coun- 
irT-from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  on  the  east,  to  the  nurilime 
plain  of  PhiBnicia  on  Che  west ;  embracing  a  atrip  of  Ea- 
draelon,  a  little  or  the  plain  ofAkha,  the  whole  of  Ibe 
rich  upland  plain  of  Battauf  (e<iaal  in  fettility,  and  al- 
most equal  in  extent,  to  that  of  Jezreel,  and  with  the 
immenie  advantage  of  not  hdng,  as  that  was,  the  high- 
road a(  the  Bedawin);  with  a  part  of  the  fertile  table- 
land between  it  and  tbe  great  basin  of  the  Sea  of  Cati- 
lee;  and,  last,  not  least,  it  iiicludeil  sites  so  stiunglv  for- 
tiUeil  by  nature  that  in  the  later  alrugclea  of  the  liatinn 
Ihey  proved  more  imprcgnalile  than  any  in  the  whiile 
cauiitry.  The  sacred  vicinity  of  Tabor,  Zebulun  ap- 
pears to  have  Bbored  with  Issachar  (Ueui,  xxxiii,  19), 
and  it  and  Kimmun  were  dlatted  to  the  Mersrite  Le- 
viiea  (1  Chron.  vi,  77}.  The  beautiful  wooded  hilla  and 
ridge*  eKlending  from  Tabor,  by  Nazareth  and  Sefuri- 
jeh,  to  the  plain  of  Akka,  uere  also  in  Zebulun.  It 
touched  Carmel  on  the  snulh-weat;  and  thauKh 
iK>t  actually  reach  to  tbe  shore  of  tbe  Ueditenani 
(idea  Joined  the  narrow  maritime  lerritory  of  Pbc 
to  which  Jacob,  according  to  common  Eastern  custom, 
give*  the  name  of  its  chief  city,  Zidon— "  And  his  sii 
e.  flank)  will  be  to  Zidnn."*  Its  opposi 
ingon  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the 
word*  of  Jacob  were  fulUlled.-  "Zebulun  shall  dwell 
tbe  coaat  of  seas."  Uia  flshenoen  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
■nd  hia  merchaiita  navigating  the  Mediterranean,  in 
companr  with  their  Phcenician  neighbora,  illustrate  re- 
marfcabir  the  other  blenings :  *■  He  shall  be  fur  a  shore 


ni:.'*^*.'. 


of  ships-,''  "he  shall  rejoice 


1  hU  goi, 


le  ScaufUalileftthefuti 
The  four  Northern  tribes 


—Zebulun.  Issacba 

great  measure  isolated  from  their  brethren.  The  plain 
of  Esdraeluii,  almost  unceasingly  swept  by  the  incur- 
aiona  of  hostile  nations,  scparaleil  them  from  Epbraim 
and  Judih ;  while  the  deep  Jordan  valley  (umied  a  bar- 
rier on  the  east.  Isolaliun  from  their  brethren,  and 
their  peculiar  position,  threw  them  into  ciieer  inter- 
cuune  with  their  Gentile  neighbors — the  old  mountain- 
eciawbom  they  were  never  able  entirely  tn  expel  (Jndg. 
1, 80),  and  eep«:iBlly  th«  commercial  Phicnicians.  Their 
national  excluaiveneas  was  thus  conwdenbly  modilledi 
their  manners  and  cuitomt  were  changed;  their  lan- 
guage gradually  assumed  a  foreign  tone  and  accent 
(MatL  xxvi,TS);  and  even  their  religion  lost  much  of 
ita  original  purity  (2  Chron.  xxx,  10,  IB).  "Galilee 
of  tbe  Gentiles"  and  its  deRenersle  inbabilants  came  at 
length  to  be  reganled  with  illstrust  and  scnm  by  (he 
haughty  people  of  Judah  (ba.  ix,  1;  Matt,  ir,  1ft; 
xsvi,  78). 

The  four  Northern  tribes  formed,  as  it  were,  a  state 
by  themselves  (Stanley,  JtarUh  CAurrh,  i,  266);  and 
among  them  Zebulnn  became  distinguished  for  warlike 
■pint  and  devotion.  In  the  great  campaign  and  vic- 
tory of  Barak  it  bore  ■  prominent  part  (judg.iT,$,  10). 
Deborah,  in  har  triumphal  ode,  says,  "Zebulun  and 


J5  ZEBULUK 

Naphlili  were  a  people  that  Jeoparded  their  lir«s  unto 
the  death  in  the  high  places  Of  the  field"  (v,  18).  It 
would  appear,  heudes,  that  iheir  commercial  enterprise 
led  them  to  a  cloaet  and  fuller  study  of  the  aria  and  Ki< 
ence*  than  their  brethren.  "They  thus  at  an  early  pe< 
rioil  acquireil  tbe  reputation  of  literary  accomplishment; 
and  tbe  poet  sang  of  lhem,*Fmm  Zebulun  are  the  men 
whobaiidlethepenoftheacribe'"  (ver.  14',  Kaliseh,Oi> 
Cenau,  p.  T&3).  One  of  these  scribes  may  have  been 
Eton,  the  tingle  Judge  produced  by  the  tril>e,  who  ii  re* 
curded  a*  having  held  office  for  ten  years  (Judg.  xii,  1 1, 
IS).  This  combination  of  wiriike  spirit  with  scientiflo 
skill  Kent  to  he  referred  to  once  again  in  a  more  ex- 
tended field  of  action.  The  aacied  historian  mentions 
that  in  Daviil's  army  there  were,  "Uf  Zebulun,  such  as 
went  forth  to  battle,  expert  in  war,  with  all  instrumenls 
of  war,  liny  thouaand.  which  could  keep  rank ;  not  of 
double  heart"  (1  Chron.  xii,  S3).  They  were  generous, 
also,  and  liberal,  aa  well  ai  brave  and  loyal;  lor  they 
conlributed  abundantly  of  the  rich  products  of  thnr 
count  ly—meal,  tigs,  raiiina,  wine,  oil,  oxen,  anil  sheep 
— tolhewanlsofihearmy(rer.40).  The  beadofthe 
tribe  at  this  lime  was  Ishmaiahben-Obadiah  (xxvli,19). 
The  "way  of  the  sea"  (Isa.  ix,  1),  the  great  road  ftum 
namascuB  to  the  Mediterranean,  traversed  a  good  por- 
tion of  Che  territory  of  Zebulun,  and  must  have  brought 
its  people  into  contact  with  the  meichaiita  and  the  com- 
modities of  Syria,  PhtBiiicia,  and  Egypt.  Its  inhabi- 
tants, ill  consequence,  look  part  in  seafaring  concerns 
(Josephna,  AnI.  v,  1,  22).  In  the  TtHi-moa  of  Zabu. 
Im  (Fabriciut,  Psndrpigr.  V.  T.  i,  630-646)  great  stress 
is  laid  ou  his  skill  in  fighing,  and  he  is  commemorated 
as  the  first  to  naviusie  a  skiff  on  the  sea.  Il  is  saii»- 
factory  to  reflect  thai  the  very  latest  mention  of  the 
Zebuliiniles  ii  Ibe  account  of  the  visit  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  them  to  Jerusalem  to  the  possover  of  Heiekiah, 
•a,  by  Che  enlightened  liberality  of  the  king,  ihcy 


ough,  tl 


long  neglect  of  tbe  provisions  of  (he  law, 

cleansed  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  ceremonial 

la*  (!  Chron.  xxx,  10,  It,  18), 

The  tribe  of  Zebulnn,  though  not  mentioned,  appear* 
to  have  ahared  the  fate  of  Che  other  Northern  tribes  at 
the  inva^on  of  the  country  by  TigUth-pileser  (3  King) 
xrii,18,!4sq.).  From  this  tinM  the  history  of  distinct 
tribes  ceases.  With  tbe  exception  of  the  Levites,  the 
whole  were  amalgamated  into  one  nation ;  and,  on  the 
return  from  exile,  were  called  Jews.  The  land  of  Zeb- 
ulun, however,  occupied  a  distinguished  place  in  New- 
Test,  limea,  It  formed  the  chief  scene  of  oufLflrd's  life 
and  labors.  Natarelh  and  Cana  were  in  it;  and  it  em- 
braced aaectinn  of  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  whera 
BO  many  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  were  performed,  and 
so  many  of  his  discourses  ami  parables  spoken.  Then 
was  fulHUed  the  pmphecy  of  Isaiah;  "The  land  Zabu- 
lon,  and  the  land  Nephthalim,  the  way  of  the  sea,  be- 
yond Jordan,  Galilee  of  tbe  Gentiles:  ihe  people  which 
sat  in  darkness  saw  great  light;  and  Co  them  which  sat 
in  Che  rc(;ion  and  shadow  of  death,  light  is  spnini; 
lip"  (ix,  1,  !:  MatL  iv,  15,  16).  In  Che  vioinns  of 
Eiekiel  (xlviii,  26-S3)  and  of  John  (Rev.  vii,  8)  ihis 
tribe  finds  its  due  mentioo.    See  IsaAEt,  Kinaixut 


do.     (Rt-JTufMrjr 
d*     TflA. 


lutf  I 

_.ooglc 


ZEBULUNITE 


ZECHARIAH 


[Rn 


iiN.W.ofal-UeirBibjr 


2.  ApUra  on  the  eutem  border  of  tbe  trib«  oTAeher, 
bclweeii  Belh-dignn  and  [he  vftUey  nr  Jiphlhah-el 
(Jmh.  xix,  S7) ;  perhaps  tbf  Tnodern'  A  bilia,  >  village 
'■perched  upon  a  high  and  «harp  hill, on  the  aoulh  aide 
nf  the  wady  of  (he  aame  name"  (RobJiixin,  /jiltr  Iht. 
p.  103).  In  thi>  paua^'e  the  word  has  uMially  been  re- 
gardeil  aa  referring  U>  the  tribe  by  that  name,  n  if  Aah- 
er'a  boundary  at  ibis  paint  coincided  with  that  of  Zebu- 
lun,  wheieBB  they  were  identical  along  the  whole  line 
nmed.    S«e  Tb'ibe. 

Zeb'alniilte(NuRib.ixvi,2T).   See Zbbui^xitb. 

ZectaOri'mh  (Heb.  Zdxtrgali',  ri^^SI,  remtmbeifd 
of  Jthaeah;  occiaionally  [1  '"  "  ""  "' 


i,  2, 11,14 


■1  Chroi 


exv,  8]  in  the  prolonged 
forai  Zdiarya'ka,\n'^-i^t;  SepI^  N.T.,anilJoaephuB, 
'    Znynp^otOi  t''^  name  of  many  Hebrews,  besides  Zacha- 
lias  (q.  v.),  tbe  rather  of  John  the  Baptist. 

1.  (9eg>t.  Zinnip  v.  i.  Zaxxoip.)  Ninth  named  of 
the  ten  sons  of  Jehiel,  the  father  or  founder  of  Gibeon 
(1  Chron.  ix,  37).  aC  cir.  t6IH.  In  I  Chron.  viii,  SI 
he  ia  called  Zacher  {q.  v.). 

2.  Son  of  HeshelemUh,  or  Shclemiah,  a  Korhile, 
and  keeper  of  the  north  gate  of  the  tabeniscle  of  the 
congregation  (1  Chron.  ix,  21)  in  the  atranmrnenl  of 
the  potters  in  the  reign  of  Darid.  RC.  1043.  In  I 
Chron.  xxTi,3, 14,  he  ia  described  u  "one  counselling 
with  undenlandin);." 

3.  A  Levite  ill  the  Temple  band  as  arranged  by  Da- 
Ttd,  aiqrainted  to  pUv  "with  psalteries  on  Alamoth" 
(1  Cbron.  xv,  20 ;  comp.  zvi,  S).  He  waa  of  the  sec- 
and  order  of  Leviies  (xv,  18),  a  porter  or  gate-keeper, 
and  may  possibly  be  tbe  same  ai  tbe  preceditig  or  ihe 
following. 

4.  One  of  [he  priests  who  blew  with  [he  Immpets 
in  (he  pmceuion  which  sccnmpinied  the  ark  fmni  the 
bouse  of  Obed-edom  (I  Chron.  xv,  V4).     D.C.  1043. 

9.  Son  of  Isshiah,  or  Jesiah,  a  Kohathite  Levite  de- 
■oended  fnHn  Uzziel  (I  Cbnin.  xxiv,  ili).    B.C.  lIMa. 

6.  Fourth  son  of  Hnsah  of  the  children  of  Alerari 
(1  Cbron.  xxvi,  II).    EC.  ICHS. 

7,  (Sept.  Zaiaiat  v.  r.  Zo^^.'ac.)  A  Msnassite, 
whose  son  Idilo  was  chief  of  bis  rrilie  in  (Ulead  in  [be 
reign  of  David  (I  Chron.  xxvii,  21).    B.C  1011. 


8.  The  son  nf  Benaiah  and  father  of  Jahuiel.  wbidi 
last  was  B  liershiinite  Lerite  in  Ihe  rei^'n  uf  Jehoaha- 
phB[  (i  Chron.  xx,  14).    RC.  ante  912. 

9.  Third  named  uf  the  tive  princes  uf  .liiilah  in  ihc 

Levites  to  leach  the  people  [be  law  of  Jehucah  {3 
Chron.xvii,7).    RC910. 

10.  FiHinh  named  of  the  seven  son*  of  king  Jrtap>b- 
aphst  (2  Chron.  xxi, !).     KC  887. 

11.  (Sept.  Ajofifoc.)  Sun  of  the  high-print  Jebui- 
ada,  ill  (he  reign  of  J.osh,  king  of  Juilah  <2  Chnwi. 
xxiv,  20),  and  therefore  tbe  hitiK's  omMu.  RC  83& 
After  the  death  of  Jehoiada,  Zechariah  prnliablr  hk> 
ceeded  to  his  office,  and  in  atlempliiig  to  check  the  re- 
action in  fa\-nrof  idolatry  which  immedtately  fidkmed, 
he  fell  a  victim  [o  a  cuns|aracy  fonned  against  him  br 
tbe  king,  and  was  stoned  wiib  slouea  in  the  court  vV 
the  Temple.  His  dying  cry  was  not  that  of  ilic  linit 
Christian  martvr,  "Lunl,  lav  not  Ibis  sin  to  Ihfir 
charge"  (Acts  vii,  60),  but,  "The  Lord  1..*  upon  it. 
and  require  it"  (2  Cbron.  xxiv,  30-22).  The  mcm.itT 
of  this  unrighteous  deed  lasted  long  in  Jewiah  i  radii  ion. 
In  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  (Taamili,  f.d.  69.  qtioied  by 
Lightfuot,  Tmple  Srrrict,  cb.  xxxvi)  there  ia  ■  l^fmd 
told  of  eighty  thousand  young  priests  who  were  slain  by 
Nebuiaradan  for  the  bjood  uif  Zechariah,  and  the  evi- 
dent hold  which  the  story  had  taken  upon  tlie  miiids 

the  people  renders  it  probable  that  "  Zacharias  aon 
Baracbiaa,"  who  was  slain  between  the  Tcmide  amt 
e  alur  (Matt,  xxiii,  85),  is  the  tatne  with  Zecliariah, 
e  son  of  Jehoiada,  and  ihat  the  name  of  Barachiaa  aa 
a  father  crept  into  (he  text  from  a  marginal  fchva, 
e  writer  confusing  this  Zechariah  either  with  Zvctf 
lab  the  propbet,  who  was  Ihe  sun  of  Derechiah,  or 
with  another  Zechariah,  tbe  son  of  Jcberechiab  I  lac 
>-iii,  2).  See  Castens,  Dt  Z-irharii  Barelim  fMo 
(Lips.  1720);  H\iH>,Cadf  Airliitl  Z-teluiivr  (^Etitiug. 
" ll,ii,G73.     See  Zacu- 


I75tl)i  and  Ihc  Slud.  a.  Kiil 


12.  A  prophet  in  ihe  reign  of  Uzziah  who  appears 
to  have  acted  as  the  king's  counsellor,  but  of  whoin 
nothing  is  known  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  b).  RC.  807.  Tbe 
chronicler  in  describing  him  makes  use  of  a  most  re- 
markable and  unique  expreninii — "  Zeehariah.  who  nn- 
derstood  the  seeing  of  God,"  or,  as  our  A.  T.  has  ir, 
"  who  had  understanding  in  the  visions  of  Gud'  (romp. 
Dan.  i,  IT).  Aa  no  such  [erm  li  ever  employed  elHP- 
where  in  ihe  description  of  any  pmphct,  it  has  beeii 
qiicalioneit  whether  the  readintc  of  ihe  teeeived  text 
is  ibe  true  uue.     The  Sept.,  Targum,  Syriac,  Arabic^ 


ZECHAraAH 

Buhi,  uid  Kimcbi,  witb  muiy  of  KennttiaU'g  HSS^ 
nad  rs^^a,  "ia  the  fe*r  o^"  for  fl^X^a,  uid  their 
nmding  is  mcu  pcob^ly  the  conwl  one.— SmiLh, 

13.  (Sept.  Zoxapto.)  A  chief  of  the  Baubenila 
the  time  of  tbs  ca|>lirit}r  bj  'i'igUth-pileaer  (1  Cbi 
V,  7).     ftC  dr.  740. 

14.  The  fitbet  of  Abijah,  or  Abi,  HezekUh'i  ino 
CT  (2  Cnnu.  xxix,  1} ;  mentioned  *]»  in  2  Kings  i\ 
X(Sept.Za)')iaioc.A.T.''Z>chui«h"}.    B.aanle7«& 

15.  Second  nimed  of  the  "mns"  of  Aiiph  chi  min- 
Wrel,  wh«  in  the  reign  ot  HenkUh  took  part  with  olh- 
•r  I«rit«  in  the  poridcitioa  of  the  Temple  (2  Chion. 
xxix,  131.    aC726. 

16.  The  ann  of  Jeberechiah,  who  waa  taken  bv  the 
ptuphet  iHiah  us  one  of  the  ■*  faithrul  witoeaMa  in  n- 
cont,"  when  he  wcnte  concerning  Maher-Bhatal-haah-bu 
(laLviii,2),  KCTia.  He  oiB  not  the  nme  M  Zech- 
■ri«h  the  pmphet,  who  lired  in  the  time  «f  Uuiah  ami 
died  before  that  king,  but  he  may  have  been  the  Le- 
viie  of  that  name  who  in  the  reign  of  Hexekiah  araiat- 
cd  ill  the  puriScalion  of  the  Tereiple  (2  Chron.  xxix,  IS). 
Aa  Zechariab  the  ptopliet  is  called  the  eon  of  bere- 
chiah,  with  which  Jebcrrahinh  in  all  but  identical,  Her- 
tholdt  {KiiiHt.  iv,  1722,  1727)  conjectureil  that  some  of 
the  propheciea  attributed  lu  him,  at  any  nte  ch.  it^xi, 
wen  really  the  pmlucttoii  of  Zcchariah,  the  coiilempo- 
raiy  of  Isaiah,  ami  were  appended  to  the  volume  of 
the  later  prophet  nf  the  same  name  (Geaeniua,  lifr 
PropA,Jaaia,\,Sii).  Another  conjecture  is  that  Zech- 
■riah  the  am  iif  Jeberecbiah  is  the  same  a>  Zechariah 
the  father  of  Abijah,  (he  queen  uf  Ahaz  (I'dIi  Synoptii, 
ad  loc) ;  the  wttDesses  summoned  by  Isaiah  being  thus 
men  nfthe  higheet  ecileeiaaticil  anil  civil  nnk. 

17.  The  (on  of  Jerobnim  II,  being  the  fourteenth 
liing»rlsrirl,aiidthe  hut  of  the  house  of  Jehu.   There 

'10  date  of  his  reign.    We  are  told 


cended  ll 


iofjnd 


in  these 


ond  year  or  Jiiash  kinj!  of  Israel,  and  reigned  29  v. 
(2  Kings  xiv,  1,  2).  He  was  succeeded  by  Uziiih 
Auriah  in  the  37ih  year  of  Jen-boam  ]I,  the  succea 
of  Joash  (XF,  I), and  Uuiah  reigncil  62  years.  On  t 
other  hand,  Joaafa  king  of  Israel  reigned  lU  yean  (i 
10),  was  succeeded  by  Jeroboam,  who  reigned  4\  y« 
(xiv,  29),  and  be  by  Zechariah,  who  came  to  the  throne 
in  theS8(hrearofITziiahkingur.ludah(E*, 
we  have  (1)  f™m  the  acceui.m  of  Amaiiah  l..'lhB  Mlh 
of  Uuiah  23+3fl=67yean;  but  (2)  friHn  the  second 
vearof  Juaah  to  the  acceHion  of  Zechariah  (iir  at  li 
ID  the  death  of  Jeroboam)  we  have  15+41  — M  yei 
Further,  the  accemion  of  Uuiah,  placed  in  the  2 
year  of  Jeroboam,  accoiding  lu  the  above  reckoning, 
cutred  in  tbe  16th.  Tliii  latter  aynchrtHiism  is  c 
flrmeil,  and  that  with  the  J7th  rear  of  Jeroboam  e 
tradided,  by  2  Kings  xiv,  17,  which  tells  us  that  Ai 
■iah  king  ofJudsh  survived  Joaah  king  i>f  Israel  by  16 


97  ZECHARIAH 

In  the  English  Tcnion  of  2  Kings  xv,  10  we  lead: 
"AndShallum  the  son  of  Jabesh  conspired  against  him, 
and  smote  him  br/urt  lk«  ptopie,  and  slew  bin,  and 
TOgned  in  his  stead,"  And  so  the  Vidg.,  "percusaitque 
cum  palam  et  interfecit."  But  in  tbe  Sept  we  Hnd  Kc 
fika.in  instead  of  br/ore  Ike  ptopir,  i.  e.  Shallum  and 
Keblaam  killed  Zechariah.  The  common  editions  read 
ir  KiUKain.  meaning  that  Shallum  killed  Zechariah 
in  KebUami  but  no  place  uf  sucha  name  is  known,  and 
there  is  nothing  in  the  Hebrew  to  answer  to  Ir.  The 
words  translated  br/ore  IhtptopU,  Kf)3Xnnp,  pir/ifm,  are 
C7  b=^.  Ewald  (CescUcAfe,  iii,  698;  aiaiutidus  that 
»3IJ  never  occurs  in  proee  [Is  not  the  objection  rather 
that  tbe  word  ia  Cbaldee?  It  occurs  rejicaiedlv  in 
Daniel  (ii,  Bl ;  iii,  S;  t,  1,  b,  10),  and  also  in  tbe  6ul- 
dee  portions  of  Eira  (ir,  16;  ri,  13)],  and  that  B9 
rould  be  0^11  if  the  Latin  and  English  transiationa 


He  I 


lb.  80,  nhi 

of  Shallum,  Pekahi 
Ihe  ptopU  are  omiiti 


2  King 


r.14. 


itession  is  used  of  the 
id  Pekah,  the  wonts 
lence  he  accepts  the 
iiiiwjtiiciii  111  lue  tHEiuin  iii^  oi  the  Sept.,  and  consid* 
I  that  KabaUm  or  XifJXnnfi  was  •  fellow-conspiralvr 
rival  at  Shailum,  of  whnie  aubsequent  fate  we  have 
infiirmatinn.  On  Ihe  death  of  Zechariah,  Shallum 
a  made  king,  but.  after  reigning  in  Samaria  for  a 
inlh  only,  was  in  his  turn  dethroned  and  killed  bv 
~      ■  ~      A  refers 


"  Three  shephenls  alto  I  cu 


y*ai>.    Hinl 


ilogcrs  ai 


m  Jerobiiam's  death  and  Zecharii 
ceaainn,  during  which  the  kingdom  was  suffering  from 
the  anarchv  of  a  disputed  aucceHion,  bat  this  doe*  n 
solve  the  difference  between  xiv,  17  and  xv,  1.  We  ai 
reduced  to  understand  the  number  27  in  xv,  1  as  refer- 
ring to  the  yeom  of  JenAoam's  ricerojiiip  on  the  oc- 
caaion  of  bis  father's  war  with  Svtia  (itiii,  14-26),  See 
Ciiiio:'0LOOi.  Jo«ephua(J«.  ix,  10,8)  places  Uui- 
ah'a  acccaaion  in  tbe  14lh  year  of  Jeroboam,  a  variation 
of  a  year  in  these  aynchronisras  being  unavoidable, 
since  the  Hebrew  annalists  in  giving 


reckon 


any  c. 


place  Zechariah'!  acces^on  early  in  KC  770.  Kii 
reign  Uated  only  six  muiiths.  He  waa  killed  in  a  con- 
spiracy of  which  Shallum  (q.  v,)  was  the  head,  and  by 
which  Ihe  propherv  in  x,  80  was  accomplished.  We  are 
told  that  during  hi»  brief  term  of  power  he  did  ertl,  and 
kept  up  the  air-wurship  inberited  from  Ihe  flnt  Jero- 
boam, which  his  fal  her  had  maintained  in  regal  splendor 
■t  Baibcl  f  Amos  vli,  IB),    See  Iuakl,  Kinodcx  op. 


passage  in  Zech.  xi 

'phenls   being   Zechariah,  Kabalam.  and    Shallum. 

This  is  very  ingenious:  we  must  remember,  however, 

that  Ewald,  like  ceruin  English  divines  (Mede,  Ham. 

id,  Newcome,  Seeker.  Pre  Smith),  thinks  that  Ihe 

latter  chapters  uf  the  propheciea  of  Zechariah  belong 

an  earlier  date  than  the  test  of  the  book.    See  Zkcii- 

II A II,  Book  op. 

la  A  KohsthiU  LeviU  in  Ihe  reign  of  Josiah,  whn 

e  restoration  of  the  Temple(2  Chron.  xxiiv,  12),  aC. 

19.  Second  nsmedoflhe  three  nilrrsofthe  Temple 
in  the  reign  ofjosiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  8).  aC  Cat. 
He  was  probably,  as  Bertheau  conjectures,  "  tbe  sccoihI 
priest"  (comp.  Z  Kings  xxv,  18). 

20.  Son  of  Sbiloni  and  father  of  Juiarib  among  the 
descendania  of  Perez  [Neh.  xi,  6).    RC.  long  ante  630. 

21.  A  priest,  aon  of  Pa^ur  and  father  of  Amzi  (Neb. 
xi,  Vi).    aa  lung  ante  G3& 

22.  Son  of  Amariah  and  father  of  nzziah,  of  the 
family  of  Perei  C^eh.  xi,  4).     aG  ante  636. 

33.  The  reprrsenlatlve  of  tbe  priestly  family  of  Iddo 
in  the  days  of  Joiakim  the  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.'xii,  10), 
aa  rOK,  He  wa*  possibly  the  aams  as  Zechariah  Ihe 
prophet  the  son  of  Iddo, 

34.  The  eleventh  in  order  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets, 

1.  or  his  personal  histoiy  we  know  but  little.    He  is 

called  in  his  prophecy  the  aon  of  Berechiah  and  the 

grandson  of  Iddo,  whereas  in  the  book  of  Eira  (v,  1 ;  vi, 

14)  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  uf  Iddo.     Tsrinus 

iltemplB  have  been  made  to  reconcile  this  discrepancy. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria  (/'r-/  Commal.  ad  Zrck.)  suppns^ 

that  Berechiah  was  the  father  of  Zechariah  according 

the  flesh,  and  thai  Mdo  was  his  instructor,  and  might 

reganled  as  liis  spiritual  father.    Jerome,  too,aceor.l- 

g  to  some  MSS.,  has  in  Zrrk.  i.  l,"mium  Baracbie, 

Slium  Addo,"as  ifhe  supposed  that  Berechiah  and  Idilo 

wen  different  names  of  the  same  person;  and  Ihe  same 

mistake  occurs  in  the  Se|>t. :  rbv  rav  Bapojiou  iniV 

'Aiii,.     Cesenius  (/.u.  s.  v.  12)  and  Rosenmuller  {On 


Ztck.  i,  1)  take  -^3  ii 
dBon,''aB  in  ben 


ZECHARIAH  10 

at  BercchUh,  bMMiM  he  wu  ilready  deid,  or  beaaw 

Iddo  wie  tbe  mure  Jiitinguuhcil  peniun,  iiid  tbe  g«Tier- 
■lly  recogniMd  heidoftha  family.  Kiiobel  thinks  that 
the  iiime  of  Berechlub  haa  crept  inlu  the  prtsenl  text 
of  Zechariab  fnim  lu.  viii,  2,  when  menlioD  is  mula 
of  ■  Kechariib  "  the  son  of  JtbtntAiai,"  which  is  rirtu- 
ally  ibe  ume  name  (Sept.  Bapax'iiu)  at  Berechiah. 
Hi*  theory  ia  that  ch.  ix-xi  of  our  present  book  of 
Zecbarish  an  really  tbe  work  of  the  older  Zechariab 
(Isa.  viii,  3) ;  tbat  a  later  acribe  Unding  tbe  two  bouka, 
une  bearinft  the  name  of  Zecbiriah  the  son  of  Iddu,  and 
Iheolher  that  of  Zecbariali  tbe  son  of  Berecbiab,  united 
them  into  one.  and  at  tbe  lame  time  combined  the  titles 
of  tbe  two,  and  that  hence  arose  the  confusion  which  at 
present  eziata.  This,  bowever,  ishardlya  probable  hy- 
poiheeia.  It  i>  surely  more  natural  In  suppose,  as  the 
prophet  himself  mentinna  bis  father'a  name,  whereas 
the  biuorical  books  of  Eira  and  Nebeoiiah  mention 
only  Iddo,  that  Berechiah  had  died  esriy,  and  that 
tbere  was  now  no  intervening  link  between  the  grand- 
father anJ  the  grandson,  The  son,  in  giving  his  pedi- 
gree, does  not  omit  bia  fathei'i  name:  tbe  bistarian 
passes  it  over  as  or  one  who  was  but  lillle  known  or  al- 
ready forgoltea.  This  view  ia  confirmed  if  we  suppose 
the  Iddo  here  mentioned  to  have  been  the  Iddo  the 
priest  who,  in  Neh.  xii,  4,  ia  aald  to  have  returned  from 
Babylon  in  company  with  Zerubbihel  and  Joehna.  He 
iatherenid  tohavehadasonZecbBriah(ver.  16),whD 
was  contemporary  with  Joiakim  the  son  of  Joahua;  and 
Ibis  falls  in  with  Ibe  bypotheiis  that  owing  to  some  un- 
explained cauae_perhapa  the  death  of  bis  father— Zech. 
ariah  became  the  next  repreienlaiive  of  the  family  af- 
ter hia  grandfather  Iddo.  Zechariab,  according  to  Ibii 
view,  like  Jeremiah  and  F^kiel  before  him,  was  priest 
■swell  IS  prophet.  He  seems  to  hive  entered  upon  his 
offlcawhile  yet  young  py3,Zech.ii,*|  comp.  Jer.  1,6), 
and  must  have  been  bom  in  Babrlon,  whence  be  return-  ' 
edwith  tbe  fint  caravan  ofexilea  under  Zerubbabet  and  ; 

It  waa  in  the  eighth  monlh.  In  the  second  rear  of 
Dariua,  that  he  Grat  publicly  diicharged  hia  office.  B.C. 
&I9.  In  this  be  acted  in  concert  with  Haggai,who 
must  have  been  coniideralily  his  aenior  if,  as  seems  not 
improbabli:',  Haggai  had  been  carried  inio  captivity,  and 
hence  hail  himself  been  one  of  these  wbn  had  aeen  "the 
house"  of  Jehovah  "In  her  firat  gloty'  (Hagg.  ii,8). 
Both  propheta  had  the  same  great  object  before  Ihem; 
both  directed  all  their  energies  to  the  building  of  the 
accoml  Temple.  Haggai  seema  to  have  led  the  way  in 
ibis  work,  and  then  to  have  left  it  chiefly  in  the  hands 
v(  his  younger  contemporary.  The  fuundaliona  of  tbe 
new  building  bad  already  been  laid  in  the  time  of  Cy- 
rus, but  during  the  reigns  of  Cambyses  and  the  pseudo- 
Smerdis  the  work  had  been  broken  ulT  through  the  , 
Jeahjueles  of  the  Samaritans.  When,  however,  Darius 
Mystaspis  ascended  the  throne  (Gil)  things  look  a  more 
fiivorable  turu.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  large-hearted 
and  graciuua  prince,  and  to  have  been  weU-disposed  lo- 
wnrds  the  Jews.  Encouraged  by  the  hopes  which  his 
accesaion  held  out,  the  pruphets  exerted  theniselres  to 
the  utmost  to  secure  the  completion  of  the  Temple. 
From  this  time,  fur  a  apace  of  nearly  two  years,  tbe 
pmphet'a  voice  was  rilent,  or  his  words  have  not  been 
reeurdcd.  But  in  the  fourth  year  of  king  Dariu^in  the 
fiinnh  day  of  the  ninth  month,  there  came  a  deputation 
jf  Jews  to  ihe  Temple,  anxious  to  know  whether  the 
fast-days  which  had  been  instituted  during  the  seventy 
years'  captivity  were  atill  to  be  observed.  On  the  one 
hand,  now  that  the  captivity  was  at  an  end,  and  Jeni- 
aalem  was  rising  from  her  ashes,  such  set  limes  of  mourn- 
ing seemed  quite  out  of  plaoe.    On  the  other  hand,  there 

time  after  thdr  return  they  had  auRered  severely  from 
drooght  and  famine  (i,  6-i  I),  and  who  could  tell  that 
they  would  not  m>  suffer  again?  The  heavily  of  their 
neigbbera  bad  not  ceased  {  they  were  atill  regarded  with 


ZECHARIAH 

I  comnion  Jealouay;  and  Iirg<  noinbcn  of  tbeir  bcctb- 
a  bad  not  yet  returned  from  Babylon.  Ilwa*  a  quea- 
in,  tbetcfore,  that  seemed  to  admit  of  much  ilelMie. 
It  is  impomble  not  to  aee  of  how  great  ouaient,  mn- 
I  such  dreumstances,  and  for  Ihe  discharge  of  the 
special  duty  with  which  be  was  intrusted,  woahl  be  the 
priestly  origin  of  Zechariab.  Too  often  tbe  propfect 
had  had  to  aland  forth  in  direct  antagonisrn  to  the 
priest.  In  an  age  when  the  sen'ice  of  Uod  had  •tit 
fened  into  formalism,  and  the  priests' lipa  nokmjjer  kept 
knowledge,  the  prophet  was  the  witness  for  the  irvth 
which  lay  beneath  the  outward  ceremonial, and  witbom 
which  tbe  outward  cereoionial  was  worthlea.  Bat  the 
thing  to  be  dreaded  now  was  not  sopentiriom  tbnmmt- 
iam,  but  cold  neglect.  1*hrre  was  no  fear  now  leac  in  a 
gorgeous  temple,  amid  the  splendors  of  an  imponDg 
ritual  and  tbe  smoke  of  sscriflces  ever  aacending  to 
heaven,  the  heart  and  life  of  religion  ahoidd  be  loal. 
The  fear  waa  all  the  other  way,  lest  even  the  body,  the 
outward  form  and  service,  ^oald  be  suRtred  to  decay. 
The  foundations  of  the  Temple  had  indeed  been  laiil, 
but  that  was  all  (Kzra  v,  16),  Discouraged  by  tbe  op- 
poMtion  which  they  had  encoontered  at  firit,  the  Jew- 
ish colony  bad  begun  to  build,  and  were  not  aMe  la  dn- 
ish ;  and  even  when  the  letter  came  from  Darina  auB- 
tinning  the  work,  and  promising  hia  protection,  tbew 
showed  no  heany  disposition  to  engage  in  it.  At  smh 
a  time  no  more  fitting  instrument  could  be  fuaiid  In 
ronae  Ihe  people,  whose  heart  had  grown  cold,  than  one 
who  united  to  the  authority  of  the  prophet  the  seal  and 
the  Iradilinns  of  a  aacerdolal  family.  Accordinfclr,  to 
Zechariah's  influence  we  find  the  rebuilding  of  the  Tem- 
ple In  a  great  measure  ascribed.  "And  the  elders  of 
the  Jews  builded,"  it  is  said, "  and  ihey  prospered  i  hruigfe 
tbe  prophesying  of  Haggai  the  prophet  and  Zecbariah 
the  son  of  Iddo"  (vi,  14).  It  la  remarliable  that  in  this 
Juxtaposition  of  the  two  names  boih  are  nnt  styled 
propheta — not  "  Haggai  and  Zechariab  the  propbets,' 
but  "Haggai  the  prophet  and  Zeehaiiab'baoiifl/'yrfdbi' 
la  it  an  improbable  conjecture  that  Zechariab  ia  den|!- 
nated  by  hia  father's  (or  grandfatber'a )  name,  Talhier 
than  by  hia  office,  in  order  lo  remind  us  of  his  prieaily 
character?  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  find  other  Indicatioan 
of  the  close  union  which  now  subsisted  between  tbe 
priests  and  Ihe  prophets.  Various  evenla  oonnected 
with  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  and  the  eaptivity  in 
Babylon  had  led  to  the  institution  of  solemn  faat-daya; 
and  we  find  that  when  a  question  arose  a*  to  Ibe  pm- 
priety  of  obaerving  these  fast-days,  now  that  the  catv 
and  the  Temple  were  rebuilt,  the  question  waa  teferml 
to  '^thfl  pricata  which  were  in  Ihe  house  of  JptkoTah, 
and  to  the  prophets" — a  recognition  not  only  of  iba 
Joint  authority,  but  of  Ibe  hannony  subnisling  beiwtva 
tbe  two  badies,  without  parallel  in  Jewish  bisinr^-.  Tha 
manner,  too,  in  which  Jitshua  the  high-prieat  ia  spoken 
of  in  thia  prophecy  ahowa  how  lively  a  aympatby  Zecb- 


that  Zechariab  took  personally  an  active  part  in  prorid* 
ing  for  Ibe  liturgical  service  of  the  Temple.  He  and 
Haggai  are  both  laid  to  have  compoaed  paalma  irilb 
this  view.  According  lo  the  Sept.,  Psa.  exxxvii.  cxtr— 
cxlviii ;  according  to  thn  Peshito,  exxr,  ciivi ;  accurd- 
ing  to  the  Vulg„  cxi,  are  psalms  of  Haggu  and  Zecha* 
riah.  The  triumphant ''hallelujah,"with  which  nuuiy 
of  them  open,  was  supposed  to  l>e  charaoleriaiiG  of  thoaq 
psalms  which  were  first  chanted  in  tbe  second  Temple, 
and  came  with  an  enphaiis  of  meaning  ftoui  the  lipa 
of  thoK!  who  had  been  reuored  to  their  native  land.  Tbe 
■lluBifln^  moreover,  with  which  tbeae  paalma  abonnd,  as 
well  aa  ^eir  place  in  tbe  Psalter,  leave  na  in  nv  doubt 
as  to  the  Ume  when  Ihey  were  oomposed,  and  lend  oto- 
firmation  to  the  tradition  respecting  their  aulhnrshiih 
irihe  later  Jewiabaecuunia  (the  Talmud ic  tract  Jifry^ 
M,xvii,S;  iviii,  I;  RashioilAain  Ai«ilra,iv,  I)  may 
be  truated,  Zechariab,  aa  well  aa  Haggai,  waa  a  membnr 
of  Ihe  great  aj'tiagogue.    The  patriatic  Botices  of  iba 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF         loeg        ZECHARIAB,  BOOK  Ot 


prophet  *n  ironh  nothing.  According  to  theat,  be 
exercued  bi>  pcupbatic  office,  in  Cb«ld«u,  and  wraugbt 
numy  ininciet  there';  rtturual  to  Jenualeni  at  an  ad- 
vuiceilagt,wberehediKha>)Ctd  theiluiieaurttaeprieM- 
liiHKl,  and  wbera  be  dini  utd  waa  burinl  by  tbe  aide  of 
HiKgai  ([^Midepiph.Xto  Prvplt.  c  21 ;  DutuUlcu^  p.  144  i 
laidufiii,c.6l). 

3.  The  geiiiune  writingi  of  Zechariah  help  iia  biit  Ut- 
ile in  our  eeliauuianorhis  chancier.  Sumelaint  Lnceo, 
bomveriHre  may  obwrre  in  ibem  of  hia  educacion  in 
Uabylon,  Lata  Tree  and  independent  tban  he  would 
hmre  becu  bad  hia  feet  trodden  fnioi  cbildhood  the  eoil 


mellcmr 
alb«d  ar 


be  leana  iToiredly  on  the  authnriiy  of  the  older  proph- 
et*, and  copies  their  expreHioni.  Jeremiah  eapecially 
■eema  to  have  been  hia  favorite,  and  henre  the  Jewiah 
aajing  that  "the  ipirit  of  Jeremiah  dwelt  in  Zecha- 
riah." But  in  what  may  be  called  the  peculiaritie*  of 
hia  pmphecy  he  appmachea  mure  neariy  to  Eiektel  and 
Dauiel  Like  them,  he  deliphu  in  virions;  like  them, 
he  liars  ayinbnls  and  illegoriea  rather  than  the  buld 
liKurea  ami  metaphors  wbieh 
bauty  to  ibe  writing!  of  the  earlier  pmpheta;  like 
them,  he  beholds  antcela  mjiiiatering  before  Jehovi ' 
and  fulHilin^  hia  bebents  nii  the  earth.  He  ia  the  on 
one  of  the  prophets  who  apeak*  of  Saun.     That 


of  It 


I  uwinn  til  bis  Chaldsin  « 


n  hardly  be  doubted.     It  is  at  leaal  remarkable 

tliienced  by  the  lame  assrwiali'in*,  should  in  »on 
ihew  respect*. BO  closely  resemble  Zechariah,  widely  as 
Ihev  differ  from  him  in  olbera 

Even  in  the/a>in  of  the  viatuni  a  careful  critician 
mi^iht  perhaps  diKorer  some  traces  of  the  pmphet' 
e«rly  training,  Poaribly  lhe"»alley  of  myrtles' in  th 
lint  viaion  may  have  b^n  suggested  by  Chaldoa  ralber 
than  by  Palestine.  At  luy  mie,  it  ia  ■  curious  fact  that 
roynles  are  rarely  mentiuned  in  tbe  history  of  the 
Jews  before  the  Exile.  They  are  fnund,  liesides  thi 
passage  uf  Zechariah,  in  laa.  xli,  19;  Iv,  18,  and  ii 
Neb.  viii,  15.  I'he  furma  uf  trial  in  the  third  viainti 
where  Joshua  the  hi|{h-priest  ia  arraigned,  seem  t»r 
rowed  from  the  practice  of  Persian  railier  than  Jewiil 
courts  of  law.  The  ttlihy  garments  in  which  Joshua 
appears  are  those  which  the  accused  must  asauine  Khc 
liivught  ti>  iriit  The  white  fobe  put  upon  him  la  th 
caftan  or  Mbe  of  botior,  which  to  this  day  in  the  East  ia 
put  upon  tbe  miniNer  of  atale  who  ha*  been  acqi 
of  the  chari;es  Uid  against  him.  The  vision  of  Che 
woman  in  [he  Ephab  is  also  Oriental  in  it*  character. 
Eoalil  refer*  to  a  very  tiniilar  vision  in  TkI'b  RajaUkun, 
li,  088.  Finslly,  the  chariot*  issuing  from  between  i 
mounlains  of  bnu  mnstbave  been  suggested,  [here 
scarcely  be  any  d«ubl,  by  some  Peraian  sj'mbuU 
:>re  Zbciiartah,  Book  of. 

as.  The  leader  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  "ac 
■ifl'himh  who  returned  with  Eire  (Eim  viii,  8).  I 
4a». 


37.  Oneoflhe  chiefs  of  Ibe  pcn|de  whom  Ezra  sum- 
mnned  in  council  at  the  river  Ahava,  befi're  ihe  second 
i-sravan  returned  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii,  IG).  RC. 
4Ji9.  He  Mond  at  Ezra's  left  hand  when  tie  expounded 
the  law  lo  the  people  (Neh.  viii,  4>. 

20.  (Sept.  Zyixopia.)  One  ciribc  family  of  Elam.  who 
hiul  marrlnl  a  futeign  wife  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  n 
K).     RC.45A. 

29.  One  of  the  piiesM.  son  of  Jnnalhaii,  who  bipi 
with  the  trumpets  at  the  dedication  of  the  I'itv  watl  b 
Eira  and  Nehemiab  {Neh.  xii,  86, 11 ).     B.C.  416. 

ZECKAKIAII,  Book  of.  The  lime  and  perHHii 
circumstances  or  the  prophet  irhose  name  Ibis  boul 
beats  have  been  coniiilend  above.     It  remain*  lo  dii 


Ihe  propheciea  themselTta,  and  especially  Ihtir  an. 
thentieity.  Tlieir  peculiar  characler  and  obscurity  of 
ioterpretation  also  call  for  a  somewhat  full  treatnienl. 

L  Cindoiti.— The  book  naturally  fails  into  two  prin- 
cipal divinooK  which,  as  will  be  teen  more  fully  in  the 
sequel,  are  marked  nut  oiUy  by  certain  peculiarities  of 
expressian,  but  nbviuualy  1^  tbe  abaence  of  any  hiaior- 
ical  data  In  the  latter  poition  such  as  are  given  in  Iba 

(I.)  The  flnt  part,  embracing  cb.  i-viii,  divides  itself 
into  three  secliaiu  by  the  chronological  indications  gireii 
reapectiveir  in  i,  1, 7,  and  vii,  I ;  and  these  are  atill  Tur- 
tber  subdivided  by  tbe  recurrence  of  the  phrase  "the 
word  of  the  Lonl  came  unto  me."  This  part,  therefore, 
conBitts,IJrBt,ura  ihun  iiitruduclion  or  pnrace,in  which 
the  prophet  atinounce*  his  commission;  then  of  a  seriea 
of  visions,  descriptive  of  all  those  hopes  and  siiticipa- 
tions  of  which  tbe  buibliiig  of  the  Temple  was  the 
pleilge  and  sura  fuundaliun ;  and  Hnally  uf  s  discourse, 
delivered  twn  yean  later,  in  reply  to  questions  respect- 
ing the  observance  of  certain  established  fast*. 

1.  The  short  introductory  uracle  (i,  1-6)  ia  a  warning 
voice  frum  the  past.  The  prophet  sojemniy  reminds 
tbe  people,  by  an  appeal  to  the  experience  %•(  their  fa- 
thers, that  DO  word  of  God  bail  ever  fallen  hi  the 
groundi  and  that  therefore,  ir  with  sluggish  indiffer- 
ence tbey  refused  to  co-operate  in  tbe  building  of  Ibe 
Temple,  they  must  expect  (he  judgments  oriind.  This 
waning  manifestlv  reMs  upon  tbe  former  waruinge  of 
Haggai. 

2.  In  a  dream  of  the  night  there  palsed  before  tbe 
eyes  of  ihe  propliet  a  series  of  nine  (essentially  seven) 
viiiiunB,  followed  by  an  embleuiaiical  scene,  deacripiive 
in  their  different  aspects  of  events,  some  of  them  short- 
ly to  come  to  pass,  and  others  losing  themselves  in  the 

■cure,  and  Rccordingly  the  prophet  ask*  their  meaiv- 
ing.  Tbe  interpretation  is  given,  not  as  l<i  Amua  by 
Jetaovab  himself,  but  by  an  angel  who  knows  Ihe  mind 
aud  will  of  Jehovah,  who  iiilerceiles  with  him  for  oth- 
ers, and  by  whom  Jehovah  speak*  and  iaaues  hia  com- 
mauda;  at  one  time  be  is  called  "the  angel  who  apake 
with  me"  [or  "  bv  me"]  (i,  9) ;  at  aiiolber,  "  (he  angel 
of  Jehovah"  (ver.  11,12:  iii,  l-6> 

(I.)  In  the  Urst  viaion  (i,  8-17)  the  prophet  sees,  in 
■  valley  of  myrtles,  a  ridn'  upon  a  luaii  bnrae,  accom- 
panied by  other*  who,  having  been  seni  forth  (n  tbe 
four  qoarlers  of  the  earlh,  hail  redinied  with  Ihe  ti- 
dings that  the  whiiis  earth  was  at  real  (with  refcreace 
to  Hagg.  ii,20).  Hereupon  ibe  angel  aaks  how  bmgthis: 
state  of  things  shall  iBsl.and  is 


at  the  T. 


been  partiv  borruireil  from  Jub  i,  7,clc. 

(2.)  The  second  vision  (ii,  1-17,  A.  V.  1, 18-ii,  IS)  ex- 
plain* koK  the  promise  uf  the  tint  is  to  be  fiilUlled, 
and  is  composed  of  three  separate  emblems.  The  lixir 
boms  are  the  symbols  of  the  different  heathen  kingdoina 
in  tbe  four  quarters  of  the  wurid,  which  have  hiiberso 
combined  against  Jerusalem.  The  four  carpenteta.  or 
amitha  symboliie  their  deslniction.  The  measutinp>- 
line  betokens  the  vastly  eilen'led  area  or  Jerusslera, 
owing  to  the  rapid  increue  of  the  new  population..  Tbe 
old  prophets,  in  furelclling  the  happiness  and  gk>ry  of 
the  limes  which  should  succeed  tbe  Captivity  iir  Baby- 
lon, had  made  a  great  part  of  thai  liappiness  and  |d>»y 
to  consist  in  Ihe  galttering  l>-geiher  again  of  Ihe  whole 
dispersed  naliuii  in  Ihe  land  given  to  their  lathers. 
This  viaion  was  deBi(;ned  in  tench  that  the  expoetntiiwii 
Ibus  raised—  the  retnm  of  the  dispersed  of  inratl  — 
should  be  fulfilled;  that  Jeruaalem  should  he  loo  htrge' 
to  becompasaed  about  b}-awall,bui  thctJehorab  him- 
ihl  be  lo  her  a  wall  of  Hre— a  light  aaid  defitnee 


H>ng  of  joy 


n  prospect  of  ao  bright  a 
S(ch.iij,ir}* 


ZECHABIAH,  BOOK  OF  10 

m  prinripnl   pmnm  on 

relMiilcliiit;  of  the 


tba  Temple,  and  with  th 
whom  Che  hnpn  of  the  rel 

(a)  The  pciminhiii  tcnmlnl  ("i  ili 
Temple  baJ,  iii>  d^llb^  alirred  nfrch 


lilr  of  ll 


n  bef.in 


null.  Tlie  pruphetiin  vbiun, 
irn  B  lii^lier  Icibuiul,  unil  •iileniiily  aci|uiitvi1,  ilmpiie 
he  fl«r«e»  of  ihc  S«Uii  ot  AilverMiy.  ThU  U  done 
rith  lliu  (•Hm»  alill  u^uil  in  an  Easlem  court.  The 
IthyciniKUUiii  whicli  tlteaecuacdisrxprcleillnMand 
re  taken  may,  aitd  tlifl  cartnii  or  rube  i>f  hiiimr  li  put 
1H>ii  him  ill  l»keii  that  hia  innocence  haa  been  eatab- 
L-ihed.  Aequiiled  at  that  bar,  he  neeil'nnc  fear,  it  U 
iniilleil,  any  eartlily  iccuaer.  He  aliall  be  protected, 
>e  ahail  carry  on  the  building  of  tlie  Temple,  he  ahall 
II  prepare  the  way  far  the  coming  of  the  Meaaiah,  and 
ipiin  the  ruiindalion-atcine  laid  bofura  him  ahall  the 
even  eyeaof  (Jod,tlw  tuiteu  uf  hia  ever- watchful  pror- 


miived.  Thia  aee*  Ihc  ciimpleliim  et  the  work.  It  hai 
evidently  a  peculiarly  imprearire  character;  for  tlit 
prophet,  though  hla  dream  B(lUa>ntitiuefi,aeemR  to  him. 
•elf  to  be  awakoieil  out  of  it  by  the  anicet  who  apeaki 
ti>  him.  The  caiidleatick  (or,  more  properly,  chandelier] 
uiih  aeren  lliihta  (borrowed  from  the  cindleMick  of  th< 
Minaic  tabernacle,  Exod.  xxv,31  aq.)  aiipiHHca  thnt  the 
Temple  is  already  Hiiuhed.  The  aeven  pipe*  which  Mip- 
ply  each  Inmp  anawer  to  the  aeven  eyes  of  JehoTdli  in 
the  preceding  viaion  (iii,  9),  and  thia  aevenGild  Mi]>ply 
of  oil  deiioteii  the  preaenee  and  Dperaliim  nfthe  Divine 
Spitii,  through  whoae  aid  Zerubbabel  will  nrercome  all 
obetaclea;  au  that  aa  hia  banda  had  laid  the  foiinilalion 
of  the  house,  hia  hamla  ahnidd  also  tinish  it  (iv.  It). 
The  (WO  oliva-branchea  of  the  viunn,  belonging  to  Ihe 
olive-tree  standing  by  the  candleatick,  are  Zerubbabel 
biinaelf  and  Joshua. 

The  iieitt  tnn  viaiona  (t,  l-ll)  signify  that  the  land, 
'i  the  sanctuary  has  Just  been  erected,  shall  be 


liurgeilol 


ta  polliiii 


is  recorded  against  wickednen 
IktukoU  land  (iioc  in  Ihe  vluiU  ai>1k,  aa  In  the  A.  V.), 
V,  Bj  that  due  solemnity  may  be  given  to  it,  it  is  iii- 
K-ribed  upon  a  roll,  and  the  mil  is  repreaeiK«d  aa  dyini;, 
in  order  to  denote  the  speed  with  which  Ihe  cune  will 
execute  itself. 

(6.)  Next,  the  unclean  thing,  whether  in  the  form  of 
idolati}'  or  any  other  aboni  list  ion,  shall  be  utterly  re- 
moved. Caught  and  shut  up  as  it  were  in  a  cage,  like 
some  savage  beast,  and  pressed  down  with  a  weight  as 
■if  lead  upon  It  so  that  it  cannot  escape,  it  shall  be  car- 
ried into  that  land  where  all  evil  things  have  long  made 
lheiidwelling(I<ia.xxxir,  13),  the  land  of  Babylon  (Shi- 
nar,Zech.v,  11), from  which  Israel  had  been  redeemed. 

(7.)  The  night  b  now  waning  fast,  and  the  morning 
is  shout  to  dawn  (vi,  1-8).  Chariots  and  horses  appear. 
iiwiinit  from  tielween  two  brazen  mnuntainii,  the  hones 

atvetal  commands  and  are  sent  forth  to  execute 
willof  Jehorab  in  the  fuur  qiiarten  of  the  earth. 
fiMU  chariots  are  images  of  the  fiinr  winda,  which, 
eiinling  to  ['•«.  dv,  i,  as  serrviu  of  (iod,  tiiltil  hia 
neata;  and  of  the  one  that  goes  lo  the  north  it  is 
(ioulaiiy  said  that  it  shall  let  the  Spirit  of  Jeliorah 
Iherai  is  it  ■  spirit  of  anger  against  Ihe  nations.  As- 
syria, Bahyloii,  I'erua,  or  is  It  a  spirit  of  hope  anil  d 
sire  of  ratiim  iu  the  hearts  of  those  of  the  exiles  w] 
ST  ill  .lingered  in  Ihe  land  of  their  captivity?    SlUheli 
Ha(irer,aiid  othen  ailopl  Ihe  former  view.which  seer 
to  be  in  accorilance  with  the  preceding  vision;  Lwald 
gLvea  the  iultir  interpretation,  ainl  Ihiiilu  it  is  su| 


70         ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 

scene  is  unrolled  lill  the  whole  glowing  pictnre  la  pn- 
senled  lu  Ihe  eye.  All  enetniea  cniabed;  the  laiHl  re- 
peiipleil.  and  Jerusalem  girt  aa  with  a  wall  vf  Hre;  the 
Temple  rebuilt,  more  Inily  splendid  than  of  old,  beoauae 
more  atmiidBntly  tilled  wilh  a  Divine  TVeseitce;  the 
leaden  of  the  people  assured  in  the  moat  signal  manner 

roiectiur;  all  wickedness  solemrily  seo- 

Und  forever  purged  of  it:  sucli  ia  the 
magiiiricent  panorama  of  hope  which  the  prophet  dis- 
'sTs  to  hia  cuuntri-men.  Very  consolatory  must  such 
pmapect  have  seemed  lo  the  weak  ami  dishesnened 
colony  in  Jerusalem.  For  ihe  limes  wen  ilarli  and 
Acconling  lo  recent  inlerpiMatinm  of  ncw- 
would  appear  Ihai.  Darias 
111  It  no  easy  tasK  lo  hold  his  ran  domiuiona. 
nee  after  province  had  revollrd  bmh  in  ihe  east 
1  the  north,  H-hither,  according  in  the  pmphet  (vi, 
ewiiidahail  carrieil  t  he  wral  b  of  Rod :  and  if  the 
ig  Uudraja,  i.  e.  Egipi,  is  correct  (ljs*en  gives 
istan).  Egypt  miiat  have  rendied  bef.T*  the  out- 
mentioned  in  Herod,  vii,  I,  and  have  again  been 
reiluced  to  subjecliiai.  I'o  auch  revolt  there  may  pua- 
in  Ihe  refrrenre  tn''ihe  land  of  (he 
would  seem  that  ZevhaKah  aniict- 
paled,  asaconaequcnceof  thnc  perpelual  iiuuTrectioiw, 
Ihe  weakening  and  ovenbruw  of  Ihe  i^enun  nHiiiaiichy 
ind  the  selting-up  of  the  kingdom  nf  Cod,  fur  nhich 
ludah,  in  failh  and  obedience,  was  in  wait  (vet.  9-15). 

(8.)  Immediately  on  these  visions  ihere  r-dlowi>  a 
lymbolical  act  (vi,  S-lo).  Three  Israeliica  had  jnM 
rrlnmed  fmm  Bebylnn,  bringing  with  thrm  rich  gifia 
I, apparently  aa  rontribinions  to  ihe  Tent- 
,    .  been  received  in  the  house  of  JnHati  the 

son  of  Zepbaniah.  Thither  the  prophet  is  cumniarKled 
10  gn — wherlier  still  in  a  dr*am  or  not  is  not  very  cleat 
— and  to  employ  the  silver  and  the  gold  of  their  afltt- 
Inga  for  the  service  of  Jehovah.  He  is  Id  make  vf 
tliem  two  crowns,  and  to  place  these  on  ihe  bead  of 
Joshua  Ihe  high-priest — a  sign  that  in  the  Ueeeiab 
who  should  build  Ihe  Temple  the  kingly  and  prirsllr 
offices  sbonhl  be  iiiiiled.  This,  however,  is  exprenwd 
somewhat  eiilgmalically,  aa  if  king  and  priest  should 
be  perfectly  at  one,  rather  than  that  the  name  pnann 
should  be  both  king  aiul  priest.  These  cniwns,  dkw*- 
over.  were  to  be  a  memorial  in  honor  of  ihose  by  iihi>« 
liberality  Ihey  had  been  made,  and  Fhonld  Eerre  at  the 
same  lime  to  exclie  other  rich  Jews  still  living  in  Baby- 
Inn  lo  the  like  liberality.  Hence  Ihcir  symli<>liral  pur- 
pose having  been  accompliibed,  they  wire  lo  be  laid 
up  in  the  'I'emple. 

S.  It  is  remarkable,  as  has  already  been  noiien),  that 
Ihe  qnenliun  rplating  lo  the  fiM  days  (vii,  l-ft)  Bbuubl 
have  been  aildressed  to  priests  and  pm|iheis  cnnjiiinllv 
in  the  Temide.  This  ckise  alliance  lieiween  Iwo  ctasae* 
hitherto  su  separate,  and  often  ao  aniagonialic,  waa  otK 
of  the  moat  hopefnl  circuTnMant«a  of  rhe  limen.  Slill 
Zechariah,  as  chief  uf  the  pmphels,  haa  the  decision  of 
ihls  quesiiim.  Some  of  ilie  prie«s,  il  is  evident  (ver. 
7),  were  inclined  to  the  mure  gloomy  view;  but  nut  so 
the  prophet.  In  language  worthy  uf  his  ponlinn  and 
hii  office,  Ungnage  w' ■ 


luufviai 


nplctcd.    Scene  aftci 


eeofhi 


i.r(lsa 


he  lays  down  the  same  principle  il 

rather  ihan  failing,  and  truth  and  rigtileo 

ilian  sackclutli  and   a  »d  countenance. 

Iiertxhed,  he  reminds  ihem  it  was  because 

were  hani  while  they  fasted  i  if  they  wonU  dwell  safe- 

Iv,  thev  miuit  abstain  fri>m  fraud  aiiii  vttdeoce,  and  not 

from  fond  (Zech.  vii,  4-U). 

Again,  he  fiirriell>i,buinot  now  In  vision,  (he  glxnitia 
times  that  are  near  at  hand  when  Jehorsh  shall  dwi  II 
in  Ihe  midst  of  them,  and  Jerusalem  be  called  a  ciiy  uf 
truth.  He  sees  her  streets  thronged  by  oldand  jimnc, 
her  exiles  retominc,  her  Tem|de  standing  in  all  iis 
lieaiity.  her  land  ri<'h  in  fruitfuliiess,  her  people  a  imim 
and  a  bhwiiig  in  the  eanh  (viii,  1-I5>.  Again,  he  de- 
clares thai  "  truih  and  |>eace"(ver.lS,l9)H:the  bid- 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF         10 

wufc*  cf  nuional  praparitr.  And,  once  mora  remt- 
iog  to  the  queMiun  which  had  been  niwd  eincerning 
I  he  otMCTvaocc  of  ibe  Tasu,  he  innnancei,  in  obedience 
to  ihe  enmniind  of  Jeborah,  nnt  nnlf  Ibu  the  fuUire 
■iKiliahed,  b«t  that  Um  da^i  nf  mnufning  ihdl  hene«- 
f.Ttti  Ik  ilayt  ofjoj^,  the  Tuta  be  counted  for  TeMiTiJi. 
His  pniphec;  cuncludea  with  ■  prediction  thit  Jeniu- 
lem  ehill  be  the  centra  uf  religioui  wontaip  la  all  na- 
tibiu  of  the  eanh  (rer.  16-S3). 

(II.)  The  remainder  of  the  booh  eontiat*  of  two  we- 
liana  of  about  equal  ienfpb,  eh.  ix-xi  and  xii-iir,  each 
nT  whrcb  hai  an  inneripiinn.  Tike}'  have  the  general 
propheiie  tone  and  character,  and  in  lubject  ibey  to 
far  harmnniie  with  i-viii  that  the  prophet  aeelu  lo 
cnmroit  .ludah  in  a  tnatnn  ordepretuon  with  like  hope 
of  alirishur  rmnre. 

1.  Ill  the  (Int  section  he  threaten*  Dimtacus  and  the 
aea-cnut  of  Paleuine  with  niiiriiTtiitte;  but  iltclare*  that 
Jenualem  ihall  be  pmlecled.  r>ir  Jehorah  himieir  ihall 
encampaboni  her  (where  ijc,8  remind*  ui  of  ii,  6),  Her 
kiiiK  ahall  come  to  her;  he  shall  apeak  peace  lo  the 
heathen, » Ih  at  all  weapnna  of  war  ahall  periah:  andhia 
dominion  ahall  be  l«  (he  enda  ol  Ihe  earth.  The  Jewa 
who  are  Mill  in  captirity  ahall  return  to  their  land ; 
ihey  ahall  lie  miKhtier  than  Javan  (or  (ireece);  and 
Kphraim  and  Jiidah  once  more  uiiiled  ahall  vanqniah 
■II  enemiea.  The  Und  too  ahall  be  fniiiriil  aa  of  ohl 
(cump.  viii,  I!).  The  Teraphim  and  the  falae  pmpheu 
may  indeed  hare  apoken  1i»;  but  upon  theae  will  the 
Lord  execnte  Judgment,  ami  then  he  will  lonk  with  favor 
lipnii  hia  people  and  bring  back  both  .ludah  and  Ephia- 
im  fmm  their  captivity.  The  poaeeMinn  of  Gilead  and 
Lebanon  ia  aeain  prnmiaed  aa  the  apecial  pmtinn  of 
V.f.hn\mi  and  both  Egypt  and  Aaayria  ahall  be  broken 
ami  humbled. 

The  ptnphecT  now  takes  a  audden  turn.  An  enemy 
'  m  Ihe  north,  who,  havinKfiirceil 
le  in^at  bulwark  of  the 


n  rniiiiier.  carries  deaiiUlioi 


Uiibecf 


Tond.     Hereupon  i 
irnm  (ind  to  feed  his  Hock,  which  Cod  himaelf  will  no 
iniire  feed  became  ol  their  diriaiona.    The  prophet 
denakea  the  office,  and  make*  to  himaell  two  Ma 
(namins  Ihe  one  Favor  and  the  other  Union),  in 

"  evil  ehepherda 
he  aame  time, 
that  Ihe  Biick  will  not  be  obedient.  Hence  he  thmwa 
up  hia  office ;  he  breaks  asunder  the  one  crook  in  token 
that  the  covenant  nf  Gnd  with  Israel  was  iliaenlved.  A 
few,  the  poor  nf  the  flock,  acknnwiedeed  God's  hand 
herein  ;  and  the  piophet,  ilemanding  the  wages  of  his 


At  the  aa 


thehanaeofJi 

there  i*  no  hnpo  of  unii 

whom  he  had  trusted  to  feed  as  one  Hiick,  and  therefore 

euta  in  pieces  Ihe  other  crook,  in  token  that  the  btolh- 

arhood  between  them  ia  dissolved. 

2.  The  BMond  aection  (ch.  xii-xiv)  is  entitled  "The 
burden  ofihe  word  of  Jehorah  for  larael."  But  liratl\a 
here  used  nf  the  nation  at  ^tgt,  not  of  Israel  as  distinct 
fn>m  .ludah.  Indeed,  the  pniphecy  which  fullowa  cnn- 
crrna  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  In  this  Ihe  prophet  be- 
holda  Ihe  near  approach  of  imiibloua  times,  when  Jem- 
salain  shoulrl  be  hanl  pressed  by  enemies.  But  in  that 
day  Jehorah  shall  come  lo  ure  them:  "the  house  of 
Darid  shall  he  aa  God,  as  the  annel  nf  Jehovah'  (xli, 
8),  and  all  Ihe  nalinns  which  gal  her  ihemseWee  againtl 
Jenualem  shall  be  deitniyol.  At  the  aame  lime,  Ihe 
deliverance  shall  iiiit  he  fmm  outward  enemiea  alone. 
Uod  will  pour  out  np«n  ihem  a  spirit  nf  grace  and  sup- 
plications, an  that  Ihey  ahall  Ivwail  their  nnfidness  with 
a  mniimiiig  aieater  Ihan  that  with  which  they  be- 
wailed the  beliived  Jnaiah  in  ilie  valley  nf  Megiddo. 
So  dt.cfi  and  ao  tnie  shall  be  this  repeniance,  so  lively 
[he  a  veminn  in  all  evil,  that  neither  idol  nor  fnlae  proph- 
et ahall  again  be  Been  in  Ihe  land.  If  a  man  shall  pre- 
tend lo  prophesy, "  his  father  and  hia  molher  that  begat 


;i         ZECHAIilAlI,  BOOK  OF 

him  shall  thrust  him  through  when  he  propberieth," 
Hred  by  the  same  righteous  itidigitatiuii  aa  Phinehaa 
was  when  he  alew  those  who  wrought  lolly  in  Israel 


li,6). 


abort  apoMropbe  to  the  aword  of  the 
enemy  lo  lum  against  the  shepherds  of  the  people;  and 
a  further  announcement  of  searching  and  purifying 
judgments;  which, however, it  muU  be  acknowledged, 
is  somewhat  abrupt.  Ewald's  auggesiion  that  ihe  pas- 
sage liii,  7-9  is  here  out  of  place,  and  should  be  Iran*- 
puaed  lo  the  end  of  chap,  xi,  is  cenainlv  ingenious,  and 
does  not  aeem  improbable. 

The  prophecy  closes  with  a  giand  and  stirring  pict- 
ure. All  naliona  are  gathered  together  agaiiiM  Jeru- 
salem, and  aeem  already  sure  of  their  prey.  Half  of 
their  cruel  work  has  been  accomplished,  when  Jeborah 
himself  appear*  nn  behalf  of  hia  people.  At  his  cniit- 
ing  all  nature  is  moved ;  the  Mount  oroiives  on  which 
bis  feet  rest  cleavea  asunder;  a  mighty  earthquake 
heaves  the  ground,  and  even  the  natural  aucceaamn  of 
day  and  night  is  broken.  He  goes  forth  tii  war  againM 
ifhiapeople.     He  establithea  hi    '' 


all  the  earth.     Jen 


ifely  inhab 


tiona  that  are  stiU  led  ahall  come  up  lo  Jerusalem,  a* 
the  great  centre  of  religious  wiinhip,  then  to  worship 
"  the  King.  Jehovah  of  hosts,"  and  Ihe  city  from  that 

day  forwanl  shall  be  a  holy  city. 

II.  /afr^y.— Mede  was  Ihe  flnt  lo  coll  this  in  lues- 
lion.  The  probability  that  the  later  chapters  (from  the 
9th  In  the  14th)  were  by  aome  other  prophet  seems 
Brat  to  have  been  auggeaied  to  him  by  the  ciuiiuu  in 
Matthew.     He  saya  (KpUl.  xxxi) : 

"  It  moT  seem  Ihe  evangellKt  would  Inform  n*  thnt  Ihon 
IntterchapIeniMcribedli.Zaeharyliiainely.Wh.lWh.lllli, 

Jewa  had  not  rightly  iillrlbiited  them.  .?''c<rtaliily.lfa 

Mkellh^^S'b^rffareMwd-leXnihalli'iaofzschlirT-^ 
namely,  tiefora  the  Cnpitvliy_Air  the  anItJecU  of  some 
of  Ihem  were  ecarce  In  being  afler  that  lime.  And  the 
chnpier  nni  of  which  St.  Malihew  anntea  may  eeeai  to 
have  e.<inewbBt  mnch  niisnilable  with  ZiMhary'a  tlroeg 
*•,  a  pr.iiihecT  of  ihe  dealnicLlnn  nf  the  Teuiple.  then 
when  he  waa  to  encmrage  Ihem  lo  Imlld  li.  And  bow 
doih  It      ■-  ■  -p  -    .     .        .......... 


[Hat" 


ige  Ihem  lo  Imlli 

rlpinra  eiilth  they  are  Znehnry'a ; 
dill  iher  are  Jeremy'Si  aa  "-'-     * 


but  then 


He  then  nbaerves  Ihat  the  mere  fact  of  these  being 
found  in  the  same  book  aa  the  prophecies  of  Zechartah 
does  not  prove  that  Ihey  were  hia;  diDerence  oTaiilhor- 
ahip  being  allowable  in  the  aame  way  a*  in  the  collec- 
tion nf  At'ur'a  Proverbs  nnder  one  title  witb  those  of 
.Solomon,  and  of  rsalma  by  niber  ■iiihnn  with  those  of 
David.  Even  Ihe  absence  nf  a  fresh  lille  is,  he  argues, 
no  evidence  agsinat  a  change  of  anihor.  "The  Jews 
wrote  in  mlla  nr  volumes,  and  Ihe  tille  was  but  once. 
If  aught  were  addeil  to  the  roll,  ob  nmitiludiarm  arga- 
m'lin'.or  fur  snmeolherreaaon,  it  had  a  new  title,  as  ihat 
of  Agur;  nr  perhaps  none,  but  waa  dvuvu^ioi'."  The 
utter  disregard  of  anything  like  chronological  order  in 
Ihe  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  where  "  aomelimes  alt  ia  end- 
ed with  Zedekiah;  then  we  are  brought  back  to  Jehnt- 
akim,  then  to  Zedekiah  again"—  make*  it  pmhable,  he 
thinka,  that  they  were  only  haMily  and  loosely  put  to- 
gether in  those  ditiracted  limes.  Consequently,  some 
of  Ihem  might  nnt  have  been  discovered  till  atter  Ihe 
reiuni  fmm  the  Captivity,  when  Ihey  were  approved 
by  Zechsrish,  and  w  came  lo  be  incorporated  with  hia 
propheciea.  Mede  evidently  reals  his  opinion,  partly 
on  the  authority  of  Matthew,  and  partly  on  the  con- 
tents of  Ihe  later  chaptere,  which  he  cnnaidera  require  a 
<Ute  earlier  Ihan  Ihe  Kxlle.    He  says  again  (Kpitl.  xi): 


le  wlckertuet*  of  the  Inb 


Kl  won  Id  elve  them  Ki 


have  no  moie  nliy  on  tliem.  It  la  eiponiided  nf  the  ae- 
MnicHo.i  by  Tltna:  bal  melhlnka  eiich  *  prophery  wm 
Dothiug  aeasonable  for  Ziichary'a  lime  (wbeu  the  city  yet, 


ZECIIAKIAH,  BOOK  OF         1072         ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 


lor  ■  grant  part,  lay  In  bar  rnlsi,  idiI  Iha  Temple  hail  nnt 
>8i  tecoverod  hen),  nor  niirreBble  in  Ibe  ecopa  iiT  Zacb- 
iiry'*  onmilnlim,  who,  togelhcr  with  hl»  aillcapia  Hag- 
iinX  wa-     - ■"- ■— ' ■ ' 


dclnictliiii  of  b»Lh,  while  lh«j  were  lint  jet  n-buildliiBr 
iinil  byZscharr,  lai<.wlii>wa(ioeiiciinrnceilieinr  Winilil 
liul  Ihlii  brtler  bellt  Iha  devolntloo  bjiMeUDCbadueuair" 
Arahbiihnp  Neweoroe  went  rnrlher.  He  iiisUted  on 
the  great  iluainiilirity  of  M.vle  as  well  as  subject  be- 
tween the  earlier  and  later  ehapten^  And  be  was  the 
Omt  who  ailvocaled  (he  theory  which  Bun*en  calli  one 
uf  the  triumplia  or  modern  criticiem,  that  the  laM  aix 
vhaiilem  uT  Zeehariah  are  the  work  of  two  UJUinct 
pn>phe».  Hitwocdaarej 
"The  eluht  <t«  ctui|iien<  ajipear  bj  (be  Intmdnclniy 


in-  b>  >«  Ui 


bnrtHb,  elHnd  In 


l<«n  wlThanch  oilMr,flrBpiirilnent  >oth«  lime  when  ibe; 
weie  ilellrcnd,  nn  nnlfoim  In  iljle  and'tnaniier,  and  oni- 
flltuic  n  raKiiiar  wlKile.  Bnlihe  six  lisl  cbaptera  are  nut 
eilmwal*  ii»>lened  lii  Zmharlah :  ore  aBOiDDeeied  witb 
ihiwa  which  precede :  Uie  three  flcit  nrihem  arenntniia- 
bleln  maHTpaniXii  the  time  wbmi  Zecbarlnh  lliadi  nil 
■irrltem  haVa  a  mm  adinneil  ond  piiellcal  torn  ofonn- 

Bi^Uliin  Ibnn  Ibaelekl  llraldiBpier>[  and  Itaej  mnnlfeii- 
lirvak  (he  uulrjuf  ibepniplieilciii  hook. ..  ■  lonclnde 


and  berore  (he  cnptlvUy  oti 

riva.  m  Hul'II,  II):  Eiihrabn  li,  10.  13:  X.  I;  and 
Af»yrln  I,  10,  II.  .  .  .  They  nrn  In  unit  Uiimi'i  »ft 
and  mnniier.  .  .  .  Tbe  Itth.  13ih,  and  14th  ehn|il«n 
fiimi  n  disilnet  prophecir,  mid  were  wtliieii  afier  th( 
deutta  of  Jiwliih;  bnt  wheiher  bef->re  or  after  the  Ciipili' 
ItT.  and  br  what  iirogiheii,  U  nncerialii.  [hmigh  I  In 
clliielothfnkihiilttieaaihrir  lined  befure  Ihedentruclluii 


!»•.' 

n  proof 

of  Ihw  he  refera  lo  x 

ii.S. 

on  which  he 

nbscrree 

hat  liie 

'predict inn  that  Uu 

fulie 

ropheta  ihould 

»n«at 

he  Uiial  lestiiraliini 

ofth 

Jaw 

seems 

lo  hare 

been  uttetfd  when  idolatry 
to  the  t^irit  of  iMwphecy  were  common  amonR  the  Jews. 
and  therefore  before  the  ttabylonish  Capt 
larne  number  of  critics  have  Mlowed  Mede  and  arcli- 
bUttop  Newcome  in  denying  the  laler  date  of  Ihe  last 
I4X  chapters  of  the  booh.  In  England,  bishop  KJdiler, 
WhiMon,  Hammond,  and  more  recently  P>'e  Smith  and 
Davidson ;  in  Germany,  Flilffge,  Eichhom,  Uauer,  Ber- 
tbuldt,  Augusti,  ForberK,  Etusmmllller,  Urambcrfc,  Creil- 
ner,  Ewald,  Maurer,  Knobel,  Hitzig,  and  llleck,  are 
agreed  in  maintaining  that  these  liter  chapters  are 
not  the  work  of  Zechiriah  Ihe  son  of  Idiln. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  later  date  of  these  chapten 
hatibeen  maintained  among  British  writers,  by  Blayney 
and  Henderwin,  and  on  t  he  Continent  by  CaqBOv,  Beck- 
haiiK,  Jahn,  Koster,  Henj^stenbe^,  Havemick,  KnI,  De 
Wetle  (in  later  editions  of  his  kiHbilimg!  in  the  first 
three  he  adopleil  a  diflerent  view),  ami  Stfihelin. 

Those  who  impneti  the  later  date  of  these  cl 
ofZechariah  test  tJieirargumenlBon  Ihe  change! 
and  subject  after  thcRih  chspier.but  differ  much 
application  of  their  ctiticistn.  [losenmUller,faT  it 
(SeA"l.  in  Pmph.  Mia.  iv,  2I>7),  argues  that  ch. 
are  so  alike  in  style  that  they  mint  have  been  i 
hv  one  anthor.  He  alleges  in  proof  his  fondn 
images  (nkenlhini  pastoral  life  (li.  16;  x,3,3i 
£,7,8,9,11,16,17;  KJii,7,8).  From  the  allui 
the  earthquake  (xiv,  5;  Cflmp.  Amoai,  l),he  thinks  (he 
author  muat  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Uziiah.  Da- 
vidson (in  Home's  Inlrod.  ii,3S*>}  in  like  manner  declares 
fur  one  author,  but  supposes  him  to  have  been  iheZech 
ariah  mentioned  in  Isa.  viii.  2,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Ahaz.  Eichhnrn,nn  Ihe  other  hand,  while  also  assign- 
i..S  (in  his>JiBfci(«i^,iv,444)  the  whole  nfch.ix-xiv 
lo  one  writer,  is  of  opinion  that  they  are  Ihe  work  of  a 
Uiltr  prophet  who  Hnurished  in  the  lime  of  Alexander. 
Others  again,  as  Dertholdt,  nesenini,  Knobel,  Maurer, 
Bunsen,  and  F.waM,  think  that  ch.  ix-xj  (to  which 
c-wald  adds  xiii,  7-9)  are  a  distinct  prophecy  from  ch. 
xii-xiv,  and  separated  from  Ihem  by  a  considerable  in- 
terval of  time.     These  critics  conclude  from  internal 


idetice  that  the  rormer  portion  was  written  bT  a 
prophet  who  llred  in  the  reign  of  Ahaa  {Knobel  give* 
id  X  l«  [he  reign   of  Joiham,  and  li  Ki  (hat  irf 

Zechariah  the  son  of  Jeberechiah  (or  Berecliiah)  men- 
1  in  Isa.  viii,  2.  Ewald,  without  atiempling  to 
\iy  the  prophet  with  any  particular  perami,  coo* 

teni*  liiimeir  with  remarking  that  he  was  a  aubject  rf 
Southern  kingdom  (as  may  be  inferred   fiDDi  e^- 

presNons  such  as  that  in  ix,  7,  and  from  the  Meaaianie 

hopes  which  he  iiltem,  and  in  which  he  rraenibira  hb 

Amos  and  Hoaea  before  him,  though  a  native  of  Judah, 

directs  his  prophecies  against  Kpfaraim.     Tbere  is 

!  same  general  agreement  Amnnji  the  last^-nairwd  CTit- 

a*  to  the  date  of  the  section  xii-xir.     Thpw  all  aa- 

_n  it  to  a  period  immediately  previous  to  the  Baby- 

kniian  Capiiviiy,  and  hence  the  author  must  hare  bees 

contemporary  with   the  pmphel  Jercniah.       Bunsen 

idenliliee  him   with   Uri>h.  the  son  of  Shenuiah   "f 

Kirjalh  Jearim  (Jer.  xxvi,  30-23),  who  pmpbecini  "in 

Ihe  name  of  Jehovah"  against  Judah  and  Jerusalem. 

Acconling  to  this  hypothesis,  we  have  the  nurks  <if 
three  diBerent  prophets  collected  into  one  book,  ard 
passing  under  one  name:  (»)Ch.ix-xi,1hebm'k  vfZnb- 
ariah  I,  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  under  Ahar.  abnui 
736;  (i)  ch.  xiUxir,  author  unknown  (or  perhajM  Uri- 


of  Jeremiah),  about 


r  608; 
>fldd.. 


(or  grandsni 
Haggai'a  eonlemporary,aboulG20-6lft.  Wehart 
two  distinct  theories  befiire  us.  The  one  meicly  afGrma 
that  Ihe  last  six  chapters  ufour  pment  bouk  an  Dot 
from  Ihe  same  autlior  as  the  firat  eight.  The  other  car* 
ries  ihe  dismemberment  of  Ihe  book  still  further,  and 
maiiiiaiits  that  the  last  six  chnptera  are  the  work  of  two 
distinct  authors  who  lived  at  tKO  diMiiict  pcrioib  i/ 

purlersof  each  theory  rest  on  the  same  groumlat  Tbrj 
are  drawn  partly  from  Iha  difference  in  style,  and  partly 
from  the  iliffcrenra  in  the  nature  of  the  contctila,  the 
hblorical  references,  etc,  in  ihe  different  sectinnanfihe 

compared  with  ch.  i-viii ;  ilie  ol  her  seea  it  sUn  in  ch.  xii- 
xiv  as  compared  with  eh.ix-xi.  We  must  aecoirtinglr 
consider  (i)  the  difference  generally  in  Ihe  style  and  ei>n- 
tentsofch.ix-xiviscomparedwithch.i-vjii;(ii)ihedit 
ferences belueen  ch.  xii-xiv  as  compared  with  cli.is-xL 
(A.)  Argaaaai  agaiiul  Ihe  Inltgrily  af  Iht  Hitttk.— 
The  difference  in  point  of  style  between  the  lallrr  and 
former  portions  of  the  prnphecy- is  admitted  by  all  crii- 
ica.  Boaenmllller  characieriiea  Ihal  of  the  Hrst  eight 
chaptera  as  "  pmaoic,  feeble,  poor,"  and  that  of  the  re- 
maining six  as  "poelic,  weighty,  concise,  glowing.* 
But  without  admitting  so  sweeping;  a  criticism,  and  one 
which  the  verdict  of  abler  critics  on  Ihe  farmer  poniea 
has contiadicted,  there  can  be  i:n  doubt  that  the  general 
tone  and  character  oflheoneaection  ate  indrciiird  oui- 
trast  with  those  nf  the  other.  "Ai- he  passes  in>ni  iheSrst 
half  of  the  prophet  to  the  second,"  says  Eichhom, 'no 
reader  can  fail  to  perceive  how  strikingly  diffnent  aic 
the  impreanons  which  ire  made  upon  htm  by  the  two. 
The  nunner  of  writing  in  the  second  portiiui  is  far  hiflier 
and  more  myslertous ;  the  images  employe<l  are  grander 
and  more  magnilicent;  Ihe  point  nf  view  and  the  hori- 
zon are  chanited.  Once  the  1'emple  and  Ihe  onliiianmi 
of  religion  fomed  Ihe  central  point  from  wliirh  lb* 
prophet's  worda  radiated,  and  to  whii:h  they  ever  re- 
turned; now  these  have  vaiibhoL  The  favorite  modes 
of  expression,  hitherto  so  often  repeated,  are  now.  ax  it 
were,  forgotten.  The  cbronolugical  notices  nliicb  bo- 
fure  marked  the  day  on  whidi  each  several  propbeer 
was  utteml  now  faU  ns  altoirether.  Cmdd  a  writer  all 
at  once  have  forgotten  so  entirely  his  habits  of  i  bought? 
Could  he  BO  completely  disguise  his  innermost  frrl'Mnf 
Oiuld  the  world  about  him,  the  mode  of  cxprna)nn,lb« 
images  emplorcd,  be  so  tntsllv  different  in  the  case  vt 
of  oue  and  Ihe  some  nriter  r\Eintnl.  iv,  443, }  6I)6> 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 


1078        ZECUARIAH,  BOOK  OF 


Q.)  Cb-Uviii  ara  marked  by  certun  ptculiaride 
UIdoi  and  pbt^snlogy  wliich  di>  iitit  occur  aftcrwi 
FavuriMcxpreuioDsue:  '-The  word  ufJehuvah  c 
unto,-etc.(i,;;  iv.g;  ri,9;  vii,  1,4,8;  viii,l,  18);  "l 
Miih  Jehovah  (God)  ofhiiNa"  <i,4, 16, 17;  it.  II; 
2,4,6,7,9,14,18,10,20);  "Aiid  1  UfteJ  u|imiiivi. 
andaaw"  (i,  IS;  ii,!;  v,  1;  Ti,l):  none  of  thcH  modta 
of  exprenion  are  ta  be  met  with  iii  ch.  ix-xiv.    Un 
the  other  baml,  the  pbraae  "  la  that  lUy"  ia  entirely 
omliiied  in  the  later  chapten,  in  wliich  it  necun  Cre- 
queniir     The  Irirm  nf  the  macriptinns  i>  ilifTeient.    In- 
troiluclioni  m  [he  iwiiarale  oradea,  such  ai  those  in  ix, 
1 ;  xii,  1,  lie  net  preaent  themaelrea  In  the  earlier  pur- 
lion.     Zechariah,  in  aereral  tnalances,  alalea  the  time 
M  which  a  panicular  prophecy  was  attereil  by  biro  (i, 
1,7;  Tii,  1).     He  mentinu  hi*  own  name  in  tbeae  paa- 
■agea,  and  alan  in  vii,  8,  and  tbe  naraea  oTcaniCiDporariea 
til  iii,  1;  iF,6;  vt,  10;  vii, '2:  the  writer  (or  wrilera)  nf 
the  BKond  puition  uf  the  book  never  does  thia.     It ' 
abo  been  ubaerve<1  that  after  Ihe  flrat  eight  chapter 
hear  nothing  of  "  Saian,"  or  of  "  the  leven  eyee  of 
huvah^  that  tiiere  are  no  more  viaioiia;  that  cl 
cnnlatiia  no  allegorr,  not  a  aymbiilic  actlDn ;  that  hero 
■re  no  ridillc*  which  need  to  be  aulved,  tu  imgtliu 
prrt  to  aolve  ihem. 

(II.)  Cb.  ix-xL    Theae  ehaptere,  it  la  alleged,  have 
•bo  their  charactcriitic  peculiariiiea: 

1.  [n  point  nf  Biyie,  the  author  reaenihleaHaaea  more 
than  any  other  pmpbet;  luch  ia  the  verdict  both  of 
Enobd  and  EwairL  He  delighu  to  picture  Jehovah 
■a  Ibe  great  captain  of  bia  people.  Jehovah  cornea  i 
Ziort,  and  pitches  hi>  camp  there  to  protect  her  (ix, 
9).  He  Uowa  the  trumpet,  mirche*  againM  hia  etv 
niie^  makea  hie  people  liia  Iww,  and  ihouta  hia  amn 
(vet.  IS,  14);  or  he  rides  on  Judah  aa  hiauar-horae,  ai 
goes  forth  thereon  to  victory  (x,  3,  b).  Afcnin,  he  apraka 
of  the  people  aa  a  flick,  and  Ihe  leailen  of  the  people  aa 
their  ahephenla  (ix,  IB;  x,  2, 8;  xi,  4  aq.).  He  deacribea 
"alao.  ill  hia  character  of  pruphcr,  aa  a  ahephenl 


lid  the  ([ear  of  a  nhei 
benL  In  fteneml  he  delifcbta  in  imagei  (ix,  S,  4,  IS-i: 
X,  3,  6, 7,  etc.),  aome  of  which  are  atrikiiig  and  forcible. 

2.  Thennieaof  time  are  alao  peculiar  I 

(I.)  It  WIS  a  time  when  the  pride  oT  AMyrli 
yet  at  its  height  (ch.  x,  xi),  aikd  when  the  Jewa  lu 
ready  anffereil  from  it.  Thia  Brat  look  place  i-ithc 
oT  Henahem  (RC  T7i-7GI). 

(;L)  Tba  Transjordanio  territory  had  already  been 
(wept  by  the  armiea  of  the  invader  (x,  10),  but  i 
further  deanlation  threatened  it  (xi,  1-3),  The  Bm 
may  have  been  the  invaaton  of  Pul  (1  Chroo.  v,  26),  tbe 
aecond  that  of  Tlglath-pileaer. 

(3.)  The  kingdoma  ofJiuUh  and  Ephraim  are 
BUnding(ix,  10, 13;  x,  6),  but  many  Israelites  an 
ertbeleaa  exilea  in  Egypt  and  laay ria  (ix,  11 )  x,  6, 8, 


10,  ei 


(4.)  The  atru^le  between  Judah  and  tarael  la  anp- 
poaed  to  be  already  begun  (xi,  14).   At  tbe  lame  time, 
Damaacus  la  threatened  (ii,  1).    If  so,  tbe  leferer 
■nuat  be  to  the  alliance  (brmed  between  Pekab  king 
laiael  aiMlltezinof  Damaaciu,the  coaaequeiMS  at  which 
naa  the  las  aFEIath  (739). 

(5.)  Egypt  ami  Aaayria  ire  iaih  formidable  powers 
(x,9, 10,11).  The  only  other  prophet*  to  whom  these 
two  nation!  appear  aa  furmidahle,  al  ikt  rnmr  lime,  are 
Hosea  (vii,  II;  xii,  1;  xiv,  3)  and  hia  contemporary 
laiiah  (vii,  17, etc.);  and  thai  in  pmpheciea  which  must 
have  been  uttered  between  749  and  740.  The  expecta- 
tion leems  to  have  been  that  the  Awyriana,  in  onlrr  to 
attack  Egypt,  would  march  by  way  of  Syria,  rhunicia, 
and  I'hiliatia, along  Ihe  onaal  (Zecb.  tx,  1-9),  at  ther 
did  afterwani*  (laa.  xx,  I),  and   '      "'     "      '  " 


ould  SI 


«(Zecl 


for  the  riaogbter"  in  eh.  xl,  over  which  ibree  sbep 
herds  have  been  Mt  in  one  month.  Thia  curreapoiuia 
with  the  aeaaivi  of  aiMrcby  and  cimfuainn  which  fol- 
lowed immediately  on  the  muider  of  Zschariih  tbe 
»on  of  Jeroboam  II  (7B0>  This  aon  reigned  only  six 
monthi,  hia  murderer  Shalluro  but  one  (S  Kings  xv,  8- 
IG),  being  pot  Id  death  in  hia  turn  hyMenahem.  Mean- 
while ■nt>theT  rival  king  may  have  arisen,  Bunaen 
thinka,  in  some  other  part  uf  tbe  coaniiy,  who  may 
have  fallen  aa  the  murderer  did,  before  Menahem. 

(7.)  Tbe  symbolical  action  of  the  breaking  of  Iba 
two  ahepberds*  atavea— Favor  and  Union— points  tbe 
aame  way.  The  breaking  of  (he  Hrat  ahowed  that  (Jod'a 
favor  had  deparletl  from  Israel,  that  of  the  aecutul  that 
all  hope  oT  union  between  Judah  and  Ephraim  waa  at 

All  these  notes  of  time.  It  ia  claimed,  point  in  the 
aane  direction,  and  make  it  piobable  that  the  aulhot 
of  ch.  ix-xi  waa  a  comemporary  of  laaiah,  and  pmpbe- 
aird  during  (he  reigti  of  Abu.  According  lo  Knp>>c^ 
ch.  ix  and  x  were  prubahly  delivered  in  Ji-tham'a  reigt^ 
and  ch.xi  in  that  of  Ahaz,whoaummoned  Tigtith-pileser 
tohiaaid.  Haurerthinka tliateh.ixind  xweie  written 
between  the  flrsi  (!  King*  xv,29)  and  aecoitd  (2  Kiiiga 
xvii,  4-6)  Aiayrian  invaaiona,  ch.  x  during  the  aeven 
yeara'  interregnum  which  tiiUowed  tbe  death  irf  Pekab, 
and  xi  in  Ihe  reipn  oT  Hoshea. 

(III.)  Ch.  xii-xiv.  By  the  majority  of  those  criu 
icB  who  aasign  these  chapters  (o  a  third  author,  that  au- 
thor ia  aupposed  to  have  lived  ahonly  before  tbe  Bab^- 
Ionian  captivity.  The  grounds  fur  aeparaling  tbna 
three  chapters  from  ch.  ix  to  xi  are  aalollows: 

1.  Thia  aecliun  openi  with  ila  own  introdnrtnry  fnt* 
muU,ai  Ihe  preceding  one  (ix,  I)  does.  Thia.  however, 
only  shows  that  Ibe  aeetiona  are  distinct,  not  that  they 
were  written  at  diflbrent  limea. 

3.  The  object  of  Ihe  two  sections  la  altogether  differ. 
enl.  Theauthorortherormer(eli.ix-xi)ha*boihlarael 
and  Judah  before  bim;  he  often  apeaka  of  them  togeth- 
er (ix,  18;  s,  6i  xi,  14;  eomp.  x,7);  he  directs  hia 
pmphecy  to  the  Traiiajordanic  territory,  and  announces 
the  diMhargeofliisolBoe  in  laiael  (xi,  4  sq.).  'llie  ai>- 
Ihor  of  the  second  aection.on  the  other  hand,  has  only 
In  do  with  Judab  and  Jerusalem :  he  tiowhere  mendona 
UraeL 

3.  The  political  horizon  oTlhe  two  propbeta  ia  differ- 
ent.  By  the  fiinner,  mention  la  made  of  Ihe  Syrians, 
PhleniciBn^  Philialine*  (ix,  1-7),  and  Greeks  (ver.  13), 
aa  well  as  nf  the  Aasyrisns  and  Ggypiiaiia,  the  last  Iwa 
being  described  a*  at  that  lime  Ihe  innat  powerful.  It 
iherrfore  belong*  to  the  earlier  time  when  these  two 
nations  wen  beginning  to  atru)^^  for  snpcemaey  in 
Weatem  Aaia.  By  the  latter,  Ihe  Eg.vpri*ns  only  an 
mentioned  as  a  hoalile  natkn  i  not  a  word  la  aaiil  ofihe 
Asayriana.  The  author  conaequently  muat  have  lived 
at  a  rime  when  Egypt  was  Ihe  chief  enemy  of  Judah. 

4.  The  anticipaTions  of  Ibe  two  prophets  are  diffbr. 
ent.  The  SrsI  trembles  only  n>r  Ephraim.  He  predicla 
the  desolation  uf  the  Tranajorilaiiic  territory,  the  car- 
rying away  captive  nf  Ihe  Iwleliles,  but  aLan  the  return 
from  Aasyrla  and  Egypt  (x,  7, 10).  But  for  Judah  b* 
has  iKi  cauae  of  fear.  Jehovah  will  protect  her  (ix,  8X 
and  bring  back  those  of  her  anna  who  in  eariier  time* 
had  gone  into  captivity  (ver.  II).  Thesecond  propbeC, 
on  the  other  hand,  making  no  mention  wlulerer  nf  the 
tMrthem  kingdom,  is  full  nf  alarm  for  Judah.     He  n.'e* 

unia  of  herinhsbitanla  dcsimypd  (xiii.C) ;  he  aeea  the 
lemy  laying  siege  10. lem»*lem,ukiiig  and  plunilering 
,  and  carrying  half  of  her  people  captive  (xii,  3;  xir, 
o).    Of  any  return  nf  the  captives  nothing  ti  hera 

b.  The  style  of  the  two  prnpheta  I*  dif^rent.    The 

author  of  this  last  section  ia  fond  of  the  prophetic  for- 
n;m,  "  And  it  «hal!  cnme  lo  paaa'(xii,9,  xiil, 
8;'x'i'v,fi,e,  18,16);  »inn  ui**," in  that  daj-" 


ZECUARIAH,  BOOK  OF         lOU         ZECHAKIAn,  BOOK  OF 

IS,  30,31);  ling;  In  bnth  hu  people  are  cdled  on  lo  njuicr.  ud 
2,7,8}.    La   ill  both  tliere  La  ■  retnarlubte  agreemnit  ■»  (lie  vonh. 


f«ii,  8,  4,  6, 8,  9, 11  j  xiii,  1,3,*;  liv,  8,  9, 
nin^  BK],-ui(b  JehuTili'  (xii, 
Uie  wctiun  ix-xi  (lie  fjnt  doe*  not  occur  it  all,  the 
and  but  uocc  (ix,  IS),  tlie  third  only  twice  (x,  ISj  xl,e>. 
We  have,  owreovet,  in  iliii  section  eerwin  favorite  ex- 
preMioni:  "all  peupleii,"  " «11  [leople  of  the  earth,""!!! 
Dationa  round  about,"  "all  nitioiii  that  come  op  againu 
.^era»a!enl."  "  the  inhabiiants  of  JeruBBiem,"  "  the  huiue 
of  David."  "family"  for  nalLon,"the  familiea  of  tbe 
eanh,""[ha  faniiljr  of  EKypt,''ptc 

6,  There  are  apparently  few  note*  of  tiow  {n  this 
aeclion.  One  i>  the  alliujon  to  the  deatii  of  Joaiih  in 
"  tbe  mouniing  of  HadMl-iirammi  in  the  rdley  of  Hi 
giddo:'  anutbet  to  Ihe  earthquake  in  the  dava  of  Ui 
liab  Uig  ofJadah.  This  addiiion  to  the  name  of  111 
'  »,  Kiiabel  aiiggeBia,  that  ha  had  been  long 
"  1  worth  anything,  would 
■  hnld  a  pi>ai-«xile  date. 
It  ia  certainly  remarkable,  occurring  tliua  in  the  body 
of  Ihe  prophecy,  and  uot  in  the  iuwriptiun  aa  In  !». 

(a)  Argtnarmi  UI  Faroro/lht  luttgrih/  afllie  Bonli, 
— (f.)  A«  lietween  eh,  i-viii  and  iii-;(iv.— 1.  fn 
all  tbe  for^iing  ar|i;iimenis,  ii  haa  been  urged  bv  Keil, 
SlBhelin.widuthenilhat  the  diOerence  of  ntvle  between 
the  two  priin-ipsl  ilivi^ionaofthe  pruphecyi*  nnt  great- 
er than  may  reaannalily  be  accounted  for  by  the  chan^ 
of  aubjecc     The  language  in  which  viaiont  are  nar 
ed  would,  from  ihe  iialure  of  the  caae,  be  quieter  i 
leia  animated  than  that  In  which  prophetic  aniici 
tiong  of  future  glory  are  deecribed,     T'hev  difler  ai 
alyle  of  the  narrator  dilTen  fnim  that  of  the  ora. 
Thua,  for  inaiance,  how  different  ii  the  Wyle  of  Hoaea, 
c!k.  i-iii,  from  the  style  of  the  aame  prophet  in  ch,  iv- 
xfvl  or,  again, that  of  Ezekielvi,  Til,  fnim  Ezekiel  ivl 

Dill,  beaidealhia.  even  in  what  may  be  termed  Ihe 
Dtore  oratorical  poniona  of  the  Brat  eighC  chaplera,  Ihe 
prophet  it  ID  a  great  extern  occupied  wil' 
and  enhorutiona  of  a  practical  kind  (aee  i, 
14;  vii!.9-eS)i  whereas  in  the  Hiboequent 
ia  rapi  into  a  far-di.iant  and  glorimn  fulurew  '  In  Ihe 
one  caae,  thrrcfiire,  Ihe  language  would  naluraUv  ainli 
dawn  (o  tho  level  of  proee;  In  the  other,  it  would  riw 

In  like  manner,  Ihe  nniea  uf  time  in  the  fiwmer  pan 
Kiant  reference  to  the  TempU 


deaii;  but  II 


I  that  tt 


bDaieahim>rirH:ilh 

aflerwanla  hii  eye  id  If.teil  on  a  far^diaiant  rutu're. 

On  the  niher  hand,  where  preiliclinna  do  occur  i 
fliat  aectiini,  Ihere  ia  a  neneral  rimilarity  between 
ami  Ihe  preiliclinna  nf  the  aeCumL  The  soene, 
ipeah,  is  (he  same:  (lis  unte  vifiona  Rnat  befur 
eyea  of  the  seer.  The  timet  of  the  Mesaiah  are  (be 
themeof  lh«pre<]icti<m»incb.i-iv,inix,x,andin  xii- 
xiil,  6:  while  ihe  events  which  are  to  prepare  (he  way 
for  (hat  time,  and  eapedslly  the  tiniiig  nf  tbe  nation, 
aredwelt  upaninch.v,tnii,Bndinxiit,7-xiT,!.  The 
iame  peculiar  forma  rf  expreaatnn  occur  )n  the  two  di- 
Tiainna  of  the  prophecy.  Thua.  for  inalarce,  we  Hod 
aiE':^  -airp  not  only  in  vii,14,but  also  In  ix,8; 
''^3^'3i  'n  ">e  »*""•  of  ■'toremo»«,"in  ill,  4,  and  in 
kiil,  2— elsewhere  tt  oeciin  in  thia  nnuaua!  aenta  only 
In  later  writinga  (2  Kinm  xvi,  8 1  9  Cbmn.  xv,  8)—"  Ihe 
eyeof  God,'' aa  betokening  tbe  divine  ptoridenee.  In  iii, 
9;  tv.lO;  and  in  ix,  1,8. 

In  both  sections  (he  return  of  the  wtiole  nation  after 
the  Exile  h  Ihe  pierailing  image  nf  happinen,  and  in 
both  it  is  aimilarly  ponmyei).  As  in  ii,  II),  the  exiica 
■re  wmmnned  to  return  lo  their  native  land,  because 
now,  according  to  the  princl|des  of  righteoita  recom- 
penae,  they  thai!  role  over  their  enemies,  so  also  a  aim- 
ilar  strain  o^nra  in  ix,IS,etc.  Both  in  ii,  10  and  in  ix, 
B  Ihe  renewed  proteeiion  wbertnilh  <!i>d  will  favor 
Zicn  Is  repreaenied  ai  an  entrance  into  hia  holy  dwell- 


li,  H,  Ka  ^ijn  -"3  yi'x  n  iniaci  ^3-  and  is 
ix,  8,  ran  oiiDiT'  ra  v-in  -ii*"*  •"=  i»«  ^"J 

Again,  dmilar  forma  of  expresrion  occur  in  ii,  9.  II, 
and  xi,  11;  the  description  of  Ihe  incieaiie  in  Jerimlnii, 
xiv,  Il^may  beeoaipared  withii,4;  ami  the  pivdictin' 
in  viil,  20-28  with  that  in  xiv,  18,  The  rcwicUaace 
which  haa  been  found  in  tome  oihrr  pasaat^m  is  im 
alight  to  BCrengihen  the  arpiment;  and  Ihe  oonirrnm 
of  Chaldaitma,  auch  aa  HZ:f  (ix,  8),  nt»1  (xir,  10>, 
bna  (which  occurs  beadea  only  ip  Prov.  yt,  ?)),  awl 
the  phrase  Pl^  Kip  (ix,  IS),'imlead  of  rcg  T^■'■•>l, 
really  prove  nothing  an  to  the  age  of  tbe  la(er%iiapt'en 
of  Zechariah,  Indeed,  generally,  as  r^anU  tliese  nri- 
iiule  compaiisnne  of  diffEvent  paasaget  to  prove  an  iden- 
tity of  BUthorahip,  Maurer"a  remark  holila  true:  "Bed 
qua  pnleat  vis  esse  dii'jectnnim  quorundam  lucunira,  uU 

S.  Of  far  more  weighl,  howerer,Ihan  the  argnnnid 
already  advanced  la  the  fact  Ihat  the  writer  of  lliese 
last  chaptem  (Ix-xiv)  diowa  an  acquainlance  with  lb* 
Uler  prophets  of  Ihe  tima  of  Ihe  Kxile.  That  rhn«  arc 
nutoerouB  alluaiona  in  tt  (o  earlier  pm]>hcla,  aiich  M  Jori, 
Amoa,  Hicah,  haa  been  shown  bv  Hitrig  (Commn^.  p. 
8M,  2d  ed.);  but  there  are  also,' it  is  allvgeil,  aliuBii-u 
to  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Eiekiel,  and  ihe  laiier  part  i< 
IsaUh  (ch.  xl-lxTi>  Ifihis  can  be  eslablirhed.  it  isrvi. 
dence  that  this  portion  of  the  book,  if  not  wrilien  by 
Zechaiiah  himaelf,  was  at  least  written  atler  the  Exile. 
Welind,then,inZech.ix,2an  allusion  to Exek.xxviii.3i 
inrei.SlolKingix,!?:  int-er.etoZeph.  ii,4;  inver. 
It  (ala(.li,14;  in  ver.  ISlo  Isa.xUx,9  and  lKa.lxi.7: 
In  1,3  (0  Eack.  ixxiv,  17.  Zech.  xi  is  derived  ftinB  Eiet 
xxxiv  (comp.  etp.  ver.4  wiih  Etek,  xxxiv,  *\  and  Zecli, 
XI,  3  from  Jer.  xii,  ft.  Zech.  xii,  1  ■lludea  ii>  laa.  K,  13- 
xiii,8,9,laEzek.v,I2;  xir,e  to  EEek.xlvii,  1.|3;  vev. 
10,  II,  to  Jer.  xxxi,  88-40:  ver,  16-19  to  !»«.  Ixvi  23 
and  Lt,  12;  ver.  »,  21,  tn  Eiek.  xliii,  12  ami  Jtliv,  9, 

Thit  manifeH  acquaintance  mi  the  part  of  the  writer 
of  Zech.  ix-xi-r  with  so  many  of  the  bier  pt«|>het* 
seemed  so  omrincing  to  De  Wetle  thai,  after  having 
in  the  first  three  rdiiions  of  hio  taltodaniom  dtrlarrd 
for  two  aiithons  be  found  himself  compelled  to  ohtn^ 
his  mind,  ami  to  admit  that  the  later  chapten  mim  be- 
limg  to  the  age  of  Zerhariah,  and  might  ha>-e  beta 
wrilien  by  Zrchariah  himwlf. 

Bleek.on  Ihe  other  hand,  ha*  done  his  ben  to  weaken 
the  fiTO  ofthis_arpiment,tirst  by  mainiaining  thai  in 
cmrnt  is  only  spparent. 

Zech.  ix,  12;  xi,  8;  xii,  I ;  xiv,  10)  with  the  pwwas.^ 

Zechariah  may  be  the  original  from  whnn 

leremiah  boro.ired.     It  miiM  be  n>i>resse<t 

It  it  it  mntt p'fibaHe  thai  one  writer  ahneM 

have  allusions  to  many  i,tlier>  Ihan  that  ma nv  iNhen 

should  bonnw  from  one;   and  this  pmbaNiiii-   up- 

proaches  certainly  in  proiwwtiini  aa  we  multipiv  il« 

niiniber  of  quotations  or  allll«inn^    If  there  art  pa>- 

M«e*  In   Zechariah  which  ere  manifesilv  similar   to 

other  |>assage*  in  ZophanlBh,  in  Jeremiah,' Eiekjrl.  and 

the  Dentero- Isaiah,  which  la  Ihe  rmire  probablF,'ihM 

■ed  from  him.  or  be  from  ihetn?     Iii  ix, 

12  especially,  as  StHhelin  a^g.le^  Ihe  cxpremon  is  iIp. 

"'1ly  one  lobe  Inokeil  for  after  the  Exile  rather  Ihut 

■0  ii :  and  the  passage  reels  upon  Jer,  xvi,  18,  aiid 

in  almiisl  verbal  acconlaiice  with  [aa.  Ixi.  7. 

Again,  the  same  crilica  argue  Ihat  Ihe  »u*m-ia,l 

imvs  in  Ihe  later  chapters  are  perfecllv  cnnsistral 

a  |>aM-exile  dtie.    Thit  had  slieady  bccii  maii*. 

laineil  by  Eichhom,  although  he  euppnwii  ihefc  fhtp. 

lera  lo  have  been  written  by  ait/rr  prophet  than  Zocb- 

sriah.    SlHbelin  puts  the  case  aa  folkms:  Even  andet 

he  Persian  rule  (hepuliiicalreiaiiofis  of  tbe  Jewa  en* 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF         1075 

tbued  rcry  dmtI;  the  uoM  ■>  they  wtn  in  eirUer   ( 

tiiDH.  Th#y  uill  wtrc  plued  brlwern  a  huge  Eulera 
power  on  the  oneuile,siid  Kgrpl  on  the  oiher,  the  only 
diffennce  now  being  thit  IC|;ypi  u  well  u  Judsa  wm 
Mbject  to  the  Perrijiru.    But  lUgy pt  ww  an  unwilling 


the  ume  |«]icv  in 
yoke.     ltvr.mldf.. 

wonlrl  be  on  the  witch  U>  check  inch  el 
eni^noe  on  thn«  among  hi 
or  depeniient  provinces  which  shniild  ventu 
an  allianec  with  Eeypc    Such  of  ih«e  pi 
lar  on  (he  lea-ooaM  nint  iiideeil  nilTer  ir 


rasiun  of  Gf;ypt  woiilil  c<4iect  in  Syria  anil  Phmieia, 
ami  would  inarch  by  way  at  the  cout:  and,  whether 
they  cana  an  Trienili  or  at  roea,  they  wouki  pmliably 
c<iu*e  MScient  itevanlation  u  jnMifT  (he  prophecy  in 
Zech.  ix,  1 ,  eie^  delirereil  agniuM  Dainueiw,  I'hfcnicia, 
■III)  Philiuia.     Meanwhile  the  ^imphet  aeek*  to  calm 


K  th( 


•  of  (i.H 


prnteoinn,  and  at  thi 

the  appointed  time,ihaii  igiin  unite  ine  two 
of  Juriah  and  Ephraim,  It  ia  obien-able, 
that  tlie  pn>plle^  throughout  hta  diacnunea, 
not  only  to  tranquillize  the  oiinda  of  hia 
but  tn  present  their  eiigiging  in  any 
■liainsi  their  Persian  maMen,  it  riinniiig  any  aiiiance 
with  their  enemiea.  In  Ihis  reapect  he  rollowa  the  ex- 
ample of  Jeremiah  and  Eiekiel,  and,  like  ihete  two 
pmphetii.  he  Girttelli  the  return  nr  Ephnim,  the  union 
of  Ephnim  and  Judah,  and  the  final  orenhrow  boih 
«f  Awyria  (x,  lt>— that  ia,  Peraia— and  of  Egipt,  the 

and  derasiated  IivaeL  Thai  a  lartte  portion  of  the  na- 
tion waa  Mill  supposed  to  bo  in  exile  in  clear  from  ix, 
II,  12.  and  hence  ver.  10  can  nnlv  be  regardeil  a*  a 
nmiMiMeiice  vl  Uic  r,  10;  and  even  if  x.  9  muM  be 
e_ip]aine.l  of  the  pi>t  (with  De  Wette.  KuJril.  S  !30,  6, 
note  al,  still  it  ippean  from  .iDsephiia  (Ail,  xii,'i,  A) 
that  the  ppr«an>  carried  awav  Jewa  into  E^vpt.  and 
fivm  Si-ncellu)  (p.  486,  Niehuhr's  ed.)  that  Ochua  trans- 
planted! large  nnailwra  of  J«KS  from  Palestine  !■>  the 
east  and  north:  itM  earlier  cuiiom  of  ih>w  forcihly  re- 
mnviiig  In  a  distance  those  conquered  naiiuna  who,  fnnn 
disaO^iion  or  a  inrbident  spirit,  were  likely  lo.git-e  oc- 

Teraians,  but  having  become  even  mow  mmninn  than 
ever  (Heeren, /dmr,  t,  !54,2d  e<L).  This  well-known 
policy  on  the  part  of  their  conquerors  would  be  a  Miffi- 
cienlEnnindfiir  theaasuraiice  which  the  prophet  t-ires 
in  X,  X  Even  the  Ihrents  utierpil  against  the  false 
prophets  and  the  shepherds  of  the  people  are  not  in- 
consistent with  the  times  after  the  Exile,  tn  Keh.  v 
■nd  ri,  we  And  the  nobles  and  rulers  of  the  people  op- 
preasing  their  brethren,  and  false  propheti 
their  oppmulion  to  Kehemiah.     In  like  a 

"Teraiihim"  of  k,  i,  where  they  are  mentioned  in  cnn- 
neclinn  with  "  thedivincrs"  CO-'i:Oipn>  Malaehi  (iii, 
5)  speaks  of"  sorcerers"  (i-iBS-a-a),  and  that  such  su- 
pcntition  long  held  its  ground  among  the  Jews  is  evi- 
dent fr.™  Josephua  (Inf.  viii.S.S).     Nor  dues  sir,  21 

poUutiim  in  the  Temple.  Ch.  xi  was  spoken  by  the 
prophet  later  than  ch.  ix  and  x.  In  ver.  14  he  declares 
the  impoc^ibiUiy  of  any  reunion  between  Judab  and 
Ephraim,  either  because  the  northern  leTritorj-  had  al- 
ready been  laid  waste,  or  because  the  inhabitants  of  it 
had  shown  a  disposition  lo  league  with  ITiffinicia  in  n 
Tain  cllurt  lo  throw  oflT  the  Persian  yoke,  which  wodIiI 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 
ivolve  them  in  certain  destruction.    Thla  difl* 


ian  daieof  theprophe- 
-  ho()ea  of  the  propheta 


bvlon. 


Hda  II 


lo  argue 

that  the  prophecy  direcleil  againat  ihe  nations  (ix,  1-7) 
Is  really  more  applicable  mi  he  Penuai  leni  than  tn  any 
other.  U  is  only  the  coast-lina  which  is  here  threat* 
ened;  whereas  Ihe  earlier  prophets,  whenever  they 
threaten  the  maritime  tribea,  unite  with  them  Mnat> 
and  Ammon,  or  Edoni.  Moieover,  Ihe  nati'ins  here 
meniioneil  are  nut  spoken  of  as  enemies  of  Juitth ;  for 
being  Persian  subjects  they  would  not  venture  tn  attack 
the  Jewish  colony  when  under  the  special  protection 
of  that  power.  Of  Aabdod  it  is  aaid  that  a  foreiguer 
(ij:??,  A.  V,  "basiard")  shall  dwell  in  It,  This,  too, 
might  naturally  have  happeneil  in  the  time  ofZecba- 
riah.  During  the  Exile,  Arabs  hail  esUbliahed  them- 
selves ill  Southern  Paleatine,  aiitl  the  prophet  foreseea 
that  they  would  occupy  Aabdod;  and,  accordinj^y,  we 
learn  fmm  Neh.  xiii,  11  that  the  dialect  of  AshdiHl  was 
unintelligible  to  the  Jews,  and  in  Iv,  7  the  people  of 
Ashdnd  appear  as  a  distinct  tribe  united  with  other 
Arabians  igainal  Judah.  The  king  of  I iaza  (mentioned 
in  Zech.  ix,  5)  may  have  been  a  Persian  vassal,  aa  the 
kings  of  Tyre  and  tUdon  were,  acconling  lo   Hemd. 


ii,  87.     A  ( 


ingir 


Herod,  iii,  IS),  although 
this  was  no  longer  the  ease  in  the  time  of  Alexander. 
Tha  mention  of  the-'s-ini  of  Jivan"  (Ix.'lS;  A.  V. 
"Greece")  is  suitable  to  the  l*ersian  period  (which  is 
alw  the  view  of  Eichhom),  aa  it  was  then  that  Ihe 
Jewa  were  Hrat  brought  infi  any  close  ounlaet  with  the 
(Ireeks.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  Herce  ainiggle  between 
Greece  ami  Persia  which  gave  a  peculiar  meaning  to 
his  words  wlien  Ihe  prophet  promised  his  own  people 
victorvover  Ihe  Greeks,  and  so  reverseil  the  earlier  pre- 
diction of  Joel  iv,  6,7  (A.V.  iii,  fi,7).  If,  however, 
we  are  to  umleislanrl  by  Javan  Aral>ia.  as  some  main- 
tain, this  igHiii  ei|ually  suits  the  periwl  supposed,  and 
Ihe  prophecy  will  refer  to  the  Arabians,  uf  whom  we 
Irftarly  spoken. 
We  come  now  to  the  section  xii-xiv.  The 
here  is,  thai  however  hard  Jndah  and 
Jerusalem  msy  be  pressed  by  enemies  (of  Israel  there 
is  no  further  mention),  still  with  land's  help  they  shall 
be  victorious;  and  the  result  shall  lie  tlial  Jehovah 
will  be  more  truly  worshipped  Uith  bi-  Jews  and  fien. 
tiles.  That  this  anticipation  of  Ihe  galheting  of  hos- 
tile armies  a^ainac  Jenisnlem  was  nul 


(II.)  V 


above.    Pctwan  h 


e  inferr 


«  of  this  i 


JndiBa.  We 
Joeephus(.4M.xi,7,t),and 
Siilon  waa  laid  in  ashes  in  consequence  of  an  insurrec- 
tion against  PenOa  (Dind.  xvi.  4.5).  On  tlie  nther  band, 
Ihiw  could  a  prophet  in  the  time  immeiliatety  preceiiing 
the  Exile— the  time  towhlch.nnaccnimtof  xii,  12,  most 
critics  refer  ihis  seclinn— hare  utiereit  predictions  such 
as  ihcae?  Since  ihe  time  ofZephaniah  all  the  pmph- 
pia  lookeil  upon  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  as  sealed,  whcreaa 
liere,  in  direct  conlradiciinn  to  such  views,  the  preserra- 
lion  of  the  city  is  announced  even  in  theexiremest  ca- 
lamiiiea.  Any  analogy  lo  the  general  strain  of  thought 
in  Ihis  section  is  only  to  be  found  in  Isa.  ixix-xxxiiL 
Besides, no  king  is  liere  mentioned,  but  only  "the  house 
of  David,"  which,  according  lo  .lewixh  Iradiiion  {Heri- 
felil,  Ccaot.  da  Volhri  lirnrl,  p.  A7K  sq.),  held  a  high 
position  afler  the  Exile,  aitd  acconlingly  is  meniioiiHl 
(xii,  I'J,  13)  in  itsdlBercnt  branches(comp.UBrets./>uf 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF         107«        ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OP 


PkBiM.  Aberlk.  i,£ai),tngetlMrvitb  the  tribe  of  Lerii 
the  pn>pbrt,lil(e  the  writer  ufl^lxxxbt,  looking  to  it 
wicb  ■  kind  of  yearning,  which  beliice  the  Exile,  while 
there  wu  Mill  ■  king,  would  hare  been  iiicuneeivible. 
Again,  the  muiDer  in  which  Egypt  i*  alluded  lo  (sit, 
t9J  almost  of  necCBsily  leads  us  lu  the  Penian  times; 
(iir  then  Egypt,  in  consequenoe  i^  her  perpetual  eSbns 
to  thmw  off  the  Penian  yuke,  waa  naturally  brought 
into  hostility  with  the  Jews,  who  were  under  the  pm- 
teotion  uf  Persia.  Before  ihe  Exile  (liis  was  only  the 
case  during  tlie  inten'al  between  the  death  ofjosiah 
and  the  battle  of  Carchemisfa,  It  would  seem,  then, 
that  there  is  nothing  lo  compel  in  to  place  this  section 
xii-xiv  in  the  limes  before  the  Exile;  much,  on  ihevon- 
ttary,  which  can  only  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  on 
the  suppmitinn  that  it  was  written  during  the  period  of 
the  Persian  dominion.  Nor  must  it  be  fargntten  that 
we  hare  here  that  fuller  development  of  the  Henianic 
idpa  which  at  such  a  lime  might  be  expecteil.  and  nne 
which,  in  fact,  rests  upon  all  the  pnq>beu  who  Houriahed 
before  the  Exile. 

Such  are  the  grounds,  critical  and  historical,  on  which 
Stilhelin  rests  his  defence  of  the  later  date  of  the  second 
pntlinn  nf  the  pmphet  Zechariah.    We  have  given  his 
arguments  at  length  as  the  ablest  and  mnst  complete,  as 
wdl  aa  Ih*  most  recent,  on  his  nde  of  the  controversy. 
Some  of  tbem,  it  must  be  admitted,  are  full  of  weight. 
When  critics  like  Eicbhnni  maintain  that  uf  the  whole 
•ectinn  ii,  U;i,  17,  no  explanation  ia  poaailde,  unleaa 
derive  it  from  the  liistury  nf  Alexander  the  tireat;  i 
when  De  Wetie,B(ler  having  adiipled  the  theory  of 
ferent  anthorx,  felt  himself  obli(^  to  abandon   it 
reasons  alrewly  mentioned,  and  tu  vindicate  the  integ- 
rity of  the  book,  the  grDumls  ibt  a  post-exile  dale  must 
be  very  alrons.     Indeed,  it  i«  not  easy  to  say  which 
wav  Ihe  weight  of  evidence  preponderaiea. 

(C.J  With  regard  to  the  quoiaiiiai  in  Matthew  (ixvil, 
9,10;  comp.Zech.xi,  12,  IS)  there  seems  no  good  r 
fur  getting  anlde  the  received  reailing.    Jerome  ob( 
iCommm.  ia  Ecimg.  Mattk.  xxvli,  9, 10), 


:ei«r 


lytha 


^mnd  In  Jen 
ind  thiHi)^  I  hi 


i«,  wbkh  a  Heliraw  ot  the  si 

ited  tu  me,  an  npocfyiihal  hii 
>niid  theniispsge  word  furwi 


ir.d  s« 


rder  »r  the  wonl-.  011I7  ;ilve  ihi 


tl  they  cita  from 


Eiiaebiua  (ErungrU  Dmontlr.  lib.  x)  is  of  opinion  Ihi 
the  passage  thus  quoted  stood  originally  in  the  pmphi 
cy  of  Jeremiah,  but  was  either  erased  subsequently  by 
the  malice  of  the  Jews  [a  very  improbabli 
it  need  hardly  bs  said],  or  that  the  name 
was  substituted  fur  Ibat  of  Jeremiah  through  the  care- 
leaanesa  of  copyists.  Augustine  [Dt  Cixit.  Jicimjtl.  iii, 
30)  test  iSex  that  the  most  ancient  Greek  copiea  had  Jer- 
rniiili,  ami  thinks  that  the  mistake  was  originally 
Matthew's,  but  that  this  was  divinely  onlered,  ai 
the  evangelist  would  not  correct  the  error  evei 
pointed  out,  in  order  that  we  might  thus  infer  I 
Ihe  prophets  spake  by  one  Spirit,  and  that  wh 

omniiini,  et  omnia  ungulorum").      Some  Liter 
account  for  the  non-appearance  of  Ihe  passage 
>e  confuMon  in  tht  "      '  """    "' 

le  Oieek, 

in  our  present  Kelirew  text.    Others,  again,  suggest  that 
in  the  Greek  autograph  of  Hallhew,  ZPIOP  ml     ' 
been  written,  and  that  copyists  may  have  taken 
Ipior.     But  there  is  no  evidence  that  abbrei 
of  this  kind  were  in   use   so  eariy.     Epiphani 
some  of  the  Greek  faihei 


(iuspcli  omits  the  d 


e  Lntin  v< 
e  of  Jeremiah,  ai 


has  merely  Jteftmi  at  per  Prapielam.  It  has  hern  eoa^ 
jectured  that  ihia  lepresenta  the  original  Greek  ii»liin 

'  pq^v  i<A  Toi  npofriTov,  and  Ihat  some  early  anno- 
ur  wrote  'Iip^ou  on  tbe  margin,  whence  ii  crept 
to  the  text.  The  cboioe  lies  between  Ihia,  and  a  alip 
memory  on  tbe  part  of  tbe  evangelist,  if  we  ailna 
the  integrity  of  our  present  book  of  Zechaiiah,  OBleaa, 
indeed,  we  auppoee,  with  Eichhom,  who  fuUows  Jrooc, 
tliat  an  Apocrj-phat  book  uf  Jeremiah  is  quoted.  Tl«- 
ophylact  propusea  U>  insert  a  loi,  and  would  rmI  t^ 
'lipcfiiou  tat  roii  npofqTBii~^om/  Zaxapin.  H« 
argues  that  th*  quotatioo  is  really  a  fusion  of  two  pa*- 
sages;  that  cunceraing  the  price  paid  ocfnrrics  te 
Zech.  li,  and  that  concerning  the  flrM  in  Jer.  xik. 
But  what  Kew-Test.  writer  wouM  bave  tmed  auch  a 
form  of  expression  "tqi  Jeremy  and  the  PrDphetT" 
Siicb  a  mode  of  quolatiun  is  without  paralleL  At  iha 
same  time,  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  pa»- 
sage  as  given  in  Matthew  does  not  represent  exacdr 
either  the  Hebrew  text  of  Zechariab  or  the  venaosi  of 
the  Sept.  Theother  passages  ufilie  prophet  quoted  is 
the  Ne«Tesl.areix,9|inHatt.xxi,G;  Juha  xii.  I&>; 
xii,  ID  (in  John  xU,  87 ;  Rev.  1, 7);  siii,  7  fio  Matt- 
xxvi,8l;  Hark  xiv,37);  but  in  no  inetaDce  ia  Iha 
propbeE  qiHled  by  name, 

,  (P.)  The  following  writera  have  discussed  tbe  ctaiKina 
oftbe  integrity  of  ZeehariBb:Mcde,irarjb(Li>nd.l6«)^ 
p.;))G,BH;  Kidd«[ltp.],/>«i«vrnKsi>iiD/(Ac.Ve>sH>v 
(itnd.  170(1).  ii,  199;  Newcmiw  [Archbp.],  ifmarpraf*' 
(*J(ibid.  178S);  B)ayBrv,KfteTnnalatiomB/Zn*ariak 
(Oxf.  1797) ;  Carpiov,  Vt«Kt  Cril.  (Lijis.  I7M) ;  FlURge, 
/■it  WruMgatiffm  rfrs  Pivpi.  Zoci.  (Hamb.  17*14)j 
Dertholdt,  Eialtitrt^  iv,  1T62  sq..  1711  sq.;  Eicbbna, 
Prupfcfn.,  iii.  8!i7-aai,.880-89S,  416-4*8,  61B-518;  id. 
A'(nM»s9(4thed.I8»),ir,4I7sq.;  Bauer. fbsMtai^ 
p.  610  sq.;  Beekbaus,  Jwlrt/rilSI  dtr  propM.  Sdkri/i,  p. 
BS7sq.;  Jahn,  An/rim^ iii £76 sq.;  Kiister,  J/rJff ruita 
fjfjV.  (GOtiing.  IBIH);  rnrbenc,  Comm.  £rf^.  (CoU 
1824);  Grambetg,  Ctiri.  drr  tfrliffioniJmi,  ii.  biO  ■>(.; 
RosenmUUer.  Seinlia,  vii,  4,  SM  aq.;  Credner.  J*r 
Prophet  Joel,  p.  87  eq. ;  HengsUnberg.  BeinSgr,  i.  Ml 
sq.;  id.  Cjintrn/n^,  vol.  iii;  id.  Mrgritj/ nf  Ztthariok 
(tjlinb,  tranaL  1848);  De Welte,  AWnTn?  (l**  «•  U 
eils.  against  tbe  IMtgrilji,  later  eda.  in  favor  of  it); 
Kti\,i:minlti*g;  HHvemick,  AiaMnn^,-  MaDrer,raB*- 
neW.  ii,  611  sq.;  Ewakl,  Die  PivpiHen;  id.  Gaek,  Tid. 
iv;  Keek,  Ealeilmg;  id.  Zeilalier  m  ZudL,  in  the 
and.  utd  Kril.  186!,  p.  247  sq.;  SUIhdin,  i,MMra>ft 
iee2,p.S16sq.;  Hiliig,  in  SHid.tiiid  Krit.  1880,  p.  25 
i>q„  snd  in  Propktl, ;  Henderson,  Mmer  Prr-pirti  ( 1830)  -. 
Davidson,  in  Hotnr't  luti-od.  (lOih  ed.  1866}.  and  n 
recenily  in  his  hlndadiim  lo  Ike  Old  F 
Bunsen,  Stbdmrrt, vol  ii,  ch.  i,  pt.  ii;  id.£ 
Grtckiehle,  i,  449;  Sandrock,  ZuoL  ab  » 
(VntisL  1866);  Ortenbeig  [disiuiegratist],  J 
r«ftfed«Aiialn£anl.(Stuitg.  1860);  VijighuBan^- 
<oa  Led.  for  1878;  and  the  later  commentatora  geos^ 

ill.  8l^t  and  Didum.  — Some  nf  Zecbariah'a  p«». 
liarilies  in  these  respects  bave  beeu  noticed  above  Ii 
will  have  been  already  perceived  that  Ihe  svmbola  with 
which  he  abounds  are  obscure,  and  their  pioaaic  stnicf- 
nre  is  diiTose  and  unvaried.     The  ryhihm  <^  his  pceirr 

disjinaied.  His  language  has  in  many  phrases  ■  clooa 
alliance  with  that  of  the  other  pmphets,  and  oecasfoiial 
imitatinna  of  them,  especially  of  Eiekiel,ehBracierue 

spiritual  beings  into  bis  pmphelic  scenra. 

In  point  of  phraseology,  generally  speaking,  Zecha- 
riah's  style  is  pure  and  remarkably  free  from  Ckalda. 
isms.  As  is  common  wiib  writer*  in  Ihe  decline  ofa 
language,  he  seems  lo  have  striven  10  imitate  the  puk 
lyofthe  earlier  models;  but  in  orthography,  and  in  (ka 
ii>e  of  some  words  ami  phra>e%  he  belra 
<>l  a  later  age.     He  writes  rx  and  1^' 


ZED  AD  10 

t<in»  (t,  7}  in  iu  liter  uk  U  the  indf  fliiile  artirlF,  ind 
ni-lFUN  wilh  ihe  ftm.  lerrain«tioii  (i*-,  12).  A  fuU  col- 
lection of  tbeae  peculiaritiea  will  be  fuuud  ia  KiMler, 
lidettmatu  ia  ZulL  etc 

IV.  Commalarirt.— The  liillcnnng  >r  the  »egciic«l 
help*  DO  the  eDlira  iimphccy  txcliiaively.  to  the  mcM 
important  of  which  we  preBx  an  uieritk:  Jtmiie,Can- 
viaUaHi  (in  C^.  siLVillara  [Yenxi.  I'M],  vi) ;  The- 
aXont, Imlerpr^io  (in  Opp.  (d.  SchuUe  [HaL  I76B- 
74],  ll,ii)i  EfiiitiaSyni»,i:xptimilia{inOiip.t,2»b}; 
Kupertiu  Tuilieiuia,  In  Ztck.  (in  Opp.  i,  530)  \  Kimcbi, 
CommeiUary  (EnnaL  Trom  the  Heb.  by  McCaul,  Lmid. 
1«21, 8va)  -,  Luther,  A  uilr^mg  (Wicteub.  I&S8,  Ito ;  Erf. 
rod.  ivo;  alM  in  bia  ITDrii,  in  LaL  and  Germ.);  Ue- 
laiictboo,  CommtMariui  ( in  C^.  ii,  SSI )  i  Dnco,  £z- 
pUcorio  [includ.Juel  and  Hicib]  (Viumb.  1666, fuL); 
Chjiimat,  LrdUmrt  (in  tfp^h  ii,  3»7) :  Stuoica  [R.C], 
CoflamnibirM  (Salmant.  1677,  r.iL);  Grrnaui,  C<nniiMii- 
(.tiTBt  (Genet-.  1581,  gvD)t  Otor  [  R.  Q],  CcnuiaitorMU 
(Colon.  1584,  8va;  alao  iu  Oj^);  Baldwin,  Commet- 
luriuM  [  i>icln.l.  Hatrg.  and  M«L  ]  (Vitemh.  IGIO,  8ro)i 
.SancliM*[K.ai,C'owncii(a>iM  [Logd.  l6lli,4U>) :  Pen- 
l.le,  ExponUm  [on  ch.  i-ix]  (Lund.  1619,  iio);  De  Kev- 
r..le>i[K.C.],Qa<wrtMM  (far.  1631, ruL);  Uninu^Con- 
mrulariia  (Francnf.  1662,  8ra) :  Donch,  SgiioptiM  (ibid. 
-  1668, 1631, 4in)  1  VarelIiu^  Krplkalia  [indiid.  Hagg-and 
MaL]  (Kiit[.IU»,4cii);  Da  Haae,  Jnu/yiu  (Br«iii.lG89, 
4ta);  Biermann,  Erkliiariiuj  (Ulrecbt,  I6V9;  in  Uem. 
1706,4to>;Ger1ia<le,Oj>9eJiWRi(Leyd.l7U-2,4to)iHiiil- 
ma.n.  lUuHnUia  ( l^raiiek.  1703,  lui)i  tietiB,  Erktdruitg 
(Uipi.  1708,Svo)i  SoMt,  Aiuiigiii,  «L  Grapa  (fbiat. 
1711,  8va):  HemahMi,  Hrplicolio  (Ulliq].  1714,  4t<>h 
Uoekholt,  Vtrklaaring  {\taU.l7\S.iui)!,  Andala,  i>if- 
»rrtarioK»(Franet  17-20, 4to):  •Vitrin)ra,C™iiim/«m 
(Leov,  1734,4lo)i  Slann, Zciyit<fcn»ff (llreni.eod,4to); 
Opitz.  A tuaerk. (GiitL IT47, 4to};  Opcirin, .4iuM>'il.(ibid. 
cud.  4K>)  j  Herlich,  Eraarmg{KiM.MM,»\<i) ;  Triniu*, 
/InnKiit  (Queillinb.  1780,  8vo);  ■  Fillgge,  A'rU««r<»v 
(Hamb.  17X1,  8vd);  *  Venema,  .SmNOnrt  (Leov.  1789, 
4u> )  j  Ulayney,  A'oM  ( Ox£  1797,  4lo  ) ;  Thube.  ErOit- 
riuv(9chwerin,lBa2,8To);  Salomon,  B^IXS  (Deiuii, 

1805,  8va);  •K<Mer,  MtteUmaUt  [on  ch.  i^-xir] 
(Getu  IStS.BTO)  ;  Forbtrg,  Commailarba  [ibid.]  (C:ob. 
1824,  4ta,  pi.  i);  StUDRrd,  ComxUTilaiy  {Lrmi.  eoil.Sm)  i 
Ualler,  AV;^c('<in/7(Bnni.  lRS1,8va,  pt.  i)t  Park,  £r- 
jUimtimO^nAAaa^Svo);  Burger, £ru<£H(Slnd).  1^1, 
4ln)'.  Batimzarten,  SaehlgftidiU  (  Bruiiawick,  1S64,  t 
voU.8va)t  Neumann,  £rt/ai'HN7(Stntt|r.  I860);  Ward- 
Uw,  l^raiini  (Lond.lBG2,  IBmr,);  •  Kliefoth, /TrHitfp- 
rw«i  (flchweriii,  eod.  8>-o) ;  KBIiler,  ErtUiniKg  [Eriang. 
18aii'6a,8T0);  Rubinann, //omtftM  (Lond.  I8«S.8to); 
•M.H>r?,  Cunsmfiiry  [includ.  Hage.  and  Mil.]  (N.T. 

1806.  8vn>:  PretMl,  C'anmmfiir  [ibid.]  (Cntha,  1870. 
8vo>r  •Wright.Co'MiMnfary  (Land.  1879,  8td).     See 

PnOPHCTS,  HlMOIt. 

Ze'dad  (  Heb.  Ttedud',  -inx  [with  n  directive, 
Tt<la'iiiih,rm^],ttopti  SrpI,  ialaiaKv.t.Sapaint, 
etc),  una  of  the  Undmarlu  on  tho  north  border  nf  ibe 
land  or  lanel,  as  prnmiwd  br  H<iae*  (Numb,  xxxir,  8) 
and  aareatored  by  Kiekiel  (xlvii,  IS),  In  the  rrnmer 
paanaKO  it  oecuta  between  -'the  entrance  ol  Hainalb'' 
and  Zipbron,  and  in  the  latter  between  the  "road  ttf 
Heililon"  and  Hamaih.  A  ;>laca  nanie<l  SSdud  eiiata 
tiilheeaat  of  the  northern  extremity  »rihe  chain  ofAn- 
tilibaniMLabout  fiftv  mile*  E.N.E.  of  Baalbek  and  thirtr- 
av«  S.S.E.  of  Uuma  (Robinixn,  Hibl.  Rf,M.  W7 :  We». 
Mcin,ibii^fili.i7aurun.p.88),which  Porter  thinks  it 
lilentieal  with  Zadad  (,FiBt  Ytart  in  Ihmiucai,  ii,  BH- 
tib:  fiHiW  Cititt  n/i<<uA>n,  P.S17);  and  m>  alio  ap- 
[tarently  rabtn  Sebwan  {Folnl.  p.  S6):  but  the  bnun- 
dariea  of  PaleMine  proper  never  axtemleil  >»  far  imrth- 
wanl.  Sm  TBiBib  A  (race  nf  the  name  p-wiblr  liii- 
g«ra  in  the  dewrt  plain  callad  SaKil  JuilHitth,  on  the 
weatem  alope  of  Aniililianua,  in  or  near  Ibe  dulrict  uf 
^^boliiif  (KubiuauD,  Lattr  Bibi  Ba,  p.  490). 


17  ZEDEKIAH 

Zfldecbi'aa  (Siitaac),  the  Greek  Rma  (1  Eadr.  i. 
4a)ortbe  name  of  king  ZKDkKlAH(q.T.). 

Zedekl'ah  (Heb.  Ttilki^ih-.r^pTt  [but  in  thb 
lumple  form  only  in  I  Kinga  xxii,  11 ;  Neb.  x,  I;  Jar. 
siTii.  IS;  xxviii,  1;  xxix,  3;  elaetrhrn  in  the  pn>- 
longed  funn  TMt^a'iii,Vr^p'i:t],my  rigkteiiiimett  it 
Jak,  at,  rigklttmin$t  of  JtkovaJk ;  Sept.  and  JiMephm, 
£t£(cini'),  the  name  of  aeTeral  Hebrewa. 

1.  Son  of  Chcnaanah.a  pmphet  at  the  conn  of  Ahah. 
head,  or,  if  not  head,virtualleader,  of  the  college.  He 
appeara  bnt  once.  Tic,  at  apokeaman  when  the  propheta 
arr  connilted  by  Ahab  on  the  reauli  of  his  propineil  ex- 
pedition to  Ramoth-Gilead  (1  Kings  xxii;  i  Chruii. 
xrili).  Il.a896.  Zedekiah  had  prepared  himKlffur 
the  Interview  with  a  pair  of  imn  ho^ll^  after  the  sym- 
bolic cuttom  of  the  pmpheti  (cump.  Jer.  xiii.  xix),  the 
homa  of  the  rejin,nr  buffalo,  wliicb  was  the  recogiiiaed 
emblem  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  ([>eur,  xxxiii,  IT), 
With  thear,  in  the  interval  of  Micaiah's  arriial,  he  il- 

Syrian;  before  liim.  When  Micaiah  appeareil  and  liail 
delivered  bis  prophecy,  Zeilekuib  apran;;  fi>rwanl  aiHl 
atruek  him  a  blow  im  the  face,  aranuiiaiiying  it  by  a 
taunting  meer.  For  this  lie  ia  llirraleiieir  by  Micaiah 
in  lerma  which  are  hardly  intellifiiblc  to  at,  bnt  which 
avidenllv  alhute  to  aome  personal  danger  to  Zedekiah. 

The  liamlire  of  the  Bible  duea  nut  imply  ibat  ibe 
blow  ainick  by  Zolckiah  waa  prompted  by  more  tha;> 
iiidden  anger,  or  a  wiah  to  inaiill  and  Innuiliale  Ibn 
pnipliet  of  Jehovah.  Bnt  Jovephita  takea  a  very  dif- 
ferent view,  which  he  deveUtpi  at  some  length  (  A  hI. 
viil,  16,8).  He  relatea  that  after  Micaiah  liml  aimken. 
Zedekiah  aKaiii  came  rorwanl,  aiid  denounced  him  as 
false,  on  tiie  (rmnnd  that  his  pniphecv  cimiradicteil  the 
predinion  of  Elijah,  that  Ahab'*  blood  should  be  lickol 
up  by  d(^  in  the  tield  of  Nabolh  of  Jnreel:  and.  ai>  a 
further  proof  that  he  was  an  impnalor,  he  atrrich  him, 
ilaring  him  to  do  what  Iddo,  in  anmewhat  aiinilar  cir- 
cumMancea,  had  done  to  Jeroboam  —  vii.  wither  his 
haixl.  This  addituin  is  remarkable;  but  il  is  relateil 
by  Jnaephus  with  great  circumeiaiilialjiy.  and  waa  pcr- 

bapa  drawn  liy  him  from  that  HHirce w  liwl.  fnni 

which  he  haa  ad<<e<l  mi  many  loiicbca  to  ilie  iiutliiics  of 

As  to  theqoMiun  of  what  Zedekiah  and  bin  f»ll»H. 
en  were,  whether  pr<>|>hets  of  Jehovah  or  of  lamip  fabv 
deity,  it  aeema  hardly  poMlble  to  entertain  any  iloubl. 
True,  tbey  use  the  name  nf  Jehovah,  bnt  that  was  a 
habit  of  false  pnipheta  (Jer.  xxviii,  i;  enmi>.  xxix,  !l, 
31);  and  thert  is  a  vast  diffirence  between  the  ca-uil 
hich  they  mentii 


fuU  and,  aa 


h  llii'j 


n,  that  Aliib  a 
imfeasedly  wnrsliLpprra  of  llaal  a 
id  that  a  few  yetn  only  before  this  evi 


Secing.nl 

they  bad  an 

one  of  460,  tbe  other  of  400— propheta  nflliis  fabie  wur- 
■hip.  it  iidilBcult  toanppose  that  t1>ereo>uld  hat-ebren 
also  4D0  pmphets  of  Jehovah  at  hi4  couru  But  the  in- 
quiry of  the  king  of  Judah  scema  Iu  deciite  the  piant. 
After  hearing  tbe  prediction  of  Zeilekiah  and  bia  fel- 
lows, he  aaks  at  once  for  a  pmphet  of  Jehovah :  "  la 
there  not  here  be«dea  pi?)  a  prophet  of  JrAovuA  that 
we  may  inquire  otkimr'  The  natural  inference  seems 
to  be  that  the  othen  were  itni  prophets  of  Jehovah, 
but  were  the  400  propheta  of  AshtaMth  (A,  V.  "  the 
grove*")  who  escaped  the  sword  of  Klijsh  (cnmp.  1 
Kings  xviit,  19  with  SJ.W).  They  had  sp.4ien  in  hia 
name,  but  there  waa  aomething  aimnt  them — •ome  trait 
of  manner,eosiiime,  or  gesture — which  arouaed  the  aoa- 
fdciont  nf  Jehoshaphai.  and,  to  the  practiced  eye  of 
otte  who  live<l  at  the  centre  of  .lehnvab-worship  and 
waa  well  reratd  in  the  marks  of  the  genuine  pruphec, 
proclaimed  them  dHinierfriiii.     See  MtCiiTAn. 

2.  Theaoaof  HauaniahioaGuflhepmicnuf  Judab 


ZEDEKIAH 

who  were  uwmbled  in  the  Kribn'  chnniber  of  Ifae 
kinn'apilice  uhen  Hicaiih  announced  Ibu  Biruch  h«il 
read  (he  wctrd^  of  Jeremiah  in  rhe  enni  of  [he  people 
fmm  the  elumbeT  of  Gemariib  the  >cribe  (Jer.  ixivi, 
la).    KCfios. 

3.  TheUiiciiii%af  Judahanil  Jemnlem.  B.C.&9S- 
I>88.  He  waa  the  aim  nf  Joaiah,  and  hia  geneilu)^  ia 
giveu  ill  I  Chmn.  iii,  I5,rrani  which  il  appein  thai  Ihe 
aona  of  Juaiah  w*re  Johaiiui  llie  firat-lHini  (whn  ia  never 
elaewhere  mentiuaed,  aiid  therefure  probably  had  dint 


r  had  b 


J  for 


the  crown  in  pre 

the  fourth  ShaUum.  Since  jel.aiakim  was  twenly-Hve 
at  biafathet'a  de*tb,andJebuabu,or  Sbillum,  twenly- 
(btee,  wliile  Zedekiab  wa*  nut  iwenly-one  till  hia  acce*- 
aion  lo  the  throne,  eleven  year*  later,  there  muat  be  ■ 
dil&rcnt  order  from  that  of  ape  adopted  with  (he  laat 
two  aona  of  Joaiah  :  prrtiapa  i[  waa  arnnged  ao  aa  (o 
bring  togedier  the  two  aona  of  Joaiah.  who  leifrned  each 
eleven  yeai^  eacb  having  been  pr«c«ded  by  ■  kintf  wbu 
reigned  for  only  three  nion[hf.  Zedekiab  is,  indeed, 
called  the  brother  of  hia  preileceaaor  Jeboiaebin  (S 
Chion.  xxsvi,  10>!  but  the  word  miut  be  used 


mother  wi 


iii.si; 


ise.  for  I 


.-,  18). 


iicle.     Hii 


His  original  name  hail  been  MaOaniah,  which  waa 
changed  to  Zedekiah  b.v  Mebuchadneziai  wlien  he  car- 
ried olThia  nephew  Jehoiachin  (o  Babylon,  and  ]tll  him 
on  tlie  tbruiie  of  Jeruaalem.  Zedekiah  waa  but  iwenty- 
one  years  old  when  be  waa  (bus  placed  in  charKe  of  an 
impoveriabed  kingdunj,  and  a  city  which,  though  Mill 
B(rong  in  i[a  nxural  and  artiliciil  Impregnability,  was 
bereft  of  well-nigb  all  iu  defender!.     But  Jerusalem 

.  Blight  have  remained  the  bead  of  ibe  Babylonian  prov- 
ince or  Judah,  and  the  Temple  of  Jcbovah  continued 

'  standing,  had  Zedekiah  poia«aed  wisdom  and  Urmness 
enough  (o  remain  true  w  hia  alli^ianca  lo  Babylon. 
This,  however,  he  could  not  d.>  (Jer.  xxxvlii,  6).  His 
hialory  ia  conUined  in  the  short  sketch  of  [be  events 
of  hia  reign  given  in  !  Kings  ixiv,  17-xiv,  7,and,with 
anme  trlHing  vaiiatioiis,  in  Jer.  xxxix,  1-T;  lii,  1-11,  to- 
gether with  [be  sliU  shorter  HuiDmary  in  SChron.  sixvi, 

xxxii,  xxxiii,  xxxiv,  xxxrii.  xxxvUi  (being  (he  chap- 
ten  ooiilaining  the  prophecies  delivered  by  (his  prophet 
during  Ibis  reign,  and  hisrelaiionofrariouaeTenlamore 
or  lest  affecting  Zedekiah),  and  Eiek.  xvi,  11-21.  To 
theae  it  ia  important  to  add  the  narrative  of  Joaepbua 
(Hitf.  X.7,  l-8,3),whicb  ia  partly  conatructed  by  com- 
parison of  (be  documents  euumeraled  above,  bot  alau 
aeems  to  conuiu  infomiatian  derived  fnim  olber  and 
Independent  auurcca.  From  these  i[  is  evident  that 
Zedekiab  was  a  man  not  ao  much  bad  at  heart  aa  weak 
in  will  He  waa  one  of  Iboae  iniri>r(una(e  cbaractera, 
fluent  ill  bistoiy.like  Charles  I  of  England  and  Louis 
XVI  of  France,  who  And  themselves  at  the  head  of  af- 
fairs during  a  great  crisis,  witboul  having  (be  strength 
nf  character  lo  euable  them  U  do  what  [bey  know  (•• 
be  rigb(,  and  whrae  in6rmity  beconwa  moral  guilt. 
The  princes  of  his  court,  aa  be  bimaelf  pathetically  ad- 
miu  in  hia  interview  wiib  Jeremiah,  described  in  ch. 
xxxviii,  had  him  completely  under  (heir  iiiMuenee. 
"Against  them,"  be  cnni|)1aina."i[  is  not  tbe  king  (bat 
can  do  anything."  He  waa  (bus  driven  (o  diaregaid 
tbe  couiiaels  of  tbe  prophet,  which,  aa  tbe  event  provol, 
perfectly  aound :  and  he  who  might  have  kept  the 

tained  fur  aome  generations  longer  the  worabip  of  Je- 
hovah, brought  linal  niiit  nn  bit  country,  destruction 
on  (he  Temple,  deaih  (o  his  lamily,  and  a  cruel  torment 

It  ia  evident  fmm  Jer.  ixvii  (in  ver.  1  Jehnlakim's 
lunie  la  a  copyist's  error  fur  that  oT  Zedekiab)  and 


lOTS  ZEDEEIAU 

xxviii  (apparently  the  carlieat  prophecis  deHmd 
during  this  reign)  (hat  tbe  earlier  portion  of  Zedtk)> 

whole  of  Syria  against  the  Bat^lonian  ri<ke.  Jenaa- 
lem  aeenit  (o  have  (aken  [he  lead,  since  in  (he  faonh 
rear  of  Zedekiali's  r«gn  we  find  aralaaaadon  ffiiiD  all 
tbe  neighboring  kingdom* — Tyre,  Sidnn,  Edocn.  tmi 
Hnab — at  hit  cour(,  (o  eonauli  aa  lo  tbe  sicpa  lo  lie 
taken.  Iliis  happened  ei[ber  during  the  kini;'t  ab- 
sence or  immedialely  after  bis  return  from  Babyka, 
wbitberbe  bad  gnueonBonieerrand.  the  nature  of  whkli  ' 
is  nut  named,  but  which  may  have  been  an  Bltempl  (• 
blind  (he  eyea  of  NebuchadnHtar  (o  bis  cDn(emplatHl 
revolt  (.ler.  li,  fi9).  Tbe  project  waa  aiiKked  by  Jere- 
miah wilh  the  strongest  atalement  of  (he  liilly  tfttA 
a  course — a  atatemeiit  comborated  by  (be  vrrr  matciial 
fact  tliat  a  man  of  Jerusalem  named  Uananiah.  who  had 
oppoaed  him  with  a  declaration  in  (he  name  of  Jehovah, 
that  the  apoila  of  (he  Temple  shinilil  be  leUored  wiihii 
twoyeais,  had  died, in  accordance  with  Jeremiahs  pre- 
diction, wiibin  two  moiilha  of  its  delivery.  This.,  and 
perhaps  also  tbe  iuipoteibiliry  of  any  real  alliaiwe  be- 
have put  a  atop,  for  the  (ime,  (n  the  anti-Babyloaiaa 
mnvemenL  On  a  man  of  Zedckiab's  tempFrameiil  the 
audden  death  of  Hananiab  must  have  pnidnced  a  Kinae 
impreaainn ;  and  we  may  wi(himt  improbabiliry  ■ecq't 
thia  as  the  tinw  at  Hhieh  be  pmcuced  (o  be  niailr  in 
silver  aset  of  ibe  vesaeb  of  the  Temple  to  replace  lUc 
gulden  plate  carried  off  with  hi*  predeceaaoc  liy  Kcba- 
chadneixar(Bar.i.8). 

The  fim  act  of  overt  rebellinn  of  which  any  n«o(d 
eurvivea  was  the  formailiin  uf  an  alliance  wiih  Epypi. 
of  itaelfequivalentlo  a  declaration  nfenmiiy  with  Bab- 
ylon. Ill  fac(.  according  to  the  ata(emeiit  of  Chnai- 
iclca  and  Eickiel,  with  Ihe  expansion  of  Joeepbiu.  il 
was  in  direct  enniravcniiun  of  the  na(b  of  aD^am 
in  the  name  of  EInhim  bv  which  Znlekiah  wm  hnninl 
by  Nebuchadneuar — namely,  that  he  wniilil  kd'p  ilic 
kingdom  f<>r  Nebuchadneuar,  make  nn  iiiituvaiiM'. 
and  enter  inlo  no  league  with  Egypt  (Kurt-  xvii,  IS; 
2  Chrun.  xxxvi,  IS;  Joseph.  Am.  x,  7,  ]>.  Aa  a  usi- 
UrDHKbl  w 


le  Cbal. 


ins.     The 


n  [he  Bible,  thougb  auie,  ii 
■    ■     ■  iv,  ai; 


n  Jer.  XI 


xiremely  sligbl. 


,  Joaepbua  <i,  i,  S)  relalt*  il 
ly,  and  gives  (probably  by  roujeclurr)  (be  date 
iunenreaaihe  eighth  year  or  Zedekiah,  Vivb- 
icialiona  of  an  Egyptian  ailiauie 
.  18, 36.  have  refemice  to  Ibe  sane 
time.  It  appeal*  that  NebucbailDeuar,  being  maJt 
aware  of  Zedckiab's  defection,  either  by  the  noo-pai- 
ment  of  tbe  tribute  or  by  uiber  meana,  at  o<K«  sat 
an  army  to  ravage  Jiidea.  Thia  wa*  dime,  aud  (be 
whole  country  waa  reduced,  except  Jerusalem  and  two 
atrong  placea  in  the  western  plain,  lJchi^b  and  Ai^ 
kab,  which  still  held  out  (Jer.  xixiv.7).  [n  tbe  patie 
which  followed  the  appearance  of  (he  Cbablsuia,  Zed- 
ekiah succeeded  in  itiducing  the  princes  and  otbcr  im- 
b*tH(an(a  of  Jerusalem  to  abuliah  (he  odiona  caataaa 
which  prevailed  of  endaving  their  cnun(rvi>ien.  A  m^ 
emn  ri(e  (ver.  IS),  recalling  in  iia  Kirm  ihat  io  whidi 
the  original  cavenanl  of  the  nation  bad  been  made  with 
Abram  (Gen.  xv,  9,ett),w**  perf.TOied  in  ibe  Tenqitt 
(Jer.  xxxiv,  1I>),  and  a  crowd  of  IsraflitesofbMh  aexe* 


In  tt 


Phar 


oh  hwl  movwl  u 


ally.     On  hearing  of  hi*  af^fcoacb,  Uw  Cka^ 

daanaat  once  raised  the  siege  and  a^anced  toateathim. 

power  over  (ha  king,  and  ibeii  deOanee  of  JebDTab,)w 
le-enalaving  (base  whom  (hey  bad  ao  teceiuly  maai 
miHcdi  and  (he  prophet  thereupon  uiiers  ■  dooa  eai 
(h(*e  miaereanl*  which,  in  the  fienmcaa  of  it*  tone  Ml  ia 
aome  of  il*  expreeaiona,  recall*  thoae  of  Ehjah  on  AM 
(Jer.xxxiv.W).    Tbi*  eucounuc  wm  qukUy  Mlowil 


ZEDEKIAU  10 

by  Jcremiih'a  eaptura  idiI  imprisonnient,  which,  bul  Tor 
tiK  inUrrerenn  of  the  king  (Jer.  xxxvii,  17, 21),  would 
bare  nputlj  put  wi  eiiJ  to  his  life  (ver.  20).  Huw 
long  the  Babvloniuu  weM  kbKat  from  Juniulem  m 
an  not  tijd.  Ii  miut  hive  mjuired  «t  leut  wveral 
mnntht  lo  more  ■  lar^  irmy  and  baggage  Ihniugli  the 
difficult  aiHl  tortuuiucuiintiy  which  separau^Jeruaaleni 
fiDiD  the  rhilbtine  I'laiii,  and  to  eOnt  the  cumplele  re- 
polseortlie  Eifvptiin  armr  rnim  Syria,  which  Juwphus 
affimia  wu  eOecled.  All  we  certauily  know  is  that  un 
the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month  of  Zedekiah'a  ninth 
year,  the  Chaldcina  were  Igain  before  the  walla  (lii,  4). 
From  thia  time  forward  the  aiege  piogresaed  ilowly  but 
aitrely  tu  its  caniumicatiuD.irith  the  accompaniment  nf 
both  farniue  and  pnCilence  (Jowphui).  Zedekiah  again 
interfered  to  preurre  the  life  of  Jeremiah  fnim  the 

curred  the  interview  between  the  king  and  the  prophet 


Turrls  to  ffood  a  clew  i 


weak-ID 


ould  w 


<i  that  ■  conaiderabte  desertion  had  already 
taken  pUee  la  the  besiet^ert,  proving  that  the  prophet's 
-view  of  the  condition  of  things  was  shared  by  many  of 
hi*  countrymen.  B«t  the  unhappy  Zedekiah  throws 
away  the  chance  of  preservaiimi  f>ir  himself  and  the 
city  which  the  pmphet  set  before  him,  in  his  fear  tliat 
he  would  be  mocked  by  those  very  Jews  who  hail  al- 
ready taken  the  step  Jeremiah  wa*  urging  liini  lo  take 
(  ver.  19).  At  the  same  time,  his  fear  of  the  princes 
who  remained  in  the  city  is  not  diminished,  and  he 
even  condescends  to  impose  on  the  prophet  a  subter- 
fuge, with  the  view  of  concealing  the  real  purport  of 
bis  conversation  fiom  ibeae  tyrants  of  bis  siHrit  (ver.  !1- 
27). 

But  while  ibe  king  was  hesitating  the  end  was  rap- 
idly coming  nearer.     The  city  was  indeed  reduced  to 

throughout  been  very  desiruetire  (Joaephus),  but  it 
was  iinir  allied  by  a  severe  tamine.  The  bread  liad 
lung  been  consumed  (Jer.  ixiviii,  9),  and  all  the  ter- 
rible expedients  hsd  been  tried  lo  which  the  wretched 
inhabttantd  of  a  besiegeil  tuirn  are  forced  to  moit  in 
auch  eases.     Mnthera  had  binled  and  eaten  the  desh  of 


tbeir  I 


1.  (Bar.l 


r.lO). 


the  greatest  wealth  and  station  were 
ing  the  dungheapa  (m  a  morsel  nf  food.  The  effemi- 
nate iioblci,  whole  faircnmplex ions  had  been  their  pride, 
wandered  in  the  open  streets  like  blackened  bul  living 
skeletons  (ver.  5,  H).  Still  tbe  king  waa  seen  in  public, 
Bitting  iu  thegatewherejuslice  was  administered,  thai 
hi*  people  might  approach  him,  though  indeed  be  had 
DO  help  to  give  them  (Jer.  xxxviii,  7). 

At  last,  a^r  sixteen  dreadful  months  had  dragged 

of  the  fourth  month,  about  the  middle  of  July,  at  mid- 
night, aa  Josephut  with  minuteness  informs  us,  that  the 
breach  in  those  stout  and  venerable  walls  was  eliecteiL 
The  moon,  nine  days  old,  bad  gone  down  behiw  the  hills 
■n  edge  of  the  basin  of  Jerusalem, 


wlowi 


of  ai 


where  there  are  but  few  windows  to  emit  light  from 
within  the  houses.  The  wretched  remnants  uf  the 
■rmy,  starved  and  exhausteil.  had  lelt  the  walla,  and 
there  was  nothing  to  oppisa  the  entrance  of  the  Chal- 
rtieans.  Passing  in  through  the  breach,  they  made 
their  way,  as  their  custom  was,  lo  the  eenin  of  the 
city,  and  fur  the  first  time  i 
a  hostile  force,  and  all  tbe 
great  king  look  their  seats  in  state  in  the  middle  gate 
of  the  hitherto  virgin  bouse  of  Jehovah.  The  alarm 
quickly  spread  through  the  sleeping  oity,  and  Zedekiah, 
eollectiiig  hia  wive*  arvd  children  (Joaephus),  and  aur- 
Tpunding  bimseU'  will)  tbe  few  aiAiien  who  hid  but- 


ians  bad  ei 
Suiei 

ptBon  valley),  and  issued  at  a  gate  abuve  the  royal  gar- 
dens and  the  Fountain  ofSiloam.  'I'bence  he  took  the 
ruad  towards  the  Jordan,  perhaps  hoping  lu  tind  refuge, 
as  David  had,  at  some  fotiiUed  place  in  the  mountains 
on  its  eastern  side.  On  the  ruiad  tliei-  were  met  and 
recognised  by  some  of  tlie  Jews  who  had  fotmeTly  de- 
serted lo  the  Chaldaan*.  By  them  the  intelligence 
was  communicated,  with  the  eager  treachery  of  desert- 
ers, lo  Ibe  generals  in  the  dty  (Jusephus),  and,  as  soon 
as  (he  dawu  of  day  permitted  it,  swift  pursuit  was  made. 
The  king's  party  must  have  had  some  hours'  start,  and 
ought  tu  have  had  no  difllcultr  in  reaching  tbe  Jonlanj 
bu^  either  from  their  being  on  fuut,  weak  and  inUrm, 
while  the  pursuers  were  muunteil,  ur  perhaps  owing  tu 
the  incumbrance  of  the  women  and  baggage,  they  were 
nvertaken  near  Jericho,  when  just  within  sight  of  the 
river.  A  few  of  the  people  only  remained  rountl  the 
person  of  tbe  king.  The  rest  fled  in  all  dinctiuus,  so 
that  be  was  easily  taken. 

Nebuchadneizar  himself  was  then  at  Riblah,  at  the 
upper  end  of  tbe  valley  of  Lebanon,  some  thirly-five 
miles  beyond  Baalbek,  and  Iherefiire  about  ten  days' 
journey  from  Jerusalem.  Thither  Zedekiah  and  bis 
sons  were  despatched;  Iiis daughters  nere  kept  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  shortly  after  fell  intfl  llie  haiHls  of  the  nif- 
torions  Ishmael  at  Mizpah.  When  he  was  brought  be- 
fore Nebuchadneuar,  the  great  king  reproached  liiin  in 
the  aerereet  terms,  Hrst  fur  breaking  hia  oalh  of  alle- 
giance, and  next  for  ingratitude  (Joaephus).  He  then, 
with  a  refinement  of  cruelty  characteristic  of  those  cruel 
times,  ordered  histiHis  to  be  killed  before  him,  and  lant- 
ly  bis  own  eyes  to  be  thrust  nnl.  See  Kvt  He  was 
loailed  with  broien  fetters,  and  at  a  later  period  taken 
to  Babylon,  where  he  died.  We  are  not  told  whether 
he  was  allowed  lo  communicate  with  his  brother  Jehni- 
achin,  who  at  that  lime  wa*  also  in  captivity  there; 

omission  of  his  name  in  the  staicment  of  Jehoiakim'a 
release  by  EviUUerodach,  twenty-six  yean  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  it  is  natural  lo  infer  that  by  tbat  liaKi 
Zedekiab's  sufTeringi  had  ended. 

The  fact  of  his  iiderview  with  Nebuchadnezzar  at 
Riblah,  and  his  being  carried  blind  to  Bab^-lon,  recon- 
ciles two  predictions  of  Jeremiah  and  Eiekiel,  which  at 
the  time  uf  their  delivery  must  have  appeareil  conllict- 
ing,  and  which  Josephus  indeed  particularly  states  Zeil- 
ekiab  alleged  as  his  reason  for  not  giving  more  heed  to 
Jeremiah.  The  former  of  these  (Jer.  xxxii,  4)  states 
that  Zedekiah  shall  "speak  with  the  king  of  Uabylon 
mouth  lo  mouth,  and  bis  eyes  shall  behold  his  eyes;" 
the  lalier  (Ezek.  xii,  13),  thal"lie  shall  be  brought  lu 
Babylon,  yet  shall  he  not  see  it,  though  be  die  there." 
The  whole  of  this  preiliction  of  Ezekiel,  whose  prophe- 
cie*  appear  to  have  been  delivered  at  Babylon  (i,  t-3{ 
xl,  1).  is  truly  remarkable  aa  describing  almost  exactly 
the  circumstances  of  Zedekiab's  flight. 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoiachin  or  Jeconia' 
nf  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah  (1  Chroi 
&98  at  later.    As  nothing  further  is  recorded  of  him,  and 

eage  (ver.  17),  Keil  conjectures  (Ctmmrta.  ad  loc.)  that 
he  may  have  died  prior  lo  the  depirtalion  of  the  royal 
family ;  but  in  that  case  he  must  have  been  only  aa 
infant.  ■ 

5.  The  son  of  Hsaseiah,  s  fiilse  pmphet  in  Babylon 
among  the  captives  who  were  taken  with  Jeconiah  (Jer. 
xxiit,SI,2'J).  He  was  denounced  in  the  letter  of  Jer- 
emiah (53G)  for  having,  with  Ahab  the  son  of  Kolniah, 
buoyed  up  the  people  with  hlse  hopes,  and  for  profane 
and  flagitious  conduct.  Their  names  were  to  become 
a  by-word,  and  their  terrible  fate  a  warning.  Of  this 
Cue  we  have  no  direct  intinuuion,  or  of  the  maimer  in 


ZEEB  10 

which  they  incuTTcd  It ;  the  prophet  rimply  pionoDncM 
that  [hey  ■hnulJ  fall  into  the  hiodi  of  Netiucludnfziw 

and  be  burned  to  death.  In  the  Targum  of  K.  Juaeph 
DO  2  Cbroii.  xiviii,  3,  the  uory  a  luld  that  Joihua  the 
aon  of  Jozadak  the  high-prieat  was  cait  into  the  fur- 
Dace  of  Hre  with  Ahali  and  Ztdekiah,  but  [bat,  while 
they  were  anBumcd,  be  wa*  aaved  for  hia  righteoiu- 

6.  The  flnt  named  of  the  princes  who  aealed  the  la- 
cied  eoveiiant  with  Ncbemiab  (Neb.  z,  1,  A.  V.  "Ziki- 
Jah").    RC.4I0. 

Ze8b.     See  Wolf. 

Ze'iSb  (Meb.  Zeib;  =itT,  wol/;  aaorten;  Sept.  d  Zi,fl, 
Tulg.  Ztb),  one  of  [he  two  "princea"  (B^ni(J)  of  Uidian 
in  [be  great  invaainri  of  I>r>cl — inreriot  to  the  "  kings" 
Zebah  and  Zaimuniia.  He  i*  alwava  named  with  Ureh 
(Judg.  vii,  2b;  Tiii,  8;  f>a.  Ixxniii,  11).  The  name 
aignidea  in  Hebrew  " wulf,"  juat  a>  Oreli  does  "crow," 
and  the  two  are  appropriate  enough  to  the  customs 
of  predatory  warriors,  who  delight  in  conferring  such 
names  on  their  chiefs.  Zeeb  and  Oreb  were  not  slain 
at  theHrat  rout  of  the  Arabs  below  the  spring  of  Harod, 
but  a[  a  lalei  stage  of  (he  stnigi;le,  probably  in  crossing 
the  Jordan  at  a  ford  farther  down  the  river,  neat  the 
passes  which  descend  from  Mount  Ephraim.  An  enor- 
mous mass  of  their  followers  perished  with  thenk.  See 
OuKB.     Zeeb,  the  wolf,  was  brougfat 


-" the  w 


press  of  Zeeb"  pKT  Tj)^';;  Sept.'laiafZnfr.t.'lanp- 
fi)^,  Vulg.  Toreaiar  Zrh).  Down  the  Jordan  valley, 
nverlookiiig  the  plain  of  Jericho,  is  a  sharp  peak,  still 
known  as  Aik  rf-CiioruA,  i.  e.  "the  Raven's,  or  Ureb'a, 
Peak."  Fire  miles  north. west  of  this  is  a  wadv  and 
mnund  known  as  Tiiml  tl-Diu6,  i,  e,  "  the  Wolfs,  of 
Zeeb's,  Deu,"  which  Trialram  accepts  as  the  required 
localilice  (£iMe  Phier4,  p.  330).  Rabbi  Scbwan's  sug- 
gestion {Paleil.  p.  231)  is  inapposite. 

ZekaUtll.    See  Cbtstai. 

Ze'lah  (Heb.  ThJu',  S^X  [in  pame,  S^X  in  Sam.], 
a  rib;  Sept.  in  Juth.  XitXa,  in  Sam.  IlXit^),  a  city  id 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviil,  28,  wliere  it  is  men- 
tioned in  the  snuth-westcm  section  between  Taralah 
and  Ha-Eleph);  ic  oontained  the  family  tomb  of  Kish, 
the  father  of  Smul  (3  Sam.  xxi,  14),  in  which  the  booea 

sons  ami  live  grandsons  uf  Saul  sacridced  lo  Jehovah 
on  the  hill  of  Gibeah,  at  last  found  their  reiiiiig-place 
(comp.  ver.  13).  The  ancient  geographers  seem  igno- 
rant of  the  loi^Blity  (Krland,  Pulatl.  p.  1068) ;  but  mod- 
em travellers  are  inclined  lo  identify  it  with  Beit  Jala 
(Wilson, /.niub  o/rU  Biilf,  i,  VH ;  Bonar,  .Wunon,  p. 
3S4],  a  con«derable  Christian  village  opposite  BachelV 
Tomb  (Robin«>n.  ttOl.  Kn.  ii,  3  sq.).  The  suggestioi 
of  rabtu  Schwarz  (Piilft.  p.  138)  is  too  vague.  Lieut 
Cunder's  suggestion  of  Rummda  is  equally  a  ventun 
(^Teat  a^arkoiPaltil.u,MO).      See  Zelzau. 

Ze'lek  (Heb.rsc'^pbx,Jiuure,-  Sept.£(XXqi 
and  I/JXjyi  V.  r.  EXi  and  StXi,),  an  Amtnonite,  one  of 
David's  thirty  heroes  (S  Sam.  zxiii,  87;  1  Chron.  xi 
89).    EC.  1046.    See  David. 

Zelopb'eliad  ( Heb.  Ttlnphch-id',  '^H^^X,  o( 
nncerlniu  etvmology;  SepL  SoXroiif  v.  r.  SiiAfadf, 
ttc),  son  of  Hepher,  son  of  Gilead,  son  of  Hachir,  son 
of  Hanaswh  (Josh,  xvii,  S).  B.C.  ante  1SI8.  He  was 
apparently  thesccond  son  id"  his  father,  Ucpherfl  Chron. 
vii,  IG);  tliuugii  Simon  and  others,  bllowing  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  rabbins,  and  under  the  impreasiun 
that  the  etymology  of  hit  iisme  indicatea  a  Mrst-burn, 
explain  the  term  "SWn  la  meaning  that  his  lot  came 
up  second.  Zelophehad  came  out  of  Egypt  with  Mo- 
sei;  and  all  [hat  we  know  of  him  la  tha[  he  took  no 
part  in  Korah's  rebellion,  but  that  he  died  in  the  wll- 
demen.  as  did  tbe  whole  of  that  genatalioo  (Numb. 


30  ZEMARAIM 

xiT,  Sti  xxvii,  8).  On  hit  death  withoDl  mde  hra^ 
his  Ave  daughtetBiJiut  after  ilie  second  DiimtiBiDg  b 
the  wilderness,  came  before  Hosea  and  Eleacsr  to  cisia 
He  inheritance  of  thdrfather  in  the  tribe  ofManaatk 
'he  claim  was  admitted  by  divine  direction,  and  s  Is* 
'as  promulgated,  to  be  of  general  application,  that  if 
man  died  witiuHit  sons  bis  inberitanrc  sboaM  pas 
]  his  daughter!  (xivi,  88;  xxvii,  l-ll);  bthI  this  lid 
>  a  further  enactment  (ch.  xxxvi),  that  aucb  heiressv 
should  not  marry  out  of  their  own  tribe — ■  regntstiia 
which  the  five  daughters  of  Zelophebad  complied  witk, 
being  all  married  lo  sons  of  Uanasaeb,  u  that  Z*luf>b(. 
had's  inheritance  c«itinned  in  the  tribe  of  Hansvek. 

lophebad  is  traaud  at  length  by  Selden  (As  Siuam. 
ch.  xzii,  xiiii).     See  Ishkbitakck. 

Zelo'tis  (Zi|Xwrqc)-  ■■>  epithet  of  tbe  apostle  Si- 
mon (Loke  vi,  16;  Acta  i,  13)  to  distinguish  hjm  fam 
Simon  Peter.  In  the  parallel  lists  of  Malt,  s,  4 ;  Halt 
iii,  18,  be  is  called  Simon  Ihe  Caannile  (KaraWr^,  A. 
V.  crrgneonsly  "  Canaanice"),  Ibis  being  a  transliien- 
lion  of  Ihe  HebL  or  Aranueao ']!U^,MuJ;  of  whicb  Ihe 
Greek  title  is  a  tnnalation.  The  word  detictea  a  uaiM 
in  geiienl  (I  Cor.  xiv,  13;  Tit.  ii,  14;  I  Pet,  iii.  19), 
especiallrin  behalf  of  Jewish  law  attd  ii>stilal>aos(AcM 
xxi,  3(1;  xxii,8;  UaL  i,  14).  Probably  iherv  were  al- 
ready extant  in  the  time  of  Christ,  when  this  epiika 
was  given  lo  Simon,  tbe  germs  uf  the  sect  nt  patty  »§• 
terwaids  thus  desigiialed,  Ibe  meoibers  of  which  pcsl*^ 
ed  great  attachment  to  Judaism,  and,  iirkdet  pretext  of 
punisbing  liy  infurmit  trial  and  execution  Ihoae  eiiilly 
of  Infringing  Ihe  obsen'ances  of  tbe  natianal  relifpia, 
perpetrated  great  exoeasea  (Jusephius  War,  ir,  3,  9;  r, 
1,4;  Ti,S;  Tii,S,l).     See  SiNOX 

Za\'%ah  (Heb.  TtUiack',  n^^bs,  thadm  fmn  tb 
sua,  or,  by  nduplicaiioii  from  fiix,  to  teadi  Sept.  oX- 
XJ/uvDC  fuyoXo,  Vulg.  attridirt),  a  place  in  the  bonhi 
of  Benjamin,  nKnlioned  by  Samuel  when  sending  Saal 
home  from  Ramah:  ■'Tbou  shall  find  two  men  bj 
Rachel's  sepulchre,  in  the  border  of  Benjamin,  at  M- 
tnV  (1  Sam.  x,  3).     Itechd'a  aepulchn  stands  on  Iks 

side  oif  tile  road  leading  from  Betlilehem  to  I akai. 

about  a  mile  distant  from  il»  former.  Wtnwaid  rf 
the  sepulchre,  in  full  view  across  the  valley,  and  nas 
much  over  half  a  mile  distant,  is  Ibe  village  of  BtH 
Jala,  which  may  be  identical  with  Zeliah.  The  uma 
bear  couiideralile  memblance  lo  each  other  and  iba 
pnsiiion  agrees  wiih  Ihe  sacred  narrative  ( Wilasai, 
L<inJto/aeJ/iblr,i,iOl).  The  Sept.  rendering  if  Zd- 
uh  is  remarkable.  It  makes  it  an  expnanon  of  joy 
on  the  part  of  [he  men  who  announced  Ihe  Gndini:  uf 
the  asses — "Thou  shall  meet  two  men  Uopng  rw^nir^" 
But  dean  Stanley's  remark  on  this  is  surely  a  nib 
criticism,  that  [ha  Hebrew  leK[  "cannot  be  relied  npoa* 
(£«.  and  PuL  p.  332).  The  Greek  rendering  in  iha 
ease  apparently  rests  npon  a  resiling  ^X^x,  wbieh 
indicates  a  possible  etymologv  of  the  word  — Ai*Ut 
ikadr.  I'he  Talmud  has  numerous  explanations,  ibe 
favorite  one  being  thai  Zeluh  was  Jerasaletc — "the 
shadDw(!3X)  of  God."  Something  ofthis  kind  seems  t« 
be  BtthebasisortherenderingoftbeVulg.  Tbeeao- 
tiil  part  of  the  name  is  (bus  rendered  more  cloaely  con- 
gruent with  that  of  the  above  Arabic  village,  and  at  Ibe 

tain  in  the  same  vicinity.  Rabtn  Scbwari  auggesls  an- 
other h>cation  lesa  apposite  (Paitil,  p,  IM).     Sec  Saui. 

ZMnanIm  (Heb.  Timnra'gim,  D''?e^  Ai^fc 
fleece  of  bdo^  or  perh.  the  dual  of  same  baae  as  Zrma- 
riu  [(\.  v.]),  tbe  name  of  two  ktcalities  In  Palestine. 

1.  {Sept.  Si/ipip  V.  r.  X  >pA ;  Vulg.  Srmaraim.)  One 
nf  the  andent  lowrn  in  the  larricory  allotted  to  Brah- 
min (Josb.  xvlii,  33),  where  It  is  grouped  in  the  eastern 
sectiun  of  tbe  tribe,  and  named  between  Beth-araWi 
and  Be[facl  \  sod  it  would  tberdbre  appear  to  bare  Um 


ZEMARITE  10 

■itiutcd  citbcT  in  the  Jonbo  ralley  (Arahsh)  or  on  the 
mmuiuiDdediviiinbeweea  it  uidfietheL  Aboutflre 
tuilo  north  or  Jtriehu,  in  the  weuem  ei^e  of  the  Til- 
ley  of  Ihc  Jordin,  UB  the  ruina  of  ■  inull  [own  or  vil- 
lage, urewn  over  ■  low  hill,  end  ciUert  Kliuiirl  tr-Sum- 
raJt,  which  nuy  be  rrgirded  as  the  moileni  i«preBenIi- 
tiTc  of  the  old  town  of  fienJKmin  (Seeuen,  Arufli,  vol, 
IT,  ro«p ;  Robinson,  Bibl. Ila.l,b69;  iii,  29i,  ngte ;  Ven 
deVelde,  JfCHMi, p. Se5;  I>eSiulcy.ZlauJ;<r<',ii,20,a6i 
Schwan,  PuUit.  p.  1!5).  Though  lillle  remiiiit  above 
the  eround,  thera  are  muiy  exteniive  quaniee  of  mnd- 
Blone  beneath,  which  are  pnotii  of  latge  buiUin|tBona 
cxiMing  in  the  vidnily  (Ttiatrani,  BOle  Plata,  p.  iOS). 
2.  (Sept.  Sofiipviy;  Vulg.  Stmavn.)  A  mounuin 
(*ih)  or  eminence  mentkned  in  2  Cbron.  xiii,  4  aa  be- 
ing "in  Mount  Ephraini,'' that  ia  lo  aiy,  within  the 
gmeni  dinrict  of  the  hiffhlanda  of  that  great  tribe, 
appeara  to  have  been  data  to  the  icene  uf  the  engige- 
nwDt  meatiooed  in  the  nanalive.  which  again  may  ' 
infened  to  hire  been  Muth  of  Bethel  and  Ephnii 


ZEPHANIAH 


19).     It  may  be  iud,  in 


10  contradiction  to  iu  being 
which  extended  into  the  contiguDua  territory  of  Benji- 
tnin.  See  Ramak.  It  piobibly  lay  adjacent  to  the 
■bore-named  town,  from  which  it  appears  to  bave  de- 
rived ila  name  (Reland,  PaloM.  p.  1068). 

Sam'vlte  (Heb.  with  the  art.  halt  -  Tiemiri' , 
^■asn,  evidently  a  patronymic  or  rather  pittial  trom 
Ztmer  [see  below]-,  Sept.  u  Xafiapalnc:  Vulg.  Sa- 
maraiu),  the  general  desgnation  of  one  uf  the  Hamitic 
tribei  who  in  the  gmealogical  table  of  Gen.  x  (ver.  IB) 
and  IChron.  1  (ver.  16)  are  ntpreaented  as"  tons  of  Ca- 
naan." Tbey  are  named  between  lbeArvadite,o[  peo- 
l>le  of  Ruad,  and  the  Mamathite,  or  people  of  Hamah. 
Tbe  old  intetpreten  (Jeniaalem  Tart[um,  Arabic  ver- 
aion,  etc  )  place  them  at  A'atcatd,  the  modem  i/imu. ' 
Michaelts  {Spieiitg.  ii,  61),  revolting  at  the  want  of 
aimilarity  between  the  two  names  (which  is  perhaps 
the  atrongeat  argument  in  firor  of  the  old  identidca- 
tion ),  prapoeee  to  locate  them  at  jSunru,  the  Simj/rn 
(Zifitipa)  or  SinH/nu  (Sifiiifiac)  ofthe  cla«cal  geogra- 
phers (Aisemaiii,  BOiiolk.  OrieU.  i,G(M),  located  on  the 
Pboaician  river  Eleuthems  ( Pcolemy,  v,  16,  4 ;  Pliny, 
T,  17 ;  Hela,  i,  I'i,  B  ),  which  name  in  mentioned  by 
Shaw  (p.  Wi)  a*  attached  to  a  site  of  ruina  near  Arka, 

Tripoli  (comp.  Buckinjihani,  ii,  416).  On  the  French 
map  of  the  Lebanon  {CarU  da  libati,  etc  1862)  this 
place  ^ipeara  aa  Koiiel  oHm  ^AoHmm.and  lies  between 
Arka  and  the  Meilitemnein,  two  kilometrea  from  the 
latter  and  Ave  and  a  half  from  the  funner.  Beyond, 
however,  the  reaemblance  in  tbe  uaa>ea,and  tbe  proxim- 
ity of  Ruad  and  Arka,  the  probable  seals  of  the  Arva- 
dilea  and  Arkitea,  and  the  conaequent  inference  that 
iheuiigioal  seat  ofthe  Zemaiitea  muac  have  been  some- 
where  in  thia  direction,  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that 
Sumn  or  Shumra  has  any  connection  with  the  Taem- 
arites  of  the  ancient  leconla.  The  name  ia  more  lilte- 
ly  to  have  apruiig  from  the  locality  in  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  Mount  Ephriim  or  Benjamin,  elsewhere  de«- 
ignaled  as  Zhhajuiu  (q.  v.).  The  idcntifloalion  by 
the  -Sept.  and  Vulg.  of  both  these  places  with  the  city 
of  atmutriii  is  evidently  a  mere  conjecture  or  false 
transliteration. 

Zami'ra  (Heb.  ZmiraA',  rrv>pl,  munr,  as  In  laa. 
TcxxT,  16, etc ;  Sept.  Zcfiipd  v.  r.  Zaiupiatuid  'Aftnpiac; 
Tulg.  Zamira).  liru  named  of  the  nine  aona  of  Becher 
aon  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii,  8).     B.C.  poet  1874. 

Za'nui  (Heb.  Ttmnn',  ',}:t, poiaifd,  ifibla  be  the 
printer  form  ofthe  name;  Hepl.  XttfOfi  v.  r.  Siwa ; 
Vulg.  5unim),  a  (own  In  the  lowland  diatrict  of  Jiidab 
(Joah.  XT,  87),  where  it  ia  named  before  Uadaahah  and 
Higdal-gad  b  the  western  gnnp  of  the  tribe.  See 
JtmAH.  Accordingly,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  present 
HeJ del  is  «  small  village  called  Joshi,  which  is  prabtbly 


Zenau  ia  the  same  place  w^ 
et  Micah  calls  Zaamin  (Mic.  i,  II;  see  Rt]Mai,PniaA 

p.l068i  KeiluidDeli[Eieh,OiJoi*.zv,S7).    Knobel 

Senat,  near  Bdl  Jibrln  ( Tubler,  i>riu«  H'aaiienag,  p. 
1S4).  Schwan  (_P<ilaL  p.  \{&)  propnses  to  idenlilV 
Zenan  with  "  tbe  village  Zi»-<i6rii,  uiuaied  two  and  a 
half  English  miles  south-east  of  Mareehab."  By  this 
he  doubtless  intends  the  place  which  in  the  lists  of  Rub- 
inaun  ( Bibl,  Htt.  [lat  ed.],  vol.  iii,  app,  p.  117  )  ia  called 
a-5aiit>raA,and  in  Tobler's  DrilU  Windem^ng  (p.  149), 
a-SaaiibmlL.  The  latter  traveller  in  his  map  placet 
it  about  two  and  a  half  mllea  due  east  of  Uatuh  (Ua- 
resha).  But  both  these  latter  identiflcations  are  mora 
than  diHihtfui. 

Ze'nVB  (Zffi'Sc,  a  contraction  from  ZtffiiiuipoQ,  as 
'Aprrfiac  from  ' Apntti Ju>pO£,  Nv^ifac  frum  'Svp^oiu- 
poi-,  and  probably 'Ep^oi'  from  'Ep/iiifu>po().  a  believer, 
and,  IB  may  be  inferred  frum  the  context,  a  preacher  of 
the  Uoipel,  who  is  meniioned  in  Tit.  iii,  IS  in  connec- 
tion with  Apolloa,  and,  together  with  him,  is  [here  com- 
mended bv  Paul  to  the  care  and  bospilalitv  of  Titua 
and  the  C'reUn  brethren.  A.l).  cir,  69.  He  ii  further 
described  as  "  the  lawyer"  (rut-  w/uirw).  It  ia  impos- 
sible to  determine  with  certainty  wbrlher  we  are  to  in- 
fer from  this  designition  that  Zenas  was  a  Roman  Juris- 
consult or  a  Jewish  doctor.  Gn>tiuB  accepts  the  former 
alternative,  and  thinks  that  he  was  a  lireeli  who  bad 
atudied  Roman  law.  The  New-Test,  naaes  of  vofiunif 
leads  rather  to  the  other  inference.  Tradition  has  been 
Bomewhat  busy  with  the  name  of  Zenaa.  The  Synojuii 
•h  Vilael  Morle  Prophrlaruin,  ApottBtoniin,tt  Uuci/m- 
forum  Dombii,  ascribed  lo  Dorutheua  of  Tyre,  makes 
him  to  have  been  one  of  the  "aaventy-two"  disciples, 
and  aubeeqnently  bishop  of  Diospolia,  in  Palestine  {BiU. 
Pair,  iii,  150),  '  Tbe  "aeventy-two"  disciples  of  Doro- 
theua  arr,  however,  a  mere  string  of  names  pickeil  out 
of  salutations  and  other  incidental  notice*  in  the  New 
Test.  The  Ureek  mencdogieson  the  liMival  ofSa  Bar- 
iholomewand  Titua  (Aug.SS)  refer  loaeenain  Ltfr  of 
'IHtus,  ascribed  to  Zenas^  which  is  aim  quoted  fur  the 
supposed  oonvaieion  ofthe  vounger  Pliny  (comp.  Fabri- 
cius,Cod(Z^pocr.A'.7'.ii,8SI,i).  Tbe  association  of 
Zenas  with  Titus,  in  Paul's  epistle  to  the  laller,  suffi- 
ciently acoounta  for  the  forgery, 

2eno,  a  Greek  philnsnpher,  was  bom  at  Elea,  in 
Southern  tlaly,aboutaC  490.  He  waa  a  pupil  of  Car- 
menidea,  and  lived  at  Elea  all  his  lilc,  with  the  exce|v 
tiun  ufoccaaionil  visits  to  Athens,  where  he  had  many 
of  the  wealthy  cilizena  for  his  disciples.  He  is  said  to 
have  encaged  in  a  ooivapiracy  againat  Nearehux,  the  ty- 
rant of  Elea,  rho  captured  him  and  put  him  to  death 
by  cruel  tortuie.     Fur  an  account  of  bia  philosophy,  lee 

Zono  THE  Stoic    See  Stoics. 

Zaphanl'ah  (Heh.  Tfpkimtak',  n^JGS  [in  the 
prolonged  form  TitiAamia'ka,  ^Tt^lBX,  S  Kings  xxr, 
IS],  ladJm  </  Jdataki  Sept.  Xo^^ac  v.  r.  [in  1 
Cbron.]  £afanaCi  Vulg.  SojAbtmu),  tint  name  lA  four 
Hebrews. 

1.  A  Kobalhlte  Uvite,  son  of  Tshath  and  father  of 
Aiariab.  in  the  ancestry  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (q.  v.) 
and  uf  Ucman  (1  Chron.  vt,  36  [Heb.  21});  the  same 
elaewhere  (ver.  34  [9j)  called  Ubiel  (q.  v.)  the  father 
uf  Uuiah. 

2.  A  piopbet  of  whom  we  have  no  information  be- 
yond what  bis  book  furuishes.  In  this  (Zeph.  i.  1)  he 
ia  said  to  bave  been  "  the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of  Ged* 
aliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  tun  of  Hiikiah."  which 
last  ia  uauallT  regarded  as  the  aame  with  king  Heieki- 
■h.  If*a,beUved&C.cir.620.  With  thia  agrees  i he 
date  of  his  prophecy  there  given;  namely,  in  the  reign 
of  Joalah.  We  do  not  elsewhere,  however,  read  of  any 
mch  tou  of  Heiekiah  as  Amariah,  and,  to  far  as  'hit 


ZEPHANIAH,  BOOK  OF         10 

nconl  inil  pn>bBbilitf  go,  Mmmch  wis  hii  odIt  aon. 

8m  ZKPHAHtAH,  Boos  OF. 

3.  The  ton  of  MuxUb  (Jcr.  xxi,  I)  ind  tagan,  at 
■ecDiid  priot,  in  tb«  nsga  of  Zcdekiih.  He  succeeded 
Jehiiiail*  (nix,  2a,  26J,  siiil  wm  pmbablv  >  niler  of 
the  Temple,  whnw  nfflce  it  wia,  among  oibers,  la  punlah 
pretenilen  lo  Ibe  Bift  iif  prophecy.  Ill  this  capiciiy  he 
wu  ippeilcil  W  bv  Sheinaiah  tb«  Kehelamite,  in  i  let- 
1«  rnim  Babylnn.'m  pimiib  JeremUb  (ver.  !9).  Twice 
wu  he  aeia  from  Ze<lekiib  to  inquire  of  Jenmlih  the 
issue  or  ihe  siege  iit  the  oil}'  by  tbe  Chslilesns  (mi,  I), 
■nd  In  implore  liim  lo  intercede  Tuc  iLie  people  (xixvii, 
S).  On  the  cmpture  uf  JmiHlem  by  Nebuisridan,  he 
was  talten  with  Seraiah  the  bigb-print  and  othen,  and 
Blain  at  Kiblah  (lii,M,27;  2  Kiiiys  xxv,l«,2l).     0.0. 


14  a.  giv. 


RC-a 


el>l9.    SeeJoaUH. 


ZRPHANUH,  Book  of,  Ihe  ninth  in  onleT  of  the 
minor  pmpheta,  both  in  Ibe  Hebrew  and  Greek  coine* 
of  the  Scripture*  (Jerome,  Prolog,  ad  PovL  et  Ka- 
tleck.).  Beeides  hit  genuine  prophecy,  there  wu  in 
the  ancient  ChriMion  Church  an  apocryphal  booli  a»- 
scribed  to  Zephaiiiah  the  prnplid.  and  quoieil  by  (ome 
of  thefalhera  under  the  name  uf  his  'kvakip^q  or  IIf»- 
f  qrdo.     See  Apocktpha, 

1.  HHfilor._l.  'I'he  nirme  of  this  pmphet  hu  been 
varioaaly  explained.  Disputes  upon  it  arose  ss  early 
as  the  timeii  of  Jerome,  for  in  his  Commnlaiy  on  this 
book  be  says,  "Nomen  Sophonic,  alii  speculsm,  alii 
arcanum  Dei,  traiHIuleriinl."  Ihe  word  wu  thus  de- 
riveil  eiiher  from  H^X,  he  icvlchtd,  or  -,(X,  he  hid,  with 
Ihe  common  iISk  n^,  L  e.  Jiih,  The  u]J  latber  made 
it  a  miner  of  iiuiiflerence  which  etyman  he  adopted, 
as  both,  according  to  him,  give  virtually  the  same 
— the  eomminion  of  a  prophet  being  riitually  that 
watchman  or  seer,  and  the  bunlen  uf  his  message 
secret  revealed  to  him  by  God.  Abarbanel  (/>r«/.  m 
^seJ^)  adheres  III  the  latter  mode  nf  derivation,  and  the 
Paeudo-Durotbeus.  fulhrning  the  furtner,  translates  the 
prophet's  name  by  Ihe  Ureek  panidple  amrtuwv. 
Hiller  and  Simonit  differ  also  in  ■  similar  war ;  Hiller, 
taking  the  term  from  'fKt,  renders  it  "abacnndidit  se, 
L  e.  deliluit  Jehovah'  (_Oiofna*r.  a.  v.),  as  If  the  name 
had  contsined  ■  mystic  reference  la  the  character  of 
the  age  in  which  tl>e  pin)Aet  lived,  when  (iod  had 
withrlrawu  himself  from  his  apostate  people;  but  K- 
monis  {Ononuitl.  V.  T.)  gives  the  inie  sign lAcat ion,  one 
sanclinned  by  IjeeeniDS — "abscondidil,  u  e.  custudivii 
Jehovah,"  JrhoCiik  kalk  giuii-ded,  the  verb  \ZX  lioing 
used  of  divine  proteclinn  in  Psa.  xxvii,  5  and  ]3i]cxiii,4. 
The  name  Bcenia  to  have  been  a  common  one  among 
the  JewB. 

2.  /'arm/n^.— Contraiy  to  usual  custom,  the  pedi- 
gree of  the  prophet  is  traced  back  for  four  geiieratioos 
_"the  eon  uf  Cuslii.  the  son  of  nedsUsh,  the  sun  of 
Amaiiah,  ibe  sun  of  Hizkiali."  'lliis  formal  record  of 
his  lineage  has  led  many  lo  suppose  Ihit  ZcpbBiiiab 
had  sprung  from  a  noble  stock  (Cyril,  Praf.  ad  Ztph.), 


ZEPHANIAH,  BOOK  OF 

arch  lo  which  Zephaniah's  geneaki)^  is  tiacad,  ceitiiB- 
ly  hta  official  designattoii, "  king  of  Judab,"  wouhl  hsvt 
been  subfnned  in  order  to  prevent  mistake.     Such  aa 

'dition  is  found  in  connection  with  bia  name  in  Prar. 

IV,  I  atul  Isa.  XKKviii.  9.     It  forms  no  objectiai  (s 

added  in  Josiah,  and  to  avoid  Tepetitiou  may  hin 

',  tnch  flnicul  delicacy,  is  no  future  of  Hebrew  on- 
pmitiiin.  The  argument  of  Carpiov  (/iifrod.  p.  4K), 
'  1  by  KiisenmUller  (/Voamtuin  n  Zfph.\  agsiiat 
.the  Buppiwed  connection  of  the  prophet  with  the  Uosl 
tnyil  is  of  no  great  weigh^  Tbeae  critics  uy  I  hat  fna 
Heiekiah  to  Josiah,  In  whoae  leign  Zephaniih  flouriih- 
e  only  three  generations,  while  from  Henkiih  |« 
Zephaniah  four  are  reckoned  in  the  first  verse  of  the 
ihecy.  But  as  Hesekiah  reigned  Iwenly-nine  yen^ 
his  BuiTcesstir  sat  on  the  ibnne  no  lew  than  Itfly- 
Sve  years,  there  is  room  enough  in  iHich  ■  period  bt 
'>ur  specided  descent*;  and  Amariab,  though  bdC 
0  the  crown,  may  have  been  much  older  ihaD  Ui 
ful  brother  Manasseh,  who  was  crawiwd  at  6tk 
f  twelve.  As  there  was  at  least  another  Z(ph» 
a  oonspicuoiis  peraonage  at  the  time  of  tbe  Cap- 
tivity, tbc  parentage  of  tbe  prophet  may  have  been  ic- 
ed so  minutely  to  prevent  any  reader  from  «■- 
founding  tbe  two  individiiaLi.  The  deacent  of  the 
prophet  from  king  Heiekiah,  therefore,  is  not  in  itiitf 


c  of  tl 


higlie, 


which  in  the  Hebrew  text  is  s|>elled  and  painted  in 
same  wsy  as  that  rendered  Hexekiab  in  the  bouki 
Kings  and  Chronicle*,  hat  induced  some  to  identil 
with  that  of  the  good  king  Heukiah,  and  lo  proiioiinee 
tbe  prophet  a  cadet  uf  the  royal  huuieof  Juilah.    Klm- 
cbi  is  very  cautious  in  his  opinion,  snd  leaves  the 
undecided ;  but  Aben-Rzn,  ever  ready  lo  msgnilV  his 
nation,  at  once  concludes  that  Zephaniah  was  del 
ed  from  Hesehiah;  and  his  opinion  has  been  fnl 
by  Hiiel  (DrmonitroL  KrimatL  Propo*.  i'-,  BOS] 
partially  by  Eichhom  {Emlrii.  %  693).     Tbe  conji 
has  little  else  to  recommend  it  tbin  the  mere  occui 
of  the  royal  name.     But  it  was  not  a  nam*  crniSi 
royally )  and  had  it,been  the  name  of  the  pious 


irobible, 


le  pedigi 


lage  of  rank  and  ioi- 
portance.  Late  critics  and  cnmmenlatnn  generally  ac- 
quiesce ill  iliis  hvpolhesis,  viL  Kichbom,  Hiriig,  F.  Ad. 
StraiissC  ruricMUi  Zrpkama  [Berlin,  1843]),  HNveniick, 
Keil,  and  Bleek  {KuJnlans  i»  Aa  AOe  Trlamnl). 

The  Jews  abgunlly  reckon  that  here,  as  in  orbrr  so- 
persoipiions,  the  pemnns  recorded  as  a  priiphet's  ancvs- 
torswere  tbenuelves  emloweil  with  ihe  pmpbeiic  tpirif. 
The  to.calleil  Epiphsnitii  (/>e  Vitii  Pnpkrt.  ch.  Kii| 
asserts  that  Zephaiiish  wss  of  Ibe  tribe  of  Simean,  of 
the  bill  Sarabaths,  Awb  upouc  iapajiaAa.  The  eii«- 
it  known  only  from  his  oracles. 
and  these  have  no  biogrspliical  sketches;  so  that  onr 
knowledge  of  this  man  uf  God  comprise*  only  Ihe  bd 
and  the  reaiills  of  his  inspiration.  It  may  be  safely  ia- 
ferred,  howeier,  that  he  lalnred  with  Josiah  in  lb* 
pious  work  of  re-eaublisbiug  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
in  the  land. 

II.  itare^— It  is  recorded  (ch.  i)  that  ihe  word  of  the 
l^iti  came  to  him  "in  the  days  of  Jiisjah  Ihe  son  uf 
Amon,  kingof  Judah."  We  bare  reason  fur  suppinqng 
that  be  flourislied  during  the  earlier  ponion  «(  Jnnsh'* 
reign.     In  the  second  chapter  (ret.  18-  )o)  he  (i-Teiens 

hsppeneil  about  ihe  eighteenth  year  of  Jisiah.  In  lit 
ci'mmeneementof  his  orsclcf,  alsis  he  denounces  varinaa 
form*  of  idolatry,  and  specially  the  remnant  nf  B**L 
Tlie  reformation  of  .losiah  began  in  the  twelfth  and 
was  completed  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  hia  reign.  Ss 
ihorougbwas  bb  extirpation  of  the  idolatrous  rites  aiMl 
hienrchy  which  deflleil  his  kingdom  that  be  bainwd 
down  Ibe  HTOves,  dismisseil  the  priesthood,  threw  dnn 
Ihe  sllars,  and  made  dust  of  the  images  of  Bailim, 
Zephaniah  must  have  prophesied  prior  lo  this  relii^ioot 
revolution,  while  some  remains  of  Baal  were  yet  Hfnt- 
ed  in  the  bind,  or  between  ibe  twelfth  and  eitrhieenth 
vean  of  the  roral  refiirmer.  So  Hilzig  (Dia  13  Unwa 
/>i'DfiA(«.)andMDVeni(ai'nmt,p.!Sl}pUcehim:  while 
Eichhom,  Bertholdt,  aiul  JKger  iodine  to  give  hint  ■ 
somewhat  later  dale.  At  aB  crenli,  he  flourished  be- 
tween the  years  RC.  IH3  and  611;  and  the  ponka 
of  his  prophecy  which  n.'fert  to  tbe  deainictinn  i-f  the 
AtSTrian  empire  must  have  been  delivered  prior  to  ihs 
year  ILC.  tt2G.  tbe  year  in  which  Nineveh  fell  (Hender- 
son, On  Ikt  Umor  Prophttt,  p.  SHO).  The  pabltcslioa 
of  these  oradea  was  thereloro  contemporary  with  a  por- 
tion uf  those  of  Jeremiah,  for  Che  word  of  the  I.ord  eama 
to  him  iu  tbe  thirteenth  year  of  the  rclgn  of  Juaalk 


ZEPHANIAH,  BOOK  OF         lOBS         ZEPHANIAH,  BOOK  OF 


iDdMil,  the  Jewith  IrwIUion  is,  that  Zcphaniih  had  for 
hiioolleiguai  Jeremiah  and  the  prDpfaeUo  Huldah,tbe 
Sonntr  fixing  bU  ipbere  of  labor  in  the  thonughfareH 
and  markFt-placei,  Iha  lalur  excrciaing  her  hmioriblc 
TDCilion  in  the  culleKe  in  JerDMlem  (Carpior,  lalrod, 
p.415).  Kee(«r  {lAe Propkiien,  iii)  cnileavnni  U>  prove 
tbat  Zephiniah  waa  poat?rinr  to  Ilabakkiik.  Hia  ar- 
pimenU  rrom  similirity  of  dictinn  an  vtry  trivial,  and 
the  mnte  ao  when  we  reflect  Ibai  all  circumUancHi  com- 
lane  in  indudnic  »■  to  tix  lb  e  period  of  Hilukkuk  (q.v.) 
in  the  reign  of  Jehuiakim,  imnieilialely  befiire  the  Chal- 


Ini 


kNin. 


tented  aa  in  a  Mate  of  peace  an<l  pmaperity,  while  the 
noliceaorjerunlem  touch  upon  thu  tame  ten dendea  to 
idolatry  and  crime  which  are  condemned  by  the  con- 
temporanr  Jeremiah.  It  is  not  impoeeible,  moreover, 
thai  the  prophecy  was  delivered  about  lha  time  wheo 
the  Scythians  overran  the  empires  or  Western  Asia, 
extending  their  devaslatioiis  to  Palestine.  The  king's 
cbililren,  who  are  spoken  of  in  cb.  i,  8  as  addicted  to 
tbrelgn  habits,  couki  not  have  been  una  urjoaiah,  who 
was  bill  eight  years  old  at  his  accceaiun,  but  were  prob- 
ably his  brothers  or  near  felaLives.  The  remnant  of 
Baal  (ch.  i,  t)  implies  (hat  some  partial  rerurmation  had 
previoiuly  taken  place,  while  the  notices  of  open  idola- 
try ate  incompatible  with  [he  state  of  Judah  after  the 
discuvery  oTthe  Bonk  of  the  Law. 

III.  Cimlruli.— la  cb.  i  the  utter  desolation  of  Judtea 
is  predicted  at  a  judgment  for  idolatry,  and  neglect  of 
the  I^nl,  the  luxury  of  the  princes,  and  the  violence 
and  deceit  of  their  dependents  (ver.  8-9).  The  pros- 
perity, aeiurity,  and  insolence  of  the  people  are  contrasted 
with' the  honors  of  the  da*  of  wrath;  the  assaults  upon 
tlie  fenced  cities  and  high  towers,  and  the  slaughter  of 
the  people  (ver.  lO-ltl).  Cb.  ii  is  a  call  to  repentance 
(ver.  1-3).  with  prediction  of  (he  ruin  of  the  cities  of 
the  Philistines,  and  the  tntoration  of  the  house  of  Jo- 
dab  afUr  the  visitation  (ver.  4-7).  Other  enemiea  of 
Judah,  Moab,  Ammon,  are  threatened  with  perpetual 
destruction,  Ethiopia  with  •  great  slaughter,  and  Nine- 
Teb,tbe  capital  of  Assyria,  with  desolation  (ver.  8-15). 
Id  ch.  iii  the  prophet  adtlrenes  Jerusalem,  which  be 
reproves  sharply  fur  vice  and  disobedience,  the  cruelly 
of  the  princes  and  the  treschery  of  the  priests,  and  for 
iJieir  general  disregard  of  warnings  and  viutationt  (ver. 
1-T).  He  then  concludes  with  a  aeriea  of  proniiteii,lhe 
destruction  of  the  enemies  of  Gnd'a  people,  ihe  restora- 
tion of  exiles,  ihe  exlirpalinn  of  the  pniud  and  violent, 
■nd  the  permanent  peace  anil  bleittedneit  of  (lie  poor 
and  afflicted  remnant  who  shall  tnut  in  the  name  of  the 
LrinL  These  exIiortatlDUS  to  rejoicing  and  exertion  are 
nilngled  with  in^mationa  of  a  complete  manifreUtion 
of  liod's  rigbteontness  aud  love  in  the  restoration  of  his 
people  (ver.8-M). 

It  has  been  disputed  what  the  enemies  are  with  whose 
desolating  inroailt  he  threatens  Judah.  Tha  ordinary 
and  most  probable  opinion  is  that  the  fiies  whose  period 
of  invasion  wsi  "a  day  of  the  trumpet  and  alarm  againil 
the  fenced  cities  andagaingt  the  high  lowers"  (ch.  i,  IS), 
were  the  CbahliBanB,  Hilzig  especially,  Cramer  too,  and 
Eichhiim,  supposed  the  prophet  to  refer  to  a  Scythian 
invasion,  the  history  of  which  Ihey  imagine  has  been 
preaerved  by  Herodotus  (i,  105).  But  the  general  Myle 
of  the  otade,  and  the  sneeping  vengeance  which  il 
menaces  against  Assyria,  I'biiiatia,  Amman,  and  Cnsh, 
aa  oeil  as  against  Jndah,  by  tome  ureal  and  unnamed 
power,  point  to  the  Cbalihiun  expedition  which,  under 
Kebiicbadneuar,  lud  Jerusalem  waste,  and  carried  to 
Uabylon  its  enslaved  popidation.  The  contemporary 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  coniemplale  the  musterings, 
unset,  and  devastations  of  Ihe  same  victarioiu  bn•t^ 
TbeformerpartorZephaiiiah'apredlctioiiit  "aday  of 
cbHidi  and  of  thick  darkness,"  but  in  the  closing  section 
ofit  Tight  is  sown  for  the  righteous:  "Tbe  king  ofls- 
laeLtbe  Lord, is  in  tbe  midst  of  thee;  he  will  rejoice 

IV.  ^i>Jr.~We  cBUQut  by  an;  meau*  award  to  low  a 


character  to  Zephanlah's  style  aa  is  done  by  I>e  Wett« 

iF.aUa.  S  245),  who  <1cseribos  it.  as  being  often  heavy 
and  tedious.  It  has  not  the  sustained  majesty  of  Isaiah, 
or  the  sublime  and  original  energy  of  Joel:  it  has  no 
prominent  feature  of  distinction ;  yet  its  delineations  are 
graphic,  and  many  nfiit  touches  are  bold  and  striking. 
Fur  example,  in  the  first  chapUr  the  prophet  erou|M  to- 
gether in  his  descriptions  of  the  nations!  idolatry  sev- 
eral characteristic  exbibiiions  of  its  forms  and  wonliip. 
The  verses  are  not  tame  and  prosaic  portraiture,  but 
form  a  aeries  of  vivid  sketches.  The  poet  seizes  on  the 
more  strange  peculiariiies  of  the  heathen  wnmhip — ut- 
tering denunciations  on  the  remnant  of  Basl  the  wor- 
shippers of  Chemarim — tl>e  slar-adorera,  the  devotees 
ofMsIcham,  the  fknalics  who  clad  themselves  in  strange 
apparel,  and  those  who  in  some  superstitious  mummery 
leaped  upon  the  threshold  (Dochart,  f/trivi.c.tlG).  Mot 
a  few  verses  occur  in  the  course  of  tha  pnipliecy  which, 
in  lone  and  dignity,  are  not  unworthy  to  be  associated 
with  Ihe  more  diatingiiisheil  effuMona  of  the  Hebrew 
barrit.  A  few  paronnmasiie  occur  (i,15andii,  t-4),  and 
occasionallv  there  is  a  peculiar  re|ietition  of  a  leading 
word  in  Ihe  formal  ion  of  a  climax  (ii,  15). 

Jahn  {Inlroil.  §  lOi)  and  Eichhom  assert  that  Zcph- 
aniah  has  borrowed  to  a  considerable  extent  from  the 
earlier  prophets,  especially  from  Itaiah ;  yet  tbe  simi- 
larity of  such  passages  as  Isa,  xxxiv,  II  to  Zeph.  ii,  14, 
or  Iss.  xlvii.H  to  ^b.  ii,  l.%  or  Im.  xviii,  1  to  Zeph. 
iii,  10,  or  tsa.  xvi,  0  lo  Ze|^.  ii,  ft,  it  not  aulBcieiil  evi- 
dence IhatZepliaoiahwaslsaiah'simitator.  ThecUuses 
of  resemblance  *r*  hlinmalic  in  nature,  ami  seem  to  have 
been  of  proverbial  forceaod  currency,  so  that  bnthpruph- 


.   Coinc 


mhave 


<sb>- 


Zephaniah  and  tome  of  his  eonlemporariea, 
panicularly  Jeremiah  (Eichhom.  Kbiltil.  §  69o ;  Ruteii- 
mllller,  Pioam,  vi).  Between  Zeph.  i,  6  and  Jer.  viii, 
2  we  can  perceive  little  timilariiy  of  language,  thongh 

Zeph.  i,  12  with  Jer.  xlviii,  11  leads  to  such  a 
alreaily  staled,  as  ihe  phrase  com- 
mon lo  tH>tb  passages — "settled  on  tbe  lees'  —  must 
have  been  one  in  wide  circiila^on  in  a  wine  coDiilrj' 
like  Judiu.  It  was  ailogelher  gniundlest,  Ihcrefore,  in 
some  of  the  older  critics,  such  as  IsidiHv  and  Schmidius 
(^Proltgom.in  Sopion,),  to  style  Zephaniah  the  atibrevia- 
tor  of  Jeremiah.    Resemblances  have  also  been  traced 

his  successor  Kiekiel;  but  lo  cstl  these  Imitations  it 
rash  indeed,  ifwe  reHed  on  liie  similarily  of  the  lopica 

ology  which  is  common  to  Hebrew  prophetic  poelr;-, 
and  which  was  the  stereotyped  language  of  the  inipired 
brotherhood.  'I'be  language  of  Ze|)bsnisb  is  pure:  it 
has  not  Ihe  clnseic  ease  and  elegance  of  the  earlier  oom- 
positions,  but  il  wants  Ibe  degenerate  feebleness  and 
Aramaic  corruption  of  the  siicceeiling  lera.  Zephaniah 
is  not  expressly  quoted  in  Ihe  Kew  Test.;  but  claiitei 
and  expresuons  occur  which  seem  lo  have  lieen  formol 
(him  hitprophecy  (Zeph.iii,9;  Rom.  xv,G,elc.).  He 
was,  in  fine,  as  C^  ril  of  Alexandria  terms  him  (Pi-a/al, 
in  Soph.  tom.  iii},  "a  Irue  prophet,  and  filled  with  the 
Holy  Ghoal,  and  bringing  his  oracles  from  the  mouth 
of  Cod." 

The  chief  chaTaeteristics  of  this  book  are  Ihe  unity 
and  harmony  of  Ihe  composition,  Ihe  grace,  energy,  and 


ia  chleSy  shown  in  the  accurate  pretliclions  of  ih 
Ution  which  hat  fallen  npon  each  of  Ihe  nations  ne- 
luiuneed  for  their  nimei;  Eihiopia,  which  is  menaced 
with  a  terrible  invasion,  being  alone  ex empied  (Vom  tbe 
doom  of  perpetual  ndn.  The  general  tone  of  the  law 
portion  It  Mcasianic,  hut  without  any  specific  refereoc* 
to  tbe  person  nf  our  Lord. 

There  hat  often  been  noticed  in  thia  prophecy  a  gen- 
eral or  uoiveisal  character,  rather  than  specific  pcedio 


ZEPHATH  10 

tlon*,  tbouftli  ihcMiin  not  emirelyviDting.  Tliiateiid- 
cni^  is  in  hHnnoiiy  with  the  poeiiiuii  which  Zegihmiimh 
w«BC«Jleil  lu  occupy  in  [he  cuuree  of  divine  providence; 
iur  he  lived  ac  ihe  comaieiiceraeiit  of  Ihe  periud  af  the 
uiiiveruJ  empires,  which  ue  repcesenud  by  Diniel  in 
ileuil,  and  eihiliiied  u  introducluiy  la  the  kiiigilnm 
of  Ihe  Sun  of  man.  TheChaJdeui  roonirchy  wisriaing 
with  nurvellmu  ripiilily  to  uniTenal  empire,  and  waa 
in  prepariUun  bv  the  Lxird  to  be  the  scourge  of  hii  own 
people  aa  well  u  of  the  fae*(ben  nationt;  and  in  con- 
oection  wiiii  theii  work  Zephaniah  >aw  the  coming  of 
the  dav  of  the  Lord,  tbe  day  of  jucLgment,  when  all  the 
earth  aha uld  lie  dcTDurcd  with  the  fire  of  hia  jealouiy  (cb. 
i,l)t;  iii,H).  Bui  a«  earlier  pnlpbet^  eapecially  Joel  and 
luiab,  had  already  foreaeen  and  declared  thia  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  tbe  Aaayrian  monarchy,  which 

iu  rival  and  heir  at  Babylon,  we  Snd  the  language  and 
imagery  of  these  earlier  prophets  cnnilDually  referred 
to,  aditpted,  or  elaboratal  anew  by  Zephaniah  aud  his 
contemporary  Jeremiah,  with  wtvum  be  baa  tniich  in 

V.  Co)umrfi/atw(,~The  followioe  are  the  apecial  ex- 
egetical  helpa  on  thia  entire  book  ex<:luaively :  Luther, 
CowmtrHiiriiu  (in  0pp.  voL  it  ;  alti>  in  Germ,  in  Wrriry, 
Bucer,  CommaUaiwI  <ArgenI.  \6i8,  8vo):  SeJnecker, 
Auiifgunri{Uif*.lb6e.iio);  Cim.Prrdigln, (Wiiunb. 
1600,  8vd):  'Iirnuviua,C<»ninm'uriiii(Roat.l628,  4io)i 
Larenus,  Tuba  (Hediob.  165B,  Sto);  Gebhardua,  Vmdi. 
catio  (Gryphan.  1701-3, 4to) ;  HiScke,  A  u^rgung  [includ. 
Nab.  and  Hab.]  (Kraitkf.  1710,  lto)i  Nultenius,  Con- 
■mfuru/iH  [on  ch.  i]  (Fr.  ad  O.  IT19-24,  4lo);  Geb. 
hardi,  ErUirmg  {I'j.  am  O.  I7i8,  4lo)-,  Cramer, 
Sejlluidu  Utiilcmaltr  (Kiel,  1777,  Svo);  Anton.  Iiltr- 
preialio  [on  ch.  iii]  (GorL  1811,  4lo);  Colin,  Oitnva- 
Hohh  (Vnti^  1818,410);  Ewald, frtMrun^  (Eriang. 
1827.eva)i  Strauss,  Conmeii^uruis  (Berol.  1843,  8vo); 
Kobineon, //ana/i'n(Lond.l86a,8To);  Reinke,  A'rJfufe- 
nug  (Leipa.  1868).    See  fsotHicTB,  MlNOH. 

2e'pbath  (Heb.  Ttpltarh',  TEX,  vatch-laaer; 
Sept.  Xt^  V.  r.  £cfir  and  Sifip;  V«]);.  Stphaiah), 
the  eariiei  name  (according  to  Ihe  notice  of  Judg.  i,  17} 
of  a  Canaanilish  town,  which  after  ita  capture  and  de- 
Mructiou  wia  called  by  the  Israeliiea  HulUUH  (q.  v.). 


ZEPHATH 

According  to  ribbi  Schwan  (Palril.  p.  186),  it  i*  like- 
wise mentioned  in  the  JenuL  Talmud  {AuaAiusA-Aiinai, 
ch.  ii).  See  also  Ziea.  Two  ideniilicaiiocu  have  beat 
proposed  fur  Zephatb — that  of  Dr.  Rubinaon  with  lbs 
well-known  pass  ri-Sufa,  by  which  Ihe  acsiil  is  made 
from  the  borders  of  the  Arabah  to  the  higher  level  ui 
the  "south  coiintrv"  (fliU.Ha.  ii,  181),  and  that  of  Ht 
Rowlaodi  (WiliiamB,//%Ci'y.i, 464)  with  Srliala,im 
and  I  half  houra  beyond  Khataaa,  on  the  mad  to  Sun, 
and  a  qiiartn  of  an  hour  uoith  of  Iluhebeh,  or  Kubeibeh. 

1.  The  fiirmar  of  these  Mr.  WUton  (  Tit  .V(ye&,  etc, 
p.  199,  SOO)  has  challenged,  on  account  of  tbe  impratti- 
cability  of  the  pass  fui  the  approach  of  the  laiaHiU^ 
and  tbe  inappropriateneaa  of  to  rugged  and  desoble  t 
spot  for  tbe  position  of  a  city  of  any  importance.  Tki 
queatim  really  forms  part  of  a  much  larger  one,  which 
this  is  not  the  place  lo  discuo — via.  the  tonte  br  wbuh 
the  Iiraelitea  amiroached  the  Holy  Land.  Sec  EioDu 
But,  in  tbe  meantime,  it  should  not  be  Dverloukcd  tbtt 
Ihe  attempt  of  tbe  Israelites  in  question  waa  au  onaae- 
ceiaful  one,  which  ia  so  far  in  favor  of  the  ateepoas  «( 
the  pass.  It  should  alau  be  home  in  mind  Ibal  both  ii 
ancient  and  modetn  times  aiicb  difflculi  pa—a  ban 
in  many  cases  been  the  chief  thoroughfares  in  Palta* 
tine,  and  Ibia  one  in  particular  baa  remained  soch  lo 
the  pment  day.  The  argument  ftoai  tbe  uauire  of  tiM 
ntc  is  one  which  might  be  brought  with  et|ual  force 
against  the  existence  of  many  others  of  Ihe  luwia  in 
this  region. 

1.  On  the  idenlificalioo  of  Ur.  Rowlandi  »nM  douU 
has  been  thrown  bv  Ihe  want  of  certainly  aa  to  tbs 
name  and  exact  liicalily.  Dr.  Slewan  ( Tml  and  Klua. 
p.  2U&)  beard  of  the  name,  but  east  of  Khalaaa  instead 
iif  south,  and  this  was  in  answer  lo  a  leading  iiuMiKi-- 
alwaya  a  dangerous  experimentwitb  Araba.  The  £■«- 
liah  engineera  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  however,  fuund 
Srbaila  in  the  \'iciniiy  indicated :  namely,  abaut  firieen 
milea  south  of  Khalaaah.  Prof.  Palmer  gives  ■  full  dt- 
scription  of  tbe  extentire  ruins  of  the  place  {Dmrtof 
lilt  Exodut,  p.  816  aq.),  and  a  plan  of  the  town,  wiik 
other  details,  mav  be  &und  in  the  Quarirrlif  Siatrmnt 
of  the  "Palettitie  Eiplor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1871.  p.  i-Ti. 
Preferring,  as  we  decidedly  do,  the  lueaiiun  of  K*l«h- 
bamea,  on  the  edge  of  the  Arabah,  we  should  dtdde 


Rnloet  Toirn  of  Sebnit 


aciinM  Ebc  claimB  of  Ihii  npnt  to  be  Ihe  ZrphKh  of 
^riplure,  notwithituidiiig  ill*  agreement  in  name  aad 
maaiiia.     Sec  Kadiuh. 

2*ph'aUMta  (Heb.  Ttrpia'llliih.  riTtX,  mtffk. 
tomer;  SepU E^ril  jSuflptiv ;  JoHphim,  Za^n,j4n'.  viii, 
1  a.  1 :  Vulc.  Srpkalit),  Ibe  name  nf  a  vaUey  (-Jtl)  lahere 
A«  jiiine^  battle  wiih  Zerah  the  UlThinpian  (2  Chi 
xiv,  10>  It  '■«»''»t,''or  rather  "lielni)f^ngl«,"Mare- 
■bah  (T^'?^^;  Jnw!phu%  oi't  srwjfv).  ThU  woukl 
■eem  In  exclude  Ibc  poiaibilitv  of  ite  b«inp,  at  HiggeM- 
rill)ytlntiinHHi(AiU.An.Ji,3i),at7'rUr>-5.r|(r-;t,wbich 
■•  not  leu  than  eieht  milea  fnnn  Marwh,  the  mori- 
*  It  uTMareihah.    There  i*  a  iletp  T»lk«j 


nhich  K 


a  part  Ibe  latter  place  ik>wii 
■        ■    nof  I'lii"    ■ 


Jibrii 
"hi^  perhapo, 
//nndlMi,  p. 
le  Zephithah 


may  be  Ihe  valley  of  Zepbalhah  ( 

2(S8},    Some,  however,  uinleritanil  r 

%a  be  only  that  ofZ^pWi  (r|-vO.">'h  n  directive,  ami 

render  it  "  the  ralley  towanl*  Zephath." 

S«phetli.     See  Pitch. 

Za'pbl  (1  Chton.  i,  Sfi).    See  Zn-nn. 

Zc'pho  (Heb.  Trpka',  iex,  wnlA-lnKer;  Sept, 
Swfiip;  Vulg.  SrpkH),  ihirri  named  of  Ibe  five  Sons  of 
Eliphai  Ihe  inn  of  Eann  (Orn.  xxxvi,  1 1),  and  one  of 
Ihe  I'liimiean  "dukes"  (ver.  IB).  RC  conriilerablv  poM 
I9ii.  In  Ibe  parallel  paiwii^  (I  Chrrm.  i,3«)  the'name 
is  wrillen  Zepki  (Heb.  7a7>A>",  -D^  i  Sept.  Zwfiipj 
Vulg.  Sepk!). 

Ze'pbon  (Reb.  Tirpkim',  'iBX  <cntek;  Sept.  Xa- 
^wv;  Viil|C.&p*on),  firal  lumtd  of  the  «even  «oni  of 
ti«l  (  Numb.  iKvi,  15)  and  pmRenitor  of  Ihe  family 
of  Ihe  ZrpkaiiM  (  Hth.  wilh  Ihe  art.  hiii-Tirpiixii', 
•"i'tin ;  Sept.  o  Sa^wi ;  Vulg.  Stphnnila).  In  Gen, 
xiri.  \6  hfa  name  ia  written  Ziphim  (Heb.  rfiptym', 
-,^*II3;  Sept.£a^>';  Tnlg. £i})i(«m).     aC  1874. 

Zaphyrfniia,  bishop  of  Rome,  tiieceeded  Victor 
■buin  A.l>.  199-SOl,  and  filled  hia  office  (according  to 


I  Enseblua')  durinc  elnhleen  ream.  He  died  In  117. 
I  Hi*  pnniiltcile  falla  in  the  periiid  when  Montoniitic 
and  Mnnirehlan  inlliieneea  were  «trii);i:Iiiig  to  obtain 
I  cnnlml  of  Ihe  Church :  and  allhonph  hia  own  pemnal' 

UnE  ibrnnfih  the  nnlimiled  pnirer  which  he  permllleri 
Calixtuel  (q.v.)lnarqnin.  Zephyrtniia'at>ri|tinalaui- 
{ tilde  waa  hnalile  I'manla  Moniaiiiani',  and  lhn>i|!h  the 
inllnence  of  Hippniyiiia  (i|.  v.)  oimpelled  the  pradnal 
exclnaion  of  ihe  Himarcbiana  fmin  the  Church,  they 
were  accorded  kindly  ireatmeiil.  The  peace  iif  Ihe 
Church  WH  in  this  way  pmerveil,  in  mitwanl  ((ipeat- 
■nce,  while  Zephriinna  lired.  Tlie  more  enerfttlto  od- 
miniXnlinn  of  hi)  anccfMnr,  Calixlu^  pn-duceil  ■  for- 
mal breach,  and  ihiia  oiinrermi  pniminence  upon  Zephy- 
TinWapnniifliaie  aabeine  iheeloneiirihe firnperiislof 
the  ereatneM  uf  ihe  Roman  ClMircb.  KowbiuxrumiahCT 
Zephi  rtniw  in  ihe  Hiit.  Kcelrt. 


.nppleii 


book  of  ilippolytna  (Coafr,  l/tm.}.  The  laller  work 
calleil  forth  Diinam'a  book  l/ippnlg/iit  ».  mine  Ztil,  a 
pmdtirtinn  of  but  lillle  value,  arui  UalliiiBrr'a  Hippi^ 
tut  ».  Calliiliu,  which  ia  not  impartiaL  Greater  im* 
ponanee  altachea  to  Banr'a  brief  remarka  in  hia  work 
on  the  ChriMianily  of  the  Aral  three  eenlllrie^  and  in 
HiiKhl,  in  Enmtiiiiig  drr  tilihiHoHfChm  Kircie  (Al  nl.}. 
See  alwi  lleiing,  Rral-Enryktnp. «.  v. 

Za'iab  (Heb.  Zt'rach,  n^T  (in  panae  Zn'rnch, 
n^t.  1  Chma.i!,4i  "Zanh,"i;eii.  .\x:iviii,  SOJ,  rimff 
of  ihe  aim:  Sept.  usually  Znpo.  but  anmelimea  Za/ii, 
Zapi't-  etc),  the  name  of  eevcral  Hebrews  and  one  fur- 
eigiier, 

1.  aeennd  named  of  Ihe  three  anna  of  Kenel,  ton  nf 
Emu  rOen.  XKuri,  ISi  I  Chnm.  i.  S7),  and  one  of  the 
"  dukes"  or  phvlarchs  of  the  E<lnmiio9  (Cen.  xxxvi,  17). 
B.C  contideraiily  pnat  I9i7.  Jobab  of  Bnrah,  one  of 
the  earlv  kinp  of  Ednm,  perhtpa  belonged  lo  his  fami- 
ly (ver.  88 ;  1  Chron.i,M). 

2.  Twin  aon  with  hia  elder  bmther  Phirci  ofJudah 


ZEKAH 


Hi«  doctndinti 


1S7. 


Uitr.  I,  8).  B.C.  cit.  189B. 
cd)«d  Zaibitea,  Ezrabitn,  idi 
»;  1  King»iv,81i  1  Chron.  ixvii,  8,  11),  ind  cmilin- 
iitd  tl  least  tlown  lo  the  time  of  Zenibbabel  (ix,  6; 
Neh.  xi,  24).  Nuthing  !■  relsleJ  uf  Zerah  indiviiiually 
bevimd  Ihe  peculiar  drcufimances  of  his  birth  ((ipn. 
xxxviii,  27-30),  cnnceminR  which  M«  HeideR|C«r,  llul. 
■riunli.  xviii,  88;  Oeddes,  Critical  Sonoiib,  p.  196, 

).  Fouitli  named  dT  Ihe  five  Km  o(  Simmn  (1  Chiun. 
iv,  SI),  and  fuunder  of  the  ramily  or  Zarhitea  (Numb. 
XKvi,  13).    B.a  1874.    In  G«n.  ilvi,  10  he  ii  called 

ZOHAB. 

4.  A  Genbnnite  Lerite,  son  of  Iddn  (ht  Adaiah)  and 
rather  oTJealerai  (1  Chton.  vi,  21,  41  |;ilelk  vi,  !6J). 
ll.a  anle  I04S. 

5.  The  Ethiopian  or  Cushile  ("C^Sn)  king  wbo  In- 
~  nai  defeated  by  Asa  (S  Chi 


The  in 


»fn>m 


nyncbn 


>  affDrde.)  l>etween  Biblical 

t.  Tke  A'irmf.— In  its  form  Zerah  ii  identical  with 
the  Hebrew  proper  name  above.  It  has  been  supposed 
to  represent  the  Egi-ptian  f7>iirjtni,powibly  pronounced 
Utarrhm,  ■  name  almesl  certainly  of -Shemitic  otigin. 
See  Shibkak.  The  difference  ii  (treat,  but  may  be 
partly  accounted  for  if  we  «uppn»e  that  the  Eftyptiaii 
deviates  from  Ihe  original  Shemitic  form  and  Ihat  Ihe 
Hebrew  repreaenta  that  furm,  or  that  a  further  deviation 
than  would  have  been  made  was  the  reaiilt  of  the  : 
larity  of  the  Hebrew  proper  name  Zenh.  £o,  X^D, 
if  pronouneeil  Siva  or  Stra,  is  more  remote  from 
brk  or  ShfbHtt  than  Zerah  from  Uiartn.  It  mi_ 
conjectured  thai  these  fnrrai  resemlde  those  of  Memphis, 
lloiih,  No|ib,  wliich  evidently  represent  current  piuu 
ciaiion,  probably  ofSheniiieB. 

3.  TItt  i>uW,— Th«  war  between  Asa  and  Zerah 
pears  to  have  taken  place  sihiii  afier  the  tenth  (2  Chrnn. 
xir,  1)  or  early  in  the  tifieemh  jear  ofAaa  (;  ,  ""; 
It  therefore  occurred  iu  about  the  same  year  of  Usaiken 
I  i,  fourth  king  of  Ihe  ivreuly-aecond  dynasty,  who  be- 
(■au  torei):n  about  the  same  lime  as  the  kingof  Judah. 
We  may  therefore  date  Ihe  iuvasion  in  aa939. 

3.  ne  iTroif.— The  first  ten  yean  of  Asa'a  reign  were 

aubjecla,  and  walled  and  rortided  Ihe  ctlie*  of  Judah. 
He  alM  maiutaiued  an  army  of  6«O,000  men,  SOO.ono 
spearmen  of  Judah,  and  -M>,UOO  archen  uf  Benjamin. 
This  great  force  was  pmbablv  the  whole  numbei  of  men 
able  to  bear  arms  (2  Chroii.  xiv,  1^).  At  len^h  the 
auiicipaied  danger  came.  Zerah  Ihe  Ethiopian,, with  a 
michty  army  of  a  million,  Oishim  and  Lubim,  with 
Ibrm  hundred  cbariota,  invaded  the  kingdom,  and  ad- 
vanced unopposed  in  the  Held  an  far  aa  Mareshah.  As 
lbs  invader)  afterwards  retreated  by  way  of  Gerar.  and 
Mareshah  lay  on  Ihe  west  of  ihc  hill-c«unlry  of  Judah. 
where  it  riacs  nut  of  the  Philistine  plain,  in  the  line  of 
march  from  Eg,vpt  lo  Jerusalem,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  they  came  oii(i>f  ICgipC  Between  the  border  on 
the  side  of  Gerar  and  Mareshah  lay  no  important  citv 
but  r.alh.  (iaib  and  Mareshah  were  both  foniAed  bv 
Kebobnam  before  the  invasion  ofSbiihak  (xi,  8),  and 
were  no  doubt  captured  and  probably  diamaulled  by  that 
king  (corop.  xit,  4),  whose  list  of  conquered  towns  etc, 
shows  ihat  he  not  only  look  some  strong  towns,  but  that 
be  Biibdned  ibe  country  in  delaiL  A  delay  in  Ihe  capt- 
ure of  (iaih,  where  the  warlike  Philisliiies  may  have 
oppoaed  a  stubborn  resistance,  would  have  removed  the 
only  obstacle  on  the  way  to  Haresbah,  Ibua  securing 
the  retreat  that  was  afterwards  made  by  this  route. 
From  Hamhah  or  its  immediate  nei^thborhiHid  was  ■ 


ZERAH 

the  Boathwelleni  border  nf  Palestine,  to  Uarvihah  wM 
uch  greater  than  from  Slareahab  to  Jeruaakt*, 
onsidering  Ihe  nature  of  the  tract*,  would  bare 

as  would  have  been  caused  by  the  siegea  of  liaih 
and  Mareshah  cotdd  have  enabled  Am  haaily  to  collect 
levy  and  march  to  relieve  the  beleagueied  town  <w 
lid  the  paswa.  "  In  Ihe  valley  of  Zephathah  at  Ma- 
«hah"  the  two  armies  met.  We  tsnnot  perfecllv  de- 
rmine  the  site  of  the  batile.  Mareshah,  accoiding  to 
theOnomi/ificnii,  lay  within  two  mile*  of  EleuihcmpiilM, 
and  Dr.  Robinson  has  reasonably  oonjerinfcd  iia  pnai- 
tion  to  be  marked  by  a  remarkable  "  tell."  or  anificial 
mouTul,  a  mile  and  a  half  muth  of  ihe  site  of  ihc  latler 

would  scarcely  suit  a  position  at  the  opening  oTa  val- 
ley. But  it  neema  tbat  a  narrow  valley  temifiatta,  add 
a  broad  one  commences,  at  the  suppimed  sile.  The  Tal- 
ler of  Zephathah,  "  the  watch-lower,"  ia  sappoatd  by 
Dt. KoUnaun  lobe  the  latler, a  broad  waily, deacendiag 
from  EleulhempidiB  in  a  norlhweateriy  diredian  ■» 
warda  TeU  rt-Siifirlt,  in  which  last  name  he  is  dispoad  to 
true  the  old  appellatioo  (AiW.  Ar*.  ti,3l>  The  two 
have  no  connection  whatever,  end  Robimn's  eoojeoan 
is  extremely  haiardous.  Sec  Zkpiiathah.  If  Ibia 
identilicatinn  be  correct,  we  must  suppoae  Ihat  Zetah  re- 
tireil  from  before  JIaresbah  towards  the  plain,  that  h* 
might  use  his  "chariots  and  horwmen"  with  elfecl,  is- 
slead  of  entailgling  them  in  Ibe  narmw  valleys  leading 
■ards  Jerusalem.     From  the  prayer  of  Asa  we  may 


a  valley,  it  lay  spread  out  beneath  him.  The  Egrp- 
lian  mimumenta  enable  lu  to  picture  Ihe  general  ditp»- 
sition  of  Zerah'i  army.  The  charioU  fonsed  the  firrt 
corps  in  a  single  or  double  line ;  behind  them,  tvafaed 
in  phalanxes,  were  heavy-armed  tmnpa;  probably  ea 
the  tianhs  stood  archen  and  honemen  in  lighter  fuma- 
tions.  Asa,  marching  down  •  valley,  must  have  M- 
tacked  in  a  heai'y  column  i  for  luine  but  the  most  high- 
ly disciplined  troop*  can  loim  line  from^luisn  in  ibi 
fuceof  an  enemy.  His  spearmen  of  Judah  wouki  have 
compoaed  tbia  colnmn :  each  bank  of  the  valley  would 
have  been  occupied  by  Ihe  Benjamiie  arch«a,likeihi« 
who  came  to  David."  helpers  of  the  war,  armed  with 
bows,  and  [who]  could  use  both  the  right  band  ai 


left  in  [hurling]  st 


d  [-h« 


ugl  .< 


e  Ethii^iaii, 


bow"  (I  Chron.  xii,  I,  S). 
c<«)tiden(  in  his  numbers,  disilained  It 
bteWB  or  clear  the  heights,  but  waited  in  the  broad  ral- 
ley,  or  the  plain.  Asa's  prayer  before  the  bauk  ii  fall 
of  the  noble  failhofthe  age  of  Ihe  Judges:  "Lord  [it  is] 
alike  to  thee  to  help,  whether  the  strong  or  Ihe  weak: 
help  us,  O  Lord  our  God  i  for  we  rest  on  thee,  aod  la 
■by  name  we  go  against  this  multitude.  O  Lord,!!*)* 
[att]our(iod!  let  not  man  prevail  againal  tbee."  Pro* 
the  account  of  Abijab's  defeat  of  Jenrfnain,  we  nay 
suppose  (hat  Ihe  priesia  sourtded  their  trumpet*,  and 
the  men  of  Judah  dcacended  wjib  a  sbuiit  (2  Chna. 
xiii,  14,  I&).  The  hills  and  mounlaina  were  the  fawr- 
ite  camping-places  of  the  Hebrews,  who  oaually  msbed 
down  upon  their  more  numerous  or  betur-discipliiied 
enemies  in  the  plaina  and  valleys.  If  the  battle  were 
deliberately  set  in  array,  it  would  hare  begun  early  in 
the  morning,  according  to  Ihe  usual  piacticc  of  thne 
times,  when  there  was  not  a  night^urpriie,  as  wbea 
Goliath  challenged  the  Israelite*  (t  Sam.  avii,  tO-tt}, 
and  when  Thothmrs  HI  f'Hight  the  Canaaniie*  aiUe- 
giihlo;  and,  as  we  mav  jinlge  from  the  long  pacvniia  at 
'uldhavebeeni      ■ 


hilly  I 


In  between  Ihe  capital  and  this  nuiposi  ofihe 
iribe  of  Judah.  The  inrailing  armv  had  swarmed  arriMS 
Ihe  isinler  and  ilevnured  the  Philistine  tielils  hefoie  Aiw 


s  archer*  would  thu*  hav 
I.  broken  bv  the  charge  ae 
flights  of  arrow, 


army  of  Zerah,  a 

nseleaa.     The  chariots,  broke 

horse*  made  iiumaiisgeaUe  I 

have  licen  forced  back  upon  the  cumliii'U*  boat  lietaind. 

'•  So  Ihe  Lord  amoie  Ihe  Ethiopian*  before  Aia,  and  te- 

foni  Judah  I  and  Ihe  Ktbiupian*  lied.    And  Aia  and  the 

peo|ile  thai  [were]  with  biro  puraoed  Ihem  uMo  Gov: 


ZERAH  10 

«nd  [or  "  fin"]  the  Elhinpiuu  wei«  nrerthrown,  thit 
lt»y  could  nnt  recover  thcmaelvH."  Thia  lut  diiiK 
Menu  to  reUte  to  in  inwocdiible  ovenhiuw  at  the 
Unit  UK),  indeed,  had  it  not  been  ao,  the  punuit  would 
not  Jiive  been  firried,  anij,i>  it  Bwoif,  at  once,  lieyand 
the  fmnliei.  So  cumpleie  Ha«  the  uvertbrow  that  Ihe 
Hebrews  could  capture  and  apoil  tbe  ciiies  anHiod  Geisr, 
which  mun  bave  been  in  alliance  with  Zerah.  From 
Iheae  cili«  they  look  very  much  apoil,  and  they  al» 
■mote  "the  ten»  of  cattU,  ■ml  carried  awav  nheep  and 
camels  in  abmiJanoe'  (2  Cbrrni.  xir,  9-15).  More 
seenw  to  bave  been  captured  fnim  the  Arabs  than  rmui 
tbe  anny  of  Zerah :  prubabiy  the  army  connaied  of  a 
niiL'leu*  iiT  regular  tnwp*^  ami  a  ereat  body  of  (ribiitaries, 
who  would  have  acauered  in  all  directimia,  learlng  iheir 
counlry  ofien  to  rrpiinb.  On  hit  rctiinl  to  Jenm- 
lem,  AiB  waa  met  by  Aiariah,  who  exhorted  him  and 
■be  peo]4e  la  be  raiibful  lo  God.  Aceordiiiitly  Au 
nude  ■  aecnnd  rerormaiinn,  and  collected  bla  aiihjecD 
at  JrruHlem  in  Ihe  third  miinth  nf  the  flfleenlh  year, 
•nd  marie  a  oovenani,  and  offered  of  Ihe  spoil  "  seven 
bundretl  oxen  and  sevpn  ibnitsand  sheep"  (xr,  1-16). 
Frofn  ihia  it  wnuUl  appear  that  the  battle  waa  funght 
in  the  precediiiK  winter.  The  success  vt  Au,  ami  Ihe 
manifeat  bleasing  thalaUended  hiiD,drew  lo  him  Kphia- 
iiDilea,  ManBsiies,  and  Simennitea.  Hi*  Tathet  hail  aU 
rradrcaptiiredciiiesin  ihe  Uneliiish  territory  (xili,19), 
■nd  he  held  citiet  in  Mount  Kpliraim  (xt-,  8),  tvd  then 
"  ■  '  "■  neon,  alwoya  at  the  mer- 


-Tulki 


uially 


.    Never  was  the  house  of  Dai 
■Her  thedefeclinn  of  tbe  ten  tribea;  but  soon  the  king 

of  calling  the  heathen  to  aid  him  against  Ihe  kindred 
Israeli  tea,  and  hiiedBeiiJiad*d,kinK  or  Syria-Uamascus. 
10  lay  their  cities  waste,  when  Hanaiii  Ihe  prophet  re- 
called to  him  Ihe  gntl  victory  he  had  achieved  when 
he  trusted  in  Ood  (xvi,  1-9).  The  aflcr-yeais  of  Asa 
were  tmublnl  with  wars  (ver.  9) ;  but  they  wen  with 
B«aaha(t  KinKa  x*,  10, 82).  Zerah  and  hia  (leople  had 
been  too  Mgnally  crushed  lo  attack  him  again.    See 

4.  T'jl'  idai/ytealiim  of  Zera  baa  necaaianed  some  dif- 
ference  of  opinian,  Tbe  term  Cuahile  ur  Ethiopian 
may  imply  that  he  was  of  Arabian  Cuah ;  the  principal 
objection  In  which  is  that  history  alKird*  mi  indicali 
that  Arabia  had  at  that  epoch,  ur  from  ill  ayalem 
govemment  could  well  have,  any  kinff  sn  powerful  aa 
Zerah.  That  he  waa  of  Abyaainia  or  African  Ethiopia, 
is  reMsted  by  the  dilllcutty  of  seeing  bnw  Ihia  "huge 
boat'  could  have  obtained  a  passage  thmugh  Egypt, 
■a  it  muM  have  done  lo  reach  Judna.  If  we  coiild  aup- 
poae,  with  Champollion  (Pricir,  p.  287),  whom  Coquerel 
follawa  (Btog.  3aer.  s.  v.),  thai  Zerah  tbe  Cushiie  was 
the  then  king  uf  Kgypt,  of  an  Ethiopian  di 
difficidty  would  be  aalieraclnrily  met.  But  lately  it  hai 
been  aupposed  that  Zerah  is  ilie  Hebrew  name  orUsar- 
ken  I,  second  king  of  the  Egyptian  twenty-second  dy- 
naaty;  or  perhaps  more  probably  Uaarken  II,  hia  second 
Bucceaaor.  This  is  a  tempting  explanaiiun,  but  cauiiol 
be  received  without  que<ilinn,and  ii  ia  not  deemed  aat- 
iafactory  by  Busellini,  Wilkiinnn,  Sharpe,  and  others. 
Jahn  baxards  an  ingenious  coiijecture,  that  Zerah  was 
king  at  Cush  on  both  sid<!a  of  Ibe  Ketl  Sea,  that  is,  of 
both  the  Arabian  and  African  Elliiri|iia;  an.l  ihus  pro- 
videa  him  a  suffiHenl  power  wiihouC  subjecting  him 
to  the  neceaaiiy  of  passint;  through  F^gypl.  There  are 
two  other  auppoaitions  which  are  not  deslitnle  of  prob- 
ability. It  ia  concei%-ed  eiiher  that  he  Kaa  a  native 
Kthinptan  general  who,  on  thla  occasion,  commanded 
Ihe  armies  uf  Egypt,  or  that  he  waa  an  Ethiopian  gen- 
eral who  lad  an  Ethiopian  amy  thmagh  Egt-pi,  now 
teparale  Oom  Ethiopia,  and  invaded  Judab  through 
Eitypt.  ThisqiKiiianiaawideronethanaeemsatnrM 
alght.  We  have  to  inquire  wliethar  Ihe  army  of  Zerah 
waa  that  of  an  Efryptian  kinc,  and,  if  ihe  reply  be  af- 
IrRtatin,  whether  it  waa  led  by  either  L'sarken  I  ur  H. 


iT  ZERAH 

The  warnfSbiahak  had  reduced  the  angle  of  AraUa 
iliat  divi.led  E^ypt  fium  Palestine.  Probably  Shisbak 
waa  unalde  lo  atlack  the  Aasyriana,  and  endeavored,  by 
aecuringihiilraci,liigusrdtheippruach  to  Egypt.  If 
the  army  of  Zerah  were  Egyptian,  thia  would  account 
for  il*  connection  with  ll>e  people  of  Gerar  and  ttia 
pastoral  tribes  of  the  neighborhood.  The  sudden  de- 
cline of  the  power  of  Egj'pt  afler  Ihe  reign  of  Shishak 
wmdd  be  explaii>ed  by  tbe  ovenbruw  of  tbe  Egyptian 
army  about  thirty  years  later. 

The  composition  of  the  army  of  Zerah,  of  Cuahim 
and  Lubim  (2  Chron.  xvi.  S),  cWly  resembles  that  of 
Shishak.  of  Lubim,  Sukkim,  and  Cushim  (xii,  S) :  both 


n<xii 


cvi,8). 


Tlie  Cuahim  might  have  been  of  an  Asiatic  Curii,  buE 
the  Lubim  can  only  have  been  AfricaniL  The  arm.v, 
theiefore,  muat  have  lieen  of  a  king  of  Egypt,  or  Ethi- 
opia above  Egypt.    The  unceruinty  ia  reiiM'ved  by  our 

finding  that  the  kings  of  the  twenty-aecnnd  dyiiaaly 
empUiied  mvrcenariea  of  Ihe  Maihiitciuka,  a  Libyan 
tribe,  which  apparently  supplied  Ihe  most  important 
part  of  their  hired  force.  The  army,  moreover,  aa  con- 
aitting  partly,  if  not  wholly,  of  a 


I  and  hi 


e  bor9« 


htheoc 


ceofih 


Nimrod,  in  Ihe  line  uf  the  Uaarkens,  but  that  line  ae 
rather  lo  hare  been  of  Eastern  Ihan  of  Western  Ethio- 
piana.  The  name  Usarken  has  been  thought  to  be 
Sargnn,  in  which  case  it  ia  unlikely,  but  nnt  impouible, 
that  another  Hebrew  or  Shemitic  name  ahouid  have 
been  adopted  to  repmeut  the  Egyptian  furm.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  kinca  of  Ihe  twenty-second  dynasty 
were  of  a  warlike  family,  and  (heir  sons  constantly  held 
military  commands.  Il  is  unlikely  ihat  an  imponant 
army  would  have  been  inlnuled  lo  any  but  a  king  or 
prince.  Unarken  is  leas  remote  from  Zerah  than  seems 
at  Brat  sight,  and,  accordtnj;  to  our  compulation,  Zerah 
might  have  been  Uurlcen  II,  but  according  to  Ur. 
Hincks's,  Usarken  I. 

6,  Prtlinatural  Cltrrraeltr  oflht  MireraHtr.—Tht 
defeat  of  Ibe  Egyptian  army  by  Asa  ia  without  parallel 
in  the  history  of  the  Jews,'  6n  no  other  occasion  did 
an  Israeliiish  army  meet  an  army  of  nne  of  tbe  great 
powers  on  either  side  and  defeat  it.  Sbisbak  was  un- 
oppuaed ;  Sennacherib  was  nni  met  in  Ihe  fleld ;  Necho 
'erthrew  Joaiah's  army;  Nebuchad- 


iMikeShial 


ly  forti 


Tbe  defeat  c 

the  puwer  of  faith  than  of  the  brarerv  of  the  Hebrews,  a 
single  wilnesa  (hat  the  God  of  IsrMJ  was  still  ihe  same 
who  badled  his  people  ihrmigh  theKed  9ea,  and  would 
give  them  the  aame  aid  il  they  tmneil  in  bim.  We 
bave,  indeed,  no  distinct  siatement  that  the  defeat  of 
Zerah  waa  a  miracle,  but  we  have  proof  enough  that 
(iud  provideniially  enabled  ihe  Hcbiews  to  vanquish  a 
force  greater  in  number,  elmnger  in  Ihe  appliancea  of 
war.  with  horaemen  and  chsrtots.  more  accurate  in  dia- 
cipline,  no  taw  levies  hastily  equippeif  from  the  king'a 
armory,  but  a  scasoneil  aiamling  militia,  strengthened 
and  more  terrible  by  Ibe  adiliiinn  of  swarms  of  hungry 
Arah^  brol  to  war,  and  whnee  whole  life  was  a  time  of 
inllagp.  Thia  great  deliverance  in  one  of  ibe  many 
proofs  ihatGod  la  in  his  people  ever  ihe  aame,  whether 
he  bids  Ihem  aland  alill  and  behoki  his  aalvatinn,  or 
nervea  them  with  lhat  couram  that  has  wrought  great 
things  in  hia  name  in  onr  later  age;  Ihus  it  bridges 
over  a  chasm  between  iwo  periods  outwanlly  unlike, 
aiHl  liids  us  see  in  hial»rv  (be  itnmutahiliiy  of  ttta  di- 
vine acdniia.     See  Eovrr. 


Zarahl'ab  (Heb.  Zrraehgah',  ■^^^'^^i  Jr/vnak  hat 
riiea ;  Sept.  Zapata  v.  i.  Zapaia),  the  niiue  uf  two  He- 

1.  A  pri«iit,  Mm  or  Uz^  did  father  of  Meraioth,  in 
the  incestry  of  the  Ister  Jewish  ponlilft  (1  Chron,  vi,  6, 
ei[Heh.v,3S;  vi,S0]),irHlorE2n(Eznvii,l).  B.a 
cir.  1350.     See  Hmii-PHIEST. 

2.  Fiiher  of  Elihoenai  "  nf  the  kiiu  of  Pahilh-nuMb" 
(Eznviii,  1).    Haaiile4R9. 

ZeiMm.    See  Taluud. 

Ze'rod  (Heb.  id.  T^T  [in  pann  Zn'red,  1^1,  Dent. 
ii.IS;  "Z>red,"Nunib.xxi,12],oiin'>brDak;  S«pt.Za- 
pil  V.  r.  Zapir  and  Zapi),  [he  aime  at  a  brook  or  valle]' 
(^^3)  on  the  border  between  Hoab  and  Edom  (Deul. 
ii,  IS), where  the  Ineelite*  encamped  befure  cnnring 
the  Atnon  (Numb,  mi,  Ii).  It  eeems  to  be  the  same 
with  the  fVaih)  tl-Aiiy,vhic\i  run*  into  the  Dead  Sea 
near  its  S.E.  comer  (KobinMin,  BiW,  Sn.  ii,  167),  La- 
boTile,  nulling  fnm  the  di>tanee,th'tiil»  that  the  source 
or  the  Wudr  GAirSndit  in  ibe  Arabah  ia  the  ^te,  aa 
Trom  Mount  Hiir  to  el-Ahsy  is  bj  way  at  Ezion-geber 
sixty-five  leaRues,  in  which  only  four  stage*  occur— a 
rate  nf  prngresg  (]iiite  bei  uiid  tlieir  power.  This  argu- 
nenl,  however,  is  Teelile.  since  it  is  clear  tbiC  the  march- 
stations  meniioned  indicate  not  daily  stac^  but  more 
permanent  encampoients.  He  also  thinks  the  palm- 
treea  of  Wady  UharDmlel  would  hare  attracted  notice, 
and  that  Wady  Jeiiium  (el-Ithm)  could  not  have  been 
the  way  cimaialenlly  with  the  precept  of  Deut.  ii,  3. 
The  camping  atation  in  the  catalogue  of  Numb,  xitiii, 
which  corresponda  to  the  "pitching  in  the  valley  of  Ze- 
nd"ri(jixi,  12,19  pnibabtv  Dibun-gad,  aa  italands  next 
to  lj(sabarim(cotiip,xxxiii,44,Uwithxxi,12).  The 
Wady  el-Ahiy  forms  the  boundaiy  between  the  districtn 
of  Jebal  and  Kerak.  Taking  iu  rise  near  the  caatle  of 
et-Ahny,  on  the  mute  of  the  Syrian  HsJ,  upon  the  high 
casteni  desen,  it  breaka  down  through  the  whola  chain 
of  mountains  ( tturckhardi,  TrartU,  p.  tWf)  in  a  veiy 
deep  ravine,  and  contains  a  hot  spring  which  the  Arabs 
call  the  «  Bath  of  Solomon  son  of  David"  (Irby,  May 
39).  The  landites  doubllesa  croaaed  it  near  its  upper 
end,  where  it  w»utd  preaeiit  no  ditRculty.    See  £x- 

The  Jewtah  interpreters  translate  the  name  iti  the 
Brst  case  "  oaiera,"  and  in  the  aecond  "  bankets''  (Targum 
of  Pseudo-Jonathan), which  recalla  tlie  "brook  uf  the 
billows"  of  luiah  (XV,  -\  The  name  St./,../  Cwil- 
!..«)  19  altnched  to  the  valley  which  runi  down  frwn 
Korak  in  the  Dead  Sea;  but  this  appears  In  lie  Ino 
far  north  for  the  Zeted.    See  WiLiAwa,  Biumk  or 

Zat'eda  (Heb.  with  the»tt.SaU.Tiendnlk',tvr\tn, 
fKr/irrm>[FHrst]oTfte<»DJ[Ge9en.]:  Stpl.  ^  iiipiia 
v.T.Saptpa;  V ulp. Samh),  atnwn  in  MountEphraim, 
the  Irirthplace  of  Jembnam  the  son  of  Nebat  ( 1  Kings 
xi,  26),  In  an  addition  made  bv  the  Sept.  to  ch.  xii, 
Sariia  (as  this  place  is  called  by  anme  USS.)  h  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Jeroboam  for  Solomon,  and  it  is 
ataled  that  in  it  Jerubnam  returned  when  he  came  out 
of  E^ypt.  The  unie  paiaage  further  siibatituies  it  for 
Tirztik,  It  seenn  to  have  been  located  as  a  fattnw  on 
aome  strong  position.    On  this  account,  as  well  as  be- 

be  (as  many  think)  the  same  with  Ztrtdolha,  ZtrraH. 
or  Zarlhaa,  which  lay  in  the  -Inrdan  rallev,  Lieut. 
Conder  (TM  ITori:  in  Pattri.  ii,S4n)  ideniin'ea  it  with 
Sardah,  a  village  little  more  than  a  mile  aouth  of  Jufua 
[Tristram,  £tWe  Ptacft.pAlO). 

Zered'athab  (Heb.  Trrrdu'lAak,  nrT^a,  which 
la  the  same  word  with  Znrda  above,  with  n  Incal  added ; 
Sept.  St/ifaii  v.  r.  SaoifSoSn  and  SainiS :  Vulg.  ■ 
■(ni).menlioneil  asthe  place  "f  iSolon 


88  ZERUBBABEL 

Zer'entb  [aoma  Zm'ratit].  or  rather  Zn'nac 
(Heb.  Ttfrtrak;  TT^^X,with  H  local  •d.lnl,  Tttrrn'. 
rAoA,  nr.^^X,  to  ZmraK,  peril,  an  intttiAaiige  ft» 
Ztrtduh,  aa  same  HSS.  and  TersioD*  read;  Sept.  Tbt>- 
payoJa  v.  r.  xai  ™ifjY(ii«^i  Vnlg.  anilB>,  a  ptote 
menliuufd  (Judg.  vii,  22)  in  describing  the  rnM  uf  Ibt 
Hidianitea  befnre  Gideon:  "And  the  boat  [cuop]  M 
to  [as  far  aa]  Beth  -  ah  it  tab  in  [towards]  Zereraik 
[Zererah],  and  [L  e.  even]  to  [aa  far  as]  the  border  of 
AbeUisebolah,  unto  [upon;]  Tabbailt,"  It  appean  f 
hare  been  Ibe  aame  place  in  the  Jordan  v^ley  tkr- 
where  called  Ztrtdalhak  (q.  v.)  or  Zairta»  (q.  t.),  lait 
not  Zrrrda  (q,  v.). 

Ze'rSBh  (Heb.  id.  t'^l.  Tertian  lot  gold;  Sept. 
Zmanpa  v.  t.  Stianpai  Joaepbus,  Zapofta,  Awl.  xL  I, 
tO;  Tulg.  Zarr»),  the  wife  of  Haman  tbe  Agigite 
(Esth.  V,  10),  who  advised  bim  to  pnpan  the  gaUnwi 
for  Uonlecai  (ver.  14),  bat  predicted  bis  fall  na  learn. 
ingthatHocdecaiwaaa  Jew(vi,13).    B.a4:i.    St* 

Z«retb.    See  Spar. 

Ze'reth  (Heb.  Tte-rrll,,  n^^,  pn>b.q>InMl<r.-  Stpt 
SipE^v.r.  £iipi3aDd'A^;  \u]g.  Srreli),  6ni  namH 
of  the  three  sous  of  Ashur  (the  Judahite  and  founder  of 
Tekoa )  by  one  of  bis  wivea,  Helah  (  L  CbtotL  iv.  7 ). 
KCcir.  IG12. 

Za'li(Heb.r*rH-,*nX;  3ept.£oi)pi;  Tolg.&n'), 

thun  in  the  Leviiical  inuuc  (I  Cbroo.  xxv,  S ) ;  psb- 
ably  the  same  elsewhere  (ver.  II)  called  by  tbeequiT*- 
lent  name  of  Uri  (q.  v.). 

Ze'ror(Heb.7'*n-or',1^*^X,ahnMi,aa often:  Sept, 
£iipiip  V.  r.  'Apit  and  'lapiJ;  Tulg.  Stror},  a  Benja- 
niite,son<irBecbDralb  attd  fttber  of  Abiel  in  theamk 
try  of  king  Saul  (1  Sus.  ii,  1).    RC  dr.  1280. 

Zani'ah  (Heb.  Ttmiai'.  ns%-^I,  assAfn  wiib  bp. 
rosy  [Oeeen.J  or/aU-imlid  [rurai];  SepL  tnptti. 
Vnlg.  5ami),  the  widowed  tDotberof  Jeiobawn  tbe  sas 
DfNebat(lKingixI,gfi).  aa973.  In  the  >ddiiioDal 
narrative  of  the  Sept.  inserted  after  1  Kinga  xii,  21,  ilie 
ia  called  Sarira  (a  corruption  ofZereda,Jersbauo'soa- 
tire  place),  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  harloc. 

Zenib'lMboI  (  Heb.  Zrmibober,  i>aa~T.  fn  ia 
Batfimi  Sept.  Zofio/B j/3eX ;  Jowphus,  Zop<)'^<i.fl(X»(), 
the  phylarch  or  head  of  the  tribe  nf  Judah  at  the  tisx 
of  the  return  from  the  Babylnnian  captivity  in  tbe  dtsi 
year  of  Cyrus.  aC.  636.  His  exact  parentage  ia  a 
little  obacure  from  his  being  alwavs  called  the  nn  if 
Shealtiel  (Eira  iii,  2,  8j  v,  %  etc.j  Hag.  i,  1,  II,  14. 
etc),  and  appearing  as  auch  in  the  genealoinM  <"  Zan>~ 
babel,"Mali.  i,  IS;  Ijike  iii,  IT),  whereas  in  1  Oirnii. 
iii,  19  he  is  represented  aa  tbe  son  of  Pedaiah,  SbealiieTt 
or  Salathiel's  brnther,  and  mnsequently  as  SaUihirTs 
nephew.  I'mbably  tbe  geneali^v  in  I  Chron,  cxhihii> 
hia  legal  parentage,  anil  he  succeciled  his  iinde  aa  head 

the  fads  that  Saliibiel  appears  as  the  finl-linni.  aiid 
that  no  childten  are  anif^ned  to  bim.  It  is  worth  »a. 
log  that  Josephus  speaks  of  Zun>babel  a*  "  the  son  ..r 
Satathiel  of  the  posleritv  of  David  and  of  the  tribr  li 
Judah"  (Ant.  xi,  8, 10).  Had  he  believed  him  to  Ir 
the  son  of  Jeconiah,  of  whom  he  bad  spokpn  (x,  11.  ?>. 
he  could  hardly  have  failed  to  say  so  (cnmp.  x,  7,  1 1. 


(Seeb. 


w.) 


1.  Caaoaical  nittory, — In  the  flnt  year  of  CVms.  Ze- 
rubbabel  was  living  at  Babylon,  and  waa  lb«  icoognind 
prince  (iCiCJ)  of  Judah  in  the  Captivity,  what  in  Uix' 
time*  was  «lle.l  n:jsb»n  e-<T  or  "  tlie  PriiKe  of  ika 
Captirity."  On  the  issuing  nf  Cyrus's  decree,  be  famf- 
diatfly  availed  himself  of  it,  and  placed  himadf  at  ib« 
bead  nf  those  of  hiseonntrytTwn  "whose  spirit  Gad  bad 
raiieil  to  go  up  to  build  the  house  nf  the  Lord  whict  ■> 
ill  Jerusalem."     It  is  probable  that  he  waa  in  the  Lies 


ZEBTJBBABEL  10 

«f  Babylon'^  Nrvice,  bolh  rtom  his  btving,  tike  Diniel 
ami  the  three  children,  i¥cei*cd*Ch>lile«  nuat  (_Shttli- 
Acuuii),  anil  fntm  liis  teceiviDg  rnid  Cyrua  (he  oSee 
of  govcniot  (nna)  of  Judm.  The  reatoutioa  of  the 
aacred  vr»el>  which  Nebuchatliiezur had  broughtrrom 
the  Tenple  having  been  effecled,  aiid  copious  presenu 

bcMowed  upoD  the  captireK,  Zcniljliaiwi  went  Torlh  at 
t)ie  head  of  the  returnin;;  colony,  acronipaiiied  by  Jeah- 
■la  the  high-prieit,  and  peibapa  by  the  pmplieu  Kag- 
f;ai  and  Zechariah.andiconBiileralile  number  nf  prieati, 
L.eviies,  and  heada  of  houeei  at  Jinlah  and  Ikiijamiii, 
\Ti(h  tbeir  rollowen.  Uii  anivian  al  Jeruialeni,  Zeriib- 
liBbel'd  ficat  care  wu  to  builil  the  allar  on  ita  old  site, 
mill  In  reatore  the  daily  aacriHce.  TcrhaiH,  nlao,  Ihey 
kept  [he  Feaat  of  Tabemaclea,  aa  it  ia  laid  ihej  did  in 
Kzra  iii,  4.  But  hia  great  wnrk,  which  he  aet  about 
Immeiliitelj,  vaa  the  tebuiliiing  of  the  Temple.     Being 


nrmeil  with  a  grai 


ilding,  and  of  money  f»r  the  expenaea  of  the 
biiildera  (Cub  ri,  4),  be  had  collecleil  the  -  '     - 

clnding  cedar-treei  brought  fmni  I^liai 
acconling  to  the  precedent  in  the  time  of  Solomon  (i 
Chron.  ii,  lt>),  and  got  Ingelher  maaona  and  cirpenl 
m  da  the  work  by  the  opening  uf  the  second  yi 
of  their  return  lo  Jeruaalem.      Acrortlingly,  in  I 
second  month  of  the  second  year  of  their  return,  ibe 
foundation  of  the  Temple  was  laid  nith  all  Ih 

which  they  could  command :  the  pricala  in  the..  

tmnla  wiili  trnnipeia,  and  the  auna  of  Xaaph  with  cym- 
Uala,  iHnging  the  very  aamc  (oalm  of  praiae  furGod'a  un 
Tailing  mercy  to  larael  which  waa  aung  wbea  Solomoi 
dedicated  hia  Temple  <t,  11-14);  while  the  people  re- 
sponded with  agreatahoutorjoy"lieciUM  the  fonndal  ion 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord  was  laid."  How  atrange  must 
have  been  the  emotions  of  Zerubbabel  at  (bii  moment! 
Ai  he  stood  upon  Mount  Zion  and  beheld  from  ita  anm- 
mit  the  desolatioiis  of  Jeruaalem,  the  aite  of  the  Temple 
blank,  David's  palace  a  heap  of  aihes,  hia  fathet'a  aep. 
iilcbres  deKled  and  overlaid  with  rubbiah,  and  the  ulence 
of  deaertion  and  empiinesa  hanging  oppreniveli 


the  si 


:e  placea  of  what  w 


I.J.J 


mbered  hnw 
David  had  brought  up  the  ark  in  Iriunipb  to  thi 
spot  where  he  waa  then  acandiiig,  hoti  Solomon  had 
reigned  there  in  all  hia  magnificence  and  power,  and 
bow  the  petty  kings  and  polentateaofthe  neighboring 
nstiona  had  been  hia  vassala  and  tribntarira — how  must 
his  heart  alternately  have  swelled  with  pride,  and  throb- 
bed with  anguish,  and  sunk  in  humitialinn!     In  the 

a  foreign  heathen  deaput^  the  head  of  a  feeble  remnant 
o(  half-emancipated  alavea,  the  captain  of  a  banrl  hardly 
able  to  hold  uplhair  hesila  in  the  preaence  of  their  hos- 
tile and  jealoua  neighbors;  anil  yet  there  he  was,  the 
sun  of  David,  the  heir  uf  great  and  myacerioui  prom- 
iiies,  returned  by  a  wonderful  proviiltnce  to  the  home 
of  hia  aiiccstora.  At  hia  bidding  the  daily  sacrifice  had 
been  restored  after  a  ceaaaiion  of  half  a  century,  and 
now  the  foundationa  o{  the  Temple  were  actually  laid, 
■mid  the  songs  of  the  Levilea  ainging  according  to 
David's  ordinance,  and  tfae  ahoutsof  the  tribe  of  Juilah. 
{t  waa  a  heart-atirring  aituatian:  and,  despite  all  the 
diacouragemenis  attending  it,  we  cannot  doubt  that 
ZerubUabera  faith  and  hope  were  kindled  by  it  into 
freah  life. 

But  there  were  many  hindrancea  and  ilelaya  to  be 
encounUred  before  the  work  waa  flnielieil.  The  Samar- 
itans or  Cnthesn*  put  in  a  claim  to  join  with  the  Jewa 
io  rebuilding  the  Temple;  and  when  Zerubbabel  and 
hia  companions  refused  to  admit  them  into  partnerahip, 
(hey  tried  to  hinder  them  from  building,  and  hired 
caunaellnra  to  frustrate  their  purpoae.  I'licy  probably 
contrived,  in  the  Arst  instaiure,  (o  intercept  Ihe  supplies 
of  timber  and  stone,  and  the  wages  of  Ihe  workmen, 
vbich  wera  paid  out  uf  the  king's  rerenue,  and  then  by 
X.— 3B 


ZERUBBABEL 


Ihey  were  successful  in  putting  a  atop 
lo  the  work  during  the  aeven  remaining  ycara  of  ilie 
reigii  of  Cyma,  and  through  the  eight  years  of  Camby- 
ses  and  Sinenlis.  Nor  diiea  Zerubbabel  appear  quite 
blamelcaa  for  this  long  deky.  1  lie  ditEculiica  in  Ihe 
way  ufbuiUling  the  Temple  were  notauch  as  need  have 
slopped  Ibe  nork;  and  during  this  long  suapcnaiun  of 
rixleeii  yeara,  Zerubbabel  and  thereat  of  the  iicnple  bad 
been  busy  in  building  costly  houses  fur  themselves,  and 
one  might  even  suspect  that  the  cedar-wood  which  hod 
been  brought  for  the  Temple  had  been  used  lo  decorate 
private  dwellings  (cump.  the  use  of  'i^O  in  Ha^  i,  4, 
and  1  Kings  vii,  3,  7).  They  had,  in  fact,  ceased  to 
care  for  the  doanlaiion  of  the  Temple  (Hagg.  i,  2-4), 
and  had  not  nuiiced  that  God  was  rebuking  their  hike- 
warmnesa  br  withholding  his  bles^ng  from  (heir  la- 
bors (rer.  5-11).  But  in  the  aecond  year  of  Dariua 
light  dawned  upini  the  darkness  of  the  colony  fnnii 
UiabyloLU  In  that  year — it  was  the  moat  menioralle 
event  in  Zerubbabers  life — the  spirit  of  prophecy  and- 
denly  Uaied  up  with  a  most  brilliant  light  among  the 
returned  captives;  and  the  long  silence  which  waa  (o 
enaue  (ill  (he  ministry  of  John  (ho  Bapliat  was  pre- 
ceded by  Ihe  altrring  utterances  of  Haggai  and  Zecha- 
riah.  'Their  worde  fell  like  B|>Brlu  upon  liuder.  tn  a 
moment  Zerubbabel,  mused  from  his  apathy,  threw  bis 
whole  strength  into  the  work,  lealously  seconded  by 
Jeahua  and  all  the  people.  Undeterred  by  a  frcsb  at- 
tempt of  their  enemies  to  hinder  the  progress  of  the 
huihiing,  they  went  on  with  the  wnrk  even  while  a 
reference  was  made  to  Darius;  and  when,  after  the 
original  decree  of  Cyrus  had  been  found  at  Ecbatana, 
a  most  grscioua  ami  favorable  decree  was  issued  by  Da- 
rius, enjoining  Talnai  and  Sheiharboznai  lo  asaiat  the 
Jews  with  whatsoever  they  had  need  of  at  the  king's 
expense,  the  work  advanced  so  rapidly  lliat  on  the  third 
day  oftbe  month  Adar,  in  the  sixlh  year  of  Daring  the 
Temple  waa  finiahed,  and  waa  forthwith  dedicated  with 
much  pomp  and  rejoicing.  It  is  difGcult  lo  calculate 
how  great  was  Ihe  effect  of  the  projihecies  of  Haggai 
and  Zcchariah  in  sualaining  the  courage  and  energy 
of  Zerubbabel  in  carrying  hia  work  to  completion.  Ad. 
drenaed,  as  many  of  (hem  were,  directly  to  Zerubbabel 
byname;  speaking,  aa  they  did,  moat  glorioua  things  of 
the  Temple  which  he  waa  building;  conveying  lo  Ze- 
rubbabel himself  extraordinary  assurances  of  divine  fa- 
vor, and  coupling  with  them  magnificent  and  conaola- 
lory  predictions  of  the  future  glury  uf  Jerusalem  and 
Judab  and  of  the  conversion  of  (he  Gentiles,  (bey  nce- 

(Hagc.i,  13,14;  i>,4~9,  Sl-23;  Zech.  ir,6.IO;  viii,8- 
...   ».      1^  -^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^1^  1^  ^^  ii^^^  ^1^^^ 

prophecies  upon  Zerubbabel  wore  the  immediate  inatru- 
t  by  which  (he  Church  and  commonwealth  of  Ju. 
were  preaerred  from  dealraclion  and  received  ■ 
life  which  emlurcd  till  the  coming  of  Christ. 

The  only  other  works  of  Zerubbabel  which  we  learn 
from  the  Scripture  hiaioty  arc  the  restoration  of  the 
course*  of  priests  and  Levites,  ami  of  the  proviaioti  for 

id  (Ezra  vi,  18;  Neb.xii,47);  the  registering  of  the 
returned  captives  accoriling  to  their  genealogies  (vii,  S); 
and  the  keeping  of  a  Passover  in  the  seventh  year  of 
Dariua,  with  which  last  event  ends  all  that  we  know  of 
the  life  of  Zerubbabel  the  son  of  .Sbcaltiel-a  man  infe- 
rior to  few  of  the  great  charactera  of  Scripture,  wheih- 
er  we  consider  the  perilous  undertaking  to  which  he 
devoted  himself,  the  importance  in  the  economy  of  the 
divine  goveniment  of  hia  work,  his  courageous  faith,  or 
the  singidar  distinction  of  being  the  i>bject  of  so  many 
and  such  remarkable  propheiic  nttarances. 

9.  The  Apociypial  iiiloiy  of  Zerubbabel,  which,  u 

nal,  Joaephus  folio  -     ■-  -  ■    -  -        '- 


a  great 


1  r.sdr.  iii-vii  ia  that  or 
lade  by  Dariua  on  hia  oi 


ZERCBBA6EL  10 

rion,  tbrea  ymmg  men  or  bia  body-guard  bid  ■  contest 
who  ibould  write  Che  wiHst  sentence.  One  or  the 
tbree  (Zenibbabel)  writing  "  Womeu  are  alrongest,  but 
•bove  all  thinga  Tiuth  bearclh  iWKV  the  victory,"  ud 

nfterwanli  defeniliiii;  hi*  lenience  with  much  eloquence, 
WM  dedired  by  JKcUrami  ion  10  be  the  *i»e»t,  «nd  ctaim- 
«d  fur  bie  reward  at  the  king's  hind  that  tbe  king 
thould  perfonn  his  vow  which  he  h»d  vowed  to  rebuild 
Jeniulem  iiid  the  Temple.    Upon  this  the  king  gave 


him 


■II  h 


idgOTen 


h  gnnu  of  money  snd  cxcmp- 


other  siile  the 
lion  from  taxes,  and 
the  Tem[)le,  accompanied  by  tbe  Tamiliei  of  which  the 
list  is  given  in  Ezra  ii,  Neh.  vii ;  and  then  fnUowa,  in 
utter  confusion,  the  biatory  of  Zenibbabel  a*  giren  in 
Scripture.  Apparently,  too,  tbe  compiler  did  not  per- 
ceive that  Samabaiar  (Sheahbaizar)  was  the  same  per- 
«on  as  Zenibbabel.  Josephus,  indeed,  Heioi  to  identify 
Shethbazzar  with  Zenibbabel,  and  tries  to  reconcile  the 
atory  in  1  Ewiras  by  saying, "  Now  it  to  fell  out  that 
about  this  lima  Zorobabel,  who  bad  been  made  govern- 
or of  the  Jews  that  had  been  in  captivity,  came  to  Da- 
rius from  Jerusalem,  for  there  bad  been  an  old  friend- 
ship between  liim  and  the  king," etc.  (jIh^  xi,3}.  But 
II  the  face  oT  it  iliat  thia  ia  rimplv  Joae- 


»  ZERUUH 

reckonetl  as  Sslathlel'a  heir  [Ein  iii,  S}).  [Ter.flJ  ' 
Tbe  deieendauts  of  the  above  Hanaiiiah  weie  Pelattst 
and  Jesaiab,  besidea  the  children  of  ■  third  «■  Jb- 
pkaiah,  together  with  those  of  Anna  (one  of  ibe  lan- 
menlioued  children),  and  in  like  manner  the  issue  afiui 
of  his  son  Obadiak  and  grandson  8hrciu,„ial.  [Vir. 
2f  ]  The  fatinly  of  this  last  consisted  of  itix  deiteDdaDii, 
namely,  bin  son  Sktmaiah,mm\  grandchildren  ilaUmls 
Igeal,  itariah,  Statiah,  and  Shsphai.  [Ver.  -J3]  Nniish 
had  three  son*,  EUomai,  Hczekiah,  and  Airiiam;  [ttt. 
21]  and  Elioenai  again  aeven,  namelv,  Hodalab.  ££■■ 
■bib,  relaiah,  Akkub,  Jokaum,  Dela'iab,  and  AnaaL" 
An  objection,  it  must  be  admitted,  lies  against  ihia  u- 
langement,  namely,  that  it  brings  down  the  list  ■■  i 
Utei  date  than  the  cl»e  of  the  Old-Test,  caoon  (EC 
40G),  requiring  the  supposition  of  ihe  addiiioa  of  iok 
hand.    AnotberTiew, 


e  lini 


r  Umiii, 


pbus'a  invention  to  reconcile  1  Eadr.with  tbe  i 
Ezra.    Jnwphus  has  also  another 
story  (Sad.  xi,  4,  9}  which  is  not 

found  in  1  Esilros.  of  Zombabel  go- 
ing on  an  embasoy  to  Darius  to  ac- 
cuse tbe  Samaritan  governors  and 
faipparchs  of  withholding  from  the 
Jews  the  graiiu  made  by  Darius 
out  of  the  royal  treasury  for  the  of- 


given  under  Daril's  1.  The  above  adjuatment,  how- 
ever, is  not  only  confunneil  to  the  nstaral  view  of  Ibc 
text,  but  ia  also  confirmed  by  not  ■  few  striking  hmd- 
cidencea  in  namea  and  descent  with  the  genealofpes  o/ 
OUT  Lord  as  given  by  the  erangelisia.  The  faUowiag 
table  will  exhibit  these  at  a  glance  (see  Stmif,  Bar- 
mong  aid  Er^otitiim  eflht  Goiptli,  %  9).  Sec  Udeai^ 
nanical  \  oox  (of  Ciihist). 


Sbecbaniah 


HBariah 


feting  of  sacriflces  and  other 
pie  expenses,  and  of  his  obtaining 
a  decree  from  the  king  command- 
ing his  ofUcets  in  Samarin  to  sup- 
ply the  high-prieat  with  all  that  he 
required.  But  that  this  is  not  au- 
thentic history  seems  pretty  certain 
from  tbe  names  of  the  governors, 
SamUiboi  being  an  imitation  or 
corruption  ofSaiitaUa',7'ini$inif>  or 
Talwii  (at  Thauthanai,  as  in  Sept), 
Sadruett  of  Sathrabouaanea,  con- 
fused with  .SAodrucA.fioicfo  of  Zorobabel;  and  the  names 
of  Ihe  ambassadon,  which  are  manifeatly  copied  from 
the  list  in  1  Esdr.  v,  S,  where  Zorobabel,  Enenitis,  and 
Hardochnua  corrcapond  to  Zotnbabrl,  Ananias,  and  Mar- 
docbauB  of  Joeepbus,  Moreover,  Ihe  letter  or  decree  of 
Darius  as  given  bv  Joaephua  is  aa  minifeslly  copied  from 
Ihe  decree  uf  Dariui  in  Eira  vi,  0-10.  In  all  probabili- 
ty, Iherefoie,  tbe  document  used  by  Josephuswasoneof 
those  nnmerui IS  Apocryphal  religioua  romances  of  which 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  were  so  fond  about  the  4th  and 
8d  century  before  Chriat,  and  waa  written  partly  to  ex- 
plain Zarobabel's  presence  at  the  court  of  Darius,  as 
spoken  of  in  1  Eailras,  partly  to  explain  thai  ofUordeeai 
at  the  court  of  Abasueriis,  though  he  waa  in  the  lial  of 
those  who  wrre  Ziirobabel'i 


ay 


.niiy  for 


narrative,  and  dwelling  upon  bygone  limes  of  Jewish 

S.  The  list  of  Zenibbabel's  potlrriiy  in  1  Cbion.  iii, 
19-S4  is  gomewhat  confused.  Perhaps  its  statements 
may  be  barmoniaed  with  themselves  and  with  tho  New- 
Teat.  geneaJngies,  if  the  entire  paasaire  read  thus:  [ver, 
19]  "The  issue  of  Pcdaiah  were  ZttubbiiM  (by  his 
bniiher  Salalhid'a  widow),  Sbiniei  (to  wham  mav  be 
added  ZerubUabcl'achildren.MesliulUn),//aniinia*;an.l 
a  daoghicr  Shcl.-milh),  [ver.  20]  Haabubah,  Ohel, 
Berechiib,  anil  Hnsadiah  (called  also  Juahab-heseil), 
making  In  all  lira  aooa  (besidea  Zerubbabel,  who  was 


aonil'all  (Heb.  T-Hrwyn*',  mnx  [1  Sam.xiv,l 
rn-^X],  Koinded  [Gesen.]  or  tobum  [Fnrst]:  Sift. 
andJooephus,  Sapovta;  Vulg.  £orna),  ■  womaB  ami 
as  the  mother  of  the  three  leading  bcroea  of  DtnA 
army^Abiahai,  Joab,  and  A»hel— Ihe  "sons  of  Ztra- 
uh''(l  Sam.xxvi,e;  2  Sam.  ii,  IB;  1  Kings  i,  7.  flc>. 
B.C!.anle  ll>4&  Sheand  Abigail  are  specilied  in  IbiiK- 
neakigy  of  David's  family  in  1  Chron.ii,  13-17  as  "ni- 
ten  vfthesonaof  Je«ae''(ver.l6;  cnmp.  Jowphan^  J •'. 
vi,  10, 1).  The  exptea^on  ia  in  ilaelf  enough  to  rais  s 
ausfdcion  that  the  waa  not  a  daughter  of  Jesae,  a  <•»' 
picion  which  is cvtroboraled  by  Ihesiatementsf  S.Saia. 
xvir,  3E,  that  Abigail  waa  Ihe  daogblev  of  Nabsk 
Abigail  being  appuenily  the  joniiger  of  the  two  sn- 
en,  it  is  a  probable  inference  that  thry  n  eve  buth  ikF 
daughters  of  Nahash,  but  whether  ibis  Nahash  be— •• 
Prof.  Stanley  has  ingeniously  conjectured — the  kmfct 
the  Ammonites,  and  the  former  husband  of  Jeise'i  oifc. 
or  some  other  person  unknown,  moat  fonver  reniais  t 
mere  conjecture.  See  David;  Nakagr.  Her  retanaa 
to  Jeiae  (in  theorigioal  Ishai)  ia  exprriaid  in  the  ntw 
uf  her  son  Ab-ishai,  Of  Zeni lab's  bttsband  (here  ■•• 
menlian  in  Ihe  Bible.  Josrphua  (^af.  vii,  1,1)  ei 
illy  slates  that  bis  name  was  ^san' (Xovpi),  twt  ng  a*- 
robontion  of  ttte  statement  appears  to  have  btt*'* 
covered  in  tbe  Jewish  tradiliuns,  nor  dues  Josifkia 
himself  refer  to  it  again.  The  mother  of  sBch  reaoft- 
able  sons  must  henelf  have  been  a  renurfcahie  amca^ 
and  this  may  account  fur  Ihe  ract,unuBusd  if  not  ■B|■^ 
that  ihebmily  is  always  called  aftei  lwr,aiidtt>M 


ZETHAM  10 

hmbaair*  uim  hu  not  been  ooiuidcnd  worthf  orpre»- 
ervilion  in  Ibe  ucred  iccordi. 

Ze'tliam  { Heb.  Zt/ham',  BnT,  prab.  L  q.  Zdhan 
[q.  T.]  1  Sept.  Z<3d/i  V.  r.  Zo5u/i,  ZtiHv,  etc ;  Vulg. 
ZnliaiH,  Zalhuia),  ■  gnndna  oT  L4>dan,  t  U«rsbonile 
Levite  (i  Cbnm.xxiii,  8),Buociiiled  with  bis  hther, 
Jehicl  or  Jeliieli,  iDil  his  brother  Joel,  in  charge  of  Ihc 
Temple  Ireuury  (xivi,  22>     RC.  1048, 

Za'than  (  Heh.  ZfyrAan',  in-n,  o^'n  [G«en.]  or 
ikiia^  [FUrat];  Sept-Zmaai- v.r.'H^av;  Vulg.Ze- 
(4aii),  fifth  lumnl  of  [he  Kven  •ont  of  KIbin,  >  Beii- 
junite  (1  Chrod.  vii,  10).     B.C.  pmb.  1014. 

Ze'thaT  (Heb.  Zrthar;  Ipl,  proli.  Persian,  eitlier 
tlar  [Gwen.]  or  «iHTt>»  [FUni];  Sept.  'AjiaTniaf. 
Tulg.  Ztliar),  uxth  named  oF  the  Mven  eunuchs  oT 
Abasnenu  who  attended  upon  the  king,  and  were  corn- 
minded  to  bring  Vasbli  into  his  presence  (Eith.  i,  ID), 
B.C483. 

Zi'a  (Heb.  id.  g-"!,  nolirm  [desen.]  or  IrrHJitJ 
[Flint];  Sepl, Zia  T.  r.  Zoui ;  Vulg. 2ie), aixlh  named 
of  the  seven  Uadite  chiers  letideut  in  Bashan  (1  Chron. 
*,  18>     Raprob.1014. 

Zl'ba  (Heb.  Ttiba',  Xa-iS  [briea.v  S^X,  2  Sam. 
xvi,  i\,  plaaf,UioH  [Flint]' or  itatat  [Ueien.]!  Sept. 
£i/3a  T.  I.  liji^a  i  Josephus,  li0ac:  Vulg.  Siia),*  per- 
son who  playa  a  prominent  parr,  though  with  doubtful 
credit  to  himself,  in  one  of  the  epinndes  of  David's  history 
(2  Sara,  ix,  2-12;  XTi.l^i  xix,IT,29).  He  had  been 
a  slave  (TS?)  of  (he  house  of  Saul  before  the  overthrow 
ot  his  kingdom,  and  (probably  at  the  lime  of  the  gtti 
Fbiliatine  iiicursioo  which  proved  so  fatal  tc  ' 
ter's  family)  had  been  set  free  (Josephus,  Ant 
It  was  of  him  that  Darid  inquired  if  there  wi 
left  of  the  house  of  Saul  to  whom  the  monarch  might 
■bow  favor.  RC  1(M4.  Hephibosheth  was  in  ' 
aequence  found,  and  having  be«ii  certitied  of  Dai 
friendship,  Ziba  was  appranted  to  till  the  land  fur  the 
|wiu(s,  and  generally  to  consUlule  his 
do  him  service  (,i  Sam.  ix,  2.10).  The  opportunities 
thus  afforded  him  he  hod!  Bo  far  improved  that  when 
lirst  encountered  in  the  history  ho  ia  head  of  an  ealab- 
lishment  of  Snccit  sona  and  twenty  slaves.  David's 
reception  of  Mcphiboaheth  had  the  effect  of  tbroir- 
ing  Ziba  with  his  whole  establiahment  hack  into  the 
state  of  bondage  from  which  he  bad  so  long  t«en  free. 
It  reduced  him  from  being  an  independent  landholder 
til  the  poution  of  a  mere  dependent.  When  David 
had  li>  fly  from  Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  the  rebell- 
ian  of  Absalom,  Ziba  met  the  kins  with  a  large  and  ac- 
ceptable present:  *'  But  where  is  Mephiboahelh  7"  asked 
the  fugitive  monarch.  "In  Jerusalem,"  was  theanawer; 
"  for  be  said,  To-day  shall  Ibe  bouse  of  Israel  restore  me 
the  kingdom  uf  my  fsther."  Eiin^d  at  this,  which 
looked  like  ingrslilude  as  well  as  treachery,  David  tbenv 
upoa  gave  to  Ziba  all  the  property  of  Mephiboehetb 
<xvi,  1  eq.).  On  David's  return  to'  hia  melmpolis  an 
explanation  took  place,  when  Mephibnsheth  accuacd 
Ziba  of  baring  slandered  him ;  aud  David,  apparently 

t  being  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  defence,  gave  hia 


See  Mkphi 

Zlb'eon  (Heb.  Tiilm,',  lisSX,  ifyft  [Oesen.]  or 
rctUr  f  FllrM]t  Sept.  Sflity-iif';  Vulg.  Sebrm),  the 
father  ofAiuh,  whose  daughter  Aholibamah  was  Esau's 
•rife  (Qen.  iwcvi,  2).  RC.  ante  1»G3.  Although 
called  a  Hiviie,  he  it  probablv  the  same  as  Zibeon  the 
■oil  of  Seir  the  Horite  (ver.  211,  24,  29;  1  Chron.  i,  38, 
40).  the  latter  ngnifying"Csve-ilweller"  and  the  former 
brinirthe  name  of  bis  tribe,  fur  we  know  nothing  of  the 
race  of  the  Tioglodyles ;  or  perhaps  ^mrt  (the  Hivitc) 
ia  a  inlMranscription  for  ^Hn  (the  Horite).  See  Ebai-. 
A  riother  diffirulty  connecied  with  this  Zlbcuji  is  that 


91  ZIDDIM 

AnahuiGen.xxxvi,SiscalledhiBdanghter,at]dinver.!4 
his  son;  but  this  difficulty  ^>pears  to  be  easily  expUiiied 
by  supposing  that  r3  refers  to  .^holibimah,  and  not  to 
the  name  next  preceding  iu  The  Samariun,  it  tbould 
be  observed,  has  'p.  An  allusion  ta  made  to  aome  un- 
recorded fact  in  the  history  of  the  Horites  in  the  pas- 
sage "This  [was  that]  Ansh  that  found  the  mules  in 
the  wililemees  as  he  fe<l  the  asaes  of  Zibeon  his  father" 
(vcr.  24).  The  word  rendered  "mnlea"  (q.v.)  in  the 
A.  V.  is  the  Heb.  D^;^,  yrmi'm,  perhaps  the  Emim,  or 
giants,  as  in  the  reading  of  the  Sam.  D"'n"'!tn,  and  so 
also  Onkelos  and  Paeudo  -  Jonathan ;  tiesenius  prefen 
"hot-iprings,"following  the  Vulg.  rendering.  Zibeon 
was  also  one  of  the  dukes  or  pbylsrchs  of  the  Horites 
(ver.  29).  For  the  idendOcation  with  Beeri,  father  of 
Judith  the  Hiiiite  (xxvi,  B4),  see  Beebi,  and  also 

Zib'ia  (Heb.  T'sifiya',  !i;3X,  roe,-  Sept.  2i^(iT.r. 
'I()3ia;  Vulg.  Srl>ia),a  Benjamite,  second  naqied  of  the 
seven  sons  or.Sbaharaim  (q.  v.)  by  one  of  his  two  wives, 
Hodesh  (I  Chron.  viii,  9).     U.C.  post  1612. 

Zlb'lah  (Heb.  Tiibsah;  n^3S.  ™;  Sept  la^a 
V.  r.  'A/Jia;  Vulg.  Sfbiti),  a  native  ufBeer-sheba,  mollier 
of  king  Jehoash  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xii,  1(  S  Chron. 
xiiv,  I),  and  consequently  wife  (or  concubine)  of  his 
father,  Ah  aziah.    D.C.S!e. 

Zioh'tl  (Heb.  Zihi',  ^"^Sl,  my  memorial  or  nwnio- 
mbU ;  Sept.  ^t^fpi  v,  r.  Zn;^',  Zo\pj,  Zo^r,  and  even 
sometimes  Zax"piat,  'B^jtxfi  i  ^"W-  Zrckr^,  the  name 
of  numerous  Hebrews. 

1.  Ldist  named  of  the  three  sons  of  I'har  the  son  of 
Rnhath  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi,  21,  where  most 
editions  of  the  A.V.  incorrectly  have  "Ziihri").  RC. 
cir.1058. 

2.  Second  named  of  the  nine  snna  of  Shimhi  of  the 
Uibe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  19).     RQ  dr.  1612. 

3.  Finh  named  of  the  eleven  suns  oTShashak  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Cbron.  viii,  33).    Ra  cir.  1612. 

4.  Last  named  ofthe  six  sons  ufJerobam  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (1  Chmn.  viii,  27).     B.C  cir.  1612. 

5.  A  "  sun"  of  Asaph  anil  father  of  Mica h  (1  Chron. 
ix,  15) ;  elsewhere  called  ZabJi  (Neb.  xi,  17)  and  Zac 
CBr(xii,a6). 

6.  A  descendant  of  Eliezer  the  son  of  Uoses,  being 
son  of  Joram  and  father  of  the  treasurer  Sbelomith  (1 
Chron.  xxvi,  25).     RC.  ante  1043. 

7.  The  father  of  Elieier,  which  latter  was  chieToftbe 
Reubenllea  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  16).  RC, 
ante  1043. 

6.  A  Judahile  whose  son  Amasiah  volunteered  at  the 
head  of  200,000  men  in  Jehoshaphat's  army  (2  Chron. 

xvii,iG).   aaoos. 

9.  Father  of  Elishaphat,  which  Utter  wasoneoftba 
conapirators  with  Jehoiada  to  restore  Joash  (2  Chron. 
xxiLl  1).     RC.  ante  876. 

10.  All  Ephraimiiieh  chief  in  the  invading  armv  of 
Pekah  the  son  of  Kemaliah  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  7).  B.C 
cir.  71M.  It  seems  that  he  took  advantage  of  the  vic< 
tory  of  this  monsrch  over  the  army  of  JwUh  to  pene- 
trate into  Jerusalem,  w  here  he  ilew  one  of  the  sons  of 
Ahaz,  the  governor  of  the  palace,  and  the  king's  chief 
minister  or  favorite.  See  AiiAZ;  I'kkah.  There  is 
some  prolMbilitj  in  the  cnnjectun;  that  he  was  the 
"  Tabael't  son"  whom  Peksh  and  It.'zin  designed  to  set 
upon  the  throne  of  Judah  (Isa.  vii,  6).     See  TABAEt. 

11.  Father  of  Joel,  which  Islier  was  superintendent 
of  (he  Benjamiles  after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh. 


i,  9).    RC.  ai 


e53«. 


\  the  day 


Zid'dlm  (Heb.  with  the  art.  hal-Tndilm\  D^^XJT, 
thfditlicilkt!  ScpUTvyTvpii^v  [appareatly reading^ 


for  I];  Vulg.  A 
towns  or  the  trii 
mcnlioncd  next 


>e  fortified 


.r  Naphiili  (Joah.  xix.So).  Zer  being 
lut  ihe  tna  iiimea  ire  probablv  Id  bt 
Stt  Zer.  The  Sepl,(»«  ibove) 
Weniillos  ilie  pUce  with  Tgrt  inil  the  Syriac  *ilh  Zi- 
ioii,  but  bi>tli  then  are  quite  bevond  the  bouiidi  or 
Xiphlili.  I'lie  Jenunlem  Talmud  {ifrgUlah,  ch.  i)  is 
pmbiblv  nearer  rhe  mark  iii  iilentirving  ha(»-Taidilim 
with  Ktfi  Chilhii.  which  Schwara  {Pahtl.  p.  183)  with 
mucli  probabilttv  lake^  to  be  the  prewiit  Hallla,  at  the 
northern  f.wt  if  the  well-known  Kum  H.ltlii,  or 
"Horn*  of  Hatlin."  ■  few  miles  west  of  Tiberias.  Thii 
identiflcaliim  falls  in  with  the  faet  that  the  next  nimes 
in  the  list  are  all  known  to  have  been  connected  with 
the  lake.  "Thevillage  han  sevenl  trace*  of  antiquity 
in  its  tombs,  and  Xi,  comparnl  wiih  manv  othen,  ■  clean 
and  thririnj;  place"  (Tristram,  BUile  Ptaai,  p.  258). 

Zldki'Jah  (Neh.  x,  1).     See  Zkdkkiah. 

Zi'don  (Heb.  Tiidm;  'il"^  [or  briefer  ^^^X,  Gen. 
X.  15, 19;  xlix,  l31,jCt<(ery  [desen.]  or/orfrat  [KUral] ; 
S«pL  fusiiallv].  New  Tesc,  and  classical  writen  eener- 
ally.  Si^wv:  A.  V. •■  Sidoii "in  ver.  16, 19, and  New  Test.), 
the  name  of  n  man  and  of  a  place.  They  have  a  mutual 
beatiiifT  in  telalinn  Ui  ori);in  and  Inrlhplace  of  the  Punic 
race  wliich  Sfjured  ao  coiispicuouily  in  later  times  and 

1.  TheeldesI  aonof  Canaan  ((ien.  X,  15i  1  ChioD.  i, 
IS).    B.C.  considerably  post  2M4.    See  Ethmoohapiiv. 

a.  One  of  the  most  audent  citie*  of  Phcenicia  (Gen. 
X,  19;  xlix.  13;  Josb.xi,8;  xix.28;  Judg.  i,81',  x,G; 
xviii,  iS;  2  Sam.  xxir,  0;  I  Kinga  xrii,  9;  Ina.  xxiii, 
2.4,  Vi:  Jer.Mv,23i  xxi-ii.8;  xlvii,4;  Eick.  xxrii, 
«;  xxviii,  21,  H;  Joel  ii,  4  [lleb.  ir,  41i  Zecb.  i.i,  '2; 
Halt,  xi,  31,  22;  XV,  31;  Mark  iii,  8;  vii,  24,31;  Luke 
ir.  26;  vi,  17;  x,  18,  14;  Acta  xii,  20,  xxvii.S),  which 
Biill  retains  its  ancient  appellation  (Phoin.  "j^X)  in  Ihe 
Arabic  from  Saida.  Jusiln  Martyr  fwho  lived  in  Pal- 
ettine)  derives  the  name  fmm  Ihe  Phoenieiin  word  for 
jbA,  "  piacem  PhiEnicea  liiloB  vacant "  (  xviij,  S ) ;  but 
Josephus,  frrmi  the  son  of  Canaan  {Aut.  vi,  2), 

1.  Silaalion  ami  Imporl<mc», — Zidon  lies  on  Ihe  east- 
ern coast  of  (he  Mediterranean  Sea,  in  lit.B3°34'  6" 


92  ZIDON 

N..  less  than  twenty  Engliab  miles  to  the  ooctb  of  Tjit, 
Jt  is  situaied  in  the  narrow  phiin  between  the  Lttiaim 
and  the  sea,  to  which  it  once  gave  its  own  aame  (Joie- 
phus.  Ant,  V,  S,  I,  ri  likfa  xiSiav  Xijwivf  iruXiwc)^ 
a  point  where  the  mountaina  recede  to  a  distance  of  its 
miles  {Kenrick,  Phanieia,  p.  19).  Adjoining  the  di* 
there  ire  luxuriant  gardens  and  orchanla,  in  whicb 
there  is  a  profuuon  of  the  Hneat  fruit  tttc«  suited  loibt 
climate.  "The  plain  is  Sat  and  low,"  says  Sir.  ■•wtet, 
author  nf  the  Handbook /or  Syria  amd  Polmiiitr,  "bu 
near  the  coast  line  rises  a  litile  hill,  a  spur  from  which 
ahools  out  a  few  hundreil  yards  iiuo  the  sea  in  ■  ar*itb- 
weslem  direction.     On  the  iiortheni  slope  of  the  pra*. 


old  ci 


of  Zi,]. 


The 


bylhecitul.l'-(£» 
i^rlnp.  Britamato.  Sih  cd.  a  v.).  It  Imd  a  very  taa- 
mwlioua  harbor,  which  is  now  nearly  choked  up  iriiti 
aaiid  (Sirabo,  xvi,  ^56;  Josephua,  .4ar.  xiv,  10.  Gl  It 
was  distant  one  day's  Ji>umey  from  Ihe  fouDtaicis  of 
Ihe  Jordnn  (iMiL  v,  3, 1),  and  (our  hundred  stadia  Stan 
Berytua  (Sirabo,  xri,  TM,  Zbl).  It  was  ntnated  in  the 
allotment  of  Ihe  tribe  of  Asher,  but  never  conqumd 
(Judg.  i,  SI)  ;  on  the  conirarv,  it  was  sometimes  a  tat- 
midable  enemy  (x,  12).  Even  in  Joshua's  time  it  wai 
colled  Ttidon-rabba,  or  Great  Zidon  (Josh,  xi,  8;  xii. 
24),  or  Zidon  Ihe  Melmpolia,  acil.  of  Zidoiiia.  Thiadis- 
tricl  appears  to  have  embraced  Ihe  slates  of  Zidoo.Tjn, 
ami  Anitas,  and  its  iiihabilanls  art  always  diMincaiik- 
etlfrom  ilie  inhabitants  of  the  city  itself  (calleil -dwtO. 
era  [1331'']  of  Zidon  ")  as  O-i-IX,  "  Zidoniana,'  ec 


M  the  diali 


and  it 


II  ih» 


Bouthward  to  Hie  Carmel  (Zebuhin's  bonier.  Grn.  xKx, 
IS).  At  a  Isier  period  the  boundaries  soulh  were  de- 
termineil  by  Ihe  fluctuaiinj:  iixnc  nf  ihe  sirtigi-lef'irtiK 
hegemony  between  Zidon  and  Tyre,  while  nnnbward 
the  river  Tamyms  divided  it  from  ihe  Staleuf  Beryn^ 
To  the  east,  where  it  never  had  extended  very  far  ([Isi^ 
a  Ziilnnian  colony,  being  described  aa  being  "  far  fn« 
the  Zidoniana,"  Judg.  xviii,  T)  in  early  days,  it  touched, 
at  a  later  period,  Ihe  territory  of  Damascus.     The  a» 

exact  way  in  whicb  Ihe  appellation  Zidonian  iaased  hy 


,ab,GoOgIc 


ZIDON 

aacieiit  wiiten — va,  th*t  tbU  name  atood  for  "  Pbo- 
nician."  and  Ziiloqis  itwir  for  the  whole  of  PhcBiiidi, 
of  which  it  formed  only  an  importuil  pan — ii  incorrect, 
l^re,  or  liMr  arigin  tban  Zidon,  if  not  indeed  founded 
by  il,  io  the  urae  way  atvlea  iuelf  on  ooin>  DnX  DK, 
'■Metcopi>liBorZidonia.''in  the  wnae  oHm  momenUiry 
begemony  over  Zidon  only,  pojoibly  also  with  a  (econif 
■ly  referen™  to  the  nationality  of  ita  iiihaliitanu,  moti 
ty  immigrants  fiom  Zidon. 

The  frvquent  slluiians  to  the  Bkilfidiiesi  of  the  Zidf 
niaiu  in  aria  and  manufactum,  the  extent  of  their  con 
DKTce,  their  nautical  inrDnnalion  and  proiTe>a.in  anciei: 
writen,  are  ireU  knovn  (see  Homer,  //.  vi,  29Dj  xxii 
74a;  0^t.W,6t7;x\\\,2Sbi  x\-,in,A2li).  OTihetrwl 
ofthe''ZidDniann>eTchanlB''(iu.xxiii.2iE»tk.zxvi 
8).  both  livlanilanil  »et,ii»  heat  in  Diod.Sic(XTi,  41 
46);  oT  their  );1aas,  linen,  and  other  manufacloriea,  in 
Pliny  (v,  20),  Virgil,  8trabo  (xri,  10),  and  oil 
■ical  writrn.  The  beat  vessels  in  the  fleet  o 
were  Zidonian  (Herod,  rii,  99,  1!S).  In  Hat 
time  (1750)  its  exports  to  France  were  con 
(TracfU,  p.  166);  but  at  present  its  traffic  is  chiefly 
confined  (o  the  neighboring  towns  (Manncrt,  Gtogi 
pAtr,i,29i ;  Kitto,  Pictorial  BibU,  tiolea  on  Deol.  xx> 
•nd  Josh.  xix). 

2.  //iifory.— The  antiquity  of  Zidon  la  evident  from 
the  ethnoli^ical  aswrlign  that  Zidon  was  the  flrsl-bom 
of  Canaan,  (hough  Berytus  and  Bybius,  a«  tiiwna  fuuml 
ed  hy  Cronoa,  claimed  a  high  myiholngtcal  auliquitj 
Tyre  is  nnt  mentioned  in  the  Penuleuch  at  all ;  but  Zi 
dun  ia  referred  to  in  terms  that  gire  it  the  pre^minenc 
■mong  Phcenician  ciiiea.      From   a  Biblical  point  o 
view,  ihia  city  ia  inferior  in  interest  to  its  neighbor  Tyro, 
with  which  its  name  is  sn  often  assuciateil.    Indeed, ' 
■tl  the  paaaages  above  referred  to  in  which  the  two  c 
ies  are  mentioned  together,  Tyre  is  named  first — a  c 
cumstaoce  which  might  at  once  be  deemed  accidental, 
or  tbe  mere  result  of  Tyre's  being  the  nearest  of  the 
citiea  lo  Palcslitw,  were  it  not  that  some  doubt  on 
point  ia  raised  by  the  order  being  revened  in  two  wi 
which  were  written  at  a  perind  gfier  Zidon  had  enjoyed 
a  long  temporary  superinrity  (Eira  iii,  7 ;  I  Chmn. 


*).     Hu. 


a  greater  importance  in  Tefeteii 
writings  of  the  most  celebrated  Hebrew  propli 
tbraplendid  prophecies  directed  against  Tyre, 
gle  colcual  power  (Ezeic  xxvi;  :ixvit;  xxvl 
laa.  xxiii),  have  no  parallel  in  the  shorter  and  vaguer 
utterances  against  Zidon  (Ezek.  xxiiii,  21-23).     The 
predominant  Uildical  interest  of  Tyre  arises  Tram 
prophecies  relating  lo  its  destinv. 

If  we  could  believe  Justin  (xviii,  3),  there  would  be 
no  doubt  that  Zidon  was  of  greater  antiquity  than  Tyre, 
•she  says  that  the  inhabitants  of  Zidon,  when  their  cUy 
had  bren  reduced  by  the  kiugofAshkelon,  founded  Tyre 
the  year  before  the  capture  of  Troy,  Justin,  however, 
ia  such  a  weak  luthority  for  any  disputed  historical 
fact,  and  his  account  of  the  early  history  of  the  Jews, 
wherein  we  have 


2),  that,  w 


>e  BO  much  in  the  ni 


*(xx. 


he  unreasonableneas 
;  precise  time  when 
Troy  was  taken,  he  cannot  be  accepted  as  an  authority 
fir  the  early  history  of  the  Phmniciaiis.  In  contradic- 
tion of  this  slatement,  it  has  been  fuither  insisted  on 
that  tbe  relation  between  a  colony  and  the  mulber  city 
among  the  Phienicians  was  sscred,  and  that  as  IheTyr- 
ians  never  acknowledged  this  relation  lowarda  Zidon, 
the  supposed  connection  lictween  Tyre  and  Zidon  is 
niorally  impossible.  Thia  ia  a  very  Uiong  point;  but, 
perhapa,  not  absolutely  conclusive,  as  no  one  can  prove 
that  this  waa  the  custom  of  the  Phcenicians  at  the  very 
diatant  period  when,  alone,  the  Zidonians  would  have 
built  Tyre,  if  they  founded  it  at  all;  or  that  it  would 
have  applied  not  only  lo  the  conscious  and  deliberate 
funnding  of  a  colony,  but  likewise  to  sucb  an  almost  ac- 


B3  zrooif 

cidental  founding  of  a  city  as  is  implied  in  Ibe  account 

of  Justin,  Certainly  there  ia  otherwise  uolhiiig  im- 
probable in  Zidunianshaving  founded  Tyre,u  the  Tyr- 
ians  are  called  Ziilonians;  but  the  Zidoiiiaiis  are  Hvet 
called  Tyiians.  At  any  rate,  this  circumstance  tends  to 
show  that  in  early  times  Zidon  was  the  most  induenlial 
of  the  two  cities.  This  is  shadowed  forth  in  the  book 
of  Uencsis  by  the  statement  that  Zidon  waa  the  first- 
bom  of  Canaan  (x,  ][•),  and  is  implied  in  the  name  of 
"  Great  Zidon,"  or  "  the  metropolis  Zidon,"  which  i* 
twice  given  to  it  in  Joshua  (xi,  S ;  xix,  28).  It  is  con- 
Urmeil,  likewise,  by  Zidonians  being  used  as  the  generis 
name  of  the  Phoenicians,  or  Canaanitea  (xiii,  6 ;  Judg. 
xviii,  7);  and  by  the  reason  assigned  for  there  being  no 
deliverer  to  Laish  when  its  peaceable  inhabitants  were 
massacred,  that  "it  waa /ar /raw  ZUon;"  whereas,  if 
Tyre  hail  been  then  of  equal  importance,  it  would  have 
been  more  natural  to  mention  Tyre,  which  professed 
siihuantially  the  same  religion,  and  was  almost  twenty 
miles  nearer  (v^.  2S).  It  is  in  accordonce  with  the  iih 
Terence  to  be  drawn  from  these  circumstances  that  in 
the  Homeric  poems  T}'re  is  nnt  named,  while  there  ii 
mention  both  ufZidnn  and  the  Zidonians(Oifyi.xr,  425; 
//.xxiii,  743);  and  the  land  of  the  Zidonians  is  called 
"Sidonia''(Or/«s.  xiii,  285).  One  pninl.  however,  in  (he 
Homeric  poems  deaervea  lo  be  specially  noted  concern, 
ing  the  Zidonians,  that  they  are  never  here  mentioned 
as  Iradtri,  or  praised  for  their  nautical  skill,  for  which 
they  were  afterwards  bo  celebrated  (Herod,  vii,  44,  90). 
The  trader*  are  invariably  known  by  the  general  name 
of  Phtenicians,  which  would,  inileed,  inctmlc  the  Zido- 
nians; but  still  the  special  praise  of  Zidonians  was  as 
skilled  workmen.  When  Achilles  distributed  prizes  at 
the  game*  in  honororPatroclus,hegare  asthe  priie  of 
the  swinest  runner  a  large  silver  bowl  for  mixing  wine 
with  water,  whidi  had  been  cunMlngly  made  by  the 
skilful  ZiiloniaiiB,  but  which  I'hcenicians  had  brought 
over  the  sea  (Homer,  IL  xxiii,  7411, 744).  When  Men»- 
biis  wished  to  give  (o  Teiemachus  what  was  most  beau- 
tiful aiul  mostralualile,  he  presented  him  with  n  limilnr 
mixing-bowl  of  silver,  with  golden  rim— a  divine  work, 
the  work  oE  HephaHlus— which  hail  been  a  gift  to  Me- 
B  himself  from  Phndimus,  king  of  Iho  Zidonians 
(Od^.  iv,  6H-618;  xv,  425).  Again,  all  the  beau- 
tifully embroidered  robes  of  Andromache,  from  which 
she  aelectcd  one  as  ati  ofTcring  to  Athene,  were  the  pro- 
ductions of  Zidonian  women.which  Paris,  when  coming 

Tmy  with  Helen,  bad  brought  from  Sidonia  (^11.  vj, 
289-395).     But  in  no  case  is  anything  mentioned  as 

:ing  been  bmught  from  Zidon  in  Zidonian  vessels  or 
by  Zidonian  sailors.  Perhaps  at  this  time  the  Phaui- 
vessels  were  principally  fitted  out  at  seaports  of 
Phcenicia  to  the  nonh  of  Zidon. 

t  very  soon  after  that  period  the  splendor  and 
r  of  Zidun  began  to  pale  before  Tyre,  which  e xi?t- 
cil  already  at  tbe  time  of  Joshua,  but  aa  a  dependency 

Zidon.  After  the  memorable  defeat  which  the  Zi. 
inisns  suffered  in  the  war  with  the  king  of  Ashkelon 
C13th  century  RG),  reported  by  Justin,  when  the  Zi- 

lians  are  said  to  have  "  retired  lo  their  Bliipa  and  to 

;e  founded  p  refounded]  Tyre,"  Zidon  almost  disap. 

rs  from  history  for  ■  time,  ki  utteriy  enfeebled  and 

ignificant  had  it  become  through  the  aiidden  and 
brilliant  rise  of  its  own  daughter  and  rival,  to  whom  all 
the  nobtest  and  most  skilful  of  her  children  had  fled. 
Ila  fate  was  almnsi  the  same  as  waa  that  of  Tyre  her- 
self when  Dldo-F.liasa  had  founded  Canlioge,  and  drew 

■he  most  important  elements  from  the  old  ciiy  to  the 
ew  town,"  which,  it  must  not  be  rnrgollen,  had  origi- 
nally been  a  Zidonian  aeltlemeni  under  the  name  of 
Kakkabe. 
From  the  time  of  Solomon  to  the  invasion  of  Nebu- 

Bible,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  subordinate  lo  Tyre. 
When  the  people  called  "Zidonians"  is  meiiUoncd,  it 
imea  aeems  that  the  Phunicians  of  the  plain  of 
Zidon  are  meant;  as,  fur  example,  when  Sidomon  taid 


ZIDON  10 

u,  lllnirn  Ihat  there  vaa  none  tamoB  the  Jen  ihat 
Lould  skill  to  hew  timber  like  the  ZidonUna  (1  King! 
V,  C)  i  aiid,  pouibly,  vther  Ethbaal,  the  fKther  o(  Jeze- 
bel, Is  taUed  their  king  {xTi,3l),who,iic™rdiiig  to  Me- 
naiider,  in  Josephus  {Am.  viii,  13,  S),  wm  king  of  the 
TyrUna.  Tint  may  likewise  be  the  oieainng  when 
Aablarelh  ia  called  the  gwldeu,  or  aboiniQatioii,  ot  (he 
ZidonUru  (I  Kings  zi,  fi,  33;  2  King!  xxiji,  13);  or 
when  uomcn  of  the  Zidoiiiaiis  are  mentioned  in  refei- 
CDCe  to  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi,  1).  And  thia  aeema  to  be 
«quBlh-  (rue  of  tlie  phrases  "daughteT  or  Zidon,"  md 
"inrrehanlB  urZidon,"  and  even  once  of  "Ziiloii"  itfelf 
(lu.  xxiii,  t,  4|  12)  in  the  prophecy  of  Uaiah  against 
Tyre.  There  ii  no  doiibl,  however,  IhU  Zidon  iwejf, 
(he  citv  properly  to  ealleil,  wu  ihrealened  by  Joel  (iii, 
4)  and'jeremiah  {xxtii,3).  Siill.all  th«  U  known  re- 
tpccling  it  during  Ibis  epoch 


ie  ofils 


.aofg. 


irade  in  sUves,  in  which  the  inhalHlan»  did  not  shrink 
from  selling  inhibiUnts  or  Palestine ;  tbat  the  city  was 
Corn-ned  by  kinga  (ibid.;  xxv,  32);  that,  previous  to 
the  invasion  of  Nebuchadneziar,  it  bad  rumished  mari- 
ners  to  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxril,  8);  that,  nt  one  period,  it 
wai  subject,  in  some  smse  or  other,  to  Tyre;  and  Chat, 
when  Shalmanescr.  king  of  Assyria,  invaded  Pbcenidi, 
Zidon  seited  the  opportunity  to  revolt.  It  seema  atran)^ 
lo  hear  of  the  subjection  of  one  great  cily  to  another 
great  city  only  twenty  miles  off,  inhatnled  by  men  of 
the  same  race,  language,  and  religion ;  but  the  fact  is 
rendered  conceivable  by  the  relation  of  Athens  to  its 
allies  after  the  Perwan  war,  and  by  the  history  of  the 
Iralinn  republics  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  its  rivalry  ivilh  Tyre  may  have  been  influen- 
tial in  inducing  Zidon,  more  than  a  ccnlury  later,  lo  aub- 
mit  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  apparently  without  offering  any 

During  the  Persian  domination,  Zidon  seems  to  hare 
attained  its  highest  point  of  prosperi(y;  and  i[  ia  re- 
conled  that,  lowarda  the  close  of  (bat  period,  it  far  ex- 
celled all  other  Phmnician  cities  in  wealth  and  impor- 
tance CDiod.Sie.svi,  44;  Mela,i,!2>,  It  is  very  prob- 
able that  the  long  siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchadneziar 
had  (ended  not  only  to  weaken  and  impoveriah  T}-re, 
Init  Ukewiae  to  enrich  Zidon  at  the  expense  of  Tyre;  as 
it  was  an  obvious  expeilient  for  any  Tyrian  merchants, 
arrisans,  and  sailors,  wbo  deemed  resistance  useless  or 
univise,  (o  transfer  their  residence  to  Zidon.  Hon-ever 
this  may  be, in  the  eipeditionof  Xerxes  against  Ui 
the  Zidonians  were  highly  favored,  and  were  a  pn 
ioenlly  important  element  of  his  naval  power.  When, 
from  a  hill  near  Abydos,  Xenes  witnessed  a  boat-rac 
in  his  fleet,  the  prize  was  gaineil  by  the  Zidonians  (He 
Tod.vii,44);  when  he  reviewed  hisQeet,  he  sat  beneath 
golden  canopy  in  a  Zidonian  galley  (ibid,  TJi,  100) ;  nh«n 
he  wished  to  examine  (he  mouths  of  the  river  PeneuB,h 
intrusted  himselflo  a  Zidonian  galley,aawaahis  wont  n 
similar  occasions  (ibid.  vii.  128) ;  and  when  (he  Tyrant 
and  general  oBicen  of  bis  great  expedition  sat  in  ordc 
of  honor,  (he  king  of  Ihe  Zidonians  aatflrstObid.  viii,  67). 
Again,  Herodotus  slates  that  the  I'hirnicians  siippii 
the  best  vessels  of  the  wlmle  fleet;  and  of  the  Phivi 
cisns,  the  Zidonians  (vii,  9G).  Uudy,  as  Homer  gii 
■  vivid  idea  of  the  beauty  of  Achilles  by  saying  th 
Nireus  (thrice-named)  was  the  most  beautiful  of  all  t 
Creeks  who  went  to  Troy,  after  Ihe  bob  of  Peleus,  an 
lli^roilotua  completes  the  triumph  of  the  Zido 
when  he  praisea  the  vessels  of  Artemisia  (probably  for 
the  dating  of  (heir  crewa)  by  aaying  that  they  were  the 
(Host  renowned  of  the  whole  fleet,  "after  (he  Zidoniana" 
(«-ii,9). 

The  prosperll}'  of  Zidon  was  suddenly  cut  abort  by 


a,  Vfhich  led  t( 


(alrophea  recorded 
Unlike  the  Hcge  and  capture  of  Tyre  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  which  is  narrated  by  aeveral  writers,  and  which 
ia  of  commanding  interest  Ihrough  ila  relation  to  auch 
a  retiowiied  conqueror,  the  fata  uf  Zidon  is  only  known 


14  ZIDON 

tbioagh  the  history  of  Diodorus  (xvi,  42-45XaDdii 
maitily  connected  with  Anoxerxes  Ochiu  (aC  U9- 
338),  a  monarch  who  is  juaily  rfganlcd  with  mingled 
aversion  and  contempt.  Hence  the  calamitous  ara- 
throw  of  Zidon  has  not,  perhaps,  attracted  su  much  at- 
tention as  it  deserves.  The  principal  circomstsnia 
were  these.  While  the  Penianswere  making  prepn- 
tions  in  Phcenicia  to  put  down  the  revolt  in  Egypt, 
some  Persian  aatnpa  and  generala  behaved  oppretaiivel; 
and  insolently  to  Zidonians  in  the  Zidonian  divisioa  of 
the  city  ofTripolis.  On  this  the  Zidonian  peo|ile  pi»- 
jeeted  a  revolt;  and,  having  (irst  concerted  arnnge^ 
menta  with  other  Pbceuician  cities  and  nude  a  tieaty 
with  Nectanebus,  they  pul  their  designs  into  eucuiMO. 
They  commenced  by  committing  outrages  in  a  iwidente 
and  park  (irapiiJEiooc)  of  the  Persian  king;  they  bus- 
ed a  large  store  of  foddei  which  had  been  collected  lot 

(he  Persians  who  bad  been  guilty  of  insults  towatdi 
Ihe  Zidonians.  Afterwards,  under  their  king  Tennes, 
with  the  asNslance  from  Egypt  of  four  tboumxl  Umk 
mercenaries  under  tlentor,  they  expelled  the  Peraaa 
Utrapa  from  Pbmnicia ;  they  alrengthened  Ihe  defencfs 
of  their  city ;  they  equipped  a  fleet  of  one  hundiKt  tri- 
remes; and  prepared  for  ■  desperate  resistance.  Ba 
their  king  Tennea  proved  a  Iraitorto  their  cause;  and. 
in  performance  of  a  compact  with  Ochus,  he  betrayed 
into  the  king's  power  one  hundred  of  the  iDoat  didin- 
guished  citizens  of  Zidon,  who  were  all  shot  to  dealll 
with  javelins.  Five  hundred  other  citizens,  who  wea( 
out  to  the  king  with  enaigna  of  supplication,  shared  tbe 
same  fate;  and,by  concert  belweenTennes  and  MenlM. 
the  Persian  troops  were  admitted  within  the  gate*  aad 
occupied  the  cily  walls.  The  Zidonians,  btfure  the  ar- 
rival of  Ochus,  had  burned  their  Tcssels  to  prevent  any 
one  leaving  (be  town ;  and  when  they  saw  tbemsdns 
surrounded  by  the  Peiaian  troops,  they  adopted  ihe  des- 
perate resolution  of  shutting  themselves  up  wiib  ibrtr 
families,  and  setting  fire  each  man  to  bit  own  hoBc 
(RC.  SBl).  Forty  thousand  persons  are  said  (a  bait 
perished  in  the  flames.  Tennes  himself  did  not  ran 
Ilia  own  life,  aa  Ochus,  noiwlthsl ending  bis  promite  ta 
the  contrary,  put  him  to  death.  The  privilege  of  search* 
ing  the  ruins  waa  sold  for  money. 

After  (his  dismal  tragedy  Zidon  gradually  rrcnvend 
from  Ihe  blow;  fresh  immigranta  from  other  ciiies  mot 
have  set! led  in  it;  and  probably  many /idonian  saikn 
survived  who  had  been  plying  (heir  trade  elsewhere  it 
merchant  vessels  a(  (he  (ime  of  (he  capture  of  the  dlr. 
The  battle  of  laeua  waa  fought  about  eighleen  vtan^ 
lerwanis  (aC  8B3) ;  and  then  Ihe  inhabiianis  of  the  re- 
stored  eilyopencd  their  galea  to  Alexander  of  (heir  naa 
accord,  from  haired,  as  is  expressly  slated,  of  Dariuand 
the  Persians  (Arrian,  Anab.  AL  ii,  15).  Tbe  impolin 
as  well  as  (he  cruelty  of  Ochus  in  bis  mode  of  deaUag 
with  (he  revolt  of  Zidon  now  became  apparent;  fm  the 
Zidonian  Heel,  in  joining  Alexander,  was  an  essentiBl 
element  of  bis  succesa  against  Tyre.  After  aiding  is 
bring  upon  Tyre  as  great  a  calamilraahadafHicled  Ibeir 
own  city,  they  were  so  far  merciful  that  they  saved  tie 
liveaof  many  Tyrians  by  concealing  them  in  their  ships 
and  then  Innspottiiig  (hem  to  Zidon  (Quint.  Curtius,  iv, 
4, 15).    From  this  (ime  Zidon,  b  '       '        ' 


Greek  Coin  of  Sldotk 


ZIDON  10 

put  In  biatory.  U  became,  hoireTer,  agiin  o  floumb- 
iog  town;  and  Folybiui  (v,  TO)  iucidenUU.T  menliona 
that  Ajitiocbus,  in  big  trar  with  Ptolemv  Pbilopatar,  en- 
camped over  aeiiiut  Zidon  (aa  !IS),  but  did  not  rent. 
lire  to  attack  it  from  the  ibundance  or  ita  reiourcea  lad 
the  great  number  of  ita  inhabitants,  either  natiTsa  or 
nfugecs.  Subaequcntly,  according  to  Joaephna  (An/. 
xir,  10, 2),  Juliili  Caur  wrote  ■  letter  reapecling  Hjr- 
eaiiu(,  which  ha  addreaaed  Co  the  "  Magitlrata,  Council, 
and  DtmoiotSidon."  Thia  ahows  that  up  (o  that  lime 
the  Zidoniaiia  enjoj-ed  the  forms  of  liberty,  though  Dion 
Casaius  a*y>  (Ixiv,  7)  that  Aoguatus,  on  hia  arrival  in 
tb*  EiBt.  d'epri\-ed  tbeui  of  it  for  aeditious  conduct.  Not 
long  after  Strabo,  in  his  account  of  Phcenicia,  sari  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  "Both  were  illuatriooa  and  splendid 
formerly,  and  Koa ;  but  which  ahould  be  called  the  cap- 
ital of  Phmnicia  ia  a  matter  of  diapute  between  the  in- 
habitanta"  (xvi,  756).  He  adda  that  it  ii  situated  on 
the  mainland,  on  a  fine,  natiirailv  formed  harbor.  He 
^lealia  of  the  inhabitanta  aa  cultivaliiitt  the  sciencea  of 
arithmetic  and  aitronomyj  and  aaya  that  the  beat  op- 
portnnities  were  aSiirded  in  Zidiin  for  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  and  of  all  other  biancbea  of  philosophv. 
He  adds  that  in  hia  lime  (here  were  dialiuguiahed  phi- 
Imophers — natiiea  of 
Zidon—as  Boethua, 
with  whom  tie  studied 
■he  philnsophy  of  ^r- 

er  Diodntus.    It  is  to 
be  obaerved  that  both 

Greek ;  and  it  is  to  be 
preaumed  cMt  in  Stra- 
bo's  time  Greeli  waa  the 
language  of  theeducat- 
aaac  leaal,  botb 


95  ZIDON 

of  Choraiin  and  Bethsaida,  which  aaw  the  Sariour's 
mighty  worka,  but  were  unconvinced  by  them ;  for  had 
these  towns  been  so  pririi^ed,  "  they  would  have  re- 
pented long  ago  in  aacLtcloth  and  aahea,^ 

Zidon  waa  some  timeadigniSed  with  the  Greek  title  of 
JVuiuircAu  (commander  uf  ahips),Rnd  waa  also  called  by 
the  Romans  Coionia  Aagatia  aiul  Metropo&i,  Clin»- 
tianity  appears  to  bare  been  introduced  here  at  an  early 
period  (Acta  xxvii,  S),  aiul  a  biahop  of  Zidim  attendnl 
the  Council  of  Nictta  in  Zib.  Afier  the  conquest  of 
Syria  by  the  Modems  {in  036),  Zidon  surrendered  to  her 

enfeebled  condition.  It  ahared  generally  the  fortunes 
of  Tyre,  with  the  exception  that  it  was'  several  time* 
taken  and  retaken  during  the  wara  of  tbe  Cruaadca, 
and  Buffered,  accordingly,  more  than  Tyre  previoua  to 
the  fatal  year  EC.  1291.  Since  that  rime  it  never 
seems  to  have  fallen  quite  so  low  as  Tvre.  Through 
Fakhr  ed-Dtn,  emir  of  the  Druses  between  1594  and 
1634,  and  the  settlement  at  Saida  of  French  commer- 
cial honsei,  it  had  a  revival  of  trade  in  the  17th  and 
part  of  the  ISih  century,  and  became  the  prindpal 
city  on  the  Syrian  coast  for  commnce  between  the 
East  and  the  Weat  (see  Slimouti  da  Ckaaiier  d'A  r- 


This 


I  Tvre 


d  Zidon 


about  Hfty  mi  lesdist. 


hieh 


Kazirei 

loM  nottheni  city 
mentioned  in 


Joumei's.  Pliny  notes 
the  manufacture  of 
glass  at  Zidnii  {Nal. 
IIM.  V,  17,  19) ;  and 
during  the  Roman  pe< 
nod  we  may  conceive 
Tyre  andZidonaa  two 
thriving  cities,  each 
having  an  exlanaivo 
trade,andeach  having 
ita  staple  manufacture 
—  the  latter  of  giaaa, 
and  Tyre  of  purple 
dves  from  shell-fish. 

'  Zidon  ia  mentioned 
nveral  times  in  the 
New  Teat.   Jesus  went 


(Luke  iv,96);  and  Paul 
touchedatZidononhis 
voyage  from   Qeaarca 

8).  Whatever  be  the 
duom  of  Tyre  and  Zi- 
don, it  shall  be  "  mure 


,p  of  the  Euvlroua  of  Zidon. 


iKcct.GoogIc 


ZIDON  10 

rfcite  [Pari*,  I7S5],  i,  294-879),  Tl.ii  wu  pnl  nn 
ciiil  la  m  llic  cloie  or  lut  CGntury  by  vigkiice  aikd  op- 
praiBion  (KiLlcr,  EnOmiidf,  IT.Theil,  1.  Ablb.  8.  Biich. 
p.  405, 40(i),  clu«iig  a  perioil  of  pnwpcrity  iu  which  the 
pi>pulition  of  llie  city  was  at  one  linw  cMimatcd  at 
■JU.OOO  iiihatiitoiiu.  U'ndei  Che  Egi-plian  rule  the  place 
aK'in  ■amenhnl;  revived,  but  in  1840  iU  funresa  !>■■ 
dpstroyecl  by  the  Kuropean  allic>. 

8.  freinU  Coi««(tDB.— The  [own  Hill  ihows  aigiia  of 
furmer  wealth, and  ihe  houaei  are  liciler  coiislructeil  and 
mnre  solid  Ihui  those  nt  Tyre,  being 
of  done.    Iia  chief  exporti  are  ailk,! 
(Rolnnaan,  Bibl.  Rn.  iii,  418,419). 
Syria  and  Kiiiope,  liowevcr,  now  mainly  pai 
DeirOl,  aa  ita  mcMC  important  cunimercial  i 
the  iiBlural  advantii^  of  Deirtit,  in  this  n» 
piirpoaea  of  roodc-rii  navigatiiiH,  are  bo  decid 
certain  in  maintain  ita  preaenl  eitperiority 


y  of  them  built 

trade  between 
paucs  through 


ver  Ziili 


The  inoilcniSaida  hat  thus  lost  all  and  everylhin^;,  and 
hoa  once  rtuire  become  a  poor  miaorable  place,  without 
trade  or  manufacture*  worthy  of  the  name.  To  add  lo 
ils  dcaolaiion,  an  earthqnake,  which  look  place  in  1837, 
deatruyed  about  one  hundred  ofila  iiuignificani  housea. 
Yet  Buch  i>  ils  favorable  natural  poaition,  and  the  fruil- 
fiilne»aofilieaurroundiiiecountr!-,lhat  in  1840  the  dis- 
trict of  Saida  coniained  about  70,000  inhabitanta  (above 
3e,000Christiaiisand Jew8),wh09eannu  ' 
cd  to  about  9670,000.  It  only  reqiiirca 
turn  in  the  tide  of  ila  affairs  to  make  it  once  more  nil 
up  ita  head  again  as  ofyote.  The  population  of  Saida 
ia'ealitnated  at  10,000,  of  whom  about  7000  are  Sfos- 
lem^  500  Jews,  and  the  rest  Catliolics,  Maronilea,  and 
rmiintanta.     The  city  that  once  divided  with  Tyre  Ihc 

its  commerce  is  so  iiisignilicant  that  it  would  not  repay 
even  a  periodical  call  of  one  of  the  paasing  ateamera. 
Silk  and  fruit  are  ils  staple  products;  the  latter  ia  not 
sutpaaacil  in  variely  or  quality  by  any  other  place  in 
Syria,  The  harbor  was  formed  by  a  low  ridge  of  rocha 
running  out  from  the  northern  |>oint  of  the  peninsula, 
parallel  lo  the  shore  lin&  On  one  of  ilieac  aunds  an 
old  caslle,  which  is  connected  wilh  tbe  town  by  a  bridtce 
of  nine  arches,  furming  Ihe  picturoBqiie  group  so  well 
known  from  engraving!,  'llic  harbor  was  counted  large 
in  the  days  of  ancient  commerce,  being  sullicientio  con- 
tain Rftv  galleys;  but  Ihe  Druse  chief  Fakhred-DIn,  fear- 
ing the' Turks,  caused  it  to  be  flllcd  up  with  atones  and 
earth,  to  that  now  nidy  tinall  boats  can  enter.  Larger 
vcssela,  when  they  oimo  here  at  all,  anchor  off  lo  the 
iiorlbwanl,aheltcred  mily  from  the  south  and  east  winds, 
4.  Aaliqaili'i.  —  Around  Ihe  island,  on  whi-h  stand 
the  ruiiia  uf  Ihe  nie<iiieval  coafle,  particularly  on  the 
soulh-weat  aide,  are  rentaina  of  quai-a  built  of  large 
hewn  stolle^  and  similar  remains  flank  Ihe  wholi 
Ihe  ridge  which  forms  the  northern  harbor.  The  broad 
tongue  of  land  which  bounds  the  harbor 
alio  bears  remains  of  ancient  walls,  and  on 
there  are  Iwoatliflcial  sqoarc  basins.  Aniiquitiea,  chief- 
ly of  the  Christian  period,  consittiug  of  iareophagi,cip- 
pi,  statuetica,  trinkets,  and  tear  -  resaela,  are  frequent- 
ly dug  up  in  Ihe  ganlena  omund  the  towtu  The  ne- 
cmpolia,  situated  in  ihc  limestone  rocks  adjacent,  con- 
taina  tombs  of  vaiinus  plana  and  stvlea,  which  are  mi- 
nutely described  by  Renan  (,V£uum'en  Phinicie,  p.  1 17). 
Saiiia,  however,  posscBsea  another  most  vital  interest, 
a|uirt  from  its  faded  historical  memories.  It  is  the  only 
apot  in  Pbeenicia  where  Phceniciaii  monuments  with 
Phcenician  insciiplinns  have  been  fmmd  as  yet.  While 
the  great  bulk  of  pabeographical  relics  of  this  most  im- 
portant people  had  been  found  in  iu  colonies.  Saida 
alone  haa  furnished  no  less  than  three  of  the  most 
cient  and  lengthy  inscriptions  exUnt,  On  Jan. 
1855,  one  of  the  many  aepulclirai  cavea  near  the  ( 
waa  opened  by  chance,  and  Ihere  was  discovered  in  ■ 
aorcnphagua,  ilie  lid  of  which  repreacnied  the  form  < 
mummy  with  the  uncovered  face  of  a  man.    Twen 


ZIDON 


two  line*  of  Phoenician  writing  were  CDund  engraved 
upon  tlia  chest  of  the  royal  petaonige  —  king  Aak- 
manezcr  II  — whom  it  represeiils,  A  ■mcUer.  abbie- 
viateil  iuacriptioii  runs  round  the  ne<^  The  tge  ft 
this  monument  has  variously  been  eonjectared  as  of 
the  llih  cenlun-  UC.  <Ewald),  which  is  nnque*- 
liunably  wroiif;;  further,  as  of  Ihe  7th,  6tb,  or  4tt 
respectively  by  Uiixip,  the  doc  de  Luyneo,  I^ry.  lod 
others.  Tbe  iiiscriptioiis  coouin  principally  a  ioham 
injuiiclion,  or  ralher  an  adjuislion,  not  to  disturb  the 
royal  remaina.  Betide*  this,  there  ia  an  enumetalioa 
of  the  temples  erected  by  the  defunct  in  honot  of  the 
gods.  This  sarcophagus  is  now  in  Ihe  Nineveh  dirisioD 
of  Ihe  aculpiurea  in  Ihe  Louvre.  At  UrstHght  Ihe  ma- 
lerial  of  which  it  is  composed  may  be  easily  mistakea. 
and  it  has  been  auppoaed  to  be  black  marble.  On  the 
authority,  however,  ol  M,  Suchard  of  Paria,  wbo  hasri- 
amiiicd  it  very  ckuely,  it  may  be  aisled  that  tbe  sarcoph- 
agus is  of  black  syenite,  which,  aa  far  aa  ia  known,  is 
more  abundant  in  EgyfA  than  ebwwhete.  It  mar  be 
added  that  the  features  of  Ihe  countenance  on  ihe  lid 
are  decidedly  oTlhe  Egyptian  type,  and  the  head-drc« 
is  Egyptian,  with  the  head  of  n  binl  sculptured  ou  what 
migiit  seem  the  pbce  of  the  riglil  and  left  shoukier. 
There  can  therefore  be  little  irraHni  to  dnubt  that  ilui 
ttarcnpbagua  was  either  made  in  Egypt  and  sent  thenn 
~  Zidoii,  or  that  it  was  made  in  Phoenicia  in  imilatioB 
similar  works  of  art  in  Egypt.  The  inacripiioBa 
themselves  arc  Ihelongeal  Phoenician  inscripiiiui*  which 

comedown  to  our  limes,  Alranslalion  of  them  wb 
published  by  I'tnt.  Dietrich  at  llarbu^  in  )H55,  anil  by 
Kwald  at  U'iktingen  in  1856,  1  he  king'B  liile  is  "  king 
of  the  Zidonians :"  and,  aa  is  I  he  case  wii  b  El  hbaal.  ntea- 

1  in  the  book  of  Kings  (1  Kings  xvi,  St),  then 
remain  a  certain  iloubt  whether  Ibis  was  a  liik 
ordinarily  aasumedb}'  kingsof  Zidcai,orwbrilier  it  had 
a  wider  Ngniflcarion.  We  learn  from  the  tnarriptiai 
that  the  king's  mother  waa  a  priestess  of  Asfalorelb, 

The  following  is  a  ponion  of  the  most  temaifcalile 
(larger)  inscripiion  divided  into  woril*  (there  is  no  di- 
vision even  of  the  letters  in  the  original)  according  id 
■lie  sense— in  some  inslancea  merely  cDnjectiired--aa4 
transcribed  into  Hebrew  cbaractens  to  which  ia  subjoin- 
ed a  tranalalion,  principally  following  Uunk  and  Levy, 
bill  iiccaaiuiially  differing  from  either: 

^liisb  I  ni-n  j::^!(i  --o?  r;c3  i=  n-'-  i. 

WIS  -i'ao  -iTrrcrx  -jt^ 
^TriBsrs  ^bia  izi  nsnx  ~ia  "~r  ^i-s  1=  I 
ritM  luxb  c:-tx  I'ss 

T  ^2p3i  T  rVnn  ~,:»  cir^ 
SIX  ^-1  rrims  >s  rx^is:?  r:a  ex  c~=5  *. 
1  ?  a:cT3  r-'X  nrc  ^x 

XB^  -Xl  BItt  \2  BO    "X  3  CJiC  -,2  C~2'  ix    6. 

e;*'  ixi  ^2:cii  nin  r^x 
E01S  Bx  nx  "Ja  ascTs  ri?  t  zzj:-zz  ib  «, 

1  rrsTSB  ia  a  Bna  iBcn  ix  -^i-z-v 
XE^  ex  DX  T  aacB  rbs  nne''  ex  eix  i=  ;. 

na  •jor:-'  ex  ex  -aaca  r.in  n-x 
-ap^  ixi  Bxm  rx  aaea  cb  ia-  ix  i  3;e  & 


-ixi  - 
1-1X  ^io  Bfix  Bimpn  B»xn  crso'"!  cirnn  * 

pi  E:a  !>eB  ex 
n*3S  nnn''  ex  sn  b^x  ex  raii:i:  n-x  Eirs  in. 

n"x  xe*  ox  ex  i  aaea 
rsfi«  01X  bx  xn  p[:]Vis-:  y-^i  n-xi  i  rVn  n, 
1  B-V  o-!C  Bb  ia"  ix 
, . .  trccn  rrp  a-ra  ^ma  Vrri  ~t  ii 


c. 


>'>8 


Ic 


(1.)  In  the  monlh  of  Bal,  In  Iha  jrnT  U  (XIVJ  nf  mr 
lelBuiii!.',  [1.1  klDB  Alhmunezer,  klnu  of  Iha  Zldonlnni.  (8> 
BuDorkliieTnbnlLh,  kluirnf  tbeZmonlnna:  opnke  klug 


antfc  The  whlluni  Ore«  I*  dnmli  — IhB  Bon  of  Go 
deail.  And  I  t«ii  in  lbl>  t;r»ve,  ercn  lii  ibli  tomb,  I- 
Itac  iibce  u'bich  i  hnve  bnlU.  11t  a4Jurallnn  to  nil 
roliiig  iHivcra  and  nil  men :  Lei  on  one  open  IblB  reel 
place,  and  (B)  uni  Murch  wltb  ijs  tor  treninre,  for  (he 
no  irmunre  wllh  oa;  and  Itt  Aim  not  iairoiraTj  lluo 

dlMiirblDE  tbe  cnicli  of  my  slumbers.  Even  IF  pe 
_.    _.i. i.  .L—  J .: lo  ibelr  iiJMC- 


id(t)nl 


Dhonid  r^ 


and  Ibe  bnlv  :;<id«  will  send  nver  Ihem  a  mIshlTkiPK  wb" 
will  rnle  <iTor  ibem,  iind  (10)  cnl  ihpm  off  wlih  ihelr  dy- 
naaty.    If  nny  hnmnn  being  ehonld  open  lhi>  reiilnE- 

8 lace,  Bud  nny  man  sbonld  curry  away  (11)  this  tomb— be 
e  nf  rovnl  (eed  or  a  man  or  ihe  people— there  Bhnll  be 


neliber  f 


—T  a»)  ft 


boDor  amoog  Uie  llilug  nni 

The  shorter  Inicriplion— round  the  king'a  neck— coa- 
Uiae  seven  linea,u  (ullowi: 

C3-1X  ...  I  iii-nssis'^iornjta^afiin  i, 

...  •'snnB"'i!< . . .  TXTJiaiiDOja-'nsljnniiHiiDJti  2, 

jaonix  . . .  ■oa-'s:BJismDpa''it<na3oia  a. 

•lapa . . .  isnriD''oxTSiJ<s3iri[3]5iiaisb3:Qji2 1 

. . .  a3bKnn3-i3oii03rnnsin»o5i33"'Vx  6. 

. . .  nwianTX'DSstnnsioMiin^siina  ...  6. 
33itna 
. . .  sswirxsiiw  7. 

The  third  iuacription  we  have  mentioned  iru  diacor* 
eml  a  lew  yean  (go  by  coubuI  Moore  on  another  locality 
near  Saida.  It  ia  roDod  on  a  Uock  uxty-njiie  centi- 
meireain  beighl,thirt]i-eij;htin  length,  nhich  evidently 
vai  once  useil  for  building  purposta.  It  i 
pouenioii  of  count  ile  Vogue.  Ths  inac 
M  follows: 

I  1 1  no3  . . .  o  . . .  n-i-'a 


, . .  •lBJ-IOn"'KDnX-)i9 

nina^s-'i . . . 

The  Tragnientat?  nature  or  this  tnacriplion  atlawa  of  lit- 
tle certainty  in  its  deciphering,  sar«  with  respect  to  ■ 
few  proper  names.    See  PHiBNlcta. 

Zldon'lan  (Heb.  sing.  Ttidimi',  ^'iX,  Eiek.  zxxii, 
80 ;  plur.  Tiidoaim;  D->3H-<X,  ClHlTt  [the  full  form], 
or  cnx  [Eira  iii,  7, "  they  of  Zi(km"J ;  and  [1  King* 
xi,  5,* 83]  Tiidoaia',  yitrt;  Sept.  Zifuvioi  [except 
Ezek.  x«iii,  80,  orpanjyoi  'Aoooup];  Vulg.  Si' 
[except  Tcr.  SO,  (vno/orra] :  A.T."8idDnians,  2  Kings 
ssiii,  13),  the  inhabitants  »r  Zidon.  They  were  among 
the  naiiona  of  Canaan  left  to  prnjiice  the  IsTRcliles  in 
the  art  of  war  (Judg.  iii,  3),  and  coloniea  of  them  ap- 
pear to  have  spread  up  into  ihe  hill  country  from  Leba- 
non to  Misrephoth-maim  (Jeeh.  xiii,  4,  6),  whence  in 
later  times  ihey  herred  cedar-trees  for  David  and  Snk>> 
man  (1  Cbron.  xxii,  1).  They  oppreaaed  Ihe  Israelites 
on  their  first  entrance  into  the  country  (Judg.  x,  12), 
and  appear  to  hare  lived  a  luxurious,  reckless  life  (iviii, 
7) :  they  were  skilful  in  hewing  timber  (I  Kings  v,  6), 
and  were  employed  for  this  purpose  by  Solotnan.  They 
were  idolater^  and  worshippeil  Ashloreth  as  their  ttile- 
larv  goildrss  {xi,  5,  33j  3  Kings  xxiii,  13),  as  well  as 
the  aun-gnd  Raal,  from  whom  their  king  wis  named  (I 
Kings  xvi.  31 ).  The  term  Zidonian  among  the  lle- 
brawa  ap;>ears  to  hare  been  extended  in  mcaaing  as 


ZlegelbaaaT,  Maonoj 
'     *        if  Gem 


n  Catholic  Ihe- 


n  !696  at  Elwi 


Suabia.  In  1707  he  entered  the  btothethood  uf  the 
Iknedictinc  friars,  nnd  taught  philosophy  and  theology 

Afier  having  resided  for  a  lime  near  the  learned  priest 
Bessel  of  Omienich,  wiio  had  been  appointed  toAslruct 
the  young  ff isni,  he  [lassetl  many  years  at  Vienna,  and 
at  Braunau  and  Prague,  in  Uohemis,  and  assisted  in 
reorganizing  the  academic  college  at  the  last-named 
place.  In  1747  he  went  to  occupy  the  position  nf  sec- 
retary of  tbe  Academy  of  the  L'nknowu  at  Olmlliz. 
Here  he  prepared  a  book  in  which  he  wishe<l  to  call  Ihs 
attention  of  the  pope  to  numerous  abuses  introduced 
aowng  the  clergy  of  Iheae  countries.  Those  interested 
in  suppressing  the  pulilica^on  of  this  work  administered 
to  him  a  poison  powder  bv  a  physician.  He  died  June 
4, 1760,  at  Olmtlli.  We'  have  from  Zicgalbaiier,  IIU- 
loritche  Huckricht  von  A>r  S.  Gforgmjahne  ( Vicnun, 
I7B6)  -—Acta  S.  Slrphard  Protomartsrii  (ibid,  1786),  in 
German  ■.—Koiai  Rri  IMltraria  Ord.  S.  Lmfdicti  Con- 
iptdai  (Rattabon,  1739),  a  prospectus  of  a  large  and  ex- 
cellent collection  which  was  published  bv  Lt-glpont  alVer 
bis  death  under  the  title  niilo<ia  Rri  l.iitcr.  Ord.  S. 
BtHedtdi  {Augsburg,  17o4) ; — Epitome  llUforka  -I/omi- 

Spoiaalia  Virt/imi  (Kbiiigshofen,  174U)  ■—llisloria  Di- 
dadioa  lie  Crucit  Cullu  in  Oi-d.  3.  Btmdioi  (Vienna, 
1746)  z—CmifoUum  Camaldalentt  (itnd.  1750),  which  U 
a  prospectus  of  the  hiuorical  library  of  the  Camaldules. 
Ziegelbauer  left  in  manuscript  several  works,  such  as 
Olontuctu"!  SaoTum  and  SibliolAceii  Boiicmku.  See 
Uoefer,  jVour.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Zlf  (Heb.  ZiV,  IT,  bh<m;  Sept.  Ziefi  v.  r.  Ntin^, 
Vulg.  Zio).  Ihe  early  name  (1  Kings  vi,  1.  37)  of  Ihe 
eecDiid  Hebrew  month  IrAU  (q.  v.),  corresponding  to 
April  or  Hay.    See  Calexdaa. 

Zi'ha  (Heb.  Tsicha',  ItniS,  i<archedi  Sept.  Tiaa 
Iijd,  Sovaa,  Soi^id,  etc.  i  Vulg.  Siha,  Soha,  Soa- 


Aa),lh 


le  of  two  Heb 


i.  One  of  Ihe  Kethiiiim  whose  "children" 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,  43;  Mch.  vii, 
46).    aC.  ante  &36. 

2.  First  named  of  the  two  chief  Netbinim  resident 
in  Ophel  after  tbe  Captivity  (Neh.  xi.ai).     B.C.  SBC. 

Zllm,    See  Tmvra. 

ZllE'lag  (Heb.  Tnt/ag;i\j:>X  [in  pause  S99X,.fully 
Tiilctlag;  sVp^X.  i  Chron.  xii,'l,  20],  viindini)  [PHrsl]i 
Sept.  ZtciXdc  or  iuaXay  T.  r.  XieeXii,  etc. ;  Josephutw 
S/nWo,  Anl.  vi,  18, 10;  14,  6;  Steph.  Byi.  £i'nX<i; 
Vulg.  ^icefi;;),  a  place  which  posscnes  a  special  tntereet 
from  ita  baring  been  Ihe  residence  and  tl: 
crty  of  David.  It  is  flnt  mentioned  in 
of  the  towns  of  Judah  in  Josh,  xr,  whei 
ated  (ver.  81)  among  those  of  Ihe  extreme  anuth,  be- 
tween Hormah  (or  Zephalh)  and  Madmaunah  (jKissibly 
Beth-mercaboth).  It  next  occurs,  in  the  same  connec- 
tion, among  Ihe  places  which  were  ollottcd  out  of  the 

counter  It  in  the  possession  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
xxsii,  6),  when  it  was,  at  David's  request,  bestowed 
upon  him  by  Achish  king  of  Rath.  lie  resided  there 
for  a  year  and  four  months  (ver.  7;  xxxi,  14,  26;  1 
Chron.  xii,  I,  20;  Josephua  [Anl.  ri,  13,  10]  give*  this 
as  one  month  and  twenty  dara).  It  was  there  he  re- 
ceived the  news  of  .Saul's  death  (2  Sam.  i,  I ;  iv,  10). 
He  Ibcn  relinquished  it  for  Hebron  (ii,  \\  Ziklag  is 
finally  mentioned,  in  company  with  Beer-shcba,  Hour. 
shual',  and  other  towns  of  the  south,  as  being  reinhab- 
ited  bv  the  people  of  Judab  after  their  relura  from  the 
Captivity  (Neb.  xi,  28> 


The  aituttion  oC  tbe  town  U  diOlcul 
notwiLhstBDcling  to  miny  iioticfa.     On  the  a 

frora  the  towns  nimcil  viiih  it,  bikI  iltn  rmtD 


I.  of  ll 


I  Chen 


(ODth  of  Caleb,"  nime  of  whoN  ilescenJanti  we  know 
were  it  Ztph  aiid  Haon,  perhaps  even  at  Paran  (1  Sam. 
XXV,  1).  On  the  other  hand,  this  ia  difficult  In  recon- 
cile with  its  connection  with  the  Phitistinea.  and  with 
Ihe  fact^which  follows  from  the  narratiTe  of  I  Sam. 
XXX  (s«e  vpr.  9, 10,  SI)— that  it  wai  north  o(  ihe  bruuh 
ScBot.  The  won!  em|.loyed  in  xxrii,  6, 7, 11,  todeiiote 
■he  region  in  which  it  stood  is  peculiar.  It  is  not  haih- 
SAtphelah,  ai  it  must  have  been  had  Ziklaj;  Uood  in 
Ihe  ordinarj-  lowland  of  Philistit,  tut  hat-S&th,  which 
Prof,  Stanley  {Sin.  and  PixU  App.  g  IS)  renders  -Ihe 
Seld."  On  the  whole,  though  the  temiualion  is  i 
to  suppose  {ns  some  have  suggealed)  that  Ihere  were 
two  places  of  tbe  same  name,  the  only  concluainn  seems 
lo  be  that  ZiklaB  «rb  in  Iho  south  counirr,  with  a  por- 
tion of  which  [he  t'hiliaiinea  had  a  coxneclion,  which 
inav  have  lasted  from  the  time  of  their  residence  there 
in  ihe  daya  of  Abraham  and  Isaac 

Ziklag  dues  not  apiwar  lo  have  been  known  to  Eiise- 
biua  and  Jemme,  or  lo  any  of  the  older  irarellers.  Mr. 
Rowlands,  however,  in  hia  Journey  from  (iaza  lo  Suez 
in  lftl2  (ill  Williami',  Italy  Cils,  i,  463-^68),  was  told 
of  "an  ancient  aile  called  AMj,  or  Kailij,  with  some 
ancient  walls,"  Ihrpe  hours  east  of  SebAta,  which  again 
was  two  houis  and  a  half  south  of  Khatau.  This  he 
considers  as  identical  wiih  ZikUfc.  Dr.  Robinson  hsd 
prpviouiilv  (in  1838)  heard  of  AMJ  m  lying  south-west 
rif  llilh,  in  Ihe  way  to  Abdeh  (ftiW.  Jta.  H,  Ml),  a  po- 
riiion  nut  disconlanl  with  that  of  tir.  Rowlands.  The 
idenliflcBlianisau|ipnnedbyMr.Wilron(A'f^p.209); 
bul  in  the  AraWo  fimn  of  the  name  Ihe  similarit.v 
which  pTompled  Mr.  ttowhiiids's  conjecture  almost  en- 
tirely disappears  (lipS,  jios).— Smith.  The  Eng- 
lish engineers  think  that  ihry  have  discovered  the 
name  and  aile  ofZiklag  ill  Ihe  ruins  slill  called  Khirbft 
ZakrUikah,  occupying  three  amall  hilts,  nearly  half  a 
mile  apart,  in  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  to- 
Rclher  with  ancient  cilies,  Nluated  in  an  open,  rolling 
plain  eleven  miles  east-southeast  of  Gaza,  and  nineieen 
B.iuih-west  of  13eit-Jibrtn  {Qvar.  RrpoH  of  '■  Pal.  Ex- 
plor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1878,  p.  12  sq.).    See  Sihkon. 

Zil'lah  (Heb.  T«lbih;  nia,  .*«*;  Sept.  &X\d; 
Tulg.  Sella),  last  named  of  the  two  wives  of  Lamech 
the  Cainite,  to  whom  lie  addretaed  his  song  (Gen.  iv, 
19,  32,  23\  D.C.  cir.  S500.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Tubal-Cain  and  Naemah.  Dr.  Kalisch  (Cnxin.  on  Cm.) 
regsnls  the  names  of  Lamcch's  wives  and  of  his  daugh- 
ters as  signiHcant  of  Ihe  transition  inlo  the  perini  of 
art  which  took  place  in  hia  time,  and  the  corresjionding 
iliantte  in  the  position  of  tbe  woman.  "Nsamah  signi- 
liea  Ihe  lovely,  beautiful  woman;  white  Ihe  wife  of  ihe 
llrst  man  was  simply  Eve,  the  life-giving.  .  .  .  The 
women  were,  in  the  age  of  Lamech,  no  more  regarded 
merely  aa  the  propagatora  of  the  human  family ;  beauly 

the  wires  of  Uuuech  manifest  the  transition  into  this 
epoch  of  beauty;  for  while  one  wife,  Zillah,  reminds 
Eiill  of  assistance  and  protection  ('shadow'),  the  other. 


and  likewise  signifying 
Hie  apocryphal  book  of  jasbar,  Adah  and  Zillah  are  both 
ilaughtcts  of  Cainan.  Adah  bare  children,  but  Zillah 
was  baiien  till  her  old  age,  in  consequence  of  some 
noxious  draught  which  her  husband  gave  her  !•>  pre- 
serve her  beauly  and  to  prevent  ii<.r  iiuoi  bearing.    See 

ZU'pah  (Heh.  Ttilpoh;  n|bt,  a  IncUiag:  Sept. 
ZiX^v.r.ZtX^ov;  Josephu^ZiX^,HIlr.i,  19,7;  Vulg. 
Zrlpha).  a  female  servant  nf  Laban.wtkom  he  gave  to 
Leah  on  her  marriage  wiib  Jacob  (Ueii.  jtiix,  24),  and 


Gad  and  Asher  (xxs,  9-13 ;  xxxv,26i  xxxvii,2j  ilri, 
18).     B.a  1919. 

Zil'tbat  (Heb.  Tiillag',  ^ri^:(,  thuds  or  nig  liml- 
ovi;  Sept.  £oXo»iv.r.SDX(i  and  £opa^i:  Vulg.Salt. 
lAi  ami  Selathai),  the  name  of  two  Hebrewa. 

X  Fifth  named  of  tbe  nine  >'son>''DrShimhi.>n'f  snt 
of  the  Benjamite  cbicfa  resident  It  Jenisaleni  (I  Chmk 
viii,  20).    B.C.  post  1G13. 

2.  Ijut  named  of  the  seven  Hanasrite  captaim  whe 
Joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  sii,  20).     RC  luU. 

Zlrn'mab  (Heb.  Zimmah',  nat,  jmrpoie;  SrpL 
Zi^firi  v.r.Zofifi'ijiandZi/iriS;  Xalg. Zauna  m  Ztam- 
mo),  the  name  of  twe  or  three  Levitts. 

i.  A  Uershonile,  "son"  of  Jahalh  and  faiher  of 
Jxah  (1  Chnin.  vi,  20) ;  probably  the  nma  with  the 
"Bon"orShimel  and  father  ofJahath  Cver.43).  BAX 
poet  1874. 

2.  Father  or  ancestor  of  Joah,  which  latwr  was  a 
Gerahouiie  in  Ihe  reign  of  Heiekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix, 
1-2).  aa  ante  726.  At  a  much  earlier  period  we  tiad 
the  same  collocation  of  namns  Zimmah  and  Juah  « 
father  and  son  (1  Chron.  vi,  20).    This  is  bul  bd  evi- 


I  ramily(coinp."Mahalhth 


n  of  Aisri 


2  Chron.  x: 
n  of  Abdi"  i 


maui'  in  2  Chmi. 
vi.  36:  "Joeltb* 
I  anil  I  Chnn.  vi, 
3  Chron.  xxix,  12 
with"Kiahil'  _.    .  — 

Zim'ran  (Heb.  Zinrari-,  -jnT;!,  nMiraltdi  SepL 
So/i/^pnv  V.  r.  Ztp^ip.  &ft,d^,'eic.:  Vulg.  Zoaw  and 
Ziiiariim),  lint  named  of  the  nine  sons  of  Abraham  fay 
Keiursh  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Climn.  i,  32).  B.a  cir.  2020. 
His  descendants  are  not  mentioned,  nor  it  any  biot 

would  rather  appear  lo  be  Ihe  case.  Some  would  idto- 
lify  Zimran  with  Ihe  Zimri  of  Jer.  xiv,  25,  but  Iben 
lay  too  far  to  the  nonh.  The  Greek  form  of  (lie  naiH. 
OB  found  in  Ihe  Sept„  has  suggealeil  a  compariiun  niih 
Knftinfi,  the  chief  eily  of  the  Cinwlomlpite,  whodwdt 
CD  the  Ked  Sea,  wen  of  Mecea.  Bi>t  this  ia  ciirrmely 
doubtful,  for  this  tribe,  probably  the  same  with  ihe  as- 
cicnt  Kenda,  was  a  branch  of  Ihe  Juktanite  AtalAwbo 
In  Ihe  moat  ancient  limes  occupied  Yemen,  and  rasy 
only  hsve  come  into  possession  of  Zabram  at  a  later  pr- 
riod  (Knobel,  Cm.).  Hitiig  and  Lengerkr  [iropose  lo 
connect  Ihe  name  Zimran  with  Zimii-ii,  a  disiricl  rf 
Ethiopia  mentioned  by  Pliny  (xxxi-i.ia)j  bucGrotbia, 
wilh  more  plausibility,  finds  a  trace  of  it  iu  the  Zamrrr- 
nt,  a  tribe  of  the  interior  nf  Arabia  (Pliny,  vi,3S).  The 
identification  of  Zimran  with  Ihe  modern  hni  Omrm 
and  the  Bam  Zomaneu  of  Diodorns,  proposed  by  Mr. 
i^GfOgr.of  Arabia,  i,4Sl ),  cannot  be  scn'oualT 
ned.  Winer  {llandm.  s.  v.)  suggests  ihe  Zi- 
r  Asia  Minor  (Ptolemy,  v,  T,  2 ;  Plinr.  x.  20)  or 
Zwqra  {Ztfivpit)  of  A«a  (Plolemy,  vi,  i;',  Bj.      See 

AlUBIA. 

Zlm'll  (  HebL  Zimri',  V^Ti  "9  '""S  *"'  ceMrnrt^: 

Sept.  Zofi^iA;  Josephus,  Za;ii>r»iCi  A»l.  viii,  12,  i; 

Vulg.  Zamln-i),  the  name  of  several  Hebrews,  and  ^c 

parently  one  foreign  tribe. 

X.  First  named  of  the  five  aona  of  Zenh  the  too  if 

Ldah  (I  Chron.  ii,  l>).     RC  post  1874. 

2.  The  son  of  Salu,  a  Himconiliah  chieftain,  slain  by 

Phinehaa  with  the  llidianirish  princess  Coibi  (Komfa. 

-,  14).     RC.  1S18.     When  the  Isn     •  '  ■ 

e  smitten  wilh  plague*  for  their  it 

Baal  Pear,  and  were  weeping   before 

ri,  with  ■  shameless  disregard  of  bis  own  high  post- 

and  tbe  auSerings  of  his  tribe,  brought  into  thni 

presence  the  Midianilesa,  in  llie  sight  of  Uoaei  snd  ia 

the  sight  of  the  whole  congregalion.     The  Sette  sngR 

of  Phinehaa  was  aroused,  and  in  the  awift  vengtsaw 

oD^nders,  he  gave  ibcb* 

miaing  spirit  which  chsnv' 


St  ShiltiB 


zni  10 

leriied  him  in  liter  life.  The  whale  dmunsUiioe  is 
much  eoftened  in  the  Dunlive  of  Jowphus  (AnL  iv,  6, 
10-12),  and  in  the  hinde  of  the  apologut  ii  diveited  of 
all  iu  rigor  and  point.  In  the  Targum  ot  Jonathan 
bcn-llEiiel  Kveral  (raditioDal  ilctaili  are  added.  Zioiri 
retorte  npon  Hoses  that  he  htmwir  had  taken  to  wiTe  a 
Hidianiieo,  and  twelve  miracuhiua  aigna  atteod  the 
vengcano!  of  Phiiiehas.     See  Piiinehas. 

Ill  docTibtng  the  eeene  of  this  tragedy  an  nniwul 
word  19  emploved.  the  farce  of  which  is  lost  in  the  ren- 
d«inK''tenC"ofIheA.V,  ofNunib.ixT,a  Icwaanot 
the  £htl,  or  ordinary  tent  of  the  encampment,  but.  the 
nsp,  hibbSk  {whence  Span,  almba  and  our  alam),  or 
dome-ahiped  tent,  to  which  Phiuehai  pursued  hii  vic- 
tims. Wliether  this  was  the  tent  which  Zimri  occu- 
pied as  chief  of  hii  trilie.  and  which  was  in  consequence 
more  elaborate  and  highly  ornamented  than  the  test,  or 
whether  it  wa^  as  Gesenius  suggesu,  one  of  the  tents 
which  the  MidianiCee  used  for  the  wonhip  of  Peor,  is 
not  to  be  determtneil,  though  the  Utter  is  favored  by 
the  rendering  of  the  Vulg.  tupaaar.  The  word  does 
not  occar  elsewhere  in  Hebrew,  In  Che  Syriac  it  is 
rendered  a  "cell,"  or  lunei  apaTimeuC  of  the  tenL    See 

3,  The  son  of  AzmaTeth  (rather  Jehoadah  or  Jarah) 
■nd  father  ofHoia  in  the  lineage  of  king  Saul  (IChron. 
viii.  3G ;  ii,  42).     U.C  cir.  943. 

4.  The  filth  sovereign  of  the  separate  kingdom  of 
Israel,  of  which  be  occupied  the  throne  for  the  brief  pe- 
riod of  seven  day*  in  the  year  ac.936.  Originally  in 
command  of  hdf  the  chariota  in  (he  royal  army,  he 
gained  the  crown  by  the  marder  of  king  Elah  son  of 
Boashi,  who,  after  reigning  for  something  more  than  ■ 
year  (comp.  1  Kings  ivi,  8,  10),  was  indiilgine  in  a 
drunken  revel  in  the  house  of  his  stenanl  Ana  at  Tir- 
ub,  then  the  capital.  In  the  midst  of  this  festivity 
Zirori  killed  him,  and  immediately  afterwards  all  the 
rest  of  Baasha's  family.  But  the  army  which  at  that 
lime  was  besieging  the  Philistine  town  of  Gibbelhon, 
when  they  heard  of  EUh's  murder,  proclaimed  their 
general  Omri  king.  He  immediately  marched  against 
Tinah  and  toot  the  city.    Zimri  retreated  into  the  in- 

'  nennost  part  of  the  late  king's  palace,  set  it  nii  lire,  and 
perished  in  the  ruins  (ver.  9-SO).  Ewald's  inference 
from  Jeiebel'i  speech  to  Jehu  (2  Kings  ix,  3IJ  [bat  on 
Elih'i  death  the  queen-mother  welcomed  hii  murderer 
with  smiles  and  blandishments  seems  rather  arbitrary 
and  far-fetched.  The  word  u  lic-JK,  which  Ewald 
(after  J.D.Michic1is)inbolh  the  above  passages  Iniists 


ZINZENDOEP 


itisetymnlogically  connected,  and  bciice  seeks  confirma- 
tion of  bis  view  that  Zimri  was  a  FolupCuoiis  slave  of 
women.  But  its  root  seems  to  be  O^!t,"to  be  high" 
((ieseniua);  and  in  other  passages,  especially  Prov. 
xviii.  19,  the  meaning  is  "a  luftv  fur(rei»,"rather  Ihan 
"  a  harem."  Ewald,  in  his  sketch  of  Zimri,  is  perhaps 
Bomewhsi  led  astray  by  the  desire  of  finding  a  historical 
parallel  with  Sardinspalus.     See  IsRAKt. 

5.  An  nbsCurB  name,  mentioned  (Jer.  xxv,  25)  in 
probable  cunnection  with  Dedan,  Tcma,  Dux.  Arabia 
(a^S),  the  mingled  people  '"ereb"  (-"IJii),  nil  of 
which  immediately  precede  it,  besides  other  peoples, 
and  followed  by  Elam,  Ihe  Hedes,  and  others.  The 
passage  is  otwide  csmprehension,  but  the  reference,  as 
indicated  atwTe,  eeemi  to  he  tti  a  tribe  of  the  si>iis  nf  the 
East,  the  Beni-Kedem.  Nothing;  further  is  known  re- 
specting Zimri,  but  ii  may  possibly  he  the  same  as,  or 
derived  from,  Zihban  (<[.  v.). 

Zia  (Heb.  Tain,  "iX  [with  n  directive,  Ttlmili,  niX, 
N'limb.  xxjtiv,  4 ;  or  Tiia'aah,  nSS,  Josh,  nv,  3],  a,*i( 
[lilain  or  palm-tree]:  Sept.  2i.- v.  r.  Siwo,  etc;  Vulg. 
Siny,  a  wildemesa  f^?""!?)  or  open,  uncultivated  region 
on  the  aontb  of  Kilesline  and  westn-ard  from  Idumtes 
inwfaicbwa*siltiat«dlhecityofKadeih-bamca(N'umL 


iiii,2S;  xx,ltixvii,14;  zxxiii,8e;  zxxIt,9i  Dent 
xxxii,  61 ;  Josh.  XV,  1).  It  evidently  was  a  portion  of 
the  desert  tract  between  the  Dead  Sea,  Obti,  and  An- 
bah  (possibly  including  the  two  latter,  or  portions  o( 
them)  on  the  east,  and  the  genera]  plateau  of  the  Tlh 
which  stretches  westward.  The  country  in  quetUon 
consists  of  tv"  or  three  successive  lerraccs  of  mounlaia 
converging  to  an  acute  angle  (like  stairs  where  there 
is  a  turn  in  the  flight)  at  the  Dead  Sea's  southern 
verge,  towards  which  also  they  slope.  Here  the  drain* 
age  Bnds  its  chief  vent  by  the  Wady  el-Fikreh  into  the 
tihor,  Ihe  remaining  waters  ronning  by  smaller  chan- 
nels into  the  Arahah,  and  ultimately  by  the  Wady  el- 
Jeib  also  to  the  Ghnr,  Judging  from  natural  feaiurea 
in  the  vagueness  of  authority,  it  is  likely  that  ll>e  por> 
tion  between  and  drained  by  these  wadies  is  the  region 
in  question ;  but  where  it  ended  westward,  whether  at 
any  of  the  above-named  terraces  or  blending  imper- 
ceptiblv  with  that  of  Paran,  is  quite  uncertain.  Joae- 
phus  (Am.  iv,  4,  6)  speaks  of  a  "  hill  called  Sin'  (£>v) 
where  Miriam,  who  died  in  Kadeih,  when  the  people 
hart  "come  to  the  desert  of  Zin,"  was  buried.  This 
"  Sin"  of  Joaephus  may  recall  the  name  Zin,  and,  being 
applieil  to  a  hill,  may,  perhaps,  indicate  the  most  singu- 
lar and  wholly  isolated  conical  acclivity  named  Mode- 
rnh  (Martnro,  or  Madari),  standing  a  little  south  of  the 
Wady  Pikreh,  near  its  outlet  into  Ihe  Ghor.  This 
would  precisely  agree  with  Ihe  tract  of  country  above 
indicated  (Numb,  ix,  1 ;  see  Seetien,  Reiin,  iii,  Hi- 
bim  lo  Madara;  Wilton,  Neg^,  p.  127,  IS4).     See 

Zi'na  (Heb.  Zimi',  Xl^T,  perhaps  aiundaiK»;  Sept. 
Zifo,  Vulg.  Ziui),  second  named  of  Ihe  four  aons  of 
ShimeitheGershonile(IChron.iiiii,10>.  EC  10*3. 
In  ver.  11  be  is  called  Zi2ah  (q,  v.),  and  some  MSS. 
here  have  Ziia  (KT^t),  like  ihe  Sept,  and  Vulg. 

Zinsendort  Nichoi.as  Lewis,  Ctnntt  con,  D.D., 
.rounder  of  the  Hermhuten,  or  Moravian  Brethren,  was 
bom  at  Dresden.  May  26,  1700.  According  to  his  own 
account  (in  his  Salurnl Rrftctiiml  on  Viirioia  Subjcdi), 
he  aspired  to  form  a  society  nf  believers  from  his  bor- 
bood.  Un  coming  of  age  in  1721,  he  settled,  with  this 
object  in  view,  on  his  estate  at  Berthelsdorf,  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  and  was  there  joined  by  several  proselytes 
from  Buhemio.  By  17S2  [he  numbers  who  had  flocked 
around  him  amounted  lo  six  hundred,  and  all  these  were 
subject  toa  species  ofecdedastical  discipline  or  monastic 
deqwlism  which  brought  them  in  spirit  and  body,  or 
was  intended  so  lo  do,  under  Ihe  most  absolute  conlrol 
of  tbeir  leader.  From  an  adjacent  hill  called  the  Hulh- 
brrg  was  derived  the  name  of  the  colony,  Hulh  des 
Herm,  contracted  to  Hermhut,  and  from  tliis  the  name 
of  Ihe  seel.  The  ^ipellalion  Moravian  Brethren  was 
assumed  fur  his  party  by  count  Ziniendorf  for  the  sake 
nf  connection  with  the  separalisls  of  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia, partly  derived  from  Valdo,  the  forerunner  of  Lu- 
ther :  some  of  these,  indeed,  were  among  his  ctilonii'is. 
Zinzendorf  assumed  various  litles  as  the  chief  of  ihe 
llermhutcrs,  all  of  which  really  pointed  lo  a  ponlifiailt 
as  his  function.  From  1Td3  his  missionaries  began  lo 
spread,  not  only  over  parts  of  Europe,  but  in  Greenland 
and  North  America ;  e^-en  Africa  and  China  were  not 
forgotten.  To  him,  in  faci,  Wesley  was  directly  iit- 
debteil  both  for  his  religious  orgaiiiistion  and  his  mis- 
sionary plans  which  became  so  emincnlly  successful, 
that  indefaligable  laborer  having  pasaeil  some  time 
with  count  Zinzendorf  at   Herrnhul.      The  inierfer- 

hardly  be  regarded  as  a  mrnsurc  of  |>ersrcutian,  as  se- 
cret doctrines  were  undoubtedly  held  by  him,  and  thus 
motives  given  to  his  follower?,  and  oljects  soitghl,  nf 
which,  whether  goml  or  evil,  Ihe  eBlabliohed  authori- 
ties could  Uke  no  ognimnce.     The  history  of  the  sect 

in  classes,  the  use  of  flinging,  which  furnished  the  Wes- 
I  leys  with  a  valuable  him.  is  one  of  ila  most  remarkable 


BON  11 

cbaracterbttca ;  under  thin  bead  tome  linguUr  details 
might  be  given.  SomttliiDg  mighc  be  aud  alio  on  the 
connection  of  >  eertain  mamige-iite  with  the  Iheoiy 
of  regeneratioa^  the  efficacy  of  which  wu  probably 
tried  by  the  Hernihulen  ia  com  man  with  the  Quakem. 
Count  ZinzendotT  died  amoDg  bit  people,  May  U,  1760. 
See  MoBAViANS.    (W.P.S.) 

Zl'on  (Heh.  Trigon',  Ti'S,  Mimy  [Ge»erL]  or/ort 
[Furstl;  S«pL  [usually]  and  New.  TesU  Siux,  Vulg. 
Sion;  A.V.  "Sion"  in  New,  Teal.),  «  prominent  bill 
(^n)  of  JeruuleiD,  being  generally  regarded  u  tbe 
aouth-weatemiDaat  and  [he  highest  of  ihoae  on  which 
the  city  WM  built  U  included  the  most  ancient  part 
of  the  city  with  Che  citadel,  and,  hb  drat  occupied  for  a 
palace,  waa  called  the  dig  of  Datid  (3  Cbron.  v,  2). 
Being  the  original  «te  of  the  taberoacle  pitched  l^ 
David  fur  the  reception  of  the  ark,  iC  waa  alao  caUed 
the  holy  kitt,  or  hill  of  lie  tanctuaTy  (Pu.  ii,  6).  By 
the  Hebrew  prophet*  the  name  ia  often  put  for  Jeru- 
ulem  itself  (;lBa.>-iii,  18;  x,!4;  xxx,  I9i  xxxiii,  14; 
Pea.  xlviii,  a,  "   "  —    -- 


:  Rev.  xiv,  0;  i 


tant.,* 


called  AHu  or  daagilen  of  Zion  (laa.  i,  27;  xii,  6;  xl, 
9;  xlix,  14;  lii,  1;  Pea.ix,  14;  xcvii.8;  Zech.  ii,T,  lO; 
ix,  a,  18;  Zeph.  ill,  14,  16;  Joel  ii,  23)  Hatt.  xxi,  6; 
John  xtii  16);  and  for  the  spiritual  Son,  the  churcb  or 
city  at  the  living  God  (Hcb.  lii,  23,  S8;  GiL  iv,  26; 
Rer.  iii.l2;  xxi,  2, 10). 

There  never  has  been  any  considerable  doubt  as  to 
the  identity  of  thia  hilL  Josephus,  indeed,  eingularly 
enooBh  appears  to  ignore  tlie  name  Zion;  but  he  evi- 
dently calls  the  same  hlU  the  site  of  the  Upper  City. 
In  modem  times  FcrguMun  has  atlempteil  to  identify  it 
with  Slount  Moriah  (.Irraialem  Retiiilrd;  tht  Ttmplr, 
eic).and'CapLWarren,  with  equal  futility,  has  con  tend- 
cil  for  its  identity  with  Akra  (^The  Temple  or  the  Tomb 
[Lond,  1880J).  The  mialake  of  the  latter  has  orip- 
nated  from  not  observing  that  Joaepbus  uses  aicpa,  lie, 
mnonil,  in  two  senaG*:  («)  the  cilaM  on  Mount  Zioti 
(^  b(.  vii,  3, 1,  where  it  is  dearlv  distinguished  from  "  the 
lower  city"),  and  (i)  the  hiti  Atra  {Hid.  2,  where  it 
is  clearly  distinguiahed  from  "the  upper  city").    See 

or  the  aeveral  hills  on  which  Jeroaalem  waa  built, 
2ion  is  the  largeat  and,  in  many  respects,  the  most  in- 
teresting. It  exlenda  considerably  farther  south  than 
the  opposite  ridge  of  Moriah  and  Opbel.  The  western 
and  southern  aide*  rise  abruptly  from  the  bed  of  the 
valley  of  Hiiniom,  and  appear  to  have  originally  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  rocky  precipices  rising  one  above 
another  like  stairs ;  but  now  they  are  partially,  and  in 
same  places  deeply,  covered  with  tooae  soil  and  the  de- 


)0  ZION 

bris  of  buildings.  The  southern  brow  of  Zion  ti  biti 
and  prominent;  and  its  position,  separated  Irom  mIict 
heights  and  surrounded  by  deep  valleys,  makes  it  aee* 
loftier  than  any  other  point  in  the  city,  though  ii  ii  b 

of  the  wall  The  elevation  of  the  bill  above  tbe  val- 
ley of  Hinnam  at  the  point  where  it  bends  cwlwanl 
is  300  feel,  and  above  the  Kidron.  at  en-Kof^l.  £00  Tm. 
On  the  south-east,  Zion  slopes  down  in  a  series  of  cuhi- 
vated  terraces  steeply,  though  not  abmptly,  to  the  tiu 
of  the  "King's  Gsjdena,"  where  Hinnom,  the  Tyrop»- 
on,  and  the  Kidron  unite.  Here  and  round  to  Ibt  snub 
the  declivities  are  sprinkled  with  olive-tices,  which 
grow  luxuriantly  among  narrow  strips  of  com.  Tht 
scene  cannot  but  recall  the  words  of  Ulcah,  "Zion  shall 
be  ploughed  like  a  field"  (Jer.  ixvi,  IB).  On  the  e«t. 
the  descent  to  the  Tyropcevn  is  at  first  i^duil,  but  as 
we  procecil  norlhwaril  to  the  modem  wall  it  becositi 
steeper;  and  about  300  yards  within  the  wall,  directly 
facing  the  saulb-west  angle  of  the  llanun,  there  is  a 
precipice  of  rock  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high.  Tki 
declivity  is  here  encumbered  with  heaps  of  filth  and 
rubbish,  overgrown  in  places  with  pricklj'-pear.  Tte 
TyropiEon  was  anciently  much  deeper  at  thia  point  than 
it  is  now;  it  has  been  filled  up  by  the  ruins  of  tbe 
bridge,  the  Temple  walls,  and  the  paUces  of  Ziur.  U>  a 
depth  of  more  than  130  feeU  The  best  view  of  Ibe 
eastern  slopes  of  Zion  and  the  southern  section  of  tht 
Tyropceon  ia  obtained  from  the  top  of  the  wall  in  de- 
scenditig  from  Zion  (isle  to  the  Dung  Gate. 

From  the  descripliona  and  incidental  notices  of  Jott- 
phua  the  folhiwing  facts' may  be  gathered:  that  (he 
"Upper  City,"  built  on  Zion,  was  surrounded  by  t>> 
vines;  that  it  waa  separated  from  the  "Lower  Qly* 
(Atra)  by  a  valley  called  the  Tympneon;  that  upon  a 
crest  of  rock  thirty  cubits  high  on  the  nortbem  brew 
of  Zion  stood  three  grut  towers — Hippicus,  PhasadM 
andMariamne;  that  the  wall  eitclostng  the  Upper  City 
on  the  north  ran  h.v  these  towers  to  a  place  called  ibt 
Xystus  and  joined  the  western  wsllof  the  Temple  ami 
that  there  was  a  gate  in  that  westrm  wall  itonhward 
of  this  point  of  Junction  opening  into  Akra;  ilial  ibt 
Xystus  waa  near  to  and  commanded  by  tbe  weslefn 
wtU  of  the  Temple  area,  though  not  united  la  it.  and 
that  the  royal  palace  adjoined  and  overlooked  the  Xyt- 
tus  on  the  weal,  while  it  was  also  attacheil  to  the  preal 
tnwcTB  above  mentioned ;  and,  lastly,  that  both  llie  Xn- 
tus  and  palace  were  connected  at  their  aoulhem  end  bv 
a  bridge  with  the  Temple  area  (see  Josephus,  War,  x, 
4;  vi,6,2;  ii,16,3;  AM.xv,  U,i). 

ing  in  length  from  the  citadel  to  tbe  Tomb  of  Daviit, 
about  000  ysrds;  and  in  breadth  from  the  city  wall  M 


ofEvIl  Connsel.   <From  a  pbotosiapt),) 

..ooglc 


iJT Si ST 

Hap  of  the  OrlgloAl  Surface  of  Jeniwleni.    {Rednced  from  Scblck'a  plnu.) 

tlie  eaiUm  aide  of  the  Armenian  convent,  about  !50  I  captured  by  king  Dnrid  (Numb,  xiii,  3Aj  Joeh.  xv,  6! 
jfirdi.  A  much  larger  space,  however,  was  available  Jud.  i,  21 ;  2  Sam.  v,  5-8).  Upon  it  (hat  monarch  bui 
Tor  building  purposes,  and  wai  at  one  time  occupied,  bia  palace,  and  there  far  more  than  a  thousand  yea: 
Now  not  more  than  one  half  of  thU  apace  is  enclosed  :  the  kings  and  princes  of  larari  lived  and  ruled  (ver. 
by  the  moilem  wall,  while  fully  one  third  of  that  en-  etc.).  In  Zion,  too,  was  David  buried,  and  fourteen  o 
closed  is  taken  up  with  the  barrack-yards,  the  convent  his  successors  on  the  throne  were  laid  near  him  in  tl 
gardens,  and  the  waste  ground  at  the  cily  gale.  All  royal  tomb  (1  Kings  ii,  10;  xi,'l3:  xir,3l,eic.).  Zio 
without  the  wall,  with  the  exception  of  the  cemetoriea  wai  the  last  spot  that  held  out  when  the  Romans  undi 
and  the  cluster  of  houses  round  the  Tomb  of  David. 
T  cultivated  in 


d  thinly  sprinkled  h 


OliTI 

Zion  was  the  first  spot  ia  Jerusalem  occupied  by 
buildingKi  Upon  it  stood  the  stronghold  of  the  Jehu- 
aitea.  which  so  long  deAed  the  Israelites,  and  was  al  last 


(    Titus  captured  the  ci 
le  Temple,  the  1 


if  Jerusalem 
euemy  occupied  the  courts  of 
t  of  the  Jews  from  the  walls  of 
refused  the  terms  of  the  conc|ueror,  and 
perished  in  thousands  around  and  within  the  palace  of 
their  princes. 


Thei 


:h  Mood  on  Ziod  wu 


■lUdiii 


(jv  Kveral  nnmei.  It  wa>  probably  the  Saltm  of  Mei- 
ciiizcilek  (comp.  tien.  xiv,  18  with  Pu.  txxvi,  S) ;  then 
it  bpcame  Jrbui  uudeT  ihe  JebuaiUs,  hi  cillid  from  ■ 
MiiurCsii»ii«ieii.z,  in;  1  Cbron.  xi,  4,  6) ;  then  the 
"  cilj-  uf  I)»vid"  and  Jtniialm  (i  Sam.  v,  7).  Jose- 
phiis,BS  above  Maied,  calls  it  tbe  "  Uppei  Qly ,"  addins 
that  it  was  kiiuwn  also  in  his  day  as  the  "Upper  Mar- 
ket."    Sec  Jeritsalkm. 

Zi'or  <Heb.  Toot",  liP^S,  imaUnm ;  SepU  2iu|>  i.  r. 
';  Vulg.  Siar\  a  town  in  the  highland  district 


of  Jud 


KJosl 


',"),« 


•ed  ii 


d  Hebron  to  the  south.  See  Ji 
OF.  Eusebius  and  JerooM  (Caamoir.  a.  v.  £iup)  call  it 
a  village  between  Jecuaalem  and  Eleutheropolta.  It 
probably  corresponds  to  the  small  village  still  called 
Sair  oil  the  road  about  six  miles  nonh^easl  o(  Hebron 
towards  'I'ckna  (Robinson,  £<U.A».i,48S),  tradiliunal- 
ly  poiuted  out  as  tbeaile  of  tbe  grave  of  Esau  (Schwa  rz, 
PaltH.  p.  IlNi). 

Ziph  (lleh.  ill.  q^T,  ballUmtiit  [Gown.]  or  mtl/m/- 
,  oi[b  many  V.  rr, ;  Vnig, 


st]:Sept.Zr/3 

siph).  t: 


le  ofa  man  ai 

X.  First  named  of  the  four  sons  of  JcbDlclcel 
tribe  of  Judah  (I  Chron.  iv,  10).     B.C.  poet  1618. 

2.  A  town  apparently  in  the  south  or  Simec 
part  of  Jiidsh  ( Joth.  xv,  24),  where  it  is  mentioned 
between  [ibiian  and  Telem;  but  the  i 
the  abMnce  of  the  copula  require  ns  to  Join  it  wiih  the 
former,  i.  e.  Ilhiian-iiph,  and  in  that  case  it  may  be  an 
append«)te  retaining  a  trace  of  ihe  Zephulk  (q.v.)  of 
thai  region.     See  Itiinan. 

3.  A  town  in  the  mnuntain  district  of  Judah  <Jfsh. 
XV,  Ba),where  it  iamentiaiKd  between  Carmel  and  Jut- 
t«h,  in  the  sotith-eaat  group.  See  JrnAii,  Thibe  ok. 
Tbe  place  is  immorlAliied  by  its  connection  with  Da- 
vid, some  of  whose  greatest  perils  ainl  happiest  escapes 
took  place  in  its  ncighborh'Kid  (I  Sam.  xxiii,  14, 16,34: 
iKvi,  -i).  It  had  been  built  by  Mesl 
(I  Chron.  ii.  43),  and  was  eventually  fotlifled  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Cbron.  xi,  8).  "Zih"  ia  menlioued  in  the 
Ornimiulinia  as  eight  miles  east  of  Hebron;  "the  vil- 
lage," adds  Jerome,  "in  which  David  hid  is  still  shown." 
This  can  hardly  be  tbe  spot  above  referred  to,  unlesi 
the  distance  and  direction  have  been  staled  at  random, 
or  the  passage  is  corrupt  both  in  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 
Elsewhere  (under  "Zcih"anil  "  Ziph")  Ihcy  place  it  neai 
Carroel,  and  connect  it  with  Ziph  the  dfscenifanc  of 
Caleb.  The  place  in  question  is  doubtless  the  TtU  Zi/, 
about  three  miles  snuch  of  Hebron,  a  rounded  hill 
some  hundred  feet  in  height,  with  a  spring  adjacc 


ZIPPORAH 


About  half  a  mile  east  of  the  tall  are  aoote  ciiiMid«f> 
i  ruins,  ilandtug  at  the  bead  of  two  small  wadio^ 
ich,  commencing  here,  run  off  towards  the  Dead  Sea. 
These  ruins  are  pronounced  by  Robinson  (BibL  iia;i, 
o  he  those  of  Ihe  ancient  Ziph.  There  was  oi^ 
inally  a  dtun  (^^'la)  and  a  vood  (D^h,  ckArttk,  1 
"-  -  xxiii,  la)  attached  to  the  place,  traces  of  the  lat- 
which  have  been  supposed  to  exist  in  the  present 
KhirUt  KAorrua,  about  one  mile  south  of  Tell  Zif 
(Suur.  SlalemaU  of  lie  "  Palest.  Eapkir.  Fund,"  JsD. 
1S7S,  p.  4S).    See  Hachilah. 

Zi'pbah  (Heb.  Ziphak',  n^-'l,  fern,  of  Z^  {liat, 
Fllrst]  t  Sept.  Ztf  d  V.  r.  Za^A  or  Zaifd ;  Tulg.  Z^M), 
second  named  of  the  four  "sons'  of  Jebaleleel  ol  llw 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  16).    RC  post  lets. 
Zlph'lm  (Psa.  liv,  title).     See  Zifkiti^ 
Zipta'lon  (Oen.  xlvi,  16).    See  Zethok. 
Zlpb'lte  ( Heb.  with  the  art.  [except  1  Sam.  xxiii, 
19]  hat-Ziphi,  "B'^n  [always  in  Ihe  plur.,  but  abbie- 
viated  D^^T   in  ver.  19;  xxri,  1];    Sept.  Ztifataii 
Vulg.  Z^iAoif  A.V.''ZiphileB,'bol"Ziphtina"in  Psa. 
lir,  title),  the  palrial  designation  of  the  inhabitants  of 
thetownofZiFn(q.v.). 

Zl'phron  [some  ZipA-rtm]  (Heh.  ZipAroa', '^SgI, 
frugroaa  [Ccsen.]  or  beautiful  top  [FUist]  ;  Sept.  Z(- 
fpuivit  v.t.^tfpuiva;  Vulg.  ZfTiAnmn,  both  from  tbe  di- 
rective n  of  tbe  Heb.),  a  place  on  the  northern  boonda- 
ryuftho  Promised L^nd, and cnnBequenllyalsoofNapli- 
tali  (Numb,  xxxiv,  9,  where  it  is  mentioned  betweei 
Zedad  and  Haxar-enan;  possibly  the  present  KavbAa, 
a  village  high  up  the  western  slope  of  Wadv  et-T«i»] 
(Kobinson,  l^trr  Ra.  ^iSb).  In  the  parallel  pamp 
(Eiek.  xlvii,  16),  Hazar-baUicon  (q.  v.)  occun  in  a  am- 
lar  coniiectior.  According  lo  Jeronw  <ad  loc.  Eiak^'tl 
was  the  .^•7)A^HinCifKw(Mannen,VII.  11,66,76).  But 
this  is  too  far  away.  Welmeiii  thinks  it  ia  tbe  cxtoi- 
sive  river  Z^fria,  fourteen  hours  nonh-east  of  Damas- 
cus {RritAeridaiiber  Uavran,^.my,  but  thia  ia  eqa^ 
ly  out  of  the  question  (  comp.  Scbwari,  FaUH.  p.  S; ). 
See  TntBE. 

Zip'pOT  ffleb.  TVijrjpor',  -IIBS  [briefly  IDS.  Numk 
xxii,  10;  xxiii,  18],  tparTOie  [conip. Zipporai]  j  S^ 
&ir(Mip;  Vulg.  StyAor),  father  of  Balak,  king  of  Sadi, 

g,  4,  10,  16;  xxiii,  IS;  jJeh.  xxir,  9;  Judg,  xi,  S^ 
ILC.  ante  1618.  He  is  poaubly  the  king  referred  la  ia 
Numb,  xii,  2G.     See  IIaiak  ;  Moab. 

ZJppo'iah  (Heb.rsv<poroA-,  n';BS,rem.or2^r«-,- 

Sept.  £cir^upa ;  Josepbiis.Siiir^kipo,/liif.  iii.3. 1 ;  Tulg. 


Tell  Sit    (From  a  pbologrsph  hj  lbs  Bdlioi 


'r',i,:cc  ..Google 


ZIZ 

SfpAora),  rmv  or iht  Mvm  iliughtenurRfuel  or.lft 
(lie  priest  of  Hitliia,  who  became  the  wife  oT  Most* 
mother  of  his  tno  sons  Gerahom  ami  Elieier  (Exod.  ii, 
21 ;  iv,  2b;  iviii,  2;  comp.  ver.  6>.  The  moat 
worthy  iucidenl  in  het  life  is  the  account  of  the  cir- 
cumciuoD  of  the  [oimer,  who  had  remained  fur  aom 
lime  ttttT  his  birth  uiicircumciscd;  bul  in  illness  inl 
which  Moeesfcll  in  a  lihanwhenon  hiaway  toPharao! 
bciiiK  Bccouatnl  ■  token  of  the  divine  diafilesaure,  ic 
to  the  circumcision  of  (he  child,  when  Zipporah,  hai 
intc,  it  ippean,  reluctantly  yielded  to  the  ceremotiy,  t> 
cUimed,  "Surely  a  bloody  husband  thou  an  to  me"  (i< 
26;  see  Frischmuth,  Zte  CireuaidiioHi  Zippoi-a  [Jei 
leeSiiHite.DeSiMiioSiiiiguiatolHtH'IbS]).  Th. 
event  BecmB  to  have  caused  some  alienalinn  <^  feciing, 
for  Moseaseiit  his  wife  back  lo  herfarhcr.by  whom  she 
uaa  again  brought  lo  her  husband  while  in  the  deserl, 
when  ■  recuncilialiou  look  pUce,which  was  ratified  by 
rvligiuug  rilca  (Cen.  xviii,  1  «].).  11.C  1658.  It  haa 
been  soKf^teil  Ihat  Zipporah  waa  Ihe  Cuahite  (A.Y. 
-Ethiopian")  wife  wbo  furnished  Miriam  and  Aaron 
with  the  pretext  fur  their  attack  oi)  Moeea  (Numb,  xii, 
I,  etc).  A  alight  confirmation  fur  thia  appears  la  be 
that  ill  a  pasuse  of  Ilabakkuk  (iii,  ~)  Ihe  lumea  of 
Cushau  and  Miilian  are  mentioned  together.  Another 
siiBgcatinti  U  that  of  Ewalil  {Gild,  ii,  229,  note),  name- 
ly, that  the  Cualiite  was  a  aecond  wife,  or  a  concubine, 
taken  by  Muses  during  the  march  ihroiiRb  the  wilder- 
iiena — whelher  after  the  death  of  Zipporah  (which  is 
nnt  mentioned)  or  from  other  circumatancea  muat  be 
uncertain.    See  JIosks. 

Zi%  (Keb.  with  the  art.  taf-Tiflt,  y^tn,  (He  pn>- 
jtrlion;  Sept. 'Ami  v.r. 'Amrtic;  Vulg.  £u), the  name 
of  ■  clifT  (nb;i9,  atemt)  or  pasa  by  which  ihe  band  of 
Moabilen,  Ammonite!,  and  Mchunim  who  attacked  Je- 
hoshapliac  mado  their  wav  up  from  Ihe  ahurea  of  the 
liciul  Sea  lo  ihe  wilder'nesi  of  Judah  near  Tekoa  (2 
Chmn.  xjt,  IC ;  comp,  ver,  SO).  There  can  be  very  lit- 
tle doubt  that  it  was  ihe  pasa  of /)  in  ./ii/y— "  Ihe  very 
Mine  route,"  as  Kubiiiaan  remark^  "  which  is  taken  by 
the  Amba  in  their  maraudint;  expeiliiiona  at  the  preeent 
ilsy  1  along  the  shore  aa  Tar  aa  to  Ain  Jiity,  and  then 
up' the  pasa,  and  Hj  northward  below  Ttka»,"  [JliiL  Sti. 


i,  608,  &30  ).    The  paai,  althau^h  exceedingly  predpl- 

loua,  is  atill  a  great  thoroughfare  (Trialram,  Land  ••/ 
Maah,  p.  41).  The  name  hai-Ziz  may  perhapa  be  still 
traceable  in  tl-Hui&mh,  which  is  attached  to  a  large 
tract  oT  table-land  lyiog  immediately  above  Ihe  pasa  of 
Ain  Jidy,  between  it  and  Tekfla,  and  bounded  on  the 
north  by  a  wady  of  the  lame  name  (SiM.  Ra.  i,  S27). 
Ijeul.  Conder  rcmarka  that  there  is  ■  ruin  called  Khir- 
iet  M  IB  Boiiih  of  VuHa  (Qnur.  S(afn«n(  of  the  "  Palcat. 
Ejtplor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1875,  p.  1 5). 

Zi'ia  (ircb.  Ziia\  Kpl,  atunrfance  [Geaen.]  oT 
iAirtiBj[Flli«];  Scpt-ZiIdorZouJo),  theiiameofiwo 
men.    See  also  Zaun. 

1.  Third  named  of  the  four  anna  of  Kehoboam  by 
Haachsh  Ihe  graiiddaugfater  of  Absalom  (2  Chron.  li, 
M).     RC.  post  973. 

2.  Son  of  Shiphi  and  one  of  the  chiefa  of  the  Simeon- 
ites,  who  in  the  reign  of  lleiekiah  made  a  raid  upon  the 
peaceable  llamite  ahephenUi  of  (iedor  and  smote  them, 
"  because  there  was  pasture  there  for  their  flacks"  (I 
Chron.  iv,  37).     aC.cir,726. 

Zl'zah  (Heb.  ZizuA',  nl't,  i.  q,  Ziia;  Sept.  Zifdi 
Vulg.  Zizu),  a  Uershonite  Lesite,  second  aon  of  Shimei 
(  1  Chron.  xxiii,  II);  claewhere  (ver.  10)  called  ZlK* 
(q.v.). 

Zisanloo.    See  Takk. 

Zju-gwaU  (or  ZjU-f en),  in  Japancae  mythology. 


aplac 


>e  first 


day  of  the  tirat  moncb  (February). 

Zlata  Baba,  in  Slaronic  mythology,  was  a  goddeat 
worshipped  by  ihe  Poles,  whose  golden  statue  (whence 
her  name,  'jolitn  itomaa)  is  said  to  have  alirad  in  a 
temple  on  the  Obi  River.  Many  saerillces  were  made 
lo  her  because  she  announced  oracles  to  those  desiring 

Zlebog  [pron.  Zlitbogl,  in  SUvonio  mythology,  is 

name  of  all  evil  black 'deitie%  as  the  reverse  of  Dobri- 
bog.    Citmtbog  is  identical  with  Zlcbog. 

Znios,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  is  a  deity  of  the  Via*- 
aisiis  that  waa  worahipped  at  Kiev  Ihrough  an  ciernal 


in  JIdjr  and  iha  ClIfT  of 


,   (From  a  pbotoumph  by  the  Editor.   The  fu 


ZOAN  U 

flre.  Il  ta  thought  that  Znicz  tigniflea jtir.  The  prie ita 
of  this  god  gave  U>  the  uek  and  auffering  their  advice 
In  exchange  for  rich  offerings. 

Zo'Sn  (Heb.  rm'dn,  ISSi  Sept.  Tov.ci  Vulg.  To- 
tit),  Bii  ancient  city  of  Loirer  EK3'pt>  a'tualeil  on  (he  eatt- 

aeveral  times  in  the  Old  Teal.  (Numb,  itiii,  22;  Psa, 
Bxiviii,  12,43;  Isa-xix,  11,13;  xxx,*;  Eiek.xxx.U). 
Its  (uins  have  lately  been  careraltv  explored  (I'etrie, 
Taitii,  ill  "Mem.  of  Eg.  Expl.  Fund,"  Lonil.  1884-B). 

I.  The  nomr,  preserved  in  the  Coptic  .fant,  the  Arabic 
San  (a  village  still  on  the  site),  and  the  claiBical  Tuviq, 
Tanis  (whence  the  Coptic  tnuiacription  Tanmi),  comea 
from  the  toot  ',7X,  "be  moved  tents"  (Isa.  ixiiii,  20), 
cognate  with  ^^a,  "be  loaded  a  beast  oS  burden;"  and 
tliiia  signi6ea  "a  place  of  departure"  (like  Zasnsnnim, 
Josh,  xix,  33.  or  Zaanaim,  Judg.  iv,  11,  on  a  similar 
thoroughfare).  Zoan  lay  near  the  eastern  border  or 
Ldvrer  Egypt.  The  sense  of  departure  or  removing, 
therefore,  would  seem  not  lo  indicate  a  mere  reating- 
place  of  caravans,  but  a  pUce  of  departure  from  a  coun- 
try. The  Egj'ptian  ttame  Ha-aicar  or  Pa-nwar  {Ava- 
rii, 'Aounpi'c)  means  "  the  abode"  oi  "house"  of  "going 
out"  or  "departure."  Its  more  precise  sense  tixes  that 
of  the  Shemitic  equivalent. 

II.  UUloiy^i.  From  J/aneTAo.— At  a  remote  period, 
between  the  age  when  the  pyramids  were  built  and  (hat 
of  the  empire,  Egypt  was  invaded,  overrun,  and  subdued 

least  their  lirst  race,  appear  u>  have  been  Arabs  ornate 
with  the  PbcEnicians.  How  they  entered  Egypt  doe« 
not  appear.  After  ■  time  they  made  one  of  Ihemselveii 
king,  a  certain  8B]atiB,whD  reigned  at  Memphis,  exact- 
ing tribute  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and  garrisoning 
the  HtCest  places  with  especial  regard  to  the  safety  of 
the  eastern  provinces,  which  he  foresaw  the  Assyrians 
would  desire  to  invade.  With  this  view,  finding  in  the 
Salte  (better  elsewhere  Selfarolte)  nome,  on  the  east  of 
the  Bubastito  branch,  a  very  fit  city  called  Avaris,  be 
rebuilt  and  vtiry  strongly  walled  it,  garrisoning  It  with 
240,000  men.  He  came  hither  in  barvest-tiaie  (about 
the  vernal  equinox),  (o  give  com  and  pay  to  the  troops, 
and  exercise  them  so  as  to  terrify  foieignera, 

The  position  of  Tanis  explains  the  case.  Like  the 
other  principal  cities  of  this  tract— Pel usium,  Dubastis, 
and  Heliopolis— itlay  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  to- 
wards Syria.  It  was  thus  outside  a  great  tine  of  de- 
fence, and  afforded  a  protection  to  the  cultivated  lands 
to  the  east  and  an  obstacle  to  an  invader,while  lo  re- 
treat from  it  was  always  posnble,  so  long  as  the  Eg^'p- 
tians  held  the  river.  But  Tanis,  though  doubtless  for- 
tilled  partly  with  (he  object  of  repelling  an  invader,  was 
too  far  inland  to  be  the  frontier  fortress,  Il  was  neai 
enaugh  to  be  the  place  of  departure  for  caravans,  per- 
haps was  the  last  town  in  the  Shepherd  period,  but 
not  Dear  enough  l«  cornmand  the  entrance  of  Egypt, 
Peluuum  lay  upon  the  great  road  lo  Palestine — il  has 
been  until  lately  placed  too  far  north  [see  Sin] — and  '^ 
plain  was  here  narrow  from  north  to  south,  so  that 
invader  could  safely  pass  the  fortress;  but  it  soon 
came  broader,  and,  by  turning  in  a  soutb-westerly 
rection,  an  advancing  enemy  would  leave  Tanli  far  to 
the  notthwani,  and  a  bold  general  would  detach  a  force 
to  keep  its  garrison  in  check  and  march  upon  Heliop- 
clis  and  Memphis.  An  enormous  standing  militia,  set- 
tled in  the  Bucolia,  as  tbe  Egyptian  militia  afterwards 
vrta  in  neighboring  tracts  of  the  delta,  ant' 
headquarters  at  Tanis,  would  ) 


!  of  the  m 


countrv,  and  mainly  for  the  former 
Ueve  Avaris  to  have  been  forlified. 

2.  from  Ihe  H/ji/plian  ifonumenli. — Apipi,  probably 
Apophis  of  the  fifteenth  dynasty,  a  Shephenl-king  who 
rcigned  shortly  before  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  built  a 
temple  here  lo  Set,  the  Egyptian  Baal,  and  worshipped 


)4  ZOAN 

no  other  gal.  According  to  Manetho,  tbe  Sbepberd^ 
after  fill  years  of  rule,  were  expelled  Imm  all  Egrfi 
and  shut  up  in  ATaria,whence  they  were  mllowed  tods, 
part  by  capitulaliou  bv  either  Amosis  or  ThumiD« 
(Aahmes  or  Thothmes'lV),  (he  first  and  Kveaih  kings 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  The  monumenta  show  (hat 
the  honor  of  ridding  Egypt  of  (be  Shepherds  bdongsi* 
AabnK&  Rameses  U  embellished  Ihe  great  UDiple  <f 
Tanis,  and  was  followed  by  his  son  Menptah. 

After  the  fall  of  the  empire,  the  first  dynasty  is  the 
twenty-first,  called  by  Hanelho  that  of  TanitCH.  Its 
history  is  obscure,  and  it  fell  before  the  stronger  line  of 
BubasLites,  the  iwenty-eecnnd  djTiasly,  faundnl  hy  .'*i. 
shak.  The  expul«ou  of  Set  from  the  panLheon,  oudtl 
the  twenty-second  dynasty,  must  have  been  ■  blow  lo 
Tanis,  and  perhaps  a  religious  war  occasianed  Ibe  rut 

called  Tanite,' and  its  lost  king  is  iwobaUy  Selbos'ibe 
contemporary  of  Tirhakab,  mentioned  by  HenidatiB. 
See  Egvit. 

3.  from  Ihf  £iUt  we  learn  that  Zoin  was  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  in  Egypt,  having  been  built  neven  yean 
after  Hebron,  which  already  existed  in  Ihe  time  of 
Abraham  (Kiimh.  xiii,  22;  comp.  Gen.  xxii,  3>  It 
seems  also  to  have  been  one  of  the  principal  ca|Htah, 
orroyalaboi1eB,ofthePhaiaohs(IsB.  xii,ll,  I3j;  and 
accordingly  "  the  field  of  Zoan,"  or  the  fine  allni'iid  plain 
around  the  city,  is  described  as  the  scene  of  tbc  marrf!- 
lous  works  which  (iod  wrought  in  the  tiiae  of  MoKS 
(Pm.  Ixxvlil,  12,83).  Tanis  once  more  appears  in 
sacred  history  as  a  place  to  which  came  aoibaiBadon, 
cither  of  lloshea  or  Ahai,  or  elie  poaribly  Heickiah : 
"For  his  princes  were  at  Zoan,  and  hi! 
came  to  Hanes"  (Isa.  xzx,  4).  As  mentic 
frontier  lawn  Tahpanhes,  Tanis  is  not  necessarily  Ibe 
capital.  But  the  same  prophet  perhaps  more  diuinctlr 
pinniB  lo  a  Tanite  line  when  saying,  in  "  tbe  burden  of 
£gypt,"  "Tbe  princes  of  Zoan  are  became  fools;  tbe 
priijces  of  Noph  are  deceived"  (xix,  13),  The  donm  of 
Tanis  is  foretold  bv  Ezektel :  "  1  will  set  fln  i»  Zoan' 
(Exck.  XXX,  14),  where  it  occurs  among  Ihe  cities  lu  be 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

III.  Dricj-iplion  and  Rnmiini Anciently  ■  rich  plain 

ex(ended  due  castas  far  as  Pdusiiim,  about  thirty  milB 
distant,  gradually  narrowing  towards  (he  east,  so  (hat  in 
a  sourti-Gas(erly  direcrion  from  I'anLi  it  was  not  molt 
than  half  this  lireadih.  The  whole  of  this  plain,  about 
as  far  south  and  west  as  Tanis,  was  ancientlv  ki»wn 
as  "the  Fields"  or  "Plains," "(he  Manbei"  (Vd 'EVf, 
'EXErfp\<4t),or"lhrpasture-lsnda"(BooioAia).  TbTongh 
the  subsidence  of  (he  Mediterranean  coast,  it  is  now  al- 
most covered  by  the  great  lake  Mentaleh.  Of  old  it «« 
a  rich  marsh-land,KaIered  by  four  of  the  seven  bnoclM* 
of  the  Kile,  the  Pathmitic,  Hendc«an,Tanitic,  and  P«- 
lusiac,  and  swept  by  the  cool  breeiee  of  the  Uediicr- 


At  present  "  Che  plun  of  San  is 
(hiidy  inhabi[ed;  no  village  exists  in  the  inmtdialt 
vicinity  of  tbe  ancient  Tanii ;  and.  when  hwking  fnHi 
Ihe  mounds  of  this  once  splendid  diy  towards  the  dis- 
tant palms  of  indistinct  viUages.wG  perceive  tbe  desola- 
tion spread  around  il.  The  '  field'  of  Zoan  is  now  a  bmt- 
ren  was(«;  a  canal  passes  through  it  without  being  able 
10  fertiliEG  Ibe  soil ;  '  Hre'  has  been  set  in  '  Znan ;'  and 
one  of  the  principal  capitals  or  royal  abodes  o(  the  Pba- 
raohs  is  now  the  habilaliun  of  fiahettnen,  the  resort  of 
wild  beasts,  and  infested  with  reptile*  and  malignani 
fevers."  It  is  "  remarkable  for  the  height  and  nttem 
of  its  mounds,  which  are  upwarils  of  a  mile  fmai  north 
to  south,  and  nearly  three  quarters  ufn  mile  from  wiis 
west.  The  area  iu  which  the  saer«i  eiiclusirie  of  ibt 
temple  stood  is  about  1500  feet  by  U50.  surroon-led  br 
nvounda  of  fallen  bouses.     The  temple  «as  adonied  Inr 


Zosn  (now  Snii). 
tnuM^jortinK  them  from  Sj'eni?  ahows  the  laviili  mtg- 

fuund  here  ii  that  of  SeaerUsen  III  of  the  twelfth  dy- 
nulr,  the  latest  that  orTirhakah"  (Wilkinaon,  Hand- 
bool'.p.Tii.tii).  T»n  black  statiica  and  a  ktbiiIig 
sphioi,  with  blucks  of  hewil  and  nccaiinnally  tciilpl- 
■ued  granite,  are  among  the  objects  which  engage  the 
attention  of  Ilie  few  travellers  who  visit  this  dcxolate 
place.  The  modem  village  orSan  conBisIs  of  mere  hiils, 
with  the  esceptinn  nf  ■  ruined  kasr  of  modem  date  (iil. 
JHodtra  Egypl,  i,  449--4f>i;  Narralire  of  the  Sartlith 
Dfpulalioii,  p.  T2-TG).  Recenttv  M.  Harictte  has  made 
excBvaliniiii  on  ihia  site  and  discarered  nraaina  of  the 
Shepherd  perind,  showing  a  markedly  chsracterislic 
style,  enpeciaily  in  the  represenUtiun  of  face  and  figure, 
bill  nf  ERTptian  art.  and  tlierefore  afiemards  apprapti- 
■leil  ly  the  Egvptian  kiiifcs.  The  bilingual  or  rather 
trilingual  inscription  of  I'luleray  III  (Euergeteg  I)  is  of 
very  great  interest.  See  Lepsiua,  Ihit  bilingue  Drcret 
eon  Kimapui  (Bel.  18G7)  i  Reinisch  und  RBsler,  Die  ticti- 
tprachiije  InvAriJi  con  Tiuu  (Vienna,  eod.) :  Procttd- 
i«gt  ofiht  Amtr.  Oiittttal  Soetf<y,  Mav,  1870,  p.  viii; 
BiUiulketa  Sacni,3ii\v,ni-,  xxvi,58l. 

Zo'ar(Hcb.rM'ar,lyS  [fully  ^51S,  Gen.  liK,  2-2, 
23,30],  dua/fnru,-  Sept.£qyuii,Zoy'i«i,ur  Ziiyomi ;  Jo- 
BCphusZuvp,  rii  Zuapa  or  Zuopii;  Vulg.  ^i-ijoi').  one  of 
the  cities  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead-Sea  valley,  and  ap- 
patently,  from  the  way  in  which  it  is  meiilinned,  the 
most  distant  from  the  western  highlamls  of  Palestine 
(xtii,  10).  \\A  original  name  was  Ukla,  and  it  was 
atill  so  called  at  the  time  uf  Abram's  first  residence  in 
Canaan  (xiv,  %  S).  It  was  then  in  intimate  connec- 
tion with  the  cities  of  the  "  plain  of  Jordan"— Sodom, 
Gomorrah,  Ailmah,  and  Zeboiim  (see  also  ^liii,  tO;  but 
not  Ti,  l9>-anii  its  king  look  part  with  the  kings  nf 
those  towns  in  the  boulo  with  the  AMyriaii  host  which 
ended  {u  their  defeat  and  the  capture  of  I»t.  The 
change  is  thus  explained  in  the  narrative  nf  Lot's  es- 
cape rnim  Smlum.  When  urged  by  the  angel  to  flee 
to  the  ntounUin,  he  pinnted  to  lieli,  and  said,  "This 
city  ii  near  lu  flee  unlo,  and  it  is  a  little  one  (^SXr). 
Oh,  let  me  escape  thither  (is  it  not  a  titlU  auef)  and 
my  soul  shall  live."  The  angel  consenleil;  and  the  in- 
cident proved  a  new  baptism  lu  the  place — "Therefore 
the  name  of  the  city  was  called  Zoar,"  that  is,  "little'' 
(v,  22).  This  incident  further  tends  to  fi.t  its  site,  at 
least  r^tii-ely  to  Sodonu  It  must  have  been  nearer 
than  the  moutilaius,  and  yet  outside  ihc  boundary  of 
the  plain  or  vale  of  Siildim,  which  was  dcstroyeil  dur- 
ing the  conflagration.  Ic  would  seeni  from  ver.  30  that 
it  lay  at  the  foot  of  the  mounUin  into  which  Lot  sub- 
sequently went  up,  and  where  he  dwelt.  That  moun- 
tain was  most  prubably  Ihe  western  declivity  of  Moab, 
overlooking  the  Dead  Sea.  Jn  DeuU  xiiiv,  3  there  is 
another  alight  indication  of  Ihepoution  of  Zoar.  From 
the  topof  Pisgah  Hoses  obtained  his  view  of  the  Prom- 
ised Wid.  The  east,  the  north, and  Ihe  west  he  viewed, 
and  lastly  "the  south,  ami  the  plain  of  the  valley  of 
Jericho,  unto  Zoar."  ThtsisnolquitedeGtiile:  but,con. 
BideriDg  the  scope  of  the  passage,  it  may  be  safely  con- 


from  the  way  in  which 

ie  mentioned,  that  it 
jst  have  been  on  Ihe 

.     Jeremiah  is  the 
ly  other  sacred  writ- 
are  less  definite  than  tliose  of  Isaiah  (Jer. 

that  it  retained 


III  early  Christian  times  Joscphi 
its  name  (Zuup)  to  his  day  {AhI.  i.  11,4),  tl 
the  farther  end  of  the  Asphaliic  Lake,  in 


hhcm 


1  of the  U 


ipital  wasl'ctra(irffr,  iv,tl,4;  .J  n*.  xiv,  1,4). 
ine  notices  ofEusebius  are  to  the  same  tenor:  the  Dead 
Sea  exten>te<l  from  Jericho  ti>  Zoar  (Zoopwv;  OnO' 
matt.  s.  V.  %a\aiiaa  tj  ilXuicft).  Phieno  lav  between  Pe- 
lraandZoar(({«/.B.v.«i>>iiv).  Itsiill  retained  its  narue 
(Zuapa),  lay  close  to  (xopmrtifiiiij)  the  Dead  Sea,  waf 
crowded  with  inhibitants,  and  contained  a  gariison  cf 

ed,  and  lesliHed  to  its  ancient  fcniliiy  {iM.  s.  v.  BoAd). 
To  these  notices  of  Eusebius,  Jerome  odds  little  or  noth- 
ing. Paula,  in  her  juumey,  beholds  Seeor  (which  Je- 
rome gives  on  several  occadona  as  Ihe  Hebrew  form  of 
the  name,  in  opposition  to  Zoora,  or  Zoaia,the  Syrian 
form)  from  Caphar  Baruuha  (poswbly  Beni  Nairn,  neat 
Hebron),  at  tlie  same  time  with  Engedi,  and  the  land 
where  once  stood  the  four  cilies;  but  the  terms  of  the 
statement  are  loo  vague  to  allow  of  any  inference  as  to 
its  position  (£>utcviii,  g  11).  In  his  commentary  on 
Isa.  XV,  &,  Jerome  says  thalit  wae"in  the  boundary  of 
Ihe  Moabiles,  dividing  them  from  the  land  of  the  Phi- 
listines," and  thus  justiSes  his  use  of  Ibe  word  crctu  to 
translate  nn^ia  (A.V."hiB  fugilives,"  marg.  "Uor- 
clersi"  Cescn.  FlachlHngt).     The  Itrra  Phitinhiin,  ui 


Iup^< 


d  (J 


Palestine — i.  c.  (according  to  the  inaccurate  usnge  of 
later  lime*)  of  Israel— as  opposeii  to  Moab.  In  hii 
Qamioiei  /lebraica,  on  Gen.  xix,  UO  (cump.  xir,  3> 
Jerumc  goes  so  far  as  la  afflrm  the  accuracy  ofihe  -lew- 
ish  eoMJvclure,  that  the  Uter  name  c.f  Z.iar  wiu  Sholi- 
sha— "Uule  piimum  et  posica  Salisa  apjiellala"  (comp. 
also  his  comment  on  Isa.  xv,  6).  Ihit  this  is  probably 
grounded  merely  on  an  inlerpretaiiiin  ot  tAiilithiytll  in 
IsB.  XV,  5,  as  connected  with  bth,  niul  as  deiioliiig  Ihe 

tio,  which  contained  also  Kerak  and  Armpnlie.  It  was 
an  episcopal  see,  in  Ihe  palriarchaie  of  Jenioalera  anil 
archbishnpric  nf  Pelra;  at  Ihe  Council  of  (^halceilon 
(A.D.  41)1)  it  was  represented  bv  its  bishop.  lilusonius, 
and  al  the  Svno.1  of  Constant!  ni^.le  (A.  D.63G)  bv  John 
(I*  Quieii,  OritHt  Chriti.  iii,  743-T4B). 

Among  the  slalemenis  of  mediffva!  travellers  there 
are  tw»  remarkable  ones,  il.)  Umcardus  (cir.  A.U. 
1290),  the  author  of  the  DfKiipliu  Ttrra  Simctir.  the 
standard  «  Handbook  t..  PaleWine"  of  ihe  Middle  Agea, 
Ihe  work  of  an  able  and  intelligent  resident  in  the 
country,  aules  (c  vii)  that  "tive  leagues  (leucai)  to 
the  south  of  Jericho  is  the  city  Segnr.  situated  beneath 
the  mountain  of  Engaddi,  between  which  mountain  and 
the  Dead  Sea  ia  the  sutue  of  salt."  Tnie,  he  confesses 
that  all  his  efforts  lu  visit  the  spot  hsd  been  frustrated 
by  il>e  Saracens;  but  the  passage  bi-ars  marks  of  the 
greatest  desire 


■arlyai: 


:  place,  because  he  saw 


ZOAR  U 

with  hiB  own  eyes  the  "  pynunids"  which  covered  Ihe 
"weltg  of  bitumen,"  which  he  eupposeB  to  have  been 
IhDK  uf  Ihe  vale  of  Siddim.  This  is  in  curioiu  ogiee- 
meot  wilh  the  connectioo  between  Eiigedi  ind  Zoar 
implied  in  Jtioaie't  Ilineraiy  of  Paula,  (i.)  The  slale- 
menc  of  Tbietmar  (A.D.  1217)  i>  even  more  ainKular. 
It  ia  coutained  in  the  lllh  and  12th  chapien  of  hia  Pe- 
irgriaatic  (ed.  Laurent,  Uambiirg,  1857).  After  visit- 
ing Jecicho  and  (iilgol,  he  arrivei  at  the  "  forda  of  Jor- 
dun"  (xi,  20),  where  Israel  croued  and  where  Cbrisl  wu 
baptized,  and  where  then,  as  noir,  the  pilgrims  bathed 
(22).  Crtnaing  this  ford  (33),  he  arrireB  at  "(he 
Seld  and  the  spot  where  the  Lord  overthrew  Sodom 
■nd  (iomorrah."  AHer  a  description  of  the  like  come 
the  following  words:  "On  the  shore  of  this  lake,  about 
A  mile  (_ad  miliart)  from  the  apot  at  which  the  Lord 
wu  bspliieil,  is  the  itatue  of  Mlt  into  which  Lot'a  wife 
waa  turned"  (47),  "Hence  I  came  from  the  lake  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  arrived  at  Segor,  where  Lot 
took  refuge  aOer  the  overthrow  of  Sodom;  which  is 
now  called  in  Ihe  S.vrian  tongue  Zoro,  but  in  Latin  the 
City  of  Palma.  Id  the  mountain  bard  by  this  Lot  ain- 
ned  with  hit  doughlen  (xii,  1-3).  After  this  I  potted 
the  vineyard  of  IJenjaroin  (?)  and  of  Engaddt. . . .  Next 
I  came  into  the  land  of  Hoab  and  to  the  moantain  in 
which  waa  Ihe  cave  where  David  hid, ,  . ,  leaving  on 
my  left  hand  Sethim  (ShillimX  wbere  the  children  of 

larael  tarried .At  last  1  came  to  the  plaina  of  Hoab, 

which  abound  in  cattle  and  grain. ...  A  plain  country, 
delightfidly  covered  with  herbage,  but  without  either 
wooda  nr  lingle  trees;  haidly  even  a  twig  or  tbnih 
(4-16).  .  .  .  After  thia  I  came  to  the  toirent  Jahbok" 
(xiv.l). 

Zoar  is  very  distinctly  mentioned  by  the  Cniaading 
hiatorians.  Fulchef  (Ce<(o  fl*^p,406,(|uoted  by  Kau- 
mcr,  p.  2S9)  states  chat,  "  having  encircled  {giruio)  the 
southern  part  of  the  lake  on  the  road  fk>m  Hebron  to 
Petra.  we  found  there  a  large  village  which  was  uid 
to  be  Segor,  in  a  charming  aitoation,  and  abounding 

Arabia."  The  palms  are  mentioned  also  by  William 
ofTrre  (xxii,3l))  as  being  so  abundant  a*  to  cause  the 
plac^  to  be  call»l  Villa  Palmanua,  and  /"nfrwr  (i.  e. 
probably  Puamitr).  Abnlfeda  (cir.  A.D.  1320)  doe* 
not  apecify  its  position  mare  nearly  than  that  it  was 
adjacent  to  the  lake  and  the  Ghdr,  hut  he  tcstiUes  to 
its  then  importance  by  calling  the  take  after  it — Bah- 
retKcghor  (see,  too,  Ibn-Idria,  in  Reland,  p.  272).  Tlie 
natuni  inference  fnun  the  description  oS  Fulcher  is 
that  Segor  lay  in  the  Wady  Kerak,  Ihe  ordinary  road, 

eaalem  highlands.  The  conjecture  of  Itby  and  Man- 
gle* (Jnne  Land  see  May  9),  that  Che  extensive  ruina 
which  they  found  in  the  lower  part  of  this  Wady  were 
those  of  Zoar,  is  therefore  probably  accurate.  The 
name  Dra'a  or  Drra'ah,  which  they,  Poole  {Geoip: 
Journ.  Kivi,  63),  and  Biirckhardt  (July  1ft),  give  to 
the  valley,  may  even  without  violence  be  accepted  as 
a  corruption  of  Zoar.  The  nilna  have  likewise  been 
described  by  De  Saulcy  (/(Rirwy,  i,S07). 

M.  de  Saulcy  himaelf,  however,  places  Zoar  in  the 
Wads  Z'"rtiriJi,  the  pass  leading  from  Hebron  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  But  the  namei  Zuweirah  and  Zoar  are  not 
neariy  su  similar  in  the  originals  bb  they  are  in  their 
Western  forms,  a::d  there  is  the  fatal  olntacle  to  the 
proposal  that  it  places  Zoar  on  the  west  of  the  Uke, 
away  from  what  appeara  w  have  been  the  original 
cradle  of  Moah  and  Amman.  If  we  an  to  look  for  Zoar 
in  thia  neiahborbood,  it  would  surely  be  better  to  place 
it  at  tbe  TfU  tiia-Zoghal,the  latter  part  of  which  name 
il  almost  Uterally  Ihe  aame  as  tbe  Hebrew  Zoar.  The 
proximity  of  thia  name  and  that  of  Usdum,  so  like 
Sodom,  and  the  prcMiied  of  tbe  salt  mountain— to  this 
day  aplitting  off  in  pillan  wbich  show  a  luda  resem- 
blance to  the  human  form — are  certainly  remarkable 
facts.  Other  writers  locate  Zoar  in  the  phin  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.    An  insuperable  objec- 


06  ZOBA 

tion  to  this  is  that  in  that  ease  Lot  must  have  croastd 

the  Jordan  in  his  Bight;  for  Sodom  was  on  the  w«st 
side  of  the  plain,  and  Zoar  on  the  east-  Mr.  Bifrh 
(in  the  diarttrlg  Btaltmeat  of  the  "  Palest.  Eiplsr. 
Fund,"  Jan.  ISTS,  p.  IS  aq.)  is  confident  that  the  naot 
and  site  are  those  uf  Tdl  rt-Shogur,  at  Ihe  foot  of  Wady 
Heiban;  but  hia  arguments  lack  weight.  Tristram^ 
attempt  {Laitd  of  Sfoab,  p.  MH)  to  identify  Zoar  with 
Ziara  on  Mount  Nebo  is  board  upon  on  eiroc  aa  (a  the 
Latter  name,  which  is  properly  £ia^Ani  ;  the  poaitini  oa 
o  moutttoin,  moreover,  is  preposterous.  For  the  diftr- 
ent  views  held  regonling  the  site  ofZoor,  see  Itofaioiai, 
fitU.  Acs.  ii,GI7;  Reland, /'u/oui'.  p.  1064 ;  De  Sanlcv, 
TrareU,\,^\;  Tristram,  £wuf  n/ /irae^  p.  SCO;  ^ 
bHalheca  Suaa,  1863,  p.  136  aq.     See  SodOM. 

ZostJtes.     See  Sbparatists  of  Zoab. 

Zo'ba(Heb.  Tioba;  tty^S,  2  Stm.x,e,S)«tZo'- 
ball  (Heb.  Ttobah-,  nSlX  [briefly  h=S,  2  Sam.  xiiii, 
86],  HiHimi  Sept.  Zu^  v.  r.  Ziu^oA.'ctc;  Vulg,  oso- 
illy  Soba),  the  name  of  o  portion  of  Aram  or  Syria, 
wbich  formed  a  seporole  kingdom  in  the  time  of  the 
Jewiah  monarchs  Sou),  David,  and  Sobmon.  It  u 
difficult  to  fix  its  exact  position  and  limits;  bat  there 
seem  to  be  grounds  fur  regarding  it  as  lying  diefly 
eastward  of  Ctele-Syria,  and  extending  tbeoce  north- 
east and  east  towards,  if  not  even  to,  the  Eaphnua 
(see  IChron.  xviii,  3-9;  xii,  C).  It  would  .thus  have 
included  the  eastern  flank  of  the  mountain  chain  which 
■huta  in  Opie-Syria  on  that  side,  Ihe  high  land  about 
Aleppo,  and  tbe  more  noribern  portion  of  the  Syrian 
desert.  The  Syrioc  inlerprelers  take  Zoboh  to  be  .Vu>- 
£>•,  in  Hesnpotamia,  and  they  have  been  foUowul  by 
Uichaelis  (Dt  Sfrta  Sobaa,  in  the  Commas,  Sac.  Gtt- 
liag.  p.  C7  aq.).  Others  would  identify  it  with  Ihe  das- 
sic  Chakii.  It  was  so  chiacly  connected  wilh  Hamalk 
that  that  great  city  was  sometimea  diatinguisbed  as 
Hamath-Eobiih  (2  Chnm.  viii,  8).'  Among  tbe  cities 
of  Zobah  were  also  a  pUce  called  Tibbalh  or  Betah  (I 
Sam.  viii.  8;  1  Chron.  xviii,  8),  which  )\  perhaps,  Tcri- 
bih,  between  Palmyro  and  Aleppo;  and  anatber  called 
Berothai,  which  has  been  supposed  to  be  Beirilt,  but 
wilh  little  probability,  for  the  kingdom  of  Hauuth 
must  have  intervened  between  Zobah  and  the  Boait. 
See  BuBOTiiAH.  Zuboh  was  a  wide,  arid  plain  inter- 
sected by  several  ranges  of  bare,  white  mountains,  but 
having  alto  a  few  fertile  valle}^  The  inhabitanta 
were  probably  semi-nomads,  and  chiefly  shepherd*, 
like  the  modem  Bcdawin  of  tbaC  region,  th^  «ere 
rich  in  hor*cs  (Ritler,  PaL  and  Sgr.  iv,  1700;  Porter, 
fltmdbooi/vr  PaL  p.  GU).     See  Sihia. 

We  l}rst  hcv  of  Zobah  in  Ihe  dme  of  Saul,  when  we 
find  it  mentioned  as  a  separale  country,  governed  ap- 
parently by  a  number  of  kings  who  own  do  commaD 
head  or  chief  (1  Sam.  xiv,  47).  Saul  engaged  in  war 
with  these  kings  and  "vexed  them,"  as  he  did  his  oth- 
er neighbors.  Some  forty  year*  later  than  this  we  find 
Zobah  under  a  single  ruler,  Hadadder,  son  of  Rehab, 
who  seems  to  have  been  a  powerful  aoveieign.  He  bad 
wars  with  Toi,  king  of  Hamalh  (2  Sam.  viii,  10),  while 
he  lived  in  close  relslians  of  amity  wilb  the  kings  of 
Damascus,  Beth-^rehob,  Ish-Iob,  etc,  and  held  vorioui 
petty  Syrian  princes  as  vassals  under  hia  yoke  (i,  19). 
He  hid'  ei-en  conaiderable  influence  in  Heaopotanio, 
beyond  Che  Eupbratea,  and  was  able  on  one  occaaiOD  to 
obtain  an  important  auxiliary  force  from  that  quarter 
(ver.  IB;  comp.  title  to  Pst  Ix).  David,  having  re- 
solved to  take  full  poaeeosion  of  the  tract  of  tetiitury 
originally  promised  in  the  posterity  of  Abraham  (SSam, 
viii,  8j  comp.  Gen.  xv,  18),  attacked  Hadadenr  in  tba 
early  port  of  hia  reign,  defeated  his  artay,  and  u 


a  thousi 


d  (ae' 


Chron.  xviii,  4)  horaemen,  and  twenty  ilMmaDd 
footmen.  Hadadeiet'B  allien  the  Syrians  of  Dbdib- 
cus,  having  marched  to  hia  onslance,  David  dcfeaatd 
them  in  a  great  battle,  in  which  ihey  laat  twenty-l** 


ZOBEBAH 

tbonund  men.  Tbe  weallh  of  Zobah  is  verj  iftpinnt 
in  the  nimlire  or  Ibii  cimpiign.  Sevenl  ol  tbo  or- 
6cen  or  Hadadeicr's  army  cairic  J  "  ihields  ot  gold"  (2 
Sun.  viii,  T),  by  which  we  ore  probably  Co  undersUnil 
imn  or  wooden  fnmee  orerUid  wUb  plates  of  ihe  prc- 

Detah(orTibh»th)and  Berot hi L, yielded  him  "exceed^ 
ing  mnch  brasa"  (rer.  8).  It  ia  not  dear  whether  the 
Syrians  of  Zobah  HibtnilLed  and  Iwcame  tributaiy  on 
thii  oeeation,  or  whether,  although  defeated,  Ihey  were 
mNe  lo  nuinlain  their  independence.  At  any  rate,  a 
few  yean  later  they  were  again  in  omia  against  Darid. 
This  ttmetheJewiah  kin(;acled  on  thedefenuve.  Tl 
war  was  provoked  by  the  Ammonite*,  wbo  hired  the 
aerrices  oribe  SyiUna  of  Zobsh  among  others  to  hel 
tbem  agiinit  the  people  of  Israel,  and  nbtaineil  in  thi 

men.  The  allies  were  defeitol  in  a'  great  battle  by 
J»ab,  wbo  en^ged  Ihe  Syrians  in  person  with  the  Boa 
er  of  his  troop*  (x,  9),  Hadsdeier,  upon  this,  made 
last  elTuft.  He  sent  across  the  Euphrates  into  Mesi>- 
polamia  and  "drew  forth  (he  Syrians  that  were  beyor 
Ihe  river"  (1  Chron.  xix,  16),  wbo  had  liiiherlo  taken 
no  pare  in  the  war.  With  these  allies  and  his 
Ironps,  be  once  more  renewed  tbe  struggle  with  the  If^ 
laeliics,  who  were  now  commanded  by  Diviil  himseir, 
tbe  crisis  being  aiicb  as  seemed  to  demand  Ibe  presence 
of  the  king.  A  IwCtle  wis  fought  near  Helam— ■  place 
(he  (itnatioD  ofwhich  is  uncertain— where  the  Syrians 
uf  Zobah  and  their  new  allies  were  defeated  with  ercal 
slaughter,  losing  between  Ibrty  thoasind  and  fifty  tbnu- 
«and  men.  After  this  we  heir  of  no  more  hostilities. 
The  petty  princea  hitherto  tributary  to  llailaiteKr 
tninferred  their  alkgiance  lo  Ihe  king  of  Iirael,  and 
■c  is  probable  that  he  himself  became  a  vassal  to  Da- 
vid. Zobah,  however,  ihnugb  subdued,  continued  to 
cause  Irouble  to  the  Jewish  kings.  A  niiiil  of  Zobah, 
one  of  the  subjects  of  Hadadeier — Reion,  son  of  Elia- 
ilah — baring  escaped  from  the  battle  of  Helam  and 
"  gathered  a  band"  (L  e. «  body  of  irregular  marauders), 
marched  southward,  and  contrived  in  make  himself 
mailer  of  Damascus,  where  he  reigned  (apparently)  for 
aome  8fty  years,  proving  ■  fierce  adversary  to  Israel 
all  through  the  reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi,  23-35). 
Submon  also  wai  (it  would  seem)  engaged  in  a  war 
with  Zobah  ilseIC  The  Himath-zobab  agalnit  which 
he  ■*  went  op"  (2  Cbron.  viii,  3)  was  probably  a  town 

he  occnrdingly  attacked  and  subdued.  This  is  the  last 
tbat  we  heat  of  Zobsh  in  Scripture.  The  name,  bow- 
between  Hamath  and  Damascus,  falling  thua  into  the 
regular  line  of  match  of  the  Assyrian  armiea.  Several 
Asvrian  monarch*  relate  tbat  they  look  tribute  from 
Zobah,  while  others  speak  of  having  traversed  it  on 
tbeir  way  to  or  from  Palmiue. 

Zobe'bab  (Heb.  with  the  article,  haU-TioldiaA', 
nyjsn,  llie  ibnK  [Gesenius]  or  (i/uM«  [FUrst];  Sept. 
sZ^ffi  V.  r.  Sa^a ;  Tulg.  Sobtba ),  last  named  of 
U»  two  sons  (or  perhaps  a  daughter,  as  the  word  is 
feminine)  uf  Uoz  (q.v.)  of  Ihe  tribe  of  Judah  (I  Chmn. 
ir,8).  t).C.post  1618.  Itabbi  Scbwarz  regards  it  as  the 
name  ofo  town, "tbe  vilbige  £''A.za;iAapAa,  two  and  a 
halJ'  English  mile!  south  of  Jenuolcm"  {Paleil,  p.  116). 

Zo'har  {Heb.  Tta'char,  ^nx,  1^1;  Sept  loop), 


nthrei 


le  Hitlile.ftnmw 


hlal 


(Gen.  ilvi,  10;  Eaod,  vi,  16);  elsewhere  (I  Chron.  iv, 
M)  called  Zeraii  (q.  v.). 

3.  A  marginal  reading  in  1  Chron.  iv.  T  for  Jezoas 
(Heh.  nihcr  YiiKhar',  ".nx^,  which  [aa  usoal]  lakca 


07  ZOHELETH 

the  pointing  of  tbe  Kerl  "in'XI,  (Mil  Zakart  the  A.  T, 
of  I61I  has  "Zuar"X  second  named  of  the  three  sona 
ufKebihofthelribenf  Judah.    I1.C.  post  1618. 

Zo'holath  (Ucb.  with  Ihe  art.  lua-ZocAt'lirh 
nlinin.*  rem.  participial  furtnj  Sept.  ZiuiXi^  v.  r.  Zwt* 
Xt^i;  Vulg.i:ujirAvA),tbe  name  afBstoite(p!t)  which 
wis  "  by"  (S^St,  beti-k)  En-rogel,  and  "  by"  (=3,  altyng 
arith)  which  Adonljah  offered  his  coronation  aicriBcea 
(I  Kings  i,  9).  If  En-rogel  be  tbe  present  Bir-EyUb  in 
Ihe  valley  of  the  Kidron,  the  Mone  in  queslion  may  b« 
any  of  (he  boulders  in  tbat  vicinity. 

As  to  the  ugniflcalion  of  the  name,  the  TargumisCs 
translate  it  "the  rolling  stone;"  and  Jarchi  alfirms  that 
it  was  a  large  atone  on  which  Ihe  young  men  tried  their 
Blrenglh  in  attempting  to  roll  iu  Others  make  it  "the 
serpent  stone"  (Uesenius  and  Flint),  as  if  from  Ihe  root 
3nt, "  to  creep."  Jerome  simply  says, "  Zoelet  tractum 
pTotractum."    Others  connect  it  with  running  wi 


this  day  beat- 


stone  of  the  conduit"  (ni^ma,  M<tzeAilih),  from  iu 
pmximity  to  the  great  rock  conduit  or  condniis  that 
poured  into  Siloam.  Bocbart's  idea  is  that  the  Hebrew 
word  iChtl  denotes  "a  slow  motion"  {llierot.  I,  i,  9): 
"The  fullers  here  pressing  out  tbe  water  which  drop- 
ped from  the  clothes  that  thev  bad  washed  in  tbe  well 
called  RogeL"  If  this  be  the  cow,  then  wc  have  some 
relica  of  this  ancient  custom  at  the  moswve  breastwork 
below  tbe  present  Birket  el-IIamra,  uhere  the  donkeya 
wait  for  their  load  of  skins  from  the  well,  and  where 
the  Arab  washerwomen  may 
ing  their  dothea. 

Tbe  practice  of  placing  stones,  and  naming  lb 
a  person  ot  an  event,  is  very  common.  Jacob  Uirt  so  at 
Bethel  (Gen,  xnviii,  22;  xixv,  14 ;  see  Bochan,  Cauaam, 
p.  T85, 786) ;  and  he  did  it  again  when  parting  from  La- 
ban  (Gen.  xxxi,  45),  Joshua  set  up  stones  in  Jordan 
and  Gilgal,  it  the  command  of  Oo.l  (Josh,  iv,  9-20), 
and  again  in  Shechem  (xsiv,26).  Near  Bethsbemesh 
there  was  the  Ebnt-gtdolah  ("great  stone,"  1  Sam.  vi, 
14),  called  also  AbH-geilolaA  ("the  great  weeping,"  ver. 
18).  T'hete  was  the  Shm-Bolian,  south  of  Jericho,  in 
the  plains  of  Jordan  (Josh.  xv,G;  xviii,  17),"  the  sfaine 
of  Bohan  the  son  of  Beuben,"  tbe  Ehrenbreitstein  of  tha 
Cicear,  or  "  plain,"  of  Jordan,  a  memorial  of  the  sun  ur 
giandson  of  Jacob's  eldest-bom,  for  which  travcllen 
hare  looked  in  vain,  but  which  Felix  Fabri,  in  tbe  16th 
century  (^Eragal.  ii,  82),  professes  to  bsve  seen.  The 
rabbins  preserve  the  memory  of  this  atone  in  a  baak  call- 
ed Ebea-Bohm,  or  the  (ouchatonc  (CAi'on.  of  RabU  Jo. 
tepi,  transL  by  BialbbloUky,  1,  192).  There  was  (he 
stone  set  up  by  Samuel  between  Miipeh  and  Sheii,  ibtn. 
filer,  "the  stone  of  help"  (I  Sam,  vii,  II,  12).  There 
was  the  Grtal  Slone  on  which  Samncl  slew  the  sacri- 
Hcea,  alter  the  great  baltle  of  Saul  with  the  Philistines 
(xiv,88).  There  was  (be  Ebea-Ewl  ("lapis  discessos 
vel  aUtuB,  a  disceasu  Jonathanii  et  Dividii"  [Simonis, 
Onomait.  p.  156]),  where  David  hid  himself,  and  which 
aome  Tolmudiata  identify  with  Zobeletb.  Large  slonea 
have  always  obtained  for  themselves  peculiar  names, 
from  their  shape,  their  position,  Iheir  connection  with  a 
in  the  Sinaitic  desi'K  may  be 
found  tbe  Hajar  d-Rekab  ("  slono  of  the  rider"),  Uajar 
tl-Fat  ("stone  of  tbe  bean"),  Hajur  Mum  ("alone  of 
Mosea").  The  subject  oftronn  is  by  no  means  uninier- 
esting,andhasnnt  iiianyrespcctbeenexbansled.   (Sm 


I  of  He  I 


.d  Linden 


.,  2211;  B.>chait,  Ciaiun,  p.  7«o;  Vossius, 
Dt/dololilr.vi.SS;  Scaliger.0nA~>inituf,p.lW4;  Heral- 
Iue,Or  il  moh'ui,  bk.  vii  1  and  Elmenhorsiius.  On^mo- 
^s;  alsa«longiio(eorOuie1iuB,in  his  edition  of. Vj. 
•Hciia  FrlU,  p.  15;  Calmet,  Fraftmrtili,  Nos.  166,  7S5, 
'36;  Kitto,  Pnlrilinf.  See,  besides,  the  works  of  anti- 
luariee  on  stones  and  stone  circles;  and  an  inlctesiing 
KcouQt  of  the  curious  Eticenidan  Nejar  Chtm  in  Halt^ 


ZOHETH  U 

in  Tillaek'a  receiil  Tolurae  on  ili.t  island,  p.  116-127). 
See  Stonb. 

M.  Clennont  G»nne«u,  of  the  French  eon8iil«le  at  Je- 
iuuletn,tiiu  round  wbit  tie  deems  a  elnmg  conflrniation 
of  the  jiume  in  question  in  rx-Zehaetf,  a  rocky  plateau 
■long  the  edge  of  Ibe  village  of  Silw&n  (Qnur.  Slatentcnl 
of  the  "  Palest.  Explor,  Fund,"  Jan.  1871,  p.  ib2  aq.). 
This  is  adopted  by  Triitnun  (Siifc  Ptaet;  p.  124)  and 
LiEut.  Conder  (Ttot  Wori,  ii,SI3).  Tbe  boundarj'-line 
of  Judah  paaacJ  near  this.     See  Tkibk. 

Zo'lleth(Hob.ZcicS((A',nmT,jf™9  [Flint]  (Sept. 
SuXo^v.r.Zuini';  Vu1g.ZoArfA),fiist  named  orihe  two 
"sniiDorishi"  or  the  tribe  of  Judah  (I  Chron.  iv,  30), 
the  other  beiiig  called  Ben-zobeth  (q.  v.).  B.C  poM 
IGIS. 

ZoUlkofer,  Georo  JoAcmM.a  Tamoua  preacher  of 
Leip«c,  wu  bom  at  Saint  Gall,  Aug.  h,  ITBO.  He  at- 
t«[>ded  the  gymnasia  of  Saint  Gall  anil  Bremen,  and 
aflerwiids  the  Univenity  of  Uueehti  giring  attention 
ratber  to  literature  than  tbeolngy  at  the  latter  place, 
and  cultivating  a  finished  diction.  He  became  a  family 
tutor  at  Frankrort-on>tbe-Maiii  in  1749.  In  17&3  be  re- 
turned DO  Saint  Gall,  and  vainly  sought  employment 
there  and  in  other  Svii»  towns;  but  earned,  in  tbe 
nieandme,  a  reputation  which  obtained  for  him  a  call 
to  becoioe  the  paator  of  the  Reformed  congregation  at 
Leipaic  He  served  that  congregation  during  thirty 
years,  and  nntil  his  death,  whicb  occurred  Jan.  H,  IT88. 

Zollikorer'a  tendency  ttaa  in  aome  measure  in  harmo- 
ny with  the  spirit  of  his  times.  He  was  given  lo  the 
exsltstion  oT  virtue,  and  loved  t«  discuss  the  dignity  ot 
man,  the  vroys  of  rightemisiiesa  which  alone  lead  to  God, 
and  which  Jesus  opened  by  teaching  and  example.  He 
assertwl  that  persons  who  have  alwnys  been  virtuous 
need  no  converaion,  but  simply  a  perfecting  of  their 
characters.  Christianity  was  to  bim  Go<rs  own  best 
means  for  the  instnicling,  comforting,  and  improving  of 
men,  through  which  progress  they  may  attain  to  bless- 
edness, Jle  was  not,  however,  an  exponent  of  the  "en- 
lightenment'' of  that  period;  fur  Christ's  resurrection, 
ascension,  and  eternal  gloiy  were  held  by  liim  as  posi- 
tive facts.  Christ  wsi  lo  bim  the  only-begnllen  Son 
of  the  Highest,  though  the  atonement  was  regarded  as 
aimply  an  expression  of  God's  readineaa  to  forgive.  As 
a  preacher,  he  may  be  ranked  with  Reinhstd,  though  au- 
perior  to  him  as  an  expositor  and  in  ihe  dcHnite  aim  of 
hiadiscourse.as  well  as  in  the  Joyous  fervor  with  which 
it  wsa  usually  pervaded.  Leipaic  regarded  it  as  an  evi- 
dence of  inferior  culture  and  poor  taste  not  to  prefer 
him  above  the  contemporary  preachers.  He  wrote 
prsyen  which  are  mere  reflections  preceded  by  an  ad- 
dress to  Godj  e.  g.  Anredm  u.  Gdile  ki  dem  ffemtiii- 
ichajll  H.  kdadithen  GoUitdicaile  (1777):— Andactlt- 
ilbvngm  u.  Grtrif,  etc  (new  ed.  1804,  4  pis.).  He  also 
prepared  a  hymn-book,  Sammlum/  gritlL  Liedtr  a.  Gt- 
iSngt  (1766).  His  sermons  were  repeatedly  publUhed ; 
in  19  vols,  in  179S-1B04.  His  personal  character  was 
thoroughly  upright  nnd  msniy,  and  also  kindly  and  be- 
nevolent. He  H'BS  self-paasesseil  and  of  an  equitable 
temper.  Tbe  cate  with  which  he  chose  the  prrdse 
word  he  needed  made  bim  eloquent  in  the  pulpit,  but 
reticent  In  ordinary  intercouise  with  men. 

The  sources  for  Zollikt^er's  life  are,  Fischer,  A  Mf- 
morinl  DUcoune;  Hirsching,  Hitt.-lit.  Handbuch  <F,r. 
nesti's  supplement,  Ldps,  1813),  xvii,  273  sq.;  Dciring, 
DnilKhe  KanxdrtSner  d.  18.  v.  19.  Jahrkundali  (Ncn- 
sradt  and,  Oder,  1830),  p.  586  aq.;  Urve,CArtr,iif«it«. 
Won  (Uips.  1788);  Lentz.GfK^,  A //imiiW«-,ii,8B7  sq,; 
Hagenbach,  KirtAtngaeh.  d.  18.  u.  19.  Jiihih.  i,  8GC  sq. 
See  also  Henog,  Rt^Eacj/Uop,  a.  v. 

Zo'phab  (Heb.  TiofAadt',  TVf\1  [in  pause  n^i:£], 
■  cruM  [Gescn.];  Sept.  Zi»^  v.  r.  Zu^ap  and  Z»V'3  ^ 
Vulg.  Sapha).  an  Asherite,  first  named  of  the  four  suns 
of  Holam  or  Hotham  (1  Chron.  vii,  86;  comp.  ver.82), 
and  father  of  many  sora  (vcr.  86),     EC  dr.  1618. 


08  ZOPHIH 

Zo'phal  (Heb.  Trnphay'.  ViS,  patroDyDlic  fins 

Zh;iA  [FUrst] ;  SepI.Zuv^i;  Vulg.Sojiict),  a'KDhalhin 
Leviie.son  of  Elksnah  and  father  of  Nahath  (1  Chrtm. 
vi,  26  [Heb.  11]);  elsewhere  (ver.  85)  caUed  nmply 
Zul^  (q.  v.). 

Zo'phar  (Heb.  Tiophar',  *^Bix,  qximnr  fOeaen.] 
<x$liaggy  [Filrtl];  IJept.Zufi(i  Tulg.£cipjkar),Ibt' last 
named  of  Job's  three  friends  and  oppotwnta  in  amuntiit 
(Job  ii,  tl;  xi,  1;  ;<x,  1;  xlii,  9).  ac.cir.2000.  Ha 
is  called  a  Naamathile,oi  inhabitant  of  Noamah,*  jAae» 
whose  situation  is  unknown,  as  it  could  not  be  Ihe  Na- 
■mah  mentioned  in  Josh,  xv,  41.  Wemyn.  in  bb  Joi 
mdhit  Tima  (p.  Ill),  well  charactniiealhis  interlocii- 
tor :  "  Zophar  exceeds  the  other  two,  if  poaaible,  in  se- 
verity of  centure;  be  is  tbe  moat  invelenle  ot  the  ae- 
cusen,  and  speaka  without  feeling  or  pity.  He  iloo 
little  more  than  repeat  and  exaggerate  tl 
of  Bildad.  He  unfeelingly  alludes  (Job  i 
effects  of  Job's  disease  as  appearing  in  his 
This  is  cruel  and  invidious.  Yet  in  the  same  diacouraa 
how  Dobly  does  Iw  treat  of  the  divine  aitributH.  shov- 
ing that  any  inquiry  into  them  is  far  beyond  tbe  graap 
of  the  human  mindl  And  though  the  honatoiy  pan 
of  the  first  discouiae  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
Eliphaz,yet  it  is  divenified  by  Ihe  fine  imagery  vhich 
he  employs.  He  aeems  to  have  had  a  full  cooviciioa 
of  the  providence  of  God  as  regulating  and  contrDltiog 

present  life,  and  makes  no  referetice  lo  a  future  wmU. 
'I'hia  circumstance  akne  accounts  for  the  weaknen  and 
fallacy  of  these  men's  judgments.  In  his  scconil  dia- 
course  there  is  much  poetical  beauty  in  Ibe  seleciioii  cl 
imsges,  and  tbe  general  doctrine  is  founded  in  iroih; 
its  fallacy  lies  in  its  application  to  Job's  peculiar  ca«. 
The  whole  indicates  great  warmth  of  temper,  indamed 
by  misapprehension  of  its  object  and  by  mistaken  uaL" 
It  is  to  be  obaerved  that  Zophar  haa  but  two  cprcchea, 
whereas  the  others  have  three  caeb.  When  Job  had 
replieil  (ch.  xxvi-xxxi)  to  the  short  addreas  uf  Ifildad 
(ch.  xxv),  a  rejoinder  might  have  been  expected  ftom 
Zophar;  but  he  said  nothing,  tbe  three  friends,  by  cob- 
giving  up  the  contest  in  dcifiait 


i,l). 


Zo'phim  (Heb.  T$op\im.',  C'tix  [briefly  C*EX  in 
Numb.],  aalciiri,  as  often;  but  Flint  thinks,/frrA). 
the  name  either  in  whole  or  part  of  two  placea  in  Talea- 

1.  (Sept.  noiriiii'i  Vulg.ji[Muiu.)  Tbe  desigikatua 
of  a  field  (n'nio)  or  spot  oo  or  near  the  top  of  Kagah. 
from  which  Balaam  had  bis  second  view  of  the  encamp- 
ment of  Israel  (Numb,  xxiii,  14).  If  the  wotd  todtk 
("field")  may  be  Isken  in  iia  usual  sense,  then  tbe  "  Sdd 
of  Zophim"  was  a  cultivated  spot  high  iqi  on  tbe  lop  of 
the  range  of  I'isgah.  But  that  nord  is  the  ainwn  in- 
variable term  fori  portion  of  tbe  upper  district  of  Hoah, 
and  therefore  may  hav«  had  some  local  sense  which  baa 
hitherto  escaped  notice,  and  in  which  it  is  enployvd  ia 
reference  in  the  spot  in  question.  Tbe  posiiion  of  tba 
field  of  Zr>phim  is  not  defined ;  it  is  only  said  that  it  com. 
manileil  merely  a  portion  of  tbe  encampment  of  load. 
T^eilher  do  the  ancient  versions  aObnl  any  dew.  The 
Targiim  of  Onkeloa,  Ihe  SepL,  and  the  l^thiio-SyriM 
take  Zophim  in  Ibe  sense  of  "watcben"  or  'lonlten- 
ont,"  and  translate  it  accordingly.  Bui  it  is  probably 
a  Hebrew  version  of  an  aboriginal  name,  related  la 
that  which,  in  other  places  of  Ihe  present  reoonli.  ap- 
pears as  Miipeb  or  Miipah.  Uount  Nebo,  or  I'itgah, 
is  now  undoubtedly  identified  as  Jebcl  Neba,  near  lies- 
ban.  See  Nkbo.  De  Saulcy  appears  to  have  ev»a 
beard  tbe  ancient  name  given  lo  it  by  ihe  Bolawia 
{Voyant  ca  Terrt  Siimle.  i,  289).  Along  its  eattrra 
wde,  and  reaching  from  the  niina  of  Maan  to  Hesbu, 
is  a  plateau  of  atable  land,  siill  cultivaieil  in  pan  by 
Ihe  Arabs,  which  appears  to  be  tbe  place  in  queKta 
(Porter,  llmtdbaoh /or  Palalat,  p.  SOO).      In  tUf 


ZORAH 

rtnr  TliUrmD  u  length  concuni  (fiOfe  Place,,  p.  SHT). 
Prof.  Paine,  ur  llie  Americin  Ex[^oring  Parly,  reganU 
U  at  Wiulg  //uudiOD  the  souLh-eist  of  Jelicl  N'etia. 
See  PissAii. 

2.  (SepL  Sufiit  V.  I.  Iiffi;  Vulg.  Sophi'ii.)  Ka- 
malbum-zupbim  wu  Samuel's  binbpUce  (I  Ssm.  i,  1). 
The  diud  rorm  of  the  fine  leim,  icoording  to  Bome,  iiig- 
nificB  one  or  the  two  Ramshs:  lo  wit,  tbat  '  ' 
pbites  (lighcfoot,  ii,  16-J,  ed.  1831}t  ud 
tenD,»coording  ba  others,  meins  jp«<™ia(orM,  L  e.  propi- 
ett,  and  denoting  that  at  ihii  pUce  woa  a  school  of  the 
prophet*— a  hfpotheaia  aupponed  by  the  Chaldee  pin- 
phrast,  who  renders  il  "Elkanah,  a  man  or  T' 
dUcipleoTthe  propheta.'  Others  find  in  the  dual  furm 
of  Runnlkiiin  a  reference  la  Ihe  shape  of  the  < 
was  buiU  on  the  sides  of  two  hiUa ;  and  in  th 
phim  !KC  ail  allunon  to  gome  walch-towen,  or  places  of 
observaiion,  which  the  high  situation  or  the  ' , 
faror  (Clpiici  C>pera,  ii,  175).  Olhett,  again,  alRrm  that 
Ihe  word  Zdpiim  ia  added  became  Kamih  o  " 
Has  inhabited  by  a  clan  of  Leviies  of  the  family  of 
Zuph  (Calmet,  ».  v.).  Winer  asserts  (RealwSrI. 
"SarDucI")  tbat  the  first  verse  of  the  book  decl 
Samuel  U  be  an  Ephraimite.  This  term.howeve 
the  Keuealogr  in  Chronicles  remain  dodistutbed,  i 
siitniry  not  an  Ephraimite  by  birth,  but  by  abode. 
We  Hnd  that  the  Kohalhites,  to  whom  Samuel  bo- 
longed,  had  their  lot  iu  Mount  Ephraini  (Josh,  xii, 
6-20),  where  not  the  hill  of  Epbraim  is  meanL,  but 
the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  (Geaenius,  Tkaavr.  t.  r.)- 
The  family  of  Zoph,  living  in  the  bill  country  of  Epbra- 
im, might  be  termed  Ephrathite,  while  their  auceBlot'a 
name  distingaiahed  their  special  locality  as  Bemathaim- 
lophim.  The  geography  uf  Ibis  place  baa  been  dispul- 
eiL  See  Rahah.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  confound  it 
with  Arimattuu  of  the  New  Test,  (fiaoma,!.  arl.  "  Ar- 
matha  Sopfaim").  The  SepL  renders  it  '\piiaSaifi  £>»- 
^jj.  Cod.  A,or  Cod.  B,  'Ap,iaii,i  lifn.  For  an  account 
of  (he  phice  now,  and  for  long  called  Nehy  Samwll,and 
tlie  impossibility  of  its  being  [he  ancient  I' 
liobinsoo,  PalaliiK,  ii,  141 ;  and  for  an  interesting  dia- 
ciusion  as  to  (he  Nie  of  Ramatb-zopbim,  the  bllir 
name  being  yet  retained  in  the  Arabic  term  Sohali,  ilie 
curioua  reader  may  consult  the  same  work  (p.  H30),  or 
BibSMh.  Sacra  (p.  46).  The  billy  range  of  Ephraim 
extended  southward  into  other  cantons,  while  it  bore 
its  original  name  of  Haunt  Ephraim;  and  so  the  iniiab- 
itanlsofRamatbaim-zophim  might  lie  termed  Ephrath- 
ites,jiisIaaHshlon  andChiiion  are  called  "Ephrathilea 
of  Bcth-lehem-judah  "  (Kulb  i,  2).     See  IIaiiatiiaiu  ; 

Zo'rab  (Heb.r»DraA'.n5-1S,  Ao™(,  Sept  Snpod 
v.t.lopditSapaX,  ^apd,etc;  Joafphui,'Sapaira,AHt. 
y,  8,  12;,Vulg.  Sara,i;  A.V.''Z.reah,"Neh.  xl,  29; 
"Zoreab,"  Josh.  IV,  33),  one  of  the  towns  near  the  bor- 
der of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (xix,  41),  but  really  within  (he 
limits  of  Judah,  being  in  the  nortb-weatem  comer  of 
the  "valley  district"  (xv,  33).  It  is  almost  always 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Eshtaol  (aee  also  Jndg. 
xiii,  2o;  xvi,  SI ;  xviii,  !, 8,  II i  and  camp.  1  Chron,  ii, 
6S).  Zorah  was  the  reaiilence  of  Hanoah  and  the  na- 
tive place  of  Samson.  The  place  both  of  bis  birth  and 
bis  burial  is  specified  with  a  cnrioiu  minuteness  aa"  be- 
tween Zorah  and  Eshtaol,"  "  in  Mshaneb-Dan"  (Jnilg. 
xiii,25i  xvi,&l).  In  the  genealogical  records  of  1 
Cbmn.(ii.68!  jv,!)  the  "  Zareatbitea  and  Eshtaulites" 
are  giv-eu  aa  descended  from  <L  ccoioniied  by)  Kii^alh- 
Jearini.  Zorab  is  ttKntioned  among  the  places  fuitified 
by  Uehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi,  10),  and  it  was  re-inhabited 
by  the  men  of  Judah  after  the  return  from  the  Caplivi. 
ty  (Neh.  xi,  29).  In  the  Ononuuficon  (s.  v.  Zno^u  and 
**  Saan")  it  is  menUoned  a*  lying  some  (rn  miles  nonh 
of  Eleutheropolia  on  the  road  to  Nicopolis.  By  the 
Jewish  tTBTeUel  Hap-Parcbi  (Zuni,  /Imjamin  of  Tud. 
ii,441)  it  is  apecifled  aa  three  hour*  aouth-east  afLydd. 
Tlieae  noticee  agree  in  direction— though  in  neither  is 


)9  ZOSIMUS 

the  distance  nearly  sufficient — with  the  modem  village 
of  Sir'iili,  which  has  been  viuted  by  Robinson  (fii&. 
fi«.  iii,  laa)  and  Tubler  iDrillt  Wand.  p.  181-183).  Il 
lies  just  beluw  the  brow  of  a  sharp-pointed  conical  bill, 
at  Ihe  shoulder  of  the  ranges  which  there  meet  and 
form  the  nunh  side  of  the  Wady  Ghurab,  the  northcm- 
moatofthe  two  branches  which  unite  juat  below  Silr'ah, 
and  form  the  great  wady  Surar.  Ffear  it  are  to  be  seen 
Ibe  remains  ofZauoab,  Bettubeniesh,Timnath,  and  oth- 
er places  more  nr  leas  frequently  mentioned  with  it  in 
Ihe  narralire.  Eabtaul,boweTer,  baa  net  yet  been  iden- 
liHed.  The  position  of  SQr'ah  at  the  entrance  of  the 
valley,  which  forma  one  ortbeinletafnun  the  great  low- 
land,eKplains  its  funificalian by  Rehoboam.  The  spring 
is  a  abort  dliUnce  below  the  rilli^,  "a  noble  fountain" 
— thia  wasat  the  end  of  April— "walled  up  square  with 
Urge  hewn  atones  and  guabing  over  with  line  water. 
Aa  we  passed  on,"  continues  Robinson,  with  a  more 
poetical  tone  than  ia  his  wont,  "we  overtook  no  less 
than  twelve  women  toiling  upwards  lo  the  village,  each 
with  her  jar  of  water  on  her  bead.  The  village,  the 
fountain,  ibe  fields,  the  mountain,  the  females  bearing 
water,  all  transported  lis  bnck  lo  ancient  times,  when  in 
all  probability  the  mother  of  Samson  often  in  like  man- 
ner visited  the  founuin  and  toiled  homeward  with  her 
jar  of  water.'*  See  also  Schwara,  Palalint,  p.  102; 
Thomaon,  Land  and  Book,  ii.  Sei;  Vonei,  Hmdbaok 
far  PaL  p.  285;  Tristram,  BOie  Plata,  p.  46;  Conder, 
Teat  IFort,  1,274. 

Zo'rathita  (Heb.  T'somfli',  ■I17'^X,  patronymic 
from  Zorah ;  Sept.  Znpo^i  v.  r.  'ApaZi ;  Vulg.  Snralhi ; 
Zorathites''),  a  designalion  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Zorah  (q.  v.),  mcntioncil  in  1  Chron.  iv,  2  as  descended 
Shobal,  one  of  the  sons  of  Judab,  who  in  ii,  S2  is 
slated  10  have  founded  Kiijalh-jesrim,  from  which 
again  "the  Zareatbitea  and  the  Eshtaulites"  were  colo* 
nized.    See  Zakeatkitk;  ZoniTi:. 

Zo'r«ata  (Josh.  XV,  38>    See  Zokah. 

Zo'ritft  (Heb.  T$oti',  ■'Sns,  a  patronymic;  Sept. 
ZofMiv.r. 'Hvapi;  Vulg.  Sii™,-  A.  V."Zotile»"),  the 
designation  apparently  of  the  inhabitants  of  Zorah 
(q.  v.),  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii,  M  as  descended  from 
Salma  the  broiber  of  Shobal,  and  hence  olassed  with  the 
ufthe  latter  the  "Zareaihilea  and  ihe  Esh- 


i"  (ver.  53). 


b  he  Hrat 


Bofhi 


garded  as  heretical,  and  also  for  hia  assertion  of  author' 
and  his  energetic  labors  in  behslf  of  the  supremacy 
he  Roman  ace.     lie  countermanded  the  condcmiia- 
of  I'elagiue  and  Coeleatiiia,  denounced  by  Innocent 
the  African  synods;  and  in  a  letter  to  tushop  Aure- 
of  Carthage  and  others  he  censured  the  treatment 
/  hiHl  receired,  declared  them  orthodox,  and  warned 
Ihe  bishops  against  sophistries  in  speculation.    He  also 
cited  before  his  bar  Faulinus,  the  accuser  of  l'clsciu^ 
The  African  bishops,  however,  held  another  synod  (4IS), 
which  defended  their  course  and  cenaured  Za«miui  for 
lening  a  settled  caae,  besides  forbidding  the  deparl- 
of  Paulinus  for  Rome.     Zosimus  endesTorcd  (o  for- 
his  position  by  a  reference  to  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
rity  derived  by  hi*  ace  from  Peter;  but  when  the 
leans  obtained  a  nici  um  Tywn/ifum  against  the  Fe- 
ans  from  the  emperor  Honnriiis,  he  gave  way,  and 
his  part  pronounced  the  condemnation  of  Pelajrius 
and  Ctclcstius  in  an  EpiHola  Traeiulnria.     This  time 
IS  opposed  by  eighteen  Italian  bishops,  whom  he 
:;e  declared  dcpoeol.     The  deposition  of  the  prea- 
Apiarins  of  Sicca,  in  Numidia,  and  bis  appeal  lo 
Zosimus  against  his  bishop,  Urbanus.  led  to  fresh  dis- 
n  with  the  Africans.    Zosimus  refused  to  recognise 
deposition,  and  aent  three  delegates  to  a  synoil  con- 
ed at  Carthage  to  demand  the  restoration  of  Apiariuk 


ZODCH  11 

Zorimus  ilao  interfered  in  the  iSkin  oftlie  GaUican  bUh. 
opa  by  mppoindng  biabop  I'llroclua  of  Ar<Ula  hia  vicar 
iu  Gaul,  and  conferring  upon  him  the  righu  of  melro- 
potican  over  the  provinc*  of  Vienne.  His  eoorac  ex- 
cited much  oppoutioii;  bat  death  put  an  end  to  his 
plans  for  aggrandiumeat  in  418.  See  SchcOckh,  Kii- 
ehaiffeach.  (Leips.  1TB2),  viii,  148  aq.;  G'leteier,  Kircitn- 
guch.  (4th  ed.  Bonn.  184S),  i,  i.  111  aq.— Uenog,  Jlad- 
Evcyldop.  a.  v. 

Zonoh,  Thouas,  D.D.,  a  learned  Engliah  divine, 
wsa  bom  at  Sandal,  near  Wakefield,  Yorkahire,  in  IT87. 
He  was  educated  at  Wakefield  School  and  ^  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  be  graduated  in  1761.  He 
a  feUow  of  hia  collfge  in  17&~ 


edas 


III 


if  Wv( 


n  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkehire.wbere  he  re- 
clamed until  1793.  Id  1791  he  was  appointed  deputy 
commissary  of  the  archdeaconry  uf  Kichmund,  and  in 
1793  was  GhaplaiD  to  the  Matter  of  the  Rolls  and  reeloi 
of  Semyingham.  By  the  death  of  hie  elder  brother,  the 
Rev.  Henry  Zouch,  in  1795,  ho  aucceeded  lo  an  eatate  at 
Sandal,  where  he  reaided  until  hia  dealb.  He  became 
prebendary  of  Durham  inlSOBj  declined  the  biahopric  of 
Carlisle  in  1808;  and  died  in  l8tC.  He  waa  the  author 
of,  TAe  Crudfiiion  (Canterbury,  17Cfi),  a  Seaton  prize 
poem : — A  n  /njutry  wfo  the  Ptopielic  Charatitr  of  the 
Somani  at  Daeribfd  ia  Dan.  ciU,  28-35  (1793}  :_«e- 
moiri  of  Ikt  Life  and  WHlvist  of  Sir  PHlip  Sidary 
(York,  1808):— and  other  works.  See  Chalmen,  Biog. 
ZMcf.a.v.;  A11i\iaai:,Dief.o/BHI.ai>dAnur.AiilLt.v. 

Zn'ar  (Heb.  Ttuar',  ■^Snx,  lilllauui  Sept.  Siopap; 
Vulg.  Suar),  the  father  of  Nethaneel,  which  latter  was 
the  chief  of  [he  tribe  of  Issachar  at  the  time  of  the 
Exode(Nu[nb.i,8;  ii,6;  vii,  18,28;  x,15).  ECante 
16S8. 

Zublj,  Joh:(  Jo&chih,  D.D.,  a  Presbvterian  divine, 
waabomstSt.Gall,3witzertand,AuK.27,1724.  He  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry  Aug.  19, 1744;  took  charge  of 
the  Independent  Freabyterian  Church  of  Savannah,  Ga., 
in  17G0;  and  was  a  delegsie  from  Georgia  to  the  Con- 
stitutional Congresa  in  1776-76,  but  nppoaed  separaiiun 
from  England,  and  relumed  to  Sarannah,  which  hia 
unpopularity  farced  him  lo  leave.  He  died  July  S3, 
1781.  Dr.Zuldy  wis  a  man  o(  great  learning  and  un- 
affected pietv,  ilevoteil  to  hia  call  as  a  preacher  of  the 
Gospel,  and  lealous  for  the  success  of  hie  labors.  He 
published,  Tlie  Real  Ckrittiaa'i  Uopt  ta  Itfoli,  etc. 
(Cbarleatown,  17fi«,  l!mo),with  a  Preface  by  the  Rev. 
Ktchatd  Clarke!— SertnoB  on  lie  Rrptal  of  the  Stamp 
Ad  (Savannah,  1766,  8vo);~.<n  Humbit  /nguiry  alio 
Ae  Nature  of  Ike  Dtptndeneg  of  the  American  Colmiei 
upon  iAt  Pariittment  of  Great  Briiain,  and  Ihe  Right  of 
Parliiimnd  to  iMf  Tartt  on  Ikt  laid  CulonUi,  bf  a  free- 
haUer  of  Soalh  Carolina  (1769,  4lo) ;— Anwrn  on  lit 
Value  of  Ikat  Failk  iciliout  ahich  it  u  ImpottibU  lo 
Pliate  Uod  (1 773)  •.—Semum  on  lie  Death  of  Bee.  John 
Oe,lood,of  Midaas  (1773)  i—Tht  Law  ofLSxtiy  (Phiia. 
i;7S,8vo;  I.ond.eod.Sro;  Phila,  1778,  8vo),  a  sermon 
on  American  affairs.  See  Allibune,  Dicl.  of  Bril.  and 
Amrr.  Anlhort,i.v.\  Spngue,AtmaltoflieAmer.Pvl- 
pif,iii.ai9;  Zondon  J/onfA^  fffrww,  Feb.  17T6,p.  167; 
Geoiyia  A  uatylio  Reponlarg,  i,  49.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Znph  (Heb.  TrnpA,  :^4<t,  honrg-oomb  [Gescn.]  or 
mouE  [Furst];  Sept.  Eotf  v.  r.  Sifl  and  Soi'iir:  but  in 
t  Sam.  ix,  6  X/fi,  apparvnlly  reading  7j;:t,  Tiipb,  as  ihe 
text  of  the  Ueb.  there  does),  the  name  of  a  man  and  of 
a  place. 

1.  A  Kobathite  Levile,  the  son  of  Klkanah  and  father 
of  Tohu,  or  Toah.  or  Nahath  in  ihe  anceslr>'  of  the 
propbet  Samupl  (I  Sam.  i,  I ;  1  Chron.  vi,  S!>  [Heb. 
iO]i.  B.acir.  1310.  In  Ihe  parallel  passage  (I  (Jhron. 
vi,  26)  he  is  calleil  Zophai. 

2.  A  district  (yft^  And)  at  which  Saul  and  his  ser- 
vant arrived  after  pasting  through  those  of  ShBrLsha,of 


b1  (ver.  6),  and  thai,  again,  if  the  conditiona  of  tbc 
nsrraiive  are  In  be  accepted,was  certainly  not  (ai  (roa 
the  "  lomb  of  Rachel,"  probably  the  spot  to  which  tlut 
name  ia  aiiU  nllached,^  short  distance  north  of  Beihle- 

ner  with  SamueL  One  of  hia  ancestors  (see  above)  wa 
named  Zuph  (i,  I ;  1  Chron.  vi,  85)  or  Zophai  (ver.  »), 
and  hia  native  place  was  called  Ramaihaim-ic^bTD  (1 
Sam.  1,1).  The  name,  too,  in  its  varioua  fornia  of  Z*. 
phim,  Mizpeh,  Mizpah,  Zephaihah,  was  common  in  the 
Holy  I^nd,  on  both  sides  uf  the  Jontan. 

The  only  possible  trace  of  the  name  of  Znph  in  mod- 
em Palestine,  in  any  suiiaUe  locali^,  b  to  be  food  n 
Soba,  a  well-known  place  about  teven  mile*  due  ma 
of  Jerusalem,  and  Ave  milea  south-west  of  Nabv  Sam- 
wiL  This  Dr.  Robinson  (BM  Oa.  ii.  8,  9}  oo^  pro- 
posed IS  the  representative  of  RamaihaiD>-iaphim ;  isd 
although  on  topographical  grounds  he  virtuallv  r^ 
nounces  Ihe  idea  (see  the  fuot-nnte  to  the  lame  pages), 
}-et  ibnee  grounds  need  not  nmilirly  affect  its  identity 
with  Zuph,  provided  other  considerations  do  ixii  inter- 
fere. IfShalim  and  Shalishawere  to  the  Dortb-easI  if 
Jerusalem,  near  Taiyibeb.  Iben  Sanl's  route  to  the  lairf 
of  Benjamin  wouhl  be  south  or  saulh-sreat,  and  pon*> 
ing  the  same  direclion  he  would  arrive  at  the  Deighbu^ 
hood  of  Sulia.  But  this  is  it  Ihe  best  no  more  iha 
conjecture,  and  unless  ihe  Und  of  Zuph  esiended  a 
good  distance  east  of  Soba,  the  ciry  in  which  ibr  meet- 
ing with  Samuel  took  place  could  hanlly  be  Hiffidentl- 
near  to  Rachel's  sepuldhre.  The  tignificaiioo  of  the 
name  Zuph  is  too  doubtful  to  be  of  use  in  identifying 
the  place.  Zophim  is  ususlly  cnroidered  lo  signify 
watchmen  or  looliers  -  oul,  hence  pmphets,  in  whidi 
sense  the  author  of  the  Targum  has  actuallv  rendrred 
1  Sam.  ix,  G  — "they  came  imo  ihe  land'in  wbidi 
waa  a  prophet  of  Jehovah."  Rabbi  Scbwan  t*- 
garda  the  name  Zuph  as  having  the  same  RWt  (fna 

look-out.  He  also  (Palrtt.  p.  15G)  ingeniously  tncra 
Saul's  route,  and  seeks  to  identify  "  tlie  land  oT  Zuph' 
with  Ramathaim-inphim  itself.  Wuleott  (in  the  ffb 
bliath.  Sacra,  i,  6(H)  suggests  that  ibe  city  of  Jt^  (■ 
the  name  reads  in  the  Kethib  and  Sept.)  gave  iu  naat 
10  this  whole  region ;  but  this  town  waa  loo  {at  aoath 
for  that.  It  is  pruliable  ibit  the  district  in  qnatiD* 
was  a  wide  one,  at  least  frotn  north  to  south,  and  ex- 
tended from  the  hills  of  Ephraim  to  the  rkinitv  of 
Bethlehem.     See  KaMah. 

Ztir  (Heb.  Tar,  ^)3,  a  roci,  being  snbataniiaDy  ihi 
sameastheHch.nameor7Vre[q.v.];  Sept- Xoi'fi  v.i. 
'iooup;  Vuig.  Shi),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  Third  named  of  Ihe  Ave  princes  of  Hkltan  wha 
were  slain  bv  the  Israelites  when  Balaam  fell  (  Knialki 
Kxxi,  8).  II.C.  1618.  His  daitghler  Coibi  wu  kilM 
by  Phinehas,  Ingether  with  her  paramour  Zimri,  tk« 
Simeonitish  chieftain  (xnv,  lb).  He  apiiean  to  have 
been  in  someway  subject  to  Khon  king  of  the  .\iDuriui 
(J,.b.iili,2l). 

2.  Second  named  of  Ihe  eight  anna  uf  Jehiel  (tba 
fiiuniler  ofUibenn)by  his  wife  Haachah  (1  Chron.  vi^ 
30;  ix,36).     &Cpoetl613. 

Zn'rlel  (  Heb.  Tnriel;  btt-'-itX,  «T  rant  is  f.W; 
Sepl.  ZovfuiiX;  Vulg.  tfurvf),  the  son  of  Abibail  ant 
chief  of  the  Merarite  Levilec  at  the  tiow  of  Ihe  F-xoti 
(NiimU  iii.  Hi).     B.C.  1668. 

ZurijUiad'dai  (Heb.  T,uri,haM>s;  --J^^'AX.-^ 
root  is  the  Aimtghlj/^^Zutiel  [com|v  Ammistialilai  la 
the  GOnt£Xl];  Sept-  Smptaaiai;  Vnlg.  S^ritaiiai\ 
the  father  of  Shelumiel,  which  latter  was  chief  (tfita 
tribe  of  SimeiHi  at  the  time  of  the  Exod*  (Muitih.  i,  6i 
ii,13;  vii,S6,4I-.x,19).    RC  aots  1668. 

Zu'sim  (Heb.  only  in  Ihe  plur,  mt  with  tbt  M 


ZWICK  11 

ta^^iaiM',  B'<t«n,  Iht  Zanttt;  Sept.  tnnulibsi  I3i^ 
taxopi,  like  JCTuma  in  Qaatl.  HA  ■'  gente*  forua  i"  but 
the  Vulg.  hM  Zatim;  A.  V.  "the  Zuiimi"),  the  lume 
of  VI  iDCient  people,  wba,  lying  in  the  path  ofCbedoi- 
Isumer  mil  his  4Hies,  were  attacked  and  orenhmwa  by 
them  (Gen.  liv,  5  only).  Of  the  etymology  or  ligiiili- 
caiioD  of  the  name  nothing  is  known.  The  Sept.,  Tar- 
^m  or  Onkelos,  anil  Saiuar.  vertiou  (perfaapa  reading  or 
miattkiDgforC^nir)  render  it  "strong  people."  The 
Arabic  vetnon  of  Saadiab  (ia  WalUm'a  Pufyglot)  gives 
td-Dakaldn,  by  wbicb  it  is  uneertain  whether  a  proper 
name  ur  an  appellatire  is  intended.  Other*  niiderstatid 
by  it  "the  wanderers"  (La  Clere.from  TIT)  or  "dwarf." 
(  Micbaelis,  S«ppl.  No.  606  ).  Hanlly  more  ascertain- 
able is  the  situation  which  the  Zutim  occupied.  The 
pnigreasotlhe  invadera  was  fruni  north  to  south.  They 
tint  eiicuunlercd  the  Kcphaim  in  Asbleiutb-kamsim 
(uear  the  Leja,  in  the  nonh  of  the  Hantan) ;  next  the 
Zuzim  in  Ham;  and  next  the  Emirn  in  Shaveh-kir- 
iaibiim.  The  laat-namcd  place  has  not  been  identi- 
fied, but  was  probably  not  far  nunb  of  the  Amon. 
There  is  theiefore  siiine  plausibility  in  the  suggestion 
of  Ewild  (ffucA.  i,  30tt,  note),  provided  it  is  etymologi- 
callj  correct,  that  Ham,  an,  u  US,  Am,  i.  c  Am 
and  thus  tfaat  the  Zuzim  inhabiceil  tbe  country  of  ibo 


Zwlck,  JoH&NM,  preacher  and  Rerunner  in  the  city 
and  region  of  Constance,  Siritierland,  was  born  about 
1496.     He  studied  theology  and  Jurisprudence,  beini; 
tnada  doctor  of  laws  at  Padua,  and  priest  about  I&IH. 
He  tbeu  eatne  under  the  influence  of  Lutber  and  Zwin- 
gli,  marriediand  entered  on  a  pastorau  at  Kiedlingen  in 
Ibil;  from  which  ba  was  expelled,  on  account  uf  bis 
evangelical  tendencies,  by  the  Nurembei^  Diet  uf  I&S3. 
After  a  time  he  was  associated  with  Ambrose  Blarer  as 
preacber,  and  in  tbe  conduct  of  the  Kcfornuttbu  at  Con- 
stance, which  was  brought  to  a  suceesgful  consummation 
in  1561.     Zwick  was  especially  concerned  with  the  set- 
tling of  plans  [or  Che  etlucaticn  of  the  young,  and  with 
the  inlniduc^on  of  an  onler  of  discipline  in  the  Church. 
After  the  completion  of  such  Isiwra,  the  preachen  of 
Conalance  engaged  in  the  work  of  extending  Che  Refor- 
mation over  surrounding  regions  in  WUrtemberg 
Hwitzetlaud,  Blarer  being  prominent  in  such  serv 
while  Zwick  was  by  that  fact  obliged  to  restrict 
■Biirti  lo  more  limited  areas.     He  gave  twelve  yean 
ntost  arduous  and  exsciing  tail  to  the  Church,  and 
baualed  his  entire  patrimony  before  he  applied  to 
ODuncil  (1&38)  that  provision  mighcbe made  for  bis  ■ 
port.    The  union  effortaor  Biicei  engaged  the  aitenl 
nf  Zwick  in  comnnon  with  the  rrocestant  clergy  in  gcn- 

thoagh  Lulber's  peraonslily  had  somewhat  impressed 
him  at  the  Wittenberg  Concord  (Hay,  lo3G)i  and  he 
thooglit  that  some  conceagiona  might  be  made  to  a  man 
BO  eminent,  especially  since  a  meaning  which  the  Swiss 
ehurchea  could  endorse  might  be  found  in  the  great  Re- 
(bmei's  doctrine  of  the  bodily  presence  in  the  sacra- 
ment. He  was  eventually,  however,  constrained  to  Bee 
ahat  no  true  agreement  was  possible  upon  this  question ; 
and  his  influence,  joined  with  that  of  the  other  cltrgy- 
mea  of  Constance,  gare  to  that  city  the  unpleasant  no- 
toriety of  being  the  only  one  which  had  not  replied  to 
Lather's  agreement  with  Bucer.  Zwick  was  also  in- 
vulved  in  the  Schwenhfeldian  disputes.  He  obtained 
poaKaaion  of  maniiscripta  written  by  Schwenkfeld,  cir- 
culated them  among  friends,  and  aided  in  bringing  the 
■writing*  of  Vadian  against  that  agitator  before  the  pub- 
lic Zwick  died  as  the  clouds  of  the  Smalcald  war  be- 
gan looming  in  the  distance.  After  being  repeatedly 
nnwell,  ht  went  lo  BischolEixeU,  in  Thurgovia,  to  minis- 


II  ZWINGLI 

tet  to  an  orphaned  eongrtgatioo,  in  which  the  ravage* 
of  pestilence  were  cairying  away  from  ten  to  thirty 
adiilla,  and  as  many  children,  in  each  week  to  the  grave. 
He  was  himself  attacked,  and  lay  fur  several  weeks  re- 
joicing in  the  triumphs  of  faith,  and  died  Oct.  23,  IMS. 
l)r.  Vu^eli,  the  physician  whom  Constance  had  sent  to 
care  for  her  favorite  preacber,  came  away  from  the  sick- 
bed, where,  he  said,  he  had  learued  how  to  die,  and  soon 

stonily  busy  with  bis  pen ;  but  he  preferred  to  publish 
tho  works  of  otbera  rather  than  his  own  productions. 
He  caused  the  publiouion  of  a  Lalin-Gn-mim  Nta  Ttt- 
tammt  at  Zurich  in  l&3a,  and  wrote  a  preface  for  it. 
He  aim  prepared  a  number  of  catechisms.  His  princi- 
pal impurtaucc  tu  literature  lies,  however,  in  tbe  held  of 
hymnulngy.  He  issued  a  hymu-buok  in  1536  (?),  and 
a  second  eiOargeii  eilition  in  1540.  A  collection  of  Latin 
hymns  and  prayers  fur  educated  young  people,  entitled 
Hhaptodia,  whose  dsie  and  authonhip  were  long  un- 
known, has  recently  been  found  attributed  to  Zwick  in 
a  note  of  the  I6lh  century  wrifteti  in  the  Zurich  copy 
of  the  Rhapiodia.  See  Zwick,  Wurki  and  Ltlteri,  gen- 
erally unpublished;  Schelbom, Sunmiiiinpm _/Br  d.  G«- 
KhirMf,i,il  eq.\  the  mart  recent  Inographies  uf  Blarer; 
and  Herzog,  Rttil^Eaa/klop.  a.  v. 

Zwiogli  (ZwlQgle.or  Zolnfll;  Lat. Zinii^uif 
or  ZuixgUiu),  Ulrich,  the  prime  mover  in  the  Itefurma- 
tion  in  Switzerland  nearly  aa  much  as  Luther  in  Ger- 
many, was  born  Jan.  1,148*,  in  Wildhaus,  a  viliaRe  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Tuggenburg,  in  the  Canton  of  St.  Call. 
Such  was  the  precocity  which  he  displayed  in  his  youth 
that  his  father  resolved  to  send  him  to  Basel  to  be  eilu- 
ealeil.  He  made  such  rapid  pragress  in  his  studies  Chat 
he  soon  accomplished  the  work  upon  the  prosecution  oT 
which  he  had  entered  at  Basel,  and  he  waa  removed  lo 
Berne,  and  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Lupnius,  a  diatio- 
guisbed  scholar  of  hia  day,  with  whom  he  studied  for 
some  time.  The  Uominican  mooka  in  this  place,  attract- 
ed by  his  talenta  and  rising  reputation,  sought  to  entrap 

him  from  the  scene  uf  temptation,  sent  him  off  to  Tien* 

lea.  Under  the  insinuation  of  Thomas  Wyltenbach, 
lie  was  led  into  a  more  liberal  course  of  study  ifasn  the- 

of  the  classics  were  unfolded  to  him  under  the  tuition 
of  his  learned  master,  and  were  cheerfully  substituted 
for  the  dry  huska  ofacbolaatic  theology.  In  1506  ha 
became  a  pastor  in  ULarus,noi  far  from  his  native  vil- 
lage. Here  he  devoted  himwlf  most  diligently  to  the 
study  of  God's  Word,  copying  with  his  own  hand 
the  original  of  Paul's  Epistles,  and  transferring  it  to 
memory.  During  the  same  period  he  mingled  in  the 
strife  o'f  arma  agsinat  the  French.  Influence*  which 
we  will  not  stvp  to  explain  induced  him  to  leave 
GlaruB  aiul  become  pastor  in  Einsiedeln,  a  famoii* 
spot  in  popiah  pilgrimage  apd  superstition,  where  he 
preached  doctrines  which  he'had  drawn  from  his  study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures-,  and  when,  in  IBI9,  he  wat 
called  to  (he  Cathedral  Chureh  of  Zurich,  he  pro- 
claimed the  same  truths  wbicb  he  had  preached  in  th« 
Church  of  the  Virgin  of  the  Hermitage  in  Einsiedeln. 
Multitudes  flockeil  to  hear  him.  attracted  by  the  novelty 
of  the  doctrines  heiaught  and  the  eloquence  with  which 
he  spoke.  He  delivered  expoaitorv  discourses  on  Mat- 
thew and  the  Kplsllee  of  Paul  and  of  Peter.  The  ef- 
fect of  bis  honest  preaching  of  the  Gospel  soon  became 
apparent  in  the  city  and  country,  and  his  general  char- 
aeler  and  opinions  produced  a  deep  and  universal  sen- 
sation. While  this  state  of  transition  was  so  marked, 
the  crisia  was  hastened,  in  \b\9,  by  the  arrival  of  .Sam- 
son, the  seller  nf  indulgences.  The  traffic  in  these 
"Roman  wares"  roused  the  indignation  of  Zwingli, 
and  led  lo  a  keen  exposure  and  a  succeaaful  reaialance. 
Luiher'a  writings  were,  al  the  same  lime,  largely  circu- 
lated at  the  tecomm^idation  of  tha  Beformer.    TlM 


ZWINGU 


plague  broke  out,  and,  during 

wok  tiinuelf  from   exhaustion,  ^wtngu   aHiauoui 
tended  the  lick  and  ilyitig.     Hi)  EealouB  labors  grew 
number  and  results,  the  aimplicitj  of  Llie  Gu«pel  was 
more  distinclty  apprehended  by  him ;  but  (he  friend)  uf 
tbepoppdom  were  enraged.aDdZwingli  was  tri(^,ii 
uary,  16*^,011  a  charge  of  heresy.    Kame  gained 
ing  by  ibe  trial.     Zwingli  preaeiitcd  )ixtv-)eren 
oeiliuns,  and  defended  them  from  Scriptun,     Th 
former  gathered  courage  with  growing  difhcultiei 
in  1524  tbc  Council  of  Zurich  remodelled  the  ] 
wonhip  according  to  the  views  and  wishea  of  Z» 
Piciurea.  alalues,  and  relics  were  remoi'ed  from  the 
churches,  and  mass  wai  abolisbed.     Opposition  to  the 
fteformed  doctrines  was  meanwhile  gsthering  in  the 
other  canlon).    The  question  arose,  whether  each  can- 
Ion  was  free  to  choose  ita  own  furm  of  religion,  or 
whether  tbe  Confederation  should  interfere;  Znrich 
ContendHl  for  its  individual  liberty  and  independence, 
but  was  opposed  bj  the  Waldstitter,  or  the  primitive 
democratic  cantons  of  Schwytz,  Unlerwsld,  Uri,  snd 
Lucerne.     The  triumph  of  the  Refonnation  at  Bei 
and  other  places  threw  those  forest  cantons  into  wile 
comtnotiun,  and,  in  consonance  with  their  views  of  their 
IMenU  polity,  they  took  up  arms  for  Rome.     Zurii 
encouraged  by  Zwingli,  called  out  its  Imopa  and  put 
•elf  into  a  posture  of  defence.    Effiirls  were  nvade 
maintain  peace,  but  it  waa  of  no  long  dutaiion,  and  after 
varioo)  diplomatic  negotiations,  hottiliiies  finally  com- 
menced.   Zurich  had  also  lost  somewhat  nf  its  earlier 
evangelical  purity,  while  the  neighboring  states  were 
conspiring  for  its  ruin.    In  the  awful  emergency,  when 

prodigies,  the  Reformer  maintained  iranqi 
war  began.  Zurich  was  cowardly,  dtlaton-,  and  far 
from  beiiig  prepared;  but  the  horn  of  the  enemy  ech- 
oed among  their  hills,  and  the  dei-oled  Zwingli  mount- 
ed his  caparisoned  horse,  took  farewell  of  his  wife  and 
chiklren,  and  went  forth  as  a  patriot  and  warrior  in 
share  hi  tbe  eomtnon  danger.  His  official  position  in 
the  stmy,  honever,  was  (hat  of  chaplain,  according  tu 
Swiss  custom.  The  Zurichen  marched  to  meet  tbt 
Wakletfttter,  but  were  defeated  at  Cappel  with  great 
slaughter,  Oct.  II,  1531.  Zwingli  was  found,  after  the 
battle,  lying  on  his  back  and  his  eyes  upturned  to  hcaV' 
'  is  helmet  on  his  head,  and  his  battle-axe  ii 


hU  h 


He  h 


ment  of  the  engagement,  and  then  as  he  fell  and  n 
he  was  several  times  pierced  with  a  lance.  According 
to  some  accounts,  he  was  wounded  while  atooping  to 
comfort  a  dviug  soldier.  HI)  last  audible  words  were, 
"What  of  that?  They  can  indeed  kill  the  body,  but 
they  cannot  kill  the  souL"  He  was  living  when  dis- 
covered in  the  evening;  but  the  infuriated  fanatics  soon 
despatched  him.  Next  day  his  dead  body  was  barbar- 
ously quartered  and  burned.  Thus  perished  tbi)  hero- 
manrr,  A  plain  monument  in  granite,  erected  in  I8SS, 
mark)  the  spot  where  he  died. 

But  the  Proteatant  faith  gained  the  victoiy  not  in 
Zurich  alone,  nor  was  Zwingli  the  only  Swiss  reformer. 
<Ecotampadiua  did  a  good  work  at  Basel,  In  Berne, 
also,  the  Reformation  waa  snecesafuL   The  Reformation 


twing 


^wcta  a  poliikal  one,  it  attracted  to  its  support  many 
person)  who  were  contending  for  the  spread  of  more 
liberal  opinions  throughout  Switzerland.  Zwingli  was 
•  patriot,  and  those  who  were  immediately  associated 
with  him  were  patriots,  and  he  believed  that  there  could 
be  no  influence  so  patent  to  reach  and  transform  the 
characters  of  hi)  countrymen  as  the  Gospel.  Thero 
was  substantial  agreement  between  I,utheranil  Zwingli 
on  all  thecardinal  doctrines  of  the  Protestant  faith.  On 
the  doetiine  of  the  cnchariat  (here  was,  however,  a  rad- 


13  ZWINGLI 

ical  ditference  of  opinion.  Lqther  held  to  "anabXB- 
I iation,"  declaring  that  there  were  pmest,iii  ajoit  sjv 
lerious  way,  the  body  and  the  blood  uftbeLnd^w 
in  the  elementa  administered  at  the  Lonl'i  gappn: 
while  Zwingli  contended  that  the  socniunt  wn  i^ 
signed  to  be  merely  a  reminder  of  the  ndfmnp  ud 
death  of  the  Saviour.  The  conlroveray  wui  tniui 
one.  Neither  party  could  convince  ihe  other.  Allilu 
could  be  done  was  to  lay  down  fourteen  aiticlfs  of  [iKh 
tthicti  were  to  be  received  by  both  patties  no  ibtbuf 
of  the  Augabnrg  Confession.  Bui  these  miixir  caiii»- 
Tersie%  for  such  they  seem  to  us  to  be,  must  bin  kti 
all  their  interest  in  the  presence  of  the  grave  diDpi> 
which  threatened  the  v«y  existence  itselt  of  ibt  Krln- 
malioii  in  Switzerland.  Zwingli  led  the  Refonn  amt- 
ment  in  the  other  German  caniona  of  S«iliei)aiiil.ti>i 
atlended  the  conference  at  Berne  in  15S8,  which  rtuli- 
ed  in  the  abolition  of  the  mass.  He  wis  iiiciied  isi 
personal  conference  with  Luther  and  Udincibm  ■ 
Marburg,  September,  lo!9,  to  adjust  tbe  onlj  Rfiux 
doctrinal  difference  between  them  on  tht  euchiiiiiic 
Presence.  He  counselled  energeiLo  tneDuret  for  il< 
promotion  of  the  Reform  in  his  native  land,  but  wu 
defeated  by  the  policy  of  hesitation  which  pfevail^iii 
Borne.  He  also  entered  into  bold  polilical  (imliii^ 
tions  with  Philip  of  Hesse  for  the  triumph  of  ibe  Pi-i 
estant  cause  in  Germany,  ami  addressed  ihe  emprniro 
Germany  and  the  king  of  France  with  a  cotifntinn  n 
his  faith.  Zwingli  was  a  bold  Reformer,  an  able  hcU 
ar,  an  eloquent  preacher,  a  patriotic  republican,  arnl  (■ 
sighted  statesman.  He  lacked  the  genius  and  rhpi 
of  Luther  and  Calrin,  Ihe  learning  of  Uelinctbon  m 
(Ecolampadiua;  but  he  was  Ibeir  equal  in  hooeWT' 
purpose,  integrity  of  character,  heroic  courage,  and  rl 
votinn  to  Ibe  cause  of  Reformation,  and  surriassed  thi 
in  liberality.  His  prominent  inlellectua)  Irsit  ■ 
clear,  strong  common-sense. 

Zwiiigli's  principal  works  are  a  CommriUory  on 
TtufmdF<ilieKfli^{lbiS,):—atrnDonO<tProni' 
(preached  alUarbn^,  I5S9);— his  Caw/tinon  n/f,r 
addressed  to  Charies  V  of  Germany  {1630) :— a  rim 
Erpoiilion  of  Failh,  addressed  to  Francis  I  of  \'n 
(July,  1581,  three  months  before  his  death).  Thi? 
document  is  clear,  bold,  spirited,  and  full  of  hope  fur 
triumph  of  the  truth ;  warns  the  king  against  the  i 
derous  misrepresentation)  of  Protestant  docttinef. 
enlreats  him  to  give  free  cvurse  to  Ihe  Gotipcl,  an 
forgive  the  boldness  with  which  he  dared  to  appn 
bis  majesty.  A  few  yc««  afterwards  (Ibse)  Ci 
dedicated,  in  a  most  eloquent  preface,  his  famnaa  C 
(ion  iBttilutn  to  the  same  monarch,  but  with  < 
want  of  direct  success.  Zwingli  represents  <ii)li 
flist  stage  in  Ihe  hialory  of  tbe  Refotmed  Chavch. 
work  waa  completed  after  bis  death  by  hia  succ 
Bullinger,  at  Zurich,  and  still  more  by  Calvin  at  < 
va.  See  H.  ZmngUi  Oprra,  edit.  Schuler  and  Si 
hen  (Zurich,  182S-42,  8  val^) ;  a  popular  editii 
bis  Wortt  by  ChristoBel  (ibid.  I»(3  sq.  la  i 
Biograpliifi  <•/ Ztcir^,  by  Myconius  <l&36),  Nik 
er  (1770),  Hesa  (ISII;  Innsl.  by  Aikin.  Lond.  : 
Schuler  (1819),  Hotlinger  (IMS;  Iransl.  by  Thru 
Porter,  Harri)burg,  ISM),  Robins  (in  BibtiotJtfcti  . 
for  1851),  Reder  (I8SS),  ChriWoffel  (1857;  Iran 
John  Cochran,  Edinburgh,  1858),  Glider  <iii  H. 
Utol-Eneyklnp.  1864),  and  especially  Miirikofcr  ( , 
Zvviffli  Tuic*  dm  QfifUnt  [Leipsic,  1867-69.  2  > 
On  tbe  theological  svstem  of  Zwingli,  s(^e  Zvllc 
theal.SyitfmZicirgIi:ii\b»iy.  Siegwart,  rifiehZt 
drr  Charahrr  teiatr  Thnlogit  (1855) :  SpMrri,  J?i 
,Sftniim(1866>  Compare  also  D'Aubign*.  Wirtoi-j 
RtformatioB,  voL  iv;  Hagenbich.  Grtckic^e  d 
/orm<iiion(1870),p.l88sq.iandFUher,  Th«  Rrj 
rtaa(lS7S),p.l87sq. 


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